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M'CULLOCffS  DICnONAEY 


GEOGRAPHICAL,    STATISTICAL,    AND    HISTORICAL. 


VOLUME   I. 


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PREFACE 


TO 


THE       FIRST      EDITION. 


-•O*- 


The  utility  of  geographical  works  is  so  generally  admitted,  that  it 
seems  unnecessaiy  to  endeavour,  by  any  lengthened  statements,  to 
conciliate  the  favourable  opinion  of  the  reader  by  dwelling  on  their 
merits.  There  are  few  so  incurious  as  not  to  wish  to  learn  something 
of  the  state  of  foreign  countries,  especially  of  those  with  which  their 
own  nation  is  connected,  or  which  have  been  celebrated  in  history.  The 
desire  to  gratify  this  laudable  curiosity  has,  in  all  ages,  prompted  indi- 
\'idual8  to  visit  foreign  countries ;  and  has  made  the  works  of  voyagers 
and  travellers  be  eagerly  sought  after.  But  the  situation  of  most 
people  precludes  the  possibility  of  their  leaving  their  native  country ; 
while  few  of  those  who  do  travel  can  survey  more  than  a  small  part  of 
the  earth's  surface.  Neither  is  it  possible  adequately  to  supply  this 
want  of  personal  knowledge  by  resorting  to  the  relations  of  traveUers. 
These  are  firequently  contradictory  and  inconclusive ;  the  statements 
in  them  are  usually,  also,  limited  in  their  application,  and  are  not 
always  to  be  depended  on  ;  and,  though  it  were  otherwise,  the  command 
of  many  hundred  volumes,  and  the  free  disposal  of  one's  time,  would 
be  necessary  to  enable  an  individual  to  acquire,  by  their  means,  even  a 
superficial  acquaintance  with  the  different  regions  of  the  earth.  Hence 
the  utility  of  geographical  works,  compiled  with  due  care  and  know- 
ledge :  they  embody  the  information  scattered  in  the  accounts  of 
travellers,  in  topographical  works,  and  in  official  returns  and  other 
public  and  private  documents  ;  sift  and  distribute  it  under  its  proper 
heads  ;  and  lay  it  before  the  reader  in  a  condensed  form,  disencumbered 
from  superfluous  or  irrelevant  matter. 

Systematical  works,  or  those  in  which  the  various  details  with  respect 
to  the  physical,  moral,  and  political  state  of  a  country  or  district  are 
arranged  in  their  natural  order,  in  a  consecutive  narrative,  are  probably 
the  best  adapted  for  the  use  of  the  student  and  scientific  reader.  But 
Dictionaries  are  much  more  convenient,  and  better  fitted  for  public 
use.     When  arranged  in  alphabetical  order  they  are  ea^^y  of  consulta- 


Ti  PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 

tion ;  and,  if  properly  compiled,  the  articles  in  thorn  arc  not  connected 
or  mixed  up  with  others,  but  are  separately  complete,  supplying  the 
inquirer  with  independent,  and,  at  the  same  time,  precise  and  well- 
authenticated  information.  Such  works  seem,  from  the  extreme  diver- 
sity and  interest  of  the  subjects  treated  of,  peculiarly  fitted  to  '  excite 
curiosity  by  their  variety,  to  encourage  diligence  by  their  facility,  and 
to  reward  application  by  their  usefulness/  We  need  not,  therefore, 
wonder  that  tliey  liavo  generally,  even  when  their  execution  has  been 
very  indifferent,  enjoyed  a  large  share  of  populanty. 

It  is  necessary  to  observe,  that  we  have  not  attempted  to  supply  the 
reader  with  a  complete  Geographical,  Statistical,  and  Historical  Dic- 
tionary.    We  have  proceeded  on  a  principle  of  selection ;  and,  instead 
of  noticing  unimportant  places  and  objects,  have  endeavoured  to  notice? 
those  only  that  might  reasonably  be  expected  to  interest  the  reader.  A 
work  of  this  class  on  any  other  plan  would  necessarily  extend  to  many 
volumes,  and  would  embrace  multitudinous  details  of  no  general  im- 
portance.    In  illustration  of  what  has  now  been  stated,  we  may  men- 
tion that  the  Grand  Dicfionnaire  Qeogniphujue,  UUfonqne  et  Critique^ 
by  Bruzen  de  la  Martiniere,  which  aims  at  consideitible  completeness, 
occupies  no  fewer  than  six  huge  folio  volumes ;  and,  gigantic  as  this 
may  seem,  it  is  far  surpassed  by  the  German  edition  of  the  same  work, 
which  extends  to  thirteen  similar  volumes.     Though  on  a  compressed 
and  far  more  judicious  plan,  the  Dictiomuure  Gcotjraj^hiqye  UnlvcrsrJ^ 
Paris,  1823-1833,  occupies  ten  thick  octavo  volumes.     It  is  needless  to 
say  that  works  of  this  size  are  quite  unsuitable  to  the  great  majority  of 
readers ;  and  it  has  been  our  object,  by  excluding  articles  and  stati*- 
ments  of  little  interest,  to  keep  our  work  within  reasonable  limits,  and 
to  allow,  at  the  same  time,  sufficient  space  for  treating  the  more  im- 
portant articles  at  adcquato  length.     It  is  also  necessary  to  bear  in 
mind,  that  this  being  a  work  intended  for  the  especial  use  of  English- 
men, we  have  dwelt  at  greatest  length  on  the  articles  and  details  we 
presumed  most  likely  to  interest  them.     Hence  we  have  appropriated 
a  much  larger  space  to  the  description  of  our  Eastern  possessions,  and 
of  our  colonies  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  than  they  may  appear,  on 
other  grounds,  properly  entitled  to.     On  the  same  principle,  we  have 
lengthened  the  accounts  of  those  countries  and  places  with  which  our 
countrymen  have  the  greatest  intercourse,   or  which  have  acquired 
celebrity  by  the  historical  associations  connected  with  them,  and  have 
proportionally  shortened  the  others. 

Without  neglecting  ihe  physical  geography  of  the  different  countries 
and  places,  we  have  directed  our  principal  attention  to  what  has  been 
called  their  political  geography, — that  is,  their  industiy,  institutions, 
and  the  condition  of  their  inhabitants.  Neither  have  we  attempted  to 
confine  ourselves  within  what  might,  perhaps,  be  called  the  limits  of  a 
strictly  geographical  and  statistical  work.  Wherever  the  occasion 
seemed  to  justify  it,  we  have  not  scrupled  te  commend  and  censure,  as 
well  as  to  describe  ;  and  have  endeavoured  to  appreciate  the  influence 
of  institutions  and  habits  of  national  welfai'C.     The  histoncal  notices 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION.  xii 

are  neoessarilj  brief,  and,  unless  in  the  more  important  articles,  are 
mostly  restricted  to  an  enumeration  of  leading  events. 

Our  object  being  to  supply  a  work  of  easy  reference  to  the  public  at 
large,  we  have,  in  general,  given  our  notices  of  countries  and  places 
under  the  names  by  which  they  are  commonly  known  in  England. 
This  plan  does  not  involve  any  want  of  scientific  precision  ;  though  if 
it  did,  the  defect  would  be  much  more  than  compensated  by  its  being 
better  adapted  for  public  use.  There  are  not  veiy  many  readers  who 
would  think  of  looking  for  Leghorn  under  Lworno,  or  for  Munich 
under  Munchen ;  and  among  the  many  thousands  who  might  wish  to 
iicquire  some  information  respecting  the  present  state  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
there  are  not,  perhaps,  as  many  dozens  who  would  seek  for  it  under  its 
Arabic  name  of  Bahr-eULout. 

It  did  not  enter  into  our  plan  systematically  to  notice  countries  or 
places  as  they  existed  in  antiquity.  But,  wherever  it  was  supposed 
that  such  notices  would  be  likely  to  interest  the  general  reader,  we 
have  not  hesitated  to  introduce  them.  Our  object,  in  fact,  was  not  so 
much  to  compile  a  dictionary  on  strictly  scientific  principles,  and  that 
should  be  perfectly  homogeneous  in  its  parts,  as  to  produce  one  that 
might  be  relied  on,  that  should  omit  few  articles  of  importance,  and 
that  ordinary  readers  should  find  generally  instructive  and  interesting. 

None  can  be  more  fully  satisfied  than  we  are  of  the  extreme  difficulty 
of  accomplishing  even  this  much.  In  a  work  embracing  so  great  a 
variety  of  statements,  many  of  them  relating  to  matters  in  regard  to 
which  it  is  frequently  all  but  impossible  to  acquire  correct  information, 
perfect  accuracy  need  not  be  looked  for.  But  we  can  honestly  say  that 
we  have  spared  no  pains  to  make  our  work  worthy  of  the  reader's  con- 
fidence ;  and  would  fain  hope  that  its  errors  are  not  such  as  sensibly  to 
detract  from  its  utility. 

J.  R.  MCCULLOCH. 

LoNDox  :  January  1841. 


PREFACE 

TO 

THE      REVISED      EDITION, 


In  this  new  and  revised  edition  of  Mr.  M*Culloch*8  Dictmuirff,  the 
changes  have  been  marked  which  the  world  has  undergone  in  the  lapse 
of  a  quarter  of  a  century.     Short  as  is  the  time,  these  changes  have 
been  neither  few  nor  unimportant.  Whole  kingdoms  have  disappeared 
from  the  political  map  of  the  globe ;  empires  have  refixed  their  bound- 
aries, and  nations  have  reformed  their  existence.    In  the  course  of  less 
than  a  generation  of  men,  an  immense  network  of  iron  roads  has  come 
to  encircle  the  civilised  world ;  vast  navies  of  commerce  have  been 
launched  upon  the  ocean;   and  races  the  most  distant  have  been 
brought  together  by  the  new  agents  of  progress — steam  and  electricity. 
To  register  all  these   marvellous  innovations,   without  altering  the 
character  of  the  Dictionary^  has  been  the  duiy  of  the  present  editor, 
who  must  plead,  in  extenuation  of  sins  of  omission  and  commission, 
the  last  paragraph  of  Mr.  M'Culloch's  preface. 

FREDERICK  MARTIN. 

L(>xi>oN :  January  186G. 


Vou  I. 


LIST   OF   MAPS. 


1.  THE  WORLD to  face  title-page 

2.  AFRICA „      page    27 

3.  AMERICA,  NORTH „         „      91 

4.  A3IERICA,  SOUTH ,         ,,9; 

5.  ASIA ,         ,,197 

6.  AUSTRALASIA „  ,.259 


A  DIOHOMRY 

GEOGRAPHICAL,  STATISnCAL,  AND  HISTORICAL 


AA 

A  A,  the  name  of  about  forty  small  riven  in 
France,  Switzerland,  the  Netherlands,  and  the 
states  of  Germany.  The  wide  dififusion  of  the 
name  seems  to  prove  that  it  is  derived  from  the 
old  Teutonic  word  si^^nifying  stream,  or,  simply, 
water.  Besides  the  forty  rivers  called  Aa,  there 
are  a  dozen  more  ending  in  this  name.  Such  are 
the  Hoopster-Aa,  and  Uie  Ladbeiger-Aa,  both  in 
IIano%*er;  the  Bredevorder-Aa,  in  Holland;  the 
Veile-Aa,  in  Denmark;  and  the  Arl-Aa  and 
Scholm-Aa,  in  Schleswig. 

AALBOKG,  an  old  town  of  Denmark,  cap. 

diocese  anc  baiUwick,  and  the  principal  town  m 

Jutland,  situated  about  17  m.  irom  the  sea,  on  the 

8.  side  of  the  channel  of  the  Lymfiord,  or  great 

internal  gull^  entering  from  the  Cattc^t,  near 

where  it  beghis  to  expand  into  an  extensive  lake. 

LaL  570  y  32"  N.,  long.  S©  66'  41"  E.    Pop.  10,070 

in  }f<60.    Aalboig  is  tne  termmal  station  of  the 

railway  from  Teensburg  to  the  north  of  Jutland, 

opened  in  1865.    The  town  is  intersected  by  two 

anall  rivers,  and  surrounded  by  ditches;  it  is  the 

•eat  of  a  bL<hopric,  has  a  gymnasium  or  college,  an 

epuvopal  library  with   11,000  vols.,  a  school  of 

navigation,  and'an  hospital  and  two  workhouses. 

Exclusive   of  distilleries    and    breweries,  it  has 

Tnsnnfactnrea  of  soap,  fish-oil,  fiie-arms,  refined 

nfrar,    leather,    and   silk,   with    a   considerable 

amoant  of  shipping  and  trade:  principal  exports 

com,  floor,  fish,  butter,  and  spints.    Formerly  it 

vu  accessible  to  large  vessels;  but  owing  to  the 

irradnal  filling  op  of  the  channel  of  the  Lymfiord, 

it  is  now  accessible  only  to  the  smaller  class  of 

Dercbantmen,  or  those  not  drawing  more  than  9 

nr  1 0  feet  water.    Aalboig  means  Ecltown ;  a  name 

(ierived  from  the  immense  number  of  eels  that  are 

(rand  in  the  waters  in  its  vicinity. 

AALEN,  a  town  of  WUrtemberg,  circ  Jaxt, 
csp.  bailiwick,  formerly  a  ftee  imperial  dty,  on 
Uie  Kocher,  42  m.  £.  Stutgard,  on  the  railway 
from  Stuttgard  to  Nuremberg.  Pop.  4,272  in  1861. 
The  town  is  surrounded  by  walls  flanked  with 
ii^  towers;  has  manufactures  of  wool  and  cotton, 
and  breweries  There  are  extensive  forests  in  the 
environs,  and  iron  minea. 

A4LSMEK,  a  villa^  of  Holland,  E.  side  of  the 
tta  of  Haarlem,  10  miles  S\V.  Amsterdam.  Pop. 
tffHi  in  18G1.  The  village  is  famous  for  its  straw- 
benin,  grown  in  immense  quantities,  for  expor- 
tation. 

AALTEN,  a  village  of  the  Netherhmds,  Guel- 
Mmd,  74  miles  SSW.  Groenla    Pop.  6,038  in 
VouL 


AARGAU 

1861.    There  are  linen  factories;  also  tanneries 
and  oO-milla. 

AAK,  a  river  of  Switzerland,  the  most  consider- 
able in  that  country  after  the  Rhone  and  Rhine. 
Its  principal  sources  are  in  the  glaciers  of  the 
Schreckhom  and  Grimsel  mountains  in  Berne, 
near  the  source  of  the  Rhone.  Having  united  ita 
different  arms  near  Meyringen,  it  flows  thence 
through  the  lakes  of  Brienz  and  Thun.  Escaping 
from  the  latter,  it  takes  a  northerly  direction  tiU 
it  reaches  Berne;  it  then  turns  W.  till  havii^  re- 
ceived its  tributary,  the  Saane;  it  flows  NE.  by 
Aarfoerg,  Soleure,  and  Aaran,  till  it  unites  with  the 
Rhine,  opposite  to  Waldshut.  Its  most  important 
tributaries  are,  on  the  riffht,  the  Emme,  Reuss, 
and  Limmat;  and  on  the  left,  the  Saane,  already 
noticed,  and  the  Thiele.  Its  course  is  about  170 
m.  It  becomes  navigable  on  emerging  from  lake 
Thun.  In  the  upper  part  of  its  course  it  dashes 
along  with  great  fury,  and  is  precipitated  over 
several  waterfalls. — Aar  also  is  the  name  of  two 
small  rivers  in  Waldeck. 

AARAU,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  cap.  cant. 
Aargau,  on  the  Aar,  1,140  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  23  m.  SE.  Basel,  on  the  railway  firom 
Basel  to  Lucerne.  Pop.  5,094  in  1860.  The  town 
is  well  built,  has  a  gymnasium,  a  school  of  art,  a 
teminarium  or  normal  school  for  the  instruction  of 
teachers,  a  pubUc  or  cantonal  Ubrary,  a  society  of 
national  instruction,  with  manufactures  of  rilk 
and  cotton,  a  cannon  foundry,  and  bleach-fields. 
A  station  on  the  Central  Swiss  railway,  from  the 
Lake  of  Constance  to  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  (^)ened  in 
1862,  has  done  much  towards  increasing  the  manu- 
facturing activity.  The  peace,  whidi  terminated 
the  civil  war  of  1712,  was  concluded  here. 

AARGAU,  or  ARGOVIA,  the  16th  of  the  Swiss 
cantons,  separated  by  the  Rhine  from  Baden, 
having  the  canton  of  Zurich  on  the  E.,  that  of 
Lucerne  on  the  S.,  and  Solenre  and  Basel  on  the 
W.  Area  502  sq.  m.  Pop.  194,600  in  1860,  being 
397  persons  to  the  square  mile ;  or,  next  to  Basel 
and  Geneva,  the  densest  populated  canton  of  the  re- 
public. The  mountains  m  this  canton  do  not  attain 
to  any  very  great  height,  and  it  possesses  a  con- 
siderable extent  of  fertile  land.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Aar,  whence  it  derives  its  name,  and  by 
its  important  tributaries  the  Reuss  and  Limmat. 
The  country  is  well  cultivated,  and  the  produce 
of  wheat  and  other  grain  exceeds  the  consumption : 
there  are  numerous  vineyards  .with  abundance  of 
.garden  and  orchard  fHiit.    The  rearing  of  cattle 


a  AABHUUS 

and  sheep  is  not  found  to  be  prodnctlvc,  but  thev 
are  advantageously  fattened  in  the  meadows,  which 
are  both  extensive  and  excellent.  Manufacturer 
have  made  great  progress.  The  principal  is  that 
of  cotton,  next  to  it  is  silk,  and  then  follow  linen, 
straw-platting,  and  the  manufacture  of  machinery. 
Cottons  arc  still  in  part  woven  in  the  cottages  of 
the  peasants  or  small  labouring  farmers.  The 
canton  is  dl>«tinguished  by  the  attention  it  has 
paid  to  education.  Every  district  of  120  children 
roust  have  at  least  one  primary  and  one  superior 
schooL  In  every  circle  (Bezirk),  the  population 
being  from  15,000  to  20,000,  there  are  from  five  to 
six  secondary  schools.  There  is  also  in  the  capital 
a  gymnasium,  a  school  of  arts,  and  a  normal 
school  for  the  instruction  of  teachers.  The  expense 
of  the  schools  is  defrayed  partly  by  the  communes 
and  partly  by  the  state  funds.  In  the  g>'mna- 
sium  and  school  of  arts  the  state  provides  for  the 
pa>'ment  of  fourteen  professors  and  their  assistants. 
AlK>ut  three-tiflhs  of  the  population,  namely, 
104,167,  are  Protestants,  and  the  rest  Koman 
Catholics.  The  public  revenue  amounted  to 
2,136,000  firs.,  or  86,440/.  in  the  year  1864.  About 
one-half  this  sum  is  derived  from  state  property. 
The  cantonal  contingent  to  the  diet  is  fixed  at 
2,410  men.  For  an  account  of  the  government, 
see  art.  Switzkkland.  Principal  towns  Aarau, 
Laufenberg,  Baden,  and  Zoffingen. 

AARHUUS,  a  sea-port  town  of  Denmark,  cap. 
diocese  and  bailiwick  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
E.  coast  of  Jutland,  Ut.  66©  9'  35"  N.,  long.  10° 
14'  E.  Pop.  11,009  in  1861.  A  railway,  opened 
in  1864,  connects  Aarhuus  with  Aalborg  in  the 
north,  and  the  chief  towns  of  Schleswig-Holstcin 
in  the  south.  The  town  is  well  built,  has  a  large 
cathedral  founded  in  1201,  a  lyceum,  a  museum 
of  antiquities,  and  a  valuable  diocesan  library. 
Its  commerce  and  industry  have  increased  con- 
siderably of  late  vears.  The  exports  consist  prin- 
cipally of  agricultural  produce;  with  spirits  and 
b^r,  the  produce  of  its  distilleries  and  breweries ; 
and  cloth  and  gloves.  Considerable  sums  have 
recently  been  expended  on  the  improvement  of  its 

yort,  which  has  been  rendered  one  of  the  best  in 
utland.    Packets  sail  regularly  between  it  and 
Callundberg,  on  the  west  coast  of  Zealand. 

AARONSBURGH,  a  smaU  town  of  the  United 
States  Centre  Co.,  Pennsylvania,  51  miles  NW. 
Harrisburg,  on  the  railway  from  Harrisburg  to 
Pittsburg.    Pop.  1,276  in  1860. 

AASZV,  the  Orontes  of  Greek  geographers, 
which  see. 

AATYL.  A  toiiii  or  village  of  Syria,  in  the 
Haouran  or  Great  Plain,  extending  S.  from  Da- 
mascus and  E.  from  the  mountains  beyond  Jordan, 
lat.  82°  16'  N.,  long.  360  33'  E.  The  inhabitants 
consist  of  Druses  (see  Libanus  and  Syria) ,  of  the 
number  probably  of  200  or  300.  Though  now  in- 
significant, the  remains  of  ancient  grandeur  in  its 
vicinity  prove  that  Aatjrl  was  once  a  place  of  im- 
portance. These  remains  occupy  a  circuit  of  a 
mile,  and  in  many  instances  are  inhabited  by  the 
present  population.  W.  of  the  town  a  perfect  arch 
of  very  fine  workmanship,  with  broken  pillars  and 
friezes,  marks  the  site  of  a  small  but  elegant 
temple.  On  the  8.  another  temple,  almost  entire, 
with  a  portico  of  four  columns  and  an  entrance 
beautifully  and  elaborately  carved,  has  been  con- 
verted into  a  private  residence.  Aatyl  is  54  m. 
i direct  distance)  SSE.  Damascus,  and  48  m.  E. 
jake  of  Tabaria,  the  Genesareth  of  the  Bible. 

ABADEH,  a  large  village  of  Persia,  prov.  Far- 
sistan,  115  m.  X.  Shiraz.  Estimated  pop.  2,000. 
It  is  surrounded  by  walls  in  a  state  of  decay ;  and 
is  defended  by  a  large  SQu&rc  fort,  now  containing 
the  whole  population.    The  ground  in  the  neigh- 


ABBEVILLE 

bourhood  is  very  fertile,  and  intersected  by  nume- 
rous watercourses  and  rivulets.  (Ussher,  Journey 
from  Ix>ndon  to  Persepolis,  1805.) 

ABA  KANSK,  a  town  of  Sil)cria,  gov.  Jcnnis- 
seisk,  on  the  Abakan  near  the  Jenissei.  Pop.  1,250 
in  1858.  On  mount  Isik,  and  other  places  in  its 
environs,  are  found  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  those  singular  remains  of  former  civilisation 
that  are  met  with  in  many  jilaoes  of  Southern 
Siberia,  They  consist  principally  of  tumuli  or 
tombs,  which  frequently  contain  ear-rings,  brace- 
lets, and  other  ornaments  and  utensils  of  gold, 
silver,  and  copper,  with  iron  stimips.  Xear  Aba- 
kansk  are  statues  of  men  from  7  to  9  feet  high, 
and  covered  with  hieroglyphics,  of  which  unfor- 
tunatelv  no  explanation  has  yet  Ijeen  given. 

ABANO  or  ALBANO,  a  village  of  Northern 
Italy,  prov.  Padua,  10  m.  SW.  Pa<hm.  Pop.  3,0(58 
in  1861.  This  village  derives  its  celebrity  fn.im 
its  hot  springs  and  muds.  It  is  situated  near  the 
Euganean  hills,  in  a  place  markcil  with  some  low 
eminences,  whence  issue  copious  springs  of  water 
capable  at  their  source  of  boiling  an  egg  (piite 
hard.  The  waters  are  partly  employed  to  prepare 
and  soften  mud,  partly  to  supplv  the  baths,  and 
partly  go  to  waste,  or  turn  a  mi^l  which  revolves 
amid  volumes  of  smoke.  They  are  supposed  to  be 
efficacious  in  cases  of  palsy,  rheumatism,  and  a 
varietv  of  complaints.  The  mud  is  applied  hot  to 
the  a^ected  part,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of 
taking  a  stucco  cast ;  and  the  baths  are  reganled 
principally  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  *  dirty '  ap])li- 
cation. 

These  baths  were  well-known  to,  and  much  used 
bv,  the  Romans.  They  were  called  Fatarinte 
Aqua,  the  principal  source  being  distinguished 
by  the  name  of  Avtmus  font,  whence  their  modem 
name  has  evidently  l)een  dcriveii 

Aponns  terris  ubi  fumifcr  exit. 

Lucan,  vii.  1.  194. 

A  branch  line  of  railway  places  Abano  in  com- 
munication with  Venice  and  Mantua. 

ABB,  a  town  of  Arabia,  in  the  Dsjebcl,  or  moun- 
tain land  of  Yemen,  lat  13°  58'  N.,  long.  44°  hV  E., 
95  m.  S.  Sanaa,  73  m.  NE.  Mocha,  and  104  m. 
NW.  Aden.  Number  of  houses  said  to  be  alK)ut 
800,  which  at  an  average  of  6  individuals  to  each 
gives  a  pop.  of  nearly  5,000.  It  is  built  on  the 
summit  of  a  mountain ;  is  surrounded  bv  a  strong 
and  well-built  wall ;  and  overlooks  a  well-watered 
(for  Arabia)  and  extremely  fertile  countrj'.  Houses 
(as  usual  in  the  mountain  towns  of  Yemen)  of 
stone;  streets  well  paved,  which,  in  this  country, 
is  very  uncommon.  An  aqueduct  convevs  water 
from  a  mountain  at  a  little  distance  on  the  N.  to 
a  large  reservoir  in  front  of  the  principal  mosque. 

ABBEVILLE,  a  thriving  industrious  town,  in 
the  NW.  of  France,  dep.  Somme,  cap.  arrond.  on 
the  navigable  river  of  that  name,  25  m.  NW. 
Amiens,  on  the  railway  from  Paris  to  Boulogne 
and  Calais.  Pop.  20,058  in  1861.  The  to^-n  is 
neat  and  well-built;  is  regularly  fortified  on  the 
s\'stem  of  Vauban ;  and  has,  exclusive  <jf  the  old 
Gothic  church  of  St  Vulfran,  several  public  build- 
ings worthy  of  notice  and  a  public  library.  A 
fine  cloth  manufactory  was  established  here  in 
1669,  bv  a  Dutchman  of  the  name  of  Van  Kohais, 
under  the  auspices  of  Colbert;  and  Abbeville  had 
ever  since  continued  to  be  distinguished  as  one 
of  the  most  industrious  towns  in  France.  liesides 
black  cloths  of  the  best  quality,  with  serges  and 
barracans,  there  are  produced  calicoes  and  stock- 
ings, sackings,  packtliread,  cordage,  and  jeweller^'. 
It  has  also  establishments  for  the  spinning  of 
wool,  print  works  and  bleaching  works,  tanneries, 
soap  works,  a  glass  work,  and  a  paper  manufac- 
tory.   The  tide  rises  in  the  Somme  about  7  feet, 


ABBUTEGBASSO 

and  vessels  of  frum  200  to  250  tons  come  up  to 
the  town.  Beinf;  si  tuated  in  the  cen  tre  of  a  fruitful 
ciHintry,  an<l  communicating  by  railway  with  all 
the  m(»«t  important  towns  of  France  and  Belgium, 
AljUfville  has  a  considerable  commerce. 

ABBIATEGRASSO,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy, 
prov.  Pavia,  on  the  canal  of  I^r^uardo,  14  m. 
WSW.  Milan.  Pop.  8,263  in  IHCl.  The  town  is 
ffirtified:  and  its  position  has  made  it  be  always 
ivpudcd  of  considerable  importance  in  a  military 
point  of  view. 

ABBS  HEAD  (ST.),  a  promontory  on  the  E. 
coast  of  Scotland,  being  the  most  southerly  point 
.»f  the  Frith  of  Forth,  lat  66°  54'  50"  N.,  long. 
2®  8*  20"  W. 

ABD-l'L-AZIM,  a  village  of  Persia,  at  the  foot 
of  the  hiUs  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Teheran.  Near 
it  stands  a  lofty  tower  built  of  brick,  in  a  very 
peculiar  form,  supposed  to  have  been  erected  by 
Older  of  the  first  of  the  Sassanian  kings,  in  com- 
memoration of  a  great  victonr  over  the  Parthians. 
(XTssher,  Journey  from  London  to  Persepolis,  p. 
618.) 

ABEIJ^,  ABIL,  or  ABILA,  a  town  of  S^-ria,  in 
the  Haouran,  on  the  Sheriaiti'Mandhour  (anc. 
HUromax),  one  of  the  largest  affluents  of  the 
Jordan,  lat  ^^  4T  X.,  long.  360  £.  it  is  now  in 
a  rainoos  and  dilapidated  state,  having  probably 
not  more  than  from  100  to  150  inhabitants;  but 
fbfmerly  it  was  a  place  of  considerable  import^ 
ance,  tieing  the  capital  of  and  giWng  its  name  to 
one  of  the  six  departments  (Abilene)  into  which 
the  Romans  divided  the  countrv  E.  of  Jordan. 
Some  broken  pillars  and  overt^irown  columns 
evince  its  ancient  grandeur ;  but  none  of  its  old 
liuildings  remain  entire,  and  it  is  preserved  from 
dey^tion  only  bv  ita  vicinity  to  the  water,  which 
ivfiders  it  a  desirable  residence  for  the  few  Arab 
families  bv  whom  it  is  still  occupied. 

AHERftROTHOCK,  or  ARBROATH,  a  sea- 
port, manufacturing  town,  and  parL  bor.  of  Scot- 
iaml^  CO.  Angus  or  Forfar,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Broth<»ck  water,  on  the  railway  from  Dundee  to 
Atierdeen.  Pop.  14^568  in  1841,  and  17,593  in  1861. 
ArhnMith  unites  with  Brechin,  Bervie,  and  Mon- 
trriHe,  in  returning  a  m.  to  H.  of  C.  ParL  constituency 
€6^  in  1864.  It  has  a  parish  church  and  two  chapels 
of  eaM%  with  churches  for  Episcopalians,  Seceders, 
Metho<liiit«,  and  Independents.  The  other  public 
baiklings  are  the  town-house,  the  trades-hall,  the 
pnbUc  schools,  and  the  signal  tower,  which  com- 
manicates  with  the  Bell-Rock  lighthouse  distant 
about  12  miles.  The  town  has  a  secure  though 
■nail  harbour,  frequented,  in  the  year  1863,  by  453 
TCHseLs  of  31,042  tonSb  The  corporation  revenue, 
in  li*63-4,  amotmted  to  1,500/!.  The  town  owes 
its  pn>sperity  to  the  flax  manufacture;  nearly 
half  the  population  being  employed  in  the  spin- 
ninif,  dressmg,  weaving,  and  bleaching  of  coarse 
Knen  gooiU.  Some  of  the  miUs  are  driven  by  the 
littfe  rivulet  that  intersects  the  town ;  but  steam 
■illft  are  numerous,  both  in  the  town  and  the 
Ticinity.  Here  are  the  ruins  of  an  abbey,  founded 
in  honour  of  Thomas  k  Beckett,  in  1178,  by  Wil- 
fiam  the  Lion,  who,  on  his  death  in  1214,  was 
interred  within  ita  precincts.  It  was  destroyed  in 
1560. 

ABERCOXWAY,  or  CONWAY.  See  Conway. 

ABERDARE,  a  par.  and  large  village  of  Wales, 
eo.  Glamorgan.  The  \'illage,  in  a  beautiful  valley, 
watered  by  the  Cvnon,  an  affluent  of  the  TafT,  is 
•bnot  4|  m.  SW.  Merthyr  Tydvil  on  the  Taff-Vale 
faihraT.  Pop.  of  parish  6,471  in  1841,  and  32,299 
k  1H61.  This  extraordinary  increase  is  wholly 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  increase  in  the  production  of 
inm  and  coal,  on  which  by  far  the  larger  portion 
•f  the  popi  is  dependent.    Thnmgfaoat  the  pariah. 


ABERDEEN  3 

immense  quantities  of  coals  are  raised,  not  merely 
for  tlie  use  of  the  iron  works,  but,  also,  for  ship- 
ment at  Cardiff.  In  ad<lition  to  the  par.  church 
there  are  various  pkices  of  worship,  inc.  chapels 
for  Baptists,  Independents,  &c,  with  National, 
SumUv,  and  other  schools. 

^  ABERDEEN,  a  maritime  co.  Scotland,  bounded 
N.  and  E.  by  the  German  Ocean,  S.  by  the  cos.  of 
Perth,  Forfar,  and  Kincardine,  and  W.  bv  Banff, 
Elgin,  and  Inverness.  Extreme  length  86'm.  from 
N.  to  S.,  and  42  from  E.  to  W.  Area  1,260,800 
acres,  or  1,970  sq.  m.  In  the  south-western  divi- 
sion, called  the  district  of  Mar,  are  some  of  the 
highest  mountains  of  Scotknd.  Ben  Macdhu,  till 
lately  considered  the  highest  of  the  British  moun- 
tains, rises  to  the  height  of  4,296  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  several  of  the  other  moun- 
tains are  but  little  inferior  in  altitude.  About  a 
fifth  part  of  the  surface  consists  of  high  moun- 
tainous tracts;  and  these,  with  hills,  extensive 
moors,  mosses,  and  waste  lands,  occupy  nearly 
two-thirds  of  the  entire  country.  The  arable  land 
lies  principally  in  the  eastern  parts.  Principal 
rivers  Dee  and  Don;  and  besides  these  are  the 
Deveron,  Bogie,  Ythan,  IJrie,  Ugie,  &c.  Lime- 
stone abounds  in  various  places ;  there  are  quarries 
of  excellent  slate;  and  millstones  are  found  of 
good  Quality.  Vast  quantities  of  granite  are 
shipped  at  Aberdeen,  particularly  for  London, 
where  it  is  used  in  paving  the  streets.  The  moun- 
tains of  Braemar  contain  numbers  of  coloured 
crystals,  or  cairngorms;  and  some  real  topazes 
have  been  met  with.  The  winters,  owing  to  the 
great  extent  of  sea  coast,  are  mild;  but  Uie  sum- 
mers are  usually  short  and  cold.  Agriculture  is 
prosecuted  with  much  more  spirit  and  success  than 
might  have  been  supposed.  Oats  is  the  principal 
crop,  about  160,000  acres  being  sown  with  that 
gram;  l>arley  is  also  raised;  and  some,  though 
only  a  little,  wheat.  The  culture  of  turnips  and 
potatoes  is  extensively  carried  on.  Several  thousand 
acres  of  land  in  the  vicinity  of  Aberdeen  have  been 
trenched.  The  practice  is  not,  however,  confined 
to  that  district,  and  largo  additions  are  being  con- 
stantly made  to  the  arable  land.  Farm  houses 
and  offices  are  now,  with  few  exceptions,  comfort- 
able and  commodious.  A  greater  number  of  cattle 
are  bred  in  this  than  in  any  other  Scotch  coimty : 
the  native  breed  is  preferred.  They  have  increased 
much  in  size  during  the  last  forty  years.  They 
are  commonly  black,  but  there  are  many  red  or 
brindled.  Sheep  comparativelv  few,  and  of  a 
mixed  breed.  There  are  some  large  estates;  but 
property  is,  notwithstanding,  a  good  deal  8ul>- 
divided.  Great  diversity  in  the  size  of  farms.  It 
is  usual  for  mechanics  to  occupy  an  acre  or  two. 
The  woods,  which  are  very  extensive,  afford  shelter 
to  the  red  deer.  Average  rent  of  land  6«.  9d,  an 
acre.  The  woollen,  cotton,  and  linen  manufactures 
are  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent,  principally 
at  Aberdeen.  There  are  considerable  fisheries  ou 
the  coast  and  in  the  rivers,  particularly  in  the  Dee. 
Principal  towns  Aberdeen,  Peterhead,  Huntlv  and 
Fraserburgh.  Parishes  88.  Pop.  in  1841, 192,387, 
in  1861 ,  221,569 ;  inhabited  houses  in  1861,  32,762. 
Returns  one  member  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. ParL  constituency  in  1863,  4,210.  Valued 
rental,  225,665/.  Scotch.  Annual  value  of  real 
property  in  1815,  325,218/L  stg.,  do.  in  1843, 
603,968iE.  stg.,  do.  in  1864-5,  exclusive  of  niilwa3ra, 
629,675/. 

ABERDEEN  the  cap.  of  the  above  co.,  and 
the  seat  of  a  university,  an  ancient,  distinguished, 
and  flourishing  royal' and  parL  bor.  and  seaport, 
situated  moetly  on  rising  ground  on  the  N.  bank 
of  the  Dee,  near  its  monUi,  94  m.  NNE.  Edin- 
boigh,  on  the  Great  North  of  Scotland  railway. 


ABERDEEN 


Pop.  in  1821,44,7%;  in  1831,58,019;  in  1841, 
61,923 ;  011(1  73,805  in  1861.    Aberdwoi  consists  of 
the  parishes  of  Ka»t,  (ireyfriare'.  North,  St.  Clc- 
mentX  South,  and  West ;  aim  part  of  the  parish 
of  Old  Machar,  12,514.    There  were,  in  1861,  ac- 
cording to  the  census  returns,  3,869  inhabited 
houses,  and  14,224  separate  families.    Aberdeen 
acquired  importance  at  an  early  period,  and  made 
a  consj)icuou3  appearance  in  many  of  the  stormy 
scenes  of  Scottish  history.    It  received  a  charter 
from  William  the  Lion,  dated  Perth,  1179;  and 
the  journals  of  the  town  council  have  been  pre- 
served nearly  entire  since  1398.    It  is  indebted  to 
Robert  liruce  for  a  considerable  portion  of  its  pro- 
perty.   Having  suffered  a  good  deal  in  the  civil 
wars  during  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  it  continued 
in  a  nearly  stationary  state  till  about  1750,  when 
it  began  to  increase.    It  has  since  been  signally 
improved,  especially  during  the  present  century, 
by  the  formation  of  new  streets  and  squares,  which 
have  superseded  most  part  of  its  old  narrow  and 
winding  thoroughfares.    From  the  S.  Aberdeen  is 
approached  by  three  bridges  across  the  Dee ;  one 
or  7  arches  of  stone,  originally  erected  in  1520-26, 
and  rebuilt  1719-23;  a  suspension  bridge  of  iron, 
opened  in  1830 ;  and  the  railway  bridge  of  8  arches 
opened  in  1850.     The  roads  from  the  first  two 
bridges  conduct  to  Union  Street,  which  with  Union 
Place  and  Castle  Street,  in  the  same  straight  line, 
form  a  magnificent  street  of  about  a  mile  in  length, 
the  houses  all  of  dressed  light-grav  granite.    This 
street  is  carried  over  a  deep  and  partly  wooded 
ravine  by  a  bridge  of  a  single  arch  of  132  feet  span, 
opened  in  180'!.    Among  the  public  buildings  may 
be  specified  the  assembly  rooms,  the  town-house, 
court-house,  gaol,  and  new  market ;  the  E.  and  W. 
churches  of  St  Nicholas,  the  N.  church,  and  others 
of  late  erection ;  St  Andrew's  episcopal  church ; 
the  orphan  hospital ;  the  Iiarracks,  on  the  castle 
hill,  formerlv  the  ate  of  a  fort ;  Gonlon's  hospital, 
bridewell,  the  infirmary,  medical  hall,  and  Ma- 
rischal  College,  lately  inbuilt  on  an  extensive  and 
elegant  plan.    Besides  the  latter  seminary,  there 
are  various  public  and   private  academies  and 
schools,  among  which  is  the  grammar  school,  es- 
tablished before  1418.    There  are  numerous  chari- 
table establishments  and  endowments  upwards  of 
70  being  under  the  mana.u^ement  of  the  magistrates, 
the  net  revenue  of  which  amounted  in  1848  to 
3800/.    Gordon's  hospital  supiK>rts  and  educates 
150  boys,  and  has  an  annual  revenue  of  about 
8284A    Here  is  also  an  infirmary,  with  a  lunatic 
asylum   erected  at  an  expense  of  upwards  of 
10,000/. ;  an  institution  for  deaf  and  dumb  persons ; 
a  large  hospital  fi>r  girls,  and  one  for  the  education 
and  support  of  the  blind.    The  value  of  real  pro- 
perty amounted  to  179,0722.,  while  the  corporation 
revenue  was  11,876/.  in  1863-4. 

Aberdeen  occupies  a  distinguLshed  place  both  in 
the  manufactures  and  commerce,  and  in  the  lite- 
rature, of  Scotland.  During  last  century,  the  town 
and  adjoining  country  were  celebrated  for  the  ma- 
nufiicture  of  knit  woollen  stockings,  of  which  an 
interesting  account  is  given  by  Pennant  (Tour 
in  Scothmd,  i.  137,  ed.  1790.)  But  the  introduc- 
tion of  machinery  has  superseded  that  employment 
There  are  now,  partly  in  the  town  and  partly  in 
its  immediate  vicinity,  numerous  large  factories 
for  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton,  flax,  and 
wool,  in  most  of  which  steam  power  is  employed. 
The  woollen  fabrics  comprise  carpets,  blanlcets, 
Berges,  stockings,  and  worsted  yams.  Extensive 
iron-works  have  been  established,  where  steam- 
engines,  anchors,  chain-cables,  and  spinning  ma- 
chinerv  are  produced.  Paper  of  the  best  quality 
is  made  on  a  large  scale,  considerable  quantities 
having  been  purchased  of  late  years  by  govern- 


ment Sliip-building  is  carried  on  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  and  there  are  ro])e-w<>rks,  tanneries, 
soap  and  candle  works,  comb  factories,  distilleries, 
breweries,  &c  The  principal  natural  products 
exported  are  cattle;  salmon,  sent  to  London  in 
ice ;  granite,  with  which  the  streets  of  the  metro- 
polis are  mostlv  paved ;  eggs,  butter,  pork,  and 
com.  The  totAl  value  of  the  exports  amounted  to 
21,236/.  in  1859 ;  23,062/.  in  1860 ;  5,619/.  in  1861 ; 
14,111/.  in  18ti2,  and  11,836/.  in  1863,  thus  show- 
ing enormous  fiuctuations.  The  total  amount  of 
customs  dutv  received  was  97,251 /.in  1859 ;  93,853/. 
in  1860;  92,71.')/.  in  1861;  92,963/.  in  1862;  and 
82,839/.  in  1863.  The  general  shipping,  in  the 
year  1863,  comprised  148  British  vessels,  of  25,615 
tons,  and  147  foreign  vessels,  of  18,057  tons,  which 
arrived  in  the  port  Only  one  steam  vessel,  269 
tons,  was  registered  in  the  arrivaK  There  b^ 
longed  to  the  port,  on  the  Ist  of  January,  1864, 
7  sailing  vessels  imder  20  tons,  of  a  total  burthen 
of  248  tons,  and  244  sailing  vessels  above  50  tons, 
of  a  total  tonnage  of  77,192.  There  were  al'V)  5 
steamers  under  50  tons,  of  a  total  tonnage  of  86 ; 
and  11  steamers  above  50,  of  a  total  burthen  of 
3,287  tons.  There  is  a  regular  <»mniunication  by 
steamers  with  I^ndon,  Leith,  Peterhead,  Inver- 
ness, and  the  Orkneys. 

The  harbour  in  the  sestuary,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Dee,  labours  under  considerable  natural  disad- 
vantages, which,  however,  have  been  to  a  great 
extent,  though  not  wholly,  obviated.  Its  im- 
provement l)egan  umler  an  act  obtained  in  1773; 
and  it  has  been  prosecuted  at  intervals,  with  more 
or  less  vigour,  under  that  and  other  acts  down  to 
the  present  time.  The  principal  object  was  to  fa- 
cilitate the  access  to  the  harbour,  by  removing  the 
bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  deepening  it,H 
channel;  and  this  has  been  effected  partly  by 
dredging,  and  partly  by  the  erection  of  a  pier 
about  2,000  feet  in  length,  projecting  into  the  sea 
on  the  N.  side  of  the  river,  by  a  breakwater  on  the 
opposite  shore,  and  other  subsidiary  works.  The 
interior  of  the  harbour  has  I)een  vastly  improveiL 
In  it,  some  years  ago,  were  constmcted  a  magnifi- 
cent wet  dock,  or  fioating  harbour,  the  area  of 
which  comprises  34  acres,  with  locks  capable  of 
admitting  the  •hu'gcst  steam-ships.  The  quay 
walls  and  quays  are  all  of  granite ;  the  work  being 
executed  in  the  best  and  most  substantial  manner. 
Still,  however,  the  harlx>ur  is  not  accessible  at  all 
times  of  the  tide  to  vessels  drawing  above  10  feet 
water.  But,  as  the  tide  rises  from  13  to  15  feet, 
vessels  drawing  17  feet  water  may  enter  the  har- 
bour at  high-water  neaps,  and  those  drawing  20 
feet,  at  high-water  springs.  There  are  at  an  ave- 
rage 18 'f^t  water  in  the  floating  harbour.  The 
bay  afibrds  safe  anchorage  with  off-shore  winds, 
but  not  with  those  from  the  E.  or  NE.  A  light- 
house has  been  erected  on  Girdle  Ness,  the  S.  point 
of  the  bay,  having  two  fixed  lights  in  one  tower, 
the  highest  lieing  185,  and  the  lowest  115  feet 
above  high-water ;  there  is,  also,  a  tidal  light  on 
the  N.  pier-head,  and  two  leading  lights  fiirther 
up  the  harbour  on  its  S.  side.  The  affairs  relative 
to  the  harbour  are  managed  by  a  board  of  com- 
missioners. Tiiere  has  in  all  been  expen(le<l  on 
the  harbour,  since  1810,  above  half  a  million 
sterling. 

In  consequence  of  this  heavy  expenditure,  and 
of  the  large  outlay  in  opening  new  streets  and 
constracting  bridges,  the  affairs  of  the  bonuigh 
became  so  much  involved  as  to  lead  to  its  disfran- 
chisement, in  1817.  But,  in  the  eml,  the  corpora- 
tion, having  been  restorecl,  was  enabled  to  meet  all 
the  demands  upon  it;  and  for  several  years  its 
affain  have  been  in  good  onler,  and  it  has  enjoywl 
a  full  share  of  credit    The  buigh  revenue,  as  be- 


ABERDEEN 

ibre  stated,  amounted  to  ll^7GL  in  the  financial 
year  186a-4. 

Previoosly  to  the  passing  of  the  Kefonn  Act  in 
1832,  Aberdeen  was  asfiodated  with  Arbroath, 
Brechin,  Bervie,  and  Montrose  in  returning  a 
member  to  the  H.  of  C. ;  but  that  act  conferred 
this  important  privilege  on  Aberdeen  singly.  Old 
Aberdeen  and  a  considerable  tract  of  the  surroun- 
ding coontiy  is  included  within  the  pari.  bor.  The 
parX  constituency  consisted  of  3,827  registered 
electors  in  18^  The  town  is  governed  by  a  pro- 
vo»t,  4  bailies,  and  14  councillors.  The  municipal 
constituency  in  1864  consisted  of  2,825  registered 
electors. 

Abodeen  is  connected  by  a  canal,  18^  m.  in 
length,  with  Inverury,  and  by  railway  with 
If  ontroee,  Perth,  Edinburgh,  and  Inverness.  The 
canal  is  chiefly  used  for  the  conveyance  of  heavy 
articles,  such  as  granite,  to  the  town,  and  of  coal, 
manure,  &C.,  to  Uie  country. 

Aberdeen  has  three  large  banking  companies,  the 
oldest  of  which,  the  Aberdeen  Banik,  established  in 
1767,  had  recently  16  branches,  and  about  450 
partners ;  bat  in  1849  it  was  incorporated  with  the 
Union  Bank  of  Scotland.  The  other  companies, 
viz.  the  Aberdeen  Town  and  County  Bank,  and 
the  North  of  Scotland  Banking  Company,  have 
respectively  13  and  32  branches.  The  latter  has 
about  1500  partners.  The  Bank  of  Scotland  and 
aome  of  the  other  Scotch  banks  have  also  branches 
in  Aberdeen. 

A  regular  post  was  established  between  Aber- 
deen and  Edinburgh,  in  1667.  The  first  printing- 
pnm  in  the  town  was  set  up  in  1621 ;  and  the 
first  almanacks  published  in  Scotland  appeared 
here  in  1677.  It  supports  several  newspapers,  the 
oldest  of  whidi,  the  Aberdeen  Journal,  commenced 
in  1748. 

ABERDEEN  (OLD),  an  ancient  and  incon- 
siderable city,  about  ^ths  m.  N.  Aberdeen.  In 
former  times  it  was  the  seat  of  a  bishoprick,  the 
see  of  Mortlach  having  been  removed  to  it,  in 
1154.  It  has  no  trade,  and  very  little  property, 
its  impt^tance  depending  entirely  upon  its  ooV 
kg&  Pop.  about  2000,  inc.  in  the  pop.  of  Aber- 
deen. The  chief  edifices  are  King's  College,  the 
cathedral,  and  the  bridges  across  the  Don.  The 
buildings  of  Kmg's  CoUcge  have  an  antique  ap- 
pearance, and  are  of  different  periods,  but  m  good 
repair.  The  library  and  chapel  are  attached  to  a 
krfty  square  tower,  surmounted  by  an  imperial 
crown  of  open  stone  work.  The  cathedral  of  St. 
Machar,  or  Macarius,  after  whom  the  parish  is 
named,  is  an  ancient  Gothic  edifice,  chiefly  of 
granite, commenced  in  the  14th  century:  the  choir, 
transept,  and  great  central  tower  were  demolished 
or  fell  down  upwards  of  a  century  ago ;  the  nave 
remains,  and  is  used  as  the  parish  church ;  at  the 
west  end  are  two  finely  proportioned  stone  spires ; 
the  roof  of  the  interior  is  also  a  curious  relic.  Near 
its  mouth  the  Don  forms  a  haven,  which,  however, 
admits  only  vessels  of  a  few  tons'  burden.  An  an- 
cient bridge,  ocmsisting  of  a  Gothic  arch,  70  feet 
in  <ipan,  crooses  a  rocky  and  woody  ravine  in  which 
the  river  flowiw  Lower  down  is  a  new  bridge  of  5 
arrbes,  opened  in  1830. 

C  anKrnty.^Aberdeen  has  a  university,  with 
two  colleges.  There  were  formerly  two  universities, 
but  they  were  incorporated  into  one  by  the  Scottish 
University  Act  of  1858.  Of  the  two  colleges,  the 
matt  ancient  is  that  of  Old  Aberdeen,  founded  by 
Bishop  Elphinston  in  1494,  under  a  bull  of  Pope 
Akzaoder  Vl^  of  which  Hector  Boethius  was  first 
princtpaL  It  earlv  received  the  name  of  King's 
College,  instead  of  that  of  the  Yimn  Mary,  to 
vbom  it  was  originally  dedicated.  The  other  and 
ktcr  seminary,  established  in  1593,  is  called  Ma- 


ABERYSTWITH  6 

rischal  College,  from  its  founder  Geoige  Keith, 
Earl  Marischal  The  university  has  now  21  pro- 
fessors and  above  600  students.  There  are  8 
schohirships  of  65L  each,  and  about  200  bursaries 
of  from  5^  to  SOL  each.  Although  their  bursariea 
are  numerous,  their  other  revenues  are  but  limited. 
King's  College  was  formerly  entitled  to  copies  of 
all  works  entered  at  Stationers'  Hall ;  but  in  1836, 
it  relinquished  this  privilege  for  an  annual  pay- 
ment of  242L  14s.  Marischal  College  has  a  mu- 
seum, an  observatory,  and  an  extensive  apparatus 
for  teaching  natural  philosophy.  The  excellent 
education  given  in  these  seminaries  has  been 
highhr  useful  in  disseminating  knowledge  over  the 
N.  of  Scotland;  particularly  in  improving  the 
character  of  the  parochial  schoolmasters,  most 
part  of  whom,  having  been  at  colle^  are  superior 
to  the  generality  of  their  brethren  m  the  southern 
parts  of  the  country.  The  number  of  bursaries, 
which  are  mostly  disposed  of  by  comparative  trial, 
is  an  inducement  to  attend.  But  independent  of 
this  circumstance,  the  cost  of  education  is  moderate 
in  the  extreme.  The  usual  fee  entitling  to  attend 
one  of  the  literary  classes  is  only  from  2LtoSLi 
and  the  total  aimual  fees  paid  bv  a  student,  not  a 
bursar,  going  through  the  regular  curriculum,  or 
course  of  study  prescribed  by  the  faculty  of  arts, 
do  not  exceed  6L  or  7L  a  year,  during  each  of  the 
4  years  to  which  it  is  limited.  Respectable  board 
ma^  be  had  for  from  25L  to  352.  during  the  session, 
which  commences  on  the  last  Monday  of  October, 
and  ends  in  the  beginning  of  ApriL  Manv  emi- 
nent men  have  been  professors  in  these  colleges ; 
among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Reid,  the  author 
of  the  Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind ;  Fordyce, 
author  of  a  Treatise  on  Moral  Philosoph  v ;  Gerard, 
author  of  an  Essay  on  Taste ;  Campbell,  author  o 
the  Philosophv  of  Rhetoric ;  and  Blackwell,  author 
of  the  Life  of  Homer. 

ABERFOYLE,  in  Scotland,  a  parish,  and  a 
celebrated  pass  or  narrow  valley  leading  into  the 
Highlands,  in  the  district  of  Monteith,  in  the  SW. 
part  of  Perthshire.  Pop.  565  in  1861.  The  vil- 
lage or  clachan  of  Aberfoyle  in  this  pass  is  the 
scene  of  some  of  the  most  interesting  adventures 
in  the  novel  of  Rob  Roy. 

ABERGAVENNY,  a  town  of  England,  co. 
Moiunoutli,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Gavenny  with 
the  Usk,  14  m.  SW.  Monmouth,  120  m.  W.  by  N. 
London,  on  a  branch  line  of  the  Great  Western 
rail  Pop.  4,621  in  1861.  The  town  is  built  in  a 
straggling  manner ;  has  a  fine  bridge  of  15  arches 
over  the  Usk,  and  some  branches  of  woollen  manu- 
facture. There  are  very  extensive  iron  works  in 
the  vicinity.  On  an  eminence,  near  the  S.  end  of 
the  town,  are  the  ruins  of  its  ancient  castle. 

ABERGELEY,  a  sea-port  and  m.  town  of 
Wales,  CO.  Denbigh,  bund.  Isdulas,  on  the  railway 
from  Chester  to  UolyheaiL  Pop.  3,308  in  1861. 
The  town  has  been  considerably  resorted  to  of  late 
years  for  bathing. 

ABERNETUY,  a  parish  of  Scothmd,  partly  in 
Fife  and  partly  in  Perthshire.  It  was  once  the 
seat  of  an  arehiepiscopal  sec,  removed  to  St. 
Andrew's  in  the  ninth  century.  All  that  now  re- 
mains of  its  ancient  structures  is  a  round  tower  75 
feet  high,  and  16  in  diameter.  The  modem  vil- 
lage of  Abemethy  is  small,  and  the  houses  mean. 
Pop.  of  village  984,  and  of  parish  1,960,  m  1861. 

ABERYSTWITH,  a  sea-port  town  of  Wales, 
CO.  Cardigan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ystwith,  over 
which  is  a  neat  bridge,  178  m.  WNW.  London. 
Pop.  5,641  in  1861.  It  stands  on  an  eminence 
overlooking  the  bay;  and  the  streets,  though  well 

faved  and  Macadamised,  are  steep  and  uneven, 
t  is  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  exporting  lead» 
calamine,  oak  baik,  flannels,  &&,  mostly  to  Livei^ 


6 


ABERYSTWITH 


pool;  but  owing  to  the  fihallowncM  of  the  water, 
It  u  accessible  only  to  small  vesaoh.  As  there  is 
no  market  town  within  18  m.  it  has  the  supply  of 
a  considerable  adjacent  territory'.  Latterly  it  has 
been  extensively  resorted  to  in  sammer  for  sea- 
bathing. Public  rooms  were  opened  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  visitors  in  1820,  and  a  new  theatre 
in  1833.  It  seems  to  have  been  once  stronglv 
fortified.  Its  castle,  of  which  some  vestiges  still 
exist,  was  rebuilt  bv  Edward  I.  in  1277.  A  con- 
siderable ext<5nt  of  fen  land  to  the  N.  of  the  town 
has  recently  been  recovered  from  the  sea. 

Abkrybtwith,  a  parochial  chapelry,  hund. 
Abergavenny,  co.  Monmouth,  celebrated  for  its 
collieries  and  iron  works,  which  have  greatly  in- 
creased during  the  last  half  a  centur}'.  ¥op,  5,601 
in  18G1. 

ABIAD  (BAHR  EL).    See  Nile. 

ABINGDON,  an  ancient  town  of  England,  co. 
BeriLs,  at  the  continence  of  the  Ock  with  the  Isis, 
and  at  the  junction  of  the  Berkshire  canal  with 
the  latter,  55^  m.  WNW.  London  on  the  Great 
Western  railway.  Pop.  5,6K0  in  1861.  The  town 
has  several  well-paved  streets  terminating  in  a 
RMudous  market-place,  having  a  market^house  in 
tne  centre.  It  has  two  churches,  with  places  of 
worship  for  Dissenters,  a  well-endowed  grammar 
school,  and  sundry  almsliouses  and  charitable  en- 
dowments. It  has  a  considerable  com  market: 
Bome  trade  is  earned  on  in  malting  and  hemp- 
dressing.  It  returns  one  m.  to  the  H.  of  Commons. 
The  pari  constituencj'  consbtcd  of  317  n^stered 
electors  in  1864.  Amoimt  assessed  to  property- 
tax  20,425^1  This  was  formerly  a  scot-and-lot 
borough;  every  inhabitant  assessed  to  the  poor 
Tates  cxcrrising  the  elective  franchise.  Of  tnese 
0cot-and-lot  voters  only  four  remained  in  1864. 

ABO,  the  ancient  capital  of  Finland,  near  the 
«i:tremiU'  of  the  promontory  formed  by  the  ^Ifs 
of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  on  the  river  Aurajocki,  by 
which  it  is  intersected,  Ut  6()0  26'  58"  N.,  long. 
239  17'  15"  E.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  university, 
and  has  a  considerable  trade.  But  in  1827  it 
BoiTered  severely  from  a  fire,  which  destroyed  the 
imiveridty  and  above  700  private  houses.  The 
university  has  been  since  removed  to  Ilelsingfors, 
now  the  capital  of  the  province.  PreviousTv  to 
the  fire  the  town  contained  about  13,000  inhab- 
itants; the  population  then  decreased,  but  had 
risen  again  to  16,m70  in  1858.  The  town  has  a 
gymnadum,  a  bank,  and  some  unimportant  manu- 
factures. A  treaty  was  concluded  here  in  1743 
between  Kussia  and  Sweden. 

ABOMEY,  cap.  of  the  kingdom  of  Dahomey,  in 
Africa,  nearly  lOO  m.  N.  from  the  sea,  lat  7°  30' 
N.,  long.  20  1 7  E.    Pop.  said  to  be  24,000. 

ABOUKIR,  a  village  of  Egypt,  with  a  citadel, 
on  a  promontory',  al)out  10  m.  NE.  of  Alexandria, 
being  supposed  bv  some  to  occupy  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Canopus',  Lit.  31°  19'  44"  N.,  long.  30© 
r  16"  E. 

ABOUKIR  BAY,  on  the  north  coast  of  EgJT** 
fonned  on  the  w&st  Hi<lc  by  the  point  of  land  on 
which  Almukir  is  situated,  and  on  the  east  by 
that  which  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rosetta  branch 
of  the  Nile.  Here,  on  the  1st  of  August,  1798, 
was  fouglit  the  famous  battle  of  the  Kile,  when 
the  French  fleet  that  had  conveyed  Napoleon  to 
Egypt  was  totally  defeated  by  the  British  fleet 
tmder  I^ml  Nelson;  and  here  also,  on  the  7th  of 
March,  1801,  the  English  army,  under  Sir  Ralph 
Abercrombv,  efli'cted  its  disembarkation. 
ABOUSAMBUL.  See  IrsAMBri^ 
ABRANTES,  a  fortified  toym  of  Portugal,  prov. 
EstTvmadura,  lat  39°  26'  N.,  long.  8°  15'  \V.,  at 
the  S.  extremity  of  a  ridge  that  trends  S\V.  fn>m 
the  great  langc'dividing  the  valleys  of  the  Douro 


ABRUZZO 

and  Tagua.  Pop.  6,020  in  1858.  The  position  of 
the  town  adapts  it  admirably  for  a  military'  sta- 
tion ;  and  Sir  A.  Welleslcy  availed  himself  of  its 
local  advantages  bv  resistfng  tlicre  tlic  progress  of 
the  French  in  1809.  (See  Napier,  ii.  317,  &c.) 
It  is  about  ^  m.  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Ta^s 
and  72  m.  above  Lisbon,  'fhe  hill-side  on  which 
the  town  is  built,  as  well  as  the  bills  about,  boar 
>'ine8,  olive,  peach,  and  other  fruit  trees,  while  the 
plain  eastwaird  produces  pumpkins,  water-melons, 
and  other  vegetables:  all  these  products  arc  car- 
ried down  the  river  in  barges  to  the  capital,  with 
which  this  town  has  very  considerable  traffic 
The  trade,  now  occupying  above  1 00  barges,  would 
be  much  increased  if  the  navigation  were  improved. 
A  few  nnall  craft  go  24  m.  higher,  as  far  as  Mlla- 
bella;  but  the  stream  is  rapid,  and  the  bed  much 
impeded  with  sand  and  rocks.  The  church  of  San 
Yincentc  is  the  largest  and  finest  in  Portugal 

ABRUZZO,  an  extensive  territory  of  Italy, 
forming  the  NE.  portion  of  the  former  Neapolitan 
dominions,  between  41^  50'  and  42^  55'  N.  lat. 
While  Naples  existed  as  a  separate  kingdom  the 
territory  was  divided  into  the  provs.  of  Abnizzo 
Ultra  I.,  Abmzzo  Citra,  and  Abnizzo  Ultra  II., 
but  these  names  were  abolished  at  the  formation 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  its  reconstruction 
into  59  pro\'inces.  The  new  administrative  divi- 
sions of  the  Abnizzo,  are  called,  after  the  names 
of  the  chief  towns,  Aquila,  Chieti,  and  Teramo. 
Aquila  has  a  ])(>puiation,  according  to  the  census 
of  1862,  (»f  339,555:  Chieti  of  337,364,  and  Teramo 
of  240,035,  so  that  the  total  pop.  of  the  Abnizzo 
numbers  917,954  inhabitants.  An  enumeration  of 
the  year  1831,  stated  the  pop.  at  735,931,  which, 
conndering  the  nature  of  the  countr}',  shows  a 
remarkable  increase. 

The  country  presents  every  variety  of  soil  and 
surface;  but  the  greater  part  is  mountainous,  nig- 
ged, and  occupied  by  extensive  forests.  It  is  tra- 
versed throughout  its  whole  extent  by  the  A]>en- 
nines,  and  has  some  of  their  highest  summits 
Monte  Como,  sumamed  //  Gran  Saxso^  or  the 
Great  Rock,  rises  to  the  height  of  9,527  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  Monte  Majella  to  about  8^500, 
and  Monte  Vellino  to  8,397.  It  is  watered  by 
many  rivers,  most  of  which  fall  into  the  Adria- 
tic; and  in  Abnizzo  Ultra  II.  is  the  celebrated 
Lago  Celano,  the  Lacus  Fucinus  of  the  ancients 
(sex;  Cklano,  Lake  ok).  The  cUmate  diflV?rs  with 
the  elevation  of  the  soil;  but  though  very  cold  un 
the  mountains,  and  com{)aratively  hot  in  the  low 
grounds,  it  is,  speaking  generally,  temi>erate  and 
healthy.  Along  the  Adriatic,  and  in  the  valleys 
and  plains,  the  soil  is  ver\'  pnxhictive:  and  large 
quantities  of  com,  oil,  wine,  silk,  liquorice,  and 
almonds,  are  ]>roduced.  Saf&on  used  to  be  very 
extensively  cultivated  in  the  valley  of  Aquila, 
but  the  quantity  raised  is  now  very  much  restric- 
ted. The  inhabitants  of  the  mountainous  districts 
are  principally  engaged  in  the  rearing  of  sheep  and 
cattle,  'rhe  uf»per  regions  and  recesses  of  the 
mountains  are  depastured  in  the  summer  season 
by  vast  flocks  of  sheep,  brought  from  the  Capitan- 
ata  and  other  level  produces  more  to  the  S. 
Their  migrations  are  regulated  by  law,  and  are 
similar  to  those  that  take  pLice  in  Spain  and  in 
the  SE.  depts.  of  France.  The  inhabiUinls  are 
stout,  well-made,  healthy,  and  industrious.  The 
occupiers  and  labourers,  who  form  the  vast  major- 
ity of  the  population,  are  mostly  poor,  living  in 
miserable  dirtv  huts  feeding  princiimlly  on  Indian 
com,  and  drinking  a  poor  wine.  Many  thousands 
of  the  peasants  emigrate  everv'  autumn  to  seek  for 
employment  in  the  Northem*  Murennne.  Manu- 
factures have  made  but  little  pnigross;  but  wckiI- 
lens,  silkB,  and  earthenware,  arc  produced.    The 


ABU-ABISCH 

fordid  trade  would  be  much  more  extensive  than 
it  ia,  woe  it  not  that  the  entire  coast  is  without 
a  single  good  port.  Principal  towns  Chieti,  Aquila, 
Teramo,  Safanona,  and  Avezzano. 

ABU-ARISCH,  a  pet^  state  in  the  SW.  of 
Arabia,  oo  the  borders  oi  the  Bed  Sea,  between 
150  50'  and  170  40'  N.  lat,  and  41°  30'  and  430  E. 
loc^^  cooasting  of  the  narrow  slip  of  low  land 
which  lies  between  the  coast  and  the  mountain 
district  of  Hiuehidrm-BthtL  On  the  N.  it  is  sepa- 
rated from  El-Hedjaz  by  a  small  district  inhabited 
bj  wandering  tribes  of  peculiar  manners;  and  on 
the  S.  it  bwden  iroon  the  state  of  Loheia,  Its 
extreme  length  is  about  180  m.,  and  its  greatest 
width  from  70  to  80  m.  It  fonns  part  of  the 
Tektumti  or  low  lands  of  Yemen,  being  almost 
wholly  a  sandy  plain  (see  Arabia),  extremely 
boC  and  diy,  di»titute  of  pennanent  water  courses, 
and  prestf>'ed  fircMn  utter  sterility  only  by  the 
abundant  rains  in  the  nei^bouiing  mountains, 
which  periodically  inundate  its  othenrise  water- 
leas  sou.  Its  pnndpal  products  are  dhourah  or 
barley,  which  fnms  the  principal  food  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  a  peculiar  and  highly  esteemed 
breed  of  asses. 

Abu-Arisch,  a  town  of  Arabia,  cap.  of  the 
above  state,  and  the  residence  of  the  sneriff,  lat 
leo  40'  N.,  long.  420  20'  E.  It  occupies  the 
emtre  of  the  principality,  being  midway  between 
the  Red  Sea  and  the  mountains,  and  between  its 
K.  and  S.  boundaries.  It  is  walled :  population 
estimated  at  from  4,000  to  5,000.  It  seems  pro- 
bable that  Abu-Arisch,  which  at  present  is  24  m. 
frum  the  sea,  was  ibrmerly  much  nearer  to  it,  if, 
indevd,  it  were  not  once  what  Gheran  now  is,  the 
port  of  this  part  of  Arabia.  This  is  rendered  pro- 
bable as  well  from  the  appearance  of  the  surrounding 
country  as  from  the  well-known  fact  mentioned 
by  Niebuhr,  that  the  coast  here  is  constantly  and 
rapidly  gaining  on  the  water.  (Niebuhr,  Des.  de 
TAr.  par.  ii.  p.  232;  Yov.  en  Ar.  ii.  59.) 

ABUTIGE,  a  considerable  town  of  Upper 
Eg^^-pt,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Abotis,  lat  27^ 
r  N'.,  long.  310  23'  E,  jt  » the  seat  of  a  Coptic 
bishftp,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  opium. 

ABYDOS,  an  ancient  city,  founded  by  the 
Thmcians,  and  subsequently  occupied  by  a  colony 
of  Milesians,  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Hellespont, 
vhere  it  is  narrowest  bearing  nearly  S.  from 
SertoA  on  the  European  side  of  the  strait  It  had 
a  commodious  harbour,  and  was  strongly  forti- 
fied. It  was  here  that  Xerxes  constructed  the 
bridge  of  boats  by  which  he  conveyed  his  ill-fated 
host  across  the  Hellespont ;  and  it  is  distinguished 
in  ancient  history  for  the  desperate  resistance 
Bade  b}'  its  inhabitants  to  Philip  of  Macedon, 
vImi,  however,  partly  by  force  and  partly  by 
treachery,  succeeded  in  taking  it  But  Abydos, 
nd  also*  Sestos,  are  mainly  indebted  for  their  im- 
perishable celebrity  to  the  story  of  the  loves  of 
Hero  and  Leander,  and  the  meh&nchol^'  fate  of  the 
latter.  Abydoe  wungni  quondam  (tmoru  commercio 
huipuM  eet.  (Amm.  Marcellinus,  lib.  i.  s.  19.)  It 
wu  destroyed  by  the  Turks;  and  the  fact  that 
the  materials  were  carried  3  m.  S.  to  assist  in 
building  the  SuUanie  Kaleesi,  or  old  castle  of  Asia, 
the  ArciDgest  fort  on  the  Dardanelles,  and  its  con- 
tigaous  town,  accounts  for  few  ruins  being  found 
at  Abydos.  The  modem  fort  of  Nagara  occupies 
iurite. 

ABYSSINIA,  or  JJoftescA,  an  extensive  coun- 
try of  Ejtttem  Africa,  of  which  the  boundaries  are 
BOC  weU  defined,  but  which  may  be  regarded  as 
•ecupying  the  space  included  between  9^  and  15^ 
4ff  N.  lat  and  3CO  E.  long,  and  the  Red  Sea; 
ktring  £.  the  latter,  N.  Seoaar  and  Nubia,  and 
«the  W.  and  S.  Senaar,  KordofaD,  the  Soudan, 


ABYSSINIA  7 

and  other  barbarous  and  nearly  unknown  coun- 
tries. It  is  supposed  to  include  in  all  above 
300,000  Eng.  sq.  m. 

Name, — ^Abyssinia  was  included  in  the  Ethiopia 
(from  ai$iot^t  a  mum  burnt  by  the  sun,  or  of  a  dark 
colour)  of  the  ancients.  The  name  Abyssina, 
or  more  properly  Habessma,  fh>m  the  Arabic 
Habeechf  signif^g  a  mixture  or  confusion,  has 
been  giv6n  to  tLe  country  by  the  Arabic  and  Por- 
tuguese geographers,  and  indicates  the  supposed 
Arabic  origin  of  the  people,  and  their  subsequent 
intermixture  with  the  Africans.  The  Abyssiniana 
do  not  use  this  name ;  and  either  assume  that  of 
the  provinces  in  which  they  live,  or  call  them- 
selves ItjopkMMy  and  their  country  UfanaheHa  It- 
jopioy  or  kmgdom  of  Ethiopia,  a  name  given  it  by 
the  Greeks  during  their  ascendancy  at  Axum. 

Face  of  the  Country, — ^Abyssinia  presents  great 
ineiiualities  of  surface.  It  consists  principally  of  a 
series  of  plateaus,  intersected  and  separated  by 
mountain  ridges.    Kitter  classes  the  plateaus  im- 
der  three  great  divisions.    Setting  out  from  the 
coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  traversing  the  low  arid 
ground  by  which  it  is  bordered,  and  ascending  the 
heights  or  mountains  of  Taranta,  we  arrive  at  the 
first  plateau,  or  country  of  the  Bahame^ash,  lying 
between  the  Taranta  on  the  E.  and  the  nver  Mareb 
on  the  W.    Passing  through  the  Bahamegash, 
and  making  another  ascent  we  arrive  at  the  great 
plateau  of  Tigr^  between  the  Mareb  on  the  E. 
and  the  Tacazze  on  the  W. ;  but  including  to  the 
south  the  mountain  regions  of  Enderta,  Wojjerat, 
Lasta,  &C.    The  last-mentioned  country  contains 
the  sources  of  the  Tacazze,  one  of  the  principal 
affluents  of  the  Nile.    The  towns  of  Adowah  and 
the  ancient  Axum  (see  the  names),  are  situated 
in  the  middle  of  the  plateau  of  Tigrd    Antalow 
lies  more  to  the  south,  in  the  province  of  Enderta. 
The  mountains  of  Samen,  on  the  W.  side  of  the 
plateau  of  Tigr^,  are  the  highest  in  Ab3r8sinia,  and 
form,  with  those  of  Lamalmon  and  Lasta,  a  great 
but  not  continuous  chain,  running  NE.  and  SW., 
and  separating  the  high  lands  of  Tigr^,  from  the 
still  more  elevated  plateau  or  alpine  country  of 
the  Habesch  or  Amhara,  including  the  provinces 
or  countries  of  Dembea,  Gojam,  Damot,  &c    This 
region,  the  highest  in  Abyssinia,  and  the  nucleus 
and  centre,  as  it  were,  of  the  old  empire,  contains 
the  sources  of  the  Bahr-cl-Azrek,  or  eastern  arm 
of  the  Nile,  and  the  great  lake  of  Tzana  or  Dembea. 
It  has  a  mean  elevation  of  about  8,000  feet,  and  is 
fenced  and  intersected  by  mountain  ridges,  of  which 
those  of  Goiam,  from  their  containing  the  sources 
of  the  E.  >i  ile,  are  the  most  celebrated.    Gondar, 
the  capital  of  Amhara,  and  formerly  the  residence 
of  the  Negus  or  emperor  of  Abyssinia,  lies  a  little 
to  the  N.  of  the  lake.    From  this  plateau  the 
country  shelves  down  on  the  W.  to  the  barbarous 
and  unknown  regions  already  alluded  to. 

The  provinces  of  Efat  and  Shoa,  which  now 
form,  with  their  dependent  territories,  the  most 
powerful  of  the  Abyssinian  states,  lie  to  the  SE. 
and  S.  of  Amhara.  The  first  is  very  elevated, 
part  of  its  waters  flowing  westward  to  the  Nile, 
and  part  eastward  to  the  Hawash.  Its  chief  town 
is  Ankober.  The  province  of  Shoa,  lying  along 
the  southern  side  of  the  Nile,  is  comparatively 
low,  and  is  renowned  for  its  magnificent  pastures 
and  fruitful  valleys.  It  has  several  towns  and 
some  celebrated  monasteries.  Salt  is  inclined  to 
think  that  the  Etbiopic  language  and  literature, 
and  the  ancient  manners  of  the  Abyssinians,  are 
preserved  in  a  purer  state  in  these  provinces  than 
in  any  of  the  others ;  but  they  are  very  imper- 
fectly known. 

Exclusive  of  the  above,  there  is  a  vast  and  but 
little  known  country  in  the  SE.  part  of  Abymnia, 


8 


ABYSSINIA 


between  Efat  and  Lasta,  and  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
sea  of  Bah-el-mandeU.  It  is  almost  entirely  occu- 
pied by  tribcH  of  dallas,  some  of  them  the  most 
orutified  of  any  to  be  found  in  Abyssinia.  The 
countiv  of  Nana,  at  the  sources  of  the  Maleg,  SW. 
from  the  prov.  of  Damot,  is  one  of  the  most  ele- 
vated of  the  African  plateaus.  Its  inhabitants  are 
said  to  be  nearly  as  white  as  the  Spaniards  and 
Neapolitans. 

On  the  SE.  of  Tignl,  between  it  and  the  low 
country  or  province  of  the  Dankali,  lying  alon^ 
the  Red  Sea,  and  between  the  fourteenth  and  iif- 
tccnth  degrees  of  latitude,  is  an  extensive  salt 
plain,  haxdng,  in  most  parts,  the  appearance  of 
ice  covered  with  partially  thawed  snow.  The  salt 
is  perfectly  pure  and  hard  for  about  two  feet  deep ; 
but  that  lyuig  beneath  is  coarser  and  softer  till 
purified  by  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is  cut  into 
pieces  with  a  hatchet;  and  not  only  serves  to 
season  and  preserve  food,  but  even  circulates  as 
money.  The  salt  is  carried  off  by  caravans,  or 
companies,  consisting  of  from  300  to  600  beasts  of 
burden,  and  its  digging  is  not  unacconii>anied  by 
danger,  from  the  attacks  of  the  savage  Galla. 

Mountains. — Those  of  Abyssinia  have  not  in 
gmeral  been  accurately  measured.  They  were 
represented  by  the  early* Portuguej«e  travellers  and 
the  Jesuits  aslieingof  such  vast  height  that,  com- 
pared with  them,  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees  were 
mere  hillocks !  But  these  exaggerated  represen- 
tations have  been  since  reduced  to  their  proper 
▼alue.  The  highest  summits  of  the  Samcn,  how- 
ever, approach  closely  to  the  line  of  perpetual 
congelation,  so  that  their  elevation  may  be  fairly 
estimated  at  fh>m  12,000  to  13,000  feet  The 
Abba  Jared  is  16,000,  and  Ras  Detschcn  15,986 
feet  high.  The  mountains  of  Gojam  arc  of  very 
inferior  altitude,  and  are  cultivated  to  the  sum- 
mits. Generally  the  Abywinian  mountains  have 
a  peculiarly  abrupt  and  precipitous  appearance. 
Sometimes  they  form  what  are  called  ambas  or 
hill  forts,  consisting  of  steep,  rocky,  and  all  but 
inaccessible  sides,  having  on  the  summit  a  level 
snrfiEKe  covered  with  trees  and  verdure.  The  most 
celebrated  of  these  hill  forts  is  that  of  Ambu 
Geshm,  formerly  used  as  a  place  of  confinement 
fbr  the  princes  of  Abyssinia. 

Rivers, — Of  these  the  Bahr-el-Azrck,  Blue  River, 
or  eastern  branch  of  the  Nile,  is  by  far  the  most 
ikmous.  It  riiies  from  two  mountains  near  Gecsh 
in  Gojam,  being,  acconling  to  Bruce,  in  lat.  10^ 
69'  25*^  N.,  long.  86°  55'  30"  E.,  and  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  10,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Its 
course  is  thence  N.  to  the  lake  Dembea,  a  large 
sheet  of  water,  which  receives  many  other  streams; 
but  the  Nile  is  said  to  preserve  its  waters  with 
but  little  intermixture  with  those  of  the  lake, 
across  which  its  curroit  is  always  visible.  E»- 
caping  from  this  lake,  it  sweeps  in  a  southerly 
direction  round  the  E.  frontier  of  the  provinces  of 
Gojam  and  Damot,  till,  between  the  ninth  and 
tenth  degree  lat.  it  takes  a  NW.  direction,  which 
it  preserves  till,  at  Halfaia,  near  the  sixteenth 
degree  lat.,  it  unites  with  its  other  and  more  im- 
portant branch,  the  Bahr-el-Abiad,  or  White 
River,  flowing  flrom  the  SW.  (see  Nile).  The 
next  most  important  stream  is  the  Tacazze,  whose 
source  has  been  already  noticed.  It  drains  the 
mountains  of  Samen  an(l  Tigrd;  and  pursuing. a 
pretty  direct  NNW.  course  through  Senaar,  falls 
mto  the  Nile  near  the  eighteenth  degree  lat  The 
Mareb,  which  rises  in  the  heights  of  Taranta,  runs 
nearly  paraUel  to  the  Tacazze.  In  the  dry  season 
St  loses  itself  in  the  sand ;  but  Bruce  says  that  in 
the  rain^  season  it  continues  its  course  till  it 
unites  with  the  Tacazze.  The  Hamazo  and  Ha- 
iraah  run  E.  in  the  direction  of  the  Rod  Sea;  but 


the  latter  is  swallowed  np  in  the  sands  before 
meeting  it.  Exclusive  of  the  great  lake  of  Dembea 
or  Tzano,  already  referred  to,  which  is  50  mihiJi 
long,  80  miles  broad,  and  ,6120  feet  above  the  sea 
level,  the  lake  of  Ashangee,  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
Samen,  is  also  of  very  considerable  size. 

Minerahgy, — This  is  very  imperfectly  known, 
though  geologically  presenting  some  remarkable 
features.  Granite  and  schistus  or  slate  have  been 
extensively  observed ;  and  it  is  probable  that  these 
primitive  rocks  occupy  a  large  portion  of  the  prin- 
cipal chains.  In  Tigi^  the  strata  arc  chiefly  ver- 
tical ;  but  in  the  mountains  of  Samen  they  incline 
more  to  a  horizontal  position.  Extinct  volcanoes, 
hot  springs,  deposit^)  of  sulphur,  rock  salt,  and 
malachite  have  also  1)een  found;  as  B\m  gneiss, 
antimony,  iron,  gold,  and  silver.  Allusion  has 
already  been  made  to  the  extensive  salt  plain  E. 
ofTig^. 

Climate. — ^This  necessarily  differs  with  the  elc- 
vation  of  the  countr\',  the  direction  of  the  moun- 
tains,  &C.    In  the  deep  valleys  and  low  grounds 
{koUas)  the  heats  are  frequently  excessive ;   and 
thU,  combined  with  excesd  of  moisture,  renders 
them  unhealthy.    But  the  climate  of  the  plateaus 
is  extremely  fine,  particularly  that  of  Amhara, 
which  is  said  to  enjoy  a  perpetual  spring,  cer  eter- 
Hum.    The  Portuguese  found  it  quite  as  temperate 
as  that  of  their  own  country.    According  to  Lu- 
dolph,  the  natives  often  attain,  in  that  happy  cli- 
mate, to  the  age  of  100  years  and  upwards !    Tho 
climate  of  Tigrc  is  not  quite  so  mild ;  but  there, 
also,  the  great  extent  of  pasturage  and  of  verdant 
plains  shows  that  the  country  is  not  visited  by  the 
extreme  of  heat.    I1ic  plateau  of  the  Bahamegajth 
is  the  hottest.    In  March,  Mr.  Salt  found  its  air 
hot  and  dry,  and  the  beds  of  the  rivers  without 
water.    The  year  is  sometimes  divided  into  four, 
but  more  properly  into  three,  seasons.    Winter 
(kramt)  is  Uie  season  of  rain,  which  always  falls 
in  great  quantities,  and  often  with  much  violence, 
rendering  rivers  and  even  brooks  quite  impassable. 
It  begins  on  the  coast  at  the  latter  end  of  October, 
and  in  the  interior  about  the  end  of  February,  the 
river  Tacazze  I)eing  swollen  from  April  to  Sep- 
tember ;  the  rest  of  the  year  consisting  of  summer 
(hagai)  or  the  season  of  heat  and  drought;  and  a 
short  period  of  harvest  (tzadau) 

Races — Pcpulation. — The  inhabitants  of  Abys- 
sinia comprise  a  variety  of  tribes.  They  all,  how- 
ever, closely  resemble  each  other  in  their  physical 
character  and  manners ;  and,  in  respect  of  bodily 
conformation,  arc  entirely  distinct  both  from  the 
Negroes  and  the  Arabians.  They  belong  to  what 
has  been  called  the  Ethiopic  variety  of  the  human 
race ;  and  their  most  prominent  characteristics  will 
be  found  described  in  the  article  Africa,  to  which 
the  reader  is  referred.  Of  the  different  tribes,  tho 
principal  are  the  Tigrani,  or  inhabitants  of  Tigrd ; 
the  Amharans,  or  inhabitants  of  Amhara;  tho 
Agows,  inhabiting  the  province  of  Damot;  the 
Efats,  occupying  the  southern  banks  of  the  Nile ; 
the  Gongas  and  Enareans,  still  further  S. ;  and  the 
Falashas,  occupying  the  mountains  of  Samen,  &c, 
who  profess  Judaism,  and  pretend,  though  it  is  be- 
lieved on  no  very  good  grounds,  to  d^uce  their 
origin  from  Palestine.  These  tribes  are  easily  di»- 
tinguishefl  by  their  language;  but  it  is  not  clear 
whether  their  idioms  be  really  distinct  languages, 
or,  which  is  mocjt  probable,  only  dialectic  varieties 
of  a  much  smaller  number  of  mother-tongues. 
(Prichard  on  Man,  vol  il  p.  136,  3rd  ed.) 

The  Galla,  or  savage  tribes  by  which  large  por- 
tions of  Abyssinia  have  been  overrun,  are  said  to 
have  made  their  first  appearance  on  the  southern 
frontier  in  1537.  No  doubt  they  belonged  ori- 
ginally to  the  central  parts  of  the  African  oonti- 


10 


ABYSSINIA 


afford  them  an  abundant  mipply  of  food.  The 
nitwer,  dr  ji^olden  eagle,  perhaps  the  lai^^e^t  bird  of 
the  old  continent^  and  a  beautiful  species  called 
the  black  eagle,  are  particularly  notioMl  by  Bruce. 
To  these  Salt  addfl  a  new  species  called' goodie^ 
goodie,  the  size  of  the  common  falcon.  According 
to  Mr.  Park^'Uis  there  are  several  varieties  of  the 
vulture,  and  aliout  twenty-four  sorts  of  hawks  and 
falcons.  Storks,  partridges,  snipes,  pigeons,  and 
swallows,  occur  in  great  number  and  variety,  as 
well  as  plovers,  grouse,  guinea-fowl,  florican,  geese, 
ducks,  horn-bills,  the  cuckoo,  parrots,  woodpeckers, 
thrushes,  larks,  crows,  &c  The  ostrich  and  the 
bustard  are  found  to  the  north  of  Abj^ssinia  and  in 
the  wilder  districts  of  the  ccmntry. 

Heptiles  of  all  sorts  abound  in  the  hot  districts 
of  the  Tigrc,  and  of  the  smaller  lizards  there  are 
an  innumerable  quantity. 

Among  insects  the  most  numerous  and  useful 
are  bees.  Honey  constitutes  ever^nvhere  an  im- 
portant article  of  food.  Several  provinces  used  to 
pay  a  largo  proportion  of  their  tribute  in  this 
article.  The  honey  assumes  different  appearances, 
sometimes  black,  sometimes  blood-red,  according 
to  the  plant  on  which  the  insect  feeds.  Of  a  very 
different  character  is  the  locust,  which  commits 
here  ravages  quite  as  terrible  as  in  the  other  coun- 
tries of  Nortliem  Africa. 

Government — Political  Divisions, — The  former 
government  of  Abyssinia,  or  that  which  existed 
in  it  when  it  became  known  to  the  Portuguese  and 
the  Jesuits,  was  an  absolute  and  despotic  monarchy, 
in  wliich  the  emperors,  restrained  by  no  written 
laws,  popular  assemblies,  or  privileged  classes,  had 
full  power  to  dispose  at  pleasure  of  the  lives  and 
property  of  their  subjects.  But  this  ancient  govern- 
ment may  now  be  said  to  Im  totally  extinct.  The 
force  of  the  central  government  was  gradually 
weakened,  partly  by  the  rel>ellion  of  the  governors 
of  the  different  provinces  and  juirtly  by  the  ir- 
ruption of  the  Gallas  and  other  slave  hordes,  who 
have  subjugated  some  of  its  finest  coimtries.  Salt 
has  ingeuioanly  compared  the  state  of  Abyssinia  in 
a  political  point  of  view  to  that  of  Kngland  during 
the  heptarchy;  and  since  he  visitetl  it  anarchy 
seems  to  have  made  a  still  more  rapid  progrt^s. 
Ihe  whole  country'  was,  till  lately,  split  into  an 
endless  variety  of  states,  the  limits  of  which  were 

5er])etually  changing,  and  between  which  the  most 
eadlv  animohities  and  interminable  contest**  con- 
stantly j)revailed.  Within  the  last  few  years  tlie 
most  of  the  territory'  has  fallen  under  the  sway  of 
an  adventurer  Thcodoros,  who  is  styled  King  of 
Ab>'ssinia.  He  was  l)oni  ui  Quara,  a  Kmall  pro- 
vince on  the  western  lx)nle.rs  of  Amhara,  his  father 
behig  a  ])oor  nobleman,  and  his  mother,  after  the 
•father's  deatli,  having  Ix^n  driven  to  seek  a  sul)- 
sistence  for  herself  and  her  child  bv  the  sale  of 
kosso  tlowers,  considered  by  the  Abyssinians  a 
specific  agauist  tapeworm.  Growing  up  to  man- 
ho(Hl,  the  yomig  Theodoros  attacheil  himself  to  a 
band  of  robl)ers  in  the  malarious  l)orders  of  the 
western  lowlands,  and  soon  l)ecame  famous 
throughout  Abyssinia  and  the  Soudan,  attracting 
a  graduallv  increasing  following  of  discontented 
chiefs.  After  a  good  deal  of  fighting,  he  moile 
himfielf  master  of  the  whole  of  Western  Abyssinia. 
In  1H5G  he  conquered  Tign<,  then  govemcni  by  a 
chief  named  Oubi,  which  wasfolIowe<l  shortly  after 
bv  Uie  conquest  of  the  Wollo  Galla  and  Shoa  pro- 
vmoes,  so  that  he  is  now  really  master  of  nearly  the 
whole  country'.  For  some  years  after  his  success  he 
manifest^  great  partialif^'  to  Europeans,  enter- 
taining readily  any  projecl  of  theirs  to  enhance  the 
wealth  of  his  empire  and  the  stabilitv  of  his  throne; 
find  missionaries  and  consuls  described  him  as  far 
in  advance  of  his  people  in  ideas  and  aspirations. 


Latterly  some  nnfavonrable  changes  have  chanus 
terised  his  proceedings,  the  most  prominent  of 
which  has  been  the  imprisonment  for  a  lengthened, 
period  of  Messrs.  Stem  and  Rosenthal,  two  mis- 
sionaries, and  Mr.  Cameron,  the  British  consul,  at 
his  capitol,  for  which  cause  is  not  very  certainly 
known.  Hw  reign  has  been  signalised  by  great 
severity  towards  rebels.  Mr.  Stem  states  that,  in 
I860,  8,000  of  them,  after  their  defeat  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Tacazze,  were  with  their 
leader  mercilessly  butchered  in  cold  blood;  but 
such  barbarity  has  not  been  unusual  in  Abyssinian 
sovereigns. 

Manners  and  Customs, — The  almost  perpetual 
state  of  civil  war  and  confusion,  and  not  any  pecu- 
liar crueltv  of  disposition,  seems  to  be  the  main 
cause  of  that  barbarism  and  bmtality  by  which 
the  manners  of  the  Abyssinians  are  characterised. 
All  the  feelings  by  which  man  is  restrained  from 
shedding  the  blood  of  his  fellows  seem  entirely 
blunted.  Human  life  is  scarcely  more  respected 
than  that  of  brutes.  Bmce  seldom  went  out  at 
Gondar  without  seeing  dead  bodies  lying  in  the 
streets,  left  to  be  devoured  by  dogs  and  hytenas, 
without  being  even  allowed  the  rites  of  sepulture. 
To  show  the  indifference  usually  felt  on  such  oc- 
casions, he  mentions  that  one  day,  passing  along 
the  streets,  he  saw  an  ofKcer  of  rank  about  to  exe- 
cute three  men  who  had  offended  the  sovereign. 
This  person,  calling  to  Brace,  begged  him  to  stop 
till  he  had  despatched  this  business,  as  he  wished 
to  have  a  short  conversation  with  him.  But  the 
circumstance  wliich  seems  to  place  the  Abyssinians 
below  even  the  most  savage  tribes,  Is  the  extreme 
coarseness  of  their  festive  indulgences.  Their  brinde 
(raw  l)eef)  feast  has  excited  the  astonishment  of  all 
travellers.  Alvarez,  who  Wsited  the  countrj'  as  am- 
bassador from  Portugal  in  1 520,  and  reraainwl  there 
for  six  years,  describes  it  a<t  a  thing  *  of  which  he 
dare  not  in  a  maimer  speak.'  Being  in\'ite<l  to  a 
feast,  he  was  much  surprised,  instead  of  the  usual 
dishes,  to  sec  bniught  in  *  pieces  of  raw  flesh,  with 
warm  blood.'  The  landlord,  on  seeing  his  guests 
show  no  favour  to  this  savourj'  dish,  ordered  other 
fooil  I)etter  suited  to  their  tastes;  but  ininic<liately 
l)egan  eagerly  to  devour  the  tiesb,  *  as  if  it  had  been 
marchpane  or  comfits.'  The  huly  of  the  houstj  did 
not  appear  at  dinner:  but,  in  drinking,  she  *bravelv 
sec<»nded '  the  rest  of  the  company.  Brace  and  Salt 
have  furnished  still  more  particular  dest'riptions. 
The  table,  which  is  low,  is  first  coverwl  with  suc- 
cessive piles  of  teff  cakes,  serving  to  the  guest*  at 
once  as  f(K)d  and  as  towels  with  which  to  wii)e  their 
fingers.  The  comi^ny  Iwing  then  j^ated,  the  next 
jirocess  is  the  slaughter  (»f  the  cattle,  whicli  are 
standing  at  the  do4>r,  and  the  coitting  wann  steaks 
from  their  flesh.  Brace  says  that  tlies<*  are  ex- 
tracted while  the  animal  is  vet  alive,  and  l»ellow- 
ing  under  the  pain  of  the  wound.  But  tliis 
disgusting  circumstance  is  not  mentioned  by  any 
of  the  earlier  writers,  and  Mr.  Salt  affinns  that 
the  head  Is  separated  from  the  body  before  the 
oi»eration  of  slichig  commences.  Salt,  however, 
as  well  as  Brace,  admits  that  the  luxury  of  an 
Abyssinian  feast  consists  in  having  the  ]>ieces 
brought  in  while  the  bloo<l  is  yet  warm  and  the 
fibres  palpitating.  The  female  who  sits  next  to 
each  chief  then  wraps  up  the  slice  in  a  teff  cake, 
and  thrasts  into  Us  mouth  as  large  a  quantity  as 
it  is  capable  of  containing,  which  Is  greedily  de- 
voured. All  parties  (hrink  copiously  of  hydromel, 
and  bouza,  the  l)eerof  the  country.  Having  satis- 
fied themselves,  they  rise,  and  give  place  to  another 
company  of  inferior  rank,  and  these  to  a  third,  till 
all  IS  cxinsumed.  The  gn>ss  indecenci(*s  wliich 
Brace  represents  as  peqtetrated  on  these  occasions, 
and  which  he  has  described  with  such  revolting 


ABYSSINIA 


11 


minateneH,  hare  been  denied  by  Mr.  Salt,  and  it 
is  hardly  pomible  to  supDooe  that  they  can  be  other 
than  rare  occurrences.  Mr.  Gobat,  the  mLsitionary, 
admits  that  a  feast  such  as  that  described  by 
Bruce  may  have  taken  place  among  the  most 
shameless  'libertines ;  but  he  adds,  that  *  excesses 
ot  that  kind  are  not  customary  either  as  to  their 
cruelty  or  indecency.*  The  practice  r^rted  by 
Bruce,  and  which  subjected  him  to  no  Uttle  ridi- 
cule, of  cutting  steaks  from'  a  living  animal  on  a 
joomey,  and  then  dosing  up  the  wound  and  driving 
it  on,  appeared  at  first  quite  unfounded  to  Mr.  Salt; 
but  in  his  seccmd  ioumey  he  witnessed  it,  and  found 
that  it  was  called  by  a  peculiar  name— cutting  the 
Skuiada ;  which  certainly  goes  a  good  way  to  prove 
its  frequency,  though  that  also  is  disputed  by  Mr. 
Gobat,  who  denies  its  occurrence,  unless  perhaps  in 
eases  of  extreme  hunger.  Mr.  Parkyns,  a  later 
traveller,  corroborates  the  testimony  of  Mr.  Salt, 
having  heard  of,  though  he  had  not  himself  wit- 
nessed, an  occurrence  of  the  kind.  He  believes  in 
the  accuracy  of  Bruoe's  observations  at  the  time, 
though  apparoitly  a  change  for  the  better  had 
taken  place. 

Justice  in  Abyssinia  is  altogether  barbarous, 
venal«  and  corrupt.  When  a  person  accused  of  a 
criminal  offence  is  found  guilty,  he  is  detained  in 
prison  till  he  has  made  satisfaction  to  the  accuser; 
or,  if  he  have  committed  murder,  till  he  be  dis- 
posed of  by  the  relations  of  the  deceased,  who  may 
either  put  him  to  death  or  accept  a  ransom.  The 
latter  is  generally  fixed  at  250  dollars  for  a  man, 
but  the  relations  are  under  no  obligation  to  accept 
it.  To  escape  the  avenger  of  blood,  however,  tne 
murderer  may  retire  to  another  province,  as  to  a 
city  of  refuge,  and  he  cannot  be  followed.  When 
a  murdered  person  has  no  relations,  the  priests  take 
upon  themselves  the  office  of  avengers  of  blood, 
llie  king  in  person  constitutes  the  final  court  of 
appearand  is  very  assiduous  in  performing  the 
duty  of  Judge.  Th^  and  murder  and  other  aggra- 
vated offences  ha\'e  been  a  good  deal  suppressed. 

Marriage  in  Abyssinia  is  a  very  slight  connec- 
tion, formed  and  dissolved  at  pleasure.  The  most 
formal  mode  of  concluding  it  is,  when  the  lover, 
ha^-ing  made  certain  engagements  to  the  parents, 
and  obtained  their  consent  (for  that  of  the  bride  is 
seldom  asked),  seizes  her  and  carries  her  home  on 
his  shoulders.  A  magnificent  feast  is  then  given 
o(  l«inde  and  bouza ;  and  at  a  fixed  period  of 
twenty  or  thirty  days  afterwards,  they  go  to 
chuivh  and  take  the  sacrament  together.  It  is  in 
a  few  rare  instances  only  that  even  this  slight 
ceremony  is  used.  In  must  coses,  mutual  consent, 
and  a  plentiful  administration  of  raw  meat  and 
bouza.  form  the  only  preliminaries.  The  will  of 
either  {tarty,  or  of  both,  is  at  any  time  sufficient  to 
disdolve  the  connection.  If  they  have  several 
children,  thev  divide  them ;  if  they  have  but  one, 
and  he  w  under  seven  years  of  age,  he  belongs  to 
the  mother ;  if  above  seven,  to  the  father.  Gobat 
sa}-s  that  after  a  third  divorce  they  cannot  contract 
another  regular  marriage,  nor  partake  of  the  com- 
munion mtUen  thejf  become  mxnuts ;  Bruce,  however, 
■MutioiM  being  in  a  company  at  Gondar,  where 
there  was  a  lady  present,  with  six  persons,  each  of 
whom  had  been  successively  her  husband,  although 
noue  of  them  stood  in  this  relation  to  her  at  the 
time:  nor  do  either  party  consider  themselves 
bound  to  observe  with  rigid  fidelity  this  slight  en- 
gigement,  even  while  it  lasts.  Manners  may  be 
eon^idered*  in  this  respect,  as  in  a  state  of  almost 
total  diMolntion.  Slaves  are  common  in  all  parts 
«f  Abyssinia.  They  consist  of  Shangallas,  a  race 
«f  savage  negroes  inhabiting  the  low  countries  on 
the  NNW.  and  NE.  frontiers.  They  arc  very 
■meroai  in  Gondar  and  other  places  of  Amhant, 


and  also  in  Ti^;  are  well  treated,  and  escape 
many  of  the  privations  to  which  they  are  subject 
in  their  wild  state. 

The  only  display  of  architectural  magnificence 
in  Abyssinia  is  in  the  churches.  They  are  built  on 
eminences;  are  of  a  circular  form,  with  conical 
summits  and  thatched  roofs ;  and  are  surrounded 
with  pillars  of  cedar,  within  which  is  an  arcade, 
which  produces  an  agreeable  coolness.    The  houses 
of  the  sovereigns  and  j^^andees  are  also  large  and 
commodious  j  though,  m  this  warlike  country,  the 
camp  is  considered  as  their  more  proper  residence. 
All  the  houses  are  mere  hovels  of  a  conical  form, 
with  a  thatched  roof,  and  containing  little  or  no 
furniture.    The  dress,  both  of  men  and  women, 
consists  chiefly  of  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth,  24  cubits 
long  by  14  in  breadth,  which  they  iiTap  round 
them  like  a  mantle,  with  close  drawers  reaching  to 
the  middle  of  the  thigh,  and  a  girdle  of  doth. 
Needleworic  and  washing,  according  to  Mr.  Stem, 
are  performed  not  by  the  women  but  by  the  men. 
Their  food  consists  of  the  different  species  of  grain 
already  enumerated,  fish,  fruits,  honey,  and  raw 
meat  at  festivals.    The  most  general  drink  is  bou- 
za, a  spedes  of  sour  beer,  made  from  the  fermen- 
tation of  their  cakes,  particularly  those  left  at 
entertainments.  Tooousso,  the  coarsest  grain,  pro- 
duces bouza  eoual  or  superior  to  any  of  Uie  others. 
Hydromd  is  also  made  m  great  quantities.  Agri- 
culture, the  only  art  much  cultivated,  is  very  far 
behind  the  perfection  which  it  has  attained  even 
in  the  most  backward  parts  of  Europe.     The 
ploughs,  of  the  rudest  construction,  from  the  root 
or  branch  of  a  tree,  are  drawn  by  oxen.    The  land 
is  t^ice  ploughed,  but  with  the  utmost  indifference 
as  to  the  straightness  of  the  furrows ;  afler  which 
women  are  employed  to  break  the  clods.    In  the 
course  of  ripening,  the  com  is  carefully  weeded. 
As  previously  stated,  there  are  two  or  three  crops 
in  the  year.    The  worst  grain  is  commonly  used 
for  seed.    In  general,  every  family  cultivates  for 
itself,  and  little  is  brought  to  market.    The  poor 
people  live  miserably  on  black  teff  and  tocousso, 
and  even  persons  of  consideration  use  little  except 
teff  and  bouza. 

The  Abyssinians  profess  Christianity,  but  it  has 
little  influence  over  their  conduct.  At  present 
they  are  split  into  three  parties,  violently  opposed 
to  each  other.  They  retain  a  great  number  of 
Judaical  observances,  abstaining  from  the  meats 
prohibited  by  the  Mosaic  law,  pructising  circum- 
cision, keeping  both  the  Saturday  and  Siuiday  as 
Sabbaths,  and  r^i^arding  fasts  as  essential  liut  their 
fasts,  though  apparently  long  and  rigorous,  are 
dispensed  with  on  pa\nncnt  of  a  sum  of  money, 
according  to  the  rank  and  wealth  of  the  party. 
The  Coptic  patriarch  of  Cairo  continues  still  to  Iks 
the  nominal  head  of  the  church,  from  whom  the 
Abuna,  the  resident  head,  recdves  his  investiture. 
They  have  monasteries,  both  of  monks  and  nuns, 
who  arc  far,  however,  from  professing  that  rigid 
austerity  which  is  the  boast  of  the  Komish  church. 
Their  veneration  for  the  Virgin  is  unbounded ;  and 
the  Catholic  missionaries  found  that  tliey  com- 
pletely outdid,  in  tliis  respect,  their  own  ultra 
zeaL  Their  saints  are  extremely  numerous,  and 
surpass,  in  miraculous  power,  even  those  of  the 
Koraish  calendar.  They  represent  them  by  paint- 
ingH,  with  which  their  churches  are  la\'ishly 
adorned;  but  they  do  not  admit  any  figures  in 
relievo.  The  clergy  do  not  attempt  to  prohibit 
divorce,  or  even  polygamv,  the  propensitv  to 
which  in  the  nation  is  probably  too  powerful  to 
render  any  prohibition  enectuaL 

Mohammedans,  as  well  as  Jews,  are  also  found 
in  Abvssinia.  The  former  appear  to  have  in- 
creased since  Brace's  visit;   at  present  they  are 


12 


ABYSSINIA 


most  nnmcrous  in  Adowah  and  its  vicinity.  Few 
of  them  Imve  any  knowledge  of  the  Koran.  They 
engage  more  in'  traffic  than  the  Christians,  and 
have  more  money.  They  are  said  to  engross  the 
whole  traffic  in  slaves ;  the  Cliristians,  according 
to  Mr.  Gobat,  never  taking  any  part  in  it.  The 
Jews  claim  to  be  descended  from  mimigrants  into 
Abyssinia,  who  returned  with  the  Queen  of  Sheba 
alter  her  visit  to  Solomon.  In  morals  thoy  are 
much  superior  to  their  neighbours,  both  Christians 
and  Mohammedans,  but  are  unsocial  and  ascetic. 
Husbandry  and  a  few  simple  trades  are  their  sole 
occupations. 

Though  low,  as  compared  with  Europe,  the 
manufactures  of  Abyssinia  occupy  a  prominent 
place  among  most  of  the  African  nations.  It  sup- 
plies itself  with  all  the  most  indispensable  articles. 
Cotton  cloths,  the  universal  dress  of  the  country, 
arc  made  in  large  quantiUes,  the  fine  sort  at 
Gondar,  and  the  coarse  at  Adowa.  Being  unable 
to  dye  their  favourite  dark  blue  colour,  they  un- 
ravel the  blue  Surat  cloths,  and  weave  them  again 
into  thcur  own  webs.  Coarse  cloth  circulates  as 
money.  Manufactures  of  iron  and  brass  ore  also 
consdderable,  the  material  being  procured  from 
Sennaor,  Walcayt,  and  Bcrbcra ;  knives  are  made 
at  Adowa  and  spears  at  Antalow.  The  business 
of  tanning  is  well  understood  in  Tigrc';  and  at 
Axum  sheepskins  are  made  into  parchment. 
Saddles,  and  all  sorts  of  horse  furniture,  are  good. 
The  foreign  commerce  of  Abvssinia  is  carried  on 
entirely  by  way  of  Massuan,  whence  the  com- 
munication with  the  interior  is  maintained  by  the 
channel  of  Adowa.  The  imports  are  chiefly  lead, 
block  tin,  gold  foil,  Persian  carpets,  raw  silk  from 
China,  velvets,  fVcnch  broad  cloths,  coloured  skins 
from  Egypt,  gloss  beads  and  decanters  from  Venice 
The  exports  consist  of  gold,  ivoiy,  and  slaves.  The 
slaves  ore  reckoned  more  beautiful  than  those 
which  come  from  the  interior  of  Africa. 

Frogreu  of  DUcovery. — ^The  ancients  never  ac- 
quired any  accurate  knowledge  of  Abyssinia.    To 
it,  along  with  Scnnaar,  they,  in  a  peculiar  sense, 
applied  the  comprchennve  name  of^  Ethiopia ;  for 
though  that  term  was  made  to  extend  generally 
to  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  even  to  a  great  port 
of  Asia,  yet  ^khiopia  tub  jE^ypto  was  r^i^arded 
as  the  proper  Ethiopia.    Descriptions  of  Ethiopian 
nations  are  given  by  the  ancients  at  considerable 
length :  but  thejr  serve  chiefly  to  show  the  im- 
perfection of  their  knowlc<lgc,  and  ore  tinctured 
with  a  large  admixture  of  fable.    Kennell  sup- 
poses, aeemingly  on  good  grounds,  that  the  Ma- 
crobian,  or  iong-liv<Mi  Emiopians,  said   to  live 
farther  to  the  south  than   the  others,  belong  to 
Abysania.    The  ondcnts  had  no  distinct  know- 
ledge of  more  than  two  Ethiopian  kingdoms :  the 
first  and  onlv  one  known  to  the  earnest  writers 
is  Meroe,  or  the  Peninsula,  which  they  erroneously 
supposed  to  be  an  island  formed  by  the  successive 
union  of  the  Nile  with  the  Astaboras  and  the 
Astapus  (Blue  Kiver  and  Tacazze).     The  chief 
dty  of  Meroe  was  placed  by  them  on  the  Kile,  in 
lat«  16^  26' ;  and  iSruce,  in  passing  through  Scn- 
naar, saw,  near  ChencQ,  immense  ruins,  which 
probably  belonged   to  this  celebrated  capital  of 
Ethiopia.    The   other  kingdom  became  known 
after  the  Greeks,  under  the  successors  of  Alex- 
ander, extended  Uieir  na%'igation  along  the  eastern 
coast  of  Africa     It  was  that  of  the  Axumitas, 
ntuated  upon  the  Kcd  Sea,  and  occupying  part  of 
Tigrd.     Its  capital,  Axum,  still   rcmams,  and 
thofagh  in  a  state  of  decay,  exhibits  remains  so 
vast  as  amply  to  attest  its  former  greatness. 
The  inscriptions  discovered  here  by  ^It  show 
that  the  Axumites  had  received  amongst  them 
the  religion  and  the  arts  of  foreigners,  and  tliat 


they  made  use  of  the  Grecian  language  in  the 
inscriptions  on  their  monumental.  The  port  of 
Axum,  Adulis,  was  the  channel  by  which  the 
finest  ivoiT  then  knovm  was  exported,  and  a 
commercial  intercourse  maintained  with  the  coasts 
both  of  the  Ked  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  Salt, 
though  unable  to  visit  it,  seems  to  have  ascer- 
tain^ its  situation  near  Mossouah. 

Prior  to  the  middle  of  the  fourth  centurv,  Abys- 
sinia was  converted  to  Christianity,  which  it  has 
ever  since  nominally  professed. 

After  the  rise  and  rapid  spread  of  Islamism, 
those  of  Uie  E^ptians  who  were  reluctant  to 
change  their  faith  being  compelled  to  fly  south- 
wards before  the  sword  of  the  Saracens,  Nubia 
and  Abyssinia  became  filled  ^-ith  Jewish  and 
Christian  refugees.    And  as  both  these  countries 
were  at  that  time  Christian,  the  Arabian  geo- 
graphers, who  have  fully  described  other  parts  of 
the  continent,  make  a  very  slight  mention   of 
them;   so  that  Abyssinia  remained  almost  un- 
known till  near  the  asm  of  modem  naval  dis- 
covery.   In  1445,  the  emperor  of  Abyssinia  sent 
an  ambassador  to  the  senate  of  Florence,  and 
wrote  a  famous  letter  to  the  priests  his  subjects  at 
Jerusalem.    This,  and  the  layourable  reports  of 
the  Abyssinian  priests  now  referred  to,  gave  rise 
to  the  most  exaggerated  reports.  It  was  said  that 
a  Christian  prince,  to  whom  the  Portuguese  gave 
the  fantastical  name  of  Preater  or  Presbyter  John^ 
niled  over  a  vast^  highly  cixdlised,  and  rich  em- 
pire, in  the  centre  and  E.  of  Africa,    lliis  state- 
ment inflamed  at  once  the  spirit  of  discovery  and 
of  religious  zeal,  the  two  rulmg  principles  in  that 
age.    The  Portuguese  monorchs,  who  took   the 
lead  in  exploring  the  eastern  world,  immediately 
devLsed  measures  for  acauiring  a  knowledge  of  so 
remarkable  a  region.     The  passage  to  India  by 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  had  not  yet  l)ecn  dis- 
covered; Abyssinia  was  therefore  \'icwcd  as  a 
tract  tlirough  which  the  commerce  of  India  might 
be  conducted.    Two  envoys,  Co\'ilham  and  l>e 
Paiva,  were  therefore  sent,  under  the  direction  of 
Prince  Henry,  upon  a  mi^on  to  explore  it.  They 
went  by  way  of  Alexandria,  and  descended  the 
Ked  Sea.    De  Paiva  perished  by  some  unknown 
accident;  but  Covilham,  after  visiting  difiercnt 
parts  of  India  and  Eastcdm  Africa,  entered  Abys- 
sinia, and  arrived,  in  1490,  at  the  court  of  the 
emperor,  rending  then  in  Shoa.    Being  brought 
iKjfore  the  sovereign,  he  was  receivetl  witli  that 
favour  which  novelty,  when  there  is  nothing  to 
be  feared  from  it,  usually  secures;  and  being  a 
man  of  address  and  obilitv,  he  contrived  to  main- 
tain this  friendly  di8])osit[on.    The  reports  which 
he  transmitted  of  tlie  country  were  favourable; 
and  having  prevailed  on  the  empress-mother  to 
send  an  Armenian  as  an  ambassador  to  Portugal, 
whoso  arrival  excited  a  great  sensation  in  that 
country,  the  Portuguese  sent  out  several  otiier 
embassies.    Of  these  the  most  remarkable  is  that 
described  by  Alvarez,  in  1520.    He  remained  six 
years  in  the  country,  and  traverse<l  it  from  north 
to  south,  \'isiting  the  provinces  of  Amharo,  Shoa, 
and  Efat     I^aez,  Almeyda,  Lolio,  and  several 
others  successively  undertook  journeys  into  Al»ys- 
sinia.    Paez,  who  resided  in  the  'countn"*  from 
1603  till  his  death  in  1622,  visited,  in  1618,  the 
sources  of  the  Bahr-el-Azrck  or  eastern  arm  of  the 
Nile,  and  describes  them  nearly  in  the  same  terms 
as  Bruce,  who  absurdly  claims  the  honour  of  being 
their  discoverer.    From  the  accounts  of  tliese  and 
other  missions,  Tellez  first  (1660),  and  afterwani^ 
Ludolph  (1681),  principally  compiled  their  his- 
tories and  descriptions  of    Ethiopia.     Ludolph, 
who  was  well  versed  in  the  language,  derived  a 
considerable  part  of  his  information  from  the  com- 


ACAFVLCO 

Bimicatioos  of  Gregory,  an  Abyssinian  monk  of 
the  province  of  Amhara,  then  in  Europe. 

Public  cuiioaity,  however,  with  respect  to  Abys- 
sinia gradually  suJisided,  till  towards  the  close  of 
last  century  (1790),  it  was  revived  by  the  publi- 
cation oi  Mr.  Brace's  Travels.  Many  of  the  dr- 
cumstances  he  relates  are  so  very  extraordinary 
as  to  give  to  his  descriptions  a  good  deal  of  the 
appearance  of  romance.  The  authenticity  of  his 
work  was  in  consequence  very  generallv  doubted; 
and  it  must  be  admitted  that  some  of  his  state- 
ments have  been  shown  to  be  unfounded,  and  that 
others  are  of  very  Questionable  authoiit^r.  But 
the  accuracy  of  the  leading  features  of  his  work 
has  been  fully  established  by  Mr.  Salt  and  other 
late  travellers. 

Farther  information  as  to  Abyssinia  will  be 
found  in  the  Modem  Universal  History,  vol.  xv. ; 
the  Travels  of  Bruce,  Salt,  and  Lord  Valentia ;  Mr. 
Gobat's  Journal;  the  account  of  Abysania  in  Bit- 
ter's Geography;  Prichaxd's  Researches  on  Man; 
Paikyn's  liie  m  Abyssinia ;  and  Stem's  Wander- 
ings among  the  Falashas  in  Abyssinia. 

ACAPULCO,  a  celebrated  sea-port  and  town  of 
Mexico,  in  the  intendency  of  that  name,  on  the 
coast  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  190  m.  SSW.  Mexico, 
lat.  Ifio  50'  29"  N.,  long.  99°  46'  W.  Estimated 
popu  3,000.  The  harbour  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
the  world.    *It  is  familiar,*  says  Captain  Hall, 

*  to  the  memory  of  most  people,  from  its  being  the 
port  whence  the  rich  Spanish  galleons  of  former 
days  took  their  departure  to  q)read  the  wealth  of 
the  Western  over  the  Eastern  world.  It  is  cele- 
brated, also,  in  Anson's  delightful  Voyage,  and 
occupies  a  conspicuous  place  m  the  very  interest- 
ing accounts  of  the  Buccaneers :  to  a  sailor,  there- 
furtj  it  is  classic  ground  in  every  sense.  I  cannot 
expreM  the  universal  professional  admiration  ex- 
cited by  a  sight  of  this  celebrated  port,  which  is, 
moreover,  the  very  beau-ideal  of  a  harbour.  It  is 
easy  of  access ;  very  capacious ;  the  water  not  too 
derp ;  the  holding  ground  good ;  quite  firee  from 
hidden  dangere ;  and  as  secure  as  the  basin  in  the 
centre  of  Portsmouth  dock-yard.  From  the  inte- 
rior of  the  harbour  the  sea  cannot  be  discovered;^ 
and  a  struiger,  coming  to  the  spot  by  land,  would 
^wnijritM*  he  was  looking  over  a  sequestered  moun- 
tain-lake.* (South  America,  ii  p.  172.)  Thero  are 
two  entrances  to  this  ^Icndid  basin,  one  on  each 
side  <^  the  small  island  of  Koqueta  or  Grifo,  the 
broadest  being  nearly  1^  m.  across,  and  the  other 
from  700  to  800  feeL  The  town,  commanded  Inr  the 

*  cxtensrre  and  formidable '  (Hall)  castle  oi  San 
Carlosi,  ia  poor  and  mean.  Since  it  ceased  to  be 
the  resnrt  <^  the  galleons,  it  has  ceased  to  be  of 
any  considerable  importance;  and,  when  visited 
by  Captain  Hall,  had  onlv  thirty  houses,  with  a 
luge  suburb  of  huts  built  of  reeds,  wattled  in 
open  ba:^et-work  to  give  admission  to  the  air. 
The  climate  is  exceedingly  hot  and  pestilential. 
To  give  a  freer  circulation  to  the  air,  an  artificial 
cut  was  made  through  the  chain  of  rocks  by  which 
the  town  is  surrounded.  But,  though  this  has 
been  of  considerable  service  it  still  continues  to 
be  very  unhealthy.  Its  natural  insalubrity  is  in- 
creased by  the  poisonous  vapours  exhaled  from  a 
marsh  situated  to  the  £.  of  tne  tovm.  The  annual 
deaocation  of  the  stagnant  water  of  this  mardi 
oocaasons  the  death  of  innumerable  small  fishes ; 
whicht  decaying  in  heaps  under  a  tropical  sun, 
diffuse  their  noxious  emanations  through  the 
neighbouring  air,  and  are  justly  considered  a  prin- 
c^tal  cause  of  the  putrid  biUous  fevers  that  then 
prevail  along  the  coast.  Some  trade  is  carried  on 
Detween  Acapuloo  andGuayquil,  Callao,  &c. ;  but, 
owing  to  the  extreme  tediousness  and  difficulty  of 
the  voyage  from  Acapnlco  to  Callao,  the  inter- 


ACHMUNEIN 


13 


course   between  Mexico  and  Pcm   is  confined 
within  very  narrow  bounds. 

ACERENZA  (an.  Acherontta),  a  small  and 
very  ancient  arohiepisoopal  city  of  Southern  Italy, 
prov.Potenza;  14  m.  N£.  Potenza.  Pop.  3,955  m 
1862.  It  is  situated,  according  to  the  description 
of  Horace  (Od.  lib.  iii.  car.  4, 1. 14),  on  an  almost 
inaccessible  hill,  Nidu$  celta  Acheroniutj  the  foot 
of  which  is  washed  by  the  Brandano.  It  has  a 
castle,  a  cathedral,  two  convents,  a  grammar 
school,  and  an  hospital  The  archbishop  resides 
at  Matera.  This  town  was  looked  upon  by  the 
Romans  as  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  Apulia  and 
Lucania. 

ACERNO,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov.  Sa- 
lerno; 16  m.  N.  by  E.  Salemo.  Pop.  3,715  in 
1862.  The  town  has  a  cathedral,  a  parish  church, 
a  mont  depiete,  which  makes  advances  of  seed  to 
indigent  cultivators,  a  fabric  of  paper,  and  a 
foige. 

ACERRA,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov.  Ca- 
serto;  9  m.  NE.  Naples.  Pop.  11,274  in  1862.  It 
has  a  cathedral,  a  seminary,  and  a  numt  de  pietS, 
The  country  is  fhiitful,  but  unhealthy.  This  is  a 
very  ancient  tovm.  In  the  second  Punic  war  it 
was  destroyed  by  Hannibal,  the  inhabitants 
having  des^ted  it  on  his  approach.  (Liv.  lib.  xxiiL 
8.  17.)  Under  Augustus  it  received  a  Roman 
colony. 

ACHEEN,  a  principality  occupying  the  NW. 
extremity  of  the  island  of  Sumatra  (which  see). 

AcHEEN,  the  capital  of  the  above  principality, 
situated  near  the  NW.  extremity  of  Sumatra,  on 
a  river  about  3  m.  from  the  sea,  lat.  5^  35"  N., 
long.  95^  45"  E.  It  is  veiy  populous,  being  said 
to  contain  8,000  houses  built  of  tMunboo  and  rough 
timber,  and  raised  on  posts,  to  secure  them  from 
inundations.  A  good  deal  of  trade  is  carried  on 
with  Singapore,  Batavia,  Bengal,  &c.  Owing  to 
a  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  none  but  small 
vessels  pass  up  to  the  city.  The  entrance  for  three 
months  of  the  year  is  dangerous,  but  the  harbour 
is  secure. 

ACHERN,  a  town  of  the  G.  D.  Baden,  on  the 
Achem,  14  miles  NE.  Kehl,  on  the  railway  from 
Kehl  to  Carlsruhe.  Pop.  2,579  in  1861.  Within 
a  short  distance  of  Achon  is  the  village  of  Sas»- 
bach,  contiguous  to  which  is  a  granite  monument, 
erected  at  the  expense  of  the  French  government 
in  1829,  on  the  spot  where  the  Martial  de  Tu- 
renne,  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  modem 
times,  was  killed  by  a  random  shot  on  the  27th 
July,  1675.  He  was  interred  in  the  chapel  of  St. 
Nicholas  at  Achem. 

ACHIL,  or  EAGLE  ISLAND,  an  island  on  the  - 
W.  coast  of  Ireland,  co.  Mayo,  separated  from  the 
main  land  by  a  narrow  channel.  It  is  about  30 
miles  in  drciunference,  and  contains  above  23,000 
acres.  Pop.  5,776  in  1861.  It  is  mountainous; 
and  eagles — whence  its  name — breed  in  it«  inac- 
cessible fastnesses.  The  inhabitants  speak  Uie 
Irish  language,  and  are  in  an  extremely  depressed, 
miserable  condition. 

ACHMIN,  or  ECHMIN,  a  town  of  Upper 
Eg3rpt,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile,  230  m. 
S.  Cairo.  Estimated  pop.  3,000.  Streets  well 
disposed,  broad,  and  straight,  which  is  very  un- 
usual in  Egypt ;  so  that  this  would  be  a  handsome 
town,  were  the  houses  built  of  better  materials 
than  baked  bricks  cemented  with  clay.  It  was 
anciently  called  Panopolis,  or  Chemnis;  the  former 
being  the  Greek,  the  latter  the  Egyptian  name. 
It  contains  a  church  of  some  antiquity,  and  held 
in  much  veneration ;  but  its  chief  ornament  is  the 
granite  pillars  taken  from  the  ruins  of  Panopolis. 

ACHMUNEIN.  a  lai^e\'ilhige  of  central  Egypt, 
prov.  Minyeh,  on  the  site  of  the  an.  NervMpoiu 


14 


ACHONRY 


Magna,  lat  27°  43*  N.,  long.  30®  53'  E.  In  the  en- 
virons is  the  pftrtico  of  an  ancient  temple,  covered 
with  hieroglvphics,  and  re^rarded  as  one  of  the  finest 
remains  of  Ivfoi>tian  architecture. 

ACHONRi,  a  parish  of  Ireland,  co.  Sligo,  which 
fp^&i  name  to  a  bishopric,  now  united  to  Killala. 
16  m.  W.  Sliffo,    Top.  of  parish,  14,504  in  18C1. 

ACI-REALE,  a  8ea-|X)rt  town  of  Sicily,  prov. 
Catania,  cap.  cant  at  the  foot  of  Mount  iEtna, 
9  m.  NE.  CaUnia.  Pop.  24,831  in  1862.  The 
town  stands  on  a  vast  mass  of  basaltic  lava,  about 
800  feet  above  its  port,  the  Marina  ofAei^  and  is 
fmpported  on  arches  constructed  with  f^eat  labour 
and  ex]>cnse  through  ten  alternate  strata  of  lava 
and  cartlu  The  situation  is  healthy ;  the  town  is 
r^l^larly  built,  clean,  with  many  churches,  con- 
vents, and  public  buildinf;:s,  the  whole  isd^Wnj^i;  en- 
dence  of  a  tluriviiif^c  ^^nd  industrious  population.  A 
considerable  trade  is  carried  on,  particularly  during 
the  fair  in  July,  in  wine,  fnut,  gold  filigree  work, 
cotton,  flax,  and  diaper,  the  last  l)eing  bleacheil 
in  great  quantities  in  the  plain  below  the  town  on 
the  banks  of  the  Acquc  Grande.  The  port  is  sm^ll ; 
the  mole  is  formed  out  of  a  mass  of  lava,  and 
there  are  some  good  warehouses.  The  town  is 
celebrated  for  its  cold,  sulphurous  mineral  waters, 
the  cave  of  Polyphemus,  and  grotto  of  Galatea. 
There  are  dx  other  places  bearing  the  same  name. 
During  the  8cr\'ile  war  Aci-Reale  was  the  head- 
quarters of  the  consul  Aquilius,  who  succec<Ied  in 
suppressing  that  dangerous  revolt,  anno  101  b.  c. 

ACONCAGUA,  a  province  of  Chili  (which  see). 
This  also  is  the  name  of  the  cap.  of  the  same 
prov.,  a  town  containing  about  5,000  inliab.,  and 
also  of  a  mountain  and  nver,  the  former  one  of  the 
loftiest  of  the  Andes,  being  2K,910  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  river  rises  on  the  S.  fudc  of  the  mountain, 
and  flows  into  the  sea  12  miles  from  Valparaim. 

ACQUAPENDENTE,  a  smaU  town  of  Central 
Italy,  15  m.  W.  (M-iclo.  Pop.  2,005  in  1862. 
It  has  a  cathedral  and  5  churches. 

ACQUA-VIVA,  a  to^-n  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
Ban,  18  m.  S.  Bari.  Pop.  7,843  in  1862.  It  is 
surrounded  by  walls,  has  a  handsome  parish 
church,  some  convents,  2  hospitals,  and  a  mont  de 
jneti, 

ACQUI,  or  AQUI,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy, 
cap.  prov.  same  name  on  the  left  l»ank  of  the  Bor- 
nuda;  47  m.  ESE.  Turin.  Pop.  9,944  in  1862.  It 
has  a  citadel,  a  cathedral,  2  churches,  and  a  semi- 
narv;  and  is  celebrated  for  its  warm  sulphurous 
baths.  The  inhabitants  arc  principally  employed 
in  the  silk  manufacture. 

ACRA,  a  small  dwtrict  on  the  Gold  Coast  of 
Africa,  bek>nging  to  the  Ashantees,  nearly  under 
the  meridian  of  Greenwich.  The  English,  Dutch, 
and  Danes  have  forts  at  Acra. 

ACRE,  AKKA,  or  ST.  JEAN  D'ACRE, a  town 
of  Svria,  cap.  pachalic  of  same  name  on  the  coast 
of  the  Mediterranean,  lat.  32^^  54'  35"  N.,  long. 
86®  6'  6"  E.,  33  m.  SSW.  Tsour  (an.  Tyrta),  and 
85  m.  W.  Lake  Tabaria  or  Genesareth.  It  is 
situated  on  a  promontory,  forming  the  NE.  limit 
of  a  fine  semicircular  bay  (the  Bay  of  Acre)  open- 
ing to  the  N.,  bounded  *NW.  by  Cape  Carmel,  at 
the  extremity  of  the  mountain  of  that  name.  The 
harbour  of  Acre,  on  the  S.  side  of  the  town,  within 
the  bay  is  shallow,  and  accessible  only  to  vessels 
drawing  little  water;  but  opposite  to  Caipha,  a 
amall  town  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Carmel,  on  the 
W.  side  of  the  bay,  there  is  good  anchorage  ground 
hi  deep  water.  Few  towns  are  more  advan- 
tageously situated  as  a  centre  of  conunerce  or  seat 
of  political  power;  but  these  advantages,  by 
making  its  possession  of  importance,  have  ser\'od 
to  expose  it  over  and  over  again  to  hostile  attacks. 
Hie  clhnate  is  unhealthy ;  the  winter  rains,  de- 


ACRE 

scending  in  torrents  from  the  mountains,  fill  the 
adjacent  plain  with  stagnant  lakes,  from  which, 
and  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  remains,  con- 
stant malaria  is  produced,  forming  a  striking  con- 
trast to  the  healthy  atmosphere  of  the  ncighlK>uring 
mountain  land.  Cotton  and  com  are  the  chief 
pn)ducts  of  the  plain  of  Acre,  and  thejte  form  its 
staple  exports. 

Previously  to  1832  the  population  of  Acre  was 
loosely  estimated  at  from  lo,(MK)  to  20.00(1 :  but 
the  siege  of  that  year  haWng  ended  in  its  almost 
total  destruction,  it  is  impossible  to  state  exactly 
the  numl)er  of  its  present  inhabitants,  though  0,000 
is  probably  about  the  mark.  The  same  C4iuse 
operates  to  make  an  accoimt  of  the  ])laoe  his- 
torical, rather  than  descriptive  of  its  existing 
state.  Even  before  the  period  allude<l  to,  a  few 
broken  columns  of  granite,  and  other  dilupidate<l 
and  neglected  relics,  were  the  only  remauns  of 
antiquity;  but  of  the  Gothic  age  there  were,  at 
this  epoi'h,  the  cathedral  churches  of  St.  Andrew 
and  St.  John.  The  mosque  of  Djezzar  Pacha  wa-s 
a  fine  quadrangular  building,  paved  with  white 
marble,  and  surmounteil  by  a  cupola  sup{>orteti  on 
pillars  brought  from  the  ruins  of  CA'sarea.  The 
same  governor  also  constnicted  a  large  fountain,  of 
incalculable  advantage  to  the  town.  The  lutzaan* 
were  numerous  and  go(Kl,  being  arched  over,  and 
well  supplie<l  with  commo<lities.  Houses  built  of 
stone,  and  flat-roofed,  the  terraces  on  their  tops 
forming  agreeable  promenades;  the  more  useful, 
as  the  streets  were  extremely  narn>w.  At  present, 
howe\'er.  Acre  is,  or  at  all  events  within  a  year  or 
two  was,  little  lietter  than  a  mass  of  ruins ;  of  all 
its  buildings,  public  or  ])rivate,  the  fc»ui)tain  of 
Djezzar  was  the  onlv  one  thst  escaped  uninjuretl 
from  the  eflfects  of  the  siege  by  the  Egvptiaiis  in 
1832. 

Although  the  modem  town  lie  of  comparatively 
recent  tlate,  its  site  has  been  wcupierl  by  buildings 
from  the  remotest  antiijuity.  Herest<)o<i  a  Hebrew, 
or  perhaps  a  Phoenician  city,  called  Accho.  Being 
improve<l  and  enlarged  by  the  Greek  sovereigns  of 
Egypt,  they  gave  it  the  name  of  Ptolemais;  and 
it  was  justly  regarded  by  them  ami  their  Koniari 
successors  as  a  port  of  great  importance,  Syria 
was  one  of  the  first  connuev'its  of  the  M<>hanime<laiis 
(see  Arabia),  into  whose  hands  Ptolemais  fell, 
A.D.  636.  It  then  received  the  name  of  Akkn, 
which  continues  to  be  its  Saracenic  appellation. 
In  1104  it  was  captured  by  the  first  cnisaders,  and 
forme<l  for  eighty  vears  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Jemsalem,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  famous 
sultan  Saladin.  About  four  vears  afterwanls 
Richard  Ca*ur  de  Lion  and  Philip  Augustus  ap- 
peared before  its  walls,  and  after  a  siege  of  twenty- 
two  months  it  surrendered  to  their  arms  in  1 IHI. 
It  subsequently  remained  in  the  possession  of  tho 
Cliristians  exactlv  a  century ;  and  under  the  go- 
vernment of  the  Rnights  Hospitallers  of  St  John 
attained  considerable  imfMirtance  and  prosperity. 
It  derived  from  the  magnificent  cathedral  erectixl 
by  these  soldier  monks  to  their  patron  saint  its 
common  western  name  of  St  Jean  dAcre.  In 
1291,  however,  the  knights  were  driven  from  SjTia, 
and  Acre  was  the  spot  on  which  their  last  dcsjHj- 
ratebut  useless  straggle  took  place.  From  1291 
till  1517,  it  formed  part  of  the  Caliphate,  when  it 
passed,  with  the  last  paltry  wrecks  of  that  once 
mighty  power,  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  Neg- 
lected by  the  government,  and  exposed  to  tho 
depredations  of  every  wandering  tribe,  it  con- 
tinued to  decay,  till,  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century,  it  was  seized  by  FakV-el-din,  the  cele- 
brated emir  of  the  Druses,  under  whose  wise  and 
energetic  government  it  1)egan  to  show  symptormi 
of  retummg  prosperity;  but  in  the  latter  part  6f 


AGRI 

Us  life  FakV-el-diii,  apprehending  a  Toriush  in- 
vaftiun,  destroyed  the  harbour,  and  thus  left  the 
place  in  a  worse  condition  than  that  in  which  he 
found  it.  Another  century  of  decay  and  miseiy 
endued,  ti]]«  in  1749,  the  Bedouin  Arab  Daher  ex- 
pelled the  Turkish  aga,  and  made  Acre  the  capital 
of  a  territory  which  for  more  than  20  years  was 
virtually  independent  of  the  Porte.  Daher  par- 
tiaUy  fortified  Acre,  partly  cleared  its  ruins,  and 
settled  colonies  of  Greek  and  Mussulman  farmers, 
baxmased  and  despoiled  in  the  neighbouring  coun- 
tries, in  the  surrounding  plain.  On  Daher's  fiill 
in  1 775,  Acre  reverted  to  the  dominion  of  the 
Turks.  For  once,  however,  the  change  of  masters 
was  not  productive  of  ruin.  Djezzar,  who  was 
immediately  appointed  pacha,  how  inferior  soever 
to  Daher  in  personal  character,  seems  to  have  re- 
sembled him  in  his  political  energy,  promptness, 
and  decision.  He  strengthened  the  fortifications 
and  embellished  the  town.  The  determined  and 
successful  resistance  which  it  made  in  1799  to  the 
arms  of  Napoleon  have  rendered  it  fimious  in 
modem  history.  There  is,  indeed,  good  reason  to 
think  that  the  termination  of  the  siege  had  a 
powerful  infiuence  over  the  future  fortune  of  that 
extraordinary  peraon,  and  consequently  of  the 
wnrid.  (See  Voyage  du  Marshal  Marmont,  iii. 
p.  76.)  Acre  continued  to  prosper  till  1832. 
Though  fettered  by  imposts  and  monopolies,  it 
carried  oo  a  considerable  foreign  trade,  and  had 
resident  consuls  from  most  of  the  great  states  of 
Europe.  During  its  siege  by  Ibr^um  Pacha  in 
1^32,  which  lasted  5  months  and  21  days,  its  pri- 
vate and  public  buildings  were  mostly  destroyed. 
In  1840  It  was  bombarded  by  the  English  and 
Austrian  fleets,  through  whom  it  was  restored  to 
the  sultan.  It  has  not  recovered  its  former  pros- 
perity. (Volney's  and  Robinson's  Travels,  and 
KuMeirs  Palestine.) 

ACKI,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  prov.  Cosenza, 
cap.  cant^  on  the  Muoone,  in  a  healthy  situation ; 
12.  m.  N.  E.  Coeenza.  Pop.  11,736  in  1862.  It 
has  6  parish  churches  and  a  hospitaL  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  very  firuitfuL 

ACTIUM.    See  Art  a,  Gulfh  of. 

ACTON,  a  village  and  parish  of  England,  for- 
meriv  resorted  to  for  its  mineral  waters;  8A  m. 
W.  11^  Paul's,  on  the  North  London  railway.  Pop. 
of  parish  3,151  in  1861.  Acton  has  in  recent 
times  become  a  suburb  of  the  metropolis.    (See 

LOSDOX.) 

ACUL,  an  inconsiderable  sea-port  town  of 
Hayti,  on  its  N.  coast.  Lat  19©  47'  40"  N., 
ko^  720  27'  13"  W.  It  was  called  St  Thomas 
by  Columbus. 

ADALIA,  or  SATALIEH,  a  sea-port  town  of 
Turkey  in  Asia,  Anatolia,  cap.  Sangiack  Tdk^ili, 
oo  the  gulph  of  the  same  name,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Douden-sou,  lat.  860  52^  15"  N.,  long.  30® 
45' 3"  E.  Estimated  pop.  8,000,  two-thirds  Tiuks 
tnd  oDe-third  Greeks.  It  is  finely  situated,  being 
built  amphitheatre- wise  round  a  small  harbour 
on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  the  summit  of  which  is 
iumonnted  by  a  castle.  It  is  enclosed  by  a  ditch, 
a  donUe  wall,  and  a  series  of  square  towers  about 
50  yards  apart.  Streets  narrow,  and  houses  mostly 
of  wood.  It  is  the  residence  of  a  pacha  and  of  a 
Grfeek  archbishop;  and  has  numerous  mosques, 
dinrrhes,  baths,  caravansaries,  &c  The  sur- 
nwnding  country  is  beautiful,  and  the  soil  deep 
aadfertue. 

Adalia  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  an- 
cient Olbia;  and  the  fragments  of  columns  and 
other  remains  of  antiquity  found  within  its  walls, 
tttest  its  fbnner  flouruhing  state. 

ADAirS  PEAK,  the  blgfaest  mountain  in  the 
idnd  of  C>ylon,  altitude  7,420  feet ;  45  m.  ESE. 


ADELAIDE 


15 


Columbo.  It  has  a  sugar-loaf  shape;  and  its 
summit,  supposed  to  be  the  point  where  Buddha 
ascended  to  heaven,  is  esteemed  sacred,  and  is 
resorted  to  by  pilgrims. 

AD  ANA,  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  the  capital  of  a 
district  or  government  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Sihon  (Sams),  about  25  m.  above  where  it  falls 
into  the  sea,  kt  36©  69*  N.,  Ibng.  350  16'  E. 
Estim.  pop.  20,000.  It  is  veir  ancient,  stands  on 
a  declivity,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  groves  of 
finit  trees  and  vineyards ;  is  large,  well-built ;  has 
a  castle ;  a  bridge  over  the  river,  said  to  have  been 
built  by  Justinian;  and  a  noble  portico  in  the 
middle  of  the  bazaar.  It  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade  in  wine,  fiiiits,  and  com.  In  summer  it  is 
rather  unhealthy,  and  the  majoritv  of  the  inhi^ 
bitants  retire  to  the  country.  ()^inneir*s  Asia 
Minor,  &c  p.  131.) 

AD  ARE,  an  ancient  town  of  Ireland,  co.  Lim- 
erick, with  some  fine  ruins,  now  much  decayed, 
situated  on  the  Maig,  over  which  it  has  a  bndge 
of9arehe8;  130  m.  SW.  Dublin.  Pop.  816.  Ditto 
ofparish  2,944  m  1861. 

ADDA,  a  celebrated  river  of  Italy,  formed  by 
the  junction  of  several  rivulets  near  Bormio,  in  the 
Valteline.  Having  traversed  that  province,  it 
passes  Sondrio,  enters  the  lake  of  O)mo  near  its 
northon,  and  issues  from  its  southern  extremity, 
and  passing  Lodi  and  Pizzighettone,  falls  into  the 
Po  6  m.  W.  Cremona. 

ADELA.IDE,  a  city  of  South  Australia,  cap.  of 
the  British  colony  of  that  name,  about  7  m.  SE« 
from  its  port,  an  inlet  on  the  E.  side  of  St  Vin- 
cent's Gulph.  Lat.  340  57'  S.,  long.  1380  38'  E. 
Pop.  7,143  in  1846,  and  18,303  in  1861.  The  mu- 
nic.  boundaiy  comprises  rather  more  than  1,000 
acres.  It  is  divided  into  N.  and  S.  Adelaide  by 
the  river  Torrens,  here  crossed  by  several  bridges. 
Both  portions  of  the  town  stand  on  gentle  eleva- 
tions, and  are  regularly  laid  out :  the  streets,  which 
vary  from  70  to  130  ft.  in  width,  mostly  cross  or 
meet  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  there  are  se- 
veral good  squares.  The  S.  is  a  good  deal  larger 
than  me  N.  division  of  the  dty ;  it  includes  the 
government  house,  hospital,  &c,  with  some  hand- 
some terraces  and  villas,  having  from  ^  to  ^  acre 
of  shrubbery  and  garden  ground  attached.  Along 
King  William  Street,  the  central  thoroughfare,  are 
many  large  buildings,  including  the  government 
ofllces  and  commissariat  stores,  with  many  good 

{>rivate  houses  and  shops  of  all  descriptions.  Hind- 
ey  Street  is  the  principal  place  of  business,  and 
here  is  to  be  observed  all  the  bustle  of  a  flourishing 
town.  It  is  lined  on  both  sides  with  good  stone, 
brick,  or  wooden  houses,  some  of  which  are  of  su- 
perior build,  and  do  credit  to  Australian  street 
architecture.  Many  of  the  stores  or  merchants' 
warehouses  are  massive  brick  or  stone  buildings. 
The  government  house,  near  the  river,  is  a  fine 
house,  surrounded  by  about  10  acres  laid  out  in 
ornamental  gardens.  A  botanic  garden  was  es- 
tablished in  1855,  and  in  1858  a  special  grant  of 
1000/!.  was  allowed  for  a  conservatory,  filled  with 
palms  and  other  tropical  produce.  Among  the 
other  principal  edifices  are  Trinity  and  St.  John's 
churches,  the  legislative  council  house,  court  house, 
the  office  of  the  S.  Australian  bank,  an  auction 
mart,  the  offices  of  the  S.  Australian  Company, 
and  a  large  prison,  built  at  a  cost  of  34,000/.  In 
the  centre  of  Light  Square  is  a  handsome  Gothic 
cross,  45  feet  high,  erected  to  the  memory  of  CJolo- 
nel  Light,  the  founder  of  the  dty.  Adelaide  has 
chapels  for  Presbyterians,  Roman  Catholics,  Bap- 
tists, Independents,  Methodists,  Crerman  Luthe- 
rans, and  others,  a  Friends'  meeting  house,  a  Jews' 
sjmagogue,  numerous  schools,  the  S.  Australian 
bank,  and  a  branch  of  the  Australasian  do.,  S. 


16 


ADELSBERG 


Australian  Assurance  Company,  a  philanthropic 
institution,  and  a  mechanics'  institute.  Several 
newspapers  are  published  in  the  city.  It  manu- 
factures 'woollen  goods,  starch,  soap,  snuff,  and 
machinerv,  and  it  has  a  variety  of  steam  and 
other  mills,  with  breweries,  tanneries,  and  malt 
houses.  Its  trade  in  ores  and  wool  is  alreadv  very 
cxtensi\'e,  and  it  will  necessarily  increase  with  the 
increase  of  the  trade  of  the  colony,  of  which  it  is 
the  grand  emporium.  Adelaide  exported  5,699,200 
lbs.  of  wool  in  1860 ;  6,662,020  lbs.  in  1861 ;  and 
7,162,032  lbs.  in  1862.  Around  the  cit3r  on  the  £. 
and  S.  is  a  semicircle  of  hills,  some  rising  to  up- 
wards of  2,000  fL  above  the  sea;  and  within  a  few 
miles  are  some  of  the  principal  copper  and  lead 
mines,  to  which,  especially  the  former,  the  colony 
owes  great  part  of  its  prosperity. 

The  river  Torrens,  on  which  Adelaide  is  built, 
loses  itself  in  a  marsh  before  reaching  the  sea,  so 
that  the  city  is  from  6  to  7  m.  distant  from  its 
port,  an  inlet  of  St.  Vincent's  Gulph.  In  the 
rainy  season  the  Torrens  is  much  flooded,  though 
it  seldom  overflows  its  banks,  which  are  steep  and 
lofby ;  but  in  the  dry  season  it  has  no  current,  its 
bed  being  then  formed  into  a  series  of  pools  or 
tanks. 

Port  Adelaide,  7  m.  NW.  from  the  city,  in  a 
low  and  maishy  situation,  consists  of  a  number  of 
dwelling-houses  and  warehouses,  many  of  which 
are  of  stone,  with  wharves,  partly  belonging  to 
government,  and  partly  to  the  South  Australian 
Company.  The  inlet  of  the  sea  forming  the  har- 
bour, opposite  the  entrance  to  which  a  light  ves- 
sel is  moored,  stretches  from  the  gulph,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  a  narrow  neck  of  land,  for  about 
S  m.  southward,  surrounding  Torrens  Island.  There 
entered  at  Port  Adelaide,  in  the  year  1862,  a  total 
of  293  vessels,  with  a  tonnage  of  92,120.  Of  these, 
273  vessels,  of  86,230  tons,  were  with  cargoes,  and 
20  vessels,  of  5,890  tons,  in  ballast.  The  clearances, 
in  the  same  year,  amounted  to  282  vessels,  of  a 
total  burthen  of  92,502  tons.  Port  Adelaide  has 
a  custom  house ;  but  vessels  are  exempted  firom  all 
port  charges  in  this  and  in  the  other  parts  of  the 
colony.  A  railway  unites  the  city  with  the  port. 
(For  further  information  in  regard  to  the  trade  of 
this  dty  and  of  the  colony  generally,  see  Austra- 
lia, South.) 

Adelaide  was  founded  in  1834.  In  1842  it  was 
incorporated  by  an  act  of  the  colonial  legislature 
as  a  city  under  a  mayor,  aldermen,  and  common 
council.  (Wilkinson,  Dutton,  Bennett,  S.  Aus- 
tralia ;  Statistical  Tables  relating  to  the  Colonial 
Possessions,  1864.) 

ADELSBERG,  a  village  and  cavern  in  lUyria, 
about  half  way  between  Laybach  and  Trieste.  The 
cavern  is  decidedly  the  most  magnificent  and  ex- 
tensive hitherto  discovered  in  Europe.  It  has  been 
explored  to  a  distance  of  between  1  and  2  miles 
(1810  fathoms)  from  the  entrance,  and  is  termi- 
nated by  a  lake.  It  is  believed,  however,  that 
this  is  not  the  end  of  these  vast  hollows,  and  that, 
were  it  carefully  examined,  its  extent  would  be 
found  to  be  much  greater.  The  cavern  is  placed 
under  the  care  of  an  officer  in  the  adjoining  village, 
who  appoints  guides  to  conduct  strangers  through 
it.  It  is  ca<)ily  accessible,  and  may  be  \isited  with- 
out any  risk.  The  entrance  is  situated  about  a 
mile  from  the  village,  in  the  face  of  a  chff,  below 
a  ruined  castle.  At  this  point  the  river  Poik,  after 
winding  through  the  plain,  disappears  beneath  the 
mountain,  sinking  into  the  rock  below  a  natural 
penthouse  formed  by  the  8loi)e  of  the  limestone 
strata.  The  entrance  for  visitors  is  a  small  hole 
above  this,  closed  by  a  door.  At  a  distance  of  180 
yards  from  the  mouth,  a  noise  of  rushing  waters  is 
heard,  and  the  Poik  may  be  seen,  by  the  light  of 


ADEN 

the  taper,  struggling  along  at  a  considerable  depUi 
below ;  and  on  a  sudden  a  vast  liall  100  feet  high, 
and  more  than  300  long,  called  the  Dome,  is  en- 
tered. The  river,  ha\'lng  dived  under  the  wall  of 
rock  on  the  outside,  here  re-appears  for  a  short 
space,  and  is  tiien  lost  in  the  bowels  of  the  moun- 
tain. It  is  believed  to  be  identical  with  the  Unz, 
which  bursts  forth  at  Planina ;  planks  of  wood, 
thrown  into  the  stream  of  the  cavern,  appear  there, 
it  is  said,  after  ten  or  twelve  hours. 

The  Dome  was  the  only  part  of  the  cavern 
kno¥m  down  to  1819,  when  a  labourer,  working  in 
the  cave,  accidentally  broke  through  a  screen  of  sta- 
lactite, and  discovered  that  this  was,  to  use  the  words 
of  Russel,  *  but  the  vestibule  of  the  most  magnificent 
of  all  the  temples  which  nature  has  built  for  her- 
self in  the  region  of  the  night'  Kude  steps,  cut 
in  the  rock,  lead  do¥m  the  sloping  sides  of  this 
chunbor  to  the  level  of  the  river,  which  is  crossed 
by  a  wooden  bridge;  and  the  opposite  wall  is 
scaled  by  means  of  a  similar  flight  of  steps.  Here 
the  visitor  enters  the  newly-discovered  part  of  tho 
cavern,  consisting  of  a  range  of  chambers  varying 
iu  size,  but  by  far  the  most  interesting,  from  the 
variety,  beautiful  purity,  and  quantity  of  their 
stalactites.  Sometimes  uniting  with  the  stalag- 
mite below,  they  form  a  pillar  worthy  to  support 
a  cathedral;  at  others  a  crop  of  minute  spiculss 
rises  from  the  floor ;  now  a  cluster  of  slender  co- 
lumns reminds  one  of  the  tracery  of  a  Gothic 
chapel,  or  of  the  twinings  or  interlacings  of  the 
ascending  and  descending  branches  of  the  banyan 
tree.  The  fantastic  shapes  of  some  masses  have 
given  rise  to  various  names,  applied  by  the  guides, 
acconling  to  tlie  likeness,  which  they  imagine  they 
can  trace  in  them,  to  real  objects;  such  as  the 
throne,  the  pulpit,  the  butcher's  shop,  the  two 
hearts,  the  bell,  which  resounds  almost  like  metal, 
and  the  curtain  (Yorhang),  a  ver>'  singular  mass 
about  an  inch  thick,  spreading  out  to  an  extent  of 
several  square  yards,  perfectly  resembling  a  piece 
of  drapery,  and  beautifully  transparent  The  sta- 
lacticiu  matter  pervades  almost  every  part  of  the 
cavern ;  it  paves  the  floor,  hangs  in  pendants  from 
the  roof,  coats  and  plasters  the  wail,  cements  to- 
gether fallen  masses  of  rock,  forms  screens,  parti- 
tions, and  pillars.  The  only  sound  in  the  remote 
chambers  is  produced  by  the  fall  of  the  drops  of 
water  charged  with  lime,  which  ore  found,  on  exa- 
mination, to  tip  each  pendant  mass,  forming  an 
ascendant  spire,  or  stalagmite,  on  the  spot  where 
it  descends.  One  of  the  long  suite  of  chambers, 
larger  and  loftier  than  the  rest,  and  with  a  mora 
even  floor,  is  converted  once  a  year  (in  May)  into  a 
ball-room.  On  that  occasion  the  peasant  hids  and 
lasses  assemble  fVom  miles  around,  and  the  gloomy 
vaults  re-echo  with  sounds  of  mirth  and  music. 

ADEN,  a  small  state  of  S.  Arabia  in  Yemen, 
lying  between  12<'  32'  and  13®  3'  N.  Lit,  and  bo- 
tween  43^  30'  and  4!P  30'  E.  long.  It  extentis 
from  E.  to  W.  almut  115  m.,  its  greatest  width 
being  about  30.  The  mountains  in  this  part  of 
Arabia  are  close  upon  the  sea,  and,  for  an  Arabic 
district,  it  is  well  supplied  with  water ;  and  from 
b<»th  these  causes  the  heat  of  the  climate  is  con- 
siderably mitigatorl,  and  vegetation  flourishes  upon 
a  more  extensive  scale  than  in  most  other  partes  of 
the  peninsula.  It  has  a  considerable  forest  The 
cidtivated  ports  produce  wheat,  dhourah,  and  cot>- 
ton;  the  woods  consist  of  mangoes,  s>'camores, 
and  pomegranates,  and  the  surface  of  the  whole 
country  is  interspersed  vnth  date  trees.  WclLstixl 
(Travels,  iu  409.)  states  that  in  purity  of  atm<>- 
sphcre,  richness  of  soil  and  venhupe,  nature  of  vege- 
tation, and  proximity  of  production  and  desolation, 
this  country  resembles  Egypt  Tho  barren  ports 
ore  represented  aspecuUarly  so;  but  they  occur  in 


ADEN 

enmnumtively  anAll  patches,  and  in  the  mi^  of 
feitilitT.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  a^coltu- 
Tvts :  bat  sach  is  the  miserable  state  of  the  coun- 
try, that  the  husbandman  never  goes  to  his  labour 
without  being  armed,  and  remrts  to  the  towns  for 
necuritY  daring  the  night  The  town  inhabitants 
of  the  interior  carry  on  an  extensive  trade  with 
the  Bedoainsy  who  bring  to  market  their  ghee 
(butter),  frankincense,  and  milk,  receiving  in  re- 
turn grain  and  cloth.  Manufactures  limited  to  a 
fine  eoiped  cloth  or  silk,  osed  for  the  dresses  of  the 
sapcrior  classes,  the  weaving  of  which  occupies 
about  30  looms  in  the  town  of  Lahedftjee. 

XoESt,  a  sea-port  town  of  Arabia,  cap.  of  the 
abov€  state,  now  in  the  possession  of  Great  Britain, 
on  the  Indian  Ocean,  118  m.  £.  from  the  straits  of 
Babehnandeb,  hit  129  46'  IS''  N.,  long.  45^  10'  20" 
£.  It  stands  on  the  K  side  of  a  promontory,  pro- 
jecting S.  into  the  ocean,  called  the  Peninsula  of 
Aden.  This  peninsala,  which  terminates  in  a  lofty 
moontain,  bearing  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
nick  of  Gibraltar,  is  connected  with  the  main  land 
by  a  low  isthmus  about  400  yaids  in  breadth.  Gn 
the  X.  and  W.  the  town  is  overhung  by  steep  and 
craggy  rocks,  on  which  are  the  remains  of  old  for- 
tificatimis.  The  £.  or  outward  harbour  of  Aden, 
formerly  (and  apparently  at  a  recent  period)  large 
and  commodious,  is  now  partly  filled  up  with  sand. 
Bot  the  harbour  on  the  \V.  side  of  the  town,  be- 
tween the  jHomontory  on.  which  it  stands  and 
another  parallel  thereto,  is  a  magnificent  basin, 
capable  of  accommodating  the  largest  fleets.  It 
haA  a  contracted  entrance,  which  might  easily  be 
fortified,  so  as  to  make  it  inaccessible  to  a  hostile 
squadron.  From  this  harixmr  the  approach  to  the 
town  is  over  a  low  ridge  of  the  mountain,  the  road 
being  in  parts  cut  through  the  solid  rock. 

The  site  of  this  town,  the  best  adapted  for  trade 
on  the  whole  coast  of  Arabia,  and  the  key  of  the 
Ked  Sfea,  has  always  made  it  a  point  of  primary 
importance  in  the  direct  trade  between  Europe  and 
the  East  It  became  at  a  very  early  period  a  cele- 
Icated  emporium  (the  Atabict  en^xnium  of  Ptole- 
my). After  the  Romans  obtained  possession  of 
Kgypt,  and  Hippalns  (a.  d.  50)  had  discovered  the 
direct  route  to  India,  they  destroyed  Aden  lest  it 
sboald  fall  into  hostile  luuids,  and  interfere  with 
their  nnmopoly  of  this  lucrative  traffic.  (\'^incent's 
CVunmerce,  Hcc.,  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  iL  827,  528.) 
It  is  not  known  whoi  (mt  by  whom  it  was  rebuilt ; 
bat  from  the  11th  till  the  16th  century  it  was  the 
great,  or  rather  the  exclusive,  entrepot  of  Eastern 
commerce.  The  discovery  of  the  passage  by  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  the  first  great  blow  to  its 
importance.  Simultaneously  with  the  appearance 
«f  the  Portuguese  in  India,  the  Turks,  under  Soly- 
man  the  Magnificent,  took  possession  of  various 
Arabic  ports,  Aden  among  the  number.  They 
erected  the  fortifications,  the  ruins  of  which  excite 
the  admiration  of  every  traveller,  and  which  re- 
peUsd  the  attacks  of  the  famous  Portuguese  gene- 
ral Alboquerqoe.  From  this  date,  however,  Aden 
rapidly  decliiied;  nor  did  the  expulsion  of  the 
TurkA,  which  lock  place  about  the  middle  of  last 
cpntmy,  retard  its  downfalL  Its  ruin  was  more 
oimplete  than  could  luive  been  anticipated ;  for 
it!*  convenient  haorbours  and  plentiful  supply  of 
water  make  it,  apart  firom  other  considerations,  a 
urjrt  desirable  port 

Hlftcn  first  occupied  by  the  British,  Aden  had  not 
RKice  than  100  houses,  with  a  parcel  of  wretched 
hots,  and  from  3,000  to  4,000  inhabs.  It  had 
indeed  the  ruins  of  several  cisterns  and  reservoirs 
cut  in  the  solid  rock,  and  of  aqueducts  for  convey- 
ing water  from  the  mountains  c^  the  interior,  which 
felly  testified  ita  former  greatness.  But  within  the 
faat  twenty  yean  a  vast  change  has  taken  place, 

Vou  L 


ADOUR 


17 


and  tho  ancient  prosperity  of  Aden  bids  fair  to  be 
again  restored.  Hotels  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  passengers  by  the  steamers  have  been  erected; 
and  the  population  of  the  vicinity,  attracted  by 
the  security  afibrded  by  the  English  flag,  have 
flocked  to  the  place,  which  has  now  an  estimated 
pop.  of  50,000.  Defensive  works  have  recently 
been  constructed,  which  are  considered  to  render 
it  impregnable,  and  make  it  the  Gibraltar  of  the 
Red  Sea.  Its  great  deficiency  was  formerly  the 
supply  of  water,  though  tlie  supply  was  abmidant 
as  compared  with  many  other  Asiatic  towns.  The 
sources  of  supply  are— the  adjacent  plain,  from 
which  brackish  water  is  drawn,  and  a  condensing 
apparatus  used  by  the  residents.  It  rains  only 
once  in  three  years,  when  the  rain  descends  in 
torrents  for  about  a  fortnight  in  September.  To 
husband  the  rain-water  the  British  have  lately 
constructed  a  system  of  reservoirs  in  a  rocky  ra- 
vine^ at  a  cost  of  l,000,000i,  in  order  to  supply 
the  inhabitants  in  dry  weather. 

While  its  commanding  position,  excellent  port, 
and  abundant  supply  of  water,  make  Aden  an 
important  station  in  the  route  from  India  to 
Europe  bv  the  Red  Sea,  it  is  no  less  favourably 
situated  for  becoming  an  erUrepSt  for  the  con- 
tiguous countries  of  Arabia  and  Africa.  It  owed 
its  former  consequence  mainly  to  its  natural  ad- 
vantages, and  these  it  still  retains.  It  is  be- 
coming more  and  more  an  important  emporium, 
and  bids  fair  to  be  of  the  greatest  utility  to  the 
surrounding  continents.  The  climate  though  hot 
is  not  unhealthy. 

(Niebuhr,  Dcscr.  del'  Ar.  par.  ii,  pp.  221,  222: 
Forster's  Historical  Geogranny  of  Arabia,  iL  104 
and  156;  and  recent  and  omcial  documents.) 

ADJYGHUR,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  jirov.  Alla- 
habad, hit  240  50'  N.,  long.  80°  3'  E.  It  has  a 
fortress  at  the  top  of  a  steep  hill  that  was  token 
by  the  British  in  1809,  after  a  stout  resistance. 
Estimated  pop.  45,000. 

ADIGE,  a  large  river  of  Italv,  the  AtesiuM  or 
Athesis  of  the  ancients.  It  is  formed  by  several 
rivulets  which  have  their  sources  in  the  Rhetian 
Alps,  and  unite  near  Glums;  thence  it  flows  £. 
till  near  Bolsano  it  is  joined  by  its  important  tri- 
butaiy,  tho  Eisack.  It  then  takes  a  southerly 
course  past  Trent,  where  it  becomes  naWgable, 
RovercMlo,  and  Pontone.  It  then  changes  its  course 
to  the  E.,  and  passing  Verona,  L^nano,  and 
Aquileia,  falls  into  the  Adriatic,  20  m.  S.  Venice. 
It  is  deep,  rapid  {Velox  Athests,  Claud.),  and  is 
usually  navigated  with  difficulty.  In  faring,  on 
the  melting  of  the  snow  in  the  mountains,  it  is 
liable  to  sudden  floods,  to  prevent  the  injurious 
influence  of  which  in  the  Polesino  of  Rovigo  and 
other  low  grounds,  it  is  fenced  by  strong  banks, 
while  a  part  of  the  surplus  water  is  carried  ofi*  by 
canals.  Exclusive  of^  the  Eisack,  its  principal 
affluents  are  the  Nocc,  Aviso,  and  Agno. 

ADMIRALTY  ISLAND,  an  island  on  the  W. 
coast  of  America,  between  George  the  Tliird's 
Archipelago  and  the  continent,  about  90  m.  long 
and  25  broad.    Lat  57©  2*  to  5«o  24'  N.,  long. 

1340  W. 

ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS,  a  duster  of  20  or  30 
islands  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  of  which  the 
largest,  called  Great  Admiralty  Island,  is  from  55 
to  60  m.  in  length:  in  about  20  10'  S.  lat,  and 
from  1260  to  1280  E.  long.  They  were  discovered 
by  the  Hollanders  in  1616,  and  arc  inhabited. 

ADOUR,  a  considerable  ri\'er  in  the  SVV.  of 
France.  It  has  its  source  in  the  P>Tencets  6  ni. 
E.  Bareges,  whence  it  flows  N.  by  Bagnbres  and 
Tarbes  to  Oise ;  hero  it  takes  an  easterly  oourne, 
and  passing  St  Sever,  Dax,  and  Bayonne,  falls 
into  the  sea  a  little  below  the  latter.  *It  is  navi- 


18 


ADOWA 


gable  to  St  Sever.    The  Oleron  and  the  Pau  are 
the  most  considerable  of  its  affluents. 

ADOWA,  the  capital  of  Tigr^,  in  Abyssinia, 
partly  on  the  side  and  partly  at  the  foot  of  a  hill, 
commanding  a  magnificent  view  of  the  mountains 
of  TigrtTLat.  14©  12^  30"  N.,  long.  39°  5'  E. 
The  houses  are  all  of  a  conical  form,  pretty  regu- 
larlv  disposed  into  streets  or  alleys,  mterepersed 
with  trees  and  small  gardens.  Pop.  probably  8,000. 
It  has  manufactures  of  cotton  cloths,  and  an  ex- 
tensive trade  in  cattle,  com,  salt,  and  slaves. 

ADKA,  a  sea-port  town  of  Spain,  cap.  district 
same  name,  prov.  Granada  on  the  Mediterranean, 
45  m.  SR.  Granada.  It  is  situated  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Adra.  In  its  vicinity  are  some  of  the  rich- 
est lead  mines  in  the  world,  the  produce  of  which 
constitutes  the  principal  article  of  export  from 
the  town. 

ADRAMIT,  a  village  of  Armenia  in  Russia, 
situated  on  the  shore  o?  Lake  Van.  It  is  a  place 
of  some  beauty  as  to  situation,  being  nestled  in 
among  crags  and  rocks,  at  the  foot  of  which, 
wherever  space  is  available,  fruit  trees  and  small 
gardens  are  planted.  The  huts,  of  the  same  mise- 
nble  description  as  other  Armenian  villages,  are 
built  of  rough  stones,  put  together  with  mud,  and 
erected  close  up  to  the  side  of  a  hill,  into  which 
part  of  the  dwelling  is  excavated.  The  fiat  sum- 
mit of  the  rocky  hill  on  the  slope  of  which  the 
village  stands  is  surrounded  by  an  ancient  wall, 
bmlt  of  huge  stones  laid  one  upon  another,  with- 
out mortar  or  cement  of  any  kind,  and  resembling 
Cyclopean  remains.     (Ussher's  Travels,  p.  324.) 

ADRAMYT,  a  town  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  Ana^ 
tolia,  about  4  m.  from  the  E.  extremity  of  the 
gulph  of  the  same  name,  78  m.  X.  Smvma,  lat. 
880  29'  N.,  lon^.  2(P  57'  15"  E.  Pop.  5,000  (?). 
Streets  narrow,  ill-paved,  and  filthv;  nouses,  with 
few  exceptions,  mean,  and  miserably  built.  The 
olives  produced  in  the  adjoining  territory,  with 
large  quantities  of  wool  from  the  interior,  are  prin- 
cipally ship|)od  for  Constantinople;  little  except 
galls  lieuig  shipped  for  other  p»arts  of  Eiuxmc. 

ADRI A  (an.  Atria  or  Hatria)^  a  town  or  North- 
ern Italv,  deleg.  (formerly  the  Polesino  of)  liovigo 
on  the  6astagnano,  l)etwccn  the  Po  and  the  Adige, 
12  m.  E.  Rovigo.  Lat  45©  2'  57"  N.,  long.  12^  3' 
6b"  E.  Pop.  12,803  in  1858.  Adria  is  a  very 
ancient  city,  being  supposed  to  be  of  Greek  origin, 
and  having  afterwards  I'omied  part  of  the  domhiious 
of  the  Etruscans.  It  was  originally  a  Hca-)Mirt  of 
such  magnitude  and  im]M>rtance  as  to  l)e  able  to 
jpve  its  own  name  to  the  great  arm  of  the  MctUter- 
rancan  on  which  it  stood;  but  owing  to  the  gra- 
dual extension  of  the  land,  in  consequence  of  the 
mud  and  other  deposits  brought  doMmny  the  rivers, 
the  port  of  Adria  has  been  long  since  filled  iq),  and 
it  is  now  an  inland  town  18  or  19  m.  from  the  sea. 
When  Strabo  wrote,  it  had  become  a  comparatively 
unimportant  place,  and  it  subsequentlv  suffered 
much  from  inundations  and  war,  particularly  from 
the  attacks  of  the  barbarians.  During  the  twelfth 
century  it  b^an  to  revive.  Its  climate,  which 
had  become  very  unhealthy,  and  its  environs,  have 
both  been  materially  improved  by  the  drainage 
effecte<l  by  caning  the  canal  of  Portovico.  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  has  a  fine  collection  of 
Etruscan  and  Roman  antiquities  found  in  the 
vicinage,  with  manufactures  of  silk  and  leather. 
The  surrounding  country  is  productive  of  com, 
wine,  and  cheese.  (Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  L 
p.  116,  Halbi  Abn^  cd.  1837.) 

ADRIANOPLE  (called  Edreneh  by  the  Turks), 
a  celebrated  city  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  prov.  Rou- 
melia,  on  the  Maritza  (an.  Hebnis),  where  it  is 
Joined  bv  the  Toonga  and  the  Arda,  134  m.  NW. 
Constantinople,  lat  4lo  48'  N.,  long.  26^  29'  15" 


ADRIANOPLE 

E.  Adrianople  has,  according  to  Mr.  "Vlcc-CJonsul 
Blunt  (Report  1864),  18,000  houses  and  a  pup.  of 
90,000  souls,  of  whom  28,000  are  Mohammcdann, 
56,000  Christians,  and  6,000  Jews.  It  contains  60 
mosques,  14  churches,  and  13  synagogues;  1  mili- 
tary school,  ami  37  other  schools,  with  2,730 
pupils;  2  hospitals  and  1  madhouse.  It  is  beauti- 
fullv  situated  in  one  of  the  richest  and  finest 
plains  in  the  world,  on  the  sides  and  base  of  a  low 
nill,  and  when  viewed  from  a  distance  has  a  mag- 
nificent appearance;  but  as  is  the  case  in  mo»t 
Turkish  towns,  the  illusion  vanishes  on  entering. 
The  streets  are  narrow,  crooked,  and  filthy;  and  in 
certain  periods  of  the  year  it  is  unhealthy.  Some 
of  the  nouses  are  three  stories  high,  and  their 
shelving  roofs  project  so  much  as  to  meet  those  on 
the  opposite  side.  In  the  centre  of  the  town  an 
old  wail,  supported  by  massive  towers,  the  work 
of  the  sovereigns  of  the  Lower  Empire,  encloses  a 
space  occupie<i  by  the  rayah  population.  Origin- 
ally it  may  have  been  the  citadel ;  but  it  is  now 
useless  as  a  defence.  Among  the  public  buildings 
the  most  distinguished  are  the  ancient  palace  of 
the  sultans,  in  a  state  of  decay;  the  famous  bazaar 
of  Ali  Pasha,  appropriated  to  the  warehousing 
and  sale  of  various  descriptions  of  commodities; 
and  the  numerous  raosquei.  Of  the  latter,  the 
one  erected  by  Selim  II.  is  the  most  splendid; 
and  ranks,  indeed,  among  the  finest  Mohammedan 
temples.  There  are  8,000  8ho])s  and  several  large 
stone  bazaars  and  haus.  The  largest  bazaar  is  that 
of  *  Ali  Pasha : '  it  is  some  350  paces  long,  nvith  rows 
of  shops  on  each  side  occupied  by  retail  dealers  in 
foreign  and  native  manufactures.  Tliere  are  also 
numerous  baths  and  fountains  supplied  by  water 
conveyed  into  the  city  by  an  aqueduct  A  nie- 
drassch,  or  superior  school,  is  attached  to  the 
mosque  of  Sultan  Selim,  and  there  are  a  number 
of  other  schools.  The  Maritza  is  na%'igable  up  to 
the  city  <luring  winter  and  spring:  but  in  summer 
the  sea  craft  only  ascend  as  high  as  Deinotica. 
PjUos,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Maritza.  is  properly  the 
sea-port  of  Adrianople.  It  formerly  admittiHl 
large  vessels;  but  owing  to  the  carelessness  of  the 
Turks,  who  have  allowed  a  sand-bank  to  acrcumu- 
late,  it  is  now  accessible  only  to  vessels  <jf  ct»m- 
paralivcly  small  burden.  With  the  exception  of 
tanning,  which  is  rather  extensively  carried  on, 
manufactures  are,  inconsiderable.  It  liaa,  however, 
a  pretty  extensive  commerce.  The  exi»orts  con- 
sist principally  of  the  raw  pnulucts  of  the  adja<.*ent 
country',  comprising  excellent  wm)l,  c<»tton.  silk, 
tolMicco,  g*K)d  wine,  otto  of  roses,  fruits,  lierrics  lor 
dyeing,  &c.  The  imports  consist  princiimlly  of 
manufactured  gootls;  as  cottons  and  hanlware  from 
EngloiKl,  woollen  stuffs  from  Genuany,  &c  The 
trade  is  principally  carrietl  on  by  Greek  mercJiants. 
The  corporations  of  saddlers  and  shoemakers  em- 
ploy a  great  number  of  workmen,  and  annually 
disp(M»e  of  large  quantities  of  TurkUh  saddles  and 
shoes  at  fairs  held  in  Tlirace  and  Bulgaria.  The 
town  is  the  scat  of  a  Greek  archbishop. 

In  early  times  Adrianople  was  the  capital  of  the 
Bessi,  a  people  of  Thrace,  and  was  then  calle<l 
Uskadama.  It  derives  its  present  name  fn)m  the 
emperor  Adrian,  bv  whom  it  was  imprr»ved  and 
embellished.  TheYurks  took  it  in  1300;  and  it 
continued  to  be  the  seat  of  their  government  fn)m 
130()  till  the  taking  of  Constantinople  in  H-'i-J. 
It  was  occupie<l  by  the  Russians  in  1829;  but  was 
evacuated  on  a  treaty  being  concluded  between 
them  and  the  Turks  in  September  that  year. 
(Keppel's  Joumev  across  the  Balkhan,  L  pp.  250 — 
bGii;  Walsh's  Jouniey  fn»m  Constantinople  to 
England,  p.  114;  Kei>ort  by  Mr.  Vire-Consui 
Blunt  Commercial  Reports,  July  to  December, 
1864,  pp.  165-7.) 


ADRIATIC  SEA 

ADRIATIC  SEA,  or  GULPH  OF  VENICE 
(3fare  Adriatiaam  or  Smperum),  is  that  great  arm 
of  the  Mediternmean  eztendmg  SE.  and  NW. 
between  the  coasts  of  Italy  on  the  W.  and  those  of 
lUvria  and  Albania  on  the  £.,  from  about  40^  to 
45^  55'  N.  lat.  Its  southern  extremities  are  the 
Capo  di  LeaoL,  or  St.  Manr's,  in  Naples,  and  the 
tale  of  Fano  to  the  N.  of  (joifu;  and  its  northern 
extronity  the  bottom  of  the  gulph  of  Trieste.  Its 
f^refttest  length  ftom  Cape  Leuca  to  Trieste  is  450 
m.;  mean  breadth  90  m.  It  derived  its  ancient 
name  from  the  once  flourishing  sea-port  town  of 
Adria  (which  see),  now  18  m.  £rom  the  shore,  and 
its  modem  name  from  Yenioe.  Its  W.  or  Italian 
shore  is  deiident  in  haiboun,  is  generally  low,  and 
fhim  the  entnmce  to  Rimini  has  deep  water;  but 
from  the  latter  northwards  it  has  been  partially 
filled  op  by  the  deposits  brought  down  by  the  Po 
and  the  Adige,  and  is  ed^i^  by  lagoons,  marshes, 
and  shoals.  On  the  £.  side  its  coasts  are  ^^erally 
high,  steep,  and  rocky,  and  are  broken  mto  deep 
bays  and  gnlphs  formed  by  the  numerous  islands 
by  which  it  is  fenced.  With  the  exception  of 
thoee  already  mentioned,  it  receives  no  river  of 
any  oonsidenble  magnitode;  and  the  saltness  of 
its'waten  is  said  to  exceed  that  of  the  ocean. 
The  ebb  and  flow  are  considerable  at  Venice  and 
other  places.  The  5orti  or  NE.  wind  is  the  most 
lunniuble  obstacle  to  its  safe  navigation.  It 
omnes  on  in  sodden  and  impetuous  squalls,  which 
geneially  continue  for  three  days,  and  in  an 
advanced  season  from  9  to  15  or  more.  A  vessel 
ovotaken  by  it  should  always  make  for  a  port  or 
ancbonge  ground  xm  the  E.  coast,  those  on  the  W. 
being  open  and  unsafe.  The  SE.  wind  throws  up 
a  heavy  sea;  but  is  not  dangerous,  as  vessels  may 
eanly  get  to  an  anchorage  on  the  E.  shore. 
VenMe,  Trieste,  Ancona,  and  Fiume  are  the  prin- 
cipal trading  jMXts  on  the  Adriatic. 

AERSCHOT,  a  town  of  Belgium,  prov.  S.  Bra- 
liant,  on  the  Doner,  9  miles  NE.  Louvain.  Pop. 
Sjt^Jo  in  1856.  It  was  formerly  fortified ;  and  has 
some  breweries  and  distilleries. 

AFFGHANISTAN,  the  name  applied  to  a 
country  €f  Central  Asia  inhabited  bv  the  Affghan 
nation :  and,  sometimes,  to  a  kingdom  of  which 
that  ooontry  fiMmed  the  principal  part.  In  the 
latter  sense,  the  boundaries  of  Aflfghanistan  have 
bren  sul^ect  to  the  same  political  changes  which 
have  affected  other  Asiatic  states.  In  the  former, 
eoarideted  as  the  country  of  the  Afighan  people,  it 
may  be  described  as  extending  firom  the  80th  to 
the' 35th  degree  of  N.  latitude,  and  from  the  62nd 
to  the  71st  degree  of  E.  longitude;  having  the 
Indus  on  the  £^  the  crest  of  the  Uim&leh  or  Hin- 
doo-Coosh,  and  part  of  the  Paropamesan  or  Goor 
mountains  oo  the  N. ;  the  districts  of  Seeweestan, 
Catch  Gmdava,  and  Sareewan,  with  part  of  the 
desert  of  Befeochistan  on  the  S. ;  part  of  SistAn, 
with  Gbofian  of  KhcHrasan  on  the  west ;  and  Meiv 
ghab,  and  the  Hazareh  country  on  the  NW.  Ao- 
cnrding  to  the  most  recent  authority  (Bellew, 
Miwion  to  Aflfghanistan  in  1857,  pp.  1, 2),  Affghan- 
irtan  is  not  so  designated  by  the  Affgnans  them- 
selves, although  the  name  is  not  unknown  to  them. 
Bv  the  Affghans  their  country  is  usually  called 
'Crlayat*  (hence  the  term  *Urlayate'  often  ap- 
plied to  its  people  by  the  natives  of  Hindustan), 
or  native  country;  but  it  is  also  distinguished  by 
two  appellations,  including  different  portions  of 
tCTriun>,  viz.  *  Caubul,*  or  *  Kabulistan,  which  in- 
dodes  all  that  mountainous  n^on  north  of  Ghazni 
and  Snlaid  Koh,  as  far  as  Umdoo-Coosh,  limited 
tovards  the  west  by  the  Hazareh  country  (the 
amient  Paropamisus),  and  eastward  by  the  Abba- 
Sin,  or  Father  of  Rivers,  the  Indus ;  and  *  Kho- 
,*  or  *  Zahnliifan,*  which  includes  all  that 


AFFGHANISTAN 


19 


extensive  tract  of  conntzy,  Alpine  in  its  eastern 
limits,  and  table-land  or  desert  in  its  western  ex- 
tent, which  stretches  southward  and  westward  from 
about  the  latitude  of  Ghazni,  and  borders  on  the 
confines  of  Persia,  from  which  towards  the  south 
it  is  separated  by  the  desert  of  Sist4n.  To  the 
Affghans  the  Persian  province  of  Khorassan  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Ivan.  The  existing  poli- 
tical state  of  Affghanistan  may  be  said  to  lie 
between  lat  26<>  50^  and  86^  80'  N. ;  long.  60<^  and 
72^80'  E.,  having  E.  the  Punjaub;  S.  Buhalpoor, 
Sinde,  and  Beloochistan ;  W.  the  Persian  domi- 
nion ;  and  N.  Independent  Tm:kestan,  from  which 
it  is  s^Mirated  by  the  Hindoo-Cooeh. 

Dimnont  and  Aspect  of  the  Country. — The  former 
depending  rather  upon  natural  features  and  forma- 
tion than  upon  political  or  artificial  arrangement^ 
will  best  be  noticed  in  describing  the  latter.  Hiis, 
so  far  as  is  known,  presents  an  a^^gre^tion  of 
mountainous  groups  and  ranges,  divergmg  from 
certain  princi{Mkl  points,  and  thus  becomes  divided 
into  numerous  vallejrs  of  greater  or  lesser  size, 
which  are  watered  by  streams  of  correqwnding 
magnitude,  and  which  sometimes  stretch  out  into 
plams  of  considerable  extent.  The  south  face  of 
the  Hindoo-Coosh  is  furrowed  by  a  variet]^  of  sub- 
ordinate glens  and  ravines,  which  carry  their  waters 
to  the  Caubul  river.  This  stream,  which  rises  near 
Ghiznee,  but  drains  also  the  highlands  of  Kolustan, 
runs  in  a  large  and  frequently  very  broad  valley 
from  that  dty  to  the  Indus,  whicn  it  enters  at 
Attock.  It  separates  the  mountains  of  Hindoo- 
Coosh  from  those  to  the  southward,  which,  origi- 
nating in  the  huge  peak  of  ^peengur  or  SuffcM- 
koh  ^White  Mountain),  spread  east  and  west, 
confining  the  Caubul  valley  on  the  south,  and 
stretch  m  a  variety  of  huge  ranges  in  that 
direction :  one  of  these  uniting  with  that  of  the 
Tuchtr«-Solv-maun,  extends  to  Dereh  Ghazee- 
khan;  another  enters  Seeweestan;  and  another, 
tending  more  to  the  westward,  by  Shawl  and 
Pisheen,  sinks  into  the  deserts  of  Beloochistan  and 
Sistiin. 

The  Caubul  valley  is  the  most  important  of  the 
natural  divisions  thus  constituted,  it  contains  the 
larf^t  river,  the  finest  plains,  and  the  principal 
cities  of  the  country,  including  the  ancient  town 
of  Ghiznee;  and  extends  from  the  westward  of 
Baumian  to  the  Indus,  a  distance  of  more  than 
200  miles.  It  is  subdivided  into  several  sections, 
of  which  the  western  lb  formed  by  Kohistan  or 
'  the  Highlands,'  comprising  the  valleys  and  low- 
lands or  Nijrow,  Punjsheer,  Ghorebund,  Tugow, 
and  Cozbeen,  which  are  all  blessed  with  a  delight- 
ful climate,  embellished  with  the  finest  scenery, 
{ffoduce  the  finest  fruits  in  abundance,  and  are  wdl 
watered  and  cultivated. 

Lugmaun,  also  on  the  north  side  of  the  river, 
comprehends  the  vallevs  of  Aling&r  and  Alisheng, 
with  numerous  subordinate  glens,  all  equally  ridi 
and  beautiful.     The  fertile  plains  of  Jclallabad 
afford  the  produce  of  both  torrid  and  tcmjieratc 
climates.    The  Dell  of  Coonnur  forms  but  a  bed 
for  the  rapid  river  of  Kashk&r,  which,  traversing 
Kafferistan,  here  pierces  the  Him&leh  range  to  join 
that  of  CaubuL    The  smkll  valleys  of  Punjccora 
and  Bajour  pour  their  streams  into  the  more  ex- 
tensive and  verj'  fertile  district  of  Swaut,  where 
forest,  pasture,  and  cultivated  land  are  found  ad- 
mirably blended,  and  every  valuable  fruit  and 
grain  is  produced.   The  same  description  will  a]mly 
to  Boonere,  Choomla,  and  all  the  glens  that  ais- 
charge  their  waters  into  the  Caubul  or  Indus  rivers 
from  the  north.    Peshawur,  the  lower  division  of 
the  great  Caubul  valley,  is  divided  from  the  plains 
of  Jelallabad  by  a  range  of  small  hills,  which  stretch 
from  the  Hindoo-Coosh  across  to  the  Suffeed-koh. 


20 


AFFGHANISTAN 


It  is  well  watered  and  extremely  rich,  but  saffera 
from  heat  in  summer. 

Damann,  which  signifies  the  *  skirt,'  and  is  the 
tract  between  the  foot  of  the  Solymaun  mountains 
and  the  river  Indus,  is  poorly  cultivated  and  thinly 
inhabited ;  bcinf^  chiefly  haid  tenacious  clay,  scan- 
tilv  covered  with  tamarisk  and  thorny  shrubs.  It 
is  Iwunded  on  the  north  by  the  Salt  ranfj^e  of  the 
Khuttuk  coun^,  and  stretches  southward  to  Dcroh 
Ghazec  Khan.  A  wide  extent  of  mountains  in- 
tervenes between  this  district  and  the  valleys  which 
furrow  the  western  face  of  the  Solymaun  range ; 
but  even  in  this  wild  region  we  hear  of  fertile  tracts. 
The  plain  of  Boree,  for  instance,  is  compared  by 
the  natives  to  that  of  Peshawur  for  extent  and 
richness ;  the  rivers  Zhobe  and  Groomul  water  some 
fine  valleys ;  and  Tull,  Chooteealee,  and  Furrah 
are  mentioned  as  well  peopled  and  cultivated. 

Among  the  valleys  opening  westward,  those  of 
Shawl,  Bunhore,  I^isheen,  Yessoon,  Saleh,  Uigh- 
essan,  Guasht&,  are  described  as  interspersed  with 
well  cultivated  spots,  but  as  more  generally  suited 
to  pasturage  than  agriculture;  but  the  two  first 
are  stated  to  be  rich  and  productive.  Beyond 
these,  to  the  NW.,  the  river  Tumuk,  rising  near 
Ghiznee,  but  on  tlie  southern  slope  of  the  countr}', 
runs  through  a  poorly  watered  and  ill  cultivated 
district,  till,  to  the  westward  of  Kandahar,  it  is 
joined  by  the  Urgund&b,  and  both  fall  into  the 
^^reat  river  Helmund.  The  district  of  Kandahar 
IS  fertile  and  highlv  cultivated,  but  is  circumscribed 
within  narrow  limit«  by  the  desert.  In  like  manner 
the  fertile  valley  of  Herit,  which  may  be  30  miles 
long  by  15  wide^  constitutes  the  most  important 
portion  of  that  district. 

A  vast  and  varied  surface,  such  as  has  1)een  de- 
scribed, must  naturally  exhibit  much  diversity  of 
aspect  and  fertility.  Of  the  mountainous  Uacts, 
some  are  covered  wiUi  deep  forests  of  pin^  and 
wild  olive  trees ;  others  afford  excellent  pasturage 
for  sheep  and  cattle,  while  others  again  are  hare, 
rocky,  and  sterile.  Of  the  valleys,  as  we  have 
seen,  many  are  fertile^  well  watered,  and  wooded, 
especially  those  which  pierce  the  Ilindoo-CVxwh 
range ;  while  others,  particularly  to  the  south,  arc 
Iwre,  or  covered  only  ¥rith  tamarisk  and  thorny 
shrulia. 

Mnuntaini, —  These  have  been  alreadv  men- 
tioned. The  chief  ranges  arc  those  of  llindoo- 
Coosh,  or  Him&leh ;  the  Speengur  or  Sufieed-koh, 
called  Riygul  by  Captain  Bumes,  a  branch  from 
which  joins  the  Solymaun  range;  and  perliaps 
that  of  Kh(>ieh  Amr&n,  which  seems  to  be  the  pro- 
longation of  a  spur  from  the  last^mentioned  range. 
The  Ilindoo-Coosh,  or  Himaleh,  is  described  by 
Mr.  Elphinstone  as  rising  above  the  level  of  Pe- 
shawur in  four  distinct  ridges,  the  lowest  of  which, 
clear  of  snow  on  the  24th  of  February,  was  clothed 
with  forests  of  oak,  pine,  and  wild'  olive,  and  a 
profuse  variety  of  fruit  trees,  and  graceful  herbs 
and  flowers.  The  second  was  sHll  more  denselv 
wooded;  the  third  was  at  that  time  white  with 
snow ;  and  beyond  mse  the  glittering  and  stupen- 
dous crest  of  the  true  Ilim&leh,  spiring  into  sharp 
peaks  and  bold  masses. 

Captain  Bumes  states  that  the  term  Ilindoo- 
Coosh,  though  applied  genejallv  to  this  chain, 
which  is  a  continuation  of  the  Jlimaleh,  belongs 
properly  to  one  single  peak,  forming  the  western 
buttress  of  the  range,  which  beyond  that  point  de- 
clines in  height,  and  is  lost  in  the  Paropamesan 
or  GhOr  mountains.  The  peak  of  Koh-e-liaba, 
estimated  by  him  at  18,000  feet  high,  is  the  only 
one  covered  with  perpetual  snow  to  the  westwanl 
of  the  passes.  Little  is  known  of  the  height  of 
the  other  ranges,  but  the  Sufi^eed-koh  obtains  its 
name  from  its  snowy  cap.    The  Tucht-e-Solymaun 


is  C8timat«d  at  12,000  feet  in  height;  and  there  ia 
a  very  lofty  peak  to  the  south-west,  name^  KumL 

iZirrrs. — The  principal  of  these  have  also  boen 
mentioned.  They  are  the  Caubul,  the  Helmund, 
the  Tumuk,  and  Urghundab;  the  Goomul,  the 
Zhobe,  the  Lorah.  The  courses  of  the  three  lai*t 
are  little  known,  and  their  waters  arc  lost  in  the 
sand,  excepting  in  the  time  of  floods. 

There  arc  no  lakes  of  any  consequence  known 
to  exist  in  Affghaniatan. 

Climate  and  Soil. — ITiese  vary  in  an  extreme 
degree,  according  to  locality.  In  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Caubul  valley  and  in  those  to  the  south, 
bordering  on  Cutch  Gundava,  the  heat  is  sufliciont 
to  mature  all  the  products  of  India,  such  as  the 
sugar-cane,  indigo,  and  some  of  the  tropical  fruits ; 
while  the  northern  valleys  abound  in  the  produc- 
tions of  cold  r^ions,  and  the  mountains  are  co- 
vered with  fbrcsts  of  pines.  According  to  Ferrier 
(Ilistory  of  the  Aifglians,  p.  257),  the  soil  of 
Aflglumutan  resembles  that  of  the  rest  of  the  great 
table-land  of  C'Cntral  Asia.  Within  the  princi- 
pality of  Caubul,  and  the  northern  part  of  that  of 
Ilerat,  are  high  mountains  covcro<l  with  foitwts, 
having  between  them  vast  argillaceous  plains  well 
supplied  with  water,  covered  with  fields,  and  sus- 
ceptible of  every  8|iccics  of  cultivation.  The  portion 
south  of  Herat  and  Kandahar  also  consists  of  im- 
mense plains,  but  generally  arid,  mnning  from 
east  to  west,  and  borderetl  by  a  chain  of  stexilc 
mountains.  The  soil  of  these  plains  is  sandy,  and 
absorbs  so  much  water  as  to  create  a  great  scarcity 
of  that  necessarj'  of  life  ^^dthin  their  limits,  and 
the  inhabitants  are  o1>liged  to  obtain  by  lon^  an«l 
toilsome  labour  that  which  nature  has  denirnl  them 
at  the  surface.  Tljcy  dig  a  deep  hole  at  the  ftntt 
of  a  mountain  where  they  cxf»ect  to  fin<l  water, 
and  having  succeeded,  lead  it  to  their  viUages  by 
a  subterranean  canal  connecting  a  series  of  welL«». 
If  the  country'  unhappily  becomes  the  theatre  of 
war,  the  first  operation  of  the  invading  army  is  U* 
destroy  them,  and  <leprive  the  people  they  come  to 
attack  of  their  supply  of  water.  It  is  to  this  un- 
happy mania  of  destnictiveness,  esfiecially  in  this 
particular  form,  that  the  depopulation  of  Affghnn-^ 
istan  is  principally  to  be  ascribe<l :  immense  tracts 
of  country  have  m  consequence  been  aban<lone<l, 
and  l)ecoine  arid ;  they  belong  to  no  one ;  the  land 
is  valueless,  and  cannot  be  sold. 

Mineral  Products. — ^The  mineralogy,  as  well  as 
the  geology,  of  Affghanistan,  is  but  little  known. 
Biuiies  telk  us  of  two  sorts  of  sulphur,  of  wells  of 
petroleum  or  naphtha ;  and,  of  what  may  prove 
still  more  valua)>le,  of  coal,  which  exists  in  the 
district  of  Cohat,  belcjw  Peshawir.  Vast  quanti- 
ties of  in>n,  lead,  and  sulphur  arc  found  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Afighanistan.  as  well  as  mercury  and  as- 
bestos— the  latter  called  Btngui-pembe — and  silver. 
But  this  mineral  wealth  is  entirely  unexplored  and 
wiused.     (Ferrier,  Ilistory  of  the  Affghans.) 

Agriculture  is  in  the  same  mde  state  as  in  Per- 
sia and  most  Asiatic  countries.  The  soil  is  broken 
by  a  crooked  log  of  wood,  sometimes  sho<l  wth 
iron,  which  is  generally  dragged  by  oxen ;  and  ir- 
rigation is  resorted  to  wherever  rain  does  not  fall 
in  sufiicient  abundance  to  bring  foru'ard  the  cn)))s. 
Only  the  richest  and  most  promising  tracts  are 
thus  employed;  so  that,  as  the  seasons  are  usually 
regidar,  the  har\'est  afforded,  even  by  so  rude  a 

{)rocess,  is  for  the  most  part  abundant*  Wheat, 
wirley,  rice,  maize,  form  the  produce  of  the  more 
temixirate  regions ;  while  m  the  warmer,  tlie 
smaller  grains  common  to  India,  as  moonpy,  chvn- 
iw,  joar,  dal^  &c.,  with  the  sugar-cane,  cotton, 
tobacco,  indigo,  madder,  &c.,  reward  the  farmer's 
lal>ours.  Horticulture  is  carried  to  a  considcmblo 
extent  in  the  neighbourhood    of   the  princi]>al 


AFFGHANISTAN 


» 


ptant, 

vuuDgukd  tcodcr,  UuKbed  artificial];,  and  n  mien 
liutli  raw  and  dnosed  in  great  quantities,  aa  a  vei^ 
wbolnunw  delicacy ;  (he  latter  is  not  duly  culti- 
vated Ibr  its  valuable  gtnn,  but  is  eaten  nwated, 
wben  it  qviii^  young  iToni  Lba  eiftb,  like  the  , 
Huwer  o(  a  caoliflower  in  appearance.    It  is  ea-    <1j 
Uieined  a  great  delicacy  ;  but  it  Bmelta  so  Btrong,    1 1 
thai,  to  those  imacaialumed  to  its  odour,  one  bead   vi 
of  it,  wiiile  being  oooked,  it  enou);h  to  poison  the   I  k 
air  iii  a  whole  camp,  1 1 

The  (aincipal  ■"■"■-'-  at  Affghaniitan  ate  the    ni 
bune,  camel,  and  sheep.    The  flnt  two  are  laii^ly    ^l; 
npcirled  inlo  India,  and  are  bred  chieHy  in  the    I'r 
wntcm  parts  of  the  cinintry.    The  camel  anil    tti 
abeep  constitute  the  main  wealth  of  the  nomsd    |,i 
tzibu,  together  with  cows,  buflaloes,  and  goats.  ,  ^i 
All  the  sheep  m  Affghanislan  are  of  the  fat-tailed    In 
rarielj,  and  an   remariuble  for  the  peculiarly    i^; 
bivwn  colom  of  their  vtooL     From  the  skins  of  [  n.- 
thtae  abeep.  propetly  prepared,  are  made 
tins,  or  dM«p-skin  oiMs,  Che  oommon  dress 
iliMii  of  the  people.      The  wool  of  the  white- 
fleeced  sheep  fonns  an   important  item   of  the 
staple  exports  of  the  country,  whilst  their  flesh 
enuslitiiles  the  diief  animal  food   of  the  lower 
clamw.    The  prindpal  wild  animals  of  the  plains 
an  Ilw  gaielle,  the  jackal,  the  fox,  and  the  wolf. 
Confined  to  the  western  deserts  is  the  wild  us, 
called,  fiun  its  colour,  the  '  gorftkhar," 

ass.     Thiongbout  the  moon"" " 

(unnd  the  tiger,  leopard,  lyi 
the  bear  and  monkey,  w'"""  ~ 
the  ibex,  the  wild  goat, 
(IteUeWs  MiMion  to  A: 


:<\-.l<AI.:  horse^  9!,eSU  ;  and  ftuit,  14,914/. 
li:<;iort  on  tlie  Tnde  of  Centml  Asia,  printed 
liiiiKiig  the  House  of  Commons'  Papers,  February, 
lnr:i.}  The  commerce  of  Affgliuuatan,  on  the 
uluila,  is  increasing,  and  will  probahly  ot    " 

■' The  opening  of  the  over  '-•'■- 

.1  _h<.-h  —rib  Ik.  f.,..h.. 


nel  which,  1 


e  conveyed  into  the  heart  of  Asia,  can- 
it  liil  to  stimulate  the  commercial  propensiiiea 
t  lie  people,  and  give  rise  to  a  vsst  increase  of 


which 


There  are  no  very  tniatworthjr 
I  CTDond  a  tolerably  accurate  ea- 
luUCion  of  this  country.     It  must 


".ra 


-11.) 


imte  of  the  popuh 

rv  (greatly  in  diflerent  dlstric 

n'^i-ring  the  Cauhul  river,  and  the  fertile  glena 

II  penetrate  the  Uindoo-Cooah,  are  certsinlr 
•f  densely  peopled  than  the  high  and  bleak 
Plural  Gountnes  to  the  west.  Mr.  Elphinstone, 
rii  the  beat  infonustion  he  could  obuin,  haa 
riiioned  the  suppoted  numbers  of  several  of  the 
[LI  ipal  clans;  but  it  Is  to  be  fesred  that  these 
'  nut  to  be  depended  on.  Thus  the  Eussufie- 
I'n,  who  occupy  a  very  small  district  at  ths 
inme  NE.  comer  of  the  country,  are  set  down 

7iiO,000  souls  at  least-,  and  the  whole  of  the 
riliior&nees,  a  collecUon  of  tribes  including  ths 
i~-uriehe«,  who  inhabit  a  country  of  about 
.oiiO  squ.  m.,  an  estioialed  St  nearly  1,400,000, 
'.lit  to  the  square  mile.  The  Dooranees,  on  tha 
ursiy,  who  occupy  at  least  fi2,0OU  sou.  m.,  an 
.1  [0  amount  to  only  600,000  or  a  miirion,  being 

III  171  to  19i  per  square  mile.  The  Ghiljee^ 
!ike  manner,  from  500,000  to  600,000  souls,  are 
r.  111!  over  IJiOO  squ.  m^  or  alxiut  40  per  squara 
li.  This  is  on  B  calculation  of  five  indiriiluala 
n  lamily,  which  is  too  little  in  these  counlriea. 
NiiW  the  whole  of  ARghanistan  as  here  defined 
I-  not  quite  amount  (o  1 70,000  >q.  m.  of  surface, 

uliich  suppose  the  richci  parts,  such  as,  and 
1  tiding  the, 

r.l.orfliieei»aatiT.ta1ie.    Xliow    atW    1,100,1100 


m  are  conSned  to  home-made  atuSg  ,  i 

Id  wool,  and  a  little  tiik,  which  serve    ' 
of  the  inhabitants  :  little  or  nothing    j 

..forexport, 

GiH^rnv.— The  disturbed  stale  of  the  country 
fur  a  succeiaian  of  yean  ha*  been  unfavourable  to 
tiade;  and  the  large  and  valuable  caravsnswhich 
funneriy  carried  the  rich  productions  of  India  and 
Cnfamere  to  Canbul  and  Ueiit,  for  the  consump- 
liuD  irf  the  csBTts  at  these  cities,  or  for  transit,  by 
rex,  into  Persia,  bare  dwindled  down  to  the 
pmalleBt  dimensinDB.  There  is  still,  however,  a 
IfM  extensive  traffic  carried  on,  chicdj'  by  a  pas- 
lunl  tribe  caileil  the  Lohlnees,  occupying  much  i 
of  tbe  rmntiy  between  the  Indus  and  (ihiznee, 
who  at  certain  periods  of  the  year  repair  to  India  ! 
b>  nuke  theii  {lurcluues,  or  receive  goods  from 
tbtve  who  have  oTougbt  them  from  thence,  at  the 
Irrry  of  Kaheree,  With  these  they  return,  cany-  , 
ing  them  iffl  their  own  camels,  through  their  own  ' 
eouDtrr,  by  the  Golairee  pan,  and  the  valley  of 
ibe  GuuinnI,  not  only  to  Ghizoee  and  Caubul,  but 
m^ihward,  across  the  mountains,  to  Beriihara. 
Captain  llunwa  stata.  that  a  thousand  camel- 
hnds  of  Rn^lish  and  Indian  chinties,  calicoes  and 
noslins,  bnieades,  shawls,  Funjsli  turbans,  spices, 

whirk  are  sent  bade  horses  in  great  niimbem,  mad- 
der, saffimn,  assaliFtkia,  and  Iruit,  both  fresh  and  I 
dried. in  large  quantitiea.  AnofficialrepiirtcJ  Mr.  ' 

iMvies.  seeretan-  to  the  government  ot  tbe  I'un-  '   ^^^    ^^_  ^-•■^ ^..^ .. 

igtbeexportflfromKurTache^    iii^^.-nmued  principaUiies.     Mr.  Fen 


.nd  this  is  independen 

I'liis  eglimaie,  founded  on  the  vsgue  numbeia 
InK'd  above,  would  give  to  AffgiianiBtan  a  popu- 

I  the  Bou.  m..  which  taking  into  account  the  vast 

';i<  i-i  of  high  and  unproductive  lands  on  the  west 

f  ihe  Solymaun  ran^,  and  north  of  Kandahar 

" " IS  undoubtedly  far  beyond 


<■  province  of  Herlt  Li 


the  following 


brought  down  through  th 
inaniiwanUhis:— HaddeT,l2,f!*U:;  assa- I  "'""""*' 
l,S9«Li  nw  liUc,  17,97U;  Ibeqt'l  wvol,  {.Berlt 


22 


AFFGHANISTAN 


The  general  total  18430,000,  which  is  considerably 
above  the  estimate  of  Lieut.-CoL  Lumsdcn,  in  the 
report  of  his  mission  to  Affghanistan  in  1857.  On 
the  whole,  and  upon  grounds  of  analogy  and  pro- 
bability, therefore,  rather  than  friiiu  any  existing 
data,  the  population  of  Aifghanistan  may,  perhaps, 
be  regarded  as  little  exceeding  foar  millions. 

Tnbes, — ^The  Affghan  naUon  is  composed  of  a 
great  number  of  tribes,  who  claim  a  common 
origin,  and  differ  int-rinsically  very  much  from  all 
their  neighbours.  This  origin  is  very  obscure.  A 
native  history  derives  them  from  Saul^  the  king 
of  Israel,  whose  pn^ny  vras  carried  away^  in  the 
time  of  the  captivity ;  but  no  proof  of  this  is  ad- 
duced, and  Mr.  Elphinstone  classes  this  among 
other  fabulous  genealogies.  The  name  Affghan  is 
not  kno¥m  to  the  people,  who  call  themselves 
PooMhtoon,  in  the  plural  Foothtauneh,  from  whence 
1^  corruption,  Feitdn  or  Fatdn,  the  name  the^ 
have  obtained  in  India ;  and  of  their  great  anti- 

aoity  there  is  no  reasonable  lioubt.  Bumes  says, 
lie  Affghans  call  themselves  *  Bin-i-Isracel,*  or 
children  of  Israeel ;  but  consider  the  term  of  '  Ya- 
hoodee,'  or  Jew,  to  be  one  of  reproach.  The 
tribes  of  Soor  and  Lodi,  from  both  or  which  kiii^ 
have  sprung,  are  mentioned  as  owing  their  origm 
to  the  union  of  an  Arab  chief,  Khalcd  ibn  Abdool- 
la,  with  the  daughter  of  an  Affghan  chief,  in  a.  d. 
682;  and  Mahmood  of  Ghiznee,  though  sprung 
from  another  race,  ruled  over  the  Affghans  m  the 
ninth  century.  According  to  their  own  traditions, 
the  whole  of  the  tribes  descended  from  the  sons 
of  one  Kyse  or  Kais  Abdor-resheed,  who,  whether 
a  real  or  imaginary  character,  is  the  person  to 
whom  all  their  genealogi^  refer ;  but  as  it  would 
be  impossible  to  examine  all  these,  the  following 
classincation  must  suffice  to  enumerate  the  prin- 
cipal tribes,  with  their  habitats,  as  they  at  prracnt 
exist:"— 

Eaotirn  BmsiGS.—Bfrdooraneet. 

Ensmiffsehees.        Peahawar  tribes.       Bung^nsh. 
Osman  Kheil.        Ehyborees.  Khuttuk. 

Toroolanees. 

Neighbourhood  of  Salt  Range, 

Eanwkheil.  Bannooses.  Khooitees. 

Sheotucks.  Dowers. 


DowlntkheiL 
MeankheiL 


2W6e«  t(f  Damaun, 

Baboors. 
Stooreeanees. 


Onndeporees. 


Central  Division.— /fie/Htfin^  Mountain  Tribes, 

Jaujees.  Yizeerees.  Zmnirees. 

Zoorees.  Murheils.  Sheeranees. 

Jadrftns.  Moonakhdl.  Speentereens 


Wertebn  Divuook.- 

-Doorcmees, 

JSeerum, 

Pungepaw. 

Popal-iehfffi. 

Noor-Behee. 

Alleko-jBehee. 

Ali-sehee. 

Banrik-zehce. 

Iskhak-aohee. 

Atchik-sehee. 

Gilgees, 

Kouganee. 
Makoo. 

Tooran. 

Booran, 

Hotokoe. 
Tokhee. 

Solymankheil. 
AlikheiL 
Under. 
Turrukee. 

Bheerpah. 

Warducks. 

Kharotee. 

Baraitehee. 
Tor  Teroens. 

National  Character, — This  aggregation  of  tribes, 
though  exhibiting  conftidcrablc  diversity  in  cus- 
toms, dress,  and  appearance,  among  themselves, 
form,  taken  together,  a  nation  singularlv  homo- 
geneous ;  yet  Mr.  Elphinstone  remarks,  that 
'  amidst  the  contrasts  which  are  apparent  in  the 
government,  manners,  dress,  and  nabits  of  the 


different  tribes,  I  find  it  difficult  to  select  those 
great  features  which  all  possess  in  common,  and 
which  give  a  marked  national  character  to  the 
whole  of  the  Affghans.'  And  this  becomes  the 
more  |)crplexiug,  lievuiuH.'  even  the  ^-irtuet*  and 
attributes  on  which  they  most  value  themselves, 
and  which  separate  them  most  from  their  neigh- 
bours, are  apt  to  be  misunderstood  or  overlooked 
by  strsngcrs.  Thus,  an  Engluh  stranger  might 
regard  their  wild  freedom  as  but  a  savage  mixture 
of  anarchy  and  arbitrary  power.  Alarmed  at  the 
absence  of  any  o]ganise<l  government,  or  regular 
courts  of  justice,  and  witnessing  the  summary 
inflictions  of  retributive  and  customary  law,  he 
might  fancy  that  violence  and  revenge  entirely 
usurped  the  place  of  justice  and  equity ;  while  the 
rude  hospitality,  the  bold  an<l  simple  manners,  and 
martial  and  lofty  spirit  of  the  people,  would 
scarcely  in  his  imnd  compensate  for  their  prune- 
ness  to  violence  and  rapme — to  the  deceit  and 
fraud  which  are  tbe  vdces  necessarily  engendered 
by  the  lawless  freedom  in  which  they  exult. 

The  traveller  from  India,  on  the  other  hand, 
sickened  with  the  servile  vices  of  its  pliant,  timid, 
and  indolent  inhabitants,  would  prooably  be  fa- 
vourably impressed,  not  less  with  the  bold  and 
independent  bearing  of  his  new  acquaintance,  than 
with  their  sobriety,  their  superior  energy,  their 
strong  and  active  forms,  their  fair  complexions, 
and  features  marked  and  striking  even  to  harah- 
ness ;  and  he  might  view,  in  the  storm v  indepen- 
dence of  their  mode  of  life,  a  favourable  contrast 
to  the  apathy  of  that  which  he  had  left.  The 
result  in  both  cases  might  be,  that,  mingled  with 
many  a  vice  and  failing,  he  would  find  the  germ 
of  many  a  virtue  and  noble  quality;  and  that 
however  much  he  might  lament  the'ir  great  fail- 
ings, he  would  not  be  able  to  deny  them  a  portion 
of  bis  esteem. 

One  of  the  strongest  characteristics  of  this  peo- 
ple, according  to  all  travellers,  is  their  hospitality, 
which  is  founded  on  national  feeling,  and  there 
arc  some  usages  connected  with  this  principle 
which  deserve  mention.  The  first  is  that  of  Aan- 
nawautee  (two  Affghan  words,  signifying,  *  I  have 
come  in '),  by  which  a  person  having  a  favour  to 
entreat  goes  to  the  house  of  the  mdividual  on 
whom  it  depends,  but  refuses  to  sit  on  his  carpet  or 
partake  of  his  food  until  the  boon  be  granted ;  and 
this,  if  in  the  power  of  the  party  besought,  custom 
makes  it  imperative  on  him  to  concede.  A  still 
stronger  appeal  is  the  second,  being  made  by  a 
woman,  when  she  sends  a  person  her  veil,  and  im- 
plores assistance  for  herself  or  for  her  family. 

All  persons,  even  a  man's  bitterest  enemy,  is 
safe  under  the  protection  of  his  roof;  but  this 
protection  extends  not  beyond  the  lands  of  the 
village,  or  at  most  of  the  tribe ;  and  it  is  not  un- 
common for  the  stranger  who  has  benefited  by  it, 
and  experienced  the  kindest  treatment,  to*  be 
robbed  and  plundered  when  once  beyond  its  in- 
fiuence.  •There  is  no  point  in  the  Affghan 
character,'  remarks  Mr.  Elphinstone,  *  of  which  it 
is  more  difficult  to  get  a  clear  idea,  than  the  mix- 
ture of  s^rmpathy  and  indifference,  of  generosity 
and  rapacity,  which  is  observable  in  their  conduct 
to  strangers.  ...  So  much  more  do  thev  attend  to 
granting  favours  than  to  respecting  rights,  that 
the  same  A%han  who  would  plunder  a  traveller 
of  his  cloak  if  he  had  one,  would  give  him  a  cloak 
if  he  had  none.'  In  this,  as  well  as  in  their  regard 
for  hospitality,  their  customs  much  resemble  those 
of  the  Desert  Arabs. 

The  pastoral  tribes  in  the  west  are  more  addicted 
to  robberv  and  theft  than  the  agricultural  on»;  but, 
in  general,  a  previous  understanding  with  the  chiefs, 
confirmed  by  the  ftrescnee  of  a  single  man,  ensures 


AFFGHAKISTAN 


23 


tafety;  and  the  Affghans,  it  is  said,  are  lees  prone 
to  add  mmder  to  plunder  than  most  other  rspwdous 
triliea.  They  are  reproached  with  ignorance,  bar- 
barinai,  and  stupidity,  by  the  Persians,  but  on  no 
sufficient  grounds.  They  are  less  polished,  it  is 
tiue,  and  have  less  of  worldly  knowledge  than  their 
nrpntftchers ;  but  are  in  general  prudent,  sensible, 
and  ubsenrant,  and  are  less  indifferent  to  truth 
than  most  of  their  neighbours.  Like  most  moun- 
taineers, they  are  proud  of  their  lineage,  and  will 
hanlly  acknowledge  one  who  cannot  prove  six  or 
seven  descents.  Like  Highlanders  too,  they  are 
highly  nationaL  Love  of  individual  freedom, 
stjning  though  it  be,  is  exceeded  by  devotion  to 
family  and  clan,  and  this  seems  by  no  means  to 
pRJndioe  their  love  of  country  at  large ;  for  the 
*Nmmg  du  Fotmk  tamndi^  or,  honour  of  the  Aff- 
ghan  name,  which  lb  one  of  the  feelings  warmest 
in  their  breasts,  appears  to  be  equall^  by  local 
attachments,  so  strong  in  all  mountaineers.  A 
native  of  the  wild  valley  of  Speiga,  who  for  some 
ofTence  had  been  forced  to  wander  abroad,  declarcil 
Ml  his  return  that  he  had  *  seen  all  Persia,  India, 
if««irgia,  Tartary,  and  Beloochistan,  but  in  idl  my 
travels  1  have  seen  no  such  place  as  Speiga.'  *  To 
sum  np  their  character  in  a  few  words,'  wyt^  Mr. 
KlphiiMt<ifiev  with  whom  subsecj^uent  travellers  are 
in  perfect  agreement^  *  their  vices  are,  revenge, 
en^y,  avarice,  rapacity,  and  obstinacy;  on  Uie 
cfCher  hand,  they  are  fond  of  liberty,  fkithful  to 
their  friends,  kind  to  their  dependants,  hospitable, 
brave,  baniy,  frugal,  laborious,  and  prudent ;  and 
they  are  Icm  dispneed  than  the  nations  in  their 
ttdgfabi»nrbood  to  falsehood,  intrigue^  and  deceit.' 

CWloMS,  Mammert. — ^The  former  of  these  heads 
comprehends  the  internal  government  of  the 
tritieM.  This  is  patriarchal  Tribes  are  subdiWdod 
intii  branches,  which  are  termed  ooloot,  and  each 
of  the!«  are  commonwealths,  which  have  their 
chief  or  tpem-zherak  (literally  white  beard),  or 
muiiik  (master),  if  anaU ;  or  if  large,  a  khan,  who 
14  always  diosen  from  the  oldest  family,  and  is 
MmMr  times  selected  by  the  king,  sometimes  by  the 
iitMple.  These  carry  on  the  internal  government, 
ui  conjunction  with  certain  assemblies  of  heads  of 
di\'L'a«ins  which  are  called  Jeerga,  and  which 
determine  all  matters  of  consequence.  In  civil 
artiims  the  statutes  of  Mahomet  are  generally 
xihcreii  to:  but  criminal  justice  is  administered 
aecocding  to  PooahtuntimUtey  or  Affghan  usage,  a 
ttytftem  Miffidently  rude,  and  founded  on  the  law 
of  retaliation.  This,  however,  as  tending  to  per- 
petuate feuds  and  quarrels,  is  modified  by  judi- 
cial jcrrpos  composed  of  khans,  elders,  and  mool- 
lahn,  who  indict  suitable  penalties  on  offenders; 
and  in  fact  this  whole  tnrstem  is  subject  to  various 
and  oon.'4deral)le  modifications. 

A  family  forced  or  induced  to  quit  its  ooloos 
may  be  received  into  another ;  and  once  received, 
it  i^  treated  with  peculiar  attention,  and  placed  in 
all  respects  chi  an  equality  with  the  original 
■lembers  of  the  community.  Everv  ooloos,  more- 
ofver,  has  many  persons  called  humaayaha  (or 
companions),  who  are  not  Afghans,  and  who  are 
regarded  with  consideration,  but  not  permitted  to 
iliare  in  the  administration  of  affairs.  Of  such 
kheilM  ooho&ea  and  tribes  the  nation  is  composed ; 
and  when  placed  under  one  sovereign,  has  seldom 
vieUed  him  a  full  or  impticit  obedience.  Mr. 
tlphinstone  has  compared  it  to  that  yielded  by 
Scotland  of  oU  to  its  kings,  who  ruled  pretty 
abrtolutely  over  the  principal  towns  and  country 
in  their  vicinity,  but  whose  authority  diminished 
as  it  extMftded  to  the  extrendties  of  the  kingdom ; 
whose  court  nobles  were  inordinately  proud,  and 
whose   moce   distant  chiefs  were   nearly  inde- 


Wotmen^  Marriaae. — Their  customs  with  re- 
gard to  their  females  are  nearly  those  of  most 
Mohammedan  countries;  those  in  towns  arc  jea- 
lously secluded,  those  in  the  country  have  greater 
liberty.    They  purchase  their  wives,  who  there- 
fore are  regarded  as  property.    The  husband  can 
divorce  at  pleasure ;  and  a  man  marries  the  widow 
of  a  deceased  brother.  The  latter,  decidedly  Jewish 
custom,  is  strictly  adhered  to,  and  it  is  a  mortal 
afiront  for  any  other  man  but  the  brother  to  take 
the  widow  without  his  consent;  but  she  is  not 
forced  to  marry  at  all    The  age  for  marriage  is 
twenty  among  men,  axteen  for  women.  In  towns, 
courtships  resemble  those  in  Persia.    In  the  coun- 
try, matches  are  made  more  according  to  the  liking 
of^the  parties.    If  a  lover  can  cut  off  a  lock  of  his 
mistress's  hair,  or  snatch  away  her  veil,  and  in 
doing  so  proclaim  her  his  affianced  wife,  no  other 
will  approach  her  with  these  views,  and  he  gene- 
rally obtains  the  consent  of  her  parents  on  pay- 
ment of  her  price ;  if  not,  they  elope ;  and  this 
offence,  which  ranks  not  less   fpively  than  a 
murder,  is  settled   by   intervention    of  parties. 
Among   some   tribes  the   bridegroom  earns  his 
wife  by  service,  as  Jacob  did  Rachel ;  some  permit 
not  the  least  familiarity  before  marriage,  others 
an  excessive  and  perilous  dq-c^^  (>f  it.    Polygamy 
is  permitted,  as  in  other  Mohammedan  countries, 
but  less  practised;   the  poor  content  themselves 
with  one,  those  of  middle  rank  with  two  wives, 
and  perhaps  as  many  concubines.    The  wives  of 
the  nch  hve  in  luxury  and  indolence ;  the  poor 
not  only  employ  themselves  in  household,  but  in 
field  labour.    In  towns  they  go  about,  as  in  Peraa, 
veiled  from  top  to  toe ;  in  the  country  they  only 
veil  in  the  presence  of  Rtrangers,  and  that  more 
from  decency  than  obligation.  The  Affghan  women 
are  said  to  be  correct  in  conduct  and  deportment ; 
but  adultery  or  incontinence  is  puniiihcd  with 
death  to  \joth  parties  upon  the  spot,  by  the  injured 
relative. 

Education  is  conducted  much  as  in  the  conter- 
minous countries.  A  village  moollah,  or  school- 
master, teaches  the  children  of  the  poor  to  say 
their  prayers  and  to  read  the  Koran ;  the  ricK 
keep  laUat,  or  private  tutors,  in  their  houses ;  the 
village  schoolmasters  are  paid  in  allotments  of 
land  and  some  small  fees.  Those  intended  for 
the  learned  professions  go  to  tovms,  and  live  in 
collies  instituted  for  the  i>urpose  of  instruction. 

Literature  is  at  a  very  low  ebb.  The  Pooshtoo 
language  is  an  original  stock,  embracing  a  good 
detu  of  Persian,  with  some  Zend  and  Sanscrit 
words:  they  use,  in  writing  it,  the  Niskce  cha- 
racter of  the  Persian  alphabet ;  but  there  are  few 
or  no  works  of  much  repute  in  the  language. 

Religion. — The  Affghans  are  all  Mohammedans 
of  the  Soonee  persuaaon,  and  are  superstitious 
enough,  believing  in  alchemy,  astrology,  and 
magic;  but  are  far  from  being  intolerant  to 
others.  Hindoos  remain  unmolested,  on  pajring 
a  slight  tax.  Christians  sustain  neither  persecu- 
tion nor  reproach ;  thcv  are  called  people  of  the 
hook,  as  deriving  their  tenets  from  a  written 
source,  which  they  themselves  reffl)cct,  instead  of 
being  pagans,  as  the  Huidoos.  sheahs  are  de- 
tested more  than  any  sect:  yet  the  country  is 
full  of  Persian  sheahs,  many  of  whom  held  im- 
portant oflices  under  the  crown,  and  now  do  so 
under  the  several  chiefs.  Sooffeeism  (or  free- 
thinking),  though  denounced  by  the  moollahs,  is 
common,  and  ^puns  ground  among  the  higher 
orders.  The  priests  and  mooUahs/Uke  those  of 
Persia,  are  avaricious,  hypocritical,  and  bigoted, 
as  well  as  arrogant  and  overbearing,  and  they 
exert  a  very  absolute  and  dangerous  powor  over 
the  peoples    This  is  strengthened  by  the  ooca- 


24 


AFFGHANISTAN 


■ional  exerdfle  of  good  offices,  and  by  the  in- 
fluenoe  of  flome  rare  examples  of  wiaciom  and 
\*irtue,  evinced  in  represfdng  bloodshed  and  vio- 
lence. But  the  blind  reganl  of  the  Affghxuis  for 
these  holy  impostors  is  chiefly  attributable  to 
their  ignorance  and  superstition,  which  lead  them 
almost  to  adore  all  dervishes  and  other  ascetics, 
and  to  visit  their  tombs  as  those  of  canonised 
saints. 

Pertonal  Appearance^  AmtuemenU, — The  men 
of  Afghanistan  are  fur  the  most  part  robust,  ge- 
nerally lean,  though  bony  and  muscular,  lliey 
have  elevated  noses,  high  cheek  bones,  and  long 
faces;  their  hair  is  commonly  black,  sometimes 
brown,  rarely  red ;  tliey  wear  King  thick  Ix'ards, 
but  shave  the  middle  of  the  head :  the  westem 
tribes  are  st^mter  than  those  to  the  east ;  the  lat^ 
ter  have  darker  complexions,  and  more  strongly 
marked  features:  their  dcmeanoiur  is  frank  and 
open,  equally  free  from  stateiiness  and  puerility : 
they  are  very  social,  delighting  in  dinncr-iiartios, 
smoking  atlter  dinner,  and  sitting  in  a  circle  telUng 
stories  of  kuigs,  viziers,  and  genii,  or  singing 
songs,  generally  al>out  love,  to  the  sound  of  in- 
struments like  rude  guitars,  fiddles,  and  hautboys : 
they  take  much  snuff,  of  a  high-dried  fine-pow- 
dered sort,  like  the  S<K>tch :  they  are  fond  of  the 
chase,  driving  tlie  game  into  some  valley,  and 
killing  great  quantities;  also  of  coursing  hares, 
foxes,  and  deer  with  greyhounds ;  and  they  ride 
down  partridges  in  the  open  ground,  tiring  them 
out  till  they  can  knock  them  down  with  sticks : 
they  are  abo  fond  of  horse-radng  and  fighting 
cocks,  quails,  rams,  dogs,  and  even  camels.  The 
westexn  AfTghaus  have  a  dance,  called  the  attum 
or  ghoomboor,  in  which  ten  or  twenty  fxjople 
move  in  strange  attitudes,  shouting  and  clapping 
hands  in  a  circle,  round  a  single  person,  who  plays 
on  an  instrument  in  the  ccntm  The  national 
costume  appears  to  a>nsist  of  a  loose  \^^UT  of 
trousers  of  dark  cotton  stuff;  a  lai^e  shirt,  like  a 
waggoner's  frock,  reaching  a  little  l)elow  the 
knees ;  a  low  cap,  the  sides  being  of  black  silk  or 
satin,  and  the  top  of  some  sort  of  brocade ;  half- 
boots,  lacing  up  to  the  calf;  and  a  clo^  of  soft 
grey  felt,  or  of  well-tanned  sheepskin  with  the 
wool  inside.  The  women  wear  a  shirt  like  tliat  of 
the  men,  but  much  longer  and  of  finer  materials, 
coloured  or  embroidered  with  silk ;  their  trousers 
are  tighter  than  those  of  the  men ;  a  small  cap  of 
bright-coloured  silk,  embroidered  with  gold  thread, 
comes  down  to  the  forehead  or  the  ears ;  and  they 
throw  over  their  head  a  large  sheet  of  plain  or 
printed  cotton,  with  which  they  hide  their  face 
when  a  stranger  approaches ;  they  divide  the  hair 
on  the  brow,  and  phiit  it  into  two  locks  which 
fasten  behind ;  they  wear  round  their  head  strings 
of  Venetian  sequins,  and  chains  of  gold  or  silver, 
which  are  hooked  up,  and  end  in  two  large  balls 
hanging  down  on  either  side:  ear  rings,  finger 
rings,  and  nose  pendants  are  worn.  In  towns  the 
fashions  more  approach  those  of  Persia,  particu- 
larU'  to  the  westward. 

Of  individual  Trihet,  —  \VTiat  has  been  said 
applies  to  the  nation  in  general ;  but  almost  every 
tribe  has  its  peculiar  characteristic,  which  can  be 
but  shortly  touched  upon.  The  Berdooranees, 
who  occupy  the  north-eastern  districts,  are  brave 
but  quarr^somc,  active,  industrious;  but  selfish, 
bigoted,  and  remarkable  for  vice  and  debauchery, 
llieir  quarrelsome  disposition  is  thought  to  have 
li^ven  origin  to  a  sort  of  foderaUve  alliance,  offen- 
sive and  defensive,  among  tribes  and  8ubdi\'isions 
called  GoondecMf  which  were  held  more  binding 
than  ties  of  blood.  From  these  Goondees,  how- 
ever, were  excepted  the  Eussuffzehees,  the  most 
powerful  and  numerous^  as  well  as  most  hnughty. 


insolent,  and  tnrtralent  tribe  of  the  Berdooranees, 
who  arc  said  to  number  700,000  souls.  They  now 
occupy  Swaut,  Bunere,  Punjecora,  &c,  and  are 
notonoufl  for  the  anarchy  which  reigns  among 
their  oolootes,  Tliough  an  agricultural  people, 
they  do  not  themselves  labour ;  this  is  left  to  their 
fakirsj  a  species  of  viUainM  or  servants,  consisting 
of  strangers  or  individuals  of  conquered  tribes  of 
other  nati<»ns,  reduced  to  serve  these  invaders,  and 
protected  by  them  for  their  services.  Their  mas- 
ters, or  khawunds,  can  beat  or  kill  them  at  plea- 
sure, but  are  bound  by  custom  to  protect  them ; 
and  proWded  they  pay  the  customary  tax,  and  do 
their  work,  tliey  may  engage  otherwise  in  trade 
as  they  please,  and  are  commonly  treated  miklly. 

The  Tt)orkolanee»f  who  are  brave,  active,  indus- 
trious, and  cheerful,  are  all  subject  to  one  powerfid 
chief,  who  exercises  over  them  a  very  powerful 
authority. 

The  Khybereeit,  who  possess  the  upper  branches 
of  the  Rajgul  or  Spcengur  mountain,  and  derive 
their  name  from  the  formidable  pass  of  Khylier, 
are  the  most  rapacious  and  treacherous  robbers  of 
all  Affghanistan :  no  previous  agreement  secures 
the  traveller  from  their  assaults;  they  watch  tho 
approach  of  the  caravan,  matchlock  in  hand,  and 
choose  their  \'ictims  witii  certainty  and  security. 
They  are  a  lean  muscular  race,  capital  marksmen, 
and  carry  swords  and  short  spears  in  addition  to 
their  matchlock;  they  are  altogether  more  un- 
couth than  most  of  their  countrymen. 

llie  Khuttuks,  occupying  toe  banks  of  tiie 
Indus,  from  the  Caubul  river  to  the  Salt  range, 
are  a  tall  well-favoured  people,  as  remarkable  for 
honesty  and  orderly  conduct  as  is  their  comitry 
for  drearj'  and  ruggc<i  barrenness. 

The  tribes  of  Damaun  are  said  to  be  moro 
sini)>le  and  honest,  less  bigoted  and  litigious,  less 
vicious  and  debauched,  than  tlie  nortliem  tribes. 
They  are  a  more  bony  and  fairer  race  than  the 
Berdooranees,  and  universally  wear  long  hair  and 
beards.  They  owe  the  greater  order  which  pre- 
vails in  their  oolooscs  to  an  establishment  of  ma- 
gistrates, formed  some  fifty  or  sixty  years  ago, 
which  has  been  eminently  efficient 

The  Gundepoors  are  a  particularly  thievish  and 
quarrelsome  race,  in  spite  of  a  commercial  turn, 
wliich  leads  many  of  them  to  make  annual  trading 
journeys  to  India  and  Khorasan. 

The  Baboors  are  a  civilised  tribe,  mnch  em- 
ployed in  merchandise.  The  Stooreaneet  were 
shepherds,  till  robbed  of  their  pasture  lands  by 
the  CaukerSf  when  they  betook  themselves  to 
agriculture.  These  agricultural  tril)es  have  all 
fakirs,  or  \'illains,  like  the  Eussuffzehees. 

Of  the  central  division,  the  Jauiees  and  Toorees^ 
hereditary  enemies,  live  in  the  glens  and  vallevs 
of  the  Solymaun  range.  The  country  of  tiie 
former  is  colder,  wilder,  and  higher  than  that  of 
the  latter;  the  mountain  sides  are  covered  with 
pines.  The  Jaudraus^  who  dwell  in  a  pleasant 
district  westward  of  the  rich  plain  of  Bunuoo,  are 
remarka))Ie  only  for  their  dis^isting  vices. 

The  SheeranetSf  who  inhabit  the  borders  of  the 
Tukhtn-e-Solvmaun,  a  wild  inaccessible  countr\', 
are  very  poor  and  uncivilised,  plunder  everj'  one, 
and  are  at  war  with  all  the  world ;  yet  theynever 
break  their  word,  and  a  single  individual  of  their 
tribe  suffices  to  secure  the  safety  of  a  iiarty :  they 
are  described  as  wild  and  savage  in  tneir' appear- 
ance, as  in  their  habits  and  mode  of  life.  The 
Zmurrees,  neighbours  of  the  last,  resemble  tliem 
closely,  but  are  less  inveterately  predatory.  The 
Vizeerees,  NW.  of  the  two  last-mentioned  tribes, 
live  in  little  soaeties,  among  pine-covered  moun- 
tains, and  are  equally  uncivilised  and  addicted  to 
plunder;  yet  the  smallest  escort  ensures  safety. 


AFFGHANISTAN 


26 


ttd  the  diiefe,  powerfol  khans,  are,  it  is  said,  le- 
uaiiuible  for  their  love  of  peace.  The  Vizerees 
are  divided  into  a  fixed  and  erratic  population. 
Th«  loo£  valley  of  Zawura,  which  opens  on  the 
plain  ofT^  and  Chooteeallee,  is  inhabited  by  the 
white  and  black  {tpeen  and  tor)  Zertena,  great 
carriers  of  merchandise  between  Upper  Sinde  and 
C'andahar. 

The  two  most  noble  and  important  tribes,  how- 
ever, are  the  DoonmeeM  and  Ghiljees.  Their  terri- 
tory' consists  chiefly  of  high  bleak  downs,  inter- 
»perMd  with  hUls,  in  some  parts  desert,  in  others 
sparsely  cultivated,  in  all  open,  bare,  and  fit  chiefly 
f«ir  pa^tture;.  They  are  therefore  chiefly  a  pastoral 
pcitple,  with  patriarchal  habits,  and  live  for  the 
mijHt  part  in  tents  of  black  wool  lliefle  (Jnzhdeet) 
are  from  20  to  25  feet  long  by  10  or  12  bn)ad,  and 
8  or  !>  high,  supported  by  a  row  of  three  poles,  and 
cliMed  all  round  with  a  curtain.  In  winter  they 
are  lined  with  felt,  and  are  warm  and  comfortable. 
The  country  dT  the  Dooranees  is  400  miles  long 
liy  i:k)  broad,  extending  from  the  Paropamesan 
mountains  to  the  Khoieh  Amr&n  range.  They 
were  formerly  called  Abdallees,  till  the  late  Ahmed 
Shah,  their  diief  and  sovereign,  changed  the  name, 
in  consequence  of  the  dream  of  a  famous  saint,  he 
taking  that  of  Shah  Dooree  Doorftn.  They  may 
amount  to  800/)00  souls;  the  Suddoozehee,  from 
whence  sprung  the  king,  is  a  subdivision  of  the 
Populzehee.  The  king  is  their  hereditary  chief, 
and  military  commander  of  the  whole :  he  claims 
a  hoTMsman^s  service  for  every  plough  of  land; 
and  the  officers  commanding  them  are  the  civil 
magistrates  c^  their  respective  districts,  besides 
being  employed  in  offices  of  state  at  court,  when 
there  was  a  court.  The  internal  government  of 
the  clans  is  better  maintained  than  among  other 
tri)*p3S  and  the  iHt>gress  of  improvement  and  civil- 
isation among  the  agricultural  Dooranees  has 
bc^A  correspondingly  great.  They  are  generally 
handsome  stout  men,  with  good  complexions  and 
fine  beards.  Tbey  are  brave  and  hospitable ;  and 
thdu^h  not  quite  strangers  to  rapacity,  still  may 
be  es^teemed  tne  worthiest  of  their  race. 

The  Ghi^eea  occupy  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Tumuk,  and  great  part  of  the  Caubul  valley,  to 
the  Berdomanee  oountr}' ;  a  tract  which  contains 
ft^m/f  of  the  principal  cities,  with  some  fine  dis- 
tricts of  land,  but  the  climate  of  which  is  cold. 
The  Ghiljees  were  formerly  the  leading  tribe  of 
Affghanistan.  It  was  a  branch  of  them  that 
ctioquered  Persia  and  broke  down  the  power  of 
the  Seffavean  kings;  and  they  are  still  a  high- 
minded,  bnve,  and  numerous  people. 

The  HotdtK  and  Tokhee  are  the  noblest  of  their 
clans,  having  produced — the  first,  kings ;  and  the 
•ecood,  their  viziers;  and  they  are  a  hospitable 
and  good  people,  ranking  deservedly  as  the  second 
of  the  Afl^han  tribes:  they  amount  to  about 
Km^,000  families,  and  resemble  much  the  Dooranees 
in  appearance,  customs,  manners,  and  dress,  though 
hating  them,  as  their  successfal  rivals,  with  an 
unquenchable  hatred.  They  are  perhaps  the 
fairest  and  handsomest  of  all  the  Affghans. 

There  is  yet  another  class,  which,  though  not 
strictly  Aflghan,  still,  as  amalgamated  wiu  that 
people^  ought  to  be  mentioned — the  Tdjuks.  The 
wf  ^  w  used  in  opposition  to  that  of  Toork^  the 
peaceable  to  the  warlike;  and  it  was  applied  to 
the  rabdoed  Pernans  by  their  Tartar  masters.  In 
Aflfchanistan  th^  are  supposed  to  be  descendants 
of  Arabs  displaced  by  their  conquerors,  who  now 
live  scattered  ovtx  the  land  which  they  might 
once  have  cultivated  as  their  own.  As  tenants  or 
•eo-ants,  they  are  mild,  sober,  peaceable,  and  in- 
diatrions,  and  live  on  gopd  terms  with  the  Aff- 
ghans, who,  thoqgh  they  rega^  them  as  inferiora, 


do  not  treat  them  with  contempt  They  are  most 
numerous  in  and  around  the  great  cities,  and  are 
all  zealous  soonnies.  There  are  also  the  Hcuuireha 
and  other  allied  tribes,  whose  language  is  a  dialect 
of  the  Persian ;  and  the  HindloM  and  JaU,  who 
npeak  Hindi,  or  rather  a  dialect  of  that  tongue. 
There  are  also  some  Kashmires  and  Armenians 
settled  at  Caubul,  but  their  number  is  insignificant. 
The  Hindkis  are  veiy  numerous  and  are  Hindus 
of  the  military  caste,  transacting  nearly  all  the 
business  of  the  country.  The  Jata  are  a  fine, 
athletic,  handsome  race,  usually  very  dark.  They 
are  mostly  very  poor,  and  are  employed  as  farm- 
servants,  barbers,  musicians,  &c.  The  Hindkis 
and.  the  Jats  number  about  600,000. 

History  and  Political  Changes. — ^Afigbanistan 
ha^'ing,  from  the  remotest  period  of  authentic 
record,  followed  the  fortunes  of  its  more  powerful 
neighbours,  or  formed  but  the  centre  of  a  greater 
whole,  cannot  correctly  lay  claim  to  any  history 
of  its  own,  until  after  the  death  of  Nadir  Sha^ 
For  though  several  dynasties  sprung  from  its  mil, 
they  never  erected  there  a  separate  kingdom  of 
anv  duration,  unless  perhaps  in  the  instance  of 
Suouctageen,  father  of  the  celebrated  Mahmood 
of  Ghiznee,  who  resided  at  that  city  before  the 
rise  of  his  son's  power — a  power  which  extended 
over  great  part  of  Asia.  On  the  murder  of  Nadir, 
in  Khorasan,  Ahmed  khan  Abdallee,  after  an  in- 
decisive conflict  with  the  Persian  troo^  of  that 
conqueror's  army,  fought  his  way  with  8,000 
A£^nan  horse  to  Kandahar,  where,  seizing  on  a 
convoy  of  treasure  on  its  way  to  Nadir's  camp,  he 
assumed  the  ensigns  of  royalty ;  and,  at  the  age 
of  23,  in  Octobo'  1747,  was  crowned  as  king, 
the  Dooranee,  Kuzbilbash,  Beloochec,  and  other 
chiefs  assisting  at  the  ceremony.  Wise  and  ]>ru- 
dcnt  beyond  his  vears,  Ahmed  consolidated  the 
discordant  mass  of  the  Afighan  tribes  by  employ- 
ing them  in  the  congenial  occupations  of  foreign 
conauest  and  plunder;  in  which  he  was  so  suc- 
cessful, that  before  his  death,  in  June  1 778,  after 
a  reign  of  26  years,  his  dominions  extended  from 
NLst^pour  of  Kliorasan  to  Sirhind  of  the  Punjab, 
and  from  the  Oxus  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Timour  Shah,  a  weak  and 
indolent  prince,  who  died  in  1793. 

Zemaun  Shah,  the  son  of  Timour,  who  was 
placed  on  the  throne  by  a  faction  headed  by  the 
queen,  b^an  his  reign  with  a  promise  of  energy 
and  talent,  which  the  event  but  ill  redeemed ;  f(>r 
after  a  seven  years*  reign  of  ill  directed  cnter- 

E rises,  domestic  rebellions,  and  dark  connpiracies, 
e  fell  a  victim  to  the  revenge  of  a  chief  whom  he 
had  provoked,  and  who  first  opposed,  then  seized 
the  Shah,  and  delivered  him  to  Mahmoo<l,  his 
half-brother  and  most  formidable  competitor,  who 
blinded  the  unfortunate  Zemaun. 

Mahmood,  however,  was  in  his  turn  soon  op- 
posed by  Shujah-ool-Moolk,  full  brother  of  Ze- 
maun, who,  seizing  the  treasure  at  Pcshawur, 
proclaimed  himself  king.  But  his  pros|)crity  was 
short-lived.  Mahmood,  who  hod  been  made  ])ri- 
soner,  escaped,  and  joining  with  Futeh  Khan,  the 
able  chief  of  the  Baurikzehees,  who  had  caused 
the  ruin  of  Zemaun,  raised  a  rebellion  agaiiii»t 
Shujah.  At  this  period  the  British  mifwion  under 
Mr.  Elphinstone  arrived  at  Pcshawur ;  and  l>efore 
it  had  well  quitted  the  country,  the  ill-fated 
Shujah  was  forced  to  flv  and  seek  a  refuge  Mrith 
Runjeet  Sing,  chief  of  the  Sikhs,  from  whone  per- 
secutions he  afterwards  with  difficulty  escaped  to 
throw  himself  on  the  protection  of  the  British 
government  at  Loodheana.  Mahmcxxl,  a  king 
only  in  name,  became  a  ^>ageant  m  the  handi)  of 
Futeh  Khan.  This  minister,  turning  his  arms 
westward,  seized  Her&t,  but  soon  after  fell  a  victim 


26 


AFFGHANISTAN 


to  tieachery  and  the  feelings  of  disgnst  which  his 
aiTt^ancc  had  excited  in  the  mind  of  his  royal 
dqicndant,  being  fint  blinded  and  then  put  to 
death  by  order  of  Mabmood  and  hifl  son  Camriin 
Meerza.  His  numerous  brothers,  alarmed  at  this 
act,  tied  to  their  various  governments  and  strong- 
holds, exciting  discontent  and  rebellion  through- 
out the  kingdom,  until  nothing  of  his  dominions 
remained  to  Mahmood,  save  Her&t  and  its  im- 
mediate dependencies.  Since  then  the  affairs  of 
Aff^hanistan  ])resent  little  save  a  series  of  civil 
broils,  till  the  late  Sikh  chief,  Kunjeet  Sing, 
stripped  it  of  Cashmere  and  Peshawur,  with  the 
country  between  it  and  the  Indus.  It  was  subse- 
quently partitioned  among  the  chiefs  of  Caubul, 
KandiUiar,  and  Her&t.  The  attempt  made  by  the 
English  in  1839,  to  dethrone  the  first  of  these 
chieftains,  on  account  of  treachery  and  bad  faith, 
led  to  some  of  the  severest  reverses  we  have  met 
with  in  the  East.  The  Bolan  Pass,  a  long  and 
narrow  defile,  leading  through  the  mountains  on 
the  S.  frontier  of  Affghanistan,  having  been  passed 
with  difficultv,  the  British  forces  advanced  to 
Kandaliar  and  Ghuznee.  The  latter  was  taken  by 
storm  on  the  22nd  July,  1839.  The  armv  soon 
after  entered  Caubul ;  and  the  chief  Sluih  Shujah 
was  established  on  the  musnud^  Dost  Mahomed 
Khan  having  retreated  with  a  few  followers  be- 
yond the  Oxus. 

A  force  of  lUxiut  8,000  men,  partly  Europeans 
and  partly  Sepoys,  exclusive  of  native  troops, 
having  been  leh  in  the  country  (mostly  at  Cau- 
bul) to  support  and  consolidate  the  newly  estab- 
Ibhed  order  of  things,  the  rest  of  the  British  army 
returned  to  India.  But  no  sooner  had  they  with- 
drawn, than  plots  and  conspiracies  began  to  be 
formed  against  the  English  garrison.  From  some 
unexplained  fatality,  the  Latter  did  not  become 
fully  alive  to  their  danger  till  the  envoys,  Sir 
Alexander  Bumes  and  Sir  William  Macnaughten, 
had  been  assassinated,  when  it  was  too  lute  to 
adopt  the  precautions  necessary  to  ensure  their 
safety.  Bemg  unable  to  maintain  themselveH  in 
Caubul,  the  trooj)s,  amounting  to  about  5,000  men, 
exc.  of  an  infimtely  greater  number  of  camp-fol- 
lowers, women,  and  chihlren,  commenced  their 
retreat  from  it  in  Jauuar}',  1842.  The  defiles 
through  which  they  had  to  iiass  being  of  the  most 
impracticable  description,  the  cold  extreme,  and 
the  attacks  of  the  Affghiuis  incessant,  the  retreat 
was  most  disastrous,  and  residted  in  the  aU  but 
total  destruction  of  those  engaged  in  it. 

The  receipt  of  this  melancholy  intelligence  pro- 
duced a  great  sensation  in  India  and  EiiglauiL 
Government  imme<iiately  resolved  to  march  a 
fresh  army  into  Affglianistan  to  inflict  a  signal 
and  well  merited  punisliment  on  its  treacherous 
neople  and  chiefs.  This  was  effected  in  1842. 
Having  entered  Caubul  the  British  troops  de- 
stroyed its  fortifications;  the  prisoners  and  de- 
tachments that  were  left  in  the  country  were 
relieved ;  and  our  ascendancy  and  the  presti^  that 
had  so  long  been  attached  to  our  arms  were  again 
triumphantly  restored.  But  having  wisely  re- 
nounced all  idea  of  maintaining  a  permanent 
footing  in  the  country,  we  finally  quitted  it  in 
December,  1842. 

Dost  Mahomed  who  had  surrendered  himself 
our  prisoner  was  set  free,  and  returning  to  Caubul 
regamed  the  allegiance  of  his  former  adherents 
and  subjects.  Having  fully  established  himself 
in  the  capital  and  central  provinces,  the  outl]^4ng 
districts  became  the  objects  of  his  aspirations.  In 
1850  he  conquered  Balkh  in  Turkestan,  and,  four 
years  after,  Kandahar,  which  he  made  a  province 
of  CaubuL  Herat,  after  the  death  in  1852  of  Zar 
Mahomed  Khan,  by  whom  the  defence  of  Herat 


AFRAGOLA 

in  1839  had  been  conducted,  was  governed  by  his 
son  and  a  succession  of  usurpers  till  185C,  in  which 
year  the  Affghans,  under  the  direction  of  Kahou- 
dil-Khan,  a  DounuMe  chief,  thri'atened  it.  The 
then  chief  of  Her&t,  Isa  Khan,  a  Bor-Douranee, 
called  in  the  aid  of  the  Pen«iaus,  who,  enpousing 
his  cause,  threw  an  army  into  Herftt  in  IHhd, 
This  being  an  infringement  of  our  treaties  with 
Persia  led  to  a  war  in  1856-7,  in  which  a  small 
force,  despatched  under  General  Out  ram  up  the 
Persian  Gulf,  was  able  to  bring  the  Persians  to 
reason.  In  accordance  with  the  terms  of  a  new 
treaty,  the  Persians  evacuated  Her&t  in  July,  1857. 
On  their  departure,  the  government  fell  into  the 
hands  of  one  Sultan  ^Vhmed  Khan,  a  Barukzve 
chieftain.  The  danger  to  his  western  frontier 
induced  Dost  Mahomed  to  invoke  the  aid  of  the 
British,  and  the  result  was  a  treaty  concluded 
with  him  at  Peshawur  in  January,  1857,  granting 
him  a  subsidy  so  long  as  the  Persian  war  should 
last,  and  providing  that  a  deputation  of  British 
ofiicers  should  enter  the  country  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Dost  Mahomed  to  watch  the  movements 
of  the  Persians,  and  aid  in  organising  the  forces 
of  the  Ameer.  Tlie  mission  wliich  was  sent  Iiarl 
for  political  chief  and  head  Major  H.  B.  Lumsdcn, 
and  the  medical  officer  of  the  miiwion  was  as- 
sistant-surgei>n  W.  H.  Bellew,  whose  wt>rk  we 
have  couHulted  in  the  compilation  of  this  article. 
The  Indian  mutiny  of  1857  added  to  the  dangers 
of  the  mission,  but  by  great  tact  and  pnidence  the 
danger  was  not  only  avoided,  but  the  influence  of 
the  mission  decide<l  the  Affghan  government  to 
remain  faithful  to  the  British  alliance,  and  refrain 
from  attacking  Peshawur,  an  attack  which  in  all 
probability  would  have  been  the  signal  of  a  rising 
of  the  Pimjab,  with  all  the  disastrr>us  conse- 

2uences  of  such  an  event.  Since  the  death  of 
Mt  Mahomed  in  18f)3,  the  country  has  l)cen  the 
scene  of  perpetual  disonlors,  owing  to  the  quanvls 
among  the  sons  of  Dost  Mahomed.  One  of  them, 
Shere  Allee  Khan,  succcetled  in  establii«hing  him- 
self in  Caubul,  consolidating  his  authority  by  a 
*  great  victory'  over  one  of  hL«»  brothers  in  the 
summer  of  1864.  After  the  \mtt\c  the  defeated 
bnither  surreiidenKl  on  the  pnjmise  of  gcKxl  treat- 
ment, but  the  Ameer  treacherously  iinpriwuie*! 
him.  Other  brotliers*,  however,  still  <lispiit4*  the 
Ameer's  authority,  but  the  state  of  matters  is  not 
authentically  enough  known,  nor  of  suflicieut  in- 
terest to  demand  a  more  extended  notice. 

AFIUM-KAliA-IIISSAli  (or  Black  Gistle  of 
Opium) y  a  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  Anatolia, 
cap.  Sanjiock,  i88  m.  E.  Smynui,*lat.  38°  45'  N., 
long.  30"  56'  E.  It  is  situated  on  the  declivity  of 
a  mountain  range,  and  is  defended  by  a  citadel, 
built  on  a  high  and  almost  iiuurcessibic  n>ck.  Po]). 
estimated  bv  Kinneirat  12,000  families,  or  from 
50,000  to  6i),000  individuals.  It  is  pretty  well 
built;  but  the  streets  arc  exceedingly  nam^w,  and 
in  manv  parts  very  steep.  Some  of  them  are 
washed  by  streams  that  descend  firom  the  arljacent 
mountains.  It  has  numerous  mosques,  two  Ar- 
menian chapels,  six  khans,  and  five  public  baths ; 
an  extensive  manufactory  of  black  felts,  fire-arms, 
short  sabres  or  yatagant,  with  stirrups,  bridles,  &c. 
But  it  is  principally  celebrated  for  the  great  ouan- 
titv  of  opium  grown  in  its  vicinity ;  firom  wltich, 
indeed,  it  derives  its  modem  name.  It  is  said  by 
D'Anville  to  be  the  Apamea  of  the  Greeks  and 
Bomans ;  but  the  latter  was  situated  a  good  de^l 
flirther  VV,  According  to  the  Turkish  annals,  it 
was  founded  by  Aladdin,  one  of  the  Seljuckiun 
sultans.  It  was  the  patrimony  of  Othman,  the 
founder  of  the  Turkish  empire,  of  which  it  haa 
ever  since  formed  a  part, 
AFKAGOLA,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 


AFBICA 


27 


Xapjei;  5  m.  XNE.  Naples,  on  the  raflway  from 
Kivie  to  Naplea.  Pop.  16,717  m  1^1.  The  town 
tu^  imnnfiirtTiree  of  stimw  hau,  and  a  great  an- 
nual fiur,  which  commenoea  fittlSit  second  Sunday 
ufMay.  .  »■■ 

AFRICA.  A  Taat  peninMa*  one  of  the  great 
diTL^kiiu  of  the  globe,  situated  tp  the  S.  of  £urope, 
and  to  the  W.  and  SW.  of  Asia.  It  is  separated 
(nm  the  former  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the 
StTait  of  Gibraltar;  the  two  continents  appntach- 
in^  at  the  latter  within  about  10  m.  of  each  other. 
It  Msepanted  from  Asia  by  the  Red  Sea,  at  whose 
iHmtbem  extremity,  the  strait  of  Bab-el-mandeb, 
tlie  (tboru  c^  the  two  ooutinenta  are  only  16  m. 
apart.  Bat  at  the  moat  northerly  extremity  of 
tbe  Ked  Sea,  Asia  and  Africa  are  united  by  the 
I^hmiu  of  Suez ;  the  Mediterranean  being  there 
<b>at  72  m.  from  the  Red  Sea. 

The  mofit  aontheily  point  of  Africa,  Cape  das 
AfHilhas  (Cape  NeeAes),  is  in  hit  840  52'  S.; 
aod  the  moat  northeriy.  Cape  BUnco,  opposite 
iiirilr,  in  lat.  87°  21'  N.  Cape  Gardafui,  the 
B4«t  eauteriy  point,  is  in  long.  51^  80'  £.,  and  lat. 
11^  50'  y. ;  and  Ca^  Veido,  the  extreme  western 

S'lnt,  is  in  long.  170  88'  W.,  and  14^  48'  X.  kt 
M"  ilb'tanoe  between  the  most  southerly  and  most 
ooftherly  points  is  consequently  about  5000  m., 
ud  between  the  extreme  eastern    and  western 
r-ints  not  much  less.    The  area  probably  falls 
ihtle  ithoit,  if  it  do  not  exceed,  12,000,(N)0  sq.  m. 

Africa  is  distinguished  from  the  other  conti- 
ntntA  by  its  coasts  extending  moetlv  in  continuous, 
anl»n>ken  lines,  having  but  few  indentations  of 
the  sea,  and  no  extenuve  peninsulas ;  so  that  it 
ii<nM  a  more  compu:t  and  undivided  mass  of  land. 
The  uniformity  or  its  outline  seems  to  be  in  ac- 
a*rrianoe  with  the  uniformity  of  its  interior.  Tlie 
surface  of  the  latter  does  not  present  that  endless 
sncceMri(*n  of  changes  which  are  met  with  in 
Europe  and  southern  Asia,  and  which  are  found 
in  t>ath  Americas,  but  on  a  greater  scale  and  at 
fsnater  distances.  It  resembles  rather  the  north- 
ern parts  of  Asia,  exhibiting  elevated  table-lands 
anil  k»w  plains,  both  of  immense  extent  and  of 
reraarkime  imilbrmity.  The  whole  of  the  con- 
tinent, from  about  15°^' X.  lat.  of  the  equator,  and 
S.  of  it  to  the  northern  borier  of  the  Ngami 
Water,  20O  S.  of  the  equatoi^  constitutes,  with 
the  exceptioQ  of  the  central  depression  of  the 
Lake  Region,  a  mass  of  elevated  land,  comprising 
extensive  plateaus  and  high  mountain  chains  and 
groups.  North  of  this  Uble-land,  between  10^ 
and  3»fi  N.  lat.,  extends  an  immense  but  low 
plain,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  occupied  by  the 
Great  Desot,  cr  Desert  of  Sahara.  A  compara- 
tively nauTow  tract  of  mountainous  country,  in- 
cluding Atlas  and  its  dependencies,  separates  the 
depCTt  from  the  Mediterranean.  On  the  E.  the 
desert  does  not  reach  the  Red  Sea,  being  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia  and 
the  mcky  oovntries  extending  from  them  north- 
ward along  the  Red  Sea  to  the  shorBS  of  the  Medi- 


The  great  central  belt  south  of  the  eauator 
*  rejects^*  sava  O^itain  Burton,  'the  old  hypo- 
tfaeris  of  oesert  and  plateao,  and  forms  the 
sharpest  ooatrast  to  our  grttdfirthen'  idea  of 
Central  Aftka.'  He  thus  describes  the  eastern 
section  of  it : — *  Near  the  coaat  are  low  littoral 
plains  and  rolling  ground,  with  lagoons,  savan- 
nalks,  and  graany  vallejrs,  the  courses  of  large 
ftreams,  whose  banks,  inundated  by  rain-floods, 
main  in  the  dry  season  meers,  morasses,  reedy 
aisrihee,  and  swamps  of  black  infected  mud.  Be- 
fuod  the  maritime  regions  rise  lines  and  moun- 
tain groups  of  primanr  and  sandstone  formation ; 
ridgs  and  highlanoib  often  wictiUivated,  bat 


rarely  sterile,  with  basins  and  hill-plains  of  exu- 
berant fertility,  traversed  by  perennial  rivulots 
and  streams.  Beyond  the  landward  sluitc  of  these 
African  ghauts  l)egins  on  oIevate<i  plateau,  now 
level  and  tabular,  then  broken  into  undulations 
and  gentle  eminences,  displacing  by  huge  out^ 
crops  of  granites  and  syenites  the  activity  of  the 
igneous  period ;  where  rain  is  deficient,  thiulv  clad 
with  buHh,  broom,  and  slurubbery,  with  tliomy 
and  succulent  thickets,  cut  by  furrows  and  bunit 
by  torrid  suns;  and  veiled  where  moisture  alxmnds 
with  tangled  jungle  rising  from  shallow  valleys, 
with  umbrageous  forests  broken  into  glades' of 
exceeding  beauty,  and  with  interjacent  plains  of 
emerald  or  amber-coloured  gross,  nrom  which  trees 
of  the  darkest  laurel-green,  and  knolls  and  clumps, 
large  and  small,  against  which  no  foller  has  como 
up,  cast  thick  shade  over  their  subject  circlets  of 
luxuriant  underwood.  Dull,  dreary,  and  mono- 
tonous, where  lying  desert,  in  part  this  plateau  is 
adorned  with  a  lavish  nature  s  choicest  charms 
and  varieties.  Bcvond  it,  again,  the  land  sinks 
into  the  Lake  Region,  or  the  great  Central  De- 
pression ;  the  superabundant  moisture  diffused  by 
its  network  of  waters,  fordablc  and  unfonlahle, 
covers  the  land  with  a  rank  gro^i-th  of  gigantic 
grasses  and  timlier-trees,  and  the  excessive  luxu- 
riance of  nature  proves  unfavourable  to  the  de- 
velopment of  animal  organisms.  Throughout  the 
line,  to  judge  without  statistics,  in  the  more  ste- 
rile parts,  about  one-fifth,  and  in  the  more  fruitful 
one-half  of  the  land,  is  under  cultivation ;  whilst 
almost  everywhere  the  abundance  of  the  desert 
vegetation  evidences  the  marvellous  capabilities 
of  the  almost  virgin  s<»ils.  The  superficial  ain- 
formation  owns  four  great  varieties.  \Vlien  low, 
the  plains  are  reedy  and  muddy ;  when  higher 
raised  and  well  watered,  they  l>ear  evergreen 
jungle  and  forest  trees.  In  the  deserts,  where 
water  lies  deep  beneath  the  earth,  and  rain  is 
scarce,  the  plateaus  pnKlucc  short  tufty  grass, 
bush,  and  scraggy  thorn,  and  in  rare  spot^  the 
land  is  almost  bare.'  Dr.  Livingstone,  who  made 
a  journey  into  the  interior  from  Loanda  on  the 
west  coast,  represents  the  country  as  similar  in 
most  essential  characteristics. 

At  the  southern  extremity',  Africa  presents  to 
the  Indian  Ocean  a  broad  line  of  coast,  running 
east  and  west  nearly  along  the  84th  parallel  fn>m 
18©  to  26°  E.  long.,  or  fh>m  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  to  Algoa  Bay.  Along  this  coast  extends  an 
undulating  count rj%  intersected  with  a  few  eleva^ 
tions  deserving  the  name  of  hilK  Its  vridth  varies 
between  10  and  50  miles.  Nonh  of  this  the  table- 
land rises  in  terraces.  The  fin<t  terrace,  chilled  the 
Long  Kloof,  is  enclosed  by  the  double  ridgi>  of  the 
Zwarte  Bergc,  or  Black  iifoun tains,  of  which  the 
northern,  or  the  Grootc  (Great)  Zwarte  Berge, 
rises  to  about  4000  ft  above  the  sea.  North  <»f  this 
range  is  the  second  terrace,  called  the  great 
Karroo,  which  is  about  100  miles  across  and  3,000 
feet  elevated  above  the  sea.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  the  Nieunveld  licrgcn,  a  chain  of  which 
some  summits  arc  considered  to  rise  to  9,000  or 
10,000  feet.  On  its  northern  side  the  table-land 
seems  to  have  attained  its  mean  elevation,  which 
probably  is  not  less  than  from  4,(H)0  to  5,000  feet. 

At  both  the  eastern  and  western  extremities  the 
two  above-mentioned  ranges  run  NW.  and  NK. 
parallel  to  the  sea-shore,  at  a  distance  of  fVoin  80 
to  200  miles  ;  the  intermediate  space  being  like- 
wise occupied  by  two  or  more  terraces.  The 
ranges  along  the  west  shores  do  not  extend  farther 
than  about  2^  S.  hit,  where  they  terminate  hi 
isoUtcd  hills  and  with  a  high  bank  on  the  Gareep 
or  Orange  River.  N.  of  this  river,  the  coast,  when 
seen  from  the  sea,  prescuta  only  high  sand-hilla 


28 


AFRICA 


without  any  traces  of  water,  and  is,  consequently, 
entirely  destitute  of  v^etation.  It  extends  as 
far  as  Cape  Negro  (18^  S.  lat).  The  interior  east 
of  the  western  ranges  and  of  this  coast  is  an  ele- 
vated sandy  desert,  with  few  wells  and  little  rain. 

The  eastern  half  of  the  table-land  firom  the 
Gape  Colony  to  18^  S.  lat.  offers  a  different  aspect. 
A  great  number  of  mountain-ridges,  of  moderate 
elevation,  traverse  it  in  different  directions ;  and 
at  the  foot  of  these  ridges  the  country  is  well 
watered  and  fertile ;  though  here,  too,  extensive 
sterile  tracts  occur,  but  they  are  not  continuous. 
The  descent  from  the  table-land  to  the  Indian  Ocean 
is  formed  by  two  or  three  terraces,  the  highest 
edge  of  it  about  90  or  100  miles  distant  from  the 
shore.  This  edge,  formed  bv  a  mountain  ridge, 
prevents  the  rivers  of  the  table-land  from  escaping 
to  the  Indian  Ocean;  so  that  they  either  run 
westward,  and  fall  partly  into  the  Gareep  river,  or 
arc  partly  lost  in  the  sands  of  the  desert.  The 
eastern  descent  of  the  table-land  resembles  that 
farther  south,  being  formed  by  terraces,  Tliis, 
however,  extends  only  to  the  equator,  or  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Juha ;  for  farther  north,  up  to 
Cape  Gardafui,  the  coast  itself  is  formed  by  high 
rocKs,  rising  to  400  feet  and  upward,  and  no  moun- 
tain jranges  are  visible  from  Uio  sea.  On  the 
western  side  of  the  continent,  between  18^  and 
40^  S.  lat,,  there  is  a  considerable  depression  in 
the  table-land.  This  country,  which  is  knovm 
under  the  name  of  Lower  Guinea,  has  low  shores, 
behind  which  at  a  considerable  distance  the  sur- 
face rises,  but  not  to  a  great  height,  llien  follows 
an  uneven  plain,  watered  in  its  lower  parts  by 
numerous  rivers,  among  which  the  Zaire  or  Congo 
and  the  Cuanza  are  the  largest ;  but  towards  the 
sources  of  these  rivers  the  country  is  mountainous. 
In  the  plain  numerous  lakes  of  considerable  ex- 
tent are  met  with. 

North  of  the  river  Zaire,  at  about  4^  S.  lat., 
the  country  again  rises  at  no  great  distance  from 
the  Mca  to  a  great  height  This  high  ground  b 
called  Scrra  Complidc.  Its  W.  declivity  extends 
NW,,  by  degrees  approaching  nearer  the  Atlantic, 
till  it  reaches  the  mncrmost  comer  of  the  IVay  of 
Biafra,  where  it  comes  close  down  to  the  sea,  and 
forms  for  more  than  80  miles  the  shore,  rising, 
under  the  name  of  Cameroon  Mountains,  to  13,000 
feet  above  the  water.  These  great  mountain 
masses  form  the  W.  extremity  of  an  extensive 
range,  which  at  about  5^  of  N.  lat.  traverses  the 
whole  continent. 

Dr.  Livingstone  fotmd  the  geological  structure 
of  the  earth,  which  he  had  an  opportunity  of  exa- 
mining at  the  river  Moamba  (lat  9^  38'  S.,  long. 
2(P  13'  34"  E.),  to  consist  of— first,  a  capping  of 
ferruginous  conglomerate,  containing  water-worn 
pebbles  of  all  sorts;  then  a  pale  red  hardened 
8an<Lst4>ne;  beneath  that,  a  trap-like  whinstone; 
and  lastly  a  coarse-grained  sandstone,  containing 
|)ebbles,  and  in  connection  with  which  is  some- 
times seen  a  white  calcareous  rock,  or  banks  of 
quartz  pebbles. 

The  true  nature  of  the  centre  of  this  southern 
belt  is  now  satisfactorily  established.  Sir  Roderick 
Murchison  had  the  honour  of  starting  the  theory, 
which  has  since  l)een  verified  by  the  discoveries  of 
African  explorers,  that,  instead  of  the  arid  plain 
long  supposed,  the  centre  of  Southern  Africa  is  a 
vast,  elevated,  watery  basin,  whose  waters  escape 
to  the  sea  by  fissures  and  depressions  in  the  higher 
lands  by  which  it  is  surrounded. 

Extending  southward  from  Lake  Ngami  to  the 
Orange  Kiver,  and  from  24^  east  long,  to  near  the 
west  coast,  is  the  Kalahari  Desert  This  tract. 
Dr.  Livingstone  says,  has  been  called  a  desert 
merely  on  account  of  the  absence  of  nmning 


water.  It  is  by  no  means  destitute  of  vegetation. 
Many  plants  are  found  there,  more  especially  the 
water-melon,  and  there  are  patches  of  bushes  and 
even  trees.  The  soil  is  soft,  light-coloured  sand, 
and  the  grass  grows  abundantly  and  in  tufts.  The 
human  inhabitants  of  this  region  are  the  Bushmen 
and  the  Bakalahari. 

Still  farther  south,  at  Cape  Colony,  Ainca  pre- 
sents to  the  Indian  Ocean  a  broad  and  undulating 
line  of  coast,  extending  firom  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  to  Algoa  Bay. 

North  Africa,  extending  from  south  to  north 
through  a  breadth  of  about  25  degrees,  contains 
two  different  countries,  the  one  fertile  and  the 
other  sterile.  The  fertile  lands  are,  on  one  side, 
thoae  which  lie  along  the  Mediterranean,  and  on 
the  other,  the  tropical  lands  to  the  south  of  the 
Sahara,  called  the  Soudan.  Of  these  Dr.  Barth 
says,  that  they  arc  far  from  exhibiting  the  moni>- 
tony  popularly  ascribed  to  them.  He  describes  the 
fertile  regions  of  Negroland  as  being  as  varied  as 
any  part  of  India.  He  tells  us  *  Moimtains  be- 
tween 5,000  and  6,000  feet  are  not  at  all  rare,  and 
most  beautiful  and  picturesque  glens  and  valleys 

are  formed  by  them The  general  middle 

altitude  of  mountainous  tracts  is  2,500  feet'  In 
many  parts  it  is  well  watered  by  rivers,  which 
descend  from  the  table-lands  at  originate  in  the 
low  ridges  by  which  the  country  is  intersected; 
such  districts  are  covered  with  immense  forests, 
and  are  very  fertile  where  cultivated.  In  other 
parts  water  is  rather  scarce,  and  some  of  them 
partake  largely  of  the  nature  of  the  Sahara.  Ita 
climate  is  extremely  hot,  ne\'ertheless  it  sometimes 
happens  that  during  night  the  thermometer  de- 
scends to  the  freezing  point 

The  Sahara,  or  Great  Desert  is  not,  as  was  once 
believed,  a  deep  sink.  It  is  rather,  to  quote  from 
Dr.  Barth,  *  an  elevated  tract  of  a  mean  elevation 
of  from  1,000  to  1,400  feet,  mostly  consisting  of 
rock — namely,  sandstone  or  granite,  the  latter 
being  overlaid  in  the  heart  of  the  desert  by  vast 
tracts  of  gravel,  while  the  sandstone  region  forms 
many  elevated  plains  of  larger  or  smaller  extent, 
strewn  with  small  pebbles.'  Several  mountainous 
groups  are  found  in  different  parts  of  this  tract, 
the  most  important  being  Tibesti,  A'sben  or  A'ir, 
the  two  mountainous  regions  of  A'derer,  and  the 
A'taleor.  These  afford  a  dwelling-place  to  a  con- 
siderable nomadic  population ;  but  the  inhabitable 
localities  are  limited,  and  the  ravines  are  verv'  un- 
healthy, though  some  of  them  are  amply  pro- 
vided with  water-springs,  and  produce  grapes  and 
figs. 

These  mountains,  however,  are  quite  destitute  of 
timber.  A  characteristic  feature  of  this  desert  is 
the  immense  change  of  temperature  which  is  found 
there.  The  greatest  heat  in  summer  alternates 
with  a  considerable  degree  of  cold  in  winter,  the 
difference  between  the  maximum  and  minimum 
being  as  much  as  80<^  The  aridity  of  these  tracts 
Dr.  Barth  thinks  greatly  exaggerated,  as  they  are 
occasionally  refreshed  by  showers.  Another  cha- 
racteristic feature  of  the  Sahara  is  the  reaion  of 
Sandhills,  which  exist  either  in  zones  of  sand- 
ridges,  or  in  the  shape  of  isolated  hills.  The  for- 
mer sometimes  reach  an  elevation  of  from  800  to 
1,000  feet,  and  have  a  breadth  of  60  geographical 
miles.  A  great  deal  of  moisture  collects  in  the 
depressions  between  these  ridges,  and  in  most  of 
them  large  quantities  of  dates  are  produced.  All 
the  western  part  of  the  Sahara  would,  owing  to 
ita  burning  heat  and  the  want  of  water,  be  totally 
impassable,  were  it  not  that  it  is  here  and  there 
interspersed  with  venlant  well-watered  spots  or 
oases,  which  appear  like  islands  of  the  blest  in  the 
midst  of  desolAtion.   The  ancients  compared  them- 


30 


AFRICA 


approaches  the  zenith,  whereas  it  occurs  in  the 
countries  beyond  the  tropics  when  the  sun  ai>- 
pfoaches  the  opposite  tropic,  and  consequently  is 
at  the  greatest  distance  from  their  zenith.  l)ut 
Dr.  Livingstone  says : — All  the  interior  of  South 
Africa  has  a  distinct  winter  of  cold,  var3ring  in 
intensi^^  with  the  latitudes.  In  the  central  parts 
of  the  cfape  colony,  the  cold  in  the  winter  is  often 
severe,  and  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow.  At 
Kuruman  snow  seldom  falls,  but  the  front  is  keen. 
There  is  frost  even  as  far  as  the  Chobe,  and  a  par- 
tial winter  in  the  Barotse  vallev,  but  beyond  the 
Orange  River  we  never  have  cold  and  damp  com- 
bineiL  Indeed  a  shower  of  rain  seldom  or  never 
falls  during  winter,  and  hence  the  healthiness  of 
tJie  Bcchuana  climate.  From  the  Barutse  valley 
northwards,  it  is  questionable  if  it  ever  freezes; 
but  during  the  prevalence  of  the  south  wind,  the 
thermometer  anxs  as  low  as  42^,  and  conveys  the 
impression  of  bitter  cold.'  Mr.  Galton,  travelling 
in  South-western  Africa,  ovct  the  hiUy  country 
which  separates  the  Fish  River  from  the  sea,  savs 
that  the  rains  were  periodical  and  very  variable. 
From  the  middle  oi^May  to  November  rain  is 
scarcely  ever  known  to  falL  The  rainy  season 
extends  from  about  the  first  of  January  to  the  last 
of  April ;  the  groimd  is  seldom  saturated  till  Feb- 
ruary, and  is  quite  dried  up  by  June.  Yet,  not- 
withstanding the  appearance  of  drought,  the 
marks  of  violent  torrents  are  visible.  Captain  Bur- 
ton thinks  the  climate  of  Eastern  Equatorial  Africa 
superior  to  that  of  the  Western  coast^  but  of  too 
uniform  a  temperature,  and  too  deficient  in  cold 
to  be  healthy  for  Europeans. 

Rivera. — The  last  few  years  have  produced  an 
entire  revolution  in  our  ideas  of  the  water  system 
of  Africa.  Instead  of  the  *  dry  and  thirsty  land ' 
which  books  of  geography  were  accustomed  to  re- 
present the  interior,  recent  discovery  has  disclosed 
a  vast  assemblage  of  rivers  and  lakes,  which  are 
not  onlv  important  as  subjects  of  geograpliical 
knowlo(^e,  but  which  it  is  hoped  and  believed  may 
l>e  made  the  means  of  developing  the  resources  of 
the  countr)',  and  of  raising  the  condition  of  the 
inhabitants. 

The  principal  river  is  the  famous  Nile,  the  only 
large  navigable  river  on  the  North  African  coast. 
Ai^iming  as  its  source  the  Victoria  Nyanza  of 
Spekc,  a  little  to  the  south  of  the  equator,  the  Nile 
has  a  course  nearly  due  north,  extending  over  more 
than  thirty  degrees  of  latitude,  and  its  length  and 
depth  of  water  entitle  it  to  rank  as  one  of  the 
most  considerable  rivers  of  the  globe,  while  of  the 
laige  rivers  it  is  bv  far  the  most  famous.  Till 
quite  recent  years,  the  Nile  was  reckoned  the  only 
laige  river  of  Africa,  but  modem  exploration  has 
added  to  the  list  the  Niger,  flowing  into  the  At^ 
lantic  on  the  west  coast,  and  the  Zambesi,  whose 
principal  sources  appear  to  lie  quite  near  those  of 
the  Nile,  in  the  great  central  depression  of  equa- 
torial Africa  above  described,  though  it  receives 
numerous  important  tributaries  farther  south.  It 
is  the  chief  nver  on  the  side  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Among  other  considerable  rivers  are  the  Senegal, 
the  Gambia,  the  Congo,  the  Coanza,  and  Orange 
rivers  on  the  west  coast,  to  which  may  be  added 
the  Ogoboi  of  M.  du  Choillu.  On  the  east  coast, 
the  most  important  river  next  to  the  Zambesi 
appears  to  bo  the  Rovuma,  which  flpws  into  the 
Indian  Ocean  north-east  of  the  Zambesi,  and 
which  has  lately  been  found  useful  as  a  conve- 
nient mo<le  of  access  to  the  interior,  where  lie  the 
sources  of  the  Zambesi. 

LakeM, — These  are  numerous,  and  often  of  great 
exti^nt.  The  I-.ake  Tangarrijika,  one  of  the  most 
important  in  the  great  lake  region,  was  diiicovcreti 
by  Captains  Burton  and  Sfieke  in  the  year  18.58. 


It  is  1,800  ft  above  the  level  (^  the  tea;  and  has  i 
length  of  about  800,  and  a  breadth  of  from  30  to 
40  miles.  The  same  year.  Captain  Speke  made  a 
more  important  discovery,  in  the  Lake  Victoria 
Nvanza,  the  reservoir  from  which  the  Bahr-el- 
Abiad,  or  White  Nile,  descends  into  Egypt.  This 
lake  is  between  8,000  and  4,000  feet  above  th« 
level  of  the  sea,  and  is  at  present  about  150  miles 
in  len^h  and  In^eadth,  though  Captain  Speke  sap- 
poses  it  to  have  been  at  some  period  of  greater 
extent.  The  northern  shore  of  the  Nyanza  is 
parallel  to  the  equator,  and  its  north  and  south 
direction  is,  from  2^^  S.  lat  to  8^  80'  N.  lat  It 
has  been  ascertained  that  two  other  lakes,  viz.  the 
Baringa  and  the  Luta  Nzif^,  have  a  share  in  feed- 
ing the  Nile :  the  Luta  Nzig^  lies  120  miles  north- 
west of  the  most  northerly  part  of  the  Nyanza. 
Previous  to  this,  Dr.  Livingstone  had  made  hia 
discovery  of  Lake  Ngami,  20^  S.  of  the  equator, 
and  more  recentlv  he  has  explored  Lake  ^^yasaa, 
a  lake  in  East  Africa,  which  gives  exit  to  the 
Shird  river,  and  which  is  surrounded  by  a  dense 
population.  During  a  certain  portion  of'^  the  year, 
this  lake  is  visited  by  clouds  of  midge»,  which  fill 
the  air  to  a  prodigious  height,  and  cover  the 
waters.  The  natives  gather  these  insects,  and 
bake  them  into  cakes.  (See  Letter  from  Mr.  C. 
Livingstone  to  Sir  R.  Murchison,  Journal  of  Geo- 
graphical Society,  1868.)  The  Tchad  Lake  is 
upon  the  southern  border  of  the  Sahara.  There 
arc  many  other  lakes  of  less  moment  The  Lake 
of  Demliea,  in  Abyssinia,  traversed  by  the  Bahr- 
el-Azrek,  or  Eastern  Nile,  is  also  of  very  consider- 
able magnitude. 

Racet  of  People. — Although  we  are  accustomed 
to  consider  the  inhabitants  of  Africa  as  being 
generally  of  the  Nc^ro  race,  the  actual  number 
of  varieties  of  the  human  family  occupying  this 
portion  of  the  globe  is  not  only  much  gnuiter  than 
those  found  in  Europe,  but  the  differences  in  coIout, 
form,  and  stature  are  much  wider.  There  ore 
about  neven  ascextoinable  varieties,  which  mav  lie 
enumerated  as  foUows,  beginning  with  the  soutfiem 
extremity  of  the  continent:  \iz,  the  Hottentot, 
Kaffer,  Abyssinian,  Egyptian,  Numidian,  Nubian, 
and  Nc^nro.  We  shall  give  a  brief  description  of  each 
race  in  this  order.  In  the  Hottentot  the  colour  of 
the  skin  is  a  yellowish  brown,  and  has  been  com- 
pared to  that*  of  a  '  faded  leaf.'  The  cheek  bones 
are  high,  and  much  spread  out  in  the  lateral  direc- 
tion; and  from  these  the  face  is  suddenly  con- 
tracted below  to  a  very  narrow  and  pointed  chin. 
Nose  remarkably  fiat  and  broad  towards  end. 
Colour  of  the  eyes  a  deep  chesnut ;  they  ore  long, 
narrow,  and  removed  to  a  great  distance  fntra 
each  other.  The  hair  of  the  head  is  of  a  singular 
nature;  it  does  not  cover' the  whole  scalp,  but 
grows  in  small  tufls  at  certain  distances  from  each 
other.  When  kept  short,  it  has  the  appearance 
and  feel  of  a  hard  shoe-brush ;  with  this  difierencc, 
that  it  i»  curled,  and  twisted  into  small  round  lumps 
about  the  size  of  a  marrowfat  pea.  When  suf- 
fered to  grow,  it  hangs  on  the  neck  in  hanl  twisted 
tassels  like  fringe.  There  is  little  beard ;  and  the 
hair  on  other  paxts  of  the  body  is  cither  scanty  or 
altogether  wanting.  The  stature  of  the  Hottentot 
is  very  short,  about  four  feet  six  inches  being  con- 
sidered about  the  middle  size  for  the  men,  and 
four  feet  for  the  women,  which  is  about  fourteen 
inches  short  of  the  average  stature  of  Euro|)eaiis. 
Their  form  is  slender,  delicate,  and  not  ill-propor- 
tioned ;  but  altogether  they  may  be  pn>nounced  a 
very  ugly  race.  The  sex  is  diHtinguisihed  from  all 
others  of  the  human  race  by  a  pendulous  rugose 
elongation  of  the  nymphee  of  from  two  to  five 
inches  long,  and  by  a  vast  accumulation  of  fat 
over  the  glutei  muscles,  which  invariably  takes 


AFRICA 


31 


place  after  the  fint  conoeption.  Both  these  ap- 
peanuHses  are  well  ascertained  to  be  natural,  and 
in  DO  way  the  remit  of  art.  The  language  of  the 
Hottentota  is  as  mngnlar  as  their  persons.  Its 
pronnncialion  has  been  compared  to  the  clucking 
of  a  turkey.  There  are  numerous  guttural  sounds 
produoed  deep  in  the  throat,  and  pronounced  with 
a  peculiar  ckck  of  the  tongue,  which  is  quickly 
stnick  against  and  withdrawn  from  the  teeth  or 
palate.  The  aspirated  gutturals  are  combined 
with  harsh  coosonanta  in  a  manner  unpronoun- 
ceable by  Europeans,  except  those  who  have  ac- 
quired the  language  in  infancy.  No  portion  of 
this  race,  unconnected  with  Europeans,  has  ad- 
vaooed  beyond  the  rudest  stage  of  the  pastoral 
state  of  society.  When  discovered,  they  had  do- 
mesticated the  ox  and  the  sheep,  the  flesh  and 
milk  of  which  afforded  them  food,  and  their  skins, 
with  those  of  wild  animals,  clothing ;  they  knew 
nothing  of  tillage,  had  no  fixed  dwellings,  and 
pracdaed  no  mechanical  art  excepting  tiiat  of 
iabricatiiig  the  bow  and  arrow.  The  ancient 
ooontry  of  the  Hottentot  variety  may  generally 
he  described  as  that  which  now  constitutes  the 
British  colony  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

The  immediate  neighbours  of  the  Hottentots, 
and  lying  N.  and  NG.  of  them,  are  the  Caffrts,  in 
all  leapects  a  difierent  race.  The  colour  of  the 
Kaffer  is  neither  black,  like  that  of  the  Negro,  nor 
of  the  eoloor  of  a  faded  leaf^  like  that  of  the  Hot- 
tentot, bat  of  a  deep  brown.  Hair  short,  curling, 
and  woolly ;  but  it  is  not  of  the  wooliness  of  the 
Negro.  Noee  tolerably  elevated ;  lips  large  and 
thick ;  bat  the  lower  maxillary  bone  does  not  pro- 
ject in  the  remarkable  manner  of  the  Negro,  and 
dmsequently  the  fiunal  angle  is  much  greater. 
The  body,  instead  of  being,  as  in  the  Hottentot, 
diminative  and  feeble,  is  muscular  and  athletic, 
and  the  stature  is  equal  to  that  of  the  European 
race.  The  peculiarities  of  the  female  form  in  Uieir 
mmthem  ndgfabours  have  no  existence  among 
them,  and  the  genius  of  their  language  is  distinct 
and  peculiar.  In  the  useful  arts  they  have  made 
ciHwiderable  progress.  Besides  domesticating  Uie 
ox  and  sheep,  they  have  also  tamed  the  horse  and 
{Toat ;  and  their  agriculture  extends  to  the  culti- 
vation of  baiiey  «id  millet  It  is  a  singular  and 
djytinctive  trait  that  they  practise  univeisally  the 
rite  <A  circumcision.  Of  the  origin  of  the  practice 
thtrv  can  give  no  account;  and  it  has  most  pro- 
bal»ly  been  derived  from  intercourse,  at  some  re- 
mote period,  with  s<»ne  people  by  whom  it  was 
practised. 

The  Abytaimiam  race  is  entirely  different  from 
thone  previously  mentioned.  Their  colour  is  nearly 
black ;  hot  the  hair  is  long,  and  generally  lank, 
like  that  of  an  Arab  or  Hindoo.  Features  regular, 
after  the  European  model,  and  the  nose  often  aqui- 
line. The  stature  equals  that  of  the  European ; 
and  the  whole  person  is  generally  well  formed,  and 
nccasiooally  handsome.  The  nations  compre- 
hended under  this  race  have  made  considerable 
pnigrese  in  the  useful  arts.  They  have  domesti- 
cated most  of  the  useful  animals,  as  the  ox,  sheep, 
horse,  aas,  and  camel ;  and  cultivate  most  of  the 
common  corns,  as  wheat,  barley,  and  miUet.  They 
ahn  work,  with  some  skill,  articles  of  iron,  copper, 
sad  brasa ;  and  except  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and 
probably  the  Nnmidians,  are  the  only  native  race 
of  the  entire  continent  who  have  invented  an  al- 
phabet or  posocascd  a  literature. 

The  Egj^ptian  race  is  represented  by  the  Copts 
of  Egypt.  These  have  long  hair,  a  yellowish 
daetkv'complexion,  neither  Grecian  nor  Arabian, 
a  poded  viMge,  swollen  eyes,  flat  noses,  and  thick 
lips :  and,  in  short,  according  to  Volney,  much  rc- 
sembk  Molattos,  or  the  mixed  ofSs^nng  of  the 


European  and  Negro.  It  is  almost  unncoessaTv  to 
add,  that  this  was  one  of  the  earliest  civilised  races 
of  mankind ;  and  that  at  least  thirty  ages  ago  it 
had  already  tamed  the  useful  animals,  cultivated 
the  most  valuable  plants,  smelted  the  useful  and 
precious  metals,  and  erected  architectural  monu- 
ments which  for  their  durability,  extent,  and  gran- 
deur, still  astonish  the  world.  They  were  also 
among  the  first  to  invent  hieroglyphic  and  alphar 
betic  writing. 

The  next  race  to  be  named  is  the  Numidian, 
The  people  who  inhabit  the  northern  portion  of 
Africa  from  about  the  18^  of  N.  latitude  to  the 
Mediterranean,  and  known  by  the  various  names 
of  Moore,  Berbera,  Tuai^his,  and  Tibbans,  are,  in 
some  cases  with  an  admixture  of  Arab  blood,  pro- 
bably the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country 
before  the  settlement  of  the  Phcenicians,  Romans, 
Vandals,  or  Arabs ;  that  is,  they  are  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Lybians,  Numidians,  Mauritanians,  and 
kindred  tribes.  With  this  race  the  hair  is  long  and 
black ;  eyes  dark ;  the  colour  of  the  skin  alight 
brown,  little  deeper  than  that  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Spain ;  the  features  are  European,  but  the  nose 
generally  not  very  prominent,  and  never  aquiline, 
as  is  often  the  case  with  the  Arabian.  Although 
apparently  superior  at  all  times  in  civilisation  to 
any  Negro  nation,  this  race  appeara  at  no  period 
to  have  made  any  remarkable  progress  in  arts  or 
arms,  and  scarcely  any  in  lettere ;  for  it  has  been 
ascertained  only  of  late  jears,  rather  as  a  matter 
of  curiosity  than  anytbmg  elsc^  that  they  once 
possessed  the  art  of  alphabetic  writing.  Their  lan- 
gua^  indeed,  is  but  the  jaigon  of  a  rude  people, 
desdtute  of  terms  to  express  the  most  common 
distinct  ideas,  such  as  shortness^  roun€lne$$,  ahth, 
and  death.  Such  ideas  are  either  expressed  by  cir- 
cumlocutions, or  in  more  difficult  circumstances 
recourse  is  had  to  the  Arabic  language.  Their  in- 
feriority is  indeed  most  decidedly  implied  by  the 
facility  with  which  thev  have  given  way  before 
every  successive  race  of  conquerors,  during  a  pe- 
riod of  at  least  2,500  years. 

The  next  race  to  be  described  may  be  called  the 
Nuhtan;  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  Abys- 
sinians,  will  comprehend  nearly  all  the  people  of 
Africa  from  about  8^  of  N.  latitude  to  the  southern 
confines  of  Egypt,  and  from  the  Rc^  Sea  and  In- 
dian Ocean  on  the  east  to  about  the  26°  of  E.  lon- 
gitude westward.  In  this  race  are  included  the 
people  called  Barabra  or  Nuba,  the  people  of  Sennar, 
the  Sumuli,  the  Snaking,  the  Bishari,  the  Abab- 
dah,  the  Galla,  and  othere.  A  long  oval  counte- 
nance ;  a  curved  nose,  somewhat  rounded  towards 
the  top ;  rather  thick  lips,  but  not  protruding  ex- 
cessively, like  those  of  the  "Segro ;  a  retreating 
chin ;  scanty  beard ;  lively  dark  eyes ;  strongly 
frizzled,  but  never  woolly  hair ;  and  a  finely  formed 
person  of  the  middle  size,  with  a  bronze  com- 
plexion, are  the  physical  characteristics  of  this 
race.  Some  of  the  nations  of  this  race  have  made 
considerable  prc^jesH  in  the  common  arts  of  life, 
but  they  have  no  indigenous  literature. 

With  the  exceptions  now  mentioned,  the  rest  of 
the  African  contment  may  be  said  to  be  peopled 
by  the  Negro  race,  which  commences  at  the  south- 
em  boundary  of  the  great  desert,  and,  embracing 
both  the  western  and  eastern  coast,  with  the  island 
of  Madagascar,  extends  to  about  20^  of  S.  latitude. 

The  foUowing  are  the  leading  characteristics  of 
this  well-knovm  varietv  of  our  species : — Skin  and 
eyes  black;  hair  black  and  woolly;  skull  com- 
pressed laterally,  and  elongated  towanls  the  front ; 
forehead  low,  narrow,  and  slanting ;  cheek  bones 
prominent;  jaws  narrow  and  projecting;  upper 
front  teeth  oblique;  chin  receding;  eyes  promi- 
nent; nose  broad,  thick,  flat,  and  confused  with 


82 


AFRICA 


the  extended  jaw ;  lipR,  particularly  the  upper  one, 
very  thick ;  imlrna  of  the  hand  and  soles  of  the 
feet  flat ;  tibia  and  fibula  convex ;  pelvis  narrow ; 
kneefl  turned  in,  toes  turned  out.  The  stature  and 
physical  strcn^h  are  equal  to  that  of  the  European. 
Many  of  the  Negro  tribes  have  made  considerable 
pni}.cre8s  in  the  necessary  and  useful  arts,  a  pro- 
gress which,  it  may  be  safely  affirmed,  greatly  sur- 
lusses  that  made  by  Any  native  race  (»f  America, 
rhey  cultivate  useful  grains,  roots,  and  fruits ;  liave 
appropriated  the  services  of  many  of  the  domestic 
animals,  such  as  the  ox,  horse,  ass,  camel,  goat, 
sheep,  and  hog,  all  of  which  appear  to  be  indige- 
nous. It  is  singular,  however,  that  no  Negro  tribe, 
nor  even  any  native  African  race,  has  ever  had  the 
ingenuity  to  tame  and  train  the  elephant,  a  service 
to  civilisation  which  has  been  performed  by  almost 
every  Asiatic  nation  to  whose  countrv  this  animal 
is  indigcnr)us,  and  which  there  is  abundant  evi- 
dence to  show  was  done  by  the  Carthaginian  and 
Koman  settlers  in  Africa. 

It  is  a  still  more  striking  fact  that  no  Negro, 
and  indeed  no  African  nation,  save  the  Egyptians, 
Abyssinians,  and  partially  the  Numidians,  ever 
possessed  a  literature,  or  had  ingenuity  to  invent 
anv  alphabet,  however  rude. 

'riie  general  character  thus  sketched  belongs 
with  more  or  less  intensity  to  the  whole  Negro 
race  within  the  limita  we  have  assigned  to  it :  but 
it  is  not  at  the  same  time  to  be  forgotten  that  there 
is  much  variety — a  greater  perliaps  than  exists 
among  the  European  or  any  other  family.  The 
Berben  form  the  chief  part  of  the  population  of 
Baibar^,  and,  according  to  Dr.  Barth,  *  arc  of  un- 
mcnse  im^Mrtance  in  the  whole  question  of  African 
and  Asiatic  ethnography,  as  a  link  bet^'een  various 
and  most  distinct  races.'  He  estimates  them  in 
liarbarj',  though  existing  under  different  names, 
and  speaking  dialects  greatly  mixed  with  Arabic, 
at  between  7,000,000  and  8,000,000.  The  Man- 
dingoi  are  a  numerous  people,  occupying  the  moun- 
tainous country  on  the  west  side  of  the  continent 
which  lies  towards  the  sources  of  tlie  rivers  Senegal 
and  Gambia.  They  possess  the  true  Negro  fea- 
tures, but  not  in  an  exaggerated  form.  The  colour 
is  black,  with  a  mixture  of  yellow ;  the  person 
strong,  symmetrical,  and  above  the  middle  stature. 
Of  all  the  Negro  races  the  Mandingos  have  exhi- 
bited the  greatest  aptitude  for  improvement,  Thcv 
are  industrioas,  enterprising,  and,  compared  yrith 
their  neighbours,  of  an  o|)en  and  generous  cha- 
racter. They  have  adopted  the  Mohammedan  re- 
ligion, and  with  it  the  letters  and  literature  of 
Arabia.  The  Fouhh$,  or  Fulbe,  inhabit  the  same 
f  Nirtion  of  Africa.  The  colour  of  the  skin  with  this 
race  is  a  sort  of  r^ldish  black.  Their  countenances 
are  regular,  and  their  hair  longer  and  not  so  woolly 
as  that  of  the  onlinary  Negro.  They  are  robust, 
courageous,  industrious  and  enterprising,  and  like 
the  Mandingos  have  adopted  the  literature  and 
religion  of  Arabia.  They  lack  the  industry  of  the 
Mandingos,  and  manifest  a  want  of  political  or- 
ganisation, being,  from  their  origin,  disposed  to  a 
nomadic  existence.  They  are  intermixed  with 
several  other  tril)es,  so  that  great  diversity  of  type 
and  colour  prevails  amongst  them.  They  are  of 
great  importance  as  regards  communication  along 
the  Niger.  Altogether  they  make  a  considerable 
approach  to  the  family  which  we  have  l)efore  de- 
scribed under  the  name  of  the  Nubian,  Tlie 
Suhniaa  are  a  sr^uat  robust  Negro  race,  not  ex- 
coetling  5  feet  8  inches  high.  They  are  remark- 
able for  their  courage  and  hardihood,  and  have 
made  considerable  progress  in  the  common  arts  of 
life,  but  have  not  adoptcnl  Mohammedanism  or  the 
Arabic  letters.  The  Johfg  inhabit  Inith  the  mari- 
time and  mountain  country  on  the  south  banks  of 


the  Senega],  and  are,  in  fact,  the  first  Negro  nation 
we  encounter  on  the  western  side  of  the  continent 
after  quitting  the  Berbers.  Their  complexion  is  a 
fine  transparent  deep  black.  With  the  exception 
of  thick  lifis  and  a  nose  much  rounded  at  the  end, 
their  features  make  some  approach  to  the  Euro- 
pean. The  hair  is  crisp  and  woolly,  the  stature 
tall,  and  the  figure  good.  To  the  south  of  the 
Gambia,  and  extending  to  Cape  Pahnas,  we  find 
the  race  called  Fehuns,  of  a  deep  black  colour; 
with  longish  woollv  hair;  features  so  regular  ad 
to  be  thought  to  Sear  some  resemblance  to  the 
Hindoo ;  and  of  slight  and  short  stature,  but  much 
agility,  lliese  are  nearly  in  a  savage  state.  To 
the  south  of  the  Feloups  are  the  PapaU,  a  race  ot 
very  ugly  Negroes,  of^  dull,  gross,  and  fcrocioua 

Xt,  with  ver}*  flat  noses,  and  of  a  dirty  livid 
r.  These  and  some  other  races  resembling 
them  are  followed  in  proceeding  southward  by  the 
BuUnnij  &c.,  of  a  fine  black  colour,  of  good  features, 
and  well  made,  with  i)enons  above  the  mean  sta- 
ture. The  7e6«,  or  Teda^  occupy  the  eastern  half 
of  the  desert,  corresponding  in  position  to  the 
Berbers  on  the  western  side.  Tlie  Hauaa  form  an 
intermediate  race  between  tlie  Berbers  and  Ne- 
groes :  near  neighbours  to  these  arc  the  Kanuri  or 
Bdmii.  On  both  sides  of  the  Niger  are  settled 
the  Yoruba-Niife  nations,  industrious  and  com- 
mercial iMiople.  Farther  to  the  east  are  the  Loqdn 
or  JAggone^  the  Bagirma^  and  the  Wadau  The 
Bagirma  ore  a  fine  race,  but  cniel.  Wadoi  isi 
powerful  kingdom,  with  a  population  of  about 
0,000,000.  Proceeding  southwani,  and  more  to  the 
Gold  coast  and  the  country  lying  inland  fn)m  it, 
we  find  the  Intor,  Fantec,  and  Ashante«  nations, 
which  a|)pcar  to  constitute  another  distinct  variety 
of  the  Negro  race.  It  is  of  the  mean  stature,  and 
well  pro|)ortioned.  The  face  is  of  an  oval  form ; 
the  eyebrows  lofly  and  thick ;  the  lips  fresh,  red, 
and  n<»t  hanging  down  as  in  the  extreme  forms  of 
the  Negro ;  and  the  nose  not  so  flat^  The  hair  is 
rather  curled  than  woolly,  and  occasionally  so  long 
as  to  reach  to  the  shoulders.  The  Ashantee  belong 
to  *  a  larger  group  of  people,*  says  Dr.  Borth,  *  con- 
stituting the  O'chi  race.'  Now' and  then  are  to  Iw 
seen  examples  rather  Asiatic  tlian  African.  No 
nation  of  this  variety  has  ever  p^^ssessed  the  art  of 
i^Titing,  either  springing  up  among  themselves  or 
borrowed  from  strangers ;  and,  altliough  they  have 
all  ina<le  considerable  pn^^jess  in  several  of  thu 
common  arts  of  life,  they  are  in  the  habitual  per- 
petration of  cruel  and  ferocious  rites,  not  to  he 
paralleled  by  any  other  race  of  mankind.  From 
the  Bight  of  Biafra  down  to  2^  S.  latitude,  wlierc 
we  encounter  the  Kaffero,  there  is  comparatively 
little  variation  from  our  general  description  of  the 
Negro  family.  Dr.  Livingstone  tells  us  that  the 
amount  of  population  in  the  central  parts  of  Africa 
is  to  be  called  large,  only  in  comi^arison  witli  Ca)ie 
colony,  or  the  Bcchuana  country,  w^hich  extends 
fTi»m  the  Orange  Kiver  to  18°  south  latitude.  lie 
says  of  these  tribes,  <  The  people  who  inhabit  the 
central  region  are  not  all  quite  black  in  colour. 
Many  incline  to  that  of  bronze,  and  othera  arc  as 
light  in  hue  as  the  Bushmen.'  Amongst  the 
south-western  tribes  are  the  Ovanepo,  a  corn-grow- 
ing, honest,  and  well-ordered  people,  who,  con.^i- 
dered  as  blacks,  are  highly  civilised ;  the  l)emanu<, 
a  handsome,  sprightly,  but  wortlileas  race;  and 
the  Ghou  Danup,  a  very  i)eculiar  race  of  Negroes*. 
In  the  interior  of  Africa,  lying  between  the  Moun- 
tains of  the  Moon,  which  cn>ss,  or  are  supposed  to 
cross,  the  entire  continent  in  about  10°  of  N.  lati- 
tude, and  the  great  desert,  we  have,  as  far  as  our 
very  imperfect  information  extends,  little  variety 
from  the  common  type  of  the  Negro.  This  is  the 
country  which  the'  ^Vrabs  coll  Soudan;  a  word 


AFRICA 


33 


which  means  the  eountry  of  '  bliick  men/  and  is 
exactly  equivalent  to  the  Persian  word  Hindostan. 
On  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  between  the  Caffrt 
and  NfMam  races,  we  have  nothing  bnt  true  'Ne- 
groes. It  is,  however,  to  be  observed  of  these,  that 
altbo«u:h  the  woolly  head,  black  skin,  flat  nose, 
thick  lipe,  and  projecting  jaws  are  never  absent, 
their  excess  which  is  found  in  general  on  the  west- 
em  coast  does  not  exist.  Captain  Burton  says, 
that  the  ftq[)ect  of  the  great  mass  of  this  Negroid 
noe  is  not  nnpreposBessing.  They  are  tall  and 
well-made  Mulattos,  but  a  handsome  man  is  never 
seen  except  amongst  the  chiefs.  The  osteological 
stmctore  of  the  head  is-not  so  heavy  as  in  the 
pore  Ncoo.  The  hair  of  these  races  is  stiff,  short, 
criup,  and  curling.  Under  the  same  denomination, 
though  shorter  and  feeler,  is  to  be  included  the 
inhabitants  of  the  great  island  of  Madagascar; 
who,  becanse  their  languure  contains  probably 
about  100  tx  150  words  oX.  Malayan,  are  absurdly 
supposed  by  some  writers  to  be  of  the  Malayan 
nee,  wliich  they  no  more  resemble  than  Uiey  do 
Europeans.  The^  introduction  of  such  terms  has, 
in  fact,  been  satisfactorily  accounted  for  by  the 
drifting  of  boats  with  crews  of  Malays  from  the 
shore  of  the  island  of  Sumatra,  two  or  three  au- 
thentic examples  of  which  have  occurred  within 
our  own  times.  The  fact  of  such  occurrences 
having  taken  place  is  a  suflSdent  answer  to  the 
apparent  difficulty  of  opoi  boats  with  their  crews 
peffonning  a  voyage  which  cannot  be  less  than 
SvOOO  naiitiral  mil».  The  manner  in  which  such 
events  would  take  place  is,  we  think,  obvious 
enoQgfa.  A  trading  ot  fishing-boat,  with  a  few 
eoooa-nnts,  affwding  meat  and  drink  to  the  crews, 
and  known  to  be  a  constant  sea-stock  in  such  cases, 
driven  from  the  coast  of  Sumatra  in  the  height  of 
the  NE.  moosocMi,  would  in  due  course  be  carried 
into  the  SE.  trade  wind,  and  going  wiUi  a  flowing 
sheet  bdbre  the  wind  {the  onlv  course  she  could 
pacme),  would  be  earned  to  the  shore  of  Mada- 
f^ascar  in  a  shorter  time  and  with  more  safety  than 
BoLrht  at  first  be  imagined. 

SiM^  is  a  brief  and  necessarily  imperfect  account 
of  the  races  of  men  inhabiting  Africa.  The  sub- 
ject ia  indeed  full  of  difficulty;  not  only  from  its 
extent,  variety,  and  complexity,  but  also  from 
the  imperfect  information,  and  indeed  in  most 
cases  tl^  entire  ignorance,  which  exists  rqi^ding 
it.  The  number  of  different  nations,  and  even  of 
dietinct  languages,  is  proportional  to  the  barbarism 
of  the  people;  and  there  is  no  quarter  of  the  globe, 
America  excepted,  in  which  the  number  of  lx>th  is 
lo  great. 

Tboe  are  no  accurate  means  by  which  to  form 
an  estimate  of  the  population  of  Africa,  the  calcula- 
tioan  varying  between  60,000,000  and  100,000,000. 
Pnjbably  the  mean  of  these,  namely  80  millions, 
accepted  by  Ritter  and  other  eminent  geographers, 
will  be  nearest  the  truth. 

AmmdU  of  Africa, — ^These,  at  its  northern  ex- 
tmnity,  where  it  approaches  Europe,  and  at  its 
eauiem,  where  it  approaches,  or  rather  joins,  Asia, 
are  generally  the  same  as  those  of  these  two  por- 
tir^is  of  the  globe;  but  throughout  its  greater  part 
t>iev  are  not  only  different  from  the  European  and 
Afncan  spedea,  but  equally  also  from  the  animals 
(if  the  two  po^ons  of  America,  and  from  those  of 
the  Oceanic  continent  and  islands.  We  shall  con- 
fmt  €nn  observations  chiefly  to  those  more  imme- 
diately sabservient  to  the  uses  of  man. 

Of  1,270  Imown  impedes  of  terrestrial  Manunalia 
there  have  been  discovered  in  Africa,  although 
axire  imperfectly  explored  than  any  other  portion 
of  t»»e  gl<ibe,  no  fewer  than  290,  of  which  242 
peculiar  to  this  continent.    Of  the  Quadru- 

■mo,  cnmpcehending  apes,  mcmkeys,  and  lemurs, 


are 


there  are  55  spedes,  of  which  48  are  peculiar 
to  it;  not  one  of  them  bdng  identical  with  the 
spedes  found  in  Asia  or  America.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  of  the  whole  tribe  is  the  Simia 
troglodyteif  or  chimpanzee,  which,  after  a  careful 
anatomical  comparison  with  the  orung  utan  of 
Borneo,  is  now  considered  to  make  in  physical 
formation  a  nearer  approach  to  man  than  the  lat- 
ter, while  it  is  unquestionably  more  lively  and 
intelligent.  Another  curious  specimen  of  the 
Troglodyte*  is  the  nthiewMnbormi,  or  nest-making 
ape,  of  which  M.  Du  ChaiUu  gives  an  account  in 
his  travels,  and  which  constructs  for  itself  a  house 
of  leafy  branches  in  lonely  forest  trees,  always 
choosing  a  tree  which  stands  a  little  apart  from 
others.  The  Kooloo-^niba  is  another  enpedes  of 
Afncan  ape.  But  the  most  wonderful  ot  all  this 
great  family  is  the  Gorilla,  M.  Du  Chaillu  thus 
describes  a  meeting  with  one  of  these  monsters: — 
'  He  stood  about  a  dozen  yards  from  us,  and  was 
a  sight  I  think  I  shall  never  forget.  Nearly  six 
feet  high  (he  proved  four  inches  snorter),  widi  im- 
mense oodv,  huge  chest,  and  great  muscular  arms, 
with  fiercely-glaring  large  deep  gray  eyes,  and  a 
hellish  expression  of  face,  which  seemed  to  mo 
like  some  nightmare  vision :  thus  stood  before  us 
this  kins  of  the  African  forest.  He  was  not  afraid 
of  us.  He  stood  there,  and  beat  his  breast  with 
his  huge  fists  till  it  resounded  like  an  immense 
bass  dnim,  which  is  their  mode  of  offering  de- 
fiance, meantime  giving  vent  to  roar  after  roar.* 
Of  the  Cheiroptera,  or  bats,  Uiere  are  30  species  in 
Africa,  4  of  which  only  are  common  to  it  with 
Europe  and  Asia.  The  carnivorous  animals  of 
Africa  are  66  in  number,  of  which  14  only  are 
found  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  most  re- 
markable of  these  is  the  lion,  which  is  known 
historically  to  have  once  existed  in  the  east  of 
Europe  and  west  of  Asia.  With  the  exception  of 
an  inferior  variety  found  in  some  parts  of  northern 
Hindostan,  this  animal,  so  renowned  in  the  fable, 
poetry,  painting,  and  sculpture  of  almost  ever^ 
nation  of  the  old  world,  from  China  to  Spain,  is 
now  confined  to  Africa  (Leonum  arida  nutrix); 
which  it  ranges  from  its  N.  to  its  S.  extremity. 
Panthers,  leopards,  and  many  small  spedes  of 
the  feline  race  also  exist;  and  the  cat  nas  been 
domesticated,  though  it  be  much  more  rarely 
found  in  this  state  tnan  in  Europe,  Asia,  or  even 
America. 

Of  the  Canine  family,  Africa  contains  the  dog, 
wolf,  fox,  lackal,  and  hyena.  The  dog  has  not 
been  found  there  in  the  wild  state,  but  many 
varieties  exist  in  a  seroi-domesticatcd  condition, 
living  in  troops  in  the  towns  and  villages,  as  it 
does  in  almost  all  the  countries  of  Asia.  The 
Africans  have  never,  that  we  are  aware  of,  used 
it  for  food  or  labour,  or  even  for  the  chase. 
Jackals  and  foxes  are  numcnjus.  Africa  may  bo 
considered  the  peculiar  country  of  the  hyena; 
for  of  four  existing  species  one  only,  belonging 
to  Hindostan,  is  found  out  of  its  limits.  Of  the 
Fiwrrra,  or  dvets,  several  species  exist  in  Africa; 
among  which  is  the  true  avet  cat,  domesticated 
by  the  natives  to  produce  civet;  and  a  species  of 
the  Mongoos,  viz.  the  celebrated  Ichneumon,  or 
rat  of  Pharoah.  Of  bears,  which  dthcr  still  exist, 
or  are  knovm  to  have  existed,  in  almost  every 
country  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  no  example 
hasyet  been  found  in  Africa. 

Tne  Marsupial  order  of  animals,  or  that  of 
which  the  females  have  a  double  womb,  is  wholly 
wanting  in  Africa,  as  it  is  in  Euwpe  and  con- 
tinent^ Asia.  Of  the  Rodent  Mammalia,  or 
gnawers,  Africa  yiekls  many  species  of  rats, 
squirrols,  and  four  or  live  f«[M»cieH  of  hare;  wliile 
the  rabbit  is  thought  to  have  been  orijanally 


84 


AFRICA 


brought  to  Europe  through  Spain  from  the  Af- 
rican coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  Pachy- 
dermatay  or  thick-Mnned  order,  is  very  abundant; 
more  so  indeed  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
world.  We  find  among  these  the  horse,  ass, 
zebra,  dow,  and  quagga;  the  elephant,  rhino- 
ceros, hippopotamus,  common  hog,  and  lingallo 
or  African  boar.  Although  the  horse  cannot  bo 
asserted  to  be  a  native  of  Africa,  n(»t  being  found 
in  the  wild  state,  it  has  been  domesticated  there 
from  the  earliest  ages  of  history.  The  Numi- 
dians  had  their  cavalry  when  the  Romans  first 
became  acquainted  with  them;  and  the  horse 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  a  stranger  even 
to  the  anaent  Egyptians;  though  among  the 
mummies  of  quadnipeds  found  in  the  catacombs 
that  of  this  animal  does  not  appear.  The  most 
improved  of  the  negro  triljes  possess  the  horse, 
and  have  often  a  numerous  cavalry;  but^  like 
Asiatics,  generally,  the  Africans  do  not  apply  the 
horse  to  draught  or  burthen,  and  confine  its  use 
t4>  war  or  pleasure.  When  the  Arabs  conquered 
Egypt  and  northern  Asia,  they  introduced  their 
own  breed,  which,  mixed  in  some  degree  with 
the  native  one,  constitutes  the  l)ari)  and  Egyptian 
horse — little  inferior  to  the  pure  Arabian  blood 
itself.  The  Dutch  and  English  introduced  into 
the  colony,  at  the  soutliem  extremity  of  the 
continent,  their  respective  national  breeds;  and 
the  soil  and  climate  of  Africa  being  found  gene- 
rally congenial  to  the  constitution  of  the  liorse. 
it  has  thriven  and  multiplied  there  as  scarcely 
anvwhere  else. 

^e  asH  is  most  probably  not  a  native  of  Africa, 
or  we  should  still,  in  a  crtuntry  so  little  occupied 
by  man,  find  it  in  its  wild  state,  as  we  do  in  so 
many  countries  of  Asia.  It  has,  however,  been 
introduced  into  Egj'pt  and  Bari)ar\% — poswibly  by 
the  Arabs, — and  thrives  extremely  well  in  both. 
The  zebra,  the  dow,  and  the  cjuagga,  quadni])eds 
pec'idiar  to  Africji,  and  lieautifnl,  at  least  as  to 
colour,  are  found  in  troops  all  over  itn  arid  i)lains 
and  deserts.  Hut  from  a  natural  ind<»cility  or 
waywardness  of  temi)er,  or  fn>m  the  unskilfulness 
of  the  African  people, — ^probably,  indeeil,  fn>m 
both  causes, — and  the  p>asession  of  the  horse  and 
ass,  they  have  never  been  tamed  and  a[)plied  to 
economical  uses. 

Kuminating  animals  are  not  less  abundant  than 
the  Pachydermata,  Of  the  157  species  of  those 
which  are  ascertained  to  exist,  73  are  found  in 
Africa;  and,  with  the  exception  of  10,  all  of  them 
are  peculiar  to  it.  The  dromedary,  or  single- 
himiped  camel,  is  now  abundant  in  all  the  dry 
parts  of  Africa,  and  is  the  principal  lx?ast  of 
Durthen.  In  the  earliest  portion  of  scriptural  his- 
tory it  is  mentioned  as  lieing  employed  in  carry- 
ing on  the  trade  1>etween  S^iia,  Arabia,  and 
Eg>'pt,  and  therefore  it  is  fairly  concluded  that 
it  was  well  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians.  It 
is  also  found  sculptured  on  some  of  the  earliest 
Egyptian  architectural  monuments.  Egypt,  how- 
ever, from  position,  physical  character,  and  civi- 
lisation, was  always  more  an  Asiatic  than  an 
African  country ;  and  from  the  fact  of  the  camel's 
existing  there,  its  general  diffusion  over  the 
country  cannot  be  inferred.  It  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  known  in  the  portion  of  Africa  lying 
along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  during  its 
possession  by  the  Romans ;  and  it  seems  not  im- 
probable, therefore,  as  some  have  conjectured,  that 
Its  general  diffusion  over  the  continent  was  the 
work  of  the  Arabs^  after  their  adoption  of  the 
Mohammedan  religion  in  the  7th  century.  The 
Giraffe,  known  to  the  Romans,  and  used  in  their 
games,  is  exclusively  an  inhabitant  of  the  dry 
parts  of  Africa.  Notwithstanding  its  size,  strength, 


and  gentleneana,  it  has  never  been  applied,  in  iti 
domesticated  state,  to  any  useful  purpose  of  man ; 
and  from  its  eccentrk  and  awkward  form  of  move- 
ment, is  probably  unfit  for  any. 

Homed  cattle,  or  oxen,  of  man^  yarietiea,  ore 
general  among  all  the  more  civilised  tribes  of 
Africa;  and  in  Egypt  the  existence  of  the  ox 
is  coeval  with  the  earliest  records  of  the  ommtry. 
Mummies  of  this  animal  have  been  found  in  the 
catacombs,  rapposed  to  be  not  leas  than  three 
thousand  years  old.  Whether  the  original  stock 
was  imported  or  was  indigenous,  cannot  be  ascer- 
tained; but  most  probably  the  latter,  for  the 
common  ox  in  the  wild  state  is  not  known  to  ex- 
ist in  any  part  of  this  continent  as  it  does  in  many 
parts  of  Xsia  and  its  islands,  and  as  it  is  known 
once  to  have  done  in  Europe.  The  bufialo  {Bot 
hubalua)  has  been  naturalised  in  Egypt  since  the 
middle  ages,  having  been  intniduced  from  India 
through  the  conquests  of  the  Arabs.  One  species 
of  the  ox  family  only  is  ascertained  to  be  indi- 
genous to  Africa,  and  is  T)eculiar  to  its  southern 
extreroitv.  This  is  the  ouffalo  of  the  Cape,  or 
Bos  Cajfer ;  an  animal  of  great  size  and  fercK*ity, 
which  has  never  been  tamed,  and  is  probably  un- 
tam  cable. 

Sheep  and  goats  exist  throughout  all  the  drier 
parts  of  the  continent ;  but  neither  are  found  in 
the  wild  state,  and  have  proliably  been  intn>- 
duce<L  The  prevalent  variety  of  the  first  is  that 
with  the  fat  tail,  of  from  10  to  80  pounds  weight, 
the  same  which  is  so  general  in  Pervia,  Arabia, 
and  Tartary;  and  wliich,  though  long  looked 
upon  OS  a  rarity  and  a  moiistmsity,  is  probably 
as  extensively  diffused  over  the  globe  as  the 
variety  more  familiar  to  us.  The  wo<»l  and  flesh 
of  the  fat-tailed  sheep  are  greatly  inferior  to  those 
of  our  own  bree<l ;  but  the  flesh  of  the  lamb  is 
thought  to  be  superior.  There  are  said  to  be  but 
two  s{>ecies  of  deer— -one  of  which  is  the  common 
fallow  deer— exih'tiiig  in  this  continent,  and  tliese 
are  confined  to  the  countries  Ixinlering  the  Me<li- 
tormncan.  This  is  compensated  by  the  existence 
of  n(»t  less  than  00  ^>ecies  of  antelo|)e,  all  peculiar 
to  it;  a  number  far  exceeding  that  of  the  genus 
fdiund  in  every  other  part  of  the  world.  Some  of 
the  species,  as  the  gazelle,  do  not  exceed  a  foot 
and  a  half  high,  and  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty 
and  gracefulness  of  their  form.  Others  are  equal 
in  size  to  a  large  ass  or  zebre ;  as  the  gnu,  which 
has  the  Ixxly,  tail,  and  paces  of  a  horse.  The 
most  numerous  epecies  is  perhaps  the  springbok; 
which,  in  the  wide  plains  of  soutliem  Africa,  is 
said  Xa>  be  found  in  henis  of  10,000,  or  even  5(),tH>0. 
Not  one  of  the  whole  family  has  ever  l>een  do- 
mesticated for  the  pur|)oses  of  AkhI  or  laU^ur  by 
the  natives,  as  the  rein  and  fallow  deer  have  been 
in  Europe. 

The  elephant  is  found  in  all  the  wooded  and 
low  parts  of  Africa,  from  the  northern  limits  of 
the  great  desert  to  the  southern  cape ;  and  gene- 
rally in  greater  numbers  than  any  where  else  in 
the  world,  if  we  except  Ceylon  and  the  countries 
lying  between  Ilindostan  and  China.  The  African 
elephant  difl*ers,  specifically,  from  the  Asiatic 
The  crown  of  the  trnith  is  marked  by  a  lozenge 
instead  of  riblnm  stripes ;  the  hind  foot  has  thrte 
toes  instead  of /Jmr;  the  forehead  b  convex  in- 
stead of  concave,  and  the  ears  are  longer.  In 
point  of  size,  general  form,  sagacity,  and  docility, 
there  is  probably  no  great  difference.  No  native 
African  people,  that  we  are  aware  of,  ever  tame<l 
the  elephant.  When  an  African  is  told  that  this 
is  <lone  in  the  East,  he  is  as  incredulous  as  a 
European  would  lie  if  an  African  t«»l<l  him  that 
his  countr>'men  tamed  the  hipp(>|K>tainus,  and 
ui»ed  it  as  a  beast  of  burden.    The  only  hint  we 


AFRICA 


3A 


have  Been  that  sach  a  thing  may  be,  Is  given  by 
Mr.  Campbell,  the  African  travdler,  who  informs 
OS  that  he  was  told  by  a  people  of  the  interior 
vhom  he  enoountered,  that  another  people  more 
advanced  in  civilisation  than  themselves,  the  Ma- 
hala»ley,  'wear  clothes,  rkk  on  elephants,  climb 
into  thor  houses,  and  are  gods.*  That  the  ele- 
I^ants  used  by  the  Carthaginians  were  of  the 
African  species  there  cannot,  we  think,  be  the 
le»ft  question.  One  of  the  conditions  of  the  treaty 
fififved  upon  them  bv  the  Romans  after  the  battle 
of  ZamA  implies  thu  clearly  enough.  They  were 
to  surrender  all  the  elepliants  which  they  had 
tamed,  and  to  tame  no  more  for  the  future.  Livy's 
account  is : — *  Perfugas,  fugitivosque,  et  captivos 
omnes  redderent  Romanis,  et  naves  rostratas,  pneter 
dcoem  triremes  tnderent,  elephantosque,  ^uo»  Aa- 
bemt  donUttM;  »eque  domarent  alios.* — (Livy,  lib. 
XXX.  c  37.)  The  elephants  of  Pyrrhus  were,  no 
(knibt,  Asiatic,  and  received  through  the  Mace- 
ddfiian  oraiqnests.  His  invanon  of  Italv  was  but 
47  yean  after  the  Indian  invasion  of  Alexander ; 
and  therefore,  considering  the  long  age  of  the 
elephant,  the  v«rv  individual  animals  in  the  army 
tji  Pyrrhus  may  Lave  been  the  same  which  Alex- 
ander hniught  from  the  banks  of  the  Indus.  The 
Carthaginians  being  of  an  Asiatic,  and  not  an 
African  irtock,  form  no  exception  to  our  previous 
nrmark.  The  Egyptians,  the  only  people  of 
Africa  fmm  whose  ingenuity  we  might  have 
liMked  for  the  domestication  of  the  elephant,  had 
ni>ne  to  tame;  nor  was  their  highly  cultivated 
cimntry  well  suited  for  their  use,  if  they  had.  As 
a  ctmtirast  to  the  Africans,  it  may  be  observed, 
that  there  is  no  people  of  Asia  whose  country  pro- 
duces the  elephant  by  whom  it  has  not  been 
d<iroc«iticated  and  used  as  a  beast  of  burden,  from 
the  Hindoos,  the  most  civilise<l,  to  the  Malays, 
the  k«st  so.  The  Africans  consider  the  elephant 
cinly  as  a  beast  of  chase,  and  hunt  it  for  its  ivory, 
its  tie»h,  and  its  hide ;  and  the  herds  are  so  nume- 
nms,  and  the  population  so  scanty,  that  the  supply, 
Areoffding  to  present  circumstances,  appears  for  all 
firactical  purposes  inexhaustible. 

The  two-homed  rhinoceros,  of  a  different  8])ecies 
frim  the  two-homed  rhinoceros  of  Sumatra,  inha- 
tiits  the  same  localities  as  the  elephant,  and  is 
honied  with  the  same  avidity  by  the  natives  for 
its  t^ngh  and  thick  hide  and  its  homs.  Traces  for 
ox-hameM,  but  above  all  shields,  are  made  of  the 
former,  which  are  in  repute  throughout  all  eastern 
cnuntries:  and  the  latter  are  us^  for  their  sup- 
fmieed  medical  virtues,  and  are  a  r^^lar  object  of 
traffic  It  may  be  observed  of  this  species  of  rhi- 
wtcfTtm,  as  well  as  of  the  two  which  belong  to 
Intiia  and  its  islan<ls,  that  their  docUity  and  capa- 
city ftir  domestication  are  not  inferior  to  those  of 
the  elephant  itself.  The  slow  and  slup^h  move- 
ments of  this  animal  make  it,  notwithstanding 
these  qualities  and  its  great  strength,  an  unsuit- 
able beast  of  burthen,  especially  in  countries  where 
the  depAiant,  the  ox,  the  buffalo,  and  the  horse 
exist:  and,  consequently,  it  has  never  been  ap- 
iJied  to  soch  a  purpose. 

The  hippopotamus  is  exclusively  a  native  of 
Africa,  inhabiting  the  rivers  and  fronh-water  lakes 
of  the  whole  continent,  from  the  southern  confines 
t4  the  Sahara  nearly  to  the  extreme  cape.  It  was 
veil  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  an  in- 
habitant of  the  Nile ;  fmm  which,  however,  it  has 
fryw  disappeared  e^'eiywheie  below  the  third  cata- 
nrC  In  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  tmpical  Africa  it 
mH  exists  in  undiminished  numbers,  being  from 
iu  locality  difficult  to  come  at  by  the  hunter. 

The  ooromon  hog,  in  the  wild  state,  is  said  to  be 
ffKmd  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  continent, 
it  approacfaea  Europe  and  Asia,  viz.  Bar- 


bary  and  Egypt;  but  there  is  no  evidence  of  the 
existence,  anywhere  else  in  Africa,  of  this  animal, 
which  was  at  one  time  general  throughout  Europe, 
and  is  still  general  throughout  Asia  and  its  la^ 
islands.  Its  place  seems  to  be  taken  by  the  lingal- 
lo,  or  masked  boar.  This  animal,  which  has  teeth 
of  a  formation  and  growth  resembling  those  of  the 
elephant,  and  a  large  pendulous  protuberance  sup- 
ported by  a  bony  process  on  each  cheek,  giving  it 
a  hideous  appearance,  is  not  only  found  on  the 
continent,  but  in  Madagascar  and  the  Canary  Is- 
lands. It  has  never  been  domesticated,  but  the 
common  hog  has  to  a  limited  extent. 

ITie  native  Ornithology  of  Africa  docs  not  pre- 
sent the  same  number  of  subjects  subservient  to 
man  as  that  of  Asia,  or  even  of  America.  The 
common  fowl,  g(M>sc,  and  duck  are  all  of  them 
probably  strangers,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  this 
IS  the  case  with  at  least  the  first.  They  arc  bred 
by  the  native  inhabitants,  but  only  to  a  very 
mnited  extent  The  only  bird  which  Africa  has 
contributed  to  the  poultry-yard  is  the  Guinea  hen : 
of  this  genus  there  are  four  or  five  species  found 
abundantly  on  the  western  coast  and  its  islands. 
The  bird,  as  its  Latin  name,  Numida,  implies,  was 
known  to  the  Romans,  and  bred  by  them.  Most 
probably  they  received  it  domesticated  from  the 
Carthaginians.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  it  is 
now  wholly  unknown  to  anv  African  people  in  the 
domestic  state,  except  as  imported  by  European 
colonists — ^a  singular  proof  of  apathy  and  diilncss 
in  the  whole  race.  This  bird  seems  to  supply,  in 
Africa,  the  place  of  the  common  fowl  of  Europe, 
the  peacocks  and  pheasants  of  Asia,  and  the  tur- 
keys and  alectros  of  America.  The  ostrich,  which 
once  extended  to  the  nearest  parts  of  Asia,  is  now 
confined  to  Africa ;  and  the  Arabs  aro  said  to  have 
introduced  the  practice  of  breeding  them  in  the 
domestic  state,  in  onler  to  obtain  their  feathers  in 
greater  perfection.  Of  our  summer  birds  of  pas- 
sage many  pass  their  winters  in  Africa ;  as  the 
cuckoo  and  nightingale^  some  swallows,  and  the 
common  quail  and  land-raiL  The  cheerful  and 
active  period  of  their  lives,  therefore,  is  passed 
amon^  us,  and  the  note  of  the  cuckoo  and  song  of 
the  nightingale  arc  whollv  unknown  to  the  people 
of  Africa.  The  woo<Ls  of  tropical  Africa  aliound 
with  birds  of  the  parrot  family,  from  those  wliich 
are  no  bigger  than  a  lark  to  some  which  are 
equal  in  size  to  a  large  falcon.  As  iu  South 
America,  the  Indian  Islands,  and  Australia,  they 
are  remarkable  for  the  variety  and  brilliancy  of 
their  plumage,  their  dissonant  and  incessant  notes, 
and  their  utter  inutility  to  man.  Proportional  to 
the  number  of  graminivorous  and  frugivorous  birds, 
and  of  wild  mammals  and  roptiles,  is  that  of  eagles, 
hawks,  vultures,  and  other  birds  of  prey. 

Among  reptiles  are  to  be  found  a  great  variety 
of  the  lizard  family,  from  the  chameleon  up  to  the 
crocodile ;  and  of  snakes  ^a  few  poisonous,  but  the 
greater  number  harmless),  some  species  not  ex- 
ceeding a  few  inches  long,  up  to  the  python, 
which  measures  30  feet  in  length.  All  the  species 
of  this  class  differ  from  those  of  Asia  and  America, 
not  to  say  of  Europe,  or  the  Indian  Islands,  or 
Australia.  Africa,  of  course,  abounds  in  the  insect 
tribe.  Of  these  the  bee  alone  is  directly  useful  to 
man,  but  has  never  been  domesticated  by  the 
Africans.  Africa  yields  no  useful  insect  such  as 
the  kermes  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia,  the  lac 
of  Eastern  Asia,  or  the  cochineal  of  South 
America. 

Plants  of  Africa,— 'In  reference  to  its  Flora, 
Africa  may  be  dividetl  into  three  districts,  namely, 
the  Atlantic,  the  Equinoctial,  and  the  Austral  re- 
gion. A  fourth  may  be  added  in  the  princi|)al 
ulanda  on  its  western  and  eastem  sides,  viz.  the 


All 


AFRICA 


CniiniiiM  mill  Minlnf/imrnr,  uriili  tlir  MniiriliitK  iiikI  '  Indinn  nrrhipcliip^.    Dut  fTcncrallr  Imth  hprc  oiid 
IWiiiiIhiii.    'I'lif  iihinin  III  llii*  Mfiliicrmiii'mi  rttu.st   in  I htiirl Mm  and  tiio  Mauritius,  Uie  Flora u  peculiar 


ilinn  lllilii  III  iioiliiii^  Irnnt  IIkhm'  nf  llic  n]i|N)t«it4'. 
hImmii  III  AimIiiIiinIii.  Wlii'iil,  linili'v.  iiini/ts  rice, 
liiii  »iiii|M',  ihi*  11^,  iill\i\  niMl  iliilr,  UN  well  iih  th(! 
nil  Inn  |iliiitl,  I  III  I VI'  UvTt*  ill  iNTli'i'tiiiii.  It  Ih  imt 
uiilll  Hii  rrmli  iti  liir  Miiith  at  !'<>'] it|  tlml  tlu^ 
MiHii  iiniiMitrn  n  rliiinirliT  itiliTiiUMlintiMiN  it  w<*r<', 
Ih<iui«i-ii  l':iiiii|ti«uii  mill  'rrniiirnl ;  niiil  lirns  to  llio 
|ilfitiln    nlirmK    iMniiiirrttliHl,    iiiiiy    In*   iiiIiUmI    tho 


and  liNTal. 

IMigion. — Foticimn,  or  the  wowhi|>  of  natural 
fihJtH'tii,  animato  or  inanimate,  is,  in  ita  most 
iU'f^^lin^  and  offensive  fi»rm,  the  reli^on  of  the 
^'Uter  nunilier  of  the  inhabitanta  of  Africa,  bcin^; 
pn»fesflod  by  almost  all  the  Ne^nies,  and  by  ncariy 
nil  the  nntiven  of  Mada(:aM.*ar.  Tliey  appear 
^■nerally  to  admit  a  p^ckkI  and  on  evil  priori] »1o, 
nit/i.ii  iniir,  fill  Inn,  iiidi^i'.  and  n>nit«.     In  rp|NT '  have  their  lucky  and  unlucky  days;  and  their 


I -i\\|i|,  Nutuit,  and  \liv)«i«tiiln,  i«o  linvo  a  hhuu^ 
i\lirii  iHiiiliar  M'Krlrtliiin ;  and  hen*  we  timl  the 
iiitK  iiii,  wiiirti  |ii-iHluro^iini  anduc,  nml  the niwtJKJt, 
whli'h  ,\lidd  Ihi^  tiiiHliciurtl  m^nna.  In  AbyHHinia 
tliii  Hp|N*Ai^  I  hit  Sciirtnun«Hiu«  laniily  of  plantm 


pricHtH  claim  the  pt>wer  of  preserving  men  and 
nnimaUi  ironi  the  intluenoe  of  e\'il  apirita.  Several 
of  these  natiiini*  have  a  national  and  supreme  jfe- 
tii^hr:  the  piMple  called  Ouidah  or  Widalu  for  in- 
Htantv,  worship  the  serpent,  an  order  of  priests  and 


llio  nA^%^^^  witirh  In  I  ho  I'hM  >  icliN  ^in^er.  tunnt^  ,  pri(>sit«iiM*s  Wxixfi  set  a}Uirt  to  mini^^ter  to  this  rep- 
I If.  i«u  1 0(ii\lHii«i>nia.  rito  (NtlVitt  plant  Mill  ^nm-jt  ■  tile.  The  Hissa^>s  worship  the  cock;  and  the 
wild  III  I  ho  initio  ivi;iitn,  nhu'h  i!t  uidi'etl  nupimmnl  triU^s  on  the  Hi^ht  of  Renin,  who  rp|*anl  their 
h*  U^  Ht  ifkiiM*  louiiiiA.  I  own  shadow  as  a  ftticke^  have  a  lizani  for  their 

lu  ili«t  ri)iinuviii«l  jvirl  »»f  \lri*'a  a  ti»lally  new  ■  princi|>Al  divinity/  Other  trilies  wixpship  allipH 
^tyvt.-iiioit  pivM'ol^  it-M-ll,  vniiivlx  dtlTtTtn^  InMU  (itry,  hyt'n»s  h^M*^^^^  ^^**  •  and  in  sitme  instances 
Ih.ii  i>t  tui\>|v.  and  :ili«i«>'^i  tipiallv  m*  tn^nt  {hiM«*  iinmoUtc  to  thorn  human  victim.*.  Tlie  Arrows, 
I'l  ii\>|'tf.«l  Vm.»  •••nd  Vioi'iu-a.  l*tic  ^>»n'*picu.Mi^  who  n^sido  ncir  the  j*'URVS  of  the  Nile  in  Al»y»- 
l%«i^\*i  ti>v  i»l  >;ixv.il  M«t\  h»'wc\%T.  I  ho  ii>*m\ir  >ini.i,  have,  with  lo*«  aiwinlity  than  mti«t  otliers, 
^\*f-.><<Hi'<i««  i«  «N>iioiion  to  ihf  thixv  \Nmt:ucni.>.  fr\*m  tttne  immom<-ria\  e^t-rv^l  Mcri!ioc«  t<)  th« 
Vofilut  U'»\v»l  tuv  ot  \!<*!  iim4;i\i*.Mdc.  tho  lvii>lv%U  c»*e.in*  of  that  river.  The  narrative  vf  the  Munr 
«>i  4.v.i«*->«t^«.  t««ii)4^NM«l  lo  .*rt,';:\l  o\ami'U'*ot  t?:c  Svdv  Hanuil  n':«^XTs  tho  ir.haSiiants  of  \Va*- 
okU-'<t  luiMx '.»»^.i!".',\d  n*.«iu-i  »•«  »*iir  j;..'Jv;  *♦•!««*  !^«::Ah  a;:.',  -ii'mo  rh'v*  .-f  Nu.-i^  aa^l  of  other 
>4sMiitoov  ^\  iviiuiv.';^  t!io  iv.itrVi  ot  iho:r  *^•!»-  ^\nr.?:ros  ir.  the  rvc*.""  of  tlw  Ntie  an>i  the  inie- 
*v«u*\-  -ovU^N-uv  \'»i"v*tx>l  a:  •.•.\»t  Kr»*  >ojir*  ri  »r  .  r*  .V'r..-a.  a*  w  .•r^V.-yr^rs  of  :he  m.-'n:  anil 
s-k'.      \*w   V'it,\»"  s\*W.  o'-  t\.\*N.  wiiv**,  ^•••vHfT'.  i*    iSx<o  o>•c':^:t•.'•Jl■.*  to  Ca:*  >l**rj»*^  in  '^riJnea  as 

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•=**    -I    avi    111-    -H  - 


AFRICA 
)ded  in  inadMn  tima  on  mme  pointi  of 
u  cnagt,  wlicrc  Clirulianiry  is  profemol, 
ledBiusm  pnvaib  in  all  Ihe  cnuntri«i  of 
N  devoted  U>  Fetii^um  and  idnlairy.  It 
widely  diffused,  having  eiteniied  itaelf 
whole  of  lUrijar}-,  l^yt,  yuliia,  4c. 
g  vtateaed  by  a  rontiidpr&ble  number  oj 
Hvuccd  Xi^^  nalioriB.  Itji  inlroduo 
b*«n,  perbaps,  the  ^EreateKt  bnnn  evei 
OD  Africai,  ami  ha:!  tended  materially  tr 


the  habita  and  m<rrab  of  the  prnplt 
.  tbe  (Hily  Tefltfj^ifled  eode  in  nuni 
d,  what  'is  sin(;iilaT,  the  Arabic  is 
■nHf;huaI  Africa,  irith  tlio  exception  oT 
I,  the  l>ii)tuaec  uwil  bv  auch  or  the  na- 
ntber  read  ur  write,  ft  waa  intmdiiced 
at  age  of  the  Hef^n.  and  baa  participnied 
!  in  the  impruvvnivnt^  thai  hare  since 
de  upon  it  in  Ami.  Arahic  hu  been  for 
ituiiefi  Ihv  lantfuiKe  of  Ihe  Cujita  uide- 
■  of  Ihe  andeiit  J^-vpiini 


n  AhvHxi 


Uoyedwii 

ltd  the  prievu  are  iw  if^n-inuii.  siiu  nuriii- 
in  well  be  imai^ned.  With  Ihe  oxcepticm 
■pe  Colony.  Ihe  seats  of  Christianity  in 

iet ;  but  a  cunsiilriable  nnml>eT  of  Cbris- 
TSrious  deiiominaliiins.  and  <if  Jews,  are 
coantries  where  Muhammetlatiism  and 

■ra  preralenl. 

a^. — ttaibi  has  pven  a  classification  of 
I*  of  Africa  HTfirdini;  to  their  ]anf^a^:ea. 
it  WIS  impiisnMe  to  have  selected  a  worse 
,  We  know  Utile,  unci  somelitnes  literally 

of  the  |ieti|de  in  some  very  extensive 
>,  lod  if  II  lie  possible  we  linow  elill  U»» 
bnpiace*.    Onr  kn>iwleclf(e  of  Ihe  latter 

in  mioi  instances  exceediiiRly  im|ierfect ; 
my  clAMAcation  of  ihe  peuple  bottomed 


■  the  vernacular  idiom  of  the  Barfaoiy 
he  Sanf^  is  used  in  Guinea;  and  Ibe 
>  lubif,  Ac  bear  Ihe  nMneii  of  Ibe  people 
I  thev  lie  sjukcD.  The  Ambounila  is  tlie 
I  of  all  Ibe  tribea  between  Ihe  Confro  and 
\  of  Mnmnhique.  As  was  lu  be  cxppcied 
bw  state  of  c»-ilisalinn  nf  those  by  whom 
oMd,  thnw  lanKuOKes  arc  alt  misorablv 
Iw  Rwler  will  tind  in  the  article  Abvssiuui 
comt  of  Ihe  buipuace  of  that  eint^lar 
ftbc.VricancimiinenU  gpcokinu  of  the 
)  of  Ihe  tribes  uf  the  south,  l>r.  Livinic- 
ya:  'The  structure,  or  we  mav  say  Ihe 
S  of  Ibe  ilialvcU  of  Coffre,  Itohuana.  Ba- 
■mtiw,  llaloka,  Bat'in^.'a  or  [leofile  of  the 
,  Uasbora.  Babisa.  the  nccnies  of  Souda, 
■nd  people  of  Ihe  West  ciwt,  are  wondcr- 
X.  A  tneat  pmportii'n  of  llie  mot  is  iiten- 
"•    ■"  It  r^^liuly  d«-eloped  of  all 


le  dialivC 


e  Iteclini 


±  Ibe  DiUe  is  now  nearly  all 
tta  Ianpia|:e  is  the  most  sonorrHia  and 
of  all  the  languat^  of  NeKrohtncI,  hut 
kally  defective.  The  Kauiri  is  very  rich 
atttic  fiimw.  A  complete  i^rammar  and 
f  id  the  Demora  tonf:ue  baa  now  been 
tbe  Kbeniah  missionarien, 
laear. — Most  forms  of  f^ivemmrnl  may 


:e  the  reader's 


({TealeF  or  less  extent  in  Uie  rif(hta  of  aoTeniRnty, 

and  in  some  Hiey  are  occaaioiially  (hareii  by  Ihe 
people.  Some  large  ilatea  consist  of  a  kind  of 
confederacj-  of  petty  chiefs,  who,  however,  are  very 
frequently  at  war  with  each  other.  In  fact,  with 
but  few  eiceptioris,  slavey  and  anarchy  reign  tri- 
umphant throuchoHt  Africa.  And  it  would  be  to 
no  purpose,  even  if  we  were  aocurately  informed 

as  to  the  diiwrqnncies  in  the  fo —  "  "' " — '""* 

established  in  dilTerent  parts,  to 

time  by  detailliif;  in  what  res| 

and  i^neially  tluctuatini;  system  of  government 

diffeml  fnim  anolher.    Since  the  year  lHu3,  when 

the  privilege  of  self-KOvemment  was  accorded  to 

the  colony  uf  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  tm' 

Kv-ement  in  ita  development  and  resources  has 
n  moet  conspicuous.  Algeria,  liio,  has  to  tie 
reckoned  as  pnssessinfc  a  civilis«l  government,  an 
well  >a  the  other  colonies  on  the  African  coast 
possessed  Ijy  France,  Brilain,  and  Portugal ;  while 
of  Isle  years,  in  KpypI,  some  apfiroaches  have  been 
made  lo  European  models,  with  the  advantago  of 
greatly  stimulating  material  |>rospeiily  by  Ncuiing 

Imdiatry  in  Africa  is  at  Ihe  lowest  ebb.  Except 
where  they  are  associaled  with  or  have  been  iit- 
alructeil  by  Euro|ieans  or  Araln,  tlie  Africans  havo 
maile  little  profrrrM  in  the  arts.  All  Ihe  more  la- 
borious occiipalions  are  devolved  cm  females ;  and 
in  some  parts  the  wives  of  kings  or  pelly  girinces 
are  made  Is  dll  the  land  for  the  support  of  Iheir 
barbarian  lorchc  P^ven  Ihe  most  neceaeary  arts  are 
iu  an  extrcmeir  backward  states 

Commerct, — It  may  appear  a  singular  and  not 
easily  explained  fact,  thai  notwilhstanding  the 
low  state  of  the  arts  in  Africa,  and  the  difficulties 
of  Ihe  c;ounlry,  an  extensive  inten»urse  has  been 
ranied  on,  ftum  Ihe  remotest  aniiquity,  between 
very  (Ustant  parts  of  thai  continent.  This,  no 
doubt,  has  been  owing  lo  the  natural  productions 
in  greatest  demand  iH'in^  confined  to  certain  local- 
ities; and  to  the  focililics  affbtded  for  traverung 
Ihe  vast  deserts   which  intersect  Africa  by   tlie 

studded ;  and  the  employment  of  tbe  camel,  or 
sAip  of  du  drBrrt.  Salt  and  dates  are  Ibe  princ^i- 
pal  articles  conveyed  from  nortbem  to  central 
Africa.  The  extensive  region  uf  Sundan,  lo  the 
south  of  the  great  clesert  of  Sahara,  is  completely 
destitute  of  lliese  valuable  articlts.  Itolh  ot  them, 
but  es[iecially  salt,  are,  however,  in  great  demand 
in  it;  tbe  latter  being,  iu  many  paiia,  so  highly 
priied  and  so  soarec  as  to  he  employed  to  perfgjru 
the  functions  of  money.  This  neceeeory  article  is 
found  in  various  places  in  the  desert,  while  dales 
arc  found  in  the  grealcst  abundance  all  along  ita 
north  froQIier,  tlie  country  aclioiniiu;  In  it  being 
called  from  tbu  circumstance  Kledulgerid,  or  the 
cn*Hlrf  nf  iLiltM,  But,  though  ileslitute  of  these 
imimnant  jiriHlucts,  ceiilml  Africa  has  others;  such 
as  gold  dust,  ivciry,  gums,  palm  cdl,  fealherv,  and, 
above  all.  ehive«,'for  which  there  bas  always  been 
a  readv  market  in  itortiary  and  Egyiit.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  natural  oibtplattun  of  the  pmdui^ta 
of  one  part  of  the  conlincnt  lo  sujyly  the  wants 
of  aDotliet,  an  inlereoutse  has  subcisled  amotigitt 
them  from  the  remotest  ontiqiuly.  Even  »  early 
as  Ihe  days  of  Ilerodutiis,  the  mercbania  engaged 
in  Ihe  inleiiur  Irollic  had  penetrated  as  lar  as  the 
Xiger,  or  one  of  the  rivim  Mowing  into  lake  Tchad; 
wliich  the  veneraldc  father  of  liistoiy  ccmeclly 
de»crilies  as  a  ouislilemlile  river  beyond  a  sandy 
desert,  which  it  required  many  days  lu  cmss,  flowing 
easiwanU  and  infested  wilh  cMomliles  !  (II.  |  '■ti.) 
Eg.vpt  and  diffi-n>nt  towns  in  ibe  S.  or  Itartiuy 
slaiva  have  always  lieen,  and  continue  to  he,  Ihe 
gToatsealsuf  thiatrade.    It  ia  carried  on  at  preaciA 


38 


AFRICA 


w  it  was  3,000  yeam  afco,  wholly  by  caravans. 
ThcwG  consist  of  an  indefinite  number  of  camcU, 
eeldom  Icah  than  500,  and  often  as  many  art  from 
I/)00  Ut  2.000,  They  <li»  not  liillow  n  din\'.{  muiM' 
acTi)S8  the  desert  from  their  ])oint  of  dei^arture  to 
where  they  arc  destined,  hut  tliver^  to  the  oa>His 
or  v(*nlant  f<pot.s,  wliere  they  pn^cure  water  and 
refresh  themselvef*.  If  they  1)6  disapix/mtetl  in 
lindiu};  water  at  one  of  the.se  resrin^-places.  or  be 
overtaken  by  a  land-Mtorm,  the  coiutequeueert  ore 
often  m(»8t  disoHlnms.  In  li<05,  a  caravan  pro- 
ceedin*^  fmm   TinibuettN)  to  Tatilet,  nut  haNnn^ 


tortouMMihcll,  anow-mot,  sofico,  and  other  con 
modities.  Zaiizilriur,  in  lat.  G°  2H"  S.,  and  Ion, 
39®  33'  E.,  exp)rtrt  jfuhl,  ivory,  drti;^  criir,  coo<* 
nntH,  ^um.s  Uirs-wax,  ti>rtoiiH.*-shell,  sptoo,  ri< 
fn>m  Pemlia,  seMUiie  seed  from  Anpixo,  and 
loT)^  quantity  of  timber.  In  1818  clovtw  we 
introduced  uito  Zanzibar,  and  thrive  8i»  well  tli 
thcv  have  to  a  frruat  extent  MupeiMHlud  the  cull 
vatnm  of  the  8u^r-cane.  The  imports  uf  Zani 
linr  mav  \»  valueil  at  oOO.<HN>/.  per  annum.  I^m 
in  hit.  i»  15'  .j;,"  s.,  and  hniK.  41®  I'  o"  E.,  earn 


on  a  con.^iderable  traile  in  hiiles,  and  the  ex{x»T 
found  water  at  a  re?*tin{f-plac«%  the  whole  per>«»nH  i  fmm  Zanzibar.  Urava.  lat.  10  6'40"  N.,  and  Ion 
U'lonpnir  to  it.  l>,OiH)  in  numlier.  with  aUiut  I.xoo    4  |o  3'  K.. 


inpnjr 

ramelrt,  {K'rished  miserably !  (JacksonV  Mon»cco, 
{K  331).  See  abvi  the  excellent  cha])ter  in  Heeren, 
on  the  I^nd  Commerce  of  the  Cartliapnians.) 

Kxchisive  of  this  internal  cr>mmcr('e,  Africa  has 
rarric«l  on  a  considerable  commerce  by  wo,  Muce 
the  (liscovery  of  her  W.  ctaHtN  by  the  I'ltrtu^juese: 
but  the  pn^liabiHty  seemn  to  be,  that  she  has  lost 
more  tlum  she  has  ;^ined  )iy  this  commerxre. 


trades  loi^'ly  with  India  and  Arabi 
anil  its  tnule  with  America  rapiiUy  increases, 
exports,  hides,  bullocks,  hitrses.  and  camels,  tl 
skins  of  wilil  animals,  ami  M^me  other  thiii<: 
IleMide  the  actual  commerce  thus  p:oin^  on  in  K:i 
Afn<"a,  M.  M'Leod.  t**  whose  *  Travels  in  En.<itei 
Africa'  we  an>  hidebted  for  thc^se  details,  p<iin 
out  various  other  places  in  this  ]>art  of  Afric 
which  are  rich  in  ppNluce.  and  admirably  adaph 


Slaves  Iiave  lieen  the  staple  article  of  ex[sirt  fn)m    for  trade:   IIm>,  Melinda,  Momlms,  ami  ijsonilja 

•iffer  pvat  ailvantof^es  in  this  way,  IVrliaiis  e: 
o^^rated  noti(»n8  liave  been  entertained  of  tl 
value  of  the  trade  and  of  its  cofiacity  uf  cxtei 
sion.  That  it  mav  bv  mareriallv  incn^asetl  is.  i 
doubt,  true:  but  the  fair  pn*sumptii»n  seems 
b<\  that  till  civilisation  has  wrought  a  nulic 
chan^^e  in  the  African  character,  the  wants  of  tl 
native  Africans,  and  their  in<histr>',  an*  much  t« 
c<»ntracled  t«»  admit  of  their  ever  bectnniinj  extei 
sive  deniaudiTs  of  Kuroi)e.in  pro«luce. 

Cartlui^e.  the  lirst  maritime  jstwer  of  antiiput 
thou;rh  situntiHl  in  northern  Africa,  wa**  a  riueii 


the  African  i^roost :  and  in  some  yeor^  as  many  as 
110,(M)0  or  120,000  have  l>een  carrietl  acn»ss'thc 
Atlantic.  It  has  I>ee.n  saiil,  anil  no  dou))t  truly, 
that  the  o[H.*nin^  of  this  new  and  vast  outlet  f<ir 
slaves  was  atlvanta^*ous  ti»  Afric.i,  by  lesseninjr 
the  fxlious  iiractii'e  of  cannilMilism,  and  preventing 
the  immolation  of  the  captives  taken  in  war.  liut, 
'Oiimiltin^r  this,  it  scrnis  notwittiMnmlin^  abun- 
dantly certain  that  the  slave-tra<le  has  U'cn  ]»ri>- 
ductive  of  a  far  ^preater  amount  of  misery-  tlian  it 
has  sup[>ressed.  Without  stopping  tu  inquire 
whether  death  miifht  not  W  pn-fcrable  to  slavcr\'. 


it  has  miiltipli«'<l  l)ie  latter  in  no  ordinnrA'  d(';o^'c.  ■  rian  colony.and  Iut  fleets  wen*  princi|>ally  raann< 
Formerly  the  J K'Oci.*  of  the  (luniirv  wjl*  compnra-  fnim  her  tidonies  in  the  Metlilerruuea'n.  Sin 
tively  little  di.sturiKxl  by  wars;  but  now  a  whole-  the  fall  of  this])owerful  n-publio.  no  African  |teo|i 
sale  system  of  bri^andii^  and  roblN>n-  i^oI^anised  I  has  had  the  >maUeiit  claim  to  lie  calhtl  mariiim 
in  many  exteuMve  districts;  the  bulk  of  tlie  |H.*ople  |  The  most  a4lvance(.l  natii»ns  are  at  this  moniei 
iH'iiij;  huntetl  down  like  pime  by  tlie|M'tiy  princes,  !  ami  have  always  Ixt-n.  nearly  ignorant  of  the  ii 
nndbytheMohannneibns.wlioaflK'ttolK'lii'vethat  ;  of  shii»-buildin^.  It  Is  to  l^ur«>[)oan  en^ne< 
they  an*  entitliNl  toca|)tun>and>ell  the  *  idolat«'rs,' I  and  caqK'ntera  that  the  Pacha  of  K^rypt  ii*  i 
to  Her\'e  a-H  Is^asts  of  bunh'u  ill  another  hemi>pltere. !  debte<l  for  his  shi|is;  and  everyone  knows  tli 
Hence  it  is  that  the  suppn-sMon  of  occa<iional  in-  \  tliL*  was  fi»rmerly  the  case  with  the  Deys  of  A 
stances  of  canniltali<ni,  and  of  the  sa^-rifice  of ,  j^ers,  Tunis.  &c.  In  some  few  ]tlai.vs  ilic  nativ 
human  victims,  ha.-*  lK*en  su]>plantetl  by  a  widely  !  lit  out  a  s<»rt  of  hirpe  cutter;  not.  however,  i 


diffusetl  system  <if  rapine,  ]mNluctive  of  a  t<ital 
want  of  security,  aiul  subven»ive  of  ever\'tlnnjr 
like  p^kI  (;oveniment  anil  psKl  onh'r.  Until  this 
state  of  tiling  Ite  totallv  chan^-^l,  it  wouM  Ik> 


the  piiqiose  of  tnule  or  fishing,  but  to  engo^j^e 
piracy. 

Uesides  salt,  to  which  we  have  already  allude 
jjold  ihist  or  tibbar  and  c«iwrie«  are  the  articl 


idle  to  expect  that  civilisation  slutuld  make  anv  .  principallv  iismi  as  monev  in  Africa.     The  latti 


jiro^rcss  in  the  countries  where  it  exL-^ts.  Its 
alMilition  is  iiidis|K'nsable  as  a  pr(>liminary  mea- 
sure to  jrive  them  even  a  chance  of  emei^n;r  fr<»m 
the  baritarism  in  which  they  have  been  so  Imig 
involviil. 

There  seems  to  lie  a  r^^owmable  jm>si>ei*t  that 
the  meritorious  efft»rt8  of  (;reat  lintain  for  the 
suppression  of  the  slave-trade  will,  at  no  verj- tlis- 

tanf  iK'ricNl,  be  crowned  with  success,  in  so  far  at  ;  and  thou«;h  forliidden  in  Abybsini.i,  the  marrinj 
least  as  the  nations  of  KnroiK?  and  America  are  tie  is  there  sti  sli;;ht  as  hanlly  to  h.ive  any  se 
conwmeiL  Hut  it  is  quite  other\*-ise  with  the  sible  influence:  ami  morals  an\  in  this rY^jsvt. in 
»lave-tra<le  carriiKl  on  fnjm  the  interior  with  the  stateofahiiost  total  dissidutioii.  That  can  nil  mi  lis 
Itarbary  states,  K;:vpt  and  Arabia.  Then*  are  no  I  fonuerly  existwl  to  a  frifihtful  extent  in  niai 
ffroumis  for  supisisin^  that  it  will  l>e  six'eilily  »»u|)-  I  parts  of  Africa,  cannot  Ik»  doiibte<l ;  and  though 
pressed:  prolwibly, indeetl,  it  is  destine<i  for  a  while  .  has  ^jitly  dt>cliiutl,  i>artly  liecatise  «»f  the  iutr 
rather  to  imTeose.    Luckily,  however,  it  is  much    diictmn   of   MohamineilaiiLsm,   and    iiartlv,    ai 


a  s|iecics  of  small  shell  {gathered  <in  the  shuri's 
the  Maldive  islands,  are  u>*ed  in  small  jkaymer 
tlirou;;hout   lihidostan:    but    in   the   intcri<»r 
Africa  their  value  is  al»out  ten  tunes  greater  thi 
ill  lt4'iipil. 

TTif  tttcial  condltum  of  the  pwiple  of  Africa  is 
depn«>seil  as  their  industry  and  their  scieiiw.    Tl 
practii'e  of  polygamy  is  ilitluseil  all  ovct  Afrir 


less  extensive  than  tliat  carrierl  on  fmm  the  \V. 
cxNUt,  the  entire  export  of  slaves  rarely  amounting 
to  so  monv  as  10,006  in  a  single  year,  and  it  is  not 
aocomponied  by  so  many  disastmus  results. 

Exclusivo  of  slaves,  palm  oil,  gold  dust,  ivor\\ 
fpims,  teak,  timber,  wax,  hides,  and  f(>athers  are 
tbe  principal  articles  importerl  into  \V.  Kurojie 
and  America  from  Africa.  Mozambique  exports 
ivoiyy  bee»-wAZy  sesame  SMd,   orchella,  coffee, 


{Mtrtlv. 
princiijally,  {teriiaits,  because  of  the  n'ady  oi 
ailvantageous  markets  that  have  long  l)een  tipom 
in  the  Wwt  liuliesand  America  for  the  slaves 
captives  taken  in  war,  there  S4*enis  t4»  l»e  no  dou 
that  it  still  exist •«  among  certain  trilies.  Amoi 
some  consideiable  nations  the  ex)Misun*  of  chi 
dren,  and  tlie  slaughter  of  tht»s<»  that  arc*  defonm 
or  maimed,  is  not  tolerated  niervly,  but  enfonre 
In  some  iNirts  humau  blood  ia  'reported  to  I 


AFRICA 


^9 


mixed  op  with  the  Ume  or  mortar  used  in  the 
cotwtmction  of  temples.  And  it  is  said  to  be  usual 
amung  the  greater  number  of  the  nations  on  the 
coast  cf  Gumea  for  rich  individuals  to  immolate 
human  victims  once  in  their  lives  to  the  manes  of 
their  (athen.  (Balbi,  Abi^^  p.  849,  2nd  ed.) 
Atrocities  like  these  are,  however,  principally  con- 
fined to  the  least  improved  tribes  of  tne  Negro 
race.  Bat,  speaking  generally,  barbarism,  cruelty, 
and  the  most  degrading  superstition  are  univer- 
sally prevalent  amon^  by  far  the  greater  number 
of  the  nations  of  Afincan  origin.    (See  art.  Ash- 

As  already  stated,  with  the  exception  of  Egypt 
and  Ab3rseinia,  all  the  science  and  literature  to 
be  found  in  Africa  are  of  Arabic  origin.  The 
Arabs  have  schools  established  in  Cairo,  Merou, 
and  Darfour,  in  the  region  of  the  Nile;  in  Mo- 
niooo,  Fez,  Algiers,  Tunis,  &c.,  in  Barbury;  and 
there  are  schools  among  the  Mandingos,  Fou- 
lahs,  Jok^s,  and  other  Mohammedan  nations 
of  central  Nigritia  or  Soudan:  these  are  placed 
under  Mohammedan  teachers,  and  assist  in  dis- 
seminatingthe  rudiments  of  Arabic  learning  and 
ftaenoe.  The  £uropean  colonies  at  the  C^)e, 
AJgiers,  and  varioos  other  places  along  the  coast, 
have  been  regarded  as  so  many  centres,  whence 
the  language  and  liteniture  of  Europe  might  be 
expected  gradually  to  ^read  over  the  whole  con- 
tinent. Hut  our  anticipations  in  this  respect  are 
lar  from  sanguine;  and  the  presumption  seems  to 
be.  that  if  barbaricsn  and  ignorance  are  not  to  be 
immortal,  they  are,  at  aU  events,  destined  to  a 
prolonged  existence  in  Africa. 

Catue9  of  the  Inferioriiy  of  the  Jfrictxtu, — The 
low  state  of  the  arts  in  Africa,  and  the  barbarism 
that  so  generally  prevails  in  it,  have  been  va- 
riiiasly  accounted  tor;  and,  perhaps,  we  are  yet 
with(»ut  the  means  of  coming  to  any  satisfacturv 
€uncla«oa  in  regard  to  either  matter.  But  it 
wc«ild  seem  that  the  first,  or  the  low  state  of  the 
aru.  is  mainly  attributable  to  the  climate,  which 
sopenedes  the  use  of  many  articles  indispensable 
in  regions  more  to  the  N.  and  S.  Manufacturing 
in«iu9Cry  is  principally  devoted,  in  European  and 
Ai4atic  countries,  to  the  producrion  uf  articles  of 
cloching;  but  where  clothes  are  an  incumbrance, 
anil  most  of  the  people  are  satisfied  if  they  have  a 
piece  of  coarse  ccnimon  cotton  stufi^  to  wrap  round 
their  middle,  it  would  be  absunl  and  contradictory 
to  expect  that  this  great  department  of  manu- 
Cactanng  industry,  and  its  many  dependent  and 
mhetidiary  arts,  should  make  any  progress.  The 
agriculture,  too,  of  the  greater  part  of  Africa  is  ex- 
recilingly  unfavourable  to  the  development  of  a 
ffiirit  of  enterprise  and  invention.  The  seasons 
itifiTcr  bat  little  from  each  other;  and  in  those 
tracts  not  condemned  to  perpetual  sterilitv,  that 
is.  in  the  tracts  watered  by  the  periodical  rains, 
or  by  the  overfiowing  of  the  rivers,  the  rudest 
hasbandry  is  sufficient^  the  heat  of  the  sun  opera- 
ting oD  the  moisture  of  the  soil  being  all  but 
cniiagh  to  produce  the  most  luxuriant  crops.  The 
battles,  too,  in  tropical  climates  may  be  construc- 
ted at  comparatively  Uttle  expense;  and,  except 
fur  the  cooking  of  victuals,  fires  would  be  a 
wnnaiKie,  It  is  idle,  ti)»efore,  to  wonder  at  the 
Uckward  state  of  industry  in  Africa.  It  would 
be  as  reasonable  to  expect  to  find  a  manufactory 
of  freexing  machines  at  the  North  Cape,  as  to  ex- 
pect to  find  extensive  cloth  factories  in  Nigritia. 
The  industry  of  a  country  always  bean  some  pro- 
tttrt'um  to  the  wants  and  necessities  of  its  in- 
haUtanta;  and  few  comparatively  gf  those  things 
which  employ  a  large  part  of  the  industry  of 
Eampfans  hang  wanted  in  Africa,  they  are  but 
little  pnwinoeiL 


It  is  true  that  besides  the  great  articles  now 
referred  to,  there  are  others,  such  as  articles  of 
show  and  ostentation,  arms,  and  jewellery,  for 
which  it  might  be  supposed  the  taste  in  Africa 
would  be  as  strong  as  in  Europe.  But  these  are 
costly  articles;  and,  in  point  of  fact,  are  never 
found  generally  diffused  in  any  country  not  distin> 

Siished  by  its  industry.  Men  are  not  instinctively 
borious  or  entcrprismg.  Industry  is  vrith  them 
only  a  means  to  an  end — a  sacrifice  they  must 
pay  to  obtain  supplies  of  the  necessaries  and  con- 
veniences of  human  life.  Wherever  the  sacrifice 
required  to  procure  food,  clothes,  and  other  neces- 
sai^  accommodations  is  considerable,  the  popu- 
lation is  generally  industrious;  and  a  taste  for 
labour  being  widely  diffused,  those  who  are  not 
obliged  to  i4)ply  themselves  to  the  production  of 
necessaries,  engage  in  the  production  of  super- 
fluities. But  wherever  the  principal  wants  of  man 
may  be  supplied  with  but  little  exertion,  indolence 
becomes  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the 
population;  and  instead  of  employing  their  spare 
time  in  the  production  of  articles  of  ostentation 
and  luxury,  they  usually  waste  it  in  idleness  and 
apathy. 

In  addition  to  the  circumstances  now  mentioned 
explanatory  of  the  low  state  of  the  arts  in  Africa, 
and  the  barbarism  prevalent  in  it,  the  Negroes 
and  other  African  races  have  been  supposed  by 
some  philosophers  to  be  naturally  inferior  in 
point  of  intellect,  and  not  to  possess  the  same 
capacity  for  improvement  as  the  Europeans,  or 
people  of  the  Caucasian  variety.  This  suppo- 
sition has,  however,  been  vehemently  denied;  and 
it  has  been  contended  over  and  over  again,  that 
the  peculiar  circumstances  under  which  they  have 
been  placed  sufficiently  account  for  the  condition 
of  the  Africans — for  their  want  of  a  literature  and 
their  low  civilisation.  That  great  weight  should 
be  attached  to  the  considerations  now  mentioned 
is  true;  but  still  the^  are  insufficient  wholly  to 
account  for  the  exustmg  state  of  things.  Egy]»t 
was,  at  a  very  remote  period,  the  principal  seat  of 
science  and  of  art;  and  various  nations  of  Africa 
were  in  contact  vrith,  and  had  a  pretty  extensive 
intercourse  witti,  the  Egv])tians,  and  also  with 
the  Phoenicians,  and  af'terwards  the  Romans. 
But  they  seem  to  have  profited  little  or  nothing 
bv  this  association.  Aiid  while  Uie  people  of 
Greece,  Asia  Minor,  and  Magna  Gnecia  raised 
themselves  in  a  comparatively  brief  period  to 
the  highest  pitch  of  civilisation  and  refinement, 
the  nations  of  Africa  continue,  without  a  so- 
litary exception,  down  even  to  the  present  day, 
immeriMMl  in  the  grossest  l)arbarism.  Yet,  during 
the  space  of  8,000  or  4,000  years,  opportunities 
must  have  been  afforded  to  some* of  them  to  make 
advances. 

With  the  exception  of  that  of  the  ancient 
Eg^'ptians  and  Ethiopians,  whose  descent  is  in- 
volved in  the  greatest  uncertainty,  almost  all  the 
civilisation  that  exists  in  Africa  seems  to  be  of 
foreign  origin.  The  introduction  of  Moham- 
medanism, though  in  a  debased  form,  has,  as 
previously  stated,  gone  far  to  banish  cannibalism 
from  many  countries;  and  some  of  them  have 
also  adopted  the  letters  and  literature  of  Arabia. 
But  the  progress  they  have  hitherto  mrnle  is  not 
such  as  to  lead  to  any  very  sangume  anticipations 
as  to  their  future  advancement ;  and  it  would  not, 
indeed,  be  very  pliilosophical  to  suppose  that  those 
who  liave  been  wholly  unable  to  produce  any 
thing  original  should  attain  to  much  eminence  in 
tlie  practice  of  foreign  arts  and  sciences. 

It  w  unnecessary  to  enter  into  any  examination 
of  the  vexata  tpiutio^  whether  the  varieties  of  the 
human  race    m    Africa  originally  sprung  from 


40 


AFRICA 


different  sonioes,  or  whether  they  all  belong  to 
the  same  stock,  but  chanfi^  to  the  state  in  which 
we  find  them  by  the  influence  of  circumstances 
in  the  lapse  of  ages.  Whatever  conclusion  may 
be  come  to  on  this  point  cannot  in  anywise  affect 
the  question  as  to  tne  comparative  intelligence  of 
the  African  people.  The  same  circumstances  that 
arc  supposed  by  those  who  contend  for  the  original 
identity  of  the  races  to  have  so  greatly  affected 
their  appearance  and  physical  capacities,  could 
hardly  fail  to  have  an  equallypowerful  influence 
over  their  mental  faculties.  This  in  fact  is  sub- 
stantially admitted  hyr  Dr.  Prichard,  who  has 
ably  contended  for  their  common  origin,  an^  the 
equality  of  their  intellect  vrith  that  of  the  other 
races,  *  The  tribes,'  says  he,  *  in  whose  prevalent 
conformation  the  negro  type  is  discernible  in  an 
exaggerated  degree,  are  uniformly  in  the  lowest 
stage  of  human  society ;  they  are  either  ferocious 
savages,  or  stupid,  sensual,  and  indolent.  Such 
are  the  Pajtals,  Bulloms,  and  other  rude  hordes  on 
the  coast  of  Western  Guinea,  and  manv  tril>es 
near  the  Slave  coast,  and  in  the  Bight  of^  Benin ; 
countries  where  the  slave  trade  has  been  carried 
on  to  the  greatest  extent,  and  has  exercised  its 
usually  baneful  influence.  On  the  other  hand, 
wherever  we  hear  of  a  Negro  state,  the  inhabitants 
of  which  have  attained  any  considerable  degree  of 
impn>vement  in  their  social  condition,  wo  con- 
stantly And  that  their  physical  characters  deviate 
considerably  from  the  strongly  marked  or  exag- 
gerated type  of  the  Negro.  The  Ashantee,  the 
Sulema,  the  Dahomans,  are  exem])lincations  of 
this  remark.  The  Negroes  of  Guber  and  Hausa, 
where  a  considerable  degree  of  cixilisation  has 
long  exi«tted,  are,  perhaps,  the  finest  race  of 
genuine  Negroes  in  the  whole  continent,  unless 
the  Jolofs  are  to  be  excepted.  The  Jolofs  have 
been  a  comparatively  civilised  people  from  the 
eam  of  their  first  iliscovcry  by  the  Portuguese.' 
(Researches  into  the  llbtbry  of  Man,  ii.  p.  338. 
3rd  ed.) 

It  is  doubtful  whether  this  is  a  perfectly  correct 
statement ;  but  at  any  rate  it  may  be  worthy  of 
consideration  as  coming  from  a  great  authority  on 
questions  of  race.  As  to  the  nc^^ro,  the  new  era 
opening  for  him  in  the  great  American  republic, 
where  he  has  been  freed  at  such  boundless  expen- 
diture of  European  blood,  must  ultimately  settle 
the  question  whether  he  is  fit  for  a  higher  civilisa- 
tion. 

Geographical  and  Political  DiviMtons,  —  Africa 
has  been  variously  di\'ided,  according  as  one  stan- 
danl  or  another  has  been  adopted.  Owing  to  the 
barbarism  of  the  people,  our  ignorance  of  the 
different  states  into  which  the  continent  is  di- 
vided, and  the  revolutions  to  which  they  are  per- 
petually sul^ect,  an^  distribution  of  the  country 
founded  on  its  political  divisions  would  be  almost 
impiMusible ;  and,  however  accurate  at  the  time, 
would  speedily  become  (|uite  obsolete.  A  letter 
method  woidd  be  to  distribute  it  acconling  to  the 
races  of  people  by  which  it  is  principallv  occupied ; 
but  as  these  arc  in  parts  very  much  blended,  and 
it  is  sometimes  no  easy  matter  to  say  which  pre- 
dominates, it  seems,  on  the  whole,  the  better  way 
to  distribute  it  according  to  the  great  natural  fea- 
tures of  the  country;  On  this  principle,  Africa 
may  be  distributed  as  follows,  beginning  with  the 
North:— 

1,  The  Barhary  Slates,  inclndinf?  the  whole  country  N. 

of  the  deaert  of  Sahara,  and  W.  of  the  25th  d<^rree 
of  E.  long. 

2.  Sahara^  or  the  Great  Desert. 

9.  The  Region  of  the  JfiU.  including  Egypt*  Nnbia, 

'     Abyssinia,  Senaar,  Kordofon,  and  all  the  country 

drained  by  its  ai&oents. 


4.  Niffritia^  which  may  be  subdivided  as  follows,  tIx.:— ^ 

a.  Soudan,  or  N.  Kigritia,  being  the  country  to  the 

8.  of  the  Sahara  and  N.  of  the  Kong  moun- 
tains,  watered  l^  the  Senegal,  Gambia,  Niger, 
and  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  great  lake  of 
Tchad. 

b.  Central  Nigritia,  being  the  region  between  tha 

Kong  mountains  and  the  N.  shore  of  the  gulfib 
of  Guinea  to  the  Bight  of  Biafra. 
0.  Southern  Nigritia,  including  the  countries  from 
the  Bight  of  Biafra  along  the  coast  to  Cape 
N^irro,  and  inwards  to  the  souroos  of  the  riven 
flowing  through  it  to  the  coast. 

5.  Southern  Africa,  or  the  region  S.  of  Cape  Negro  on 

the  W.,  and  of  the  Zamt)08i  river  on  the  E. 

6.  Eastern  Africa^  or  the  region  N.  of  Zambeid  river, 

round  by  the  sea  coast  to  the  confines  of  Abyiwinia 
and  the  Gebel-el-Komri.or  Mountains  of  the  Moon. 

7.  The  Island*  of  Africa^  including  the  Madeira.  Canary, 

and  Gape  de  Verde  islands  on  the  W.  coast,  widi 
ttiose  of  St.  Helena,  Aaoenslon,  jec,  and  on  the  B. 
ooast  the  great  island  of  Madngascar,  the  isles  of 
France  and  Mauritius,  Soootra,  £c. 

Progre$$  of  Discovery, — Africa,  among  all  the 
quarters  of  the  globe,  has  always  been  the  chief 
object  of  curiosity  and  discovery.  Her  Mediter- 
ranean coast  indeed  was  well  known  to  the 
ancients,  and  included  in  their  circle  of  civilised 
states.  But  her  eastern  and  western  limits, 
stretching  an  indefinite  extent  southward,  long 
bafiled  the  attempts  to  reach  their  termination 
and  that  of  the  continent ;  while  immense  deserts 
barred  tiic  access  into  the  interior.  A  peculiar 
difiiculty  was  also  found  in  tracing  the  source, 
and  sometimes  the  termination,  oi  the  mighty 
rivers  by  which  its  inland  rc^ons  are  watered. 

Tyre,  the  earliest  seat  or  a  flourishing  com- 
rncrce,  might  be  expected  to  seek  a  route  to  tiie 
distant  parts  of  Africa.  In  the  curious  account 
given  by  Ezekiel,  Tarshish  is  mentioned  as  both 
the  most  remote  and  most  important  place  with 
which  she  trafficked.  The  learned,  however,  have 
ItecTi  much  divided  respecting  its  site;  but  the 
Tarshish  to  which  the  Tyrians  sailed  down  the 
Mediterranean,  whence  they  imported  iron,  silver, 
lead,  and  tin,  the  pn>duct8  of  Spain  and  Britain, 
was  m(»4t  probably  either  Carthi^^e,  or  the  S.  part 
of  ,8pairu  Carthage  made  violent  efforts  to  pro- 
vent  other  commercial  jpowers  from  penetrating 
beyond  Sicily,  thus  seeking  to  monopolise  the  ex- 
clusive trade  of  the  remoter  countries,  of  whose 
products  her  merchanta  would,  of  course,  ke<^  an 
assortment. 

Mention,  however,  is  made  of  another  route  to 
Tarshish,  by  the  Rod  Sea,  which  has  singularly 
perplexed  geographers.  It  was  opened  Hy  So- 
lomon, during  the  most  prosperous  period  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judsea,  and  aided  by  an  alliance  with 
Hmmi,  king  of  Tpe.  To  reconcile  these  two 
voyages,  M.  Gosselm  supposes  the  term  to  mean 
*  the  ocean '  as  distinguished  from  inland  seas  or 
gulphs :  so  that  one  voyage  was  to  the  Atlantic, 
the  other  to  the  Indian  O^an.  But  all  the  modes 
in  which  Tarshish  is  mentioned— the  fare  of  a 
vessel  thither,  its  merchants,  its  kings — seem  in- 
consistent with  so  very  vague  a  sense ;  nor  does 
there  appear  any  room  to  tliink  the  Jews  ever 
viewed  the  Mediterranean  as  an  inclosed  sea.  We 
are  disposed  therefore  to  prefer  the  suggestion  of 
Mr.  Murray,  in  the  Encyclopedia  of  Geographv, 
that  the  TjTians  gave  the  name  of  Tarshish  to  the 
whole  continent,  of  which  it  funned  for  them  the 
most  important  part.  Tarshish,  in  this  larger 
sense,  becomes  nearlv  synonymous  with  Africa ; 
the  one  voyage  was  along  its  northern,  the  otlier 
along  its  eastern  coast 

Ophir  is  another  country  much  celebrated  in 
the  Jewish  scriptures,  particuUrly  for  its  gokl. 
Many  learned  men  have  sought  it  in  India, 
though  gold  was  not  then  ao  artido  of  export 


APRICA 


41 


from  ihat  ooontay,  bat  the  contraiy;  and  no 
ooe  staple  of  Indian  trade  is  mentioned  as  brooght 
from  Ophxr.  Indeed  ita  poeition  seems  clearly 
fixed,  when  we  find  the  Ked  Sea  voyage  to  Tar- 
ihijh  described  elsewhere  as  one  to  Oj^iir.  The 
latter,  then,  was  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa, 
where  ffold  ia  nowhere  fonnd  north  of  the  Zam- 
bexe.  Here  accordingly  we  find  Sofala,  long  the 
diief  emporium  of  that  liver ;  and  it  may  Im  ob- 
served tnat  Ophir  is  called  in  the  Septuagint 
Soopbeira,  while  the  modem  Aiab  term  is  in- 
differently Zolar  or  Zofoat. 

This  interooorse  did  not  survive  Solomon,  whose 
BDOoessors,  weakened  by  the  division  of  the  king- 
doms, were  unable  to  maintain  it. 

Our  next  information  is  derived  from  Hero- 
dotos,  who,  dmin^  his  residence  in  Egypt,  made 
veiy  careful  inquiries  of  the  priests  and  learned 
men.  He  gives  a  very  curious  report  of  no  less 
an  exploit  than  the  entire  circumnavigation  of 
Africa.  Necho,  one  of  the  greatest  Egyptian 
princes,  engaged  for  this  purpose  Phoenidan  roar- 
rinens  who  descended  the  Red  Sea,  and  having 
leached  the  ocean,  landed,  sowed  a  crop,  reaped 
it,  and  renewed  their  vo3rage.  Thus  they  pro- 
ceeded for  two  years,  and  in  the  third  entered 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  They  remarked  that,  in 
rounding  Africa,  they  had  the  sun  on  the  right, 
that  is,  <m  the  south,  which  must  have  been  cor- 
rect. This  brief  relation  has  given  rise  to  a  mass 
ci  controvexsy.  rHerodotus,  iv.  42;  Gosselin, 
G^ographie  des  Anciens,  i.  199-216;  Bennell, 
G«*^.  Herodotus,  s.  24,  25.) 

Hopodotns  has  given  a  detuled  account  of  the 
wild  and  wandering  tribes  behind  the  Atlas  ridge, 
extending  to  and  somewhat  beyond  Fezzan. — 
He  adds  an  interesting  narrative  of  an  expedition 
to  explore  the  interior,  undertaken  l^  some 
youths  from  the  country  of  the  Nasamones  lying 
mland  from  Cyrene.  They  passed,  first,  a  ver- 
dant and  cultivated  territory ;  then  a  wild  region 
filled  with  wild  beasts ;  next  entered  into  an  arid 
dnarj  desert.  Here,  while  plucking  some  wild 
fruits^  a  party  of  bladL  men  surprised  and  carried 
them  akmg  vast  marshes  and  lakes  to  a  city  situ- 
ated on  a  river  flowing  eastward.  These  last 
features,  after  they  were  within  the  desert,  could 
not  be  found  short  of  central  Africa;  but  it  is 
dodbcfnl  whether  their  refer  to  Tlmbuctoo  and  the 
Niger,  as  supposed  by  Bennell  and  Heeren,  or 
to  the  lake  Tdiad,  and  the  Yeou  or  river  of 


Another  singular  drcumstanoe  mentioned  by 
Herodotus  relates  to  a  traffic  for  gold  carried  on 
by  the  Carthaginians  with  a  people  beyond  the 
straits,  and  managed  in  a  peculiar  manner,  with- 
cot  the  parties  seeing  eacn  other.  There  is  no 
gold  in  Afirica  north  of  the  Senegal  or  Niger; 
but  whether  the  Carthaginians  penetrated  thither, 
or  the  gold  was  brought  by  natives  across  the 
desot,  there  seem  no  means  of  certainly  deter- 
mining. 

The  records  of  Carthage,  which  would  have 
thrown  so  mudi  hfAt  on  ancient  commerce  and 
ipeogniphical  knowledge,  have  unfortunately  pe- 
iitihed.  There  remains  only  one  valuable  docu- 
t,  the  narrative  of  a  voyage  by  a  commander 
Hanno,  sent  to  found  colonies  on  the 
vcstem  coast,  and  to  push  discovery  as  far  as 
|wifi^Mf^  He  is  said  to  have  carried  with  him 
sixty  vesaels,  and  no  less  than  30,000  men,  women, 
sad'diildjen.  After  passing  the  straits,  he  founded 
SBoteasiwe^  four  colonies  in  convenient  situa- 
tkns;  tbeo  aailing  three  days  along  a  desert 
coast,  came  to  Ccne,  a  small  island  in  a  bay. 
In  ita  Tidnity  he  Tiaited  a  lake,  through  which 
iovad  A  kige  iif«t  and  another  atieam  inll  of 


crocodiles  and  hippopotami.  Thep,  returning  to 
Ceme,  he  sailed  twdve  days  along  the  coast  of 
the  Ethiopians,  a  timid  race,  who  fled  at  the  ap- 
proach of  strangers.  His  party  then  reached  and 
sailed  for  several  da^s  along  a  coast,  where  they 
observed  many  strikmg  objects.  In  one  place  the 
earth  was  so  hot  that  it  could  not  be  trodden ; 
torrents  of  flame  were  seen  to  roll  along  it  and 
rush  into  the  sea.  During  the  day  there  appeared 
only  a  vast  forest;  but  in  the  ni^ht,  the  air  was 
filled  with  the  sound  of  musical  instruments  and 
of  human  voices.  Landing  on  an  island  they 
found  a  singular  race  of  bemgs,  in  human  8hjq)c, 
but  with  rough  skins,  losing  from  rock  to  rock 
with  preternatural  agility.  Towards  the  close  of 
their  voyage,  there  appeared  a  very  lofty  moun- 
tain, seeming  to  reach  the  skies,  called  the  Chariot 
of  the  Gods. 

This  voyage  has  been  the  subject  of  elaborate 
dissertation  by  learned  men,  who  have  differed 
very  widely  as  to  its  extent.  Bougainville  carries 
it  to  Cape  Three  Points  on  the  Gold  Coast, 
Rennell  to  Sierra  Leone ;  while  Groeselin  restricts 
it  to  the  river  Nun,  in  Morocco.  The  first  space 
exceeds  8,000  miles ;  the  latter  falls  short  of  700. 
The  difficulties  are  very  great ;  not  a  single  name 
coincides ;  the  descriptive  features  are  too  slij^ht 
to  fix  any  one  spot  with  precision.  The  penod, 
estimated  only  at  88  days,  seems  scarcely  ade- 
quate to  so  long  a  voyage  of  discovery  along  an 
unknown  coast.  Yet  the  aspect  of  man  and  na- 
ture ;  the  Ethiopians  or  black  races ;  the  gorillas, 
evidently  large  apes,  whose  form  resembled  the 
human;  the  great  rivers,  full  of  crocodiles  and 
hippopotami;  the  conflagrations,  apparently  oc- 
casioned by  the  still  prevalent  custom  of  burning 
the  grass  at  a  certain  season ;  silence  during  the 
day,  with  music  and  gaiety  in  the  night, — all 
these  strongly  suggest  tropical  Africa.  Gosselin 
indeed  maintains  that  the  coast  of  Morocco,  in  its 
then  comparatively  rude  state,  would  much  more 
than  now  resemble  the  negro  countries ;  but  this 
seems  scarcely  to  account  for  all  the  above  par- 
ticulars. (Hannonis  Periplus,  in  HudsonVGeog. 
Gtoc  Min.  tom.  l  ;  Rennell,  Geo^.  Herodot,  sect. 
16-26;  Gosselin,  G^og.  des  Anciens,  i  61-164; 
Bougainville,  in  Mdmoires  de  I'Acad^mie  des  In- 
scriptions, xxvi  10.) 

The  Persians,  who  entertained  an  almost  super- 
stitious dread  of  the  sea,  were  little  likely  to  ex- 
tend maritime  knowledge.  Yet  Xerxes  showed 
some  interest  in  Uie  subject.  Having  condemned 
to  death  Sataspes,  a  Persian  nobleman,  he  was 
ponsuaded  to  commute  the  sentence  to  that  of 
curcumnavigating  Africa.  Sataspes  passed  the 
straits,  but  soon  terrified  by  the  stormy  ocean  and 
rocky  shores,  he  returned,  and  declared  to  hia 
sovereign  that  the  vessel  had  stopped  of  itself,  and 
could  not  be  got  forward.  The  monarch  indig- 
nantly rejectttl  this  apology,  and  ordered  the 
original  sentence  to  be  executed.  The  attempt 
was  not  renewed;  and  under  this  empire  the 
knowledge  of  Africa  seems  to  have  on  the  whole 
retrograded.  When  Alexander  sent  an  expedi- 
tion down  the  Persian  gulph  to  seek  its  way  into 
the  Ked  Sea,  it  returned  without  success ;  whence 
the  inference  was  made  that  no  communication 
existed. 

Under  the  Ptolemies,  though  they  were  an  en- 
terprising dynasty,  and  a  learned  school  of  geo- 
mphy  was  then  K>rmed,  little  progress  Was  made. 
The  prevailing  hypothesis  oi  an  uninhabitable 
torrid  zone  at  once  mdicated  the  limited  amount 
of  knowledge,  and  tended  to  perpetuate  it.  The 
map  of  Eratosthenes  makes  Africa  an  irregular 
trapezium,  of  which  the  N.  and  S.  sides  were 
nearly  panUely  and  the  whole  teimuiated  N.  of 


42 


AFRICA 


the  equator.  The  coasts  beyond  the  Straits  of 
IxibraltAT  and  Cape  Gardafui,  being  olMerved  on 
botli  sides  to  convo^ef  were  supposed  to  continue 
in  that  direction  and  meet  A  navigat^^  named 
Eudoxesp  partly  aided  by  Ptolemy  Eversfetes  and 
by  the  merchants  of  Cadiz,  made  several  spirited 
attempts  to  perform  this  voyage,  of  which  he  did 
not  suspect  the  extent ;  but  he  returned  always 
without  success. 

The  Komans  did  not  much  advance  the  know- 
ledge of  interior  Africa.  Mela,  without  any  ad- 
ditirmal  information,  adopts  the  system  of  Era- 
tosthenes, with  some  fanciful  additions.  Pliny, 
however,  had  access  to  all  the  information  col- 
lected by  the  Roman  chiefs  and  commanders. 
8cipio  had  sent  Polybius  to  explore  the  western 
coast,  which  was  surveyed  by  that  officer  for  about 
800  miles,  consequently  not  beyond  the  limits  of 
Morocco.  Suetonius  Paulinus  had  penetrated  into 
the  rejynon  of  Atlas,  describing  its  loitv  and  rugged 
steeps  richly  clothed  with  forests.  Cndcr  Vespa- 
sian, Cornelius  Balbus  made  an  expedition  into 
the  desert,  receiving  the  submission  of  Cydamus 
(Gadamis),  and  Garama  (Germa),  but  we  can 
scarcely  identify  Boin  vrith  Bomou. 

Alexandria  meantime,  under  the  impulse  given 
by  the  luxurious  consumption  of  Home,  acquired 
a  great  extension  of  commerce.  She  opened  a 
it^ular  communication  with  India,  and  also  to  a 
considerable  extent  along  the  eastern  coast  of 
Africa.  Both  are  described  in  an  important  com- 
mercial work  written  in  the  first  century,  called 
the  Periplus  of  the  Erythreau  Sea.  The  African 
course  terminates  at  Khapta,  a  promontory  and 
fiourishing  port,  the  position  of  which,  however, 
fn»m  the  usual  causes  of  changed  names  and  vague 
descnriptions,  b  open  to  controversy.  Vincent  lixes 
it  at  (juiloa,  whde  Gossclin  mokes  it  Magadore^ 
not  ({uite  a  third  part  of  the  distance  fn>ra  the 
ascertainecl  |K>int  of  Ca\)e  Aromata  (Guardafui). 
But  the  former  has  one  conH]ncuous  feature;  five 
successive  laige  estuaries,  whi<rh  Gossclin  owns 
himself  unable  to  find  witliin  his  limits,  but  which 
actually  occur  a  little  north  of  Quiloa,  in  the 
mouths  of  the  great  river  QuillimancL  There 
aeems  little  room  to  hesitate  therefore  in  fixing 
Rhapta  at  Quiloa.  The  gold  of  the  Zambezi  had 
not  reached  tliis  port.,  the  exiK)rts  from  which 
consisted  only  of  ivory,  tortoise-shell,  and  slaves. 
(Periplus,  in  6eog.  Gra^  Minor,  torn.  L;  Gosselin, 
Cteog.  des  Anciens ;  Vincent,  Periplus  of  the  Ery- 
threan  Sea.) 

About  a  century  after,  Ptolemy  published  his 
geographical  work,  the  most  complete  of  any  in 
ancient  times.  On  the  eastern  coast  he  adils  to 
that  described  in  the  Periplus  an  a<iditional  range, 
stretching  south-east  fn>m  Rhapta  to  another 
pn»montory  and  port  calle<l  Prasum  ;  considerably 
south-east  from  which  lay  a  large  island,  Menu- 
thias,  evidently  Madagascar.  According  to  Gos- 
selin, Prasum  is  Brava,  while  Vincent  makes  it 
Mozambique ;  but  the  south-easterly  direction  of 
the  coast  seems  to  limit  it  to  Cafie  Delgado.  This 
too  would  harmonise  with  Ptolemy's  singular 
theory  of  a  great  austral  continent  extending  Ifrom 
Prasum  to  the  coast  of  the  Sinse  (China),  thus 
making  the  Indian  Ocean  an  immense  inland  sea. 

In  regard  to  the  W.  boundary,  Ptolemy's  ideas 
seem  by  no  means  very  precise.  His  graduation 
.shows  an  extent  of  cr>ast  which  would  reach  far 
into  tropical  Africa ;  yet  the  Canaries  are  placed 
opposite  to  his  most  southern  limit,  which  would 
thus  seem  scarcely  to  have  reached  beyond  Mo- 
n>cco.  Gossclin  accuses  him  of  having  em- 
ployed the  materials  afi^onled  l)y  three  different 
voyages  along  the  same  line  of  otast,  supiMsiiig 
Ihcm  to  a|)ply  to  separate  and  successive  parts,  I 


thereby  trebling  its  extent ;  bnt  we  must  hesitate 
in  imputing  to  this  eminent  geographer  an  error 
so  flagrant. 

On  the  side  of  central  Africa,  Ptolemy  de- 
lineates a  very  extensive  r^on,  reaching  far 
south,  wliich  he  names  Interior  Lybia.  It  con- 
tains two  spacious  lakes,  the  Lybian  and  the 
Nigritian,  recei\'ing  the  great  rivers  Gir  and  Niger, 
derived  from  chains  of  lofty  mountains.  A  num- 
ber of  cities  are  inserted  which  cannot  be  recog- 
nised by  modem  namesL  But  the  remarkable 
ciraimstance  is,  that  these  objects  appear  con- 
tiguous to,  and  even  connected  with  others,  that 
tmequivocally  belong  to  northern  Africa.  Hence 
G<«selin  and  other  writers  conclude  that  his  in- 
terior Lybia  was  not  central  Africa,  but  merely 
the  r^on  along  tlie  northern  borders  of  the  desert. 
We  must  observe,  however,  that  the  former,  de- 
scribed as  a  r^im  of  mountain,  river,  and  lake, 
all  on  a  great  scale,  bears  very  little  resemblance 
to  the  desert  border  of  northern  Africa.  Our  im- 
pression is  that  Ptolemv,  receixdng  his  intelligence 
fh>m  caravans  coming  li,  from  Bomou  to  the  Nik^ 
not  from  those  crossing  the  great  desert,  was 
ignorant  of  the  extent  of  the  Tatter,  and  conse- 
quently of  the  interval  separating  northern  from 
centre!  Africa;  and  that  ne  hence  suppoaed  and 
delineated  the  two  as  almost  in  contact.  Yet 
this  geographer  had  received  intelligence  of  two 
marches,  one  by  Julius  Materaus  from  Cyrene, 
the  other  bv  Septimus  Flaccus  fin^m  Garama,  who 
during  periods  res|)ectively  of  three  and  of  four 
months  had  penetrated  into  the  country  of  the 
Ethiopians.  Pttdemy  scarcely  gives  credit  to 
routes  of  such  an  extent;  but  he  lavs  down 
Ag\'simlia  (perhaps  Agadiz),  into  which  they 
penetrated,  as  the  most  sout herlv  known  region.  Ab 
it  c-oiitains  neither  rivers  nor  lakes,  it  cann(»t  be 
central  Africa;  but  if,  in  the  manner  aliove  su]v- 
posed,  he  was  ignorant  how  far  south  that  region 
lay,  the  length  of  the  marches  would  necessarily 
oblige  lum  to  pn>tract  Ag>'simba  beyond  it»  ((ieu- 
gnt))lua  Nubiensis  (Edrisi),  in  I^tinum  versa  a 
Gabriele  Sionita  et  Joanne  Hesronita  Climate, 
i.  TMirts  1,  2,  3,  4 ;  Notices  des  MSS.  de  la  Biblio- 
theque  du  Roi  (Paris,  17H9).  The  passages  of 
these  writers  relating  to  C-entrel  Africa  traiisL  in 
Munrav's  Discoveries  in  Africa,  App.  (2d  ed.)  iL 
619-533.) 

In  the  seventh  century  a  grand  revolution 
changed  the  face  of  the  world.  The  followers  of 
Mohammed,  inspired  by  fanatical  zeal,  issued  fortli 
from  Arabia,  and  not  only  shook  the  Roman 
empire,  but  sfiread  their  conqu^ts  and  settlements 
over  countries  never  >nsited  by  the  Roman  arms. 
To  Africa  particularly  they  gave  an  entirely  new 
face.  Along  its  Me<titeiTancan  coast,  they  estab- 
lished several  fiourishing  and  cinlised  kingdoms. 
Their  wandering  habits,  and  the  use  of  the  camel, 
an  animal  ex(>ressly  formed  f(»r  sandy  deserts, 
enabled  them  to  overcome  obstacles  that  bafiletl 
the  Romuis.  The  Sahara,  across  which  no  regular 
route  appears  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancients, 
was  penetrated  by  them  in  difierent  directions. 
Their  dispersion  was  aided  by  the  great  schism 
between  the  d^niasties  of  the  Abbassides  and  Om- 
miades.  The  vanquished  party,  in  large  bodies, 
crossed  the  desert,  and  formed  settlements,  where, 
undeT  the  title  of  Fellatus  or  Foulahs,  they  still 
exist  as  a  race  entirely  distinct  from  the  Nc^ies. 
Their  iwssessions  extended  along  a  great  river 
called  by  them  the  Nile  of  the  Negroes,  which, 
however^  was  not,  as  long  supposed,  our  Niger, 
but  a  tributary  flowing  into  it  from  the  ea^t, 
termed  by  Clapperton  the  Quarrama  or  Zirmie. 
Ghana,  the  modem  Kano,  was  then  tlie  chi^  seat 
both  of  empire  and  commerce.    The  8o\'en^ 


AFRICA 


41 


dvplAjed  a  pomp  tmhTalled  in  Afirica,  having  his 
thftme  adofiied  with  a  mam  of  pure  gold,  indi- 
cadi^  the  oommerce  by  which  the  city  was  en- 
riched. This  i^uld  was  found  in  a  oountiy  to  the 
sooth  called  Wan^|a^^  intersected  by  numerous 
blanches  of  the  Nile,  and  where  the  metal  was 
extracted  &om  alluvial  earth.  There  is  evidently 
some  confusion  here,  as  ^Id,  in  allu^'ial  deponts, 
is  only  fcrcd  in  countnes  far  to  the  west;  the 
emv  pmbably  arising  from  the  channel  by  which 
it  wat»  brought.  Farther  east,  on  the  Nile  of  the 
X^gnieH,  Edrisi  represents  Berissa  and  Tirka, 
which  seemed  to  have  been  recognised  bv  Clap- 
IfoUta  in  Bershee  and  Girkwa,  still  considerable 
toims.  Farther  in  that  direction,  Kuku,  a  great 
and  fl<Hirishing  kingdom,  is  evidently  Bomou,  the 
capital  of  which  still  bears  that  name;  while 
Kaugha,  tw^ty  days  to  the  south,  and  distin- 
guished by  its  arts  and  industry,  appean  pretty 
clearly  to  be  the  Loggun  of  Doiham.  Returning 
tu  Ghana,  and  proceeding  down  the  river,  we  are 
cooducted  to  Tocrur,  an  inferior  yet  large  and 
powerful  kin||;dom.  It  appears  evidently  to  be 
Ntccatoo,  which,  in  a  document  quoted  by  Clap- 
perton,  is  even  called  Takror.  Sala,  two  days' 
^•umey  lower,  cannot  now  be  identified.  Farther 
we«t,  the  knowledge  of  the  Arabians  became  most 
imperfect.  They  considered  the  ocean  as  onlv 
5<4»  miles  be^'ond  Tocrur,  when  it  is  nearly  2000. 
They  notice  in  that  direction  the  island  of  lllil,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  great  river,  whence  all  the 
oHintries  on  its  banks  were  supplied  with  salt. 
This  was  jwettv  eWdently  suggested  by  Walet, 
the  great  mart  ^r  the  salt  of  the  northern  desert ; 
and  its  being  reached  across  the  great  lake  Dibbie 
might  attach  to  it  the  idea  of  an  islancL 

AUiut  (vui  centuries  after  Ktlrisi,  central  Africa 
was  visited  and  described  by  Leo,  a  Moslem 
S(«nianl.  who  was  even  sumame<l  Africanus.  A 
great  change  ha<i  now  taken  place,  Tirabuctoo 
lia%'ing  risen  to  be  the  most  powerful  city,  the 
chief  <'ity  of  commerce  and  splendour,  the  mart 
f«tr  gol(L  Tlie  neighliouring  states,  including  even 
Ghana,  called  nc»w  Kano,  had  become  its  tribu- 
tariesL  This  writer  mentions  Bomou  under  that 
name,  and  ad«Ui  fiir  the  first  time  other  states  that 
still  suImL<4 — Cassina,  Guber,  Zegzcg,  and  Zanfara. 
Even,  under  the  name  of  Gago,  is  justly  described 
as  a  large  and  fine  kingdom,  400  miles  south-east 
of  Timbiictoo.  In  a  western  direction,  Ghinea  or 
iirheneoa,  distinguished  for  its  great  commerce,  is 
tlie  Jenne'  of  Park.  Thus  all  this  part  of  the  con- 
tinent had  assumed  nearly  the  sh^w  which  it  has 
ever  since  retained. 

Sooo  after  began  that  grand  career  of  maritime 
ent^rrprise,  which  terminated  in  the  circumnavi- 
gmtii>n  of  the  African  continent  and  the  discovery 
of  a  {lassage  to  India.  It  was  carried  on  entirely 
by  the  Portuguese,  and  pn>ceeded  by  gradual 
step*,  from  the  rounding  of  Cape  Bojador  in  1433 
by  Gilianez,  to  the  memorable  passage  of  the 
Cape  tj€  Good  Hope  in  1497  by  Vasco  de  Gama. 
During  this  long  period,  at  every  successive  point, 
viio^nius  eAirts  were  made  to  penetrate  into  the 
inieritir.  These  were  inspired,  not  only  by  the  report 
of  isirUi  mines  and  other  objects  of  commerce,  but 
ftiU  iDore  by  a  hope  of  reaching  the  court  of  a 
iB\*steri<ius  personage  named  Prester  John.  This 
DAme  appears  to  have  originated  in  reports  brought 
bv  Knbrnqnis  and  other  ^urly  travellers  of  a  ruling 
N'estorian  faishc^  in  central  Africa.  When,  how- 
evrT.  notices  arrived  of  a  Christian  prince  in  Abys- 
iinia.  the  name  I*rester  John  settled  down  upon 
him;  ami,  ignorant  of  the  breadth  of  the  con- 
tinent, they  supposed  that,  at  no  very  great  dis- 
tance from  the  western  coast,  his  dominions  mi^^ht 
he  ftwikL    The  fmtpmandfra  were  therefore  m- 


stmcted  on  every  new  discovery  to  make  their 
first  inquiry  concerning  Prester  John ;  and  though 
total  ignorance  was  everywhere  professed,  they 
persevered,  and  really  i4)pear  to  have  sent  embas- 
sies even  to  Timbuctoo.  Di  Barros  has  given  a 
pretty  correct  account  of  the  position  of  tluit  city, 
and  of  Genni  (Jennd)  its  rivaL  The  English  and 
French  found  a  considerable  Portuguese  popu- 
lation on  the  Senegal  and  Gambia,  and  many 
wonls  of  that  language  current  among  the  people 
of  Bambouk.  Yet  nothing  was  done  to  correct 
the  Arabian  idea  of  the  Niger  rolling  westward 
into  the  ocean;  and  the  Senegal  was  therefore 
considered  as  forming  its  lower  course,  though  Di 
liarros  expresses  wonder  that,  afler  passing  through 
BO  many  regions,  it  should  not  have  rolled  a  greater 
body  01  waters. 

The  Portuguese  formed  leading  settlements  at 
Elmina  on  the  Gold  coast,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Formosa,  which  has  now  proved  to  be  that  of 
the  Niger.  They  learned  that  the  rulers  here,  on 
their  accession,  were  accustomed  to  send  ambassa- 
dors about  250  leagues  into  the  interior  to  the 
court  of  a  prince  named  Agan^,  from  whom,  as 
from  a  superior  lord,  certain  symbols  were  received, 
which  formed  the  prince's  investiture.  This  po- 
tentate, during  the  interview,  was  screened  from 
\'iew  by  a  silk  curtain,  an<l  only  at  the  close  his 
foot  was  put  forth,  to  which  they  did  homage. 
(Di  Barros,  Asia,  b.  ilL  ch.  3-12.)  Major  Kennoll, 
with  seeming  reason,  pr^umes  this  to  be  the  king 
of  Ghana ;  and  in  the  maps  of  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  there  ap|)earfi  a  very  large 
lake  named  Guardia,  which,  from  the  site  and  a 
rude  resemblance  of  name,  we  suspect  to  lie  the 
Tchad ;  but  D'Anville,  finding  no  authority  in  its 
support,  expunged  it.  The  Portuguese  also  formed 
considerable  settlements  on  the  coast  of  Congo, 
which,  to  a  certain  extent,  they  still  retain ;  and 
their  missionaries  })cnetrate<I  to  some  diHtance  in- 
land. After  passing  the  Ca})e,  and  on  the  way  to 
India,  they  sailed  along  nearly  the  whole  <»f  the 
easteni  coast  as  far  as  Melinda  and  Momttasa. 
The  king  of  Portugal  hod  previously  sent  out  two 
envoys,  Covilham  and  De  Pa>'\'a,  to  reach  hulia 
by  way  of  the  Rod  Sea.  Tlieir  notices  and  ob- 
servations, coupled  with  those  of  the  circumnavi- 
gatfirs,  first  conveyed  to  Eun»pe  a  full  >'iew  of  the 
outline  and  circuit  of  this  vast  continent. 

CoWlham,  in  returning,  settled  in  Abyssinia, 
and  transmitted  such  accounts  as  induced  his  sove- 
reign to  send  thither  a  succession  of  missionaries, 
through  whom  copious  accounts  were  received  (^ 
that  remarkable  country,  scarcely  at  all  known  to 
the  ancients.  They  did  not,  however,  carry  dis- 
covery far  into  the  interior  of  the  continent ;  and, 
indeed,  such  ignorance  prevailed  on  the  subject 
that,  in  the  maps  of  tne  seventeenth  century, 
Abyssinia  and  Cong»i  are  brought  nearly  into  con- 
tact, while  the  Nile  rises  almost  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

In  Europe  mcautime  a  groiring  interest  was  ex- 
cite<l  respecting  the  course  of  the  Niger,  the  coun- 
try of  gold,  and  the  trade  of  Timbuottw.  It  was 
heightened  bv  the  conquest  of  that  city  by  the 
em))eror  of  Morocco  in  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  In  1618,  an  English  company  was  formed 
for  the*  purpose  of  penetrating  thither,  by  ascend- 
ing the  Gambia,  supposed  one  of  the  mouths  of 
the  Niger,  They  sent  out  Captain  lliompson, 
who,  leaving  his  vessel  at  Kassan,  went  in  a  boat 
to  Tenda,  which  no  European  had  yet  reache<l ; 
but  he  was  killed  in  a  contest  with  the  natives, 
another  Ixnly  of  whom,  instigated  by  the  Portu- 
guese, attacked  and  massacred  most  of  the  men  in 
the  vesseL  Another  crew,  sent  to  reinfon*  him, 
fell  almoat  all  yictima  to  the  climate.    In  1U20| 


44 


AFRICA 


Captain  Richard  Jobson  came  oat  with  a  huger 
armament,  and,  undismayed  b^  these  evil  tidings, 
made  his  way  considerably  higher  than  his  pre- 
cursors. He  even  supposed,  on  erroneous  informar- 
tion,  that  he  was  near  Timbuctoo,  and  returned 
with  the  intention  of  actively  resuming  his  re- 
searches, but  was  prevented  by  a  quarrel  with  the 
merchants,  who  lost  courage,  and  dropped  the  un- 
dertaking. (Jobson,  Golden  Trade,  or  a  Discovery 
of  the  River  Gambia.    Lond.  1623.) 

A  century  elapsed  without  further  eflTort,  till  the 
Duke  of  Chandos,  director  of  the  Afncan  Com- 
panv,  entertained  the  idea  of  enlarging  its  scanty 
probts  by  opening  a  communication  with  the 
country  of  gold.  He  sent  out,  in  1723,  Captain 
Bartholomew  Stibl»,  who  having  procured  canoes, 

{>ushed  vigorously  up  the  river.  On  passing  the 
iaUs  of  Barraconda,  however,  the  stream  b^amc 
in  many  places  so  extremely  shallow,  that  even 
his  little  boats  could  scarcely  be  dragged  upward. 
He  was  finally  obliged  to  stop  nearly  at  the  point 
which  Jobson  had  already  reached.  His  informa- 
tion led  him  to  conclude  that  *  the  original  or  head 
of  the  river  Niger  is  nothing  near  so  far  in  the 
country  as  by  the  gec^raphers  has  been  repre- 
sented.' The  Gambia,  at  a  little  dbtanoe  upwanls, 
was  described  as  dwindling  into  a  mere  ri^ndet. 
It  had  no  communication  with  the  Senegal,  or 
with  any  lake.  He  nowhere  heard  the  Niger 
named,  and  had  great  doubts  if  such  a  river  ex- 
isted. Moore,  a  zealous  agent  of  the  company, 
strenuously  repelled  this  conclusion,  and  endea- 
voured to  overwhelm  him  by  quoting  Pliny,  Pto- 
lemy, Leo,  and  other  high  authoriries ;  but  Stibbs, 
though  unable  to  meet  him  on  this  ground,  con- 
tinued not  the  less  steadily  to  affirm  what  he  had 
seen  with  his  own  cj'es.  (Moore,  Travels  in  the 
Inland  Parts  of  Afnca.  Lond.  1738.)  In  fact, 
notwithstanding  one  or  two  other  attempts,  the 
English  made  no  farther  discoveries  in  this  quar- 
ter, nor  obtained  any  intelligence  of  the  real 
Niger. 

The  French  meantime  were  making  greater 
exertions  on  the  Senegal,  which  they  early  chose 
as  their  place  of  settlement.  About  1630,  a  com- 
mercial intercourse  had  been  opened  by  some 
merchanta  of  Rouen  and  Dieppe,  without  any  set- 
tlement, the  crews  merely  erecting  temporary  huts 
during  their  stay.  (Tannezina,  voyage  de  Lybie. 
Paris,  1645.)  They  were  obliged,  however,  in 
1664,  to  give  wajr  to  the  great  West  India  Com- 
pany^ whose  privil^e  included  also  western  Africa. 
In  nme  years,  however,  it  fell ;  and  on  its  ruins 
was  erected  a  second,  succeeded  by  a  third,  fourth, 
and  fifth,  which  last  was  merged  in  the  Mississippi 
scheme.  These,  like  similar  mercantile  associa- 
tions, were  all  disastrous ;  but  each  had  its  interval 
of  activity,  during  which  a  good  deal  was  done  to 
extend  discovery  and  trade.  The  chief  efforts  were 
made  bv  the  Sieur  Brue,  appointed  governor  in 
1697.  ^im  Port  St  Louis,  where  a  settlement 
was  now  formed,  he  immediately  sailed  up  the 
river,  with  a  view  to  adjust  some  differences  with 
the  Siratik  or  king  of'^the  Foulahs,  and  open  a 
trade  with  its  upper  r^ons.  He  succeeded  m  his 
negotiations,  and  had  hoped  to  reach  Gallam,  but 
was  obliged  to  stop  at  Ghiorel,  where  he  erected  a 
fort.  In  1698  he  reached  Gallam,  and  arrived  at 
the  rock  of  Felu,  which  stops  the  navigation  for 
laigc  barks.  At  Dramanet  he  fixed  on  a  i)oeition 
for  a  fort,  which  was  soon  after  erected  under  the 
name  of  St.  Joseph,  and  became  the  centre  of 
French  interior  trade.  Tlirough  the  exertions  of 
one  Oompagnon,  he  acquired  a  full  account  of 
Bambouk  and  its  gold  mines,  the  most  productive 
in  Africa.  He  laid  before  the  company  a  plan  for 
oonqacring  the  oountiy,  which  he  undeitook  to 


effect  with  1,200  men,  but  could  neither  obtain  the 
requisite  authority  nor  means.  He  made  diligent 
inquiries  respecting  the  r^ons  beycmd,  and  ob- 
tained pretty  distinct  accounts  of  bambarra,  the 
lake  Mabena  (Dibbie),  and  Timbuct4x>.  Re- 
specting the  Niger,  two  opposite  statements  were 
made.  According  to  one,  it  fiowed  westward,  and 
divided  into  the  three  branches  of  the  Gambia,  the 
Faleme,  and  the  Senegal ;  while  others  asserted  its 
course  to  be  eastward.  The  former  continued  to 
be  the  popular  belief;  but  D'Anville,  who  bestowed 
much  attention  on  tJie  subject,  and  had  access  to 
the  best  documents,  became  convinced  that  there 
was  a  great  river  quite  distinct  from  the  Sen^al, 
which  flowed  eastward,  and  was  the  one  that  pa»ed 
by  Timbuctoo.  Upon  thifi  principle  he  formed 
his  map  of  Africa,  a  wonderful  effort  of  sagacity 
and  ability,  and  which,  in  fact,  is  still  tolerably 
correct  as  to  a  great  part  of  that  continent.  (La- 
bat^  Afrique  Occidentale,  5  tom.  Paria,  1728. 
Golberrv,  Fragmens  d'un  Voyage  en  Afrique,  2 
tom.  I^'Anville,  sur  les  Rivieres  dans  l'Interi(V 
de  1' Afrique,  Academic  des  Inscriptions,  tom  xxvi. 
64.)  By  restricting  Abyssinia  and  Congo  to  tlieir 
true  limits,  and  obliterating  imaginary  features, 
this  great  ge<^i^phcr  first  exhibited  that  vast  in- 
terior blank  which  so  strongly  excited  the  curiosity 
and  enterprise  of  Europe. 

The  spirit  of  African  discovery  slumbered  in 
Britain  till  1788,  when  it  burst  forth  with  an  ar- 
dour which  led  to  the  most  splendid  results.  In 
that  vear  was  formed  the  African  Association,  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  distinguished  indi\'idua]s, 
among  whom  Sir  Joseph  Banks  and  Mr.  BeaAfoy 
took  Uie  lead.  Ledyanl  was  sent  to  penetrate  by 
way  of  Egypt,  and  Lucas  by  that  of  Tripoli.  The 
former,  who,  with  an  iron  frame,  had  travelled  great 
part  of  the  world  on  foot,  excited  great  expecti^ 
tions;  but  unhappily  a  fever  carried  him  off  before 
leaving  Cairo.  Mr.  Lucas,  long  vice-consul  at 
Morocco,  had  the  advantage  of  understanding  per- 
fectly the  AMcan  languages.  He  found  no  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  the  concurrence  of  the  Pasha 
of  if ripoli ;  and  had  set  out  for  Fezzan,  but  was 
arrested  by  an  insurrection  among  the  Arab  tribes. 
Valuable  information,  however,  was  obtained  from 
several  intelligent  natives,  confirmed  by  the  tes- 
timony of  Ben  Alii,  a  merchant,  who  ha{^x»ied  to 
be  in  London,  and  had  travelled  far  into  the  in- 
terior. From  these  sources  pretty  copious  accounts 
were  received  respecting  the  great  countries  of 
Bomou  and  Cassina,  the  latter  of  which  had  be- 
come the  chief  among  the  states  of  Houssa.  The 
informanta  described  also  a  great  caravan  route 
across  the  continent,  from  IMpoli  to  Asicnte  or 
Ashantee,  behind  the  Gold  Coast.  In  this  course 
it  crossed  the  great  central  river,  described,  how- 
ever, as  flowing  to  the  westward.  It  was,  in  fact, 
the  Arabian  Nile  of  the  N^proes,  the  Quarrama  <^ 
Clapperton,  which  in  that  direction  proceeded  to 
the  main  river,  of  wliich  it  is  only  a  tributaiy. 
Kennell,  ha\'ing  these  materials  put  into  his  hands, 
and  not  being  aware  of  any  central  river  but  one, 
reversied  the  direction  given  by  D'AnvUle  to  the 
Niger,  making  it  flow  westwaid  to  the  ocean  by 
the  channel  of  the  Senegal.  At  the  same  time 
Bomou,  understood  to  be  described  as  bordering  on 
Nubia,  was  carried  far  to  the  north  and  east  of  ita 
real  position,  and  the  bordering  countries  displaced 
in  consequence ;  so  that  this  map,  though  ably 
drawn  up,  formed  decidedly  a  retrograde  step  in 
African  geography. 

The  Association  now  turned  their  attention  to 
W.  Africa,  and  engaged  Major  Houghton,  for  some 
time  consul  at  Morocco,  to  proceed  from  the  Gam- 
bia. He  went  on  foot,  imprudently  loaded  with  a 
quantity  of  valuable  artkilesk    He  passed  nnmo- 


AFRICA 


45 


legted  through  Medina  snd  Bambouk;  but  on 
rmchini^  the  teiritoiy  of  the  Moors,  was  seduced 
br  that  people  into  the  desert,  where  he  was  either 
killed  or  abandoned  to  perish.  (Proceedings  of  the 
African  Asuoriarioo.  London,  1790.  Ibid.  Lond. 
1797.) 

On  recetring  this  intelligence,  the  Associadon 
lost  no  time  in  seeking  a  substitute,  and  were  for- 
tunate CDoo^h  to  engage  Mr.  Mungo  Park.  That 
gentleman,  in  Deoemter,  1795,  set  out  from  the 
Gambia,  and  passed  through  Medina,  Bondou, 
Gallam,  Kaason,  and  Kaarta.  Having  suffered  on 
the  way  serere  spoliation,  he  was  seized  and  de- 
tained kmg  in  captivity  by  the  Moors  of  Ludamar. 
He  eootiived  to  escape,  and  though  in  extreme 
distress,  made  his  way  through  the  kingdom  of 
Bambarm  to  Sego,  its  oipitaL  This  formed  a  crisis 
in  Afiican  geo^nmhy,  for  he  there  saw  *  the  long- 
sought  majestic  riiger,  glittering  to  the  morning 
sun,  as  broad  as  the  Thames  at  Westminster,  and 
flowing  slowly  to  the  eastward.'  The  extent  of 
the  city,  its  crowded  p(^mlation,  and  the  numerous 
canoes  on  the  river,  presented  altogether  a  scene 
little  expected  in  the  heart  of  Africa.  Mr.  Park 
penetrated  down  the  Niger  as  far  as  Silla ;  but  his 
destitote  condition,  and  the  formidable  accounts  of 
the  bigotry  prevailing  at  Jenn^  and  Timbuctoo, 
deterred  lum  from  proceeding  farther. 

This  traveller's  arrival  in  England  in  December, 
1797,  with  accounts  (rf*  such  important  discoveries, 
raised  higher  than  ever  the  entnusiaBm  for  African 
disooverv.  He  retired  into  private  life ;  but  the 
Assuciadon  obtained  the  services  of  Homemann,  a 
Gennan,  who  possessed  many  requisites  of  a  tra- 
reUec  He  went  by  way  of  Egypt  to  Fezzan, 
thence  into  central  Africa,  and  appears  to  have 
palliated  bv  wa^  of  Cashna  to  Nyne  on  the  Niger, 
where  be  fell  a  victim  to  the  climate.  The  same 
£kte  befell  Mr.  Nicholls,  who  attempted  to  reach 
the  Niger  by  way  of  the  Gulph  of  Benin.  Some 
years  befcfe,  Mr.  Browne,  an  enteiprising  indivi- 
dual, by  his  own  resources  had  penetrated  by  way 
of  Egypt  into  the  interior  country  of  Darfour,  about 
midway  between  Abyssinia  and  Bomou.  He  ob- 
tained there  some  important  detached  notices  re- 
spectingthe  nei^booring  nations,  and  the  origin 
of  the  White  River  or  main  branch  of  the  Nile, 
said  to  TIM  in  the  mountainous  territory  of  Donga. 

Meantime  Park's  mind  was  intensely  bent  upon 
Africa;  and  through  his  acquaintance  with  Mr. 
Maxwell,  who  had  commanded  a  vessel  employed 
in  the  Zaire  or  C!ongo,  he  became  perstuided  £hat 
that  riverwas  the  termination  of  the  Niger.  Being 
invited  by  government  to  lead  an  expedition  on  a 
large  scale,  he  readily  accepted  it,  and  its  arrango- 
mentM  were  adjusted  with  a  view  to  his  hypothesis. 
(hk  the  4th  of  May,  1805,  he  departed  from  the 
Gambia,  with  a  well  appointed  Thirty  of  upwards 
of  fofftr ;  but  the  harassing  attacks  of  the  natives, 
with  tiie  pestilential  influence  of  the  rainy  season, 
rrdoced  them  to  seven  before  they  reached  the 
Niger.  He  proceeded  downward,  however,  and  at 
8ansaading  obtained  materials  for  constructing  a 
schooner,  40  feet  long,  which  he  named  the  Joliba ; 
and  on  the  17th  November,  1805,  set  sail  to  ex- 
pl<ire  the  mysteries  of  interior  Africa.  It  appears 
that  be  passed  Timbuctoo,  and  made  his  way  down 
the  river  to  Bonsaa,  where  the  king  of  Youri,  in- 
«&gnant  at  having  received  no  presents,  pursued 
with  a  large  body  of  men,  and  attacked  him  in  a 
Barrow  and  rodcy  charmed.  Park  and  his  com- 
panions, nnable  to  resist,  threw  themselves  into 
the  water,  attempting  to  reach  the  shore,  but  were 
drowned.    ELis  papers  were  never  recovered. 

A  German  named  ROntgen  attempted  to  pcne- 
timie  by  way  of  Morocco,  and  set  out  in  1809  from 
Mogadoie;  but  be  appears  to  have  been  murdered 


by  his  guides.  Some  intelligence  was  gleaned  from 
Adams  and  Riley,  two  Americans,  who  were  suc- 
cessively shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  Sahara ;  but 
much  uncertainty  attached  to  their  statements. 
In  1809,  the  association  engaged  the  services  of 
the  celebrated  Burkhardt,  who  undertook  to  ac- 
company the  interior  caravan  from  Cairo.  While 
preparing  himself  for  the  expedition  he  made  ex- 
cursions through  Nubia,  and  also  through  Syria 
and  Arabia,  his  observations  on  which  have  been 

Eublished,  and  are  extremely  valuable.    In  1817, 
owever,  when  about  to  set  out  on  his  main  desti- 
luition,  he  fell  a  victim  to  dysentery. 

The  public  mind  continued  to  be  intently  fixed 
on  African  discovery ;  partly  from  a  wish  to  learn 
the  real  state  of  countries  so  difficult  to  explore, 
and  so  different  from  those  of  the  temperate  zone, 
and  partly,  and  perhaps  principally,  from  absurdly 
exaggerated  ideas  as  to  the  vsJue  of  the  commerce 
that  might  be  carried  on  with  the  natives.  At 
length  government,  on  the  suggestion  of  Sir  John 
BaiTow,  determined  to  make  a  more  extensive  effort 
than  ever.  Following  up  the  hypothesis  of  the 
identity  of  the  Niger  and  Congo,  two  expeditions 
were  prepared;  one  to  ascend  the  latter  river, 
another  to  descend  the  former.  Captain  Tuckev, 
who  commanded  the  first,  sailed  from  England  m 
February,  1816,  and  arrived  in  June  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Congo.  The  party  proceeded  for  some  time 
with  great  spirit ;  but  being  obliged  by  the  catar* 
racts  to  leave  their  boats,  and  proceed  on  foot 
through  a  rugged  country  affording  little  shelter, 
they  became  exposed  to  the  baneful  influence  of 
the  climate.  Severe  sickness  soon  assailing  the 
whole  party,  obliged  them  to  stop  short,  and  ulti- 
mately proved  fatal  to  all  the  officers,  including 
the  commander,  llie  other  expedition,  destined 
to  go  down  the  Niger,  was  commanded  b^  Major 
Peddie,  who  endeavoured  to  reach  Uie  intenor 
through  the  country  of  the  Foulahs.  Having  died 
before  the  march  began,  he  was  succeeded  by  Cap- 
tain Campbell^  who  reached  the  Foulah  frontier ; 
but  the  sovereign,  jealous  of  their  designs,  detained 
them  under  various  pretexts,  till  exhausted  sup- 

flies  and  general  sickness  obliged  them  to  return, 
mmediately  after  Captain  Campbell  died,  and  his 
fate  was  shared  by  Lieutenant  Stokoe,  just  as  he 
had  plaimed  a  new  expedition.  Captain  Gray,  of 
the  Koyal  African  corps,  penetrated  by  another 
route  to  Gallam,  but  could  not  obtain  permission 
to  proceed  through  Bambana. 

All  this  series  of  disaster  did  not  shake  the  per- 
severance of  the  British  government.  A  new  open- 
ing was  afforded  through  the  Pasha  of  Tripoli,  who, 
inspired  with  a  desire  of  improvement  new  in  this 
(quarter  of  the  world,  cultivated  European  connec- 
tion, and  influenced  bv  the  judicious  conduct  of 
consul  Warrington,  offered  his  assistance  to  tlie 
British  government.  Holding  Fezzan  tributary, 
and  havmg  a  commanding  influence  over  the  cen- 
tral states,  he  could  secure  the  safe  passage  of  a 
traveller  through  a  great  part  of  Africa.  Under 
his  auspices,  in  1819,  Mr.  Ritchie  and  Lieuten- 
ant Lyon  reached  JPezzan;  but  through  the 
climate,  and  the  treacherous  ill-treatment  of 
the  sultan,  they  incurred  such  severe  illnesses  as 
proved  fatal  to  the  former,  and  obliged  the  latter 
to  return. 

This  failure  did  not  prevent  the  speedy  forma- 
tion of  another  expedition,  for  which  a  more  for- 
tunate destiny  was  reserved.  Its  chiefs.  Major 
Denham,  Lieutenant  Clapperton,  and  Dr.  Oudney, 
arrived  at  Tripoli  in  November,  1821.  Next  spring 
they  proceeded  to  Fezzan ;  but  through  the  neg- 
lect of  the  sultan  were  unable  to  procure  camels, 
which  obliged  Denham  to  return  to  Tripoli.  Hero 
he  ret^eivedassurances  of  protection  from  Boo  Khal- 


45 


itFRICA 


IfKm,  a  preat  Arab  Blavo-mcrchant,  who  was  set- 
tinp  out  for  the  very  ccmntries  which  he  sought  to 
explore.  Under  hu  fjfuidancc,  the  party,  in  the 
end  of  1822,  bo^an  their  route  throuf^h  the  great 
dcflext,  passing  between  the  territories  of  the  two 
remarkable  native  tribes,  the  Tuaricks  and  the 
Tibb(MNi.  They  then  travelled  for  a  fortnight  amid 
hills  of  moving  sand,  without  the  slightest  vestige 
of  life  or  vegetation.  Soon  after  they  entered  Ka- 
nero,  the  northern  province  of  Bornon.  At  Lari 
they  came  in  view  of  Lake  Tchad,  the  great  in- 
teri(»r  sea  of  Afri(  a,  200  miles  long,  receiving  two 
great  rivers,  and  containing  numerous  islands.  In 
proceeding  along  ita  eastern  shore  they  visited  most 
parts  of  liomou  and  its  chief  cities  of  kouka  (Kuku 
of  Edrisi),  New  Bimie,  and  Angomou.  Thw  king- 
dom, once  the  most  powerful  in  central  Africa,  had 
alnnit  thirty  years  before  been  conquered  and 
dreadfully  ravaged  by  the  Fellatas  from  Houssa ; 
but  a  private  in<lividual,  by  valour  and  ability,  had 
reasserted  its  iudepcndencc,  and  driven  out  the 
enemy.  That  person,  under  the  title  of  Sheik,  ex- 
on'ised  all  the  real  power,  while  ho  sufTenxl  the 
legitimate  king  to  reign  in  emptv  pomp.  Major 
Denham  also  \'isited  the  smaller  kingdom  of  Man- 
dara,  l>oundo<l  by  an  almost  interminable  range  of 
mountains  lille<l  with  savage  tribes,  who  are  hunteil 
down  f(»r  slaves.  In  Loggim,  situated  along  the 
great  river  Shary,  which  falls  into  the  Tchad,  he 
found  a  people  mure  ingenious  and  industrious  than 
thoHC  of  IV)mou. 

Meantime  Clapperton  and  Oudney  were  making 
an  cxi^edition  through  Houssa,  the  most  interest- 
ing region  of  centnd  Africa.  It  was  found  inha- 
bited by  the  Fellatas,  a  i)eople  having  nothing  of 
the  Nqjro  features,  but  ap|»arently  descended  from 
the  great  bo<lv  of  Moslem  Aralw,  who  had  migrated 
many  centuries  ago.  Tlicy  were  quite  superior  to 
the  i^inionese  both  in  aspect  and  character,  culti- 
vating the  land  with  greater  skill  and  diligence, 
and  manufacturing  very  tine  cottons.  The  sway 
of  Ghana,  and  even  of  Cassiua,  hod  been  t.ran»- 
fcrre<l  to  Sackatoo  (Tocnir),  the  sultan  of  which, 
about  the  lieginning  of  the  present  centur\',  over- 
ran all  Houssa,  and  for  some  time  occupied  )lcniou. 
Ghana,  however,  under  the  name  of  Kano,  was 
found  great  in  its  decay,  and  still  the  chief  seat  of 
commerce.  Hie  transactions  were  ext4>nKive  and 
well  arranged ;  but  slaves  were  the  staple  com- 
modity. Sackatoo  was  found  considerably  larger 
than  Kano,  and  the  traveller  was  hospitably  re- 
c»;ive<l  by  sidtan  Bello.  Tlie  river  (juarrama  was 
olwervetl  traversing  this  countrj',  and  flowing  west- 
ward into  the  Niger,  which,  at  the  nearest  jM>iut 
to  Sackatoo,  had  a  southwanl  course ;  but  accounts 
varied,  whether  continuing  in  that  direction  it 
reached  the  sea,  or  making  a  great  circuit  eraptiwl 
itself  into  the  lake  TchacL  The  traveller,  having 
in  vain  solicited  the  means  of  proceeding  to  the 
river  and  the  coast,  returned  to  mmou  by  a  liew 
route,  which  enabled  him  to  see  Cassina,  a  capital 
now  greatly  decayed.  Dr.  Oudney  died  eayly  on 
this  journey. 

The  British  government  determined  to  follow 
up  these  extensive  and  important  discoveries. 
Clapperton  was  employed  to  land  on  the  coast  of 
Guinea,  thence  to  penetrate  to  Sackatoo,  and  on 
his  way  explore  tne  termination  of  the  Niger. 
Instead  of  attempting  to  ascend  the  river  of  Benin, 
he  was  advised  to  proceed  by  land  from  Badagry ; 
but  from  imprudent  exposure  to  the  climate  two 
companions  died,  and  he  became  sickly.  He  soon, 
however,  reache<l  the  Yarriba,  or  Kingdom  of 
Eyes,  which  he  found  populous  and  tioiuishing ; 
and  the  natives,  not  imbued  with  Mohammeilan 
bigotry,  courteously  receive<l  him.  In  traversing 
it  ho  'croeaed  tho  chain  of  the  Kong  Mountains, 


pcofiled  to  tho  rammit  Leaving  Tairiba,  aiMf 
passing  through  the  large  cities  of  Kiama  and 
Wawa,  he  reached  Bouasa  on  the  Niger,  where  he 
received  a  confirmation  of  Park's  death,  and  even 
an  invitation  from  the  king  of  Youri,  who  pro- 
mised to  give  him  that  traveller's  books  and 
pa])en ;  but  this  yint  was  delayed  till  he  should 
return  from  Sackatoo.  On  his  way  thither  ho 
passed  through  Nytfe,  a  highly  improved  territory 
though  dreailfully  laid  waste  by  the  Fellatas;  and 
through  Zegzeg,  also  very  populous  and  well  cul- 
tivated. At  Sackatoo,  or  Soocatoo,  an  expe<liri<m 
against  the  rebel  territory  of  Goober  enabled  him 
to  procure  farther  information.  The  sultan,  how- 
ever, prepossessed  with  groundless  jealousies, 
treated  him  with  a  harshness,  which,  ^-ith  pre- 
>'ious  sickness,  brought  this  spirited  traveller  to  a 
premature  grave.  His  servant.  Lander,  aHer 
doing  the  last  duties,  conceived  the  plan  of  him- 
self exploring  the  tc>rmination  of  the  Niger,  but 
was  forcibly  jirevented. 

The  information  attained  on  this  journey  afibnicd 
the  strongest  reason  to  suppose  that  the  Niger  ter- 
minateil  iii  the  sea.  Lnnder,  on  his  ret  urn,  submitted 
to  government  a  plan  for  proceeding  to  Boussa, 
an(l  thence  navigating  the  stream  downwaivls. 
The  British  Government  agreed  to  furnish  the 
means,  though  promising  only  a  very  slender  re- 
ward. In  March,  1 830,  accompMiinied  by  his  bmther, 
he  arrived  at  Badagr}',  and  proceeded  by  nearly 
the  former  route  to  Boussa.  Thence  he  \'isit«i 
Youri,  which  proved  a  very  rich  and  {lopulons 
country ;  but  the  king  treated  him  ill,  and  he  had 
no  success  as  to  Park's  books  and  [Mipers.  On  the 
island  of  Patashie,  below  Boussa,  he  pnicured, 
with  gre^t  difficulty,  two  canoes,  afterwanls  ex- 
changed for  one  of  larger  size,  and  thus  began  the 
navigation  down  the  Niger.  He  9<xm  found  it 
expand  into  a  most  magniticent  river,  about  three 
miles  bnmd,  and  bordered  by  noble  forests.  The 
large  island  of  Zagoshi  presented  an  acdve  scene 
of  industry  and  navigation,  and  by  a  large  force 
of  arme<l  canoes  maintained  its  independence  of 
the  neighbouring  states.  On  the  adjoining  shoru 
ap|>eare<l  a  ver>'  large  t/>wn,  named  Kablm.  Far- 
ther down,  Egga,  another  great  i)ort  on  the  river, 
termuiatetl  the  comparatively  civihse*!  territorj'  <if 
Nyrte ;  below  which  were  only  detached  states  of 
a  very  turbulent  and  lawless  character,  among 
which  serious  dangers  were  cncounterecL  The 
next  striking  object  was  the  influx  from  the  west^ 
wanl  of  the  great  rivex  Tshadda,  three  or  four 
miles  broad,  and  ii«ith  a  current  so  strong  that 
they  soon  gave  up  the  attempt  to  ascend  it.  They 
learned,  ht)wever,  that  three  days' journey  up  was 
Fimdah,  of  whose  importance  they  had  ofti^n 
heard.  It  l)ecame  more  and  more  cedent  that 
their  voyage  was  to  terminate  in  the  sea,  and  that 
the  numerous  river  branches  which  open  into  the 
Gulph  of  Benin  are  the  delta  of  the  Niger.  Near  the 
large  tovim  of  Kirree,  they  passed  the  one  which 
runs  towanls  Benin.  Here  the  natives  were  almost 
entirely  clothed  in  the  manufactures  of  Europe,  and 
had  flc*cts  of  large  canoes  adome<l  with  Eun^tean 
articles.  The  travellers,  however,  were  matle  pri- 
soners, and  carried  down  to  Eboc,  the  great  mart 
for  slaves  and  palm  oil,  with  which  trade  the 
natives,  who  are  rude  and  dissolute,  do  not  hesi- 
tate to  combine  piracy.  With  great  difficulty,  and 
the  promise  of  a  high  ransom,  they  succeeded  in 
gettmg  arrangements  made  for  conveying  them 
to  the  sea.  They  reached  it  by  the  channel  called 
by  the  Portuguese  Nun,  by  the  English  Brass 
Biver ;  not  the  largest  of  the  estuaries,  but  that 
which  comes  in  the  most  direct  line  from  the 
main  trunk.  Tlius,  by  very  humble  agency,  was 
solved  that  grand  problem  in  African  geography, 


AFRICA 


4T 


in  the  aearch  alter  wliicb  so  many  abortive  efforts 
hail  been  made. 

This  important  discovery,  opening  a  water  com- 
monieaiion  into  the  very  oentie  of  the  continent, 
made  a  ntfong  impression  cm  the  mercantile  world. 
Mr.  M*Giegor  Laird,  and  some  other  gentlemen  of 
lirefpool,  entered  into  an  association  for  forming 
a  settlement  and  opening  a  trade  on  the  Upper 
Nifccr.  Two  steamers,  the  Quorra  and  Alburkah, 
were  fitted  oat;  while  the  Columbine,  a  laiger 
asilin^  vessel,  was  laden  with  goods.  They  ar- 
rived m  the  mouth  of  the  Nun  in  October^  1882, 
bat  soflcsed  severely  firom  sickness  amid  the 
swmmpa  of  the  delta;  and  though  before  the 
end  of  the  year  they  reached  a  healthier  station, 
the  sorvivon  did  not  regain  their  health.  In  the 
coufBe  of  the  next  two  years,  Mr.  Laird  ascended 
the  Tshadda,  and  reached  Fnndah,  nine  miles  in- 
land, which  he  found  a  ha^  dty,  with  nearly 
4<>.(KI0  inhabitants,  situated  m  a  very  extensive 
and  beantifbl  plain.  Its  commerce,  however,  had 
been  mnrti  injured  by  war,  and  by  the  tyranny  of 
its  ruler,  firom  whose  power  Mr.  Laird  had  some  dif- 
ficulty in  escaping.  Mr.  Oldfield  in  the  Alburkah 
sailed  about  100  miles  up  this  river,  but  neither 
luund  its  banks  so  fruitful  nor  the  commerce  so 
active  as  on  the  Niger.  He  also  vittited  Kabba, 
which  proved  equity  extensive  with  Fundah. 
The  streets  were  crowded  and  dirty,  but  the  mar- 
kets spacioiis  and  well  arranged.  The  state  of 
the  VMsel  frustrated  the  attempt  to  ascend  to 
Hrnwsa.  Lander  had  unfortunately  died  of  wounds 
received  in  a  contest  with  the  natives.  The 
expedition  was  unfortunate  in  a  commercial 
view,  the  only  valuable  article  found  being  ivory, 
in  too  small  quantity  to  pay  the  expense  of  the 
virvagCL 

l^rum  the  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  inter- 
tftinfi  discoveries  have  also  been  made.  It  was 
Hilt  till  1650  that  the  Dutch  formed  a  colony  at 
tlie  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  quickly  became 
fl4i«iri»hing.  Beyond  the  Karroo  desert  they  set- 
tled rich  grazing  farms,  at  the  foot  of  the  high 
interior  ranges  of  the  Nienweld  and  Sneuwge- 
birge^  compelling  the  natives  to  labour  as  slaves. 
TuwsLTds  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  8i>arr- 
man  and  Vaillant  brought  interesting  accounts  of 
the  scenery  of  this  tract,  and  its  natural  produc- 
tir«is  both  animal  and  vegetable.  The  settlement 
haicing  been  captured  by  Britain,  Mr.  Barrow,  as 
secretary  to  Lord  Macartney,  made  in  1797  an 
exnnsicA  into  the  interior,  and  gave  striking  pic- 
tares  of  the  pastoral  life  of  the  Kafifres,  and  of  the 
mbiefmble  aspect  and  condition  of  the  Bomemans 
or  oMiimtain  Hottentots.  In  1801,  Messrs.  Trutter 
and  SofnerviUe  passed  the  Sneuwgebirgc,  disco- 
vered the  large  stream  of  the  Orange  Hiver,  with 
the  pastoral  tribe  of  the  Koranas,  and  finally  ar- 
riTedat  Lattakoo,  capital  of  the  Boshuanas,  a 
BKiie  indnstrioiis  and  miproved  people  than  an^ 
vet  known  in  southern  Africa.  On  receiving  this 
intdligeDoe,  Lord  Caledon  sent  Dr.  Cowan  and 
Mr.  Duoovan,  with  a  party  of  twentv,  to  attempt 
tA  penenate  as  far  as  Mozambique ;  \>nt  afler  pro- 
eeeding  considerably  beyond  Lattakoo,  they  were 
surnised  and  killed  by  a  IMffty  of  natives. 

The  Kev.  Mr.  Campbell,  in  his  zealous  pursuit 
of  misHooaiy  olgects,  considerably  extended  our 
knowledge  of  this  part  of  AMca.  Beyond  Latta- 
bio.  he  pasaed  through  a  succession  of  towns 
always  rising  in  importance.  Kurrechane,  the 
l«t.'was  estimated  to  omtain  16,000  inhabitants, 
wbii.  besides  agriculture,  showed  considerable  skill 
in  adoming  their  habitations,  tanning  skins,  and 
sroelting  iron  and  copper.  Dr.  Lichtemxtein  and 
Mr.  Borchell  made  imfiortant  observations  on  the 
people,  but  neither  penetxated  so  far  as 


Mr.  Campbell.  In  1823,  while  Mr.  Thompson 
was  at  Lattakoo,  these  districts  were  invaded  by  a 
numerous  and  formidable  Caffire  people,  from  the 
vicinity  of  Cape  NataL  These,  it  was  discovered, 
had  been  driven  from  their  country  by  a  still  more 
powerful  tribe,  the  Zooloos,  whose  chief,  Chaka, 
could  muster  100,000  fighting  men.  Yet  there 
was  found  to  be  in  that  quarter  a  large  extent  of 
fertile  territory,  to  which  a  nimiber  of  Dutch 
farmers  were  induced  to  emigrate;  but  having 
been  involved  in  hostilities  with  this  savage  tribe, 
they  have  of  late  suffered  dreadfully,  and  many 
of  them  have  perished. 

During  the  years  1822  to  1826,  Captain  Owen 
was  employed  by  the  British  government  in 
making  a  very  careful  survey  both  of  the  eastern 
and  western  coasts.  He  obtained  much  informa-  ^ 
tion  respecting  the  former,  which  had  hitherto* 
been  very  imperfectly  known.  In  1837,  Sir  James 
Alexander,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Geographical 
Society,  performed  an  expedition  to  the  norths 
west  m>m  the  Cape,  into  the  country  of  the 
Damaras,  where  he  penetrated  farther  than  any 
former  traveller. 

Within  the  last  few  years,  a  new  and  powerful 
impetus  has  been  given  to  African  exploration, 
which  has  resulted  in  most  important  <li8coveric8. 
In  the  first  place,  the  true  nature  of  Uie  interior 
has  been  ascertained  beyond  dispute.  In  the  year 
1852,  Sir  Roderick  Murchison  suggested  the  h3rpc>- 
thesis  that  the  interior  of  Africa  was  now,  as  in 
ancient  geological  periods,  an  immense  watershed, 
occupied  by  fresh  water  lakes,  outflowing  to  the 
east  and  west  through  fiKSures  in  the  mountain 
ranges  near  the  coast.  This  theory  has  been  com- 
pletely established  by  the  discoveries  of  our  most 
eminent  African  travellers.  It  is  known  to  be 
true  of  the  passage  of  the  Niger,  and  Dr.  Living- 
stone proved  it  to  be  the  case  in  that  of  the  Zam- 
besi, whilst  it  received  a  fresh  confirmation  from 
the  discoveries  of  Burton  and  Siieke,  and  Spcke 
and  Grant,  with  respect  to  the  sources  of  the 
Nile.  The  discoverv  of  the  latter  is  a  most  me- 
morable one  in  African  geographv.  It  was  in 
1858  that  Captain  Speke  first  %4sited  the  Lake 
N'yanga.  He  subsequently  made  a  second  jour- 
ney for  the  purpose  of  farther  investigation;  and 
in  a  memoir,  in  the  Journal  of  the  G(K>graphical 
Society,  he  published  a  statement  of  the  facts  on 
which  he  grounds  his  conchinion  that  this  lake  is 
the  great  reservoir  of  the  Nile.  He  says  that  it 
appears  *that  all  the  drainage  of  the  N'yanga 
mu8t  come  down  the  channel  of  the  Nile,  unless 
perchance  the  Sobat  might  be  the  river  alluded  to 
by  the  Arabs  and  natives  as  *^  making  Usoga  an 
inland."  Should  this  not  be  the  case,  then  the 
Sobat  must  be  an  independent  river,  (Iraining  all 
the  mountain  range  north  of  Mount  Kenia  up  to 
this  parallel,  and  so  to  the  eastward  as  far  as 
posAble  the  basin  of  the  Nile  is  determined.  Now 
to  complete  the  western  side  of  the  basin  of  the 
Nile  as  far  as  possible,  I  must  state  as  a  positive 
fact,  the  Nile  at  Gondokoro  is  the  parent  or  true 
Nile.  No  explorers  on  the  Nile,  of  the  present 
time,  doubt  that  for  a  moment;  and  all  those — 
there  are  many — ^who  have  recently  directed  their 
attention  to  the  discovery  of  the  source  of  the  Nile, 
have  invariably  looked  for  it  south  of  Gondokoro. 
This  matter  established, — as  on  the  east  the  only 
affluent  to  the  Nile  worthy  of  any  notice  was  the 
Asua  river,  and  that  was  so  small  it  could  not  have 
made  any  visible  impression  on  the  body  of  the 
Nile, — leaves  only  the  Little  Luta  Nzig^  to  lie 
discussed,  for  the  rest  of  the  land  included  in  the 
basin  of  the  Nile  is  drained  into  the  Nile  north  of 
Gondokoro.  Information  assures  me,  that  as  the 
Malagaiazi  and  Kusizi  rivers  drain  the  southern 


48 


AFBICA 


side  of  the  mountains  encircling  the  Tanganyika, 
80  do  the  Kitangul^  and  Little  Luta  Nzig^  drain 
the  north  side  of  those  mountains;  and  this,  I  think, 
is  proved  by  the  fact,  that  the  Nile  at  Gondokoro 
was  not  so  huge  as  the  Nile  was  in  Unyoro  during 
the  flood.  For  this  reason  also  I  feel  very  sure  the 
Little  Luta  Nsigd  of  itself,  if  it  was  not  supplied 
by  the  Nile  as  a  backwater,  would  be  nothing 
more  than  a  flat  rush-maish,  like  the  Bahr-el- 
Ghazal.' 

Dr.  Livingstone,  in  his  exploration  of  the  Zam- 
besi, has  not  only  contributed  largely  to  geo- 
graphical science,  but  it  may  be  hoped  that  his 
exertions  will  ultimately  prove  moet  useful  in  the 
cause  of  humanity.  He  propoees  a  chain  of  sta- 
tions beyond  the  Portuguese  territory  on  that 
river^  as  a  means  of  facilitating  commercial  com- 
munication with  the  natives.  Some  of  the  races 
in  the  vicinity  are  anxious  to  engage  in  trade^  and 
the  country  is  suitable  for  cotton.  He  behoves 
that  it  is  only  by  encoura^ng  industry  in  this 
way,  in  connection  with  missionair  labours,  that 
real  good  will  be  done  to  Africa.  We  owe  to  him 
the  discovery  of  Lake  N'gami,  and  he  has  but 
recently  returned  from  explorations  of  the  Shir^ 
river — an  affluent  of  the  Zambesi — and  Lake 
Nyassa. 

Dr.  Barth's  researches  in  north  Africa  are  well 
known  as  placing  him  on  the  list  of  illustrious 
African  travellers.  Captain  Burton  is  not  only 
distinguished  for  his  discoverv  of  the  Tanganyika 
Lake,  and  his  explorations  m  western  cquati>rial 
Africa,  but  for  his  valuable  observations  on  the  eth- 
nology and  condition  of  the  east  African  races.  M. 
Paul  du  Chaillu,  during  his  travels  in  ec^uatorial 
Africa,  made  some  most  important  investigations 
in  connection  with  the  river  Ogobai;  and  has 
also  greatly  enlarged  our  knowled|2|[e  of  the  ani- 
mids  of  Anica,  particularly  introducing  to  us  that 
wonder  of  natural  history,  the  Gorilla.  Anderson, 
Petherick,  Galton,  Krap'f,  Kcbmann,  Von  Decken, 
and  many  other  names  occur  in  the  histoxy  of 
African  exploration,  in  which  field  so  much  zeal 
and  heroism  have  of  late  been  displayed.  Yon 
Decken  ascended  the  Kilimandjaro  to  a  height  of 
18,000  feet,  and  there  witnessed  a  fall  of  snow, 
thus  establishing  by  personal  observation  the  fact 
announoed  by  Krapf  and  Rcbmann  of  snow-capped 
mountains  under  tne  equator. 

But  after  all  that  has  been  done,  there  still 
remain  interesting  points  to  settle,  which  yrill 
afford  abundant  stimulus  to  the  exertion  of  new 
explorers. 

AFRICA,  or  MAHADIAH,  a  sea-port  town  of 
Barbarv,  E.  coast  reg.  Tunis,  110  m.  SSE.  Tunis, 
lat,  35<^  32'  N.,  lonp.  11<^  16'  E.  It  contains  about 
8,000  inhab.,  and  is  at  present  a  wretched  place, 
surrounded  vrith  brokenndown  walls,  and  nvithout 
shops  or  bazaars.  Formerly  it  was  a  sea-port  and 
fortress  of  very  considerable  importance.  In  t550 
it  was  besieged  by  a  powerful  armament,  under 
the  onlers  or  Uie  viceroy  of  Sicilv  and  of  Doria 
the  famous  admiral  of  Charles  V.,  who  took  it 
after  an  olwtinate  and  desperate  resistance;  but 
being  found  to  be  untenable  it  was  subsequently 
abandoned. 

AGADES,  a  town  of  central  Africa,  cap.  of  Air, 
or  Asbcn,  in  lat.  l&>  40'  N.,  lon^.  7©  30'  E.  Est. 
pop.  8,000;  formerly  50,000.  It  is  still  an  impor- 
tant entrq>6t  of  the  interior  commerce  of  central 
Africa. 

AGADIR,  or  SANTA  CRUZ,  a  sea-port  town 
of  Morocco,  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  the  most  S. 
in  the  empire,  kt.  80O  26'  35"  N.,  long.  9©  35'  56"  W. 
It  is  built  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill  on  the  shore  of 
a  gtilph  or  laTRC  bay  of  the  same  name,  well  ile- 
feiidtHl  from  the  winils,  and  lUTonling  go<Hl  anchor- 


AGLIE 

ago  for  shipping.  Agadir  belonged  at  one  time  U^ 
the  Portuguese,  by  whom  it  was  surroundod  by 
walls.  It  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Moors  in 
1536,  when  its  fortifications  were  farther  strength' 
ened.  It  was  for  a  considerable  period  the  centre 
of  an  extensive  commerce;  but  having  rebelled 
against  the  government  in  1773,  the  (ffincipal  part 
(k  its  population  was  transferred  to  Mogadure. 
The  vast  sandy  deserts  of  N.  Africa  conunencc 
immediatelv  to  the  S.  of  Agadir;  and  hence  its 
bay  is  aptly  termed  by  the  Arabs  Bab-SoudoHj 
that  is,  GatB  of^  BUick». 

AGDE  (an.  Agatha),  a  town  of  France,  de^ 
Herault,  on  the  river  of  that  name,  near  where  it 
is  traversed  by  the  canal  of  Languedoc,  about  8 
m.  above  where  the  former  falls  into  the  Gulph  of 
Lyons,  and  about  the  same  distance  from  where 
the  latter  is  united  with  lake  Thau.  Pop.  9,746  in 
1861.  Ships  of  200  tons  burden  come  up  to  the  town 
by  the  river,  near  the  mouth  of  which  is  fort  Briscoo. 
It  has  a  considerable  coasting  and  some  foreign 
trade,  with  ship-building,  manufactures  of  venU- 
grise  and  soan,  and  distilleries.  Being  entirely 
built  of  black  oasaltic  lava,  and  surrounded  by  a 
wall  and  towers  of  the  same  material,  it  has  a 
grim  appearance,  and  is  called  by  the  country 
people  the  ViUe  Noire,  It  made  a  part  of  Gallia 
Narboneruiif  and  was  in  506  the  seat  of  a  council 
summoned  by  Alaric 

AGEN  (an.  Aginum),  a  town  of  France,  cap. 
dep.  Lot-et' Garonne f  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ga- 
ronne, on  the  railway  from  Bordeaux  to  Toulouse, 
Pop.  1 7,263  in  1 861.  The  town  is  ill  built ;  streets 
nanrow,  crooked,  and  dirty.  The  hotel  of  the  pre- 
fect is  worthy  notice,  and  there  is  a  fine  bridge 
over  the  Garonne  of  eleven  arches.  It  is  the  scat 
of  a  cour  royale  for  the  depts.  Lot-et-Garcmne, 
Lot,  and  Gers ;  has  a  coll^ne  and  several  literary 
instituUons,  a  public  library  with  above  12,000 
vols.,  and  a  theatre.  Its  situation,  though  rather 
unhealthy,  makes  it  the  entrepot  of  the  commerce 
between  Bordeaux  and  Toulouse.  There  is  here 
a  sail-cloth  manufactory,  which  recently  employed 
above  600  work-people,  and  produced  annually 
130,000  metres  of  canvass  for  the  navy :  there  are 
also  manufactures  of  serges,  printed  cloths,  cottons, 
braziers'  ware,  pottery,  soap,  and  spirits.  En- 
virons beautiful;  the  promenade  du  Gratnert  is 
one  of  the  finest  in  France.  The  town  is  famous  as 
the  birthplace  of  Jasmin,  *lastof  theTroubadoura,' 
who  kept  a  hairdresser's  shop  in  the  High  Street 
till  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1864.  Agen  is  very 
ancient,  and  under  tlie  Roman  emperora  was  a 
prajtorian  city. 

AGGERliUUS,  a  bishopric  of  Norway,  and  ono 
of  the  most  important  divisions  of  that  kingdom ; 
which  see. 

AGGERSOE,  a  small  Danish  ishmd  in  the 
Great  Belt,  near  the  E.  coast  of  the  island  of 
Zealand,  lat,  55°  12'  N.,  long.  11°  12'  K 

AGHRIM,  or  AUGHRIM,  an  inconsiderable 
town  of  Ireland,  co.  Galway,  82  m.  W.  Dublin. 
Pop.  383  in  1861.  One  of*^  the  greatest  battles 
ever  fought  in  Ireland  took  place  in  the  vicinity 
of  Aghriin  in  1691,  when  the  troo}^)s  of  William  III., 
commanded  by  Ginkell,  afterwords  Earl  of  Ath- 
lone,  gained  a  complete  and  decisive  victory  over 
those  of  James  II.,  commanded  by  St.  Ruth,  who 
fell  early  in  the  action. 

AGINCOURT,  or  AZINCOURT.  a  village  of 
France,  dep.  Fas  de  Calais,  13  m.  NW.  St.  PoL 
Pop.  438  in  1861.  The  place  is  famous  in  history 
for  the  great  victory  gained  near  it  in  1415  by 
the  English  monarch,  Henry  V.,  over  a  vastly- 
superior  French  force. 

AGLIE,  or  AGLIA,  a  town  of  North  Ttalv, 
pniv.  Turin,   10  m.  8\V.  Ivrua.     Poj>.  3,321  lu 


AGNES 

18S1.  It  has  a  oollegUte  chinch,  and  a  mag- 
Bifioait_pa]ace  with  a  conBiderable  library. 

AGNES  (ST.),  one  of  the  SdUy  Islands  being 
the  most  S.  of  the  group.  It  contains  about  300 
acies,  and  had  in  lH3i  a  pop.  of  289,  and  200  in 
1861.  It  is  celdnated  for  its  light-house  with  a 
rerohriDg  light,  in  hit.  49°  53'  37'  N.,  long.  €9  19' 
23*  W.  The  lantern  is  elevated  138  feet  above 
high-water  marie 

AGNOKE,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  prov.  Cam- 
pobasso,  18  m.  NNE.  Isemia,  in  an  elevated 
healthy  situation.  Pop.  10,320  in  1861.  It  has 
an  immeujie  numb«  of  churches,  an  hospital,  and 
live  mont»-de-i»^t^,  which  make  loans  of  seed 
evm  to  the  peasants.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  pnn- 
cqtal  copper  manufactures  in  the  kingdom.  Some 
writers  have  affirmed  that  it  occupies  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Aqmkmia  of  the  Samnites. 

AGOA  DE  PAO,  a  sea-port  town  of  St.  Michael, 
one  of  the  Azores,  12  m.  L.  Punta  del  Gada ;  near 
a  mountain  peak  of  the  same  name,  3,066  feet  high. 

AGON,  a  small  sea-port  town  of  France,  dep. 
La  If  anche,  7  m.  W.  Uoutanoes.  Pop.  1,605  in 
1861. 

AGOSTA,  or  AUGUSTA,  a  mariUme  town  of 
^cilv,  am.  cant.,  prov.  Catania,  on  its  E.  coast, 
12  BB.  N.  Syracuse,  lat.  37©  13'  35"  N.,  long. 
15<^  14'  £.  Pop.  9,735  in  1858.  It  stands  on  a 
peninsula,  and  was  built  in  the  13th  century  by 
the  emperor  Frederick,  who  ncopled  it  from  Cen- 
tnrissa,  which  was  razed  for  sedition.  It  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  of  1693,  when 
numbcn  of  people  were  crushed  to  death  under 
the  ruins  of  their  houses,  and  a  sulphurous  \'apour 
tiniling  its  way  to  the  principal  powder  magazine, 
it  tjlew  up  with  a  tremendous  explosion.  A  vimilar 
mifAmune  occurred  in  1848.  Streets  rt^lar  and 
f«imllel.  with  some  tolerable  municipu  edifices 
and  magazines  for  articles  of  commerce ;  but  the 
btniaes  are  low  and  mean,  and  the  inhabitants 
have  an  air  of  dejection  and  poverty.  Their  whole 
^xvtKSic^  depends  on  the  export  of  salt,  and  a 
little  oil,  honey,  and  wine.  It  is  strongly  fortified 
bi4h  on  the  land  and  sea  sides.  The  harbour, 
though  Father  difficult  of  entrance,  is  deep,  spacious, 
and  secure ;  but  in  E  and  S.  gales  there  is  often 
a  heavy  swelL    The  holding  ground  is  excellent. 

AGKA,  one  of  the  ndrnkt,  great  divisions,  or 
pvoriDcea  into  which  Hindostan,  or  India  N.  of 
the  Ncfbuddah  River,  was  divided  by  the  emperor 
Akbar.  It  lies  chiefly  between  25<^  and  28<^  N., 
and  may  be  computed  to  ccmtain  about  45,000  sq. 
OL.  and  from  6  to  7  ndllions  of  inhabitants.  These 
rabahs  or  provinces  of  the  Mogul  empire  were  in 
fact  equal  in  extent  and  population  to  kingdoms. 
The  province  of  Agra  lies  in  the  alluvial  plain  of 
the  Jumna  and  Ganges,  with  an  elevation  but  a 
few  hnndred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  and 
the  finest  portion  of  it,  well  known  under  the 
Bsme  (if  the  Doab,  or  country  of  the  *  two  rivers,' 
lies  between  these  streams.  By  far  the  greater 
purtioo  of  its  surface  is  a  dead  flat.  Although 
watered  by  three  great  na%'igable  rivers,  the  Chum- 
bvl,  Junna,  and  Ganges,  the  country  is  charao- 
tmsed  in  general  for  its  drought,  the  greater  part 
of  its  iir^^ation  being  effected  by  means  of  deep 
vHls.  It  ma^  also  be  described  as  eminently 
tkitdteot  of  tunber.  From  March  to  June  the 
climate  is  diy,  and  extremely  sultry ;  firom  June 
tu  (.*ctober,  sultry  and  rainy ;  and  from  November 
to  Fefamary  inclusive,  serene,  dry,  and  cold,  the 
thermometer  almost  every  morning  falling  below 
the  freezing  point.  With  the  exception  of  a  few 
vfjudy  pordons  of  the  province  Iving  towards  its 
W.  extremity,  and  here  only  durmg  the  season  of 
the  periudicai  rains,  the  donate  is  health^.  No 
metaBae  mines  exist  in  the  province ;  and  its  only 


AGRA 


49 


valuable  minerals  are  the  red  sandstone,  of  which 
nearlv  all  the  monuments  of  the  cities  of  Delhi 
and  Agra  are  constructed ;  and  a  species  of  tufous 
limestone,  called  kanghar  in  the  language  of  the 
country,  and  which  b  the  only  source  from  which 
lime  is  obtained  for  economical  purposes.  There 
are  commonlv  two  harvests:  the  greater  crops 
being  reaped  before  the  setting  in  of  the  rains  m 
May  and  June,  and  the  lesser  in  Decem1)er  and 
January'.  The  principal  com  crops  are  those  of 
wheat  and  barley.  Rye  is  not  known,  and  oats 
hardly  so,  and  rice  is  not  cultivated  for  want  of  a 
sufficiency  of  water.  Of  the  smaller  kinds  of  com, 
those  chiefly  cultivated  are  two  species  of  millet, 
viz.  Holcus  Sorghum,  called  in  the  language  of 
the  countrv  Jewar;  and  Holcus  spicatusj  called 
Bajercu  'These  two  constitute  the  chief  bread 
com  of  the  labouring  people,  who  seldom  taste 
wheat.  Great  quantities  of  pulses  are  rmsed  as  a 
winter  crop  for  ttic  food  of  man  and  cattle,  the 
most  common  of  which  is  the  Cictr  arrietum^  called 
grain  bv  Europeans.  Mustard  seed  is  raised  for 
oil,  and  the  sugar  cane  is  cultivated  for  the  manu- 
facture of  sugar.  Cotton  is  cultivated  to  a  very 
considerable  extent,  and  indigo  is  produced  more 
extensively  in  tliis  province  than  in  any  other 
part  of  Upper  India.  It  was,  indeed,  from  hence 
that  the  drug,  in  the  earlier  periods  of  European 
commerce,  was  procured  for  the  trade  of  Europe. 
The  great  mass  of  the  inhabitants  are  Hindoos ; 
among  whom  the  two  first  classes  in  rank,  the 
Brahminical  and  Military',  are  more  frequent  tluui 
to  the  eastward,  or  to  the  south.  To  the  \V.  of 
the  Jumna,  chiefly  are  found  two  nations  or  tribes 
well  known  in  the  history  of  Upper  India,  the 
Jauts  and  the  Mematties,  both  distinguished  by 
theif  warlike  and  predatory  habits.  It  is  remaric- 
able  of  ^  country  so  long  subject  to  Mohammedan 
mlc,  and  the  immediate  seat  of  power,  that  the 
proportion  of  Mohammedans  found  in  this,  as  in- 
deed in  the  neighbouring  provinces,  b  smaller 
than  in  the  more  remote  one  of  Bengal.  The  in- 
habitants, of  whatever  denomination,  are  of  more 
robust  frames  and  a  far  bolder  spirit  than  those  of 
the  last-named  country'.  The  langiuige  of  the 
people  throughout  is  the  Hindi  or  Hindustany. 
The  basis  of  this  language  is  the  Hindoo  dialect, 
which  was  spoken  in  the  kingdom  of  Kanoje, 
which  Lb  within  the  limits  of  this  province,  on  the 
first  Mohammedan  invasions. 

AoRA,  the  name  of  a  zillah,  or  district,  consti- 
tuting a  judicial  and  fiscal  division  of  the  last- 
named  province,  lying  on  both  banks  of  the  Jumna. 
Its  computed  area  is  4,500  Eng.  sq.  m. ;  and  if  it 
be  equaJly  populous  ^ith  the  neighbouring  pro- 
vince of  I>elhi,  of  the  population  of  wliich  some 
estimate  has  been  made,  and  it  is  probably  some- 
what more  so,  it  contains  273  inhabitants  to  the 
square  mile,  or  near  one  million  of  absolute  popu- 
lation. In  1813,  ten  years  after  thb  dbtrict  caine 
into  Britbh  possession,  it  was  estimated  to  contain 
2,456,214  b^ahs  of  land,  each  equal  to  near  one 
third  of  an  Englbh  acre,  of  which  there  were 
under  actual  culture  1,222,667;  fit  for  culture 
330,807 ;  and  waste  or  uncultivable  902,740.  Half 
the  area  of  the  whole  dbtrict,  therefore,  was  under 
actual  tillage.  The  land  tax  as  assessed  to  the 
land  under  culture  was  at  the  rate  of  two  mpees 
and  two  anas  a  begah,  or  near  13«.  an  acre;  a 
very  high  or  rather  oppressive  land  tax,  for  a  poor 
country  just  recovermg  from  long  disorder  and 
anarchy. 

AoRA,  a  city  of  Hindostan,  cap.  of  the  above 
province  and  clbtrict,  on  the  S\V.  bank  of  the 
Jiunna,  which  during  the  season  of  the  floods  is 
here  about  half  a  mile  broad,  and  at  no  season 
fordable;  in  lat.  27^  11  N.,  long.  77^  53'  E.   It  b 

E 


50 


AGRA 


distant  from  Calcutta  950  m.,  Madras  1190,  and 
Bombay  850,  and  is  connected  by  railway  with 
(!!alcutta,  Benarejt,  and  Delhi  The  present  popu- 
lation iii  estimated  at.  between  70,000  and  80,000. 
It  is  of  considerable  extent,  and  has  now  hand- 
some houses  for  European  officers,  subscription- 
rooms,  churches,  fort  and  arsenaL  The  town  is 
very  conveniently  situated  for  the  commerce  of 
\V.  India  and  E.  i^ersia,  and  is  the  mart  of  a  very 
considerable  inland  and  frontier  trade.  The  trading 
commtmication  is,  besides  the  chief  medium  of  in- 
tercourse, the  railway,  carried  on  by  boats  on  the 
Jumna  and  Chumbul.  and  by  horses,  camels,  bul- 
locks, and  bullock  cartj»  by  land.  The  goods  com- 
prising the  imports  consist  of  shawls,  horses,  camels, 
rock-salt,  and  the  dry  and  fresh  fruits  and  drugs  of 
Persia ,  cotton  wool  and  coarse  cotton  fabrics  from 
the  S.,  with  Europe^an  commodities  by  the  Jumna 
and  Ganges.  The  chief  exports  consist  of  raw  silks, 
indigo,  and  coarse  sugar.  Agra,  in  remote  times, 
appears  to  have  been  a  fortified  town  of  some 
consequence ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  year  1504 
that  it  was  made  the  seat  of  Mohammedan  em- 
mre.  This  was  effected  by  the  Afghan  emperor 
Sihtmdur  Lodi.  About  half  a  century  later  the 
place  was  greatly  embellished  h^  Akbar,  by  far 
the  most  illustrious  of  all  the  Indian  emperors.  It 
continued  to  lie  the  seat  of  government  dluing  his 
reign  and  that  of  his  son ;  and  Delhi  was  not  re- 
stored as  the  metropolis  until  the  reig^  of  his 
grandson,  Shah  Jehan,  in  the  year  1647.  When 
Akbar  fixed  the  seat  of  his  government  at  Agra, 
he  changed  its  name  to  Akbarahad,  which  con- 
tinues to  be  its  Mohammedan  designation.  It 
contains  many  fine  monuments,  all  of  Moham- 
medan origin.  The  fortress  is  of  great  extent,  the 
double  rampart  and  bastions  being  built  entirety 
of  hewn  red  sandstone,  and  at  least  GO  fe^t  above 
the  level  of  the  Jumna,  on  the  bank  of  which  it 
stands.  The  most  remarkable  structure,  how- 
ever, is  the  Taj  Mahal,  literally  the  *  Crown  of 
Empires.'  This  stands  about  2  m.  below  the  for- 
tress, and  on  Uie  bank  of  the  river.  It  is  a  mau- 
soleum, built  by  the  einperor  Shah  Jehan  in 
honour  of  his  empress  the  hegum  Narr  Mahal ;  a 
building  of  white  marble  raL^HKl  on  a  terrace,  and 
in  the  onlinary  form  of  a  Mohammedan  mosque 
with  minarets.  The  mosaic  ornaments  of  the  in- 
terior, including  even  the  marble  pavement,  are 
extensive,  rich,  and  elaborate,  the  flowers  and  ara- 
besques being  composed  of  no  less  than  twelve 
different  stones,  such  as  agates,  jaspars,  lapis  la- 
zuli, and  various  coloured  marbles,  and  the  nu- 
merous quotations  from  the  Koran  being  in  black 
marble.  A  garden  with  fountains  and  highly 
ornamented  gateways  surroimds  the  mausoleum, 
and  the  toute  ensemhle  is  supposed,  whether  for 
extent,  symmetry,  materiel^  or  execution,  to  sur- 
pass any  thing  in  the  world  of  the  same  d^crip- 
tion.  l*his  is  the  uniform  opinion,  even  of  those 
who  have  seen  the  master-pieces  of  Italian  art. 
*  It  is  possible,'  says  the  celebrated  and  accurate 
B^mier,  '  I  may  fiave  imbibed  an  Indian  taste ; 
but  I  decidedly  think  that  this  monument  deserves 
much  more  to  be  numbered  among  the  wondere  of 
the  world  than  the  pyramids  of  Egypt, — those  un- 
shapen  masses,  which,  when  I  had  seen  them 
twice,  yielded  me  no  satisfaction,  and  which  are 
nothing  on  the  outside  but  heaps  of  large  stones 
piled  in  form  of  steps,  one  upon  another ;  while 
within  there  is  very  Uttle  that  is  creditable  either 
to  human  skill  or  to  human  invention.'  The  ar- 
chitect was  a  Mohammedan  native  of  Sahar,  and 
the  whole  building  is  said  to  have  cost  750,0002. 
It  is  kept  in  excellent  repair  by  the  British  govern- 
ment, which  assigns  a  handsome  annual  revenue 
for  this  object.    The  tomb  of  the  emperor  Akbar, 


AHMEDABAD 

at  Sectindra,  6  m.  from  Agra,  would  be  oofindered 
a  s|)lendid  building  in  any  place  that  had  not  the 
Taj  Mahal  to  boast  of.  ft  was  constructed  by  his 
son,  the  emperor  Jeh^ighire.  A  marble  palace  of 
Shah  Jehan  exists  within  the  fortress;  and  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  town  for  miles  contains  the 
ruins  of  palaces  and  tombs  of  costly  materials  and 
workmanship.  Agra,  with  the  district  to  which 
it  belongs,  was  conquered  by  the  chief  Madhajee 
Sindiah  m  1784,  and  formed  a  portion  of  the  jaghcer 
assigned  by  this  prince  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
army,  organised  on  the  Euroijean  system,  and 
officered  by  Europeans,  by  means  of  which  he 
maintained  his  supremacy  in  Upper  Hindostan. 
In  the  course  of  the  military  operations  whidi  de- 
prived the  Mahrattas  in  1803  of  nearly  the  whole 
of  their  possessions  in  Hindostan,  Agra  was  be- 
sieged by  Lord  Lake,  and  surrendered  after  a 
practical  breach  had  been  effected  in  one  of  the 
Ixastions.  Since  that  time  it  has  continued  in 
British  occupation.  The  fortress  has  always  a 
considerable  garrison,  and  about  two  miloe  beyond 
its  waUs  is  a  cantonment  where  a  much  larger 
military  force  is  stationed.  There  are  several 
modem  buildings,  including  the  English  and 
Oriental  College,  the  Metcalfe  Testimonial,  and 
the  Government  House.  Agra  was  the  birth- 
place of  Abul  Fazel,  the  famous  prime  minister  ai 
the  emperor  Akbar. 

AGKAM,  or  ZAGRAB,  a  fortified  dty  of  the 
Austrian  empire,  cap.  Croatia,  and  the  reeidenee 
of  the  governor-general,  on  a  hill  on  the  banks  of 
the  Save ;  lat.  45°  49^  2"  N.,  long.  15^  4'  E.  Pop. 
16,G57  in  1857.  Agram  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopnc 
and  of  a  tribunal  of  appeal  for  Croatia,  the  Bannat, 
and  Slavonia.  It  has  a  superior  academy,  a  gym- 
nasium, a  Frandscan  convent,  a  considenblc  com- 
merce, particularly  in  the  tobacco  and  com  of 
Hungary,  and  manufactures  of  silks  and  porcelain. 

AGKEDA,  a  walled  town  of  Spain,  tntov.  Soria, 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cayo,  celebrated  oy  MartiaL 
Pop.  8,120  in  1857.  The  town  is  ill  built,  has  6 
churches  and  4  convents,  with  tanneries  and  pot- 
teries. 

AGREVE  (ST.),  a  town  of  Prance,  dep.  Ar- 
deche,  cap.  cant.    Pop.  3,183  in  1861. 

AGUAS  CALIENTES,a  town  of  Mexico,  prov. 
Guadidaxara,  100  m.  NE.  Guadalaxara;  lat.  22^ 
N.,  long.  101^45'  W.  Est.  pop.  20,000.  The  town 
is  situated  in  a  fertile  distnct,  has  a  fine  climate, 
and  is  one  of  the  handsomest  of  the  Mexican  towns. 
Being  intersected  by  several  great  roads,  it  has 
an  active  and  considerable  commerce.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  the  hot  springs  in  its  vicinity,  whence 
it  derives  its  name. 

AGUILAR  DE  LA  FRONTERA,  a  town  of 
Spain,  prov.  C^ordova,  22  m.  SSE.  Cordova.  Pop. 
11,836  m  1858. 

AGUILAR  DEL  CAMPOS,  a  town  of  Spain, 
prov.  Valencia,  on  the  Pisueiga,  40  m.  NW. 
Burgos.    Pop.  1,026  in  1858. 

AHANTA,  a  rich  well  wooded  tsrritonr  on  the 
Gold  Coast  of  Africa,  between  the  rivers  AncdHa 
and  Suberin.    It  has  gold  mines. 

AHMEDABAD,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  presid. 
Bombay,  prov.  Gujerat,  cap.  district  of  same  name, 
on  the  na\igab]e  river  the  Sabermatty.  Lat.  22^ 
58'  N.,  long.  72^  87'  E.  Estim,  pop.  180,000. 
About  the  middle  of  the  15th  century  it  was  a 
flourishing  city  celebrated  for  the  magnificence  of 
its  mosques,  palaces,  and  streets;  but  it  has  since 
fallen  greatly  to  decay.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
high  wall  flanked  with  towers;  and  is  a  great  re- 
sort of  itinerant  players  and  poets.  It  suffered 
severely  from  the  plague  in  1812,  and  6om  an 
earthquake  in  1819.  The  district  of  which  Ahme- 
dabad  is  the  cap.  contains  4,356  sq.  m.  and  an 


AHXEDFOBE 
«d  pop.  of  650.890.    Tfae  town  is  the  head- 

1  CH    the  DOTth  division  of  the  Bornbay 
ud  hu  ■  lulwaj-  to  " 
lEDPOKE,  «  towi 

lEDNDGGUk,  M  aty  .nd  fnitrsyi  of  Indin, 
Bombav,  |VoT.  Aanui^^abod,  cap.  district 
«  nune,  «i  the  river  Swim,  7U  m.  NW. 
;  Ut.  190  6'  S„  loOB.  740  65'  E.  The 
bonded  in  1493,  ia  enclosed  by  a  etoae 
td  haa  4  handflome  maiket-nlace  uid  some 
piod  stnetL  At  pn»ent  it  is  the  bead 
at  a  dvil  ettabliihment,  luid  has  about 
Inbatk  eidmive  of  the  K»ni»on.  The  for- 
little  iray  tnjm  the  town,  is  oval  shaped, 
Nrt  I  m.  in  ciic  :  it  is  built  entiiely  of 
■d  ia  aumnuided  by  ■  lirnad  and  deep  ditch. 
■■deted  to  Geoeral  WcUeile;  (Uuke  af 
paa)  in  1803. 

dbtiict  or  eoUectonle  of  which  Ahmed- 
N  the  cap^  oralains  aa  area  of  9,910  sq.  m. 
pop.  of  about  W0,000. 
lOOD.  a  unm  of  Gujerat,  20  ni.  N.  by  W. 
;  Ut.  Sao  3'  »„  lon^:.  73°  6'  E. 
IWEILEU,  a  town  of  Pnissia.  proT.  Lower 
c^i.  arc.  on  the  Ahr,  23  m.  WNW.  Cob- 
Fop.  3.T09  in  1861.    The  towB  bu  nuuio- 
i<f  elotb  and  Unneriei. 
FK,  a  veiy  ancient  town  of  France,  dep. 
cap.  cant.,  10  m.  SE.  Gueret,  va  a  mouu- 
^  f->ot  of  which  flowi  the  Creuse.    Top. 
>  1881.  There  are  coal  minea  iu  the  ncigh- 
id. 

VAZ,  or  AHWUZ,  a  town  of  Persia,  piov. 
tn,  on  (he  KaruoD,  48  m.  S.  Shiuler.  In 
timea  thii  waa  a  tarp:  ami  Souriahin);  city, 
>r.  of  nme  name,  aud  the  wiulei  residence 
Pcnian  kinjni.  It  ia  now  a  wretched  plaoc, 
N  ox  7(W  inhalHtanla.  Some  ruins  of  the 
f  an  itill  to  be  seen.  Of  ttieee  the  matt 
at  attention  are  the  remainB  nf  a  bridge 
•  river,  and  of  a  rgyal  palace.  The  pmion 
rail  of  the  latter  now  standing  is  built  of 
loeka  uT  bewn  alone,  and  ia  alMut  3U0  feet 
ik,  and  14  or  li  feet  high.  A  little  beluw 
,  al  the  deseiled  village  of  Sabia,  an  the 
I  of  a  rtmaitable  muund  01  dam  made 
1m  rivtr  to  procure  water  for  the  inigalion 
■mmoiUng  coontry.     (Kinnrar'a  Per.  Emp. 

S;  or  AJASSO,  a  mined  aca-port  of  Aaiatic 
'.SB  tbeN.sbnreorihegulf  oflakendenwn. 
iUCH,  «  AICUA,  a  town  of  ISaratia,  ciic. 
Dmube.  on  the  Baar,  1!  m.  EXE.  Aug>- 
Pon.  1,950  iu  1861.  Near  the  town  are  the 
t  ue  aneient  castle  of  WLttelabach,  tnaa 
[ha  mien  irf  Havana  '    ' 


celebrated  all  1 

,  aad  it  has  also  (abrica  of  iiun  and  co). , . 
I,  and  uailo.      It  baa  withaluod 


SjSi  <ST.),at<iwn  of  France,  dep.  Lture  et 

_      .__.       ^.     _.      =      „,    :.        „__    o,gQ(,   in 

!.  The  Quantily  annually 

ctmdb  atimaled  at  Irum  3o,mKI,(KHi  t< 
DM.     Thaw  for  the  nae  of  the  army  ar 

M  caatle  of  Amboise.    Tho  tuwi 

rfdolh. 


AIGRE  FEN1LLE,  a  village  of  France,  dep. 
Charenle  Infcricure,  cap.  cant,  13  m.  NNE.  Koche- 
fon.     Pop.  1,H12  in  ISGI. 

AIGUE  PERSE,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Puy 
de  Dflme,  cap.  canl^  11  m.  tiSE.  Kiom.  Pop. 
2,697  in  1H61.  Near  it  is  the  Chiteau  de  U 
Roche,  the  birthplace  of  the  Chancellor  de  t'H6pi- 
taL     The  town  haa  manubcturca  of  doth  and 

A1GUE8  MORTES,  a  town  of  France,  dep, 
Gari,  cap.  cant,,  20  m.  8\V.  NUmw;  Ut  43=  33' 
68"  N.,  long.  4°  II'  22"  E,  Pop.  3.8G5  in  1861. 
Though  now  about  4  m.  inland,  Aieues  Mortea 
was  funnerly  a  sea-poit,  aud  wan,  in  fact,  the 
place  where  St.  Louis  embarked  on  bii  two  expo- 
"  '*'  I.  At  present  it  is  coanecied  with 
nal,  which  ia  prolonged  tu  Beau- 
Lc  hand,  while  it  is  united  on  the 
other  with  that  of  Lan^edoc  It  i<  fortified,  and, 
1,  ia  an  important  poat  for  the  do- 
•asL  Owing  to  the  retrogresaion 
of  the  sea,  the  town  is  aunounded  by  morahea 
(whence  ita  name  Aqme  Jtfnrtue),  and  is  very  un- 
healthy. The  salt  lake  of  Peccaia,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, ia  celebrated  as  well  for  the  quality  aa 

AIGUILLE    (L'},    a  celebrated  mountain    in 

rance,  dep,  Istre,  4  m,  NW,  Corps,  height  2,000 

metres,  or  6.365  feet.     Its  under  part  has  the  ajt- 

pearance  of  a  truncated  cone,  and  ita  upper  part  is 

of  a  cnliical  funn.     It  was  lung  auppueed  to  be  in- 

vas  hence  calleti  ;i/mu /iKio-euiK  i 

afficer  of  Charles  VIII.  reached  its 


AIGUILLON,  a  (own  of  France,  d(>p.  Lot  et 
Gaiunne,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Lot  and  the 
Garonne,  17  m.  KW.  Agen,  Pop.  3,7BI  in  1861. 
la  nnsuccessfulty  besieged  by  Jcihn  duke  of 
landy  iu  1345  \  when,  it  boa  been  said,  bat 
iscorrectly,  that  canoona  were  first  made  use  of. 

AIGUKANDE.  a  (own  of  France,  dep.  Indre, 
cap.  cant„  12  m.  SW.  Chilie.  Pop.  2,146  in  1861. 
It  is  the  centre  of  on  extensive  cattle  trade ;  and 
has,  or  hod,  an  octagonal  monument,  believed  to 
be  very  ancient,  but  of  which  the  object  is  ud- 

AILSA,  an  insulated  rock  in  the  Frith  of  Clvde, 
10  m.  W,  Gin-an.  Ila  baae  is  elliptical,  and  it 
rises  abruptly  from  (he  sea  to  the  height  of  1,098 
feet.  Uconststa  of  columnar  tn^k  TheNW.nide 
ia  almost  perpendicular,  being  formed  of  suocesaive 


AIN,  a  frontier  department  in  the  E.  of  FraDce, 
having  (he  Rhone,  which  separates  it  from  Savoy 
on  the  E.  and  S.,  the  Saone  on  the  W.,  and  the 
depta.  of  Saoce  et  Loire,  Jura,  and  part  of  Switzer- 
land, on  the  N.  and  NW.  Ares  £92,674  hectarce. 
Pop.  370,919  in  1801,  Exclusive  of  the  Rhone 
and  Sonne,  by  which  it  is  partly  bounded,  it  ia 
divided  by  the  Ain.  vlience  it  lierivcs  its  name, 
into  two  nearly  equal  parts ;  that  to  the  K  being 
rugged,  mountainons,  and  principally  adapted  to 
pasturage ;  whereas  that  to  the  W.,  though  in 
parts  manhy.  ia  generally  level  and  fit  for  culti- 
vation. There  are  in  the  SW.  purtion  of  tliis  dep. 
a  great  number  of  lakes  or  ponda,  some  of  which 
are  subjected  to  a  very  peculiar  species  of  rotation. 
It  is  usual  to  drain  and  culti%'ate  them  for  a 
Reason ;  and  when  the  crop  hoa  been  gathered 
tliey  are  agsia  filled  with  water,  and  with  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  Qah,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
pond ;  and  after  being  occupied  in  this  way  for 
two  ycara,  or  thereabouts,  are  again  ilried  and 
£2 


52 


AIN-TAB 


Bal)jcct€d  to  the  plough.  The  extent  of  the  ponds 
8o  employed  is  esdmated  at  nearly  16,000  hec- 
tares. Tliw  is  found  to  l)e  a  very  profitable  species 
of  cultivation  ;  though,  from  the  humidity  it  occa- 
sions, it  is  said  to  render  the  climate  unhealthy. 
Oxen,  of  wliich  largo  numbers  are  bred,  are  gene- 
rally used  in  tillage.  Produce  of  com  crops  suffi- 
cient for  the  consumption.  Vintage  considerable, 
three-fifths  of  the  produce  exported.  Woods  very 
extensive,  amountmg  to  ^>ut  120,000  hectares. 
Near  Belle v  are  produced  the  best  lithr^praphic 
stones  in  f'rance.  Manufactures  inconsiderable. 
Great  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  emigrate  an- 
niwlly  after  harvest  to  seek  for  employment  in 
the  contiguous  departments.  Cliief  towns  liouig. 
Naiitua,  Trevoux,  Belley,  and  Gex.  But  the 
most  celebrated  place  in  tiie  dep.  is  Femey,  long 
the  residence  of  Voltaire. 

AIN-TAB,  a  large  town  in  the  N.  of  S%'Tia,  on 
the  S.  slope  of  the  Taurus ;  lat,  36°  68'  ^f .,  long. 
370  13'  15*'  E. ;  70  m.  N.  Aleppo,  and  30  m.  W. 
Bir,  on  the  Euplirates.  Pop.  lias  been  estimated 
at  20,000,  which,  if  the  t(»wn  be  two-tliirds  the  size 
of  AlepfK),  as  stated  by  Mnuudrell  (Journal,  210), 
can  scarcely  he  considered  as  exaggerated.  The 
inhabitants  consist  of  nearly  equal  numl>ers  of 
Armenian  and  Greek  Christians,  Curds,  and  Mo- 
hammedans, among  whom  a  spirit  of  toleration 
and  unity  ))revails  unparalleled  in  most  other 
E&Htem  societies.  They  use  the  Turkish  lan- 
guage. Houses  were  built,  of  a  fine  stone  re- 
sembling porphjTy,  flat-roofed,  and  generally  of 
only  one  storj'.  There  arc  five  moscjues,  and 
several  large  and  well  supplied  bazaars.  In  the 
centre  of  the  town  is  a  castle  on  a  mound,  re- 
sembling, in  everv  respect,  that  of  Aleppo,  but 
much  smaller.  Water  abundant,  many  of  the 
streets  ha\'ing  streams  flowing  through  them. 
On  the  S.  is  a  large  burial  ground,  which  at  a 
short  distance  resembles  an  important  suburb,  and 
is  perhaps  not  much  inferior  in  extent  to  the  town 
itself.  Manufactures  of  goat-skin  leather,  cotton, 
and  woollen  cloths,  are  carried  on  to  w)me  extent; 
and  there  is  some  trade  in  raw  and  tanned  hides, 
cloth,  honey,  and  tobacco. 

Ain-Tab'may  be  reganlexi  as  the  capital  of  a 
limited  but  very  fine  countrj',  consisting  of  small 
hills  and  valleys  among  the  roots  of  the  Taurus. 
The  towns  and  villages  in  this  little  district  arc 
very  numejous,  the  most  imiK)rtant  being  Adjia, 
8ilam,  nnd  Kles.  At  Adjia,  6  or  7  m.  distant,  is 
the  source  of  the  Koeik  (the  river  of  Aleppo) ; 
and  within  10  yards  of  this  stream  there  runs 
another,  tlie  Sejour,  the  banks  of  w^hich  are  thickly 
set  with  trees  and  tillages.  The  Sejour  has  a 
good  bridge  over  it,  about  2^  m.  from  Ain-Tab. 
Tlie  air  is  good  and  the  soil  fertile;  but  cultiva- 
tion is  not  much  followed,  the  majoritjr  of  the 
rural  population  being  shepherds.  Principal  agri- 
cultural products  com  and  tobacco.  Bees  are  very 
plentiful. 

Ain-Tab  was  taken  and  plundered  by  Timour 
Bee  in  1400 ;  but  its  favourable  site  and  the  tolerant 
spirit  of  its  inhabitants  have  kept  the  district  re- 
markably free  from  the  usual  Eastern  casualties. 
The  Turkish  pachas,  notorious  as  they  are  for  ex- 
action and  oppression,  respect  the  homes  and  rights 
of  these  hanly  mountaineers.  They  have,  indeed, 
been  taught  this  forbearance  by  some  severe  les- 
sons, haAing  experienced,  in  every  attempt  at 
tvranny  and  extortion,  a  firm  and  successful  re- 
sistance. The  last  of  these  attempts  was  made  in 
1780,  when  the  Turkisli  forces  were  completely 
defeated ;  since  which  the  men  of  Ain-Tab  and  its 
vicinitv  have  been  suffered  to  enjoy  the  produce  of 
their  delds,  flocks,  and  bees,  in  undisturbed  tran- 
quillity. According  to  Maundrell,  Ain-Tab  iaidcn- 


AISNE 

tical  with  the  Antiochia  ad  Taurum of  the  andoits; 
but  this  is  doubtfuL 

AIKDKIE,  a  royal  and  pari  bor.  and  m.  town  of 
Scotland,  co.  Lanuk,  pa.  New  Monkland, on  rising 
ground  between  two  little  rivulets,  11  m.  E.  Glas- 
gow, on  the  railwav  from  Edinburgh  to  Glasgow. 
Pop.  of  pari  bor.  In  1841,  12,408,  and  12,922  in 
18G1.    'The  town  consists  principally  of  two  pa- 
rallel streets  joined  by  cross  streets.    It  has  a 
handsome  town-house,  and    the  houses  of  the 
labouring  population  are  well  built  and  comfor- 
table.    In  the  early  part  of  last  century  Airdrie 
contained  only  one  solitary  house.     It  owes  its 
rapid  rise  to  the  coal  and  iron  mines  in  its  imme- 
diate >'icinity,  and  to  its  contiguity  to  the  Monk- 
land  canal  and  the  Garakirk  railway.    The  Calder 
and  other  great  iron  works  in  the  neij^hbourhood 
employ  a  numl>er  of  hands ;  and  witlun  the  town 
there  are  iron  founderies,  at  which  machinery  is 
made,  with  distilleries,  breweries,  malt  bams,  &c 
The  wea%'ing  of  cotton  goods  on  account  of  the 
Glasgow    manufacturers  has    hitherto,  however, 
been  the  principal  source  of  emplovment ;  and  it 
has,  also,  a  cotton  factory.    It  is  divided  into  two 
parishes;  and  besides  the  churches  attached  to 
them,  it  has  sundry  chapels  in  connection  with 
the  Free  Church  and  the  diflTeient  classes  of  dis- 
senters ;  with  various  schools  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions.   It  is  governed  under  a  charter  of  1833, 
bv  a  provost,  three  baillies,  and  twelve  councillors. 
Burgh  revenue,  1863-4,  2,700^.    The  Keform  Act 
united  Airdrie  with  Hamilton,  I..anark,  Falkirk^  and 
Linlithgow  in  the  return  of  a  member  to  the  H.  of 
C.   Pari,  and  municip.  const  389  in  1864.   Annual 
value  of  real  property  in  1862-3  (railways  not  in- 
cluded), 12,24R 

AIKE,  a  river  of  England,  important  from  its 
navigation  and  the  numerous  canals  with  which  it 
is  connectetL  It  rises  in  Yorkshire  in  the  central 
mountain  ridge,  a  little  to  the  E.  of  Settle.  It 
pursues  a  SE.  course,  till  passing  Leeds  it  is  joined 
bv  the  Calder  at  Castleford ;  its  course  is  thence 
I^.,  with  a  good  many  windings,  till  it  falls  into  the 
Ouse,  a  little  above  (jloole.  From  Leigh  to  Ferry- 
bridge the  Aire  flows  through  one  of  the  richest 
pbins  in  the  kingdom. 

Aire  (an.  Vidu  JuUi),  a  city  of  ("ranee,  dep, 
Landes,  cap.  cant,  on  the  Adour,  80  m.  SSrl 
Bordeaux.  Pop.  1,960  in  1861.  Tliis  is  a  very 
ancient  city,  and  has  been  since  the  fiiUi  century 
the  seat  of  a  bisho])ric  The  Goths  became  pos- 
sessed of  it  in  the  sixth  century,  and  it  was  for  some 
time  the  residence  of  Alaric  II.  It  suffered  much 
in  the  wars  with  the  English,  and  still  more  in  tlie 
religious  contests  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
fortifications  bv  which  it  was  once  surrounded  have 
now  wholly  disappeared.  It  is  pretty  well  built, 
has  a  cathedral,  a  college,  and  a  secondary  eccle- 
siastical seminary.  A  bridge  has  been  built  over 
the  Adour. 

Aire,  a  fortified  town  of  France,  den.  Pas  de 
Calais,  cap.  cant,  at  the  confluence  or  the  Lys 
and  Laquette.  Pop.  4,864  in  1861.  It  is  prettv 
well  built;  has  several  public  fountains;  with 
manufactures  of  linen,  hats,  soap,  Dutch  tiles,  ge- 
neva, &c.  In  a  military  point  of  view,  it  is  of 
considerable  importance  for  the  defence  of  the 
country  between  the  Lys  and  the  Aa. 

AIKVAULT,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Deux 
Sevres,  cap.  cant,  on  the  Thou<^,  15  m.  NNE.  Par- 
tenay.  Pop.  1,736  in  1861.  The  town  is  well  Iniilt, 
and  has  the  remains  of  an  old  castle  and  monastery 
destroyed  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

AISNE,  a  dep.  in  the  north  of  Frince,  between 
48©  50'  and  50°  4'  N.  lat,  and  29  56'  and  4©  12'  E. 
long.;  the  principal  town,  Laon,  in  its  centre, 
being  75  miles  NE.  Paris.    Area,  728,580  hectares. 


AJMERE 


A3 


hojB,  gnpe. 


*JM7  in  1R61.  Tbe  department  is  [nvened 
Ai^ne.  when™  its  name,  tbe  Oi»r,  Mume, 
mptttbI  caiuild.     Surface  gencrallv  fUt  or 
inR,  bill  in  pan*  tiilly:  soil  fcnile.     Tlte 
cd  landamounUto  oliiul  5UU.0O0  ticcL 
IWI.INK)  licinft  ofcupiwi   with  woodn. 
rith  mcBiluvni.   Ai^culturBgiiwl;  andifter 
10  for  the  iDhabiiantM  tlicrre  U  a  hv^e 
corn,  lU  H-ell  on  nf  aliccji,  oxen,  horae.i, . 
■■  ako  pmluces  I 

Ot,     TfrLAtoO^     R 

nude:  but  the  onlinan'  ibink  of  the' in- 
la  ii»Tne«nd  Lcor.  Ttiia  dep.  i»  celebrated 
unuficture^  at  Ihc  head  of  which  miuCbe 
Uk  ciittunM,  locct,  lairns.  shawbi,  table 
«.of  8c.  Qneniini  (he  mirmni  uf  St.  Go- 
!id  the  bolilc*,  cif  which  Folambrv  fiiraiibpa 
O00,IM0  a  reu  for  the  innes  of  Chunpn^rnc 
■lio  coit  'irnn  and  imn  plate  foimderim, 
nd  tile  WD!^  motitifaclures  of  chemical 
I,  and  of  beet-iDiit  su^v,  bleach  Hold's  &e- 
irided  inui  five  airoii.L.  37  canl.  and  S37 

Chief  Inmiii,  Lson,  SU  Quentin,  Soisaana, 
t'Thietrv,  and  Vervins. 

an  ancient  city  of  France,  dep.  Bouohes 
ine.  cap.  arroud,  am!  cant.,  fonneriy  cap. 
W,  in  a  plain  at  the  foot  of  some  bills,  16 
laneilles.  on  a  short  branch  of  the  lailway 
iroua  (u  Mawilles.  Piip.  27,G5!)  in  IfMil. 
n  Tw  founded  by  Caiui  tkxtiiu  Cal- 
I  Boman  general,  120  years  B.C.,  and  re- 
Lbfl  name  of  Afjmt  Stria,  finm  ltd  tomous 
iagt.  It  in  a  wtU-built  handAome  town. 
generally  veil  paveil,  wide  and  clean.  It 
jsatiTtil  pnimenade,  and  i 
nled  with  fuuntainA.  A 
i*  foimed  by  what  i.i  called  the  Palaii,  an 
iSag  containinK  fitas:  spacious  halls,  for- 
DCOtMed  by  the  parliamcoi  of  Pnivetico  and 
bik  bodies.  Ilhiualiv>it(iuni-]uill,C(intain- 
ilnable  collection  of  antiquitiea,  a  magnifl- 
bwbml,  a  miueuni  of  pictures,  o  theatre,  and 
abUc  huildings.    Previo 


oe  gooil  rq 


of  the 


it  Ufa 


it  baa  on  ocadcmv  equivalent 
th  faculties  of  thculuf.'v  and  lav,  and  a 
:  library-  ronUininc  ab^ive  1(W,0IK)  vols.  It 
ha  seat  nf  a  n»r  imprriale  for  [he  dcpta.  of 
ebes  da  Khonc,  Baw>  Alpe^  and  Var,  and 
rebhiabopric ;  and  ban  several  lenraod  eo- 
Aix  has  nunufaclurvB  of  sjlk,  wool,  and 
md  its  industry  and  commeice,  chiclly  in 
•  materially  increased  witliin  the  jin:sent 
.  The  mineral  springs,  from  wluch  the 
ok  its  ancient  name,  were  acciilentallv  dis- 
m  17(M,  and  were  identilioil  by  the  modala, 
mas,  and  nihcr  Kumaii  mnnumenlB  then 
Tbe  eatahliihment  of  the  baths  belonna 


'  69,941,  inclndii^  a  garrison  of  1,888.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  buthup,  of  a  court  of  appeal,  a  tribuiml 
of  commerce,  and  bos  on  exchange,  a  ^mDnaniiiai 
or  ciiUfcc,  a  school  of  arts,  a  picture  Kallery,  aiid  a 
public  bbrary  with  above  50,000  volumes.  Manu- 
factnres  conniderable.  and  recently  increased.  Ths 
moatimportontore  those  of  broad-clnth  and  cotton, 
in  which  4,500  persons  are  engaged;  and  ne;it  la 
them  [he  famous  needle-woiiis,  which  employ 
about  1,500  hands.  Watchmaldne  and  jewellery 
are  extensively  carried  on;  and  there  are  also 
print-works  and  tan-works.  KieluMve  of  tbe 
catbeilral,  there  are  eight  Catholic  ch^^clle^  a, 
Protestant  church,  and  a  syna^gut     It  had  at 

but  most  of  them  have  been  euppreaseiL  Among 
the  public  buildings,  the  moit  remarkable  are  the 
town-house,  enriched  with  portruita  of  the  dilTer- 
ent  ministers  present  at  the  n^otiation  of  the 
treaty  of  1748 ;  the  cathedral,  founded  W  Cbarte- 
magne ;  and  the  fountain  in  the  principal  market- 
place, with  a  statue  of  Chariomagne,  &c  Handsome 
private  houses  are  to  be  met  with  in  every  street. 
Aix-la-ChapcUe  was  the  favourite  residence  of 
Charlemagne,  and  for  snine  time  the  capital  of  his 
empire ;  licnce  it  was  long  customary  to  hold  the 
coronation  of  the  emperore  of  Germany  in  thia 
town;  and  till  1794,  when  they  were  cairiod  to 
Vienna,  the  rq^ia  used  on  the  occasion  were  to 
be  seen  in  tbe  convent  chapeL  Strai^^en  are  stilt 
shown   a  sabre  of  Charlemagne,  a  copy  of  the 

nnmber  of  relico. 
Aix-la-Cbapelle  is  celebrated  for  its  hot  baths, 

celebrated  is  that  calleil  the  Soxter  dc  rEmprrmr. 
The  water  is  strongly  impre^ateil  with  sulphur, 
and  has  a  temperature  of  143°  Fah.  The  baths 
are  generally  opened  with  much  cercmnny  on  ths 
1st  of  May,  and  are  frequented  by  from  4,000  to 
5,000  bathers  annnally.  Two  celebrated  trealiea 
of  peoce  have  been  conclmled  in  this  dty;  the 
lirat  in  1G8S,  between  France  and  S^iain ;  and  tike 
1  -_  ■"4(1^  between  the  different  powcra  en- 
he  wars  of  the  Austrian  succossion. 
1  confess  was  held  in  1818,  which 
B  period  of  (he  Allies'  occupation  of 


fs".: 


e  of  the 


Tj.  Pop.  4.253  in  1801.  It  is'  celebrated 
M  baths,  which  were  in  vogue  among  tbe 
i,  and  are  atill  extensively  resorted  to. 
I  a  large  and  cimvenicnt  building  for  the 
odatiim  of  visilurs. 

LA.<.'1IAPELI.K  (the  Aacfitn  of  the  Gci^ 
nd  the  A^iigruna   of  fhe  Italians),  an 
irell-lmili  citv  of  Prussia,  pruv.  Lower 
■car  llie  couiinet  uf  the  Netheriands, 
wmy  from  Bnissels  to  Odogne.     Aix- 
B  was  fuimerly  a  free  fanperial  city,  a 
.w.  „p_  of  ,'  prnv    .i:.—.^t  ,.r  fi.~  —. 

d  in  mi', 


the  N.  shIc  of  a  gulph  to 
UL  41<'65T'X.,  long.  8°  44' 4"  E.  "Pop.  4,038 
in  ItlOt.  It  has  a  citadel  built  in  l.'>34;  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric ;  boa  a  royal  court  and  other 
judicial  establishments,  a  collide,  a  model  school, 
a  public  libnuy,  a  good  thMiire,  and  a  fine  prome- 
nade along  the  bay.  The  latter  is  spacious  and 
commodious,  but  exposed  to  the  W.  g^cs.  Streets 
straight  and  broad,  and  houses  good,  liut  it  Ubours 
indCT  a  deficiency  of  good  water.  It  has  a  con- 
aderable  trade,  exporting  wine,  oil,  and  coroL 
Ajocciu  is  memorable  fnim  its  having  l>cen  the 
buth'piace  of  Ihc  greatest  war-captain  of  modem 
times.  Sapolowi  L  was  bom  here  on  the  5th  of 
August,  17U9,  and  a  statue  of  the  Emperor  was 
erected  at  the  principal  place  of  the  tuwn   in 


AJMEKE,  a  town  of  Hindestan,  cap.  itutrict 
bclongins  to  the  llritish.  in  Kajpnotana,  2S.5  in. 
SW.  Italhi ;  lat.  W  31'  S.,  long.  74"  iS'  E.  Pop. 
estimated  at  25,000.  1 1 L9  a  well-boilt,  moderate- 
sized  town,  on  Iho  slope  of  a  high  hill,  at  the 
summit  of  which  is  a  fortress,  formerly  deemeit 
impTKnahle,  and  which,  with  a  Utile  imnnivement 
from  European  skill,  might  eaiuly  be  made  a  second 
(iibraltar.  Ajmcre  is  a  holy  eiW,  having  llin 
good  Ii)rtunc  to  puiaesa  the  tomb  of  ■  saint  whomi 


64 


AEABAH 


miracles  are  renowned  all  over  India.  The  emperor 
Akbar  made  a  pilgrima^  on  foot  to  the  shrine  of 
the  floint ;  and  it  contmues  to  bo  resorted  to  by 
devotees  from  all  parts  of  India.  It  b  not  uncom- 
mon, in  Malwa,  for  pil^ms  who  have  been  at 
Ajmero  to  set  up  a  brick  or  a  stone  token  from 
tlie  sanctuiuy  near  their  dwelling,  and  to  become 
saints  themselves,  and  have  pil^mages  made  to 
tliem  !  A  strong  detachment  of  troops  is  usually 
stationed  at  Ajmere,  and  the  nei/^rhbouring  town  of 
Naseerabad.  It  has  now  a  medical  school  and  a 
mission  station. 

At  a  short  dbtance  W.  from  Ajmere  is  the  cele- 
brated Hindoo  temple  of  Pooshkur,  on  the  banks 
of  a  sacred  pool  nearly  a  mile  in  circuit.  It  is 
annually  visited  in  October  by  crowds  of  pilgrims 
firom  all  parts  of  India. 

AKABAU  (GULPH  AND  CASTLE  OF).  The 
gulph  of  Akal)ah  is  a  deep  narrow  inlet,  uniting  with 
the  NE.  extrcmitv  uf  the  Red  Sea.  It  extends  in 
a  NNE.  direction  from  28°  to  2^  32'  N.  kt.,  a  dis- 
tance of  above  100  Eng.  m. ;  being,  where  broadest, 
10  or  17  m.  across.  It  communicates  with  the  Red 
Sea  by  channels  on  each  side  the  isle  of  Tiran  at 
its  S.  extremity.  This  gulph,  the  Sinus  Elaniticut 
of  antiquity,  so  called  from  the  port  of  Elana  or 
Elath,  forms  the  E.  boundary  of  the  peninsula 
occupied  by  Mount  Sintd.  It  has  tlie  appearance 
of  a  narrow  deep  ravine,  the  cliffs  rising  in  some 

E laces  2,000  feet  perpendicularly  from  the  sea,  and 
as  been  very  little  frequented  in  modem  times. 
Being  exposed  to  sudden  and  heavy  squalls,  and 
encumbonxl  in  parts  with  coral  reefs,  its  navigation 
is  not  a  little  dangerous. 

The  castle  of  Akabah,  £rom  which  the  gulph 
takes  its  modem  name,  is  not  a  place  of  any 
strength.  It  is  situated  about  150  yards  from  the 
beach,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  gulph,  and  about  2| 
m.  from  its  extremity,  in  lat.  29°  30'  N.,  long.  35^ 
8'  £.  It  has  a  supply  of  go<Kl  water,  and  there 
are  several  Arab  huts  within  its  walls.  The  gar- 
rison consists  of  about  30  Eg^^ptian  soldiers,  kept 
to  guard  the  com  deposited  in  it  for  the  supply 
of  the  caravans,  in  their  journey  from  Cairo  to 
Mecca. 

Akabah  has  been  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of 
Elan  or  Elath,  from  which  an  extensive  intercourse 
was  carried  on  in  the  earliest  ages  with  Khinocu- 
lora,  now  El  Arish,  on  the  Mediterranean,  only 
116  m.  distant.  There  are,  however,  no  ruins  of 
any  kind  at  Akabah,  and  no  port.  It  would, 
therefore,  seem  more  probable  that  the  situation 
of  Elath  is  identical  with  that  of  Jezirat  Faroun, 
on  the  W.  side  of  the  gulph,  and  about  6  m.  from 
ita  extremity,  where  there  are  very  extensive 
ruins,  and  a  natural  harbour.  Dr.  Shaw  supposes, 
apparently  with  much  probability,  that  Meenap- 
ci-I)sah^e,  i.  e.  the  Golden  Port,  on  the  W.  coast 
of  tlie  gulph,  and  nearly  opposite  to  Mount  Sinai, 
occupies  the  site  of  Eziongebery  whence  the  ships 
of  Solomon  sailed  to  fetch  gold  from  Ophir.  It  is 
said  by  Lieutenant  Wellsted  to  be  the  only  '  well- 
sheltered  '  harbour  in  the  gulph.  (Shaw's  Travels 
in  Barbary,  drc  4to.  ed.  p.  322. ;  Wellsted's  Travels 
in  Arabia,*  ii.  passim.) 

AKERMAN  (an.  Tyra$),  a  fortified  town  of 
Russia  in  Europe,  in  Bessarabia,  on  the  W.  side  of 
the  aistuary  or  liman  of  the  Dniester,  near  its 
junction  with  the  BUck  Sea;  kt.  Aff^  12'  N.,  long. 
80°  24'  E.  Pop.  19,076  in  1858.  The  citadel,  sur- 
rounded by  a  deep  ditch,  was  constmcted  by  the 
Genoese  during  the  time  that  thev  were  masters 
of  the  Black  ^ea.  The  Dniester  Geing  rapid  and 
not  well  suited  for  internal  navigation,  the  com- 
merce of  the  town  is  not  very  considerable.  The 
exports  consist  principally  of  salt,  the  produce  of 
the  salt  lakes  in  its  vicinity.    The  basin  of  the 


AK-SHEHB 

Dniester  having  only  £rom  5  to  7  feet  water,  the 
larger  class  of  vessels  anchor  outside  the  bay,  in 
the  Black  Sea,  about  16  m.  from  town. 

Akerman  is  distinguished  in  recent  diplomatic 
history  by  the  treaty  concluded  here  in  1826  be- 
tween Russia  and  the  Ottoman  Porte,  by  whidi 
Wallachia,  Moldavia,  and  Servia  were  emanci- 
pated from  all  but  a  nominal  dependence  on  the 
latter. 

AKHISSAR  (an.  Thyatira),  a  city  of  Turkey 
in  Asia,  Anatolia,  the  seat  of  one  of  the  Apocal^^y- 
tic  churches,  58  m.  NE.  Smyrna.  It  stands  on  an 
eminence  elevated  but  little  above  the  siuTOunding 
marshy  and  alluvial  plain.  The  town  being  situ- 
ated on  the  direct  road  between  Constantinople 
and  Smyrna,  wean  an  appearance  of  comfort  su- 
perior to  that  of  Anatolian  towns  in  ^neraL  The 
oazaars  are  large  and  amply  supphed ;  the  khan 
handsome,  clean,  and  well  ordered.  According  to 
the  Utest  estimates  it  has  1,000  Turidsh,  300 
Greek,  and  30  Armenian  dwellings,  with  a  pop. 
of  6,000.    It  exports  cotton  goods. 

AKULAT,  a  town  of  Tuney  in  Asia,  in  Kur- 
distan, on  the  NW.  shore  of  lake  Van,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Seibandagh.  It  is  very  ancient,  and  was 
formerly  a  place  of  considerable  importance ;  but 
it  is  now  greatly  decayed,  not  having  more  than 
1,000  houses,  or  perhaps  6,000  inlkah.  Its  territoiy 
is  filled  with  gardens  and  vineyards.  {See  Kin- 
neir*s  Persian  Empire,  p.  328.,  where  it  is  noticed 
imder  the  name  Argiih,) 

AKHTYRKA,  a  town  of  Russia  in  Europe,  go- 
vern, of  Kharkoff,  60  m.  NW.  Kharkoff.  Pop. 
13,946  in  1858.  It  has  a  pretty  considerable  com- 
merce ;  and  among  its  churches  is  one  that  attracts 
a  good  man^  pilgnms  to  visit  a  miraculous  imago 
of  the  Virgm. 

AKISKA,  or  AKHALZIKH,  a  city  of  AaUtic 
Russia,  prov.  Greoigia,  formerlv  the  cap.  of  a  Turk- 
ish pachalik,  on  an  affluent  of,  and  at  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  Kur,  115  m.  W.  Tifib;  lat.  31o  45' 
N.,  long.  43^  1'  E.  Pop.  has  been  estimated  at 
about  15,000,  two-thirds  Armenians.  It  is  an  open 
town,  but  is  defended  by  a  strong  castle  situated 
on  a  rock.  It  b  rema^able  for  its  fine  mosque  of 
Sultan  Ahmed,  built  in  imitation  of  St.  Sophia, 
and  for  the  collie  and  library  attached  thereto. 
The  latter  was  reckoned  one  of  the  most  curioos 
in  the  E. ;  but  the  Russians  have  removed  about 
300  of  the  rarest  and  most  valuable  works  to 
Petcrsburgh.  Akbka  b  also  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
archbishopric,  and  has  about  60  Jewbh  families 
and  a  synagogue.  Its  environs  are  productive  of 
silk,  honey,  and  wax ;  and  it  has  some  manufac- 
tures. It  was  formerly  a  principal  seat  of  the 
slave  trade.  The  slaves  sold  in  its  maiicets  were 
brought  from  Geory^  Mingrelia,  Imeritia;  and 
being  conveyed  to  the  nearest  ports  on  the  Black 
Sea,  were  shipped  for  Constantmople  and  Alexan- 
dria. Thb  commerce  b  now  entirely  suppressod. 
Many  of  the  Turkbh  inhabitants  have  left  the 
town  since  its  occupation  bv  the  Russians. 

A K SERAI,  a  town  of  'furkey  in  Asia,  in  Ka- 
ramania,  cap.  sanjiack  of  same  name,  on  the  SW. 
arm  of  the  JKizil  Ermak,  90  m.  KE.  Koncieh  (an. 
Iconium),  Pop.  estim.  at  10,000.  It  has  a  castle ; 
and  its  territory  b  productive  of  com  and  fruits. 

AK-SHEHR  (the  White  City),  a  dty  of  AsUtic 
Turkey,  Karamania,  sanjiack  of  the  same  name, 
55  m.  ESE.  Afiui^  Karahissar;  lat.  38^  18'  N.,  long. 
31°  30'  E.  It  b  situated  near  the  S.  extremity  of 
a  considerable  lake,  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain 
chain,  in  a  rich  and  well  watorcd  country.  Its 
position  b  said  to  be  identical  with  that  of  the 
ancient  Thymbrium,  visited  by  the  yoimger  Cyrus ; 
and,  according  to  D'AnviUe,  it  was  denominated 
AnHoi^ia  ad  FituUoMj  from  its  being  on  the  con- 


AKYAB 

fines  of  Pindia,  of  which  pror.  it  afterwards  be- 
came the  capital.  It  is  mentioned  in  Turkish 
annals  as  the  place  where  Bajazet  was  confined 
by  Timoor,  and  where  he  expired.  It  is  supposed 
by  Mr.  Kinneir  to  have  about  1,500  houses,  with 
many  fine  gardens  in  the  vicinity.  Its  principal 
ornament  is  a  handsome  mosque  and  college,  de- 
dicated to  the  monory  of  Bajazet.  The  streets 
are  cleaned  by  means  of  streams  firom  the  neigh- 
bouring mountains  that  run  through  them.  ^lun- 
Detr's  Jonmey  through  Asia  Minor,  p.  226 ;  Obvier, 
vi.  p,  396.) 

AKTAB,  a  maiit.  town  .of  India  beyond  the 
Ganges,  cap.  pcov.  ArracaUj  and  of  a  dist.  of  same 
name,  on  the  £.  of  the  island  of  Akyab;  lat. 
20O  8' N.,  long.  92^54' E.  It  is  built  of  wood ;  has 
faitwd  streets,  and  markets  for  grain,  and  European 
MDd  Indian  goods.  Its  harbour,  though  inferior  to 
that  of  Kyouk  Phyos,  is  safe ;  and  it  is,  in  most 
other  leqiects,  superior  to  the  last  mentioned  town 
as  a  place  of  true.  The  vicinity  is  level,  fertile, 
free  firom  jungle,  and  traversed  by  several  roads. 
It  is  the  residence  of  a  British  commissioner. 

ALA,  a  small  town  of  Jthe  Tyrol,  on  the  Adige, 
7^  rau  S.  Roveredo.  Pop.  4,820  in  1858.  It  has  a 
g3rmnasium  and  a  Capuchin  convent,  and  manu- 
facuzRfl  of  silks  and  velvets. 

ALABAMA,  one  of  the  United  States,  in  the 
S.  part  of  the  Union,  between  3(P  10'  and  85^  N. 
lat.,  and  850and  8803O'  W.  long.,  having  S.  Flo- 
rida, SW.  Golph  of  Mexico,  W.  State  ot  Missis- 
sippi, N.  Tenessee,  and  £.  Geoigia.  Area,  50,722 
so.  m.  Pop.  in  1820,  144,041 ;  in  1830,  309,527, 
01  wh<Hn  117,549  were  slayes,  and  1,572  firee 
Uacks;  in  1860,  964,201,  of  whom  435,080  were 
slaves,  and  2,690  free  coloured.  The  principal 
river,  the  Mobile,  formed  l^  the  junction  of  the 
laige  rivers  Tombigbee  and  Alabama,  both  of 
which  flow  Sw,  falls  into  the  bottom  of  Mobile 
Bay.  The  Chattahoochee  also  flowing  S.  forms 
m  part  the  £.  boundary  of  the  state.  The  country 
padnallv  rises  firom  the  low  level  lands  along  the 
Golph  of  Mexico,  to  an  elevation  of  £rom  1,000  to 
1,500  It.  in  its  N.  parts.  It  has,  in  consequence, 
a  considerable  difference  of  temperature.  Soil 
mostly  very  fertile,  particularly  in  the  N.  counties. 
GcAton  is  the  staple  product,  the  crop  of  which, 
{sevioos  to  the  late  Secession  war,  was  rapidly  in- 
creasiiig.  The  sugar  cane  is  cultivated  m  the  S. 
Indian  com  is  the  principal  com  crop, 
erected  into  a  state  m  1819.    The 


ALAND 


55 


eovemment  is  vested  in  a  govemor,  elected  for 
2  years,  a  senate  dected  for  8  do.,  and  a  house  of 
Rpresentatives  elected  annually.  Members  of  the 
latter  receive  4  dolL  a  day  each,  and  their  number 
a  not  to  fall  short  of  60,  nor  to  exceed  100. 
Judges  of  the  supreme  and  circuit  courts  are 
deded  by  a  joint  vote  of  the  two  houses  of  as- 
Mmbly  for  7  and  6  yean.  Several  canals  and 
aihrays  have  been  completed,  and  more  projected. 
In  1862  there  were  743  m.  of  railways  open,  but  a 
jrood  many  have  been  more  or  less  deetroved  during 
the  dvil  wax;  Liberal  provision  has  been  made 
fi*  edncation;  and  a  state  university,  well  en- 
doired,  and  on  a  large  scale,  has  been  founded 
near  the  cap.  Tuscaloosa.  The  principal  foreign 
tnde  of  the  state  is  carried  on  from  Mobile  (which 
•ee).  The  value  of  the  domestic  produce,  prin- 
dpslly  cotton,  exported  during  the  year  1835, 
amounted  to  7,572,128  doll,  which  had  increased 
in  1860  to  88,670,188  dolL   

ALABASTER,  or  ELEUTHERA,  one  of  the 
TUh«w  or  Lttcayo  islands,  which  see. 

ALAIS  (an.  Aiuia),  a  town  of  France,  dep. 
Gard,  cap.  arrond.,  on  the  Gardon  d^Alais,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Cevennes,  25  m.  NW.  Nismes;  lat. 
440  r  22^  X^  long.  80  4'  25"  E.    Pop.  20,257  in 


1861.  The  town  is  ancient,  and  pretty  well 
built.  During  the  religious  ware  of  France,  the 
inhabitants  were  distinguiDhcd  by  their  attach- 
ment to  the  Protestant  party,  and  to  bridle  them 
Louis  Xrv.  constmcted  a  fort  in  the  town.  It 
has  a  communal  college,  a  tribun^  of  primary 
jurisdiction,  a  theatre,  a  public  library,  a  consis- 
torial  Protestant  church,  &c.  It  has,  also,  manu- 
factures of  riband,  silk  Ftockings,  and  gloves; 
with  a  ^lass  work,  potteries,  copperas  works,  &c. 
Besides  its  own  products,  it  has  a  considerable 
trade  in  the  raw  and  dressed  silks,  oil,  grain,  Ac. 
of  the  surrounding  coun^.  There  are  mines  of 
iron  and  coal  in  the  vicinitv. 

ALAND  (ISLANDS  OlP),  a  group  of  islands 
belonging  to  Russia,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulph 
of  Bothnia,  between  59®  50'  and  60°  82'  N.  lat, 
and  190  10'  and  2P  7'  E.  long.,  consisting  of  more 
than  80  inhabited  and  upwards  of  200  unmhabited 
islets  and  rocks  (Sharon),  occupying  an  area  of 
about  470  sq.  m.,  and  divided  into  three  oblong 
clusten  by  the  straits  of  Dclet  and  Lappvttsi.  The 
Baltic  bounds  them  to  the  S. ;  on  the  W.  the 
straits  of  Alandshaf  separate  them  from  Sweden, 
their  width  being  about  24  m. ;  and  on  the  £.  Uie 
straits  of  Wattuskiflet,  which  are  scarcely  2  m. 
broad  where  they  are  narrowest,  and  about  14 
where  they  are  broadest,  interpose  between  tiiem 
and  the  Fmland  shore.  Pop.  15,000  in  1858.  The 
principal  of  the  islands,  called  Aland,  has  a  pop. 
of  9,000,  and  the  chief  town  here,  likewise  named 
Aland,  a  pop.  of  nearly  8,000.  Nearly  all  the  in- 
habitants are  of  Swedish  extraction.  'Most  of  the 
islands  stand  at  a  considerable  elevation  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  are  intersected  by  chains 
of  granite  rocks,  which  occasionally  rise  into 
peaks,  and  are  full  of  hollows.  There  are  no 
rivere,  but  many  small  lakes.  The  surface  is 
either  a  thin  layer  of  clay  or  rich  mould,  slate- 
stone  or  sand.  'The  climate,  though  keen,  and  at 
times  severe,  is  more  temperate  than  that  of  Fin- 
land. There  are  extensive  forests,  chiefly  of 
birches  and  pines ;  the  pasture  grounds  are  very 
poor,  excepting  near  some  parts  of  the  coast ;  and 
the  ar^le  land,  on  which  nre  and  bariey  are 
mostly  grown,  produces  a  sufficiency  for  domestic 
consumption,  the  best  yielding  seven-fold.  Hops, 
cabbages,  parsnips,  carrots,  and  other  roots,  pota- 
toes, and  a  little  flax  are  likewise  raised.  Nuts 
form  an  article  of  export.  The  homed  cattle,  of 
which  there  are  upwards  of  12,000,  are  small  in 
size,  and  few  of  the  cows  have  horns ;  the  latter 
fumish  the  'Aland  cheeses,*  which  are  much 
sought  after,  and  made  principally  in  the  island 
of  Fagloe.  Of  sheep  there  are  above  13,000,  the 
wool  of  which  is  converted  into  coarse  stufls  and 
sail-cloth ;  horses  and  goats  are  also  bred  in  con- 
siderable numbers.  *  The  fisheries  are  productive, 
partictilarly  of  {ttrondinge)  herrings  and  seals,  of 
the  first  of  which  6,000  tons  and  upwards  are 
salted.  MVaterfowl  abound.  The  exports  consist 
of  salt  meat,  butter,  cheese,  hides,  and  skins,  dried 
and  salted  fish,  wood  for  fuel,  drc. ;  and  the  im- 
ports of  salt,  ^lonial  produce,  ironware,  woollens, 
cottons,  and  other  manufactures,  &c  The  Alandera 
are  excellent  seamen,  and  navigate  small  vessels 
of  their  own  that  trade  vrith  tlie  adjacent  parts : 
they  are  Swedes  in  their  language,  mannere,  and 
usages.  There  are  a  number  of  good  harbours, 
many  of  which  have  been  fortified  by  the  Rus- 
sians, who  keep  up  a  disproportionately  large  mili- 
tary force  in  the  blands,  as  well  as  a  numerous 
flotilla,  called  the  '  Skaerenflott.*  One  of  these 
harboure,  Bomartund,  strongly  fortified,  and  a 
station  of  the  Russian  fleet,  was  destroyed  by  the 
Anglo-French  fleet  in  1854.  The  islimds  contain 
8  parishes  and  as  many  churches,  and  7  churches 


56 


ALA-SHEHB 


or  chapels  of  ease.  Aoland,  the  lax^cst  island,  is 
nearly  circular,  bein^  about  17  miles  in  length 
and  IG  in  breadth ;  it  contains  above  9,0(H)  inha- 
bitants, and  has  an  excellent  harbour  at  Yttcr- 
naes,  on  the  \V.  side.  It  is  divided  by  a  narrow 
strait  from  Ekcroe,  the  westernmost  island,  which 
has  a  tcle^i^ph.  On  the  E.  coast  of  Aoland  is  the 
old  castle  or  (*astleholm,  now  in  ruins.  These 
islands  were  wrested  by  Russia  from  Sweden  in 
1809;  and  ^ve  the  former  a  position  from  which 
thoy  may  easily  make  a  descent  on  the  Swedish 
coast. 

ALA-SHEHR  (the  exalted  city),  a  city  of 
Turkey  in  Asia,  pro  v.  Anatolia,  famous  as  the  seat 
of  one  of  the  A^)ocalyi)tic  churches.  It  was  for- 
merly called  Philadeijmia,  The  town  is  situated 
83  m.  E.  Smyrna,  near  the  Copcamus,  partly  in  the 
plain,  and  |)artly  on  one  of  the  roots  of  Tmolus, 
which,  separated  by  a  valley  from  the  posterior 
ranp^  and  rising  to  a  verv  considerable  elevation, 
is  the  site  of  the  Acro|K)lis.  The  old  wall  of  the 
town,  formed  of  small  st4>ncs  held  together  by  a 
strong];  cement,  and  strcnjifthejied  with  towers,  is 
broken  down  in  many  places,  and  the  Acropolis  is 
also  in  ruins.  The  modem  houses  are  mean  and 
irre^lar,  and  the  streets  narrow  and  lilthy.  The 
ruins  of  the  church  of  St.  John  are  of  great  anti- 
quity, and  ancient  relics  meet  the  eve  at  every 
step.  Ala-Shehr  contains  nearly  3,000  Yurkish  and 
250  Greek  houses ;  so  that  the  pop.  may  be  esti- 
mated at  from  15,000  to  18,000.  It  is  the  seat  of 
a  Greek  archbishop,  and  ^Wne  service  is  regubrly 
performed  in  5  Christian  churches.  The  count^ 
round  is  very  fniitful ;  the  waters  are  said  to  be 
exceUent  in  dyeing ;  and  being  situated  on  one  of 
the  m<ist  frequented  roads  to  Smyrna,  it  is  much 
resorted  to  by  caravans,  and  has  a  good  deal  of 
trade.  It  is  held  so  sacred,  even  by  the  Turks, 
that  they  occasionally  convey  their  dead  thither 
for  interment,  from  Constantinople ;  and  apply  to 
it  the  epithet  of  Ala,  or  the  exalted. 

Philadelphia  derived  its  name  from  Attains 
Philadelphus,  brother  of  Eumenes,  by  whom  it 
was  founded  in  the  second  century  B.C.  Strabo 
says,  that  it  suffered  much  from  repeated  shocks 
of' earthquakes;  and  it  was  one  of  the  fourteen 
cities  which  were  partially  or  wholly  destroyed  by 
a  subterranean  convulsion  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius. 
Anciently,  indeed,  it  was  matter  of  surprise  that  it 
was  not  abandoned;  but  it  continues  to  be  a  con- 
siderable place;  and  the  church  of  Philadelphia  Is 
still  erect,  'a  column  in  a  scene  of  ruins.'  it  was 
the  last  city  of  Asia  Minor  that  submitted  to  the 
Turks.  *At  a  distance  from  the  sea,  forgotten  by 
the  emperors,  encompassed  on  all  si<les  bv  the 
Turks,  her  valiant  citizens  defended  their  religion 
and  freedom,  above  fourscore  years;  and  at  length 
(ill  1800),  capitulated  to  the  proudest  of  the  0th- 
mans.'     (Gibl)on,  cap.  64.) 

ALASSIO,  or  ARRACI,  a  »ea-nort  town  of 
Northern  Italy,  prov.  Genoa,  5  m.  SSVV.  Albenga. 
Pop.  4,r^i4  in  1801.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are 
industrious,  active,  and  daring  seamen.  There  is 
good  anchorage  fipposite  to  the  town,  which  con- 
sists of  a  long  narrow  street  Fine  coral  is  fished 
on  the  coast.  A  good  harbour  for  tlie  largest  class 
of  vessels  might  be  formed  between  Cape  Mele 
and  the  island  of  Galiuara. 

ALATRI,  a  citv  of  Central  Italy,  prov.  Fro- 
sinone,  G  m.  NE.  (Vosimme.  Pop.  11,370  in  1861. 
The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  Las  a  cathedral,  a 
collegiate  church,  and  some  convents.  Antiquities 
are  fnM^uently  dug  up  in  the  environs,  which 
abound  in  oUves  and  \nnes. 

ALATYR,  a  town  of  Russia  in  Europe,  gov. 
Simbirsk,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Alatyr  with  the 
Sura,  UO  m.  NNW.  Simbiisk.    Pop.  4,407  in  1858. 


ALBANU 

It  is  built  of  wood,  has  tanneries,  a  gliSB  work, 
and  a  considerable  trade  in  com. 

ALAYA  (an.  Otracenum),  a  sea-port  town  of 
Turicey  in  Asia,  Anatolia,  cap.  sanjiack  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  E.  side  of  a  lofty  pmmontory ;  lau 
360  31'  61"  N.,  long.  320  2'  24"  E.  Pop.  about 
2,000.  The  promontory  on  which  this  town  is 
built  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  that  of 
Gibraltar.  It  is  joined  to  the  continent  on  the  N. 
by  a  low  sandy  isthmus,  from  which  it  rises 
abmptly;  and  its  W.  and  S.  sides  consist  of  per- 
pendicular chffs  500  or  GOO  feet  liigh.  The  E. 
side,  on  which  the  town  is  built,  is  also  so  steep 
that  the  houses  seem  to  stand  on  the  top  of  each 
other.  *  In  short,  it  forms  a  natural  fortress  that 
might  be  rendered  impregnable;  and  the  numerous 
walls  and  towers  prove  how  anxiously  ita  former 
possessors  laboured  to  make  it  so.'  At  present  it 
IS  of  trifling  importance :  streets  and  houses  mise- 
rable; mosques  few  and  mean.  When  \'isited  by 
Captain  Beaufort  it  liad  no  si^s  of  commerce. 
The  bay  is  open  to  southerly  wmds,  and  the  an- 
chorage indifferent. 

Coracesium  shut  ita  gates  against  Antiochui 
when  all  the  otlicr  towns  of  Cilicia  had  submitted; 
and  at  a  subsequent  period  it  was  the  place  selec- 
ted by  the  pirates  at  which  to  make  a  last  stand 
in  their  struggle  with  Pompey.  (Beaufort's  Kara- 
mania,  p.  172,  drc) 

ALBA,  a  town  of  Xorthem  Italy,  prov.  Cuneo, 
on  the  Tanaro,  82  m.  SSE.  Turin.  Pop.  9,077  in 
1861.  It  has  a  tribunal  of  original  jurisdiction,  a 
cathedral,  3  parish  churches,  a  coll^^e,  and  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  cattle. 

ALBACETE,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  Muida, 
9  m.  NW.  Chinchella,  agreeably  situated  in  a  vast 
and  fmitful  pbim.  Pop.  11,860  in  1857.  The 
town  has  manufactures  of  coarse  cloth  and  soap. 
Great  (quantities  of  wine  and  safiron  are  er>llocted 
in  its  Aicinity;  and  a  great  cattle  market  ia  annu- 
ally held  in  September. 

ALBAN  (ST.)  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Lozere, 
22  m.  NNW.  Mende.    Pop.  2,270  in  1861. 

ALBANIA,  a  large  porov.  of  European  Turkey, 
bounde<l  N.  by  Dalmatia  and  Servia,  E.  by  Mace- 
don  and  Thessaly,  S.  by  Livadia,  and  W.  by  the 
Adriatic,  along  with  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean 
called  the  Ionian  Sea,  hnng  generally  between  lat. 
890  and  43®  N.,  long.  I'O^  and  21©  30''  E.  It  thus 
comprehends,  in  its  widest  acceptation,  the  ancient 
lUyria  and  Epims,  and  is  at  present  included  in 
the  Turkish  government  of  Romania.  Its  area  ia 
18,944  sq.  m.,  and  the  pop.  is  estimated  at  1,200,000. 
The  mountains  in  the  north  rise  to  the  height  of 
9,000  feet,  but  the  country  includes  the  fertile 
plains  of  Scutari  and  others.  The  climate  is  warm 
out  healthy.    The  maritime  trade  is  for  the  most 

Eart  carried  on  through  the  ports  of  Prevcsa,  Sala- 
ora,  Gomenitza,  Sayada,  Santi  Quaranta,  and 
Avlona,  while  at  most  of  the  smaller  port^  that 
indent  the  western  coast  a  petty  trade,  of  which 
no  statistics  liave  been  collected,  is  carried  on  with 
Corfu.  The  safest  port  on  the  Adriatic  is  Avlona. 
The  largest  town  in  the  province  is  Janina,  on  a 
lake  of  the  same  name,  which  has  a  pop.  estimated 
at  36,000.  The  principal  productions  and  exporta 
are  valonia,  tobacco,  olives,  Indian  com,  <lye-wood, 
raw  liides,  wool,  raw  silk,  cheese,  salt  provisions, 
<Inigs,  sheep,  and  horses;  but  nearly  all  the  pri>- 
ducts  of  Southern  Europe,  including  cattle,  may 
1»e  included  in  the  list  of  tlie  district's  capabilities. 
The  Albanians  are  principally  Mohamme<lans 
though  on  the  coast  a  considerable  number  are 
of  the  Greek  or  Roman  churches.  Lately  con- 
siderable attention  has  been  paid  to  the  constnir- 
tion  of  roads.  In  the  end  of  1863  telegraphic 
communication   was   established   between   Con- 


ALBANO 

ffUntinople  and  Janina,  by  way  of  Salahora  and 
Jariwa,  and  works  were  in  proj^ress  in  1865  for 
continuing  it  to  Arba  and  Prevesa.  (Ck)n8ular 
Reports.) 

ALBAXO  (TOWy»  LAKE,  AND  MOUNTAIN 
OF),  in  the  Caa^xwrna  di  Roma,  situated  in  the 
line  of  the  Apfuan  Way,  on  a  hUi,  near  the  SW. 
side  of  the  lake,  about  14  m.  SSE.  Knme.  Pop. 
6.44)0  in  1868.  Tliis  town  is  not  built,  as  some 
haTc  soppoeed,  on  the  site  of  Aiba  Lan^  which 
stood  on  the  otho*  side  of  the  lake,  but  on  the 
foins  of  Pumpey's  villa.  Its  situation,  at  a  mode- 
rate elevation  above  the  level  of  the  plain,  fine 
salubrious  air,  shady  walks,  and  magnificent  views 
of  the  'eternal  city,'  the  Campagna,  and  the  sea, 
make  it  a  favourite  retreat  or  the  more  opulent 
Roman  citizens,  particularly  durinp;  spring  and 
autumn.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop;  is  well 
built:  has  a  cathedral  and  some  convents,  with 
many  fine  palaces,  among  which  may  be  specified 
th4«e  o(  the  Otfsini  and  Barbcrini  families.  At  a 
little  distance,  on  the  margin  of  the  lake,  is  Castcl 
(yandolfo,  the  summer  residence  of  the  pope.  The 
adjacent  country  is  almost  wholly  appropriated  to 
the  culture  of  the  vine;  and  the  wine  which  it 
vields  still  maintains  its  ancient  reputation. 

The  ]Mke  of  Albano,  a  little  to  the  NE.  of  the 
town,  is  sunounded  on  all  sides  by  very  high 
bankii,  except  towards  the  N.,  where  they  are  a 
little  lower.  It  has  the  form  of  an  irregular 
ellipse,  and  there  would  appear  to  be  little  doubt 
that  it  occupies  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano. 
The  distance  round  the  crater,  or  summit  of  the 
hasin  of  the  lake,  is  estimated  at  about  8  m.,  and 
that  round  the  water^s  edge  about  4  m.  It  is  in 
pans  very  deep:  a  variety  of  fish  are  found  in  it, 
among  which  are  eels  of  an  immense  size,  and 
bicfaly  esteemed. 

But  the  subterranean  conduit  or  tunnel,  called 

by  the  Italians  an  nnuMario,  for  conveying  away 

jta  surplus  water,  is  the  feature  most  worthy  the 

attention  of  the  intelligent  traveller  who  visits  this 

Iske.     This  tunnel,  intended  to  prevent  the  waters 

(•f  the  lake  from  injuring  the  surrounding  country 

by  overflowing  its  banks,  and  to  keep  them  alwavs 

at  their  inre^ent  level,  was  completed  at  an  early 

period  of  the  Roman  history  (about  400  years 

ax.),  and  bears  unequivocal  proofs  of  the  sagEicity 

and  perseverance  of  those  by  whom  it  was  exe- 

CQted.    It  is  cut  right  through  the  mountain,  and 

mostly  through  solid  rock,  a  distance  of  con- 

ndnably  more  than  a  mile,  being  generally  about 

3  U:tt  10  inches  wide,  and  from  G^  to  7  feet  in 

bei^t :  at  its  entry  from  the  lake,  and  its  issue 

in  the  plain,  it  is  solidly  built  round  with  large 

ftones.  arched  at  top,  and  is  in  perfect  preser\'a- 

tML    This  great  work  Lb  said  to  have  been  com- 

I*W(ed  in  about  a  year;  but  it  has  been  objected  to 

this,  that  as  only  three  or  at  most  four  men  could 

luTe  wrought  together,  and  these  at  the  outer  end 

<^  the  tunnel  only,  the  other  end  bein^  under 

vater,  it  must  •have  taken  many  years  for  its  com- 

pMon.    But  I%ancsi  has  shown  that  after  tracing 

the  line  of  the  tunnel  above  ground,  shafts  had  been 

Kmk,  by  which  workmen  might  have  been  let 

dffvn  in  various  places,  and  the  work  completed 

vithin  the  stated  time. 

The  Alban  Mount  {Mtnu  Albanut)^  now  Monte 
Cno,  lies  a  little  to  the  E.  of  the  lake.  It  is 
aboat  3,176  feet  in  height;  and  the  view  from  its 
Munmit,  extending  ov«^Latium  and  a  great  cx- 
t»t  of  country,  is  one  of  the  noblest  that  can  be 
ima^ned.  It  was  crowned  by  a  temple  in  honour 
*4  Jupiter  Latialis,  where  sacrifices  were  annually 
•idcred  up  by  deputies  from  the  various  Latin 
Ktates,  with  the  Romans  at  their  head,  to  their 
cunmoo   CatlMr  and  pcotector.     Here,  alao,  the 


ALBANY 


57 


Roman  generals  refused  the  honour  of  the  great 
triumph  in  the  city,  performed  the  lesser  triumph, 
or  ovation,  and  sacrificed  to  Jupiter  Latialis. 
Some  fragments  of  this  famous  tem])lc  existed  in 
^750;  but  they  have  since  disappeared.  (Besides 
tlie  authorities  referred  to,  see  the  excellent  woric 
of  Lumsden  on  the  Antiquities  of  Rome,  pp.  453 
-465.) 

ALB  AN'S  (ST.),  an  ancient  borough  of  Enghmd, 
CO.  Hertford,  occupying  the  summit  and  sides  (»f  a 
low  hill,  on  a  fewler  of  the  Colne,  20  m.  NNW. 
London,  on  the  London  and  North  Western  rail- 
way. Pop.  of  parish  3,679,  and  of  munici|)al 
borough  7,675  in  1861.  The  borough  long  had 
the  privilege  of  returning  2  m.  to  the  H.  of  C, 
the  right  of  voting  having  been  vested  in  the  free- 
men, whether  resident  or  not,  and  in  scot^and-lot 
householders;  but  it  was  a  few  years  ago  disfran- 
chised on  accoimt  of  corruption  at  the  elections. 
The  place  is  very  ancient,  and  is  cither  on  or  very 
near  the  site*of  the  ancient  Roman  Vemiamium. 
The  abbey  church  Ls  the  most  imposing  object  in 
the  place;  and  is  celebrated  alike  lor  its  antiquity 
and  great  magnitude.  It  lately  underwent  a 
thorough  repair.  In  the  church  of  St.  Michael  is 
the  Uivcih  of  the  great  Lord  Bacon,  with  a  fine 
marble  monument  to  his  memory.  There  b  a  free 
grammar  school,  with  several  charitable  institu- 
tions. The  town  \»  not  thriving.  Straw  pliiit  is 
the  principal  manufacture;  and  there  are  besides  a 
cotton  mill  and  a  silk  mill,  but  neither  on  a  laige 
scale.    There  is  a  market  each  Saturday. 

ALBAN'S  HEAD  (ST.),  a  cape  of  Enghmd,  on 
the  EngUsh  Channel,  co.  Dorset ;  lat  60°  38*  10"  N., 
long.  20  6'  15"  W. 

ALBANY,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  cap.  state 
of  New  York,  on  the  \V.  bank  of  the  Hudson, 
145  m.  N.  New  York;  lat.  42°  39'  3"  N.,  long. 
73°  44'  60"  W.  Pop.  in  1825,  15,971 ;  in  1840, 
33,721 ;  and  in  1860,  62,367.  Besides  being  the 
seat  of  government,  it  is,  in  population,  wealth 
and  commerce,  the  second  city  in  the  state.  It  is 
finely  situated  at  the  head  of  the  river  naAngation 
of  the  Hudson,  and  is  now  connoted  by  canals 
with  Lake  Erie  and  the  Mississippi  on  the  one 
hand,  and  with  Lake  Champlain  and  the  St.  I^w- 
rence  on  the  other.  It  is  also  the  centre  where  a 
number  of  railways  meet  connecting  it  with  Buf- 
falo, Boston,  Lake  Champlain,  and  New  York ;  so 
that  it  is,  and  has  fur  a  considerable  time  been,  one 
of  the  principal  centres  of  internal  commerce  in 
the  Union.  A  fine  basin  has  been  constructed  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  shipping  <»n  the  river 
and  the  canals.  Among  the  public  buildings  are 
the  capitol,  the  state  house,  an  academy,  a  splendid 
museum,  a  jail,  with  numerous  bonks  and  places 
for  public  worship. 

ALBANY,  a  district  of  S.  Africa,  belonging  to 
Great  Britain,  at  the  E.  extremity  of  the  Capo 
Colony.  It  has  on  the  E.  the  Great  Fish  river,  on 
the  W.  Boshuana  river,  on  the  N.  on  imaginary' 
line^  drawn  from  the  junction  of  the  Great  and 
Little  Fish  rivers  to  the  Konap,  and  on  the  S.  the 
ocean.  Its  area  has  been  variously  estimated,  but 
may  probably  amount  to  about  2,000  sq.  m.  or 
1 ,280,000  acres.  I  ts  aspect  is  highly  pleasing,  being 
diversified  with  hill  and  dale,  its  verrlant  pastures 
and  smooth  grassy  knolls,  contrasting  agn*eaJ)ly 
vrith  the  dark  masses  of  forest,  which  clothe  the 
broken  groimd  near  the  river  courses.  Soil  very 
various.  The  stiff  clavev  lands  would  be  the  rnowt 
pnKiuctive,  were  they  sufiiciently  watered ;  but  as 
rain  is  precarious,  and  the  rivers' are  said  not  to  be 
suitable  for  irrigation,  light  friahle  soils  are  pre- 
ferretL  Climate  temperate,  salubrious,  and  suit- 
able for  European  constitutions.  Lions,  w<»lveM, 
and  leopards  are  occasionally  met  with;  but  are 


6S 


ALBEMARLE  SOUND 


every  day  becoming  rarer.  Elephants  arc  now 
seldom  seen  within  the  limits  of  the  district. 
Horses,  cattle,  sheep,  goat^  h(^]^  &c.,  thrive  re- 
markably well,  and  their  produce  forms  the  great 
deiicndcnco  of  the  colonists.  The  country  is  tn>- 
versed  by  numerous  streams,  of  which  the  Great 
Fish  river  is  by  far  the  most  important.  Prc- 
Wously  to  1820,  there  were  not  more  than  1600 
Europeans  in  the  district;  but  government  having 
given  encouragement  to  emigration  to  this  quarter, 
3,720  emigrants  landed  in  1820,  at  Algoa  Bay, 
whence  the  greater  number  proceeded  to  this  dis- 
trict. For  the  first  4  or  5  years,  the  colonists  suf- 
fered severely  from  a  failure  of  the  wheat,  crops ; 
but  their  progress  from  1825  down  to  1835  was 
comparatively  rapid,  and  presented  a  picture  of 
prosperity  and  advancement,  not  often  to  be  met 
with  in  the  early  annals,  even  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful colonics.  At  the  last-mentioned  epoch, 
however,  this  career  was  suddenly  arrested  by  an 
irruption  of  the  CaiTres,  who  destfoyed  a  great 
quantity  of  valuable  property,  and  kilted  several 
of  the  colonists.  This  invasion  having  been  re- 
pelled, and  peace  having  been  again  restored  with 
the  Caffres,  a  lieutenant-governor  was  appointed 
tx>  the  £.  province^  and  the  district  is  fast  recover- 
ing from  the  losses  it  had  sustained.  The  pop.  in 
1861  was  estunated  at  above  20,000,  with  15,000 
whites.  Graham's  Town,  the  cap.  of  the  E.  prov. 
and  the  residence  of  the  lieut,-govemor,  is  situ- 
ated almost  in  the  centre  of  this  district.  A  town, 
called  Port  Frands,  has  been  founded  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Kowie  river;  but  as  the  access  to  it  is  ob- 
structed by  a  dangerous  bar,  it  is  doubted  whether 
it  will  ever  become  of  any  material  importance. 
The  shipping  trade  of  the  mstrict  is  chiefly  carried 
from  Port  Elizabeth  on  Algoa  Bav. 

ALBEMARLE  SOUND,  United  States,  coast 
of  N.  Carolina,  in  the  NE.  part  of  the  state,  being 
GO  m.  long  from  E.  to  \V.,  and  from  4  to  15 
wide.  It  communicates  with  Pimlico  Sound  and 
the  ocean  by  several  narrow  inlets,  and  with 
Chesapeake  Bay  by  a  canal  cut  through  Dismal 
Swamp. 

ALliENGA  (an.  AWium  Ingaunum),  an  ancient 
tea-port  town  of  Northern  Italy,  prov.  Genoa,  44 
m.  SW.  Cxenoa,  on  the  Centa.  Pop.  4,189  in  1861. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  has  several  re- 
mains of  antiquity.  The  situation  is  imhealthy ; 
but  the  suiroundmg  country  is  productive  of  oil 
and  hemp.  This  is  the  birthplace  of  Proculus,  a 
competitor  with  Probus  for  the  throne  of  the 
Cicsars. 

ALBERT,  a  town  of  France,  den.  Somme,  cap. 
cant.,  on  the  Miraumont,  15  m.  ENE.  Amiens. 
Pop.  3,806  in  1861.  It  has  a  cotton  mill,  with 
print  works,  bleachfields,  and  paper  mills.  In  its 
vicinity  is  a  cave  or  quarry  wncre  there  are  a  va- 
riety of  petrifactions. 

ALBINO,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  prov.  Ber- 
pmio,  on  the  Serio,  7  m.  NE.  Bergamo.  Pop.  2,627 
in  1861.  It  is  very  well  built,  the  castle  and  gar- 
dens of  Count  Spini  being  particularly  wortJiy  of 
notice.  There  are  silk  filatures,  with  a  manufac- 
tory of  agricultural  implements  and  machinery  for 
polishing  whetstones  renowned  all  over  Europe. 

ALBION  (NEW),alaiKe  tract  of  the  NW.coast 
of  America.  This  designation  was  given  by  Sir 
Francis  Drake  to  California  and  part  of  the  adjoin- 
ing coast;  but  recent  geographers,  and  among 
others  Humboldt,  limit  the  denomination  of  New 
Albion  to  that  part  of  the  coast  which  extends 
from  the  43rd  to  the  48th  deg.  N.  lat. 

ALBUFEIRA,  a  sea-port  town  of  Portugal,  S. 
coast  Algarve,  28  m.  E.  Lagos ;  lat,  87°  T  30"  N., 
long.  70  19'  12"  W.  Pop.  2,800  in  1858.  Large 
vessels  may  anchor  in  the  port,  which  is  defended 


ALCAMO 

by  a  citadel  and  batteries.  The  inhahttants  mostly 
subsist  by  fishing. 

ALBuHERA,  a  town  of  Spain,  Estremadon, 
14  m.  SSE.  Badajoz,  on  the  river  and  near  the 
mountain  of  the  same  name.  Hero,  on  the  16th 
May,  1 81 1 ,  a  sanguinary  conflict  took  place  between 
the  allied  British,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  troops 
under  Marshal  Beresford,  and  a  F^nch  force  iin^ 
Marshal  Soult  Each  army  lost  about  7,000  men 
in  killed  and  wounded.  On  the  allied  side  the 
chief  brunt  of  the  action  fell  on  the  British,  who 
suffered  severely.  In  the  end  Soult,  who  com- 
menced the  attack,  retreated. 

ALBUQUERQUE,  a  town  of  Spain,  with  an 
old  castle,  prov.  Estremadura,  on  the  frontier  of 
Portugal,  22  m.  NNW.  Badajoz.  Pop.  5,470  in 
1857.    It  has  cloth  and  cotton  manufactures. 

ALBY  {AWiga)^  a  city  of  France,  cap.  dep.  Tarn, 
on  the  Tarn,  which  is  crossed  by  an  old-faahioned 
brid^  Pop.  15,493  in  1861.  The  town  has  a 
station  on  the  railway  du  MidL  It  is  situated  cm 
a  hill,  and  has  few  public  buildings  worth  notice, 
except  the  cathedral,  b^gun  in  1277  and  finished 
in  1480.  It  is  ill  built,  the  bouses  being  gloomy, 
and  the  streets  narrow,  crooked,  and  dirty;  but 
the  shady  Promenade  de  la  Lictj  on  the  side  next 
the  country,  is  universally  admired.  It  has  a  pub- 
lic library,  a  museum,  and  barracks,  with  varioas 
manufactures  of  coarse  cloth,  sacking,  table  linen, 
handkerchiefs,  cottons,  hats,  and  paper.  The  pre- 
paration of  woad  has  been  long  carried  on  in  the 
vicinity.  Alby  has  suffered  much  at  different 
periods  for  its  attachment  to  Protestantism. 

ALCALA  DE  GISVERT,  an  Ul  buUt  town  of 
Spain,  prov.  Valencia.    Pop.  4,954  in  1857. 

ALCALA  DE  HENARES  {Con^mttam),  a  city 
of  Spain,  prov.  Madrid,  on  the  right  bank  of  tfeie 
river  of  the  same  name,  17  m.  ENE.  Madrid.  PopL 
6,400  in  1857.  It  is  surrounded  by  wkUa  flanked 
with  square  towers,  has  a  fine  Gothic  cathedral,  a 
magnificent  palace  of  the  archbishop  of  Toledo^ 
with  numerous  churches  and  convents.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  university  founded  in  1510  by  the  illus- 
trious statesman,  Cardinal  Ximenes,  which,  next 
to  Salamanca,  is  the  most  celebrated  seminary  in 
Spain :  it  had,  in  1831, 17  colleges  and  31  profes- 
sors. The  cardinal  also  bequeathed  his  libniy  to 
the  university,  and  founded  in  it  a  printing  raess, 
which  produced,  at  his  expense,  in  1512-lr,  the 
famous  Polyglott  Bible,  denominated  the  BibBa 
Omnpluietuia'i  an  imperishable  and  noble  monu- 
ment of  his  piety,  learning,  and  liberality.  The 
remains  of  the  cardinal  were  interred  in  the  col- 
1^^  church.  But  it  is  the  chief  glory  of  Alcala 
de  Henares  to  have  given  birth,  in  1547,  to  Cer- 
vantes, the  inimitable  author  of  Don  Quixote ;  it 
is  also  the  birth-place  of  the  poet  Figucrroa,  and 
of  Solis,  the  historian  of  Mexico. 

ALCALA  DE  LOS  GAZULES,  a  town  of 
Spain,  prov.  Cadiz,  38  m.  E.  Cadiz,  and  48  m.  S. 
Seville.  Pop.  5,516  in  1857.  The  town  stands  in 
a  hilly  and  bleak  district,  totally  unfit  for  tillage, 
but  well  adapted  for  rearing  sheep,  which  consti- 
tutes the  chief  employment  of  the  people.  It  b 
at  a  very  short  distance  from  the  nver  BariMte, 
which  flows  into  the  sea  35  in.SE.  Cadiz.  Close 
to  the  town  are  the  remains  of  an  old  Roman 
castle. 

ALCAIC  LA  REAL,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov. 
Jaen,  on  the  Gualcoton,  at  an  elevation  of  more 
than  2,700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  80  m. 
\ySW.  Jaen.  Pop.  6,738  in  1857.  There  is  a 
rich  abbey,  with  various  churches,  convents,  and 
a  hospital  On  the  28th  Januar>',  1810,  the 
Frcnch  defeated  the  Spaniards  in  the  vicinity  of 
this  toMm. 

ALCAMOy  a  town  of  the  island  of  Sicilyy  in  the 


ALGAKIZ 

Val  di  IfazznB,  on  the  great  road  from  Palermo 
to  Tnpuii,  24  m.  WSW.  Palermo.  Pop.  19,518 
in  1^1.  The  town  is  ritnated  on  high  ground, 
in  a  fine,  open,  coltivated  country,  and  is  well 
•heltered  bj  large  woodA  of  olive  trees.  Within 
the  distiict  of  Alcamo,  and  at  no  great  distance 
from  the  town,  finely  sitnated  on  an  eminence, 
are  the  magnificent  ndns  of  an  ancient  Doric 
temple^ — aU  that  now  remains  of  the  once  power- 
fol  aegista.  It  is  a  parallelogram,  162  by  66  feet, 
and  baa  36  columns,  which,  when  examined  by 
Swinbume,  were  all,  with  one  exception,  perfectly 
entire.  (Swinburne's  Two  Sicilies,  iL  p.  236, 4to.  ed.) 

ALCANIZ  (Arab,  for  treasmry)^  a  town  of  Spain, 
pror.  of  Temel,  Aragon,  on  the  r.  bank  or  the 
Gandaloime  on  a  hill  side,  above  which  is  a  castle, 
built  by  James  L  of  Aragon,  62  m.  SE.  Saragossa. 
Pop.  6,400  in  1857.  A  hwidsome  collegiate  church, 
with  a  nc^ble  portico,  is  the  chief  building.  It  is 
encircled  ^ walls;  and  is  connected  by  a  canal, 
eonstmcted  b^  the  Hoofs,  with  the  Ebro.  There 
are  in  the  vicmity  rich  mines  of  alum,  and  thriving 
plantatioos  of  mulberry  and  other  trees ;  there  is 
also  in  its  vicinity  a  pond,  which  produces  re- 
markably large  fine  eels. 

ALCAM^FARA  (firom  the  Arabic  al-cantarat-al- 
mify  the  bridge  of  the  sword),  a  fortified  town  of 
8piun,piiw.  Estremaduxa;  andthecap.ofadi8tof 
the  same  name.  Pop.  4,273  in  1857.  It  stands  on  a 
steep  hilly  close  to  the  £.  bank  of  the  Tagus  (run- 
ning here  NW.) ;  was  called  by  the  Romans,  its 
founden,  NorhorCmmiTta ;  and  they  in  the  reign  of 
Tiajan  erected  the  famous  bridge,  whence  its 
pment  name  is  derived.  It  was  of  granite,  its 
length  577  ft^  breadth  22  ft,  span  of  the  two 
centre  aichea  110  ft,  thickness  of  piers  38  ft, 
height  above  river-level,  175  ft ;  in  the  middle  of 
the  bfidge  was  a  triumphal  arch,  46  ft  high,  with 
a  Roman  inscription.  (Laboide's  Vo^rage  Pittor. ; 
where  see  views  and  sections  of  the  bridge.  Pons, 
viiL  p.  63.)  This  fine  relic  of  antiquity  was  unfor- 
tunately destroyed,  together  with  some  a^yoining 
buildrngs,  by  the  British  troops,  June  10,  1809, 
owins  to  a  mistake  of  military  orders.  (Napier, 
roL  11.  pt.  816.)  The  river  was  once  navigable  up 
this  town,  and  before  the  separation  of  Portu^^ 
in  1580,  a  large  trade  in  frmt  was  carried  on  with 
Lii4>on  (Minano) ;  but  it  now  serves  onl;^  to  turn 
a  few  milla,  and  to  simply  the  people  with  dace, 
faarbelt  eels  and  other  nsh,  which  greatly  abound. 
(Pons.)  It  is  joined  a  little  below  Alcantara  by 
the  Alagoo«  Jartin  and  Salor.  At  the  expulsion 
of  thelfooiB  in  1213,  which  was  aided  oy  the 
knigtite  of  San  Julian  del  Pereyro,  the  defence  of 
the  town  was  entrusted  to  them,  and  they  thence- 
inwwmxA  aasnmed  the  title  of  knights  of  Alcantara. 
The  ovder  is  now  a  dignity  of  some  value,  and  the 
monarch  has  been  the  grandrinaster  since  1495. 
The  knights,  in  1506,  biult  a  handsome  convent 
and  church,  which  still  exist  A  cloth  manufac- 
ture once  existed  here;  but  it  has  perished. 
Brick-makififig  and  tanning  are  all  the  signs  now 
to  be  seen  of  mdustry. 

AixAXTABA,  a  sea-port  town  of  Brazil,  prov. 
Maranham,  on  a  hill,  15  m.  NW.  San  Louis  de 
Maranham.  The  surrounding  territory  is  pro- 
ductive of  excellent  cotton  and  rice ;  and  the  salt 
lakea,  a  litUe  to  the  N.  of  the  town,  might  yield 
the  largest  supplies  if  they  were  properly  managed. 
Estim.  Pop.  10,000. 

ALCAXTARILLA,  a  dist  and  town  of  Spain, 
pnrv.  Mnrcia,  4  m.  firom  the  1.  bank  of  the  Se- 
gura.  5  m.  SW.  Murcia,  and  50  SW.  Alicante. 
Pop.  4.083  in  1857.  The  country  aroimd  is  famous 
for  itA  winet^ 

ALCAREZ,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  La  Mancha, 
on  the  <kuidanmay  45  miles  WSW.  Manzanares. 


ALCOY 


59 


Pop.  2,907  in  1857.  The  town  has  a  citadel, 
manufactures  of  cloth,  mines  of  calamine  and 
copper,  and  an  aqueduct. 

ALCAZAR  DO  SAL,  a  town  of  Portugal,  prov. 
Estremadura,  on  the  r.  bonk  of  the  Sado,  29  m. 
SE.  SetubaL  Pop.  2,400  in  1857.  The  town  is 
delightfully  sit  in  the  midst  of  an  extensive  and 
fertue  plom,  and  is  chiefly  distinguished  for  its 
salt  works  and  sedge  mat  factories. 

ALCAZAR  DE  SAN  JUAN,  a  town  of  Spain, 
prov.  La  Mancha,  55  m.  SE.  Toledo,  on  the  railway 
firom  Madrid  to  Alicante.  It  is  the  cap.  of  a  dist 
which  contains  16  towns  and  villages.  Pop.  of 
town  7,800  in  1857.  The  dist  (besides  its  pasture, 
com,  oil,  and  fruits,  which  are  abundant)  produces 
saltpetre  and  other  minerals,  supporting  above  500 
workmen  and  their  families.  The  town  contains 
several  soap  factories. 

ALCESTER,  a  pa.  and  m.  town  of  England,  co. 
Warwick,  103  m.  NW.  Lond.,  16  m.  WSW.  War- 
wick. Pop.  of  pariah,  2,128  in  1861.  The  town, 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Alne  and  Arrow, 
has  a  handsome  Crothic  church,  a  free  school,  a 
good  com  market,  and  carries  on  a  pretty  large 
needle  manufacture. 

ALCIRA,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  Valencia,  on 
an  island  of  the  Xucar,  25  m.  SSW.  Valencia,  and 
so  low  that  the  river  by  rising  12  feet  above  its 
usual  height  inundates  the  town ;  lat  39^  6'  N., 
long.0O25'W.  Pop.  9,250  in  1857.  ItisforUfied 
and  flanked  with  towers ;  has  several  churches, 
convents,  and  hospitals,  with  two  fine  bridges  over 
the  Xucar.  This  is  a  very  ancient  town,  having 
been  successively  occupied  by  the  Carthaginians, 
Romans,  and  Moors.  The  inhab.  are  thrifty  and 
intelligent  farmers,  superior  to  roost  in  Spain,  and 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  town  they 
ndse  excellent  pimentos  and  tomatos,  in  addition 
to  the  rice  ana  other  produce  of  the  district 
About  2  m.  E.  are  some  limestone  hills,  among 
which  is  a  stalactitic  cave  {Cueva  de  las  MaraviUcu)^ 
visited  as  a  natural  curiosity. 

ALCKMAER.    See  Alkhaar. 

ALCXDBAZA,  a  town  of  Portugal,  prov.  Estre- 
madura; lat  890  36'  N.,  long.  9^  W.,  16  m.  SSW. 
Leiria,  and  within  5  m.  of  the  sea,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  two  small  rivers.  Pop.  2,700  in  1857. 
The  town  contains  a  very  handsome  and  exten- 
sive Cistercian  monastery,  founded  by  Alfonso  1., 
possessing  a  good  library  with  valuable  MSS.,  and 
a  collection  of  pictures,  among  which  are  portraits 
of  all  the  Portuguese  kings,  from  Alfonso  I.  to 
Donna  Maria  L  The  cotton  manufacture  is 
carried  on  here  to  some  extent. 

ALCOLEA  DEL  REY,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov. 
Seville,  26  m.  N£.  of  that  city,  near  the  r.  bank 
of  the  Guadalquivir,  in  the  midst  of  a  fine  and  pro- 
ductive phdn.  Pop.  2,200  in  1857.  When  tlie 
Guadal(}uivir  was  more  navigable  than  at  pro- 
sent  this  town  appears  to  have  been  of  some  im- 
portance. The  recently  completed  railway  from 
Seville  to  Cordova  and  Madrid  has  restored  it  to 
somewhat  of  its  former  proBpcrity. 

ALCOKA,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  Valencia,  48 
m.  N.  Valencia,  in  a  country  watered  by  the  Mi- 
jares.  Pop.  5,609  in  1857.  Its  agricultural  and 
industrial  products  are  not  important 

ALCOVE R,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  Cataluna, 
on  the  banks  of  the  small  river  Angura.  Pop. 
2,812  in  1857.  In  the  time  of  Alfonso  VIII.  it 
was  a  place  of  some  importance. 

AL(;OY,  a  town  of  Spain,  Valencia,  at  the 
source  of  the  Alcoy,  24  m.  N.  Alicante,  Pop.  town 
and  district  27.000  in  1857.  Iksides  chiu^'hes  and 
convents,  it  has  a  college,  a  considerable  manu- 
factory of  fine  cloth,  soap  works,  and  paiKjr  works ; 
the  contiguous  territory  is  very  fertile 


60 


ALCUDIA 


ALCUDIA,  a  town  belon^ng  to  Spain,  near 
the  N.  extrem.  of  the  isle  Majorca,  on  a  umall  pe- 
ninHuln  between  the  bavn  of  Pollensa  and  Alcudia ; 
lat.  3i>o  50',  long.  3°  8'  E.  Pop.  1,116  in  1857. 
Two  stagnant  pools,  or  Albuferas,  lie  between  it 
and  the  bay;  and  the  exhalations  from  them 
greatly  injure  the  health  of  the  inhabitants,  a 
sickly  and  miserable  race.  The  pools  might  be 
<lrained,  and  the  soil  rendered  useful,  if  the  natives 
were  possessed  of  any  enterprise  or  energy.  Coral- 
fishing  employs  some  40  vessels  in  the  bay.  At 
about  3  m.  SE.  is  a  stalactitic  cave,  visited  and 
well  described  by  Antillon.  Several  other  towns 
in  Spain  have  the  name  of  Alcudia,  but  none  of 
great  importance. 

ALDBOROUGII,  a  borough  of  England,  W.  R. 
CO.  York,  wapentake  Claro,  185  m.  NNW.  Lon(L, 
18  m.  WNW.  York.  Pop.  620  in  1831,  and  522 
in  1861.  The  borough  enjoyed,  since  the  era  of 
Philip  and  Mar}%  the  privilege  of  returning  2  mem- 
Iters  to  the  H.  of  C. ;  but  was  disfranchised  by  the 
Keform  Act, 

ALDBOKOUGH,  or  ALDEBURGH,  a  sea-port 
town  of  England,  co.  Suffolk,  hund.  Plomesgate, 
85  m.  NE.  LoncL  Pop.  of  bor.  and  pa.  1,721  in 
1861.  The  borough  returned  2  m.  to  the  H.  of  C. 
from  the  i5th  Eliz.  down  to  the  passing  of  the 
Reform  Act,  when  it  was  dL<ifranchised.  It  has 
suffered  much  from  encroachments  of  the  sea. 
For  the  last  few  years  it  has  been  rising  into 
repute  as  a  quiet  watering  place.  A  short  branch 
lino  connects  Aldborough  with  the  Great  Eastern 
railwav 

ALDEA  DEL  REY,  a  town  of  Spain,  nrov.  La 
Mancha  (Ciudad  Real),  on  the  L  bank  of^  the  Ja- 
balon,  an  affluent  of  the  Guadiana,  17  m.  S.  Ciu- 
dad lieaL  Pop.  1,650  in  1857.  The  climate  is 
verv  unhealthy,  owing  to  inundations  of  the  river, 
which  a  very  slight  industry  might  obviate.  Here 
is  a  palace  of  the  knights  commanders  of  Calatrava. 

ALDEA  GALEGA,  a  town  of  Portugal,  prov. 
Estremadura,  actuary  of  the  Tagus,  on  the  E. 
side  of  the  bay  of  Montijo.  Pop.  3,750  in  1858. 
Previoiui  to  the  establishment  of  railways  the  town 
was  well  known  as  a  ferr\'  station  between,  Lisbon 
and  the  great  road  to  lUidajoz  and  Madrid. 

ALDERNEY,  an  island  belonging  to  Great  Bri- 
tain, in  the  English  Channel,  55  m.  S.  from  the 
Isle  of  Portland,  and  18  m.  W.  Cape  La  H<^ue  in 
Normandy.  The  channel  between  Aldemey  and 
the  latter,  called  the  Race  of  Aldemey,  is  dan- 
gerous in  stormy  weather  from  the  strength  and 
rapidity  of  the  tides.  This  island  is  about  Sk  m. 
in  length  by  f  m.  in  breadth,  and  had  in  18ui  a 
pop.  of  4,932.  Aldemey  is  strongrly  fortified,  and 
large  sums  have  been  expended  in  the  erection  of 
a  hiu^iur  for  men-of-war.  It  is  a  dependency  of 
Guemsey,  and  celebrated  for  a  small  breed  of  cows 
which  afford  excellent  milk  and  butter. 

ALDERSHOT,  a  par.  of  England,  co.  of  Hants, 
which  has  come  into  notice  since  1854,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  establishment  there  in  that  year  of 
a  permanent  camp  for  20,000  men.  Tlie  camp  has 
caused  the  erection  of  a  town  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood.  Pop.  in  1861,  16,720,  of  which 
8,965  were  militar\'.  There  are  railway  stations 
in  the  N.  and  E.  o{  the  camp. 

ALDSTONE  MOOR,  a  par.  and  m.  town  of 
EngUmd,  co.  Cumberland,  Leath  ward,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Northumberland.  The  town  stands  on  a 
hill  washed  by  the  Tyne.  The  parish  contains 
35,();>0  acres.  *Pop.  of 'par.  6,404  in  1861.  It  Ls 
cluefiy  celebrated  for  its  lead  mines,  formerly  the 
property  of  the  earls  of  Derwentwater,  and  now  of 
Gn^enwach  HospitaL 

ALEDO,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  prov.  of  Mur- 
da,  sit.  on  a  mountain  side,  6  m.  from  the  L 


ALEPPO 

bank  of  the  Sangonera,  a  branch  of  the  Segura, 
and  about  25  m.  WSW.  Murcia.  Pop.  1,029  in 
1857. 

ALEN^ON,  a  town  of  France,  cap.  dep.  Ome, 
in  an  extensive  plain  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Sarthe,  near  the  southern  boundary  of  Uie  dep., 
56  m.  SSE.  Caen,  on  the  railway  from  Caen  to 
Mans.  Pop.  16,110  in  1861.  The  town  is  agree- 
ably situated  and  well  built ;  streets  generally 
broad  and  well  paved ;  the  walls  by  which  it  was 
formerly  sturrounded  have  nearly  disappeaied,  and 
it  has  several  considerable  subnirbs.  Among  the 
public  buildings  may  be  specified  the  cathedral 
church,  the  town-house  embodying  two  well-pre- 
served towers,  the  only  remains  of  the  ancient 
castle  of  the  Dukes  of  Alencon,  the  courts  of  jus- 
tice, and  the  com  market.  It  has  a  communal 
college,  several  hospitals,  a  public  library,  and  an 
ob8er\'atory.  Its  manufactory  of  the  lace,  known 
by  the  name  of  Point  dAlen^n,  established  bv 
Colbert,  still  preserves  its  ancient  celebrity,  and  it 
has  in  addition  manufactures  of  muslin,  of  coarse 
and  fine  linen,  buckram,  serges,  stockings,  and 
straw  hats.  There  are  freestone  (juarries  in  the 
neighbourhood ;  and  at  Ilartz,  a  httle  to  the  W. 
of  the  town,  are  found  the  stones  called  Alen9on 
diamonds,  which  when  cleaned  and  polished  are 
said  to  be  little  inferior,  in  respect  of  lustre,  to  the 
genuine  gem.  Several  fairs  are  held  in  the  town, 
which  is  the  seat  of  a  considerable  commerce. 
During  the  religious  wars,  Alencon,  which  was 
generally  attache!  to  the  Protestant  party,  suffered 
severely. 

ALENQUIR,  a  town  of  Portugal,  prov.  Estre- 
madura, 26  m.  N"NE.  Lisbon.  Pop.  3,200  in  1858. 
It  is  one  of  the  principal  points  for  the  defence  of 
Lisbon. 

ALEPPO,  a  dty  in  the  N.  of  Syria,  called  by 
the  natives  Haleb-es-Shabha  (an.  Chahfbtm  and 
Beraa);  kt  86°  11'  26"  N.,  long.  37°  10'  15"  E.; 
76  m.  ESE.  Iskenderoun,  and  126  m.  NNE.  Da- 
mascus. Its  present  pop.  is  estimated  at  about 
100,000;  though  from  the  middle  of  the  17th  to 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century  it  was  va- 
riously estimated  at  from  200,000  to  258,000.  Ac- 
cording to  Russell,  it  had  in  1794,  235,000  inhabi, 
of  whom  30,000  were  Christians,  and  5,000  Jews, 
the  rest  being  Mohammedans;  but,  according  to 
Volney,  the  pop.  in  1785  did  not  exceed  100,000, 
which  we  incline  to  think  is  the  more  probable 
statement.  Aleppo  occupies  an  elevation  in  the 
middle  of  an  open  plain ;  and  is  surrounded  by 
walls  30  ft  high  and  20  broad;  supposed,  from 
the  massive  style  of  their  architecture,  to  be  Sara- 
cenic. The  city,  within  Uie  walls,  is  about  3^  nu 
in  circ.,  but  including  its  suburbs,  it  occupies  a 
circuit  of  more  than  double  that  extent.  Houses 
of  freestone :  they  arc  said  to  be  elegant  and  du- 
rable, and  those  belonging  to  tiiie  better  classes 
exhibit  an  elaborate  degree  of  omament  in  their 
lofty  ceilings  decorated  with  arabesques,  and  their 
largo  windows  of  painted  glass.  Roofs  flat,  as  in 
moHt  Eastern  towns :  during  the  summer  months, 
the  inhabitants  pass  their  nights  upon  them,  un- 
protected bv  tents  or  awnings  of  any  kind.  These 
fiat  roofs  iorm  also  a  continuous  terrace,  upim 
which  it  is  easy,  by  climbing  over  the  low  parti- 
tion walls,  to  pass  from  one  end  of  the  town  to 
another.  Streets  broad,  well  paved,  and  clean — 
remarkable  qualities  in  the  E. :  the  latter  may 
fverhaps  be  owing,  in  part,  to  the  drainage,  occa- 
sioned by  the  slight  elevation  of  the  town  and 
neighbourhood  above  the  surrounding  plain.  The 
seraglio,  or  palace  of  the  pasha,  which  used  to  be 
admired  for  its  ma^ficcnce,  was  dest  roved  in 
1819-20  during  the  siege  of  the  town  by  khour- 
chid  Ahmed  Pacha.  Mosques  numerous,  bat  nearly 


ALEPPO 


61 


in  hsre  been  injured,  and  numy  of  them  are  in 
ruinit.  fittm  the  effects  of  the  earthquakes  which 
have  so  often  shaken  this  part  of  Syria ;  the  Djan 
me«s  Zacharie,  and  £1-Halawe  are,  however,  fine 
remnants  of  the  ancient  Roman  style ;  thev  were 
orifi^inally  Christian  edifices,  the  latter  built,  it  is 
aaiid,  by  the  Empcess  Helena.  There  are  ten  or 
twelve"  Christian  churches,  three  Christian  con- 
vents, and  sevoml  wakfs,  the  conventual  establish- 
ments of  the  Mohammedans.  An  ancient  aque- 
duct eonve3r8  a  plentiful  pupply  of  good  water 
frnm  two  i^mngs.  This  woiic  is  an  object  of  much 
care ;  and  it  is  singular  that,  being  certainly  con- 
fttmcted  before  the  time  of  Constantine,  it  should 
have  remained  uninjured  amid  the  frequent  con- 
vulsions to  which  the  town  has  been  subject. 
Within  the  walls  of  the  city  is  a  castle,  partly  in 
ruii».  boilt  upon  an  artificial  mound,  of  consider- 
ate heif;ht,  and  ^  m.  in  circumference;  this  is 
MLRoonded  by  a  iHoad  and  deep,  but  diy  ditch, 
cmaaed  by  a  bridge  of  7  arches.  From  this  spot 
is  commanded  a  very  extensive  view,  bounded  N. 
by  the  snowy  tops  of  the  Taurus,  W.  by  the  ele- 
vated rocky'  bed  of  the  Aaszy ;  while  to  the  S. 
and  £.  the  eye  reaches  over  Uie  desert  as  far  as 
the  Enphxates.  Here  are  several  laige  khans, 
principoiily  occupied  by  Frank  and  other  foreign 
merchAnta.  These  are  handsome  and  convenient 
buildings,  containing  counting-houses  and  store- 
moms  ranged  round  an  interior  court,  in  which 
are  stands  for  loading  and  unloading  the  beasts  of 
burden,  and  a  fountain  to  supply  them  with  water. 
At  present,  however,  Aleppo  can  be  regarded  as 
httle  more  than  the  shadow  of  its  former  self. 
Slight  earthquakes  are  frequent  in  its  neighbour- 
hood, bat  in  1822  a  tremendous  shock  overturned 
most  of  the  public  buildings,  and  reduced  the 
(TTDftter  part  of  the  city  to  a  heap  of  ruins.  This 
calamity  has  occasioned  the  erection  of  a  new  sub- 
ub.  materiAlly  altering  the  appearance,  and  injuring 
the  beauty  of  the  town.  The  houses  in  this  8ul> 
nrb.  intended  at  first  for  the  temporary  shelter  of 
the  populAtion  that  had  escaped  from  the  town, 
were  hastily  constructed  of  wood,  lath,  and  plas- 
ter ;  bat  from  want,  either  of  funds  to  repair  their 
miffe  substantial  dwellings,  or  of  energy  to  set 
about  the  work,  or  probably  from  a  fear  of  return- 
ing into  the  city,  these  hastily  constructed  edifices 
have  become  permanent  residences,  while  many, 
perhaps  the  greater  number,  of  the  large  and  con- 
venient stone  buildings  in  the  city  are  either  in 
mins  or  tenantlesB. 

Although  upon  the  borders  of  the  desert,  Aleppo 
is  advantageously  and  agreeably  situated.  A 
maall  stream,  called  the  Koeik  ^an.  Chabu)^  waters 
the  W.  aide  of  the  town.  This  brook,  which  is 
about  the  size  of  the  New  River,  and  never  dry, 
swells  in  the  rainy  season  to  a  formidable  and 
Bptd  current :  it  rises  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tau- 
niA,  about  70  m.  N.,  and  after  a  course  of  80  or  90 
m.  loses  itself  in  a  large  morass  full  of  wild  boors 
and  pelicans.  The  upper  course  of  the  Koeik  lies 
between  naked  rocks,  but  near  Aleppo  and  S.  of 
that  town,  it  flows  through  an  extremely  fertile 
valley,  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation.  This  river 
and  the  aqueduct  before  mentioned  furnish  an 
almndant  and  unfailing  supply  of  water ;  and 
besides  the  poblic  fountains  and  baths,  every  pri- 
vate indivi(hial«  who  chooses  to  be  at  the  expense 
of  pipes,  may  have  his  house  served  with  water  in 
the  European  fashion. 

The  Car  famed  gardau  of  Aleppo  are  situated  to 
the  SE.  of  the  city,  upon  the  banks  of  a  small 
rivulet.  <»ie  of  the  very  few  affluents  of  the  Koeik. 
They  are  rather  orchards  than  gardens,  consisting 
of  fruit  trees,  with  vegetables  growing  between 
them,  but  scaioely  any  flowers.  They  are  pleasant 


spots,  from  the  luxuriance  of  their  productions, 
and  the  nightingales  that  resort  to  their  shades ; 
but  very  little  taste  is  exhibited  in. their  arrange- 
ments. W.  of  the  town  the  banks  of  the  river 
are  covered  with  vines,  olives,  and  fig-trees,  and 
towards  the  E.  are  some  plantations  of  pbtachio 
trees,  which,  though  still  extensive,  are  only  the 
remains  of  much  more  majestic  groves,  for  which 
this  country  was  formerly  famous. 

The  air  of  Aleppo  is  dry  and  piercing,  but  ac- 
counted salubrious  both  to  natives  and  strangers ; 
the  former,  however,  are  subject  to  a  peculiar  dis- 
ease, said  to  attack  them  once,  at  least,  in  their 
lives,  the  habtxl-ei-^ne ;  'ulcer,*  or  'ringworm  of 
Aleppo.'  It  is,  at  first,  an  inflammation  of  the 
skin,  subsequently  becomes  an  ulcer,  continues  for 
a  year,  and  generally  leaves  a  scar  for  life.  It 
usually  fixes  in  the  face,  and  an  Aleppine  is  known 
all  over  the  E.  by  the  mark  left  by  this  disorder, 
the  cause  of  which  is  unknown,  but  suspected  to 
be  owing  to  some  quality  of  the  water. 

Aleppo  appears  to  have  risen  to  importance  on 
the  destruction  of  Palmyra.  Like  the  latter,  it 
was  a  convenient  emporium  for  the  trade  between 
Europe  and  the  East,  so  long  as  it  was  carried  on 
over  land.  The  productions  of  Persia  and  India 
came  to  it  in  caravans  from  Bagdad  and  Bussora 
to  be  shipped  at  Iskenderoun  and  Latakia  for  the 
different  ports  of  Europe.  Alepp>o  communicated 
also  with  Arabia  and  Egyp^  ^y  ^^y  ^^  Damascus; 
with  Asia  Minor,  by  Tarsus ;  and  with  Armenia, 
by  Diarbekir.  It  rose  to  great  wealth  and  conse- 
quence under  the  Greek  sovereigns  of  Syria,  and 
into  still  greater  under  the  early  Roman  empcrora. 
In  638  A.  D.,  it  resisted  the  arms  of  the  Arabs  for 
several  months ;  but  being  finally  taken,  it  became 
of  as  much  importance  under  the  Saracens,  as  it 
had  before  been  under  the  Romans  or  Greeks.  In 
the  tenth  century  it  was  reunited  to  the  empire 
of  Constantinople,  by  the  arms  of  Zimisccs ;  but 
it  soon  after  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Seljukian 
Turks,  under  whose  sway  it  remained  during  the 
time  of  the  Crusades.  It  suffered  considerably 
during  the  irruptions  of  the  Mongols,  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  again,  by  the  wars  of  Tamer- 
lane, or  TimW  Bee,  in  the  fifteenth.  Selim  I. 
annexed  it,  in  1516,  to  the  Turkish  empire,  of 
which  it  continued  a  part  till  1832,  when  it  opened 
its  gates  to  Ibrahim  Pacha,  without  a  summons. 
Its  political  revolutions,  with  the  exception  of  its 
two  captures  by  the  Tartars,  affected  its  prosperity 
only  temporarily  and  in  a  slight  degree ;  but  the 
discovery  of  a  passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  struck  a  deadly  blow  at  its  greatness. 
Since  that  event  it  has  continued  to  decline,  and 
the  earthquake  of  1822,  together  with  the  wars 
which  have  distracted  Syria,  by  causing  extensive 
emigrations,  have  reduced  it  to  comparative  in- 
significance. Its  capabilities  are,  however,  very 
great,  and  under  judicious  treatment  it  is  more 
than  probable  it  would  speedily  r^ain  a  consider- 
able share  of  its  former  prosperity.  It  is  the  most 
convenient  centre  for  the  trade  between  Persia  and 
the  interior  of  Arabia,  on  the  one  hand,  and  Asia 
Minor  and  Armenia  on  the  other :  it  is,  beyond  all 
comparison,  the  cleanest  and  most  agreeable  town 
in  S3rria;  and  still,  even  amid  its  ruins,  better  built 
than  almost  any  other  between  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  Euphrates ;  its  inhabitants,  a  great  proportion 
of  whom  are  sheriffs  (descendants  of  the  Prophet), 
are  the  mildest  and  most  tolerant  among  the  pro- 
fessors of  Mohammedanism.  These  circumstances 
have  made  it  the  resort  of  strangers,  and  they  are 
not  likely ,in  peaceable  times,  to  have  less  influence 
in  future. 

Aleppo  formerly  possessed  several  manufactures, 
and  bciore  the  earthquake,  it  was  said  to  contain 


62 


ALESSANDRIA 


12,000  nrtizanR,  chiefly  weavers  of  fi;oId  and  nWcr 
lace,  silk  and  cotton  f^ooda,  and  shavrla.  Tlicse 
worka  are  now  lani^uishing,  but  they  still  exist, 
and,  with  the  pistachio  nuts,  form  the  chief  part 
of  its  remaining  trade.  Its  imports  are  f^ts'  hair, 
from  Asia  Minor;  gall  nutA,  from  Kurdistan ;  and 
Indian  goods,  such  as  shawls  and  muslins.  JProm 
Europe,  it  receives  cotton  stuffs,  cloth,  sugar,  dye 
stuffs,  &c ;  W.  I.  coffee,  though  a  prohibited  arti- 
cle, is  also  introduced,  and  is  cheai)er  than  that  of 
Mocha.  Within  the  last  few  years  Aleppo  and 
the  surrounding  district  have  shared  in  the  pros- 
perity which  the  wide-spread  demand  for  cotton, 
consequent  on  the  stoppage  of  supplies  from  the 
United  States  by  tlie  great  civil  war,  produced 
in  many  di£fercnt  countries  of  the  world.  The 
demand  for  native  manufactures,  especially  for 
the  supply  of  the  Egyptian  markets,  also  increased. 
(Report  on  tlie  Trade  of  Aleppo;  Consular  Reports 
Jan.  to  June  1864.) 

ALESSANDRIA,  or  ALEXANDRIA,  an  im- 
jmrtant  town  and  fortress  of  North  Italy,  prov.  of 
the  same  name,  in  a  marshv  country  on  the  Tanaro, 
near  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Boimida,  47  m. 
ESE.  Turin,  and  38  m.  NEN.  Genoa.  Pop.  66,645 
in  1861.  The  town  has  a  very  strong  citadel, 
and  was  surrounded  by  Napoleon  with  extensive 
fortifications,  demolished  at  his  downfaU.  Of  late 
years,  however,  it  has  risen  again  into  imptortance. 
There  are  extensive  barracks  and  armouries,  and, 
next  to  Verona,  Alessandria  is  now  the  strongest 
place  in  Italy.  It  is  the  centre  of  five  lines  of 
railways,  spreading  in  as  many  different  directions. 
The  town  is  well  built ;  has  a'cathedral,  numerous 
churches,  palaces,  and  hospitals;  a  handsome  town- 
house,  with  a  gymnasium,  theatre,  public  library, 
and  lafge  barracks.  It  has  manufactures  of  silk, 
doth,  and  linen,  and  some  trade^  The  latter  is 
promoted  by  its  two  fairs,  held  the  one  at  the  end 
of  April,  and  the  other  on  the  1st  of  October;  they 
are  both  well  attended,  not  only  by  Italians,  but 
also  by  French  and  Swiss  merchants.  Alessandria 
was  founded  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  has  fre- 
quently been  taken  and  retaken.  It  has  always 
Ix^cn  reckoned  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  Italy  on  the 
side  of  France.  The  village  and  battle-field  of 
Marengo  lie  a  Uttlc  to  the  £.  of  the  town. 

ALEUTAN,or  ALEUTIAN,  ISLANDS,  a  chain 
of  islands  in  the  N.  Pacific  ocean,  stxetching  from 
the  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka,  in  Asia,  to  Cape 
AlasKa,  in  N.  America.  They  are  very  numerous, 
occupying  a  circular  arc,  extending  from  166^  to 
196^  &.  long.,  whose  chord  is  in  66^  N.  lat,  and 
above  600  m.  in  length.  Apparently,  this  insular 
chain  consists  of  the  summits  of  a  ran^  of  sub- 
marine mountains.  In  1795,  a  volcanic  island  rose 
from  the  sea,  in  the  middle  of  the  line,  which,  in 
1807,  was  found  to  be  enlarged  to  about  20  m.  in 
circuit,  and  lava  was  then  flowing  down  its  sides. 
There  are  always  amongst  them  several  volcanoes 
in  activity,  and  some,  known  to  have  emitted 
flames,  are  now  quiescent.  Earthquakes  are  com- 
mon, and  sometimes  so  violent  as  to  throw  down 
the  huts  of  the  inhabitants.  Behring's  Island, 
Attoo,  and  Oonalashka,  are  the  largest,  the  first 
being  104  m.  in  length,  but  many  are  only  incon- 
siderable rocks.  They  are  intersected  by  channels, 
various  alike  in  width,  and  in  the  safety  of  navi- 
gation. All  exhibit  a  barren  aspect;  high  and 
conical  mountains,  covered  with  snow  'during  a 
great  portion  of  the  year,  being  the  most  promi- 
nent features.  Y^etation  scanty;  there  are  no 
trees  nor  any  plants  surpassing  the  dimensions  of 
low  shrubs  and  bushes.  But  abundance  of  fine 
grass  is  produced  in  tlie  more  sheltered  valleys,  and 
different  roots,  either  indigenous  or  introduced  re- 
cently. The  seas  abound  in  fish,  and  the  feathered 


ALEXANDRIA 

tribes  are  nmnerons.  The  hunting  the  Bea  otter, 
whose  skin  affords  a  fur  of  the  finest  quality,  was 
formeriy  carried  on  to  a  great  extent ;  they  were 
wont  to  be  caught  in  thousands ;  but  their  indis- 
criminate destruction  has  greatly  reduced  the 
number  of  those  now  taken.  The  seal  is  particii- 
larly  valuable,  affording  the  inhabitants  a  constant 
supply  both  of  food  and  clothing ;  the  thin  mon- 
brane  of  the  entrails  is  also  converted  into  a  sub- 
stitute for  glass.  Foxes  are  the  principal  quadra- 
pcds.  The  natives  are  of  middle  sixe,  of  a  dark  farowB 
complexion,  resembling  an  intermediate  nee  be- 
tween the  Mongol  Tartars  and  North  Americana. 
Their  features,  wluch  are  strongly  marked,  have  an 
agreeable  and  benevolent  expression.  Hair  strong 
and  wiry ;  beard  scanty ;  eves  black.  They  are  not 
deficient  in  capacity,  and  the  different  woilu  of  both 
sexes  testify  their  ingenuity.  They  are  indolent, 
peaceable,  and  extremely  hospitable;  but  stubbom 
and  revengeful.  Tattooing,  which  was  ocnnmoa 
among  the  females,  is  on  the  decline,  but  they  pn&^ 
tise  a  hideous  mode  of  disfiguring  Uiemselves,  by 
cutting  an  aperture  in  the  under  lip,  to  which  variona 
trinkets  are  suspended.  These  deformities,  however, 
are  less  common  than  whoi  the  islands  were  dia- 
covered,  the  more  youthful  females  having  learned 
that  they  are  no  recommendation  in  the  eyes  of 
their  Russian  visitors.  A  man  takes  as  many'wivea 
as  he  can  maintain ;  they  arc  obtained  by  purchase, 
and  may  be  returned  to  their  relations;  or  the 
same  woman  may  have  two  husbands  at  onoe ;  and 
it  is  not  uncommon  for  men  to  exchange  their 
wives  with  each  other.  Their  subsistence  is  prin- 
cipally obtained  by  fishing  and  hdnting.  Their 
dweUings  are  spaaous  excavations  in  uie  earth, 
roofed  over  witn  turf,  as  many  as  60  or  even  150 
individuals  sometimes  .residing  in  the  difTeanent 
divisions.  Onl^  a  few  of  the  islands  arc  inhabited; 
but  in  former  times  the  population  is  said  to  have 
been  more  considerable.  Its  decrease  is  ascribed  to 
the  exactions  of  the  Russian  American  Company, 
who  have  factories  in  the  islands.  Its  present 
amount  has  been  variously  estimated,  at  mmi  a 
few  hundreds  to  10,000.  The  islands  were  partiallj 
disco\'ered  by  Behring,  in  1741. 

ALEXANDRETTA.    See  Iskendeboox. 

ALEXANDRIA  (Arab.  Itkendiiyyeh),  a  cele- 
brated city  and  sea^port  of  £g3i)t,  so  called  fimm 
Alexander  the  Great;  by  whom  it  was  either 
founded,  or  raised  from  obscurity  882  years  B.G., 
about  14  m.  WSW.  of  the  Canopic,  or  most  W. 
mouth  of  the  Nile,  on  the  ridge  of  land  between 
the  sea  and  the  bed  of  the  old  uke  Mareotis.  Lat. 
of  lighthouse  81©  11'  81"  N.,  long.  29©  51'  80"  E. 
Its  situation  was  admirably  chosen,  and  does 
honour  to  the  discernment  of  its  illustrious  founder. 
Previously  to  the  discovery  of  the  route  to  India, 
b^  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Egypt  was  the  prin- 
cipal centre  of  the  commerce  l^twcen  the  E.  and 
W.  worlds ;  and  it  so  happens  that  Alexandria  is 
Uie  only  port  on  its  N.  coast  that  has  deep  water, 
and  b  accessible  at  all  seasons.  It  has  not,  it  ia 
true,  any  natural  communication  with  the  NUe, 
but  this  defect  was  obviated  in  antiquity  by  catting 
a  canal  from  the  city  to  tlie  river.  After  Alexan- 
dria came  into  the  possession  of  the  Saracens,  this 
canal  was  allowed  to  fall  into  disrepair ;  and  it  waa 
not  to  be  supposed  that  any  attempt  would  be 
made  to  reopen  it,  while  Egjrpt  continued  sul^ect 
to  the  Turks  and  Mamelukes.  But  Mehemet  Ali, 
the  late  ruler  of  Egypt,  being  anxious  to  acquire  a 
navy,  and  to  revive  the  commerce  of  the  country, 
early  perceived  the  importance  of  Alexandria, 
both  as  a  station  for  his  ff oet,  and  a  centre  of  com- 
merce. In  furtherance  of  his  views  he  greatly  im- 
proved, beautified,  and  stren^th^icd  the  city,  and 
restored  the  ancient  oommunication  with  thie  Nile 


ALEXANDRIA 


63 


by  mean?  of  the  Mahmoudieh  canal  fh>m  Alex- 
aotlrU  to  Fooah,  a  distance  of  4S  m,,  o|)cncd  in 
1919.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  its  construction  is 
in  several  respects  ddectire;  but  it  is  notwith- 
standing of  gKMt  advantage.  ^  Alexandria  is  built 
nartlr  on  a  peninrala,  connsting  of  the  island  of 
Pharoa,  so  (amoos  in  antiquity  for  the  lighthouse 
orpham,  whence  it  has  denved  its  name,  and 
partlr  on  the  isthmus  by  which  that  island  is  now 
connected  with  the  mainland.  The  principal  pub- 
lic buildingBf  as  the  palace  of  the  pacha,  the 
aisenal,  the  hosj^tal,  &c,  are  on  the  peninsula,  and 
the  town  principally  on  the  isthmus.  The  ancient 
dty  was  aituatod  on  the  mainland  opposite  the 
muideni  town ;  and  the  vast  extent*  or  its  ruins 
would  sniBcicntlv  evince,  were  there  no  other  evi- 
dcsices,  its  wealth  and  greatness. 

Alexandria  has  two  ports.  That  on  the  W. 
side  of  the  city,  called  the  old  port,  the  EmtMiuM 
of  the  ancients,  is  the  laigest  and  by  far  the  best. 
The  entjanoe  to  it  is  narrow  and  rather  difficult ; 
bot  when  in,  ships  may  anchor  off  the  town  in 
from  22  to  40  feet  water,  and  there  is  good  anchor- 
age in  deep  water  all  along  the  shore.  The  new 
harbour,  or  that  on  the  £.  side  of  the  town,  is 
very  inferior,  being  comparatively  limited,  having 
a  iuul  and  rocky  t>ottom,  and  being  exposed  to 
theX.  winds. 

A  diT  dock  was  constructed  in  the  course  of 
1837.  Naval  and  military  hospitals  have  been 
cstaULihed,  the  fonner  under  the  direction  of  an 
Knglifth,  the  latter  of  a  French  doctor.  A  quaran- 
tine boaid  exists  nnder  the  direction  of  the  con- 
folsr  body,  to  which  the  Pacha  has  confided  this 
Inoch  of  service,  and  connected  with  which  a 
Isiype  and  commodious  lazaretto  has  lately  been 
cfKted  outside  the  waUs*  Vessels  arriving  from 
tny  of  the  infected  ports  of  the  Levant,  are  sub- 
jected to  quarantine,  the  sameas  in  Europe ;  there 
»  also  a  school  for  the  marine,  and  a  board  com- 
powd  of  the  admirals  and  higher  officers  of  the 
fltet,  for  «»-gMw»winir  into  the  merits  of  candidates, 
fiwtMwingr  the  msctpline  and  regulating  every 
matter  connected  with  that  branch  of  service.  The 
TroBch  system  has  been  adopted  in  eveir  depart- 
nent  of  the  service,  and  to  the  French  the  Pacha 
ma  duefly  indebted  for  the  advances  he  made. 

On  the  peninsula  has  been  erected  the  Schunoj 
«  range  of  warehouses  for  the  reception  of  the 
ntdIus  produce  of  Egypt,  and  hither  it  all  comes, 
viui  the  exception  of  that  exported  from  Suez 
nd  Coasor,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  army  and 
fleet  in  the  Red  Sea.     According  to  the  late 

I       Pacha's  monopolising  system,  the  whole  produce 
<<  tke  country  came  mto  his  hands,  at  prices  fixed 
\n  himself^  without  the  option  of  resorting  to 
other  Biaricets  being  aUowed  to  the  grower.    And 
not  only  did  this  apply  to  the  produce  of  Egypt, 
bat  to  that  of  the  adjacent  countries,  wherever 
tlie  Padia's  influence  extended,  embracing  the 
c^o^  of  Modia,  the  gums  and  drugs  of  AJrabia, 
tlx  tobaoeo  of  Svria,  elephants'  teeth,  feathers 
^  the  interior,  &c,  all  of  which  were  purchased 
fcrhiin  m  the  first  instance,  the  prohibition  of 
tndiD^  in  them  applying  to  every  one,  and  carry- 
^  with  it  the  ntk  of  confiscation,  if  oontra- 
^ncd;— the  whole  of  this  produce,  native  as  well 
vaotac,  being  collected  in  Alexandria  was  sold 
V  pobhc  auction,  in  the  same  way  exactly  as 
"Ktions  are  conducted  in  Europe,  Uie  upset  price 
bong  fixed  according  to  the  latest  report  or  the 
Barkels,  the  merchant  having  the  privilege  of 
exaoiijiini;  the  article  in  the  schuna  before  the 
•lie.  and  b«ng  required  to  pay  in  cash  the  price 
ttvhich  it  was  locked  down  to  him  within  a 
Innited  number  of  days  when  delivcnr  took  place. 
The  pcindpal  titicles  thus  disposed  of  were  cotton, 


which  was  by  far  the  largest,  rice,  opium,  indigo, 
gums,  coffee,  scnua,  hemp,  linseed,  and  the  co- 
mettibiU  of  the  country,  wheat,  barley,  beans, 
lentils,  &c  But  this  system  is  now  much  modi- 
fied. During  the  ascendency  of  Mehemet  Ali, 
every  other  oranch  of  industry  was  sacrificed  to 
the  raising  of  cotton ;  but  since  his  demise  a  more 
rational  system  would  appear  to  be  followed, 
though  the  stimulus  caused  by  the  failure  of  the 
cotton  supplies  from  the  United  States  again  caused, 
in  late  years,  the  revival  of  the  cotton  culture. 
The  greater  part  by  far  of  the  trade  of  the  port  is 
carricxi  on  with  England,  but  she  has  also  a  con- 
siderable trade  with  Marseilles,  Trieste,  Constanti- 
nople, Leghorn,  the  Isles  of  the  Archipelago,  &c 

Accordmg  to  the  report  of  the  Alexandrian 
custom-house,  it  appears  that,  during  the  year 
1861,  the  total  value  of  the  exports  from  Egypt  to 
all  parts  was  2,638,822t ;  but  a  very  great  increase 
has  since  taken  place.  The  exports  of  cotton  to 
Great  Britain  alone  amounted  in  1862  to  8,723,440^ ; 
1863,  8,841,657/.;  and  in  1864  to  14,300,607/.  The 
imports  in  1862  from  Great  Britain,  of  British  and 
Irish  produce  and  manufactures,  amounted  to 
2,406,982/1 ;  in  1863  to  4,416,240/.,  and  in  1864  to 
6,070,22U  England  of  course  had  by  far  the 
laigest  share  of  hoth  the  import  and  export  trade. 
The  quantities  of  cotton  expMorted  to  Great  Britain 
were,  in  1862,  526,897  cwts. ;  1863,  835,289  cwts.; 
and  1864, 1,120,479  cwts.,  so  that  the  increase  in 
value  has  been  much  greater  than  in  quantity. 

The  exports  from  Egypt  of  other  articles  in 
which  there  has  been  less  variation  were,  in  1861, 


Valo* 

Vain* 

Wool. 

.    £28,317 

Onms 

.    £94380 

Beans 

.     207,348 

Ivory         , 

.       38,995 

Wheat 

.     879,724 

Rice  . 

.     135,894 

Barley 

.       56,140 

Cottonseed 

.       45,336 

Indian  com 

.       45,574 

The  imports  from  Great  Britain  in  1864  included 
cotton  manufactures  of  the  value  of  2,492,962/.  stg., 
the  amount  in  1863  having  been  1,810,136/.  The 
principal  other  imports  fron\  Great  Britain  were 
machmery,  iron,  woollen  and  silk  goods,  hardware, 
timber,  chngs,  and  other  colonial  products,  and 
coals,  besides  the  quantities  imported  for  the  use 
of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Steam  Company 
and  of  the  East  India  Company's  steamers  at 
Suez. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  population  has  trebled 
or  quadrupled  since  the  opening  of  the  Mahmou- 
dien  canal,  and  it  is  still  on  the  increase.  It  might 
amount  in  all,  in  1863,  to  160,000,  including  troops 
and  artizans  in  the  arscnaL  A  good  deal  of  this 
increase  has  taken  place  at  the  expense  of  Rosetta, 
which  has  latterly  very  much  declined.  The  po- 
pulation of  Alexandria  is  of  a  mixed  character, 
consisting,  besides  the  native  Turks  and  Arabs,  of 
Armenians,  Greeks,  Smymiotes,  S3Tians,  Moghre- 
bins,  or  men  from  the  Barbary  states,  Maltese, 
Jews,  and  Europeans  of  almost  every  nation,  in 
such  numbers,  that  it  may  be  questioned,  whether 
the  strangers,  in  a  commotion,  would  not  be  more 
than  a  match  for  the  natives.  The  English  have 
numerous  commercial  houses;  as  have  also  tho 
French,  Italians,  and  Greeks.  Amateur  French 
and  Italian  theatres  exist,  the  performances  in 
which  rival  those  of  the  Acaddmie  Koyale  and 
San  Carlos ;  balls  and  routes  are  given  in  the  most 
approved  style  of  fashion ;  a  commercial  journal 
has  been  established  in  the  Italian  language,  which 
however  does  not  treat  of  politics ;  French  mo- 
<fi«/es,  tradesmen  in  all  dejMurtments,  and  shops 
disf)laying  every  article  of  furniture,  and  of  male 
and  female  attire,  from  the  Parisian  bonnet  of  the 
latest  fashion  to  the  very  humblest  article  of  drewi, 
all  conspire,  in  conjunction  with  tho  style  of  the 


64 


ALEXANDRIA 


buildings,  and  pretty  equal  balance  of  hat  and 
turlmn,  to  take  away  from  this  place  the  appear- 
ance of  an  Oriental  city;  and  it  la  only  after 
leaxdng  it,  and  purHuing  his  way  to  Cairo,  that 
the  stranger  tnily  feels  that  he  is  in  the  East. 
Hero  also  exist  Catholic  and  Greek  convents, 
where  divine  service  is  performed  on  Sundays  and 
holydays  to  the  people  of  those  persuasions :  the 
Armenians,  Syrian  Christians,  and  Jews  have  also 
places  of  worship,  Protestants  alone  being  without 
a  temple.  There  is  little  intercourse  between  the 
natives  and  Franks,  except  in  the  way  of  business. 
They  occupy  distinct  quarters  of  the  city,  the 
former  sci^luding  their  families,  and  maintaining 
all  the  re8er\'e  of  Oriental  life,  tlie  siesta,  pipe,  and 
(N>iree  filling  up  three-fourths  of  their  time ;  the 
latter  adhering  to  the  customs  of  their  own  coun- 
try, in  dress,  furniture,  the  use  of  carriages  and 
horses,  and  indeed  in  all  things  but  the  siesta,  the 
pi|je,  and  immuring  themselves  during  the  heat 
of  the  ilay,  wherein  they  imitate  the  Orientals. 
Latterly  also,  after  the  example  of  some  of  the 
liighcr  Turks,  several  of  the  richer  Frank  mer- 
chants have  obtained  grants  of  land  from  the 
Pacha,  on  the  banks  of  the  canal,  and  built  houses 
and  made  gardens,  which  ser>'e  to  beautify  and 
give  interest  to  the  neighbourhood. 

Tlie  Turkish  quarter  of  the  city  consists  of  a 
number  of  narrow,  irrcgidar,  tortuous,  filthy 
and  ill  biult  streets  and  bazaars,  with  hardly  any 
grMxl  houses  but  those  of  the  Pacha's  ofiicers,  and 
without  a  single  public  building,  mosque,  or  other 
object  worthv  the  least  attention,  the  bazaars  being 
mean,  and  but  very  indifferently  provided.  The 
Frank  quarter,  on  the  other  hand,  presents  several 
streets  of  well  built  substantial  houses,  with  good 
8ho{)S ;  in  particular  the  square,  which  is  the  resi- 
dence of  the  consuls  and  principal  merchants, 
called  the  Piazza  Grande,  that  may  well  bear 
comparison,  for  the  size  and  style  of  its  buildings, 
with  some  of  the  best  streets  of  Paris  or  London. 
Ibrahim  Pacha  owned  the  greater  part,  of  these 
houses,  which  he  built  on  speculation,  and  for 
which  he  <lrew  rents,  varying  from  200/.  to  240/.  per 
annum.  The  whole  town  is  built  of  stone  and  brick, 
dug  up  from  the  foundations  of  the  ancient  city. 

During  part  of  the  year  Alexandria  is  supplied 
with  water  from  the  canal ;  and  during  the  otheT 
portion,  from  the  cisterns  of  the  ancient  city  (the 
only  portion  of  its  public  works  that  has  been 
spared),  which,  at  the  period  of  the  inundation, 
when  the  canal  b  full,  are  thence  filled,  and  to 
which  recourse  is  only  had,  when  the  water  of  the 
canal,  by  being  stagnant,  becomes  unfit  for  use. 
As  tlie  *  inundation  advances,  the  old  stagnant 
water  is  run  off  into  the  sea,  and  the  canal  being 
filled  brim  full  with  fresh,  is  shut  up  at  both  ends, 
and  so  remains  till  the  following  year,  8er\'ing  in 
the  meantime  for  navigation,  for  the  use  of  man 
and  beast,  and  for  the  irrigation  of  those  small 
portions  of  land  on  its  banks,  that  have  been  re- 
claimed from  the  desert,  and  brought  into  culti- 
vation. The  climate  of  Alexandria  is  considered 
very  salubrious,  the  heats  of  summer,  which  rarely 
exceed  S5P  Falir.,  being  tempered  by  the  Etesian, 
or  NW.  winds,  wliich  prevail  for  nine  months  of 
the  year.  In  winter,  a  gcxxl  deal  of  rain  falls, 
which,  however,  is  confined  to  the  coast,  and  is 

{)robably  the  cause,  coupled  with  the  wretched 
labitations  and  misery  of  the  poorer  classes,  why 
the  plague  so  often  makes  its  api)earance  here. 
Were  the  labouring  classes  better  clad,  housed, 
and  fed,  there  is  little  doubt  tlmt  this  scourge 
would  soon  be  no  longer  heard  of. 

The  municipal  government  of- the  city  is  en- 
trusted to  tlie  governor,  who  has  under  him  a 
commandant  dc  place,  and  an  ofiicer,  called  the 


Bashaga,  or  chief  police  magistrate,  whose  dntr  it 
is  to  see  that  order  and  quiet  are  maintained,  llie 
city  is  besides  di\nded  into  quarters,  over  each  of 
which  a  sheikh  prej<ides,  who  is  let^nsible  to  the 
governor  for  the  peace  of  his  district :  and  mofe- 
over,  each  trade  and  profession  has  its  ahiekh, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  collect  the  taxes,  and  to  see  to 
the  good  behaviour  of  the  members.  Guard-bousei 
are  also  distributed  all  over  the  city,  and  the  mili- 
tary are  instructetl  to  take  all  riotous  and  disor- 
derly parties  int4>  custody,  the  officer  of  the  ^;uaid, 
if  the  offender  be  a  native,  having  authority  to 
infiict  summary  punishment  by  the  bastinado ;  but 
if  a  Frank,  he  must  send  him  to  his  own  consul, 
to  be  punished  acctinling  to  the  laws  of  his  own 
country.  The  system  works  so  well,  that  a  more 
orderly  place,  or  one  fireer  from  riot  or  crime,  is 
rarely  to  be  seen;  indeed,  when  crime  is  com- 
mitted, it  is  usually  by  Frank  upon  Frank ;  and 
then,  from  defects  in  the  consular  system,  it  almust 
always  escapes  detection.  Besides  the  Bashaga, 
or  police  court,  there  is  the  Mch-kemeh,  or  Kadi's 
court,  where  all  ciWl  questions  between  natives 
are  determined;  and  a  commercial  court,  with 
Frank  judges,  but  presided  over  by  a  Turk,  for  de- 
ciding questions  between  the  Franks  and  natives^ 
where  the  latter  are  defendants:  the  Franks 
themselves,  besides  exemption  from  all  taxes  and 
burdens  of  every  sort,  bemg  amenable  only  when 
defendants  to  their  own  consular  courts,  and  to 
the  laws  of  their  re^)ective  countries.  These 
immunities  have  been  secured  to  the  Franks  by 
convention  with  the  Porte,  and  are  rigidly  in- 
sisted upon  here  as  well  as  in  every  other  part  of 
the  Turkish  empire. 

Alexandria,  as  every  one  knows,  has  recently 
acquired  an  unusual  degree  of  importance  from 
her  ha\'ing  become  the  central  and  principal  sta- 
tion in  the  overland  route  to  India.  Uer  jKOi  is 
now  regularly  and  frequently  ^-isited  by  steamers 
from  England,  Marseilles,  and  other  places.  Her 
hotels  and  streets  arc  crowded  with  passengen 

gjing  to  or  returning  frt>m  India,  C«ylon,  the 
astern  Archipelago,  Australia,  &c  She  has,  in 
consequence,  become  the  centre  of  a  conadenble 
transit  trade ;  and  the  influx  of  so  many  visitcMrs 
has  not  only  added  greatly  to  her  wealth,  but  it 
has,  at  the  same  time,  ^i^ven  a  powerful  stimulus 
to  industry  and  civilisation  in  adl  parts  of  Eg>'pt. 
Alexandria  is  now  connected  by  railway  with 
Suez  and  the  sea-bathing  \'illage  of  KamleK,  7  m. 
distant,  as  well  as  with  Cairo,  130  m.  distant. 
Tlie  shortest  sea-route,  from  Southampton  to 
Alexandria,  is  2,960  m.,  the  average  time  by  steam 
II  days. 

HUtory. — The  Ptolemies,  to  whom  Egypt  fell 
on  the  demise  of  Alexander  the  Great,  made 
Alexandria  the  metropolis  of  their  empire ;  and  it 
became,  under  their  liberal  and  enlightened  go- 
vernment, one  of  the  greatest  and  most  flourishing 
cities  of  antiquity.  When  it  was  annexed  by 
Augustus  to  the  empire  of  Kome,  it  is  said  to  have 
occupied  a  circumference  of  15  miles,  and  to  have 
had  300,000  free  inhabitants,  besides  slaves,  who 
were  probably  ^uite  as  numerous.  It  was  regu- 
larly and  magnificently  built ;  and  was  tra\'enied 
by  two  great  streets,  each  more  tlian  100  feet 
across,  and  the  larger  extending  more  than  4  m. 
from  E.  to  W.  Under  the  Ptolemies  and  the 
Romans,  Alexandria  was  the  entrepot  of  the  prin- 
cipal trade  of  antiquity,  being  the  market  where 
the  silks,  spices,  ivor\',  slaves,  and  other  i>roducts 
of  India,  Arabia,  and  Ethiopia,  and  tlie  com  of 
Egypt,  were  exchanged  for  the  gold,  silver,  and 
othej  products  of  the  W.  world.  iTie  inhabitants 
were  distinguished  by  their  industry;  either  sex 
and  every  age  were  engaged  in  laborious  occulta- 


AEEXAHDBU 
nd  eren  the  lame  anil  the  blind  had  em- 
nu  tuiud  In  Iheir  cnntlitiun.  Amon^  Ihe 
tl  nuuHiTactnn^  were  those  uf  glass,  linen, 
QTUs.  the  paper  of  anliqiiily.  Under  the 
cmpcTun,  E;:ypt  becamif  a  niindpol  (^ra- 

Ifmed  of  the  uIjiiohC  unportancc,  aoil 
loTCr  irith  preuliai  rare.  Variumi  privi- 
sd  itDmmiiUea  were  ctnCerTol  upon  Alex- 
mauy  vf  her  inhahilanta  were  admilteil 
rights  uf  Ror—   "■' —  ■  ■- >-■- 


indin 


ibhed. 


di3tin/niu>l^ed  by 
Doice  ui  iiitniun:  anil  philnwiphy  Iban  by 
aatrct  and  liclies.  The  rounilaticm  i>r  her 
DCDce  in  this  nwpect  was  laid  by  the 
en,  whn  founded  the  miuciim  and  libraiy 
Hm  rrgmm  intra^v  tgrvyiurn  opia,^  Livy), 
EnranJx  Iwcame  w  famou',  at  Ilw  name  time 
ay  gave  the  meat  muniliceiit  enomraKe- 
t  literature'  and  learned  men.  Ttua  pa- 
beuip  cvniinunl  by  the  emiierurB,  Alex- 
ma,  fiir  aeveral  ceiiturieii,  a  iWinguivbeil 
acienre,  literature  ami  idiil[>»opli.v.  Ueiie- 
■Dwevvt,  her   liierBii  were   mcne    dintin- 


She  pfdi 

•mt  the  nanie!<  nf  Eurlid,  A|><illimiiu  uf 
*lalnnr,  Eralmthencs,  Xii.iinia>:hiiH,  Hcru- 
CntiiTUA,  Ac,  are  but  a  few  uf  Ihiwe  mmt 
jt&vl  in  the  a.'h.H.li  <.t  KU.meln-,  astn^ 
feiigiitphy  ant]  mcriitine,  Tliat  Hiturtihed  in 
taia-    But  her  philmiiihy  was  the  miuit 

Caature  nl  Alexandria,  iu  a  liicrarv  puint 
Thi-  influx  irf  .l.ffiriues  fnmi  ihe  E.  and 
lOb  pniliieeil  n  wncularisiiillictofmratciDBi 
allied  in  an  8tti'm|<t  uf  the  philiKwplien 
io»,  flotiniu.  Olid  Pi>r|>liyr}-,  to .  extablirh 
:lic  ur  univerMil  svHicm  by  K-levliiig  and 
pt  il[icainc«  taken  from  the  jirindpal  cxist- 
ttnia,  paitirularlv  rmm  thrwe  uf  I'vlhn- 
■d  VUuk  Chiijuaidly  was  nut  exem|<te(l 
ace  id' tills  niiril ;  and  on  its  intni- 
UianKnly  alkiyeil  with  Plaliniism ; 
■neuiw*  Bit  exiaiunding  nf  im  ilHclrines 
lid  duwn  that  iniuld  now  be  with  difficulty 
d. 

•rlmils  vf  geometry,  astroniimy,  pliync, 
lier  braui'lieii  of  K-ience,  mniutanird  their 
ioa  till  A.i>.  C4i>,  wlien,  after  a  luO)^  uf 
ntht.  .\lexaiulna  wan  token   tiy  Amrmi, 
I  uf  the  cBlipii   Omar.     Tlie  ccmtiuemrs 
rtimixhed   by  the  (neatness  of  Ihej<riie; 
Dmu.  in   ai'iiiiaiuliiii;  the  eodiph  with  its 
F.saiiL'We  have  laken  llie  gieat  cdly  of 
M.    It  is  imnosHble  fur  me  Cu  eniimci 
tidy  of  its  rii-liM  ami  beniity ;  and  1  si 
I  mvself  with  utwen'inK,  that,  it  cunlr 
(daini,  4Jim  buOv.  Vm  thi^re*  or  pli 
■nBeni,  li/HNr  rhopa  tar  Ilie  sale  of  vege- 
tal, and  MjHM  tributary  Jews.    The  town 
(D  HiUfajed  by  furuc  of  anti»,  without  treaty 

as  on  (his  ocniiiuin  tbat  the  famous  lilirary 

[  b>  hare  liecu  dCKtruved,  conromiabl]    ' 

'e  cali|.'      ■       ** 


■f  the  tireeks  agrei 


t' if  the 
ml  with  the  book  of 

_.    ,   __. ,   _nd  need  nut  bo  pre^ 

1  if  Ihey  dii^dgntefl,  they  were  pemivioua 
ufal  Iu  be  devtiiiyed.'  Thia  lutrluTous  Jud;.'- 
being  nurieil  intu  effect,  the  books  and 
nhrta  were  dii<lril>uled  among  the  4,IIIK) 
monging  to  (be  city;  and  so  priHli^mui 
or  number,  that  nx  mniithH  arc  said  to 
etn  reqnircd  fur  their  consumption.  Such 
ale  tliai  haa  so  oTti-n  exiited  the  indigna- 
nI  nr^'t  of  iohulan  aiul  the  uibniivis  uf 


indent  genius.  But  Gibbon  has  shnwn  that  it 
has  nngood  fuunibiiion  i  it  restt  on  the  solilarv 
statement  of  Abuliiliani^uH,  who  wrote  six  cen- 

those  toon!  ancient  aiuuilisis,  who  have  narticii- 
larly  dcMribcd  tlic  siege  anii  capture  of  the  city. 
It  L<s  besides,  repugnant  (i>  the  cbaracler  of  (liu 
caliph  and  his  general,  and  lo  (be  policy  of  (ho 
Mnhamme>lauK.  Even  if  it  did  occur,  the  loss  liaa 
tieen  much  exaggerated.  Great  port  of  the  library 
uf  Ihe  Piolemien  waa  acciilcnlidty  cunsumod  by 
the  fire  which  louk  place  during  the  attack  un  th'o 
city  by  Cffisor ;  and  either  the  whole,  or  the  prin- 
Ipal  part  uf  the  lilnary  suimcquenlly  collected 
ras  desirnyeil  a.d.  3KU,  wlion  the  temple  of  Sera- 
is, the  must  magnificent  structure  of 'the  city, 
.ras  ilemutished  by  tlie  enthusiaaiic  aeal  of  tiie 
Christians. 
AJctiuidria  continncd  prngressivelv  to  decline 
U,  in  l-IST.  its  ruin  was  cunsummateil  by  the  dia- 
ivery  uf  tlie  ]>B»age  (o  India  by  the  Cape  uf 
Guiul  lIo[ie.  llut  (here  can  be  no  duubt,  as  pre- 
viously sta(ed,  that  it  is  desrineil  lo  recover  a 
large  portion  of  ita  ancient  importance.  It  Iliii 
leceesoiily  become  the  centre  uf  Ibc  communi- 
ralions  canied  on  by  steam  between  £uro|Ae  oud 

The  datoms  which,  as  already  seen,  are  slill  in 
pretty  guod  preservation,  are  the  priiici|ta]  muiin- 
mvnt's  of  the  ancient  city  lliat  ha\-e  ouilived  i.ho 
injuries  uf  time,  and  the  raii'agea  of  bniboriniis. 
The  cataetimlB  are  also  cum[>amtively  entire. 
The  magniliccut  culumn,  im|)nij>eriy  called  I'um- 
pev's  I'Ubir,  seems  tu  luve  been  erected  in  the 
re^  uf  Dhwietian :  its  shaft  cunsists  uf  a  single 
lildck  nf  granite,  KB  feet  iu  height.  Twu  ubclisks, 
vulgarly  calleil  Cleo|ialra's  Needles,  of  which  only 
one  is  erect,  are  said  tu  have  funned  the  entianco 
to  the  palace  of  (he  Ctcsars. 

Ai.Ri.tsDitu.  a  ci(y  and  port  of  entry  uf  tho 
Unite<l  States,  *»U  i;.  Jumbia,  on  the  W.  bank  of 
Ihe  Falomac,6  m.  S.  Wnshingt.ai.  I,at,  StfO-lll' 
N.,  long.  770  IB'  W.  I'uji  l-i,iij^  in  ItXlU.  It  u 
well  built,  (ho  streets  c^K•8ing  each  other,  at  right 
angles,  aiid  it  has  commodious  harbour  with  deeii 
water,  the  largest  ships  coming  close  to  lliu 
wharls.  Railways  connect  the  dty  with  Sew 
York.  Busli)n,  and  all  tbe  impuilant  tuwns  uf  the 
L'nitcd  Slaten. 

AL£:(AM>l(OVSK,  a  b'wn  of  Bnsua  in  Eu- 
rupc,  gov,  Ekaterinusiotr,  cap.  iliplrict  on  (lie 
Ihiieper  at  the  bottom  of  tlic  caiaract*,  140  m. 
S.E.  Clionion.  Puj).  4,iI7  in  1H6H.  It  is  furti- 
lied;  and  dispUys  nnuidemble  activity  from  ilit 
l>cing  tlie  place  wlicro  merchandise  conveyeil 
fnim  EkatennnslafT  by  waggon,  to  aviud  the  caln- 
mcis  in  Ihe  river,  is  i^tain  slu|i]icd. 

ALFAKO,  a  town  of  Si-ain,  prov.  Soria,  on  Ihe 
banks  uf  the  Aloma,  cliwe  lu  itajuiictiou  with  tlic 
Ebni,  12  m,  W.  by  N.  Tudela.  lliere  is  a  militarj' 
nod  between  (his  ]i]aco  and  Logruno,    Pop.  &,tM3 

ALFELD,  a  town  of  Hanoi-er,  prov,  llilde- 
sheim,  at.  Ihe  conllux  of  the  Leine  and  Wanio, 
and  at  the  railway  from  llilileshdm  tu  Gottiiigen. 
Puji.  2,7y0  in  IMOl.  'ITie  town  haa  paper  and  oil 
mills.  Flax  and  hups  in  uumiideroble  quantities 
are  grown  in  the  neighbourhood. 

ALFKETOK,  a  par.  and  m.  tuwn  uf  Englan.1, 
CO.  Derby,  hund.  Scaradalc,  18  m.  XSE.  Dcrbi-. 
Pop.  of  town  4,IK)0,  and  uf  parbh  11,649  in  IMU. 
The  iiihahitanta  of  the  town  are  piiiici|ially  em- 
ployed   in    the    munufocliire    uf  siix'hings    and 

iithenware,  and  in  the  sdjoiniiig  collieries. 

ALGAKIXI'yO,atownufS|iain,imn-.  Granada. 

[>se  to  the  fruniiets  of  CiBtluba,  near  the  riglil 

mkuf  the  Genii,  in  acuuiitry  whosi'  nbiuidant  and 


66 


ALGAKROBO 


fertilifling  streams  fall  into  that  river.  Pa8turap:e 
and  tilla^  fomi  the  chief  buaincss  of  the  popula- 
tion.    Pop.  4;i8.3  in  IHT)?. 

ALGAKROBO,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  Granada, 
2  m.  from  the  MetL  Sea,  in  the  miib^t  of  a  countr>' 
particularly  rich  in  lemons,  oran^<!H,  tijc^  and 
other  fruita  belongin;^  to  the  Routh  of  Simin. 
16^  m.  E.  Mala^ra,  and  nS  m.  SSW.  Granada. 
Pop.  *2,9.>4  in  lt<o7. 

ALGARVE,  the  most  S.  prov.  of  Portugal, 
which  Bee. 

ALGECIRAS,  or  Al-DJezireth,  the  Carteia  of 
Roman  geop«phv,  a  town  of  S|)ain.  prov.  Cadiz, 
on  the  W.  side  <»(*  the  IJay  of  Gihmltar,  opposite 
to  the  celebrated  rr)ck  and  fieninsula  of  tliat 
name,  from  which  it  is  distant  aI>out  7  m.  by 
water,  and  17  m.  by  lan<l.  Lat.  Hii^  8'  N.,  long. 
50  31'  7"  vv.  Pop.  14.-2i>9  in  1H57.  The  town 
has  a  good  hariniur  and  {ir)nie  trade  in  the  exiN»rt 
of  c<»al.  It  was  built  by  the  Mooth,  and  taJcen 
from  them  after  a  two  vearH*  siege,  in  1344. 

ALGHEKl,  or  ALOHERO,  a  town  and  sea- 
port of  the  island  of  Sanlinia  <}n  its  W.  coast, 
16  m.  SSVV  Sassari;  lat,  HP  25'  r>0"  X.,  long.  8° 
16'  40"  E.  Pop.  8,419  in  IWJl.  The  town  is  built 
on  a  low  rr>cky  point,  jutting  out  from  a  sandy 
l>each,  in  the  shape  of  a  parallelogram  with  stout 
walls  dank(^l  bv  bastions  and  towers :  the  walls 
arc  in  good  repair;  but  being  conimandc><l  by  two 
lieights  it  could  not  oiitmim;  any  vigorous  attack 
from  the  land  side,  io  the  S\V.  of  the  town 
there  is  tolerable  summer  anclioragi*  in  from  10  to 
l/i  fathoms,  good  holding-ground.  Though  narn»w, 
the  streets  are  clean  and  well  paved.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric,  has  a  cathedral  and  12  chun'hes 
and  convents,  with  public  schiHils  which  carry 
their  scholars  through  a  course  of  philosophy;  and 
a  surgical  institution.  It  has  a  small  theatre. 
The  tovm  was  long  (NX^upieil  by  the  S])anianb4, 
and  their  language  and  manners  still  prevail.  The 
country  round  is  well  cultivatetl,  pnnlucing  wine, 
butter,  and  cheese.  In  addition  to  these  the  ex- 
ports consist  ti{  wool,  skins,  tobacco,  rags,  ancho- 
vies, coral,  and  bones. 

AUvIERIA,  now  frequently  called  Algeria,  a 
country  of  N.  Africa,  and  till  recently  the  most 
powerful  of  the  Harbary  states,  comi>ri>ing  the 
Numidia  Proper  of  the  ancients  or  the  Numidia 
of  the  Ma»$yii  and  the  Aumidia  J\l(uiui»yUy  after- 
wards called  Mauritania  C<e9arien$i$^  with  some 
|)ortion  of  the  region  S.  of  the  greater  Atlas  an- 
ciently inhabited  by  the  Getulie  and  Garamantes. 
Ithas'lMien  since  1830  in  possession  of  the  French ; 
but  for  more  than  three  centuries  previously  it 
formed  a  sulNirdinate  part,  of  the  Turkish  empire, 
and  was  during  that  |x>ri(Ki  the  seat  of  an  exten- 
sive system  of  ])iracy  and  C^hristian  slaverj'. 

Situation^  Extent,  Boundaries. — ^Algieria  lies  be- 
tween 20  11'  W.  and  8°  o-S'  E. ;  its  greatest  N.  lat, 
is  37^  5'.  It  is  l>oim<led  X.by  the  Medit<;rnmenn, 
W.  by  Fez  (M(>rocco),  and  E.  by  Tunis;  its  S. 
boundary  is  doubtful,  iMit  it  extends  beyond  the 
greater  Atlas  range  to  the  confines  of  the  «le»ert  (»f 
Sahara :  it  is  alnive  500  m.  in  length ;  its  breadth, 
which  is  greater  in  the  E.  than  in  the  W.,  varies 
from  al)out  40  to  alxiut  200  m.  The  [Kipulation. 
in  18<51,  amounted  to  2,999,124  souls,  namely, 
2,800,378  native*;  10,000  nfgn>c-s;  30,000  Jews; 
and  192,74H  Euroi)eans.  A  later  estimate  (1803) 
makcK  the  number  of  Eun)]K*ans  213,000.  Algeria 
is  <Uvided  into  three  great  military  proviiuxjs — 
that  of  Algiers  in  the  centre,  (Jran  in  the  west, 
and  Constantino  in  the  east.  The  civil  territory 
of  each  forms  a  department,  having  at  their  head 
a  prefetTt,  and  sulKliWdttl  into  sub-prefectures,  ^'iz. 
in  the  dci>artment  of  Algiers,  lilidah,  Mcfdeali, 
Mihmmh'f    iu    the  dci>artniuiit   of  Coustantiuu, 


•  ALGIERIA 

Bona,  Philippcvillc,  Guelma,  Sc^tif;  in  thai  of 
Oran,  Mostaganem,  Mascara,  and  Hemcen.  Tlie 
remainder  of  the  territory  is  in  each  pro^-ince 
administered  by  the  militar>'  authority.  'The  civil 
territories  are  generally  understood  10  incluile  only 
the  TeU^OT  land  N.  of  the  gn»ater  Atlas, excluding 
the  territories  of  Zaab  or  Wad-reag,  S.  of  that 
range. 

Mountains. — Algieria  is  mostly  mountainous:  the 
little  Atlas,  which  nms  along  the  coast  parallel  to 
the  greater  Atks,  varies  fn)m  3,000  U>  4,000  ft.  in 
height.  The  abrupt  mountains  of  Titteri,  l>clong- 
ing  to  the  greati>r  Atlas,  reach  in  some  jwiut^t  to 
an  elevation  of  9,000  ft.,  and  send  off  tlirec  prin- 
cii»al  ridges:  NW.  towards  Cape  lyy;  N.  towanls 
Algiers;  and  NE.  towanls  Bugia.  Itfany  of  these 
moimtains  are  remarkable ;  as  Wannashrecs  iXa- 
hifus),  pn>v.  Oran.  ver\'  lofty,  and  Ju^ura,  SE.  of 
Algiers,  both  capiied  with  snow  during  winter ;  the 
Titteri  Dosh,  or  n»ck  of  Titteri,  L)  also  a  remark- 
able ridge  of  rugge<l  preci]>ices. 

Plains. — 'ITie  princii>al  is  that  of  Metidjah,  im- 
me<liately  S.  «»f  Algiers,  50  m.  by  20 ;  fertile,  wvU 
watered,  and  coven>d  with  an  abundant  vegt>tatioiu 
but  in  parts  marshy  and  unhealthy.  In  the  W. 
prov.  arc  several  jAains,  es]Xicially  that  thr^»ugh 
which  the  Shelliff  runs ;  and  another  S\V.  <»f  Oran, 
sand^  and  saltudi,  dry  in  summer,  but  uiuudatctl 
in  winter.  In  the  S.  pn>v.  are  tlie  rich  plains  i4 
Ilamza,  watered  by  the  N'asava.  Many  luxuriant 
plains  are  found  in  the  E.  prov.,  as  those  of  Setif, 
Majanal),  and  that  skirting  most  part  of  the  E. 
coast,  which  is,  however,  in  many  parta  manhv. 
(Shaw,  pp.  24,  37,  44,  47,  50,  53.) 

The  Rivers  arc  sei^arated  by  tlie  greatex  Atlas 
range  into  those  which  run  N.  and  S.  Of  tlie 
former,  or  those  which  discharge  thein«clves  into 
the  Mediterranean,  the  princi|>aJi  is  the  Shelliff  (an. 
Chinaiaph)^  which  rises  S.  of  the  Wannaslu^c  M., 
and  af^er  a  tortuous  CH>urse  of  2oo  m.,  during  which 
it  ]>asscs  through  the  Titteri  (lawle  or  lake,  falls 
into  the  sea  under  Cape  Jibbel  Iddis.  In  the  rainy 
season  it  overflows  its  banks,  and  interrupts  the 
communication  between  Algiers  and  Oran.  The 
Wail-el-Kel>eer  (an.  Ampsaijd)^  which  falls  uitu 
the  sea,  N.  of  Constant ine^  "in  C°  E.  hmg.,  is  the 
sectmd  in  magnitude;  the  others  an"*  the  Si'iUius, 
or  river  of  Itona,  the  Ik>oberac,  Yisso,  Zowah,  Wad- 
y-Zaine,  &c  Tlie  large  rivers,  the  Adjitli  anil 
Abiad,  nin  SE.,  and  empty  thembclves  into  tlie 
Mdpiptf  Lake;  and  several  rivers  «»f  inferittr  di- 
mensions empty  themselves  into  the  Shttt.  Thew 
are  two  very  extensive  salt  marshes ;  tlie  former 
on  the  S.  the  latter  on  the  N.  side  of  the  givatcr 
Atlas :  they  consist  partly  of  a  light  oozv  H>il,  as 
dangerous  as  quicksands  to  travclleiB.  l^he  lakv« 
are  those  of  Titteri;  two  near  Oran,  which  dr\'  in 
summer,  and  from  which  salt  is  collected ;  s«ime 
salt  marshes  near  CafK!  Matifou,  and  others  along 
the  coast  fmra  Bona  to  the  bonlera  of  Tunis. 
(Rozet,  p.  19 ;  Shaw,  p.  65.) 

Ciiinate. — The  climate  of  the  Tell,  i.  e.  between 
lat.  3-1°  and  37°,  is  generally  wholesome  and  tem- 
perate. Shaw  states  that  for  twelve  years  (luring 
his  ex|>ericncc  it  only  fn»ze  twice  at  Algiers;  yet 
the  heat  was  never  o]>pressive  unless  during*  S. 
winils.  The  mean  teni|)erature  of  the  year  at 
Algiers  is  7{fi  F.,  in  July  and  August  alNiut  8rP 
F. ;  but  ranging  (K'casionally  during  the  pi\'valen«'c 
of  the  khamsin,  sim(M»n],  or  hot  wind  fniiu  the 
Sahara,  as  high  as  1U>°,  or  even  more.  Luckily, 
however,  the  latter  seldom  or  noxr  continues  fi»r 
more  than  5  or  6  days  at  a  time,  and  rarely  oontrM 
except  in  August  or  Sej)teml>er.  In  winter  tin* 
temi)erature  is  usually  rrom  55^  io  65°  F.  The 
heat  is  mitigateti  by  the  N.  winds,  which  with  the 
E.  [urevail  during  summer.    About  the  uquiuoxi'tf 


ALGIERIA 


67 


rmlent  SW.  winds  oocor ;  NW.  winds  are  common 
fpim  Xovembcr  to  Apnl,  at  which  time  storms  and 
«h<iweRi  (»f  rain  are  most  frequent;  but  in  summer 
t\ify4:  winds  bnng  dry  weatlier ;  the  E.  and  S. 
wind.**  are  also  drv%  and  quite  imlikc  what  they  are 
on  the  oppcwiite  £unipcan  c<»asts.  The  barometer 
varies  only  fn>m  29  and  1-lOth  to  30  and  4~l()ths 
in.  Tlierir  are  about  50  wet  days  during  the  year, 
chif-lly  in  March,  alonf:  the  coast  and  on  the  lesser 
Atla^J  The  quantity  of  rain  varies  greatly  in  dif- 
frn^nt  years ;  but,  at  Alfj^ierH,  it  may  average  from 
i7  to  28  inches :  little  falls  during  summer.  Dews 
are  abondJuitT  and  the  air  on  the  coast  is  damp. 
At  the  end  of  December  the  trees  lose  their 
leaver :  bat  by  the  middle  of  Februarv  v^^tation 
is  again  in  full  activity,  and  the  fruit  Ls  ri{>e  in 
May.  (Shaw,  pp.  133-'l36 :  Rozet,  i.  pp.  140-149 ; 
D'Ax-izac,  art,  *  Al^r.*)  The  atmf>sphere  is  ver>' 
clear  and  the  country  healthy,  excepting  in  the 
nuRthv  ilistricts.  Of  late  years  Algeria  has  come 
much  in  vtigue  as  a  residence  for  invalids. 

Gtologjf  amdMnurahn — Ttie  primary  rocks  con- 
Mi-t  in  part  of  granite,  but  chietly  of  gneiss  and 
mit-aceous  sduB^  Travertine  is  found  on  the 
ei«st :  near  Oran  a  grevHsh  quartz,  but  no  volcanic 
rricks ;  in  the  interior  a  lime  formation  often  alter- 
nates with  a  schistose  marL  The  secondary  de- 
pi«4ts  cunsist  in  many  places  of  a  lias  formation 
and  calcareous  strata,  containing  few  oiganic  and 
A)  vegetable  remains.  At  Oron  the  lime  cuntains 
bivalve,  hut  no  univalve  sheUs.  The  tertiary  de- 
I»<4ts  are  mostly  calcareous,  in  the  Metidjah  of  a 
yrllowish  grey  colour ;  sometimes  a  blue  clay  en- 
cLviing  a  laminary  gypsum  and  a  little  iron,  in 
Mtber  parts  sandy  and  much  impregnated  with  salt. 
All  the  chain  of  Atlas  has  a  tertiary*  clay  deposit. 
The  W.  province  appears  to  be  the  richest  in  mi- 
nerds.  Salt  is  extremely  almndant,  in  springs  and 
beiU  <m  Ijoth  the  E.  and  W.  frontiers ;  near  ( 'ou- 
Mantine.  the  Titteri  I><ish  mountains,  and  the  Mel- 
gif^  and  Shott  marshes.  The  salt  ^its  near  ^Vrzcw 
occupy  a  space  of  6m.  circ,  forming  marshes  in 
winter  which  dry  in  summer,  when  bu^e  quanti- 
tie»  iA  salt  are  ctdlected.  Nitre,  though  not  found 
pure,  is  very  plentiful  in  the  W.  province,  (ietu- 
iia.  &c  Ifun  18  most  abundant.  Copper  is  found 
in  various  places ;  and  there  are  some  very  rich 
lead  mines,  the  ore  of  those  of  the  Wannaslurees 
U'ing  said  to  }*ield  80  per  cent,  of  pure  metal. 
There  are  also  fidlers'  earth,  potters*  clay,  talc,  py- 
rites ire.  Diamonds  (verifying  what  was  reckoned 
the  apociy|>hal  statement  of  I'liny,  ULMt.  Nat.,  lib. 
37,  (  4)  have  been  found  in  the  sands  of  the  \Vad- 
c-I-Kammel  that  runs  by  Constant iiie,  mixed  with 
Hnali  quantities  of  grdd  dust,  silver,  tin,  and  aii- 
tinHioy.  Saline  hot  and  cold  springs  are  exceed- 
ingly abundant,  mnre  so,  in  fact,  than  those  of 
fre>h  water.  Tlie  latter,  however,  are  by  no  means 
nre.  and  may  everywhere  be  found  by  digging 
thp»u;;h  a  crust  of  Aakv  soft  stone  lying  at  diflerent 
d-n-tliA,  Init  near  Algiers  and  Dona  immetliately 
f<*L»w  the  surface  of  the  ground.     (D'Avizac,  art. 

*Alu'w/) 

Vrgniaticm  in  the  N.  {uirts  of  Algieria  is  nearly 
ihr  iome  as  in  the  S.  parts  of  S))ain,  Provence, 
Iialy.  and  the  rest  of  the  Mediterranean  shores. 
Tlii^  m«iantains  of  the  little  Atlas  are  covereil  with 
thick  fureffts,  in  which  are  found  fve  different  va- 
ri*-ties  of  oak,  the  Aleppo  pine,  the  wild  olive,  the 
>huin«c  trw  {Rhtu  coHtiia),  with  arbutus,  cypress, 
Di%  rtles.  &c.  S.  of  the  greater  Atlas  are  found  the 
datf-hearing  {olm,  and  other  trees  l>elonging  to  a 
wanner  climate.  The  Algerian  Sahara  is  far  from 
l«^ing  a  perfect  desert.  There  are  multitudes  of 
<«-cs  full  of  towns  and  Ullages,  surrounded  by 
olives  figM,  vines  and  pahns. 

AuimaU, — Lions  of  great  size  and  strength, 


panthers,  hy»nns,  and  leopards,  inhabit  the  moun- 
tainous recesses  of  the  greater  Atlas,  but  arc  never 
seen  near  Algiers:  wiUl  Intars,  wolves,  and  jackals 
are  more  common,  and  there  arc  a  few  bears. 
Wild  cats,  monkeyH.  iK>rcupiiies,  and  hedge-hogs 
are  more  or  lese  abundant;  as  well  as  antelo|)es 
and  other  S]>ecie8  of  deer,  hares,  gennets,  jerboas, 
rats,  mice,  £c.  The  useful  animals  arc  horses, 
asses,  black  cattle,  sheep,  camels,  dromedaries,  <tc. 
Ostriches  are  found  in  the  desert  on  the  confines 
of  Morocco;  there  arc  also  vultures  and  other 
large  birds  of  prey;  bitterns,  curlews,  lapwings, 
plovers,  pigeons,  and  suii)es;  with  great  plenty  of 
game  and  small  liinLs.  Some  serpents  of  the  Colu- 
t>er  race  are  met  with:  and  lizanlH,  chameleons, 
and  other  amphibia.  Tunny  and  other  sea  fish 
abound  on  the  coasts;  l)ari)el,  perc.h,  eels,  &c.,  arc 
found  in  the  fresh  waters,  and  even  in  the  wann 
saline  streams;  conger  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers; 
and  lobsters  and  many  other  Crustacea  ttlt)ng  the 
shores.  Among  tlie  insect  tribe  ore  scorpions  and 
tarantulas.  Locusts  seldom  commit  the  sanio 
devastations  here  as  in  Eg>i>t  and  Syria.  Conil, 
which  is  very  abundant  on  the  coasts,  forms  on 
important  article  of  prtnluce  and  industry:  it  is  of 
a  laiger  sort,  but  less  Wvid  in  iin  colour,  than  that 
of  Sicily.  (K<>zet,  vol.  i.  p.  218;  Sliaw,  p.  192; 
Campl)ell,  [-.etters  from  the  South.) 

People, — There  are  nine  distinct  racei»  of  in- 
habitants, viz.:  1st,  lieriwrsorKabyles,  who.  how- 
ever, call  themselves  Mtuigh  (noble)  or  Muzerg 
(free);  they  ctmstitute  alnnit  half  the  entire  ]x>- 
pulation,  and  are  the  lineal  des^'cndants  of  the 
aiNiriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country.  They  arc 
principally  found  in  the  mountain  districts;  and 
their  lands  are  occasionally  well  cultivutiMl  and 
irrigate(L  2d,  BL*»keris  or  Mozabs,  su]>posed  to  Ixj 
the  descendants  of  the  GetuUe,  living  principally 
S.  of  the  greater  Atlas,  an»l  coinparutively  in- 
dustrious. 8d,  Moors;  a  mixed  race,  descende»l 
from  the  Mauritanians.  Berl)en*,  Carthaginians, 
Romans,  Vandals,  and  Arabs;  they  constitute  the 
bulk  of  the  jKipulation  of  the  towns  and  villages. 
4th,  Arabs,  consisting  of  three  tril)es:  the  first, 
supposed  to  have  descendeil  from  the  ancient 
Amalekites,  is  nearly  extinct ;  the  second  consists 
of  cultivators  of  the  soil,  and  Is  fixed  to  certain 
si)ots;  the  third,  or  wandering  Aralw,  arc  princi- 
pally henLsmen  and  shepherds  dwelling  in  tents. 
5th,  Negroes,  called  Abyd  (slaves)  i»r  Soudan 
(black);  originally  ibrcught  thither  from  the  in- 
terior, and  stdd  as  slaves.  (5th,  Jews,  who  form  a 
third  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Algiers,  and  a 
fourth  part  of  those  of  Oran.  7th.  Turks,  now 
very  few,  nor  ever  very  numerous,  although  long 
the  dominant  race:  they  worc  a  hetontgeneous 
body,  coraiM>se<l  of  genuine  Turks,  Greeks,  Cir- 
casHiians.  Ail>anians.  Corsicans,  Maltese,  and  rene- 
gades of  all  nations,  mounte<l,  and  forming  n 
militia  similar  to  the  Mamelukes.  On  the  c<»n- 
quest  of  ^Vlgieria,  in  18H0,  by  the  French,  the 
Turks  l>eing  ]K*miitted  to  withdraw,  evacuated 
the  counir}'  to  the  nund)er  of  alM»ut  20,000.  8th, 
KolouglLs,  or  descendants  of  Turiis  by  Moorish 
mothers,  their  name  literally  signifying  'sons  of 
soldiers.'  Although  ]wssessed  oif  infiucnce,  they 
did  not  formerly  enjoy  the  same  rights  and  con- 
siderati<tn  as  their  fathers.  9th,  Eur«»iH»ans.  who 
may  of  course  l>e  sulxlividerl  into  various  nations, 
but  arc  mostly  French.  Amongst  the  Kabyles  of 
the  Aurcss  are  a  trilKMlistingidshe<l  by  a  fair  com- 
])Iexion,  blue  eyes,  and  light  hair,  believed  to  l)c 
<lescendants  of  the  Vandals.  Traces  of  the  Iluns, 
Suevi,  an<l  other  Gothic  nations  have  l>eeii  also 
found.  (For  further  inf<irmation  resis'cting  the 
differcnt  native  races,  see  Arabia,  Bakbauy,  and 

MOBOCCO.) 


68 


ALGIERIA 


Scenery. — ^Procccilinff  from  W.  to  E.  a  rich 
chnni[>ajgii  countr)'  stretches  for  some  <lwtance 
iiilnnd  S.  of  Arzew,  l)oun(l«i  towards  the  aea  by 
steep  HK'ks  and  pnnupices;  many  fertile  plains  are 
irri^ate^l  by  the  Sigg  river  (or  Sikkj  a  drain  or 
trench),  its  waters  being  diverted  by  numerous 
canals  hir  that  puqxwe.  Ik^hincf  Masagran,  and 
near  the  Shelliff,  as  far  as  the  sea,  is  a  tract  stud- 
de<l  Diitli  on^hards,  gardens,  and  countrj'  houses. 
The  countrv  nmnd  Shershell  is  of  the  most  exu- 
l>eTnnt  fertility,  jHJSsessing  large  trat^ts  of  arable 
land,  and  the  m<mntains  covered  to  their  summits 
with  plantations  of  fruit  trees,  and  affording  de- 
lightful and  extensive  pn»s]KH'ts.  The  inland  parts 
of  the  W.  province  f>n'sent  alternately  fertile  val- 
leys and  high  ranges  of  rocky  mrmntains.  *  If  we 
conceive,'  says  Sliaw,  'anuml)erof  hills,  usually 
of  the  i>er[Kmdicular  height  of  4(>0,  500,  or  (UM) 
yanls,  'vvith  an  easy  as<"ent,  and  several  gn»ves  of 
hniit  and  forest  trees  rising  up  in  a  succession  of 
ranges  one  l>ohind  ant)ther,  and  if  to  this  pro8i)ect 
we  h<»re  and  there  add  a  rocky  precipice  ol  a  supe- 
ri(»r  eminence  and  dilhcult  a<!cess,  and  place  uiM»n 
the  side  or  summit  of  it.  a  mud-walled  Dashkerah, 
or  village  of  the  Kabyles, — we  shall  then  }iav(»  a 
just  idea  of  the  atlas  iHuuiding  the  Tell.*  The 
verge  of  the  Sahara  l)eyond  this  presents  nothing 
but  scattered  villages  and  plantations  of  dates. 
Tlie  plain  of  Metidjah,  adjoining  the  ca])ital,  con- 
tains many  farms  and  country  houses,  prtNlucing 
in  ])erfecti(»n  flax,  henna,  r(K»ts,  iK)t-herl)s,  rice,, 
fruit,  and  com  of  all  kinds;  it  is  a<Iorned  l)esides 
with  multitudes  of  oleanders,  geraniums,  ]Mission 
tiowers,  an<l  other  luxuriant  shhd)s.  The  S.  pro- 
vince has  the  same  general  character  as  that  of 
Gran,  llic  Titteri  Dosh,  20  m.  S.  of  Me<leah,  is  a 
towering  nmgc  of  bleak  preci])ices.  Tlie  Juijura. 
8K.  of  Algiers,  is  a  similar  tract.  The  sea  coast  of 
the  E.  pn>viuce,  as  far  as  the  river  Zhoore,  is 
mountainr)us,  and  calle<l  by  the  Aralw  El-A<lwah 
(the  Lofty);  thence  to  the  Seibous  it  is  hilly;  and 
fr«>m  the' latter  to  the  l)order  mostly  level,  and 
sometimes  covered  with  forests.  Some  distance  to 
the  S.  are  the  3f.  Thamhes  of  Ptolemy.  Ihe 
Seibous  in  some  parts  wanders  through  l>eautiful 
valleys,  clothed  with  olive  trees,  lentisks,  and  a 
fine  turf.  The  coimtrv  alsjut  the  source  of  the 
Zenati  is  broken  and  irregular,  and  api>ears  to  be 
volcanic;  that  to  the  X.  and  NW.  of  ( Constant ine, 
from  which  that  city  is  chiefly  supplie*!,  is  wat^^retl 
by  the  Rusuli,  which  is  *  bonlerwl  by  a  few  villas 
ami  numerous  gardens,  rich  in  every  variety  ol 
vegetable  and  fruit  trees,  with  extensive  groves  of 

Kimegranate,  olive^  tig.  orange,  and  citron,'  and 
>unile<l  by  bol<i  ranges  of  hills :  its  fruit  is  esteemed 
over  the  whole  province.  In  the  roa<l  from  Algiers 
to  Omstantine,  between  the  plains  of  Hamza  and 
Majanah,  a  deep  narrow  (mss,  called  Beeban  (the 
Gat«s),  which  a  few  men  might  defend  against  an 
army,  leads  through  a  moimtain  ridge;  and  a 
little  farther  E.  the  road  is  carried  by  a  dangen>us 
track  over  the  crest  of  a  high  mountain.  S,  of 
Sdtif  are  many  rich  plains.  The  territory  around 
Tifesh  is  the  most  fndtful  in  Numidia,  and  the  W. 
I)n)vince  the  finest  of  the  regency.  The  \'illages 
of  Zaab  are  collections  of  dirtv  hovels,  surrounded 
by  <late  plantations;  Wad-reag,  a  similar  countr}', 
lias  25  villages.  To  the  W.  ext<»nds  the  vast 
region  of  Blaid-el-Jerride,  *a<lrv'countr>','al)oimd- 
ing  in  dates.  (Shaw,  ])p.  1-M>8;  Sir  Ix.  Temple, 
Extracts  in  the  Ge<^;japh.  Journal,  1838,  part,  iL) 
Antitntities, — Most  of  the  citii»s  and  towns  bear 
names  little  altered  fnim  those  given  them  bv  the 
liomans.  Manv  niins  remain ;  th(»se  of  I'ipasa 
(Tifessad),  IH  m.  E.  of  Shershell,  stretch  f«»r  two 
miles  along  the  coast :  on  the  brink  of  the  Shelliff, 
in  about  the  same  lat.,  there  ore  several  classical 


remiuns,  Corinthian  capitals,  &c.,  probably  the 
ruins  of  the  Colon ia  Augusta  of  Pliny.  Abi<ut 
14  m.  E.  of  Algiers  are  the  ruins  of  Kosucurium. 
At  Maliana,  N.  of  the  Shelliff,  a  stone,  inserted  in 
a  modem  wall,  bears  an  inscriptiim,  whence  it  has 
been  inferred  that  it  was  tlie  place  where  Pompe>'*s 
gran(b«on  and  great  grandson  were  biuied.  (See 
Martial,  Epig.  Ub.  v.  Ep.  75.)  Near  Bona  are  the 
ruins  of  Hippo  BegiuSj  and  many  towns  can  bt^a^t 
of  ancient  relics  ui  tolerable  prcser\'atioa.  The 
j(n)vince  of  Constantine  especially  abounds  with 
them,  and  with  Roman  roads ;  and  even  the  re- 
mote district  of  Wad-reag  has  numerous  remains 
of  Roman  masonry.  Near  the  capital  is  a  col- 
lecti<m  of  iinheM'n  stones,  somewhat  similar  to 
thiKse  of  Stonehenge^  which  the  French  call  l^midic, 
but  others  believe  to  be  Pha'nician.  There  are 
few  Christian  remains,  their  buildings  ))a\ing  been 
(lest roved  bv  the  zeal  of  the  Saracens^  (Shaw, 
pp.  2r-67. ;  *Sir  (}.  Temple,  Extracta.) 

Agriculture, — Much  of  the  land  is  uncoltivatod 
and  waste ;  but  the  fertility  fur  which  it  was  «> 
famous  in  antiquity — 

*  Non  qnicqnid  LlbTcis  terit, 
Fcrvcns  area  mcndbos,* — 

still  continues  nnimpaire^l;  and  requires  merely 
the  substitution  of  regular  govemmcnt  for  lawless 
violence,  and  of  industrious  colonists  for  roving 
he.rilsmen,  to  render  it  once  more  the  grauary  of 
Euro|)e.  The  land  in  many  parts,  owing  to  the 
<]uantity  of  salt  with  which  it  Ls  impregnated,  is 
so  rich  as  to  rec|uire  no  manure  but  burnt  weeds. 
But  in  a  dr\'  climate  like  this  ever>'  thing  depends 
on  the  command  of  water ;  and  the  necessity  un- 
der which  the  native  inhabitants  were  placed  (if 
providing  this  indis]x;nsable  element  for  their 
lands,  had  so  far  coimtcrvaile<l  their  indolence  and 
want  of  science  as  to  make  them  pretty  expert  in 
the  art  of  irrigation.  The  French  were  not,  at 
first,  sufficiently  alive  to  the  vital  importance  of 
this;  and  some  of  the  Arab  works  for  irrigating 
were  in  consequence  neglected,  to  the  great  iiyury 
of  the  province,  but  the  mist.ake  has  latterly  been 
re]iaired.  Tlie  land  is  usually  ploughed  and  sown 
in  Oct(»ber,  or  (if  with  barley)  in  Novemlier;  by 
the  aid  of  A]iril  rains  a  gotxl  cn>j)  is  thought 
secure,  and  the  har\'est  takes  filacc  m  the  end  of 
May,  or  the  be^ning  of  June,  yielding  at  an 
average  8  or  12  for  1.  The  species  of  com  mostly 
groinTi  are  the  Tritirum  durum  (hanl  wheat),  and 
Hordeum  vuigare  (common  barley).  Maize  is  not 
much  cultivateiU  except  in  the  W.  proWnce ;  white 
millet  for  fattening  cattle  is  planted  there;  rice 
chiefly  in  the  jirov.  of  Oran.  Oats  not  being 
grown,  horses  are  fed  wholly  upon  liarley  and 
straw.  The  plough  used  round  Algiers  is  the  same 
as  that  of  S{>ain  and  I*rovence ;  but  in  general  is 
not  shod  vnih.  uron.  It  is  drawn  by  cows  and  asses, 
very  rarely  by  hoi«is;  yet  ^^ith  such  im])(*rfect 
jdoiighing  the  cn>]>s  are  generally  excellent.  When 
reii]>ed,  the  grain  is  triKlden  out  by  cattle  or 
horses;  and  after  being  cleaned  by  throwing  it 
up  against  the  utind,  is  deposited  in  subterraneous 
caves  or  magazines.  Tlie  pulse  crops  arc  beanii, 
lentils,  kidney  beans,  pease,  an<l  garvan^os  fcicer 
]>ea) ;  tumiiis,  carrots,  cabl»ages,  &c.,  arc  good  anil 
plentiful.  Endive,  cress,  spinach,  and  artichokes 
are  in  seas<in  from  Octol)cr  to  June ;  after  which 
come  calabashes,  mallows,  tomatas,  and  water- 
melons. Potatoes  are  fn^uently  groiMi,  but  do 
not  arrive  at  a  huge  size,  and  are  of  inferior  quality. 
The  date  is  the  jmncipal  fnut,  and  is  by  far  the 
most  valuable  pro<luct  of  the  country  S.  of  the 
greater  Atlas.  It  Is  ]^r(.>j>aj;rated  chieflv  by  younrj 
shoots,  and  yields  fruit  in  Its  Cth  or  tth  year;  it 
attains  maturitv  at  al)out  its  30th  vear,  bxhX  is  in 
full  vigour  for  CO  or  70  more,  after  which  it  gra- 


duall;  deeliiM*,  tin  it 


ALOIERIA 
BS  extinct  vhcn  ■boni  I  BtuITi,  the  first 


heiefon 


HDglit  PaHaditu  n]  .         , 

lonm  A  pahmi  eo^Ut  amtcrtudit.'      (Oct.  n.t 
During  >la  iiuuiiit7  it  yrclda  uiaualljr  fiom  15  M 
^  duAttf  ot  Amua,  each  weighing  &om   15  to 
10  Ida.    The  date  palm  (font)  when  it  dies  ii 
alwair*  mecceded  by  olhen  fram  shoots  or  kecnela ; 
.    whence  inav  prohtblv  have  orifinaleil  the  fable  oi 
allepay  of  the  binl  l^ffiiiijt.    The  lotiu  or  trrdra 
bar*  a  b«iy  aold  all  uver  the  S.  disUict,     Htwt 
df  the  fruit  trees  common  to  Europe  are  found  in 
Alffiera ;  but  the  fruita  are  infi^ur,  excepting  ncc- 
tarines,  peachea,  and  potn^ianatea  j  there  are  no 
hazel  nuts,  filtierta,  airawbcmes,  gooRebetrieA,  or 
ennanta.     The  Tine  is  cnltiv»t«il  with  much  ad- 
rantaffiv;  the  KT^tea  ripen  by  the  end  of  July, 
uid  are  eaten  buth  fresli  and  drv  by  the  natii-is,    •j- 
who  aeldinn  make  wine;  thou|;£  thinj  no  duulrt,  ,  w 
will  be  attempted,  and  must  iikcl^-  with  mucccbs,    m 
bv  the  French.    Oil  of  a  very  inferior  quality,  and  '  Fi 
iJirayB  acrid,  is  obtained  Irum  the  ulive.     Me 
and  iDdian   figa  are  laigely  grown,  and  fon 
DHiidileTable  part  of  the  food  of  tlie  Arabs. 
BHne  f^rudoda  near  Algiera  the  anear-cane  is  ci 
nied.     Cotton  and  inciij,ii  have  been  tried,  and 


fnnnin);  the  j^iealer  part  of  the 
iuo»»  of  the  population,  leatber,  saddles,  bridles, 
carpets,  nre^arma,  steel  and  other  metal  articles, 


a   them 


IT  tn  that  of 
only  are  omplojni  ■ 
coarse  woollen  manufactures,  as 
slavish  occupation  of  grinding  com.    European 
Rwxla  arc  much  in  request,  and  are  bartered  in  the 
S.  for  gold  ihist  and  cwirith  fcathen. 

Tradt. — Prci-ioualy  to  the  oc<'upation  of  Algieria 
by  the  French,  the  istobiiBhcd  ralea  iifdiity  wcra 
S  and  10  )>er  cent,  on  imported  articles,  occonling 
til  the  Btipulnlions  in  the  treoliiw  with  the  coun- 
tries of  wliich  tbey  were  the  prmluce.  But  these 
general  ru1(s  were  entirely  disrtgardeii  in  practice; 
uid,  in  point  of  fact,  little  or  no  tmde  ctndd  be 
carried  on  except  by  those  wbo  obtained  licences 
that  effect  from  goremment,  which  were  cither 
Id  to  the  highest  bidiler,  or  to  tliose  who  had 
33t  inlereat  with  the  Divan.  As  soon  as  the 
French  had  taken  posseasioii  of  Algeria,  the 
icreat  resources  of  the  country  came  to  bo  de- 
veloped. The  imports,  chiefly  from  France  into 
Algeria,  amounted  to  7,01)0,000  hs.,  or  280,0001; 
in  1B3I,  and  gradually  rose  to  40.000,000  fri.,  or 
.  ^^,  n^,  !_  18^.  toBI,234,M7rni.,or3,aW,377/., 


ill.    It  appeani  from    in  1».>J ;  and  to  nearly  ij  milliuiia 


of  I  Bi 


affiiial  returns  that  there  were  3,274  hecta: 
land  pUnteil  irith  cotton   in  the  year  lHti3,  in 

Altfena  ;  that  the  crop  amounteil  to  l,"" 

rnmmes,  and  the  value  ia  estimated 

tiucK.     During   the  years   18«1   and   1802, 

prcvDd  planted  with  cotton  did  not  measure  '    .. . 

thin  1.42)1  hectares,  and  the  value  did  not  exceed    i^reatly 

Vflmm  francs.  chiefly 

Cattle   constitute  the  principal  wealth  of  the    by  the  J 
ailivcB.     She^aieoftwokiuils:  oneHmall.mlh    imly to l^?2/. 
aibickUi}:e  toil;  theotheroramuChbirgcrBi7G,    lo47,f""'    " 
etiictly  found  in  the  country  of  the  Mebuio-Gelulie.    Mber 
ShtppofiheeDe  Tunisian  breedorenotmetwith.    into  Algeria  dcclii 
(Mts  {veUy  abundant;  pigs  few,  round-bodied,    They  were  of  the 
•bn-lcKKci  and  generally  block.    Cattle  usually    ■"•'■"•    --    ■'"■■ 
Uic^ :  iheir  milk  la  inferior  tu  that  of  Eurnpetm 
eaitic;  that  of  aheep  and  goats  is  mostly  ixae<L  in 
ikt  making!   if  cheese  and   butter.    The  Arabs 
MJikim  diminish  tlielr  flocks  by  killing  them  fur 
tuL  but  live  on  their  milk  and  wimjL  \o  animals 
m  castrated-    The  commun  boaata  of  burthen  are 
iii»l»,  dromedaries,  oases,  and  mulis.     ]>r.  Shniv 
•Voks  of  a  singular  cruss  brrwil  between  on  ass 

u>d  a  cow,  called  Immrah,  hftving  a  sleeker  akiu 

iban  it»  sire,  no  boms,  but  the  dam's  hcail  and 

iiil ;  lui  Kozet  saya  that  be  had  not  been  able  to 

iai  toy  ince  of  any  such  animal    The  horses 

•n  am  olwivs,  nor  ei*en  often  of  the  jiure  Arab 

l^ed.  Dor  sltogeihcr  well   shaped,  being  lanky 

tod  mind-ahouldered ;   heod  small,  and  not  ill 

I'^Qked;  cars  erect;  and   thev  are   hardy,  fleet, 

inrilfll,  and  docile:  thoee  of  6ran  ore  occounled 

>}•  bat,    Tbey  are  U-ted  onlj-  fur  ri.ling,  and  like 


erling  in  IWiS. 


the  exports  scarcely  kc|>t  poce  witli  tl      „ 

import  trad&     In  the  ten  yeora  from  lN.i4  ti> 

njnuo-  I  icniJ,  Algeria  never  exported  more  than  from  l^ 

,859,000    (O  2  millions  atciling  worth  of  ber  produce,  nearly 

■thirds  of  which  went  to  France.     However, 

[ports  from  Alf^na  to  the  United  Kingilnm 

- ' 1  during  tlie  yeors  lftliO-3,  owinc 

civil  war.  The  exports  amounted 

,     _.       lMC0,nndro»eto3l'l,3ai(.in  IMKl; 

47,2e4Jinl8G3,an<ltol04.204f.inlN6a.  Ontho 

*  om  the  United  Kingdura 

iring    the  some  period. 

_         _  or43,754t  in  18G0;  of 

Cattle  usually    M.955J:  in   IRCl ;    of   4r>,253/.  in   18G3,   and  of 

-    '--  l,V32t  in  1863.    In  ailiUtitai  to  cttu,  or  rather 

lioar,   the  principal  articles   of  importation   are 

(Otton,  woollen,  silk,  and  linen  stuffis  but   pnr- 

uciiUrly  the  first;   wines  and  spirits,  sugar  and 

is>ffoc,  armfl,  hardware,  and  cutle^. 

The  em]ilovment  of  shiimiiig  corresponds  with 
;he  amount  of  tmde ;  and  the  prn)ioni<in  of  both 
in  the  hands  of  the  French  is  increasing.  A  regular 
intero.urw  is  kept  up  bv  means  of  steam-iiatkcw 
liftwccQ  Marseilles,  Cette,  Antwerp,  Havre,  and 
Algicra. 
'■lie  weights,  measures,  and  money  in  use  are, 
Wrigha.—Tbe  Onijnjsh  {4  Kruuuues) ;  RoU  t  ttiarir 

Mnaura  of  bipon^r,— ZVfHirf:  KuUah,  (18'M  litres} 
=  alKiut  IT  pints.  Drf:  Pn(4S]ltTvs)=513'7thplntf. 
ilfliaglh:  Dicrd  ftTorkf  (Btt>mi11emetnH)=l.U!>9Iect 


lie 


^        tbii 


omela  ore  reared  and  bve 

ip.  2-fi5,  160-170;  Roict, 
LctlcTB  from  S.) 


l1ti"4-iBi;  CampbeU 

^1*.   awf   Jtfo.i</ocri.r._.      

"•In rf  Europe  are  followed  in  the  towns;  but 
omdontd  in  a  very  inferior  manner,  as  well  be- 
CUH lithe  indolence  oa  of  the  ignorance  of  the 
'^'mn.  The  Jewa  ars  the  moat  industrious,  and 
"^cfJiie  the  gifater  part  of  the  extemol  trade, 
nih  the  higher  Iwanchcs  of  ort,  beinglhe  liief 
JfwllH*,  watchmakers,  ond  tailors.  The  Arabs 
■t  SHchanta,  tanners,  and  carpenters;  the  Xe- 
fT'«  mawns,  bricklavers,  anil  other  artificers ; 
I*  Kabries  extract  m)n,  lead,  and  copper  from 
re  gimpowder,aoid 


^nimb.    C-ippert  Dcrbem  tiifur,  J 


Riematt. — It  i 


iheni 


impossible  precisely  to  oscorta 
;nueaat  the  disposal  of  the  ik 
)I^  to  the  French  conquest;  b 


I*  miperior  to  that  m 


uAlgim 


Thecl 


ifAlgien 

it  mav  be  fairly  estimated  at  about  3,lH)0,niK)  fr, 
iir  1-20,000/.,  including  thertdn  650,000  fr.,  o. 
■«,O0O(.  of  tribute  paid  by  Naples,  Portugal,  Ac. 
Eitr  exemjition  from  piracy ;  but  it  is  prubable  that 
the  taxes  paid  by  the  people  amoontcd  to  at  least 
three  or  four  times  as  much.  The  taxes  were  of 
i^oiia  kiiuls :  the  principal  was  the  tithe  {aithr) 
iif  ell  crops;  and  there  were  also  |Kiil  taxes  on  the 


annrifti-timi  an  coane  linen,  woollen,  and  oilk   i 


ALGIERU 


the  monopoly  of  wool,  loAther,  baU,  and  wax. 
These  taxes  have  l)ecn  |Mirt.ly  retAined  by  the 
French ;  but  the  mf»re  oppresHive^  with  the  nn>- 
nopolies,  liavc  lieen  abolished.  A  considerable 
revenue  has  been  latterly  <lerived  from  the  »ale  of 
the  public  lands  and  other  pr()])erty  belonp:inf:f  to 
the  state,  which  are  iK-^nninc  to  be  extensively 
])urchased  and  (.>ccupied  by  Kuropeims,  The  re- 
venue from  all  wiurces  amounted  in  18H3  to  about 
r)O,000,(KK>  francs,  or  2  millions  sterling.  The 
French  exfjenditurc  in  Algeria,  from  it>»  conquest 
to  the  end  of  the  year  1804,  is  estimated  at 
4,632,4^4,000  francs,  <ir  lHr),29l»,3G0/.  To  France 
Algitria  always  has  been,  and  must  continue  U)  be, 
a  most  costly  colony. 

The  (invemmcnt  is  administered  by  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  French  forces  in  Algieria, 
who  is  governor-general,  and  rc^poiisilile  to  the 
French  cabinet.  His  salarv,  bv  an  innx*Tial  de- 
cree of  S*«]>t.  5, 1804,  has  been  fixed  at  120,000  frs., 
or  .'i,000/.  The  govemor-gcnenil  exercisei*  al>- 
solute  authority.  PreWously  to  1830  the  govern- 
ment was  veste<l  in  a  dev,  or  pacha,  l)cing  the 
officer  at  the  head  of  the  'Turkish  soldiery  in  the 
regc^ncy. 

Military  and  Naval  Force, — Under  the  Turks 
the  (ley  maintained  a\nmt  10,000  n'gular  infimt.ry 
and  0.000  cavalrv ;  but  in  case  of  neetl  he  could 
bring  into  the  lield  a  considerable  l)ody  of  irreguhir 
t.nM)|)s,  iNiund  to  st»r\'e,  like  the  Euroi)ean  f(.»rces  of 
the  middle  ages,  for  a  certain  uuml^er  of  <lays  at 
their  own  awt.  The  cavalr\'  was  recnnte<l  chietiy 
among  the  Araljs  and  Jierl)ers.  The  naval  force, 
i«>  long  an  object  of  tcrn>r  to  the  Christian  powers, 
wxLs  never  very  formidable.  In  181t5,  when  it  was 
n<!arlv  annihilated  bv  Loni  Exmouth,  it  consisted 
of  4  frigates  of  from  40  to  50  gims,  1  of  38  guns,  4 
corvettes,  12  brigs  and  gi>elettes,  an<l  30  giui-lM)ats. 
In  1824  their  corsairs  had  again  l)egini  to  infest 
the  se-as;  and  in  1830,  on  the  capture  of  Algiers, 
the  French  found  a  large  frigate  m  dm'k,  and  two 
others  in  the  i>ort,  2  cor>ettes, 8  or  10  brigs, several 
xelxjcks,  and  32  gim-Uiats.  (Kozet,  iii.  p.  3r)2- 
380.)  The  French  tn>oi>s  in  Algieria  in  1 8r)3,  accord- 
ing to  official  returns,  were  02,407  men  and  14,323 
horses.  The  French  troops  of  all  arms  iucludcd 
in  these  figures  amoiuited  to  ftl.^i'ut  men  and 
10,714  horses,  the  suq)]iL«i  l)eing  fonned  of  a  foreign 
regiment  and  native  troops.  In  the  so-calle<l  na- 
tive tnH)ps,  which  never  quit  the  colony  excc]>t 
fiir  fighting  puqjoses,  there  are  a  great  number  of 
Kuro|)eans.  Tliey  consist  of  three  regiments  of 
Zouaves,  three  uf  Turcos,  or  *  Tirailleurs  Algt'riens,' 
three  of '  ('h.'tsseurs  <l\Vfrique,'  ami  three  of  Si»ahis, 
but  lor  some  years  a  numl)er  of  these  liave  been 
absent  in  CtK'hin-China  and  Mexi(;o. 

Religion  and  Edwntion. — The  gre^it  bulk  of  the 
peojde  profess  Moliammodnnl^im.  The  negroes, 
iiowever,  are  mostly  addicted  to  fJtichism ;  and 
the  cree<l  of  the  IJerlnirs  is  scarcely  kn(mii,  as 
they  suffer  no  strangers  to  \*'itness  their  riles: 
they  pay  great  reverence  to  tlu'ir  maralxjuts  or 
mouraiMi/s,  |>ersons  who  practice  a  rigid  and  austere 
life,  and  who  sometimes  affect  to  perform  miracles. 
Ttiey  n^rd  them  as  insj>ire<l,  and  honour  their 
tombs.  This  cuhtom  luis  crept  in  amongst  the 
Jews,  who  venerjite  the  sepulchres  of  their  rabbins, 
and  convert  them  inUi  synagogues.  Since  the 
French  occupation  a  goo* I  many  mo»iques  have 
been  converted  into  Christian  churehes. 

Morals  arc  at  an  extremely  low  ebb;  the  inha- 
bitants, particularly  the  Mt)ors,  l>eing  in  gt-ueral 
grossly  sensual,  debauched,  and  corrupt.  Dronken- 
nejis  is  n(»t  very  frequent  amongst  the  natives;  but 
the  French  have  lost  large  immbers  of  n»on  from 
excess. 

The  Moors  and  otlicr  inhabitants  of  the  towns 


con  for  the  most  part  road  the  Koran  and  wTit«, 
which,  however,  comprise  the  whole  of  their  in- 
stnicrion ;  few  underKtand  arithmetic,  or  go  bej-bnd 
the  first  two  rules;  and  this  limited  instruction,  it 
will  be  observed,  is  enjoyed  by  the  male  sex  only, 
women  being  bniught  u])  in  the  moAt  complete 
state  of  ignorance.  Tlie  Moors  often  transact 
business  by  pla<:ing  their  fingers  on  different  jiarts 
of  each  other's  hands,  without  speaking ;  each 
finger  and  joint  denotuig  a  different  number.  Few 
Ixxjks,  except  the  Koran,  and  some  encomiastic 
commentaries  upon  it,  arc  ever  seen  or  £u>ught 
after.  The  education  of  children  in  the  Korui 
goes  on  for  three  or  four  years,  when  their  tuition 
ceases.  The  French  have  established  schools  of 
mutual  instruction  in  all  the  principal  to\«iis, 
which  are  chiefly  superintended  by  Jews,  and 
tolerably  well  attended.  Official  returns  show 
that,  in  18(>2,  there  were  471  establishmentj«  for 
priman*  instruction,  which  received  3v>,l>yy  ))upilit 
of  lK»th  sexas.  Dining  the  tliree  last  years  tlie 
number  of  children  who  liave  received  primary 
instructi<m  has  increased  by  over  o,000.  In  18t)l, 
among  the  tribes  which  hail  submitted  to  the  mili- 
tary athninistration,  2,140  primary*  schooLfi  for 
Miissidmans  had  been  established, "with  2,313  in- 
stitutions at  which  25,000  pupils  learned  reading, 
writhig,  arithmetic,  and  commentaries  on  tlie 
Koran.  (Tableau  de  la  Situation,  &c.  p.  254.,  and 
French  Official  Keturns.) 

Arts  and  Sciences. — The  jVrabs  of  Algieria,  though 
descended  from  the  people  who  gave  algebra  to 
Europe,  and  preserve<l  medicine  during  the  dark 
ages,  have  no  notion  either  of  arithmetic  or  of  the 
correct  measurement  of  time  or  distance.  Their 
me<licine,  too,  is  in  the  nidest  state,  and  few  dL«v- 
eases  occur  that  do  not,  under  their  treatment, 
l>ec(»me  either  chronic  or  mortaL  Tlieir  remedies 
consist  chieflv  of  suj>erst  itious  practices,  as  ]>il- 
grimage,s :  or  mert-  decoctions,  as  that  of  mallows, 
fhey  are  accustome<l,  in  cases  of  rheumatism  and 
pleurisy,  to  pmicture  with  a  red-hot  inm ;  to  dre* 
wounds  with  hot  butter,  and  sometimes  with  pejH 
per,  salt,  and  brandy ;  and  on  the  field  of  liattle  to 
thrust  W(K>1  into  them.  When  amputAtiim  i*  re- 
sorted to,  it  is  ]>erformed  by  the  stroke  of  an  ata- 
ghan,  and  followed  by  the  application  of  hot  pitclu 
Hence,  notwithstanding  their  aversion  to  change, 
we  neexi  not  wonder  that  latterly  the  French  army 
surgeons  have  lK*en  in  great  request  by  the  natives. 
llosi)itaU  have  l>een  cstaldisheil  in  the  princi))al 
to^Mis,  and  vaccination  has  been  introduced.  In 
18r»3  not  fewer  than  23,301  civilians,  l»elonging 
either  to  the  Eun)pean  or  to  the  native  p<»pula- 
tion,  applied  for  admission  into  the  hospitals. 
(Shaw,  p.  190-199 ;  Campbell,  Let.  20 ;  and  Official 
iU'turns.) 

Social  Life. — The  Ikrliera  or  Kabyles  live  in 
cabins  (gurbies)  made  of  the  branches  of  trees 
pla>itercd*with  mud  and  straw,  with  a  low  do(.>r  and 
narrow  glazed  holes  serving  for  windows;  the*e 
huts  are  collected  together  in  small  groups  iw 
dashkras.  The  Moors,  Jews,  Negroes,  and  mt»st 
others,  except  the  Arabs,  live  in  houses  built  on  a 
uniform  model,  which  from  the  earliest  times  has 
not  varie<l.  An  o}K»n  court-yard  forms  the  centre, 
around  which  are  various  apartments,  opening  U]Hin 
galleries  supi>orted  by  light  pilasters:  the  roofs  are 
tint,  surrounded  by  a  battlement  breast  high,  and 
built  with  a  com{)osition  of  sand,  wmhI  ashe^,  and 
lime,  mixe<l  with  oil  and  water,  called  terrace  \ 
whence  our  word.  The  rooms  are  fliKJitd  and  cis- 
terns Jire  made  of  this  com]K)sition.  Watcr-omrsi'S 
are  comi>osed  of  tow  and  lime  only,  mixinl  with 
oil ;  this  mixture,  as  well  as  the  former,  SiK>ii  ac- 
quiring the  hardness  and  im|»er\'iousne8s  of  stone. 
In  most  habitations  there  is  in  each  apartment  a 


ALGIEBIA 


n 


niatd  fdatfonn  for  deqnng  on,  the  bed  being  com- 
pi«ed  of  junk,  matting,  8hee|>Hikins,  or  more  costly 
material,  aoconling  to  circumstances.  The  other 
Aimiture  oonsista,  among  the  nomadic  tribes,  of 
two  large  stones  for  grinding  com,  wrought  by 
women ;  a  few  articles  of  pottery  and  bronze,  and 
a  rude  firame  for  weaving.  The  better  classes  have 
co&hioas  and  carpets  to  their  rooms,  the  lower 
part  of  their  walLi  being  adorned  with  coloure<l 
hai^^ingft,  and  the  upper  part  painted  and  decorated 
with  fret  woiit.  The  tofits  of  the  Arabs  (the  ma- 
fa£a  of  the  ancients)  are  sometimes  called  khynuuy 
from  the  shelter  they  afford ;  and  somctimeH  btet- 
ei~akaar,  or  houses  of  hair,  from  the  webs  of  goats' 
hair  of  which  they  are  made.  They  are  constructed 
at  tht!4  moment  predselv  in  the  wav  described  by 
Liv>-  (lib.  xxLx,  §  31.),  'Sallust  (Bell  Jug.  §  21.), 
VlTfpl^  &C.  They  are  of  an  oblong  shape,  not  un- 
like the  bottom  of  a  ship  turned  upwards,  and  arc 
family  set  up  and  taken  doMm.  (Shaw,  pp.  20H- 
2±*.)  The  dress  of  the  Berbers  is  very  rude  and 
coarse ;  that  of  the  other  classes  varies  grcAtly ; 
but  it  w  common  with  both  sexes  to  wear  abroad  a 
kait,  or  toca,  and  a  bemmu,  which  covers  the 
bead  and  shoulderB :  the  faces  of  the  women  are 
\*ry  much  concealed.  Vegetables  form  the  chief 
diet  <^  all  classes,  not  a  fourth  part  of  the  animal 
fiMid  being  consumed  by  them  tliat  b  consumed  by 
m  equal  population  in  Europe.  Bread,  couscouson 
(a  kind  of  Irish  stew),  legumes,  potatoes,  tomatas, 
and  other  vegetables,  dressed  with  spices,  oil,  but- 
ter, or  aromatic  herbs;  Indian  figs,  raisins,  melons, 
and  other  fruits ;  with  water,  sherbet,  and  coffee, 
—form  the  main  articles  of  consumption. 

Drinking  coffee  and  smoking  tobacco  constitute 
never-iailing  amusements.  Almost  all  the  male  in- 
hiliitants  oi  the  towns  have  a  pipe  attached  to  the 
Intton  of  their  vest;  and  the  more  indolent  and 
npaknt  will  sit  for  days  in  caf(^  unmindful  of 
their  families,  smddng  incessantly,  or  playing  at 
t!tta».  In  the  country,  fowling,  hawkintc?  and 
hunting  the  yvUd  boar  and  lion  arc  actively  ])ur- 
Hied.    Theatres  are  now  opened  in  the  prmcipal 

The  Lamguage  is  mostly  Arabic,  but  mixed  with 

V<Miriith  and  Phoenician  wonls.  The  Kabyles  have 

a  peculiar  language,  so  very  poor  that  it  is  without 

cnnjunctions  or  abstract  terras,  and  is  indebted  to 

th*  Arabic  for  these,  and  for  all  terms  of  rcli^on, 

fwnrc,  &C.     In  conversing  with  Europeans  a  lin- 

f»a  Franca  is  made  use  of;  a  mixture  of  Spanish, 

Italian.  French,  and  Portuguese.  (See  Bakuaky.) 

HmUcayt, — In  no  respect  have   the  efforts  of 

France  to  civilise  this  part  of  Africa  been  more 

>'>wtrtttf!ful  than  in  the  formation  of  |2^ood  roads, 

and.  tlic  most  perfect  of  all  rr)ads,  railways.    At 

the  end  frf"  the  year  1864,  there  had  been  prepared 

in  Algeria  a  net  work  of  340  miles  of  railroads, 

»i«nely,  a  trunk  line  from  Algiers  to  Oran.  287 

miler  iooji:,  and  a  branch  line  from  Philippo-illc  to 

I'^iRi'tantine,  of  53  miles.    The  first  section  of  this 

''  *o«,  from  Algiers  to  Blidah,  was  ojjened  for 

^T>ffic  in  April  1864,  and  the  whole  network  was 

••xfiertM  to  be  complete  in  May  1869.    A  connec- 

tiiin  li  all  the  towns  and  military  stations  of 

Al^vria  bv  telegraphic  wLres  was  brought  into 

wpoation  'in  l«o6. 

History. — The  country  formed  part  of  the  Ro- 
niin  empire ;  but  during  the  reign  of  Valentinian 
HI.  Giant  Itoniface,  the  governor  of  Africa,  having 
n^^'olued.  called  in  the  Vandals  to  his  aH^uitance. 
Tfie  Utter  having  taken  possession  of  the  country, 
h^-id  it  till  they  were  expelled  bv  Bclisarius,  a.  i>. 
'i^>\,  who  retttoml  Africa  to  the  !■!.  Empire.  It  was 
O'ttnin  and  c^>nquere<l  by  the  Saracens  in  the 
M-venth  centurj',  and  was  soon  after  diWdc*!  into 
9A  many  kiugtloma  as  there  are  now  pro\-iuccs. 


Ferdinand  of  Spain,  having  driven  the  Saracens 
from  Europe,  followed  them  into  Africa,  and  in 
1501  and  1509  took  possession  of  Oran,  Bugia, 
Algiers,  and  other  places.  The  natives,  wishing  to 
throw  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  had  recourse  to  the 
famous  corsairs,  the  brothers  Aroudj  and  Khayr- 
ed-Dyn,  better  knoMm  by  the  names  of  Barba- 
roAsa  I.  and  II.,  who  had  distinguished  them- 
selves by  the  boldness  and  success  of  their 
enterprises  against  the  Christians.  The  brothers 
speedily  succeeded  in  expelling  the  Spaniards 
from  all  their  possessions  in  Afnca,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Oran,  wluch  they  held  to  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Algieria  became  the  centre  of 
the  new  power  founded  by  the  Barborossas;  the 
survivor  of  v^om  obtained,  in  1520,  from  Sultan 
Selim,  the  title  of  Dey,  and  a  reinforcement  of 
2,000  troops.  Since  tlien  it  has  been  governed 
nearly  in  the  manner  describe<l  above ;  and  has, 
with  few  interruptions,  carried  on  almost  incessant 
hostilities  against  the  powers  of  Christendom, 
capturing  their  ships  and  reducing  their  subjecta 
to  slaverj'.  Attempts  have  l)een  mode  at  different 
periods  to  abate  this  nuisance.  In  1541,  the  em- 
peror Charles  V.,  who  had  successfully  achieved  a 
similar  enterprise  at  Tunis,  arrived  with  a  powerful 
fleet  and  army  in  the  vicinity  of  Algiers ;  but  the 
fleet  having  been  immediately  overtaken  and  nearly 
destroyed  by  a  dreadful  storm,  the  troops,  without 
provisions  or  shelter,  underwent  the  greatest  pri- 
vations ;  and  the  em|)eror  was  compelled  forthwith 
to  re-embark  such  of  them  as  had  escaped  the  fury 
of  the  elements  and  the  sword  of  the  Turks. 
(Kobertson*s  Charles  V.,  cap.  6.)  This  great  dis- 
aster seems  for  a  lengthened  period  to  have  dis- 
couraged all  attempts  at  cantunng  Algiers.  France, 
however,  as  well  as  l*]ngland  and  other  powers^ 
re{)eatedly  chastised  the  insolence  of  its  banditti 
by  bombarding  the  town  ;  but  in  j^enerol  the 
European  powers  preferred  n^otiating  treaties 
with  the  dey,  and  purchasing  an  exemption  from 
the  attacks  of  the  Algerine  cruisers,  to  making 
any  vigorous  or  well-combined  effort  for  their 
effectual  suppression.  In  1815,  the  Americans 
captured  an  Algerine  frigate ;  and  the  dey  con- 
sente<l  to  renounce  all  claim  to  tribute  from  them, 
and  to  pay  them  60,000  dollars  as  an  indemnifica- 
tion for  their  losses.  But  the  most  effectual 
chastisement  they  ever  received  was  inflicted  so 
late  as  1816  by  the  British  under  Lord  Exmouth; 
when  Algiers  was  bombonled,  the  fleet  in  the 
harlxiiir  dcstroywl,  and  the  dey  compelled  to  con- 
clude a  treaty,  by  which  he  set  the  ('hrLstian 
slaves  at  liberty,  and  engaged  to  cease  in  future 
reducing  Christian  captives  to  that  ignominious 
condition.  But  it  is  cxcee(linjj:lv  doubtful  whether 
these  stipulations  would  have  lieen  better  ol>8crve<l 
than  others  of  the  same  kind  previously  entered 
into  by  his  pretlecessors. 

The  last  of  the  Algerine  deys  got  entangled  in 
altercations  with  the  French  government.     Pro- 
voked by  the  discussions  that  had  taken  place,  and 
the  claims  that  had  been  put  forward,  he  hot!  the 
temerity  to  strike  the  French  consul  on  the  latter 
IMiying  hira  a  visit  of  ceremony.    Kedress  was,  of 
course^  demande<l  for  thb*  gross  insidt ;  but  instead 
of  complvnng  with  any  such  demand,  the  dey  took 
and  demolished  the  French  post  at  La  Calle.    Thw 
was  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war ;  and  France 
determined  on  being  avenged.     In  this  view,  she 
fitted  out  a  powerful  ormament,  including  a  land 
force  of  nearly  88,000  men,  with  a  formidable  train 
of  artillerk',  under  the  command  of  General  lk)ur- 
mont.     The  armament  arrived  on  the  Algerine 
coast  on  the  13th  <if  June,  1830;  and  having  effec- 
ted a  disembarkation  on  the  following  day,  Algiers 
capitulatctl,  after  a  feeble  resistance,  on  tlie  5th  of 


72 


ALOIERIA 


July.  The  dcy  was  allowed  to  rMire  with  his  per- 
sonal property  uninolcHted  to  Italy,  and  his  troops 
to  wherever  ihoy  ch(««e. 

The  Fn-nch  found  in  the  treasury  of  the  dey 
gold  and  silver,  coined  and  uncoined,  of  the  value 
of  47,639,011  fr.,  exclusive  of  stores  of  various 
kinds  valued  at  7,080,926  fr. 

The  t<mTis  of  Oran  and  Bona  soon  after  sub- 
mitted, and  the  bey  of  Titteri  was  also  re<Uiced  to 
obedience.  Hut  the  bey  of  Oran,  or  Tlemsen, 
carried  on  for  a  lenj^thened  period  a  series  of  con- 
tests and  negotiations  with  the  French,  which 
were  termiiiat(Hl  in  1837  by  the  treaty  of  Tafna;  by 
which  he  a;;reed  to  abandon  the  maritime  parts  of 
the  province,  and  to  rec«»gnise  the  supremacy  of  the 
FR»nch  in  Africa.  The  Ix-y  of  Coift-tantine  was 
less  easily  dealt  wth.  Trusting  to  the  strength  of 
his  principal  city,  its  distance  from  Bona,  the 
iiean>Ht  iM>rt,  and  the  liadness  of  the  roads,  he 
bravt<l  the  hostility  of  the  French.  In  N(>vomber, 
18:)(),  a  force  of  x,(N>0  men,  under  Marshal  Clausel, 
advanceil  against  Constant  inc.  But  the  expedi- 
tion, having  I>een  too  long  delaye<l,  encountere<l 
the  gniatest  difficulties  on  its  march,  fn^m  the  se- 
verity (»f  the  weather,  and  the  impracticable  nature 
of  the  country ;  so  that  when  it  arrived  Iwfore  Con- 
stantine,  it  was  unable  to  undertake  the  siege  (»f 
the  ]ilace,  and  i^ith  difficulty  eflecteil  a  retn»at. 
To  wii»e  off  this  disgrace  a  powerful  army  left 
lk)na  ni  the  following  autumn  for  the  attack  of 
("onstantine,  before  wMch  it  arrival  on  the  Gth  of 
Octol)er.  The  jVralw  made  a  ^-igorous  resistance ; 
but  breaches  ha\'ing  been  effected  in  the  walls, 
the  city  was  carrie<l  by  storm  on  the  13th.  The 
F'rench*commander-in-cluef,  General  Damremont, 
was  killed  during  the  siege. 

Since  that  time.  Frantic  has  been  engnge<l  in  a 
continuous  stublMjm  conflict  \i-it1i  the  native  tribes, 
imdertaking  frwpient  ex|>editiou9  into  the  interior, 
the  most  important  of  them  in  the  years  18 10-C. 
The  latter  ende<l  in  the  surrender  of  the  renowned 
chieftjun  Abd-el-Katler,  who  was  taken  as  a  ])ri- 
soner  to  Fnince  in  IK 17.  He  was  release<l  by  the 
Emi)eror  Najioleon  III.  in  1852.  Minor  insurrec- 
tioiu*  and  small  frontier  wars,  however,  continued 
Ki  occupy  the  French  tTooj>s;  and  a  rather  serious 
revolt  o(  tlie  trilx?s  in  the  south-east  bn»ke  out 
towanLs  the  end  of  1864,  and  was  not  8toppe<i 
without  much  bloodshed.  To  assist  in  the  pacifi- 
cation of  the  colony,  the  Emiwror  Xa|M>leon  him- 
self went  on  a  tour  through  Algieria  in  May,  1K<;5, 
issuing  many  proclamations,  in  which  the  inhabi- 
tants were  exhorted  to  submit,  without  furtlier 
op|>osition,  to  the  rule  of  France. 

ALUlLits  ^Arab.  At  Jezeln  el  qazie^  Algiers  the 
warlike),  a  city  and  8ca-iK>rt  of  N,  Africa,  cap.  of 
the  above  coimtry,  on  the  Mediterranean  c<»ast,  on 
the  W.  side  of  almv  about  11  m.  in  width  and  6 
deep:  lat.  c»f  light-in)use  36©  47'  20"  ^'.,  long.  dP 
4'  32"  E.  It  is  built  on  the  face  of  a  pretty  steep 
hill,  the  houses  rising  alK)vc  each  other  so  that 
there  is  hardly  one  of  them  which  does  not  com- 
mand a  view  of  the  sea.  Tlie  summit  of  the  hill 
is  cr«)wncd  by  the  Kasl*a,  or  citailel,  700  ft  above 
the  level  of  the  bay.  The  to^\Ti  is  nearly  2  m.  in 
circ.,  l»eing  surrounded  by  thick  and  high  walls, 
^tanked  with  towers  and  l)astions.  Tlie  fortifica- 
ti<»ns  t4>wanls  the  sea  are  comi>aratively  stn>ng; 
but  tb(»sc  on  the  land  siiie,  though  greatly  im- 
proved by  the  French,  are  incapalde  of  any  very 
vigonnis  defence,  being  commanded  by  the  adjoin- 
ing heights.  Algiers  ha<l,  ]>reviously  to  the  French 
inva<uon,  5  gates — 2  on  the  sea,  and  3  on  the  land 
side;  alx)ut  160  streets,  5  squares,  2  palaces,  4 
laigc  and  30  small  mosgucs  (some  of  which  are 
now  c<»nverteti  into  Chnstian  churches),  2  large 
jxnd  12  small  synagogui's,  many  buildings  for  the 


milittfv,  and  about  10,000  jirivate  housea.  The 
)>op.  was  formerly  estimated  at  from  110«000  to 
180,000 ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  lowest  of  thtat 
numliers  was  beyond  the  maik.  It  ^ipean  fivm 
a  census  taken  in  1847,  that  the  pop.  of  the  city 
and  commune  amounted  at  that  date,  inc.  ganison, 
to  97,389,  of  whom  72,393  were  French  and  other 
Europeans,  the  residue  being  Moon,  Kab^ies,  and 
Jevn,  A  considerable  emigration  of  Turks  and 
others  took  place  after  the  occuiuition  of  the  city 
by  the  Frencli ;  and  the  above  statement  ahowed 
that  the  emigrants  had  not  retume<L  A  final 
enumeration  of  the  year  1862  showed  a  further 
decrease,  the  pop.  at  this  time  consisting  of  but 
58.315  souls,  of  whom  37,145  Europeans,  and 
21,170  natives.  The  city  has  a  very  impobing 
apiMiarance  from  the  sea,  looking  like  a  successi«jn 
of  terraces,  the  houses,  which  are  all  whitened, 
giWng  it  a  brilliant  aspect;  but^  on  entering, 
the  ilhL<!ion  vanuh(.« :  the  streets  are  tiltliy,  dark, 
crooked,  and  so  narrow  that,  until  latterly,  the 
widest  was  but  12  ft.  acnws.  The  French  have, 
however,  taken  doMii  mxmy  builtliugs  t4>  cnlaigc 
the  streets,  amongst  others  the  principal  moi«quu, 
in  the  view  of  making  the  Place  du  GoHvememimt 
in  the  centre  r)f  the  city,  a  huge  and  handsome 
square  in  the  P^un»pean  style.  The  hoiiaes  have 
Hat  n)ofs,  that  command  a  fine  view ;  they  vary 
from  two  to  three  stories  in  height,  and  have  a 
quadrangle  in  their  centre,  into  wliich  the  windows 
uniformly  open.  The  streets  have,  in  ctnisequence, 
a  gloomy  appCArance ;  and  they  are  farther  daik- 
cned  by  the  successive  stories  of  the  houses  pro- 
jecting over  each  other,  and  by  their  being  fre- 
(juenily  pr«»j)]>ed  up  by  tim!)ers  acn^ss  from  one  to 
another.  The  ^islands'  whence  Algiera  derive* 
its  name,  are  t«'o  r«K'ky  ledges  opposite  its  N'E.. 
quarter,  which  have  Ikkii  united,  stnmgly  fortiftekl, 
and  connecteil  with  the  main  laud  by  a  mole; 
another  mole,  stretcliing  SW.  fr»)m  these  islands, 
and  funilshed  i^dth  two  tiers  of  cannon,  incloses 
the  harbour,  which  is  rather  small,  and  incapable 
of  accommodating  any  vessel  larger  than  a  miiKile- 
sized  frigate.  A  light -house  Is  erected  on  one  «»f 
the  islands,  at  the  junction  of  the  two  moles.  Tlic 
Kasha  or  citarlel  'm  surn>unde<l  by  strong  walls,  and 
its  fortifications  have  l)een  repaired  and  strength- 
ene<l  by  the  French.  It  Is,  in  fact,  a  little  town 
in  itself.  It  was  here  that  the  French  found  the 
treasure  l»elonging  to  the  dey.  The  mosques  are 
oi'tngon  buildings,  with  a  dome  and  minarets,  often 
elegant,  and  adome^l  with  marble  cidonnades. 
Thc:rc  are  numerous  public  aiul  private  fuuutains, 
and  batlis  of  all  kinds ;  fiir  though  formerly  desti- 
tute of  water,  Algiers  is  now  well  supplied  with 
that  important  element,  wluch  is  bn>ught  to  the 
town  by  aqueducts  const  nicted  in  the  last  century, 
and  which,  i)reviously  to  the  French  occupation, 
were  kept  in  Tc\mi  bv  fimds  set  apart  for  that 
purpose.  Many  shojw  liave  Inien  ojHrned  by  Euro- 
I leans;  they  consist  of  recesses  in  the  sides  of  the 
Iiouses,  about  7  ft.  by  4 ;  but  biu>iness  L*  mostly 
tmnsactcd  in  the  Iwizaars,  which,  witli^  Imrijeis' 
shops  and  cafes,  are  the  chief  plaices  of  rcsiirt  for 
the  natives.  Algiers  is  now  the  residence  of  the  go- 
vernor-general of  the  French  possessions  in  Africa, 
and  of  tlie  princi|)al  government  functionaries  and 
courts  of  justice.  It  was  create<l  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric  ni  1838;  is  stnuigly  garrisoned;  and  has 
"a  regular  intercourse  by  steam  |»ackets  with  Mar- 
seilles. The  manufacturer  are  chiefiy  those  of  silk 
stuffs,  gin  lies,  piu-ses,  clocks,  jewellcrj',  woollen 
cloths,  kailtSf  bemousj  saiulals,  harness,  car)«ts, 
junk,  lm»nze  utensils,  dc  Tlic  markets  are  well 
provi<led  with  meat,  vegetables,  and  fruit ;  pn»vi- 
sions  generally  cheap,  excepting  bread,  which  Is 
dear :  there  were  no  uvcus.  and  only  JKindmilla  I'^r 


ALGOABAT 

fn^nding  eotn,  before  the  oocnpation  by  the  French. 
Kmopean  manoen,  halnts,  and  dresses  are  com- 
mon: as  many  hats  are  seen  as  turbans;  cigars 
replace  pipca,  shops  bassan;  grsnd  hotels,  caftSs, 
billiaid  tablcWi  eating  houses,  cabinets  Htteraires 
haw  been  set  up,  and  a  circus,  cosmorama,  and 
ofiera  ertablisheo.    There  is  regular  steam  com- 
mnnication  with  Toulon  and  Cette  in  France,  and 
Onn  and  Bona  in  Africa.    The  streets  have  all 
recfived  French  names.  There  arrived  in  the  port 
of  Algiere.  in  1863,  1,587  vessels,  of  a  total  bur- 
then of  192.119  tons.    Of  these  vessels,  1,064,  of 
I65.3:!0  tons  burthen,  were  engaged  in  the  foreign 
traile,  and  523,  of  26,799  tons,  were  coasters.    The 
envinms  of  Algiers  are  very  beautiful,  and  for 
MQie  miles  nmnd  interspersed  with  great  numbers 
of  elesant  \'il]aa.   There  are  2  small  suburlw,  those 
of  IkU>-«l-Oned  and  Bab-a-Zoun;  Uie  former  to 
the  N.,  the  latter  to  the  S.  of  the  city.    About  a 
mile  S.  of  the  Kasha  is  the  Sultan  Aa/exs/,  or  fort 
of  the  emperor,  an  incgulor  polygon  without  fowte 
or  oiuntencarp,  about  ^  m.  in  circumference.    It 
stands  on  the  spot  where  Charles  Y.  encamped, 
A.  II.  15-11.  and  a>mpletcly  commands  the  town; 
liiit  i4  itM-lf  commanded  bjr  Mount  Boujereoh. 
The  ancient  city  of  Kustouium,  the  capital  of 
Julia,  was  situated  not  far  from  Algiers,  to  the  W. 
of  Torretta  Cica:  some  ruins  of  this  city  still 
exi-t.    Algiers  was  foiuded  a.  d.  9^^.     For  some 
ik*itice  of  its  histor}%  see  the  previous  article.    (See 
Tableau  de  la  Situation;  liozet,  iii  pp.  14-88.; 


ALEMAAB 


73 


Shaw's  Travehi,  np.  33-35.) 
AL<;OA  BAY.    See  Poi 


*oKT  Elizabeth. 
ALHAMHKA.    See  Gra!vada. 
ALHANDKA,  a  town  of  Portugal,  prov,  Estre- 
JUilura,  on  the  Tagus,  18  m.  NNE.  Lisbon.    Pop. 
l.>i<x)  in  1K'»8.    Tlie  town  has  some  small  manu- 
iactuTVi*  of  linen. 

A  Lie  ANTE  (an.  Lueentum),  a  8ea-i)ort  town 

</  ^pain  in  Yalemia,  ca|K  pr^>v.  same  name,  on 

tbf  Mediterranean,  42  m.  RNE.  Miircio.     Pop. 

:i>'i.TH)  in  1857.    Alicante  in  the  tcmiiiius  of  the 

NNith-Ea:»tem  of  Spain  railway.     It  is  situated 

l*twei'n  mountains  at  the  bottom  of  a  spacious 

l«y.  having  Cape  la  Huerta  at  its  XE.  extre- 

nuty.  and  Isla  Plana  on  the  S.    Alicante  is  <lc- 

f'fltlrtl  by  a  cat^tlc  on  a  rf»ck  about  400  ft,  high. 

Streets  namfw  and  crookeil,  but  well  (mved  and 

riam.    None  of  its  chuivhcs,  convents,  or  other 

i^lAic  buildings  dcsen'e  notice.     Tlic  trade  of 

.Vliv-ante  harl  fallen  much  off,  in  coiisecpience  of 

ih«  ttnancipation  of  S.  America,  and  the  disturlx^i 

ftate  (if  the  country,  but  b  now  again  inereahing. 

It4  exports  consist  princii>ally  of  wine,  almonds, 

larilU,  oUves  and  olive  oil,  brandv.  figs,  salt, 

*=f^«au*  rush,  wool,  silk,  and  linen,    ^c  imi>ort8 

c^iwst  principally  of  linens,  salted  fish,  com,  cot- 

t"Q,UHi  cotton  stuff;!,  colonial  prrxluce,  timl)er,  «fec. 

The  numtier  of  British  vessels  which  entered  the 

{■■n  ID  lsfi2  was  231,  bringing  coals,  iron,  machincr>' 

and  jruams  to  the.  value  of  224,305^    The  ex|>ortH, 

j™wi|Ally  raisins,  oranges  and  wine,  were  32,200^ 

Th«  traile  mith  other  nations  was,  shi])s  309 ;  im- 

l^-iTH  WTAW^  exjiorts  92,305/.  In  1 8«3  the  figures 

vrf,Bridsh  ships  189;  imports  145,710/.;  exports 

M^w7t    Foreign  ships  343;   imp<»Tts   I82,02r)/.; 

♦-ipifft*  72.149/.     The  decrease  in  imports  anise 

fniQ  the  diminishetl  quantity  of  railway  material 

UDpuied,  and  the  increase  in  exports  firom  an  aug- 

'"''nratiiHi  in  the  shipment  of  lead  and  esparto 

(ftarhcr  t^rass),  wluch  last  had  double^l  in  price 

n  onLiequence  of  its  demand  for  the  manufacture 

**f  Ii«p<-r.    'The  pnwperity,*  says  a  consular  re- 

\'^  'fff  Alicante  since  tlie  ojicning  of  the  rail- 

My  to  Mailrid  in  1858  continues  gradually  to 

^■u^mpiit,    Tlie  town  and  suburi^s  now  contain 

^i:i^*)  inhalatauta,   3,950  dwcUiiig-housos,   ICl 


strata,  and  17  squares.  It  possesses  G  churches, 
an  institute  or  prei>aratory  college  for  the  imivcr- 
sity,  14  schools,  a  public  library,  a  handsome 
theatre,  2  homiitals,  and  a  well-conducted  estab- 
lishment for  roimdlings  and  aged  paupers  of  both 
sexes.  Hitherto  little  has  been  done  in  the  erec- 
tion of  manufactories,  for  which  the  position  of 
Alicante  is  well  adapted,  the  remembrance  of  the 
ruinous  result  of  several  joint  stock  comi)anies  for 
smelting  lead  and  silver  ore  in  1844  bchig  still 
fresh  in  the  memory  of  the  inhabitants.  An  ex- 
tensive cigar  manufactory',  a  government  mono- 
ix)ly,  in  which  upwards  of  4,000  women  are 
employed,  still  continues,  however,  to  retain  its 
rcputarion  for  sufjerior  finish,  and  is  constantly  at 
work.*  (Report  of  Colonel  Barre,  British  Consul 
at  Alicante,  1863.) 

ALICATA,  or  LICATA,  a  sea-port  town  on 
the  S.  coast  of  Sicilv,  Yal  di  Girgenti,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Salso;'  lat.  37^  4'  25"  N.,  long. 
18O55'*40"  E.  Pop.  15,481  in  1858.  It  is  built 
partly  on  the  beach  and  partly  on  the  slope  of 
some  hills.  Its  walls  have  gone  to  decay,  and 
neither  of  its  two  castles  is  of  any  considerable 
strength.  It  is  a  poor-lintking  place,  but  ex()orts 
considerable  quantities  of  com,  with  sulphur  and 
sofbi,  pistachio  nuts,  almonds,  maccoroni,  &c.  The 
{lort  is  shallow,  so  that  loige  vessels  must  load  in 
the  offing,  or  road,  al)out  a  mile  SW.  of  the  town, 
where  they  are  exposed  to  the  southerly  winds. 

ALICUDI,  the  m<«t  W.  of  the  Lipari  islands, 
56  m.  ENE.  Palermo.  Pop.  450  in  1858.  It  is 
about  6  m.  in  circ.,  nscs  abruptly  from  the  sea, 
with  irregular  ravines  and  precii)itoiu3  hills.  It  is 
cultivated  wherever  there  is  any  S4iil,  with  singu- 
lar and  laborious  industry,  and  produces  most  ex- 
cellent wheat,  barilla,  flax,  cafjers,  «SL'c  The  i»eoplo 
are  said  to  l)c  exceedingly  healthy;  it  has  only 
two  unsafe  landing-] )laces,  and  is  rarely  vibited  by 
strangers. 

ALIGHLTR,  a  strong  fort  of  Hindostan,  in  the 
district  of  the  same  name,  lietwccn  the  (iangcs 
and  the  Jumna.  53  m.  N.  Agra,  82  m.  fn>m  Delhi 
by  rail;  lat.  27°  5()'  N.,  long.  77°  59'  E.  It  was 
taken  bv  storm  in  1803;  an<l  was  soon  after  ninde 
the  head-quarters  of  a  civil  establishment  ftir  the 
collection  of  the  revenue,  and  the  administration 
of  jitotice.  The  N.  i>ortion  of  the  district  of  ^Vli- 
ghur  is  a  desolate  tract,  oversprpa<l  with  1«)W 
jungle;  but  the  S.  iM)rti<»n  is  fertile  and  highly 
cuItivateiL  The  natives,  though  turbulent,  are 
superior  to  the  Bengaieos,  and  other  tril>os  more 
to  the  E.  Alighur  was  one  of  the  ]>lace^  heUl  by 
the  Sepoy  reljels  in  1857,  and  was  retaken  on  5th 
Octol)er  of  that  year. 

ALKM/VAIJ,  a  town  of  X.  Holland,  cap.  arrond. 
and  cant.,  on  the  great  shi]>  canal  from  Aranter- 
(hun  to  the  Helder.  20ra.  NXW.  the  fonner, 
and  18  m.  S.  the  Helder.  Pop.  10,500  in  18G1. 
It  is  strongly  fortified  an<l  well  built;  there  are 
manv  fine  canals,  shaded  with  trees,  and  the 
whole  town  has  a  strikingly  clean  oixl  c(»mfort- 
able  ap|»earttnce.  The  IL^tel  de  Yillc  and  the 
arsenal  are  the  only  public  buildings  that  deserve 
notice.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  court  <»f  primary  juris- 
diction, and  has  a  college,  physical  s<»ci(^ty,  theatre, 
concert-hall.  A-c.  Yost  quantities  of  excellent 
butter  and  cheese  arc  pnnluced  in  the  surrouiuling 
meadows.  Exclusive  of  butter,  alsmt  40,000  tons 
of  cheese  are  said  to  be  annually  dis|>oseil  of  in 
its  markets.  It  also  manufactiut'S  canvass,  and 
has  a  considerable  tnule  in  cattle,  com,  tulijw,  &c. 
Its  commerce  has  l>een  materially  fa<'ilitute<l  by 
the  construction  of  the  gn'at  canal.  Without  the 
town  is  a  fine  proraenatle,  similar  to  those  at 
the  Hague  and  at  Ihiarleni.  In  1573,  Alkniaar 
was  invested  by  the  Sponianls;  but  having  been 


74 


ALLAHABAD 


rcpulficd  with  great  Iobs,  in  an  attempt  to  take  the 
town  by  storm,  they  abandoned  tne  sic^^  In 
1 709,  the  AngI(»-}{iiM«ian  army  under  the  Duke 
of  York,  advanced  from  the  Ilelder  aa  far  as 
Alkmnar. 

ALLAHABAD,  an  extensive  and  populoas 
]m>v.  or  soubah  of  Hindontan  pro|>cr,  l)etween  the 
240  and  20°  N.  lat  and  79^  and  83^  E.  long.  It  is 
iMmndcd  on  the  N.  by  Oude  and  Agra,  S.  )>v 
(iundwana,  R.  by  Bahar  and  Gundwana,  and  W. 
by  Malwah  and  Agra.  It  is  about  270  m.  in 
length  by  about  120  in  breadth. 

It  is  divided  into  the  following  zillahs  or  dis- 
tricts, ^iz. :  I.Allahabad:  2.  Ikinores:  3.  Mirza- 
i»o<^r;  4.  Juan|MK)r;  5.  Tlie  Kcwnh  territory;  6. 
Bundelcund;  7.  CawnjKwr;  8.  Manicij)0«rterritr»ry. 
It  is  watered  by  the  Ganges,  Jumna,  and  other 
great  riv«rs.  Adjacent  to  the  former,  the  country 
is  flat  and  verj'  proiluctive,  Imt  in  the  SW.,  in  the 
liundolcund  district,  it  fonns  an  elcvate<l  table- 
land, diversified  with  high  hills  containing  the  cele- 
brated diamond  mines  of  P(K)uah.  llie  Hat  country 
is  extremely  sultrj'  and  subject  to  the  hot  winds, 
from  which  the  more  elevatc^i  region  is  exempted. 
In  the  hilly  country,  where  the  rivers  are  less 
numerous  than  in  the  plains,  the  pcrio<lical  rains 
and  wcll-wat€r  are  chiefly  relied  on  for  agricul- 
tural puqwses.  On  the  whole,  however,  Allaha- 
!>ad  is  one  of  the  richest  provinces  of  Ilindostan. 
The  principal  articles  of  cx|)ort  are  sugar,  cotton, 
indigo,  cotton  cloths,  opium,  salt])ctrc,  diamonds, 
&c;  and,  in  addition,  it  pnKluces  aU  kinds  of 
grain  and  a  vast  variety  of  fruits. 

The  chief  towns  are  Allahabad,  Benares,  Cal- 
linger,  ('hatterpo(»r,  Chunar,  Ghazv^vHjr,  Juani)(N)r, 
and  Mirzap<K»r.  The  whole  of  this  extensive  im> 
vince  is  now  subject  to  the  British  government ; 
the  Benares  district  having  l)een  ceiled  in  1775 ; 
AllahalMul  and  the  adjacent  territory  in  1801  ; 
and  the  districts  (»f  Bundelcund  in  1808.  Total 
po])ulation  3,710,2G3  in  1801.  Seven-eighths  of 
the  inhabitants  arc  supposed  to  be  Ilmdoos,  the 
remainder  Mohammedans. 

Ai.iJLHABAD,  an  ancient  citv' of  Ilindostan,  cap. 
of  tlie  alK)ve  prov.  and  dist.,  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  lx»ing  by  the  course 
of  the  river  820  ra.  from  the  seji,  but  the  distance 
in  a  direct  line  from  Calcutta  is  only  475  m. ;  fn»m 
Ik'iiares,  75  m. ;  and  from  Agra,  280  m.  Lat,  25°  27' 
N.,  long.  81°  50'  E.  At  a  short  dL<*tance  from  the 
city,  at  the  jimction  of  the  rivers,  is  situated  the 
fortress,  founded  bv  the  Emi>en>r  Akbar  in  1583; 
but  much  improved  since  it  c^ime  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  IJritish.  It  is  lofty  and  extensive, 
completely  commanding  the  navigation  of  both 
rivers.  ()n  the  sea-side  it  \»  defeudeil  bv  the  old 
walls ;  but  on  tlie  land  side  it  is  regularly  and 
stmngly  fortifietl.  It  could  not  l)e  taken  by  a 
Euro|K'an  army,  except  by  a  regular  siege ;  and 
to  a  native  army  it  would  be  all  but  impregnable; 
an<l  hence  it  has  l>een  selected  as  the  grand  mili- 
tary depot  of  the  up]>er  provinces.  In  the  course 
of  the  Indian  mutiny  in  1857,  an  insurrection  of  a 
dangerous  character  broke  out,  on  tlie  5th  of  June, 
at  AlL'ihabad,  and  the  I'Luropeans  had  to  retire 
into  the  fort,  where  they  were  l>esiegt;d.  How- 
ever, they  soon  recovered  their  ground,  and,  l>efore 
many  days  were  over,  retook  possession  of  the 
town. 

Beinfr  pituated  at  the  point  of  union  of  two 
great  navigable  rivers,  Allahabad  is  in  (»ne  of  the 
finest  |>ositions  in  India  for  iK'ing  the  seat  of  an 
oxlensive  c<)mmerce.  ITie  town,  indeed,  was  de- 
caying for  some  time  after  its  occujiation  by  (ireat 
Britain  in  17(>5;  but  of  late  years,  and  ]>articu- 
larly  since  the  o]>ening  of  the  great  Ea^t  hulia 
railway  from  Calaitta  to  Deltii,  on  which  it  is  a 


ALLEGHANY 

chief  station,  it  has  been  greatly  increaang  !d 
prosperity.  'The  population,  which  wan  only  abnat 
20,0(K>  in  1803,  haii  risen  to  (>4,785  in  1861.  The 
extensive  ctdtivation  of  cotton  in  India,  a  remh 
of  the  American  civil  war,  was  also  particularly  fa- 
vourable to  Allahabad,  it  having  become  the  chief 
seat  of  an  extensive  trade  in  the  article. 

In  the  eyes  of  the  natives,  the  city  is  chieflr 
im]U)rtant  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage — one  of  the 
most  renowned  in  India.    Besides  the  Ganges  and 
Jumna,  the  Hindoos  believe  that  another  river, 
the  Sereswati,  joins  the  other  two  from  below 
ground.     In  consequence  of  this  cxtraordinarjr 
junction,  Allahabad  is  reckoned  peculiarly  holy, 
and  is  annually  yi<«ited  by  many  thousands  uf 
[)ilgrims,  who  come  from  all  ^uurts  of  Hindostan  to 
bathe  and  ]turify  themselves  m  the  sacred  stream: 
in  some  years  their  numbers  have  amounted  to 
nearly  220,000,  each  of  them  pa>-ing  a  small  tax 
to  government: — 'When,'  says  Mr. Hamilton,  *a 
jnlgrim  arrives,  he  sits  down  on  the  l)ank  of  tlie 
river,  and  has  his  head  and  body  shaye<l,  so  that 
each  hair  may  fall  into  the  water,  the  sacred 
nvritings  pn>mising  him  one  million  of  years'  resi- 
dence in  heaven  for  every  hair  so  deposited.  After 
shaving,  he  bathes;  and  the  same  day,  or  the 
next^  I)erforms  the  obsequies  of  his  deceased  an- 
cestors.   The  tax  accruing  to  government  for  per- 
mission to  bathe,  Is  3  rupees  each  person ;  Imt  a 
much  greater  expense  is  incurred  in  charity  and 
gifts  to  the  Bralimins,  who  are  seen  sitting  by  the 
river-side^   Many  persons  renounce  life  at  tliis  holy 
confluence,  by  going  in  a  boat,  after  performance 
of  certain  solemnities,  to  the  exact  spot  where  the 
ihree  rivers  unite,  where  the  devotee  plunges  into 
the  stream,  with  three  pots  of  water  tied  to  hii 
IkkIv.    Occasionally,  also,  some  lose  their  lives 
by  the  eagerness  of  these  devotees  to  rush  in  and 
bathe  at  the  most  sanctified  spot,  at  a  precim 
])erio<l  of  the  moon,  when  the  immersion  possesses 
the  highest  efficacy.    The  Bengalees  usually  per- 
form the  ]>ilgrimages  of  Gaya,  Ik^nare^,  and  AUa- 
hal>a<l  in  one  journey,  and  thereby  acquire  great 
merit  in  the  estimation  of  their  countrymen.* 
(Hamilton's  Gazeteer;    Ileber,  L  p^K  441^45.) 
Since  18G2,  Allalmbad  has  become  the  coital  <k 
the  north-western  ])rovince8. 

ALLAN  (HKIDGE  OF),  a  neat  village  of  Scot- 
land, on  the  Allan,  3  m.  NW.  Stirling,  on  the 
St-ottish  Central  railway.  Pop.  1,803  in  1861. 
The  village  is  a  g(KMl  deal  resorted  to  in  summer 
by  \nsitors,  on  account  of  a  mineral  spring  in  the 
vicinity. 

ALLAUCH,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Bouchet 
du  Khone,  5  m.  EN'E.  Marseilles.  Pop.  3,041  in 
1801.  The  town  is  built  on  the  declivity  of  a 
hill,  and  is  ver\'  ancient. 

ALLEGHAK^'  or  APPALACHIAN  MOLTJ- 
TAINS,  a  chain  of  mountains  in  the  IT.  States  of 
N.  America,  nmning  in  a  NE.  and  SW.  direction 
from  the  N.  parts  of  Alabama  and  Georgfa,  to  the 
state  of  Maine,  a  du^tance  of  about  1,200  m.  It 
o(»nsiHts  of  a  numl)er  of  ridges,  having  a  mean 
breadth  of  about  100  m.  and  a  mean  elevation  (A 
frt»m  2,500  U)  3,000  feet.  Their  highest  summits 
are  in  N.  Hamiwhire,  where  they  attam  to  an  ele- 
vation of  Ijctween  6,000  and  7,(H)0  feet.  They  are 
nlrnost  everywhere  clothe<l  with  forests  and  iiiter- 
sytersed  with  delightful  valleys.  Tlieir  steepest 
side  is  towards  the  E.,  where  granite,  gneiss,  and 
other  primitive  r»K*k«*  are  \o  lie  seen,  (hi  the  W, 
they  si(^pe  doi^Ti  by  a  gentle  dcclinty  continued 
to  the  Mississippi.  Inm  and  lead  arc  lK>th  me4 
with,  the  former  in  great  abundance,  in  -various 
parts  of  the  range;  and  the  consiclfrable  quan- 
tities of  gold  that  have  lieen  found  in  the  strearof 
in  the  upiier  [larts  of  N.  Carolina  and  Gooxgia, 


ALLEN  (BOa  OF) 

liunr  that  it  also  is  among  the  products  of  the 
AUe^faanieK.  But  coal  seems  to  be  by  far  the 
mott  impoftant  of  their  mineral  riches.  Vast,  and 
iD  but  mexhausdble  beds,  of  bituminous  and  of 
anthxadte  or  stone  coal  are  found  in  different  parts 
of  the  (diain,  and  are  already,  very  extensively 
imioi^ht.  The  quantities  of  anthracite  brought 
to  Philadel(^ua,  partly  for  the  supply  of  the  city, 
md  iriurtly  for  shipment  to  other  places,  have 
f7«aliy  increased  of  late.  Within  the  last  few 
yeaiB,  most  extensive  oil  wells  have  also  been 
diacorered  in  the  district  of  Pennsylvania,  giving 
rue  to  eager  speculation,  and  the  sudden  growth 
of  immense  fortunes.  Salt  springs  arc  abundant 
all  alvog  the  W.  slope  of  the  Alleghanies,  and 
fnim  some  of  them  large  suppUes  of  salt  are  pro- 
eared.  This  mountain  system  is  crossed  by  the 
Hudson  river,  and  is  the  only  instance  known, 
except  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  of  the  ocean 
tid»  passing  through  a  primitive  mountain-chain, 
and  cam-ing  depth  for  the  largest  venscls.  It  is 
aki  (TQ«ed  bv  several  canals  and  railwavs. 

ALLEN  (BOG  OF),  the  name  usually  given 
to  the  extensive  tracts  of  morass  situated  in 
Kikkre  and  King's  and  Queen's  counties,  and 
tbe  adjoining  counties  of  Ireland.  These  do  not 
bowever  form,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  one 
jTcat  monfss,  but  a  number  of  contiguous  rao- 
cwa  separated  by  ridges  of  dry  ground.  Though 
flat,  the  bog  has  a  mean  elevation  of  about  250 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  gives  birth  to 
•ome  of  the  principal  Irish  rivers,  as  the  Barrow 
floving  8m  and  the  Ik>yne  £. 

ALLEN  (LOUGH),  a  lake,  co.  Leitrim,  Ire- 
hnd,  about  10  m.  in  length,  and  from  4  to  5  in 
vidth.  This  lake  is  generally  su]>posc<i  to  be  the 
tnave  of  the  Shannon,  and  it  has  perhaps  the 
Uxt  title  to  that  distinction.  It  is  elevated  144 
feet  alxive  the  level  of  high  water-mark  at  Lime- 
ride  :  and  the  Shannon  has  been  rendered  navi- 
f;ilile  ati  far  as  the  Lough. 

ALLEN  IKJRF,  a  town  of  Hesse  Cassel,  on  the 
Wma.  23  m.  ESE.  Oassel,  on  the  railway  from 
Ciiwl  to  El<<enach.  Pop.  2,600  in  18G1.  There 
b  m  the  vicinity  a  considerable  salt  work. 

ALLEVAKI),  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Isbrc,  cap. 
eant-  21  m.  NE.  Grenoble.  Pop.  1,547  in  1861. 
There  are  ^'aluable  iron  and  copper  mines  in  its 
ncinity.  and  founderies  where  in)n  of  an  excellent 
d»:*cripti«»n  is  prepared  for  conversion  into  steel, 
and  alflo  for  bemg  cast  into  cannon.  In  the  neigh- 
l*>aih<Mi  are  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Bayard,  the 
l«ith-place  of  the  famous  knight  of  that  name — 
the  (ketalier  $ans  peur  et  tans  rrproche, 

ALLIER,  a  dep.  almost  in  the  centre  of  France, 
M  caUe»i  from  the  river  Allier,  one  of  the  principal 
sfihitntfl  of  the  Loire,  which  traverses  it  from  S. 
t«  X..  between  45°  58',  and  40°  AV  N.  lat.,  and 
2°  16'  and  3°  hT  E.  long.  Area,  728,081  hect., 
▼Wwof  about  468,000  are  cultivated  land,  70,000 
»e*kj^  18,000  vineyards,  64,000  woods,  28,700 
keatbs,  moors,  &c  Pop.  856,432  in  1861.  Ex- 
<l»ive  «jf  the  Allier,  it  is  bounded  E.  bv  the  Loire, 
ttd  u  traveried  by  the  Cher,  and  other  lesser 
n^cn.  The  ponds  and  smaller  lakes  are  so  nu- 
'<3^nws.  that  they  are  said  to  have  an  injurious  in- 
duence  over  the  climate.  Surface  undulating,  and 
in  part«  hilly ;  soil  ^nerally  fertile,  producing  a 
MnpluH  of  com  and  wine  for  exportation,  with  great 
Qumben  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  excellent  horses.  A 
P^x'i  deal  (if  the  timber  in  the  forests  is  oak,  suit- 
^  f<«r  ship-buiitling.  Agriculture  in  this,  as  in 
■unv  (»ther  departments  of  France,  is  in  a  back- 
*wd  state.  Many  of  the  peasantry  are  small  pnv 
F*Jef/«H,  and  wedde<i  to  the  practices  of  tlw^ir  fore- 
<«*her*.  (.Sec  France — S\griculture.')  There  are 
TaloaUe  mines  of  coal,  iron,  and  antimony ;  and 


ALLOWAY  KIRK 


75 


quarries  of  marble  and  granite,.  Among  the  ma- 
nufacturing establishments  may  be  mentioned  the 
glass  works  of  Sourigny  and  Comment  rj',  which 
employ  aljout  800  workpeople ;  the  iron  works  of 
Tnmcais,  wliich  employ  above  600  ditto,  and  fur- 
nish annually  above  500,000  kilogs.  of  iron.  Tliere 
are  also  manufactories  of  cutlery,  earthenware, 
cloth,  and  paper,  with  spinning-niills,  and  nume- 
rous breweries.  The  department  is  divided  into  4 
electoral  arrond. ;  16  cant,  and  322  communes. 
Chief  towns,  Moulins,  Montlu^on,  Ganiuit,  and  La 
Palisse. 

ALLOA,  a  sea-port  and  m.  town  of  Scotland,  co. 
Clackmannan,  on  the  Forth,  at  the  point  where  it 
ceases  to  be  a  river,  and  becomes  a  frith,  25  m. 
WNW.  EdinbuTglu  Pop.  of  town,  in  1841,  5,434 ; 
of  parish  and  town,  6,505;  in  1801,  town,  6,425; 
par.  and  to^^-n,  8,867.  It  is  irregularly  built ;  but 
has  recently  l^een  much  impn)ved.  A  church, 
opened  in  1819,  has  a  spire  200  feet  in  height. 
The  harbour  is  excellent ;  vessels  of  large  bunlen 
lying  close  to  the  quays ;  there  is  also  a  dry  dock 
and  two  yards  for  ship-building,  and  a  s]>acious 
wet  dock  was  opened  in  1863.  The  trade  of  the 
town  is  considerable.  In  1862  the  reg.  shipping 
was  48,  tonnage,  14,049;  steamers,  5,  tonnage, 
231.  The  customs  revenue  in  1861  was  5,329/. 
There  are  verj'  extensive  collieries,  distilleries,  and 
iron  works  in  the  neighlwurhood,  tlie  produce  <»f 
which  is  principally  sbipi>ed  here ;  and  in  the  ttmii 
and  its  Wcinity  are  extensive  breweries,,  which 
pro<luce  ale  rivalling  that  of  Edinburgh,  with  iron 
founderies,  woollen  manufactories,  glass  works,  tile 
and  brick  works.  The  justice  of  peace  and  sheriff 
courts  for  the  co.  are  held  here.  In  a  park  adjoin- 
ing the  town  are  the  ruins  of  a  seat  of  the  Earl  of 
Mar,  part  of  wliich  consists  of  a  tower  of  the  13th 
centurv,  90  feet  in  height. 

ALLOWAY  KIKK :  the  church  (Scottice,Kirk) 
of  a  parish,  on  the  coast  of  AjTshire,  long  united 
with  that  of  Ayr,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Doon,  on 
the  road  from  Ayr  to  Maybole,  alxiut  3  m.  S.  fn>m 
the  former.    The  Kirk  lias  l)een  for  a  lengthened 
peri<Kl  ill  ruins,  but  lM?ing  prominently  brought  for- 
ward in  Bums's  inimitable  tale  of  Tam  O'Shanter, 
and  having  in  its  immediate  vicinity  the  poet's 
birth-place,  and  the  monument  erected  to  his  me- 
mory, it  has  become  an  object  of  great  inlcrest. 
Though  roofless,  the  walls  are  in  pretty  grK>d  prc- 
servati(m ;  and  the  feelings  ■with  which  they  are 
now  associated  will  protect  them  from  depredation. 
The  church-yard,  which  is  still  used  as  a  burj'ing- 
ground,  contains  the  graves  of  Bums's  father  and 
mother;   and  such  is  the  prextige  with  which  it 
has  been  invested,  that  latterly  it  has  become  a 
favourite  place  of  interment.     Ik'twecn  Alloway 
Kirk  and  Ayr,  but  much  nearer  the  former  than 
the  latter,  is  the  cottage  in  which  Hums  was  born 
(on  the  25th  of  Fcbniarj',  1759),  a  one-storj'  house, 
of  humble  appearance,  with  a  thatched  roof,  and 
long  used  as  an  inn.    Almut  ^  m.  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Kirk,  are  the  *  Auld  brig  o'  Doon,'  and  the 
new  bridge — the  latter  alx>iit  100  yards  below  the 
former,  and  built  since  the  time  of  Hums ;  and  on 
the  summit  of  the  acclivity  of  the  E.  bank  of  the 
river,  alwut  half  wav  between  the  old  and  new 
bridges,  Ls  the  monument  of  the  poet.     This  ele- 
gant structure  was  finished  in  1823,  at  an  exiwnse 
of  alM)ut  2,000/.     It  is  built  in  imitation  of  the 
monument  of  Lysicrates  at  Athens,  and  C(»nsists  of 
a  triangular  basement,  on  which  rises  a  iwristyle, 
of  9  (>)rinthian  columns,  30  feet  in  height,  hu|>- 
porting  a  cupola,  surmounted  by  a  gilt  tri|KKl.     It 
IS  alK>ve  60  feet  in  height;  is  built  of  fine  white 
freestone,  and  has  a  chaste,  classical  api)earance, 
In<ic|)endently  of  the  ])eculiar  associations  con- 
nected with  the  place,  the  scenery  axouiid  is  equal 


76 


ALMADA 


in  richness  and  variety  to  any  in  Scotland.  The 
celebrated  statues  of  Tam  O'Shanter  and  Soutcr 
Johnnie  are  appropriately  placed  in  a  grotto  within 
the  Kfoands  attached  to  the  monument. 

ALMADA,  a  town  of  Portiu^l,  prov.  Estiema- 
dura,  on  the  Tagus,  opposite  to  Lisbon.  Pop.  5,500 
in  1858.  There  is  an  old  castle  on  a  rock,  an  hos- 
pital, a  Latin  school,  with  large  magazine  for  wine. 

ALMADEX,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  La  Mancha, 
on  its  SW.  frontier,  in  the  Sierra  Morena,  57  miles 
WSVV.CiudadKeal.  Pop.  8,645  in  1857.  Within 
a  short  distance  of  this  town  is  a  famous  mine, 
whence  quicksilver  was  obtained  to  the  extent  of 
from  30,000  to  40,000  quintals  a  year  about  25 
years  ago;  but  in  1803  the  produce  was  only  10,000 
quintals.  Tliis  mine  is  ver>'  ancient,  and  ut  be- 
heved  to  have  been  vrrought  previously  to,  and  by 
the  Romans.  But  the  statements  of  Pliny,  which 
are  alike  curious  and  instructive  (IILsL  yaU  lib. 
xxxiiL  7),  apply  distinctly  Ut  Sisapo  in  Retica, 
that  is,  to  Almaden  dt  la  "Plata,  27  m.  XNW.  Se- 
\'ille,  where  there  is  still  a  productive  mine;  and 
there  are  mines  of  the  same  sort,  though  of  very 
inferior  consequence,  in  other  parts  of  Spain. 

The  inhai).  of  Almaden  are  almost  wholly  en- 
gaged in  the  mines^  or  in  the  subsidiary  employ- 
ments conuccte<l  with  them.  Formerly,*the  mines 
were  princiiMilly  ¥rr«)ught  by  convicts;  but  that 
system  has  been  relinquished  for  a  good  many 
vears,  and  they  are  now  wholly  wrought  by  free 
labourers.  Working  in  the  mines  is  still,  despite 
the  meritorious  efforts  made  for  its  impn)vement, 
verpr  unhealthy;  but  it  is  less  so  in  winter  and 
spnng  than  in  summer  and  autumn ;  and  during 
the  latter  the  mines  are  comi)arativcly  deserted, 
the  miners  being  then  mostly  engaged  in  agricid- 
tural  pursmts.  Tlie  mines  were  fonnerly  wrought 
on  account  of  government,  who  disjKKsed  of  the 
protluce  by  contract  to  the  highest  biilder ;  but  in 
the  year  1831,  owing  to  financial  diiHculties,  they 
wore  leased  to  the  great  banking  house  of  Baron 
Kothschild  &  Co.  for  a  numl)er  of  years. 

ALMA(iRO,a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  La  Mancha, 
12  m.  ESE.  Ciuda<l  lieal.  Pop.  12,605  in  1857. 
It  has  an  important  manufacture  of  blondes.  The 
country  round  is  celebrated  for  itj?  mules  and  asses, 
for  which  there  is  annually  a  lai^e  fair. 

ALM  AXZjV,  a  toiMi  of  Spain,  prov.  Mureio,  56  m. 
NW.  iUicante. '  Pop.  8,736  m  1857.  It  is  well  buUt. 
has  broad  streets,  Imen  fabrics,  and  a  grexit  annual 
fair.  In  the  neighbourluKKl  of  this  town,  on  tlie 
25th  April,  1707,  the  French,  under  the  I)uke  of 
Berwick,  gained  a  c»)mplete  victor\'  over  the  allied 
forces  in  the  interest  of  the  Archduke  Charles.  The 
latter  lost  5,000  men  killcdf  on  the  Held,  and  nearly 
10,000  taken  prisrmers. 

ALMEIDA,  a  fortified  town  of  Portugal,  prov. 
Beira,  24  m.  W.  b;^  N.  Chidad  Rodrigo.  Pop.  6,850 
in  1858.  Frr>m  its  position  on  the  frrmtier  of  the 
kingdom,  it  has  always  been  deemed  a  milit.'iry 
post  of  the  greatest  im|)ortance.  In  1762,  it  was 
tJiken  by  the  Spaniards,  after  a  long  siege.  In 
I8l(^  it  was  taken  by  the  French  under  Massena, 
who  abandoned  it  in  the  following  year,  after  blow- 
ing up  the  fortifications. 

ALMERIA  {tiiu  Murgis),  a  sea-port  town  of 
Spain,  cap.  of  prov.  of  same  name,  and  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  gtilph 
of  the  same  name;  40  m.  ESE.  Murcia.  Pop. 
27,036  in  1857.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has 
fabrics  of  8(Kla  and  saltjtetre,  and  of  cordage  and 
ot  her  articles  ma<ie  of  t  he  es]>arto  rush.  The  harbour 
is  laige,  well  sheltered,  and  is  protecterl  by  a  castle ; 
the  water  is  so  deep,  that  large  vessels  anchor  half 
a  mile  from  shore,  in  from  9  to  14  fathoms,  and 
smaller  vessels  anchor,  close  in  shore,  in  from  5  to 
9  fathoms.    The  ouciont  sovereigns  of  Gnuiada  I 


ALNWICK 

considered  this  as  the  most  important  town  of 
their  dominions,  as  well  on  account  of  the  fertili^ 
of  the  surrounding  country,  as  of  its  mannfactum 
and  commerce.  Till  of  late  the  tovm  had  my 
much  fallen  off,  but  its  importance  as  a  oommercial 
port  has  greatly  increased  in  recent  years,  and 
it  has  been  embellished  with  many  new  build- 
ings. Besides  the  esparto  trade,  that  in  lead  and 
grapes  affonl  considerable  occupation,  and  the  no- 
duction  of  t)arley  is  likewise  on  the  increase.  The 
total  ship])ing  in  1863  was  1,278  vcsselfs  98,4M 
tons.  There  are  13  smelting  works  for  lead  on^ 
and  the  produce  in  1 863  was  8,000  tons.  The  roads 
in  the  district  are  very  indifferent ;  there  are  no 
railways,  and  none  ]>rojccted ;  and  t-he  mountainoiis 
nature  of  the  country  interposes  a  natural  barrier 
to  the  town  keeping  pace  vtith  more  favoored  dis- 
tricts of  S{iain.    (Consular  Reporta.) 

ALMONBUR I ,  a  pa.  and  township  of  England, 
W.R,  CO.  York,  wap.  of  Agbrigg,  dividcil  by  the 
Colne  from  the  pa.  of  Huddersfield.  The  |ia.  is 
very  extensive,  containing  30,140  acres,  with  a 
pop.  of  42,889  in  1861.  It  contains  several  vit> 
lages,  of  wliich  Almonbuiy,  1|  m.  SEL  Iluddem- 
fiehl,  is  the  principaL  Pop,  of  AlmonlMU^'  town- 
ship 10,3<>1  in  1861,  mostly  ejigoged  in  the 
manufacture  of  woollens  and  cottons,  especially 
the  former.    (See  Huddrksfield.) 

ALMORA,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  cap.  Kumaon, 
in  the  yK.  i>art  of  India,  90  m.  X.  by  £.  Bareilly ; 
lat.  29°  35'  N.,  long.  79^  40'  E.  It  sUnds  on  a 
ridge  5,337  feet  alx)ve  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  ia 
compactly  built.  The  houses  of  stone,  and  slated, 
are  generally  two  and  some  three  stories  higti,  the 
ground-fioof  being  occupied  as  shopa.  'The  old 
(loorka  citadel  stands  on  a  commanding  point  of 
the  ridge  at  the  E.  extremity  of  the  town,  and 
several  martello  towers  have  been  erectetl  on  peaks 
to  the  eostwanL  This  ])lace  was  acquired  by  the 
British  in  1815.  The  surrounding  countiy  is  bleak 
and  nake<L 

ALMUXECAR,  a  sea-port  town  of  Spain,  piov. 
Granaila,  41  m.  S.  Granada.  Pop.  4,710  in  1857. 
The  town  is  of  Arabic  origin,  its  name  signi- 
fying a  ^  place  of  banbhment.'  It  has  a  nuued 
castle,  ruined  walls,  and  narrow  streets.  The  sur- 
rouuding  countr\',  though  uiisuiteil  to  com,  pro- 
duces figs,  roisLos,  the  sugar-cane,  cotton,  Ac: 
The  anchorage  is  fit  only  for  small  vessels,  and 
should  not  be  used  by  tjicm  ejccept  in  cases  of 
emergency,  as  the  E.  winds  common  on  this  coast 
arc  dangerous. 

ALN  MOUTH,  a  vilhige  of  Enghind,  in  North- 
uml)erland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  ^Vlne,  5^  m.  ESE, 
Alnwick.  Pop.  454  in  1861.  The  village  expoiti 
considemble  (quantities  of  com  and  other  produce. 

ALNWICK,  a  town  of  England,  cap.  co.  North- 
umberland, on  a  decliWty  near  the  river  Aine,  276 
m.  from  Ijondon  by  ri>ad,  and  313  m.  by  Great 
Northern  railway.  Pop.  of  town,  in  1841,  4,945, 
of  township  6,626;  in  1861  town  5,670,  par.  7,850. 
It  has  a  s])acious  square,  where  a  weekly  market 
is  held,  and  a  town-house,  where  the  co.  courts 
meet  and  the  members  for  the  co.  are  elected;  the 
a^jsizcs,  however,  are  not  held  here,  but  at  New- 
castle. Alnwick  was  formerly  fortified,  and  vea- 
tigcs  of  its  waUs  and  gates  still  remain.  At  the  N. 
entrance  to  the  town  stands  Alnmck  Castle,  ooce 
a  principal  stronghold  of  the  kingdom  on  the  side 
of  Scotland,  and  now  the  magnificent  baronial 
residence  of  the  Dukes  of  Northumberland.  It 
underwent,  not  many  years  ago,  a  complete  repair 
and  renovation,  executed  in  good  taste.  At  the 
entrance  to  the  town,  a  ctilumn  is  erected  in 
honour  of  one  of  the  Dukes  of  Northumberland. 
A  cross,  called  Malcolm  s  Cross,  stands  on  the  spot 
where  Malcolm  III.,  king  of  Scotland,  is  said  to 


ALOST 

kvc  been  klDed,  in  1093,  by  a  soldier,  who  came 
to  offa  him  the  keys  of  the  castle  on  the  point  of 
inwir. 

ALOST  (Flem.  Aaltt)^  a  town  of  Belgium,  prov. 
EiBt  FUndera,  on  the  Dcnder,  about  half  way 
between  BrumeLs  and  Ghent.  Pop.  19,254  in  1856. 
Ik  b  sorrounded  by  walls,  and  is  clean  and  well 
bdlt:  the  parish  church,  the  largest  in  the  country, 
ii  not  finished;  it  has  a  college,  and  several  other 
ftliicstional  establishments;  a  town-house,  remark- 
*able  iur  its  antiquity,  with  manufactures  of  linen, 
cocttin,  lace,  hats,  Ac,  print  works,  and  dye  works, 
famreries  and  distilleries,  tanneries,  soap  works, 
wn  uhI  copper  founderies,  and  potteries.  Vessels 
of  fmsD  size  come  up  to  town  by  the  river;  an<l  it 
\m  a  crauddaable  commerce  in  the  produce  of  its 
maaofactures.  and  in  hope  of  an  excellent  quality, 
pinrn  in  the  neighbourhood,  rape  oil,  ^c.  At 
Aloet  is  the  tomb  of  the  celebrated  Thierry  Mar- 
tern,  the  friend  of  Erasmus,  who  introduced  the 
art  uf  printing  into  Belgium. 

ALPHEN,  a  town  of  the  Xetherlands,  prov.  S. 
Htdlaod,  ca[i.  cant,  on  the  Rhine,  7^  m.  E.  Ley- 
dn.  Pop.  3,167  in  1861.  It  has  manufactures  of 
earthenware  and  pipes. 

ALPXACil,  a  village  of  Switzerland,  cant. 
Vntcrwald.  on  the  S\V.  arm  of  the  lake  of  Lucerne. 
P<^  l.^H)  in  1860.  A  vexy  singular  road,  called 
the  SSde  of  Alpmach^  is  constructed  in  the  imme- 
diatt  vicinitv  of  this  town,  for  conveying  trees 
fi^ND  Mount  )*ilatus  to  the  lake,  from  which  they 
«K  funranled  down  the  Khine  to  the  Netherlands 
in  the  ftjmi  of  rafts. 

ALPS  (THE),  the  most  extensive  mountun 
•vMcm  of  Europe.  They  extend  from  the  banks 
<^the  Rhone  in  France  on  the  W.,  to  the  centre 
flf  blavonia  and  the  frontiers  of  Turkey  on  the  E., 
fenn  the  5th  and  18th  degree  E.  long.,  forming  a 
Tart  oemicircular  bulwark  which  encompasses,  on 
tbe  N..  Italy  and  the  Adriatic  Sea.  The  ex- 
tremities of  this  semicircle  approach  43^  N.  lat., 
faot  the  great  btMly  of  the  range  occupies  the  space 
brtwwtj  the  46th'and  48th  degrees  N.  lat 

The  Alps  are  cUieely  united  to  two  other  motm- 

tain  ran;:cdt:  on  the  W.  to  the  Apennines,  which 

tzaren^  Italy  in  its  whole  length;  and  on  the  E. 

U>  the  Balkhan,  which  coverH  Turkev  and  Greece 

vhh  its  numerous  ramifications,    "tha.  boundary 

fine  between  the  Apennines  and  the  Aljn  is  difh- 

colt  to  determine.    It  seems  to  be  most  ex|)edient 

^n  »a|<p(i0e  that  the  Alps  begin  on  the  W.  side  of 

the  p«at  road  over  the  B<x;hetta  pass  (2,550  ft. 

ahure  the  level  of  the  sea),  which  leads  from 

Genua  to  Novi  in  Piedmont.    That  portion  of  the 

murt  which  begins  at  this  road  and  extends  E.  to 

the  -Kmrces  of  the  Tinea,  a  tributary  of  the  Var,  is 

caDeil  tbe  Maritime  Alp»y  and  does  not  contain 

anv  very  high  summits;  but  it  is  extremely  steej), 

nj  i*  tia\'eraed  only  by  one  road  practicable  fur 

caniacoL    This  road  coimects  the  town  of  Nice 

*ith  the  town  of  Coni  in  Piedmont,  and  traverses 

thne  ridges  by  the  col$  or  mountain  passes  of 

^fvos  llrovis,  and  de  Tende.    The  last  col  is  in 

the  main  ridge  of  the  range,  and  rises  to  6,159  feet 

•bore  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Between  the  plain  of  the  Po  and  the  valley  of 
the  Rhone,  the  mountain  mass  lies  in  its  greatest 
extent  &  and  N.,  reaching  from  the  shore  of  the 
Mcditenanean,  or  from  nearly  43^,  to  the  lake  of 
^ne\'K  at  to  nearly  46°  30*'  N.  lat.  Its  length 
is  here,  consequently,  about  230  m.,  and  its  width 
*^«nfrn  about  100  m.  The  watershed,  between 
^  liven  (ailing  into  the  Po,  and  those  emptying 
thMttneivee  into  the  Rhone,  does  not  traverse  the 
nidfile  of  the  mountain  region,  but  is  found  at 
ihfiut  3<l  m.  from  its  E.  b(»rder.  On  it  rise  some 
\trr  high  fummita.    The  most  remarkable  arc. 


ALPS 


77 


Monte  Vlso,  12,G43  feet  above  the  sea,  on  whoso 
E.  declivities  the  Po  takes  its  origin ;  and  Mount 
Cenis  11,795  feet  al>ove  the  sea.  Mont  Is<^an,  it 
appears,  must  be  deposed  from  the  place  it  has 
long  held  amongst  mountains.  On  reaching  the 
summit  of  the  Col  d'Isdran,  the  traveller  naturally 
expects,  says  the  Alpine  Guide,  to  see  this  summit, 
towering,  as  has  been  described,  13,271  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  But  no  great  peak  lies  close 
to  the  pass;  the  highest  point  near  it,  and  that 
which  occupies  the  place  of  the  Mont  Is(^ran  of 
the  maps,  is  not  more  than  10,800  feet  above  the 
sea  leveL  Farther  N.  is  the  immense  mass  of 
rocks  that  constitute  Mont  Bi*\nc,  whose  highest 
point,  the  Bosse  de  Dromedaire^  in  lat.  45°  50'  N., 
long.  6°  51'  E.,  15,739  ft.  above  the  sea,  is  the 
highest  elevation  to  which  the  Alps  attain.  The 
valleys,  both  to  the  E.  and  W.,  branch  off  at 
right  angles  from  the  watershed  Those  to  the  E. 
are  short,  straight,  and  deej),  and  terminate  in  the 
plain  of  the  Po;  those  to  the  W.  are  of  much 
greater  length,  and  rather  winding.  On  this  side, 
e«i>ecially  in  the  dep.  det  Ilautet  Alpe$f  iKJtween 
the  upper  branches  of  the  rivers  Isfere  and  Durance, 
are  placed  a  considerable  number  of  very  high 
summits;  Mont  Louc\'Ta  attains  14,451  ft.,  Mont 
Ix)upilla  14,144  fu,  Mont  Pelioux  de  Valloiuse 
14,119  ft.,  and  at  least  twelve  others  rise  above 
1 1,000  ft.  The  peculiar  disposition  of  the  valleys 
in  this  iK)rtiou  of  the  Alps  has  rendered  the  com- 
munication between  France  and  Italy  compara-' 
tively  easy.  The  roads  follow  the  valleys  up  to 
the  watershed,  and  have  then  only  to  traverse  one 
high  ridge.  Three  great  carriage  roads  lea<l  over 
it.  The  farthest  to  the  S.  is  the  road  of  Mount 
Ge'nfevre,  which  ascends  from  the  banks  of  the 
Khone  along  the  valley  of  the  Durance  to  Brian^on, 
antl  traverses  the  ritlge  N.  of  Mount  Gi^nirre, 
where  it  attains  6,119  ft,  above  the  sea,  whence  it 
descends  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Dora  to  Susa. 
The  second  is  the  road  of  Mount  Cenis,  which  on 
the  side  of  France  may  l)e  said  to  b<^n  at  Greno- 
ble. It  ascends  first  the  valley  of  the  Isbre,  and 
afterwanls  of  the  Arc,  a  tributary  of  the  former, 
and  traverses  the  ridge  X.  of  Mont  Cenis,  where 
it  is  6,772  ft,  above  the  sea,  and  then  descends, 
like  the  former,  along  the  Dora  to  Susa.  The 
latter  is  by  far  the  most  used  of  all  the  roads  over 
the  Alps;  and  it  is  stated  that  annually  from 
16,000  to  17,000  carriages  of  all  kinds,  and  from 
45,04)0  to  50,000  horses  and  mules,  pass  along  it, 
A  railway  following  the  course  of  the  niad  over 
Mont  Cenis,  with  a  gigantic  tunnel  through  the 
mountain,  is  to  be  completed  in  1872.  The  thirtl 
carriage  road  is  that  of  the  Little  S.  Bernard, 
which  ascends  the  valley  of  the  Is^re,  passes  the 
ridge  between  Mont  Is<^ran  and  Mont  Blanc, 
and  descends  in  the  valley  of  the  Dora  Ilaltea  to 
Aosta.  It  attains  in  its  highest  point  to  an  eleva- 
tion of  7,015  ft,  above  the  sea,  and  it  is  most 
commonly  supi)osed  that  it  was  by  it  that  Uan- 
nilial  i>enetrated  into  Italy.  This  porti(»n  of  the 
Ali»s  comprehends  what  commonly  are  called  the 
Cottian,  Graian,  and  nartly  the  Pennine  Alps, 
together  with  those  of  Dauphind  and  Savoy ;  but 
resi)ecting  the  limits  of  the  Cottian  and  Graian 
Alps,  there  prevails  considerable  uncertainty. 

At  Mont  Blanc  the  direction  of  the  range  is 
changed  It  runs  hence  ENE.  and  the  N.  ndg<« 
continue  in  that  direction  to  their  termination  in 
the  neigh bourhwKl  of  A'^ienna.  With  the  change 
of  direction  a  change  in  the  disposition  of  the 
valleys  is  obser\'ed.  The  range  is  divided  into 
two  or  more  ridges,  running  nearly  parallel,  and 
including  extensive  longitudinal  valleys.  Fn)m 
the  ridges  enclosing  these  longitudinal  valleys 
short  transverse  valleys  descend  S.  and  N.  to  the 


78 


AliPS 


plairiA  which  Imund  tho  mountAin  range.  Tliis 
diftposititm  of  the  ranges  renders  the  communi- 
cation l>etwcon  Italy  on  one  pide^  and  Switzer- 
land and  Gonnany  on  the  other,  much  more 
ditHadt  thiui  the  communication  iM.>tween  Italy 
and  France;  for  the  roatls  must  either  traverse 
two  or  more  ridges,  or  gR-at  dcHections  must  be 
made  t<)  avoid  one  of  them. 

E.  (»f  Mont  Hlanc  tlie  range  is  di\'idetl  into  two 
high  ridges,  which  encl<>se  the  vallev  of  ValaLse, 
and  unite  about  8^  30'  K.  long.,  at  tVie  sources  of 
the  Rhone.  The  southernmost  <if  these  ranges, 
which  is  immwUatelv  connected  with  Mont  Hlanc, 
c<»ntains  nearly  in  its  middle  Mount  Kosa,  the 
second  highest  summit  of  the  Al[»s,  Ix-ing  15,217 
ft.  above  the  sea,  VV.  of  it  stands  Mount  CersHn, 
or  Matterhoni,  tlie  tliird  highest  summit,  rising  to 
14.S.%  fu  Then  follow  Mount  C<»mbin,  which 
has  14,104  ft.,  and  Mount  Velan,  which  attains 
r2,."J.'>3  ft,  K.  of  Mount  liosa,  ami  near  it,  Ls  the 
Cinia  <le  SaiM,  13,740  ft.  high.  This  chain  com- 
])rLsos  the  greater  i>art  of  tho  Pennine  and  a 
]>ortion  of  the  LefKnitine  Alps,  but  is  commonly 
c:jdle<l  the  Al])s  (»f  Valaise.  In  the  chain  which 
(tncloses  the  valley  of  Valaise  on  the  N.  the 
gnvitest  Kuro{H'an  glacier  is  found,  not  far  \V. 
of  tlie  source  of  the  Khone.  Here  a  grt'at  ])art 
of  the  chiun  rises  above  the  line  of  congelation, 
and  is  alwavs  ctivercd  with  icc.  It  w  stilted  to 
have  an  areii  of  200  sq.  m.  Many  high  summits 
rise  out  of  it  in  the  form  of  ])yramids ;  and  as 
the  snow  do<«  not  adhere  to  their  steep  sides, 
they  fonn  a  sublime  contrast  with  the  sea  of  ice 
that  surrouiuls  them.  The  most  famous  of  these 
summits  are  the  Finsteraarhoni,  14.026  ft.;  the 
Monch  (Monk),  13,438  ft, ;  the  Jungfrau  (Virgin), 
13,7(51  ft.;  tlie  S<-hrekhom,  13.3i>4  ft.;  the  Vis- 
cherhomer  in  Grindelwald,  which  include  six 
summits  ranging  ftxim  12,G94  ft.  to  13,281  fU; 
and  thi}  Kiger,  13,0-15  ft,  liigh.  Tlie  glaeiers  of 
Grindelwald  and  Lauterbnmnen,  which  attract  so 
many  travellers,  arc  only  small  detache<l  iM)rtions 
of  this  immense  glacier.  W,  of  the  great  glat^ier 
tlie  chain  still  contains  many  summits  lising  to 
ll.JMM),  and  even  to  12,000  ft.  of  elevation ;  as  the 
Altels,  the  BlUmlisalp,  and  others.  It  may  be 
considered  as  terminating  on  the  W.  with  the 
Diablerets,  or  Teidels-honier,  which  att.iins  aljout 
10,<»<jn  ft:,  of  elevation.  W.  of  them  the  moun- 
tains arc  of  moderate  height,  antl  towanls  the 
lake  of  Geneva  they  sink  into  elevated  hiUs.  This 
chain  gf>es  commonly  by  tho  name  of  Bernese 
Aljw  (Bemer  Al])en). 

The  depression  of  this  chain  at  its  western 
extremity  has  afTordeil  an  o])portunity  of  esta- 
blishing a  carriage  communicatiim  between  Ge- 
neva and  Benie  in  Swit/.erland,  and  Milan  in 
LomlMinly.  llie  road  runs  along  the  shores  of 
the  lakv  of  Geneva,  and  enters  at  its  eastern  ex- 
tremity the  vallev  of  the  Klmne  or  (»f  Valaise, 
It  then  ascen<ls  t^ie  vallev  as  far  as  tho  town  of 
Brigg,  and  ].MisHes  thence  (»ver  the  S.  range  by  the 
]iass  (»f  the  Simplon  to  Domo  d'Ossola  and  the 
shorcji  of  the  Lago  Maggiore.  The  highest 
point  of  thb  roail  Is  r).5)5.)  ft.,  the  town  of  Brigg 
2,325,  and  Domo  d'Ossola  1,003  ft.  alsive  the 
sea.  This  road,  mmle  bv  onler  of  Ka]M»leon. 
l)artly  at  the  expense  of  ^France,  and  ])artly  of 
the  then  kingdom  <»f  Italy,  is  a  noble  work.  It 
LS  alMHit  2i>^  ft,  wide,  rising  i\  inch  each  yanL 
In  some  phices  it  is  tunnelled  to  a  considerable 
dbitance  thnnigh  the  solid  rock.  It  is  the  only 
curiage  road  over  this  range ;  but  another  road, 
usetl  only  by  mules,  hiu»  obtained  celebrity  by 
Na]M)letm  having  parsed  it  in  1800,  i)n»viously  to 
his  famous  Italian  cam]mign.  Tix'tn  is  the  road 
of  the  Great  S.  Bernard ;   it  l)egin8  at  Martigny 


on  the  Rhone,  ascends  the  vole  of  the  small  rire^ 
I>rance  to  its  source,  where  it  passes  ovesr  the 
chain  near  the  celebrated  Hospice,  at  an  clcvatioa 
of  8,173  ft.  alK»ve  the  sea,  and  descends  benoe  to 
Aosta  on  the  Dora  Baltea. 

E.  of  the  sources  of  the  Rhone  is  the  only 
place  in  the  Al{»s  running  W.  and  £.  where  this 
range  is  not  dixided  by  longitudinal  vallevs.  but 
is  intersected  bv  the  two  transverse  vallevs  of 
the  Reuss  and  Tessino.  Hence  there  has  existed 
time  immemorial  a  line  of  communication  in 
this  {xiint  l)etween  Smtzerland  and  Italy.  Tliis 
LS  the  road  of  the  S.  Gothard,  uniting  Znrich 
and  Lucerne  with  Milan,  running  first  along  the 
shores  of  the  lake  of  the  four  cantons  (or  of  Lu^ 
ceme)  to  Altorf,  and  afterwards  in  the  valley  of 
the  upper  Reuss  to  Andermatt.  It  passes  the 
ridge  at  an  elevation  of  6,808  ft.,  dcMoends  to 
A\'iolo  on  the  Tessino  in  Val  Leventina,  and  runs 
in  this  valley  to  the  Lago  Maggiore,  and  thence 
to  Milan.  Tliis  much  frequented  mad  has  only 
in  m(Klem  times  been  rendered  practicable  for 
carriages,  on  account  of  the  poverty  of  the  small 
cantons  wluch  it  traverses. 

That  portion  of  the  mountain  system  which 
lies  lK>tween  Mont  Blanc  and  tlic  road  of  tlie 
S.  Gothanl  is  less  broad  than  any  other  part.  It 
probably  does  not  measure  more  than  80  m.  across 
m  a  straight  line ;  but  it^t  valleys,  both  to  the  S. 
and  the  N.,  but  es]K'cially  tlie  latter,  knoivn  by 
the  name  of  Highlands  of  Benie  (Bemer  Oberland), 
are  considered  as  exhibiting  the  richest  mountjun 
scenery  iu  the  AljiS. 

E.  of  the  nwid  over  the  S.  Gothard  pass,  the 
mountain  system  widens  considerably;  so  that 
b(!twecn  9°  and  13®  E.  h)iig.,  its  average  breadth 
may  l>e  estimated  at  between  120  and  130  nodles. 
But  at  the  same  time  the  high  summits  are  less 
numenius,  a  few  only  attaining  12,0fM)  ft,,  though 
a  great  numl>er  still  exceed  10,(K>0  ft.,  and  |>ass 
the  line  of  congelation.  The  height  of  the  mf»un- 
tain  passes  shows  evidently  that  the  elevation  of 
the  whole  mountain  mass  has  rather  increased 
than  decreased,  at  least  W.  of  the  pass  over  the 
Brenner. 

That  (lortion  of  the  range  which  is  bounded  on 
the  south  by  the  Val  Tellina,  the  n>ad  of  the 
Tonale,  and  the  valleys  of  S<d  and  Ntm ;  on  the 
north  by  the  n)aii  of  the  Vorarllieig  from  Feld- 
kirch  to  Landeck,  on  the  east  by  the  Adige  fn>ra 
San  Michelc  to  its  source^  and  then  bv  the  Fins- 
termUnz  road  to  Landeck ;  and  on  the  west  bv 
the  valley  of  the  Rhine  and  the  }S])lllgen  roaii  u 
called  the  Rluetian  Al]is,  or  the  Alps  of  the  Grisons, 
It  is  traversed  by  a  great  valley,  which  is  di\ided  bv 
a  high  transverse  ri<ige  into  two,  of  which  the  \V. 
or  shorter,  called  the  Vale  of  Bregaglia,  is  drained 
by  the  river  Mora,  which  nins  W.,  and  falls  into 
the  lake  of  Como,  or  rather  of  Mi.'sola ;  and  the  E. 
and  much  longer  by  the  Inn,  which  falls  into  the 
Danulje.  The  Adda,  and  its  tributaries,  with  the 
exception  of  the  valley  of  Poschiavo,  has  been 
unitoil  to  Italy  since  the  year  1859.  l-lxi^ept  Fln- 
gadine,  all  the  valley's  rumiing  eastward  from 
these  Alps  Iwlong  to  Austria,  as  also  iKdongs  the 
valley  of  the  111,  oj^ning  uito  the  A-alley  of  the 
Rhine  at  Feldkirch,  The  valley  of  the  Upper 
Rhine  affonbi  two  openings  towards  the  low 
countr}' ;  one  to  the  lake  of  Constance,  and  the 
other  to  the  lake  of  Wallstadt.  Thus  the  town  of 
(.'hur  or  Coire,  situated  where  the  Rhine  tunis 
N.,  has  an  easy  communication  both  with  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland  Though  a  small  place, 
by  far  the  grcatejr  part  of  the  commercial  inter- 
c^iurse  l)etween  Bavaria,  Wirtembeig,  Baden,  ami 
Switzerland  on  one  side,  and  Italy  on  the  other, 
b  carried  on  by  the  road  passing  through  it.   The 


ALPS 


79 


emtoa  of  the  Gnsoos,  sensible  of  the  advantage 
accming  frDm  thia  commercial  inteicotirae,  has 
eofi^tnK^ted  three  excellent  roads  over  the  range, 
vfaidi  divides  the  affluents  of  the  Rhine  from 
thttw  descending  into  the  plain  of  the  Po.    A 
road  runs  from  Coire  along  the  Khine  to  tlie  place 
wh^fte  the  Vorder  Rhein  and  Ilinter  Khein  join, 
aiMl  thence  ascends  in  the  valley  of  the  latter  to 
the  village  c^  SplOgen  in  the  lihcinwald.    At  thb 
place  the  road  divides  in  two.    One  continues  to 
ascend  the  valley  of  the  Hinter  Rhein  to  a  village 
called  also  Hin'terrhein,  and  passes  thence  over 
the  high  mountain  ridge  to  S.  BemanUno ;  it  b 
called  the  road  of  S.  Bernardino.    From  this  vil- 
lage it  descends  in  the  Yal  Misocco  or  Miso  along 
the  river  Moosa,  which  opens  near  Bellinzona 
into  the  amall  plain  suiroanding  the  N.  extremity 
of  the  Lago  Maggiore.    This  road,  which  rises  to 
7.015  ft.  above  the  sea,  has  been  made  in  modem 
times  to  avoid  the  heavy  duties  which  the  Aus- 
trian government  laid  on  the  foreign  commodities 
pstfing  through  its  territories;  for  from  Bellin- 
SiiDi  they  now  can  pass  to  Turin  and  Genoa 
witiKNit  traversing  any  portion  of  the  Austrian 
dmninions.    The  other  road  leaves  the  Rhinwald 
ftt  the  villa^  of  SplUgen,  and  directly  passes  over 
tbe  mtiuntam  ridge  to  Yal  Giacomo,  which  opens 
into  Val  Biegaglia  near  Chiavenna.    The  highest 
ptit  of  this  n>ad  between  SplUgcn  and  Isola  is 
6^  ft  above  the  sea.    Another  road  runs  from 
Ci«re  nearly  directly  S.  over  some  mountains  of 
mi^ienue  height,  till  it  enters  the  valley  of  Ober- 
hailKtein,  widch  it  ascends  nearly  to  its  upper 
extremity,  where  it  divides  into  two  branches,  of 
vhieh  the  £.  passes  Mount  Julier  at  an  elevation 
0^7.285  ft;  it  leads  to  the  valley  of  Engadion, 
and  if  not  a  commercial  line  of  communication. 
Tite  W.  road  passes  over  the  Mal(^  and  descends 
ifito  Val  Bregaglia,  where  it  continues  to  the  town 
of  Chiavenna.    It  rises  to  8,250  ft  above  the  sea, 
ad  though  practicable  only  for  small  carts,  is 
Burh  used. 

The  next  road  farther  £.  is  rather  a  military 
than  a  commercial  line,  and  was  recently  made 
by  the  Austrian  government  to  open  a  carriage 
ommnnication  between  the  newly  acquired 
ValteUne  and  TyroL  It  b^ins  at  Innsbruck, 
tKradti  along  the  Inn  as  far  as  Finstermilnz,  near 
th«  boundarv  line  between  Tvrol  and  Switzerland ; 
Usn»  then  southward,  and  passes  the  watershed 
f^the  Alps,  between  Nandeis  and  Reshen,  where 
it»  hij^iest  point  is  about  4,500  ft  above  the  sea. 
Then  it  descends  along  the  valley  of  the  Adige  to 
(flonis ;  but  a  few  miles  S.  of  this  it  leaves  the 
valley,  and  turning  SW.  traverses  a  very  lofty 
lateral  chain  of  the  Alfis,  which  at  the  place  where 
it  it  OTiflrted  by  the  road  is  called  Monte  Stelvio. 
h  then  rises  to  the  height  of  9,177  ft,  being  the 
h;^btA  elevation  of  any  carriage  road  in  Euroi)e. 
Fnwn  thw  point  it  descemb  rapidly  into  the  valley 
«^  the  Adda  to  Bormio  and  Sondrio,  and  thence  tt) 
Milan.  It  is  ctonmonly  16  fr.  wide,  and  has  been 
nuite  at  a  vast  expense,  and  with  great  skilL 

This  ruad  encircles  on  three  sides  an  extensive 
Bwiuitain  region,  filled  up  by  snow  mountains  and 
?U(%n,  uccup>*ing  the  greater  part  of  the  countrj' 
••rtweeo  Inns^ck  and  Glums,  and  displacing 
tU  wildest  scenery  of  the  Alps.  Eternal  snow 
mren  here  a  space  not  much  less  in  extent  than 
thai  wliich  surrounds  the  Finstcraarh'om  and 
^  "Vin,  and  it  is  likewise  overtopped  by  numerous 
f^  fununits  of  a  pyramidal  form,  many  of  them 
"*ffl»:  to  more  than  10,000  ft  above  the  sea; 
f  the  (ieUatch  Femer  12,288  ft.,  the  VVildspitz 
*'''ni«  I2^3m  ft,  the  Glockthurm  11,284  ft.,  and 
f*^  Where  the  road  traverses  Monte  Steh-io 
K  {aaiea  near  another  moimtain  group,  less  iu 


extent,  but  rising  to  a  greater  elevation.  In  it  is 
Mount  Ortelor,  or  Orteler,  the  highest  summit  in 
T\Tol,  12,851  ft  above  the  sea;  and  near  the 
latter  Mount  Hock  Ishemowald  12,422  ft,  and 
Mount  Zebru  12,075  ft  high. 

To  the  E.,  but  at  some  distance  from  those 
mountain  masses,  is  the  road  over  the  Brenner, 
which  may  be  considere^l  as  the  E.  boundary  line 
of  the  Rhietian  Alps.  This  road  l)egins  at  Inns- 
bruck, ascends  the  valley  of  the  small  river  Sill, 
and  passes  thence  over  the  watershed  between  the 
Inn  and  the  Adige,  where,  N.  of  Storzing,  it 
attains  the  elevation  of  4,659  ft.  It  then  descends 
in  the  valley  of  the  Eisack  from  Brixen  to  Bol- 
zano or  Botzen,  and  thence  to  Roveredo  and 
Verona.  It  is  one  of  the  most  frec^uented  com- 
mercial roads  over  the  Alps. 

This  road  may  be  considered  as  separating  the 
W.  from  the  E.  Alps.  The  latter  are  distinguished 
from  the  former  by  lieing  more  disrinctly  divided 
by  longitudinal  valleys  running  W.  and  E. ;  by 
the  greater  number  of  sei>aratc  ridges;  their 
greater  width  and  lesser  elevation ;  the  number  of 
snow-topped  mountains  being  comparatively  few, 
and  none  of  them  occurring  E.  of  1 4°  E.  long.  The 
northern  half  of  this  mountain  region  is  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Noric  Alps ;  and  the  southern 
by  thr)se  of  Carinthian,  Crainian  or  Julian,  and 
Dinarian  Alps. 

Not  far  distant  from,  and  nearly  parallel  with, 
the  N.  border  of  this  mountain  region,  extends  a 
very  long  longitudinal  valley  from  11°  to  15°  E. 
long. ;  l)ut  it  is  divided  by  two  transverse  ridges 
into  three  valleys,  in  which  flow  the  rivers  Inn, 
the  Upper  Salzach  and  the  Upi>er  Ens,  all  of  them 
running  E.  To  the  S.  of  the  valley  of  the  Salzach 
is  placed  the  highest  part  of  the  Noric  Ali)s. 
Many  summits  rise  above  the  snow  line,  and  he- 
tween  them  are  many  extensive  glaciers.  The 
highest  summits  are  the  Gross  Glcxikner,  12,667  ft, ; 
the  Gn)ss  Wiesbach,  or  Krummhom,  11,844;  ami 
the  Ankogel,  11,873  ft,  al)ove  the  sea.  The  lon- 
gitudinal valley  south  of  this  range  is  diWded  by 
a  transverse  ridge  into  two  valleys,  of  which  the 
W.  is  drained  by  the  Eisach,  which  rmis  W.  and 
falb  into  the  Adige.  The  E.  valley  is  drained  by 
the  Drave,  running  E.,  and  one  of  the  largest 
tributaries  of  the  Danube.  The  mountain  chain 
dividing  these  from  the  plain  of  Lonibardy  is 
much  less  elevated,  rising  only  in  a  few  summits 
to  above  8,000  ft.,  and  none  of  them  exceeding 
9.000  ft.  above  the  sea.  Only  the  Tcrglou,  which 
rises  near  14°  E.  long.,  at  the  sources  of  the  Save, 
attains  a  height  of  9,884  ft.,  and  is  by  many  con- 
sidered as  the  most  E,  snow  mountain  of  the  S. 
range  of  the  Ali>8. 

E.  of  14°  E.  long,  the  Alps  are  diWded  into  5 
ridges  by  4  longitudinal  valleys,  all  of  them  open- 
ing to  the  E.  These  valleys  are  traveled  by  the 
rivers  Ens,  Muhr,  Drave,  luid  Save,  The  Mulir 
suddenly  tunis  S.,  and  running  througli  a  wide 
and  oj>en  transverse  valley,  empties  itself  into  the 
Drave.  The  ranges  enclosing  these  valleys  on 
their  N.  and  S.  sides  graduallv  dccri'ase  in  height  us 
thev  advance  towju*il8  the  IC. ;  so  that  when  ar- 
rived  at  16°  thev  mav  rather  be  tcnned  hills  than 
moiuitains,  except  the  ndge  which  divides  the 
A^lley  of  the  Drave  fn)m  that  of  the  Save,  whieh 
preserves  its  mountainous  as|)ect  Ix^ytmd  18°  E. 
long. ;  where,  at  the  continence  of  the  Drave  with 
the  DanulHJ,  it  suiks  into  low  hills,  but  rises  ;igaiu 
into  mountains  towards  the  confluence  of  the 
Danube  and  of  the  Save,  where  it  takes  the  name 
of  Sirmian  Mountams,  or  Fnizka  (ioro.  ThLs 
latter  group  may  he  considertul  as  the  most  E. 
offset  of  the  Ali^s,  but  rises  hanlly  to  more  tliau 
3,000  ft. 


80 


ALPS 


The  ran^c  which  dix-idcs  the  valleys  of  the 
Muhr  and  of  the  Ens  turas  S.,  and  continues  for 
a  dintancc  in  that  direction,  forming  the  E.  boun- 
<larv  of  the  transverse  vallev  of  tlie  Muhr:  but  on 
the  iMHindary'  line  lietwecn  St}'Tia  and  Hungary,  it 
8ul>side8  into  low  hills,  which  arte  followed  bv  flat 
high  gn>und,  connecting  the  Alps  with  the  forest 
of  Hakony.  Iliis  name  is  given  to  a  low  moun- 
tain range  which  sejMiratCH  the  two  plains  of 
Hungary  from  one  anotluo*,  terminating  where  the 
Danube  suddcnlv  turns  soutliwani,  and  which 
mav  also  be  considered  as  one  of  the  E.  offsets  of 
the  A\\)B, 

The  most  N.  ritkce  of  the  Noric  Alp,  which 
skirts  the  valleys  of  the  Salzach  and  I'^ns  on  tlie 
N.,  is  broken  through  bv  these  rivers  where  they 
turn  N.  to  nm  to  thefr  recipient,  the  l)anuU^ 
This  ridge  may  be  considered  to  terminate  with 
the  Schnieliei^,  ne,ar  Neustadt,  rising  6,882  ft. 
alM>ve  the  sea.  This  ridge  sends  numen>us  lateral 
branches  to  tlie  N.,  which  tenninate  cltwte  to,  or  at 
a  short  distance  from,  the  Danulie,  K-tween  Linz 
and  Vienna.  But  they  rarely  attain  the  height  of 
4,<H)0  or  o,(M)0  ft, 

llirough  tliis  iMirt  of  the  Alps  lie  the  roa<ls  bv 
w^hich  the  towns  of  Linz  and  Vienna  communi- 
cate with  Italy  and  Trieste  and  Fiume,  There  are 
two  (carriage  n.»ads  with  different  branches ;  having, 
as  centnd  i)oints,  the  towns  <>f  Vilbich  on  the  Drave 
in  Carinthia,  and  of  Layba<'h  on  the  Save  in  Cnr- 
niola.  The  imt,  uniting  Linz  on  the  Daiuibe 
with  Italy  and  Trieste,  nms  in  the  lK?ginning 
mostly  along  the  banks  of  the  river  Traim,  in  a 
WSW.  «lirection,  to  the  town  of  Salzburg  <m  the 
Salzbach :  it  then  follows  the  valley  of  the  hu»t- 
mentioned  river  u^)  to  the  place  where  it  is  divided 
by  a  transverse  ndge  from  that  of  the  Ens,  and 
then  passes  over  that  ridge  to  Kadstadt.  Hence 
it  directly  ascends  the  elevated  range  which 
separates  the  valley  of  the  Ens  from  that  of  the 
Mulur,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Tanem. 
The  highest  point  of  this  road,  at  Hirsohwand, 
rises  t«)  6.21M)  ft.  alMjve  the  sea.  Fn>m  S.  Michael, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Muhr,  the  roa<l  ascends  again 
to  1WIS8  over  the  thinl  range,  which  divides  the 
valley  of  the  Muhr  from  that  of  the  Drave.  Tliis 
chain,  however,  is  much  lower.  The  road  leads 
to  Spital  on  tlie  Drave,  and  thence  follows  the 
iMUiks  of  the  river  to  Villach.  From  A'illach  it 
ascends  the  valley  of  the  (Jail,  a  tributary'  of  the 
Dravi',  t<»  Tan'is,  where  the  roa<ls  leading  to  Italy 
and  Trieiitc se]>arate,  Tlie  roa<l  to  Italy  turns  W., 
traverse^  the  most  S.  ridge  by  the  pass  of  Ponteba, 
2,572  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  descends  through  the 
valley  of  the  Telia  to  Treviso  and  Venice.  The 
road  to  Trieste  nms  from  Tarvis  S.,  attains  its 
highest  point  at  the  pass  of  PrefUl  (3,840  ft.  high), 
and  descends  thence  in  the  valley  of  the  Isonzo 
to  G«»erz  or  (loriza,  whence  it  turns  S.  to  Veith 
and  Trieste,  This  roatl  is  connected  with  that  over 
the  IJrenner  by  a  transverse  road,  uniting  the 
valley  of  the  I)rave  with  that  of  the  Eisach.  It 
ascends  along  the  I)rave  from  Villach  to  Spital 
and  Lienz,  passes  over  the  transverse  bridge  sepa- 
rating the  valleys  by  the  pass  of  Innich,  and  de- 
s<rend8  the  Eisach  in  the  wide  valley  of  Puster  to 
Urixen,  where  it  joins  the  roa«l  over  the  Uremier. 

Tlie  roa<l  between  A'ienna  and  the  towns  on  the 
Adriatic  runs  ui  the  beginning  along  the  E.  skirts 
of  the  Aliis  to  Neustmlt  on  the  Leitha,  whence  it 
ascends  the  ridge  calle<l  the  Sommering,  on  whose 
summit  it  is  3,337  fTu  above  the  sea.  Hence  it 
descends  along  the  small  river  MUrz  to  Itruck  on 
tlie  Muhr.  Along  the  last-named  river  it  passes 
through  Grtttz  to  Marburg  on  the  Drave.  It  then 
trjivorses  the  range  separating  the  Drave  and  Save, 
I»assuig  through  Wcndish,  Tci^tritz,  Cilli,  and  the 


Trojana  pass  to  Layb.ich.  Between  this  place  and 
Trieste  is  the  mountAinous  country  called  the 
Adelsberg  and  Karst.  Near  Adelsbeig  the  mail 
rises  2.271  fil,  above  the  sea;  it  thence  descends  to 
Senosetsh,  and  passing  over  the  Karst  arri\'es  at 
Trieste.  From  the  imss  of  Adelsbezg  a  road 
branches  off  t4)  Fiume. 

There  are  two  railways  across  the  Alps,  follow- 
ing, with  but  slight  variation,  the  course  of  the 
roails  here  dei«crilMHL  The  first,  and  m<i6t  westtf  ly 
of  the  two,  runs  from  Linz,  rtu  Salzlmirk,  to  Inns- 
bruck, where  it  is  to  cross  the  lireimer,  falling  into 
the  plain  of  I^>mbardy  at  Botzen,  and  then  going, 
in  a  straight  line,  to  Trieste  aiul  Verona.  The 
second  railroad — the  earlie*it  that  was  ever  c<«n- 
plettid  acniss  the  Alps — goes  from  Vienna  towards 
(floggnitz,  m  a  straight  southerly  direction,  and 
then  ascend^,  in  constant  cur\'e8,  to  Gratx  and 
Cilli;  the  ascent,  very  considerable  at  some  )M»int«i, 
l)eing  overc(»me  by  powerful  h)comotive«,  specially 
built  for  thi^  line.  Fn>m  Cilli  and  Laybach,  tbie 
railway  falls,  in  gradual  cur\'es,  towanis  Trieste, 
thromng  off  branches  in  an  easterly  and  westerly 
direction.  The  journey  from  Vienna  to  Triei*te,  on 
this  line,  occupies  fifteen  hours  by  the  fant  trains. 

Two  carriage  roads  unite  this  railway  with  that 
which  connects  Linz  with  Italv.  The  most  X. 
nms  in  the  valley  of  the  Muhr  westw.^^^l,  begin- 
ning at  Hnick,  and  traversing  Leol>en,  Indeiibuig, 
and  Muran;  at  St.  Michael  it  joins  the  other  mad. 
The  S.  runs  in  the  valley  of  the  Drave,  between 
Marburg  and  Villach,  and  traverses  Klagenfurt. 

The  Diuarian  Alps,  which  may  be  considerwl  as 
the  link  connecting  tlie  mountain  system  with  the 
lialkhan  mountains,  occupy  the  ctnnitrj-  Iwtweeii 
the  (lulph  of  Quaniero  or  Fiume  ami  the  riven 
Verbas  or  Verbriza  and  Narenta  in  Turkey,  and 
have  obtained  their  name  from  M(mnt  Dinars, 
their  highest  summit  (nearly  44*^  N.  lat.),  which 
rises  to  6,<)4(»  ft.  al>ove  the  sea.  The  princijial 
ridge  lie^  nearly  parallel  to  the  Adriatic,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  30  miles  more  or  less,  and  forms  at 
the  same  time  the  watershe<l  l>et>vet»n  tlie  riven 
falling  into  the  Adriatic  or  h»ining  the  Save. 
Lower  ridges,  mostly  parallel  to  the  ]irinci]ial 
ridge,  fill  the  country'  Initween  it  and  the  sea;  1ml 
th(.>se  branching  otF  towanis  the  Save  run  neariy 
S.  and  N.  Opposite  the  Giilph  of  (^uaniem.  the 
higher  mountains  cover  only  a  space  of  h-ajs  than 
80  miles  frr»m  W.  to  E. ;  and  as  here  the  fertile 
plains  of  Hungary'  a[>i>roach  nearest  the  sea,  tlie 
Austrian  government,  desirous  of  devising  s<»n»e 
meiins  b}'  which  the  abundant  prtNhicc  of  thai 
countrj'  could  be  brr)ught  to  the  marketj*  of  the 
commercial  world,  made  in  the  last  iXMitur\'  two 
rtmds  over  the  numemus  ritlges  which  traverae 
the  countrv.  Thcv  are  known  bv  the  names  uf 
the  Camline  and  Josepliine  rtuuls;  the  former 
rising  at  one  ]M>int  to  4,ri7ti  ft.  alx>ve  the  sea.  But 
the  lines  were  not  judiciously  chosen.  Thc>'  nm 
over  tf  succes^ion  uf  steep  acclivities  and  dwlivi- 
ties;  and,  as  they  traverse  a  c<.mntr\-  destitute  vf 
water,  they  couhl  onlv  be  used  by  light  carriage* 
and  mules.  But  in  t)ie  l>eginning  of  thi.^  century 
a  comjmny  of  private  individuabs  constructe<i  an- 
other and  A'ery  superior  n»a<.L  on  which  all  steep 
sIo])es  have  lx»en  avoided;  so  that  it  is  practicable 
for  carrijiges  conveying  the  m<)st  bulky  commo- 
dities fmm  the  interior  of  Hmigar\'  tothe  coast. 
This  n>ad  begiiu)  on  the  coast  at  f'iume,  ascends 
directly  the  mountains,  passes  thmugh  Kumenjak 
and  Skerbuter\'ak,  and  terminates  at  Carlstadt  ou 
the  (^ulpa,  where  this  river  l)egins  to  Ik?  navigable. 

On  three  sides  the  Alps  are  surmumled  by  plains. 
On  the  S.  by  that  of  I;omljardy,  <m  the  N.  by  thc*o 
of  S\vitzi'rland  an<l  Bavaria,  and  on  the  k.'by  the 
great  plain  of  Hungary.    The  plain  of  Lominniy 


ALPS 


81 


ill  kfli  elevated  tlum  those  of  Switzerland  and 
Bavaria;  for  the  Lago  Maggiore  is  only  805  ft., 
and  tlie  lake  of  Como  697  it ;  whilat  the  lakes  of 
Genera,  Zurich,  and  Constance  are  respectively 
1^7,  1^10,  1^  ft  above  the  sea.  The  highest 
na^es  <^  the  mountains  axe  much  nearer  to  the 
plain  of  Lofnbaidy  than  to  the  plains  on  the  N. ; 
and  their  descent  u  much  steeper  towards  Italy 
than  tawaids  Switzerland  or  Germany.  The  mean 
elevation  of  the  great  plain  of  Hungary  is  only 
300  ft  above  the  sea;  and  in  it  terminate  the  £. 
extppmiries  of  the  ranges,  which  nowhere  rise  to  a 
great  height 

The  central  ridges  of  the  Alps  are  composed  of 
primitive  lucks,  especially  of  granite  and  gneiss, 
•ad  are  distinguished  by  Uieir  pointed  peaks.    On 
the  N.  side  of  this  formation  extends  a  slate  for- 
mstioa  of  coosiderable  width.    This  does  not  ap- 
IK*r  to  aooompany  the  range  on  the  S.,  except 
t^fmg  the  E.  Alps,  where  it  dmb  been  observed  to 
extend  from  Bnxen  on  the  Eisach  to  Marfouxg  on 
the  Drave,  akirting  that  river  on  the  S.    Beyond 
the  slate  formation,  the  chaUc  occupies  a  consider- 
able space.     It  is  found  to  occupy  the  greatest 
extent  on  the  SE.  of  the  mountam  system,  the 
Tih>le  Julian  Alps  beins  composed  of  it    On  the 
«f)|»aite  ur  X  W.  side,  the  sandstone  formation  ex- 
tends from  the  lake  of  Geneva  as  for  as  the  S. 
bonadary  of  Bavaria.    The  chalk  formation  is  dis- 
tinguished by  its  summits,  which  do  not  rise  in 
pUnted  peaka,  but  form  either  cones  or  cupolas. 

All  those  parts  of  the  numerous  ridges  which 
ri»  above  the  line  of  congelation  are,  of  course, 
ouremi  with  snow  all  the  year  round.    In  many 
F'isoes  the  snow  occupies  a  considerable  space  on 
the  upper  parts  and  summits  of  the  rocky  masses, 
ind  num  these  *  eternal  reservoirs '  of  snow  the 
jkciert  are  derived.    The  sides  of  the  rocky  mass 
at  mnaUy  furrowed  by  long  narrow  valleys ;  and 
b  these  masses  of  snow,  descending  from  the  upper 
fans  under  the  form  of  ice,  extend  the  farther 
^uvnwaxd  the  greater  the  mass  and  height  of  the 
aaw  from  which  they  are  derived.    These  aocu- 
Bmlatioiis  of  snow  and  ice  form  glaciers,  many  of 
viiidi  are  from  15  to  20  m.  long.    In  the  Intro- 
doctian  to  Messrs.  Longman's  *  Guide  to  the  Cen- 
tnl  Alps'  (Part  II.  of  Alpme  Guide),  will  be  found 
t  detailed  and  interesting  account  of  these  pheno- 
mena.   The  author  deKribes,  in  the  first  place, 
the  manner  in  which  the  snow-dust  and  minute 
cTTstals  are  partially  melted  and  fused  by  the  in- 
floeoce  of  the  sun  m  warm  weather,  and  frozen 
together  into  compact  particles  of  ice  during  the 
next  bter%'al  oi  cold, — ^the  alternate  melting  and 
eoofcelatitn  being  continually  repeated  until  the 
vbtde  mass  is  converted  into  that  peculiar  condi- 
tiw  called  u^r4 ;  and  how,  in  the  lapse  of  years, 
tbe  HfM  increasing  layer  by  layer,  and  each  layer 
cxnting  omaiderwle  pressure  on  that  beneath,  the 
fwen  of  congelation  grsdually  turns  the  deeper 
fMtiaos  of  the  mass  contained  in  the  reservoir 
uitA  compact  ice.    These  reservoirs  partaking  of 
tbc  dope  of  the  mountains,  and  the  ice  in  this 
*t<t«  possessing  considerable  plasticity,  the  masses 
*^oer^  gTsdiudly  flow  down  through  the  channels 
<f  the  Valleys,  or  become  spaders.    The  Introduc- 
^  goes  on :  *  We  now  see  that  the  essential  con- 
^^  for  the  formation  of  a  glacier  is  the  existence 
*^ }  RBOToir  huge  enough,  and  at  a  sufficient 
bfi^t,  to  accumulate  such  a  mass  of  ndv^  as  will, 
i         h  >t«  weight  convert  its  own  substance  into  ice, 
L        *M  fiuice  It  to  flow  in  whatever  direction  it  en- 
<<'<unen  the  least  resistance.    In  moving  onward 
^  glacier  conforms  to  the  laws  that  regulate  the 
^mjuq  of  imperfect  fluids.    The  resistance  of  the 
li^  and  the  bed  on  which  it  moves  retards  the 
^**irm  of  the  mi^minBg  portions  of  the  ice :  the 
VouL 


centre,  therefore,  moves  faster  than  the  sides,  and 
the  surface  faster  than  the  bottom.  When  the 
iccstrcam  flows  through  a  bend  in  the  valley,  the 
point  of  most  rapid  motion  is  shifted  from  the 
centre  towards  the  convex  side  of  the  curve. 
While  the  ice  thus  conforms  to  the  laws  of  fluid 
motion,  the  internal  changes  by  which  it  is  en- 
abled thus  to  comport  itself  are  peculiar,  and  have 
no  example  among  other  bodies  of  which  we  have 
experience.  The  nature  of  the  motion,  involving 
constant  chan^  in  the  relative  positions  of  the 
particles,  implies  fracture,  which  must  be  frequent- 
ly renewed;  but  tliis  would  speedily  reduce  the 
whole  to  a  mass  of  incoherent  fragments,  if  it  were 
not  for  the  property  of  regelation.  At  each  step 
in  the  progress  of  the  glacier,  this  repairs  the 
damage  done  to  the  continuity  of  the  ice,  and  by 
the  twofold  process  of  fracture  and  remlation^  the 
fflacier  moves  onward,  constantly  changing  its 
form,  yet  presenting  a  continuous  mass  of  solid 
hard  ice.'  When  the  general  movement  of  the 
glacier  tends  to  draw  asunder  adjoining  portions  of 
ice,  the  mass  is  rent  through,  and  crevaues  are 
made.  Where  the  descent  is  gradual,  the  surface 
of  the  glacier  is  nearly  level,  and  offers  few  cre- 
vices ;  but  where  the  declivity  is  rapid  and  uneven, 
the  glacier  is  rent  with  numerous  chasms,  and 
covered  with  elevations,  rifiiiig  from  100  to  200  ft., 
having  the  aspect  of  a  sea  agitated  by  a  humcane. 
The  chasms  are  frequent  Iv  many  feet  wide,  and 
more  than  100  deep.  Hieir  formation,  which 
never  takes  place  in  winter,  but  is  frequent  during 
summer,  is  accompanied  with  a  loud  noise  resem- 
bling thunder,  and  a  shock  which  makes  the  adja- 
cent mountains  tremble.  Tlicse  chasms  are  subject 
to  change  every  day,  and  almost  every  hour,  and 
it  is  this  circumstance  that  renders  the  ascent  of 
the  glaciers  so  dangerous  to  travellers.  Sometimes 
there«are  found  in  tlie  glaciers  pyramids  of  ice  of 
a  considerable  elevation  and  a  regular  form,  on  the 
tops  of  which  are  placed  large  pieces  of  rocks.  At 
the  lower  extremity  of  the  glaciers  is  an  excava- 
tion in  the  form  of  a  grotto,  frequentiy  100  feet 
high  and  from  60  to  80  ^-ide,  whence  issues  a  small 
river,  bringing  down  a  bluish  water.  Though 
every  single  crystal  of  the  ice  of  the  glaciers 
seems  perfecdy  white,  the  whole  mass  is  of  a  blue 
colour,  passing  through  every  shade  from  the  most 
feeble  sky-blue  to  that  of  the  lapis  lazuli;  it  is 
most  pure  and  beautiful  in  the  lower  parts  of  the 
chasms.  The  glaciers  impart  one  of  the  greatest 
charms  to  the  scenery  of  the  Alps,  by  the  t)eauty 
of  their  colour,  and  their  contrast  with  the  sur- 
rounding country,  their  lower  extremities  being 
commonly  contiguous  to  meadows  covered  with 
the  finest  grass  and  the  most  beautiful  flowers, 
and  the  declivities  of  the  mountains  which  enclose 
them  exhibiting  large  tracts  clothed  with  magnifi- 
cent trees,  especially  firs. 

Avalanche*  are  more  frequent  in  the  Alps  than 
in  most  other  mountains,  because  of  the  steepness 
of  their  declivities.  The  most  common  consist  of 
masses  of  snow,  which,  commencing  their  descent 
at  the  higher  parts  of  the  mountains,  and  incrcaa- 
ing  in  magnitude  and  velocity  as  they  roll  down 
to  the  valleys,  overwhelm,  in  their  headlong  ca- 
reer, men  and  cattle,  destroy  villages  and  forests, 
and  dam  up  and  obstruct  the  course  of  rivers. 
Four  kinds  of  avalanches  may,  however,  be  dii^ 
tinguished.  1.  The  drift  avalanche  takes  place 
when  the  upper  puirts  of  tiie  mountains  have  been 
covered  by  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  during  a  calm, 
followed  by  a  strong  wind  before  the  mass  has 
acquired  consistency.  An  immense  mass  of  loose 
mow  is  then  suddenly  brought  by  the  wind  into 
the  valleys,  where  it  frequently  covers  villages ; 
but  in  general  these  avalanches  do  not  occasion 
*  Q 


82 


ALPS 


much  damage,  unless  when  they  cause  a  compres- 
Bion  of  the  uir.  ThU  M>rt  of  avalanche  usually 
occurs  in  the  lM>^nning  of  whiter.  2.  The  rolling 
avalunclie^:  these  briii^  down  great  raav(»  of  com- 
pact snow,  e8i>ecially  towards  tlie  end  of  the  win- 
ter, when  it  Wgins  to  thaw.  In  their  pwgress, 
thev  are  increoseil  bv  all  the  snow  they  meet  in 
their  descent ;  their  impetus  and  mass  l>eing  frc- 
qu(>ntly  such  as  to  overwhelm  and  lieat  do^^-n 
ever>'  tlihig,  r<x;ks  not  even  excepted,  that  may 
intemipt  their  course.  These,  the  most  destruo- 
live  of  the  avalanches,  cause  great  loss  of  life  and 
property.  3.  The  siuUmf  avalanches  are  masses 
of  snow  tlesceuding  slowly  along  the  surface  of 
a  not  verj'  steep  (leclivity.  They  take  place  in 
Fjiring,  when  a  long  thaw  has  dissolved  that  por- 
tion of  the  snow  which  lies  immedintelv  on  the 
ro4*ks,  and  thus  l(M)sened  the  bond  with  which  the 
whole  ni.'iss  is  united  to  its  base.  They  carry 
before  them  every  thing  that  is  too  weak  to  with- 
stand their  ]»ressun».  Tliey  sometim(>s  iMrcasioii 
considerable  loss,  but  not  fre<|uently.  4.  The  ice  or 
glarier  avalanches  are  fonned  by  hiiger  or  smaller 
pieces  of  ice,  detache<l  from  a  glacier  by  the  sum- 
mer's heat.  They  are  pre('ipitate<l  downwanls  with 
a  noise  like  thunder.  U  hen  seen  fn»m  a  dis- 
tance, they  resemble  the  cataract  of  a  powerful 
river.  As  they  generally  descend  into  uninhabited 
places,  they  seldom  do  much  damage. 

The  rolling  and  sliding  avalanches  expose  tra- 
vellers to  the  gR'atest  dangers  they  have  to  incur 
in  traversing  the  Alps.  There  are,  in  fact,  certain 
localities  on  the  mt>.'«t  frequented  n>a<b<,  to  which 
they  descend  annually,  an<l  which  are  consequently 
very  dangerous.  To  obviate  the  risk  <»f  accidents 
fn)m  this  cause,  in  the  construction  of  new  roads, 
as  of  th(»se  of  the  Simplon  and  over  Monte  Stel- 
vio,  ciure  has  been  taken  at  such  plmres  to  excavate 
the  mountain  Ut  a  certain  depth,  and  to  cover  over 
the  n>ad  with  strongly  built  arches,  wliich  efFectu- 
ally  provide  for  the  safety  of  the  traveller.  A  few 
places  on  the  roails  are  also  rendered  unsafe  by  less 
t)r  greater  pieces  of  n>ck,  which  de^>end  \vith  fear- 
ful veliK'itv  from  the  steep  dwrlivities  of  the  moun- 
tains. 'Hiis  usually  hap|)ens  when,  after  some  tlays' 
continued  rain,  a  strong  wind  arises,  and  shaken 
the  higher  ]M)rtion  of  tlie  mountains.  Luckily, 
liowever,  such  places  are  not  frequent.  Travellers 
on  the  gla^ners  run  the  risk  of  fulling  intxi  chasms, 
or  of  tinding  the  ice  under  their  feet  suddenly  o|)en- 
ing  in  the  ]>rogrcss  of  the  fc»nnation  of  a  new  chasm. 

The  scenerj'  of  the  Alps  owes  a  [vart  of  its  nu- 
merous charms  to  the  great  numl>ej  of  extensive 
lakes,  of  which  nearly  every  one  is  du<tingiushed 
by  some  peculiar  iH'auties.  Most  of  them  have 
an  easy  access,  l>eing  situated  on  or  near  the  out^ 
skirts  of  the  range,  as  the  lakes  of  (leneva,  Con- 
stance, and  Zurich ;  or  partly  witliin  and  partly 
without  the  range,  as  the  lake  of  the  Four  Cantons, 
and  the  Logo  Alaggiorc  and  that  of  C^>mo,  and 
the  beautiful  lakes  in  Austria.  Innumerable  are 
the  small  lakes  which  occur  on  or  near  the  sum- 
mits of  the  high  ridges  and  glaciers.  Most  of  the 
rivj-rs  and  torrents  have  their  stmrces  in  such  lakeji. 

The  chalk  formation  of  the  Julian  Aljis  offers 
the  most  inten^iting  natural  phenomena.  It  con- 
sists of  a  fine-grained.  much-<lecomp<»sed  primitive 
chalk,  which  is  rent  bv  a  great  number  of  trans- 
verse crexices  and  precipices,  and  frequently  forms 
deep  depressiims  in  the  fashion  of  funnels.  In  it 
occur  numerous  caverns  and  subterraneous  galleries 
of  great  extent,  in  which  everywhere  the  finest 
and  most  fantastic  stalactites  are  forme<l.  More 
than  a  thousand  such  caverns  are  alreadv  known, 
and  luanv  have  never  been  visitwL  'the  most 
remarkabfc  are  those  of  Adelsk'rg  (which  see), 
Ma^fdalen    in    its  neighbourhood,  Zirknitz,  &c 


Numerous  too  are  the  rivers  and  torrenta  which 
suddenly  disap|icar  underground,  precipitadng 
themselves  into  a  large  chasm,  and  re-apiiearing 
aft^er  a  subterraneous  course  of  many  milGf«.  Here 
arc  also  many  intermittent  wells,  which,  at  cer- 
tain seasons,  emit  large  quantities  of  water,  and 
at  others  arc  dr\'.  Several  of  them  fee<l  the  lake 
of  Zirknitz,  wlu(;h  has  acquired  celebrity  for  lieing 
for  several  montlis  ijuite  dr\',  and  for  several  others 
filled  with  water ;  so  tliat  it  sen-es  each  year  suc- 
cessively for  tillage,  pasturage,  hunting,  and  fishiii}^ 

The  Alps  an*,  not  rich  in  metals,  except  ir^>u. 
Some  mines  of  gold  and  silver  occur  on  the  S.  as 
as  well  as  on  the  N.  declivity,  especially  in  the 
Austrian  dominions;  but  their  produce  is  incon- 
siderable. Others  of  co]>|K'!r  and  lead  are  more 
productive ;  but  they  too  are  comparatively  pour, 
except  the  Hleiberg  (lead  mountain)  of  Cunnthia, 
which  furnishes  some  of  the  l>est  lead  in  £un>pe. 
The  qiucksilver  mines  of  Idria,  NXE.  of  Trieste, 
are  nnikoned  among  the  richest  of  the  gh»be.  The 
iron  muies  of  Styria,  Cariiithia,  and  Camiola  are 
ver)'  productive,  and  thoir  prrsluce  hardly  inferior 
to  any  of  Euro{)e.  Kock-salt  occuivi  only  in  a 
verj'  few  places  in  the  W.  Aljis ;  but  on  the  N. 
side  «>f  the  E.  Alps  are  very  rich  layers  of  that 
mineral,  ruunhig,  as  it  scrims,  in  a  continuous  line 
from  the  banks  of  the  Inn  at  Ilalle  to  those  of  tho 
Enns  in  Austria.  They  are  worked  with  great 
industry  at  differejit  places. 

A'egetation  c(»vers  the  greater  part  of  the  Alps. 
The  larger  valleys,  none  of  wliich  rise  to  ftjOllO  ft, 
alKive  the  sea,  contain  some  tracts  fit  for  agricul- 
tural purposes.  Tliey  consult  generally  of  uneven 
ground,  extending  on  Isith  sides  a  river,  llehind 
it  the  mountains  rise  with  a  steep  and  commonly 
inaci*esbible  ascent,  which  is  covered  with  liigh 
tnn^s;  in  the  Uiwer  ])urt8  with  oak,  l)eech,  elm, 
&c. ;  and  in  the  upper  region  nvith  fir,  pine,  larch, 
anil  the  Pinti$  Ctmbra,  Near  the  region  of  the 
pastures  the  trees  dwindle  down  to  low  bushes. 
The  pasture  region,  which  occuines  the  next  place, 
offt^rs  commonly  a  plain  strongly  inclined  towards 
the  valley,  and  is  in  gcneml  of  considerable  wi<lth. 
It  is  called  in  Switzerland  the  Alpt^  Here  arv 
found  the  huts  or  »ennet  of  the  herdsmen,  inlia- 
bited  only  in  summer,  when  the  cattle  are  brought 
to  these  pastures.  The  up])er  part  of  the  range  is 
occupietl  by  bare  ro<:ks,  many  of  which  rise  above 
the  line  of  congelation.  This  line  occurs  in  the 
A1|U(  betwiwn  8,0U()  and  9,0(H)  ft.  above  the  sea, 
and  is  lower  on  the  X.  than  on  the  S.  declivity. 

Com  is  grown  on  the  X.  side,  not  above  :{'.H0O 
or  4,000  ft, ;  but  on  the  S.  it  succeeds  l,o«»0  ft, 
higher.  Tlie  highest  pkice  at  which  barley  ripens 
is  Skala  in  the  Engadin,  5.950  il.  alK>ve  tlie  sea. 
High  trees  are  found  in  some  places  not  above 
4,500  ft.,  at  others  they  ascend  the  decliWties  even 
to  7,000  fr.  and  more.  *(.)ak  is  found  up  to  4,00()  IV^ 
elm  to  4,300,  ash  somewhat  higher,  beech  to  5,0(l0, 
fir  to  5,3<N),  mountain  ash  to  5,()00,  bin*h  to  5,7Ul.>. 
pines  to  (>,500,and  larch  to  7,000  or  7,300  ft  above 
the  acta.  Where  the  high  trees  begin  to  ceAsc.  the 
mountains  are  covered  with  bushes  and  the  Alidne 
rose  {Rhododendnm  ^errugineum  and  hirtuium), 
IJeyond  the  upiK-r  limit  of  trees,  are  found  the  saxi- 
frage, primntsc,  i)edicularis,  anemone,  gentian,  and 
other  specimens  of  the  brilliant  Alpine  tlonu 

The  author  of  the  *  Alpine  Guide '  just  quoted, 
divides  the  Alps,  geologically,  into  thirtv-three 
groiqis.  He  says :  '  To  the  mocleni  race  ol  Swiss 
geologists  Ijclongs  the  cre«lit  of  having  ascertained 
the  real  onler  of  suctression  of  the  strati,  and  the 
general  plan  of  structure  which  [>re vails  through- 
out the  entire  chain.  M.  Studer,  who  holds  a 
foremost  placn;  amongst  Alpuie  geologists,  reoi^r- 
nises  the  existence  in  tlic  Alps  of  a  series  of 


ALPS 


88 


grmps,  each  with  its  oystalline  centre,  Bometimes 
^snllel  to  each  other,  sometimes  arranged  em 
tdiekm^  like  the  squares  of  a  chess-board. 

*The  intenrab  between  the  higher  crv'stalline 
masses  had  been  imperfectly  studi^  by  the  earlier 
genlngista.    It  is  now  known  tliat  these  inter- 
mediate species,  which  we  shall  designate  bv 
the  general  term  trough  [Fr.  mait^  Germ.  tnulde]y 
are  formed  of  rocks  completely  difTcrcnt  from  thcjse 
coD^titating  the  crystalline  centres.    As  a  general 
rule,  these  are  stxatified  rocks  of  softer  and  less 
resuming  texture.'    The  crystalline  masses  may 
be  r^raided  as  islets,  which,  in  the  process  of  up- 
hetvaJ,  have  driven  back  or  tilted  up  the  deposits 
throogh  which  they  forced  their  way.     It  is, 
therefore,  in  the  troughs  or  spaces,  where  it  has 
been  leas  disturbed,  that  the  clue  to  the  original 
geological  structure  must  be  sought 

The  inhabitants  of  those  ranges  of  the  Alps 
which  extend  firom  the  Mediterranean  to  the  lake 
of  Geneva  are  mostly  of  French  origin,  speaking 
a  oarmpt  dialect  of  the  French  language.    In  the 
muinder  of  the  mountain  system  the  population 
is  if  Teutonic  origin,  only  a  few  of  the  more  open 
Talle}-8  tenninating  in  the  plain  of  Lombanly, 
fipf«king  a  dialect  of  the  Italian  language.     Tlie 
RMst  £.  extremity  of  the  whole  range,  between 
the  rivers  Muhr  and  Save  and  the  Julian  Alps^  is 
pvtly  inhabited  by  a  population  of  Slavonian 
ori^  called  the  Wendes  or  Sloven  zL    As  the 
tncts  of  land  fit  for  agricultural  purposes  are  of 
cwparatively  small'  extent,  the  rearing  of  cattle 
u4  the  making  of  butter  and  cheese  constitute 
tbe  {«incipal  employment.    Many  of  the  inhabi- 
tants migrate,  at  certain  seasons,  to  the  neigh- 
buoring  countries  in  search  of  work.    Some  of 
them  return  annually,  some  after  the  lapse  of 
tone  yeank      Besides  the  daiiy,  the  mines  give 
flDployment  to  a  number  of  inhabitants ;  but  this 
in  onlv  the  case  in  the  Alps  of  Styria,  Carinthia, 
ud  (!amiola,  where  rich  mines  of  iron  and  ex- 
tensive layers  of  salt  are  found.  In  these  districts, 
ibo,  are  some  manufactures  of  hanlware  and  iron 
vteoHlfl.    In  the  other  parts  of  the  range  manu- 
(actoring  industry  is  almost  unknown;  but  near 
it«  oatskirts  on  the  N.  side  it  has  in  later  times 
heoome  so  diffused,  that  it  hardly  fields  to  any 
flther  part  of  the  continent    The  mhabitants  of 
the  mountains  are  distinguished  by  their  love  of 
B«rtv,  their  opposition  to  every  kind  of  oppre^ion, 
the  frankness  c^  their  behaviour,  their  ahhcrcnce 
to  their  old  manners  and  dress,  and  their  fidelity 
aad  hcmesty. 

The  Alps  did  not  become  well  known  till  the 
Ri(^  of  Augustus.  That  emperor  finally  sub- 
dwd  the  numerous  and  savage  clans  which  inha- 
^iitA  the  Alpine  valleys,  and  cleared  the  passes  of 
the  banditti  by  which  they  were  infested.  lie 
a>pn>ved  the  old  roads,  constructed  new  ones,  and 
•weeeded  in  establishing  free  and  easy  communi- 
eatMis  across  the  mountains.  The  chain  wa<i  then 
<^irided  ioto  separate  portions,  which  have  pre- 
Hrred  their  boundaries  and  denominations  nearly 
to  the  piesent  day. 

The  ex|rforation  of  the  Alps  has,  within  the  last 
fcv  vean,  exdted  a  considerable  amount  of  public 
intfnst,  principally  through  the  exertions  and 
•^bieroqents  of  the  Alpine  Club.  In  1859,  the 
^.  C.  Hndscm  establi:died  the  practicabilit^yr  of 
'^*<^hiiig  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc  by  the  ndgc 
frrio  the  DiNne  du  Gout^.  The  highest  pinnacle 
<^  Monte  Rosa,  15.217  ft,  was  reached  for  the  fiist 
time  in  1855  by  Messrs.  G.  and  C.  Smith  and 
three  other  gentlemen.  The  north  end,  15.182 
^ '[I*  fcicended  for  the  first  time  in  1861  by  Sir 
J- K  Buxton,  Mr.  E.  Buxton,  and  Mr.  CoweU. 
The  Lyikamm,  liy889  ft,  was  ascended  by  the 


Rev.  F.  W.  Hardy,  for  the  first  time,  by  the 
Monte  Rosa  glacier.  The  Wei«ihom,  Pennine 
Alps,  14,804  ft,  of  which  the  ascent  is  one  of  the 
most  difficult  and  laborious  yet  accomplished,  was 
first  ascended  hy  Professor  Tyndall  in  1861. 
Monte  Viso,  Cottian  Alps,  12,643  ft,  which  long 
had  the  reputation  or  being  inaccessible,  was 
ascended  in  1861  by  Messrs.  W.  Mathews  and 
F.  W.  Jacomb;  and  a  second  ascent  was  made  in 
1862  by  Mr.  Tuckett  The  Grand  Combiu,  Pen- 
nine Alps,  14,164  ft,  was  long  one  of  the  least 
known  of  Alpine  summits;  but  in  1857  Mr.  W. 
Mathews  reached  its  second  peak,  and  in  1860  a 
Swiss  gentleman  attained  the  highest,  and  an 
English  officer  performed  the  same  feat  almost 
immediately  afterwards.  The  Dom,  14,935  ft, 
the  highest  peak  of  the  Saas  Grat,  Pennine  Alps, 
was  ascended  for  the  first  time  by  the  Kev.  Llew- 
elh*n  Da\*ies.  The  ascent  of  the  Dent  Blanche, 
14^18  ft,  a  most  difficult  undertaking,  is  only 
known  to  have  been  achieved  once — by  Mr.  T.  S. 
Kennedy  and  a  party  of  friends,  in  the  year  1862. 

Amongst  the  passes  recent  Iv  opened  may  be 
mentioned  the  Ried  Pass,  from  Sass  to  St  Niklaus, 
discovered  by  Professor  Ulrick;  the  Col  de  Gran- 
crou,  from  Cogne  to  Ceresole,  first  effected  in  1862 
bv  Mr.  F.  F.  Tuckett:  the  Jungfrau  Joch,  from 
Wengem  Alp  to  iEggischhom,  one  of  the  most 
difficult  passes  yet  accomplished,  and  considered 
insurmountable  until  ascended,  in  1862,  by  the 
Rev.  Leslie  Stephen  and  other  enteiprising  mem- 
bers of  the  Alpine  Club;  the  Eiger  Joch,  effected 
but  once,  in  1859,  by  the  Rev.  I^lie  Stephen  and 
friends;  the  I^awinen  Thor,  a  pass  made  and 
named  by  Professor  Tyndall  in  1860;  and  the 
Studcr  Joch,  from  Grimsel  to  the  iEggischhom,  a 
most  difficult  pass  traversed  by  Messrs.  Macdonaid, 
Buxton,  Grove,  and  Hall,  in  1863. 

Alps  (Ix>wek),  Btuaes  Alpes,  a  frontier  dep.  in 
the  SE.  of  France,  having  E.  the  Sardinian  states, 
S.  the  dep.  of  the  Var,  VV.  dep.  Vaucluse,  and  N. 
the  depts.  Drome  and  Hautes  Alpcs.  Area,  682,643 
hectares.  Pop.  146,368  in  1861,  against  152,070 
in  1851,  showing  a  considerable  decline  in  the 
decennial  period.  This  dep.  derives  its  name  from 
its  being  principally  occupied  by  the  W.  slope  of 
the  Al\wi,  Its  asfKH^t  is  highly  varied  and  pic- 
turesque, presenting  a  succession  of  high  rugged 
mountains,  crowned  with  eternal  snow,  vast  som- 
bre forests,  and  low,  rich,  smiling  valleys.  The 
mountains  and  hills  occupy  about  half  the  surface, 
and  the  woods  about  a  sixth  part ;  the  extent  of 
cultivated  land  is  estimated  at  155,000  hect.,  of 
meadoifvs  at  nearly  18,000,  and  vineyanls  at  14,000 
do.  The  principal  river  is  the  Durance,  which 
traverses  the  dep.  from  N.  to  S.;  it  is  also  in  part 
intersected,  and  in  part  bounded,  by  the  Verdon, 
and  is  watered  by  many  mountain  streams,  the 
inundations  of  which  often  occasion  great  mischief. 
The  climate  varies,  of  course,  with  the  elevation 
and  exposure  of  the  soil.  There  is  a  good  deal  of 
spade  husbandrv;  and  mules  and  asses  are  used  in 
preference  to  either  horses  or  oxen.  I*roduce  of 
com  crops  insufficient  for  the  consumption.  Po- 
tatoes extensively  cultivated.  Olive,  fig,  and 
mulberry  trees,  are  all  cultivated  in  the  lower  and 
warmer  districts,  and  dried  and  other  fruits  make 
a  considerable  article  of  cx]>ort.  Tlie  lower  moun- 
tains afford  excellent  sheep  pasture.  They  belong 
parti V  to  individuals,  and  partly  to  communes; 
and  Wsides  the  stationary  sheep,  or  those  that 
belong  to  the  dej).,  about  400,000  head  are  annually 
brought  from  the  adjoining  depts.  of  the  Var  and 
the  Bouchea  du  Rhone ^  to  be  depastured  for  about 
four  months  in  summer  on  the  mount^ns  referred 
to.  They  i>ay  at  the  rate  of  fmm  1  fr.  to  1  fr.  25 
cent  per  head;  and  both  their  size,  and  the  quality 


84 


ALPS 


of  their  flesh  and  wool,  are  said  to  be  materiany 
improve<l  by  the  change.  The  shepherds  never 
quit  their  charge  either  by  night  or  by  day. 
Besides  the  sheep  belonging  to  the  dcp.,  the  breed 
of  which  has  l)een  materially  improved,  it  has  a 
great  number  of  goats;  and  the  rearing  of  bees  is 
also  much  attended  to.  There  are  mines,  but  not 
very  prwluctive,  of  iron,  lead,  copper,  and  coaL 
Manufactures  have  not  made  much  progress;  but 
there  are  several  silk  filatures  and  silk  looms,  Tvith 
manufactures  of  cloth,  hats,  earthenware,  and  tan- 
neries. ( ireat  numbers  of  the  poorer  classes  leave 
their  homes  for  a  portion  of  the  year  to  seek 
em]>lo^nnent  in  the  neighl)ouring  depts.  It  has  5 
arrond.,  30  cant.,  and  257  communes.  Principal 
towns  Digne,  Sisteron,  and  Ilamellonete,  in  the 
picturesque  valley  of  the  same  name. 

Alph  (Uri»KK),  Haute.8  Aloes,  a  frontieT  dep.  in 
the  SE.  of  France,  on  the  N.  side  of  the  dep.  of 
the  Banes  Alpes,  and  having  on  the  E.  the  Sar- 
dinian states.  Area,  55H,2G4  hect  Pop.  125,100 
in  18C1.  The  pop.  numbere<i  132,038  in  1851,  so 
that  there  was  a  decline  during  th(»c  ten  years. 
ITie  department  of  llautes  Alfies  differs  in  few 
res|)ects  from  that  just  described,  except  that  it  is 
more  mountainous  and  less  fniitfuL  Some  of  the 
mountains  rank,  in  fact,  among  the  higliest  in  the 
immense  clmin  of  which  they  form  a  part.  Mont 
Pelioux,  the  most  elevated,  rises  14,120  ft.  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  Mont  Olan  13,4G1  do. 
The  mean  elevation  of  the  mountains  may  be 
taken  at  about  9,000  feet,  and  the  elevation  of  the 
highest  coU  or  posses  from  one  valley  to  anotlier 
sometimes  exceeds  7,000  feet.  There  are  several 
glaciers  in  the  N.  part  of  the  dcp.  Agriculture 
similar  to  that  of  the  Bosses  Ali)es.  Only  97,500 
hect.  of  surface  is  cultivated;  77,000  hect.  are 
occupictl  by  woo<ls  and  forests,  and  about  24,000 
by  meadows,  the  irrigation  of  which  is  an  object 
of  great  importance.  The  valleys  principally  lie 
alongside  toe  riveis  Durance,  Briuch,  and  i)rac. 
Inluibitonts  poor  and  laborious.  Greniers  cTabon- 
dance,  or  com  magazines,  are  established  in  dif- 
ferent communes,  which  make  loans  of  seed  and 
necessaries  to  poor  familieii.  There  ore  mines  of 
iron,  lead,  ond  other  minerals.  Afanufacturcs 
principally  confined  to  coarse  cloth,  linen,  stock- 
ings, and  hats,  required  for  the  use  of  the  in- 
hid>itants.  Tlie  cheese  and  butter  of  the  Brian- 
9onnais  are  highly  esteemed.      Bread  made  of 

t)otatoes  is  extensively  used.  Families  using  rye 
iread  commonly  bake  it  only  once  a  year;  it 
keetw  for  15  or  18  months,  is  hard,  and  has  to  be 
i)rf>Kcn  to  pieces  by  a  hatchet.  Between  4,000  and 
6,000  of  the  peasants  leave  tlie  dep.  every  yeor  in 
the  beginning  of  October,  and  return  early  in 
June.  It  is  estimated  tlmt  at  an  overage  about  a 
fifth  part  of  those  that  emigrate  never  return,  and 
that  those  who  do,  bring  back  with  tiiem  about 
200  fr.  a  piece;  the  emigrants  principally  take  to 
the  trades  of  {ledlars  and  showmen.  The  depart- 
ment has  3  arrond.,  24  cant.,  and  189  communes. 
IMncipal  towns  Gap,  Brian^on,  and  Embrun. 

ALRESFOKD,  a  market  town  and  two  parishes 
of  England,  co.  Hants,  hund.  Alton.  Tlie  tovtn  is 
situateii  on  the  Itchin,  at  no  great  distance  from 
its  source,  67A  m.  S\V.  by  VV.  London.  It  is 
divided  into  Old  and  New  Alrcsford;  pop.  of  Old 
A.  526,  and  of  New  A.  1,546  in  1861.  It  was  for- 
merly a  place  of  much  more  importance  than  at 
present,  and  sent  a  member  to  the  II.  of  C. 

AL8EN,  an  island  in  the  Baltic,  formerly 
belonging  to  Denmark,  and  ceded  to  Germany  by 
the  treaty  of  Vienna  of  Oct,  80,  1864.  It  is  sepa- 
rated by  a  very  narrow  channel  from  Schleswig, 
and  by  the  Little  Belt  from  Funen.  Shape  irregu- 
lar, bong  about  20  m.  long,  and  fW>m  8  to  8  in 


ALTAI  MOUNTAINS 

breadth.  Pop.  22,500  in  1860.  Surface  pleasantlf 
diversified  with  wood  and  open  fields.  All  the 
country  houses  are  surrounded  by  fruit  trees,  and 
large  quantities  of  fruit  are  annnally  cxpuvted. 
Principal  towns  Norborg  and  Sonderborg.  Chris- 
tian II.,  deposed  by  the  states  of  Denmark  in 
1523,  was  confined  f;or  nearly  17  ^ears  in  a  timer 
in  the  castle  of  Sondioboxg.  The  island  was  taken 
by  the  allied  Prussians  and  Austrians  from  the 
Danes  in  June,  1864:,  the  Danes  having  withdrawn 
to  it  after  the  unsuccessful  defence  of  Dttppd  on 
the  opposite  mainland.  The  capture  of  Alsen  was 
the  last  event  of  the  war. 

ALSFELD,  a  walle<l  town  of  Uease  Darmstadt, 
cap.  bailiwick,  on  its  N.  frontier  on  the  Schwalm. 
Pop.  4,153  in  1861.  It  has  manufactures  of  ra- 
teens,  flannels,  and  linen,  with  considerable  bleadb 
fields  and  print  worics. 

ALSLEBEN,  a  walled  town  and  castle  of  Pnia- 
sian  Saxony,  vio,  Mersebuig,  on  the  Saale.  Popu 
3,009  in  1861.  The  castle  is  the  property  of  the 
Duke  of  Anhalt  Dessau. 

ALTAI  MOUNTAINS  (THE),  a  scries  of 
mountain  ranges  of  central  ^Vsia,  forming  an 
Alpine  belt,  intersected  by  wide  valleys  and  tra- 
versed by  numerous  rivere,  extending  fn»m  W.  to 
E.,  about  the  parallel  of  50°  N.  between  the  meri- 
dion  of  8-1°  and  IWP  E.,  where  the  AlUi  proper  is 
separated  from  the  system  knoivn  as  the  Danrian, 
by  Lakes  Kosgol  and  Baikal  The  name  had  for* 
mcrly  a  much  more  extensive  meaning,  the  range 
being  reckoned  as  extending  from  the  eastern 
l>anks  of  the  Irtish,  a  tributary  of  the  Oby  (SO^E. 
long.),  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  at  the'S.  extre> 
mitv  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotzk,  opposite  the  island  of 
Tarakai  (142<'  E.  long.).  Its  length,  therefore, 
was  counted  little  short  of  2,500  m.  It  was,  how- 
ever, not  possible  to  determine  it  with  any  d^pree 
of  exactness,  since  only  the  N.  declivities  of  the 
range  had  been  visited  by  travellers,  the  S.  de- 
clivities lying  within  the  territories  of  the  Chinese 
empire  b«ng  inaccessible  to  Europeans.  Of  late 
years,  however,  the  mountain  ranges  between  the 
frontiers  of  Kussia  and  China,  especially  in  the 
west,  have  been  the  scene  of  repeated  exploratiooi 
by  Russian  travellers ;  while  our  own  countryman, 
Mr.  Atkinson,  since  1846,  devoted  many  years  uf 
his  life  to  the  some  task. 

The  most  westerly  portion  of  the  s^'stem,betweai 
the  river  Irtish  and  the  river  Tshulvshman,  the 
upper  branch  of  the  Oby,  is  properfy  called  the 
Altai  Mountains,  which  liame  has  been  afterwards 
used  to  indicate  the  whole  system.    This  portion 
bears  also  the  name  of  the  Ore  Altai,  beouise  it 
contains  numerous  veins  of  the  precious  metals. 
It  consists  of  several  ridges,  wliich  mostly  nm 
WN  W.  and  ESE.    These  ridges  advance  their  W. 
extremities  close  to  the  l>anks  of  the  Irdsh,  where 
they  are  500  or  600  ft.  high,  but  at  a  distance  of 
about  15  or  20  mUes  from  the  river  tJiey  attain 
from  3,000  to  5,000  ft,,  which  elevation  may  be 
considered  as  the  mean  height  of  the  greatest  part 
of  the  ranges;  only  where  they  approach  the  lake 
Teletzkoi  and  the  river  Tshulyshman  they  fist 
still  higher,  even  to  10,000  ft.*,  and  this  [Mrt  is 
always  covered  with  snow.     It  is  called  Altai 
Biellii,  and  is,  so  far  as  is  known,  the  highest  por- 
tion of  the  system.    Mount  Katundc,  or  Bilooka, 
is  12,796  ft.  high. 

Between  the  Tshulyshman  and  the  great  lake  of 
Baiital,  the  mountains  appear  to  form  two  great 
chains,  running  E.  and  W. ;  of  which  the  S„  which 
falls  within  the  Chinese  empire,  and  is  called  the 
Tangpu  Oola,  or  Tangnu  Shan,  seems  to  be  the 
princi])al  range.  It  b  divided  from  the  N.  chain 
by  a  long  valley,  in  which  run  the  Kemtshick 
from  W.  to  E.,  and  the  Oukm-kem  from  E.  to  W.; 


ALTAI  MOUNTAINS 


86 


after  th^  junction  the  river  is  called  Teneae!,  and 
IjRAks  thiough  the  N.  chain.    The  portion  of  the 
latter  situated  W.  of  the  Tenesei  river  is  called 
the  Sayanskian  range,  bat  the  £.  chain  bears  the 
name  of  £mk  Tta^k  Taiga.    Both  chains  unite 
aboat  100^  £.  long.,  at  a  considerable  distance  W. 
of  the  lake  Baikal,  at  the  sources  of  the  Selenga, 
the  most  considerable  river  which  empties  it^lf 
into  the  lake.    The  united  chain  is  here  called 
Gooibi  Uhden  Dzong,  which  name  it  preserves  to 
108°  £.  long.,  running  in  general  E.    On  the  £. 
ade  of  the  meridian  of  108^  £.  long,  and  the  river 
Selenga,  the  direction  of  the  mountain  chains  com- 
puting Uie  Altai  syston  is  changed;  they  run  NE., 
*Dd  form  a  verv  extensive  mountain  region  £.  of 
the  lake  BaikaL    This  region  is  called  the  Buka- 
liiD  or  Daurian  Mountains;  but  the  highest  chain 
belonging  to  it,  and  lying  within  the  Chinese 
empire,  bean  the  name  of  the  Great  Khing-Khan. 
The  most  easteriy  portion  of  the  Altai  Mountains, 
between  1229  and  142^  £.  long.,  lies  again  nearly 
due  W.  and  £. ;  but  here  it  advances  to  56^  N.  laL, 
lod  is  called  by  the  Russians  Yabloni  Kherbet, 
«Bd  by  the  Chinese  Khing-Khan  Tugurik« 

Hie  Aldan  Mountains  may  be  considered  as  a 
eoadnuation  of  this  latter  chain.  They  separate 
fium  it  at  the  sources  of  the  river  Aldan,  a  tribu- 
tiiy  of  the  Lena,  enclose  the  valley  in  which  it 
nms  oo  either  side,  and  continue  on  the  £.  side 
akng  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotzk  up  to  the 
biy  ^  Poshina,  the  most  northerly  comer  of  that 
ML  From  this  bay  one  branch  runs  NE.,  and  ter- 
minates at  Behring's  Straits  with  the  East  Cape 
aid  the  Cape  of  Tshukotshoi-Noss.  Another 
bnndk  tozns  abruptly  S.,  and  traverses  the  penin- 
nla  oi  Kamtichatka,  terminating  at  Cape  Lopatka. 
the  highest  summit  of  the  Aldan  Mountains,  ad- 
iioent  to  the  road  connecting  Yakutzk  with  Ok- 
botzk,  was  found  by  Erman  to  be  4,055  it.  above 
the  sea.  But  the  chain  traversing  the  peninsula 
of  Kamt.srhatka  contiuns  several  volcanoes,  some 
of  which  rise  to  a  great  elevation.  Erman  mea- 
snred  three  of  them.  The  highest  peak  of  the 
Tokano  of  Shiv<autsk  (36^  40'  32''  N.  lat)  rises  to 
10^91  ft.,  the  volcano  of  Kliutshuvsk  (56^  4f  N. 
Itt.)  15,825  ft.,  and  that  of  Tolbatshinsk  8,346  feet 
above  the  sea.  If  the  Aldan  Mountains  and  the 
ange  travexaing  Kamtschatka  be  considered  as  a 
oootinuation  of  the  Altai  cliain,  more  than  1,500 
■liles  must  be  added  to  its  length. 

The  country  extending  N.  of  the  Altai  Moun- 
tains and  the  monnUun  chains  which  continue  the 
nnge  to  the  eastward  to  the  shores  of  the  Polar 
Sea,  fonn  one  continuous  plain,  sometimes  of  an 
aDdnlating  surface,  but  mostly  exhibiting  immense 
flat  bwlands,  called,  as  others  of  a  similar  descrip- 
tion, tttppes.   This  plain,  at  the  foot  of  the  range, 
11  hanlly  more  than  500  ft  above  the  sea,  to  which 
it  gradnaUy  slopes  down.    On  the  other  hand,  the 
cooatnes  luring  S.  of  the  Altai  Mountains  consti- 
tate  a  portMHi  of  the  great  elevated  table-land  of 
^pper  Asia.    Their  surface  is  much  more  uneven, 
1><9^  traversed  in  many  parts  by  ridges  of  rocks 
aod  hills,  whilst  others  present  themt^ves  as  im- 
Bcose  plains  covered  with  sand.    The  mean  ele- 
^^atiia  of  these  countries  seems  to  be  frum  2,000  to 
^fiW  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Soadi^ — Two  roads  lead  over  the  Altaic  and  one 
orer  the  Aldan  Mountains.  That  most  to  the  W. 
'» the  great  road  of  Kiachta,  by  which  the  com- 
iBcioe  between  Ruada  and  China  is  carried  on.  It 
^'fpDB  at  Irkntzk,  the  capital  of  East  Siberia,  situ- 
ated oo  the  Lower  Angara,  not  far  from  the  point 
*here  it  issues  from  the  lake  BaikaL  From  thb 
^"^  which  is  1,440  ft,  above  the  sea  level,  goods 
ov  carried  in  summer  by  water,  and  in  winter  over 
the  ice  of  the  lake,  to  Udinak,  and  hence  to  Sele- 


ginsk,  where  they  are  landed,  and  transported  to 
Kiachta,  the  Russian  commercial  establishment, 
and  exchanged  with  the  goods  brought  by  the 
Chinese  to  Maimatshin.  llie  Chinese  bring  the 
goods  to  Uiga,  the  provincial  capital  of  the  adjar- 
cent  country ;  and  in  advancing  farther  S.  they 
attain  the  highest  point  of  the  range  S.  of  Uiga, 
on  the  mountain  Dshirgalanta,  S.  of  the  river  Tola, 
where  it  rises  to  5,055  feet  above  the  sea.  They 
afterwards  descend  to  the  table-land,  and  traverse 
the  great  desert  of  Cobi,  or  rather  Gobi,  sometimes 
called  Shamo.  The  other  great  road  leads  from 
Udinsk,  on  the  river  Selenga,  to  the  mining  district 
of  Nertshinsk.  From  Udinsk  it  runs  E.  in  the 
valley  of  the  river  Uda,  a  tributary  of  the  Selenga, 
somewhat  more  than  250  m. ;  then  it  traverses  the 
highest  part  of  the  range  near  112^  E.  long.,  and 
descends  into  the  valley  of  the  Ingoda,  in  which 
it  continues  to  Gorodisktshcnk,  where  the  Ingoda 
unites  with  the  Onon,  and  forms  the  Shilka  nver. 
On  the  banks  of  the  last-mentioned  river  it  con- 
tinues to  Nertchinsk.  The  great  road  over  the 
Aldan  Mountains  connects  Yakutsk  with  Okhotzk. 
Yakutsk  is  only  287  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Polar  Sea.  Between  this  place  and  the  river  Aldan 
the  road  rises  gradually,  and  attauis  at  Nokhinsk, 
on  the  heights  forming  the  W.  bank  of  the  ^Vldau 
river,  751  leet.  In  the  valley  of  the  Aldan  it  de- 
scends to  424  feet  above  the  sea.  E.  of  this  river 
the  road  rises  to  1,531  feet  at  Gamastakh,  and  in 
the  mountain  pass  six  miles  W.  from  Khoinia  to 
2,619.  It  continues  nearly  on  this  level  for  several 
miles,  and  then  descends  with  a  rather  steep  de- 
clivity towards  the  Sea  of  Okhotzk.  This  latter 
place  is  only  3  feet  above  the  sea. 

Mine*. —  The  Altai  Mountains  are  rich  in  me- 
tals,  especially  in  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead. 
The  mines  from  which  these  metals  are  extracted 
have  been  worked  on  a  large  scale  at  some  unknown 
period,  and  by  an  unknown  nation.  In  the  middle 
of  last  century  the  Russians,  following  the  traces 
of  the  ancient  mines,  began  to  work  them;  but 
only  at  the  W.  extremity  of  the  mountain  system, 
between  the  Irtish  and  the  Oby,  and  again  on  tlie 
banks  of  the  Shilka  river,  east  of  the  lake  BaikaL 
The  first  mines  are  comprised  in  the  mining  dis- 
trict of  Barnaul,  and  the  second  in  that  of  Ner- 
tchinsk. 

Latterly,  however,  the  mines  have  been  com- 
paratively abandoned,  and  the  attention  of  all 
parties  is  now  directed  to  the  washing  of  the  cfe- 
trituSf  or  sand,  earth,  and  gravel,  found  in  the 
valleys  and  in  the  beds  of  the  various  affluents  of 
the  Irtish,  Oby,  Yenesei,  and  other  great  rivora 
that  have  their  sources  in  the  N.  slope  of  the  moun- 
tains.  These  efforts  have  met  with  great  success ; 
and  the  countrv  of  which  Bamaid  ou  the  Oby  (in 
about  hit.  48<^  N.,  long.  83°  E.),  and  Krasnojarsk 
on  the  Ycniflsei  (lat.  56«>  1'  N.,  long.  92^  57  15" 
£.)  are  the  ci^)itals,  is  by  Car  the  most  important 
and  valuable  of  the  auriferous  regions  of  ihe  Old 
World.  The  district,  of  wliich  Nertchinsk,  to  the 
E.  of  Lake  Baikal,  is  the  capital,  is  also,  though 
in  a  very  inferior  degree,  productive  of  gold.  The 
produce  of  the  Siberian  Gold-Washings  amounts, 
on  the  average,  to  1,000  poods,  or  about  45,()0(> 
pounds  per  annum.  In  1837,  they  prcnluccd  but 
132  poods,  but  the  quantity  of  gold  found  annually 
increased  everj'  suceesslve  year,  till  it  rose  to  1,302 
poods  in  1846.  The  productivity,  after  this  i>e- 
riod»  slightly  declined,  remaining,  however,  about 
a  thousand  i>ood8,  worth  nearly  3,000,000/.  By  far 
the  greater  portion  of  the  gold  is  raised  by  private 
adventurers. 

As  the  existing  detritus  must  be  enriched  by  all 
the  gold  brought  do^-n  from  the  mountains  during 
a  long  course  of  ages,  the  probability  is  that  the 


86 


ALTAMURA 


ivashingR  will  in  the  end  become  less  producti\'e. 
})ut  8unh  18  the  extent  of  the  auhfenius  region  that 
it  has  hithertjo  been  onlv  imiK'ifectly  ex])Iore<l, 
much  less  exhaust eil.  Silver,  copptT,  and  other 
valuable  pnNluct»  are  ah«o  foiuid  in  this  region. 
Tlicy  are,  however,  of  trivial  importance,  an  com- 
pared with  the  snnpHes  of  y:o\d. 

At  Kolywaiio  W  oskrescnsk  arc  extensive  polish- 
ing works,  where  granite,  ]K>rphyr}',  jasper,  agate, 
and  marlde  are  worked  into  taules,  A'ases,  chimney- 
pieces,  l)asins,  and  columns.  The  material  is 
Drought  fn)m  the  river  Korgon,  and  the  workmen 
are  employed  at  the  expense  of  government. 

ALTvVMURA,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
liari,  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  29  m.  SVV.  liari. 
PoiK  17,305  in  1862.  Tlie  toiin  is  summnded  by 
wails,  has  a  magnificent  cathedral  founded  by  Fre- 
deric II.,  an  hospital  and  a  lyceum,  and  is  one  of 
the  handsomest  t^miis  in  the  province.  Having 
taken  part  with  the  republican  party  in  1799,  it 
was  taken  by  the  royalists,  and  given  up  to  mili- 
t4uy  exeirution ;  but  it  has  since  recovereil  its  former 
prosperity.  Altamura  is  supposed  to  be  founded 
on  or  near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Lupazia,  This 
opinion  is  strengthened  by  the  number  of  Grecian 
vases,  of  the  most  beautiiful  forms  and  woricman- 
ship,  and  other  antiquities,  that  have  been  found 
in  excavations  in  the  town  and  its  vicinity.  The 
surrounding  country  is  fertile,  being  especially  dis- 
tinguished by  the  excellence  of  its  pastures. 

AI-TAA'^ILLA,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
AveUino,  7  m.  N.  Avellino.  Pop.  2,717  in  1862. 
This  also  is  the  name  of  a  town  in  the  prov.  Sa- 
lerno.   Pop.  8,396  in  1802. 

ALTDOKF,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  ciic  Rezat,  13  m. 
SE.  Nureml)eig.  Pop.  2,800  in  1861.  A  groat 
number  of  wooden  toys  are  manufactured  here,  and 
are  exported  to  all  parts  of  Eurt»pe  and  to  S.  Ame- 
rica. There  are  also  considerable  breweries.  The 
surrounding  country  is  beautiful  and  ferrile. 

ALTEA,  a  town  of  Sixain,  Valencia,  near  the 
sea,  80  m.  NE.  Alicante.  Pop.  6,602  in  1867.  The 
town  has  glass  works ;  and  the  contiguous  territory 
produces  cotton,  wine,  flax,  silk,  and  honey. 

ALTENA,  a  town  of  I*russian  Westphalia,  cap. 
circ  same  name,  on  the  Senne.  Pop.  6,942  m 
1861.  The  inhabitants  arc  principally  employed 
in  wire-drawing  and  in  the  manufactiuxs  of  needles, 
pins,  and  thimbles. 

ALTENAU,  a  mining  town  of  Hanover,  prov. 
Gnibenlingen,  Ilartz  mountains,  about  1600  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Pop.  1,996  in  1861. 
There  are  in  the  vicinity  mines  of  silver,  copper, 
and  iron. 

ALTENBERG,  a  town  of  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony  in  the  Erzgebiige  mountains,  22  m.  S. 
Dresden.  Pop.  2,419  in  1861.  It  manufactures 
lace.  The  surrounding  mountains  abound  in  tin, 
and  are  covered  with  forests. 

ALTENBRUCK,  a  town  of  Hanover,  on  the 
Weme,  near  where  it  falls  into  the  estuary  of  the 
Elbe,  a  little  above  Cuxhavcn.  Vo\y.  2,650  in 
1861.  The  town  has  some  trade  in  com  and 
cattle. 

ALTENBURG,  or  SAXE-ALTENBURG,  one 
of  the  small  German  States,  governed  by  a  sove- 
reign duke.  The  duchy  is  divided  into  two  prin- 
cii»l  parts  by  the  lordship  of  Gera,  with  several 
detached  {portions  in  other  states.  Area,  609  sq.  m. 
Pop.  137,883  in  1861.  The  W.  part,  watered  by 
the  Saale,  is  hilly  and  woody ;  while  the  E.  |>art, 
watered  by  the  IPleisse,  is  flat  and  fertile.  The 
fiihab.,  who  are  descentlants  of  the  Wendcs,  are 
industrious,  and  are  almoHt  all  Lutherans.  The 
annual  revenue  from  18<^J2  to  18<i4  amounted  to 
123,498/.,  and  annual  expenditure  to  120,051/., 
one-half  of  tha  revenue  produced  by  state  domains 


ALTORF 

and  about  one-third  by  indirect  taxes.  Altenbui];; 
contributes  1,621  infantr>'  with  17  artillerymen  to 
tlie  army  of  the  Otnfederation,  Prussia  appointing 
the  officers.  In  1826,  by  a  general  exchange  vi 
territories  among  the  Saxon  princes,  tlie  state  waa 
handed  over  to  the  Hildbuighaiiscn  branch  of  tli« 
Saxon  princes.    (See  Saxony.) 

Altknbuug,  the  cap.  of  the  above  principality, 
24  m.  SSE.  Leipsic,  near  the  Plcissc,  on  the  rail- 
way from  Berlin  to  Munich.  Pop.  17,168  in  1861. 
Tlie  town  is  well  built;  has  a  g^-mnai^ium,  with 
a  considerable  librar>',  a  foundation  for  noble  ladieSy 
an  orphan  asylum,  and  a  theatre ;  with  manu- 
factures of  wool,  tobacco,  sealing-wax,  gloves,  and 
an  extensive  trade  in  wood,  com,  and  cattle. 

Altenuuro,  or  Ovaty  a  town  of  Hungary,  29 
m.  SSE.  Knoxburg,  in  an  island  of  the  Fritha, 
at  the  point  where  it  unites  iiith  the  riji^ht  arm  v( 
the  Danube.  Pop.  3,160  in  1858.  It  has  a  gym- 
nasium and  an  old  castle,  now  used  as  a  com  ma- 
gazine.   It  was  burnt  by  the  Turks  in  1683. 

ALTENKHtCHEN,  a  town  of  the  Pruwian 
states,  prov.  Rhine,  cap.  circ,  on  the  Wied,  16  m. 
N.  Coblentz.  Pop.  1,697  in  1861.  It  has  some 
fabrics  of  linen  and  cotton,  and  a  forge.  The 
vicinity  of  this  town  was,  in  1796,  the  theatre  of 
some  obstinate  conflicts  between  the  French  and 
Austrians ;  in  one  of  which,  on  the  2lst  September, 
the  brave  General  Marceau  was  killed. 

ALTENSTEIG,  a  town  of  Wilrtembei^,  circ 
Black  Forest,  5  m.  WNW.  Nagold.    Poj).  2,100  in 

1861.  It  is  Imilt  on  the  declivity  of  a  steqp  hill, 
at  the  summit  of  which  is  an  old  castle. 

ALTER-I)0-CHAO,  a  town  of  Portugal  pror. 
Alemtejo,  on  the  Avis,  14  m.  WS\V.  Portalagrc 
Pop.  2,226  in  1868.     It  is  surrounded  bv  walls. 

ALtKIRCH,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Haut  Uhin, 
cap.  arrond.,  34  m.  S.  Colmar.  Pop.  8,108  in  1861. 
It  is  situated  on  a  hill,  at  the  bottom  of  which  ii 
the  111 ;  has  some  tanneries,  and  a  cattle  fair  onoe 
a  month. 

AI/rOMONTE,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  prov. 
Cosenza,  24  m.  NXVV.  Cosenza.    Pop.  2,933  in 

1862.  It  is  situated  on  an  eminence,  has  good  air, 
vdth  mines  of  iron  and  silver,  and  a  brine  spring 
ill  the  \ncinity. 

ALTON,  a  town  of  the  U.  States,  Illinois,  ott 
the  Mississippi,  a  little  above  its  ctmfluence  with 
the  Missouri.  This  town  was  founded  in  1818, 
and  in  1832  contained  only  two  or  three  dozen 
houses.  But  the  public  attention  having  been  then 
directed  to  its  advantageous  situation  for  com- 
merce and  navigation,  it  advanced  with  extraordi- 
nary rapidity,  and,  in  1860,  had  a  pop.  of  7,838. 

Alton,  a  m.  town  and  parish  of  England,  oo. 
Hants,  hund.  Alton,  on  the  Wye,  47  m.  SW.  by 
S.  London,  on  the  London  and  South-Westem 
railway.  Pop.  3,286  in  1861.  It  is  a  neat  town, 
with  manufactures  of  dmggets  and  worsteds. 

ALTONA,  a  considerable  city  of  Holstein,  on 
the  Elbe,  2  m.  W.  Hamburg,  and  at  the  head  of 
the  railway  from  Altona  to  Kiel.  Pop.  in  1860, 
45,524.  It  is  well  built,  is  a  free  port,  and  enjoys 
various  privileges.  Altona  has  a  gtxHl  deal  of 
trade ;  Hhii)-building  is  also  carried  on  to  a  con- 
siderable extent;  and  there  are  manufactures  of 
cotton,  silk,  and  leather  articles,  with  sugar- 
houses,  breweries,  and  distilleries.  There  is  here  a 
superior  academy  or  college,  a  public  library,  a 
mint,^  an  orphan-house,  with  numerous  churches. 
The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Lutherans.  Altona 
was  burned  by  the  Swedes  in  1718,  under  drctun- 
stances  of  great  barbarity. 

ALTORF,  or  ALTDORF,  a  town  of  Switzer- 
land, cap.  cant.  Uri,  situatetl  in  a  narrow  valley 
sumnindcd  by  lofty  mountains,  near  the  SE.  ex- 
tremity of  the  lake  of  Lucerne,  at  the  N.  extrcmitj 


ALTRINGHAM 

of  the  pans  over  McNint  St.  Gothaid.    Pop.  2,426 

in  ImV),    The  town  suffered  severely  firom  a  fire 

in  ir99,  Imt  has  been  rebuilt  on  an  improved  plan. 

It  has  a  handsome  parish  church,  a  town-house, 

and  a  Capuchin  convent,  with  a  librarv  attached. 

Altfof  is  Ultimately  associated  with  the'  history,  or 

Iffzeml,  of  William  TeU.    He  is  said  to  have  been 

Utm  in  Ikoi^len,  a  village  close  by;  and  an  old 

u<v«r  in  the  town  of  Altoif,  covered  with  paintr- 

ing*  in  honour  of  Tell,  is  said  to  mark  the  spot 

vhence  lie  shot  the  apple  off  his  son's  head. 

ALTKIXcaiAM,  a  town  of  England,  Cheshire, 
A  m.  Manchester,  on  the  railway  from  Man- 
choter  to  Crewe.  Pop.  6,628  in  1861.  It  is  a 
iwtL  thriving  town,  with  factories  for  the  spinning 
of  cotton  and  linen  yarn. 

ALTSOHL,  a  free  town  of  Hungary,  at  the 
cnoflnenoe  of  the  Salatina  with  the  Gran ;  lat.  48<^ 
%i'  55"  N.,  long.  19°  7'  20"  E.  Pop.  2,800  in  1857. 
The  town  is  old,  and  is  entirely  occupied  by  Sla- 
Tumans.  On  a  hill  in  the  neighbourhood  are  the 
ruins  of  a  castle,  sud  to  have  been  a  favourite 
RMtience  of  Mathias  L 

ALTSTETTEN,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  cant. 
^  <Ball,  9  nu  8.  from  the  embouchure  of  the 
Rhine  in  the  lake  of  Constance.  Pop.  7,266  in 
1(^>.  It  is  situated  on  the  declivity  of  a  moun- 
tain in  a  beautiful  coimtry,  surrounded  with  com- 
fiddi  and  vinevards;  has  a  fine  church  which 
hfvm  both  for  Catholics  and  Protestants,  a  pu))lic 
liiinrT.  a  muslin  manufactory,  and  three  fairs 
ttnujiUv. 

ALTdRA,  a  town  of  Spain,  Valencia,  3  ro.  XAV. 
Sf}p«be.  Pop.  3,300  in  1857.  The  town  has  dis- 
tiUoin.  potteries,  and  a  paner-milL  The  country 
luund  produces  a  great  deal  of  wine. 

AL\  A,  a  village  and  parish  of  Scotland,  co.  Stir- 
ling, 7.  m.  NE.  Stirlmg.  Pop.  of  par.  3,283  in  1861 . 
The  Devtm  iron  company  has  considerable  works 
here;  but  the  chief  industry  is  the  manufacture  of 
tartan  fthawls  and  blankets,  as  in  the  neighbouring 
u/vnof  Tillicoultry. 

ALVAR  AIX),  a  small  town  of  Mexico,  near  the 
BMQtli  of  the  river  of  the  same  ruune,  40  m.  SSE. 
V«m  Crux ;  lat.  18^  34'  18"  N.,  lon^.  65°  39'  16" 
W.  The  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  nver,  about  1^ 
m.  below  the  town,  renders  it  inaccessible  for 
vcwds  drawing  above  10  or  12  feet  water;  laii^ 
ahipt  being  hi  consequence  obliged  to  anchor  m 
the  roads,  exposed  to  all  the  fury  of  the  N.  vrinds, 
which  often  blow  with  much  violence.  During 
the  period  that  the  castle  of  St.  Juan  d*Ulloa 
(tvtmoed  in  poasesnon  of  the  Spaniards,  after 
^en  Cnu  had  thrown  off  their  yoke,  the  trade  o 
the  latter  was  principally  carried  on  through  Alva- 
rvlo;  bat  upon  the  reduction  of  the  castle  by  the 
patiii^  it  speedily  reverted  to  its  old  cluumeL 
FopL  eMimated  at  about  6,000. 
ALYIXCZ,  a  town  of  Transylvania,  on  the 

Xsrot,  opposite  Roberick,  7  m.  SW.  Karlsburg. 

Pflfn  1^70  in  1857.    The  inhabs.  are  almost  all 

MsKTanand  Bulgarians. 
ALVITC),  a  town  of  South  Italv,  prov.  Caserta. 

fi  m.  8E.  Sora.    Pop.  4,242  in  1861.    The  town 

^  bnih  on  a  declivity  of  a  hill,  in  a  healthy  situa- 

titd;  has  an  hospital,  and  several  monta-de-piete 

(*  the  marriage  m  young  giria. 
ALWUK,  a  large  town  of  Hindostan,  prov. 

Delhi,  cap.  dominions  of  the  Macherry  Raja,  90 

^fm.  Delhi;  lat.  27^  44'  N.,  long.  7b^  32'  E. 

It  ii  ritoated  at  the  base  of  a  steep  hill,  and  is 

"ti^v  furtified.    On  the  sunmiit  of  the  hill, 

i^'^t  l^Siio  feet  high,  is  a  fortress  containing 

*f^ml  tanks. 
ALYTH,  a  town  and  parish  of  Scotland,  co. 

Pmb,  12  m.  W.  Forfar.     Pop.  of  par.,  3,422  in 

l^L  The  toil  is  fiectile,  and  the  town,  which  is 


AMARANTE 


87 


finely  situated,  carries  on  some  branches  of  the 
linen  manufacture. 

ALZEY,  a  walled  town  of  Hesse  Darmstadt,  on 
the  Sela,  18  m.  SSW.  Mayence.  Pop.  4,609  in 
1861.  It  has  manufactures  of  linen  and  stockings, 
and  tanneries. 

ALZONNE,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Aude,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Lampv  and  the  Fresquel, 
near  the  canal  of  Languedoc,  12  m.  WN  W.  Careas- 
soime.  Pop.  1,566  in  1861.  It  has  manufactures 
of  fine  cloth,  caps,  and  lace. 

AMAK,  a  small  Danish  island,  on  which  a  port 
of  Copenhagen  is  built.  It  is  principally  laid  out 
in  gaixlens  and  pleasure-grounds. 

AMALPHI,  a  dty  and  seaport  of  South  Italy, 
prov.  Salerno,  9  m.  WSW.  Salerno.  Pop.  6,606 
m  1862.  This  city  attained  during  the  early  part 
of  the  middle  ages  to  great  dbtinction  as  an  inde- 
pendent maritime  republic,  and  was  the  first 
Italian  state  that  traded  with  Eg>i)t  and  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  zenith  of 
her  prosperity,  in  the  eleventh  century,  Amalpld 
is  said  to  have  contained  50,000  citizens;  and  her 
wealth,  and  the  skill  and  intrepidity  of  her  mari- 
ners were  then  unequalled.  But  after  being  re- 
duced bv  the  Normans,  she  was  taken  and  sacked 
by  the  iMsans,  in  1130;  and  from  this  period  she 
rapidly  declined,  and  not  long  after  fell  into  ob- 
scurity. A  unique  copy  of  Justinian's  Pandects, 
said  to  have  been  found  bv  the  Pisans  among  the 
spoils  of  this  city,  was  beUcvcd  to  have  led  to  the 
reWval  of  the  study  of  the  civil  law.  Amalphi  is 
also  famous  for  having  been  the  birthplace  of 
Flavio  Gioja,  supposed  by  some  to  have  oecn  the 
inventor  of  the  mariner's  compass,  but  who,  it  is 
certain,  was  only  its  improver.  The  place  is  now 
resorted  to  for  sea-bathing.  (Gibbon's  Decline  and 
Fall,  cap.  66^ 

AMAND-LES-EAUX  (ST.),  a  town  of  France, 
dep.  du  Nonl,  cap.  cant.,  on  the  Scarpe,  7A  m.  NW. 
Valenciennes.  Pop.  10,210  in  1861.  This  town 
is  celebrated  for  its  mineral  waters,  whence  its 
name ;  it  is  very  ancient,  has  a  communal  collie, 
and  the  ruins  of  a  celebrated  abbey,  destroved  at 
the  revolution.  It  is  situated  in  a  rich,  well-cul- 
tivated country,  where  the  flax  is  produced  (fin 
rame)  of  which  the  finest  laces  are  made.  These 
are  manufactured  in  the  town,  with  woollen  stock- 
ings, cotton  coverlets,  soap,  linseed  oil,  and  chiccorj'. 
It  has  also  distilleries,  tanneries,  and  a  great  fair 
held  on  the  81  st  May. 

AMAND-MONT-ROND  (ST.),  a  town  of 
France,  dep.  Cher,  cap.  arrond.,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Marmaude  with  the  Cher,  and  at  one  of  the 
extremities  of  the  canal,  joining  the  Cher  and 
Loire.  Pop.  8,607  in  1861.  It  is  well  built,  has 
a  tribunal  de  premiere  instance^  a  commercial  col- 
lege, and  a  theatre.  It  manufactures  wooden  clogs 
and  leather;  and  there  are  forges,  cannon  foun- 
deries,  and  porcelain  manufactures  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. It  is  the  most  commercial  town  of  the 
dep. ;  the  exports  consist  principally  of  the  produce 
of  the  surrounding  countrj',  viz.  timber,  staves, 
iron,  wine,  chesnuts,  cattle,  leather,  hemp,  wool, 
and  goatskins. 

AM^VNTEA,  a  sea-port  town  of  South  Italv, 

ov.  Cosenza,  14  m.  SW.  Cosenza.    Pop.  4,077  m 
It  is  encircled  by  walls;  has  an  old  castle. 


prov 
1862. 


4  parish  churches,  some  convents,  and  a  school 
for  beiles-leitres.  There  are  hot  springs  in  ita 
vicinity,  and  its  territory  has  the  appearance  of  a 
continued  olive  wood.  It  is  sui>p<)»ed  to  occupy 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Nipezia,  It  was  taken  by 
the  French  in  1806,  after  an  obstinate  defence. 

AMARANTE,  an  ancient  town  of  Portugal, 
prov.  Minho,  on  the  Tamepi,  35  m.  NE.  Oporto. 
Pop.  5,600  in  1858.    It  ia  situated  in  an  agreeable 


90 


AMBOOR 


the  revolutionary  frenzy.  The  remaininpf  portion 
is  now  converted  into  a  depot  for  the  iluits  for  the 
use  of  the  French  army,  broujjlit  from  the  quarrj' 
of  Mcuiine,  near  St.  Aignan.  The  \'icw8  from  its 
towera  and  battlements  are  8U|)erb. 

AM  BOOR,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in  the  Car- 
natic,  district  S.  Arcot,  108  m.  WSW.  Madrati; 
lat,  V29  50'  N.,  long.  78©  UV  E.  It  w  neat  and 
repiilarly  built :  the  inhabitants,  who  arc  indus- 
trious, prepare  a  considerable  quantity  of  castor 
oil  for  exportation.  To  the  left  of  the  town  is  a 
lofty  isolated  mountain,  that  was  formerly  sur- 
mounted by  an  all  but  impregnable  fort ;  but  its 
upper  works  have  been  destroved  since  it  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  British,  and  the  tower 
is  ased  as  a  place  of  confinement  for  malefactors. 

AMBOYNA  (Ambun,  Malay),  an  island  of  the 
E.  Archi]>elago,  in  its  third  or  E.  di^nsion  (Craw- 
funl),  bel<mging  to  the  Dutch.  It  lies  in  8°  40' 
S.  lat,,  between  128©  and  129°  E.  long.,  SW.  of 
C/cram ;  is  32  m.  in  length,  and  10  in  breailth ; 
area  424  sq.  m.  Estimated  population  188,000, 
mostly  Malays,  with  some  Chinese,  besides  the 
Dutch  residents.  The  shape  of  the  island  is  irre- 
gular, l>cing  indented  by  a  long  bay  (Binnen), 
which  divides  it  into  two  very  unequal  ]K>rtions, 
connected  by  a  narn.)w  isthmus.  Surface  moun- 
tainous, and  the  whole  district  volcanic  It  is 
watered  by  numen)us  rivulets,  and  overgrown 
everywhere  bv  trees  and  underwood,  intcrs{)ersed 
with  clove  pfantations ;  its  soil,  a  rich  red  loam, 
is  of  a  darker  colour  in  the  valleys,  and  some- 
times mixed  with  sand ;  climate'  healthy,  the 
average  heat  of  the  year  82^  Fahr.,  the  lowest 
temperature  7(P  F.  The  monsoons  occiur  regularly, 
but  their  effects  are  quite  the  reverse  of  those 
experienced  in  B<»meo  and  the  W.  division  of  this 
archipelago;  the  E.  monsoon  bringing  rains  and 
t«mi>ests,  and  the  \V.  dry  weather.  Tlie  Dutch 
appn)priate<l  this  island  to  the  culture  of  the  clove, 
for  the  production  of  wliich  it  is  especially  calcu- 
lated ;  and  to  secure  to  it  a  monojioly  of  this  valu- 
al)le  product,  barbarously  compel  the  destruction 
of  the  trees  in  the  other  islands  subject  to  their 
power.  The  clove  {^tmnde^  Tidor  lang.)  thrives 
l^est  in  a  dark  loamy  soil,  but  not  very  near  the 
sea,  on  hills,  on  sandy  or  hanl  clay  soil,  or  on 
sedgy  grounds,  and  requires  much  care  in  its  cul- 
ture. The  plant  rcsemhles  a  large  pear-tree,  from 
20  to  40  feet  in  height.  In  the  Moluccas  it  bears 
at  7  or  8  years,  in  Amboyna,  not  till  10  or  12 
years  old;  about  one-third' of  the  trees  are  infer- 
tile, the  rest  may  continue  to  bear  fruit  for  70 
years.  The  crops'  are  gathered  in  Oct.  and  Nov. ; 
they  are  very  unequal  in  different  years,  but  the 
])roduce  of  each  tree  may  average  from  2  or  3  to 
/>lb. ;  the  total  annual  pro<luce  is  said  formerly  to 
have  been  050,000  ll>s.  (Hamilton.)  Sago  forms 
the  chief  nourishment  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
very  suiH^rior  indigo,  but  inferior  coffee,  are  also 
grown.  Sago  tretts  are  7  years  in  arri^dng  at  full 
growth,  and  last  about  30  ;*  but  they  are  generally 
cut  down  when  alxnit  20  years  of  age,.  When  in 
full  vigour,  they  yield  from  42  to  40  lbs.  of  sago  a 
year.  'The  wild  ai'iimals  of  AmlK»vna  are  deer  and 
wild  h(igs :  there  are  no  lieasts  of*  prey,  but  a  mul- 
titude of  birds  and  sen'^ants.  Buffaloes,  cows, 
sheei>,  goats,  and  horses,  were  brotight  thither  by 
the  Portuguese^  but  cattle  are  rare.  The  inha- 
bitants are  of  four  distinct  races,  \\z,'. — 1.  Ilora- 
fora<),  the  aborigines,  who  are  in  a  savage  state 
and  live  in  the  forests,  whither  they  were  driven 
by,  2.  Malays,  who  comjKwie  the  bulk  of  the  popu- 
lation :  3.  Chinese,  who  are  the  principal  mer- 
chants: 4.  Europeans,  mostly  Dutch.  The  Malays 
arc  indolent,  effeminate,  and  fond  of  imitating  the 
Dutch ;  they  arc  expert  fishcn,  iu  canoes  from  10 


AMELIA  * 

to  20  feet  long ;  in  war  they  use  korokoret,  80  t 
100  feet  in  length,  and  capable  of  ct)ntaining  8* 
men.  Their  houses  are  of  W(mn1,  n>ofed  with  palm 
leaves,  and  arc  mostly  of  but  one  st<iTT,  on  atvoun 
of  the  ])revalence  of  earth(j[uakcs.  The  prevailini 
religion  is  Mohammedanism,  iutrud.  a.  d.  1515 
but  some  of  the  Ambo\iicse  arc  Christians,  ant 
bear  Portuguese  names.  The  government  is  de 
itendent  on  that  of  Bata^-ia;  its  seat  is  at  F(« 
Victoria :  the  public  revenues  are  derived  from  . 
monoitoly  of  arrack,  custom-house  anil  port  duties 
taxes  on  merchandise,  and  licences  to  keep  an  inr 
and  kill  pigs.  The  exports  consist  of  cloves.  an< 
other  natural  protlucc ;  the  imports  cliietiy  opiun: 
and  a  few  Eurof)eau  and  Indian  goods. 

History, — Amboyna  was  firet  discovered  by  th 
Portuguese  in  1515.  It  was  taken  by  the  Date 
in  1007,  and  by  the  EngUsh  in  1015.  The  lattei 
who  were  soon  afYer  expelled  by  the  Dutch,  re 
tained  a  factory  in  the  Island*  till  1022.  Th 
destruction  of  this  establishment  by  the  Dutcl 
and  the  cruelties  inflicted  on  the  unhappy  jtersoD 
found  in  it,  affonled  a  theme  for  lengthened  ne;gn 
tiations,  and  for  much  declamatory  invective.  A 
length,  under  the  vigorous  adminLstration  « 
Cromwell,  the  Dutch  were  comjielled  to  mak 
some  compensation  to  the  descendants  of  tbom 
who  suffered  in  the  *  Amboyna  massacre.*  Ii 
17i)0,  the  island  was  captured  by  the  British,  wh« 
restored  it  at  the  peace  of  Amiens.  Thev  rocap 
tured  it  1810,  and  held  it  till  1814,  when  it  re 
verted  once  more  to  the  Dutch. 

Amboyxa.  The  principal  town  in  the  abov 
island,  and  the  second  in  imm>rtance  belongin 
to  the  Dutch  in  the  E.  Archi|>elago,  on  the  SI 
side  of  the  bav  of  Binnen,  near  Fort  Vicu>ria.  ~ 
30  40'  S.  lat.,  and  128°  15'  E.  long.  Po|>.  8900 
1801.  It  is  rt^larly  built;  the  streets,  thou^ 
not  leaved,  are  broa(l,  and  intersected  by  mac 
rivulets;  the  houses,  excepting  the  town-hous 
which  has  two  stories,  are  all  of  only  one  stor 
constructed  of  wood  and  roofe<l  with  palm  leav« 
A  long  esfdanade,  reaching  as  far  as  the  fort^ 
bounded  by  a  handsome  range  of  hituses,  and 
double  row  of  nutmeg  trees ;  there  are  two  Chri 
tian  churches,  an  hospital,  a  fine  ganlen  xm 
menagerie,  and  several  good  bazaars  and  marked 
Fort  \'ict<»ria  is  an  irregular  hexagon,  surrowu{e< 
by  a  ditch,  but  as  it  is  entirely  commanded  h 
two  neighbouring  heights,  its  best  defence  1 
in  the  ditKculty  of  anchorage  in  the  contiguotu 
bav. 

AMBRIERES,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  M* 
yenne,  cap.  canti,  7  m.  N.  Mayenne.  Pop.  2,72t 
in  1801. 

AMBROIX  (ST.),  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Ganl 
cap.  cant^,  11  m.  NN'E.  AUais.  Pop.  4,000  ii 
1801.  It  manufactures  coarse  silk  stockings,  an 
has  tanneries  and  nail  works. 

AMELIA  (an.  Atneria),  a  city  of  central  Italj 
prov.  Penigia,  tleleg.  Spoleto,  23  m.  SW.  Spolefi 
Pop.  7,021  in  1801.    It  stands  on  a  small  hill,  j 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric  founded  in  13^14,  and  has 
cathedral,  three  churches,  and  some  convents. 

Ameria  was  one  of  the  most  considerable  an 
ancient  cities  of  Umbria.  The  famous  comciliai 
Sextus  Roscius,  was  a  native  of  Ameria,  which  ; 
frc/]ucntly  referred  to  bv  Cicero  in  his  sfjcech  i 
defence  of  Roscius.  It  is  said  to  have  liee 
founded  1045  years  B.C.,  and  became  a  colon 
under  Augustus. 

Amkija,  an  island  on  the  NE.  coast  of  Florid 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  narrow  channc 
40  m.  N.  St,  Augustine,  Iwtwecn  St,  Marj's  an 
Nassau  rivers.  It  is  20  m.  in  length  liy  2  i 
l)readth,  is  feitile,  and  its  chief  town,  Fcmandin; 
has  a  good  harbour. 


AMERICA 


91 


AMERICA,  or  the  New  World  of  the  W.  he- 
lufiherc,  one  of  the  great  divuimiB  of  tlie  f^Iobe, 
uipwrinj?  all  the  othen  in  magnitude,  with  the 
xeieptioa  of  Asia,  to  which,  however,  it  in  but 
ittle  inferior.  Thia  vatit  continent  Btrctdies  N. 
md  &  a  <liiitance  of  abo^'e  9,000  m.,  or  from 
ibont  the  72nd  d^ree  of  N.  lat.  to  Cape  Horn, 
n  aboat  56  S.  Ut.  It  in  vcxy  irrcx^larly  shaped, 
Mini;  divided  by  the  Gulph'of  Mexico  and  the 
Darnbean  Sea  into  the  two  enormous  peninsulas 
if  N.  and  S.  America,  united  by  the  narrow 
[Ahmu9  of  Daiien,  or  Panama,  where  biiNulcst, 
!?.  Amirrica,  excluding  Greenland,  b  not  less  than 
y3f*t  m.  acn«ii,  and  S.  America  not  less  than 
iS^JO  m.  The  best  estimates  that  have  been 
Ibnned  of  the  area  of  America  vary  from  14,790,000 
tn  loi^O,0(M)  Eng.  aq.  m.,  while  scmie  authorities 
i;iTe  a  *till  hifi^her  figure.  Probably,  the  following 
statement  will  approach  the  mean,  based  on  the 
BUMt  ndiable  statistica:— 

Eag.  liq.  on. 
N.  Ammica      .        .        .       •       •    7,400,000 

&  America 6,500.000 

IriuHl4 150,000 

Gnmliind  and  the  Inlands  connocted 
with  it  N.  of  Hudson's  Straits     .       900,000 


Total 


.  14,950,000 


The  continent  of  America  lies  between  the  At- 
Isotir  and  Pacific  oceans,  the  {onnet  separating  it 
from  Eunvpe  and  Africa,  and  the  latter  from  Akin 
uA  Auntnlia.  All  the  distinguishing  features  of 
the  American  continent  seem  to  be  formed  on 
the  nviet  gigantic  scale.  The  chain  of  the  Andes, 
vfaich  nui4  fn>m  one  end  of  S.  America  to  the 
Hber,  ind  is  prolonged  under  different  names 
thir4i(;h  the  whole  extent  of  N.  America,  is,  in 
pnt  uf  length,  unequalled  by  any  mountain 
tbun  in  the  old  world ;  and  is  far'superior,  in 
luped  of  altitude,  to  the  Alps  and  every  other 
BMnitain  dvstem  with  which  we  are  acquainted, 
tbe  Himmaiaya  only  excepted.  The  plains,  rivers, 
Ian,  Ukcw.  cataracts,  and  forests  of  America  are 
of  Bofivallt^l  extent  and  grandeur.  Her  mineral 
nHio  Mem  also  to  be  superior  to  those  of  every 
<<)ier  continent :  and  she  possesses  every  variety 
(^  eEmate.  fmm  the  extreme  heat  of  the  torrid 
sow  to  the  eternal  winter  of  the  arctic  circle.  It 
'» finpiha,  however,  that  while  inanimate  and 
^^'ct^ie  nature  are  developed  on  so  grand  a 
Kale  in  the  new  world,  the  animal  kingilom 
vkwld  be  comparatively  deficient  The  native 
Anmcan  u  proliably  inferior  even  to  the  negro. 
<^  the  lower  animals,  neither  the  elephant,  camel, 
»•*  &«  w  fiMind  in  Ainerica;  and  it  was  originally 
^itate  of  the  hone,  the  ox,  and  the  sheep,  all 
of  vhicb  were  carried  thither  by  Spanish,  Bntisli, 
iti  other  European  settlers. 

N'.  America  is  more  indented  than  any  other 

xf  the  KRat  divisimis  of  the  globe,  with  immense 

piliihf  and  arms  of  the  sea.    One  of  the  princi|»al 

<f  th(«e,  in  the  N£.  part  of  the  continent,  consists 

(ifvhat  ItallH  has  not  unaptly  called  the  sea  of 

'be  L<H}uimaux,  from  its  cnasts  being  everywhere 

"^ipted  with  tribes  belonging  to  that  peculiar 

^'   It  consists  of  two  great  divisions,  Davis's 

^nit«  ind   BafilinV  Bay,  separating  Greenland 

Jn-o  the  rert  of  the  continent ;  and  Iludsuu'8  Bay, 

'Jinj  more  to  the  S.  and  W.,  but  connectwl  with 

j^  ftimer  by  numerous  channels,  some  of  which 

w«  •«ly  been  recently  discovered.    The  naviga- 

JJ*  "f  the«j  seas  and  inlets,  even  at  the  m«i8t 

nvfmnj,]^  seasons,  is  extremely  difiicult,  from 

l^irlninp  constantly  encumberp<l  with  ice ;  and 

>*  >  •»nly  <lnring  a  short  period  of  the  year  that  it 

*»  **  attempted    The  next  great  inU*t  of  the 

**  "0  the  American  coast  is  the  Gulph  of  St. 

^'"tcace,  M>  called  from  the  great  river  of  that 


name  which  falls  into  its  SW.  extrcmitj'.  Passing 
over  the  numorouH  inU'ts  and  noble  bays  on  the 
coast  of  the  United  »*<tat««H,  wc  conic  t»>  the.  (>ulph 
of  Mexico  and  the  Carrihoan  Sea.  This  vast  mo- 
diterranean  is  sci>arated  from  the  Atlantic  by  the 
peninsula  of  Florida,  and  the  Greater  or  Lesser 
Antilles,  or  the  West  Indian  islands.  The  latter 
are^  as  it  were,  a  continuation  (»f  Florida ;  and  are, 
it  is  prcibable,  the  only  remaining  p«)ints  of  what 
was  once  a  broa<l  belt  of  land,  which  has  been 
broken  to  ])ieces  and  partly  submerged  in  some  of 
those  tremendous  con\'ulsronH  to  which  the  earth 
has  been  subject.  But,  however  this  may  be,  this 
great  inland  sea  is  divided  into  two  portions  by 
the  peninsula  of  Yucatan  and  Cape  St>.  Antonio, 
at  the  W.  extremity  of  the  island  of  Cuba,  which 
approach  within  a  comparatively  short  <listaiicc 
of  each  other;  that  to  the  X.  being  called  the 
Gulph  of  Mexico,  and  that  to  the  S.  the  CarrilM^an 
Sea,  or  the  sea  of  the  Antilles.  The  Isthmus  of 
Panama  is  at  the  extreme  S.  limit  of  the  latter,  in 
about  the  8th  degree  of  N.  latitude.  It  is  l>elieve<l 
that  it  would  be  by  no  means  difiicult  to  cut  a 
canal  across  this  isthmiu<,  and  conseqiiently  to 
unite  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  The  Gulph 
of  California,  separating  the  |)euinsulaof  that  nnnie 
from  the  main  land,  is  the  most  important  inlet 
of  the  sea  on  the  W.  coast  of  North  America. 

S.  America  bears  a  striking  resemblance  in  the 
form  of  its  coasts  to  Africju  It  is  nnich  more  com- 
pact than  X.  America,  and  is  comi>aratively  little 
mdented  by  arms  of  the  sea.  The  great  rivers, 
Amazon,  I^  Plata,  Para,  Orinoco,  Sec,  may,  how- 
ever, be  looked  ui)on  as  a  siiei'ies  of  inland  seas ; 
and  are,  in  s(»me  res]>ects,  more  ser\'iccablc  than 
the  latter.  The  W.  coa*«t  of  America,  from  the 
proximity  of  the  Andes,  has  but  few  gulphs ;  and 
IS,  in  great  part,  all  but  destitute  of  harbotuis.  The 
8.  extremity  of  S.  America,  or  the  count rj'  of 
Tierra  del  Fnego,  is  pro|)erly  an  archipelago.  Whig 
separated  from  the  continent  by  the  narrow  and 
wmding  strait  of  Magellan,  or  ^fngalhaens. 

Mmintaina, — Ilumlxildt  has  shown  that  all  the 
high  elevations  of  the  New  World  l>el(»ng  to  that 
great  chain  which,  under  difierent  denominations, 
extends  fn»m  one  of  its  extremities  to  the  other, 
along  its  western  coast,  over  a  space  of  no  le,**a 
than  10,000  m.  The  American  mountains  may, 
however,  be  tlivided  into  right  systems,  or  prin- 
cipal groups,  three  of  which  Wiong  to  S.,  and 
three  to  N.  America ;  and  one  each  to  the  West 
Indian  and  Arctic  archipelagos. 

1st,  Of  those  systems,  that  of  the  Andes,  or 
Peruvian  system,  from  the  highest  mountains 
being,  with  one  exception,  in  the  country  kn(»wn 
by  the  name  of  Peru,  is  the  most  gigantic.  This 
vast  chain  of  mountains  commences  at  Cape  Iloni, 
in  about  the  dCth  deg.  of  S.  lat.,  and  lollowiiig 
pretty  closely  the  line  of  the  W.  coast  of  the  con- 
tinent, to  which  it  forms  as  it  were  a  huge  bul- 
wark, stretches  N.  to  the  Bay  of  Panama,  in  alsnit 
the  0th  <leg.  of  N.  hit.  But  at  Popayan,  in  alwuit 
2^°  N.  lat.,  the  chain  is  dividctl  mto  thn»e  great 
ridgeji,  of  which  the  most  westerly  take^  the  di- 
rection alx)ve  mentioned,  while  that  farthest  t<»  the 
K.  follows  a  NK.  diretni«»n,  terminating  a  little  t<» 
the  K.  of  lake  Matacaybo.  The  name  cordiUem^ 
sometimes  given  to  the  entire  chain,  belongs  ]^n>- 
]M;rly  <»nly  to  the  highest  ri<lge.  In  [wirts  the 
chain  consists  t»f  only  one  ridge,  and  in  others  t»f 
2  or  3,  enchising  very  exten.sive  Al]»ine  valleys, 
many  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  wii. 
Next  to  the  Himmaiaya,  the  Andes  has  tlie  hi;;h- 
est  elevation  of  any  mountain  system ;  its  mean 
height  may  be  taken  at  from  l(r.O(K»  ti>  Ti.lXM)  ft. 
Chimborazo,  near  (^uito,  21.124  ft.  above  the  sea, 
was  formerly  supposed  to  be  its  culminating  ix>int ; 


92 

but 
Chil 


AMERICA 


it  is  surpassed  in  altitude  by  Aconoaf^aa,  in  the 
iian  AndeSf  lat.  32^  S.,  lung.  7U^  W.,  which 
certainly  rises  to  above  22,290  ft.,  or  to  more  than 
ft.'lOO  fV>  above  the  height  of  Mont  Blanc  (See 
Andes.)  2d.  Tlie  system  of  I^a  Parimc,  or  Guv- 
ana,  embraces  the  mountains  scattered  over  the 
immense  Inland  formed  by  the  Orinoco,  Cassiqui- 
ari,  Kio  Negro,  and  Amazon.  It  consists  of  an  ir- 
n^Cular  grouf)  of  mountains,  separated  from  each 
other  by  plains,  savannahs,  an(l  immense  forests. 
Tlie  Sierra  de  I'arimc  may  \yc  regarded  as  its  i)rin- 
cipal  chain.  The  Peak  of  Duida,  8,280  ft.  in 
)ieight,  is  the  cubninating  point  of  the  chain  and 
of  the  whole  svstem.  iki.  The  Brazilian  svstera, 
embracing  the  mountains  that  lie  )x*tween  the 
j^Vmazon,  Paraguay,  and  Kio  de  la  Plata.  The 
Siemide  Kspinhazo  is  its  most  elevated  cliain.  It 
traverses,  under  different  denominations,  the  pro- 
vinces of  Bahia,  Minas-GenUht,  Kio  de  Janeiro, 
San  Paulo,  and  tlie  northern  extremity  of  the 
province  of  San  Pedn).  Its  culminating  point^t 
are  Itambcand  the  Sierra  da  Pieiiade,  nearly  6,000 
ft.  high,  in  the  proWnceof  Minas-(ierat's.  4th.  In 
N.  America,  the  [irincipal  mountain  system  is  that 
of  the  Mexican  ^Vlps  and  Kocky  Mountains,  which 
mav  bo  regarded  as  a  contiimatitm  of  the  Andes. 
In  Mexico,  it  is  divided  into  three  distinct  ridges ; 
within  which,  between  the  parallels  of  19^  and 
24^  N.  lat.,  are  immense  platcAus  elevated  to  the 
height  of  between  6,000  and  9.000  fY,  The  central 
Cordillera  of  Mexico  stretches  N.  10*^  W.  from  the 
2<')th  to  the  38th  deg.  lat.,  separating  the  waters  of 
the  Kio  del  Norte^  flowing  BE.  from  those  of  the 
Col(»rndo,  flowing  SW.  The  highest  peaks  in  the 
ridge  in  Mexico  are  the  volcanoes  or  Pocatcpetl, 
17,717  fU,  and  Orizaba,  17,374  ft.  From  alx)ut 
the  38th  d(^.  the  ridge,  which  then  begins  to  be 
called  the  Kocky  Mountains,  stretches  N.  28°  W., 
till  it  terminates  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie 
Kiver,  on  the  Arctic  Sea.  in  about  the  G9th  di^.  of 
lat.  and  13Sth  deg.  of  W.  long.  Some  ^joaks  in 
tliLs  chain,  l)etween  52°  and  53°,  are  said  to  be 
nearly  16,000  ft.  aliovc  the  level  of  the  sea ;  and 
otherJs  between  37°  and  39°,  have  l)een  ascertained 
to  be  from  1(1,000  to  12,04)0  ft.  in  height,  oth. 
Parallel  to  tlK*  Kocky  Mountains,  and  at  no  great 
distance  from  the  sea,  a  chain  of  mountains  runs 
N.  fn)m  the  pi^ninsula  of  California  till  it  i»  lost  in 
Kussiiui  America.  This  chain,  which  has  l>een 
called  by  Humboldt  the  Califiimian  Maritime 
Al[»,  increases  in  altitude  as  it  gets  further  N. 
Mount  IIotkI,  near  the  46th  deg.,  on  the  S.  side  of 
the  Columbia  or  Oregon  river,  is  said  to  be  alxiut 
16,000  f^  high;  and  Mount  St.  Helen's,  about  a 
ilegroc  further  N.  on  the  X.  side  of  the  Columbia, 
lias  an  elevation  of  14,000  ft.  Mount  Fairweather, 
in  the  69th  deg.,  is  also  14,000  it,  high;  and 
Mount  St^  Klias,  the  loftiest  in  the  chain,  attains 
to  an  elevation  of  nearly  17,000  ft.  The  last  two 
arc  volcanoes.  Between  the  Kocky  Mountains 
and  the  Maritime  Al]is  is  an  extensive  ])rairio 
tract,  700  m.  in  length,  by  from  100  to  200  m.  in 
breadth.  The  Kocky  ^lountains  and  tlie  Maritime 
Alps  arc  connecUMl  by  a  ridge  in  about  the  42d 
deg.  lat.,  dividing  the  waters  which  flow  N.  to  the 
C^ilumbia  fn»m  Uiosc  which  flow  S.  to  the  CoK)- 
rado.  6th.  The  mountains  E.  of  the  Mississippi  do 
not  ut  all  aitpToai^li  the  Ktvky  Mountains  in  mag- 
nitude. They  are  included  in  what  is  called  tlio 
Alleghany  or  Apjialachian  system,  extending  in 
a  NR  by  N.  din'ction  from  Alaliama,  on  the  N. 
confines  of  ( rcorgia,  to  the  banks  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, lieiiij^  alxHit  1,200  m.  in  length,  with  a 
mean  breadth  of  100  m.  The  White  Mountains 
of  New  Hani|>shire.  7,300  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  itva^  are  the  highest  in  this  range,  which  is 
crossed  by  the  tidal  waters  of  the  IludisHiu  river. 


The  immense  Tallcy  of  the  Misnsripp  lies  between 
the  K(x:ky  and  the  Alleghany  chains.  7th.  lUbi 
pniposcs  to  embrace,  under  tbe  denomination  «if 
Arctic  system,  all  the  mountains  that  are  already, 
or  tliat  may  hereafter  be,  discovered  within  t£e 
Arctic  archipelago.  The  culminating  points  uf 
that  system,  in  so  far  as  they  are  at  inesent  knnwn, 
arc  the  Com  du  Cerf,  in  Greenland,  the  height  iif 
which  has  been  much  exaggerated,  but  which  is 
proluibly  above  8,000  ft.,  and  tbe  Aeraefi  Taekull, 
m  Iceland,  6,649  ft.  8th.  The  system  of  the  An- 
tilles embraces  the  mountains  in  the  aichipclagi)  uf 
that  name.  Its  culminating  points  are,  the  Anton- 
Sepo,  in  Hayti,  nearly  9,000  ft  in  height;  and 
the  Sierra  de  Cobre,  in  Cuba,  the  most  elevated 
summits  of  which  attain  about  the  same  height. 

Plateaus, — America  has  a  great  variety  of  pla- 
teaus, some  remarkable  for  their  futMliginua  ele\'a- 
tion,  and  others  for  their  immense  extent.  Under 
the  former  arc  included  the  plateau  <^  Titicaca, 
dixddeil  between  Boli>*ia  and  Peru,  compriiting  an 
area  of  about  18,000  sou  m.,  -with  a  mean  elevation 
of  above  13,000  ft.  The  populous  and  well  culti- 
vated plateau  of  Quito  is  elevated  about  9,600  ft; 
and  the  extensive  plateau  or  table-land  of  Ana- 
huac,  in  Mexico,  from  6,000  t(»  9,tK)0  ft  Among 
the  latter,  or  those  principally  remarkable  for  their 
ext4>nt,  may  be  mendoncd  tbe  central  plateau  uf 
S.  America,  embracing  the  vast  province  «>f  Matto 
Gnissf),  with  parts  of  Goyaz  and  San  Paulo  in 
Brazil,  the  whole  of  Paragimy,  Chaco  in  the  con- 
federation of  the  Kio  de  la  Plata,  and  a  part  of  the 
lands  of  the  Cliiauitos  and  Moxes  in  Bolivia.  Its 
elevation  varies  from  about  750  to  1280  feet 

Volcanoes, — America  has  a  great  number  of 
volcanoes,  and  some  of  the  most  elevated  volca- 
nic mountams  in  the  world.  Tlie  states  of  Equador 
and  of  Cauca  in  Columbia,  the  states  of  Nica^ 
ragua,  San  Salvailor,  and  Guatemala  in  central 
America,  Chili,  Kussian  America,  and  Iceland  in 
Danish  America,  contain  a  great  number  erf*  vol- 
canoes. The  most  remarkable  volcanic  moun- 
tains are,  C-otopaxi,  Sanguay,  and  Pichincha  in 
the  Columbian  department  of  Equad(»r;  Pasto, 
Sotara,  and  Purace  in  that  of  Cauca;  Guagua- 
Plitina,  or  t)ic  volcano  of  ^Vreqnipa,  and  Sehama 
in  Peru ;  the  volcanoes  of  Copii^x),  Cliilan,  An- 
toco,  and  Peteroa  in  Chili;  those  of  Socomusco, 
Guatx]!mala  or  Fuego,  Agua,  Pacaya,  San  Salva- 
dor, Graiiafia,  and  Telica,  near  St  Leon,  of  Nica- 
ragua, in  central  America;  Popocatapett  or  tlto 
volcano  of  Puebla,  Citlatcftetl,  or  the  volcano  of 
Orizaba,  the  volcano  of  Colima,  and  that  of  Xo- 
rullo,  in  the  Mexican  confederation ;  St  Elias  and 
Fainveat  her,  in  the  Califomian  Alps ;  the  two  vol- 
canoes of  the  peninsula  of  Alashka,  and  those  of 
t  he  Aleutian  islands ;  with  Heda,  and  othoa  in 
Iceland. 

Plains, — In  no  other  part  of  the  world  are  the 
plains  so  vast^  The  inunense  space  from  the  out- 
let of  the  Mackenzie  Kiver  to  the  delta  of  the 
I^Iii^issippi,  and  between  the  central  chain  of  the 
^Icxican  system  and  Kocky  Mountains,  and  the 
Alleghany,  forms  the  largest  plain,  not  of  America 
only,  but  of  the  world :  it  embraces  the  basins  of 
the  Mississippi,  the  St  Lai^Tence,  Churchill  vit 
Nelson,  almost  the  whole  basin  of  the  Missouri, 
nearly  the  whole  basins  of  the  Suskatchawan  and 
Mackenzie  Kiver,  and  the  entire  basin  of  the  Cop- 
permine Kiver.  Four-fifths  of  that  portion  of  ttiia 
vast  plain  which  lies  Iwyond  the  50th  d(^.  of  lat., 
Ls  a  bleak  and  barren  waste,  overspread  with  innu- 
merable lakes,  and  bearing  a  striking  resemblance 
to  N.  Asia:  but  its  more  southerly  ])ortion,  or  that 
lying  W.  of  the  Alleghany  chain,  and  N.  fn»m  the 
(iulph  of  Mexico,  differs  widely  in  character  from 
the  other,  being  well  wooded  auid  fertile  on  the  £. 


«il«.  ten  but  not  iafectile  In  the  middle,  and  1m- 
camiDf;  almiiat  ■  dcMct  in  the  extreme  W.  The 
MoMid  pHt  plnn  of  the  New  Cnntinent  is  that  of 

«f  S.  Amelia,  comprising  man  than  half  Braiil, 
with  iDatli-veM  Columbia,  the  eaitem  part  of  the 
npublic  of  Peru,  and  the  northern  part  of  Bolivia : 
ita  linuta  are  nearly  identical  with  those  of  the 

the  Amuon  and  Tocantia.  The  plain  of  the  Kio 
lie  In  Plata  extends  betwecD  the  Andea  and  their 
fnocipal  bnoches,  and  the  mountaimi  of  Urszil, 
to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Strsiu  of  Magellan. 
It  emhinL'ea  the  nulh-wnt  part  of  Brazil,  Pais- 
fCoar,  the  coaatrj  of  the  Chiquilos,  Cham,  with 
the  (creatCT  part  of  the  conlcderalion  of  the  Kio 
de  la  flaia,  the  atate  uf  Uruguay,  and  Pola^nta. 
A  Iar};e  portion  of  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
AB9aiorBwnoaAyres,ar  KiodelaPlala.  The 
plain  of  the  Orinoco,  embracing  the  Llano*  o( 
Kew  firanada  and  VeneEuela  in  Colambia,  extends 
fr^xn  Caqueta  to  the  raouth  of  the  Orinoco,  along 
the  Guavtarc.  Heta,  and  lower  Orinoco.  In  some 
et  the  ttat  parts  of  America  Large  tracts  of  terri- 

aare  Diet  vith,  which,  in  rpipect  of  aiidity  of 
and  of  the  sand  by  which  they  are  covered, 
Bany  b«  compared  to  the  deaerta  of  AsLii  and 
Africa.  The  moat  remaikable  and  most  extensive 
•t  those  tiBcta  are  the  desert  of  Pemambuco, 
oecnpvin)!  a  (treat  part  of  the  HE,  plateau  of  lira- 
nl:  tlie  deaert  of  Alacama,  extending  with  some 
intoruptiona  along  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  from 
TanpKB  in  Peru  to  Copiapo  in  Chili;  and  the 
diMvt  uf  Xultal,  at  U)e  E.  foot  of  the  Kncky 
Hnmtaina,  between  the  Upper  Arkansas  and 
Pttioka,  forming  part  of  the  central  plain  of  North 

Tk  Hkm  of  America  are  on  a  much  laraei 
sole  than  thoae  of  any  other  portion  of  the  globe, 
iftnfing  [adlilia  of  interna]  communication  of 
'ttt  importance,  and  quite  unequalled  any  where 
eke,  Tbe  principal  are  the  Amazon.  Hissiwnppi, 
Plua.  SL  Lawrence,  and  Orinoco.  The  Amazon 
tun  E.  through  the  broadest  part  of  S.  America, 
(■Hing  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  under  tbe  equator, 
hi  niin  ourae  is  estimated  at  about  4.700  m., 
■ad  it  has  several  Iribularies  la^r  than  the  Wol- 
pwibe  Danube.  Uninterrupted  by  either  rocks 
fihaUowi,  it  is  riavigable  fur  vraseb  of  conwider- 
^hnnlen  to  the  E.  foot  of  the  Andes,  a  distance, 
B  >  dinct  line,  of  above  2,000  m.  from  the  sea ; 
led  iLongh  dvilisation  has  as  yet  made  little  pro- 
pa  is  the  vaal  and  fertile  n^ons  through  which 
a  ion,  there  can  be  no  doubt  Ihat  it  is  destined 
Is  tceume  as  it  were  a  great  highway  for  many 
Jonrfai  oauona,  and  to  have  ila  banks  thickly 
M  vizh  populous  towns  and  emporiums. 

The  lUsiisaippi,  taken  in  connexion  with  the 
Hiaonii,  [be  Lugnt  and  most  important  stream, 
k<n  from  N.  to  S.,  falling  into  the  Guluh  of 
Muke,  about  100  m.  below  Nen 
warn,  including  n ' 


CA  93 

The  Plata,  which  mns  3.  with  n  slight  inelina- 

on  to  the  E.,  is  the  grandehannclof  communioa- 

on  to  a  verv  latRC  portion  of  3.  America.     Its 

>urse  may  be  estimated  at  about  3,500  m.;  and 

9  basin  is  inferior  only  to  that  o(  the  Amazon  or 

the  Missiesippi. 

The  St.  Lawtenec,  with  Its  coimecled  lakea,  or 

ither  great  Inland  scan,  is  the  grand  outlet  of  the 

largest  freshwater  aj-stem  in  the  world.    Including 

tlie  lakes,  its  course  exceeds  2,000  m.     It  is  re- 

mork^le  for  the  equnlitv  of  its  current,  which  is 

earlv  uniform  throughout  the  vear. 

The  Orinoco  hat  a  counie  of  about  IdOO  m..  and 

irries  to  the  sea  an  immenxc  boily  of  water.   There 

i  a  water  communication  between  one  of  its  adlu- 

nts,  the  Cossiquiari,  and  Ibe  liiu  Negro,  on  afilu- 

nl  of  the  Amanio. 

Owing  (n  ihe  c 

'ilhin 


iparatively  short  distance  oi 

■ai,  there  is  not,  in  most  parts,  room  in  me  ui- 

-1,'ening  space  for  the  formation  of  any  very  great 

■er.      Hence,   notwithstan.ling    the    prodigious 

igth  of  the  W.  coast,  it  only  receives  two  large 

rivers,  and  Iliexe  not  of  the  tiist  class;  Ihe  Hiii 

Colomdu,  falliJig  into  the  bottom  of  the  (iulph  of 

California,  and  tbe  Columbia  or  Oregon,     Tlieir 

lated  at  about  1,140  m.  each. 

The  Mackenzie  is  the  only  great  river  flowing 


4,^00   B 


nr  of  its  tnbntaries,  as  the  Arki 
Biier,  Ohio,  Ac,  are  of  great  magnitude ;  and  it 
^■iu  me  at  the  laigeat  and  finest  basins  in  the 
"irU.  It  i*  narigable  fur  about  1,700  m.  in  a 
^nrt  line  from  its  mouth ;  and  though  civilisation 
Wrfdy begun  ""  -■-"--  ■--  — --  --'  ---.-.-  ■.- 


■kin  Ihe  wide  regions  through  which 
II  Inauented  channel  of 
ie  boldest  Sights  of  imagination 


a  ihfady  a  well  fr 


on  hardly  Bgure  what  the  MissiMJppi  will  be, 
*Mi  Ibe  rich  and  fmitful  countries  on  its  banks, 
»llli«eof  iualHueuls,  are  all  fully  peopled,  and 
nsling  u.ie  of  its  waters  to  send  abroad  their  sur- 
1^  jinxtucta,  and  to  import  those  of  other  couii- 


of  the  Andes,  ai 


I  of 
?"^thc  Vf. 


loihe  A 


It  bos  a  NNW.  I 
y  a  series  of  lakes  and  tributary  Blroams 
upcrior,  and  consequently  with  the  Si. 

vlahea 

„, . ,... een  42° 

hichmight  be  Justly  called  the  kke 
region.  It  presents  not  only  the  gtealeBt  massea 
of  fresh  water  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  but  ao 
lany  smaller  lakes  and  morusses,  that  ilieir  enu- 
leration  is  almost  imponiible.  Iliesc  lakes  form 
most  important  feature  in  the  phvsical  geography 
f  the  new  world.  In  the  rainy  season,  several  of 
them  overflow  (heir  banks ;  and  temporary  com- 
mnicatione  arc  then  eslablished  between  livcis 
,.hose  embouchures  are  frequentlv  at  immense  dift. 
tanoes  from  each  other.  Some  of  these  communi- 
calions  are  permanent;  as,  for  instance,  that  of  the 
Miseinsippi  or  Churchill  with  Ihe  Mackenzie  River. 
The  great  lakes  uf  X.America  are,  Ijdce  Superior, 
Michigan,  Huron,  St.  Clair,  Erie,  and  Ontario. 
These,  which  ore  all  amneeted  together,  discharge 
Bupcrlluous  watera  by  the  Si.  Lawrence,  and 

1  the  sea  of  Canada.  (Sec  tbe  titles  fur  a  full 
iption  of  these  taken.)  The  next  ui  size  and 
rtance  ore  Lakes  Winni]>eg,  Alhaboseo,  Great 
Slave  Lake,and  Great  Bear  Lake,stretclnngNKW. 
(ram  Lake  Superior  to  near  tlie  mouth  of  the 
Uackeniie  liiver,  and  forming  as  it  were  a  conti- 
nuation of  the  Canadian  Ukes.  There  are  some 
considerable  lakes  in  the  Mexican  states ;  and  the 
comparatively  small  hikes  of  Tezeaco,  Xochimilco, 
ic,  in  the  valley  of  Mexico,  are  remarkable  for 
their  elevated  situaiinn,  their  vicinity  to  tlic  ca- 
pital, and  the  superb  works  undertaken  to  prevent 
the  damage  caused  by  their  frequent  overflowing. 
Lake  Nicaragua,  in  central  America,  is  remariuble 

forming  the  basis  of*  the  works  pro- 
ting  Ihe  Atlantic  and  Padfic  oceans, 
lize  of  the  principal  lake*  of  S.  Amc- 
:rikingly  contnisU  with  Ihe  dimensions  of 
those  of  N.America.  The  lake  of  Titlcaca,  (he 
largest  and  must  celebrated  of  Ihe  H.  American 
lakes,  is  situaled  near  the  XW.frontier  of  Bolivia, 
or  Upper  Peru,  in  an  Alpine  volley  su 
ridges  of  Ihe  Andea.    It  coven  an  aF 


The  hmiied 


94 


AMERICA 


at  2,225  ^ceog.  eq.  m.,  its  length  l)eing  120  m.  and 
1)reiidtli  im  m.,  and  it  Ih  elevated  12.850  feet  abave. 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Manco  (]!apac  made  hiH  first 
a|»|K>arunee  (in  the  hanks  (if  tins  lake.  The  hashi8 
<»f  the  Kio  CVildrado,  or  ^lendoza,  and  Kio  Negro, 
jiresent  several  very  extensive  lakes;  but  the^e 
are  really  rather  vast  raoratuM^,  than  lakes  ])roperly 
BO  called. 

Islamls. —  A  multitude  of  islandn  belong  to 
America.  We  shall  briefly  notice  the  principal, 
in  the  order  <if  the  se-as  in  which  thevare  8ituate<L 
In  the  Atlantic  Ocean  are,  the  archWlago  of  St, 
I^WTence  or  of  Newfoundland,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  (rulph  of  St.  Lawrence:  its  princii>al  islands 
are  Xewfoundland,  Anticosti,  Prince  Eilward's  Is- 
land, and  Cape  Dreton.  Tlie  great  Columbian  ar- 
chipelago, or  Antilles,  commonly  called  the  West 
Intlies,  comprise^)  a  great  number  of  islands  and 
secondar}'  groujts,  lying  between  the  i)eninsula  of 
Florida  and  the  delta  of  tlie  Orinoco.  IXs  cliief 
islands  are,Cul>a,  Hayti,or  St.  Domingo,  Jamaica, 
and  Porto-Uico,  calle<l  the  greater  Antilles;  St. 
Cruz,  Antigua,  (iuadaloni)e,  Martinico.  St.  Lucia, 
IVirbadoes,  St.  Vincent,  lol>ago,  Trinidad,  and  se- 
veral others,  calleti  the  smaller  Antilles.  The  Lu- 
cayos,  or  Bahama  Islands,  a  vast  secondare'  group, 
are  situated  to  tl»e  N.  of  Cuba.  Towards  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  New  C^mtinent,  are  the 
Falkland  or  Malouine  Islands,  wliich  have  no  fixed 
inhabitants;  in  the  southern  ocean  is  the  archi- 
X>elago  of  Magellan  and  Tierra  del  Fuego,  the  most 
southerly  inhabited  part  of  the  worl(L  By  its 
))ositi(in,  at  the  extremity  of  America,  it  bebmgs 
as  much  to  the  ocean,  to  which  we  liave  assigned 
it,  as  to  either  the  Atlantic  or  Pacitic  0(;ean. 

The  Antarctic  archipelago,  or  Antarctic  lands, 
under  which  denomination  we  include  all  the. 
islands  situated  beyond  5()^  S.  lat^,  next  claims 
attention.  The  greater  part  of  these  L^lands  have 
been  recently  disiUivercd :  they  are  all  uninhabited, 
are  mostlv  covered  with  ice,  and  are  important 
<mly  to  whale  and  seal  fishers.  The  most  remark- 
able islands  and  groups  are,  the  island  of  St. 
Peter,  called  by  (^nik,  S.  Georgia;  the  archipt*lago 
f  Sandwicli,  the  Orkneys,  S.  Shetland,  Trinity 


o 


Island,  the  small  LHlands  oi  Alexander  I.  and 
I'etcr  I.  Tlie  Pacific  Ocean  has  also  a  multitude 
of  islands,  lying  in  grrmps,  of  which  we  can  (mly 
notice  the  following :  the  archiiKdago  of  Madrc  de 
Dios,  on  the  W.  coast  of  l^itag(inia;  the  Cam- 
Tiana  and  Madre  de  Dios  are  the  laigest  of  these 
islands :  the  archi|>elago  of  Cliiloe,  situated  to  the 
S.  of  Chili,  to  which  it  belongs,  and  of  which 
Chiloc  Island  is  the  largest :  the  archiiMtlago  of 
Gallo])ag(»s,  situated  under  the  equator,  about 
600  m.  W.  from  the  coast  of  Columbia,  but  which 
has  no  stationary'  inhabitants :  the  archipelago  of 
Quadra  and  Vancouver,  comprising  a  great  numljcr 
of  islands,  and  that  of  King  George  III.,  on  the 
NW.  coast  of  N.  America,  with  the  Aleutian 
archipelago  in  Russian  America  In  liehring's 
Sea,  are  the  group  of  Pribylof  and  Nounivok,  be- 
longing U>  liussia.  The  Arctic  Ocean  presents  a 
vast  numl)er  of  islands,  the  majority  of  which, 
previously  to  the  late  voyage  of  ^^liiscovery,  were 
n^arded  as  parts  of  the  Amencan  continent. 
Ballii  pro^Mises  to  give  to  these  islands  the  gene- 
ral denoramation  of  Arctic  lands  or  Arctic  arclii- 
iielago,  and  to  subdivide  them  as  follows :  K.  or 
)anish  Arctic  lands  comprising  the  great  group 
of  (in*enland  and  Iceland,  belonging  to  Denmark, 
and  Jan  Mayen*s  Ishind,  without  stationary  in- 
habitants; the  W.  or  English  Arctic  lands,  ex- 
tending to  the  W.  and  N.  of  BafKn's  and  Hud- 
tMin's  liays,  the  principal  grou|)s  of  which  arc,  X. 
Devdu,  'X.  (ieorgia,  with  the  islands  Comwallis, 
Melville,  &.c\    and  the  archi|xdago  of  Baffin — 


Parry,  with  the  islands  Cockbum,  SoathtmptaOi 
New  Galloway,  4c. 

The  Climate  of  America  is  nearly  as  oeldxitad 
for  the  jircdominance  of  cold,  as  that  of  Africa  (br 
the  predominance  of  heat«  With  the  exception  of 
the  limited  space  al(»ng  its  W.  shore,  between  the 
Andes  in  the  S.  and  the  Maritime  Alps  in  the  X„ 
the  temperature  of  the  Xew  Wori<l,  in  the  Mune 
latitude,  is  ev<»ry^'heTe  inferior  to  that  of  the  OU, 
Countries  which,  from  their  geographical  parition, 
we  should  suppose  would  be  mild  and  t^pent«, 
are  exposed  to  long  and  severe  winters,  durini; 
which  they  are  wholly  covered  with  snow ;  and  in 
point  of  fact,  the  entire  continent  of  X.  Americi 
above  the  50th  degree  of  lau  is  all  but  uninhabitx 
able.  Even  in  the  46th  parallel,  on  tlie  N.  ride  of 
the  Canadian  lakes,  frost  is  continuona  for  more 
than  six  months.  Occasional  frosta  occur  as  low 
down  the  Atlantic  coast  as  the  confines  of  Floridai 
near  the  30th  deg.  of  lat.,  in  the  parallel  of  M«^ 
rocco,  Cairo,  and  Suez.  Tliis  predominance  of 
cold  is  no  doubt  ascnbable  to  a  great  variety  of 


causes ;  among  the  most  prominent  of  which  may 
be  ploceil  the  extraordinary  ele\'ation  of  the  wnL 
Not  only  is  the  continent  traversed  from  one  ex- 
tremity to  the  other  by  immense  chains  of  moun- 
tains covered  with  perpetual  snow,  but  in  many 
tmrts,  as  in  Mexico  and  Columbia,  ver>'  extcnnve 
plains  are  found  at  an  elevation  of  frtNn  6,000  tu 
10,000  feet  al)ove  the  level  of  the  sea !  Thus 
the  plain  of  (^uito,  immediately  under  the  equa> 
tor,  has  an  elevation  of  above  9.000  feet,  and  iu 
mean  tem})eratiurc  is  said  not  to  exceed  53^  Fahc 
In  some  parts,  where  the  plateaus  rise  nq)idly, 
there  is  often,  within  a  few  leagues,  an  extrsonfi- 
naxy  cliange  of  temperature.  At  Vera  Gnu  and 
Guayaquil,  for  example^  on  the  borders  of  the 
plains  of  Mexico  and  Quito,  and  nearly  on  a  level 
with  the  sea,  the  heat  is  often  Huite  oppressiveu 
These  different  climates  have  different  vegetable 
productions.  *  Hence  the  traveller  joumcring 
down  the  deep  descent  of  one  of  these  magnimxoii 
ravines  (l^^di^j?  f<^>n  the  plateau  of  Mexico), 
through  forests  of  birches,  oaks,  and  pines,  finds 
himself  suddenly  on  the  level  shores  of  the  Kio 
Alvarado,  surrounded  by  palms,  and  has  an  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  the  animal  products  of  tln^  N. 
and  S.,  of  the  Alpine  regions  and  tn)pic8,  nay  of 
the  E.  and  W.  hemispheres  min^l^  together. 
Wolves  of  northern  aspect  dwelling  m  the  \'icinity 
of  monkeys ;  humming  binls  retiuniing  (leriodicaUy 
from  the  borders  of  the  frozen  zone,  with  the  X. 
bunting  and  soft-feathered  titmice,  to  nestle  near 
parrots;  and  our  common  European  whistling 
ducks  and  teal,  swimming  in  lakes  which  swarm 
with  sirens  and  Brazilian  ])arras  and  boathills.' 
(See  Bichanlson*8  Zoolog\'  of  X.  America,  in  the 
Sixth  Beport  of  the  British  Association,  p.  136.) 
In  addition  to  its  vast  mountain  chains,  and  the 

{>nidigious  elevation  of  many  of  its  plateaus,  the 
ower  tem{)ejature  of  .tVmerica  may  be  partly  as- 
cribed to  the  great  indentation  of  tW  sea  between 
X.  and  S.  America,  and  the  want  of  extensive 
sandy  deserts  in  Uie  tropical  regions,  easily  im- 
])regnated  with  heat,  Tno  place  of  the  latter  in 
the  African  continent  is  here  occupied  by  vast 
forests,  traversed  in  all  directions  by  immense 
rivers.  The  forests,  however,  are  not  confined  to 
the  tropical  regions ;  they  extend  over  tlie  greattf 
portion  of  the  continent,  powerfully  diminifthing 
the  influence  of  the  solar  rays  upon  the  earth,  and 
greatly  increasing  its  moisture.  A  strnng  and 
abuuilant  vegetation,  the  result  of  its  greater  hu- 
midity, is,  in  fact,  the  distingubhing  cliaracteristie 
of  the  Xew  WorUL 

But  a  ver}'  small  portion  of  Xorth  America  is 
within  the  torrid  zone ;   it  reaches   tar  within 


AMERICA 


» 


Arctic  ciitle,  where  it  abo  attuns  to  a  peat 
idth.    The  NW.  wind  prevails  during  wuiter. 
IW  wind,  sweeping  over  a  desolate  country,  over- 
i|«Bad  with  manhesB,  forests,  frozen  lakes,  and 
nonntainis  boried  under  eternal  snows,  contracts 
m  intcsise  degree  of  cold,  and  in  its  progress 
nathwafd.  passing  over  a  wilderness,  where  the 
ppoond  is  shaded  by  forests  fn)ni  the  solar  rays,  its 
v^inal  character  is  in  no  respect  changed.    If 
iowly  pelds  to  the  dominion  of  the  climate,  and 
stains  Its  temperature  long  after  it  has  penetrated 
into  the  regions  of  heat.    Throughout  >.  America 
the  X.  wind  is  accordingly  felt  to  be  keen  and 
pienaog.    It  increases  the  rigour  of  the  seasons 
■I  the  more  northerly  regions,  and  extends  the  in- 
iaeiioe  of  winter  far  into  those  latitudes  which, 
B  the  other  hemisphere,  are  blessed  with  perpetual 
pring.    The  countries  lying  within  the  tropics  are 
i3q>ofled  to  the  inioads  of  the  northern  blasts ;  and 
he  great  heats  felt  at  Vera  Cruz  and  Havannah 
tre  oden  suddenly  reduced  by  strata  of  cold  air 
jroogfat   by  the  N.  winds  from  Hudson's  Bay. 
Fbese  winils  blow  from  (October  to  March,  fre- 
joentiy  bun»ting  fnrth  in  tremendous  hurricanes, 
iDd  cnHiling  the  air  to  such  a  degree,  that,  at  Ha- 
rannah,  the  centigrade  thermometer  falls  to  0,  or 
t20  Fahr^  and  at  Vera  Cru2  it  falls  to  16^,  or  to 
WP  Fahr.  At  Zacatecas,  within  the  tropic  of  Can- 
Der,  it  frequently  froze  hard  in  the  winter  of  1825 ; 
•nd  in  the  city  of  Mexico  the  thermometer  lias 
been  known,  though  rarely,  from  the  same  cause, 
to&U  below  the  fireezing  point.  To  the  prevalence 
of  these  X.  winds,  thereuire,  combined  'with  the 
cxtrannlinary  elevation  of  the  ground,  and  the 
■Bcaltivated  state  of  the  country,  overspread  with 
TSrt  fmests,  the  greater  cold  of  N.  America  seems 
dnrfly  ascribable.    In  S.  America  nearly  the  same 
canses  operate.    The  country  is  even  more  deso- 
late; the  climate  is  more  inclined  to  moisture; 
■od  hable,  bevond  the  40th  parallel,  to  dreadful 
teatpests;  while  immense  mountain  ranges,  risuig 
far  above  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow,  aid  these 
cAacts.  and  greatly  increase  the  rigour  of  the  sea- 
■ona.   Tu  these  canses  may  be  added  the  form  of 
the  American  continent,  which  being  greatly  con- 
tacted in  breadth  as  it  approaches  the  S.,  is,  in 
ennM)uence,  exposed  on  every  side,  except  towanls 
the  N„  to  the  surrounding  oceanic  winds.    To  the 
&  of  Cape  Horn  is  the  great  Antarctic  Ocean, 
'ftwecold  prevails  even  to  a  mucli  greater  degree 
tban  m  the  N.,  so  that  the  winds  coming  from 
tW  inhospitable  seas  bring  to  the  American  con  ti- 
imt  all  the  unmitigated  rigour  of  the  polar  regions. 
The  ^\iide8  and  the  Maritime  Alps  protect  the  strip 
<f  torritorv  between  them  and  the  Pacific  Ocean 
^  the  feezing  influence  of  the  N\V.  wind ;  and 
to  this  its  greater  mildness  is  partly  at  least,  if 
aftt  whoQy,  owing. 

Mhierak. — ^The  mineral  riches  of  America  are 
Iw^W*!?  superior  to  those  of  any  of  the  other 
pwt  dirisions  of  the  globe.  The  discovery  of  the 
o»ine»  of  Mexico  and  Peru  effected  an  entire  re- 
^tioD  in  the  value  of  the  prei'ious  metals ;  and 
*Miua  revolution,  in  the  same  sense,  followed 
th«  dLvovery  of  the  mines  of  California,  of  recent 
<^  The  annual  produce  of  the  American  mines, 
M  the  cmnmencement  of  the  present  centurv,  was 
•rtimated  by  3L  Humboldt  at  17,291  kiirigs.  of 
^M.  ukI  795,581  kilogs.  of  silver,  of  a  total  value 
^^MiSoOL  This  produce  continued  slightly  to 
^ooieart  down  to  1810,  when  it  was  estimated  by 
Mt  Jacob,  author  of  an  Inquiry  into  the  Con- 
•wnption  of  the  Precious  Metals,  at  9,913,000/. 
^  the  revolutionary  struggles  which  l>^an  in 
the  l&>i-nienti(Hicd  year  to  agitate  Mexico,  I*cni, 
■O"!  the  rest  of  S.  America,  speedily  occasionetl 
the  ibamidnment  of  some  of  the  most  productive 


mines,  and  an  extraordinary  falling  off  in  the 
supply  of  the  precious  metals.  Acconling  to  Jacob 
their  average  annual  produce  in  America,  from 
1810  to  1829,  did  not  exceed  4,036,000/.  a  year, 
or  less  than  half  its  amount  at  the  commencement 
of  the  century.  (Jacob,  ii.  207.)  Latterly,  how- 
ever, the  sui)plies  of  bullion  from  Mexico,  and 
still  more  from  Chili  and  Peru,  appear  again  to  l)e 
on  the  increase.  And  to  the  supplies  from  Mexico 
and  S.  America  we  have  now  to  add  those  from 
California  and  Columbia.  The  extraordinary  pn)s- 
perity  of  the  former  region,  consequent  on  the 
discovery  and  energetic  working  of  its  mineral 
treasures,  followed  as  it  was  a  few  yean)  latter  by 
the  Australian  discoveries,  and  on  a  smaller  scale 
by  the  discoveries  in  Columbia,  has  quite  tlirown 
into  the  shade  the  more  ancient  gold  fields  of 
South  America  and  Mexico.  The  value  of  gold 
exported  from  San  Francisco  in  1857  was  esti- 
mated at  14,000,000/.,  and  the  entire  vield  of  gold 
to  1st  July,  18G2,  was  136,000,000/.  6old  was  dis- 
covered in  18,56  in  Columbia,  and  in  1861  the  total 
C'eld  was  e-stimated  at  l,527,97o/.  To  these  must 
added  the  produce  of  the  silver  mines  of  the 
new  territory  (now  state)  of  the  United  States, 
Nevada,  of  whose  enormous  richness  the  most 
marvellous  reports  have  recently  reached  us.  There 
has  alreadv  been  a  large  immigration  into  the  new 
territory,  but  the  working  of  the  mines  and  the 
knowledge  of  their  immense  fertility  has  been 
comparatively  recent,  l^ides  gold  and  silver, 
most  other  metals  arc  found  in  less  or  greater 
abundance  in  America.  Chili  and  Cuba  have  some 
of  the  richest  copper  mines  in  the  world ;  lead  is 
found  in  the  greatest  plenty  in  different  parts  of 
the  U.  States,  particularly  at  Galena,  Dubuque, 
and  other  points  on  the  Upper  Mississippi,  in 
Mexico ;  and  in  California,  Columbia,  and  Nevada, 
lead,  antimony,  mercury,  and  in  some  places  dia- 
monds are  found.  Diamonds  are  also  found  ex- 
tensively in  Brazil,  which  till  late  years  was  the 
princip^  source  of  8upi>ly  for  the  world.  Iron  is 
extremely  abundant  in  the  U.  States,  and  in  many 
other  p^rts  of  the  continent;  salt  aLso  is  veiv 
widely  diffused ;  and  coal,  including  anthracite,  is 
foimd  in  vast  an<l  indeed  all  but  incxliaustible 
deposits  in  different  parts  of  the  U.  States,  in 
British  America,  and  in  Chili. 

Vegetation. — Stretching,  as  America  does,  from 
the  eternal  snows  of  the  Arctic  to  those  of  the 
Antarctic  circle,  and  possessing  soils  of  every  ele- 
vation and  quality,  her  vegetable  products  are 
necessarily  of  the  most  diversified  description. 
Owing  to  the  prevalent  huraiditv  and  coolness  of 
the  climate,  and  the  richness  of  the  soil,  her  fo- 
rests and  pasture.s  ore  unrivalled  for  extent,  luxu- 
riance, and  magnificence.  The  forests  consist  ge- 
nerally of  very  heavy  timber,  including  many 
species  of  pines  and  larches  unknown  in  Europe, 
with  an  endless  variety  of  oaks,  maples,  cyjircsses, 
tulip  trees,  mahogany  trees,  log^^'o<Hi,  Brazil-wocnl, 
&c.  &c.  The  Old  World  is  indebted  to  the  New 
for  some  of  its  most  useful  and  widely  diffused 
vegetable  pnKluctions.  Potatoes,  though  probably 
not  intnKluced  into  Europe  for  mr»re  than  a  century 
after  the  discovery  of  America,  already  form  a  most 
impK)rtant  part  of  the  foo<l  of  most  Euroijcxui  nations; 
and  tobacco,  though  it  also  is  of  American  origin, 
has  been  diffused  from  one  extremity  of  the  Ohl 
World  to  the  other,  and  Ls,  perhaps,  the  most 
universally  esteemed  of  all  luxuries.  We  also 
owe  to  America  maize  or  Indian  com,  millet, 
cocoa,  vanilla,  pimento,  co)>aiba,  cinchona  or  bark, 
so  ini])ortant  in  medicine,  jalap,  sassafras,  nux 
V4)mica,  and  a  great  iunnl)er  of  less  important 
plants.  The  Gictus  cochinUifer,  wliich  furiiLHhe^ 
the  c(K:hiucal,  is  also  peculiar  to  America.  On  the 


96 


AMERICA 


other  hand,  AmGrica  is  indebted  to  the  Old  World 
for  a  great  variety  of  cereal  grasses,  trees,  and 
fruitA.  At  the  head  of  the  former  may^  be  placed 
wheat,  Imrley,  oats,  and  rice,  all  of  which  succeed 
admirably  well  in  large  portions  of  America.  It 
seems  pretty  well  established  that  the  sugar-cane 
is  indigenous  to  some  of  the  W.  Indian  islands ; 
Imt  it  is  abundantly  certain,  not  merely  that  the 
art  of  making  sugar,  but  that  the  cane,  now  most 
generally  cultivated  in  the  islands  and  in  conti- 
nental America,  was  brought  to  them  cither  from 
the  E.  Indies  or  from  Ma<leira.  America  is  also 
indebted  to  the  Old  World  for  the  coffee  plant, 
now  one  of  her  staple  products ;  and  for  oranges, 
lemons,  peaches,  and  mcMt  descriptions  of  fruit- 
trees.  New  York  apples,  though  now  very  su- 
i)crior  to  any  produced  in  this  countr>%  are  derived 
Irom  plants  carried  from  England.  The  vine  has 
been  raised  in  America;  but  either  the  soil  or 
climate  is  not  suitable  for  it,  or,  which  b  perhaps 
most  probable,  sufficient  care  has  not  been  be- 
stowed on  the  manufacture  of  the  wine.  The  tea- 
plant  has  been  tried  in  Brazil ;  but,  owing  to  the 
clearness  of  labour,  there  is  no  chance  of  its  being 
profitably  cultivated  there,  or  any  where  else  in 
America. 

The  Zoology  of  America  differs  in  many  im- 
portant respects  from  that  of  the  Old  World.  Of 
about  1,350  mammals  that  have  been  described 
and  clarified,  America  possesses  about  540 ;  hut, 
with  few  exceptions,  she  is  singuUurly  ill  provided 
with  the  useful  animals.  As  already  stated,  nei- 
ther the  horse,  ox,  sheep,  nor  hog  were  found  in 
America  on  her  discover^'  by  Columbus ;  and  the 
want  of  them  must,  no  doubt,  have  been  a  con- 
siderable obstacle  to  the  advancement  of  the  natives 
in  the  career  of  civilisation.  The  elephant  and 
the  camel  are  also  unknown  in  America ;  but  she 
was  not  entirely  destitute  of  useful  animals.  lu 
Peru  they  had  the  llama,  guanaco,  paco,  and 
vicunna,  animals  that  bear  a  considerable  resem- 
blance to  each  other,  if  they  be  not  of  the  same 
species.  The  first  has  a  considerable  analogy  to 
the  camel,  though  it  is  neither  so  large  nor  strong, 
and  wants  the  hump.  It  was,  and  still  is,  em- 
ployed to  carry  loads,  and  being  docile  and  sure- 
ItMited,  makes  its  way  over  the  most  dangerous 
paths.  Its  pace  is  slow,  seldom  exceeding  12  or 
15  m.  a  day,  and  it  usuidly  carries  about  80  lbs. 
Its  wool,  or  rather  hair,  which  is  generally,  but 
not  always,  wliite,  is  spun  and  made  into  articles 
of  clothing.  The  guanacos  and  pacos  arc  not  so 
serviceable  as  beasts  of  burden  as  the  llamas,  and 
are  comparatively  little  used.  The  vicunna,  the 
smallest  of  them  all,  inhabits  the  least  accessible 
])arts  of  the  Andes ;  it  ia  chiefly  prized  on  account 
of  its  wool,  which  is  of  a  very  sHperior  quality. 
The  flesh  of  these  animals,  though  dry  and  coarse, 
is  used  as  food.  They  are  almost  the  only  animals 
that  the  native  inhabitants  of  America  had  been 
able  to  subdue,  and  to  render  subservient  to  their 
purposes.  The  bison,  or  American  ox  {Bo»  ameri- 
canua),  the  laij^t  native  quadruped  of  the  New 
World,  is  principally  foimd  on  the  prairie  lands  of 
the  Kocky  Mountains  in  N.  America.  It  is  rarely, 
if  ever,  seen  to  the  S.  of  the  Mississippi;  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  was  ever  found  on  the  At- 
lantic coast.  The  Bot  mo$chatu9t  or  musk  ox,  is 
found  only  in  the  most  N.  parts  of  America  to  the 
W.  of  Hudson's  Bay,  from  66©  to  739  N.  lat.  Its 
horns,  which  cover  all  the  forehead,  are  often  of 
great  weight  The  Kocky  Mountain  goat,  re- 
markable for  the  fineness  of  its  wool,  inhabits  the 
liocky  Mountains  from  Mexico  to  the  extremity 
of  the  range.  Several  species  of  deer  are  found 
both  in  N.  and  S.  America.  The  rein-deer  is  the 
most  northerly  ruminating  animal,  being  found  in 


Greenland  and  the  remotest  of  the  Aieilc  isUmdi 
On  the  W.  coast  it  descends  as  low  as  the  Cahun- 
bia  river. 

America  possosseR  several  peculiar  speden  of 
the  genus  Canii,  or  dog.  The  physiognomy  of  the 
American  wolf,  when  contrasted  with  that  of  in 
European  namesake,  is  very  distinct.    There  ii  a 
great  variety  of  foxes.    The  fur  of  the  CanU  laft- 
pusj  or  arctic  fi)x,  and  of  some  other  varietifs  of 
the  same  genus,  is  of  considerable  value.    The 
best  known  variety  of  the  American  dog  is  tlie 
Cania  familiaritj  found  in  Newfoundland.    Tlui 
animal  is  now  very  common  in  England,  and  it 
deservedly  a  great  favourite.     It  is  strong  tnd 
active,  has  long,  fine,  glossy  hair,  a  curved  binhj 
tail,  and  webbed  toes,  by  means  of  which  it  swimi 
admirably  well.     The  colour  of  the   back  and 
sides  is  generally  black,  with  a  white  belly  and 
le^  and  frequenllv  a  white  spot  at  the  tip  of  the 
taiL    It  is  naturally  fitted,  by  its  tliick  covering 
of  hair,  for  a  cold  c^mate,  and  is  more  active  and 
in  better  health  in  this  country  in  vrinter  than  in 
summer. 

The  beaver  (CoMtor)  is  more  abundant  perhaps 
in  the  NW.  ports  of  N.America  than  in  anv  other 
part  of  the  world.  But  the  great  demand  fiv,  and 
high  price  of  its  fur,  lias  led  to  a  great  diminution 
of  its  numbers,  and  to  its  nearly  total  extirpation 
in  the  more  accessible  parts  of  the  country.  The 
coypou,  known  in  commerce  by  the  nameof  ncu- 
tra,  and  the  chinchilla,  are  found  in  S.  America. 
They  ^neld  a  highly  esteemed  fur,  and  immense 
quantities  of  their  skins  are  now  imported. 

America  has  but  few  beasts  of  prey.  The  most 
formidable,  the  Felix  oiuro,  or  jaguar,  is  found 
only  in  S.  America.  It  is  laigcr  and  stronger 
than  the  panther;  but  is  inferior  in  size  and  fero- 
city to  the  Bengal  tiger,  with  which  it  is  gene- 
rally  compared.  The  Felix  ditcolory  or  puma,  is 
found  in  both  S.  and  N.  America ;  though  deno- 
minated the  American  Uon,  it  is  neither  so  large 
nor  fierce  as  the  jaguar.  A  number  of  bears  some 
of  them  of  the  lamest  and  most  formidable  de- 
scription, are  found  in  Arctic  America:  two  are 
peculiar  to  it. 

Tropical  America  has  a  great  variety  of  apca, 
but  none  of  them  approach  so  nearly  to  the  human 
form  as  the  orang-outang,  or  chimpanzee,  and  none 
of  them  have  the  ferocity  of  the  baboon.  Many, 
however,  have  prehensile  tails,  endowed  with  so 
great  delicacy  of  touch  that  they  have  been  com- 
|)ared  to  the  trunk  of  the  elephant.  This  fits 
them  admirably  for  travelling  from  tree  to  tree. 

The  vampyre  bat,  frequent  in  S.  America,  is 
very  dangerous.  It  attacks  the  larger  animals, 
and  even  man  himself,  when  asleep ;  and  as  its 
bite  is  not  sufficiently  painful  to  awaken  the  \ic- 
tira,  the  bleeding  it  occasions  sometimes  proves 
fatal 

America  is  inhabited,  or  rather  infested,  by  an 
immense  number  of  reptiles.  Of  these  the  rattle- 
snake is  one  of  the  most  common,  and  also  the 
most  dangerous:  but  there  are  others  little  less 
venomous.  The  true  boa  cotutrictor  is  found  of 
an  enormous  size  in  the  marshes  and  swamps  of 
tropical  America.  Centipedes,  sometimes  a  yard 
in  length,  with  enormous  spiders,  as  well  as  soor- 

Iions,  abound  in  these  n^ons.  According  to 
lumboldt^  the  white  ants  and  termites  are  even 
more  destructive  here  than  their  congeners  in  the 
Old  World. 

The  birds  of  America  are  exceedingly  numerous. 
The  condor,  which  inhabits  the  most  inaccessible 
partd  of  the  Andes,  though  of  less  dimensions  than 
was  formerly  supposed,  is  the  largest  and  moat 
powerful  of  all  the  feathered  tribes.  There  are 
also  a  great  many  eagles,  vultures,  fakoms  and 


Bii    I  f    ^ 


f  jmy.  A  iporiea  af  Mtrieh,  Liit 
the  Atiiean,  inhabita  the  Tampu; 

>  at  both  Americu  aie  the  resort  of 

wild  tnikeyaf  mad  pi^eona. 

of  America  are  m-gII  xupplied  wiLh 

riven  in  the  tropiral  lEgiane  pio- 

■muna  liianti  anil  alligsl'in.     In  the 

I  loolo^  of  Amvrita.  h  the  wunder- 
f  the  hone*  and  oiKle  carried  there 
Had  we  not  been  fully  aware  if  all 
ice*  in  ItJ-ard  tu  their  immigralion, 
inly  have  be«n  BU])posed  that  they 

re  eounln-.  They  here  roam  about 
loda  in  >  Mate  uf  prisline  fieeiium; 
IMU  have  tbcy  beeome,  that  the 
XCfit  not  for  the  caicos^t  but  merely 
ii  the  prindiul  bnniiicsg  of  many 
rinee*.  t^^iee  pAUfAS.)  In  a  unele 
00,000  hide*  have  been  exported 
only,  cTcluiive  of  those  exported 
(lyres,  Montevideo,  anil  other  ports. 
^  too,  of  the  exlraorclinary  iiKresse 
mode  of  eiinlencc  of  the  nalivcs  in 
la*  been  wholly  chanj(cd ;  they  have 
t  horsemen^  and  pasa  a  considerable 
time  on  horseback,  approaehing  in 
a  the  Tartan  antl  ^VibIm  of  the  an- 
Sheep  bare  not  guceccded  m>  nell 
I  cattle  and  horses;  and  their  wool, 
ii  generally  of  sn  inferior  descrip- 


hHrd-fa%-oured,  ai 


n,  yet  witli  a 


wliioh  is  a  contrast  to  the  rwt  of  the  features. 
It  will  appear  from  thia  statement  that  the  races 

the  Uongul,  Mulayon.  and  Indo-Chinese.  The 
featuiea  of  the  face  arc,  however,  more  omp/y 
chiselled  than  in  any  of  these;  the  frontal  bona 
is  mure  flattened  than  in  any  of  them;  and  the 
Blature  a  gnatri  tlian  it  is,  nt  least,  in  the  Ma- 
layan race.  AlthuUKh  in  the  tropical  i^ons  of 
America  there  an;  no  black  men,  as  in  Africa  or 
Asio,  nor  iu  its  tem]icrate  regions  any  whites,  as 
in  Kumpe,  iitill  vonotieii  do  exist  in  an  inferior 
de^jee,  which  may  l>e  cunipored  to  tbo»e  which 
exijit  amoiij;  Euru|>eana.  and  nniiint'  Hecmea.  The 
most  etrikinjt  of  tliesc  ore  found  in  the  short,  squat, 
and  tallott-e'ilniired  Ksquimaux,  about  the  polar 
n^ona  of  the  N..  and  the  tall  I'atagoaians  towards 
the  S.,  exiremity  of  the  coaltnenu  The  first  of 
these  differ  in  no  respect,  as  far  as  phywcal  form 

Asia  and  Europe.  The  I'ntiiRimianB  or  Puelcbes, 
inhaluting  the  MIL  enoM  of  the  southern  extremity 
of  America,  may  lie  considercil,  lifter  rejecting  the 
exiifrgerations  of  early,  aud  the  cmtiodictionB  of 
Inter  travellers,  as  the  tallest  people  iu  the  world. 
If  with  119  (he  medium  heit-ht  of  the  male  sex 
mav  be  estimated  at  6  fi^t  S  iiichea,  that  of  the 
I'aUigoniana  may  he  taken  at  six  test.      Other 


e  inhab 


tsofAi 


lijueal  form,  i        ..    „ 

ectuol  character,  from  every  othei 

1  Imman  race.     Probably,  however 

uiHe  remarkalile  than  their  disa 
I  other  races.  The  Red  men,  as  thi 
I  themselTes,  in  cuntradLstinction  ti 

■nd  Afritwi  racm,  (that  is,  to  Ihi 
■■■    ■       ■  ■     ■    o  Ihey  have  anj 


-  kees.  Itui  there  are  also  ra 
hnrtneaa,  as  the  Peruvian 
lean  Kuropean  standard  Af 
vera^  height,  acctrrdin^ 


exhibit  Burpiisinjfly 
nding  oi-er  TU°  on  I 
ride,  of  the  equatj>r.  iicai  oi  i^uu, 
■Mure,  elevation  or  liepreswon  of  sur- 
rtatnlv  no  effect  in  the  production, 
Mil  Taiialiuns  occosionallv  discover. 
ban.  '  The  Indians  uf  iJeff  Spain,' 
t,  'beara  cleee  tesembUoce  tothnee 
Cwiada,  Floriila,  Peru,  and  BraiiL 
I  aq.  leagnea,  from  Cape  Horn  to  the 
■Dd  Behrin^r's  fitraits.  we  are  struck 
anee  with  the  general  resemhhmce 
1  of  the  inhabiUnis.     We  think  we 

all  to  be  d«ceiided  from  the  same 
laCanding  the  prodi^^ous  diversity  of 
le  portrait  drawn  by  Volney 

innahs  of 

%,'  The  general  physical  form  is  as 
1  dark,  having  mure  or  leas  of  a  red 
ealleil  cupper-colour,  but  thought  lo 
rtly  cliarai^erised  by  that  of  cinna- 
.._i_.jL....   i__..  ->-ining, 


Tdelidi 


The  beard 


tsf^inc 


:;  eyes  deep  sunk,  snmll, 
roM  the  cheeks,  which  are  round  and 
on  well  raised,  and  round  at  the 
large,  and  lip*  thick;  chest  high, 
.  legs  arched,  feet  Urge,  bands  and 


1  (he  Cbavmss,  whose 
)  Humboldt,  is  6  foet 
I  a  full  inch  shorter 
than  the  Malayan  race,  yet  much  taller  than  the 
Esquimaux.  Upon  the  whole,  it  mav  be  remarked 
that  (he  American  race  eshibiia  a  wider  difference 
in  stature  llian  any  other  fiunily  of  mankind,  wlule 

to  be  productive  of  any  essential  variation  in 
phyi-ical  ur  intellectual  capacity.  In  point  of  co- 
lour (here  exists  also  considCToblo  \-ariety  ;  the 
brownish-red  tinpc   for  the  most  part  prevails; 

block,  and  in  others  to  the  fainiwis  uf^a  wulhera 
European.    The  prDbohility  is,  after  all.  that  the 

least  as  great  ss  in  other  portions  of  the  world, 
although  their  smaller  numben,  and  olisciirity  of 
(he  tribes  moke  il  more  difficult  to  distinguish 
and  class  them.  In  this  matter,  langangefl,  ao 
useful  a  guide  in  Kurope  and  A»a,  have  not,  in 
America,  on  account  of  (heir  multiplicity  and  in- 
tricacy, afforded  as  yet  much  oasiatanic.  Tlie  ex- 
ceeding, and  perhaiis  insurmountable  diJGculty  of  - 
this  branch  of  the  inquiry  mav,  indeed,  be  JudKed 
of  when  it  is  known  that  the'number  of  disiinct 
languages  spoken  by  men  whose  numbers  ore  not 
supuoeeii  to  exceed  10,000,000  has  been  reckoned 
at  no  less  than  438,  and  their  dialects  at  2,IK)0. 
The  intellectual  powers  of  the  American  fiimilv, 
must,  at  fimt  view  ot  least,  be  considered  as  rang- 
ing very  low  even  among  the  unciiilisa!  races  of 
mankind.  The  Americans,  when  led  undisturbed 
to  (he  exerdse  of  their  native  eiiergicH,  boil  not 
tamed  any  of  the  useful  animals,  whether  for  food 
ot  labour,  the  llama  and  ricunna  bv  one  tribe  ex- 
cepted. The  Peruvians  used  gold,  funad  in  ita 
native  state,  and  they  appear,  also  to  have  been 
able  to  smelt  ami  harden  copper — the  utmost 
stretch  of  their  ingenuity ;  but  they  knew  nolliing 


98 


AMERICA 


of  the  nsc  of  iron.  Tlie  agriculturo  of  the  most 
advance<l  of  tlie  American  tribes  was  of  a  rude- 
ness and  impcrfectitm  of  which  there  can  hardly 
]k'  said  to  have  l>een  an  example  in  the  Old  WorhU 
Tl»«  Quichua,  the  most  improveil  of  their  lan- 
frna^es,  had  no  wonls  to  express  abstract  or  uni- 
versal idean,  as  space,  time,  Iteing,  matter,  substance, 
or  even  such  as  justice,  honour,  pratitude,  and 
freedom,  l^ey  had  inventetl  no  s|)ecies  of  writing, 
and  tlie  contrivances  by  which  they  attempted  to 
df'pict  and  reconi  their  ideas  are  more  rude  than 
anything  handed  <l<mni  in  the  traditions  of  Euro- 
l^'an  and  Asiatic  nations.  In  ail  the  respects  now 
mentioned,  the  Americans  eviiice»l  their  inferiority 

• 

to  the  nations  of  Kuroin;  and  Asia,  and.  in  all  but 
the  invention  of  a  nide  s<»rt  of  hiero^ly])hiiM,  to 
even  the  N'ej^o  nations  of  Africa.  Nature  hrni 
not.  indeed,  in  many  rcsj)ccts,  been  propitious  to 
them :  she  had  denied  them  nejirly  all  the  do- 
mestic animals  which  have  conduced  materially 
to  the  civilisation  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Old 
Worl<l;  as  the  horse,  ass,  ox,  camel,  shee]»,  j;oat, 
ho^.  and  most  of  our  dome^tlc  poultr}'.  lUit  their 
want  of  inj;enuity  is  suificiently  shown  by  their 
not  availinf<  themselves  of  such  as  they  possessed : 
as  the  rein-deer,  «coose,  turkey,  an<l  other  jMiultry, 
WM»n  dome^^ticated  by  the  European  settlers.  For 
their  want  of  ini^enuity  in  ii(»t  dL^coverin^  the 
art  of  smelting  iron,  no  plea  can  be  shown ;  and, 
indeetl,  it  mi^ht  rationaUy  l)e  supiiosed  that  the 
]iaMcity  of  usiiful  animals  for  domesticiition  would 
rather  have  had  the  effect  of  direi't in^  and  con- 
centrating their  efforts  in  other  quarKTs.  Mere 
handfuls  <»f  Euroi>eans,  in  comparatively  rude 
ages,  subdue<l  the  most  numenms  and  warlike 
tril>es  of  America,  and  these  handfuls  have  now 
grown  into  the  majority  of  the  iwpulation. 

Of  the  origin  of  the  American  nice  we  are 
totally  ignorant.  Neither  the  evidence  of  phy- 
sical form  nor  of  arbitrary  customs  and  institu- 
tions, which  could  sj^ring  only  fr«»m  a  common 
source,  or  the  testimony  of  language,  connect 
them  with  any  other  race  of  men.  The  testi- 
mony of  language  on  this  subject  is  particularly 
clear.  For  examj>le.  incontestable  evidence  of  a 
connecticm  exwts  among  the  great  majority  of 
those  insular  langmiges  which  exteiul  over  at 
least  fiO*^  of  latitiuie,  and  between  Madagascar  and 
Ea-iter  Island,  over  200°  of  longitude;  but  the 
moment  we  quit  the  la>«t  name<l  island,  which  Ls 
but  45°  fn>m  the  ccmst  of  America,  all  further 
tnioc  of  a  l*(d\Tiesian  language  ceiis<"s.  We  are 
not,  indeed,  unaware  that  the  comparis^m  of  a 
great  numl>er  «»f  American  with  a  gn'at  number 
of  Asiatic  Linguiiges  ha«(  exhibite<l  a  small  num}>er 
of  re-semblances :  but  these  we  are  dis|H»setl  to  con- 
sider a**  forced,  fanciful,  or  accidental. 

The  moral  character  of  the  native  Americans 
has  Ijeen  depict<^l  uncler  very  differeJit  cohmn*. 
Their  caiiacity  of  enduring  hardships  and  priva- 
tions of  all  sorts,  and  even  the  most  excruciating 
tortures,  without  munnur  or  complaint,  is  well 
known,  and  w  owing  a"<  much.  {K*rliaps,  to  phy- 
sical (Piuses  as  t<»  the  training  they  undergo. 
They  cannot  Ik*  accuse<l  of  ingratitu<le,  or  of  a 
want  of  hos]>itality,  but  they  are  in  tJie  last  degree 
vindictive,  cniel,  and  treacherous.  When  not 
engaged  in  war,  or  hunting,  or  drinking,  they 
sink  into  a  state  <»f  toqior  and  ai>athv  fn>m  which 
nothing  can  muse  them.  They  liave  all,  or 
mostly  all,  an  irrepressible  rage  for  spirituoiLS 
liquors,  tf)  obtain  which  they  will  sacrifice  every- 
tliing.  If  the  state  in  which  women  live  betaken 
as  indicative  of  the  character  of  a  people,  the 
American  Indians  will  be  found  to  be  almost  at 
the  lK)ttom  (if  the  scale  of  civilisation.  From  the 
one  end  of  the  continent  to  tho  other,  woman, 


with  very  few  exceptions,  b  a  sUve;  she  his  to 
perfonn  all  the  labonons  occupations  of  the  tribe, 
and  is,  in  fact,  derailed  almost  to  the  le%'el  of  a 
l>east  of  burden.  Polygamy  is  very  generallr 
practised;  and  it  b  only  in  some  rare  cases  that 
chastity  is  held  in  any  estimation.  Their  religioa 
b  a  nide  s{)ei*i^  of' idolatry  or  feticbm.  Can- 
nibalbm  has  undoubtedly  prevailed  over  the  whule 
continent^  and  b  not  yet  entirely  extinct.  The 
Mexicans,  the  most  advanced  of  the  native  natinni, 
delighted  in  bIo<Kl,  and  were  accnstomed.' when 
invailed  by  the  Spaniards,  annuaUy  U>  offer  up 
thousands  of  human  victims  on  the  altars  of  their 
g(xb.  Even  tlie  Peruvians,  the  least  sangninary 
of  all  the  Americans,  they  l*eing  Sabiaus,  or  wor- 
shippers of  the  heavenly  bodies,  did  not  scru]>le, 
on  the  death  of  their  monan*hs,  to  immolate  hun- 
dreds of  human  victims  on  their  tomljs. 

The  natural  inferiority  of  the  native  Americans, 
and  their  incapacitv  to  attain  to  anvthin^  like  real 
civilisation,  are  strikingly  cvincetl  f>y  the  result  ef 
the  continued  efforts  of  the  Jesuits  in  Paraguay 
j  for  their  improvement*  So  long  as  the  Jesuiti 
resiiletl  among  them,  and  could  direct  their  effuits, 
and  coni|>el  them  to  l)e  indiustrious,  all  went  on 
ver>'  well,  and  the  golden  age  seemed  to  be  n^ 
st4>n*d.  But  the  entire  system  was  forced  and 
fiictitious.  Tlie  moment  the  Jesuits  witlidreit',  the 
fabric  that  had  C(»st  them  so  much  pains  and  la- 
lx)ur  to  rabe,  fell  to  pieces.  Civilisation  liad  taken 
no  n'al  nsit  among  the  Americans;  and  they  re- 
lapsed forthwith  into  the  indolence,  improvidence, 
and  idolatry,  that  seem  natural  to  the  race. 

•  From  the  moment,'  says  an  aide  writer,  *  that 
the  Europeans  landed  in  the  New  World,  bene- 
volence   has    l)een    at  woric    to    instruct   some 
portions  of  these  tribes  in  reiigion  and  the  aits, 
luid  tlattering  accounts  have  been  published  from 
time  to  time  of  the  success  of  those  humane 
f>ers(Mis  who  dedicated   their  lives  to  the  task. 
But,  after  three  centuries  of  incessant  exertion, 
what  is  the  result?     Is  there  one  tribe  that  ex- 
hibits the  steady  industr>',  the  pro>'ident  habits, 
the  spirit  of  impn)vement,  and  tlie  rational  views 
of  religion^  which  are  to  be  found  in  anv  parish 
of    England?     We  cannot  find  that  there   is. 
Many  tribcis,  living  near  the  whites,  have  adopted 
their  habits  and  ideas  to  a  certain   extent,  but 
merely  under  the  intluence  of  imitation.    While 
missionaries  and  teachers  are  among  them,  everv 
thing  wears  a  favounible  aspect ;  but  their  civi- 
lisation b  never  self-sustained.    It  b  created  by 
the  agency  of  men  of  higher  natural  endowments, 
and  when  they  arc  removed  it  moulders  away, 
because  it  has  no  foundation  in  their  character. 
Many  parties  of  Indians,  remnants  of  tril)cs  once 
powerful,  have  live<l  i)eaceably,  on   reser\-es  of 
land,  inclosed  amidst  the  ))opulatioii  of  the  United 
States,  for  more  than  a  <rentur>'.    No  situation 
can  be  imagiue<l  lK>tter  titted  to  promote  their 
improvement;  but  in  no  one  instance,  so  far  as 
we  know,  have  thev  melted  into  the  mass  of  tho 
white  population,  or  risen  to  any  thing  near  their 
level  in  knowle«lge  and  the  useful  arts.     They 
live  in  huts  in  no  material  degree  better  tlian  the 
wigwams  of  their  wandering  brethren.    Thev  are 
generally  honest,  but  (hrunken,  indolent,  and  igno- 
rant, though  teachers  and  missionaries  arc  em- 
ployed by  the    government    u>    instruct   them, 
liasket-making  b  almost  the  only  trade  they  ply, 
and  in  their  habits  and  character  they  may  fie 
aptly  com))are<l  to  the  gj'psies  of  Europe,  who  exisC 
in  the  midst  of  civilis^itiun,  without  {.vartaking  i^ 
its  spirit  itr  its  benefits.     It  should  be  observed 
that  there  b  not  the  same  rcductance  in  the  whitci» 
to  mingle  their  blood  with  the  red  men  as  witl& 
the  blacks.    Much  lias  been  recentlv  said  of  the 


pnHjTBM  made  br  tbe  Cherokea ;  bat  we  soBperl 
thai  what  i*  wititaeed  there  is  but  ■  flimsy  veil 
•f  ilDp(Dvclnm^  gpmd  over  habits  which  ..._ 
MHDtiallT  sava^  We  are  conviui:«d,  in  short, 
that  the  Indiui  ig  truly  the  man  of  the  woods ; 
md  that,  like  the  wiJil  animals  he  lives  upon,  he 
■•  d>^*ti)I«l  tu  disappear  before  tbe  BtlvsncuiK  tide 
of  civilisatioii,  which  falls  upon  him  like  a  blii^ht, 
beeauae  it  suf^tlies  new  food  tn  nounah  his  vices, 
irtiile  it  demands  intelleclual  and  moral  faculties 
is  which  he  is  deScienC  aoi!  renders  useless  those 
qoalilics  which  predominate  in  his  character.  We 
wtnid  not  discDura^  the  attempt  Ut  meliuratB 
the  kii  (d'  the  Indians;  but  this  will  succvecl 
b»t  when  il  is  i;miuded  on  a  true  knowleil^  of 
their  natural  ca|iBciIieii.  Sume  of  them  are  much 
Birt*  unscpptihle  of  moral  and  reliKious  improvc- 
■rnt  than  others ;  but  to  instruct  and  reclaim 
them  etTeelnallv,  our  belief  ia  that  (he  a>-stem  uf 
At  Jeniiia  if  the  onlv  oue  that  holila  out  a  chance 
of  novM.  They  must  not  merely  be  laiieht  and 
pnarbed  tn,  hut  they  must  be  retained  in  a  ntate 
rf  pupila^  trained  lu  their  duties,  cunlroUed  and 
diiHied  in  all  their  prDCeeilin|i;s  by  intellects 
npeiii*  to  theii  own ;  and  there  are  many  tribes 
Kw  refociou*  and  intractable  for  even  this  method 
<f  loitian.  Wc  do  not  maintain  that  the  cha- 
iKter  el  the  Indian  nations  is  indelible ;  but  tu 
(Sect  any  a>n.->iderBli1e  chan^^  in  ii,  the  lapse  of 
a  fcncer  period  nuuld  be  required  than  the  exist- 
BK*  iif  ihete  tribes  is  likely  to  extend  to.  Nei- 
Ibet  dn  we  think  that  there  is  anvthiog  in  the 
ntiuciiiin  of  these  people  by  natural  means  which 
humanity  fhould  mourn  over.  In  every  stale  uf 
life  nan  has  but  a  brief  span  of  existence  allotted 
to  taim.  Successive  ^nerations  fall  like  the  Icovea 
W  IbeKHHt:  and  it  should  be  remembered  that 
■be  utioction  of  a  race  of  men  by  natural  causes. 
Dons  merely  its  nun-renewal  or  the  suspension 
•i  tbrtr  drcuiwtancea  which  enabled  it  to  continue 
ii»  tdstence."  (Encve.  Britannicu,  ii.  p.  631.) 

fiiftlalum. — Ijesidn  the  ori^nal  inhatutants. 
rw  nmnlieni  of  Europeans  of  all  nations,  have 
™init«l  to  America  "ince  its  discovery  by  Co- 
Imilna.  templed  oritpnally,  fur  the  most  pMt,  by 


nibjoin,  the  population  is  eatimaled  at  69,350.9!>9 ; 
but  this  number,  owinit  tn  the  la^^e  natural  in- 
crease, and  the  extensive  immigroliiin  from  Europe 
to  both  Xorth  and  South  America,  must  at  the 
present  dav  be  exceeded  by  manv  millions,  and  it 
mav  be  salely  stated  that  the  population  amounted, 
in  round  munbent,  tf  at  leant  79,000,000  in  tho 
year  lHHri. 

The  fiillowinR  account  of  the  difi'erent  Aroerioui 
Stales,  and  of  their  e.ttent  and  population  in  IHtil, 
has  been  carefully  compiled  from  the  latest  and 


llw  tut  made  I 


reduce 


millloni 


pd  an  Bsvlnm  for  the  victims  of  poli- 
iligious  persecution  in  tlie  Old  Worhl; 
■se  manv  vears  slie  has  offered  an  all 
iisiibic  field  fur  the  profitable  employ- 
.  redundant  capital,  skill,  and  labour; 
ids  upon  thousands,  who  could  hanlly 
exist  on  this  siile  the  Atlantic,  have 
not  tn  opulence,  at  least  to  comfort 
uiiaiiependeace,  in  America.   Hence  she  has  lonK 


'"fli.md  ftill  continue 


obe.  tl 


sell  Ian. 


■^W  to  all  who  happen  to  be  discontented  wii 
It*  ujUct.  or  who  have  ^ven  ofTencc  to  the  rulei 
•^  It*  old  Wurhl. 

TbetMimates  of  the  population  of  America  at 
•Jfatnt  periods  '  ■—      ■  ■  .  .       - 


■  >■»*!»'■  >" 


with  respect 
— W  the  population  of  Amei 
luW  II  ai.iK>0,000.  Balhi  i 
•'39Jmi.(iOOi  but  we  inclii 
V  ^^  the  mark  even  fi 
^it^:  and  the  populati 


epoch  to  which 

1,  and  Brazil,  but  eiiiiccially  the 
''^  t«D.  has  since  increased  prudiffiously.  Ac- 
"'^  10  (atimate*  fur  the  year  IHOt,  which  we 


'alls  epidemically  as  far  ni 
1  uiK  Buu  I'liiiadelphia ;  but  the  meaii  iiuj-iiikiii  m 
life  in  tlie  EiiKli"n  race  lias  been  inconsiilerabl^ 
afTected  bv  the  climate  of  America.  Ueadlv  epi- 
demica  btiwe\-cr,  decimate  the  Hamnnah,  Vera 
Cnu.  and  other  cities  in  trujiical  America.  Tho 
vellow  fever  beRins  tn  pn-vuil  epidemii'uUy  at 
Vera  Crui  in  Mav.  when  tlie  mean  lem]icraturB 
rises  lo  750  3'  of  Fahrenheifs  thermometer!   it 

tob  r.  The  dLtease  is  fatal  to  stnnijiers.  ]>articn- 
larlv  to  the  inlialiitants  of  the  tcmnemle  and 
colli  climates.  lu  the  intcjidency  rf  VerB  Cruz, 
the  yellow  fever,  which  mj^es  in  the  ca|iilal.  has 
never  lieen  able  lo  oscenil  alaiTe  tho  form  nf  En- 
cero,  which  Ilumbolrll  found  to  be  3.'U4  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  scai  and  as  the  Mexican  oaks  do 
not  flinirish  hchiw  this  limit,  it  shows  tlial  the 


the  Cumbre  and  the  Cerro  ile  Avila. 


healtli  and  diseases  of  the  native  .American  tribes 
which  caiiiuit  lie  oietlookeiL  The  women,  though 
doomed  to  severe  lalinir,  are  s]iarvd  durin;;  the 
]ieriad  of  |iret;nancy.  They  selihiin  marry  till  thc^ 
are  about  3U.  Accuuchemenls  take  place  in  |in- 
vate  cabins,  and  tbe  mother,  after  washine  herself 
in  c«ld  water,  returns  in  a  few  days  to  her  usual 
empbvments.  iiir  W.  Penn  was  assured,  and 
conectly,  that  the  American  Indians  piling  their 
infants  into  cold  streams  as  soon  as  bom.  in  all 
seasooBuf  the  year.  This  practice,  which  destroya 


100 


AMERICA 


the  weaklier  bodies,  and  Btrenfj^thens  tlie  Burvivors, 
ha8  l»ovii  generally  ad(ipU*<l  by  the  savaf^cs  of  cold 
Olid  teni[H!rat«  climates.  It  was  common  in  Greece ; 
and  Vir;^il  makes  one  of  the  early  Italians  say  in 
the  ^Eneid : — 

Durum  a  gtirpc  genua :  nntofl  ad  flumina  primum 
DcforimuH,  au;voquc  geln  duramus  ct  undis. 

The  Dorians  and  Pelaspian«  ex]K>scd  their  chil- 
dren; and  Lyciirj;u8  n»j;ulated  the  practice  by 
enacting  that  none  but  the  intimi  and  diAeancd 
shituld  l)e  abandoned  after  a  public  examination. 
There  are  no  deformed  Indiann  or  idiots ;  they  are 
Hacriliceil,  says  an  ajwhij^ist  of  Kavagcs,  by  the 
severity  of  tlie  Indian  manners.  To  facilitate  their 
tnmHixJrt  from  ])lace  to  jdace,  the  children  are  tied 
ti)  a  board,  where  they  lie  u|M)n  their  backs  for  tt, 
10  or  IM  months.  By  some  trilxis  the  lieads  are 
flattened!  by  pressure.*  The  child  Rpnerally  sucks 
its  mother*  till  it  is  2  yejirs  ohU  and  st>metimes 
loiij^r.  The  circulation  of  the  blo*Ki  is  more  lan- 
piidiu  the  Indians  than  in  ])erHons  who  an^  in  the 
constant  exercise  of  the  habits  of  civiliseil  life. 
Out  of  8  North  Ameriiym  Indians,  whose  jndses 
Itush  examined  at  the  wrists,  he  did  not  meet 
with  one  in  whom  the  artery  beat  more  than  (>t) 
strokes  in  a  minutx'.. 

'llie  diseases  of  the  Indians  var>'  with  the  cli- 
mate and  locality.  In  the  north,  however,  fevers 
constitute  the  most  striking  diseases.  Pleurisies, 
iioripneumonies,  and  rheumatisms  are  common. 
Pysenteryis  an  Indian  disease,  (ireat  numbers 
perish  of  famine,  and  the  innumerable  diseases 
generated  by  famine.  In  the  tem]ierate  zone, 
ague,  remitting  and  malignant  fevers  assail  them 
in  the  endless  ft)rests,  and  in  the  marshes,  and 
ctlluvial  atmosphere  of  the  lakes  and  rivers.  In 
the  tropii^  Humbiddt  says,  they  are  exemj)t  at 
A'era  Cruz  from  the  ravages  of  yellow  fever,  wliich 
proves  so  fatal  on  the  cwist  and*  in  the  West  Indie-s 
to  Euro|)eans.  Hut  thousands  have  Wen  carried 
<iff  in  repcAteti  ejndemics,  by  a  disease  n«)t  very 
different  from  yellow  fever,  called  Miitlazahuelt 
Small-|H)x,  which  is  l>elieved  tt)  have  l»een  intro- 
duced amongst  them  by  the  Spanianls,  sometimes 
<lestroys  half  the  heads  of  a  tribe.  Montezuma 
died  of  small-pox.  It  has  Iwen  a  generally  re- 
ceivwl  opinion  that  lufM  venerea  was  acquired 
fnnn  the  inhabitants  of  Hispaniola  (Ilayti),  and 
c<inveyed  by  the  equi{>age  of  Columbus  t^)  Kurope. 
The  mn  of  Columbus  relates  in  his  narrative  tlmt 
the  islanders  had  a  cutaneous  aifection,  called 
etxararacoh  which  resembled  a  tetter  (Tenia) : 
tlie  historian  Ferdinand  Oviedo  de  Valde^H  afHrms 
that  the  Spaniards  were  infected  with  it  by  the 
Indian  women,  and  communic^itcd  the  disease  to 
the  Nea|K>litans  in  the  expwlition  of  (ionzalvo  de 
( 'ordova.  He  ascribes  its  im|K»rtation  to  the  second 
cxpe<lition  of  Columbus.  Various  cutaneous  aftec- 
tions  had  l>een  described  by  earlier  medical  mitew, 
confounded  yfiy\\  leiirosy,  and  attributed  to  impure 
intercourse :  but,  in  1403,  syphilis  appeared,  with 
its  striking  and  appalling  s^-mptoms,  almost  simul- 
taneously all  over  Euroi»e.  Columbus  di^tembarked 
from  his  lirst  voyage,  March  15,  at  Palos;  and 
arrivetl  at  Se\-ille*iu  ApriL  In  the  beginning  of 
the  siunmer,  the  db*ease  was  observed  at  Auvergne, 
m  Lombardy,  in  the  rest  (»f  Italy,  and  in  Rnins- 
\nck.  It  stiil,  however,  remains*  a  problem  whether 
the  outbreak  of  the  malady  merely  coincided 
with  the  return  of  Columbus,  or  was  conveyed 
from  America. 

Violent  deaths  are  common  among  the  Indians. 
Their  iK'cuiMtions  exi)Ose  them  to  accidents.  They 
are  engaged  in  an  almost  ))crpetual  warfare ;  and 
entire  tnbes  are  sometimes  exterminated.  Their 
connexion  with  the  European  population  has  made 


them  acquainted  with  spirituous  liquora:  and  this 
has  proved  another  prolific  source  of  disorder. 

C«lsus  says,  Memcina  numquoM  won  esf;  and 
this  holds  among  tlie  American  Indians.  Their 
medical  treatment,  for  the  inftrmities  to  which 
they  arc  subject,  is  simple,  and  often  instmcti^-e. 
In  feveK,  they  abstract  all  kinds  Tsf  stimulaiini; 
food ;  and  allow  their  ]tatiants  to  drink  plentifully 
of  cold  water.  Sweating  is  a  common  remedy. 
Tlie  Indian  mode  of  pn>curing  this  evacuation  is 
as  follows: — the  patient  Is  oi>nfined  in  a  close 
tent,  or  wigwam,  over  a  liole  in  the  earth,  in  which 
a  red  hot  stone  is  placed :  a  quantity  of  water  is 
thrown  u]K)n  this  stone,  which  inst-antly  involves 
the  patient  in  a  cloud  of  va{iour  and  sweat ;  in 
this  situation  he  rushes  out  and  plunges  himself 
into  a  river,  from  whence  he  retires  to  bed.  If 
the  rcmetiy  has  l>een  used  with  success,  he  rises 
from  his  bed  in  four  and  twenty  hours  perfectly 
recovere<l  from  his  indisposition.  This  bath  u 
used  not  only  to  cure  fevers,  but  to  remove  tliat 
imeasiness  which  arises  from  fatigue  of  body ;  and 
used  for  this  purpose  it  is  an  exctcllent  remedy. 
They  purge*  and  vomit :  iyiecacuanha  is  one  of  the 
many  roots  thev  employ  for  the  latter  puqiose. 
They  confine  bleeding  to  tlie  parts  affected.  A 
])iei^e  of  rotten  wotnl  is  burnt  ujjon  the  skin  for  the 
same  purposes  as  the  moxa.  Tliey  attempt  to 
staiuich  the  flow  of  blood  from  wounds  by  plunging 
in  cold  water,  and  endeiivour  to  rcstoife  drowned 
jieople  by  suspending  them  by  the  heels.  They 
liavc  a  great  many  s{>ecitics  of  uncertain  value. 
The  Indians  attend  to  the  sick  for  a  certain  seas(.tn, 
but  abandon  them  if  the  disease  l)e  ppjiiacted. 
When  the  northern  Indian  is  unable,  from  sick- 
ness, to  continue  liLs  journey,  he  is  left  behind  by 
his  companions,  and  covered  over^ith  deer  skins; 
he  is  supplied  with  water,  f<Hvi,  fuel,  if  the  place 
will  afford  it,  and  informed  of  the  track  which  his 
companions  intend  to  pursue.     (Ileame.) 

Some  of  the  most  important  drugs  in  the  Ma- 
teria Medica  are  deriviMl  from  America,  (tuaia- 
cum  was  introduced,  at  an  early  period,  as  a 
s|)ecific  for  svi^hilis  in  the  place  of  mercurj',  which 
it  suyM^rsetled  for  several  years.  It  is  now  fallen 
into  <lisuse.  Not  so  the  root  of  the  American  sar- 
saparilla,  which  is  consumed  in  f^at  quantities, 
although  it  is  exceedingly  expensive.  It  is  fimnd 
in  the  hedges  and  swami^  of  Virginia.  There  are 
several  sikhmcs  ;  the  best,  according  to  Humboldt, 
grows  on  the  borders  of  a  lake,  two  days'  uiumey 
from  Esmeralda.  The  calumba  root,'  jalap,  co- 
paiba, and  i}>ecacuanha  are  derived  from  America. 
We  are  also  indebted  to  the  New  World  for  Peru- 
x-ian  baric  These  ri'medies  are  invaluable;  they 
contributed,  in  the  17th  centiuA",  with  the  intrr>- 
duction  of  syphilis,  to  destroy  the  blind  adoration 
of  Galen,  and  led  to  a  revitlution  in  medicine. 

Discovery  of  America, — This  is  the  most  strik- 
ing event  in  modem  times,  and  has  perhaps  made 
the  most  important  change  in  the  condition  of 
mankind.    There  is  no  rational  ground  for  sup- 
posing that  the  ancients  liad  the  slightest  idea  of 
the  existence  of  the  American  continent.    Tlie 
form  of  their  vessels,  flat-bottomed  and  impelled 
by  oars,  and  their  ignorance  of  the  compa^  al- 
lowed them  to  move  only  at  a  short  distance  from 
lan(L    Their  vovages  therefore,  though  in  some 
instances  extensive,  were  always  along  tlie  coast 
of  t  he  great  continents ;  nor  is  there  the  faintest 
reconl  of  any  one  having  turned  his  daring  keel 
into  the  va^t  abysses  of  ocean.    Nothing  could  be 
less  probable,  than  that  tempest  or  accident  should 
drive  any  of  the  few  vessels  which  tlien  navigated 
the  exterior  seas  of  Europe  to  so  immense  a  dis- 
tance, or,  if  driven,  that  they  could  ever  have  re- 
turned. 


AMERICA 


101 


But  if  we  liflten  to  nome  learned  modems, 
America  would  appear  the  general  refuge  of  all 
who  felt  themselves  straitened  in  the  Ola  World. 
The  Trqjaiis,  S3rrians,  Carthaginians,  Canaanites, 
bat  above  all  the  Jews,  have  been  represented  as 
the  imdoabted  ancestors  of  its  present  people. 
These  speculations  proceed  upon  a  total  obUvion 
of  the  fact  that  man  has  every  where  man^  things 
in  common  with  his  fellows.  The  division  into 
tribes  and  respect  for  chiefe,  the  lamentations  over 
dead  lelatioiis,  the  love  of  ornament,  are  considered 
as  habits  which  the  Americans  must  have  learned 
from  the  Jews.  Garcia,  observing  that  most  of 
them  honoured  their  parents,  and  considered  theft 
and  murder  as  crimes,  thinks  it  clearly  proved 
that  they  received  the  ten  commandments  from 
Moses.  Others  were  obsdnate,  unbelieving,  and 
nnnateful;  sure  signs  of  their  belonging  to  the 
st^-oecked  posterity  of  Abraham.  (Garcia,  Ori- 
gen  de  loe  lindios ;  Essai  sur  la  question,  Quand 
et  eomment  rAm<<rique  a-t-il  4ti  peupld?  5  torn. 
l2mQ.  1757;  Adair's  History  of  the  X<)rth  Ameri- 
can Indians,  4to.)  Attempts  have  been  made  to 
trace  a  similarity  between  the  languages  of  the 
Old  World  and  of  America,  but  certainly  with  most 
■lender  success.  Barton  has  collected  o5  similar 
•oonds,  which  Professor  Vater  has  raised  to  104, 
and  Malte-Brun  to  120;  but  to  produce  this,  it 
has  been  necessary  to  search  through  sixty  lan- 
guees  in  each  world. 

The  Welsh  have  put  in  a  claim  to  the  discovery 

of  America.    In  1170,  3Iadoc,  a  prince  of  North 

Wales,  sailed  in  quest  of  maritime  adventure,  and, 

aftcf  a  long  voyage,  reached  a  *  faire  and  large 

ccnntry*  filled  with  wonderful  objects:  he  then 

retomed  and  took  with  him  ten  vassals  and  a 

laiger  party.    Thus  for  seems  tolerably  attested ; 

bat  thoo)^  affording  a  sufficient  foundation  for 

Hr.  Souther's  poem,  the  idea  of  the  r^on  arrived 

at  being  reallv  America  seems  scarcely  to  merit 

Rftttation.    llie  intimation,  that  he  left  Ireland 

iar  to  the  north,  makes  it  not  improbable  that  he 

night  have  reached  some  part  of  Spain,  no  incon- 

nioable  achievement  in  that  age  for  a  Cymric 

cfaieftaiD. 

The  claim  of  discovery  by  the  Northmen  from 
loelaod  has  been  much  more  generally  received. 
The  Scandinavian  writers  have  supported  it  as  a 
point  (^  national  honour ;  and  the  learned  in  the 
Rft  of  Europe  have  generally  acquiesced  in  their 
•athority.  They  would  not,  we  think,  have  done 
*o  had  they  perused  the  oiiginal  narratives  in 
Toffinm,  and  the  Heimskringla,  or  Saga,  of  King 
Oltf  Tryggeson.  Biom,  an  Icelander,  in  sailing 
■cws  to  Greenland,  was  overtaken  by  a  tempest, 
ud  after  being  tossed  about  for  several  days,  came 
in  view  of  an  unknown  land.  After  navigating 
ff^fval  days  along  the  coast  the  wind  became 
^K^'owible,  and  in  four  days  he  reached  his  desti- 
ottiw  in  Greenland.  Can  any  one  seriously  sup- 
P^that  in  this  short  passage  he  could  have  been 
^n  upon  Newfoundland,  upwards  of  a  thousand 
•^  out  of  his  way,  or  ii  driven,  could  thus 
^rwtly  and  rafiidly  have  retraced  his  course? 
^■njeroos  voyages  to  and  frf>m  this  new  coiintrj', 
opined  Finland,  are  then  related,  with  no  mention 
*^farticular  difficulty  or  danger.  One  of  them  is 
***^  without  any  surprise,  to  have  been  |)er- 
^fOfA  in  twenty-four  ftoyrs ;  a  manifest  impossi- 
^tv  ander  the  Newfoundland  supp<«ition.  As 
J?  the  terai  Fm-land,  very  inappropriate  even  to 
^cvfuQiHUmid,  the  Northmen  probably,  who  could 
^<  be  great  connoisseurs  on  this  suHect,  mistook 
'"^  the  gn^  one  of  those  delicate  bexries  which 
^^-ond  un  the  Arctic  border.  We  are  convinced 
th^  that  Vinland  was  merely  a  southern  part  of 
^'^'^ealaad;   for   the  modem  hypothesis,  which 


places  the  colonies  on  the  western  coast,  is  by  no 
means  supported  by  good  early  authorities.  (Tor- 
fieus,  Hist.  Vinland,  Antiq.  ch.  L  ii.  v.,  p.  50 
(Maps  of  Stephanus  and  Thorlaims),  Heimskring- 
la, edit,  Perinpkiold,  1.  328-335.) 

Another  alleged  discovery  of  much  celebrity 
stands  on  the  report  of  the  Zeni,  Venetian  noble- 
men of  distinction  Towarils  the  end  of  the  four- 
teenth centun',  they  visited  and  spent  a  cunsider- 
able  time  in  Friesland.  an  insular  country  in  the 
north  of  Europe,  which  Fornter  has  shown  to 
agree  not  ill  with  Orkney,  Shetland,  and  the  Ferro 
islands.  They  there  learned,  that  four  tisliing- 
boats  being  driven  more  than  a  thousand  miles  to 
the  westward,  had  reached  a  coast  named  by  them 
Ea.st-out-land,  where  they  found  cultivation,  large 
cities,  castles,  and  a  Latin  library  in  possession  of 
the  king.  Thence  they  saile<l  to  a  more  southern 
country^  named  Drogio,  inhabited  by  a  rude 
people.  Ignorant  of  iron,  waging  furious  wars,  and 
devouring  each  other.  Reports  were  then  made 
of  a  more  civiUsed  people  to  the  south-west,  who 
abounded  in  gold  and  silver,  and  had  splendid 
temples  in  which  human  sacrifices  were  offered. 
Forster,  Malte-Bnm,  and  for  some  time  geogra- 
phers in  general,  considered  that  these  countries 
were  undoubtedlv  Newfoundland,  New  England, 
and  Mexico.  >fr.  Murray  was,  we  believe,  the 
first  to  observe,  that  even  the  distance  of  1,000 
miles  by  no  means  corresponded ;  that  the  castles, 
libraries,  and  populous  cities  on  the  savage  coast 
of  Newfoimdland,  were  the  reverse  of  credible, 
and  that  accounts  of  Mexico  were  little  likely  to 
have  reached  the  Friesland  fishermen.  He  argued 
therefore  that^  supposing  the  northern  voyage 
correct,  interpolation  must  have  been  practised  in 
what  related  to  America,  lliis  has  been  corro- 
borated by  the  research  of  Mr.  Biddlc,  who,  on 
comparing  different  posthumous  editions  of  Ka- 
musio's  work,  found  that  the  narrative  had  been 
altered  in  accordance  with  successive  and  cor- 
rected accounts  of  the  new  continent.  He  there- 
fore rejects  the  whole  as  a  forgery :  we  rather  in- 
cline to  think  that  the  northern  voyage  may  be 
genuine,  while  all  that  relates  to  America  is  un- 
doubtedly interpolated. 

In  the  maps  constructed  during  the  fifteenth 
century,  some  curious  features  appear,  which  have 
been  referred  to  a  western  world.  In  143(5,  one 
formed  at  Venice  by  Andrea  Bianco  has  in  the 
north-west  Atlantic,  not  very  remote  from  New- 
foimdland, the  word  St^^ka  fixa  (Stwktish).  IJut 
it  is  to  be  observed  that  Icelan<l  and  the  adjacent 
seas  were  then  the  seat  of  a  great  fishery,  and 
the  term  may  have  been  merely  used  to  ex- 
press the  abundance  of  its  finny  tribes.  Another 
remarkable  object  in  this  map,  as  well  as  in  one 
long  prior,  and  in  a  subsequent  one  by  Martin 
Ilehaim,  is  a  long  range  of  territory  wcit  of  the 
Canaries,  named  Antilia.  It  seems  im])ossil>lc  to 
trace  with  certainty  the  origin  of  this  term,  whicli 
we  strongly  susiHJCt  to  be  a  corruption  of  tlic 
Atlantis  of  I*lato,  and  to  have  no  other  origin. 
The  inhabitants  of  those  islands  are  said  to  have 
confirmed  the  impression,  by  a<*serting  that,  in 
certain  states  of  the  atmosphere,  they  saw  iu 
mysterious  distance  a  great  unknown  land:  the 
work  either  of  imagination  or  of  some  optical  de- 
ception. These  ideas,  however,  rested  on  no  solid 
basis,  and  the  sound  judgment  of  Columbus  ap- 
pears to  have  been  in  no  degree  infiuenced  by 
them ;  it  was  not  to  Antilia,  but  to  other  regions, 
that  he  directed  his  voyage. 

Perhaps  no  indi\idiuil  ever  stood  so  much  alone 
as  this  navigator,  in  making  a  discovery  that 
clumged  the  face  of  the  worltU  He  conceived  the 
design,  and   struggling   against   the  opposition 


102 


AMERICA 


made  by  his  a^o,  singly  achieved  it.  Yot,  like 
even'  other  jnxiat  revolution,  it  was  doubtlo«ft 
prepared  by  jireWoiw  circum8tancei».  The  pro- 
press  of  na\'igation  and  comracree,  the  enthusiasm 
excited  by  maritime  discover}',  it«  vni\c  ran^ 
alonp  Africa,  and  towards  India!!,  all  tended  tojjive 
this  direction  to  his  s^^irit  of  lofty  and  daring  a«l- 
venturc.  Tlie  nivention  of  the  comY)ass,  and  im- 
pn»ve<l  celestial  observati(»ns,  renden»d  it  no  longer 
]m[)OHsible  to  steer  through  an  imknowii  ocean. 
Sound  reasoning,  aided  by  some  errors,  made  him 
ho|»o,  l)y  sailing  westward,  to  reach,  even  at  no 
ver>'  great  distjince,  the  coasts  of  P^astem  Asia. 

('olumbus,  being  firmly  impressed  with  this 
opinion,  and  being  supported  by  the  judgment  of 
learned  friends,  made  the  lirst  offer  to  (Jenoa,  his 
native  country* ;  but  the  citizens,  unused  to  oceanic 
expeditioiui,  at  once  rejected  it.  He  then  applied 
to  P(»rtugal  with  seemmgly  ever}' chance  of  better 
Buccess;  and  King  John  acconlingly  referred  it 
successively  to  a  spcrcial  commission,  and  to  the 
council  of  state.  There  was  then,  however,  a 
powerful  party  opj)Osed  to  maritime  enterprises 
altogether,  as  wasting  the  national  resources; 
while  their  opjKinents  menily  defended  a  prosei^u- 
tion  of  the  sure  and  successful  career,  by  which 
thev  liad  nearly  rounded  the  southern  |K)int  of 
Africa.  The  proposal  was  rejected,  while  John  was 
persuaded  to  take  the  mean  step  of  secretly  send- 
mg  a  ve>flel  on  lils  own  account,  which,  however, 
returned  without  any  success.  Columbus  next 
repaired  to  S{)ain,  then  under  the  able  sway  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isal>ella.  Here,  however,  cosmo- 
graphical  knowledge  was  much  lejw  advanced; 
the  globular  form  of  the  earth  was  doubt<^d  by  i 
many,  an<l  even  represented  as  against  the  autho- 
rity (»f  scripture  and  the  fathers.  Financial  difh- 
ciiities,  caused  by  the  war  with  the  M(»ors,  and 
tlie  lofty  demands  of  Columbus  to  have  the  oftices 
of  viccMV  and  high  admiral  made  hfcre<lit;irv 
in  his  family.  o|>erated  against  him :  and  live 
years'  solicitation  was  vainly  employetl.  Pro- 
p4>sal8  were  then  made  bv  his  bn>ther  IJartholo- 
mew  to  Henry  VII.  of  England,  who  received 
them  more  favourably ;  but  as  Columbus  was  on 
the  jKiint  of  setting  out  for  this  country,  Isabella 
was  ]>ers\ui4led  to  recall  him,  and,  after  some  fur- 
ther dilHculties,  she  engage<l  in  t he  undertaking 
with  the  utmost  ardour,  and  even  pledged  part  of 
her  jewels  to  raise  the  ncfcessary  funds. 

1  lie  ex]iedition  after  all  c»»nsL«»ted  but  of  three 
small  vessels,  and  a)st  only  4,<X)(V.  C(»lurabus 
sailed  from  the  ]v)rt  of  l*aloh  on  the  3rd  of  August, 
141)2,  and  went  by  way  of  the  Canaries.  He  en- 
countercHi  innumerable  olwtacles  arising  diietiy 
from  the  timid  and  mutiuoiLs  t«mper  of  his  seamen, 
and  after  exhausting  every  resource  furnished  by 
his  extraordinan'  address  and  i>erseverance,  had 
lxK?n  oblige<l  t4>  promise  to  return  in  a  few  days,  if 
still  unsuccessful.  Signs  of  land,  however,  became 
frequent,  and  on  the  night  of  the  11th  of  Oct(»l)er 
a  light  was  obser\'ed  at  some  distance,  and  the 
joyful  soimd  of  land !  land !  burst  from  the  ships. 
But  having  l>een  often  deceived  Ijefore,  they  spent 
the  night  in  a  state  of  the  utmost  anxiety.  As  soon, 
however,  as  moniing  dawne<l,  their  doubts  and 
fears  were  dispelled ;  and  the  natives  of  the  Old 
and  the  New  Worlds  found  themselves,  for  the 
first  time,  in  sight  of  each  other.  The  land  (»n 
wliich  Columbus  made  his  descent,  ami  which  had 
a  pleasant  delightful  a«»i)ect,  was  one  of  the  Ba- 
hama Islands,  called  by  the  natives  (tuanahani, 
and  by  the  Simniards  San  Salvador.  Having  landed, 
and  taken  formal  i>o»session  of  the  comitrj-  for  the 
crown  of  Spain,  Columbus  bec4ime  satislied,  from 
the  poverty  of  the  natives,  that  this  was  not  the 
rich  countiy  of  which  he  was  in  scarclu    He 


therefore  immediately  set  sail,  and,  shtping  his 
course  a  little  more  to  tlie  S.,  suoceHsivcly  dis- 
covered the  great  islands  of  Cuba,  and  Hajti  at 
Hispaniola.  Aft<:r  various  transactions  with  the 
natives  of  the  latter,  lie  erected  a  fort,  and  leavii^ 
there  a  detachment  of  his  men,  set  out  on  hi* 
return  to  S{min,  arriving,  after  being  obliged  to 
take  refuge  in  the  Azores,  and  in  the  Tagus,  at 
Palos,  on  the  15th  of  March,  1498,  having  spent  7 
mouths  and  11  <lays  in  his  memorable  voyage. 
He  brought  with  him  pieces  of  gold,  a  party  of 
natives,  and  specimens  of  the  v^yetablc  and  ani- 
mal priMluctions  of  this  new  world.  His  airi\'al 
was  hailed  with  an  enthusiasm  of  wonder  and  ad- 
miration in  Spain  and  in  Europe,  and  he  made  his 
entrance  into  liarcelona  almost  in  regal  pomp. 

Columbus  found  no  longer  any  difficulty  in 
e<iui]>ping  a  new  armament,  to  which  volunteers 
flocke^l  from  ever\'  quarter.  In  September  he  set 
sail  with  17  vessels,  several  of  large  bunlen.  and 
having  1,500  persons  on  board.  Tliough  he  found 
his  colony  involve<l  in  many  troubles,  he  was  not 
deterred  fnim  pushing  his  enteqtriscs  to  the  west- 
ward. Having  fallen  in  with  Cuba,  he  suled 
along  it<»  southern  coast,  then  steering  t«»  the  left, 
lighte<l  upon  Jamaica.  He  was  delighted  with 
the  rich  venhire  and  ]>icturesque  aspect  of  thct« 
fine  islands,  which  he  firmly  believed  to  be  parts 
of  the  Asiatic  continent.  Having  returned  to 
SjMiin,  he  set  out,  in  1408,  on  a  third  voyage. 
Having  first  proceede<l  siiuthward  to  the  Cape  de 
Verd  Islands,  and  steering  thence  at^roM  the  At- 
lantic, he  came  in  view  of  the  loft^^  mountains  of 
'I'riniilad.  Kounding  that  Island  into  the  Gulph 
of  Paria,  he  saw  the  Orinoco  ndling  by  many 
mouths  its  mighty  stream  into  the  ocean.  This 
discover}'  highly  gratified  him,  and  was,  indeed, 
the  first*  time  that  any  part  of  tlie  S.  American 
c(»ntiiient  had  been  visited  »by  Euro{ieans.  He 
sailcil  along  the  coast  as  far  as  Margarita,  and 
thence  to  Hayti.  In  1502  he  imdertoc^  a  fourth 
voyage,  seeking  to  jnisli  westward  rill  he  should 
arrive  at  regions  belonging  to  India.  In  tliis 
course  he  struck  against  the  coast  of  Hon<lnras : 
where,  instead  of  turning  to  the  right,  wliioh 
would  have  led  him  to  Mexico,  he  took  the  left, 
or  NW.  course,  as  most  promising  for  his  obiecu 
He  reaclie<l  the  Gulph  of  Darien,  but  ^-ithont 
seemingly  gaining  any  intelligence  of  the  South 
Sea.  He  then  ri'tumod  to  Sf>ain,  where,  weighed 
down  by  banL<ihi|)s,  and  disgusted  by  the  ingrati- 
tude of  Fenliiiond,  he  closed,  in  1506,  his  un- 
rivalled career. 

America  had,  in   the  inter\'al,  l)cen  explored 
from  a  different  quarter.    John  Caboto,  or  CaUrt, 
a  Venetian,  who  had  settled  at  Bristol,  presented 
to  Henr\'  VII.  a  plan  of  western  discover^'.     Tliai 
monarch,  who  had  nearly  earned  the  glor>'  of  Co- 
lumbus's voyage,  gave  his  full  sanction  to  the  un- 
<lertaking.    The  adventurer,  it  ap])earM,  was  willing 
to  defray  the  whole  expense ;  but  wlwtever  regions 
might  be  discovered,  he  and  his  family  were  to 
rule  them  as  lieutenants,  and  to  enjoy  the  exclu- 
sive trade,  payuig,  however,  to  the  king  l-oth 
part  of  the  priitits.    The  patent  was  granted  hi 
1495,  Uut  circumstances  prevente<l  him  firi>m  sailing 
rill  1407.  The-n  proceeding  due  west,  he  arrivctU  on 
'  the  24th  of  June,  at  a  land,  with  an  island  ad- 
jjacent,  which  ap])ears  to  be  Labrador  and  New- 
foundland.   This  was  the  first  discovery-  of  the 
continent,   since  it  was  not  till   1498   that  (Co- 
lumbus reached  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.   CalM>i> 
brought  home  several  of  the  natives,  and,  th<»ugh 
the  aspect  of  the  coast  was  not  very  in\*iuiigy 
Henry  was  so  much  gratified  that  he  next  year 
granted  a  fresh  patent,  allowing  him  to  take  up 
I  any  6  ships  within  the  realm,  equip  them  at  the 


Stdline  si 


AMERICA 

.   ,      ., _    n  bo«pd  any  number 

tt  Engliiili  Buliject*  wbo  might  be  pleased  to  k- 
eaajmav  Iuiil  John^  from  some 
did  not  ^  out  in  pemon ;  but  the  expedition  was 
kd  by  bii  win  Sebasliui,  who,  thougb  a  ^outh, 
atiowed  alreadj  the  (aleota  of  a  greBt  navigalor. 
Areontin;;  to  the  veiy  imperfect  accounts  of  his 
Tvya^^  be  had  with  him  300  men,  and  Miiling  by 
way  of  Iceland,  reached  the  coast  of  Labiadur  in 
■lusi  lat.  66°.  Disconraged  by  ils  bleak  ap- 
pcBnnce'  he  elecied  to  the  sciuth,  aad  coatiniied 
m   thai  direction  till  laC  8H°.     {Hackluj-C,  iU. 


f  Cabot,  ch.  S 


;  Tyller'a   Xwthem 


rter  imponant  dla- 
lecnt  Yaner  rinooii, 
in  awHDg  the  Atlantic  from  [he  Cape  de  ^  erd 
lalandii  wafl  aaaailed  by  a  lempeatr  which  dnivc 
bm  to  the  southward  of  the  equator ;  Bn<l.  after 
hang  bewildered  fur  some  time  amid  unknnvm 
■Hs.  he  catne  in  January  1499,  to  the  view  of  au 
■nknown  coa^t,  which  was  that  of  Brazilr  near 
Cape  St.  Aoimatin.  Thence  he  coasted  northward 
to  the  moutli  of  the  AmDZons,  and  viewed  witli 

bjr  it  into  the  ocean,  justly  inferring  [hat  it  rouHt 
lire  rolled  ihniuEh  a  ci)n[inent  of  vast  e.ttenu 
Tbiee  munths  after.  Alvarez  Cabnl,  des|ialched  to 
bdia  to  folluw  in  the  fiotsteps  uf  Vasco  de  (ioma, 

CDut.  which  he  named  I^anta  Cruz,  and  tnoh  pas- 
te*™ of  it  in  the  name  uf  the  king  uf  PortugaL 

America  had  thus  been  reached  in  three  dif- 
Imat  and  distant  quartenff  on  a  scale  which  coQ- 
TFTfd  a  high  idea  of  itx  grcatncde,  but  without  at 
ill  Mceitainiii);  ila  outline  and  hmits.  There  was 
■dU  ample  unexplored  coast  to  leave  ruum  fur  the 
pasHfre  to  India,  which  continued  to  be  the  grand 
D^ta  in  the  diKoveriea  that  immediately  ful' 
Ivtd.  We  shall  begin  with  thuse  moat  important 
■B.  Bude  by  way  uf  [he  Gulph  of  Mexico.  Even 
Mm  tbe  fourth  voyage  of  Columbus.  Alunzn  de 
ti)aia,  on  learning  the  reiulu  uf  the  third,  K 
wa  Spain  in  149^,  and  following  up  the  cori 
btndKXHur,  explored  [he  coast  from  Margarita 
u  OfK  de  Vela.  He  was  accumpanied  as  pilur 
tr  Amtri)(o  Vespucci,  a  skilfid  naviga[ur,  who 
'■rniruDg  to  Europe,  published  a  narrative  uf  tin 
n^i^  lepre^endng  himself  as  the  first  discoverei 

iiwdinary  in[ere8t,  and  the  public  adu|>te<i  tlii 
■BM  iW  America,  yielding  him  an  bunuui  iin 
Mwdlr  due  to  Columbus.  In  1500,  Uoderigi 
dF  Ikitidas  explored  the  coast  from  Cape  Vela  ti 


■an.  Ojeda  and  Xicueasa  obtained  grants  of 
4fe(Bt  purtions ;  but  their  coiuniea,  conilucted 
•Mir  and  viulently,  were  abnost  endrel^  de- 

■  va  Xqgnea  de  Balboa,  an  o^cer  of  great  en 
■"inie,  who,  penetrsiing  acnwa  the  istbmui, 
■w  in  view  of  the  great  southern  ocean.  Vast 
Jfi^ntfl  were  thus  opened ;  but  the  court  of 
'im  unKenerouslv  transferred  the  chief  cuminand 
tu  P(rliina»  Davila,  wbo,  actuated  by  mean  jea- 
^^,peneci]ted  and  put  to  death  his  predecessor, 
*uhiM  himself  achieving  any  thing  of  unportance. 
The  (hscoveiy  of  the  northern  coast  of  the 
''"kt  wtt  begun  by  Ponce  de  I*on.  'Ilufl  officer, 
»lJe  b  oommand  at  Porto  Kicn,  was  misled  by 
"e  illaiory  rejiort  of  a  (buntain.  in  which  who- 
"t  lathal  was  restored  fmm  the  must  decrepit 


[■aiil  of  this  chimera,  he  boat  i 
aw,  jdniigiiig  inia  every  poul,  cii  cu 
"raw  IntlweoaiHof  liiawarch,hei 


103  ' 

Mat,  which  he  named  Florida 
considerable  ex[ent,  and  tum- 

.    poini,  he  ascertained  it  to  lie 

part  uf  the  continent,  and  (he  Spanianls  lung  cim- 

linued  thus  to  name  and  to  claim  as  Ihelr  own 

die  whole  teiiitury  to  Canada  iiiciuHive,  though 

they  wero  ullima[ely  unable  to  mninlain  more 

this  southern  exli>emity. 

c  main  directiun  was  still  lunanls  (he  west. 

ill,  Conloba  from  Uubaitailcd  along  the  coast 

of  Yucatan,  and  collected  siinie  intelligence  of  the 


vilizB 


,  traceil  the  entire  coast  of  Mcx 


as  far  as  I'ai 


liattfiing  ideas  of  this  coast,  which  was  imme- 

iiately  dignified  »ilh  the  title  uf  Kew  S[)ain.  In 
519,  <iaray,  gu\'em<ir  of  Jamaica,  sent  four  shipe 
mder  PineiLi,  who,lieginning  at  Florida,  traversed 
he  wbulc  coast  as  far  ns  Vera  Cruz.    The  entire 

survey  of  the  Gulph  of  Mes' 

plcted.  ,(<Medo,  Hobert.s.in.  Mi 


ii.) 


BancrolVs  Hist.  Unil 


Velasquez,  governor  of  Cuba, 
flattering  accounts  brought  by 
mined  to  lose  no  time  in  fitting  i 
fur  the  cunquest  of  Kew  Spain.  Jealousy,  how- 
ever, deterred  him  from  emplnying  the  uriginol 
discoverer;  and  be  gave  the  commaiul  tu  Henian 
Co^e^  a  personal  favourite,  but  whu  possessed 
cverv  quahty  fitting  hjm  fur  such  an  niulertakiiig. 
In  ^Iui:h,  1,519,  he  landeil  at  Vera  Crux,  atul 
having  burned  his  ships,  marched  into  the  inictior 
with  about  SOU  men.  With  Ihia  small  force, 
seconded  by  his  own  superior  sagacity  and  daring. 
Cones  sutverted  the  em]Hre  of  Mexico,  put  its 
soverHgns  to  death,  and  annexed  it  to  the  Spanish 
reached  the  South  Sea,  he  e 


iluyed 


d  fur  the  space  u: 


which 


(iuatemala. 
now  Uuadalaj 


:o  Sew  GahciB. 
id  Zacatecan.  Cortex  liimaelf, 
fleet  in  lOSHi,  discovered  the 
penineuia  uf  California,  with  its  ilvep  gulpb,  com- 
monlv  named  in  that  age  the  Veimiliini  Sea. 
(Cortese  Kebziuni,  Itamusiu,  III.    Kuliertsun.) 

The  discuvery  by  Balboa  of  the  South  Sea  ru- 
miuned  lung  wiihuut  any  result,  thniugh  the 
weaknew  or  disunion  of  the  olfii-ers  cm[>luyeii. 
The  must  tempting  accounts  were  liowevcr  re- 
ceived of  the  wealth  uf  Peru,  and  the  abundance  of 
its  precious  metals.  In  15:11,  Pixnmi,  a  ilaritig  ail- 
vcnCurer.wholuul  sailed  with  Ojeila.  after  one  un- 
luccesnful  attempt,  succeeded  in  nsHemhlitigo  band 
of  brave  and  fierce  followem,  with  whom  he  nailed 


ontry 


l«jld- 


ncas  and  treachery,  he  se  . 

sure  of  the  Inca ;  and  Peru  became  an  appendage 
of  the  Spanish  crown.  Almogtu,  the  companum 
and  rival  of  I'iiarro,  piisheii  suuthwani  into  Chili, 
but  he  met  there  with  great  ditHculties,  anil  was 
recalled  by  the  affairs  uf  Pern.  Pedro  de  Val- 
divis,  however,  having  the  government  o(  that 
oountry  confeired  uiioD  him,  marched  to  the 
southern  bolder  of  its  fertile  tciriturv.  as  far  as 
40°  S.  lat.  Vadillu,  in  1537,  mode  a'march  from 
Uarien  to  Peru,  tlirough  the  fine  countries  of  Kew 
(iranoda  and  Quito.  Ex]>editions  tu  conquer  the 
latter  were  undertaken  by  Itannlvazar  and  Alva- 
radu,  who,  after  ci^ilending  fur  its  possession, 
agreed  to  ililide  it  bctween.Ihem.  In  lo4l).  (loii- 
zales  Pirjirrn,  brother  tu  the  cunqneror,  undertook 
■D  expedition  thnnigh  tlie  Andes  to  the  west  of 
Quito,  in  hopes  of  discovering  s  country  said  tu 


104 


AMERICA 


abound  in  flne  cinnamon.  After  numberless  hard- 
slii[)8.  he  cnme  to  tho  bonks  of  the  great  river 
Amazon.  Having  followed  its  course  for  some 
distance,  lie  employed  Orellana,  one  of  bis  oificens 
to  descend  the  stream  in  a  light  luirk  to  search  for 
provisions.  Orellana,  inspired  by  a  spirit  of  ad- 
venture, continued  his  voyage,  and  traced  the 
whole  of  its  immense  course  down  to  the  ocean. 
While  the  al>ove-mentione<I    events  were   in 

Cn^gress,  discover}'  proceeded,  though  in  a  less 
rllliant  train,  along  the  eastern  coast.  In  1514, 
Juan  Diaz  de  Solis,  a  skilful  mariner,  was  sent  to 
sail  round  America,  and  reach  the  opposite  side 
of  the  isthiims  of  Dorien.  Solis,  bcgmning  with 
St.  Augustine,  the  limit  of  Pinion's  disotivery, 
surv'oyed  the  whole  coast  of  Brazil,  and  then  came 
to  the  grand  oi>ening  of  the  ]{io  de  la  Plata.  But, 
having  incautiously  ventured  on  shore  with  a 
small  party,  he  was  suq^rLsed  by  the  natives,  and, 
with  several  of  his  party,  experienced  the  dread- 
ful fate  which  awaits  those  captured  by  the  can- 
nibal tribes  <tf  this  continent.  The  remaining 
crews,  on  witu&<*sing  thLs  catastrophe,  were  struck 
with  dismay,  and  immediately  returned  home. 
Three  yeaw  after,  Fernando  Magalhaens,  or  Ma- 
gellan, a  Portuguese,  discontented  with  his  treat- 
ment in  his  native  countrv,  offered  his  sernces  to 
Charles  V.  The  immediate  object  was  to  nwich 
the  Moluccas  from  the  west,  and  thus,  according 
to  the  ])apa1  grant,  establish  a  claim  to  those 
islands,  which  were  then  much  valued.  A  fleet 
of  five  sail  being  equipped,  lie  sailed  in  September 
1519,  and  having  pnK'oeded  along  the  coast  of 
Brazil,  reached  Port  St«  Julian,  where  be  win- 
tered. In  October  1520,  he  entere<l  the  strait 
bearing  his  name,  and  after  a  few  weeks'  naviga- 
tion, saw  the  great  Pacific  opening  before  liim. 
He  stretched  directly  across,  and  came  to  the 
IMiili))pines,  where  he  was  killed  in  a  contest  with 
the  natives;  but  his  vessel  ha<l  the  honour  of 
being  the  lirst  that  circumnavigated  the  globe. 
In  152t>,  Sebastian  Cabot  was  sent  out  to  the  La 
Plata,  where  he  ascended  the  Parana  anil  the 
Paragtuiy,  aiul,  notwithstaiubng  the  opposition  of 
the  Portuguese,  establL<he(.l  two  or  three  forts.  In 
1585,  Juan  de  Mendoza,  an  opulent  S^ianianl, 
founder!  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  in  15H7 
Juan  de  Ayolas  penetratoil  across  the  Andes  to 
Peru.  Thus  the  great  outlines  of  Southern  Ame- 
rica were  traced  in  every  direction,  (ILerrera.  Ko- 
bertson.  Marit.  antl  Inl.  I)is.,  B.  IV.  eh.  \t.  vii.) 

Discovery  in  the  north  (lid  not  pr<K'oe<l  with 
the  same  rapid  stejw.  We  have  already  noticed 
the  imi)ortaut  voyages  made  by  the  (Jabots.  Tliis 
excited  the  rivalry  of  the  Portuguese,  and  in  15(M) 
(ias])ar  de  Cortcreal,  a  nobleman  of  that  nation, 
set  sail  and  surveyed  a  considerable  extent  of  the 
coast  »»f  Labra<lor.  He  airried  off  about  50  of  the 
natives,  to  employ  them  as  slaves;  but  the  enmity 
of  the  ])eople,  thus  justly  n)use<l,  probably  led  t<» ' 
the  fatal  result  of  hu*  next  voyage,  fn»m  wluch  he 
never  returned  His  brother  Michael,  sailing  in 
search  of  him  in  the  following  year,  met  the  same 
fate,  whi<>h  was  shared  also  by  another  exi>editiuu 
sent  in  150.3. 

The  reign  (»f  Henrj'  VIII.  wa^  unfavourable  to 
nautical  enterjjrlse.  The  diwover>'  of  the  Cabots 
was  not  foUowetl  up,  and  S(^basiian  sought  the 
sen'ice  of  Siiain.  He  was  .sent  out,  however,  in 
1517,  as  pilot  to  an  expedition  commanded  by 
Sir  Tliomas  Pert,  which,  it  ap|>ears,  actually  eu- 
tiCred  Hudson's  Bav;  but  the  commander  then 
h>st  courage  and  returned,  to  Calwt's  great  indig- 
nation. This  discovery  attracted  little  notice,  and 
was  soon  forgotten. 

France  now  entered  on  the  career  of  American 
discover}'.    In  1524  Francis  I.  employed  Giovanni 


Verazzano,  a  Florentine  navigator,  who  etikd 
along  and  described  the  coast  from  Carolina  to 
Nev^-foundland.  Unhap[)ily,  in  a  subeequent  voy- 
age, he  fell  into  the  luinds  of  the  luitives,  and 
suffered  a  cruel  death.  Ten  ycors  after  Jacques 
Cartier,  a  seaman  of  St.  Malo,  pezformed  several 
voyages,  in  which  he  entered  the  Gulph  of  Sl 
Lawrence,  and  ascended  the  river  as  high  as  Mont- 
reaL  Attempts  were  then  made  to  colonize  ihnc 
countries,  for  some  time  without  success:  how- 
ever, in  1604,  De  Montz  founded  tho  culonycf 
Acailia,  and  Champlain,  in  1608,  that  of  Canada. 
The  latter,  engaging  in  warlike  expeditions,  pene- 
trated southward  to  the  lake  bearing  his  name, 
and  westward  beyond  Lake  Huron. 

The  Spaniards  meantime,  as  already  observed, 
had,  under  the  title  i»f  Florida,  claimed  ncarlv  all 
North  America;  nor  were  they  wanting  in  vigor- 
ous efforts  to  make  good  their  title.  In  1521), 
Lucas  Vasquez  de  Ayllon  discovered  and  at- 
tempted to  forma  settlement  on  South  Carolina; 
hut  having  Ix^^i  bv  eiitra]>ping  and  cairpng  off 
a  nimiber  of  the  inliabitants,  he  excited*  such  a 
tierce  enmity  that  many  of  the  settlcn  were  killed, 
and  the  rest  returned  to  Hisivaniola.  In  1624, 
Estevan  Gomez  sailed  as  far  as  the  latitude  of 
New  York,  whence  he  brought  off  a  caigo  of 
slaves.  A  more  important  expedition  was  under- 
taken in  1528  by  Narvaes,  the  rival  of  Cortes,  and 
sent  to  supersede  him,  but  who  had  been  van- 
quishefl  and  made  prisoner.  He  now  nought  to 
indemnify  himself  by  a  kingdom  in  Florida.  He 
landed  with  a  force  of  about  600  men,  and  ad- 
vanced about  800  miles  into  tlie  interior,  baflliiig 
all  attempts  to  opi)ose  his  progress.  Tlie  naiives 
however,  irritated  by  his  violent  and  domineering 
conduct,  jxtsted  themselves  in  the  woods,  and 
harassed  him  by  constant  attacks  and  suipri>e.'i. 
The  Spaniards,  completely  exhausted,  and  m  ex- 
treme want,  were  obliged  to  seek  the  nearest 
coast.  Unaldc  to  reach  their  ships,  they  con- 
structed frail  barks,  wliich,  on  comuig  out  to  the 
open  sea,  were  wrecked,  and  almost  the  whole 
number  {lerishetL  Alvaro  Nugncz,  the  treasurer, 
l»eing  cast  ashore,  contrived,  by  conciliating  the 
Indians,  actiug  as  a  mercliant  and  physician,  and 
even  pretending  to  work  miracles,  to  make  his 
way  to  ^lexico,  after  a  seven  yeai^*  pilgrimage. 
The  land  route  was  thus  traced  between  that 
country  anil  Florida. 

This  catastro]ilie  did  not  prevent  another  at- 
tempt. Fernando  di  Soto  had  been  an  associate 
of  Pizarro  in  the  conquest  of  Peru,  where  lie  ^li^- 
tingiiished  himself  by  the  capture  of  Cuzco,  and 
other  exploits.  He  returned  to  S])ain  with  a  hij^h 
name  and  a  princely  fortune:  but  instead  of  sil- 
ting down  to  enjoy  thesie,  be  resolved  to  make 
them  instruments  for  c(»nquering  an  empire  fur 
himself.  His  reputation  attnictiHl  many  of  the 
most  distinguished  SjMinish  youtlm  as  volunteers: 
and  in  May  1528  he  landed  in  Florida,  with  a 
more  powerful  armament  than  those  whirh  h&d 
conriuered  IMexico  and  Peru.  The  exploits  •.•f 
Solo  sur])as8e(I.  in  <lAring  valour  and  brilliant 
achievement,  those  of  ('ortes  and  Pizarrti;  bui 
hih  fortune  was  far  different.  Tliere  was  here  nt> 
great  ein])ire,  no  central  point  to  strike  at.  He 
struggled  on  amid  u  succession  of  fierci'  and  ]ictty 
tril>e.'s,  whom  he  always  vanquishe<l,  but  who 
rose  anmnd  and  bi^hind'  him,  and  never  left  to  his 
tr«Kif>s  m(»re  than  the  ground  which  they  c«»veniL 
He  was  lured  <m  by  rejwrts  and  »|MH'.imens  of  the 
gold  formation  of  North  Can>luia:  but  arri^-ing 
there,  in  a  most  exhaustetl  state,  and  fhiding  only 
ridges  of  naked  hills,  he  turned  back.  He  after- 
wards pushed  far  to  the  westwanU  crossctl  the 
Mississippi  in  about  lat.  3iP,  and  jiroceeiled  north- 


AMERICA 


105 


'Wild  to  near  the  pretent  site  of  New  Madrid. 
nDding  no  report  of  gold,  or  rich  kingdoms,  he 
made  a  dash  at  the  extreme  west,  passed  the  heads 
of  the  Wliite  Kiver,  then  descended  the  Washita 
and  Red  River  to  the  MississippL  Here,  over- 
powered by  fiuigne  and  disappointment,  he  sunk 
into  the  grave.  The  miserable  remnant  of  his 
men,  anxious  to  conceal  his  death  from  the  In- 
dians, carried  the  body  at  dead  of  night  into  the 
middle  of  the  river,  and  sunk  it  beneath  the 
waten,  afterwards  putting  together  some  rude 
bazka,  they  made  their  escape  to  Mexico.  (Alvoro, 
Xanfragioa  in  Barda  Historiaderes,  tom.  IL  Tega, 
Florida.    Bancroft,  L  41,  Ac) 

Tlie  wanderings  of  Alvaro  had  attracted  the 
attenti<m  of  Uie  Spaniards  to  the  r^ons  imme- 
diately north  <^  Mexico.    A  friar,  Marco  di  Nizza, 
Mt  out  with  a  party  to  explore  them,  returned 
wiUi  a  romantic  account  of  a  city,  named  Cevola, 
having  20,000  splendid  houses,  and  its  most  com- 
mon utensils    of  gold,  silver,   and    the  richest 
jewels^    Mendoza,  the  viceroy,  hoping  to  emulate 
the  glcoy  of  Cortes,  fitted  out  two  large  expedi- 
tions, one  to  proceed  by  land  under  Vasquez  Coro- 
nado,  the  oUier  by  sea  under  Fernando  Alarchon. 
Coronado,  after  a  most  arduous  march  through 
nifcged  and  desolate  mountains,  reached  the  plain 
of  Cevola,  and,  notwithstanding  a  most  desperate 
renstance,  forced  an  entxy,  but  found  a  mere  vil- 
lage of  400  houses,  with  nothing  at  all  splendid ; 
tlK  jewels  were  only  pebbles  and  rock-crystal.  In 
hoipes  oi  achieving  something,  he  marched  300 
loigfttes  to  the  coast,  where  he  found  a  city  of 
Hcoewhat  greater  consequence,  named  Qui\'ira, 
vhifch  cannot  now  be  identified.    Alarchon,  im- 
ible  even  to  join  his  associate,  returned  equally 
disappointed.    Cabrillo,  a  Portuguese  seaman,  was 
then  employed  b^  Mendoza  to  explore  the  coast. 
He  reached'  as  high  as  449  N.  lat.  but  brought 
\atk  a  gloomy  account  of  the  aspect  of  the  region, 
aid  the  difficulties  of  navigating  this  northern  sea. 
(Kamusio,  voL  iiL  p.  297,  ^c.  Venc^as,  Cahefomia.) 
The  zeal  of  Spain  now  slackened ;  but,  in  1579, 
Dake,  in  his  expedition  round  the  world,  traced 
the  iwith-westem  coast  as  high  as  lat  48^.   There 
i^inazTUive  by  a  Spaniard,  named  Juan  de  Fuca, 
vbi)  boasts  that,  in  1596,  he  reached  a  similar  lati- 
t34e;  sod  his  report,  long  discredited,  has  been 
wofimxed,  in  a  great  measure,  by  the  discovery  of 
tftiait  closely  answering  his  description,  and  now 
tKvin)^  his  name.    In  1596  and  1602  the  Coiide 
^  Muotercy  employed  Sebastian  Visca^iio,  who 
^  not,  however,  reach  so  far  as  Cabrillo.    There 
^  alio  a  narrative  by  De  Fonte,  who  boasted  that, 
io  1640,  he  had  reached  the  latitude  of  53^,  where 
be  ffMuid  numerous  islands  separated  by  nanrow 
t^ti,  which  he  named  the  ^Vrchipclago  of  St. 
I'azare.and  within  them  a  large  lake  named  Belle. 
This  acooont  is  generally  branded  as  fictitious ;  yet 
we  cannot  but  observe,  tliat  it  strikingly  agrees 
*^h  the  numerous  chain  of  islancb*  found  by  Vaii- 
^«Term  the  same  latitude,  while  Lake  Ikllc  may 
^>^  the  interior  sea  between  them  and  the  main. 
'T^ioeinada,  Munarquia  Indiana,  book  v.  Murray 
l^ws'V.  X.  Amer.  voL  iL  p.  87,  &c) 

The  power  of  Spain  ha\'ing  declined,  she  was 
vsakk  to  maintain  the  vast  pretensions  she  liad 
*^anced  in  relation  to  Florida.  Britain,  now  be- 
«*«>e  a  much  more  formidable  maritime  |)owcr, 
**»'*l»li*hed  ci>lfmies  in  Virginia  and  New  England 
^  "Irfiance  of  Spain.  In  doing  so,  although  there 
p>  wt  nxjm  for  great  discoveries,  she  acquired  a 
**  Joow  accurate  knowle<ige  of  thus  long  range  of 
<!'«rt.  The  exi)ectati(m  was  still  entertained  that 
*|'flMr  of  its  openings  might  lead  into  the  South 
>*x  and  this  was  even  viewwl  by  the  Virginia 
^^^''TAny  as  one  of  their  leading  objects.    But  the 


laborious  survey  of  Cheaapeakc  Bay,  by  Smith,  in 
1608,  nearly  put  an  end  to  these  hopes. 

The  British,  however,  made  indefatigable  efforts 
to  discover  a  passage  to  India  by  the  north.  Sir 
Martin  Frobisher,  in  1576,  found  means  to  equip 
two  slender  barks  of  25  tons  for  this  anluoiis  at- 
tempt. Passing  the  southern  extremity  of  Green- 
land, he  reached  the  coast  north  of  Hudson's  Strait ; 
but,  after  sailing  alx)ut  for  some  time  without  per- 
ceiving any  opening,  and  the  season  being  ad- 
vanced, he  retunie(U  One  of  the  party  brought 
home  a  shining  black  stone,  which  some  ignorant 
persons  pronounced  an  ore  of  gold.  The  utmost 
enthusiasm  was  thus  kindled,  and  a  larger  expe- 
dition was  easily  fitted  out  next  year.  Frobisher 
then  discovered  the  straits  bearing  his  name,  lead- 
ing into  Hudson's  Bay;  but  he  was  arrested  in 
them  by  the  ice;  he  carried  home,  however,  a 
store  of  the  black  stone.  The  hopes  of  the  nation 
were  higher  than  ever,  and  the  queen  sent  hira 
back  with  15  ships,  a  strong  fort  in  frame-work, 
and  100  men  to  form  a  colony.  In  approaching 
the  place,  however,  he  was  attacked  by  so  furious 
a  tempest,  with  islands  of  ice  driving  against  the 
vessels,  that  he  had  the  utmost  difiiculty  in  saving 
and  bringing  them  home.  These  disasters,  and 
the  discovery  that  the  appearances  of  gold  were 
illusory,  caused  a  suspension  of  this  series  of  en- 
teiprises. 

In  1585,  a  number  of  leading  merchants  fitted 
out  two  vessels  under  John  Da\'is.  Steering  far- 
ther N.  than  Frobisher.  he  crossed  from  Greenland 
the  straits  bearing  Ins  name,  and  came  upon  the 
American  land  in  about  66°  N.  He  sailed  some- 
what farther  N.,  and  surveyed  different  parts  of 
the  coast,  but  was  obliged  by  the  lateness  of  the 
season  to  return.  HLs  reiwrt,  however,  being  fa- 
vourable, he  was  sent  out  again  next  year. 
Though  much  retarded  by  the  encounter  of  a  huge 
field  of  ice,  he  reached  his  former  station,  and 
steered  thence  SE.  till  he  came  to  Labrador,  having 
passed  numerous  islands,  as  appeared  to  him,  but 
probably  the  coasts  bordering  on  the  sounds  and 
inlets  leading  into  Hudson's  Bay.  Being  assailed 
by  temi)ests,  he  returned  to  P^ngland,  still  giving 
such  favourable  hopes  tliat^  though  many  of  the 
adventurers  held  back,  Mr.  Sanderson,  his  zealous 
patron,  procured  for  hira  a  smaller  armament.  He 
pushed  to  the  yet  imattained  point  of  72°  12'  X., 
on  West  Greenland ;  thence  he  steered  40  leagues 
across,  but  was  arrested  bv  the  fixed  field  of  ice  in 
the  middle  of  the  bay.  ile  vainly  attempted  to 
round  it,  and  was  pushetl  southwanl  to  his  former 
station  on  the  American  coast.  He  i)enctrated  60 
leagues  up  Cumberland  Strait ;  then  being  obliged 
to  return,  he  olwerve<l,  without  entering,  the  en- 
trance of  Hudson's  Bay.  He  retumetl  home  as 
sanguine  as  ever,  but  the  perseverance  of  the  mer- 
chants was  exhaasted. 

The  ]!iIus<.H)vv  and  I-.evant  companies,  in  1602, 
sent  out  John  Wejinouth ;  but  the  mutinous  spirit 
of  liis  crew  prevented  his  achieving  anything. 
They  employed,  in  1606,  John  Knight,  who  was 
surpTLse<l  and  killed  in  Labrador  by  the  native:'. 
In  1007,  Sir  Dudley  Digges,  Sir  John  We.>t en- 
holme,  and  other  gentlemen  fittctl  out  lienr}-  Hud- 
son, a  celebrateil  naNigator,  who  had  already  made 
three  arctic  voyages.  'ITiough  furuLshed  only  with 
one  shii)of  56  tons,  he  penetrated,  after  many  diffi- 
culties, into  the  bay,  or  mther  inland  sea,  which 
now  bears  his  name.  He  surveye<l  a  considerable 
extent  of  its  eastern  shore  :  but  as  November  had 
arrived,  was  obliged  to  winter  there.  Much  liard- 
shij)  bemg  endured  till  spring,  a  miituiy  arose 
among  his  crew,  who  ex}K)se<l  Hudson  and  his 
firiends  to  perish  on  this  inhwpitablo  shore,  and, 
with  thinned  numbers,  made  their  way  to  Ireland. 


106 


AMERICA 


Xotwitlistnndiiiff  tho^o  molnnclioly  circum- 
staiuvs.  a  ^at^ai  oponinjr  had  thu/«  ]K.K*n  traced, 
mid,  in  1012,  the  (^)^lpauy  Hent  out  Sir  Thomas 
Ituttoii,  ncr()iu|>.'miorl  hy  Hylol,  j)iie  of  HiidwiiV 
com]mnion.s.  Sir  Thonias  hnvinpf  enloretl  tlie  hay. 
striTwl  dirncily  across  thnni^h  such  an  extent  of 
o|)en  s(>ji.  as  made  Iiim  ho|)e  that  he  was  now  in 
the  Pacific;  when  he  suddenly  saw  himself  ar- 
rested  by  a  lonfj  line  of  «.»oast,  to  which  he  f;avc 
the  name  of  Iloije  Checked,  He  wintered  in 
Mclson'rt  Kiver,  sailed  up  Roe's  Welcome,  sur- 
veyed vari»»iu»  ])oiutJ4  on  Southampton  Island,  and 
retumcrl  to  England.  Af^er  a  fmitless  attempt  by 
(ribbons,  Bylot  and  RatKn  were  M>nt  in  1G15 ;  but 
thev  were  arrested  bv  the  eastern  coa^t  of  Sou- 
thampton  Island.  In  1G1(>  they  went  to  try  t)ie 
more  ]>atent  route  of  Davis's  Straits.  They  made 
th(>n  the  com))lete  circuit  of  that  great  inland  sea, 
which  has  since  l)een  named  Hattiu's  Hay;  but 
returne^l  with  the  ctjnWction  that  it  was  enchised 
by  land  on  every  side,  and  affonied  no  hojKj  of  a 
passage.  The  search  in  this  direction  was  di.s- 
oontinued:  but,  in  1031,  Fox  was  sent  out  by  the 
kint;,  and  James  by  tlie  Bristol  merchants,  to  try 
again  the  rrnite  of  Hudson's  15ay.  F<»x,  after 
vainly  atteni]iting  a  wej^tem  route,  sailed  up  the 
chtmnel  bearing  his  name,  the  most  direct  route  to 
the  strait  of  the  Fury  and  H(K;Ia,  but  stopped 
much  sh(»rt  of  that  jHiint.  James  8t(HKi  to  the 
Houthwanl,  an<l  being  entangled  in  the  eastern 
c<>asts  «if  the  pdj)h,  was  obliged  to  winter  there^ 
where  his  crewsufiered  the  utmost extremitv<»l  ct>ld. 

The  north-western  coast  of  America,  n<>twith- 
Rtanding  the  S))auish  disjioveries,  remained  still 
alm(»st  unknown.  Rut  after  Russia  had  overrun 
SilK?ria,  and  reached  the  shores  of  the  eastern 
oce^n,  her  active  rulers  felt  an  interest  rcs|ie<:ting 
the  opiMisite  continent.  It  was  even  doubted, 
whether  it  wa.s  separated  fn>m  that  of  Asia:  but 
this,  in  172«,  was  nearly  ascertained  by  Hehring, 
who  reache«l  the  eastern  extremitj'  (»f  the  latter 
continent,  on  the  straits  which  l)ear  his  name. 
He  saw  the  land  thence  stretching  NW.,  but  did 
not  discover  anv  part  of  America.  A  few  ye^rs 
after,  Kmpishef,  a  Kossac,  from  Karotschatka, 
descried,  and  sailed  along  it  for  two  davs.  In 
1741,  Ik^hring  and  Tcliirikofl*  were  sent  thitlier  to 
make  a  careful  sur\'ey.  They  were  s<'i)aratwl:  the 
former  reached  the  coast,  and  landed  at>out  the 
latitude  of  oK®.  He  coubl  not  accomplish  his  ob- 
ject of  sun'eying  it  to  Oo^.  and  !>eing  obliged  to 
winter  on  one  of  the  Aleutian  islands,  suffered 
Revere  hardships,  to  which  he  fell  a  Hacriti<*e. 
Tchirikoft*  came  ui  view  of  it  in  al)out  lat.  i)iP: 


but  beuig  unable  to 
l>oat8  in  attempting 
natives,  he  returned 
voy;ige  the  Russians 


land,  and  having  h»st  two 
to  commimicatc  'with  the 
to  KamtM'hatka.  On  this 
found  their  claims  to  the 
American  coast  X.  of  55°;  and  their  traders  soon 
e^tablishetl  along  it  a  chain  of  settlements  with  a 
\iew  to  collecting  furs  and  skins  of  the  sea-otter. 
(Purchas,  iiu  5(MJ,  710.  Narratives  of  Fox  and 
James  Ramjw's  Arctic  Voyages.) 

('apt.  C.'ook  employe<l  his  last  voyage  in  cx- 
aminmg  tlie  n<»rth-west  Iwundaries  of  America, 
and  in  attempting  to  effect  a  north-west  passage. 
He  traced  the  coast  fn.)m  b(P  northwanls,  till  he 
came  to  Carie  IVince  of  Wales,  the  western  limit 
of  the  continent:  then  steered  north-east  till,  in 
alMiut  7<>°,  he  wa.s  arrested  by  an  unbroken  <!hain 
<»f  ice  islands.  He  retunieil,  naming  the  adjacent 
promi»n(orj'  ley  Cai>e;  and  King  and  Clerke  next 
season  in  vain  attempted  to  j-ienetrate  further. 
Tlic  information  obtained  in  this  voyage  induced 
many  Knglish  ships  to  resort  to  this  ct)ast  with  a 
view  to  the  capture  of  the  sea-otter,  for  whose  rich 
Rkin  thexc  in  a  regular  demand  in  the  China  mar- 


ket. Dixon  and  Mean»,  in  thin  puntait..  expkmd 
Xootka  and  the  aiijacent  coastA.  Tlie  Spaniards 
attempted  to  oppose  this  trade,  and  even  captural 
the  Argonaut,  a  Britisli  ve.ssel;  but  were  i4>lig«d 
t«)  witlidraw  their  o)))xi!iition.  Tliey  now  sent 
several  ex|>editions,  particularly  one  luidex  Ayala 
and  iMaurelle:  but  these  could  make  no  dis>ct^'vrr 
which  htul  not  liecn  anticipatOfL  In  1791-2,  Van- 
couver was  employed  in  making  a  careful  tfun'ej 
of  these  coasts,  in  the  hope  of  finding  a  paf^^'^gc 
into  the  Atlantic,  through  one  of  tlieir  niimerxHU 
bays;  but  this  he  prove<l  to  he  uniiracticable. 
itmughton,  under  his  direction,  aw»>nded  th« 
('olumbia  for  about  90  miles.  Cant.  Ciray,  em- 
l>loyed  by  the  United  States,  had  before  l>een  at  its 
mouth,  and  given  it  its  name;  but  he  is  said  never 
to  have  entered  tlie  actual  channel  of  the  river. 

Meantime  some  stra^ling  attempts  after  tlie 
|)assiige  were  made  fnim  the  Atlantic.  In  16«>. 
the  Ilu<lsonV  liay  Com^mny  wa.s  formed,  antl  iin- 
dert4M»k  to  make  exertions  for  this  objc<:t.  'I'liere 
is  however  no  record  of  any  till  1721,  when  Kniglit, 
governor  of  one  of  their  forts,  prevailed  on  them 
to  supiily  him  with  the  materials  for  a  voyairb 
Unfortunately,  lieing  obliged  to  wintor  on  Mnrt>le 
Island,  he  and  his  whole  crew  fell  a  aacriiice  to 
sickness  and  famine.  In  17-41,  Mr.  DobUs  a 
gentleman  of  influence,  and  imbued  with  the 
most  ardent  zeal  on  this  subject,  ]>revailed  on  the 
Admiralty  to  send  out  Ca])t.  Middleton  with  the 
Furnace  lK>mlvketcli.  That  officer,  in  1 742,  sailed 
to  the  head  o(  Sir  Thomas  R<ie's  Welcome,  where 
he  found  on  one  side  Repulse  liay,  (»n  the  other  a 
fn)7en  strait  l)etween  Southampton  Island  and  the 
mainland.  Ha\ing  also  hN>ked  up  Wager  Inlet, 
he  pronounce<l  a  passage  in  thLs  directi'm  im- 
possible. Dobbs  and  others  loudly  nccuscvl  huii  iff 
carelew-ness  and  even  treacherk-,  and  kindled  such 
a  spirit  that  lO.OtRt/.  was  raised  by  suljscriptitin. 
and  {larliameiit  voted  a  Innrnty  of  20,(|(Xi/.  to  the 
subscrilK?re  in  the  event  of  their  nuccess.  Two 
vessels  were  sent  out  under  Captains  Alorr  and 
Smith,  who  however  merely  examine<l  tlie  W.tger 
Inlet,  as4:ertaiiiing  that  there  was  no  jiaseiage,  and 
then  returned. 

]^!aritime  expeditions  were  now  siL««pcnded,  hii; 
sonic  important  discoveries  were  made  by  Lin-L 
Ever  since  Ratfiirs  last  voyage,  the  imprptsoiiin 
had  prevailefl  that  North  America  stretched  in- 
delinitely  towards  the  ixde.  Rut  in  1769,  Mt. 
He;mie,  sent  by  the  Hudson's  Ray  Company, 
descended  C-op]H;rmine  River,  anil  found  it  tn 
terminate  in  a  sea  at  about  05°  X.  lat.  In  \7i*% 
Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  an  agt^nt  of  the  Xt-rth 
W<;st  Fur  C<»mpaiiy,  defended,  much  farthit 
westwawl,  the  great  river  licaring  his  name,  and 
came  to  what  he  tenned  a  lake,  but  whicli,  fmm 
iti4  having  tides  and  containing  whale*,  was  very 
decidedly  judged  to  be  aL-to  a  sea.  There  w.-is 
thus  found  great  ro«>m  to  suppoe>e  that,  in  a  lati- 
tude between  (»t>o  and  7()°,  America  was  boiuidi'd 
by  a  pjeat  Arctic  ocean:  while  from  these  obwn-a- 
tions  conibine<l  with  those  of  CiKik,  the  estimate  of 
its  breadth  was  greatly  enlai^^ed. 

These  considerations  )tnHlua'!il  little  influence, 
till,  after  the  ])eace  of  1K15,  when  the  eneigiei 
cnlle^i  forth  during  the  late  war  sought  a  differc-ni 
direction.  Sir  John  Ranrow  pn^veti  that  the  iin- 
])rc^sion  against  the  existeni^  of  a  ])aMsage.  dn.- 
rived  fwm  former  failures,  rested  on  vor\-  blight 
grounds.  Under  his  aus)>ices,  Capt.  Roiiiswaai  sent 
out  in  IH18,  with  the  isalx'Ua  and  Alexander,  to 
make  a  more  full  trial  in  Ratlin's  Bay.  He 
sailed  entirely  n»und  it.  but  returned  decidetlly 
re|)orring  that  na\'igat<»r*s  opuiion  to  be  corrcvi. 
and  that  it  affonied  no  western  ]Vif«age.  Lieut. 
Parr}'    of  the   Alexander,  however,    and    other 


AMERICA 


107 


of  opinion  that  the  Bpadous  opening 
of  Lancaster  Soond  had  been  quitted  without  due 
examination,  and  affonled  a  favourable  promiM. 
He  wa»  therefofe  Mnt  oat  next  year,  and  though 
Ik  did  not  reach  the  Mmnd  till  August,  foimd  aU 
kb  expectations  fulfilled.    The  shijis,  during  the 
tet  day  after  entering  the  sounds  had  an  un- 
ebetnicted  run  of  upwanbi  of  a  hundred  miles. 
Alia'  sailing  a  little  farther,  he  was  arrested  by 
Me,  and  obliged  to  turn  southwanl  along  the 
eirtcm  shore  of  Prince  Regent's  Inlet.     Being 
axrested  there,  he  returned  northwards,  and  was 
gnuiiied  to  lind  the  passage  to  the  west  become 
qnte  clear.     He  run  along  it  to  beyond  11(P  W. 
kog.,  thns  entitling  the  crew  to  a  royal  bounty  of 
&.0OOI.     He  was  then  obliged  to  noake  arrange- 
■enta  for  f4)ending  the  winter,  during  which,  not- 
withstanding the  most  rigorous  cold,  tlie  health 
ad  spirits  of  the  crew  were  surprisingly  preserved. 
He  was  defeated  in  his  attempt  next  year  to 
fenetzate  further  west,  and  obliged  to  return. 

Capr.  Parry  was  again  sent  out  the  following 
itMx :  but  it  was  now  resolved  to  try  the  channel 
W  the  northern  head  of  Hudson's'  Bay,  which 
llid^eton  was  coniddeied  as  having  by  no  means 
cumpletelT  explored.  He  found  no  reason  to  doubt 
die  accuracy  of  that  navigator;  but  by  pushing  up 
the  Fox  Channd,  he  arrived  at  a  strnit,  named 
rfier  his  vessels  the  Fury  and  Hecla,  which  was 
atontained  to  afford  a  passage  into  the  Polar  sea. 
It  was  so  blocked  up  with  ice,  however,  that  his 
vtBKrft  efforts,  during  two  successive  seasons,  could 
■ot  furce  a  pasaage.  Having  returned  to  England, 
he  was  sent  out  a  third  time^  in  1824,  to  endeavour 
to  penetrate  throu|;rh  Prince  Regent's  Inlet  into  j 
the  open  sea,  of  which  he  had  now  fully  ascertained  | 
tbe  tjogtoice.  The  season,  however,  being  pecu- 
^Trigiiroas,  it  was  not  till  next  summer  that  he 
mdlied  the  western  coast;  and  the  Fur>%  being 
tbeo  tiqaeezed  between  two  masses  of  ice,  sustained 
»  wrere  an  injury,  that  it  became  necessary  to 
•bmdon  her,  and  give  up  all  attempts  to  proceed 
inher. 

Other  means  were  at  the  same  time  resorted  to 
h  exploring  the  northern  boundary  of  America. 
Lieot  Franklin  and  Dr.  Richardson  undertook  to 
(fnoecd  to  the  mouth  of  the  Coppermine  River, 
and  thence  attempt  to  trace  the  whole  const,  from 
tile  foait  dT  the  Fur\'  and  Hecla  to  the  lev  Cape 
of  Cook.  They  sailed'from  England  in  May.  1820; 
wfR  obliged  to  winter  on  the  Athabasca  Lake,  and 
n  Joly,  1H21,  embarked  on  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Tliey 
tamed  to  the  eastward,  but  were  forced  to  take  a 
vcty  circuitoas  course  thruugh  deep  sounds  and 
iakcs.  particularly  the  great  one  named  Coronation 
^voiph.  Hence,  on  reaching  Point  Tumagain,  in 
liySI^  25'  W.  longM  though  the  se.i  continued  open, 
tbe>-  foond  it  necessary  to  return,  from  the  ex- 
hausted state  of  the  eauipment.  The  party,  being 
obliged  to  travel  by  land  over  a  range  of  naked 
territory  broken  by  lakes  and  riven*,  endured  the 
ntmo«(t  extremes  of  human  misery,  and  several 
peivibed  bel<ire  they  could  reach  Fort  Enterprise 
on  the  Coppermine.  They  returned,  however,  with 
onhruken  spirits  and  determination,  and  govern- 
ment libendly  furnished  the  means  of  renewing 
their  efforts.  At  the  same  time,  Capt.  Beechey 
was  Mnt  by  way  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  follow  in 
the  Fteps  oif  CotJc,  and  meet  them  from  the  west- 
ward. Franklin's  new  expedition  set  sail  in  182o, 
wintered  on  (vieat  Bear  Lake,  and  early  next  year 
were  at  the  month  of  the  Mackenzie,  whence  they 
nrrw  proposed  to  begin  their  sur\'cy.  From  this 
|M^<nt  Cape.  Franklin  proceeded  \V. ;  Dr.  Riithard- 
son  £.  The  fcNrmer  expired  a  considerable  extent 
of  cfjaj*t  botdeml  by  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains ;  but,  after  passing  Fqggy  Island,  in  long. 


147°  W.,  the  obstaclei*  became  so  serious  as  made 
it  necessary  to  turn  back.  Meantime,  hcmever, 
Capt.  Beechey  hail  ])assed  Bchring's  Straits ;  and, 
though  the  ship  could  not  Ik*,  navigated  beyond 
the  Icy  Cape  of  Cook,  Mr.  Elson,  in  a  Iwat,  reached 
156°  21'  W.  long.,  where  a  cape  stretched  into  lat. 
71°  23'  N.  The  expeditions  were  thus  within  9 
short  deg.  of  long,  from  each  other ;  of  which  had 
they  been  aware,  thev  would  at  every  cost  have 
pushed  through.  Dr.  kichanlson  succecdeti  in  ex- 
ploring the  whole  coast  betwen  the  Mackenzie  and 
the  Coppermine,  connecting  his  discoveries  with 
those  of  the  former  voyage,  and  leading  unknown 
only  two  comparatively  small  portions  between 
Franklin's  extreme  points  and  those  reached  by 
Beechey  on  one  side,  an<l  Parry  on  the  other. 

Capt.  Ross,  regretting  the  mistake  by  which  ho 
had  failed  to  discover  the  entrance  into  the  Polar 
Sea,  anxiously  sought  the  means  of  retrie\'ing  this 
error.  These  were  fumbhed  by  a  public-spirited 
friend,  Sir  Felix  IkK>th,  and  the  resources  of  steam 
navigation  were  called  forth.  They  were  not  of 
much  avail ;  but  Capt,  Ross,  thnuigh  many  diffi- 
culties, made  his  way  into  Prince  R^ent's  Inlet-, 
and  reached  considerably  farther  than  Parrj'  on  its 
eastern  limit.  He  thrice  wintered  there,  and  ex- 
plore<l  a  great  extent  of  the  adjacent  coasts.  He 
foim<l  himself  on  what  appeared  a  peninsula,  name<l 
Boothia,  reaching  to  74°  N.  lat,  and  connected 
with  the  continent  by  a  narrow  isthmiw.  A  con- 
siderable extent  of  the  American  c(»ast  to  the  west- 
ward was  also  explorwl,  but  without  reaching 
Franklin's  I'umagain.  Commander  Ross  is  con- 
sidered as  having  ascertained  the  site  of  the  mag- 
netic !K»le  on  the  we-stem  coast  of  lk)othia.  Capt* 
Ross,  m  attempting  to  reach  home,  was  obliged  to 
spend  another  winter  near  the  nortlieni  point  of 
the  peninsula.  His  arrival,  in  18118,  occasioned  a 
joj-ful  surprise,  as  the  most  melancholy  forebodings 
had  prevailed  as  to  his  fate. 

During  the  alarm  felt  at  Ids  long  absence,  an 
expedition  to  discover  and  release  him  was  fittM 
out,  partly  by  government  and  partly  by  private 
sul^cription.  It  was  entrusted  to  Capt.  Back,  a 
companion  of  Franklin,  with  the  hope  that  ho 
might  also  make  some  further  discoveries.  Having 
left  England  in  Febniarj',  1833,  he  wintered  at 
the  eastern  end  of  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  next 
summer  descended  a  river  named  the  Thlew-ee- 
chop.  It  terminated  in  a  spacious  Imy,  at  the  end 
of  which  the  coasts  appeared  to  stretch,  one  SE., 
the  other  due  W.  Frem  C^aiw  Ogle,  where  this 
last  direction  began,  was  seen  on  the  E.  an  appa- 
rently boundless  expanse  of  sea.  By  the  obsen'a- 
tions  then  made  it  appeared  jirobable,  that  IkH)tliia 
did  not  form  part  of  the  American  continent ;  but 
was  connected  with  a  more  southerly  peninsula 
which,  along  i^-ith  it,  formed  one  great  island 

In  1838,  the  Hudson's  Bay  Comi>anv  determined 
to  explore  what  was  yet  unkno^*n  in  their  own 
territory'.  Under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Simpson, 
the  resident  governor,  Messrs.  Dcase  and  Sim|)son, 
hi  the  summer  of  1837,  went  over  the  intermediate 
space  between  the  points  reached  by  Franklin  and 
Beechey.  It  was  found  to  run  in  a  nearly  direct 
line,  presenting  no  remarkable  feature  except  the 
eiflux  of  two  lar;^e  rivers.  The  same  gentlemen 
were  employetl,  m  1838,  to  explore  fn>m  Ca|>o 
Tumagain  to  the  strait  of  the  Fury  and  Hecla ;  a 
more  (fifficult  task. 

The  first  im}K)rtant  steps  in  the  dL»covery  of  the 
interior  of  N.  America  were  made  by  the  French 
from  Canada,  under  the  government  of  (^miit 
Frontenac.  Under  his  aus))ices,  loylet  and  Father 
il^larquette,  in  two  Indian  bark  canoes,  undertook 
to  explore  the  vast  regions  on  the  Mississippi. 
Lake  Michigan  then  formed  the  extreme  boundary 


108 


AMERICA 


c»f  Kiiro]>e.in  knowlcdtjo.  From  it,  ascoiuUnp  the 
l'\»x  rivor,  ami  «lesc<'.inliM|;  the  Oiii.sconsni.  they 
roached  the  cent  nil  ntn^jiin,  and  were  a»«tonL(he<l 


tnineil  a  series  of  Moody  iitni^j^los  with  the  fi»- 
tivert,  hy  whom  the  KnglL^h  wens  kei^t  in  [jerpetiud 
alann.  *  It  was  not  till  acme  years  after  the  war  J 


at  its  grandi'ur,  and  the  maje^itlc  finvnt*  on  itii '  inde|>ondcnce,  that   Kmtucky  "wa*  received  into 
*      '         ■  '■       ^  ■    '     "      '  '    '  the  union,  and  that  the  great  tide  of  emignriflo 

began,  which  hurt  covered  the  valley  of  the  Mw- 
HiHHip])i  witli  so  many  populous  aud  flourifhiiu; 
Htateit. 

The  Americanfl  ha\'ing  in  1804  purohsMd  Ijim- 
siana  from  Nap«>le<ju,  claimed  under  tluvt  vasue 
title  the  whole  region  Ut  and  beyond  the  ^ri**!*- 
8i])pi,   and  commenced    operation**  for  expluriii^ 
tliat  vast  territory.    An  ex]>e<litiun  was  axran^l 
by  Mr.  Jefferson,*  then  president,  and  wa-*  le-i  hy 
(iaptains  I^wi*  and  Clarke,  the  former  of  whom 
was  his  private  secretary.     On  tlie    16th  May, 
IH(|4,  they  be^iran  their  vovage  on  the  Missoaii 
Having  ai»cended  l.Hno  miles,   and   reachetl  the 
foot  oif  the  Kocky  Mountain;},   they   found   the 
season  too  far  advanceti  for  cros.-*ing  that  preai 
chain.    They,  therefore,  built  a  fort  namixl  Sl»n- 
tlan,  where  thev  J»|>ent  the  winter.    Early  in  April 
they  were  again  m  movements  and  iu  niui?ti>ea 
days  came  to  the  in  tin  x  of  the  Yellowstone,  almwt 
eqiial  to  the  main  stream.     Having  reachcil  the 
cri'itt  of  the  great  n^.-ky  chain,  the  truvellen*  lie- 
»cende<l  rapidly,  though  not  without  diffitnilriw, 
fnim  the  rugge<lnc!»»  i»f  the  roa*l  and  the  wanr  of 
]>rovirtion8.    They  at  length,  however,  eraliarked 
on  the  southern  branch  of  the  CVdumliia,  wlucb 
they  named  Lewis,  and  after  passuig  icd  faU«  raw 
it  sjtread  into  a  wide  channel,  anil  ultimately  ii[^o 
into  a  bay,  where  they  exultingly  heard  the  >«mnd 
of  breaker*  from  the'  Pacitic.     ITiey  winterct!  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  hastened  back  by  the 
same  route  in  the  following  spring.    They  ww 
not,  however,  the  tirst  who  hmi  cros>otl  the  i*ntiw 
breadth  of  the  continent.     This  liad  l»een  efftctiJ 
in   17y2  by  Sir  Alexander  M'Keuzie,  in  a  aivn 
northerly  quarter;  and  in  180:J,  the  agents  of  the 
Montreal   Comi>.iny  had  cn*K«<cd  the  mountaias 
and  formed  trading  jHists  on  the  northejii  bnujiiei 
of  the  Ciilumbia.     (Journal  of  1).  W.  Ibruxiii, 
And()ver,  1X20.) 

The  American  government  sent,  in  180?, another 
ex{)edition  under  Major  I'ike,   to  tnu,-e  tlu-  yrt 


b'tuks.  In  proceeding  downwnnis,  the  first  ]>eople 
tliov  mot  wen>  the  Illinois  who  ret^eived  them 
hospit.ibly.  Afterwards  they  were  stnick  by  the 
intlux  of  the  mighty  stroain,  deeply  tinged  with 
mud,  of  the  Mi^siMiri  (named  by  them  IN'ketanani). 
Under  the  name  of  (hiui»iskgou,  they  des«?ril)e  the 
unite^l  stream  of  the  Wobash  and*  Ohio.  They 
came  next  to  the  Akam^eas  (at  the  mouth  of  tlip 
Arkansas),  but  fierceiving  now  that  the  river  must 
terminate,  not,  as  had  Xtov.n  supposed,  in  the  (viilph 
of  California,  but  in  tliat  of  Mexico,  tliey  were 
afraid  of  the  Spaniards  mid  retumetL 

When  the  two  tnivellers  arrived  at  Quebec, 
there  happened  to  Ije  in  that  citv  an  enter[irising 
young  Frenchman,  (»f  some  birth  anrl  fortune, 
nameil  Sieur  do  la  Salle,  who  c*ince.ived  an  en- 
thusiastic desin*  to  prosecute  this  can»er  of  dis- 
covery. Through  influence  at  court,  he  pro<:ured 
am|)le  means.  After  s«»nie  time  sjieiit  in  erecting 
fortj*  iifHMi  the  lakes,  he  reached  the  Mis^iN8i]>]>i 
by  a  new  route,  as<'ending  the  Miami  ami  desceu'l- 
ing  the  Illinois.  On  reiic^hing  the  Arkansas,  he 
hesitated  not  to  pn>8ecut.e  his  voyage,  and  jmssed 
along  the  tejritorj'  of  the  Taenais,  Natches,  and 
Quinipissjts.  S<H»ii  after,  by  the  vast  breadth  to 
which  the  waters  expanded,  their  brackish  taste, 
and  the  shelld  on  the  sliore,  lie  discovexcd,  with 
exultation,  that  he  was  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mis- 
aissippL  He  iLtstcned  back  by  the  same  route  to 
Canada,  and  thi>ncc  to  France,  where  lie  was 
received  with  the  highest  distinction,  cn^ted 
governor  of  the  region  he  had  traversed,  and  sent 
out  with  four  shiiis  and  2H0  men.  He  went  by 
the  W.  Indies;  but  inifortuuatelv  he  could  not 
distinguish  the  entrance  of  the  nver,  and,  while 
searching  for  it,  a  mutuiy  arose  among  his  men, 
in  which  he  was  killed. 

About  this  time  Hennepin  aL«o  attempted  to 
reach  the  source  of  the  3li«isissippi;  but,  after 
passing  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  he  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Indians,  detained  long  in  captivity, 
and  thought  himself  happy  in  making  his  escape. 


Some  time  after,    IJaroii    I.ahonian   n>iK»rted  Ids    unknown  head  of  the  Mis^is^ippi.     It  wa«>  fi>iin<l 


having  ascend(r<l  a  great  tributary,  which  he  calls 
Long,  but  which  ajipcars  t^>  be  the  St.  Pi'ter's. 
He  met  s<»me  memlirrs  of  a  distant  tril»e.  who 


in  a  (liriTtion  almost  due  nonh.  not  rising  fri'in 
any  great  natural  range,  but  in  a  flat  marshy 
region,  ami  pas^ing  through  a  numl>er  of  little 


descrilted  a  chabi  of  high  inountauis  lying  to  the    lakes,  the  chief  of  which,  iiame<l  IxH^ch  anil  Ked 


westward,  beyond  whi<'h  was  a  great  salt  lake,  a 
term  which  the  Indians  often  ap])ly  to  the  sea. 
These  iv»rrect  statementA  seem  to  absolve  the 
iMiTfMi's  re]N>rt«  from  the  suspicion  of  fiction,  which 
has  iK'en  sometimes  attaiihcii  to  them. 


Cetlar,  contend  for  the  honour  of  giving  birth  tn 
this  leading  American  water.  Its  length.  l'««s 
pntved  t4>  i)C  at  the  mutual  junction  litth^  loi* 
than  half  the  Missouri,  which  then-fore  riught|'n»- 
perly  to  rank  iin  the  main  stream.     Pike.  t>n  liis 


The  Knglish  colonii^s  on  the  Atlantic  had  made  i  n>.tum,  was  sent  to  explon-  the  ivurse  and  oripn 
a  great  advance  in  ]xi|)ulation  and  wealth.  iK'fore  '  of  the  Arkansas  and  Ke<l  Kivers.     The  former  li« 


they  attempted  to  |K'nctrate  acnws  the  ^Vlleghany. 
An  < opinion  had  indeed  long  prevmled,  that  this 
range  fonneil  an  iiL«iurmountabU>  barrier.  In  1711, 
however,  Sp(»ttisw(Hi<le,  governor  »if  Vii^iia,  sent 
a  p«rty,  who  made  their  way  into  the  western 
territory.  It  wa«  still  some  time  before  tiie 
c(doni^t.s  made  any  attempts  to  settle  there,  and 
when  they  did,  they  were  vigorously  o])|K)sed  by 
the  French,  who,  in  virtue  of  the  settlement  <»f 
Canada  and  the  (Uscovery  of  the  Mississippi, ! 
<'laimed   the  whole    n';rion.     Thev  drove  out  a  '■ 


found  ver>'  luroad,  flowing  through  .a  country 
richly  st«K*keii  with  game,  and  having  its  ifnir-.'e 
hi  the  IftK'ky  Mount, 'dns.  He  lir^t  l.Ylnvcyl^l  un 
idea  of  the  loftiness  vi'  that  chain,  which  be  c^'iii- 
parcd,  though  with  exaggeniti«in,  to  the  (!nrilil- 
lenis.  He  attempted  then  to  des4*cnd  the  Kol 
ITiver.  but  entered  bv  mL-Nfake  on  the  iCio  del 
Norte,  and  ]in»«'eduig  into  the  Mexican  territcry 
was  made  pris(^ner  by  the  S)iniii»rds,  but  hcU 
treated  and  soon  released.  AUiut  the  same  time, 
Mr.  Dunbar  and  Dr.  Hunter,  fn>m  X.-itdn'?.  saWvd 


company  who  attempted  an  establishment  on  the  ;  to  a  c<»nsider:ible  height  up  the  lied  Kivcr  .ind 
( Miio,  and  erect(Nl,  on  the  jiresentsiteof  J*ittsburg,  |  its  triimtary  the  Washita,  ^urveying  the  fertile 
Fort    Diiqiiesne,   which   si  nick  a  general  alarm  |  country' on  their  banks. 

thniiigh  the  pnjx-inces.  The  ci>nque-st  of  Canada, '  After  a  long  sus|MMision,  the  Americ.in  govr«m- 
and  the  ^wace  of  Paris,  hi  17(5:1,  n-moved  this  ment,  in  Isli).  ri'Coniinence«l  thb*  can*or.  Major 
op|K)sition.  Still  the  settlement  was  maiUv.  not  L(»ng  and  Dr.  James  wew;  sent  to  explore  more 
l>y  luiy  combined  or  ollicial  movement,  but  by  precisely  the  we-sieni  territori'  southwanl  of  ilie 
]kx>ne,  and  other  daring  adventurcn,  who  main-    MisbOurL    They  discovered  with  regret   th.ii  a 


AMERICA 

■t  extsidi  Tor  a  breadth  of  abont 
the  Ruclcy  Hounlaina. 
wai  eaiefblly  exaniinnl,  and  its  highest 
not  much  lotxceed  li'.OOO  feet.  Seek- 
nd  tlie  B«d  Kiver,  bv  a  fh»h  fatality 
ok  for  it  the  CaiuuiiaD,  the  loucest 
rttw  Aifcaiuaa,  by  whuie  channel  they 
c  MiwinippL  Ueantime  denenl  Can 
red  in  a  more  careful  exominBtion  of 
TOT,  tm^Dg  in  hia  way  the  wnilhern 
aka  Superior.  Xajor  Long,  on  hii  re- 
ded SL  Peler'i  River,  already  visited 
la  and  Carver.  He  luunil,  rising  finin 
au  KMirces.  the  northern  Ked  River, 
a  into  rhe  British  territory,  and  ends  in 
nip^.  These  sucOHsive  expediiicnu 
to  the    United    Sutea  government  a 

nclqding  those  partu  of  the  continent 
hitherto  been  most  imprrfpctly  known. 
enwise.  which  had  remained    ' 


iha  latter  yeu,  when  Sir  Job 


of  an  open  Polar 
meneed,  wliich  ■ 


■obia 


Hi«  dire 


ived  with 
Fisnklia 


Ihmuch  Lancaater  Sound  and  Harrow's 
^{le  Walker,  and  thence  twuth-weet  to 
^nii,  a  distance  of  about  UIK)  milet; 
BiKl  Ihii  ruuie  unpmciicable,  he  was  to 
dlingtun  Channel  Tho  Krebua  and 
«  aeen  fur  the  lait  time  in  July.  1843, 
bl  after  their  itejiarluri'  from  Kngland. 
faam  the  giivemmeni  at  home  was  oc- 
» in  apetiUatiuns  respecting  their  pro- 
ecnce.  and  plans  of  lelicf;  but  m  1N48, 

led  Sir  John  Richardson  and  l>r.  Kae; 
Aber  waa  cummjuided  hy  SirJameaRwd. 
Boag's  M|iiadron  relumeil  in  IWO,  » 
g  »ttcf«eded  in  geltiDK  to  the  wa 
[aland;  and  in  105J.  the  Hhlps   Kr    . 
1  Invesii^tor  atcaiii   sailed,  the  former 
command  of  Cajilaln  CoIUdbih),  and 
kt  the  command  of  Captain  JlcCli 
t  of  [bis  expedition  waa  tu  search 
Eoast  of  .Vmeriea.  and  the  wciilein  cu.  . 
Ml  and  Ranka'  Land,  Melville  IsUnd, 
Land,  and    the   passage  between, 
e  remit  was  the  discover^'  of  the  Ni 
age.     Having  pa.'vcd  tluT>ugh  Bchring 
fttain  McClure  piuceeded.  according  ' 
Ktinn.v    aliHig    the    northern    coast 
a  Cape  Parry;  then  sailed  KE.  and  d 
dnceof  Wain's  Stra  11,  Itaring  Land,  and 
tc^Iilands.    Upon  theZUlh  of  October. 
ilM  the  Invmli^tor  lay  in  this  strait, 
IcCIure.  having  undertaken  an  exploring 
gn  land,  taw,  fnim   a  hill,  the  frozen 
Meli-ille  Strait  lying  away  to  the. north. 
distance  hie  eye  commanded,  it  was  clear 
and  could  intervene  bet^ 
jland,  so  that  there  was  nothing  to  ob- 
I  JuMge  into  the   Atlantic     'IliaB,  at 
>aTth-west  paHtage  was  found  !    After 


t  adi-iaahle  i 


lacepsto 


M;  but  at  length,  in  1864,  he 
of  England  by  a  route  which 
ily  settled  the  ciuesiion  wliich  had  been 
f  £ugli--*h  seamen  for  nearly  three  bun- 
L  Captain  Collinson,  of  the  '  Enterprise,^ 
to  England  in  May,  1H.55,  havm^  esta- 
h*  fact  of  the  connection  of  Victoria, 
[bcTt,  and  Wollaston  Lands,  and  bring- 
turn  some  fr^^enrs,  supposed  to  have 
to  tbe    Erebus    and    Terror.     In   both 


AMERSHAM 

109 

h(M  diMoveries, 
by  Dr,  Rae,  who 

tetween  the  yea 

kmencan  exped 

howe>-er,he  had  been  rorestalled 

had  been  sent  out  in  I8fia.  lo 

of  Bolt  his,  and  other  points. 

rs  IH.iO,  and   1867,  numerous  ex- 

nt  out,  amongst  othen  a  second 

ion,  nnder  Dr.  Karre.  which  re- 

In  1867  the  search  was  com- 


tock  sailed  in  the  Fox  for  tbe  Arctic  Seas.    Tbe 
results  obtained  hy  this  expedition  were  of  tbe 

the  unhappy  enil  of  Franklin's  enterprise,  but  aa 
'  ig,  from  the  route  tbroiigb  vhich  be  waa 
Iraceil.  [hat  he,  after  all,  is  entitled  to  tbe  honour 
of  being  the  earliest  discoverer  of  the  Konh-wwt 
passage.  Captain  MeClintock's  vovage  has  also 
fumisliod  consideiable  geographical  information, 
donn  tho  cuasl-line  of  Boolhia,  from 
it  to  the  Slagnelic  Pule,  delineated 
im'i  Island,  anil  openeil  a  new  channel 
la  .Strait  to  Melville  or  ranj-  SountL 
ieved  the  navigation  of  Bellot  Sirait. 
.  ain  McClintock'n  rclum,  Jlr.  Hall, 
of  Cincinnati,  started  on  a  renewed  search  for 
the  Erebus  and  Teiror.  Two  other  cxpedltiona 
from  America  departed  in  tbe  course  of  the  years 
1S60-61,  to  attempt  the  voyage  to  the  Pole.  In 
England,  the  project  of  a  new  Xortb  Polar  expc- 
(Ution  is  at  present  (lAGA)  under  discussion,  opi- 
{  divided  aa  to  the  Smith  Siound  or 
Spiliberj,-en  routes. 

In  British  Xorth  America,  Mr.  Palliser's  sur- 
veying; expedition,  which  wan  lininhcd  in  186U, 
has  disclosed,  between  the  soulbem  end  of  Lake 
Winnipeg  and  the  base  of  the  Kocky  .Mountaioa 
■  fertile  tract  of  land  admimbly  lltled  fiir  coloni- 
aation.  An  expedition  despatched  by  the  Cana- 
dian government,  under  tbe  chaige  of  Profcasor 
Hind,  has  also  made  important  investigations  in 
the  country  west  of  Lake  Superior,  giving  good 
ground  for  the  belief  that  tlie  Itasm  of  Lake  Win- 
nipeg will  one  day  have  '  a  great  future.' 

In  Central  America,  surveyH  have  been  under- 
taken for  an  Inierocearuc  Railway  acroes  Honduras, 
and  in  South  America  the  vast  project  has  been 
started  of  a  railway  over  the  Chilian  Andes,  from 
Copiapo,  aciDSB  tbe  Argentine  provinces,  to  Rosario 
on  the  Parana. 

AMERKOTE,  a  town  and  fort  of  India,  terri- 
tory of  Sinde.  in  the  desert,  S5  m.  E.  Hyderabad; 
lat.  25°  2(y  N.,  long,  6!)°  49*  E.  The  emperor 
Acbar  was  bom  here  m  1541. 

AMERSFORT,  a 
Utrecht,  on  the  Eer 

this  point,  12  ra.  EN'E.  Utrecht,  Pop.  12,' 
1861.  It  is  weU  built  and  well  fonilled; 
court  of  original  jurisdiction,  a  college,  a  coi 
Hon  of  agriculture,  with  manufactures  of  fui 
■■    ■  ■  "       '  izeens.     It  i:    ' 


le  Netherlands,  prov. 


jvated  in  the  eoiitiguou 


ilory ;  and  has  a  considerable  transit  trade  in 
produce  from  Germany,  embarited  here  in  Hal- 
Dottomed  boats  from  Amsterdam.  The  distin- 
guished statesman  and  grand  pensionary,  Bame. 
veldt,  sBcriflced  in  1S17  to  the  fanaticism  of  the 
people  and  tbe  hatred  of  Prince  Maurice,  was  ■ 

AHEKSUAM,  a  bor.  and  pa.  of  England,  couuty 
BuikinKham,  near  the  Colnc,  36  m.  WSW.  Lon- 
don. Pop.  of  parish,  a,a60  in  JUil.  Tbe  town 
consists  of  one  long  street,  crossed  by  a  shorter 


110 


AMESBURY 


attached  thrco  cxhibitioiiH  at  Corpus  Christi  col- 
lejfc,  Oxfonl,  ^i-ith  almsliuusea  and  tliree  charities. 
A  go<Ml  do4il  of  black  lace  is  manufactured,  and 
the  market  is  well  attended.  Previously  to  the 
lieform  Act,  by  which  it  was  dii^franchi^M^d,  this 
l)i)rou;;h  sent  two  mcmi)ers  to  the  II.  of  C,  the 
ri'cht  of  votin;;  bcin^  in  the  uihabitants  paving 
scot  and  lot ;  l>ut  these  beinp:  all  tenants  of  the 
lord  of  the  manor,  it  was  in  fact  a  nomination 
borou^^h. 

AMESBURY.  or  AMBRESBUKY,  a  nu  town 
and  [>ar.  of  England,  co.  Wilts.  The  town  is  situ- 
ate<l  on  the  Avon,  7J  m.  X.  Salisbury.  Tlmuj;h 
inconsiderable,  it  is  noto^  for  the  ruins  of  an  abbey, 
the  xairinitv  of  Stonehenge,  and  for  having  been 
the  birth-place  of  Addison.  The  parb«h  comprises 
C,m)  acres,  with  a  pop.  of  1,138  in  IHGI. 

AM  II A K  A.  a  division  of  Abyssinia,  which  seo^ 

AMHERST,  a  sea-port  town  of  the  Brit,  prov. 
of  Martaban,  India  Iteyoud  the  (langcs,  and  the 
chief  British  militarv  and  commercial  station  in 
the  provinces  E.  the  Yhan-lweng  river,  on  a  point 
<»f  land  in  the  NE.  angle  of  the  (xulph  of  i^Iar- 
taban,  facing  the  moutli  of  the  Than-lweng  and 
the  Isle  of  Balu  to  the  N.  Lat.  1G0  4'4»"X., 
l(jng.  970  35'  24"  E.  Estimated  i>op.  5,000.  Am- 
herst was  founde<l  in  1826,  aft.er  the  restoration  of 
the  to^ii  of  Martaban  to  the  Binnese,  in  the  view 
of  serv'ing  as  a  military  |Ktst,  and  a  commercial 
establishment,  and  as  an  asylum  for  such  refuge<»s 
as  might  choitse  to  emigrate  from  the  Binnese 
dominions.  The  apex  of  the  pn»montorj',  which 
is  the  highest  spot  m  the  town,  is  occupied  by  the 
church,  goveni(»r's  house,  court  of  justice,  fortifi- 
cations and  other  public  buildings;  on  the  higher 
ground  around  it  arc  the  EuropeAU  and  Chinese 
(piartcrs;  and  the  lowest  are  by  choice  inhabited 
by  the  natives.  The  military  cantonments  are 
about  H  m*  distant^  in  a  dr}',  level,  and  elevated 
spot.  The  harbour  is  s])acious  and  seciune,  wth  3 
lath,  water  at  low  nea])  tides:  rise  and  fall  al>ove 
19  ft.,  with  a  tlow  of  t>  m.  an  hour,  and  perfectly 
still  for  2  hours  bf>th  l>efore  and  after  high  water. 
Sliips  may  lie  within  100  yards  of  the  shore. 
Mangrove  and  a  kind  of  oak  are  abundant  here, 
and  there  are  teak  forests  at  no  great  distxmce. 
G<hm1  water  is  found  everywhere  6  feet  below  the 
surface. 

Amiikkst,  a  town  of  the  IT.  States,  Hampshire, 
CO.  ]\lassac*liusets,  82  m.  W.  Boston.  Pop.  3,0.'>2  in 
18G0.  A  collide  was  established  here  in  182 1, 
which  luis  an  observat^try  and  a  good  cabinet. 
Amherst  is  the  name  of  some  other  places  in  the 
U.  States. 

AMIIERSTBURliH,  a  small  town  of  Upper 
(Canada,  on  I)An>it  R.,  3  m.  above  its  embouchure 
in  Lake  Erie,  and  14  m.  below  Detroit.  It  was 
founded  during  the  adminUtration  of  Lord  Am- 
herst, and  was  named  after  his  lordship. 

AMIEXS  (an.  Sainarobnva)j  a  city  of  France, 
cap.  dep.  Somme,  on  the  river  of  that  name,  72 
m.  N.  Paris,  on  the  (ireat  Northern  of  France 
railway.  Pop.  58,780  in  18(>l.  Amiens  has  a 
citadel  c«mstructed  by  Henry  IV.  It  is  well  built; 
streets  for  the  most  part  straight  and  clean;  and 
it  has  some  tine  squares  and  promenades.  The 
old  Gotliic  cathedral,  in  eJtcellent  presentation,  is 
one  of  tlie  finest  in  P^urope.  It  is  30G  ft,  in  length 
and  132  in  height-  Anumg  the  other  public  build- 
ings may  be  six-cifieti,  the  Royal  C/Ollege,  theatre, 
Hotel  d*e  Ville,  corn-market,  courts  of  justice, 
barracks,  semuiary  of  St.  Acheul,  and  chateau 
d'Eu.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  has  a  cour  Im- 
periale,  a  court  of  assizes,  a  commercial  tribunal,  a 
custom-house,  a  public  library  containing  above 
40,000  vols.,  an  academy,  an  academy  of  sciences 
anid  belles-lettres,  a  free  school  of  design,  and  a  bo- 


AMMAN 

tanical  garden,  Ac  Manufactures  very  ooonda 
able.  They  consist  prindpally  of  keneymat 
cassimeres,  merinoes,  and  seiges,  made  paitly  • 
home,  anil  partly  of  German  and  Spamah  ira 
The  linen  trailo  is  also  coDsiderable;  bat  it  ii  m 
sur{)assed  by  that  of  cotton.  There  are  annul 
produced  about  60,000  pieces  of  cotton  velvet,  t! 
a^O^ate  value  of  which  is  estimated  at  idw 
8,(»O0,0OO  fr.;  and  about  400  looms  are  uocii|i 
in  the  production  of  velvets  cftfes  dTUtnc 
Tliere  are  also  several  mills  for  the  sfMnnini; 
cotton  and  flax ;  with  dye  and  bleach-wort 
manufactures  of  machinery,  beet-ioot  sogar,  s 
chemical  products;  tanneries,  soa]>- works,  s 
|>aper-mills.  The  pdt^*  de  canard  made  here  . 
highly  esteemed.  Flat-bottomed  vostfcls.  drawl 
from  40  t4>  50  tons,  come  up  the  river  to  the  loi 
which  is  the  centre  of  a  very  considerable  tn 
OS  well  in  its  own  productions  as  in  those  of 
surrounding  couutr)*.  Amiens  is  very  anck 
1)eing  supp«jsed  to  have  existed  anterior  to 
invasion  of  Belgium  by  the  Romans.  It  is  knc 
in  diplomatic  history  from  the  circiunstanoe  0 
detiuitive  treaty  of  peace  between  England  t 
the  French  republic  having  been  signed  in  it 
the  25th  March,  1802.  It  is  the  birth-place 
Peter  the  Hermit,  the  apostle  of  the  first  crosa 
of  I>ucange,  author  of  the  Ghtaarium  ad  Sei 
tore*  laeditB  et  infinue  LMtinitatUn  a  wrsrk  of  w 
derful  research  and  labour;  and  of  Delambre, 
leameil  author  of  the  most  accurate  though 
the  most  eloquent  liistory  of  astronomy. 

AMJHERRA,  a  small  liajpoot  state  of 
Indui,  Malwa,  46  m.  WSW.  Iiidur.  Area  5M 
m.  Pop.  about  58,000.  I^Iaize,  cotton.  fa| 
cane,  and  gnun,  are  the  chief  products.  Ther 
a  town  of  the  same  name  60  m.  N  W.  CKijein,  c 
taining  about  500  houses,  and  laige  and  well  s 
plied  1)azaars. 

Ai^rLVVCH,  a  sea-|H>rt  town  of  N".  Wales, 
shore  of  the  Island  of  Anglesea,  at  the  t^mi 
of  a  branch  line  of  the  Chester  and  Holyh 
railway.  Pop.  5,949  in  18t)l.  The  town  rose  fi 
the  state  uf  an  inconsiderable  tishing  ^Hll^gc 
consequence  of  the  discovery  of  the  famous  cof 
mines  in  the  adjoining  Pan'^s  Mountain  in  11 
It  has  a  pretty  good  port,  excavated  from 
solid  rock.  During  the  flourishing  period  of 
mines,  tliev  produce<l  above  3,000  tons  a  veai 
pure  metal;  but  they  have  been  gradually 
dining  for  several  years.  Amlwch  is  united  v 
Beaumaris,  Holyhead,  and  Llangefni,  in  retan 
a  memljer  to  the  II.  of  C. 
.  AM:^rAN  (the  Rabbah  of  the  Scriptural, 
Philadelphia  of  the  (Greeks),  a  city  of  Syria  E 
the  Jordan,  deserted  and  in  ruins;  lat.  32^  8* 
long.  36^  8'  E.;  25  m.  SE,  Dead  Sea,  and  SO 
E.  Richa  (an.  Jericho), 

Tlie  remains  of  Amman  arc  very  extensive^ 
none  of  them  seem  to  be  older  than  the  nara  of 
I i reek  power  in  Syria.  They  consist  of  tbeai 
temples,  and  colonnades,  of  great  beauty  and  k 
tinish,  some  of  them  being  in  ver)'  perfect  prese) 
tion.  A  great  number  of  private  houses  still 
main,  but  there  is  not  a  single  inhalntant. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  dries  mentio 
in  Jewish  histor\'.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  J 
monites,  a  people  undisturbed  by  the  Israeli 
settlement  in  Palestine,  and  with  whom  the  J 
lived  in  a  state  of  suspicious  truce  ull  the  «r 
Jephcthah,  about  11(>1  B.C.  Thenceforward 
two  nations  were  in  almost  constant  hostil 
generally  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  Ammcmi 
and  in  1035  b.c.  DaWd  took  their  capitaL 
notwithstanding  this  untoward  event,  and  the 
successful  war  they  waged  against  JehoMup 
(b.c.  896),  and  Jotham  (b.c.  760),  they  contu 


IHR 

Id  be  t  powerfiil  people,  and  about  600  years  b.  a 
fifpGea  Xebucbadnezzar  with  a  strong  auxiliary 
lone  to  amaat  in  the  destruction  of  their  old  ene- 
witk   Amman  was  subsequently  included  in  the 
AHrriin  and  Persian  empires;  and  after  the  battle 
of  Lnis  (B.C.  333),  it  passed,  with  the  rest  of 
Srrit  and  Palestine,  into  the  hands  of  the  Greeks. 
Ib  218  B.  c.  Palestine  was  the  scene  of  war  be- 
tween AntiochuB  the  Great  and  Ptolemy  Philo- 
ptter:   the  f comer  of  whom  utterly  destroyed 
Anmian.    Having  been  rebuilt  by  Ptolemy  Phila- 
ddphuik  it  received  from  him  its  Greek  appellation 
of  PhUadelphia.    It  became  a  Roman  town  in  the 
hrt  centurv  b.  (X,  and  remained  such  till  the  con- 
opeit  of  f*alestine  by  the  Saracens,  a.  d.,  G38. 
Inder  the  Christian  emperors  of  the  East,  Am- 
man appears  to  have  been  a  bishop's  see,  but  it 
was  declining  before  its  capture  by  the  Arabs,  and 
Abul-Feda,  in  the  early  part  of  the  14th  ccutur}', 
4BBcnbes  it  as  already  deserted. 

The  ruins  of  Amman  stand  on  the  banks  of  a 

insAif  which  issuing  from  a  la^e  pond  at  the  SW. 

eoner  of  the  town,  flows  (partly  under  ground) 

over  a  dinty  bed  into  the  Zerka  (an.  Jab^k)  an 

■fluent  of  the  Jordan.    The  water  of  this  stream 

k  excellent,  a  circumstance  which  renders  the  spot 

t  dearahle  halting-place  for  caravans,  the  drivers 

tf  which  Oiie  the  ancient  temples  and  buildings  as 

ibelter  for  their  beasts,  fulfilling,  it  is  supposed  by 

mne  i^udents  of  prophecy,  the  denunciation  of 

Eiduel.  *  I  will  make  Rabbah  of  the  Ammonites 

a  suble  for  camels  and  a  couching-nlace  for  flocks.' 

(Nombeni  to  Chronicles,  pastim ;  rolybius,  lib.  v. 

op.  5.  and  C. :  Robinson,  ii.  172-175.) 

AMMEILSCHWIHR,  or  MarivUlier,  a  town  of 
Fnnce,  dep.  Haut  Rhin,  4  m.  N\V.  Colmar.  Pop. 
2.ti36  in  1861.  Excellent  wine  is  grown  in  the 
Bflfiihhoartioud. 

JlMOL  a  city  of  Persia,  prov.  Mazunderan,  on 
theHcnuz,  about  12  m.  above  where  it  faUs  into 
tbe  southern  part  of  the  Caspian  Sea ;  lat  3(P  30' 
X,l««.  0-29  2^  55"  E.  Pop.  differs  at  different 
MMoitt:  but  in  winter,  when  greatest,  is  estimated 
WMt  Frtzer  at  from  35,000  to  40,000.  The  prin- 
ce uMect  WOTth  notice  is  a  mausoleum  erected 
br  Shah  AUms  over  the  remains  of  a  former  dis- 
tini;ai»bed  M>vereign  of  Saree  and  Amol,  who  died 
b  \^'K  This  magnificent  structure  has,  however, 
iieui  injured  by  an  earthquake,  and  b  rapidly  de- 
carug.  There  is  a  bridge  of  12  arches  over  the 
Hcraoz,  and  there  are  in  the  >'icinity  of  the  town 
■uuy  mounds  and  other  remains  of  Persian  anti- 
quities. The  bazaars  are  extensive,  and  well  sup- 
I^ied  with  certain  articles ;  but  it  has  Uttlc  trade 
or  ioduMiT.  Mr.  Frazer  could  not  find  tea  cither 
iMte  or  at  Balfiroosli,  and  the  inhabitants  had  never 
lw«nl  of  coffee.  Chillaw  and  nuu,  that  is  plain 
b.<i]ed  lice  and  sour  curds,  is  the  common  food  of 
tbe  people,  some  of  whom  season  it  with  a  little 
nit  &Jl  (Fraser^s  Southern  Banks  of  the  Caspian 
Sea.  jK  101.) 

AMOOR,  or  AMUR,  a  large  river  of  E.  Asia, 
vhioh  has  its  sources  in  Mongolia.    It  is  formed 
1^'  ihe  junction  of  two  great  rivers,  the  Onon  or 
ChUka,  which  rises  nearly  under  the  110  dog.  of 
Elfog:  and  the  50  d(^.  of  N.  lat.,  and  the  Kerou- 
lon  m  Argoun,  which  rL^es  nearly  imder  the  same 
OMriilian,  but  about  2^  deg.  more  to  the  S.     Tlie 
bfter  river  travern^  the  great  lake  of  Koulon,  and, 
iMiiiig  {torn  it,  and  pursuing  a  NE.  course,  forms, 
or  recently  formed,  for  a  considerable  distance,  the 
line  of  demarcation  between  the  Russian  and  Chi- 
nese empires.    The  Keroulun  and  Onon  imite  near 
the  fort  i4  Ruklanova,  in  about  the  1 20th  deg.  E. 
luc^    The  combined  river  having  taken  the  name 
«f  Amoor,  flows  E.  and  BE.,  till,  at  its  most  S. 
pomt,  it  is  joined  by  its  large  tributary,  the  Soon- 


AMOUR  (ST.) 


Ill 


gari,  flowing  NE. :  the  Amoor,  having  suddenly 
taken  the  same  direction,  preserves  it  during  the 
remainder  of  its  course,  till  it  falls  into  the  arm  of 
the  sea  opposite  the  N.  end  of  the  island  of  Sag- 
halien,  or  Tchoka,  in  about  the  53d  deg.  of  lat.  and 
the  140th  deg.  of  long.  The  entire  course  of  the 
river,  to  the  source  of  the  Keroulun^  reckoned  the 
principal  branch,  is  estimated,  inclusive  of  its  wind- 
ings, at  2,641  m.  It  is  na\'igable  by  steamers  fn)m 
June  to  November,  when  it  is  free  of  ice,  to  a  dis- 
tance of  2,200  m.  from  the  sea.  In  the  lowej  part 
of  its  course  it  flows  through  a  comparatively  rich, 
well-cultivated  country ;  but  the  coimtrj-  round  its 
sources,  and  the  upper  part  tjf  its  course  W.  of  the 
Kingan  Yalo  mountains,  being  contiguous  to  the 
great  desert  of  Shamo  or  Gobi,  has  the  same 
characteristics.  The  Russian  fort  of  Nertschinsk 
stands  on  the  Nertscha,  near  where  it  falls  into 
the  Cbilka.  In  1854,  a  Rus^an  expedition  went 
down  the  Amoor,  planting  a  number  of  posts,  and 
securing  to  Russia  possession  of  the  course  of  tho 
river  to  the  sea,  and  tho  whole  countrj'  to  tho 
north.  In  1861  the  Russians  also  acquired,  by 
treaty  with  China,  all  the  region  east  of  the  lower 
Amoor  and  the  river  Ussuri,  an  afiluent  from  the 
south,  which  joins  the  Amoor  in  lat.  34°  40'  N., 
giving  to  Russia  the  sea  coast  as  far  south  as  Capo 
Sisdro,  in  the  Sea  of  Japan,  llie  Rusi^ian  terri- 
tory is  diWdod  into  the  prov.  of  the  Amoor  (cap. 
Blagoveschensk),  area  718,500  sq.  m.,  p<^p.  40,000, 
and  the  maritime  prov.  of  E.  Siberia,  separated  by 
the  Kingan  mountains.  The  country  is  as  yet 
very  sparsely  inhabited.  The  chief  places  on  the 
recently  acquired  coast,  counting  from  S.  to  N., 
are — Victoria  Ray,  or  Peter  the  Great  Gulph ;  Port 
Seymour,  or  Ogla  Bay ;  and  Vladimir  Bav,  in  the 
Sea  of  Japan ;  Constantinovsk,  or  Port  Imperial, 
on  Barracouta  harbour ;  Alexandrovsk,  on  Castries 
Bay,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river :  and  Nicolaievsk, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  in  the  Gulph  of  Tartary. 
The  trading  places  in  the  interior  are  mostly  on 
the  banks  of  the  Amoor.  The  Russians  have' also 
the  port  of  Dui,  in  the  island  of  Saghalien,  and 
coal  IS  found  in  the  neighbourhood.  Witliin  the 
last  few  years  a  considerable  trade  has  groHn  up 
along  the  shores  of  the  Amoor.  In  the  year  1864 
there  arrived  9  foreign  ships  at  Nieolaievsk,  name- 
ly— 3  American,  2  German,  and  4  Danish.  In  1864 
a  Russian  government  steamer  openeil  the  na\'iga- 
tion  of  the  Poongari,  ascending  a  distance  of  up- 
wards of  600  miles,  as  for  as  the  Chinese  tovs-n  of 
Guirine,  a  most  populous  place,  estimated  to  con- 
tain above  100,000  inhabitants.  The  Russian  na- 
val force  in  the  Amoor  river  was  comi)oscd,  in 
1864,  of  6  cor\'ettes,  mounting  11  gims  each;  7 
schooners,  each  of  them  with  6  guns;  and  1 1  steam 
transports,  vrith  a  total  of  37  guns.  (Consular 
Reports ;  Ravenstein,  E.G. ;  The  Russians  on  tlie 
Amur,  Lond.  1861.) 

AMORGO  (an.  Amorgoa)^  an  island  of  the  Gre* 
cian  Archipelago,  about  36  m.  in  circumference, 
hnng  SE.  from  Naxia,  m  about  36°  50'  N.  lat, 
and  under  the  26th  deg.  of  E.  long.  Pop.  esti- 
mated at  between  2,000  and  3,000.  It  is  m  part 
moimtalnous  and  rocky ;  but,  in  antiquity,  it  was 
noted  for  its  fertility,  and  is  still  well  cultivated, 
producing  more  com  and  wine  than  the  inhabitants 
can  consume.  It  contains  a  town  of  the  same 
name.  Port  St.  Anna,  on  the  N.  shore  of  the 
island,  is  an  excellent  harbour,  \iith  goixi  anchor- 
ing ground  in  fn»m  18  to  20  fathoms.  Simonidcs, 
famous  in  antiquity  for  Ids  iambics,  was  a  native 
of  Amorgos. 

AAIOUR  (ST.),  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Jura, 
cap.  cant,  9  m.  SVV.  Lons-le-Saidhier.  Pop.  2,343 
in  1861.  It  has  a  forge,  a  nail  work,  a  considerable 
marble  work,  and  tanneries 


112 


AMOY 


A.'VrOY,  a  f»o.i-]M)rt  town  of  China,  prov.  Fokion, 
wiili  a  oomnuMliims  ami  «'<Mire  harlHiur:  lal.  24° 
10'  X..  Ion;,',  llso  10'  K.  It  U  i.nc;  of  iho  i)ortH 
iio'.v  o|H'n  lo  fon'i^i  tradi;  in  China.  Tliouj^h  Mlii- 
nu-i\  in  one  of  the  leaj^t  fertih*  distriots  of  the 
empire,  the  mrrdiants  of  Aniov  cam-  on  a  verv 

I  •  •  ■* 

f'Xii:u>ivo  intoroourso  with  Konno>a,  wlieucc  they 
irrn)«irt  |»n)vi?<ions,  with  the  otlier  Chinese  |>ort8  to 
the  N.  and  S.,  and  M'ith  Siani,  Java,  Sin|^a]Hire, 
till*  SiM>-l<M>  islands,  «Jti".  Kxjiorts  to  foreign  coun- 
tries, tea,  and  silk  ;  imj.»«irts.  rire,  hn;^ar,  ramphor, 
iVc.  In  18G2  the  nunilK»r  of  liritish  vessels  t-ntcr- 
ini^  the  jMirt  was — steamers  TiCi ;  sailing  vessob* 
i»7  ;  total  tonnajre,  W».ini>.  The  niunljorof  foreign 
vessels,  other  than  British,  wits  2(U  ;  tonnage, 
7n.;V.».s.  The  esiiinatiHl  value  of  the  expirts  in 
IJriti^li  vess«!ls,  in  Si»anish  dollars,  was  2.0i>*J.0 13 
(:'i'.)r,.-j-jn/.) :  iin|M)rts,  in  Spanish  dollars.  ,V>iU,U*Jl. 
Th«-n*  had  hnn  a  very  great  liecrease  in  the  tr.-ule 
as  eoni|ian*d  with  IHdo  and  \x*tl.  owing  <'hii  tly  t<» 
I  he  heavy  rxai'lions  levied  by  local  authorities, 
(l.'onsular  lIr|K»rts.) 

AMl'FINti,  a  village  of  IJavaria,  (?  m.  W.  l.y 
X.  !MuhKlorf.  A  gn*at  battle  was  f»»ught  hi  the 
vieiiiily  of  this  village,  on  the  J'^ih  September. 
l.'I'J'i.  U'twoen  Louis,  duke  of  Havana,  eni|K»ror  of 
(iemiany,  and  Fre(h;riek,  arehduke  of  Austria, 
when  the  latter  was  entirely  ch^feated  and  niaile 
l)ris<iner.  (Pfellel.  anno  l;i22.)  It  was  from  tl4s 
point  also  that  Moreau  commenced  Ids  famous 
reirt'at  in  \f<w. 

AM1*LKI*L'1S,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Klume, 
1!»  m.  WSW.  Villefranrhe.  Pop.  it.'Ml  in  l««il. 
It  has  niaintfaetures  of  Unen  and  cotton,  particu- 
larly the  latter. 

AMPTJIILL,  a  m.  town  and  p.  of  Knglanil,  co. 
Tiedford,  h.  K<'db<jnistoke,  {'ih  m.  N\V.  London. 
l*op.  2,01 1  in  isi'il.  It  is  neatly  binlt,  has  a  eha- 
rity  sch(M»l  for  lo  po(»r  children,  ami  an  hospitid 
fur  10  ]><M»r  nj«*n  and  women.  Ampthill  J*ark,  a 
m.igintlcent  mansion,  the  property  of  Lord  Hol- 
land, is  situated  a  little  to  the  W.  of  the  toA\ii. 

AMPl'KIAS,  a  town  and  castle  of  Sjuiin,  NE. 
part  «if  Catalonia,  on  the  Llohregat.  near  the  sea, 
21  m.  NK.  (leroim.     INip.  2,500  in  18.'»7. 

AMK'AN,  a  wailed  city  of  Arabisi,  in  the  Dsje- 
Ih^I.  or  mountain  land  of  Yemen,  l>eing  the  chief 
town  of  a  district  of  the  smie  name;  lat  \!P  '.i'2' 
N.,  long.  4:P  ?.S'  E. ;  2o  m.  NW.  Sanaa,  and  10-1 
>»'K.  Ilodeida.  Pop.  unknown,  but  may  ])n)l)ahly 
amount  to  fmm  l.')00  to  2,000.  It  stan<lH  near  a 
mount :un,  in  a  fertile  country,  in  the  centre  of  the 
coffee  lands,  the  dep.  to  which  it  gives  name  being 
a  part  of  Ilaschid-u-Hekel,  one  of  the  most  iioteil 
tlivisitins  of  Yemen  for  the  growth  of  cofl'ee,  Axn- 
nui  is  not^  lu)wever,  politically  imited  with  the 
state  of  lla.schi(l-ii-Iiekel,  but  is  under  the  g<»vem- 
raent  of  the  Imam  of  Yemen  Proi>er.  (Niebuhr, 
Des.  <le  I'Ar.,  ]Kir.  ii.  pi>.  127-220.) 

AMKKTSiK  or  UMKITSIR  {Pool  of  Tmmor- 
taiitt/),  a  town  of  the  Punjab,  India,  the  holy  city 
of  the  Seikh  ])eople,  41  m.  E.  Lahore;  lat.  31° 
y,:V  X.,  long.  43°  3«'  E.  I»op.  estimated  at  i>0.0(K). 
It  is  an  open  town,  about  8  m.  in  ciro.;  street* 
narrow;  houses  lofty,  and  built  of  l)umt  bricks, 
but  the  apartments  are  smalL  Manufaotunis  in- 
considerable ;  but  Iteing  situated  on  the  Idgli  n^ad 
between  CaiKH)!  and  Delhi,  and  Cachmen!  and  the 
Decern,  it  enjf»y»  an  extensive  trade,  and  is  tlic 
H'^idence  of  several  rich  merchants  and  bankere. 
It  Is  defended  by  a  fort  built  by  the  Ilunject  Singh, 
who  united  it  to  the  I^avee  by  a  canal  34  m.  in 
length. 

The  town  derives  its  entire  celebrity  from  its 
iK'ing  the  ]mncipal  se.it  of  the  Seikh  religion. 
Amret.«.ir,  or  the  Pool  of  Immortality,  is  a  basin 
135  paces  square,  biult  of  brick,  in  the  midst  of 


AMSTERDAM 

which  is  a  temple,  covered  with  *  burnished  cnid 
[Burnes)^  de«iicated  to  the  warrior  saint  Goom)       i 
(ioviud  Singh,  the  principal  fonniler  of  the  religitiB       I 
and  |K)wer  of  the  Si'ikhs.     Within  thL<  temple  k       f 
presi'rved,  under  a  silken  canopy,  the  Grinth  Sdiik^      r 
or  sacred  Un^k  of  the  Seikhs,  being  a  code  cii  Itm 
and  ordinances,  princi|)ally  c<>mpiled  by  the  ahnre 
siujit.   The  temple  is  attendeil  by  a  uumcTooii  Itnd? 
i»f  ]>riej<t-s,  who  arc  «upjK»rted  by  the  voluniaiT 
offerings  of  the  <levotees  by  whom  it  i»  frequented. 
Immersion  in  the  sacred  pxd  is  beliove«l  In*  the 
Seikhs.  and  many  tril)es  of  Ilindooti,  to  irurifr 
from  all  sin. 

In  I84ti  a  treaty  was  signe<l  at  AmreLsir,  ly 
which  the  territorj-  ci»mpris<»d  Iwtween  the  riven 
IJeas  and  Sutlej  was  cede<i  to  the  British. 

'Hie.  total  annual  value  of  the  trade  of  Amn-t^ir 
is  estimated  tt)  exceed   l,t)0(},(HHi/.   sterling,  the 
mti>t  im|Hirtaut  items  being — sh.iwl  fabrics.  ab<Kil 
2;;:),ooo/.;  (jotton  piece  g«KHls  23.*i.<;(M.i/. ;  raw  silk, 
I47,0(M.«/. :  silk  fabrics,  4 ?<,('•( Mi/.:  spic<»."*.  ilnigssT»>- 
«<'ry,  and  halienhisher>',  (U;,00o/.;  and  tcji,  U),*mL 
The  remuintler  is  made  up  of  a  great  variety  of 
articles,  inchidnig  m.idder,  alum,  indigo,  tr^bacco, 
siigjir,  jewels,  and  ciHdiineal.     The  silk  manu- 
facture is  a  ver\'  important  one  at  Amrctsir.  as  well 
as  at  Lahore  and  !ViiM>ltan.    The  raw  silk  is  im- 
!  ported  from   Kokand,   Itokhara,   Ualkh.   Khulnif 
^  Kashmir,  and  other  ]>arts  of  Central  Asia;  from 
I  llcuc^al,  and  fmm  China  bv  liombav.    The  greater 
:  portion  of  the  tnide  is  with  Af'chanistan  and  <>n- 
tral  Asia,     Amrctsir  is  the  pnncijMil  man  in  the 
j  Punjiib  for  the  cotton  fabrics  of  ManolMs-ter.  the 
I  gohl  thn-ad  of  Agra  and  Delhi,  the  metal  utensil<« 
I  of  Hindustan,  the  sugar  grown  in  the  Hurrounding 
.  alluvial  plains,  and  the  grain  and  cattle  of  the 
I  neighlNuirluHHl.   Founded  about  one  hundrc<l  yean 
'  ago,  the  town  is  now  the  tenninu.**  <»f  a  railwar 
from  Mooltan  by  I^ahore,  and  the  t^vat  of  sliawl 
and  silk  manufactun's,  and  is  advancing  yearly  in 
wealth  and  pojmlation.    It  is projK>soii  to coustrod 
a  road  fn»m  Lahore  to  J'eshawur,  which  willgivatly 
facilitate  the  trmle  between  Amrctsir  and  the  latter 
])hu'e,  through  which  is  the  princifMil  trade  with 
Afghanistan  and  Ontral  Asia.    A  further  im|>ulM 
will  be  imparted  bv  a  railway  I»etwoen  Amretar 
and  Delhi  in  course  of  construction.     (Kopurt  of 
Mr.  Davicrs  on  Trade  of  Central  Asia,  1^03.) 

AMSTEKDAM,  a  famoiu  marit.  and  commer- 
cial city  of  Holland,  cap.  prov.  X.  Holland,  and  (/ 
a  district  and  cant,  of  the  same  name,  on  the  S. 
bank  of  the  Y,  an  inlet  or  arm  of  the  Ziiyder  Zee, 
where  it  is  joined  by  the  Amstel :  lat,  frJP  22'  li 
N.,  long.  4°  53'  li)"  E.  Ik?uig  Mt.uated  in  a  marsh, 
its  buildings  are  all  foun<le<l  on  ]ulcs  ilriven  fnni 
40  to  oO  feet,  into  a  soil  confiisting  of  alluvial  de- 
jK>sits,  peat,  clay,  and  sand.  The  canals  bv  which 
it  is  ev(!r\'where  intersected,  and  along  wiiich  all 
hea\y  burdens  arc  conveyed,  divide  it  into  9t) 
islands,  and  are  crossed  by  about  290  bridgeA,  partly 
w(kk1  and  partly  stone.  Its  form  w  tliat  of  a  cres- 
cent or  half  moon,  the  horns  on  either  side  pi\>- 
jecting  into  the  Y.  and  inclosing  the  jjort.  On  the 
land  side  it  is  sumnmded  by  walls  having  26  bas- 
tions and  a  wide  ditch ;  but  its  rampartjt  luivc  been 
])lante.d  w^ith  trees,  and  converted  into  public  walkj 
and  l)oulevards ;  the  only  defence  of  tlie  town  con- 
sisting in  the  facility  with  which  the  surroumUng 
country  might  be  laid  under  water.  It  is  from  M 
to  9  m.  in  circ,  and  covers  a  space  of  about  SKK) 
acres.  'Hie  Amstel,  which  runs  through  the  city, 
diWdes  it  into  two  nearly  equal  portions;  that  to 
the  E.  of  the  river  being  termed  the  old,  and  thst 
to  the  W.  the  new  city.  In  the  centre  and  oldest 
lK)rtion  of  the  city,  on  both  sides  the  Amstel,  is  a 
cluster  of  irregular  streets  and  canals;  but  the 
streets  and  canals  roimd  this  central  nucleus  are 


naU,  tbe  fltcren,  Kn-wn,  snd  Pi 
■  DM  owly  U>  be  maiched  in  ut 
Mn  tut  thdr  leii0h,  width,  ftn 
iBd  degancc  oT  th«it  buildint^  They 
boM  3  m.  ]t>af(,  aboat  2HI  fnC  bnwd: 
vw  the  direction  af  (he  outer  wall  o1 
rhidi  ia  that  of  a  iwLvf^nal  CTescent^ 
Ike  lii>«  perfertly  ilrailcht  betneen  the 

"^-  "■ e  larife  and  well 

■oan  sifflie  bridges 
wn  tlie  middle  of 


iBl&    Tbe  hoDM«  u 


me  iDeetf,  the  >i 
pared  and  lighted,  aa 
all  the  ocher  Miteu.     The  piinnpal 

1  the  KaltersStraat,-'--  "'■ ■■- ' 

annuls  Straat.    The 
lUthedinintpart  of 


d  oCben  belon^nff  to  the  poorer  d 
Ian  under  the  hnuHs  nf  the  more 
a  ureat  many  renide  constantly  o 
isoiiifiinaMe  apartri>ents  built  or 
*of  tbfir  irmdinf;  renela,  more  paj 


■"£ 


1  payment  of  a  < 


«ni  Mn  constructed  in  an  elegant  atvle, 
r  them  are  splendidly  Atted  up. 
■blic  hoildin^rs,  the  palacf,  lormerly 

't  rtaiida  ID  an  open  space  or  square, 
Sbduil  This  fioc  almcture,  le^rdcd 
di  a*  the  eighth  wonilcr  of  Ihe  world, 
■n  a  fooiidatioR  uf  I.1,K59  pileii:  it  is 

Icnicth,  £15  in  depth,  and  IKi  high, 
if  the  cniinia,  wbiuh  is  H  feet  higher, 
ki  top  of  which  there  is  an  excellent 
■  aingnlar  city.  With  the  exceiition 
md  floor,  which  is  <if  brick,  it  is  built 
i.  The  liall-rDom,  ropresrnled  as  one 
t  in  Ennrie,  ia  saiil  to  he  lid  fret  long, 
1,  and  90  in  height  The  foundations 
It-tHHue  were  laid  in  Ilrit,  and  it  was 

the  short  space  of  7  year?u  Among 
— "-'-i:  bnildJDgH  are,   (he  cxchnnjw. 


•ik  prinHpal 

la;  the  arsenal,  bnilt  on  the  island  of 
f;  and  the  buildings  of  the  society  of 
Ik,  having  a  auiierb  eoocett  halL  Ot 
m,  that  mnnt  worthr  nf  attention,  the 
±,  waa  be^n  in  I'itW.     It  contains 

re  ailmiral  l>e  Ituiier.  The  painted 
■wiof  the  <)i<i  Chon-h,  dcdii-atcd  to  Si. 
n  utmng  the  Hnt-xl  in  l^un'pv.  There 
oat  3I>  places  of  wonilii]!.  animig  wliicb 

STnagognes,  the  -lews  being  suppoaed 
(D  abmit  16,000.  The  principal  hridge 
BMel,  near  where  it  enters  (he  eitv, 

ia  length  by  irl  in  breadth,  with  11 

twbirii  large  ships  pans.    The  tur- 
the  French,  three  migh-houiics, 

hie  noticed.  In  Wtl,  the  warehouses 
oDt  (or  the  East  India  Company  being 


lie  limry  institutions  i«  the  Alhe- 

aaatomicB]  theatre,  and  a  botanical 
lac  are  here  also  a  school  uf  naviga- 


X  ZtB  there 


or  Sodetv  of  Felix  JVm'h'i ;  and  a  societv  of  Pub- 
lic Utility,  foundol  on  an  extensive  suale  in  ITST. 
Schools  of  the  best  description,  for  (he  gntuituiu 
education  of  the  poor,  ore  found  in  every  part  of 
(be  town;  and  instruction  may  be  said  to  be  uni- 
versally diffui«d.  There  are  three  theatres.  The 
workhouses,  hospitals,  infirmaries,  the  house  of 
conTction,  or  rasp-house,  the  oriilion-house,  the 
eetahlishment  for  widows,  the  lunatic  asylnm, 
with  the  numerous  other  charitaliie  estahlish- 
menta,  may  be  citod  a*  models  of  good  onler, 
cleanliness,  and  ceonomv.  Tbe  hospital  for  the 
old  and  indigent  of  both  sexes,  on  the  quay  of 
the  Amstel,  u  admirably  contrived  fnr  the  com- 
fort and  convenience  of  its  inmates.  The  building 
is  !fiO  feet  long,  liy  330  deep,  and  S  stories  high. 
It  has  galleries  end  a  garden  where  its  occujiiera 
enjoy  the  fresh  air.  There  is  here,  and  in  other 
Dutch  towns,  a  class  of  provident  iiistitutinns  or 
asylums,  which  admit  sgeil  perwtisof  both  sexes 
mparadvely  small  sum.  Mas- 
fcWBuroquentlv  rewani  old  and  fnith- 
}y  paving  for  their  admisrdon  into  one 

s  of  the  canals  opening  into  the  Y 
and  of  tbe  Amstel  an  provided  with  strung  flood- 
gates; and  on  the  side  of  (he  town  nearest  the 
—1  a  new  dyke  has  been  conslnictcd  Ut  giianl 
oinst  inundations.    The  haiiiour  is  spacious  anil 
:uie;  the  largest  ships  coming  close  to  the  qiia.v* 
d  warehouses.    It  ha.4  mviitly  been  much  im- 
proved by  the  fnrmation  of  ducks  and  la  ' 
'•--  -    -t  where  they  iiHtis  the  Zuy 

cmwcd  by  lai;^  ship  unhw  prevLxisly  Ughtetied. 
.-  1  ■  ..  ..  .  -ncnnveiiiences  arising  from  this 
il  the  dangers  anil  cleLi\-s  occa- 
the  sliallowncss  and  diflicnlty  of  nai-i- 
gating  the  Zuvder  Zee,  a  ship  canal  has  been 
■  ■  -    ■     ■       teniam  to  the  IIcld(T.    Thin 

im.  in  length :  and  lieing 
mits  huge  ships.   IMleviJ 
'-  ""at  of  the  highest  tiiles,  the  only  locks  it  re- 
's being  one  at  each  end;  but  il  has  two  sluices 
LC  intermediate  space.     It  was  begun  in  1HI9, 
finished  in   1K25,  at  an  expense  of  about 
l,00a,atHlj:    The  dues  arc  mo<lemIei  owl  it  bos 
been  of  the  greatest  senico  to  Amstenlnin,  by 
giving  it,  as  it  were,  a  deep-water  hariiour  on  the 
— ust  accessible  part  of  the  llulch  coast. 

The  manufactures  of  Amsterdam,  betudcs  va- 
rious branches  of  those  nf  wmd.  linen,  cotton,  and 
ilk,  comprise  sail-cloth,  refineries  (J  sugiir,  bo- 
IX,  sal-ammoniac,  sulphur,  &c, ;  with  distilleriM 
nd  bieweries,  tonnenes,  tohacco-manufact^mes, 
rm-founrleriea,  rope-walks,  smalti-woiks.  gas- 
riitia,  soap-works,  cnl  mills,  it.  Shiji-lmilding 
I  extensively  carried  on.  The  an  of  ciitling 
iamimds  and  other  stones  lor  the  landaries  has 
here  attained  to  great  peifection.  About  l<i,00O 
persons,  9,000  <if  whom  are  Jews,  ore  engaged  in 

the  annual  value  of  the  tmHic  in 

precious  stones  amounts  to  Sil,UOO,l>0O  florins, 
.lenellery,  gold  lace,  *c.  are  also  Urgely  prudueed. 
~)u(  Ami>(enlara  is  fnr  more  distinguished  as  a 
railing  than  as  a  manufacturing  cilv.  Through- 
iiit  the  I7th  centuT^-.  and  (he  first  half  of  the 
18th,  she  was  what  London  is  at  present,  the  me- 
tropolis of  tbe  commercial  worhl,  (iradua11y,how- 
partly  in  consequence  of  the  oppressiveness 
-  public  burdens,  but  mure,  perhaps,  of  tb 


other  countries, 
carrying  trade,  which 


iigatii 


I  in  England 


had  nearly 
ler  fisheries  ai 
ively '  fell  off.     During  the 


iraign  trade  pnsressively '  fell  off.     During  the 
ilyugaliou  of  Ilolland  by  France,  her  culoniea 


114 


AMSTERDAM 


foil  into  the  han«ls  of  England,  hor  ships  tlisap- 
|^>i>are(l  (mm  the  Hca,  and  tlift  trade  <>f  AniHtenlam 
was  almost  anniliiUtt^l.  Itut.  notwith>t.indin^ 
these  untoward  eveiit,s,aiid  the  exactions  to  which 
hhe  was  A'|K'alfdly  suhjcctJMl,  slie  ])rr"M;rve<l  her 
indnstry  and  a  vast  amount  of  cajntal;  an«l  no 
fiooner  had  ]>eAce  lK.'en  restored  and  Holland  had 
recMivered  a  |Nirtion  of  htT  eohmies  than  the  com- 
merce of  Amsterdam  lK?pan  rapidly  to  incn!a>«e ; 
and  though  still  far  short  of  its  anci<;nt  un|Kirt- 
ani^e,  it  i.s  now  of  very  conHiderable  extent  and 
value. 

TIjc  imports  ]>rincipally  cfmsist  of  sugar,  coflTee, 
8pi«'es,  tohaci^>.  cotton,  teiu  indigo,  cochineal,  wine 
and  hrandy,  w<m)1,  grain  of  all  s<»rts  timlxr,  pitch 


and,  in  1801,  to  268,204.    Notwithstandinc  tke 
city  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  with  water,  and  tbit 
th(>  grcAtest  care  and  attention  arc  rcqairal  to 
j>ri>vent  its  being  subniei);ed,  it  labour:*  undrra 
loinl  wiint  o(  spring  water.    The  water  in  the 
river  and  canals  being  lilthy,  braclush,  and  tntallr 
unlit  for  use^  the  inhabitants  arc  partly  supplied 
by  rain  wat4T  carefully  collected  in  tanks,  vA 
partly  by  water  brought  in  a  peculiar  dewr^ilioa 
of  barges  fn>m  the  Vecht.  6  or  7  m.  distant    De- 
spite this  want  of  good  potable  water,  the  hund- 
dity  of  the  atmosi»here,  and  thectHu\'iagi-nented 
in  wann  weather  frr>ra  the  water  of  the  itinaK  ihi 
tovni  is  free  from  epidemic  disonlers,  and  the  hi' 
habitants  are  healthv  and  robust.     Must  pnibabl} 


and  tar,  ht>mp  and  tiax,  iron,  hides,  linen,  cotton  ■  this  is  owing  in  a  consideraldc  degree  to  the  cun 
and  wtMillen  stufls,  hardware,  r»»ck-s;dt,  tin  plat<'s  I  fortahle  mode  of  living  of  the  hulk  of  the  {Kia^Jk 
coal,  ami  dried  lish.  Tho  i'X}x»rts  consist  i«irtly  j  the  pn-valcnce  of  cleanliness,  in  which  the  Ihitc 
of  tiic  jinKluce  of  Holland.  ])iirtly  of  the  produce  ;  are  superior  to  all  other  nations :  and  the  absent 
of  her  ]Missessi(ms  in  thi*  East  and  \V»->t  Indies*  (»f  extreme  p<»verty  and  de-stitution. 
and  otluT  tropiciil  countries,  and  i»artly  of  c<»m-  The  toleration  that  prevails  at  Amsterdam  d« 
nuxlities  brought  to  Amsterdam  as  tt>  a  <'onvenient  honour  to  the  people  an<l  the  govenimenu  Tha 
mtrt'pot  from  diffenMit  parts  <»f  Eun>|»e.     Of  tht;  |  is  here  every  variety  of  S4»ct;  but  they  are  <iistxi 


lirst  class  are  cheese  and  butter ;  madd<'r:  clover,  [  gui'^lH;d  by  nothin;;  so  much  as  by  their  al>stincni 
rsi]K.'.  hemp  and  tlax-stKnls ;  raiw  and  linsee<l  «»ils ;  fn»m  theological  discussions  and  by  their  ap|iarei 
1  hitch  linen.  A'c.  Geneva  is  princijmlly  exjMirted  resjKjct  for  the  opinions  of  others.  It  miwt  nc 
from  Schie^lam  and  Rotterdam  (no  less  than  however,  l)e  inferrc<l  that  the  toleration  i-xistiD 
.^MHMNIO  cases  wen>  despatched  to  Australia  in  hen;  and  in  the  n'st  of  H<dland — a  toleration  pe 
l>^2) :  oak  bark  princi]Mdly  fn>m  the  latter.  Of  fc<.'(  ii\  fact  as  well  as  in  law — has  its  origin  in  an 
the  second  class  are  spices ;  Min^ha  and  Java  c<»f-  '  tlcgree  of  apathy  with  respect  to  religion,  or  I 
fee:  sugar  of  Java,  Krazil,  and  (.•ui)a:  cochimral. ,  any  irreligious  tendencies  on  the  f jart  of  the  pec 
indigo,  <N»tton.  tea,  tobacco, and  all  sorts  of  <yisteni  pie;  such  a  conclusion  wtmld  be  ntterly  emineott 
and  colonial  pnslucts.  And  of  the  third  class,  all  ,  Oenerally  sjieaking,  the  Hollanders,  whatever  ma; 
kinds  of  grain  ;  linens  from  Gennany :  tiniU'r  and  |  be  their  iwrticul.ir  religious  pmfession,  an*  tin 
all  sorts  of  Baltic  priNlutre:  Sitani.^h,  German,  and  |  believers,  and  devotetl  to  the  ])nu'tice  of|uet]r 
Enjjlish  wools:  French,  llhenish,  and  Hungarian  j  This  -virtue  iM*r\'ades  all  claswe-s  of  yoiiety.  A» 
wities,  bran<ly,  A'c.  Tlie  trade  of  Amsterdam  may,  I  stenlam  for  ages  has  lK*en  a  *  city  of  refiiffe't* 
indeed,  Ik;  said  to  comprise  every  article  that  the  o])pTessed  and  ]K'rsccuted  of  all  nations:  u4 
enters  into  the  cinnmerce  (if  Euroi)e.  The  total  therein  lies  one  of  the  main  causes  of  its  wetltb 
value  of  the  imports  and  ex|y>rts  are  res])ectively    and  pros|KTity. 

estimateil  at  about  ;J,'»on,(K)0/.  t)rl,<MM),0()o/.  Emm  j  In  t;verk'  part  of  ITolland,  but  no  where  man 
220  to  'i-Jn  large  ships  belong  to  Amstenlam,  em-  ;  than  at  Ainstenlam,  do  we  tind  prtH)f-*  of  the  asrto- 

yloyetl  in  the  trade  to  the  E.  and  W.  Indies,  the  nishuig  power  of  ingenuity,  industr}',  ami  pew* 
laitic,  d'C.  There  Ls  little  «'.oasting  trade;  the;  verance.  This  great  city  is  not  merely  built  in  • 
connnunication  w^ith  most  other  I)utch  towns  •  niarsh,  but  is  constantly  ex|M)se<l  to  the  ri:4  df 
In-ing  |»rinci|Milly  kc]>t  up  by  canals  and  railways.  Wing  overwbehniil  by  the  intluence  of  hi;;h  tidai 
The  t<»tal  nunilx-r  ol  >hips  of  all  sorts  entering  the  .  and  storms.     Ihit  this  danger  has  iK'en  effectiuJIy 

iK)rt.  amounts,  at  an  average,  to  alnnit  *J,'2()(i  a  year.    ])rovided  against;   and  the  waters  by  whidi  flie 
n  13SG2  only  1.725  vessels  entered  the  ivirt,  a  con- 
sidenible  decrease  fn»m  the  ])receding  year.    Am- 
stenlam has  n.'gular  steam  (r«>mnninication  with 
Ilarlhiiren.  Hamburg,  horidon.  and  Hull,  and  is 


city  is  all  but  snm)uniled,  and  which  peuetnte 
everj'  one  of  its  stn'ets  are  under  c«»mplete  wa- 
trol,  and  made  to  <.-<»ntrilaite  to  the  comfort  tfd 
acconnnthlation  of  the  inhabitants.     Hie  voik< 


connected  by  railways  with  the  Hague,  Rotterdam,    necessary  for  the  public  safely  and  |m)tectionit- 


and  Amhem.  The  tratle  of  Am>»tenlam  is  chielly 
wnth  Australia,  Java,  Guinea,  Ja|»2ui,  Chili,  Uio 
de  la  Phita,  the  Mediterraneiin,  Swwleii.  Xomay, 
the  Kaltic,  and  the  White  Scii.  The  trade  with 
England  is  decreasing. 

The  men^hants  of  .cVmstenlam  were  formerly 
most  oxtAjnsive  <lealers  in  bills  of  exchange,  and 
in  all  sorts  of  fmnled  pntiK'rty  and  government 
securities;  but  I^nidon  is  now,  in  this  resiKi't,  far 

su]K*rior  to  her  oM  rival :  the  latter,  however,  still    as  well  as  to  grind  c»)ni,  and  cnisli  seedx.    Tha 
enjoys  a  large  share  of  the  exchange  business  of   is  a  large  windmill  on  every  one  of  tlie  bastioi 
the  ('ontinent,   and  many  of  her  capitalists  are  j  by  which  Amstenlam  is  sumiundeil. 
large  holders  of  fon-ign  securities.  I      Amstenlam  has  lK*en  sometimes  called  the  V 

The  old  bank  of  Amstiinlam,  founded  in  KlOO,  '  nice  «»f  the  North;  and  in  resfKH»t  of  situatin 
and  s«>  celebratetl  among  the  moneyed  institutions  number  of  canals,  and  the  magnificence  of  ti 
of  the   iMth  centurv,  c(>ased  to  exist  in  ITIH),  <>n  .  puhlic  and  private  e<litices  it  certainly  bears  a  re 


qnin',  hf>wever,  t()  Ui  watclnvl  over  with  unceasu^ 
vigilance;  and  a  large  annual  exfienditure u is- 
cnmsl  in  ket-ping  them  in  good  n'p.-iir,  awl  in 
dn'd^ing  and  clearing  the  p<irt  and  canals. 

Notwithstanding  the  superabtuiiUince  of  water 
there  is  not,  owing  to  the  tlatnesu  of  the  siriL  i 
single  water  mill  in  IIollantL  There  are,  huir«\'a 
immense  nuinl>ers  of  wind  miUs,  empio}-ed  fri 
quentlv  to  pnmp  up  water  fn>ni  the  htw  gnwDd 


the  invasion  <»f  Holland  by  the  French,  The  ]»re- 
sent  l>ank  of  the  Netherlands  was  established  in 
1M14.  hiMirance  business  is  extensively  carried  on. 
Amsterdam  is  scantely  more  |x»pulous  now  than 
it  wjis  eighty  ye/irs  ag«>.  In  ilXi)  the  iK)p.  is  saitl 
to  have  amounted  to  2."J.'>,<MX).  It  had  declined  in 
1814,  the  e\H)c\\  of  it-i  greatest  »lepn'-««.-ion,  to 
1)<1),U00;  and  it  amoiuitcl,  in  19 11,  to  211.')!!), 


striking  resemblanw  to  the  Venice  of  the  Soul 
Ijiit  each  of  these  great  cities  has  notwithstandii 
a  ])erfectly  original  and  distinctive  chamctcr. 

In  the  12th  centuri',  Amstenlam  was  only 
small  Hshhig  \illage;  in  1  ls2,  it  was  fortiticiL  '. 
tlieoutM-'t  <if  the  rrv(dutionar>*stnigglewith  Spa 
the  Ihike  of  Alva  having  exjX'lKHl  the  Pnitestv 
from  the  city,  and  c  mmitted  the  government 


[  ISLAND 
■  CubaUa,  it  rapportnl  fnr  a  lengthened 
Ibe  ODK  of  the  Riianuircl!! ;  aoil  it  wss  nnt 
■78  that  it  jmne.1  the  mnfe.iersliun.    From 
oA  it  b>^a  rupidly  to  inrwase,    ITio  nnun 
ilB  loleruion  bang  gisntnl  tn  all  nect*.  it 
t  Ml  wvlum  lot  thuK  ilrireu  by  |>enecutti)n 
ha  other  toviu  of  the  Low  Countries 
■a.    ThedosingupofthcSchFldCiDl 
oed  the  greatei  part  of  (be  trade  of  Antv 
itndam,  and  raiMd  the  latter  to  the  bi){ 

r^^^JdlSI^ND,  a  nnall  bat  reirn 
Mid  In  the  S.  Indian  Ocean,  laL  aV  47 
P  U'  FL,  heinc  H  m.  in  lrnf;th,  hv  i^  in 
i,aiKt  700  feet  high.    It  in  obviuuiilyor  vot- 

.: —      ^  lai^  portion  iit  occu|ae(l  hy 

■■"-dlj- been  a  mugnificeiil  ci    ' 


a,  it  in  now  convert«l  into  a  tifruUu-  har- 

ia  everyvhere  lif;ht  anil  ii]iongy,  and 
BBing  hut.  Thcrp  ar«  xeveml  hot  .i]irin; 
twnperaliirea  varj'iiiK  frnm  XIP  Fuh.  to  t 
pginl :  with  the  excqitinn  of  a  Hinicle  cha- 

■icinj;,  haviuK  ■  temperaliife  of  112°,  all 
iog*  in  the  i;dand  are  brat'liteh.    Some  nf 

^■inpi  an  sn  near  the  wbI«-'h  eilgp.  that 
BxagKcntion  to  affirm  that  1i<4i  taken  with 
:  bsid  may  be  bailed  with  the  othvr  [  The 
dfaur  HW  awann  with  Torioiu  >iperie!<  of  Hah, 
-     -   -'erfruit- 


Ij  with  crav&Oi. 


;  plant,  nor  niiadrupedn,  nor  li 

n  thta  iiilanil;  but  it  i>  naurteil  lo  by  vutt 
n  of  Ma-liinJi^     SeaL*  and  aca  linns  aliuunil 

aaaonallj  vuateii  "by  nhipH  ennasnl  in  thp 
hoj.  It  vaa  diwni-cr»l  bv  a  Dulcli  nuri- 
Fm  VlaminR.  in  1G9G,  anif  was  vliilol  bv 
nnw  in  i;tf9. 

9TEIU>A}I,  NEW.  a  town  ami  harbour  of 
>la,  Eii|r1>sh  rhilnno.  nnu-  the  m.  of  thH 
Hirer.    Pop.  l.T.'iOin  Will,    IWng fuumlcii 

Ihncfa.  it  is  built  in  their  fashion,  and  in- 
td  i:nr  numcmua  caoalii.  lliv  private  liouscit 
mIt  of  wood,  covcrpd  with  binnlim  leiavcs, 
tjCsrerntnent  ollices  are  iif  liridt.  and  hand- 
■fnQt.  The  entianre  to  the  river,  in  lat. 
K_  long.  67°  11'  W.,  ia  defended  by  three 
Tbnc  are  only  7  Itel  water  r>n  the'  bar  at 
h.  The  auulu'  bdiif!  lillnl  anil  em|>tie<<  by 
■■  and  ebb  of  the  lide.  all  imiiuntics  »k 
it,  and  the  health  of  Ilie  Iiwn  n  pivmrved 
h<anding  the  beat  orihcclimalp. 
IZELU  a  village  of  WllrtenibiTg.  eire.  Da- 

Po|k  1,306  in  istjl.    lliere  i«  a  Hue  old 

ICAPRI,  a  t«wn  in  the  NW.  comer  of  Ihc 
<deafri,ia  Ibt  Gulf  orXa].lu<,  on  the  N. 
'  llonnt  Solani,  nearlv  'i,lt)tt  feet  above  the 
rOesea.  Pop.  1.667  in  INfil.  Thcat«ent 
viTF  neep,  and  b  effected  by  a  utait  of  553 
aUld  la  (tsfnato.  It  has  a  choreh,  a  con- 
oid ■  caMle  in  the  ndghlnurhond :  there 
0  two  ancienl  towers,  and  Ihc  remaina  of 
dficn,  unibnl  to  Tlberiu.".  The  pro»p*«t 
ta  canle  i«  extensive,  and  idngukrly  rich 
mmanjling  the  Tynh( 


ANAH  OB  AN-NAM  llS 

ANAM  on  AX-KAM  (Empirk  of),  aim  known 
a»  Ok:iiiM  Ciiika,  a  eouiilry  of  Aiaa,  ncmpying 
the  E.  iHirliiin  of  tlie  );ruat  E,  penuii<ula  uf  S.  Asia. 
cir  India  beycmil  the  liautm,  oimprL'inK  Cirldn 
Cliina  anil  Touipiin  (to  which  only  thu  name  of 
An-nom  properly  Iwlonga).  with  Ihc  E.  and  ^i.  |Hit 
of  Combuilia.  anil  many  snii^  ishmils  in  the  c^nem 
Sea.  It  lies  l-etwecn  8°  4S'  anil  2i|0  22"  N.  lat., 
and  105°  to  1IIU°  E.  long. ;  haviiiK  X.  the  Cliinew 
provinecsof  (Juang-tong,  Quang-si,  aiul  Vun-nan  j 
W.  Laos  and  Kiaui,  anil  in  the  nut  of  its  extent, 
the  ocean.  It  ia  9U5  m.  in  length,  varying  in 
width  (rum  415  m.  lo  GO  m.  Area,  pniliabrv  al»iit 
08,000  sq.  m  Pop.  cslimattxl  at  from  10  to  I  if 
milliona. 

The  cnunlry  lit  snbiliviihid  as  followH  i— 
■     "    "     "■■       (collod  Uong-traiiing.raCeiilral 


«..(iy). 


Ill  ispltol  ([U]k  <!0.OIM,  Cniit- 


3.  Canio^'a  (calleil  Ko-mi 


fiini's  '. 


u  Euiioiwy,'  one  of  tl 


iHMt 


— The  |irineipal  chain,  an  olTset  rmm 

Himalaya  riiii;i'.  runs  tlinaigli  llie  iiiilral  and 

.lliem  purls  of  ihe  muntrv,  romiitii;  the  IV. 

Uiiinihir}-  of  Cochin  lliiiui,  anil  (lie  K.  oiw  of  tjui 

CanilHslja.  UhI  li'rminatiw  at  4'aiie  Si.  Jaineis 

il.  ll)°lli'X.    Itplwcen  this  (Bilge  anil  the  sea, 

L'ariiin  China  cnaMiits  nf  a  Miiia.wliin  nf  iitlii'm, 

grailuallj  drrreairing^  iu  hi'ighl  as  tbin'  amnHwh 

■he  aliorc,  and  iiie1i»unK  a  gieut  niimlnTr  of  fertile 

'alli^'v.    Tluw:  muDnlaiiui  have  nut  Iwvn  inea- 

iinsl  by  Eumpeans.    Tlie  suiniiiits  rf  the  jirin- 

ipal  chain  are  aciunimilnt,  sterile.  aiHl  miKt  ]in>- 

baldy  gianilie ;  )iut  llirir  slii'p  sides  an^  elnllieil 

iih  extensive  forests,  and  llw  inferior  rank's  arii 

ten  cullivnteil  nearly  to  tlleir  t.«».     (White's 

Voyage  lo  CoHiin  ('hiiia,  p.  'i;  Finhi}>uuV  JUis- 

'm  to  Siam  and  Hut'.  ]•.  Xifi.) 

Phant. — 'I'onquin  ami  CnnilKslja  are  both  im- 

ense  alluvial  liasins  of  great  fiTlility,  ami  tm- 

'isal  by  birge  rivem:  in  oililition  tn  flii'.ti',  lliero 

are  a  few  small  Hata  aniumi  the  mmilhii  of  the 

riven  in  the  central  provinces.  'IIig  plain  frnm  tho 

mouth  iif  tlie  Ouls«iiemnut  lo  Cape  St^  James  is 

but  little  above  the  level  <if  the  sea,  and  Bulgect  lu 

dation  at  everv  Sluing  lide. 

Iivri.— 1'he  MGiiam-kong,  or  ri\-er  of  Cam- 

boitla,  is  one  of  tlie  largest  m  Aula;  it  riees  in  t)iu 

Chinese  imn-ince  of  Yun-nan.  is  jidned  liy  sumo 

large  streams  from  Tibet,  anil,  ninuing  iicorlv  ihic 

S.  Ihrough  the  cenin  of  Iiaut  and  (.'aml>iHt)a,  firnns, 

"       -      ■'  itanee,  the  W.  bounilaiy  i>f  tho  Anamese 

.  and  disrhargea  itself  in  lal.  9°  ia'  and 

hfi  IS'  by  two  (irinripnl  moutliB  (the  liirtbcst  N. 

'sqng  railed  tlw  Japanese  river,  the  -S.  ime  Ihe 

Juhoiiiemme),  and  liy  main'  smaller  mihs.    TIiv 

'iang-kol  { AifAi)  or  river  of  Toiiquin.  has  B  ahorter 

Hjume;  it  lism  in  Ihe  mountains  of  Yun-nath  RniH 

nu.'itly  SE.  through  Ton'guiti,  |iaa>iiig  Ly  Ke-rlHi, 

uul  falls  into  llie  Gulf  of  TuD(|nin  by  twu  iirin- 

■i|ial  miniths,  Itlween  20°  and  21°  X,  lal.     Ilotli 

these  rivcrf,  as  well  iis  that  of  Sal-g<di  (wliicli  it 


116 


*J  of  a  mill'  in  wi«lth  nonr  that  cily),  have  deltas  at 
thi'ir  nioutlu^:  tlipy  arc  navi^aWle  goncrally  f<»r 
lar^8lii|>s;  but  (»win^  to  sand  Itanks  at  both  its 
inouthH,  it  in  r(»]K>rt<.'d  that  the  Tonquin  river  w 
availalilc  to  imno  alnive  200  tons  burthen,  thoii^li 
(^mwfunl  il(iui)ts  tliis  HUitenient  as  resjxH'tM  tlie  N. 
nioutli.  (Omwfuril.  Journal,  A'e.,  pp.  451)-4ri2.) 
Tliere  are  «<'veral  otlie.r  ctmHijlerable  riven*  in  Ton- 
quin; iL«  the  Li-Hin^-Kian^ :  alon^  the  OK*hin 
(.■hine>M;  coaHt  they  tm:  all  much  smaller,  and  with 
a  shorter  cou^^^e ;  tlie  river  of  Hud  (on  whirh  the 


ANAM 

cefttinpc  the  clondfl  at  the  convene  seamnof  tbe 
vear.  The  (reneral  hei|:;ht  of  the  baxiimettf  ti  H«$ 
Is  20*^5'.  Immense  inandatinnA  lagl  wmiHiiBei 
for  three  or  four  days  at  a  time.  Tonquin  is  wh- 
jeet  t4)  heavv  fo^  and  violent  hurricaneR. 

VfgetaltUt  /'mditrf*.— The  fopest*  of  Cochin  Chiai 
pHMluce  a  variety  of  soent«fl  vood^  as  sandal,  nn, 
ea^le-w(MKl,  ^c.  T)ie  true  cinnamon  (Lavnarm- 
fuinunnum)  u  iudif^enrtus  to  this  coontiy.and  vilned 
by  tlie  ('hinenc  more  than  that  produced  in  anv 
other :  it  is  found  wild  chiefly  in  dry  and  Miidy 


ea|)itjd  is  sit  uated)  is  one  of  the  most  c()iisid<>rable,  soils.  The  l>ank8  of  the  SaT-f^on  and  the  other 
lias  a  fine  estuarj',  and  is  navigable  by  vwvM'lsof  ■  lar^  rivers  are  thickly  covered  with  jonglf; 
200  tons  burthoni  |  amon<;st  which  arc  teak,  iron-w(»od  (iSyderoxylm'), 

Ixihe* — JJarfxturx. — JiluroiN'ans  have  desrrilKNl ;  a  kind  of  Callophyllum,  ait  straifj^ht  an  a  Norway 


no  lakrs  of  any  ma^^nitude;  but  the  shores  of 
CiM'hin  (.'hina  a>M)uud  with  some  of  (be  finest  har- 
Ixiur*  ill  the  worbL  From  (!afie  St.  James  to  the 
Uiiy  (»f  Turon,  there  are  no  less  than  nine  of  thes(>, 
Kife  and  air^B^sibb'  with  every  wiml :  that  of  Tunin, 
ill  the  opinion  of  Mr.('ni\\iunl  and  others  (though 
not  in  that  of  M.  de  Hoit^aiiiville),  Ls  not  suq)as!9ed 
bv  anv  ill  the  VaihU 

CiHi»t  and  Shores. — The  coast  hen;  is  generally 
lM)ld,  and  presi'uts  many  )in»nioni<»ries.  like  thai  of 
C  St.  James,  whieh  is  HOO  feet  in  height ;  the 
|ireeipi<'us  (tcoasionally  altenuitin^  with  a  iiam»w 
hjuidv  l>ea<.'h.  'I'he  anchor:i;;ej»  are  ever\'when' 
^(mmI  ;  but  at  nri  ^nuit  (iistaucc.  fntm  the  shonts  saiul- 
banks  and  nn-ky  islands  an*  <ifVen  very  prevalent, 

(JeifltHfi/  and  J^finfrah. — Tin'  primitive  roeks.  of 
which  the  principal  mountain  chain  is  almost 
wholly  e^)mi)08ed,  are  ^^ranite  and  syenite;  the 
l(»wer  hills  contain  quart x,  marble^  and  mountain 
limestone.  In  the  S.  pnivinees  the  jrranite  is 
seamed  in  ever\'  diri'ction ;  on  the  rouiKkit  sitles  of 
the  hills  it  alternates  with  syenite,  and  Istth  nicks 
are  |MMiet rated  by  veins  of  iron  ow:  near  Hue, 
all  the  hills  an*  ^mitic,  and  their  ]ieakN  in  the 
hi|;hi9<t  dejrn*e  shar]),  ni^^^^il.  and  iineovered.  Thens 
is  a  j^reat  diversity  of  u]»iK»r  soils  in  the  valleys: 
some  Ix'iii^  <lr\',  friable,  and  s-mdy ;  otln-rs  of  a  stitf 
clay.  The  hhIs  of  the  rentral  provinces  are,  how- 
ever, nn>stly  sandy :  those  of  ToiKpnn  and  ('am- 
lH»dJa  are.  as  alR»ady  statrd.  alluviiil.  Around  their 
shores  then;  are  extensive  and  fertile  luiid-tlnts. 


fir 


ir  and  well  adapted  for  ships'  masta ;  TOan?mT«, 
I'C.  In  the  forests  of  C<K*hm  China,  cedai>.  wal- 
nut, ]K'.ltr>',  ctM^oa,  areca,  iM'tel,  I»amlNio.  rattan, 
elM>nies,  and  most  of  the  proilucts  i>f  liritish  India. 
CamlMxlJa  yiekte  ^amlM^^,  the  finest  canlamunM, 
aniseed,  areca,  and  imli^i;  the  central  jtnninocv, 

C'pIN;r  and  two  sorts  of  supir  cane ;  Tonquin,  many 
lids  of  vamitih  trees,  areca  palms,  and  other  vege- 
table pPMluce^  Cotton,  rice,  and  the  inulfiern*  tree 
are  almoht  universal.  Amonp4t  the  fruit  are  oranject 
af  a  bl(NMl-nKl  pulp  and  delicious  tlav«>iu',  luinanaa, 
fip(,  ]M)mef^ranat<w,  pine-ap])lcs,  fj^uavas,  maiipiea, 
shaddocks,  lemons,  liincs,  and  plantain.  (lin^, 
and  sfiices  of  various  starts,  are  also  indijj;en(Hi\ 
An  inferior  s*»rt  of  tcA,  with  a  leaf  twice  or  thrice 
as  lar^e  as  that  of  Kohea,  ^n^ws  wild  in  tlie  hilly 
{Mrts  of  (juan^-ai,  and  is  sold  at  fnHn  0  to  2«>  quant 
(he  picul,  or,  in  English  money,  fur  abrjut  a  penny 
a  i)ound. 

The  cocoa-nut  tree,  next  to  the  Itamlioo,  ii  the 
most  u.s({fut  <»f  any.  Tlie  tmnk  is  luwsl  for  hon« 
and  slu{>  building; ;  the  husk  protluccs  cortU^re  and 
cables  sup'rior  to  any  other;  the  leave*  are  iwd 
for  roofing,  and  for  making  paper,  and  wicker  i^ivk; 
the  oil  for  lam|tft  and  painting ;  the  ahcll  for  cups 
d'c:  and  the  nut  furnishes  iMjth  fiNtd  and  drink. 

Scent:rif. — The  interior  of  CamlKnlja  has  boea 
little  exjdtired  by  Kun>peaiis,  but  it»  suiface  is  !♦• 
lievwl  to  lie  i^overeil,  in  great  ]>art.  with  extensive 
fonsts.  The  banks  of  t he  river  Sat-gon  are  cm'ered 
with  mangmve  trees,  and  no  cultivation  ap|Mn 


roiiqiiiii  is  the  only  ]iart  of  the  em|iin.'  rich  in    until  within  from  20  to  30  m.  of  that  city.    Biih 


metals;  it  product^-*  large  quantities  of  gold,  silver, 
cop|K>r.  and  iron:  with  the  latt4>r  it  Mipplies  all 
the  country  except  the  most  S.  ]iart.     Its  mines 


thuoHj  the  most  S.  prov.  of  ('^ichin  China,  extciyli 
to  aUnit  12^  N.  lat,,  and  is  most  remarkable  foriti 
ah K's.   N/ia-trvMp,  which  succeeds  it,  is  an  elevatiJ 


are  worked  bv  Chiiicsi'.  and  alMiut  100  piculs  (or  and  ill-cultivated  region,  but  pnNluccs  silk.  Fhw- 
J7,M00  llw.  I'roy)  of  silver  are  pnMlu(?e<l  yearly.  I  i/en,  which  reaches  as  far  as  lat,  14°,  is  the  rielteft 
Cochin  (.'hina  has  no  metallic  wealth:  silver  oniv  :  and  the  most  highlv  cultivated  and  peopletl  |«o- 
is  said  to  Im*  found  at.  Cape  Avan>lla;  CanilsNija  is  ',  vinc«M«f  all :  it  is  full  of  fruitful  valleys  and  gently 
]>oor  in  metals.    It  producers  iron,  but  in  inadequate    undulating  hills,  on  which  rice  is  grown  in  terranVf 


quantity  for  it^  own  use.  and  it  is  t  lien'f«ire  iiii]sirted 
fmin  the  neighlKUiring  couiitri<*s  to  the  \V.  of  it: 
th<'  ci'ntnil  provinces  yield  salt. 

Cliinatf — Is  gciienilly  fine  and  healthy,  the  ln'at 
U'iii;:  tenqM-ri'd  in  the  maritime  districts  by  the 
sea  breezes  ;  in  the  winter  it  i.s  even  cmd  in  C<Krhin 
China,  but  in  Tonquin  the  heats  of  summer  are 
excessive,  and  the  cold  of  winter  pro|Hirti<inally 
wvere.  At  Hue,  M.  Cbaigneau,  who  resided  there 
for  some  lime,  r»'|sirts  that  the  grr-atest  hear  of 
humin(>r  was  lo;»o,  and  of  the  c«»ld  <if  winter  .'>T°  F. 
During  the  wet  seas<in  of  August,  Mr.  Crawfiml 
found  that  the  thermometer  in  the  shade  rangiiil 
in  one  day  Iroin  7l»°  to  ^'29  F.  at  Sai-gon.  In  the 
S.  the  s4visons  ftdhiw  the  same  onler  as  in  Malabar, 
LU'iigal.  and  Siam:  viz.  the  niins  ]>revail  with  the 
SW.  moiismm  from  May  or  the  iK'ghming  of  June, 
to  Septeml)er:  the  simie  takes  place  in  Tonquin. 
Hut  ill  Cochin  China,  lietwee.n  11°  and  IS^N.lat., 
the  rains  set  in  with  the  Nhl.  m(ins<N>n,  and  la.st 
from  ()ctolier  till  March;  the  high  mountain  range 
joDtex'ling  this  country  from  wct  weather  by  inter- 


almost  to  their  summits,  and  lit>uiided  W.  bvhittr 
mountains,  croAmed  with  toweiK  and  {lagiKLtsor 
having  their  jiiiinacles  enveloijeil  in  lle«cy  clouds 
Qui-vhon  is  a  pr«>\*inix*  of  gri'at  extent,  and  veil 
cultivatiHl:    Qunny-tii  and  QftaNiz-fUM,  extcndii^; 
fnnii  1-1^°  X.  to  nearly  17°.  are  almost  exclusively 
the  4*oiintries  of  the  sugar  cane  and  the  ten  tive. 
The  lianks  of  the  riv(;r  of  Hue,  though  iK'autiful, 
are  more  indebted  to  art  than  to  natiuv;  they 
alKiuml  in  oniamental  ganlens,  l.iid  out  amoncvt 
gniv4^s  of  ciKH>a,  areca,  liaiiana,  and  liamlMMi,  and 
niws  of  hibiscus.    At  Turon,  and  in  moat  «>f  the 
N.  of  C«K»hin  China,  there  is  a  degree  of  sterilitv 
not  met  with  in  the  S.;  but  the  whole  (Mmntr>'  u 
nriparentlv  inferior  in  fertility  to  that  of  Siam. 
Tonquin  lias  U'cn  very  imperfectly  examined  by 
F.uroiieans,  but  is  the  miwt  populous  pn)vinoe; 
therefoH',  most  proliably,  of  superior  fertility  and 
cultivation. 

Animah, — Tlie  elephant,  rhinoccroa.  tiger.  le«v. 
pard.  buffalo,  lK>ar,  horsi',  d(«r,  giKit,  dc  are  natives 
of  Auaiu.     Then:  arc  no  Jackala  nor  foxes  \  nor 


B  A  pnAukin  of  utJier  kinds  of  ffaiDO. 
■ben  of  monkeyt  anil  liaNmiu  are  rouud 
ndi:  DDC  Ui)re  «nrl  piKpiful  Bppriai  uemii 

labo  lutiTtt.  mre  dumwlicatcd :  elephjuim 
■  WM,  Pearudu,  jkiidM,  md  ■  variely 
f  Uwiichm  pluDu^.  inhaliit  Ihe  rorenW; 
di>Ters  Ac-  ue  shores ;  and  aqiutic  biids 
n^ioaa,  ibe  riven.  Ailit-aiuni  inhaWl 
r  am» ;  the  rabm-de-riipTlln,  and  aevrral 
ft  and  Trniinioiu  Hvqw-ntis  infext   the 

Tbt  iMi  alnanil  with  ui  inoxhiuiHlible 
'Oiih,  and  afliinl  nilwimi'iiui:  Ut  a  laiuc 
f  the  poiuUtuni;  aiiiini(,-iit  the  upwies 
IjriBB  fch,  MVifiion  tWi  (itmnrkablv  and 
J  TlxtiMti),  maniK  U^ll  of  BmirbI,  *<■., 
*,  mulliiix.  ui'l  many  ulhvn  liiniliar  tii 
ipaand  nawlMi  an^viTy  flm^t  and  mnl- 

laiKB  qiuntilin,  are  'tHkvn  lur  tvil 
m  uhI  oUut  inaceta  abuunil   in  gKM 

Mfli  ixauirt  lA  Mvnal  incm: — 1.  the 
knnt  anil  7<nyiniirar,  wlui  aic  similai 
,  and  mnatof  iliHr  haliilM  and  cuAlnnu, 
Unoe;  i.  the  Camlmdjaia.  in  phviueal 
nuummi  tiL,  num  mwmlilinK  tliv  Sis- 
tic  JUM  ran,  inhaliiiing  (he  miiuutjiiu- 


■ncial  hiKms  Imf  mmllv  in  the  N.  pm- 
rhe  ntbi't  Klranfct'ni  bit  Vhii'tlv  Mnlnyis 
M  in  Ihe  K.  paiu  nf  CaraUidJai  and  Pvt- 

rf  QuofitiM.— AecfinUnK  tn  Hr.  Finlay- 
Igtan,  who  aix»ni|iuniril  Mr  Cnwriint 
hian  in  the  rear  IH2-2,  tlie  majority  uf 
lUntu  are  oT  Mnlnv  iirif.'in.    He  ol»cn-ai 

Men  ai^natce  i  rvrl  2j  inches  in  hci^t, 
bcluw  iHe  >inlinaiy  Htandanl  <>f  thu  Ma- 
MameM.'!  Iher  arc  lm>  ImlkyanddiiDiHy 

latter.  Iml  (if  n  Mimt'Wiint'MtuBt  Ht^i'i^- 
ar  eztremitiei'  are  i<>ni;.  Ibvir  liiwer  ones 

I  luj^  and'  veil  dweln|iD<L  Head  and 
I  nuriy  tound ;  (he  liiiiKi(u<Unal  and 
s  diam*(en  uf  each  lieint;  nearly  equal : 
Ant  and  bnNul,  clu'ek-lmneii  wide,  but 
alariy  nBeut.  eliiu  liUKe  aiul  tiiuod ;  but 
aid  pmeewi  irf' the  hiwrr  jnw  Iibh  not  the 
ipncnt  in  the  Malay*  aiul  SiameM,  aiHl 
(f  In  tUs  naprct  Id  (he  Tartar  loeo  in 
Eye*  TDumler  and  muller  than  tliute 
iMat  and  Siameip,  mure  lively  and  in- 
•mk :  Lipa  modentely  thick :  liair  un  Ibe 
aia^blKl,andeiianiet  heard  icriel; ' ' 


Ul  117 

siVB!  (nolravellenthaveaeeiuedthCTn  of  ferocity;) 
affable,  kind,  and  attentive  luKliaiiKe™;  and  the 
liiwer  i>n1en>  not  rsjuu'iiHiH,  althouuli  a  dc»[>oti(', 

tiiinably  made  all  within  (lie  inHuencc  uf  the 
coort  the  most  nnant  thieves.  In  tlieir  manneni 
and  behaviour  (he  ^Vnameae  are  polite  and  {^mce- 
fnl;  but pnnitilior ■  —  ' 


in  A|iiil,  and 


They  are  ititellicent,  n 


Ucting  atoleniendi  have  been  made  by 
I  have  ezperienrcd  either  a  hanilBc,mc  or 
dBDOw  ruFejitiiin  fiom  ihen,  that  it  is 
1  eime  tn  any  ei>nrln«iiin.  Tliey  arc 
animated,   (pnal-hnmunnni,  anil  nllo- 

qra  Uughin);  and  thai  lerinc,  volatile, 
and  ehaiiKealde,  vain,  and  enihieil  with 
la  national  jiriile.  CniwfunI  and  Kin- 
-  thai  they  are  mild,  dueile,  and  iuulTea- 


lift,'  forr 

lix  difTerenl  mirts  Kniwn ;  two  un 

used  fur  confitclionei}-,  and  yielding 

annnally  1  the  oilier  Morta  ylehl  (to 

cmp9  a  ye«T!  but  ({vnerally  two,  niw 

another  in  (>c(c.l>er!  or  tlirce,  wlieru  .i«  muu-ui- 

chni  ••r  (,*nem[  vulture. 

'file  siifiar-iwiu  in  mitivatn)  Iiy  the  TiHdiln 
ChineM  only,  and  a  voy  infrrior,  ilaik,  rlaye^ 
imaluce  ubloineiL  Mivt  »f  the  vinamnnm  that  is 
expiirteil  i»  cultivated:  iiiliaceu,  eaiideum,  tieiiper 
uf  a  vcrv  tcuoil  quality  in  the  ccntmf  wuviwes,  are 
o(her  e^ief  id  jevlH  of  (ill«{e :  no  ciilfev  is  yRnvn, 
exoept  in  a  ^  caidena  near  llu(<. 

Itaw  Mlk  ia  pitHtneeJ  in  laiuc  quantiticii  in  Tiin- 
tiuin  and  U>i:hiu  China.  The  cniunil  i*  hut  in- 
ititTerHilly  (illud ;  near  Sal-j^m,  it  I*  in  many 
Bmall  latclics  of  ohout  half  on  acre,  the  rieu 
KTuundH  beitiK  hnnndeil  by  ditrhea.  A^ricultiiinl 
lalxmr  i*  almuia   whollv 'iHifonniil  bv  wcitneii  j 

-' -•-  ■•-■  -iloiich.  whii'h  ix  ■' '■■■  -  '■■■"■- 

_  _.  e,  build  anr' 
entnwtfil  with  all  tl 
Their  [lay.  on  weU  as  that  of  IbIhhitetii  of  ilie 
other  nex,  ia  1  mat  a  day  with  food,  ur  2  mat 

1'lie  iHiffalo  is  dinnexieateil,  ami  is  UHefut  in 
asricultHTe;  (he  n:(  i:i  uf  a  hmnll  redilish-lirMwii 
kmd,  but  not  n«il  as  fuod,  beef  nut  bwnj;  nm- 
moiily  eaten.  A  i^niill  species  tif  (pmt  is  ki-jil ; 
Init  stieep  are  ntj"  rare  and«exlremelv  infenur. 
The  hi«;  i» n  ven-  favuurile  animal;  the  bm^l  ia 
the  <.'liine!«,  and' ivniariubly  line.  At  Hut',  hi^ 
ore  alwayn  stall-fell,  and  seldom  inifrert<<l  to  niuni 
at  larf^e.  Tlie  horM-,  iK  an  infeiior  lin-<><i,  is  uhhI 
only  tiir  ridmit.  Iicint;  unfit  tiir  cavnliy  servii-e. 

iliens  ore  kejit  evenrwhere  i 

_.  ^  .d  to  lie  amuiiKid  the  fluent 

in  India.  Urese  arc  nut  m  oimmon  as  duekn  ur 
foK-ts.    The  ennie  eueka  ore  tiaini^l  fxr  fiKhtiiiK- 

/liorf,  $v.— The  diet  i,f  the  iie«|Jc  is  to  Kuni. 
pcan  iiteiia  oHen  f^wa  and  disKustitiK  in  a  hi^b 
decree.  Kice,  hvnmis,  and  flsh  futm  Ihe  chief 
port  of  Ihtnr  fiul ;  but  duKs'  and  ailij^ntors'  fleiih, 
rata,  mice,  worms,  fmpi  ami  other  re|>lili«,  nUfc- 
Itntii,  entrails  and  puirid  meals,  are  amonf!  Ibeir 
fiiniuiile  ihidies,  IVnh,  bolhiit  ducka  and  Hiwbs 
Ixnled  and  atuweil  yanu,  and  sweet  putalucs,  aniiai^ 
eane,  fruit,  andmuehronle<-tiiinpiy,e<>Tn|i"Kuieat 
part  uf  the  rest ;  ami  lea,  and  rii-i'-wbiskey  (rrf' 
whirh  n  (iniBl  ileul  is  drunk),  cinnpav  their  usuid 
lievrnvcea.  Finli-pickle  is  their  lavriurite  conrli- 
ment.  iiitu  which  nearly  eveiy  mtirscl  Oiey  eat  is 
piunReiL  Klqihants'  flesh  is'enlen  only  ay  tint 
Niverc'i)^  and  tiobililv.    Milk  ia  not  useii  at  nil, 

nearly  batchiiL  11iey  lake  two  meals  a  dav;  uiid 
at  9  or  10  o'cloek  in  the  muniitiu,  Ibe  other  at 
sunset.    These  they  take  in  the  iijien  air,  iri-nenilly 

ti|i|>e<l  wilh  ivoiy  or  utelal,  iiofcujiine  iinills,  and  a 
potim-  iqioiin. 

The'  tubaeeo  (hat  in  inuwn  is  all  nse<l  in  (he 
country.  .\11  ihe  men  sinuki'.  and,  ns  well  as  Ihe 
wumeii,  chew  belel  and  orcca,  which  eitlier  they 


\iuife  at  Sal-f^Hi 


118 


A17AM 


or  their  attcndAntn  (if  rich)  always  cany  with 
them  in  Imjxom  or  lar^e  purscji  for  the  exprcfts  pur- 
lK>si\  In  thrir  jiorsons  they  an;  cxtn'nioly  dirty, 
noiwithstaiuliiij;  tlu-ir  frequent  ahlution';  their 
untlcr  ^ariiiciiis  an-  never  washed  nor  ehan^cd 
until  thry  drop  to  piiK-es;  their  nails  are  never 
cut,  their  length  hein^  an  indication  of  rank. 

Arts  and  Maitufactures. — The  inferi<>r  dwellin;r« 
ronsi>t  of  inud  walL*,  thatehed  or  e<»vere<l  with 
banduH)  h-avcs;  the  l>elter  sort  of  houses  are  <»f 
wimhI  or  hhek,  and  tiltnl,  but  the  hritrka  are  only 
baked  in  tlie  Mm,  and  glazed  windows  arc  un- 
known. The  Inits  of  the  jx'asantrj-  near  Sai-j^on 
con>i.-t  of  wattle«l  tloors*.  raisetl  aUmt  H  or  4  fwt 
above  tlie  ^ound,  and  eontain  two  or  three  eom- 
finrtments.  on**  c)f  wliich  is  a  e<»minon  riMmi ;  in 
tlie  otln-rs  rlu'  family  .-hH'|)  on  mats  on  a  kind  of 
rain-d  platfonn,  ran;j:ed  around  the  walls.     The 


TVrnA*.— The  Chincae  are  the  bntdicn,  USa\ 
confcctioneni,  baiikcm,  moncy-chanffcn,  and  pei- 
lars  of  tlie  empire,  aud  arc  met  with  in  all  tlie 
towns  with  an  cUustie  pole  acnxw  their  ithouldtr, 
and  at  either  end  a  ba<iket  containing  their  mxu. 
In  the  bazaars,  pit  paper,  fans,  puTL-elain, dni|^ 
luid  other  ('tiina  produce,  toohi,  uticemarieA  (4  at 
and  the  i)ther  articleH  yielded  by  the  cniintiT,in 
sold  Provisiona  are  che^p.  Mr.  White  ivm 
that,  at  SaT-^on,  pork  waa  3  ccnta  per  lb.:  bed 
4  c  (Americ.) ;  fowls,  60  cent j»  jicr  dozen ;  a  fia 
deer,  1^  dollar;  rice,  a  dollar  a  picul  (133  Ih 
Kn^.) ;  shaddocks  and  lemona,  50  c  per  hundi 
<imn;;es.  Si)  c.  per  huniL  Tea  of  Hue  w  kAA  i 
boats  on  the  rivens  as  well  aa  varuiah.  vliid 
with  other  combustible  matter:^  L*  not  allowed  1 
)Hr  k<>pt  on  shons  and  the  varuiith  menrhaff 
live  constantly  in  their  covered  houaesi,  buih  < 


ordinary'  furniture  of  a  <'otta<;e  eon>^ists  of  a  eo-  >  bamluH)  rafts.  The  foreign  traile  w  cumptu 
loimnl  tunttin<;  f<»r  the  tloor,  an  earthen  stove,  an  !  tivcly  tritlin^.  and  almost  wholly  with  the  Cb 
iron  rice-jMit,  and  s<»nu'  very  rude  ])orcelaiu  and  '*""'       ''^  "*^    "''  "    ~^ 

other  earthenware  articles. 

The  art  iu  whi«;h.  above  all  others,  the  Owhin- 
('hine>e  excel,  is  that  of  ship-huihlinp  Their 
ves-els,  the  constru<'tii»n  of  whicli.  were  it  not  fc»r 
their  rude  materials.  wouM  not  ilis:a"ace  Kunjjx', 
an'  built  of  from  o  to  100  ton>  bunln-u,  but  mostly 
betwei'U  It!  and  .'>0  ton>i;  sluiq)  at  either  end,  and 
the  di'ck  c»ne-ihird  loii^^er  than  the  keel.  Their 
iMMtoms  mostlv  coii'^isi  of  wicker  w<irk,  covered 
on  the  <iutsid<^  i)y  a  coating,  ^  inch  thick,  u\' {f(iUntly 


nese ;  verv  little  with  the  Siainej«  or  Enrupeant 
From  'lK),my)  to  GO,0OU  piculs  of  sugar;  :SoO,04 
to  .SOt),(M)0  lbs.  of  true  cinnamon,  not  freed  fio 
its  enidermi.'s  at  oU  to  00  quans  per  picul;  ^ 
]>iculs  of  aniseed  from  CamlMHlja :  rawnilkatJ 
to  5  (|iians  the  catty  (2$  Hi.),  2(H>  pieul^  fn>m  Fi 
fiKi,  (?0  )).  from  Hue,  and  1,000  p.  from  Cach 
annually;  cottons  superior  to  thiMse  of  Ueqgi 
ari>ca,  spices,  cardamoms  fnam  CamlxMija,  bog 
lanl,  .-HTenttYil  wckkIs,  rice,  edible  birds' ncst^s  ai 
mollus'je^  and  the  precious  metals,  are  exiMSli 


aelo'^e  and  duralde.  mixture  (»f  pitch,  oil,  lime,  <i'c.  to  China  ;^aml)0(^e,n.>ddyeuigwtiod  from  Tonqnii 
TIh'  >id«^s  and  <ieck  are  l)oun<l  together  with  cross-  !  ivory,  pearl,  horns,  hides,  gum-lac,  goItl-du:<t,iii 
bulk  hea'L*! :  a-id  as  the  larger  vi-ssels  uMially  Ik;-    other  metals  in  smaller  quantities  t-o  <tther  i«tn 


Jiiiif^  to  a  joint-*!tiM;k  com|>.'niy  of  merchants,  there 
are  \\>  many  se|»arate  hohb<  as  owners.  The  tish- 
iiiic  biiat-i  and  others,  fto  feet  in  length,  :in>  made 
of  ii  long  planks  extending  from  stem  to  stem, 
their  <'dge.s  m«>rticed,  lightened  with  wooih-n  pins, 
and  bound  together  liy  twlsttid  IkuuImiw  libres :  al 
each  eu<l  they  are  n»i>cc|  nnich  higher,  and  iiauite<l, 
gilded,  and  oruannMited  with  figures  (»f  dragons 
an<l  nqtents.  They  ofttm  carry  a  c;»ven*d  cabin, 
built  like  a  hoiw  upon  the  (h>ck :  I'roni  on<'  to  throe 
sails  of  matting,  which  in  tlie  \.  pn»vin«res  are 
often  s<|uan?  ami  more  like  thox*  of  Kuro|K*;  a 
woofleii  anchor  with  one  Huke,  shrouds  and  cables 
of  rattan,  and  <"<»nlagt^  of  <v;/r.  During  the  unfa- 
vourabh;  m«»ns<Min,  tlie  Ixiats  are  taken  to  pie»-es, 
and  the  larger  vi'S'Jols  drawn  upon  sh<in'tos<imedijv- 
tanctr.  The  uxmIc  of  rowing  is  by  pushing,  and  n«)t 
]»ulling,  the  oars  .•igain>t  the  water  (White,  ]>.  200) : 
when  then*  are  many  rowers,  they  ]»ush  in  regu- 


the  world.  AMien  Harrow  wn>te,  sugar  at  Tino 
fetched  3  dollars,  peppier  of  C(x;hiii  China.  6  to 
doll,  and  rice  half  a  dtdlar  the  picul  of  l^i^^lh 
liritish  manufactnre^i  then  sold  usually  at  20  to 9 
]>er  cent,  pn.ttit,  and  were  paid  in  silver  ingoti 
Ke-cho  was  tonnerly  the  centre  of  the  Eaitcn 
traite.  and  at  the  end  of  the  17th  centunr  tb 
Kuglish  and  Dutch  had  factories  there,  wmdo 
thev  exporteil  largely. 

Ihe  im|)orts  are  chietly  manufactured  alb 
jxiTcelain,  drugs,  a  great  quantity  of  gilt  pi{Nf 
and  tine  teas  for  tlie  upix'X  class«>s,  witli  hou?<c^oU 
^c.  utensils  fn)m(.'hina;  spices,  sandal-w<«)d, w 
tin.  from  Malay;  opium  (wliich  ia,  however, WO 
hibited)  from  Iniiia,150  cliests  annimlly,  2-3Mi  o 
which  an*  consumc^l  in  Ttmquin;  coU4>n»  froa 
Canton  ami  Sincaiiore  (but  none  of  a  \'ariet^o 
Ci>K»urs  hi  the  same  yaeee,  nor  chintzes) ;  BntiJ 
windlens.  chietly  scarlet,  some  yellow  ix  grett 


with  a  mattress  and  jiiHows  iii^icU',  coven^il  by  a 
laige  varni'<he«l  e^mopy,  in  fonn  like  a  tortoi-*c- 
hhell ;  the  whole  flung  uiM.»n  a  long  [nde,  and  ciir- 
rieil  (in  the  shoidden*  of  two,  four,  or  six  men. 

In  mojit  manufactures,  the  Anamese  are  vcr\' far 
Whind,  and  are  HujKrsedeil  by  the  Chinese,  from 
whom  tlu^y  <lerive  m»)st  of  their  u«*eful  articles. 
Swonl-han«lles  with  very  g<M»d  lilagrt^e  work,  Lxixcs 
of  la«:(|uere<l  ware,  inlaid  with  pearl  or  gold,  purses, 
matting,  Iwiskets  coarse  silk,  and  ver>'  durable 
cotton  stuffs,  bells,  c-annon,  iron  nails,  seissoi>i  of  a 
rude  kin<l,  varnish,  Ac.  they  van  make ;  but  they 
cannot  temiwj  iron  or  steel,  print  calico,  or  make 
a  matchlock,  and  dc|K'nd  for  all  their  arms  on 
Kvroiiean  nations. 


I 
Ke<b 


lar  succes>ion,  In'gimung  with  the  r>ne  at  the  stem.  '  and  all  coarse ;  a  few  serges,  and  camlets,  imu in 
The  govennnent  rowers,  who  an?  sehvted  fn)m  the  ^  anns  from  Euroiie ;  but  altt^ther  amouDting 
army,  are  paiii  but  1  quan  jht  month.    The  lx>ats    very  little.    The  (iiina  trade  is  chiefly  in  Ke-c 
that  ply  for  hin*  are  chietly  con<lucted  by  women; 
but  the  very  unfair  and  ungallant  custom  prevails 
that  the  men  ]»jiy  no  fare,  they  Ixjing  all  supiMist^l 
on  govennnent  service.     They  have  no  wliceli?d 
carri.ngeA ;  but  jkmj])!*;  of  di-^tinction  are  carriv'<l  in 
a  iialanqiiin,  fomurfl  of  a  cotton  net  hanmiock, 


Sai-gon,  Hue,  aud  FaT-fo,  but  the  whole  scantl 
amounts  to  20,000  txiiLS  annually,  L>ein|;^  littkmo 
than  half  the  Chinese  trade  with  the  &ingk  dty 
Ilangkok,  in  SLim. 

The  transiH>rt  of  gooils  between  Ke-cbu  ai 
Hue  is  facilitated  by  a  canal,  180  mile»  in  lengi 
20  yards  in  breadth,  and  almost  straight:  Mid 
Ik*  c4 instructed  by  the  rei^iing  monarch  in  181 
near  Hue  it  is  umhI  for  irrigation  as  well  aa  oc 
vevance. 

Wrights  ami  Metuwrtt.-^'Th.e  picul  is  about  IS 
H)s.  Kng.,  and  diWdes  into  100  catties,  each  eqi 
to  1  and  l-3nl  lb.  Kng.  A  bag  of  rice  wei/i^s 
catties.  The  current  coin  is  the  sepcck,  cast 
Ke-cho,  of  a  compound  brittle  metal,  cidled 
ttntiffufy  tlie  base  of  which  is  zinc.  It  is  aboat ' 
size  of  a  shilling,  and  pierced  with  a  square  b 
by  which  thev  are  stmng  in  numbers  together,! 
as  they  are  tlie  only  Ci»in  useil.  they  form  a  v 
Itulky  and  inconvenient  me<liura.  *Acc«nuits 
thus  reckoned: — 00  scpccks=l  mas  (5  cents), 


nu  (£0  cmHb),  Chr  two  UKot  uniti  aro 
J.  A  Sftnub  ilollar  >:«  valiitil  at  1| 
I  in^ot  iu  ulver,  ut  fntm  27  lo  28  quauji; 
llADgDldinsiXsuf  thouuiicniidufdiiablc: 
t  the  cmrency  ia  nibjcct  tu  very  eapti- 
ngtii^b  choaKCH. 

Brama  mn  Umvcd  fmm,J.  a  cajHtatuHi 
■oil  l-lOih  iJiiAn,  puiil  by  every  male 
mnnTaiCe;  x.alaiiil-iax;  S.Ibeenmn 
icii  are  faimotl  by  lUtTvri'nt  vLllii(!<>st  4. 
■liibuliuuaiinpcHbiinfiin'inTi  inule,  Kc 
^D*u  ue  aniall,  ami  Ihrrc  ia  nune  on 
•■Ksr;  i!ii>«i;  in  ihe  servitu  iif  thp  (,-uv«ii- 
ezeln[it«l  fr»m  Ilwm.  'I'lic  laag  hui 
>  of  ^Id-Jiut,  ivi-iy,  and  iLiiiuueiDa' 

■wnuBntM  an  hcrnlilary  militaij  (le»- 

to  [)uiii  Iciptunacy.  Tliu  iuivt4vi|,ii  baa 
(Emiicruc.  Hiv 'ivulnil  ailinintalntiim 
I  is  ciiiiiluilcil  )•}'  >dx  MiiiutaiinA,  niiiiiit- 
llBve  diarKi'  of  tlu-  an-llivel^  religiiin, 
ar.  tinaiice-.  jinil  w<iijila  aju)  fun>t^  Be- 
viiVH  uf  Tinii|iiiii  and  Cam- 
-*  '-'■  nf  JHephanU,  tIiii  in 
DBHT.  onii  muibtn  ut  Tiinn)^  aRairi, 
■  in  tbc  mpniDU  cuundl.  Knrh  |>nivinee 
laioSdrjianiDcntH,t'allHl  //■-}«■:  «ach 
S  or  4  lOittikiis  Mllcd  ToH.    The  |iTr>' 

lanlaiiiM  (>-t  militniy  cIoks),  who  ban  J 
idarino  nnilrr  him ;  rovh  hu-i/ai  k  Ki>- 
'  two  nnil  eacli  f«  hyiHii.'  d\-il  tlamWin : 
jca  arv  i^iTimnl  l^'irflicvM  clvdcd  hy  Ihc 
r,  Khn  an  anmrerablv  fiit  (he  uucct  of 

Ic  in  uflidal,  avl  nllhoneh  in  pan.  hvnv 
aaaul*  a  kU^  in  earli  min-wilinK  f;»ii«ra- 
adi  rnnclkmarv  ban  iKHtisr  ti>  iuHiut 
at  im  all  inrrniir  lu  tiim  in  rank,  ami 
a  thin  ptiwer  ia  diqiiaycd 


ANAM 

iiraaller  (;all^  Romewlut  nmihuly 
scamra  arc  cfitHwd  in  rc^^inicnu  lh«  i 
trni>|M,  (1  iirwiiifh  uro  ini  diiLy  at  Itu 
1  at  each  uf  tbu  otlwi  prinui]ial  furta. 


t  Ualilo  ti>  MTve,  a 


AU 


1 1  out  iif  ;l  IS  grne- 
'fhero  in  cuniinually  a  kvy  of 
tn«a  IT  an<l  2<t:  anil  thuae  whn  an 
>l•ervl^  cannot  leave  thvanuy  (ill  a^je  ur 
omi)>el  them.  They  ace  iu  active  mr- 
Ihrae  Micccwivo  yvaii>,  and  thiai  have 
■kenee  fiir  the  tbive  next,  which  tliey 
tfa  ibeir  laintURi,  einplnyinic  (hemwlvtw 
km  irfamnBll  allotment  oriand.Knuileil 
■mml  ti>  cai'h.  Tlie  utandinf*  anny  wan 
IW,tWI>  men ;  but  when  Cntwfiird  italed 
Dv,  it  wav  uoty  bclwevD  VlfnM  and  otlJHNI 
bil^ivHt  Hys  *liiev  aiE  (iiboiil,  amart- 
iwpft,*rlntliedin  Hriliah  rrarict  wuuUona 
■  tumnl  up  with  blue  ut  yelbiw.  and 
akal  lielmrt  of  baxket-wnrtL.  laaiucml 
1  tltcir  Kthcr  annii  aie  Bwurds.  nnwkets 
EOeliS  ahieldh  and 
di  uf  r> 

id  other  accnutninentii,  iwat 
vt  Eumpr,  llic  lirtHnivenr 
V  &Cq  were  iii[n>duceil  by  the  French 
«  toiil  ivntiuy,  who  mice  «i|i|ilie[l  thero 
ttl)  Rand  uf  ann*.  Much  |in>gTeii'i  wan 
Bdlitary  atCiirH  hy  the  (.liwhin  Chinese, 

and  lume  other  cicieii,  are  Uninifly  fui- 

nls  tu  ajtuIB,  mHar»>  tfiilleys  •  jVnva 
can,  with  aereial  smiill  HWivvl  jrieMW. 
!  M  Si  immdcr  at  tlw  pruw,  ami  HM 


nniple  ia  a  a|innea  tif  Uiiddhlimi ;  tbc  Ulster  iinlfri 
fiilluw  the  rclittiini  uf  Cunfiiriua.  Cliriatianiiy  wiu 
'  itmiucrd  Li  IU:f'l  liy  the  I'uitn;;(iCM>  Jeauits; 
id  Iheic  arc  nUiut  4'ioMO  Giliatiamt  in  the  em- 

pltt((;nn1'un1),viz.:  SDO.tMHIinTiaHiidn,  lll»,<M 
m  I'^a'liin  riiiiiK,  and  about  iSfll)i>  in  CombiHlj.i; 
n  miHit  alijcrt  i>f  the  juipuUtKin, 
|»lilica]  wciKbt  wlialcver.    Tlie 


iifferiiit;  first  fhilta,  ieentsd  woudH,  Ac  tu  iihilis  in 
bnmiiii;  j^M  quanlitieii  (/  pit  paiHT  at  u'rtnin 
limcH.  MicltiiiK  inK'tiittiinw  <>a  pmus,  treca,  and 
bouMasand  raRyiii|t*n<iiit  nhrlacleriiv,  aiidotlwr 
aacml  objei^a.  Tlie  Ikichln  Chiwiw  ani  i-i'ty 
anprntiliiiuM. and  enileavtiur  tu  apiH'OW  ttiu  eiil 
nuiit  miire  titan  they  wiieratc  the  lin)cfH!rnt  one. 
Thry  have  iitwalas,  auil  t  pmlkmii  but  Ibeir 
idnlii  and  terajiliM  are  Bum  commonly  an  ima|{e  of 
the  ChbieHc  pH]  >'•!,  entdiwed  iu  n  tmull  hoinw  uf 
wicker  work,  hunc  up  in  a  tree,  or  ekvatol  im 
four  lotif;piMta.amlap[iiuiirlieilby  alailtler.  Their 
piieHta  ant  Ibw,  ami  but  little  iwiectal  by  a  pcuule 
wlin  treat  nMnv  of  their  Knda  wilb  contempt.  In 
Chinm|ia  (niun/al,  tlie  ili.paTturCiicIiin  L'hiiia, 
¥„..; —   -_■  _.  .    .■■_: ■ .1..  „l^(c(j  nf 

.and 


,  UTiite  olBcrves,  that  theft  is  i 


nnjc-t  ui 


rioil  after  which,  I 


vellcru  aj^tw  it 
^arrii-ilfemiili-si 
in  neiibcr  ihftrailii  ibcm  iii  ■ 

"ji  their  becoininc  inar- 

a  eirkt  wntoh  ia  kqit 

-.—The  pidice  of  tlie  villain  mid 
llie  lawn  are  odnibiiHlercd  liy  the  villafK  cliieCi 
alreaily  simken  of;  in  llie  town*,  one  of  the  priii- 
-^ijial  iidiiihitiuils  of  Hieh  strret  i»  ctionen  In-  tlm 
.»«  u  innl  of  IknIrrtI,  and  i»  auawcralilo  fiir  the 
Kuod  liehaviinir  of  all  the  rest,  over  whom  he  i* 
an  arbilntor.  In  capital  caMU,  jiid^nneut  reita 
with  tlie  inivemon  of  the  An-yra,  or  (here  may 
he  appeal  ftinii  them  tiitlin<c  of  the  prinince.  anil 
nltinuuely  tn  tlie  myat  eoutH-JI;  wlicre  all  the 
evidenee  U  Mmiiulnu^ly  re-addneed.  Thejudtn'a 
eatlliuirindiviiliuliipiniiiaiiwparatriy, 
and  the  anperor  hiinwir  ilutcnniacs  ou  the  ca.10. 
Ko  diHtinction  in  uude  hrtween  natives  aiid  fo- 
reignen.  Die  latter  biins  niider  tlie  protection  uf 
ttwnuniaterof  idraniiera.  The  nei'cral  uhii^fipvo 
auiUencu  niul  receive  )ietitiuiu  o^ery  day;  Imt 
preoenta  Ui  eacli  are  noccMiary  to  uhljiin  a  heai- 
inff. 

The  IramlHHi  is  couNtantly  at  work,  and  the 
■■oawfiK,  or  voke,  fiir  otiier  minur  Crimea,  wliicb  in 
compiiMil  oftwu  iiiecea  uf  wixal  I'l  fL-et  lim;;,  faat- 
eiieit  acnna  by  (wo  ollieni,  Slid  worn  aonicwbnt 
tiitblly  louml  tlie  neck.  All  capital  criineA,  aa 
munler,  rulibery,  aoini'tiuica  c<iiTu;rtii>n  (except  Inx 
mhillery),  are  punii-hed  hy  decaialatiiHi :  the  iti- 
miitalB  are  bnini-lit  inlu  the  bazar,  iir  jHiblie  place, 
aiid  ulwwl  in  rows,  <xKh  opnuritc  a  placatil,  de- 
daiiii;;  the  nalure  of  hia  crime;  Iheii,  wilh  une 
blow  of  a  tw»-liaiiricd  aalirp.  Ihdt  heada  are  auc- 
ccaaivrly  ctruck  i.tf.  rartie*  coiivieted  of  ndul- 
terv  are  Ikil  loucllicr  niul  thrown  into  the  aca. 

(■•df^imiivianlloweil;  the  Hint  wife  la  tlieehief, 
the  i^her-'lieuiK  nuiatly  uf  infcrinr  nink:  tin- 
chililren  of  idl  are,  however,  njually  lei;iiiniate. 
Till'  richer  eliissoa  marry  at  1-i,  the  pcwrer  at  ilt 
or  30  ycara  of  ugu,  ur  when  they  con  aStunl  lu  buy 


120 


ANAH 


a  woman  from  her  friends ;  but  women  cannot  be 
married  against  their  own  eonHont.  Marriage  is 
hut  a  veriMl  contract,  ratilied  by  exchanging  pre- 
sents before  witnesses,  and  dissolved  as  readily  by 
merely  breaking  a  pair  of  cho))-stioks,  or  porcu- 
pine quills,  before  a  third  party.  The  remains  of 
the  dca<l  arc  often  laid  out  with  much  pomp  under 
a  pavilion  covi^red  with  silks,  aiul  surrounded  with 
taoles  of  the  choicest  fruits,  and  a  band  of  music 
for  15  da^'s.  White  garments  are  worn,  and  much 
gilt  pafwr  is  burnt  at  these  times.  No  native  nor 
foreigner,  if  married,  is  allowed  to  quit  the 
country'. 

AmusemetUi,  Public  Tatte,  §r. — ^The  Anamese 
arc  ver>'  fcMul  iif  dramat  ic  n'lmwntations,  which 
are  ptTl'ormwl  in  pavilions  ft)r  several  tlii^'s  to- 
gether with  little  mtenniHsion,  an<l  to  which  no 
entrance-money  is  required,  the  actors  deiMiuding 
on  voluntary'  contributions.  The  ^)lays  consist  of 
liistorical  operatic  piei^es,  or  of  a  light  and  comic 
dialogue,  intcrs])erHe<l  with  cheerful  airs,  each  con- 
cluding with  a  common  chorus.  Their  dancing 
and  music  is  in  exact  time,  the  latter  not  destitute 
of  melixly,  not  unlike  some  Scotch  airs.  ITie  in- 
struments in  use  are  gongs,  drums,  xdolins,  tlutes, 
guitars,  and  tnimi)otri  sutliciently  harsh  and  grating; 
but  the  appLiuse  is  always  in  pmportion  to  the 
nol<K'  made.  They  have  H«»me  notion  of  sculpture, 
the  best  s]>ecimcns  of  which  wrv.  seen  on  tonil)s. 
They  arc  fon<l  of  shuttlecfxrk  and  frnitball,  cock 
and  quuil  lighting,  the  trit^ks  of  jugglers,  d'C. ; 
and  the  upper  ranks  of  elephant,  tiger,  or  buffalo 
hunting,  and  lircworks,  canis  and  dice,  without^ 
liowever,  being  addicte<l  to  gambling. 

[)re88 — Is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Chinese  be- 
fore the  Tartar  conquest,  consisting  of  lot)se 
trouH<>rs,  tied  round  the  waist  with  a  sash :  several 
IcKise  fro<;ks  of  diifereut  lengths,  the  upper  one 
the  shortest,  and  having  long  l(K)se  sleeves,  a  small 
close  collar,  and  five  buttons  and  loops ;  a  bn»ad 
basket-work  hat^  or  a  turban  of  crai>e;  slippers 
by  which  the  feet  are  not  crain])ed  like  those 
o^  the  ('hiiu*s<.>;  hair  long,  and  turned  up  in  a 
knot  on  the  top  of  the  heiuL  The  dress  of  both 
sexes  is  alike,  only  in  that  of  the  women  the 
frocks  are  longer,  and  they  wear  hrawdet*  and 
armlets  of  i>earl,  of  ivorv,  earrings,  and  other 
oniaments.  Dn^ss  is  an  (»bject  of  great  attention 
with  all  classes. 

lArnqtuige. — 'ITie  language  of  the  Cochin  (^hi- 
nos(%  like  their  dress,  &o.,  has  l)een  de.rive<l  from 
that  of  Chnia:  it  is  monosyllabic,  destitute  of  in- 
Mcxioiis,  its  written  character  like  the  former, 
although  it  poHsess<^  several  elements,  as  the  H, 
1),  and  It,  which  the  (^hineJM^  arc  unalile  to  pro- 
nounce. The  CamlMKljaiis  s|)cak  a  diffen'tit  lan- 
guage, and  the  [>eople  of  Tsiam])a  another  distiii<:t 
from  both.  Litx'rature  is  confined  to  Chinese 
IsK^ks,  chieMy  on  medicine,  and  the  works  of  Con- 
fucius. 

History. — In  234  B.C.  this  countrjr  was  con- 

?uerp<l  by  the  Chinese,  who  held  it  till  a.d.  2<5H. 
n  1400  it  was  recompieretl  by  the  Chinese,  who 
abnndoiie<l  it  again  m  142H.  In  1471,  Cochin 
China  was  completely  suHected  by  Tonquin ;  but 
in  1553  threw  off  the  yoke,  and,  until  174H,  was 
govcme<l  by  ls>th  a  n<miinal  and  real  sovereign, 
the  latter  of  whom  was  a  military  commander 
and  regent.  The  nominal  sovereigns  then  ob- 
taine<l  the  master]^',  and  ruled  in  the  midst  of 
anan^hy  till  1774,  when,  in  the  reign  of  Caimg- 
shung,*the  revolution  of  Nhac  {Yinyac)  and  his 
bn>thers  overturned  their  power.  Bishop  Adran, 
a  French  missionary",  the  tutor  of  the  lute  king's 
son,  obtained  for  hmi  the  alliance  of  Louis  XVI., 
and,  with  the  aid  of  a  few  of  his  countr^'rnen,  was 
the  maiu  cause  of  the  restoration  of  Ids  pujiil  Gla- 


ANCONA 

long  to  the  throne  of  his  anoestoni  on  whidi  be 
was  firmly  seateil  in  18<)2.  Adnm  reformed  tlie 
jurisprudence,  commenced  public  works,  sarvrnd 
the  coasts,  promoted  trade,  established  naval  use- 
nals,  and  new  disciplined  the  king^s  army:  but 
dying  soon  after,  many  of  his  wholesome  rektm 
sank  into  disuse.  Gia-long  died  in  1819,  and  wn 
suc(«oded  by  an  illegitimate  son,  who  was  invttt«d, 
in  1821,  by  the  court  of  Peking  with  tho  empire 
of  Tonquin  and  Cochin  China. 

Anam. — ^TiiE  Fkrnoh  CoLOsrr.  Before  the 
French  revolution  the  government  of  Louis  XTI. 
made  great  endeavours  to  obtain  a  footing  m 
Cochin  China,  and  they  were  sucoessfnl  for  a  time, 
causing  many  of  the  places  to  be  fortified  in  Euo- 
{leaii  fiisliioii,  introducing  Frendi  officers  into 
places  of  authority,  and  generally  modifying  the 
government  according  to  European  ideasC  In  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  these  changes 
had  1)ecome  obsolete;  but,  in  I860,  a  powerfol 
Franco-Sfianish  expedition  reduced  the  city  uf 
Saigon,  which  was  ma<le  the  capital  of  a  new 
French  colony.  Tlie  territorj'  of  this  colony  com- 
prises the  three  provs.  of  Dongnai,  Bien-hcia,  siid 
Saigon,  or  that  part  of  the  country  extending 
east  of  the  CanilxNlla  H5  m.  in  a  iliiect  line,  and 
lutrth  on  the  C^unbodia  to  ll^^  10' north,  13>J  m. 
along  the  river  course.  (See  Saioon.)  In  some 
quarters  in  India,  the  position  of  tlie  French  is 
xdewed  with  some  cxmccm,  more  etipecially  tdnoe 
the  French  have  recognised  the  sovereign  of  Ckm- 
bodia  as  independent,  while  he  is  really  dependent 
on  Siam,  an  empire  on  terms  of  enmity  witli  the 
Burmese  province  of  India.  The  French  are  en- 
deavouriug  to  attract  the  commerce  of  the  pro- 
vinces of  C^hina  bounding  the  Ananiite  empire  on 
the  north,  down  the  CamboiUa  river,  while  British 
merchants,  both  in  India  and  at  home,  favour  • 
scheme  to  construct  a  road  into  these  ChineN 
provinces  frt>m  Kangoon. 

ANAPA,  a  sea-fiort  town  and  fortress  of  Ean>- 
pean  Russia,  Circassia,  on  the  N£.  coast  of  the 
Bhick  Sea,  47  m.  SE.  Yenikale,  lat.  44©  M'  5^, 
long.  370  1«'  21"  E.  Pop.  ex.  of  military,  3,000. 
The  fortress,  constnicted  by  the  Turiu  in  1784, 
was  taken  by  the  Uussians  in  1791,  and  in  1807, 
and  finally  in  lK-28,  since  which  it  has  been  de- 
fiuitivclv  cede<.l  to  them.  The  houjics  are  mutftlr 
mere  cabins,  built  of  wood  and  mud.  The  inht- 
bitants  consist  of  Circassians,  Turks,  Tartans 
Greeks,Jews,  Armenians  and  Kussiaiis.  The  poft, 
or  rather  road,  is  nearly  open,  with  ImuI  holdiui; 
gnmnd,  and  so  shallow  as  to  admit  only  ships  of 
small  burden.  Anapa  is  at  present  pkincipanT 
important  as  a  military  post ;  bat  were  tranquil- 
lity restored  in  Cin^ssia,  it  would  most  likely 
become  the  seat  of  a  considerable  cfmimerce.  The 
exporLs  are  grain,  tallow,  and  butter,  hid»,  pel- 
tries and  wax. 

AXCEXIS,  a  town  of  France,  dcp.  Loire  Infe- 
rieure^  on  tlie  Loire,  21  m.  ENE.  Nantes.  P«ip. 
4,r)28  in  18H1.  It  is  well  built,  has  a  handsome 
college,  an  hospital,  and  barracks.  There  are  coal 
and  iron  mines  in  the  neighliourhood ;  and  it  has 
a  good  deal  of  trade  in  wine,  vinegar,  brandy, 
and  timber.  Its  port  serves  as  an  entrepot  and 
station  for  the  vessels  navigating  the  Loire.  The 
town  is  commanded  by  a  Gothic  castle  placed  on 
a  steep  hilL 

ANCEKVILLE,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Meuse, 
11  m.  SSW.  Bar-le-Duc    Pop.  2,003  in  1861. 

ANCHOLME  (Isle  of),  see  LiNoouirsHiBK. 

AN  CON  A,  a  marit«  citv  of  Italy,  on  the  Ad- 
riatic, 1 7^  m.  SE.  Siuigaglia,  15  m.  !^N  W.  Loreto, 
and  188  m.  NE.  R«)me,  lat,  430  87'  42"  N«  long. 
130  30' 35"  E.  Pop.  4C,0»0  in  1862,  of  whom 
many  are  Grcelu  aud  Mohammedaiu,  and  exda- 


) 


ANCONA 
10  Jawi  wbo  inhaMt  ■  Mparate  qnarUr. ' 
Mt  of  a  dvil  tiibuoal.  of  it  triliimil  nf . 
tn^ctioD,  uicl  nf  >  buhnpric:  a  built 
it»-wiK,  on  ■  sIo|>ing  (tiuimit,  dpclining 
I,  between  tvo  hilli,  on  one  of  which 
csthednl,  ou  the  other  iu  dladel; 
mnr,  dirty,  and  im^lar;  but  miuiy 


tioopi  remained  within  the  Papal  territories !  the 


French 


iBicd  tl 


■ing    been    withdraw 


>f*183fl. 


oli-ing 


Bd  65  abore  Ibe  . 

UgbthixiM,  with  a  handsoine  i 

tt  mole  bdnf;  hiioked  at  llxc  exciemiiv, 

tf  lie  imnudiately  wiihin  the  hartwur  in 

8  &tbonu;  but  it  Ahoal§  rapidLv,  and 
awing  mine  than  15  or  IG  f«t~  water 
dior  wiihin  a  shnrt  distance  of  the  entry. 
ood  ancfanrage  KTUund  abuut  i  m.  vith- 
ole.  in  mand  12  fathonu.    Tlic  horbaui 

impniviiig  under  the  present  Italian 
at,  ■even]  diedf^  of  iaie  venn  having 
oouataiitly  at  winli  increasing  the  depth 
MMT.  On  the  mole  AUuidfl  a  ni>ble  ancient 

arch,  in  honour  of  die  Erepenjr  Tnijnn, 
ITed  and  emlvUiidied  iJie  town  and  port : 
«d  of  laige  bluuks  of  white  marble ;  and 
a  anotlier  arob  in  bcmour  of  Pope  Bene- 

The  caiheilral,  aituated  on  a  fiiilcl  pro- 
n  the  pite  of  an  ancient  temple  of  Vunus, 
dnu  porch,  fenpportod  by  two  lionii  of 
nanite;  avery  ancientuiai,  and  many 
n  [uUan.  There  are  10  other  uhurehes, 
I  many  good  painiingg;  15  com 
— ■   ■— o  huepiUia.    Tbe  palace 


[n  the  year  1N4!>  the  town  bai-ing  ebared  in 
revolation  in  tbe  Koman  States,  waa  bombarded 
ind  then  occupied  by  Amtrian  troop«  and  held  by 
ihem  till  1859.  On  SDth  October  1860  it  mrren- 
leml  tu  Iho  Piedmuntese  tioope,  and  baa  gince 
formed  part  uf  tbe  Italian  kingdom.  (Rampoliii, 
CoTografis  dell'  Italia,  voL  L  p.  80 ;  Cooatilai  Re- 
porta,  186fl-4). 

ANCY-LE-FRANC,  a  town  of  Francs,  dep, 
Yonne,  cap.  tanL  on  the  canal  of  Bnigundy,  10  m. 
SE.  Tonnerre.  Pop.  1339  in  1861.  It  in  neat 
and  well-built,  but  i«  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 


ieȣnsofPiii 


stle  i 


of  Looia   XIV.     It  if 


at  of  Khokan,  on   th 

Khokan,laI.41°-.fa'N'. 

long.  71^  27'  E.     It  in  suimunded  lyganlens,  am 

a  place  of  coiuiderahle  size  and  antiquity. 

AXDALUSIA,        "■     ■ 


ttrict  of  Spain,  i 
Ib  who  setUeil  be 


inue,  tl 


Bubcturei,  chiefly  in  the  handa  of  the 
aiiKprinci|ial1y  of  wax,  tallow,  silk  hata, 
^  The  harbour  ia  well  adapted  for  build- 
epairing  thi|ia,  and  ia  lirei{uenlcd  by  thuae 
lUDB.     It  waa  maile  a  free  poR  by  Clt 
Uand  baa  a  more  connidrrable  trade  tha 
r  town  on  the  W.  coast  of  the  Adriatic, 
loepled.    This  Iraile  is  now  on  tbe  ' 
Hade  the  harbour  is  a  tine  lazaaictlo, 
ial  ialand,  communicailn^  with  the  t<i 
]r    The  market-[>lAce  la  ripacioua,  i 
^ .1  A._:.i...  _j,i,  gijpap  and  good 


iHed, 

,   ._    an  Arabic  wonl,  ai^ifving 

Laxd  of  iht  ITcil.  It  ii  the  mow  8.  ^riaiiin  of 
Spain,  comprisng  the  four  Moorivb  kingdoms  of 
Seville,  Cordova,  Jaen,  and  Granada,  between 
86"  (f  and  3«o  W  S.  laL,  and  1°  B7'  and  7°  25'  W. 
long.,  having  N.  Estremaduia  and  La  Mancha ; 
E.  Murcia;  W.  Portugal;  and  S.  the  Alkntio 
Ocean,  tbe  Sir.  of  tiiliraltar,  and  the  Ueiliter- 
lanean :  length,  E.  to  W.,  about  850  m. ;  grenteot 
breailth  nearly  200  m.;  area,  27,153  fty.  m.  Pop. 
"  """357  according  to  the  centma  uf  1857,  being 
icrease  since  IMH  of  1,509,398.  Andslnsia  ia 
'resent  divided  into  eight  provinces,  viz. — 
Seville,  Cadiz,  Cordova,  Granada.  Jaen,  Malaira, 
Almeria,  and  Iluclva.  Its  chief  dticB  are  SeviUe, 
Cadiz,  Cordova,  Jaen,  Almeria,  Granada,  Mala^ 


,    Tbew 


,    The  U 


larkable 
riby 


with   Rimini  and    Pe'«:ara. 
Ctsfti,  Pairaa,  Athens,  Smyrna,  uid  Co 
la.    Kxpurts,  ciim,hemp,liacon,sulpbi 
V,     Imports,  colonial  gi^Hls,  drugrt,  aj 
nd  large  qnanlitiM  of  coal  fmm  Britain. 
[fl6S9i^46L  i  importH317,U0f.:  of  which 
■h  ihare  waa  ■26,ilCJL  and  196,52' 

r. 

I  is  said  by  Strabo  to  have  b«i]  founded 


nans  e'lAbliahed  themwlves  in  it 
ing  jually  reifardeil  aa  a  naral  alatio 
pmaiice,'  Trajan  expended  large  s 


in  839  it 


■acked  by 

nedani 
Bemardii 


a  republic,  till 

aler  pretext  of  defcndinK 

taring  built  tbe  cilailel  which  entirely 

k  tbe  town),  placed  it  in  the  bands  of 

n  1799  it  waa  Uken  by  the  Prench,  i 

fumed  the  chief  city  of  the  dep.  of  the 

.   Id  IK14,  it  waa  realorad  to  the  Pa|>al 

FeU  1K)2,  a  detachment  uf  French  troops 

laaipectedlv,  aiul  took  povaewncm  of  the 

which  the  rreiu:li  govummi    ' 

uion  Iu  leMia  so  lung  aa 


Mulahacen, 
.  alx>\-e  tbe  level  of  the  sea.  Tlic 
betongii  to  the  N.  chain,  and  forms 
part  of  tbe  N.  Iwundary  of  the  diatriet.  Between 
these  two  ranges  flows  the  Guailalquivir,  by  far 
the  laTKeet  of  the  Ancla1u>ian  rivers,  and  swelled 
by  numerous  eireams  from  the  lateral  valleys  open- 
ing into  ita  basin.  There  are  numerous  small  lakes. 
On  the  coast,  tbe  climate  is  hot  and  opprcMi^-e; 
but  N.  of  the  Siena  Ncvaila,  tbe  temperature  is 
more  eqoable,  and  cooler,  although  it  never  freezai. 
The  primitive  rocka  of  tbe  high  S.  mountains  ant 
chiefly  mica-alate,  gneiss,  and  clay-slate,  covered 
in  some  parts  by  black  transition  limestone,  con- 
taiuinf;  sulphuret  of  lead.  Scrpenttne  marble,  and 
alabaster,  are  found  in  Granada ;  and  there  atB 
numerous  mines,  that  either  produce,  or  have  pro- 
duced, gold,  silver,  copper,  antimony,  mercury, 
*  I,  lead,  vitriol,  coal,  and  sulphur;  but,  with  the 
:eption  of  the  lead  mines  of  Adra,  near  Malaga, 
:v  are  at  present  mostly  in  a  neglected  state, 
e  vegetation  partakes  of  the  European  and 
[ican  characters:  mastic,  olive,  myrtle,  palms, 
bananas,  &c.,  abound  in  the  central  porta  of  the 
country,  but  on  the  S.  shores  those  common  to 
Europe  almost  wholly  disappear,  and  the  sugar- 
cane and  cotton  arc  cultivated.  Wheat,  barley, 
fruits  of  all  sort.*,  and  wines,  are  abundantly  pro- 
duced 1  the  chief  mnesare  those  of  .\erca  (sherry), 
Pajarclc,  Malawi 


Then 


iny 


122 


ANDAMAN  ISLANDS 


pecially  the  bitter,  are  rcnownc<l  as  amonp^t  the 
beat  in  Spain.  The  wolf  and  boar  are  the  only 
formidable wilil  animals;  therii  is  plenty  uf  ^anits 
an  abundance  of  fish,  and  none  of  the  moftt  veno- 
mous reptilcH:  tlic  <x>cluneal  iiiKect  is  KuccesHfully 
cultivated  near  Cadiz.  Most  part  of  the  country 
is  i>arcellcd  out  Into  va^st  eBtates,  l)elonjnii^  to 
grandees,  the  churcli,  and  corporations.  Af^cul- 
ture  is  in  a  very  liackward  state.  The  prcutvr 
part  of  the  countiy  is  appropriated  to  jmsture,  the 
traveller  often  i<)urneying  many  miles  without 
aeein*;  a  single  house,  or  any  8ym])tom8  of  culti- 
vation ;  and,  notwithstaudin/iC  the  fertility  of  the 
fv>il,  there  is  annually  a  considerable  im^iortation 
of  com  from  tlie  opixwite  coast  of  Africa,  Sicily, 
and  the  Black  Sea.  The  cvccupiers  of  the  land 
mostly  live  toj^ethcr  in  towns  and  Wlla^jes;  their 
rents  are  umally  ]Vii(l  on  tlie  nutayer  principle, 
and  they  are  at  once  i;^urant  and  poor;  the  in- 
habitants of  the  mountainous  mid  less  fertile  dis- 
tricts are,  as  mij;ht  be  exi)ecte<l,  tlie  most  indus- 
trious. The  chief  manufacturos  are  those  (»f 
wtMilIons,  silk,  and  leather;  and  but  for  oppressive 
custom  laws,  there  would  Ik;  a  more  c<»nsulerable 
trade  than  there  is  both  with  other  |»art«  of  Spaiji 
and  forei;^!  <x)imtries.    Cadiz  is  the  chief  ]x>rt. 

The  AndalusLins  are  a  mixed  nioe.  de,-H.*ended 
from  Africans,  Carthii^nians,  Ifomons,  Goths,  Van- 
dals, and  M<x)rs.  They  retain  nmch  resemblance, 
both  in  |)erson  and  manuoj-s,  to  the  latter;  al- 
tliough  li^ht  hair,  eyes  and  complexions,  are  by  no 
means  unfrequent.  *  When  they  have  any  motive 
to  exertion,  thev  are  not  deficient  in  mdustrv, 
and  are  intelU^ent  and  imaginative.  AndaluMn 
has  produced  many  grxnl  poets  and  distinguished 
men  hi  all  ages:  Trajan,  tlie  Senecas,  and  Silius 
Italicus  were  natives  of  this  j)rov.,  with  Murillo 
the  painter,  and  some  of  the  best  lyric  authors  of 
m(Mieni  S{>aiii. 

ANDAMAN  ISLANDS,  a  lengthened  narrow 
li^oup  of  islands,  none  of  whicli  are  of  any  verj' 
considerable  magnitude,  in  the  E.  part  of  the  Hay 
of  Bengal,  stretching  N.  and  S.,  between  UP  30' 
and  13°  10'  N.  Int.,  under  about  l».iO  50'  E.  long. 
They  are  within  tlie  full  swee]i  of  the  SW.  mon- 
Boon,  <md  are  washe<l  for  eight  months  a  year  by  in- 
cessant rains.  TheypnHluce  many  large  trees,  that 
might  furnish  timlx'r  and  planks  for  the  construc- 
tion of  shi[js,  and  for  the  finest  cabinet  work.  The 
3uadmpe(ls  are  but  few,  consisting  princi])ally  of  a 
iminutive  breed  of  swine  and  rat«.  Among  the 
binls  is  the  swallow,  that  produces  the  edible  nests 
so  highly  esteemed  hi  Chma.  Fish  are  generally 
plentifiJ,  but  occasionally  scarce.  The  inhabi- 
tants, who  are  not  sup|)Osed  to  excee<l  2,500  or 
3,0(M)  in  number,  seem  to  be  a  pcadiar  race  in  the 
lowe-st  state  of  barbarism.  'J'hey  seldom  exceed 
5  feet  in  height,  have  protid^erant  bellies,  liml)s 
disproportionally  slender,  skin  a  deep  s<K)ty  black, 
hair  woolly,  nose  flat,  ll]>s  thick,  eyes  small  and 
retl,  their  countenances  exhibiting  the  extreme  of 
wretchedness — a  mixture  of  famine  and  fenwity. 
They  go  quite  naked,  and  are  insensible  to  shame 
from  ex]K)sure.  They  have  made  no  effort  to  cul- 
tivate the  gn>und,  anil  arc  found  only  on  the  sea- 
coast^  dei>ending  principally  f<»r  subsistence  on 
iishing.  1  heir  implements  are  of  the  rudest  texture ; 
but  tliey  use  them  with  great  dexterity,  particu- 
larly in  spearing  and  capturing  fish,  "rhey  are 
skilful  as  rowers,  and  in  the  management  of  their 
boats.  Hiey  have  no  utensil  that  will  resist  fin>, 
and  tlress  their  ftKnl  by  throwing  it  on  the  live 
cml)ers,  and  devouring  it  half  bn^iletL  Their  ha- 
bitations display  little  more  ingenuity  tlian  the 
dens  of  wild  Ixjasts,  being  mere  huts,  formed  of 
four  irregular  posts  stuck  in  the  ground  and  covercil 
with  palm  Icayca.    Being  much  incommoded  by 


ANDEBNACH 

insecta,  their  first  occapatioa  in  the  monnng  ii 

f>laster  their  bodies  all  ov^  with  mud.  wUi 
lardening  in  the  sun,  forms  an  impenetrable  tr 
our.  They  paint  their  woolly  heads  with  i 
ochre  and  water,  and,  when  completely  drw 
have  a  roost  hideous  ajipeanmce.  They  ha?e 
intense  hatred  of  strangers,  witli  whom  ther  o 
not  be  ])erHuaded  to  hold  any  intercourse.  11 
arc  sui)p<»sed  to  worship  the  sou  and  moon;  i 
during  storms  and  tempeeta,  endeavour  to  « 
the  wrath  of  the  demon  b^'  whom  they  ran 
them  to  l>e  produced.  Their  language  is  pecal 
and  Ls  not  known  t«>  have  the  alighrcst  affinin 
any  spoken  in  India,  or  in  any  of  the  Iihd 
islands.  They  liave  been  said  to  be  oM&n 
phayists,  but  this  is  not  confirmed  by  the  la 
\'isitors.  Some  have  supposed  them  to  lie  a  i 
of  degenerate  negroes ;  but  this  appears  not  i 
the  case.  No  distuict  resemblance  can  be  tn 
liet  ween  them  and  any  other  race — Malay,  Ausi 
asian,  or  others — a  descent  frum  one  or  othc 
whom  might  have  I;een  looked  for,  and  they  i 
nwemblc  a  dwarfed  and  untlefonntnl  Enro] 
race.  Their  want  of  correspondence  with  anvo 
tyi)e  raises  on  interesting  questitm  in  ethnoki^ 

A  British  settlement  was  establisliod  at  '. 
Comwnllis,  on  the  largest  of  the  islands,  ncai 
NE.  extrtrmitj'  of  the  group,  in  1 703.  The  harl 
is  excollent ;  and  the  settlement  was  designee 
the  reception  of  con\'icts  from  Bengal,  and  fi» 
security  of  shipping  during  the  monsoons;  but 
situation  turned  out  so  verv'  unliealthv,  as  to  o 
sion  its  abandonment  in  17Ut).  Since  tlien  f 
have  l>een  but  seldom  visiteti,  except  in  1W4 
1825,  when  some  of  the  ships,  on  their  wa; 
I{ang(H)ii,  touched  at  the  islands.  On  one  oft 
occasions  the  native^)  attacked  a  party  wate 
with  the  utmost  fun';  and  were  not  repulsed  « 
out  great  loss  on  their  side,  and  after  they 
killed  one  soldier,  and  wounded  three  othenk 
place  on  one  of  the  islands,  Tort  Blair,  wassele 
as  a  )>enal  settlement  for  the  Se]K>y  rebels  in  1 
(Symes,  Embassy  to  Ava,  ]ip.  127-138,  4lUi 
mid  Mouat*s  Adventures  and  Researches  am 
the  Andaman  Islanders.  18G3.) 

AN  DELYS  (LES),  two  towns  of  France,  wi* 
a  ver>'  short  distance  of  each  other,  del^  Eue, 
arrond.  one  on  tlie  Seine,  and  the  other  a  L 
uiland,  10  or  11  m.  £.  Louviers.  Pop.  o,13 
180 1 .  The  greater  Andely  is  ill  built,  with  nai 
crooked  streets;  but  it  has  a  fine  coUc^patc  chu 
The  lesser  Andely  has  to  boast  of  the  mognifl 
ruins  of  the  chateau  Gaillard.  There  are  mi 
factures  of  fine  cloth,  kejsex'meres,  rateena,  co 
yams,  and  paiier,  with  tanneries.  Nichohu  P 
sin,  the  famous  painter,  was  bom  in  the  haml 
Villere,  near  the  greater  Andely,  in  1594;  ai 
monument  has  been  erected  to  his  memwy  in 
town. 

ANDENNES,  a  town  of  Belgium,  prov.  Na 
on  the  l^Iacse,  13  m.  ENE.  Namur.  Pop.  6^S1 
18^)6.  There  are  manufactures  of  earthenware 
]K)R'eIain,  and  of  pipes  formed  of  the  day  fuan 
the  neigh l)ourhoo(L 

ANDEKNACH  (the^n/muzcirmoftheRoiiu 
a  town  of  the  I'nissian  prov.  of  l-iower  Khin' 
the  left  l>aiik  of  the  Rhine,  10  m.  NW.  CobI* 
on  the  railway  from  Cologne  to  Coblentx 
Mayence.  Pop.  4,257  in  18(>1.  It  is  situated 
coiuitrj'  formerly  volcanic,  and  ita  massive  to" 
turrets,  and  ruined  walls  are  admirably  suite 
the  sr)mbre  scenery  by  which  it  is  surroui 
Streets  narrow  and  ill  paved,  and  the  hi 
ghM>my,  old,  and  out  of  re^vair.  There  is  a  ftiK 
nn'hway,  supposetl  to  be  Roman,  formuig  the  i 
of  the  town  on  the  side  next  Ooblentz;  and  ht 
it,  in  a  line  towards  the  river,  arc  the  niiiu  U 


ikb^tbe  Goths 


_»  Goths 

imaa.  Tbc 
ftaai  Ut>,  uid  U^e  quaulitJvs  of  poiuidul  tufa, 
dRunicatal  (nasi,  jt  cvment  ivbkh,  wbeii  mixed 
■il  wila,  becumfs  u  hutl  u  alone.  The  funnvr 
ttt  m  cmt  doDuid  in  moal  poild  of  Eurupe ;  the 
liUcf  is  principally  useil  by  the  Dutch  in  ttio  cun- 
Mniction  uf  thcii  dykes,  but  is  also  exputt«d  to 
•Umt  tuunliiea.  Immeiue  rafUof  timbei  lri>m  the 
Gcmun  foreatA^  declined  for  the  Lov  CouDtriea, 
W  fiirnieil  nvmr  AadcnLach, 

ANDES  (TUE),  an  inunenae  mmintun  ruige, 
nma  alunK  the  whole  W.  cuaat  of  S.  America, 
coToing  with  iu  ch«in»,  declivities,  «nii  \-all«y; 


h  part  of  tliat  ci 


The  Oir- 

1  the  inDormoM  and 


■toperiv  applicable   only 
Lt^t  nil(,'e  uf  (he  maun. 

Cape  Horn,  on  Cape  Hum  Island,  in  aboi 
8.  lal^  mar  be  consirleml  aa  the  b.  cxlien 
the  Aa<k&  The  most  X.  chain  of  the  mou 
ii  Ibr  Paramo  de  liu  Kuaas,  uliich  exleoda 
£.  of  Lake  Manmrbo,  arid  termiiiatea  at 
t^N.  lat.  The  whole  n-alem  ia  Ihua  found 
UDd  lenfTthwile  over  ki  deg.  of  lat.  Its  width 
nfwa  very  much ;  in  aome  parts  it  occu  '  ~  ~' ~ 
bttwteo  3U  IT  4<l  milva  sctiku,  in  othen 
^rith  ltd  branchtT'  and  vallevs  a  cuunuy  extending 
hlU  mdeii  and  nfiwardi  from  E.  to  W. 

bcKinnini;  at  ihcwuthem  extremity,  the  Andea 
cBuucnL-e  at  (he  Cape  of  (nod  Succew,  un  tlie  W 
Aum  ^  the  Straits  of  Le  Miure,  in  about  7U°  VV 
bus.  Eren  the  high  rocky  mas,  which  conati 
latEi  the  island  of  Staateu  Ldnd,  and  extend 
■mt  than  a  dt^^ree  farther  E.,  may  be  cimsidervi 
sionlinualiuD  of  this  nui^,  fruro  wbich  it  i 
K(antcd  imly  by  the  Smita  of  l/e  Maire,  belweei 
ktul-Ulm.  acTU&s.  From  tbeCaiie  ufUood  Sue 
■M  ibe  nuiKe  luns  \\\  aloii);  the  S.  Ehores  o 
ILiigChaileBa  Southland,  the  munt  exten:^ve  o 
the  islanda  cunatituliiig  the  S.  Archipelaga  u. 
u  del  Fuego.    It 

lole  of  the  islands  lyhigS 

-, . e,  Wollaaton,  Uennit,  aut 

Cifilliini.  ToirardtlhvStraiUuf  Lo  Mairv,  th< 
n^  lombits  of  rucky  hilU,  of  uu  great  elevation 
hnfuiluT  W.  ihey  rue  Ii>  an  altitude  of  2,UUU  oi 
VW  a  Cape  Hom  itdclf  is  a  conspicuoua  rock, 
*iit)  1  Keep  aac«il,  upnards  of  3,tlU0  ft.  high 
Mauii  Sanuiento,  near  Magilalen  Channel,  is  ihi 

Id  ibc  Vi.  port  of  Kuig  Charles's  Southland 

V.gf.tilminilly  Hay.    Earthcr  Vi.  it  changes  iu 

fattiim,  nmnitig  in  a  NW.  direction  aa  far  as 

lit  Friih  of  Sausalid    (Ancon  Shiaahda  o" 

ttuiuds).  u20  S.  lat.,  and  73°  \V.  long. 

pin  uf  the  rau);e,  whiHC  mean  width  maybe  about 

Vnalta  milei,  is  luogituibnally  dividcil  by  that 

V*u»a  <if  tlK  Strait  of  jUagDihaeiis  wliicb  extends 

hn  Cape  Fruward  to  C-ape  Victoria,    '" 

ytnc  channels  divide  the  S.  porti 

<|>*nU   The  E.  or  UagdaJco  Channel  aepaiales 

'^bmcc  liland  fnim  Kiug  Charlea'a  So    ' ' 

'"itlK  Vi.  extends  between  Clarence  Is 

J™*  Uesolation;   the  btler  bears  the 

Wan  Channel.    That  part  uS  the  ranj 

■a  In  (he  NE.  of  the  strait  is  iuteraiKtei 

^uaniveiH  inlets.    Tlie  tvudi-eastcm,  called 

'•n>iu(,'liamKl,termiiia(eii  on  theE.  iti  two  hu'ge 

■PMH,  adle.1  Utway  and  Skryii^  Wi ' 

f*l>ilh  tiiualAl  on  the  easteni  side  o 

"Ik  |ilami>  of  Patsf.'ouia.    By  Ihu  e: 

*<>  hnuunrick  Peninsula  is  ilinded  from  King 

"■Uiao'i  Land.   The  X  W.  tnuisvcrM!  inlet  beaia 


128 

of  Smyth's  Chftnuel,  and  diTides  first 

Kin^WilUam's  Land  fium  Queen  Adelaide's  Archi- 
peljif^)  and  aftcrwanls  joins  the  Frith  of  Sinsalid, 
''  '  likcwijie  pGUftnites  through  the  whutechoin 
Andes,  and  terminates  with  its  numerous 
pl^ia  of  Patagoni 


frith  t! 


It  higlier 


Eing  Charles's  Southland,  hi 
~')n  does  not  uceeii  4,0UI]  ft.  above  the  sea. 
The  mountwn  mnKe  south  of  the  Frith  of  Sinsa- 
1  may  be  called  the  Magalhuciu  Andri,  extending 
principally  on  both  sides  tlie  strait  bearing  that 
name.  It  consists  of  islands  and  peninsulas  inter- 
sected by  deep  but  nanvw  arms  of  the  wa.  The 
omits  of  the  mountains  are  covered  with  eternal 

of  the  mountains  and  the  sleep  and  incky  shores 

of  the  islanda  arc  partly  oovereil  with  everi-reen 

"  I ;  except  towards  the  ocean,  where  they  pi^ 

ho  osjiect  of  hoje  black  rucks. 

the  Frith  of  Sinsalid  begins  the  niJnter- 

rupteil  chain  of  the  Andea.    At  thu  place  ita^in 

changes  its  direction,  running  due  N.  with  aliubt 

■"inda  as  lai  north  as  tbe  Might  of  -Vriea  (lao  S. 

L,),     It  comiirebends  the  PataRonian  Andes  be- 

recn  52°  and  42°,  tbe  southuh  Chihmu  Andes 

between  42°  and  35°,  and  the  iiorthera  Chilean 

id  A  lacamean  Andes  between  So^"  and  20°  S.  kt. 

The  PalagaitioM  Andes  extend  from  the  FliCh  of 

[uulid  to  the  N.  comer  of  (he  Gulph  of  Ancud^ 

oppositetlicislondofChiloe.  They  are  only  known 

from  the  aide  of  the  ocean,  whence  they  rise  to  a 

maiderable  height  with  on  extremely  eteep  ascent, 

aupieii  a  much  greater  breadth,  and  that  by  some 
ctraordinary  convulsion  the  whole  of  (he  western 
cclivity,  with  tlie  summits  of  Ihe  range,  had  been 
niken  down  and  burieil  iu  the  oceau,  so  that  only 
le  eastern  declivity  has  rentotued  standing.  The 
umeious  and  rocky  islands  which  skirt  this  sliorc 
1  all  its  extent,  except  at  tlie  protrudal  cape  of 

Tree  ilonlea,  sp|>ear  tu  support  such  s  su|ipoeition. 

The  eastern  declivity  of  the  range  haa  not  been 


>ccupy  a  width  of  only  from  3U  to 


4U  miles.  The  mean  height  oi  me  I'ataginuaii 
Andes  may  be  eat  iniaced  at  about  o,l)(HJ  or  li,UOII  fu, 
me  height  8/Ktll  ft.  Uut  snow  nioun- 
■a  glaciers,  aiB  stated  to  be  frequent. 
The  lower  part  of  tlie  declivity  is  covered  with 
trees  and  ahmbs,  the  u|iper  port  bare,  aa  also  Ihuec 
poflions  of  the  shore  whieh  are  exposed  to  the 
immediate  effects  of  the  gales  blowing  from  the 

The  SoMlhtm  Chilean  Andes  extend  from  tbc 

moat  N.  comer  of  tlie  Uul)  Ji  of  AncutI  (42-'  S.  Ut.) 

S.lal.  and  i<l°  \V.  long.  Towarilatbe  S.  extremity 
the  Aiidea  keep  for  some  extent  a  distance  of  i^ut 
1611  miles  from  the  shores  oi' the  I'acitie,  the  greatest 

wards  the'X.  they  gradually  aiiproaoh  it  to  witliin 
about  lUU  miles.  Between  the  Andea  and  the 
shore  are  extensive  plams,  from  I.'JW  to  2.(MJ0  It, 
above  the  sea ;  and  from  theae  plains  the  moun- 
tains rise  with  an  extremely  sleep  acclivity  to  the 
mean  elevation  of  t3,Ui>U  or  I4,UUII  St.  aliin'e  Ihe 
Bca.  Some  summits  attain  Is.UUU  and  even  16,61)0 
feet.  Though  out  knowledge  leqieeting  this  |iait 
of  the  Andes  be  eumpamtively  acauty,  it  would 
seem  that  they  fonn  one  extensive  inaa«  froin  (ill 
to  MU  miles  aenjes,  which,  bowover.  in  its  u[>|ieT 
iiart  is  furrowed  by  a  longitudinal  valley,  diviiluil 

leys.    This  grvat  mass  of  tvcks  b  mostly  clothifll 


124 


ANDES 


with  f(»roKt  trees  and  a  rich  vegetation ;  but  in  the 
interior  it  pn^ents  only  l>are  roc'kif,  nearly  yrithout 
]>lanti4  of  any  dest^iiption. 

Thiw.  iMiiSQH  are  known  to  traverse  the  Cliileaii 
Andeff.  That  farthest  S.  skirttt  the  liigh  volcano 
of  ^itfiicr),  between  37°  and  SiP  S.  lat.,  leading 
fn^m  the  snudl  town  of  Tncapel  to  the  great  plains 
E.  i»f  the  j^Vndes.  It  w  also  useil  by  the  aborigines 
inhabiting  these  plain:},  who  bring  to  Chile  salt 
and  some  <r<»minotlitiei».  The  second  rr>ad  traverses 
tlie  I'au  del  J'tanrhtm,  which  cnMsch  the  mountain 
riiiges  near  35°  S.  lat»,  lieginning  on  the  west  at 
the  village  of  Curico,  and  leading  to  the  territory 
of  the  IVhueiichea,  who  occupy  the  E.  declivity  <»f 
the  Andes,  and  thence  to  Meudo/a.  It  is  said  to 
be  the  lowest  of  the  mountain  passes  of  the  Andes, 
vegetation  ascending  up  to  tlie  highest  |»art  of  thr 
road:  it  is  farther  stateii  to  l)e  more  gentle  in  its 
ascents  and  dt^scentK.  Yet  it  is  little  useil,  except 
by  iientons  trading  with  the  Imliiuis  in  the  l*am- 
pas.  The  third  |»ass  is  that  of  PortUloy  which  at 
firet  nms  along  the  river  Ma\i^»,  S.  of  Santiago, 
tlie  capital  of  Chile,  an<l  afien^-anis  crosses  the 
two  ri<lges  of  the  Andes  which  enclose  tlie  valley 
of  Tunuvan.  On  the  W.  ridge  the  road  risci*  to 
14,aO'J,  on  the  E.  to  13,210  f«H*t  alnive  the  level  of 
the  sea.  Fnim  the  latter  it  desirends  to  the  plains, 
and  leails  to  Mendo/a.  It  is  the  nearest  way  1)0- 
tweeii  the  last -mentioned  town  and  Santiago,  the 
capital  of  Chile,  and  is  therefore  sometimes,  but 
not  frequently,  usetl.  Tliere  is  als<»  the  ^Mii*s  of 
San  Fraiicbico,  and  other  jMisst-j*  to  be  dej*cnlK»<l  in 
B{)eaking  of  the  pn»|K>se<l  railway  and  new  roatU* 
across  the  Andes.     (Sec  end  <»f  this  article.) 

There  is  some  doubt  its  to  the  exact  height  of 
the  summit  <if  Aconcagua ;  but  it  certainly  ex- 
ceeiLs  23,3(M>  ft.;  and  is,  therefore,  entitleii  t<»  l»e 
regarded  as  the  culminating  |)oint  in  this  vast 
chain.  X.  of  thU  summit  the  Amies,  which  farther 
S.  fonn  onlv  one  enonnous  mass  of  rocks,  diviile 
into  two  masjics,  which  enclo.se  long  and  wide 
valleys  ctnisiderably  lower  than  the  surrounding 
ridges.  The  first  valley  «»f  this  des<'ription  is  that 
of  Uspallata,  which  extends  alsjut  IHci  or  tJOU  miles 
S.  ancl  N.  It  is  traversed  by  two  rivers ;  the  IJio 
<lc  Mendoza,  which  Hows  S. ;  and  the  IJio  de  S. 
Juan,  which  runs  N.  The  watershed  l>etween  them 
lies  N.  of  32°  S.  lat.  This  vallev  is  alwiut  1  j  miles 
in  width,  and  pre»eut8  an  nnduluting  surface.  It 
is  about  C,OU()  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Tlie 
range  E.  of  it,  called  the  ParamiUo  de  Uspallata, 
peems  not  to  excetnl  10,0lK)  ft. ;  but  the  W.  or  prin- 
cipal range  attains  M,0(H)  ft.  and  upwards.  The 
fonncr  is  about  25,  and  the  latter  more  than  70 
miles  acnww.  The  E.  range  has  two  narn»w  breaks, 
by  whi<:h  the  t^'o  rivers  of  the  valley  find  their 
wav  to  the  plains  extending  E. 

Over  these  two  ranges,  and  through  the  valley 
of  Us^Mdlata,  lies  the  most  frequented  mountain 
road  cn»s«ing  the  Andes.  On  the  west  it  l)egins 
at  the  ttiwn  of  Santa  Kosa,  in  the  valley  of  the 
(^uillota  river  (2,0 14  ft.  above  the  sea);  it  next 
follows  the  l)cd  of  that  river  f(>r  a  great  dbttaiiee, 
and  then  crosses  the  high  range  nearly  at  ecpial 
flistances  fnim  the  mountain  summits  of  Tu])un- 
gato  and  Aconcagua  (lietween  33°  and  32°  S.  lat.). 
The  Cumbrc  or  highest  jwint  is  12,454  feet  above 
the  Pacitic.  Hence  the  n>ad  des(x^nds  along  the 
Ifio  de  MdUdoza  into  the  valley  of  Uspallata,  parses 
the  ParamiUo  range,  and  enters  the  plains  near 
Villa  Viciosa,  whence  it  runs  along  the  last-men- 
tioned mountain  chain  to  Mendoza  (2,r)0H  ft.  above 
the  0ca) ;  from  Mendoza  it  leads  over  the  Pampas) 
to  Buenos  A>Teti.  Though  much  ftvqueiited,  it 
cannot  be  pawed  by  carriages,  and  only  mules  an> 
lued  fur  the  transport  of  conuntKlitiiw,  and  byjias- 
Mngen.    In  winter  (fxvm  June  to  September)  the 


passage  is  very  dangeroos,  on  account  of  the  hetvy 
falls  of  snow,  which  cause  frequent  lomefl  of  life 
and  property.  Tlie  pass  is  by  some  named  that  <if 
the  Cumbre,  and  by  othem  of  Uspallata. 

N.  of  the  valley  of  Uspallata  the  Anden  continne 
to  form  two  ranges,  including  extcnfivc  longim- 
dinol  valleys.  The  tint  in  coder  b  that  of  Agua- 
lasta,  of  which  we  know  only  that  its  soil  is  sterile, 
but  it>t  mountains  rich  in  metallic  ores.  Then  fol- 
lows the  vallev  of  /Vndalgala,  which  is  entirely  un- 
known. The  latter  extends  to  23°  S.  lat.  A  great 
numlier  of  mountain  passes  are  stateil  to  exist  ova 
the  W.  range  endo-^ing  these  valley^4,  which  would 
indicate  that  the  mean  ele\'ation  of  the  Andes  'n 
here  much  less  than  in  other  partii.  But  none  m 
these  ]visses  seems  to  l>e  much  used,  nor  liaa  un 
of  them  iK-eii  visit e<i  by  European  travcUen*.  fi 
is,  however,  known  that  towanls  the  Paritic  thl 
rnnge  iloes  ni»t  descend  with  a  f>hort  ami  rapid  de- 
clivity,  a.s  in  the  S.  Chilean  Andes,  but  by  tal>l< 
lands  in  the  form  of  terraces,  which  near  the  ])rin 
ci|ial  chain  are  5,000  feet  and  more  above  the  sea 
but  lower  by  degrees  as  they  niipmach  the  (K-ean 
where  thev  still  fonn  a  shore  from  30«)  to  .'><Hi  ft* 
high.  l>(;ing  furroweil  by  deep  water-course>,  thc«i 
table-lands,  when  s€«n  trom  the  banks  of  riven 
ap{H'ar  frequently  like  mountains  of  conj<ideraUi 
height. 

From  their  farthest  S.  point  as  fiv  as  the  X.poin 
of  the  valley  of  U{)sallata,  the  Andes  do  ni.it  s«n 
out  lateral  branches.  But  fVom  the  E.  range,  in 
i'luding  the  valleys  of  Agualasta  and  Andalgala 
hcvenil  ranges  branch  otf  into  the  E.  plains,  ani 
extend  in  a  S.  and  E.  direction  to  a  distance  u 
from  20<)  to  250  m.  Viy  these  lateral  chains  th> 
countries  extending  Y.,  of  the  Andes,  lK:twi*<'n  7& 
and  23°  S.  lat.,  are  reiKlercd  hilly,  and  in  som< 
districts  even  mountainous.  In  the  S.  district 
the  height  of  the  rauges  is  not  considerable,  bu 
farther  to  the  X.  it  increases  greatly;  and  th 
chain,  which  branches  off  at  the  N.'end  of  thi 
v;dley  of  Andalgala,  and  forms  at  ])ri>seiit  the  Uiim 
dary  U'tween  the  republics  of  Buenos  Ayre*  ant 
Bolivia,  may  attain  a  height  of  10,U<Mi  ft.  ahrni 
the  sea.  It  temiinatcs  at  no  great  distance  fron 
the  {loint  where  the  Kio  Grande  euteiH  the  Kic 
Vemiej(». 

Between  23°  and  20°  S.  lat.  the  principal  mm 
of  the  Andes  seems  to  constitute  a  single  cliaih 
rising  to  a  mean  height  of  above  15,(Hiu  feet,  h 
it  stands  the  Nevado  de  Chondque,  which  i%  siatet 
to  rise  10,.548  ft.  above  the  ftea.  From  this  chaii 
several  lower  and  narrow  ridges  nin  E,  120  or  15< 
m.  The  S.  districts  of  Bolivia  are  in  consequeno 
rendere<t  a  succession  of  valleys  and  mouniaiiu 
However,  these  ritlges  do  not  attain  a  great  ele\t 
tion  over  the  ^tlains  on  which  thev  rise,  A  roai 
traveiM:s  the  pnncii>al  chain ;  it  begim*  on  thecoad 
of  the  Pacitic  at  Cobija,  or  Puerto  de  la  ^lar,  th 
princqial  harbour  of  liolivU.  iMi.*«seM  «»ver  the  hig) 
Andes  of  LiiH'Z  near  the  volcano  of  Ataoama,  an> 
deseeiuls  to  Tuiiiza;  heni^e  it  run»  tu  Poto^t  ao' 
Chuqui.>aca.  This  mad  is  not  much  useiL  on  ac 
count  of  the  sterility  of  the  surrounding  count n 
and  the  dilHculty  of  procuring  provender  ft»r  th 
mules  and  other  animals  of  burden.  In  {H»me  pari 
water  to«)  is  extremely  scarce. 

Near  20°  .S.  lat.  is  the  mountain  knot  of  Poro 
Here  l>egin  the  Bolivian  AntieSj  which  extend  t 
14°  S.  lat.,  and  mav  lie  considered  as  const itutin 
the  central  portion  c»f  the  whtde  mountain  systen 
In  no  other  |>art  do  the  mountains  generally* attai 
an  c^jual  height,  ni»r  «lo  they  cover  so  great  a  siu 
face.  The  chain,  wliich  previoiu.ly  fonuc<l  or 
great  undivided  ridge,  here  diverges  into  tw 
smaller  ridges,  the  one  to  the  E,  l)eing  denom 
naicd  the  Cordillera  do  Ancunia,  and  that  to  tii 


V.  Iba  Cordillen  dc  toe  Aodee,  or  nf  the  cnasu 
Tbtr  utile  at^im  in  about  14°  or  14^°  S.  lal.,  eu- 
dHUif:  bfcween  them  the  great  Alpine  valley, 
Ng)HinniialledTitiaa,finm  thefamouH  lake  ol 
t^  name,  and  soiDetinjefl  DEiuiguaden>  from  the 
liiswbidi  fluwafrom  it.  Thia  iniineiute  Imhui  is 
tinil  aSi  m.  in  leni{th  from  X.  iv  S.  i  iU  lireadth, 
■hidi  ii  difftrent  at  diffHent  place*,  may  be  «ti- 
Hitfd  at  aLout  55  m.  at  a  malium,  making  ilA 
sa  ituut  1  M,425  HI.  m.,  o(  wliich  the  lalie  is  leck- 
and  at  about  ifli)l)  an.  m.  The  laller  is  at  (he 
|>iidi;>Hu  rkvMiim  of  lS,tl47  fN  nlxjvc  the  level 
i^  ilw  >ea ;  uid  the  nie«ii  Mk'"  "^  '''^  mnuntains 
bi  •rhich  it  u  HiTTDimdHl  eannot  be  ]e«i  than 
liiNIO  ft.  Tbe  higheat  aummiu  i>n  each  side  as- 
Rsd  (ai  abiyve  the  line  of  peipcliuil  muw.  The 
Crnij  da  Pulosi,  near  the  S.  rxtceoiitv  [>f  the  nuifte, 
ituinj  t«  an  eleratioa  of  16,152  FL;  and  lanhc 
It  ihe  X.  niimani  and  the  Nevailo  de  Zorata  i 
1b(  E.  chain  iii«  reapcclivelv  la  th«  heij^ht  c. 
;i,11t>  and  £1,286  ft.  Bui  ihe  ptaka  in  the  W. 
tluia  air  Mill  hiRbei,  Sahama,  in  Ut.  IR°  »'  S. 
lane  ilSau  ft  alxn-e  the  aea,  Paiinacota,  2?.():<l) 
It  ind  the  viilnno  of  Aiequipa  2(VI2U  ft.  llieiw 
uA  niber  aliituclea  hare  been  deCennlned  by  Mr. 
FnlUod.  South  of  17°  S.  lac,  the  two  lanRe* 
nn  Hulv  due  !^  and  K.,  bnt  M.  of  that  parallel 
S,SHaa.rsSW.    Ac  their  N.  exRenuty  (H"  .S. 

tUMib'NNlL  and  S.SW.  It  haaiwveni  silmmila 
rinntdwith  perpetual  anovr,  but  theii  ele^'atiun 

ki-  im  Iji-en  ast-ertained. 

■  valley  of  Tlticaca  does  not  pre- 


ANSES 

the  paaa  of  Fe 


12S 


u^; 


plai. 


il  with  m 


t  ■aficirntlv  lei-el  Murfare.  The  HettaguBdni), 
■liiL'hiMiMlrnni  the  S.  exlremitv  of  the  lake  of 
Tilinta.  Ii.iw^  li.  liU  al>oat  1'.'^°  S.~  lat.,  when  it  jx 
lidina  nnall  lake.  The  fnnncr  lake  ia  fanrnua 
ia  ibc  hb-lurv  <^  I'eru,  fcir  beiim  the  scene  nf  the 


<ii\if  Inn  dvnunv.    He  ia  naid  l<>  luive  inhnli 
drln)rn>l  <-i  ita  many  ialambi,  whirh  wan  •>< 
t<»,l»lil  in  peculiar  veneration.  Snii-wilii 
w»<fd  till  it  a  ma^^niiicent  '        '        ' "  ' 


II  Mrcca  ia.  iit 
nibTTU,  toihr  MiihaiDmoilaD  mirld;  fiirilwan 
iiiiiinlent  <in  all  Penivians  tii  vi^it  it,  anil  in  Iviw 
"irt  ibm  rich  offerinpt.  Ilenm  ita  wraith  became 
■BDHM.  It  is  aUtcd  IhM  vhen  the  Hfianiaids 
■"ij-iooniiin  of  the  rmintry,  the  iialivcii,  to  dli- 
•l^ani  (be  avarice  of  the  ei>iii|ueniiii.  anil  firevcnt 
il>  p'Utiiinn  of  the  l«niiik,  thraw  ita  timmmi 
Ell"  the  lake,  and  ikwiI  the  bliric  to  tlw  fouoila- 
'>'•■■  Saie  ancient  tnins  wv  slill  to  be  luinul  on 
dv  hmkcn  iif  the  lake,  ami  3Ir.  Preiuiitt  nqipniiea 
il  !>•  bave  been  the  neat  of  (dviliraliuii  mteniii  lu 
ikm  nf  the  IncaH.— (Hii>t.  of  Peru,  I.  Iltb  ed. 
I'I'j  The  sliimu  thai  nuh  frum  llie  nurantaina 
Hi'lntbe  navigation  of  this  lake  peeuliiiilr  dan- 
itnif,  lu  waiern  are  naiil  to  be  liitler  or  brack- ' 
''^-.  bsi  iber  are  dnuik  iiv  tlic  catlle  in  ttin  vi- 
'.  The  lake  ia  well  etucknl  with  truut  and 


.«fiA. 


Tkciu 


'  valley  of  Titl- 


"khii  Ihe  fiiUowinc  arc  the  most  frrqiieiilwl : — 
ito  lb^^ll;h  the  |iam  of  Fotmi,  tiBvcrdiai!  the 
j^"  lietween  the  Ceno  of  Polusi  and  llukt  of 
Unnu  Potnn:  it  leads  from  I'ntinn  to  Uiuni, 
■"■I  ii«  in  its  highe*!  pcant  Ici  14,120  feeL  The 
"ul  mtt  the  )ia«  of  CVarfar  FmhrUt,  lietween 
<>Tiir.  umI  Cvclialiamlia,  rises  in  it^  bi^liesC  part 
^  llilf^  ft.  above  the  sea.     The  ruud  tliruugh 


nuiRi,  leading  from  La  Pnz  la  Iho 
>r  the  riilitej,  risai  b>  1 5,226  ft.  The 
nuMt  used  road  ia  over  the  wutern  ran|%  and 
that  through  the  paaa  of  Lot  Cualillai,  leading 

the  vallev  of  Tlticikait  it  tnvemea  the  range  at 
17°  5U'  !i.  lat.,  S.  of  the  Xevado  de  Cliipirani, 
where  it  riaca  to  I4,X30  ft.  Farther  K.  {tifi  t  3. 
lat.)  id  another  roail,  wliich,  connecting  Arrauipa 
with  Puno,  attains  in  the  pass  of  Altat  di  Toleib 
an  elevation  of  15^^28  feet  above  the  sea. 

Several  lateral  ridRea  mn  off  fiotn  thia  great 
maaii  of  rocka  tn  the  E. ;  but  none  of  them  scema 
to  l>e  distin^fuished  by  its  height  or  extent,  except 
the  Sierra  de  SanU  Cnix,  which  detaches  itself 
from  the  prinei|ial  ranRe  about  17°  10'  S.  lat.,  and 
terminates  near  the  bnnka  of  the  Kio  Guapai  or 
Kio  Ununte,  within  a  few  leagues  of  the  town  of 
S,  Cniz  de  la  Scrra.  It  extends  about  30o  miiea, 
and  is  of  eonnidendile  elevation  in  ita  irestem 
part,  where  it  forma  the  Kcvadu  de  Tinaieo,  near 
Cochabamba;  TartlieT  east  it  becomes  gradually 

The  Pertinan  AndiM  occupy  the  next  place, 
extending  from  14°  to  6°  S.  lat.  Between  these 
latitudes  they  meanire  from  4W  to  450  m.  in 
width,  and  their  area  does  nut  proliablv  fall  short 
uf  200,nnO  Ni.  m.  On  tlieir  liordera  cxtctul  two 
ranges;  of  which  Ihe  G.,  seiiaiutiiifc  llie  mountain 
region  from  Ihe  grrat  plaiiH  extending  Huiih  of 
the  Amazon,  Imiirhea  otf  fnim  II 
i>f  the  Aniiea  of  Vilcsnota  in  a  X.  directiim. 


ie  affluen 


lof  II 


Uca; 


ts  exceeil  10,000  fc 


■o  S.  lat..  a1 


ablv  n 


The  W.  mngc  of  tile  Penri-iiui  Aniloa,  which, 
with  its  W.  decliiiCies,  appruncbcs  the  Pavilia 
Ocean  U>  a  distance  of  HO  m.  or  le»,  must  be  con- 
sidered aa  the  princijial  chain,  on  account  of  iiH 
height  and  l)re»dth,  and  bccauw  it  forms  with  iho 
N.  parts  of  the  Andes  an  uiiinterTupted  chain.  It 
may  be  said  to  commence  near  the  Nevailo  de 
Churn leliamba,  where  the  Andea  of  Vikanola  join 
the  W.  ran^e  of  the  valley  of  Tilicacs.  tt  is  re- 
marknhlc  that  Ihe  Pcnii-inn  Anilra  srcra  to  be 
lather  a  continnntion  of  Ihe  Amies  nf  Vilcanota 
than  of  Ihe  gn-nt  \V.  chain ;  f<ir  near  10°  S.  Ut. 
and  between  71°  and  70°  W.  long,  the  Peruvian 
Amies  extend  in  a  dim'lion  K.  and  W.,  whilst 
Ihrce  degrees  farther  S.  Ihe  Bolirian  Andes  run  K. 
nivl  X.  In  this  ix>nion  of  Ihe  Andes  are  some 
very  liigh  summits.  Ilcsiih'a  Ihe  Xevn'lo  dc  Chu- 
quiiliamlia,  already  n«ticr<l,  are  ihe  Cerru  di^  llu- 
nndo  and  tlie  (>otii  de  Parinaeocha,  whose  eh'va- 
liiHi,  however,  lias  not  lieen  determined.  Near 
Tii°  W.  long,  the  principal  chain  of  Ihe  Amies 
ilerlinea  to  NW'..  ami  miis  in  Ihal  dirrclion  lo  the 
nrighlHiurho-id  of  Cajie  Pnrina,  the  mutt  W.  ex- 
tremity of  S,  America.  In  the  S.  portion  of  thia 
chain  srvcrat  summila  riw  aliove  the  snow  line, 
Iiut  the  elevation  uf  none  of  tlirm  haa  been  deter- 
mined. The  l)est  known  are,  Ihe  Toldo  <Ig  la 
Nieve,  srcii  from  Lima,  to  the  .SK.  of  which  it  is 
siiiuueih  Uhe  Altunduuna,  near  10°  S.  lal.;  ami 
Ihe  Ne\-ailii  de  Ilniiylillas.  7°  SO*  .S.  Inl.  Bill 
lietween  llic  la)it  iiameil  snow-iieak  and  Mount 
L'bimliorKUi,  in  Ihe  Andes  of  ICciuidor,  or  Kqual'ir 
(2<>  ft.  lat.),  there  ia  no  snmuiit  whkh  allains  tlie 


The  country  lying  between  the  two  ont( 
of  the  Peruvian  Andri  prrs«its  a  ciqilii 
^  n  of  high  ridges  ami  long  ^Ik-ys.  I 
intermixeil  with  plains  of  nxxlemli 
ms  the  beal  poniuii  of  the  rc|iublic 


rnngm 


126 


ANDES 


The  most  remflrkablc  dwtrict  S(»em8  to  be  the  plain 
of  Uoinlxm,  near  IP  S.  lat.,  which  in  18,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  Hca,  and  extends  about  18 
miles  in  Miidth  from  E.  to  W.,  and  40  or  50  from 
S.  to  X.  A  great  part  of  this  elevatetl  plain, 
which  in  encloiicd  by  two  ridges  of  mountains, 
and  on  which  the  argiferous  Cerro  of  Paxco  is 
situated,  is  covered  with  swnmpa.  The  water 
running  off  from  them,  and  from  the  elevated 
ground,  which  frequently  is  covered  with  snow, 
is  collected  in  several  lakes,  of  which  three  are 
especially  noticed,  as  gi\ing  birth  to  three  con- 
siderable rivers.  The  farthest  \.  is  the  Lake  of 
Llnuricocha,  from  which  the  Amazon  rises;  the 
farthest  S.  is  called  the  Lake  of  Quihuicocha, 
which  gives  birth  to  the  Simja  or  Mataro,  one  of 
the  principal  branches  of  the  Ucayale.  Between 
these  lakes  is  that  of  Chiquiacola,  whence  the  Rio 
Hualluga  issues.  The  plain  of  Bombon  is  farther 
to  Im)  considered  as  a  mountain  knot,  from  which 
difTcntnt  ranges  branch  otf  in  different  directions. 
Iie>ides  tlie  principal  range  of  the  Peruvian  Andes, 
which  lies  contiguoiLs  to  it  on  the  W.,  two  moun- 
tain chains  run  off  from  it  to  the  X.,  and  one  to 
the  S.  The  most  W.  of  the  two  N.  chains  runs 
nearly  parallel  to  the  principal  range  of  the  Peru- 
vian Amies,  and  forms  the  E.  boundary  uf  the 
valley  of  the  Maranon  or  Upper  Amazon.  It  rises 
to  a  great  elevation,  but  does  not  enter  the  snow 
line.  <])ne  of  its  farthest  N.  branches  extends 
close  to  the  banks  of  the  Amazon,  where  it  forms 
the  famous  Pongo,  or  cataract  of  Manseriche.  A 
lateral  ridge  of  this  chain,  branching  off  from  it 
at  alK)ut  7^,  runs  £.,  and  terminates  on  the  banks 
of  the  Kio  Huallaga,  where  that  river  forms  its 
great  cataract,  or  jxtnao.  The  farthest  K.  of  the 
N.  chains  sqmrates  the  valley  (»f  tlie  HualLiga 
fn>m  the  pamptu  of  S.  Sngrnmento,  travcrseit  by 
the  Kio  Ucayule.  It  is  towards  its  U<ginning,  in 
the  nioimtain  knot  of  DomlHin,  of  great  height, 
but  lowers  c«nsi<lprably  farther  N.,  t«;nnhiating 
U'twivn  G°  and  "P  S.  lat.,  at  the  Poiigo  of  the 
Hualluga.  The  S.  chain,  issuing  from  the  plain 
of  ll<imb<in,  nui.s  SSE.,  nearly  parallel  to  the  prin- 
cipal rangf  of  the  Andes,  ami  encloses  the  rich 
valley  of  the  Hio  Saiija.  It  terminates  in  the 
most  S.  l)cn<l  of  that  river,  aUiut  13*^  S.  lat  and 
1\9  \V.  long.,  an<l  nojirly  o])posite  another  range 
of  high  miiuntains,  which  issue  from  the  Andes 
of  Vileanota,  and  nm  N.,  separating  the  valley  of 
the  Kio  Apurimac  fmm  that  of  the  Kio  (juilla- 
liamba  or  river  of  C'uzco.  The  valleys  enclosed 
by  these  K^veral  chains  of  mountains  seem  to  have 
aniean  elevation  of  from  3,000  to  5,000  feet  above 
the  sen. 

The  n>ads  traversing  the  Penivian  Andes  are 
srnnewluit  imperfect Iv  known.  That  most  to  the 
S.  leads  from  Are(|uii)a  (near  10°  30'  S.  lut)  on 
the  coast  tt)  (hizco  in  the  valley  of  the  (^uilla- 
bamljo,  and  traverses  ver>'  high  ranges  of  moun- 
tains. Another  road  leaiLs  from  Lima  to  the  town 
of  Tarmu,  in  the  valley  of  the  Sanja,  and  thence 
to  Guancavelica,  Iluamanga,  and  Cuzeo.  It  rises 
on  the  principal  chain  at  the  Portacnelo  de  Tuoto 
to  15,700  feet  above  the  sea.  Farther  north  is  tlie 
roa<l  pas^ng  over  the  plain  of  Bonibon  to  the 
Cerro  de  Pasco.  It  traverses  on  the  pnncipal 
range  two  mountain  passes,  of  which  the  vV., 
calle<I  Alto  de  Tacaibamba,  attains  an  elevation 
of  15,135,  and  the  K.,  or  Alto  de  I^achagual, 
Io,-1HO  feet  above  the  sea.  Another  road  conncitts 
the  town  of  Truxillo  with  the  valley  of  the  Ma- 
ranon. It  traverses  the  great  range  near  the  Nc- 
vailo  de  Guavlillas,  and  leads  to  lluamachucoanil 
Caxamarquilla ;  but  we  are  not  acquainted  with 
itsporticulars. 

The  Andes  of  Ecuador ^  or  the  Equator,  extend 


to  the  X.  of  the  Pcmvian  Andes.  Their  com- 
mencement may  be  fixed  oppoAte  the  Puntade 
Aguja  (6°  S.  lat.),  and  the  place  where  ilic  Maim- 
non  changes  its  XNVV.  course  into  a  XNEw  In 
the  same  parallel  the  chain  also  changes  its  direc- 
tion. It  runs  between  G^  $.  lat.  and  the  equator, 
nearly  due  north.  This  portion  of  the  mountain 
system  closely  resembles  the  Chilean  Andes.  It 
c<mstitutes  one  enormous  mass  of  hi^j^h  rocks,  of 
about  80  or  100  m.  in  width,  overtopped  longi- 
tudinally by  a  double  scries  of  very  elevated  sum- 
mits, so'  that  between  them  a  sncceasion  of  hi^ 
valleys  is  formed.  These  Andes  are  also  distm- 
guished  from  those  lietween  33^  and  G°  S.  lat  by 
their  not  sending  off  to  the  E.  lateral  branches. 
Their  eastern  declivities  are  supported  by  short 
contreforts  which  probably  nowhete  extend  be- 
yond 50  m.  into  the  PI  plains. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  elevated  vallevs  ooni- 
pWng  the  middle  of  the  range  rise  in  eleratioa 
as  they  advance  farther  \.  Tliat  portion  of  the 
range*  which  lies  between  5^°  and  3^°  S.  lat  is 
occupiefl  by  an  exten.'uve  mountain  knot,  the  An- 
de.s  of  I^x'a,  wliich,  however,  at  no  place  attains 
tlie  snow  Une^  Then  follows  the  longitudinal 
vallev  of  Cueii^a,  which  extends  from  Ip  15'  to 
2°  8(V,  and  rises  to  aliout  7,800  feet  abr»ve  the 
sea.  On  this  side  no  snow  mountains  occur.  The 
mountains  of  Assuay,  which  form  the  X.  boundaiy 
of  the  valley  of  Cuen9a,  extending  between  the 
two  outer  ranges,  rise  to  15.500  feet  aboA'e  the  set, 
and  enter  the  snow  line;  but  they  are  nairow, 
occupving  (mly  alwut  3  min.  of  lat  (l'*>*twcei 
20  27'  and  '»  30').  To  the  X.  of  them  exten* 
the  longitudinal  valley  of  Alausi  and  Ilamliato^ 
which  extends  between  2^  27'  and  40'  S.  Ut,  and 
rises  to  alK>ut  7,920  fv-et  above  the  sieo.  The  «»»• 
mits  of  the  ranges  which  enclose  it  on  the  E.  and 
W.  rise  to  a  gwiat  elevation.  On  the  western 
range  stands  the  famous  Chimborazo,  ri^iing  21,4!fO 
ft  al)ove  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  was  until  lately 
con>idercd  as  the  highest  summit  of  the  Anden; 
but  it  is  now  known  that  Aconcagua,  and  tbebi^ 
peaks  of  the  Bolivian  Andes,  Parinacota  and  Sa- 
hama,  rise  considerably  higher.  On  the  E.  range 
stand  the  volcanoes  of  Sangay,  Collancs,  and  Lisa- 
ganate.  On  the  X.  the  valley  of  Alausi  and  Ham- 
bato  is  I)oun(lc<l  by  a  narrow  transvenic  ridge,  the 
Alto  de  CliL'iiiiche^  which  hardly  ri«es  300  ft.  above 
the  adjacent  level  grounrL  Put  at  its  extremities, 
and  precisely  on  the  lateral  ranges,  rise  two  i-or 
high  summits;  on  the  E.  the  volcano  of  Cotopaxi, 
attaining  1K,8(H)  ft.;  and  on  the  W.  the  Ylmiza, 
attaining  1 7,37()  ft  above  the  sea. 

The  valley  of  Quito  extends  fWira  40'  8.  lat  to 
20'  N.  kt,  and  has  an  elevation  of  9,<>o0  it.  above 
the  sea.  It  likew^ii^e  is  skirteti  hv  very  high  sum- 
mits, on  the  E.  by  Antisana,  which  attains  19,180 
ft,,  and  by  Cayambe  L'rcii,  which  attains  19,535  ft. 
above  the  sea.  The  summit  of  the  latter  moontain 
is  traversed  by  the  Equator.  On  the  W.  range 
the  tiighest  summits  are  the  Pichincha,  rising  to 
15,036  ft.,  and  the  Cotocache,  16,448  ft.  above  the 
sea. 

The  three  longitudinal  valleys  of  Quito,  Alansi, 
Hambato,  and  Cuenya,  beuig  only  sefMinited  ftmn 
each  other  by  very  narrow  transverse  ridges,  maj 
1k.>  considere(l  as  one  valk'ty,  extending  240  mile< 
in  length,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  from  12  to  l( 
inik^s.  Thev  fonn  the  most  impnlous  and  richest 
portion  of  the  republic  of  Equator. 

The  northern  t>ouiidary  of  the  vallev  of  Qnit< 
is  formed  by  a  transverse  ridge  iKtwecn  the  Ne 
vado  of  Cotocache  and  the  volcano  of  Imt»aban 
(21'  N.  lat*).  To  the  N.  of  it  lie  the  Ande*  ofim 
PtiBtos,  an  extensive  mountain  region,  which*  ex- 
tends to  1^  13'  X.  lat.,  and  is  crowned  by  several  higfc 


ANDES 


127 


tfmmits  and  volcanoes;  as  the  volcanoes  of  Cum- 
bal,  Chile,  and  Pasto.  The  narrow  valleys  which 
le  between  the  different  rid^^  by  which  it  is  tra- 
Temd  are,  at  a  medium,  10,0(>()  ft.  above  the  sea. 

This  portion  of  the  Andes  is  directed  from  SW. 
to  NE.,  and  may  be  considered  as  the  centre  of 
the  N.  Andes;  for  it  is  here  that  the  chaiti  begins 
to  divide  into  two  principal  branches ;  the  western 
rf  which  is  called  Cordillera  de  la  Costa  or  de  Sin- 
dagos,  whilst  the  £.  bears  the  name  of  Andes  de 
Iw  Pastes. 

The  Andes  of  Sindagua  have  a  break  at  about 
P  2U'  N.  lat^  by  which  the  Kio  de  las  Patias  car- 
nes  off  the  waters  descending  from  the  Andes  de 
Ih  Ps9tos  and  those  which  collect  in  the  valley 
of  Alnuffoer.  This  valley  extends  between  1°  13' 
and  1°  56'  N.  Its  surface  is  very  uneven,  and  its 
ii!«an  elevation  may  be  about  6,900  feet  above  the 
MS.  In  the  mountains  which  extend  to  the  E.  of 
it  tfs  Ut]^  alpine  lake,  theCianega  de  Sebondoy, 
in  which  the  Kio  Putumaya  or  lea,  a  large  tribu- 
tarr  of  the  Amazon,  takes  its  origin.  This  E. 
chain  exfionds  considerably  to  the  N.  of  1^  5G'  N. 
kt.,  w>  a>4to  form  a  mountain  knot,  which  receivcA 
the  name  of  Paramo  de  las  Papas.  A  little  far- 
ther north  (2^  y  N.  lat.)  the  knot  divides  into  two 
diatn.1  uf  mountains,  which  advancing  N.  enclose 
the  valky  of  the  Kio  Magdalena,  as  we  shall  ace 
aftenranis.  From  the  mountain  knot  of  the  Pa- 
ramo de  las  Papas  a  transverse  ridge  branches  off 
weitvard,  uniting  the  eastern  chain  of  the  Andes 
vith  the  Cordillera  of  Sindaguo,  and  separating 
the  valky  of  Almaguer  firom  the  great  valley  of 
theCaaca.  Near  the  place  where  this  transverse 
nii|;:e  leaves  the  mountain  knot  of  los  Pastos  is 
the  vukano  de  Purac^,  14,544  ft.  above  the  sea. 
This  volcano  may  be  considered  as  the  most  N. 
point  of  the  Andes  of  Equator,  comprising  those 
of  <jaito  and  of  los  Pastos. 

The  countries  lying  on  both  declivities  and  at  the 

fbc<  of  the  Andes  of  the  Equator  are  very  thinlv 

mhaliited,  and  alma-^t  entirely  by  aboriginal  na- 

t3im»y  anacquahited  with   civilisation   and  com- 

nwoe.    But  the  elevated  valleys  lying  between 

tht  two  ranges  are  comparatively  well  peopled, 

partly  by  the  descendants    of   Europeans,   and 

partly  by  Indians  who  have  made  some  progress 

m  civilLsatiMi,  and  are  acquainted  with  the  ad- 

▼antagw  of  commerce.     Hence  the  great  com- 

nm-iAl  nwul  which  traverses  this  ])ortion  of  the 

Aniks  runs  longitudinally  over  tlie  internal  val 

kv%  beginning  on  the  north  at  Po[>ayan  {2°  26'  1 

N.  Ill,)  in  the  vallev  of  the  Cauca,  and  temii- 

aaiin-  at  Truxillo  (^  5'  40"  S.  hit.)  on  the  Pacific. 

From  Popavan  (5,7*24  ft.  alwve  tlie  seu)  it  a.scen(i.s 

the  Ako  de'Koble  (6,176  ft.),  and  then  the  Alto  de 

Qoilqua*  (6,416  ft).     Hence  it  descends  to  the 

Kiod«Guachicon  (3,042  ft.),  whence  it  rises  again 

hy  -Jfintes  to  the  tonvni  of  Almaguer  (7,440  ft.)  in 

the  ralley  of  Almaguer.   It  next  enters  the  nioun- 

taitti  of  los  Pastos,  passing  over  the  Paramo  de 

Pumzuav  (9,408)  to  the  villiige  of  Pasto  (8,578  ft.). 

»South  vif  this  it  descend**  to  the  Kio  de  Guaitara 

(•5,4.>5  ft.),  and  again  ascends  a  steep  declivity  to 

tl*  village  of  Guachugal  (10,320  ft.),  whence  it 

pa<*»tothe  vilhige  of  Tulian  (10,1 12  ft.).  Having 

traversed  the  Paramo  de  Ifeliche  (11,504  ft.),  and 

the  Alto  de  Pucara  (10,400  ft.),  it  descends  by  a 

'twp  dechvity  to  the  river  Chota,  which  is  passed 

at  thePonte'de  Chota  (5,280  ft,),  and  hence  it 

fcai^  upward  to  the  town  of  (^uito  (9,536  t\.). 

from  (^uito  the  road  runs  over  the  plain  to  the 
Aho  i\e  Chisinche,  which  has  a  little  more  than 
l'i,iM.Ki  ft,  of  elevation.  It  next  pa**es  through 
th*-  valley  by  Uambato  (8,864  ft.),  Ki(»baniba 
Xueva  (9,472'ft.),Guamote  (10,224  ft.),  and  Alausi 
(7,!ft^  ft.).   Bi^ween  the  last-mentioned  pUice  and 


I 


the  town  of  Cuen^a  is  the  famous  and  dangerous 
pass  over  the  Paramo  dc  Assuay,  which  in  its 
highest  point,  the  Ladera  de  Cadlud,  rises  to 
15,536  ft.,  and  is  above  the  snow  line.  More  or 
fewer  lives  are  annually  lost  on  this  paramn, 
Cuenga  is  8,640  ft.  above  th^  sea.  Leaving  this 
town  the  road  descends  to  the  Kio  de  Saniguru 
(7,376  ft.),  and  again  rises  to  the  Alto  de  Pulla 
(10,000  ft.),  whence  it  passes  to  Loxa  (6,768  ft.). 

From  Loxa  the  road  passes  to  the  W.  declivity 
of  the  Andes,  where  it  traverses  Ayavaca  (8,992  ft.) 
and  Olleros  (4,768  ft.),  whence  it  repasses  thet 
range  by  the  Paramo  de  Guamani  (10,960  fl.),  and 
enters  the  valley  of  the  Maranon.  In  this  it  tra- 
verses Guancabamba  (6,360  ft.),  Zulaca  (4,352  ft.),, 
the  Paramo  de  Yam  oca  (8,768  ft.),  the  Passo  do 
Pucura  (3,552  ft),  Montan  (8,560  ft.),  and  Caxa- 
marca  (9,200  ft.).  From  the  last-mentioned  place 
it  again  passes  the  Andes  to  Guanganiarca 
(8,000  ft.),  and  runs  hence  to  Casc4is  (4,384  ft.) 
and  Los  Mokinos  (608  tt.),termmating  at  Truxillo 
(200  ft.  above  the  sea).  'Thus  this  long  road  runs 
continually  over  mountains  in  traversing  9^*^ 
of  lat. 

From  Guayaquil  a  road  leads  to  Quito.  From 
the  first-mentioned  place  it  runs  through  the  low 
grounds  skirting  the  Kio  de  Guayaquil  to  Caracol, 
and  then  along  the  banks  of  theKio  Ojibar  toCa- 
luma,  where  the  ascent  of  the  nioimtaiiis  com- 
mences. The  acclivity  is  extremely  steep  between 
(^alunia  and  Chimbo,  which  is  situated  on  an 
elevated  country  S.  of  the  Chiniborazo.  From 
Chimbo  the  road  leads  to  Mocha  and  Hombat<t, 
where  it  joins  the  great  mountain  road. 

At  about  1°  20'  N.  lat.  the  Andes  of  Sindagua 
branch  off  from  the  mountain  knot  of  los  PasU)s. 
The  E.  range  divides  again  at  alx)ut  29  5'  N.  lat, 
in  two  high  mountain  ranges.  Thus,  we  find  X. 
of  the  latter  paralh'I  the  Andes  divided  into  three 
distinct  chains,  which  enclose  the  valleys  of  the 
rivers  Magdalena  and  Cauca.  These  chains  are 
called  the  K.  ('entral  and  W.  Andes. 

The  Kiistem  AiuUa  of  New  (iranada  run  be- 
tween 29  5'  and  5°  30'  N.  lat.,  nearly  parallel  with 
the  central  range  NNE. ;  but  X.  of  5°  30'  they 
incline  farther  E.,  running  due  XE.  Though 
none  of  it-*  summits,  except  the  Xevado  de  Chita 
(5°  50'  X.  lat.)  and  the  Xevatlo  de  Mucuchues 
(ho  12')  cuter  the  line  ()f  perpetual  congelation,  its 
mean  height  is  commonly  above  the  region  of 
trees;  and  the /Mr«mo»,  which  extend  on  its  sum- 
mits, have  a  scrjity  vegetation,  and  ris««  to  an 
elevation  of  between  12,000  and  11,0(M)  ft.  Las 
Kosas,  the  most  X.  of  these  paramos,  termiimtes 
near  9^  X.  lat.,  and  may  be  considered  as  the  most 
X.  extremity  of  the  ^Vndes;  for  the  hilly  country 
lying  farther  X.  about  the  towns  of  Tucuvo  and 
Uarquisimento  is  not  known  to  contain  summits 
exceeding  -IjOlK)  or  5,000  ft.  in  elevation,  and  on 
that  account  alone  cannot  be  considered  as  a  con- 
tinuatiou  of  the  gigantic  mountain  system  of  the 
Andes. 

The  eastern  decli^-ity  of  this  range  is  so  ])recipi- 
tous  that  it  affords  wo  space  for  agriculture  and 
can  onlv  l>e  ascended  with  great  dilficulty ;  but 
on  its  \V .  dcirlivity  recline  several  extensive  table- 
lands, exhibiting  a  more  or  less  level  surface,  and 
rising  to  an  clevatirm  of  from  6,000  to  9,(MM)  ft. 
al)ove  the  sea.  Such  are  the  rich  and  fertile  plains 
of  Kogota,  ^vith  those  of  Tmija,  Socorro,  Soga- 
mozzo,  and  Pamplona,  These  fible-lands  tenni- 
nate  rather  abruptly,  and  at  a  little  distance  from 
the  banks  of  the  Kio  Magdalena.  The  river 
Funzha,  or  IJio  de  Bogota,  when  issuing  from  the 
plain,  precipitates  itself  at  Tequendama,  at  two 
iMiunfh*,  down  a  |K.'rpendicular  height  of  650  ft. 
In  no  other  cataract  is  there  so  great  a  mass  of 


128 


ANDES 


water  precipitated  frnm  so  fn^at  a  heip^ht;  and 
Ihc  jHilitiuk*  of  tlic  plairo,  the  luxurinm^*  of  the 
veprctation,  and  the  dreadful  roar,  present  a  scene 
of  unrivalled  Kublimity. 

The  K.  Anded  are  twice  traversed  by  the  road 
leadiu);  from  Bogota  to  Cnrracas.  From  the  capi- 
tal of  New  Granada  it  nms  over  the  table-land  of 
l{<t^)ta  and  Tunja  to  the  wmrces  of  the  Tej^ia,  a 
tributar\'  of  the  So^amozzo,  where  it  passes  over 
the  Paramo  de  Almocaden>,  on  the  summit  of 
wliicli  It  attains  an  ehtvation  of  ]*2,K50  ft.  alM>ve 
tlie  sea.  It  then  descends  towanls  the  E.  plain ; 
before  attaininf];  which,  it  again  ascends  the  ranf^e 
to  the  town  of  Pamphma,  which  proliablv  w  nr»t 
kw  than  9,<>00  ft.  high.  To  the  X.  of  this  it  tra- 
verses the  upfier  part  of  the  range,  and  passes  to 
liosario  de  Cucuta.  Fn>m  the  last-named  place 
tlie  road  is  made  over  the  high  grounds  which 
skirt  the  N\V.  dwlivity  of  the  chain,  passing 
througli  Merida,  Mendoza,  and  Truxillo,  to  To- 
cuyo.  From  Tocuyo  it  tra%'erse8  the  liilly  region 
by  which  the  Sierra  <lc  la  Crista  is  united  to  the 
Andes,  ]mssing  through  Ikirquisimento,  8.  Carlos, 
Valentia,  and  Victx>ria,  to  Caractras. 

The  Central  Andes  of  New  (irranada  nm  N.,  with 
a  slight  declination  to  tlie  £.,  and  form  l»etween 
their  commencement  and  6°  15'  one  great  mass  of 
rocks,  almut  40  or  50  miles  in  breadth,  whose  si<le9 
are  only  fum)we<l  by  ravines,  but  not  intersected 
by  valleys.  It«  mean  height  seems  to  be  rather 
greater  than  that  of  the  PI.  Andes,  and  it  contains 
several  summits  which  exceed  the  snowline.  The 
most  remarkable  of  them  are  from  S.  to  N. ;  the 
Nevados  de  Iluila,  de  Baraguan,  de  Tolima  (which 
attains  18,830  ft.),  anddc  Herveo.  In  the  vicinity 
of  tlie  latter  (5°  16')  the  range  expands  to  aUmt 
double  it^  width,  separating  at  the  same  time  into 
several  ridges,  so  as  to  form  a  mountain  knot^with 
intervening  valleys.  This  mountain  region?  known 
under  the  name  of  Sierra  de  Anti(»quia,  f(»rms  in 
its  up]>er  valleys  a  high  cimntrj',  from  0,(M)0  to 
7,04)0  ft.  alwve  the  sea,  on  which  the  ritlges  rise 
2,<MM»  ft,  and  more.  It  approaches  ver>'  close  to 
the  Kio  Cauca,  so  as  to  skirt  its  lied  fur  alNmt  150 
mik>s.  Opposite  to  the  high  banks  fnrmwl  by 
lbe.se  ridges,  other  mountains,  l>elonging  to  the 
W.  And(>s,  a])pniach  as  near  to  the  riv<»r,  which 
runs  for  nearly  150  miles  in  an  immense  cleft, 
over  a  rocky  and  nigged  bottom,  and  forms  a 
series  of  cataracts  and  rajrids  l>etween  Salto  de  S. 
Antonio,  and  Bocca  del  Ksinrito  Snnto.  In  all 
this  s|)ace  the  river  is  quite  unfit  for  na\'ig2ition, 
an<l  travelling  by  land  is  in  this  country'  very 
fatiguing  and  not  without  danger.  The  ridges 
which  iwue  fn>m  the  mountain  knot  of  the  Sierra 
de  Antiorpiia  appn»ach  the  Hi"  Magd.'Ufna  to  a 
distance  of  a  few  miles,  an«l  terminate  nrit  far 
fnun  the  place  where  that  river  joins  the  Kio 
Cauca,  alsmt  >f9  no'. 

That  p«»rtion  of  the  Central  Andes  which  forms 
one  undivided  inaM  is  crossed  by  two  n>ads :  one 
leading  fn.»m  Bojjota  to  Poiiayan,  and  the  other  to 
Cartogo.  The  first  runs  after  descending  from 
the  elevate<l  plain  of  B(^r>ta  to  the  banks  of  the 
L'io  Magdalena,  in  the  valley  <»f  tMs  river  to  the 
S.  as  far  as  the  town  of  La  Plata,  whence  it  turns 
W.,  and  crosses  the  range  over  the  Paramo  de  las 
Guanacas,  on  which  it  rises  to  14,705  ft,  alMive  the 
sea.  It  then  descends  into  the  valley  of  the  Cauc^ 
to  the  town  of  P<»payan.  The  road  b<*tween  Bo- 
gota and  Cartago  d(»cends  from  the  ]>lain  of  Bo- 
gota («,736  ft,),  crosses  the  Kio  Magdalena  at  the 
pass  de  Guayacana  (1.200  fu),  i>assej*  through  the 
town  of  Ibague  (4.480  ft.),  and  crosses  the  range 
by  the  famous  mountain  ]iass  of  Quindiu,  Iwlween 
the  Nevados  of  Baraguan  and  Tolima;  at  its 
bigheBt  point,  the  Garilodel  Paramo,  it  attains  an 


I'levation  of  11.504  ft.  alwve  the  level  of  the 
It  desceiuls  afterwanls  to  the  town  of  Car;^  in 
the  valley  of  the  Cauca  (3,152  feet). 

The  IK  AndeM  of  New  Granada  are  the  aame 
range,  which  farther  S.  is  called  Sierra  de  la 
Costa  or  de  Sindagua.  It  lowers  considerahlv  in 
advancing  to  the  N.,  so  that  between  2°  Sti^aad 
5^  N.  lat.  its  mean  elevation  doea  not  exceed 
5.(N)0  or  (i,000  ft,  al)ove  the  sea,  or  from  2,000  to 
3,000  ft,  above  tlie  valley  of  the  Cauca;  nor  is  ita 
breadth  considerable,  probably  not  more  than  limn 
15  to  20  milvH,  but  it  rises  i^-ith  a  very  preci|HtMis 
decliWty.  N.  of  5^  the  range  is  higher,  and  ift 
breadth  more  considerable.  Ita  highcitt  aommit 
is  the  Torra  del  Choco,  SE.  of  Kovita.  which, 
however,  is  far  from  attaining  the  snow  line,  and 
prolMiblv  does  not  rise  to  much  more  than  10,(100 
feet.  ^.  of  this  summit  the  range  appmacbea 
close  to  the  Kio  Cauca,  forming  its  high  honks  be- 
tween the  Salto  de  S.  Antonio  and  the  Bocca  dd 
Kspirito  Santo,  and  constituting  with  the  oppo- 
site ranges  of  the  C-entral  Andes,  aa  it  weie,  one 
mountain  knot.  The  Western  Andea  send  fnvn 
this  jMiint  a  range  towards  the  Caribbean  Sm, 
which  skirts  the  Kio  Cauca  on  the  W.,  extending 
to  the  N.  of  8^  N.  lat,,  and  contains  the  Alto  de 
Vieiito,  a  summit  which  attains  more  than  9,000  ft. 
of  elevation. 

Fn»m  the  W.  Andes  a  ridge  branches  ofT  ntar 
G^  N.  lat.  It  runs  to  the  W .,  and  seiuuates  the 
sources  of  the  Kio  de  8.  Juan,  which  falls  into  the 
Pacific,  from  those  of  the  Atrato,  which  nina  to 
the  (!nrri1>lM>an  Sea.  This  range  soon  turns  to  the 
NNW.,  and  advances  in  that  direction  betwreen 
the  Kio  Atrato  anil  the  Pacific  It«  elevation 
seems  not  to  be  considerable  at  the  beginning,  and 
it  grows  lower  as  it  advancej*  farther  N.  It  sc«ni 
to  disa])pear  entirely  lietween  7°  and  80  iqjpusite 
to  the  liarismr  of  Cu]nca  on  the  Pacific;  for  no 
mountain  range  is  found  on  the  isthmus  of 
Panama,  where  it  is  narrowest. 

Six  roads  are  said  to  cross  the  W.  Andes :  bat 
they  can  only  be  used  v^ith  great  difficulty,  oo 
account  of  the  extreme  steepness  of  the  ridge 
They  are  commonly  im]>racticable  for  mules,  and 
travellers  n»  well  as  go<Nls  are  bmught  over  on 
the  Imcks  of  Indians.  The  roads  most  usetl  aw 
that  of  I^ios  Juntas,  which  leails  from  Cali  in  the 
valley  of  the  Cauca  to  Buenaventura,  a  haritour 
on  the  I'acitic ;  the  nvid  of  S.  Angustin,  ciHinect- 
ing  Cartago  with  Nt^dta ;  and  that  of  Venas,  by 
which  the  town  of  Citara  in  the  valley  of  the 
Atrato  communicates  with  Antioquia'  on  the 
Imnks  of  the  Cauca.  (For  n  further  accoant  oS 
existing  and  ])ntp<ised  n^ads  over  the  Andes,  see 
Raihcays^  at  the  end  of  tliis  article.) 

The  GvoifMfy  of  the  Andes  is  verv  imperfectly 
known.  Only  a  small  ]y)rtion  of  their  immense 
extent  has  been  visite<l  by  scientific  travellei9; 
and  the  information  obtained  from  them  teaches 
oidy  a  few  isolated  facts,  which  do  mit  justify 
general  conclusions.  We  are,  h(»wever,  informed. 
tliat  the  mo24t  frequent  of  the  primitive  nnrks  of 
the  Al|>s — granite  and  gneiss — are  by  no  means 
frequent  in  the  Andes,  which  are  iromposed  mostly 
<»f  iK>rf»hyr5'  and  mica-slate.  Porphyrj'  is  by  far 
the  most  widely  extended  <»f  the  unst ratified  rucks 
of  the  Andes,  and  occurs  through  the  whole  range 
at  all  elevations,  and  fn^iuently  the  highest  sum- 
mits are  comjxised  of  it.  Next  tu  porphyry  and 
mica-slate,  trachyte  and  basalt  arc  most  frMiuently 
met  ^-ith. 

Volcanoes  arc  frequent  in  certain  portions  of 
th(>  range.  Capt.  B.  llall  ol>ser\-ed  a  phenomenon, 
which  induced  liim  to  think  that  a  voh*ano  exists 
on  one  of  the  larger  Islands  N.  of  Ca})e  Horn,  and 
that  the  observed  phenomenon  was  pn)dnced  by  an 


I  btet  Oqrt.  Kng,  (dw  mrrered  Uwie 
bonl  tea  r**»  *&h  n«nu  not  to  htra 
vleauo  In  nan  del  Fowo.  nor  in  uiy 
lkaorihanngca>athof46°8.l>t.  Bat 
T.  Ibef  occur  in  gnat  nnmben.    Foui 

- '-"-  ■*— n  the  iskod  of  Chiloe; 

tt,  between  46°  and  42° 
iij  an  volcanoM  in  ibe 

1  nineteen  being  known 

■•BsmteofactiTitr.  Tbe  mwt  ■4.  is 
^Dqidmbo,  noiewbU  to  tbe  S.  ofSOO  3. 
:  tnlwttn  thii  votcuo  and  that  of  Ala- 
Rnoi  11°  uid  22°  a  lat.)  nu  volcano  i> 
mat.  Puther  X.  the  volcanic  moun- 
n  cdt^  in  tlie  W.  range  of  Ibe  Bolivian 
use  dTlhe  hi^  nunmita  of  the  E.  lange 
n>  bnn  known  to  have  made  an  ernp- 
■Btted  nuoke.  That  poitioa  of  the  Andes 
Toleanic  leeocv  ia  most  active  lice  be- 
"8.Ut,and  a^lJ.  lat.  The  nnmbei  of 
^koaa  ariintioafl  ub  recoided  is  here  very 
kte;  and  UnmboHt  ia  inclined  to  think 
nUcTa  X.  of  the  pan  of  Aaauay  aie  to 
Isad  W  being  placed  on  an  extensive 
bam  ■Od  tluit  moat  of  the  numeroos 

in  Mne,  a>  "'"""«'«  for  the  nibterranean 
■iiiiii  iliiit,  with  the  atmoapheie.  Tbe 
H.oftlwae  volcanoes  is  that  of  I'unc^  in 
bbamfaood  of  Popayan,  where  tbe  Andes 
diride  into  three  nnges ;  which  seem  to 
lb  pnsant  Male,  gtute  exempt  from  vol- 
■7,  DODO  of  their  ■ommits  having  evei 

iliHi  of  the  globe  ia  aulject  to  Bach  tn- 
dliigfatfnl  eanliqaakes  as  the  cnuntiies 
Md  witbin  the  range  of  the  Andea,  and 
<lg  between  them  and  the  Pacidc  Ocean, 
Da  of  Bogota.  Quito,  Riobamba,  Callao, 
,  Va^iaiaiao,  Concspdor  — '  -■' —  ' 


1!B 

climate  aa  the  banana;  bnt  its  cultivation 
ids  over  a  moch  wider  s^re,  as  it  arrives  at 
matniity  at  an  elevadon  of  6,000  ft  above  the  sea. 
The  low  countiy  within  Che  tioraca  is  also  the 
region  of  oiangea,  pine-applM,  and  the  most  deli- 
dousfhiits.  Between  the  altitodes  of  6,000  fL  and 
9,000  n,  lies  the  climate  best  suilfld  for  the  culture 
kinds  of  Enropean  grain.  Wheat,  under  the 
equator,  will  seldom  form  an  ear  below  an  eleva- 
•=—  of  4,500  ft.,  or  ripen  if  above  that  of  10,000  ft 
the  same  time  it  must  he  observed  that  the 


he  Andes  induced  him 
D0*  line  near  the  equator,  at  an  elevation 

0  ILi  and  he  thought  that,  near  the 
tmmld  be  found  at  about  14,000  ft.,  - 
M  higher.  But  Hr.  Penlland  found 
'StU^at  nearly  17,000  ft :  andlaternb- 
■  Oz  it  near  12°  S.  Ut,  at  about  16,400  ft 
I*  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  farther  remaik- 
at  though  a  great  number  of  summits 
ra  the  mow  line,  glacien  are  of  rare  oo- 

1  in  the  Andes.  This  is  putly  to  be  at> 
ta  tbe  relative  position  a  their  summits, 
tacnUy  form  a  continuous  line,  without 

a— M»ijt«UfM-J»rhii.h»Va.ywliBr»;iifni.nH 

raa  between  two  soramils.  It  is  only  in 
0*  nviiMa,  by  which  some  of  the  udes  of 

mm  md  Zoalagg  of  At  Amirt.—Tbn  dif- 
bnta  and  tree*  peculiar  to  the  diSerent 
of  the  0obe  a{near  in  regular  succcadon. 
Mod  fmn  the  level  of  3\e  ocean  to  the 
■f  the  Andes.  In  the  lower  )no^nd^  be- 
ta tropia,  from  tbe  level  of  the  sea  to  II 
t  from  B.0O0  to  fi,0O0  ft,  cassava,  caca 
liitainii  iniUgo,  sugar,  cotton,  and  coH 
rated.  Indigo  and  cacao,  tbe  plantain 
aa  (ne,  and  the  cassava  root  require  great 

a  bnugfat  to  maturity,  ^nerallv  a  cV 

tke  DKan  tempsature  is  76°.  ^ut  i 
It  win  giDw  at  a  consideTaLle  clev 
m  ia  CBttivated  with  auccew  in  the 
Ma  of  Quito,    Uaize  is  cultivated 


he  minimum  of  height  at  which  European  cereaUa 
roold  come  to  maturity  in  the  eqninozial  r^ions 
if  America.  Humboldt  mentioiia  that  in  the 
::araccas  be  saw  tine  harvests  of  wheat  near  Vio- 
toria,  in  the  latitude  of  10°  IS'  N„  at  the  height  of 
1,640  and  1,900  ft,  and  at  Cuba  wheat  flourishes 
at  a  still  smaller  elevadon.  Ryo  and  barley,  es- 
pecially the  latter,  resist  cold  better  than  wheat ; 
they  axe  accordingly  cultivated  at  a  greater  eleva- 
tion. Bailey  yields  abundant  harvests  at  heights 
where  the  thermometer  rarely  keeps  up  during  the 
day  above  b7>  Fah.  Witbin  the  limits  in  which 
European  grain  flourishes  is  t<i  be  found  the  oak, 
which  (mm  an  elevation  of  9,200  rt  never  denxnda, 
near  the  equator,  below  that  of  5,fiO0  ft,  thoo)^  it 
—  It  with  in  the  parallel  of  Mexico  at  the  hiaght 
ily  2,620  ft  Beyond  the  limit  of  9,000  ft 
large  trees  ofeveiy  kind  begin  to  disappear,  though 
some  dwarfish  pines  are  to  be  found  at  tbe  height 
of  13,000  ft,  nearly  2,000  a  from  the  line  of  pei^ 
petnal  snow.  The  grasses  clothe  the  ground  at  an 
elevation  of  from  13,fi00fLta  15.100  ft;  and  from 
this  to  the  regions  of  ice  and  snow  the  only  plants 
viable  are  the  lichen,  which  coveis  the  face  of 
the  rocks,  and  seems  even  (o  peaotiate  under  the 

Indistiieta  as  elevated  aa  the  valley  of  Titicaca, 
agriculture  is  conSned  topotatMe,omons,and(»p- 

.,  and  to  the  grain  eslled  tukio  (Oiaufediiat 

1, 1  .in.) ;  barley  and  lye  are  only  cultivated 
as  fodder.  On  tbe  plain  of  Bogota  a  farinaceous 
root,  called  iiniQii:Aa,  is  cultivated,  and  lately  BOme 
ittempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  its  culture 
nEngland.  Treesarefoundto  ascend tol2,00Oft 
ir  14,000  ft  on  tbe  declivities  of  the  mountains ; 
rut  their  summits,  which  commonly  form  plains 
if  some  extent,  are  nearly  bare  of  vegetation, 
iDurishing  only  two  or  three  kinds  of  low  plants. 

Among  the  vegetable  pioductions  of  the  Andes, 
lone  has  obtained  greater  celebrity  than  the  cut- 
cAoiu,  or  Jesuits'  Inifc,  which  is  now  known  to 
grow  not  only  on  dilTerent  parts  of  the  Andes,  but 
also  on  the  other  hij{h  mountains  of  S.  America. 
The  best  baik,  however,  is  collected  on  tbe  Andes 
between  G°  N.  lat.  and  5°  S.  lat,  where  the  trees 
grow  at  an  elevation  of  from  10,000  to  14,000  ft 
above  the  sea. 

The  most  remarkable  kind  of  »mTii«lii  in  the 
Andes  is  the  species  comprinn^  the  guanacos, 
llamas,  and  vicunas.  Tbe  llamas  are  used  aa  ani- 
mals of  burden ;  but  they  ore  slow,  making  only 
about  12  miles  a  day,  and  carryinf;  about  fO  ibt^ 
of  burtben.  The  vicunas  give  a  very  valuable  kind 
of  wooL  Among  birds,  the  nnuJori  have  always 
attracted  the  attention  of  travellers,  on  account 
of  their  enormous  mze.    They  are  a  ^ledes  of 

Mintral  Wraith.— If  the  high  table-land  of  Ana- 
huac  in  Mexico  be  excepted,  no  mountain  ranee 
can  vie  wilhthe  Andes  in  mineral  riche^  ei^iecially 
in  the  precions  metals.  Many  of  tbe  rivers  de- 
scending from  the  Andes  between  the  tropics  con- 
tain small  parUcl(*  of  gold  in  their  sand.  The 
particles  of  gold  depoeiled  in   the  alluvial  soil 


130 


ANDES 


skirtiiu:  the  beds  of  some  of  them  riven  have  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Europeans,  and  at  some 
places  the  soil  is  carefully  washed.  The  alluvial 
soiUi  richest  in  f^ld  arc  those  lying  to  the  W,  of 
the  Central  Andes  of  New  Granada,  on  both  AdM 
of  the  Rio  Cauca;  as  also  in  the  provinces  of  Bar- 
bacoas  and  Choco  along  the  Pacific  In  the  latter 
districts  pktina  also  occurs ;  and,  till  within  these 
few  years,  when  it  has  been  found  in  the  Ural 
mountains^  these  were  considered  as  the  onl^  places 
in  which  it  was  to  be  met  vrith.  Alluvial  soils 
rich  in  gold  are  also  found  along  the  rivers  which 
descend  from  the  range  of  the  liollvian  Andes, 
between  14®  and  17®  S.  lat,;  and  here,  too,  con- 
siderable quantities  of  gold  arc  extracted.  The 
annual  produce  of  -the  lavaderoM  and  gold  mines 
of  the  Andes  is  stated  by  Humboldt  to  have 
amounted,  in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  to 
283,429  oz.;  equal,  at  41.  per  oz.,  to  1,133,7162.*  As 
far  as  can  be  asccrtaineti,  it  has  rather  decreased 
than  increased  sinctc  that  time. 

Silver  occurs  in  many  places  of  the  range  l)e- 
twecn  33®  and  the  equator ;  but  it  is  commonly 
found  at  an  elevation  where  vegetation  nearly 
ceases,  which  renders  the  working  of  the  mines 
very  expensive,  and  frequently  disap[)oints  the 
otherwise  well-founded  expectations  of  the  under- 
takers. The  number  of  mines  which  have  been 
worked  and  abandoned  is  veiy  great;  many  of 
them,  however,  are  still  worked.  The  most  cele- 
brated silver  mines  are  those  of  Potosi  and  Pasco. 
The  former  are  in  the  Cerro  de  Potosi  (19®  36'  S. 
lat.),  which  rises  to  16,037  ft  above  the  sea.  This 
mountain  is  perforated  in  all  directions ;  and  it  is 
said,  though  the  statement  be  pn>bably  exag- 
gerated, that  there  are  no  fewer  than  5,(MM)  exca- 
vations in  it.  The  Cerro  de  Pasco  is  a  hill,  rising 
on  the  high  plain  of  Bombon  (about  11®  S.  lat.). 
It  has  been  worked  for  more  than  two  centuries, 
and  may  now  be  considered  as  the  richest  silver 
mine  of  America ;  unless,  which  is  doubtful,  it  be 
surpassed  by  the  silver  mines  discovered  in  N. 
Chili  in  1830,  about  30  or  40  m.  S.  of  the  town  of 
Copiapo,  where  silver  ore  is  very  abundant.  Inhere 
are  also  to  be  mentioned  the  silver  mines  in  the 
San  Juan  province  of  the  Argentine  republic, 
where  also,  according  to  late  reports,  gold  has  been 
discovered.  The  yield  of  the  San  Juan  mineft.  to 
work  which  a  company  has  been  formed  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Argentine  goveniment,  is  very 
considerable.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  the  annual  produce  of  the  silver  mines  of 
the  Andes  was  stated  by  Humboldt  to  amount  to 
691,492  lbs.  troy;  which,  if  we  take  the  silver  at 
5s.  the  ounce,  gives  a  sum  of  2,074,476/.  It  is  not 
easy  to  estimate  its  amount  at  present ;  but  jiro- 
bably  it  is  not  much  fallen  off. 

Mercury  or  quicksilver  occurs  in  many  places 
N.  of  14®  S.  lat.,  and  S.  of  the  equator;  but  since 
the  destruction  of  the  mines  of  Guancavelica,  we 
are  not  sure  whether  it  be  anvwhere  worked. 
These,  which  were  extremely  rich,  \ielding  from 
4,000  to  6,000  cwt,  a  vear,  were  unluckily  ruined 
in  1789,  through  the  ignorance  and  mismanage- 
ment of  a  superintendent. 

Copper  seems  to  occur  very  frequently  S.  of  14® 
S.  lat.  LsLtf^e  masses  of  nearlv  pure  copper  are 
stated  to  exist  on  the  surface  of  the  8.  extremity 
of  the  valley  of  Titicaca,  but  the  expense  of 
bringing  them  down  to  the  coast  is  at  present  so 
great  that  they  cannot  be  turned  to  advantage. 
In  the  N.  provinces  of  Chili  several  mines  are 
woriied  with  advantage.  Miers  estimated  the 
quantity  of  copper  exported  from  these  countries 
in  1824  at  40,000  cwt;  in  1829  it  rose  to  60,000, 
and  has  since  materially  increased.  It  is  mostly 
exported  to  Cliizia,  India,  and  the  U.  States. 


Ores  of  lead,  tin,  and  mm  exiat  inTvioospnti; 
but  they  are  little  worked. 

TrmxNinp  in  <Ae  Aude»,—The  imurovguiait  of 
the  countnes  embosomed  within  toe  Andei  ii 
much  retarded  b^  the  want  of  easy  commonieitta. 
Sometimes  the  mteroourse  between  places  in  thi 
immediate  vicinity  of  each  other  ia  intemipted  by 
quebradoMf  or  rents,  generally  nairow,  sometiiiMi 
of  a  vast  depth,  and  with  nearly  peqwDdieakr 
sides.  The  famous  natural  bridge*  of  Iconenao,  ia 
Columbia,  leads  over  a  small  qnebrada;  it  is  d»> 
vated  about  812  ft.  abo^-e  the  torrent  that  fiowi 
in  the  bottom  of  the  chasm.  Most  of  the  tomnti 
that  are  passed  in  travelling  over  the  CordUkm 
are  fordaole;  though  their  impetuority  is  sod 
when  swollen  by  the  rains  as  to  detain  *tiaTellai 
fur  several  davs.  But  when  they  axe  too  deqi  li 
be  forded,  or  t'be  banks  too  inacoeBsible,  tuspeuAii 
bridges  are  thrown  over  them,  of  a  singular  make; 
but  which,  notwithstanding  their  apparently  dn- 
gerous  and  fragile  construction,  are  found  to  annnr 
the  purposes  required.  Where  the  ri^'er  ia  nanov, 
with  high  banks,  they  are  oonstmcted  of  woodi 
and  consist  of  four  long  beams  laid  doae  togeths 
over  the  precipice,  and  forming  a  path  of  aSoot  a 
yard  and  a  half  in  breadth,  being  just  luiliciMt 
for  a  man  to  pass  over  on  horseback.  These  InAgm 
have  become  so  familiar  to  the  natives  that  ttef 

Eass  them  without   apprehension.     Where  the 
readth  of  the  river  will  not  admit  of  a  bcoi 
being  laid  across,  ropes  constructed  of  b^wm,  a 
species  of  thin  elastic  cane,  of  the  length  required 
are  thrown  over.    Six  of  these  ropes  are  stretdisd 
from  one  side  of  the  ri^'er  to  the  other;  two,  in- 
tended to  serve  as  parapets,  being  oonndenU^ 
higher  than  the  other  four;  and  the  Intter  boig 
covered  with  sticks  laid  in  a  tnnavene  dtzection, 
the  bridge  is  passed  by  men,  while  the  mnlea,  bdaf 
divested  of  their  burdens,  are  made  to  swim  acnWi 
All  travellers  have  spoken  of  the  extreme  daun 
of  passing  these  rope  bridges,  which  look  nki 
ribands  suspended  abo\'e  a  crevice  or  impetooM 
torrent.  But  this  danger,  according  to  Hnmbdld^ 
is  not  very  great  when  a  single  penon  passes  orer 
the  bridge  as  quickly  as  poiaible,  witn  his  bo^ 
leaning  forward.   But  the  oscillations  of  the  npM 
become  very  great  when  the  traveller  ia  oondoetad 
by  an  Indian  who  walks  quicker  than  hinuelf ;  or 
when,  frightened  bj  the  view  of  the  water  seen 
tlirough  the  interstices  of  the  bamboos,  he  has  the 
imprudence  to  stop  in  the  middle  of  the  bridgi^ 
and  lay  hold  of  the  ropes  that  serve  as  a  nO. 
Some  of  the  rivers  of  the  higher  Andes  are  paasd 
by  means  of  an  invention  or  bridge  denommatad 
a  tarabita.    It  conveys  not  only  the  jpassaigcn^ 
but  also  their  cattle  and  burdens;  and  is  used  to 
pass  those  torrents  whose  rapidity  and  the  laxgt 
stones  continually  rolling  down,  render  it  impoa- 
sible  for  mules  to  swim  acrosa.    It  consists  of  a 
strong  rope  of  bejuco,  extended  across  the  river, 
on  each  bank  of  which  it  is  fastened  to  stoat  poftiu 
On  one  side  is  a  kind  of  wheel  <Hr  winch  to  straiten 
or  slack  the  rope  to  the  degree  required.    Fhim 
this  rope  hangs  a  kind  of  moveable  leathern  ham- 
mock, capable  of  holding  a  man,  to  which  a  rope 
is  fastened  for  drawing  it  to  the  aide  intendeiL 
For  carrying  over  mules  two  ropes  are  nccessaiy, 
and  these  much  thicker  and  slacker.   The  Greatnit 
being  suspended  firom  them,  and  secured  by  gMM 
round  the  belly,  neck,  and  legs,  is  shoved  o£  uid 
dragged  to  the  opposite  bank.    Some  of  these  be* 
juoo  bridges  arc  or  great  length,  and  elevated  to  i 
great  height  above  the  torrent* 

A  bridge  of  this  sort  was  constructed  br  tht 
5th  Inca  over  the  Deeaguadero,  or  river  that  laHM 
from  Lake  Titicaca,  where  it  is  more  than  SOOft. 
in  width ;  and,  on  account  of  ita  utility,  ia  stiU 


„ .  _waa  aapmikm  bridn 

IwWed  Kn>di  oUkiiw*  of  bollock's  li 
M  ptnad  ■!■«  <na  of  lliia  «ait  in  Chili, 
I  iHclh,  br  *  n- "i^  Itunvevedofw 
HlM^and'WMpcffectlTnaue.  (UUa4, 
■■AinataM,lU8;  lfien,Chili,'  <■"- 
lA  BanudMS,  a  71.) 
mtidaas  of  tbg  loid*  in  the  len  tm- 
BKtt  of  the  AndM,  an  btrHy  be  de- 
nt nuBjr  tiacM  (he  ground  is  to  obitdw 

Ht  &^  M^  and  in  Mhos  it  ia  a  con- 
^m  id  imeipini.  Then  pethi  an  fnQ 
Aom  S  to  8  ft.  itip,  in  which  the  nwlee 
lbK>  and  ibair  their  bdlies  and  their 
^  akog  the  gnNnuL  The  boles  serre 
withoDt  nhicti  the  pndnco  would  be 
kBMMBMltBpiaetieahle;  bat,  sbonld  the 
Iwn—  to  set  its  (hot  between  two  of 
h^  or  BM  place  it  right,  the  ridar  bOt, 
H  the  side  of  the  pndjnce,  ineviubiy 
ni*  danger  is  eron  gioater  whoe  the 
•  waaiiag^  Ihe  tracks  an  extRmel; 
laH|Hiai;,andinseneral  chalky  and 
wa  tMR  an  no  Doles  to  sarre  as  i 


l^ths  inatinet  of 
h^  Is  adnbaUe.  They  are  aenuble  of 
Im  NqoUte  in  the  dMcenU  On  comiag 
f  of  an  —ainjiu-,  they  sti^ ;  sad  having 
Nk  fcn  feet  close  together,  ih  if  in  ■  po«- 
i^iping  tbemwlTOS,  thej  slao  put  their 
HsgSthtri  but  alittle  forwards,  m  if  going 
■■.  In  this  altitude,  having,  ss  it  were. 
■iv^  of  the  road,  they  slide  down  with 
MB  of  a  meteor.  The  rider  lias  only  to 
■Mtf  bet  in  the  saddle,  without  checking 


of  Uie  mule,  in 


. ,      jnderfaJ;  for  in 

^idBOtion,  when  thev  seem  to  have  lost 
■Md  of  llNlnselveB,  thev  follow  exactly 
tmt  windlags  of  the  path,  an  if  they  hsd 
^neomMrilnd  and  settled  In  their  minds 
■  A»j  wen  to  (bllow,  and  taken  every 
«  ftr  their  safety.  There  would,  other- 
In^  b*  no  peailiiH^  of  tnTelHng  over 
tm»  the  safHy  et  the  lider  depends  on  the 
(•and  addieaof  hisbesst. 
lll^ri  of  the  Conlillecas,  which  are  deeper 
«m  than  thoae  <tf  the  Alps  and  Fyreneea, 
■tt  •cenas  of  the  wildest  ajpect,  give  rise 
nasal  athw  peeaHaritiM  in  the  mode  of 
K  In  manj  parts,  owing  to  the  bumidily 
laata,  and  the  declivity  of  the  ground, 
OBlMa  iridtl  flow  down  the  mountains 


ltkba«Bd£ud 


above 


tag  aiid  left  t^ien  to  the  sky.  In  some 
>  Bfoning  above  is  covered  by  the  thick 
m  triuch  grows  oat  from  both  sides  of  the 
•  &at  the  tnvella  ii  forced  to  grope  hii 
lAaea^    Theoxen,  which  aie  the  beasts 

rfr  face  tb«r  way  throtub  these  galleries, 


lo  means  of 


oidingti 


laying  bold  of  tba  note  which  paoetnte  to  thta 
depth  tknm  the  smfaee  of  the  groond.  'Inmany 
of  the  paaaea  of  the  Ande%' says  Humboldt, '  soeb 
ia  the  state  of  the  road*  that  the  usual  mode  of 
travelling  fix  persoiu  in  easy  dicumstancee  il  in 
a  chair  strapped  to  the  back  of  one  of  the  native 
porters,  called  corgueme,  or,  men  of  burden,  who 
live  by  letting  out  their  backs  and  loins  lo  Invel' 
lera.  They  talk  in  this  counDy  of  going  on  a 
man's  back  (andar  en  csiKueroe),  tt  we  mention 
going  on  faoneliack.  No  humiliating  idea  is  an- 
nexed to  the  trade  of  csrguerue  \  and  the  men  who 
IbUow  this  occupation  are  not  Indians,  but  mulst- 
wbites.  The  umal  load 
six  or  seven  arrobas:  thoee  whoan 


cam,  by  a  Journey  tmm  Ibague  to  Caitago,  only 
' '  piasters  in  fium  fifteen  to  twenty-five  daya. 
The  passage  of  the  mountain  of  Quindiu  is  not  the 
only  (lart  of  South  America  which  is  traversed  on 
the  backs  of  men.  Tbs  whole  of  the  province  of 
Antioqnisii  sumunded  by  moanlains  so  difficult  to 
pass,  that  they  who  dislike  entrusting  Ihemselvea 
lo  the  skill  nf  a  bearer,  and  are  not  strong  enough 
*-  travel  on  foot  bom  Santa  Pe  de  AnluHiuia  to 


le  Nan 


>r  mo ; 


an  thoughts  of  leaving  Che  country.  The  number 
of  young  men  who  undertake  the  employments  of 
beasts  (?  burden  at  Choco,  Ibague,  and  Medallin 
so  considerable,  that  we  sometimes  meet  a  Sla 
of  fifty  01  sixty.  A  few  years  ago,  when  s  project 
was  lonDH)  to  make  the  passage  from  Nares  lo 
Antioquia  passable  for  miUfe,  the  cargueros  pre- 

road,  and  the  government  was  weak  enough  lo 

'  ^Id  to  their  clsmoun.    The  person  carried  in  a 

sir  by  a  ca^uero  must  remain  several  hours 

ilionleas,  and  leaning  backwaids.     The   least 

ition  is  sufficient  l«  throw  down  the  carrier; 

and  his  fall  would  be  so  much  the  more  dangemts, 

IS  the  carguero,  too  confident  in  bis  own  skill, 

chooses  the  most  rapid  declivitiea,  or  oosses  a  tor- 

-ent  on  a  narrow  and  slippery  trunk  of  a  tree. 

These  accidents  are,   however,  ran ;   and  those 

which  happen  must  be  attributed  to  the  impiu- 

'  ice  of  travellers,  wbo,  frightened  at  a  false  step 

the  carguero,  leap  down  bom  their  chairs,' 

(Kesearchea,  i.  69.) 

SaUaay: — Within  the  last  few  yean  mealuiea 
have  been  projected,  and  steps  have  been  taken  to 
cany  them  out,  which  there  is  little  doubt  will 
break  down  the  barrier  to  commerce  wliich  the 
>r  South  America  now  form.  Host  pmmi- 
is  the  project  to  prolong  westward 


the  line  uf  railway  fr 


1  Roaano  on  the  Parana 


lantic  with  the  Pacific,  the  Kiver  Plata 

last  of  Chili,  by  a  railway  crossing  the 

a  hdght  of  16,033  U,  abjvo  the  level 

It  was  originated  a 


ted  and  roughly  sur- 
ly  Mr.  Whee&ri^t,  a 


of  the  s> 


England  gentleman  of  long  expeiienc 
constructmg  mountain  rsilwayi  in  ChilL  Under 
his  direction  a  railway  was  constructed  from  Val- 
jaraiso  to  Santiago,  which  lies  about  2,000  ft 
above  the  sea|  npenol  for  traffic  in  1863.  In  1849 
he  completed  50  miles  of  line,  Irom  the  seaport  of 
Caldeta  la  tbe  mining  station  of  Copiapo,  now 
ctended  5i  miles  farther  to  Chanar^iUo,  paav 
-er  an  elevation  of  4,476  tl.  above  I' 
maximum  gtadien 
precedesited,  but  worl 

~ ''  ~  slow  speed  with  powerful  locomotives,  dr 
s  maximum  load  of  43  tons.  The  succes 
line  as  a  pecuniary  speculation,  and  more 
ive  knowledge  of  the  country,  su^oatec 
Wheelwright  the  greater  scbeme  of  crosi 


m  three  years 


if  cTosaiag 


132 


ANDES 


the  Andes.  From  Copiapo  a  pan,  called  by  the 
name  of  San  Frunciaco,  cmMes  the  Cliilian  C<)rdil- 
lera.  Thou|;h  it  exceeds  the  height  of  16,()00  ft. 
it  i8  rarely  if  ever  blocked  up  with  snow,  partly 
owing  to  the  dryncsH  of  the  atmosphere,  partly  to 
it8  wide  and  open  character.  From  Copiapo  to 
the  Hummit  is  225  miles,  the  rise  in  height  about 
14,MX)  ft  From  the  summit  to  Fiambala,  where 
the  plains  which  extend  to  the  Atlantic  may  be 
said  to  bepn,  the  distance  is  125  miles,  the  fall 
near  11,000  ft,  Fiambala  being  over  5,000  ft. 
al)ove  the  sea.  Here,  however,  rich  soil  and  abun- 
dant vegetation,  with  almost  tropical  proilucts, 
bc^n,  and  the  rest  of  the  distance  to  Conlova, 
.350  miles,  and  thence  to  Itosario,  250  miles,  though 
passing  occasionally  through  salt  and  barren  lands, 
offers  no  engineering  difficulties ;  and,  indeed,  like 
the  neighbourhooil  of  Buenos  Ayr^  Lt  singularly 
favourable  to  cheapness  of  construction.  From 
Copiapo  to  the  summit  onlv  two  places  involve 
much  difficulty  or  hcaw  worlcs.  Tlie  firet  nnpiires 
steep  gradient!)  and  a  tunnel  between  1  and  2  miles 
long,  in  a  space  of  almut  11  miles,  at  the  jMssage 
of  a  secondary  mountain  ridge  called  Cuesta  tii  los 
C^ilenos.  Passing  it,  the  ruad  comes  out  on  the 
great  central  plateau  of  the  Cordillera  at  a  height 
of  near  13,000  ft.,  at  a  point  distant  about  80 
miles  from  the  summit  level,  and  with  a  total  rise 
of  little  more  than  3,(KHi  ft.  in  that  distance,  in 
which  only  one  difEculty  occurs — a  gra<lient  of 
600  ft.  to  the  mile  (or  3  miles,  to  Ije  reduced  to 
200  bv  taking  a  circuit  increasing  the  length  to 
10  mdes.  I1ie  first  portion  of  the  descent,  for  13 
miles  is  on  a  heavy  gradient  of  150  ft.;  and  no 
further  difficulty  oct^urs  except  at  a  place  called 
the  Angostura-— the  contraction  of  the  I^s  Losas 
river,  where  it  falls  rapidly  for  5  miles.  But  it  is 
probable  that  this  difficulty,  itself  not  excessive, 
might  be  avoide<l  by  a  side  valley,  which  would 
also  sh(»rten  the  rout*.  As  yet  rmly  a  survey  of  a 
rough  description  has  been  made ;  but  the  prac- 
ticability of  the  lino  is  {jroved  by  the  gracUents 
not  exceeding  what  have  already  1)een  worked. 
The  scheme,  it  is  also  remarked,  includes  only  2^ 
miles  of  tunnelling.  It  is  even  expected  that 
when  more  acciunte  sur\'eys  come  to  be  made, 
more  suitable  passes  may  be  chosen. 

Mr.  Wlieelwright  stated,  in  a  paper  communi- 
cated to  the  British  Assotnation  in  1863,  that 
since  he  left  Copiapo,  *  a  Mr.  Brewer,  a  very  reli- 
able person,  who  resides  in  that  city,  has  driven 
over  the  mountain  by  San  Francisco  to  the  pro- 
vince of  Tucuman,  and  returned  in  the  same  car- 
riage by  the  Horquera  Pass,  further  south,  which 
he  preierrcd.  Mr.  Brewer  describes  the  summit 
of  the  Horquera  as  Ixfiug  only  a  few  thousand  feet 
in  iiidth,  whereas  at  San  Fnindsco  it  is  100  miles, 
and  that  tliere  is  an  abundance  of  water  except 
for  a  s])ace  of  20  to  25  miles.  He  is,  no  doubt, 
the  first  person  that  ever  crossed  the  Andes  in  a 
carriage.'  The  pass  called  Planchon,  above  des- 
cril»ed,  has  also  attracted  attention. 

If  this  should  Ije  found  practicable,  another 
trunk  line  would  probably  he  planned  to  diverge 
from  the  Rosario  and  Coldova  line  at  a  pl«^ 
called  Villa  Nucva,  and  nm  direct  by  the  impor- 
tant towns  of  San  LuLs  and  Mendoza  to  the  Plan- 
chon. It  would  then  descend  to  join  the  Great 
Southern  Railway  of  (?hile  at  Curico,  85  miles 
aouth  of  the  capita],  Santiago.  In  that  case,  the 
other  line  on  arriving  at  Horquera,  a  central  posi- 
tion for  the  proWnces  of  Catamarca,  Tucuman, 
and  Santiago  de  Estera,  instead  of  turning  west- 
ward to  the  pass  of  San  Francisco,  might  run 
neariy  north  through  Tucuman,  Salta,  and  Jujuy, 
and  enter  Boli\'ia  and  Upper  Peru  even  as  far  as 
I'otosi,  if  it  should  be  found  practicable. 


AinX>BB£ 

Among  the  advantage  expected  firom  then 
railway's  is  reckoned  not  only  the  oommcne  «f 
Cliili  and  Pern,  seeking  a  port  or  a  river  flownj; 
into  the  Atlantic,  but  it  is  antidpatod  that  thn 
construction  would  lead  to  the  aaoptioii  of  a  iwv 
passenger  route  from  Europe  to  AnstraHa.  Ai 
Admiral  Fitzroy  pointed  oat  before  the  Geogn- 

Ehical  Society  in  1860,  *a  ship  nmmng  a  few 
undred  miles  to  the  north  firom  Copiapo  or  Cat 
dera,  gets  into  the  heart  of  the  trade-wmd,  whkk 
would  carry  her  across  to  Australaoa.  On  the 
other  hand,  by  mnning  a  little  Bonth  hom  Aus- 
tralia or  New  Zealand,  a  ship  would  get  into  tfas 
south  westeriv  winds,  whidi  would  carnr  her  lig^ 
across  to  Chili :  so  that  a  ship  without  steam  miat 
make  the  voyage  either  way  in  five  or  nx  mtki, 
without  ha\'ing  to  gnard  against  any  Lnterraiii{ 
land,  or  peculiar  danger  of  any  kind,  beyond  thrt 
of  an  oceanic  passage  without  a  huiricane.*  Tbt 
actual  distance,  again,  across  that  part  of  SooA 
America  from  New  Zealand  to  Europe  is  rather  Im 
than  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  The  royngt  tnm 
Liverpool  to  Kosario  is  reckoned  at  from  trntat^ 
Hve  to  thirty  days,  so  that,  allowing  fire  days  n 
the  railway  transit,  little  more  than  two  monthi 
would  be  sufficient  for  the  transmiasion  of  mob 
and  passengers  between  Australia  and  England. 

ANDLAU,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Bas  Rhii, 
anroniL  Schelestat,  on  the  Andlan,  10  m.  NNW. 
Schelestat.    Pop.  2.01fi  in  1861. 

AXDORRE  (REPUBLIC  OF),  a  small  nl 
nominally  independent  state  on  the  S.  dediri^ 
of  the  Pj^enees,  between  the  den.  of  Arij^  ia 
France,  and  the  ilistrict  of  Uigel  in  Spain.  It 
stretches  from  N.  to  S.  about  86  m^  and  from  EL 
to  \V.  about  iU),  comprising  three  nMHintain  vaDcyt 
and  the  basin  formed  by  thrir  union.  These  tu- 
leys  are  among  the  wilidest  and  mo^t  {nctaretqai 
in  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  mountaina,  with  tMir 
immense  peaks,  by  which  they  aze  cndondi 
among  the  highest  and  least  acoeaaible.  It  ii 
watered  by  several  small  rivers ;  Uie  laigest  of 
which,  the  Embalin,  having  received  the  otfaa% 
falls  into  the  Segre,  an  affluent  of  the  Ebnu 
Pop.  from  7,000  to  8,000,  divided  among  six  eon- 
munes.  Andorre,  the  principal  town,  nas  aboit 
2,(H)0  inhab.  It  has  but  little  arable  land,  tot  a 
conniderable  extent  of  excellentpasture  graond^ 
sheltered  by  vast  forests  of  fir.  Tne  inhah.  depend 
principally  on  their  flocks  and  iron  mines,  the 
produce  of  the  latter  finding  a  ready  market  ia 
Spain.  This  little  state,  though  connected  m 
some  degree  with  both  its  powerful  neigfabooi% 
has  preserved  its  independence  for  about  IfiOO 
years.  The  government  is  composed  of  a  comdl 
of  twenty-folur  members,  chosen  for  IhTe,  taA 
commune  electing  four.  The  conndl  elect  t«i 
Syndics,  who  enjoy  considerable  authority,  oob- 
voking  the  assemblies,  and  canning  on  the  go- 
vernment when  they  arc  not  sitting.  Andom 
owes  its  indenendence  to  Charlemagne.  In  ITM^ 
that  prince,  having  marched  against  the  llooa 
of  Spain,  and  defeated  them  in  the  neighbou^ 
ing  valley  of  Carol,  the  Andorrians  are  wid 
to  have  rendered  themselves  so  uaefal  to  thi 
French  army,  supplying  them  with  proviaon^ 
and  taking  care  of  their  wounded,  that  the  £■- 
peror,  by  way  of  recompcnce,  made  them  iDd»> 
]>endent  of  the  neighbouring  princes,  and  per* 
mitted  them  to  be  governed  by  their  own  lawi 
After  him  Louis  Ic  Debonnaire  ceded  to  the  BidMB 
of  Uigel  a  part  of  the  rights  over  Andone  whioi 
Charlemagne  had  reser\'ed  to  himself  and  hii 
successon.  In  >'irtuo  of  tliis  grant,  the  Bishop 
acqiured  right  to  a  foot  of  the  tithes  of  the  u 
communes,  and  a  spiritual  jurisdiction  over  the 
countn',  which  he  still  exerciaea. 


4  the  npublic 


1  to  preaerve  their  stUch- 

.  ThCT  rensUd  the  vioUtion  of 
■lUuj  b;  the  ^laniards,  uid  furnuhed  to 
1iA  annin,  dnrlog  the  late  war,  guidee 
rirtance  of  mry  kind.  At  the  mae  time 
azlndf  tolicitgd  the  otabliahmcnt  of  Che 
toidvof  thinp;  and  NapaleoD  yielded  ti) 
rkb.  B7  a  decne  oT  the  aOih  of  MbtcIi, 
ladom  waa  declared  to  be  a  republic  con- 
wllb  nance;  ilaTJeoier,  or  criminal  Judge, 
beaFnDduiiaii,ofthedep.of  Ari^;  uid 
■Unwed  to  import  certain  qiuntitia  ot  cer- 
iriied  aitielei,  free  of  dntf ,  on  pajrinent  of 
Ibg  torn  of  960  fr.  a  year.  Except  Ihen- 
■  twarda  Uu  •piiitoal  juri^iction  of  the 
of  Urgd,  which  canDottw  aaid  to  iat«rfbre 
IS  indeptodence  any  more  thim  tlie  Pope's 
i^lial  BDtbority  over  Catholic  countrin 
b  tbein,  Andorre  i>  altogethei  '   ' 


da;  and,  aa  rcgarda  France,  the 
■t  It  mafcea  to  ba  ia  not  a  tritnite,  but  an 
Mta  oompexuatlm  for  a  valuable  privilege; 
mt  bflBC  little  crime  in  Andoire,  the  ap- 
i^ttofa  ntDchmaD  for  erimiDalJadge  via 
lU  ■  Tww  to  deter  French  criminals  from 

ntagt  in  this  nentral  territory,  than  to 
Mqr  anpetlority.  Andoire  may,  therefore, 
^  eoonknd  aa  the  oldest  free  republic  in 
ma.  Uu  pei^le  all  belong  to  [he  church  of 
Md  an  racy  religioiia.  Their  clergy,  and 
Mvaahbv  of  the  inhabitanta,  are  educated 
1(MB  cr  Barcdonl.    Each  cni^  in  addition 

■■■ocal  dntiea,  haa  charge  of  a  acbool, 
Ba  peer  aie  inKructed  grBluiliHuly ;  but 
V  Dot  glre  him  much  extra  trouble,  feir  of 


tf  m^aritj  of  the  people  can  neit 


Aadorriana  are  a 

■^  Iba  Tfcea  and  1 


lie  and  aerere  in  thdr 
Tuptiona  of  citiea  not 


la  thtir  fonfatheia  lived 
Idn  tbcm :  the  little  they  know  concem- 
•  kunrias  arts,  and  ciriliiiation  of  other 
In  tnapiriiw  them  rather  with  (ear  than 
Aair  wealth  consista  in  [heir  aheep  or 
m  in  the  ahare  they  may  have  in  iron 
mfy  a  ■rerf  few  of  thrir  number  being  the 
tm  of  any  land  bejroDd  the  garden  which 
■la  tbair  cottage.  Each  bmily  acknow- 
k  dndl  who  anoceed*  by  right  of  primo- 
n.  Thaae  ehleb,  or  eldeat  saan.  choose  their 
a  01  eqnal 


>  of  the  ei 

t  son  would 
■  cadet  erf  another  family,  who  adopu 
Md  ia  doroifiliafaid  in  her  family.  By  thia 
■at,  the  principal  Andorrian  bousin  have 
ad  tar  cvitoriea  without  any  change  in 
It^KB.  n  plu  ridit,  ni  ptn  patitiTe.  The 
taUtitanta  are  not  ao  badly  olT  aa  in  most 


md  vntil  they  marry  ^  and  if  they  marry 
•■  1^7  join  her  name  to  [heir  own.  Un- 
liiM,  tMy  are  not  admittod  to  any  share 
MnauiMii  III  of  pnbUc  affairs. 
■  tboe  oiv  only  daughters  in  a  family,  the 
-*--  *-  ^— ''  ""  — '--^  property,  and 


ANDBE  133 

other  counbiea ;  their  wants  are  itm  and  eaaily 

aupplied,  the  opulent  families  taking  care  of  tboee 
who  are  aotj  and  the  latter  honouring  and  re- 
specting their  benefactoni, 

The  Andunians  are  in  general  strong  and  well 
proportioned ;  the  greater  part  of  the  diseases  pro* 
ceeding  fhnn  the  moral  otfections  aie  unknown, 
as  well  aa  those  originating  in  vice  and  corruption. 
The  costume  of  the  men,  composed  of  coarse  brown 
doth  made  fimn  the  wool  of  their  own  sheep,  re- 
sembles that  worn  by  the  peasants  of  Bigone,  with 
thia  difference,  that  the  Andorrians  wear  the  9ow- 
inc  red  cop  of  the  Catalans.  There  would  seem 
to  be  but  little  gallantry  among  t  hese  mountaineenf, 
for  the  women  are  not  admitteid  to  any  of  the  as- 
semblies where  public  aSkiis  are  considered ;  nor 
even  to  the  masses  perlbrmed  upon  the  reception 
of  the  bishop  or  judge.  Crime  of  every  kind  ia 
rare,  and  punishments,  though  mild,  are  effectual. 
There  are  no  law-suits  relative  to  paternal  sno- 
ins;  and  should  disputes  of  any  kind  arise, 
ire  at  once  referred  to  the  Syndics,  whose  de- 
L  is  never  controverted.  The  men  are  all 
to  serve  in  the  militia,  should  they  be  re- 
quired ;  and  every  head  of  a  family  is  obliged  to 
*-  ive  in  his  possesHJon  at  all  times  a  musket,  and 
certain  quantity  of  powder  and  hall. 
Commerce  of  every  kind  is  (rtx ;  but,  with  the 
exception  of  iron,  of  which  it  has  some  mines 
id  forges,  its  manufactures  are  all  of  the 
■uBcsI  and  rudest  kind. 
ANDOVEK,  a  borough  and  m.  town  of  Eng- 


icipalbo 

I  acre^  had '£.221  iiihab.  in  1H61.  It  la  com- 
pactly built,  extending  on  either  side  about  one- 
third  of  »  mile  froro  the  market  place,  in  the  centre 
ich  is  a  modern  town-hall,  supported  on 
,  under  which  are  held  the  markets.  The 
church,  an  old  Gothic  building,  is  on  the  N.  side 
ofth 

thirty  boys.  Some  trade  is  carried  on  in  malt- 
ing, and  the  manufsclure  of  silk ;  but  its  principal 

.  :.  J. _:_._..  j^^ijij  j(g  being  a  considerable 

the  only  market  for  the  sur- 
rounding country.  It  is  In  a  thriving  condition ; 
~jid  contains  several  good  shops  and  resectable 
irivata  liouses.  The  great  annua]  &ir  of  Wevhilt 
jwhich  see)  is  held  within  a  short  distance,  ifbrto 
'    a  canal  ih>ra  the  town  to  Southampton.     It  re- 

.ms  two  members  to  the  H.  of  C.     From  1689, 

iwn  to  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Act,  the  right 
voting  was  in  the  bailiff  and  corporation.   ParL 

lutituencv,  257  in  1865. 

AJIDOVfeK,  I  town  of  the  U.  Slates,  Hana- 
chusets,  CO.  Essex,  aO  m.  N.  Boston  by  road,  and 
TA  by  railway.  Pop.  6,748  in  18^0.  It  ia  finely 
liluated,  and  has  some  manufsctures ;  but  it  la 
^iefly  distinguished  Ibr  its  literary  institutiona, 
particularlv  its  tbeiilogical  academy,  founded  in 
'  107,  and  I'iberally  endowed.    There  is  also  a  very 

>urL«hing  scailemy,  founiled  in  1778. 

ANDHACIO,  or  ANDRACY,  a  town  of  Srain, 
on  the  8W.  coast  of  tlie  Island  of  Majorca.  Pop, 
,CU9  in  1827.  It  is  situated  at  a  tittle  distance 
from  tlie  sea,  hut  it  has  a  small  port  accessible  to 
vessels  drawing  little  water.  It)  territory  is  pro- 
'  jctive  of  olivfs. 

ANDRF.,orENDRE  (ST.),alown  of  Hungary, 
..)  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  opposite  to  the 
island  of  the  same  name.  111  m.  N.  Buda.  Pop. 
2,980  in  1857.  It  has  one  Catholic  and  seven  Greek 
churches.    The  hills  in  the  vicinity  produce  ex- 


134 


ANDRE-DE-CUBSAC 


cellent  wineA,  and  the  island  in  the  river  is  cele- 
brated for  its  fertility. 

AXDRE-DE-ClTIiSAC  (ST.),  a  town  of  France, 
dep.  Gironde,  cap.  canU  12  m.  NN£.  Bordeaux. 
Pop.  8,H90  in  18G1.  It  is  situated  at  a  little  dis- 
tance from  the  Dordof^^e;  but  it  has  a  port.  Cub- 
sac,  on  ttiat  river.  The  high  road  from  Bordeaux 
to  Paris  crosses  the  Dordogne  at  this  point,  and 
formerly,  ])rcviously  to  the  construction  of  rail- 
ways, passengers  and  carriages  were  conveyed 
across  in  a  large  ferr>'  boat 

ANDREASBEKG,  a  t«)wn  of  Hanover,  princi- 
pality of  (srubenhagen,  in  a  district  which  has 
mines  of  iron,  cobah,  copper,  and  silver.  Pop. 
4,300  in  1861.  The  town  has  a  college,  a  council 
of  mines,  and  manufactures  of  Uce  and  thread. 

ANDREW'S  (ST.),  an  ancient  and  celebrated 
city  and  seaport  of  Scotland,  qo,  Fife,  finely  situ- 
ated on  a  low  eminence  on  the  German  Ocean, 
81  m.  NE.  Edinburgh,  hit.  6t>o  20'  N.,  long.  t>o  50' 
W.     Pop.  of  pari  burgh,  5,1 70  in  1801.     The 
population  in  .1800  was  only  2,519.      The  city 
chiefly  consists  of  three  principal  streets,  leading 
in  a  W.  direction  from  the  cathedral,  is  in  general 
well  built,  and  has  been  much  impn)ved  during 
the  present  century.    St.  Andrew's  was  long  the 
metropolitan  see  of  Scotland ;  and  is  highly  inter- 
esting fn)m  its  numerous  remains  of  other  ages, 
and  the   historical   associations  connected  with 
it,  many  highly  im]>ortant  event*  having  occur- 
red within  its  precincts.     \tA  splendid  cathedral, 
founded  in  1160,  and  completed  in  1318,  was  re- 
duced to  a  ruin  in  1559  by  the  barbarous  zeal  of 
the  reformers*    The  castle,  long  the  residence  of 
its  archbishops,  and  a  place  of  considerable  strength, 
stood  on  a  precipice  overhanging  the  sea.    llie 
famoas  Cardinal  Beaton  was  assassinated  in  it  in 
1546,  in  revenge  of  the  share  he  had  in  bringing 
Wishart,  a  preacher  of  the  reformed  doctrines,  to 
the  stake  in  the  pre\'ious  year.    Its  picturetque 
ruins  now  serve  as  a  landmark  for  ships.    There 
are  also,  among  others,  the  ruins  of  a  cliapel,  and 
a  square  tower  108  (I.  liigh,  called  the  chapel  and 
tower  of  St.  Rule  or  St.  Regulus,  supposed  to  be 
the  m(X)t  ancient  of  the  existing  fabrics.    The 
priory  of  St,  Andrew's  was  one  of  the  best  endowed 
in  Scotland ;  and  part  of  a  gigantic  wall,  intended 
to  enclose  the  grounds  of  the  priory,  870  fL  long,  22 
high,  and  4  thick,  with  fourteen  turrets,  erected  by 
Pnor  Hepburn  in  1516,  is  still  in  good  preserva- 
tion, and  is  not  one  of  the  least  interesting  relics 
of  bygone  times.    The  foundations  and  part  of  the 
walis  of  this  edifice  were  uncovered  in  1860.    The 
parish  church,  founded  in  the  12th  century,  but 
rebuilt  in  1797,  has  a  monument  to  Archbishop 
Sharpe,  assassinated  in  1679.    The  university  of 
St,  Andrew's,  the  most  ancient  in  Scotland,  and 
now  the  principal  sup])ort  of  the  city,  was  founded 
in  1410  by  Bishop  Wardlaw,  and  conflrmod  by  a 
papal  bull  dated  the  following  vear.    It  originally 
consisted  of  three  colleges,  St,  ^Ivador's,  St,  Leo- 
nard's, and  St.  Mary's ;  of  which  the  two  former 
were  united  in  1747,  when  the  buildings  of  St. 
Leonard's  were  pulled  down.    The  two  colleges 
are  in  different  parts  of  the  town,  and  their  pro- 
fessors and  discipline  are  quite  distinct.     The 
United  College  consists  of  a  quadrangular  edifice, 
in  which    some    excellent  rooms  were  recently 
erected  at  the  expense  of  government    ThL>«  insti- 
tution is  appropriated  to  the  study  of  languages, 
philosobhy,  and  science,  and  St.  Mary's  to  that 
of  theology.    The  chapel  of  the  United  College, 
founded  by  Bishop  Kenne<ly  in  1458,  is  a  tine  spe- 
cimen of  the  light  Gotliic ;  and  is  used  as  the  col- 
lege chapel,  and  as  a  parish  church.     It  has  a 
tomb  of  the  founder ;  on  opening  which,  in  1683, 
six  silver  mcoes  were  found,  of  which  three  were 


ANDRIA 

sent  to  the  other  Scotdi  universitafls*  and  tlir» 
retained  in  the  college.    St  Maxy's  Colkg^  is  a 
handsome  stone  structure.    A  library'  oontignous 
to  the  latter,  and  containing  about  60,000  volnmei, 
is  common  to  both  colleges ;  and  until  the  privi- 
lege was  commuted,  in  1836,  for  4561.  a  year,  it 
was  entitled  to  a  copy  of  even'  work  entered  at 
Stationers'  Hall     the  United  College  and  St 
Mary's  have  together  thirteen  piofe»oT8;  each  col- 
lege' has  a  principal,  the  principal  of  St  H>iy^s 
being  one  of  the  professors,  and  the  universitr  if 
presided  over  by  a  lord-rector  and  a  chanoHlor. 
The  endowments  are  considerable,  each  prafBWV 
receiving  at  an  average  about  2801.  a  year,  ezdiF 
sive  of  fees  from  pupilB.   The  fee  for  attending  cm 
of  the  literary  dawes  is  3iL  8a. ;  students  in  the 
theological  classes  pay  no  fees— with  the  ezceptka 
of  a  it^  of  5«.  on  matriculating,  which  is  oommon 
to  both  establishments.    The  United  College  bsi 
59  bursaries.    Within  the  last  thirty  years  a  tctj 
large  addition  has  been  made  to  the  facflitieB  for 
education  already  enjoved  by  St  Andrew's,  throo^ 
the  liberality  of' Dr.  Bell,  of  Madra^  who  died  m 
1832,  beoueathing  the  sum  of  45,0001.  three  per 
cent  stock  for  the  erection  of  a  seminary  on  a  con- 
prehensive  plan  in  this  his  native  city.    A  fios 
building  for  this  school  has  been  erected  at  a  littk 
distance  from  St  Mary's  College.    The  number  cf 
teachers  in  the  Madras  College  (the  name  giren  to 
Dr.  Bell's  establishment)  is  nine,  exclusive  of  as- 
sistants.   This  seminary  affords  instruction  gntii 
to  the  poor ;  and  the  fees  are  very  low,  being  only 
7«.  6d,  per  quarter  for  Latin  and  Greek ;  the  same 
for  (jrerman  And  French ;  the  same  for  mathemap 
tics,  and  the  same  for  drawing:  be.  per  quarter 
for  geography:  3«.  for  writing:  2f.  6a.  for  arith- 
metic :  and  2$.  for  English.    Students  may  attend 
one  or  more  classes,  and  pay  accordingly.    Hie 
average  number  of  pupils  at  this  seminaiyhas 
been  about  800,  but  it  is  rapidlv  increasing,  and  is 
now  900.    There  is  also  an  infant  school,  with  aa 
average  attendance  of  120.     Of  the  number  of 
people  at  the  college,  above  a  half  are  stiangen^ 
attracted  to  the  city  by  the  deservedly  high  cha- 
racter of  this  excellent  institution,  the  best  pro- 
bably of  its  kind  in  the  empire.    To  this  caoie 
it  is  also  in  great  measure  owing  that  the  town 
has  been  completely  renovated  of  late  years,  and 
the  population  luf^ely  increased.  Much  credit  ftr 
the  improvement  of  the  place  is  also  due  to  the 
late  provost,  Lieut  CoL  Sir  Hugh  Lyon  Playftir. 
Through  his  exertions  a  broad  foot  pavement  was 
laid  down,  in  place  of  the  once  grafls-grown  cause- 
way, and  the  old  townhouse,  which  fonnerly  stood 
in  the  middle  of  Market  Street,  obstmcdng  the 
thoroughfare,  was  swept  away,  and  a  more  eleg^ut 
building  erected  in  South  Street    St  Andrews  is 
becoming  increasingly  a  place  of  fashionable  re- 
sort, and  its  buildings  are  rapidly  extending.   The 
harbour,  partly  formed  by  two  piers,  is  on  the  £. 
side  of  the  town,  extendmg  about  480  yards  in- 
land ;  but  it  dries  at  low  water,  and  the  access  to 
it  being  difficult,  it  is  little  frequented  by  ship- 
ping.   The  town  has  no  manufactures  worth  no- 
tice, unless  it  be  that  of  golf-baJU,  or  balls  for 
playing  the  game  of  golf,  which  employe  abont  six. 
or  seven  men,  who  produce  annually  i^ut  1,10(^ 
dozen  balls,  of  which  about  800  dozen  are  sent  to 
other  places,  the  rest  being  consumed  in  St  An- 
drew's, which  has  been  long  famous  for  this  gam& 
A  good  workman  makes  eight  or  nine  balls  a  day. 
St  Andrew's  unites  with  the  two  Anstruthers 
Crail,  Cupar,  Kilrennv,  and  Pittenweem  in  retnn* 
ing  a  member  to  the  H.  of  C. 

iVNDKIA,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  prov.  Bari. 
cap.  cant  9  m.  a  Barletta.  Pop.  iii  1861. 30,891 
It  stands  on  a  plain  on  the  edge  of  the  enclosed 


I 


audbo 

id  Ita  ■OYirau  an  tu  from  nnplcuuiL 
■t  of  a  tuhopric,  tuu  a  mperb  othe- 
iluolitgt,uidOimmmMdrpati.  Itiraa 
UMB  byPeta,  Conut  of  Tnni,  and  tc- 


',  or  ANDKOS,  an  iiLmd  of  tiie  Gradan 

".Ijing  to 

of  Tino,  from  wdieh  it  ia 

yu.  tteN 

■7  a  my  nairow  chumeL     It  extendi 

■.inaKW. 

and  8K  direction:  but  iu 

anotmtoHdTorBm.    ThouKii  moun- 

haaonnl 

estiiuve,  fertile,  and  well 

a^^A 

DBiDbo  of  TiUagai.    The 

(  prindpal  article,  the  annoal  pniduc 
la  S80,D00  gala. ;  excluive  o^  whid 


n  Chie  iflland 
■  fcr  the  eonaomptlon  of  the  inliabi- 
Ira^  or  Castro,  the  capital,  a  coniiderable 
■Ittot  6,000  iahabilanta,  ii  lilnated  oa 
t  of  the  ialand;  its  port,  which  ia  de- 
1 1  ■■III,  ii  too  shiUow  to  admit  anv  but 
A  itiaiilncliin  of  veueli.  Port  Gaorio. 
M  the  W.  ude,  U  a  moch  better  bar- 

w  DTading  Greece,  for  which  they  were 

Atrtiaedbv  Themistocliu. 
S  ISLANDS,  ot  ISLES  DEL  ESPI- 
RTOv  a  gronp  of  ialanda  amonz  the 
vUcfa  eit«nd  aboat  120  m.  from  If.  to 

to  SSO  SO'  N.  loHB.  77°  to  780W, 
AR,  a  town  of  Spain,  Andalusia,  on  the 
nt,  in  a  plain  at  Che  fmt  of  the  Sierra 
IB.  NW.  Jaen,  Ut,  88°  r82"N.,  long. 
W.    Pop.  9,363  inl867.    Mi.Townsend 

Is  17efi,  it  conlained  6,800  tamiliea; 
aeorate,  would  show  a  great  decline  in 
iL  (TraTeli  in  Spain,  ii.  p.  297.)  It  is 
»ba  built  of  the  ruins  of  the  andent 
iH ;  it  ■  deftoded  by  an  old  castle,  and 
naa  ehnrebes  and  convents,  a  theatre, 

taddga  of  dfteen  ardies  orer  the  river. 
•  an  frnllfiil,  and  the  inhabitants  are 
fined  in  agiicaUnre ;  but  there  are 
^M  nunnbetories  of  wine  and  water 
da  of  a  pacnliar  qiedei  of  white  clay 
M  Bd^booriiood. 

X,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Gard,  cap. 
Ita  Oaidon,  26  m.  NW.  Nismes.  Pop. 
Kl.  The  InbabitaDts  are  moatlj  Pro- 
It  la  ill  boilt.  but  agreeably  situated  at 
'  die  CevcuMa.  between  nicks  and  hills 
th  vine*  and  oUto.  It  has  a  tribunal 
tm,  wUh  nanDTacturcs  of  hats,  silk, 
e,  and  glue,  a  silk  flla- 


t^  Heiiry  II.  for  IHana 

iy«d  dnring  the  tevolutionarr  frenzy  in 

■e  an  in  its  environs  forgea  and  paper- 

villaae  of  Switzerland,  cant  Beme,  on 
B.w7byN.Beme.  Pop.  1,373  in  1861. 
tjiprityf  an  found  in  the  neigbbou- 


c.  Lodi,  7  m.  SW.  LodL  Pop. 
tSt.  St.  A-iuEUi  in  the  name  kingdom, 
la.  It  m-NE.  Padua.  And  St.A.noelo, 
Italr,  disCr.  Campogna,  lli  m.  SSE. 
.  Pop.  2,264  in  lKll-2. 
O  D£  LOMBAKDI  (ST.),  a  town  of 


Sooth  Ital;',  48  m.  E.  Naplta.    Pop.  6,844  in  1B68. 

The  town  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  has  a  college. 


__.  _  of  Pruaaia,  prov.  E. 

Prussia,  cap.  drc.  on  the  Angeiap,  60  m.  8E. 
Konigsberg.  Pop.  3,991  in  1861.  Ithasacastle 
and  manufactures  of  wooilea  staffs  and  Isatfaer. 
The  Angerap  falls,  a  Utile  to  the  E  of  the  town, 

to  the  laiKc,  irregularly  shaped,  shallow  lake  of 


,  celebrated  for  I 


j  abundance  and  excel- 


ANGERMUNDE,  a  town  of  the  Prmnan 
States,  pmv.  Brandenburg,  reg.  Potsdam,  cap. 
drc,  on  the  lake  Munde,  43  m.  NNE.  Berlin,  on 
the  railway  botn  Berlin  to  Stettin.  Pop.  6,206  in 
1H6I.  The  town  has  mannfactnrca  of  hats, 
woollen  «tuB^  and  tobacco. 

ANGERS  (tbe  Jnhomagiu  ofOaar,  afterwards 
Andigavia,  nnd  hence  Angtn),  a  very  ancient  cHy 
of  France,  dn>.  Uaine  et  Loire,  of  which  it  is  the 
capital,  on  the  Uayenne,  which  divides  it  into 
two  portions,  near  its  conflueuai  with  the  Loire 
and  the  Sarthe.  Ut.  47°  28'  9"  N.,  kmg.  0°  88'  W. 
Pop.  61,797  in  1861.  The  town  is  131  m.  8W. 
Paris,  on  the  railway  from  Toun  to  Nantea.  It  ia 
surrounded  bv  miseive  walls,  built  in  1214  by- 
John,  King  of  England.  Bpeaking  genenlly  it  is 
ill  built,  and  mean  looking ;  booses  partly  of'^wood 
and  partly  of  slate,  streets  narrow  and  crooked. 
Prinapal  objects  of  attraction,  cathedral  and 
castl&  The  first  begun  in  1225,  and  of  large  di- 
—  ^jisiomi,  lias  its  Iroot  ornamented  by  two  sym- 

itrical  spuva,  each  225  ft.  high.  It  contains  the 
monument  of  Margaret  of  Anjou,  dau^ter  of 
Ren^  King  of  Sidh-,  and  wife  of  Henry  VL  of 
England.  The  old  castle,  the  fbrmer  residEnce  of 
■'--  dukes  of  Anjon,  stands  or  a  rook  having  the 
r  at  its  feot :  its  plan  is  tiiat  of  a  vast  paral- 
rrani,  sumiundcd  by  high  massive  walls,  do- 
fended  by  deep  fosses  cut  out  of  the  rock,  and  by 
eighteen  towers;  but  theee,  with  one  exception, 
have  now  been  reduced  to  Che  height  of  the  walls. 
The  castle  serves  at  present  as  a  prumi  for  the  dty, 
powder  magazuie :  on  Uie  side  next  the 
;  is  becoming  ruinous.  Angers  is  the  seat 
of  an  imperial  court  for  the  departments  of  Maine 
"  Ijoire,  Sarthe,  and  Mayenne ;  hasatribnnal  of 

iginal  jurisdiction,  an  academy,  a  royal  college, 

school  /or  deaf  and  dumb,  and  a  secondary 
school  of  medidne.  It  has  idso  a  school  of  arts 
and  trades,  bemg,  with  the  exception  of  tliat  at 
Cbalons-sDr-Hsme,  the  only  school  of  the  kind 
in  France.  Each  department  is  entitled  to  Bend 
three  pupils  to  this  school — the  instruction  of  one 
to  be  entirely  gratuitous,  the  others  paying  one  a 
fourth  part  and  one  a  half  of  the  ordinary  pupils. 
It  has  also  a  school  of  design  {  an  agricnltaral 
sodetf ;  a  public  library,  containing  86,000  ro- 
Innies:  a  museum  with  abont  600  pictures,  many 
of  them  good;  a  botanical  garden;  a  calnnet  of 
natural  history;  and  a  thealre.  There  is  an  im- 
perial manufactiue  of  Hil-cloth,  a  cotton  mill, 
with  manufactures  of  linen,  serges,  haudkerchieA, 
horiery,  and  starch ;  a  sugar  refinenf,  a  wax  ro- 
Rneiy,  and  tanneries.  The  town  has  three  bridges. 
It  labouiB  under  a  defidency  of  water,  that  of  May- 
enne  not  being  fiC  for  use.  Previous  to  the  revolu- 
tion Angers  was  the  seal  of  a  univeraiCy,  fotmded 
in  1246 :  it  had  also  a  celelirated  academy  of  bcUa 
Itltra ;  and  such  was  the  fame  of  its  ridrng-school, 
that  it  was  attended  by  Peter  the  Great.  It  Buf- 
fered severely  during  the  wars  of  La  Vend^ ;  but 
since  1816  it  has  been  comparatively  proeperooa, 
'improvei       '      '  '  f    ■    • 


136 


ANGERVILLE 


'  I)e  la  Republique,'  published  in  1576,  Menage, 
and  Berni«r,  the  famoun  traveller. 

The  slat«  quarricj)  in  the  vicinity  of  Angers, 
whence  the  town  in  built,  and  whicli  also  supply 
large  quantities  of  roofing  slates  to  other  deptC, 
are  immense  excavations*  It  is  noticed  in  Frcndi 
works  that  the  abundance  of  slate  is  such  that 
almost  all  the  houses  are  covered  with  slates,  for 
which  reason  it  has  been  termed  the  Black  Town 
(  Ville  noire), 

ANCIERYILLE,  a  village  of  France,  dep.  Seine 
et  Oisc,  33  m.  S.  Versailles,  and  on  the  railway 
from  Paris  to  Orleans.    Pop.  1,^5  in  18G1. 

ANGUIAUA,  a  town  of  Italy,  prov.  Arexxo, 
near  the  Tiber,  18  m.  E.  Arezzo*.  Pop.  6,880  in 
1862.  The  town  is  celebrated  for  the  victory  ol>- 
tained  near  it,  in  1440,  by  the  Florentines  under 
Piccinini  over  the  forces  of  the  Duke  of  Milan. 
This  also  is  the  name  of  a  \'illage  of  the  Veronese, 
and  of  a  decayed  city  on  the  banks  of  the  I^ago 
Maggiorc. 

ANGLES,  a  town  of  France^  dep.  Tarn,  cap. 
cant  16  m.  ESE.  Castrcs.  Pop.  2.663  in  1K61. 
This  is  the  name  of  several  small  villages  in  other 
parts  of  France. 

ANGLESEY  (the  Mona  of  Tacitus),  an  inland 
and  CO.  of  N.  Wales  in  the  Irish  Sea,  separated 
fnim  the  mainland  of  Britain  by  the  Menai  Strait, 
but  connected  with  the  co.  Carnarvon  across  the 
strait  by  the  famous  Menai  bridge,  and  the  Bri- 
tannia tubular  railway  bridge.  It  is  of  a  triangular 
form,  extending,  IIoi>'heari  included,  about  27  m. 
from  E.  t»)  W.  by  about  20  from  N.  to  S. ;  area, 
173,440  acres;  surface  gently  undulating ;  climate, 
temi)crate,  but  liable  to  fogs;  there  is  in  most 
parts  a  great  deficiency  of  wood,  and  it  has  gene- 
rally a  bare  unin\iting  aspect. 

Since  1768  Anglesey  has  been  famed  for  its 
mineral  riches,  the  celebrated  copper  mines  in  the 
Parys  mountain  having  been  discovered  in  the 
course  of  that  year;  but  they  have  now  greatly 
declined.  (See  Amlwch.)  Lead  ore  and  asbestos 
have  also  been  found ;  and  coal  is  wrought  to  some 
extent  at  Maltraeth.  Soil  various,  but  ]>rincipally 
a  fine  loamy  sand,  which,  when  proi)erly  cultivateti, 
is  highly  productive.  Agriculture  is  not,  however, 
in  an  advanoe<l  state.  So  late  as  1810  it  was  no 
uncommon  thing  to  take  five  white  crops  in  suc- 
cession, most  of  which  were  so  poor  as  hardly  to 
pay  their  expense;  but  an  improved  ^'stem  is 
bemg  gradually  introduced.  The  stiff  loams,  of 
whioi  the  extent  is  considerable,  are  usually  ma- 
nured with  a  sort  of  shelly  sand.  Principal  crops, 
oats,  barley,  wheat,  and  potatoes,  the  latter  being 

rwn  more  extensively  than  in  any  other  part  of 
Wales.  Grazing  is  the  principal  object  of  the 
farmer's  attention.  Several  thousand  head  of  cat- 
tle are  annually  sent  from  the  island  to  the  main- 
land, exclusive'  of  considerable  numbers  of  sheep. 
Manufactiues  unimportant,  consisting  merely  of 
some  of  the  coarser  descriptions  of  woollens.  Chief 
towns,  Beaumaris,  Holyhead,  Amlwch,  Llancrchy- 
nii<id,  and  Llangefni.  '  It  is  divided  into  3  can- 
trods,  6  comots,  or  hundreds,  and  73  parishes.  The 
pop.,  which  in  1776  amounted  to  19,780,  had  in- 
ciease<i  in  1831  to  48,325,  and  in  1851  to  57,327, 
but  had  decreased  in  1861  to  54,609,  or  a  decn^ase 
in  the  ten  years  of  2,718.  It  returns  a  m.  to  the 
II.  of  C.  for  the  co.,  and  one  for  tlie  boroughs  of 
Beaumaris  and  Holyhead.  Keg.  elect.,  2,389  in 
1865. 

Anglesey  seems  to  have  been  a  principal  seat 
of  the  Druids.  The  l^>mans,  under  Suetonius 
Panlinus,  having  taken  it  after  a  fanatical  resist- 
ance, A.D.  61,  cut  down  the  groves  of  tlie  Druids, 
9tBvis  8iq)ertHtionibu8  tarri,  and  seem  to  have  ex- 
terminated both  the  priests  and  their  religion. 


ANGOLA 

(Tacit  Annal,  lib.  14, 1 80.)  It  was  Bubjmtod, 
along  -with  the  rest  of  Wakfli,  by  Edwani  L,  and 
was  incorporated  with  England  and  made  a  coantr 
by  Henry  VIII.  The  most  imptMrtimt  events  m 
its  recent  history  are  the  diaooreiy  of  the  Paqrs 
mines,  in  1768,  building  of  the  Sienai  bridge  m 
1825,  and  the  construction  of  the  Britannia  tubu- 
lar bridge  for  the  railway  from  Chester  to  Holy- 
head, which  was  opened  October  21,  1850. 

ANGLET,  a  town  of  France,  defx.  Baam  Py- 
n'nn^es,  near  Bavonne,  famed  for  ita  excrilcnt 
white  wine.    Pop.  2,663  in  1861. 

ANGOLA,  DONGO,  or  AMBONDE,  a  kii^. 
dom  of  the  W.  coast  of  Africa,  extending  froa 
8«>  20'  to  90  15'  S.  lat.,  and  from  14°  to  18^  or  19° 
E.  long.,  but  the  eastern  boandaxy  is  not  defined. 
On  tlie  N.  it  is  separated  firom  C<Higo  by  the 
Danda;  on  the  S.  the  Coanxa  divides  it  frtm  tbt 
districts  of  Quassima  and  Libolo ;  and  on  the  W. 
it  has  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  rectuigolar 
shaiHxl,  lies  nearly  parallel  to  the  equator,  being 
about  350  m.  in  length  from  E.  to  W.,  50  or  60  n. 
in  width  from  N.  to  S.;  oontahiing  an  area  of 
probably  not  less  than  18,000  or  20,000  sq.  m.  The 
district  of  Benquela,  to  the  south  of  Coanza,  Iviax 
between  lat  10^  and  17^  S.  and  long.  120  aiJ  IP 
E.,  is  also  claimed  by  the  Portuguese,  and  ther 
have  established  in  it  the  new  colony  of  liomi- 
medes,  the  population  of  which  district  and  colony 
is  usually  mcluded  with  the  returns  for  Angola. 
(Ace  of'Discoy.,  22, 143;  Annales  des  Coloniei 
de  Portugal.) 

This  country  is  properly  a  part  of  Congo,  frooi 
which,  however,  it  Yias  been  politically  sepantad 
since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  a 
ch  ief,  whose  name  or  title  was  Angoia,  made  himself 
independent  of  the  Ring  of  Con^  and  gave  ita 
present  designation  to  his  new  kingfdom,  the  na- 
tive name  of  which  was  Dongo,  or  Ambond&  It 
is  very  powerful  among  the  neighbouring  statei, 
the  paramount  authcNrity  of  ita  monarai  being 
acknowledged  by  several  districts,  some  of  them 
greatly  exceeding  itself  in  extent 

Phytical  Charucter,  —  Angola  is  extremely 
mountainous,  with  no  plains,  except  upon  the  sea- 
shore, and  some  small  plateaus  on  the  sides  sod 
in  the  gorges  of  mountains.  The  land  appears 
however,  to  be  making  advances  on  the  sea,  and 
forming  islands,  which  are  wholly  of  an  alluTial 
and  level  character;  such  is  the* isle  of  J-nmnA»^ 
lying  a  short  mile  finom  the  coast  And  fonning 
with  the  Cabo  Palmareinho  one  of  the  most  — 


venient  harbours  on  the  W.  coast  of  AAica.  The 
cape  itself  is  also  a  plain  of  the  same  natore^  and 
very  evidently  in  a  state  of  progress  westward. 
(Pigafetta,  Del  Regno  di  Congo^  10 ;  McroUa, 
Viaggio  del  Congo,  70.) 

The  country  is  extremely  well  watered  (ta,  in- 
deed, is  the  whole  of  Congo) ;  the  principal  streams 
are  the  Coanza,  Benga,  and  Danda,  which  nm 
nearly  parallel  to  each  other,  and  to  the  equator; 
the  first  and  last  forming  the  S.  and  N.  boundaij 
of  the  country.  The  Coimza,  however,  before  run- 
ning east  and  west,  haa  a  north-westerly  coarse 
among  the  mountains,  oast  of  the  district  of  Ben- 
guela.  Among  the  mountains  inland  fiom  Ai^la 
and  Benguela  are  also  the  sources  of  tiie  southeni 
branches  of  the  Zaire  or  Congo  ri\'er,  which  flows 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  ue  north  of  Ansola, 
and  of  the  Leeambye  and  Chobe  rivers,  iniich 
unite  in  the  centre  *of  Africa  to  form  the  great 
Zambezi  river.  The  interior  mountainous  coonbty 
has  been  comparatively  little  explored,  but  of  late 
years  some  progress  has  been  nuulc  with  the  de- 
termination of  the  courses  of  the  principal  rivers 
by  the  travels  of  Dr.  Livingstone,  of  a  Portnguose 
merchant  Silva  Porto,  and  of  Dr.   Welwilsch, 


raDmlun-aaliomdded  to  the  infomistloD 
•  <rf' ttu  Dlbn  inhkbitiiiK  the  ioterioi,  the 
tta,  and  geolo^cal  chuscteriatici  or  the 

Kwk;— The  wont  ami  in  An^la  u  thiC 
I  ooMt,  and  the  man  recently  formed 
fUA  U  mtdy,  bat  b;  no  mean*  desert ; 
r  tim^  b;  digging  to  the  depth  of  a  foot, 

It  ii>  luwevfT,  ■  lemukible  fact,  that 
irelbi  are  alwajs 


ha  Birful  paxMinctions  of  the  land  are  aaid 
^J  tnri^  to  the  ftcricultural  laboura  of 
IgBSSe.  Tm  climate  u  excepted  by  Adama 
t,  MO)  from  the  genent  charge  of  malig- 
■da  Emopeana  uodei  which  the  rest  of 
kfiiealabmin.  Situated  eo  near  Ihe  eqita- 
ikad^t  be  expected  to  have  two  diy  and 
r  atMciiM  la  (ach  year ;  but  this  does  not 


ipriltillAogBst;  Lebat  (p.  107),  that  it 
Son>nb«(,  Decembei,  and  soraetimea 
.  Baibot  <9i!)  leaves  it  ancertain,  but 
»  A;  Mason  extend  from  May  to  Sep- 
ttODgfa  he  lemarke  that  this  period  la 
oat  an  lalermixtoie  of  pleaeant  showers. 
[aif  (Vor^ilaCated'Afnque,L4)  savs 
lasliaailUU,  and  uBin- abundantly.    The 


development  of  vef^tation, 
e  out  by  all  the  other  au- 


Uaheiibane 

.  Tbe  trade  win' 

■  Ma  bneiea  comnianly  from  WSW., 
•tad  IhaD  E.  by  X.    Angola  is,  however, 

Oe  ill  eStets  that  might  be  otherwise 
B  this  breese.  Tornadoes  are  not  unfre- 
■d  at  such  times  the  wind  ihiftA  violently 
tela  of  the  cumpuis,  settling,  finally,  into 
Man  at  the  tnde.  Gold  and  ailiet  have 
■luul  in  the  moontains  near  the  coast ; 

adnK  ■•  fuond,  though  it  appean  to 
firameriy.    Iron  is  produced  plenli- 
atA  the  enei^  nf  the  Portuguese ;  and 


lineialtr 


int  an  nasonably  good  miners,  under 
a  dneliatii  and  it  is  asserted  that  the 
MHa  eilkalations  produce  as  senuble  a 
a  m  Asir  ctloirr,  as  the  same  cause  la 
■  Many  cases,  to  efiect  in  that  of  Eun>- 

■ko  haa  the  magniflcence  observable  in 
■aund  (npical  regiona.  A  ijiecies  of  the 
Dad  by  the  natives  Enaada,  and  poHaesa- 
— - — '.y  vi  dropping  its  branches  to  the 

.t...._, .  --]j  gjrmiimtj;  liite 

gome  of  these 


Cftyitf  d: 
lant,  ii  vary  abundant. 


anCB,  extend  to  more  than  1,000  paces  m 
IDce.    The  eoiada  is  an  extremely  use- 

:  the  fruit,  which  resembles  an  ordinary 
jnapimant  article  of  fund  ;  its  outer  bark 

-t . ^; —  -r  1. —  ^j^j  boala,  and 


DLA.  137 

and  every  Ihut  and  forest  tree  common  to  the 

equinoxial  regions,  grow  here  spontaneously,  and 
reward  the  least  expense  of  labour  with  the  most 
abundant  return.  Tbe  same  rema^  holds  good 
with  rcjjaid  to  yams,  potatoes,  and  the  whole  race 
of  roots;  and  diough  the  climate  be  (oo  hot  for 
the  production  of  European  grain,  yet  foor  species 
of  wheat,  Turkish,  ^larasin,  Massingo,  and  Luno, 


V  raised  in  great  i 


lofal 


are  likewise  identiful ,  ..   . 

vine,  and  a  plant  called  maniUoca,  of  which  a  very 

rd  bread  is  made,  absolutely  stniggle  with  man 
the  pceseesion  of  the  soiL  Many  trees  produCQ 
0ne  gums  or  rcHios ;  and,  in  a  word,  there  is 
scarcely  a  vegetable  production  which  Anmla  data 
not,  or  under  reosonsble  care  might  not  be  made 
to  produce.  The  woods  and  mountains  shelter 
lions,  tigers,  leopards,  hy«)iaa,  and  wolves  ;  of 
smaller  wild  animals,  there  are  foxes,  wild  cats, 
&c  Qf  the  useful  animals,  there  are  hares,  rab- 
bits, all  the  species  of  antelopes,  stags,  guata,  and 
hogs  of  tbe  Chinese  variety.  The  sheep,  cow, 
horse,  and  ass  are  strangers  to  the  country,  and 
known  only  as  importations  from  Europe ;  but  the 
zebra,  elephanl,  and  rhinocerm  bsverse  the  woods, 
and  the  luppopotamus  is  found  in  the  rivers.  The 
dvet  cat  is  also  a  native  of  this  country,  which 
likewise  abounds  in  monkeys  of  all  kinds,  ai 
which  is  the  chimpanzee,  the  mt 
the  tribe.  A  speraes  of  wild  d< 
found  in  the  wcuds. 


intelligent  of 


To  enumerate  the  hi 


is  part  of  Africa, 


d  in  other  tropical  re- 
peculiar,  floujuh  here. 
r  honey  bird,  are  among 
hosts  of  pelicans,  and 
parrot,  constitute  the  chief 


nngth;  all  that  are 
giona,  and  some  thai 
The  Hsher  and  the  sei 
the  latter,  and  with  i 

nearly  every  variety  t.    , 

characteristics  of  Angohon  ornithology.  Reptiles 
numerous,  consisting  of  cendpedes,  scorfuona,  and 
exceedingly  venomous  serpents.  Some  of  the 
lizard  tribe,  as  the  cameleon,  are  l^ss  danger- 
ous than  these ;  but  the  rivers  swarm  with  two 
or  three  species  of  crocodiles,  which  make  tishing 
dangerous,  and  bathing  all  bat  falaL  Life  is  as 
abundant  in  Che  watere  as  on  the  land;  and  be- 
sides the  usual  tenants  of  the  deep,  as  whalat, 
sharks,  dolphins,  mackerel,  oysters,  crabs,  ic,  tho 
coasts  and  rivers  possess  an  endless  list  of  crea- 
tures, the  very  names  of  which  are  unknown  in 

destructive  as  in  other  tropical  climatea;  and 
among  the  last-named  class,  the  termites  or  white 
ant  stands  pre-eminent. 

Dr.  Frederic  Welwilsch,  director  of  tho  Botanic 
Gardens  of  Lisbon,  lias  been  engaged  fur  many 
years  in  the  sdenlillc  exploration  ut  the  province, 
of  which  he  has  given  an  account  in  the  '  Annales 
des  Culonia  de  Portugal.'  His  travels  on  the  coast 
extended  Irom  Quiiembo  to  the  riorth  of  Ambrii, 
in  the  north,  as  far  south  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Coanza,  and  he  afterwards  gradually  penetrated 


)  the  in 


r  of  t! 


previously  unknown.  He  ascended  the  couiae  of 
the  Benga,  as  far  as  8ang«,  the  chief  place  of  a 
district  called  Golongo-Alto,  where  heest  ablished 
his  head-qiiarteiB,  from  whidi  to  make  diverging 
excunions  among  tbe  surrounding  precipitous 
mountains  and  virgin  forests.  Travelling  east- 
ward, M.  Welwilsch,  afler  leaving  the  dictrict  of 
Ambaca,  reached  rungo-Andougo,  which  he  se- 
lected as  a  second  centre  for  his  operations  in  the 
interior,  and  hence  he  explored  the  banks  uf  tbe 

CI  river  Coania,  the  momitains  of  I'edras  and 
ja,  and  the  islands  of  Calemba ;  the  vast 
forests  lying  between  Quironda  and  Condo,  the 
salt  manbes  of  Quitogc,  the  river  Loxillu,  and 


138 


ANGOLA 


ANGOSTURA 


the  district  of  CamlMun1)e.  During  this  long 
journey,  M.  Welwibwh  collected  8,227  vegetable 
species]  lielonging  to  1(>6  families.  He  recognises 
tliree  botanical  regions  in  Angola.  1.  The  region 
of  the  &>a»t  of  which  the  thorny  plants,  the  aca- 
cias, and  the  baobabs  form  the  principal  vegeta- 
tion. 2.  the  mountain  region,  chiefly  characterised 
by  its  majestic  forests,  its  orchids,  and  a  palm  as 
useful  as  beautiful  {the  elms  guineerms)^  and  the 
region  of  the  plateaus  distinguished  by  an  im- 
mense variety  of  vegetation,  the  el^^nce  of  the 
species,  and  especially  by  a  multitude  of  aromatic 
and  bulbous  plants,  and  the  luxuriant  verdure  of 
the  vast  prairies.  The  average  annual  tempera^ 
ture  of  Angola  he  found  to  be  82^  F,  and  that  of 
the  r^on  of  the  plateaus  70^. 

Population,  Customs,  ^c. — The  population  is 
dense  for  a  barbarous  country,  the  monarch  being 
called  Incue,  from  the  great  number  of  subjects 
under  his  commanfL  It  is  not,  however,  easy  to 
assign  the  amount,  but  it  mav  pexhaps  be  taken 
at  between  2,000,000  and  8,000,000.  The  capital 
city,  St.  Paul,  or  I^oanda,  contains  8,000.  The 
natives  have  few  of  the  negro  peculiarities  in  form 
or  feature :  they  are  of  ordinary  stature,  well 
limbed,  and,  but  for  their  colour,  very  like  the 
Portuguese,  by  whom  they  are  surrounded.  Blue 
eyes  and  red  hair  arc  not  uncommon  among  them. 
Society  is  divided  into  four  classes,  two  free  and  two 
slaves ;  the  first  two  oonsiBting  of  nobles  and  hus- 
bandmen or  artiflccrs ;  the  others  of  slaves,  native 
bom,  and  those  acjquired  by  war  or  foreign  pur- 
chase. Marriage  is  an  extremely  simple  cere- 
mony, a  mere  agreement  between  the  husband  and 
the  father  of  the  woman.  The  appearance  of  the 
first  tooth  in  children  is  an  important  epoch ;  the 
infant  being  then  carried  from  nouse  to  house,  and 
gifts  extorted  from  friends  and  strangers.  For  the 
rest,  they  do  not  difier  much  from  other  nc^nraos. 
Dancing  is  a  favourite  divenion,  and  a  religious 
rite;  and,  like  other  African  people,  their  cere- 
monies are  defiled  with  blood  and  cruelty.  Money 
is  of  several  kinds :  marked  cloths,  the  shell  of  a 
smfdl  fish  called  simbo,  a  red  wood  brought  finom 
Malemba,  and  iron,  which  last  was  introduced  by 
the  Portuguese.  The  countrv  is  parcelled  out 
into  an  immense  number  of  little  lonlships,  each 
under  a  magistrate  called  a  sova.  It  would  ap- 
pear that  the  king  is  able  to  control  the  petty 
despotism  of  these  governors;  for  they  have 
neither  wealth  nor  any  other  distinction,  except 
the  personal  respect  paid  to  them,  which  is,  how- 
ever, very  i»rofouna,  to  distinguish  them  firom 
any  other  freemen.  The  religion  of  the  bulk  of 
the  people  is  Feticism,  difiering  in  nothing  from 
that  on  the  coast  of  Guinea  (see  Ashantke)  ;  but 
there  are  many  Christian  families  among  the  na- 
Uves,  and  at  one  time  the  Jesuits  had  converted 
nearly  the  whole  population,  and  established  a 
r^^lar  form  of  cniuch  government.  But  the 
effect  of  their  labours  has  now  nearly  vanished, 
and  the  negroes  have  relapsed  into  the  idolatrous 
rites  of  their  ancestors.  The  language  is  less  bar- 
barous and  more  uniform  on  this  coast  than  in 
most  other  parts  of  Africa;  the  whole  of  Congo, 
that  is,  the  country  between  the  Coanza  and  the 
Zaire,  speak  a  dialect  of  the  same  tongue,  which  is 
extremely  musical  and  flexible;  not  particularly 
sonorous,  but  veiy  agreeable ;  with  a  perfect  s^ni- 
tax,  and  bearing  in  some  points  a  resemblance  to 
the  Latin. 

lyade, — The  Portuguese  established  a  factory 
on  this  coast  in  1485,  and  their  power  has  been 
constantly  extending  to  the  present  time.  Two 
of  their  establislimcnts  arc  700  m.  inland ;  but  it 
is  not  to  be  supposed  that  they  possess  a  sove- 
reignty over  the  whole  coimtry  to  this  extent. 


Their  posts,  called  fairs,  mfaieria,  ut  little 
than  entrepots  for  trade;  though  the  resUenu 
exercise  a  political  power    in  their  immwtiam 
neighbourhood.    These  eetabUshments  have,  it  ii 
said,  excited  a  spirit   of  manofactiire  and  eon- 
merce  among  the  negroes ;  bat  we  doubt  macli 
whether  this  nas  been  the  case  in  any  conaidenUe 
dc^^ree;   and  whatever  beneficial  inflnenoe  they 
might  otherwise  have  had,  has  been  ooimtenrailti 
and  nullified  by  the  support  given  by  the  Por- 
tuguese authorities  to  tne  slave  trade.    In  fad, 
Angola  was  for  a  lengthened  series  of  yean,  iSm 
great  mart  whence  slaves  were  obtained  for  Bnnl; 
but  the  slave  trade  to  that  conntiy  has  now  almoit 
entirely  ceased.    The  Portognese  gov.  of  Angola 
is  understood  to  embrace  the  kingdoms  of  An^di, 
Benguela,   and  other   Presidendea.    Ana  witk 
Ambriz,  Benguela  and  Moesamedes  about  203,110 
sq.  m.    Pop.  estimated  at  2,000,000 ;  bat  the  Pcf- 
tugucse  colony  in  1858  was  reckoned  to  numbff 
only  659,190.    Attention  of  late  has  been  (tiredtd 
to  the  cultivation  of  cotton.    A  Koyal  Poftugnen 
decree  of  December  4,   1861,  provided   for  the 
grantiiip^  of  waste  lands  in  Angola  and  Mona- 
bique,  tor  the  cultivation  of  cotton  at  a  nonunil 
rent,  and  on  other  advantageous  conditions,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  Mr.  John  Beaton  obtained  the 
concession  of  400,000  acrea.    He  had  engaged  to 
form  a  cotton-growinf  company,  but  the  oon- 
pany  not  beinff  formed  withm  the  oontiact  tuns, 
the  concession  oecame  void.    A  similar  allotnwt 
of  land  to  about  the  same  extent  waa  made  to  a 
French  gentleman,   M.   de   Bellegarde,  beaidei 
smaller  grants  to  Portuguese  speculaton  for  aimiltf 
purposes.  The  actual  exports  of  cotton  have  as  yet, 
however,  been  inconsiderable.    (See  Portugal.) 

ANGORA,  or  ENGOURI,  the  andent  Amm, 
a  city  almost  in  the  centre  of  Natolia,  near  the  NE. 
source  of  the  Sakariah,  or  SamfforiuM^  lat.  40^  iSt 
N.,  lon^.  38^  18'  £.  After  undeigoing  rtnam 
revolutions,  it  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Romans;  and  being  embellidied  and  othenriae 
favoured  by  Augustus,  the  inhabitants  erected  to 
his  honour  the  celebrated  MmmMteHhtm  Auq^ 
ranum,  a  temple  of  white  marble,  on  the  waDa  of 
which  an  account  of  the  principal  events  in  the 
life  of  Augustus  was  inscribed.  The  ruins  ci  thii 
edifice  stiQ  remain.  Notwithstanding  the  demiae 
of  its  powerful  patron,  Ancvia  continued  to  floariah. 
It  was  here  that  St.  Paul  preached  to  the  Gala- 
Uans;  and  when  the  Christian  religion  spread 
itself  all  over  the  world,  it  was  advanced  to  the 
dignity  of  an  apostolic  see.  It  came  into  the  pot- 
session  of  the  Turics  in  1859.  The  great  battle 
between  the  Turirish  sultan,  Bajazet,  or  Bayaiid, 
and  the  famous  Tartar  conqueror  Tameilue,  or 
Timur  Bee,  which  ended  in  the  total  defeat  and 
capture  of  the  former,  was  fought  in  the  vicxutf 
of  Ancyra  in  1401.  It  continues  to  be  one  of  the 
principal  cities  of  Natolia ;  and  is  celebrated  for 
manufactures  of  stu£&  made  of  the  ailk-Uke  wool 
of  the  goat  ofAitgora,  a  variety  peculiar  to  the 
country  round  the  town.  The  populatioa  has  been 
variously  estimated  at  from  35,000  to  80,000;  bat 
according  to  the  latest  accounts  it  ia  conaidenhly 
less,  the  numbers  being  10,000  Mohammedana, 
5,000  Armenians  and  Greeks,  and  200  Jewa. 

ANGOSTURA,  a  dty  of  S.  America,  rep.  of 
Venezuela,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Orinoco, 
about  240  m.  above  its  embouchure,  and  aboat 
190  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  lat,  8^  8'  10* 
N.,  long.  6do  55'  20^^  W.  It  was  founded  in  1588. 
Owing  to  its  situation  in  a  fertile  coimtrv,  on  a 
great  navipible  river,  and  its  command  of^a  veiy 
extensive  mland  navigation,  Angostura  is  fiavoar- 
ably  situated  for  commerce,  which  it  carried  on  to 
a  very  considerable  extent  previous  to  the  revoln- 


AsaovLtws 

■niriwd  its  oiwDMne,  wealth,  and  popalation.  I 
TklMt,«lud>  inlSOTmi  athnUed  «t  iboat 
UOOiWM  toktimecoiiudcnbl)'  leas,  botia  isain 
pWd;  aboot  tlut  Dumber.  It  hu  >  Itigt  bkll, 
itaa  BsMingi  of  Coogim  have  been  held,  vith 
■  knptal  mud  aeiill^;  ind  ia  defended  by  M 
blflBtbe  appa^U  bank  of  the  rirei.  Though 
iiv,  did  nlijaet  to  ioimdition,  the  cUnute  ii  leoi' 


AVHALT  1 

linng  gnduallj'  from  the  Ma.    T 

broad  and  reffoUr,  aad  the   ban* 

tenlly  of  three  atoriea,  thoogh  gloomy,  are  v 


are  broad  and  refol 
Kcnerallr  of  three  nones,  Uioi  „    „ 
built.     It  is  veil  lupptied  wiih" water,  but 


Durobei   of  chu 


ANGOULftHE  (an.  /«&»),  a  city  of  Frano, 
4ifk  -Chanate,  irf  which  It  ia  the  capital,  on  a 
fliuam  derated  331  ft.  above  the  river  Cha- 
lale,  on  the  nilwmy  from  Paris  tn  Boideanx, 
U  m.  SZ.  Bordeaux.  Pop.  34,961  in  1861. 
TW  old  town,  which  ocnplea  the  nmmit  of 
Ai  [.I——  has  nanow,  croolied  itreela,  and  is 
»i*  el  laidi.  In  its  centre  stands  the  old  caitle 
k  rain*,  'nie  walls,  with  which  the  dly  wu 
isiauly  smroonded,  have  been  mostly  demo- 
Ued,  and  the  lampaits  converted  into  public 
mOa.  The  new  towa,  bnllt  on  a  declivity  to  the 
&  of  tbe  old  torn,  hu  broad  straight  sneels, 
nd  booK*,  and  Is  rapidly  Increasing.  There  are 
Mb  KTval  anbaibB,  cJ  which  Houmean  Is  the 
Ita  pest  is  the  entrepAt  of  the 


n  the  citv  of 


iAb«  lante  nor  beaattfnl;  and,  with  the  ex- 
Wfriwi  of  (ba  flae  bridge  over  the  Charente,  and 
"    '  "  "  -    .  ■     .         r  of  the  preiient  Du- 

Lher  pubhc  buildings 

^ The  Piact  ifArlou 

b  1  fae  promenade,  and,  from  its  elevated  poai- 
tlB,  cnmand*  a  view  of  the  valley  of  the  An- 
gidnnaaDdUicaarRnindingconntFy.  Angouleme 


,    licta  pobliahea  ... ._ 

lag*  fiUk  In>i>ry>  a  cabinet  of  natural  history ; 
aiAiiol  rf  midwireiy ;  a  fiinndling  hospital,  and 
•nai  labcr  boopilaia;  a  theatre,  &c  It  has 
dB>  vdar  the  Benotadon  a  royal  marine  school, 
tttbddmgi  ofwhleb  woe  on  a  targe  scale:  this 
faNitiliaa  waa,  bowerer,  transferred  in  1837  to 
IraL  ingonUme  is  celebrated  for  the  extensive 

KBwabetana  in  ill  vicinity:  it  has  also 
(f  aerga  and  coane  studs,  and  eanliea- 
>■>:  nth  exienaive  distiUerita,  which  produce 


|vuif  Eorope. 

iaggoUoM  i*  verr  andent,  being  noticed  by  I 
Aaaains,  who  floanshed  in  Che  third  centniy.  | 

Ik  teatibb  rcsiclde,  Ravaillac,  the  sasanla  ol 
Hay  IT.  In  the  vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  the 
teM  abbey  dcfa  Omnrnt,  founded  in  1123, 
■m  tke  onament  of  the  Angoomois.  This  vs- 
laaUe  and  magnificent  structure,  after  escaping 
AiieTcdatiooan'phienzy,was  demolished  in  1808. 
Tit  faontain  of  Trom-e,  a  few  miles  th>m  Angou- 
IbtVBi  next  to  that  of  Yauelnse,  the  most  cele- 
tMidmFrance. 

ASGOUHOIS,  the  name  of  a  district  in  Fiance 
ptanDoalTto  the  rnrolatlon,  nearly  but  not  exactly 
iiMi  iiliiift  with  the  dep.  Chaiente.  It  fonncd,  in 
(lucxian  with  tbe  district  of  Saintonge,  one  of 
im  BDvineea  into  which  Prance  was  formerly 
«nded. 

ASGKA,  a  town  and  aea-poit  of  the  island  ol 
Tcrcetra,  one  of  the  Azores,  being  (he  cap.  of  the 
■diipelago,  and  the  leeidence  of  the  governor,  at 
Ihe  bottom  (rf  a  deep  hay  or  creek,  lat.  880  S8' 83" 
K,  lon){.  370  13'  33^'  W.  Pop.  varionsly  estimated 
M  ban  10,000  (o  19,000.    It  ia  beauiirully  aituated 


itreelB,  as  welt  as  the  inhabitants,  are  notwith- 
iVely  filthy.  There  are  a  great 
chea,  and  it  fonneriy  also  bad 
ics  and  convents ;  but  the  latter 
have  been  dissolved,  and  the  buildings  applied  to 
other  naea,  Aa  a  port,  Angra  has  nothing  to  boast 
of:  it  is  open  to  all  winds  from  the  SSW.  by  the 
S.  to  the  E.  The  swell  from  the  SW.  in  particular 
which  seta  round  Monnt  Brazil,  on  the  W.  side 
of  the  hay,  is  tremendous.  In  tbe  lad  weather 
moDtlu,  large  vessels  anchor  in  the  mouth  of  the 
bay,  abreast  of  St.  Antonio,  ui  38  and  SO  fathoms, 
to  be  ready  instantly  to  put  to  aei  in  the  event  of 
storms  setting  in,  the  coast  affording  no  shelter. 
The  town  is  defended  on  the  W.  by  the  citadel  at 
the  nnt  of  Mount  Brazil,  and  on  the  opposite  aide 
of  the  bay  by  the  fort  of  Su  Sebastian,  the  dis- 
tance tietween  them  being  about  )  m. 

AaoRA,  a  seaport  town  of  Brazil,  pi 
Janeiro,  bears  SW.  dislan    "" 

tliat  name.     Its  port  admi      ...  ^ ,  . . .._ 

tified  by  two  redoubts,  and  haa  some  commerce. 

AXUUILLA,  or  SNAKE  ISLAND,  so  called 
from  ita  innunus  figure,  an  island  belonging  to  the 
British  in  the  W.  Iadie^  being  the  most  northerly 
of  the  Caribbee  Islands,  and  separated  by  a  narrow 
channel  from  St  Martin's;  lat.  18°  8'  X.,  long. 
63°  I^J'E.  Area  about  35  sq.  m.  It  is  16  m.  m 
length,  by  about  3  to  1^  m.  in  breadth.  Pop. 
about  2,51)0,  of  whom  nearly  2,400  are  coloured  or 
black.  Surface  Hat;  soil  chalky,  and  not  very 
productive ;  and  there  is  a  defidencv  both  of  wood 
and  water;  cUmate  healthy.  By  far  the  largest 
portion  ia  uncultivated.  It  produces  some  sugar, 
with    maize    and    provisiona  of   various  kinds. 

are  under  cultivation.  A  salt  lake  in  the  middle 
of  the  island  furnishes  a  considoable  supply  of 
■alt,  and  the  revenue  is  chielly  derived  from  a 
duty  of  6  c  per  barrel  on  salt.  The  island  has  no 
good  harbour.  The  town,  an  inconsiderable  place, 
stands  near  the  NE.  extremity  of  the  island.  The 
island  is  part  of  the  government  of  SU  Kilt's,  and 
sends  one  member  to  the  assembly.  For  local 
purposta  it  is  governed  by  a  alipendiary  magis- 
trate paid  f^om  the  Imperial  Treasury,  assisted  by 
a  vestrv  of  which  he  is  chairman.  'The  revenue 
in  1861  was  iUL  and  expenditure  HOL  Bosidca 
the  local  courts  for  administering  justice  there  are 
also  supposed  to  be  Courts  of  Queen's  Bench  and 
Commons  Pleas,  and  Chancery  in  the  island! 
The  ooloniats  elect  their  chief  magistrate,  subject 
to  the  appiovai  of  the  governor  of  Antigua. 

A50UILI.A,  one  of  rJie  Bahama  Isluids,  about 
20  m.  Ion.  and  b  broad ;  UU  23°  86'  N.,  long. 
79°  20'  W. 

ANGUILLARA,  a  town  of  North  Italv.  on  Che 
Arlwe,  38  m.  S.  Padua.  Pop.  3,&00  in  18^3.  This 
is  a&o  the  name  of  a  town  of  nearly  equal  size  on 
the  S.  side  of  Che  lake  Brw^dano,  16  m.  NNW. 
Home. 

ANGUS.    See  Fobi-ab. 

ANH  A  LT,  a  prindpaUty  of  Germany  almost  sur- 
rounded by  Uie  Pruaaian  dominions,  having  Bian- 
denburg  on  the  N.,  Prussian  Saxony  on  the  E.  and 
S.,  the  county  of  Mansfeldt  on  the  SW.,  and 
.  Brunswick  and  the  Prussian  circ  of  Magdetniig 
on  the  SW.  Its  grealcat  length  is  60  m.,  and  its 
breailth  varia  from  12  to  16  m.  Principal  ri\-er  the 
Kibe,  hv  which  it  is  intersected.  Area  869  sq.  m. 
Pop.  1^1,834  in  1861.  It  is  mostly  flat,  and  » 
verv  fertile  and  well  cultivated.  It  waa  foraierly 
divided  into  the  throe  duchies  of  Anhall-Bemburg ; 


140 


ANHOLT 


Anhalt-Coothen,  and  Anhalt-Dessan,  bat  the  line 
of  Anhalt-Ccethen  became  extinct  in  1847  and  of 
Anhalt^Bembuig  on  Au^.  19,  1863,  leaving  the 
family  of  Anhalt-Dessau  m  sole  posseesion.  The 
consent  of  the  states  is  necessary  to  the  imposi- 
tion of  any  new  tax,  but  by  a  constitution 
proclaimed  in  1859,  the  representation  of  the 
people  is  merely  nominal  Inhab.  mostly  Pro- 
testants and  very  industrious.  The  entire  princi- 
pality furnishes  2,038  men  to  the  army  of  the 
confederation.  Principal  towns,  Dessau,  Zerbst, 
Coethen,  and  Bemburff. 

ANHOLT,  a  small  Danish  island  in  the  Catte- 
cat,  nearly  halfway  between  Lessoe  and  Zealand, 
A  lighthouse,  having  the  lantern  elevated  112  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  has  been  erected  on  its 
most  easterly  promontory,  in  lat,  56°  44'  20''  N., 
long.  110  38'^5r'E. 

ANT,  former  capital  of  Armenia,  now  in  ruins. 
It  was  visited  bv  an  English  traveller,  Mr.  John 
Ussher,  in  1864,  and  is  thus  graphically  de- 
scribed : — '  Making  a  long  circuit,  we  entered  the 
deserted  city  by  the  centre  gate,  there  being  three 
great  entrances  in  the  double  walls,  which  were 
built  of  large  blocks  of  hewn  stone.  Over  the 
outer  gate  was  an  Armenian  inscription,  over  the 
inner  a  leopard  was  sculptured  in  bold  relief; 
while  near  it,  on  the  towers,  were  carved  crosses, 
ornamented  with  decorations  and  tracery  of  a 
very  delicate  nature.  We  found  the  ground  in 
the  interior  covered  with  firagments  of  sculptured 
stones,  broken  columns,  capitals,  and  carvings. 
Clambering  over  the  masses  of  ruins  we  entered  a 
few  of  the  churches,  three  or  four  of  which  seemed, 
with  the  exception  that  their  doors  had  been 
carried  away,  quite  as  perfect  as  when  just  out  of 
the  hands  of  the  builder.  One  of  them  m  particu- 
lar, which  stood  just  above  the  bridge  that  spanned 
the  abyss  below,  was  in  complete  preservation,  the 
fresco  paintings  on  the  interior  of  the  dome  re- 
taining their  bright  colour  and  hues  uninjured  by 
time,  the  subjects  being  Christ  riding  into  Jeru- 
salem, the  Virgin  at  Uie  sepulchre,  Ac  These 
churches  stand  solitary  among  the  ruins,  in  which, 
save  a  few  pigeons,  no  living  creatures  seemed  to 
exist.  In  the  centre  of  the  city  were  two  lofty 
octagon  towers,  on  which  were  small  turrets ;  and 
not  Ru:  from  them  was  an  isolated  steep  rock,  near 
the  edge  of  the  precipice.  This  was  also  covered 
with  scattered  fragments  of  what  had  once  been 
buildings — the  citadel  of  the  fortress  city.  The 
waUs  01  the  palace  yet  remain,  and  are  of  great 
extent  and  solidity.  The  masonry  is  perfect  the 
huge  stones  are  sauared  and  put  together  with  the 
gruitest  care,  and  the  whole  is  covered  with  the 
most  elaborate  carvings,  decorations,  and  mosaics, 
all  of  exceedingly  delicate  workmanship.  There 
were  also  two  mosques ;  one  built  on  the  edge  of 
the  precipice,  the  mterior  of  the  dome  of  which 
was  covexed  with  perfectly  preserved  arabesques, 
resembling  in  character  and  finish  of  design  those 
of  the  Alhambra.*  (Ussher,  John,  F.R.G.S.,  from 
London  to  Persepolis.    1865.) 

ANIANE,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Heranlt,  cap. 
cant.,  16  m.  W.  by  N.  Montpellier.  Pop.  3,557  m 
1861. 

ANJAR,  a  town  of  Ilindostan,  prov.  Cutch,  cap. 
district  of  same  name,  ceded  in  1816  to  the  British, 
near  the  NE.  shore  of  the  Gulf,  hit  2dP  3'  N., 
long.  7(P  IV  E.  It  is  fortified,  but  not  strongly. 
In  1819  nearly  half  the  town  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  in  which  165  persons  lost  tneir  hves. 
The  pop.  is  estimated  at  10,000. 

AKJENGO,  a  sea- port  town  of  S.  Hindostan, 

Erov.  Travancore,  18  m.  NNW.  Cape  Comorin, 
it80  37'  N.,  long.  76°  53'  N.    The  E.  I.  Com- 
pany had  a  factory  here  from  1684  to  1813,  when 


AKNAN 

it  was  abolished.  The  best  ooir  caUes  on  tlie 
Malabar  coast  are  made  here  and  at  Cochm;  nd 
pepper,  coarse  piece-goods,  and  drqgs  are  exporttd. 

ANJOU,  an  ancient  prov.  and  gov.  of  Fnnce, 
now  distributed  among  the  depta.  of  Maine  ci 
Loire,  Loire  Inf^Meore,  Yend^  Indie  et  Loire, 
Sarthe,  lUe  et  Yilame,  Mayenne^  and  Deax 
Sevres. 

ANKLAM,  a  town  of  Pmasia,  prov.  Pomersmi, 
cap.  drc  on  tiie  navigable  River  reene,  about  7  n. 
from  where  it  falls  into  the  strait  separating  the 
Isle  of  Usedom  from  the  continent.  Pop.  9,^  in 
1861.  It  was  founded  in  1188 ;  has  a  coDeee  and 
three  hospitals,  with  manufactures  of  cfeui  and 
linen,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  tnule  in  (riiip> 
building  and  shipping. 

ANKOI,  or  ANDKHO,atown  of  Bokhara,  75b. 
W.  Balkh.  lat  360  48'  N.,  long.  e&>  £.  Mam- 
dorff  says  that  it  has  nearly  4,000  houses,  inikb 
would  infer  a  pop.  of  at  least  from  25,000  to  30,000^ 
consisting  prmapally  of  Arab&  A  small  river 
flows  past  tiie  town ;  but  as  it  dries  in  summer, 
the  innab.  are  obliged  to  supply  themselves  w^ 
water  from  wells.    (Voyage  a  Boukharav  p,  148.) 

ANNABERG  (ST.),  a  town  of  Saxony,  ciide 
Erzgebirgc,  8  m.  SW.  Marienburg.  Pop.  9,710  ii 
1861.  It  is  well  built,  has  three  churches,  tvs 
hospitals,  and  a  gymnasium,  with  mannfactam 
of  lace  and  ribancb.  In  its  vicinity  are  minei  of 
iron,  tin,  cobalt,  and  silver. 

ANNAH,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  can.  Sn- 
jiack,  on  the  Euphrates,  160  m.  NW.  Bagdad,  kit 
340  10'  N.,  h>ng.  41°  4r  K  It  is  finely  sitoatod 
on  the  route  of  the  caravans  that  cross  the  denrt 
of  Mesopotamia.  It  was  surprised  in  1807  bv  tin 
Wahabites,  who,  after  committing  all  sorts  <i  ei- 
cesses,  set  it  on  fixe.  The  pop.  does  probably  not 
exceed  fhnn  3,000  to  4,000.  The  environs  in 
very  fertile. 

ANNAMABOE,  one  of  the  four  fortified  potli 
occupied  by  Britain  on  the  Gold  Coaat  of  Anica, 
formerly  prov.  Fanti,  empire  of  the  Ashantee^ 
lat.  50  5'  N.,  long.  1°  15'  £.  It  was  burnt  by  the 
Ashantees  in  1808.  Pop.  probably  from  8,000  to 
4,000. 

AXNAMOOKO,  one  of  the  Friendly  Island! 
(which  see). 

ANNAN,  a  borough,  sea^port,  m.  town,  and  p, 
of  Scotland^  00.  Dumfries.  The  town  is  sitnatad 
on  the  E.  side  of  the  river  Annan,  which  is  bsR 
crossed  by  a  fine  bridge  of  three  arohes,  erected  In 
1824,  about  1^  m.  above  its  confluence  with  the 
Solway  Frith,  67  m.  S.  Edinburgh.  Pop.  d 
borough,  3,473  in  1861;  inhabited  houses,  6S3; 
annual  value  of  real  property  8,113iL  in  1864,  ex- 
clusive of  railway ;  corporation  revenue  4,356^  ii 
1863-4.  It  is  clean,  well  built,  neat,  and  thriving; 
has  a  handsome  new  church  and  spire;  a  good 
natural  harbour,  which  has  been  much  improved 
by  an  embankment  constructed  at  the  expense  d 
Mr.  Irving  of  Newton ;  and  an  academy  which  ii 
well  attended.  There  is  also  a  cotton  mannfactorr, 
and  ship-building  is  carried  on  to  a  oonakkraUi 
extent ;  but  the  principal  trade  of  the  town  oonsiati 
in  the  curing  of  bacon  and  hams  for  the  Newcasth 
and  Londoji  markets,  and  in  the  shipping  of  oon, 
fat  cattle,  and  sheep,  by  steam,  lor  LiverpooL 
Annan  unites  with  Dumfries,  Kirckcudbn^t, 
Lochmaben,  and  Sanquhar,  in  returning  a  membei 
to  the  H.  of  C.  Parliamentary  and  mnnicipal 
constituency  176  in  1865. 

AiYNAM,  the  river  on  which  the  above  town  ii 
built  It  rises  on  the  S.  side  of  Hartfdl,  a  moon- 
tain  on  the  confines  of  the  cos.  Dumfries  and 
Peebles,  near  Moflat^  and  after  pursuing  a  S. 
course  of  about  36  m.  in  a  direct  line,  unites  with 
the  Solway  Frith,  14  m.  below  Annan,  to  which  it 


AStfASDAUS 
kntaiblk    It  hu  onr  iti  moath  nhnon  flah- 

liraAXDALE,  tlM  name  eiven  to  the  Fslley 
« law  gnxnidi  tnTcned  ImgUiwiH  by  Ilia  rirer 

AXJIAPOLIS,  a  (own  of  Nova  Scotia,  on  the 
&  ade  gf  Uk  liw  of  the  ume  name,  near  where 
itUUiotoia  eatuaiv  or  bann.  on  theSVV.  aide  of 
Ih  bay  of  FoDdv,  Ut.  40°  iT  N.,  long.  65o  60'  W, 
«...__! —  : ,._...  Thuisthe 


htheFi 
bgknd 


theFnochj  bat,  oi 


It  waa  calM  Fort  Roya 


D  of  Que 


itapmnit  name  in  hoDOur  of  her  Uajesty.  Not- 
wllHtiiiiling  it  vaa  the  cap.  of  the  prov.  till  the 
fanktka  of  Halifax  in  IToO,  and  its  fine  har- 
bv,  it  nevci  attained  to  any  conadsable  magni- 
Wb  At  preaent  the  fonlncatianB  and  govera- 
maa  boiliunn  aie  going  to  ruin.  Pop.  of  co. 
Anqolii,  18,678  in  1861. 

AluroLiB,  a  city  and  port  of  enliy  of  the 
V.  Stitia,  cap.  Haryland.  on  the  Sevsn,  2  m. 
tn  ill  nwotli,  i»  m.  SSE.  Baltimore.  Pop. 
VSi  bi  1860.  It  is  a  handwme,  healthy  loon, 
with  a  Natebooge,  a  theatre,  *c  The  proximity 
■d  mm  adrantagBoiu  mbialion  of  Baltimore  sa 
■  elm  s£  trade,  bare  oceaaioned  the  ghnr  growth 
«(  AaoanoHai 

A!(NECT,  a  town  of  Fiance,  dep.  Haute-SaToie, 
U  Ibe  Bartbm  extremity  of  the  lake  of  the  same 
■Bi^  21  EO.  S.  Geneva.  Pop.  10,737  in  1861. 
TW  taim  if  pleasantly  nituitad  among  hills  and 
Bmtaini;  and  ia  thriving  and  mdustrioui, 
biTBie  Htibliahmcnta  for  the  miiming  of  cotton 
aaii  Blk,  with  mann&cturea  of  earthenware  and 
gba^  Titriol,  itiaw  hata,  wbite  iron  and  ateeL 
It  ■•  the  HBt  of  a  bishopric,  and  ia  very  ancient. 

ASSET,  one  of  the  SdUy  lalauds,  about  1  m. 
faa  But  of  St.  Agnea. 

ISXONAY,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Ardiche, 
iBug,  Uamgh  not  the  cap.,  the  principal  town  of 
tke  dtp,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Caace  and  the 
Vmm,  7  m.  from  the  Rhone.  Fop.  16,271  in 
^1-  Annonay  ia  a  thriving  town,  agreeably 
■laMid  Da  the  elevated  nneven  ground  between 


fb^  bDildiog  worth  notic^  ia  an  obelisb  in 
nv  d  the  celdmted  leninaut  Monlgolfier,  a 
yjwjf  the  place.  Annonay  ia  principally  dia- 
t"giiAid  by  ita  manuf(ta?tuTe4%  particularly  bv 
■^  <(  paper,  kng  reckoned  the  beat  In  France'; 
•^baeetbe  Kcommendation  so  frequently  aeen 

■  Rwdi  calalogna,  of  books  being  printed  on 
nj^Jk^AmmmM.  (See  Ardeche.)  It  bu- 
■■P  **nnhrtnrfa  of  cloth,  woollen  atockinga,  and 
(brn;  Mabliafamenta  lor  the  apinning  of  cotton 
M  dt,  part  of  the  latter  of  a  peculiarly  fine 
VUly,  bees  employed  in  the  niannfactuie  of 
J>fandbloDdea;  withdTe-worka,tannerica,  &c 
iDi  Inn  ia  pnprietor  of  a  large  nuraery ;  and 
'  Uricini^  la  the  fint  auapenaion  bridge  con- 
■noid  in  Franee. 

UflPSHEHB,  a  town  of  HindoBtan ,  prov.  A  gra, 
•lixW.iide  of  the  Gangea,  68  m,  ESE.  Delhi, 
■.WSyS^kog.  780  8'E.    IligBurroundedhy 

■  Mnie  mad  wall,  and  ia  tbicklv  inhabited. 
iSSpACH.  or  AN9BACH,  a  town  of  Bavaria, 

"d  fire.  Roal,  24  ro.  SW.  by  W.  Nuremberg, 
*  1  braneb  line  of  the  railway  from  Augsburg  to 
^XBberg.  Pop.  1Z,S4&  in  1861.  It  is  sur- 
"vMtd  by  wsDa,  and  baa  four  gates;  bthe  seat 
^Ibt  [aovineial  autboiitiea  and  of  a  court  of 
■B«»L  The  otijecta  moat  deaerving  of  attention 
■"  Uie  canle  and  gardena  that  formerly  belonged 
^tteMargiarea  of  Anspach;  the  cburch  of  Su 


141 

John,  with  the  tomba  of  the  princes.  It  has  a 
gymuaaiiim,  an  hoapital,  an  orphan  hospital,  a 
library  of  IG,DOO  voia.  with  a  cabinet  of  medala; 
and  manulactuns  of  woollen  and  cotton  stufls, 
earthenware,  white  lead,  and  plaving  cards. 

ANSTRUTHER  (EASTER  'and  WESTER), 
two  inconsiderable  borougba  and  sea-ports  of  Scot- 
land, CO.  Fife,  on  the  N.  sbore  of  the  Fritb  of 
Forth.  Pup.  of  both  boioughs,  with  their  parishes, 
1,437  in  1831 ;  1,5S3  in  1861.  ParL  (onat.  112 
in  1866.  The  boroughs  unite  with  Urail,  Fitlen- 
Ht^c"  ™"'''  "  "'°™"S  a  m.   to 

ANTARCTIC  SEA,  the  name  given  to  the  ocean 
extending  ftmn  the  Antarctic  Circle,  lat  60°  80'  S. 
to  the  South  Pole.    It  woa  long  conaidered  im- 

Enelrahle  for  ships,  on  accountof  the  ice;  but  of 
:e  years  many  discoveries  have  been  made, 
chiefly  by  English  and  American  explorers.  Sir 
James  Ross,  in  1841,  reached  lat.  780  4  the  highest 
S.  latitude  yet  reached.  Various  tracts  of  barren 
land  have  been  observed  bv  the  cxploms,  to  which 
the  names  of  Addlie,  Balleny,  Euderly,  8»- 
brina  and  Victoria  have  been  given,  but  a  great 
deal  of  advcntuiDOS  noearch  is  still  neceaaarr 
before  our  knowledge  of  these  regions  u  macia 
copious. 

ANTEQDERA,  a  town  of  Spain,  Andaluaa, 
30  m.  NNW.  Malaga,  on  the  ndlway  to  Cordova. 
Pop.  22,060  in  1857.  It  ia  built  partlv  on  a  hill, 
and  partly  on  a  plain;  has  on  old  castle  built  by 
the  Moora,  several  churches  and  convents,  wit-h 
establishments  for  the  spinning  of  silk  and  cotton, 
and  ftbrics  of  paper,  morocco  leather,  and  soap. 
There  ate  in  ita  neighbourhood  quarrits  of  marble 
of  different  colours,  and  plaster,  a  salt  lake,  and 
a  mineral  spring.  It  was  taken  by  assault  thini 
the  Moors,  by  Ferdinand,  afterwards  King  of  Ar- 
ragon,  in  1410.  A  railway,  completed  m  1866, 
places  Malaga  and  Granada  in  communication 
with  the  rest  of  the  Peninsula,  The  line  runs  from 
Malaga  by  way  of  Antequera  to  Cordova. 

AOTHEMl';  (ST.),  a  town  of  France,  dep. 
Puy  do  Dome,  cap,  qant  on  the  Ance,  9  m.  E. 
Ambett     Fop.  3,226  in  1861, 

ANTHONY  (ST.),  FALLS  OF,  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi, about  2,000  m.  above  ita  embouchure, 
lat,  44°  50'  N.  Here  the  river  descends  about 
T4  ft.,  viz.  16  ft.  of  perpendicolar  (all,  and  68  more 
of  rapids. 

AsTHoM  (St.),  a  cape  on  the  coast  of  8.  Ame- 
rica, Argentine  republic,  being  the  S.  extremity  of 
the  estuary  of  the  La  Plata,  lat.  86°  15'  19"  8., 
long.  56°  37'  W. 

ANTIBES  (an.  Antipolii),  i 
Prance,  dep.  Var,  cap.  canL,  on 
2-2-   -^'f-    T, __ 


^^M^teir^n, 
pray  from  ToulOD 
I'ice.  Pop.  6,829  in  186L '  ^mg  an  important 
[ion  on  the  side  of  Italy,  Antibes  ia  pretty 
ingly  fortified.    '"  '"  """  —    '  "  ~" '  "' 


and  of  a 


ool  of  n 


The 


able  size,  ai 
nnle  projecting  fnm 
-n,  toe  distance  from  ita  extremity  to  the 
n  which   Fort  Cam<  is  built  being  onl^ 


principally  employed  in  the  fishing  and  curing  of 

Antibes  is  very  ancient,  having  been  founded  by 
a  colony  from  Marseilles,  340  B.C.  It  was  after- 
wards occupied  bv  the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was 
fortified  and  embellished.  Having  been  destroyed 
by  the  Saracens  towards  the  end  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, it  continued  in  a  comparatively  neglected 
state,  till  it  was  again  fortified  by  Francis  1.  and 


142 


ANTICOSTI 


Ileniy  IV.    It  was  unsaccessfully  besieged  by  the 
Englisli  and  Impeiialistd  in  174C. 

ANTICOSTI,  a  large  island  in  the  mouth  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  between  49^  and  5(P  N.  lat, 
and  610  43'  and  640  85'  W.  long.  It  has  an  un- 
favoorable  soil,  is  without  a  single  good  harbour, 
and  is  uninhabited,  with  the  exception  of  the  at^ 
tendanta  on  the  lighthouses,  one  of  which  has 
been  erected  on  its  £.  point;  and  another  either 
has  been  or  is  about  to  be  erected  on  its  W.  ex- 
tremity. 

ANTIGUA,  an  island  belonging  to  Great  Bri- 
tain, in  the  We^t  Indies,  being  one  of  those  deno- 
minated the  Windward  Islands.  It  was  called  by 
the  natives  Xaymaca,  but  Ck)lumbus  gave  it  the 
name  of  Santa' Maria  de  la  Antigua.  It  is  about 
25  m.  NE.  Montserrat,  and  40  m.  N.  Guadaloupe. 
It  is  oval-shaped,  bong  20  m.  in  its  greatest 
length,  and  contains  alwut  108  sq.  m.,  or  nearly 
70,000  acres.  The  pop.  has  decrea!sed  since  1774, 
when  it  had  2,590  whites,  and  37,808  slaves.  In 
1837,  the  people  of  colour  and  whites  together 
were  only  about  2,000 ;  and  the  blacks,  all  of  whom 
were  enfranchised  in  1834,  about  33,000.  In  1863, 
the  numbers  were — white,  2,556 ;  black,  27,237 ; 
coloured,  6,619;  total,  36,412.  Antigua  has  httle 
of  the  mountainous  character  of  the  neighbouring 
islands,  the  greatest  elevation  being  only  1,210  ft 
On  approaching  it  from  the  sea,  instead  of  moun- 
tains clothed  with  rich  foliage  and  luxuriant 
vegetation,  a  barren  rugged  coast,  almost  desti- 
tute of  verdure,  presents  itself.  A  few  miles,  how- 
ever, from  the  shore,  the  prospect  is  more  pleasing, 
the  country  being  agreeably  divendtied  with  hill 
and  dale :  and  when  not  parched  by  the  droughts, 
to  which  it  is  subject,  green  lields  of  canes,  clumps 
of  feathery  bamboos,  flowers  of  dazzling  brilliancy, 
and  verdant  clifb  hung  with  beautifulvarieties  of 
intertropical  plants,  enchant  the  voyager.  The 
island  has  neither  fountain  nor  river,  and  but  a 
few  scanty  spring  among  the  hills.  Rain  water, 
preserved  in  taims,  is  substituted,  and  it  is  found 
particularly  light  and  pleasant  to  the  palate.  The 
soil  in  the  high  lands  is  a  reddish  clay  on  a  sub- 
stratum of  marl ;  that  in  the  lowlands,  a  rich  dark 
mould  on  a  substratum  of  clay.  The  climate  is 
remarkable  for  its  want  of  moisture,  though  the 
average  fall  of  rain  be  45  inches.  The  dew  is 
scanty,  and  the  rainy  season  very  uncertain,  but 
it  may  be  said  general! v  to  extend  from  June  to 
the  end  of  the  year.  T^he  alternations  of  tempe- 
rature are  very  slight,  the  thermometer  seldom 
ranging  more  than  4^  in  twent>'-four  hours.  The  su- 
gar cane  is  the  principal  article  of  cultivation ;  but 
sufficient  ground  proxHsions  are  also  procured  m 
favourable  seasons  for  the  supplv  of  the  uihabi- 
tants.  The  crops  vary  considerably.  In  the  years 
1770, 1773, 1778,  there  was  no  produce  of  any  kind, 
the  canes  and  ground  pro\dsions  being  destroyed 
by  drought,  and  the  inhab.  would  have  perished, 
but  for  the  importation  of  flour  and  corn-meal 
from  America.  The  total  value  of  imports  in 
1833  was  170,334/.  ster.,  the  principal  of  which 
were  grain,  meal,  and  flour,  cotton  manufactures, 
linens,  woollens,  and  flsh.  In  1834,  the  value  of 
the  imports  was  176,076t;  in  1858  the  imports 
amounted  to  266,365/.,  but  had  diminished  in  tlie 
year  1863  to  173,912/.  The  exports,  which  in 
1838  were  325,840/.,  had  fallen  in  1863  to  239,630/1 
The  produce  in  1863  was  13,558  hhds.  of  sugar, 
939  puncheons  of  rum,  and  6,018  puncheons  of 
molasses. 

The  government  is  composed  of  a  governor,  an 
executive  council  and  a  legislative  council,  both 
appointed  by  the  crown,  and  an  elective  assembly 
of  twenty -seven  members,  llie  courts  of  equity  and 
law  are  the  same  as  in  Great  Britain.  The  governor 


ANnOCH 

for  the  time  being  acts  as  dumeeUor  of  the  eool 
uf  equity,  and  suiton  have  a  iic[ht  of  api^  fnm 
his  decrees  to  the  king  in  ooanciL  on  givmg  noi- 
rity  for  costs.    There  are  14  placet  of  wonUy 
belonging  to  the  Churoh  of  England,  18  Mon- 
vian,  10  Weslcvan.    7,456^  is  aniniaUy  wpmi  ii 
the  support  of  poor-houses,  hospitala,  bond  of 
health,  and  for  medical  relief,  varrinatimi,  &c 
The  manners,  customs,  and  habits  of  the  IMhiIi 
differ  in  no  degree  from  those  of  the  other  Wot 
India  Isknds.  The  revenue,  in  1831,  was  16,0971, 
the  expenditure  15,708/.;  in  1863,  85,848/.  and 
35,474/.    The  imperial  expenditnre  for  the  ctHoof 
in  1863  was  6,668/.  The  idand  contains  six  town 
and  villages,  viz.  St,  John's,  Parfaam,  Fahnoath, 
WiUoughby  Bay,  Old  Koad,  and  James  Fort    SC 
John*s  the  capital,  on  the  NW.  side  of  the  islaiil, 
lat  180  22'  N.,  long.  640  42'  W.,  is  imlarly  bultp 
partly  on  a  h^h  rock,  connected  wiui  the  nuuB- 
land  by  a  causeway,  which  is,  however  submeyrt 
at  high  water.    In  the  hariwnr  there  is  suiBaait 
depth  of  water  for  merchant  vessels,  and  pcrCMt 
security  in  all  winds.    English  hazbonr,  on  the  81 
side  of  the  island,  is,  however,  the  best  harbour  b 
Antigua,  and  is  indeed  one  of  the  best  in  the  Weit 
Indies.    It  has  water  An*  ships  of  any  aixe,  and  ii 
well  sheltered  in  all  weathers.    It  has  a  dodi- 
yard,  a  naval  hospital,  and  every  conveniency.ibr 
careening  and  repairing  ships.     Antigua  is  the 
oldest  W.  I.  colony,  after  St.  Kitt's  and  BaiiMdoei, 
in  possession  of  the  English,  having  been  acqdM 
in  1632.    Its  planters  nave  been  remarkable  ibr 
their  leniency  to  the  slaves,  who  were  finally  en- 
franchised in   1834.     The  amount   awarded  to 
Antigua  out  of  the  20,000,0002.  granted  for  tiie 
freedom  of  the  skves,  was  425,866^  7s.  0^  thow 
of  Anguilia  included. 

ANTILLES.    See  West  Indrb. 

ANTIOCH  (vulg.  Antakia)  (Antioek),  propolj 
Antiocheia  ('Arrtoxcto),  a  famous  dty  of  Syria,  aod 
once  the  residence  or  its  sovereigns,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Aaszy  (Oronfes),  20  m.  above  ill 
mouth;  53  m.  £.  Aleppo,  and  29  m.  S.  Iskcn- 
deroun,  in  Ut  36^  12^  N.,  long.  860  15'  E.  Tim 
population,  which  at  its  most  flourisihinff  epodi 
probably  amounted  to  400,000,  b  estimated  (1888) 
at  18,000,  of  whom  2,000  are  Greeks,  the  otben 
Armenians  and  Mussulmans. 

Modem  Antioch  does  not  cover  more  than  i 
sixth  part  of  the  area  of  the  ancient  city,  the  walk 
of  which,  though  ruinous,  may  still  be  distinctly 
traced  throughout  t^eir  whole  drcuit.  The  BiAy 
Boulous  (Gate  of  St.  Paul),  the  entrance  from  the 
£.  is  now  4  m.  from  the  nearest  houses;  and,  in 
every  other  direction  except  the  W.,  the  boildinai 
have  similarly  receded  from  their  old  limits.  Vw- 
ney  describes  it  as  a  wretched  collection  of  hiits^ 
built  of  mud  and  straw,  with  narrow  and  msry 
streets,  and  exhibiting  every  appearance  of  mistfy 
and  desolation.  Kiimeir,  however,  says  that  *  tM 
houses  are  in  the  Turkish  fashion,  small,  bat 
neatly  built  of  hewn  stone.'  But  though  this  be 
the  case  with  some  of  them,  the  maiori^  are  ood- 
structed  of  slight  materials ;  and,  unlike  the  hooasi 
of  other  Syrian  or  rather  Eastern  towns,  have 
sloping  roofs  covered  with  thin  tiles.  There  are  ten 
or  twelve  mean  and  unimportant  moequei^  with 
low  minarets ;  but  in  this  dt]^,  so  frunoos  in  the 
annals  of  Christianity,  there  is  not  at  present  a 
single  Christian  church.  The  baths  and  basaii 
are  numerous,  but  neither  exhibit  anything  re- 
markable. It  has  manufactures  of  coarse  pottoy, 
cotton  stuffs,  leather,  &c ;  but  the  greater  part  ol 
the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  the  cultivation  and 
manufacture  of  silk. 

AH  traces  of  its  famous  theatres,  its  circoa,  and 
its  magnificent  baths,  ha\*e  irretrievably  pfr««>»f^ 


i  K  «a  tte  E.  of  ths  town  k  pot  of  On 
moMot  MiU  udata :  ud  on  tlic  9.  ua 
rf  n  ■qnoioctt  vhldi  conTCTcd  a  aupply 
km  the  foot  of  the  Iljabef  Oknli  (an. 
III).  The  old  walli  ue,  however,  in- 
—  1_  TheMWitioDofUie — '-~' 


_>,  <ni-liiji>g  ■  space  of  aevent  m. 

a,  lli^  «n  of  vwioiu  ago,  peit 
ffncnth',  u  oU  M  the  flm  fonndatlim  of 
^pait  RkaaUa  to  the  an  of  Roman  power, 
t  tte  week  uf  the  Cnuaden.  They  are 
•nr  the  beds  of  mountain  torrents,  and 
NBdeiof  elnuMt  peTpendiculai-  piEcipicaa, 
p  the  intetreniiig  EDre»  and  taTines,  M 

^Tu;  from  SO  or  So  R  Jn  hdght  to  op- 
70.  The  oldat  portion  nf  Che  walli  ii 
i«iMt  perfoct;  it  stands  upon  a  rock,  and, 
biHi  originailF  well  built,  naa  resbtod  the 
•  of  tiBW  and  the  shocks  of  earthquakee. 
N  MO  biidM,  one  at  five  archee  with  piers, 
eC  the  ro^  acna  a  ravine ;  and  ona  of 
SCTOflS  the  Oiontea.     In  the 

_.   .  OB,  Bpparaitl)'  inteoded  for 

jii  or  catacombs,  some  of  which  are  now 
phi  I  a  of  worship  by  the  Christian  poiwla- 

■deot  Syrian  name  of  Andoch  la  said  to 
HkBiUatli;  but  being  enlarged  and  bean- 
j  BekoeiM  Nkator,  he  gave  it,  u.c  801, 

■  fclha.  tbennneorAntioch.     It  became 

I  At  npatal  at  the  Macedonian  kingdom  of 
Ml  owiinnad  for  nearly  2(  ceoCorieB  to  be 
Iteee  of  the  monarcbs  of  the  Selenceidan 
f.  Aheot  65  years  b.c.  the  conquests  of 
y  hong^t  Antioch,  with  the  whole  of  Syria, 
he  centrol  of  Kome.  At  this  »ia  it  con- 
if  IsBT  distinct  towns,  each  iuiTing  separate 
ni«a>  the  whole  b^ng  sunDunded   by  a 

■  wijl ;  hence  it  was  sometimea  called 
ak  L'Ddci  the  Homans,  Aniioch  continued 
■esio  importance 


Cnuaden,  and  eontlnuad  to  be  the  capital  of  • 
Christian  prindpalit;  till  13C9,  when  it  was  taken 
by  the  Egyptian  aaltan,  by  whom  it  was  partially 
demolished.  It  was  added  to  the  Ottoman  empire, 
by  Sellm  I.,  in  ISlg ;  but  its  commercial  import- 

had  already  vanished;  and  it  has  continued, 

t  the  barbarous  sway  of  the  Turks,  to  decline 
',  has  reached  ita  present  state  of  comparative 

IrbevalWoftheOronteanireads,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood t^Antioch,  into  a  fertile  plain,  ID  miles 
in  length,  and  5  or  6  in  width ;  the  town  ai 


ice.    The  deserted  spaces  within  the  el 
eone  continued  garden;  but  in  general  the 
is  ill-cultivated,  being  abandoned  to  the 
Tnrifmans  and  other  wanderii^  tiibea.     Pliny 
■ — '"  "*■  -  part  of  Antioch  lying  on  the  right 


is,  the  frequent  reaort  of  the  emperor 
MedetmUd  town  of  the  empire  (thei 
nntad)  Rv  the 
idntre.  It  is  i 
^Urtoiy  irf' Christianity,  the  doctrines  of 
*■■  planted  in  it  br  Paul  and  Barnabas; 
.  i^  aba,  the  term  Ctriitia*  had  its  origic 
ritactiTe  appeUation.  (Acts  xl  26.)    It  has 

>  Oaeofthe  moat  celebrated  and 

occnrred  A.i>.  115.  The  emperor 
just  concluded  his  -------- 

I  wfth'tnnpa  and  atiangers  from  all  parts 
■dtntwvtld.  Theshoclieare  naid  tobave 
d  period,  and 


■d  S>  a  lanetbened  p 


Moala  were  buried  in  the  luini  of  the 

■tDniirer.IliR.XT.  ie8,8vo.ed.)  It  sguD 
I  arcKly  ftem  sinjlar  catastmphee  i  " 
«,  SM,  S96,  4W,  626,  anJ  58H:  thi 
tas,  it  is  said  (bat  such  statements  are 
al*l^  mneh  exaggerated),  above  60,00" 
"  -  '■'--■■--.  these  repeated  infii 
ly  Chosroes  the  Persian 

, _. d  again,  and  continued 

■  •  Qmeo  oTthe  East,' and  a  place  of  great 

BC^  tin  838,  when  it  fell  undei  the  r 

In  lOSB  it  was  taken  b 


■     '■'      '  er,    (Hist,  jiaUv.  21.)     Thism 

iburi),  and  probably,  as  in  the  case 

of  Aleppo,  a»  extennve  as  the  town  within  tlio 

'alls ;  but  no  vestiges  of  it  now  remain. 

Modem  critics  and  travellers  differ  in  opinion 

aa  to  the  site  of  the  grove,  and  village  of  Daptme, 

temple  of  Apnllo,  in  the  immediate  vicimty  of 

Atilioch.   Gibbon  ha«  given  the  following  descrip- 

of  this  long-famous  seat  of  reUgion  and  plea- 


»  of  5 


I.  from  A 


consecrated  U 


Macedonian  kmgs  of  Syria  ba 
Apollo  one  of  the  moat  elegant  r 
in  the  pagan  world.  A  magnificent  teraple  rose 
in  honour  of  the  Uud  of  light ;  and  his  colossal 
figure  almoot  filled  the  capacious  sanctuary,  which 
was  enriched  with  gold  and  gems,  and  adorned  liy 
the  skill  of  the  Grecian  artists.  The  deity  was  re- 
presented in  a  bending  attitude,  with  a  golden  cap 
in  his  hand,  pouring  out  a  litiation  on  the  earth, 
as  if  he  sopplicated  the  venerable  mother  to  give 


ian  poets  had  transplanted  the  amorous 
tale  from  the  banks  of  the  Peneus  to  those  of  the 
Orontea.  The  ancient  rites  of  Greece  were  imi- 
tated bv  the  roj^al  colony  of  Antioch.    A  stream 

tiun  of  the  Delphic  oracle,  flowed  bom  the  Caa- 
taUan  fountain  of  Dauhne.    In  the  adjacent  fields, 
ipecial  privile^  w^ '  ■- 


had  been  purchased  from  Klis :  the  Olympic  gan 
were  celebrated  at  the  oxpense  of  the  city;  and  a 
levenue  of  30,0OUJ^  Merlitie  was  annually  applied 
to  the  public  pleasures.  The  perpetual  raiort  of 
pilgrims  and  spectAtors  insensibly  formed,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  temple,  the  stately  and  popu- 
lous village  of  Daphne,  which  emuUted  the  splen- 
dour, without  acquiring  the  title,  of  a  provincial 
city.  The  temple  and  the  village  were  deeply  bo- 
somed in  a  thick  grove  of  laurels  and  cypresses, 
which  reached  as  &  as  a  circumference  of^  10  m., 
and  formed  in  the  moat  sultry  atunmers  a  cool  and 
impenetrable  shade.  A  thousand  streams  of  the 
purest  water  springing  from  every  hill,  preoerved 
the  verdure  of  the  euth  and  the  temptfature  of 
the  air ;  the  senses  were  gratified  with  harmonious 
sounds  and  aromatic  odours ;  and  the  peacefal 
grove  was  consecrated  tohealthand  joy,  to  luxury 
and  love.  The  vigorous  youth  puiwied,  like  Apollu, 
the  olgect  of  his  desire,  and  the  blushing  maid  was 
warned  by  the  fate  of  Daphne  to  shun  the  folly  of 
unseasonible  coyness.  The  soldiers  and  the  phi- 
losophers wisely  avoided  the  temptation  of  this 
sensual  paradise,  where  pleasure,  atsuming  the 
character  of  religion,  imperceptibly  dilisalved  the 
j  finnneaa  of    manly  virtue.      But  the   grevet  of 


144 


ANTIPAROS 


Daphne  continned  for  mnny  ajrcs  to  enjoy  the  ve- 
neration of  narivei*  and  Htrnn^funt ;  the  privileges 
of  the  holy  ground  were  enlarged  by  tlio  munifi- 
cence of  Hucccediiig  emperors ;  and  every  genera- 
tion added  new  ornaments  to  the  splendour  of  the 
temple.'     (Decline  and  Fall,  cap.  23.) 

ANTIPAKOS  (an.  Oliaros),  a  smaU  island  of 
the  (rreciau  Archifiela^o,  group  of  the  Cyclades, 
lietweeii  PanM  and  Siphanto.  1  ^  m.  W.  of  the 
former,  and  10  m.  E.  of  the  latter.  It  is  about 
7  m.  in  length  from  N.  to  S.  by  about  3  m.  breadth, 
its  highest  point  being  in  hit.*a<iO  59'  10"  N.,  long. 
25°  3'  6«)"  E.  It  couHLsts  of  a  mass  of  marble  co- 
vered with  a  mtxlerately  fertile  soil ;  and,  exclu- 
sive of  some  cotton  and  wine,  it  produces  barley 
enough  t4)  t^uffice  for  its  inhab.,  onisisting  of  some 
<)0  or  70  families  who  live  in  a  miserable  village 
about  1  m.  from  the  shore,  and  are  partially  em- 
ployeil  in  fishing.  Though  hardly  worthy  of  notice 
m  other  respects,  this  island  is  famous  for  an  im- 
mense subterranean  cavern  or  grr)tto.  Its  entrance 
is  on  the  side  of  a  hill  under  a  low  arch.  The 
pasmage  tlience  to  the  cavern  is  long,  narrow,  and 
in  parts  precipitous.  '  The  mtnle  of  descent  is  by 
ropes,  which  are  either  hehl  by  the  natives,  or 
joined  to  a  cable  fastened  at  the*  entrance  round  a 
stalactite  pillar.  In  this  manner  we  reache<l  the 
spacious  chambers  of  this  truly  enchanteii  grotto. 
The  riM>f,  the  floor,  the  sides  of  a  whole  series  of 
magnificeiit  caverns,  are  entirely  invested  with  a 
daxzling  incrustation,  as  white  as  snow.  Columns, 
some  01  wliich  were  2>>  ft.  in  length,  pended  in  fine 
icicle  forms  al>ove  our  heads ;  fortuiuitely,  some  of 
them  are  so  far  above  the  reach  of  the  numerous 
travellers  who  during  many  ages  have  visited  this 
])lace,  that  no  one  hai  been  able  to  injure  or  re- 
move thcnu  Others  extend  from  the  roof  to  the 
floor,  with  diameters  e(|ual  to  the  mast  of  a  first 
rate  ship  of  the  line.  The  lost  chaml)er  into  which 
we  descende<l  surprLned  us  more  by  the  grandeur 
of  its  exhibition  than  any  other.  Probably  there 
are  other  chanil>ers  still  unexplored.'  (Clarke's 
Travels,  vi.  p.  125,  8vo.  cd.) 

The  wra  of  the  discriverj'  of  this  cavern  in  mo- 
dem times  is  not  iLs^ertained :  but  it  was  first  mode 
fully  known  by  the  visit  paid  to  it  by  M.  Nointel, 
ambassador  from  France  to  the  Porte,  who  de- 
scendeii  into  it  with  a  cort6ge  of  no  fewer  than 
50U  indi\a(hiaLs  at  Christmas,  l(i7d.  On  this  oc- 
casion it  was  brilliantly  illuminat^vL  His  excel- 
lence' and  suite  remained  in  it  for  three  entire 
days,  and  celebrated  high  moss  at  midnight  on 
Christmas  in  thix  most  mogniticent  of  subterranean 
teniple.i.  It  was  also  visited  by  the  leameil  and 
excellent  traveller,  M.  Toumefort,  who  supposed 
tliat  he  saw  in  it  conclusive  pnM>fs  of  his  nngiilar 
theor\'  as  to  the  vegetation  of  stones.  (Toume- 
fort Voyage  du  Levant,  i.  pp.  iHo — 195,  4to  ed.) 
It  lias  since  been  repeatedly  visiteil  by  other  tra- 
vellers; and  it  u  said  that  the  smoke  from  the 
numerous  torchen  that  have  thus  necessarily  been 
carried  within  its  recesses,  have  somewhat  im- 
paired its  otherv^'ise  unrivalled  splendour  and  bril- 
liancv. 

a5:TIVA1U,  a  to^-n  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  19  m. 
W.  Scutari,  within  a  short  distance  of  the  sea,  lat. 
42°  15'  20"  N.,  long.  19©  4'  15"  K.  Pop.  estim.  at 
4,000.  It  is  defended  by  a  castle  on  a  steep  rock, 
is  the  residence  of  a  (ireek  archbishop,  and  the 
entrepTit  of  the  merchandise  of  the  valley  of  Drin. 

ANTOING,  a  market  town  of  Belgium,  prov, 
Hainault,  4  m.  SE.  Tournay.    Pop.  2,200  in  1850. 

AXT(JNIX  (ST.),  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Tarn 
et  Oanmne,  cap.  cant.,  in  a  spacious  valley  at  the 
c<mfluence  of  the  Aveyron  and  the  Bonnette,  22  m. 
ENE.  MontauUn.  *Pop.  5,152  in  IHCil.  The 
waters  of  tlio  Bonnette  being  charged  with  the 


ANTRIM 

refuse  of  various  tannoiiea  established  on  Hsbtnia, 
render  the  town  at  times  unhealthv.  It  has  fa- 
brics of  serges  and  other  wonlleo  stnlh,  and  piqier; 
and  a  considerable  commeroe  u  cairied  oo  ii 
leather,  pmnes,  and  Juniper. 

ANTKAIGUES,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Aidk^ 
cap.  cant,  11  m.  W.  Privas.  Pop.  1^76.  Ncir 
the  place  is  a  singular  canacway,  called  Ae 
OtauMB^e-dn-Geanis,  formed  by  ootonnades  of  ba* 
salt,  700  yards  in  length. 

AXTKIM,  a  marit.  co.  Ireland*  prov.  Ulster;  iti 
greatest  length  being  about  55  m.,  and  iu  greateii 
brvadth  about  82  m. ;  having  X.  and  £.  the  Irish 
Sei,  S.  Lough  Neagh  and  Down,  and  W.  Londni- 
deny,  from  which  it  is  separated  for  the  grettir 
part' by  the  Bann.    It  contains  758,866  imp.  aem, 
of  which  225,970  are  mountain  and  hog,  md 
49,790  water,  being  {Mirt  of  Lough  Neagh  whidi 
lies  jtrincipally  within  this  county.    11^  N.  and 
E.  (bstricts  are  mountainous,  and  there  are  aomc 
high  rugged  grounds  in  other  placea,  while  the  flat 
ground  along  Lough  Neagh  ia  in  many  puis 
bogg>'.    StilC  however,  there  ia  a.  large  extent  <jf 
fertile  grvmnd.     Prt)perty  in  very  great  estates; 
but  large  jtordons  of  some  of  them  are  ktased  liv 
ever.    Farms  small :  agriculture  in  moat  re^iecti 
similar  to  that  of  Down  (which  see).  The  onmixy 
round  Belfast  has  more  of  an  improved  appear- 
ance, and  the  people  are  more  orderly  and  indu- 
trious  tli^n  anywhere  else  in  Ireland.    Linen  ma- 
nufacture universally  diffused:  the  manufaetuf 
of  cotton  has  also  been  sacoeaafiilly  introdneed, 
with  some  others  of  inferior  importance.    A  ooal 
mine  is  wrought  at  Ballycastle;  but  noi  exten- 
sively, the  coal  being  of  bod  quality.    Besides  the 
Bann  and  the  Laggan,  which  form  part  of  its  Hw 
boundary,  it  is  watered  by  many  smaller  streams, 
but  none  of  them  are  na\'igable.    The  N.  coait 
is  remarkable  for  its  basaltic  columns,  whidi  an 
{uirticidarly  ooiisuicuous  at  the  far-famed  Giant's 
Causeway  (whicn  see).     The  lofl^  promontoriea 
of  Bengore  and  Fairhead  are  also,  m  a  great  mea- 
sure, compi>sed  of  tliese  columns.    There  are  eon- 
siderable  salmon  fisheries  on  the  coast.    Cairi<^- 
fergus  is  the  county  town ;  but  the  principal  towns 
arc  Belfast,  Lisbum,  Antrim,  and  Lane.    Pop, 
262,860  in  1821 ;  316,909  in  1831 ;  and  247,5&l  UB 
1861 :  it  contains  14  baronies  and  75  parishes;  and 
returns  five  m.  to  the  H.  of  Cm  viz.  two  for  the  co,, 
two  for  Belfast,  o'le  for  Carrickfergus,  and  one  for 
Lisbum.    Pari  constituency  of  co.,  10,921  in  lS6i, 

Antrim,  an  inland  toMm  of  Ireland,  cap.  co. 
Antrim,  prov.  Ulster,  on  the  Six-mile-water  near 
its  emliouchure  in  I^ough  Neagh,  94  m.  N.  Dublin. 
Its  ancient  name  was  Entrium,  or  Entmm-neagh, 
and  it  is  supposed  to  owe  its  origin  to  a  reUgioui 
house  founded  by  a  disciple  of  St.  Patrick.  It 
suffercil  much  in  the  wars  with  the  Danea  and 
with  the  first  English  settlers ;  and  in  1641  wai 
burnt  by  the  Scotch,  under  Munroe.  In  179H  it 
was  the  scene  of  a  sanguinary  conflict  between  the 
king*s  troops  and  the  insuigents,  in  which  the 
fi  inner  were  victorious,  but  with  the  loss  of  Lord 
O'Xeil,  who  conunanded  a  regiment  of  militia. 
In  Iftjil  the  pop.  of  the  par.  was  5p43:  of  which 
750  were  of  the  £.  Church,  1,252  K.  Catholics,  and 
3,541  Prot.  dis;  in  1861  the  pop.  of  the  par.  wai 
4,(>59,  and  of  the  town,  including  Maaaarene,  2,13.1. 
The  town,  lying  in  the  bostmi  of  a  fertile  valley, 
consists  of  two  main  streets,  with  several  brandies 
Houses  sul>stantially  built  of  stone,  sevoal  exhi- 
biting proofs  of  considerable  antiquity.  Ita  public 
biiildiiigs  arc  the  par.  church,  an  ancient  edifice, 
but  lately  repaired :  a  spacious  R.  C.  chapel ;  two 
places  of  worship  for  Presbyterians ;  two  for  lle- 
thodists;  and  one  for  the  Society  of  Frienda. 
There  arc  schools  for  boys  and  girla^  under  the  en- 


ANTWERP 

Ermmnu  Smith ;  uid  sevei 
n  uf  which  DSu-lyTUO  cliiliL 

•bo  ■  meudidlr  sncLL't^'* 
Pnriously  to  the  Union  the  bonra^h 
to  the  lri»h  p«rf.  The  court-houBe,  m 
r  the  town,  ia  lued  for  holding  ^^enera] 
the  peace  in  April  and  Octotwr,  and 
W  on  altemalc  TuMlays.  The  couit- 
it  afiKviil  of  the  mimcir  of  Moylenny 


146 


bihtte 


h  the) 


xl  b(- the  MarquLt  of  UoneBa!,pre- 

ho  beld'hen ;  the  latter  court  deci'-- 
« to  the  amonnt  of  20/.  Pait  of 
•  la  Dned  ai  a  bridewelL  Clone  to 
isidence  of  Viwount  Ferrsrd,  i 
iiliiil  ia  a  perfect  pillar-tower,  91 
.eoaieal  tooL  The  manufietura 
(m,  oottoo,  and  hoaioy.  There 
ill  ftniiiii  in  the  nei^hbouihood ;  j 
SSh,  one  of  which  flnt  intmduced  i 
fiaeim  of  making  paper  in  weba  like 
i  of  Mpante  «heet«.    There  are  aim 


Ho«t 


■catteiHi  amoDR  the  cUfferent  churclies  and  cou- 
Fenta.  It  compriaea  some  of  the  choicest  apeei- 
men«  of  the  msitteni  of  the  FtcmLih  Khool :  as 
Kubena,  Van  Dyke.  Jnrdaena,  Van  Vien,  and  Mar- 
tin de  Voe.  Antwerp  has  a  theatre ;  an  academy 
of  painting  (St.  Luke')i),  which  originated  in  the 
Wai  century;  a  roval  academy  of  the  fine  arta, 
eatablished  m  1817;  an  academy  nf  adencca ;  an 
Athentram,  or  colleice ;  Latin,  medical,  and  naval 
Khoola ;  a  gallerv  of  sculpture ;  a  public  Liiinuv, 
with  ia,000  vok'i  a  botanical  garden  ;  with  vari- 
ous learned  societies,  and  many  giKJd  private  col- 
lections of  worka  of  art.  Ita  eharitalilc  institu- 
tions include  Kveral  hospttals,  asylums,  and  work- 
houses. It  is  the  seat  of  the  court*  of  assize  fur 
the  province;  of  alribunal  of  original  jurisdiction, 
a  commercial  tribunal,  4c  The  people  have  every 
appearance  of  being  in  ojmfortanle  circumstances, 
and  ai«  quiet  and  oiderlv.  The  upper  claaea 
speak  French,  and  the  lower  Flemiih. 
The  manufactures  are  vcrv  various,  and  are  of 
insiderable  importance  and  value.  They  com- 
,  -ise  fabrics  of  silk  and  cotton  stocking  thread 
and  tape,  Imeu  and  calico  printing.  Embroidciy, 
bleaching,  sugar-refining,  and  sliip-tiuilding  are 
:ten«ive!y  carried  on.  The  lapidaries  of  Ant- 
""  "~  very  skilful  in  the  cutting  of  diamonds 


ity  is  tiom  S2  to  40  It  at  ehb  tide,  with  a  rise 
t  springs  of  from  12  to  U  ft. ;  and  as  this  depth 
t  increased  towards  the  sea,  Antwerp  La  a  pecu- 
iarly  eligible  silnalion  for  the  formation  nf  dock- 
'anla  and  the  building  of  large  ships.  Its  capo- 
bihtv  in  this  respect  did  not  e.<icape  the  observation 
i^apoleon,  who  endeavoured  to  raiie  it  to  the 
It  rank  as  a  naval  arsenaL  nis  plana  in  fur- 
jrance  of  this  object  were  judiciously  devised  on 
-  7ety  grand  scale,  and  were  lealuualy  prosecuted. 
Two  large  hajdns,  capable  of  admitting  ships  of 


thi 


were  excavated  o: 


e  N.  I 

Baof  17,  and  the  other 


I  to  amt  tn  Belfast,  its 
UCcd  by  the  contiguil: 
m  a  small  quav  has  been  erected 
tt  the  Six-mUe-water.  Markets  i 
riaya  Ibr  grain,  and  on  Thursdays 
aoHB;  and  fain  on  Jan.  1,  May 
I  Kov,  12.  Antrim  is  a  station 
««]  Ballymena  railway,  14  m.  N^ 


'  Belgium,  cap.  pmv.  and  arrond.  of 
M  the  N'.  hank  of  the  Scheldt,  'lli  m. 
St  m.  E.  Ghent,  on  the  railway  from 
lottadam.  The  city  is  in  the  shape 
ic  arch  beuig  formed  by  the.  wsllx, 
ord  by  the  river,  A  strong  pen- 
M,  buik  bv  the  Duke  of  Alva  in 
ISDTkI  by  tie  French,  stands  on  the 
I  toim,  which  is  farther  defended  by 
I  on  both  sdes  the  river.  Though 
td  Ann  its  former  prosperity,  Ant~ 
D-bniU  fine  old  citv,  and  ia  in' various 
itjr  interesting.  The  principal  street, 
a,  rivals  any  in  F.urope.    It  ia  about 

Portland  Place,  but  the  variety  and 
Iba  architecture  render  it  far  more 

The  older  and  narrower  streets,  bor- 
ttj  houses  with  their  gables  to  the 
Ignlarlv  picturaique.  Antwerp  had 
pL  of  88,487,  and  of  IH.fiHS  in  1861. 
W  of  .\ntwerp  is  its  calholral,  a  bd- 
tmcture,  begun  earlv  in  the  fifteenth, 
rttillthesixteenthcentury.  Itaspirc, 
tnantifut  and  delicate  workmanship, 
Uober  and  others  to  be  466  ft.  high ; 
[toa  statement  in  the 'PennvCyelo- 
■  100  ft.  too  much,  the  heigfit  being 
d  to  be  only  861  ft. !  The  interior 
■1  grandeur  with  the  exterior,  and 

t  *  Descent  from  the  Cross,'  is  gene- 
d  aa  his  dief-<T<Kirrr.  Uf  the  other 
It  of  Sl  James,  which  contains  the 
aM,  St.  Andrew  and  St  Pnul,  arc  the 
Md.  All  of  them  are  adorned  with 
I,  The  Bonrw  or  Exehangi  lk  one 
bnOdings  of  its  class  m  Fur  pe    it    . 

•ctthI  as  a  model  for  the  !>  ndon    I 
nnit  down  in  l)Ct       The  I/otrl  dt    t  ^ 

bk  struclnre,  rebuilt  m  1  HI  after  The  greater  part  by  far  of  tl 
r«d  by  fire,  is  a  magn  hcent  fabric  Belgium  ccnins  here.  The  imports  c'onnst  prin- 
al  the  Recollels  has  liccn  cinverted  dpally  of  wheat,  ccillce,  sugar,  cotton,  tobacco, 
IB,  in  which  la  a  superb  riillectiun    and  all  sorts  of  colunisi  pniduce ;    with  cutluii 

{■eluding  many  that  were  formerly  [  stufli,  wine,  hardware,  ishea,  coal,  hides.  pe[i|iia, 


ith  careening  and  repairing 

docks,  storehouses,  &c,  all  planned  and  executed 

the  best  and  most  approved  manner,  and  at  an 

mense  expense.    On  the  downfall  of  Xapoteon 

pleCelv  destroyed ;  and  it  was  even  debated  whe- 
ther {he  two  great  baidus  should  share  the  same 
Luckily,  however,  they  were  prcseried ;  and 
converted  into  commercial  docks,  are  of  the 
tignal  service  to  the  trade  and  navigation  of 

f.    The  fleet  and  naval  stores  in  tlie  arsenal, 

when  !t  surrendered  to  Ihe  allied  forces  in  1841, 
B  diviiieil ;  two-thirds  being  assigned  to  France, 
one-thud  to  the  King  of  the  Netherlands, 
[er  fine  river,  and  Ihe  numerous  canals  with 
which  It  is  united,  give  Antwerp  great  advantages 
dal  emporium  ;  and  during  the  early 
part  of  the  lEtb  century  she  was  one  of  the  Hxit 
trading  cities  of  Kurope,     Owing,  however,  to  the 
■  ■     ■     sy  of  the  Diilch,  and  the 
,  h'erforeign  trade  was  n  earlv 
annihilated  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
uries.  But  the  navigation  of  the  Scheldt,  which 
been  formally  closed  by  the  treaty  of  West- 
phalia, was  re-opened  on  the  occupation  of  Etelgium 
'     "        h,and  since  the  peace  of  18  lo  the  trade 
hat  rapdly  increased ;  and  the  pro- 
is  to  be,  looking  at  the  natural  advsn- 


146 


ANTWERP 


indi^  and  other  dye-stuffs,  Tlio  tiin!)cr  used  in 
8)iil)-buildiii^  w  mostly  broufi^ht  by  water  from 
the  int^irior.  The  exports  consist  chietiy  of  com, 
linsoe«l,  Hax,  burk  and  madder,  linen,  larx>,  caipctji. 
tallow,  hoi).s  efrft^  Iwil>or,  machinery,  and  fruit. 
In  18<)1,  l,354,9r»7  qrs.  of  grain  and  flour  were 
imported  into,  and  98,893  qra.  exported  from, 
Antwerp. 

The  increase  in  the  trade  of  Antwerp  is  evincerl 
by  the  fact,  that  while  only  G81  sliips  arrived  at 
the  jMirt  in  1824,  and  8^)0  iii  1825,  there  arrived  in 
IHilCu  1.245  ships  of  the  buitlen  of  176,079  toiLS 
and  in  1837, 1,426  ships  of  the  bunlen  of  225,030 
tons.  In  1861,  2,77h  vessels  entereil  the  port,  and 
2,786  cleareil.  Antwerp  is  connected  by  railway 
with  Kottenlam,  (ihent,  Malinea,  and  Bniiuels, 
and  is  an  important  point  in  the  Bel^n  Hystem 
of  railways,  through  which  it  is  connected  with 
the  railway  svstcms  of  France  and  Germany. 
Tliere  is  ref^iiW  steam  packet  communicatioD 
between  Antwerp,  I«ondon,  and  Hull. 

Antweri)  has  produced  many  distiu^ished  men, 
beinf^  the  birthplace  of  the  painters  Teniers,  Viui 
Dyke,  Jonluens  and  Crayer ;  the  ge(>grapher 
Oftelias.  and  the  oilmirable  engraver  Edeliiik. 

Antwerp  is  very  ancient.  I^otlovico  (inicciardini, 
in  his  *  Descrizionc  di  Paesi  Bassi,*  descrilMis  it  in 
1560  as  a  city  of  vast  wealth  and  the  most  exten- 
sive commerce;  adding,  that  it  was  no  uncommon 
thing  for  5nO  8hi|)6  to  enter  and  leave  itii  port  in  a 
Hingle  day  !  And  making  every  allowance'  for  the 
<fxaggeration  olivious  in  this  statement^  there  is 
no  doubt  that  it  then  enjoyed  a  m<»re  extensive 
foreign  trade  than  ony  other  city  in  the  N.  of 
EurojK?.  But  thiu  prtwjx'rity  was  d(>stined  to  be 
of  short  duration.  In  1576  it  was  sacked  and 
|)artly  bume<l  by  the  Spanianla.  In  1585,  it  was 
investe^l  by  the  famous  Alexander  Famese,  prince 
f)f  Parma,*  wlio  to(»k  it  after  a  lengthene<l  and 
Tuemorable  siege.  After  its  capture  the  greater 
])art  of  iti)  merchants  an<l  iiriiicipal  people  emi- 
grated to  Am!!iterdam  and  other  towns  in  the 
United  Provinces,  carrying  "with  them  their  capi- 
tal, skill,  and  connections.  The  ruin  of  its  traile 
dates  from  this  eiM>ch,  and  was  consummated  by 
the  Dutch  obtaining  the  command  of  the  river, 
nnd  by  tlie  stipulation  in  the  treaty  of  West  pi  wdia 
bv  which,  as  alreadv  seen,  it  was  regularly  claH(>il. 
In  1794  it  fell  int4i  the  hands  of  the  French,  who 
made  it  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Deux 
Nethes,  and  held  it  till  1814.  On  the  revolt  of  the 
lielgian  provinces  in  1830  the  Dutch  garrison 
continue<l  to  hold  the  citadel  for  the  King  of  the 
Netherlands:  and  the  latter  having  refitsed  to 
make  it  l)e  evacuated,  agreeably  to  the  determina- 
tion of  the  great  powers,  a  French  army  «)f  65,000 
men,  under  MarHiial  Geronl,  entered  Belgium  in 
NovemlxT,  1832,  to  comi»el  its  evacuation.  Tlie 
details  of  the  siege  are  well  known.  The  trencher 
went  o[K>ned  on  the  29th  November;  and  after  an 
obstinatA*,  but  not  a  skilful  or  energetic  defence, 
the  citadel  surrendered  on  the  24  th  of  December. 
In  recent  times,  fiarticularly  since  the  year  1848, 
the  {Kjpulation  of  Antweqt  has  tAken  up  a  some- 
what hostile  position  against  the  Belgian  govern- 
ment^ o^dng  chietiy  to  the  detennuiation  of  the 
latter  t4)  sunround  the  town  with  new  and  exten- 
aivc  fort  itlcations,  which,  it  is  fearerl  by  commercial 
men,  will  interfere  with  trade  and  slupping,  and 
lead  to  possible  ruin  in  another  war. 

AXZIN,  a  village  of  France,  dep.  du  Xord,  3  m. 
W.  Valenciennes,  on  the  railway  from  Valen- 
ciennes to  Dimay.  Pop.6,305in  1861.  ThecfKintrj' 
near  Anzin  is  the  seat  of  the  richt>st  coal  mines  in  ' 
Fmnce.  They  have  been  wr«)ught  since  1731,  and 
some  of  the  pits  are  as  much  as  1,50<)  ft.  in  depth.  | 
The  mines  of  Anzin,  Vieux  Conde,  and  Fumes,  | 


APENNINES 

ore  Mud  to  employ  in  all  above  4.000  woik^people. 
and  to  furnish  annually  nearly  8,000.000  hect<JilRf 
of  coaL  There  are  also  iron-foondiriei  and  ^Mh 
works. 

AOR,  or  ATJR  (Pm!o),  an  island  in  the  CUn 
Sea,  off  the  £.  coast  of  the  Malay  Peninnila.  3  ■. 
by  i  m.  in  diam.  Kst,  pop  1,4(M).  It  is  daable* 
peaked,  the  one  peak  1,805  and  the  other  1,520  K 
m  height.  On  the  NW.  side  there  i»  a  b^ 
sheltered  from  the  NE.  monsoon,  in  which  iUh 
anchor  in  stormy  weather,  awaiting  a  favoahUi 
change  for  entering  the  Straita  of  Singapore. 

AOSTA,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  capu  pnr. 
same  name,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Butera  vift 
the  Dora,  at  the  opening  of  the  two  vallevsof  iki 
Great  and  Little  St  Bernard,  49  m.  NNW.Tv^ 
Pop.  7,830  in  1861.  It  has  straight  brood  stieeli; 
and  many  of  the  houses  having  gardens  attadwl 
to  them,  it  covers  a  large  extent  of  ground.  It  ii 
the  seat  of  a  council  of  justice,  and  of  abishoprie; 
but  is  principally  distmguislied  by  its  rmu  d 
editices  constructed  by  the  Romans,  among  wbidi 
are  a  triumphal  arch,  a  suix»rb  gate  wxu  tfani 
arches,  ami  the  remidns  of  an  amphitheatre.  Il 
received  different  names  from  the  Komaus,  benq 
sometimes  called  Civiiai  Auatutif  Augmsta  Prm 
toria  Julia,  and  Aupugta  SatoMhrmm;  the  laite 
from  its  lui\ing  been  the  capital  of  the  Stlaarii 
sulxlued  bv  Terentius  Varro. 

AP£N>[IXF:s,  the  name  given  to  the  monouii 
system  which  traverses  the  whole  length  of  Italf 

Umbrorismediom  qua  conibns  Apcnninoi 
Krigit  ItAliam,  nalloqoa  vcrtioe  tcllu^ 
Althis  intamnit,  propiiuiqiie  aooeft^lt  Olympo. 
Mons  inter  p^mlnas  medlas  se  porrigit  umla*, 
Inroml  anperique  maris :  coUomiuc  oocrumt. 
Hi  no  Tyrrhena  voilo  fmnizcnto^fequora  FiMe, 
Hiiic  Dalmaticls  obnoxia  flnctilniH  Anoon. 

At  its  W.  extremity  this  range  in  so  closely  cflh 
nei'teti  with  the  Alps,  that  it  may  be  ctwidend 
as  an  extensive  offset  of  that  great  system.  It  ii 
difficult  to  determine  where  the  Aljis  terminaM 
and  the  Apennines  \x^n :  some  thmk  that  ihi 
road  over  the  Col  di  Tende  (7°  40'  E.  long.)  fow 
the  iMundary :  others  assign  for  it  that  road  whiA 
l>egins  on  the  N.  at  Alessandria,  runs  in  the  raOit 
of  the  Bormida  to  Acqut,  Spigno,  &c..  and  tnan 
nates  on  the  coast  at  Savona,  rising  at  it^  higM 
lH>int  to  4,460  ft.  alN)ve  the  sea;  others  think  thift 
the  sea  A\\)»  extend  to  the  road  which  leads  fioa 
Novi  (m  the  N.  over  the  Pa.*«  of  the  Buccbetti 
(2,550  ft.)  to  Genoa  im  the  coast 

The  Northern  Apcnnineji  extend  from  the  Pm 
of  the  Bocchctta  E.,  with  a  slight  declinatioa  to 
the  S.  through  three  degrees  of  longitude  (9^ ad 
12°)  to  Monte  Falterona,  lying  E.  of  Florence 

The  Central  iVpcnnincs'  extend  finm  Mooli 
Falterrma  SE..  with  some  bends  to  either  side,ai 
far  as  Monte  Velino,  or  nearly  two  degrees  oX  )Ma 
tude  (44°  and  4'2P). 

The  Southern  Apennines,  beginning  at  Moat 
VeUno,  nm  ESE.  between  42°  and  U^  X.  bl 
South  of  the  last-mentifmcd  }iaralleU  between  fh 
towiis  of  Con^ta,  Acereuza,  and  Verosa,  and  at  th 
sources  of  the  Brandano,  they  divide  into  tw 
branches ;  of  which  the  E.,  extending  first  E.  n 
then  SE.,  terminates  at  C-apo  dc  Leuca.  opponl 
C!orfu.  The  W.  range  runs  between  4\^  and  3S 
N.  lat,,  nearly  SSE.,  and  between  30^  and  3t 
SSW.,  and  terminates  witli  the  Capo  dell*  An 
on  the  S.  extremity  of  the  Straits  ol  Messina. 

The  Northern  Apemiines.  which,  near  the  Fi 
(»f  the  Bocchetta.  are  of  moderate  height  ai 
breadth,  occupy  farther  E.  a  greater  h|iace  ai 
rise  to  a  higher  elevation.  The  highwt  sumrai 
are  between  \(P  and  11°  E.  long.,  where  Hon 


BTHta  to  MBI  f^  ■"•1  Hemic  Cimone  to 
Tliai  noTthpm  ilpclivily  inwarda  tbe 
he  Po  ia  gmhul  and  fcvmlt^  1  tmt  towudi 
•7  linra  wiih  an  «lmipt  snii  •leep  do- 
a  tbt  S.  thf  V  (lend  off  fmr  latpral  iwirw, 
kicb  that  which  is  ollpd  the  Alpi  Apnani 
■t  remarkablr,  uiil  hichont.  It  leave* 
aangt  Vf,  at  If  oal«  Pelt^n^o,  and  i) 
n  It  b;  a  coiuiilerafale  depreuinn.  It 
' '  — '■  ' ' — " —  at  a  bhnrt  di*- 


IT  the  t( 

It  fonna  a  mam  of  HocIt  cri-slalliMd 
:  warlT  SO  milra  lnnK<  and  Marcely  ( 
drralinn  than  4,000  ft.  abnve  the  i 
■1  morh  hiKhet,  aa  In  the  Panni  A 

the  S.  extremity,  6.10!  ft.,  the  Pi 
■t  the  KW.  eod.  6.m;  ft.,  and  Huile 
tCmwa.  S310  ft.    Oo  the  olnpe  of  the 
kmtd  iDaDfitain  the  quaniea  are  worked, 
di,  neuly  for  !,000  yean,  the  finest 


ta  the  '.tXitv  oT  the  1 


rwanla  de»cpni!«  to  Pontre- 


n  the  V 


leMa- 


«  Gulf  of  ^przln.  Futhir  E. 
MB  Hodena  and  PUtuJa ;  it  run*  thruueh 
lev*  Pelatnu  on  the  wat  of  Monte  Ci- 
I  tnvenee  the  ranico  liy  Ilic  Pua  oT 
The  third  mail  uniln  Bohiena  with 
it  nuu  ^m  Bolof^na  over  the  plain  of 
to  Lijano,  entna  thf  rantn  bv  the 
iem  Hala,  at  an  elevai  tun  of  a,2)tl  ft., 
■bbito  the  valley  of  the  Sieve,  whence 
TW>  latenJ  lidf^of  modozate  chn'atioii 
MdFlureneF. 

■Anf  Apennitiea  mav  be  divided  into 
Betwwn  Monte  Falteruna  (S.  of  44°) 
I  Sibilla  (.S.  of  4.'t°)  Ihi-ir  Kcneral  dircv- 
L,  aad  thnuRh  their  upper  declivity  is 
,  they  do  nut  imin  to  rise  to  s  great 
fn  of  the  hi^fhivt  aummita.  Cima  do 
hatdly  exiwlint;  4.000  (t.  BrlH'een 
■Da  and  Monte  Velino  (S.  of  40°  lat.) 
dnca  attain  thHr  (rrvateat  elevation. 
bOta  riaes  to  7.212  ft.,  and  Monte  Ve- 
in ft.  N*aHv  at  equal  diKlani-e  from 
d  DMT  the  aiiutre  <ir  the  Veliiin,  two 
Sn  branch  nlT,  ithivli  are  overtopped  by 
■iH;  on  that  which  ninH  to  the  SUL, 
■AdnatkSeiiiilheUraaHNHid'ltBlia. 
Mit,dw  Houte  Comn.  aiiaina  a^Sil  (t. 
1  Ha,  and  i«  the  hiitlieiit  in  the  mntte. 
'.lateral  range  iitbeTemiinvllulirande, 
above  the  aea.  yiiTnvnxM  are  the 
1^ which  1>nnch  off  fntm  thef^Iral 
I,  Thnw  nuininc  linrardii  the  Adriatic 
atariy  riffhl  an;:I«<  with  (he  |)nnctnal 
tore  for  Mine  diitance  a  ronridrralile 
and  lower  afterwnrdii  mpidly  but  [;ts- 
IwT  leminate  with  hilhi.  nl'  no  ercal 
UBtfaeahoie.  Tlielslenil  ri(l;;<i<,n'hi<.'h 

laea  and  the  Medltemuiesii,  run  mostlv 

valley  H  exiewliiic 

I,  by  whieh  the  cinintr>'  ifRtdu- 

nl*  the  aea.    In   tln'so  lateral 

iMtlrralde  elivn- 

ic»faiii(aor43o 

lo&.:Mft. 

_9e  the  N.  piirtinii  nfitieCenlTal 

The  uurthein  begins  on  the  Hide  of 


147 
the  Adriatic  at  Fos'Umibrone,  on  the  Hctaun ; 
runs  8.  toGiiKli,  ondpaiBoa  over  the  raiure  Iwlween 
thia  place  and  SIkiIIo.  whence  it  coniinum  to 
Mecon  and  Folipio,  and  hence  bv  Spcdoto,  Tcmi, 
and  Xnrni,  to  K.inie.  The  S.  mad  Iwfina  at  An- 
cona,  rana  S.  to  Lorelo.  and  hence  W.  to  T.dcn- 
tjno  and  Relforte;  between  the  laat-mentionnl 
place  and  FoliLiin,  it  paiwa  the  ran(.-e  at  some 
dialanco  N.  of  Monte  Sibilla.  Only  on*  roni 
traveiwa  the  no 
Apetuiinaa. 

Nera,  a  trihuturv  of  the  Til»3-.  paawa  hence  to 
Rieti  and  Civita  thicale,  on  the  Velino.  wlienee  it 
traveraea  the  ranf^c  by  a  long  mniinliiin-paM, 
which  terminates  near  Ai^uilo,  on  the  Altcmo, 
and  thence  the  road  crmlinuea  to  Sulmona. 

The  undii-ided  portion  of  the  !^  Apfnnlnea  re- 
■emblee.  in  part,  the  Central  ApeniiineH:  Ita  iilT- 
«eta,  towards  the  Adriatic,  mn  off  at  nesriv  richt 
aoffln;  buton  the  W.it  has  a  hitcral  ritltfolwliich 
rqns  parallel  tn  it  fur  a  dialance  of  more  tlian 
ao  m.  i  and  between  it  and  the  prinw|ial  rantre  ex- 
tend* a  lonjfituilinal  valley,  drained  bv  the  Vol- 
tunio,  and  ltd  trilmiary,  thet'al.m:    ofter  theno 

range,  and  enter  into  the  plain  of  Terra  di  I.avi.oi. 
The  principal  ranuie  contain?  some  hif;h  siimmitii, 
la  Monie  Metn,  1.16i  ft.,  Monte  Miletio.  H,7ai  11. 
ibovu  (he  wa.  The  hi|;lieat  port,  however,  ai-oma 
o  be  the  Matere,  an  enormoun  maw  of  chalk  n«lia, 
0  m.  in  circ..  .iiualnl  at  the  aoiireea  .if  the  Hi- 
fenio.  nearly  in  414°  S.IaL    On  BHnio  of  il«  mjid- 

_:.. italed  to  be  fouiul  the  wluile  voar. 

.    _     lurcpa  of  the  rivec  Calnre  n'liilunii 

tnanch  run*  off  nearly  due  W..  whiuh  teniiinali'H 

with  a  hi^h  ridfle  on  the  ueninauhi  S.  of  the  (iiiir 

ofNauleo.    It  i-<>ntain>>  tlie  Himtc  S.  Aiipdo  di 

Cantelntnare,  which  riant  to  the  heiuht  nr4.li)<K  ft. 

ThcW.exlremltyorihiaridfca  la  ilie  Punln  .lella 

Cnm|iBnelbi,  0|>]>u)iite  the  niily  Ldand  of  Caiai. 

Uonle  (iatKano,  a  promontory  pniiecrinj;  into  the 

Ailriatic.  ia  commonly  contHderpcl  an  the  E.  nx- 

Inmnty  of  nnutlitr  lateral  riilRe  of  the  Ajienninca, 

but  it  a  quite  unconnected  with  tliat  tangff,  beiiii; 

aeporainl  fnuii  ita  ncareat  uflwt  by  a  low  |diun, 

—  iny  miles  in  breailth. 

Phia  lanttc  ia  Iniveraed  by  two  road* :  one  rana 

im  the  town  of  Naples  tot'apiin  aiHl  ]'m>en7aiio, 

d  paHHw  over  the  lateral  ri.lj.T  encliwinc  ibe 

llev  of  the  Voltumo  to  Venafro  and  laiTiiia. 

^wccn  lavmlaandCaiitel  di  Sant,rm  it  i-niiwH 

e  iirinri|«l  raiiKe  nf  Uie  Apeniiinea.  and  froiii 

e  loal-mentioneil  place  It  continuva  to  Snhnona 

A  i;hlelL     Tlie  B«™id  r«uid  atrike*  irfT  E.  fnm 

XaplcH,  and  luwaea  over  the  (iiat  raofre  by  the 

pBH*  of  Monte  ^'tifrinet  it  llien  dewenils  into  the 

valfev  of  the  river  (.'nlore.  in  which  it  IiarriH;* 

•if  Avcllinoand  Anono.   K  of  llie  laat- 

injjeoftlwtA|ien- 


1  which  the   mad 


•   1-01 


Hovino.  ami  then  enters  the  Rreat  jibdn  of  I'liglia 
(il  1'avoUeri  della  I>ui;lia),  and  cunt  uiues  tuFoggia. 


,     ..  Adriatic  anil 

uir  of  Taratito.    Tliey  are  inI«rTU|iteil  in 

[liiectlv  .<«..  oiui  a]i|niwc>he« 
bv  ih'Km-a  the  ahrirea  of  the  MoUlerTanean  Sni 
'     E.  ai<k  of  the  Uulf  of  Polu-aatru  it  i-<nufs 

tix  aa  the  Uiilf  of  8.  F.ulcmia,  when:  it  suddenly 
' -n  the  E.,  but  aeon  again  to  the  S.,  in  which 


148 


APENRADE 


direction  it  skirts  the  eastern  iihores  of  Calabria, 
between  the  (rulf  of  Squillace  and  Clapo  S|)arti- 
vento.  In  this  chain  arc  some  elevate<l  HummitM 
Monte  Pollino  (nejir  MP  N.  laU)  rii*efl  to  7,()*>7  fu 
al)ovc  the  8oa,  and  Monte  Alto,  the  highest  8um- 
.  mit  of  the  great  mountain  mast:,  with  wliich  the 
Apennines  terminate  on  the  Straits  of  Messina,  is 
4,880  ft.  a})ove  the  sea. 

In  addition  to  the  roads  enumcratcil,  the  A|)en- 
nincs  arc  crossed  at  several  points  by  the  Italian 
network  of  railways,  in  course  of  eonstruction,  or 
already  completed     {See  Italy.) 

Geology. — ^The  N.  parts  of  the  Apennines  are, 
in  general,  com^josea  of  sandstone  and  chalk. 
Tlic  former  is  known  in  Toscana  by  the  name  of 
macignOf  or  jtietra  werena^  and  several  high  moun- 
tains arc  comiKwed  of  it:  others  consist  of  chalk, 
and  others  of  madgno  and  chalk  t^^ther.  In  the 
8.  ranges  the  chalk  formation  predominates,  es- 
pecially on  the  W.  side ;  on  the  E.  declivity  sand- 
stone occurs  in  a  few  places.  A  great  ptrtiou  of 
the  hilly  districts,  which  extend  to  the  W.  of  the 
range,  and  intersect  the  plains  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean, is  composed  of  lava  and  other  volcanic 
productions.  This  region  extends  from  Monte 
Vesuvius  on  the  S.,  to  the  river  Ombrone,  in 
Tuscany,  on  the  N.  Near  this  river  is  Monte 
Amiata'  and  Monte  Kadicofani  (3,000  ft.  high), 
both  volcanic  mountains.  A  volcanic  count rv  en- 
closes  the  lakes  of  Bolsena  and  Bracciano,  and  the 
rockv  masses  near  Viterbo  arc  also  of  volcanic 
origfn.  8.  of  the  Tilx»r  other  volcanic  rocks  of 
considerable  extent  and  elevation  form  the  moun- 
tains near  AIImuio:  here  Monte  Cavo  rises  to 
3,110  ft,  altovc  the  sea.  The  country  round 
Kome  is  overspread  Mrith  voloiinic  matter;  and  the 
Seven  Ilills  themsdves  are  partlv  composed  of  it. 
A  third  volcanic  region  occurs  5^.  of  Capua,  hear 
Teano,  where  several  heights  rise  to  a  considerable 
elevation,  especially  Monte  St.  Croce.  Mount 
Vesuxaus  and  t  he  volcanic  country'  mund  tlie  town 
(tf  Naples,  constitute  the  most  southerly  rt^on  of 
the  Vulcanic  tract  which  skirts  the  W.  side  of  the 
Apennines.  On  the  E.  side  of  the  A|)ennines  onlv 
a  single  extinct  volcano  has  Ixicn  found ; — it  is 
Monte  Vulture,  near  Melfi,  not  far  from  the  place 
where  the  bifurcation  of  the  range  takes  place. 

The  lower  decUvirics  of  the  principal  range,  and 
1  great  part  of  the  lateral  ranges,  where  they  do 
not  rise  above  an  elevation  of  3,000  ft.,  are  com- 
monly clothed  with  wooiis,  especially  evergreen, 
oak,  and  chestnut.  The  up{)er  parts  of  t  he  princii>al 
range  have,  in  general  an  arid  soil,  or  are  formeil 
of  bare  rocks,  of  fantastic  forms,  and  destitute  of 
vegetation,  except  a  few  stunted  bushes.  The 
whole  range  is  poor  in  metals,  none  of  them  oc- 
curring, except  iron  ore  in  a  few  places,  and  of 
bad  quality.  But  in  manv  places  excellent 
marble  is  met  with,  and  in  a  few  it  is  worked. 

The  higher  parts  of  the  Apennufies  bqu^n  to  be 
covered  witli  snow  in  OctolKT,  and  they  are  not 
entirely  free  from  it  bd'orc  June.  It  is  deserving 
of  remark,  that  the  quantity  of  rain  falling  in  the 
countries  £.  of  the  range  is  much  less  tlian  that 
with  w^hich  those  on  the  W.  arc  favouretl.  In  the 
plain  of  Puglia  the  rain  amounts  onlv  to  about 
19  inches  aimually,  whilst  in  tliat  of  Terra  tli 
I.avoro  it  is  27  indies. 

ITie  countries  lying  W.  of  the  range  are  subject 
to  frequent  earthquakes,  and  even  some  parts  of 
the  range  itself  are  visited  by  them.  An  earth- 
quake m  the  country  lying  about  Mount  Matesi> 
oocuired  in  1805,  by  which  3,274  persons  lost  their 
lives,  and  l,ol3  were  woundetL 

APENRADE,  a  sea-port  town  of  the  Duchy  of 
Schleswig,  Germany,  at  the  l)ott4im  of  a  bay  of 
the  same  name  on  the  E.  coast,  opposite  to  the  N. 


APPENZELL 

end  of  the  island  of  Alsen  \l^Ub5P^hT  N^lon?. 
^  26' 38"  £.  Pop.  4,l(H)  in  18C1.  It  is  xhieaa^ii 
a  tuiiliwick.  Its  port  is  shallow,  and  not  very  ilk\ 
but  it  has,  notwithstanding,  a  considerable  tnde 
in  the  export  of  agricnltural  produce,  with  ifii- 
tilleries,  breweries,  and  taimeriea.  Kesurted  ts 
from  June  to  Seiitember  for  sea-bathing. 

APOLDA,  a  town  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Six». 
Weimar,  Germany,  9^  m.  NE.  Weimar.  Pofk 
7,732  in  18C1.  It  has  a  castle^  a  college,  with  a 
Ijell-foundry,  fabrics  of  cloth  and  cassimere,  andifi^ 
tilleries.  I  ts  fairs,  four  annually,  are  well  attoided, 

APPENZELL  (Canton  of),  a  canton  in  tke 
NE.  part  of  Switzerland,  the  13th  in  the  Confe- 
deration. It  is  completely  enclosed  within  At 
territory  of  St.  Gall,  and  is  shai^ed  something  like 
a  ham,  the  knuckle  end  stretching  NE.-wsd; 
area.  153  sq.  m.  (7-2  Germ.).  Pop.  60,1)24  in  UM^ 
or  359'3  to  the  sq.  m.  Its  surface  consists  duefly 
of  mountain  ranges ;  those  of  the  S.  belonj^  tt 
the  higher  Alps;  the  principal  of  which,  tkt 
Hoch  Sentis,  is  8,109  ft.  high,  but  having  its  mm- 
mit  covered  with  perpetual  snow :  most  d  tki 
others  belong  to  the  Lower  or  Fore-Alpi  (m 
Switzkkland),  which  enclose  numerous  imd 
valleys.  It  is  watered  by  several  rivulets,  Uh 
chief  of  which  is  the  Sitter,  nimiing  thruogh  iM 
centre;  there  are  also  several  soudl  monntvi 
lakes.  The  prevailing  geological  formation  an 
calcareous :  but  purlding-stone  and  sandy  or  dn 
soils  arc  likewise  founiL  Climate  cold  and  ^ni' 
able,  but  not  unhealthy.  The  mineral  riches  a 
the  canton  consist  of  peat  and  coal :  bait,  chaly- 
beate, and  sulphurous  springs  are  met  with,  sow 
of  whidi,  as  those  of  Weissbad  near  Ap^icnadl 
and  Waldstatt  near  Herisan,  are  used  as  bathi 
Its  forests,  mostly  of  pine  and  fir,  originally  es 
tendcil  over  the  whole  surrounding  coimtrv';  bar 
tlicir  extent  has  Iieen  greatly  diminished  with  thi 
increase  of  population  and  cultivation ;  and  w9i 
animals,  game,  fish,  Ac  have  become  pniponioB' 
ally  rare.  Before  the  Reformation,  the  wbol 
canton  was  under  one  govemniejit;  but  at  thfl 
e{)och,  part  of  the  inliab.  having  embraced  tbi 
Protestant  faith,  while  the  other  port  coDtimid 
Catholics,  Wolent  disputes  were  kindled  betwca 
them,  which  afler  much  contest,  were  at  lenglk 
settl(Mi  by  a  singular  compromise.  By  an  agne- 
ment  in  1597,  the  cant^m  was  divided  mto  tm 
nortions — Rhode$  Interior  and  Rhoda  Ezterw, 
It  was  stipulated  that  the  former  should  be  tp^ 
priated  to  the  Catholics,  and  the  latter  to  tki 
Protestants.  Acconlingly  the  two  parties  ii^ 
rated,  and  formed  two  independent  democnbed 
republics,  having  each  a  distinct  system  of  g^ 
vemment,  police,  and  finance.  Exterior  or  OnM 
Khixles,  comprises  about  two-thirds  of  the  wholi 
canton  (its  N.  and  W.  parts),  and  has  4^604  is- 
hab.,  engaged  chicfij  in  manufactures;  Inia 
Khodes  has  2,020  mhab.,  principally  agiiod- 
turists.  Both  reiHiblics  have  but  one  vote  m  thi 
Swiss  Diet,  and  send  their  depiity  by  turns.  Ex- 
cept in  a  few  districts  at  the  K  El  extremity,  k^ 
pcnzell  proiluces  neither  com  nor  wine ;  trat  m 
mountains  al)ouud  with  rich  pastures,  and  cattk 
breeduig  forms  the  chief  occupation  of  the  Idm 
Khodes.  15,000  cows  and  oxen,  600  sheep,  am 
2,(M)0  goats  are  fed  there  annuallv^  it  boiig 
practice  to  purchase  them  when  lean,  and  le 
them  again  when  fattened :  cheese,  beer,  and 
liqueur  made  from  a  fine  kind  of  black  cherry,  ii 
the  other  products  of  the  agricultural  distriel 
The  manufactures  of  the  Outer  Rhodes  arc  cotti 
and  linen  gtKHls,  and  embroider)' :  there  are  aboi 
10,()00  looms,  by  means  of  which  arc  woven  an  av 
rage  of  the  same  number  of  pieces  of  cluYh  16  I 
elLs  in  length.  Machinery  has  not  becuintroduoei 


fourteen  bonn  & 

the  countiy,  uid 
■nufacturerii  that 


d  by  nutocM,  con- 
d  beiniii;  sunouniled 
'  ^^licklv  Bcadered 

-  - — J ,  „ Jt  of  in  EngUah 

ttmwat  gcDcnllj  eun  from  2  b>  &  flomu 


IconiKil  propOBra  the  Uwa,  anil  ralimils 
Rumvai  to  tlie  laiuimfemfmdej  or  genent 
<I*U  tin  nuUc*  of  the  republic  nbave  n^- 

■  of  ^^  who  meet  unw/cai  Ihe  lost  Sun- 
|>il,  in  the  open  air,  and  either  sanction, 
V  mAi  on  (be  laws  prnioaed.  Bankiapts, 
Ae^  (le  predaded  mim  Totin)(;  and 
tn  impoHd  on  oiben  who  do  not  attend, 
nment  of  the  Inner  Rhode*  la  idmilar, 
Ht  the  deigy  take  more  part  in  it,  and 
mdcr  d^tecD  jean  of  age  have  the  ri|;ht 
in  tbe  general  atnembly.  PubUc  Khoole 
■mUt  cMabliahed;  id  which,  after  the 

■  tl  education,  arithnietic,  drawing,  and 
n  taught,  Mniic  ig  very  generally 
L  Saiinga'  banks  and  poor-houaers  are 
i  'm  ereiy  parish,  and  there  are  nnme-' 
m  uylama  and  other  charitable  ioiti- 
Tbe  .^ipeniellers  of  tlie  Uater  Rhodes 
■■an,  tB«e  of  the  Inner  Kbodea  cbiefly 
mtbon  linea^ ;  all,  however,  are  lively, 
t,  and  exhibit  much  mechanical  inge- 


MTcmtb  or  eighth  century,  tbe  lYankiBb 
Wnd  Ibis  country  on  the  abbot*  of  St. 

iilwbitania  rev  Jtrd,  and,  with  the  anist^ 
Mir  neiehboura  of  Glannu  and  Schwyti, 
tbnr  liberty,  defeating  the  AiLstnans 
tore*  of  the  abbot  in  several  engage- 


nu,  a  town  of  Switzerland  i  rant.  Ap- 

S  Inner  Rbndei,  and  seat  of  iie  execu- 
in  a  pleasant  valley  on  the  left  bank 
Hi,  ■  m.  3,  St,  GalL    Pop.  3,277  in  I860. 

tad  ill-boilt ;  has  a  Gothic  church,  built 
rtueh  contains  various  banners  taken  in 
D  by  tbe  AppenzeUeiBi  two  convents; 
hgnae  ;  and  two  litidffes  over  the  fritter. 
il  general  assemlilv  of  the  republic  is  held 
boat  it  m.  S.  are  the  hatha  af  Weinbad. 
I,  ao  extensive  district,  of  Scotland,  co. 
'Udml. 
£BT,  a  boroogh,  m.  town,  and  par.  of 

to.  Westmoreland,  of  which  it  is  the 
m.  TiXVf.  London,  SH  m.  SSE.  Carlisle. 
n,  »60,  of  par.  'ifi-24,  in  1861.  It  stands 
y  m  the  1(41  bank  of  the  river,  on  the 
I  hill,  anil  consists  chiefly  of 


APVMA.  119 

market-house  erected  in  ISll;  and  a  town-hall 
and  gaol  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  which  ia 
here  croased  by  an  old  Btone  bridge.  Appleby  has 
a  grammar-school,  founded  in  tbe  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth, open  to  all  children  belonging  to  the  town 
on  payment  of  a  fee  of  lOi.  a  year,  and  having 
attached  to  it  fivcsdiolarshi^  atQneen'sCollege, 
Oxford,  and  a  riglit  to  participate  in  as  many  ex- 
hibitions in  the  same  college.  It  has  also  an 
almshouse,  fonnded  bj  Lady  Pembroke,  for  thirteen 
idows.  Previously  to  the  passing  of  the 
Act,  when  it  was  disfranchised,  Applel^ 
returned  two  m.  to  the  H.  of  C.  i  but  they  were  in 
reality  the  nominees  of  the  Thonet  and  Lonsdale 
lamiliee.  The  town  is  without  manufactures,  but 
has  a  good  market.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  assizes 
'it  the  county,  and  of  quarter  and  petty  sessions. 

APT  (an.  Apia  Julia),  a  town  of  France,  dcp. 

aucluie,  cap.  arrond.,  on  the  Caulon,  29  m. 
ESE.  Avignon,  lat.  ii°  ¥  29"  N.,long.  fio  i8'  5V  E. 
Pop.  5,785  in  1861.  The  town  is  situated  in  • 
^lacious  valley,  surrounded  by  hills  covered  with 
~~^ea  and  olives.    Tbe  walls  originally  co    ~      '   * 


Provi 


Romans,  and  repaired  by  the  Comtea  de 
;,  still  partially  exist.  Tbe  older  streets 
:>w,  crui>ked,  and  the  houses  mean ;  hut 
lodem  streets  are  broad  and  straight, 


B(£  at  the  lower,     TheVormer, 

he  culs  of  Tbanet,  is  verj-  and 

■r  ef  SaxoD  or  early  Norman  uvinivr- 

itwaamoetlvrebuiltinieMti.  Tliechun:h 

It  in  IGaS.  by  Lady  PembruLe,  a  great 

m  of  the  town,  fnnn  wh'.m  llic  i-shiIc 

to  the  Thanet  family,  ami  ha»  a 
1  to  her  ladyship. 


I,  and  the 
ihe  pTD- 


(   good 


public  boildi  „, 
and  remarkable  for  its  aubtenanean  chapels.  A 
bridge  over  tbe  Caulon,  of  a  single  arch,  is  said 
to  be  rloHiuinlt  par  ta  hardirtu.  There  are  esta- 
blishments for  the  Hpimiing  of  cotton  and  silk, 
with  fabrics  of  cloth,  hosiery,  cotton-stufls,  hats, 
and  earthenworei  the  Utter,  and  the  eoariiiirei 
made  here,  being  highly  esteemed.  Sev«al  re- 
ains  of  Roman  works  ore  foimd  ui  the  town  and 

APUL/A,  PUGLIA,  or  APUGLIA,  a  portion 
of  S.  Italy,  lying  between  89°  45'  and  41°  M'  N. 
laL,  and  H°57' and  1S°  S4' E.  long.,  comprising  the 
&E.  provinces  of  the  former  kingdom  of  Naples; 
viz.  Capitanata,  Bari.  and  Otranio ;  having  NW. 
the  prov.  Sannio,  XE.  the  Adriatic,  SF_  the  Ionian 
Sea,  8W.  and  W.  tbe  Gulf  of  Taranto  and  the 
provs.  of  Basilicata  and  Prindpata  Ultra.  Area, 
Cl,ag2  sq.  m.  Pop.,  1862,  1,315,269,  being  an  in- 
crease of  80,422  since  the  census  of  M8.  It 
has,  at  ita  ti.  extremity,  the  sub-peninsula  of 
Otranto,  which  forms  the  heel  of  the  fancied  Ita- 
lian boot;  and  on  its  NE.  shore  the  promontorj' 
of  Gargano.     Although  it  has  440  m.  of  coast,  it 

sinpilarly  deficient  in  bays  and  harbonn,  and 

e  shores  are  low ;  forming  in  both  reirpects  a 
great  contrast  to  the  SW.  nhorea  of  Naples. 

Puglia  presents  alsoa  striking  contrast  to  Cala- 
bria, and  the  SW.  pimv.  of  Naples,  in  being  almost 
wholly  a  plain  country,  and  indeed  containing  by 
far  the  most  considerable  extent  of  level  lands  of 
any  tract  of  the  same  size  S.  of  the  Po.  It  ia 
divided  into  F-agtia  jnana,  and  Pu^ia  montami ; 
the  latter  is  compceed  of  the  Apermine  chairt, 
155  m.  in  length,  which,  emerging  from  Banli- 
cato,  runs  through  the  Tera  di  Kari  and  Otranto 
to  the  extremity  of  the  latter,  and  of  tbe  Gorga- 
nesc,  and  other  branches  chiefly  in  the  S.  and  W. 
of  Capitanata.  The  mountains  of  Bari  and 
Otranto  are  much  less  elevated  than  the  Apen- 
nines in  any  other  region.  The  plains  in  tbe  N. 
are  pretty  well  watered,  while  those  of  the  central 
and  S.  parts  are  remarkably  destitute  of  water, 
forming  another  omtrast  to  the  sub-peninsula  of 
Calabna  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Gulf  of 
Taranto.  Chief  rivers,  Candelaro,  with  llfl  tribu- 
tniy  streams,  Radiuwi.Triolo,  SaLH>la,andDdone ; 
and  the  Cenaro,  both  of  which  run  into  the  1^- 
giine  Pantano  Salso ;  the  Portoie,  Carapella,  and 


loO 


APULIA 


Ofanlo,  wliich  disrhnixe  themselves  into  the  A d- 
riatie,  all  in  the  ])rovin(et)rra|iitanatA;  the  latter 
river  is  the  only  one  not  dried  np  dnrini^  snnimer. 
On  its  hanks  nearCanne,  was  fmi^dit  the  fanioiis 
battle  of  Cannu'  (*ie<r  (.'ann.k).  Thence  toC.  St. 
Maria  di  JA'uca.  a  traot  lOO  m.  in  len^h,  there 
an-  only  a  ft'W  in.si;;nitii>ant  .streams.  Then^  are 
no  lake^i.  hut  M:v<.'r:il  la^unes  of  M»me  size,  alun^ 
tlie  shon*  round  and  near  M.  Gur^ano,  a.s  thosi>  of 
Lesina  (14  m.  Ion;;  nnd  •'{  m.  hr(»<id),  Varano, 
Pantano  SaNo,  and  Salpi ;  and  a  few  sniAller  ones 
near  Taranto. 

A])ulia  is  tHvided  into  the  provinees  of  CapiU- 
nala,  jm»p,HI-J,1h;>;  'IVrradi  Ban,  iH)p..V>l.-l'i'J;  and 
Otnuito,  jKip.  117,0x2.  Tin'  chief  town  hi  Capi- 
tanata  is  Fo;;^ia.  |)op.  .'U.nfri ;  in  Terra  di  Ibri, 
llari  :n,(M;:i:  Ikirii-tta  2t;,.V.»2:  Mononwli  17.o0.", ; 
Tnmi  22,70*2;  Hilonto  2:J,k;2  ;  Mollina  21.'J.3«: 
andCorato  21,K.')7:  and  in  Otrant4i,  Taranto  27,181, 
L«i*ie  2I..'il."»,  an<l  rraiuMvilla  17,<iHl). 

A«im'.t  and  Atjrii-nltun: — Much  of  the  lan<l  is 
nneuitivated  and  alwindoned  to  wanderin;:;  herd<< 
of  oxen  and  hutfahKrs  :  in  other  ]v'irts  a  ^hnI  deal 
<if  eom  of  ditfcn-nt  kind**  is  ^owni ;  but  niai/.c  jh)e,-* 
not  i^i'iicrallv  tlouri.sh,  owhi;'  to  the  drvne.<s  of  the 
s«id.  Com  and  wim)1  are  the  ehii-f  produetjt  of 
i.'apitanatji.  wliieh  also  produees  plenty  of  wine 
and  oil.  In  thih  prov.  lands  are  let  in  lar^e  tracts, 
and  a  camh  or  lar;;e  house  estahli.shed  u|M)n  each 
fanu.  in  whit^h  the  aflt-nte  and  lai)onrers  re.^ide^ 
Tlien'  are  also  extensive  tavttVure  or  pastun>  lands 
Indon^^iiii;  to  tlie  erown.  eajKihle  of  feeding  as  many 
as  1.2(HMMiO  sln<*p.  Tin*  centre  of  ( 'apitanata  has 
a  sandv  M»il.  and  j-on^ists  ehiellv  of  pasture.  From 
Fo;;<^a  to  Manfred<inia  thiyi  tract  alnmnds  with 
thi>lh>s.  asphiHlcls,  wild  artichokes,  and  jLciant- 
fennel.  of  the.  stalks  of  whii^h  latter  chair-bottoms 
and  Ijei'-hives  are  made.  <Jn  the  banks  of  the 
(■ervaro  the  mountains  are  eh)the<l  with  thie  wihhK 
and  thickets  of  iiowerin^shru1>s;  near  liovino  the 
plain  is  wtMHled  with  low  htunte<l  ofiks;  a  forest  of 
oak,  manna  and  other  ash,  pitch-pine,  chestnut, 
and  ever;ireens  (but  none  <»f  them  lar^c)  adonis 
^I.  <iar^aiio;  the  country  Ls  well  cultivated  at  its 
f«Kit.  i'^|iitauata  pn»<hiees  excellent  ve^ct-ablei«, 
wine,  and  fruit  of  all  sorK  liquorice  and  tobacco. 
A  p:reat  de^l  of  wine  is  priKhiced  in  the  Terra  di 
ilari ;  the  vines  are  cut  low,  but  not  stake<l  oh  in 
Fnint^;  it  is  fertih*  in  com,  oil.  s:iffron.  almonds, 
tol>ac<*<»,  mnllK'rry-trees,  li<iuorii*e,  and  cai)er», 
^enenilly  without  mainire,  thou^^h  in  some  [tarts 
the  ^oil  is  but  indiilerent.  Its  sh(>op  (all  of  a  dark 
colour)  furnish  the  lx>st  wool  in  A[tu^lia;  ^i^oats 
and  swine  an',  kept  in  lar^e  numl>ers.  This  pn)V. 
yields  also,  annnally,  l,f)tin,0(Hi  tmtfjifie  of  salt,  and 
12,tHM)  cwts.  of  nitre.  It  yiehls  wine.  oliv<'.s  w»t- 
ton  (^(Hid  and  abundant),  wheat  sullicient  for  the 
inhaii. ;  the  arable  lands  an?,  well  cultivated,  but 
there  are  no  .'utificial  pastures,  and  much  of  the 
land  lies  waste.  The  chief  natural  disadvanta^ 
it  lab<iiirs  under  is  the  want  of  water,  and  the  rain 
that  falls  is  therefore  can-fuUv  preser\-etl  in  sub- 
temmeou.s  cisterns. 

The  hilly  jKirls  of  Apu^lia  feeil  many  fiookf*, 
and  priNhici^  im  alNnidance  of  corn,  oil,  cotton,  and 
flax;  which  latter  is  exjKirted  to  Venice,  (.Jermany, 
and  SwitKcrlainL  The  shore  is  pMiendly  sandy, 
uncultivaltMl.  and  coveje<l  with  buslies,  wild  pnnies. 
myrth's,  ericu*.  itc.,  that  serve  as  fmul  for  oxen  and 
but)al<»es.  The  wlioKr  country,  in  Hari  and  CHranto, 
nbouii<I>  with  aromatic  plants ;  and  lN)th  the  wines, 
anil  Hi'sh  of  sonu-  of  the  animals,  as  the  butlidoes, 
have  an  aromatic  tlavour.  I'u^^lia  is  famous  for 
its  d<i'r  and  other  ;;anie  :  the  s|H>rt>men  nm  dirwn 
liares  with  ^rreyhounds,  and  pursue  the  wihl-lK.>ar 
with  lurchers  and  mastitis,  riding  anned  witti  a 
Jatice  Hin\  brace  of  pistoln.     The  shores  about 


AQUILEIA 

Taranto  furnish  large  quantities  of  eliell-ti»h.  TIk 
viper,  asp,  a  8]KK.*ies  of  lur^c  black  snake,  oiui  the 
tarantula  infest  this  part  of  Italy. 

Tlie  dyeing  of  wo4d  is  an  important  bnmeh  nf 
industn-  at  Taranto;  the  internal  i-ommene  of 
Apufrlia,  of  which  Fo^^a  i.s  the  head-ouarter.on- 
sisth  chielly  in  the  sale  of  wool,  cheese  (fnHn  »htiqi« 
milk),  and  com. 

The  country  is  quite  healthy,  the  people  iodos- 
trious,  |XAceal)le,  and  hantUome.  Many  of  ihea 
ui  various  districts  are  Greeks  ur  AIljauianH;  limn 
iHan*;.  in  the  Terra  d*0trant4>,  one-fuunh  uf  the 
whoh: :  they  preserve  their  orij^inal  custom!*,  ilnM, 
an<l  relif^ion,  and  occupy  lheEUael\i:s  in  coiumh 
weaving;. 

This  territt^ry  wax  ori);inally  called  Daunia, 
lapy^ia,  reiuvtia,  and  ^lessapia.  and  fumieil{ait 
of  Mapia  (ira'cia.  Having  fallen  under  the  Kmnu 
(h>mini(»n,  Aupistus  made  it  the  third  yxvx.  of 
Italy,  under  the  name  of  Apulia.    AAer  the  tall  of 
the  empire  in  the  W.,  it  was  oceu|iied  surcovircfy 
by  (Jd«iacer,  Theodoric,  and  the  Gnx'k  emjienja^ 
till,  in  theeiffhth  century,  it  was  wilted  frumdM 
latter  by  the  Arabs;  and  fmm  them  in  turn  by  tfai 
Nonnans,  in  the  Ilth  ecntur\':  Kolicrt  Guiiviid 
stylin;;  himself  lir»t  Count  or  t>uke  of  Afmslia.  It 
continued  in  the  posscsidun  of  his  6uci«sis>n»  till 
the  death  of  Manfred,  at  the  battle  of  Benevento^ 
in  L2><2,  when  it  fell  under  the  dominion  uf  Chaxki 
of  Anjou,  as  well  as  the  rest  uf  the  Nea{ii»licn 
territory-.     It><  sub^Miuent  hlst<^'  belonpi  to  that 
of  Naples,  with  which  it  was  incuqiorateit,  in  1861, 
into  tlie  kinffdoni  of  Italy.    (I»iunp(ddi,CoM^fia 
dcir   Italia;    Swinburne's  Travels  in  the  Tiro 
SiciUes ;  and  Consular  Ke|N>rts.) 

At^JILA,  a  city  of  Siiuthem  Italy,  cap.  pmr, 
Abruzzo  Ultra,  on  n  hill  at  the  foot  of  which  tlonv 
the  Altenio,  lat.  \'29  27'  N..  hm/r.  1.1°  2t«'  K.    Pop. 
15,7:t2  in  IHOI.    The  town  is  surrounded  by  wall% 
and  ranks  as  a  fortilieil  place  of  the  fourth  claM; 
is  pn'tty  well  built ;  has  a  cathedral,  and  varioM 
chim*hes,  convents,  and  ha'ipitals:  is  the  neat  of  a 
bishopric,  of  a  civil  and  criminal  court,  a  chambtf 
of  tinances,  &o.    A  royal  colle^.,  e^ttablitihod  iC 
Sulmona  in  18<)7,  was  transferred  thither  in  li$16: 
it  was  S(N)n  after  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  lyenoii 
differing  little  from  a  university,  and  is  atteihM 
by  alKiut  400  ]rtipils.    There  is  aL«o  a  MModlii^ 
school,  establisiied  in  17()8,  and  varioun  other  *<■- 
naries.    A  hamlsome  new  theatre,  buUt  on  tha 
moilel  of  that  <»f  Vicenza,  was  ofiencd  in  lv£. 
Kxccllent  water,  conveyed  from  the  Monte  Sm 
(jriuliano,  al)out  three  miles  distant,  by  an  aqiw- 
duct,  constmctcd  at  a  greAt  expense,  durinc  tha 
liourishing  |x^rio<l  of  the  city,  U  lilierally  distnuatfd 
to  some  tine  public  fountains,  as  well  as  pri\'aia 
house's.    Tlie  town  has  manufactures  of  linen  and 
wax  ;  and  a  considerable  trade  iu  saffron  raised  in 
its  neighbourhood. 

Aquda  was  founded  in  1240;  and  rose  in  na 
lonj^  time  to  be  one  of  the  richest,  mocit  popidoai, 
ami  powerful  cities  in  the  kinf^^om.  But  the 
combined  influenced  of  mi«^>vemment,  )1eslUeno^ 
war,  and  earthquake«(,  from  the  latter  of  whii^  tt 
suflfered  severely  in  1 70ii  and  1 706,  have  redooed 
it  to  its  present  state  of  dei*adeucc.  Latterly,  how- 
ever, it  has  l>een  im]inA'ing 

At^riLKIA,  a  small  titwii  of  Austrian  Italv, 
near  the  lM»ttoni  of  the  Adriatic,  18  m.  S>W. 
(;orizia,  22  m.  WXW.  Tritvte,  Ut,  4.')0  40'32"S, 
Ion;;.  13^23' K.  INip.l,7^i>Sin  iHoH.  It  is  surrounded 
by  a  wall  and  a  fosse,  and  Ls  ctiniiecte<l  by  a  caual 
with  the  |K>n  of  Gnulo.  the  residence  of  a  few  ii«b- 
ermen.  This  Ls  all  that  ni»w  remains  %>f  trnt:  of  tbi 
princi|ial  cities  of  ancient  Italy — its  chief  bulwail 
on  its  NE.  frontier,  and  the  ^rcat  era]iurium  of  it 
trade  with  the  nations  of  lUyria  and  I'aunooii 


o  it  the  ninth  place  among  the 


n  withatood  a  siege  by  Maximiniu ;  and 
(nioHd  avignnnu  and^lUnt  n^lanoe 
.;  DDt  the  bait«Tun  having  canird  it  by 
lucd  it  to  the  groimd,  the  d«lniotion' 
ea&|detc  that  the  succwding  ^^enenitioa 
BCtlj  diKDvec  its  site.  The  unhulthi- 
Ii  aliution  hu  cauMd  the  miacairlage  of 
■pta  that  bare  been  made  for  its  mton- 
1  1T5I,  two  mrchbiahtiprics  weio  foimed 
n  patriarchate  uf  Aqoilna. 
LLo,  an  eilenaive  peninflular  comprising 
pottian  of  the  Anatic  continent,  eitoated 
the  nat  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  between 
Bd  33°  45'  N.  laL,  and  32°  SO'  and  5S° 
■g.  It  ia  bounded  on  the  S.  and  Z.  by 
I  tf  tbe  Indian  Ocean  caUed  the  Arabi- 

le  Gulfs  of  Om 

le  Arabic  Gulf, 
I  boundary  from  the  Stniti  of  Bab-el- 
tat  tbe  lalhoins  of  Suez.  The  X.  limit  ii 
Af  defined ;  the  desen  in  which  Anlua 
m  in  this  difectjon  twing  contenu' 
1 1£  Syria,  and  no  well-detined  lii 
iai  existing  betwern  them.  The 
motdary  on  tbia  aide  appean  to  be  i 
m  tbe  head  of  the  rendsn  Gulf  ti 
MbIj  point  of  that  of  Suez,  coincidinf^ 
ij  wilh  (he  34lb  panllel  of  N.  laC. ;  but 
1  to  include  in  thia  country  acongidenble 
■kAnbia,aDd  tbe  desert  plnins  S.  and  E. 
■Id  Falefltine;  and  under  tbia  view,  the 
«7  foUowa  ven-  neailv  the  courae  of  the 
K  The  connlrics  conliRuoua  to  Arabia 
•  K.  the  Asiatic  pnivincea  uf  the  Tmkiah 
en  tbe  W.  I^yM  and  Abyasinia ;  on 
ht  muet  eaaterW  portion  of  Africa ; 
E.  Fcraia.  On  tlte  E.,  eicept  along 
)mt£  tbe  neaiHt  land  is  inndoiilan. 
a^th  bum  Suei  to  Cai<e  Ras-al-Hhad  ig 
■Bd  its  grtattit  widtli  fmm  the  Straits 
-llandeb  to  the  town  of  Kevham 
■.IftOOm.  ]ta  ana,  measured  on 
^  n  about  l.lUQ.ilWI  aq.  m.  (Ciirapare 
;  Caite  d'Asie,  with  Travels  of  Ali  Bey, 
ll^  of  the  Coast  of  Arabia,  sai 


m,  Ameitmt  and  Modon,  —  From 
mod  of  authentic  history,  Arabia 

,  It  was  the  mart  whence  llie  1 
n>  the  lupplics  of  gold  and  ailver,  ) 
I,  Alices  and  pcrfume\  with  which 
nc  countries  of  Eoiope.  Anii  evei 
■       ■   ■  liBled— 1 


ibe- 


nida  wan  a  nation,  or  her  '  trafliciieni 
In  Arabian  caravan  was  seen  upon  the 
M  tbe  bgtders  of  Paleiitine,  laden  with 

rue  and  piecioua  products.  (Genesis, 
li)  That  these  were  only  paniaJly,  il 
tin  products  uf  Arabia,  ia  sufficiently 
■t  the  W.  nations,  who  received  ibem  . 
taa,  looked  at  first  no  farther  for  tbcii 
IzacgeiKteil  pottona  wer«  formed  of  the 

a  iiuHl  whence  such  preciuoa  hixuries . 
atd,  and  the  term  Ei4ai|u>r,  lelir,  ur 
',  became  cunDecled  with  it»  name.  But 
ba  tonne  of  time,  tbe  lirecks  tirHt,  and 
famana.  cane  to  this  faiicieil  jiaiiulise. 

Waotry,  a  bominfC  saiul  or' an  unfruitful 
!  powiliilily  (if  an  erroneiiuA  (hi-ory  was, 
ridMU  admitted  by  ancient   inquirers. 


iSlA  161 

Arabia  waa  atill  believed  to  be  the  Happr  or  For- 
tunate, but  its  blissful  regions  wpre  supposed  to 
l>e  separated  from  tbe  leu  favoured  portions  of 
the  earth  by  an  alwulutely  sterile  zone  or  belt. 
All  the  country  E.  of  Egypt  had,  indeed,  been 
known,  time  immemoriat,  by  the  comtnon  name 
Aratia\  and  this  designation  Ij^n^  still  retained, 
the  inhospitable  tracts  on  the  N.  and  W.  received 
the  distinctive  epitliet  of  Epniii),  Daerta,  or  the 
Desert  (Herodotus,  Thalia,  §§  107-113;  Dio- 
donuSicuIus,  lib.  il  pp.  1 59-1 6 1,  lib.  iil.pp.SIl~ 
216 ;  Slrabo,  lib.  ivl  pp.  7fi7-781 ;  Pliny,  Nat. 
Hi«t.,h-b.v.Sll.) 

Ptokmy  subsequently  added  a  third  division  to 
Arabia,  including  the  country  between  the  Red 
and  Dead  Seas,  and  between  Palestine  and  the 
Eupbrateti :  in  other  words,  he  gave  to  his  Arabia 

rall^  been  coiuidered  as  retaining.     To  this  new 

district  he  gave  the  name  of  jirabia  Ptinta,  from 

n«Tpa,  a  town  on  the  lesser  Jordan,  south  of  the 

Uood  Sco,   and  the  capital  of  the  Nabalbeana. 

(See  pETRA.)     This  division  of  the  country  by 

the  Greco-Koman   geographers  iras    universally 

adopted,  not  only  by  Ibeir  contemporaries,  but  by 

all  the  wealem  nations  in  the  middle  ages.     On 

the  revival  of  learning,  the  great  worli  of  Ptolemy 

was  taiien  as  the  text-book  of  geography,  and  hu 

arrangements  were  universally  adopted.      Even 

Gibtxm  was  deceived  by  them,    *It  is  eingular 

lugh,'  he  remariiB,  '  that  a  countiy  whose  lan- 

ige  and  inhabitants  have  ever  been  tbe  aamc^ 

luld  scarcely  retain  a  vestige  of  its  old  geo- 

irraphy.'     (Dec  and  fall,  v.  chap.  50.)     But  he 

forgot  that  this  '  old  geography '  wastheinvenlJou 

of  foreign    nations,    possessing   neither   political 

wer  nor  influence  over  the  wandering  Arab  tribes, 

almost  total  ignorance  of  the  settled  portion  of 

B  Arab  people,  and,  consequently,  without  the 


Ibeir 


The  fact  remariied  by  Ciblun  of  the  identity 
the  people  and  language  in  ancient  and  modei 
' '  mes,  leads,  indeed,  irresistibly  to  the  conclusii 
lat  an  *  otd  gtogrophyy  of  which  thp  nativ»  retn 


recollection,  never  had  an 
lem,  and  that  the  ancient 
Aratnc  divisions  of  this  country  are  as  identical 
as  the  people  and  the  language  H-i^i  (hoac  eitisting 
in  the  present  day.  Thcae  native  divisions  are 
■■     -lUowing:— 

9ar-«/-toiir-.'*Biai  (the  Deaert  of  Mount  Sinai), 
nearly  identical  with  the  Arabia  Ftinra  of  Ptole- 


It  c 


nprises 


lulfs  of  Suez  and  Alialiab,  a 
wani  as  liir  as  the  Dnul  Sea.  This  Is  the 
,,  n  HO  celebrated  in  }^acred  History  as  the  scene 
of  the  wanderings  of  the  Jewish  people ;  hst, 
though  it  niay  Ik  gathcird  from  the  Mosaic  ac- 
-}unt  that  it  was  then  the  residence  of  several 
arlilie  nations,  it  is,  at  prr«ent,  neariy  uninba- 
iled.  (Miebuhr,  par.  ii.  p.  346.) 
2.  El-Hfdjai,  or  the  Land  of  Pi^mape.  oc- 
cupies a  con^derable  portion  of^thc  coast  of  the 
"-'  Sea,    It*  Ijoundaries  are  E.  Ntdijed,  W.  the 


e  grand  Signtor  as  pm- 


ibtfid  aulhori 

tor  of  the  holy'citlH  (Mecca  and  Medina) ;  'but 
those  cities,  and  the  whole  muthem  part  of  Hedjai, 
called  Bdrd-il-Harm  (Holy  or  Portndden  Land) 
were,  rill  within  these  few  years,  mider  the  go- 
vernment of  the  idierifF  of  Mwra.  Tlic  RtienlTs 
]>owcr.  has.  however,  of  late  1>e«i  much  shalien ; 
tint  by  the  Wababceii.  a  fanatical  sect  of  Nedsjeil, 
and  more  recently  bv  Mcbcmet  Ali,  Pacha  of 
Egj-pt.    (Xiebuhr,  par.  ii,  p.  802 ;  Ali  Bey,  it  pp. 


152 


ARABIA 


29,  et  seq.;    Burckhardt*8   Travels   in    Arabia, 
ptuitim.) 

3.  Netlsjed  constitutes  the  central  part  of  the 

Feninsula.  It  is  the  laiy^est  of  all  the  dlNHsions. 
t  is  bounded  N.  by  tlic  Syrian  Desert,  E.  by 
Laehsa,  S.  by  Yemen,  and  W.  by  Hedjaz,  (Niebuhr, 
par.  ii.  p.  29(5 ;  Buckhardt,  vol.  ii.  p.  396,  etm.) 

4.  El-Hasaa-Lachaa^  otherwise,  Laehsa,  JiaiU- 
jar,  or  Bahrein,  lies  upon  the  Pewiau  Gulf.  Its 
iHiundaries  are,  towanis  the  N.  the  country  of 
Irah  Arabi,  W.  Nedsjed,  S.  Oman,  and  E.  the 
Pereian  (lulf.     (Niebuhr,  ^mr.  ii.  p.  293.) 

5.  Oman  is  br»unded  ^.  by  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  iMchaa,  E.  by  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  W.  and  S. 
by  vast  sandy  deserts  (parts  of  JVedsjed  and  Ha- 
dramaut),  in  the  midst  of  which  it  seems  to  rise 
like  a  little  knot  of  mountains  out  of  an  extensive 
sea.     (Niebuhr,  par.  iu  p.  255.) 

6.  JJadramctut  forms  the  iSE.  division  of  Arabia, 
and  is  bounded  N.  and  NE.  bv  the  Deserts  of 
yedsjed  and  Oman,  S.  and  SL.  by  the  Gulf  of 
Aden  and  the  Arabian  Sea,  and  W.  by  Yemen. 


(Niebuhr,  par.  iu  p.  245.) 
7.   Yemen,  the  southci 


southern  part  of  the  peninsula, 
has  the  Red  Sea  on  its  W.  side,  the  Straits  of 
Bab-el-Mandcb  and  the  Gulf  of  Aden  on  the  S., 
Jfadramaut  on  the  E.,  and  Nedtjed  and  Hedjaz  N. 
(Niebuhr.  par.  iL  p.  160.) 

Yemen  and  Iladramaut  point  out  the  situation, 
if  not  the  extent,  of  the  Arabia  Felix  of  Strabo 
and  Ptolemy.  The  inhabitants  ref^ard  themselves 
as  the  chief  of  all  the  Arabian  peojile,  calling  their 
countrv  Bellad-el-lJlm  i  BeUnd-ed-Din,  *The 
birthplace  of  the  sciences  and  of  rclifjion.'  (Nie- 
buhr, par.  iu  p.  247.)  Rut  the  Arabia  Fdir  of 
Greek  geography  seems  to  have  extended  much 
further  N.,  comprising  the  whole  of  He^ljaz  and 
Oman,  together  with  the  greater  ]uirt  of  Laehsa, 
and  a  very  considerable  j)ortion  of  Nedsjed.  (Stra- 
bo, lib.  xvi.  cap.  3,  p.  765 ;  Ptolemy,  lib.  \i,  cap. 
7,  p.  112.)  The  Arabia  Deserta  included  the  N. 
parts  of  Nedsjed  and  Laehsa.  In  Ptolemy's  map 
this  district  is  se})arated  from  the  former  by  an 
imaginarv  range  of  mountains,  runniu^  firom  the 
Persian  6ulf  to  another  range,  equally  unaginary, 
supposed  to  fonn  the  boundary  between  Arabia 
Felix  and  Arabia  Petrau.  The  position  of  this  last- 
mentioned  province  has  been  previously  pointed 
out. 

Physical  Features  of  the  Country,  Mountauns, 
and  Plains. — The  name  (Nedsjed)  of  the  central 
and  largest  divisi(»n  of  Arabia  signilies  high  or 
elevated  ground ;  and  the  whole  peninsida,  as  far 
as  at  present  explored,  consists  of  an  elevateii 
table-land,  with  a  general  inclination  towards  the 
N,  and  E,  *  Taken  in  the  aggregate'  says  Dr. 
Wallin,  *Xejd  [Nedsjed]  presents  an  undulating 
and  rockv  surface^  intersectetl  on  the  W.  by  ofP 
shoots  o(  the  Iiilly  ranges  which  run  from  the 
weJitem  chains,  and  in  other  placet)  varied  by  the 
occurrence  of  bntken  groups,  and  (»f  isolated  hills 
and  peaks,  apparently  unconnected  with  each 
other.'  It  is  surrounded  by  a  belt  of  low  land, 
varying  in  width  from  one  or  two  days'  journey 
to  a  single  mile  or  less.  (Niebuhr,  par.  ii.  pp.  160, 
296,  <frc.;  liurckhanlt,  ii.  p.  397,  et  seq.)  This 
flat  l)elt  is  called  Gaur  or  Tehama,  Arabic  terms 
for  a  plain  country' ;  and  the  W.  {lart  pf  Yemen,  on 
the  Ked  Sea,  has  received  the  latter  name  as  a 
distinctive  ap]>ellation.  A  range  of  mountains 
runs  S.  from  the  b<»n.lci8  of  the  Dead  Sea  to  Ye- 
men ;  the  face  of  which  is  much  more  steep  and  pre- 
cipitous towards  the  W.  than  the  E. ;  so  that  the 
great  plain  which  commences  immediately  to  the 
E.  of  these  mountains  is  very  contdderably  raised 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  (I)urckliardt,  ii.  p.  146.) 
The  hills  of  Oman  seem  to  form  the  E.  blioiddcr 


of  this  table-land,  and  the  plains  of  Lachu  the 
termination  of  its  inclination  towards  the  Penua 
Gulf.  (Niebuhr,  iu  np.  255,  293.)  This  1# 
plain  is  diverKilicd  with  several  coiiBidenbk  ele- 
vations, which  cross  its  surface  in  every  (tiiectiaii, 
shooting  off  like  branches  or  spurs  from  the  prin- 
cipal chain.  The  main  cliam^  sapporting  thii 
table-land  on  the  W.,  increases  in  elevation  ai  it 
extends  towards  the  S. :  and,  although  it  has  not 
been  explored  in  i}\e  SE.  part  of  the  penimila, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  same  chain,  after 
following  the  direction  of  the  Red  Sea  to  Yenm 
and  Iladramaut,  is  continued  in  a  line,  pardld 
to  the  Indian  Ocean,  as  far  as  Oman.  Lord  Vi- 
lentia  describes  that  part  of  the  E.  coast  of  Anbii, 
which  he  saw  in  his  vovage  from  India  to  the 
Iie<i  Sea,  as  a  sandy  beaclii  with  a  chain  of  nMUi- 
tains  in  the  distance  (Voyages  and  Tkavds,  ii. 
p.  12.);  and  Niebuhr  has  no  doubt  that  the  hiQi 
of  Oman  form  the  N.  termination  of  this  Am 
(par.  iu  p.  255).  The  elevations  of  the  land  m 
rather  in  masses  than  in  ^aks,  and  the  few  ocit 
eminences  of  tlie  latter  kind,  noticed  by  travdlo^ 
are  referred  to  in  terms  which  seem  to  imfAj  that 
they  are  r^arded  as  singularities.  Moontsnonk 
and  Sinai  are,  out  of  all  comparison,  the  moal 
celebrated  in  the  world :  tliey  arc  connected  witi 
some  of  the  most  important  events  in  sacred  bi» 
tory ;  and  are  regarded  with  feelings  of  religioa 
awe  by  Mohammedans  as  well  as  by  Jews  an 
Christians.  The  Sinai  group  is  the  last  oon 
siderable  elex'ation  towards  the  NW.  o(  the  moon 
tains  which  support  the  table-land  <^  the  interia 
This  gnmp  fills  the  peninsula  between  the  GaU 
of  Suez  and  Akabah.  Mount  Arafat,  an  eminenc 
extremelv  sacred  in  Mohammedan  estimati(nif  i 
a  short  distance  from  Mecca,  rises  from  the  plai 
country  of  the  table-land  to  an  elevation  oi  1£ 
or  200  ft.  It  forms  the  centre  of  a  natim 
solitude,  being  situated  in  a  plain  about  thn 
quarters  of  a  league  in  diameter,  and  surroandi 
by  barren  mountains.  The  composition  of  cl 
Arabian  mountains,  towards  the  N.  and  W^ 
limestone  rock,  with  granite  towards  the  aamimti 
but  in  the  higher  parts  of  the  countrv  the  Imd 
granite  rises  uncovered  from  ita  very  fiase.  (5 
Burckhardt,  Ali  Bey,  and  Niebuhr,  passimj) 

Tlie  Gaur,  or  Tehama,  from  its  regular  incfiu 
tion  towards  the  sea,  and  the  nature  of  its  soil- 
sand  with  saline  incrustations  (Niebuhr,  par.  ii. ; 
lol ;  Lord  Valentia,  vol  iu  p.  359) — seems  to  hai 
been  under  water  at  a  compisiratively  recent  pcrio 
At  Mocha  the  soil  for  28  ft.  in  depth  is  whdL' 
com])osed  of  marine  productions;  and  at  Okdi 
close  to  the  Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  where  ai 
ciently  there  was  a  harbour  in  which  a  fleet  cod 
lie,  there  is  not,  at  present,  much  more  than  a  foi 
of  water.  (Lord  \  alentia,  voL  iu  p.  361).  Tb 
town  of  Musa,  formerly  on  the  coast,  is  now  sen 
ral  miles  inland.  Tliis  fact  was  remarked  even  i 
PUny's  time.  *  Nowhere,'  says  he,  *  has  the  eart 
gained  more,  nor  in  so  short  a  time,  from  th 
water.'    (Nat.  Hist,  Ub.  \l  §  27.) 

Rivers  and  Lakes, — There  are  no  rivers,  in  tk 
strict  acceptation  of  the  term,  in  Ambia.  A 
streams  of  ninning  water  known  to  exist  in  th 
cotmtry  have  more  or  le^  the  character  of  ooq 
sional  torrents.  Niebuhr  remarks  it  aA  a  singi 
larity,  that  the  Massora  and  another  small  stica: 
in  Oman  continued  to  nin  throughout  the  year;  ai 
he  states,  that  in  the  Tehama  of  Ycmen'theiv  a 
no  rivers  that  retain  their  water  during  the  enti 
summer.  (Des  de  I'Ar.,  par.  u.  pp.  255,  161,  A< 
The  few  perennial  streams  are  all  reduced  to  inai 
nificance  during  the  drv  season;  but,  under  t 
influence  of  the  periodical  rains,  these  and  ti 
others  often  swell  to  an  immense  size,  and  son 


ir  themMlves,  chaog- 


ia  ud  einb[iuchiiie«  of  the  tUfferent  streuns. 
^Viimlu,  u.  p.  360.) 

Tbe  uid  suids  of  the  Tehuna,  unfsrounible  to 
fa  (utm«don  of  riven,  ire,  of  cxnine,  equally 
kftik  lo  the  accumuLitioa  of  water  ia  lakea.  Id 
Iki,  Ilw  diyDeas  of  Ihe  Arabian  auil  Lt  provcrbiaL 

CSmaU.—Tbe  Trojiic  of  Cancer  diviiiea  Arabia 
bto  tvo  not  very  unequal  partd.  It  lies,  tbero- 
Im.  ftnly  in  the  tonid,  aad  partly  ill  the  S.  part 
tftbtW  lempenlc  lone;  but  so  many  modifying 

Ihit  the  men  latitude  of  iu  Kveral  parta  is,  pcr- 
^a,  the  leul  important  element  in  determining 
Ik  tmptnture,  humidity,  and  salubrity  of  its 
IttBo^bsi.  In  general,  the  climate  is  very  simi. 
hr  Id  that  of  N.  A&ica.  Lying  under  the  tropic, 
il  bu,  of  coone,  it»  siccexMon  of  diy  and  ramy 

Apvoi  regularly  fall  from  the  middle  of  June 
til]  Ibe  end  of  September.    During  the  early  part 

..■..  ^: .  -i-.^,JaQ[_  jni]  g( 

.  It  very  rarely, 
enty-fuur  houn  together, 
^loud  ia  M!arc*ly  ever  seen. 

L  the  middled  Fehruary.    In  the 

eeoiuitry  on  the  coast,  and  in  the  Tehama  of 
n  (though  BO  close  to  the  mountainous  re- 
limtif  regular  ahomrs),  a  whole  year  frequently 
pHB  nilRoat  a  drop  of  rain.  (Xiebuhr,  par,  i. 
».  M,  eI  Kq^)  la  thia  respect  is  found  striking 
ijiai  resemblance  between  Africa  and  Arabia. 
In  Hi  IiUer,  aa  in  the  former,  the  parched  plains 
Bi  iteniid  the  reTreahment  of  falling  showers,  and 
•n  what  iharc  of  fertility  they  possess  to  the 
nndititms  coELSequent  upun  the  saturation  of  the 

Tin  ttmnerattLre  of  Arabia,  like  that  of  other 
f^atri^  difTers  widely,  according  to  the  eleva- 
n  if  die  surface,  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and 


fa  DHflibourfauDd  of  the  ocean.  In  general,  the 
■NHuu  of  the  S.  Yemen  and  Hailramaut  are 
ttt  DOM  habitable,  and  even  the  coultst  parts  of 
fa  ptoiciula;  but  the  heat  of  the  Tdiuma  ia 
BiHiiTF;  and  great  extremes  of  tota]>erature  are 
BJtricDced  within  very  small  diataiicea.  At  Mo- 
!*«,  CO  the  Ked  Sea,  the  themiomelcr  rises  in 
■UH  to  W  Fahr.;  while  at  Saano,  in  tlie 
■noiaiiu,  it  never  exceeds  8j°,  and  in  thisdis- 
Intfitt^ag  winter  nights  are  not  uiifrequent. 
At  lohabtlants  of  Yemen  Uve,  consequently,  un- 
fa 4tTer»l  different  cliIn^te^  and  very  different 
ftdn  dl  animals  and  vegetables  Mouiish  Kilhin 


nor  Hedjai 


■Ucfaheca 


I  plain,  and  wholly  desli 


tlumy  ihraLs,  whict,  taking  vigorous  nwl  in  the 
■|e  palicnl  camel  with  tlie  only  food 
iml  ill  tlie,<e  deserts.  (Youseph-el- 
-"•I,  m  /JLcti't,  CorTe-ipondence,  So.  1*.)  This 
OBiitif,  with  the  Desert  of  Kyria,  aeems  to  liave 
(niedibe  Arabia  Dttrrla  of  Sirsbo  and  I'lolemy. 
Aootliei  plain  of  tlie  same  kind,  and  most  pro- 
Mir  even  mixe  extcnMve,  called  the  JJtwert  oj 
^U^,  ties  between  Yemen  and  Hadramaul,  on 
■te  !i  and  W..  and  lietweeu  Nedsjeil  and  Oman, 
B  tl«  N.  and  K.  (Niebulir,  par.  ii.,  pp.  24a-:2o.-|.) 
Tb**e  vai*  sandy  descrtu  iociease  very  greatly 
lie  lient  of  the  atmiwphcre  in  llicir  ucif:lilMjur- 
bovd.  The  wind  libmuig  over  them,  aUwt  the 
wmoMf  aulstLv,  U-cumen  so  ilry  tliut  i>>p«r  and 


BIA  168 

parchment  exposed  lo  its  influence  scorch  and 
crack  as  though  placed  in  the  mouth  of  an  oven, 
and  life,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  perishes  in 
the  noxious  blast.  (Ali  liev,  voL  ii.  p.  U.)  Thia 
ia  the  wind  known,  in  dilfercnt  and  oRen  very 
distant  countries,  by  the  names  of  the  Hmoom, 
Samiel,  Sirocco,  and  Sorana ;  and  which  b  always 
generated  in  every  tropical  country  having  exten- 
sive sandy  deserts.  lis  grand  seat  is  the  vast  I>e> 
scrlnf  Sahara,  in  Africa;  andnextlo  it.  perhaps,  the 
deserts  now  mentioned.  It  comes  from  a  different 
quarter  in  different  parts  of  the  peninsula,  accord- 
ing to  their  position  with  respect  lo  these  deserts. 
Thus,  at  Mecca,  the  Simoom  comes  from  the  E. ; 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
the  Euphrates,  from  the  W.;  in  Yemen  and  Ha- 
dramaut,  from  the  K.  and  NE.  The  chain  of  hills 
seems  to  shelter  tbe  Tehama  of  the  Hedjoz  from 
tJie  infiuence  of  the  Simoom  from  the  Arabian 
Desert,  as  tbe  hottest  wind  known  in  this  district 
across  the  Ked 
,  . ,  .  isiderably  cooled 
null  miiigaieil  in  its  violence. 

It  is  only,  however,  during  the  intense  summer 
heata  that  the  Simoom  is  dreaded;  and  such  ia 
the  general  nurily  of  the  almusjdicre,  o 
the  lew  exhalalioiis  from  the  dry  sf  -'  ■' 
man  and  beast  in  Arabia  arc  aware  u1  me  approacn 

by  wtiicb  it  is  preceded.  It  b  said,  also,  that  tbe 
point  of  tbe  heavens  from  which  tbe  Simoom  is 
approaching  is  always  marked  by  a  peculiar  co- 
louring, easily  distinguishable  liy  an  Arab  eye. 
Thus  forewarned,  the  Arab  throws  himself  upon 
tbe  ground,  and  [he  bcasls  hold  {lown  iheirheails; 
fur  it  is  found  that  this  terrific  blast  has  little  or  no 
power  near  the  earth,  [lerhapa  because,  blowing  in 
a  horiiontal  direction,  it  is  broken  by  the  inequal- 
ilies  of  the  ground,  and  also,  perliaps.  because  the 
few  slight  exhalations  forced  from  the  arid  soil  by 
the  cxireme  heat  have  power  lo  counteract  its 
virulence.  Thoxe  who  are  rath  enough  to  face  it 
are  suddenly  suffocated;  and  in  the  deserts,  where 

which  then  rise  in  waves  as  hurh  and  strong  as 
those  of  a  stormy  ocean.  (Niebuhr.  par.  I .  pp.  7,  H.) 
Nat^ial  ProdncffoM.— Tlie  .liffereiices  of  soil 
and  climate  occasion  much  variety  in  the  speciea 
and  amount  of  Ihe  natural  products  of  Arabia. 
Xotbing  can,  perhaps,  be  more  strongly  contrasted 
than  the  vivid  deiimplionB  of  tbe  counln;  by 
ancient  and  oriental  writers,  and  Ihe  cold  rcalitir« 
>yBgcr  who  ap- 


B,  owmg  to 
1.  that  both 


southern  ehore,  tbe  Arabia  Felix,  c. 
paradise  of  the  ancients,  Ihe  eye  looks  in  vain  for 
the  beauty;  nor  is  the  smell  gratlAed  by  the 
^Sabiean  odoura^  which  have  been  so  vividiv, 
but  eiraneuualy,  described.  A  wide  sandy  beach, 
bounded  in  the  distance  by  a  range  of  mumilaius, 
dreary  and  uiqiruductive,  without  a  jiatch  of  vcr- 


reliei 


imng  si 


slake  Ihe  thirst,  or  break  the  dullmonolonvof  tho 
view,  constitutes  tho  southern  coast  of  Vcmcn. 
0"alenth^u.p.la.) 

The  fenile  sjiols,  hon-ever,  like  the  oases  of  the 
African  deserts,  are  so  luxuriant  and  Isjaulifld, 
aa  in  some  measure  Id  warrant  Ihe  bypcrliolicai 
praiscsbeslowcilonthepcniusula.  In cuiisequence, 
Io^^  of  the  various  cimiinslances  of  elcvaliou,  as- 
pect, temperai  lire,  and  moisture,  there  is  no  country 

Tliesandyi^iisoft' '        '      - 


ilapela. 


,alue. 


;   I'hi 


154 


ARABIA 


ting  the  thirst  of  the  camel,  during  the  painful 
journeys  of  the  caravans. 

The-  sea-coa8t,  consisiting  for  the  most  part  of 
arid  sands,  priKluces,  in  general,  the  same  plants 
as  the  central  deserts ;  but  wherever  the  Tehama 
is  watered  by  ri\'ulets  descending  from  the  moim- 
tains,  or  wherever  the  soil  is  subjected  to  occa- 
sional inundations,  a  very  different  scene  is  pre- 
sented. Under  the«e  circumstances,  a  vegetation, 
luxuriant  and  diversified,  is  produccfl,  the  effect 
of  which  is  the  more  striking,  from  the  desolatirm 
with  which  it  is  surrounded.  The  valleys,  too.  in 
the  mouutaiuH,  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the 
regular  rains,  and  consequently  abounding  in  ri- 
vulets, arc  the  seats  of  an  abundant  vegetation. 
In  such  districts,  the  tamarind,  cotton  tree,  sugar 
cane,  banana,  nutmeg,  betel,  and  every  variety  of 
melons  and  pumpkins,  are  indigenous ;  at  all  events 
they  have  grown  there  from  the  remotest  antiquity 
(Strabo,  lib.  xvi.  16j  cap.  3,  pp.  704,  et  seq.\  Pliny, 
Nat.  HLst.  lib.  xiL  cap.  8,  p.  3C2 ;  tb.  lib.  xiL  cap. 
10,  p.  308;  lb.  lib.  xix.  cap.  L  p.  4),  and  conrinuc 
to  flourish  in  greater  luxuriance  than  in  any  other 
[Mirt  of  the  world,  except  in  the  similar  soil  and 
under  the  similar  climate  of  N.  Africa  Arabia 
pnxluccs  several  kinds  of  hard  wood,  of  which  the 
agallochura  seems  to  be  the  same  with  the  sandal 
w^cxxl  of  the  East  India  Islands ;  and  it  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  native  home  of  the  date  tree,  the 
cocoa,  and  the  fan-leaved  palm.  Of  other  trees, 
there  are  the  fig,  orange,  plantain,  almond,  apricot, 
acacia  vera  (producing  the  gum  Arabic),  quince, 
and  vine.  Among  shnibs,  the  sensitive  plant, 
cast«r-f»il  plant,  and  senna  (both  usetl  in  medicine) ; 
the  globe  amaranth,  white  lily,  and  pancratium 
(all  distinguished  for  their  fragrance) ;  the  aloe, 
styrax,  and  sesamum  are  very  abundant.  But, 
notwithstanding  this  varietv  of  wood,  although 
there  are  some  groves  or  thickets  on  the  mountfun 
side,  Arabia  possesses  no  forest,  properly  so  called. 

Of  Arab  trees,  the  most  wortliy  of  notice  are 
the  coffee  tree,  and  the  tree  pnxlucing  the  balm 
of  Mecca,  called,  by  the  natives,  Abu  Scham  (that 
is,  the  odorifenms  tree).  Ik>th  are  natives  of 
Yemen,  the  coffee  plantations  being  found  chiefly 
on  the  W.  slopes  of  the  mountains,  in  that  division 
of  the  peninsula.  It  is  said  that  the  Arabs  have 
always  prohibited  the  exportation  of  the  coffee 
plant;  but  it  is  a  well  known  fa<rt  that  it  was  first 
introduced  into  the  W.  Indies  from  Arabia.  The 
coffee  of  Yemen  still,  however,  preserves  its  supe- 
riority, and  fetches  the  lughest  price  in  the  Euro- 
pean markets.  The  babn  of  Mecca  is  the  most 
fragrant  and  valuable  of  all  the  gum  resins,  but  it 
is  never  met  with  pure  out  of  Arabia,  and  there 
scan^ely  bevond  the  conlines  of  Yemen.  The  mer- 
chants* of  Sfocha  convey  it  in  great  quantities  to 
Medina,  whence  it  is  never  exported  for  the  pur- 
poses of  external  commerce  till  it  has  been  con- 
siderably ailulterat«d.    (Niebulir,  ymi,  u  p.  127.) 

Among  the  natural  pnKluctions  is  the  singular 
substance  caUed  Manna,  produced  from  a  little 
thomv  bush,  which  seems  to  be  abundant  in  all 
the  deserts  and  their  neighbourhood,  and  exactly 
answers  tlic  description  in  Exodus  xvi  and  Num- 
bers xi. 

Wherever  water  is  found,  or  can  be  procurwl, 
the  labour  of  the  Arabian  agriculturist  is  well  re- 
paid. Maize,  wheat,  dhourrah,  barley,  and  millet 
cover  the  mountain  sides  of  Yemen  and  other  fer- 
tile parts.  Indigo,  tobacco,  IJars^  a  plant  yielding 
a  yellow  dye ;  Fuar^  an  herb  which  produces  a  reil 
rolour ;  together  with  many  H])ecies  of  ganlen 
fruits  and  vegetables,  are  cuUivate<l ;  but,  in  order 
to  insure  success  in  the  cultivation  beyond  the 
districts  watered  by  the  scanty  rivulets  and  Xoi- 
rentSy  much  labour  ia  re<iuired.    It  is  true  that  the 


agricultural  implemcntii  are  of  a  vei^  simple  an 
primitive  construction,  but  it  is  not  m  the  use  ( 
these  that  the  great  labour  of  Arabian  agricnlto 
exLsta.  Channels  and  dykes  have  to  be  constructe 
to  conduct  the  water  to  roota  where  none  flowi  u 
tiurally,  and  to  retain  it  tliere  that  it  may  fertib 
them.  Great  reservoirs  are  formed,  in  which  tb 
abundant  rains  of  the  wet  season  are  collected  ib 
future  use.  The  coffee  grounds  and  gardens  a 
the  mountain  sides  are  supported  by  vtms,  to  miki 
their  surface  horizontal,  and  so  prevent  the  esopi 
of  the  moisture.  Wells  are  dug  at  immcw 
depths ;  and,  in  short,  since  it  is  upon  the  amoon 
of  irrigation  that  the  productiveness  of  the  soil  it 
pends,  it  is  to  the  collection  and  just  distributioc 
of  water  that  the  cares  of  the  cultivator  are  on- 
cipally  directed ;  and  the  nature  of  the  Anuut 
clmiate  and  hydn^pvphy  renders  these  caret  ii 
the  highest  degree  laborious.  (Niebuhr,  piLi 
pp.  134—142.) 

The  fame  of  Arabia  as  the  land  of  incense  at 
perfumes  is  of  ver>'  old  date.  But  it  has  been  hii 
torically  proved  that  the  frankincense,  mynh,wi 
similar  products  witli  which  it  supplied  the  andei 
world,  were  not  all  of  its  own  growth,  bat  vtr 
princi{>ally  brought  to  its  ports  from  Africa  ui 
various  £.  countries.  (Niebuhr,  par.  i.  p.  126 
Valentia,  iu  p.  12.) 

The  camel  is  to  the  Arabian  what  the  reindec 
is  to  the  I^plander.  It  has  been  justly  called  tt 
'  Ship  of  the  Desert ;'  and  without  it  the  An 
could  never  ctoss  the  seas  of  sand  that  fence  b 
country.  There  are  two  species  of  this  iwtfi 
animal;  that  used  in  Arabia  and  N.  Africa  hi 
only  one  hump,  while  that  found  in  Penia  at 
Uokhara  has  two.  l*he  latter  is  frequently  calli 
the  Bactrian  camel,  and  the  Arabian  speciei 
sometimes  called  dromedarv'.  This  last  name  i 
however,  improperly  applied!  the  Greek  term  Ipitt 
(swilY),  bein^,  most  probably,  unknown  to  tl 
Arabians,  while  by  the  Greeks  themselves  it  w. 
applied  to  only  one  variety  of  the  Arabian  cam 
distinguished  by  its  greater  speed  from  those  be 
ad^ted  to  carrying  burdens.  (Diodums  Sicidi 
lib.  iii.  p.  125.)  Arabia  is  generally  regarded  > 
the  native  country  of  the  horse ;  and  there  ai 
perhaps,  no  breeds  to  be  compared  with  the 
traincKl  by  the  Betlouins  of  the  desert.  The  bon 
are  of  two  kinds :  the  one  called  KademMj  that  i 
of  an  unknown  race,  are  used  for  the  purposes 
lalxmr,  reside  in  the  towns,  and  are  not  more  c 
teemed  than  the  horses  of  Europe.  But  the  tn 
Arab  steed,  the  horse  of  the  desert,  ia  said  to  1 
descended  from  the  breed  of  Sohimon :  this  kh 
is  called  Kochlani^  or  horses  of  an  ascertanv 
race ;  and  it  is  pretended  that  their  genealcigyh 
been  preserved  in  the  country  for  2,000  jeai 
(Niebuhr,  par.  i.  pp.  142 — 144.)  Horses  are,  tun 
ever,  by  no  means  so  numerous  as  has  been  sv 
posed.  In  the  settled  districts  the  most  comm 
beasts  of  burden  arc  oxen  and  camels  (Niebnt 
padsim) ;  and  among  the  Bedouins  the  mare 
rather  a  marie  of  distinction  than  a  substantia 
{Mirt  of  her  master's  wealth.  In  many  tribes  (ai 
those  among  the  richest)  not  more  than  one  ma 
to  six  or  seven  tents  can  be  found ;  in  some  of  tJ 
W.  districts  there  are  many  encampments  witbn 
a  single  horse  or  mare  among  them ;  and  wbe 
in  1815,  the  S.  tribes  united  against  Mehemet  A 
out  of  an  armv  of  25,000  men  not  more  than  54 
horsemen  coiJd  be  mustered.  The  Arab  tiib 
richest  in  horses  live  without  the  limits  of  the  p 
ninsuln,  in  the  fertile  plains  of  Me«.»potamia,  ai 
in  the  plain  country*  ot  Syria.  Burckhardt  thin] 
that  the  miml)er  (»f  horses  in  Arabia  does  not  e: 
cecil  50,(K)0.  (Notes  on  Bedouiiu^  \vp,  40,  115, 
»eq,  240—249.) 


Tkcnst  eaoM  of  tfaii  nordty  w  undnubtedly 
te  dimcnlty  ofprDviding  Tnod  Toi  the  uiinul,  «- 
ftdlllj  in  tbe  S.dulnct8i  but  uinthci  cauec,  de- 
fOdmg  itfnbmbly  afna  the  Gnit,  is,  Ihnt  the  Arahs 
tlMM  uiifoimlY  ride  Ih«r  m&ini.  tnd  iiell  the 
baauihetuwnVpeople.  The  hnreca  chit  they 
nan  ue  merely  Tor  the  pnrpose  of  hrealing,  and 
■  tddmcwnn'ly  if  FverKcn  in  the  desert.  A). 
Ilui)rti3ie  Beduiiin  parts  iwdily  with  the  horaes 
efbbfunous  J&r-Almi  hrecd,  ho  rarely  dispoKd  of 
ibiuRii  until  they  become  old,  or  «ro  fniro 


ARABIA 

the  other  lar|;i 


veiv  valiiahh 
buffaln,  thnii^h  cnminiii 
the  bsnka  of  the  Euphn 
nfinea  v(  A 


a  then  he  co 

!  Gnt  filly  foaled  of 

atoMbe  bny«r  ntunin^  the  lillv.  Sometiinee 
ihtdnl  lira, 'time,  or  eren  Tour  filliee  are  Chna  re- 
londin  theeeller;  »nci  thu.  in  Arab  phrwcoloc)"! 
11  oUnl  wlliiif;  ■  haU*,  ■  (bird,  or  a  founb  of  the 
'     '  I  very  rarclv,  iadeed,  that  a 


a  Kocblani  i 


ZE 


a  or  ri^bt 
r^.    (BurdEhaidt'ii  Note*  oa  the  Bedi 
117.118,1c)     An  Arab  will  Bomedmea 

■•T  bncd  by  wme  celebrated  hoTBe  i  but,  in  i^iic- 
aL  IJK  Btdouuu  are  by  no  means  »  particular  in 
Ihit  JVfvot  M  Eumpeanis  and  consider  the  good 
•olilia  of  the  colt  to  depend  rather  upon  the 
Jb  Ihu  the  &».  They  never,  however,  will- 
aflr  mil  the  A'ocUbib  wiih  the  Karlachi  lireeil ; 
ad  a  mcfa  mixture  take  place  by  accident,  the 
0*  ■  nckoned  of  the  inferior  race.  In  the  lowr- 
StiarU  nuns  are  coupled  with  Xa-Uidu  bom 
hot  m  this  esse,  aiso,  th«  o&prin;^  is  account 
l-lmii.    (Niebuhr,  par.  L  p.  144.) 

AeUnu  hrirses  are  mustly  emalli  oeldom  abore 
haiuta  hands  high,  nf  a  delicate  but  extreniely 
paoAil  form,  and  have  all  some  characteristic 
tMBiTThich  dislin^fuishes  their  breed  fi-om  every 
oUs.  This  biHd  is  Bubdi>-ided  inUj  almost  innu- 
■inUe  liuniliM :  for  every  marc  distinguished  foi 
^■dmheauly  may  Rive  rise  to  anew  breed  called 
^ts  bcr.  Tbcy  all,  however,  belon);  tn  tive  isreaC 
'■nam,  named  alter  the  favourite  maies  of  Mo- 
h^Hd,  TamuK,  Mamduyt,  Moheyl,  TaUaayt, 
•dMJft. 

Aoft  ii  Dot  moanted  till  it  a  two  years  old, 
kt&nn  this  time  the  saddle  is  nrely  off  its  bu;l[ ; 


'u  iiutances,  when  tlie  humped  Syrian 
:i  hnve  been  mistaken  for  the  bi^ln. 
The  latter  requires  a  moist  pasture  and  a  plentiful 
SD|^y  of  wata-.  Hence  it  in  found  nn  the  bunks 
I  the  Nile  and  the  Orontes,  thou^'h  in  the  clo«e 
leiKhbourbood  of  parched  deserts;  but  the  want 
f  water  in  Arabia  clearly  renders  that  country 
unUt  for  its  I'wation. 

nals  are  the  jacknl,  hytena, 

--    - ,  the  jerboa,  wulf,  fox,  boar, 

and  panther.     Besiites  these,   there  are  several 
!_;_.,    _f__._. .,._       ..  _        wild  amonft  thB 


le  rainy  season 


*"i«l5  ill  his  ooB , 

•>■  111  hii  privations.  Pasture  in  t 
-^rt(y  and  wheat  when  the  plains  ore  K-tjicuen 
*7  it  ui^acal  sun — date-paste,  and  dried  clover 
■tnrnm  is  scarce— form  the  variable  diet  of  the 
-^nt  hunt,  in  different  districts  and  scawins.  An 
'■■f'  tno,  as  its  master's  camels  can  supply  milk, 
■■  ncnna  iu  share,  and  the  Bedouin  most  com- 
■wlfgivea  the  fragments  of  his  own  meal  to  the 

PKQo.iDiiReqieciallvinXeibjed.Io^ve  hones' 
**.  both  raw  and  co-Zked,  particularly  before  the 
^^mnmcement  of  a  fatiguing  juuniev.  Like  theii 
MUns,  the  Arab  hones  live  all  the  year  in  the 
■poitii.  With  litite  gmuming  and  atlenliott  U 
|iai^ialth,tbevare  widom  ill.  Bein*;  coDstantly 
Bitbenvtyo^ their  masters,  they  become  gentle, 
^■cde.  snd  mtellu^nt  in  a  high  <lcgtee ;  they  are 

i^t;  and  insiauixsnf  nceoriU-tcmperarealmus 
Btkniiiin  amung  Iheni.  (Xiebuhr,  pat.  L  pp.  141- 
m-.  IknUiardt,  Notes  on  Ucduuiiw,  pp.  116-123, 
tW-£M.) 

Ilie  other  dmne^ic  aiiimnls  are  oxen,  generally 
itt  bufflpe-I  LiniU  like  those  iif  Syria;  sheep.  »iie 
nririy  tj"  which  lias  extrrmeiy  thick  and  hniail 
"  which  last  IJicre  arc  two 
n  tluwe  uf  Eunipe, 


irsfn^ns,  and  more  desii 

■n  the  h.ir«^    From  the 

ireed  of  very  valuable  mule«  is  ]«oeiirei 


'  antelopes;  the^itat 

the  plains.  Domestic  poultry  is  very 
I  in  all  the  fertile  distiicis,  and  the  pl^ns 
A  with  partriilges,  the  woixls  with  guinea 
d  the  mountain  ndes  with  phcasanls.  Dut 
It  celebrated  bird  is  one  of  the  thrush  kind, 
ralleil  by  the  natives  Samar-mog,  which  comes  in 
flacks  every  year  from  Persia,  and  commits  gnat 
imon^  the  HightB  of  locusts.   Fur  this 


iield  in 


the  sandy  deserts,  and  is  cslleil  by  the 
Tuir-edtrnJmatI,  that  is,  camel-bird.  It  ia 
y  a  remarliBble  circumstance  that  in  a  cnuii- 
try  lying  on  both  sides  the  tropic  there  Mliiiuld  lio 
no  great  abundance  uf  insects;  yet  this  appears  to 
be  the  case.  Ali  Bey,  speaking  of  Heiljaa,  says. 
■There  are  fewtlies,and  uo  gnats  or  other  iusecis.' 
(Travehf,  ii.  pp.  45, 118.)  live  locust  in,  however, 
one  of  the  sconrges  of  Arabia,  though  even  this 
pest  seems  to  be  less  destructive  here  (ban  in  the 
:hbouring  eountri^  of  Syria  aihl  Persia,  Tha 
ilent  locust  is  suld  iti  the  markets,  and  is 
esteemed  a  ^reat  delicacy.  (Bochar^  Hieroioicon, 
par.  i.  lib.  iv.  cbji.  6,  p.  4G.)  Theeo  destniclive 
ravagers  come  to  Arabia  from  different  quarters; 
a  SW.  wind  brings  them  from  the  Libyan  Desert 
to  the  shores  of  I'cmen  and  Hedjaz ;  a  N  W  wind 
hurls  them  upon  Oman  and  Laclisa,  from  Persia 
and  Mesopotamia ;  and  a  wind  from  the  N£.  fre- 

Sueutly  overifhelma  Ncdsjed  with  tliis  plague, 
vm  Syria.  They  seem,  however,  U>  he  confined 
to  their  several  locoliiies,  perhaps  from  inalulityto 
pass  the  interior  deserts ;  for  the  W.  Ilight,  as  it 
may  be  callol,  or  that  from  the  African  iibores, 
never  [>asses  the  mountains  c>f  Yemen,  and  com- 
monly retraces  its  route  on  the  day  following  its 
first  apfiearance.  No  part  of  the  year  seems  to  ba 
peculiarly  exposed  to  or  esompt«l  fn)m  this 
pbgoe.  Xiebuhr  noticed  locust  fiighls  in  Iho 
months  of  January,  May,  Juno,  July,  N'uvember, 
aiid  December.  In  one  of  thoHe,  the  Kcd  Sea  be- 
tween Mocha  and  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa  was 
covered  with  their  dead  bodies. 

Of  the  reptile  tribes,  land  and  sea  turtles  are 
very  tiumerous ;  there  are  also  several  species  of 
serpents,  one  of  which,  very  small,  and  covered 
with  white  blotches,  is  extremely  venomous,  its 
bite  being  in"fjuitly  mortal  The  (jiiaril,  a  lai){e 
liianl,  is  said  by  Bcwhart,  on  the  auiJiarily  of  Kar- 
wyni  aiid  Abdojlatif,  two  native  wrilem,  (o  be  equal 
insize  and  strength  to  tbc  crocodile.  (Ilieroiuicon, 
liar.  L  lib.  iv.cim.  3,  ]>.  11170.)  All  the  coasts  abound 
III  iIhIii  recfi  of  coral  and  niudre[ion;  extend  along 
the  nhon-s  of  tlic  Kul  Sen,  and  the  pearl  o>-»ter  is 
inrtniir  in  the  Peruan  Uulf.     (Xiebuhr,'  |iar.  L 


i-l&a.) 


156 


ARABIA 


3finerals  arc  scairc;  but  thu  may  proceed  from 
a  want  uf  indiudry  or  Hkill  in  working  mines.  The 
mountainH,  of  an  old  formation,  arc  i>reciAeIy  those 
in  which  the  precious  metals  are  f(>undf  and  the 
unanimous  voice  of  antiquity  proclaims  this  coun- 
tr}"  as  the  land  of  gold  and  gems,  as  well  as  of 
incense  and  perfumes.  Niebuhr  affirms,  however, 
that  no  gold  is  found,  and  tlmt  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  silver  is  foimd  mixed  with  lead  in  the 
mountains  of  Oman.  There  are  some  iron  mines 
in  the  N.  of  Yemen,  but  the  metal  they  ^'ield  is 
brittle  and  of  little  worth ;  and  with  r^ard  to 
gems,  it  is  now  well  known  that  the  agate  called 
Mocha  gUme  and  the  Arabian  cumelian  come  fn)m 
India ;  and  there  is  nothing  to  contradict  the  pre- 
sumption that  the  other  gems  for  which  Arabia 
was  formerly  distinguished,  were  derived  from  the 
same  source.  The  onyx,  however,  is  found  in 
Yemen,  and  an  inferior  emcjald.  The  other  mine- 
rals arc  basalt,  blue  alabaster,  several  kinds  of 
S|>ar8  and  selenite.    (Niebuhr,  par.  i.  pp.  123-125.) 

PtipuUitiun^  Manner $j  and  Customi  of  Ambia. — 
The  native  Arab  has  always  been  an  object  of 
interest  and  curiosity  to  the  rest  of  the  world. 
Descendcfi  in  all  pnuuibility  from  the  same  stock 
with  the  Jews,  he  has  i)reser\'cd  his  race  almost  as 
unmixed,  and  traces  up  his  genealog>'  to  Abraham 
through  Ishmael,  with  the  same  j)ride  as  hu  con- 

{^cnittir  looks  up  to  the  same  ]>atnarch  through  his 
awful  but  younger  offspring  Isaac  Tlirough  all 
the  centuries  whidi  have  passe<l  over  liis  heaid,  he 
has  j>reser\'ed  the  cliaracter  given  to  his  infant 
ancestor  in  the  wildeniess.  'The  desert  has  con- 
tinued his  home;  he  has  been  a  man  of  war  from 
his  youth — 'his  hand  against  every  man,  and 
cverj'  man's  hand  against  his.' 

Though  the  various  eastejm  traditions  on  the 
subject  are  too  numerous  and  too  involved  to  be 
here  stated,  it  seems  pretty  certain  that  the  Aralm 
of  the  towns  and  those  of  the  desert  owed  tluur 
(»rigin  to  different  ancestors — that  the  Kittled  popu- 
lation on  the  coasts  are  descended  from  a  more 
ancient,  if  not  an  aboriginal  race,  while  the  i^ild 
hon^eman  and  shepherd  (»f  the  waste  is  the  de- 
scendant of  the  discanled  son  of  Abraham.  Be- 
tween these  a  marked  and  striking  difference  has 
existed  throughout  the  historic  period;  and  not 
only  is  this  the  case,  but  each  class  seems  to  liave 
retained  pretty  nearly  tlie  same  distinguishing 
features  which  marke<l  it  in  the  earliest  times. 
1  he  caravans  from  Mocha  and  Sanaa  still  convey 


though  the  Arab  merchant  be  not  so  important  a 
character  in  this  commercial  age,  as  when  it  could 
be  said  of  him  that '  he  must,  of  necessity,  l)e  ex- 
ceefling  rich ;  for  with  him  the  Roman  and  the 
I'arthian  leave  large  sums  of  gold  and  silver  for 
the  products  of  his  w(mk1s  and  seas,  which  he  sells 
to  them  without  buving  anything  in  return.' 
(Pliny,  L  vl  §  28.)  'iThe  IJedouins,  t<)o,  or  Scrnita, 
are  described  by  Pliny  as  living  in  the  black  hair- 
chith  tents,  under  which  they  shelter  themselves 
at  present ;  and  he  expresses  his  astonishment  at 
the  fact,  that,  being  so  numerous  a  roce^  the  half  j 
of  them,  at  least,  should  live  bv  plunder.  (Nat, 
Hist.  L  vi.  §  22.) 

Though  the  younger  race,  the  Redonins  account 
themselves  the  more  noble;  and  the  Arab  is 
]>rouder  of  his  rank  thmi  the  native  of  anv  other 
coimtry  in  the  worhL  Tliey  have  no  titles  of 
nol)ility,  excepting  such  as  n>fer  to  religious  or 
f  political  offices.  The  lieiloiiin  has  no  ido^  of  rank 
de[)ending  upon  letters  }iatent  of  a  caliph  or  sul- 
tan ;  all  men  descended  from  the  same  ancestor 
are,  in  his  estimation,  equal  in  rank ;  and  hence 


the  preservation  of  their  genealogieB  is  a  matta 
of  extreme  care.  Among  thdr  great  honni, 
those  descended  from  the  Prophet  tiold  the  fliit 
rank;  then  those  whose  anceaton  diverged  the 
j  latest  from  the  common  stock ;  the  loweat  {daoi 
being  seemingly  assigned  to  those  who  traoe  their 
genealogy  to  Ace,  the  second  son  of  Adnam,  thni 
diverging  from  the  Prophet's  stock  in  the  fint 
accredited  generation,  (sale,  Introd.  Koran,  p.  9; 
Niebuhr,  par.  u  pn.  9, 10.) 

According  to  Niebuhr,  the  Bedouins  are  nov 
the  only  true  Arabi^ — the  inhabitants  of  the  citici 
and  coasts  being,  in  consequence  of  their  ooa- 
merce,  so  mixed  with  strangers,  that  they  have 
lost  much  of  their  ancient  mannen  and  custoos; 
whereas,  the  Bedouins  {let  vrais  Arabeg)  hare 
always  looked  more  to  tneir  liberties  than  thdr 
ejue  or  riches,  and  continue  to  live  in  sepante 
tribes,  under  tents,  preserving,  in  the  presot 
(lay,  tlie  same  mannera  and  customs  which  ^ 
tinguished  their  forefathera  in  the  most  lemola 
times.  (Par.  u.  p.  327.)  Niebuhr  enumerates 
almve  a  hundred  Bedouin  tribes,  each  nnder  its 
own  particular  sheikh  or  sheriff;  these  are  not, 
however,  all  found  within  the  limits  of  the  penin- 
sula, but  extend  over  S}Tia,  the  plain  countiy 
between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  and  e\fn 
from  the  lefl  bank  of  the  latter  river  into  Peiaa. 
There  are,  however,  two  classes  of  Bedouins;  the 
Ahl-cl-Abaar  (true,  noble  Arabs)  who  li\-e  entirdy 
by  pasturage  and  plunder,  and  those  tribes,  wh(v 
finding  any  i)ortion  of  the  country  fitted  for  agri- 
culture, bestow  their  labour  on  the  ground,  an 
occufiation  wluch  the  true  Bedouin  considefM  br 
beneath  him.  Tliis  second  claw  of  Aralw  is  called 
Madan,  and  it  seems  to  hold  an  intermediata 
place  between  the  Noble  Shepherd  (Ahl-d-Abaar) 
and  the  i>eaHant  of  other  countries. 

The  ikdouin  tribes  who  inluibit  the  open 
count  r>'  between  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  ex- 
tend as  far  north  as  Orfa  and  Diartiekr.  Tber 
are  under  the  nominal  sovereignty'  of  the  Turkish 
pachas  of  Bagdad,  Mouasul,  and  Orfa;  their 
sheikhs  frequently  receive  the  Tqjk,  or  hone's 
tail,  from  the  grand  signor ;  but  it  appears  that 
the  I)estowal,  and  the  acceptance  of  this  mark  of 
dignity  is  almost  the  only  assertion  on  the  one 
one  hand,  or  acknowledgment  on  the  other,  ot 
supremacy  or  subordination  that  is  e\'er  attempted 
or  conccdeil :  except  in  occasional  instances,  when 
direct  force  has  depose<l  a  sheikh,  and  appointed 
another  in  his  place,  without,  in  the  slightest  de- 
gree, changing  the  relative  position  of  the  tribe 
and  its  so-called  sovereign  pacha. 

The  Bedouins  of  the  Syrian  desert  arc  nther 
more  closely  connected  with  the  pachas  of  Syria, 
inasmuch  as  the  necessity  of  protecting  the  trade 
lietween  Aleppo  and  Damascus  on  the  W.,  and 
Bagdad  and  lialsora  on  the  E.,  has  caused  the 
employment  of  the  various  Arab  tribes  as  a  kind 
of  irregular  soldier>' ;  and  the  bestowal  of  the 
rank  of  emir  on  the'  reigning  sheikh  of  the  most 
{Mwcrful  trilie  for  the  time  being.  This  emir 
sheikh  (in  consideration  of  his  rank)  is  obliged  to 
conduct  the  caravans  in  safety  through  thcdesert, 
and  to  hold  in  check  any  or  all  of  the  other  tribea. 
*  We  may  easily  judge,'  says  Niebuhr  (Des.  de 
TAr.  imr.  ii.  p.  330),  *  tliat  this  is  not  done  for 
nothing.'  In  fact;  if  it  happen,  as  it  not  unfte- 
qucntly  does,  tliat  the  pacha  is  unable  to  fulfil  hii 
engagements  w^ith  the  sheikh,  he  is  compelled  to 
cede  to  him  such  towns  and  villages  as  border  on 
his  encampment :  and  thus  to  make  him,  in  effect, 
the  master  of  the  settled,  as  well  as  of  the  open 
country.  The  tribe  of  Anoese  is  the  most  con- 
siderable of  all  the  S^nriaii  ^Vrabs.  It  has  fre- 
quently been  at  war  with  the  pachas  of  Damascoi; 


nLUiurfi  limn,  the  Jeparture  or  the  caravanii 
fi«D  Ibu  dly  for  BoKvtail  has  been  delayed :  uii[ 
Uk  miun,  openly  &wignv<l,  that  the  Araba  nf 
Sxn  WIT  discJHtcnt^d  with  the  par hn, 
'Vm  BfUnairu,  within  the  penimula,  do  not 
vbuxrkd^  a  Kovcrnjcnty  of  any  kind,  except  in 
ihcii  utitf  cbiefg.  I^y  aic  very  niimcmus  in 
liaiHd.  lod  are  scattered  am<m){  the  settled 
pofciuiini  in  ill  the  atheTi>niriiiceii.  The  most 
bjiBfiil  tribe  nfanv  in  Aisliia  is,  perhaps,  that  of 
BHU-Uulai:  it  ia'habilH  (hut  part  of  the  desert 
"  iisian  Gulf,  and  has  under 
mon  not  only  many  AinaLlei  trilKs,  but 
R  of  the  towoH  and  villa^efl  of  Lachtta. 
X  iheikh  parae? 


ARABIA  16^ 

desert,  the  Beilouin  eongideTa  hig  pruporty  less  aa 

II  asthatof  the  casualBtranipir  he  may 

iver  hungry,  lio  nharcB  his  lost  morsel 

yfurer ;  and  mctI  flees  whirh  he  would 

not  make  for  himself  or  hin  family,  are  made  ud~ 

linftly  for  the  wants  of  hia  guest.    The  inha- 

4  of  the  towns  have  fewer  points  of  inlrreKt 

than  the  Bedouins.     Kiebuhr  (par.  IL  p.  3-27)  saya 

they  have  lust  much  of  their  dutinctive  character ; 

other  travellers  speak  of  them  as  hnving  supet- 


in  that  to 


.1  by  far 


Tbe  InriB  of  govemfqent  amonj-  the  Bedoi 
itHrirtljpatriMchaLand  their  manner  ofliv 
iitlmifjf  the  pastoral  H£es  reoordixl  in  the  Bi 
TbthadoTaliilia  roceivea  a  submiti'inn  from  his 
Rtjoli,  limilar  la  that  which  a  father  receives 
ha  U>  bmity ;  and,  in  the  East,  that 
ii  DD^madcd.    There  is,  however,  a  cheek  upon 
lb  ihoie    of  power  in    the  sovereign    sheikh, 
vbirh,  thuagh  indirect,  is  by  no  means  weak. 
Sim  trny  tribe  cnnwts  of  many  branches,  the 
wioDi  litads  of  (he«e  sub-tribes,  as  Ihcy  may  b( 
ialloi,()rni  a  powerful  restraint  upon  the  chief; 
ndifanddhe  become  '""    ''"  "~^    j^— -. 


to  his  wiU  is  n 


■mplc 


BBimait,  and  either  forms  itself  m  to  anew  tube, 
[t  it  ant  powerful  enouijb  for  that,  jinna  itaclf  to 

Kura  have  lieen  known  in   which  a   Bcilouin 
rtM  liv  been   entiiely  deserted,  and  thtt 
ua«  uT  attnal  trites  have  vaiiLahod.    As, 

litw,  this  expeihent  is  only  resorted  to'  in  the 
1m  ttneme :  but  the  awumption  of  supremacy 

t"  itmlK  the  miitiniuuice  of  the  sovereignty  of  the 
tribe  of  Bonlefidsj  in  the  same  family,  sitic      ' 


imed,  a 


added  the  vi 


faith,  yet  lirinir 


,  natural  and  unnnturaL 


all  (he  rifo 

Hj-pocriies  by  profcj        , .  „        . 

truth ;   even  when  not  uij^l  by  motive 

\  deceit  Girras  a  part  of  their  edurali 

youth.    Their  guvemr----       -     

tortion  and  tyrani —  " 
oomipt,     "^   ^""' 


;  their  tradem  are  frauduler 


of  tl 


I  sunk  ii 


imii- 


tmttrr.  accordinff  as  the  desert  has  becomE 
pvKiiy  fruitful  under  the  induenee  of  the  tropical 
QinLor  baa  been  bumt  up  by  the  continu< 
liia  tf  1  tropical  sun.  Accustiimcl  to  livi 
<ltSTtir,theLr  sight  aiul  smell  become  estremety 
itf.  ubmuch  that,  on  arriving  at  a  spot  which 
■t/di  ngurishmenl,  however  scantily,  lu  plants 
a  IwUge,  they  can  at  once  determine  at  —'—' 
*pdi  iriler  u  to  be  found,  and,  consctju 
*tiKkt  it  be  worth  the  laliour  of  di^fin, 
AanMomed  to  privation^  the  Italouin  is  t 
OIF  biim  habit  as  well  as  frumdi»piHiitiun,ai 
•inwl  mulate  the  endurance  of  hiscamehi,  whicli, 
a  ibf  burning  desert  bve  Hve  days  without  drink. 
A  Q4i«fHniuus  part  in  the  Arab's  character  is 
lis  linf)iiialitv.  In  manv  of  the  towns  where  the 
[■Vduiisiismadtunmixeil,  houses  of  cnterlain- 
ntoi  oe  kept  at  the  public  expense,  or  at  that  of 
Mae  rirh  Lndiviilnal,  where  the  traveller  is  fed 
ul  tlitilertd  without  charge.  But,  in  the  desert, 
bmiiulity  ii  ■  pan  of  the  Bedouin's  nature  i  and 
ttwurt  the  influence  of  foreign  m.inners  bos,  uis>n 
tbe  lltdj  mads,  omsiderably  dimmed  the  lustn; 

tnnUtr.  is  sure  of  titidiiig  relief,  though  the 
•BnUsf  Hadjis  should  crave  in  vain  forassist- 
•ncmnnercv.  In  districts  olT  the  IJadj  roads, 
tin'  i^  ma   much  the  greater  portion  of  the 


lowest  state  of  ignorance  and  debauchery.'  Such 
is  the  character  given  of  the  town  .4ral»  by  I.ord 
Valentia  (ii.  3.U,  So.'i),  and  a  similar  picture  is 
unwillinf-lv  exhibited  br  Xiebuhr  (par.  if.  Tip.  180- 
IWI).      (Ali  Bey,  Buickhaidt,  and  Buckmgham, 

In  prosperous  time*,  the  right  of  entertaining  a 
guest  is  frequently  disputed ;  and  should  a  stran- 
ger reach  the  encampment  nnobserveii,  it  is  reck- 
oned an  afiriint  if  he  pass  the  first  tent  on  his 
right  hand,  and  enter  another. 

In  many  tribes  the  women  are  pcrmitteti  to 
drink  coflee  with  strangers;  and  in  some,  towanls 
(be  S.,  the  wife  entcrlains  a  guest  in  the  absence 
of  her  husband,  and  doss  the  honours  of  the  tenU 
To  tell  an  Arab  that  he  neglects  his  guest  is  the 
greatest  uisult  that  can  be  olfcreiL  (XJchuhr, 
par.  i.  pp.  41  M ;  Burckhardt's  Xot.  on  Bed.,  pp. 
100-IU-2,192-1!I9.) 

The  superiority  of  the  Bedouins  apjiears  to  be 
admitted  by  the'  town  residents ;  for  the  {lescen- 
daiitH  of  lilohamined,  resident  at  Mecca,  send 
Ihrar  male  chiblren,  eight  days  after  birth,  to  the 
tents  of  the  n^hbouring  Bedouins,  where  the}' 
remain  till  Ihev  are  eight  or  ten,  and  frequently 
fourteen  or  ODeen  yean  oliL  All  sherilTs  (deJicen- 
dants  of  the  Prophets),  tram  the  sovereign  down- 
worils.  have  been  thus  bred ;  and,  as  they  usually 
take  wives  from  the  tcnta  where  they  have  licen 
educated,  thcv  preserve  the  race  and  manv  of  the 
customs  of  the  lWouin^  in  the  mi<b<t  of  tlie  mixed 
popuhition  by  which  they  are  gummndeiL  Tliis 
custom  is  verr  ancient  among  the  pure  Arali". 
Mohammed  himself  was  educated  in  the  Boiloiiin 
tribe  of  Beni  Saad.    (Burckhardt's  Travels,  vol.  ii. 

The  Arate  arc  of  a  middle  height,  generally 
extremely  thin,  and  when  either  very  young  or 
far  aitvanceil  in  life,  of  a  highly  preiKissessing  aji- 

uf  an  Ai^  boy,  and  his  dark,  e|iarkliiig  eye,  are 
"[wkeii  of  in  terms  of  admiration  by  all  travellers, 

vantageoiLi  chango  takes  phice  i  his  meagre  figure 
becomes  still  more  nt  tcnuateil,  anil  sifms  as  though 
it  were  parched  and  slirivelled  up.  _  The  ven-  splen- 
ilour  of  his  eye,  buried  between  high  cheuk-liunes, 
apparently  destitute  of  every  covering  except  the 
lightened  skin,  is  then  taltiGr  a  deformity.  Bui, 
in  old  age  the  .\rab  is  Inily  Tenerablc.  ^e  line 
dork  eve  contrasts  ailioiralilr  with  the  liHig  white 
beani ;  and  the  emncution  which,  in  middle  lifr, 
seenu  to  intimate  pfemalure  ducav,  awimilales 
well  witli  tlic  cliHHUg  scenes  of  extslrnce.  There 
arc  excpiitious,  however,  to  this  general  d^^8crip- 
lion,    Tlie  Aeneie  Bedouins  are  generally  short 


158 


ARABU 


well  fomKMl,  and  by  no  iiKMiiifl  ro  thin  mt  the 
mujority  of  their  countrymen.  The  Gharrah  Be- 
douins are  a  nnc  athletic  race  of  men.  '  It  stnick 
me,'  wiys  Captjun  IlaineB,  in  his  Memoir  of  the 
South  and  East  Coasts  of  Arabia,  contribute*!  to 
the  Journal  of  the  Geo^n^phical  Society,  1845, 
*  that  their  women  (who  arc  modeflt,  though  they 
wear  pcarcelv  any  coverinjj)  and  their  younjj  men 
have  a  Jewish  cant  of  countenance.'  The  lower 
orders  in  Mecca  are  firencrally  stout.  The  Arab ! 
women  are  stouter  than  the  men,  and  lai^r 
liml)ed.  The  complexion  of  the  Bedouins  is 
tawny,  but  this  is  o-idently  the  eflfect  of  their 
exposed  life ;  an  effect  which  the  same  exposure 
would  i)rodure  on  the  most  N.  people.  At  the 
time  or  birth  the  infant  is  fair,  even  of  a  livid 
whiteness ;  and  Burckhardt>,  who,  as  a  physician, 
saw  the  naked  arms  of  a  sheik's  lady,  states  that 
her  skin  was  as  fair  as  that  of  any  European. 
Lonl  Valentia  makes  the  same  remuic  reganling 
the  wives  and  daughters  of  an  Arab  of  Djidda. 
(iii.  308.)  In  the  to\nis,  the  Aral>8  may  l>e  des- 
crilKMi  as  fair,  especially  in  the  mountain  districts. 
]<ut  this  remark  must  be  understtKtd  as  limited  to 
those  of  pure  descent :  on  the  C(»asts,  and  in  the 
towns  of  Mecca,  Medina,  &c.,  the  prevailing  co- 
lour is  a  bickly  yellowish-brown,  lighter  or  darker 
acconiing  to  the  ori^^  of  the  mother,  who  is,  in 
many,  pexhaps  in  most  cases,  an  Abyssinian  slave^ 
(Niebuhr.  par.  1.  p.  41 ;  Ali  Bey,  voL  ii.  pp.  103, 
IOC:  BuTckhardt,  i.  p.  322;  ii.  ]>.  240:  ^ote8  on 
Bedouins,  p.  29;  Valentia,  ii.  p.  851.) 

The  Arabs,  like  other  Eastern  people,  wear  long 
dresses.  A  cotton  slurt,  over  whicli  the  more  ] 
wealthy  wear  a  kambar^  or  long  gown  of  silk  or  i 
cotton  stuff,  and  the  p<K>rer  classes  a  woollen  man-  j 
tie,  is  the  usual  costume.  Tlie  mantle  is  of  vari-  | 
ous  kinds :  one  ver^'  thin,  light,  and  white,  is  I 
called  meMumy :  a  coarser  and  heavier  kind,  worn 
over  the  fonner,  is  called  ablta.  In  some  cases, 
however,  this  last  is  a  ver>'  splendid  garment.  It 
is  usually  strii>eil  white  and  brown,  but  the  rich 
Arab  frequentlv  clothes  himself  in  a  black  abba, 
interwoven  with  gold,  in  preference  to  the  kombar 
or  Turkish  gown.  The  ablMi  is  not  used  in  the  VV. 
districts,  Yemen  and  Uedjaz.  In  the  towns,  large 
cotton  drawers  are  worn  by  the  men ;  but  these 
rarely  form  a  part  of  the  Bedouin's  dress,  among 
whom  any  covering  fi>r  the  feet  or  legs  is  almost 
imknown.  Tliough  they  walk  and  ride  barefoot, 
they  greatly  value  yellow  lKK>ts  and  rwl  shoes; 
but'  more  as  articles  of  ornament  than  use.  A 
very  rude  kind  of  sandal  is  woni  by  the  lower 
ordejs  in  the  settled  |)arts  of  the  country,  and  the 
more  wealthy  inhabitants  of  the  same  districts 
use  a  8lipi)er  of  yellow  or  red  leather,  sometimes 
ver>'  elaborately  worketl,  brought  from  Egj'pt  or 
Turkey.  The  hcad-dre-ss  is  a  turban,  varying  in 
f(»rm,  size,  and  material,  acconiing  to  the  taste  or 
wealth  of  the  wearer. 

Arab  cookery  is  very  peculiar.  No  oil  is  nscd 
for  culinar>'  purposes,  except  in  fW'ing  fish.  But- 
ter is  their  universal  sauce,  and  of  it  the  consump- 
tion Is  immense ;  their  vegetable  dishes  all  float 
in  butter ;  with  it  thev  work  their  adjoue  hito  a 
pniper  consistency ;  dned  com,  or  bread  crumlts, 
Doiled  in  butter,  is  a  common  breakfast  with  all 
classics ;  and,  in  the  desert,  the  kemmayea  are  pre- 
pared for  use  in  the  same  manner.  Arab  butter 
IS  made  fn»m  the  milk  of  sheep  and  goats,  that  of 
camels  not  being  used  for  that  pur(K>se.  The 
home  supply  is  not  nearly  suflicient  for  the  con- 
sumption, and  butter  consequently  forms  an  im- 
portant article  of  im|>ortation.  It  lh  brought  from 
the  opposite  coast  of  ^Vfrica,  chiefly  fn>ra  Souakin. 
Massouah,  and  Upper  Egypt.  Salads  are  un- 
known.   Coffee  is  used  to  a  great  extent,  though 


scarcely  so  mnch  as  might  be  expected;  andto- 
bacc<j  is  smoked  universally  by  young  and  rfd. 

The  parental  character  is  highly  respected; 
though  the  Arab  children,  both  in  the  torwns  ind 
in  the  desert,  have  more  freedom  than  in  ua 
other  E.  country'.  The  Bedouin  child  runs  naked, 
in  the  open  coimtry  round  his  fathe/s  tent :  nd 
at  Mecca,  Djidda,  and  other  towna,  the  childRii, 
even  of  the  better  classes,  are  allowed  to  play  fa 
the  streets  as  soon  as  they  can  walk,  nearly  in 
the  same  primitive  state.  'But,  within  doors,  the 
strictest  decorum  is  obser^'cd.  a  boy  never  jKt- 
suming  to  eat  in  his  ikther's  pireaence,  nnlea  a- 
prcssly  in\ited.  It  would  seem,  however,  that 
this  is  little  better  than  mere  ceremony ;  for,  wImb 
emancipated  from  his  father's  authority,  the  youig 
Arab  pays  him  little  deference,  and  iiiutances  an 
not  uncommon  where  the  old  man,  having  Ma 
into  poverty,  is  left  by  his,  perhaps  wealthy,  na, 
to  struggle  with  dutresa,  or  to  seek  for  awtftaaea 
at  the  hands  of  strangers.  An  old  Bedouin  it 
sometimes  supported  by  the  charity  of  the  wlMite 
trilie ;  and  the  daily  quarrels  between  the  father 
and  his  adult  sons  form  one  of  the  most  revolting 
featnres  in  the  Bedouin  character.  On  the  ochar 
hand,  however,  it  should  be  stated  that  the  Aiabi, 
young  or  old,  invarialdy  treats  his  moiker  with 
the  most  res[)ectful  attention.  This  fact  is  the 
more  remarkable  as  contrasted  with  the  little  esti- 
mation in  which  the  female  parent  is  held  in  ochei 
E.  countries ;  and  as  combined  with  the  flnct  that, 
in  ^Vrabia,  the  facility  of  divorce  (see  Laws,  Ae.) 
tends  naturallv  to  loosen  every  tie  that  conneeta 
families.  (Niebnhr,  par.  L  pp.  44,  45;  Buick- 
hanlt's  Travels,  L  p.  340 ;  Notes  on  Bed.^  pp.  ^ 
60,  199-203.)  The  Arab  has  a  grave  deportmoit 
but  a  lively  imagination  :  he  is  a  stranger  to 
gaietv,  in  the  European  sense  of  the  word,  bat 
the  silent  reser\'e  of  most  other  E.  nations  is 
equally  unknown :  he  delights  in  public  meeiinga 
— cs[>ecially  on  occasions  of  weddings,  births,  and 
the  like;  his  language  is  animated  and  pictu- 
resque ;  he  is  intuitively  a  poet  and  an  orator,  and 
is  extravagantlv  fond  of  music.  In  a  woid«  the 
demeanour  of  tne  Arab  mav  be  characterised  as  a 
serious  cheerfulness ;  equally  removed  ftom  boU- 
terous  mirth  on  the  one  hand,  and  dull  apathy  on 
the  other.  One  of  the  chief  amusements  is  listen- 
ing to  the  recitations  or  songs  of  poets  by  nio- 
fession,  who  travel  fVom  town  to  town,  or  nam 
encampment  to  encampment,  after  the  fariiion  d 
\\\Q  banis  and  minstrels  of  Gothic  Europe,  tuccmat- 
|)anying  their  verses,  usually  in  praise  of  some 
native  liero,  Mrith  the  nebaia^  a  kind  of  guitar. 
Niebuhr  affirms  (Voyage  en  Aralne,  ii  n.  IM) 
that  it  is  reckoned  scandalous  in  people  of  emlit 
to  practice  music ;  and  Burckhardt  (Notes  on  Be- 
douins, p.  143)  states  that,  in  most  discrieti) 
slaves  onlv  perform  before  company.  This  cod* 
tempt  for  mstrumental  music  does  not,  howervr, 
extend  to  vocal  performances:  songs,  or  chant«l 
poems,  form  the  great  delight  of  the  Arabs.  Lots 
o<les,  closely  resembling  the  similar  prodoctioQa 
of  the  Trobaflours  and  Provincials  of  Uie  ndddla 
a^i^es,  are  in  every  mouth.  Dancing  is  re^^oned 
disgraceful  in  a  man,  but  a  woman  piques  hendf 
u[K)n  nothing  more  than  skill  in  that  art.  Thai 
ordinary  amusements,  beyond  those  now  men- 
tioned, are  of  a  sedentary  and  indolent  kind.  The 
military,  indeed,  and  tlie  young  Bedouins,  pracdH 
the  djireed,  and  other  warlike  sports;  but  unksi 
particularly  excited,  the  Arab,  Doth  of  the  town 
and  desert,  emplovs  his  leisure  in  smoking,  or  in 
playing  games  of  chance,  of  which  chess,  draugfata 
and  cards  are  the  princiraJ.  Tlie  caitls  in  use  an 
snnilar  to  those  of  the  Cliinese,  which  are  much 
more  numerous  than  thooe  of  Europe;  and  the 


re  inlricatp  and  invnlvtd.  "The 
pmhibitu  pinyiiig  for  mnney, 

(N-ifhiilir,  Vo*-iiB»  en  Arahic.  lum-'i  ji|i.  H1-1S2 ; 
BorcihinlL  XatsonBed.,  p,  itfi:  TavtU,  I  377; 
Lonl  Vilnitu,  vuL  iL  p.  30fi.)  AU  public  ocra- 
KU  ut  fblivala  (u  Ihe  Aittta.  The  uoortst  wilt 
Bait  bu  DUtmaee  a  gala  dav;  but  the  grealoit 
bralT  rotiTil  ia  that  of  the  FircumcL''ion  of  an 

drMil  it  ii  DSuBllr  «o  airaii)^  that  all  who  hav« 
(uiiliM  pcrfurm  the  ccremany  nn  tbc  Mme  da^i 
whiftijcoMequently  one  of  KTcat  festii-ity.  The 
tekj^iiHu  rstiralu  and  the  aainta'  ilays — which  are 
Teiy  nunvruuA— «ie  abii  davB  of  sport  aiicl  re^ 
jcKiDg.  On  ouch  occasions  the  tnirii  Arabs  affect 
put  ipleiidour  in  appearance,  and  a  penun  would 
nite  be  thought  a  thief  than  allow  one  i  "     ' 

Sli  ts  exceed  him  in  linery.    The  Boi 
<D  nch  orcaiions.  IokIh  liui  vifK  with  gold 
•Bd  nik.  but  Henu  little  careful  as  lo  what  ap- 
nay  make    Ali  Bey  afGrms  that  the 

jid  birtlu 
•re  DucoimpanieU  by  rajmcinns,  and  Iha 
•Rirt]  1/  the  Hadj  iit  the  only  thing  that  ai 
Iko  fmn  Iheir  lelhaijiiy;  and  that  it  ia  1 
n  imntive  in  ai-arice  thui  pleasure.  (Ali 
ii.nLKa.lll;  Ihin-khardC,  L  |i..<t3K;  Not 
BnL[iti,M;at.l47,14M.)  Sluhammed found  the 
■lire  inih' 9u  Brmlv  eiiUliluhGil  in  Aiabiath"  *-- 
BaV Dii rffurt  tu  alioliah  it;  aiid  thloiicliOL 
Kfun-ola  ibi'ic  are  a  gnat  number  uf  lilack  vlavea. 
AKmu.  IV  the  deaeendanu  of  AfriconH,  or  mixcil 
^      ■    ■■  'of  free  blnrlts,  the 


FHolr  uf  Uerca  are  the  dulleni 
liiilThf  (leraaw;  that  their  rr 


•(Aiiira.  to  Ihe  tuwDK.  exiieeiitllv-  IhoAe  of  Ihe 
IMjo.  tverr  man,  almuit,  keem  an  Abv«»iniiu 
>Mn4,  shi'm  it  ia  rcckonol  shameful  10  bfII 
ai  •bom.  if  she  bear  him  a  child,  he  Eenerallj 
tim.  ThU  accuunta  fur  the  swarthy  com- 
I'niMi  of  the  peojile  of  Iledjoa,  The  male 
•hna  and  the  female",  not  Aliyssiiiian,  are  um- 
■Ihf^iloyed  ill  dmn«iticdutiei>.  The  llediiuinii 
Xn  nihaUt  with  tlieir  female  iilavv<« :  hul  afWr 
•  ^yeini'aGn'iue  ibey  (rive  them  Iheir  frc«lom, 
><1  lurn- them  tu  wime  of  their  uirn  uimplcxion. 
Tk  'trfnag  of  thcxe  marriages  an  f^,  hi  that 
a  CM  number  uf  these  hiack  natiiraliseil  Aralis 
■re  ifmaA  over  the  eiHratry.  Tlie  emandpoleil 
>l"FI.a«Kie>(dl  the  riKhtd  of  a  free  Arab,  liul 
•«  Biduuim  male  or  female,  n-ill  inK^rmairj-  with 

•bcriaiiiiued  by  their  ciitiiur  rnim  all  amuml 
■i™.  They  have,  himever,  lost  raiiub  <if  the 
"Stu  ippfanmc*.  esiiedally  tlie  wtwUv  hair  and 
Kiiii  ti|i  but  tlie  form  of  the  heail  Mill  bears  wil- 
■x»  tu  iltrir  orit^in.  Greek  attil  Syrian  slaves  are 
(xiail  OHDmnnly  enough  in  Ihe  hniaars;  but  they 
**  iml  iq^larly  mpiilieiL  A  nutive  Arab  ia  by 
■i'lli  1  b«nan ;  anil  though,  in  most  uuen.  Ilic 
BiDiGtioa  of  the  mother  flxeii  that  of  her  otT^iring, 
^  i>  no  rliffereni-e  lielveen  a  man's  rhihlreii  by 
•ta  AnJurivea  and  those  bv  hi*  Ahvs*iiiiiiii  (Jave. 
»'Uni»i  of  han-h  aoil  cniel  masien  occur  (AU 
"V.  ii.  p.  IU3),  but.  genemllv,  .■.lave*  are  con- 
»ltfii|  w  put  i)f  Ihe  owner's  family ;  the  vounjfpr 
°^  tn  iiiiimcled  irilh  Iheir  owner's  children, 
«""  »biini  iiHleni,  they  are  distlngubihoil  only  liy 
«Tnj,|ij.||j  (litrereneeoTtrratmeni,  and  the  per- 
"timn  lit  tunw  menial  otHcea.  They  are  pro- 
■'clflliyl^^  lirovisiunit:  and  upon  a  jii-lt  raoiinil 
•i  Mtplaiiit  agairut  bin  ma'-ter.  the  cadi  will 
'*^  >  •lare  to  be  loliL    Senility  is  no  bar  10 


1S9 

official  dignities;  indeeil,  the  doloa,  or  goveniora 
of  towns,  arc  not  unfreiiuently  wlvcted  from  hIovcs, 
for  the  express  Tea»>n  tliat  they  belong  to  tliac 
class;  biHiia  suiipiwed  tu  be  more  strictly  bound 
lo  tlieir  tnaalers  interest  than  free  Arabs  of  niilile 
blood.  (Burckhanlt,  i.  pp.  312,  343;  Xotea  on 
Bed..  103,  101;  Ali  Dcy,  li.  pp.  45, 103;  Kiebuhr, 
Dea  dc  I'Ar.,  par,  L  p.  91 ;  Lotil  Valioitui,  voL  iii. 
pp.  .128,  32a.) 

Arabia,  if  onitcd  under  one,  or  even  a  few  gn- 
vemmenta,  would  possess  manv  of  the  elements 
of  pulidcal  iMwer.  Tliv  nature  of  ita  noil  and 
climate  has  always  jwoved  a  furmiilnlile  olislruc- 
tion  to  foreign  invaders,  while  the  conaiiesu  of 
the  immediate  successors  of  Muhamined  bear  wit- 
neas  lo  the  eflect  that  the  combined  operalion  of 
its  militan  enerjriea  a  capable  of  producing. 
Split  as  the  coniiirj-  is  into  some  hundreds  of 
petty  sovereignties,  this  effect  is  Utile  liki 
be  lepeated.     Though  every  [leilouin  if 

a  soldier,  dreams  of  conquest,  berond  til-  ,.._ 

<if  a  camp  or  caravan,  rarely  dLsturb  his  imagi- 
nalion;  and  thi«gh  the  pniieea  of  the  settle.1 
districts  surround  themselves  with  regular  Iniojis, 
they  employ  them  rather  1u  avert  internal  trea- 
chery than  lo  make  any  attemiit  at  fiinugn  ag- 
granillBemenl,  SliU.  however,  the  militarj-pnwer 
ofthe  Amlis  Ls  considemble.  in  I8I.1,  the  princes 
opposed  SIchemet  Ali  with  an  army  of  Ss.OiJO 
men;  and  in  1HU3,  the  Wuhnlmi  eluef  marcheil 
agninst  the  same  imtetilate  at  the  head  ol"4o,0(M). 
(Biurkhardt's  Soles,  p.  241*;  Ali  Key,  Tntt-els, 
\-oL  iL  p.  115);  and  lliotieh  nnable  to  )inn'ent 
tlic  eritablishmcnl  of  tho  Kgyjiiiiui  power  in  the 
Ileiljnz,  they  dclaii'ed  it  fi>r*si>mu  yean,  during 
which  they  more  Ihnn  ouee  dcfenivd'lhe  tT0O[ki  of 
the  Pacha,  and  faile>l  at  last,  mure,  oa  it  inuld 
appear,  from  want  of  cnwcrt  in  their  opcialioiia 
than  from  want  of  force,  tt  ahould  lie  remarkeil,  Ino, 
that  Meliemct.MiMfinsrullyiBlisfied  with  theiMi- 
sessiim  of  llic  sca-jinftR  of  the  Ilei^az.  and  the  holy 
ciriea.  Duiing  twuity-Iunr  years  be  has  made  nii 
npt  to  extend  hw  cmuiuesls ;  but  has  sought 
inciliate  hU  udghlionri,  sml  his  new  snhjeins, 


F^'plian  comiuest.  mninlaincd  a  guanl  of  l,m)(J 

men  at  IJHidila,  ami  pniliablv  3,0iJll  ur  4,n0U  more 

in  the  oilier  towns  of  the  IlLilJai;  this  anuv  is 

still   maintained.    The  iman   ik  Yemen  has'  an 

army  of  4,001)  or  Ttfm  men,  and  ibe  iman  of  Mus- 

t,  one  of  alxnit  1,<HM).    The  smaller   setlleil 

lies  havcol^i  thnr  military  forces,  but  no  ro- 

m  of  thciramounlHconbe  obtained. 

The   Ikduuin  attends  his  chief  much  in  Ihe 

-_<hion  that  Ihe  feuilal  vassal  attended  his  liege 

lonl  during  the  mulillo  ages  in  Europe.   lie  arms, 

ctiuips,  anil  riothcs  himself;  and  trusts  for  iiay  to 

liu  share  of  iHHity.    The  WahaLce  chief,  who  is 

essentially  a  Ihtilouin.  bos  inilec<l  keiit  on  font  a 

Lirge  liody  of  merrenan'  troops ;  but  this  system 

'  L  in  its  infancy  in  the  deaeit,  and  it  Is  doubtful 

liether  it  will  survive  the  present  genenuion, 

Ttic  Wahnbee  power,  iinco   IHIJj,  has  evulenlly 

ihe  ilecline.     Ill  the  settled  stoles,  on  the 

.-,  Ihe  s-ddiers  are  all  mercenaries,  thiir 

pHv  being,  in  general,  2}  dolhu^  per  month,  in 

■•-on  to  f.KKi.  arms,  anil  .dolhing.    This  nc 

1   for  Ihe  different  apjieamncc  made  by  an 

of  Bodoiiins,  and  one  lielonging  In  the  st.ites 

nen.  Musi-al,  Iteiljaz,  ie.    The  former  iirw- 

1  motley  appearani'c  as  lo  arms  and  equip- 

:  the  latter  liave  the  same  arms  and  unifonu. 

The  Itcdouins  use  lonjt  lances,  sabres,  and  short 


croiikeil  knives ;  and  tlioni 

CIuIm   are  verv   common,   where 
(which  arc  never  of  borne  mouufaclurv) 


160 


ARABIA 


be  procuro<l ;  and  the  Be<loiuii9  have  WA'cral 
kinds  wnne  wholly  of  wo«kI,  some  ladiMi  wth 
iron,  and  others  wholly  c<»mposcd  of  the  latter 
material.  Matchlocks,  and,  in  more  recent  times, 
rilles,  are  in  great  requei*t^  but  not  very  plentiful; 
though,  when  posseHsed  of  one,  the  Rcdouin  18 
an  almo.<t  unerring  marksman.  The  pistol  is  a 
favourite  weji|)on. 

A  shield.  IS  m.  in  diameter,  covered  with  ox  or 
hippo[>otamu8  hide,  is  a  very  common  piece  of  de- 
fensive armour;  in  addititm  to  which,  coats  of 
m.iil  are  worn  whenever  they  can  be  procured. 
An  iron  cAp,  without  a  feather,  iron  gloves,  and 
8ora(;times  greaves,  for  the  legM,  complete  the  cos- 
tume of  the  mailed  Arab.  This  mode  of  equip- 
ment Ls  however,  chiefly  confined  to  the  Hedouins. 
Of  all  tlie  arms  in  use,  only  tlie  janil>ea,  the  clubs, 
and  the  taiget,  arc  of  home  manufacture;  the 
lances  come  from  Syna.  and  Pemia,  the  sabres 
nominally  from  Damascus,  but  in  reality  from 
Liege,  in  Belgiiun,  the  matchlock  from  Kgj'pt, 
Turkey,  and  I'.urope,  and  the  coats  of  mail,  prm- 
cipidlv,  from  SvTia. 

It  IS  a  common  practice  for  all  Arabs,  except 
merchants  and  learned  professors,  to  go  armed. 
The  jambea  is  the  usual  weai)on.  (Xiebuhr,  par. 
ii.  pp.  184-190;  Burckhardt's  Notes,  3<)-32,  134, 
136,  -itH;  Travels,  vol.  i  pp.  338,  839;  Ali  Ik'y, 
ii.  pp.  1 09-1 1 5 ;  Lord  Valentia,  ii.  p.  34^,  iiu  p.  329.) 

Agriculture, — The  nature  of  tlie  soil  restricts 
the  pursuits  c»f  the  agriculturist  to  particular  lo- 
calities, and  his  return  varies  materially  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  i)eninsula.  In  Oman,  the 
bett<?r  sort  of  wheat,  even  when  the  season  has 
tM>en  peculiarly  rainy,  will  not  return  more  than 
ten  for  one;  nor  the  dhourrah  (a  coarse  kind  of 
barley)  more  than  twelve  for  one;  while  in  the 
most  fertile  parts  of  Yemen,  wheat  is  said  to  yield 
sometimes  as  much  as  liftv  times  the  seed,  and 
the  return  for  the  dhourrah,  it  is  aflirmed,  amounts 
to  150, 200,  and  sometimes  even  400  for  one.  But 
statements  like  these,  l>eing  liable  to  extreme 
exaggeration,  must  be  rectsivetl  ynth  considerable 
scepticism;  though,  as  the  dhourrah  yields,  in 
tlds  district,  two  and  even  three  crops  in  the  year, 
the  accounts  of  its  extreme  ])nMluetiveness  are  not 
so  vcr\'  extravagant  as,  at  first  sights  thev  seem 
to  be.  (Xiebuhr,  Des.  de  I'Ar.  par.  u  p.  135.) 

The  Tehama  of  Yemen,  whenever  its  arid  soil 
is  naturally,  or  can  be  artificiallv  irrigated,  is 
plentifully  sown  with  dhourrah.  iTie  plough  is 
dragged  In  ever>'  direction  over  the  field,  till  the 
earth  is  well  broken  and  comjJetely  mixed.  The 
sower  follows  the  plough,  and  casts  the  seed  into 
the  furrow,  as  it  is  fonned,  the  return  of  the 
l>lough  covering  the  grain.  In  al>out  eight  weeks 
the  dliourrah  is  fit  for  the  reaper ;  but  as  tiie  farmer 
wishes  the  com  to  Ihj  extremely  ripe  and  dry  be- 
fore it  is  gathered,  it  remains  standing  a  week  or 
two  hmger,  and  is  then  pulled  up  by  the  roots. 
As,  by  tills  process,  a  t^onslderable  (quantity  of  the 
dry  seed  is  sheil,  the  phmgh  is  agam  passed  over 
the  gnmnd,  and.  in  als^ut  ten  weeks,  a  second  crop 
is  pnxluced,  which,  being  gathered  in  the  same 
way  as  the  first,  Is,  as  l)efore  stated,  not  imfre- 
qucntly  followed  by  a  thint 

The  plough  is  of  the  rudest  description,  and 
oven  this  cannot  be  used  on  the  mountain  side ; 
the  latter  being  tilled  by  means  of  an  iron  hoe,  or 
rather  pickaxe.  These,  with  tools  of  primitive 
construction  for  cutting  channels  in  the  fields  and 
gardens,  and  for  forming  banks  or  dikes  to  pre- 
8er\'e  the  water,  com[ilete  the  scanty  list  of  agri- 
cultural implements.  When  the  com  is  to  be 
threshed  the  Arabs  place  it  In  two  n>ws,  ear  to 
ear:  a  large  stone  is  then  drown  over  it  by  two 
oxen,  BO  that  the  grain  is  rather  crushed' than 


L»eaten  out  of  the  husks.  A  iral«r-mill  would  be 
an  anomaly  in  a  country'  where  there  are  hai41y 
any  streams ;  but,  with*  the  exception  of  one  « 
two,  lately  introduced  into  the  Hedjaz  by  the 
Eg>'ptians,  there  are  no  windmilla  in  Anlna.  The 
com,  when  ready  to  be  ground,  ui  placed  between 
two  st(»nes,  of  which  the  uppermost,  if  small,  ii 
turned  by  the  hand;  if  large,  it  is  worked  by  an 
ox  or  ass.  (Niebuhr.  par.  IL  p.  189.) 

But  notwithstanding  this  rude  state  of  agricul- 
ture, such  is  the  fertill^  of  the  8.  part«  of  Arabia, 
that  they  not  only  supply  com  for  their  own  CQn> 
sumption,  but  for  that  o^  the  greater  part  <rf  the 
other  districts,  and  of  the  wandejing  tribes  of  the 
desert.  The  Hedjaz  Ls  however,  almost  wholly 
de]iendant  on  supplies  from  Egypt,  (Ld.  Valmtia, 
iiu  .325  et  geq.;  All  Bey,  IL  46, 101,  &c;  I^ebnhr, 
par.  ii.  8024(>7.) 

Manufactures, — These  are  at  a  lower  ebb  in 
Arabia  than  in  perhaps  any  other  semi-dviliMd 
countr>\  Among  the  Bedouins,  two  or  threa 
blacksmiths,  and  a  few  saddlers,  are  the  only  ar- 
tists :  they  are  not  members  of  the  tribe  for  wbidb 
thev  labour,  but  natives  of  the  neighbouring  towna 
and  villages.  The  Bedouins  regard  them  as  an 
inferior  race,  and  would  feel  degraded  were  any 
indiWdual  of  their  tribe  to  give  his  daughter  in 
marriage  to  one  of  them.  It  is  curinus,  however, 
that  while  they  thus  r^c;ard  the  8er\'ice  of  their 
horses  (their  greatest  pride)  as  a  menial  occupa- 
tion, they  should  themselves  unscmpulously  per- 
form other  works,  which  appear  to  us  quite  of  m 
low  a  cliaracter.  The  businesses  of  dyeing  and 
tanning  are  performed  wholly  by  the  men.  The 
Bedouin  women  weave  the  coverings  of  tents  and 
the  l>ags  for  holding  provisions,  of  the  hair  of  goota 
and  camels,  but  the  manufacture  of  tent-coven  ia 
confuied  to  the  mountainous  repona,  where  goati 
abound,  tlieir  hair  being  exclusively  used  for  that 
purjxwe.   (Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.,  lib.  \i,  cap.  28,  p.  141) 

1  hese  are  all  the  arts  or  manufactures  practised 
among  the  Bedouins;  and  the  standard  seema 
scarcely  higher  in  the  towns.  It  is  true  that  gold 
and  silver  omaments  are  manufactured  in  Yemen; 
but  by  Jews  and  Banian  Indians.  Even  the  mon^ 
which  is  coined  in  that  district  (and  there  is  none 
coined  in  any  other)  is  the  work  <}f  the  former; 
and  the  only  watchmaker  who  ever  settled  in  the 
country  was  a  Turk.  Of  machinery,  there  is  next 
to  none.  Some  rude  sorts  of  arma  are  made  in 
Yemen,  as  the  crooked  knife,  jambea,  and  a  reiy 
Inferior  matchlock.  There  are  also,  in  Yemen, 
several  looms  for  the  manufacture  of  coarse  linen ; 
and  this,  like  the  hair  and  wool-wea\'ing  amoitt 
the  Bedouins,  forms  by  far  the  most  important « 
all  their  Industrial  occupations.  Some  woitllcn 
cloths  are  also  woven;  but  this  mannfactme  ia 
much  less  extensive  than  the  former.    The  sUp- 

Ers  and  sandals  in  common  use  are  brought  from 
jypt  and  Constanrinople ;  and  the  only  attempta 
at  manufactures  are  condned  to  the  constnictioa 
of  rude  matchlocks,  Jamfreas,  and  lance-heads,  to- 
gether with  vessels  of  clipper  and  tin,  in  which  the 
pilgrims  carry  away  the  water  of  the  holv  well, 
zemzeni  (Burckhardt's  Travels,  i.  843 ;  All  Bey, 
iu  99,  100.)  In  Oman,  the  only  manufactures  are 
sashes  and  turbans  of  silk  or  cotton,  tlie  abba,  or 
Arab  cloak  of  wool  or  camel's  hair,  a  coazve  kind 
of  cotton  canvass,  arms  of  a  ver}'  rude  descripticn, 
earthen  jars,  calleil  murtaban,  and  gunpowder. 
(Frazer's  Joumcy  into  Khorasan,  p.  18.) 

At  Suez,  Hodeida,  Mocha,  and  Muscat,  some  of 
the  vessels  are  constructed  in  which  the  .\raba 
carr\'  on  their  coasting,  and  Indian  trade.  Till 
within  these  few  years,  sliifjh-buildiiig  was  carried 
on  at  Djidda  also  (Ali  Bey,  ii.  45)  ;  but  though  it 
be  still  a  very  important  shipping-station,  no 


ritat     ._. 

W.  (Boickluidt'i  Tnnls,  L  43.)  .Thg 
mod>iBAnIiia,laTB  the  ah^iwriicht  under 
"^letiinbet  used  in  "  " 
is  Minor,  conveyi 
I  toCunsand tbcnce. oreriuid.  In  iu  place 
■tkth  Wluu  11011*  wtle  built  at  I>{icld>, 
Iw  (am*  1^  the  lune  route ;  and  it  may 
Bid  that  ill  flnthet  tnnnil,  by  the  Red 

■  8nei  RDdend  it  too  coUly.  In  Mocha 
Indt  ■  p«rt  of  the  limber  ia  procund  Innn 

■pcned  fiom  the  coait  o(  Africa.  (Durck- 
hanla.  142^9.) 

tifa  of  the  Aiabii  excepting  these  of  Miu- 
A  nc  «f  a  iFeiy  npoior  ilncription,  are 
if  tode  and  aimple.  Those  called  don 
^{t>C  and  an  the  only  ones  that  periunn 
Igelolndla.  (BurdUuidt's Travels, L 48.) 
idiUtalneta  of  the  Aiab  wamen,  with  the 
IBlBV  ot  IhoT  dowB,  render  ehipwreclu  of 
)HU  ocCDiiHice.  AU  Bey  was  wrecked 
•Ma  flan  Snei  to  Ujidda,  and  ap;ain  on 
IB  ftom  pjidda  to  Suez  (TraTels,  ii.  Si, 
d  be  afinn*  (hat  not  a  year  panes  without 
imtb  bnoR  totally  lost,  and  many  more, 
'  Im*  injured  i  so  that  ships  are  alwavB 
yit  at  lepaired,  without  mcreasin^  the 
^ber  tmpkiyed  in  the  coasting  trade  (it, 
hat  numb^  is,  however,  conxideiable ;  the 
imiiiit  Id  Uidda  only  amount  to  !50; 
•  trtJTf'"™'  that  about  as  many  belong 
«htoSuu,Hodeida,andUocha.  (Burcli- 
[Wcb.  L  43 :  Ali  Ucy,  IL  45.)     Many  of 

S  are  purchased  at  liomhay  and  Muscat; 
of  the  latut  bein^  very  supeiioc  to 
'  tte  Red  Sea,  and  Ihev  navigaton  much 
t«  •aihM*  of  Yemen  in  energy  and  skiU. 

M  boBHa  of  the  Arabs  are  huilt  of  ebme, 

■  the  cnast,  of  madrepore  and  coral.  This 
ttoial  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  rapidly 
•M  whsi  exposed  to  the  weather.  In 
Ma  they  use  a  sun-bomt  Imck  with  little 


ABASU  in 

boiusa  of  the  poorer  claaaM  an  of  the  meat  wret^died 
desuiptioo.  Huts  oomposed  of  wicker  woifc  or 
' leavee,  covered  on  the  ins' *      '* 


ksinic  with  th 
rfenWi«sol 


I  ^■e^y  Bc 


anish  it 


titisfccineriycelebrattii  for  their  moKnifi- 
■d  pandeur,  may  now  lie  sought  lor  in 
Eno  in  towns  that  aie  populous,  and  stL> 
katiritr,  many  houses  are  falling  rapidly 
'I  and  while  no  ii«t  ia  old.  many  pans  are 
HdadnrinoDi:  yet  an  Arab  town,  on  the 
■MCh  to  it,  appears  handsome  and  piclu- 
tk  hOD*e^  like  thoH!  all  over  the  I'jut, 


iflmiii  II 1  tombs, called lioAiu, which, 

I  t^erinit  minaret*  uf  the  m<i8que8,  give  to 
It  ontline  an  air  of  variety  and  elegance. 
ead  bouw  exhibits  a  series  uf  gaudy  lat- 
lb  wiadows:  and  many  of  them  are  oma- 
wilh  fanciful  designs  in  while  stucco. 

Mm  gateways  have  pointed  aiehes ;  and 
oil  diaracter  of  the  ornamental  archiiec- 
lat  Rry  dissimilar  to  the  Gothic.  The 
an  aqnare  buildintfs.  or  rather  parallelo- 
rilbont   much   eztCToal    beauty,   except 

■Ml  Blender  minarets,  which  always  ap- 
it  and  graceful :  but  their  interior  fre- 
fc|jls.iii  much  riiilfnl  woikmannhip.   Tlie 


wd  inlaaten  u(  very  great  b< 


hnddled  together,  and  hardly  lofBdent  to 

shelter  hota  the  westher.  These  circumstances, 
with  the  flllh  collected  in  the  unpaved  slieeta,  and 
never  removed,  impress  the  mind  of  a  European 
with  a  sense  of  utter  desolatioa  and  misery. 

Ko  remains  of  the  fine  Saracenic  architecture  of 
the  middle  ages  are  found  in  Arabia ;  singular  as 
it  rruy  appear,  that  a  people  who  have  left  the 
tracee  of  their  ^11  in  this  art  in  every  land,  fhim 
Mesopotamia  to  Spain,  should  possess  no  trace  of 
it  in  thciT  native  country.  The  peristiahle  natuia 
of  buildiruE  materials  in  Arabia  maj/  account  for 
this  (act,  fyi  even  the  holy  mosque  at  Mecca  haa 
idergone  so  iruuiy  repain  that  it  may  be  regarded 
a  EUideni  structure ;  hut  it  is  much  nune  pio- 
ible  that,  while  the  Arab  conqueiora  caught  th« 
love  of  arts  and  sciences  fiom  the  eaeivaled.  Imt 
refined,  rulions  subdued  by  them  in  their  headlong 
career  n(  conqueet,  thoae  arts  and  sciences  did  not 
"idthcirway  into  the  peninsula,  and  that  arclutee- 
ire.  like  the  rest,  never  flourished  within  its  limits. 
The  Arabs 

— ilhstanding  the  heat  of  their  cuniaTe,  mey  navo 
vcryhad,  or,  rather,  KO  idea  of  ventilatiun.    The 
large  ventilatura,  placed    on   the    house-tops  in 
Egypt,  and  which  diffise  a  current  uf  air  tlirough 
all  the  lower  anartmeots,  are   totally  unknown. 
In  many  places  the  windows  ore  composed  of  trans- 
parent stone,built  into  the  walls,  and,  consequently, 
-capable  of  opening.      (Burvkhaixlt's  Travels,  L 
—•a.  163— l.ii,  185—242  ;  ii.  150.B29,4c.!  AU 
iv,  ii.ao,4a,  9*— l(M,t61— 174;  UrdValenti% 
346—848 ;  Fraser,  7,  fl.) 

Cii«)»rc(.— Owing  to  the  dtuation  of  Arabia, 

nearly  sunmmdcd  by  the  sea,  and  occupying,  aa 

ere,  a  central  position  between  Eunipe,  Asia, 

Africa,  it  has  alwaj-s  enjoyed  a  considerable 

trade,  which,  in  later  ages,  has  been  materially 

'  d  by  the  resort  of  pilgrims  to  the  holy 

The  hadjis,  indeed,  are  expressly  autho- 

'  the  Prophet  to  combine  commereial  pur- 

ith  the  perfbnnance  of  a  religious  duly 

(Koran,  cliap.  ii.  Sale) :  and  a  great  amount  of 

'     inns  is,  consequently,  transacted  at  Mecca, 

ing  the  period  tnat  the  pilgrims  remain  in  that 

>.    U'ith  the  exception   of  coffee,  and  a  few 

er  articlcH  of  inferior  importance,  Arabia  has 

.  .     little  nalive   produce  to  export.    Its  trade, 

therefore,  is,  and  always  has  been,  principally  one 

aimoally  brought  to  Djidda,  Mecca,  Muscat,  and 

'—  other  cntrepols,  from  Turkey,  Persia,  Africa, 

I  the  Indian  Islands.     With  our  own  country, 

vever,  Arabia    has    scarcely   any   intercourse 

whatever.     The  total  value  uf  imports  into  the 

>f  the   Imaum   of  Muscat  from  the 

United  Kingdom,  in  the  vear  It^,  amounted 
'  "'9  f.,  reprwenting  i.iSH  Ions  of  coaL  In 
ir  preceding  years  the  imports  were  luL 
:ports  fruni  (be  United  Kingdom  into  the 
ies  of  the  Imsum  of  Muscat,  in  the  \-ear 
rere  of  the  value  of  Si.  steriing.  (An- 
nual Statement  uf  Trade  and  Navigation.)  The 
great  centres  of  Araliian  trade  are  Iljidda,  Hocha, 
and  Muscat.  The  first  is  the  port  of  Mecca,  and 
also  the  principal  channel  (hnmgh  which  the  re- 
gular trade  between  the  Uedjai  and  Egypt  is 
carried  on ;  the  former  being  principally  dependant 


upon  the  latter  for  its  Kuppliea  of  c<j 
'  for  pilgrimage  lias  btgun  " 
medan  world,  the  trade  of  jiniuut  iias 
rajily  decreased ;    Liut  it   is  still  carried 


aliaie  in  the  Mo- 


162 


ARABIA 


;nT«ter  extAit  than  votild  reodilv  be  mipposed, 
ctmsiderinif  tlie  limited  amount  of^  its  population 
and  productions.  Mocha  ih  the  princi{Mi  seat  of 
the  coffee  trade,  thoufrh  I^heia  has  of  late  years 
made  some  powerful  attempts  at  rivalry;  and 
Muscat  has  recently  rven  to  very  considerable  emi- 
nence as  a  se4i-port  and  seat  of  the  carryinfi;  trade, 
particularly  with  India  and  the  countries  round 
the  Persian  Gulf.  (Buivkhardt's  IVavcls,  i.  29- 
31;  Ali  Bey.  ii.  101-107;  Fraser,  16;  Lord  Va- 
lentia,  ii.  37*0 ;  Niehuhr,  par.  il.  p.  193.  See  also, 
Djidja,  Mocha,  Muscat,  Ac) 

ImwSj  Crimety  and  Puni$hmentM, — ^The  laws  of 
Arabia  arc  those  of  a  primitive  people  under  a  pa- 
triarchal f^vemment.     The  civil  laws,  founded 
u|M»n  the  Koran,  are  administered  by  cadis,  distin- 
guisheii  by  their  experience  in  the  customs  of  the 
nation,  but  to  whom  a  knowleilgo  of  the  arts  of 
rtading  and  writing  is  not  always  indispensable. 
It  should  Ihj  ob8cr\''ed,  however,  that  the  Arab 
judfi^s  arc  of  two  kinds ;  the  Cadi-el-feriau  (judge 
of  customary  law),  an<l  the  Cadi-tl-»heryaa  (jud|rc 
of  written  law),  the  latter  being  more  common  in 
what  are  called  the  Turkish  t4iwns  (that  is,  in 
towns  governed  by  Turkish  law),  than  in  those 
where  the    unmixed   customs    of  Arabia    exii^t. 
Written  pleadings  are  not,  however,  unknown,  even 
in  pure  Arab  t<»wns ;  but  precerlents  (in  some  cases, 
periiaps,  reduced  to  a  rude  form  of  co<!ifiearion) 
seem  to  form  the  principal,  if  not  the  only  guide, 
to  an  Arab  judge's   ilecision.     The   sovereign, 
whether  he  be  monarch  of  a  state,  or  sheikh  of  a 
Bedouin  tril>e,  is  only  president  of  the  tribunal  of 
justice;  he  cannot  decide  a  case,  either  civil  or 
criminal ;  every  one  must  be  roferred  to  the  proj^er 
tribunal ;  and  the  sovereign  possesses  no  power  of 
reversing  its  decision.    But  this  protection  from 
despotic  power  is,  in  the  tonus,  merely  apparent ; 
for,  as  the  sovereign  names  the  cadis  and  dismisses 
them  at  pleasure,  they  regard  themselves  simply 
as  his  officers,  and  never  dnitam  of  pronouncing  a 
sentence  of  which  he  disapproves.     Among  the 
Bedouins,  however,  the  office  of  cadi  is  elective, 
and  the  sheikh  has  no  influence  in  the  appoint- 
ment«    (Niebuhr,  ))ar.  ii.  ]ip.  lt$0,  &c ;  BurcKnaidt, 
Notes  on  Bed.,  pp.  GH,  &c.) 

Capital  punishments  are  very  rare;  l>eing  in- 
flicted only  for  blasphemy,  an<i  conjugal  infidelity 
in  women.  The  blasphemer  is  hanged ;  the  un- 
chaste wife,  if  her  guilt  be  unequivocally  proved, 
has  her  tliroat  cut ;  and,  by  an  unheard  of  reiine- 
ment  of  atrocity,  her  father  or  bn»ther  is  compelled 
to  be  her  executioner.  This  detestable  l)arl)arity 
is,  however,  rarely  perpetrated :  for  the  marriage 
tie  being,  on  the  ])art  of  the  husband,  of  very  easy 
dissolution,  he  generally  prefers  sending  his  oflfenJ- 
ing  siK>use  back  to  her  family,  merely  assigning  as 
a  reason  that  she  does  not  suit  him.  (Xiebulir, 
par.  i.  p.  21 ;  Burckhardt,  Noti^s  on  Bed.,  p.  63.) 
Corporal  pimishments  are  almost  unknown.  The 
immemorial  usage  is  to  award  a  pecuniar^'  fine, 
whatever  may  be  the  nature  of  the  crime.  Every 
offence  has  its  ascertained  mulct,  even  to  murder ; 
but^  in  this  case,  the  friends  of  the  deceased  are 
not  eomiHilled  to  take  the  compensation,  being, 
by  the  law  of  Thar^  or  bl<Kxl  revenge,  allowed  to 
take  the  life  of  the  homicide,  or  that  of  any  of  his 
relations  within  the  fourth  degnw.  If,  however, 
the  line  be  ancepte<l,  the  Koran  expressly  pro\ndes 
for  the  safety  of  the  mimlerer.  (Koraii,  chap.  iL 
1).  21 ;  Niebuhr,  par.  i.  pp.  28-31 ;  BuR*khanlt's 
Notes  on  Bed.,  pp.  84-89.)  Insulting  expressions, 
acts  of  violence,  iiowever  slight,  and  the  infliction 
of  wountis,  have  each  their  res|)ective  tariff  of 
fines.  The  decisions  of  the  cadis  are  generally 
founded  upon  the  amount  of  testimony  liefore 
them ;  but,  if  there  be  no  witneasos,  the  defendant 


is  calleil  npon  to  expurgate  himadf  bv  oath.  TVs 
judicial  oaths  vary  in  sanctity  and  aoiramity;  bA 
if  th|  accused  swear,  by  the  one  proposed,  to  Ui 
innocence,  he  is  consideitMl  as  acquitted. 

Among  the  Bedouins,  the  contoms  of  WmtgnA 
Dakheilnave  all  the  force  of  law  in  other  oood- 
tries;  by  the  flnt,  an  Arab  family  binda  itidf  ti 
be  the  protector  of  another,  and*  thia  oUigitiii, 
once  undertaken,  descends  thnnigfa  all  the  genoi- 
tions  of  both.    There  is  no  Arab,  from  the  kwcit 
to  the  highest,  but  has  his  arcugf,  or  guardian ;  aid 
the  duty  of  protection  inferred  from  this  dundVr 
is  among  the  most  sacred  recognised  in  Aialn^ 

By  the  law  of  dakheil^  a  person  in  actual  dao^, 
who  can  touch  another,  or  even  anything  vitt 
wliich  that  other  is  in  contact,  or  can'  hit  hia  by 
spitting  or  throwing  a  stone  at  him,  at  the  hbh 
time  exclaiming,  *Ana  daiheilakj*  (I  am  thy  |ia- 
tected,)  acquires  a  right  to  the  protectioD  wmd 
he  seeks,  and  which  is  always  accoided  to  thi 
fullest  extent.  Even  a  detecteil  thief,  if  he  ev 
touch  anyone  in  his  captor's  tent  (except  di 
captor  himself),  becomes  safe ;  for  which  ream 
he  is  bound  hand  and  foot,  and  beaten,  till  b 
agrees  to  renounce  the  dokheil  for  that  di^.  It  i 
for  this  reason,  too,  that  he  is  subeequently  boriai 
alive,  as  it  were ;  for  should  he  become  the  dJAm 
of  anyone,  his  right  to  freedom  is  imroediatd: 
allowed,  and  he  is  treated,  in  every  respect,  like 
newly  arrived  guest  in  the  tent  of  his  late  tamt} 
There  is  only  one  offender  to  whom  the  privikg 
of  dakheil  is  rcfiuied,  namely,  the  thief  rdme 
upon  the  responsibility  of  smne  tliizd  par^»  if  \ 
should,  when  at  liberty,  refuse  to  satisfy  rat  bai 
Under  such  circumstances,  he  is  pmclaimed  tnitm 
and  loses  all  the  privilege  in  question ;  in  fte 
1)ecomcs  outlaweiL  The  dakheil  does  not  *p^  > 
a  homicide  under  the  thar.  (Burckhardt,  AM 
on  Bedouins,  pp.  74,  75,  89-100,  183.> 

Though  polygamy  be  allowed  by  the  Molii» 
medan  law,  in  })ractioe  it  is  by  no  means  gmml 
Few  men,  of  moderate  fortunes,  have  men  thfl 
one  wife ;  and  many,  even  of  the  highest  nik 
similarly  confine  tKemselves.  (Niebuhr,  vfU,  i 
p.  do ;  burckhardt.  Not.  on  Bed.,  |^  61.)  Onik 
other  hand,  the  nature  of  the  numiage  cemafloy, 
and  the  facility  of  divorce,  renden  changa  d 
wives  of  very  common  occurrence.  In  the  towBi^ 
an  agreement  before  the  cadi,  in  the  desert,  tiM 
slaughter  of  a  Iamb  in  the  tent  of  the  bridel 
father,  ci^mpletes  the  contract,  which  is  fanibi 
quite  as  readily  as  it  is  fonned.  The  huAof 
having  said.  beJbre  witnesses,  *eHt  tedek*  (then B 
divon^etl),  and  sent  the  woman  back  to  her  findh 
both  parties  are  coiisiderMl  free;  the  husband iini 
tlie  maintenance  of  his  wife,  Uie  wife  to  fmrrn  ine 
connection.  In  these  cases,  the  woman's  patia 
is  returned;  and,  among  the  Bedouins,  the hubiB 
adtls  to  it  a  she-camel.  The  custom  of  divoioe  i 
h(jwever,  much  more  prevalent  in  the  tents  thi 
in  the  towns.  In  the  latter  it  ia  alvrsya  ooniidw 
indecorous,  and  implying  dishonour  in  the  wenui 
but  in  the  desert  a  wife  mav  have  been  dtvore 
three  or  four  times,  and  yet  he  free  from  any  tti 
or  imputation  on  her  character.  Polygamy,  ho 
ever,  is  much  more  common  in  the  towns  Ik 
among  the  Bedouins. 

If  a  man  leave  a  widow,  his  brother  gencni 
offers  to  mairy  her;  but  this  is  entirely  a  law 
custom,  and  not  binding  on  eitlier  partr.  A  m 
has,  however,  an  exclusive  right  to  the  hand  of ! 
cousin ;  and,  although  ho  cannot  be  compelled 
marr\'  her,  hu  renunciation  of  his  right  u  nee 
8ar>'  to  enable  her  to  marry  another.  Marria| 
arc  consummated  at  a  very  early  age ;  it  be 
reckoned  discreditable  in  a  man,  and  afannat  in 
mousinawoman,toloadalifeofcelibafC3'.  (Bur 


^ 


AKABIA 


169 


Mt*i  Notes  oo  Bed.  pp.  61-66 ;  Niebnhr,  par.  L 

The  law  of  inhcriUiioe  18  very  simple  a«iegardB 
inpsty.  The  effects  of  s  dSaceased  father  are 
Amd'iiiioiig  his  children,  the  portion  of  a  male 
\riBg  doable  that  of  a  female.  The  succession  to 
pomr  it  less  deariy  ascertained.  If  a  sheikh  or 
HfodEn  die,  his  sacoeesor  is  usually  taken  from 
mtaftu  sons;  bat  it  does  not  seem  that  any  one 
lis  swdl  fstshUshed  right  in  preference  to  the 
flthOi  In  Temen,  it  would  appear  that  the  iman 
ii  neended  by  his  eldest  Uving  son,  even  to  the 
cxdnaon  of  the  children  of  an  elder  one  deceased. 
O^iebuhr,  par.  iL  p.  179;  Burckhardt,  Notes  on 
Bel,  pp.  68,  75 ;  Lord  Valentia,  vol.  iL  p.  380.) 

JUBpam, — Antecedent  to  the  earhest  records, 
dbtdtr  of  Mecca  had  been  sacred  g^und ;  and  its 
hcHj  temple,  the  kaaboj  identified  in  the  minds  of 
tfe  Anbi  with  every  sacred  feeling.  The  legends 
vidt  mpeet  to  it,  to  which  it  is  unncce^isary  more 
yvtindariy  to  allude,  show  that  the  religion  of  the 
filly  Azibs  was,  to  a  considerable  extent,  mixed 
ijpvith  that  of  the  Hebrews.  They  acknowledged 
•se  iiqimne  God,  regarding,  however,  the  sun, 
■SOB,  planets,  and  stars,  as  inferior  and  subordi- 
uti  intelligences.  This  religion  has  been  called 
SuLunsM,  cither  from  Sabi,  a  supposed  son  of 
Sith,or,as  is  more  probable,  from  the  word  Sara, 
■gi^5nng  the  Host  of  Heaven.  The  supreme  (lod 
m  called  AUak  Taah  (Most  High  God),  the  sub- 
■dnate  deities,  Al-Sltuiat  (the  Powers).  It  was 
tee  titks  (one  particular,  the  other  general)  tluit 
led  Herodotus  to  affirm  that  the  Arabians  worship- 
ped only  two  gods,  namely,  UrotaU  and  Alilat; 
tkefenner  of  i^om  he  identifies  with  the  Bacchus 
Umpw)  of  the  Greeks,  the  latUir  with  Urania, 
dK  inse  of  astronomy.  (Herodotus,  Thalia,  §  8 ; 
Al-FliBwz,  Shahrestan  et  aliis  in  Pococke^  pp.  110, 
138. 148, 284 ;  D^Herbelot,  pp.  725, 726,  &c.)  The 
SiibiiD  religion  can  scarcely  oe  deemed  irratioiuil, 
rta  profeised  by  a  rude  people,  inhabiting  an 
epn  ooontry,  under  a  clear  sky ;  who  must  have 
wsnerted  tloie  chimges  of  the  seasons  and  the  re- 
tail of  Uw  periodic  rains  and  droughts,  that  ren- 
ted their  plains  alternately  fertile  and  sterile, 
vith  the  revolutions  of  the  heavenly  Ixxiies.  But 
tkeAiriis  also  worshipped  angels  (Koran,  chi^js. 
K.  snd  Ixxi) ;  and  their  images,  which  hist  they 
Mered  to  be  inspired  by  the  supreme  divinity 
viih  life  and  intelligence.  This  sort  of  idolatry 
lavug  been  once  introduced,  gradually  spread ; 
Sid  in  the  sixth  century,  and  long  before,  the  num- 
kr  of  these  deities  was  very  great,  each  tribe 
hiri^  chosen  one  to  be  its  peculiar  intercessor 
yttk  the  Supreme  Being ;  and  360  were  enshrined 
■  the  kaaba,  as  tutelary  guardians  of  the  da^s  of 
Ae  Arab  year.  (Al-Janaub,  Shahrestan  et  ahis  in 
l^wdK,  90  et  $eq,;  Sale.  Intro.  Koran,  14-22; 
BnicUianit*s  Travels,  I  p.  !299,  <bc) 

The  Arabs  seem,  indeed,  to  liave  admittetl,  with- 
•■t  heatation,  all  deities:  and  thus,  in  the  sixth 
ccMuy,  a  figure  of  the  Virgin  Mar\%  with  the  in- 
te  Jenii,  was  sculptured  on  one  of  the  princifMil 
piDsii  of  the  kaaba  as  an  object  of  adoration.  (El 
AnskT,  quoted  by  Burckhardt,  Travels,  L  p.  300.) 
It  u  BMst  pitib^le  that  this  indiscriminate  adop- 
tni  of  the  olijectii  of  veneration  of  all  sects,  was 
■ttDded  to  render  the  sacred  city  sacred  to  all 
■CB,  ind  thus  to  incniease  the  resort  of  pUgrims. 

After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus, 
A4K  70,  many  Jews  fled  into  Arabia.  Tlicse  exiles 
■ade  msny  proselytes  among  the  natives,  whole 
tribes  emlncing  ^e  Hebrew  faith ;  so  that,  in  a 
SHtnrv  or  two,  the  Jewish  Arabs  became  a  ver\' 
VVfiial  section  of  the  whole  ])eo[ile.  A  similar 
^■■K.  the  persecution  early  in  the  third  cenlurv' 
ef  the  Chnitian  en,  drove  many  Christians  to 


Arabia,  whose  zeal,  unchecked  by  former  suifojr- 
ings,  led  tliem  to  preach  their  doctrines  in  their 
new  homes,  and  that  with  such  success  that  in  a 
short  time  they  had  made  a  very  great  pn^rcss 
in  the  country. 

The  faith  of  the  Persian  Magi,  or  the  religion  of 
Zoroaster,  had,  at  a  very  early  period,  found  its 
way  into  the  peninsula ;  had  been  embraced  with 
a\'idity  by  many  tribes;  and  thus,  in  the  middle 
of  the* sixth  century,  the  population  of  Arabia  was 
diWded,  perhaps  not  ver}'  unequally,  into  Sabians, 
Jews,  Christians,  and  Magians.  (Shahrestan  et  aliis 
in  Pococke,  140  etteq, ;  Sale,  Intro.  Koran,  21-24.) 

Such  was  the  state  of  religion  in  Arabia  at  the 
birth  of  Mohammed ;  an  epoch  which  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  commencement  of  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  revolutions  that  historv'  has  to  re- 
cord. It  occurred  at  Mecca  in  the  month  of  Mav, 
A.D.  671  (Dr.  Prideaux,  Hist.  Moh.  6)  or  5/0 
(Abul-Fe<la,  Vit.  Moh.  49).  ITiis  founder  of  a  new 
religion,  and  of  a  ]M>litical  powor  which,  even  in 
his  lifetime^  extended  over  his  native  count r\',  and 
which,  under  his  successors,  tlireatcned  to  (embrace 
the  empire  of  the  world,  trace<l  his  genealogy  in  a 
direct  line  tlirough  eleven  descents  from  Koreish, 
the  founder  <if  the  ])owcrful  tribe  that  bore  bis 
name.  Koreish,  again,  was  atKrmcd  to  bo  the 
tenth  in  direct  descent  from  A(bian ;  and  Adnan, 
the  third,  seventh,  or  eighth  (which  is  doubtful) 
from  IshmacI,  the  son  of  Abraham.  (Abul-Fcdo, 
Vit.  Moh.  cap.  ii.  [>p.  6,  7.) 

The  future  Prophet  sprung,  therefore,  from  the 
noblest  tril)e  of  the  Ishmoelitisli  Arabs,  and  liis 
gronilfather  was,  at  the  time  of  his  birth,  sovereign 
of  Mecca,  and  guanlian  of  the  kaaba;  consequently, 
from  the  aacredness  of  his  territory',  and  the  hoU- 
ness  of  his  ofliec,  a  prince  of  great  power  and  influ- 
ence. (Abiil-Feda,  cap.  \i.  n.  13 ;  Al-Firawz  et 
aliis  in  I'ococke,  p.  51 ;  Ecchelensis  Chrou.  or  Hist. 
Ar.,  par.  L  cap.  iii.  p.  139  et  seq.) 

Yet,  notwithstanding  his  high  connections,  Mo- 
hammed's early  life  was  passed  in  comparative 
poverty.  His  father,  a  younger  son  of  the  sove- 
reign of  Mecxia,  djing  before  Mohammed  was  two 
years  old,  the  latter,  and  his  mother,  were  left 
with  no  other  provision  than  five  camels,  and  a 
female  slave.  1  o  his  grandfather,  Alxlol-Motalleb, 
in  the  first  instance,  and  sulisequently  to  his  uncle, 
Abu-Taled,  the  future  Prophet  was,  therefore,  in- 
debted for  his  infant  protection ;  and  this  guar- 
dianship was  exerciscil  with  the  gr(>atest  kindness, 
the  uncle  especially  (for  AlHlol-Motalleb  died  when 
Mohammed  was  only  eight  years  old),  continuing 
the  firm  friend  of  his  ward,  throughout  his  life, 
and  protecting  him  in  the  dangers  and  difficulties 
wliich  Ijeset  his  first  attempts  to  disseminate  his 
doctrines.  Under  the  auspices  of  his  uncle,  Mo- 
hammed began  life  as  a  merchant,  acoom|uinying 
a  trading  caravan  to  Syria,  in  his  thirteenth  vcar. 
Subsequently,  and  at  a  very  early  oge,  Abu-'l'aleb 
recommended  him  as  a  factAit  to  Khadija,  a  rich 
widow,  to  whom  his  skill  in  commerce,  or  his  other 
accomplishments),  so  far  endeared  him,  that,  in  a 
short  time,  he  exchanged  the  name  of  uc^n-ant  for 
that  of  husband ;  raising  himself  by  this  alliance 
to  an  ecpiality  with  the  richest,  if  not  the  most 
powerful  men  of  Mecca.  At  the  time  of  his  mar- 
riage^ he  was  twenty-five,  and  liis  wife  forty  veArs 
of  age.  (Abul-Feila,  ca\m.  iv.  and  v.  pp.  1 0  and  1 2.) 
It  would  lie  useless  now  to  attempt  to  discover  the 
proximate  cause  that  led  Mohammed  to  attack  a 
system  of  idolatry',  of  which  his  own  family  were 
at  the  head.  It  was  not,  however,  as  some  liave 
surmiscil,  a  sudilen  outbreak  of  enthusiasm :  for, 
after  his  marriage,  he  coiitimiiMl  to  live  in  nil  the 
privacy  compatible  with  the  station  of  a  rich  and 
highly  connected  individual  for  tliirteen  vears.  At 

M  2 


164 


ABABIA 


tho  terminatinn  of  this  period,  he  withdrew  firom 
flociety,  resorted  to  a  cave  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Mecca,  where,  for  two  vearR,  he  pave  out  that  he 
wait  in  daily  commuuication  with  the  Divinity. 
At  the  end  of  this  time,  l»eing  then  forty  years  of 
age,  he  aASumed  the  character  of  a  Prophetj'scnt  by 
the  Almighty  to  establiwh  a  new  religion ;  or,  if 
we  may  take  his  own  words,  to  restore  the  ancient 
one,  professed  by  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  the 
Prophets,  and  Jesus  Christ;  by  destroying  the 
gross  idolatries  of  his  countrymen,  and  weeding 
out  the  corrupdons  and  superstitions  by  which,  as 
he  alleged,  the  Jews  and  Christians  haid  deformed 
the  beautiful  simplicity  of  the  true  faith.  (Abul- 
Feda,  cap.vii.  pp.  14-17;  Abul-Pharagius  p.  102; 
£1-Macin.  Hist.  Sar.,  lib.  i.  cap.  i.  p.  18,  &c.) 

Nothing  can  well  exceed  the  simplicity  of  the 
Mohammedan  doctrines,  as  delivered  by  the 
founder  and  his  immediate  successors;  and  as 
they  are  embodied  in  the  114  chapters  of  the 
Koran :  The  unity  of  ( lod ;  the  divine  mission  of 
Mohammed;  the  stated  observance  of  prayer; 
the  giving  of  alms ;  the  observance  of  an  annual 
fast;  and  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca;  com[)ri8e 
under  five  hoa<K  the  principal  points,  whether  doc- 
trinal or  practical,  which  wore  to  be  enforced. 
Tlie  resurrection  of  the  Ixxly  was  proclaimed,  and  [ 
a  future  state,  in  which  men  will  receive  the  re- 
ward of  their  good  actions  and  obedience  to  the 
law  of  the  Prophet,  or  be  suWectetl  to  a  yurifi/ing 
punishment  for  their  evil  deeds  and  infidebty, 
TViQ  final  admission  of  all  true  believers  to  a  state 
of  bliss,  is  an  article  of  Moliamracdan  faith. 
(Koran,  ptusim,  especially  chaps,  ii.  iiL  iv.  v.  and 
cxii. ;  Relantrs  Moham.  'Theol.,  p.  20,  Ac.)  The 
supposed  divine  legation  of  M(»hammed  is  the 
pnnci])al  novelty  iutroiluceiL  The  stated  prayers 
were  only  adaptations  of  customs  already  existing 
among  the  Sabians,  Jews,  Christians,  and  Ma- 
gians ;  the  annual  fast  was  a  very  ancient  prac- 
tice among  the  old  Arabs ;  and  tfie  only  change 
effected  by  Mohammed  in  its  olte!ler^'ancc,  was,  by 
prohibiting  the  intercalation  of  a  month  in  the 
lunar  year,  to  make  the  sacred  season  fixed  in- 
stead of  ambulator^'.  (Koran,  chap,  ix.)  The 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca  was,  as  has  been  shown,  a 
practice  followed  from  the  very  earliest  times; 
and  the  rewards  and  punishments  in  another  life 
were  adopted,  but  with  much  adulteration,  from 
the  Christian  doctrines.  The  grossly  sensual 
character  of  Mohammed's  paradise,  is,  in  fact,  the 
great  blemish  in  Ids  religious  system ;  and  has  had 
a  most  debasing  and  degrading  infiuenoe  over  the 
countries  where  it  has  acquired  an  ascendancy. 

The  new  religion  being  in  most  parts  little 
more  than  an  adaptation  of  various  ])arts  of  the 
religions  previously  existing  in  Arabia,  was  well 
fitt^  to  attract  all  by  the  respect  it  professed  for 
the  peculiar  tenets  of  each,  excepting  the  idola- 
trous worslup  of  the  Sabians.  Accordingly,  Mo- 
hammed was  heard  with  patience  by  the  people 
of  Mecca,  till  he  denounced  the  idols  of  the 
Kaaba.  This,  however,  raised  so  strong  a  feeling 
against  him,  that  his  ruin  was  prevented,  and  his 
life  preserve<l,  only  by  the  firm  friendship  of  his 
uncle,  Abu-Taleb,  who,  although  uncon\'mced  by 
the  preaching  of  his  nephew,  protected  him 
against  his  enemies.  In  the  sixth  year  of  his  mis- 
sion, the  persecutions  to  which  he  was  exposed 
became  so  severe,  that  many  of  his  followers 
sought  b^'  permission,  refuge  in  other  lands,  chiefly 
in  Abyssinia ;  where  they  became  the  first  instru- 
ments* for  planting  the  new  faith  in  Africa.  This 
event  is  called  by  Eastern  writers,  the  first 
Hejira  or  flight*  (Abul-Feda,  caps.  ix.  x.  xi., 
pp.  21-27;  Ebuoil-Atliir  El-Firawz  ei  aiiu  in  I 
Pocoke,  p.  177,  rt  te«iJ  -^ 


In  less  than  nine  years,  Mohammed  soooMdei 
in  uniting  all  Arabia  in  one  (kith ;  but  cUd  Dot 
live  long  to  enjoy  his  triumph.  Some  yeuip»- 
viously,  or  in  the  seventh  Hejira,  A.D.6^he  ww 
poisoned  by  a  Jewess  of  Chaibar,  who,  on  hiie»- 
tering  that  town  in  triumph,  offered  him  mm 
eggs,  previously  drugged,  {urofessedly  to  test  the 
reality  of  his  divine  knowledge.  (Abnl-Fedi, 
cap.  xlv.  p.  92.)  Hencdorward  his  strength  d»> 
clined;  but  his  death  was  caused  by  a  ferci 
which,  having  at  inter\'als  deprived  him  of  kii 
reason,  tcrmiiuited  his  existence  in  the  gptet  oi 
fourteen  days,  on  the  12th  of  the  Ist  mooUi,  Bs 
bisah,  in  the  eleventh  Hejira  (6th  Juie,  682),  fa 
liis  sixty-third,  or,  according  to  some  anthoriticf 
sixty-fifth  year.  He  was  buried  at  Medina;  tm 
the  Mohammedan  doctors  differ  as  to  whidi  i 
the  most  sacred — Mecca,  which  gave  birth  t 
their  Apostle,  or  Medina,  which  received  lum  i 
his  flight,  and  contains  his  mortal  remainiw  (B 
Macin,  lib.  i.  p.  10;  Abul-Feda,  caps.  Ixi-hv 
pp.  3-142 ;  Ockley's  HisU  Sar^  i.  1.) 

Mohammed  died  in  the  midst  of  pRpantioi 
to  carry  his  spiritual  faith  and  tcraponl  \fom 
into  other  countries.  His  death  acaioely,  boi 
ever,  suspended  the  completion  of  his  gra 
designs:  a  momentary  state  of  confusion  wi 
foIlowe<l  bv  the  election  of  Abu-Becre,  £sther-ii 
law  of  MoKammed,  to  the  oflioe  of  supreme  bei 
of  the  Mussulman  religion  and  power,  under  tl 
title  of  <  Khaliff,'  or  '  Successor  of  the  Ftogtm 
Under  his  reign,  and  that  of  his  two  successon,  d 
Arab  arms  were  carried  triumphantly  into  all  tl 
neighbouring  countries ;  and  by  the  twentieth  ye 
of  the  Hejira,  or  within  less  than  ten  yean  no 
the  death  of  Mohammed,  the  conquest  of  Syri 
Persia,  and  Egypt,  was  completed.  In  the  thi 
teenth  year  of  tne  Hejira,  Damascus  was  take 
in  the  seventeenth,  Antioch;  in  the  nineteentl 
Ispahan ;  and  in  the  twentieth,  Alexai^ria.  (£ 
Macin,  lib.  L  cap.  ii  pp.  16-38;  Abul-~ 
pp.  108-117;  Ockley,  l  pp.  1—391.) 

The  khalifate  continued  elective  for  four 
sivc  elections ;  the  last  who  held  the  power  brpol 
lie  suffrage,  beuig  Ali,  the  cousin  and  stm-in-Jawi 
Mohammed.  This  first  believer  had  bcs 
thus  long  passed  by,  in  consequence  of  his  R 
fusing  to  hold  as  sacred  anythmg  not  contaiiMi 
in  the  Koran,  or  the  immediate  traditions  of  A 
Prophet.  (Abdul-Pharagius,  p.  115.)  From  thi 
circumstance  arose  the  division  of  the  Mohsn 
medans  into  two  great  sects,  the  SoNicrras  sn 
the  SciiiTES.  The  latter,  the  disciples  of  Ali 
whom  they  denominate  the  vicar  of  Gad,  reoeiTii^ 
only  those  doctrines  which  he  admitted  to  b 
sacred;  while  their  adversaries  (the  arthoda 
Miu^ulmans)  hold,  at  least  in  eamal  reverence,  th 
7,275  Sonna^  or  oral  laws,  which,  within  tb«  fin 
200  years  of  Mohammedanism,  had  grown  int 
respect  and  veneration.  (D'Herbelot,  artSL  Bokhs 
Hadith,  and  Sonnah,  pp.  238,  416,  and  807.) 

Ali  fell  by  the  hand  of  an  awsawrin,  after 
troubled  reign  of  flve  years ;  and  MoawiJsJi,soii  i 
Abu-Sophian,  the  greatest  enemy  of  Mohajaama 
usurped  the  throne ;  and,  what  is  more  remari 
able^  had  the  power  or  art  to  make  the  n**ii^< 
hereditary  in  his  own  family.  His  descendam 
are  called  the  Ommiyade  race  of  khalifs,  fta 
Ommiyah,  the  grandfather  of  Abu-Sophian ;  aa 
they  ))os8essed  the  regal  and  sacerdotal  powi 
through  fourteen  generations,  and  for  nfiany  IC 
years.  (El-Macin,  lib.  L  caps.  v.  and  vL  pp.  ^-4S 
Abul-Phara^us,  pp.  117-123;  Ockley,  iL  pp.  1-106 

The  Ommiyade  khalifs  were,  in  the  ISSid  Hrih 
(a.d.  750),  superseded  by  the  deaoendants  of  Abba 
one  of  the  uncles  of  Mohammed.  The  Onmiiyad 
dynastv  had  never  received  the  checoful  •abmii 


cnopbet'tbiiiilT;  tnd,  afUr  « Imtgih- 

^^   the  laat  Omnitysile   khilif  wu 
J  dtfeaud  in  UesopoUiniii,  and  iK»n 


.,    (El-M«cin,lil),i 

EkiL  <ai).L  pp.SA'lOO;  Abul-Plun- 

117, 1S8.) 

'   'oirrcniment  had,  in  the  mcanwbile, 

i  ftom  Uedina  to  Damucoi,  and 

ma  to  Bagdad.    It  wan  in  thii  new 

nilB  that  tlie  Arab  claim   to   lileraiy 

I  the  qilcndid  rouiti  of  Haroon-al- 
■d  hia  mut.  Al-Haiumr  and  Motassem, 
L  It  was  hcR  that,  under  their  patmn- 
hc^  aagca  and  philnsuphen  vent  mm- 
1  the  native  Anb  Rcninn  raised  its  head, 
d  the  Kiences,  phytical 
Act  with  the  uadul  an 


te  Saiacei 


phildflaphen 


The 


■,  {^yncianii,  butanints,  chemiets, 
Meta,  who  illiutnled  (hit  period  of  Arab 
■sold  fill  a  volnnie.  Of  chemistry,  they 
cilM  Uk  nentori;  and  although  in 
Ti  tbcy  did  not  presume  to  depart  fnnn 
wean  hypothefliA,  they  carried  ont  the 
tht  Alexandiian  philmopher,  and  at- 
■Mi  nurrellatiB  for  their  accursi^,  when 
aovi  nature  of  the  data  on  which  they 
dad  ia  CQiuideml.  To  the  ailronomical 
Bagdad,  Cordova,  and  Samarcand,  sub- 
twn'in  owe  a  laige  debt  n(  gratitude ; 
r  of  the  common  terms  in  modem  aetro- 
1  «aat  of  the  names  apnhed  to  the  fixed 

of  annHiomical  science.  The  Arabs,  if 
nt  inrent,  at  leut  were  Che  great  im- 
rf  ■IfCebrt  (Ihe  name  sufficiently  at- 
arigiD),  which  placed  in  rhe  hands  of 
In  an  instrument  of  Tsst  and  apparently 
1  ^ower.      Perhaps,   however,  the  meet 

■**"—'■"'   charnctOB.  now  in  common 


Im  were  pre-eminently  Rreat : 
nt  remains  of  their  pubUc  and 
in   Syria,   Efiypt,   and  Spaii 


ABABU  IM 

domeatk  eMsbliahment  of  duUngnishcd  familiea; 

■o  that,  in  the  cities,  the  preater  part  of  the  popu- 
lation can  read  and  wnte-^attainmenta  which 
Me  also  found  commonly  enough  among  the 
sheikhs  of  trilx»  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
settled  districts. 

To  ahnost  every  mosque  there  is  attached  B 
school,  where  the  poorer  children  may  bo  taught 
gntaitoosly ;  besides  which,  there  are  in  evei>- 
giEat  town  more  or  fewer  private  estabiiihmenla 
where  the  diildren  of  the  middle  clanes  are  re- 
ceived. The  education  is  of  a  limited  kind,  com- 
prising little  more  than  reading,  writing,  the 
umple  rulM  of  arithmetic,  and  Uie  doctrines  of 
the  Hobammedsn  religion.  School-houses,  like 
the  shops,  are  open  tu  the  street,  so  that  the 
whole  process  of  education  is  conducted  in  public; 
and  to  prevent  (he  distraction  incident  to  such  a 
sitkuUion,  the  readers  and  repeaters  speak  in  the 
highest  possible  key.  and  accompany  their  deli- 
very with  violent  gesticulations. 

Besides  these,  there  are  in  nuiny  of  Ihe  greater 
towns  schools  of  a  higher  charaGler;  colleges,  in 
fact,  in  which  the  higher  sciences — mathcniatics, 
astronomy,  astrology,  and  medicine — are  taught. 
In  the  Imanat  of  Nemen  (wluch  is  but  a  small 
part  of  the  district  so  culled)  there  are  two  of 
these  collies.  Otie  of  the  chief  studies  in  them 
is  the  ancient  Arabic,  now  a  dead  language :  for 
their  learned  men  are  erpected  to  understand 
clearly,  not  only  the  Koran  in  its  original  tongu^ 


■ik&Dgs. 
dt^ir 


archilecture. 


leAr^ 
e  of  the  know- 
1  nfinement  of  the  jierioil  in  which  it 
Bd,  by  a  idngnUr  cuntrast,  that  periuil 
dsd  with  the  darkest  and  most  degraded 
r  Kmtifiean  history.  (Alidul-Pharagius, 
mf.;  U'HerbeloI,  PP- 'ISU,  5-15,  ic) 
I  ad  fifaoilwii.— The  learning  which 
tnly  to  the  court  uf  Ragilail  in  the 
Rm  does  not  appear  ever  to  have  been 
din  Arabia.    Kcfnre  the  nra  of  Moham- 

was  so  Stt  from  being  sfcounted  dis- 
tkat  we  learn  from  the  Koran  (cliap. 
hat  Hohammed,  though  uf  the  royal 
Hedjai,  cuuld  neither  read  nor  write  [ 
ke  present  day,  judgus  are  frequently 
(BnrckhardC'a  Sot™  on  1Jb1„.6».)  It 
hodbre,  be  supposed  that  education  in 
L  other  very  good  or  widely  diffiised. 
[  la  Niebnhr  (l>es  de  I'Ar.,  jiar.  L  y.  91) 
I  Dfinces  by  no  means  encourage  science ; 
t  the   East,  yuu  meet  tew  who 

" aL' 

lowerer  maiie  for  the  edu- 

a  teacher  fur  the  children 

n  pan  of  tlie 


■Bfcout 
Wcc^leai 
lairriflion  i 


.tors,  of  whom 
the  number  is  ■ .     . .       „...., 

offices,  civil  or 
a  very  rigorous  public  examimidon  as  to  their 
literary  and  scientific  attainments  ;  but  this  is 
mere  pretence,  the  most  illiterate  persons  being 
frequently  appointed  to  the  highest  post*,  while 
the  best  instructed  get  a  jaecarious  living  as 
scribe^  teachern,  and  public  redlers  or  poets. 
Hence  the  wish  to  acquire  a  high  degree  of  scho- 
lastic knowledge  is  very  weak  in  Ihe  majority  of 
Arabs;  and  the  profession  of  teacher  is  far  Iram 
respectable  or  lucrative.  In  many  of  the  towns, 
the  public  schools  are  falling  tu  decay ;  and  these 

Sualitled  to  conduct  them  [>refer  wandering  over 
le  country  like  the  bards  and  troubaduurs  of  the 
middle  ages,  as  poets  and  orators ;  in  which  cha- 
racters, OS  the  reciters  or  singent  uf  the  glories  of 
the  nation,  they  are  wdcomea  and  rewanled  alike 
by  the  sheriffs  and  slieikbs.  There  is  no  public 
provision  whatever  fur  fcmale  education ;  and, 
among  (he  Ikdouins,  whole  (ribea  can  neither 
read  nor  write.  A  very  great  obstacle  to  tho 
advancement  of  education  in  Arabia  is,  the  preju- 
dice of  the  natives  against  printing.  Prom  thn 
nature  of  the  Arabic  chaiaclcis,  interlacing  each 
other,  and  frequently  placed  verticaUy,  ttiey  ap- 
pear handsomer,  when  well  written,  than  when 
printed.  There  was  not,  a  few  years  ago,  and 
periiapa  there  is  not  at  present,  a  single  printing- 
press  m  the  country.  (Siebulir,  par.  i.  pp.  l)l-9ti; 
C.  it  p.  18»  ;  All  Hey,  iL  IVU ;  Bnrckhaidt'a 
t«  on  BaU,  42,  «t  seg.) 

Polilital  Vicuivmt.—  Soiirca  of  Rrmm.— 
Wilhout  reckoning  the  Bedouin  tnbes,  the  rmm- 
ber  of  which  can  hardly  be  ascertained,  the  settled 
parts  of  Aralua  are  divided  intu  a  great  many  in- 
dependent governments  i  hence  states,  also,  not 
uimequently  spring  up.  The  political  di\'ifliuna 
of  this  country  are  tbcndbre  very  uncertain,  but  st 

S resent  they  may  be  regarded  as  consisiing  of — 1st. 
ounecn  or  fifteen  statw,  upon  the  SSW.  coasts ; 
and,  A  much  greater  number  upon  the  shores  I'f 
the  Persian  tiulf ;  iJrd.  The  half-settled  Bedouin 
tribes  on  the  N.  part  of  that  Gulf;  4th.  Ilie 
dominiuDS  of  Ihe  Wahabee 


Wahabee  chief,  J 


166  ARABU  ARACAN 

Nedsjeil ;  5th.  The  Iledjaz  and  Bahr-el-toor-Sinai,  tiBe  and  tolerate  all  sorts  of  extortion.    BdoR 

OD  the  W.  and  NW.  of  all  these.  The  lant  are  the  conquest  of  the  He4jax  by  the  E^ptiam,  it 

only  parts  tliat  own  a  foreign  master.    The  des-  customary  for  the  sultan  sheriff  of  Mecca  to  fiE 

c^idiuits  of  Mohammed  continued  to  reign  in  the  prisons  with  persons  upon  chaiges  of  disaffu 

Hedjaz  from  his  time  down  to  a  late  epoch ;  ac-  to  his  person,  that  they  might  purchase  their  1 

knowledging,  however,  the  supremacy,  tirst  of  the  and  liberties  by  large  fiiies.    (Buickhardt*s  T^ 

court  of  Bagdad,  and  afterwards  of  the  Turkish  L  \u  416.)    In  Yemen  the  dolas  receive  theti 

Sultan,  as  head  of  the  Mohammedan  faith ;  minis-  and  customs  of  the  towns,  pay  the 


tens  of  the  paramount  power  residing  at  the  sane-  judges,  and  other  public  funcdonaiies,  and  te 

tuary  in  the  holy  cities.    While  the  Turkish  ^o-  mit  the  balance  to  Sanaa,  the  seat  of  gorecuDB 

vemment  retained  its  strength,  this  connection  In  this  arrangement,  the  iman  sqiieeses  all  be 

was  acknowledged  and  respected  in  the  Hedjaz ;  from  the  dola ;  and  the  latter,  wnoee  nomina 

but  in  the  latter  part  of  last  century,  the  sheriffs  come  is  very  trifling,  resorts  to  any  meani^  1 

renounced    their   nominal    allegiance,    attacked  ever  infamous,  of  realising  a  laige  income  for  1 

the  Turkish  pachas,  and  finally  expelled  them.  self.    The  chief  sufferers  in  these  tnmsacrkm 

Scarcely,  however,  was  this  effected,  when  the  the  Indian,  and  other  foreign  merchantib 

'  Wahabees  subduecl  the  whole  of  the  Holy  Land,  collection  of  the  customs,  too,  is  attended  * 

and  held  it  till  18 IS- 14;  when  Mehcmet  AH,  considerable  fraud ;  and  it  is  in  the  power  d 

Paelia  of  Egypt,  nominally  restored  the  Holy  officer  to  favour  his  friends,  and  oppress  stnni 

Cities  to  the  protection  of  the  Porte,  but  virtually  without  incurring  any  responsibility.  These  ak 

made  himself  master  of  the  Hedjaz ;  which  he  have,  however,  been  considerably  modified  ii 

has  since  retained,  and  governed  at  discretion.  Iledjaz  since  the  establishment  of  the  £^ 

The  Desert  of  Sinai  has  always  belonged,  more  power.     (Lord  Valentia,  iiL  p.  325 ;  Buicuii 

or  less,  to  Eg>7)t.    (Burckhardt  s  Travel  patsim ;  Travels,  L  pp.  89,  417.) 

Notes  on  Wahabees,  a'21-420;  Lord  Valentia,  iiL  Areaand FopulatimL— Anbi^hasbeimBam 

825-^27.)  to  contain  from  12,000,000  to  14,000,000  m 

Taxes,  in  the  settled  portions  of  Arabia  are  though  this  is  probably  beyond  the  nuik. 

pretty  uniform.    A  tenth  of  the  productions  of  nomadic  habits  of  the  greater  part  of  its  m 

the  land  is  paid  to  the  sovereign,  and  this  not  tion,  and  the  number  of  petty  states  into  wnid 

unfrcquently  in  kind.   (Fraser,  p.  15.)    In  Yemen,  settled  pop.  is  divided,  and  the  little  that  ia  ki 

however,  tliis  tax  appears  to  be  compounded  for  with  respect  to  most  cf  them,  renders  it  impoi 

by  the  payment  of  a  fixed  sum  amiually  (Nie-  to  awd^  cither  their  limits  or  their  mpiila 

biihr,  par.  ii  p.  183)  ;  and  with  regard  to  the  Accordmg  to  Balbi,  the  imanat  of   xemei 

town  population,  this  method  must  necessarily  be  Yemen  I^roper,  and  the  imanat  of  Muscat,  oi 

general    The  tithe  upon  land  is  the  only  le^al  coast  of  Omar,  have  respectively — 

fixed  impost  wliich  Uie  subjects  of  the  native  Imanat  or  Ysmen.           Imaxat  of  Husca' 

Arab  princes  are  called  upon  to  pay.    But  a  far  Saperflcial  extent,  66,000    Superficial  exbeat,  i 

more  productive  source  of  revenue  is  found  in  aq.  m.                                  sq.  m. 

tlie  customs  and  duties  upon  merchandise.    The  Pop.,  2,600,000.                    Pop.,  1,600,000. 

Iman  of  Muscat  lavs  h  wt  cent,  upon  all  goods  Revenue.  495,000/.  sterL       Revenue.  166^  rti 

passin^^  up  the  Pe^iii  Gulf,  in  Arab  bottoms;  ^^^  ^'^  °^-                  ^*  I'^^fcii 

and  this  small  duty  is  so  productive  that  it  yields  ,  30  iiiferior  th—iIi 

from  110,000  to  160,000  dollars  annually.   *(l''ra-  Density  of  pop.,  47  per    Density  of   popw,  SI 

ser,  p.  16.)     In  Yemen,  the  Iman  levies  8  per  sq.  m.                                  sq.  m. 

cent,  upon  the  coflfcc  carried  from  his  dominions  xhe  Hedjaz  has  been  very  weU  survegred,  i 

beyond  the  Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  and  7  |)er  ^ially  by  Ali  Bey  and   Burckhaidt,  butiuv 

<«nt.  upon  aU  that  w  sent  up  the  Red  Sea;  and  w  popuUtion,  owing  to  the  indux  and  effli 

the  Sultan  Sheriff  of  Mecca— or  rather  his  present  pj^Jiis,  together  with  the  crowd  of  tzaden 

master,  Mehemet  Ah— takes  6  per  cent,  more  m  ^j^  constantly  passing  between  its  shoras  and 

the  port  of  DjiddiL    (Lord  Valentia,  ii.  368,  369.)  tant  countries,  renders  it  difficult,  if  not  impoa 

The  laige  quantities  of  goods  that  arc  constantly  ^  assign  its  real  numbers  with  any  tolerable  a 

passing  fn.m  India,  Aby8smu^  Lgypt,  Syna,  <fcc,  ^^y^    Probably,  however,  it  is  more  denaebr 

to  all  the  trading  towns  of  Arabia,  have  also  their  ^^y  ^l^^  either  Yemen  or  Muscat, 

stated  rates  of  duties;  and  the  income  derived  The  states  of  Yemen,  as  enumerated  by  NWi 

from  them  is  so  great,  that  Mehemet  Ali  cheaply    ^j^  the  following : 

purchascti  his  popularity  in  his  new  dominions  by 

foregoing  the  settled  tithe  wliich  luid  formerly  J'  l^^  Proper.                8.  Sjtam. 

V             •  I  •     *v           r\         r  u-    ,ii    i.      4           •'2.  Aden.  9.  JNedsjlrm. 

been  {mid  m  them.    One  of  ms  tirst  actj*  was  a  3  Kankebon.                     10.  KmnVtrnn, 

declaration  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  Hedjaz  4]  Haschid-u-BekeL            ll!  D^iof. 

should  be  wholly  free  from  taxes.     (Burckhardt's  6.  Abu-Arish.                     1:1.  South  TThanlaiw 

Kotes  on  Bed,  p.  306.)     I'he  citv  of  Medina  was  6.  Beled-el-KobaiL              18.  Nehm. 

said  to  be  imiK»st  free,  even  before  this  period.  7-  North  Khaulan.              14.  Jaffa. 

(Ali  Bey,  uL  127.)  There  arc,  also,  a  great  many  little  states  npoi 

Certain  articles  of  commerce  are  monopolies  in  Persian  Gulf;   and  Hadramaut  consists  ot  ii 

the  hands  of  tlie  governments;   as  salt  in  the  nificant  sovereignties,  mostly  of  no  greater  ei 

Hedjaz,  and  the  same  article  and  sulphur,  in  Oman,  than  a  mile  or  two  round  the  town  where  the  > 

(BuK'khardt's  Travels,!,  p.  66;  Fraser,  16.)     Be-  resides.      (Niebuhr,  par.  il   pp,  160-246^ 

sides  which,  the  sovereign  is  frequently  possessed  292,  Ac) 

of  large  landetl  property  in  private  right,  which  ARABKIR,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  pad 

he  lets  out  precisely  like  any  other  landlonl ;  and  of  Sivar,  cap.  sai\jiack,  7  m.  N.  Euphrates,  an 

in  certain  cases,  as  in  those  of  the  Imaums  of  Muscat  m.  NN£.  Malattia,  lat  3^  b' JS^  long:  8S 

and  Yemen,  ho  is  also  the  most  considerable  mcr-  Estim.  pop.  25,000.    The  town  is  well  built, 

chant  in  fajs  own  dominions.     (Niebuhr,  par.  ii.  the  c(»untry  round  is  exceedingly  fertile, 

pp.  182-184 ;  Fraser,  16.)  ARACAN,  a  country  of  A^  called  W  th» 

These  are  all  legitimate  sources  of  revenue ;  but  tives  Rakhaing^  extending  along  the  W.  cos 

the  evil  in  this  and  all  other  Mohammedan  ooun-  the  great  £.  peninsula  of  S.  Asia,  acquired 

triea  is,  that  the  govemmenfes,  being  despotic,  prao-  the  Birmesc,  Iby  the  British,  in  1824.    1 1  liei 


AudGoTm  ll 


Sr  (Capa  Lvnio)  ind  2V  SO"  H.JM., 
VmiW'U'E,  lung. ;  havinf;  Jj.  Uie  r. 
froTD  ChitLagong,  E.  th« 
^  diridiag  it  m>iD  the  Bir- 
W.  tlie  Indian  Ucua ;  Ihe 

^n^  iU  8.  eiuemitv :  lengUi,  N.  to  S^ 
Im.;  tnvldi,  at  iU  ».  end,  90  m.;  but 
■tbwnnb  oonliDiully  decnaiung ;  BTea, 

■  pBg,  m.  (Pemberloa)  i  pnp.  »Bid  to  be 
tfin  oolT,  wboeu,  in  17U5,  it  wm  eati- 
tt  nnbudj  mucb  bejond  Oie  nuuk,  at 
.  (PcmbeRou'i  Bcpwt  on  the  £.  Fron- 
kUkUdi*.) 

■  tnocfaOoin  thow  tlut  bound  8.  tbe 
■H ;  ud  foim  tbe  K,  boundary  of  botJi 
■d  CUtUgonc.  Theii  heigbtH  ran-  fmrn 
MOO  a.7Table  Uountain,  m  21°  N.  lat. 
i.  loup,  ia  0,430  fl.  above  the  level  of 
Smi  St.  20°  they  take  asuddco  turn  E. 
a  dwrea ;  but  in  general  their  directioo 
&;  Uiey  ara  cuveiBd  with  romls,  and 

:b.ieC  being  Ihnae  of 
iiimeae,  and  Tongo, 
^  in  the  Briciah  duminiona.  They 
ant  CToy  case,  mere  nairow  footpaths. 
dknnde,  toL  I  p.  308.) 
ntay,  geimally,  is  divoufled  with  hill 
btt  oo  the  K.  border  and  the  ae^^hore 
lo*  and  manhy  tracU.  Tbe  riven  run 
I  k  aw.  direction,  aod  aie  frequently 
Ibr  Inding  vestels  of  some  ma^tude ; 
»  it  the  Aiacaa  (properly  Kuladyne), 

■  n  the  BirmeM  dominiona,  near  3.1°  N. 
dKhaiKM,  ''«"■  in  'if  15'  by  aeveral 

OfAiacan,  accDwible  to  vesaeli  of  25U 
MS.  The  other  principal  Btnuunsare  the 
Bf,  Uiuu,  and  Sandoway  rivem,  all  in 
ne  navigable. 

M,  in  the  central  part  of  Aracan  eape- 
Mttiina  many  good  barinuTH,  ia  much 
if  okIu,  and  itudded  with  inlands  and 
A  nuder  Ihe  mouth  of  the  Alacan  rirei 
:  dangenna  to  apjimach  in  the  SW. 
:  doDag  Ihe  refit  of  the  year*  hoireveT,  tbe 
(MBth,  and  there  are  giioil  anchorage*  all 


Mqial  wlanda  are  Chcduba,  Kamree,  and 
AireeQ  tlic  Kivera  Kulailyoe  and  Mion. 
—nally  nrparatnl  from  the  mainland  by 
aDDcla,  and  paitako  <i(  Ihe  ume  naUual 

sale  in  decidedly  unhealthy,  except  in 
a,»«  K)-ouk-Phyoo,  on  the  N.  Bide  of 
Ad  especially  ^  "'■"'* 
Ud  b>-  ' 


ARACAN  161 

banki  of  the  riven;  fira  an  commoD  H.  of  Iha 

Aracan  river ;  leak,  bamboo,  red  jand,  lorn,  Ac., 
are  found  in  Ihe  forests,  and  aince  the  British 
occupation  have  been  used  for  ship-building ;  the 
sugar-cane,  cocoa,  iialm,  L   "'  ~""    ~'' 


ce  of  foresu  which  ci 
;  hitherto  been  innurmcmnuilile  ubetaclcs 
ay  knowledge  of  tbeir  geoio^^y.  The 
n^a  that  have  been  seen  are  mostly 
■  lover  hills  consist  chietly  of  sandstone, 
feiayuccasionallv  intermixed;  on  oveiy 
leoaat  coral  and  nhell-limc  are  abundant, 
iviil  soil  extends  over  the  whok  of  the 

monatic  iitfonualiun  has  been  collected 
■Dducts  of  the  country.  Salt  is  largely 
ll  tbe  oceki.  Uold  and  silver  are  said 
with;  jungles  of  mangrove  crowd  the 


.^ , „_,  _tlton,  rice,  red 

,   . ,     ,  ,    lelon,  plantain,  mango,  lacko, 

orange  and  other  fruits,  are  indigenous :  elephanla, 
cattle,  birds  of  many  kinda,  fish,  nlkiroima,  and 
bees  are  found  in  great  plenty. 

The  inhab.  are  I-IOih  Birmeae,  8-lOthi  Moham- 
medans and  Indians,  and  the  remainder  Ttkm  at 
yiiaii,  as  they  call  themeelvea,  the  Hugha  of  the 
Europeans.  TlielatterareofmiddlaheightiWitha 
bioad  face,  high  and  prominent  cheek-bonea,  the 
noae  llal,  and  Ihe  cyea  like  thoae  of  the  Chincee : 
they  are  cunning,  and  addicl^d  to  stealing,  but  not 
to  falaehood.  Their  language  and  religion  rcaemble 
those  of  the  Biimeae ;  tbe  latter,  however  (that  of 
Boodh),  they  do  not  adhere  lo  very  strictly,  since 
they  do  not  abstain  from  animal  food.  TheAracan- 

canread  and  write;  the  latter  they  practise  with  a 
clialk  pencil  on  a  paper  made  from  the  bark  of  a 
tree:  Uieirrecorda  are  kept  on  palm-leaf,  lacquered 
in  Japan  or  red  upon  a  gilt  ground.  The  people 
are  fond  of  Uneiy  i  the  dress  of  the  women  ii  a  red 
lundcr  wrapt  cloeely  round  Ihcm,  over  this  a  robe 
reaching  to  the  knee,  and  the  petticoaC  fastened 
Inoeely  on  one  side  all  down,  so  that  in  walking 
the  whole  of  one  hmb  is  exposed.  Women  are  not 
kept  secluded,  but  enjov  as  much  liberty  as  the 
other  sex.  Slavery  in  all  its  forms  is  tolerated. 
Hairiages  are  arranged  by  the  parents  of  the  par- 
ties ;  solemnised  by  feasts,  and  ratified  b^  the 
married  couple  ealm^  out  of  one  dish.  If  they 
separate  at  a  future  imie  at  the  wish  of  the  hut- 
band,  he  must  take  upiin  himself  all  his  wifa'a 
debts;  if  such  a  determination  originate  with  tbe 
latter,  she  t^es  tbem  upon  herself,  but  can  demand 
2i  rupees  from  her  husband.  If  a  man  be  in  want 
of  money,  he  may  pawn  his  wife ;  but  if  she  bs- 
come  prGRi^ant  in  consequence,  he  can  claim  her 
a^in,  and  Ihe  contract  to  pay  becomee  null  and 
void.    The  dead  are  either  buried  or  burned. 

This  country  liaa  been  very  gically  improved 
since  it  came  into  Ihe  posMsaion  of  the  British, 
previously  to  which  it  was  in  the  worst  poeaible 
stale.  The  bands  of  robbers  by  which  it  waa  in- 
fested have  been  extirpated ;  and  the  habits  of  the 
hulk  of  the  people  materially  improved.  The 
introduction  of  trsnquiUily  and  commerce  haH 
awakened  a  spirit  of  industry,  and  rendered  tlie 
people  cultivatoix,  salt-manufacturen,  and  tradenu 
Akyab  is  daily  becoming  of  more  and  mraa  im- 

Uefore  17B3,  Aracan  was  independent,  though 
often  ravat^  by  Iho  Moghula  and  P^uanai  m 
that  year  it  was  conqnei«d  by  the  Birmeae,  and 
govemal  by  Ihdr  viceroys ;  whose  oppmdona  de- 
populated the  country,  causing  many  of  the  inha- 
bitants to  tly  to  Cfaitlagong  and  Tipperab,  where 
they  settled ;'  and  others  lo  become  jungle-rabbera. 
A  revolt  broke  out  in  IBM,  and  the  violation  of 

subsequently,  was  the  cause  of  the  Birmese  war  of 
lt»4 :  wiiich  ended  in  the  cession  of  Aracan  to  the 
British. 

Ahacah,  a  town  and  can.  of  the  above  prov.,  on 
an  inferior  branch  of  the  Kuladyne  river,  which  ia 
here  crusacd  by  several  ]ohy  wooden  bridges,  All 
m.  SK  Akyab,  Ut.  20°  44  K.,  long.  S30  28'  E. 
listim.  pop.  ]U,UOU.  The  town  is  iu  the  funn  of 
an  itr^rulsr  square,  walled  on  all  sidea  except  the 
NE.,  where  it  touchea  a  shallow  lake.  Aa  a  fort- 
reas,  however,  it  is  worthlaia,  being  commanded 
by  various  hills  in  the  neighbourhood.  S.  of  the 
princi|ial  street  which  runa  E.  and  W.  are  the  ruin* 


168 


ARAD 


of  an  ancient  palace  and  fort,  the  latter  surrounded 
by  a  triple  enclosure  of  stone  patched  up  with  brick. 
Inhere  are  many  imgiMlas,  b<»th  in  the  town  and  on 
the  heights  around  it.  Next  to  Akyab,  it  lias  the 
best  market  in  the  prov.  f(»r  British  manufacturefl 
and  the  silks  of  Pegu,  and  its  river  is  navigable 
for  boats  at  high  tide;  but  its  conHctmencc  has  been 
l^wliuilly  diminishing  since  Akvab  I)^^n  to  rise 
into  importance.  ^Vracan  was  taicen  in  1788  by  the 
liirmesc,  who  capture<I  much  booty,  including  a 
laige  brazen  image  of  (iuadma,  held  in  the  highest 
veneration,  and  other  idols. 

ARAD,  a  t<*wn  of  the  Austrian  empire,  on  both 
ndvs  of  the  Maros;  that  {Mirt  which  is  on  the  N. 
bank,  or  01<l  j\rad,  being  in  Ilungary,  and  the 
other,  or  New  Anui  in  the  Baimat,*  27  m.  N. 
Temeawar,  lat,  4b*o  W'bQ"  X.,  long.  21o  18'  3"  lu 
Pop.  of  both  ])artB,  30,959  in  1858.  New  Anul  is 
strongly  fortihed ;  and  Old  Arad  is  the  residence 
of  a  Greek  bishop.  The  most  opulent  inhal)itants 
are  the  Jews,  who  are  ver^"  numerous.  The  town 
is  the  entrepot  of  the  products  of  a  lai^gc  tract  of 
country,  which  are  here  embarked  on  the  Maros. 
and  sent  by  the  river  to  the  Danube,  and  thence 
to  Germany,  Hungary',  and  the  Black  Sea.  To- 
l>acco  is  manufactured,  there  is  a  large  trade  in 
com,  and  the  town  is  the  place  of  tlie  greatcsit 
cattle  market  in  liimgar>'. 

AKAFAT  (MOUNT),  a  hill  of  Arabia,  15  m. 
SE.  of  Mecca,  consisting  of  a  granite  rock  about 
150  ft.  high,  a  principal  object  of  the  Moham- 
medan pi^rimages  to  that  city. 

ARAGON,  one  of  the  ancient  divisions  of  Spain, 
formerly  a  separate  kijigdom,  comnrising  the  pn)vs. 
of  Zaragoza,  Huesca,  and  TcrueL  lying  between 
40O  and  42©  55'  N.  lat.,  and  40°  E.*and  2°  7'  W. 
long.,  having  N.  the  l^yreuecs,  which  divide  it 
from  France;  £.,  Catalonia;  S..  Valencia;  and 
W.,  Navarre  and  Castile;  length,  N.  to  S.,  215  m.; 
breadth,  65  to  135  m. ;  area,  14,692  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
880,643  in  1857.  It  is  a  basin  everywhere  sur- 
rounded, except  on  the  E.,  by  mountain  ranges; 
on  the  N.  offsets  fn^m  the  l'\Tcnee8  extend  uito 
the  prov.  as  far  S.  as  lat.  42°  10',  enclosing  many 
picturesque  and  fertile  valleys ;  the  Sierras  Mon- 
cayo  Cuen^a,  Molina,  and  Albarrocin  sei)arate  it 
from  Castile,  and  those  of  Morella  from  Valenda. 
Another  distinct  chain  runs  {tarallel  to  the  latter 
through  the  S.  jMirt  of  ^Vragon,  firom  NW.  to  SE. : 
between  the  Sierra  and  this  chain  is  the  valley  of 
the  Xiloca;  and  l)etween  this  latter  chain  and  the 
P\'renecs  is  the  extensive  plain  intersected  by  the 
Ebro.  This,  wliich  is  not  only  the  laigest  olf  the 
Aragonese  rivers,  but  the  laigest  river  which  has 
its  embouchure  (»n  the  east  coast  of  Spain,  runs 
thrrnigh  the  prov.  in  a  S.  easterly  direction,  di- 
viding it  into  two  nearly  e«jual  {larts.  Exclusive 
of  the  Ebro,  there  are'a  great  numlier  of  other 
rivera,  mostly  its  affluents,  having  their  sources  in 
the  mountain  ranges  that  bound  on  either  side  the 
central  plain;  as  the  Gallego,  Cinca,  and  Segre, 
from  the  N^  the  Xilwa,  Guerva,  Aguos,  S.  Martin, 
Guadaloupc,  and  Algiias,  from  the  S. :  the  TagiLs 
and  the  Guadalaviar  have,  also,  their  (»rigin  in  t Jiu 
region.  Salt  is  ever>'where  abundant,  and  gold, 
silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  nitre,  alum,  d'C,  are  met 
with,  but  the  mines  are  mostly  neglected.  Tlie 
mine  (xf  rock  salt  at  Remolinos,  near  Alagon,  is, 
however,  extensively  \iTought.  furnishing  supplies 
not  only  for  the  prov.,  but  also  for  Catalonia  and 
other  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Climate  tem[>erate 
and  warm  in  the  valleys  and  plains,  but  on  the 
Pyrenees  the  snow  is  often  found  5  or  6  ilU  deep 
in  June,  and  violent  storms  occur  in  winter. 
llic  country  is,  however,  miiversallv  healthy.  The 
soil  of  the' plains  is,  in  general,  fertile,  and  well 
adapted  to  tlio  growth  of  must  products  of  tcm- 


AKAOOK 

I  nerate  climates.  Thoiigfa  agricuUare  \»  verf  d»- 
!  fectivc,  more  corn  and  wine  aro  pmliiced  thao  an 
!  required  for  home  consumption ;  and  there  an  tim 
i  laigo  Mim)lies  of  fine  fniita,  with  legmnes,  fln, 
,  hemn,  oil,  safirun,  liqn(»ioe,  madder,  enpartQ,  aad 
Itarilla.  Homed  cattle  are  scaioe.  WolveB  mi 
bears  are  met  with  in  the  mountainoas  districit; 
game  is  plentiful,  and  tlie  riveni  abound  with  ex- 
cellent fish,  especially  eela  and  trout.  The  oiiiii- 
factures  arc  confined  to  common  woollen  and  othe 
cloths,  cordage,  and  hempen  artidea,  gunpnfwdn 
with  soap,  \'inegar,  brandy,  paper,  batt;,  eartbco 
ware,  and  leather,  llie  manofacturt  of  silk  in  Ch 
capital  and  other  towns  has  fp«atly  diminitkw' 
Aragon  is  divided  into  thirteen  diatricta  or gobiana 
iu  chief  cities  are  Zaragoaa,  Huesca,  Calatayw 
and  TerueL  The  fint  is  an  archbish<^iric :  thfoea 
six  bishoprics  and  two  tmivenities.  Several  roac 
cross  the  pnn'.,  passing  to  all  the  great  towna ;  an 
the  Imperial  canal,  from  Tudela  to  Zan^^oaa,  10  f 
in  depth  and  70  ft«  wide,  commenced  m  1&29  I 
Charles  V.,  and  completed  to  its  present  extant  i 
1 772,  serves  the  double  purpose  ot  promoting  tiai 
and  navigation.  Several  imilwa>'»  are  aim  on 
structed  through  the  jtrovince ;  anuxig  them,  tl 
Madrid,  Sarafpssa,  and  Alicante;  the  Santgoai 
and  Barcelona;  and  the  Saragossaand  Pampelm 
lines.  The  Aragonese  are  strong,  and  weU-bdi 
not  so  active  as  the  Catalonians,  but  indnatrion 
brave,  and  httnest.  They  are  intdliffoit,  and  d 
sirous  of  knowledge,  but  proud,  auUieEn,  and  ea 
tremely  opposed  to  foreign  interference  with  the 
government.  The  original  harsh  AngoneM  dii 
Icct  has  now  become  intermixed  with  the  rartiKii 
'  Tlie  male  peasantry  wear  a  waistcoat  and  a  nan 
jacket  over  it,  dravm  together  by  a  thong,  and 
laige  round  hat,  or  sometimes  two,  to  vrork  i 
during  the  heats  of  summer.  The  dress  of  th 
women  is  odd  and  grotesque;  it  consista  partly « 
two  woollen  corsets,  and  three  or  four  thick  petti 
coats  one  over  another,  the  whole  weighnig  i 
(quarter  of  a  cwt.  Under  the  Komans  Angon  «i 
included  in  Celtiberia;  in  a.d.  470  it  was  ovesrai 
by  the  Goths,  and  in  714  by  the  Moonu  Aiber  lb 
expulsion  of  the  latter,  it  was  governed  by  its  om 
kings  till  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  with  laabett 
of  Castile  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

The  gov.  of  ^Vragon,  previouslpr  to  the  jondia 
of  its  crown  with  that  of  Castile,  and  fur  son 
time  afterwards,  though  monarchical  in  form,wi 
in  principle  essentially  r^ublicanu  The  kii^ 
who  were  long  elective,  retained  little  mi>re  tha 
the  shadow  of  power ;  it  being  really  vested  in  tli 
Cortes  or  parliament,  'iliis  supreme  assembly  wi 
composed  of  four  diflerent  armB  or  memben;  tli 
nobility  of  the  fint  rank,  the  equestrian  otia  < 
sec<»nd  rank,  the  representatives  of  cities  an 
towns,  and  the  ecclesiastics.  No  law  omild  pai 
without  the  assent  of  every  arm;  and  witboi 
Ijenmssion  of  the  Cortes,  no  tax  could  be  imposa 
no  war  dechireil,  no  peace  concluded,  nor  monc 
coined  or  altered.  The  power  of  reviewing  tl 
pniceedings  of  the  inferior  courts,  the  pri\-ikge  < 
mspectin^  ever)"  de|>artment  of  administxmticK 
and  the  right  of  redressing  all  grievances,  beloogi 
to  the  cones ;  to  which,  however,  those  aggiicn 
did  not  address  themselves  in  the  hamUe  tone 
supplicants,  but  demanded  its  interference  as  di 
to  them  as  freemen.  This  sovereign  court  wi 
held  durin^^  several  centuries  every  year;  but  fitu 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  was  on 
vokcd  only  once  in  two  years ;  the  scvsion  ca 
tinned  forty  days,  and  the  king  could  neith 
prorogue  nor  dissolve  the  assembly,  after  it  hj 
met,  iivithout  its  ovm  consent. 

Not  satisfied  with  having  erected  such  fonni 
able  barriers  against  the  cncroachinciUs  of  tJ 


w/i  pmoltiTa  lbs  Ai^oocse,  by  an  inilllation 
p(a£tt  (o  UHmielres,  declcd  ■  jufuo,  oi  supreme 
jiip,  M  tfat  protector  itf  the  peuple  and  the  con- 
aifa  tf  llw  prince.  The  penun  uf  the  juatiu 
VMNoed,  ind  hu  power  and  jurisdiction  sliiioet 
abnndedi  hewu  Iheiupienie  inuiprelei  uf  the 
Im,  ud  not  ooIt  inferior  judges,  bnt  the  krngt 
IkmdTM  wcR  bound  to  consult  him  in  every 
Oail  cue,  *ad  lo  ncrave  hig  fes|ionsea  witb 
Wfbat  idmnce.  An  appeal  lay  Ui  him  frum 
Ai  iDjal  ■■  mil  aa  the  baronial  jud^^^  and  even 
«hi  BD  appeal  waa  made,  he  uuuld  interpose  by 
kaawa  aatboritr,  pnihibit  the  onUnary  jud^ 
bam  jiQoeedingT  take  immediate  cognisance  of 
Iki  noM  tw-'f'fj  and  xemuve  the  p^y  accused 
^  IW  tfitoa  of  the  maiiifftta£ioHf  to  which  no 
flBa  had  aeooa  bat  by  his  permisuoii.  Hi> 
•MNiBia  exerted  with  no  Jen  vi^  '    " 

■  iquriHlffwliT^  the  admini^'"*''^ 
■Bi|  than  in  regulating  the  c 
■M iLa pangauve oTuie  Jua' 


a  and  patents,  and  declared 

■icjinn  leRcable  to  taw,  and  ought  tu  be  carried 
■kcuomoa.  He,  by  his  aole  authurity,  could 
tnWe  a»  of  the  Idng'*  ministers  from  the  cun- 
4m  tl  tlUa,  and  call  them  In  anavrcr  for  their 
■il»lmniiliiliiin  He  hitOBelf  was  accountable 
klleGnta  inly  for  the  manner  in  wliich  be  dis- 
dndlltf  dotiaof  bis  high  office,  and  performed 
fcnuM  of  the  greateat  irnportance  that  could  be 
(flitted  to  a  aubject.  The  Araguoeae  were  so 
aidMa  (hat  thai  monaichu  ihonld  know  and 
M  Ikir  dependence  ua  their  suhjccU,  that  e>-en 
■ottftag  allegiance  tu  their  sovereign,  tlie  jus- 
rlHlbamkruwiiil  him  in  their  name, '  We,  who 
■eacbeTBaaagooiliBndwhoare  allogelher  more 
pvnrial  than  you,  promise  obedient-  *~  


ibl  if  tb*  king  abouid  violate  bis  compact  witi 
tb«Bi,iIw»lawfuHbr  the  Aragoniae  lo  disdain 
lsa,Bd  elect  another  aovereign,  even  though  i 


re  of  Aiagun  Proper,  Navarre,  Catalouia, 
Tiltnda,  the  Ilalearic  Isles,  and  Sardinia.  The 
^BiiagT  of  Fsdinand  with  the  heiress  uf  Castile, 
O*  ejiii)iiiat  of  Granada  by  llieir  united  forcea, 
nk  lb  pgiaesaiuns  they  inherited  or  aciiuircd  in 
alwpani  ot  Europe  and  in  the  New  \\urld.  by 
cniiv  the  aorervigiis  extrinsic,  and  aa  it  were 
ma^  nKHucta,  rendered  them  in  a  great  mua- 
■«  udependent  of  the  sapplies  voted  by  the 
i^na,  at  the  aanie  time  tliat  it  enabled  them 
piWly  lo  subvert  their  auihority.  The  oslab' 
raliaiMU  of  the  InquisitioD  waa  alsu  a  great  bkitv 
totta  mHal  instltuCiuna  of  Arat,i 


fBM  of  the  Fenintula,  which  were  finally  sup- 
p<iiJ  during  the  rvign  of  the  bloody  and  tyiau- 
■iad  bigiK  Pliilip  11. 

AlUtiONA,  a  Hrwn  of  Sicily,  Val  di  Girgcnli, 
'•  a.  X.  GiigHiti,  on  a  hill.  Top.  1U,'140  in  IMiil 
TW  lowi  is  ill-biult,  and  dirty ;  but  is  worthy  o: 
Mia  tar  iia  caalle,  ila  antiquitie-,  and  for  hai-in^ 
■B  ill  vionity  the  mud  volcano  uf  Maccalobal 
nil  cc^Ma  of  nomeruua  little  hillocks,  with  CD 
im  QD  a  kind  of  truncated  cone  of  ar>^llaccoi 
bBBi  Mil,  ^  m.  in  circuit,  elevaled  about  'JUU  A. 
■Iwnlie  aimiunding  arid  plain.  These  c— ■  — 
m  acLiuiuallv  in  action,  making  a  hollow 
^^  Boiic  ant  throwing  up  a  line  cold 
■iud  with  water,  a  little  petroleum  and  salt,  and 
maiiiiBalljr  buhhlei)  of  airwithasulphurmisiatnt. 
'—liana  njwtta  like  tlie  discburge  of  artillery 


ARABAT  169 

are  heani,  and  slight  local  earthqaalces,  till  an 
eruption  takea  plani  iir  the  ejection  of  raud  and 
Moncs  lo  the  height  nf'from  3U  to  60  Sl„  the  ordi- 
nary height  of  the  spnula  being  only  fmm  a  few 
inches  to  3  ur  »  (t     (For  a  further  account  of 
thia  angular  phenomenon,  see   Smyth's  Sicily, 
p.  213.) 
ARAICHE  (EL).    See  Lara  cub. 
AKAL  (8KAor),  on  inland  seaor  lake  of  Asia, 
independent  Tartarv,  between  42°  and  4W>  Vi' 
a.  laL,  Biid  56i°  and  61°  16'  E.  long„  beuig  about 
SOU  m.  in  Icngtli  from  SW.  to  N  K.,  and  from  about 
100  to  nearly  250  m.  in  lireailth;  so  that,  with  tho 
ixception  of  the  Caspian,  it  is  bv  far  the  most  ex' 
enaivc  inhind  sea  of  the  Old  World.     At  its  SW, 
enflithas  a  prolongation  called  Aibueoomkoe  lake, 
HO  to.  long,  and  about  20  broad.     It  has  a  great 
number  of  islands,  partictdorlv  tiiwanls  the  S., 
id  is  generaUv  so  shallow,  thnt  it  con  be  safely 
Lvigatod  only  by  Hat-bottomed  boats.   It4  waters 
e  salt,  and  its  coants  generally  tow  and  sandv, 
the  country  round  eonaisting  [mostly  of  vast  and 
iteppes.     It  is  n-ell  supplied  with  fuh,  of  which 

nitl^    Tlie  Sea  of  And  receives,  besides  smaller 

jtnuuns,  the  nalen  of  two  great  riven,  the  Kr- 

Daria  or  Sihoun  (the  Jaxarif  of  the  andvnts), 

and  the  Amoo-Daria  or  Jihoun  (the  Onw  of  tlio 

ancients).     But  notwithstanding  it  has  nu  outlet, 

the  prevalent  opinion  is,  that  the  supply  of  water 

bniught  to  it,  oud  also  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  from 

which  it  is  se^iaratcd  by  the  deseri  pluleau  of  Oust- 

Oust,  is  unequal  to  what  is  carried  off  by  e%-spom- 

tion,  and  tlist  their  level  and  surface  are  binng 

gradually  diminished.      It  is  117  fL  above  the 

Caspian  and  S3  ft.  above  the  block  Sea.     The 

extraordinary  difference  between  the  levpl  of  the 

Caspian  and  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and  the  \erve\  of  the 

Black  Sea  (sec  Caspiah  Sea),  as  well  as  the 

"-■■■m  of  the  soil  in  their  vicinily,  the  traditional 

historical  siatcmcnta  with  respect  to  their 

boundaries,  and  the  opinions  of  the  most  eminent 

Lturalisls,  all  lead  to  the  belief  tliat  they  once 

Llendcd  over  a  much  larger  tract  of  country-,  and 

nst  probablv  made  part  of  one  great  inland  aco. 

(For  further  ileiaUs,  see  C.mPMjt  Ska.) 

AKAMON,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  'iard.cap. 

nl,  on  tlie  Rhone,  IC  m.  E.  Niamcs.    Pop.  2,3113 

1K61.    Manufs.  of  saltpetre. 

AllANDA  DU  DUKliCa  town  of  Sp^.  on 

the  Dueru,  4a  m,  S.  Burgos,     I'opulalion.  4,12i 

AILAXJUEZ.  {AraJoeit.)  A  town  of  Spain, 
iw  Caatilc,  m  a  fenilc  and  wcll-walered  valley 
I  (he  left  bank  of  the  Tagus,  immediately  above 
..here  it  is  joined  bv  tlie  .Xarama,  2D  m.  SSE. 
Madrid,  and  'ii  m.  F^E.  Toledo,  ou  the  railway 
Ma<hrid  to  Alicante.  Pop.  10,7:!T  in  IHJT. 
town  derives  celebrity  fnan  its  royal  palace, 
oencal  by  Philip  II,,  and  enlarged  and  em- 
bellished by  several  of  his  succeHsum,  particularly 
Charles  if'.,  who  aildeil  the  line  gardens  and 
groves  along  the  banks  of  the  Tagus,  aiid  a  small 
but  elegant  pleasure  house,  tlie  Qua  drl  Labradttr, 
The  palace  is  a  handsome  square  building,  with  a 
line  marble  staircase,  containing  many  line  sculp- 
tures, and  (aa  well  as  the  church  and  moiiasteriea 
ofthct'>wn)  paintings  of  the  Spanish  and  Italian 
lastcrs,  especially  of  Raphael  Mengs.  Tlie  town 
I  built  after  iht  Dutch  model ;  having  broad  and 
rell.paved  atrveis,  booses  imiform  and  painteil, 
nc  promcnailcB,  and  a  square  adorned  with  many 
andaome  edidces.  The  court  formerlv  used  lo 
ccupy  tliis  palace  fmm  Easter  till  iKo  end  of 
une:  in  July  and  August  the  situation  is  ac- 
ounlcci  unhralthv. 
AKAUAT    fl'urkish  A^ua  Dagk,  Anncniaa 


170 


ARAS 


Mads) J  a  fammui  mountain  of  AimGnia,  on  the 
ct)utinc'8  of  the  liiuoian,  TuikUhi  and  Persian  em- 
pires, its  principal  simimit  bein^j^  ab<»ut  H5  m.  S. 
>>ivan,  lat.  'SiP  SiV  N.,  lung.  44^  85'  E.  Its  base 
K.  and  NE.  is  washed  by  the  Araxes,  from  the 
low  plain  of  which  it  rises  most  majesticaUy  to 
an  immense  height.  It  forms  the  termination  in 
this  direction  of  a  range  of  momitains  connected 
with  the  Caucasian  chain;  but  these,  though 
elevated,  seem  in  comparison  with  Ararat  so  low, 
as  to  strengthen  the  impression  of  sublimity  and 
greatness  made  by  contemplating  it  singly  from 
the  plains  to  the  E.  It  consists  of  two  enormous 
conical  masses,  one  much  higher  than  the  other, 
but  the  lowest  ascending  far  within  the  line  of 
perpetual  congellation.  Kqieatod  efforts  had  been 
made  at  different  times  to  reach  its  summit,  but 
this  Herculean  task  was  not  effected  till  1830, 
when  Professor  Parrot,  of  Dorpat,  accomplished, 
by  dint  of  extraordinary  jieiseverancc  and  energy', 
w^liat  had  previously  been  reckoned  all  but  im- 
ptMsible.  lie  determined  tlio  altitude  of  the 
highest  peak  to  be  16,200  French  or  17.230  Eng. 
ft.  aliove  the  level  of  the  sea,  lieing  aI)ont  4,760 
ft.  higher  than  Mont  Blanc  The  summit  is  de- 
scribed as  a  circular  plain  of  limited  dimensions, 
united  by  a  gentle  descent  to  the  less  elevated 
[leak  towards  the  E.  The  whole  of  the  upper  re- 
gion of  tlie  mountain,  from  the  height  of  12,750 
fl.,  is  covered  with  perpetual  snow. and  ice;  and 
not  unfrcquently  avalanches  precipitate  themselves 
down  its  sides  with  tremendous  force  and  fur}'. 
The  mountain  was  again  ascended  in  lt<50,  by 
Colonel  Khoelsko  and  a  party  of  sixty ,  engaged  in 
the  Hussion  triangidation  of  Transcaucasia. 

On  one  of  the  sides  of  the  principal  cone  is  a 
chasm  or  cleft  of  prodigious  deptli,  having  much 
the  appearance  of  the  crater  of  a  volcano.  Toume- 
fort  says,  that  its  precipices  are  blackened  as  if  by 
smoke,  but  tliat  nothing  issues  from  it  except  tor- 
rcnta  of  muddy  water;  but  the  mountain  presents 
many  appearances  of  volcanic  action,  and  Dr. 
Keineggs  aflirms  that  he  has  seen  fire  and  smoke 
issue  from  this  chasm  for  three  days  t^^ther. 

Ararat  is  not  only  an  object  of  supenor  interest 
from  its  mass  and  height,  but  still  more  from  the 
association  with  which  it  is  connectetL  It  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  Ararat  of  Scripture,  on  whose 
summit  tlie  ark  rested.  (Genesis,  viiL  4.)  And 
certainly'  it  would  be  difficult  anywhere  to  find  a 
mountom  that  seems  better  entitled  to  the  honour 
of  serving  as  a  stepping  stone  *■  d  Noe  pour  de- 
acendrt  du  del  en  terre  avte  le  reste  de  touteM  Um 
cTvatttres,^  (Toumefort,  Voyage  du  Levant,  ii 
p.  860.) 

Ararat,  a  district  of  Victoria  colony,  Australia. 
Pop.  49j645  in  1859,  of  whom  8,800  were  Chinese. 
Ararat  is  one  of  the  important  gold-mining  dis- 
tricti)  of  the  colony. 

ARAS  (an.  Araxet),  a  river  of  Asia,  which  has 
its  source  in  the  mountain  land  of  Armenia,  20  m. 
8.  Erzeroum.  It  flows  E.  past  the  N.  base  of 
Mount  Ararat,  then  SE.  to  Curdosht,  and  NE.  to 
I>jrat,  where  it  falls  into  the  Kur,  50  m.  in  a 
direct  line  from  the  emiH>uchuro  of  the  latter  in 
the  Caspian  Sea.  Its  entire  coui«e  may  be  esti- 
mated at  420  m.  Notwithstanding  its  rapid 
ciurrent,  it  is  in  many  places  fonlable.  It  is  de- 
scribed by  Ussher  as  a  long,  wide,  and  shallow 
stream,  a  good  deal  of  its  water  having  been  di- 
verted for  purpose  of  irrigation.  (Ussher,  From 
London  to  Perseijolis.    1K65.) 

AKAUCANIA,  an  extensive  territory  in  South 
America,  comprising  the  country  lying  between 
87©  and  89°  50'  S.  lat.,  and  HP  and  IIP  20'  W. 
long.  On  the  N.  it  is  liounded  by  the  Kiver 
Biobio ;  ou  the  S.  by  the  Valdivia  or  Calacaila ; 


ARAUCANIA 

on  the  E.  by  the  Andes;  and  on  the  W.  far  tki 
Pacific  Ocean. 

The  Araucanians  divide  their  oonntiy  into  im 
Butolmapus  or  tetrarchies,  viz. : — 

1.  Langemnapu,  L  e.  the  maritime  ooantzy. 

2.  I^punmapo,  t.  e.  the  plain  ooantxr. 

8.  Inapiremiq[>u,  t. «.  the  oountiy  at  the  fixit  ol 
the  Andes. 

4.  Piremapn,  L  e.  tilie  Andes  oocmtiT. 

Each  tetraichy  is  governed  by  a  'f  oqni  or  to> 
trarch,  and  is  subdivided  into  nine  AlhungiHi  m 
provinces,  at  the  head  of  each  of  which  is  an  Ap» 
L  Imen.  Each  prov.  is  again  sabdivided  into  mil 
Kegues  or  districts^  severally  prcaided  over  bj  ■ 
Ulmen.  This  division  existed  before  the  onira 
of  the  Spaniards,  and  is  supposed  to  be  of  gSBi 
antiquity. 

The  dimity  of  Apo-Ulmen  and  Ulmen  are  hi 
reditary  m  the  male  line.  In  case,  however,  < 
failure,'  a  successor  is  chosen  by  the  people,  n 
their  choice  is  afterwards  confirmed  by  tM  Toqi 
or  generalissimo.  The  soooesrion  ia  thcpcefumii 
perpetuated  in  the  family  of  the  individual  new! 
chosen.  The  ensign  of  an  Apo-Uhnen  is  a  ataf 
with  a  silver  globe  at  one  end  and  a  silver  ting  i 
the  centre.  'That  of  an  Ulmen  lescmblea  the  m 
going,  with  the  exception  otdyot  the  zing,  iriiie 
IS  peculiar  to  the  fomnGr.  The  ensign  of  tt 
Tomii's  authority  is  a  battle-axe. 

llie  form  of  government  compriaea  a  miztii 
of  democracy  and  aristocracy. 

Tlie  natives  proper  of  Arancania  belong  to  th 
race  of  the  Moluches,  and  the  name  of  Anwa 
nians  has  been  given  them  by  the  Sponiardi 
Their  range  of  information  is  extremely  limited 
and  though  Spanish  writers  affirm  that  they  ban 
some  notion  of  geometry,  and  are  sufficiently  a» 
quainted  with  astronomy  to  distin^piiah  the  atan 
by  particular  names,  the  credibility  of  Una 
account  is  much  to  be  questioned. 

The  industry  of  the  country  ia  confined  to  i 
little  agriculture.  The  Araucaniana  cultivate  i 
few  fruits,  and  make  a  kind  of  dder.  Their  prifr 
cipal  wealth  consists  of  their  flocks  and  herda,  and 
they  possess  a  great  number  of  homes,  of  thi 
Spanish  breed,  as  well  as  oxen,  guanaooa,  aik 
vicunas.  The  oxen  and  guanacos  vieid  then  i 
plentiful  subsistence,  and  the  wool  oF  the  vicoEai 
supplies  them  with  various  artidea  of  dothing. 

llie  Auracanians  have  a  sort  of  criminal  code 
and  the  crimes  which  seem  to  be  regarded  aa  thi 
most  heinous  by  them,  are  munter,  adoltoy 
robbery,  and  witchcraft.  The  latter  is  viaiei 
with  immediate  death.  (Wimmer  nenatea  Ge 
mMlde  von  ^Vmerika,  vol.  iv.  p.  812 ;  Wien,  188S. 
Their  religion  consists  in  the  belief  of  the  exist 
ence  of  a  Supreme  Being,  beadea  that  of  maoQ 
lesser  deities,  and  also  in  the  immortality  of  th 
soul.  (Stein's  Uandbuch  der  Geographie,  vdL  iii 
p.  752 ;  Leipzig,  1^84.)  The  Araucaniana  maiB 
tain  no  standing  force,  but  eveiy  male  ia  inaro 
to  the  use  of  arms,  and  bein^  natuially  a  wailik 
people,  it  needs  no  compulsion  to  rally  them  ii 
defence  of  their  country.  None  of  the  aburigina 
race  of  S.  America  have  resisted  with  so  mod 
obstinacy  and  such  determined  bravery  all  th 
attempts  of  Europeans  to  reduce  them  to  a  aCat 
of  subjection,  and  to  the  present  time  their  effint 
have  been  successful,  and  they  rcnuuii  independenl 
They  are  extremely  proud  o?  liaving  maintainn 
their  independence,  and  call  themselves  the  nn 
conquered  people.  They  have  derived  from  tb 
Spaniards  the  knowledge  and  the  use  of  cavalr 
in  battle,  and  their  skill  in  this  mode  of  waifiD 
is  scarcely  to  be  surpassed. 

The  clothing  of  the  men  consists  of  trowaen 
reaching  to  the  ankle,  of  woollen  atuflf  and  i 


ABAUCO 

■Mxk  of  the  tune  materials,  usually  white,  over 
vhkfatt  thrown  a  piece  of  doth  2  yds.  wide,  and 
M  knf[,  with  a  hcue  in  the  centre  for  the  purpose 
wuhnitting  the  head.  This  gannent  is  styled  a 
poocbo.  "umr  hat  is  of  a  conical  shape.  The 
dna  worn  by  the  women  is  a  long  white  tanic, 
ad  s  bladL  upper  garment  fastened  round  the 
hu  vith  a  girdle,  tc^ther  with  a  small  mantle 
cukd  an  ichilla.  The  favourite  colour  is  blue, 
kriag  a  greenish  hue.  The  latter  wear  no  head- 
inm,  sod  go  bare-iboted.  They  are  fond  of  dis- 
pky^  a  quantity  of  rings  upon  their  finders, 
ad  ornament  their  arms  and  necks  with  smngs 
of  bwis.  Every  woman  hi  obliged  to  present  her 
iMbtad  annually  with  a  poncho  of  her  own 
■iHng,  and  daily  with  a  di«i  cooked  by  herself. 
(Wimiiier,  voL  iv.  p.  818.)  Both  the  men  and 
vma  are  exceedmgly  hardy,  and  capable  of 
oadoriog  great  fatigue.  The  children  go  naked 
tin  tkeir  tenth  or  eleventh  year. 

A  tribe,  called  Cunchi,  inhabits  the  country 
htween  Valdivia  and  the  Gulf  of  Guayatica; 
ad  mother,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Hinlichi, 
that  between  the  Archipelago  of  Chonoe  and  the 
Gvlfof  Pttmas. 

The  government  of  Araucania  was  rqmblican 
tiD  the  year  1859,  when  a  French  gentleman,  a 
humter  mmied  M.  De  Tonners,  who  had  tra- 
Trilcd  throu^  the  countr>',  gained  some  adhe- 
RDts,nd  pioclaimed  himself  sovereign,  under  the 
tide  of  Km^  Aurelius  Antonius  I.  To  get  rid  of 
tUi  mkr,  his  opponents  called  in  Chilifui  troops, 
vho  defeated  the  king  and  made  him  prisoner  in 
Fdnoy,  1862;  but  at  the  same  time  annexed 
Aianciiua  to  Chili  'Aurelius  Antonius  I.'  was 
fibcEtted  soon  after,  and  returned  to  Paris. 

A&AUCO,  a  town  of  Chili,  cap.  prov.  and  bay 
ef  leme  name,  230  m.  SSW.  of  Valparaiso.  Pop. 
«fpm.  43,466  in  1856. 

AKBE,  or  AKBA,  a  small  island  in  the  Gulf 
«f  Qunen)  in  the  Adriatic,  separated  by  the  nar- 
lovehinDel  of  Moriaoca  from  the  coast  of  Croatia. 
P«|m  8,500  in  1867.  It  produces,  com,  figs,  and 
csEcdknt  wine ;  and  has  salt  lakes.  Its  capital, 
«f  the  eeme  name,  is  situated  on  a  bay  on  its  S. 

M»  ha  1^100  inhabitants,  and  is  a  bishop's  sec. 

AKBELA,  or  AKBIL,  a  town  of  Turkey  in 
pachalic  Bagdad,  between  the  Greater  and 
r  Zab,  on  ue  high  road  from  liagdad  to 
Vocal,  lat.  86<»  11'  N.,  long.  440  £.  This  was  for- 
Wrijra  la^  dty,  the  can.  of  the  prov.  of  Adia- 
hcae,  and  is  renowned  in  nistory  for  the  final  and 
^Hisive  lictory  obtained  in  its  vicinity,  anno  831 
■^  bj  Alexander  the  (xreat  over  Darius,  which 
VMipeedfly  foUowed  by  the  death  of  the  latter, 
■d  the  total  subvosion  of  the  Persian  empire. 
Bet,  under  its  present  Turkish  masters,  Arbela 
ba  adly  declined  from  its  former  greatness,  and 
■  BOW  an  inoonsideFable  mud  town,  with  about 
SiMO  inhabitants.  Part  of  it  is  built  on  an  arti- 
ficial BMond,  150  ft.  in  height,  formerly  surmounted 
kyseutle. 

AKfiOGA,  an  inland  town  of  Sweden,  prcfoct^. 
^Moras,  on  the  navigable  river  Ulvison,  which 
Ui  ioto  the  lake  Maedar,  near  the  point  where 
^fanner  is  joined  bv  the  canal  of  Arboga,  pro- 
<eediaK  from  Lake  Hielmar,  160  m.  \V.  Stockholm. 
f^  ifiti  m  1860.  It  is  the  entrepot  fur  the 
■"■It  end  eopper  of  the  surroundii^  country ;  has 
^orondendMe  transit  trade,  and  has  been  the  scat 

AKHOIS,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Jura,  capt. 
c*ot.t  (ID  the  Cuisance,  half-wav  between  Sahns 
■d  Pnligny.  Pop.  6,672  in  1861.  The  town  U 
*^  boilt,  rituated  in  a  valley  surrounded  by  hills 
^  noeyirdii,  which  produce  excellent  white 
*"^  It  has  a  royal  college  and  a  tribunal  of 


ARCHANGEL 


171 


original  jurisdiction,  with  fabrics  of  earthenware, 
rape  seed,  oil,  and  paper ;  tanneries,  and  flatting 
mills.  Pichegru  was  a  native  of  this  town ;  and 
after  the  Restoration  of  1815,  a  bronze  statue  was 
erected  to  him  in  one  of  its  squares. 
ARCADIA,  the  classical  name  of  central  Pelo- 

Knnesus,  now  an  inl.  nomarchy  of  mod.  Greece, 
orea,  of  which  it  occupies  the  high  table-land, 
between  lau37o IS'/and  near  38«>  N.,  long.  21°  44'  to 
22©  85'  E.,  having  N.  Achaia,  E.  AigoUs,  W.  Elis, 
and  S.  Messenia  and  Laconia :  length  and  breadth 
about  40  m.  each.  Area,  1,600  sq.  m.  Pop. 
96,546  in  1861.  It  is  intersected  by  hill-ridges 
in  various  directions,  and  on  the  N.  a  lofty  moun- 
tain range  renders  its  access  difficult.  It  contains 
several  plains  of  tolerable  extent,  as  that  of  Tri- 
poli zza,  25  m.  long,  and  from  1  to  8  m.  broad,  with 
those  of  Londari,  Mantinea,  T<^ea,  drc  Its  chief 
streams  are  the  Routia  (A^eus)  the  largest  river 
of  the  Morea,  and  its  tributaries,  the  Dogana, 
Ladon,  drc :  its  lakes  are  insignificant  in  size,  but 
the  Stymphalus,  of  classic  fame,  is  amongst  them. 
Arcadia  has  many  geographical  features  in  com- 
mon with  Bocotia :  it  is  copiously  watered,  but  its 
valleys  are  often  quite  encased  by  hiUs,  and  having 
no  good  outlet,  the  waters  are  but  partly  carried 
off  by  subterranean  channels,  leavmg  stagnant 
marshes,  which  deteriorate  the  air.  Arcadia,  from 
its  elevation,  is  much  colder  than  the  rest  of  the 
Morea ;  its  climate  is  even  rigorous.  Much  of  it 
is  uncultivated  or  given  up  to  posture,  cattle- 
feeding  being  by  far  the  most  important  rural 
occupation,  the  Arcadian  shepherds  roving  alx>ut 
with  tlieir  flocks  in  families  of  twelve  or  fifteen 

e arsons,  living  in  tents,  and  changing  their  loca- 
ty  as  fresh  pastures  are  required.  Some  of  the 
plains  contain  many  vineyards;  that  of  Hereea 
was  said  by  Pliny  and  others  to  produce  a  wine 
that  made  ^men  mad,  and  women  fruitful:'  a 
sweetish  red  wine  is  still  made  at  that  place,  with 
more  flavour  and  body  than  almost  any  other  in 
the  Morea.  The  Arcadians  are  strong  and  labo- 
rious, but  all  the  operations  of  agriculture  devolve 
upon  the  women :  the  men  devote  themselves  to 
tending  cattle,  or  performing  necessary  journeys 
on  business.  The  decline  of  the  cidture  and 
population  of  Arcadia  dates  from  a  very  remote 
period.  Strabo  refers  it,  or  at  least  the  conversion 
of  the  com  lands  into  posture^  to  the  a;ra  of  the 
foundation  of  Mc^^opous,  to  settle  in  which  city 
many  of  the  smaller  towns  and  villages  were 
abandoned.  Forests,  however,  have  not  appa- 
rently much  increased ;  and  that  of  Pclagus,  in 
the  plain  of  Pallantium  (Tripolizza)  has  wholly 
disappeared.  Arcadia  presents,  in  many  places, 
most  beautiful  scenery ;  as,  for  instance,  the  val- 
ley of  M^olopolis.  (See  Leake,  Morea.)  The 
plane,  fir,  chestnut,  oak,  ilex,  wild-pear,  lentisk, 
drc.,  are  the  most  common  trees ;  deer  and  game 
are  plentiful;  wild  boars,  wolves,  bears,  &c,  com- 
mon only  in  the  X.  Arcadia,  which  was  formerly 
divided  into  four  ei>archics,  is  now  divided  into  the 
dcps.  of  Mantinea  and  Gortynos:  Tripolizza,  Lon- 
dari, Karitena,  and  Andruzzcno,  are  its  chief 
towns.  It  contains  the  remains  of  the  cities  of 
Phigalcio,  M^alopolis,  Pallantium,  &c,  besides 
many  other  interesting  ruins. 

AKC-EN-BARROIS,  a  town  of  France,  dep. 
Haute  Mame,  cap.  cant,  on  the  Aujon,  13  ni.  SW. 
Chaumont  Po]).  1,349  in  18G1.  There  ore 
woollen  manufactures. 

ARCHANGEL,  or  ARKHANGHELSK,  a 
government  of  Russia  in  Europe,  occupying  the 
whole  country  from  the  Oural  Mountains  on  the 
E.  to  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Finland  on  the  W.,  and 
from  the  frontiers  of  Vologda  and  Olonetz  on  the 
S.  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Wliite  Sea  on 


172 


ARCHANGEL 


the  N.  It  includm,  aL»o,  Nova  Zembla,  and  some 
other  large  udands  in  the  Arctic  Sea.  The  esti- 
mates of  the  area  differ  considerably,  but  it  is 
bclieve<t,  exclusive  of  the  islan'ls,  to  exceed 
250,000  M).  m.,  or  more  than  double  the  size  of 
<in>at  Britain  and  Ireland ;  inoL  islands  its  area  is 
estimated  at  296.067  s^.  m.  The  largest  portion 
by  far  of  this  vast  temtory  is  condemned  to  pcr- 
petiml  sterility.  The  part  of  it  within  the  Arctic 
circle  consists  principally  of  an  almost  Imundlcss 
expanse  of  sandy  and  mossy  plains,  haWng  ice, 
even  in  the  middle  of  summer,  always  a  little 
Iwlow  the  surface.  The  country  on  this  side  the 
Arctic  circle  consists,  also,  of' immense  plains, 
partly  occupied  with  f  >rcsts  that  cover  more  than 
naif  the  entire  extent  of  the  prov.;  partly,  but  in 
a  very  inferior  degree,  by  low  pasture  grounds ;  and 
partly  with  lakes,  and  morasses.  IMncipal  towns. 
Archangel,  Onega,  Dwina,  Mezen,  and  Petchora. 
PoiJ.  in  1846,  253,000;  in  laW,  274,961.  Owing 
to  the  severity  and  variableness  of  the  climate, 
com  crops  cannot  be  <lepcndod  upon;  and,  in 
consequence,  even  in  the  southern  (ustricts,  where 
the  land  is  most  fertile,  thev  are  but  little  at- 
tended to ;  though  considerable  quantities  of  hemp 
and  flax  are  raised  The  principal  wealth  of  the 
government  consists  in  its  immense  and  appa- 
rently inexhaustible  forests ;  but  Ashing  and  hunt^ 
ing  are  the  chief  employments.  The  rein-deer 
is  the  domestic  animal  of  the  Laplanders  and  Sa- 
moyedes,  the  former  occupying  the  NW.  and  the 
latter  the  NE.  parts  of  the  government.  Among 
the  tribes  now  mentioned,  dried  fish  occupies  the 
place  of  bread ;  and  in  the  more  S.  distncta,  the 
inner  bark  of  trees,  and  certain  species  of  moss, 
are  intermixed  with  meal,  or  substituted  for  it  in 
the  making  of  bread.  Horses  and  cattle  diminu- 
tive, and  but  little  attention  is  pud  to  their  treat- 
ment. The  district  of  Kholmogor,  on  the  Dwina, 
a  little  below  Archangel,  where  the  pasture  is  ex- 
<^^^°S^y  S^^^  must,  however,  be  excepted  from 
this  remaix.  A  breed  of  Dutch  cattle,  imiwrted 
into  this  district  bv  Catherine  II.,  aud  distributed 
amongst  the  inhabitants,  still  preserves  its  supe- 
riority ;  and  the  calves  of  these  cattle,  being  well 
fed,  furnish  the  delicate  white  veal  so  much 
esteemed  at  St.  Petersbuigli.  (Tooke's  Russian 
Empire,  iii  p.  89.)  Ship  and  boat  building,  and 
the  preparation  of  pitch  and  tor,  arc  carried  on  to 
a  considerable  extent.  A  good  deal  of  coarse 
linen  is  made  by  the  |)casantry  of  Archangel,  and 
of  the  contiguous  districts ;  aiid  they  also  manu- 
facture a  good  deal  of  cordage  and  immense  quan- 
tities of  mats,  with  leather,  tallow,  turpentine, 
Sotash,  Ac,  The  population,  though  originally 
Finnish,  is  now  essentially  Russian.  The  Sa- 
movcdes,  who  arc  almost  at  the  bottom  of  the 
scale  of  civilisation,  though  spread  over  an  im- 
mense surface,  do  not  exceed  6,000  or  7,000  indi- 
viduals. They  are  exempted  from  the  Obrock 
and  fW>m  compulsory  military'  service,  paying  only 
the  issaak  or  tribute  imptvsed  on  Asiatics,  llie 
I^planders,  who  arc  a  little  more  advanced,  do 
not  amount  to  2,0(H)  individuals.  They  are  sub- 
ject to  the  capitation  tax. 

Akchanoki^  the  cap.  of  the  above  govern- 
ment, and  the  principal  city  and  port  of  trade  in 
the  N.  of  Russia,  im  t..c  right  bank  of  the  Dwina, 
about  34  m.  above  where  it  falls  into  the  White 
Sea;  lat.  64©  32'  8"  N.,  long.  40©  83'  E.  Pop. 
28,981  in  1858.  llie  town  is  almost  entirely 
built  of  wood,  and  has  been  materially  improved 
since  the  fire  (»f  1793.  l*lie  principal  buihling  is 
the  (iostinoi  dwor,  or  bazaar,  for  the  cxhibiti(»n 
and  sale  of  merchandise,  and  its  protection  against 
flre.  It  is  of  stone,  and  of  great  extent.  The 
marine  hospital  also  dcscr\-Gs  to  be  noticed.  Arch-  | 


ARCHIPELAGO 

angel  is  the  residence  of  a  genenl  and  dril  jp 
vemor,  and  of  an  archbishop.  There  is  an  eodefr 
astical  seminary  with  nineraofeMors,  agymnanma 
a  school  of  commerce  and  navigation,  and  som 
other  educational  establiahmenta.  Notwitbstad 
ing  its  high  N.  latitude,  and  the  lengthened  paM 
during  which  it  is  annually  inacoeBBiUe,  it  his  i 
pretty  extensive  commerce.  It  owea  this  to  it 
situation  on  the  Dwina,  one  of  the  moat  impoftiB 
rivers  of  Russia,  and  whidi  has  been  nmted  h, 
canals  with  the  Wolga  on  the  one  hand,  mi  tb 
Neva  on  the  other.  The  greater  part  of  tli 
articles  of  export  are  brooght  by  this  duume 
mostly  from  a  considerable  distance,  some  eve 
from  Siberia.  The  principal  are  conif  flax  an 
hemp,  timber,  iron,  linseed;  vast  quantitiei  ( 
mats,  potash,  tallow,  tar,  pitch,  train-oil,  caBvii 
aud  coarse  linen,  fun,  cordage,  and  deals.  Tl 
exports  vary  materially  in  different  vears,  pn 
cipally  according  to  the  demand  wr  oon  i 
this  and  other  foreign  countries.  During  the  fli 
yean  preceding  1^  they  amounted  to— 185 
1,297,879^;  i860,  906,8512.;  1861,  1,1573W 
1862,  1,128,965/1;  and  1868,  796,898/.;  the^ 
falling  off  in  the  latter  year,  however,  aam 
from  the  failure  of  the  grun  and  linseed  crops  i 
the  districts  which  supply  the  port*  About  tart 
fourths  of  the  exports  are  to  uieat  Britain.  11 
value  of  the  imports,  which  consist  principally  < 
colonial  produce,  spices,  salt,  wooUena,  coCtoo 
hardware,  and  fish,  is  alwa3r8  much  less  than  tin 
of  the  ex|)orts.  The  figures  for  tbe  same  rm 
as  the  exi>ort8  abo\'e  given  were — 67,771  L,  67,tf09l 
61,180^,  69,508/L,  and  80,480/.,  about  one-fomti 
of  the  amount  being  from  Great  Britain.  1% 
article  most  largely  imported  is  tiah,  the  value  t 
which  in  1863  was  41,928/.  Of  late  yean  ths 
has  been  a  considerable  importation  of  tea  Am 
England,  competing  with  the  teas  bi^mght  OfTV 
land  from  Kiachta.  The  amount  in  1863  wa 
5,305/.  Tlie  exports,  being  bulky  articles,  emjiv 
a  great  number  of  ships,  vaiving  from  800  tow 
Tlie  number  of  vessels  which  cleared  in  1863  «i 
354;  tonnage  68,870;  of  which  187  vessels,  am 
35,989  tons,  were  British.  There  were,  besidH 
181  vessels  employed  in  the  coasting  trade  wit) 
Norwegian  Finmark.  The  harbour  is  at  the  IsIod 
of  Solembolsk,  about  1  m.  below  the  town;  an 
the  shi(M  are  principally  loaded  direct  horn  th 
prams,  rafts,  dc,  tliat  bring  the  produce  down  th 
river.  There  is  a  bar  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  rive 
with  from  13  to  14^  ft  water;  and  veasd 
drawing  more  than  this  must,  of  course,  parti, 
load  aud  unUuul  by  means  of  ligiiiten  in  th 
roads.  There  is  a  government  duckyaid,  wit 
slips  for  building  ships,  about  12  miW  below  th 
town,  where  also  are  situated  warehouses  beloogin 
to  merchants  of  the  city.  A  fishing  oompony  wi 
established  here  in  1803.  Exclusive  of  the  dd 
and  boat  building,  and  the  manufacture  of  cradac 
and  canvass  referred  to  in  the  {ueceding  artiu 
there  is  here  a  sugar  relineTy  and  several  brewerie 

llie  entrance  to  the  Dwina,  where  Archaqgi 
was  soon  after  built,  was  discovered  by  the  lamoi 
Richard  Chancellour,  the  oi»mpanion  uf  Sir  Hug 
Willoughbv  in  his  voyage  of  discovery,  in  1654 
and  from  that  period  down  to  the  foondadon  < 
Petcnbuig,  it  was  the  only  port  in  the  empii 
accessible  to  foreigners.    (Oommerdal  Keporta.) 

ARCHIDONA,  a  town  of  Spain,  ^4  m.  1 
Malaga.    Pop.  7,611  in  1857. 

ARCHIPEIJIGO,  a  term  appUed  to  such  tnw 
of  sea  as  are  intenpersed  with  numerous  and  ooi 
tiguous  islands ;  but  it  is  especially  applied  to  fil 
islands  in  the  iEgcan  Sea,  or  that  part  of  tl 
Mediterranean  lying  between  Asia  Jf  inur  an 
Greece. 


ARCHIPELAGO  (EASTERN) 


ARCSIPELA60  (EASTERK).  This  most 
atamt  udbmHa^  oompiiBes  a  vast  number  of 
falnda,  tome  oi  which,  u  ^meo,  Java,  Sumatra, 
CMnn,  &C.  are  of  rery  laige  dimensions.  The 
ibiidi  extend  within  the  tropics  between  95P  and 
USPS,  lone.,  and  ll^  &  and  IdON.lat,  having 
KW.and  !C  the  Chinese  Sea;  N£.  and  E.  the 
FlMifie;  and  S.  and  SW.  the  Indian  Ocean.  The 
■cUpdigo  is  divided  by  Mr.  Crawfurd  into  the 
Moviqg  five  divisions,  each  distinguished  by  pe- 
crikrifif  of  aitaation,  climate,  and  products. 

1ft  Div.  From  lone.  95^  to  II60,  including 
hantia,  Java,  Bali,  Lombok,  Madura,  Bangka, 
BfllitoD,  the  Malay  penins.  and  the  W.  and  liuger 
poitiaii  of  Borneo.  The  soil  of  this  division  is 
fMd,  and  suited  to  the  {urodnction  of  most  kinds 
mn^  food.  Rice  is  the  chief  subsistence  of  the 
khahtanta,  who  are  the  most  civilised  of  the 


Si  Div.  From  long.  116^  to  1240  includes 
OeURa,  Sombawa,  Flares,  Sandal-wood,  Timor, 
ad  the  E.  part  of  Borneo  to  SON.  lat.  The  soil 
■  iafBDor  to  the  former ;  rice  is  not  so  abun- 
4ndy  prodnoed,  and  sago  partly  supplies  its 
ibea. 

Sd.  Div.  From  long.  1240  to  ISO©;  Ut  l(P  S, 
ti  SP  X. :  includes  Ceram,  Booro,  Gillolo,  Timor- 
lant,  Uie  Arooe  I.  and  Papua.  The  climate  differs 
fiiNB  that  of  most  of  the  other  div. :  the  E.  mon- 
iMii  ii  rainy  and  IxHSterous,  the  W.  dry  and  tem- 
Mttta:  the  planta  and  animals  of  the  1st  and 
nd  diviiaon  disapjpear,  and  others  take  their 
plan,  peculiar  to  this  region  of  the  world,  as  the 
clove,  nutmeg,  dec  Very  little  rice  is  grown; 
SMO  (aims  the  chief  food :  the  natives  arc  greatly 
■Kfkr  to  thoae  of  all  the  other  div.  in  civiliza- 


4ih  Div.  From  long.  116^  to  128°,  and  lat  4^ 
ta  l(P  X.  includea  Mindanao,  the  Sooloo  I.,  Pala- 
wan, and  the  NE.  part  of  Borneo.  Products  of  all 
the  fcimer  div.  are  found  here ;  but  the  clove  and 
are  very  inferior.  Rice  is  consumed,  but 
is  the  principal  article  of  food ;  the  natives 
Beibove  those  of  the  3rd  division  in  civilization. 

3ch  Dir.  From  ia<)  to  19<>  N.  lat.  includes  the 
BBBainder  of  the  Philippines,  and  is  the  only 
pntioa  within  the  limits  of  the  hurricanes.  The 
•oil  ii  fertile  in  rice,  tobacco,  and  the  sugar-cane, 
iw  not  in  the  P^I^er  of  the  1st,  nor  the  tine  spices 
«f  the  8id  div.    The  mannors,  institutions,  and 


^   of  the  inhabitants  differ  from  those  of 
aO  the  other  divisions. 

MCi  Wallace,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Geo- 
gnphieal  Sodetv  June  8th,  1863  rvoL  xxxiil 
ppi  217,  d  tea,  d  Journal)  gives  a  different  and 
■OR  extensive  definition  of  the  archipelago. 
AooHdiiig  to  his  views,  the  Malay— or,  as  he 
i^mfd  pnia  to  name  it,  the  Indo-Australian — 
■chmdago,  extends  from  the  Nicobctr  Islands  on 
the  XW.  of  8L  Ckrittovid,  one  of  the  Solomon 
Uadi  on  the  SE. ;  that  is,  between  long.  95°  and 
1C2^  £.,  and  iiom  Luzon  on  the  north  to  Rotti^ 
Mar  iWor,  00  the  south.  The  whole  region,  in- 
vading the  Malay  peninsula,  which  ia  almost  an 
iibnd,  and  firom  which  the  archipelago  is  not 
jhniallv  separated,  is  of  a  somewhat  triangular 
"*■.  with  an  extreme  length  of  about  5,000,  and 
*  bnadth  of  rather  more  than  2,000  English 
■nleik  ID  that  it  is  comparable  in  its  dimensions 
vith  the  primary  divisions  of  the  earth,  while  its 
^"■oponent  parta  are  on  an  equally  extended 
Male— two  01  the  i»]wnH»,  Borneo  and  New  Guinea, 
^^^  the  laigest  on  the  globe.  Thev  are  nearly 
•qitt  in  extent,  and  the  only  other  island  which 
ivnaches  them  ia  Madagascar.  Borneo  would 
^t«iD  within  its  vast  area  the  whole  of  Great 
flitiin  and  Ireland,  with  all  their  islets  from 


175 

Sdlly  to  Shetland  in  their  true  relative  positions, 
and  still  leave  boundless  forests  btretcning  out 
like  an  ocean  beyond  them.  Then  comes  Sumatra, 
about  equal  to  great  Britain ;  after  which  foUow 
Java,  Luzon,  and  Celebes,  cither  of  which  may 
compare  in  size  with  Ireland,  or  one  of  the  larger 
Xew  Zealand  Islands.  After  these  succeed  eighteen 
islands  which  average  as  large  as  Jamaica,  more 
than  one  hundred  about  the  size  of  the  Isles  of 
Wight  and  Man,  with  many  thousands  of  isles 
and  islets  below  these,  and  which  are  practically 
innumerable.  The  region  deserves  to  be  looked 
on  as  a  separate  continent,  possessing  its  own 
races  of  men  and  its  own  aspects  of  nature,  alto> 
gether  cut  off  from  the  great  continents  into 
which  we  are  accustomed  to  divide  the  globe,  and 

?uite  incapable  of  being  classed  with  any  of  tiiem. 
f  Australia  be  a  fiflh  division  of  the  globe,  this 
ffreat  archipelago  may  be  considered  a  sixth.  Mr. 
Wallace  considers  that  the  northern  portion  of 
the  archipelago,  consisting  principally  of  the 
Islands  of  Java,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  must  have 
formed  fit  a  comparatively  recent  date  a  portion 
of  the  continent  of  Asia,  drawing  the  inference 
from  the  general  likeness  of  the  fauna  and  flora 
to  t:liose  of  Asia,  and  the  shallowness  of  the  seas 
dividing  the  archipelago  from  that  continent,  the 
depth  not  exceeding  50  fathoms.  For  similar 
reasons,  Mr.  Wallace  considers  that  the  southern 
half  of  the  archipelago  formed  a  portion  of  the 
Australian  continent.  The  contrast  between  the 
two  halves  is  abruptly  exhibited  in  passing  from 
the  Island  of  Bull  to  that  of  Sombock.  The  strait 
here  is  15  miles  wide,  so  tliat  we  may  pass  in  two 
hours  from  one  great  division  of  the  earth  to 
another,  differing  as  essentially  in  their  animal 
life  as  Europe  docs  from  America.  Eastward  of  the 
Malay  archipelago,  a  group  of  islands  stretches 
out  into  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  but  these  character- 
istics are  distinctively  Australian,  and  they  are 
therefore,  not  included  in  the  island-c<jntinent. 

The  E.  archip.  is  raoimtainous,  and  its  principal 
mountains,  which  are  often  isolated,  have  all  a 
volcanic  character.  It  is  very  generally  covered 
with  deep  forests  of  stupendous  trees.  The  num- 
ber of  grassy  plains  is  very  small,  and  there  are 
no  arid  sandy  deserts.  It  is  distinguished  from 
all  other  clusters  of  islands  by  its  penodical  winds, 
and  peculiar  natural  products,  one  of  which,  sago, 
'  is  such  as  man  nowhere  else  subsists  upon'  as  a 
chief  article  of  food.  Gold  is  found  in  almost 
every  part,  but  especially  in  Borneo  and  Sumatra, 
the  total  yearly  produce  being  estimated  at 
155,000  oz.  Silver  is  believed  to  be  native,  tin  is 
vexy  plentiful  in  Bangka ;  and  there  are  also  iron 
and  copper;  diamoiuis  are  found  in  Borneo; 
sulphur  pretty  generallv,  and  salt  from  springs, 
especially  in  Java.  Palms,  bamboos,  and  ratana 
are  universal ;  the  most  remaricable  of  these  trees 
is  the  sago-palm  {Metroryhn  sago)^  one  of  the 
smallest  of  its  tribe,  seldom  reaching  to  more  than 
30  ft.  in  height,  and  growing  only  where  the  E. 
is  the  boisterous  monsoon,  a  region  extend- 
ing W.  to  Celebes  and  liorneo,  N.  to  Mindanao, 
S.  to  Timor,  and  E.  to  Papua ;  Cenim  is  its  chief 
seat,  and  there  laige  forests  of  it  are  foun<L  The 
edible  farina  is  the  central  pith,  which  varies  con- 
siderably in  different  trees  as  to  the  time  required 
for  its  attaining  proper  maturity.  At  the  age  of 
perhaps  fifteen  years  the  tree  is  cut  down,  and  may 
yield  500  or  600  lbs.  pith,  but  the  average. is  about 
300  Ibe. ;  this  is  ground  into  powder,  clarified,  and 
made  into  cakes  kept  dry  for  use :  it  is  eaten  by 
the  natives  in  the  form  of  pottage.  Sago  grows 
well  only  in  marshy  places :  *  a  good  sago  planta- 
tion or  forest  is  a  bog  knee-deep.  A  farina  of  an 
inferior  kind  is  supplied  by  the  gomuti  (Boranua 


174  ARCHIPELAGO  (EASTEBN) 

gomotas),  another  palm  pecnliar  to  thiA  part  of 
the  world,  which  grows  in  the  £.  iftl.  in  the  val- 
leys of 'hilly  tracts,  and  yields  also  tf>ddy,  and  a 
fibrous  epidermis  used  in  the  cordage  of  the  native 
sliipiiing.    Teak  is  abundant  in  Java,  and  the 
lianana  grows  commonly  in  the  greatest  perfection ; 
the  orange  and  lemon  tribe,  shaddock,  pomegra- 
nate,  piufr-apple,    guava,   tamarind,   jack-fruit, 
mango,  &c.  are  plentiful ;  and  several  nnc  fruits, 
as  the  champanaak,  mangoMtein^  and  durian,  are 
confined  to  the  archipelago.  The  latter  is  esteemed 
by  the  natives  before  all  other  fruits;  it  is  as 
large  as  a  pumpkin,  its  seeds  being  enveloi>ed  in 
a  rich  white  pulp,  the  edible  portion ;  and,  though 
repulsive  at  first  by  a  strung  smell,  a  taste  for  it 
once  acquired  is  lasting.    The  copal  tree  is  found 
in  Palawan,  and  others  yielding  resins  are  plen- 
tiful ;  the  palma  christi,  cocoa-nut,  and  sesamum 
yield  oil,  as  well  as  a  large  and  handsome  tree 
called  kanarij  peculiar  to   the  £.  isL,  benzoin, 
catechu,  camphor,  olibanum,  are  the  gums  na- 
turally pHNluccd,  and  the  pterocarpus,  yielding 
dragons'  blood,  grows  in  Sumatra  and  Borneo. 
Kbony,  toon,  sandal-worHl,  in  Timor  and  the  ad- 
jacent isl.,    sapan-wood,    lignum-aloes,  &c  are 
f(»und;  and  indigo,    annotto,  satflower,  and  ter- 
mcric  in  nearly  all  the  isl.    The  clove  and  nut-- 
meg  flourish  in  Amboyna  and  the  Moluccas,  black 
})epper  in  Sumatra,  and  ginger  and  cassia  pretty 
generally;   cu1)ebs,  cajcput   {melaltuta  cajuputt), 
and  sassafras  in  various  parts,  aieca.  in  all,  as  well 
as  the  auchar  or  poison  tree :   the  chetik,  wrongly 
called  vpa»,  is  confined  to  Java.    The  sugar-cane, 
cotton,  tobacco,    cajmicums,   onions,  cucumbers, 
and  the  sweet  potato  in  the  W.  are  common  arti- 
cles of  culture ;  many  kinds  of  pulse  are  gn>wn 
as  articles  of  food. ;  millet  is  but  seldom  cultivated, 
but  maize,  which  is  next  in  importance  here  to 
rice,  flourishes  evervwhere.    The  natives  gene- 
rally are  very  fond  of  flowers ;  those  of  the  archip. 
are  mostly  yellow  or  hmI  ;  blue  is  rare  amongst 
them ;  lotuses  and  other  aquatic  plants  are  pro- 
fusely  numerous.    European   flowers  and  other 
vegetables  transi)lantc*d  thither,  in  general  soon 
lose  their  perfume  and  excellence ;  and  the  same 
is  the  case  with  those  from  America,  which,  like 
the  pine-apple,  drc,  arc  treated  with  indifierence 
by  the  natives,    llie  buffalo  and  ox,  being  both 
of  remarkably  large  and  fine  breeds,  are  used  in 
agriculture ;    elephants  are  found  in  the  Malay 
peninsula  and  Sumatra  only. 

The  argus  pheasant  and  binl  of  paradise  are 
the  most  remarkable  birds.  The  latter  is  exceed- 
ingly abundant  in  Papua,  the  Arooe,  and  other 
K.  isl.  The  edible  1)inls'  nests,  so  much  valued  by 
the  Chinese,  are  built  in  caves,  most  commonly 
on  the  sea-shore,  by  a  species  of  si^'allow  {Ilirun- 
do  eaculttUa).  Tortoises  are  numerous  in  tlie  E. : 
the  shores,  es])ecially  in  the  W.,  profusely  abound 
with  fine  fish,  as  the  pomfret,  odcap,  soles,  d'c. : 
the  whale  fisher\'  of  the  S.  seas  is  reputed  worth 
upwards  of  1,000,OOU/.  per  ann. ;  sharks,  whose  tins 
are  important  articles  of  export  in  China,  \hmi\ 
oysters,  cowries,  or  gigantic  cockles,  arc  comm<»n ; 
and  the  Holnthuria,  or  sea  slug,  is  fished  for  on 
coral  reefs  fn>m  one  end  of  the  archipelago  to  the 
other.  The  lac  insect  exists  in  most  of  the 
forests,  especially  in  Simiatra  and  the  Malay  pe- 
nins. ;  and  1)ees  are  very  numerous  in  the  E.',  but 
thev  have  never  been  domesticated. 

Natict  Tribes. — The  inhab.  arc  of  two  distinct 
races,  differing  widely  in  conformation;  one 
liaving  a  fair  or  brown  com])lexion,  while  the 
other  IS  black.  The  former  inhabit  chiefly  the  W., 
the  latter  the  whole  of  the  archi}).,  but  become 
more  prevalent  as  we  go  farther  eastward.  The 
fair  or  brown  tribes  are  short,  squat,  and  robust. 


a  ft  2  inches  being  the  greatest  hei^t  wmrnwiTy 
of  the  men,  and  4  ft.  11  m.  of  the  women.  Thar 
lower  limbs  are  large  and  lieavy,  bat  not  ill- 
formed,  the  bosoms  of  the  women  imtlier  bhII 
than  large  in  proportion  to  their  sixe,  and  te 
arms  and  limbs  of  both  sexes  are  roond  nd  fledwy 
rather  than  muscular.  Face  round,  month  mat, 
teeth  remarkably  fine,  chin  square,  angles  of  low 
jaw  vervprominent,  cheek-bones  h^  (cheeki  tbem- 
fore  hollow) ;  nose  not  very  fvominent,  but  new 
flat ;  eyes  small  and  black ;  hair  on  the  head 
long,  lank,  harsh,  and  generally  black;  elsevfaoe 
very  scanty.  This  race  is  superior  in  appeannflt 
to  the  other,  but  less  good-looking  than  moil 
Asiatic  nations.  The  buiGk  or  Papuan  net  is  i 
kind  of  dwarf  African  negro,  never  more  than  5  It 
in  height ;  spare  and  puny,  with  a  projeetiiigbdh 
and  buttocks,  which  are  much  lower  thu  thi 
African*s;  complexion  sooty,  nose  and  nnder^ 
projecting  very  much  from  the  face ;  hair  wooUy 
m  small  tufts,  and  each  luur  witli  a  spiral  tmft 
For  undersized  people,  the  inhah.  uf  the  arriup 
arc  strong  and  athletic  though  not  agile,  nor,  Ufa 
some  Asiatic  nations,  fond  of  practising  and  ex 
hibiting  feats,  to  show  the  nexibility  of  tbei 
IxMlies.  They  have  a  singular  strength  of  con 
stitution,  and  ability  to  recover  speiedily  fiva 
1)odily  accidents  and  resist  inflammat<»T  disonkn 
They  are  temperate  and  abstemious,  wid  not  d» 
voted  to  intoxicating  liquors,  although  they 
universally  use  betel^  areca,  and  tobacco,  aad 
would  conmime  much  opium,  were  the  price  DM 
so  high.  They  are  good-tempered,  brave,  haman^ 
hospitable,  and  neither  bigoted  nor  perfidious,  hd 
very  revengeful.  They  arc  capable  cf  attachinaili 
gratitude,  and  fidelity,  have  great  parental  aii 
filial  affection,  love  for  their  country,  and  a  ngai 
for  truth.  The  faculties  of  their  mind  are  genenllf 
feeble ;  they  are  slow  of  comprehension,  neduloiiii^ 
and  superstitious;  their  judgment  narrow,  aii 
their  reason,  memory,  and  ima^nation  alib 
weak;  they  are.  however,  good  imitaton,  and 
have  an  aptitude  for  music ;  in  their  mafmas  they 
nre  grave,  courteous,  and  reser\'ed ;  thev  conoda 
it  most  respectful  to  sit,  cover  the  liead,  aa^ 
turn  the  back  to  their  superiors.  The  more  savM 
tribes  ^  quite  naked,  with  the  exception  of  i 
small  piece  of  cloth  worn  round  the  loins.  In  thi 
Philippines  the  dress  is  nearly  the  same  for  botl 
sexes,  and  between  the  flowing  dress  of  thi 
Asiatics,  and  the  close  one  of  Europe,  CMudstim 
of  two  coverings :  excepting  the  Mohammedani 
all  wear  the  liead  uncovered.  Their  teeth  an 
usually  filed  and  blackened :  the  women's  ona 
mentsare  chiefly  of  gold :  pearls  are  never  won 
All  the  men  are*  armed  with  the  kris,  or  dagga 
which,  with  the  spear,  is  the  favcmrite  weapon 
the  others  are  the  dub,  sling,  swoni,  and  boi 
and  arrows ;  the  latter  are  often  poisoned  witl 
auchar^  which  is,  however,  b}'  no  means,  a  powa 
ful  drug.  They  are  not  expert  in  the  use  of  fin 
arms.  The  materials  of  their  dwellings  ar 
commonly  bamboo,  ratui,  palmetto  leaves,  an 
wild  grass,  the  two  latter  of  which  are  used  ft 
roofing :  houses  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sei 
arc  mounted  on  posts  15  to  20  ft.  high,  and  n 
perior  residences  are  enclosed  within  temponr 
palings.  They  consist  of  but  one  floor,  and  the; 
furniture  is  nidc  and  scanty  ;  the  beds  are  rong 
mats,  or  often  mere  benches,  on  which  a  peno 
lies  down,  vrith  his  day-dress  wrapt  around  hin 
Knives  and  forks  are  unknown,  and  pofoehu 
dishes  arc  a  luxurv:  meals  are  taken  sitting  c 
the  ground:  the  iVxMl  b  served  up  in  trays  * 
wood  <»r  metal,  and  grasped  by  handfuls  by  eac 
as  he  wants  it.  Tlie  Pohniesian  language,  whid 
in   various  dialects,  is  qMiken  over   nearly  tl 


ABCHTFELAQO  (EASTEHN) 
■Ut  of  tlw  archqin  and  exteoda  aa  well  to 
HidipKV,  and  to  the  laitlieit  of  Cook'a  dia- 
mnnmtawmM  tlicS.,ia  in  every  reapect  difTeient 
tm  in  stlm,  and  niobably  derii-eil  fnini  an 
■tetoaliMi  aiginaUy  settled  in  Java,  where  it 


I  of  the 

W-ifinBOD:  Aiatoe  hai  also  been  inlroducod  by 
Ac  HohaBunedana.  There  ia  in  parta  alw  a 
Ban  adnixture  of  Chinese  and  Penian,  Portn- 
pmtoi  Dntch. 

btts  the  greater  ponkm  of  the  land  ia  yet 
oolliTaud ;  and  of  that  which  it.  the  chief  tiart 
ii  M  tMter  than  a  moran  for  half  the  year.  There 
■awide  differcDce  in  the  imluiitn-  of  ihe  natives 
foreiU,  but  Ihi 
de  '  a  reapoctabh 
le  uxeful  animala. 


ABCO  175 

ilo  the  archip.  in  thr^  thirteenth,  and  eontinned  to 

■preadtill  the  end  of  (he  aixteenth  century.  Chiia- 

tianity  nrevaila  only  in  the  Pliilippinea  and  the 

The  Uoltammcdaii    tawa  are    those 


chiefly  in   force  in  the   citi 

thouRh  almost  all  punishn; 
louudcil  or  sllevialed  by  pavi 
lia  Ihend*,  or  the  eneculic'ii 

&ubi  the  moat  uaual  mode  o 
Trade  in  the  aichipela(;o 

ised  part*,  and  are 
■9 !  but  the  task  of 

enta  may    be   com- 
n)!  the  pany  injured, 
er  ;  atabbinR  by  the 

ia  eMcemed  a  moat 

B  even  elijrible  to  novem  in  elective 

wfetn  except  in  Java.  The  inhab.  of  tlie  arcliip. 
an  dcjthtd  in  cation,  mnatly  woven  by  them- 
Klna:  ulk  thev  never  wore  genrnillv,  nor  waf 
Ike  alkworm  ever  culcivaud  hi-  them :'  theb  loom 
tkij'havederivedrroni  the  Ilindooii.  Ttae>-kn»« 
hor  Ifl  work  many  of  the  moat  useful  me'lals,  a! 
mio,  dn,  and  frnld.'  Some  of  their  mu;<ical  in«rni- 
■au  Bt  made  of  a  kind  of  bell-mrlal,  whioli 
tbr;'  oU  Ihemaelvea :  and  they  gomelimcs  u*e  i 
■Millie  ecdnage.  Iron,  however,  in  hut  liltle 
Btd  liir  tools  and  implements  of  aericullun 
cnktT  ia  wretched,  fmrn  a  want  of  kni 
kw  lo  leraper  it ;  and  Ihey  are  onable  (0  make  a 
iick  kr  a  muskei.  They  carve  irit  hninUes.  and 
■•ke  betel-boxes  in  a  verv  superior  manner,  and 
MU  VBMli  even  to  40  or  AU  tons  burthen  i  but 
•ka- nailer  onn  are  belter,  Hafer,  and  awilter. 
IVt  nainfacture  AoAirkjii^  a  kind  of  fltih-sauce, 
kxk  far  hmne  conanmption  anil  exportalion  :  salt 
ilxyiilitain  by  the  usual  means  of  evaporation, 
•ad  ■Itpctn  bv  builinfc  Ihe  soil  of  cavea  which 
boi  ad  Urdi  jrequcnt.  The  manuf.  of  (rlass  in 
Bkaon;  but  ihcy  attempt  that  nf  );unpowdcr: 
iht  (Ral  requesi,  however,  in  which  they  hold 
Iktf  u^  Eoxvpr,  proven  iheinferioritvof  Iheir  own, 
li  ra,  ibf  dower  of  their  laiid-forces  always  con- 
Msif  iifantri';  but  thdr  nnval  strength  is  the 
■m  femiidable :  their  warfare  has  always  been 
to  pifdatoiy  descenti  on  adjacent 


„  „  ,    Sumalra,  and 

L'elebee  are  Ihc  chief  seatx  nf  traile:  from  the 
latler  turly  vcasehi  go  annually  lu  the  N.  coaM  of 
Australia,  and  many  others  into  Ihe  rest  of  the 
archipeta^co,  to  cnllcct  aniclcs  fur  the  Chinese 
mt  coniuderable  of  all,  vet  not  of  180 
,  . .  Jof!.    The  expnriH  to  (^hiiia  are  pep- 

per, cloves,  mace  and  nutmegs,  scented  wnnds, 
ebony,  ivorv,  hums,  liides.  lortoisp-shell,  sharks' 
fin^  edible  birda'  nests,  gold  dnsl,  benzoin,  cam- 
phor, betel,  wax,  wool,  trijiaufr-  anil  Eumpean 
woi>Uens  and  cotioni.  The  iraile  with  India  is 
believed  bv  Mr.  Crawfuni  to  have  commenced  at 
the  Ixviiining  of  the  Beci>nd  cenlurv  uf  the 
Chtiniian  vra.  and  is  now  very  exleni-ive.  The 
imports  coniist  principally  of  pepper,  tin,  brl«l- 
nut.  fine  woods.  )!<ild  and  nilvcr.  damar  and  ntiices. 
The  exports  to  Europe  and  America  hai-e  very 
Ifreally  inrreased  within  these  fewyrxm;  piiu- 
dpaUy  in  consequence  of  Ihe  woni'lerfullv  ex' 
tenileil  (flnwth  uf  mgiii,  coffee,  anil  indigo  in 
Java  (wliich  see).  Bui.  enclu^ive  of  Ihese  Kreal 
Blaples,  ilava  sends  rice  lo  ihc  other  inland*,  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  even  tu  Kuit)]ie; 
saan  is  sent  lo  Europe,  China,  and  Bengal ;  cotton 

of  the  first  and  socnnil  ilivisiuus,  but  lilllc,  how- 
ever, is  sent  beyond  the  archijielago.    Tlie  oliicf 
■e  black  lea,  coarse  porceUtn,  wrought 


etwilh 


is  arehip.,  ftrim 
■><i|R  Hale,  to  abnolutc  despotism  in  Ibc  moot 
oviliieii  in  no  one  is  there  an  herctUlary 
K^,  ind  the  civil  and  religious  aulhurily  ir 
frBT  caat  kept  distinct.    The  pubbc  revenues 
"■•111  dcived  fnmi  Ihe  three  eourccs  uftaxc 
kni  1  po!l-i»x,  and  taxes  on  articles  coiisumeii 
""•porud;  in  Java  ihere  is  a  lax  on  tbheries. 
Inno);  the  revenues  is  a  common  praclicc, 

fWio  rewanl  his  officers  by  aanigning  to  t! 
■"•■l  rf  l«Yin(t  them  direcllv,  a  certain  e> 
"W.ortht  amount  of  Ihe  value  of  the  hriimir 
nicntaia  number  nf  cuitivalors.    The  prevail- 
n,  which  waa  iatiodoced 


silks. 


paper,  hookii.  shoes,  fans,    umlire 
~     from  China;  salt,  tobacco.bl 

chinlzes  from    India.    Cliiiitzcs  dynl  ml, 
1.  and  other  bright  colours,  and  espiwially  in 
paltems  of  naniiig  fiowtn.  arc  [leciiliarlv  accq>- 
talile  to  Ihe  natives.    Uunchcster  and  U1a.->g(iw 
cottons,  baatana    handkerchiefs,  colton  velvvla 
'    rouUens.     English  smldlery  and  iron,  fin- 
ami  ammunition,  glass  and  plaleil  wnrcs, 

and.  cxceiiling  in  Java.  1,UUU  is  the  hiti:he>t  num- 
Vv  have  any  letra  to  express.  Interest  on 
y  lenl  is  very  high ;  bills  of  exchange  are 


1  town  of  France,  dep. 
iiune,  caj).  arronu.  on  me  river  of  that  name,  at 
the  pouit  where  il  liegine  lo  become  navigaldc, 
and  where  it  is  crossed  bv  Ihe  high  mail  from 
Troves  to  Rheims.  Pop.'i,81.S  in  IWll.  The 
loiiTi  has  mannfaclures  rf  woollen  stockings  and 
cape,  ail  f»t«b1i^1lmen^  for  spinning  ciitlon,  tan- 
neries, &c,  and  is  the  etiirepot  of  the  iimi  of  the 
valley  of  the  Aiibe,  and  of  the  wire  and  wood- 
work of  Ihc  Voages.  This  town  suffereii  sci-erely 
during  the  camjiaign  of  1HI4.  Xapoleon,  who 
displaycil  equal  skill  and  courage,  repulsed  at  Ihia 
point,  with  a  verr  inferior  force,  one  uf  the  prin- 
cipal lUtisione  of  the  aUied  armv. 
ARCO,  or  ARCU,  a  town  oT'the  Ttrul,  with  a 


176 


AKCOLE 


castlCf  on  the  Sarca,  7  m.  W.  Roveredo.    Pop. 
2,43()  in  18o7. 

AKCOLE,  a  villa^  of  northern  Italv,  on  the 
Alpora,  16  m.  ESE,  Verona.  Pop.  2,1 8o  in  1862. 
A  Heries  of  sanguinary  enga^mcnts  took  place 
here  on  the  15th,  IGth,  and  17th  of  November, 
1796f  between  the  Austrians  and  the  French 
under  Napoleon,  when  the  latter  ^ned  one  of 
the  most  ni^uU  victories  in  the  famoui)  campaign 
of  that  veAr. 

AitcOS  DE  LA  FRONTERA,  a  town  of 
Spain,  Andalusia,  on  the  Guadalctc,  80  m.  ENE. 
Cadiz.  Pop.  1 1,272  in  1857.  The  town  w  situated 
on  an  elevated  ruck,  and  is  of  difficult  access. 
Streets  unpaved,  and  ill  adapted  for  foot  pas- 
sengers. It  has  two  parish  cnurches,  and  some 
convents  for  both  sexes.  The  great  altar  of  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  is  much  adorned.  Tlic 
couutr\'  in  the  vicinity  is  mountainouS|  intersected 
by  vallevs,  and  ver>'  fertile. 

ARC(3T,  a  marit.  district  of  Hindostan,  prov. 
Camatic,  presid.  Madras,  divided  into  two  sub- 
districts,  or  ctdlectorates,  comprising  the  whole 
country  from  Coleroon  river  on  the  S.  to  the 
fmntier  of  the  Nellore  district  on  the  N.  and  E.  of 
('uddapah,  Mysore,  and  Salem,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the '  Chiiiglcput  district  lying  round 
Madras.  United  area,  13,4()0s({.  m.  Pop.  1,578.042 
ui  IWCI.  n>e  districts  arc  diWde*!  by  the  Palaur 
river.  Near  the  sea  the  country  is  low  and  well 
cultivatcfl ;  but  further  inland  it  is  hilly,  with 
extensive  tracts  of  jimgle.  Agriculture  is  the 
great  business  of  the  natives;  and  this  depends 
ver>'  much  tm  irrigation,  to  assist  in  which  many 
very  large  tanks,  artilicial  channels,  and  dams 
have  been  constructed.  Tlie  country  is  held  under 
the  ryotwar  system.  (See  India.)  The  tnule  in 
piece*  goods  has  l>een  well  nigh  annihilated  by  the 
mtroiluction  of  the  cheaper  cottons  of  (Ireat 
Britain;  but  cotton  stuffs  still  continue  to  be 
manufactured  at  Pulicat  and  Irrycum,  and  there 
is  an  extensive  iron  foundry  at  Porto  Novo. 

Arcot,  a  city  of  Ilindostan,  the  former  Mo- 
liammeilan  cap.  of  the  Caniatic,  on  the  S.  side  of 
the  Palaur,  68  m.  WSW.  Madras,  lat.  12®  54'  N., 
long.  7ao  28'  E.  It  is  well  built,  is  enclosed  by 
walls,  and  contains  the  ruins  of  the  palace  of  the 
nalMibs  <if  Arcot.  The  population  consists  prin- 
cipally of  Mohammedans  who  speak  the  Decanny 
dialect.,  wliich  we  call  Hindostani.  It  has  a  hand- 
some Mohammedan  mosque,  with  some  other  Mo- 
hammedan religious  editices.  Tlie  citadel,  for- 
merly of  lan?c  extent  and  considerable  strength, 
is  now  quite  in  ruins,  its  principal  defences  having 
been  blown  up ;  but  the  rampart  next  the  river, 
as  it  protects  the  town  from  inundation,  is  kept 
in  good  repair.  Arcot  is  very  ancient,  and  has 
undergone  man^-  \'icissitudes.  It  came  detinitely 
into  our  possession  in  1801. 

AK(,rriC  OCEAN,  the  name  given  to  the  sea 
extending  from  the  Arctic  circle ;  lat,  66®  30'  N. 
to  the  North  Pole,  and  washing  the  northern 
shores  of  Euroiw,  Asia,  and  America.  North  of 
Euro^)e  it  is  called  the  White  SeA;  north  of 
Siberia  it  forms  the  (lulfs  of  Kara,  Obi,  and  Yc- 
nisee ;  and  nortli  of  iVmerica  it  takes  the  name  of 
the  Polar  Sea.  Tlie  principal  rivers  flowing  into 
it  in  America  are,  the  Mackenzie,  Coppermine, 
and  Back ;  and  in  Asia  the  Oby,  Yenisei,  Olenek, 
Lena,  and  Kolima.  Its  cliief  islands  are  Spitz- 
bergen,  the  Loifoden  Islands,  Kalgouef,  Waigatz, 
and  Novaia-Zemlia  in  Eun)pe;  the  islands  of 
New  Siberia,  in  Asia,  and  the  Polar  archijtelago 
in  America.  Ice,  covering  a  space  of  nearly  4,000  m. 
extends  for  a  whiter  season  of  about  eight  months 
round  the  Pole,  and  even  in  summer  the  surface 
is  at  the  freezing  point.    From  this  region,  during 


AHDECHE 

the  spring,  ioeheigs  and  fielda  of  ioe  drift  into  tto 
North  Atlantic— the  former  scHnetimeii  extendioK 
to  100  m.  in  length,  and  from  25  to  80  m.  m 
diameter.  The  coast-line  in  Europe  and  Asia  hit 
1)cen  pretty  well  ascertained  by  English  aad 
Russian  navigators,  and  the  ooaat-liiie  of  Nonk 
America  has  ^so  been  traced ;  bnt  the  ardiipda|pB 
of  islands  in  the  Polar  sea  rcmaina  yet  to  be  ex- 
plored, though  the  professed  expedition  to  tht 
North  Pole  must  add  considerably  to  our  infomia- 
tion.     (See  Ameuica). 

ARDAGH,  an  insignificant  village  of  IreUndr 
CO.  Longford.  The  church  is  verv  ancient;  and  it 
was  the  sec  of  a  bisht^ric,  united  in  1685  to  the 
bisho])ric  of  Kilmore,  Imt  separated  firom  the  latter 
in  1741,  when  it  was  united  to  the  aicfabiaho|sie 
of  Tnam. 

ARDEBYL,  a  town  of  Persia,  prov.  Arerfailaiir 
88  m.  W.  from  the  Caspian  Sea,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  a  cluuu  of  high  mountuns,  nev 
the  edge  of  an  extensive  and  elevated  plaiiv 
lat.  380  15'  N.,  long.  48^  23'  E.  Pop.  said  It 
amount  to  500  or  600  families,  or  from  3.000  u 
8,600  individuals.  Houses  mean  and  small,  boik 
of  mud  or  sun-burnt  bricks,  with  fiat  ruofs,  fiki 
those  of  the  poorest  villages.  It  is  auirounded  lif 
a  niinous  mud  wall;  but  the  fort  is  a  iCKfd* 
s^piaro,  with  bastions,  a  ditch,  glada,  and  dirnv* 
bridge  in  the  Eun)pean  style.  The  place  it  r- 
markable  for  containing  the  tomhs  o(  SheiU 
Suffu,  the  founder  of  the  Sujffite  dynastjr  of  Per- 
sian princes  and  of  a  religious  sect,  and  of  toiN 
of  his  descenilants.  It  is  a  good  deal  reeoited  It 
by  pilgrims,  but  is  now  falling  into  decay.  A  fiat 
library'  formerly  belonged  to  AiUcbyl ;  bat  it  vit 
carried  to  Petcfsbiug  on  the  town  being  taken  br 
the  Russians,  by  whom,  however,  it  was  Rttofcd 
to  the  Persians.  (Fraser's  Travels  on  the  Shorn  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  p.  296.) 

ARDECIIE,  a  dep.  of  France,  lying  lengthwiit 
along  the  W.  side  of  the  Rhone^  by  whidi  it  ii 
sejiarated  from  the  Drome,  having' S.  the  Gand, 
W .  the  Lozere,  and  Haute  Loire,  and  N.  the 
Tx)ire.  Area,  589,(XK)  hect.  or  2,1 80  English  m.  m. 
Pop.  886,559  in  1851,  and  388,529  in  IMl.  With 
the  exception  of  a  narrow  border  along  the  Rhone, 
most  part  of  the  surface  is  occupied  by  hills  and 
mountains  belonging  to  the  chain  of  theCevennct: 
Mount  Mezen,  on  Us  W.  frontier,  the  higfaest  in 
the  dep.,  rises  to  the  height  of  1 ,7 74  toiaes  (o,770ft.) 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Several  of  the  amaUer 
hills  are  of  volcanic  origin.  The  cultivable  soil  it 
estimated  at  about  129,000  hectares— meadom, 
44,000— vineyards,  27,000— forests,  98,000  moun- 
tains, heaths',  &c,  148,000 — and  aUtmrts  direna, 
(»8,000  hecL  Besides  the  Rhone,  the  dep.  it 
watered  by  the  Ard^hc.  whence  it  derivea  ita 
name,  the  Erieux,  and  D<hix  ;  and  it  has  to  boaat 
of  the  source  of  the  Loire,  which  rises  about  18  m. 
W.  Privas.  There  are  mines  of  coal,  iron,  lead, 
and  antimony.  The  produce  of  com  is  insufficient 
for  the  consumption  of  the  inhaUtanta ;  the  de- 
licicncy  being  supplied  by  potatodi  and  cheatnata, 
of  wldch  last  the  forests  produce  immense  quan- 
tities. Vallevs  cidtivatod  with  the  plough ;  hilla 
generally  witli  the  spade.  The  inhabitants  are 
exceedingly  industrious,  as  is  evinced  by  their 
careful  system  of  irrigation,  and  by  the  terraces 
formed  on  the  sides  of  the  hills  planted  with  vines. 
Tlie  culture  of  the  latter  is  an  object  of  great  at- 
tention ;  and  the  wines  of  Limony,  SL  Joseph, 
Cornas,  and  St.  Peray,  particularly  the  last  men- 
tioned, are  liighlv  esteemed  in  foreign  countrio^ 
as  well  as  in  France.  The  raising  of  the  silk- 
worm and  the  production  of  silk  is  also  a  most 
imiMtrtant  object  in  the  economv  of  the  dep.  The 
culture  of  the  olive  has  been  alMUidoned,  and  the 


ASSEE 
D  DMd  ii  lunr  |iit«di«d  tmm  watonl*. 
ad  cbMM  yield  coOBi'lerBble  rEtnms : 
iabo*  of  fat  hnga  >n  C'xpnrtctl ;  and  the 
wfaidi  we  nonuTOii*,  famish  uiniully 
atifiOa  kiloKL  «c»l.    Hanurocturini!  in- 


_, „ k,  besidcn  cloth,  cMlton,  and 

Tit  vupa  prodoccd  ■(.  Arnionny  and  othrr 
nit*  WDong  the  reiy  bc4t  in  Kurupe.  The 
Aic  ii  dot,  however,  very  exlennivc. 
'  tba  tanning  af  leather,  puticularly  or 
wa  tot  glove*,  haa  beayime  a  conaideraUk 

I  IkcTe  are  also  bbric*  nf  cnane  clnlh, 
id  itnw  hata,  fatablUhnients  for  ipinning 
rfthlnn  vaifca,andfoiReik  Tbedcp.liaa 
nad_  L'Arp{enti^,  Privas,  and  Toumon, 
BdB39eomm.  It  roimii  pan  of  tlie  eiKhlh 

drridoi],  and  ia  embraced  in  the  diucese 
n^  and  undo'  the  Juri»diction  or  the  cow 
r  tf  Nimn.  Prindpal  towoi,  Privoa  the 
am^,  and  Anboua. 
IE,  an  biland  town  of  Inland, 
ifaatir.  on  the  Dee,  whence  i 

-  'TownootbeDee,'86m.NNlV. 
w  fitted  up  ■*  a 
iHiu  ncR  mj  une  of  the  early  E 

laog  Tendered  it  a  place  of  msL 

II  bat  It  wan,  nolwithiitandint;,  burnt  hy 
Bnw(^  dnrinfr  his  invaiion  of  Ireland,  in 
d  anin  by  O'Neil,  during  the  wan  in  the 
'  EBaabeth.  In  1641,  it  wai  the  heaA- 
Of  Sir  Pbelim  O'XeiL  Afteiwanlg  it  felJ 
hand!  of  Cniawell,  and  waa  one  nf  the 
tf  the  aimv  of  Jamce  II.,  while  retiring 
tat  nf  William  III.  preTioiuly  to  Ihc 
OeBovneL  Pop.,ia  1821, 3,58fl:  in  1831, 
■ •  n  1861.4.273. 

■  diwrirt,  con- 

Bstieet,  having  aeTerollanca  broneh- 

I  it ;  the  dwelling!!,  with  the  cKcepIion  of 
•d  hooaea,  are  mostly  miscnhle  cabins. 
1^  built  in  the  early  part  of  the  thir- 
Mtaij,  and  or^^iiuUr  forming  part  of  on 

fee  B.  C  cliapel  is  a  new  and  spacious 
Tb«te  are  achooLi  for  both  sexes,  under 

>d  a  diapenMry.  In  the  centre  of  the 
bsUmt  ancieat  castle,  nnw  fitted  up  as  a 
h—W,  and  neu  the  eutrance  is  a  large 
Hund,  oiled  the  Caatle  Ruard.  It  was 
tal towaidi the  leign orHJlwanl  in., and 
additional  privileges  rmm  snbsciguent 
l>  lUrelingcharter  is  Uiatof  11th  Anne, 
tick  the  gov.    oDusiala   nf   a   porirecve. 


idpalpn- 


:ttbem).r> 


itfcernrlife.  Thebcslcourfbitvcfallcn 
It;  general  sesflioni  of  Lhe  peace  are  held 
tj  ud  June,  and  petly  twtwinna  every 

u  The  manulaclure  of  malt  is  cirrial 
OMideTable  exleni ;  there  are  also  Hour 
i  mills.  Turf  ia  bitiuj^ht  from  a  bog, 
a  idea  distant,  by  the  river  Dee,  wbich 


nO-itadied  market  is  held  every  Tues- 
it,  pnndpally  for  live  stock,  are  held  in 
■deatd  ana  pnivided  by  the  air|iiiration 
n±,  10th  Afoil,  6th  June,  Kth  Julv.  SUlb 
■id  Ortvbor,  and  17th  Decerobei;  that 
*  i*  principally  fur  sheen- 
lAS,  a  poiv.  uf  Persia,  foming  the  E. 
f Knnlislan.  ItextenilaSiHIm.inlength, 
Mnam  Shorook  to  the  Tnrkiah  district 


17T 

orZohaub,andLinp«rIvlGllm.inhreaiUh.  From 
the  Shanmk  to  Senna,  cap.  prov.,  in  lat.  35°  DC  N'., 
long,  iiy  F..,  the  aurfn™  present-  auccessivo  clun- 
tcre  of  hills,  heajieil,  as  it  were,  on  each  other,  on 
extensive  table-lanils.  onvercd  with  huts,  and  tlio 
flocks  of  tribm  passing  the  summer  months  here, 
and  migrating  in  winter  towards  BagdniL  The 
soil  is  good,  and  will  j-ield  ahunrlance  of  wheat 
and  barley;  but  the  fvunls.  who  prefer  a  pastoral 
life,  content  tlicmseWea  with  raising  only  what  is 
absolutely  neccsaaTy  for  their  sulixislence.  To- 
bacco is  cuitivated'iu  amall  (luatitities ;  and  the 
extensive  foreats  of  oak  on  the  mountains  W.  of 
Senna  aAbrd  shunilance  of  timber  and  goll-nuts. 
The  former  is  fioalcd  down  the  Zab  in  rafla  into 
the  Tigris,  and  the  latter  exported  to  India.  Va- 
rious tribes  inhabit  Anlelon,  which  are  reprcsenteil 
as  robust,  brave,  temperate,  and  living  to  a  great 
age ;  but  they  are  averse  fnira  settled  habits ;  war 
and  rapine  an  their  delight ;  and  they  acorcB  con- 
sider murder  and  parricide  as  crimes !  They  have 
a  language  of  their  own,  and  are  jiroud  of  their 
descent,  which  Ihey  trace  back  to  the  most  distant 
epochs.  Some  of  their  chiefs  have  great  power. 
(kinnair'B  Peiaia,  p.  142.) 

AHD ESSES,  a  dep.in  the  N,  of  France,  bai-iug 
S.  Belgium,  K  dep.  Mciiae,  S.  dep.  Maine,  aiul 
W.ilq).Aisne.  Area,517,a85  hect.,  oralmut  4.00(1 
English  so.  m.  Pop.  3.31,2DG  in  ISol,  and  329,111 
in  18UI.  The  department  derives  its  name  IWim 
the  old  forest  of  Ardennes,  which  occujiien  its  N. 
dii-iainn.  It  is  divided  into  two  portions  hy  a 
mountainous  ridge,  a  ramification  of  the  chain  of 
the  Vosges,  by  which  it  is  traversed  from  SK.  tii 
N\V.  Principal  rivers  Meuse  and  Aienc,  connected 
by  meona  of  the  canal  of  the  Ardennes  and  the 
Bar.  Soil  of  very  different  degrees  of  fvrtilitv. 
The  N.  ia  intersperwd  with  mounuiiiia  or  high 
'ered  with  foreats  and  heaths,  and  some 
:  the  flW.  district  are  naked,  oriil,  and  bar- 
it  it  has  some  large  aii<l  fruitful  valleys, 
particithirl^  that  of  the  AJsnc,  one  of  the  bent  oim 
countries  m  France.  The  extent  of  ita  piineiiial 
divisions  ia  aet  down  as  follows:  vii.  eiillivabia 
Unds,  314.000:  meadows,  4B,00() ;  foreats,  9a,IH>0 ; 
id  heaths,  Ac,  11,000  hecL  Some  inferior  wine 
made  in  (he  S.  district*.  There  are  large  herdi 
cattle  and  fiocks  of  »heep,  there  being  among 
the  latter,  which  are  cekbrateil  for  their  mutton, 
iveroluf  the long-woolcdand  merino  brcels.  Thu 
'.p.  is  distinguished  by  its  minca  and  manafac- 
ires.  Among  the  former  are  thoee  of  iron,  lead, 
ilamine,  Ac,  with  ouarries  of  alaCe  and  i 


Lportant  of  the  kind  in  the 

K.  of  France;   coal  is  also  founri,  but  it   La  not 

irked,  at  least  to  any  considerable  extent.  Atiovo 

i;,000  in<lividnals  arc' emploveil  in  the  am>ndisse- 

t  of  Mezlires  in  the  naii  imde,  oud  (iOO  in  the 

lufacKire  of  ironmongery  gooils.     Iinmviiso 

quaniities  of  slate  are  quarrial  at  Fumav,  Pepin, 

'"    Bnmabtf.  Fohrica  of  superior  carlncnwarc. 


e  lea. 


lea.  &c,  a 


ither  placm.    There  nie  also  nn- 

eroua  eslabliahments  fur  the  spinning  of  wwd ; 

id  various  brsncht*  of  tlw  Kcnillen  manufacture 

e  extenidvely  carried  on  at  Scilaii  and  Bethel. 

The  great  manufactory  uf  ftre-arms  on  account  of 

government,  carried  on  al  CtuKleville,  luis  been 

transferred  to  Feltri  and  CluUellerault.    Ikaide^ 

furnishing  timber  ami  other  products  fur  exporta- 

'*      contiguous  depta.  and  Belgium,  the 

ia  great  B<iuree  of  tlie  prudui.'tiveneaa 

of  tbe  mines,  limber  b^iu;  tho  fuel  iiacil  Li  iho 

and  copper  works.    The  d<'p.  is  divided  intu 

"""'"■*'  — "    — ->■'-.' 1^  belong*  tit 


milila 


is  under  the  ji 


o(  the  c 


•  of  UciK 

w  imprrialc  of 


178  ARDES 

Mptz.     Principal  towns  Mezibres,  Sedan,  Charle- 
villo,  RorheJ,  and  Givct. 

AKDES,  a  town  of  France,  do.p.  ruy-do-D<»me, 
cap.  cant,  on  a  small  river  that  falU  inti)  the  Allicr, 
10  m.  SW.  l88oire.     Pop.  1,.10«  in  18G1. 

AKI  KtLASS,  a  marit.  towi  of  Ireland,  co.  Down, 
pnn*.  Ulster,  on  the  sea  coaMt,  a  little  to  the  X.  of 
St.  JohnV  Point,  lietween  Dundnim  Ilav  and  the 
emraiicc  of  Stranjrft.rrl  Louj?h.  <W  m.  NN (•'.  Dublin. 
The  town  wa«  f«»mierly  of  mich  commercial  impt»rt- 
anrc  that  a  nicrcaniile  coniiianv  from  London 
settled  here  in  the  n'i^i  of  Hon.  \V„  aiul  in  that 
of  Hen.  VI.  its  trade  ixce<«led  tliai  of  any  |»ort  to 
the  N.  uf  DrojL^heihi.  It  was  also  a  place  of  con- 
Fiiderahle  Htn>n^tli,  as  a])pi>ars  from  the  gallant 
stand  made  in  it  by  Simon  Jordan,  at  the  close  »»f 
the  reij;n  of  KlizaU-th,  who  maintained  it  success- 
fully during  a  siejce  of  thret*  years  against  the  Karl 
of  Tyrone ;  but  subseuuentlv,  in  consequence  of 
its  exclusive  crinimen'ial  j)rivileRW  having?  I>een 
imixiiase*!  un  by  tlie  (^n»wn,  and  transferred  t^ 
S'ewrv  and  IJelfast,  its  trade  <leclined,  insomuch 
that  it  has  Imm'u  f«>r  many  yeiirs  merely  a  tishinjj 
station  and  waterin(?-pla«re,  and  tlu^  jxirt  f<»r  em- 
barkation to  a  few  j)assen;rers  t:>  the  Isle  of  Man. 
P«ip.  of  town  774.  of  pari>h  l,ii«)0  in  isiJl.  The 
town  stands  on  the  side  of  an  elevated  tract  of 
land  overl(M»kin;;  the  se^i,  iK'tween  two  remarkable 
hills.  It  consists  of  a  lonjr  s*.'micircular  street, 
with  lanes  branching  from  it:  a  range,  calleil  the 
C'resoe.nt,  overlooking  the  bay,  and  several  de- 
tiiched  residences.  The  ])a.  church  and  II.  Cat  h. 
eha)H.>l  are  iu>at  buildings.  Sirhtstls,  on  the  foun- 
dation of  Krasmus  Smitli,  ethicate  ninety  lx»ys  and 
eighty  girls;  there  an*  alni  several  private  schimls, 
in  which  alKiut  loi)  pupils  are  instructed.  The  har- 
IxMir  consists  i)f  an  inner  cove,  capable  of  admit  thig 
vessels  of  100  tons,  but  n<'jirly  dry  at-  low  water, 
and  of  a  large  outer  harl>our,  which,  having  \twn 
still  farther  enlarged  by  a  ]»ier,  exlen<ling  300  ft. 
into  de<'p  water,  admits  vessels  of  600  tons  at  any 
tinu^  of  tide:  it  has  a  lighthouse  at  its  extn-mity. 
A  constabulary  force  and  coast-guard  are  main- 
tained here.  The  iishery  is  the  almost  exclusive 
(H-cu]mtion  of  the  working  classes;  that  «»f  herrings 
b<'ing  most  followed.  During  the  wason,  which 
continues  from  the  l>eginning  of  .Tune  to  the  cl«»se 
<if  August,  vessels  ass<*mble  here,  n(»t  only  from 
the  tishing  ports  <in  the  K.  cu:u(t  of  Ireland,  but 
from  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  (^)mwall. 

AI.'DXAMUKCHAN  POINT,a  pn>montor>on 
the  W.  c<iast  of  Sctillnnd,  iVigyle>hire,  Iniing  the 
most  westerlv  jxjint  ui  the  mainland  of  Cireat 
iJritain,  lat.  :i6°  4i>  N.,  long.  Vfi  «'  30"  W, 

AKDNAkEK,  a  marit.  town  of  Ireland,  co. 
Sligo,  j)rov.  Connaught,  KUU  m.  WNW.  Dublin, 
on  the  Moy,  a  bridge  over  which  river  connects  it 
with  the  town  of  iiidlina.  It  being,  then^fore,  in 
reality  a  suburl)  of  the  latter,  the  |>articular8  rela- 
tive to  it  will  be  foimd  under  Ballina. 

AliDCKyll,  a  vilL'ige  of  Scotland,  co.  Perth,  pa, 
Muthil,  H  m,  N.  Dumltlane.  Pop.  of  ]mrish  1,074  in 
18t>l.  The  village  is  remarkable  for  having  in  its 
vicinity  one  of  the  1k.'si  jireserved  Itoman  stations 
or  forts  in  the  empire.  It  is  an  oblong.  420  ft.  by 
37;>  within  the  Hues.  On  the  W.  side  it  is  defended 
by  the  steej)  banks  ("f  the  river  Knaig,  on  the  S.  I>y 
a  dci'p  morass  an«l  two  ditches,  and  on  the  other 
sides,  where  it  is  most  ex]w>se<l,  by  no  fewer  than 
live  parallel  ditches  and  six  ramparts,  (hi  the  S. 
side  the  dilclu-s  have  l)een  iiartiallv  destnived  in 
tlu5  pr«»eess  of  cultivation,  and  the  W.  side  has 
U-en  injured  by  carrying  (unne»ressarily)  the  mili- 
tary road  frrjin  Stirling  through  Crietf  to  the  High- 
lands through  \>an  of  the  works:  but  it  is  now 
luckily  endosiMl  ami  protected  from  further  depre- 
dation*.   The  Pneturium,  which  ia  well  preserved, 


AEECIFE 

is  a  square,  60  ft.  in  the  ride,  but  it  \n  not  exactlr 
in  the  centre  of  the  station.  Near  tiii«  awmfs  f<nt 
arc  three  camps  of  different  magnitudefi,  one  2.»CiU 
by  1,950  ft.,  estimated  to  actYimmodate  '2bj)0b 
men;  another,  1.010  by  1^340 ft,  aecommigiling 
ll',0(K)  men ;  and  the*  third  ami  smallest,  1.069 
by  900  ft.,  accommtMiating  4,000  men.  Nothing 
certain  is  known  as  to  the  period  when,  or  tl* 
general  by  whom,  this  station  and  camps  wot 
const ructHl;  but  they  are  generally  napiNMcd  to 
have  iHrn  the  work  of  Agrioolu.  A  little  to  the 
W.  of  Anl(»ch  a  caini  formerly  existed  182  ft.  ia 
height  ^  but  it  is  now  nearly  demf.ili<he<J.  tlie  stonei 
having  been  carried  away  to  build  houses  ud 
fences.     (Kov's  Military  Antiquities.) 

AKDOYK;  a  town  of  Bclginm,  14  m.  SSW. 
Bruges.     Poj).  7,4«M)  in  1H5C. 

AKDRA,  or  AYEM,  a  country  of  Africa,  f* 
merly  inde|.)endent,  but  now  a  pn>v.  of  Dahuocr. 
Anira  u  .also  the  name  of  the  cajutal  of  the  abm 
countrw  abcmt  -40  m.  inland. 

AKDKKS,  a  small  but  wcU-fortificd  town  of 
France,  dep.  Pas  de  C-alais,  cap.  cont^  9  m.  SEL 
Calais,  on  the  Northern  of  France  railway.  PcfL 
2,*277  in  IxtJl.  In  the  vicinity  of  thw  tvwn.'inijiaii^ 
1  .'rJO,  was  held  the  famous  meeting  between  Fntt- 
cis  I.,  king  of  France,  and  Henrv  YIII«  kiop  rf 
KnglaiuL  The  {M>mp  and  magnit^cenoc  dLx^Iayed 
on  both  sides,  during  eighteen  days  that  the  meet- 
ing histeil,  acquinul  fi>r  the  place  of  rendezrow 
the  name  of  the  Champ  du  drap  dor.  The  inlef- 
view  had  no  very  im]>ortant  ]N>litical  reeiulL 

AKDKClSSAN.  a  parish  and  si'a-port  town  rf 
ScotL-md,  CO.  Ayr,  the  town  being  'lA  m.  WSW. 
(ilasgow,  20  nj.'S.  Gri»eni»ck,  and  alnnit  1  m.  NW, 
Saltcoats.  Pop.  of  iwurish  in  1«41.  4.i»47 ;  in  1861, 
<;.770:  of  town  in  IMGI,  2.890.  The  town  wu 
foundcKl  by  the  late  hLarl  of  Elglinton.  Hi«l(«d- 
shi]»'s  intention  wiu*  t(»  make  a  harlM)ur  heie  that 
should  1>e  accessible  at  all  times  of  the  tide;  and 
as  a  iimject  was.  at  the  same  time,  set  on  fu«it  for 
bringing  a  camd  from  (rlasgow  to  ^VrdnMMD,  it 
was  su]iposed  that  the  latter  wouM  lH^Cl<ne  the 
]K>rt  <if  the  former,  and  that  the  circuitou»  navigap 
tion  of  the  (^lyde  would  Ix?  avoidttL  In  fuithei^ 
ance  «»f  this  design,  Lonl  Eglinton  ex^ientled  va»l 
sums  on  the  harlKiur  and  town.  The  harUiur  \k 
partly  fonned  by  a  small  islet,  called  Horw  btei 
whiiii  shelters*  it  on  the  N\V.,  and  by  a  lengthened 
cinndar  ])ier,  and  a  brwikwater.  Within  tlie  cx- 
tn^nity  of  the  latter,  there  are  26  ft  water  tt 
sj»ring*ebl«.  shoalhig  gradually  to  15  it,  wlien 
tlie  pier  commences.  There  is  a  fixed  light  i»n  lbs 
NE.  breakwater.  The  wet  dooka  which  it  wa»  in- 
tended to  construct  have  not  been  pnicecileil  with. 
The  to\i-n  is  laid  out  on  a  regular  and  magniliiMit 
plan ;  there  ia  a  splendid  efstablishmcut  of  baths; 
and  the  purity  of  the  salt-water,  the  mildneatof 
the  climate,  aiid  the  facility  of  acce^ft,  liave  made 
it1»e  largely  resorted  tn  by  visitors  in  the  bathing 
AeiLson.  The  projecte«l  cajial  from  Glaspiw  to  .\r- 
drossan  not  having  been  excavated  further  than 
the  vill.igc  of  Johnstone  in  KenfR'wshire.  an  ad 
was  obtaine<l,  in  1827,  for  c< instructing  a  railwar 
from  Johnstone  to  Artlnissan.  For  a  while  it  WM 
only  complet<Hl  as  far  as  Kilwinning:  but  it  hai 
since  lKH?n  linb«he<l  to  Anhrossan;  which,  in  cow*- 
(|uence,  has  lieconic  more  .icces>ible,  and  i»  mitre 
frejpiented.  There  is  regular  steam  C4«nmuiuoa- 
tion  Yiixh  ^Vrran  and  IMfast,  in  oonmi-tion  wiUi 
trains  from  and  to  (Ilasgow  by  the  railway. 

AKKBO,  or  AKBON,  a  town  of  lienin,  on  the 
river  Formosa,  <)0  m.  frvim  its  moutlu  Lat.  Ifi  iif 
N..  long,  oo  8'  K. 

AKECIFE.  a  se^-port  town,  cap.  idand  of  I-aa- 
cen»ta,  one  of  the  ("anarie.s.  (»n  its  E.  a»asi.  lat.  2"^ 
50'  N.,  long.  VJ9  yC  W.    Pop.  \nt\i  l»on  Naa^ 


AEOBNTAT 


I USL  n*  bartoar,  wUoh  tlxni^  imtU 
t^bftancdbrMnralncky  iateU.  It  hu 
— Mit  the  M.  haviiu  >  depth  of  13,  uiil 
rfmfeet,  atknrwaur.  with  ■  »  "^  ^-' 
Both  oilnDoo  m  ddcndcij  by  . 
tk  Th*  inbatiL  an  nHstlj  eugaged  in  the 
■  the  oiipiaita  cout  at  ATrics. 
IDAL,  >  wa-nKt  toVD  of  tivrwtv,  on  thi 
,  75  m.  NE.  auiatiuuaud,  Ut  bH°  27' N. 
'fru'E.   P<ip.i,!aTm  1860.    ArqiIaI 


od  of  TiDinix:.    Tbera 

ID  Iho  vidnit;  \  and  ■ 

cm  in  iron  and  timber. 

■  sbo  dJWillefiCT,  tobacoo  nuuiulictoriea 


SouSfaTi 


nS  DE  UAU,  ■  town  of  Spain,  Catalonia, 

h  town  ii  neat  and  clean,  hu  ■  fine 
IbA  iDd  a  convenl,  fkbrics  of  silii  and 
■china,  a  Khool  of  pilolaRe,  a  yard  for 
tag  it  Mnall  vmela,  and  anehor-forgee. 
•M  amplOf  themselves  m  makine  lace. 
UBUKG,  a  aea-port  town  of  Kuiupoan 
Mr.  Uvoma,  cap.  of  the  island  of  Oeeel,  in 
■4  at  the  month  of  the  Gnlf  of  Rif^a, 
MMd  OD  the  ».  lide  of  the  island,  lat.  bH° 
■^  12a  ir  46"  E.    Pop.  3,59-2  in  18.^, 

bAooI  and  a  boapitaL    The  water  In  tbe 
Mtg  ihaltow,  vessels  are  obli^^  to  an- 


■  ha*  necntlv  been  much  raoned  to  for 
band  'mud  baths.' 
KJlPA,  a  dtv  of  S.  America,  rep.  Peru, 
r.  mttfK  lume,  in  the  valley  uf  Quilca,  on 
^  M  the  Ibot  of  U.  Ornate,  7,7iXi  ft.  above 
1  ^  the  tea.  3l>  m.  E.  from  the  Pacific 
■d  MMm.  8SW.  Cuica,  Ut.  16°  30' S.,  lonf;. 
W.  It  vaa  founded  by  order  uf  Pizomi,  m 
Fb*  hoQaH,  though  low,  on  account  of  the 
acafianhanakea,  aiestningly  built;  and 
kaAal,  a  bmue  fountain  in  the  great 
■d  the  bfidge  over  the  Chile,  deserve  no- 
haa  foaTGODTCDU,  a  eollefte,  a  work  bouse, 
■Ichorcho,  as  well  aa  ttciuruhing  manu- 
fgdd  and  Blvei  cloths,  wDoUens,  and  CDt- 

frnlfiil;  and  by  means  of  its  port  Mnl- 
d  af  dwraad  paaaing  thn>U|;h  it  fmnt  Lima 
,  it  b  the  seat  of  a  pretty  exteiuave  com- 
nted  on  chicflv  with  the  port  of  Islay,  on 
1^  and  with  the  inlcrior  of  Peru.  It  is 
)Kt  to  earthquake*,  bum  serentl  nf  which 
Mained  great  injoiy,  and  it  has  also  lieen 
w  frequent  m-oiotiona.  The  aciwunts  of 
Bftr  Toy  widely ;  but  it  may  perhaps  be 
I «  about  KJUW.  The  pnp.  of  the  prov., 
Bdiana,iaestiiuatedat  IHO.IWO.  Thepro- 
I  irbeat,  nuUe,  sujcar,  Kuld,  eilvrr,  lead, 
dphvr,  nitzaLB  of  soda,  wine  and  brandy, 
orta  irf  Islav,  the  port  of  the  pruv,, 
I  in   1S68  to   bi6,\~nL,  the  imiMits  to 

SCSA,  afamoua  fountain  i>f  Sicily,  which 
M  to  the  sea,  in  (be  cilr  uf  Syracuse 
Jl  «f  it,  lakar  Junta  {O'n^^)  titrrma 


179 


diV-ncKit    omL    (In  Ten.,  hb.  w: 

§  53.)  Poetry  and  fable  have  cniubini<d  to  give  an 
endniing  celebrity  to  this  fountain.  It  was  sup- 
posed that  the  river  Alpheus,  which  fiows  jiost 
Olympia  in  Greece,  and  lalls  into  tbe  Sicilian  Sea, 
did  not  larminate  its  course  there ;  but  that  it  con- 
tinued tu  Saw  in  a  »ubt«rtanean  channel,  preservinf; 
the  purity  of  its  waters  till  they  agein  reappeared 
in  the  fountain  AreUiusa;  and  in  proof  of  this 
it  was  aflirmed  that  Riings  cast  into  the  AlpheuH 
were  after  a  while  thrown  up  by  the  fountain ! 
Virgii  alludcfl  to  thia  drcocoatanoe  when  he  says, 

Bb)  tlU,  cam  SDCtu  nbter  Uben  Bitwm, 


:.  is  refeiTed  to  1^  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.,  lib.  iL  §  3.) 

Seneca  (Qusat  N,,  Ub.  iiL  S  'iS),  and  other  ancient 
luthots.  The  poetical  account  of  the  fountain 
oav  be  seen  in  Ovid's  Met.  lib.  v.  lin.  572. 

'fhia  celebrated  spring  is  now  sadly  changed, 
nie  aea  has  made  its  way,  prubably  by  the  agency 
if  the  earthquakea  so  frequent  here,  into  (he  foun- 
ain ;  so  (hat,  instead  of  bang  sweet,  the  water, 
which  also  is  greatly  diminished  in  quantity,  in 
consequence  of  a  larue  portion  rising  in  tl^e  sea,  is 
brackiih  and  unfit  fur  any  purpose  but  that  of 
ihing,  lu  Sah  have  disappeared  with  the  sa- 
1  grxjvea  and  (empl«  that  adorned  its  banks ; 
and  this  glory  of  ancient  Syracuse  is  now  de- 
graded into  a  sort  of  public  washing  tub  fur  the 
-  wrer  classes  of  the  Riudem  dty. 

AREVALO,  a  (own  of  Spain,  Old  Castile,  prov. 
Arels,  on  the  Adaja,  29  m.  NXF.  Avila.  Pop, 
4,500  in  1B57.  Besides  churches,  it  has  two  hoepi- 
(ala  and  two  com  mariicta. 

AKEZZO  (an.  Arrrtium).  a  city  of  Central 
Italy,  in  the  rich  plain  of  Chiana  (wliich  see), 
°I  m.  E.  by  N.  Sienna,  on  the  railwnv  fium  Fto- 
Bnce  to  Ancona.  Pop.  aG,H06  in  mi.  It  is 
iiiTDiindcd  by  walls,  has  a  citadel,  but  is  neither 
reU  built  nor  well  laid  out  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  and  has  a  (lothic  catbedraL  Its  ftnest 
'•■■■iding,  b  Loggt,  containing  the  custom-house 
theatre,  in  the  principal  square,  has  a  magni- 
ficent portico,  40U  (L  in  length.  Tbe  town  baa  aba 
numerous  chuichea,  convents,  and  four  hospitals. 
There  are  manufactures  of  woollen  stutb  and  pins. 
Petrarch  was  bom  here,  on  the  20lh  July,  1304; 
and  tlua  also  is  the  native  cauntiy  of  Vasaari, 
Bacd,  and  of  Leondo  Bruin,  called  Amiin. 

^  rezzo  is  verv  ancient,  havii^  been  one  of  the 
cipal  statea'  of  Etiuria.     t£a  it  became  sub- 
to  the  Romans,  it  was  reckoned  a  poat  of  great 
_  nrtance  as  a  defence  ogunst  the  incunions  uf 
(he  Cisalpine  Gauls.     It  was  famous  for  its  terra- 
cotta vases,  ranked  by  Pliny  with  Iheee  of  Samoa 
andSaguntum.  (Hist.  Nat.,  lib.Txxv.  §  12.)    The 
remains  of  the  mins  of  an  amphitheatre  are  still 
yisiblc.     It  was  taken  by  assault  by  the  French 
on  tbe  19lh  of  October,  IHOO.  The  ptw.nf  ^rtiai 
was  an  area  of  1,330  sq.  m. ;  pop.  2-21,654  in  1)M>2. 
AKGENT^V  a  town  of  Central  Italv,  deUg.  and 
18  ni.  SK.  Ferrara.    Pop.  15,9-ifi  in  IWll. 

AKGENTAN,  a  tovm  of  France,  dep.  Orae,  cap. 
arrond.,  on  the  river  of  that  name,  '22  m.  N.  1^  W. 
Alcn^n.  Van.  fi,63B  in  IIMJI.  It  ia  agreeably 
situated  on  a  hill  in  the  middle  of  a  large  and  fcr- 
tilo  plaiiu  The  walla  by  which  it  was  formerly 
surrounded  have  been  demolished,  and  its  ismparti 
converted  into  agreeable  promenades.  It  is  pretty 
well  built,  baa  a  tribunal  uf  original  jurvdictimi, 
with  manufactures  of  linen,  Lice  (eallod  pmmi 
iAimfoa),  tanneries,  and  bluachtng-gniunds. 

AEGF.STAT  or  AKGESTAC.atown  of  France, 
dep.  Cotriic,  ca().  cant,  on  the  l>u(dogne.     I'up. 


180 


ARGENTEUIL 


n.435  in  1801.    There  arc  mines  of  coal  and  lead 
in  the  environs. 

AKGEXTEUIL,  a  town  of  France,  den.  Seine 
et  Oiso,  rap.  cant.,  on  the  Seine,  13  m.  NW .  Pari^, 
on  the  railway  Ut  ('herlxnir^.  Pop.  5.4«i6  in  1H«>1. 
The  celehratcd  Huloi^a  was  educated  in  a  nunnery 
in  this  town  -,  and  it  wai«  to  the  name  place  that 
8he  H'tireti,  in  11 2«,  after  the  misfortune  of  Abe- 
lanl,  before  Bhe  Itecanie  Ahl)em  of  Panu'Iet.  There 
is  here  a  hoB]}ital,  cstablidhcd  by  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul 

AKGENTIE^RE,  a  to^-n  of  Franoe,  dep.  Ar- 
d^che,  on  the  Li^ie,  20  m.  SW.  Privan.  Pop. 
2.755  in  IKGl.  It  derivea  ita  name  fn>m  mines  of 
hilver,  wrought  here  in  the  twelfth  centurj'.  It 
id  situated  on  a  nK'k  in  a  dvi'y  valley,  has  narrow 
cnH>ke<l  streets,  and  is  ill-built  and  ilirty.  It  lias 
filatiues  and  fabrics  of  silk. 

AkCiENTIXE  KEPUULIC,  sec  Plata  (La), 
Ki'pnblic  of. 

AUG  ENTON-SrU-TREUSE.  a  town  of  Franco, 
dep.  Indre,  cap.  cant.,  on  the  ('reuse,  ll>  m.  SSE. 
Chateaurrnix.  Pop.  4,705  in  IHGI.  This  town  w 
divi<led  into  two  |)arts  by  the  (.'reuse.  The  higher 
and  more  ancient  {lart  contained  a  vast  Gothic 
castle,  dismantkni  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  of  which 
there  are  now  hanlly  any  rt>mains.  The  bleaching 
^roirnds  for  woolluns  at  this  ))lace  have  been  loiif^ 
celebrated.  Ar|prenton  was  called  ArquitomaguM  by 
the  Komans;  and  medals,  and  other  remains  of 
that  illustrious  i>eopU>,  are  still  found  in  the  town 
and  its  vicinity. 

AKGOS,  a  city  of  Greece,  in  the  Morea,  in 
antiquity  the  cap.  of  Arj^olis,  the  kinplom  of  Api- 
mi'iiinon,  and  one  <if  tlic  most  ancient  and  celc- 
bratetl  of  the  Grei'ian  citit>s.  It  is  situated  aUmt 
2  ni.  from  the  bottom  of  the  (Julf  of  Ar>^  {Ar- 
qttticua  Sinut),  aiul  alHiut  4^  m.  MV.  Napoli  di 
Tliomunia,  lat.  370  40'  N.,  U.iiff.  22°  44'  E.  Some 
frapuonta  of  its  ('yclo|)ean  walls,  and  vesti^^es  of 
the  theatre,  are  the  only  remains  of  the  ancient 
city  that  can  be  identilied  below  the  acro]iolis. 
The  latter  stofnl  uism  a  fioint(>d  rock  of  consider- 
able elevation,  and  f^rcat  natural  strength,  which 
is  now  surmounted  by  a  castle,  built  on  the  foun- 
ilations  of  the  ancient  cita<lel.  The  Xoynx  sufiereil 
much  during  the  revoluti4»nar\'  stni^le  between 
the  Gnwks  and  Turks,  but  it  is  said  to  have  sint^ 
rapidly  risen  from  its  ruuis;  the  biuldiugs,  how- 
ever, are  mean  and  poor. 

AIWiOSTOLI,  a  sea-port  town,  cap.  Island  of 
CVphalonia,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  ^\\i  of  the  same 
name,  lat.  380  10'  40"  N.,  lon^f.  20°  29'  15"  E. 
Pup.  est.  from  4,000  to  5,000.  Situation  low  and 
unliealthy,  and  the  h(»u8es  mostly  mean  and  poor; 
but  both  the  appearance  and  isdicc  of  the  town, 


ARGYLE 

on  the  Aifnm,  the  chief  branch  of  the  Amooi; 
102  m.  from  its  mouth.  The  fort  is  paliuded,  oa 
the  rijfht  bank  of  the  river,  and  in  Ut.  51°  51'  X, 
loufc.  119^50' E. 

AK(;YLE,  or  ARGYLL,  a  marit.  co.  Scotliod, 
consisting  partly  of  mainland,  and  partly  of  i»laiid% 
of  which  tiie  princiiiol  are  Islay,  Mull,  and  Jon, 
haN^n^  N.  Inveniess-shire,  E.  Perth  and  Dnmb» 
um  shireii,  S.  the  Irish  Sea  and  the  Frith  of  Clyth^ 
and  W.  tlie  Atlantic.    Its  shares  are  exticmiif 
irrep^dar,  consisting;  of  lengthened  pnmonUiriB 
and  dee])  bays  and  inlets.  The  total  area  oompriw 
3,255  sq.  m.,  or  2,083,126  acre^  of  which  abai 
1,440,400  acr«i  are  mainhuid,  and  608,000  ialaak 
llie  rivers  are  unimportant;  but  the  freshwiW 
lakes  in  the  mainland  and  islands  are  »ap|M«dli 
cover  51,840  acre*.    Owing  to  its  deep  haTi  mi 
gulfs,  the  sea  coast  of  the  mainland  is  estmHiii 
at  alH)ut  r)(M»  m.    A  laige  portion  of  the  rai&ci 
consists  of  heathy  moon,  moraK?«es,  itwks,  and  iHA 
rugged  mountains.    Ben  Cruachan.  the  mnst  els- 
vatetl  of  tlie  hitter,  rises  3,070  ft,  above  the  lenl 
t»f  the  sea.    Woods  and  plantAtions  <»v»  bm 
35,0JM)  to  45,000  acres.  Lead,  copper,  and  iroa  n 
met  with,  and  coal  is  wrouglit  near  Campbeltflb 
G«)od  maride  is  foimd  in  the  Ishuid  of  Tixve,iii 
several  other  places;  and  tlie  slate  quarrici  <f 
Easdale  and  Balachiilish  supply  a  large  ponicAW 
the  demand  for  Scotland.    Climate  mild,  but  «tl, 


variable,  and  boisterous.  The  entire  extent  oftki 
arable  land  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  170.000  iOi^ 
so  tluit  grazing  constitutes  the  main  biuiiwM 


the  farmer.  Arg^'le  is  celebrated  for  the  exccUoM 
of  its  native  breed  of  black  cattle;  they  are  md^ 
hardy,  easily  fed,  and,  when  fattened  u  the  xiA 
pastures  of  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland  or  Engln^ 
affonl  the  very  best  beef  that  is  brought  to  uU^ 
Sheep  farming  is  not  carried  on  so  extensii-dr  « 
in  some  other  Highland  counties;  but  l^t^^k 
has  been  a  good  deal  extended,  and  the  hreedt  ■ 
sheep  much  improved.  Property  in  a  few  haadi 
Farms  of  all  sizes,  extending  from  a  few  aoci  li 
many  square  miles.  In  various  districts  in  lUi 
CO.  the  practice  of  holding  land  in  partnenU^ 
or  what  IS  calletl  run-rig,  was  kq»t  ap  untfl  !► 
centlv,  and  still  exists  in  some  remote  regioM 
Under  this  sj-stem,  a  numlicr  of  penuns  take  I 
farm  in  common,  each  being  hound  for  the  not 
Thev  then  «livide  the  arable  land  into  small  ea» 
tiguous  jwrtions,  or  ridges,  as  ec^ually-Hiuantitg 
and  qiuility  taken  together— as  is  pt^siUe;  thi 
s])ace  falling  to  each  tenant  being  determined  fag 
lot,  sometimes  f(»r  the  whole  lease,  and  sometima 
only  for  a  single  season.  Ploughing  and  nog 
other  sorts  of  labour  are  performed  in  conmoB 
and  if,  as  is  usually  the  case,  any  hill  pasture  b 

Iiarti<*ularly  tlie  latUT,  have  l>een  much  improved    attachctl  to  the  l<»w  ground,  it  is  let  in  coionaa 

wliile  it  was  under  the  protection  of  the  English. '  In  s«)me  of  the  low  Highland  districts  occnpiedfc 

The  Gulf  of  Aigi|st<di  is  about  M  m.  in  depth,  by     '  *  "    '  ^  '"- *--  '^ —  -^  -"  '"* 

olsnit  1^  or  2  in.  in  width,  and  has  in  must  ]>arta 

gooil  anchorage. 

AK(iUIN,  a  vert'  small  island,  in  the  gulf  of 

the  same  name^  on  tlie  \V.  cr>ast  of  ^Vfrica, alniut  54 

m.  SE.  from  Cai>e  lilanco.    It  is  abundantly  sur>- 

plie<l  with  fn>sh  water,  and  is  supiKised,  apparently 

on   good   grounds,   by   D'Aiiville,    ItougaiuWlIe, 

and  Hennell,  to  l)c  identical  with  the  Tslaiul  of 

(Vnie,  where  Hnnno  sot  tied  a  colony  during  his 

famous  voyage  of  discovery.    In  mmlem  times  it 

has  l)een  successively  |M>ssessed  by  the  Portuguese, 

Dutch,  and  Fronch;  but  hasbeen  abandoiic-<l  for 

more  than  half  a  century'.    The  dangerous  l»ank    , 

or  shoal  of  Arguin  extends  SE.  a  coiiMiderable  dis-    along  the  shores  both  of  the  mainland  and  islawli 

tance  from  Cape  Blanco.   It  has  been  the  scene  of   but  the  business  has  latterly  fallen  very  much  oi 


this  way,  the  land  falling  to  the  share  of  an  indl 
vithialdoes  not  exceed  from  three  to  seven  acres,  aai 
that,  iierhaiis*,  is  divitled  into  some  doien  or  twcnfr. 
{Mitches.  Farm  buildings  of  various  kinds :  those  a 
the  laigest  and  beJM;  farms  good  and  substantial 
but,  in  general,  the  houses  of  the  smaller  claM  < 
occu] tiers,  and  of  tlie  cottiers,  are  misorable  hards 
sometimes  without  cither  windows  or  chimney 
Improved  cottages,  are,  however,  begun  to  be  ni 
tnKtuce<l ;  and  it  is  to  be  hojwl  that  thoy  may  li 
univenuilly  diflfuseiL  Princqud  com  cro|»,  oal 
and  barley,  especially  the  first.  Potatow  arevtf 
extensively  cultivated,  and  form  an  imj«oria« 
i»art  of  the*fo«xl  of  the  inhabitants.    Kelp  is  mad 


iiunierous  shipwrecks ;   among  othe»  of  that  of 
the  French  frigate  la  MihIusc, 
AK(rUNSKOI,  a  town  and  fortress  of  Siberia, 


This,  also,  is  the  case  with  the  herring  fishen 
which  used  formerly  to  be  pro3«eeuted  t*»  a  mu^ 
greater  extent  than' at  present,  in  Loch  Fjne  aa 


ABOYBO 

■  cfthaaQKOitsu.  f  team  niTigatinn 
T  ^nn  impuln  to  CTerv  brtuich  of  in- 
mI  th>  mmt  on  Ibe  Frilb  of  Clvdc  is  in 

o  nithGitiKOW  xnAiimtiock. 
a  then  an  Dumeronii  watvrinK-placch  llie 
:  ann  of  the  dtiient  nl*  GIu^iw,  t*  well 

■  hum  man  remote  paili  of 

1 1>  poniUrly  divided  into  the  seven  dis- 
iigyit,  Co    ■    ■'■ 

'  contuiu  fifty  pj 

nvenry,  uid  Oban.  It 
.  _,  .  IGinluii.lioiuefsl9.2S2raniiliFS, 
m  inlub.,  having  increaiwd  from  71,85S 
I>  1861,  however,  oving  to  the  deoi- 
Kted  of  the  cottien,  the  population  had 
■d  to  79,724,  and  the  inhahiied  himsa 
L  It  gmda  one  m.  to  the  H.  of  C.  foi 
•d  Cam^ibdton  and  Inrirary  join  with 
Irrine  m  retaining  a  m,  ParL  con- 
in  1864.  1,914.  Valued  rent,  I49,59l>{. 
mmal  valoe  of  nal  pnipcity  in  lKt>4-5, 

BO  CASTRO,  a  town  of  Turkey  in  Ed- 
Ubwiia,  the  prindpa)  place  in  the  exlen- 
W(U-eultivatetl  valley  of  Deropuli,  near 


■ttd  50  m.  SE.  of 
'  tad  peculiar  aspect,  bein 
ddgea,  divided  from  eaci 
■Eavii>e&  ThehouKfsw 
I  not  cDntiguoDs,  but  m 
.  'Some  aie  placed  on  nrmmandinf^  emi- 
thcn  beneath  projecting  orag3,  and  many 
Im  of  jmciptcea ;  but  the  Ktetla  part 

Sit  fmncc  of  the  rock,  between  iu  de«p 

the  whole  appeaiance  ia  singularly 
Hd  ita  fine  effect  augcoentcd,  nut  only 
bneta  at  ita  moaquea,  hut  by  the  grand 

faitiu^  upon  a  much  larger  ---■-  -^  — 


«, 


ed.)  Pop.  efliimstcd  at 
It  baa  a  g<»d  baiaar,  which  lued  to 
■  with  article*  of  commerce.    Pre- 


n  of  South  Italy,  prov.  Avel- 
■  aiEEii  aiU,  ID  one  of  the  pasws  of 
IBM,  IT  m.  E.  Itmevento,  on  (be  road 
im  la  Fogsia  and  Manfredonia.  Pup. 
M  in  18C1.  It  ia  the  residence  of  a 
■d  b««  a  line  caihednl,  with  numeroui 
aoBVcnta,  and  monla-de-ptiitd ;  a  neini- 
iMJlaT  and  a  manufacture  of  eartben- 
■dfered  moch  froin  earthi|iiak«  in  1456 

■nigh  Dnw  partaking  in  Ibe  pnwpeiity 
r  Italian  kingdna. 

,  a  a«a-pon  town  of  rem,  S.  America, 
lUe  OcoD,  at  the  mouth  of  a  nmall  and 
ndvallei-,  310  m.  NW.  Potuii,  lat.  1(1° 
,l(i«ig.  7ii°  13' 30"  \V.  Itwannearlvdo- 
yn  earthquake  in  WS,  and  hni>  licen 
I  in  a  comparatively  wx>r  »inie,  though 
i^  in  importance.  Pop.  about  30.VIHI. 
ttw  landing  place  than  the  conliiruuiin 
lOkUotlcnd.),  and  Quill 


0  bevn  (be  prindpal  [kit 


of  l<.ilivi 


ARKAKSAS  ISI 

times  difficult  to  etfect  a  landing,  and  •oms~ 
times  quile  impnMible,  un]<«  in  the  balmii  of  the 
natives.  There  \a  now  a  pier  for  landing,  and  a 
battery  to  defend  the  ehipping  in  the  roade.  The 
chiefexportB are copperore,wool,and silver.  Arica 
i«  eonnecled  by  railway  with  the  city  of  Tacnn,  40 
m.  to  the  noith^here  meat  of  the  foreign  mer- 
chanla  reside.  The  net  eatDings  of  the  railway 
in  1863  went  29,143/. 

AKIGNA,  a  place  in  the  N.  of  the  eo.  Roscom- 
mon, Ireland,  nn  the  W.side  of  Lough  AUen.ncar    ' 
wbich  are  coal  and  iron  mines  that  have  been 

Hie  proceedings  of  a  company  formed  in  London, 
in  1824,  for  working  the  Arigna  mineji,  were  of  so 
singular,  or  mthcr  bo  disgraceful  a  character,  aa  to 

S've  rise  to  an  inquiry  before  a  committee  of  the 
ouse  of  CommonK.  Full  details  aa  to  these 
mines  may  be  found  in  '  Weld's  Survey  of  Koa- 
common;' 

AKISPE,  a  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  mtendency 
of  SoDora,  near  the  soorce  of  the  river  Yagiiiu 
"op.  estimated  at  5,000. 

ARIZONA,  a  district  of  the  U.  8.  N.  America, 
bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  Rio  Colorado,  oil  the 
E.  by  long.  10a°  W.  to  the  34th  parallel  of  laL, 
and  thence  W.  on  the  same  parallel  to  Uie  Cnlo- 
'u  river ;  on  the  S.  by  Conora  and  Chihuahuas, 
the  boundary  Hne  between  the  U.  S.  and 
Mexico,  and  frem  Rio  Crande  on  the  flSnd 
parallel  in  Texas  to  long.  1114°.  Area  about 
'OO.UOU  »q.  m.  The  i&trict  was  cfded  by  the 
lexicans  in  1853  to  the  U.  S.,  and  forma  now 
portion  of  New  Mexico. 

ARKANSAS,  a  lar)^  river  of  N.  America.  It 
sea  in  the  Rockv  Mountains,  in  about  41°  N.  lat. 
nd  110°  or  111"  W.  long.;  and,  pursuing  an 
ESE.  direction,  united  with  the  Missisitippi  in  lat. 
8a°66'N.,  long.  9I°10'W.  The  river  has  a  course, 
following  itsben^ls,  of  about  2,170  m.  It  haBse\'e- 
'  important  tributaries,  of  which  the  Great 
-  ■'--  falling  into  it  on  the  right,  ii  the  prin- 
ipau  louring  the  periodical  Bwell,  the  Arkansas 
s  navigable  to  the  Rocky  Mnimtaina;  and  at 
iiher  times  it  may  be  nai-igalcd  for  about  600  m. 
romils  con Huence  with  thcMistiLsri[q)i.  Its  navi- 
[Biion  is  safe,  being  uninlcrmptwl  by  rocks, 
hoala,  or  rapids.  If  the  hlisdouri  be  reckoned 
the  lirst  in  magnitude  among  the  tributaries  of 
(ho  Mississippi,  the  second  rank  is  due  in  the  Ar- 
it  being  longer,  and  draining  more  surface 
e  Ohio,  Mississippi  proper,  or  Platte. 

LNBAS,  one  of  the  U.  S.  N.  America,  so 

called  from  the  above  river,  by  which  it  is  tra- 

-■ersed  through  ita  whole  extent  from  W.  to  K. 

■etwcen  H3°  and  86°  30'  N.  lat.,  and  tt9°  44'  and 

94°  30'  Vf.  long.,  having  E.  Ibe  Mississi|:pi,   liy 

_...  ,.  ■- -   ■■  rilled  ffonj  ^t  jijtcs  of  Tennessee  and 

Length  240  m.,   breadth   238  m. 

m  auouL  52,000  sq.  m.    Pop.  in  1820,  14,373; 

1S30,  30388;  in  IKJO.  97,674,  of  whom  19,.'»35 

'rGsla\-es;andiQlt<G0,a24.l43,ofwhomlll,IlG 

rre  slaves^    Ilei-ide«  the  ArkaneaM,  the  principal 

■en  ore    the  White    River,    the    St.  Francis, 

Woshila,  and  Red  River,  all  affluents  of  the  Mis- 

riesippi.    The  country  is  divided  into  three  iwr- 

.-. ...  -J-  |j^^  1),^  1^  portion,  oc  that  Iving  along 

lippi,  low,  flat,  and  covered  with  ailentc 

forest;  2nd,  the  central  portion,  a  liltle  more  ete- 
Bled,  and  containing  xei'erBl  extensive  prairies; 
lid  llio  3rd,  or  W.  jKirtion,  which,  compori'd  wilh 
be  others,  may  be  called  mountainous.  All  de- 
criptior-   -'  — ■-'■      '•--•--  ■-  -'— 


182 


ARKLOW 


of  the  more  elcvatpxl  imrta  is  Rterile.  In  many 
diHtricta  tliore  m  a  scarcity  of  water.  In  the  h. 
lyirt  of  the  state,  and  in  the  hollows  alonf^  the 
rivers,  c^peciAlly  the  Arkansao,  the  climate  is 
moii«t  ami  unhealthy;  hut  in  the  midillc  and  W. 
I»nrts  it  is  rom]>aratively  salubrious.  The  mineral 
ricrhcs  of  the  state  are  ver>'  imi^rfectly  explored: 
hut  it  contains  vast  quantities  of  salt^  which,  in- 
doe<l,  render  the  waters  of  the  Arkansas  brackish. 
Iron  ore,  coal,  zinc,  lead,  manganese,  and  fjcypsum, 
arc  alsi>  found.  Indian  com  and  cotton  are  staple 
products ;  wheat,  oats,  tobacco,  &c,  are  also  raised. 
The  countr>' is  well  fitted  f<ir  the  rearing  of  cattle, 
an<l  lai^  h'crds  of  buffaloes  are  met  with.  Wild 
turkeys  are  also  verj'  abundant  Manufactures 
liave  maile  but  little  progress.  Education  ap[)ear8 
to  l>e  in  a  backward  state.  It  is  very  indifferently 
supplied  ydth  common  schools;  though  these 
would  appear  to  l)e  much  neglected.  Arkansas 
was  purelmsed,  as  part  of  Louisiana  territor>',  by 
the  i;nite<l  States  from  France  in  1803.  It  was 
erected  into  a  separate  territory  in  1819,  and  into 
a  state  in  183C.  It  joine<l  the  so-called  Confede- 
rate States  by  an  Act  of  Secession  from  the 
Union,  passed  May  6,  1861 ;  l»ut  was  conquered 
l>efore  long  by  the  army  of  the  Unitwl  States. 
Suffrage  universal:  senate,  electe<l  every  four 
years,  to  consist  of  not  less  than  seventeen,  nor 
more  than  thirty-three  members;  house  of  re- 
presentatives, elected  bicnnally,  consists  of  not 
less  than  fifty-four,  nor  more'  than  a  hundred 
members.  Governor  elected  for  four  years,  judges 
fur  eight  years.  Slaves  not  to  be  emancipated,  with- 
out owners'  consejit.  The  state  is  thvided  into 
liity-one  counties.  Cap.  Little  Kock,  or  Arka- 
pch?,  on  the  S.  lumk  of  the  Arkansas,  alxiut  80  m. 
m  a  direct  line  from  ita  mouth.  Pop.  in  1840, 
2,(>00;  in  1860,  3,727.  It  stands  on  high  ground; 
and  has  a  state-house,  theatre,  academy,  gaol, 
and  penitentiar>'.  Several  newspapers  are  pub- 
lished in  the  town.  During  the  late  civil  war, 
the  post  of  Little  Rock  was  one  of  considerable 
importAnce. 

ARKLOW,  a  marit.  town,  E.  coast  of  Ireland, 
CO.  Wicklow,  |>rov.  I^inster,  on  the  Ovwa,  at  it« 
mouth,  39  m.  S.  by  E.  Dublin.  It  was  taken  p<»»- 
sessfon  of,  and  a  castle  erected  bv  the  first  English 
settlers.  In  1649  it  was  taken  fcy  Cromwell,  ami 
dismantled.  A  severe  conflict  took  place  here  in 
1 798,  Iwt ween  the  royal  ftirees  and  the  insurgents ; 
in  which  the  latter  wore  defeated  with  much 
slnughter,  and  their  leader  killed.  Pop.  in  1861, 
])Ar.  6,257,  tuHn  4,760.  The  iovrrif  placed  on  the 
declivity  of  a  hill  on  the  S.  side  of  the  Ovoca, 
which  is  crossed  at  a  short  distance  bdow  by  a 
bridge  of  nineteen  arehcs,  is  divided  into  the 
Upper  Towii,  consisting  chiefly  of  a  main  street, 
formed  of  well-built  houses,  and  of  the  Lower 
Town,  called  also  the  Fwherj',  from  being  chiefly 
inhabited  by  fishermen.  The  church,  a  handsome 
building  in  the  English  style,  was  erct:ted  in 
1823.  The  K.  Cath.  cha\^\  is  also  an  elegant 
miMlem  structure,  llie  Meth<Klist8  have  a  small 
])lace  of  worship.  A  male  school  is  supported  on 
the  foun<latiou  of  Erasmus  Smith ;  two  female 
schools  by  private  contributions,  and  some  others 
in  the  same  manner:  in  which,  and  in  private 
seminaries,  alx^ut  5o0  children  receive  instruction. 
A  fever  hosfiital,  with  a  dispensary,  is  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  to^m.  A  small  infantr>' 
barrack  stands  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  castle, 
and  a  coast-giianl  station  is  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Petty  sessions  are  held  everj*  Thursday.  The 
town  is  a  constabulary  st.ition.  Tlie  inhabitants 
<lerivc  their  support  chiefly  fn)ra  the  lishenes. 
'Ilicrc  used  to  l)o  an  abundant  summer  fishery  for 
herring  and  hake ;  but  the  former  liave  deserted 


AJILES 

the  coast  for  eome  years,  and  the  winter  fishoy 
also  declining.  The  oyster  fishery  oonturacs  I 
l)e  a  ^reat  and  constant  aonice  of  emplorment  t 
the  tishermen,  who  attribute  the  oomiorts  the 
enjoy  to  itJi  continoance.  The  oysters  are  canx 
in  boata  to  Ikaumaris,  in  Angleaey,  where  the 
are  laid  on  banks;  and  laiaed,  when  required,  ft 
the  Liverpool  market.  These  people  build  ihd 
cottages  on  the  sandy  beach ;  few  have  any  )ai 
of  garden.  Their  exertions  are  much  impedad  hf 
the  defects  of  the  harbour,  which  has  a  bar  atfa 
mouth,  with  seldom  more  than  5  ft  water  erciM 
high  spring  tides.  The  boata,  when  letminK 
home,  are  obliged  to  lie  off  the  bar  and  watch  m 
opportunity  of  crossing  it  on  the  rise  cf  the  im^ 
and  few  boats  come  m  without  striking.  Hi 
fishermen  keep  up  a  light,  at  their  own  iiyami 
during  the  season,  to  point  out  the  bar.  Tbrn  ii 
a  floating  light  S.  end  of  AiUuw  hank,  laU  fiS°  tf 
N..  long.  6°  57'  W. 

AKLANC,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  PuTde  Dia^ 
cap.  cant.,  on  the  Dolore,  10  m.  S.  Ambert  Pop 
3,960  in  1861 .  It  manufactures  ribbons  and  aSt 
des  of  metme-mercerie. 

AKLES  (an.  ArdoM  or  ArekOe),  a rity  of  FbiHi 
dep.  liouches  du  Rhone,  cap.  arrondL,  on  the  Id! 
bank  of  the  Rhone,  at  the  ptnnt  whoe  the  nvi 
divides  into  two  branches  to  ind<«e  its  dcStSi  a 
the  island  of  Camaigue,  46  m.  WN  W.  If  ancilki 
on  the  railwav  from  Mareeillcs  to  Avignuo.  Fib 
25,543  in  186i.  The  situation  of  the  town,  thoo^ 
pleasing,  is,  owin^  to  the  adjacent  rnaidwn,  m 
very  healthy ;  and  its  stieetiAietng  narrow  and  dirt] 
anci  its  houses  mostly  old  and  mean,  it  is  ind  ' 
for  its  celehrity  principallv  to  the  historicsl 
ciations  connected  with  its  name  and  its  > 
ments.  It  was  an  important  town  on  the  ianaa 
of  Gaul  by  Cassar,  who  calls  it  Arelate.  It  tJbm 
quently  became  a  Roman  colony,  and  was  lovg 
large,  rich,  and  populous  city.  Its  amphithetf 
(wliich  does  not,  however,  ap|)ear  ever  tonavebee 
quite  finished)  is  a  noble  monument,  capabk^  m 
cording  to  Martinidre,  of  accommoAsting  BOfi^ 
spectators :  it  is  of  an  oval  form,  1,284  ft.  in  a 
cumfcrence,  three  stories  h^h,  occopying  tl 
highest  plac'e  in  the  city,  and  is  older,  hogci^  ■ 
more  magnificent  than  that  of  Xismes,  but  not  i 
well  preserved.  The  obelisk  of  Aries  coniuts  of 
single  block  of  granite  about  54  ft.  in  heij^' 
though,  unlike  otlier  monumoitaof  thesamekm 
it  be  without  hierr^h-phics,  it  is  all  but  oerta 
that  it  has  been  brought  fn»m  Eg^-pt;  bat  the 
are  no  authentic  accounts  with  respect  to  it,  me 
tliat,  after  being  long  buried  in  the  ground,  H  m 
erected  on  the  pedestal  20  f\.  in  height,  on  wUc 
it  stands,  in  1676.  A  beautiful  statue  of  Vena 
now  in  the  museum  of  Paris,  was  discovered  ha 
in  1651 ;  and  exclunve  of  the  abore,  the  raioifl 
an  aqueduct,  of  two  temples,  of  a  triumphal  mA 
an  extensive  cemetery,  and  nuin«roiis  ffignetf 
of  granite  and  marble  columns,  e^nnce  the  fcnM 
grandeur  and  imfxirtanoe  of  the  city.  It  has  a  * 
thedral  and  numerous  churehes,  and  has  beei  tN 
seat  of  se\'eral  ecclesiastical  oinuicils.  The  tsn 
hall,  built  by  Mansard,  is  a  handsome  edifice  ;■! 
it  has  a  school  of  navigation,  a  colle^  a  nniiafl 
of  antiquities,  and  a  small  public  libruy.  ^ 
soap,  glass  and  bottles,  are  manufiu^tnred.  andtb 
sausages  of  Aries  are  in  the  highest  esteem.  T 
obviate  the  difficulties  in  the  navigation  of  tk 
Rhone  and  Durance,  a  navigable  cwial  has  bii 
made  from  the  city  to  the  sea,  at  Port  Done,  ibo 
12  m.  E.  of  the  E*.  embouchure  of  the  Rhone,  n 
from  the  city  to  the  Durance  oppusiie  toCadieaii 
It  is  also  connected  with  the  canal  c^  Beanen 
and  consequently  with  that  of  Langnednc,  wU 
water  communication,  together  with  that  of  t 


ABLESHEIM 
.  bm  mdt  it  tte  MDtie  of  a  coiuidenble 

bemg  nlligad,  A.i>.  !70,  Aiica  vw  re- 
idfmbellidwd  tnrCoDiitiuitine.whDKHHi. 
BrlLiiratboniuiiC.  ltdecliD«luDderIlii 
|bD  Unf^    Id  869  it  became  thi 


jdMB  of  the  nme  a 


..  ^ .     ,  u  Mcked  by  tlie  Sancens 

bi  the  twallUi  eeDttuyit  comuituted  ■ 
^  in  1251  it  lobmiUed  Co  Chailn  of 


l.S&.B>]e. 
w^a.  Ptn.  936  in  1860. 
S-8UR-TECH,  >  town  of  France,  dep. 
lOnentalo,  np.  cut.  li  m.  WKW.  Cket. 
Uin  1861.  It  hu  hot  mincnl  apriof^ 
mX,  a  town  of  Fnnce,  dep.  du  N  ord,  cap. 
flHSaiiKt,6m.aDDna7.    Pop.l,660in 


t,  doch.  d  Luxembouig,  cap.  canL,  oD  ■ 
■  nUdle  of  roirals,  16  m.  WNW.  Liutem- 
lith  which  It  ij  connected  hy  railway. 
IT  in  1«6I .  It  has  iron  worka,  and  ■ome 
■m  oT  linea  and  wonUen  stuffs,  and 
IBB,  md  ■  tnde  in  snin.  Ailon,  which 
r  IBDOte  oiigin,  wu  funnerly  fortified.  In 
mtiana  that  have  been  made  in  the  town, 
■nrtaln,  and  Monea  bearing  inscription^ 
n  dug  op  that  leave  no  doulil  in  lennl  to 
■t  importance.     It  waa  neaiLv   burned 

178B,  and  aeveial  enea(;emeiitB  have 
M  in  ita  Tidnity. 

IGH,  an  inland  CO.  Ireland,  prov.  CUter, 
(.  Loi«h  Neagh.  W.  Tvronc  and  Horn. 
Lodth  and  E.  Down.  It  ia  about  31  m. 
ifiMD  N.  to  M.,  and  30  m.  taom  where 
.Kntainins  SI21  i<q.  m.,  or  812,327  imp. 
f  iriiich  about  M.IIOO  are  unimprored 
)  aud  bcv,  and  18,000  water,  being  part  of 
Itagh.  ^uface  partly  rugged  and  moun- 
taut  ganenUy  flat.     Soil  pretty  fertile. 

to  a  great  eitent  in  li 
nikltee,  and  corporationa. 


Soil  pretty  fertile, 
n  the  hands  of  the 


men  aa  la  reuuce  (hem  into  theminutest 
Potatoea,  oati,andwheatareIheprincipal 
Inre  aie  some  dairies  which  produce  but- 
tattle  lA  an  inferior  breed  are  reared  in 
Mihn  Sheep,  few  and  inferior.  Mid- 
Ot  liule  known.  Habitations  of  Ihe  hulk 
1^  ofden  deddedly  superinr  (o  thoee  of 
dm  in  iBon  other  pam  of  Ireland,  ex- 
■dghhaoTing  coimtiee  of  Down  and  An- 
gr  an  mostly  whilewashed.  well  thatched. 


>mfortablc  . 


***^*'*j^  their ;  allied  propensity  to 
■,  (be  iiiiiab.  may  be  adrantsgeouidv  com- 
%  tho«  of  moet  other  pani  cif  Ireland. 
•BsfacCure  widely  diffuaaL  The  rivera 
I  Sewiy  being  joined  by  Ihe  Newry  canal, 
1  Barieahh  communicatiun  between  the 
riiagwd  Bar  and  Lough  Xcagh.  Ar- 
Bttfna  eight  Etarontea.  and  twenty-eight 
nil  parts  of  parishes.  I*rinci|ial  town, 
Pop.inItUI,l9;,427iinlM3I.i^.<;r)l; 
OtMi,  and  in  18H1,  l',m,(W6.  It  ivlnms 
M  (he  H.  of  C,  rit.  two  for  tlie  eo.  an.1 
le  rity  of  Armagh.  The  c<i.  constituency 
I  b^b  regiMercd  eleclore  in  IHtia. 
jQH,  a  city  and  parL  bor.  of  Ireland,  the 
H  vchiepiscopal  sec  of  the  '  I^ritnate  of 
d,'  prov.  Ulster,  cap.  of  the  aliove  co.,  on 
D.  an  affluent  of  Ihe  liUckwater,  70  m. 
.  Duhfin,  and  33  m.  &W.  of  UeUut  by 


ARMAGH  183 

railway.  The  city  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  St.  "Patrick,  a.d.  450,  but  we  have  no  authentic 
notice  of  Armagh  or  of  its  primacy  preriouslj;  to 
1122.  Sir^ce  the  Revolution  it  has  giaduaUy  in- 
creased in  extent  and  pnnperity,  naitreularly  from 
iu  having  been  the  residence  of  Primate  Boulter, 
and  of  his  various  succeeson!  in  the  see,  who  have 
all  contributed  to  iU  improvement  by  liberal  do- 
nations and  bcqiiesla.  The  popnladon  in  1X21 
amounted  to  M^:  in  1831,  to  0,470,  and  in 
1861  to  8,801.  There  have  always  been  more 
Roman  Catholics  than  Proleslaau  at  Armagh, 
notwithstanding  the  tact  of  the  town  bouig  rc- 
gaided  as  the  head-quarters  of  Pioleetantiam  in 
Ireland.  The  census  of  1861  showed  1,318  males 
and  1,499  femalee  who  belonged  to  the  Established 
Chureh,  and  2,112  moles  with  2,711  females  who 
were  Roman  Catholics. 

The  rity  is  well  built,  chiefly  of  a  hard  reddish 
limeatone,  raised  in  the  yicinity.  The  streets, 
which  are  flagged,  and  macadamised,  diverRo  Irom 
the  cathedral  down  the  sidn  of  the  hill  on  which 
it  is  built.  A  plentiful  supply  ofwaier  is  conveyed 


Rolnnson,  Ihe  great  benefactor  of  tl 
also  founded  and  endowed  the  observatory.  It  ia 
supplied  with  an  excellent  astrenomiral  apparatus, 
and  enjovs  a  well  deserved  scicntiSc  celebrity. 
PrimalG  Kobininn  endeavoured  to  raise  the  dty 
to  the  rank  of  a  university,  but  in  this  he  failed. 
The  archbiiihop's  mansion  is  plun  in  style,  but 
el«»»nt  in  ils  arohiteclural  proportions,  and  near 
it  IS  a  private  chapeL  Barracts  in  the  vidnity 
afford  accommodation  for  BOO  men. 

Armagh  derived  ils  corporate  privileges  from  a 
charter  of  Jomee  I.  in  1613,  confirmed  by  Wil- 
liam 111.  The  ruling  body,  which  consisted  of  a 
sovereign,   twelve  burgesses,  and  an   unlimited 

iber  of  freemen,  was  aboli-heiibv  the  Mimid- 

Rcform  Act.  The  bor.  relumeii  two  m.  to  the 
1  parL ;  but  it  only  sends  one  m.  lo  the  Imp. 
pari  The  constituency,  in  ISBfl,  numbered  416 
rtKistcred  elcctora,  of  whom  seven  were  '  old  free- 
men,' and  the  rest  10/.  householders  and  SL  rated 
occupiers.  The  assizes  and  general  eeiwions  of  Ihe 
peace  ore  held  twice  a  vear;  a  ccrurt  for  insolvejit 
debtors  three  limes  a  year;  and  a  court  of  i>etty 
CMions  everv  Satiirdsv. 

The  ecclesiastical  pmv.  of  Ihe  Primate  of  all 
raland  comprisfA  the  i ' 


ippcr  or  English  part,  i 

e  COS.  of  Loulh  and  Meath,  and  the  lower 
part,  conUinmg  Armagh,  Tymiio,  and 
part  of  Londonderry.    The  arcluepisciipal  cslat™ 

1  and  renewal-tine^  is  slated  to  be  I7.l!tu/., 
h,  on  the  demb*  of  ihu  present  archbishop,  is 
e  reduced  to  12.0UIV.    The  caiheilral,  a  largo 
•nt  building,  has  recently  undergone  very  ex- 
ive  repairs,  principally  at  Ihc  expense  of  llio 
preeent  prunate.     It  cmiliuns  several  fine  monu- 
ments ;  hot,  to  the  extreme  regret  of  all  tmo 
Milesians,  the  moniunent  of  Brian  Roru,  said  to 
have  been  inteireil  in  it  ttia  the  battle  of  C^m- 
larf,  can  no  longer  be  traced.  A  chapel  of  case,  near 
Ihe  Mall,  is  consecrated  to  Si.  Mart    In  Ihe  K. 
Catholic  arrangements,  the  parish  is  one  of  tlinje 
belonging  to  Ihe  arehbishup,  who  raides  and  has  liLi 
calhedralin  Dropheda.   1  he  parish  chapel,  which 
is  remariuble  for  its  triple  roof,  ia  loo  sinalirorllui 


184 


AKMEKIA 


crmnfTcpation.  There  aro  places  of  worahip  for  Pres- 
hyt('rian8,Secedens  Indqrtmdcnts,  and  Methttdist^. 
*  vVrmnj^h  has*  one  <»f  the  free  grammar-schooLa  so 
lilxTally  endowed  hy  James  I.  It  is  a  lar^e  build- 
in;?,  in  an  endojwil  area,  with  acconimtHbition  for 
100  resident  ])iipib*.  The  pn-sent  primate  main- 
tains a  se])arate  school,  for  the  ^e-neral  (Mlucatiun 
of  the  l)oys  of  the  clu»ir.  There  w  a  charter  scluKtl 
for  l»oj-8  and  t;irU,  under  the  cnd(»wment  of  Mr. 
Dreliiloourt;  a  T^nea)*rrian,  a  national,  and  a  Sun- 
day school,  liesides  several  private  establishments. 

Though  little  or  no  manufacture  lie  carrie<l  on 
in  the  town.  Armagh  is  the  centre  of  a  latf^  inland 
trade,  chietiy  in  grain,  linen,  and  yam.  which  has 
consiilerably  increasetl  since  the  opening.  Tlie 
linen-hail,  a  larj^?  and  well  arranpwl  buihlinj;,  is 
o]>en  fur  sales  on  Tuesdays,  cliieily  for  brown  linens. 
'I  here  are  considerable  weekly  sales  of  yam  at  the 
yam-market. 

AH  MEN  I  A,  an  extensive  country  of  W.  Asia, 
consisting  princii>ally  of  the  tAble-land  Ivin/^  be- 
tween the  Kur  on*  the  X.  and  the  Ivunllstan 
mountains  on  the  8.,  haWug  the  Eu])hrates  from 
the  ridge  of  Mount  Taurus  to  Erzingan  uw  the  W., 
and  approaching  to  near  the  ('aspian  Sea  on  the 
E.  But  the  limits  of  Amienia  differed  widely  at 
flitferent  periotls,  and  were  at  no  time  exactly  de- 
fnied.  llic  tlat  parts  of  the  c<iuntry  are,  probably, 
not  less  than  from  .0,000  to  6,(K)0  ft.  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  it  is  inter)KM!ted  hy  several 
lofty  mountain  chains,  the  summits  of  some  of 
wliiVh — as  that  of  Ararat  ^see  ARARAT)—ascend 
witlun  the  line  of  perpetual  congelation.  Armenia 
gives  birth  to  some  large  and  celebratc<l  rivers,  as 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  flowing  S.  to  the  Per- 
sian (lulf ;  the  Cyrus  or  Kur,  and  its  important 
iributar}',  the  Araxet  or  Aras,  flowing  E.  to  the 
( 'aspian*  Sea ;  and  the  Akamjws  or  Chorak,  flowing 
>t.  to  the  Black  Sea.  It  has  three  great  lakes; 
those  of  Van,  Shahee  or  Urmiah,  and  Goukcha  or 
Sevan.  The  circumference  of  the  first  is  estimated 
lit  240  m. ;  it  has  several  islands ;  and  its  waters, 
though  brackb«h,  are  dmnk  by  cattle.  The  other 
two  lakes  arc  also  very  extensive.  Tlie  water  of 
Hiat  of  L'rmiah  is  excessively  salt,  and  so  buoyant 
that  one  can  with  difficult^'  stand  where  it  is  3  ft. 
deep.  The  soil  and  ]m>ducts  are  very  various; 
but  in  general  the  former  is  abundantly  fertile, 
especiidly  in  the  few  spots  where  it  is  irrigated. 
In  the  higher  juirts  all  sorts  of  com  may  be  ad- 
^'nnt■ageously  cultivatetl ;  and  the  valleys  pnxlucc 
extx.*irent  cotton,  tol>acco,  gra|>es,  &c  The  ploughs 
are  all  drawn  bv  oxen  or  buflaloes ;  no  fewer  than 
eight  or  ten  of  tfie  former  l>ein^  fre(juently  attached 
U)  one.  The  only  muierals  raised  m  modem  times 
arc  copper,  iron,  and  rock-salt;  but  in  antiquity 
tlie  ]irecious  metals  ranked  among  it^  pnKlucts. 
Owing  to  the  great  elevation  of  the  country,  the 
climate  is  in  most  parts  rather  severe ;  but  though 
the  winters  List  long,  the  summer  heats  are  sutfi- 
lient  to  bring  all  the  fmits  of  the  earth  to  i)erfec- 
tit>n.  The  country'  is  in  many  {tarts  destTt,  and 
is  even'whcre  verv  thiidy  i)eo)iled.  Besitles  the 
Anneninns,  or  old  mhabitants,  who  are  prin<'i|>ally 
I  iignged  in  agriculture  and  trade,  the  popuhition 
consi^tt  of  Turks,  Persians,  and  Pussians,  and  wan- 
dering pastoral  hordes  of  Turkmans  and  KfM.trds. 
The  priiicipid  towns  are  Erivan,  Erzeroum,  Nak- 
<;hivan,  Akhlat,  Van,  and  Akhalzikh. 

Armenia,  though  it  has  long  since  l>een  effaced 
from  the  Wt^t  of  nations,  was  governed,  for  a  length- 
ene<i  {K'-riod,  either  by  indeiiendent  princt^s  or  In' 
vassals  of  the  Assyrian  and  Persian  monarchs  It 
snbse([uently  became  the  theatre  of  htng-continued 
struggles  liet ween  the  Persians  and  Itomans;  and 
nol  withstanding  ihv.  hanliness  of  the  iidiabitimts, 
and  the  natural  advantages  of  the  count  n'  for  de- 


fensive warfare,  it  seems  nerer  to  hare  been  lUi 
to  oppose  an  cffectoal  rcnstanoe  to  any  invida', 
In  the  thirteenth  century  it  was  ovemui  by  the 
Moguls;  and  in  the  succeeding  oentuxy  the  tut 
trace  of  its  independence  disappeared,  and  theAF 
menians  ceased  to  have  a  coiintn'. 

llic  people  early  began  to  seek  an  asvlmn  ii 
foreign  parts  from  the  oppression  under  wluch  thej 
suffered  at  home,  and  tliey  arc  now  widely  diftad 
over  Turkey,  Penia,  Kuaua,  and  India.  Tba 
emigrations'have  not,  however,  alwa^'s  been  yol» 
tar>'.  In  1604,  Schah  Abbas,  emperor  of  Peni^ 
in  order  to  protect  his  dominions  on  the  aide  d 
Armenia  against  the  Turks,  resolved  to  canrd 
the  inhabitants,  and  to  lay  waste  a  lai|re  noraoi 
of  the  country,  et)  that  it  might  no  longer  be  lUi 
to  support  an  army.  This  monstrous  lesohitiBi 
was  executed  with'  the  most  revolUng  barbarity 
The  inhabitants,  driven  off  like  cattle,  perished  Iq 
thousands,  while  their  bouses  were  bunt  dom 
and  ever>'  vestige  of  ci\'ilisation  obliterated,  i 
part  of  the  sur\'ivon  were  settled  in  one  of  tb 
suburbs  of  Ispahan,  where  thev  were  kiaA; 
treatcil ;  but  the  greater  number,  "being  settled  i 
an  unhealthy  part  of  the  prov.  of  Masundeai 
were  soon  swept  off  by  disease.  Until  reoendy 
Armenia  was  divided  between  Turkey  and  Penai 
but  the  former  ceded  to  Russia,  t>y  the  treaty  i 
A(hrianople,  a  considerable  i)ortion  of  her  Aim 
nian  territories;  and  in  182 «,  Kusua  aoquiredtb 
entire  ])n>v.  of  Erivan  from  Persia.  These  aoqn 
sitions  have  been  consolidated  into  the  gavca 
ment  of  Transcaucasia.  The  Tnrkisb  poitian  o 
Armenia  is  subdiN^ded  into  the  pasbalics  of  Eiw 
roum,  Kara,  and  Van. 

Whatever  may  be  its  iniiufnice  in  other  reipecti 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  occupatun  of 
part  of  Armenia  by  the  Russians  will  be  of  aqfEa* 
lar  advantage  to  its  inhabitants.  Great  nnabai 
of  Armenians  have  already  emigrated  fivm  Ai 
Turkish  and  Persian  jiroN-inces  to  those  of  RnM^ 
where  they  have  been  advantageously  settled 
Tlie  depredatiims  of  the  petty  chiefs  and  of  dN 
wandenng  tribes  will  now  be  effectually  restniodl; 
and  for  the  first  time  for  these  sevenl  centnri^ 
the  Armenians  will  be  made  aware  of  the  adva* 
tages  resulting  from  the  security  of  pnipeitf,  ipd 
from  living  under  a  strong  and  (comijared  with 
thi>8e  under  which  they  formerly  lived)  a  Ubml 
and  tolerant  govemme'nt.  Col.  Honteith  bM 
decisive  testimony  to  the  benefits  that  hive  R- 
suited  to  Georgia  and  other  Transcaucasian  eons' 
tries  from  their  occupation  bv  Russia.  *  Too  nq 
now,'  he  sajTS  *  travel  in  perfect  tecurihf,  wiAfMt 
horteSj  from  the  mouths  of  the  Phasis  to  the  Kb 
and  the  Caspian,  thrtiugh  countries  where,  t 
1815,  the  roads  were  all  but  impourticablc,  ao 
exp(M>ed  to  the  unrestrained  attacks  of  nibben  n 
other  liandittL'  (Journal  of  the  Geographical  Si 
ciety,  voL  iii.  p.  87.)  These  remarks  are  oonfinw 
by  the  experience  of  late  travellers. 

Tlie  total  number  of  the  Armenian  nation 
estimated  by  Mr.  Conder  at  about  2,000,000, 
whom  about  two-thirds  may  be  within  the  Oti 
man  dominions.    With  the  exception  of  the  Jev 
no  other  people  is  so  much  scattercii.    It  is  su 
I)osed  that  there  are  about  200.000  in  Constan 
nople  and  the  adjacent  N'illagea ;  about  40,000 
India ;  10,0(^K)  in  Hungary'  and  the  contigw 
countries ;  and  they  are  met  with  in  Africa  a 
even  America.    Mr.  Ussher  (Travela,  Lond.  W 
states  that  the  number  of  Armenians  in  Armei 
proi>er  is  not  ver\'  large:  they  are  sui^xised 
together  to  consist  of  ten  or  twelve  millio 
scatt^-red    over    nearly   every   country   in   i 
worhL 

Like  the  Jews,  the  Armenians  fuund  in  foroi 


tmMtfjall  mgmti  in  aome  ilopart- 
BmsRSiaT  at  tbe  «m|>1ii>-men(ti  con- 
iwith.  The  moment,  in  raol,  that  they 
nadre  Hnl,  they  endeivoiir  either  lo 
m  or  thai  children  intii  3i>ine  l)ruich 
i^f  begin  with  the  loH-cxI  ilFiuilmeiitai 
bis  or  forttinate  ucendin);  ^mlu«lly 
■de  to  MDQlheT,  lill  thp;-  arrive  at  thit 
to  nmmit  of  their  unbitian.  A  Urge 
if  tbe  (hrei^  ind  inli^nuil  tnde  of 
ma,  Sontiiem  Ru»iA,  India,  Ac,  psr- 
e  flnt.  in  in  Cheii  haniU.  They  are 
"" "     "  ■  and   thouph 


ARMENIA 

and  his  compani 


ceason  hive  done  mach 
ifniaRe*  into  Armenian. 
If  tnnHlalcd  Thnmu  k  Keniiu& 

and  India,  and  jirepiire  the  way  for  the  educalinn 
"  the  people.   ...   In  GeoiKia  there  are  many 


eall  (hemselvea  A 


that  n 


.  bv  ilare 


dignon 


r  in  theii  dealings,  and 

Hy  than  the  Grecka. 

Boiani  are  Christian*  djlferin);butlittlr 

rf' the  Eailem  or  Gieck  church.    Thcv 

Bcnaofthe  council  of  Chalcedon,  anil 

a  divine  nature  in  Christ-  Their  offici- 

r,  at  eartabrdi,  are  ubli^ 


of  a  highc 


rally  eiercued  by  them ;  but,  notwith- 
m  circumnance,  and  that  the  ptienta 
Ud  iocome^  but  depend  entirely  nn 
hn  peiquisitea,  they  do  not  appur  lo 
mfloence,  or  to  be'  very  attentive  to 
:  they  are  uniformly  alnioat  in  the  taut 
eiate,  and  their  morala  are 
tbe  most  favoumble  point 
■  Beiearche«,  p.  243.) 
■oiana  generally  do  not  acltnfnrledge 
■ey  of  the  Pope ;  liuC  linee  1441  hare 
aa  their  spiritual  nupciioT,  thepatnarch 
lain,  resdinf;  at  the  famnun  conr— *  "' 
mnJiea,  near  Krivan.  ntnr  in  jhdh 
The  patriarch!  of  Constantuiop 
bave  no  authority  in  ecclenu 
t  the  TurkLib  piveRunent  co 
aa  the  head  of  the  Armenian  n 
D  all  annlirationii  arc  received,  a 
!d;  aud^ieiaacc^ 


e  patiii 


of  Ecli 


tba  latter  became  a  liui>«ar 
to  1441,  the  patriarchs  of  fii  and 
I  monaitery  on  an  iidand  in  Lake  Van) 
■nritual  authority  with  tlie  patriarcli 
am;  and  Utterly  the  Porte  (with  little 
i  been  endeavouring  to  sever  the  cnn- 
weai  ila  Armenian  euhjecta  and  thdr 
■1  head,  now  under  the  control  " 
w,  by  direcliuK  their  attention  to 
le  preleneiona  of,  tbe  patriarch  of  Sia, 
thin  the  Tmfciah  tetritoiies.  (Elliott't 
X4T0.) 

■able  number  of  Armeniana  are  in  con. 
h  the  Koman  See ;  they  are  called  the 
ncniana.  The  Armenians  of  Poland, 
itli  their  patriarch,  suhmlitcd  to  the 


uthe' 


IT  IRie, 


with  th< 
lioD  oT  the  order  of  Mcc) 
la,  and  afterwanl)  in  tlie  inland  of  San 
Venice.  Uechitar,  an  Annenian  monk, 
at  Sebajite  in  Asia  Afino 
■ftei  knowledge,  and  fitleil 
i*  people,  he  endeavoured  bv  aiHritnal 
influence*,    " '   ■■■-    ""    -'--■  -   -' 


a  Kemjns.     These 


e  the  n 


h.  Six  Ar 
ic  Euplirati 
the  Greek  faith,  the  larBost  of  whi 
or  AftuntH.      The  Proteatanta,  ti 

voured  to  -' ■^-  "■ 

founded  a 


nian  villaces 
is  called  Ags 


rerts.    The  Basle  misdonarica 
Shnsha,  which 
luest  of  tbe  Pa- 
triarch, who  ref^arded  it  aa  danj*eTuua.      <Haz- 
Ihausen ;  Usuber'ii  Travels,  p.  26d.) 
Kowhere  is  the  pacriarchal  system  carried  to  • 
..   . .,. .._  1 ■ —   l>i]rinjt 


e  lifeti 


e  of  the  father,  all  the  si 


desceDdantfl  live  ti^gether  in 


□f  their  inhabits 


■ndfouj 


ly  the  deseondanta 


inherit  equally ;  but  until  the  death  of  the  head 
no  one  can  pnsseaa  anythine  separate  from  all  the 
others.  Until  morris^  the  Armenian  (jirls  p-i 
about  as  they  like ;  they  are  unveiled,  and  enjoy 
aa  much  freedom  as  they  could  do  in  Eunipeiui 
countries,  liirtinB,  lovc-mniiin)^,  and  manyinjr  lo 
please  themselves,  as  in  more  civiliml  lanito.  Kut 
once  married,  and  all  is  changed.  From  Chat  lime 
until  she  bears  a  child,  she  nei-er  speaks  to  any 
one  except  hei  husband ;  and  then  only  in  private. 
Afler  she  becomes  a  mother,  slie  may  speak  to  her 
mother-in-law  first,  and  after  the  lapee  of  certain 
periods,  to  her  own  mother,  her  Biotera-in-law,  and 
her  own  sUtcra.  She  is  always  veUed,  even  in  her 
own  house :  she  never  siieaks  to  male  strangem, 
and  she  seldom  or  never  leaves  the  house.  Iter 
jewelloTf,  and  ornaments  can  be  shown 


nlyto 


^ofherowr 


id  an  Anneuian  priuting-[irvKt.     lie  |  bj-  t 


Qolelc  aa  that  of  the  Turkish 
.   .     .  hand,  the  Armenian  women 

seldom  do  any  hard  work ;  they  remain  at  homo 
while  their  husbonds  labour  in  the  fields,  and  they 
enjoy,  probably  on  account  of  their  acquaintance 
prior  to  marria^,  much  more  respect  and  confi- 
dence fmm  their  hushonils  than  fsJls  to  the  share 
of  the  Turkish  wife,  who,  moreover,  has  to  divido 
with  two  i>t  three  rivals  the  little  affwtion  or  re- 
spect which  her  husband  deigns  to  bestow  on  her. 
As  the  Armenian  woman  can  only  talk  in  her  own 
house  below  lier  breath,  that  none  of  her  mala 
relatives  may  hear  what  she  says,  it  follows  tliat 
the  consequence  wliich  usually  results  from  the 

sane  quarrvllinR,  is' quite  avoided.  CusttHii,  the 
strongest  of  all  Ishs.  furijiddinjc  them  tu  speak 

carried  on  under  great  difficultiea.  (Dasher,  John  \ 
Fmm  London  tu  Perse|iolis,  18^0,  p.  S4H.) 

The  language  of  Armenia  is  hanh,  and  over- 
Inaded  with  consonanlii.  Iksiiles  a  great  many 
Inrlo-Ciermanic  rttnts,  it  exhibits  numemus  rela- 
tions with  tbe  Finnish  idioms  of  Siberia,  and 
other  languages  of  N.  Asia.  Ita  grammar  is  ex- 
ceedingly coinplex.  The  ancient  Armenian  is  no 
longer  spoken,  anil  exists  only  as  a  dead  language 
in  honk^  It  is  Bo  very  different  from  the  modem 
■  ingcr  unilcrstood,  exeejit 


«by> 


.  studied.      The  modern 


186 


ARMENT 


language  is  largely  made  up  of  Persian  and  Turk- 
ish words;  and  its  grammar,  and  the  construction 
of  its  phrases,  are  totally  distinct  from  those  of 
the  ancient  language. 

The  alphabet  of  the  Armenians,  introduced  a.d. 
40C,  and  still  in  use,  consists  of  thirty-eight  letters, 
of  which  thirty  are  consonants,  ami  eight  vowels. 
At  an  early  period  the  Armenians  had  a  literature 
and  learned  men ;  and,  though  the  great  bulk  of 
the  nation  be  now  plunged  in  the  grossest  igno- 
rance, they  continue  to  this  day  to  possess  both, 
nnd  works  of  considerable  merit  are  still  printed 
in  their  language.  They  have  printing-presses  at 
(Constantinople,  Venice,  Moscow,  Calcutta,  and 
other  places.  (Jaubert,  Voyage  en  Armenie  et  en 
Perse,  paasim;  Smith  and  i)iK'ight*s  Missionary 
Kesearches  in  Armenia ;  Colonel  Monteith's  Paper, 
in  the  Journal  of  the  Geographical  Society,  voL 
iii. ;  and  Ussher's  Journey  from  London  to  Perse- 
l)olis,  I860.) 

AKME^T,  a  village  of  Upper  Egypt,  near  the 
leil  bank  of  the  Nile,  20  m.  S.  Esne.  It  occupies 
the  site  of  the  Ancient  Hermontis,  It  has  in  its 
envinms  a  temple,  on  the  walls  of  which,  among 
other  figures,  is  a  giraffe — an  animal  now  un- 
known in  Egynt. 

ARMENTIERES,  a  frontier  town  of  France, 
dep.  du  Nord,  cap.  cant,  on  the  Lys,  18  m.  N\V. 
Lille.  Pop.  11,901  in  1861.  It  is  well  built,  clean, 
nnd  handsome ;  has  a  communal  college,  an  estab- 
lishment for  spinning  cotton,  fabrics  of  table-linen, 
mattresses,  laces,  thread,  tobacco,  <fec.;  itith  bleach- 
ing-^prounds,  soap-works,  distilleries,  and  a  refiner}' 
of  salt.  Large  quantities  of  bricks,  made  in  the 
cn\'irons,  are  exjMrted  by  the  Lys,  and  b<vats  are 
built  for  its  navigation.  It  has  a  celebrated  mar- 
ket for  8ee<l  com. 

ARNA  Y-LE-DUC,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Cx)te- 
d'()r,  ca]).  cant,  near  the  Arroux,  29  m.  S\V,  Dijon. 
Pop.  2,537  in  1861.  It  has  manufacturer  of  cloth, 
serges  and  drugget?.  On  the  25th  June,  1760,  the 
great  Huguenot  leader,  Achniral  CV)lignv,  defeated 
near  this  town  the  army  of  the  Marehal  de  Cossd 
Gonor. 

ARNEDO,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  Burgos,  on 
the  Cidacos,  10  m.  S.  Calahorra.  Pop.  8,885  in 
1857.    Cr(M>d  wine  is  made  in  its  neighbourhood. 

ARXIIEM,a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  cap.  prov. 
Gnelderland,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Veluwe  hills,  84  m.E.  bv  S.  Utrecht, 
on  the  railway  to  DUsseldorf.  top.  20,904 
in  1861.  It  is  a  fortified  place  of  the  nrst  class ; 
its  fortifications  having  oeen  greatly  improved 
and  enlaiged,  in  1702,  by  the  famous  engineer 
(k>ehom.  The  ramparts,  planted  with  elms,  af- 
fonl  an  agreeable  promenaile.  The  town  is  well 
built;  has  a  good  port  on  the  river,  which  is 
crossed  by  a  bridge  of  boats;  and  is  advanta- 
geously situated  for  trade.  It  is  the  residence  of 
a  governor,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  court  of  assizes, 
of  a  tribunal  of  original  iiirisdiction,  and  a  tri- 
bunal of  commerce ;  and  has  a  coUege,  a  literary 
society,  an  agricultural  commission.  &c.  In  tlie 
church  of  St.  Eusebius  are  the  toml)8  of  the  old 
Dukes  and  Goiuits  of  GuelderlantL 

ARXIIEM  LAND,  N.  coast  of  Australia,  be- 
tween the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  and  Anson  Hay,  dis- 
covered by  the  crews  of  the  *  Am  hem  *  and  '  P^re,* 
in  1618.  It  forms  part  of  the  territoiy  api>or- 
tionerl  to  South  Australia  by  the  Royal  Letters 
I'atent  of  Julv  1863,  for  the  5>urpo8e  of  the  ct>lo- 
nisation  of  the  north  coast  of  Australia.  (See 
Australasia.) 

ARNO,  a  considerable  and  celebrated  river  of 
Italy  (Tuscany),  the  Amua  of  the  Romans,  has 
its  source  in  the  Apennines,  at  Mount  Falterona, 
5  or  6  m.  N.  l^ratovecchio.    At  first  it  flows  S.  to 


ABPAIA 

Punte  a  Buriano;  thence  N.W.  to  PontMi 
where  it  receives  the  Sieve ;  whence  it  panai 
westerly  course,  flowing  through  Floreoee 
Pisa ;  7  m.  below  which  it  fklls  ioto  the  Medi 
ranean.  Its  embouchure  was  formerly  a  g 
deal  farther  to  the  S.;  bat  haTing  become 
stmcted,  it  was  diverted  into  a  new  chsinel 
for  it  in  1608.  Ita  cooiae  may  be  estimi 
at  from  140  to  150  m.  It  is  naturally  nav^ 
from  the  sea  to  Florence,  and  has  been  madeni 
gable  from  Florence  to  near  its  souRe  bj  ae 
of  twenty-seven  locks ;  bat  its  navigatioa  is  Hi 
to  many  obstnictiona,  at  certain  seasooi  ft 
floods,  and  at  other  seasona  firom  dioaglili: 
guard  against  the  injurious  influence  of  the  fan 
it  has  beien  embanked  for  the  greater  part  flf  i 
course.  The  Val  d'Amo,  or  the  ooont^  betm 
Florence  and  Pisa,  is  one  of  the  riohcit,  beitei 
tivat«d,  and  most  beautiful  of  any  in  Italy. 

ARNSBERG,  a  town  of  Pruanan  Wes^ 
cap.  reg.  and  circ.  of  the  same  name,  on  theRot 
by  which  it  is  almost  encompassed,  57  d.  17] 
Cologne.  Pop.  4,300  in  1861.  It  is  the  loidn 
of  the  provincial  authorities,  and  hat  a  coHt  1 
appeal  for  the  regency,  a  Catholic  gymnariums 
an  apicultural  soaety.  The  mhabttanti  a 
principally  emploved  in  the  preparatioa  of  ps 
ashes,  and  in  distiilatiMd. 

ARNSTADT,  a  well-buQt  town  ofSazonyipD 
Schwarzburg-Sondershaosen,  on  the  Ge^^  II  i 
S.  by  W.  Erfurth.  Pop.  6,696  in  186L  Thetm 
has  a  castle,  a  college,  a  cabinet  of  natunl  U 
tory,  and  fabrics  of  cotton  and  tous,  with  a  coi 
siderable  trade  in  com,  timber,  wool,  fon^  ■ 
colonial  produce. 

ARNS WALDE,  a  ttmm  of  the  Pmsnan  ititi 
prov.  Brandenbiu^;  cap.  circle,  19  ni.SE.8ti 
gard,  and  a  station  on  the  Stettin  and  Poa 
railway.  Pop.  4,700  m  1861.  It  is  neailyio 
roimded  bv  three  lakes  well  suimlied  with  nh. 

AROKf^ZALLAS,  a  vill.  of  Hmigary,  iujp 
44  m.  ENE.  Pesth,  and  an  entrepdt  for  tbetia 
between  that  city  and  U{^)er  Hungaiy.  Pc 
8,170  in  1858. 

AROLSEN,  a  town  of  the  prin.  of  Waldeck. 
the  Aar,  1 2  m.  N.  by  W.  Waldeck.  Pop.  1.965 
18til.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  prince,  and  t 
seat  of  the  principal  authorities  of  the  pmriac 
Ls  well  built ;  has  a  fine  castle,  in  whicfa  is  anj 
able  collection  of  coins  and  antiquities,  with 
library  and  a  picture  gallery ;  there  is  ako  a  c 
lege,  and  grammar-schooL 

ARONA,  a  town  of  North  Italy,  prov.  Nova 
on  the  Lago  Maggiore,  near  its  southern  ext 
mitv,  on  the  railway  from  Novaia  to  Bellimoi 
Pop'.  8,259  in  1861.  Its  fortifications,  whidi  v 
formerly  considerable,  were  demolished  by  1 
French' after  the  battle  of  Marengo.  ItiaiR 
built,  has  a  gymnasium,  a  hospiuu,  a  osXit^ 
church  and  three  others,  a  port  on  the  lake,  w 
yards  for  the  constraction  of  vessels  for  its  ni 
gat  ion,  and  a  [ffctty  considerable  commerce. 
Charles  Borromeo  was  a  nati^'e  o(  this  town ;  1 
in  1G97  a  colossal  statue  was  erected  in  honoa 
the  saint^  by  the  i)CopIe  of  Milan,  on  aneigfabc 
ing  eminence. 

ARPAIA,  a  small  \<illagc  of  Southern  Iti 
pn>v.  Benevento,  between  Ci4>ua  and  Beneve 
8  m.  E.  Arienzo.  Pop.  1,385  in  1862.  The 
lage  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  and 
drndhtm,  memorable  for*  the  great  disaster  I 
befell  the  Roman  arms,  anno  311  B.C  But 
better  o])inion  seems  to  be,  that  the  <lefile  ettw 
A  little  to  the  N.  of  Arpaia,  between  St.  Agato 
Moiano,  is  the  real  scene  of  this  disaster,  and 
place  so  celebrated  by  the  name  of  the  /• 
Cattdince.    The  Forks  consist  of  a  small  pi 


■ck  at,  lad  ihiit  up  craywbErD  ebe  by  a 


\,  by  blocking  up  the  dim 
mi  u  well  u  the  athcr. 
^  in  k  tnp,  they  vere 
4lipl  U>  accept  Ibe  Icinu  dict&toi  by  tlic  Ham- 
m^  wbo  grmDtcd  tbem  thcti  liTCfl,  on  their  cl«- 
1n<aiiieQDtharaniu,uiilDaflnii2<niB  by  one  half 
cap.  1-7.) 
m  of  South 
IhIt,  in*.  CuoU,  6  m.  SW'.  Son.  Fup.l1,ii-22 
■  Ml.  The  town  U  iKreeably  aituatetl  on  Hime 
~'™"**  hu  TiriaiiB  churchn,  >  hospital,  with 
iBiActoiica  of  the  best  cloth  nuule  in  the  pruv., 
ffK,  ud  tarneiica.  Aipino  is  ■  veiy  ancient 
<i^.  Hai'in^  been  wnsied  from  the  Samnilca  by 
lt(  Bnuns,  it  became  a  municipal  tuwn,  and  its 
eliMU  were  enrolled  in  the  Cornelian  tribe  802 
pa  Bjc  (Liv.  lihL  I.  G  1,  and  lib.  zxivii.  G  36, 
al  Ciena  pro  Cn.  Flanco.)  But  it  is  chiefly 
■^HCiUe  for  being  the  birthplace  of  two  of  the 
■M  dininKuishcil  men  Italy  ever  producec) — 
Cm  Hariiu,  suniamed  the  third  founder  of 
liat;  oiilU.  Tulliui  Cicero,  the  prince  of  Eomnn 
lOMk  The  latlcclhrqiieDtiyalludea  to  Arpinu 
ia  Iji  Letters  and  dwells  with  complacency  i 
ftcnde  and  primitire  simplicity  of  its  iuhal 
UbU.    (Cramer's  Ancient  Italv,  vol  ii.  p.  1 14.) 

AH'R' A.  a  town  of  N'orthcm'  Ital  v.  prov.  Padua, 
IE  a.  SW.  Padua,  in  the  buaum  of'lhe  F.u(^ne.-~ 
Uk  P<>p.  1,090  in  186i.  Arqna  ia  ramoiie  I 
htiio^becn  the  rctirlence  of  Fefrarch  during  t 
bm  yean  uf  his  life,  and  tbc  place  where  111 
ntt  pnt  and  reslurer  iif  mwlem  literati 
hMlieilhislaBt,'>nthel9)hot.Iulr.l»74  '1 
Uta  IK  preserred  in  (hecharchyanlof  the  to* 
h  1  nrciipliapis  of  red  marble,  rained  on  S< 
tilHKn  on  an  elevated  base,  and  presennl  fro 
««nri»lion  with  HH-"— •■■■->-' 


JmnuBiainT 


ARRAN  187 

dep.  Seine  Inf^iioure,  about  8  m.  from  Dieppr, 
Pop.  961)  in  1S6I.  During  the  mi<ldle  ti^  this 
was  the  principBl  bulwark  of  Normandy  towards 
the  N. ;  its  ensile,  now  in  ruins.  liavinK  withstniid 
several  siege*.  In  Ihe  vicinily  of  this  town,  in 
'-'ixllfllcarr  IV.  defeated  the  triiupa  uftbe  Leoguu 
iniler  the  Due  de  Mayemie. 

AKR.\K,  an  inland  of  NciitUnd.  co.  Bute,  in  tliD 
irm  of  the  ses  between  the  Mull  of  Cantire  and 
he  Aymhire  coast ;  beiuR  separated  ^m  the 
brmer  by  Kilbrannan  Sound,  and  from  the  latter 
ij  the  Frith  of  Clyde,  It  is  4  m.  from  the  near- 
«C  point  of  the  Isle  of  llute,  » j  m.  from  the  ni-at' 
«t  point  uf  {jBn1ire,Bnd  11)^  m.  (him  Ardrossan 
poiiil  in  At-rxbirT!.     It  is  about  IGt  m.  in  length 

breadth  11  m.  Acreage,  inclurling  the  inlet  of 
?ladds  and  Holy  lulwid.  10(I,W)0.  It  eihitnta  a 
iiriliing  contrast  in  its  N.  and  H.  diviidons,  the 
brmer,  or  tlmt  to  the  N.  of  Brodiek,  presenting 
.ofty,  bare,  and  m;q^  granite  mounlains,  cnn- 
locieil  bv  ateep  ridges  and  intersected  by  deep 
valleys  uid  rsiines.  Goatfell,  the  liighmt  moun- 
tain m  the  island,  rises  to  the  hdelit  of  2.874  (L 
above  the  sea.  The  S.  and  larj^t  >1i\ii!ion  oT  Ihe 
islanil  is  composed  of  undulaiinj',  hilly  ground,  tlin 

eontiguntion.  and  covered  with  a  deep  slratum  of 
)ieat  and  other  alluiial  matter.    Kound  the  greater 

C.  of  the  eoaiit  an  almoat  uninterrupted  hniad 
k  or  girdle  of  gravel  has  been  furmcd  by  the 
aition  of  the  sea.  the  soft  greenmrard  on  which 
affords  a  pltasant  and  convenient  sccess  along  the 
sea-side.  The  shores  are  generally  sleep  and 
rockv.  but  high  cliffB  arc  not  frcquenl,  GenenJlv, 
the  isUmd  mar  be  ci>n>idere(l  is  an  illuslraiion  of 

mi'mus  i-oriclies  of  geological  formation  than  any 
other  district  of  (dmihir  extent.  Thtee  deep  biva 
indpnt  the  island— Ksnu  on  Che  NW.,  and  Itro- 
dick  and  I^nibisb  on  tlie  K. :  the  latter  bdngdc- 
fen.led  fnm  the  W.  gales  by  Holy  Island,  1  m.  in 

the  Fiilhof  Clyde.  Marlile',Jaflper,  agalea, coim- 
gorniH,  and  a  Une  npecien  of  rock  cri-stal  called  tlic 
Atrait  diiuniind.  are  met  with.  Tlie  reil  deer  and 
wild  goat,  fiBinerly  very  allundfln^  are  now  ni 


ir  year*:  and 'tis  tlwir  pride— 


Cliev 


TBtftr  to  the  pawJDg  itnngR'a  Rauj 

unn^B  and  his  sepulchre  ;  tachpUIa 

^wetntij  drnple.  nich  u  nlK 
^Mli(  DOT*  ammlaot  iiltfa  liln  iKmln, 
Iwlf  ipjruuld  form'd  tils  mooaioeiitHl  fans. 

'nehoDse  in  which  Petrarch  residnl  in  on  the 
Hrt  of  a  liiile  knoll  overhiuking  two  duKent", 
»d  Bmmanding  a  view  not  only  of  the  ghiiving 
n>l>a  in  tbe  dales  immediately  beneath,  but  of 
J^frtile  plains,  above  wbiisc  low  wo.nJs  of  mul- 
'nn  isd  willow,  tbickenei)  into  a  dark  mniia  by 
Ihmis  of  vines,  tall  tingle  cyprensea,  and  the 
ff"*  of  towers,  are  seen  in  the  ilintaiie*,  whii'h 

tf  ibe  Adriatic  Tlie  diair  in  which  the  |ii>et 
Inillicd  his  last  ia  aliU  shown  luiumic  llie  pre- 
n«i  nlics  uf  Arqua.'  (Childe  Ilanild,  canto  iv. 
ill.  an>lDole>.) 

laqoA.  an  ancient  village  of  Xortheni  Ilalv, 
P".  Kqi-ign,  on  the  Caslagiiaro  canal,  .i  ni.  HK\V. 
nxiS".  Pen.  2,7«)  in  IMtiS.  Jt  has  some  trade 
■Kuuciaand'ilL 

AHijUEXXES,  a  i-illage  of  Belgium,  prov. 
H«inuili,  13  m,  N'.  W.  CharleroL  I'op.  a,22,'i  in 
'■■'"i-   The  village  has  voluabic  lime  and  maitile 

■U'lJUES,  a  small  decayed  lown  of  France, 


of 


ItCi  are  being  sapcrseilcd  by  the 
larger  and  more  esteemed  breeds  of  Argylcshire  mid 
'rshire.    f^wine  art?  raised  in  considerable  nutn- 


of  agricHllurc  fcirmerly 


a  as  bod 
re  held  joii 


'magined  1  (he  laiKls 


la-rH;  iifan  (see 
irgeil  by  a  constant  rourae  of  com  crops,  which 
eiieceeiled  each  other  in  a  series,  luiliroken  except 
by  the  occasional  inlniduclinn  of  l■oIBtoe^•,aslung 
as  Ibe  soil  would  proiluce  anv  thing;  but,  ni  ore 
IfllS,  the  Dnke  of  Hamilton,  who  is  pruprieliff  of 
nearly  Ibe  whole  inland,  has  laboured  stTcJiucfuTjy 
atui  Mici'cnnfnlly  tn  intniiluce  a  belter  sjiitem; 
partly  Inr  letting  famu'  to  indiWdiials  for  a  fixed 
una  of  yeare,  esiluding  auli- tenants  and  a«- 
ngneea;  partly  by  iulruducing  conditioun  into  the 
leases  fitted  to  insure  a  belter  nystem  of  manage- 
ment, and  partly  by  extending  lai^  sumn  on  the 
buililiiig  of  hcHiseis'cncleaing,  making  drains  ami 


;',c 


188 


ARRAN 


joyed  poBscssions  each  mi^^ht  call  his  own,  they 
have  Rteadily  advanced  in  habits  of  industr}',  and 
though  in  this  respect  they  are  still  liehind  the 
tenants  and  labourers  of  the  mainland,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  in  no  insular  Ilii^hland  district  is 
greater  industry  shown  than  in  Arran. 

Tlicrc  are  now  a  numlxir  of  kuKe  farms  enclosed, 
Hubdi\'ided  and  well  cultivated,  having  valuable 
stocks  of  cattle  and  comfortable  farm-steadings, 
where  formerly  there  were  numerous  huts  without 
chimneys  or  windows,  and  ridges  running  in  all  di- 
rections without  a  single  enclosure  or  Kubdivision. 
'llie  general  rotation,  except  on  the  shores,  is,  1. 
Oats;  2.  Green  crop— potatoes,  turnips,  beans  or 
))eas,  with  manure ;  3.  Bear  or  bigg,  wheat  or  oats, 
4  »ften  manured ;  4.  Hay;  6.  Pasture  grass;  6.  Pas- 
ture, sometimes  grass  a  year  or  two  longer.  On 
the  shores  and  holms,  the  rotation  is,  1.  Oats;  2. 
<  Jreen  crop ;  3.  Bigg  or  wheat — these  often  with 
manure;  4.  Hay;  and  then  (tats,  Ac,  again. 
These  rotations  are  not  always  adhered  to  by  the 
tenants  ha^-ing  the  small  possessions,  but  tliey  all 
how  grass  seeds  with  the  com  orop  which  succeeds 
I  he  gn.H'n  one,  and  tliis  of  itself  necessarily  leads  to 
I  letter  management  than  they  formerly  practisecL 
AMieat  to  a  considerable  extent  has  for  a  few  years 
past  lx,*en  raised  iiy  tlie  tenants  of  the  larger  pos- 
sessions, and  a  great  number  of  the  small  tenants 


ARBA8 

Though  Gaelic  be  gcnexmlly  spoken,  Engli&hisoh 
derstofKl  by  everybody. 

Arran  is  divided  into  two  parishes.  ItspnoBli* 
tion  amounted,  in  1755,  according  to  Dr.  Weuto; 
to  3,646;  in  1»01  it  amounted  to  5,179;  and  in 
1831  to  6,427.  It  declined  somewhat  during  the 
ten  yean  ending  with  1851,  but  is  again  on  theia- 
crease,  amounting  in  1861  to  5,538. 

AKRAN  (N.  ISLES  01^,  on  the  W.  coHt  of 
Ireland,  co.  Donqi^al,  opposite  Dangloe,  the  nurt 
N.  extremity  of  the  laigcst,  called  Anannun^ 
being  in  lat.*5do  N.,  long.  8^  29^  W.  A  lighthow 
is  erected  on  this  point,  with  a  fixed  light  elevated 
200  ft.  above  hign-water  mark.  This  island  con- 
tains about  2,000  acres  and  nearly  1,000  inhab.,  the 
land  being  divided  into  the  minutest  portions,  nek 
as  a  *  cow's  foot,'  or  the  quarter  of  a  cow's  graa. 
They  are  mostly  fishers.  On  a  smaller  island  i 
fishing  village  called  Rutland  was  erected  by  tk 
Fishing  Board,  in  1786,  but  it  is  now  nesdy 
deserted. 

AKKAX  (8.  ISLES  OF).  These  consist  oT 
three  L<dands  stretching  NW.  and  SE.,  aboot  12  m. 
along  the  mouth  of  Galway  Bay,  in  Ireland,  hta% 
part  of  the  co.  Galway.  They  contain  in  all  about 
7,000  acres;  the  laigest,  Arranraore,  oompriaiDK 
al)out  4,607;  Innis  More,  1,.338;  and  Innis  Lmt, 
909.    They  are  very  fertile,  but  occasionally  mfliBi 


4ilso  grow  from  luilf  an  acre  to  two  acres  each  of  from  a  scarcity  of  water,     llie  fishing  of  cod  and 


t  hat  grain. 

By  these  changes  in  the  mode  of  possession,  and 
by  tlie  improvement  of  the  soil,  it  will  easily  l»e 


ling  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent,  a  pa 
having  been  constructed  at  the  village  of  Killanej, 
on  the  laigest  island,  at  tlie  expense  of  the  Ftahcfjf 


i«tM>n  that  more  and  Itetter  cattle  may  be  reared  |  Board,  for  the  accommodation  of  the  ciaft  enh 
jind  supported  than  formerly,  and  the  produce  of  ployed.    The  principal  products  axe  fivsh  and  cmv^ 


iTiilk  is  also  much  greater.  Since  1822  the  Duke 
4'f  Hamilton  has  supplied  good  Aig^-leshire  bulls, 
»t  his  own  expense,  tor  the  cattle  on  his  pniperty, 
keeping  always  in  the  island  from  twenty  to  thirty, 
placed  at  convenient  distances.  The  consequence  of 
I  his  arrangement  is,  that  the  cattle  have  been  sur- 
])risingly  imprt>ved  in  ever>'  resiiect.  On  a  few  of 
the  larger  fanns  stocks  of  Ayrshire  cows  are  kept, 
and  succeed  very  well. 

A  nnmtx>r  of  boats  employexl  in  the  herring 
fisherj'  belong  to  Kilbride  and  Brodick,  the  j)rin- 
cipnl  villages.  But  tlie  herring  fiMhery  in  the  Frith 
of  Clyde  and  Loch  Fyne  is  not  nearly  so  pnwf  )erous 
at  ]>resent  as  it  once  was.  Luckily  its  decline  is 
little,  if  any,  loss  to  the  island ;  for,  Imving  no  con- 
siderable town  population,  the  fishery  is  principally 
carried  on  bv  the  cottiers  and  small  farmers,  en- 
grossing their  attention  at  the  time  their  services 
are  most  necessar}'  on  shore,  at  the  same  time  that 
it  has  a  tendency  to  generate  and  keep  alive  idle 
and  (Ussipated  habits.  Kelp  used  to  l)e  produced  in 
considerable  quantities,  but  its  manufacture  has 
now  nearly  ceased.  Most  of  the  woollen  cloth  for- 
merly usctl  in  the  island  was  made  bv  the  women, 
but  a  good  deal  is  now  imported.  I'he  princi])al 
€.\]K>rts  are  cattle,  sheep,  oats,  and  fish. 

A  good  deal  of  illicitly  distilled  whisky  was 
formerly  exported,  but  that  branch  of  uidustr}',  if 
it  may  t)c  so  called,  has  all  but  ceased.  Steamers 
ply  rc^ilody  between  Glasgow  and  (irexjnock,  and 
various  places  on  the  island,  and  also  lx?tween  Ar- 
<lros.san  and  the  island,  which  is  now  much  re- 
sorted to  by  the  citizens  of  Glasgow  and  of  the  W. 
of  Sc(»tland,  as  well  as  by  tourists  fnim  all  parts  of 
the  world  Its  singular  beauty  would  bring  to  it 
still  greater  numlx^rs  if  encouragement  was  given 
to  building,  but  the  Dukes  of  Hamilton,  who  own 
the  greater  |>art  of  the  LMland,  are  not  in  fuvoiu'of 
converting  the  island  into  a  watering-place, 

BriNlick.,  the  principal  village,  is  finely  situated 
at  the  bottom  of  DnsHck  Bay,  on  the'K.  sirle  of 
the  island.  Near  it  is  Bnnlick  Castle,  a  seat  and 
occasional  residence  of  the  Dukes  of  Hamilton. 


fish,  oats,  feathers,  the  produce  of  puffins,  a  wa- 
\yeniiT  kind  of  yearling  calves  in  great  demand  by 
the  Connanght  graziers,  to  which  were  f<innali 
added  great  quantities  of  smuggled  whisky.  1 
lighthouse,  with  a  revohdng  light,  has  been  enctec 
on  the  highest  ])oint  of  the  la^^est  or  moat  north- 
erly of  the  islands,  laL  bS9  T  N.,  long.  9©  40*  W. 
having  the  lantern  elevated  498  ft.  above  the  leva 
of  the  sea.  lliese  islands  give  the  title  of  YjoA  U 
the  family  of  Gore.  The  inhab.,  who  are  vei^ 
poor,  continue  in  a  rather  primitive  state,  and  tlM 
Irish  language  is  imivensally  spoken. 

ARK  AS,  a  city  of  France^  dep.  Pas  de  Calais,  a 
wliich  it  is  the  cap.,  on  the  Scarpe  and  the  Ciin- 
chon,  60  m.  SE.  Calais,  85  m.  N  E.  Amiens,  ani 
100  m.  KKE.  Paris,  on  the  railway  from  Paris  ti 
Brussels.  l*op.  25,905  in  1861.  fhe  city  is  situ- 
ated in  the  middle  of  an  extensive  and  fertlk 
plain;  the  Scarpe  di^'ido8  it  into  two  ports;  ii 
IS  well  built ;  houses  stone ;  seveial  of  iti 
squares  and  public  buildings  handsome,  anc 
worthy  of  notice.  Among  the  latter  are  th< 
old  (jothic  church  of  St.  Waast,  the  hotel  o 
the  Prefect,  theatre,  belfry,  and  barracks.  TIm 
cathedral,  a  fine  old  Gothic  building,  was  d» 
stjoyed  during  the  revolutionair  frenzy.  Aim 
was  fortified  during  the  reign  of  Louis  '^lY.,  bi 
Vauban.  The  citadel,  which  is  very  strong^,  £ 
scjuirated  from  the  town  by  an  esplanaide,  but  it  L 
includcMl  within  the  line  of  the -works.  It  is  th( 
seat  of  a  bishr)pric  and  has  a  court  of  assizes,  i 
tribunal  of  ori^al  jurisdiction,  a  college,  a  gnuu 
diocesan  seminar\',  a  secondary  ecclesiastica 
school,  a  sch(K)l  of  engineering  {vcole  rrgimemtam 
tlir  ghtiejf  an  academy  of  belles-lettres,  a  literar} 
society,  a  iKitanical  garden,  a  school  for  deaf  ami 
dumb,  a  schf  >ol  of  design,  a  cabinet  of  natural  hi»- 
torA'  and  antiquities,  a  mut^eum  of  jdctures,  and  i 
public  library  containing  36,0(Ki  volumes.  Then 
are  establislmnents  fur  the  spinning  of  oitton, 
manufacturt's  of  cotton  stuflfs,  hosier\',  lacCfOiaise 
w(K>llen  stufis,  and  potteries,  and  fabrics  for  the 
prei)aration  of  beet-root  sugar,  soap,  stareh,  beer, 


ABRATOLLOS 

■Jn^fr^iL    Tbm  Scsrpe  bccomca  lUTigmble  tt 

dttUe  id  DUnv  amngaioary  a 
adngfltie  edict  ofNantca  f 


Ibi  mnluiidii,  hmvinK  been  fur  icunaiiieisbleliniB 
U  Ibe  aercy  of  Lebun,  a  rerodouK  terrorut,  a 
uiin  tt  the  plue.  Kobcspkrre,  iif  fam»iu  me- 
HT.  ni  iLu   a  luCive  of  Anas ;    tu  wis  Ua- 

AERAYOLLUS,  a  town  of  Portugal,  prov. 
ilni^  la  10.  NIiW.  Evota,  at  th«  fiHit  of  a 
Bnmnin  on  the  aummit  of  whirh  is  a  citudeL 
FifLiMOiDlitSe.    It  has  aome  fabrics  of  stained 


.  Pop.  Sol. 850 
Ml  pciDdpally  of  tlie  N.  slnpe  uf  tlie  r>-rvn(!«i ; 
(be  vmitauu,  which  cover  tbe  Kntter  part  of  iu 
nalitt,  incieannK  Kradnally  in  eleration  as  ihey 
a(p[i»chitsa.ln)ntlCT;  thealiitudeuf  thehishoet 
■■nil  II  Tnying  from  about  T.UUU  to  about  1 1',.ill0 
(t  ibove  Ihe  level  of  the  Ka.  The  principal 
Tillcjiare  thoae  of  the  Arri^gp  and  the  8alai,  the 
oolj  narijfalile  riven  in  Ihe  ilep.  Acsiordini;  to 
thr  ofioii  tablea,  the  cultivable  luids  occupy  about 
14«,»n,  DHdows  M.ODO.  wowb  (oD  the  mnun- 
taiu)  H.OOD,  vineyanli  1  l.l>30.  and  Wtbs,  wastes, 
ic  13e,0(IO  hecuiea.  Gold  has  been  found :  oncl 
thai  in  valiiahle  iron  mines  near  Vic  Dessos, 
ud  othn  places.  Tbe  N.  portion  is  pretly  fertile 
•ml  nil  culdvateil,  prodiicinK  wheat,  rye,  ~ 
auiie,  ud  milkL  Horses  an  iurcrinr  breed 
oiaiDdnnleafrequentZy  emplovedin  thcLri 
nt  lusl  produce  of  wine  in  eati'mutol  at  115,0110 
Wtuliins  a  year ;  but  the  qualilv  is  inferior,  and 
ii  ■  iriuUy  relainei]  fur  home  um.  The  forests 
hmam  been  taken  proper  core  of;  anil  in  many 
parts  0Tiii([  to  the  consumption  of  ihe  iron  fur- 

■  nrniy  of  wood.  The  wnrkini;  of  metala  ia  Ihe 
Iiiiinptl  blanch  of  manufacturinj;  industry ;  but 
<l»n  m  alio  mauufactuna  of  clolli,  •er^.iM,  flow>- 
■It  ai  oJtion  "tuff*.  It  is  dirided  into  3  arr. 
'F'«.raiiu(n,8L(^rona|,20cant.and3.Wcomm. 
]|  Maigt  u  the  third  military  dik-ision,  is  in  the 
AiiiatDr  Pamtens  and  under  the  juriwliclion  of 
'I*  atr  ntpcnnfa  of  Toulouab  Principal  towns, 
Fiii,  Haisal,  and  Pamiers. 

ART.  or  AKTH,  «  town  of  Switieiland,  cant, 
^wi/i.  11  the  S.  extremity  of  the  lalie  of  Zug, 
•B.h,  Zvff.  at  the  foot  of  mounts  Kigi  anil  Koaa- 
Isni.  Pop.  2,196  in  18Cn.  The  town  is  well 
Wt  Tbe  church  of  St.  GeorKe  is  remarliable 
'•iuin:h[iecture,  and  for  an  immense  fountain, 
>mal  of  a  nin^le  block  of  Rmiiilc  There  is  a 
ot  of  CajMichins,  with  a  Ki-xl  lilirarj-.  The 
""'■*••■-  -"}■  pieiurejuii'"  ""■'  ">■■■""•!■>'■ 


■  breed,  and 


le  hi^he^t  mountains  uf 


■^n  of  Art  ii  ,„.,  ,.- 
Jw  Iu  portion  amonK 
•"nii  anywhere  to  be  met  witn. 

AlfTA,  a  town  oT  .Spain,  island  of  Majorca,  on 
iaST.aogle.  Cape  Pera,  where  there  U  a  small 
^  drpeuds  on  iC  Pop.  4,o^o  in  ]8j»7.  liu  teni- 
t^<  vbich  la  verv  fruitful,  producea  cotlou,  and 
V  iDill-4tone  quarries, 

Ani,  a  town  of  Tniliey  in  Europe,  Albania, 
"  U"  Arta,  about  7  m.  above  where  it  falli  into 
''"cuUof  that  name.  It  i>i  a  place  of  consider- 
^nauul  trwle.  niien  visited  by  Dr.  Holland, 
"  ^fVi.  it  contained  six  mn!u^uF»,  a  lnrKC  catlic- 
**l«iiif  a  i^eai  number  of  tireek  clninhes,  and 
T^wqU-anl  to  have  ■  population  i>f  alsmt  ll.UHO. 
knlbnlKverelyduring  the  Greek  iuBurreetion  i 


AfiTERN  189 

mdLienLWoIfe,bywhomit  was  visited  in  18.10, 
says  that,  in  many  places,  ma»ea  of  ruins  im- 
peded the  passage  of  the  sireete,  and  chat  an  aspect 
of  desolation  and  misery  hunt;  over  it.  It  has 
since  jmiiroved,  though  the  population  is  esti- 
mated St  only  5,1)00.  It  is  govemeil  by  a  bcv, 
under  Che  poclia  of  Yannina,  and  ia  the  scat  of'a 
Greek  bishop.  Ic  lias  monufaclurea  of  cuttonii, 
woullens,  and  leather.  The  Hoccatas,  or  shsKO" 
Capoten  mode  here,  are  reckoned  very  superior. 
Eml)nitiiery  is  saiil  to  be  1w>nKht  to  considerable 

CBrfection  ;  and  all  artldoH  uf  drcsa  from  Ana  ani 
ighly  prized.  Each  trade  has  its  separate  strcoc 
orbaiaor;  but,bysjui1icious  re(nilation,butcheT:i 
are  obliged  to  kill,  and  seU  Ibdr  meat  out^e  Ibo 
town.  The  market  b  sbunilantlv  supplied  with 
tniit  and  vegetables.  There  is  a  curious  Venetion 
bridge  over  the  river,  consisting  of  one  large  ami 


nallai 


._ __ jncient  ^n5rtiri». 

Traces  of  the  ancient  walls  may  be  seen  in  many 
places,  but  especially  under  tbe  more  mnlem  re- 
mains of  the  ruined  caitlc :  the  stones  roniJst  of 
vast  quadrangular  blocks,  so  admirablv  titteil  that 
it  is  with  dilGculty  Ihe  point  of  a  penknife  can  lie 
inserted  between  then 


.1,  built  in 


There 


verteil  into  a  caravansera.    (Ilollaad's  Travels  in 
Albania,  p.  M2,4to.cd.) 
Arta  (Guli-  ok),  the  Siitiu  Jabradus  of  the 

between  the  Turkish  province  of  Albania  and  thu 
N\V.  part  of  the  new  kingdom  of  r.re«ca.  Tho 
entrance  to  it,  between  Prevesa  on  the  S.  and  tho 
fortof  lApunlaon  the  S.,  is  only  TOO  yanls  across. 
Tlie  fort  now  menlioneil  is  built  at  the  extremity 
uf  a  low,  narrow  tongue  of  lanil,  celebrated  in 
history  as  the  PnintonUiry  ofjetiym.  Outside  the 
entrance  is  a  bur,  compisteil  of  gravel,  coarse  sand, 
"    '  .■-..--.      ii4B-when  sballowcBi. 


On  entering  the  C.ulf,  wi 
coUeil  the  Bay  of  Pre%-es 


cupyiuE 


between  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  ai 
Scorn  on  the  X.  and  Hailonna  on  the  S. ;  luid  it  is 
only  alter  pasiing  these  liemllaiKls  that  the  Gulf 
properly  opens.  It  is  a  noble  sheet  of  water :  its 
cxtn'me  length  from  \V.  to  £.,  including  the  Uav 
of  I'revesa,  is  about  £5  m.,  and  its  greatest  brea-llti 
about  10  m. ;  but  in  •crcml  places  it  is  a  good 
deal  narrower :  the  depth  varies  from  13  and  14  to 
3C  fathoms.  The  S.  shore  consists  of  high  land, 
with  bolil  promontories,  cluthed  with  rich  and  ex- 
tensive wiHXla;  (he  N.  shure  is  for  the  most  part 
low,  and  has  encroached  considerably  on  the  water. 
Part  of  the  vast  ch»n  of  l>iiidus  is  seen  from  tho 
Gulf.  It  has  been  long  celebrated  for  tho  variety 
and  exeellence  <if  its  tinh:  red  and  grey  mulb't 
are  the  most  abundant ;  and  there  are  plenty  of 
soles,  eels,  prawns,  Ac '  sardine  lishing  is  eilen- 

The  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Arta  was  the  scene 
of  one  uf  the  moHt  memorable  and  important  con- 
flicla  recordeil  in  histoij-.    Tho  battle  of  Aclium, 

which   decidal  the  fate  of  A ■ '  "—'- 

Antony,  and  i>f  the  Kunuin  w 

the  pmmontiiry  uf  thai 

entrani'e  to  the  Gulf,  anno  u.v.  ^j.      me  exnii, 

space  occnjiini  hy  Ihe  hostile  tleets  has  t>een  dLs- 

piited.     Host  pnibalily  the  battle  ragcil  all  round 

the  [iromontory,  but  principally  un  its  W.  side,  or 

in  what  is  now  iiillcd  Ihe  tiarbour  of  Prevesa,  and 

AHTKKN',  a  tinrn  of  Pru^isian  Saxonv.  rei:. 
Mersrhiug,  on  the  Unstrut.  at)  m.  W.  bv  S.  Halli-. 
Pup.  3,71X1  in  IHiil.  It  has  a  castle,  a  bime-spriug, 
and  a  diatlUeiy. 


f  Augustiu 


\ 


190 


ARTHUR'S  SEAT 


ARTHUR'S  SEAT,  a  hill  in  the  immedintc 
vicinity  of  Edlnbuiip^h,  on  the  SE.  side  of  the  city, 
risinf?  822  ft^  above  the  level  of  the  Bea.  ItA 
ascent  from  the  latter  Ih  gradual  and  e-asy ;  but  on 
the  8ide  towards  the  city  it  riMs  abniptlv,  and, 
in  parts,  almost  perpendicularly,  from  t\ie  low 
^)unds.  On  the  S.  side  of  the  hill,  almve  the 
footpath  leading  from  Edinbuixh  to  Dud<lin^tone, 
is  asuperb range  of  porphvriticKrcenstone  colunms, 
fn)m  50  to  (M)  ft.  high.  l*he  part  of  the  hill  nearest 
IIolynMKl  House  is  called  Salisbury  Oags,  and, 
till  within  the  last  thirty  years,  its  qiuirrics  fur- 
nished most  part-  of  the  paving-stones  used  in 
Tendon.  The  view  from  tlie  top  of  Arthur's  Seat 
is  one  of  the  most  diversified  and  fine  in  the 
empire. 

AKUDY,  a  town  of  France,  <lep.  Basses  PyrcnA?fl, 
cap.  cant,  on  the  Osseau,  12  SE.  OIon>n.  Pop. 
1,980  in  18CI.  It  is  the  centre  of  an  active  and  con- 
siderable commerce  with  the  neighbouring  valleys. 

ARUNDEL,  abuigh,  m.  town,  and  pa^  of  Eng- 
land, CO.  of  Sussex,  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Arun, 
alxuit  3^  m.  fn)m  its  embouchure,  55  m.  SSW. 
London  bv  road  and  68^  miles  by  Brighton  and 
South  Coast  railway.  Pop.  of  pa.  2,498  in  18<n. 
The  town  is  pretty  well  built,  and  has  a  thriving 
api)earance.  It  derives  its  entire  consequence 
from  its  being  immediately  contiguous  to  Arundel 
Castle,  formerly  a  strt^ug*  fortress,  now  the  mag- 
nificent baronial  residence  of  the  Dukes  of 
Norfolk,  having  been  Rebuilt  at  a  great  ex- 
pense by  the  late  Duke.  The  possessiir  of  this 
castle  enjoys,  without  further  creation,  the 
dignity  of  earU  Previously  to  the  Reform  Act, 
Arundel  retumetl  two  members  to  the  H.  of  C, 
the  right  of  voting  being  vested  in  the  inhabitants 
paving  scot  and  lot;  but  since  the  Reform  Act  it 
only  returns  one  member.  The  constituency,  in 
18(>4,c(jn8isted  of  192  registered  electxirs,^!  of  them 
lieing  remaining  scot  aud  lot  inhabitants,  and  the 
rest  10/.  householders.  The  Anm,  which  is  here 
crosscfl  by  a  neat  bridge,  is  navngablc  thus  far ; 
and  is  joined  by  canals  with  the  Thames  on  the 
one  hand,  and  Chichester  harl)our  on  the  other. 

ARVERT,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Charente, 
Inf»?rieure,  24  m.  W.  Saintes.  Pop.  2,627  in  18C1. 
It  is  the  chief  place  of  the  peninsula  of  the  same 
name  formed  by  the  Ginmde,  the  Seudre,  and  the 
sea.  It  has  a  considerable  trwle  in  ^-ine,  and 
fresh  and  salt  fish,  particularly  sartlines. 

AR/AMAS,  a  town  of  Russia  in  Europe,  gov. 
Nijni  Novgorod,  cap.  district,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Choka  and  Tioncha,  62  m.  S.  Nijni  Novgorod. 
Pop.  4,700  in  18o8.  It  is  old  and  ill-built ;  has 
twenty-two  churches  and  two  convents,  with  soap- 
works,  tanneries,  print-works,  and  iron-foundries. 
It  has  two  great  annual  fairs. 

ARZ^IXO,  a  village  of  South  Italv.  in  the  im- 
mediate neighbourho4xl  of  Naples.  Pop.  4,797  in 
1861.  It  has  mimen>us  villas;  and  fiax  and 
hemp  are  largely  pnHiuce<l  in  its  envmms. 

AiiZEW  (an.*  Arsenaria),  a  8ea-pi»rt  town  of 
Algiers,  prov.  Tlemsen,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sigg, 
30  m.  NNE.  Oran,  Int.  35°  4r/  N.,  h.ng.  4°  54'  E. 
Pop.  about  1,000.  The  bay  is  small ;  but,  though 
open  to  winds  from  the  E.  and  N  E.,  it  is  the  l)est 
on  this  part  (»f  the  coast.  The  modem  town, 
whicli  is  ill-built  and  inconsiderable,  occu)»ies  the 
site  of  the  ancient  jVrscnaria:  fragments  of 
columns,  inscriptions,  cisterns,  and  other  remains 
of  the  ancient  city,  being  scattered  all  rouncL 
C<im  and  salt  are  l>oth  exiwrtett  The  latter  is 
obtained  from  the  salt  pits  of  Arzew,  about  5  m. 
inlaiuL 

ARZIGNANO,  a  town  of  North  Italv.  prov.  and 
10  m.  W.  Viccnzn.  Pop.  7,700  in  1862.  It  is 
situated  in  an  agreeable  plain,  surrounded  'with 


ASCENSION 

niltivated  hilU^  and  haa  filatures  of  silk,  fibria 
of  cloth,  dye-works,  and  brick-woriu.  Its  toritay 
produces  good  wine,  and  haa  two  ooal-mineik 

ASAPH  (ST.),  a  city  of  X.  Wales,  oa  Flint,  ind 
also  partly  in  co.  Denbigh,  185  m.  NW.  Lnndoi, 
5  m.  N.  t>enbigh,  finely  situated  in  the  Vile  i 
Clwyd,  on  an  eminence  on  the  banks  of  tka 
Elwy,  near  its  oonfiuence  with  the  Chrrd,  orer 
both  of  which  it  has  bridges.   Pop.  of  pariu  3^592; 
of  pari,  borough  2,068  in  1861.    It  oonsistB  pn- 
cipally  of  a  single  street :  and  is  remaricable  osty 
as  being  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  worth  6,300il  i 
year.  The  cathedral,  a  plain  miilding,  was  crecttd 
towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  oentoiy,  but  bu 
since  un<leigone  many  repairs :   it  is  not  used  ftr 
public  won<hip ;  the  parish  church,  in  the  kme 
part  of  the  town,  being  appropriated  to  that  pB* 
pose.    Drs.  Harrow  (uncie  to  the  famous  Di; 
Isaac  Barrow),  Beveridge,  Tanner,  and  Honkf, 
have  been  Bishops  of  this  see ;  and  in  the  oatte- 
dral  is  a  handsome  monument,  erected  in  1829, 
in  memoiy  of  the  celebrated  Desm  Shipley.  It  }m 
a  free  grammar-school,  endowed  by  Ikshop  Bert- 
ridge  ;  and  an  almshouse  for  eight  poor  widofwi, 
enoowed  by  Bishop  Barrow.    It  unites  vrith  the 
other  boroughs  of  Flintshire,  in  returning  a  m. 
to  the  H.  of  C. 

ASARO,  a  town  of  Sicilv,  prov.  Catania,  9  m. 
S.  Nicosia.    Pop.  2,968  in  1862. 

ASCALON,  an  ancient  sea-port  town  (rf*  Pala- 
tine, 15  m.  N.  Graza,  and  45  m.  ESE.  JerusaloB, 
bit.  3P  39'  N.,  lon^.,  840  33'  £.  There  is  not  i 
single  inhabitant  within  the  old  walls,  wiiich  m 
still  standing;  but  a  modem  snbuiton  village 
called  Scalona,  from  the  ancient  name,  has  a  pop 
of  300  or  400,  •and  is  frequented  by  the  smal 
vessels  trading  to  this  coast. 

The  mins  present  a  strange  mixture  of  Syrian 
Greek,  and  Gothic  remains.  There  are  also  tht 
remains  of  a  Roman  amphitheatre,  and  tbn 
columns  of  a  temple,  supposed  to  be  that  of  tbt 
Syrian  Venus,  mendoued  by  Herodotus  (I.  §  105) 
or  a  Greek  edifice  raised  in  imitation  of  it. 

Ascalon  is  exceedingly  ancient.  liefore  Ut 
establishment  of  the  Israelites  in  Palestine,  it  wa 
one  of  the  lordships  of  the  Philistines.  Subae 
quently,  it  l)ecame  one  of  the  ports  belonging  ti 
the  tribe  of  Judah;  and,  on  the  downfall  of  tb 
Jewish  kingdom,  it  fell  to  tJie  king  of  Aasyrii 
It  afterwards  formed  part  of  the  Persian  empn 
then  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies ;  ani^  a 
the  subversion  of  the  latter  in  the  last  centur 
B.C.,  it  was  subjected  to  the  dtnninioa  of  Home 
It  was  a  bishop^  see  in  tlie  fimt  ages  of  Christi 
anity;  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens  at  tb 
commencement  of  their  conquests,  and  becam 
the  scene  of  more  than  one  battle  during  the  tim 
of  the  Ousades.  It  was  one  of  the  strongholds  c 
the  \V.  Christianf ;  but  Saladin,  on  gaining  poi 
session  of  the  town,  destroyed  ita  works.  It  hs 
since  continued  in  a  state  of  decay :  the  pronhee 
of  Zarliariah,  '  Ascalon  shall  not  be  inhabited 
and  that  of  Ezekiei,  ^  It  shall  be  a  desolaiioo 
are  now  considered  actually  fulfilled.  Aacaki 
stands  at  the  mouth  of  a  stream  (the  Sorek 
where  the  accumulation  of  soil  is  so  great,  thj 
the  ruins  are  every  day  removing  farther  fxoi 
the  s€sa. 

ASCENSION,  an  isUnd  in  the  Atlantic  Ooeai 
between  Africa  and  Brazil,  about  8  m.  in  lengt 
bv  about  6  in  breadth,  its  tort  being  in  lat.  7 
26'  N.,  long.  14«>  24'  W.  It  is  of  volcanic  fonni 
tion,  and  one  of  its  hills,  of  tufous  limestone,  risi 
to  the  height  of  2,870  ft.  It  has  a  bleak  an 
barri'n  appearance ;  and  was  uninhabited  till  tfc 
imprisonment  of  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena,  when  : 
was  garrisoned  by  a  small  British  force,  thioqg 


,_!(  Geotgetawii,  il  uid  Ui  be  good.  Gcort^ 
im  ii  ■  ituioa  omutaliiiK  of  a  fart,  miliuiy 
'  a  f>w   detacbed   residences.    The 


walls  that  Pyrriius  one 
giom  for  the  secund  tii 
Lther  iido. 


yww. 


ii/k  hr  itarei,  and  ■  place  for  » 
niiing  co  (he  coast  of  Ifaazil,  ur  in  t 
Oma.  lu  name  is  deriTed  from  iu 
beoTind  m  AacenaioD-day,  the  ' 
""  '     ■  Spaniah  lUTigator  m  I 


FonoL 

A3CH,a 


■n  andloidsliipNW.  frontier  of  lio- 
kaDk,dicla  Elnbngen,  14  m.  SW.  Eiffi.  Pop. 
1^  in  1857.  Tbeie  are  manuTactuics,  cottoo 
kaiim',  wooUen  fabrics,  and  wire. 

ASCHAPFEITBURG,  a  dw  of  Bavaria,  rirc. 
Law  Hm,  on  a  hill,  on  tbe  Main,  which  ix 
kn  ocMcd  br  a  atone  bridift,  38  m.  N'W.  WUrz- 
biq:  en  tlw  railway  from  WUnburg  Co  Fnnkfurt- 
dB-Iba-lliiiL  Pop.  9,S0O  in  ISGl.  The  towa  is 
indillinollT  built,  and  Ih*  sDrels  are  narrow  and 
aHkfd.  II  has,  however,  a  fine  palace,  Tonnerlv 
acoi{iBl  bj-  the  electcts  of  Mayencc,  to  which 
— gjiitiwin  gardeoa  are  attached.  It  baa  also  an 
aid  Gothic  ditJTch,  containing  Che  tombA  uf 
■     -n-hall,  W-'        '         -- 


dtalodnde  in  timber,  * 


lary,  a  school  of  d 

iillection  of  pictun 

md  has  a  good 

lohacou.   1[  has 

~ASCfiEKSLEi»'EN7a~town"of  the  PrasMiui 
Muoi,  [BW.  Saxony,  r^.  Mspieburg.  at  the  con- 
Imckx  id' the  Eine  and  the  Wipper,  1-!  m.  ESE. 
QrctbDbiut;.  Pup.  1Z,1S9  in  IWl.  It  has  five 
Pnunmi  churches,  one  Catholic  do.,  a  syna- 
pfcm,  1  symnanLuni,  two  hosijjial!',  and  very 
nain^nble  mauufactiires  uf  wuuUcn  and  linen 
■nSs  loil  earthenware. 

AJCULI,  a  t«wn  of  Italy,  in  the  Harchen,  cap. 
d>let^  time  name,  on  the  angle  fonneil  by  the 
JmaJmoftheCagleUanawilb  the  Trunlo.  l.'i 
•k»«<"liae  the  latter  falls  intu  the  Adriatic, 
tPil'M"  >_lonK.130  aS'lo'E.     Pop.  17, 
■•  IMl.    It  is  a  well-built,  handsome  town  t  hax 
•  lalbedral   and    numemus    churches,  many 
wfaidim  ornamented  with  valaablc  paintings 
Mdn  miaU.    The  chnrch  of  St.  Gret-orio  Mb* 
DUiu  princifally  of  the  remains  of  a  Hon 
■•■pie.    Of  modem  hulMings,  the  principal  ia' 
^MaJuiaaabiCoDtaiuingatnuiieum,  a  library, 
■J  1  theatre ;   there  is  also  the  jjalace  of  tbe 
P^sur,  and  nnmernus    palaces  belonging 
nMaii  noblea.    Ascoli  a  a  frontier  [own|  on 
■kif  X'aplea,  and  is  a  place  nf  some  errenf 
W«J  mnwuided  bv  old  walls  and  ("wcts,  i 
bnuhol  with   a  atadeL     Its  haihour,  at 
■Hi^gf  tlieTronto,isagooddealfreauenledby 
<«Wn,  iod  is  defended  by  two  small  fortH. 

Amili,  (he  AiciUmm  Fimum  of  the  Homaiu, 
■tofibeBMsl  andent  of  the  Italian  towns.  It 
adocribtd  by  Strabo  as  a  phue  of  great  strength, 
■noiDilBl  by  walls  and  inacccssilile  heighbi.  It 
■u  ilu  fin(  ci(y  to  declare  against  tbe  Komand 
'tei  the  Social   Vfai  broke  out:  and,  in  the 

"olle  aq^e  sfiainst  Pompev  ;  by  whom,  how- 
1  wu  finally  taken.     (Ommcr's  Anc  Italy. 


t-  iW.)    The  area  of  tt 


I'lLlM.Oa) 

ASCULI  m  SATRIAXO  (an.  AicHlHm  Apu- 
™>.auiwn  uf  South  Italy,  pr  "  ■  ■  -^ 
^thyiltov-ilio.    Po|,.5,7 


ASHANTEE 
iitual«d  on  ■  hill;  has  a  fine  catbedral, 
Lnory,  a  hospital,  and  i 

ilercd  tbe  lii 


,  with  n. 


Greeks,)  a  seiFport  town  of  Palcstint . 
of  the  MeiiJtPTTanean.  Lat.  31"  45'  N.,  lung. 
■'  R,3S  m.  W.  Jerusalem,  and  11  KE.  A«- 
calon,  on  the  summit  of  a  grass;-  hill,  sum.midetl 
uriant  iiaaturc-gmuuds.  Its  present  pop.  is 
mited,  probably  not  mnro  than  ^U  or  ^1). 
no  ruins ;  and  would  be  tmwotttiy  of  notice, 
;  not  for  the  figure  it  makex  in  sacred  bis- 
Ic  was  one  of  (he  live  lordships  of  (he  Phi- 
I  (Phauiicians) ;  and  (hither  the  Ark  of  the 
int  was  lirought  when  that  people  took  it 
from  the  Jews.  (1  Sbto.  v.  1.)  It  may  be  ga- 
thered, generallv,  that  the  Philistine  power  yielded 
1  of  IJavid  (2  Sam.  v.  29,  ((«?.,  1  Chmn. 
and  it  is  probable  that  AshJoil  liecomo 
wish  town.  If  this,  however,  were  (ha 
1  not  remain  so ;  for,  two  hundred  ycara 
destruction  of  the  walls  of  AahdiKi  ii 
reckoned  among  the  triumphs  of  Uzziah  over  tho 
(2Chrun.  xxixG.)  Itappearstohave 
fallen  ioto  the  hands  of  the  AsajTiaus  soon  otter 
this;  and  subsequently,  acconlltig  to  Henxlotu^ 
III.S  157),  stood  a  ti^e  of  twenty-nine  yean  by 
the  Ejo-plians,  under  Psammeticus.  it  is  not  af- 
ttrwa^ls  beard  of  as  a  place  of  imporuuicc.  Tho 
ig  village  is  cdeorated  only  for  the  number 
r]ii'>ns  that  infest  it.  Tbe  wa(er  upon  this 
|HU-t  of  (he  coast  is  shallow,  and  tbe  land  percep- 
tibly gaining  on  the  sea. 

VSHAXTEE,  an  exlensivc  native  kingilom  of 
Africa,  Wing  along  the  Gold  Coast  of  Guinea ; 
*nding  from  4°  37'  to  IQO  S.  laL.  an.l  from 
KC  W.  to  10  10'  E.  long.,  being  about  a«U  m.  in 
length  and  as  many  in  breadth.  Itmay  contain 
abi.iit  7l),()l)U  sq.  m. 

Phyiieal  Ftatara  of  (Ai  Couittty.—Momilaiitii 
anil  i*iiiM.— This  b"  a  moiintainoiLi  coun  (ly,  though 
it  has  few  eminences  very  abrupt  or  |)reci[iiiini». 
None  of  tlie  muun(aiiia  appniac]]  (he  imow  line, 
being,  like  thoscof  Africa  in  general,  more  remark- 
able for  brcaillb  and  extcut  than  for  height.  With 
regard  tu  composition,  all  (he  species  of  gmnite, 
quartz,  and  slate  are  met  with,  hut  there  is  an 
almost  total  absence  uf  calcareous  stone.  There 
are  some  small  tracts  of  lc\'el  laiid  on  the  E.  and 
W. ;  and  the  whole  country  N.  of  71"  or  W  Ut.  U 
a  lorge  pljun,  terminated  on  tlieNW.  by  a  moun- 
tainous cuunDy,  called,  from  (he  nature  of  its  sur- 
face, Kcisa,  that  is,  moiintdn.and  nn  the  XE.  bv 
the  sandy  desert  of  lihofan.  (Iscrt,  Vov.  (Juiii, 
2-19;  Kiiwdilrh,  llht,  Ac;  Dupuis,  par.  il ';IU,  dc ; 
Capt.  Adamn's  Kcmoriu,  17l>.) 

Rireri  aad  Laie$. — Though  not  lying  in  the 
basin  of  any  one  of  the  first-class  Airican  rivers, 
an  better  wa(eieiL    Along  ihe  caa.it 


are  found  the  cmbo 


s  alHucn 


of  which  II 


the  country  in  every  direction.     The  A 

IfliEe  river,  is  usually  rcckoncil  the  line  <if  demar- 
calion  lietwcen  the  Gold  and  Ivoiy  Coast;  and 
forms,  fur  some  miles  fpm  its  moiitli,  (be  W.  limit 
The  Volta,  or  Aswelh^  (he  laivcst 


le  Ashan 


king. :  its  length  is  estimated  at  about  4IW  m 

ore  several  lakes  which,  in  the  summer  w-asoii 

frrqueiitlv  overflow  their  bonks. 

aimal/.—SoUa<id  Kalural  Pmt/nrt..— The  heni 
and  insalulirity  of  Ihe  climate  of  Guinea  are  juti 
vetbial,  but  both  appear  tu  be  cKagtjpmtvd.    Ii 


192 


ASHANTEE 


seems  to  be  now  admitted  that  oonntries  under  and 
near  the  equator  are  less  hot  than  those  under  and 
near  the  tropics,  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth 
keeping  the  latter  re^ons  for  a  much  longer  pe- 
riod vertically  beneath  the  sun.  From  this  cause, 
therefore,  the  heat  of  Ashantee  might  be  expected 
to  be  less  than  that  of  countries  12*^  or  15^  farther 
N.  The  accumulation  of  water  serves  also  to  lower 
the  geucnd  temperature,  and,  upon  the  whole, 
though  during  six  months,  or  from  October  to 
March,  the  heat  is  extremely  violent,  during  the 
other  h^  year  it  is  so  far  from  being  inconvenient, 
that  fires  and  warm  clothing  are  fiiquently  desir- 
able. The  nights  (alwa^  nearly  of  the  same 
length)  are  cold,  even  durmg  the  hot  months,  and, 
in  a  night-halt  in  a  forest,  a  blaze  is  as  necessary 
against  the  cold  heavy  devrs  as  against  the  ferocious 
boasts.  The  coast  is,  however,  extremely  un- 
healthy, especially  to  Europeans.  This  is  owing 
partly  to  the  scorching  days  followed  by  chilling 
niglits,  but  more  to  a  sulphureous  mist  (apparently 
a  species  of  miasma)  which  rises  from  the  valleys 
and  the  neighbourhood  of  rivers  every  morning, 
especially  during  the  rainy  season.  Poor  food,  bad 
accommodation,  and  exposure  to  the  night  air,  add 
to  these  evils,  which  are  still  farther  increased  by 
a  want  of  regularity  in  living  among  both  natives 
and  Europeans ;  but,  after  all,  the  climate  of  this 
coast  is  not  worse  than  that  of  most  others  simi- 
larlv  situated,  and  much  superior  to  that  of  W. 
Afnca  farther  N.,  or  to  that  of  Guiana,  in  the  same 
lat,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic.  The  in- 
terior, though  covered  with  dense  forests,  and 
consequently  exposed  to  the  effects  of  vegetable 
decomposition  under  a  vertical  sun,  enjoys  a  compa^ 
ratively  salubrious  atmosphere ;  and  Isert  (p.  258) 
recommends  the  erection  of  hospitals,  in  the  mland 
parts,  for  the  b^iefit  of  suffercre  from  the  European 
forts  on  the  coast.  The  air  is  usually  calm,  except 
in  the  cases  of  tornadoes,  and  the  wind  from  the 
desert,  called  Harmattan.  The  former,  however, 
are  pretty  fre()uent,  and,  in  the  dry  season,  parti- 
cularly annovmg,  from  being  followed  by  violent 
cold  rains.  The  Harmattan  is  mostly  experienced 
between  the  end  of  December  and  the  beginning 
of  February.  It  has  a  N£.  or  an  ENE.  direction ; 
is  perfectly  dry,  extreme W  cold,  and  loaded  with 
an  impalpable  powder,  sufficiently  thick  to  obscure 
the  sun  at  noon.  It  is  exceedingly  destructive ; 
its  dryness  being  such  that  it  absorlw  the  moisture 
from  every  thing  with  which  it  comes  in  contact ; 
opening  the  seams  of  ships,  the  joints  of  floorings, 
and  destroying  all  animal  and  v^table  life  op- 
posed to  its' unmitigated  violence.  It  blows  usually 
for  two  or  three  days,  but  occasionaUy  for  a  fort- 
night at  a  time,  and  with  much  force.  Like  other 
tropical  countries,  Ashantee  has  its  dry  and  rainy 
seasons,  or  rather  two  rainy  and  one  dry  season  in 
each  year.  The  first  rains,  ushered  in  by  violent 
tornadoes,  occur  about  the  latter  end  of  Mayor  the 
be^ning  of  June ;  being  followed  by  fogs  and 
hazy  weather,  extremely  pernicious  and  particu- 
larly pow<aful  in  July  and  August  The  second 
rains  come  on  in  October,  and  thence  till  April  is 
the  dry  and  hot  season. 

A  smaU  part  of  the  coast,  towards  the  E.  and  W. 
boundaries,  is  sandy,  but  the  greater  portion,  and 
all  the  interior,  is  an  alliaceous  and  allumhious 
soil,  mixed  with  a  rich  black  earth.  This,  with 
the  abundance  of  water,  renders  the  country  ex- 
tremely fertile.  From  7^°  N.  lat.  down  to  the 
water's  edge,  Ashantee  presents  a  solid  mass  of 
forest,  extending  E.  and  >V.  from  the  Volta  to  the 
Assinee  rivers.  The  trees  have  all  the  stupendous 
characteristics  which  mark  African  vegetation,  but 
are  strikingly  different  on  the  coast  and  in  the  in- 
terior.  Near  the  sea  flourishes  the  gigantic  boabab 


(Adansonia  tUgitata),  the  cactns  (jprobiU 
duoed  fiom  America),  the  mangrove  {Rk 
mangle),  various  species  of  palm,  the  ootl 
other  large  trees,  mixed  with  a  wild  entaa 
of  thorny  bush,  itself  growing  to  a  as 
ceivable  to  a  European.  About  15  m.in 
reaching  the  summit  of  the  first  moanti 
boabab  disappears,  but  a  tree  equal  in  mi 
supplies  its  place ;  the  mangrove  also  ^ 
and  palms  become  very  scarce,  except  the 
(Ekki  gutneenais),  and  the  viniferoas  (J 
Instead  of  these  appear  many  peculiar 
among  which  is  one  tall  tree  of  great  c 
bearing  flowers  like  the  tulip ;  a  new  kinc 
and  citron ;  and,  in  a  word,  a  whole  forest 
unknown  elsewhere. 

N.  of  7^°  or  S9  lat.,  trees  and  shrubs  apf 
in  widely  distant  patches,  the  lands  are 
with  jungle  and  Guinea  grass,  which  gro 
enormous  height  and  thickness ;  and  "mat 
fired,  is  used  by  the  natives  to  manure  th 
tadons.  The  sugar-cane  grows  wild; 
country  produces,  besides,  tobacco,  maiae, 
millet,'  yams,  rice,  potatoes,  and  all  the  all 
plants,  in  the  utmost  profusicm.  Of  fruiti 
is  interminable ;  including  the  pine-apple 
banana,  cocoa,  ^,  papay,  and  in  short  idl 
produced  in  any  part  of  the  world  beti 
tropics.  Of  gums  and  aromatic  plants  C 
very  great ;  as  is  likewise  that  A  dye  i 
woods.  The  exuberant  abundance  of  al 
sams  ( GlorioatB  stmerba),  tuberoses,  lilies,  i 
ranths,  gives  to  the  flora  of  Asluuitee  a  s 
and  magnificence  nowhere  excelled,  and  b 
equalled. 

The  animals  are  as  various  and  nmneroi 

{tlants.  Elephants,  rhinoceroses,  giralTe 
oes,  deer,  antelopes,  civet  cats,  apes,  i 
baboons,  porcupines,  and  goata,  are  am 
harmless  kinds;  lions,  tigers,  lec^uuidS) 
wolves,  wild  boars,  and  wild  cats,  among 
a  ferocious  sort.  The  rivers  swarm  witl 
potami  and  alligators  of  several  qiedes ; 
which  are  eaten  by  the  natives.  A  gwa 
an  odoriferous  mouse,  and  a  small  anmi 
arompo  (num-eater),  which  digs  up  and 
dead  bodies,  seem  to  be  peculiarto  Ashaal 
domestic  animals  are  the  same  as  those  of 
but  the  horse  is  scarce,  and  of  a  bad  breed 
sheep  peculiar  in  form.  KeptOes  are  pm 
numerous ;  serpents  of  every  size,  from  t 
mous  boa  to  a  frightfully  venomons 
scarcely  a  yard  long,  infest  not  only  the  w 
long  grass,  but  the  dwellings  of  the  nat 
the  forts  of  the  Europeans.  Scorpions  (sc 
as  big  as  a  small  lobster)  and  oentipe 
wound  from  which,  though  not  dangem 
tremely  painful — abound  m  everv place;  i 
and  frogs  are  not  only  as  plendful  as  is 
but  the  former  grow  to  sucn  a  size,  that 
when  he  first  saw  one,  took  it  tor  a  lane 
(p.  257).  Lizards  of  all  sizes,  from  tin 
downwards,  including  two  species  of  came 
found  here.  Of  biMs,  there  are  pheasa 
tridges,  wild  ducks  (of  a  beautiful  plnmagi 
crown  birds,  parrots,  paroquets,  Guinea  i 
beccaficoes,  and  a  multitude  of  all  kinds,  j 
small,  many  of  them  yet  undassed  by  na 
The  waterfowl  are— herons,  bitterns^ 
mei^-s :  the  birds  of  prey — eagles,  kites,  a 
culiar  species,  which,  though  not  Uu^ 
dove,  is  bolder  and  more  rapacious  than  a 
A  large  and  ugly  bini,  called  the  pookoe 
service  in  destroying  the  field-rats),  b 
here,  as  h  also  a  cn:ature  about  twice  th 
a  si)arrow,  with  a  remarkable  hollow  and 
voice,  the  sound  of  which  is  r^rarded  hy 


n.     SpUTUwv  ajid  bwaIIowb    aiK  very 
i  mi  &  donHHtic  fo<il  aie  the  ume  u 


tanintbe 


the  night  hma  b 


it  powerful 
II  Mipent,  ind  deatra^  him,    fire- 
llita.  «  By  exactly  reMmblinii;  the 
'Dt,  toffether  with 
e  Trnpics*  except 


■  innpeanuKe  u 


il  which  appeunl  to  be  peculiai. 
"    owing  pmbabLy  to  the 


I  iiC(;TOaL  Other  aorta  of  sea  fiah  are 
Imti  ud  the  rivers  are  aa  well  sufiplied 
,  yielding,  among  olhert,  great  quanli- 
Mm  and  ciabs,  which  cSfti  upon  the 
flhe  mansnive  and  other  trees,  tniC  are 
'm  tood  if  (1m  water  be  fresh, 
in,  HabiU,  Maniuri,  ami  Cutoni.— 
Mtamatea  the  pop.  of  Ashontec  Proper 
lOi  oTwhum  204,UOa,  he  sa.\-s,  arc  war- 
^MO  chiUieii  under  ten  yean:  fiU,lHH) 
HB  ten  and  sixteen ;  7,000  old  men ;  and 
■alas;  and  the  pop.  of  the  wh<i]< 


fectod  t^  pajTng  a  siini  of  money  to  the  paranla 
nf  the  girl,  an<l  a  family  fcasL  The  property  ot 
the  man  ani]  wuman  doco  not  become  common. 
Polygamy  ia  allowed.  Few,  however,  except  the 
richest  individuals,  hare  more  than  one  wife,  and 
vecy  many  have  none ;  for  the  husband  having 
tuilmiiled  power  of  life,  limb,  and  liberty,  over  hia 
wife  (and  prusiitution  being  nowaya  cksciediiable), 
females  frequently  refuse  to  marry;  the  father, 
in  euch  caaes,  nevei  aiJemptinjj  compnlsiDn,  but 
inatantly  disclaiming  all  future  interest  in  bii 
daughter.  Infants  are  not  unfrequently  married 
to  infanla.  The  food  of  the  higher  classes  cunsinta 
of  aoup  of  dried  tioh,  fowla,  beef,  or  mutton;  wihl 
hog,  deer,  and  monkey's  Hesh,  tt«ether  with  Iha 
variety  of  vt^iables  which  the  soil  produizea. 

Weli-stocked  and  well-regulaled         

intheto'         '     ■■  .       ■- 


dhnuiiah.  Ilie  common  drink  is  , 
The  Ashanteea  have  two  high*  festivals;  one 
inuaUy,  at  the  yam  harvest,  in  September!  the 
hcratiniervala  of  about  twenty-one  lUya.    The 


newlwrc  about  3,01 


hOVO. 


Me  well  made, 

.  b  the  interior,  and  free  from  the  more 
n  of  negro  form  and  feature. 


^  may  be  said  U 


a  (thoK. 


andsome,  with 

1  Indian  than  an  African 

Joth  lexea  are  cleanly,  waahing  from 
iri  e*ery  day,  and  aflerwanls  anointing 
I  with  the  grease  of  the  shea,  or  buuei- 
od  ODsmetic,  and  a  preiierk'ative  of  the 
(  hot  climate.  The  clothes  of  the  better 

■MMmae  cluks,  exactly  like  the  iloman 
^Ktuml  of  the  must  costly  silka.    The 


J  ctnaments   and  scraps   of    Uoorish 

adLnve  boots  of  dull  red  leaiher.  The 
tiaA  have  gold  breaat-plstea ;   and  all 

Sooie  of  these  are  well  wrought,  othcra 
'  buDps  of  rock-guld  bung  Ui  the  wrist : 
l>  CDiisista  of  gold  or  giided  rama'  horos, 
;  an  txtravagant  plume  of  eagles'  fea- 
peAce,  the  head-dress  is  usually  a  BUet. 
seders  wear  nothing  but  a  piece  of  cloth 
oond  the  waisL  llwnun  enimierates 
m,  or  orden  of  society  ; — the  king,  the 
lbs  gentry,  the  traders,  and  the  Blavoi. 
w  king,  however,  there  is,  in  fact,  but 

_       ...     'reeman.     The 

d  villages,  are 

.ly^m  thegentr>';  and  tliese, 

jiashaveeiuichetl  Ihemselvcs 

_  ice,  ami  who,  not  unfru(uvnlly, 

The  occii|iations  of  trade  am 


:  auppir  of  these  neccsi 

s  of  clothing  and  Eun 

ipting  hoi 

on  fish 


It  and  Uttle  adaL  It  forms  the  calendar';  the 
r,  which  commences  in  October,  being  dii-idcd 
it  into  equal  parts,  and  terminated  by  the  great 
a  festival  At  these  festivals,  as  on  all  public 
■sioRs,  the  moat  brutal  exctesea  and  cmelties 

ntised.  The  skulls  of  all  the  kings  and 
hose  fall  has  swelled  the  power  of  the 
reigning  monarch,  together  with  those  of  rebellious 
caboceers,  to  the  amount  of  more  tlian  <!0U,  are 
paradoi  beforetheassembledmultitude.  Bumand 
palm-wine  are  swallowed  like  water,  till  the  guesta 
~«  brought  to  a  state  of  intoxication  and  mad- 
Ms,  when  hundreds  of  human  viclinu  are  sacri- 
:Bd.    They  seem,  in  fact,  to  delight  in  cruelty 


blood.  The  death  of  a  r 
all  esses,  attended  by  the 
being,  lu'irrl  tht  grant ; '  s 
variably  causes  a  frightful 
man  of  onlinary  rank  marry  a  n 
must  be  killed  on  his  wife's  grave, 


laughter  of  a  human 

id  that  of  a  chief  In- 

lactifce  of  life.     If  a 

al  female,  be 

1  ut  qur^LVB  iiiiii  aim  Lue  ciceiis  (personal  at- 

idants  on  the  king)  are  all  mnrdereid  on  their 

iter's  grave,  together  with  many  others,  male 

1  femsJe,  often  amounting  to  sunie  thousands. 

nnibalism,  as  far  as  respects  the  blood  aiul  heart 

an  enemy,  is  practised,  though  not  avowed : 

1  the  teeth  and  smaller  bones  of  vanquished 

foes  are  ostentatiously  worn  as  ornaments ;   the 

ekuUg  and  IsiKer  joints  being  jjreaerved  as  public 

f»».i.:«     G,...V  — ..  .k~  disguBting  enormitiea  per- 

iiB  imuuii  iif  savages;  who,  if  uiey 

itageously  with  otlier  netfro  tribes  in 

energy  and  decision  of  character,  yield  to  none  in 

that  cruelty  and  bloudtlursiiiiesa  which  seem  to 

be  leaduig  features  in  the  ^Urican  character.     To 

complete  their  character,  it  may  be  further  ob- 

are  great  thieves  and  extraordi- 


iTopbies.    Such  are  tti 
petraled  by  tb ' 


Indnttri/aHd  ConinKra.—The  labour  of  clearing 
sway  obstmclions  in  a  rankly  luxurious  soil  is  tlie 
chief  employment  of  the  Ashantee  agriculturist ; 
and  in  this  hia  chief  histiument  is  fire  ;  liy 
means  of  which  he  both  dears  the  ground,  and 
spreads  a  masa  of  rich  manure  upon  the  soiL  The 
only  implement  in  use  is  a  rude  hoe;  but  this  ia 
Bulhdeni,  in  productive  grounds,  flooded  iwicea 
vear.  to  inuduge  two  crops  of  moat  lunila  of  com. 
undant  supply  of  yams  and  ri 


ritkehgrthepoorcrfrcemenandthebrltei  jpUnlalions  are  laid  out  with  cunsidctablc  aider 


194 


ASHANTEE 


ond  neafjicm,  and  the  cti1ti%'atGd  f]ffminds  arc  pretty 
extenflive,  though  inadequate  to  the  wants  of  the 
confiumcra.  Despite  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the 
approach  of  harvest  is  almost  always  ])reccdcHl  by 
scarcity,  if  not  by  famine.  Though  thoy  do  not 
smelt  metals,  the  Ashantees,  like  several  of  the 
African  nations,  have  blacksmiths  and  goldsmitlis 
of  a  superior  grade  to  what  might  be  expectetL 
The  former  manufacture  all  their  arms  (except 
muskets),  mzorSf  &c.  The  goldsmiths  forge  sun- 
dry ornaments,  as  rings,  chains,  and  brooches,  and 
cast  figures  of  tame  and  wild  beasts.  They  are 
also  the  great  idol-makers,  and  are  able  to  produce 
fine  gold  tluead.  I'he  fineness,  variety,  and  bril- 
liance of  the  clotlis  of  the  native  weavers  would 
not  disgrace  an  English  loom ;  the  patterns  are 
painted  by  means  of  feat  hem,  with  sufticient  regu- 
larity to  have  the  appearance  of  a  coarse  print,. 
Dyers,  potters,  tanners,  and  carpenters  complete 
tlie  list  of  Ashantee  artificers;  of  whose  handi- 
work a  number  of  manufactured  and  other  articles, 
in  case  H,  room  1,  of  the  British  Museum,  are 
specimens.  The  houses,  generally  of  one  story,  are 
thafched,  and  the  external  walls  decorated  with 
a  rude  hierogly|)hic  sculpture:  they  are  usually 
painte<l,  but  not  floored,  and  pretty  closely  re- 
semble an  Englloh  bam.  It  should  l)c  mentioned, 
to  their  credit,  that  all  good  houses  have  their 
cloaoe,  which  agrees  well  with  the  Ashantee  cha- 
racter for  cleanliness ;  and  evinces,  in  this  r^pect, 
a  superiority  to  most  other  negro  nations.  Com- 
merce with  Europe  having  now  been  carried  on 
for  some  centuries,  the  natives  have  become  shrewd 
and  expert  dealers:  they  practise  all  sorts  of 
frauds;  and  their  dexterity  m  aihdterating  gold 
equals  that  of  a  first-rate  chemist,  Barbot  (230) 
aliirms  that  the  Portuguese  taught  them  this  art, 
as  a  means  of  dri\'ing  the  other  European  nations 
from  the  coast;  an<l  if  this  be  true,  they  have 
shown  themnclves,  in  this  instance,  much  more 
expert  scholars  than  in  any  other.  Gold  is  now, 
perhap,  the  chief  article  of  export;  and  some 
little  IS  also  done  in  the  way  of  exporting  ivory, 
and  flye  and  hard  woods.  Slaves  are  ex])ortcd  on 
every  possible  opportunity ;  and  notwithstanding 
the  >'igi]ance  of  the  BritisHi  cruisers,  there  is  reason 
to  think  that  considerable  numbers  find  their  way 
across  the  Atlantic  The  imiK)rts  are  principally 
muskets  and  other  arms,  gunpowder,  spirituous 
liquors,  tobacco,  iron,  tin,  copper,  Icail,  with  cotton 
and  Indian  goods,  which  are  taken,  chiofiy  for  their 
colours,  to  be  uiuravelled  an<l  remanufacture<l  in 
the  native  looms.  T\\e  last-mentioned  articles 
are,  however,  received  chiefly  through  the  interior 
from  Dagomba  and  Fezzan,  with  which  the  Ash- 
antees maintain  a  yer\'  ejctensive  trade,  supplying 
them  in  return  with  Uquors,  iron,  and  other  Euro- 
pean commodities;  but  never  with  arms.  The 
currency  is  gold,  either  in  dust  or  small  lumps; 
but  the  cowrie-shells,  in  use  farther  X.,  are  not 
unknown.  The  denomination  and  values  may  be 
given  as  follows:— 200  cowries  (o  strings)  =  1  tokoo 
(alxnit  8<f.) ;  8  tokoo8=l  ackie;  1(>  ackies^l 
newemecn  (ounce) ;  2^  ounces =1  benda;  IJ  benda 
&1  perguin. 

Goremmentf  Omstitutinn,  LawSj  Revenue. — Be- 
fore the  p(»wer  of  the  Ashantee  king  had  swallowed 
up  that  of  the  other  states,  each  possessed  its  own 
peculiar  form  of  government  and  administration ; 
some,  as  Fantee  and  Mina,  were  republics;  others, 
and  by  far  the  greater  number,  were  despotisms; 
but  now  all  are  alike  brought  umier  the  Ashantee 
constitution ;  the  legislative  is^wer  of  which  lies 
professedly  in  the  king,  an  arist(x?racy,  consisting 
of  only  four  persons,  and  the  assembly  of  cal>oce(*rs 
or  captains.  The  aristocracy  was  formerly  much 
more  numerous ;  but  Sai  Cudjo,  who  ruigucd  be- 


tween 1758  tnd  1785,  be^  to  rednoe  it,  by  nnitay 
the  stool  (seat  of  authority)  of  a  deeeawid  doUc  to 
that  of  one  still  living  (tiowditch,  2S6) ;  and  tUi 
plan  has  been  successmlly  paisaed,  till  the  pnm 
result  is  the  consequence.     On  all  qnertumi  4 
foreign  policy,  the  aristocracy  have  a  voice  eqiil 
to  the  lung  a,  extending  even  to  a  veto  on  Ui 
decisions.  In  domestic  aflain  they  have  oooate- 
able  influence;  but  it  is  exercised  in  both  mm 
privately,  the  public  announoementa  alwaji  ^ 
pearing  to  emanate  from  the  sole  will  of  the  bmh 
arch.  The  assembly  of  cidMxseerB  has  no  ddiben&it 
voice ;  they  arc  mere  redpienta  of  the  lavs  jgn- 
mulgated  b^  the  king  and  aristocfmcy,  to  wfaiAi 
by  their  ofiice,  they  are  bound  to  give  efiei  in 
their  several  governments.    The  influence  of  tkt 
aristocracy  is  curbed  by  their  poverty;  they  at 
pri^il^^  from  capital  punishment,  but  may  te 
despoiled  for  any  offence ;  a  regulation  that  Im 
made  and  keeps  them  beggars ;  and  thua»  in  eflBd» 
though  not  in  form,  the  monarch  is  abfobtdj 
despotic.   He  is  also  heir  to  the  gold  of  every  oMp 
The  king's  family  are  not  exempted  from  cnilal 
punishment,  but  their  blood  must  not  be  ahea:  if 
death  be  awarded  them,  they  are  drowned  in  tki 
Dah.     Death  is  the  punishment  for  eowufin; 
for  picking  up  gold  dropped  in  the  maricet-plaBe; 
for  killing  an  equ€d\  lor  treason;  and,  in  MM 
cases,  for  theft  and  adultery.  The  common  puniib- 
ment  for  the  laUer  is,  however,  fine,  or,  if  oob- 
mitted  in  the  open  air,  slavery;  for  the  fomai^ 
restitution  by  the  friends  of  the  thief.    Mutilate 
is  inflicted  for  many  ofienoes;  but  all  aocatatiiai 
are  mostly  made  at  the  peril  of  the  accuMr,  wh^ 
.  if  he  fail  to  esUblisli  his  charge,  must  hiooMlf  n- 
'  dergo  the  penalty  of  the  ofience.  The  state  of  Ai 
'  country,  as  respects  security,  maj  be  infenedl  torn 
the  fact  that  interest  of  money  la  at  88|  per  oak 
for  forty  days,  and  the  creditor  has  the  power  rf 
seizing'  hb 'debtor  and  family  as  alave^    Two  c 
three  species  of  ordeal  are  practised  in  doabdU 
cases ;  one  of  which  conaista  in  making  the  aooHil 
che^  about  A  of  an  ounce  of  a  poisonous  baifc,  ai 
then  drink  three  or  four  calabasbea  of  wafeet  If 
he  vomit,  he  is  pronounced  innocent ;  but  if  kii 
stomacli  be  potent  enough  to  retain  the  poison,  it  ii 
held  to  be  a  conclusive  proof  of  guilt.  The  rercM% 
,  as  far  as  it  can  be  ascertained,  conaiats  of—lrti 
j  The  gold  of  deceased  persona,  and  the  goods  of  dit- 
.  graced  nobles.    2nd.  A  tax  on  aUvea  pandnaA 
for  the  coast.    3rd.  The  gold  mines  and  wasfanp 
in  Sokoo,  Dinkra,  Akim,  and  Amiil    5th.  As 
washings  of  the  market-place.  6th.  Tributea  ftoB 
the  recently  conquered  states,  varying  firoii  W 
liendas  to  2()0  penguins  of  gold  aimiially.  In  tone 
cases  thu  tribute  is  taken  in  kuid,  the  laijpit 
amount  for  any  one  town  being  500  daves,  2OOo0nk 
400  sheep,  4<K)  cotton  cloths,  and  200  silk  doihk 
Beligum,— The  allegory  of  *  The  Book  and  thi 
Calabash  *  is  prevalent  through  all  the  Gold  Coait 
and  the  states  of  Ashantee.     The  Great  SpMi 
after  creating  three  white  and  as  many  Mack  bmb 
and  women,  placed  before  them  a  large  ulihaih 
and  a  scaled  paper,  pving  to  the  bbuJc  laoa  Aa 
choice  of  the  two.  They  took  the  calabash,  iitiA 
contained  gold,  iron,  and  the  choicest  prodoetiooa 
of  the  earth,  but  left  them  in  ignorance  of  that 
use  and  application.    The  paper,  on  the  oontiHT, 
instructed  the  white  men  m  every  thir^;  flBaos 
them  the  favourites  of  the  Great  Sj^iirit ;  and  gan 
them  that  superiority  which  the  n^iues  atwaji 
readily  acknowledge. 

From  this  legend  it  is  clear  that  they  haveioiM 
notion  of  one  supreme  deity;  but  they  have,  not* 
withstanding,  lapsed  into  the  ahsuitiities  of  Feti* 
ctsra  (see  Africa),  or  of  the  lowest  and  ^nweil 
sjiccies  of  idolatry.    Thoy  have  an  evil  pnuciplf 


A8HAHTEE 

Ihn  ttmti  in  gnat  dread,  bat  it  li 
itt  nwv  pa  him  adonlion.  Or  "- 
It  1*  mUtittoat  of  the  iyi«Cm 


tf  in  a  fatni*  atau — kinftn.  priesH,  and 
bdng  bdimd,  tfta  dpAth,  to  i»ide 
fliial  Starit,  in  an  eternal  renewal  of 

U^  Mat* ;  aad  it  u  aaid  that  the  ueii- 


lt  them  with  at- 


1b  inteBded  ia  mpfht 
the  fatal*  wtnld.  The 
aad,  an  not  alUf^etha  averse  from  lliii 
HOa  hf  it  titer  betiere  the^  wiil  por- 
i^crioc  beann  of  their  chiefi;  llteii 
p  at  bcati  merely  a  leleue  fntn  labour 
■•  <f  tome  iuhrinr  Fedsb.  An  uncom- 
ibcr  of  cliarnu,  omeoa,  luckv  and  on- 
fM,  aod  an  implicit  submifleion  to  the 
^tea  the  aiJiiienlilion  of  the  Aihan- 
MMM  tribMv  Tnaday  i*  observed  a*  the 
FMah  day  n  Sabbatb :  but  ^fTecent 
jHanlly eonncnte  different  dare;  oil, 

iihiiniiiji  I    Hun  an  many  Moham- 

MoofC  Ua  Aabaaleea;  some,  by  theii 
ninina,  atteMinjc  theic  Arabic  origin ; 
^■■ily  afe  not  ducingwahable  frnm  the 
naa.    They  tiave  Rnat  influence  ui  the 

ilaal  aAiia,  and,  when  veiy  numetmui, 
!■•  in  aerenl  Inwni,  are  governed  by 
>  iB  MBporal  matters. 
Me— Tne  Etotnean  who  haa  obaerred 
na^DODg  the  languaKee  ipoken  in  hia 
fan  of  the  world,  the  W.  of  Aeia,  and 
R.  if  Aliia,  is  ill  prepared  for  the  Babel 
•  that  preraili  S.  uf  the  Sahara.  In 
Aa  Gold  CoOHt,  nil  fewer  than  aevcn  or 
laagei  are  round,  each  unintelligible  to 
^aaliiiill  the  otlier,  and  bearing  no  re- 

(ApfiieBdix,  p. '£03)  givea  the  numerala 
-oaa  tribe*,  whence  it  appeora  that, 
■a  ttw  maf  be  considered  aa  rariations 
tmm  mot,  the  majority  dn  not  aiwimi- 
I  d%hteel  d^iee.  The  Aahantees,  Kan- 
■aa,  Akineee,  Asainese,  and  Aquapims, 
lacu  of  tbe  same  lan^niaKe  ;  but  for  the 
a  iriba  that  make  up  this  liarliorian 
B  often  separates  two 
■  ■  ■   -  This 


M,  tbat  tliey  came  in  twelve  irihen  ftnm 

ta  frooi   the  inlerinr  by  the  Uoham- 
■IWialli  in  the  first  daj-n  of  Islamism. 
'  "■ -loiiBh   appa^ 


fy,  on  but  dilTerent  verui 

MI&    it  teenw  certain  that  the  .Vfhan- 

,  I*  1640,  eeatad  in  the  centre  of  their 

MeoTtrdie  rarrounding  ntales  of  Akim, 
■hon,  and  Akeya.  Then,  anil  fur  near 
later,  the  paramount  state  of  the  gold 
vaa  IHiihta;  Init  in  the  bc^nnin^  i>f 
•tnth  eeotory,  (be  king  of  thai  coi 
4»med  BWife  of  the  Aihantee  mor 


ASHBUETOU  183 

tentate,  inAded  the  Dlnkran  territories,  defeated 
hia  eneniita  in  two  decisive  battles,  killing,  it  is 
said,  100,000  men,  and  cair^-iag  off  immense 
plnnder.  Dinkro.  upon  this,  become  attached  tn 
tbe  Ashantee  domtnions,  end  from  this  epoch  the 
exteneion  of  the  latter  proceeded  rapidty.    One 


n  1807,  t 


of  Fantee  brought  the  Ashanteea  ii 
eolliHon  with,  the  Briliah.  tJape  Coast  Castle,  the 
piindpal  fort  of  the  English  on  the  Gold  Coast, 
was  in  the  Fantee  country,  snd  held,  like  the 
other  Euro^n  forta  upon'  that  coaat,  not  as  a 
territorial  right,  but  at  a  rent  from  the  native 
govemmenl.  After  the  conquest  of  Fantee,  the 
rent  was  claimed  by  and  paid  to  the  king  of  the 
Asliaoteefl;  but  some  difSculties  made  about  re- 
cognising his  sovereignty,  !ed  to  much  disciisnon, 
and  to  two  embosaiM  (those  of  Bowdltch  and  I)u- 
puia)  to  the  court  of  Coomassie.  Injustice  to  the 
king  it  must  be  admitted  that,  whatever  may  be 
thought  of  his  conduct  to  the  natives,  an  uncom- 
mon degree  of  forbearance  marked  his  behaviour 
to  the  IWtiah  aathoritiee.  The  treaty  concluded 
by  Diipuis  in  1820  was  not  nuifled  by  the  council 
at  Cape  Coast  Csatle,  because,  by  the  fUlh  article, 
it  recognised  the  questioned  sovereignty  of  the  Fan- 
tee country ;  hot  the  heart-burning  necessarily  con- 
sequent on  this  accp  diil  not  break  out  for  some 
time  after.  The  death  of  Sai  Quamina  (king  of 
Ashantee),  who,  according  to  Dupuis  and  Bow- 
ditch,  was  the  steady  friend  of  the  whitee^  seems 
to  have  been  the  elgnal  for  hoetiliti< 


vemor  of  Cape  Coast,  at  the  head  of  1,000  men, 
was  totally  defeated  bv  the  Ashanlees.  It  look 
almost  three  yean  befure  the  English  power  on 
the  Gold  Coast  recovered  ftoro  this  blow;  bnl  in 
1(136,  the  Ashanteee  having  suffered  a  ruinoua 
defeat,  consented  ro  pay  fi.OOO  nz.  of  gold  as  (he 
price  of  peace,  and  to  send  the  king's  son  for  edu- 
cation, ur  rather  aa  hoeta^  to  Cape  Coast  Caalle. 
In  1831,  a  treaty  was  signed  between  Govemor 
Maclean,  the  Ashanleee,  and  the  Fontees,  by 
which  the  King  of  Ashantee  was  compelled  to 
acknowledge  the  independence  of  these  and  the 
other  tribes  under  British  protection.  The  Ash- 
antee power  on  the  coast,  since  this  event,  may  be 
considered  aa  nearly  destroyed. 

ASHBOURNK,  a  m.  (own  of  England,  co. 
Derby,  on  the  E.  nde  of  the  Dait,  12i  m.  KW. 
L»ndon,-13|  NW.  Derbv.  The  parish,  in  which 
the  town  ia  sitnaCed,  had,  in  1831,  i.KM  inhab., 
and  S,078  in  1861.  It  has  an  old  church  with  n 
Ane  niire,  a  free  grammarHichoo],  two  elementary 
schools,  one   for   thirty  boys,  and  the  other  fur 


litv  of  tl; 


I  in  the  ii 


ASlinUliTdx,  a  borough  m.  (own  and  par.  of 
England,  cu.  Devon,  hund.  Teignbridge,  tbe  bo- 
rough being  situated  within  1^  m.  of  the  Dart,  on 
the  high  i^ad  from  London  to  Plymouth,  170  m. 
WSW.  London,  and  19  m.  SW.  Exeter,  on  a  branch 
lino  of  the  Great  W»tcm  railway.  The  parish 
contains  8,8-20  acres,  and  had,  in  1831,  a  pop.  of 
4,lCa,  and  3,0G2  in  1861.  The  town  has  a  hand- 
some Gothic  church,  with  a  lower,  BO  fr.  in  height, 
a  gnunmar-schonl,  and  free  schools,  which  supply 
elementary  instruction  to  about  100  children.  It 
is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  stannary  courto.  £^erge 
and  similar  articles  aro  manufactund.  and  there 
are  tin  and  copper  mines  in  the  vicinity.  Pre- 
viously to  the  Keforin  Act,  Ashhurron  retumed 
two  m.  to  (he  U.  of  C,  tbe  fianchise  being  vtsted 


196 


ASHBY-DE-IA-ZOUCn 


in  frcohnldcra  hAvinf?  lands  and  tenements  hold- 
ing of  the  borough  only.  The  Reform  Act  deprived 
it  of  one  m.,  and  made  the  boundaries  of  the 
parish  and  parL  borough  identical.  The  consti- 
tuency consulted,  in  1865,  of  232  registered  eloo- 
tom,  two  being  old  freeholders,  and  the  rest  102. 
householders.  Ashburton  was  the  birthplace  of 
Dunning,  the  famous  law^'er,  who  was  created 
liaron  Ashburton;  and  of  William  Giffbrd,  the 
translator  of  Juvenal,  and  editor  pf  the  Quar- 
terly Review,  who,  on  his  death,  left  a  legacy  to 
the  town.  It  now  gives  the  title  of  Baron  to  the 
head  of  the  familv  of  Baring. 

ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH,  a  m.  towii  and  par. 
of  England,  co.  Leicester,  hund.  W.  Goscote^ 
1 16  m.  XW.  by  N.  I^ndou,  on  the  Midland  RaU- 
WAV.  The  par.  contains  8,300  acres,  and  had  in 
1861,  6,958  inhabitants'of  whom  3,772  belonged  to 
the  to¥m.  The  latter  consists  of  one  main  street, 
and  some  smaller  ones ;  has  an  old  church ;  seve- 
ral free  schools,  for  girls  as  well  as  boys;  and 
manufactures,  on  a  small  scale,  woollen  and  cot- 
ton stockings,  and  hats,  and  has  some  trade  in 
malting.  In  the  vicinity  are  the  extensive  re- 
mains of  Ashby  Castle,  built  !)y  I^ord  Hastings, 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  lY.,  and  dismantled  in 
that  of  Charles  II. 

ASHFORl),  a  m.  town  and  par.  of  England, 
CO.  Kent,  lathe  of  Scray,  the  town  being  situated 
on  an  eminence  near  the  junction  of  the  up|)or 
l)ranches  of  the  Stoiir,  47  m.  ESE.  London  by 
roatl,  and  67  m.  by  South  Eastern  Railway.  The 
)>ar.  contains  2,950  acres,  and  had  6,950  inhab.  in 
1861.  The  church,  a  Gothic  fabric  of  considerable 
note,  has  a  lofty  well-pro|K>rtioned  tower,  and 
several  ancient  monuments.  There  Ls  a  free 
grammar-school  of  some  eminence,  foundetl  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  and  some  other  charities. 

ASH  RUFF,  a  town  of  Persia,  prov.  Mazun- 
deran,  about  8  m.  fK»m  the  W.  extremity  of  the 
bay,  and  52  m.  W.  from  the  city  of  As'terobaiL 
Near  it  are  the  ruins  of  an  extensive  and  magiii- 
ficent  palace,  built  by  the  greatest  of  the  Persian 
monarehs,  Shah  Abbas.  The  town,  which  was  in 
a  great  degree  dependent  on  the  fialace,  has  l)0(*n 
Kcriously  affected  by  the  decay  and  niin  of  the 
latter;  and  does  not  contain  above  500  houses, 
thinly  scattered  through  an  extensive  jungle. 
(Eraser's  Caspian  Sea,  p.  19.) 

ASHT0N-1;NDER-LYNE.  a  pa.  of  England. 
CO.  of  Lancash.,  hund.  Salford,  6  m.  long.  N.  to  S., 
4  m.  breail ;  area  9,300  acres.  P<»p.  m  1 801 , 1 5.632 ; 
1821,25,967;  1831,33,597;  1841,  46,304,  and  m 
1861,  66,801,  of  whom  nearly  half  resided  in  the 
town  of  Ashton,  and  the  residue  principallv  in  the 
h.imlcls  of  Lees,  Mossley,  Audenshaw,  and  part  of 
Stalcy-bridge.  Surface  level,  soil  marshy  and 
poor.  But  the  inferior  quality  of  the  soil  is  com- 
jicnsated  by  the  abundance  of  mineral  pro<lucts, 
coal  of  go(Hi  quality  and  in  the  greatest  abundance 
l>eing  founil  m  almost  ever^'  part  of  the  parish. 
From  this  circumstance  and  its  proximity  to  Man- 
chester, of  which  it  may  be  regarded  as*  a  depen- 
dency, the  parish  has  become  a  principal  seat  ol  the 
cotton  manufiictarc,  most  part  of  the  population 
l>eing  engaged  in  and  dependent  on  its  vanous  pro- 
cesses. Stout  printing  calicoes  and  ginghams  are 
the  articles  principally  produced.  The  manor 
and  ecclesiaaUcal  patn)nago  belong  to  the  Earl 
of  Stamford,  who  derives  a  large  income  from  the 
parish. 

Ashton-undkr-Ltne,  a  m.  town  of  England. 
CO.  of  Lancashire,  in  the  alx)ve  pa.,  on  the  X, 
bank  of  the  Tjime,  187  m.  NW.  by  X.  London, 
and  6^  m.  E.  Manchester,  on  the  London  and 
North  WesU'm  railwav.  Pop.  in  1821,  9,220: 
Ji«Jl,  14,670 ;  1811,  22,514,  and  in  1861,  34,880. 


ASIA 

The  towii  is  well  laid  out,  well  bnilt,  and  is 
nently  thriving.  Its  rapid  gmwth  is  owing  totbe 
still  more  rapid  extension  of  the  cotton  mandW' 
ture.  In  1864  there  were  aboat  ninety  oottoa 
mills  at  work  in  the  town.  Among  tlie  ntUie 
buildings  ore  an  old  and  a  new  church,  with  n- 
merous  chapels  and  other  places  of  wan^l,  i 
court-house,  a  theatre,  concert-room,  and  an  es- 
cellent  market.  The  fVee  school  is  but  sleodeilr 
endowed;  but  there  are  several  other schoolMilk 
a  mechanics'  institute  and  laige  Snndav  icbook 
The  Ashton,  Staley-bridge,  drc  Banking  Cm- 
pany,  establbhed  in  1836,  has  its  head  office  in  ihi 
town ;  and  hero^  also,  the  Manchester  and  lirw- 

CI  District  Banking  Companv,  and  other  bukii 
e  branches.  Market-<lav,  S^tnnlav.  Thmi 
a  cattle  market  on  the  first  Satiirdav  m  eidi 
month.  Fairs,  March  23.  April  29,  July  14,  H, 
and  25,  Nov.  10  and  Nov.  21. 

Ashton  is  admirably  situated  for  tnde  ui 
manufacture,  in  the  centre  of  a  ptipuloun  wa^ 
lK>urhocKl,  having  an  unlimited  command  of  cm, 
and  communirating  by  means  of  canaU  and  nit 
ways  with  all  parts  of  the  empire.  It  wasaodcnth 
a  Iwreu^h,  but  for  some  causi*  or  other  bai  Vm 
l)een  disfranchise<L  The  Reform  Act  orofenv 
on  it  the  f invilege  of  sending  one  m.  to  the  H.  i( 
C.  It  had,  in  1864,  a  constituencj'  of  1,062  wgi> 
tered  electors,  the  whole  of  them  being  lOiL  hooW' 
holders. 

ASIA,  the  largest,  earliest  civilised.  andiniiHBQ 
res|>ects  the  most  interesting  of  the  great  (tirinaoi 
of  the  glol)e,  extends  fn>m  P  20'  to  78^  X.  lat. 
and,  when  the  islands  l)elonging  to  it  are  inrinded 
fn>m  P  19'S.  lat  From  W.  to  E.  it  exten.isfiw 
26^  to  190°  E.  long.  The  mcjst  northerly  point u 
the  continent  is  Cape  Taimura.  78®  N.  lat.;  th 
most  easterly,  Cape  Tshukotskoi  Nt*?.  19flP  I 
long. :  the  most  southerly.  Cape  Buros,  l**  30*  I 
lat.;  and  the  most  westerly.  Cape  Baba,  in  Aii 
M  inor,  26°  E.  long.  Cape  t'aimtura  and  Cape  Bae 
are  more  than  5,300  m.  distant  from  each  otba 
and  this  consequently  is  the  extent  of  Asia  fm 
N.  to  S.  Its  greatest  breadth  occuw  under  th 
parallel  of  40°  N.  lat..  between  Capp  Baba  andtb 
E.  coast  of  the  Corea,  where  it  extends  ibw 
5,600  miles  from  W.  to  E.  It*  surface  is  suppiw 
to  cover  about  17.500,000  sq.  m.,  being  above  Iw 
times  the  area  of  Euro])o, 

I.  Skktch  of  Asia. — On  the  X.  A^iaiswad* 
by  the  Arctic  Sea,  which  separates  it  frmn  lb 
Arctic  countries  of  America ;  on  the  E.  by  the  ft 
citic  OceMi,  which  divi<les  it  fmm  the  contiuflit  < 
America;  on  the  S.  by  the  Indian  Oean,  whid 
lies  Wtween  it  and  AtL<traUa:  on  the  W.  it  w  eon 
terminous  with  Africa  and  Eurr»pe,  The  boundar 
line  between  it  and  Africa  is  formed  by  the  Golf  * 
Aden,  the  straits  of  Babelmandeb  (whew  boll 
continents  are  only  about  16  miles  ai>art),theBe 
ScA  and  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  where  both  wof 
nents  unite  for  about  70  miles.  Asia  is  sepaaw 
from  Europe  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  th 
>Egean  Sea,  or  Archipelago,  the  straits  of  the  Pal 
danelles,  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  the  channel  rfC<« 
stantinople^  and  the  Black  Sea.  From  the  eart* 
shores  of  the  latter  sea  the  boundar\--lin€  ntf 
along  the  crest  of  Mount  Caucasus  to  the  C*!*" 
Sea,  which  constitutes  the  bountlary  as  far  aa  tl 
mouth  of  the  river  Oural.  Thence  it  follow*  tl 
courj«c  of  that  river  up  to  its  source  in  the  Ouralu 
liange,  which  latter  forms  the  remainder  of  tl 
Ix)undan'  line  to  the  Gulf  of  Kara,  £.  of  tl 
island  oi  Novaia  Zemlia. 

To  the  S.  and  SE.  of  Asia  is  the  greatest  of  * 
archi))elagos,  containing  many  thousanils  oflar; 
and  small  Islands.  These  lK*iong  partly  to  As 
and  i)artly  tu  Australia,  but  they  ore  not  »op«nt' 


Kf.  Wbeu  the  Porlpj 
to  be  uqimiiiteJ  wit 
'  eaoquend  or  settled  tluH« 
and  likely  to  repay  the 
Ima  woe  then,  Bnd  are  i 
iD(  to  Asia.  The  uth 
Bb  adTintflgee,  snd  were 


ASIA. 

den>  bays,  and  having  scvcinl  inajecting  tonffuc* 


my,  Japan,  Form 
eoM,  and  that  lung 
■MCbcf^withTi 


,   the 


tif  of  Asia,  we  an  ntrack  by 
?iaSc  Oc«ui,  ivhich  ilividia 
Mra  leachea  immeiUalely'  to 
blot,  but  ia  separaled  fium 
latf  islands,  which,  with  Ihe 
if  amallei  sea-banns.  The 
■a  Ka-baidna  is   tbe  Sta  of 

America,  and  sepanted  ^om 
Itian  Iskudi.  The  Kurilian 
m  Cape  Lupgllui  to  Vewi,  the 
I  ulanrU  funning  the  empire 
ftDther  sca-hasui  from  the 
hiStaof  OUatdi.  from  Ihe 


t  the  sea  called  Timg-Hai 
Chinese,  witb  iu  ex  (etui  ve 
H-Uai  (Vellow^ea).  Thia 
nd*  the  Pacific,  iu  entnuiL-e 
'  two  ur  three  small  groups 
Idi  Ihe  Loo  ClUH)  have  ob- 
in  later  times.  The  Island 
■  aoutheni  boundary  or  this 


tat  ndls  in  t 


aoC  fivm  tbe  cuntincnt,  the 
Ettbcs,  ocmpyiug  UU.DUti  sq. 
rnlchatka  aiul  Corea,  which 

B  ii  nut  >uiTnanded  by  cloae 
to  the  Indian  Ocean,  excejit 
t  Chineae  Sea;  but  in  theHe 
fr  which   deeply  penetrate 

an  the  Bay  of  Oeoptl.  the 
Fenian  Gulf,  the  <iu1f  of 
Baai,  sepanuing  Asia  fro 

loat  tfacUanjjCH,  vrliich  In 
AjOOO  sn.  m..  Imlia  with 
■L  Eai'ii  v(  the  la«t  mei 
mkofamiltiun  sq^  m.;  t1 
nioriy  equal  (41  Europe 

eha  Eumpe,  we  meet  ll 
is  Uinor,  i-uverina  a  siufaoc 
tt  aq.  m.,  wf  ■  ^  ■ 

naofbotha 


luld  give  tTeat  sdvanlaccs  to 
uiiriL-uunw  with  other  countriee  did  the  seventy  of 
Che  climate  not  icudcr  them  inaccessible  all  Ihe 
year  round.  They  are  nearly  eyciywhere  en- 
closed by  ice^ 

1.  Gitat  Northm  FlaiK.—OiHformatiem  of  (Af 
Sw/ora.— ."* ■■  ------ '••■-  "—-- 


■™i;' ' 


mer  montfta,  when  it  is  _,. .^ . 

distance  of  a  few  miles,  extends  ttie  [greatest  plain 
of  the  globe.  This  plain  not  only  covers  nearly 
the  whole  of  Northern  Asia,  but  advances  wcst- 
wanl,  extending  over  the  east  of  Kunipe,  and 
rcachinc  to  the  i-ery  shores  of  the  North  Sea  op- 
it  Britain.  We  mav  even  affirm  that 
id  level  countries  which  in  England  oo- 
""  :h  Sea  lietween  the  Tbamen  and 
c  the  forthoat  W.  comer  cif  this 


the  low 

cur  along  the 

Itumber,  c 


aveller  . 


id  advancing  eastwsrd  between  the  parallelH 
of  &ao  snd  63°  S.  laL  as  far  as  86°  E.  lonj,'.,  and 
hence  between  65°  and  56°  S.  lat,,  will  arrive  at 
Takulik.  on  the  river  Lena  (130°  K.  long.)  mthout 
having  passed  any  mountain-range.  The  highest 
ground  m  his  way  would  occur  about  G(i°  K.  lung., 
between  the  river  Oural  and  the  sources  uf  tfie 
Tobiil,  where  a  chain  of  hills  rises,  hut  only  to  on 
absolute  height  of  less  than  'if)»0  ft.     In  this  long 

f'oumey  he  would  have  traversed  130  degrees  of 
ong.,  or  more  than  a  third  part  of  tbe  curvature  oT 
the  earth,  and  this  is  the  length  of  llie  (neat  plain 
in  ihia  parolleL  liut  along  the  Arctic  Sea  it 
Btretchea  fajther  east,  and  tcrminaleo  at  lGo°  E. 
long,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Kolvma. 

This  plain  would  extend  &om  ihe  Atlantic  to 
Ihe  Pacific  Sea,  but  for  two  maunlain-rangcs, 
which  rise  at  its  W.  and  E.  exticmilies  Uke  high 
walln.  to  protect  it  against  the  encroachments  of 
the  Ka.  At  its  W.  extremity  are  the  Scandina- 
vian mountains,  Iviug  XNE.  snd  SSW.  At  ilrt 
E.  extremity  are,' first,  the  Viblonui  mounlainc. 


.  NETdireclion,  until  they  terminate  on  Deliriiig's 
Sirsjt.  This  range  occupies  a  considerable  width, 
being  probably  nowhere  less  than  15U  m.  across, 
but  doei  not  rise  lu  a  considerable  height,  Ihe 
Mghest  of  ila  sutnmita  which  have  been  measured 
— 'ning  only  4,05a  ft,  above  the  sea,  and  its 
I  elevation  being  estimated  at  less  than  2,(HHI 
Ita  N.  branches  fill  up  tlie  whole  country 
between  the  peniniiuhi  of  Kamtchalka  and  the 
Polar  Sea  with  mountains  of  moderate  elevation, 
many  of  which,  however,  are  always  covered  willi 
snow  on  account  of  their  high  latitude  near  the 
Polar  Circle. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  in  the  seas  odjoin- 
iiig  the  two  boundory  ranges,  two  of  the  most 


bcr  of  volcanoes  are  placed  on  the  inland  of  [i;e- 
land,  and,  a*  it  seems,  abui  on  Ihe  neighbouring 
inland  of  Jan  .^layen.  On  tlie  cast  of  Ihe  Valilo- 
noi  and  continuing  ranges,  the  peninsula  of  Kamt- 
chalka uSem  a  Mmilar  phenomenon.  It  seema  that 
Ihe  chain  of  muuiitaine  is  mcntly  cuvervd  wilh 
volcanic  matter,  and  several  very  high  >umi»ils 
The  highest  of  ihe 


.  of  Shi 


li),591  fl.  above  Che 
Kliutahewsk  even  to  1&,8£5  ft.    The 
land  which  extend  along  the 
peninsula  are  partly  covered  ' 


Lighest  < 
if  the  V 


b  iliick  forests, 
Llher  agriculture 


198 


ARIA 


pcanty  population  finding  it  more  easy  to  get  it« 
Bubsifltcncc  by  fishing. 

BendcB  the  ranges  forming  the  boundary  of  the 
pliiin  to  the  £.  and  \V.,  it  is  nearly  in  its  middle 
traversed  by  another  chain,  the  O'uralian  moun- 
tains, which  run  ncarlv  due  N.  and  S.,  on  both 
sides  of  60°  E.  long.  T\\\h  range,  which  in  breadth 
occupies  hardly  an>-whcre  more  than  50  or  60  m., 
exhibits  near  its  N.  extremity  a  few  summits 
which  rise  to  from  4.(KK)  to  5,000  fu  But  the 
mean  elevation  is  probably  not  more  than  2,000 
ft.  above  the  sea.  Between  50^  and  54°  are  also 
some  summits  which  attain  between  4,000  and 
5,000  ft.  At  the  sources  of  the  river  Oural  the  range 
loweni  considerably,  and  divides  in  several  ridges ; 
i)f  w^hich  one,  called  the  liills  of  Mug^Klsharsk, 
advances  in  a  S\V.  direction,  and  terminati's  on 
the  plain  which  divides  the  Caspian  Sea  from  the 
lake  of  Aral.  Tlius  this  chain  does  not  join  the 
mountain-ranges  in  the  interior  of  Asia. 

Nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  S.  border  of  the 
Great  Plain,  on  both  sides  of  the  hills  of  Mugod- 
shantk  and  the  countries  lying  S.  of  it,  between 
45°  and  64°  E.  long.,  occun  the  most  remarkable 
depression  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  A  tract  of 
country,  extending  over  an  area  of  more  than 
300,000  sq.  m.,  exclusive  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  is, 
according  to  the  supposition  of  Humboldt,  lower 
than  the  surface  of  the  oc«!an.  The  lowest  part  of 
it  is  occupied  by  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  was  sup- 
posed by  Humboldt  to  l)e  no  less  than  S4S  n. 
t)elow  the  surface  of  the  Black  Sea ;  but  later,  and 
it  is  believed,  more  correct,  measurements  make 
the  level  of  the  C-aspian  Sea  only  1 16  ft.  below, 
and  that  of  the  Lake  of  Aral  14  ft.  above,  the  level 
of  the  Black  Sea.  According  to  Humboldt^  this 
depression  extends  between  the  rivers  Kooma, 
Wolga,  and  Oural,  up  to  a  line  drawn  from  Sara- 
tow  to  Orenbuig,  whence  its  boundary  runs  to  the 
I^ke  of  Ak-so-kal  (48°  N.  Ut.,  and  68°  £.  long.), 
and  then  includes  the  countries  traversed  by  the 
lower  courses  of  the  Sir-Daiia  (Sihoon,  Jaxariet) 
and  Amoo-Daria  (Oxm«),  consisting  principally  of 
the  state  of  Khiva,  on  the  course  of  the  latter  river. 
'Phis  country  is  so  little  elevated  above  the  great 
lakes,  which  lie  in  the  midst  of  it,  that  a  strong 
north-westerly  wind  of  some  continuance  forces 
their  waters  over  many  miles  of  the  adjacent 
tracts.  Its  soil  consists  partly  of  sand,  and  partly 
of  hard  clay,  on  wliich  neither  trees  nor  shrubs 
grow,  and  which  only  in  spring,  after  the  melting 
of  the  snow,  is  covered  with  a  scanty  but  nourish- 
ing grass  and  numerous  flowers.  It  is  only  used  as 
pasture  by  the  nomadic  tribes  which  wander  about 
in  this  desert.  Natural  wells  are  nowhere  found, 
but  water  is  met  with  on  digging  some  feet  dowi\ 
in  those  dutricts  which  have  a  sandy  soil,  but  not 
in  those  where  it  consists  of  clay.  Along  the 
banks  of  the  watercourses  trees  and  shrubs  grow, 
and  the  soil  is  tit  for  agricultural  purposes,  but  is 
commonly  used  as  meadows. 

Along  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea  this  low 
and  desert  country  extends  to  the  very  edge  of 
the  table-land  of  Iran  (Penia),  where  it  terminates 
between  86°  and  87°  N.  lat,  but  from  the  table- 
bmd  of  Eastern  Asia  it  is  separated  by  a  mountain 
region,  which  comprehends  the  countries  of  Kho- 
lum  and  Badakshaji,  and  between  them  and  the 
desert  extends  Bokhara,  whose  surface  is  broken 
into  ridges  of  moderate  height,  and  valleys  of  con- 
siderable  width,  which,  being  watered  by  artificial 
means,  are  very  productive  of  all  kinds  of  grain 
and  fruit.  This  country,  therefore,  offers  a  succes- 
sion of  fertile  and  sterile  tracts  over  the  whole  of 
its  surface. 

The  Cas]»an  Sea,  which  covers  a  surface  of 
120,000  sq.  JD^  is  very  deep  towards  its  S.  ex- 


tremity, where  it  is  surtoniided  by  the  momil 
ranges*  of  Iran,  but  where  it  boidcn  on  the  tee 
is  shallow.  Its  waters  are  salt  TbeLake«rS( 
Aral,  lying  farther  east,  has  a  surface  of  beti 
40,000  and  50,000  sq.  m.,  and  its  waten  anl 
wise  salt,  as  is  the  case  with  all  the  mmM 
smaller  lakes  which  occur  m  the  abore-moBtio 
depreiwion.  The  Lake  of  And  leoeiTeB  Um 
laiq^t  rivers  which  drain  the  S.  parts  of 
desert,  and  descend  fnm  the  table-land  oflLA 
Tlie  Sir-Daria,  which  in  its  opper  ooone  A 
through  Khokan,  runs  about  950  ul,  aDd 
Amu-Daria,  which  rises  in  Badakshan.  out  A 
along  the  southern  boundary  of  Bokhan,  i 
afterwards  through  the  desert  and  Khirai  la 
course  of  nearly  1,100  m. 

The  Oural  ili\'iding  Asia  from  Earo|ie,  tbep 
plain  is  divided  between  these  two  oootioa 
Though  that  portion  of  it  which  beloogi  to  £n 
has  immense  tracts  of  very  fertile  land,  espedi 
in  the  centre  of  Russia,  ue  plain  of  Iberia ; 
where  exhibits  such  a  soil.  Tlioee  parts  wkich 
contiguous  to  the  great  depression,  andaifiir 
as  82°  E.  long.,  are  steppes,  that  is,  level  eouti 
with  a  sandy,  gravelly,  or  clayey  soil,  dadtBti 
trees,  except  ^ong  the  bottoms  of  some  of  i 
rivers,  and  covered  partly  with  low  shrabi,  I 
partly  with  coarse  grassi,  which  affords  only  fi 
scanty  pasture.  In  most  parts  th^  are  dertiD 
of  water.  The  great  steppe  of  Baiialnnak^  I 
tween  the  rivers  iriash  and  Obi,  is  partly  am 
with  large  swamps,  and  intermingled  with  dib 
ous  salt-lakes,  some  of  conddenble  extent;  I 
remainder  has  a  dry  sterile  soil,  but  when  it  Im 
to  rise  in  hills  towards  the  Altai  range,  miajfl 
tricts  are  tit  for  agriculture,  and  are  cahini 
This  last  observation  applies  still  moce  to  t 
countries  farther  E^  between  the  riven  Obi  i 
Tenesei,  where  agriculture  has  already  adfw 
from  56°  N.  lat.  to  Krasno>'ai«k.  This  poriiDi 
the  plain  is  considered  the  grranaiy  of  Sibaia 
surface  is  rather  hilly.  The  countries  lying  • 
of  the  Yencsei  do  not  exhibit  a  level  pbaa,  1 
rather  an  undulating  sorface,  which  in  sonepi 
is  even  broken.  But  as  the  climate  is  kM  ■ 
than  farther  west,  agriculture  is  only  panned  i 
comparatively  few  sheltered  places,  and  the  R 
ing  of  cattle  and  the  chase  affaid  aobiirtww 
its  scanty  population.  This  part  of  tbe^  plM 
covered  witn  immense  forests  of  pinei,  lm,i 


of  which  the  W.  steppes  are  destitute,  and  ittt 
turcs  are  also  much  richer.  That  portion  m 
plain  which  extends  N.  of  the  Polar  Circle  k« 
surface  frozen  ten  months  of  the  year,  and  r 
in  July  ice  is  met  with  at  the  depth  of  a  ftot 
is  an  immense  desert,  covered  with  nuMi,  Md 
ter8i)er8ed  with  numerous  lakes  and  awampi. 
summer  its  whole  surface  is  changed  into  a  nri 
and  then  it  is  inaccessible.  This  mossy  deM 
called  tundra.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  thai  it 
mouth  of  the  Lena,  and  between  it  and  that  of 
Indighirka,  immense  masses  of  bones,  and  ( 
entire  skeletons  of  elephants,  ihinoccnMi 
antedilu\'ian  animals  are  found  imbedded  ia 
ice,  which  never  is  dissclyed  by  the  rays  of  the 
This  plain  b  drained  by  numenms  riven»iit 
descending  from  the  Alfai  and  other  lofty  m 
tain-ronj^  on  the  southern  border  of  the  p 
traverse  it  in  a  northerly  direction.  Soomoi  t 
may  be  enumerated  among  the  laigest  rive 
the  globe.  Such  is  the  Obi  or  Oby,  whidi  a 
with  the  Yrtish,  and  whose  whole  coone  n 
exceeds  2,000  m.  The  Yenesei  is  still  hmfia 
if  we  take  for  its  source  the  Selenga,  which 
into  the  Lake  of  Baikal,  and  issues  from  it  i 
the  name  of  Lower  Aii^^ua,  ^'  chances  it  f 
.  wards  into  that  of  Upper  Tnnguaka,  it  nm 


VM  B.    The  L<a*,  which  is  Joined  bj 
bribouriei  THim  and  Aldui,  haa  a  course 
bn  tluD  2,000  m.    Farther  E.  in  the 
Ul  Soira  aboat  400  m.,  the  Indighirfca 
Nu,  ami  tfae  Knlfnu  900  m. 
atd  TUt-buf  1^  Soiteni  Aiia.— Tin 
of  Ihii  exUOBire  icf^nn  lie*  near  the 
r  W  N.  lat^  betWMD  Sjo  and  122°  E. 
A«  W.  the  boundary  is  fonned  by  ■  line 
'tat  Emm  W°  N.  lat.  and  82°  E.  long,  tn 
,  md  73°  E.  limg..  uiil  hence  aearl;  due 
Fnin  thi«  poiot  it  rullowi  the  range  ef 
laja  mooDtaiiu  in  its  SK  direction  -- 
^  vbeie  thii  chain,  which  constilut 
•  of  the  table-land,  begins  lo  turn  near 
■d  eootinuea  in  iliat  direction  u  (ti  ■ 
(,  iiMT  the  parallel  of  2(t°N.  lat.   Hen. 
HL  to  the  Uble-land  of  Yu-nsn,  2£P  S. 
0*  E.  long.,  which  Tunns  the 
of  the  gnat  table-land  of  Ei 
n  bODB^arj  nuii  alone  the  range  uf  the 
aoontaina,  which  rise  in  the  meet  Knith- 
rf  the  liver  Kin-aha-kiang. 
dc  of  the  immetiM  area  included  withio 

a  aeL  Onlj'  a  few  comparatively  pmall 
•■nti;  are  eopposcd  to  have  lew  thai 
t  atiKilule  elei'atiun,  aod  manv  of  iu 
lliitii  riw  to  mure  than  tO,OOU  fi  Ac- 
.  ODTKanty  information,  we  may  lup- 
tha  whole  country  rues  conCmually 
feim  of  tenraceg  an  it  approaches  its 
kmnidary,  the  Himalaya  range.  But, 
[  the  eoorK  of  the  rivers,  we  are  obliged 
i  that  this  country  gradually  declines 
a  eaat,  as  those  liven  which  tlow  from  it 
t  fiae  only  on  [he  very  hordcn  of  (he 
,  tnt  many  of  Ihwe  nhich  travene  its 
kba  descend  In  the  Pacific  Sea.  Even 
ft  are  not  connected  with  Che  sea,  but 
ia  lakes  haring  no  outlec,  run  mostly 

>E. 

iB^aod  does  not  extend  in  one  uninlcr- 
■%  bat  bendea  its  being  almost  every- 
HUded  by  monntsin-ranges,  iU  inurior 
tnrened  by  several  extensive  chains. 
fan  indicate  the  ranges  which  are  met 
tea,  then  those  in  the  interior,  and 
sajying 


U  19» 

The  vast  range  of  the  Himalaya  monnt^na  nma 
alone  the  S\V.  and  S.  edge  of  the  table-land,  from 
81°  N.  lat.  and  73°  E.  long.,  to  2B°  N.  Ut  and  DT" 
E.  long.,  bcmg  about  1 ,800  m.  in  length,  and  from 
250  to  850  m.  amaM.  Fnim  the  low  plains  of 
India,  which  border  on  the  range  on  the  SW., 
the  mountain-maxa  rixea  ahniptly  to  about  4,000 
urfi,0O0ft.  Behind  il  lies  a  belt  of  an  extremely 
broken  surface,  fnim  100  to  SOO  m.  in  breadth, 
overtopped  by  numerous  high  summits,  which 
grow  higher  and  higher  sa  they  spproacb  the 
table-land.  The  base  on  which  tbey  net  aim  rises 
graduallv,  till  it  attains  near  the  table-land  the 
height  of  8,000  or  9.000  ft  Then  follows  the 
highest  portion  of  this  stupendous  range,  the  crcat 
of  the  HhsOiu  or  Im&ui  of  the  ancients,  some  of 
whose  summits  exceed  by  lU.OOO  and  11,000  A. 
the  altitude  of  Mont  Blanc,  and  are  the  highest 
in  any  country  hitherto  discovered.  The  Uha- 
walagiri  (2H0  30'  S.  lat,  and  88°  80'  E.  long.) 
attains  S6,B62  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  the  Cbsmalari 
(3««  N.  lat.,  and  89°  30'  E.  long.)  is  probably  but 
little  lower.  The  TawahLr  (30°  22'  N.  lau,  and 
79°  b7  E.  long.)  rises  Ui  25,7'ISI  ft.  There  are  pro- 
bably above  910  summits,  wliich  rise  more  thou 
18,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  and  are  covemt  with 
eternal  snow.  In  fact,  the  name  HimaUya  or 
Himaleh  is  merely  a  Sanscrit  term  for  snowy ; 
a  circumstance  of  which  Plinv  was  well  aware 
when  he  savp  ImAnt  hteoianm  f iH^iifi  aj rvnia  tig- 
nifieanU.  (ilLiL  Nat,  lib.  i-i.  J  17.)  By  far  the 
greater  number  of  tliese  high  summits  lie  W.  uf 
the  Chamalari ;  for  E.  of  that  high  [unnacle,  the 
nornitains  which  attain  the  snow  seem  huge, 
Dut  few.  On  the  SW.  are  the  plains  of  India, 
xhich  are  nowhere  more  than  1,000  ft  above  the 
lea ;  and  on  the  north  of  the  range  are  the  plains 
■f  Tibet,  which  have  at  least  10,000  ft.  of  alisolute 
Je^'atiofL  The  highest  crest  of  the  range  towards 
this  table-land  islietneeu  16,000  and  18,000  ft 
high,  the  Xeetec  pass,  one  of  the  lowest,  rising  to 
'",56911.  above  the  sea. 
The  country  which  lies  between  the  E.  ex- 
mitv  of  the  Himalaya  range  (97^  E.  long.)  and 
the  table-land  of  Vu-nan  (between  100°  and  104° 
E.  long.)  contains  the  sources  of  the  Irawaddi,  and 
~sofl  (o  a  considerable  elevation,  being  overtopped 
y  high  summits.  The  table-land  of  Yn-nan  it- 
;lf  is  of  considerable  height,  and  the  winters  an 
lid,  tbiiugh  it  be  placal  near  the  tropic 


iwith  the  Altai  range,  a 
b  Taiies  in  width  between  'juu  a 
■tods  along  the  table-land  ti 
t  waa  fomieriy  supposed  to  have  i 


Dftfaeri 


ity,  where,  on 


bore  the  level  of  the , 

tb  BQow.  To  the  norib-eaxt  of  Lalf 
the  great  Alpine  lake  of  liaihal,  355  m. 
bjrSO  and  40  m.  in  width,  and  cohering 
ri4,e0U  sq.  m.,  so  that  it  is  larger  thau 


a  hereafter.  But  between  40°  and  34° 
Wttnouus  range  ri;<e4  tu  a  great  height 
1,  (h  out  mapa,  Bulor  Tagh,  but,  by  the 
Mash,  and  by  the  Chinese  geograidien) 


the  I 


southerly  bend  of  the  tivei 
nay  be  eoniudered  as  the  nu 
ity  irf  the  Tun-li 


le-land,  a 


1  of  the  ri 


TKii 


the  E.  edge  of  the 
XNE.  diiectiun  in 
-sha-kiang,  is  also 

Ung  (Snuw-range), 


leidcrsble   height, 
by  the  Chinese  the 

now-capi*d  summi — 

30°  and  34i°  N.  lat,  and  more  especially  between 
""  id  34°.  The  eaolem  boundary  of  Ibis  Isble 
is  fonned  by  the  mountain-ranges  of  the 
in  and  Khing-khan,  which  extend  east  and 
north  from  the  most  nortlicrly  bend  of  the  Whang- 
10  river.  The  letigib  of  the  In-shan  does  not 
Quch  exceed  360  mile&  But  the  Khing-khan, 
rbijse  northern  extremity  advances  to  the  most 
jurthcrly  t>end  of  the  river  Amoor,  has  a  length 
of  nearly  HOU  milee. 

The  most  northerly  of  the  mountain-ranges 
traversing  the  interior  of  the  great  table-land  of 
Eastern  Airia  is  the  Thian-nhau.  It  begins  st 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  Tartasli-i-Ung,  or 
Bolor  Tagh  (40°  S.  tit.),  with  which  it  forma 
nearly  a  tight  angle.    Uut,  properly  speaking,  it 


200 


ASIA 


projects  nnder  the  name   of  Ak-Tagh  into  the 
I»lain8  of  Bokhara,  lying  farther  W.  ^fhe  Thian- 
SShan  runa  from  W.  to  E.,  between  70°  and  9<j<>, 
and  then  it  terminates  abruptly  in  the  plain. 
Its  western  portion,  which  is  cidled  Muz-Taffh, 
though  rifling  to  a  great  elevation,  is  passed  by 
the  caravans  between  Kuldja  and  Khasghar.  Here 
its  breadth  does  not  exceed  30  or  40  m.   But  near 
79°  E.  long.,  where  it  is  traversed  by  the  road  be- 
tween Kuldja  and  Aksu,  the  highest  part  of  the 
mountain-pass  is  covered  with  snow,  and  leads 
over  a  glacier.    Hence  this  pass  is  called  Mumur 
dabdhn,  or  the  glacier-pnss.     Farther  £.  is  the 
high  volcanic  peak,  called  Pc-shan.    The  centre 
of  the  whole  range  is  occu[)ied  by  an  extensive 
mass  of  verj'  high  rocks,  which  rise  far  above  the  j 
snow-line,  and  this  mass  is  known  as  one  of  the  < 
highest  mountains  in  Northern  Asia  by  the  name 
of  Bogdo  Quia.    To  the  E.  of  this  high  mountain- 
maw  occurs  another  volcano,  named  the  volcano 
of  Ho-theou    (Fire-town).    Snow-capped  moun- 
tains ap])ear  likewi^ic  on  the  E.  of  the  Bogdo  051a, 
but  we  are  very  little  acquainted  with  tlus  part  of 
the  range. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  a  high  mountain- 
range,  running  SW.  and  N£.,  connected  the 
western  extremity  of  the  Tbian-Slian  with  the 
western  extremity  of  the  Altai  nmge,  but  it  is 
certain  that  no  such  range  exists.  The  country 
lying  between  these  ranges  i»  indeed  traversed  by 
several  lower  ridges,  of  which  some  are  of  con- 
siderable extent,  but  they  are  not  connected  with 
each  other,  wide  plains  extending  between  them. 
Tliese  plains  do  not  much  differ  nom  the  steppes 
of  Western  iSil>eria,  being  only  covered  with  coarse 
grass ;  but  along  the  rivers  are  considerable  tracts 
of  land,  fit  for  agriculture,  and  yielding  rich  crops 
of  rice  and  millet  Besides,  there  are  similar 
tracts  along  the  foot  of  the  ridges.  This  country 
is,  besides,  remarkable  for  the  great  number  of 
large  lakes  which  arc  met  with  over  its  whole 
surface.  The  most  remarkable  are  the  Balkash, 
which  is  said  to  extend  from  120  to  140  m.  from 
N.  to  S.,  the  Issekul  or  Temurti,  which  Is  half  as 
long,  the  Ala-kul,  Zalsan,  Kijilbash  No5r,  Ike- 
Aral  No5r,  Ubra  NoOr,  and  a  great  number  of 
smaller  ones.  Except  the  Zaisan  they  have  no 
outlets,  and  the  water  of  none  of  them  arrives  at 
the  sea.  Another  remaricable  circumstance  is  the 
occurrence  of  volcanoes,  at  a  distance  of  about 
1,0<)0  m.  from  the  sea.  For,  besides  the  volcanoes 
noticed  in  the  lliian-Shan  range,  there  occur 
others  to  the  N.  of  the  chain,  and  one  is  found  on 
an  island  in  the  Lake  of  Ala-kuL 

Not  far  from  the  S.  extremity  of  the  Tartash-i- 
ling  (between  85°  and  HGP  N.  lat.),  another  moun- 
tain-range, running  E.  and  W.,  is  connected  with 
it.    This  chain  it)  called  bv  the  Chinese  geogra- 

fihen,  Kuen-luen,  or  Kul-kun.    We  know  very 
it  tie  of  it,  except  that  it  stretclies  over  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  great  table-land,  and  nearly  in  the 
middle  of  its  extent  (about  92°  £.  long.)' divides 
into  two  ranges,  of  which   that  which  declines 
somewhat  to  the  N.  is  called  Nan-Shan,  and  is 
probably  connected  with  the  In-Shan  by  the  Ala- 
Slum,  a  range  of  mountains  extending  along  the 
banks  of  the  Hoang-ho,  where  it  Hows  N.  The  other 
branch  of  the  Kuen-luen,  which  declines  sopie- 
what  to  the  S.,  is  called  the  Bayan  Kara  moun- 
tains, and  frequently  also  the  Kuen-luen.    These 
ranges  are  in  many  parts  covered  with  snow  all 
the  year  round ;  whence  they  frcquentlv  are  calle<i 
8iue-moun tains  (snow-mouiitains)  by  tfie  Chinese. 
The  immense  tract  of  country  which  lies  to  the 
N.  <»f  this  range  (on  the  W.  between  it  and  the 
Thian-Shan,and  on  the  E.  between  it  and  the  Altai 
Jioujitains),  is  known  by  the  name  of  Gobi  or 


Great  Steppe.  Bat  the  whole  of  tlui  tnct  is  no 
a  desert  The  W.  poitioii  of  it,  between  7i9  m 
96°  £.  long.,  or  between  the  Thian-Shan  and  Kaeo 
luen,  is  only  from  800  to  400  m.  aaoM,  and  neidi 
1,200  m.  m  length.  Here  we  find  a  tiad  n 
country  from  50  to  80  m.  acroaa,  along  the  foot  d 
the  Tman-Shan  range,  fertile  in  many  distnel^ 
producing  different  kinds  of  gnun,  coUoo,  wine^ 
and  fruit,  or  covered  with  nouxiahing  gmL 
Through  this  tract  runs  the  great  oommeidalnid, 
which  connects  W.  Asia  with  the  moR  eMton 
countries,  and  here  are  situated  the  oommcidil 
towns  of  Khflsghar,  Aksu,  Kutshe,  Kanahar.Tv- 
fan,  and  Khamil,  or  Hami.  The  W.  portion  (be- 
tween 72°  and  77°  £.  long.)  is  also  notadem. 
Through  the  tracts  separating  the  riv«n  m 
steppes,  ie.  plains  without  trees,  and  pndadBg 
only  a  coarse  grass;  the  lands  boxderinp;  the binki 
of  the  watercourses  are  fertile  in  gram  and  oot' 
ton.  Here  is  the  town  of  Yarkand,  and,  Unmdi 
the  Kuen-luen,  Khotun,  through  which  two  dIms 
a  road  runs,  which  connects  K.  Asia  with  wom. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  term  cotton  is  derivedfim 
the  name  of  the  last-mentioned  town.  The  tt- 
maindcr  of  this  region  is  a  desort,  and  moetlyif 
the  worst  kind,  where  the  sandy  surface,  aoo»' 
iiig  to  a  Chinese  author,  moves  Uke  the  witci  d 
the  sea.  This  desert  is  sometimes  distingmAiA 
by  the  name  of  Sha-shin,  or  the  Gobi  of  Lop  Nc£t 
The  Lop  is  one  of  the  extensive  lakes  witboot  u 
outlet,  which  frequently  are  met  with  in  this  de- 
sert It  receives  from  the  W.  the  Tarim,  oto 
which  flow  the  Yaikand-Daria,  Kashgir  Diriii 
and  other  rivers  from  the  Kuen-luen,  Bdior,aDd 
Thian-Shan  ranges.  This  part  of  the  Great  Tibit- 
land  is  supposed  to  be  between  4,000  and  ^OM 
ft  above  the  sea-leveL 

It  seems  that  under  the  meridian  of  Kbad 
(90°  E.  long.)  the  desert  is  narrowed  to  about  Ul 
m.  across  by  the  fertile  districts  of  Tangut,  whieh 
skirt  the  declivity  of  the  mountains  of  >an-ShMr 
and  protrude  far  northward  into  the  deMit  Tks 
desert,  diWding  it  from  Khamil,  and  called  Goli<tf 
T/mgut,  is  also  less  level,  more  stony,  and  betttf 
adapted  for  pasture,  than  farther  £.  or  W.  Ban 
the  Chinese  ^vemment  has  extended  its  NW. 
prov.  of  Kansi  tlirough  this  desert  to  the  N.  ndi 
of  the  Thian-Shan  mountains. 

The  Gobi-Shamo  Steppe  extends  from  the  caA* 

em  extremity  of  the  Thian-Shan  (96°  £.  long.) » 

the  KhLog-Khan    (120°  £.  long.),  nearly  1^  ■• 

in  length,  and  its  width  between  the  Altai  nngt 

on  the  N.,  and  the  Nan-Shan,  Ala-Shan,  and  b- 

Shan,  on  the  S.,  varies  between  500  and  700  D. 

Through  the  middle  of  this  tract  extendi)  in  Ac 

whole  of  its  length,  what  is  properiy  caDed  the 

Slumio  (Sand  Sea).    It  is  from  160  to  250  & 

across ;  and  in  it  sand  almost  exchisivdjr  cotm 

the  surface,  which  commonly  is  level,  but  in  mV 

places  rises  into  hills^  on  which  maasee  of  kW 

stone  are  met  with.    Small  and  shallow  lakei  m 

frequent,  but  their  water  is  either  salt  or  Utuc 

The  vegetation  is  very  scanty,  and  alToidi  tMi 

indifferent  pasture.    In  a  few  places  a  small  mB 

ber  of  stunted  trees  are  met  with.    This  part  o 

the  Gobi  is  about  3,000  ft  above  the  sea-level,  In 

it  sinks  in  some  placn  even  to  2,600  ft.    In  Um 

parts  of  the  Gobi  which  lie  to  the  N.  and  & « 

the  Shamo,  the  surface  is  between  8,000  an 

4,000  ft.  above  the  sea.    Here  it  is  not,  in  gencn 

covered  with  sand,  but  with  gravel  and  pdtMi 

and  is  in  many  places  rocky.    The  vegetation 

much  more  vigorous,  and'  the  pastures   cuun 

quently  richer.    It  is  even  thought  that,  in  mai 

districts,  agriculture  would  succeed,  if  tlie  n 

madic  nation^  inhabiting  these  countries  woi 

attend  to  it ;  and  in  some  districts  wluch  bon 


ASIA. 

a  abniidanll;,  and  even 
■-  —  -  e  great  exUnt. 

iBu  nn  wim,  u  weu  on  the  N.  u  on 

dM  Sbamo,  Mpeciilly 


201 


li  nawn  al 


ThEf 


m  better  {CDTided  with  wi 
tUi  oould  not  b(  invencd,  if  wells 
bgmt  cotain  pUcea  where  the 
I  Bonhon  and  aouthem  dutricU  have 
hvd  nabBBf  lidga  of  atony  and  mcky 
liiiur  It  in  many  places ;  they  run  com- 
B  W.  to  E^  and  are  called  the  Black 
[In  (ew  and  slntafuh  riven  which  are 
D«bMtinIakes  without  outlet*.    Only 


!  the  Kcrl 


IS  nven,  ubich,  enterins;  Lake  Tshi 
Aigoon,  the  principal  branch  of  I 
%t  tonpenture  of  the  ur  >■  extremely 
I*  «4(iU  ^In.  the  waters  being  co 


•In  which  i 
t  On  KuCD 


^.e,  the  S«n-Sl.     . 
uw,  u  called   lliuine- 
The   Utter  nunc   u 


e  lake 


a  KE.  c! 


BC— ion  of  naitoH  valleys  and  very 
itnu,  wboae  niunettiiu  suminits  naw 
Aanuv-Une.     Theae  rnountainn  fbrm 

f-ho,  which  river  lias  ita  sources  in  the 
atf  this  leginn. 

ila  auDny  S.  of  the  Knen-lnen  moun- 
B  S>  ■■  the  liinulava  range,  is  compre- 
te  tin  name  of  Tibet.  It  ia,  rioubl- 
iubost  part  of  the  ffreat  table-land  of 
aa,  and  there  are  good  reasons  fc 
.  an  areiage  abiwlute  elevario.. 
■bare  the  sea-level,  though,  towards 
•  vaUeya  of  some  rivers  may  lie  consider- 

It  is  connected  with  the  Ilinmlava 
fenl  lable-land  of  14,0OD  ft.  elcvarion, 
nimd«  the  sacred  lakes  of  tlanassa- 
id  Bawi-  Hiad,  and  oti  which,  or  near 
tin  sources  of  three  great  rivers,  the 
go^andYam-TsanpOtOrRrahmapoutra. 
ain-cbain  ilaelf  is  called  Gang-ihs-ri  on 
t  bjlher  £.  it  bears  the  name  of  Zang. 
snitT  is  separated  from  the  Ynn-ling 
W  of  the  Kin-eha-kiaiig,  which  here 
K.toS.  Little  is  known  of  thiaranpe, 
•blj,  being  placed  on  so  elevated  a  base, 
I  Ita  nimmils  the  line  of  congelation. 
lauatij  which  lies  to  the  N.  of  this 
fittla  is  known,  if 


r,  where  the   Indus 


M^  level,  and  fertile  vallcv  of  Leh,  or 
I  rons  in  it  about  300  m.,  till  it  breaks 
ta  monntain-rarwes  which  oppose  its 
1  mtaa  the  plain  of  ludio.  On  the 
flue,  but  eleralcil  valley,  in  the  Ilima- 
■  aad  on  the  E.  another  high  chain, 

)R,  connect  the  Kuen-luen  chain  with 


BMim 

Mlj  east  of  the  Karakorum  mountains, 
fii^  between  the  Kuen-luen  and  the 
iiangea,ia called  Ksiahe,or  KorKatahe. 

Jijnwide  plains,  similar  to  the  steppes, 
lutly  provided  with  good  pasture. 
lang-dis-ii  nuu;e  is  an  exiensive  lake, 
)4  ud  K.  of  It  are  the  sources  of  the 


the  NW.  Dart  of  this  province  nnclcr 
the  name  of  Kin-sha-kianK,  or  River  of  lbs  Golden 

Sand,  it  passcx  into  the  province  of  Yu-nan.  It 
leaves  this  province  again  towards  the  XE.,  uid 

At  the  dty  of  Leuchow,  it  receives  the  river  Min, 
or  Wei,  and  after  this  Junction,  it  loses  its  name 
of  Kin-sha-kiang,  and  takes  that  of  Ta-kiant*,  or 
Great  Kiver,  At  Wuchang,  in  the  province  of 
Hupih,  it  is  joined  by  the  Hu-kiang^  or  Hu  river, 
and  the  main  river  is  from  this  pomt  known  by 
its  name  of  Yang-lse-kiang. 

The  country  between  the  Gang-dis-ri  range  and 
the  Himolsya  mountAins  is  Tiliet  Proper.  Its 
surface  exhibits  only  low  rocky  hills,  without  any 
si^tis  of  vi^tation,  rising  on  extensive  arid  plains, 
covered  at  certain  seasons  with  rich  grass,  and 
affording  pasture  to  numerous  herds  of  catlle. 
■hiehthe;' 


ably  depressed  below  the  surface  of  the 
and  in  tncse  valleys  a^culture  is  carried  i 


great  can.     All   kinds  of  E 
cultivated,  and  in  aor 
fhiit -trees  of  Europe 
portion  of  the  country  which 


ily  a  small  part 
though  far  from  nur 
com  from  tlie  adjacc 


I  fit  for  agrieullun 

lie,  the  population. 

la  partly  sup|>!ie<l  witli 


The  climate  in 
ivercd  with  ice  for 
sonie  months.  The  E.  part  of  TWiet  is  very  little 
known :  it  seems  to  be  traversed  by  bigh  ran);ei^ 
and  not  to  exhibit  the  large  plains  wluch  occur 
farther  W.  In  Tibet  is  the  lake  Palte,  which  lias 
a  large  island  in  its  centre,  ao  that  the  lake  has 
the  form  of  a  ring.  The  Yaru-Tsaupo,  or  Brah- 
mapout™  river,  rune  through  this  country  from  W. 
to  >:.,  and  aStei  a  course  of  more  than  1,0U0  ro., 
breaks  through  the  chain  of  the  Himalsva  rangP, 
about  9a°  E.  long.,  and  joma  the  Brahioapoutni 

The  table-land  of  Yu-nan,  which  fonns  the 
most  southerly  portion  of  the  great  table-land  of 
Eastern  Asiai,  hasanextremclydiveraifiedaurfoce, 
being  a  succession  of  mountaioa  which  in  some 
places  rise  above  the  snow-line,  and  of  valley's, 
which,  however,  (rnjucntly  widen  to  small  plains. 
The  dimate  indicates  a  considerable  elevation 
above  the  aea-level,  but  it  ia  not  so  high  as  to  pre- 
clude agriculture,  com  being  raised  in  the  valleys 
and  plains,  and  in  some  dutricts  rice.  Towards 
the  ^W.,  however,  it  rises  much  higher,  as  there 
the  rearing  of  cattle  fcimis  the  principal  occupation 

tailed  cattle  (Bos  grunniens,)  which  are  only  found 
in  very  cold  countries. 

B.  Gnatlria  lying  to  lU  Ea^  of  Ike  Table-lamt 
ofEaitmtAiia.—K»Bt  of  the  desert  of  GoIm  ex- 
tends Shing-king,  or  Maiichooria  (the  country  ot 
the  Manchoos),  bordereil  to  the  coasts  of  the  Pa- 
dlic,  except  in  ihe  extreme  north,  where  the  east- 
ern boundary  of  Manchooria  is  the  river  Ussuri, 
an  affluent  of  the  Amoor.  The  country  east  of 
the  Ussuri.  between  this  river  and  the  FaciSc,  has 
recently  been  aiiiie:ied  to  the  Russian  empire. 
Manchoorifl  is  divided  from  the  desert  by  the 
Khing-khan  mountains,  which  on  the  side  of  the 
desert  are  destitute  of  wood,  but  lowanls  Han- 
chooria  are  covered  with  fine  forest-trees,  amont; 
which  uak  is  frequent.  The  boundary  between 
Uanchooria  and  (hepenuisulaof  Corel  ' 


)  close  along 


202 


ASIA 


exhibit  different  characten.  The  SW.  part  of  it, 
N.  of  the  river  Sira  Muren,  or  Leao-ho,  i»  a  desert, 
and  may  be  considered  an  part  of  the  (jrobi,  which 
here  pn>iect«  beyond  it«  natural  boundary,  the 
Khlng-kban  range.  It  haa  a  scanty  \egetation 
and  is  only  inhabited  by  nomadic  natioiiit.  £.  of 
it,  and  as  far  N.  as  the  Amoor  river,  the  country  \» 
traversed  by  ridges  of  mountains  and  hills,  be- 
tween which,  however,  spacious  valleys  extend, 
whoae  fertile  soil  is  in  Bome  places  welfcultivatod, 
and  yields  rich  crops.  The  mountains  and  hills 
are  partly  covered  with  trees,  and  partly  affonl 
rich  pasture-walks  for  numerous  herds  of  cattle 
and  sheep.  Tlie  climate  of  this  portion  of  Man- 
chooria  is  very  temperate.  N.  of  the  river  Amoor 
the  whole  country  is  covered  with  mouutain- 
inasscs,  intersected  by  narrow  valleys.  Here  agri- 
culture ceases,  and  cattle  form  the  principal  riches  ' 
of  the  inhabitants,  who  also  ap[jly  themselves  in- 
dustriously to  the  chase  of  animals  affonling  furs, 
of  wliich  there  is  a  great  abundance.  The  prin- 
cipal river  is  the  Amoor,  whose  upper  branch,  the 
Argoun,  runs  through  the  N£.  districts  of  the 
Gobi,  and  after  entering  the  mountain  joins  the 
Shilka,  when  the  river  is  called  Am<K>r,  or  i^ak- 
halicn.  The  whole  course  of  this  river  does  not 
fall  short  of  2,000  miles. 

The  peninsula  of  Corea  is  separated  from  Man- 
chooria  by  the  Chang-re-shan,  and  from  this  range 
another  Inranches  on  to  the  S.,  which  runs  close  to 
the  K.  shores,  towards  which  it  descends  with 
great  rapidity,  and  in  these  districts  the  level  or 
cultivable  tracts  are  of  small  extent.  The  nu- 
merous offsets  to  the  W.,  which  are  less  steep  and 
elevated,  contain  between  them  large  and  well 
cultivated  valleys.  But  the  whole  country  seems 
to  have  a  considerable  elevation  above  tne  sea- 
level,  as  its  climate  is  very  cold,  ita  N.  riven 
being  covered  with  ice  for  four  months ;  yet  rice, 
cotton,  and  silk,  are  produced  in  abundance. 

China  Proper  ocnipies  the  remainder  of  the 
countries  l>'ing  between  the  great  table-land  of 
Kastem  Asia  and  the  Pacific.  Several  mountain- 
ranges  issuing  from  those  that  surround  it, 
traverse  its  interior.  Where  the  In-Shan  and  the 
Khing-Khan  meet,  stands  a  high  summit,  the 
I'etsha,  more  than  16,000  ft.  above  the  sea-level, 
and  from  it  a  chain  runs  first  SW.  and  then  S. 
400  m.,  and  terminates  at  the  last  |:^eat  bend  of 
the  Hoaug-ho.  It  is  called  Kho-thsmg-Shan,  and 
though  high,  does  not  rise  to  the  snow-line.  Near 
S40  N.  lat.,  two  ranges  branch  off  fh)m  the  Yun- 
ling,  the  Peling  (noithem  range)  and  the  1  a^ia- 
ling,  and  they  continue  as  high  mountain-chains 
as  far  £.  as  111^  or  112^  £.  long.,  wlieh  they  sink 
down  to  hills.  These  ranges  contain  some  snow- 
capped summits  towards  the  W.,  and  are  steep 
and  rugged.  From  the  £.  side  of  the  table-land  of 
Yu-nan  branches  off  another  range,  called  Nan- 
ling  (southern  range),  which  constitutes  the  most 
extensive  mountain-system  in  China.  It  runs  £. 
as  far  as  IK^'  £.  long.,  passing  about  150  miles  to 
the  N.  of  Canton;  it  then  inclines  to  the  N£.,  in 
wliich  direction  it  continues  with  a  slight  bend  to 
the  W.  to  ita  termination  on  the  sea,  near  the  har- 
bour of  Ningpo,  opposite  the  islands  of  Chusan. 
Several  summits  of  this  range  rise  above  the  snow- 
line, W.  of  110^  £.  long.,  and  here  it  extends  also 
to  a  considerable  width.  £ast  of  110^  £.  long.,  no 
Niow-capped  summits  <xxnir,  though  some  rise  to  a 
^i^reat  eIe\'ation,  but  everj'where  the  descent  of  the 
range  is  steep  and  rugged. 

Ine  c«)untry  lyin^  l)etween  the  Kho-thsing- 
Shan  and  the  Tapa-lmg  is  full  of  high  and  exten- 
aive  mountain  masses,  and  intersected  by  valleys, 
which  are  very  narrow,  except  two  which  are 
drained  by  the'\yei-ho,  a  tributary  of  the  Uoang- 


ho,  and  bv  the  Kan-kiang,  a  brandi  of  Tang^M 
kiang.  Hieae  are  wide,  and  afibitl  Uugc  txactift 
agricultural  porpoeea.  The  laige  tiact  wlddi  a 
tends  betweoi  tne  Tapa-Iing  and  the  Nan-UK  t 
traversed  by  many  ridges  of  mountains  and  luk 
which  mostly  branch  off  fltom  the  laat-mentioiM 
range,  but  these  elevations  rise  only  to  a  modui 
height,  and  the  gentle  dedivitiea  are  mostly  (■!• 
tivated.  Besides,  they  are  amaated  finom  oat 
another  by  \'efT  wide  valleva,  which  ftraucnthrn 
intersected  by  very  extenaire  plaina,  that  em- 
where  recompense  the  industry  of  the  caiefiil  eu* 
tivator.  The>'  are,  in  fact,  hardly  infinor  mfa- 
tilitv  to  the  great  Chinese  Plain. 

This  great  plain  occopies  the  KK  part  of  CIni% 
extending  in  length  700  m.  from  the  Great  Wall, 
N.  of  Pe-king,  to  the  confluence  of  the  rma 
Yang-tse-kiang  and  Kan-kiang,  near  SO''  N.  hL 
Itfl  breadth  is  various.  Noith  of  S5P  K.,  what  it 
partly  extends  to  the  shores  of  the  Hnang-hti,aii 
{Mirtly  borders  on  the  W.  decliWty  of  tlw  ChujS- 
tung  mountains,  a  low  ranj^  occupying  tbepeoB- 
sula  of  that  name,  the  width  of  Uie  plain  nriBi 
between  150  and  250  m.  Between  SSPwnd^S. 
lat.  the  plain  enlarges,  and  in  the  parallel  ef  tki 
Hoang-ho  it  extends  more  than  900  m.  EtndW. 
Farther  S.  it  grows  still  wider,  and  reaches  nttAf 
500  m.  inland,  in  the  parallel  of  the  moathofw 
river  Yang-tse-kiang.  This  large  plain,  thoq^ 
the  N.  districta  have  moatly  a  sandy  soil,  and  tbe 
£).,  between  the  embouchures  of  the  Hoan^ 
and  Yang-tse-kiang,  are  partly  corered  irift 
swamps,  is,  perhaps,  the  best  cultivated  and  nwit 
populous  portion  (k  the  g^obe,  producing  abafr 
dance  of  rice,  cotton,  wheat,  and  tobaooo.  It  ec* 
tains  at  least  210,000  sq.  m.,  so  that  it  is  wva 
times  as  large  as  the  most  fertile  plain  of  Eimp' 
that  in  the  north  of  tbe  kingdom  ot  Italy,  kiM^ 
as  Lombardy.  The  internal  communicatMO 
this  fertile  tract  is  rendered  eai^  b}'  the  Great 
Imperial  Canal,  which  tnvenea  it  from  S.  to  1 


and  whose  length  exceeds  600  m.  in  a 
line,  but  probably  its  whole  length  ia  not  leas  tti 
700  m.  It  in,  also,  tnveiaed  by  the  lower  ooar* 
of  the  two  great  rivers  of  China,  the  Hoaog-botf 
the  Yang-tse-kiang,  which  flow  through  it  fir 
W.  to  £.  The  Hoang-ho  runs  npwartt  of  2,1(9 
and  the  Yang-tse-kiuig  mora  than  2^900  bl. 
their  bends  \»  taken  into  account. 

4.  Countries  fying  to  Ae  SotUk  efAtGn 
Table-landqfEtutem  Aria, — ^ThiaRguiD  ooopr" 
the  two  peninsulas,  which  are  known  in  Euniptf 
the  name  of  India,  within  and  without  the  Gaa.- 

The  peninsula  without  the  (Tangea  ia  txmi 
by  four  mountain-ranges,  of  which  the  three 
thest  east  are  connected  with,  or  bnnch  off  fi 
the  table-land  of  Yu-nan,  the  most  aovthcn 
tremity  of  the  Great  Table-land.  The  most  fl 
erly,  which  may  be  called  the  Anam  raoge^ 
gins  at  22^  N.  lat.,  and  runs  8E.  till  itappioa 
the  Chinese  Sea,  near  17^  N.  lat« ;  heooe, 
south,  it  proceeds  parallel  to  the  shores  of  thai  i 
and  terminates  at  Cape  SL  Jamea  ^10°  15').  Ti 
range  occupies  about  100  m.  in  width ;  its  elm 
tion  has  not  been  ascertained,  bat  it  aeens  to  \ 
considerable,  though  far  firom  risiiig  to  the  noi 
line,  except,  perlmps,  where  it  ia  connected  wit 
the  table-land  of  Yu-nan.  Two  other  monntui 
chains  branch  off  from  the  SW.  aide  of  the  m 
table-land,  between  950  and  97^  £.  long.,  andn 
nearly  due  S.,  including  the  narrow  valMj  of  il 
Thaluen  river.  The  most  westerly,  which  maj 
called  the  Birmah  range,  terminates  aa  a  diaia 
considerable  elevation  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tt 
luen  river;  the  other,  which  runs  to  the  £.  of  tl 
river,  and  may  be  called  the  Shan  or  Siam  rai^ 
continues  farther  S.|  but  gndually  decUnii^ 


wruv  put  of  the  pcnlnaula  of  If  alicca,  the  iath- 
Mof  Ki»li  (HOBO'S  l»t.):  for  Ihe  low  mnun- 
ua^  which  occupy  the  interior  of  th»  S.  pat  ul 
lU  psunmls,  ire  not  connected  with  it. 

Betncn  the  Aoun  niiRe  and  the  Gulf  of 
Twfcin  lica  ■  Wge  pUin,  ihpt  of  Tonkin,  nbnut 
in  m.  in  tonsth  ud  wiiltb :  it  is  low,  level,  »nil 
atnndv  ft<tile.  capecially  u<  fir  u  it  can  be  im- 
aUL  tl  it  Runiunded  on  the  N.  and  W.  liy  veiy 
kdc  nllcyi,  and  UBTCnied  br  the  river  Son([-ca, 
(kick  liMi  OB  the  table-l*nd  of  Va-nui,  uid  nuiH 
mm  ESE.  dinction  pcobablv 


neipli 


ti  lSo«i 


. :  faitber  H.  the  dSmIi  fruin  the  Ani 
taptntnch  cl<iK  U>  the  nca.  sn<I  leave  on 
iMwKa  ihen  lAign  or  nniller  valleyi,  whi 
tmaosAj  an  vtrr  fertile.  South  of  Cape  A^ 
idi  iticp  focki  occupy  neariy  (he  wbolo  of  the 


eh  nepante  the  Anani  n 
^  ,  exhihitA  Heveral  hi^h  mi 
MB  ndgea,  which  include  valleva  and  nurrou 
*nad  plaiiu.  Sooth  of  16°  N.  Ui.,  howcv 
b«  plaiu  nxulitule  the  general  character  of  I 
eanj ;  for  though  several  riiiges  occur,  they 
■■  aim  lu  fiie  at  any  place  above  the  elei-ali 
rf  Ucfa  hiDi.  These  low  plains  have  a  gnater 
^Aaw  cj  water  than  any  other  cnuniry  uf 


The  matt  wMterly  of  the 

which  Iravone  the  peninsula  bevond  the  Gmp» 
from  N.  lo  S.  nenrly  in  ila  whole  leneth,  is  the 
i{  Ancan  fiom  the  Rinnan 
lecled.  Ultc  the  othcni.  with 
the  Ubie-laiid  of  Yu-uan,  but  with  the  Himalava 
e.  The  Himalaya  mounlaina  are  considcrnl 
rniinate  ai  the  iHiurcen  of  the  Rrahmaniutni, 
SU'  E.  louR.,  anil  iMO  N.  Int.).  Tlie  nii>iinlnLn» 
'h  nurround  the  upper  coume  of  that  river  aiv 
Langtan  mountunis  anil  many  of  their 
-  above  the  Hnow-line;  the  highest 
been  meamireil,  the  Uupha 
ixiuui,  BLiaininc  li),71D  ft  above  tlie  nea-Ievel: 
the  pM«es  which  lead  over  it  du  not  uok  below 
IlpliW]  ft.  Fnim  these  mountains,  which  rather 
constitute  a  laiRe  miiunfain-kiii.t  than  a  range,  a 
chain  issiipji,  mnning  W.  iiarallel  to  the  Ilunalaya 
raittce.  That  portion  of  the  chain  which  is  imme- 
diately connected  with  the  Langtaii  mountains  is 
called  I'alkoi  mountains  :  it  secma  to  lie  mucll 
lower,  and  raun;  BweMible.  Farther  W.  thev  aio 
callcil  the  Nnga  moiinmiii',  whirh  are  iilill  lower, 
and  extend  to  about  !«°  M  K.  long.,  where  they 
are  euccecded  by  the  Garrow  Hills,  which  rarely 
"         '  ippusito 


^aUed  t) 

]f  Those  which  have 


□nacle  of  the  ( 


Iletwf 


I  this 


>bt  Eai^iin,  which  n 


«Bid  with  permanent  lakes :  others  are  li 
Wag  the  rainy  season,  by  the  inumlaiiun  i 

Inst  ponion  uf  the  land  is  changed  into  imi 
■upk  Though  Ibe  nil  is  very  fertile 
jifUt  Tlty  rich  crops  of  rice  and  every  k 
npUblM  culliTateJ  for  food  between  the  ti 


I  idlcneaa.     Three  lanfe 

.    The  must  easterly  is 

aloug  the  Anam  ranfre, 

^Hi  iBiB  uiuj  uie  sea  near  Cape  SL  James:  kljl 

atv  lowBzds  its  mouth  tt  is  suppueed  u>  run  fhim 
aoiwSOOm.  The  Mackhaun,  or  river  of  Cam- 
txdi,  it  called  by  the  Chinese  Lan-tsan-kianK, 
aadriw  in  the  interior  of  the  Great  Table-land, 
•a  Ikl  ila  whole  couree  probably  exceols  2,<m 
M:  ii  Uls  into  the  sea  W.  of  the  mouth  of  the 
MfiB  rirer.  The  third  river  is  the  Uenam,  or 
<irBrf  Siam,  which  runs  about  TOO  m.,  and  falls 
iuihetinlf  uf  Siam. 
Ikf  Tilley,  in  which  the  Thaluen  runs,  between 

ro*;  iti  Mnl  LA  sltmy,  and  too  much  elevateil  to  be 
•nnud  by  the  wuer  of  the  tiver,  which  ruBhen 
<nn  paat  impetuoaitv  down  its  cunlineil  beil, 
'■a^ing  fnim  the  (Inai  Tsble-land,  where  it  is 
nlU  Lao-kiang,  or  N'ou-kiang.  Its  whole  course 
pailMlily  exceeds  I.ftOU  m. 

The  peninsula  of  Malacca,  which  cotuljlutei  the 
tatMitholy  part  of  the  continent  of  Asia,  ~~  ' 
lotBiaatea  with  the  ca|ies  of  Unrus  and  Kumr 
^*t*Hti  which  the  island  and  town  of  -Singapore 
■c  nuced,  is  eunnectcd  with  the  mainlarul  bv 
tkiKhmusof  Krah  (between  9°  and  11°  &  lat.J 
*wt  150  m,  long,  and  from  70  tn  SKI  m.  wiih 
h  iiln,  and  its  soil  u  formed  hy  alluvium.  Th 
F*ttEiala  itjielf  cuntains  s  mounlain-ridue  in  lli 
u>m<.  which  rises  lo  3.000  or  4,(Km  £,  anil  i 
■mIt  nvertd  with  thiik  wuml.  but  abillg  tb 
•kwti  tuiads  a  level  counicj-,  wliith  in  som 
"•""ItU  ii  lay  fenile,  bnl  mostly  not  very  pn 


id  [he  ( 
le  Himalaya  range. 
'"mataj-a  mt 
.IT  uf  (ho  ii; 

mapoutta,  one  uf  the  largest  in  Asia;  its  length 
excecils  4110  m.,  and  in  width  it  varies  between  30 
and  5U  m.  Its  soil  is  veT>'  fertile,  and  the  climate 
such  as  lo  bring  to  perfection  nearly  all  produc- 
tiotu  cultivated  between  theliHjpica:  but  hen  also 
the  tun  great  abundance  of  water  letanls  the  piu- 
gress  of  agricultiuc  and  the  iiKTease  of  the  popu- 
taliiin.  The  Bralimapoutra  nins  more  than  £(>0 
through  tlie  centre  of  tlus  valley,  and  is  here 
joincil  by  the  Ui-hong.  which,  mider  tlie  name  uf 
Sampu,  or  Varoo-/niigbu-taiu,  Hows  Ihrough  Iho 
~'  '  of  Tiboc.  and  hiiii  run  a  course  of  murt  tliaii 
m.  before  it  reaches  (he  llrahmapoutra. 
g  from  the  valley  of  Asam,  the  Urahma- 
Doutra  runs  SCO  m.  farther  thiuugh  the  plain  of 

The  counlry  whivh  extends  alnng  the  moun- 
ain  chsina  constiluling  the  8.  boundary  of  thu 
'aUey  of  Asam,  and  advances  at  far  S.  as  24°  N'. 
aL,  seems  to  be  con^iilerably  ele\'ated  above  the 
ira,  the  plain  on  which  (he  town  of  Miamiporc  is 
luilt  hsMng  an  elevation  of  nearly  -^,5IMJ  fu  But 
:ho  plains  are  commonly  not  of  great  extent,  anil 
the  valleys  ore  narrow,   IhoiiBh  the   mountains 

' '  ^  jvvT  the  greater  part  uf  the  surface  do  not 
great  elevation.  As  far  as  is  knuwn  (fur 
(he  euslem  lunion  of  this  region  has  not  bueu 
visited  by  Euni]iean  travellers)  these  ranges  run 
H.  and  !v.,  and  form  right  angles,  or  nearly  so, 
with  (he  range  from  wliich  they  issue.  One  of 
these  ranf^  extending  along  (he  meridian  of  91° 
K.  long.,  IS  called  (bv  Kliiebiiuda  miiun(ains,  be- 
tween Moonipore  and  Katabar,  but  fartlier  ».,  the 
Ancan  mountains.  This  chain,  whose  length 
niher  exceeds  TOO  m.,  attains,  (owanls  the  S., 
onlv  a  mean  elevation  uf  about  B,iXIO  f).  above 
(hu  level  of  the  sea,  though  some  of  its  summits 
rise  lu  .'■,000  It  and  upwards.  Ita  mean  width 
may  be  M  m. ;  it  terminates  at  Cape  NqjcBii. 

l^etwecn  the  Aracan  mountain*  ami  the  Uiimali 
range  lies  the  greatest  jiort  of  (he  llirman  emj>ire. 
A  small  portum  uf  its  surface  consists  uf  rich  cuU 
livable  lanils ;  these  lie  in  ihc  wi<le  valley  of  (ho 
Irawaildi.  anil  in  two  large  plains;  one  silualvil 
between  -fi^  and  2'JP  N.  Ut.,  along  (he  N.  side  of 
(he  great  bend  of  that  river,  and  tile  odier  l>etwei-ti 
16°  and  l)f°  K.  lat. ;  the  latter  cuiii|in;lii.iula  the 


204 


ASIA 


Inrpce  delta  of  the  Irawmldif  and  the  adjacent  low 
country  as  far  E.  as  the  Birmah  mountainR,  and 
may  have  a  surface  of  nearly  100,000  sq.  ra.  But 
its  a^culture  fluffcrs  from  excess  of  water.  ITie 
country  £.  of  the  Irawaddi,  and  8.  of  its  f?reat 
bend,  is  a  high  country,  from  1,500  t4>  2,000  fu 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  whose  hilly  surface 
suffers  from  want  of  water,  the  soil  being  sandy 
and  dry.  llie  Irawaddi,  which  drains  the  Birman 
empire',  rises  in  that  tmknown  region  £.  of  the 
Langtan  mountain-knot,  and  runs  upwards  of 
1,2^)0  ra.,  if  its  bends  be  taken  into  account 

Aracan,  or  the  country  lying  cast  of  the  Aracan 
mountains,  is  hilly,  and  even  moimtainous  in  its 
northern  districts,'  the  table-mountain  (near  2P 
N.  Int.)  rising  to  8,340  ft  above  the  sea;  but  its 
middle  |)arts  are  occupied  by  the  rather  wiile  val- 
ley of  the  Iluritung  or  iVracan  river,  and  this  \» 
continued  farther  S.  to  19°  N.  lat,  being  separated 
from  the  se^  to  the  S.  of  the  muuth  of  the  river 
by  a  ritige  of  broken  hills,  wluch  rise  to  Ixstween 
500  and  700  ft  The  rains  during  the  south-west 
monsoon  being  extremely  heavy  and  of  long  con- 
tinuance, agrfculture  i»  here  also  retarded  by  the 
abundance  of  water. 

Ilindostan,  or  the  peninsula  within  or  on  thi;^ 
piile  the  Ganges,  is  not  ct)unecte<l  either  with  the 
table-land  of  Eastern  or  that  of  Western  Asia, 
bein^  seiiarated  from  each  by  a  wide  ])lain,  ex- 
tendmg  tirst  from  the  mouth  of  the  (vangcs  along 
the  soutliem  declivity  of  the  Ilimalnva  range  to 
the  shores  of  the  riv€T  Indus,  in  a  W^W.  direc- 
tion, and  thence  along  the  mountains  forming  the 
boundary  of  the  table-land  of  Iran,  in  a  SSW. 
direction  to  the  mouth  of  the  Indus.  Thus  this 
plain  has  the  form  of  a  right  angle ;  and  is,  on 
account  of  its  different  chuactcr  In  the  eastern 
and  western  districts,  with  propriety  divided  into 
the  plain  of  the  Ganges  and  that  of  the  Indus. 

Tlie  plain  of  the  Ganges  may  be  compared  with 
the  great  plain  of  China,  in  res^t  of  fertility  and 
extent,  though  not  of  })opulation.  Its  length  is 
upwards  of  1,000  m.,  and  its  width  varies  between 
1 20  and  350  m. :  it  covers  an  area  of  more  than 
200,000  sq.  m.  From  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges  it 
rises  imperceptibly  towards  the  NW. ;  but,  even 
at  a  distance  of  200  m.  from  the  sea,  its  surface  is 
not  1,000  ft,  above  it.  The  country  between  the 
W.  mouth  of  tlie  Gauges,  the  llooghly,  and  that 
of  the  Brahmapoutra,  to  a  distance  of  nearly  100 
m.  from  the  sea,  is  extremely  low,  and  frequently 
inundated  by  high  tides.  It  is  called  the  bunder- 
bunds,  and  IS  nearly  uninhabited  on  account  of  its 
unhealthiness,  being  covered  with  large  forest- 
trees,  and  frequented  by  tigers  and  other  beasts  of 
1»rey.  The  country  which  lies  N.  of  the  Sunder- 
mnds,  to  an  extent  of  200  m.  and  upwards,  h 
subject  to  the  annual  inimdations  of  the  Gauges ; 
by  whose  deposit  it  b  fertilised,  so  as  to  give  the 
most  abundant  crops  of  rice.  It  is  cultivated  with 
the  greatest  care,  and  nourishes  a  very  numen)us 
lx>pulation.  N.  of  25°  N.  lat  the  annual  inunda- 
tions of  the  river  cease;  and  where  no  artificial 
means  are  employed  to  effect  an  irrigation  for  the 
culture  of  rice,  the  country  produces  wheat  and 
other  grains.  But  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil 
decreases  as  we  advance  higher  up  the  river.  It 
l)ccomes  more  sandy,  and  K.  of  Delhi  the  tracts 
along  the  rivers  can  only  be  cultivated.  At  30° 
N.  lat  it  is  a  complete  desert  Between  this  plain 
and  the  lowest  range  of  the  Himalaya  mountains 
extends  the  Tariyaua,  a  narrow  strip  of  land  from 
12  to  20  m,  wide,  covered  with  immense  forests, 
and  frequented  by  a  great  number  of  elephants, 
tigers  and  other  animals.  It  Ls  uninhabited  on 
accoimt  of  its  unhealthiness,  the  surface  in  the 
rainy  season  being  convert4xl  into  an  immense 


swamp;  but  between  November  and  MarA  t 
may  be  \iaited  without  danger. 

The  river  which  drains  this  plain,  the  Gaogn 
rises  in  the  highest  and  most  northeily  nnge  d 
the  Himalaya  mountuns,  bordering  on  the  table* 
land  of  the  sacred  lakes  of  Manaaaa,  Kowana,aBd 
of  Hrawan  Ilrad.    Its  several  sources  unite  bcAn 
it  issues  from  the  mountains  at  Hoxdvp-ar.  It  hob 
begins  to  change  its  W.  into  a  S.  and  sontb-cMt- 
erly  course.    In  the  latter  direction  it  tiBTOM 
the  upper  part  of  the  plain.    But  from  its  jnodiHi 
with  the  «Jumna  it  runs  £.  to  the  neighboaiiiood 
of  lUjamahal,  where  it  again  turns  to  the  S£^a4 
stMin  after  begins  to  form  its  extensive  delta,  iS- 
viding  in  a  great  number  of  branches,  of  vliidi 
the  most  easterly  and  principal  falls  into  the  Bijr 
of  Bengal,  a  few  miles  W.  of  the  mouth  of  tlie 
Brahmai)outra ;  but  the  western  mouth,  called  the 
Uoi^hly,  is  in  a  straight  line  180  m.  distant  fioa 
it  All  rivers  descending  frt>m  the  Himalaya nmo- 
tains,  between  78°  and  90°  E.  long.,  increase  iti 
waters,  and  most  of  them  inundating  the  laodi 
conti^ous  to  their  banks  during  the  rainj  Mara, 
contribute  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  pUa. 
The  c(»urse  of  the  Ganges  exceeds  1,300  nu 

llie  plain  of  the  Indus  is  somewhat  len  in  cx- 
tent>,  and  greatly  inferior  in  fertility.  It  ejUeids 
in  length  about  600  nu,  and  in  width  3(V)  at  an 
average.  Its  surface  mav  cover  an  area  of  1M,WM 
sq.  m.  Its  N.  part  is  called  the  Penj-ab  (ooontiy 
ot  five  rivers),  from  bein^  watered  by  five  laig* 
rivers,  which  afterwards  jom  the  Indus.  This  tne 
is  commonly  very  fertile  along  the  watermoRei 
and  there  lure  even,  between  the  riven,  distriCi 
whose  soil  recompenses  the  labour  of  the  hosbantf 
man ;  but  in  general  they  have  a  light  soil,  wUc 
frequently  passes  into  sterile  sand  or  clay.  Hi: 
description  also  aiiplies  for  the  most  part  to  tb 
tract  of  land  which  lies  on  the  right  of  the  lire 
between  it  and  the  ranges  which  separate  it  far 
the  table-land  of  Iran.  But  on  the  left  of  tt 
Indus  exten<b  an  immense  sandy  desert  whidi: 
the  N.  is  called  Maroostliali,  or  the  Great  Dvtt 
and  to  the  S.  Thur,  or  the  Little  Desert  It  ca 
tends  over  the  delta  of  the  Indus,  and  occapa 
nearly  half  the  whole  plain.  At  its  southeni  e: 
tremity  is  the  Kunn,  an  extensive  salt  mocv 
connected  with  tlie  Gulf  of  Cutch.  In  the  desc 
also  occur  smaller  lakes  and  marches,  in  wfaii 
salt  is  produced.  It  is  only  inhabited  in  a  ft 
places,  where  rocks  protrude  through  the  an 
having  their  surface  co^-ered  with  scanty  gm 
The  Indus,  which  drains  this  plain,  has  its  souie 
near  those  of  the  Ganges ;  descending  thiougfa  tl 
spacious  valley  of  Leh  or  Ladak ;  it  breaks  throa( 
the  mountains  at  tlie  north-western  extremity 
the  Himalaya  range.  Its  whole  coune  amomi 
to  upwards  of  1,500  m. 

\\  here  the  two  plains  of  the  Ganges  and  Ind 
meet,  in  the  parallel  c^  Delhi,  between  76°  k 
77°  E.  long.,  b^^  the  mountainous  countries 
Ilindostan,  which  extend  to  its  most  southern  e 
tremity,  Cape  Comorin  (near  8°  S.  lat).  This  ii 
mense  tract  may  be  diWded  into  two  txian^ 
connected  at  their  bases  at  the  Vindh>'a  moa 
tains,  which  extend  between  22°  and  23^  from  I 
Bay  of  Cambay,  to  the  plain  of  the  Ganges,  K^ 
of  Calcutta.  This  chain  is  of  moderate  elevatii 
its  highest  summits  probably  not  exceedying  8,C 
ft  above  the  sea,  and  the  most  frequented  of 
mountain-fiasseK,  that  of  Jaum,  only  rising  to  iJB 
ft.  At  its  western  extremity,  about  30  m.  fr- 
the  Bay  of  Cambay,  it  is  connected  with  anot' 
chain,  the  Aravulh  range,  which  fintt  runs  N^i 
broken  masses,  up  to  ue  vicinity  of  24°  K.  L 
but  farther  N.  forms  a  continuous  range,  runn 
NNE.     It  descends  westward,  with  a  steep 


>»  Jmtt  rf  MtiodtTnli.  anil  prevents 
thU  diMrict  Ihim  eDcrmohinK  nn  tbe 

S  lying  farther  E.     1 1»  aveitffe  c\e- 
r  dues  DO!  exceed  3,DO0  It,  though 
iU  liM  higher,  uid  the  Alxxi  or  AbnU 


II  !4°u 


25°),  f 


B,  the  Vmdhy 
U  Aiavnlli  ange,  coiutitule  two  ndea 
an  triangle,  and  from  them  the  country 
men,  nntil  it  meets  the  plain  of  the 
t  br  from  the  bank!  of  the  Jomnii. 
U  tb«  moonlains  are  two  congidemble 
I  table-land  of  Halira.  well  known  by 
TV  plaotations  of  opium,  skirlfl  (he 
BU^tT  of  the  Vindhy.  mnuntaini  for 
^  and  hu  an  avenge  bieadth  of  fiO  m. 
■mnt^na  ita  deration  in  betweeh  1,S00 
L  above  the  nea-level ;  hut  tovrnrdi  Che 
nutibly  l[>wen  to  lew  than  1,300  ft 
tsA  of  HawsT  extendi  Bloni*  the  Ant- 


A  ^06 

mm  along  the  Routhem  declivlt;  df  the  Santpoora 
mountsiiu,  parallel  to  the  Nerbndda,  but  its  eoune 
docs  not  much  exceed  300  m. 

To  the  S.  and  KE.  of  Omerkimtuk,  between  the 
lower  part  of  the  pliun  of  the  Gangea,  and  ta  far  S. 
aathe  cuur>euf  [he  river  Godavert-,  extendii  a  tract 
of  country  whose  elevation  above  the  sea  hiLi  not 
been  deleirained;  but  the  comparatively  low  tem- 
peratum  of  the  air,  and  the  henlthinoH  of  the  ch- 

",0O0  and  4,000  ft.  lla  surface  in  broken]  thehiila 
M  to  2,0D0  n.  above  it,  but  they  are  sepaiBtnl 
from  each  other  by  wide  valleyi,  and  frequently 
by  plaini  of  moderate  extent  and  indifferent  fer- 


N..  and  from  7 

Ib  fertility  it  i 
[alwa:  it  pmb 
little  rice.  The 
en  plains  and 

Banwmtee,  rial 


0  lUO  n 


Itj> 


hich  II 


■tecp  and  rugged 
nner  n.,  m  ituniuccund,  pre§ei 
irities,  and  wider,  aa  well  ai>  n 
a.    The  rivers  which  drain  the 
to  (he  Jumna,  a  tributary  of  tbe  Ganges. 
■naula  of  Gujerat,  lying  opposite  '^  ~ 
hi  rivers  Xeriiudda  and  Tapty,  is  united 
Incnt  of  Hindustan  by  an  ulhmus  more 
.  kag,  between  the  southern  part  of  the 
I  called  tbe  Kunn  and  the  Itay  of  Cam- 
■  iMhinus  is  sn  low  that,  in  the  rainy 
I  wsten  of  both  gulfs  unite  and 
Miinxula  into  an  inlaniL     The  dist 
I  to  thia  isthmuA,  as  well  as  those 
Ibe  golfs  of  Camhay  and  Culch. : 
ing  surface. 


iniL      The  lands 


1.  but. 


itony,  tstn'end  with  httle  earth,  i 


mt,  hav 


iietly  cHveml  w 


very 


aontain  a  number  of  fertile  vi 
in  the  centre  of  the  peninsula  i 
deration.     The  whole  is  well  a 
ng  water,  except  the  nurth-wes( 
■t  ia  dmlitnte  of  wood,  except 
Ibe  enathem  coa.it. 
IH   to  the  eastern   extiTmitv  of   the 
KNinlains,  but  S.  of  thorn  (between  ~ 
L  long.,  and  22°  and  ii°  S.  1«U), 
lea  lo  a  cotisiderahle  elevation,  probably 

an  5,0011  ft.    It  «  overtoppeil ' 

aits  which  n»e  S.IKH)  fi.  1iif:1i 
ntiy,  which  seems  to  constitut 
fnm  which  ri>lges  and  riven  i 
Mia,  i*  called  (hneikuntuk. 
le  of  these  rivers  is  the  XeriuKldo,  which 
nid  in  a  deep  valley,  overhung  on  the 
M«ep  acclivities  of  the  Vindhya  moun- 
bouDiled  on  the  R  by  another  ninge,  tl 
■B  mountains.      This  valley,  which 

ait  its  eastern  extremity,  ami  of  coi 
llitv.  is  conniilercd  as  the  Iwunilary 
n  Hiiulustan  Fn>|>er,  I  '  " 
■xteniling  S.  l«  Oaiie 
the  valley,  and  of  the  river,  is  about  600 
iIk  ia  the  valley  in  vhich  [he  Tapty 


ably  above  it,  but  they  j 
-ipassahle  for  horse  or 
stance  from  the  sea  vanes  oetween 
On  the  mountain-knot  of  Omerkui 
^er  Mahanuddy,  which  tmverses 
unlry  in  an  EtiK.  direction  nearlv  i 
falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  idle 
ore  than  500  m.,  and  forms  at  its  n 


-  of  the  ridges,  where 
The  eastern  border 
:  formed  by  a  chain  of 
seem  to  rise  coimider- 
)  steep  as  to  be  almojt 
eled  eamagea.     Their 


loulh  K 


Llh  of  the  month  of  the  riverTapty,  and  nearly 
parallel,  rises  suddenly  from  the  plain  a  con- 
as  mountain-range  called  the  Ghauts,  oxtenri- 
.,    outhward  OS  far  a*  the  river  Ponanv  (IjO  3. 
lat.),  through  10"  of  lat.    In  some  parts  ft  is  30  or 


-en  40  m.  distant  fnii 


innthen 


.    .  I  abruptly  with  a 

eep  ascent  from  the  low  cnasl.  and  altsins  a  mean 
levatiim  of  from  4,00U  to  5.000  IL ;  but  some  of 
s  summits  rise  much  higher.  The  highait  por- 
nn  are  the  Neilgherry  hills  (W  8.  lat.),  whieh 
re  more  than  9,000  ft. above  the  sea;  the  Litian- 
umale  (12°  N.  lat.)  is  above  5,500  fL;  and  the 
ubromuni  (12=  30')  above  5,400  fL  In  many 
oints,  the  range  sinks  down  to  less  than  2,000  ft., 
nd  over  these  itepressiims  lead  the  ^Htmr 

the  range  itself. 
The  narrow  tract  of  c< 


if  the  Ghautji. 
ileepnesB,  but  i 
dgomiis  veg 


icciipieil  hy  the  sli 
!  small  valleys  whi 


of  lei-fl 

klom  exceeds  S  m.  in 
ich  less,  is  scpsrateil 
this  given  them  the 


land  along  the  sea,  which  a 

firum  the  sea  by  low  downs 

ailvantage  of  iirigation  during  cue  rainy  season. 
The  fresh  water  dcBCending  from  the  monntmns 
has  no  vent,  and  must  therefore  stagnate  until  it 
evaporates :  hence  these  tracts  produce  much  rice, 
though  their  sinl  is  poor,conidstmg  chteOyof  sand. 
The  Xeilghciiv  InlU.  constitute  tbe  S.  extremity 
of  the  Ghauts,  which  are  called  the  W.  Ghauts, 
lo  distingiush  them  from  iinothcr  chain  of  miiun- 
loins  calle.1  the  E.  Ghai.ts.    The  Ust-men^oncd 

(1  [°20'  N.  lat.),  and  extend  thence,  fint  in  a  Ml 
direclion,  as  br  as  13°  S.  laU  where,  nppnwlc  the 
town  of  Madias,  they  turn  to  the  N.,  and  con- 
tinue so  to  the  banks  of  the  river  Kistna  (near  17° 
N.  lat.).  Itctwcen  this  rii-erand  the  Godavery  are 
a  range  of  hills,  which  connects  Ihem  with  tlie 
mountains  which  se|iarate  the  Cirears  from  the 
elevated  country  Ij-ing  fiiilher  W.  The  K.  GhauM 
do  not  form  an  'uiiinlcmiptcil  chain,  being  at 
seveml  ptaces  broken  by  the  rivers  which  rise  on 
the  E,  declirilies  of  the  W.  Ghauts,  and  rtescnid 
to  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  They  also  do  not  form  one 
mass;  but  arc  frequently  divided  in  several  ridges, 


206 


ASIA 


bj  longitudinal  vallcvR.  Thfysc  mountainn  do  not 
nsc  to  the  elevation  of  the  W.  Ghaat« ;  vet  to  the 
W.  of  Madras,  the  Nalla  Malla  mountainn  attain 
3,000  fu  and  more,  and  fartlier  S.  (near  12^)  the 
Shcrwahary  moimtaius  rise  to  4,935  ft. 

The  extensive  countrv  ejicloned  between  the 
two  ridges  of  the  Ghauts  is  an  elevated  table-land. 
Its  surface  extends  nearly  in  a  level,  which  \a 
only  here  and  there  bn)ken  by  short  ridges  or 
groups  of  hills  ri^iing  a  few  hundred  fU  alK>ve  it. 
Its  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  where  it 
is  contiguous  to  the  W.  Ghauts,  varies  between 
2,000  and  8,000  ft»,  and  thus  it  may  continue  to 
the  middle  of  the  table-land :  but  it  sinks  in  ap- 
proaching the  E.  Ghauts,  whiere,  in  most  places, 
It  has  b^Iy  1,000  ft,  or  less  of  elevation.  Its 
soil  is  rather  fertile,  and  well  adapted  to  the  cul- 
ture of  rice,  where  it  can  be  irrigated,  and  whore 
not,  it  produces  abundance  of  wheat  and  other 
grain.  The  S.  wt  \a  called  the  table-land  of 
M vHorc,  and  the  rf.  that  of  Balaghaut. 

Yhe  Kastem  Ghauta  are  at  a  distance  of  about 
150  m.  firom  the  sea,  or  coast  of  Coromandel.  The 
surface  of  the  inter\'cning  country  extends  mostly 
in  wide  plains,  which  here  and  there  arc  inter- 
spersed by  hills  of  no  great  elevation.  The  soil  is 
dr>',  light,  and  sandv,  but  nevertheless  it  gives 
rich  crops  wherever  it  is  irrigated,  which  is  ren- 
dered easy  by  the  groat  number  of  riven  descend- 
ing from  the  Western  Ghauta,  or  originating  in 
the  Eastern  Ghauta.  Tlie  coast  is  low,  sandy,  and 
without  harbours,  surroimded  bv  shoals,  and  ex- 
posed to  a  very  heavy  swell,  which  renders  it  ex- 
tremely dangerous  during  the  north-eastom  mon- 
soon. Three  large  river»  descend  from  the  eastern 
declivity  of  the  Western  Ghauts  through  the 
table-land  of  Mysore  and  BaUu^haut^  to  this  coast, 
and  fall  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  most 
southerly  u  the  Caverv,  which  runs  about  450  m. 
Farther  X.  is  the  iGstna,  or  Krisha,  and  the 
(lodavery,  the  former  flowing  about  GOO,  the  latter 
700  m.  These  rivers,  though  in  many  parts  very 
valuable  fur  irrigating  the  contiguous  lands,  are 
only  navigable  in  the  low  ])lain  of  we  Camatic.  On 
the  table-land  they  in  general  Imve  little  water,  and 
where  they  break  through  the  Eastern  Ghauts, 
they  are  broken  by  numerous  rapids  and  cataracta. 

On  the  parallel  of  the  embouchure  of  the  Cavcry 
river  (11^  N.  laU),  the  peninsula  mav  l>e  traversed 
without  passing  any  mountain,  iletc  exists  a 
great  depression  in  the  Western  Ghauts,  called 
the  Gap  of  Coimbatorc.  The  narrowest  passage  is 
at  the  fortress  of  Animally  (77^  E.  long.),  where 
the  level  low  country  between  two  mountain- 
ranges  presents  a  valley  about  12  m.  wide.  The 
elevation  of  the  highest  part  of  this  gap  is  only 
400  ft.  above  the  sea-levcL  The  whole  country 
in  this  district  is  covered  with  large  forest-trees, 
especially  with  teak ;  but  during  the  rainy  soason 
it  IS  converted  into  a  swamp. 

To  the  S.  of  the  Gap  of  Coimbatore  the  Ghauts 
rise  again  with  a  very  abnipt  ascent :  they  attain 
also  a  great  elevation.  The  Permaul  Peak,  situ- 
ated Wi  of  Dindigul,  nearly  in  the  middle  between 
iKith  seas,  is  7,867  ft.  abitve  the  sea-level,  and 
acconling  U)  the  statements  of  the  natives,  the 
mountains  farther  W.  rise  to  the  snow-line.  The 
chain  lies  here  farther  from  the  sea,  leanng  a  low 
tract  fn)m  80  to  40  m.  across  between  thom,  and 
runs  SSW.  towards  Cape  Comorin,  terminating 
abniptly  at  a  dintancc  of  about  20  Kng.  m.  from 
the  Cape  with  a  huge  mass  of  granite,  2,(HH)  ft. 
high :  a  low  rocky  ridge  extends  to  the  Ca|ie.  The 
mountains  arc  here  covered  with  tliiok  forests. 

The  country  W.  of  these  Southern  GhuutA  is 
tlm)ughout  intersected  by  inlets  of  tlie  sea,  which 
often  run  for  great  length  i)arallol  to  the  coast. 


receiving  the  rariona  mountain  Btreamn,  and  < 
municating  with  the  ocean  by  dilferent  ahallov 
and    narrow    openings.     Between   Cochin  aai 
Quilon  these  lakes  form  a  continual  teriei,  bdw 
united  to  one  another  bT  short  cfaanneb,  $m 
affonling  an  easy  means  of  oommunieatian.    Hm 
low  country,  which  extends  for  acMne  miksi  inhnl 
from  these  lakes,  has  a  good  soil,  and  boy 
abundantly  watered,  gives  veiy  rich  crops  of  ria 
and  other  tropical  prodoctiona.    Still  man  Tjgir- 
ous  is  the  vegetation  in  the  Talleys  which  at 
enclosed  by  the  oflbeta  of  the  mountains,  but  A^ 
are  not  cultivated  with  equal  care.    TheknreMil 
is  here  exposed  to  a  continnal  and  voj  hsnj 
swell  from  the  ocean. 

The  plain  and  nearly  level  coontry,  wUdk  « 
the  E.  of  the  Southern  Ghanta  extendi  to  m 
average  width  of  between  70  and  80  nt,  b  pud? 
covered  with  extensive  forests  and  putly  vitt 
cultivated  fields,  yielding  rich  craps  oi  rice:  tkv 
irrigation  is  rendered  easy  b^  the  numerooi  flDd 
rivers.  Along  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Him, 
and  of  the  Palk  Strait  are  a  great  number  of  att 
swamps  and  lagunes,  which  mostly  commniricUB 
with  one  another.  Between  them  and  the  m 
are  sand  downs,  which  in  some  places  cxtnA 
to  several  miles  across.  The  stagnating  mttr 
renders  these  places  very  unhealthy. 

Deccan,  being  placed  betweoi  two  seas  tad  tki 
conflict  of  the  monsoons,  is  always  cooled  favni 
breezes.     Its  surface  being  formed  by  a  MfM  ef 
terraces,  and  lying  within  the  tn^nos,  cnjon  ill 
the  advantages  of  tropical  countries,  witboat  nv- 
taking  of  their  disadvantages.    Ota  the  nttf 
coast  the  luxuriance  of  vegetation  is  displayed  it 
the  cocoa-palm,  the  mango-tree,  the  cumnMO- 
laurel,  and    the  pine-apple;    it    thence  P**'^ 
through  forests  of  teak-trees  to  the  taUe-land  <■ 
BIysore  and  of  Balaghaut,  and  still  highff,  on  tilK 
cool  summit  of  the  mountains,  it  oflfers  the  ftui* 
trees  and  corn-fields  of  Europe,  flax  plantitii** 
and  rich  meadows. 

5.  The  Hindoo-Oooth.—lha  NW.  extremitr  ' 
the  plain  of  the  Indus  b  only  about  800  m.  distm' 
from  the  plains  drained  by  the  Daria  AmUf  whi.' 
form  the  southern  districts  of  the  level  counV' 
that  extends  S.  of  the  great  depresaon,  in  whi.« 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Lake  of  Aral  are  place 
This  tract,  between  the  8.  and  N.  plaina,  is  ooc^ 
pied  by  a  mountain  system,  called  the  Uindo 
Coosh^  which,  like  an  isthmus,  connects  the  grei 
table-land  of  Eastern  Asia  with  Iran,  the  nm 
easterly  of  the  table-lands  of  W^eatem  Asia.  Tli 
whole  tract  is  occupied  by  high  and  steep  noflW 
running  in  every  direction,  out  the  principM  ct 
them  rims  E.  and  W.,  and  seems  to  be  a  \ftaiaopf 
tion  of  that  high  chain  which  is  called  on  tki 
great  table-land  of  Eastern  Asia,  the  Kuen-ha 
range.  Many  summits  in  this  range  rise  far  be- 
yond the  lino  of  congelation.  One  of  them,  the 
Son  Tchookesur,  NE.  of  the  town  of  Peshawv,  ii 
at  least  22.500  ft.  high;  but  that  8now-ca|i|M(l 
enormous  mass,  which  properly  b  called  thi 
Hindoo-Coosh,  seems  to  attain  'a  mnch  gmte 
elevation.  Tlio  valleys  of  this  monntain-R((M 
are  but  luirrow,  except  that  in  which  the  river  o 
Caubnl  flows,  which  is  of  considenble  breadth 
The  mountains  present  mostly  naked  rocks  oi 
their  steep  declinties,  but  afford  pasture  gnNUk 
where  the  slopes  are  more  gentle. 

Western  ^Vsia,  or  the  countries  lying  west  of  th 
plain  of  the  Indus,  the  Hindoo-Coosh  mountain 
and  the  plains  of  Bokhara,  is.  like  Eastern  AsL 
an  elevated  table-land,  but  each  differs  cm 
Hidenibly  from  the.  other.  Whilst  in  Eastern  As 
the  table-land  fiirms  one  mass,  extencUng  in  a 
I  directions,  that  of  Western  Asia  has  nearly  in  i 


ta  the  finetkn  of  iU  gresUst  extent, 
I  NWi,  k  deap  deprnaioo,  whicb  at 
rtmi  estcemitT,  wheie  it  is  occupinl 
r  rf  Pend.,  ™i«  betw«n  30  »nd 
ath,  bat  hrther  to  Che  NW.  ext«nda 
in  or  Ihe  dnr  EnphratM  and  the  sd- 
«,  H>  la  to  be  frum  200  tn  500  m. 
)  irtiols  length  of  this  deprHwion,  from 


IE 


:(?-'l' 


IJOD  m.  in  &  atnight  line.  On  Ihe 
atpwiBon  1b  the  Uble-lud  of  Inn, 
B-TCgioQ  of  AimeiuA,  uid  Ihe  table- 
,  Minor;  tin  Utter  projecU  for  beyond 
IM.  On  the  SW.  of  il  is  the  t  " 
bin,  irtkidi  Utter  ia  connected  wit 
t  Aan  Minor,  by  the  mounUin-imn^ 
Plfda),  vhow  mounlsins  sepuate  the 
~  '  '  ' '  lowUnds  fmm  the 
«,  the  t«ble-luidg  of 

Mn  ponioD  of  the  tal^Und  of  Eist- 
ftij  aUain  only  Che  height  of  the 
jfim,  but  being'pUced  fulher  to  the 
M  tbe  tea,  lliey  enjoy  >  belter  clinula 
>■  idlpted  CO  RgriculCunl  purposes. 
I  ba  oUauied  that  the  lablc-Uods  of 
in  dcacvnd  slmaet  ereryifhere  w 
It  10  tbe  vlioiniiw  pUine  or  aeu 
•■■iileal  aa  tlioaa  la  Eutero  Ana  i 


:£■ 


Jli  laud  (^ Iron  (Penda)  exlei 
un  the  plain  of  the  Indna  to 
tm,  and  iiom  8.  to  N.  from  tht 


exlendafnmi 

_,_ m  theGnlft^ 

«  Deaht  KTowu,  or  dtMit  of  Khi 
,  and  the  aouthem  shoree  of  the  (Caspian 
ntnioT  oir  this  threat  tract  of  coiinU? 
Ian  and  Uiel  pJains,  only  ' 
IB  by  rocky  hilU,  mostly  unc 
Mho.    The  elevation  of  theai 
■■  lacely  to  exceed  £,000  iL  above  the 
ad  aa  iniely  to  dcucend  to  less  than 
1mm  plains  are  bounded  on  every 
bafder  al  mare  elevated  irads,  whose 
tncrifltd  bj  mmmtain-ridges,  val" 
Jia  1 1  III  1)1  01  moderate  extent, 
flt  portion  of  this  elevated  border 
bomiilaryof  the  table-land,  con  ti),'uDus 
I  af  the  Indus.     From  this  plain  the 
■  in  aaraal  steep  ridges,  mnning  pa- 
I  plain,  and  including  deep  and  narrow 
hHe  monntains  aie  called,  A.  of  29°, 
ittllUi  and  •<■  of  this,  Solinuui  iDmn- 
•eant  to  llietie  parallel  ridges,  on  the 
■•  aennl  elevated  plains  of  moderate 
iAUt  the  plains  of  KeUt  (2»°),  KwelU 
Uiini(^and34°N.  Ut>:  of  which 
ii  akvated  between  7.000  ana  B.Ol' '  ~ 
tttr  [irabablv  more  Chan  9.000  ft. 

ultivated.  espcoallv '-  "■- 

-" d  the  di 


ao7 

more  elevated  chain,  the  Wnshntae  moontains, 
which  probably  attain  6,000  fU    In  this  part  the 
-lounCainons  border  of  the  table-land  is  hardly 
20  m.  acrofls;  but  towards  its  weetem  extremity 
mountain-group  projecCs  northward  (near  60°  E, 
mg.),ttae  Surhad  mountains   (cold  mountain*), 
'hich  seem  to  attain  a  higher  elevation,  bat  havo 
iveral  fertile  valleys  towards  the  £.     From  this 
mountain-group  issues  northward  a  rocky  ridge, 
which  is  narrow,  and  in  general  low,  but  baa  a  tiri 
elevated  summits.    Thii  cidgc,  advancing  Co  tho 
3  border,  divides  the  interior  plain  of  Iran 
parts,  and  forms  the  Dolidcal  bonndarf 
I  Afghanistan,  or  East  Iran,  and  Penia,  or 
Weet  Iran. 
By  far  the  greater  part  of  Che  plain  of  East  Iran 
occupied  by  a  sandy  desert,  which,  from  the 
Wushulce  mounCwns.  extends  northward  to  the 
parallel  of  Ferrah.  Ghirish,  and  Kandahar  (from 
27°  to  32°  10'  N.  Ul),  neatly  WO  ra.,  and  from  E. 
"'.  nearly  Ihe  same  distance.     Its  soaCheni 
the  draert  of  Reloochistan,  is  covered  with 
'     I  moved  by  the  wind,  rises 
ue  LW9L  ouuvt;  uj«  Hilid  surfacs.    It  is  entirely 
inhabited.    The  northern  portion,  the  desert  of 
Sigestan,  or  Seistan,  has  a  few  small  oases,  and 
- '  Adorable  tracts  c^  fertile  and  culdvatad  ground 
}ng  the  banks  of  the  river  Helmund,  which  risefl 
the  western  declivity  of  Ihe  Hindoo-Coosh,  and 
u  about  600  milea.    Half  its  oourse  is  through 
the  desert,  and  it  loses  itself  in  the  Lake  of  Zareh, 
about  1 20  m.  long  and  50  m.  wide,  but  when  swelled 
by  the  melting  of  the  snow  in  Ihe  more  elevated 
-~— ins,  it  occumes  a  space  more  than  double  thtne 
Elisions.     Along  the  northern  bonier  of  the 
rt  lies  a  country  whose  surface  Is  partly  hilly 
partly  ondulaCing,  but  its  breadth  is  not  con- 
siderable, being  between  60  and  80  m.  acroas. 
The  northern  border  of  East  Iran  is  formed  by 
1  extensive  Cable-land  of  verybmken  surface; 
the  upper  part  extends  in  wide  level  plains,  but 
they  are  irequenCly  intersected  with  deep  valleys. 
This  region,  the  Paropamisus  of  Che  ancienCa,  has 
been  c^led  by  modem  geographers  the  mounlun- 
region  of  the  Etmaks,  and  Ilaiareh,  from  the  sa- 
■hich  inhabit  iL     It  extends  S,  and 


■cb  fte^uently  descend  » 
M>er  districts  afford  good 


irtls  the  h'lUs 
of  Chcir 

rd  good  paxture.    All 
te  veiy  cold,  and  covered  by  deep 

ten  bwder  of  the  table-land  of  Irai  . 
(tan  the  plain  of  Che  Indiu  as  for  W. 
lit  of  OnnuB,  does  not  rise  to  a  gr 
Pnm  the  sea,  however,  the  mounia 
',  having  only  a  narrow  low  strip  all 
bat  their  height  probably  d'les  not  < 
IL    North  of  this  ridge  i«  a  mortly  level 

Mile,  and  has  few  spots  which 
NolUi  of  this  pUiu  is  anutlie 


D.2 


It  400  m 


only  in  th 


E.  and  W.    The  ground  is  ci 

narrow  valleys,  but  tbe  exceni 

large  hertls  of  lattle  and  sheep.    On  Ihe  N.  it  is 

separated  from  Cha  plain  of  Bukhara  by  the  Ua- 


The  interior  plain  of  West  Iran  is  of  greater  ex- 
tent, its  length  from  Che  boundary  of  Aighanislaa 
to  the  neighbourhood  of  Che  Caspian  Sea,  N.  of  the 
Cuwn  of  Kasbin,  exceeding  considerably  600  m., 
whilsC  its  mean  width  may  be  400  m.,  but  towania 
the  nurth-weetem  exlremity  it  nacrow*  to  160  m. 
and  leas.  Its  midiUe  is  occupied  by  a  desert,  called 
the  Salt  Desert,  its  surface  being  impregnated  with 
nitre  and  other  salts.  Towanls  the  boundary  of 
Afghanistan  it  may  be  260  m.  ac^os^  but  farther 
W.  its  width  hardly  exceeds  101)  m.  Its  length 
is  400  m.,  or  nearly  so.  Ic  is  entirely  uninhatnted. 
Those  portions  of  'the  pUin  which  extend  on  both 
siiies  the  desert  have  a  broken  surface,  buC  the 
level  plains  are  extenaitt,  and  tho  hills,  though 
. i.i~i,    J.,  — .  ocCTipy  a  great  spave. 


entlyw 


s,  far  fr..i 


In  many  dislricis  fine  fru 
but  rocky  plaii 


being  infertile,  a 
tnd  abound  in  pastures, 
its  are  raised  plentifully: 

-  frequen-'-- 


e  northern  Innler  of  West  Iran' seems  not  to 
exceed  100  or  121)  m.  in  width.  It  is  likewine 
compose!)  of  different  ridges,  ffliich  mostlv  nm  in 
the  direction  of  the  table-land  £.  and  W.  'Though 
very  ni^jed  and  sleep,  the  mountains  do  not  ri^e 


208 


ASIA 


to  affTpat  elevAtion  above  the  dovatod  plaiiinlyinff 
."•mthwani,  before  tliev  arrive  at  the  meridian  of 
fi»i°  or  05°.  Fnun  fieiicOf  wentwani,  they  rise 
higher.  Imt  their  width  narrows  to  ftt>m  CO  to  ^M) 
m.  Thin  nuirc  elevated  part  of  the  chain  in  called 
tlic  Klhiirz  mountains,  and  runs  parallel  to  the 
Fouthrni  Hhonui  of  the  Cai<pan  Sea,  at  an  avera^ 
distance  of  20  m.,  descending  to  it  vt*ith  a  dcsci^nt 
which  is  extremely  rapid.  Its  ofTHetH,  which  arc 
not  less  steep,  though  less  elevated,  fill  up  the 
hi  Mice  Uttweon  the  i)rincii>al  range  and  the  sea, 
v/ith  the  exception  of  a  narrow  striije  along  its 
shurcH.  The  valleys,  though  not  very  wide,  are 
ver\'  fertile. 

The  SW.  motmtainouB  border  of  the  plains  of  i 
A  Vest  Iran  is  still  more  distinctly  markeiL  The 
Tiiountain-tract,  about  80  or  90  m.  wide^  extends 
from  the  Straits  of  Ormuz  along  the  Gulf  of  Persia, 
and  farther  X.  along  the  plain  of  the  Euphrates, 
to  the  ]>lace  where  the  Tigris,  breaking  thnnigh 
the  mountains,  enters  the  low  plains  N.  of  the  t<mTi 
of  MosuL  This  mountain-tract  consists  of  from 
tliree  to  seven  ridges,  running  parallel  to  each 
orher,  and  sc])arated  l)y  as  many  nam»w  longitu- 
dinal vallevs,  which  sometimes  are  manv  davs' 
jdiimey  in  length.  They  arc  separated  from  the 
s<>a  by  a  narrow  low  coast  called  the  (Tunnsir  (warm 
rrgion),  and  rise  in  the  form  of  ternu'es  towards 
tht^  interior.  The  valleys  in  the  southern  ]K>rtion 
iif  this  region  are  cnlHvated,  but  N.  of  the  itarallel 
of  ;j<)0  N.  lat.  thevare  inhabited  bv  different  tribes 


of  Kurds,  who  i)refer  a  nomadic  life  and  the  rear- 
ing of  cattle,  riiis  northern  range  was  anciently 
(*:illed  /agros,  but  is  now  known  under  the  general 
name  of  mountains  of  Kurdistan. 

The  great  commercial  n>ad  which  connects  the 
western  countries  of  Asia  with  India,  traverses  the 
table-land  of  Iran.  It  runs  between  the  deserts 
and  the  northern  mountain  bonier,  through  the 
fertile  and  cultivated  du^trict  Iwtween  them,  and 
passes  from  the  town  of  Talmz  in  Azerbiian  through 
<  !asl)in  to  Teheran,  and  thence  to  Nisnaboor,  Me- 
shed, and  Herat,  Thence  it  declines  fn)m  its  east- 
em  direction  to  the  S.  t4>  avoid  the  mountain  region 
of  the  Eimak  and  Ilazareh,  and  leads  to  Kanda- 
har, where  it  passes  ovejr  port  of  the  table-land  of 
<i}iizni  Ui  C^ubuL  It  then  follows  the  valley  of 
the  river  Cal)ul  to  Peshawer  and  Attock,  where  it 
posseit  the  Indus,  and  traversing  the  Penj-ab,  en- 
ters the  plains  of  the  Ganges. 

7.  The  Mountain-region  of  Armenia, — The  most 
northerly  and  narrow  extremity  of  the  interior 
jilain  of  Iran  reaches  to  the  vicinity  of  the  river 
Kizil  Ozein,  and  N.  of  it  extends  a  coimtr^-  filled 
witli  mountain-masses,  which  rises   higher  and 
higher  as  thev  proceed  north wanL    East  of  Tabriz 
is  Mount  Seflevon,  which  attains  an  elevation  of 
12,000  or  perhaps  13,000  ft.  above  the  st^a-level, 
and  (»ther  summits  seem  not  to  be  much  lower. 
Between  these  mountains  arc  numerous  deep  val- 
leys, which  are  partly  cultivated,  but  the  inhabi- 
tants mostly  depend  on  their  herds  of  cattle  and 
sheep  for  siilisistence.    A  few  ]dains  lie  emlxiisonied 
lietween  the  mountains:  the  most  extensive  are 
those  wliicli  arc  tilled  up  by  the  Lakes  Urmia  and 
Von.     The  fonner  is  300  m.  in  circumference,  anil 
its  waters  are  salt,  more  salt  than  those  of  the  sea, 
but  they  are  perfectly  clear.    The  Lake  of  Van  is 
somewhat  less  in  extent,  and  its  waters  are  like- 
wise salt,  but  ntit  to  such  a  de^jjree.    North-east  of 
the  Lake  of  Van  the  mountam-region  attains  its 
highest  elevation  in  Mount  Ararat,  whose  summit 
is  17,230  ft,  alsive  the  sea-level,  and  the  country 
wluch  extends  \V.  of  it  to  the  sources  of  the  river 
Aras  and  the  two  ui)|x>r  branches  of  the  Euphnites, 
the  Kara-su  and  Murad,  has  at  least  0,C)no  ft.  of 


absolute  elevation,  as  the  town  of  Erzeroum  is    with  snow  fur  a  fourth  part  of  the  way  down  thcii 


5,.'>00  ft,  above  the  §ear-lereL     Four  monntia 
ranges,  rising  from  4,000  to  5,000  fr.  al¥n-e  thei 
bases,  run  E.  and  W.  between  diP  and  41<>  N.  lat 
and  the  most  northerly  descends  to  the  Black  8a 
with  great  steepness,  and  so  dcifte  to  its  ahuRs  thai 
no  roaid  con  be  made  along  the  co«wt  £.  of  TMi- 
zouiL    Though  the  mountiunii  oorapy  the  greata 
portion  of  its  surface,  the  valleya  along  the  Ian 
rivers  are  so  wide  that  they  may  be  taktnlar 
pUins,  being  from  10  to  15  milea  acapnea.    Th« 
valleys,  though  cold,  are  mostly  very  fertile,  aai 
peld  rich  crops  of  com,  whilst  the  declinti«  cf 
the  mountains  afford  abundance  of  pastuiCL   Tbt 
farthest  south  of  the  above-mentioned  mountain- 
ranges,  that  whicli,  branching  off  firom  Jloaat 
Ararat,  contains  the  sources  of  the  Morad  river,  cr 
eastern  branch  of  the  Euplumtes,  and  which  fintJur 
W.  is  broken  through  by  this  river,  after  its  two 
up])er  branches  have  unitod,  is  to  be  eonsdendii 
the  continuation  of  Mount  Taoros,  which  tiaTOM 
Asia  Minor.    But  it  does  not  constitute  the  tniib- 
em  l)oundary  of  the  mountain-region  of  Anneaii: 
this  is  constituteil  by  a  much  leas  elevated  moon- 
tain-ridge  running  E.  and  W.  between  the  tins 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  about  87^  20'  N.  laL,  aad 
on  whose  southern  decliWty  the  town  of  Ucfifia 
IS  built.     After  breaking  through  this  mge  tt 
Komkahi,  the  Eupliratcs  enten  the  plain;  tka 
Tigris  docs  the  same  N.  of  MosuL 

8.  Natolia,  Nadoli,  or  Ana  JII»Mor.->Thifl  ex- 
tensive peninsula  is  to  be  considered  as  a  wnten 
(M)ntinuation  of  the  mountain-regi<Hi  of  AnDcniL 
It  is  neariy  of  the  same  breadth,  and  liei  betvva 
the  same  parallels  (37<>  and  41^):  but  that  ii 
doubtless  scnne  change  in  the  directioa  of  tka 
mountains  where  both  regions  bonier  on  eadi 
other.  From  the  Gkilf  of  Iskenderoon,  on  the  adi 
of  the  Mediterranean,  to  the  town  of  Trebizoodoi 
the  Black  Sea,  the  ranges  run  from  SW.  to  XE, 
as  is  also  clearly  indicated  by  the  south-weiiai 
course  of  the  Euphrates  between  dSJ9  and  80°  K.liL 
These  ran^^  are  a  prolongation  of  those  of  S^ 
ristau,  which  continue  southward  in  the  nw 
direction,  llie  middle  part  of  this  tract  betvw 
the  towns  of  Sivas,  Malatiah,  and  Oesaria  (Kd- 
sarivyeh),  forms  a  table-land  of  considenble  de- 
vatiuii ;  the  winters  arc  severe  and  snow  liitti 
abundantly ;  the  summers  aro  short  and  not  iniB< 
Its  surface'  is  a  succession  of  le\'e]s,  divided  fen 
each  other  by  ridges  of  low  elevati<m ;  the  plaini 
ore  fertile  and  pnxluce  rich  crops  <^  oool  Tbs 
southern  bonier  tif  this  table-land  is  Mount  Tiam 
(near  38^  N.  lat.),  which  sends  off  sitme  braachei 
to  the  Mediterranean,  among  which  the  Alna 
mountains  (Mons  Amaiini),  which  endoM  ibe 
(tulf  of  Iskenderoon  on  the  E.,  seem  to  attain  the 
1  ugliest  elevation.  A  northern  offset  of  the  Tnmi 
the  Ali  Tflgh  mountains,  terminates  near  Cmina 
with  Mount  Erjish,  which  is  always  covered  vitk 
snow,  and  probably  rises  to  12,000  ft  above  the 
sca-levcL 

From  this  eastern  and  much  elevated  bocder  the 
peninsula  extends  nearly  600  m.  westward.  Along 
the  Mediterranean  as  well  as  along  the  Black  Scoi 
it  is  traversed  by  ranges  of  mountains.    That 
which  mns  along  the  Mediterranean  cunstitnics  a 
continual  range  of  elevated  mountains,  the  Mou 
Taurus  of  the  ancients.    The  average  distance  of 
the  highest  part  of  it  from  the  sea  may  vary  be- 
tween 30  and  70  m.;  but  the  whole  tract  hing 
between  them  is  tilled  up  by  mountains  of  ooih 
siderable  elevation.    They  attain  the  greatest  ele- 
vation on  the  brood  peninsula  between  the  GuUa 
of  A(hilia  and  Makr>'  (29^  and  31o  E.  long.),  when 
M(»unt  Taghtalu  is*7,((00  ft  higlu   But  the  moun- 
tains farther  inland  are  even  in  August  ctn-eml 


A  faidteitn  an  elevation  of 
■bnre  tbe  (M-lereL    Puthcr 

nfodly  decraiM  in  height, 
Ante  elevation  where  thev  It 
m  gf  Uie  iEfcean  Su,  on  both  sides  of 
'  Kot.    Tbe  mcky  ms»e9  nf  (his 
■el.v  on  the  ihtne  o(  the  sea.  that 
r  >  nuTow  itripe  of  low  or  hilly  surface 

Cxerat  along  the  innerranat  part  of 
f  Adalia,  and  along  the  N.  sborea  of 
vdeiucDij  where  low  plains  of  moderate 
n;  In  aome  places  high  mountains 
tba  Toy  shores  of  the  sea  for  many 
its. 
at^ns  which  occur  along 


e  the  Black 
t  tom  a  Gontinnal  range,  being  fre- 
vken  bv  deep,  and  commnnly 
wloch  Bevera]  laif^er  or  nmaller 

Sto  the  sea.  They  therefore 
■epanted  nnges,  and  havi 
ident  nor  in  modem  timea  been  de- 
'  a  general  name.  The  several  ridues 
■tween  thew  valleys  run  K.  and  \ 
■ch  other,  fnnning  comoinnly  s  wi( 
nder  on  ttie  N.  uf  the  peninsula,  th 
duin  of  the  Taurus  on  the  S. ;  th 
IflimaybeiaOm.  None  of  their  mi; 
In  anow-litie;  the  highest  wblch  hoB 
nd  is  Damaon-Tofih, 
adcnta.  Ml^.  of  Bnuu,  more  than  9^000 
m  MB-leveL  The  nide  and 
A  lie  between  the  mountain-ranges  of 
BMiuin  much  cultivated  land,  which 
aztenda,  even  on  the  gentle  sir , 
ina  themielvea.  whow  higher  parts  arc 
ana.  whilst  nearly  the  whole  of  Mount 
ily  available  for  the  latter  purpose. 
it^  which  lies  between  these  two 
iatricta.  and  the  meridians  of  Ckaaria 
■d  Kniahiya  I3(P  20),  is,  properly 
plain  whoM  elevation  has  not  been 
tiat  it  docH  nul  wcm  to  lie  niui:h 
lo<r  ifim  ft.  above  the  wa.  Its  surface 
wbne  level,  but  it  exhibits  extensive 
,aDd  the  ranges  of  hGls  which  occa- 
or  do  not  occupy  much  space,  nnr  are 
nly  much  elevated  abuve  their  base. 
diy,  but  not  sandy:  and.  alimg  the 
t,  er  where  water  for  irrigaticm  can 


ASU  2<)9 

kaRtlUinor,  the  cnltivated  land  extending  tntr  the 

valley's,  and  on  the  sides  of  the  mountaios.  and 
yielding  rich  crops  of  rice,  cotton,  and  cum,  whilst 
the  gaidens  produce  many  kinds  of  excellent  fruits. 
This  region  is  also  the  must  populmus  and  eon- 
tains  probably  more  than  half  the  population  uf 
the  peninsula. 

9.  Sorutan  or  Syria,  which  nnitefl  the  table- 
land nf  Naduli  with  that  nf  Aiatua,  is  a  country 
which  has  a  very  peculiar  physical  eonititutioiL 
Two  elevsted  ranges  run  from  its  northern  ei- 
Iremity  (87°  N,  lat.)  through  its  whole  length, 
and  terminate  on  both  sides  the  Gulf  of  Akaba 
(28°  N.  lat.),  the  farthest  east  of  tbe  two  gulfn 
which  the  KeJ  Sea  forms  at  its  northern  extre- 
mity, Bui  both  mountain-rangea,  with  the  inlcr- 
vrning  valley  and  the  adjacent  shores  of  tiio 
Hedilerranean,  occupv  only  a  space  from  60  to 
70  m.  acroni.  The  most  easterly  of  the  two  moun- 
tam-chains  lowers  considerably  soon  after  having 
brmiched  off  from  tho  Alma  Tagh;  and  in  the 
parallel  of  Aleppo  (36°  lO*  N.  lat,)  it  sinks  down 
to  hills  of  moderate  elevation,  nor  does  it  rise 
mitch  higher  until  it  reaches  37°  Iff,  where  it 
rises  to  a  consideiable  height,  probably  6,000  11. 
and  more :  it  U  called  Jebel  Euhari,  the  Antili- 
banus  of  the  ancients.  It  preserves  a  considemhie 
820  5.^',  where  it  lowers  again, 


IS  fertile:   but 


Ibe  high  lanibi  K.  of  C:!esnri« ;  even 
tncta  are  not  cidtivated,  lieeauxe 
he  continual  nibbcries  of  these  trilxii. 

Ith  nitre  and  other  salts,  and  hence  in 
B  eonsiilemble  number  of  Inkes  ocenr 
I  wn  aalt,  and  frmn  which  great  quaa- 
;  are  procumL    ThcM  tnke»  hai-e,  as 


ia  tbe  Kiiil-ermak.  whirli  ri^cs  at  a 
n  E.  of  i^ivar.  anrl  ruiu<  2m  m.  wnt- 
dtcrwanla  neatly  30U  m.  SE.  and  ^'. 

»Wd  extends  even  W.  of  the  mp- 


brekcD  in  hills  and  ilates.  The  hills 
Mrht  as  they  proceed  wentward,  and 
rink  deeper,  and  become  wider.  Both 
I  Taileys  tuntinne  to  the  shortai  of  tin 


■ailed  El  Kuta  which  extends  to  ^2°  10'.  Hen™ 
t  continues  as  a  rocky  ridge  of  moderate  elevation 
m  the  eastern  side  of  the  Dead  Sea,  to  its  southern 
[Xtnmity  E.  of  the  Gulf  of  Akaha.  The  western 
'bun  is  much  higher,  at  least  in  the  northern 
districts.  As  a  high  mountain-iange,  it  skirts  the 
— em  sides  of  the  (lulf  of  Iskenderoon,  and  at 
le  dintanee  K.  from  il  ia  broken  by  the  river 
isy  (Orontes),  but  K.  of  that  river  it  again  lii 


demhle  elev 


Its  highest  portioj 


however,  is  between  3^ 

°  30' and  33°  20':  this  is 

the  fan.™  Lilianus  o 

the  ancients,  its  northern 

and  more  ele>-ated  port 

on  still  retaining  the  name 

of  Jeliel   Libin :  but  t 

wanis  tbe  S.  il  is  called 

Jcbel  el  Drus,  from  i 

a  being  inhabited  bv  ilic 

Prunes.    The  highest  si 

mmit«  of  the  Jebel  lihin 

Cr""' 


rH  the  name  of  Jcbel  Hakmd  (84°  12*)  attains 
I2,0(K)  fu  above  tlie  sea.  .S.  of  83°  20^  tho 
tntains  sink  much  lower,  and  these  low  ridgei> 
tinue  to  its  southern  emremitv,  on  the  rocky 
between  the  tiulfs  of  Akaba  and  Suez. 
most  southerly  juiint  they  terminate 
ilh  the  stupendous  and  famous  mountain-mawi 
of  Mount  SinaL  whoee  highMt  summit  ia  pro- 
liablv  mora  than  it,000  ft.  above  the  sea. 

The  valley,  which  extends  between  tho  two 
ranges,  has  liowhere  n  great  width,  N.  nf  32°  K. 
tat.  It  may  vary  between  K  and  20  m.,  but  is  much 
wider  N.  oT  34°  K.  lat.  than  between  the  two 
ranges  of  the  Libanus,  From  the  smitliern  ex- 
tremity of  the  l>ead  Sea,  tn  theCulfof  Akaln,  it 
is  reiliiced  to  a  natniw,  rocky,  and  waterless  cleft 
in  (he  mountains,  probably  liot  more  than  1  m.  or 
IJ  across.  The  tiorlhem  atHl  wider  part,  of  tlic 
_._i, —  ! ^___ , , ..  ^t.  _- —  ■  — ^y  ^j^^  Orontes 


watered  bv  the  ri  _ 

iiT  the  ancients):  'he  middle  and  hit;hMt  pai 
lying  between  the  two  ranges  of  the  Lilianus,  l>y 
a  small  liver,  the  Lietlanie:  this  district  is  pro- 
bably 2,000  ft  above  the  sea.  K.  of  the  Liettanie, 
the  valley  is  watered  by  the  Jordan,  which  (ra- 
vvrsea  the  Lake  uf  Tiberias,  and  empties  itself  in 

.i.r... .c n aeofabout  100m.  The 

.    ,       .  AraWana  Bahr-cl-Loot, 

ieated  by  the  indented  iva-coast,  I  »  about  50  m.  long  and  nearly  1,'i  m.  bmail  whera 
ala  nf  Isildly  projecting  pmmimlories  |  widest;  itisremaikableforlhc  asphalt  or  bitumen 
u*  between  ihcm,  T'lrming  exrellcnt  |  found  on  its  shores,  and  for  the  remarkable  events 
rail  i*  by  Gu  the  beat  isirlion  of  Asia   and!  asDociatious  connected  with  its  histoid'. 


210  ASIA 

I^twoon  the  wc«trm  niniiniain-rfinpf^  nntl  tlio  '  nam>w.  North  of  the  Tropic,  where  it  imtiHy 
hliorcs  (if  tlu»  MiMlitomuican.  iin*  soiiu*  oxten^iv*;  |  wvor  cxcertU  lo,  or  at  the  iitmojit  2niDMfxnT«i 
]i1ainH,  S.  iif  '.V.'P,  whcr**  tlio  rnmitn-  f«»r  many  j  in  rwo  or  tlin*o  place*  where  it  i*  conticn'W!'  tn  i 
iiiiW'S  inlnmi  is  low  .in«l  >:iiiily.  luit  wiihout  har-  '■  n»oky  district  of  the  Ncdjed,  South  of  thfTpipr 
IwMirs.  l^'twocn  W.P  nini  '.\'>^  i.-*  lln*  miintn'  "f  the  it  <*<msiileral>ly  widens  an«l  here  it:*  meui  hnaiWi 
nni'icnt  rhaiiicians.  I>  ini:  liftwi'on  tho  wa  and  '  may  he  alK»nt  50  ro. :   S.  of  Mekka  theTrhana 


and  IIHJnz  to^tlier  extend  moFO  than  liiO  m. 
from  tilt*' Kin]  S«ra.  Tlie  Iledjaz  n-semhlc«  Duch 
tlio  ^H'ky  tractd  enrlofs«l  by  the  Xeil'ed.  f wef* 
tlint  water  in  more  altundnnt.  and  that  thmiiirp it 
is  iK'ttor  adapted  to  acrriculturc  In  it  ut  exta- 
hivo  ]dantation4  of  rotfee. 
The  low  plains  of  the  Tehfhna  hare  a  randr 


the  Lil)anus.  Tin.-  \\ho\r  tnu't.  fn>m  the  sea  to 
the  mountains  is  lilUti  witii  Mils  and.  in  ad- 
vancing: ti>  the  sIhih-s,  thcM'  hill>  fonn  numenms 
small  harlMinr>:  tlu*  countr\- further  N.  is  of  the 

» 

Banu*  dt'scriptinn. 

The  southern  jiart  of  the  repon  ju>t  describe*!  is 
nearly  a  desert.  South  of  t lie  Dead  Sea  the  sur- 
face is  mostly  nothiui;  but  Imre  rocks  destitute  nf  sfiil,  which  it  is  siip]v>se<l  htm  lieen  defrntMhr 
ve;;etab!e  mnuld  and  water.  It  is  then-fiin*  called  the  sea  alom;  the  fiNit  of  the  ;rn-at  nvnntain- 
Aral»ia  IVm-a.  or  Stony  Arabia.  Nortli  of  it  is  mns.",  by  which  the  Ilwljaz  and  Ne«!ie»!  ar?  «■!»- 
Palestine,  wliose  ]ilain  tnwanls  the  ^lediterrane.'in  :  ported;  .iml  it  is  maintiuned  that  it  i*  rtill  ii- 
is  nearly  a  desert,  on  a«viiimt  of  its  sandy  surface:  |  creasin^j  in  width.  A»  it  docs  not  rain,  frpqucntlr. 
but  the  hijLiber  ]Miriioii.  In-tween  this  ]»l.iin  and  the  :  for  many  consecutive  yeani,  it  enuld  im4  lecuW- 
Jtinlan.  is  rather  fertih-.  where  cultivate<l,  thonj^h  j  vate<l  but  for  the  watorcoiiiws,  which,  durini: the 
s<»nie  di>iricts  have  a  stony  soil.  The  vallev  i if  i  rainy  season,  dosoend  from  the  ailiacont  H«^ifc 
the  .Ionian  is  nni  di>linpiish<'<l  by  fertilitv.  The  Irrigate*!  by  them,  with  the  adflition  of  mm 
ci»uutr}- wi'st  of  the  I  .,i  ban  us  is  more  fertile,  €^|m»- 
cially  alon.i:  the  ran^e.  .ind  in  its  small  valleys, 
and  even  nn  its  declivities:  but  on  its  side-  S4)me 
*»f  the  valh'vs  an^  ^te^ile.  and  the  K.  «kvlivitv  of 
Lil>anu.s  is  a  nake«l  n>ck.  North  of  I.ibanus  the 
country  impn>ves:  and  is  in  pMieral  fertile,  and 
|»,irtly  well  cultivated.  r.;L>*t  of  the  mimntain- 
n^io'n  is  tlie  Syrian  desert,  which  lielnnjrs  to  tin 


artificial  means,  tlicsc  sultry  dry  plains  neMi^l 
cn>fis  of  some  kindrt  of  groin,  and  ait;  ri^ifl 
fniits,  dat«*s  especiallv. 

11.  TTie  Plain  of  the  Enphratrt  romprUff  tbn 
whole  <if  the  jn^at  dcfiression  in  the  interM  rf 
Western  Asia.  ex4*ept  that  portiim  wlik-h  i*  o^ 
cupied  by  the  tiulf  of  Persia.  Its  norlhem  h<w* 
<lar\'  is  fomietl  by  tliat  ran^  of  mountains  wluA. 


j^n-at  depression  in  the  int<>rior  of  Western  ^Ma:  ■  on  the  W.  of  the  Ti^rris.  he^nns  a  little  «!•*' 
but  this  desolated  country  diM'S  imt  advance  to  the  Mosul.  an<l  ninninj;  westward  near  the  tomwrf 
ffwn  of  the  ranjres:  it  i-*  dividi^l  fn»m  them  by  a  Merrlin  and  (hfa,  terminate  on  the  Iwnks  rftbe 
tnut  of  most  fertile  o»untr\'.  hitermixed  with  Kuphnites,  near  Humkohx  <"hi  the  W.  it  i* 
sandy  spots.  This  tract  may  U»  oO  or  <><>  m.  lN»undeil  by  the  table-land  of  Iran,  on  theF-bjr 
across,  but  it  Inicoraes  more  sandy  and  sterile  in  the  mouni'nin-re^on  of  S>Tia,  and  on  theSwW 
advancing  further  !■« 

10.  Arabia  is  a  table-land  of  c<insiderable  ele- 
vation, but  we  are  un.ible  to  (h»termine  the  line 
where  il  l>epns  lo  ris<»  from  the  low  plain  of  the 
SjTian  desert.     I*nib;ihly  this  line  is  a  ;;o<m1  way 

s!  of  the  caravan  Mad  lca«lin;r  ln»m  D.imascus  t«»  or  wiiwiV/.  It  is,  however,  inhabite<l  hv  wbc 
Ihissorah.  but  not  far  fmm  a  line  dra\iii  from  the  |  wandering;  trilH>s  of  Arabs:  and  tlm>u^  it  mn 
most  northerly  corner  of  the  (lulf  of  Akaba  to  the    the  ni.iils  which  hwl  from  Aleppi>  and  Diinliw 


•repion 

the  northern  de«'U\-ity  of  the  NeilJrtL  Tlat  po- 
tion of  it  which  lies  cuntipions  to  the  Xedjod  ttl 
Syria,  up  to  the  eastern  lianks  of  the  Euphntn^ 
is  a  complete  desert,  mostly  etivereil  nith  «rf- 
and  siibjrct  to  the  pestifertms  blast  of  the  -—— 


mouth  (if  the  Kuiihnites.  Tlie  lable-Iaiid  risi-s 
.ibmptly  on  the  other  thn-e  sides  at  a  di-iance  of 
fn"»mH  to 40m.  fn«m  the  M-a. except  alnn^rtheiinrth- 
cm  co.ist  of  the  <  iulf  of  Persia.  !•»  which  it  desc-emls 
with  a  trentle  declivity.  TIm'  lnw  narrow  Intrder. 
with  which  the  talile-laml  is  eiic(im|ML>tsiHl  i>n  all 
side<*.  is  called  the  Tehama,  and  tlu;  table-land 
itself  Neid.  i»r  Nedjed.     The  n'ckv  ami  uneven 


to  Ihixsitrah.  It  is  ca11e<l  the  Syrian  DesHt.  I* 
spr»'a«Is  even  In^yond  the  Kn])hrati9  to  a  crtwAw- 
able  dist.ince  fmm  the  river  in  it:»  middle  f«ff^ 
where  its  l»aiik««  an*  hari!ly  lietter  inhahitfti  thtf 
the  desert  itself.  In  the  north«'m  district*  «/th< 
plain  sand  als<i  prevails,  hut  it  is  frec|uently  int**' 
sjH'raed  by  extensive  tracts  of  roi:ky  f^nmnd:  Mi' 
as  thes<'  itatches  have  commonlv  mould  on  ihetJ 


iHinler,  which  <livides  the  Nejd  from  the  Teh.ama.  I  thev  an»  cultiv.ited  .iml  planted  With  tPfffc   Tl*' 


is  mostly  called  .TelM-l  (nmuntain).  or  Iledjaz. 

The  NfMljed  is  divideil  inio  two  i»arts  by  a  n»cky 
rid;re.  which  cuth  t)ie  Tn»pic  Ciri-le  with  an  anjile 
of  about  :i<»o.  It  lH';xins  mi  the  W.  near  -J'J^  N. 
lat..  and  lenninate<  near  the  (Julf  of  Persia,  near 
2."»°.  This  riil^je.  calU<l  .Ie)«el  Aan»d.  <liviiles  the 
table-land  intit  two  pr4rts.  of  which  the  southeni 


tract,  thriiii^h  whi(*h  niiis  the  nuid  fnnnAWrf* 
to  Ha^d.'id.  extends  tm  the  lianks  of  thp  TifiW  1 
the  last-iiientione<l  place.  South  of  naioi*!  ^ 
Country'  iM'twi-tMi  the  two  rivers  is  fertile.  *^ 
irri;;ate«l.  which  is  done  by  water  derive«l  fnin  II 
rivers  theiUM'lves.  and  fnim  several  canaL«;  b« 
thiK*e  tracts,  which  lie  to  the  K.  and  W.  cf  tlie 


is  ne.irly  a  c« mil tl' -I e  ileyert.  and  •'••(m-4  almost  un- ■  rivers,   ''^  only  indlivated    aloin;  their  l*nk 

saiuly  fh-^crt-i  lH'';riniiin:r  at  a  sht^rt  di^tanre  fw 
thnn.  The  two  riv«rs  whi«'h  watr-r  this  cn 
]i1aiu.  the  Kuphrates  and  Tiirri*,  rise  nearir 
the  >anie  ivirallel.  lietween  3so  ;;•►'  and  ."W  I 
N.  lal..  i>n  the  tk^-livities  of  the  Jsime  mounta 
ntuf^e  in   Armenia:   but  the  Ruphrntps,  ranni 


inhabit eil.  Norih  of  thi»  .leU-l  Aan-il,  saml  a!.-o 
covers  by  far  the  greater  pan  of  ihe  Nedjed.  but 
is  in  numerous  ]ihici->  inferspep«ed  with  nwky 
tracts  ami  some  hilly  j:r«iiinds  ;  where,  durin:;  the 
rainy  se.ison.  water  collects  and  fonns  small 
Htn.'ams.  bv  which  thes<!  tracts  iKroine  inhabit- 


able, and  even  lit  for  the  nilf  un*  of  M»me  kimls  .  first  W.,  has  already  had  a  cinirse  of  •'i*^*  m.  hd 
of  ^craui:  es]>e<'ially  dhourrah.  a  kind  of  millet,  i  it  arrives  at  the  f'larallel  of  the  sources  of 
Then*  <K'Cur  .ilso  <>xt(>nsive  jdantations  <»f  fniit-  \  Tijo^s.  It  then  by  de»atH?s  turns  SE..  and  e 
trees,  esiiecially  dal«'s.  The  samly  desert  which  j  tinues  in  that  diri>ction,  ajipmachimr  jrrndw 
s^'iia rates  these  inh.ibitable  ^llots  is  al^i  coventl,  \  near»»r  to  that  river,  and  unites  with  it  al 
niter  the  rainy  w.fMHi.  with  ;,'ra>s  and  flowers,  and  |  1(M»  m.  fnmi  its  mi>iith.  The  iinitetl  riwr  isca 
the  IkMlouins.  or  wandering:  Arabs,  tinrl  there  all  the  Shat-4'l-AraK  and  falls  in  the  northern  ex 
the  vear  nmiid  suKsisteiice  for  their  horsts.  cameR  "  mitv  of  the  (iulf  of  Pcrsi.i. 
and  sheeji.  \'l.  Jifnunt  OiHitunuc,  which  at  present  i«  • 

The  lletljaz.  or  rwky  cilij'?  of  the  Nedjed.  Is   ylderetl  as  the  boundary  between  ^V^ia  and  Eui 


itaMB 


ASIA 

mrt  of  the  tnblo-luida  and 
W«tfi 


■noM.  Thiiiv«ne>- 
.  .iniachea  the  Cujnui 
m  dnUnra  or  about  100  ur  150  m.  Imm 
r  W.  the  nuface  uf  the  rslley  is  hilly, 
with  KiiK  DiKlulatiiiK  pkiru  of  mode- 
.  It  liKB  in  higher  hills,  between  43° 
kiL,  when  ■  ml^  of  low  mnunCwni 
nUnhed  between  the  river  Kur  (ihe 
H  udenti).  uid  tLe  Kiuni  (the  Phana 
■!■).    The  moat  irenlerh'  district  or  the 


■h  fTKkmninning  trim  ESE.  toWN^'. 
MMCB  of  the  peninsula  of  Abahemn,  or 
a  Sea,  to  the  nnall  town  uf  Anapa  on 
Sea,  a  riiflanre  hanlly  less  than  TOO  m. 


Ui  nana  o(  nvka  rnvcm  SO.OUO  gq.  m„ 
ha  raitece  of  ?^n;;Und  and  Wales.  lu 
■bU,  Jiuunt  Klbnui,  or  £lbonia.  at- 
n  of  17,7  -  - 


from  III.IKKI  to  IZ.I>nn  tk,  abova  the  aea.  Its  val- 
lefi  tuwani«  the  western  Bhotn,  and  the  ntnall 
lerel  spots  which  occur  along  the  aca  are  Tortilo 
and  well  cultivated.    The  country  £.  of  the  nuge 


lore  than  180  m. ;  itsavcn^  width  is  about 

ain-masa  to  a  connderable  height,  fnini 
some  lateral  ridfnia  branch  ofF,  but  the/  do 
ich  the  shores,  extent  in  some  pans  on  the 
isl.  Kvcrj-whera  else  a  low  HaC  coulllty 
•eparate*  the  mountain  from  the  sea.  The  flat 
distiicla  are  eilliei  NUiily,  or  covEred  with  gnuw, 
rithout  trees,  like  the  savannah ;  in  sume 
plocea  they  are  cultivated  and  fertile,  as  are  also 
Ilia  vaUvys. 

The  c:<lcnsive  ^raup  of  the  Philippince,  which 
es  between  1 B^  30'  and  S=  30'  N.  lat.,  comprise* 
lore  than  100  islands;  of  which,  however,  movtt 
rtherimaller  ones  are  uninhabited.  Moat  of  them 
re  mountainous,  and  the  smaller  ones  nakeil 
roclu :  but  the  Itu^i  islanils  contain  many  plain* 
if  considerable  exient,  and  of  a  very  fertile  soil. 
Phey  are  well   watereil — |«rhapa  too  much  so: 


han  rise*  to  the  snow-lino,  bii 
■  occur  to  the  E.  of  it.  atnun^  wiiiun 
Kbeck  is  U.Sm  ft.  Iiifili.  Traces  uf 
I  *n  met  with  in  but  few  of  its  vallem 
ttnlB  living  alDiOft  exclu^volv  on  the 
thair  HocliH.  lliis  rawntaiii-xyslem  is 
I  for  the  fjieat  uumlier  uf  nations,  be- 
>  different  races,  which  inhabit  its  ele- 
itjn.  At  both  extremities  uf  Mount 
m  places  where  the  hoil  ix  imi)ieKnaled 
ait  IK  bitumen,  esiKcially  in  (he  pcuia- 

1  tJie  jieninMila  of  Alashka.  in  America, 
tlwAariJe  islands,  which  lie  S.  uf  t'«|ie 
•id  terminate  near  [he  eanlem  shores  of 
gfrulcanic  uri)(in.  and  in  wnue  of  them 
tamd  active  vulcanoes.  'llieir  *«l  is 
^,  anJ  ileslilute  uf  wmid.  but  [he  must 
itUnds  iiT  the  last-menlioned  group  are 
ga  (he  luwer  jir<>und«. 
ft  island,  called  SaJtAalieiu  TanJtai  or 
lUnilinK  along  ilie  ciias(  of  Miuicliuuria, 
■onnous  mass  uf  rocks,  which  rise  t< 
imtn  probably  (u  the  height  of  3,000 ' 
ad  pcrhMie  even  hijiher. 
inda  of  Japan,  conEUstinff  of  four  larfcc 
■Im.  sum,/,  and  ATwww)  and  a  con- 
umiber  uT  smaller  unea,  arc  also  Connefl 
n  marrm  of  rockn,  wbk-h.  e><|>cciallv  on 
iM  abnre  the  mow-Une.  In  most  placcit 
Of  smtledretiviliesiif  the  rocks  <  "" 
f  Amu  of  the  sea.  but  atoihen 
mUe  fxleot  cxteml  between 
tc  aiiil  doea  not  Kcm  to  be  distin^sheil 
ji,  it  is  reoilemi  productive  liy  (he  (,Tea( 
■hich  it  B  evetj-H'heiv cultivated: 
Bd  on  the  slopes  of  the  mounlaii 
ila   devatirin.     In    maoj  lUslric 


The  Soaiito  islanils.  between 
le  coslem  coast  of  Ikimeo.  hai 
,-en  soil,  hut  it  u  very  fertile,  bei 


it  u  very  fertile,  beinc  covereiiwitli 
vef^iahle  mould.  But  ihe  lar);e  L-donilof 
n,  lyinjj  farther  S^  is  a  rocky  maw,  liidnK 
middle  to  a  high  range,  in  which  some 
s  attain  a  threat  height.  Tlic  rocks  aru 
Illy  hare ;  in  some  ;«ns  tbc  sides  uf  the 
! ._^...  . but  agricultunt 


I  spots  OD  the  cc 


J««.  SE.  rra 


jiitisula  which  n 


Bomto,  the  largct  uf  the  i 
)t  much  inferior  [u  France  in 

main  bodTof  ih 
.ilieans  the  muunlaiiis  do  not. 
great  elevation,  'ilie  remainder,  which 
-Sfths  of  its  whole  sorfaos, 
ms  to  be  a  plain,  un  which  a  few  ridges  ucciir 
great  ilistances.  This  plain  baa  an  alluvial 
1,  to  a  distance  of  several  miles  from  (he  obiires, 
d  afterwanls  the  countrv  rises  gradnallv,  pcr- 
ha[>s  2W  or  .too  n.     The  whole  of  this  plain,  as 

' -B  known,  scenu  to  )Kiiwe«a  great  fertility: 

....  want  of  culture  which  everywhere  ts 
lie,  ispiobaMy  the  effect  ofthe  too  great  abund- 
of  water^  as  (he  island  is  subject  to  continual 
I.  All  kinds  of  producliuns  and  fruits  com- 
ly  met  with  between  the  tjiqiica,  gniw  tu 

The  isknit  of  Cilrbti.  divided  from  nomeo  by 
the  straits  of  Manassai,  istravcrseil  by  four  range* 

great  elevation,  except  where  the  four  muunlain- 
rBiiges  and  the  four  peninsulas,  of  which  the  i«kll<l 
c»nsis[s,  meet  ti^Ihcr;  in  (his  part  (he  moun- 
uins  arc  of  considerable  lidghL  I'he  surfaiv  uf 
the  whole  island  is  hilly  or  miHinlainuus,  the  Hat 
tracts  along  the  coast  being  of  small  extent.  Its 
soil  is  rather  sandy,  anil  not  distinguisheil  liy 
fertility.  Ita  piuluce  in  rice  is  not  equal  (o  (lio 
emiMimption  of  the  iiihaldiants;  Iml  it  pniiliicr.i 
mnuy  tniiiical  fruits,  and  sago  iti  great  abundance. 
The  iHobnetat,  lying  W.  of  Celpbe^  cunsirt  of 
some  liunilied  uf  smallei  and  larger  jslstnbs  ili- 
vided  in  gevcral  gmups  lx'(wcpti  IP  X.  Int.  and 
HO  S,  lat.    Tlwy  rise  mostly  with  a  sleeii  airent 


.uy«f(h 


212 


ASIA 


t^)  vf>1oan(K?fi ;  and  on  eif;ht,  still  exist  volcnntxv 
ill  aotivitv.  Their  w»il,  tli<m;;li  moMtlv  snndv  and 
Htony,  IS  fertile,  ami  [»artirularly  adapte<l  for  M»me 
pnxitu't ionn.  AmlKiyna  has  larjje  plantation.s  of 
clovcM,  and  the  Ilandii  ^mp  fiimii>heH  mu^«oat 
initrt  and  nia<'e.  The  culture*  of  rice  and  other 
^rain  h  very  limited,  on  the  fioil  seems  not  favour- 
able to  their  t^nm-th ;  hut  this  want  is  supjilied  by 
the  extcuMve,  ])lantation8  of  sapro-trees. 

That  serie^s  of  mostly  con8ideral>lc  L<landfl  which 
befriiiis  on  the  K.  with  the  Inland  f»f  Tim<»ur  and 
terminates  «)n  the  W.  with  that  of  Uali,  including; 
the  islands  of  liotti*  Savo<i,  and  Sandellx^h, 
which  lie  S.  of  the  series,  are  called  bv  peojjraphers 
the  J^iuer  Sundu  Jdandn^  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  ^mp  of  the  Larqer  Sunda  Jslands, 
comprisinp:  Jionieo,  CelelM>s,  Java,  and  Sumatra. 
The  I^sM'T  Sunda  Iiilands  are  moimtainous ;  and 
in  some  of  them  the  mountains  rise  to  8.(KK)  or 
*.>.noi)  ft.  al)ove  the  sea,  antl  pn»liably  hif^her. 
Several  of  them  are  active  volcanoe**,  which  fre- 
quently brinp  destruction  over  the  islancb  in  which 
they  are  situate<l.  We  arc  not  well  acquainte<l 
•with  these  i^lantls,  nor  with  the  dejrree  of  fertility 
they  iMissess;  but  fn>m  the  few  indications  we 
have  receive*!,  it  may  l>e  nin^rrwl  that,  in  peneral, 
they  are  as  far  from  l)einp  sterile,  as  from  an 
cxu1>erant  pnxluctiveness.  Many  of  tlie  tropical 
priKluct  iotis  pr*iw  to  perfectiim. 

•/irira,  the  most  imi>ortant  of  the  islands  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  is  proi>erly  a  continuation  of  the 
former  series.  It  exten^ls  in  leii|:^h  nearly  700  m., 
but  it«  breadth  hardly  exceeds  KK)  m.,  where 
widest.  A  continuous  chain  of  mountains  nms 
through  the  island  in  ita  whole  length,  lowering 
more  rapidly  towards  the  N.  than  the  S.,  where 
the  coast  is  higli  and  nearly  inaccessible.  Some 
summits  of  this  chain  rise  to  more  than  12,000  or 
13,000  ft.  The  highest  are  the  Semecro  and 
TagaL  Most  of  these  summita  arc  volcanoes, 
either  extinct  or  still  active,  and  their  frequent 
eTuptions  have  in  later  times  laid  waste  several 
districts.  The  more  fertile  tracts  lie  along  the 
northern  shores,  which  are  hiw,  and  fn)m  which 
A  flat  country'  extends  several  miles  inland.  Their 
fertility  is  very  great,  and  produces  rich  cro|)8  of 
every  kind  of  grain  or  roots  culti\'ated  l>etween 
the  tropics.  But  part  of  these  flat  lands  an>  so 
low  and  so  badly  drained,  that  they  are  converted 
into  swamjM  during  the  rainy  season.  Some 
tractit  pn-aner^'c  their  swam])y  soil  all  the  year 
roun<l ;  and  hence  arises  the  insalubrity  of  thcite 
ooastA. 

Sumatra^  only  second  to  Borneo  in  extent,  is 
900  m.  long  and  fn»m  l.')0  to  230  m.  wide^  In  its 
length  it  is  traversed  by  a  mountain-chain  of 
great  eh^vation,  several  of  it«  summits  excee<ling 
12.000  ft,  of  elevation  :  Mount  Ophirexceetls  even 
13,000  ft.  Many  of  these  summits  are  volcanoes, 
but  most  of  them  apiK*ar  to  \te  extinct.  The  vol- 
cano (lunong  l>em]Ki  is  more  than  ll.ouo.  thoi^e  of 
Ber  A]>i  and  Barawi  more  than  ri.OlKl  ft.  high. 
Tlie  det^livities  of  th<»se  mountains  extend  in 
many  pla<»ea  to  the  western  shores,  which  there- 
fore atfbni  several  good  harlx>urs.  The  eastern 
shores  arc  Hat  and  sahdy^  and  the  adjacent  plains 
extend  in  some  places  100  m.  and  more  inland. 
Some  tracts  of  these  plains  are  swampy,  and  others 
sterile  and  covere<l  with  sand.  Still  a  great  part 
of  its  surface  is  fertile,  and  affords  many  valuable 
])n>ductions.  llie  western  districts,  l>iping  more 
uneven  and  consequently  lietter  drained,  are  more 
fertile  and  much  more  healthy.  In  the  extensive 
wimmIs  which  cm'er  the  declivities  of  the  moun- 
tain, the  camphor-tree  is  frequent,  and  yields  the 
iK-st  camphor.  l''n»m  the  ealem  shon*  extensive 
Hhoak  cxteml  far  into  tlio  Straits  of  ^Inlacca,  and 


render  the  navigation  tcdimift  and  difScnlt.  Fjit 
of  this  Island,  and  ttm-anls  itj*  9<iuthem  extranitT, 
is  the  island  t)f  Banca,  famoiu  for  its  incxhaiui2iie 
mines  of  tin. 

Ceylon,  dinded  from  the  peninsula  of  the  Dnnn 
by  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  and  Palk  Strut,  is  from  il 
to  N.  280  m.  Irmg,  but  its  greatest  breadth  dwi 
not  exceed  140  ro.  In  the  middle  of  thei^liod, 
and  towanls  its  southern  extremity,  on  bodinb 
of  7^  N.  lat,  is  a  mcuintain-masa,  which  eztnd^ 
over  nearly  an  eighth  part  of  its  surface.  The 
mean  elevation  of  tliU  mm^  may  exceed  l,flOUft. 
above  the  sea,  though  8r>me  of  its  more  dwntoJ 
valleys  rise  to  nearly  4,000  ft.  This  motmtni- 
mass  is  overtopped  by  several  high  snnmub, 
among  which  the  Adam*8  Peak  attains  6,153  ft: 
but  PedrotalkgalU,  the  highest  pinnacle,  b  R,3W 
ft.  above  the  sea.  Thia  mountain-region  is  ID^ 
rounded  by  a  hilly  countty,  to  a  distance  nf  lOif 
12  m.  and  more.  Ita  mean  elevation  abmne  the 
sea  varies*  from  400  to  1,000  fU  This  hilly  repoo 
may  in  some  degree  be  said  to  extend  to  the  «rr 
shores  <jf  the  sea  in  the  S.  districts ;  ftirthecnontiT 
contiguous  to  the  coast  between  Batticaloi,  oa  dM 
E.  coast,  and  Negiimbo,  on  the  W..  is  not  lerri 
and  undulating,  and  the  coast  itself  is  nther  hiefa> 
The  northern  half  of  the  island  is  a  level  plan, 
and  it  is  su])poscd  that,  even  in  the  interior,  ii 
does  not  rise  above  300  ft.  Its  coast  is  erffrrbm 
flat  and  sindy,  and  remarkaldc  for  the  Rfeat  bbb- 
ber  of  lagunea  with  which  it  ia  skirted.   Then 


lagunes  increase  in  si2e  during  the  lainy  w 
so  as  to  flow  into  one  another,  affonling  an  inhai 
navigation  for  boats,  in  «ime  places  fi>r60  «f  80* 
Along  the  wliole  of  the  easti-ni  coast,  fiwn  Pfli* 
Pedr«>  to  Dondnh  Head,  and  hence  to  Neganb«s 
the  sea  is  deep,  and  mav  be  navigated  br  t«Mb 
of  any  burrlen ;  but  tlie  W.  coast,  N.  of  NotbI* 
as  far  as  Point  Pedro,  is  saAxnmded  b>'  a  loilkv 
sea,  in  which  only  veasela  of  100  tons  can  be  nrf; 
and  the  common  veasela  employed  in  thistnfc 
vary  between  25  and  60  tons.  The  fertffitrrftbe 
island  is  very  great ;  sandy  tuncts  indeed  ocWi 
but  they  are  not  extensive,  andjprodnoe  oomnoBJT 
good  crr»pa,  when  irrigated.  Swampa,  whiA  in 
the  other  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  cover  giwj 
tracts  of  the  low  countri',  arc  rare  in  Ceyfciuian 
of  small  extent.  The  wtimls  and  islet*  of  Ac 
Philippine  and  Indian  ArehipehigneB  are  tm- 
puted  at  6.000.  The  Dutch  p«.isHeaisions  are  cak«- 
late<l  t»)  have  a  population  of  17,000,000:  the 
Spanish  (»f  o.(»00,0(H) ;  and  the  British  of  250^000. 
In  IHOO.the  import  and  export  tnwle  of  the  Di** 
p<ipulatiim  was  14.747,414/.;  of  the  Sp»i«» 
2,lti0,0lH» ;  and  the  British.  10,430.152/. 

II.  Botany  of  Asia. — TcmiieTature,  soil  hfr 
niidity,  ami  light  are  the  principal  agent»  in  w 
ge«»gniphical  di:»tribution  of  plants.  The**  ^ 
nients  exwt  under  greater  variety  in  Aril  thir 
in  any  other  region ;  and  hence  the  amount  p 
divcrrsity  of  Asiatic  v^^etation  are  abst>Iutelv  with 
out  a  parallel.  It  is  not  alone  the  extent  in  bl 
of  this  vast  continent,  though  ^tretchhig  fftm  A 
equator  to  tlie  highest  N.  Twnillels ;  it  Is  not  HI 
ply  the  different  elevations  of  its  surface,  thooj 
of'  these  the  gn*atest  and  least-  are  wsp«tiv« 
27,0(K>  ft.  alwve  and  110  ft.  Itelow  the  level  of  t 
sea ;  it  is  not  even  the  abundance  of  water  in  o 
district,  and  it^  almost  total  absence  in  anoth 
which  will  or  can  account  for  this  amtHint  i 
diversity.  Powerful  as  arc  thew  cause*  in  inl 
enoing  the  physical  ctmdititms  of  any  region,  i 
still  more  iwwerful  exists  in  AsLi ;  viz...  the  v 
iMHMiliar  nature  of  its  <ronf<>nnation.  The  cei 
is  a  high  table-land,  var>'ing  fntin  Ji.tMlO  toivd* 
ir>.000  it.  of  elevation,  iKuinditl  on  cvary  sitU 
high  moontains,  which  cfiTectually  shut  it  oat  i 


ASIA 


213 


the  f»ea,  and  on  tlie  exterior  ..Mea  of  wliich  the 
kiiiifdoms  of  Asia  are  arraiij^ed  in  every  variety  of 
inclination.  The  difference  of  aajjeet  thus  induced, 
ptill  more  than  either  lat.  or  elevation,  serves  to 
<livi<ie  the  whole  continent  into  five  great  lK)tanical 
regions,  which,  however  subject  to  sulxlivision 
among  themselves,  are  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  ])eculiarities  as  striking  as  though  the 
Atlantic  or  Pacific  rolled  between  them.  N.  from 
the  great  table-land,  the  vast  country  of  Siberia 
slopes  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  intensity  and 
duration  of  the  cold  in  this  dreary  region  prevent 
the  thriving  of  any  but  the  most  hardy  plants, 
except  in  the  S.  di.=itricts;  where  in  ad«lition  to  the 
effects  of  lower  lat.,  vegetation  is  ])n>tected  by 
mountain  ranges,  which  screen  it  from  the  freezing 
north-easterly  winds.  The  oak  and  hazel  are 
found  in  Daouria,  on  the  border  of  the  countr>'  of 
the  Manchoos  (Gmelin,  Flor.  Sib.,  L  60) ;  but 
their  size  is  diminutive,  their  vegetation  languid ; 
nor  are  they  met  with  in  any  other  district  N.  of 
the  Altai  mountains.  (Pallas,  Flor.  Kuss.,  i.  3.) 
Yet  the  well  watered  lands  of  S.  Siberia  abound 
in  thick  forests,  a^nsisting  of  birch,  w^illow,  juni- 
per, majile,  ash,  pine,  alder,  fir,  larch,  poplar,  aspen, 
and  elm  trees.  (Gmelin,  i,  150-180,  iii.  150 ; 
Pallas,  Flor.  Kuss, ;  and  Voy.  en  Kuss.,  pass.)  Of 
fruits  there  are  the  Siberian  cedar  {Pinua  cembra), 
the  nut  of  which  is  an  article  of  commerce ;  two 
or  three  s|>ecies  of  raspberries,  blackberries,  and 
other  bramble  fruit;  a  species  of  cherry  {Prunua 
fruticosus),  from  which  is  distilled  a  %vine ;  bil- 
bi-rries,  whortleberries,  and  the  Siberian  apricot. 
Gmelin  (iii.  173)  gives  a  list  of  four  sj^ecies  of 
cummtvs;  and  Pallas  (Hor.  Kuss.,  i  20-23)  one 
of  live  8|>ecies  of  pears ;  but  the  fruit  of  these  is 
valueless,  witli  the  exception  of  one  species  of 
currant,  which  b  confined  to  the  banks  of  the  Ar- 
goon,  a  tributarj'  of  the  Saghalien,  in  the  SE. 
comer  of  Daouria.  During  the  short  but  powerful 
summer,  the  Siberian  soil  is  covered  with  flower- 
ing and  aromatic  plants  in  immense  profusion, 
((inielin  and  l*allas,  passim.  See  also  (ieorgi's 
JMiys.  Gcug.,  vol.  iii.)  But  these,  as  well  as  the 
tinilier,  gradually  diminish  towanls  the  N. ;  till 
above  the  60th  parallel  scarcely  anvthing  remains 
but  the  hardy  beedi  and  a  few  of  tlie  more  vigor- 
ous lichens  and  mosses,  (jmelin  remarks  (Pre- 
face, xliii.)  that  vegetation  undergoes  a  marked 
change  K.  of  the  Yenisei;  and,  as  it  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  tem|K*rature  decreases  towards 
the  E.,  it  is  not  surprb^ing  that  this  should  be  the 
case ;  but  the  un|)nKluctive  nature  of  the  soil 
seems  to  have  been  overrated ;  for,  in  1830,  an 
agricultural  society  was  fountied  at  St.  Peter  and 
St,  Paul,  in  Kamtchatka,  from  whose  |>aper  (of 
Nov.  20,  1830)  it  a)>|>ears  that  the  return  of  wheat 
raised  in  that  district  was  13^  for  1,  of  rye  21  for 
1 ;  and  that  the  cultivation  of  buckwheat,  Hima- 
laya barley,  and  other  grains  had  proved  equally 
successful.  The  potato,  cabbage^  onion,  beetroot, 
chicory,  and  melon  liati  also  thriven ;  and  though 
the  cucumber  had  failed,  its  failure  was  owing  not 
to  the  impracticability  of  the  soil,  but  to  the  bines 
having  been  destroyed  by  rot. 

The  Seconal  botanical  kingdom  of  Asia  is  con- 
tained in  the  great  central  Uiljle-land  itself.  This 
is  unquestionably  the  highest  and  most  extensive 
plateau  in  the  world,  having  for  its  bearers  the 
mountains  of  Altai  and  Vablonoi  U)  the  N. ;  the 
MunchcK)rian  mountains  E. ;  the  Himalayas  and 
the  mountains  of  China  to  the  S. ;  fmd  on  the  VV. 
the  lieloi  Tagh,  the  Klburz,  and  the  Persian  moun- 
tains. Lying  at  a  great  though  not  equal  eleva- 
tion, bounded  and  intersected  by  lofty  moimtain 
ranges,  and  without  a  single  natural  outlet  to  tlie 
ocean,  the  climate,  soil,  hyilrc^raphy,  and  general 


physical  featura^  of  this  vast  region  (occupying 
more  than  two-fifths  of  Asia)  are  all  of  a  ver>' 
peculiar  kind.  The  characteristics  of  the  first  arc 
dryness  and  coldness ;  the  second  consists  of  a  dry 
sand,  sometimes  broken  by  patches  of  verdure,  at 
others  stretching  out  into  immense  desert*,  like 
that  of  Gobi  or  Shamo;  and  the  water  system 
consists  of  lakes  without  outlets,  the  final  rea- 
pients  of  many  rivers,  some  of  them  of  consider- 
able length  and  magnitude.  Many  of  the  streams 
are,  however,  absorbed  in  the  sandy  soil.  Wood 
of  all  kinds  is  extremely  scarce  in  tliese  high  and 
consequently  bleak  regions  ;  so  scarce  that  the 
nomadic  inhabitants  use  the  dung  of  their  cattle 
for  fuel  (Du  Halde,  iv.  18),  and  similar  materials 
not  unfrequently  serve  for  the  groundwork  of  their 
gilded  idols.  (Marco  Paulo,  lib.  L  c.  49.)  On  the 
S.  slopes  of  the  table-land  are  found  oaks,  aspens, 
elms,  hazels,  and  walnut  trees ;  but  aU,  even  on 
the  immediate  confines  of  China,  diminished  to 
mere  shrubs;  while  on  the  high  lands  and  N. 
slopes  of  the  same  frontier  the  only  wood  consists 
of  some  wretched  thorny  brambles.  (Lord  Ma- 
cartney, ii  200.)  Thb  remarkable  absence  of  tim- 
ber tluroughout  80  great  an  extent  of  country  is 
owing  probably  (even  more  than  to  the  nature  of 
the  soil)  to  violent  and  cold  tornadoes,  which  are 
extremely  frequent,  especially  during  the  summer. 
(Carpin,  cap.  xvi  art,  1.)  In  the  N.  parts  of  Mon- 
golia the  timber  approaches  hi  character  to  that  of 
S.  Siberia,  but  is  still  very  inferior  both  in  kind 
and  quantity.  (Timkouski,  i.  44,  ii  290,  d^c.) 
Considering  the  vast  number  of  beasts  that  tra- 
verse these  plains  (see  /oology),  there  must  be, 
notwithstanding  the  extensive  deserts,  a  great 
variety  of  grazing  herbs  and  grasses ;  but  except 
in  the  K.  (Timkouski,  ii.  229)  agriculture  is  not 
practised,  and  the  vegetable  food  of  man  un- 
known. The  natives  live  exclusively  on  flesh  and 
milk  (Carpin,  c.  xxvi  art.  4 ;  Kubruqids,  cap.  v. ; 
M.  Paulo,  liv.  i.  cap.  57,  Ac.) ;  and  when  ques- 
tioned as  to  why  they  so  totally  neglect  the  earth, 
their  reply  is,  that  *God  made  herbs  for  beasts, 
but  the  flesh  of  beasts  for  men.'  (Du  Halde,  iv. 
32.)  Timkouski  saw,  in  the  N.  parts  of  this  re- 
gion, red  currants,  peaches,  hemp,  and  flax,  all 
growing  wild  (ii  290).  There  is  also  here  a  very 
remarkable  fungus,  cidled,  from  its  resemblance  to 
the  animal,  the  Tartar  lamb;  and  there  can  be 
little  doubt  but  that  the  flowering  and  aromatic 
plants  of  this  region  are  numerous  and  peculiar. 

The  E.  slope  of  the  table-land,  comprising  the 
basin  of  the  Saghalien  (or  Amoor)  and  other  great 
rivers  which  flow  into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  rorms 
the  third  great  kingdom  of  Asiatic  botany ;  and 
is,  in  every  respect,  strongly  contrasted  with  its 
immediate  neighbour.  Here  are  immense  forests ; 
so  extensive  tluit  it  required  nine  days  to  traverse 
one  of  them,  and  so  thick  that  it  was  necessary  to 
fell  several  trees  in  order  to  take  an  observation  of 
the  sun's  meridian.  (Du  Halde,  iv.  7.)  The  cold 
is  very  severe  to  as  low  a  lat.  as  43^ ;  and  conse- 
quently the  trees  are  of  the  kind  usually  met  with 
in  the  more  N.  parallels  of  Europe,  Of  fruits, 
this  district  possesses  apples,  pears,  nuts,  chest- 
nuts, and  filberts,  all  in  great  abimdance ;  and  of 
grain,  wheat,  oats,  and  millet  are  produced,  to- 
gether with  a  peculiar  species,  unknown  in  Europe, 
called  mai-se-mi,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  both 
wheat  and  rice.  Kice  itself  is  grown,  though  in 
no  great  quantities ;  and,  in  fact,  from  the  little 
that  is  known  of  this  great  region,  it  would 'ap- 
pear that  there  is  no  large  district  of  the  earth 
better  adapted  for  the  residence  of  an  agricultupil 
population.  Its  capabilities  are,  however,  wholly- 
neglected  by  the  Chinese  government ;  while  the 
natives  of  the  soil  (the  likuichoos),  though  they 


214 


ASIA 


do  not,  like  the  (ifreat  majority  of  the  Mongols, 
utterly  neglect  the  punuitH  of  husbandry',  yet, 
in  general,  tlioy  may  be  descrilx^d  aa  a  race  of 
hunters,  resembling  strongly  in  habits  and  man- 
ners the  abori^ual  inhabitants  of  America.  The 
cotton  slurub  grows  here;  but  owing  to  the  low 
temperature  (the  lat.  being  remembered)  it  docs 
not  tlirivc  welL  Esculent  roots  of  very  many 
kinds,  are  however,  plentiful ;  and  the  medicinal 
hert)  ^i8eng  is  found  nowhere  but  in  this  country 
and  >i.  America.  The  Cliincse  believe  this  plant 
to  be  an  infallible  remedy  for  every  disease,  men- 
tal and  bodily;  and  it  is  sought  amid  incredible 
fiitigues  and  dancers  by  parties  who  are  marshalled 
under  officers,  almost' in  the  manner  of  an  army. 
Some  parts  of  the  soil  are  swampy,  and  full  of 
wild  desert  marshes ;  but  sand  is  almost  unknown, 
and,  in  general,  the  ground  bears  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  best  parrs  of  X.  Europe  in  tlie  thick- 
ness and  vivid  colouring  of  its  grasses,  and  the 
variety  of  its  flowering  plants.  It  is  a  curions 
fact  that  the  roses,  lilies,  and  other  flowers  of  this 
part  of  Asia  excel  greatly  those  of  Europe  in 
beauty,  but  arc  very  deficient  in  point  of  «xiour. 
The  pines  and  oaks  that  clothe  the  mountains  arc 
of  great  size,  but  diminish  rapidly  as  they  approach 
the  sea.  (Du  llalde,  iv.  5-7,  &c.;  La  Terouse, 
iil  16,  17,  21,  76,  Ac;  Muller,  Bot.  Diet,  iil  art. 
J*tmax.) 

The  three  foregoing  districts  of  Asia,  though 
▼erjr  extensive,  arc  each  remarkably  uniform  m 
their  productions  and  general  physical  appearance. 
The  variations  in  dilferent  parts  are  chiefly  of  de- 
gree, not  of  kind;  and  whatever  peculiarity  of 
v^l^tation  marks  any  one  part  of  any  region,  ap- 
p^^  to  mark  the  whole,  and  to  distinguish  it  from 
both  its  adjoining  neighbours.  The  case  is  dif- 
ferent on  the  W.  slope  of  the  great  table-land,  the 
fourth  botanical  kingdom  of  Asia.  This  region  is 
uniform  as  far  W.  as  the  deep  depression  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  but  beyond  this  all  becomes  changed : 
the  face  of  the  country,  the  direction  of  the  riven}, 
the  natural  productions,  everything  c(»nstituting 
the  physical  ge<^raphy  of  a  region,  puts  on  a  new 
appearance ;  and  the  Caspian  seems  placed  by  the 
hand  of  nature  on  the  precise  spot  where  it  could 
most  decidedly  mark  tne  limits  of  two  laige  dis- 
tricts possessing  few  things  in  common.  The 
great  plain  of  Tartary  (the  only  true  W.  slope  from 
the  table-land)  is  very  ]>ro<luctive  in  its  E.  ])arts; 
that  is,  in  the  countries  of  Kokhan,  Badakshan, 
and  Bokliara.  The  description  of  Ebn  Haukel,  an 
Arab  geographer,  b  particularly  vivid.  *The 
cultivated  plains  of  Bokhara,'  he  says,  *  extend 
above  13  iarsang  by  12  farsang;  and  the  Scghd 
(the  Sogdiana  of  ancient  geography)  is  for  eight 
days'  journey  full  of  ganlens  and  orchards :  com 
fields  and  running  streams,  rcser\'oirs  and  foun- 
tains, both  on  the  right  hand  and  the  left.' 
(Ouseleye's  Trans.,  287.)  Com  of  all  kinds  and 
rice  are*  here  sery  pndific ;  so  much  so,  that,  ac- 
cording to  Hadgi  Khalfo,  a  field  of  one  or  two 
dunen  (acres)  is  amply  suflicient  to  support  a 
family.  (D'llerbclot,  207.)  Of  fruit,  grapes,  melons, 
pears,  apples,  figs,  &c.,  grow  to  such  perfection, 
and  in  such  abuiidJantv,  that  they  are  exported  to 
Persia,  and  even  to  the  more  fertile  region  of  Hin- 
dostan.  The  pasture  grounds  are  also  extremely 
luxuriant ;  but  it  may  be  gathered  that  timber  is 
scarce,  and  the  whole  countrv'  deteriorates  as  it  re- 
cedes W.  and  X.  The  soil  of  the  Kirghiz  country 
N.  of  the  Sihuii  is  chiefly  of  a  saline  character ; 
but  the  pasturage  must  still  be  good,  since  im- 
mense numbers  of  animals,  wild  and  domestic,  are 
fed  in  the  extensive  stepjjes.  Tre^  of  the  hardier 
kinds,  larch,  beech,  and  tirs,  appear  also  on  the 
iMuikfl  of  the  rivers.    (Pallas,  i  618, 630,  &c)    In 


jonmeying  W.  the  countr\*  for  a  time  exhibits  the 
extremes  of  richness  and  desolation  (Hunics, 
i  333) ;  the  former,  however,  gra<lually  diminish- 
ing till  the  whole  soil  l)eoomes  a  wTctc^hcd  uiijiro- 
ductive  sand,  except  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood of  rivers.  (Bunies,  ii,  1,  10,  1(1,  4<>,  &c.) 
There  is  iiot^  perhaps,  in  the  world  a  more  sterile* 
district  than  that  between  the  Aral  and  Ca.spian 
Seas.  In  the  countries  VV.  of  the  latter,  a  strange 
contrast  is  ])resented :  on  the  X.  slopes  of  the  Cau- 
casus, indeed,  a  constantly  deteriorating  country 
temiinates  at  last  in  the  wretched  waste  of  A.s- 
trakhan ;  but  even  here  com  fiehls  and  rich  pas- 
ture grounds  disi)ute  the  soil  with  the  tamarisk, 
the  camel's  thorn,  the  absynthium,  and  other 
desert  plants:  while  on  the  E.,  W.,  and  S..  de- 
clivities of  the  same  mountains,  magniticent  forests 
of  cedars,  cypresses,  savins,  red  junij>ers,  boeclies, 
oaks,  Ac,  flourish  in  great  luxuriance ;  while  of 
fniit,  the  soil  boasts  the  almond,  fig,  peach,  quince, 
apricot,  pear,  date,  jujul)e,  olive ;  and  of  flowers, 
the  rhododendron,  Christ's  thorn,  ponticuni,  asolia 
pontica,  laurel,  seringa,  jessamme,  lily,  Caucasian 
n)se,  and  a  whole  host  (»f  otliers.  The  bread  corns 
and  the  most  useful  roots  are  also  pnxiuct^l  in  most 
parts  (»f  this  m(iuntainous  countr}\  (Guldenstadt, 
D)m.  Petrop.  xx.  49,  435,  483,  &c. ;  Pallas,  <Utio, 
1779,  ii.  274.)  With  regard  to  Asia  Mhior,  Mcso- 
l)otamia,  and  Syria,  it  is  im[)ossible  to  give  within 
any  reasonable  limits  the  slightest  sketch  of  their 
numerous  productions;  though  the  two  hist  be 
partially  desert,  and  their  deserts  be  of  the  most 
sterile  character,  yet  their  fertile  s])ots  are  scarcely 
inferior  to  any  on  the  earth's  surface,  liice  and 
barley  yield  a  return  of  a  hundred-fold;  the  cotton 
shmb  flourishes ;  and  indigo,  sugar,  and  tobacco  are 
am(»ng  the  useful  productions.  Lemons,  oranges, 
tamarinds,  apricots,  dates,  and  grapes,  are  a  very 
few  among  the  fmits  of  these  regions;  whicli  pro- 
duce in  great  abundance  ah«o  nearly  all  the  escu- 
lent roots,  pulses,  and  grains.  Wood  Is  extremely 
scarce  in  Mesopotamia  (the  date  palm  is  the  only 
tree  known  there) ;  but  in  Sj-ria  the  majestic 
cedar  of  I^banon  maintains  the  fame  which  it 
acquired  in  the  days  of  Jewish  greatness ;  while 
majestic  oaks,  cypresses,  ]>laues,  sycamores,  savins, 
olives,  mulberrj*  trees,  pistachios,  junipers,  and  fig 
trees  clothe  the  sides  of  the  Anatolian  and  Syrian 
mountains,  and  s])read  their  arms  over  plains 
where  flourish  almost  everj'  species  of  flowering 
roots  and  shmbs.  Among  the  i>aks  of  Asia  Minor 
is  the  Quercus  infecUtrui,  the  gall  of  which  is  an 
important  article  in  dyeing.  The  pistachio  Ls 
rarely  found  lieyond  the  neiglibourlhMxl  of  Alepi)o. 
(Volney,  il.  passim;  Xiebuhr,  Voy.  en  Ar.  ii.  2.j(), 
arc;  Olivier,  iv.  26.  134,  1^7,  dkc;  Leake, /w*.vim , 
also  in  Wali>ole,  ii  202,  drc. ;  lieloii,  71>,  hi5. 
166,  A'C.) 

ITic  fifth  kingdom  of  Asiatic  lx)tany  remains  to 
be  noticed.  It  comprises  the  S.  sl(»|>e  of  the  ceiitnil 
plateau,  and  contains  the  three  gnmt  {)eninsulas  of 
Arabia,  India,  and  Malaya,  together  with  the  ex- 
tensive territory'  of  China  proper,  and  the  S.  shore 
of  Persia  and  Beloochistan.  The  W.  i)art  (»f  this 
region  is  l>adly  watered  (sec  Auabia.  Lakistan, 
Bkloochistam)  ;  and  consequently  consists  chiefly 
of  deserts,  or  of  pasture  grounds  depending  on  rain 
for  their  fertility.  Tlie  \'icinities  of  the  few  and 
small  rivers,  are,  however,  even  here  crowded  witli 
vegetation ;  and  from  the  Indus  ejistward  (where 
the  hydrc^raphy  is  on  a  scale  of  the  most  profuse 
luxuriance)  a  district  is  comprised  unequalled  for 
the  abundance  and  variety  of  its  productions  by 
any  other  part  of  the  world.  X early  every  plant 
of  the  E.  continent  is  indigenous,  or  can  be  raised 
in  some  part  of  S.  Asia.  Tne  following  is  an  im- 
perfect list  of  the  trees  alone ;  and  these  are  not. 


ASIA 


215 


in  general,  confined  to  particular  localities,  but,  in 
most  cases,  spread  over  the  whole  region : — 


FoRKffT  Tress. 

Bamboo 

Fir               Oak 

Ponna 

Birch 

Larch           Palm 

Poplar 

Chestnut 

Mangrove    Pino 

Teak 

Cypress 

Myrtle          Plantain 
Hard  Woods. 

Willow 

Aloes 

Ebony           Lingoa 

Sandal-wood 

Eaijle-wood 

Iron -wood    lloso-wood 
Fruits, 

Almond 

Citron          Jam  boo 

Poach 

Apple 

Cocoa            Lemon 

Pear 

Apricot 

Coffee           Lime 

Plum 

Banana 

Date             Mangostein    Pomegranate 

Banyau 

Dunon          Mulberry 

Shaddock 

BcU"! 

Fig               Olive 

Tainarmd 

Bignonia 

Guana          Orange 

Vine 

Bread  Fruit 

Uuava          Pandunus 

Walnut 

Cashew 

SricE  Trkks. 

Camphor             Cinnamon 

Mace 

Ca^a 

Clove 

Nutmeg 

Many  of  these  trees  yield  gums,  resins,  odoriferous 
blossoms,  or  are  otherwise  useful  beyond  the  gene- 
rality of  their  class.  There  are  also  several  species 
wliich  cannot  be  conveniently  classed  under  either 
of  the  four  foregoing  heads  ;  as  the  champaka,  ma- 
lor,  and  tanjang,  tluwer-bearing  trees ;  the  touki, 
from  the  bark  ui"  wldcli  the  Asiatics  manufacture  a 
paper;  the  faang,  which  yields  a  rich  red  dye ;  the 
talluw  tree,  which  e.xudes  an  unctuous  matter, 
whence  its  nnme ;  the  upjis,  the  most  deadly  of 
vegetable  poisons  ;  the  cotton  tree,  and  above  all 
the  t^Mi  plant. 

The  other  kinds  of  vegetation  are  not  less  abun- 
dant.    Grain  of  every  kind,  inclmling  27  s|)ecies 
of  rice,  and  some  varieties  of  dhourrah  and  barley, 
scarcely  known  in  otlier  regions,  is  grown  with 
little  lalKjur  to  the  cultivator,  tlie  richness  of  the 
earth  in  many  jjlaccs  precluding  the  necessity  and 
even  the  posHibility  ol  using  manure,  tliough  two 
crops   are  produceti  aniuially.      'i'he   leguminous 
phmts  now  common  in   Kutoikj  came,  in  most  in- 
stances, originally  from  S.  Asia;  but,  in  addition 
to  tlie  peiis,  l>eans,  lentils,  &c.,  there  are  here  a 
whole  host  wliich  have  never  found  their  way  W., 
as  tlie  lotus,  nnK)iig,  murhus,  lanna,  tour,  toU,  »fec. 
(See  India,  China,  d'c.)     A  r(K>t  called  katchill 
supplies  the  place  ol    tlie  American  potato  ;  but 
this  last  root,  as  well  as  the  yam.  Is  abundantly 
cultivated,  especially  in  China  and  the  E.  penin- 
sula of  India.     This  is  also  the  native  home  of  the 
arrow-ruot,  galanga,    jalap,   sarsaparilla,  datura, 
anise,  oi)ium,  and  other  drugs.     The  fields  abound 
in  flax,  hemi),    tobacco    (the    latter  is  a    native 
plant,  according  to  Lord  Macartney,  ii.  174),  to- 
gether with  tK)wers  of  every  kind  antl  dye,  though 
it  Is  remarkable  tliat  those  of  |)owerful  scent  are 
conlinod  to  the  N.  part^    'I'he  line  rose  that  yields 
the  attiir  is  rarely  found  8.  of  20°,  and  is  chiefly 
limited  to  the  i)lains  of  the   Upper  Ganges   and 
ruiijaub.     (SeeLucKNowand  Casiimkrk.)     Dye 
])lauts  are  very  immerous ;  the  sugar  cane  grows 
luxuriantly ;   and  among  the  numerous  strongly 
oiloriferous  gums,   attempts   have   been  made  to 
identify   the   spikenard,   bdellium,   malabathrum, 
sepachVa,  ami  other  precious  ointment*  of  the  an- 
cient.s,  but  ^Nithout  much  success.     (Du  Ilalde,  L 
14,  »Lc.,  ii.  01,  Ac,  Lord  Macartney,  ii.  43,  106, 
<fcc. ;  Crawf(»ril,  Kmh.  to  Siam,  pjissiin ;  Russell's 
Int.  to  Roxburgh's  Plant,s  of  Coromandel,  1 — 00 ; 
Fin  lay  son's  Mission  to  Siam,  passim:  Asiatic  Re- 
searches, and  Journal  of^Wat,  Soc  Beng.  passhn.) 


With  regard  to  the  niunber  of  species  in  each 
order  of  plants,  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  Humboldt 
gives  the  Crj'ptogamaB  as  l-ir)th  of  the  whole  vege- 
tation for  equinoxial  plains;  as  1-oth  for  equi- 
noxial  mountains ;  as  ^  (on  an  average)  for  the 
regions  of  the  temperate  zone;  and  as  the  sole 
vegetation  of  mountains  in  polar  lands.  The  some 
autiiority  gives  the  Monocotyledons  (of  the  old 
continent)  as  l-5th  for  the  torrid,  l-4th  for  the 
temperate,  and  l-3rd  (on  an  average)  for  the  fngid 
zone.  (Diet  des  Sci.  Nat,,  xviii.  430.)  De  Can- 
doUe,  following  Persoon,  makes  the  proportions 
somewhat  different ;  namely  (for  the  whole  world), 
Cr>i>.  l-Oth,  Monoc.  1-Cth,  Dico.  4-Oths,  of  the 
whole  vegetation.  (Idem,  395.)  From  these  data, 
and  the  various  authorities  cit^nl  throughout  this 
article,  the  following  approximative  Table  of  Asia- 
tic Botimy  is  deduced.  But  it  is  necessiu^'  to 
observe  that  the  absolute  number  of  known  species 
is  very  uncertain.  In  1800,  there  were  but  27,000 ; 
Brown's  splendid  addition  of  Australian  plants  in- 
creased the  amount  by  nearly  1-Oth,  and  since  that 
time  discovery  has  been  rapidly  at  work.  It  may, 
however,  be  doubted  whether  the  very  love  of 
science  has  not  betraye<l  some  of  it*  followers  into 
too  nice  distinctions*.  De  Cnndollc  tldnks  that 
Persoon's  27,000  species  should  be  increased  to 
60,000,  and  that  tlie  numljer»)f  plants  yet  unknown 
or  unclassified  would  swell  the  list  to  110,000  or 
120,000.  (Diet  Scl  Nat,  xviii.  420.)  Lmdley  is 
more  mo<lerate;  he  makes  the  gross  number  of 
s^xHiies  80,000.  (Intro,  to  Botany,  504.)  That 
assigned  in  the  table  (44,000),  i^  from  Humboldt's 
data. 


OrdcTi 

Whole 
No.  of 
known 

WholP 
No.  of 
known 
AoiMtlc 

No.  of 
»IKxie»  com- 
mon t'>  Ati* 
an<i  utlu-r 
r<-giout 

No.  of 

Bp«-riet 

ptcuil«r 

to  A«ia 

Crj'ptogaraous 
Monocotyle- 

donous 
Dicotyledo- 
nous . 

Total    . 

6,000 

6,909 

31,0'Jl 

1,837 
4,0.'i0 

900 

875 

2,169 

937 

1.075 
1,881 

44.000 

7,837 

3,944           3.893 

III.  Zoology  of  Asia. — iVsia  is  the  native 
home  of  all  the  more  useful  sjjecies  of  animals ; 
with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  slieep.     From 
some  district  or  other  of  this  continent  came,  ori- 
ginally, the  ox,  horse,  camel,  goat,  ass,  together 
with  the  whole  race  of  domestic  poultry ;  except 
the  turkey,  which  is  a  denizen  of  the  New  Conti- 
nent   Utility  may,  indeed,  be  regarded  as  the 
leading   characteristic  of  Asiatic   Zoology  ;    for 
though  its  carnivorous  mammalia  be  numerous  as 
compared  with  the  whole  number  of  species,  the 
majority  are  not  merely  harmle.ss  to  man,  but  in  a 
considerable  degree  usefid  to  him,  consisting  of 
several  kinds  of  seals,  and  the  fur-bearing  quadru- 
])eds  of  the  north.     Birds  of  prey  are  remarkably 
scarce,  when  tlie  great  extent  of  mountain  land  is 
taken  into  consideration ;  and  of  those  existences 
which  Imve  little  but  peculiar  or  anomalous  for- 
mation to  dlstinguLsh  them  Asia  Is  all  but  desti- 
tute.   The  truth  of  these  remarks  will  be  at  once 
evident  from  the  following  Tables,  constructed, 
with  as  much  care  as  possible,  from  CuN-ier's  K^ic 
Animal ;    Shaw's  Zoology ;    Pennant's  Hist,  of 
Quad.,  Genera  of  Birds,  Arctic  Zoologv,  and  View 
of  Hindoostan ;  Du  Halde's  China ;  La  Terouse's 
Voyages ;  Georgi's  Geog.,  Phys.  and  Nat,  vi  and 
vii. ;  Pallas's  Spicelegia  Zoologica,  Travels,  &c, ; 
Gmelin's  Keise  dcr  Sibierin,  Keise  der  Kusslandj 
«l*c.,  drc 


216 


ASIA 


Maviialia. 


Orden 


Whol* 
No.  of 
knovn 
■pcdw 


Wbolo 
No.  of 
Aalatie 


Qnadrnmana 
,  Cheiroptera  . 
j  Inaectivora  , 

Camivora     . 

Manrapialia  . 

Bodentia 

Edentata      . 

Pacbyder- 
mata . 

Bmninaotia . 

Getaoea 


No.  of 
•ptvW  com- 
mon Ui  Asia 
Mill  other 
n  gloni 


No.  of 

■|-r>«|l>S 

to  Alia 


AVES  {Birds), 


Orden 


Whole 
No.  of 
known 
fpeclM 


^liole 
No.  of 
known 
Aaiaiic 
■peelcfl 


Speclri 
common  to 

A»ia 
•nd  otht-r 

region* 


Speclrt 
pMuUar 
to  A«U 


Accipitros     . 
DcntirO(>tre8 . 
Fissirostres  . 
ConirostrcH  . 
Tenuirostres 
SyndactylBd  . 
Scansorca 
Oalliuffl 
Gmllie  . 
Palmipedes  . 

Total   . 


2.')l 
1,273 
127 
440 
311 
116 
481 
844 
831 
289 


49 

247 

30 

87 

49 

53 

101 

136 

107 

78 


I 


3,963  937 


13 

36 

77 

170 

14 

16 

42 

45 

17 

82 

18 

85 

25 

76 

20 

116 

49 

58 

41 

1        37 

316 

1      621 

Rkptilia. 


1 

Orders 

1 

Whole 
No.  of 
known 
genera 

Whole 
Naof 
known 
Afiatic 
gvnera 

Genera 
common  to 

A»U 
and  other 

region* 

Genera 

prvulUr 

to  Alia 

Chclonia 
Sauria  . 
Ophidians     . 
Batrachians. 

Total   . 

60 

117 

93 

85 

16 
88 
20 
2? 

9 
12 
4 
2? 

7 
26 
16 

0? 

305 

76 

27 

49 

The  Reptilia  arc  divided  into  genera,  not  species, 
according  to  the  text  of  Cu\'ier.  The  list  of  species 
li  sufficiently  long  in  some  other  authors;  but 
thev  abound  in  repetitions  of  the  same  species 
luider  different  names  and  in  transpositions  of 
synonyms  (ix.2Gd).  Similar  considerations  forbid 
the  attempt  to  dassify  the  Pisces,  Insecta,  or 
Mollusca,  a  tabular  arrangement  of  which  claisscs 
would  not,  indeed,  possess  much  intcreMt. 

A  glance  at  these  tables  will  exhibit^  at  one 
view,  the  zoological  riches  of  Asia.  Of  the  class 
Mammalia,  more  than  a  third  of  the  whole  num- 
ber of  Ri)ecies  are  found  upon  its  soil,  and  nearly 
A  fourth  (accurately  7-30th8)  are  peculiar  to  it. 
In  the  more  important  species,  theiie  proportions 
are  considerably  increased.  The  Asiatic  fiumi- 
nantia  are  nearly  two-fifths  of  the  whole ;  those 
peculiar  to  the  soil,  nearly  two-sevenths.  The 
rachydermata  arc  in  a  still  higher  ratio;  the 
Kodeutia  and  Camivora,  which  two  orders  include 
the  more  useful  fur-bearing  animals,  in  nearly  the 
same.  The  strong-winged  Cheiroptera  are  indeed 
almost  equally  niuncruus;  but  tlie  Quadrumana 
are  redumi  to  little  more  than  a  fourth  of  the 
whole,  and  the  anomalous  orders  of  Marsupialia 
and  Edentata  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  a  place 


in  Asiatic  mammalogj'.    But  it  is  not  either  the 
actual  or  relative  amount  of  animal  lift;  that  con- 
stitutes the  chief  advantage  of  Asia  in  this  n.'j*jH;ct ; 
among  its  numerous  s])ecies  of  the  more  important 
onlers  it  reckons  the  mont  iiniKtrtaut  of  the  s|K*cie>t 
themselves.    Of  tliese,  the  tirst  in  rank,  with  refer- 
ence to  its  locality,  is,  i)erhaps,  the  camel.     Other 
animals  are  more  generally  useful  to  man ;  hut 
without  this  jmticnt  and   intelligent  servant,  a 
large,  perhaps  tlie  largest,  part  of  A.«jia  would  be 
no  home  for  the  human  race.    Expressly  foniictl 
for  existence  in  a  desert,  it  has  l)een  domesticatful 
for  a  neriod  long  antecedent  to  all  hbtory,  and  for 
countless  generations  has  l>een  the  means  of  con- 
necting districts  otherwise  etTectiially  separated, 
and  has  formed  the  principal  wealth  of  their  in- 
habitants.   The  camel  has  this  peculiarity  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  other  domestic  animals,  that  it 
doej  not  follow  it^  master  in  his  wanderings.   The 
other  tribes,  with  one  exception  (the  rein  deer), 
have  become  denizens  of  every  corner  of  the  eartli, 
however  remote  from  their  native  home.   It  seems. 
indeed,  a  law,  that  the  lower  animals  which  herd 
with  m&n  shall  follow  him,  with  these  two  excep- 
tions; but  these,  though  fully  as  substu-vieut  ami 
as  useful  as  any  others,  have  never  become  natu- 
ralised beyond'  the  limits  where   they  were  tirst 
found.    The  attempts  to  establish  the  camel  in 
(ireece^  Italy,  Jamaica,  and  IJarkidoes  have  bee.i 
signal  and  decwive  failures.     Yet  the  animal  oaii 
support  as  great  a  range  of  climate  as  most  others, 
being  found  in  X.  Tartar\',  as  far  as  the  shores  vi 
Lake  Itoikal  (from  oifi  to*  oo^  N.  bit.),  where  tlu? 
average  temperature  is  scarcely,  if  at  all,  liighcr 
than  that  of  Lapland,  and  where  the  winter's  cold 
[»  frightfully  severe,  as  well  as  under  tlie  scorching 
sun  of  intertropical  countries.     It  is  tnie,  in  the.'^v? 
N.  lands,  its  size  l)ecomes  diminutive;  but  it  pre- 
serves its  hardy  character,  multiplies  abundantly, 
and  fonns  the' wealth  of  the  Hurat  and  Mongol 
not  less  than  of  the  Arab  and  Sj-rian.     (Marco 
Paulo,  ii.  159;    Palhks's  Spic  Zot»l.,  xi.  4;    l>u 
Halde,  iii.483;  Peiuiant's  Hist.  Quad.,  120;  Cuv. 
iv.  8,  &c.) 

Of  the  ox  tribe,  the  most  imeful  si^cies  are 
Asiatic,  aa  the  common  ox  (Bos  Taunw  of  Lin- 
naeus), the  auroclis,  the  buffalo,  and  the  yoik. 
Their  varieties  are  almost  numberless ;  but  those 
enumerated  are  consideriMl  by  Cuvier  (iv.  28-31) 
as  the  only  distinct  species,  with  the  exception  of 
those  not*  found  in  -^Vsio,  such  as  the  American 
bison,  the  Cape  buffalo  of  Africa,  and  the  musk 
ox.  The  most  striking  distincticm  Imtween  the 
Asiatic  and  n«m-Asiatic  species  of  this  genus  is. 
that  the  former  only  are  domesticated,  or  appear 
capable  of  domestication.  In  all  other  resjjeots 
they  e3diibit  a  genenil  resemblance,  amount in;^ 
almost  to  identity;  their  gregarious  habits,  their 
food,  their  internal  formation,  all  are  extn.Mnely 
similar ;  nay,  they  breed  promiscuously,  and  the 
issue  of  a  cross  are  prolilic :  but  while  the  Asiatic 
species  have  been  domesticated  as  long  an  swiety 
has  existed,  the  others  remain  to  this  day  as  un- 
tamed as  when  they  first  took  ]K>sses.sion  of  their 
native  woods,  A  natural  result  of  this  distinction 
has  been  the  distribution  of  the  common  ox  from 
the  Arctic  circle  to  New  Zealand,  and  round  the 
whole  world  in  longitude;  while  the  American  and 
African  species  api^ear  incai^ble  of  multiplying 
beyond  their  original  limits.  The  buffaloes,  or 
humped,  are  less  dispersed  than  the  straight-backed 
species,  and  appear  to  be  less  ca]>able  of  supporting 
a  low  temperature ;  but  wherever  the  climate  is  aii 
all  adapted  to  them,  they,  like  the  otliers,  are 
found  to  be  naturalised,  and  thus  they  have  spread 
from  India  (apparently  their  native  home)  over 
N.  Africa  and  S.  Eun>pe ;  nor  can  there  exist  any 


ASIA 


217 


reasonable  doubt  but  that  they  woald  equally  thrive  I 
in  Au.>)tralia,  Polynesia,  and  Temperate  America, 
were  the  experiment  tried. 

The  auroch  and  the  yaik  (or  gnmtin^  ox)  are 
only  partially  reclaimed,  if,  indeed,  the  lormer  do 
not  still  exLit  in  all  his  original  wildnass;   but 
Cu\'ier  seems  to  be  mistaken  when  he  limits  his 
locality  to  the  Carpathia:is  and  Caucasus.    Tar- 
tarian travellers  describe  the  breed  as  existing  in 
a  state  of  semi-domestication  on  the  plateau  of 
Mongolia,  and  breeding  with  the  domestic  cow, 
thereby  producing  a  cross  much  stronger  and  more 
tit  for  labour  than  the  common  ox.    (Marco  Paulo, 
ch.  Ixii.  p.  52 ;  liubruquis,  ch.  xxiiL  p.  57.)    This 
creature  Ls  next  to  the  rhinoceros,  the  lai^est  of 
land  animals.     It  has  been  by  some  naturalists 
supposed  to  be  the  original  specimen  of  the  do- 
mestic variety ;  but  Cuvier  has  pointed  out  some 
osteological  differences  which  plainly  refer  it  to  a 
different  species.     It  has  also  tlie  gmnting  voice 
of  the  yaik,  winch  miglit  by  possibility  be  regarded 
as  a  small  variety  of  the  aurochs,  were  it  not  for 
the  tail,  which  in  the  yaik  resembles  that  of  the 
hursc,  and  is  the  same  wluch  comjwses  the  stan- 
dards of  the  Turkish  officers.  The  number  of  cattle 
fed  by  the  wandering  Tartar  nation  seems  almost 
incredible :  ever>'  fertile  plain,  and  some  plains  that 
are  almost  sterile,  are  covered  by  them ;  and  some 
one  or  other  of  tlie  species  thrive  upon  the  sides 
and  even  upon  the  summits  of  the  wintry  moun- 
tains of  Tibet  and  Dauuria.    The  domestid  ox  was 
unknown  in  Kamtchatka  till  introduced  there  by 
the  Kussians ;  and  the  musk  ox  appears  to  be  un- 
known  in  Arctic  Asia,   though  remains  of  the 
creature  have  been  occasionally  found,  especially 
a  scull  (not  fossil),  near  the  mouth  of  the  Obi,  in 
the  latter  end  of  the  last  century.     (Pallas's  Nov. 
Com.  Pet,  xviL  6,  1  ;   Gmeliu's  N.  C.  P.  v.  331, 
<tc. ;  l)u  llalde,  iv.  passim,  Ac;  Timkouski,  iL 
289,  «tc. ;  Pennant's  Hist.  Qimd.,  I.  ir>-27 ;  CuWer, 
iv.  2«-31.)     Nor  are  sheep  less  ])lentiful  in  Asia 
than  cattle,  thou^jli  it  may  perhaps  be  doubted 
whether  this  useful  creature  be  not  one  of  the  very 
few  treasures  which  belong  originally  to  Euroi)e ; 
the  derivation  of  the  vari«ms  woolly  species  is 
doubtful  between  tlie  Moulion  of  Italv  and  the 
Argali  of  Siberia,     (Cuvier,  iv.  27.)     'fhere  is  no> 
race  of  animals,  except  the  dog,  so  subject  to  vary; 
and  amid  the  multitude  of  breeds  now  distributed 
all  over  the  world,  it  is  probably  useless  to  attempt 
to  identify  the  original.    The  ^Vrgah,  found  m 
Siberia  and  all  the  mountainous  regions  of  Asia, 
i»,  like  the  European  varieties,  dlstiiiguished  by  its 
short  taiL    Like  other  Arctic  animals,  the  Argali, 
also,  changes  its  covering,  wliich  is  rather  fur  than 
wool  in  tlie  winter.     In  India  the  sheep  are  lon^- 
tailed ;  and  in  Persia,  Tartary,  China,  and  Syria 
the  tail  is  not  only  elongated,  but  loaded  with  a 
mass  of  fat.    The  power  which  this  creature  pos- 
se'^ses   to  accominmlate   itself  to  climate  seems 
almost  unlimiteil:  in  the  hot  plains  of  Asia  its 
covering  l)ecomes  coarse  and  scanty ;  while  in  the 
frozen  regions  of  Tibet  its  thick  wool  has  an  imder 
lining  of  the  finest  kind,  forming  an  important  ar- 
ticle in  manufactures  and  commerce.     (Pallas's 
Spic.  Zool  xl  3-31,  58-82  ;  Gmelin's  Reise  (lurch 
Kussland,  iil  48(>,  et  seq. ;  Keise  durch  Siberien,  L 
108  etseq. ;  Du  llalde,  iv.  pass.;  Pennant,  33— 4G; 
Cuvier,  iv.  2.>-28.)     There  can  be  little  doubt  but 
that  the  Capra  Egagrus  of  Gmelin,  the  Ibex  Al- 
pium  Sibericarum  of  Pallas,  is  the  original  stock 
whence  all  the  varieties  of  the  goat  tribe  are  de- 
rived.    It  herds  in  the  mountains  of  Taurus,  Tar- 
tary, Persia,  China,  E.  Siberia,  and  Kamtchatka. 
It  inhabits  inditTerently  all  climates,  but  assumes 
a  ver}'  different  appearance  mider  different  circum- 
stances. The  Angora  gt>at  of  Cappadocia,  the  Tibet 


goat  the  Dousmietin  or  Ibex,  and  the  domestic 
species,  Capra  Hircua^  are  the  most  noted  varieties. 
1  he  animal  is  in  a  very  high  degree  8er\nceable  to 
man,  especially  to  the  nomadic  races  of  its  native 
country ;  its  coat  furnishing  an  important  article 
of  manufacture,  its  skin  the  leather  of  which  the 
wanderer  makes  his  water-bottles  and  packing- 
cases;  its  milk  is  salutary  in  many  complaints; 
and,  when  young,  it  affords  a  nutritious  and  agree- 
able food.  (Pallas's  Spic.  ZooL,  xi.  31-57 ;  Pen- 
nant's Hist/Quad.,  49-56 ;  Cuvier,  iv.  23-25.)  The 
rein  deer  is  common  to  the  arctic  r^ons  of  Asia, 
Europe,  and  America.  It  runs  wild  in  the  snowy 
wastes  of  Siberia  and  Kamtchatka,  but  is  likewise 
domesticated,  and  supplies  to  the  tenants  of  these 
dreary  regions  the  place  of  the  horae,  cow,  sheep, 
goat,  and  camel  It  is  not,  however,  so  extensively 
domesticated  in  N.  Asia  as  in  Lapland.  (Hist. 
Kamtchatka,  228;  Bells  Travels,  u  213;  Cuvier, 
iv.  9.)  The  elk  is  also  common  to  Asia,  Europe, 
and  America ;  it  inhabits  the  cold  regions  of  Si- 
beria and  Mongolia,  where,  though  undomesticated, 
it  is  highly  useful  as  an  animal  of  chase,  the  flesh 
furnishing  a  good  species  of  food,  the  tongue  es- 
pecially being  esteemed  a  great  delicacy ;  and  the 
skin  making  a  buff  leather,  capable,  according  to 
good  authority,  of  turning  a  musket  baU.  (Pen- 
nant's Hist  Quad.,  L  93-98 ;  Cuvier,  iv.  9.) 

Of  other  ruminants,  Asia  has  the  most,  appar- 
ently throughout  its  whole  extent  from  Siberia  to 
Cevlon  (X.  C.  Pet,  iv.  393 ;  Pallas's  Spic.  ZooL, 
xiii.  3-45 ;  Bell's  l^avels,  L  249,  ii  88 ;  Du  Halde, 
1 63, 324 ;  Hamilton's Vo v.  E.  Ind.,  1 261),  together 
with  a  great  variety  of  deers  and  antelopes ;  it  is, 
however,  among  these,  with  the  llamas  of  America 
and  the  giraffe  of  Africa,  unquestionably  the  least 
useful  of  the  order,  that  the  only  Kuminantia  want- 
ing in  Asia  will  be  found.  (Pallas's  Spic  ZooL, 
i.  3-44,  xiL  3-71 ;  Cuvier,  iv.  6,  8-23.) 

In  its  Pachydermatous  tribes  Asia  exhibits  the 
same  superionty  over  other  re^ons ;  the  elephant, 
horse,  ass,  and  hog  have  their  home  in  \Xs  forests 
and  plains ;  while  the  animals  of  this  order  absent 
from  its  soil  arc  the  hippopotamus,  and  the  tapir, 
peccary,  phaco,  damans,  with  some  other  inferior 
species,  and  such  as  are  useless  to  man.  The  ele- 
phant rarely  propagates  in  a  domestic  state ;  but 
It  is  an  error  to  sup{>ose  that  this  never  takes  place : 
the  tame  females  sometimes  escape  to  the  woods 
in  breeding-time,  and,  after  coupling  with  the  wild 
males,  return  to  the  herd,  or  are  brought  back,  and 
produce  their  young  at  the  end  of  nine  months. 
The  locahty  of  the  Asiatic  elephant  is  limited :  it 
does  not  appear  to  be  found  W.  of  India  or  N.  of 
the  Himalaya  mountains;  but  in  India,  Malaya, 
Birmah,  China,  and  the  islands  of  the  lilasteni 
Archipelago,  it  is  numerous  both  in  its  wUd  and 
domesticated  state;  and,  besides  its  utility  as  a 
beast  of  burden,  and  the  value  of  its  tusks  as  an 
article  of  commerce,  it  is  held  in  great  regard  for 
many  occult  me<licinal  properties  supposed  to  exist 
in  it^  Hesh,  eves,  bones,  dec  (Du  Halde,  iil  480 ; 
Crawfurd's  £m.  SI,  429,  479;  Pennant's  Hist, 
Quad.,  150-161 ;  Cuvier,  iil  326.)  The  horse  and 
ass  arc  both  indigenous  to  Asia,  and  originally 
peculiar  to  that  continent.  Species  of  the  same 
genus  are  indeed  found  in  Africa,  but,  as  in  other 
similar  cases,  they  seem  incapable  of  domestica- 
tion; while  the  Asiatic  species,  especially  the 
Arabian  variety,  have  supplied  the  whole  world 
with  two  of  the  most  usefid  quadru))eds  that  wait 
on  man.  The  Dziggetai,  a  creature  intermediate 
in  size  between  the  horse  and  ass,  still  runs  wild 
in  the  Asiatic  deserts;  like  his  congeners,  he  is 
gregarious,  and,  like  them,  too,  his  numbers  seem 
almost  unlimited ;  a  similar  remark  will  apply  to 
the  Koulan  or  wild  ass.    (Du  Halde,  iL  17,  50,  iv. 


218 


ASIA 


30  ct passim;  Bell,  i.225;  Pennant,  1-13;  Cuvier, 
iii.  840-343.^   The  hog  is  so  spread  over  the  world 
that  it  is  ditKcult  to  assign  its  original  locality ; 
the  fact  that  the  species  now  peculiar  are  all  Afri- 
can and  undomesticated,  seems,  however,  to  impl^ 
that  the  original  stock  of  the  domestic  SM'ine  is  '. 
Asiatic ;   thi'  more  especially  as  the  creature  is  | 
dispcrMHl  over  every  ]»art  of  tlie  continent  fniin  its 
S.  extri'mity  tx>  t)ie  X.  bhores  of  Lake  Kaikal  in 
60®  N.  hit,     (BcU's  Travels,  i.  279 ;  PaUas's  Spic 
/ooL,  ii.  3;  Crawfurd's  Embassy  to  Siam,  479; 
Cuvicr,  33(^-332.)    Two  species  of  the  rhinoceros 
are  peculiar  to  Asia  and  the  Indian  islands,  the 
latter  di^^tiuguished  by  a  double  honi  like  the  Jih, 
Africanus.     (Du  llalde,  i.  239;   Crawfurd,  429, 
47t$;  Pennant's  IlLst,  Quad^  u  138;  Cuvier,  iii. 
330.)    Tropical  Asia  possesses  most  of  the  fiercer 
(Jamivora:  lions,  tigers,  Icopanls,  black  {mnthers, 
ounces,  and  tiger  cuts,  of  the  cat  genus ;  wolves, ! 
hyenas,  and  jackals,  of  the  dog  tribe.    Tliey  do 
not,  however,  all  exist  in  equal  immbers,  nor 
e(pially  ui  everj'  part.    Tlie  lion  is  becoming  very 
rare  in  Asia ;  lie  is  now  found  <»nly  in  the  deserts 
of  Meiiopotumia,  i'ersia,  and  India,  and  perhaps 
in  some  parts  of  China,    lie  <ioes  not  ap]H'ar  to  l)e 
heard  of  in  Siam  or  Cochin  China ;  to  which  dis- 
tricts the  wolf,  hyena,  and  jackal,  as  far  as  is  yet 
known,  are  also  strangers.     (Crawfurd's  Em.  Si., 
428.)     The  nianul,  lynx,  and  wild  cat  are  most 
numerous  in  tenii)erate  Asia ;  the  lirst  extending, 
however,  ahno^t  to  the  arctic  n^i(»ns,  the  second 
stretching  into  both  the  frigid  and  torrid  zones ; 
but  the  last  (scarcely  ev^er  met  with  beyond  the 
Caucasian  m<»un  tains)  appears  onginally  to  have 
been  European.    The  dog  and  fox,  in  all  their 
varieties,  are  common  to  all  tlie  continent;   the 
former,  in  some  parts  (as  Kamtchatka),  supplying 
the  place  of  a  beast  of  burden,  in  others  l^ing  used 
as  au  article  of  fooiL   The  Angora  and  Persian  cat 
are  celebrated  for  the  fineness  of  their  fur,  as  is  also 
the  blue  cat  of  Siberia ;  though  tlie  last,  if  not  the 
two  former,  seem  to  have  been  deriveti,  as  well  as 
the  domestic  cat,  from  Euroi>e.   Formidable  as  are 
some  of  thct>e  creatures,  they  constitute  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  wealth  of  the  countries  which 
they  inhabit ;  their  skins  form  an  imi>ortant  ar- 
ticle of  commerce;  and  what  is  remarkable,  the 
hones  of  the  tiger  are  supjMiscd,  Uke  those  of  the 
ele{)hant,  to  ])ossess  medicinal  qualities,  and  are 
highly  valued  accordingly.     (Crawfurd's  Em.  Si., 
428.)     The  smaller  Caniivora  are  also  found  in 
great  abundance,  as  the  diHerent  siK*cies  of  mar- 
tens, among  which  the  ennine  and  sable  stand 
pre-emhient  tor  their  fur ;  the  Abiatic  civet-*,  which 
possess  the  odour,  though  not  the  glandular  excre- 
tion, of  the  African  si)ecies ;  and  die  mangousti  or 
ichneumon,  which  attacks  and  destroys  tlie  most 
daugeroiLs  serix>nts :  bears,  badgers,  gluttons,  sea 
otters,  morses,  walruses,  seals,  complete  the  list 
of  Asiatic  Camivora.     (Bell,  i.  100,  li.  81  et  pass.; 
Du  1  ialde,  jjass. ;  Pallas's  Spic.  Zool.,  xiv.  29  et  seq. ; 
Crawfurd's  Em.  Si.,  428,  478 ;  Pennant's  View  of 
llindoostan,  i.  193-197  et  pass.;  llist.  Quail.,  219- 
300;  Cuvier,  ii.  23-01.)      The  Insectivora  and 
Kodentia  consist,  the  lirst,  of  hedgehogs,  shrew- 
mice,  and  mok>s  in  their  various  s{)ecies ;  the  latter, 
of  the  more  ini{K>rtant  animals,  beavers,  hares,  rab- 
bits, lemmings,  marmots,  squirrels,  dormice,  ix»r- 
cupines,  jerboas,  rats,  mice,  &c.     Of  these,  the 
Asiatic  species  are  very  numerous,  and  they  fonn, 
with  the  smaller  Camivora,  the  principal  wealth 
of  Siberia,  since  among  them  are  found  many  tliat 
afford  some  of  the  richest  furs,  esi)eciallv  in  the 
winter,  when  the  covering  of  the  creatures  Wcomes 
thicker  ui  texture,  liner  in  quahty,  and  generally 
superior  in  colour.    ^Vnimals  of  this  order  do  not 
appear  to  bo  numerous  in  S.  ^Vsia.    Crawfurd  re- 


marks that  the  hare  and  rabbit  arc  unknown  in 
the  lower  parts  of  Siam.  The  pon-upines,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  not  found  in  the  N.  regions ;  and 
the  jerboas  seem  peculiar  to  the  wide  open  plains. 
(Gmelin's  Keise  durch  Sib.,  passim ;  Crawfurd's 
Em.  Si.,  428,  478;  Cuxier,  iii.  0,'W)o  ;  PenuantV 
Hist,  Qimd.,  3C8-4G9  ;  Pallos's  Stiii.,  pass. ;  Com. 
Pet.,  pass.)  Of  the  Quadnimuna  the  priiiciiwil 
Asiatic  bpecies  are  the  orang  outang  nnd  the  gib- 
bons; the  smaller  apes  and  iiionkoys  are  numerous 
in  the  S.,  especially  in  India,  China,  and  the 
htlands.  As  a  general  fact,  the  Asiatic  monkeys 
are  inferior  in  structure  and  intelligence  to  the 
African,  but  much  »uperi<»r  to  those  of  Anieric^i. 
(Cuvier,  i.  207-220.)  The  Clieirf>ptera  are  nu- 
merous all  over  the  world  ;  they  seem,  however, 
to  abound  more  in  the  Asiatic  islandu  than  on  the 
iMiitinent :  wrnxQ  of  them,  as  the  Koussette  of  the 
Sunda  and  Molucca  isles,  are  accounted  delicate 
f<M)d ;  others,  as  the  Timor  Iwit,  nither  large  and 
destructive;  but  the  more  jxiwerfuland  nii.Hohiev- 
ous  species  of  thli  onler  ap|)ettr  to  be  Aniericiin, 
ttn<l  strangers  t*)  the  soil  of  Asia.  (Pallas's  Spic. 
ZooL,  iiL  3->Sr);  Pennant's  Hist.  Quad.,  i>18-,jO.") ; 
Cuvier,  it  4-15.)  The  Marsupialiii  of  this  (Conti- 
nent consist  of  but  two  siK'cies  of  Plialnnj^ers, 
Phal.  liufug  and  J'ficU.  Chrysurrhos.  (Ihitloii,  xiii. 
10;  Temminck,  12.)  They  are  jvoculiar  to  the 
Moluccas.  Java,  and  Celebes,  exhibiting  thus,  at 
the  extremitv  of  Asia,  the  lirst  indication  of  the 
anomalous  Mammalogy  of  Australia.  The  single 
Edentata  is  the  short-tailed  Manis,  which,  like  the 
last  onler,  is  peculiar  to  the  Indian  inlands,  excopt 
some  few  instances  f(»und  in  iieiigal.  (Pennant, 
505.)  Marsilen  (Sumatra,  p.  18)  seems  to  imply 
that  the  African  l<mg-tailwl  Manis  is  someiinu'S 
found  in  that  belaud.  Lastly,  theCetacea  consists 
of  dolphins,  manati,  porj)oisej*,  si^a  unicorns,  and 
whales,  of  which  some  one  or  other  ^])ccieh  is  found 
on  all  the  coasts  of  Asia.  (Pennmit,  530-515 ; 
Cuvier,  iv.  430-443.) 

The  Oniitholog\'  of  Asia  is  loss  rich  than  its 
MammaU^y;  the  fonner  containing  considcmldy 
lejis  than  a  fourth  of  all  the  known  s|R*cics,  while 
the  latter  ]K>ssesses  verv  much  more  tlian  one- 
thiril.    The  continent  ol*  Asia,  however,  maintains 
the  ]>eculijir  character  of  utility  in  its  |M>ssessions; 
for  of  the  Gallinsp,  unquestionably  the  most  useful 
order  to  man,  the  numlwr  <»f  its  siKJcies  is  Ix'tweeu 
a  third  and  a  half  of  the  wlude,  and  fuUv  a  third 
of  the  whole  is  peculiar  to  its  soil.     Among  these 
species  are  reckoned  the  original  stocks  of  all  the 
d«»inestic  i)ouUrj',  except  the  turkey,   which  is 
Ameri(?an;   the  pheasants,  ]>artridg<M<,   peacocks, 
and  whole  flights  of  ])igeons.  The  six-i'ics  in  which 
it  w  most  deficient  are  among  the  grouse,  quails, 
and  pintados ;  but  there  is  scarcely  a  genus  «»r  this 
useful  order  of  which  Asia  is  wh«»lly  destitute.    Of 
other  binls,  the  order  (jrallo)  funiLslies  the  ostrich, 
crane,  lienm,  stork,  bittern,  plover,  sixionbill,  ibis, 
many  of  which  are  highly  useful  in  tropical  cli- 
mates as  destr«iyers  of  scq»ents  an<l  other  (huigerous 
reptiles:  the  Scaiisores  consist  of  those  climbing 
birds,  parrots,  parr<Kiiiets,  wmxlfx-ckers,  and  ma- 
caws, the  l)eautiful  plumage  of  which  add  so  much 
to  the  splendtuir  of  equinoxial  forests;   and  the 
Syiuhictyles  (the  smaller  order  of  bright  plumage*), 
of  bee-eaters,   khigtishers,  and   honibills;  which 
last,  fnmi  their  greater  size  and  [Kviiliar  habits. 
have  far  less  resemblance  to  the  other  genera  of 
the  order  than  they  have  to  each  i)ih»!r.     In  all 
;  these  orders,  it  will  lie  observed  that  .Vsia  is  rela- 
tively rich,  except  with  regard  to  the  .Scansores, 
which,  having  little  but  their  beauty  to  recom- 
mend them,  are  the  least  usel'ul  of  any  yet  enu- 
merated.    In  the  others  the  proportion  becomes 
still  lower;  and  though  xuuoiig  the  palmipt^de, 


ASIA 


219 


petrels,  albatrosses,  pelicans,  gulls,  geese,  dacks, 
and  swans,  Asia  has  some  which  the  natives 
have  turned  to  accoiuit,  as  the  great  cormorant, 
taught  by  the  (Chinese  to  fish :  yet  the  great  home 
of  this  order  of  birds  lies  in  other  quarters ;  Ame- 
rica, Africa,  Australia,  and  even  Europe.  Of  birds 
of  prey  (Accipitres)  Asia  has  its  eagles,  >'ulture8, 
falcons,  owls,  and  hawks;  but  here,  again,  the 
number  of  species  is  comparatively  small,  tlu>ugh 
in  some  cases  the  individuals  of  a  species  arc  very 
numerous  :  and  in  the  four  remaining  orders,  con- 
sisting of  all  the  tribes  of  ppranivorous  and  in- 
sectivorous birds,  shrikes,  pies,  thrushes,  crows, 
swallows,  goat-suckers,  birds  of  J'aradisc,  and  the 
various  songsters,  the  Asiatic  woods  are  very  poor ; 
their  chief  tenants,  of  these  orders,  being  generally 
Huch  as  are  distinguished  for  beauty  of  plumage. 
Song  birds  are  very  scarce.  (Pallas's  Spic.  ZooL, 
iv.,  v.,  \'i ;  Gmelin,  i.  48-76,  152 ;  ii.  163-193 ;  iiu 
86-106,  249-251,  364,  378,  Ac. ;  Pennant's  Gen. 
Birds,  pass. ;  Crawfurd's  Em.  Su,  432— i80 ;  Du 
Halde,  pass. ;  Cuvier,  vi, — \'iiL) 

In  Reptiles,  as  in  birds,  Asia  is  less  abundant 
than  some  other  regions.  Of  the  Chelonia  it  has 
several  tine  species  of  edible  turtle,  and  others  that 
are  chietiy  valuable  for  their  shell.  Lizards  are 
very  numerous  in  individuals,  though  not  in  gene- 
ra, and  probably  not  in  species;  among  these, 
two  or  tluree  kinds  of  alligators  are  yery  destructive 
in  the  rivers  of  India.  Of  8er|)ents,  the  most  dan- 
gerous is  the  Indian  Python  (improperly  con- 
founded with  the  boa  constrictor) ;  but  there  are 
many  others  highly  venomous,  and  some  which 
are  extremely  beautiful  and  quite  harmless.  Frogs 
and  toads  abound  in  all  marshy  places,  but  it 
seems  doubtful  whether  they  l>e  of  many  different 
kinds.  (Pallas's  Spic.  Zool.,  viL  ;  Gmelin,  iii.  58, 
<tc;  Pennant's  View  of  llindostan,  pass.;  Du 
Halde,  passim  ;  CuWer,  ix.) 

The  seas  and  rivers  apjKjar'to  possess  every 
known  kind  of  fish,  and  some  that  are  peculiar 
(Pallas,  vii.  viii.) ;  and  the  insect  tribe  are  numer- 
ous throughout  the  whole  continent ;  the  ravages 
of  some,  as  the  locust,  in  Arabia,  Syria,  and  Persia, 
being  far  more  drearied  than  the  attacks  of  car- 
nivon)Us  animals.  (Pallas,  ix.  x. ;  Cuvier,  ix. 
xiv.  XV.) 

IV.  Races  of  Pkople  and  Lang  dag  bs. — Not 
only  the  majority  of  the  human  race  in  number, 
but  ako  the  greatest  variety  in  the  species,  is 
found  within  the  limits  of  Asia.  The  subject^,  as 
well  from  extent,  nature,  and,  in  many  respecLs 
fleticiency  of  information,  is  one  of  great  dilliculty ; 
but  we  shall,  nevertheless,  otter  some  observations 
upon  it^  founded  on  the  physical  form,  intellectual 
character,  and  genius  of  the  language  of  the  races. 
Some  of  these  families  or  races  consist  of  many 
millions,  while  others  embrace  but  a  few  thousands, 
a  circumstance  which  has  naturally  arisen  from 
the  favourable  or  unfavourable  position  in  which 
thev  have  been  hx^ated  on  their  original  distri- 
bution, and  perhaps  also  from  an  intrinsic  dif- 
ference in  the  ca])aoity  of  the  races  themselves, — 
causes  which  have  multiplied  some  into  numerous, 
jKiwerful,  and  civilised  nations,  and  kept  others  in 
the  condition  of  i)etty  and  rude  tribes.  We  begin 
our  classification  from  the  west. 

Tlie  firet  family,  which  may  be  callefl  the  Cau- 
rasiaiij  comprises  all  the  ab«>riginal  inhabitants  of 
the  mountainous  region  lying  between  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Caspian  from  alwut  38°  to  42^  of  X. 
lat.  It  includes  the  mountaineers  of  the  valleys 
of  the  Caucasus,  such  as  the  Abasians,  Ossetes 
or  Iron,  Lcsghians,  and  KL^ti;  and,  in  the  more 
level  country,  or  wider  valleys  lying  to  the 
Sf)uth  of  the  Caucasus,  the  Geoi^ians,  3ilingre- 
lians,    and  Armenians.    In   personal    form    this 


family  may  be  described  as  European,  bat  in 
mind  Asiatic.  Tlie  face  is  of  an  oval  form ;  th« 
forehead,  high  and  expanded ;  the  nose  elevated, 
with  a  slight  convexity;  the  mouth  small;  the 
Uns  moderate  in  size,  and  the  chin  full  and  round. 
The  complexion  is  fair,  without,  however,  the 
clearness  of  the  European ;  the  eyes  are  generally 
dxurk,  and  the  hair  of  the  head  rarely  of  an^  other 
colour  than  black  or  brown :  and,  indeed,  it  may 
here  be  once  for  all  observed,  that  the  great  variety 
in  the  colour  of  this  tegument,  with  which  we  are 
familiar,  b  confined  to  Europe, — black  being  nearly 
universal  in  every  other  part  of  the  world.  The 
hair  on  other  parts  of  the  Dody,  with  the  Caucasian 
family,  is  abundant ;  the  stature  is  nearly  equal  to 
that  of  the  Eiuropean,  and  the  form  of  the  whole 
person  is  s^nnmetrical  and  handsome.  The  per- 
sonal beauty  of  this  race  has  induced  Blumenbach 
and  some  other  eminent  naturalists  to  assume  its 
form  as  the  type  of  the  European,  or  first  of  the  ^five 
great  varieties  into  which  they  have,  fancifully 
enough,  divided  the  whole  of  mankind.  They 
have  even  gone  the  length  of  fancying  that  the  en- 
tire European  family  sprung  from  the  moun- 
taineers of  the  Caucasus ;  an  hjT)othesis  for  which 
it  is  almost  unnecessarv  to  say  that  there  is  not  a 
tittle  of  historical,  philological,  or  any  other  evi- 
dence. Notwithstanding  undoubted  advantages  of 
physical  form,  no  nation  of  this  family  has  ever 
made  any  eminent  advance  in  ci\'ilisation.  Many 
of  them,  with  a  countrv  not  unlike  Switzerland, 
though  with  a  better  soil  and  climate,  are,  at  the 
present  day,  not  more  advanced  in  civilisation  than 
the  Swiss  or  Germans  as  described  by  Ciesar  near 
2,000  years  ago.  The  Armenians  aloce  of  the 
whole  familjr  have  made  a  considerable  though  far 
from  a  distinguished  progress.  About  five  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  era,  they  constituted  an 
extensive  societv,  and  even  exercised  some  in- 
fiuence  in  the  political  events  of  Western  Asia : 
they  alone,  of  all  the  nations  and  tribes  composing 
the  Caucasian  family,  possess  a  national  literature ; 
but  even  their  invention  of  alphabetic  writing  dates 
only  from  a.d.  406,  for  previously  to  that  time  they 
used  the  characters  of  the  Greeks  and  Persians: 
always  acting  a  secondary  and  subordinate  part, 
they  have  been  successively  subdued  by  Persians, 
Greeks,  Romans,  Arabs,  Turks,  and  Russians. 
Language,  it  should  here  be  obser\'ed,  considered 
as  the  test  of  unity  of  race,  must  be  viewed,  as  re- 
spects its  genius  and  the  general  character  of  its 
formation,  and  not  by  the  identity  or  dissimilarity 
of  indiWdual  words,  which,  through  the  accidents 
of  conquest,  settlement,  religion,  and  commerce, 
often  find  their  way  even  into  languages  of  very 
opposite  genius.  As  happens  in  rude  and  early 
stages  of  society,  in  every  part  of  the  world  with- 
out exception,  the  number  of  languages  spoken  by 
the  nations  of  the  Caucasian  family  is  very  great. 
The  tribes  inhabiting  the  valleys  and  mountains  of 
the  Caucasus  are  said  to  speak  seven  distinct  lan- 
guages, l)esides  manv  dialects;  a  number,  how- 
ever, which  falls  far  short  of  those  spoken  within  a 
similar  extent  of  territory  in  many  parts  of 
America,  as  well  as  of  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Ociaii.  The  only  language  of  the  Caucasian 
family,  of  which  Europeans  have  any  critical 
knowledge,  is  the  Armenian,  of  which  we  possess 
dictionaries  and  grammars:  those  who  have  ex- 
amined it  consider  it  as  quite  peculiar  and  distinct 
from  all  other  knontni  tongues :  it  abounds  in 
rough  consonants:  its  structure  is  exceedingly 
complex :  it  has  an  article  at  the  end  of  nouns :  its 
nouns  and  adjectives  have  each  ten  inflections  in 
the  singular  and  as  many  in  the  plural,  and  the 
verb  is  agreeably  varied  by  corresponding  changes. 
All  tins,  which  a{^lies,  however,  more  especially 


220 


ASIA 


to  tlio  ancient  lan^juafjre,  implies  tliat  the  Anne- 
nian  ia  a  primitive  and  original  tongue,  which, 
like  the  Sanscrit,  Arabic,  Greek,  the  I^alin  Ren*^ 
rally,  and  fur  the  most  part  the  German,  has  sut- 
fared  little  change  in  structure  from  the  commix- 
ture of  foreign  nations  and  their  languages.  The 
modem  Armenian  has  been  simplitie<l  in  it«  gram- 
matical Htructuro  by  the  mixture  of  the  people 
with  foreign  nations,  es])ecially  the  Persians  and 
Turks ;  changes  similar  to,  but  not  so  extensive  as, 
the  Latin  language  has  undergone  in  its  couver- 
aion  into  Italian,  Spanish,  and  French. 

The  second  Asiatic  family  has  l)ecn  called  bv 
philologists  and  naturalists,  the  Arabian^  or  Semi- 
tic, the  last  name  being  given  to  it  on  the  hypo- 
thesis that  the  whole  is  derived  from  the  eldest  son 
of  Noah:  it  embraces  all  the  aboriginal  inhabitants 
of  Palestine,  Asia  Minor,  S>Tia,  and  Arabia,  from 
the  east  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  and  J<ed  Sea, 
up  to  the  VV.  coast  of  the  Persian  (iulf.  A  brown 
<*.ompIcxion ;  more  or  less  mtense  black  or  dark 
brown  cyca ;  long,  lank,  an<l  almost  always  black 
crinal  hair ;  bushy  large  beanitt,  general  iV  black, 
but  sometimes  of  a  reddish  tinge ;  an  oval  face  in 
bold  and  distinct  relief,  with  a  nose  always  eleva- 
ted, and  not  unfrequcntlv  aquiline ;  high  forehead, 
and  stature  nearly  of  the  Eun>])ean  mean; — are 
among  the  most  prominent  characteri.stics  of  this 
family,  as  we  occasionallv  see  it  exhibited  in  one  of 
its  handsomest  forms,  the  Jewish:  we  say  occa- 
sionally, for  the  differences  existing  between  the 
Jews  settled  in  diflcrent  foreign  nations,  show 
plainly  enough  that  they  have  more  or  less  mixed 
their  blood  with  the  people  among  whom  they  have 
cstabUshed  themselves :  for  they  are  fair  in  Ger- 
many, brown  in  Poland^  and  nearly  black  in  India. 
ComiMureil  with  the  European,  the  whole  form  of 
t^e  Arabian  is  spare,  slender,  and  of  small  bulk 
and  weight.  The  wrists  are  comparatively  slender, 
the  hand  small,  and  the  fibre  throughout  soft  and 
llexible.  These  last  characters,  however,  it  is  to 
be  observed,  belong  more  or  less  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  all  warm  climates.  In  intellectual  power 
and  eneig>%  the  Arabian  family  stands  unques- 
tionably next  to  the  Europeaiu  The  hL«*lory,  in- 
stitutions, and  literature  of  the  Jews;  the* early 
civilL«ation  of  the  Ass^'rians ;  the  commerce  and 
colonics  of  the  Phoenicians;  and  the  conquests, 
nettlements  and  literature  of  the  Arabs,  attest  the 
truth  of  this  assertion.  The  influence  of  the  He- 
brew institutions  has  pervade<l  the  whole  civilised 
world ;  while  the  language,  literatiue,  and  religion 
of  the  Arabs  may  be  traced  from  the  western  con- 
lines  of  Spain  and  Africa  to  the  Philippine  Islands 
over  130®  of  Ion.,  and  from  the  Tropic  of  Capri- 
corn to  Tartarv,  over  7(P  of  lat.  Among  a  race  so 
energetic^  civilLsation  made  a  ver>'  early  progress, 
and  it  b  not  improbable  but  that  4,000  years  ago 
the  Phupnicians,  Hebrews,  Assyrians,  aiid  Arabs 
had  already  domesticated  many  of  the  useful  ani- 
mals, cultivated  many  valuable  plants,  and  were 
acquainted  vnth  the  useful  and  even  precious 
metals.  Several  of  the  nations  of  this  family  had 
invented  alphabetic  writing,  in  times  far  beyond 
the  memory  of  historv, — as  the  Jews,  Phccnicians, 
Arabians,  and  Assyrians.  Their  literature  has  al- 
ways been  of  a  more  vigorous  and  masuline  char- 
acter than  that  of  any  other  Asiatic  people,  but 
8till  has  never  evinced  the  taste,  sound  judgment, 
and  practical  common  sense  displayed  by  several 
European  nations  in  various  peTiods  of  the  history' 
of  the  latter  people.  For  the  fine  arts,  if  we  except 
architecture,  they  have  not  exhibited  a  glimmer- 
ing of  capacity.  There  U  one  circumstance,  how- 
ever, in  the  position  of  this  family,  which  has 
always  proved  a  serious  obstacle  to  its  advance- 
ment in  civilisation— the  unsuitablcnoss  of  much 


of  the  country  which  it  inhabits  for  any  other  than 

•  » 

the  i)astoral  state  of  society,  owing  to  its  heal, 
drought,  and  sterility.  In  the  genius  and  struc- 
ture of  the  languages  of  the  Arabian  family,  there 
is  a  common  affinity.  They  pos-sess  sounds  which 
no  other  people  can  articulate:  while  their  neigh- 
bours have  sounds  in  their  languages,  which  they, 
in  their  turn,  cannot  imitate.  In  granmiatical 
structure  they  resemble  each  other,  and  the  wonls 
of  their  language  are  reatUly  intcn;Iiangt'd,  whilu 
they,  rarely,  if  ever,  admit  those  of  neighbouring 
tongues.  While  tlie  dead  language  of  India,  for 
exam[)le,  has  found  its  way  into  the  ultra-Ciangetic 
languages  as  far  even  as  New  Guinea,  into  many 
of  the  Mongolic  and  Turkish  languages  and  into 
most  of  the  ancient  and  modem  languages  of  Eu- 
rope, it  has  made  no  impression  whatever  on  the 
languages  of  the  Arabian  stock  of  nations. 

lietween  the  Caspian  Sea  and  Persian  Gulf,  to 
tlie  west, — the  ocean  to  the  south,  India  to  tlu^ 
east,  and  an  indefinite  line  to  the  north,  extending 
at  least  to  50°  of  latitude, — there  are  several  race^ 
which  have  much  i^semblance,  but  which  dilfer 
enough  in  person,  mind,  and  language,  to  eutitli'. 
us  to  class  them  as  different  families.  Tlie  lirsi 
of  these,  beginning  in  a  westerly  <lirection,  is  the 
Persian,  With  this  family,  the  complexion  i.s 
fair  without  trans]>arency;  there  is  little  or  no 
colour  in  the  cheek.  The  hair  Ls  long,  straight, 
and  almost  always  jet  black;  the  beard  abundant, 
bushy,  generally  black,  but  now  and  then  with  a 
reddish  tinge.  The  features,  acconling  to  Euro- 
pean notions,  arc  regular  and  handsome,  though  ^ 
generally  minute;  and,  beard  excepte<l,  rather 
effeminate.  The  stature  is  little  short  of  the  Eu- 
ropean standard ;  and  the  body  gracefully  but  not 
strongly  formed,  iK'ing  altogether  less  robtisst  than 
Uiat  of  the  Eun>pean.  The  prest^nt  inhabitant's  of 
Persia  are  much  mixe^l  with  the  blood  of  Arabian 
and  Turkish  settlers ;  and  probably,  therefore,  the 
purest  sample  of  the  genuine  Persian  will  be  found 
m  the  emigrants  established  in  foreign  countries, 
called  Parsees,  who  scrupulously  abstain  from  in- 
termixture with  the  |>eople  among  whom  they  are 
settleiL  The  Persians  were  among  the  earliest 
civilised  nations  of  mankind;  but  their  ])rogres.s 
has  not  been  in  pro[)ortion  to  their  pretHK.'ity.  It 
is  probable  that  a  thousand  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era  they  had  tamed  the  useful  animals,  cul- 
tivated useful  plants,  were  acquainted  with  the 
useful  metals,  and  constituted  a  considerable  com- 
munity. That  they  luul  at  an  early  periiul  a  writ- 
ten language,  and  that  it  was  natiomd,  is  attested 
by  the  existence  of  the  undecyphere<l  uiul  ])eculiar 
characters,  of  unquestionable  antiquity,  still  found 
at  Perseiwlis  and  other  places.  When  the  Arabs 
ccmquercd  and  converted  the  Persians  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventh  centur}-,  they  found  three 
s|)oken  languages ;  viz.  the  Parsee,  Pehlvi,  and 
Deri,  besides  the  Zend,  or  language  dedicated  to 
religion.  The  first  of  these  has  superseded  the 
rest,  which  are  known  only  by  name,  and  become 
the  universal  language  of  the  country.  The  mo- 
dem Persian  Ls  of  simple  stnicture,  like  English, 
French,  or  Italian,  that  is,  it  fHissesses  few  or  no 
inflections,  prepositions  governing  its  case**,  an<l 
auxiliary  verbs  its  times  and  modes.  Many  of  its 
nwts  can  be  readily  trace<l  to  the  Sanscrit. '  Since 

» 

the  Arabian  conquest,  it  has  receiveil  a  huge  ao- 
cessiim  of  Arabic  wonls,  easily  discoverexl  by  thi»ir 
exotic  sounds,  for  there  are  many  sounds  ] peculiar 
to  one  people  which  are  foreign  to  the  utterance  of 
the  other.  The  entire  literature  of  the  Persians 
dates  shice  the  Arabic  conquest,  and  therefore 
the  earliest  portion  is  little  more  than  1,000  yciirs 
old,  while  the  great  bulk  lielongs  to  the  fifteenth 
ami  sixteenth  centuries.    It  consists  of  songs  of 


ASIA 


221 


eonsidcrable  merit;  of  poetical  romances,  wild  and 
extravagant;  of  loose  chronicles  without  date, 
founded  on  tradition  alone;  and  of  treatises  on 
morals  written  to  little  purpose  for  one  of  the  most 
sensual,  mendacious,  and  astute,  but  also  one  of 
the  cleverest  people  of  Asia.  For  the  history  of 
the  Persians,  for  1,600  years  before  the  Arabian 
conquest,  we  possess,  from  themselves,  nothing  but 
incongruous  fable ;  and  were  it  not  for  the  occa- 
sional, but  always  unsatisfactxtr}'  information  re- 
specting them  communicated  by  the  Greeks  first, 
and  then  by  the  Romans,  we  should  have  known 
as  little  of  their  earlv  historj^  as  wc  do  of  that  of 
the  Hindoos  or  Mexicans.  For  2,500  vears  thev 
have  not  been  wholly  stationary;  but,  measured 
by  the  European  standard,  they  have  made  little 
progress.  The  physical  ge(^praphy  of  their  country 
IS  not  propitious  to  civilisation.  Much  of  it,  like 
Arabia,  is,  from  drought  and  sterility,  untit  for 
agriculture,  and  fitted  only  for  occasional  pasture ; 
and  hence,  at  all  times,  the  roving  and  predatory 
habits  of  a  laige  portion  of  its  population ;  while 
the  same  character  belonging  also,  and  even  to  a 
greater  degree,  to  the  countries  which  surround  it, 
the  progress  of  industry  and  civilisation  has  not 
only  been  obstructed  by  internal,  but  also  by 
'foreign  enemies.  The  Persian  family  has  never 
been  distinguished  for  the  bold  spirit  of  enterprise, 
or  capacitK  for  social  improvement,  which  has 
charactcriiiea  the  Afabian.  Very  different  from 
the  Jews  and  Arabs,  such  has  always  been  the 
mediocrity  of  talent  among  the  Persians,  that  they 
have  no  name  which  belongs  to  history,  except 
that  of  Zoroaster. 

The  next  family  of  nations  is  the  Turkish,  or 
Scythian.  Tlie  extensive  country  in  which  this 
&mily  is  found,  or  rather  its  parent  country,  lies 
between  the  35°  and  60°  of  lat.  from  the  Hindoo 
Koo8h,  a  continuation  of  the  Himalaya,  to  the 
Belur  Tagh,  a  spur  of  the  Altai  chain,  and  from 
the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  western  l)Oundary  of  the 
desert  of  Gobi,  whore  they  are  mixed  with  the 
Monpds.  The  family  consists  of  the  Scythians 
and  Parthians  of  antiquity,  and  of  the  true  Tar- 
tars and  Turcomans,  with  the  eastern  and  western 
Turks  of  the  modems — the  Usl>ecks,  Tadjuks, 
and  Kirgis.  To  the  west  it  has  probably  been 
considerably  intermixed  with  Greek  and  Cauca- 
sian blood;  to  the  east  and  north,  with  Mon- 
golian; and  to  the  south  H-ith  Persian.  The 
complexion  of  this  race  is  a  light  bnmette.  The 
hair  generally  black,  strong,  and  long:  but  when 
the  complexion  is  remarkable  for  its  fairness,  it  is 
brown,  and  of  a  more  delicate  texture.  The  colour 
of  the  eye  is  a  light  brov^Ti,  but  the  form  some- 
what contracted.  The  skull  is  remarkably  glo- 
bular, the  forehead  broad,  and  the  space  between 
the  brows  very  prominent ;  the  proportions  of 
the  face  are  symmetrical ;  the  upper  jawbone  is 
singularly  short,  and  the  basis  of  the  lower  jaw 
is  also  remarkable  for  its  shortness ;  the  facial 
line  is  nearly  verticaL  ITie  body  is  stout,  but 
the  stature  shorter  than  the  European.  AI»Htract- 
ing  hair,  com])lexion,  colour,  form  of  the  eye, 
and  stature,  with  the  intellectual  powers  as  they 
have  been  hitherto  cleveloped,  the  Turk  is  in  fact 
a  European.  The  Turkish  language  is  one  of 
simple  structure,  like  the  Persian  or  English ;  and 
its  sounds,  but  not  its  words,  resemble  those  of 
the  former.  By  the  conquests  of  the  various 
nations  who  speak  it,  it  has  been  spread  from 
(Jreece  to  Chinese  Tartar\',  and  from  Persia  to 
b'P  lat.;  but,  unlike  the  Arabic  and  Persian,  tlie 
more  cultivated  languages  of  a  more  civilised 
pt»o]>lc,  it  has  nowhere  sui>erse(led  or  much  mixed 
itM'lf  up  with  the  dialects  of  the  conquered 
pei>ple;   nor  in  the  government  of  a  conquered 


people  have  the  Turks  ever  exliibitcd  the  skill  or 
tolerance  of  the  Arabs  or  Mongols.  What  has 
been  said  of  the  character  of  the  physical  geo- 
graphy of  the  native  country  of  the  Arabian  and 
Persian  families,  is  still  more  applicable  to  the 
Turkish.  A  great  portion  of  it  is  mere  desert, 
without  trees  and  water ;  and  the  cultivable  por- 
tions are,  in  fact,  but  so  many  patches  along  the 
banks  of  rivers,  thinly  scattered  over  a  boundless 
waste  of  sand.  In  these  patches  industry  and 
civilisation  spring  up,  surrounded  in  every  direc- 
tion by  robbers  and  freebooters,  and  liable  at 
every  moment  to  be  crushed  by  them.  To  uso 
the  words  of  Mr.  Erskine,  in  his  introduction  to 
the  'Translation  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Emperor 
Baber,*  we  find  among  the  Turkish  family  *  tribes 
who,  down  to  the  present  day,  wander  over  their 
extensive  regions,  as  their  forefathers  did,  little, 
if  at  all,  more  refined  than  they  appear  to  have 
been  at  the  dawn  of  history.  Their  flocks  are 
still  their  wealth,— -their  camp  their  dty ;  and  the 
same  government  exists  of  separate  chiefs,  who 
are  not  much  exalted  in  luxury  or  information 
above  the  commonest  of  their  subjects  around 
them.'  This  cause,  however,  it  must  be  admitted, 
will  not  account  for  the  backward  civilisation  of 
the  Osmanli  Turks,  who  have  now  for  centuries 
occupied  some  of  the  finest  r^ons  of  Asia  ana 
Europe,  and  been  during  the  same  time  in  close 
communication  with  the  civilised  nations  of  the 
latter. 

That  some  nations  of  the  true  Turkish  family 
were  early  ci\'ilised  to  a  certain  extent,  is  not  to 
be  doubteid.  It  was  among  them  that  Alexander, 
more  than  three  centuries  before  the  Christian 
era,  found  the  principal  materials  for  fonnding 
his  Greek  kingdom  of  Bactria ;  and  from  time 
immemorial  the  horse,  ox,  camel  and  dromedary, 
ass,  hog,  and  dog,  have  probably  l)cen  domesti- 
cated among  them.  The  ass  and  hog  are  still 
wild  animals  of  the  country ;  and  in  early  times 
it  is  not  improbable  the  others  were  so  also. 

The  Turkish  or  Scythian  family  seems  to  have 
invented  no  written  character,  and  hence,  in  early 
thnes,  to  have  had  no  literature,  llie  evidence 
of  some  Bactrian  coins  shows,  that  when  the  more 
improved  nations  among  them  had  advancetl  to 
wnting,  thejr  used  the  alphabetic  characters  of 
ancient  Persia.  The  best  and  most  fertile  portion 
of  the  country  of  the  Turks  was  conquered  by  the 
Araljs  towanis  the  end  of  the  seventh  centurj', 
and  this  was  followed  by  the  adoption  of  the  Ara- 
bian alphabet,  and  by  much  of  the  langu%rc  and 
literature  both  of  the  Arabs  and  Persians.  It  was 
not,  however,  until  the  establishment  of  a  firm 
government  under  Jaghatai,  the  son  of  Jengis 
Khan,  that  the  Turkish  language — from  hun 
called  the  Jaghatai  Turkish — began  to  assume 
the  character  of  a  polished  speech,  and  to  be 
written ;  and  its  most  flourishing  period  is  com- 
prised in  the  short  time  from  the  death  of  Timur, 
m  1405,  to  the  death  of  Baber,  in  1580.  Its  lite- 
rature consists  chiefly  of  popular  poetry,  in  the 
form  of  odes  or  songs;  but  there  are  also  some 
prose  compositions,  religious  and  chronological; 
of  which  last  the  most  remaricable  are  the  me- 
moirs of  Timur  and  Baber.  Turkish  composition, 
as  described  by  Mr.  Erskine,  is  less  inflated  and 
rhetorical  than  Persian  and  Arabian ;  and,  judg- 
ing by  his  own  translation  of  the  last  of  the  wons 
above  mentioned,  we  should  be  disposed  to  con- 
sider Turkish  literature  as  making  a  nearer  ap- 
proach, on  the  whole,  to  the  good  sense,  taste,  and 
simplicity  of  that  of  Europe,  than  any  other  lite- 
rature. 01  Asia.  The  Uigur  language,  used  by  a 
great  portion  of  the  inhabitants  in  Eastern  Tur- 
kestan, resembles  the  Jaghatai  much  iu  fonn,  but 


222 


ASIA 


28  reported  by  the  most  recent  travellers  to  present 
considerable  diflferencej*. 

In  the  oouth-eaAtem  angle  of  what  is  com- 
DKvnly  considrred  i*cniia,  ancl  now  known  by  the 


and  blue  eyes,  and  iirrcat  personal  beauty.  They 
»peak  many  lanj^iiages  which  arc  aI>M>hitcly  un- 
known to  t^uropoaufi.  Acrordinpf  to  a  most  judi- 
cious writer,  Mr.  Kriikine,  they  a>nstitute  *  a  Maries 


name  of  lieloochiAtan,  we  have  three  races  of  men,    of  natiims,  who  ap|x>ar  never  to  have  attained  the 


distinct  in  i>or8on  and  Iangua;::e,  lining  in  the 
same  country-,  and  dwellinf^  together,  yet  not 
often  intrrmixini?    their  blood, — a  circumstance 
which  will  frequently  Ite  found  in  what  remains 
of  our  review  of  the  *  Kaces  of  Asia.'    These  are 
the  Delochees,  Brahoos,  and  Dehwars.    The  Be- 
iocheea  have  dark-brown  complexions,  black  hair, 
long  vi>afi:es,  elevated  features,  with  tall  and  active, 
but  not  n)bust  persons.    Half  their  language  is  a 
corrupted  Persian;  and,  although  the  nature  of 
the  other  be  not  ascertained,  we  have  little  doubt 
of  its  l)eing  primitive  and  original.    Tlie  Brahtxta 
•TO  wholly  unlike  the  Bclochecs.     Tliey  have 
thick  short  bones, — are-,  in  fact,  a  squab  instead  of 
a  tall  people.    Tlieir  faces  arc  round,  and  tlieir 
features  tlat,  instead  of  being  raised.    Frequently 
they  have   brown  hair  and    beanl,  from  whicK 
we  should  augur  n  fairer  com])lcxion  than  is  as- 
cribed to  them.    The  language  of  the  IJrahoos  is 
entirely  ditferent  from  that  of  the  lielochees ;  it 
contains  no  Persian,  and  but  a  few  words  of  the 
neighbouring  dialects  of  the  Hindoos.    The  Deh- 
tettra  have  blunt  features,  higli  cheek  bones,  blutl' 
cheeks,  and  short  bo<lies.    What  is  remarkable  of 
them  is,  that  their  language  is  tlmt  of  a  people 
to  whom  they  l>ear  no  ])erssonal  resemblance,  the 
Persians.    This,  it  may  here  be  ohser\'ed,  is  also 
the  case  with  the  Tadjuks  of  the  Turkish  family, 
who  cLiim  to  l)C  the  alK)riginal  inhahitants  of 
Bokhara;  but  then  the  Tadjuks,  though  stout  in 
stature,  have  elevated  features,  and  a  nuidy  brown 
coroplexi(»n.    None  of  tlicse  nations  have  a  na- 
tional literature,  or  seem  ever  to  have  inventeil 
an  fdphabet.     Even  in  the  time  of  Alexander,  al- 
though rude  barimrians,  they  were  far  from  being 
savages ;  for  they  had  oxen,  goats,  and  camels 
and  cultivt-itedwheat/barley,  an<l  several  fnnis. 

T«)  tlic  N.  of  the  races  now  described,  and  in  the 
XE.  angle  of  Persia  in  its  wi<lest  acceptation,  we 
find  another  race,  the  Afghan,  This  family  is 
nuuked  by  a  brown  complexion,  black  hair,  some- 
times brown,  a  profusion  of  l)eani  of  the  same  co- 
lour, high  nf)ses,  high  cheek-bones,  long  faces,  a 
robust  penon,  and  a  stature  short  of  the  Kuropean. 
Their  langtuige,  calle<l  Pushtiw,  is  peculiar;  it 
contains  few  Sanscrit  words,  but  a  good  many  of 
those  of  the  |>opular  language  of  Upper  luilia,  or 
Hindi  j  the  sounds  arc  rough,  and  some  of  the 
consonants  are  such  as  have  no  existence  in  the 
I*ersian.  Tliey  have  no  alphabet,  and  use  the 
Andiic  characters;  and  their  national  literature, 
consisting  chiefly  of  lyrics,  is  said  not  to  be  al»ove 
150  years  old.  In  the  time  of  Alexander  these 
people  were  rude  barbarians,  but  not  savages,  for 
they  Imd  towns,  and  cr>m,  and  cattle,  and  were 
probably  on  a  level  with  the  Germans  and  Britons 
in  the  time  of  Ciesar.  It  is  only  in  comparatively 
late  times  that  they  have  made  any  figure  in 
histor}'.  Conquered  by  a  Turkbh  nation,  in  the 
last  years  of  the  tenth  century',  they  continued, 
by  tlieir  military  enterprises  and  invasions,  to  ex- 
ercise great  influence  over  the  affairs  of  Hindostau, 
and  some  even  over  the  affairs  of  Persia,  down  to 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Among  the  high  mountains  and  narrow  elevated 
valleys  which  lie  E.  <»f  the  countr}'  of  the  Afghans, 
exists  a  ptiople^  of  whom  little  is  known  Ix>yond 
their  names :  these  arc  the  KafTers,  or  infidels,  so 
called  by  their  Mohammedan  neighboun,  the 
Dards,  Tibet-lWtai,  (^hitral,  Hazaras,  and  Aimaks. 
These  ]>eople  are  described  as  remarkable  for  their 
fairness ;  tlio  (lossession,  occasionally,  of  light  hair 


arts,  the  ease,  or  the  civilisation  of  the  southern 
states;  but  who,  at  the  same  time,  unlike  th(»K> 
to  the  north,  have,  in  general,  settled  on  some  par- 
ticular spot,  built  \'illages  and  towns,  and  cultivated 
the  soil  They  cultivate  small  quantities  of  wheat 
and  millet,  but  their  itrincii)al  wealth  consists  iu 
oxen  and  goats.  The  moimtain  barriers  whirh 
surround  them  have  protected  them  from  invasion ; 
and  the  narrow  valleys  which  comprise  their 
country',  divides  them  Into  numerous  tribes,  and 
hinders  their  dWlisation. 

Proceeding  eastwanl,  we  come  to  a  great  an<l 
numen)U8  family,  the  Hindoo^  spread  from   the 
7th  to  the  3oth  dc^^'ee  of  north  latitude,  and  from 
the  <Wth  to  the  Ooth  of  east  longitude.     Correctly 
speaking,  this  is  perhaps  not  one  family,  but  an 
aggregate  of  races,  bearing  such  a  general  resem- 
blance to  each  other,  as  the  European  varieties  do 
among  themselves,  although  wider  in  degree.    The 
colour  is  c(»mmonly  black,  or  at  least  a  deep  brown  ; 
and  hence  the  name  <»f  Hindoo,  ap]>lied  to  them 
by  their  fairer  Turkish  and  Persian  inva«lers:  for 
tlmt  word  in  the  I*ersian  language  is  equivalent 
to  negro  in  ours.    Tlie  hair  is  always  Mng,  coarse. 
and  black ;  the  l)eanl  of  the  same  colmir,  and  not 
deficient ;  the  eye  invariably  black,  or  deep  brown  ; 
the  face  oval,  and  the  features  well  raise<l.  sym- 
metrical, and  handsome ;  so  far  at  least  as  the  a1.i- 
sence  of  colour  and  transparency  will  allow,  but 
generally  with  an  effeminate  cast :  with  s«ome  de- 
fect in  the  lower  limbs,  the  |K'rson  is  well  formed. 
The  stature  b  generally  short  of  the  Eur«»i )ean : 
the  IxKly  is  spare,  and  deficient  iu  strength  and 
capacity  of  enduring  toil,  if  compared  with  the 
surrouiuliug  families ;  but  the  want  of  force  is  in 
some  measure  compensatetl  by  lightneSvS  flexi- 
bility, and  dexterity.    Judging  by  tlie  form  of  the 
skull,  modem  naturalists  have  placeil  tlie  Hind«K'»<, 
or  htill  m(»re  whimsically,  *the  higher  orders' of 
them,  in  the  same  class  with  the  nativ(^•«of  Kuroi>o. 
This  is  but  an  ingenious  ])hiloso])hi(ral  dream ;  and 
()rme,  who  knew  them  well,  and  who  never  su<- 
pecteil  the  possibility  of  ]>laring  them  in  the  same 
categorj'  with  men  of  white  skins,  robust  frames, 
and  high  enterprise,  justly  describes  them  as  havin;c 
l>een  •frr)m  the  earliest  agej*  of  antiquity  a  people 
who  have  no  resemblance,  either  in  figure  or  man- 
ners, with  any  of  the  nations  contiguous  to  thcni.' 
Their  general  ajiiiearance  to  a  stnmger  is  tnily 
and  graphically  describ<*d  by  Mr.  Ford,  chaplain 
to  the  factory  at  Surat  in  the  commencement  of 
the  seventeenth  century.     *A  iH'ople,'  says   he, 
*prcsente<l   themselves  to  mine  eyes.  clf»theil  in 
linen  garments,  somewhat  low-descenjling;  <.»f  a 
gesture  an<l  garb,  as  I  may  say,  maidenly,  and 
well-nigh  effeminate ;  of  a  cimutenance  shy,  ami 
somewhat   estranged,   yet  smiling-out  a  glozed 
and  bashful  familiarity.'    Clearness  and  subtlety, 
rather  than  depth  with  vigour,  characterise  tlic 
intellectual  capacity  of  the  nin<liNi.     In  practical 
g<H)d  sense  theyaR»  lielow  the  Chinese;  in  energy, 
vigour,  and  enter|)rise.  l)elow  the  Aralw,  Persians, 
and  Turks:  but  they  are  etpuiUy  astute  with  any 
of  these;  if,  indeed,  they  do  not,  in  this  resj)ect, 
surpass  them  all.     They  have  Wen  repeatedly, 
anil,  for  k)  numerous  a  i>eo]de,  easily  conquered ; 
but,  on  their  side,  they  have  never  gone  abrootl 
for  conquest* 

The  Hindoos  were  prribably  among  the  eariiost 
civilised  of  the  families  of  mankind  Nearly  "i.'JOO 
years  ago,  the  (ireeks  fimnd  them  comiMisingeom- 
muiuties,  whose  advance  m  the  arts  of  life  was 


ASIA 


22S 


equal  to  that  of  the  Persians  of  the  same  period ; 
and  to  have  af^ained  such  a  state,  must  have  been 
the  work  of  many  previous  centuries.    The  countv^ 
they  inhabit  has  a  favourable  climate,  and  fruitful 
soil,  and  nature  presented  to  the  exercise  of  their 
natural  inpjenuity  many  valuable  products  in  the 
animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  kingdoms,  such  as 
the  useful  animals,  many  of  which  are  still  found 
in  a  wild  state  in  the  countr>',  with  several  de- 
scriptions of  corn,  esculent  roots,  cotton,  and  silk. 
All  the  languages  of  the  Hindoos  are  of  simple 
grammatical  structure,  except  one,  the  deatl  San- 
scrit, as  complex  as  the  Greek  or  Arabic.    There 
are  at  least  ten  alphabet.^,  which  seem  to  have  been 
separately  invented  I,  but  afterwards  more  or  less 
improved  by  borrowing  fn)m  that  of  the  Sanscrit, 
the  most  comprehent»ive  of  them  all,  particularly 
in  the  adoption  of  its  regular  and  almost  philoso- 
phical arrangement.    The  Hindoo  language,  which 
contains  the  greatest  amoimt  of  Saascrit,  is  the 
modem  Hindi  :  and  at  the  close  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, on  the  first  Mohammedan  invasion,  a  lan- 
guage was  spoken  at  Delhi  and   its  vicinity  as 
nearly  resembling  it  as  Saxon  does  English.    The 
nation,  then,  of  which  the  Sanstrrit  was  the  ver- 
nacular language,  probably  had  for  its  primitive 
seat  the  countries  on  Iwjth  banks  of  the  Jumna, 
about  the  28th  degree  of  N.  latitude ;  and  this  Is, 
indeetl,  |M>inted  out  by  many  intelligent  Hindoos, 
as  the  locality  c»f  the  ancient  people  whose  lan- 
guage and  institutions  have  exertetl  so  great  an 
mtiuencc  over  a  large  ])ortion  of  mankind.    iVs  we 
divei^c  from  this  focus,  the  proportion  of  Sanscrit 
found  in  the  <Ualects  of  India,  becomes  less  and 
less ;  and  in  some  of  the  languages  of  the  South, 
not  more  of  it  is  to  be  found,  nor  in  any  other 
shape,  than  that  in  which  we  find  Latin  in  Kng- 
lish.     Hindoo  literature,  notwithstanding  the  un- 
questionable antiquity  of  its  cidture.  is  extrava- 
cant,  rha])S(Klical,  puerile,  and  destitute  l)oth  of 
instniction   and  amusement.      In  ingenuity  and 
invention  it  can  bear  no  comparison  with  that  of 
the  Hebrews,  Aralxs,  or  Persians ;  nor,  in  common 
sense  or  authenticity,  with  that  of  the  Chinese, 
tame  and  mechanical  as  Is  the  latter.    The  au- 
thentic reconls  of  the  Hind(M>s  cannot  be  carried 
back  by  any  ingenuity  beyond  eleven  centuries ; 
and  even  this  mucli  is  the  work  of  Euroi)ean  an- 
tiquaries.    That  period  then  carries  Hindoo  chn)- 
nology  only  to  the  middle  ages  of  European  his- 
t<»ry, — corres^wnds  with  the  Arab  conquest  of  Spain, 
— and  is  long  posterior  to  the  conqiie-st  of  England 
by  the  Saxons,  of  France  by  the  Franks,  and  of 
Italy  by  the  Lombards.    The  capacity  of  the  Hin- 
doo funiilv.  then,  tried  bv  the  test  of  literature, 
stands  lower  than  that  of  any  of  its  considerable 
neighb»nirs.    We  have  already  said,  that  though 
in  colour,  form,  and  feature,  a  common  character 
belongs  to  the  whole  Hindoo  family,  there  exist 
also  striking  differences.     We  shall  endeavour  to 
point  out  a  few  of  these.      Ile^nnin^c  from  the 
north-west,  we  have  the  Cashmrrians,  with  genuine 
Hind<K>  features,  brunette  omiplexions,  ami  rather 
stouter  and  taller  persons  thnn  the  inhabitants  of 
the  plains  of  Hindostan.     They  have  a  |)eculiar 
language  an<l  a  national  alphabet.    South  of  these, 
and  on  the  plain,  we  have  the  more  numerous  and 
powerful  nation    of  the   Sei/is  or  Sinphs.     *The 
features  of  tiie  whole  nation,'  savs  IJunies,  *are 
now  as  distinct  from  those  of  theur  neighbours  as 
the  Indian  and  Chinese.     With  an  extreme  regu- 
larity of  ])hysiognomy,  and  elongation  of  counte- 
nance, they  may  Itc.  readily  distinguished  from  the 
other  trilK's.'     We  shall  add  to  tliis,  that  they  are 
a  tall,  active,  handsome  race;  of  very  dark  com- 
plexions, but  of  features  strongly  marked  by  the 
genuine  Hindoo  character.    Their  language  is  a 


dialect  of  the  Hindi.  Between  the  25th  and  23nl 
degree  of  N.  lat,  and  the  72nd  and  87th  degree 
of  E.  Ion.,  exists  a  numerous  people,  now,  for  the 
most  part,  speaking  also  a  dialect  of  the  Hindi, 
which  has,  m  consequence  of  the  Mohammedan 
conquest,  received  a  large  admixture  of  Persian. 
They  are  generally  taller  and  fairer  than  the  people 
of  the  south,  and  of  all  the  Hindoo  family  may  be 
considered  as  having  made  the  greatest  advance  in 
civilisation.  Their  language  is  written  in  the 
same  alphabet  as  thai  used  in  writing  Sanscrit. 
Throughout  India  they  are  known  as  Hindostanees. 
To  the  east  of  these,  and  inhabiting  the  extreme 
easteni  portion  of  the  country  of  the  Hindoos,  we 
have  the  Bengalee  race,  distinguished  by  dark 
complexions,  low  stature,  and  feeble  and  slender 
frames  beyond  any  other  Hindoo  people.  The 
Bengalees  have  a  peculiar  language  of  simple 
structure,  without  inflexions,  the  parta  of  speech 
l>eing  formed  by  the  use  of  particles  and^ auxi- 
liaries. Sanscrit  wonls  anrl  roots  enter  largely 
into  its  composition ;  and  it  has  been  alleged  of 
this,  and  of  most  of  the  other  vernacular  languagea 
of  India,  that  Sanscrit  forms  their  groundwork,  as 
Latin  forms  that  of  Italian,  French,  and  Spanish. 
ThL*,  however,  is  unquestionably  not  true  of  all 
the  language*)  of  the  south  of  Inctia ;  and  we  think 
it  very  doubtful  if  it  be  so  even  of  that  of  the  Ben- 
galees. This  Inst  has  a  peculiar  alphabet,  formed 
on  the  principle  of  the  Dewanagari,  an  alphabet 
of  the  Sanscrit,  the  basis  most  probably  having 
been  a  nide  character  of  indigenous  invention. 
There  is  no  Bengalee  literature  which  goes  further 
back  than  the  fifteenth  century,  and  verj'  little 
even  of  thb.  The  Bengalees,  like  the  other 
Hindoos,  have  no  history;  and  the  first  authentic 
date  in  their  chronologj'  is  the  year  1203,  when 
the  country  was  invaded  and  conquered  bv  the 
Txurko-Persians,  from  Delhi.  Upon  the  whole,  the 
Bengalee  race  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  least 
enei^getic,  physically  and  mentally,  of  the  Hindoo 
family.  Even  within  Hindostan,  Uiey  have  never 
venturefl,  as  conquerors  or  emigrants,  beyond  the 
limits  of  their  own  country;  while,  from  the  ear- 
liest ages,  they  seem  to  have  been  invaded  and 
sulKlue<i  by  all  their  western  neighbours.  In  flexi- 
bility and  acuteneas,  however,  they  equal  any 
other  Hindoos;  and  in  our  times,  have  exhibited 
a  capacity  for  imprtn'ement  beyond  them  alL 

To  the  south  of  the  Bengalees,  we  find  the 
Oria  race,  or  Orias,  taller  and  stronger  than  the 
former,  but  still  with  slight  and  delicate  figures. 
This  race  is  remarkable,  even  among  Hindfx)a,  for 
a  lack  of  spirit  and  intelligence.  They  have  a 
peculiar  language,  of  simple  structure,  into  the 
com|x>sition  of  which  lx>th  Sanscrit  and  Bengalee 
enter  largely,  but  its  foundation  is  most  probably 
native.  The  alphabet  Is  founded  on  the  pnnciple  of 
the  Dewanagari.  and  the  literature  consists  almost 
wholly  of  translations  and  paraphrases  from  the 
Sanscrit, 

To  the  south  of  the  Nerbudda  river,  and  of  the 
Orias,  are  the  populous  race  of  the  Telingeu, 
stouter,  taller,  and  much  more  energetic  These 
are  the  people  called  by  the  earlier  European 
si'ttlers  (fcntoos.  Their  language  is  inharmonious, 
harsh,  not  very  simple  in  its  structure,  and  is 
written  in  a  peculiar  national  alphabet;  following, 
however,  as  all  the  Indian  alphabets  do,  the  con- 
venient claHsitlcation  of  the  Dewanagari.  Sanscrit 
is  found  in  it,  as  French  exists  in  English,  Greek  hi 
Latin,  Arabic  in  Persian,  or  Turkish  and  Persian 
in  the  dialects  of  northern  India.  Their  national 
literature  is  considerable  in  extent.  This  Is  the 
only  Hindoo  race  which  has  exhibited  any  thing 
like  a  spirit  of  foreign  enterprise ;  and  that  enter- 
prise is  wholly  mcrc&ntilc.    Their  commerce  and 


224 


ASIA 


their  mi^ip^tioiifi  at  prcaent  extend,  and  t*ccm  frnm 
very  remote  iktmkI*  to  have  extendi!,  to  the 
isluids  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  the  conn  tries 
between  India  and  China.  The  8prea<l  of  the  Ian- 
gnaju:c  and  in8tituti<mR  of  tlie  llindcxw,  indecil,  to 
these  countries,  was  most  probably  in  a  great 
meaioire  their  work. 

To  the  west  of  the  Telingas,  are  the  Mahratta 
race,  smaller  in  penon ;  rather  of  meagre  and  di- 
minutive form.  The  Mahratta  language  is  pecu- 
liar; and  in  reference  to  the  admixture  of  Sani^nrit 
found  in  it,  the  same  observations  apply  as  to  the 
Telinga.  Among  all  the  considerable  races  of  the 
Hindoo  family,  the  Mahratta  had  long  been  the 
most  backward  in  civilisation,  and  were  totally  un- 
known to  history  as  a  people,  until  the  beginning 
of  last  centurj',  when  they  suddenly  entered  on  a 
career  of  conquest  which  threatened,  and,  but  for 
the  presence  of  a  European  power,  would  probably 
have  efiected,  the  subjugation  of  all  India. 

The  south  of  India,  beyond  the  Telinga  and 
Mi^iratta  races,  is  occupied  by  four  <Iistinct  races, 
differing  in  language,  and,  m  some  respects,  in 
ph3r'sical  form  and  intellectual  character.  All  of 
them  are  (the  inhabitants  of  Kengal  excepted) 
of  shorter  stature,  but  of  more  compact  form,  than 
tlie  Hindoos  of  the  north.  They  are  commonly 
also  of  darker  complexions.  Immediately  to  the 
east  of  the  Telinga,  is  the  Tamul  race,  occupying 
the  whole  of  the  level  country  below  and  to  the 
east  of  the  great  table-land  of  the  peninsula  as  far 
as  Cape  Comorin.  South  of  the  river  Krishna, 
and  occupying  the  table-land,  is  the  Kamttta  or 
Canarcse  jrace,  considerably  cixTlised,  and  wide- 
spread in  thi<(  part  of  India.  Below  the  table-land, 
and  on  the  western  coast,  arc  two  races,  the  Ma- 
labttTt  and  the  Tuknca^  to  the  south,  ijcculiar  in 
(heir  physical  oiganii^ation,  intellectual  character 
and  language.  Besides  these  well  ascertained 
races,  there  are  evidences  of  the  existence  of  dis- 
tinct races  also  in  the  peninsulas  of  Gujrat  and 
Kutch,  and  in  the  territory  of  Sinde;  m  all  of 
which  there  seem  to  have  been  peadiar  languages, 
reduced  at  present  to  dialects  by  the  admixture  of 
conquerors  and  settlers  from  the  north.  Among 
the  Hindoo  races  must  I)e  included  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  Ceylon,  or  Cingalesfj  who  resemble 
the  Hindoo,  and  no  other  family,  in  their  colour, 
the  form  of  their  persons,  the  character  of  their 
features,  and  the  texture  of  their  minds.  They 
have  a  peculiar  language,  an  indigenous  alphabet, 
following  the  Sanscrit  arrangement,  and  their 
Speech  contains  an  abundance  of  Sarracrit  words. 

But  besides  these  more  consi<lerablc  races  of 
the  Hindi)o  family,  there  are  a  good  many  rude 
tribes,  differing  essentially  in  language,  and  often 
in  person,  from  their  more  civilised  neighbours, 
and  from  each  other.  If  we  reckon  the^e  last  at 
not  more  than  half  a  dozen,  we  shall  find  that  the 
whole  Hindoo  family  of  nations  does  not  consist 
of  less  than  eighteen  different  races,  differing  more 
or  less  fr(»m  each  other,  in  stature,  strength,  mien, 
and  intellectual  endowment.  If  we  carry  our 
minds  back  to  a  period  of  Hindoo  history  when 
society  was  in  as  rude  a  state  as  in  Ameiica  on  its 
discovery; — before  the  time  when  some  of  the 
races,  by  their  superior  energy,  and  more  favour- 
able position,  had  destroyed  of  absorbed  those  tliat 
were  more  feeble,  or  less  suspiciously  situated,  we 
shall  probably  be  led  to  conclude  that  the  numlx^r 
of  races  and  languages  was,  in  proportion  to  extent* 
OS  great  in  India  as  we  have  lound  it  to  l)e  in  the 
New  World,  uniform  as  Ihe  Hindoo  physical  form 
and  mind  is  coromonlv  considered  to  be-. 

From  the  eastern  limit  of  the  country  of  the 
Hindoos  to  the  western  limit  of  China,  and  from 
tlie  7th  to  tlic  2Gth  degree  of  N.  latitude,  there 


exists  a  great  family,  which  has  a  common  cha- 
racter, that  is,  the  different  races,  or  nations.  «>r 
tribes  composing  it,  agree  as  much  among  them- 
selves as   Europeans,  Hindoos,  or  Chinese.    Tlie 
^.neric  name  m<»Ht  commonly  ai)])lied  to  this  family 
IS  the  HindnoChinese,    The  following  Lsan  outline 
of  its  physical  form.     Head  gcnerallv  well  ])r(>- 
portioned,  but  of  remarkable  flatness  in  the  occi- 
pital part.    Features  never  bold,  prominent,  or 
well  defined  as  in  the  nations  of  central  Asia. 
Nose  small,  round  at  the  point,  but  not  fiattcnerl ; 
and  the  nostrils,  instead  of  being  parallel,  divcrjce 
greatly.    Mouth  wide,  but  the  lower  part  of  the 
face  «loes  not  pn)joct ;  lips  rather  thick  ;  eyes  small 
and  black.     Eyebrows   not  pnmiinent,  nor  well 
marked.    The  face,  instead  of^  being  oval,  as  in  tlie 
Hindoo,  Persian,  Turkish,  Arabian,  and  Eiuropeaii 
families,  is  of  a  lozenge  f<»rm ;  arising  from  its  great 
breadth  across  the  cheeks,  and  the  prominence  of 
the  latter.    Complexion  a  light  b^oT^^l;    much 
fairer  than  the  Hindoo,  but  darker  than  the  Chi- 
nese.    It  is  never  black,  as  in  manv  Hindoos  an<l 
most  negroes.     The  people  described  are  them- 
selves aware  that  thev  are  a  fairer  race  than  the 
Hindoos;  and,  like  tlie  Turks  and  Persians,  call 
the  latter  *  black  men.*    The  hair  of  the  head  is 
always  black,  lank,  coarse,  and  abundant.    On 
every  other  part  it  is  scanty;  and  the  l>eard  is 
throughout  thin  and  defective.  The  average  stature 
maybe  taken  at  five  feet  three  inches;  so  that 
they  are  shorter  than  the  Hindoos  and  Chines*, 
but  rather  taller  than  the  Malayan  family.     The 
lower  limbs  are  letter  forme<i  than  in  thellimloo 
family,  and  the  hands  larger  and  less  effeminate. 
The  whole  perw»n  is  robust,  but  without  the  li^rht- 
ness,  flexibility,  and  grace  of  the  Hindoo  form. 
It  w  at  the  same  time  more  vigonms,  stnmg,  and 
hard  v.    The  languages  of  this  family  of  nations 
are  for  the  most  part  monosvllabic,  and  as  we  a]>- 
proach  China  w^holly  so.    I^ven  the  polysyllabic 
wonls  of   foreign  langua^s  naturalised  among 
them  are  i)rt>iiounced  as  if  each  hvllablc  were  a 
distinct  word.     It  follows  of  necessity  that  they 
are  extremely  simple  in  their  stnicture,  imrtieles 
supplying  the  places  of  inflexions  in  all  parts  uf 
speech,   ami  words  following  each  other  in  the 
natural  order  of  ideas.    There  are,  licsides  the 
l*ali,  or  character  of  the  religious  language,  six  al- 
phabets, employed  by  as  many  distinct  nations, 
which,  however,  on  examination,  may  be  n^hieed 
to  three.    The  Birmese,  Peguans,  and  Araeanise 
write  in  the  same  alphabet,  with  trifling  modifica- 
tions.   Tlie  Siamese,  Cambojans,  and,  for  the  nio>t 
part,  the  Lar>s,  write  in  one  alphabet — that  usually 
called  the  Siamese.     But  a  ]iortion  of  the  i)eople 
of  Lao  also  \ivTitein  an  alphal>et  distinct fnmi  these 
two.  The  Birmese  and  Siamese  have  adopted  the 
classification  of  the  Sanscrit,  but  not  so  the  ]h^cu- 
liar  alphabet  of  Lao.    We  hold  all  three  to  Iw  of 
native  invention,  and  theintrcMluction  of  the  San- 
scrit classification  to  l>e  only  recent  and  incidental. 
The  fourth  alphal>et,  or  Pali,  in  which  religious 
works  are  generally  written,  is  common  to  all  th<«. 
nations  now  mentionetl,  and  Ls  the  same  which  is 
now  usetl  in  Ceylon  for  a  similar  puqMv<e,  and 
which  was  once  used  in  Java  and  other  regions 
remote  from  India,  the  c<»untr}'  in  which  it  un- 
questionably originated.     The  languages  of  the 
Hindoo-Chinese  countries  now  mentioneil  have  not 
only  a  common  character,  as  to  sound,  stnicture, 
and  genius,  but  they  contain  also  many  words  in 
common,  the  necesBarj'  eileet  of  invasions,  con- 
quests, and  settlement**;  the  greater  numl»er  of 
them,  proliably,  in  nide  and  early  peri«Mls  of  so- 
ciety, and  of  which,  with  few  exceptions,  liistorv 
has  preserved  no  recor«L  A  large  in  fusion  of  .San- 
scrit, through  the  medium  of  the  Pali,  is  also  com- 


ASIA 


225 


mon  to  them  all.  The  Pali  differs  chiefly  from 
Sanflcrit  in  bein^  more  vocalic,  more  effeminate 
in  it^  pronunciation,  and  le^is  complex  in  its 
grammatical  structure.  Most  probably  it  wai»  a  lan- 
gna^  which  arose  on  the  ruins  of  the  Sanscrit ; 
and  was  the  result  of  a  conquest  of  the  people 
who  spoke  the  latter,  effected  by  some  other  Hin- 
doo nation,  the  principal  seat  of  \* hose  government 
was  Magadlia  or  Uahar.  The  Pali  Ls  not  an  in- 
trinsic portion  of  the  Hindoo-Chinese  languages ; 
but  it  is  found  to  exist  in  them,  as  Arabic  does  in 
Persian  or  Turkish.  The  mind  of  this  familv,  as 
exhibited  in  their  literary  efforts,  ranks  them  below 
that  of  the  Hindoos.  In  enterprise  they  rank  also 
below  the  latter.  Their  ware  and  enterprises  have 
been  wholly  confined  among  themselves,  and  they 
have  never  exercised  the  slightest  influence  over 
the  other  great  families  of  mankind ;  nor  have 
they  produced  a  single  great  name  known  to  his- 
torj',  or  one  remembered  even  by  themselves  a 
century  after  his  death.  Still  their  civilisation 
must  be  of  considerable  antiquity,  for  the  elements 
to  promote  an  early  advance  unquestionably  exist 
in  their  country,  and  these  have  never  Ixicn  pre- 
sented to  any  family  of  mankind  without  begetting 
early  improvement.  The  ox,  the  buffalo,  and  the 
elepluint,  are  natives  of  their  countriej*  through- 
out ;  and  very  prol)ably  the  horse  and  dog  were  so 
in  early  times.  The  soil  too  is  generallv  of  re- 
markable fertility ;  is  well  watered ;  and,  in  all 
likeUhood,  rice  and  some  smaller  grains,  with  some 
farinaceous  roots  and  useful  fruits,  are  indigenous. 
Inferior  to  the  Hindoos,  and  still  more  to  the 
Persians,  Arabs,  and  Chinese,  their  superiority  over 
all  the  negro  and  American  nations  Is  in  a  stiU 
^ni'eater  proportion.  Their  progress  in  agriculture, 
m  the  common  arts  of  life,  the  character  of  their 
reUgious  and  civil  institutions,  and  their  pos- 
session of  a  written  character  and  a  literature,  to 
which  they  have  Ijeen  little  indebted  to  foreigners, 
attest,  in  short,  an  early  and  considerable  progress 
in  society.  Birmese  temples,  with  every  appear- 
ance of  authenticitv,  can  l>e  traced  back  to  tlie  9th 
century,  corresponding  to  the  ages  of  Charlemagne 
and  Haroun-al-Kaschid.  This,  to  be  sure,  is  no 
great  antiquity ;  but  the  people  who  coiistnicted 
Hucli  buildings  were  alrea<ly  far  removed  from 
being  savages. 

We  shall  now  offer  a  brief  sketch  of  the  races 
or  varieties  of  the  Hindoo-Chinese  family,  begin- 
ning our  examination  from  the  westward-  After 
leaving  the  countr\'  of  the  Hindoo  family — of  the 
men  of  black  complexion,  fine  prominent  features, 
slender  ]jerson,  anci  graceful  form — we  a})proach  the 
men  of  brown  complexion,  flat  features,  and  strong- 
built  but  squab  ^x^rsons.  StiU  the  Hindoo  form, 
whether  from  admixture  of  races  or  original  con- 
stitutional difference,  has  not  wholly  disappeared, 
and  the  half-civilised  people  of  Cassay,  Cachar, 
and  Assam,  with  about  a  dozen  small  tribes  in  a 
wild  and  half-savage  state,  mav  be  described  as 

1>artaking  of  the  physical  form  of  both  Hindoo  and 
lindoo-Chinese,  All  these  speak  different  lan- 
guages, and  the  more  civilised  write,  some  with 
the  alphabet  of  the  Bengallees,  and  some  with 
that  of  the  Birmese.  Among  a  few  language  is 
p^jlysyllabic,  but  monosyllabic  ilialects  prevail. 

To  the  south  and  east  of  the  savage  semi- 
barl>aroiLS  or  half-civilised  tribes  and  nations  now 
mentioneti — extending  to  the  south  as  far  as  the 
7th  degree  of  north  latitude,  and  to  the  east  as  far 
as  the  Anam  race — we  find  six  considerable  na- 
tions in  which  the  physical  character  we  have 
ascribed  to  the  IIind(x)-Chinesc  family  is  well 
marked,  the  genius  of  whose  languages  agrees, 
and  who  are  nearly  in  the  same  state  of  social 
atlvancemcnt.  These  are,  the  Aracaucse,  Bir- 
Vou  I. 


mese,  Peguans,  Laos  or  Shans,  Siamese,  and  Cam- 
bojans.  Each  of  these  has  its  own  peculiar 
language ;  and  there  exists  even  in  their  physical 
form,  especially  as  to  size,  strength,  and  feature, 
differences  which,  though  not  very  obWous  to  a 
stranger,  are  sensible  enough  to  themselves. 
Lixing  among  them  in  scattered  communities,  as 
far  as  European  inquiry  has  extended,  there  exist 
no  less  than  eight  tribes,  migratory  or  savage, 
speaking  as  many  dbtinct  languages. 

From  the  eastern  frontier  of  Camboja,  to  the 
western  frontier  of  China,  exists  the  Anam  race, 
comprising  the  Cochin-Chinese  and  Tonquinese. 
These,  though  they  have  the  common  characters 
of  the  Hindoo-Chinese  family,  differ  from  the  rest 
in  so  many  particulars  that  they  might  probably 
have  been  considered,  without  mipropriety,  as  a 
distinct  family  of  the  human  race.  In  stature 
they  are  shorter  than  their  neighbours,  the  Laos, 
Cambqjans,  and  Siamese,  and  greatly  shorter  than 
the  Clunese.  Their  persons  are  squat.,  but  well- 
proportioned  and  active;  their  features  are  im- 
seemlv,  their  cheek-bones  very  high,  and  in  that 
direction  the  face  is  very  broa<L  Their  language 
is  purely  monosyllabic,  and  in  its  terms  has  no 
admixture  of  the  western  languages.  It  has  no 
alphabet;  but,  in  lieu  of  it,  uses,  with  little  varia- 
tion, the  symbolic  writing  of  the  Chinese.  Be- 
sides the  Anam  nation  there  are  two  considejable 
tribes  inhabiting  the  same  country',  the  Vhampa 
and  Moi,  speaking  their  own  distinct  and  peculiar 
idioms.  Thus,  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Hindoo- 
Chinese  countries,  and  among  a  people  probably 
not  hy  one-tenth  part  so  numerous  as  the  Hindoos,  we 
have  thirty-two  nations  with  distinct  languages. 

We  now  come  to  an  important  family,  comprising, 
indeed,  a  very  large  portion  of  mankind,  the 
CfiiTiese,  The  outline  of  its  physical  character 
may  be  described  as  follows  :— <>»lour  a  sickly 
white,  or  pale  yellow;  hair  of  the  head  lank, 
black,  coarse,  and  shining;  beard  always  black, 
thin,  and  deficient ;  there  is  but  little  hair  on  any 
other  part  of  the  body ;  eye  invariably  black,  or 
dark ;  eyes  and  eyebrows  oblique,  turning  up- 
wards externally;  cheek-bones  high,  and  face 
round — neither  square,  nor  lozenge-formed,  nor 
angular  in  its  outline;  nose  small,  ce])ressed  at 
its  extremity,  and  thick  at  the  root;  lips  thicker 
than  with  Europeans,  but  moderate  compared  to 
those  of  the  negro.  The  whole  person  is  well 
built  and  symmetrical ;  there  is  not  in  it  the 
lightness  and  agility  of  the  Hindoo ;  but  there  is 
suflScient  activity,  and  far  greater  strength.  The 
hands  arc  small  and  soft,  like  those  of  the  other 
I)cople  of  warm  climates.  The  lower  limbs  are 
particularly  well  formed,  far  excelling  in  this 
respect  those  of  all  other  Asiatic  people.  The 
languages  of  this  people  are  purely  monosyllabic, 
none  of  the  nations  comprising  it  having  ever 
known  how  to  put  two  syllables  together;  830 
poor  monosyllables,  beginning  with  a  consonant, 
and  ending  in  a  vowel,  a  liquid,  or  a  nasal,  and 
each  monosyllable  admitting  commonly  of  alxiut 
four  intonations,  so  as  to  make  in  all  about  1,300 
words,  make  up  the  whole  of  their  meagre  col- 
loquial dialects,  which  are  no  less  than  fifteen  in 
number,  corresponding  with  the  ancient  provincial 
di\-i?ions  of  the  countr}',  which  in  early  tunes  com- 
posed, probably,  at  least  as  many  distmct  nations. 
The  Chinese  monosyllables  are  neither  affected  by 
number,  case,  nor  gender;  by  mood,  tense,  or 
person ;  but  are  designated  by  prefixed  or  aflixed 
particles,  about  thirty  in  number.  ITie  Chinese 
family  never  invented  an  alphabet.  From  knotted 
wonls  they  came  to  their  present  symbolic  cha- 
racter, which  bears  no  resemblance  to  the  Egji)- 
tian  or  any  other  hieroglyphics.    It  is  a  language 

Q 


226 


ASIA 


for  the  eye,  and  not  the  ear — a  character  which 
may  be  read  in  En^cliHh  or  in  .Arabic  as  well  as  in 
any  ChineM*  lanf(u<M?<'<  and  probably,  indeed,  \%'ith 
more  precinion.  The  Cliinese  writing,  in  fact,  'w  a 
nui  venial  character,  like  the  Arabic  numeraL*,  and 
has  consecpiently  many  conveniences ;  but  it  has 
also  its  iniMmvenienccsI  It  has  prevented  the  cul- 
ture of  oral  lan^ua^e ;  occasioncil  tlie  continuance 
of  many  distinct  lanfruaf^  in  the  same  country ; 
and  these  wretchedly  meagre  in  structure,  sound, 
and  comprehensiveness,  fhe  Chinese  mind,  as 
indicated  by  its  literature,  is  fri^d,  mechanical, 
and  unimaginative.  For  the  tine  arts,  in  which 
the  Greeks  and  Etruscans  had  made  such  re- 
markable pnifn^ss  2,.')<H)  years  agf>,  the  (.-hinose 
have  never,  to  the  present  day,  exhibited  any 
capacity.  Thev  are  laborious,  practical,  orderly — 
a  vast  assemblages  in  fact,  of  shopkeepers  and 
mechunii's.  They  are  among  tliose  families  that 
made  the  earliest  pr«)gress  in  civilisation.  VVhat- 
ever  tliey  have  is,  also,  indi|j:enoiLs ;  for  of  all  man- 
kind thev  owe  least  to  strangers.  The  Chinese 
carry  thoir  authentic  history  back  tr>  a  period  of 
nearly  3,(MK)  years;  and  their  sage,  Confucius, 
live<l  an<l  wrote  in  the  present  cliaracter  2,3(H) 
years  ago^wrote^  in  short,  his  moral  rhapsMlies 
while  IlertKlotus  was  writing  liLstorv ;  and  in  the 
same  age  in  which  tlourishetl  PeJicles,  Phidias, 
IlipIKKTrates,  and  Plato;  so  that  China  was  ol>- 
viously  as  inferior  tti  Eurof>e  then  as  it  Ls  now. 
At  tiiat  time,  however,  Cldna,  south  of  the  Yellow 
river,  winch  at  present  contains  the  greatest  and 
most  in(bistrious  portion  of  its  population,  was  in 
a  state  of  entire  l)arbarism ;  and  even  the  northeni 
frontier  was  divided  into  manv  i>etty  states.  IVo 
hundred  and  fifteen  vears  betttre  Qirist,  or  above 
two  centuries  and  a  lialf  later,  tlie  Chinese  built 
along  their  frontier  a  wall  of  1,5U0  miles  in  extent, 
some  20  ft  high,  and  bn>ad  enough  for  half  a 
dozen  hontemen  to  ri<ie  abreast.  This  was  in  the 
age  of  the  Ilannibals  and  Scipios,  ami  in  |Mtint  of 
magnituile,  but  nothing  else,  far  exceed(^l  the 
power  of  tlie  Komans  and  Carthaginians  of  the 
same  ]K*ri<Ml.  We  may  infer  from  it  that  a  iieople 
who  c*ould  erect  such  a  work,  and  who  2,00()  years 
ago  had  a  frontier  of  1,500  miles  to  defen<l,*were 
already  numen>us,  and  to  a  certain  degree  indus- 
trious. We  may  safely  infer,  then,  that  the  Chi- 
nese, fn»m  their  early  progress  in  civilisation,  from 
♦heir  invention  of  printing,  their  discovert'  of  silk 
and  porcelain,  their  progress  in  useful  works,  such 
as  domestic  architecture,  bridges,  and  canals,  and 
their  acquaintance  with  the  art  of  civil  adminis- 
tration, are,  if  not  the  most  showy  and  brilliant, 
at  least  the  most  practical  and  useful  of  the 
Asiatic  races.  One  thing  has  been  alwa^*^  com- 
mon to  this  and  the  Hindoo  family — ^an  absence 
of  the  spirit  of  enterprise.  In  no  age  have  the 
Chinese  gone  abroad  in  search  of  foreign  con- 
quests or  adventures ;  and  even  their  indirect  in- 
fluence on  strangers  has  been  confined  to  their 
own  immediate  neighbourhood,  no  doubt  a  wide 
circuit.  Like  all  Asiatic  people,  t(Kj,  they  exliibit 
a  disfsisition  to  stand  still,  after  making  certain 
advances  in  ciWlisation,  which,  in  their  case, 
have  undoubtedly  been  respectable.  Thev  at  all 
events  display  none  of  that  illimitable  facility  of 
expansion  wliich,  in  the  history  of  our  race,  has 
hitherto  alone  characterised  the  Euroi>ean  family. 
The  Europeans  of  the  19th  century  bear  very  little 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  l.)th,  except  in  spirit 
and  enter|)rise ;  but  we  perceive  tliat  the  Cliinese 
of  these  two  distant  ages  are  in  all  respects  very 
nearly  the  same. 

Even  in  the  apparently  hom<»gene:nis  population 
of  China  there  is  to  l>e  found  considerable  diver- 
sity, both  physical  and  intellectual,  (irobably  as 


great  as  in  the  European  family  or  the  Hindoo. 
It  has  been  already  suted  that  there  arc  tifteen 
languages,  belonging  to  as  many  pro\'inces ;  and, 
indeed,  several  provinces  have  more  than  one 
language.  The  inhabitants  of  the  S4»uthem  and 
eastern  coast  are  commonly  more  athletic  tlian 
those  of  the  centre  and  north;  and  among  the 
latter  are  found  some  who  have  less  of  the  obliquity 
of  eye  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  Chine^e, 
and  whose  features  altogether  approach  more 
nearly  to  the  Eurof)ean.  There  are  even  races 
within  the  empire  that  are  not  Chinese  either  in 
person  (»r  si)eech,  and  who  still  preser\'e  their  in- 
de])endence,  as  the  Meaou-tse  in  the  interior,  the 
IxdiM  on  the  western  frontier,  with  the  moun- 
taineers of  Hainan  and  Formosa.  These  two 
islands,  indeed,  seem  only  U»  have  been  colonistil 
by  the  Cliinese,  as  the  Saxons  coUmise<l  Hritain ; 
while  the  alsirigines,  like  the  Welsh  and  High- 
landers, have  lKH.'n  confined  to  the  mountains. 
The  language  of  Formosa  Ls,  in  fact^  riolvHyllabic, 
and  contains  many  wonls  of  the  Malayan  family 
of  languages ;  and  the  Chinese  coloni^ition  of  this 
island  we  know  to  Ix?  only  of  two  centuries'  date. 
Near  theChmese  we  have  another  great  family, 
bearing  it  some  resemblance,  but  still  so  distinct 
in  physical  and  intellectual  character,  that  wi» 
are  warranted  in  classing  it  seiMirately.  ThL^  is 
the  Japanese^  which  occupies  a  country  of  gn»at 
extent^  in  the  tine  and  temiicrate  climate  fn»m  \MP 
to  4o°  X.,  and  comprises  a  (H>pulation  inferior 
only  to  tlie  ('hinese.  Their  colour  is  tawny  ; 
stature  short  but  n>bust:  noses  iiattuh ;  eyelids 
thick,  and,  as  it  were,  pufTtMl ;  eyes,  as  uhual,  dark, 
but  less  sunk  than  those  of  the  Chmcse ;  lowor 
limlm  laige  and  thick,  not  clean,  and  well  made, 
as  with  the  latter.  *  In  the  main,'  says  Kempfer, 
'  they  are  of  a  very  ugly  appearance.'  The 
language  of  the  Jaiianese,  instead!  of  l)eing  mono- 
syllabic, is  polysvllabic  The  Chinese  can  pn»- 
noinice  the  aspirate  A;  the  Japanese  have  no 
such  sound  in  tlieir  language.  The  Chinese  havt», 
as  it  were,  a  natural  inca]mcity  of  pronouncing  the 
consonants  r  and  d,  which  they  always  convert 
into/,  llie  Ja]Minese  pronoiuice  them  with  the 
same  facility  as  Eun>peans.  The  <lifl'ereiit  pri>- 
nunciati<m  of  the  two  people  made  a  lively  ini- 
]jression  on  Kcmpfer,  who  descrilK»s  it  as  follows : 
'  As  to  the  pronunciation,  that  also  is  verj-  different 
in  both  languages,  whether  we  consider  it  in 
general,  or  with  regard  to  ]mrticular  letters;  an«l 
this  difference  is  so  remarkable,  that  it  s<'eins  the 
very  instruments  of  voice  are  differently  fonni*!  in 
the  Japanese  from  what  they  ari^  in  the  ('hine.s(!. 
The  pnmunciation  of  the  Japanese  language  in 
general  is  pure,  articulate,  and  <listinct,  there  Wiw^ 
seldom  more  than  two  or  three  letters*,  acconlin.:; 
to  our  alpha! >et,  combined  together  in  one 
syllable:  that  of  the  Chinese,  on  the  contrary-,  is 
nothuig  but  a  confuse<l  noise  of  many  consonants, 
pronounced  with  a  sort  of  singing  accent,  very 
disagreeable  to  the  ear.'  He  adds  <l>at,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  commercial  tenns,  the  lan- 
guage of  Jafum  does  not  ctintain  a  single  word 
borrowed  frf>m  the  dialects  of  China :  and  hence 
he  aigues,  with  justice,  that  the  two  nati(tns  are 
wholly  of  distinct  origin.  Tlie  Japanese,  to  a 
certain  extent,  have  adopted  thcs\anlM»lic  writing 
of  the  Chinese ;  but  they  have  also  an  alphabet  of 
their  own,  which  is  syllabic,  like  that  of  the 
Manchoos,  and  like  it,  too,  written  from  top  to 
bottom.  A  Hindoo  alphabet  has  also  been  n-- 
cently  discovered  among  them,  confined  to  the 

Eriesthood,  whose  ritual  is  in  the  Sanscrit  or  Pali 
inguage.  The  Ja{Minese,  from  the  accounts  we 
possess  of  them,  are  a  race  of  considerable  ]>hy- 
sical  and  hitellectual  energy ;  inferior  to  the  Chi- 


ASU 


227 


nese  in  ingenuity,  but  superior  to  them  in  spirit 
and  courage    Favoured  uv  a  country  enjoying 
many  advantages  of  soil,  climate,  insular  position, 
with  most  probably  the  possession,  on  the  spot, 
of  many  of  the  most  useful  plants  and  animals, 
thev  could  hardly  fail  to  make  an  early  progress  in 
civilisation.    Their  authentic  history,  according 
to  themselves,  dates  660  years  B.C.    This  is  pro- 
bably greatly  over-rating  its  real  authenticity;  for 
it  would  carrv  us  back  almost  to  the  foundation  of 
Rome,  and  would  prt»ce<le,    by  nearly  two  cen- 
turies, the  age    of  Confucius  and   Pericles.    In 
fact,  they  admit  that  they  are  a  people  of  more 
recent   civilisation  than  the  Chinese  by  twelve 
centuries.  They  luive  had,  however,  a  long  time  for 
improvement,  and  for  the  last  three  centuries  may 
be  considered  as  having  l>een  absolutely  stationary, 
if,  indeed,  as  the  result  of  their  self-exclusion  from 
strangers  within  that  period,  they  may  not  rather 
be  considered  to  be  in  a  more  unfavourable  po- 
sition than  before  it.     While  Chinese  civilisation 
has  been  re])eate<Ily  interrupted  by  tlie  invasions 
of  the  shepherds  of  the  North,  no  strangers  have 
ever  successfully  invaded  Japan;   and  the  only 
attempt  at  conquest — made  by  the  Mc^l  con- 
querors of  China  between  tive  and  six  centuries 
ago— the  elements?,  and  the  courage  of  the  Ja- 
panese, repelled,  and  ])unished  by  the  de^tniction 
«)f  100,000  of  the  invaders.    An  industrious,  and, 
in  many  respcct.s,  an  ingenious  culturo  of  rice, 
liarley,  and  wheat — resjiectable  manufactures  of 
silk,  cotton  pottcr\',  and  lacquered  ware, — letters, 
literature,  authentic  reconls,  the  art  of  printing, 
and  |x)litical  institutions — prove  the  Japanese  to 
be  capable  of  a  respectable  civilisation  acconling 
to  the  Asiatic  stanclard  ;  but  they  pn)ve  also  that, 
notwitlistanding  their  more  favourable  position, 
both  as  to  climate  and  )Hditical   security,  their 
natural  genius  is  inferior  U)  that  of  the  Chinese. 
That  they  are  a  peculiar  and  original  family  we 
think  there  can  be  no  guestion.     This  is  their 
own  opinion  ;  and  Kempior  observes,  in  reference 
to  this  subject,  that  they '  fancy  themselves  highly 
aflronted   by  the  endeavours  of  some  who  busy 
themselves  to  draw  the  original  of  their  nation 
from  the  Chinese  or  others  of  their  neighlx)urs.' 

The  individuals  of  the  Japanese  family,  like 
other  races,  exhibit  great  differences,  physical  and 
intellectuaL  The  inhabitant's  of  Ni])on,  the  prin- 
ciiml  island,  are  dlstinguishe<l  by  big  heads.  Hat 
noses,  and  miusculous  tleshy  complexions.  Those 
of  Saikokf  are  short  m  stature,  of  slender  make, 
but  well-shaj)ed  and  handsome.  The  inhabitant^) 
of  the  Looch<K)  Islands  arc.  (les<-ril>ed  as  being 
neither  Chinese  uorJapanese,but  pariakingof  lx>th. 
Their  stature  d(»es  not  exceed  5  feet  2  inches,  so 
that  they  are  a  vers-  diminutive  race.  Their  lan- 
guage Is  peculiar,  partjiking  equally  of  the  mono- 
syllabic and  polysyllabic  character.  The  Japanei<e. 
on  the  whole,  show  much  diversity,  though  not 
to  so  gn»at  an  extent  as  in  China;  owing  to  the 
existence  of  a  more  ]>erfect  oral  language,  a  com- 
mon alphabet,  and,  in  general,  the  al)senoe  of  the 
artiticial  medium  of  communication  which  Is  um- 
versal  among  the  j^eople  of  the  latter  country'. 

To  the  NK.  of  China  we  have  another  family, 
the  Curearij  occupying  a  i>eninsula  equal  to  Britam 
in  extent.  The  C<»reans  are  described  as  sui)erior 
in  strength  and  stature  to  the  Chinese  and  Ja- 
panese, but  thev  are  eviilentlv  a  nu'e  verv  inferior 
in  mental  energy  and  capacity  to  either.  1  heir  lan- 
giwige,  or  most  j)robably  languages,  are  f>eculiar, 
differing  from  those  of  their  immediate  neighbours, 
the  Manchoos,  Chinese,  and  Japanese.  It  would 
apjiear,  also,  that  they  have  a  national  alphaU'tic 
ciiaracter,  alth<»ugh  occasionally  having  recourse 
also  to  the  symbolic  >\Titing  of  China.     In  the 


useful  arts  they  have  made  conndcrable  progress, 
but  the  standard  of  their  ci^41isation  ib  much 
below  that  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese.  Their 
authentic  history  goes  back  to  100  years  B.C.,  or 
corresponds  with  the  classic  era  of  Rome. 

The  inhabitant^}  of  two-thirds  of  the  superficies 
of  Asia,  from  the  seatji  of  the  families  already 
specified  to  the  Frozen  Ocean,  remain  to  be  de- 
scribed.   These  have  a  common  resemblance  in 
some  important  features;  but  it  b  only  such  a 
resemblance^  colour  alone  excepted,  as  exists  in 
all  the  families  already  mention^  from  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Atlantic  to  the  eiistem  confines  of 
Hindostan.     Modem  naturalists  have  described 
the  whole,  including  in  it  the  nations  to  the  E.  of 
the  Hindoos,  which  we  have  jitst  classed,  as  one 
of  the  five  [)ermanent  varieties  of  the  human  race, 
under  the  name  of  the  Mongolian,    Under  another 
classification,  we  may  divide  the  races  into  those 
which  inhabit  the  valleys  or  southern  slopes  of  the 
Himalaya  chain ;  those  which  dwell  between  the 
latter,  the  Chinese  and  Corean  families,  and  the  Altai 
mountains;  and,  lastly,  those  which  dwell  lietween 
the  Altai  range  generally  and  the  Northern  Ocean, 
The  first  race,  proceeding  in  the  above  order, 
and  beginning  from   the   K.,  Is  the  Bootea,  or 
inhabitants  of  Ikx)tan.     '  It  is  not  possible  to 
conceive,'  says  Turner,  who  was  perfectly  well 
ac(|uainted  with  both,  *  a  greater  diijsimilarity  be- 
tween the  most  remote  inhabitants  of  the  globe 
than  that  which  distinguishes  the  feeble-l)odie<l 
and  meek-spirited  natives  of  Bengal,   and  their 
active  and  herculean  neighbours,  the  mountaineers 
of  Bootan.'   They  have  invariably  black  hair ;  the 
eye  is  a  very  remarkable  feature  of  the  face — 
small,  black,  with  long  pointed  comers,  as  though 
stretched  and  extended  by  artificial  means;  their 
eye-lashes  are  so  thin  as  to  l>e  scarcely  perceptible; 
and  the  eyebrow  is  but  slightly  shaded     Below 
the  eyes  is  the  bn)a<lest  part  of  the  face,  which  is 
rather  fiat  and  narrow  from  the  cheek-lx>nes  to  the 
chin.   The  skin,  about  as  fair  as  that  of  a  southern 
European,  is  remarkable  for  its  smoothness ;  and 
the  beard  does  not  present  itself  tuitil  a  very  ail- 
vanced  age,  and  then  is  scanty.    The  I^>oteas  are 
a  stout,  active  race,  and  their  stature  occasionally 
rises  to  six  feet,     Mr.  Turner,  indeed,  describe* 
them  as  *  models  of  athletic  strength.'    The  Boo- 
teas  are  a  long-set tle<l  agricultural  peo])le,  and 
have  made  considerable  progre-ss  in  the  art,s;  have 
a  peculiar  language;  an  alphaliet  which  follows 
the   Hind(H)    arrangement ;    and  in    civilisation, 
allowance  being  made  for  their  remote,  insulated, 
and  mountainous  country,  may  be  consideretl  on 
a  par  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  lying 
between  Imlia  and  China. 

Westward  of  the  B<M)tea8  is  the  country  of  the 
Nepal,  which,  inde{)endent  of  Hind<N)  colonists 
and  settlers  from  the  S.,  who  are  sometimes  of 
])ure  blood,  but  have  often  mixeii  it  with  that  of 
the  nativej*,  contains  eight  aboriginal  races,  viz., 
the  (iorkhas  Magars,  (lurungs,  Jariyas,  Newars, 
Murmis,  Kirautis  an<i  Lapchas.  This,  from  the 
])re<tominant  race,  mav  be  called  the  Gotkha 
fiimily.  These  arc  a  short,  robust  people,  of  an 
olive  iHimplexion,  and  of  features  less  Mongolian 
than  those  of  the  Bootees.  Their  languages  are 
for  the  most  part  distinct  fit»m  each  other,  and 
|)olysyllabic,  and  the  greater  number  of  them  have 
a  knowledge  of  letters.  There  Is,  among  one  of 
the  races  at  least,  the  rudiments  of  a  native  alpha- 
bet ;  but  the  Dewanagari,  adapted  by  additi<»ns 
and  omissions  to  their  native  pronunciation,  has 
!H?en  adopted  by  the  greater  numlier.  Their  state 
of  civilisation  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
B<M)teas;  but  thev  have,  recently  a  <le;ist,  exhi- 
bited a  greater  spirit  of  entejri>rise. 

Q2 


228 


ASIA 


To  the  N.  of  Bootan  and  Nepal,  and  on  the 
terrace  of  the  prand  chain  of  the  Himalaya,  at  an 
elevation  of  12,0(M)  or  13,000  ft,  alwve  the  sea,  in 
a  cold  and  drv  climate,  and  an  un^nial  soil,  are 
found  the  Tibetian  family,  which,  as  far  as  our 
knowlcil^  goes,  extentls  over  26  degrees  of  longi- 
tude, or  fhim  the  74th  to  the  lOOth.  The  Tibet- 
ians  have  what  is  commonly  called  the  Tartar 
countenance — a  face  angular  and  broad  across  the 
check-bones,  and  small  black  eyes  with  ver>*  little 
l)eard.  Instead  of  being  tall,  like  the  Iktoteas, 
they  are  short,  squat,  broatlrnhuulderod,  but  slow 
and  sluggish  in  mind  as  well  as  Ixxly.  They  are 
mild  in  disposition,  and  have  never  exhibited  the 
mental  energy  or  enterprise  of  their  neighbours 
either  to  theX.  or  S.  The  horse  and  ass,  two 
species  of  the  ox,  the  goat  and  sheep,  are  domes- 
ticated among  them.  All  these  are  ^)robably  na- 
tives of  the  e<mntry,  and  the  two  hrst  are  said 
still  to  exist  in  the  vnhl  state.  Their  language  in 
guttural,  nasal,  and  harsh,  and  in  a  great  measure 
polvsyllabic.  Tliey  ])<)flses8  a  jieeuliar  alphal)et, 
which  bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Hin- 
doos in  their  neighlM>urhoo<i,  but  does  not  follow 
its  arrangement.  For  religious  purposes  they  have 
another  alphabet,  much  resembling  the  Pali,  and 
which  they  no  douI)t  receive<l  along  with  the  reli- 
pon  of  liuddha  or  Fo,  which  they  have  been  the 
medium  of  communicating  to  mariv  of  the  tril>es 
of  Tartary,  including  the  two  which  have  con- 
quered China.  They  have  long  possessed  the  art 
of  ])rinting  with  immoveable  wtKHlen  blocks,  which 
they  use,  however,  only  for  the  multiplication  of 
religious  works. 

We  now  come  to  far  more  important  rac(»: 
those  inhabiting  generally  the  vast  plateau  and 
extensive  ascents  between  the  Himalaya  range  in 
the  south,  and  the  Altai  range  and  the  ranges 
winch  continue  it  to  the  eastwanl,  in  the  north, 
as  far  as  the  l-lOth  deg.  of  long.,  and  then  l>etween 
the  latter  and  the  right  bank  of  the  Amur,  or 
Amour.  ThL^  it)  the  M<mgolian  family,  and  may 
be  described  as  being  generally  comprised  between 
the  40th  and  50th  degrees  of  lat,,  and  ranging 
over  ><iP  of  long.,  or  from  the  (JOth  to  the  140th 
deg.  E.,  although,  in  some  situations,  exceeding 
these  limits  N.  and  S.  by  a  few  degrees.  We  shall 
fiKt  give  the  general  description  of  the  whole 
family.  Foreh^d  low  and  slanting;  head  alt4>- 
gether  of  a  square  form.  The  cheek-lwnes  stand 
out  widely  on  either  si<le;  the  glabella  and  osta 
nasif  which  are  tiat  and  ver\'  small,  arc  placed 
nearly  in  the  same  plane  with  the  malar  bones ; 
there  are  scarcely  any  supercihary  ridges;  entrance 
of  the  nose  narrow ;  the  malar  fossa  forms  but  a 
slight  excavation ;  the  ulvular  edge  of  the  Jaws  is 
obtusely  arched  in  front ;  chin  rather  pn>minent ; 
body  short  of  the  European  stature,  broad,  square, 
and  robust ;  extremities  short,  but  slender ;  shoul- 
ders high ;  neck  thick  and  strong.  Hair  always 
black,  anti  the  eye  invarial)ly  black  or  dark  brown. 
Hair  of  the  head  long  and  lank;  and  there  is  a 
paucity  of  beard,  as  well  as  of  hair  over  the  rest 
of  the  body. 

There  are  two  great  divisions  of  this  family 
known  to  Europeaius  under  the  name  of  Eastern 
and  Western  Tartars.  The  first  comprise  chiefly 
the  Manchooft,  sometimes  called  also  Manshurs 
and  Manjiirs.  These  are  the  ])resent  l(»rds  of 
Cliina,  of  which  their  ]>arent  country  constitutes 
but  a  dependency,  though  a  favoured  one.  Those 
that  are  seen  in  C!hina  are  not  always  easily  dis- 
tingulshetl  from  the  Chinese.  They  are  described 
as  shorter  and  squatter  than  the  Chinese,  and 
having  a  more  angular  countenance  and  harsher 
features,  it  must  be  recollecte<i,  however,  that  a 
perfect  similarity  of  dress  and  costume  is  apt  to 


mislead  the  observ'ex,  and  that  most  of  the  first 
conquerors  marr>'ing  Chinese  women,  tlie  nominal 
Manchoos  of  China  arc  in  reality,  m  a  great  m<'a- 
sure,  a  mixed  race.     Inhabiting  a  more   genial 
climate  and  a  Ijetter  soil  than  the  Mongols  or 
Western  Tartars,  the  Manchixxs  are  a  mow  civi- 
lise<i  people  than  the  latter.    They  Imve  for  the 
most  ])art.   habitations,    and    some    agrioulturo. 
though   Hocks  and   herds  constitute  their  chief 
wealth.     The  great  river  Amur,  or  Saghalien,  and 
its  many  branches,  which  alx)und  in  fish,  pas.sing 
through  their  territory,  many  exist  as  fishennen. 
The  Manch(K>  language  is  quite  national  aixl  ik>- 
culiar;  it  is  polysyllabic,  full,  and  sonorous.  It  has 
the  sort  of  copiousness  which  characterist^s  the 
Sanscrit  and  /^Jabic,  and  which,  in  a  jH'rfect  lan- 
guage, ought  rather  to  l>e  called  re<lundaucy.   Tlie 
numl)er  of  wonU*  for  the  horse,  ox,  and  dog,  nc- 
conling  to  age,  sex,  size,  colour,  and  other  quali- 
ties, w,  for  example,  overwhelming.    The  presfiit 
alphabet  of  the  Manchoos  w  syllabic,  writtiMi  in 
columns  from  the  top  to  the  Iwttom  of  the  page, 
Uke  the  Chinese,  but,  contrarj'  to  the  practire  of 
that  character,  from  left  to  right.    The  Mant'luH»s. 
though  they  have  acUnl  a  considerable,  have  by  no 
means  acted  an  equally  distinguishe<{,  part  on  the 
great  theatre  of  the  world  with  their  neighlKHirh  the 
MongoK    In  the  eleventh  centurj',  however,  tliey 
established  the  great  empire  known  in  the  middle 
ages  by  the  name  of  Katay  or  Cathay,  by  uniting 
to  their  own  country  the  northern  half  of  China. 
Tliis,  after  lasting  117  years,  was  subverted  by 
the  arms  of  Jengis  Khan  ;  but  in  the  year  IG2 1, 
and  at  an  interval  of  more  than  four  centuries, 
the  Manchoos  again  possessed  themselves  of  China, 
and  have  now  for  more  than  two  centuries  go- 
verned that  empire,  and  probably  with  a  skill  and 
wisdom  never  equalle<l  by  its  native  masters. 
We  come  now  to  the  true  Mongols — to  tlie  race 

*  whose  rapid  a)nquests,'  as  Gibbon  ex[tresses  it, 
*may  be  compare<l  with  the  primitive  cmiNiilsions 
of  nature,  which  have  agitated  and  altered  the 
surface  of  the  glol)e.'  They  extend  westwanl  from 
the  longitude  of  Pekin,  or  alM>ut  110°,  to  the  Sea 
of  Aral,  a  sweep  of  at  least  i},0(M)  m.,  an<l  with  the 
same  physical  form,  the  same  language,  and  n(» 
great  variety  of  manners,  embrace  the  communi- 
ties or  tribes  known  to  us  under  the  various  deno- 
minations of  MongoK  orMoghuls,  Kalkas,  Eluilis, 
Ogiirs,  Kokonors,  Kami,  and  Kalmucks.  It  is  j^e- 
culiariy  to  this  family  that  the  descriptions  given 
bv  European  writers  of  *  the  Tartars '  is  appli(al>l<>. 
Ihey  are,  in  fact,  the  same  men  as  the  companions 
of  Attila,  Jengis  Khan,  and  for  the  most  part  of 
those  of  Timur,  who,  though  priding  himself  on 
being  a  Turk,  was  in  reaUty  a  Mongol,  whoso 
family  had  l>een  long  settlwl  in  a  Turkish  coinitry, 
and  whose  mvriails  were,  a  mixture  of  Imth  niees. 
Gibbon,  on  the  authority  of  Jomandes,  di^scriUw 
the  person  of  Attila,  and  says  that  it  exhibit wl 

*  the  genuine  deformity  of  a  modem  Calnmck.' 
An  ecclesiastic,  quoted  by  Matthew  Paris,  giv<  s, 
in  12-13,  a  picture  of  the  Mongols  who  were  the 
instruments  of  the  conquests  of  Jengis  and  his 
s(ms,  which  is  evidently  dmwii  by  an  eye-witness. 

*  The  Tartars,'  says  h*e,  *  have  limi  and  rol)us{. 
bodies,  lean  and  palUd  countenances,  high  and 
broad  shoulders,  short  and  distorted  noses,  ixiinte*! 
and  prominent  chins,  a  low  and  dc^p  u[)i)er  jaw, 
long  teeth,  distant  from  each  other,  eyeli<ls  streteh- 
e<l  (Hit  from  the  temple  to  the  nose,  eyes  block  and 
unsteady,  an  exprej<sion  oblique  and  stem,  ex- 
tremities bony  and  nervous,  large  and  muscular 
thighs,  but  short  legs,  with  a  stature  equal  to  our 
own,  the  deficiency  in  the  length  of  the  lower 
liml)s  beuig  made  up  in  the  rest  of  the  bodv.* 
Hie  Catholic  missionaries,  who  in  the  reign  of  the 


ASIA 


229 


Chinese  emperor  Kan^^-hi  rc])eatedly  travelled 
over  the  country  of  the  Mongols,  and  actually 
surN'eyed  a  pi>rtion  of  it,  confirm  this  description. 
The  Mongols,  by  their  statement,  are  a  stout,  squat, 
swarthy,  and  ill-favoured  people,  with  the  common 
Tartar  countenance  expressed  in  its  boldest  linea- 
inenta.  The  language  of  the  Mongols  is  polvsyl- 
labic,  and  differs  wholly  from  that  of  the  ilan- 
I'hoos.  \Vliat  is  remarkable,  and  almost  peculiar 
to  this  people^  Is,  that  the  whole  race  speak  the 
same  lan<^iage,  from  the  longitude  of  Pekm  almost 
to  the  Caspian,  and  in  some  situations  even  into 
the  heart  of  Siberia,  and  westward  within  the  con- 
ilnes  of  Europe.  Tins  arises,  no  doubt,  from  their 
being  physically  the  same  race,  fmm  their  ever 
wandering  and  unSxed  habits,  the  frequent  mix- 
ture arising  from  these  habits,  the  practice  of 
a  universal  hospitality,  and  their  having  been 
repeatedly  united  under  the  same  government, 
Something  similar  to  this  may  be  found  among 
the  LslancLs  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  languages  of 
which  have  a  vast  number  of  wonls  in  common,  a 
jvicitic  sea  constituting  in  tills  case  a  common  me- 
dium of  intercourse  and  communication,  like  the 
steppes  and  deserts  of  the  Mongols,  the  prao  and 
the  canoe,  in  fact,  taking  the  place  of  the  horse, 
the  ox,  and  the  cameL  The  country  of  the  Mon- 
gols Is  cold,  elevated,  and  drj',  few  parts  of  it  being 
lit  for  culture,  and  a  great  portion  of  it  consisting 
of  deserts,  or  '  seas  of  sand,'  as  the  Chinese  express 
it,  in  which  there  is  neither  herb  nor  water.  It 
alK>unds,  however,  in  game  and  wild  animals.  For 
the  chase  there  is  the  tiger,  leopard,  deer,  ante- 
lojKis,  hares,  and  many  species  of  the  galhnaceous 
family.  The  camel,  a'^s,  and  even  the  horse,  are 
still  found  in  it  in  their  wild  state:  and  no  doubt 
the  ox  and  sheep  were  so  also  before  they  were 
appropriated.  Such  a  country  necessarily  made 
the  Mongols  early  a  nation  of  shepherds  and  hun- 
ters, and  chained  them  down  as  it  were  to  that 
condition. 

The  Mongols,  with  the  exception  of  a  very 
small  numlwr,  live  almost  exclusively  on  animal 
f<Kjd;  and  their  clothing  and  dwellings,  or  t«nts, 
are  for  the  most  part  of  animal  tegument  or  tibre. 
When  urged  to  agricultural  employment,  their  an- 
swer is,  *  IIerl)S  were  made  for  the  bea.sts  of  the  field, 
and  the  l)easts  of  the  field  for  man.'    {Ante,  p.  1 78.) 

Their  whole  employment  consists  in  the  tending 
of  cattle,  war,  and  the  chase.  Tlieir  knowletlge  of 
letters  Is  of  the  humblest  order,  and  applicable 
only  to  the  [mrposes  of  suyjerstition  in  the  hands 
<»f  their  priests.  One  tribe,  the  Igurs  or  Ogurs, 
invented  a  meagre  alphal>et  of  fourteen  letters, 
which,  imi)roved  ami  extended  fn»m  that  of  Tibet, 
is  still  in  use.  Of  their  own  history  and  impor- 
tant migrations,  which  civilised  nations  have 
rtvonled  for  more  than  2,000  vears,  thev  know  as 
little  as  rata  or  marmots  do  of  theirs.  Jengis 
Khan  was  wholly  illiterate,  and  Timur  and  BalHjr 
ha<i  a  knowletlge  only  of  Turkish  and  Persian 
.  letters.  The  immense  country  of  the  Mongols 
may  Ije  describe<l  as  a  vast  nursery  of  soldiers, 
consisting  of  many  camps,  equipped,  provisione<l, 
and  readv  to  mardi  at  a  moment's  notice  with- 
out  inccmvenience  or  expense.  The  pet)ple  have 
strength  and  hardiluKxl  <»f  ImmIv,  and  vigour  and 
inteUigenoe  of  mind,  to  avail  themselves  of  these 
advantages :  and  whenever  a  leailer  of  genius,  ca- 
}>able  of  uniting  the  trilH\s  in  a  common  adven- 
ture, has  spning  up  among  them,  thev  have  proved 
a  pest  and  nuisance  to  all  the  civdised  races  of 
mankind  within  tlieir  reach.  Such  a  union  made 
it  neces>arv  for  tlie  Chinese  to  build  their  great 
wall  more  than  two  centuries  before  the  Christian 
era;  occa^iioncd  aUmt  the  same  period  the  de- 
struction of  the  Greek  kingdom  of  Bactria ;  caused 


the  settlement  of  the  Huns  within  the  confines  of 
Europe,  with  their  acts  of  destruction  and  rapine 
in  the  finest  parts  of  it,  in  tiie  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries;  and  the  conquest  of  Turkestan,  Persia, 
India,  and  China,  achieved  by  Jengis  Khan,  Ti- 
mur, and  their  descendants,  in  the  thirteenth, 
fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries.   The  repetition 
of  such  exploits  has  become  impossible  in  modem 
times,  o\*-ing  to  the  immense  strides  made  by 
western  civilisation,  as  in  other  things  so  in  war- 
fare.   Asiatics,  in<leed,  though  sometimes  obtain- 
ing temporary  advantages  have  never  been  a 
match  for  the  Euro|>eans,  even  when  the  latter 
were    comparatively  weak    and    semi-barbarous. 
Attila  was  defeated  in  the  plains  of  Chalons  by 
an  inferior  army  of  the  barbarians  of  northern 
Europe;  and  the  whole  of  his  adventures  were, 
after  all,  but  so  many  predatory  inroads  on  a  large 
scale.    Jengis  Khan,  his  successor,  effected  only 
the  conquest  of  the  weakest  and  rudest  nations  of 
Europe^  the  Ktissians,  Poles,  and  Hungarians,  and 
even   their  subjugation   was  temporary.    Timur 
did  still  less,  and  the  Bosporus  was  siifiicient  to 
stop  the  pn)gress  of  a  con(|ueror  who  had  marched 
in  triumph   over  5,000  m.  of  Asiatic  territorj'. 
The  Franks  defeated  the  Arabs  in  the  height  of 
their  j»ride  and  power.    A  handful  of  Normans 
dispossessed  them  of  Sicily,  and  the  mountaineen 
of  Biscay,  after  a  long  struggle,  finally  expelled 
them  from  Spain ;  so  that  witliin  the  memory  of 
history  no  Asiatic  people  has  formed  anv  thing 
l)etter  than  a  temporary  establishment  in  lilurope. 
CiN^lised  Europeans  have  been  contiuered  by  bar- 
barians of  their  own  family ;  but  not,  since  the 
historic  age,  by  Orientalists.    The  researches  of 
modem  philologists,  however,  make  us  acquainted 
with  the  singular  and  apparejitly  unaccountable 
fact,  that  the  languages  of  India,  the  Manchooa, 
and  Mongols,  and  of  the  Turkish,  Persian,  and 
European  families,  contain  many  words  in  com- 
mon ;  not  so  much  changed  by  the  peculiar  pro- 
nunciation of  each  j>eople  as  not  to  l)e  clearly 
identified;  while  the  Arabic  and  other  languages 
of  the  same  family  do  not  contain  any  vsuch  com- 
mon words.    But  this  may  be  accounted  for  on 
the  supposition  of  an  invasion  and  settlement  of 
Transoxiana,  Persia,  and  Eun>pe  by  the  Mongols 
in  times  far  bevond  the  reach  of  historv,  before 
the  invention  ot  letters,  when  there  were  neither 
Greeks  nor  Romans  to  tell  the  story.    How  the 
Mongolian  languages  came  to  possess  many  words 
in  common  with  the  Hindoo  seems  obvious  enough. 
All  the  Mongolian  nations  at  this  day  receive  their 
religion,  and  the  language  in  which  that  religion 
is  exphuned,  from  the  Tibetians,  and  the  Til^etiaiis, 
it  Is  admitted,  have  received  both  from  India.   But 
what,  it  may  be  asked,  could  tempt  the  Mongolian 
nations  to  the  invasion,  conquest,  and  settlement 
of  a  country  so  rude  and  remote  as  Europe  in  the 
times  we  are  supposing?    The  answer  is,  the  same 
cause  which  produces  constant  international  wars 
among  themselves  down  to  the  present  moment, — 
the  restless  military  habits  en^ndercd  by  their 
position, — the  constitutional  animal  courage  of  a 
race  energetic  and  enter|)rising, — the  d&iire  to  find 
new  ]>astures  for  horses,  henls,  and  fl(K"ks,  which 
a  well  watered  and  (then)  thinly  peopled  country 
like  Europe  could  well  supply ;  and  the  victories 
of  one  tribe  forcing  the  confjuered  to  abandon 
their  own   lands  and  seek   new  establishments. 
This  was  in  fact,  the  cause  which  <lrove  ^e  Hims 
of  the  second  centurj'  B.C.  \\\wr\  the  Greek  king- 
dom of   liactria,    and    eventually  brought  that 
lKM)ple  to  Euroi>e  in  the  third  and  fourth  centiL 
ries  after  Christ,  pnnhicing  even  their  ]>ermanenl 
settlement  on  its  eastem  confines,    llie  conquests 
of  Attila  and  of  Jengis  it  may  be  added,  had 


230 


ASIA 


t«imilnr  objecLM  in  view,  Imt  took  a  different  direc- 
tion,  and  ended  diflerently,  owinp:  to  the  rewi»t- 
iinoe  in  their  times  of  a  comparatively  numerous, 
wealthy,  and  civilised  yjeople.  Tinuir,  with  the 
Htivn^cth  which  Europe  had  already  attaine<i,  at 
the  close  of  the  14th  centurv,  only  threatene<l 
to  invaricit.  Both  he  and  .Jenfn»* 'inva<led  and 
overran  all  the  other  countries  of  the  West  in 
the  lanjfuafffiH  of  which  Indian  wt)nl.s  are  to  be 
fouuii ;  hut,  like  the  remote,  invaders  to  whom  our 
the^irj'  alludes,  they  never  touched  the  Arabian 
I>eninNula,  nor  frirmed  any  pi*rmanent  establish- 
ment in  anv  countrj-  in  which  the  Semitic  class  of 
lanpiaf^jf  is  spoken. 

'J'he  native  cajiacity  of  the  Mongolian  familv 
is  sufficiently  attestwl  by  the  pnMluction  of  sucK 
men  as  Attila.  Jeni;Ls  Tiinur,  lialKtr,  and  Kublay 
Khan,  as  well  as  in  the  conquest,  the  retention 
for  more  than  2()(>  veare,  and  th€  skilful  govern- 
ment during  nearfv  the  same  time,  of  the  vast 
empire  of  (.'hina.  It  is  singular,  indeotl,  that  the 
most  useful,  if  not  the  greatest  public  work  in  that 
iroiujtr>',  the  grand  canal  of  t>(K)  m.  in  length,  was 
the  work  of  the  first  Mongol  <*mperor,  who  was 
the  undisj)ut4Ki  lord  of  the  whole.  Kublay  Khan, 
the  grandsitn  of  .lengis,  though  Uim  a  shf  pheni. 
added  t^»  th<'  enterjmse  and  courage  of  his  own  race 
the  learning  and  skill  of  the  conquered  people. 

Ik>tween  the  Altai  and  Daurian  ranges  and 
riv<T  Amur  to  the  S.  and  the  Fn»zen  Ocean  tjo  the 
N..  there  exLst  tribes  almost  as  numerous  as  in  any 
wjual  extent  of  the  American  continent,  and  far 
more  distinct  in  physical  n»nn.  Many  of  them 
are  <»bviously  distinct  fainities;  an<l  others,  not  s<» 
considered,  will,  we  are  satu«tie<l,  be  found  Ho  \ye 
such  on  a  i)etter  acquaintance.  The  whole  are  so 
numerous,  obscure,  and  unimportant^  that  it  is 
difficulty  or  rather  im]>ossible,  to  classify  them 
satisfactorilv. 

I'herc  are  found  near  to  and  on  the  banks  of 
the  Amur  or  Saghalien,  four  natitms,  calle<l  .S(»- 
loni,  Kertching,  Daguri,  and  Natkis,  all  of  which 
have  lanpiagiw  wholly  different  fn>m  their  imme- 
diate neighUmrs  the  Manch<Kis,  while  they  differ 
also  among  themselves.  They  are  rude^  dull,  and 
wholly  without  the  knowle<lge  of  letters;  live  <»n 
fish ;  and  with  them  we  find  the  <log,  from  neces- 
bity,  first  substituted  for  the  horse  and  the  (»x. 

Slierbani,  the  gran(U«on  of  Jengis  Khan,  led  a 
cf»lony  of  Mongols  into  Silx'ria,  amounting  to 
15,000  families,  and  his  descendants  reigned  there 
for  HOi)  years,  or  until  the  liussian  discovery  and 
conquest;  so  that  the  Mongols,  although  origin- 
ally foreigners,  now  form  a  considerable  i>ortion 
of  the  {>oj)ulation  of  Siberia,  either  pure  or  mixed 
up  with  the  native  trilies  of  the  countrj'.    The 
TwtgiMta  are  said  to  be  allied  to  the  Manchoos. 
They  are  of  middling  stature,  udth  features  more 
distinct  and  more  in  relief  than  the  Kalmucks  or 
M<ingols;  well-made,  active,  and  courageous.  ITie 
liuriats^  it  Lm  pretend(Hl  also,  are  of  the  Mongo- 
lian race ;  but  it  is  evident  from  their  phytiical 
fonn  that  this  cannot  be  the  case,  notwithstaiuUng 
the  existence  of  Mong<^lian  words  in  their  lan- 
guage.   Acconling  to  f'allas,  an  eye-witness,  they 
are  short  in  statiu% ;  and  so  effeminate  that  six 
of  them  hardly  erjual,  in  isdnt  of  strength,  a  single 
Itussian.    TIk^mc  cannot  tic  of  the  same  stock  with 
the  iM)werful  and  intrepid  ]>e<iplc  that,  cfMiturios 
ago,  conquered  these  same  Kussians.    The  Wa- 
gaul  constitutes  a  small  family  dwelling  Itetween 
the  Ouralian  mountains  and  the  Obi,  Of  stature 
liehm'   the   Kun»{>ean,   with    black   hair,    scanty 
lH>ard,   and  Tartarian   face.     Th(^   Oxtiaks  are  a 
family  small  and  fe<'ble,  with  hair  of  a  light  a>- 
hmr  and  reddish  tinge.  They  can  count  no  further 
tiiaii  1 0,  luid  live  almost  exclusively  oil  iiblu  The 


SamnyetU  extend  along  the  Frozen  Ocean  from 
40^  to  115°  E.  Ion.  The  stature  of  this  verj'  dis- 
tinct familv  is  commonlv  from  4  ft^  to  5  ft.,  and 
consitquently  at  least  a  f(^»t  short  of  the  European 
standard.  Head  <fis|3ro|K»rtit>nately  lai^e:  face 
fiat ;  mouth  large ;  ears  also  large,  and  the  lower 
portion  of  the  face  pnyecting.  The  TchtmkU-hiK^ 
i'ttliagineM,  and  Koriaks  m'cupy  the  extreme  east- 
em  angle  of  Asia  fronting  America,  and  are  a 
coarse-featured,  short-  iwople,  without,  however, 
the  fiat  now»  or  peculiarly  small  eves  of  the 
Kamtchatca<lales.  They  resemble  the!t)squimaux 
of  America;  and  sjK-aking  tluree  distinct  lan- 
guaget*,  are  proljably  as  many  distinct  races.  The 
Kamtchatcadalea  are  a  verj'  short  race,  with  bn»ad 
shoulders,  a  laige  head  and  a  fiat  elongated  coun- 
tenance, tliin  lijw,  small  eyes,  and  very  little  hair. 
The  AleutiatuL,  or  inhabitants  of  the  Aleutian 
islands,  are  a  different  race  fn»m  these;.  They  are 
swarthy,  short,  but  stout  and  well-prop<»rtione<l. 
llic  jKiople  occupying  the  great  island  of  Sagha- 
lien, at  the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  and  the  whole 
chain  of  the  Kurilc  islan<ls,  from  the  Caix;  of 
Kamtchatka  to  Jess,  in  Ja|)an,  are  a  distinct  race 
firom  any  of  those  above  mentioned. 

The  stoutest  and  most  vigorous  of  the  )M.H^>ple  of 
this  jMirt  of  Asia,  or  thase  found  to  the  S.,  dwell 
in  moveable  tents,  like  the  Mongols  have  horses 
and  oxen,  and  are  not  wanting  in  stature^  strength, 
and  the  militarv  virtues.  On  the  contrarv',  the 
iidiabitants  of  the  bleak  and  uihosintable  regions 
towanls  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Tolar  Sea  all 
exchange  the  horse,  ox,  and  sheep  for  the  rein- 
deer and  dog;  live  in  cabins  or  caverns  instead 
of  movealde  tents;  are  smal  wenk,  an<l  j)usill- 
animous:  *  a  race,'  as  Giblxm  expresses  it,  *  of 
deforme<l  and  diminutive  savages,  who  trenibU*  at 
the  sound  of  arms.'  Among  all  tlie  native  nicc.s 
to  the  N.  of  the  Altai  mountains  letters  arc 
whtdly  unknown;  agriculture  is  scarcely  practLse<l; 
for  war  on  a  large  scale  the  |.teople  have  neither 
disposition,  cajpacity,  nor  means;  and,  to  obtain 
fo<Hl  and  ch>thmg,  nearly  their  whole  time  is  con- 
sumed ui  fishing  and  the  chas(>^ 

There,  are  no  means  whatever  bv  which  to  form 
anything  like  a  correct  estimate  either  of  the 
extent  or  population  of  the  greater  numl>er  of 
Asiatic  states.  The  estimates  of  the  |)opulatiou 
of  China  <nily  vary'  from  alMuit  250  to  about  3tlH  mil- 
lions (the  latter  is  prolwibly  nearest  the  truth) ; 
and  the  differences  in  the  estimates  of  the  |>opu- 
ladon  of  other  countries,  though  much  les.n  in 
absolute  amount,  are  quite  as  great  in  degree. 
There  are.  also  gniat  iliscrepancies  in  tlie  esti- 
mates tliat  have  been  formed  of  the  area  of  the 
different  states,  originating  partly  in  the  want  of 
correct  measurements,  and  partly  in  the  fiuetuat- 
ing  and  ill-defined  nature  of  their  boumlaries. 
These  estimates  will  Ikj  given  in  treating  of  the 
different  states.  Summing  up  the  whole,  we  find 
the  total  area  of  Asia  to  l>e  17,805,140  English 
square  miles,  inhabited  by  a  fsmiilatioii  of 
7»0,5O0,0OO  souls.  This  gives  44  hihabitants  to 
the  square  mile,  showing  the  density  of  js>pula- 
tion  to  Ikj  rather  metre  than  half  that  of  Euro|»e. 
Taking  the  area  of  terra  firma  on  the  gloUi  at 
51,403.4^^8  square  miles,  and  the  population  at 
1,221,000,000,  the  vari<ms  divisions  will  l)e  as  fol- 
lows: the  pop.  of  Australasia  I  |>er  sij.  mile;  of 
America,  5;  of  ^Vfrica,  7;  of  Asia,  44;  an<i  of 
Europe,  76.  This  gives  the  average  tleuhity  of 
IM)]^>ulation  on  the  glol>e  at  22  [)er  sq.  mile,  so  that 
Asia  has  exactly  double  the  amounts 

V.  pRoOKEss  OF  Disco VKUY. — Tlic  geogra- 
phical knowh"<lge  (»f  A^^ia  may  l>e  con>idered  iis 
commencing  with  it«  weslem  countries,  and  with 
<irccce,  the  cradle    of   our    pres<"ut  civilisation. 


ASIA 


231 


Jiulea  and  Phccnicia  are  the  quarters  from  which 
the  earliest  information  cornea.  The  Jews  scarcely 
recopiised  distinctly  any  object  more  easterly  than 
the  Kiiphrate/*,  cmj)hatically  tenned  by  them  *  the 
river,'  beyond  which,  at  a  vague  and  uncertain 
distance,  they  place<i  *  the  ends  of  the  earth.' 
Tyre  traded  with  several  cities  on  its  banks,  but 
does  not  seem  to  have  pushed  her  intcrcoiuTMJ  fur- 
ther ;  though  Dr.  Vincent  reasonably  conjwtures, 
that  the  chests  of  rich  apparel,  carefully  bound 
with  cords,  brought  by  this  channel,  were  from 
countries  much  more  remote.  A  great  traffic  is 
mentioned  with  Dedan,  a  city  of  Arabia,  which, 
from  its  many  isles,  and  ita  merchandise  of  pre- 
cious cloths,  must  have  been  in  the  \*icinitv  of 
Chtnuz,  and  have  drawn  these  commfMiitie-s  from 
India.  They  were  transported,  by  large  caravans, 
across  Arabia  to  Edom  or  ldumea,which  was  greatly 
enriched  by  this  traffic  From  the  south  of  Ara- 
bia, Shelja,  or  Sal)ea,  sent  caravans  laden  with 
gold  and  incense,  both  probably  obtained  from  the 
opposite  coasts  of  Africa, 

The  knowlecige  of  A«»ia  came  to  be  somewhat 
extended  in  the  5th  century  B.C.  The  triumphant 
contest  of  (Ireece  with  Persia  excited  deep  interest, 
and  generated  plans  of  conquest  which  rendered 
every  information  respecting  that  empire  acceptable. 
The  mostviduable  contributor  was  Herod(»tus,who, 
during  a  residence  at  Bal>ylon,  collected  materials 
for  a  description  of  the  satrapies  into  which  it  was 
divided.  To  the  north  it  extended  over  a  part  of 
the  Caucasian  pn>vinccs,  enabling  the  writer  to 
delineate  tolerably  the  extent  and  boundaries  of 
the  Caspian.  Margiana  and  Bactria  probably 
reached  to  the  Oxus,  Iwvond  which  wandered  the 
iScythian  tribe  named  IViassageta'.  India  was  the 
most  easterly  satrapy;  but  being  descrilKnl  as 
containing  no  great  river  except  the  IndiLs,  and 
bounded  by  an  immense  desert,  it  evidently 
contained  only  the  western  provinces,  while  the 
(langetic  and  southern  countries  were  entirely 
unknown.  Herodotus  gives  a  somewhat  rude  dc- 
si'ription  of  the  inhabitants  suggested  probably 
by  the  bordering  mountaineer  tribes.  The  fact 
of  its  affording  a  revenue  four  times  that  of 
Eg}T>t  shows  clearly  that  it  was  already  opulent 
and  improved.  Darius  in  said  to  have  employed 
Scylax,  the  Car\andrian,  to descen<i  the  Indus,  sail 
along  the  southern  coast,  and  come  up  the  Ked 
Sea :  a  voyage  accomplishe<l  in  two  years. 

The  next  great  source  of  information  to  the 
(Ireeks  was  the  expedition  of  Alexander,  It  did 
not,  indeed,  extend  much  beyond  the  already 
knt)wn  limits  of  the  Persian  empire;  but  the 
countries,  before  known  only  by  vague  report, 
were  then  carefully  examined  and  described. 
Under  his  direction  two  engineers,  Diognetus  and 
Ilai'ton,  made  siur\'evs  of  each  march,  which  were 
pubhshed  by  the  fatter,  but  arc  unfortunately 
lost.  To  the  north,  Alexander  pushed  beyond 
the  Jaxartcs  hut  without  being  able  to  bring 
under  sulyection  the  rude  tribes  who  tenanted 
those  regions.  On  the  side  of  India,  he  learned 
the  existence  of  the  (ianges  and  the  tine  coim- 
tries  on  its  banks,  to  which  he  eagerly  sought  to 
penetrate ;  but  the  mutiny  of  his  troops  com- 
l»ellcd  him  to  stop  at  the  llyphai^is.  The  Greeks 
had  then  an  opportunity  of  obscr\'ing  some  of  the 
}K'culiarities  <»f  the  Indian  people;  their  division 
into  castes ;  tlieir  fantastical  religious  austerities ; 
and  the  merit  attached  to  suicide.  Alexander  de- 
scended the  Indus  to  its  mouth,  and  sent  thence  a 
tieet  under  Xearchus,  who  traced  the  coast  of  Asia 
as  far  as  the  Persian  Gulf,  wliich  he  ascended,  and 
joined  his  mast«»r  at  Bal)ylon.  This  voyage,  now 
so  easy,  was  then  considered  a  most  perilous 
achievement,  and  tb«*  narty  arrived  in  a  state  of 


distrcffi  and  exhaustion.  Alexander  himself,  in 
returning  through  the  maritime  proWnces,  became 
aware  of  their  extremely  desolate  character, 
through  which,  indeed,  his  army  was  in  danger  of 
perishing. 

On  the  partition  of  Alexander's  empire,  Seleu- 
ciis  obtained  Syria,  with  as  much  of  the  countries 
to  the  eastwanl  as  his  arms  coidd  hold  in  subjec- 
tion. He  is  said  to  have  attempted  the  conquest 
of  India,  but  there  is  no  distinct  account  how 
far  he  penetrated;  probably  it  was  not  beyond 
Alexander's  limit.  He  sent,  hoi^'evcr,  an  embassy, 
under  Megasthenes,  to  Palibothra  (Patahputra) 
on  the  Ganges,  capital  of  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful kingdoms  ever  formed  in  India ;  and  through 
this  channel  a  good  deal  of  additional  information 
was  obtained.  He  also  employed  his  admiral, 
Patroclus,  in  an  attempt  to  circumnavigate  Asia ; 
and  rumour  even  represents  him  as  having  ac- 
complished this  vast  circuit,  an<l  entx^red  from  the 
northern  ocean  into  the  Caspian ;  but  the  mani- 
festly fabulous  charactesr  of  this  report  makes  it 
impossible  to  conjecture  how  far  he  really  pene- 
trated. 

All  the  materials  thus  collected  were  at'  the 
disposal  of  Eratosthenes,  the  learned  librarian  of 
Alexandria,  and  were  employed  by  him  in  form- 
ing, on  the  astronomical  principles  of  Hipparchus, 
the  first  systematic  delineation  of  the  globe.  It 
is,  however,  as  to  Asia,  extremely  imperfect.  The 
Ganges  is  made  to  fall  into  the  eastern  ocean,  re- 
presenteil  as  bounding  the  habitable  earth.  The 
Cape  of  the  Cx)liaci  (Comorin)  is  made  at  once  the 
most  southerly  and  moat  easterly  point  of  Asia. 
About  ten  degrees  north  of  the  Ganges,  and  a 
very  little  east,  is  placed,  in  the  same  ocean,  the 
city  of  Thinaj,  often  alluded  to  as  the  extremity 
on  that  side  of  the  habitable  worltl :  this  appears 
the  first  very  imperfect  rumour  which  reached 
the  western  nations  of  the  Chinese  empire.  Not 
far  from  Thina  the  coast  turned  westward, 
stretching  along  the  great  northern  oce>an,  which 
bounds  both  Europe  and  Asia,  but  at  so  low  a 
latitude  that  the  Caspian  was  considered  to  be  a 
gulf  connected  with  it  by  a  narrow  strait.  This 
was  a  retrograde  step  even  from  Herodotus,  who 
had  descril)ed  it  justly  as  an  inland  sea,  Asia, 
thus  wanting  Tibet,  China,  the  greater  part  of 
Tartar}',  an<l  all  Siberia,  possessed  little  above  a 
third  part  of  its  real  dimensions. 

The  Romans  did  not,  by  their  conquests,  ob- 
tain any  accession  to  the  knowledge  of  Asia. 
Belore  thev  reached  Persia  that  country  had  been 
occupieil  W  the  Parthians,  a  brave  northern 
people,  the  attempts  to  sulxlue  whom  were  not 
only  fruitless  but  most  disastrous.  But  the 
boundless  wealth  accumulated  in  the  imperial 
capital  from  the  spoils  of  conquereii  nations, 
bnnight  all  sorts  of  commo^lities,  however  distant 
the  place  of  their  production,  and  however  high 
their  prices,  to  its  markets.  The  Serica  testis  (silk), 
then  first  introduced,  l)ecarae  for  some  time  quite 
the  rage,  and  was  readily  ]>aid  for  at  its  weight  in 
gold.  The  fragrant  malabathrum  (betel,  or  tea), 
and  the  ornamented  vessels  named  murrhina  (pro- 
bably porcelain),  bniiight  also  vast  prices.  The 
inerehants  of  Alexandria  and  Bvzantium  were 
thus  impelled  not  only  to  embark  large  capitals 
but  to  brave  hanlship  and  danger  in  reaching  the 
remote  extremities  of  the  continent  where  these 
commodities  were  produced. 

Of  the  maritime  route,  Arrian,  a  merchant  rf 
Alexandria,  has  ^ven  a  <letaile<l  and  correct  ac- 
count, 8up|K>sing  It  to  be  written  in  the  first  cen- 
tury, lie  describes  it  as  extending  along  Persia, 
Arabia,  and  India,  as  far  as  Nelisunram  (Ncl- 
kunda)  on  the  coast  of  Malabar.  The  Greek  navi- 


282 


ASIA 


gators  had  not  then  proceodcd  farther  east,  but 
found  in  that  port  supplies  of  the  important  ar- 
ticles of  silk  and  malabathrum.  Tlds  trade  "wsa 
carried  on  hy  ships  that  steered  directly  across  the 
Indian  Ocean  from  the  Straits  of  Babnel-Mandcb, 
by  the  route  first  discovered  by  Hippalus.  Of 
the  more  easterly  coasts,  Arrian  gives  only  hear- 
say accounts,  becoming  j^radually  fainter  and 
more  fabulout; ;  but  he  distinctly  indicates  Ma- 
suhpatam  and  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  with 
the  exquLsitelvfine  cottons  there  fabricated.  Even 
beyond  this  limit,  he  mentions  Chryse  or  the 
golden  isle  (Sumatra  or  liomeo).  '  Thinie  is 
noticed,  but  in  a  manner  still  more  confuscil  than 
hy  Eratosthenes.  But  he  gives  a  curioiw  account 
of  the  collection  of  the  leaves  of  malabathrum  by 
a  people,  the  form  of  whose  visage  shows  them 
to  be  Tartars  or  Chinese,  and  of  the  maimer  in 
which  they  were  picked,  dried,  and  curle(L  Vos- 
sius,  Vincent,  and  most  other  ^vrite^s,  conceive 
this  to  be  the  beteL  Mr.  Murray,  however,  has 
endeavoured  to  show  that  this  last,  being  only 
used  for  wrapping  the  areca  nut,  must  fur  that 
pur{)ose  be  used  fresh,  and  would  l)e  destroyed  by 
the  above  processes ;  that  it  cannot  conpe<|uently 
be,  and  b  not,  an  object  of  trade,  though  the  areca 
is;  and  that  the  malabathnmi  alluded  to  was, 
therefore,  most  probably  tea.  The  ancient  ac- 
counts, however,  give  no  distinct  intimation  how 
the  article  was  used,  nor  any  reason  to  think, 
supposing  it  to  l)0  tea,  that  it  was  by  drinking  the 
infusion,  but  rather,  in  some  form,  as  an  object  of 
scent.  (Arrian,  l*eriplus  Maris  Eretlirei,  in  Ilud- 
0on.  Geog.  Gkbc.  Minor,  torn,  ii  Vincent  on  the 
Peripliis,  4 to,  1805.  Murray,  Historic  and  De- 
Bcript.  Account  of  China,  Edinb.  183(>.) 

AlK)ut  a  century  after,  Ptolemy  published  his 
elaborate  system  of  geography,  which  shows  a 
very  remarkable  extension  of  knowledge  in  regard 
to  Asia.  He  delineates,  though  rudely,  a  very 
laige  extent  of  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Ganges  to  Cattigara,  on  the  coast  of  the  Sinie ; 
chiefly  from  a  pretty  detailed  route  of  his  prede- 
cessor Marinus,  partly  furnished  by  Alexander,  a 
mariner,  who,  fn)m  his  name,  was  jmibably  a 
Greek.  His  statement  that  it  reached  1,300  m. 
S£.,  and  then  again  about  as  much  XR.,  could 
only  consist  with  a  voyage  from  the  head  of  the 
liay  of  Bengal  to  Chiiuu  Snda,  the  point  where 
he  turned  north,  must  be  at  or  near  Singapore. 
Thence  he  described  a  coasting  voyage  of  350  m., 
when  he  *cro8se<l  the  sea'  (oidcntly  the  broad 
mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Siara),  and  reached  what 
he  terms  the  Golden  Chersonese,  a  name  very 
naturally  suggeste<l  by  the  rich  mines  on  the 
opposite  coast  of  Borneo.  Thence  he  had  twenty 
davs'  coastuig  sail  (along  Cochin  China  and  Ton- 
quin) ;  finally,  a  course  partly  south,  but  more 
east,  led  to  Cattigara,  which  must  thus  have  been 
on  the  southern  coa>t  of  China,  and  from  its  name 
probably  Canton.  Ptolemy,  however,  though  he 
professeilly  made  this  the  basis  of  his  delineation, 
evidently  adopted,  and  unskilfully  combined  with 
it,  information  from  other  quartera.  In  his  tables, 
the  Golden  Chersonese,  from  its  vast  extension 
southward,  and  containing  the  names  Malavo 
colon  and  ccmst  of  the  Pirates,  very  clearly  desig- 
nates Malacca,  conjoined  probably  with  Sumatra, 
which  is  not  separately  mentione<L 

The  same  geographer  describes  a  caravan  route., 
formed  thnmgh  Asia  by  the  merchants  of  Byzan- 
tium. Proceeding  due  east,  thn>ugh  Asia  Minor 
and  Persia,  they  made  some  ciri*uits  in  order  to 
include  U>Tcaiiia  (Astnibad),  Aria  (Herat),  and 
MaTgiana(KI)orassan) ;  they  then  readied  Baotria 
(Balkh),  which  seems  to  have  been  the  main 
centre  of  the  inland  trade  of  the  continent.  •  The 


route,  which  had  hitherto  been  through  immense 
and  level  plains,  led  then  over  those  lofty  moun- 
tain ranges  that  lie  to  the  north  of  India.  Aftor 
a  laborious  ascent,  thoy  reached  a  »tati(ni  called 
the  Stone  Tower,  where  the  merchants  destined 
for  the  remotest  extremities  of  Asia  united  f«)r 
mutual  aid  and  defence ;  thence,  a  route  of  seven 
months,  chequered  by  many  |)eril8  and  vicLisi- 
tudes,  bnmght  them  to  Sera,' the  capital  of  Serica. 
That  this  country  is  China,  is  now  so  generally 
admitted  that  we  need  s<'arcely  notice  the  thcHJries 
which  assign  it  to  a  less  (Ustant  position,  esy>e- 
cially  that  of  Gosselin,  who,  in  pn)foun<l  igiK>- 
rance  of  the  localities,  would  make  it  Sorinagiir, 
in  the  north  of  India.  The  pnnluce  of  silk,  the 
character  of  the  peo))lc,  industrious,  mild,  ))a(!iii(', 
timid,  and  shunning  the  intercourse  of  foreigners, 
all  combine  to  exclude  any  other  supposition.  It 
is  remarkable  that  northern  Cliina,  reached  l»y 
this  route,  is  calle<l  Serica,  while  its  southern  coast 
is  named  that  of  the  Sinse.  It  is,  in  fact,  uncer- 
tain, whether  the  two  were  then  under  one  govern- 
ment; at  all  event**,  the  names  were  pnjbably 
those  used  by  the  neighbouring  nations,  as,  nt 
present,  the  term  China,  the  same  with  Tsiiia,  or 
Sina,  is  received  by  us  frf)m  the  pe<»plc  of  tlio 
oriental  arclnpelago.  Ptolemy's  knowledge  dicl 
not  reach  to  tlie  eastern  ocean  ;  and,  unlike  Era- 
tosthenes, he  did  not  assume  its  exLstt'Uce,  but- 
bounded  Asia  on  that  side,  as  well  as  on  the 
north,  by  a  vast  expanse  of  *  unknown  land.' 

This  communication  opened  by  Ilome  durini^ 
her  highest  pnwperity  was  gradually  lost  amid 
!  the  distractions  and  weakness  of  the  empire,  and 
when  all  the  intennediate  countries  wore  ocoii- 
pieti  by  the  hostile  Saracen  power,  St('])hrn  of 
Byzantium,  and  the  Geographer  of  Kuvimhim, 
about  the  8th  centur>',  show  onlv  the  nio^t 
imperfect  knowledge  of  the  countries  l)ey<»n(l 
Bactriana,  including  them  under  the  vague  lenn 
of  India-Serica. 

A  new  jwople  now  arose,  who,  impelled  by  am- 
bition and  religious  zeal,  explored  and  civilised 
a  great  jwrtwrn  of  the  world.  The  Aralis,  under 
the  impulse  given  by  Mohammed,  nished  from 
their  deserts,  and  conquered  an  empire  more  ex- 
tensive than  that  of  Kome.  They  i>enel  rated 
even  into  Scvthia,  which  had  remained  iinper\'i«»us 
lioth  to  the  Persians  and  (ireeks,  an<l  established 
fiourishing  kingdoms  on  the  banks  of  the  Oxus 
and  the  Jaxartes.  During  the  enlightened  a'ni  <»f 
the  caliphs,  particular  attention  was  paid  to 
geographical  knowledge.  A  numlx?r  of  heading 
|K>sitions  were  determined  by  a»»tron()mieal  obsir- 
vation,  a  process  to  which  the  (ireeks  had  Ik'cu 
almost  strangers:  India  was  well  known  to  them, 
and  ere  long  became  subject  to  Mohammedan 
princes.  China  was  never  even  approached  l)y 
conquest,  but  cr)mmerce  conveyeti  some  pretty 
accurate  ideas  respecting  that  country;  indeed, 
in  the  ninth  century,  two  Arab  merchants  Wahab 
and  Abusaid,  visited  it,  and  published  an  acc<»unt, 
in  some  respects  very  accurate,  and  acx'onlant 
with  modem  observation.  They  mention  it«  great 
fertility  and  iKjpulousncss ;  the  production  and 
I  general  use  of  nce^  silk,  tea,  and  pon'elain :  the 
rigid  watchfulness  of  the  |K)li(rc ;  the  general  tlif- 
fusion  of  reading,  and  the  preference  of  >vritten 
over  spoken  language.  On  the  north,  some  imper- 
fect notices  were  received  of  Siberia  and  the  An'tic 
Ocean.  ThLs  rt^on  excited  intense  interest  from 
its  being  supposed  to  contain  the  ca'<tle  of  two  enor- 
mous giants,  Gog  and  Magog,  t  he  search  after  whieli 
im|)elled  the  caliphs  to  expeditions  of  disc<»very. 
After  ."^everal  fmitloss  eftorts,  one  was  (lispatehe(l 
with  strict  onlers  not  to  n*tuni  without  haviiii; 
di^overcd  tliis  castle.     Under  this  impulse  ihey 


ASIA 


233 


marched  towards  the  Altai,  and  returned  with  a 
truly  formidable  description  of  the  fortress,  as 
surrounded  by  walls  of  iron,  and  with  a  gate  fifty 
cubits  high.  This  report  was  implicitly  received, 
and  the  ca.'^itle  appears  conspicuous  in  all  the  maps 
of  the  middle  agCv^  (Edrisi,  (ieogr.  Nubiens.  Pans, 
1819;  Notices  et  Extraits  des  Manuscrits  du  Koi 
de  France,  torn,  iu  ;  Anciennes  Helatious,  &c.  tra- 
duites  par  Kenaudot.     Paris,  1718.) 

Europe  meantime  was  buried  in  the  deepest 
ignorance  as  to  all  that  related  to  the  eastern 
world.  Attention,  however,  was  at  last  powerfully 
attracted  to  it  by  the  crusades.  Some  direct  ac- 
counts were  received,  and  lights  were  sought  in 
Ptolemy  and  other  ancients :  the  result  was  a  very 
confusetl  mass  of  notions,  which  are  curiously  ex- 
hibited by  Sanudo.  in  the  map  prefixed  to  his  nar- 
rative of  these  expeditions,  entitled,  *  Crcsta  Dei 
per  Francos.'  The  world  is  there  represented  as 
a  great  circular  plain,  in  the  centre  of  which  stands 
Jenusalem.  Sera  is  borrowed  from  Ptolemv;  but 
India  is  placed  partly  beyond  it,  and,  under  the 
titles  of  Major,  Minor,  and  Interior,  is  scatteretl 
through  diiferent  and  distant  parts  of  Asia.  The 
Indus,  in  the  text,  is  made  the  boundary  of  that 
continent.  To  the  north,  Albania  and  (leorgia 
stretch  almost  to  the  sea  of  darkness,  and  in  the 
same  quarter  ap[>cars  the  castle  of  Gog  and 
Magog. 

Attention  was  about  the  same  time  forciblvdrawn 
to  another  Asiatic  region.  The  Mongol  chief 
Jengls,  and  lus  descendants,  established  an  eraj»ire 
of  immense  extent,  comprising  on  one  side  China, 
and  on  the  other  R»u<aia,  which  was  long  held 
under  Tartar  sway.  Thence  thev  marched 
through  i*oland  into  Hungary  and  Silesia.  The 
Duke  of  that  countr\',  having  ventured  to  en- 
counter them,  was  defeated  and  slain.  Circum- 
stances deterred  them  from  proceeding  farther; 
but  their  nurab«?rs,  ferocity,  and  conquest^-^,  struck 
Kurojie  i^ith  terror.  In  hopes  of  averting  future 
invasion,  it  was  determined  to  send  embassies 
from  the  Pope,  as  the  chief  of  Christendom;  and 
two  monks,  Carpini  and  Kul)ruquis,  were  succes- 
sively employed.  They  travelled  by  long  jour- 
neys, of  many  months,  over  the  vast  plains  of 
Tartary  to  Karrakamm,  a  nide  capital,  situate<l 
far  east  in  that  region.  They  were  tolerably  well 
receivetl.  as  (»riental  courts  arc  fond  of  the  atten- 
tion and  homage  wliich  missions  imply ;  but  the 
threatened  invasion  was  prevented  by  quite  diffe- 
rent causes.  Iking  proliably  the  first  who  had 
penetrate<l  into  those  remote  regions,  they  com- 
municate<l  new  ideas  resf)ccting  their  vast  extent, 
and  tlie  countries  situated  both  at  their  eastern 
and  northern  extremities. 

About  the  same  time  that  this  intercourse  with 
the  east  was  ojwjned,  and  partly  in  consequence  of 
it,  tlie  spirit  of  industry  and  commerce  revive<l 
among  the  maritime  cities  of  Italy,  Venice  and 
(Jenoa  had  established  factories  and  carried  on 
trade,  not  only  over  all  the  Levant,  but  on  the 
coast  of  the  lilack  Sea.  From  this  last  quarter, 
two  Venetian  nobles  of  grwit  enterprise,  of  the 
name  of  Polo,  undert(K)k  to  visit  the  court  of  a 
Tartar  prince,  desconde<l  from  Jengis,  with  a  view 
t-o  db«r)<>.<>e  of  some  valuable  commodities.  Various 
vicissitudes  led  them  on  to  Bokhara;  and  they 
were  there  induced  to  accompany  a  mis.sion  to 
Cainbalu,  tlie  court  of  Kiiblay,  named  the  (ireat 
Khan,  who  inherited  the  most  valuable  of  Jengis's 
conquests  in  China  and  the  ncighlxmring  coun- 
tries. Having  rctunied  to  Venice,  they  again 
set  out  for  the  Kast,  taking  with  them  MaR'o,  one 
of  their  sons,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  a  m<»st 
interesting  account  of  his  and  their  travels.  On 
their  outward  juiiniey  they  iKisscil  through  Dalkh, 


Kashgar,  Khoton,  Tangiit,  and  other  countries  ii)i 
the  great  table-land  of  Middle  Asia,  which  we  name 
Little  Bucharia,  and  respecting  which  we  have 
little  better  information  than  Marco  communi- 
cated. 

Cathay,  as  Northern  China  was  then  caUed, 
with  Cambalu,  its  capital,  the  modem  Pekin, 
completely  dazzled  the  travellers.  The  walls 
forming  a  square,  each  side  of  which  measured 
six  miles — the  lofty  ornamented  gates — the  spa- 
cious streeta — the  immense  palace,  with  its  painted 
halls — the  beautifully  ornamented  garden»^the 
pomp  of  the  imperial  festivals — all  these  objects, 
nearly  on  the  same  scale  as  now,  far  surpassed 
any  magnificence  of  which  Europe  could  then 
boast.  Being  well  received,  and  even  officially 
employed,  Marco  set  out  upon  an  extensive  toiir 
through  the  western  proWnces,  visiting  part  of 
Tibet,  and  obtaining  information  respecting  Mien 
(Ava).  Tliis  was  followed  by  a  more  interesting 
journey  into  Mangi,  or  Southern  China,  which  not 
long  before  had  formed  a  separate  kingdom,  but 
happened  then,  as  now,  to  be  subject  to  a  power 
resident  in  the  north.  He  descnbcs  it  justly  as 
more  firuitful  and  populous  than  the  region  first 
\nsitcd.  Its  capital,  Quinsai.  or  the  Celestial  City, 
is  painted  in  glowing  colours;  its  edifices,  canals, 
ornamented  bridges,  spacious  lake,  and  the  palaces 
which  embellished  its  shores. 

Marco  heard  also  of  Xipangu,  or  Japan,  as  a 
rich  insular  empire,  which  the  Great  Khan  had 
made  a  vain  attempt  to  subdue.  Ketuming  by 
sea,  the  travellere  touched  at  Tsiompa  and  Su- 
matra. They  siKjnt  some  time  successively  in 
Ceylon,  Coromandel,  and  Malabar,  and  ll^Iarco 
gives  a  not  unfaithful  account  of  Indian  manners 
and  superstitions.  Then  sailing  up  the  Persian 
Gulf,  they  proceeded  from  Ormuz  to  Trebisond, 
whence  they  retunie<l  to  Venice,  twenty -four  years 
after  their  de|)arturo. 

The  great  discoveries  thus  made  were  not 
neglected.  In  the  beginning  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury, Juan  de  Monte  Cor\'ino,  a  Minorite  friar, 
undertook  a  religious  mission  into  the  east.  He 
penetrated  to  Cambalu,  where  he  was  allowed  to 
reside  for  a  number  of  years,  and  made  many  con- 
vertjs;  the  city  was  even  erected  into  a  see,  of 
which  he  was  named  archbishop.  About  the  same 
time  Pegoletti,  an  Italian  merchant,  traced  the 
caravan  route  through  Asia  as  far  as  Cambalu,  and 
published  his  itinerary.  Another  Minorite  friar, 
Oderic  of  Portenau,  narrated  a  voyage  made  to 
India,  the  oriental  archipelago,  and  China,  return- 
ing by  way  of  Tibet. 

In  the  end  of  this  century,  the  conquests  and 
^%idely  extended  empire  of  Timur,  with  his  victory 
over  Bajazet  the  Turkish  sultan^  resounded  through- 
out Asia,  and  in  some  degree  through  Europe. 
Henry  HI.  of  Castile  sent  two  successive  embas- 
sies to  the  court  of  the  Tartar  conqueror,  the  last 
in  1408,  under  Clavijo,  who  spent  some  weeks  at 
Samiu'cand,  and,  though  he  has  not  added  much  to 
geograplucal  knowle<lge,  he  gave  an  interesting 
account  of  tlie  court  and  policy  of  that  monarch. 

By  these  different  means,  a  light,  though  some- 
what dim.  was  thrown  u^M)n  the  farthest  extre- 
mities of  Asia;  but  it  did  not  much  avail  the 
Italian  republics,  who  were  unable  to  reach  ita 
southern  shores  by  sea,  while  the  land  route  was 
Uh)  arduous  and  perilous  to  be  much  frequented. 
The  |)erio<l,  however,  was  now  at  han«l  when  the 
furthest  extremities  of  Asia  were  to  l)e  the  scene 
of  Euroiwan  entcriirise  and  adventure.  In  1497, 
Vasco  de  Gama  doubled  the  Cai>e  of  Good  Hi>pe, 
and  reached  the  shores  of  India  at  Calicut.  In 
the  short  space  of  twenty  years  the  Portuguese, 
by  a  succession  of  victorious  armaments  estab- 


234 


ASIA 


liflhed  forts  and  settlements  in  Hindnstan,  the 
Malayan  peninsula,  and  most  of  the  islands  of  the 
archipelago,  and  even  attempted  tJiem  in  China. 
Although  tills  career  could  not  be  said  to  be  one 
of  diflc*over>',  almost  all  these  countries  boinf^  to  a 
certain  decree  known,  the  hitherto  doubtful  ac- 
connttf  were  authenticated,  and  tliey  were  surveyed 
with  much  peater  precision.  In  the  seventeentli 
century,  a  body  of  French  missionaries,  emment 
for  mathematical  and  astronomical  knowledge,  ob- 
tuned  i>ermiB8ion  to  reside  in  Pekin,  and  were 
even  employed  in  making  a  survey  of  China  and 
the  adjacent  countries.  The  materials  thus  col- 
lected were  transmitted  to  France,  and  arranged 
by  D'Anville. 

But  though  the  south  of  Asia,  including  its 
finest  regions,  had  thus  become  known,  there  ro- 
maineil  north  of  the  Altai  mountains  nearly  a  third 
part  of  the  continent  to  which  neither  ct>nquerors 
nor  merchants  had  yet  penetrated.  Its  discover)' 
was  reserved  for  Russia.  After  groaning  for  ages 
beneath  the  Tartar  yoke,  she  emancipated  herself, 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  under  Joan  Vassilievitch, 
and  has  ever  since  continued  an  active  and  in- 
creasing ]Kiwer.  Al)out  the  end  of  that  century, 
liaving  conquered  the  Cossacs,  she  had  the  widrcss 
to  engage  tliat  active  and  hanly  race  to  explore 
and  conquer  for  her  the  vast  rt'gion  of  Siberia. 
They  pnKjeeded  step  by  step,  till,  in  1()39,  fifty 
vears  after  the  commencement  of  the  undertaking, 
t>imitrei  Kopilof  arrived  at  the  Gulf  of  Ochotsk, 
a  branch  of  the  eastejn  ocean.  Another  divi^iion 
marched  south-east  upon  the  Amour,  but  there, 
ha\'ing  encountered  the  Chinese,  were  obliged  to 
fall  back.  This  pn^nress,  being  along  the  southern 
part  of  the  territ4>r>',  did  not  bring  them  in  contact 
with  the  coast  forming  the  frozen  lMnmdar>'  of  the 
continent,  which  the  English  and  Dutch  were,  in 
the  meantime,  exerting  themselves  to  traverse  as 
the  nearest  route  to  China.  Middleton,  Barentz, 
Iludiion,  and  other  navigators,  engagc<l  in  this 
attem]>t:  but  none  of  them  reache<l  l>cyond  the 
(iulf  of  Obi,  a  little  east  of  Nova  Zembla.  About 
lti40,  however,  the  C-ossacs  sent  exi)etlitions  do^-n 
the  rivers  Lena,  Indigirka,  Alaska,  and  Kolima, 
tracing  their  mouths,  and  the  coasts  between 
them.  In  1646  they  reached  the  extreme  NE. 
peninsula  of  Asia,  inhalnted  hy  the  Tchutchi ;  in 
1648  Deschnew  and  another  cluef  undertook  to  sail 
round  it,  and,  though  the  accounts  are  imperfect, 
seem  to  have  accomplished  their  object,  1  owards 
the  end  of  the  century,  Rehring  disco vered  the 
most  easterly  cape  of  Asia;  he  and  TchirikofT 
afterwards  made  vovages  to  America.  Cook,  in 
his  thinl  voyage,  sailed  thnm^h  these  straits,  and 
appeare<l  to*  ascertain  the  disjunction  of  the  two 
continents.  It  was  still  possible^  however,  that  t heir 
coasts,  bv  a  vast  circuit,  might  join  each  other ; 
but  tins  idea  has  l)een  completely  removeil  by  the 
voyages  of  Wrangel  on  one  coast,  and  of  Beechey, 
Dease,  and  Sim{)son  on  the  other.  Cook,  Pennise, 
and  Broughton  did  also  much  to  explore  the  east- 
em  boundary'  of  Asiatic  Russia,  and  its  connei'tion 
with  the  large  island  of  Jesso,  with  Japan,  and 
China. 

The  entire  coast  of  Asia  has  thus  been  explored, 
and  in  a  great  measure  possessed,  by  Eun>}>eans. 
The  great  range  of  the  Uimmnlah,  l>etter  descril>cd 
by  Pt4ilemy  than  in  many  miKlern  mai>s,  has  lieen 
carefully  surveyed,  ami  its  astonishing  height  as- 
certained. The  expeditions  of  Turner  and  Mo<.>r- 
croft  into  Tibet,  Klphinstone  into  Caubul,  and 
Bumes  into  Bokhara,  greatly  extended  our  know- 
le<lge  of  these  regions.  The  embasMies  frr>m  Ru^^*ia 
to  China  cnts^eil  Mongolia  and  the  desert  of  (iol)i; 
while  Pallas  and  IIuml>oI(lt,  from  that  side,  gained 
much  information  respecting  these  central  regions. 


ASSAM 

Oiur  more  recent  English  authorities  arc  Abbott, 
Knight,  and  Atkuison,  the  last  of  whom  spent 
many  years  of  his  life  in  ejc  tensive  travels  thn>ugh 
Southern  Siberia  and  Tart4ir>%  and  in  exploration 
of  the  immense  territory  recently  annexe<l  to  the 
Russian  empire,  and  known  as  the  country  of  the 
Amoor.  (Atkinsi>n,  Thos.  W.,  Travels  in  the  regions 
of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Aracwr.  Lond.  1800.)  In 
Central  Asia,  the  three  brothers  Schlagintweit  dis- 
tinguished themselves  as  ex])lorers,  two  of  the 
brothers,  Hermann  and  Rol>ert,  passing  (in  1856) 
the  Kuenluen  mountains,  a  feat  never  before  ac- 
complishe<l.  Another  foreign  traveller,  M.  Armi- 
nius  V^bcfry,  aiH^mplished,  in  1863,  the  dilficult 
journey  from  Teheran  to  Khiva,  Bokhara,  and  Sa- 
marcand  (Vdmbery,  Travels  in  Central  Asia,  Lond. 
1865.)  Two  KuHHian  ex])lorers,  Capt.  Valikhanof, 
and  M.  Veniukof,  likewise  added,  ver>'  recently,  Ut 
our  knowledge  of  C-entral  Asia.  (MichoU,  J.  and 
R.,  The  Russians  in  Central  Asia.  Lond.  iMG.*).) 
Nevertheless,  there  are  still  laige  portions  of  the 
immense  continent  which  have  remained  a  terra 
incognita,  or  nearlv  so,  to  the  present  day. 

ASIA-MINOR.*  See  Natj^lia. 

ASIAGO,  a  town  of  Northern  Italv,  prov.  Vi- 
cenza,  24  m.  N.  Vicenza.  Pop.  5,1-10  in  1862.  It 
is  built  on  the  summit  of  a  hill,  and  is  celebratiHl 
for  its  dye-works  and  fabrics  of  straw  hats.  The 
annual  value  of  the  produce  of  the  latter  exceeds 
150,000t 

Asiago  is  the  chief  town  of  a  district  containing 
seven  communes,  the  inhabitants  of  which  speak 
a  corrupt  dialect  of  the  German.  They  are  sup- 
posed, by  some  antiquaries,  to  be  de^K-ended  from 
fugitive  (Jirabri,  e»cape<l  fn»m  the  great  bal  tie  in 
which  that  people  were  totally  (»verthrown  by 
Marius,  101  years  b.c  Marco  Pezzo,  an  eccle- 
siastic, and  a  native  of  the  district  in  question, 
publisluxl  a  curious  disHertation  on  this  subject,  a 
third  e<Ution  of  which  appeared  at  Verona  in  1763. 

ASOLA,  a  town  of  Northern  Italv,  on  the  ( 'hiesa, 
20  ra.  N.  by  W.  Mantua.  Pop.  5,467  in  1862.  It 
is  fortified,' has  a  hospital,  and  a  tilature  of  silk. 
Its  foundation  «lates  from  the  remotest  antiquity. 

AsoLo,  a  town  of  Northern  Italv,  19  ni.  \VN\V'. 
Treviso.  Pop.  4,720  in  1862.  It  is  ihiely  situated 
(m  a  hill,  and  Is  encircled  by  walls  tianked  with 
towers.  The  town  has  an  old  cjithe^lral,  a  public 
fountain,  and  some  good  houses.  It  is  very  ancient. 

ASPE,  a  town  of  Spain,  Valencia,  16  m.  W. 
Alicant,  in  a  mountainous  countrv  near  the  Ta- 
roflFa.  Pop.  7,185  in  1857.  There  are  quarries  of 
fine  marble  in  its  Ancinitv. 

ASPERG,  a  t<»wn  of  *  WUrteml>erg,  3  m.  NW. 
Ludwigsburg,  Pop.  1,858  in  1861.  Its  church 
has  some  remarkable  antirpiities.  At  a  little  dis- 
tance to  the  N.  b  the  fort  of  IIohen-Asperg,  on  a 
steep  rock,  1,106  feet  alwve  the  level  of  the  sea. 
It  is  at  present  use«l  as  a  prison. 

ASPERN,  a  small  village  of  the  arch-duchy  of 
Austria,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  I)anul)e,  opjH>site 
the  island  of  Loliau,  alxiut  2  m.  below  Vienna. 
Pop.  730  in  18r>8.  This  and  the  neigldumring 
village  of  Essling  were,  in  1801),  the  scene  of  a  tn\- 
mendous  conflict  l)etween  the  grand  French  anny 
commanded  by  Naijoleon,  and  the  Austrians  under 
the  archduke  Charles.  After  two  days'  (2 1st  aiui 
22d  May)  continuous  fighting,  with  vast  loss  on 
lx)th  sides.  Napoleon  was  obligwl  to  withdraw  his 
troops  from  the  field,  and  take  refuge  m  the  Island 
of  Lobau. 

ASPET,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Haute  Garonne, 
cap.  cant  8  m.  SE.  St  Gandens.  Pop.  2,457  in 
1861.  The  town  has  manufacturer  of  nails,  combs, 
and  boxwood  articles. 

ASSAM,  an  inland  territory'  of  India  bevond 
the  (ianges,  a  dei)endency  of  tlie  British  empire. 


ASSAM 

forming  part  of  the  £.  frontier  of  oar  Indian  pos- 
sessions. It  is  included  in  the  vallev  of  the  Brah- 
mapoutra,  between  25°  diy,  and  2«o  ay  X.  Ut., 
and  90°  to  97°  35'  E.  long. ;  having  N.  the  Hima- 
laya mountains,  which  separate  it  from  Bhootan 
and  Tibet ;  E.  Tibet ;  S.  the  Naga  and  Garrows 
mountain-s  which  divide  it  from  the  Birman  and 
Munneepoor  territories ;  and  \V.  Bengal :  length, 
E.  to  \V.  al>out  4G0  m. ;  area,  18,200  sq.  m.  Esti- 
mat  pop.  700,000. 

The  general  aspect  of  Asaam  is  that  of  fine  and 
fcrtUe  lowlands,  inclosed  bv  ranges  of  undulating 
hills,  and  these  again  by  loftier  ones,  the  surface 
of  which  is  mostly  covered  by  forests,  but  their 
summits  in  winter,  are  often  covere<l  with  snow. 
The  geologj'  of  this  region  has  not  been  much 
studietl ;  the  mountains  which  form  its  S.  boundary, 
which  increase  in  height  as  they  proceed  eastward, 
consist  in  part  of  a  hard  grey  granular  slate ;  and 
on  the  inferior  heights  there  are  many  scattered 
boulders  of  granite.  Shell  limestone  is  fomid  in 
large  quantity  near  Dhurmpoor. 

The  most  remarkable  natural  feature  of  Assam 
is  the  numlx?r  of  rivers,  in  which  it  surpasses  everj- 
other  country  of  equal  extent.  Besides  the  Brali- 
mafK>utra,  which  nins  through  its  centre  in  a  S\V. 
direction,  it  has  tliirty-four  rivers  flowing  fn)m  its 
N.,  and  twenty-four  from  its  S.  mountams,  all  of 
which  are  uax'igable  for  trading  vessels  of  some 
size. 

In   Upper  Assam,   the   Brahmapoutra  divides 
into  two  streams,  inclosing  the  considerable  island 
of  Dehing,  one  of  the  most  fertile  tracts  in  the 
country.  haWng  an  area  of  1,800  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop. 
of  25,000.     The  inundations  which  prevail  during 
a  i>art  of  the  year  {see  Bkahmapoutua),  and  give 
Assam  the  appearance  of  an  extensive  lake,  and 
the  great  subse<]uent  heats,  render  the  climate 
most  unwholesome  and  j^estiferous  both  to  Euro- 
peans and   natives.    The  chief  mineral  products 
are  gold  dust,  in  the  sands  of  many  of  the  rivers 
the  collection  of  which  employs  a  great  number  of 
|Kv»ple,  the  prixluce  of  the  Dnunseree  river  alone 
i)eing  estimated  at    1H0,000  nip.  a  year;  silver; 
ir«>n;  salt^  chictly  from  springs  m  Upper  Assam; 
lead,  coal,  and  j)etr».>leum.    Throughout  the  vrhole 
length  of  the  Assam  valley,  a  forest  seven  or  eight 
miles  wide  extends  along  the  X.  Ijonler,  chiefly  of 
a   tropical  character;  but  at  the  foot  of  the  hill 
ranges,  chestnut,  alder,  Sec,  are  intennixed  with 
the  other   trees.     The  timlxir  is  not  remarkably 
tine,   nor  any  of  the  trees  large,  excepting  the 
caoutchouc  ( Ficusehuitica^  Roxburgh),which  grows 
solitary,  sometimes  to  the  height  of  100  ft.  and  | 
covering  with  its  branches  an  area  of  600  sq.  ft. 
Tea,  of  a  genuine  kijid,  has  been  <iiscovere<l  in  the 
region  inhabited  by  the  Siugpho  trilxis  where  it 
grows  over  a  large  tract  of  tlie  peculiar  yellowish 
soil  so  characteristically  adapted  to  it.     About  the 
year  IH^JO,  it  was  brought  to  the  London  market, 
i)oth  black  and  green,  an<l  fetched  a  high  price. 
Since  then  its  cultivation  has  been  much  extended, 
an<l  it  has  now  lK?oome  one  of  the  most  pr»>niLsing 
agritultural   pnnlucts  of  India,     The  exjwrts  in 
l?<G;i  were  of  the  value  of  222,03.*>/. ;  in  the  same 
year  there  were    100  tea  plantations,  extenduig 
over  an  area  of  nearly  14,000  acres,  and  employing 
17,(H)U  daily  labourers.     Assam  is  very  favourable 
to  the  production  of  silk,  which  is  of  a  verj'  suiwrior  i 
<piality,  but  mostly  ma<ie  by  wild  insects,  of  which 
ihore  are  live  diflerent  sj>e('ies.     A  beautiful  deep 
<lye  is  obtainerj  from  rrxw/i,  a  species  of  Kuellia, 
Aranthavta- ]  and    a  powerful  poisoji  is  procured 
from  some  plant  by  the  Assamese,  into  wliich  they 
dip  their  arrows.     The  hills  along  the  l>ed  of  the 
Trolich    are   very  stee[»,  and  coven-d  with  dense 
jungle   nearly    to  their  summits.     There  are  no 


ASSEEBGHUB 


235 


tigers,  bat  many  Iiean,  monkeys,  squirrels,  Ac. 
The  chief  object  of  culture  is  rice,  and  next  to  this 
mustard  seed ;  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  millet  are 
rare ;  many  sorts  of  pulse,  the  banana,  orange, 
and  other  fruits,  black  pepper,  ginger,  tmrmenc, 
capsicum,  onions  and  garlic  are  ciUtivated,  and 
cotton  by  the  hiU  tribes.  Cattle  and  poultry  are 
few ;  the  buffalo  is  most  used  m  agriculture.  *  Vil- 
lages rare,  and  the  scattered  huts  mostly  built  of 
bimiboo.  There  is  some  small  trade  with  Bootan 
and  Tibet :  several  remarkable  roads  or  causeways 
intersect  Assam,  the  origin  of  which  is  not  known, 
but  they  i^pear  to  have  been  constructed  at  a 
distant  penod ;  one  of  these  extends  frt>m  Cooch 
Bahar  in  Bengal  to  the  extreme  E.  limits  of  this 
country.  The  land  is  tilled  by  pykesy  or  natives 
of  four  different  classes,  who  are  obliged,  for  a 
portion  of  the  year,  to  give  their  services  for  the 
benefit  of  the  rajah  granting  them  their  land. 

The  manufactures  are  thixie  of  silk  velvet  and 
cotton  stuffs  and  are  carried  on  by  the  women : 
silks  are  in  general  use  for  clothing,  and  similar  to 
those  of  China.  The  trade  is  mostly  with  Bengal, 
the  imports  from  which  are  broadcloths,  muslms, 
chintzes,  ^c,  salt,  oi>ium,  liquor,  glass  crockerv, 
tobacco,  Ijetel,  and  rice;  the  exports  being  gold 
dust,  ivory,  silver,  amber,  miLsk,  daos  Burmese 
cloths  and  a  few  Chinese  cloths ;  in  1833,  cotton 
was  ailded  for  the  first  time  to  the  exports  from 
Assam,  and  the  cultivation  of  this  plant  has  since 
then,  largely  increased,  owing  to  the  dearth  occa- 
sioned by  the  civil  war  in  America.  Justice  is 
administered  by  the  heads  of  tribes  and  their 
piuiishments  are  at  times  of  the  most  barbarous 
description.  The  religion  is  that  of  Brahma,  in- 
troducetl  in  the  seventeenth  century ;  before  that 
period,  the  god  Chang  (prubablythe  same  as  Bootlh) 
was  adored :  the  priests  have  great  intluence,  and 
are  intriguuig  and  vicious  The  people  are  active, 
hanly,  and  enterprising,  but  barbarous  rever^reful, 
and  deceitful ;  they  consist  of  numerous  different 
tribes  as  the  Bor-Khamti,  Singphos  Mishmees, 
^c,  each  under  a  separate  chieflaiiu  Principal 
food  rice,  but  they  also  eat  serpents,  rats,  locusts 
d(^'  fiesh,  (tc. ;  they  use  an  Hmdoostanee  dialect, 
the  language  of  Assam  being  nearly  extinct.  Sonde 
of  the  tribes  go  quite  naked ;  others  have  a  cover- 
ing round  their  middle,  and  over  the  head  and 
shoulilers :  they  wear  moustache^  but  shave  the 
scalp  and  chin.  Their  habitations  even  in  the 
principal  towns  are  mere  huts  with  a  clay  floor 
and  conical  roof  of  straw  or  bamboo.  In  every 
respect  this  countrj'  is  in  a  state  of  abject  bar- 
barism. Little  is  known  of  their  history ;  in  1638, 
they  invaded  Bengal,  but  were  repulsed  by  some 
of  Shah  Jehann's  officers  and  lost  some  of  their 
own  frontier  provinces.  A  ^neral  of  Aurungzebe 
subsequently  led  an  army  mto  Assam,  which  bo 
lost  before  Gergonj^  during  the  rainy  season  by 
disease  and  the  resistance  of  the  enemy.  Assam 
is  one  of  the  provinces  ce<leti  to  the  British  by  the 
Birmese  in  1«2G.  Principal  towns  Cherghong, 
Joorhath,  and  Yourhatti, 

ASSCHE,  a  town  of  Belgium,  prov.  South  Bra- 
bant, about  half  way  between  Brussels  and  Den- 
dennonde.  Pop.  5,917  in  1856.  It  has  some  trade 
in  hops,  flax,  and  com. 

ASSEEKGIIUR,  a  town  and  fortress  of  Ilin- 
dostan,  presicL  Bombay,  prov.  Candeish,  cap.  distr. 
belonging  chiefiy  to  Smdia's  dom.,  on  a  detached 
hill  of  the  Sautpoorah  Range,  15  m.  X.  Boorhan- 
poor,  and  215  m.  EXE.  Surat.  Lat.  21°  28'  X., 
long.  7<;o  23'  E.  Pop,  about  2,000.  The  town, 
straggling  and  irregular,  with  one  gootl  bazaar, 
stands  at  the  base  of  the  rocky  hill  on  which  the 
fortress  is  placed.  The  summit  of  this  hill  is  about 
1,100  yds  from  E.  to  W.,  by  600  yds  wide;  it  is 


236 


ASSENDELFT 


inclosed  by  a  wall,  and  snirounded  by  a  precipice 
from  80  to  100  ft.  in  perpendicular  height,  w  well 
scarped  as  U>  le^ve  no  meaii«  of  a^icent  except  at 
two  8pot8,  l^wth  of  which  are  strongly  fortified.  A 
second  line  of  works  of  excellent  maiMinry  protects 
it  on  the  S\V.  side,  on  tlie  principal  road  to  the 
fort ;  and  a  third  line  embraces  the  hill  imnie- 
<liAtely  alM)ve  the  town.  It  is  besides  protected 
by  ravines  and  deep  hollows  on  ever^'  side,  and 
peosesses  the  rare  ailvantage  of  plenty  of  water. 
Magazines  and  a  sally  port,  easily  blocke<l  up  by 
the  garrit<on,  are  excavated  within  the  rock.  The 
approarJi  fn)m  the  N.  is  over  a  wild  tract  infosterl 
with  ti;;ers  and  wolves.  Assoerghur  is  surrounded 
on  everv  side  except  the  S\V.  by  Sindia's  dom., 
and  is  tiie  nearest  place  in  the  Bombav  presid.  to 
Iten^aL  It  was  taken  m  1803  and  1819  by  the 
British,  who  have  held  it  since  the  last-mentioned 
year. 

ASSENDELFT,  a  village  of  the  Netherlands, 
prov.  Ilulhind,  7  m.  NNE.  Harlem.  Pop.  2,y80 
in  1861. 

ASSENEDE,  a  town  of  IWgiuni,  prov.  East 
Flanders,  13  m.  N.  Ghent.  P.ip.  4,200  in  lt</i6. 
It  has  manufactures  of  wool  and  cotton,  dye 
works,  breweries,  and  soap  works. 

ASSENIIEIM,  a  town  of  the  G.  duchy  Ilcsse- 
Darmstadt,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Nidda  and 
the  Wetter,  13  m.  NE.  Frankfort  on  the  Maine. 
Pop.  942  in  1861.  A  good  deal  of  wine  Lspro<luced 
in  Its  territory',  and  it  has  considerable  coal  mhies. 

AiJSENS,  a  sea-port  town  of  Denmark,  W. 
coast  of  tlie  Inland  of  Funen,  on  the  channel  called 
the  LitUe  IJelt,  22  m.  WSW.  Odensee,  lat.  b:P  17' 
N.,  long.  90  54'  E.  Pop.  3,581  in  1860.  It  has 
distilleries,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  com.  It 
is  the  usual  point  of  departure  for  (icrsons  leaving 
Funen  for  Schleswig. 

ASSISI,  a  town  of  central  Italy,  13  m.  ESE. 
Perugia.  Pop.  13,872  in  1861.  It  is  situated  on 
a  mountain,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  has  a  cathe- 
dral and  several  other  churches,  some  of  which 
are  ornamented  with  fine  pictures.  3Ietastasio  was 
bom  in  this  town. 

ASSUMPTION,  or  ASUNCION,  a  city  of  S. 
America,  cap.  of  Paraguay,  finely  situated  on  an 
eminence  on  the  left  Imnk  of  the  great  naWgable 
river  of  that  name^  lat.  2iP  16'  S.,  long.  57^37'  W. 
l*op.  cstim.  at  12,000.  It  was  founded  in  1535, 
and  fh)m  its  advantageous  situation  became  of 
sufficient  imiMirtance  to  be  made  a  bishopric  in 
1547.  It  is  miserably  built,  the  streets  being 
im{iaved,  and  most  of  the  houses  no  better  than 
huta.  The  only  gisxl  buildings  are  the  convents. 
The  country  round  is  com|«iratively  well  cultivated 
and  populous.  Assumption  is  the  centre  of  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  hides,  tobacco,  timiier,  matte^  or 
Paraguay  tea,  and  wax.  (Ktibertson's  Paraguav, 
i.  288.) 

Assumption,  a  small  island  of  the  Marianne 
archipelago.  Pacific  Ocean,  lat  19°  45'  N.,  long. 
146*^  54'  E.  It  is  cone-shaped,  and  consists  almost 
entirely  of  lava  and  other  volcanic  [iriHlucts.  It 
produces  a  few  cocoa  nut  trees,  and  is  described  by 
PiTouse  as  a  most  ^Tctche<l  place. 

ASSUS,  an  ancient  city  of  Asia  Minor,  in  Troas, 
near  the  sea,  whose  ruins  occupy  a  site  contigi"His 
to  the  moile.m  and  inconsiderable  village  of  Iteiram, 
12  m.  E.  Cape  Baba  (an.  Nectum),  3o  m.  WSNV. 
Mount  Ida,  and  ne^y  opposite  to  Mollivo  in 
Mvtilene.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  a 
colony  from  Lesbos,  and  was  famous  in  the  historj' 
of  (irecian  philosophy  from  its  having  l>een  the 
birth-place  of  (.'leanthes  the  stoic,  and  for  a  while 
the  rc:*id('nce  of  Aristotle.  (>)lonel  Leake  savs  of 
its  ruins,  that  *  they  are  extremely  curious.  '1  here 
is  a  theatre  in  very  perfect  presch-atlon ;  and  the 


ASTI 

remains  of  several  temples  lying  in  confused  heap<< 
on  the  ground ;  an  inscription  upon  an  architrave 
on  one  of  thene  buildings  shows  that  it  was  dedi- 
cated to  Auguiitus,  but  some  figures  in  low  relief 
on  another  architrave  appear  to  l)e  in  a  much  more 
ancient  style  of  art,  and  they  arc  sculptured  on  the 
hard  granite  of  Mtmnt  Ida*,  which  forms  the  ma- 
terials of  several  of  the  buildings*.  On  the  \V.  side 
of  the  city  the  remains  of  the  walls  and  tower*, 
with  a  gate,  are  in  complete  presen'ation :  and 
without  the  walls  ia  seen  the  cemeterv,  with  nu- 
merous sarcophagi  still  standing  in  thinr  places, 
and  an  ancient  causeway  leading  through  them  to 
the  gate.  Some  of  the^^e  sarcophagi  are  of  gigantic 
dimensions.  The  wh<de  gives,  perhaps,  the  m(K«<t 
I>erfect  idea  of  a  Greek  city  that  anywhere  exists.' 
(I.,eake's  Asia  Minor,  p.  128.) 

ASSYE,  a  town  of  HhuUjstan,  prov.  Berar,  in 
the  Nizam's  dom.,  28  m.  X.  Jaulna.  It  is  crle- 
brated  as  the  spot  where  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
commenced  his  caret*r  of  \'ictor}-.  On  tlie  23nl  of 
Septeml)er,  1803,  the  Duke,  then  General  Wellesley, 
with  4,500  men  (of  whom  (mlv  2,«MMJ  were  Hritisli), 
completely  defeated  the  combined  forces  of  Dowlut 
IJow  Sindia  and  the  Nagpoor  rajah,  amounting  to 
30,0<)0  men.  The  confcnlerates  fled  from  the  field, 
leaving  about  1,200  »lain,  ninety-eight  piects  of 
cannon,  seven  standanLs  their  whole  camp  et^ui- 
page,  and  much  ammunition.  The  British- Indian 
army  lowt  1,566  men,  killed  an<l  wounded. 

ASTAFORT,  a  town  of  France^  <le[).  I^t-et- 
Garonne,  cap.  cant,  on  the  (.iers,  10  m.  S.  Agen. 
Pop.  2,434  in  1861.  The  tOTvn  has  linen  manu- 
factures. 

ASTEKABAD,  or  ASTK ABAD,  a  city  of  Per- 
sia, cap.  of  a  small  prov.  of  the  s«'inie  name,  on  the 
(lourgan,  alx>ut  12  m.  from  where  it  falb*  into  tlie 
SE.  angle  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  denominat<Ml  the 
liay  of  Asterabad,  lat  36°  50'  N.,  Ic.ng.  53°  23'  E. 
Mr.  Eraser  savs  that  it  contains  from  2,0(><)  to 
3,000  houses,  ho  that  its  f)opnlatioii  maA'  be  esti- 
mate»i  at  from  12,(M)0  to  WKKK  It  Ls  surrounded 
by  a  low  mud  wall,  about  3^  m.  in  cinruit.  For- 
merly it  was  much  more  extensive  than  at  pres«>nt; 
a  great  part  of  it  being  in  niins,  and  there  l)eing, 
ab*o,  within  the  wall,  exlen^ive  ganlens  and  nu- 
merous trees.  Houses,  chietiv  of  wood,  are  said  to 
be  pictures<|ue  antl  plca'^ant,  antl  are  fre«iuentlv 
furnished  with  veraiuiahs  renting  cm  wcsKlen  pil- 
lars; their  roofs  project  far  Ix-yond  their  walls. 
The  streets  are  well  paved  an<l  clean,  and  are  fur- 
nished with  drains  to  carrv'off  the  water,  which  in 
most  other  Persian  cities  is  allowed  to  stagnate  in 
pools.  None  of  the  public  or  private  buildingn 
deserve  notice.  The  mlace  of  the  prince,  or  gover- 
nor, is  a  mlnerable  fabric.  'J'he  bazaars  or  public 
markets,  are  tolerablv  extensive :  but  they  contain 
little  besides  the  articles  rerjuiretl  for  the  con^imi)- 
ticm  of  the  pliice.     Asterabad,  though  in  fact  a 

Cort,  has  but  little  trade.  It  is  said  to  be  very  un- 
ealthy.  (Eraser's  Caspian  Sea,  ]>.  7.) 
AS'fl  (an.  Asta  or  Jlaxta  Pinnpeia)^  a  city  of 
Northern  Italy,  prov.  Alexandria,  on  the  IJourlx), 
near  its  confluence  with  the  Tanan).  2H  m.  ESE. 
Turin,  on  the  railway  from  Turin  to  Genoa.  Pop. 
28,587  in  1«61.  The  to^^-n  is  surrounded  by  old 
walls  in  a  minous  condition,  and  was  famou*«  for 
its  HM)  tiiwers,  of  wluch  hardly  thirty  now  remain. 
Stroets  narrow ;  but  it  is  in  general  pretty  well 
built.  The  cathedral,  a  mo<lern  building,  occupies 
the  site  of  a  temple  of  Dijina,  and  it  has,  l)e>ides, 
numerous  parish  churches  and  ])alaces.  Asii  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric,  of  a  c»nirt  of  original  juriMlic- 
tion,  and  a  royal  cidlege,  and  has  several  silk  fila- 
tures, with  manufacturos  of  silk  and  stuffs.  The 
vineyanls  in  its  vicinity  furnish  the  l>cst  wines  of 
Piedmont ;  and  it  carries  on  a  auisiderable  trade 


ASTIER  (Sf .) 

in  them,  in  raw  and  manufactured  silks,  and  other 
articles.  One  of  the  /jpreat^st  poets  of  modem  Italy, 
and,  ind(*ed,  of  modern  Europe,  Victor  Altieri,  de- 
scended fn>m  ail  ancient  and  noble  family  of  Asti, 
was  born  here  on  the  17th  January,  1749. 

Asti  is  a  very  ancient  city.  In  1154  it  was 
burned  down  by  the  Em]>eror  Frederic  Barbarossa, 
but  it  had  been  previously  evacuated  by  the  inha- 
bitants. It  soon  rccoveretl  its  ancient  grandeur, 
and  in  the  thirteenth  century  wa.s  able  to  contend 
with  the  forces  of  Charles  I.  of  Naples.  In  the 
fourteenth  century  it  formed  part  of  the  territory' 
of  the  lords  of  Milan,  and  was  transferred,  in  1387, 
as  the  dowrj'  of  a  Milanese  princess  to  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  brother  to  Charles  VI.  of  France.  It 
remained  under  the  dominion  of  the  French  till 
lo29,  when  it  was  ceded  bv  the  Treat  v  of  Cam  bra  v 
to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  The  latter  made  it 
over  to  one  of  his  female  relations,  who  married  a 
prince  of  the  House  of  Savoy. 

ASTIEK  (ST.),  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Dor- 
do{;ne,  on  the  Isle,  10  m.  WSW.  P^rigueux.  Pop. 
2,«7'J  in  18G1.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  a  mineral 
jsource. 

A8TOKGA,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  Leon,  30  m. 
\V.  Leon,  in  an  extensive  and  fertile  plain  near 
the  banks  of  the  Tuerto,  lat.  42<^  27  N.,  long. 
GO  10'  VV.  Pop.  4,810  in  1857.  The  town  is  verj^ 
ancient,  and  was  formerlv  fortified  bv  a  wall  and 
a  castle ;  but  both  of  these  have  been  aUowed  to 
go  to  decay.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  has  a 
Gothic  cathedral,  celebrated  for  its  high  altar,  four 
parish  churches,  and  some  convents. 

ASTRAKHAN,  an  extensive  gov.  of  Russia  in 
Europe,  lying  along  the  NW.  shore  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  and  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  por- 
tions by  the  Wolga.  Area  83,000  sq.  m.  Pop. 
284,400*  in  1840,  and  477.492  in  1858.  Astra- 
khan is  one  of  the  least  valuable  pro  vs.  in  the  em- 
pire. With  the  exception  of  the  Deltn  of  the 
VVolga,  and  a  narrow  strip  of  land  ah>ng  the  Imnks 
of  tliat  river,  it  ctmsisLs  almost  entirely  of  two  vast 
steppes,  one  on  each  side  the  river,  in  part  occu- 
pie<l  with  sand  hiUs,  but  mostly  low  and  tiat;  the 
soil  coiLsisting  of  mud  and  sand,  strongly  impreg- 
nated with  salt,  inters|)ersed  with  saline  lakes, 
and  partly  unsusceptible  of  cultivation.  In  con- 
wquence  agriculture  is  neglected ;  but  in  the  Delta 
of  the  Wolga,  gardening  is  practised  with  some 
success,  and  superi<»r  fruits  are  raised.  In  summer 
the  heats  are  frequently  excessive,  while  in  winter 
the  frosts  are  equally  severe.  Horses  are  of  the 
beautiful  Calmuck  breed,  and  some  of  the  wan- 
dering tril)es  have  great  numl)ers  of  camels.  That 
fertility  which  nature  hiw  denied  to  the  land,  she 
has  given  to  the  water.  The  fishery  forms  the 
principal  source  of  the  wealth  of  this  government, 
and  is  carried  on  upon  a  great  scale  on  the  Wolga, 
which  teems  with  fish,  and  along  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian.  Sturgeon,  carp,  and  seal,  but  particu- 
larly the  first,  are  the  fish  most  commonly  taken. 
The  annual  value  of  the  sturgeon  fishery  is  esti- 
mated at  from  2,(»00,000  t4i  3,0(M),IM)0  roubles;  and 
alxtve  30,000  barrels  of  caviar,  i)repared  from  the 
roes  of  the  sturgeon,  have  been  exported  from 
Astrakhan  in  a  single  year.  Though  few  in 
number,  the  inhabitants  consist  of  a  great  variety 
of  races.  They  are  mostly  nomades;  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  ofiicial  statements,  there  are,  in  the 
entire  government,  only  20.098  individuals  subject 
to  the  capitation  tax.  With  the  exception  of  some 
some  fabrics  in  Atrakhan,  manufacturing  industry 
is  unknown. 

AsTUAKiiAX.  a  city  of  Russia,  in  the  cap.  of  the 
alxjve  government,  on  a  small  island  in  the  Wolga, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  main  stream,  al>out  30  m. 
from  its  embouchure,  lat.  40*^  20'  53"  N.,  long.  47°  55' 


ASTURIAS 


237 


E.   Pop.  44,790  in  1858.  This  <  Alexandria  of  the 
Scythian  Nile,  as  it  has  been  sometimes  called, 
stands  on  ground  elevated  sufficiently  to  be  above 
the  reach  of  the  inundations.    It  consists  of  three 
parta  : — the  Kremlin,  or  citadel;  the  Bielogorod 
^white  town) ;  and  the  Slobodes,  or  suburbs,  hi  the 
first,  or  nucleus  of  the  city,  is  the  cathedral,  a  large 
square  edifice  surmounted  by  five  domes,  the  con- 
vent of  the  Trinity,  and  the  archiepiscopal  palace ; 
in  the  second  are  the  buildings  for  the  government 
functionaries,  including  an  admiralty  board,  having 
charge  of  the  flotilla  kept  on  the  Caspian,  the 
gymnasium,  and  the  bazaars,  or  factories  for  the 
use  of  the  merchants.    The  houses  hi  the  suburbs, 
where  the  bulk  of  the  population  resides,  are  oi 
wood;  whereas  in  the  other  two  divisions  they 
are  of  stone.    Streets  crooked,  and  mostly  without 
pavement.    It  is  the  seat  of  an  Armenian  as  well 
as  of  a  Greek  archbishop,  and  it  has  also  Mo- 
hammedan,  Hindoo,   and  Protestant    places    of 
worsliip.     Exclusive  of  the  g>'mnasium,  there  is 
an  ecclesiastical   academy,   a   district    grammar 
school,    ami    some  inferior  schools.     There    are 
several  manufacturing  establishments  for  the  pro- 
duction of  cottons,  woollens,  and  silks ;  with  dis- 
tilleries, tanneries,  and  soap-works.    Astrakhan  is 
the  centre  of  the  fisheries  carried  on  in  the  Wolga 
and  Caspian.    Its  bui^gesses  had  formerly  a  mo- 
nopoly of  the  fishery  in  the  Wolga ;  but  since 
1803  they  have  been  free  to  every  one.    During 
the  season,  the  fisheries  employ  immense  numbers 
of  people  and  boats.     The  population  of  the  city 
is  then  much  augmented,  and  it  presents  an  am- 
mated,  lively  scene.     It  is  the  grand  fishing  mart 
for  all  the  interior  of  the  empire ;  it  is  also  the  great 
entrepot  of  the  trade  with  Persia  and  the  coimtries 
to  the  east  of  the  Caspian,  sending  to  them  leather, 
furs,  iron,  copper  and  tallow,  and  getting  back  silk 
and  cotton  goods,  raw  silk,  cotton  twist,  drugs, 
carpets,  <tc   The  exports  to  the  countries  in  ques- 
tion amount,  on  the  average,  to  two  millions  roubles 
I>er  annum,  and  the  imiK»rt8  to  rather  more  than 
one  miliioii,  but  they  have  sometimes  been  more 
than  double  these  amounts.    This  trade  is  prin- 
cipally carried  on  by  Armenian  merchants. 

ASTURIAS,  an  ancient  princij^ality  in  the  N. 
of  Spain,  now  the  prov.  of  OWedo,  Iving  along  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  between  4^  30'  and  t©  10'  W.  long, 
having  E.  the  Castilian  prov.  of  Santander,  S. 
Leon,  and  W.  Galicia.  Area  3,G86  sq.  m.  Pop. 
434,035  in  184G,  and  524,529  according  to  the 
census  of  1857.  The  surface  of  the  province  is 
much  diversified.  Its  S.  border  consists  of  a  chain 
of  high  mountains,  which  gradually  diminish  in 
height  as  they  approach  the  coast,  along  which 
there  are  extensive  tracts  of  pretty  level  land. 
It  is  extremely  well  watered,  being  intersected 
by  the  Nalon,  Navia,  and  other  rivers,  and 
has  several  sea-ports,  as  Gijon,  Rivadesella,  Cu- 
dillero,  and  Aviles.  The  climate  along  the 
coast  is  mild,  but  in  the  mountainous  parts  it  is 
frequently  severe,  and  it  is  distinguished  by  ita 
humidity.  But  little  wheat  is  raised,  the  inha- 
bitant's subsisting  chiefly  on  maize,  and  a  species 
of  c-oni  called  escanda.  Hazel  nuts  are  scarce; 
but  chestnuts  are  very  plentiful,  and  of  excellent 
quality.  The  \'ine  is  cidtivated  in  some  parts ; 
but  the  produce  of  wine  is  not  sufficient  for  the 
consumption,  the  deficiency  being  supplied  with 
cider,  which  is  partly  also  exported  Oranges  and 
lemons  are  produced  in  a  few  places,  ana  great 
numbers  of  cucumbers.  Besides  the  chestnut,  the 
wwkI  of  which,  as  well  as  the  fruit,  is  most  valu- 
able, the  mountains  are  covered  with  forests  of 
oak,  beech,  and  plane.  There  is  a  consi<lerable 
exportation  of  cattle  and  horses  from  this  prov.  to 
the  interior.    Iron,  copper,  lead,  antimony,  jet. 


238 


ASZOD 


jmber,  marble,  and  mill-BtonoB,  are  found  in  dif- 
ferent places.  Coal  is  also  found,  and  Minano 
says  that  90,000  quintal  arc  shipped  for  other 
parts  of  the  pcnin8ula.  With  the  exoi>|)tion  of 
nardware,  with  many  articles  of  which  this  prov. 
supplies  the  rest  of  Spain,  its  manufactures  are  in 
a  very  backwanl  state.  The  bulk  of  the  mha- 
bitants  are  exceedinp;lv  moilerate  in  their  wav  of 
living,  "fhey  eat  bttle  flesh,  drink  little  wine; 
their  usual  diet  is  Indian  com,  with  beans,  pease, 
chestnuts,  apples,  pears,  melons,  and  cucuml>er8; 
and  even  their  bread,  made  of  Imlian  cuth,  has 
neither  barm  nor  leaven,  Imt  is  uii fermented.  The 
principal  towns  are  Orviedo,  Gijon,  AN-iles  and 
jCavia. 

Asturias  may  be  said  to  be  the  cradle  of  Spa- 
nbh  independence.  The  Sarai*ens,  who  had  over- 
run the  resit  of  the  couutrv,  were  unable  to  over- 
come the  Christians,  who  lia<i  taken  refuge  in  the 
fastnesses  of  its  mountains.  Pelayo  was  proclaimed 
king  in  718 ;  and  his  successors,  having  gradually 
extended  their  coiK^uests,  t(x>k,  about  two  centuries 
alter,  the  title  of  Kuigs  of  Leo.  In  18K8  the  prov. 
was  erected  into  a  princi}mlity,  and  became  the 
appanage  of  the  heir  presumptive  to  the  throne, 
who  has  since  been  styled  l*rinc«  of  Asturias. . 
Several  i)eculiar  privileges  have  been  conferral 
on  this  province  on  account  of  the  services  it  has 
rendcnxl  to  the  monarchy. 

ASZOD,  a  market  town  of  Hungary,  co.  Pesth, 
on  the  Cialga,  2H  m.  NE.  Pesth,  in  a  fertile  vallev. 
Pop.  2,218  in  lHo7.  The  inhabitants  are  mt^tly 
Protestants.  Here  is  a  large  and  handsome 
countr>'-«eat  belonging  to  the  Barons  PtKhna- 
niczky,  with  a  fine  collection  of  coins  and  natural 
curiosities.  The  t4)wn  has  manufactures  of  blue 
and  green  dyed  sheqi-akins,  for  which  there  is  a 
considemble  demaniL 

ATA(;AMA,  an  extensive  district  of  Bolivia,  or 
Upper  Peru,  lying  along  the  Pacntic  Ocean,  be- 
tween the  river  I jio  on  the  N.,  and  the  Salado  on 
the  S.,  or  between  214°  and  25|o  s.  hit,  Towanis 
its  N.  extremity  there  are  some  fertile  valleys. 
but  by  far  the  greater  i>art  of  its  surface  is  an 
absolute  desert  covered  with  dark  brown  or  black 
moveable  sand,  llie  arid  soil  of  this  portion  is 
never  refreshed  with  rain,  and,  except  where  a  verv 
few  rivers  descend  from  the  Andes,  it  is  both 
uninhabited  and  uninhabitable.  Cobija,  or  Port  la 
Mar,  is  built  at  the  mouth  of  one  of  these  rivers. 

ATESSA,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov.  Chiesi, 
14  m.  W.  Vasto  d'Ammone.  Pop.  10,729  in  1861. 
The  town  is  situated  on  a  hill,  lias  a  fine  colle- 
giate church,  with  parish  churches,  convents,  an 
hospital,  and  three  montt  de  pieti.  The  poet  Car- 
done  was  a  native  of  Atessa. 

ATFIEIl,  a  town  of  Egj'pt,  cap.  prov.  same 
name,  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile,  42  m.  SSE. 
Cairo.  Pop.  estim.  at  4,000.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
on  or  near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Aphroditopolis, 

ATH,  a  town  of  Belgium,  prov.  Hainault,  on 
the  Dender,  and  on  the  railwav  from  Toumav  to 
Brussels,  15  m.  K.  by  W.  Mons.  Vo\i,  9,200  in 
1856.  The  town  was  fortified  by  Vauban,  and  the 
works  have  been  materially  impn>ved  and  strengtli- 
ened  since  1816.  It  is  well  built.  Principal  pub- 
lic buildings,  the  arsenal,  town-house,  and  the 
church  of  St.  Julian :  the  spire  of  the  latter,  loO 
ft.  in  height,  was  destroyed  by  lightning  in  1817, 
and  has  not  been  rebuilt.  Atli  has  a  college, 
founded  in  1416 ;  a  school  of  design,  and  an  orphan 
hospital.  It  has  manufactures  of  linen,  woollen, 
and  cotton-stuffs,  hats  and  gloves;  establishments 
lor  bleaching  and  dyeing,  with  oil  mills,  soap- 
works,  breweries  and  distilleries.  It  is  an  entre- 
pot fur  the  trade  in  coal,  and  for  tlie  produce  of 
the  surrounding  count r}'. 


ATHENS 

ATHAPESCOW,  or  ATHABASCO,  an  exten- 
sive lake  of  N.  America,  l)eiiig  about  200  m.  ui 
length,  and  from  14  to  15  in  average  width.  Fort 
Chipew^-an,  at  its  SVV.  extremity,  is  in  lat.r)8<^42' 
N.,  long.  1 U^  18'  W.  It  ret^eives  the  Athai)esoow 
river;  and  the  Slave  river  flows  fmm  it  into  Groat 
Slave  Lake^  lying  alnrnt  170  m.  NK.  Its  N.  shore 
is  high  and  rocky,  whence  it  is  sometimes  callcil 
the  lake  of  the  hills. 

ATH  BOY,  an  inL  town  of  Ireland,  co.  Moath, 
prov.  Leinster,  on  a  small  branch  of  the  lioyne, 
from  whicii  it  u*  sup]MRie<i  to  have  its  name,  signi- 
fWng  *  the  yellow  fnnl.'  31  m.  NW.  by  W.  Dublin, 
on  a  branch  line  of  the  railwav  from  Dublin  to 
Navan.  Pop.  l.y.VJ  in  IKU,  aiid  2,241  in  ls«;i. 
The  town.  situat(Ml  in  a  level  and  fertile  distrirt, 
consists  of  one  long  street :  it  has  a  nitKlem  chun.'li, 
with  an  ancient  tower;  a  large  and  elegant  \l. 
Cath.  chajiel,  in  the  ancient  English  style,  with  a 
steeple  90  ft.  high ;  a  dis|>cnsar>' ;  8ch<M»lH,  |)artly 
endowed  and  ijartly  private,  in  which  alvuit  4o'o 
pupils  are  educate<i;  and  almshouses,  in  which 
twelve  po«»r  widows  are  sup|K)rtetL  Fuel  is  sup- 
plied in  plentv  from  an  extensive  ne.ighlMmring 
lK)g.  The  Hill  of  Ward,  near  the  txiwn,  4no  fi. 
liigh,  is  a  striking  object  in  this  tiat  countri'.  The 
town,  which  is  a  Ixtr.  by  prescription,  received  a 
cliartt^r  from  Hen.  IV.,  confirming  and  extendin;^ 
its  privileges,  which  were  confirmed  and  fiirthir 
extende<l  by  sul>sequent  monarchs,  partitrulariy  by 
Elizabeth,  who  ctmfemxl  on  it  the  right  of  wnding 
2  ms.  to  the  Irish  ParL ;  and  by  .Famc^  I.,  by  whom 
the  municiiiol  limits  were  fixe<i  at  a  mile  U'vond 
the  U)vn\  in  evcrj'  direction,  to  which  was  add(?<l  a 
right  to  hold  a  ct>urt  (»f  rec(»nl.  But  these,  and 
some  manorial  iK>wers,  have  fallen  into  desuetude 
since  the  Union,  when  the  lK)r.  lo^t  its  right  to 
return  ms.  to  Pari.  Petty  ses>ionH  arc  h(?ld  hen.' 
on  alternate  Thursday's.  The  market,  held  in  tlu! 
market-house  on  Thursdays,  is  well  supplied  with 
com  and  provi>ions.  The  fairs  are  numerous :  tlut 
principal  being  th(»se  hehl  on  the  Thursday  Infore 
28  Jan.,  on  4  May,  4  Aug..  and  7  Nov.;  the  others, 
held  on  3  and  10  March.  22  and  30  June,  and  on 
22  and  29  Sept.,  arc  less  imiK>rtant. 

ATHENKY,  a  decavetl  town  of  Ireland,  co. 
(;alway,  14  m.  E.  Galwav.  P<»p.  1,319  in  is.n. 
and  V2Ki  in  1861.  The  town  was  ft.mieriy  of 
9<»me  imiM>rtance,  having  Ix.'en  enclosed  by  wnll>, 
and  iKwsessetl  of  a  university.  It  retumetl  a  memhcr 
to  the  Irish  ParL  but  woa  ditjfrancliised  at  the 
Union. 

ATHENS,  one  of  the  most  famoit^t  cities  of 
antiquity,  the  chosen  scat  of  literature,  ])hiloimphy, 
and  the  tine  arts,  and  the  capital  of  the  new  king- 
dom of  (rreece,  on  the  W.  si<le  of  Atticii,  alniut  4  in. 
from  the  (iulf  of  ^Egina,  lat,  37°  58'  1"  X.,  long. 
230  43' 64"  E.  pop.  41,298  in  18G2.  The  town 
is  built  on  the  W.  side  of  an  abrupt  and  rfKrkv  emi- 
nence rising  out  of  an  extensive  plain  terminated 
N.  bvmounts  Pentelicus  and  Pames,  N E.  l»v  Mount 
Ancliesmus,  E.  by  Mount  HymettiLs,  S\V.  bv  the 
Hill  Museium,  now  calknl  Phihtpnppus.  and  \V.  by 
Lycabettus.  During  the  prolonged  conflicts  of  the 
revoIutii»nar>'  war  (1x20-27)  the  town  was  hiid  in 
nuns;  and  when  the  jwat  of  government  was  trans- 
ferred hither  in  IKM,  it  was  with  the  gn*nteH| 
difficidty  that  buihlings  could  l)e  titte<l  up  for  the 
members  of  the  regency,  the  diplomatic  ImmIv,  nnd 
their  ofhces.  It  w,  however,  again  gradually  rising 
into  imiMitance.  Several  strw^is  have  lKH»n  ojK'ned, 
levelled,  and  widenetl,  the  principal  U-ing  llennes, 
or  Mercurv  Street,  /Eolus  Street,  Mhierva  Street, 
and  the  liazar  or  Market  Street.  The  first  of 
these  traverses  the  town,  which  it  divides  into 
two  eijual  parts,  luirallel  with  the  Aer«t]Nilis,  an<l 
is  crossed  at  right  angles  by  tliat  of  yEolus.  whidi 


ATHENS 


239 


terminates  close  under  the  Acropolis.  Minerva 
Street,  the  broadest  of  all,  runs  in  nearly  the 
same  direction  as  /Eolus  Street.  Bazar  or  Market 
Street,  so  called  from  its  containing  the  shops  for 
the  supply  of  the  various  articles  required  by  the 
population,  is  about  half  a  mile  in  length.  The 
houses,  built  in  the  modem  German  style,  are 
generally  supplied  with  balconies,  and  contain 
shops  and  coffee-houses  on  the  lower  story.  The 
other  streets  hanlly  deserve  the  name,  being  mere 
narrow  lanes,  displaying  a  marked  contempt  for 
regularity.  The  public  buildings  comprise  the 
royal  palace,  the  university,  the  hall  for  the 
national  representatives,  a  theatre,  a  mint,  an 
observatory,  barracks,  hospitals,  with  a  cathedral, 
and  several  churches,  including  an  English  chapel. 
The  palace  is  a  large  quadrangular  edifice  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Lycabettus.  The  university,  the 
finest  of  the  modem  buiklings,  established  on  the 
(ierman  model,  has  a  pretty  extensive  library,  a 
numerous  corps  of  professors  and  teachers,  and 
about  two  hundred  pupils.  Athens  has  also  a 
well-attended  gj-mnasium,  in  which  the  govern- 
ment has  founded  some  exhil)itions  with  various 
inferior  academies  and  schools,  and  a  botanic 
garden.  The  population  is  of  a  more  hetero- 
geneous descriptions  than  that  of  any  other  city  of 
its  size.  Eun)pean  shops  invite  purchasers  bv  the 
!«ide  of  Eastem  bazars ;  coffee-houses  and  billiard 
nxiins,  and  French  and  German  restaurants,  are 
openeil  all  over  the  city.  The  mixture  of  its 
population  bears  a  striking  analogy  to  the  extra- 
onlinary  contra*<ts  presented  by  the  city  itself. 
*  The  same  half  acre  of  ground,'  says  a  recent 
traveller,  *  often  contains  two  or  three  remaining 
ctjlumns  of  an  ancient  portico,  a  small  Christian 
chapel  of  the  middle  ages,  a  Venetian  watch- 
tower,  a  Turkish  mosque,  with  its  accompanying 
cypresses  and  palm-trees,  and  a  mo<lem  fashionable- 
lo<^)king  reaidenoe;  thus,  as  it  were^  distinctly  ex- 
hibit hig  the  different  phases  of  the  varied  exist- 
ence of  this  celebrated  city.'  Great  efforts  have 
been  made  to  secure  the  health  of  the  city,  by 
taking  down  the  walls  by  which  it  had  l)€en  sur- 
rounded by  the  Turks  ;  by  cleansing  and  repairing 
the  ancient  sewers;  and  draining  the  marshes 
f(»mied  by  the  overflowings  of  the  Cephisus,  the 
exhalations  of  which  were  extremelv  noxious.  A 
gooil  road  connects  the  city  with  its  harl)oar  at 
the  Firieus.  Here,  also,  several  large  houses  have 
been  built,  and  some  good  streeti<,  flanked  by  re- 
sjiectable  dwellings,  have  been  completed.  A 
large  custom-house,  a  quay,  and  a  lazaretto,  have 
been  erected,  and  though  trade  cannot  be  said 
to  flourish,  the  town  has  rather  a  bustling 
appearance. 

Athens  stands  on  a  spot  rich  in  remains  of  an- 
tiquity; and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  its 
present  tranquillity  will  prove  favourable  to  the 
better  illustration  of  monuments  and  placets  already 
identified,  and  that  the  excavations  everywhere 
forming  for  laying  the  foundations  of  new  build- 
ings will  lea<l  to  many  valuable  discoveries. 

The  ancient  city  of  Athens — 

'*  The  eye  of  Greece,  mother  of  arts 
And  eloquence,  native  to  famous  wits, 
Or  hospitable  — " 

considerably  exceeded  in  extent  the  mo<lem  town; 
and,  unlike  the  latter,  which,  as  already  obser\'ed, 
spreads  into  the  plain  chiefly  on  the  W.  and  SW., 
encircled  the  Acropolis.  It  was  enclosed  in  a  sort 
of  i>eninsula  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Cephi- 
sus and  Ilyssus,  the  former  of  which  flows  due  S. 
past  the  \V.  side  of  the  city:  the  latter,  which  rises 
a  few  miles  to  the  NE.  of  the  city,  mns  |»ast  it  in 
a  SW.  direction.     At  the  time  when  Athens  had 


attained  its  greatest  magnitude,  it  wasencompaased 
b^  a  wall  surmounted  at  intervals  by  strongly  for- 
tified towers.  The  plan  of  this  wall,  many  parts 
of  which  still  remain,  exhibits  the  form  of  an  irre- 
gular oblong,  having  at  its  N.  extremity  the  gate 
of  Achamte,  on  the  S.  the  Itonian  gate  and  the 
fountain  Callirho^,  on  the  W.  the  gate  of  Diochares, 
and  on  the  £.  the  Peiraic  gate.  Beginning  with 
the  gate  of  Achamae  on  the  north,  the  wall  ran 
eastward  near  the  base  of  Anchesmus,  and  past  the 
Diomcian  gate  to  the  gate  of  Diochares,  which  led 
to  the  Lyceium ;  it  then  continued  parallel  to  the 
Ilyssus  on  the  western  aide  of  that  stream  to  the 
fountain  CallirhoS  or  Enneacrunos ;  and  thence  to 
the  hill  of  the  Museium,  which  it  crossed,  compre- 
hending the  still  existing  monument  of  Philopap- 
pus  within  its  circuit.  Its  course  from  the  Museium 
was  north,  taking  in  the  chief  part  of  the  Pnyx 
and  Mount  Lvcabettus,  to  the  Dipylum,  which  led 
to  the  outer  Ceramicus  or  gr^at  burning  ground, 
and  to  the  Academia  or  School  of  Plato  in  the 
depression  between  the  Pnyx  and  Lycal)ettu8. 
Athens  had  three  great  harbours,  the  Piraeus, 
Munychia,  and  Phalerum.  These  ports  formed  a 
separate  city  larger  than  Athens  itself,  and  were 
connected  with  it  bv  means  of  the  long  walla 
(jiaitpa  rtixn).  The  harbour  of  the  Piraeus  was  a 
spacious  basin  embraced  by  two  arms  of  rocky  land 
which  formed  gigantic  natural  piers.  Even  now 
it  is  considered  a  safe  port,  and  in  former  times  it 
constituted  at  once  the  harbour,  dockyard,  and 
arsenal  of  Athens. 

Athens,  at  its  most  flourishing  period,  contained 
about  10,000  houses  (Xen.  Mem.  iiu  6, 14),  which 
were  for  the  most  part  so  small  and  mean  in  ap- 
pearance that.,  according  to  Dicaearchus,  it  was  to 
the  public  edifices  alone  that  it  owed  its  attractions. 
The  inhabitants  were  comprised  under  three  cla.Hses, 
citizens  (woAiTai),  sojourners  (M^rroiKot),  and  slaves 
(5ovAo() ;  of  these  the  slaves  greatly  preponderated, 
though  it  is  difficult  to  make  an  accurate  compu- 
tation of  their  numbers.  Indeed,  the  whole  ques- 
tion as  to  the  population  of  Athens  is  involved  in 
great  obscurity.  Hume,  Letronne,  Boeckh,  Leake, 
Clinton,  and  others,  have  in  our  own  times  directed 
their  efforts  towards  its  elucidation,  and  have  sup- 
ported their  reasonings  with  great  learning  and 
mgenuity,  though  with  little  unanimity  or  success; 
and  the  difficulties  that  surround  the  subject,  from 
the  vagueness,  inaccuracy,  and  discrepancy  of  the 
data,  are  so  great  as  almost  to  preclude  the  possi- 
bility of  arriving  at  anything  like  a  satisfactory 
conclusion.  Boeckh  has  estimated  the  population 
of  the  city  and  its  ports  at  180,000;  Clmton  at 
160,000;  and  Leake  at  116,000.  The  statement 
of  Athenieus  that  the  number  of  slaves  in  Athens 
(or  Attica)  was  400,000  is  universally  admitted  to 
be  grossly  exaggerated.  The  commercial  opera- 
tions of  Athens  embraced  every  known  country 
and  commodity.  'All  the  products  of  foreign 
countries,'  says  Boeckh,  *  came  to  Athens,  and  ar- 
ticles which,  in  other  places,  could  hardly  be 
obtained  singly,  were  collected  tc^ether  at  the 
Pineus.  Besides  the  com,  the  costly  wines,  iron, 
brass,  and  other  objects  of  commerce  which  came 
from  all  the  regions  of  the  Mediterranean,  they 
imported,  from  the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea,  slaves, 
timber  for  ship-building,  salt  fish,  honey,  wax, 
tar,  wix)l,  riggmg,  leather,  and  goat  skins;  from 
Byzantium,  Tlirace,  and  Macedonia,  timber,  slaves, 
and  salt  fish ;  slaves  from  Thessaly ;  carpets  and 
fine  wool  from  Phrygia  and  Miletus.'  *  AU  the 
finest  products,'  savs  Xenophon  (De  Kep.  Ath.  it  7), 
'  of  Sicily,  of  Italy,  Cypms,  Lvdia,  Pontus,  and 
the  Peloponnesus,  Athens  by  her  empire  of  the 
sea  is  able  to  collect  into  one  spot.'  Nor  were 
manufactures  neglected.    It  is  trae  that  commerce 


240 


ATHENS 


Nigaided  as  the  chief  point  of  national  policy, 
and  that  every  enoonnigemait  was  given  to  it 
whidi  hifch  protecting  regulations  and  other  pii- 
▼ileges  coold  bestow.    But  no  restriction  was  un- 
poaed  upon  industry :  the  meanest  manual  occu- 
pation was  attended  by  no  disgrace ;  hence  every 
Ekranch  of  industry  flourished,  and  the  manufac- 
tnies  of  Athens  were  eveiywhere  esteemed.    The 
native  products  of  Athens,  too,  were  of  great  im- 
portance ;  they  consisted  chiefly  of  olives,  figs,  and 
imaey,  and  have  been  celebrated  in  all  ages.    The 
wealth  of  the  city  was  also  augment^  by  the 
•ilver  mines  of  Laurion,  and  'uose  sumptuous 
ediflces  which  constituted  the  pride  of  the  Athen- 
ians, and  the  admiration  of  the  present  day,  owed 
thebr  origin  to  the  marble  quames  of  Pentelicus.' 
(Dodweu*s  Greece.)  The  opulence^  prosperity,  and 
power  of  Athens  are  fully  exhibited  m^  Inucy- 
didea  (lib.  ii  18).    Previously  to  the  Peloponne- 
aiaa  war,  the  treasury  contained  9,700  talents, 
besides  a  great  quantity  of  gold  and  silver  depo- 
sited in  tl^  temples  of  the  gods  and  in  other  pub- 
lie  edifices.     The  dty  was  defended  by  1,200 
eavalry,  1,600  bowmen,  and  18,000  heavr  armed 
troops;  ISfiOO  men  were  stationed  in  the  lortifica- 
tioDS,  and  the  coast  was  guarded  by  800  well- 
manned  ships.    The  same  historian  has  distinctly 
indicated  (lib.  iL    40)  that  the  fteedom  of  the 
Athenian  institutions,  so  pre-eminently  adq[>ted 
to  develope  the  energies  of  the  human  mind,  was 
the  chief  sonice  of  their  unparalleled  greatness; 
but  our  limits  preclude  us  fimm  entering  into 
detailB  on  the  government  and  public  economy 
of  Athens,  and  we  can  only  refer  the  reader  to 
Boeekh's  invaluable  treatise  on  this  difBcult  and 
jntoesdng  subject. 

The  most  striking  object  of  Athens  is  the  Acro- 
polis or  old  Cecr^an  fortress.  The  Acropolis 
alone  fonned  the  ancient  dty,  and  from  its  elevated 
posi^OD  was  tenned  4  ^tm  voAtv ,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  lower  part,  i^  cara  woAtv,  afterwards 
bnilt.  Athens,  including  the  upper  and  lower 
partly  was  styled,  by  way  of  emmence,  voAtr,  or 
MTw,  dkg  eUy,  It  was  founded  by  Cecrops,  about 
anno  1566  a^c  At  its  W.  end,  by  which  alone  it 
was  accessible,  stood  the  Propylsa,  the  Mte,  as 
well  as  the  defence  of  the  Acropcws.  Inrough 
this  ipte  the  poiodical  processions  of  the  Pana- 
thenaicjubHee  were  wont  to  move;  andthemailcs 
ct  dimot  wheds  are  still  visible  on  the  stone 
floor  of  its  entrance.  It  was  of  the  Doric  order, 
and  its  central  pediment  was  supported  by  tan 
fluted  marble  columns,  each  6  ft  m  dianu,  29  in 

Stit,  and  7  in  their  inteicolumniation.  On  the 
t  wing  stood  the  Temple  of  Victory,  and  on 
the  left  was  a  building  decorated  with  paintings 
by  the  pencil  of  Polygnotus,  of  which  Pausanias 
haa  Idt  us  an  account.  In  a  part  of  the  wall  still 
remaining  there  are  firagments  of  excellent  designs 
in  basso-relievo,  representing  the  combat  of  the 
Athenians  with  the  Amazons;  besides  six  columns 
white  as  snow,  and  of  the  finest  architecturp. 
Near  the  Propyliea  stood  the  cdebrated  colossal 
atatoe  of  Minerva,  executed  by  Phidias  after  the 
battle  qS  Marathon,  the  hei^^t  of  which,  induding 
the  pedestal,  was  60  ft.  But  the  chief  glozy  m 
the  Acropolis  was  the  Parthemm,  or  Temple  of 
Mineorva.  It  was  a  peripteral  octostyle,  <n  the 
Doric  order,  with  seventeen  columns  on  the  sides, 
each  6  ft.  2  in.  in  diameter  at  the  base,  and  84  ft 
in  height,  devated  on  three  stepai  Its  height, 
from  ute  base  of  the  pediments,  was  66  ft.,  and 
the  dimensions  of  the  area  288  ft.  by  102.  The 
eastern  pediment  was  adorned  wiUi  two  groups  of 
fltatnM,  one  of  which  represented  the  oirth  of 
Minerva,  the  other  the  contest  of  Minerva  with 
Keptone  ftr  the  goyemment  of  Athens.    On  the, 


metopes  was  sculptured  the  battle  of  the  Centaurs 
with  the  Lnpithm ;  and  the  ineze  contained  a  re- 
presentation of  the  Panathenaic  festivals.    Icti- 
nus,  Callicrates,  and  Carpion,  were  the  architects 
of  this  temple;  Phidias  was  the  artist;  and  its 
entire  cost  has  been  estimated  at  1^  millions  ster- 
ling.    Of  this  building,  eight  columns  of  the 
eastern  front  and  several  of  the  lateral  colonnades 
are  still  standing.    Of  the  frontispiece,  which  re- 
presented the  contest  of  Neptune  and  Minerva, 
nothing  remains  but  the  hea^  of  a  sea  hone  and 
the  figures  of  two  women  without  heads.    The 
combat  of  the  Centaurs  and  the  Lapithae  is  in 
better  preservation ;  but,  of  the  numerous  statues 
with  whidi  this  temple  was  enriched,  that  of 
Adrian  alone  remains.    The  Parthenon,  however, 
(UlafHdated  as  it  is,  still  retains  an  air  of  inexpres- 
sible nandeur  and  sublimity;  and  it  forms  at 
once  tne  highest  point  in  Athens,  and  the  centre 
of  the  Acropolis.    On  the  N£.  side  of  the  Par- 
thenon stood  the  Erechthdum,  a  temple  dedicated 
to  the  Joint  wofBhip  of  Neptune  and  Minerva. 
There  are  considerable  remains  of  this  building, 
particulariy  those  beautiful  female  figures  called 
Caryatides,  whidi  support,  instead  of  columns 
three  of  the  porticos ;  b^des  three  of  the  column, 
in  the  north  hexastyle,  with  the  roof  over  these 
last  cdumns.    The  rest  of  the  roof  of  this  grace- 
ful portico  fell  during  the  siege  of  Athens  in  1827. 
Sudi  is  an  outline  of  the  chief  buildings  of  the 
Acropolis,  which  in  its  best  days  had  four  distinct 
oharacten ;  being  at  once  the  fortress,  the  sacred 
indosuie,  the  treasury,  and  the  museum  of  art  of 
the  Athenian  nation.     In  the  modem  city  of 
Athens  itself  there  are  still  many  monuments  of 
antiquity  to  be  found.    Of  these  the  prindpal  are 
three  exquisite  Corinthian  columns  crowned  by 
ardiitzaves ;  the  Temple  of  the  Winds,  built  by 
Cyrrfaestes,  of  an  octagonal  figure,  with  a  repre- 
sentation ot  the  different  winds  on  each  of^  its 
sides;  and  the  monument  of  L^'sicrates,  called 
by  the  modem  Greeks,  the  lantern  of  Demos- 
thenes.   This  building  consists  of  a  pedestal  stv- 
rounded  by  a  colMinaae,  and  is  surmounted  by  a 
dome  of  Corinthian  arehitecture ;  it  was  snpposod 
to  be  the  spot  m^ch  Demosthenes  used  as  his 
study — a  suppomtion  which  has,  however,  long 
been  overthrown.    Beneath  the  southern  wall  of 
the  Aoopolis,  near  its  extremity,  was  situated  the 
Athenian  or  Dion3rsiac  theatre.    Its  seats,  rifting 
one  above  another,  were  cut  out  of  the  sloping 
rock.    Plato  affirms  it  was  capable  of  containing 
80,000  pomons.    It  contained  statues  of  all  the 
great  tragic  and  ccnnic  poets,  the  most  conspicuous 
ot  which  were  those  of  i£schylus,  Sophocles,  and 
Euripides  among  the  former,  and  those  of  Aristo- 
phanes and  Menander  among  the  latter.    On  the 
south-west  side  of  the  Acropolis  is  the  site  of 
the  Oddum,  or  musical  theatre  of  Herodes  Atti- 
cus,  named  by  him  the  theatre  of  Kegilla,  in 
honour  of  his  wife.    On  the  north-east  side  of  the 
Acropolis  stood  the  Prytaneum,  where  citizens 
who  nad  rendered  s^vices  to  the  state  were  main- 
tained at  the  public  expense.    Extenduig  south- 
wards firom  the  site  of  the  Piytaneum,  ran  the 
street  to  wluch  Pausanias  gave  the  name  of  Tri- 
pods, firom  its  containing  a  number  of  small  tem- 
ples or  edifices  crowned  with  tripods,  to  commemo- 
rate the  triumphs  gained  bv  the  Choragi  in  the 
theatre  of  Bacchus.    OpposTte  to  the  west  end  of 
the  Acropolis  is  the  Areopagus,  or  Hill  of  Mors, 
on  the  eastern  extremity  of  which  was  situated 
the  celebrated  court  of  the  Areopagus.  This  point 
is  reached  by  means  of  sixteen  stone  steps  cut  in 
the  rock,  immediatdy  above  which  is  a  bench  of 
stone,  formiog  three  sides  of  a  quadrangle,  like  a 
tridinom,  generally  luppoBed  to  have  been  the 


tribanaL  The  raiiu  of  a  small  chap«1  consccnt«it  I  bances  wliich  continued  to  distract  llie  city,  tba 
tu  St.  Dionysius  the  Ar«o|iiigiie,  aiitt  oomrocmo-  |  people  (a.c.  fiM)  haiJ  reeourw!  to  Solon,  who  liail 
rating  bix  conversion  by  St.  Paul  (Acu  of  tlip  '  iilreiuly  di8tini;:iii9hGil  himaelf  u  a  general,  anil 
Auw.  xi-ii.  M),  are  hue  visible.  Abont  h  quarter  inveated  him  with  the  office  ofirchon.  The  code 
of  a  mile  iiouth-we«t  Trom  the  centre  of  the  Areo-  of  laws  which  he  framed  was  admirably  suiled  to 
pacus  stands  Puys,  the  place  provided  for  the  the  exigency  nf  the  times ;  for  though  its  ten- 
jniblic  assemblies  at  Athens  in  it>  palmy  days,  dency  wot  decidedly  democratic,  a  count«rba- 
Tlic  stcpn  by  which  the  speaker  mount^l  the  dm-  '  lancing  check  was  ^ven  to  po|iular  encroachment 
tmm.  and  a  tier  of  three  seats  hewn  in  the  solid  by  the  entabUshment  of  the  assembly  of  400,  and 
rock  for  the  audience,  are  still  visible.  This  is,  hy  the  prerogatives  vested  in  the  court  of  Aihh 
perhaps,  the  must  interesting  spot  in  Athens  to  pagus.  Indewi,  (he  freedom  of  spirit  which  Solon 
the  lovers  of  Grecian  genius,  Iwing  associaleii  with  niiroduced  and  rendered  durable,  and  the  Ulieral 
■n  of  Dcmoathenea,  and  the  other  famed    education  which  the  whole  system  of  his  lawi 


To  UBcedon.  and  Artaxercs^  tb 

Ontside  the  modem  city  are  the  ruins  of  the 
ttmple  of  Jupiter  Olympius.  This  was  one  of  the 
first  conceived  and  the  last  executed  of  (he  sacred 
monuments  of  Athens.  It  was  tiegun  bv  Pisis- 
tra(n9,  but  not  llnished  till  the  time  of  the'  Roman 
emperor  Adrian,  7011  vears  afterwards ;  but  of  the 
rji)  columns  which  supported  it,  only  1(>  remain. 
Not  far  from  it  is  the  lemple  of  Theseus,  built  by 
Cimon,  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Salamis.  This 
ia  one  of  ihc  most  noble  remains  of  ancient  Athens, 
and  the  must  perfect,  if  not  the  most  beautiful, 
existinip  specimen  of  Grecian  architeclUTE.  It  is 
built  ol  Pentelic  marble.  The  roof,  friezes,  and 
cornices  still  remain  ;  and  sn  genllv  has  the  hand 
of  time  pressed  upon  this  venerable  eiUfice,  that 
■lie  first  impression  of  the  mind  in  beholding  it  is 
doiiLt  of  its  antiquity. 

Concerning;  the  early  iohabiUnts  of  Athena,  we 


s  history  begins  to  emerge  from  ob- 
evenls  wbteh  distinguish  it  are  for  a 

d  doubiftd.    Though  Ogyges 

lirsl  king  of  Athens,  it  is'  not 
ee  centuries  later  that  Athenian  history  as- 
a  definite  form,  when  Cecrops  (a.c.  1566), ■ 
of  Ejp-pt,  by  manjing  (he  daughter  of 


is  mentioned  as'  the  lirst 


made  indispensably  necessary  U 
wealthy  citizens,  soou  rendered  Athens  the  central 
point  of  illumination  to  all  the  republics  of 
lireece.    Nor  were  the  consequences  of  Solon's 

nation  of  Pisistratus  (A.C.  661).  For  notwith- 
standing his  assumption  of  the  regal  power,  his 
administration  was  characterised  by  an  assiduous 
cultivation  of  the  arts  and  sciences ;  and  it  is  to 
him  that  posterity  is  indebted  for  (he  collection 
of  the  Homeric  poems  in  their  present  definite 
form.  That  the  spirit  of  Athenian  fiwihim  was 
not  extinct,  was  proved  by  the  expulsion  (a.c. 
51D)  of  Itippias  and  Hipparchns   (the   sons  of 


gmilually  melted  d 


Solon  was 
e  democracy, 


itil  Cleosthcnes  j^ave  the  last  blow  tc 
tocracy  by  the  institution  of  ostracism, 

llie  petty  internal  contests  which  had  a^ 
Athens  were  now  however  to  be  swallowed 

of  far  f^reater  magnitude.     With  rapid 


utridea  the  Pereian  monarchy  had  lieen  encroach- 

had  already  sworn  f^lty  to  Darius,  when  Albens 
and  Laccdiemon  raised  the  banner  of  defiance,  and 
the  baldo  of  Marathon  (a.c.  4»0),  under  the  con- 
duel  of  Hiltiodes,  at  once  achieved  the  liberty  ot 
Greece,  and  enshrined  Athena  in  the  centre  of  a 
glory.    Then  foUowed  the  invasion  of  Greece  by 

....  y     c-  r,     -       -    seizure  and  conflagration  of  Athens  and  its  dta- 

— , ined  (he sovereignty.  He  collected  the  i  del,  the  stratagems  of  Thcmislocles,  the  memo- 

hitheoo  scattered  inhabiUnts  of  Attica,  divide.!  „ble  battles  of  S•lami^  PUt«a  and  Mycale,  and, 
them  into  tribes,  and  founded  the  Acropolis.  No-  i„,iy,  the  defeat  of  the  Penians.  Amonff  other 
thing  of  impoHonce  occurs  in  the  Wslory  of  Athens  eonsequcnces  that  resulted  to  Athens  fnim  llie 
among  the  succc-wm  of  Cecrops,  till  the  time  of  ,  Persian  invasion,  was  the  impetus  given  to  iu 
Theseus  (a.c.  l.HHi),  who  united  in  himself  the  <  naval  affairs,  ThemistoclM,  who  was  eminently 
attributes  of  legislator  and  warrior.  The  reins  of  1  imbued  with  a  naval  spirit,  caused  (a.c  479)  a 
govemraent  descended  in  his  family,  without  any  |  new  and  mora  commodious  harbour  to  be  built  at 
occurrence  of  historical  iroisirtance,  till  Codrus  |  ihe  Pirwu^  which  in  process  of  time  was  jomed 
(A.C  10081  heroically  sacrificed  his  life  for  his  ;  to  the  city  bv  the  celebrated  Long  Walls.  This 
cnnntiy.  At  this  time  an  anstocratical  was  sub-  .  pretaution  invested  Athens  with  (he  command  of 
sdtutetl  for  the  monarchical  form  uf  government,  ,  (he  sea,  and  raised  her  commercial  and  mililorv 
and  tlic  title  of  '  king '  was  exchanged  for  (hat  marine  to  an  unexampled  pitch  of  pnwp 
of 'archcm.'  On  its  first  institution,  the  office  of  '  prosperity  which  was  maintained  k  '  ' 
archon  was  hereditary,  and  for  life;  but  after  the  by  the  moderation  of  Aristides,  s 
lapse  of  two  centuries,  it  was  limited  to  ten  years,  !  named  the  Just,  and  by  the  generous  and  martial 
and  after  posjung  (lirough  six  hands  on  this  foot-  ,  spirit  of  Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades  (A.c.  466).  Be- 
ing, was  finally  changed  to  an  annual  office,  fore  the  Peraian  invasion,  Athens  had  contributed 
When  the  last  change  took  place,  a  further  al-  1 1e»  than  many  other  cities,  her  inferiors  in  mag- 

■ — " made  by  dividuig  the  duties  of  archon  [  nitude  and  in  political  importance,  (o  the  intd- 

progress  of  Greece.     She  hod  produced  no 
"    '        "ipared  with  those  of  Atgos,G 


miepcrity;  i 
1  full  vigoa 


s,  selected  by  the  people  from 
the  ckss  of  the  nobles,  in  whom  were  vested  all 
legislative  and  judicial  powers.  Such  a  form  of 
government  was  peculiarly  exposed  to  jiarty 
spirit  and  ronientions  for  power,  and  a  strong  de- 
sire fotadefinitc  code  of  laws  arising,  Draco  was 
ch'>sen  as  the  lawgiver  (A.c.  624),  'fhe  atrocity 
ol  his  code,  however,  which  awanJed  (he  punish- 
meiil  of  dea(h  at  once  t-i  the  most  venial  offences 
and  the  most  fiagrant  crimes,  soon  rendered  it  in- 
cajinble  of  execution;  and  Draco  lost  the  pul 
..    .    .!..   : :,_       -r ,.   .^j  j^^ 


rinth,  Sicyon,  .^Igma,  Laconia,  and  of  many  ct 
both  in  the  eutem  and  western  colonies,  one 
could  l>oast  of  no  poets  so  eelebja(ed  as  those  of 
thelonian  andj^lianschools.  Her  nirit  hitherto 
had  been  decidetily  martial ;  but  tier  peaceful 
glories  quickly  followed,  and  outshone  those  of 
her  victories  and  political  ascendency.  After  the 
termination  of  the  Persian  war,  liteiatuie  and  (he 
fine  arts  began  to  lend  towards  Athens  as  their 
moat  favoured  seat,  for  here,  during  the  ago  uf 


242 


ATHENS 


PGiicleft,  a)x)vc  all  other  partu  of  Greece,  ^iiiiut 
and  talents  were  fostered  by  an  ample  lield  of 
exertion,  by  public  sympathy  and  applausie.    It 
was  during  this  aj^e  that  painting,  architi>rtunr. 
and  sculpture,  reached  the  hiffheut  dcf^ree  of  per- 
fccti«)n :  and  that  Greek  poetr\'  was  enriched  with 
a  new  kind  of  composition,  the  drama,  which  ex- 
hibited all  the  grace  and  vif^our  of  the  Athenian 
imagination,    tof^ether   with    the    full    compasH 
and    the  highest   refinements  of  the    lan^a^ 
peculiar  to  Attica.    The  drama  was  indeed  the 
branch  of  literature  wliich  {leculiarly  si^alisod 
the  tkfre  of  Pericles;  and  the  intellectual  character 
of  the  Athenians   is  vividly  portrave*!    by  the 
sublime  and  impassioned  strokes  of  yflschylus,  the 
graceful  and  elegant  tfmchcs  of  Sophocles,  the 
elal>orate  philoso|)hy  of  Euripidm,  and  tlie  caustic 
raillery'  and  moral  power  of  Aristophanes.    And 
though  time  has  effaced  all  traces  of  the  pencil  of 
Parrhasius,  Zcuxis,  and  Apelles,  posterity  has 
assigned  them  a  place  in  the  temf)le  of  fame  be- 
side Phidias  and  I*raxiteles,  whose  works  are, 
even  at  the  present  dav,  unrivalled  for  classical 
purity  of  design  and  perfection  of  execution.  Hut 
It  was  not  alone  to  works  of  art  ami  the  embel- 
lishment of  the  city  bv  splendid  architectural 
decorations,  that  the  efforts  of  Pericles  were  di- 
rected.   For  at  the  perioil  in  question,  the  whole 
of  Athens  with  its  three   celebrated   hartx>urs, 
Pineus,  Munychia,  and  PhaleTum,  connected  by 
means  of  the  I^ng  Walls  Ix^un  by  Themistocles, 
was  made  to  form  one  great  citv,  enclosed  within 
a  vast  parabolus  of  massive  fortifications,  extend- 
ing to  no  lew  than  174  stadia,  of  which  the  cir- 
cuit of  the  city  amounted  to  48,  the  Long  Walls 
taken  together  to  75,  and  the  circumference  of 
the'  harlM>iurs  to  76.     But  the  advantages  that 
flowed  to  Athens  from  the  administration  of  Pe- 
ricles were  not  witliout  alloy.    The  splendour 
which  he  introduced  exhausted  the  public  reve- 
nues ;  and  to  supply  deficiencies,  recourse  was  had 
to  the  infliction  of  rigon>ns  imports  up<»n  the  j 
allied  states.     Hence  a  f^irit  of  disaffection  was  ' 
eiigendered ;  and  Sparta,  who  had  long  viewed  j 
with  jealousy  the  magnificence  of  her  rival,  seized 
the  opportunity  of  fanning  the  discord  into  a 
Hame.    This  issue<l  in  the  Peloptmnesian  war,  the 
various  fortunes  of  which  have  been  so  ably  re- 
corded by   the  pen  of  Thucydides.    Afler  the 
la|ise  of  twenty-seven  years,  during  which  |)eriod  j 
the  ni(»vement8  of  the  conflicting  parties  were 
characterised  by  various  success,  victory  at  length 
declared  for  the  Spartans,  and  the  Athenians  were 
forced  to  submit  to  the  dominion  of  the  Thirty 
T>Tnnts;  a  humiliating  period  in  the  hist  or}'  of 
Athens,  over  which  we  would  willingly  throw  a 
veiL     It  was  reserved,  however,  for  the  skill  of 
Thrasybulus  (a.c.  408)  to  restore  to  Athens  its 
former  constitution ;  a  revolution  which  he  was 
aide  to  effect  without  much  severitv,  or  efiusion 
of  blood.    Perhaps  in   the  whole  history  of  the 
Athenians,  there  is  no  feature  more  remarkable 
than  the  vigorous  elasticity  of  s])irit  which  they 
displayed  in  recovering  from  disasters;  and  never 
was  the  tnith  of  this  remark  so  strikingly  illus- 
trated as  at  the  pn>sent  {leriod.    One  generation 
liad  sirarcely  passed  away,  since  she  was  groaning 
iM-neath  the  Thirty  T>Tants  and  the  Keign  of  Ter- 
ror— her  native  enci^ies  prostrate,  her  external 
resf)urces  swept  away — and  now  we  And  her  on  a 
lofYy  eminence.    Seventy-five  cities  hail  her  as 
the  head  of  their  confederacy;  the  Alp^etan  isles 
are  numl)ered  among  lier    foreign   settlements ;  | 
Lace<ln'mon  reci^nii^^cs  her  dominion  of  the  sea ; 
she  is  conf(>sse«ily.  and  without  a  rival,  once  more 
the  first  of  the  (irecian  communities.    Nor  is  tliis 
all ;  hitherto  we  have  seen  her  pnnlucing  and 


fostering  legislators,  warriors,  statesmen,  painters, 
sculptors,  poets,  historians,  and  oraUirs;  we  are 
now  to  behold  her  in  another  asyject,  as  the 
mother  of  that  j)hilosophy  at  once  subtle  nnd 
sublime,  which  even  at  the  i)re8e.nt  hour  exerts  a 
powerful  influence  over  the  human  mintL 

From  this  time  a  new  (era  begins  in  the  history 
of  Athens.  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia,  by  dinJ  of 
dissimulation  and  bril>er\',  contrived  tirnt  t^»  em- 
broil the  diflmMit  states  of  Greece,  and  then  to 
trample  on  their  inde})endence.  Tlie  Athenians, 
roused  by  the  thunders  of  Demosthenes,  made  a 
vigorous  defence  (a.c.  33h)  ;  but  the  battle  of 
('lueronea  pn>vc<l  adverse  to  their  ho[»cs.  and  on 
this  field  sunk  the  supremacy  of  Athens.  UihUt 
the  sway  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  the  different 
generals  who  succee<led  him  in  the  government  of 
Athens,  she  made  various  efforts  to  throw  off  the 
yoke ;  but  these  efforts  resembled  more  the  ebulli- 
tions of  a  slave  tlian  the  aspirations  of  a  noble 
spirit  struggling  to  be  free.  In  this  state  she  con- 
tinued, the  sport  of  ever\'  tyrant  who  chaiice<l  t4> 
draw  a  {irize  m  the  lottery  of  war,  till  Sylla  ]>ro- 
claimed  Athens  a  tributary  of  Kome  (a.c.  80). 
Hut  while  Athens  thus  saw  even*  trace  of  her  jmv- 
litical  existence  vanish,  she  n»se  to  an  empire 
scarcely  less  flattering,  to  which  Kome  itself  was 
obligcni  to  bow.  Her  ctmquerors  l(M)ked  to  her  as 
the  teacher  and  arbiter  of  taste,  phil(>so])hy,  an<l 
science;  and  all  the  Komans  who  were  ambitious 
of  literar>'  attainments  flocked  to  Atliens  in  <»nkr 
to  acquire  them.  This  tribute  of  respect  to  Athe- 
nian taste  and  genius  was  paid  by  various  Roman 
emperors  in  succession.  Under  Adrian  (a.d.  117) 
she  even  regained  much  of  her  former  internal 
splendour;  and  his  example  was  ftdUiwed  by  se- 
veral of  his  successors,  though  on  a  less  magnifi- 
cent scale.  The  descrii»tion  of  Athens  by  Pausa- 
nias  belongs  to  this  iwhikI.  In  the  third  centun-, 
accordhig  to  Zosimus,  Athens  was  taken  by  Gothic 
invadere,  who,  however,  did  not  long  retain  their 
acquisition,  having  l)ecn  expelletl  by  the  inhabi- 
tants under  the  command  of  Cleoderaus.  In  the 
year  39H,  it  was  again  taken  by  Alaric,  king  of 
the  Goths,  who  is  said  to  have  laid  in  niins  its 
stately  structures,  and  to  have  strip]>eti  it  of  its 
ancient  splendour.  After  this  dreadful  visitation, 
Athens  sunk  into  insignificance,  and  became  as 
obscure  as  she  had  once  been  illustrioiLS.  We  are 
told  indeed  that  the  walls  of  Athens  were  put  in  a 
state  .of  defence  by  Justinian;  but  from  the  time 
of  this  emperor,  a  chasm  of  nearly  seven  centuric?* 
ensued  in  its  history,  except  that  in  the  year  1 13«) 
it  furnished  Itoger,  king  of  Sicily,  with  a  numlwr 
of  artificers,  who  there  introduced  the  culture  of 
silk.  Doomed  apparentlv  to  Iwcome  the  prey  of 
every  spoiler,  Athens  agam  emerged  fn>m  obli\'iou 
in  the  13th  centurj',  under  Haliivdn  and  his  cru- 
saders, at  a  time  wlien  it  was  Ix'.siegetl  by  a  jreno- 
ral  of  Theodonis  Lascaris,  the  Greek  empemr.  In 
1427  it  was  taken  by  Sultan  Murail;  but  some 
time  afterwards  was  retioverctl  from  the  Turks  by 
another  hotly  of  crusaders,  under  the  Marquis  of 
Montferrat,  a  powerful  baron  of  the  wt.'"*t.  wlio 
bestowed  it  on  Otto  de  la  K(»che,  one  of  his  loll(>w- 
ers.  Fc»r  a  considerable  time  it  was  govemeil  by 
Ott«)  and  his  de^^cendants,  with  the  title  of  <luko; 
but  this  fiunilv  was  afterwanis  displnced  by  Wall  or 
of  Briennc.  'The  next  rulers  of  Athens  were  the 
Acciaioli,  an  opulent  family  of  Florence,  in  who}.<' 

Eossession  it  remaintnl  till  1455,  when  it  was  taken 
y  Omar,  a  geneml  of  Moliamme<l  II.,  who  soitlitl 
a  colony  in  it,  an<l  incor|M»rated  it  c»»ni})leiely  witli 
the  Turkish  empire.  In  the  year  1087  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Venetians  under  Monisini,  after  a 
short  siege,  duniig  which  the  Parthenon,  then  in 
an  almost  perfect  state,  and  the  other  buildings  of 


ATHERSTONE 

the  Acropolis,  sustAined  ^^reat  damage.  After  a 
short  interval,  it  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turkft,  under  whose  juriiwliction  it  remained,  until 
the  treaty  of  Adrianople  in  1829,  following  up  the 
provisions  and  the  stipulations  of  the  treaty  of 
London  in  1827,  established  the  new  kingdom  of 
Greece,  of  which  Athens  is  now  the  capital 

Athkns  is  the  name  of  s^eral  towns  in  the 
U.  States,  but  none  of  them  of  any  material  im- 
portance. 

ATHERSTOXE,  a  m.  town  of  England,  co. 
Warwick,  hund.  llemlingford,  contiguous  to  the 
Coventry  canal,  12^  m.  N.  Coventrv,  and  102^  ra. 
fnim  London  by  the  London  and  S'orth-Westem 
railway.  Pop.  3,877  in  1861.  It  has  a  free  school, 
founded  in  1573,  and  manufactures  of  hats,  ribbons, 
and  shalloons.  There  are  four  annual  fairs;  that 
which  is  held  on  the  19th  of  September  being  one 
of  the  most  considerable  in  England  for  the  sale 
of  cheese. 

ATIl ERTOX.    See  Chowbknt. 
ATlllS,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Ome,  cap.  cant, 
arrond.  Dorafnmt.    Pop.  4,508  in  1861.    The  town 
has  several  cloth  manufactures. 

ATI! LONE,  an  inland  iovm  of  Ireland,  cos. 
Wcstmeath  and  Roscommon,  on  the  Shannon,  65 
m.  W.  Dublin,  on  tlie  Midland  (Jreat  Western  rail- 
way. Pop.  6,227  in  1«61.  The  name  of  the  town  is 
dorivinl-from  Ath  Luan,  *  the  ford  of  the  rapids.'  To 
command  this  ford  a  castle  was  built  here  by  the 
linglish  shortly  after  their  arrival  in  the  countrj', 
that  became  a  post  of  great  consequence.  In  1641 
Athlone  was  besieged  by  the  Irish  anny ;  but, 
after  a  resistance  of  upwards  of  live  montlis,  was 
relieved  bv  the  Duke  of  Ormond.  In  the  subse- 
quent  war  of  lt»88,  it  was  gallantly  defended  by 
i'ol.  Grace  against  the  English,  but  was  t^iken  by 
storm  the  next  year  by  (iinkell,  aften^ards  Earl 
of  Athlone.  The  fortitications,  which  had  suffered 
much  during  this  siege,  were  renovated ;  but  in 
1697  the  castle  and  the  greater  part  of  the  town 
were  destroyed  by  the  explosion  of  a  gunpt»wder 
magazine,  occasionetl  by  lightning.  During  the 
war  with  France  it  was  made  the  military  deytot 
f«>r  the  \V.  of  Ireland,  and  secured  by  strong  works 
on  the  Connaught  side,  covering  an  extent  of 
tifteen  acres,  and  containing  two  magazines,  an 
ordnance  store,  an  armourj'  for  15,000  stand  of 
small  arms,  and  barracks  for  900  men. 

'fije  to^%ii  is  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  por- 
tions by  the  Shannon,  over  nvhich  is  a  long  and 
inconveniently  narrow  bridge,  built  in  the  time  of 
Elizabeth.  ItsjHiblic  buildings  are  the  two  parish 
churches,  four  Roman  Catholic  parochial  chapels, 
a  Franciscan  cha|)el,  a  Presbyterian  and  two  Me- 
thcKlist  meeting  houses.  A  public  school,  endowed 
by  one  of  the  Ranelagh  family  with  470  acres  of 
land,  educates,  maintains,  and  apprentices  tifteen 
1m)vs;  there  arc  also  parish  scIkmiIs  for  boys  and 
girls,  and  an  abbey  school  for  Catholic  children. 
Tlie  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Roman 
Catholics.  According  to  the  census  of  1861,  there 
were  but  1,009  members  of  the  Established  Church, 
60  Presbyterians,  and  21  Methodists. 

By  its  ruling  charter,  received  from  James  I.  in 
1606,  its  limits  are  lixed  at  1^  mile  in  every  di- 
rection from  the  centre  of  the  bridge  ;  but  for 
electoral  purposes  tliey  are  c<infmcd  nearly  to  the 
gpace  covered  with  dwelling-liouses,  which  extends 
over  alsjut  485  acras.  The  governing  body  con- 
sists of  a  sovereign  ;  tliirteen  burgesvses,  one  of 
wh<»m  is  the  constable  of  the  castle ;  a  common 
council  of  about  twentv  members,  chosen  for  life  : 
and  an  unlimited  nunil>er  of  freemen  nominated 
by  the  c«»n»mon  council.  The  Ixmnigh  was  n»pre- 
Rente<l  by  two  members  in  the  Irish,  and  is  now 
represented  by  one  in  the  Imp.  ParL    The  right  of 


ATHOS 


243 


election  exists  in  the  remaining  old  freemen,  and 
in  the  10/.  householders.  The  number  of  electors 
in  1864  was  270,  of  whom  nine  old  freemen  and 
the  rest  10/.  householders.  The  general  sessions 
for  Roscommon  are  held  here  twice  a  year,  and 
those  for  Westmeath  four  times.  There  are  petty 
sessions  on  alternate  Saturdays. 

There  are  in  the  town,  or  in  its  immediat'B 
neighl^ourhood,  two  distilleries,  and  tlie  same 
number  of  breweries,  tannericis  and  soap  and 
candle  manufactories,  besides  several  flour-milh). 
Coarse  hats  were  formerly  made  here  in  large 
numbers,  but  the  demand  for  them  is  now  trifiuig. 
Besides  the  railway,  which  places  Athlone  in 
direct  communicaticm  with  Dublin  and  Galway, 
and  has  greatly  benetited  the  town,  a  small  trade 
is  carried  on  with  Shannon  Harbour  and  Limerick 
by  steamers  on  the  Shannon,  the  intercourse  being 
aided  by  a  canal  about  1  m.  in  length,  near  Ath- 
lone, by  which  the  rapids  in  the  river  are  obviated. 
Markets  on  Tuesdavs  and  Saturdays.  Fairs  on 
the  Monday  after  Epiphany,  10th  March,  Holy 
Thursday,  and  24th  Aug. :  each  fair  continues  for 
three  davs. 

ATHOS,  AGIOS-OROS,  or  MONTE  SANTO, 
a  famous  mountain  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  near  the 
S.  extremity  of  the  most  easterly  of  those  penin- 
sulas that  project  in  a  SE.  direction  from  the  dis- 
trict of  Saloniki  (part  of  Macedonia)  iwU)  the 
vEgean  Sea,  being  that  between  the  Gulfs  of  (^on- 
tesa  {Sinus  Strymonicua)  and  Monte-Sant^j  {Sinus 
Suufiticus).  This  peninsula  is  joined  to  the  main- 
land by  a  low  isthmus,  not  more  than  IJ  m.  acniss, 
and  not  more,  where  highest,  than  15  ft.  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  But  the  peninsula  itself, 
which  is  al)out  25  m.  in  length  by  about  4  m.  in 
breadtli,  is  mountainous  and  rugged.  Mount  Athos 
has,  bv  a  recent  sur\'ev,  l>een  found  to  be  in  lat, 
40°  10'  N.,  long.  240  20' 30"  E.,  and  to  reach  the 
height  of  6,349  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It 
rises  abruptly  from  the  water,  its  lower  parts  lx>ing 
covered  with  forests  of  pine,  oak,  chestnut,  &c., 
above  which  towers  the  bare  conical  peak  of  the 
mountain. 

Mount  Athos  has  been  famous  both  in  ancient 
and  modem  times.  Herodotus  relates  that  the 
fleet  of  Mardonius,  the  Persian  general,  in  at- 
tempting to  double  Mount  Athos,  was  refiorteil  to 
have  lost  above  300  ships  and  20,000  men.  (Lib. 
vi.  8.  44.)  When  Xerxes  invadod  Greece,  he  de- 
termined to  guard  against  the  occurrence  of  a  simi- 
lar disaster  by  cutting  a  canal  across  the  isthmus, 
of  such  dimensions  as  to  admit  of  two  triremes 
passing  abreast  (Herod,  lib.  vii,  s.^4):  of  which 
great  work  the  traces  still  remain.  In  modem 
timers  the  jx'ninsula  of  Mount  Athos  has  been  oc- 
cupied from  a  remote  epoch  by  a  number  of  monks 
of  the  (Jreek  church,  who  live  in  a  sort  of  fortitied 
mtuiasterics,  of  which  there  are  about  twenty,  of 
different  degrees  of  magnitude  and  importance. 
These,  with  the  farms  or  metochis  attached  to 
them,  occupy  the  whole  peninsula,  which  has 
thence  derived  it,s  modem  name  of  Monte  Santo. 
The  situation  of  the  different  monasteries  Ls  gene- 
rally the  most  romantic  and  strikingly  beautiful 
that  can  be  imagined.  Some  of  them  belong  to 
Russians,  others  to  BiUgarians,  and  others  to  Ser- 
vians. Except  the  produce  of  their  own  farms 
and  vineyards,  and  the  sale  of  crosses  and  beads, 
they  depend  chiefly  on  the  oblations  offere<l  by 
the  numerous  pUgrims  by  which  they  are  occa- 
sionally visited,  and  on  the  sums  collectctl  by 
their  mendicant  bretliren  in  other  ]mrts.  They 
l)ay  an  aimual  contribution  to  the  Porte.  No  fe- 
males are  admitted  within  this  jx'ninsula. 

Most  of  the  monasteries  possess  considerable 
collections  of  manuscripts,  and  it  was  long  a  pre- 

r2 


244 


ATHY 


valent  opinion  that  some  of  the  lost  tituunires  of 
ancient  genius  might  be  recovered,  were  a  diligent 
Rearch  made  in  the  monasteries  of  Bloant  Athos. 
In  IHOl,  however,  they  were  thoroughly  explored 
by  Dr.  Carlyle,  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  copy 
of  the  I  Iliad  and  Odysflcy,  a  few  of  the  edited 
plavB  of  the  different  tragedians,  a  copy  of  Pindar 
and  Hesiod,  the  Orations  of  Demosthenes  and 
iEschines,  yaita  of  Aristotle,  and  copies  of  Philo 
and  Josephus,  he  did  not  meet  Mnth  anything 
valuable.  There  were  some  valuable  MSS.  of  the 
New  Testament,  but  none  so  old  by  centuries  as 
the  Codex  Alexandrinus  or  MS.  of  Bcza.  Polemi- 
cal diWnity^  and  lives  of  the  saints,  formed  the 
great  bulk  of  the  libraries. 

The  monasteries  suffered  severely  from  the  ex- 
actions of  the  Turks  during  the  Greek  revolution. 
The  entire  population  of  the  peninsula  was  esti- 
mated at  about  6,000  in  1801 ;  but  at  present  it  is 
probably  rather  under  8,000. 

ATHY,  an  inL  town  of  Ireland,  co.  Kildare,  prov. 
Leinster,  on  the  Barrow,  38  m.  SW.  Dublin  by 
road,  and  44|  by  the  South-Eastem  railway.  Pop. 
4,124  in  1861.  The  ancient  name  of  the  town 
was  Athl(^ar,  *  the  western  ford.'  From  its  posi- 
tion on  the  bonier  of  the  EnglUh  pale,  and  on  a 
ford  of  the  river,  it  has  been  a  frequent  scene  of 
conflict.  In  1308  it  was  plundered  by  the  Irish, 
and  burnt  by  Edward  Bruce  in  1315.  A  fort,  built 
about  1506,  to  guard  the  pass  of  the  river,  was 
occupied  in  1648  by  Owen  Roe  O'Neal,  on  the  part 
of  the  Irish,  but  in  1650  it  surrendered  to  the  par- 
liamentarv  forces.  The  two  portions  into  which 
the  t4)wn  IS  divided  by  the  Barrow,  are  connected 
by  a  bridge  of  five  arches,  thus  forming  one  con- 
tinuous main  street,  whence  several  lesser  avenues 
diverge.  There  is  a  par.  church,  a  plain  building ; 
a  spacious  R.  Oath,  chapel,  with  a  Presbyterian 
and  a  Methodist  meeting-house.  Adjoining  the 
town  is  a  small  chapel,  an  ancient  cemetery,  and 
a  small  Dominican  monastery.  The  vast  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Korean  Catholics ;  the  census 
of  1861  showed  852  members  of  the  Established 
Church,  1 7  Presbyterians,  and  57  Methodists.  Be- 
sides the  parochial  school,  there  are  two  others 
tnpported  by  voluntary  subscriptions.  There  is 
also  a  dispensary  and  a  poor  fund.  It  is  a  chief 
constabulary  station,  and  has  a  small  cavalry  bar- 
rack. By  a  charter  of  11  James  I.,  the  corporation 
consists  of  a  sovereign,  two  bailiffs,  and  twelve  bur- 
gesses. Previously  to  the  Uni(m  the  borough  sent 
two  ms.  to  the  Irish  parliament.  The  summer 
asirizes  for  the  county  are  held  here,  as  are  general 
sessions  of  tUie  peace  in  Januarv  and  June,  and 

Eetty  sessions  every  Tuesday.  The  markets  are 
eld  on  Tuesdays  and  Saturdays;  the  fairs  on  17 
Mar.,  25  Apr.,  9  June,  25  July,  10  Oct,  and  11 
Doc  The  modem  consequence  of  the  town  is 
mainly  derived  from  its  being  a  station  on  the 
South-Eastem  railway,  as  well  as  at  the  junction 
of  a  branch  of  the  Grand  Canal  with  the  Barrow, 
and  from  the  latter  being  made  navigable  to  its 
embouchure.  It  has,  in  consec^^uence,  become  a 
place  of  considerable  commercial  importance.  The 
principal  trade  is  in  com,  of  which  large  quantities 
are  purchased,  partly  for  mills  on  the  lUurow,  but 
chiefly  for  the  Dublm  market*  Com,  butter,  and 
provisions  are  also  sent  down  the  Barrow  to  New 
Koss  and  Waterford ;  and  timber  and  other  arti- 
cles, for  the  use  of  the  adjoining  districts,  are  im- 
ported by  the  same  channel  and  bv  railway. 

ATINA,  a  town  of  Southem  Italy,  prov.  Ca- 
eerta,  12  m.  SE.  Sora,  near  the  Melfa,  among  some 
of  the  loftiest  summits  of  the  Apennines.  Pop. 
6,144)  in  1862.  The  town  has  a  cathedral,  a  con- 
vent, and  a  hospital ;  and  was  formerly  the  seat 
of  a  bishopric,  suppressed  by  Pope  Eugene  III. 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 

It  is  principally  renuirkable  for  its  Cyclopean  re 
mains. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  Italian 
cities;  being,  according  to  Virgil  {Miu  lib.  vii. 
629),  a  considerable  tovvTi  as  early  an  the  Trojan 
war.  It  was  taken  from  the  Samnites  by  tlie 
Romans,  a.u.c.  440.  Cicero  says  it  was  a  pre- 
fecture, and  one  of  the  most  populous  and  distin- 
gmshed  in  Italy.  (Cic  pro  Planco.)  It  received 
a  colonv  fn>m  liome  dunng  the  reign  of  Nero. 

ATLANTIC  OCEAN,  one  of  the  great  divwions 
of  that  watery  expanse  wliich  covers  more  than 
three-fourths  of  the  surface  of  the  globe.  The  At- 
lantic Ocean  lies  between  the  Old  and  the  New 
World,  washing  the  E.  shores  of  the  Americas,  and 
the  W.  shores  of  Europe  and  Africa,  extending 
lengthwise  from  the  Arctic  to  the  Antarctic  Seas. 
Where  narrowest,  between  Greenland  and  Norn-ay, 
it  is  about  930  m.  across ;  but  between  N.  Africa 
and  Florida,  where  it  attains  to  its  maximum 
breadth,  the  distance  from  shore  to  shore  exceeds 
4,150  m.  Though  it  comprises  little  more  than  a 
fifth  part  of  the  whole  ocean,  its  shores  form  a 
more  extended  line  of  coast  than  those  of  all  the 
other  seas  taken  together.  This  arises  from  several 
extensive  mediterranean  seas,  which  enter  deeply 
into  the  contiguous  continents,  being  connect(xl 
by  straits  with  the  N.  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  form- 
ing portions  of  it«  Such  are  the  Baltic  and  Medi- 
terranean Sea  in  the  Old  Continent;  and  liudst^n's 
and  Baffin's  Bavs,  and  the  Columbian  Sea  (Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  Caribbean  Sea),  in  the  New  World. 
And  it  is  probably  in  some  degree  owing  to  the 
facilities  afforded  for  commercial  intercourse  by 
these  arms  of  the  Atlantic,  tliat  the  countries  in 
their  vicinity  have  made  a  greater  and  more  early 
progress  in  civilisation  th^  those  of  most  other 
parts  of  the  world. 

To  the  same  cause  has  also  been  ascribed  the 
circumstance  of  the  nations  inhabiting  the  shores 
of  the  Atlantic  having  ap])lied  themselves  pecu- 
liarly to  navigation :  they  liave  not  limited  their 
activity  in  this  branch  of  industry  to  the  Atlantic, 
but  navigate  every  other  sea ;  and  there  is  now  no 
harbour,  how  remote  soever,  which  is  not  r^^- 
larly  visited  by  their  ships,  with  the  exception  of 
those  to  which  a  free  access  is  denied,  or  which  do 
not  furnish  any  article  of  trade.  The  Atlantic 
Ocean  has  thus,  as  it  were,  become  the  most  fre- 
quented highway  of  commercial  nations,  and'  hus 
been  more  completely  explored  and  examined  than 
the  other  seas ;  and  frequently  repeated  experi- 
ments have  enabled  rules  to  be  laid  down  for  the 
guidance  of  vessels  traversing  its  different  part^, 
in  different  seasons  of  the  year,  which  give  the 
greatest  facility  and  security  to  its  navigation. 

Thcwe  groups  of  islands  which  impede  naviga- 
tion, and  render  it  comparatively  difficult  and  dan- 
gerous, are  much  less  numerous  in  the  Atlantic 
than  in  most  other  seas.  If,  indeed,  we  except 
the  chain  of  islands  which  separates  the  Columbian 
Sea  from  the  Atlantic,  and  which,  therefore,  may 
be  considered  as  forming  part  of  the  shores  of  the 
ocean,  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  there  exists  any 
such  group  of  islands  between  50^  N.  lat.  and  ou^ 
S.  lat.  The  Azores,  Canaries,  and  Cape  de  Venl 
Islands,  as  well  as  those  of  Guinea  and  the  Ber- 
mudas, occupy  a  comixaratively  small  space,  and 
are  easily  avoided ;  and  the  two  last-mentioned 

f  roups  lie  far  from  the  common  track  of  vessels, 
he  Canaries,  including  Madeira,  arc  frequently 
visited ;  being  situated  where  it  is  usual  for  ves6els 
to  change  the  direction  of  their  course. 

The  direction  of  the  winds  and  currents  is  of 
special  importance  as  affecting  the  perfonnance  of 
voyages;  and  to  the  more  exact  knowle<lge  of 
their  oourBe  and  infiucnce,  as  well  as  to  oth(;r  im- 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


245 


provcroents  in  the  art  of  navigation,  is  to  be  a»- 
cril)ed  the  fact  that  voya^i^efl  are  at  present  per- 
formed in  nearly  half  the  time  they  occupied  only 
two  centuries  ago. 

Winds. — As  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  including  the 
two  Icy  Seas  at  it^  extremities,  extendi  from  the 
Arctic  to  the  Antarctic  Pole,  it  is  in  parts  subject 
to  the  perpetual  or  trade  winds,  in  others  to  the 
variable  wmds ;  and  along  some  of  its  coasts,  be- 
tween the  tropics,  the  winds  are  subject  to  a  re- 
gular change  according  to  the  seasons — or,  in  other 
worrls,  numwons  are  there  prevalent. 

The  trade-winds  do  not  extend  beyond  the  32nd 
parallel  from  the  equator;  sometimes  they  are  not 
met  with  at  a  greater  distance  than  27°  lit.  The 
whole  surface  of  the  sea  extending  from  these  la- 
titudes to  the  poles  is  the  province  of  the  variable 
winds.  The  latter  blow  in  every  season  from  all 
points  of  the  compass ;  but,  by  long  experience,  it 
has  been  found  that  the  W.  winds  prevail  in  both 
hemispheres.  If  a  line  be  drawn  in  the  direction 
of  a  meridian,  it  is  estimated  that  the  proportion 
between  the  winds  blowing  from  the  W.  to  those 
that  come  from  the  E.  is  as  9  to  5^.  This,  at  least, 
is  the  proportion  in  the  N.  hemisphere,  where  the 
estimate  nas  been  made  with  the  greatest  exact- 
ness. It  is,  besides,  to  be  observed,  that  whilst 
the  winds  l^etween  the  tropics  and  near  them  blow 
nearly  always  with  the  same  de^jree  of  force,  the 
variable  winds  vary  extremely  m  this  respect — 
bl<»wing  sometimes  almost  with  the  strength  of 
hurricanes,  and  at  other  times  sinking  into  dead 
calms. 

The  two  trade- winds  do  not  blow  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  sea  lying  between  the  tropics.  They 
are  separated  from  each  other  bv  the  reaion  of 
calms.    This  region  varies,  according  to  the  sea- 
sons, in  extent ;  and  does  not  always  occupy  the 
same  part  of  the  ocean.     It  Ls  found  to  extend 
from  a  short  distance  off  the  shores  of  the  Old 
Continent  to  a  short  distance  off  those  of  the  New, 
but  its  breadth  is  very  various.     Sometimes  it 
occupies  not  more  than  3°  of  lat.,  and  at  other 
seasons  up  to   10^.    The  most  remarkable  fact 
respecting  this  region  is,  that  it  does  not  extend 
ecjually  on  both  sides  the  equator,  but  lies  nearly 
the  whole  year  round  in  the  N.  hemisphere.  Only 
when  the  sun  is  near  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  it 
passes  the  line,  but  never  extends  farther  to  the 
S.  than  24°.    On  the  N.  of  the  equator  it  ad- 
vances at  certain  seasons,  even  to  the  14th  or  16th 
deg.  of  lat.     These  changes  in  the  extent  and  in 
the  range  in  which  the  region  of  calms  is  met 
with,  and  in  which  the  trade-winds  blow,  depend 
evidently  on  the  iX)sition  of  the  sun.     When  tlie 
sun  is  near  the  N.  tropic,  or  retiring  from   it, 
especially  in  July,  August,  and  September,  the 
calms  advance  towards  the  N.  even  to  the  14th 
and  15th  deg.  of  lat,:  and  at  the  same  time  the 
S.  trade- winds  encroach  considerably  on  the  N. 
hemisphere,  being  met  with  as  far  as  the  4th  or 
5th  deg.  of  N.  lat.     Then  the  breadth  of  the  re- 
gion of  calms  is  10°;  but  when  the  sun  is  near 
the  S.  tropic,  or  begins  to  retire  from  it,  the  S. 
trade-winds  also  rece<le  farther  S. ;  and  in  January, 
February',  and  March,  the  calms  extend  to  the 
S.  of  the  hne,  but  only  to  a  distance  of  from  1°  to 
24°.     In  this  season  the  N.  trade-wind  advances 
to  2<^  X.  lat.,  and  the  width  of  the  region  of  calms 
is  then  narrowed  to  from  3^  to  4°  lat.  The  central 
line  of  the  region  of  calms  may  be  placed  at  about 
5^  or  54^  lat. ;  and  its  mean  breadth  may  extend 
over  50  or  o^o,  or  from  300  to  350  sea  ra.     Con- 
tinutsl  calms  reign  in  this  region  ;  and  they  would 
ft)rm  an  iunuperable  obstacle  to  the  progress  of 
vessels,  were  not  the  air  daily  agitated  by  a  sfpiall 
which  occurs  about  two  o'clock  in  the  afteruo^jn. 


At  noon,  a  black  and  well-defined  cloud  appears 
near  the  horizon,  which  increases,  and  announces 
a  violent  thunder-storm ;  suddenly  a  wind  arises, 
blows  for  a  short  time  with  great  violence,  sends 
down  a  few  drops  of  rain ;  and  after  this  tumult 
of  the  elements  has  lasted  from  half  to  one  hour, 
the  calm  returns.  These  short  violent  squalls 
are  called  tornadoes. 

The  northern  trade-wind  is  subject  to  change, 
not  only  respecting  the  extent  of  sea  over  which, 
but  also  respecting  the  direction  in  which,  it  blows. 
\Vhen  the  sun  advances  in  the  N.  hemisphere,  it 
withdraws,  as  already  seen,  farther  from  the  equa- 
tor.   It  also  blows  over  a  wider  range  of  sea,  near 
the  coasts  of  America,  than  at  a  short  distance 
from  the  Old  Continent.    In  the  seas  inclosing 
the  Canary  Islands,  it  is  rarely  met  with  at  30^ 
lat«,  and  often  not  before  the  27th  parallel  is 
reached ;  here,  therefore,  its  N.  boundary  may  be 
fixed  at  28^0  N.  Ut.  as  a  mean.    On  the  W.  bor- 
ders of  the  ocean,  however,  near  the  coast  of  Ame- 
rica, it  extends  farther  N.,  even  to  32°  lat. ;  here 
its  mean  boundary  may  be  fixed  at  30°  lat.    In 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Old  Continent,  this 
trade-wind  blows  from  the  NE.,  but  it  declinojn 
more  to  the  E.  as  it  proceeds  farther  W.     In  the 
middle  of  the  ocean  it  is  E.  ^  N.,  and  where  it 
approaches  the  New  Continent  it  blows  from  due 
E.   This  wind  is  somewhat  changeable  towards  its 
N.  boundary ;  sometimes  violent  NE.  vi'inds  are 
found  to  prevail  between  the  22nd  and  30th  deg. 
of  lat.,  and  in  the  same  parallels  it  is  frequently 
very  weak.    But  no  navigation  can  be  more  plea- 
sant than  that  with  this  trade- wind.    It  is  rather 
to  be  called  a  breeze  than  a  wind ;  and  is  uniform, 
and  never  interrupted  by  squalls.    The  waves 
which  are  raised  by  it  are  low,  and  their  swell 
gentle.    Where  this  wind  blows,  the  passage  from 
the  Old  Continent  to  America  may  safely  be  ef- 
fected in  an  open  boat.     Hence  the  Spaniards 
have  called  this  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  the 
*  Sea  of  the  Ladies,' — Golfo  de  las  Damas, 

The  southern  trade-wind  differs  from  the  north- 
em  in  the  greater  extent  of  sea  over  which  it 
blows,  extending,  as  we  previously  observed,  in 
summer,  to  6°  or  even  6°  to  the  N.,  and  never  re- 
ceding farther  to  the  S.  of  the  equator  than  2^°. 
It  Is  farther,  much  more  regular,  not  being  inter- 
rupted towards  its  S.  boundary  by  other  winds. 
Its  direction  near  the  Old  Continent  is  also  some- 
what different;  for  here  it  blows  parallel  to  tlie 
coast  extending  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to 
the  Hight  of  Benin — that  is,  from  the  S.  At  a 
distance  from  the  continent  it  becomes  by  degrees 
more  easterly,  and  where  it  approaches  America 
its  direction  is  nearly  due  E.  The  meridian  of 
20°  W.  of  Greenwich  rtay  be  considered  as  the 
line  of  separation  between  the  winds  which  blow 
more  southerly  or  more  easterly.  To  the  E.  of 
this  line,  the  wind  varies  between  SSW.  and 
SSE. ;  but  to  the  W.  of  it,  between  SSE.  and 
SSW. 

In  some  parts  the  trade- winds  extend  to  the 
very  shores  of  the  continents ;  in  others,  a  tract 
of  sea  lies  between  the  trade-winds  and  the  land 
in  which  a  different  wind  is  prevalent.  Tlius  it  is 
found,  that  in  the  sea  between  the  N.  trade-wind 
and  the  African  coast,  from  the  Canaries  to  the 
Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  the  vrind  blows  constantly 
from  the  W.  This  phenomenon  is  sufficiently 
explained  by  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  Great 
African  Desert,  the  Sahara.  Its  surface,  destitute 
of  vc^tation,  and  covered  with  loose  sand,  is 
heated  by  the  sun  to  an  excessive  degree,  and  in 
consequence  the  superincumbent  air  is  rarefied, 
and  rises.  Where  this  rarefied  air  comes  into  con- 
tact with  the  more  dense  air  covering  the  surfaje 


246 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


of  the  scHy  the  latter  expands  orcr  the  desert; 
and  thiM  ^ves  rLsc  to  a  contiunal  flow  of  air  from 
W.  to  E. 

Farther  S.,  between  the  Cape  dc  Verd  Islands 
and  Cape  Mesurado  (7°  N.  lat.),  a  kind  of  mon- 
soon prevails,  which,  in  certain  places,  blow8  to 
the  dL<«tance  of  200  m.,  and  opposite  Sierra  LcH)ne 
about  150  m.  off  fthore.  From  September  to  June 
it  proceeth*  from  tlie  N.  or  XE.,  and  in  the  rest  of 
the  year  fir«>m  SW.  Along  the  coa«t  of  Guinea, 
and  in  the  Bight  of  Benin,  the  S.  trade-wind 
prevails  nearly  the  whole  vear  round,  but  its 
direction  i»  a  little  changec!,  the  wind  blowing 
from  the  SW.  Between  the  Bight  of  Benin  and 
'6(P  8.  lat,,  the  tnule-wind  blows  to  the  verj'  sliores 
of  the  continent. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  along 
the  coast  of  Brazil,  a  regular  mons<Mm  prevaiK 
It  proccedis  lx?tweon  SeptemlK-r  and  March,  from 
l>ctween  N.  \  E.  and  NE.  \  E. ;  and  fr»)m  MaR'h 
to  SeptemlKjr,  from  l)etween  E.  \  N.  to  ESE. 
These  winds  blow  with  considerable  force,  and 
extend  Hometimes  to  a  gn^at  distance  from  the 
nhore,  especially  in  the  months  of  June  and  July. 
There  are  instances  on  record  of  its  having  b«'n 
met  with  nearly  as  far  as  the  middle  of  the 
Atlantic. 

N.  of  CajKi  St.  IJoque,  the  trade-winds  reach  the 
very  shores  of  the  American  continent  and  the 
West  Indies.  In  these  part'*  they  seem  even  to 
extend  over  a  consideral)le  part  of  the  continent 
itself;  forthe  c<mtinual  E.  wind  which  blows  over 
the  plain  of  the  river  Amazon,  to  the  ver\'  fo<>t 
of  the  Andes,  Ls  generally  considered  as  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  trade-winds.  The  same  mav  1>€ 
paid  of  the  E.  winds  which  blow  «)ver  the  pfains 
watered  bv  the  <  )rinoco,  where  this  wind  is  felt 
as  far  as  Angostura,  and  at  certain  seasons  still 
farther  W. 

Cttrrents, — We  are  less  acquainted  with  the 
currents  than  with  the  winds.  Thw  arises  partly 
fn>m  the  difficulties  in  which  the  subject  is  natu- 
rally involve<l,  and  partly  fn)m  the  comparatively 
short  time  which  has  elai>se<l  since  they  have 
attracted  the  attention  of  navigators  and  natu- 
ralists. 

Currents  arc  to  be  distinguished  from  drift- 
wcUer.  By  the  latter  expression,  that  motion  of 
the  water  is  undc?ivtr»od,  which  is  producc<l  <m  the 
siirfa(re  of  the  sea  by  perpetual  or  prevailing 
winds.  By  ]Hislung  contimiallv  the  up{>er  strata 
of  the  water  towanls  that  jKunt  to  which  they 
!»low,  they  caiLse  a  slow  motion  of  the  water  in 
that  direction.  Acconlingly,  we  find  that  that 
[»art  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  which  is  subject  to  the 
trade-wind,  Is  in  a  contii^ual  motitm  towards  the 
W. ;  which  Is  most  sensible  in  those  regions  which 
are  always  ex]M)sed  to  the  tnule-winils,  and  less 
so  where  thev  blow  onlv  in  certain  seasons.  This 
kind  of  current  is  in  most  part.s  constant,  but  its 
flow  very  gentle.  Its  mean  vehn^ty  is  from  9 
to  10  in',  a  day,  and  it  is  very  favourable  to 
navigation. 

Other  drift-currents  are  met  with  in  those  parts 
<if  the  Athuitic  in  which  the  wind  changes  with 
the  seaMHis ;  as  along  the  coa*<t  of  Sierra  I,eone, 
and  that  of  Brazil,  S.  of  Cii\}c  St.  Augustine,  In 
the  former  the  current  runs,  from '  September  to 
June,  S.,  and  in  the  remainder  of  the  year  in  a 
X.  direction.  Along  the  coasts  of  Brazil,  the 
nirrt-nt,  from  Se]>tember  tc)  March,  runs  in  a  S. 
4lin»ction,  and  from  March  to  Septemlwr,  N. 

IC"veu  in  th<»>e  i^rtx  of  the  Atlantic  which  are 
subject  to  a  continual  change  of  the  wind,  a  drift- 
oum^nt  is  obH-rvable.  We  okservwl  that  X.  of 
ilO®  X.  lat,,  and  S.  of  30^  S.  lat.,  in  the  region 
of  the  variable  winds,  the  W.  winds  prt^vail,  and 


in  these  part^  of  the  ocean  a  W.  current  is  per- 
ceivetl ;  but  it  is  feeble,  an(i  manifests  itself  in  the 
X.  Atlantic  only  on  the  wh(»le  course  of  a  voyage 
from  Euroi>e  to  America  and  I>ackward,  retarding 
the  former  and  forwaniing  the  latter. 

Besides  the  drift-currents,  the  veU»city  of  which 
is  moderate,  there  are  others  of  much  greater 
force,  called  pro|)erly  currents.  Their  origin  is 
still  involved  m  obscurity ;  but,  from  some  facts, 
we  may  suppose  that  they  are  not  fonned  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  but  are  of  great  depth,  and 
in  many  ikirts,  if  not  in  all,  extend  to  the  ver\' 
bottom  or  the  sea.  These  currents  cannot  Iks 
comparetl  with  rivers;  for  tliey  extend  over  such 
a  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  sea,  that  if  they 
were  tran>ferre<l  to  the  continent  thev  would 
cover  count riw  of  great  extent. 

In  the  Atlantic,  these  currents  nm  acn>ss  the 
ocvan  in  thn-e  plai'cs.  The  current  cros«*ing  the 
Atlantic  near  the  line,  is  called  the  Kqiuitorial  cur- 
rent; it  nnis  from  E.  to  W.  The  current,  whi<'h, 
in  a  direction  from  W.  to  E.,  traverser*  the  X.  At- 
lantic l»etween  'MP  and  44°,  Iwars  the  name  of  the 
Guff  Stream ;  and  that  which  runs  hi  the  siune 
direction,  thnuigh  the  S.  Atlantic.  I>etween  30°  and 
4(P  S.  lat.,  is  named  the  S.Atlantic  current.  Other 
currents  run  along  the  shores  of  l>oth  continenis 
between  40°  X.  lat  and  30°  S.  lat.  Along  the 
Old  Continent  they  nm  towanls  the  equator;  but, 
on  the  shores  of  Amerit-s,  they  flow  fn>m  the  line 
towanls  the  poles.  These  latter  kind  of  currents 
are  intimately  ctmnected  with  the  equatorial  cur- 
n'nt;  but  very  slightly,  if  at  all,  with  the  gulf 
stream  or  the  S.  current. 

The  Equatar'ud  current  may  be  supposetl  t<)have 
its  origin  in  the  Bight  of  Benin,  on  the  W.  shores 
of  Africa,  lietwe^en  the  islands  of  Anno  Bom  and 
St.  Thomas ;  whence  it  prucee<ls  in  a  W.  direction, 
towartls  Capes  St,  Koque  and  Augustine,  on  the 
coast  of  BraziL  Its  bn*adth  is  different  in  different 
[»ails.  Xear  its  origin  it  Is  not  (juite  3°  of  lat. 
acn>ss,  about  160  m.;  but,  in  its  progress  to  the 
W.,  it  increases  considerably  in  width.  Opposite 
Cape  Palmas,  its  X.  Ijonler  is  foimd  at  aluiut  \^  4.>' 
X.  lat.,  but  the  S.  reaches  nearly  to  iP  S.  lat. : 
thus  its  breadth  extends  here  over  more  than  G° 
of  lat,  or  upward  of  300  nautical  m.  It  attains  its 
greatest  breadth  between  20<^  and  2'/^  W.  long.. 
where  it  extends  over  7°  or  8°  r»f  lat.,  from  4^°  or 
5°  S.  of  the  equaU>r  to  2^0  or  3°  X.  of  it ;  hen», 
consequentlv,  it  is  150  nautical  m.  acniss,  A  little 
farther  W.,  Wtween  220  ami  230  W.  long.,  it  .studs 
off  a  branch  to  the  XW. ;  and  here  it  narrows  to 
alsmt  3o0  m.,  which  breadth  it  pn»bably  ]irc«*erves 
up  to  its  division  into  two  currents,  op|s»siteCa|)es 
St  Boque  and  St.  Augustine;  but  that  part,  of  its 
course  which  lies  W.  of  23°  an»l  21°  W.  long,  is 
somewhat  declined  towanls  the  S.  Its  veliK'ity 
varies  likewise,  not  only  in  the  dilFen»nt  \\axi»  of  its 
course,  but  also  in  ditferent  seasons,  b<*ing  much 
ifreat^er  in  summer  than  in  winter.  Fnmi  Anno 
B«mi  to  10°  W.  long,  it  may  run  fn)m  25  to  30  m. 
adav;  but  l)et ween  VP  and  10°  its  vehKMtv  in- 
creases  to  from  44  ti»  80  m.  at  the  end  of  June  and 
the  l>eginning  of  July ;  in  the  other  summer 
months  it  is  somewhat  less;  ami,  fnun  OctoU'r  to 
Man*h,  very  moderate,  and  sometimes  verj'  weak, 
between  10°  and  2.'<°  W.  long.,  where  it  is  coui- 
nnuily  crossed  by  vessels,  the  rapi<lity  of  the  cur- 
rent rises  often  to  45,  50,  and  even  On  m.  jwr  day  ; 
but  its  mean  velocitv  mav  l)e  fixed  at  als)ui  30  m. 

ar  « 

The  tem]>erature  <»f  the  water  within  the  current 
is  ever^'where  some  degrees  lower  than  that  of  the 
seas  without  the  currt-nt  The  wludc  length  <»f 
this  current,  from  St.  'Hionias  to  Cajte  St,  lit^uc, 
amounts  to  upward  of  2,500  sea  m. 

The  iM)rtion  of  the  equatorial   current   whifh 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


247 


branches  off  from  the  main  stre-am  between  22^ 
and  23°  W.  long.,  and  about  2^°  N.  lat,,  is  called 
the  Nlf^.  current.  At  the  point  of  separation,  it 
may  be  fnjm  180  to  200  m.  in  width  ;  farther  N.  it 
widens  even  to  300  m.,  but  narrows  again  to  240 
and  leas.  Its  velocity  is  not  so  great  as  that  of  the 
main  equatorial  current.  In  its  S.  part,  as  far  as 
10°  N.  lat.,  it  may  run  30  m.  a  day ;  but  it  after- 
wards slackens  considerably;  yet  at  all  times  it 
may  be  traced  up  to  18°  X.  Lat.,  and  commonly 
even  to  25°.  In  the  N.  part  of  its  courae  it  de- 
clines more  to  the  N.,  till  it  Ls  lost  in  the  drift-cur- 
rent. It  is  not  improbable  that  this  current  in- 
creases the  velocity  of  the  drift-current,  which 
navigators  have  obser\'ed  between  35°  \V.  lat,  and 
the  Lsland  of  Trinidad ;  and  that  the  change  in  the 
direction  of  the  drift-current,  which  here  declines 
to  the  NW.,  is  also  to  be  ascribed  to  the  same 
cause. 

At  a  distance  of  about  300  m.  from  the  coast  of 
Brazil,  extending  between  Capes  St.  Roque  and  St. 
Augustine,  the  equatorial  current  divides  into  two 
branches.  That  which  continues  to  run  along  the 
\.  coast  of  Brazil,  tunis  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ama- 
zon to  the  N.,  and  procee<ls  along  the  shores  of 
(Guyana  to  the  island  of  Trinidad,  where  it  enters 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  It  is  called  the  Gwfana  cur- 
rent, and  the  length  of  its  course  does  not  fall  short 
of  1,6(»0  m.  lus  velocity  is  greatest  in  summer  and 
winter,  and  may,  in  the  former,  l>e  about  30  m.  a 
ilay  at  a  mean.  It  enters  the  Caribbean  Sea  by  the 
«litfcrent  straits  which,  S.  of  the  island  of  Mjirtin- 
ique,  divide  the  smaller  Antilles  from  one  another 
and  from  the  continent  of  S.  America.  In  these 
straits  the  currents  setting  into  the  Caribbean  Sea 
are  strong:  that  between  Trinitlad  and  Grenada 
runs  from  1  to  ij(  m.  per  hour ;  less  rapid  is  the 
current  in  the  strait  between  St.  Vincent  and  St, 
Lucia;  and  between  the  latter  island  and  Martin- 
ique it  runs  not  more  than  21m.  per  day.  At  the 
Virgin  Islands  the  flow  of  the  water  is  only  8  or  10 
m.  a  day,  and  that  is  not  more  than  the  common 
rate  at  which  the  drift-current  nins.  In  the  Carib- 
Ijean  Sea  the  Guyana  current  terminates ;  for  in 
that  sea  no  perpetual  current  has  been  trace<l.  It 
rather  seems  that  the  currents  which  exwt  there, 
depend  on  the  winds,  an<l  change  the  direction  of 
their  coiu^e  according  to  the  seasons. 

The  other  current,  which  branches  off  from  the 
equatorial  current,  opposite  Ca\Hi  St,  Augustine  in 
Brazil,  is  called  the  Brazil  current^  and  runs  to  the 
SW.  along  the  shores  of  S.  America,  but  does  not 
in  any  part  of  it.s  course  approach  near  to  them. 
Fnim  ^  S.  lat.,  where  it  separates  from  the  Guyana 
currftnt,  to  10°  or  17°  S.  lat.,  the  ciurent  has  a 
considerable  width,  and  nms  about  20  m.  or  some- 
what more  a  dav.  Its  distance  from  the  continent 
is  nowhere  less  than  250  m.  Farther  S.  it  increases 
in  breadth  and  velocity,  and  approaches  at  the 
same  time  nearer  the  continent.  Opijosite  Caj)e 
Frio  it  runs  al)out  30  m.  a  day,  and  is  not  more 
than  200  m.  distant  from  the  coast.  As,  however, 
from  the  last-mentioned  ca[)e  the  land  falls  back 
U)  the  W.,  the  curriMit  is  soon  found  at  300  m.  and 
more  from  the  continent.  By  declining,  by  de- 
grees, its  course  farther  to  the  W.,  it  approaches 
nearer,  but  never  is  found  at  a  distance  less  than 
250  m.  Thus  it  continues  to  the  mouth  of  the  La 
Plata  river,  running  all  this  way  from  1 5  to  20  m. 
|ier  day.  It  becomes  weaker  as  it  advances  farther 
S.,  but  may  \>c  traced  to  the  straits  of  Magalhaens 
and  Le  Maire. 

The  (iuyana  and  Brazil  currents  arc  those  with 
which  the  equatorial  current  Ls  connected  on  the 
shore^s  of  America.  The  currents  with  which  this 
great  sea-stream  is  imited  near  the  coast  of  the  Old 
Continent,  are  the  S.  and  the  N.  African  currents. 


The  S.  African  current  seems  to  have  it«  origin 
some  degrees  N.  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It 
appears,  however,  not  to  be  connected  with  the 
Agulhas  current,  which  is  found  at  a  short  distance 
S.  from  the  Cape,  and  which  runs  W.  from  the 
Indian  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Between  18°  and 
11°  S.  lat.  exists  a  current  running  from  S.  to  N. 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  coasta  of  Africa,  but  wc 
are  not  acquainted  either  with  ita  breadth  or  ve- 
locity; neither,  however,  appears  to  be  consider- 
able. Between  1 1°  and  the  island  of  Anno  Bom, 
the  current  runs  in  a  NW.  by  W.  direction  at  the 
rate  of  from  15  to  25  or  even  30  m.  a  day,  but 
seems  to  be  of  inconsiderable  width.  It  uicTeases 
in  velocity  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Zaire,  and  in 
width  at  Cape  Lopez ;  but  soon  afterwards  merges 
into  the  equatorial  current. 

The  North  African  current,  which  is  also  called 
the  Guinea  current  from  ita  terminating  opposite 
the  coast  of  Guinea,  has  its  origin  opposite  the 
coast  of  France,  between  the  southern  shores  of 
Ireland  and  Cape  Finisterrc  in  Spain.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  determine  more  precinely  the  place  where 
it  originates ;  but  it  is  a  fact  well  established  by 
exfjerience,  that  the  whole  body  of  water  between 
the  Peninsula  and  the  Azores  Ls  in  motion  towards 
the  S.,  the  western  part  setting  more  southerly, 
and  the  eastern  more  to  the  SE.  Between  Cai>e  St. 
Vincent  in  Portugal,  and  Cape  Cantin  in  Mon)cco, 
the  motion  is  directed  towards  the  Straits  of  Gib- 
raltar; and  this  motion  extenils  as  far  westward 
as  20°  W.  long.  Between  Cape  Cantin  and  Cape 
Blanco  the  general  direction  of^the  current  is  along 
the  coast,  but  it  sets  in  nearly  perpendicularly 
towards  the  shores.  This  portion  of  the  current  w 
about  300  m.  across  between  Cape  Cantin  and  Cape 
Bojador,  but  only  from  150  to  180  between  the 
last-mentioned  Cape  and  Cape  Blanco.  Between 
Cape  Blanco  and  Cape  de  Verd  the  current  nms  a 
little  to  the  W.  of  S.,  approaching  the  general 
direction  of  the  drifWurrent  of  the  trade  winds. 
Near  the  Cape  de  Verd  Islands  the  temperature  «»f 
the  water  of  the  current  is  8°  lower  than  in  those 
parts  of  the  sea  which  lie  beyond  it.  After  passing 
Cape  de  Verd,  the  current  turns  S.,  and  by  degrees 
SE.  and  SSE.  Here  it  dties  not  approach  the 
shores  of  Africa ;  at  least,  between  Cape  de  Verd 
and  Cape  Mesurado  it  is  met  with  only  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  200  m.  from  the  coast.  The  inter- 
mediate space  is  occupied  by  periodical  currents, 
which  run,  from  September  to  June,  S.  or  SW., ; 
but  in  the  remainder  of  the  year,  NE.  S.  of  Ca^ie 
Mesurado  it  approaches  the  coast,  and  increases  in 
velocity,  running  somedmes  at  the  rate  of  2  m.  per 
hour;  here  its  temperature  is  considerably  ui- 
creased,  but  still  lower  than  that  of  the  ocean  at 
large.  At  Cape  Palmas  it  turns  entirely  to  the  E. ; 
and  skirts  the  coast  of  Guinea  until  it  disappeart» 
in  the  sea  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Quorra,  and 
in  the  Bay  of  Biafra,  where  it  partly  seems  to 
mingle  with  the  Equatorial  ciurrent. 

With  the  N.  African  current  another  current  is 
connected,  which  nms  across  the  British  Channel 
at  its  western  extremity.  It  runs  E.  fn>m  Cape 
Finisterre  along  the  S.  shores  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay ; 
turns  then  to  the  N.  and  NW.,  along  the  W.  coast 
of  France;  and  passing  Ushant,  it  traverses  the 
British  and  Irish  Channels.  At  the  Sdlly  Islands, 
which  it  touches  with  its  eastern  border,  it  Lh  60  m. 
across.  It  then  continues  to  the  southern  shores  of 
Ireland,  W.  of  Camsore  Point ;  and  hence  turns  to 
Caj)e  Clear,  where,  after  entering  the  ocean,  it  turns 
to  the  S.  and  SK.,  and  rejoins  the  N.  African  cur- 
rent. By  this  current  vessels  are  frequently  placed 
m  danger  near  the  Scilly  Islands.  With  certmii 
winds  this  current  runs  from  24  to  28  m.  a  day. 

The   Gulf  stream  which  crosses  the  Atlantic 


248 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


1)etween  8(P  and  H^  N.  lat,  originates  in  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  The  water  in  this  sea  is  set  by  two 
currents  into  a  nearly  circular  motion,  which 
seems  to  bo  the  principal  reason  why  it  acquires 
such  a  hi^h  degree  of  temperature, — being  86^ 
Fahr.,  whilst  tluit  of  the  ocean  at  large  in  the 
same  Ut.  (25^  N.)  does  not  exceed  78^  Fahr.  The 
two  currents,  which  put  in  motion  perhaps  three- 
fourths  of  the  water  of  the  gulf,  unite  about  70  m. 
W.  of  the  Havannah ;  and  by  this  junction  the 
(lulf  stream  is  formed.  It  runs  along  the  N.  coast 
of  the  island  of  Cuba,  eastward;  but  it  is  neither 
liroad  nor  rapid  at  the  entrance  of  the  Straits  of 
Florida  at  the  Salt  Kays,  where  it  begins  to  run 
about  1^  m.  an  hour  After  entering  the  straits, 
its  velocity  increases  to  2^,  3,  and  occasionally 
4  m.  an  hour.  In  the  Narrows,  however,  between 
Cape  Florida  and  the  Bimini  Islands  (which  be- 
long to  the  Bahamas),  where  the  strait  is  only 
44  m.  across,  and  the  water-way  is  straitened  by 
reefs  and  shoals  to  85  m.,  it  runs,  in  the  month  of 
August,  5  m.  an  hour ;  and  at  that  rate  commonly 
through  the  remainder  of  the  strait  up  to  Cape 
Canaveral.  I'hough  the  ciurent  has  traversed,  m 
tills  space,  about  4^  of  lat,  the  temperature  of  its 
water  is  not  sensibly  diminisheti  From  Cape  Ca- 
naveral (about  28<^*N.  lat)  the  gulf-stream  runs 
lirst  due  N.,  and  then  nearlvNE.  along  the  shores 
of  the  United  States,  up  to 'Cape  Hatteras  (88^  N. 
lat).  It  increases  gradually  in  width,  and  decreases 
in  velocity.  At  (;a|>e  Hatteras  it  is  from  72  to 
75  m.  across,  and  it  runs  only  3^  m.  per  hour. 
The  temperature  of  its  water  has  sunk  from  86^  to 
88^.  In  this  part,  the  current  runs  not  so  close  to 
the  shores  as  m  the  Strait  of  Florida.  Its  NW. 
edge  is  about  24  m.  SE.  from  Cape  Hatteras. 
After  passing  this  cape,  the  current  increases  still 
more  rapidly  in  widtli,  and  diminishes  gradually 
in  velocitv.  Between  Cape  Hatteras  and  the  banks 
of  Nantucket  and  St  George  (40®  N.  lat),  the 
general  direction  of  the  current  continues  to  be 
from  SW.  to  NE.,  th(»ugh  the  W.  e<ige  runs  nearly 
due  N.  At  the  Nantucket  and  St  George  Banks 
it  suddenlv  declines  its  course  to  the  E.,  and 
brushing  the  S.  extremity  of  the  great  bank  of 
Newfoundland,  it  continues  in  that  direction  as  far 
as  4sP  or  44°  \V.  long.,  between  37o  and  43°  N. 
lat  Farther  E.  it  bends  to  the  SE.  and  S. ;  and 
having  inclosed  the  islands  of  Flores  and  Cor\'o, 
belonging  to  the  group  of  the  Azores,  it  is  lost  in 
the  ocean.  There  are  some  instances  on  rec(»rd 
of  the  warm  water  of  the  gulf  stream  having  ad- 
vanced to  the  very  shores  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 
The  strongest  current  is  between  38°  and  39°  N. 
lat ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  breadth  of  the 
whole  current  does  not  exceed  120  naut  m.,  though 
the  warm  water  is  found  to  be  200,  250,  and  even 
820  m.  across.  Between  65°  and  66<^  W.  long, 
the  stn)ngest  current  runs  from  55  to  56  m.  a  day ; 
but  9<K)  m.  farther  E.,  only  from  30  to  33  m.  In 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Azores  its  mean  rate 
<loes  not  exceed  10  m.  a  dav.  The  temperature  of 
its  water  decreases  less  rapidly.  At  the  meridian 
of  634°  W.  long.,  or  QiH)  nautical  m.  from  Cajie 
Hatteras,  the  thermometer  shows  in  summer  8P, 
or  from  10°  to  1 1°  above  the  water  of  the  sea  under 
the  same  lat.  At  73°  long,  its  tcmjicrature  is  75° ; 
and  even  at  Corvo,  not  lower  than  72^°,  or  from 
8°  to  10°  above  the  ocean.  The  length  of  the  gulf 
stream  from  the  Salt  Kays  to  the  S.  of  the  Azores 
is  upwards  of  3,000  naut  m.  It  traverses  from 
19°  to  20°  of  lat.  (fr  »m  23°  to  42°  or  43°),  and  its 
temperature  decreases  only  I3J°  (from  80°  to  72^°). 
The  sea  which  is  traver^'d  by  it  is  subject  to  nearly 
continiuil  gales ;  es|>ccia]ly  towards  the  outer  edges 
of  the  curn»nt. 
Nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  Atlantic  the  gulf 


stream  is  joined  by  the  Arctic  currtnl,  which  ori- 
ginates beneath  the  immense  masses  of  ice  that 
surround  the  pole,  and  thence  runs  in  a  SW.  di- 
rection along  the  E.  shores  of  Greenland,  carrjing 
with  it  a  great  number  of  icebergs,  ice-fieMs,*  and 
ice-floes.    Pressing  these  icy  masses  against  the 
coast  of  Greenland,  the  current  renders  that  coast 
inaccessible ;  but  it  prevents  the  ice  from  spread- 
ing over  tile  North  Sea,  and  from  encumlK'ring 
the  shores  of  the  British  islands.    At,  Cape  Fan^- 
well  the  width  of  the  current  seems  to  be  from 
120  to  160  m.,  the  ice-masses  extending  to  such  a 
distance  from  it.    Alter  paaaing  Cape  Farewell, 
the  current  bends  to  the  N.  and  enters  Davis's 
Strait,  running  along  the  western  coast  of  Green- 
land up  to  the  Polar  Circle,  where  it  cnKsnes  tlie 
strait  to  Cape  Walsingham   (about  66°  N.  lat) ; 
hence  it  flows   southward    sdong    Cumberland's 
Island  to  Frobisher's  and  Hudson's  Straits.    Oppo- 
site these  straits  it  runs  from  15  to  16  m.  a  day. 
Approaching  Newfoundland,  the  current  divitlcs : 
one  branch,  running  tliruugh  the  strait  of  B(;llc 
Isle,  mixes  vrith  the  waters  brought  down  by  the 
St  I^wrence ;  whilst  the  other  skirts  the  E.  shores 
of  Newfoundland,  where  it  passes  between  the  great 
and  tlie  outer  bank  of  Newfoundland  (1>etween  45° 
and  46°  lat,  and  46°  and  47°  long.),  and  at  last 
joins  the  gulf  stream  between  44°  and  47°  W.  long. 
The  width  of  this  current,  probably,  nowhere  ex- 
ceeds 200  m. ;    the  temperature  of  it.s  water  is 
always  considerably  lower  than  that  of  the  ocean, 
sometimes  as  much  as  16°  or  17°. 

The  last  current  we  have  to  notice,  is  the  Smith 
Atlantic  current^  which  traverses  tlie  ocean  from 
E.  to  W.  between  30°  and  40°  S.  lat  In  the  VV. 
part  of  the  Atlantic  its  velocity  seems  to  Imj  nio<lc- 
rate ;  but  it  increases  as  the  current  advances  far- 
ther E.,  and  opposite  the  Cape  it  is  very  strong. 
It  is  met  with  at  a  distance  of  from  150  to  180  m. 
from  the  Cape ;  hence  it  flows  in  a  straight  hue 
into  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  traces  of  it  arc  found 
2,000  m.  beyond  the  Cape.  That  space  of  sea 
which  inten'enes  between  this  current  and  the 
Cape,  is  occupie<l  by  another  current  which  runs 
in  an  opposite  direction ;  being  formed  in  the  In- 
dian Ocean  by  two  currents  which  descend  on 
both  fddes  the  island  of  Madagascar,  and  unite 
between  the  first  point  of  Natal  and  Cape  Recife, 
about  33°  S.  hit  Passing  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
it  enters  the  Atlantic  as  a  current^  running  at  the 
rate  of  from  1  or  1|^  m.  an  hour  in  a  N\V.  di- 
rection, and  may  be  traced  as  far  as  25°  S.  hit. 
This  current  is  called  the  AguUuu  current^  from 
passing  over  the  bank  of  that  name  at  the  S.  ex- 
tremity of  Africa. 

Tmchs  of  VcMcls, — In  proportion  as  our  know- 
ledge of  the  prevailing  winds  and  of  the  stnMigtli 
and  direction  of  the  currents  has  increased,  the 
tracks  have  been  fixed  with  more  precision,  which 
vessels  should  follow  in  sailing  from  or  to  a  country 
hing  on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic.  In  a  few 
cases  they  follow  the  same  route,  whether  outwanl 
or  homeward  bound ;  but  in  most  cases  they  foll(»w 
different  routes.  We  shall  notice  a  few  of  th(»sc 
which  are  most  frequented. 

1.  Between  Europe  and  the  W»  coast  of  N.  Ame- 
rica vessels  keep  clear  of  the  gulf  stream,  sailing 
along  its  N.  border,  between  44°  and  50°  N.  lat. 
If,  in  sailing  fn>m  E.  to  W.,  they  were  to  enter 
the  gulf  stream  and  to  stem  its  current,  they  would 
be  delayed  in  their  course,  perhaps,  not  kks  than 
a  fortnight  If,  in  sailing  from  W.  to  E.,  tliey 
were  to  enter  it,  they,  doubtless,  would  arrive  four 
or  five  days  sooner  in  Eiiroj>e ;  but  the  vessels 
would  suffer,  from  the  continual  gales  which  ])re- 
vail  within  the  borders  of  the  stream,  so  much 
(bimagc  in  wear  and  tear,  that  it  hardly  could  L>e 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


249 


compensated  by  the  gain  of  a  few  days.  In  eaSl- 
ing  to  the  United  States  N.  of  the  gulf  stream, 
vessels  have  the  advantage  of  a  coimter  current, 
which  runs  from  the  Nantucket  and  St.  Greorge 
Banks  to  Chesapeak  Bay,  and  perhaps  to  Cape 
llatteras. 

2.  In  sailing  from  Europe  to  the  West  Indies 
and  the  countries  S.,  W.,  and  N.  of  the  Columbian 
Sea,  different  tracks  are  followed,  outward  and 
homeward.  In  sailing  from  Europe,  the  trade- 
winds  are  taken  advantage  of.  The  vessels  pass 
Madeira  and  the  Canary  Islands,  and  saU  S.  as  far 
as  21^  N.  lat.,  where  they  are  certain  to  find  a 
constant  trade-wind.  In  this  course  they  must 
avoid  approaching  too  near  the  coast  of  Afirica 
between  Cape  Nun  and  Cape  Blanco,  because  the 
N.  African  current  sets  in  towards  the  shores  of 
the  Sahara,  and  the  winds  blow  continually  from 
the  sea  towards  the  land.  Many  navigators  who 
hoped  to  make  the  island  of  Teneriffe,  according 
to  their  dead  reckoning,  have  been  carried  so  far 
to  the  E.,  that  they  have  been  cast  on  these 
inhospitable  shores,  where  most  of  them  have 
perished.  Between  1790  and  1805,  not  less  than 
thirty  vessels  are  known  to  have  been  thus  lost ; 
and  it  is  supposed  that  many  others  had  the  same 
fate,  without  its  being  known.  Having  got  a  con- 
stant trade- wind  at  21°  N.  lat,  the  vessek  sail  W., 
and  enter  the  Columbian  Sea,  commonly  by  one 
of  the  straits  lying  between  the  islands  of  Mar- 
tinique and  Trinidad. 

In  sailing  homeward  ships  sometimes  go  through 
the  Mona  (between  Puerto  Rico  and  Haiti)  and 
windward  (between  Haiti  and  Cuba)  passages; 
but  more  commonly  they  pass  round  the  island  of 
Cuba  on  the  W.,  and  sail  through  the  Straits  of 
Florida.  As  soon  as  they  have  got  clear  of  the 
strait,  they  sail  E.  to  get  clear  of  the  gulf  stream. 
They  then  direct  their  course  across  tiie  Atlantic, 
S.  of  the  Bermudas,  till  they  come  into  the  longi- 
tude of  the  island  of  Flores.  They  then  sail  N., 
either  passing  between  Flores  and  the  other  Azores, 
or  to  the  E.  of  the  group. 

3.  In  sailing  from  Europe  to  the  coast  of  Guyajia 
(Demarara,  Surinam,  and  Cayenne),  and  to  those 
provinces  of  Brazil  which  are  situated  W.  of  Cape 
SL  Roque,  ships  go  S.  till  they  meet  the  trade- 
wind,  and  then  shape  their  course  to  the  place  of 
dejjtination,  but  keeping  a  few  degrees  farther  to 
the  E. ;  for,  on  approacning  the  New  Continent, 
they  meet  the  Guyana  current,  which  carries  them 
W.  If,  therefore,  they  make  land  somewhat  too 
far  to  the  VV.,  they  find  it  very  difficult  to  attain 
their  place  of  destination, — having  to  bear  up 
against  the  current. 

In  returning  to  Europe,  the  vessels  sail  along 
tlie  shores  of  America,  where  they  are  favoured 
by  the  Guvana  current,  as  far  as  the  island  of 
iVinidad.  'then  they  keep  to  the  windward  of  the 
Antilles,  till  they  get  into  the  variable  winds, 
where  they  follow  the  track  of  the  vessels  return- 
ing from  the  W.  Indies. 

4.  Sailing  from  Europe  to  S,  America^  S,  of  Cape 
St.  Rnque,  shij>8  have  to  pass  through  the  region  of 
calms,  and  to  traverse  the  equatorial  current.  The 
first  retanls  their  progress,  and  the  second  carries 
them  forcibly  to  the  W.  If  they  cut  the  equatorial 
line  W.  of  25°  W.  long.,  they  cannot  make  Cape 
St.  Roque,  and  fall  in  with  the  Guyana  current, 
which  carries  them  still  farther  W.,  and  along  the 
N.  coast  of  BraziL  Then  they  can  only  get  oack 
to  Cape  St,  Koque  by  a  toilsome  voyage  of  many 
(lays,  and  even  weeks.  To  avoid  this,  vesvsels  tra- 
verse the  line  lx*tween  18°  and  23°  W.  lon^. 
Having  done  this,  they  are  assisted  by  the  Brazil 
current  in  making,  with  ease,  any  i)art  of  the 
ooaai  they  pleoijc. 


Vessels  homeward  bound  from  this  coast  tfika 
different  tracks,  according  to  the  seasons.  From 
March  to  September,  when  the  monsoons  blow, 
and  the  currents  run,  from  S.  to  N.,  between  the 
Brazil  current  and  the  continent  of  S.  America, 
they  sail  along  the  shores,  till,  at  Cape  St  Roaue, 
they  meet  the  Guyana  current;  and  then  they 
follow  the  track  of  the  vessels  returning  from 
Guyana  to  Europe.  But,  from  September  to 
March,  the  periodical  winds  and  currents  blow 
and  run  firom  E.  to  SW.,  in  the  direction  of  the 
Brazil  current  Ships  then  sail  across  the  cur- 
rents, and  try  to  get  into  the  middle  of  the  At- 
lantic, where  they  follow  the  track  of  the  vessels 
returning  from  the  East  Indies. 

6.  In  sailinjg  to  the  Ecut  Indies,  it  is  now  the 
general  practice  to  avoid  the  numerous  difiiculties 
met  with  in  navigating  abng  the  coasts  of  Africa, 
S.  of  the  equator,  and  to  foUow  the  tracks  of  tiie 
vessels  bound  to  Brazil.  Afterwards,  the  vessels 
proceed  along  the  coast  of  S.  America  to  32°  or 
33°  S.  lat,  where  they  get  out  of  the  range  of  the 
SE.  trade-winds,  and  are  certain  to  meet  with  the 
S.  Atlantic  current,  which  carries  them  eastward. 
They  do  not  touch  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  but 
follow  the  current  until  they  enter  the  Indian 
Ocean. 

In  returning  from  the  East  Indies  to  Europe, 
vessels  enter  we  Agulhas  current  near  Madagas- 
car, and  are  carried  by  it  to  the  Cape  of  (Sx>d 
Hope,  where  they  commonly  stop  for  some  time. 
From  the  Cape,  the  same  current  takes  them  by 
its  NW.  course  to  the  middle  of  the  Atlantic. 
They^en  shape  their  course  N.,  so  as  to  traverse 
the  line  between  22°  and  24°  W.  long.,  where 
they  meet  the  NW.  current,  which  takes  them  to 
20°  or  25°  N.  lat,  whence  they  proceed  to  the 
Azores. 

Ice, — Both  extremities  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
are  invaded  by  great  masses  of  ice.  They  either 
have  been  detached  from  the  enormous  masses 
which  inclose  the  poles  to  a  great  distance,  or 
firom  those  countries  which  are  situated  so  near 
the  poles,  that  their  coasts  are  covered  with  ice 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  In  the  N. 
seas  the  ice  consists  of  icebergs,  ice-fields,  and 
ice-floes.  The  icebergs  are  enormous  masses  of 
ice,  sometimes  several  hundred  and  even  thousand 
yards  long  and  broad;  their  smnmits  being,  in 
some  cases,  100  fu  and  more  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  though  only  a  seventh  part  of  the  whole 
mass  rises  awve  it  They  are  properly  glaciers, 
formed  along  the  high  and  snow-covered  coast  of 
Greenland,  and  which  have  afterwards  been  pre- 
cipitated into  the  sea.  The  ice-fields  and  ice-noes 
are  considered  as  having  been  detached  from  the 
ice  surrounding  the  pole.  This  ice  is  commonly 
of  the  thickness  of  from  20  to  30  fU,  and  rises 
from  three  to  four  ft  above  the  sea.  These  masses 
are  called  fields  whenever  they  are  so  extensive 
that  their  limits  cannot  be  discovered  from  the 
mast-head ;  and  floes,  when  their  extent  may  be 
overlooked  firom  it  In  the  S.  Atlantic  only, 
fields  and  floes  are  found,  icebergs  never  having 
been  met  with.  It  is  fiirther  worth  remarking, 
that  the  ice  advances  much  nearer  to  the  N.  than 
to  the  S.  tropic.  The  ice-floes  at  Cape  Horn  are 
far  from  being  numerous ;  and  Cant  WeddeU  says 
that  at  55°  20'  S.  Ut  there  is  no  fear  of  falling  in 
with  ice.  In  the  N.  hemisphere,  we  always  find 
great  ice-masses  at  some  distance  from  the  E. 
shores  of  Newfoundland,  from  January  to  Bfay  and 
June;  and  icebergs  are  annually  seen  grounded 
on  the  Great  Bank.  It  even  sometimes  happens 
that  icebergs  are  met  with  in  the  gulf  stream, 
4()|°  N.  lat.  and  32°  W.  long.,  as  was  the  case  in 
1817. 


250 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


JMRacelUmeoua  Remarks, — Fish  seem  to  be  miidi 
more  plentiful  iii  the  seas  near  the  arctic,  th«an  in 
those  stirrountUng  the  antarctic,  pole«  This  is  i)ro- 
bably  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  fj^reatcr  number 
and  greater  extent  of  banks  found  in  the  N.  seas; 
and  these,  besides,  wash  a  far  greater  extent  of 
shores,  wliich  many  species  of  fish  resort  to  in 

auest  of  food.  Another  remarkable  fact  is,  that 
le  seas  ne«r  the  equator,  and,  in  general,  those 
lying  in  lower  latitudes,  are  much  richer  in  species 
than  the  N.  parts  of  the  ocean ;  but  that,  in  the 
latter,  the  numl)er  of  individuals  belonging  to  each 
spedea  is  far  greater.  Hence  we  lind  that  the 
moat  extensive  fisheries  arc  those  which  are  carried 
on  to  the  N.  of  4iP  N.  lat. ;  as  the  coil  fisheries 
on  the  Great  Bank  of  Newfoimdland,  and  at  the 
Ijaffoden  Islands,  the  whale  tlshery  at  $pitzbor;^en 
and  on  both  sides  of  GreeJiIand,  the  herring  fishery 
along  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  pilchanl 
fisherv  in  the  British  ChanneL  The  most  impor- 
tant fisheries  8.  of  45°,  if  we  except  the  whale 
fishery  near  the  S.  pole,  seem  to  l)e  that  in  the 
Caribbean  Sea  along  the  coasts  of  Venezuela,  and 
tbat  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  Canary  Islands 
carry  on  in  the  sea  surrounding  Cape  Blanco  in 
Africa. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  is  greater  in  the  N. 
than  in  the  S.  hemL<(phcrc.  In  the  seas  X.  of  the 
equatorial  current,  the  thermometer  indicates  8()° 
or  81°,  and  S.  of  it  77°  and  78°,  at  the  time  when 
the  sun  approaches  the  line.  This  difference  may, 
])erhap6,  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for  by  the 
sun's  remaining  annually  seven  days  longer  to 
the  N.  than  to  the  S.  of  the  equat4»r. 

The  specific  gravity  and  saltness  of  the  sea-water 
is,  doubtless,  greater  near  the  equator  than  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  poles;  but  tlie  experiments  which 
have  been  made  to  determine  the  exact  difference 
have  given  such  different  results,  that  we  must 
stUl  consider  this  queaition  as  undecided.  Accord- 
ing to  Capt,  Scoresby,  the  s|>ecific  gravity  of  the 
aca-water  near  the  coasts  of  Greenland  varies  Iks 
tween  1*0259  and  1"U270.  Between  the  tropics, 
some  have  found  it  1*0300,  or  nearly  this  much ; 
and  near  the  equator,  even  l*0«)78,'but  the  last 
statement  is,  with  reason,  regarded  as  doubtfuL 

In  a  part  of  the  Atlantic^  the  gnlf-weed,  or  fncus 
itdtons,  occurs  in  great  quantitieiB.  lliis  region 
extends  nearly  across  the  whole  ocean,  beginning 
on  the  E.  at  the  80th  meridian,  and  terminating 
on  the  \V.  in  the  sea  washing  the  E.  side  of  the 
Bahama  Bank.  In  width,  it  occupies  the  whole 
space  between  20°  and  30°  N.  lat. ;  but  the  whole 
extent  of  the  stirface  between  these  lines  is  not 
equally  crowded  with  weed.  The  most  crowded 
part  extends  between  3<l°  and  32°  W.  long.; 
where,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  island  of 
Flores — one  of  the  Azores — it  forms  first  only  a 
small  strip;  but  farther  to  the  S.  expands  to  a 
great  width.  In  this  part  of  the  Atlantic,  wluch 
18  called  by  the  Portuguese,  Mar  de  Sargasso 
(Weedy  Sea),  the  fucus  covers,  like  a  mantle,  far 
and  wide,  the  surface  of  the  sea,  extending  from 
X.  to  S.  more  than  1,200  m.  Another  jvart  of  the 
sea,  coverwi  with  fucus  in  a  very  crowde<l  state, 
c»ccurB  between  the  meridians  of  70°  and  72°,  and 
the  parallels  of  22°  and  26°,  ttmards  the  W.  end 
of  the  r^on.  The  sea  lying  between  these  two 
crowded  districts  is,  in  some  partes  only  lightly 
strewed  with  sea-weeds;  but  m  others  it  occurs 
in  dense  masses. 

An  attempt  to  sink  a  telegraph  cable  in  the  At- 
lantic, between  the  shores  of  Irelaufl  and  New- 
foundland, was  made  in  1858.  The  work  was 
completed  on  the  5th  of  August  of  this  year,  anrl, 
according  to  ofHcLal  rc'|)orts,  a  message  through 
this  cable  was  actiuUly  sent  from  Eutoih;  to  Ame- 


ATLAS  (MOUNT) 

rica,  and  a  reply  returned,  on  the  22nd  of  August. 
However,  electricity,  after  this  first  faint  e>*»ay, 
refused  to  run  its  desirc<l  course,  and  the  work 
had  to  be  aluindoned.  Still  less  fortunate  was  a 
second  attempt,  made  in  the  summer  of  18G5,  to 
submei^  a  stronger  cable,  1^  inch  in  thicknesH. 
The  loss  of  this  cable,  s<ime  thousand  miles  from 
the  shores  of  Europe,  led  to  a  postponement  of  the 
great  undertaking. 

ATLAS  (MOUNT),  acconling  to  Herodotiw, 
was  a  single  isolated  mountain  of  great  elevation, 
on  the  W.  coast  of  X.  ^Vfrica.  This  information 
was  probably  obtained  from  the  fin^t  navigators  of 
these  seAs,  who  oljserved  the  elevate<l  mountain 
which  forms  at  Cape  (W^r  (3<ro  40'  N.  lat.)  the 
west«m  extremity,  and  as  it  were  the  gable-end, 
of  that  extensive  range  now  ct^mprL^cd  under  the 
name  of  Mount  Atlas. 

The  principal  and  higho«t  range  of  Mount  AtLis 
is  that  which  begins  at  Cape  Gcer  (near  10°  W. 
long.),  and  extemLs  E.,  with  a  sliglit  declination 
to  the  X.,  as  for  as  5°  W.  long.,  where  it  a\>- 
proaches  32°  N.  lat.  As  to  cn»8s  it  requires  two 
days'  journey,  its  width  may  be  estimateil  at  from 
30  to  40  m.  *  its  height  nowhere  seems  to  exowd 
the  snow-line;  for  its  highest  summit,  the  Milt- 
sin,  27  m.  SE.  fr(>m  the  town  of  Morocco,  has 
been  measured  by  Lieut.  Washington,  and  found 
to  have  an  elevation  of  11,400  ft,  alxjve  the  sc-iu 
It  is  only  once  in  about  twentv  vears  fn?e  fn^m 
snow.  During  the  winter  months  the  X.  declivity 
of  this  range  is  frec^uently  covere<l  with  snow  for 
several  weeks.  This  is  not  the  case  with  the  S. 
declivity,  turned  towards  the  great  African  desert 
(the  Sahara),  and  towards  the  hot  winds  blowing 
fn>m  that  quarter,  and  snow  falh*  rarely  there, 
even  on  the  highest  summits.  The  whole  range 
is  called  by  the  natives  Djibbel  Telge,  that  is,  the 
Snow  Mountains. 

From  the  E.  extremity  of  the  Djibbel  Telge  a 
chain  branches  ofl'  on  the  S.  sule,  which  niii.s  in  a 
WSW.  direction,  and  teiniinates  with  low  hills  on 
the  Atlantic  sea  at  Caf^e  Nun.  Acconling  to  Jack- 
son, it  contains  a  snhw-cappcd  summit,  K.  of 
Elala,  but  \t^  mean  elevation  does  not  appear  very 
great.  Between  this  range  and  the  Djibbel  Telge 
lies  the  province  of  Suse.  Along  the  S.  Iwise  of 
this  range  runs  the  river  Drah,  which  reaches  the 
sea  al)out  32  m.  S.  of  Ca})c  Xun. 

At  about'5°  W.  long,  and  32°  X.  lat.,  the  chain 
forms  a  mountain-knot,  from  which  iNsue  two 
ranges,  one  ninning  a  little  to  the  E.  of  X.,  anil 
the  other  first  NE.  and  then  E.  The  range  which 
runs  a  little  to  the  E.  of  N.  continues  in  that  di- 
recticm  from  32°  to  34^°,  where  at  a  ilLstance  of 
about  30  m.  from  the  Metliterrauean,  it  divides 
into  two  ridges,  which  hence  run  along  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  in  opposite  ilirections,  the  W.  ter- 
minating on  the  peninsula  fonning  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar,  at  Caiie  Spartel,  and  the  E.  continuing 
through  the  whole  of  Algiers,  and  tenuinatin;;  at 
Capes  Blanco  and  Zibeeb,  on  the  strait  separating 
Sicily  from  Africa.  The  undivide<l  nmge  (bci. 
3*2°  and  34i°)  Is  callenl  by  the  Eiu-oj>eans  (ireaior 
Atlas,  and  by  the  natives  Diebl>el  Twlla  or  Adtlju 
llie  chain  which  extends  W.  to  (.^ai>e  Spartel,  is 
commonlv  nanie<l  the  Lesser  Atlas ;  bv  the  na- 
fives,  Errif,  that  Ls,  the  (.'oast  Mountains.  The 
highest  j»art.  is  hanlly  anywhere  more  than  15  (»r 
20  m.  distant  from  the  sea ;  but  in  numerous  places 
its  branches  oo^upy  the  whole  spa<*e  lying  between 
it  and  the  elevated  .shores;  it  forms  the  capes  of 
Tres  Forcas,  (^uilates,  Xegro,  and  (.'euta.  Its 
nie^in  elevation  hardly  exceeds  2.<MK»  ft. 

The  chain  which  skirts  the  Mwliterrani'nn  from 
3°  W.ltHig.  t»)  lti°  E.long.,  or  lo  Cape  Blanco,  has 
no  general  name.    The  distance  of  the  highest  part 


of  the  range  from  the  sea  varies  between  10  and 
80  m.,  but  at  numerous  points  the  coast  itself  is 
formed  by  mountains  of  considerable  elevation, 
which  are  part^  of  the  great  masses  lying  behind 
them.  No  level  country  of  any  extent  occurs 
along  the  shores  except  the  Plain  of  Metidjah,  E. 
of  the  town  of  Algiers.  This  range  is  of  greater 
elevation  than  the  W.  Shaw  states  that  the 
liigher  portions  of  it  are  covered  with  snow  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  year ;  and  the  French  natu- 
ralist Desfontaines  estimated  their  height  at  7,200 
ft.  But  the  liighest  points  have  lately  been  mea- 
sured, and  one  has  been  found  to  rise  5,124  ft.,  and 
another  6,729  ft.  only  above  the  sea.  E.  of  6°  E. 
long,  the  mountains  in  the  interior  seem  to  be 
much  lower  than  farther  VV.,  but  some  high  sum- 
mits occur  on  the  coast  very  near  the  sea.  This 
chain  is  at  several  places  broken  down,  and  it  is 
by  these  wide  chasms  that  the  most  considerable 
rivers  of  Northern  Africa  find  their  way  to  the 
Me<lit€rranean  Sea,  as  the  Mulwia,  Shellif,  Isser, 
Sumeim,  Wad  el  Kebir,  Scibous,  and  Mejerdah. 

The  mountains  in  which  these  rivers  liave  their 
origin  are  very  imperfectly  known,  even  as  re- 
sfjects  their  geographical  position.  It  w  supposed 
that  they  fonn  the  continuation  of  the  ridge  which, 
branches  off  fn>m  the  mountain-knot  at  6°  W. 
long,  and  32^  N.  lat.  towanls  the  NE.,  but  after- 
wards by  degrees  declines  to  the  E.  East  of  the 
meridian  of  Greenwich,  its  principal  masses  seem 
to  lie  near  the  parallel  of  35°  N.  lat.  and  to  ex- 
tend eastward  to  the  meridian  of  UP,  Between 
this  range  and  the  more  southerly  one,  lie  wide 
valleys  anil  plains  of  moderate  extent  but  of  great 
It-rtility;  they  have  a  temperate  climate,  and  con- 
stitute the  beiit  portion  of  the  countries  emlwsomed 
within  the  mnge  of  Mtmnt  Atlas.  The  height  of 
the  range  to  the  S.  does  not  equal  that  lying  N. 
of  the  valleys,  though  it  occupies  a  gre^iter  width. 
Among  the  natives  a  great  portion  of  it  is  known 
under  the  name  of  Djebbel  Amer,  or  Lowart. 

The  country  extending  south  of  this  range  is 
calletl  Sahara  by  the  natives,  which  is  the  laud  of 
the  step|)e.  It  partakes  in  some  respects  of  the 
character  of  the  CJreat  Desert,  but  differs  widely 
fn>m  it  in  others,  and  must  \te  «.'onsidered  as  be- 
longing to  the  system  of  Mount  Atlas.  This 
coiuiiry  presents  a  succession  of  fiat-backed  ri«iges 
of  raiMlerate  elevation,  but  considerable  breatlth, 
nimiing  commonly  E.  and  VV.  The  lower  grounds 
by  which  they  are  separated  from  each  other,  are 
completely  closeil  valleys  or  plains  of  moderate 
extent,  each  of  wliich  has  a  temporary  or  penna- 
nent  lake  in  its  lowest  part,  the  receptacle  of  the 
waters  that  flow  down  from  the  adjac-ent  high 
grounds  during  the  rains.  The  surface  of  this  ex- 
tensive country  is  com|M^)sed  of  a  sandy  soil,  en- 
tirely de.«ititiite  of  trees,  and,  in  most  \>&Tt»,  even 
o(  every  kind  of  vegetation,  at  least  during  the 
dr\'  season.  But  along  the  water-courses  exten- 
."^ive  ])lantations  of  date  trees  exist :  hence  the 
country  has  received  the  name  of  Bled-el-jereed, 
or  the  country  of  tlates.  In  most  districts  the  water 
is  salt  or  brackLsh;  but  in  parts  potable  water 
may  l>e  obtained  in  abundance  by  digging  wells 
to  the  depth  of  100  and  sometimes  200  fathoms. 
This  country  extends  S.  to  the  very  borders  of 
the  Great  African  Desert,  and  extends  eastward 
far  beyond  UP  E.  long. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  roads  traversmg  this 
mountain  system  is  very  scanty.  It  is  believed 
that  only  two  passes,  Bebawan  and  Belavin,  exist 
iK'tween  tlie  province  of  Suse  and  the  country  X. 
ol"  the  Atlas.  Farther  E.,  between  b°  and  4°  W. 
long.,  lies  the  great  caravan  road,  on  which  the 
i-omnKTce  Ixitween  Fez  in  MtjRK'co,  andTimbuctoo 
in  Soudan,  is  carried  on.     It  traverses  the  dis- 


ATLAS  (MOUNT)        .  251 

tricts  of  Tafilett  and  Drah,  and  is  connected  with 
the  great  caravan  road  leading  to  Mecca,  which 
branches  off  from  the  former  between  S'29  and  33° 
N.  lat,,  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the  river 
Mulwia.  The  principal  stations  of  the  caravans 
within  the  Atlas  mountains  are  named  Kassabi  or 
Aksabi  Shurefa,  Tiz  Fighig,  Gardeia,  andWurglah, 
all  of  which  are  situated  near  the  S.  borders  of  the 
mountain  system.  From  Wurglah  the  road  passes 
to  Gadames,  and  hence  to  Murzook  in  Fezzan. 

We  are  very  imperfectly  acquainted  with  the 
mineral  riches  of  tne  Atlas ;  the  precious  metals 
seem  only  to  occur  in  the  province  of  Suse,  and 
not  in  abundance,  at  least  no  mines  are  worked. 
But  copper  b  plentiful  in  the  principal  range  S.  of 
the  town  of  Morocco,  where  it  is  worked  by  the 
natives  who  inhabit  the  mountains,  and  who  are 
in  a  great  measure  independent  of  the  sultan  of 
Morocco.  Iron  of  good  quality  occurs  in  many 
plac^,  and  is  worked  in  few,  as  is  likewise  lead : 
antimony  in  abundance  b  found  and  collected  in 
the  range  of  Tedla.  Rock-salt  is  also  plentiful,  but 
not  worked,  because  salt  may  be  obtained  witli 
less  labour  by  evaporating  sea-water.  Saltpetre 
of  a  superior  qiuility  abounds  in  some  districts  of 
Suse,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  town  of  Mo- 
rocco; fuller's  earth  is  abundant  and  of  good  quality. 

Mount  Atlas  is  inhabited  by  a  nation  which 
must  be  considered  as  aboriginal,  having  probably 
been  in  possession  of  N.  Africa  long  before  the  be- 
ginning of  our  historical  records.  It  is  known 
under  the  name  of  Bcrebbers,  or  Berbers ;  though 
it  seems  that  this  denomination  is  entirely  un- 
known to  themselves.  This  nadon,  which  still 
forms  the  bulk  of  the  pop.  of  N.  Africa,  including 
nearlv  the  whole  of  the  Sahara,  is  di\aded  within 
the  limits  of  Mount  Atlas  into  two  great  tribes, 
the  Amazirghes,  or  Mazirghes,  and  the  Shelluhs. 
The  latter  occupy  the  two  high  western  ranges, 
including  the  province  of  Suse ;  and  the  Amazir- 
ghes the  remamder.  It  has  long  been  a  question, 
whether  these  two  nations  speak  only  different 
dialects  of  one  language,  or  two  essentially  different 
languages:  but  a  learned  traveller,  Graberg  de 
Heinso,  who  published  a  work  on  the  empire  of 
Morocco,  with  perfect  knowled|^e  of  the  languages, 
states  that  they  are  substantially  the  same,  the 
difference  between  them  being  not  greater  than 
that  between  the  Portuguese  and  Spanish,  or  the 
English  and  Dutch  languages.  Both  nations,  how- 
ever, differ  in  their  manner  of  life  and  occupations, 
the  Shellulis  living  in  houses,  cultivating  the  fer- 
tile valleys  of  the  mountain  ranges,  and  applying 
themselves  with  assiduity  and  success  to  several 
mechanical  arts ;  whilst  the  Amazirghes  dwell  in 
tents  or  caverns,  attending  only  to  their  numerous 
herds  of  cattle  and  sheep.  Only  a  few  individuals 
of  these  nations  are  subject  to  the  emperor  of  Mo- 
rocco and  the  French  rulers  of  Algiers,  Those  in- 
habiting the  mountains  have  preserved  their  inde- 
pentlence,  and  are  governed  by  independent  chiefs. 
They  are  frequently  at  war  with  the  sovereigns  in 
whose  territories  their  possessions  are  included. 
Among  both  nations  a  considerable  number  of 
Jews  are  settled. 

The  most  exa^erated  notions  were  early  enter- 
tained of  the  height  of  M(»unt  Atlas.  Mela  says 
of  it.  In  arenis  nums  est  Athis,  dense  consurgenSf 
verum  incisis  undiqve  rupibus,  pneceps,  invius,  et 
quo  magis  surgit^  trUior^  tmiy  quod  altiuM  quam  con- 
gpici  potest^  usque  in  nubilu  erigitur^  calum  et  sidera 
nan  tangere  modo  vertice,  sed  sustinere  quoque  dictus 
est.  (lib.  iii.  s.  10).  This  supposed  extraordinary 
height  of  the  mountain,  and  the  ignorance  that 
prevailed  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  contiguous 
countries,  afforded  full  scope  for  the  exercise  of 
the  imagination.     The  poetical  history  of  Atlas 


252 


ATM 


may  be  seen  in  Ovid  (Metamorph.  lib.  iv.  line  656), 
and  is  referred  to  by  Vii^^l  in  one  of  the  finest 
paadages  of  the  iV^neid,  lib.  iv.  line  246. 

ATRI,  or  ATRIA,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy, 
ncov.  Teramo,  5  m.  from  the  Adriatic,  and  11  m. 
N.  by  E.  Civita  Penne,  on  a  steep  mountain. 
Pop.  10,125  in  1862.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  a 
bisnopric,  has  a  cathedral,  parish  church,  several 
convents,  a  grammar  school,  two  hospitals,  and  a 
mont-de-pidtd. 

This  is  a  very  ancient  city,  and  instead  of  the 
Venetian  Adria,  it  has  been  supposed  to  have  given 
its  name  to  the  Adriatic ;  but  the  weight  of  au- 
thority and  probability  b  against  this  supposition; 
its  onj^  is,  however,  undetermined,  or  lost  in 
obflcunty.  Some  extraordinary  excavations  exist 
in  a  hill  near  the  town,  forming  a  series  of  cham- 
bers, distributed  with  such  regularity  as  to  autho- 
rise the  notion  that  they  were  designed  for  some 
particular  object,  such  as  prisons  or  magazines. 
These  peculiarities  have  suggested  the  idea  that 
they  are  of  a  more  remote  construction  than  the 
LathoaUa  at  SjTacuse,  which  they  much  resemble, 
or  than  the  celebrated  prisons  of  s<»rvius  Tullius  at 
Rome.  Some  antiquaries  have  supposed  not 
without  considerable  plausibility,  that  the  word 
Atrium  must  have  been  derived  from  these  exca- 
yations.  The  town  received  a  Roman  colony  about 
the  year  465  u.c.  It  seems  to  be  generally  al- 
lowed that  the  Emperor  Adrian  was  descended  of 
a  family  originally  of  this  d^. 

ATRIPALDA,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov, 
Avellino,  on  the  Sabato,  2  m.  E.  Avellino.  Pop. 
^,008  in  1862.  The  town  has  a  collegiate  and  a 
parochial  church,  with  fabrics  of  cloth,  paper,  and 
nails. 

ATTERCL1FFE,  a  township  m  the  par.  of 
Sheffield,  which  see. 

ATTICA,  in  antiqidty,  the  most  celebrated 
region  of  Greece,  and  the  scat  of  its  most  renowned 
people,  now  part  of  the  monarchy  of  Attica  and 
Ikeotia,  and  forming  the  eparchy  of  Athens.  It 
lies  between  lat  37<^  89^  (Cai)e  Oolonna),  and  38° 
22*  N.,  and  long.  289  20*  and  24^  6'  (C.  Marathon) 
E«  having  N.  ikcotia,  E.  the  ^Egcan  Sea,  S.  and 
SW.  the  Gulf  of  Egina  (Saronic  G.),  and  W.  the 
eparchy  of  Mcgara :  shape  triangular,  the  base  to 
the  N  W. :  length  44  m. ;  breadth  about  84  m. 
Pop.  of  the  mc^em  monarchy  87,223  in  1851,  and 
116,024  in  1861.  Attica  owed  all  its  ancient 
glory  to  the  industry  and  genius  of  its  inhabitants. 
Soil  mostly  rugged,  the  surface  consisting  of  barren 
hiUs,  or  plains  of  little  extent.  The  chief  moun- 
tains arc  Nosea  (Pames),  the  loftiest;  Elatea 
(Cithseron),  and  Manglia,  which  form  its  N.  boim- 
aary ;  Mendeli  (Pentdicus),  famous  for  its  marble ; 
Yrdo-vuni  (H^nnettns),  and  Laurini  (/xiwrton), 
famous  for  its  silver  mines.  The  most  remarkable 
plains  are  those  of  Athens  and  Marathon :  rivers, 
the  Sarandaporo,  Cephissus,  and  Ilissus.  The  pro- 
duce of  Attica  differs  remarkably  firom  that  of  Ijkro- 
tia;  it  is  deficient  of  water,  and  yields  little  grain 
except  barley ;  its  pastures  arc  but  few,  and  its 
spontaneous  vcgetarion  consists  mostly  of  ever- 
greens, as  the  pine,  prinari,  olive,  myrtle,  &c. 
Pames  is  covered  by  a  forest,  and  supplies  Athens 
and  the  surrounding  country  with  fuel ;  IlMnettiis 
abounds  with  lentisks,  wild  thyme,  and  other  odo- 
riferous plants ;  its  honey  still  enjoys  some  portion 
of  its  ancient  fame ;  and  its  mutton  has  a  delicious 
flavour.  The  oil  is  equal  to  that  of  France :  what 
com  is  produced  is  very  gtMKl,  and  the  harvest 
takes  place  earlier  than  in  any  other  [lart  of  Greece. 
(Same  is  very  abundant.,  and  wolves,  wild  boars, ' 
and  a  few  bean  are  met  with  in  the  N.  Owls. 
en)eciallv  the  small  grey  owl  (StrirfjasMrrina)^  still 
inoabit  the  vicinity  of  Athens  in  great  numbeiv ; 


AUBE 

but  luckily  there  are  remarkably  few  venomous 
reptiles  or  insects.  The  chief  mineral  treasures  arc 
marble,  white  at  M.  Pentelicus,  and  grey  at  M. 
Ilymettus ;  the  anc.  silver  mines  of  Laurium  arc 
no  hmger  proiluctive.  Air  pure  and  healthy ;  and 
though  the  country  is  in  many  parts  dreary  and 
uncultivated,  the  summits  of  the  mountains  afford 
sublime  views,  embellished  by  numerous  cla^sioul 
remains,  associated  with  imijcrinhablc  and  en- 
nobling recollections.  Every  hillock  of  Att  ica  ai>- 
pears  to  have  been  dedicated  to  gods  or  heroes, 
and  decorated  with  their  altars  and  statues,  the 
ruins  of  which  are  often  clearly  traceable.  It 
originally  contained  174  demi  or  boroughs ;  It  now 
possesses  no  town  of  any  importance,  except 
Athens ;  its  villages  arc  mostly  inhabited  by  Alba- 
nians. 

ATTLEBOROUGII,  a  m.  town  and  par.  of 
England,  co.  Norfolk,  hund.  Shropham,  15^  m. 
SW.  Norwich,  and  110  m.  fwm  London  by  Great 
Eastern  railway.  The  par.  contains  5,8(^0  a<'n'.><, 
and  2,221  inliab.  ace.  to  the  census  of  1861.  The 
town,  formerly  a  place  of  some  importance,  is  now 
decayed  and  inconsiderable. 

ATTOCK  (Atac,  a  limit),  an.  Varanasy  a  fort 
and  town  of  the  Punjab,  Hindostan,  on  the  E. 
bank  of  the  Indus,  in  hit.  83®  56'  N.,  long.  71°  o7' 
E.,  42  m.  ESE.  Peshawer,  and  236  m.  NW.  Lahore. 
The  modem  fort  stands  on  a  low  hillock  beside  the 
river;  it  is  of  an  obloni^  form;  its  shortest  faces 
parallel  to  the  river,  being  400  yanis  in  length, 
and  the  others  twice  as  long.  The  walls  ore  of 
polished  stone,  and  the  whole  structure  is  hand- 
some ;  but  in  a  military  point  of  \4ew  it  is  of  little 
importance,  being  commanded  by  a  hill,  from  which 
it  is  divided  only  by  a  ravine.  Estimated  pop.  uf 
town  8,000.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  is  a 
small  \'illage,  having  a  mrt  erected  by  Nadir  Shah, 
and  a  fine  aqueduct  built  by  some  former  Khuttuk 
chief.  The  Indus  is  here  200  yanls  bn)ad,  the 
channel  deep,  and  the  current  rapid,  but  so  tran- 
(}uil  that  a  bridge  might  be  thrown  over  it ;  and  it 
is  easily  passed  both  in  boats  and  on  the  inflated 
hides  of  oxen,  a  contrivani^  common  here  and  as 
old  as  the  davs  of  Alexander  the  Gn>at,  whu  is  l)e- 
lieved  to  have  crossetl  the  Indus  at  or  nearthis  iK»int. 

AUBAGNE,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Bouehes  du 
Rhone,  cap.  cant.,  on  the  Yeaume,  10  m.  E.  Mar- 
seilles, on  the  railway  from  Marseilles  to  Nice. 
Pop.  7,232  in  1861.  Aubagne  consists  of  an  did 
and  a  new  town;  the  former  built  on  the  declivity 
of  a  hill,  and  the  latter  at  its  foot.  In  the  firrst,  the 
houses  are  small,  and  the  streets  narrow  and  dirty, 
but  in  the  new  part  the  houses  are  go<Hi,  and  the 
streets  broad  and  well  kept  It  has  fabrics  of 
earthenware  and  paper,  and  tanneries;  and  sevt^iil 
fairs  are  held  in  it,  tor  the  sale  of  horses,  mules,  and 
jewellery. 

AUBfe,  an  inland  dep.  of  France,  SE.  Paris,  l>e- 
tween  47°  55'  and  48<^  42'  N.  hit,,  and  39  24'  and 
4°  48'  E.  long.,  having  N.  dep.  of  Mame,  K.  Haute 
Mame,  S.  the  Cote  d'Or  and  Yonne,  and  W.  Seine 
et  Mame.  Area,  600,139  hectares,  or  2,3<)3  EnglLsh 
so.  m.  Pop.  2()'1,247  in  1851,  and  262,785  in  IVOI. 
The  detMirtment  is  traversed  by  tlie  Seine,  which  is 
navigaolc  from  Troves,  and  aJso  by  it^  ini{>ortant 
affluent  the  Aul)e,  whence  the  dep.  has  its  name ; 
the  latter  is  navigable  from  Arcis-sur-Aiibe.  Sur- 
face generally  flat,  but  in  the  NW.  quarter  there 
are  some  low  hills.  The  soil  of  the  region  to  the 
N.  and  W.  of  Troyes  consists  of  chalk  thinly 
covered  with  mould,  and  is  exceedingly  Itarren  and 
unproductive,  a  geat  part  of  it  not  being  wortli 
cultivation.  The  sulisoil  of  the  other  iM>rti<in.  or 
that  to  the  E.  and  S.  of  Troyes,  also  oon.sists  of 
chalk ;  but  being  for  the  most  [»art  thickly  ((ivrrcd 
with  alluvial  dc^iosit,  produces  luxuriant'  cropa  of 


AUBEL 

com,  hemp  and  tumipe.  Agriculture  has  made 
considerable  progress  since  the  revolution,  particu- 
larly as  respects  the  culture  of  turnips,  and  the 
formation  of  artificial  meadows.  Oxen  as  well  as 
horses  are  employed  in  field  labour.  The  annual 
produce  of  wool  is  estimated  at  220,000  kilogs.  A 
great  number  of  hoga  are  fattened.  The  meadows 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Seine,  Aube,  and  Armance  an- 
nually supply  about  2,000,000  quintals  hapr,  about 
one-third  part  of  which  is  sent  to  Pans.  The 
forests  in  some  parts  are  pretty  extensive,  but  in 
the  barren  chalk  region  there  is  a  great  want  of 
trees.  The  best  wines  are  those  of  Ricey,  Bac. 
Uouilly,  Javemant,  and  Laine»-aux-Boi3.  Accord- 
ing to  the  official  tables,  the  principal  divisions 
of  the  soil  are — cultivable  land  394,000,  meadows 
:i7,5(X),  vineyards  23,000,  woods  80,000,  heaths, 
moors,  &c  22,000  hectares.  Excepting  chalk  and 
marble,  the  minerals  are  unimportant.  The 
manufacture  of  cotton  stuffs  and  yam,  hosiery,  and 
woollen  stuffs,  is  extensively  carried  on,  and  about 
2,500  looms  and  3,500  workpeople  are  employed 
in  the  wea\'ing  of  stockings.  The  establishments 
for  spinning  wool,  produce  annually  about  400,000 
kilogs.  of  yarn ;  and  those  for  spinning  cotton  put 
in  motion  68,000  spindles,  employing  from  2,700  to 
3,000  workpeople,  and  fumish  annually  500,000 
kilogs.  of  yarn.  There  are  also  tanneries,  works  for 
the  preparation  of  beet-Po<»t  sugar,  glass-works  and 
tile-works.  With  the  exception  of  Troyes,  the 
chef-lieu,  or  capital  of  the  department,  none  of  the 
other  towns  are  of  much  importance.  The  depart- 
ment Ls  divided  into  five  arrondissements,  viz., 
Troyes,  Arcis-sur-Aube,  Bar-sur-Aube,  Bar-sur- 
Seine,  and  Nogent-sur-Seine,  and  subdivided  into 
twcntv-six  cantons  and  447  communes.  The 
ecclesiastical  affairs  are  under  the  bishop  of 
Troyes,  suffragan  of  the  archbishop  of  Sens. 

AUliEL,  a  town  of  Belgium,  pro  v.  Liege,  6  m. 
X.  Verviers.  Pop.  3,050  in  1850.  It  has  a  good 
weekly  market,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  butter 
and  cheese. 

AUBE N  AS,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Ard^he,  cap. 
cant.,  near  the  Anifeche,  at  the  foot  of  the  Ceven- 
nes,  13  m.  SVV.  Privas.  Pop.  8,529  in  1861.  The 
town  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  well- 
wooded  hill,  and  is  surrounded  bv  the  ruins  of  an 
old  wall  Hanked  with  towers.  The  interior  of  the 
town,  however,  by  no  means  corresponds  with  the 
beauty  of  its  situation,  its  streets  being  generally 
cr(K)ked,  narrow  and  filthy,  and  the  houses  ill- 
built*  Aubenas  is  the  seat  of  a  tribunal  of  com- 
merce, and  has  manufactures  of  cloth,  filatures  and 
fabrics  of  silk,  and  establishments  for  the  dressing 
of  leather.  It  is  the  great  mart  for  the  sale  of  the 
mnes  and  chestnuts  of  the  dep.,  and  has  also  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  raw  and  wrought  silk,  wool,  and 
cotton. 

AUBERVILLIERS,  or  Notredame-des-VertuB, 
a  village  of  France,  dep.  Seine,  a  little  to  the  N. 
of  Paris.  Pop.  0,098  in  18ol.  The  inhabitants 
are  principally  employed  in  the  raising  of  garden 
stuffs  for  the  supply  of  Paris. 

AUBIGNY,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Cher,  cap. 
cant,  on  the  Ntire,  28  m.  N.  Bouiges,  Pop.  2,654 
in  1801.  The  town  is  old  and  ill-built.  It  has 
manufactures  of  coarse  cloth,  linsey-woolsey, 
serg&s,  &c.,  and  is  the  centre  of  a  considerable 
tratle  in  wool.  Aubigny,  with  its  lordship,  was 
erecUHl  into  a  duchy  in  1684,  in  favour  of  the 
Duchess  of  Portsmouth  and  her  son,  the  Duke  of 
Richmond. 

AUBIN-DF^CORMIER  (ST.),  a  town  of 
France,  dep.  I  lie  et  Vilaine,  on  a  steep  hill,  16  m. 
NE.  Renne-s.     Pop.  2,098  in  1861. 

AUBIX  (ST.),  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Aveyron, 
cap.  cant,,  18  m.  NE.  Villcfranche,  on  a  branch  of 


AUBUSSON 


253 


the  Southern  railway.  Pop.  7,856  in  1861.  In  the 
environs  of  this  town  are  the  burning  mountains, 
or  rather  hills,  of  Fontagnes  and  Bue^e,  in  which 
subterranean  fires  have  been  in  action  for  ages. 
The  smoke  and  other  vapours  produced  by  the 
fires  deposit  on  the  sides  of  the  crevices  of  the 
rocks  and  earth,  by  which  they  make  their  escape, 
large  quantities  of  imperfect  alum  and  subli- 
mated sulphur.  The  alum  crystals  being  col- 
lected and  refined  fumish  excellent  alum,  sufficient 
for  the  supplv  of  France, 

AUBIN  (ST.),  a  finely  situated  sea-port  town 
of  the  islana  of  Jersey,  opposite  to  St  Heliers,  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  bav  on  which  the  latter  is 
built  Pop.  2,070  in  1861.  The  town  consists 
principally  of  a  single  street  of  well  built  houses. 
There  is  a  harbour  formed  by  a  pier,  but  it  is  de- 
ficient in  water;  but  the  largest  ships  may  an- 
chor inside  the  pier  at  St  Aubin's  Castle,  m  the 
vicinity. 

AUBONNE,  a  town  of  Switzerhmd,  cant  Vaud, 
on  the  Aubonne,  14  m.  W.  by  S.  Lausanne,  on  the 
railway  from  Lausanne  to  Geneva.  Pop.  1,734  in 
1860.  The  castle  of  Aubonne,  which  commands 
a  very  fine  view,  was  built  by  the  counts  of  Gru- 
yfere,  and  repaired  bv  Tavemier,  the  celebrated 
traveller,  to  whom  it  belonged,  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  heart  of  Duguesne,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  naval  officers  oi  France,  is  interred  in 
the  parish  church,  where  a  monument  has  been 
erected  to  his  memory. 

AUBURN,  a  town  of  the  U.  States,  N.  York, 
CO.  Cayuga,  at  the  N.  end  of  Owasco  Lake,  169  m. 
NW.  Alban,  and  314  m.  NW.  New  York.  Pop. 
12,100  in  1860.  The  streets  are  wide  and  mac- 
adamised, ha^'ing  numerous  lofty  buildings  of 
brick  and  dressed  limestone.  Auburn  is  prin- 
cipally celebrated  for  its  state  prison,  founded  in 
1816.  This  is  a  very  extensive  building,  and  has 
been  conducted,  since  1823,  on  what  has  been 
called  the  *  silent,  or  Auburn  plan,'  that  is,  on  the 
plan  of  confining  the  prisoners  to  separate  cells 
during  the  night,  and  making  them  work  together 
during  the  day,  taking  care  to  enforce,  when  Uiey 
are  together,  the  strictest  silence.  The  prison 
was  at  first  conducted  on  the  system  of  Bolitaiy 
confinement,  which  not  being  found  to  answer,  the 
present  system  was  established  in  its  stead.  Ex- 
clusive of  the  state  prison,  there  are  at  Auburn 
a  county  prison,  built  in  1833;  a  Presbyterian 
theological  seminary,  incorporated  in  1820,  with 
a  good  library;  a  college,  founded  in  1836;  a 
court-house,  with  numerous  places  for  public 
worship. 

AUBUSSON,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Creuse, 
cap.  arrond.,  on  the  river  of  that  name,  20  m.  8£L 
Gueret  Pop.  6,003  in  1861.  The  town  is  pic- 
turesquely situated  in  a  sterile  country,  in  a  nar- 
row gorge,  surrounded  by  rocks  and  mountains. 
It  consists  of  one  long  street  of  good  houses ;  has 
a  theatre,  and  an  agricultural  soaety.  The  carpet 
manufacture  of  Aubusson  is  the  most  celebrated 
in  France,  after  that  of  the  Gobelins  and  Beau- 
vais.  It  was  formerly,  however,  much  more  ex- 
tensive than  at  present  In  the  early  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century  the  town  is  said  to  have  con- 
tained 12,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  upwards  of 
2,000  were  directly  employed  in  the  carpet  trade. 
But  being  mostly  Protestants,  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes,  by  making  the  greater  num- 
ber emigrate  to  foreign  countries,  gave  a  blow  to 
the  manufacture,  from  which  it  never  recovered. 
In  1780,  it  employed  about  700  workpeople.  It 
languished  for  a  long  time  afler  the  revolution ; 
but  within  the  last  dozen  years  it  has  materially 
improved,  and  at  present  it  employs  a  greater 
number  of  hands  than  in  1780. 


254 


AUCH 


AUCH,  a  city  of  Prance,  dep.  Gere,  of  which  it 
ia  the  cap.,  on  the  left  bank  of  tlie  Gen,  and  on 
the  railway  from  Aj^en  to  Tarhos.  Vo\\  11.900  in 
1861.  lli'e  toHii  Htands  on  the  plateau  and  de- 
clivity of  a  hill,  which  gives  it  at  a  distance  a 
fine  a|i|3carance.  A  coiudderable  nubuib  is  built 
on  the  oppotdtc  side  of  the  river,  the  communica- 
tion with  it  being  kept  up  by  a  bridge.  It  i«  the 
seat  of  a  court  of  asidze,  of  tribunalH  of  com- 
merce and  original  jurisdiction,  and  of  an  ari'h- 
bishopric:  and  has  a  royal  ci»llegp,  a  primarj- 
normal  school,  a  theological  seminar}-,  a  Hchool 
of  design,  an  agricultural  society,  a  muM'um,  an<l 
a  public  librar>*  with  about  5,000  volumes.  Not- 
witlistanding  modem  improvements,  Auoh  is  still 
generally  ill-built,  and  tlie  Htreets,  though  clean, 
are  narrow  and  crooked.  The  best  part  of  the 
town  is  on  the  summit  of  the  plateau.  Tliere  is 
here  a  magnificent  promenade  u]x>n  an  elevated 
terrace  of  great  extent,  finely  shaded,  and  com- 
manding an  extensive  view  over  the  neigh- 
IxNuing  countr>'  as  far  as  the  PjTeneea.  Prin- 
cipal public  buildings,  the  cathedral  and  the 
hotel  of  the  prefecture.  The  former  is  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  in  France;  but  though  taken 
as  a  whole  it  is  admirable,  its  parts  are  not  a  little 
incongruous,  the  principal  part  of  the  building 
being  Gothic,  while  the  fn>nt  and  some  other 
portions  are  Greek.  The  different  parts  of  the 
interior  are  exceedingly  well  jwoportioned.  The 
hotel  of  the  prefecture,  formerly  the  archiepis- 
copal  palace,  is  a  vast  and  noble  building.  There 
is  also  (in  the  suburb)  an  immense  hospital,  with 
a  town-house  and  barracks.  Auch  has  manufac- 
tures of  thread  and  cotton  stuffs,  coarse  cloths, 
vrith  tanneries,  and  establu>hments  for  the  spm- 
ning  of  wool.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on, 
particularly  in  the  brandies  of  Armagnac. 

Auch  is  a  verj-  ancient  town.  Before  the  Ro- 
man conquest  it  was  called  Climl>erris,  and  was 
the  capital  of  the  Auscii.  Augustus  ha\'ing 
]>lanted  in  it  aKoman  colony,  it  tiNik  the  name  of 
Auguata-Auacitcurum^  whence  its  mtxlem  name 
has  been  derive<l.  The  old  city  stcKnl  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Gers,  on  the  site  of  the  present ' 
suburb.  The  modem  city  is,  however,  very  an- 
cient, ha\nn^  been  founded  }>revioudly  to  the 
reign  of  Clovis. 

AUCHTEKARDER,  a  town  of  Scotland,  co. 
Perth,  on  the  S.  Iwnk  of  the  Earn.  Poi>.  2.H44  in 
1861.  The  town,  which  is  nearly  1  m.  in  length, 
consists  of  a  single  street  on  both  sides  the  high 
road  from  Glaj^)W  to  Perth,  being  about  14  m. 
W.  by  S.  from  the  latter,  and  having  a  sta- 
tion on  the  Scottish  (^entral  railway.  The  town 
is  principally  occupied  by  cotton  weavers  in  the 
emplo^-ment  of  the  Glasgow  manufacturers.  At 
one  time  it  returned  memljers  to  the  Scotch  par- 
liament, and  it  is  uncertain  how  or  when  it  l(»st 
the  pri\Tlege.  At  present  it  is  the  seat  of  a  Pres- 
bytery. It  was  burae<!  <lown  by  the  Earl  of  Mar, 
in  1718,  and  has  no  building  worth  notice.  The 
agriculture  of  the  parish  has  l>een  greatly  im- 
proved within  the  present  centurv. 

AUCHTERMUCIITY,  a  royai  burgh  and  par. 
of  Scotland,  co.  Fife,  the  tfiwn  Ijeing  situated  on 
the  high  road  from  Kinross  to  Cui>ar,  9  m.  W.  the 
latter,  on  the  E<linburgh-Perth  railwav.  Pop.  of 
town  1,21.'),  and  of  suburbs  1,2*23  in  1861.  The 
town  is  intersected  by  a  rapid  streamlet,  employed 
to  turn  ilax  and  other  mills,  and  to  supply  a  bleach- 
field.  It  is  ver\'  irrc^ilarly  built,  but  contains  a 
fair  pro|X)Ttiou  of  g(H»d  substantial  hou^^es.  Tlic  I 
inhabitants  are  principally  employed  in  the 
weaving  and  si)inning  of  liurn  an<l  cotton,  espe- 
cially the  fonner.  It  w;is  crejite<l  a  royal  Inirgh 
by  James  IV.,  but  has  never  enjoyed  the  jirixilege 


AUDIXCOURT 

of  voting  in  the  return  of  a  m.  either  to  the  Scotch 
or  British  parliaments. 

AUDE,  a  maritime  dep.  in  the  S.  of  France,  on 
the  Mediterranean,  sefumited  from  Si»ain  by  the 
dep.  of  tlic  PjTenees  Orien tales.  Area,  606„S07 
liectares,  or  2,246  English  sq.  m.  Pop.  289,717  in 
1851,  and  3ii3,633  in  lM6l.  The  Aude,  whenw  it 
derives  its  name,  is  the  onlv  consi<ienible  river  in 
the  dep. ;  but  it  is  traversed  fn»m  E.  to  VV.  by  the 
canal  of  Languedoc.  The  coast  along  the  Medi- 
terranean is  mostly  low.  and  is  iKinlered  by  several 
lagoons,  (»r,  as  they  are  called  in  the  language  of 
the  country,  etangg,  or  iKuids.  At  tlie  mouth  of 
one  of  them  is  La  Nouvelle,  the  only  {Kirt  in  tlie 
dej).  Surface  generally  hilly  and  mountainous, 
l»emg  en(;umliere<1  on  the  X.  with  the  Montague 
Xoire,  a  prolongation  of  the  Ce venues,  and  on  the 
S.  with  ramifications  of  the  Pyrenees.  The 
highest  summit  of  the  latter,  the  Pic  Mossot, 
rises  alxtut  8,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ; 
the  highest  point  of  the  Montague  Noire  is  al>out 
.S,9(M)  feet  aU>ve  the  sea.  Soil  of  the  plains  and 
valleys  generallv  calcareous  and  vert'  pnHlnctive. 
Climate  variable,  and  principaUy  diHtinguislicd 
by  the  prevalence  of  hot  winds;  that  from  the 
SE.  called  the  Autan^  and  that  fn»m  the  N\V. 
called  the  Cers.  Both  of  these  blow  with  great 
force;  and  at  Carcassonne  and  Castelnau<lar>-  tlie 
autan  is  occasionally  so  violent  as  to  unr(M»f 
houses  and  tear  up  trees.  In  summer  it  some- 
times strikhiglv  resembles  the  sirocco.  All  sorts 
of  com  are  raLse<l  on  the  plains,  and  millet  and 
buckwheat  on  the  niountnnis.  The  pnMluoe  ex- 
cee<ls  the  consumption  of  the  inhabitants  so  much, 
that  the  exfKirt  is  estimated  at  al)out  50(),(MK) 
hectolitres  a  vear.  Next  to  corn,  wine  is  the 
most  im^K)rtant  agricultural  pnMlurt,  the  vhie- 
vanls  being  suppose<i  to  furnish  alsnit  K0O,oo(l 
hectolitres  a  year.  The  red  wines  are  inf<'rior. 
but  the  white  wines,  particularly  the  blanquette 
de  Limoux,  are  much  esteemed.'  A  go^nl  deal  of 
brandy  is  manufacture<l.  Sheep  numerous:  an- 
nual product  of  w<K>l  estimatetl  at  l,800,(MK)  kilogs. 
Irrigation  well  understoo<l ;  an<l  there  are  some 
fine  artificial  meadows.  The  honey  of  NarlK^nne 
is  the  finest  in  France.  According  tt)  the  ofiicial 
tables,  the  soil  is  principally  appropriated  as 
follows;  viz.— cultivable  lanils  273.000,  meadows 
11,000,  \'ineyanbj  50,iMM>,  fon»st8  44,000,  and  waste 
lands,  heatlis,  &q.  183,(MM)  hectares.  Landed  pro- 
perty is  greatly  subdivideil  in  this  as  in  the  other 
South-west  departments;  the  average  extent  <»f 
the  farm  is  60  acres,  and  a  great  many  are  less. 
This  subdivision  is  of  old  date,  and  existed  long 
previous  to  the  revolution.  The  <lep.  is  rich  in 
mineral  products.  Mines  of  inm  are  wrought  in 
different  places;  and  the  total  pnMluce  of  the 
foundries  is  estimated  at  about  17,000  metrical 
quintals  a  year.  Above  30,^)00  pie<*es  of  cloth  are 
annually  manufactured  at  Carcase  >inie,  of  which 
6,(KK)  are  exportcil  to  the  Levant.  Tiiere  is  also 
a  large  manufactory'  of  comlw*  and  articles  of  jet, 
\*'ith  fabrics  of  pa]K*r,  tanneries,  distilleries  inul 
salt-works.  Tratle  and  industrj' have  been  greatly 
promoted  by  the  facilities  of  (M>mniunication  af- 
forded by  the  canal  of  languedoc.  as  well  as  by 
the  railwav  from  Toulouse  to  Cette,  with  its 
branches,  which  crosses  the  dei>artment.  Principal 
towns  Carcassonne,  Narbonne,  and  Castebiau- 
dar\-. 

AUDINCOURT,  a  village  of  France,  dep. 
Donbs,  cap.  cant.,  on  the  l)oul)s,  3  m.  SE.  Mnnt- 
lK«lian!.  Pop.  2,«fil  in  isi;i.  This  village  is 
<listinguLshed  by  its  iron-works,  wlifoh  fumi>-li 
annually  al>ove  f).oo0,000  kilogs.  of  bar  and 
wrought  inm,  excluMve  of  considerable  quantities 
of  iron  and  tin  plates. 


AUDRUICQ 

AUDRUICQ,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Pas  de 
Calais,  cap.  cant,  2,373  m.  NNW.  St.  Omer,  on 
the  Great  Northern  railway.  Pop.  2,220  in  1861. 
The  town  w  strongly  fortified. 

AUERBACH,  a  town  of  Saxony,  on  the 
Golzsch,  12  m.  E.  Plauen.  Pop.  4,444  in  1861. 
Tlie  town  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1834,  but  has  been  rebuilt  in  a  superior  style.  It 
lias  manufactures  of  muslin  and  olack  lace,  with 
breweries,  paper-works,  and  an  active  trade. 

AuERBACH,  a  liandsome  village  of  g.  d.  Hesse 
Darmstadt,  15  m.  S.  Darmstadt,  Pop.  1,750  in 
1 86 1 .  It  has  a  castle,  the  summer  residence  of  the 
Grand  Duke;  and  several  wells  and  baths,  much 
resorted  to  bv  the  inhabitants  of  Darmstadt. 

AUERSTADT,  a  small  viUage  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  reg.  Merseburg,  6  m.  W.  Naumburg. 
Here,  on  the  14th  of  October,  1806,  the  main  body 
of  the  great  Prussian  army,  under  the  Duke  of 
Rrunswick  and  the  king  in  person,  was  defeated 
by  the  di\'ision  of  the  grand  French  army  com- 
manded by  Marshal  Davoust.  The  same  day 
Napoleon  defeated,  at  Jena,  the  right  wing  of  the 
Pmssian  army,  under  (general  MoUcndora.  The 
combined  action  has  been  called  the  battle  of 
Jena.  (See  J  ex  a.)  Davoust,  in  reward  of  his 
^kill  and  gallantry,  received  from  Napoleon  the 
title  of  Duke  of  Auerstadt, 

AUGGUR,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  prov.  Malwa; 
in  the  dora.  of  Sindia;  on  a  rocky  eminence,  1,598 
ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  between  two  lakes, 
40  m.  NE.  Oojein ;  lat  23°  43'  N.,  long.  76°  1'  E. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall,  and  has  a  well- 
built  native  fortress :  it  is  of  considerable  extent, 
and  in  1820  contained  5,000  houses;  but  these, 
excepting  one  street,  were  nearly  mud  buildings. 

AUGSBURG  (an.  Augusta  Vtndelicorum)^& city 
of  Bavaria,  cap.  circ.  Up|)er  Danul)e,  finely  situated 
in  an  extensive  and  fertile  plain,  between  and  near 
the  confluence  of  the  VV^ertach  and  Lech,  35  m. 
NW.  Munich,  at  the  junction  of  the  railways  from 
Munich  t-o  Ulm,  and  from  Nllmberg  to  the  lake  of 
Con.^tauce.  Pop.  38,460  in  1861.  Augsbui^  was 
long  one  of  the  richest,  most  commercial,  and 
jiowerful  of  the  free  cities  of  the  empire.  Its  forti- 
fications were  dismantled  in  1703,  and  the  old 
walls  have  been  partly  convertetl  into  promenades. 
ITie  streets  are  raostl v  narrow  and  inconvenient,  but 
one  of  them,  the  Maximilian  Strasse,  is  a  noble 
thoroughfare,  more  than  |  of  a  mile  in  length,  wide 
and  airy,  with  lofty,  well-built  houses,  and  orna- 
mented with  several  fine  fountains.  There  are 
some  other  gootl  streets  and  squares.  The  houses, 
which  are  mostly  old,  are  large,  and  sculptured 
and  painted  fronts  are  common.  The  town-hall, 
near  one  of  the  extremities  of  the  Maximilian 
Strasse,  the  finest  building  in  the  town,  was 
finished  in  1620.  It  has  a  hall  on  its  second  story, 
denominated  the  golden  hall,  from  the  profusion 
of  gilding,  reckoned  one  of  the  finest  a|)artments  in 
(iermany.  The  other  jMiblic  buildings  are  the 
palace,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  bishop,  but 
now  used  for  government  oflices ;  the  cathedral, 
an  extensive  GtJthic  fabric,  dating,  in  part,  firom  the 
sixth  century  ;  the  arsenal ;  the  abbey  of  St.  Ulric, 
with  the  qhurch  of  St.  Afira,  and  the  new  '  Waa- 
renlialle,'  or  commeR'ial  exchange.  The  town  is 
extremely  well  su|)plied  with  water,  and  is  inter- 
secte<l  by  no  fewer  than  four  canals.  Exclusive  of 
the  walks  on  tlie  glacis  and  in  t he neighboiu-hood, 
it  has  a  fine  promenade  in  front  of  St,  Ulric's 
church.  Among  tiie  educational  establishments 
are  two  gymnasiums,  at  one  of  which  Prince  Louis 
Napoleon^  subH*qiiently  Napoleon  III.,  Em|)eror, 
ri'ccived  his  education;  an  academy  of  arts,  founded 
in  1M20;  a  polytechnic  stwiety;  t wo endowe<l  schools 
for  females,  a  Lancastrian  school,  and  several  Sun- 


AUGUSTA 


255 


day  Bchools.  The  public  library  contains  a  valu- 
able collection  of  printed  and  manuscript  Greek 
works.  The  collection  of  paintings,  chiefly  of  the 
German  school,  formerly  in  the  town-hall,  has  been 
partly  removed  to  Munich.  Among  the  charitable 
establishments  is  the  Fuggerei,  This  consists  of  51 
small  houses  containing  106  dwellings,  built  in 
1519  by  the  Fugger  family,  and  let  to  indigent  citi- 
zens at  a  mere  nominal  rent.  In  our  own  times, 
Schaezler,  a  banker  of  the  city,  has  followed  up 
this  example,  by  endowing  a  school  of  industry 
for  100  orphans  and  poor  children,  and  founding 
an  asylum  for  decayed  towns-people. 

The  manufactures  of  Augsbui^  are  various  and 
important  That  of  woollen  stuns  is  the  most  ex- 
tensive and  thriving ;  those  of  cotton  and  linen, 
though  stUl  considerable,  have  declined.  It  has  also 
a  cannon  foundry,  and  produces  large  quantities 
of  paper,  with  gold  and  silver  lace  and  jewellery, 
pnnting-types,  soap,  and  glass.  Augsbuig  is  like- 
wise the  centre  of  an  extensive  trade  in  printing, 
engraving,  and  bookbinding,  but  its  principal  im- 
portance at  presejit,  and  for  a  long  time  past,  has 
been  derived  from  its  being,  next  to  Frankfort,  the 
grand  seat  of  banking  and  exchange  operations  in 
Central  Europe.  The  greater  part  of  the  exten- 
sive transactions  between  Vienna  and  W.  Ger- 
many, as  well  as  most  of  those  between  Germany 
and  Italy,  are  finally  balanced  and  adjusted  in  this 
citv. 

I'his  was  formerly  a  place  of  much  greater  popu- 
lation and  importance  than  at  present  It  is  ver\'' 
ancient,  Augustus  having  settled  a  colony  in  it 
about  twelve  years  B.C.  In  the  .middle  ages  it 
was  early  distinguished  by  its  tra^e ;  and  having 
purchased  its  freedom  from  the  dukes  of  Suabia,  it 
rapidly  rose  in  importance.  At  the  end  of  the  14th 
century  Augsburg,  Nuremberg,  and  some  other 
cities  in  Southern  Germany,  hiui  establishmenta  in 
Venice,  and  carried  on  a  very  extensive  trade  with 
Italv,  the  Levant,  and  the  rest  of  Germany.  The 
famdy  of  the  Fuggers,  probably  the  richest  and 
most  extensive  merchants  of  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries,  and  who  afterwards  became  princes  of 
the  empire,  were  originally  simple  burghers  of  this 
city,  weavers  by  trade,  and  though  the  most 
celebrated,  they  were  not  its  only  citizens  who 
attained  to  almost  regal  opulence  and  power. 
Augsburg  declined,  partly  in  consequence  of  the 
prolonged  wars  of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  but 
more,  perhaps,  from  the  change  in  the  channels  of 
commerce,  occasioned  by  the  discovery  of  the  route 
to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  rise 
of  other  emporiums.  Latterly  it  has  improved 
considerablv. 

Augsburg  has  been  the  theatre  of  many  important 
events.  At  a  diet  held  nithin  its  walls---in  an 
ancient  building  still  standing,  called  the  *  Resi- 
dence'^-on  the  25th  of  June,  1530,  the  famous 
Confession  of  Faith,  drawn  up  by  Melancthon  and 
subscribed  by  the  Protestant  prince*,  was  pub- 
licly read  before,  and  presented  to,  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  This  celebrated  document  has  thence 
been  called  the  Augsbuig  Confession.  Here,  also, 
the  interim,  or  provisional  edict,  was  published  by 
Charles  V.  in  1548;  and  here,  in  1555,  was  con- 
cluded the  peace  which  assured  the  full  enjovment 
of  their  rights  and  liberties  to  the  Protestants.  • 
Augsbuig  continued  to  be  a  free  city  till  1806, 
when  it  was  cexled  by  Napoleon  to  Bavaria.  It  is 
now  the  cap.  of  Suabia,  one  of  the  eight  provinces 
of  the  kingdom. 

AUGUSTA,  a  city  of  the  U.  Sutes,  E.  frontier 
Georgia,  on  the  Savannah  river,  by  which  it  is 
separated  fn>m  Hamburgh  in  S.  Car^>lina;  123  m. 
NNW.  Savannah,  138  m.  WNW.  Charleston,  lat, 
33°  33'  N.,  long.  H(P  46'  W.    Pop.  13,2©0  in  I860. 


266 


AUGUSTINE  (ST.) 


The  dty  is  situated  on  an  elevated  plain ;  stieets 
wide,  and  intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles ; 
hooscs  brick,  many  of  them  being  spacious  and 
elegant.  It  has  a  city  hall,  court-house,  theatre, 
academy,  hospital,  with  numerous  places  for  pub- 
lic worship ;  a  medical  college,  and  a  college  for 
Methodisto.  Augusta  has  a  considerable  transit 
trade,  particularly  in  the  conveying  of  cotton  to 
Savannah  and  Charleston,  but  which  suffered 
much  during  the  dvil  war  in  the  United  States, 
1861-^,  during  the  whole  of  which  Uie  city  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Confederate  government,  and  cut 
off  from  all  intercourse  with  the  Northern  States. 

Augusta,  a  town  of  the  U.  States,  cap.  Maine, 
on  the  Kennebec,  168  m.  NE.  Boston.  Pop.  in 
1810,  1,805;  in  1880,  3,980;  and  in  1860,  10,000. 
It  is  a  finely  situateid  town,  and  has  been,  since 
1882,  the  scat  of  the  legislature  and  government 
of  the  state.  The  river,  which  is  thus  far  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  100  tons,  is  here  crossed  by  a 
bridge  of  two  arches,  each  180  fK  in  span. 

AUGUSTINE  (ST.),  a  town  and  sea-port  of  the 
U.  States,  £.  coast  of  Florida,  lat.  29°  52'  N.,  long. 
81®  26'  W.  Prexdously  to  the  acquisition  of  Flo- 
rida by  the  U.  States,  this  was  a  place  of  some 
importance,  contained  from  4,000  to  5,000  inhab., 
and  was  ddfended  by  a  fort.  But  it  has  since  de- 
clined, principally  in  consequence  of  the  badness 
of  its  port.  The  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  latter 
has  not  more  than  8  or  9  ft.  water  at  high  spring 
tides,  and  at  low  water  not  more  than  5  n.,  which 
at  times  makes  it  impossible  even  for  boats  to  pass  ' 
in  or  out.  A  lighthouse,  on  the  N.  end  of  Anastasia 
Island,  with  a  fixed  light,  marks  the  entrance  to 
the  port.  (Blunt's  American  Coast  Pilot,  p.  243.) 

AULENDORFF,  a  market-town  of  WUrtem- 
beig,  drc  Danube,  12  m.  SSW.  Biberach  (Bib- 
erach,  on  the  railway  from  Ulm  to  the  lake  of 
Constance).  Pop.  1,1 05  in  1861.  It  is  beautifully 
situated,  and  has  a  castle,  partly  Roman,  with  a 
fine  mcture  gallery. 

AULETTA,  a  town  of  Southern  Italv,  prov. 
Salerno,  on  a  hill,  near  the  Negro,  86  m.  LS£.  8a- 
lema  Pop.  8,548  in  1862.  This  town  is  very 
ancient,  having  been  founded  by  a  Greek  colony. 

AULONA,  or  VALONA  (an.  Auhmj,  a  sea-port 
town  of  Turkey  in  Europe^  prov.  Albania,  cap. 
Sanjiack,  near  the  mouth  of  tne  Adriatic,  on  the 
£.  Bide  of  a  gulf  of  the  same  name,  54  m.  ENE. 
Otranto,  in  Italy,  lat  40°  27'  15"  N.,  long.  19© 
26'  20"  E.  Pop.  estimated  at  6,000,  oonsistmg  of 
Turks,  Christians,  and  Jews  banished  from  An- 
cona,  by  Pope  Paul  lY.  Though  verv  ancient,  it 
has  few  or  no  remains  of  antiquity.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Turks  from  the  Venetians  in  1691 ;  and 
the  only  good  houses  of  which  it  has  to  boast, 
were  built  by  the  latter.  It  ia  defended  by  a 
castle.  The  Gulf  of  Aulona  has  at  its  mouth  the 
small  islimd  of  Sassino,  which  serves  as  a  natural 
breakwater,  protecting  it  from  the  heavv  seas  that 
would  otherwise  be  thrown  in  from  the  W.  and 
N  W.  There  is  deep  water  on  each  side  the  island, 
and  within  the  gulr  expands  into  a  fine  basin  with 
excellent  anchoring  ground.  The  country  round 
Aulona  is  exceedingly  fertile ;  but  it  is  very  un- 
healthy in  summer,  when  the  town  is  nearly  de- 
serted by  the  inhabitants. 

AUMALE,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Seine  Infi^ 
rieure,  cap.  canton,  on  the  Bresle,  14  m.  ENE. 
NeuchateL  Pop.  2,134  in  1861.  The  town  has 
manufactures  of^  coai»e  cloth  ;  some  good  mineral 
sources  are  in  the  neighbourhood.  Henry  IV. 
¥ras  wounded  in  an  action  with  the  Spanianls 
under  the  Prince  of  Parma,  on  the  bridge  of  this 
town,  in  1592. 

AUKAY,  a  sea-port  town  of  France,  dep.  Mor- 
bihan,  cai>.  cant.,  on  the  Auray,  11  m.  W.  Vannes, 


AURUNGABAD 

on  the  railway  firom  Vannes  to  L'Orient  Pop. 
8,969  in  1861.  The  town  is  built  on  the  decli- 
vity of  a  hill;  the  town-house  and  the  parish 
church  are  worth  notice.  Vessels  of  small  burden 
come  up  to  the  town ;  but  its  port  lower  down  is 
accessible  to  vessels  of  considerable  burden,  and  it 
has  a  good  deal  of  coasting  trade.  Charles  of 
Blois  was  killed  and  Dtiguesclin  made  prLioucr  in 
a  battle  fought  hero  in  1364. 

AURICH,  a  town  of  Hanover,  cap.  W.  Fries- 
land,  15  m.  NE.  Emdcn,  Pop,4,712inl8Gl.  The 
town  is  the  seat  of  the  provincial  government,  a 
chancellery,  and  a  Protestant  consistor\\  It  has 
three  churches,  a  coUege,  and  a  gymnasium,  with 
fabrics  of  tobacco,  p^ier,  and  pijics. 

AURILLAC,  a  town  of  France,  cap.  dep.  Can- 
tal,  on  the  Jordane,  147  m.  E.  Bordeaux,  on  the 
railway  from  Bordeaux  to  Lyons.  Pop.  10,936  in 
1861.  The  town  is  built  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill, 
and  between  it  and  the  river  is  the  agreeable  pro- 
menade, called  Le  Gravier,  Though  generally  well 
built,  it  is  gloomy  and  disagreeable :  tlie  8tref  ts  arc 
narrow,  crooked,  and  ill  paved,  but  well  watereil  and 
clean.  It  was  formerlv  surrounded  by  wnlls.  an<l 
defended  by  a  castle ;  but  excepting  a  part,  of  the 
latter,  the  rest  of  its  fortifications  have  been  de- 
molished. The  college  is  the  laigest  of  the  public 
buildings:  the  hotel  of  the  prefect,  the  town- 
house,  and  the  church  of  St.  Giraud,  belonging  to 
the  ancient  monastery  to  which  the  town  owe8  its 
foundation,  deserve  notice.  There  is  a  lianditomc 
brid|7e  over  the  river.  Aurillac  has  tribunals  of 
original  iurisdiction  and  of  commerce ;  a  theatre, 
a  public  library  containing  6,000  volumes,  a  society 
of  agriculture,  a  cabinet  of  natural  hist«>r>',  and  a. 
depot  de  chevaux,  or  haraa.  It  is  an  industrious 
town,  and  has  manufactures  of  paper,  lace,  and 
tapestiy.  Piganiol  de  la  Force,  the  author  of  a 
'Description  CU^>graphique  et  Histr^riquo  de  la 
France  (Paris,  1752-53,  15  vols.  12mo.),  was  bom 
here  in  1673.  Carrier,  infamous  for  his  atnxnties 
during  the  revolution,  was  also  a  native  of  this 
place. 

AURIOL,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Bouches  du 
Rhone,  on  theVeaume,  15  m.  ENE.  Mareeillea. 
Pop.  5,047  in  1861.  The  town  has  manufactures 
of  wool  and  tapestry,  and  in  the  ncighlM>urhood 
are  valuable  coal  and  copper  mines.  A  good  trade 
is  carried  on,  and  well  frequented  fairs  are  held  on 
the  18th  September,  3rd  October,  and  the  6th  of 
December,  for  hogs,  mules,  grain,  and  cloth. 

AURUNGABAD  {the  fiact  of  the  throne),  a 
large  marit.  prov.  of  the  Deccan,  Hindoston,  com- 
prised partly  in  the  British  dominions  (presid. 
Bombay),  and  parti v  in  those  of  the  Nizam ;  prin- 
cipally between  18^  and  21°  N.  lat.,  and  129  and 
7<o  L,  long.;  having  N.  the  provs.  Gujrat,  Caii- 
deish,  and  Berar,  £.  Beedcr,  S.  Bejapoor,  and 
W.  the  Indian  Ocean.  Surface  vcr>'  irregular, 
and  in  general  mountainous,  especially  toward 
the  W.,  where  the  Ghauts  attain  a  considerable 
hdght.  That  part  of  the  prov.  E.  of  the  Western 
Ghauts  is  a  table-land  rarelv  less  than  1,800  ft. 
above  the  sea,  and  often  much  more :  it  abounds 
with  natural  fortresses  and  strongholds.  There 
are  no  rivers  of  any  size ;  the  Ncera,  Beeraa,  and 
Godavery  rise  within  tliis  prov.,  but  acquire  no 
magnitude  until  after  they  have  left  it :  the  two 
former  streams  unite  in  marking  the  SW.  boun- 
dary. The  climate  b  particularly  favountble  for 
the  production  of  European  fruits,  which  arrive  at 
greater  perfection  than  in  any  other  part  of  ln<iia, 
especially  the  peach,  grape,  and  strawlierr>' ;  nec- 
tarines, figs,  and  mdons  are  excellent ;  but  the 
oranges  arc  inferior  to  those  of  Sylhet  and  l'i|>- 
porah.  The  gardens  and  fields  around  the  villages 
are  very  generally  inclosed  by  hedges  of  prickly 


AURUNGABAD 

pear  and  milk-plant ;  rice  is  the  grain  most  culti- 
vated Great  numbers  of  horses  for  the  Maharatta 
cavalry  were  formerly  reared  on  the  banks  of  the 
Neera  and  Beema;  Uiey  are  a  hardy  breed,  but 
neither  strong  nor  handsome.     The  inhab.  are 
chiefly  Maharattas ;  but  the  prov.  is  comparatively 
thinly  peopled,  especially  toward  the  NE. :    the 
Mohammedans  are  to  the  Hindoos  onlv  as  1  to 
20.    Aurungabad  has  thirteen  subdivisions,  and 
contains  the  cities  of  Bombay,  Poonah,  Aurunga- 
bad, and  Soolapoor.    The  bazaars  of  its  laiger 
towns  are  cheerful  and  enlivening  enough,  but  the 
streets  of  its  smaller  ones   extremely  dull  and 
gloomy,  from  the  absence  of  windows  facing  towards 
them.    The  religious  edifices  are  distinguished  by 
manv  peculiarities  from  those  of  the  prov.  both 
of  >f.  and  S.  India;  the  portico  is  often  nearly 
as  large  as  all  the  rest  of  the  building,  and  in 
some  towns  the  pagodas  are  either  twelve-sided 

{)yramids  or  souare  buildings  surmounted  by  a 
aige  cupola.  Many  remarkable  antiquities  exist 
in  this  prov. ;  as  the  temples  and  caves  at  Salsette, 
Klcphanta,  Carlee,  Ellora,  &c.  Until  the  destruc- 
tion of  Maharatta  power,  in  1818,  plundering  by 
land  and  piracy  by  sea  prevailed  much  in  and 
round  this  prov.,  the  greater  part  of  which,  for 
some  time  previously  to  that  year,  was  subject  to 
the  Peishwa.  Aurungabad  was  also  the  great 
source  of  the  predatory  bands  that  devasted  Hin- 
dostan  for  more  than  a  century ;  though,  after  the 
overthrow  of  the  IVlaharattas,  it  became  one  of  the 
quietest  and  most  orderly  portions  of  the  penin- 
sula. Tlie  construction  of  a  line  of  railway,  con- 
necting the  city  of  Aurungabad  with  Bombay, 
has  greatly  tended  to  the  increase  of  trade  and 
commerce,  and  the  general  prosi>erity  of  the  inha- 
bitants. This  prov.  was  formerly  caUed  Ahmed- 
nuggur,  and  afterwards  Dowletabad,  from  the 
cities  so  named  being  in  turn  its  capitals,  under 
two  dynasties  previously  to  a.d.  1635 :  at  which 
period  Shah  Jehan  finally  conquered  and  annexed 
It  to  the  Mogul  empire.  The  seat  of  government 
was  then  transferred  from  Dowletabad  to  Gurka, 
which  town  becoming  the  favourite  residence  of 
Aurungzebe,  acquired,  as  well  as  the  prov.,  its 
modem  appellation. 

Aurungabad,  a  city  of  the  Deccan,  Hindostan, 
cap.  prov.  of  same  name,  within  the  dom.  of  the 
Nizam,  and  the  head-quarters  of  a  battalion  of  his 
army  under  British  officers.  It  is  built  in  a  hol- 
low on  the  banks  of  the  Kowlah,  a  tributarv  of 
the  Gwlaverv,  in  19©  64'  N.  lat,  and  75°  33'  E. 
long.,  275  m.  NW.  Hyderabad,  180  m.  ENE.  Bom- 
bay, and  140  ra.  NE.  Poonah,  with  a  station  on 
the  railway  from  Nagpoor  to  Bombay.  Pop.  esti- 
mated at  60,000.  Aurungabad  was  once  highly 
flourishing,  and  the  favounte  residence  of  Aurung- 
zcIhj,  but  now,  in  great  part,  presents  an  appearance 
of  decay  and  ruin ;  though,  at  a  distance,  its  lofty 
minarets,  laige  white  domes,  and  terraced  houses, 
give  it  an  imposing  character.  The  wall  which 
surrounds  it,  though  capable  of  affording  protec- 
tion from  pr»dator\'  bodies,  is  lower  than  such  walls 
u.sually  are.  The  streets  are  broad,  especially  the 
principal  bazaar,  which  is  2  m.  in  length,  and  lias 
at  one  extremity  a  spacious  quadrangle,  with  a 
handsome  modem  market:  some  few  streets  are 
paved.  There  are  many  large  and  good  houses  ; 
and  the  public  buildings,  mosques,  and  caravan- 
serais, are  superior  to  those  usually  met  with  in 
native  cities,  and  interai)er8ed  with  numerous  gar- 
dens, groves,  and  fountains.  The  shops  are  sup- 
plied with  the  goods  of  both  India  and  Europe ; 
but  there  is  not  much  commercial  activity.  'The 
only  structures  worthy  of  notice  are  the  royal 
l)alace  of  Aurungzebe,  which  covers  a  large  space 
of  ground,  but  is  now  fast  mouldenng  away ;  and 
VOL.  I. 


AUSTRALASIA 


267 


a  mausoleum  erected   by  that   monarch   to   a 
favourite  wife,   an    octagonal   building   with  a 
cupola  and  four  minarets,  constracted    on    the 
model  of  the  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra :  the  inclosure 
surrounding  it  contains  perhaps  thirty  acres  of 
land  laid  out  in  gardens.    The  principal  suburb  is 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  and  connected 
with  the  city  by  two  substantial  stone  bridge. 
Toward  the  N.  there  is  a  large  marshy  tract  of 
ground  cultivated  with  rice,  and  near  the  Delhi 
gate  is  a  considerable  tank,  now  overgrown  with 
weeds ;  from  which  circumstances,  combined  with 
its  low  situation  and  ruinous  state,  this  city  is  de- 
cidedly unhealthy.    It  is,  however,  by  reason  of 
its  position,  well  supplied  with  good  water,  con- 
veyed thither  in  stone  conduits  from  the  neigh- 
bouring hills,  and  distributed  by  earthen  pipes 
into  stone  reservoirs  in  every  quarter.  The  climate 
is  subject  to  great  and  sudden  alterations:  for 
one-third  part  of  the  year  E.  winds  prevail,  and 
the  tliermometer  ranges  from  60*^  to  86°  Fahr. ;  for 
the  rest  of  the  year  WSW.  winds  are  the  moat 
common,  the  thermometer  often  rising  to  100^. 
Tropical  fruits  of  all  kinds  are  produced  in  abun- 
dance, and  the  grapes  and  oranges  are  scarcely 
inferior  to  those  of  Europe.    The  military  cantoit- 
ments  are  in  a  salubrious  snot  about  a  mile  SW. 
the  city.  Aurungabad  was  originally  named  Gorka, 
and  becramc  the  seat  of  the  provincial  government 
after  the  Mogul  conquest  in  a.d.  1634. 

AUSPITZ,  or  Hustopetsch^  a  town  of  the  Aus- 
trian empire,  Moravia,  circ  Brilnn,  belonging  to 
Prince  Lichtenstein.  Pop.  3,113  in  1858.  The 
neighbourhood  is  famous  lor  its  wine. 

AUSTERLITZ,  a  small  seignorial  town  of  Mo- 
ravia, circ  Brilnn,  on  the  Lattawa,  13  m.  S£. 
BrUnn.  Pop.  3,452  in  1858.  The  town  has  a 
magnificent  castle  and  gardens.  In  the  vidnitv 
of  this  town,  on  the  2nd  of  December,  1805,  took 
place  the  famous  battle  that  bears  its  name  be- 
tween the  French  army  under  Napoleon,  and  the 
combined  Russian  and  Austrian  armies  under  their 
respective  emperors.  The  battle  of  Austerlitz  was 
followed  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  signed  on  the 
26th  of  December. 

AUSTLE  (ST.),  a  m.  town  and  par.  of  England, 
CO.  Cornwall,  hund.  Powder,  on  the  declivity  of  a 
hill,  at  the  bottom  of  which  is  a  small  rivulet,  248 
m.  WSW.  London,  14  m.  NNE.  Truro.  The  par. 
contains  11,540  acres,  and,  according  to  the  census 
of  1861,  had  11,893  inhab.,  and  the  town  3,825 
inhab.  It  is  situated  about  2  m.  from  St.  Austle*s 
Bav,  and  is  connected  by  a  railway  with  the  port 
of  i'entewan,  and  also  with  the  port  of  Charleston. 
It  has  a  good  church,  but  the  streets  are  narrow 
and  inconvenient,  many  of  them  being  unpaved. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  most  considerable  of  the  stan- 
nary courts ;  but  it  owes  its  entire  consequence  to 
the  Polgooth  and  Crennis  tin  and  copper  mines, 
and  the  soap-stone  quarri^  and  china-clay  works 
in  its  immediate  vicmity.  The  pilchard  fishery  is 
also  prosecuted  to  a  considerable  extent  in  St, 
Austle's  Bay.  The  extension  of  the  mines  and 
clay-works  has  been  such  that  the  population  of 
the  parish  has  more  than  trebled  since  1801,  it 
having  then  amounted  to  only  3,788.  About  5,000 
tons  of  soap-stone  and  7,000  tons  of  china-clay 
are  annually  shipped  from  Charleston  and  Pente- 
wan,  principally  tor  the  potteries. 

AUSTRALASIA,  a  ^reat  division  of  the  globe, 
lying  S.  and  SE.  of  Asia. 

It  was  for  a  lengthened  period  supposed  that 
the  different  points  of  land  that  were  dL^^overed 
in  the  Southern  Ocean,  to  the  S.  of  the  islands  of 
Java  and  Celebes,  and  of  the  Cape  of  Good'  Hope 
and  Cape  Horn,  belonged  to  or  formed  parts  of  a 
vast  flouthem  continent,  to  which  the  name  of 

S 


258 


AUSTEALASIA 


Terra  Auttralis  waa  ffivpn.  The  existence  of  this 
great  continent  was  inferred,  not  merely  from  the 
fliflooverv'  of  lonpthoncil  jwirtions  of  f«>ast,  hut  also 
on  theon-liral  jjrounds,  it  iK'inj:^  Hiii»poaed  to  l>e 
nf*tH.'s,sar}'  a?  a  coiuitcqioise  to  the  vast  extent  of 
land  r«»un(l  the  An.'tie  ])i»le.  (HL*t<»ire  des  Na\'ifra- 
tinns  aiix  Terres  Anstrales  i.  13.)  IJut  as  (his 
Terra 


but  thev  are  verv  inconsiderable,  not  more  than 
40  or  r>0  m.  in  width  and  depth  ;  and  for  the  rfi^t, 
thoujrh  wme  of  them,  as  Tort  l*hili|)  on  the  S.. 
and  Van  Dimiens  (lulf  on  the  W..  an*  l:iri;»\ 
when  re|Lj:arded  as  harlxuirs,  they  an^  iiisi^iilifant 
if  considered  as  hn-akhi^  the  continuity  of  the 


c«)a-*t.     The  sixnw  r^m:irk  aj»i»lics  to  sn«-h  ip.lct>  as 

Aiistralifi  was  Kn|»iM)se<l   to  extend    quite  I  Kin^  Cleorj^e's  Sound,  Wt-steni  Port,  ('«>nn'r  I nh't, 

the  trIolK*,  the  oxjKHliency  <»f  Mulxlividhij;  it  i  &o.,  on  the  S.,  or  to  the  Twofold  Hay,  .Icn-i'<  I»ay, 

"     "       IJotanv  IJav,  Port  .lacks<in.  &e.  on  the  K.    It  mav 

•  •  • 

be  obst'rN'ed,  to<»,  that  these  j>ort."»  and  harlxiur^  are 
nunu*nms  only  on  the  K.  and  N.  J«horos ;  a  very 
con.si«Ierable  f>ortion  of  thus**  on  th<'  S.  and  W. 
iK'injr  quite  unbroken.  CFliiidcrs,  i.  lO-'i'io:  Kinj^, 
ii.  l.V.)-17H:  Ausrralian  Director}'.  .SO,  :;i.  Ar.) 

Hut  the  most  remarkable  leatuR'  in  th<'  Aw*- 
tralian  coast  is  the  total  absenee'of  «iutlets  for  any 
larj^o  rivers.  So  <'amplete  is  this,  that  after  Flin- 
ders'survey  (in  lSOl-.*{)  Imrl  established  the  fael, 
a  Indief  b-caine  i»rotty  ^<Mienil  that  the  whoh» 
land  w;is  fenced,  at  ni>  i^reat  dista»ice  from  the 
coast,  I)V  a  continuous  niountnin  rid;j:e ;  on  the 
inner    side«   of    wliii-h    the   prinei|»al   rivers   bad 


into  smaller  portions  l)ecame  eWilent:  and  the 
learned  President  de  Krosses,  in  his  exwllent  work 
referreil  to  al>ove,  sujj^jfested  that  that  jiortion  of  it 
to  the  S.  of  Asia  slutuld  Ik*  calle<l  Avstrahxia^ 
that  to  the  S.  of  America  Magelhinicti,  and  that  to 
the  S.  of  the  Pacific  CKt-aii  PoJ^nrsitu  from  the 
inmilter  of  its  islands.  (Navifjations  aux  Terres 
Austniles,  i.  80.)  The  discoveries  of  Omk  an«l 
«)ther  mwieni  navi«^tors  have  shown  that  there  is 
but  little  ^lund  for  thinkini;  that  there  is  any 
continent  S.  of  America.  Ihit  the  appropriateness 
of  the  namea  given  by  De  Rrosses  to  the  other 
)M>rtions  of  the  Terra  Auslralis  have  Ix-en  ver>' 
pjneraily  acknowledgi^l.    And  with  the  exception 


of  the  usual,  although  incorrect,  conver>i«»n  of  their  sources,  tlowiiii^  iuwanlly  to  a  jrr»'af  internal 
Australaj^ia  into  Au*ttra1ia.  and  the  extension  <»f  lake  or  m<'<Iitern»neau  sea.  Wild  as  this  hy|io- 
the  latter  a  little  farther  to  the  K.  than  De  Ilnjsses  '  thesis  may  now  ap|i«'ar,  it  rec«'ived  some  coim- 
hod  prol>ably  in  view,  his  definitions  are  now  uni-  j  tenancefromtheearli<'rresuItsof  int(  riordiseoscry, 
von*ally  a<h»pte<l.  It  is  not,  however,  verj' e.osy  to  ;  thou^jjh  it  was  unwarranteil  by  th<?  aecouiii**  on 
assign  the  precise  limits  of  Australasia,  mingling  j  which   it  was  founded,  an«l  has  I)e<'n  com|ilet<'ly 


as  it  <loej»  with  the  Polynesian  Lslan<ls  towanls  the 
XE.,  an<l  with  tho>e  of  the  Indian  arehijKdago 
towards  the  N W. :  physical  rather  than  i>urely 
geographical  considerations  dictate  the  demarca- 
tion. 

S.  of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  Australasia  ex- 
tends from  the  113th  to  tne  IHOtli  meridian. 

Between  the  tropic  and  11°  S.  lat.,  from  the 
113th  to  the  170th  meridian. 

Between  11°  and  5°  S.  lat.,  frem  the  lOr^th  t<» 
the  Kioth  mendian. 

Between  IP  and  Ijo  S.  lat.,  fn.>m  the  131st  to 
the  l«>Oth  meridian. 

Between  1^°  S.  lat.  and  the  equator,  from  the 
liMOth  to  the  l.')Oth  meridian. 

Within  these  Ihnits  an-,  ineludetl  the  c<»ntinent 
of  Austndia.  formerlv  calletl  New  Holland,  and 
the  islan<Is  of  Tasmania  <»r  Van  Diemen's  l^and. 
New  Zealand,  New  Cale<lonia,  New  Hebrides, 
Queen  (.Charlotte's  Islands,  S<»lomon's  Arehii)elag(», 
New  Britain,  New  Ireland,  New  Hanover,  Achni- 
ralty  Isle-s.  and  Papua  or  New  Guinea.  In  the 
subjoined  description  the  continent  of  Australia  is 
more  particularly  treated.  New  Zealand  and  Tas- 
mania or  Van  Diemen's  Land  l>eing  lef>  t^)  special 
articles.  Sec  Van  Diemex's  Land  and  Zeal-vxd, 
Nkw. 

The  continent  of  Australia  lies  iK-tween  10°  39' 
and  3JK>  IIV  S.  lat.,  and  exten<ls  fnun  11. "JO  ;V  to 
li>30  IG'  K.  long.  In  form  it  Ls  verj'  comjiact;  its 
greatest  length,  from  W.  to  K.,  In^tween  Dirk 
llartoy's  Point  and  Sandy  (.'a]>e,  being  2.400  ni.. 
its  greatest  width,  from  N.  to  S.,  between  CajX' 
York  and  Ca|K»  Wilson,  1,5)71  m.  Its  average 
length  and  width  may,  perhaps,  be  estimated  .at 
l,i<on  and  I,700  m.  respectively;  its  coast-line  at 
7,7."jO  m.  ;  and  its  area  is  estimate*!  at  alwut 
.3,000,000  sq.  m.  (Flinders'  Charts,  Voyage,  i.  '1'1\, 
ii.  K  ptusim ;  King,  ii.  1 78,  et  pasm. ;  Picture  of 
Australia,  11.) 

Skktcii  of  Ai:sTnAi.iA. —  0>ast, — In  compari- 
gon  with  the  outline.s  of  Kunipc  and  A^ia,  and 
the  K.  seaboan!  of  Ameri<*a,  Austndia  mav  l>e 
reganle«l  as  almost  iron-Iiound,  It  |M»ssesses  <»nlv 
three  large  indi'Utations,  namely,  Cambriilg**  (iuif 
and  th*'  (Julf  of  CaqK'ntaria  on  the  N.,  and  .*Npen- 
cer's  Gulf  on  the  S.  Sluirk's  Bay  on  the  W.  and 
llervey's  Bay  on  the  E.  are  the  next  lai^'st, 


disprove«l  by  more  n'cent  and  more  accurate 
investigation.  The  S.  ccijist.  tlirough  a  leni^^h  of 
m<»re  than  20^.  fn»m  Cape  Leuwin  to  S|>ejiii'r*s 
(lUlf,  is  generally  low  and  sandy,  with  <inly  here 
an«l  there  M»me  eminences,  and  scan-ely  an\"\\  here 
exhibiting  a  liigh  inland  «'ountry.  (Flimlers'Chan-s, 
2-4.  Vov.  i.  4*.»-2.Vi.)  On  the  E.,  imU'ed.  a  nintrc 
of  mountains  rises  at  no  great  distanee  from  the 
coast,  extendijig  fn>m  tlui  S.  extremity  of  the  c»»n- 
tinent  as  far,  .at  le.'ist,  as  the  2»'»rh  parallel,  and 
most  probably  as  far  as  Caiw  Y'ork,  on  Torres 
Stniits,  the  most  n'mote  |>«>int  of  the  mainlaml 
towanls  the  N.  (Ailm.  Ch.  Flinders,  ii.  l-7«"i; 
King.  i.  ir,r>-24n;  Bli«rh's  Nar.  \^\-\\\\)  But  on 
the  N.  shons  a  m<MU»tain.  not  hi:xh<'r  than  the 
nuLst  of  a  >l«»f)p.  is  noticed  by  Flinder>  as  tlu"  high- 
est point  of  ground  seen  by  him  in  a  nm  of  17.'> 
l«»agjies  along  tlie  coiist.  (V<iy;ige.  ii.  i;M.)  \sow 
lev<'Is,  with  only  here  and  tliere  some  tie  vat  ions 
of  no  great  duiracter.  mark,  also,  the  shore  W.  of 
Caq>entaria.  as  far  as  Cai)e  L«  mi  <  ion  deny,  when* 
the  land  U-gins  to  tend  towards  the  SW..  forming 
the.  (.'anibridge  Gulf.  TIu'  coast  continues  running 
south-west  till  the  mouth  of  the  Vietoria  river, 
discovered,  in  1KJ1».  by  Capt.  Wickham,  and  then 
again  turns  n<»rthward  up  to  Viui  Diemen's  (iulf 
and  Melville  Isl.ind. 

Intvrhr. — Frem  what  has  been  s;iid,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  readiest  means  for  the  invtsf  igat  ion  <;f 
a  stranjre  conntrv,  that  is.  extensive  cn-eks.  inland 
seas,  and  navigable  rivers,  are  want  nig  \i\  tlm 
Manil  of  an«»malies.'  Its  interior  rec«*>ses  had  to 
1k!  explored,  if  at  all,  by  land  travellin.;;  an<l  to 
this  then".  a|»i)eared.  al  first,  to  exist  an  uneon- 
(|m'nible  barrier.  The  lirst  settlers  <in  the  I'.,  voii^t 
f(»und  their  horizon  lM>nnth'd  towards  the  W.  bv  a 
dark  and  rugged  chain  of  mountains  whieh  ro'-e 
at  no  verv'  great  distaiu'c  from  the  sea,  and  to 
cn>ss  which  the  e.irlier  attcinpt,s,  thongli  ma«!e  by 
parties  of  no  common  skill  and  energy,  com- 
jdetely  and  signallv  failed.  (A.  Cunningham's 
Geog.*  Joum.  ii.  90.)  A  nigged  and  abrupt  as- 
cent, calletl  'Caley's  Bepulse,'  marks  the  limit 
of  the  liwt  adventurer's  t<iur  (Oxhy.  3r..{),  and 
the  efforts  of  Daws,  Tench,  Patterson.  Haking. 
Bass,  and  Bareiller,  though  soum*  of  tln'in  pro- 
ceeiled  a  few  mih'-s  farther  than  Caley.  led  to  im 
useful  rcsidt*    The  aljorigines.  when  (juestioned, 


*■..    ..-- 


t^        *    ^.  ^      S    ^ .    A     i 


AUSTRALASIA 


259 


wore  totally  ipnorant  of  any  opening  in  the  moun- 
tains (A.  C'unn.,  Geog.  Joum.  ii  99) ;  but  they 
Imd  a  tradition  that  mali^ant  spirita  rcsid^ 
there,  andthat  the  country  Ijeyond  was  inhabited 
by  white  men.  In  1813,  however,  after  an  interval 
of  twenty-five  years,  an  extremely  dry  season 
ha^•ing  destroyed  the  minor  vegetation,  and  pro- 
duced a  great  mortality  in  the  iiocks  and  herds, 
Lieut,  Lawson,  Mr.  Blaxland,  and  Mr.  Wont- 
worth  attempted  to  penetrate  the  liithoJto  im- 
penetrable mountain  barrier,  in  the  hope  of  finding 
pasture  and  water  for  the  exhausted  cattle  of  the 
colony.  They  were  so  far  successful  that  they 
gained  a  view  of  an  extensive  country  W.  of  the 
mountains;  but  want  of  provisions  compelling 
them  to  return,  the  honour  of  completing  tne  dis- 
covery was  reser\'ed  for  Mr.  Evans,  the  deputy 
sur\-oyor-gcneral.  (Oxley,  IntrrKi.  7-9;  Sturt,ln- 
t  r<Mi.  73-75.)  The  barrier  once  penetrated,  the  lands 
l)eyond  were  not  left  long  unexplored.  In  the 
fifty  years  that  have  since  passed,  Messrs.  Hume, 
Hovel,  Currie,  Cunningham,  Oxley,  Sturt,  Mit- 
choll,  Landor,  Gregorj',  Stuait,  Bur^e  and  Wills, 
Howitt  and  others,  liave  pashed  their  enquiries  all 
over  the  continent,  lea^•ing  but  small  portions  of 
the  vast  territory  entirely  unknown.  Thus,  an 
area  of  alwve  two  millions  of  stjuare  miles  has 
Iwen  thoroughly  explored  within  a  period  of  little 
more  than  half  a  century:  a  fact  honourable  alike 
to  the  zeal  and  the  industry  of  the  obserN'ers. 

Mountains  and  Plains. — In  the  Old  World,  the 
mountain  ranges,  however  tortuous,  agree  in  gene- 
ral <lirection  with  the  greatest  length  of  the  con- 
tinents in  which  they  lie.  Thus  the  axis  of 
America  nms  N.  an<l  S.  of  the  E.  continent 
(Europe,  Asia,  and  Mrica)  from  NE.to  SW. ; 
but  in  Australia  the  principal  chains,  so  far  as 
observation  has  yet  been  carried,  appear  to  nm 
transversely  to  the  direction  of  the  land;  that  is, 
from  N.  to  S.  The  dLscoveries  of  Major  Mitchell 
have  made  known  a  mass  of  mountain  land,  called 
by  him  tlie  Austcahan  Grampians,  which  com- 
mences near  the  IS.  coast  at  Portland  Bav,  in  lat. 
30O  52'  S.,  long.  W29  25'  E.  The  direction  of 
these  mountains  is  at  first  due  N.,  but  in  lat. 
370  30',  long.  1420  47',  .a  range  of  grassv  hills 
diverges  t<»  the  ENP2.  to  connect  them  with  the 
higliest  manses  yet  seen  in  Australia,  called  by  the 
nativoB  Warragong,  and  by  the  settlers  the  Aus- 
tralian Alps.  The  connecting  range  received  from 
Mit<'hell  the  title  of  Australian  Pyrenees.  The 
Warragongs  may  be  described  as  running  XNE. 
fn^m  near  the  S.  termination  of  the  continent  at 
CajKH  Wilson  as  far  as  35°  20'  S. ;  but  as  high  as 
3<}°  S.  a  chain  of  less  elevation,  called  the  Blue 
Mountains,  brandies  off  from  them,  and  following 
generally  the  direction  of  the  E.  coast  divi<les  the 
E.  and  the  W.  waters.  In  lat.  32°,  long.  150°,  the 
range,  after  tending,  for  some  distance,  a  little  to 
the  \V.  of  N..  sudiienlv  turns  due  E.,  and  under 
the  name  of  the  Liverix)ol  Kange,  runs  in  that 
direction  for  ahnnit  1°  of  long.,  when  it  resumes 
its  northerly  c(»urse;  but  though  it  has  been  traced 
as  low  as  2G°  S.  lat.,  no  name  has  been  bestowed 
\i\HM\  any  part  of  it  l>eyond  the  ]>arallel  of  32°. 
The  highest  peak  in  the  (jrampians  is  Mount 
William,  4,500  ft.  al>ove  the  level  of  the  sea 
(.Mitchell,  ii.  205);  of  the  Pyrenees,  Mount  Oile, 
i»r  Mount  Byng,  pn)l)ably  3,000  ft.  No  measure- 
ments have  l)een  taken  of  the  Warragongs,  but 
as  they  are  covered  with  eternal  snow  (Mitchell, 
ii.  297,  dc. ;  Currie's  Geog.  Mem.  373),  their 
height,  in  tliis  lat.,  cannot  be  estimate<l  at  less 
than  15,000  ft.  The  Blue  Mountains,  so  long  im- 
»a.>isable,  ilo  not  attain  a  great  elevation;  Mount 
ork,  the  highest  jioak,  being  no  more  than  3,292 
ft.,  but  the  valleys  and  plains  in  this  extxaor- 


\ 


dinary  range  occur  extremely  near  the  fmnnnits. 
King^s  table-land  is  2,727  ft.,  the  Vale  of  Clwdd 
2,496  ft,,  ^d  Bathurst  Plains,  1,970  ft.  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  (Oxley's  Bar.  Mea.  P.  Cur.  8vo. 
i  152 ;  Wentworth,  82.) 

The  Liverpool  Range  is  almost  as  difficult  of 
passage  as  the  Blue  Mountains  (A.  Cunningham's 
Geog.  Mem.  152-177);  its  highest  peaks  being 
between  6,000  and  7,000  fu,  and  the  continuatii>n 
of  the  dividing  chain  apparently  still  more  rugged 
and  abrupt.  A  gap  of  the  kind,  called  bv  the 
Spaniards  quebradasy  in  S.  America,  stopped  Oxley 
in  his  journey  from  the  interior  to  the  coast, 
in  1818.  This  ^tremembms  ravine,*  he  describes 
as  being  from  two  to  three  miles  wide  at  top,  and 
3,000  ft.  in  perpendicular  depth;  its  width  at 
bottom  does  not  excee<l  100  or  200  ft.,  and  Ls  the 
bed  of  a  river.  (Journal,  295.)  Sea  View  Hill,  in 
this  part  of  the  range,  Ls  between  6,000  and  7,000 
fU  high ;  but  Oxley  did  not  think  it  the  mo^t 
elevated  ground  in  the  neighbourhood.  (Jour^. 
310.)  Practicable  passes  are,  however,  being  con- 
tinually discovered;  one  over  the  Blue  Mountains, 
near  the  35th  parallel,  was  effected  by  Mr. 
Thorsbv  as  early  as  1819,  and  two  others  by 
Mitchell  since  1830.  (3Iitchell,  L  153 ;  Wentworth, 
81.)  That  over  the  Liverpool  Range,  traversed 
by  Mitchell  in  1831,  which  is  nearly  on  the  meri- 
dian  of  Sidney,  seems  to  be  easier  than  Pandora's 
Pass,  1°  to  the  E.,  crossed  by  A.  Cunningham  in 
1823  (Miteh.  L25;  A.  Cun.,  Geog.  Joum.  179), 
and  breaks  have  been  observed  in  the  more  N. 
mountains,  which  promise  to  be  free  from  those 
difficulties  which  were  well  nigh  the  destruction 
of  Oxley  and  his  party. 

The  W.  moim tains,  viewed  from  the  S.,  consist 
of  three  parallel  ranges,  extending  about  20^  E.  of 
the  llMth  meridian,  and  nmning,  like  the  £. 
chains,  almost  due  N.  through  the  continent.  The 
most  E.,  and  the  highest  of  these  mountains,  rise 
a  few  miles  behind  King  Geoige's  Sound;  the 
second,  called  the  Darling  Range,  commences  at 
Cape  Chatham,  m  35°  S.,  116°  35'  E.,  and  the 
third  and  lowest  is  found  running  close  to  the 
shore  from  Cape  l^uwin.  (Journals  of  Exped.  in 
W.  Australia;  Surveyor-Gen.  Rep.  May  11,  1830.) 
However,  the  first  is  not  a  continuous  range  run- 
ning N.  and  8.,  but  consists  of  two  detached  and 
parallel  chains  extending  longitudinally  and  sepa7 
rated  from  each  other  bv  a  plain  of  considerable 
magnitude.  (Joum.  Dale,  163-167.)  The  W. 
chain,  called  Koikyennuruff,  is  considerably  thd 
higher,  one  of  its  peaks,  Toolbranup,  attaining  th4 
elevation  of  3,000  ft.,  an  altitude  much  exce^ng 
that  of  any  other  mountain  yet  examined  in  \V« 
Australia.  The  S.  chain,  called  Porrungorrup,  if 
not  only  lower,  but  of  much  less  extent,  having 
a  base  of  onlv  13  m.,  while  that  of  the  Koikven- 
numff  is  full  30.  (Joum.  Dale  &  Collie,  161-167, 
139,  173,  <Src.)  The  Darling  Range  is  continuous 
as  far  as  31°  S.,  to  which  dLstance  it  has  been 
explored,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  conclude 
that  it  mns  in  the  same  direction  to  the  X.  coast, 
m  the  neighbourhood  of  Dampier's  Archipelago, 
Capt.  King  (i.  36-53 ;  Adm.  Ch.  NW.  &  W.  Aust, 
vii.)  lays  down  this  coast  as  high  and  rocky, 
though  bounded  to  the  W.  and  £.  by  a  low  sandy 
shore,  that  is,  as  having  all  the  appearance  of  the 
termination  of  a  mountain  chain;  the  high  N, 
coast,  commencing  at  Cape  Preston  in  116°  5'  E.^ 
and  Point  D'Entrecasteaux,  to  which  these  moun- 
tains extend  on  the  S.  shore,  lying  in  116°  1'  E. 
(Flinders'  &  King's  Adm.  Ch.)  The  Darling 
Mountains  average  from  30  to  40  ro.  in  width, 
and  their  greatest  elevation  is  2,000  ft.  It  is  nut 
likely  that  8.  of  the  Slst  pandlel  they  anywhere 
exceicd  this  height.  iJoura.  Preston,  9,  1 1 ;  Dale, 

8  2 


260 


AUSTRALASIA 


81,  83;  Suiv.-Gen.  Rep.  Mar.  22,  1880.)  The 
third  ran^rc,  inontioned  in  tlie  Sur\'eyor-(jeneral'8 
Reixirt,  is  unimiHiitant ;  it  is  probably  continued 
in  Moresby'fi  iiat-Uipped  range,  the  altitude  of 
which  is  about  1,000  ft.  (King,  i.22;  ii.  174, 
Adm.  Ch.)  In  about  fiSP  S.  lat^,  a  rugged  and 
irrc^Iar  succcflHion  of  mountains  branches  off  W. 
from  the  Blue  Mountain  range,  and  appears  like 
the  dividing  line  of  two  great  river  biasiiis.    It 

auickly  divides,  however,  into  groups,  almost 
etached  from  each  other,  to  which  various  names, 
as  Canobolas,  Croker,  Peel,  Macquanric,  Ac  have 
been  given ;  and  farther  W.  the  interior  \»  here 
and  there  studded  with  smaller  knot« ;  but,  as  far 
as  has  been  yet  observed,  only  in  a  belt  of  about 
2°,  namelv,  between  the  parallels  of  31°  and  29°  S. 
The  CanoLolas  is  4,461  ft.  in  height,  an  altitude 
much  exceeding  that  of  the  Blue  Mountains; 
and  the  Marga,  another  po^k  of  the  same  series, 
attains  the  elevation  of  2,1  Of.  ft.  (Mitchell,  i.  162 ; 
ii.  10,  377.)  Isolated  mountains,  which  in  other 
countries  are  rarely  mot  with,  except  in  the  case 
of  volcanoes,  are  common  enough  in  this  new 
land.  Yet  exact  scientific  obeer\'ations  of  nearly 
all  of  them  arc  still  wanting.  Though  the  deserts 
of  even  the  interior  of  the  vast  continent  have 
frequently  been  explored,  the  investigation  of  the 
country,  in  most  instances,  took  place  in  such  a 
hurried  manner  as  to  make  careful  surveys  im- 
possible. The  most  celebrated  of  all  inlantf  expe- 
ditions, the  famous  ride  of  Messrs.  Burke  and  WilLs 
right  across  the  continent^  from  S.  to  X.  and 
hack,  in  1861,  was  so  far  characteristic  of  many 
Australian  explorations,  as  to  l>e  a  fight  witli 
savage  nature  rather  than  a  scientific  investiga- 
tion <»f  her  phenomena.  However,  a  few  of  the^4e 
joumcys  of  exploration  luul  the  most  valuable 
results,  notwithstanding  the  enormous  diihculties 
opposing  them.  Among  the  nunjl)er  were  Leich- 
hardt  s  journey  from  IMoreton  Bay  to  Port  Es- 
singt4>n,  in  18-14-5 ;  Walker's  exi)e<lition  from 
Rock  ham  pt^n,  in  Queensland,  to  the  (riilf  of  Car- 
pentaria, which  he  reachetl  in  Decern berl 86 1 ;  the 
journey  of  M'Kinlay  frt.m  Adelaide  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Albert,  at  the  beginning  of  1 862 ;  and  of 
Stuart  through  the  central  rc^ons  to  the  Cam- 
bridge Gulf,  in  the  summer  of  the  same  year. 
Besides  their  scientific  importance,  all  these  jour- 
neys of  exploration  had  the  immense  value  of 
opening  up  unknown  territories  for  the  white 
settler  aiui  the  track  of  civilisation.  (Oxlcv,  4-77, 
234,  2o8,  261,  275,  Ac;  Sturt,  1 61MJ2 ;  Afitchell, 
i  39,  45,  48,  62,  drc.) 

All  the  usual  formations  are  found  in  the  Aus- 
tralian mountains  (Fitton  King's  Appen.  58M,  ei 
ieq,%  Sturt,i.  197-200,  ii.  249-256 ;  Mitchell,  il 
849-369),  but  they  seem  to  occur  without  onler, 
and  in  defiance  of  all  kno^n  geological  laws  in  the 
Old  WorkL  A  ferruginous  sandstone  forms  the 
Blue  Mountains,  granite  being  rarely  met  with, 
except  when  it  ai){)eiurs  to  have  cracked  the  tliick 
overlying  stnitum.  in  which  case  it  is  found  in  the 
valleys  and  the  IkmLs  of  streams.  (Mitchell,  ii.  349, 
851.)  Westward  this  fundamental  rock  is  some- 
times found  in  mountains  of  limited  extent,  and 
no  i^reat  height,  while  more  important  ranges  in 
their  nciglil)ourh(HKl  present  regular  horizontal 
strata.  (Dale,  167.)  In  the  interior  the  isolated 
hills  are  uniformly  different  in  com{X)sition  fn>m 
the  connected  ranges,  the  latter  being  of  granite, 
the  former  of  sandstone  (Oxley,  77) ;  limestone, 
so  common  in  the  fitrmations  of  the  X.  hemisphere, 
was  unknown  in  Australia  before  1813.  It  was 
first  discovered,  W.  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  in  a 
district,  named  from  it.  Limestone  Creek  (Oxley, 
6)  ;  and  although  it  has  since  been  found  in  other 
parts  of  the  continent,  it  is  far  from  abundant,  and 


presents  little  or  no  appearance  of  stratification. 
(Mitchell,  ii.  348.)  Trap  occurs  in  many  places, 
but  no  h>cation  can  be  assigned  to  it  with  reference 
to  the  position  of  other  rocks,  and  vesicular  lava  is 
abundant  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  only  vol- 
cano discovered  in  Australia.  (Mitchell,  ii.  3.>o.) 
This  volcano,  called  by  Mitchell  (iu  23.>-24(;) 
Mount  Napier,  and  by  the  natives  Murcoa,  lies 
bet^'een  the  Grampians  and  the  S.  coast,  in  lat,  37° 
62'  29"  S.  long,  about  142°  20'  E.  A  bituminous 
burning  hill,  belonging  to  a  low  range  called  Win- 
gen  (the  native  name  for  fire),  a  little  to  the  S.  of 
the  Liverp<K>l  Range,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
great  variety  of  rocks  of  which  it  is  composed. 
The  neighlMHiring  peaks  are  chiefly  poqihvritic; 
but  the  burning  moimt  ittelf  contains  \«ithin  a 
very  short  dL<(tance,  clav,  shale,  argillac(.»ous  sand- 
stone, felsjmr,  basalt,  minstone,  trap,  and  horn- 
blende. (Mitchell,  L  23.)  Whigen  hai*l)een  burn- 
ing ap|)arently  for  a  very  considerable  time,  hut 
no  marks  of  any  extensive  change  appear  on  the 
surface  near  the  burning  fissures.  Ked  heat  is 
found  at  the  depth  of  alxnit  4  fathoms. 

Malte-Bnui  obser\'es,  that  the  remarkable  po- 
larity of  the  principal  mountams  here  dc^irilKnl, 
extends  thn>ughout  the  whole  of  what  he  tcnns 
Oceanica;  and  if  this  be  a  little  strained  with 
regard  to  some  of  the  islands  of  Polynesia  and  the 
Indian  Archi)>elago,  it  is  at  lea.««t  true  with  regard 
to  New  Zealand  and  the  islands  included  in  Aus- 
tralia ProjK'r.  The  same  author  (xii.  8)  conj'oivcs 
the  chain  of  the  Blue  Mountains  to  be  continued 
in  the  islands  of  Bass's  Straits,  and  the  axis  of  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  to  Cai)e  Pillar,  the  S.  t^^rmination 
of  the  latter.  Mitchell  also  (ii.  337)  thhiks  that 
gerdogical  ajipearances  lead  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  two  lands  were  n«»t  always  separated;  and  this 
w  at  least  highly  prol)able,  and  is  supfjorted  by 
similar  appearances  in  the  Old  World :  but  in  the 
words  of  Oxley  (81),  'The  whole  form,  character, 
and  comp<»sition  of  this  country  is  so  singular,  that 
a  conjecture  is  hardly  hazarded  before  it  is  over- 
tume<i,  every  thing  seems  to  run  counter  t<.>  the 
ordinary  course  of  nature  in  other  cvmntries.'  In 
other  lands  the  rocks  and  reefs  that  run  into  the 
sea  determine,  in  many -cases,  the  direction  and 
continuity,  or  otherwise,  of  the  mountain  systems, 
but  the  rocks  and  reefs  of  Atu^tralia  afford  no  sucli 
key  to  the  enquirer;  they  belong  not  to  gcol«»gA-, 
they  are  the  work  of  the  coral  insect,  rising  ptr- 
pendicularly  from  the  depths  of  the  ocean  till  they 
form  ridges  and  islan<ls  above  its  surface,  which 
have  nothing  in  common  with  any  thing  but  them- 
selves. (Flinders,  ii.  113-116.)  Even  the  fact, 
that  the  geology  of  the  ccmtinent  and  its  adjacent 
islands  Ls  similar,  is  not  conclusive,  for  the  nuinU-r 
of  detached  ranges  and  isolated  mountains,  exist- 
ing in  the  former,  ^)repare  the  mind  for  a  much 
more  startling  admission  than  that  the  Van  iYu- 
men  Svstem  may  l)e  wholly  uncoimecte<l  with  that 
of  the  ^lue  ^fountains,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  a  deep  sea,  140  m.  in  average  width. 

Fn)m  the  parallelism  of  the  princij»al  chains  (the 
Blue  Mountains  and  the  Darlings),  it  might  not 
be  unreasonably  supposed  that  the  interior  was  a 
table-land  of  moderate  elevation.  It  has  already 
been  stated  that  early  belief  was  directlv  coiitrarv 
to  tliis;  and  the  course  of  discover^'  has  shown 
both  ideas  to  be  erroneous.  W.  of  the  Blue  Mtmn- 
tains,  a  succession  of  terraces,  commencing  at  a 
great  elevation,  descend  rapidly  to  a  very  low 
leveL  Oxley,  at  a  distance  of  less  than  Hi\  m. 
fn>m  Bathurst,  found  himself  only  600  ft.  alK)vc 
the  sea;  tliatis,  l,370n:.  below  the  town.  (Journal, 
9.)  The  transverse  mountains  divide  levels  ai>- 
parently  intenninable,of  the  most  monotomnis  cha- 
racter, and  with  a  deficiency  of  vegetable  matter, 


AUSTRALASIA 


261 


that,  in    the  opinion  of  Stuit   (u  108)^    arcucs 
piwerfully  for  their  recent  origin.    The  line  of  the 
horizon  is,  in  these  vast  flats,  as  unbroken  as  it  is 
upon  the  surface  of  the  sea;  and  there  is  every 
reason  t«  believe,  not  only  that  they  were  at  a 
comparatively  recent  period  under  water,  but  also 
that  a  very  considerable  portion  of  them  is  flooded 
by  the  overflow  of  the  interior  rivers,  during  wet 
seasons.    The  surface  of  these  plains  is  extremely 
depressed,  and  so  flat  that  the  detached  ranges  and 
isolated  mountains  which  rise  out  of  them,  appear 
like  islands  surrounded  by  an  unbroken  ocean. 
(Oxlcy,  22  et  sea.,  89  et  Mq.,  107,  &c,  273  ;  Sturt, 
i.  144,  &c,  iL  52,  69,  <fec ;  MitcheU,  ii.  67  et  aeq,) 
Rivers  and  Lakes, — The  vicinity  of  the  dividing 
ranges  to  the  coast  prevents  the  accumulation  of 
large  rivers  towards  the  E.  or  W. ;  but  from  the 
fact  of  their  running  more  or  less  through  parallel 
valleys,  these  streams  possess  in  general  a  longer 
cour.ne  than  might  have  been  anticipated.    The 
chief  of  those  that  rise  in  the  filue  Mountains, 
are  the  Murroo,  Clyde,  Shoalhaven,  Ilawkesbury, 
Hunter,  Hastings,  and  Brisbane.  There  is  nothing 
remarkable  in  them,  except  the  fact  that  some  of 
them,  as  the  Shoalhaven  and  Hawkesbury,  not- 
withstanding their  short  courses,  issue  to  the  ocean 
in  noble  bays.    They  possess  few  facilities  for  in- 
ternal na\'igation,  both  as  being  very  shallow,  and 
from  the  tortuous  natiure  of  their  currents.    Some 
of  their  aflluentji  are,  however,  sufficiently  striking. 
ITiey  flow  through  ravines  in  the  sandstone  rocks, 
(»f  from  100  to  3,4(>0  ft.  in  depth,  and  of  such  width 
that  Mitchell  supposes  that  a  mass  equal  to  184 
cubic  m.  must  have  been  removed  from  the  single 
1>asin  of  the  Cox,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the 
Hawkesburj'.    The  Grose,  another  afliuent  of  the 
same  river,  flows  through  a  valley  of  less  extent, 
but  of  more  precipit>ous  character;  so  that  the 
amount  of  stone  displaced  is  probably  not  less  than 
in  the  case  of  the  Cox.     What  adib  to  the  pecu- 
liarity of  this  feature  in  Australian  geography  is, 
that  the  outlets  to  these  stupendous  ravines  are 
generally  vcr>'  narrow ;  the  disposal  of  the  vast 
masses  of  earth  is  therefore  as  mysterious  as  their 
amount  is  marvellous.     (Mitchell,  i.  151,  ii.  351.) 
The  rivers  here  mentioned  have  their  outlets  be- 
tween the  parallels  of  27°  and  SO^S.    Oxley,  in 
1824,  discovered  the  Bovne,   a  nii»id  mountain 
stream,  falling  into  Port  Curtis,  in  lat.  23°  50'  30" 
S.     (Fiehl's  Mem.  7.)     Pummice-stone  Itiver  falls 
into  Morton's  Bay,  in  26°  54'  30"  S.     It  was  dis- 
covered by  Flinders  (IntnxL  cxcvi.) ;  but  in  con- 
sequence of  only  cursorily  sur\eying  the  W.  shore 
of  that  bay,  he  overlooked  the  more  important 
Brisbane,  probably  the  largest  stream  upon  the  E. 
roast.  (Oxlev,  in  Field,  12-23.)   En<leavour  Kiver, 
in  15°  27'  12'^  S.,  is  chiefly  celebrated  as  the  place 
where  Capt.  C<M)k  repaired  his  ship  after  it  hatl  lain 
on  a  coral  reef  for  twenty-eight  hours:  it  has  a 
^\i(le  and  convenient  mouth  ;  but  at  a  verv  short 
distance  inland,  it  becomes  incapable  of  floating 
the  smallest  boat.     (King,  i.  221.)     On  the  \V. 
coast  the  rivers  are  less  niuneroas,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  one  or  two,  less  important.     Bums  or 
bnM)ks  of  excellent  water  are  tolerablv  abundant^ 
and  four  or  five  streams,  such  as  the  titzroy  river, 
discovered  by  Capt.  VVickham,  in  1839,  issue  to 
the  sea  by  very  large  estuaries,  which  seem  like 
the  entrances  of  noble  water-courses :  but  as  they 
all  have  their  sources  in  the  farther  W.  mountain 
raiige^  their  length  Ls  insignificant,  and  they  are 
useless  for  internal  navigati<in.    'fhe  Swan  and 
Canning  which  imite  in  Melville  Water,  near  the 
parallel  of  32°,  are  the  most  notable  rivers  on  this 
portion  of   the  coast,      (Cross's    Journals,    110; 
Irwhi,  7;  Dale,  27,  30,  155;  King,  ii.  167,  191; 
Adm.  Ch.  Erskine,  92.) 


The  X.  shore  ia  nearly  as  destitute  of  river 
mouths.  The  Liverpool  in  134°  15'  E.,  the  Alli- 
gators in  132°  3G',  132°  26',  132°20'E.,  thcHunter 
and  the  Roe  in  125°  27'  E.,  and  Prince  Regent's 
River  in  124°  63'  E.,  were  found  by  Capt.  King  in 
his  hiborious  survey  (1818-19).  Of  these,  the 
largest  (Prince  Regent),  is  not  navigable  forboata 
more  than  60  m.  (including  windings)  from  ita 
mouth ;  but  they  are  all  full  and  wide  streams ; 
and,  like  those  upon  the  E.  and  W.  coasts,  issue  to 
the  sea  by  immense  estuaries,  through  which  the 
tide  rises  sometimes  as  high  as  30  fL  The  Prince 
Regent,  Hunter,  and  Roe,  flow  between  steep 
rocky  hills,  from  300  to  400  ft,  perpendicidar  alti- 
tude ;  the  Liverpool  and  AUigators  through  a 
flat  muddy  soil,  of  the  tamest  and  most  mono- 
tonous description.  (King,  L  99-107,  256-261, 
292-302,  402-413,  433-439.)  In  1839,  Mr.  Fitz- 
maurice,  of  the  *  Beagle,'  discovered  the  Adelaide 
river,  emptying  itself  in  the  Clarence  Straits ;  and 
soon  after  Capt.  Wickham  found  the  Victoria,  the 
noblest  stream  on  the  north-western  coast,  navi- 
gable for  about  60  m.,  and  from  8  to  10  fathoms 
deep  at  the  mouth.  (Howitt,  History  of  Discovery 
in  Australia.)  On  the  S.  coast,  the  Blackwood 
falls  into  Flinders'  Bay  in  116°  10'  E.  long. ;  and 
in  117°  56'  E.,  Oyster  Harbour,  the  N.  part  of  K. 
George's  Sound,  forms  the  large  estuary  of  the 
Kalgan  or  French  river.  At  the  bottom  of  En- 
counter Bay,  in  about  long.  139°  E.,  we  meet  with 
a  river's  mouth  of  puny  dimensions,  and  so  encum- 
bered by  banks  as  to  be  inaccessible  to  vessels  of 
any  considerable  draught  of  water.  But,  how 
unpromising  soever,  this  is  the  embouchure  of  the 
Murray,  by  far  the  most  important  river  hitherto 
discovered  in  Australia,  and  which  afibrds  a  vast 
channel  of  internal  communication.  (See  post.) 
In  1836,  Mitchell  traced  to  its  termination  the 
Glenelg,  a  river  which,  rising  in  the  Grampians, 
falls  into  the  sea  in  141°  17^  E.  about  16  m.  E. 
Cape  Northumberland.  This  is  one  of  the  largest 
coast  rivers  in  Australia :  its  aflluents  are  numer- 
ous, and  its  course,  including  windings,  upwards 
of  130  m.,  though  its  source  be  not  more  than  70 
m.  fn>m  the  sea.  It  is  wide  and  deep,  except  atiU 
mouth ;  but,  like  most  Australian  streams,  it  first 
expands  into  a  considerable  basin,  which,  after- 
wards contracting,  presents  a  very  narrow  outlet 
to  the  sea,  the  entrance  frt)m  which  is  choked  up 
by  sand-banks.  Except  a  few  very  small  streams, 
there  are  no  other  water-courses  on  the  S.  coast. 

Along  a  coast-line  of  nearly  8,000  m.,  there  aife 
thus  not  more  than  thirty  river  mouths ;  and  of 
the  streams  to  which  these  give  egress,  none  have 
a  course  of  more  than  200  m.,  inclusive  of  wind- 
ings, and  but  ver>'  few  penetrate  to  a  direct  dis- 
tance of  50  m.  from  the  shore.  Since  it  Is  evident 
that  these  cannot  drain  1-1 0th  part  of  the  whole 
land,  it  is  not  very  surprising  that  the  lielief  of  an 
internal  lake  or  mediterranean  sea  should  have 
l)een  entertained  by  the  first  enquirers ;  and  though 
this  be  now  proved  to  be  unfounded,  the  hydro- 
graphy of  the  interior  is  scarcely  less  anomalous 
than  such  an  arrangement  M'ould  have  been.  It 
is  difficult  both  to  d^cribe  and  to  comprehend  this 
internal  water  system,  to  which  nothing  bearing 
the  least  resemblance  exists  in  anv  other  part  of 
the  known  world.  Immediately  W.  of  the  Blue 
Mountains,  and  in  the  very  highest  terraces  and 
table-lands,  a  host  of  mountain  streams  combine 
to  form  the  Darling,  the  Macquarrie,  and  the 
I.«achlan,  which,  nearly  on  the  same  meridian  (the 
149th),  tliverge  towards  the  NW.  and  NNW.  in 
their  progress  to  the  interior.  The  course  of  the 
Darling  is  a  ciurved  line,  enclosing  all  tlie  country 
W.  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  from  an  unknown 
point  N.  and  £.  of  the  dOth  parallel  and  148ih 


262 


AUSTRALASIA 


meriilinn  to  its  jiincfion  with  the  Murray,  in  34^7' 
S.,  14'2°3'  E.  In  this  course,  besides  the  iiven» 
already  alludwl  to,  it  receives  the  Began  (New 
Years  Creek  of  Sturt),  and  Huch  part  of  the  waters 
of  tlie  Macnuarrie  as  are  not  absorbed  in  the  soiL 
(Stiut,  i.  8r>-l»6;  iL  106.  116-120;  Mitchell,  I 
218-268,  iL  109-116.)  Conwderablv  farther  S. 
another  large  stream,  the  Momimbidgee,  rises  in 
the  Warragoniipi,  and,  after  recei\'ing  many  short 
but  full  streams  from  tlio  W.  faces  of  the  Blue 
Mountains,  runs  a  very  tortuous  coun«e,  settling 
finally  into  one  varving  but  little  from  due  W. 
Still  'more  to  the  S.,  in  alwut  3/>o  S.  lat.,  the 
Murray,  alreadv  allude<l  to,  issues  from  the  flanks 
of  Mount  Wellington,  the  culminating  point  of 
the  Australian  Alps.  This  great  river  follows 
with  many  windings  a  WTSSV,  course  fn)m  its 
source  through  about  8^  d^rs.  long.,  till,  at  a  point 
in  about  14»Jo  K.  long,  and  34°  S.  lat.,  it  turns 
suddenly  to  the  8.,  and  ultimately  unites  with, 
and  loses  itself  in,  the  large  shallow  lake  of  Alex- 
andrina  at  the  Ijottom  of  Kncouuter  Bay.  In  its 
course  it  receives  the  waters  of  some  very  large 
affluents,  including  the  Momimbidgee  and  I^achlan 
and  the  Darling.  In  the  year  1853  the  Murray  was 
for  the  first  time  na\'igatetl  by  a  steamer  of  40 
horse  power,  having  a  baige  alongside,  for  a  dis- 
tance of  1,800  m.  from  the  sea;  it  is  supposc<] 
that  of  its  entire  course  of  about  8,000  m.,  from 
1,600  to  1.800  m.may  1)e  navigable  for  eight  months 
of  the  year.  (Pari.  Paper,  No.  89,  Sess.  1854.) 
And  if  we  add  to  this  the  navigation  of  its  afflu- 
ents, we  shall  have  an  extent  of  inland  communi- 
cation unequalled,  except  by  that  afiVinled  by  the 
Mississippi  and  other  great  American  rivers. 

It  would  appear,  however,  that  the  flow  of  water 
is  not  nearly  so  equable  in  the  Australian  as  in 
the  American  rivers.    Not^*itlu(tanding  their  great 
length  of  course,  the  former  are  in  general  of  the 
nature  of  mountain  torrents.    Formed  in  the  hills, 
by  the  confluence  of  many  powerful  streams,  they 
rush  from  their  mountain  homes  important  water- 
oourses;  but  quickly  reaching  a  level  country, 
they  become  sluggish  in  their  motion,  excei>t  when 
xof^  by  the  intluence  of  flooding  rains ;  and,  re- 
ceiving few  or  no  tributaries,  their  existence  de- 
pends on  the  magnitude  of  their  sources,  so  that 
they  shoal  and  narrow  as  they  proceed, — an  effect 
exactly  the  reverse  of  anything  ol«er%'ed  in  ol<h»r 
countries.   When  the  moiuitains  are  saturated  viith 
water,  the  be<ls  of  these  streams  become  fully 
charged,  and  then  they  foam  and  thunder  along 
their  track,  till,  ;n  the  flats  of  the  low  coimtn-, 
they  meet  with  some  opposition,  when  (their  banks 
no  longer  able  to  contain  them)  they  spread  to 
the  right  and  left  in  marshes,  of  which  the  over- 
flow finds  its  way  by  insignificant  chaimels  to 
other  streams.    In  dry  seasons,  on  the  contrary, 
these  rivers  dwindle  to*  trifling  brooks,  even  in  the 
mountains,  while,  in  the  plains,  their  wide  and 
deep  beds  become  converted  into  drj'  and  dusty 
chasms.    This  is  the  case  vnth  the  Macquarrie 
and  Lachlan,  which,  issuing  from  the  mountains 
in  large  and  full  streams,  are  lost  in  extensive 
swamps,  which  in  wet  seasons  are  everjmvhere  in- 
undatc<l.     After  a  long-continued  drought,  the 
beds  of  the  rivers  present  a  succession  of  ponds ; 
and  their  marshes,  nearly  or  wholly  drieil,  exhibit 
the  creeks  by  which  their  imi)erfect  communica- 
tion is  kept  up  during  the  imindation  with  the 
Darling  and  Momimbidgee.    (Oxlev,  35-87,  102, 
136,  142,  3H2,  388,  &c;  Sturt,  1 ,36*  38,  62,  148; 
and  Mitchell,  i.  321,  il  32,  771,  &c.)     The  Dariing 
itself,  which  Sturt  found,  in  1830,  to  be  a  large 
and  powerful  stream,  was  seen  by  Mitchell,  in  1836, 
to  be  nearly  dry;  as  it  would  liave  becii  but  for 
the  backii>-ater  ((treed  into  it  from  the  Murray. 


The  latter,  however,  from  the  greater  nural>cr 
of  its  affluents,  and  perha]>s,  also,  from  the  nature 
of  the  countrj'  through  which  it  flows,  never  loses 
the  character  of  a  continuous  river.  And  though 
at  certain  seasons  its  waters  are  reduced,  its  navi- 
gation, and  that  of  its  tributary'  the  Momimbidgee, 
may,  it  is  believed,  be  depended  u]S)n  for  at  leo^it 
eiglit  months  of  the  year. 

The  extent  of  the  basin  of  the  Murray  mav  \te 
estimateil  at  from  400,(J00  to  500,0(K)  m\.  m.*  It, 
of  course,  comprises  every  variety  of  s<»il ;  a  large 
extent  of  land  along  its  banks  and  thane  of  the 
Momimbidg(*e  l)eing  amongst  the  most  fertile 
hitherto  discovered  in  the  continent,  though  it 
must  be  at  the  same  rime  admitted,  that  lands  of 
a  different  and  ver>'  inferior  quality  of  soil  prepon- 
derate. But,  desinte  this  drawback,  it  is  not  easy 
to  imagine  the  extent  of  traffic  of  which  the  Murray 
will  prol»ably  be  the  channel  when  the  immense 
countrj'  through  which  it  flows  has  been  occu]>ic*«l. 
It  is  much  to  !)e  regretted  that  its  emlKiucliurc 
should  be  so  dL<]mi|M>rtione-d  to  its  magnitude. 
But  that  defect  has  lieeiu  to  some  extent,  aln-iwly 
overcome  or  greatly  modified  by  the  help  of  rail- 
ways. And  it  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  the 
entrepot  at  its  junction  with  the  sea  may  at  some 
future  period  rival  New  Orleans  in  the  extent  of 
its  trade  and  na\igation. 

Ijake»  are  abundant  in  Australia,  as  might  in- 
deed Ik)  inferred  from  the  level  nature  of  the  plain 
country,  but  none  of  them  are  very  lai^e,  and  few 
ap[K'ar  to  be  i)ermanent.  Lake  Alexandrina.  t  lie 
recipient  of  the  Murray,  has  a  very  lai^  surfact; ; 
but,  as  before  observed,  it  is  shallow ;  and  Lake 
(leoTge  (hit.  350  .r,  long.  U\P  \h'),  which,  in  1><2h, 
was  a  sheet  of  water,  17  m.  long  and  7  wide,  w.-ts 
said,  by  an  old  native  female,  to  have  been  a  thi«'k 
forest  within  her  memor>-;  and  in  1836  it  had 
drietl  up  to  a  grassy  j)lain.  (Mitchell.  iL  313.) 
The  lakes  of  the  interior  are  subject  to  the  same 
variation  (Oxley,  120-130;  Mitchell,  ii.  34-37), 
and  when  excite<l  curiosity  has  drawn  the  traveller 
from  hisn»ad  to  inspect  one  of  these  reservoirs,  his 
examination  is  almost  sure  to  end  in  disappoint- 
ment. (Sturt,  i.  15.)  These  lakes,  su<h  as  they 
are,  abound  along  the  banks  of  the  Ladilnn  and 
the  Murray,  as  far  as  the  junction  of  the  Darling ; 
they  are  so  far  from  yielding  any  supplies  to  the 
rivers,  that  their  <»wn  waters  seem,  in  ]>art,  to 
dejiend  ujKm  the  latter  overflowing  their  banks. 
Some  of  them  are,  however,  quite  isolatetl,  and 
none  have  any  outlet.  Many,  and  those  the  largest, 
are  salt ;  and  small  salt-lakes,  or  rather  brine-]  )its, 
ap^)ear  to  be  common  in  the  dead  levels  oi  the  iu- 
tenor  both  E.  and  W. 

Soil, — Were  the  soil  of  Australia  merely  ex- 
tremely various  in  different  parts  of  the  continent. 
it  would  be  no  more  than  what  is  seen  in  evorv 
other  jiart  of  the  worhl.  But  the  Australian  soil 
varies  according  to  laws  of  its  own,  apparently 
llnkno^^'n  in  any  other  region.  In  otlier  countrio, 
rivers  are  the  great  fertilizers,  and  their  intlminre 
is  the  greater  the  longer  their  course.  In  Aus- 
tralia, fertility  is  confined  to  the  higher  parts  of 
streams;  and,  as  has  been  shown,  those  which 
prtmihc  fairest  at  their  outset  from  their  mountain 
sources,  invariably  and  quickly  either  dry  in  their 
l>eds,  leaving  the  country  an  arid  desert,  or  spread 
into  marshes,  rendering  it  an  uninhabitable  swam]), 
equally  dewtmctive  of  animal  and  vegetable  life. 
Thus  situate<i,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  ]jroduetive 
soil  should  be  mostly  found  on  the  sides  and  sum- 
mits of  considerable  elevations;  or  that  the  ex- 
plorers of  the  interior  should  look  for  the  indica- 
tions of  mountain  land  with  a  feverish  anxiety, 
which  it  is  difficult  for  a  native  of  the  fertile  i>lains 
of  Europe  and  Asia  to  comprehend.     '  Had  we 


AUSTRALASIA 


263 


picked  up  a  stono,'  says  Sturt,  speaking  of  his 
abandonment  of  the  investigation  of  the  Darling 
(u  144), '  as  indicating  our  approach  to  high  land, 
I  would  have  gone  on.    But  this  seemed  a  desert, 
that  not  even  a  bird  inhabited.    The  vegetable 
kingdom  >vas  almost  annihilated :  and  the  native 
dog,  so  thin  that  he  could  scarcely  walk,  seemed 
to  implore  some  merciful  hand  to  despatch  him.' 
Tliis  was  during  a  dry  season,  and  the  consequent 
failure  of  the  streams,   *  There  was  not  the  smallest 
eminence,' says  Oxley  (p.  89),  under  circumstances 
diametrically  opposite,  '  whence  a  view  might  be 
obtained,  the  countr>'  appearing  a  dead  level ;  and 
although  we  could  see  lor  some  distance  all  round, 
vet  there  was  not  a  rising  ground  in  any  direction, 
^'lie  margin  of  the  stream  was  a  wet  bog,  full  of 
water-ht»les,  and  covered  with  marsh  plant-s.     It 
wa-s  <»nly  on  the  verj'  edge  of  the  bank,  and  in  the 
lM)ttoms  of  the  bights,  that  any  eucaljiiti  grew. 
There  was  not  the  least  appearance  of  natives; 
nor  was  bird  or  animal  oi  any  description  seen 
during  the  day,  except  a  solitary  native  dog ; — we 
seemed,  indeed,  the  sole  living  creatures  in  these 
vast  de,**erts.'    '  From  a  tree  near  the  camp,'  says 
Mitchell  (ii.  14^),  *  Burnett  descried  a  goodlv  hUl, 
distant  22  m.    It  was  indeed  (p.  155)  a  welcome 
sight  to  us,  after  traversing  for  several  months 
so  much  of  the  dead  levels  of  the  mterior ;  and 
I  accordingly  named   this    hiU,    Mount    Hope.' 
*  Within  the  water-line '  (of  Kegent's  Lake,  now  a 
grassy  |)lahi),  olni<er\'es  the  same  authority,  'st4»od 
(lead  trees,  of  a  full-grown  size,  apparently  killed 
by  too  much  water,  too  plainly  showing  to  what 
long  jieriods  the  extremes  of  drought  and  moisture 
may  extend   in   tliis  singular  country.'   (ii.  34.) 
Again  (ii.  157)  he  speaks  of  a  row  of  bare  poles, 
tlic  remnants  of  yarra  trees,  eight  or  ten  years  old, 
which  occupy  the  verv  middle  of  a  stream,  though 
they  must  have  attamed  their  growth  while  the 
iMitfctf  the  river  was  dry.     The  soil  of  these  deso- 
late and  extensive  plains  is  various ;  in  some  places 
rod  tenacious  clay;  in  others,  a  dark  hazel-coloured 
loam,  rotten  and  full  of  holes:  sand  is  not  verv 
abundant,  but  it  is  found ;  and  whatever  the  com- 
IMJsition,  one  unvarying  ap]>eiu*auce  of  dreariness 
and  de.solation  marks  the  scene.     A  striking  de- 
scription of  Australian   scener\'  is  given  by  Mr. 
A.  Wm.  H<»witt,  who  sketched  tlie  neighl>ourho(Ml 
of  Lake  Torrens,  South  Australia,  in  a  letter  dated 
Wilj>ena,  Oct,  4,  1859.     He  says,  *  The  grejit  fea- 
tures here  are  extensive  plains,  covered  with  salt 
bush,  and  witli  grass  after  rain.    These  plains  run 
between  hills,  varying  from  100  to  2,000  ft.  high, 
and  quite  destitute  of  timber.     Indeed,  the  only 
tiiul)er  found  here  gn>ws  on  the  banks  of  the  water- 
ciuirses,  and  a  few  he  or  siie-oaks  (Hi  the  hills. 
Tlu!  lower  ranges  are  most  like  sheep  d»)wns;  the 
hii^her  ones  are  mosses  of  rocks,  torn  into  all  kinds 
f  jagged  i)eaks  and  precipices,  and  generally  of  a 
reddish  hue,  but,  seen  in  the  tlistance,  (»f  a  deep 
in<ligo.     The  country  is  intensely  stony,  being, 
so  to  say,  "  metalled,"  and  the  roads  are  naturally 
s])lendid.      It  Is  very  hot  and  dry,  and  I  should 
fancy  must  be  like  the  mterior  of  South  Africa, 
only  that  there  are  no  animals  to  be  seen,  except- 
ing kangaroos  and  kangaroo  rats.     Large  flocks  of 
emus  stalk  about  the  barren  plains,  like  some  en- 
chanted creatures  in  the  *'  Arabian  Nights."    The 
air  is  so  clear  that  the  distances  are  dillicult  to 
estimate.     Altogether,  it  is  a  very  wild,  strange 
comitry.'     (llowitt,  W.,  History  of  Discovery  m 
Australia.      L(»nd.  1H(;5.)      l.'ompared   with   the 
gl<M>my  sterility  of  these  tlats,  no  contrast  can  be 
^lrong('r  than  tlie  abundant  fertility  of  the  ele- 
vated terraces.    A  rich,  dry,  vegetable  soil,  broken 
into  gentle  undulations,  and  watered  with  the  va- 
rious streams  that  form  the  abundant  doutccs  of 


o 


the  internal  rivera,  is  the  general  characteristic  of 
Bathnrst  Plains,  Liverpool  Plains,  Yap  Plains,  and 
the  other  districts  that  stretch  away  upon  the 
summits  and  N.  sides  of  the  Blue  Mountanis,  and 
X.  of  the  Liverpjool  Range.  The  W.  valleys  of 
the  same  mountains  partake  also  of  the  same  cha- 
racter; and  a  similar  description  will  apidy  to  the 
corresponding  country  on  the  E.  faces  of  the  Dar- 
ling range.  (Oxley,  186, 267,  275,  drc. ;  A.  Cun- 
nuigham,  in  Field,  131-191 ;  Sturt,  i.  6-14,  ii. 
11-36;  Mitchell,  i.  27-57;  Irwin,  6-8;  Dale,  in 
Cross,  51-72,  d'c)  But  the  best  land  hitherto 
found  in  Australia,  is  that  discovered  in  1836  by 
Mitchell,  near  the  S.  coast,  and  included  in  Vic- 
toria. It  lies  among  the  Grampians  and  P}Tene^ ; 
anil,  though  surrounded  and  intersected  by  mud 
aiul  swamps,  its  high  levels  and  valleys,  abun- 
dantly, but  not  excessively  watered,  arc  so  pro- 
lilic,  that  the  discoverer  justly  congratulated  him- 
self on  '  being  the  harbmger  of  mighty  changes, 
smce  his  steps  would  soon  be  followed  by  the  men 
and  animals  for  whom  thLs  fertile  region  seems  to 
nave  been  prepared.'    (ii.  157-289.) 

So  many  theories  have  been  hazarded  to  account 
for  the  host  of  anomalies  in  this  S.  world,  and 
each  in  succession  found  to  be  erroneous,  that 
great  circumspection  is  necessary  in  offering  even 
a  surmise  as  to  the  causes  of  physical  arrange- 
ments and  ap|)earance8  so  much  at  variation  with 
former  exj)enencc      One    fact,   however,    forces 
itself  on  our  notice ;  the  fertile  parts  of  Australia, 
confined  to  the  higher  regiims,  are  as  effectually 
separated  from  each  other  by  apparently  irredeem- 
able deserts,  as  though  the  ocean  flowed  between 
them.    And  how  many  centuries  Ls  it  since  the 
ocean  did  so  flow  V    Tlie  different  explorers  una^ 
nimously  declare  the  dead  flats  of  the  interior  to 
be  new  land, — new,  that  is,  in  comparison  with 
the  mountains  by  which  they  are  bounded ;  while 
those  mountains  themselves,  judging  by  their  po- 
verty in  primitive  fi»nnations,  are  apiiarently  more 
recent  than  the  similar  elevations  of  the  N.  hemi- 
sphere.    Sturt  believes  the  Darling  to  have  been 
the  main  chaimel  wluch  carried  off  the  last  waters 
of  the  ocean  from  the  low  lands,  and  its  bed~- 
which  he  esteems  an  estuary  rather  than  a  valley 
— to  have  remained  the  natural  and  proper  reser- 
voir of  the  streams  falling  from  the  E.  and  W. 
(ii.  119.)     None,  however,  fall  into  it  in  660  m. 
(Mitchell,  i.  295) ;  but  the  whole  appearance  of 
the  comitry  on  its  banks  is  strongly  corrol)orative 
of  Sturt 's  opinion.     But  what,  then,  was  the  con- 
dition of  the  coimtrv',  previouslv  to  that  convul- 
si<>n  or  change,  of  whatever  kind  it  might  be, 
which  laid  bare  this  exteusive  tract?     Evidently 
that  of  Island  grou|)s,  at  greater  or  less  distances 
from  each  other,  the  surfaces  of  wliich  (now  the 
terraces  and  table-laiuls  of  the  mountains)  had 
remaineil  exix)sed  sufliciently  long  to  enable  mine- 
ral and  vegetable  decomi>osition  to  |>erform  its 
work  of  creating  a  fertile  soiL    The  rivers  of  these 
islands  (now  the  sources  of  the  anomalous  internal 
streams)  woulil,  like  other  island  rivers,  nm  their 
short  courses  to  the  then  siui,  and  having  per- 
formed their  oflice  of  irrigating  the  tracts  through 
which  they  flowed,  be  there  absorbed.    On  uie 
exj>osure  of  the  interior  all  this  would  Ije  changed. 
The  newly  uncovereil  land,  destitute  of  vegeta- 
tion with  the  exception  of  marine  plants,  would 
of  necessity  remain  sterile  till  the  decom{)Osition 
of  these  gradually,  though  slowly,  began  to  form 
a  soiL     (Flhiders,  ii.  116.)     The  rivers,  no  longer 
received  into  a  sea,  at  no  great  distance  from  their 
sources,  W(»uld  begin  to  wear  themselves  chaimels 
m  the  new  ground — a  process  which,  while  the 
descent  w^as  considerable,  would  be  rapid  in  its 
I  operations ;  but  which,  when  the  stream,  reaching 


264 


AUSTRALASIA 


a  level  flat,  had  lost  much  of  its  initial  impetus, 
would  decreiLse  in  eneitfy ;  and,  on  the  occurrence 
of  a  hollow,  would  wholly  cease,  at  least  for  a 
season.    Such  a  hollow  is  the  Marsh  of  the  Mac- 
quairic  (Sturt,  ii.  158),  and  a  succession  of  such 
hollows  seems  to  form  the  marshes  of  the  Lachlan. 
(Mitchell,  ii  69-61.)     The  water  losing  its  flow, 
and  spreading  over  these  hoUows,  deposits  in  them 
the  fertile  debris  from  its  native  hills,  and  thiw 
gives  birth  to  marsh  plants,  the  decomposition  of 
which  still  farther  improves  the  soil ;  and,  in  the 
season  of  flood,  the  washing  of  this  d^jris  to  the 
sides  of  the  concavity,  by  gradually  forming  a 
channel,    gives  to  the   exhausted    stream    new 
strength  to  struggle,    inch   by  inch,    along  its 
course.      That  some  such  process  has  been  at 
work    ever  since  this  land  was  first  explored, 
seems  evident  from  the   bergs,  or  outer  banics 
of  the  Murray,  Morrumbidgee,  Ac. ;  and  Mitchell 
could  no  othemv'ise  account  for  the  remarkable 
appearance  of  many  of  the  lakes  which  he  passed, 
than  by  supposing  that  their    hollows  eidsted 
before  the  ricrrs  began  to  Jhw,    (iu  84.)     *  We 
cannot  doubt,'  says  Humboldt   (Pers.  Nar.,  iv. 
160),  *that  in  both  continents  (Africa  and  Aus- 
tralia) there  arc  systems  of  interior  rivers  which 
may  be  considered  as  not  yet  fully  dcvelo])ed,  and 
which  communicate  with  each  other,  either  in  the 
times  of  great  risings,  or  by  permanent  bifurca- 
tions;' a  sagacious  remark,  made  more  than  ten 
years  before  the  discovery  of  the  extensive  con- 
nection between  the  chaimels  of  the  Australian 
streams,  by  which  it  is  so  remarkably  confirmed. 
(See  also  Carl  Kitter,  Erdkunde,  I  316.)     But  if 
Dturt's  surmise  be  founded  in  truth,  the  bed  of  the 
Darling,  or  its  continuation,  that  of  the  Murray, 
should  be  the  common  drain  of  all  the  land  be- 
tween itself  and  the  older  mountains  towards  the 
E.  and  S. ;  and  this  it  is,  or  is  in  j)n)gres8  of  be- 
coming.   The  imion  is  eflected  for  all  the  known 
streams  except  the  Lachlan    and    Macc^uarrie; 
and  of  these  the  former  has  completed  its  bed 
(Mitchell,  ii.  78),  though  it  has  not  yet  been  able 
to  fill  up  the  hollows  which  form  its  marshes  in 
the  wet  season ;  and  the  latter,  though  much  im- 
jKsded  by  the  extent  and  lowness  of  it*  swamp, 
18  struggling  to  establish  a  permanent  connection 
with  the  Castlereagh,  through  Morrisett's  I'onrls 
(Sturt,  i.   146),    and    with  the  Darling    direct, 
through  Duck  Creek.  (Mitchell,  ii.  32.)  The  great 
deficiency  of  springs  and  tributary  streams  is  one 
great  cause  of  the  slowness  of  this  operation ;  but 
the  deficiency  it^lf  is  only  what  might  reasonably 
be  looked  for  iu  a  country  of  recent  formation, 
especially  in  one  where  the  eminences  are  so  few 
and  so  little  elevated  as  they  appear  to  be  in  the 
interior  of  Australia.   Spring  can  be  formed  only 
by  the  accumulation  or  moisture  in  the  ca\4ties 
and  gullies  of  hills ;  and  this  accumulation  must, 
in  the  first  instance,  proceed  with  extreme  tanli- 
ness.    When  overcharged,  and  not  till  then,  these 
reservoirs  will  give  forth  their  superfluous  waters ; 
at  first  by  a  simple  overflow,  and,  when  the  addi- 
tional supi)ly  has  given  to  the  torrent  thus  first 
formed  sufiicient  power  to  deepen  its  bed,  in  a 
continual  stream.    (See  the  verj'  profound  article, 
KiVBR,  in  the   Ency.  Brit,  xviii.  39<r91,  more 
especially  at  p.  70,  et  »eq^    When  this  process  has 
been  long  in  operation,  these  streams  will  be  nu- 
merous, and  such  is  the  case  in  the  terraces  and 
older  mountains  of  Australia :  where  the  land  is 
comparatively  new,  they  may  be  expected  to  be 
Bcaroe,  and  they  are  scarce  beyond  parallel  in  the 
interior  of  the  same  continent.    Even  when  l>e- 
come  permanent,  time  must  be  allowed  for  them 
to  cat  their  path  to  their  final  channel ;  and  this 
is  a  moat  wise  arrangement,  since,  did  such  new- 


bom  currents  find  their  way  directly  to  an  exten- 
sive be<l,  the  source  from  which  thev  are  supplied 
would  be  exhausted.  Centuries,  therefore,  must 
prolMibly  elapse  between  the  first  appearance  of  the 
infant  torrent  and  its  final  abAori)tion  into  some 
river  system.  Iu  tlie  inter\'al  it  will  pursue  its 
course  surely,  however  slowly ;  and  with  a  .Hpee<l 
and  direction  varying  acconling  to  the  olwtnictions 
which  it  meets  with,  and  the  amount  of  its  initial 
supply.  Many  of  these  incipient  streams  are 
found  in  the  interior  of  Australia,  making  greater 
or  less  approaches  to  wlmt  Humboldt  calls  the 
*  development  of  their  system,'  the  beds  of  some 
of  them,  though  dry  during  the  summer  heats, 
exhibiting  imquestionable  signs  of  floo<ls  at  other 
seasons ;  while  others  appear  to  be  permanent  to 
the  point  to  which  thev  have  already  cut  their 
way.  (Sturt,  L  128;  MitcheU,  i.  209,  249-2.'>3, 
2C1,  A'c;  ii.  32,  d*c.)  But,  again,  upon  the  surface 
of  a  new  country,  so  singularly  devoid  of  vegetable 
decav  (Sturt,  L  108),  pnKluction  will  neces*<arily 
bo  limited  to  those  siK>ts  where  the  rivers  and 
floods  have  depo8ite<l  their  fertilizing  slime.  The 
l>arrenness  of  the  districts  remote  from  stn^ams  and 
swamps  is,  in  fact,  the  universal  theme  of  all  tra- 
vellers; while  yarra  tre<*s  so  distinctly  mark  the 
bed  of  a  river,  that  the  course  of  the  latter  may 
be  kept  in  view  even  at  the  distance  of  the  visible 
horizon,  and  every  flat  subject  to  inundation  is 
crowded  with  dense  slunil>s,  l)ox-trees,  polygonum, 
kangaroo  grass,  ree<l<(,  and  other  native  ve^^etation. 
Here,  then,  aro  abundant  elements  of  a  soil,  the 
process  of  forming  which  is  expedited  bv  the  re- 
markably prolonged  and  fierce  extremes  of"  drought 
and  flood  to  which  this  region  is  subjected.  (See 
Climate.)  The  vegetation  of  Intenor  Australia, 
such  as  it  is,  does  not  live  its  natural  term,  or  dio 
of  natural  decay;  but  when  a  AikkI  has  given 
birth  to  that  race  of  trees  and  shrubs  which  draw 
their  sustenance  from  excessive  moisture,  a  long- 
continuetl  drought  destroys  nearly  the  whole  trii)e 
(Sturt,  L  145,  &c.) ;  while  such  ]>lants  as  delight 
in  a  dry  soil  spring  from  tlie  earth  fonned  from 
their  decomiK)sitiv»n,  to  be  in  their  turn  destroyed, 
after  ten  or  twelve  years'  growth,  by  the  constant 
exposure  to  too  much  water  in  a  return  of  the 
season  of  floods.  (Mitchell,  ii.  34,  \4H,  313.)  It 
is  quite  clear  that  this  alternation  must  tend  to  fer- 
tilize the  land  much  more  rapidly  than  if  eiihor 
race  of  plants  continued  to  draw  their  nourish- 
ment from  the  newly  deposited  and  still  meagre 
earth,  till  thev  perished  from  pure  exhaustion,  the 
more  especially  as  deciduous  trees  are  almost 
unknown,  and  consequently  one  great  source  of 
supply,  the  scatterings  of  autimin  in  other  regions, 
is  waiiting  to  the  native  soil  of  Australia. 

It  appears  pn>bable,  then,  that  both  the  land 
and  water  are  here  still  iu  a  course  of  formati<Mi ; 
that  the  various  anomalies  in  each  which  till  the 
minds  of  Euroi^eans  with  wonder,  arc  only  the 
natural  appearances  of  an  imperfect^  or  rather  of 
an  unfinished  work;  and  that  thev  will  vanish 
when  the  causes,  now  m  operation,  shall  have 

Enxluce<l  their  full  effect.  These  opinions  are 
ozarded,  however,  with  much  diffidence ;  and 
onlv  because  they  apiHiar  to  result  from  the  facta 
collected  by  actual  ol>servers. 

Climate, — AlM)ut  a  third  part  of  the  Australian 
continent,  the  N.  jwrt,  togetlier  with  the  large 
island  of  New  Guinea,  and  the  other  isles  enumo 
rated  at  the  beginning  of  this  article,  with  the 
exception  of  New  Zealand,  lie  in  the  torri<l  zone. 
The  other  portion  of  the  continent,  the  ishuuis 
immediately  adjacent,  and  New  Zealand,  are  in 
the  S.  temi)erate  zone.  The  projwrtion  of  inter- 
tropical to  extra-tropical  land  Ls,  therefore,  alto- 
getncr  about  as  6  to  12.     (Moltc-Brun's  Tab.  xii. 


AUSTRALASIA 


265 


270f  875.)  Of  the  f^nend  climate  in  the  former 
portion  little  is  positively  known)  though  it  may 
be  too  probably  inferred  that  it  resembles  generally 
those  regions  of  the  N.  hemisphere  similarly  situ- 
ated, where  running  water  is  scarce ;  that  is,  that 
a  considerable  portion  of  it  is  burned  up  with  in- 
tense heat.  On  the  N.  coast  a  wind  from  the  S. 
raises  the  temperature  with  extreme  suddenness, 
and  a  N.  wind  produces  the  same  effect  on  the  S., 
arguing,  in  both  cases,  a  passage  over  a  highly- 
heated  soil.  Tropical  Australia  is  in  the  range  of 
the  Indian  monsoons,  of  which  the  NW.  sets  in 
usuallv  about  the  beginning  of  November,  and 
that  from  the  S£.  in  the  early  part  of  ApriL 
There  is,  however,  much  irre^larity  in  their  re- 
currence, the  variation  sometimes  amounting  to 
more  than  a  month.  (Campbell,  in  Geog.  Joum., 
iv.  148.)  In  these  r^ons  the  seasons  can  scarcely 
be  divided  into  dry  and  rainy;  for  though  the 
NW.  (or  summer)  monsoon  be  attended  with  very 
heavy  faUs,  yet  they  seldom  continue  above  two 
or  three  hours  at  a  time,  so  that  they  rarely,  if 
ever,  put  a  complete  stop  to  out-door  labour. 
From  June  to  September  no  rain  faUs,  though 
these  are  unquestionably  the  healthiest  months  of 
the  year.  A  great  quantity  of  moisture  must, 
however,  at  all  times  be  suspended  in  the  atmo- 
sphere, though  imperceptible  to  the  senses,  during 
the  prevalence  of  the  dry  or  SE.  monsoon :  for 
iron  articles  are  kept  from  rusting  only  by  inces- 
sant care ;  and  the  exposed  surfaces  oi  the  rocks, 
along  the  inter-tropical  coasts,  are  so  generally 
coloured  by  tlie  oxide  of  iron,  that  the  term  red 
might  without  impropriety  be  adopted  as  de- 
scriptive of  the  NXE.  and  NW.  shores.  (Camp- 
bc-ll's  G.  J.  iv.  149 ;  King,  i.  396.)  The  average 
temperature  at  Melville  Island,  on  the  N.  coast, 
from  April  1827  to  March  1828  was  83^  Fah.;  the 
winter  average  80<^;  that  of  the  summer  86°; 
and  the  extreme  averages  75°  (for  July),  and  87° 
(for  Dec.).  It  may  also  be  observed  that  the  cool- 
est part  of  the  day  appears  to  be  6  a.m.,  the  tem- 
jierature  of  that  hour  being  from  1°  to  7°  lower 
than  that  of  midnight.  (Campbell's  G.  J.  152.) 
With  regard  to  Extra-tropical  Australia,  it  is  a 
pretty  common  observation,  that  the  climate  of 
N.  S.  Wales  assimilates  very  closely  to  that  of  S. 
Italv;  but  this  must  be  taken  with  some  limita- 
tioiis.  First,  the  atmosphere  is  very  considerably 
drier;  secondly,  the  extremes  of  temperature  are 
greater;  thirdly,  the  average  heat  is  rather  leas; 
and  fourthly,  the  temperature  appears  to  decrease 
more  rapidly  by  elevation.  According  to  Count 
Strzelecki,  at  an  average  of  the  three  years  ending 
with  1843,  the  maximum  temperature  at  Port 
Jackson  was  81*9°,  the  minimum  45*3°,  and  the 
aimual  66*6°.  At  l*ort  Macquarrie,  more  to  the 
N.,  the  maximum  temperature  during  the  same 
three  years  was  88*3°,  the  minimum  46*8°,  and  the 
annual  mean  68°;  and  at  Port  Philip,  more  to 
the  S.,  the  maximum  was  90*6°,  the  minimum 
36*9°,  and  the  mean  61*3°.  (Phvf^ical  Description 
of  N.  S.  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's  Land,  229.) 
It  appears,  also,  contrary  perhaps  to  what  is  the 
common  opinion,  that  the  quantity  of  rain  falling 
at  Port  Macquarrie  amounts  to  62*68  inches ;  at 
Port  Jackson  to  52*42  ditto ;  and  at  Port  Philip 
to  30*72  ditto.  But  notwithstanding  this  abun- 
dance of  rain,  the  climate  is  properlv  characterised 
as  dry ;  and  it  is  a  curious  but  well-authenticated 
fact,  that  floods  on  the  coast  occur  simidtaneously 
with  dry  weather  in  the  interior,  and  conversely. 
May  is  the  rainy  season  on  the  coast ;  in  the  in- 
terior the  rains  fall  during  the  summer,  or  between 
September  and  February.  The  spring  montlis 
comprise  September,  October,  and  November; 
those  of  summer,  December,  January,  and  Febni- 1 


aiy;  thorn  of  antrnnn,  March,  April,  and  May; 
and  those  of  winter,  June,  July,  and  August. 
This  is  as  regards  the  continent  of  Australia ;  but 
the  climate  is  very  different  in  the  islands  of  Atuh 
tralasia,  particularly  at  New  Zealand.  In  some 
parts  here  it  rains  often  for  many  months  together. 
Mr.  Sherrin,  the  explorer,  whUe  examining  the 
western  coast  of  New  Zealand,  suffered  fearfully 
from  the  excessive  wet.  *  I  remember  only  three 
fine  weeks  during  the  six  months  we  were  on  the 
coast,'  he  says  m  his  journal  (Printed  in  the 
Christchurch  Press,  January  1864.)  Describing 
his  journey  to  Lake  Brunner,  he  exclaims,  *  Oh, 
the  unutterable  misery  of  that  journey !  Bain 
every  day ;  directed  wrongly  by  the  natives  .  .  • 
this  trip  was  the  worst  and  hardest  that  I  ever  re- 
member in  the  whole  course  of  my  life.  Wet 
through  all  the  time ;  scarcely  ever  ilry  at  night ; 
freshes  eve^  hour;  a  mist  hanging  heavy  and 
dense,  coverm^  every  thing:  the  journey  was  worse 
than  description  can  paint  it.  (Howitt,  Wm., 
History  of  Discovery  in  Australia,  Tasmania,  and 
New  Zeaknd,  Lond.  1865.) 

An  important  division  of  the  Australian  climate, 
that  is,  of  the  continent  of  Australia,  into  wet  and 
dry,  ismariced  by  periods  or  cjxlesof  ten  and  twelve 
years  each.  Once  in  such  cycles,  a  year  of  un- 
mitigated drought  prevails,  during  which  no  rain 
falls,  and  the  effects  of  which  are  eaually  intense 
on  the  coast  and  in  the  interior.  Close  upon  thia 
visitation  follows  a  year  of  flood ;  but  the  rains, 
which  are  at  first  continuous  and  as  general  aa 
the  preceding  drought,  decrease  with  every  suc- 
ceeding year,  till  they  again  wholly  fail  for  a  time. 
It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  two  or  three  yearn 
following  the  great  droughts  may  be  denominated 
the  wet  period,  and  that  an  equal  space  of  time 
preceding  the  great  droughts  may  be  regarded  as 
the  long  dry  season  of  Australia.  It  is  only  in  the 
intermediate  years  that  the  regular  recurrence  of 
seasons,  noticed  above,  is  observable.  (Oxley,  vii. ; 
Sturt,  i.  liv.  1.)  A  great  drought  b^an  in  1824, 
and  (tid  not  terminate  till  1829.  Very  little  rain 
fell  during  the  whole  of  this  lengthened  period, 
and  during  the  last  six  months  there  was  not  a 
single  shower.  In  consequence,  the  whole  surface 
of  the  ground  was  so  parched  and  withere<l  that 
all  minor  vegetation  ceased,  and  even  culinaiy 
v<^table8  were  raised  with  much  difficulty. 
Many  of  the  settlers  were  well  nigh  ruined ;  and 
the  cattle  did  not  for  some  yeara  recover  from  ita 
effects.  (Breton's  N.S.  Wales,  296;  Sturt's  S.  Aus- 
tralia, L  2.)  In  1847  the  Maneroo  Plains,  an  ex- 
tensive squatting  district,  suffered  from  a  similar 
cause.  The  mortality  among  the  flocks  and  henla 
was  frightful;  the  water- holes  being  nearly  all 
dried  up,  and  filled  with  the  carcasses  of  sheep  and 
cattle.  (Southey  on  Colonial  Wools,  30.)  For- 
tunately, however,  these  visitations  are  not  <^ 
frequent  occurrence,  and  when  they  do  occur,  thev 
are  mostly  confined  to  not  very  extensive  local- 
ities. On  these  occasions,  and  in  the  remoter 
places,  cattle  frequently  stray  away  in  search  of 
water,  and  either  perish  or  are  lost  to  the  on^'ners. 
In  reference  to  the  reverse  order  of  the  seasons  in 
Europe  and  Australia,  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that 
a  cold  winter  in  the  one  appears  to  be  coincident 
with  a  hot  summer  in  the  other,  and  conversely. 
(P.  Cunningham,  i.  218.)  For  the  rest,  dews  are 
ver^  abundant,  and,  fortimately,  fall  the  heaviest 
during  the  summer  heats  and  the  long-continued 
droughts.  Hail-storms  are  frequent,  as  are  also 
thunder  and  lightning;  the  latter  flashing  fre- 
quently for  a  succession  of  days,  wholly  unaccom- 
panied by  the  former  or  by  a  single  drop  of  rain. 
Earthquakes  are  occasionally  felt  on  the  N.  coast. 
The  cumate  of  Extra-tropioil  Australia  is  pecu- 


266 


AUSTRALASIA 


liarly  favourable  to  the  haman  constitution, 
probably  from  the  deficiency  of  vegetable  decom- 
XXNdtion.  Endemic  dii»ea»e8  are  abuost  unknown : 
even  small-pox,  mea^leci,  and  hooping-couf^h  are 
stranger) ;  but  the  hot  N.  i^ind  priKluces  ophthal- 
mia; and  the  t«rc8,  or  round  worm,  i>»  the  common 
peot  of  childhoo(L  Dysentery  is  the  moHt  ])re- 
valent  disease;  but  one  proof,  and  that  a  strong 
one,  of  the  healthy  nature  of  the  atm(»pherc,  is 
the  facility  with  which  all  disorders,  even  the 
wont  cases  of  venereal  affection,  yield  to  the 
simplest  n^medies.  The  N.  coast  is  unhealthy, 
but  certainly  less  so  than  most  other  tropical 
countries.  Typhus  and  acute  fevers  are  there  pre- 
valent in  the  wet  monsoons ;  and  during  the  period 
of  variable  winds,  pectolania  (moon  blindness)  ap- 
pears to  8U}K^rsede  ophthalmia ;  and  scurvy  seems 
to  be  an  endemic,  exlubiting  itself  with  peculiar 
virulence  wliere  the  tropical  heat  is  exercised  u]>on 
a  damp  soiL  Even  hot;,  however,  sickness  puts 
on  a  generally  mild  form :  the  number  of  deaths, 
from  disease,  in  Melville  Island  was  only  1  in  {) 
for  four  yejirs,  or  1  in  86  per  annum.  (P.  Cunning- 
ham, I  171-173;  Campbell's  G.  J.  iv.  149-151, 
168;  Wentworth,  66;  Irwin,  4,  124.) 

Mbteraiogy, — Iron  is  spread  in  great  profusion 
over  all  the  continent  and  its  adjacent  islands. 
Tho  immense  extent  of  iron  oxide  on  the  N.  coast 
has  been  already  alluded  to,  and  several  of  the 
mountains  violently  affect  the  magnetic  needle. 
(Oxley,259;  Sturt,'i.  1J6.)  Copper  and  lead  (the 
latter  mixed  occasionally  with  silver  and  arsenic) 
have  been  traced  both  in  the  Blue  Mountains  and 
the  Darling  range,  as  well  as,  in  still  greater 
abundance,  in  the  hilly  tracts  adjacent  to  Ade- 
laide, in  S.  Australia;  and  mining  has  become  an 
important  branch  of  industry  carried  on  in  that 
colony.  (See  Australia,  S<>utii,  Victoria,  and 
the  description  of  the  other  Australian  colonies 
for  more  detaile<l  notices  of  mineralogy',  mines, 
and  mining  operations.)  lint  the  mines  of  coal, 
copper,  iron,  and  other  ordinary'  minerals  found  in 
Australia,  have  been  rendered  of  little  importance, 
compared  with  the  gold  deiK>sits  with  which  it  is 
profusely  endoweiL  These  are  of  the  most  cxtra- 
onlinary  productiveness.  The  gold  is  found  at 
vari(»us  i)oints,  mostly  on  the  western  tlaiiks  of 
the  great  mountain  chain  which  nms  parallel  to 
and  at  no  great  distance  from  the  E.  coast  of  the 
continent.  'Iliis  chain  consists  of  a  great  variety 
of  rocks;  those  of  primarv  formation  l)eing  in 
many  parts  pierced  and  broken  through  bv  th(»se 
of  igneous  origin.  Numerous  quartz  vems  are 
found  in  the  rocks ;  and  these  form  the  matrix  of 
the  gold,  which  is  most  frequently  found  with  the 
quartz  adhering  to  it,  and  accomi>anied  with  iron. 

Tlic  existence  of  gold  in  this  mountain  chain 
had  been  conjectured  on  theoretical  grounds  by 
iSir  K.  J.  Murchison  and  other  eminent  geologists. 
But  its  existence  was  not  practicallv  ascertained 
till  1851,  when  an  extensive  gold  field  was  dis- 
covered near  the  town  of  liat  hurst  in  N.  S.  Wales, 
about  120  m.  WNW.  from  Sydney.  The  dis- 
coverer, a  Mr.  Ilargrave,  received  a  reward  of 
10,0()0^  A  great  variety  of  other  gold  fields  have 
since  been  explored,  especially  in  Victoria,  where 
tlicy  arc  of  un})arallele(l  richness. 

The  gold  hitherto  found  in  Australia  has  all 
been  obtained  fnim  'diggings'  in  the  beds  of 
streams  descending  from  the  mountains,  or  in  the 
detritus  in  ravines  and  hollows  on  their  flanks. 
It  is  found  in  ever>'  variety  of  form,  in  grains  or 
dust,  in  tlakes  or  scales,  and  in  lump  or  nuggets. 
The  separation  of  the  smaller  particles  from  the 
earth  \»  eflected  in  the  same  way  as  in  California, 
|)y  washing.  But  though  the  labour  be  severe,  it 
is  less  BO  than  in  the  latter.    And  owing  to  the 


water  being  less  cold,  and  the  sun  less  iwwcrful, 
the  health  of  the  diggers  is  not  exposed  to  so 
severe  a  trial  here  as  in  California. 

The  effect  of  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Australia 
has  been  most  striking.  At  the  outset  it  threat- 
ened a  total  disniption  of  society;  and  it  has 
made  a  great  change  in  all  the  social  relations 
that  formerly  prevailed  in  the  continent.  The 
demand  for  labour,  the  rate  of  wages,  the  prices  of 
lodgings  and  of  most  articles  of  provision,  have 
increased  in  an  unprecetlonted  degree.  Hence, 
also,  a  vast  amount  of  emigration  has  been  di- 
rected to  Victoria  and  N.  S.  Wales,  and  poi)ulation 
and  trade  have  made  astonishing  advances. 

Tliough  unfavourable  at  first  to  those  engaged 
in  agricultural  and  pastoral  pursuits,  the  latter 
have  now  nearly  recoveretl  from  the  sliock,  and 
will  probably  become  more  pros})erous  than  ever. 
The  'diggings*  are  now  begiiuiing  to  be  prose- 
cut  e<l  more  as  a  regular  employment  than  as  a 
gambling  adventure.  Many  of  those  who  were 
at  first  attractiHl  to  them  from  other  de)>artmont8 
have  since  returned  to  their  former  pursuits ;  wlule 
the  rapid  increase  of  population,  by  occasioning  a 
proportional  increase  of  demand  for  other  pro- 
ducts, has  given  a  new  and  powerful  stimulus  to 
almost  every  branch  of  industry.  In  proof  of  this 
we  may  refer  to  tlie  carcasses  of  sheep,  wliich, 
from  being  worth  little  or  nothing,  have,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  greatly  increased  consumption  nf 
butcher's  meat,  become  of  much  greater  value 
than  the  fieetTcs. 

Botany. — It  Ls  well  known  that  Botany  Bay 
received  its  name  fn»m  the  abundant  vtigetatioli 
which  Capt.Cook  and  Sir  J.  Banks  found  tiourinh- 
iiig  on  its  coasts ;  but  its  soil  was  notwithstanding 
found  to  be  unprofitable,  barren,  and  totally  unlit 
for  a  settlement,  wluch  was,  in  consequence, 
e&tablishe<l  at  Port  Jackson. 

The  first  great  di\'Lsion  of  plants  Is  into  two 
great  classes :  the  Crj-ptogamous,  which  have  no 
blossoms  nor  visible  means  of  fructification ;  such 
are  mosses,  ferns,  fungi,  &c :  and  tlie  Phaneroga- 
mous, which  are  repnxluced  by  visible  organs.  This 
class  uicludes,  of  course,  all  Vhe  higher  orders  of 
vegetables,  but  is  subdivided  into  Monocotylc<U>- 
nous  plants,  such  as  have  but  one  see<i  lobe;  and 
Dicotyledonous  plants,  which  are  pos»e?se<l  of  two 
or  more :  tlie  former  comprises  the  grasses,  cy- 
peraceo;,  d'C. ;  the  latter  those  pnxluctions  of  the 
earth,  the  oiganisation  of  whicli  is  m<ist  compli- 
cated, as  the  trees,  superior  slinibs,  «kc.  The  fol- 
lowing table  exhibits  an  outline  of  tlie  arrangtr- 
ment  of  these  primary  oniers  in  Australia.  Jt  is 
offered  merely  as  an  approximation,  for  know- 
ledge on  this  subject  is  yet  but  scanty ;  but  it  luis 
been  constructed  with  much  care  from  Brown's 
*  Botany  of  Terra  Aust.rolis '  (Ap|>eiuUx  to  Flin- 
ders, 533-613) ;  the  botanical  pa{)ers  of  A.  Cun- 
ningham (Appendix  to  King,  51»7-5().>) ;  Fitrld's 
Memoirs,  325-3C5;  P.  Cunningham  (i.  18«-2(K)) ; 
Oxley, /^oMim  ;  Sturt,  />u««fm;  Mitchell  (L  xx.  tt 
passim). 


Orders 

Whulv 
Nt>.  of 
known 
tt|>cciet 

6,000 
6,f»00 

8i,oai 

Whole    ' 
No.  of 
Aunt. 
Six-tin 

700 
1,144 

No.  of  SpcT. 

com.  to  Aiiki. 

and  other 

KtfCioiu 

No  of 

I'txuUar 
to  j\u«t. 

4'JO 

1,104 
3,840 

6.440 

Oyptogamous 
MoMo«)tyle- 

donuus 
Dieotylodonous 

210 

40 
20 

Total    .    . 

44,000 

0,710 

1        270 

So  profound  were  the  early  investigations  of 
Brown  in  this  newly-opened  region  of  strange 
v^etation,  that  his  name  was  given  to  it  as  a  dis- 


AUSTBALASIA 


267 


tinct  Imtanical  kingdom,  f  Liiidley,  522.)  In  hisl 
(lay  tlic  known  ]>lanta  of  ail  the  world  amounted 
to  3d,()()0  species,  those  of  Australia  to  4,200. 
(Flinders'  Appen.  536.)  The  labours  of  succeed- 
ing botaniKto  have  done  little  more  than  enlarge 
the  ILst^  without  at  all  affecting  the  arran^ment, 
and  only  in  a  very  trifling  d(^ee  altering  the 
varioiLs  proportions.  The  first  fact  which  strikes 
the  observer  in  the  foregoing  table  is  the  very 
great  number  of  peculiar  Australian  species, 
amounting  to  nearly  one-eighth  part  of  those  at 
present  known.  This  is  a  proixirtion  much  greater 
than  could  be  looked  for  from  the  relative  magnitude 
of  the  region,  and  which,  were  the  individuals  of 
each  s})ecies  in  anything  like  a  similar  ratio,  or  were 
the  si)eoies  themselves  of  a  kind  highly  useful  to 
man,  would  render  Australia  a  {mradise.  Unfortu- 
nately, neither  L»  the  case.  Fenis,  nettles,  flowers, 
and  even  grasses,  haWng  the  form,  bulk,  and  habits 
of  trees,  are  some  of  tlie  dLstinguislung  features  in 
Australian  vegetation;  for  the  rest,  the  timber  is 
generally  of  the  hard->*'Ood  kind,  consisting  of  all 
the  varieties  of  Eucalyptus  and  Casuarina,  with 
some  varieties  of  the  rose-wood,  sandal-wood,  and 
re<lar.  Most  of  the  eucalypti  are  called  gum- 
trees,  though  the  exudations  of  many  of  them 
ore  pro|)erly  resins,  being  insoluble  in  water ;  wldle 
others  yield  a  manna  as  fine  and  as  pure  as  that 
of  Arabia.  Another  species  yields  the  purest  gum- 
arabic.  Tliere  is  a  tree  here  called  the  tea  tree, 
the  leaves  of  which  are  used  by  the  colonists  in- 
stead of  the  (Chinese  plant;  and  there  are  also 
S4>me  medicinal  trees,  as  the  sassafras  and  the 
ciLntor-oil  tree.  Palms  are  limited  to  the  N.  and 
K.  shores,  on  the  former  of  which  the  tropical 
mangrove  grows  in  all  its  luxuriance ;  and,  in  fact, 
the  pecniliar  aspect  of  Australian  vegetation  dis- 
a])pears  in  this  part  of  the  continent^  being  suiKjr- 
he<led  by  one  assimilating  more  to  that  of  India. 
In  Tropical  Australia  the  greater  numl>er  of  those 
plants  are  found  wliich  are  common  alike  to  this 
and  other  continents.  It  has  been  before  observed 
that,  with  one  exception,  the  Australian  trees  are 
evergn»ons :  many  of  them  are  remarkable  also 
for  the  inverted  position  of  their  leaf;  the  margin, 
and  not  either  surface,  being  directed  towards  the 
stem.  An  Australian  grove  has,  conse<iuently,  a 
jKruliar  and  gloomy  ap^xyirance ;  nor  w  the  timber 
that  it  yields  of  the  highest  utility  to  the  archi- 
letrt,  being  liable  to  rot  at  the  lieart,  and  S(>  con- 
tractile that  it  lias  been  known  to  shrink  upwards 
of  tw«»  inches  within  a  week.  (I*.  Cunningham, 
i.  ID'i.)  It  remains  to  be  obser\'ed  that  the  trees 
in  Australia  are  rarely  so  numerous  as  to  imi^ede 
horse  travelling:  and  as  a  remarkable  fact,  that 
they  ap]>ear  to  l>e  most  abundant  on  hiferior  soils, 
((iov.  Kep.  Oxley, .%«.)  Flowering  iilants  of  ver}' 
great  beauty  are'  found ;  but  the  lily,  tulij),  and 
honeysuckle  exist  in  the  f»)rm  of  standard 
trees  of  great  size.  Tliere  are  also  odoriferous 
plants,  which  scent  the  atmosphere  to  a  great 
distance ;  and  prickly  shrul>s,  which  grow  upon 
sandy  soils,  and  bind  them  dcm-n,  thus  preventuig 
that' drift  which  is  the  bane  of  the  Arabian  and 
African  deserts.  (Mitchell,  L  222;  ii.  106,  <fcc.) 
(iranses  are  abundant  and  nutritious,  but  they 
grow  in  detacheil  cliimix-*,  so  that  a  heavy  con- 
tinuous sward,  resembling  an  English  meatlow,  is 
unknown.  Flax,  tobacco,  a  species  of  cotton,  tares, 
indigo,  chicorj',  t  refoil,  and  burnet  (the  last  a  good 
substitute  for* tea),  are  among  the  natural  pnniuc- 
tions,  but  there  is  an  unparalleled  deticiencv  of 
fniits  and  of  vegetables  lit  for  human  fiHsL  The 
crrealia  are  t<»tally  absent ;  and  the  best  substitute 
for  them  appears  to  l)e  a  species  of  ree<l.  which, 
however,  Milchell  found  to  make  a  very  light 
cake,     'i'he  only  native  fruits  an*  raspl)erries,  cur-  I 


rants  (more  like  cranberrica),  one  or  two  tasteless 
fruits,  and  a  species  of  nut.  The  useful  produc- 
tions of  other  lands  are  now,  however,  extensively 
acclimatised,  and  com  crops  and  orchards  are 
found  in  every  fertile  spot  in  the  settled  districts. 
Every  species  of  com,  including  maize,  is  culti- 
vated with  success;  while  of  foreign  fruits,  the 
orange,  lemon,  citron,  nectarine,  apricot,  peach, 
plum,  cherry,  fig,  mulberry,  quince,  banana,  guava, 
pine-apple,  gnqie,  and  many  others,  have  long 
been  a  source  of  profit  to  the  smidler  settlers. 
The  capabilities  of  the  soil  are  thus  attested ;  nor 
can  there  be  a  doubt  that  the  sugar-cane  and 
other  tropical  productions  would  l^ve  in  the 
lower  latitudes  of  the  N.  Some  districts  here, 
espiecially  those  l>ing  on  the  banks  of  the  Vic- 
toria river— called  the  *Barcoo'  by  the  natives 
— are  extremely  fertile.  Sir  Thomas  Mitchell, 
who  \'i8ited  the  country  in  1845,  describes  it  as 
one  of  milk  and  honey.  There  was  a  vegetation 
as  abundant  as  that  of  South  America ;  immense 
trees  lined  the  l)ank  of  the  river,  flocks  of  cocka- 
toos filled  the  air  with  thdr  deafening  chorus,  and 
water-fowl,  in  vast  numbers,  glided  across  the 
flood,  and  flew  up  and  down  over  the  neighbouring 
reaches. 

Zoology,  —  Animal  existence  in  Australia  as- 
sumes a  form  more  anomalous  and  peculiar  than 
even  that  which  marks  its  Botany.  The  following 
tables  have  been  constructed  with  every  possible 
care  from  the  *  K^ne  Animal  *  of  Cuvier,  with  tho 
additions  of  Griflith,  (iray,  ^c,  the  Zoology  of 
Shaw,  the  transactions  of  the  Linniean  Society,  and 
the  works  of  the  various  travellers  in  Australia. 

In  these  tables,  Cuvier 's  great  orders  of  Camas- 
siers  and  I'asseres  are  divided  into  their  several 
families ;  the  former  into  Cheiroptera,  Insecrivora, 
Camivora,  and  Marsupialia ;  the  latter  into  Denti- 
rostres,  Fissirostres,  Conirostres,  and  Tcnuirostrcs. 

Class  Mammaija. 


Whole  No. 

Whole  No. 

NaofSiML 

NanrSpai 

Ordcn 

of  known 

of  Auatn. 

eook  to  A. 

•nd  oUmt 

Rrgiooa 

pocallar  to 

blieclm 

8|wciM 

AuatraUa 

(^uadruniana 

\hh 

0 

0 

0 

Cheiroptera  . 

y.m 

2 

1 

1 

Insectivora  . 

27 

0 

0 

0 

Camivora.  . 

177 

8? 

6 

3? 

Marsupialia . 

f.9 

83 

0 

83 

llodentia   .  . 

1U2 

6 

1? 

6 

Kdentata  .  . 

.21 

4 

0 

4 

Pachyder- 

mata   .  .  . 

24 

0 

0 

0 

Ruminantia. 

Ui 

0 

0 

0 

Cetacea  .  .  . 
Total  .  . 

27 

h 

6 

0 

JM50 

bn 

12 

40 

A\'BS.      (BlIlDS.) 


Whole  No. 

Ordm 

of  known 

S|WlM 

Accipitrcs.  , 

2.''»1 

DentiroHtres 

1,273 

Fissirostres  . 

128 

Conirostres  . 

440 

iTenuiroetres 

818 

..Syndactyles . 

116 

Scansores  .  . 

482 

(ralliiue  .  .  . 

845 

Grallro    .  .  . 

8:).'> 

'Palmipedes  . 

289 

Total 


8,972 


Whole  No. 

of  known 

Auttralian 

bprrin 

HpeeiM 

Auctr  Mid 
other  Rcga. 

16 

6 

130 

7 

12 

1 

20 

8 

80 

1 

7 

0 

84 

0 

20 

8 

2ft 

4 

22 

2 

No.  of  Sp*. 

peculiar  to 

AiutralU 


10 
123 
11 
17 
29 
7 
34 
17 
21 
20 


816 


27 


2f9 


I 

From  these  tables,  which,  though  not  emlxxly- 
ing  the  most  rocent  discoveries,  yet  suflicienny 
vatuable  for  general  purposes,  it  appears,  first,  that 
the  native  animoLs  ol  Austxalia  arc  few  iu  number ; 


268 


AUSTRALASIA 


nnd,  pcrtmdlv,  that  they  are  vor^'  peculiar  in  kind. 
Of  all  the  known  I^Iammalia  m  the  world,  but 
fifty-eight  ppccies,  little  more  than  one-seven- 
teeiith  part  of  the  whole,  belong  originally  to  this 
region.  Of  these  lifty-eight  epccies  forty-six  were 
never  heard  of  till  they  were  first  met  on  this 
w)il ;  and  of  tlie  twelve  species  common  to  Austra- 
lia and  other  regions,  five  arc  whales,  and  four 
(out  of  the  five  Camivora)  seals ;  so  that,  in  truth, 
of  the  terrestrial  Mammalia,  only  three  si)ecies  are 
common ;  of  which  one  is  the  large  and  strong- 
winged  bat  of  Madagascar,  another  (the  single  and 
questionable  common  rodent)  is  r^arded  bv  Mr. 
Ogilby  as  connected  generically  only  witfi  the 
Jerboas  of  America  and  Asia  (LinnWan  Trans. 
xviiL  129-132),  and  the  third  is  the  dog,  of 
which  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  he  is  never 
found  out  of  the  society  of  man,  and  very  rarely 
absent  from  any  spot  which  man  inhabits.  The 
authoritv  just  quoted  (p.  121)  believes,  inddcd, 
that  he  is  not  an  aboriginal  inhabitant  of  this  con- 
tinent, but  that  he  came  to  it  with  the  first 
primitive  settlers,  in  the  same  state  of  savage 
domefltication  in  which  he  now  exists.  lie  was 
unknown  in  Tasmania  (V&n  Diemen*s  I^nd)  be- 
fore the  settlement  of  the  British  04>lonists  there, 
(p.  122.)  The  other  three  Camivora  (probably 
only  two)  marked  in  the  table  as  peculiar  to 
Australia,  are  seals  (Grifiith's  Synopsis  of  Cuv. 
180-188) ;  so  that  the  whole  of*  this  important 
order,  together  with  the  numerous  tribes  of  tlie 
Quadrumana,  Pachydcrmata,  and  Kuminantia,  are 
absolutely  without  any  kno^RTi  land-representa- 
tivea  in  this  extensive  portion  of  the  globe, 
(Ogilby,  Linna^an  Trans,  xviii.  121.)  Of  the  Eden- 
tata, four  species  are  marked  in  this  table,  after 
the  arrangement  of  Cuvier  (iii.  2(>3-2()5) ;  but 
that  arrangement  was  made  in  the  utter  despair  of 
forming  a  better,  and  not  because  it  had  any 
systematic  analog^'  to  recommend  it.  Toothless, 
or  all  but  toothless,  tlie  creatures  unquestionably 
are ;  but  classing  them  in  this  order  reduces  the 
naturalist  to  the  dilemma  of  admitting  that  there 
are  Mammalia  which  do  not  possess  the  dis- 
tinctive mark  of  the  class.  The  Echidni  and 
Omithorhynchi  are  destitute  of  teats,  and  do  not 
suckle  their  ymtng.  The  former  genus  consists  f >f 
two  species  of  porcupines,  one  entirely  covered  with 
thick  spines,  the  other  clothed  with  liair,  in  which 
the  spines  are  half  hidden.  The  Omithorhynchi 
consist  also  of  two  species — O.  parcu&una  and  O. 
fuseus.  Possessing  the  body  and  habits  of  a  mole, 
the  feet  and  bill  of  a  duck,  and  the  intcmal  forma- 
tion of  a  reptile,  these  creatures  lead  a  burrowing 
life  amid  the  mud  of  rivers  and  swamps.  They 
are  extremely  shy,  and  hence  their  mode  of 
reproduction  is  yet  unknown.  Should  they  be 
oviparous,  it  woiUd  be  perhaps  more  consistent  to 
class  them  with  the  Reptilia  than  with  the  Mam- 
malia: but,  at  present^  their  hot  blood  seems  to 
forbid  such  an  arrangement.  The  Omithorhyn- 
chufl  has  two  cheek-teeth  in  each  jaw :  but  they 
are  without  roots,  and  are  merely  fibrous.  (Cuvier, 
iiL264.) 

Of  the  Rodentia,  two  species  belong  to  the  sub- 
genus Hydromys,  and  consist  of  creatures  that 
seem  to  unite  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  dor- 
mouse, rat,  and  beaver.  (Cuv.  lit  72.)  According 
to  Griffith  (S^mop.  Cuv.  222),  they  are  the  only 
true  Hydromys,  are  peculiar  to  Australia,  and 
almost  to  Van  Dicroen's  Land.  A  new  genus  of 
Kodentia  was  made  known  by  Mitchell's  expedi- 
tion in  1835,  which  has  been  allied  Comlukuo,  to 
mark  ita  general  resemblance  to  a  rabbit.  It  is, 
however,  a  rat ;  and  the  species  found  by  Mitchell 
is  remarkable  for  the  formidable  defence  which  it 
bnildB  for  itself  against  the  dingo  (native  dog), 


and  birds  of  prey.    From  this  habit  it  has  been 
named  Conilums  constmctor.      Two  species  of 
mice  (both  peculiar),  and  the  Dipns  Mitcholli  (the 
Australian  jerboa),  discoverod  by  Mitchell  in  IH-HO, 
complete  the  list  of  Aiii<tralian  Roiioiitia,  unless  a 
Kmall  animal,  omitted  in  the  table,  from  tho  un- 
certainty of  its  clussificAtion.  belong  to  that  order. 
Mitchell  names  it  Myrwfci}lnus  rufus.  biit  with 
consideralde  doubt,  and  says  that  it  was  generally 
called  the  *  red  shrew  mouse '  by  hw  party,  (i.  17.) 
Should  it  pn»ve  to  belong  to  the  genus  S4.)rex,  it  is 
the  first  instance^  in  Australia,  of  the  onlcr  Insec- 
tivora.    With  these  few  exceptions,  the  whole  of 
the  Australian   Mammalia  consist  of  the  very 
peculiar  order  Marsupialia,  of  which  order  more 
than  four-sevenths  are.  limited  to  this  continent 
and  its  adjacent  islands.    The  leading  peculiarity 
in  animals  of  this  order,  is  the  birth  of  the  young 
in  an  immature  state ;  in  such  a  state,  in  fact,  as 
L*  scarcely  comparable  t*>  the  ortUnnr\'  devcl<»i)- 
ment  at  which  other  fceti  arrive  within  a  few  days 
after  conception.    From  the  time  of  this  premature 
birth,  without  limlw  or  other  extemal  orgauj*,  the 
little  animal  remains  attached  to  the  teat  of  its 
mother  (which  enlarges,  so  as  completely  to  fill 
the  mouth),  and   enclosed  in  a  natural  pouch 
formed  by  the  skin  of  the  abdomen.     It  is  this 
pouch  which  is  the  distinctive  mark  of  the  order; 
and  its  use  induced  Linnieus  to  arrange  such  si»e- 
cies  of  these  animals  as  he  knew,  under  his  genius 
Didelphisy  a  word  imi)lying  double  matrix.     At 
the  perioil  of  full  development,  the  young  fall 
from  the  teat,  and  this  may  be  regarded  as  the 
real  moment  of  birth;  but  for  a  long  time  after 
the  dam  continues  to  carrv  her  oftspring  in  the 
same  receptacle;  and  the  latter,  even  after  they 
can  walk,  constantly  return  thither  on  the  aj)- 
proach  of  any  danger.    This  remarkal)le  iNinfor- 
mation  is  obser\'ed  in  every  marsupial  animal,  and 
the  arrangements  of  bones  and  muscles,  necessary 
to  it,  is  found  in  the  males  as  well  as  the  femalci*. 
In  other  res^>ects,  however,  the  several  genera  of 
the  order  differ  so  essentially,   that  tlie  whole 
might  be  regarded  as  forming  a  distinct  Class  of 
Yertebrata,  and  divisible,  like  the  other  Mam- 
malia, into  various  orders.    (Cuv.  ii.  61-*>3.)    The 
kangaroo,  the  largest  animal  of  this  onler  and  of 
Australian   Mammalia,    has    been    known  since 
C-ook's  first  voyage.     (Hawkeswortli,  iii,  576.)     It 
is  as  large,  in  some  of  the  species   (of  which 
Grifiith  enumerates  ten),  as  a  good-sized  calf,  is 
very  large  in  its  hinder  quarters,  and  disproportion- 
ately small  forwards.    Its  fore-legs  are  very  short, 
and  quite  useless  to  the  animal's  motion,  which  is 
effected  by  a  succession  of  springs,  assisted  ma- 
terially by  its    long    and    powerfiil    tail.      The 
attitude  is  erect,  except  when  feefling ;  the  colour 
various  in  the  various  sjKXjies,  but  is  generally  of 
different  shades  of  grey.    One  species  (K,  rufus), 
however,  is  red  and  white.    The  other  animals  are 
the  Pott>r>'U8,  Phalangers  (so  nametl  by  Buffon, 
because  the  only  sf)ecies    with    which    he  was 
acquainted  had  two  toes  united  by  a  membrane), 
the  Dasyuri,  the  Paramcl(»s,  the  Pctaurista,  the 
Phascolarctos,  and  the  Phascolomys.     The  diftrr- 
ent  species  of  these  genera  var\'  in  size  from  t  hat 
of  a  rat  to  that  of  a  dog ;  the  largest,  the  dog-farctl 
Dasyurus   {Thylacynus    Harisii),  and    Dasyunis 
untinus  (the  deWl  of  the  colonists),  being  contined 
to  Van   Diemen's  Land.     (Ogilby,  Linn.  Trans, 
xviii.  122.)     Th«  forafier  resembles  clos<dy  an  ill- 
made  dog,  but  is  marked  with  zebra-like  stripes ; 
the  latter  is  represented  as  an  extxeniely  uglv  and 
disgusting-looKing  animal,  whence  his  colonial 
name.    The  other  species  of  the  Das>niri  appn»ach 
in   size  and  outward  appearance  to  the  weas<d 
tribe.    The  Phalangers  of  Australia  are  not  all 


AUSTRALASIA 


269 


distinpushed  by  united  toes;  on  the  contrary, 
some  of  them,  as  the  Vulpine  Phalanger,  approach 
in  the  formation  of  their  extremities,  to  the  Qiiad- 
rumana.  (Sliaw'a  Zoology,  i.  489.)  Some  of  these, 
the  instance  taken,  for  one,  are  pretty  and  graceful 
animals.  The  Petaurista  are  a  sub-genus  of  the 
Phalangers,  and  distinguished  by  an  extension  of 
the  skin  of  the  side,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of 
imrachute ;  they  are  sometimes  called  flying  Pha- 
langers. Of  this  genus  the  Didelphis  Sciurus 
(squirrel  opossum)  has  so  much  the  appearance  of 
a  squirrel,  that  a  close  inspection  is  necessary  to 
detect  its  marsupial  character.  (Shaw's  Zoo.  N. 
lIoU.  29.)  The  Parameles  approach  in  form  and 
habits  to  badgers,  and  indeed  are  called  pouched 
badgers ;  they  differ  from  the  other  Marsupialia  in 
the  Mcakness  of  their  tail,  that  member  being 
generally  scr\'iceAble  to  this  onler,  either  bv  its 
strength  or  its  prehensibility.  (Griffith's  J^otes, 
Cuv.  iii.  39.)  The  Phascolarctos,  or  Koala,  as  it 
is  more  commonly  called,  consists  of  only  one 
known  species ;  it  has  a  clumsy  body,  about  the 
size  of  a  moderately  large  dog,  short  legs  and 
claws,  adapted  for  climbing  and  burrowing.  The 
female  carrier*  her  young,  for  a  long  time,  on  her 
shoulders,  and  not  in  her  marsupial  bag.  Some 
naturalists  have  referred  this  animal  to  the  Pha- 
langers, and  others  have  denominated  it  the  New 
Hulland  sloth.  It  has,  however,  no  resemblance 
to  tlie  Tardigratla,  possesses  cutting  teeth,  and  is 
destitute  of  canines.  (Cuv.  ii.  76;  sec  also  iii. 
252 ;  and  Griffith's  Synops,  294.)  The  Phasco- 
lomys,  like  the  last  genus,  contauis  at  presen^but 
one  species,  the  wombat  of  the  colonists.  It  is  a 
plantigrade  animal,  extremely  slow  in  its  motion, 
and  is  alxnit  the  size  of  a  badger.  ShaM'  (i.  504) 
mentions  this  creature  umler  the  name  of  Didel- 
phis  ursina,  and  a  second  specie^^  is  suspected  to 
have  bt^n  seen  by  Bass.     (Cuv.  ii.  78.) 

In  habits  the  different  genera  of  the  Marsupialia 
differ  as  much  as  they  do  in  form.  There  is 
scarcely,  indeed,  an  order  of  the  whole  class  Mam- 
malia to  which  one  or  other  of  them  does  not 
assimilate.  Thus,  the  Dasyuri  arc  carnivorous, 
and  have  many  of  the  habits  of  the  Fehnae ;  the 
Phalangers  are  insectivorous,  and  it  has  been 
already  stated  that  some  of  them  approximate  in 
form  to  the  Quadnimana ;  a  similar  approach  will, 
perluq^s,  \)C  admitted  of  the  Petaurista  to  the 
Chenroptera ;  and  the  Phascolomys  or  wombat  is 
a  true  rodent     (Cuv.  ii.  61-78.) 

Tlie  kangaroos  though  strictly  herbivorous,  can- 
not be  compared  with  any  known  genus  but 
themselves;  and  the  useful  onlers  of  Ruminantia 
and  Pachydermata  are  unrepresented  by  any 
marsu])ial  form. 

IJut  those  tribes  comprising  most  of  the  animals 
that,  by  their  strength,  docility,  fleece,  or  hide, 
and  the  nutritious  quality  of  their  flesh,  are  most 
useful  to  man,  though  only  recently  imported,  are 
now  extremely  abundant  in  all  the  settled  parts 
of  Australasia.  On  the  1st  of  May,  17X8,  a  stock 
was  carried  out  by  the  first  settler*  of  1  stallion, 
3  mares,  3  colts,  2  bulb,  5  cows.  29  sheep,  19  goats, 
49  hogs,  25  pigs.  (Phillip,  1 10.)  And  from  this 
late  and  scanty  stock,  assisted  by  a  few  subsequent 
imiKirtations,  have  been  derived  all  the  vast  num- 
bers of  sheep  and  other  useful  animals  now  to  be 
found  on  the  Australian  continent.  It  is  needless 
to  trace  their  ])rogress  in  detail.  Suffice  it  to  say, 
that  though  for  a  while  their  increase  was  compa- 
ratively slow,  there  were  in  New  South  Wales 
alone  in  1810,  25,888  sheep  and  12,4-12  head  of 
cattle.  In  1822  the  f»>rmer  had  hicrease<l  to 
290,158,  and  the  latter  to  122,939.  On  the  1st  of 
Januarv,  1803,  the  pnATuce  of  Ncav  South  Wales 
hod  0,145,051  sheep,  while  A'ictoria  had,  on  the 


3l8t  of  March,  1863,  no  less  than  86,067  hones, 
576,601  head  of  cattle,  and  6,764,851  aheep.  So 
rapid  an  increase  is  probably  unequalled  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that 
the  pastures  and  climate  of  Australia  are  well 
adapted  to  the  useful  animals  so  long  strangers  to 
its  soil;  and  the  beneficial  changes  which  their 
introduction  has  effected  in  this  new  land,  is  one 
of  the  most  interesting  instances  of  the  power 
possessed  by  man  of  modifying  the  physical  pecu- 
liarities of  the  world  which  he  inhabits.  (For 
farther  details  regarding  the  progress  of  a^cul- 
ture  as  well  as  of  trade  and  commerce,  m  tho 
states  of  Australasia,  see  the  separate  articles.) 

The  ornithology  of  Australia  is  less  anomalous 
than  its  mammmogy :  no  order  of  birds  b  without 
its  representative,  and  there  are  but  two  the  Aus- 
tralian species  of  which  are  wholly  peculiar.     Yet 
the  common  species  bear  a  very  small  proportion 
to  those  which  are  peculiar ;  and,  for  the  most  part, 
are  common  only  to  N.  and  E.  Australia,  and  S. 
Asia,  or  the  nearer  Polynesian  islands.    Several 
genera  are  wanting ;  all  the  tribes  of  usual  singing 
birds,  for  instance :  and  of  the  common  species,  the 
most  numerous  are,  as  might  be  expected,  those  ot 
strong  flight  and  comparatively  light  bodies ;  such 
as  the  Accipitres  (bmls  of  prey)  and  the  Den- 
tirostres  (shnkes,  pies,  &c).  Among  the  rapacious 
birds,  the  most  singular  is  a  white  eagle,  which 
Cu^^er  thought  was  only  an  albino  of  some  other 
species  {vi,  49),  and  which  Shaw  referred  to  the 
list  of  hawks  (viL  93),  but  which  subsequent  inves- 
tigation has  proved  to  be  a  true  eagle.     (Griffith's 
Notes  Cuv.  vi.  50.)  Among  the  onier  Dentirostres, 
are  some  species  of  great  beauty ;    the  superb 
warbler,  a  bird  having  the  habits  of  the  redbreast, 
is  perhaps  the  most  beautiful.    There  are  also  some 
variegated  thrushes ;  but  of  these  and  other  birds 
of  this  order,  though  very  accurate  descriptions  be 
given  of  their  appearance  (Phillip,  157;  Shaw's 
N.  Holl,  Zoo.  25),  nothing  is  said  respecting  their 
notes ;  and  it  may  be  inferred  that,  notwithstand- 
ing their  names,  they  are  songless.    A  species  of 
thrush,  called  thunder  binl  (Cuv.  vL  434),  has 
obtained  from  the  colonists  the  name  of  the  laugh- 
ing jackass^  from  his  peculiarly  loud  and  discordant 
cry.    Swallows  and  goatsuckers,  of  the  order  Fis- 
sirostres,  are  numerous ;  and  of  the  Conirostrcs, 
the  most    remarkable  species  are  the  beautiful 
birds  of  paradise,  which  are  almost  confined  to 
New  Guinea.    There  are  also  several  crows  and 
magpies  of  this  order ;  but  the  larks  (so  called)  are 
but  poor  imitations  of  those  of  Europe,  and  appear 
all  to  belong  to  CuWer  s  genus  of  field  larks  (yL 
480),  and  consequently  to  the  order  Dentirostres. 
Of  the  Tcnuirostres,  the  various  species  of  the 
Epimaclii  are,  like  the  birds  of  paradise,  confined 
to  the  N.   parts  of  Australia;  like  them,  their 
plumage  ranks  amongst  the  most  beautiful ;  and 
like  them,  too,  they  have  been   the  subjects  of 
innumerable  fables.    (Cuv.  vii.  382.)  The  S3mdao- 
tyles  give  to  Australia  its  kingfishers  and  bee- 
eaters,  of  which  the  sacred  kingfisher  of  the  first, 
and  the  varii^ated  bee-eater  of  the  other,  are 
worthy  of  notice  for  the  extreme  beauty  of  their 
covering.    All  the  Australian  species  of  this  order 
are  peculiar,  as  are  also  those  of  the  Scansores, 
consisting  of  the  parrots,  paroquets,  cockatoos,  &c 
These  la^t  are  very  numerous  in  the  Australian 
wooiLs,  supplying  there  the  place  of  the  European 
songsters.     (V.    Cunn.  i.  216.)    The    pheasants, 
quails,  and  pigeons  of  the  order  Gallinse,  are  tole- 
rably numerous;  and,  according  to  Cunningham, 
the  mountain  pheasant  is  a  bird  of  song.    Tho 
same  gentleman  makes  the  same  remark  upon  one 
species  of  Australian  magpie  (L  302),  and  states 
fiurther,  that  wild  turkeys,  of  two  varieties,  are 


270 


AUSTRALASIA 


found;  but  these  are,  most  probably,  a  species  of 
bustard,  and  belong  to  the  order  Gallff,  which 
yields  also  the  emu  or  Aufitralian  cossowary,  nearly 
equal  in  size  to  the  ostrich,  and  rt'semhling  it  in 
many  important  mrtictilars.  (Cuv.  viii.  298.)  Of 
this  order,  Australia  has  also  some  species  of  cur- 
lews, herons,  avoscts,  rails,  &c  (Cuv.  >'iiL  342- 
894.)  Lastly,  of  the  Palmi{)edes,  there  are  in  this 
region  pelicans,  boobies  (so  numerous  as  to  have 
given  name  to  an  island  on  the  N.  coast),  petrels, 
penguins,  ducks  of  a  peculiar  kind,  and  swans 
which  realise  the  ram  acia  in  terrii  of  the  Latin 
poet,  being  coal  black.  (Cuv.  viiu  561-624.)  It 
remains  to  be  observed,  tlmt  the  eighteen  turkeys, 
twenty-nine  geese,  thirty-five  duckis  and  eighty- 
seven  chickens,  which  aiirived  in  New  South  Wales 
in  1788  (Phillip,  110),  have  multiplied  to  an  ex- 
tent not  surpassed  by  the  sheep.  vVithin  the  last 
few  years  some  of  our  singing  birds  have  also  been 
transplanted  to  Australia,  and  there  seems  little 
doubt  that  the  songsters  of  Kuro])e  will  before  long 
be  acclimatised  to  tlic  woods  at  the  antipodes. 

The  reptiles  of  Australia  are  comparatively  more 
numerous  than  cither  the  Mammalia  or  the  Aves. 
They  consist  of  two  or  three  genera  of  turtles ;  as 
many  varieties  of  alligators;  and  a  considerable 
number  of  lizanls  aii<i  seqicnts,  both  venomous 
and  harmless.  The  land  lizard  and  the  Colul)cr 
porph^Tiacus  (crimson-sided  snake)  are  represented 
as  of  extraordinary'  beauty.    The  seas  and  riven 

*  abound  in  fish,  many  of 'them  peculiar:  and  the 
Watts'  shark,  the  smallest  of  the  species  at  present 
known,  is  remarkable  for  having  the  mouth  near 
the  end  of  the  heaii,  uistead  of  underneath,  as  in 
other  animals  of  this  genus.'  The  insect  tribe  are 
very  numerous,  but  they  ajipear  to  differ  far  less 
1  lum  the  other  animals  from  those  in  other  coun- 
tries similarly  situated. 

Eacen  of  Men. — If  the  iU\Tsi(m  of  the  human 
family,  by  Blumcnbach,  into  five  varieties,  be 
rigorously  abicUnl  by,  the  native  of  the  con- 
tinent of  Australia  must  be  classed  with  the 
Kthiopian,  or  negro,  a<  approaching,  upon  the 
whole,  nearer  to  his  conformation  than  to  that  of 
any  other  race.  i)ut  Mr.  Crawfurd  (Ilist.  Ind. 
Aroh.  i.  24)  says  that  the  *  east  insular  negro  w  a 
distinct  variety  of  the  human  species ; '  and,  indeed, 
he  has  peculiarities  quite  sutHdent  to  make  his 
clarification  with  the  African  Ethiop  one  of  con- 
siderable vi<»lence.  *  The  skin  is  lighter ;  the 
woolly  hair  grog's  in  small  tufts,  and  each  hair  has 
a  spiral  twist;  the  forehead  is  higher,  the  nose 
much  less  depressed,  and  the  butt<H*ks  areso  much 
lower  than  in  the  African,  as  to  form  a  striking 
mark  of  distinction.'  It  is  to  this  race,  if  any, 
that  the  Australian  must  be  referred;  and  the  in- 
habitant of  the  contuient  recedes  still  more  from 
the  true  negro,  by  having  straight^  or  at  all  events 
curling,  hair.  Capt,  Cook's  description  of  this  race 
has  been  verified  by  ever}*  succeeding  ol)eerver, 

*  The  skin,*  says  he,  *  is  of  the  colour  of  wood  soot, 
or  what  is  commonly  called  chocolate  colour. 
Their  features  are  far  from  disagreeable;  their 
noses  are  not  flat,  nor  are  their  Ii|is  thick ;  their 
teeth  arc  white  and  even,  and  their  hair  naturally 
long  and  black ;  it  is,  however,  cropped  short ;  in 
general  it  is  straight,  but  sometimes  it  has  a  slight 
curl ;  we  saw  none  that  was  not  matted  and  filthy, 
though  without  grease,  and  to  our  great  astonish- 
ment free  from  vermin.  Their  beanls  were  of  the 
same  colour  with  their  hair,  bushy  and  thick ; 
but  thev  are  not  suflftTed  to  grow  long.*  (Hawkes- 
worUi,  lii.  632.)  The  colour  of  the  Australian  does 
not  appear  to  he  uniform ;  some,  even  when 
cleansed  from  their  tilth,  are  nearly  as  dark  as 
the  African,  while  otlien  have  a  tint  not  deeper 
than  that  of  the  Malay.    The  Australian  is  gene^ 


rally  tall  and  slender,  with  little  development  of 
muscle,  and  more  remarkable  for  agility  than 
strength.  Prichard,  after  comj3aring  the  various 
authorities,  describes  them  in  the  last  edition  uf  his 
great  work  as  follows: — *'Mie  stature  of  the  Aus- 
tralians is  moderate^  and  often  below  the  mean. 
The  limbs  among  many  tribes  are  slender,  thin, 
and  in  appearance  of  disproportioncd  length,  wliile 
some  individuals,  on  thecontrar}-,  have  them  stout 
and  well-proportioned.  Their  hair  is  not  woollv  ; 
it  is  hard,  very  black  and  thick ;  they  wear  it  dis- 
hevelled, and  in  general  sliort,  in  frizzled  moKses. 
Their  beard  is  of  the  same  nature  as  their  hair, 
commonly  rough  and  tufte«i  on  the  sides  of  their 
face.  Their  countenance  is  flattened,  nose  very 
huge,  with  nostrils  almost  transversely  placed, 
thick  lips,  mouth  of  disproportionate  widtli,  teeth 
projecting  but  of  the  finest  enameL  L<H>se  circular 
ears  ven-  am])ly  develo|)ed,  and  eyes  half  closwl  Ijy 
the  laxity  of  their  upper  eyelids  give  to  their  phy- 
siognomy a  savage  and*  repulsive  aspirt.  'Mie 
colour  of  their  skin,  generally  of  a  smoky  black, 
varies  in  its  hue,  which  is  never  very  <lcej>.  The 
AustraHan  women,  still  more  ugly  than  the  men, 
have  squalid  and  disgusting  fonius;  the  distance 
which  se^iarates  them  from  the  beau  ifleal  apiwrars 
immense  in  the  eyes  of  a  Euro|>ean.  A  great 
number  of  families  i)lace  in  the  septum  of  the  uo>e 
round  sticks,  from  four  to  six  inches  long,  which 
give  a  ferocious  aspect  to  their  countenances.' 
(Researches  into  the  Natural  Historj'  of  Mankind, 
i.  256,  4th  ed.)  It  must  be  remarked*,  however,  tliat 
the  -Tasmanians  (inhabitants  of  Van  Diernen's 
Land)  are  woolly  headeil,  as  are  also  tlie  natives  of 
New  Caledonia,  New  Guinea,  an<l  the  other  islands 
considered  hi  this  article  as  constituting  Australa- 
sia, with  the  single  exception  of  New  Zeiilan<l.  The 
latter,  tliough  more  remote  from  the  Polynesian 
islands  than  anv  of  the  others,  is  mhabited'  by  the 
brown  race  of  those  groups  which  is  said  by  Craw- 
furd (L  18)  to  have  the  same  superiority  over  their 
s<H)ty  neighlK>urs  that  t-he  white  men  of  the  West 
have  over  the  African  negro.  The  physical  dis- 
tinction between  the  continental  and  insular  Aus- 
tralasians is  otherwise  verj-  great.  The  continent 
of  Australia  may  with  great  propriety  Ik?  regaixle<l 
as  the  native  home  of  a  distmct  and  decidedly 
inferior  variety  of  the  human  race  (Crawfunl.  i. 
24),  which  has  spread  itself  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance N.  and  E.  among  the  udands  of  Polynoia 
and  the  Indian  arehipelago,  and  even  to  the  S.  ex- 
tremity of  continental  Asia.  That  thL*  variety  is, 
physically  considered,  the  lowest  in  the  scale  of 
rational  beings,  is  sufficiently  oHdent,  Puny  and 
weak,  in  com))arison  with  the  African  negro,  the 
Australian  is  hunted  down,  with(»ut  making  any 
effectual  opjxtsition,  whenever  he  Ls  encountered 
by  any  of  his  fairer  neighl)ours  ;  while  the  African 
is  subdued  only  by  superior  intelligence,  and  suc- 
cessfully resists  mere  i)hysical  force.  As  }>en4onal 
strength  is  one  effect  of  superior  physical  stnicture, 
the  foUoM-ing  results  may  be  interesting.  They  are 
the  averages  deduced  from  the  jM)wer  exhibiteil  in 
the  arms  and  loins  of  thirtv-nine  Australians,  tifty- 
six  Timorians,  seventeen  t'renchnien,  and  fourteen 
Englislmien.  Tliese  i»eople  were  fouiui  capable  uf 
bearing  respectively  the  following  jiressures : — 


■  ! 

or  Arms 

Of  Lnint  In  1 

StnngUi 

in  Kilo- 

Myrla- 

(rrainmci 

^Mnnin 

12  Tasmaninns,  av. 

M-6 

17  New  Hollanders,  av. 

•  1 

f.0-8 

10-2 

66  Tiinorianf,  nv.  . 

1 

r>ii'7 

11-6 

17  Froiichracn,  av. 

m-2 

l.'>-2 

14  Englishmen,  av. 

71-1 

it;-3 

(Lawrence,  404.)    The  Timorians,  it  shutdd  \n} 


AUSTRALASU 


271 


observed,  are  of  the  brown  race;  and  it  may  be 
seen  that  in  Btrcn^h  of  arm  they  exceed  the  Aius- 
tralian»  more  than  they  fall  short  of  the  Euro]jean8. 
Between  these  two,  the  weakest  Enfclish  arm  was 
more  powerful  than  the  gtrongest  Australian,  and 
the  most  muscular  of  the  latter  could  bear  upon  his 
loins  only  half  a  mjTiagramme  more  than  the 
weakest  of  the  fonner. 

The  Australian  Is  not  more  inferior  in  physical 
vijjfour  than  in  moral  and  intellectual  attainments. 
His  is  the  only  race  with  which  we  are  acquainted, 
that  ha.s  no  sort  of  clothing.  The  Australian  has 
domesticated  no  animals,  and  has  no  knowledge 
of  agriculture,  even  in  its  simplest  form.  His  huts, 
inferior  by  many  degrees*  to  the  wig^vams  of  the 
American  Indians,  are  but  rarely  met  with  in  the 
warmer  portions  of  the  continent.  His  canoes 
serve  onlv  to  carrv  him  across  narrow  creeks  or 
inlets  of  the  sea.  And  these,  with  spears  and  fish- 
hof>ks,  stone  hatchets,  a  kind  of  shield,  and  a  carved 
wooden  missile,  which,  when  thrown  bv  a  skilful 
hand,  rises  with  a  rotatory  motitm  in  the  air, 
striking  at  a  considerable  distance,  and  rebound- 
ing to  near  the  thrower,  form  the  sum  total  of  his 
instmments  of  priMhiotion,  defence,  and  aggression. 
The  subsistence  of  the  Australians  is  alike  scantv 
and  lilthy,  consisting  of  the  tle,sh  of  wild  animals, 
shell  and  other  fish,  worms  and  other  reptiles,  ants 
aiul  ant  eggs,  wild-honey,  roots  and  berries.  And 
the  supply  of  wild  animals  and  of  edible  plants 
being  limited  in  the  extreme,  and  apt  occasionally 
to  sutler  greatly  from  droughts,  they  seldom  have 
a  sutliciency  of  food,  and  whole  trii>es  sometimes 
l)ecome  the  victims  of  famine.  The  treatment  of 
females  in  Australia  is  in  the  last  degree  bnital. 
Wives  are  not  courted  or  purchased,  but  are  seized 
iip<>n,  stupilied  by  blows,  and  tlien  carried  off  to 
be  the  slaves  of  their  unfeeling  masters;  and 
should  a  mother  die  with  a  child  at  the  breast,  it 
is  usual  to  bury  the  latter  alive  with  its  dead 
parent  I  ((>)llins'  N.  S.  Wales,  App.  p.  COl.)  They 
are  in  so  for  acquainted  with  the  right  of  property, 
that  each  tril)e  claims  the  exirlusive  possession,  for 
hunting  puqwises.  of  the  territory  which  it  c>ccu- 
pies.  They  seem,  also,  t^)  believe  in  the  existence 
of  go<Ml  and  evil  sjnrits ;  but  they  have  no  feeling 
of  gratitude  towards  the  former,  though  they  en- 
deavour by  supt'rstitious  observances  to  avert  the 
WTath  of  the  latter.  In  short,  this  race,  the  last 
and  lowest  of  the  luiman  species.  ap|3ears  to  be  as 
barbarous  as  can  well  Ix*  imagined ;  and  in  this 
state  it  has  hitherto  existed,  without  apparently 
JK)^4sessing  either  the  iK)\ver  or  the  wish  to  make 
the  first  step  in  civilisation.  Hence  it  has  been 
ooncluiled,  that  the  Australians  are  inculpable  of 
civilisation  ;  and  that  they  are  essentlilly,  and  not 
accidentally,  inferior  even  to  the  lowest  tyiK?  of 
the  negro.  Ihit,  degraded  as  they  are,  this  infer- 
ence has  l^en  denied,  at  lea«*t  tt)  it.s  full  ext4?nt. 

Nature,  it  Is  sai<l,  has  heen  singularly  unkind  to 
the  Australian,  not  in  his  confonnation  only,  but 
in  the  circumstances  under  which  he  has  been 
placed.  The  fertile  s|)ots  lifted  f(>r  the  sujjply  of 
ills  limit(;d  wants  are  separated  by  deserts  as  wihl 
an<l  inhospitable  as  the  sands  of  Arabia;  and  to 
])ass  the-se,  he  had  not,  like  the  Arab,  the  assist- 
ance of  patient,  strong,  and  faithful  servants  of 
the  bnite  creation.  Few  navigable  rivers  tlow 
through  his  strangely  c«)nstituted  land ;  and  thus 
c<»mmunication,  the  great  refiner  and  improver  of 
mankind,  was  rendered  difficult  and  of  rare  occur- 
rence. His  s<^)il  was  destitute  of  those  plant.s, 
which,  though  'eaten  in  the  s%veat  of  his  brow,' 
are  at  once  the  incentives  to  an«l  the  reward  of 
man's  labour;  nor  <lid  it  feed  a  single  animal  like 
those  which,  in  more  favoured  regions,  have  fonned 
from  time  immemorial  the  bhei)iicrd'8  occupation 


and  wealth.  The  Australian  being  thus  shut  out 
from  the  two  grand  primitive  emplojTnents,  his 
life  could  be  neither  pastoral  nor  agricuIturaL 
Under  less  adverse  circumstances,  the  red  man 
continued  a  hunter  in  the  greater  i>art  of  America, 
during  the  ages  that  preceded  his  discovery  bv 
the  Europeans.  And  even  this  resource  was  all 
but  denied^  to  the  Australian ;  the  animals  around 
him  being  not  only  inferior  in  kind,  but  also  re- 
markably few  in  number.  It  is  farther  said,  that 
even  the  excitement  of  danger,  which  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  roused  the  African  to  exertion,  by 
making  his  life  a  constant  struggle  with  the  fierce 
and  powerful  tenants  of  the  woods,  was  wanting 
here ;  for  in  Australia  there  was  nothing  dangerous, 
except  some  noxious  reptiles,  which  do  not,  how- 
ever, appear  to  have  any  very  fatal  powers.  The 
Australian  had  nothing  but  hunger  to  contend 
with ;  and  this  he  endeavoured,  as  already  seen, 
to  appcAse  by  picking  up  the  spontaneous  products 
of  his  ungrateful  soil,  and  the  shell-fish  found  on 
the  sea-shore,  with  insects  and  reptiles ;  to  which 
he  occasionally  added  a  kangaroo  or  bini,  over- 
tAken  or  destroyed  b^  accident  And  Mitchdl 
mentions,  that  such  is  the  scarcity  of  the  latter 
kind  of  fo<Ml,  that  young  men  are  forbi«lden  to  eat 
it  (ii.  iMO.)  The  surmise  of  Cook,  that  it  was 
impossible  for  the  inland  country  to  subsist  inha- 
bitants at  all  seasons  (Ilawkesworth,  iii.  631),  was 
found  bv  Sturt  to  be  fatally  verified  in  the  diy 
year  of  1*828.    (i.  137.) 

IJut  the  adverse  circumstances  now  alluded  to, 
do  not,  as  some  suppose^  fully  account  for  the  bar- 
barous condition  of  the  alxirigines  of  Australia. 
The  stupidity  of  his  nature,  and  the  inertness  of 
his  faculties,  are  exdnced  by  his  having  made  few 
or  no  efforts  to  increase  liis  supply  of  foml,  or  to 
obviate  those  incessantly  recurring  att-acks  of  fa- 
mine to  which  he  has  alwavs  been  exposeiL  His 
want  of  other  things  should  have  made  him  an 
expert  himter  and  fisher  of  such  animals  as  are 
native  to  his  country  and  its  seas:  but  he  is 
neither  the  one  nor  the  other ;  and  though  it  Xte 
perhaps  going  too  far  to  say  that  the  Australian 
IS  incajiable  of  civilisation,  the  fair  })resumption 
seems  to  be,  that  he  is  destined  to  remain  for  ever 
at  the  bottom  of  the  social  scale;  and  to  be  in- 
ferior in  point  of  comfort,  as  he  has  hitherto  hardly 
l)een  superior  in  contrivance,  to  many  of  the  lower 
animals. 

It  has  been  supposed,  apparently  with  much 
probability,  that  the  increase  of  wild  cattle  will 
materially  improve  both  the  comforts  and  the 
character  of  the  natives;  but  at  present  it  is  not 
possible  to  imagine  a  closer  approximation  to  the 
least  intelligiuit  of  the  brutes,  than  the  Austra- 
lians. And  yet  this  barbarous  and  degraded  race 
has  had  its  admirers.  According  to  Count  Strze- 
lecki,  the  Australian  would  seem  to  have  attained 
to  the  summit  of  human  felicitv,  and  he  appears 
to  regret  that  the  immigration  of  Europeans 
*  should  have  disturbed  his  happy  economy.* 
(p.  343.)  To  comment  on  such  a  statement,  would 
be  al)out  as  absurd  as  the  statement  itself.  It 
would  be  a  liljel  on  Providence,  to  suppose  that  it 
was  intended  that  this  extensive  portion  of  the 
earth  should  be  for  ever  occupied  by  a  handful  of 
naked  savages,  without  arts,  science,  industry,  or 
civilisation  of  any  kind.  Some  of  the  Europeans 
who  have  Hsited  Australia,  have  not  certainly 
been  very  favourable  specimens  of  civilised  man. 
But  despite  their  crimes  and  their  vices,  they 
carried  with  them  science,  talent,  and  enterprise, 
with  the  germs  and  the  capability  of  rapid  and 
unlimited  improvement ;  and  we  are  bold  to  say, 
that  the  leiust  and  worst  of  the  settlements  founded 
in  this  vast  continent,  has  a  thousand  times  more 


272 


AUSTRALASU 


of  all  that  (lignificfi,  exalts,  and  adorns  humanity, 
than  ever  was  possessed  by  its  entire  aboriginal 
poiMilation. 

History  and  Discovery. — Some  accidental  dis- 
coveries were  -made  by  the  Spaniards  as  early  as 
1526;  but  the  first  accurate  Knowledge  that  was 
gained  in  Europe  of  these  S.  lands,  was  by  the 
voyage  of  the  Dutch  yacht  Duyf  hen,  which,  in 
IGOo,  explored  a  part  of  the  coasts  of  New  Guinea. 
In  the  following  year,  Torres,  a  Spaniard,  having 
passed  through  the  straits,  which  bear  his  name, 
between  that  island  and  continental  Australia, 
leave  the  first  account  of  the  N.  part  of  the  latter, 
rhe  Dutch  continued  to  be  the  chief  diMoverers 
for  the  next  forty  years,  chiefly  from  their  pos- 
sessions in  the  £.  Indies ;  and  between  tlie  years 
1642  and  1G44,  Tasman  completed  the  discover}' 
of  a  large  portion  of  the  Australian  coast,  to- 
gether with  part  of  the  island  of  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  now  pretty  generally,  and  we  think  pro- 
perlVf  called  Tasmania,  During  the  period  referred 
to,  the  Dutch  na\'igators  succeeded  in  surveying 
about  half  the  continental  coast  line ;    and  the 
names  bestowed  upon  various  {>arts  ot  the  land, 
as  Carpentaria,  De  Wit's  Land!,  Amhcim's  Land, 
£ndiacht's  Land,  Xuyt's  Land,  I^uwen'n  Land, 
Kdel's  Land,  d'C,  commemorate  the  names  either 
of  the  discoverers  themselves,  or  of  the  ships  in 
which  they  sailed.    It  was  late  before  the  English 
entered  on  the  career  of  dL^coverj' :  but  once  en- 
tered, tliey  prosci'utcd  it  with  vigour.    Dompier, 
l)etween  1G84  and  109O,  explored  a  part  of  the 
W.  and  NW.  coasts ;  and  in  the  remaining  part 
of  the  17th  centur}',  completed  this  survev,  gave 
his  name  to  the  archiijelago  lyuig  E.  of*  N.  W. 
Cape^  and  pushed  his  enquiries  to  the  islands  of 
New  Guinea,  New  Britain,  and  New  Ireland ;  the 
straits  between  the  first  two  beiu^  called  by  his 
name.    The  account  which  Dampier  gives  of  the 
native  inhabitants  of  Australia,  being  graphical, 
and,  in  most  rei^)ects,  accurate,  will  he  read  with 
interest.    *  The  inhabitants  of  this  country,'  savs 
he,  *  are  the  miserablest  people  in  the  world.   Tiie 
Hodmadods  of  Monomotapa,    though    a    nasty 
people,  yet  for  wealth  are  gentlemen  to  these;  who 
nave  no'  houses  and  skin  garments,  sheep,  poultry, 
and  fruits  of  the  earth,  ostrich-eggs,  (&c,,  as  the 
Hodmadods  have;  and  setting  aside  their  human 
shape,  they  differ  but  little  from  brutes.    Tliey 
are  tall,  straight-l)odied,  and  thin,  with  small  long 
limbs.  They  have  great  heads,  round  foreheads,  and 
great  brows.    The  eyelidn  are  always  half  closed, 
to  keep  the  flies  out  of  their  eyes.  .  .  .  They  have 
great  bottle    noses,  pretty  full  lips,  and  wide 
mouths.  ITie  two  fore-teeth  of  their  upper  jaw  are 
wanting  in  all  of  them,  men  and  women,  old  and 
young ;  whether  they  draw  them  out  1  know  not ; 
neither  have  they  any  beards.    They  are  long- 
visaged,  and  of  a  very  unpleasing  aspect,  having 
no  one  graceful  feature  in  their  faces.    Their  hair 
is  black,  short,  and  curled,  like  that  of  the  negroes, 
and  not  long  and  lank,  like  that  of  the  common 
Indians.    The  colour  of  their  skins,  both  of  their 
faces  and  the  rest  of  their  Ixxly,  is  coal  black,  like 
that  of  the  negroes  of  Guinea.    They  have  no 
sort  of  clothes,  but  a  piece  of  the  rind  of  a  tree 
tied  like  a  girdle  about  their  wai-sts,  and  a  handful 
of  long  gross,  or  three  or  four  small  green  boughs 
full  of  leaves,  thrust  undemeatli  their  girdle  to 
co^'er  their  nakednei».    They  liave  no  houses,  but 
lie  in  the  open  air  without  any  coverinj:^,  the  earth 
l^ing  their  bed,  and  the  heaven  their  canopy.' 
(Dampier's  Vovagcs.  ii.  464,  ed.  1729.)     Between 
1763  and  1766',  Wallis  and  Carteret  followed  in 
tlye  track  of  Dampier,  and  added  to  his  discoveries 
those  of  New  Hanover  and  other  islands,    lliese 
were  followed  by  Cook,  who  in  1770  discovered 


and  traced  the  whole  E.  coast  of  continental  Aus- 
tralia, from  Cape5l<)we  at  its  S.  to  Cape  Yorke  at 
its  N.  extremity.  In  the  same  voyage  this  great 
navigator  discovered  the  Island  of  New  Caleiionia, 
and  did  more,  in  fact^  for  Australian  discovery, 
than  had  been  done  by  all  the  navigators  by 
whom  he  had  been  preceded.  In  this  brief  notice 
the  name  of  Bligh  should  not  be  forgotten,  who, 
after  the  mutiny  of  tlie  Bounty,  in  17^9,  though 
in  an  open  boat,  and  devoid  of  almost  every  neces- 
sanr,  carried  on  a  series  of  observations  on  the 
NE.  coast,  which  added  considerably  to  the  general 
stock  of  knowledge.  A  colony  having  been  esta- 
blished at  Sydney  in  the  previous  year,  internal 
and  coasting  expeilitions  were  simultaneously  set 
on  foot  for  exploring  the  new  land  which  had  be- 
come the  residence  of  Englishmen.  It  may  l)e 
obser\'ed  that,  previously  to  this,  France  entered 
on  the  task  of  southern  discover^',  but  with  no 
great  success ;  Navigators'  Itilands,  and  the 
J^>uisiades,  explored  by  Bougainville,  bctwwn 
1768  and  1770,  being  the  most  im[K)rtaiit  addi- 
tions her  officers  had  then  made  to  the  ma]>s  of 
this  division  of  the  world.  Edwards,  in  1791, 
Bligh  (second  time),  Portlock,  in  1792,  and 
Bampton  and  Alt,  in  1793,  nearly  completed  the 
knowledge  of  Torres'  Straits  and  a  great  part  of 
the  N.  coast ;  but  tlie  greatest  discoverers,  towards 
the  end  of  last  century,  were  Iku«s  and  Flinders, 
who  surveyed  a  great  extent  of  ct^ast,  mostly  in 
open  boats.  In  1798  they  sailed  through  the 
strait  between  Tasmania,  or  Van  Diemen's  l^aiid, 
and  the  crmtinent.  In  the  last  year  of  the  18tli 
centurj',  Grant  explored  a  ix)rtion  of  the  S.  coast, 
which  beare  his  name ;  and,  in  the  five  following 
years.  Flinders  completed  a  8ur\'ey  of  the  S.  and 
E.  coasts,  and  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  which 
may  be  regarded  as  nearly  perfect.  In  the  same 
years,  Baudin's  expedition  was  employed  on  the 
same  coast  and  Van  Diemen's  Land,  the  French  and 
English  commanders  ha\'ing  met  in  Encounter  Bay, 
so  named  in  consequence  of  that  event.  Captains 
King,  Stokes,  and  Fitzrov  8ur\*eved  the  coasts 
in  1821-2;  Major  Mitchell  (afterwards  Sir  Th(»ma**) 
followed  in  1835-6 ;  Lieutenants  Grey  and  LuhIi- 
ington  examined  Western  Australia  in  1837—11) ; 
Captains  Wickham  and  Fitzroy  made  extensive 
surveys  from  1837  to  1843 ;  and  Sir  Thomas  Mit- 
chell made  another  expedirion  to  the  N.  coast, 
and  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  in 
1854-5.  The  subsequent  sur\'eys  and  explora- 
tions were  chiefly  inuuid,  and  have  been  already 
noticed. 

Extent  and  P(^fndation,-—AccoT6ms  to  official 
returns  of  the  year  1864,  the  area  and  {)opulatiun 
of  Australasia,  at  that  period,  was  as  follows : — 


SUtw 

Eng.  tq.  mllM 

Populfttlon 

New  South  Wales     . 

323,437 

367,49/) 

Victoria    .... 

86,831 

673,941 

South  Australia 

383,3'i8 

13.'.,;f29 

Western  Australia    . 

978,000 

17,246 

Tannania  .... 

a6,ai5 

90,728 

New  Zealand     . 

106.269 

106,:il.'i 

Queensland 

Total  for  Australasia . 

678,0(X) 
2,582,070 

46,077 

1,336,131 

The  native  population,  in  1864,  was  very  small 
in  numbers,  and  fast  dyin^  out.  Tlie  white  popu- 
lation, on  the  other  hand,  is  rapidly  increasing. 

British  Settlements  in  Australasia, — ^The  oldest 
of  British  colonies  was  foimded  in  1 788  at  Sydney, 
on  the  E.  coast  of  Australia,  in  the  vast  tract  dis- 
covered by  Captain  Cook,  and  known  by  the  name 
of  New  South  VValcs.  The  island  of  Tasmania,  or 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  was  next  occupied,  but  not 


AUSTRALASIA 

till  1808.  And  at  still  later  periods  we  este- 
Misheii  the  colonics  of  Victoria  and  South  Aus- 
tralia, on  the  S.  coast  of  the  continent,  and  Swan 
liiver  on  its  W.  shores.  We  have  also  numerous 
settlements  in  New  Zealand. 

The  colonies  in  X.  S.  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's 
Land  M'ere  ori^ally  intended  principally  for 
penal  settlements;  and  their  progress  was,  in  con- 
sequence, retanle<l  by  the  \'iciou8  character  of  the 
population,  and  by  the  comparative  scarcity  of 
females.  But  despite  these  adverse  circumstances, 
they  have  continued  rapidly  to  increa«»e  in  wealth 
and  jwpulation.  This  has  been  principally  a  con- 
sequence of  the  suitableness  of  the  countrj'  to 
the  growth  of  sheep,  and  of  the  unprecedented 
increase  in  the  exports  of  wool ;  but  it  is  also 
owing,  though  to  a  less  extent,  to  the  discovery  of 
gold.  ^ 

Kmigration  to  the  Australian  colonies  holds  out 
various  advantages  to  the  industrious  and  enter- 
])rising  emigrant :  though  it  must  at  the  same  time 
i>e  stated  that  these  are.  partially  at  least,  coun- 
terbalanced by  certiin  disadvant^es.  Amongst 
tlie  former  may  be  mentioned  the  fact  of  there 
being,  almost  invariably,  a  pretty  brisk  demand 
for  additional  laljour;  wages,  previously  to  the 
gold  dis<.'overies,  though  not  extravagant,  were 
liigh ;  provisions,  except  m  seasons  of  drought, 
which  do  not  often  occur,  are  abundant  and  rea- 
sonable in  price;  and,  alMive  all,  the  climate  is 
mild,  healthy,  and  well  suited  to  European  c(m- 
stitntions,  and  the  country  is  remarkably  free  from 
all  varieties  of  dangerous  and  offensive  animals. 
The  principal  drawbacks  are,  the  immense  dis- 
tance from  Kurojie,  and  the  consequent  cost  of  the 
voyage,  with  the  general  inferiority  of  the  land. 

Among  the  other  drawbacks  incident  to  emi- 
gration thither  may  be  mentionwl  the  fact,  that 
conveyances  of  land  by  one  individual  to  anr)ther 
are  framed  in  all  the  AiLstralian  statei<,  except 
South  Australia,  on  the  model  of  tht>se  of  Eng- 
land. A[»art  fn)m  the  extraordinary  attraction  of 
the  gold-tields,  the  greater  mildness  and  salubrity 
of  the  climate  is  the  principal,  or  rather,  perhaps, 
the  only,  recommendation  in  favour  of  emigrating 
to  Australia  rather  than  to  Canada  or  the  Unitetl 
States. 

Commercial  Intercourse irith  Great  Britain. — The 
inifMirts  of  Australian  pnxlucts  into  (ireat  Brit4iin 
made  a  very  dwided  progress  during  the  ten  years 
from  18.j4  to  lHr>4.  Thus  in  1H.')5  thev  were  valued 
at  4,50(»,200/. ;  in  1850  at  5,736,043/.;  in  1857  at 
5,n-25,3()5/. ;  in  1858  at  5,291.287/.;  in  1859  at 
5,s34.fi4l/.;  in  1860  at  6,469.243/.;  in  1861  at 
6,9(»1,487/.;  in  1862  at  7,109,809/.;  in  1863  at 
7,160,666/.;  and  m  1864  at  10,039,329/.  The  ex- 
port.s  frf>m  the  Australias  made  a  gre^it  stride  in 
the  year  1864,  every  settlement  participating  in 
the  advance.  Thus  the  value  of  the  exports  from 
Western  Australia  in  1864  was  71,408/.,  against 
60,6Sl/.  in  1863;  from  South  Australia,  1,203,131/,, 
against  1,097,795/.  in  1863;  from  Victoria, 
4.043,81.3/..  against  2,6Hl.239/. ;  from  New  South 
Wales,  2,809.915/.,  against  1,966,948/.  in  1863; 
from  Queenshmd.  344,362/..  again.nt  253,201/.  in 
1863;  from  Tasmania,  464,293/.,  against  360,405/, 
in  1863;  and  from  New  Zealand,  1,102,407/., 
against  740,397/.  in  1863.  Thirtv  vears  Ix'fore— 
in  1835— the  exports  from  the  Australias  were 
valued  at  less  than  1,000,000/.  per  annum;  while 
in  1864  they  exceeded  10,000,000/.  annually;  and 
yet  the  work  of  Australian  colonization  has  little 
more  than  commenced  at  present. 

Form  of  Cucemment. — The  form  in  which  the 
legislative  and  executive  authority  is  exercised 
tiiffers,  to  some  extent,  in  the  various  stxites  of 
Australasia,  though  the  main  features  are  the  same. 

A\»L.  I. 


AUSTRALU  (SOUTH) 


273 


The  first  charter  for  the  Au8trala.iian  colonies  was 
issued  in  1851,  by  the  British  act  of  the  previous 
year,  the  13  &  14  Vict.  c.  59,  combined  with  the 
5  <fe  6  Vict,  c.  76.  The  executive  power  was  then 
vested  in  an  executive  council,  usually  consisting 
of  the  governor,  the  commander  of  the  troops,  the 
colonial  secretary,  the  attorney  and  solicitor  general, 
and  one  or  two  more  functionaries.  The  legisla- 
tive councils,  in  which  the  l^islative  power  was 
vasted,  consisted  of  members  partly  elected  an<l 
partly  nominated  by  the  Crown.  The  elected 
memWrs  represented  countiei*,  cities,  and  district* ; 
the  right  of  election  being  given  to  natural  bom 
or  natiu^lised  male  subject-s  of  the  Crown  having 
freehold  estates  of  the  nett  value  of  100/.,  or  lease- 
hold estates  of  the  annual  value  of  10/.,  or  occupy- 
ing houses  of  the  annual  value  of  10/.,  or  holdmg 
licenses  to  depasture  lands.  Provision  was  made 
for  varying  the  limits  of  electoral  districts,  and 
for  increasing  their  number  and  the  number  of 
elected  members ;  but  with  and  under  the  condi- 
tion that  when  two  such  members  M-ere  added, 
another  meml)er  might  be  named  by  her  Majesty, 
so  that  one  thini  part  of  the  additional  members 
alwavs  consisted  of  nominees.  The  governors  and 
legislative  councils  were  empowered  to  make  laws, 
provided  they  be  not  repugnant  to  the  law  of 
England,  or  interfered  with  the  right*  of  the  Crown 
to  the  lands  belonging  to  it  within  the  colonies,  or 
to  the  revenue  accruing  from  the  same. 

These  arrangements  which  had  obviously  been 
formed  on  the  model  of  the  English  constitution, 
under^vent  subsequent  alterations,  in  a  democratic 
sense,  in  several  of  the  more  flourishing  states  of 
Australasia.  An  account  of  the  constitutional 
form  of  each  government  must  therefore  be  left  to 
fall  in  with  the  more  detailed  sketch  of  the  seven 
states  into  which  the  commonwealth  at  the  British 
antipcMles  is  divided.  (See  *  Australia,  South,* 
*  Australia,  Western,' '  New  South  Wales,'  *  Queens- 
land,' and '  Victoria,'  following  this  article,  as  form- 
ing a  portion  of  the  great  continent  of  Australia ; 
and  *Van  Diemen's  Land,'  recently  called  Tas- 
mania, and  '  Zealand,  New,'  given  in  separate  ar- 
ticles, as  not  belonging  to  Australia  Proper,  but  to 
Australasia.)* 

AUSTRALIA.— The  continental  part  of  A  ustral- 
asia  is  divided  into  five  different  states,  namely. 
South  Australia,  Western  Australia.  New  South 
Wales,  Queensland,  and  Victoria.  We  treat  these, 
adopting  the  plan  laid  down  in  the  first  edition  of 
this  work,  in  the  following  order : — 

1.  Australia  (South) ; 

2.  Australia  (Western) ; 

3.  Queensland; 

4.  New  South  Wales ; 
6.  Victoria. 

L  AUSTRALIA  (SOUTH),  the  name  given  to 
that  portion  of  the  great  Australian  continent 
comprised  between  the  132nd  and  141st  degs.  of 
E.  long.,  and  extending  from  the  sea  N.  to  lat. 
26*^  S.,  haWng  E.  the  region  wateretl  by  the  Miirray 
and  its  tributAriea,  and  the  colony  of  Victoria. 
Area,  according  to  the  returns  of  the  colonial  go- 
vernment, 383,328  Engl.  sq.  miles.  Pop.  135,329, 
in  1862,  of  whom  69,608  males,  and  65,721  females. 
South  Australia  was  first  colonised  in  1836  by  emi- 
grants from  Great  Britain,  sent  out  under  the  aus- 
pices of  a  company  called  the  South  Australian 
Colonisation  Association,  which  iu  1835  obtained 
a  grant  from  the  Imperial  Government  of  the  lands 
of  this  colony.  Tlie  conditicms  were  that  the  land 
should  not  be  sold  at  less  than  IL  per  acre;  that 
the  revenue  arising  from  the  sale  of  such  lands 
should  be  appropriated  to  the  emigration  of  agri- 
cultural labourers ;  that  the  control  of  the  com- 
pany's affain  should  be  vested  in  a  body  of  commis- 

T 


274 

RioncTH  approved  by  the  BecrctArj*  of  ptatc  for  the 
coloiiiefs  and  that*  the  p>vernor  of  the  colony 
ghouUl  1h'  nominated  by  the  ('n»wn. 

The  coIdiiv  in  Ixiunded  on  tlie  north  bv  Central 
North  Anstralia,  and  on  the  w»uth  liy  the  ocean. 
It  is  H34  m.  in  len^h  along  the  eastern  brjundar^', 
and  417  along  the  >i'eHtcm  lMmn<lar}',  and  5H9  in 


brearlth. 

The  c<»ast  of  S.  AuHtralia  is  more  indenteil  than 
that  of  any  other  part  of  the  rontinent :  S]K'n«H*r  « 
Gulf,  which  AtnUeheH  inward**  in  a  NXK.  <lirection 
for  a>M>ut  200  m.,  is  fH!|Mirat(Hi  fn»m  St.  A'inoHiit's 
(Jiilf,  lying  m<»n»  to  the  K.  by  Yorke  i>eniiisula. 


AUSTRALIA  (SOUTH) 

about  37°  to  11 5°  Fahr.,  and  ice  aa  thick  as  a 
Khilling  is  rare  in  the  winter  months.  In  summer, 
that  is,  in  .Tanuary,  February,  antl  March,  a  hot 
and  <»j»presKive  wind  (xrcasionallv  f*et»>  in  fn»m  tin* 
N.,  which,  however,  is  tuxm  fullowed  by  a  ctxd 
breeze  from  the  S.  It  Ls  said  that  no  dnmght  lias 
<KTurre«l  in  the  colony  since  its  M-ttlement.  The 
atniiis])hcrit  is  in  general,  remarkably  clear  and 
salubrioui*.  Mr.  Wilkinson  states,  that  M'ith  emi- 
grjints  est.iblishing  themsidves  in  the  country,  *  a 
hi)us<i  to  live  in  is  a  seonidark'  consideration  on 
a^'iNMUit  of  the  healthiness  and  geniality  of  the  air 
antl  climate,  which  enables  per^nis  to  do  things 


Opi)osite  the  latter  and  the  Gidf  of  St.  Vinci-nt  in  i  there  that  would  consign  them  to  a  Wd  of  sickness 
KanganMt  Island,  al>out  100  m.  in  length  from  W.  j  in  Kngland.  Thus  it  is  common  to  shrp  for  nights 
to  E.,  and  85  m.  in  its  gn*atest  breadth.     This ;  together  in  tlie  o]>en  air,  wi 


island,  which  is  said  to  contain   sevend  fertile. 
fH'aaHV,  and  weil-M'ooilwl  tracts  has  on  its  N.  side 


thout  any  injury  to 
health :  and  on  lirst  entering  on  a  country-  life,  a 
tent   or  such-like  slight  coverin*?  is  considered 


the   fiarlMmr  of  Nepean   an<l  the   settlement  of   nmplv  suflicient  for  all  wants  till  the  emigrant 


Kingscote:  but  hitherto  few  portions  of  it  have 
been  occupi<»<L  Most  part  of  the  setthnl  land  in 
the  colon V  lies  on  the  K.  si<le  of  the  (Julf  of  St. 
Vincent,  in  which  direction,  alsi».  is  the  gn.'ater 
portion  of  the  explored  territorj-.  Sevenil  parallel 
mountain  or  hill  ranges  traverw  this  ]jart  of  the 
oountr\'  from  S.  to  N.,  but  none  of  them  is  of  any 
ItXvtit  elevatii»n :  Mt.  Iln'ant,a]»]Mirently  the  highest 
peak,  reaching  to  only  8,012  t1t«  alK>ve  the  se^  The 
Hurfat^  is  mostly  undulating  and  aiNHinds  in  '  park- 
like scenery,'  intersiK'rs***!  with  scatten'd  wwhIs  or 
Hcrub.  The  hills  are  m<Kler.ilely  snvp,  ami  their 
Hides  covereil  with  forests  of  gum-tn-es  (trHrah/f/ti). 
ca8uarinas  or    she-oak,   pines,   various  knids  <»f 


acacias.  &c.,  or  ^^'\t\\  a  sward  atfonling  extensive    nwiining  thinl  is  l>arren. 


has  ]ilouglMMl,  sown,  and  fen<?«»d  his  laml.'  (S.  Au<- 
tndia,  p.  (J2.)  Storms  sometimes  tKvur,  and  earth- 
(|uakes  have  Invn  f(;lt,but  tin*  latter  have  notl>een 
pnxluctive  of  daniagft.  Dysentery  and  iutluen/.a 
are  the  only  ej)idefnic  diseases,  and  the  fonner  is 
said  to  have  Ixs'ome  rarer  than  at  the  tirst  settle- 
ment of  the  colony.  Ophthalmia  apin-nrs  to  Im» 
Icjvs  frequent  than  on  tiie  K.  .side  of  th«'  continent; 
Mr.  Wilkinson  siivs  it  is  i»ro<Uiced  bv  a  small  tiv, 
which  at  certam  seasons  infpsts  the  countrj*. 

It  has  iK'cn  stated  that  of  the  country  E.  of  St. 
Vincent's  (iulf  alsiut  a  thinl  jwirt  is  adapted  for 
agriculture  or  grazing,  that  another  thinl  is 
coven.'d   with  si-rub  or  forest,  and  that  tiie  re- 


panturage;  but  their  summits  are  uniformly  bare, 
and  exhibit  formations  of  granite,  gneiss,  mica. 
quart/,  chiy -slate,  sandstone,  and  many  vari«'ties 
of  limi'stone.  Some  of  thwe  nn^ks  have  \hh.:\\  found 
to  contain  prulilic  veins  of  valuable  minerals;  and 
mining  has,  in  consequence,  l>ecome  a  very  inijKir- 
tant  branch  of  industrv.    South  Au'ttralia  has  no 


The  most  extensive  grazing  tracts  lie  N.  <»f 
Adelaiile :  in  that  directitai  is  a  goo<l  deal  of  level 
land,  watered  by  the  Clawler,  IJroughton.  Wake- 
tield,  and  other  rivers,  which  tenninate  about 
10(»  m.  fn»ni  the  (capital  in  a  chain  of  grassy  downs. 
E.  ami  S,  of  Adelaide  the  countrj'  is  more  broken, 
but  there  an*  manv  fertile  vallevs,  and  the  hill 


f^at  river,  except  the  Murniv,  which,  however,  s1o|k*s  are  well  adapt<^l  for  jwisture.  Along  the 
an  alreaily  sci»n,  is  of  the  highest  imiK>rtance.  ;  shores  of  Lake  Alexandrina  and  the  banks  of  the 
Unluckily  the  entnmce  to  it  is  obstnicted  by  a  I  Murray,  f<»r  100  m.  fnnn  the  lake,  are  some  good 
Imr,  whi«rh  prevents  the  access  of  any  hut  small  '  she<'p  an<l  cattle  nuis.  M-ith  strips  i»f  rich  alhnial 
vessels  from  the  s«^a  into  Lake  Alexandrina  at  its  land.  Many  valuable  tnicts  lM»nler  the  coji^t  from 
mouth.  But  a  tram-mad,  that  will  probably  be  Encounter  Bay  to  the  Glenelg  river  <m  the  fn»ntier 
replaced  by  a  canal,  has  l»een  already  constructed  of  Philliiisland.  Yorke  ami  E\Te  ])eninsulas,  on 
from  where  the  Murray  ceiisea  to  Ihj  navigable  to  either  siilt  of  Spencer's  Gulf,  apj>ear  to  Ix^  much 
Port  Eliott,  on  the  NE.  c<Mist  of  Encounter  Bav,  hvs  fertile  than  the  other  exidorc<l  |M)rtions  of  the 
lat.  H:P  82'  4o"  S.,  long.  188^  18'  15"  E. ;  and  the  |  colony :  the  latter  has  the  harlKmr  of  P.irt  Lin- 
navigation  and  trade  of  which  the  Murray  is  no  ,  c<dn,  and  some  gcHKl  grazing  tracts,  but  the 
doubt  destinerl  to  Iw  the  channel,  will  eventually  i  greater  part  of  it  is  said  by  Mr.  Eatc  to  l)e 
render  this  an  ini}K)rt ant  entri>|N)t^  In  aildition  to  I  *  kirren.  arid,  and  worthless.'*  Its  table  lan<l  is 
Lake  Alexandrina  and  that  of  AllN>rt  conne<rteil 


with  it,  this  territory  comprises  the  large  and 
mostly  iinex])lore<l  Lake  Torn>us,  ami  a  great 
number  of  pon<is  and  creeks.  It  is  also  watere*! 
l»y  numeroiLs  small  rivers,  along  the  banks  of  which 
there  is  commonly  a  rich  alluvial  soil:  one  of 
these,  the  Torrens,  on  which  Ailelaide,  the  cap.  of 
tlie  colony,  is  situatinl,  loses  itself  in  a  marsh  iM'fore 
reaching  the  sea.  It  is  stated  that  where  wat<^r  is 
not  abundant  (»n  the  surface,  it  may  gi-nerally  Ikj 
obtained  by  sinking  welLs  fnmi  20  to  HM)  ^.  in 
depth.  Between  Slay  and  OctolnT,  SW.  winds 
chietly  prevail,  and  are  accompanied  by  shrjwers  : 
tliesi;  arc,  however,  less  heavy  than  in  W.  Aus- 
tralia or  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  the  mean  annual 
fall  of  rain  at  Adelaide,  during  the  five  years 
ending  with  1848,  was  found  to  bo  only*  IU'D 
inches,  iMMiig  considorahlv  less  than  in  either  New 

South  Wales  or  IMiilliivsland ;  but  evaporatitm  is  divided  into  the  tlmK"  classes,  j)f  town,  suburhan, 
much  less  ni]>id  than  in  the  former  of  these  regions.  '  and  country  lots:  the  intended  sales  are  iioii  lied 
The  annual  tem|K'rature  IsagoiKldeal  higher  than  .  by  proclamation  at  hrast  threi*  UHHiths  JM-fore  t^ilv, 
in  England,  and  more  analogous  to  that  of  some  !  and  on  ptin^hase  a  de|M)sit  of  10  per  cent,  is  re- 
parta  of  Italy.     The  thermometer  ranges  from  ,  quired  to  be  i>aid  immediately,  and  the  remainder 


generally  ahout  1,800  ft.  in  elevation. 

The  land  in  S.  Austnilia  u<  sold  in  smaller  lots 
than  in  N.  S.  Wales ;  tmcts  of  various  sizes  being 
di>iM»setl  of  at  the  gt»vemment  quarterly  sjUe?*, 
the  minimum  up«*et  price  l>eing  here,  as  elM'where, 
fixe<l  at  the  rate  of  1/.  \\ct  acre,  Fn>in  1«85  to 
1H.V2  inclu^ive  there  were  s<dd  7!>0,077  acres  at 
an  average  price  of  al>out  1/.  [kt  acre.  During 
lHri2  the  area  of  land  sold  by  the  ('n)wn  was 
121»,1'10  acres,  which  realised  I52.«5.')!i/.,  against 
117,855  acres,  and  for  which  lxit,015/.  wjis  pai«l 
into  the  Tn'asur\'  in  lHr»l.  P'rom  1x85  to  the 
close  of  lm)2  the  total  extent  of  huul  alienatc<l 
from  the  Crown  was  2,510,815  acres,  or  u]»wanLs 
of  4.100  sq.  m.  (giving  upwards  of  (52  a<*res  ti» 
each  male  over  fourteen  years  of  agcO,  which 
n«alise<l  8.150.2H«/.  (lieport  of  CJovenn>r  Sir  1\ 
Daly,  flateil  Adelaide.  Sei>t.  19,  \x&2.)     I-jinds  are 


AUSTRALIA  (SOUTH) 


275 


vrithin  a  month.  Country  lots  put  up  and  not  bid 
for  may  be  claimed  by  a  purchaser  without  com- 
petition ;  and  persons  may  apply  for  20,000  acT«* 
without  competition,  the  price,  however,  not  to  be 
lei*9  than  the  minimum  or  20».  an  acre.  The  deeds 
of  purchase  contain  a  grant  of  all  above  and  below 
the  soil :  the  government  reserves  no  right  to  the 
minerals  that  may  be  discovered,  or  to  make  roads 
across  the  property ;  its  only  claim  is  to  the  sea- 
coast  within  100  ft.  of  high-water  mark.  A  tract 
i>f  14,000  sq.  m.  has  been  leased  for  pastoral  pur- 
p<«»e8  for  fourteen  years  from  the  1st  July,  1861, 
and  1,143  do.  under  Icaws  annually  renewed. 

The  value  of  the  exports  of  bread  stuffs  and 
grain  amounted  to  633,241/.  in  1862.  The  returns 
show  that  2,105,877  acres  of  land  were  enclosed 
at  the  end  of  1862.  The  average  cost  of  enclosure. 
I  am  informed,  may  be  stated  at  70/.  per  mile. 
The  area  of  land  under  cultivation  was  494,511 
acres  in  1862,  against  486,667  acres  in  1861.  The 
main  crops  cultivate<l  were,  wheat,  barley,  o&ts, 
maize,  and  hav.  The  wheat  crop  extended  over 
320,160  acres 'in  1862,  giving  3,841,824  bushels, 
or  an  average  produce  of  12  bushels  to  the  acre, 
while  it  covered  310,636  acres  in  1861,  yielding 
3,410,756  bushels,  or  an  average  pro<luce  of  10 
bushels  and  69  lbs.  to  the  acre.  The  low  pro- 
duce of  twelve  bushels  of  wheat .  per  acre  is  ex- 
plained in  the  report  of  the  governor,  as  follows : — 
*  The  rea.son  for  the  low  average  as  to  quantity  per 
acre  is,  that  a  ver}'  large  extent  of  very  bad  land 
haM  been  ploughed  up;  land  that  could  scarcelv 
be  expected  to  yield  a  crop  before  it  had  been  well 
worked  and  manured,  and  which  will  not  be  done 
while  land  is  so  much  cheaper  than  lal)our.  In 
fact  the  least  possible  amount  of  lal)our  is  \)e- 
stowed  upon  the  land  here.  It  U  simply  ploughed, 
sown,  and  reaped.  I  know  land  in  the  neighbour- 
hfKKl  of  Gawler  that  has  l)een  croppetl  every  year 
for  the  last  fourteen  years  with  only  one  small 
8f)rinkUng  of  manure.  This  slovenly  mode  of 
cultivation  will  easily  account  for  the  small  pro- 
duce in  the  colony.'  (Reiwrt  of  Governor  Sir  D. 
Daly,  Sept,  19,  1862.)  Go(kI  farm  implements  are 
made  at  Adelaide  and  elsewhere ;  and  a  Mr.  Rid- 
ley is  stated  to  have  bcnefite<l  the  colony,  and 
distinguished  it  in  the  annals  of  art  and  science 
by  the  invention  of  a  machine  which  reaps, 
thrashes,  and  winnows  at  the  same  time,  at  the 
rate  of  nearly  an  acre  an  hour. 

The  country  produces  all  the  choicest  fruits  of 
southern  France  and  Italy,  such  as  Wnes,  olives, 
mulWrries,  oranges,  lemons,  pomegranates,  me- 
lons, peaches,  almonds,  figs,  &c.,  with  tobacco  and 
hops. 

The  live  stock  has  greatly  increased  in  the 
course  of  twenty- two  ye^rs.  In  1840  there  were 
959  horses,  16,052  homed  cattle,  and  166,770 
sheep,  grazing  on  the  pastoral  lands  of  the  colony ; 
at  the  close  of  1862  there  were  56,251  horses, 
258,342  homed  cattle,  and  3,431,000  sheep.  The 
total  area  leased  for  depa<*turing  purposes  was 
36,901  sq.  m.,  besides  an  area  of  25,571  sq.  m.  ap- 
plie<l  for  but  not  yet  lease<l. 

Commensimite  with  the  vast  increase  of  live 
stock  has  been  the  produce  of  the  wool  staple,  the 
total  exjH>rt  of  which  amounted  at  the  end  of 
1862  to  13,229,009  lbs.,  representing  a  money 
value  of  635,270/. 

Wild  dogs,  which  are  the  great  pest  of  the 
colony,  s^imetimes  prove  very  destructive  to  the 
sheep ;  but  their  numbers  are  rapidly  diminishing. 
The  S.  Australian  Com[)any  are  the  largest  sheep 
proprietors :  several  (►ther  proprietors  own  from 
10,000  to  16,000,  and  flocks  of  frr>m  4,-000  to  5,000 
are  common.  Of  late  years  some  large  sheep-runs 
have  been  leased  around  Rivoli  Bay  and  other 


parts  of  the  S.  E.  coast,  and  bevond  Port  Lincoln 
m  the  W. 

The  breeding  of  cattle  and  horses  is  not  pursued 
on  nearly  so  extensive  a  scale  as  in  New  South 
Wales  or  Victoria  The  breeds  were  originally 
imported  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Van 
Diemen's  Land.  Bullocks  are  mostly  used  for  agri- 
cultural labour.  Before  the  introduction  of  farm 
stock  into  the  colony,  the  flesh  of  the  kangaroo  and 
emu  formed  the  principal  food  of  the  settlers :  at 
present  these  animals,  rrom  the  wholesale  destmc- 
tion  to  which  thev  have  been  subjected,  are  seldom 
met  with  in  the  vicinity  of  the  settlements. 

In  the  year  1843,  a  sudden  impetus  was  given  to 
the  enterprise  of  the  colonists  by  the  discovery  of 
valuable  metallic  ores  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  Such  was  the  influence  of  this  discovery 
on  the  sale  of  land,  that  whereas  in  1843  the  go- 
vernment sold  oidy  698  acres,  in  1844  it  sold  3,428 ; 
in  1845,  69,658  ;  and  in  1846,  31,301  acres,  realis- 
ing as  much  as  75,715/.  to  the  colonial  treasury. 

Lead  and  copper  are  the  principal  metals.  The 
former  is  most  abundant  E.  and  S.  E.  from  Ade- 
laide Jin  the  Glen  Osmond,  WTieal  Gawler,  Wheal 
Watkms,  <fec.  mines),  at  Mt.  Beevor,  and  at  Gat>- 
tagolingo,  close  on  the  coast  near  Cape  Jervis. 
Copper  is  raised  in  numerous  locahties  in  the  hill 
chain  between  the  region  of  the  Murray  and  the 
Gulfs;  also  in  a  plain  15  m.  S.  of  Adelaide,  at 
Gattagolingo,  at  the  head  of  St.  Vincent's  Gulf, 
and  W.  of  Port  Lincoln.  The  ores  are  met  with 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  some  of  them 
are  extremely  rich. 

Mineral  produce  has  been  shipped  from  South 
Australia  duYing  the  ten  years  18.'>3-62,  of  the  value 
of  3,524,641/.  During  the  first  half  of  that  period 
1,294,013/.,  and  2,230,628/.,  or  neariy  double  the 
amoimt,  during  the  latter.  In  1862  the  exports 
reached  to  547,619/.,  greater  than  in  any  preceding 
year,  and  95,447/.  more  than  in  that  previous. 

The  following  table  gives  the  quantities  of  mi- 
neral pn)duce  exported  in  quinquennial  periods, 
with  the  average  yearly  shipments : — 


1 

Period*             Copp«r    |   Lnd 

Copper 

lus 

Cwu 

Total   in  five 

years,  1853-57  146,550 
Do.    1858-62  816,889 
Average  of  five 

years,  1853-57     29,310 

Do.     18.')8-62     63,378 

1 

Cwu 

34 
4,767 

7 

953 

Tons 

28,557 
35,133 

6,711 
7,026 

Toot 

1,646 
1,295 

329 
259 

Ton* 

245 
1,441 

49 

288 

In  1862,  85,872  cwt  of  fine  copper  were  shipped 
against  61,047  cwt.  in  1861.  Of  the  former,  26,005 
cwt,  were  sent  to  Great  Britain;  31, .382  cwt.  to 
Melbourne,  for  transhipment;  and  28,145  cwt.  to 
India.  The  greater  part  of  the  ore  being  now 
smelted  in  the  colony,  the  export  of  the  crude 
mineral  in  1862  was  only  6,216  tons,  against  7,817 
tons  the  year  before.  This  quandty  went  forwaxd 
to  England  direct  and  by  wav  of  Melbourne  in 
about  equal  proportions.  Of  fead,  only  426  cwt, 
were  shipped  in  1862,  against  1,256  cwt,  in  1861 ; 
but  an  increase  appears  imder  the  head  of  lead 
ore  and  of  regulus;  of  the  latter  418  tons  were 
exported. 

There  are  in  Adelaide  numerous  flour-mills, 
breweries,  malt-houses,  machine  factories,  and  brass 
and  iron  foundries ;  with  manufactures  of  l)arillA, 
tobacco,  soap,  candles,  leather,  and  earthenware. 
The  three  great  articles  of  export  are  breadstufTs, 
wool,  and  minerals.  The  subjoined  two  tables  ex- 
hibit the  total  exports  at  various  periods,  as  well 
as  the  per  centage  in  which  the  staple  articles 
shared  in  them  :— 

T  2 


r«^ 

^n.^JET" 

TSI^S 

','.       lae-i      '.'.'.      '. 

l.W0fl87 

e,i»3,«M 

i.Ter.gBO(flTsje»n.lBM-ilT.      . 

1AM,IM 

AUSTBAUA  (WESTEBN) 

uid  of  hnviDK  snirrf  nt  hipnly-oni>  ycani  nf  ■(tP : 

Tor  thp  ParUnniiiit  )>r  I1i« 
...use  uii  iW  first  mw^iiiK. 
r»  of  rclittion  are  iiiflit;iljli!  fur 


ndttins  (rf*  thi!  nfiipa  oigaged  ii 


The  wholi!  trxle _ 

ii  at  iHvwnl  iu  pval  riiirt  ranlrd  un  l>y  ■hippint; 
belouf^nK  In  H.  AiulinUaiK-iiliinii't^  TIiftf  aruiui 
bartwur  ihH's,  tuiiiaKC  nlrs  nr  utbcr  dnlim  ■in 
riupiiiiiK  in  any  ufthe  ponH  iri'thiiinihHir.  IlMin 
tfa(7  aic  (M|>n:ialir  wull  Atlnl  l>>i  tliv  rciwiram 

— a..: .1-  .1..     .i:_. 1     ;_     (1^    SoUtllCTn 


Soulh  Aiwtralis  poMeBwl,  at  Uis  rod  nf  then 
1863.  mncndainizeil  naihi  of  thp  lenRth  of  Zil6  I 
•11  of  them  in  an  cjiivllonl  state  Thi>re  tn-re  a! 
67  m.  of  railwHV,  whiHi,  in  the  rouirf  nt  the  vcar 
IWJ,  caninl  i<rNi.l40  pawetiKiTH,  nnil  IHT.Tllj  ' 
of  RoniLt.  Thil  inlrniui^l.iiHi  lif  the  rnilwnv  m 
ilalca  frum  the  year  IHM,  whcii  the  fiist  7  m. 

The  revenue  and  eKponilltiin-  cif  the  hUIo  hi  tl» 
rix  years  ixj**-*;!,  won  a-  fulhwn:— 


Thepuhlicildit,at  the  enclort8(i2,Rnifluntcd 
870,100?.,  at  a  niteof  inlemt  of  sii  per  rent. 

The  conUitntiun  nf  South  Auxtralla  livant  ilate 
Oetuber  37,  18.'*,     It  vests  the  leslsLilive 
In  a  I>arlianient  eleetel  \>y  the  people.    11: 
liaiuunt  connlstf  iiT  a  LeKi'lative  Counell 
HnuK  of  AHwmhly.    Tlie  former  i>>  campnfcil  of 
eighteen  memliem,  nix  of  irhom  retire  every  fmi" 
yeiw,  thdrsucretwoii'  liiiii([  tlien  eicctcd  fiyr  twrWi 
yean.    Tlie  executive  ha*  no  power  to  iliwnln 
thIatiDcIv.  Itiselecte<l  hy  tlie  vhntceolony  votin; 
■a  one  dlxtriet.    The  niialiAcBtion  nf  an  eleetiir  tn 
the  I^gialath-e  Council  te  ax  follown :— H( 

twentv-ooe  yearn  of  nge,  a  natural-linni  .. 

raGml  Rulijert  ut  her  Majeiity,  ami  have  lieen  on  the 
eketoral  loll  tixmnnthii,  liexjilnhavinft  a  freehold  i  atmni; 


<well  a 


»  in  the  t 


.    The 


0  hai-e 


ibeTSofboIhhourieiiBjecc 

exeeutii-e  is  vested  in  a  B'H'emor  appointed 

[."Town  and  a  responiihle.  Executive  I'lsineil, 

tfie  memlierx  of  whiph  must  have  been  ele<-twl 
of  either  of  the  two  Houses  of  rariin- 

i  of  the  IbiliiJi  I'arlianwnl  in  1K14.  wlieii  it  Vnx 

, .jnviiled  thai  no  innviets  HhnuM  at  any  prrioil  l-t) 

tianiiDTteil  tii  it  from  the  niolher  cuunliy  or  elM"- 

vrhere  bv  the  Iliiliiji  (Jin-Mnmcnt. 

II.  Al'STlHIJA  (WKSTKHX)  an  eallnl  ft-nn 

I  l>eint;  idtuatnl  on  the  W.  nile  of  tliv  e^iudneiit. 

iinil<>ntiiivl.in  if*  most  extenwivi'  nree|ilBtiiin,  to 

r<>m|)riHe  the  imrli'in  of  Aiudmlla  W.  of  the  t'Jntli 

iVrn.  of  K.  long.;  hnl  in  a  nrnrF  limilnl  xiiv  the 

term  it  applttil  to  what  wan  foimerlv  koinm  ax  the 

'  Swan-river  (iihmv.' Ivinji  l»lween  the  ii jihI  and 

3f.lh  deK".  of  S.  Iat..ai"id  the  I  lolh  and  I  ll'th  tk-S'. 

of  E.  lonft.,  nimpri4iw  the  SVV.  piirtion  of  the 

imtinenl,  it»  W.  ami  ,S.  coa*t*  heiiiB  wastied  l)y 
the  Inilian  Ih-ean.  Tlie  area  of  the  Miale  emhraren 
HTKJIOU  Enel.  W|.  m.,  wtlh  a  while  popiilalion.  ii 
IMta,  oflT,34li.  TheoeiiipiwIn'ttioniHf"  ■  "■ 
m.  in  lenf.th  from  N.  lo  S.,  I>y  IMl  m.  in  > 
breadth.  The  aliuTi|^ni»  are  I9tinialed  a 
4,IJ'NI  lo  A,II(W. 
Three  iMmllpl  mnintaln  or  hill 

I,  to  S.  throuirli  -■  ■  • 
inc  in  heiiclit  fr  .  . 
the  ■'ulminatinK  summit  near  KinRtieon.'r'g  Si iiind 
U  alKHit  ll,SMi  ft  alHivD  the  wa.  The  Kwun  lllver, 
with  ilfl  main  etrram  llie  Avon,  maln-x  itr,  way 
tlmniffh  thiwe  ranirii',  and  after  reoeiviiiir  the 
llelniannd  (.-aiming  widens  into  an  e.-ilnary.  wliirh 
iinitVN  with  the  ocean  in  lat.  3^,  oppcH.iIeKottne>t 
I^Units.  The  town  of  Fn>emaiitle  u  at  il:'  niimtli. 
ean.  of  tlwi  colon 


in  nlnint  :I0<> 


up.  Tlieotl«!rpnneip.rivfc»re  the  Hurray, 
_  . .  .  I,  Illackwoiid,  Ilvnnuiifc,  and  Itahwh,  nil  t» 
the  S.  lit  the  Swan  Kiver,  Iwt  none  nf  them  Li  of 
nny  very  conRkicrahle  mi|qiltiHle.  Tlie  inlelx  of 
llienn  aienuniemuf :  prinripnl,  Cocklanit  Sonnil, 
reel  Inlet,  and  the  Iny  ifu  araoniiiMi'  on  ibe  V,'^ 
with  Flinilem"  Itav  and  Khiic  (•roR,'e*ii  tSouiidmi 
the  S.  Coekhum  Sound,  thoufth  lis  enlmnee  in 
nnluehity  impedeil  liy  ^•Fk^  fiinns  a  slielteTpil  and 
semre  harlKiur ;  and  tm  its  >hnre,  where  tliere  is  ileep 
water,  the  Guiiidation  hailieiMi  htirloflha  new  town 
of  Koi-kinjdiam.  The  nHHIthoftheSwan  lEivi-r  ii 
the  next  most  eliKllik  liarlomr  on  the  \V.  eoi.^t. 
'Iliere  are  also  anchoatw"  at  I'eel's  Inlel,  Port 
I.eselienault.  AukhsIb,  *e-,  and  in  Sluirk's  and 
DoiiMful  Island  hays  lieyoiul  the  limits  of  Ihe 
setlleil  lerrilory.    Kin|!  (ieofin'sSoiind  lias  all  the 

Iualiliesofa  Kind  haritour,  except  that  it  isoftm 
iffliailt  lo  liai-e  i^  iiwiiiir  to  Ihe  prevalenre  of 

,       ^ utmni;  weslctly  ipklcik    All  luiiiid  the  roast*  are 

aftOflvalneiOra  li'awlinld  of2'i(.  annual  value,  or  I  niimenau  pelty  inletii.  lafEouiis,  aiul  likes:   niid 
oocupyinK  a  dwelUng-house  of  261.  anniuil  viilm-. !  salt-poola  and  manhvs  are  seatlerwl  over  llie  inli-- 
ThenualiScatlonforBnienilier  of  cnunril  ix  merely    rior.     Much  of  the  surfare  hsnolvith>itandiii[;,lHit 
:hemuatl«  thirty  years  of  RRC,  a  natural-lsim   iniliRtrpntly  walmd.    From  AjiTillo  Julv  n  t'""') 
deal  of  ram  ishiffliehlliy  W,  -—•■  '-  " '- — 


M  l«  thirty  years  of  RRC, 

oriMtumlisert  snhject,  anil  a  resident  in  Ihe  |iro- 

vinee  for  three  years.  The  ptcsiilent  of  the  coundl 


The  houi«  of  ansemhly  conslsli  at  thirty-n 
mambcrs,  elected  for  three  years  hy  seventeen  dif 
Irieta,  but  liahle  to  dissolution  by  tlie  cxerutivi 
The  sole  qualiAcation  fur  an  elector  is  that  i 
having  been  un  the  ckjctoral  roll  for  lix  mouthi 


tlie  sea:  the  cinanlily  fallhiK  at  KiuK 
GeoiTre's  Sound  dniine  tha  winter  monlhs  Is'iiif; 
alxiut  e<iual  lo  tlie  fall  un  Ihe  W.  const  of  Kn;;- 
lanil;  but  Ibe  oiimlij- 100  m.  iiihml  is  mueli  l-i-t 

aliunihuitly  supplied  with  moismre,  ami  in  (lie  hot 

,   eommon.    TTie  climate  u  favourable  I"  lliei-'pii- 


AUSTRALIA.  (WESTERN) 


277 


stitution  of  Europeans :  though  in  summer  the 
days  are  hot,  the  nights  are  invariably  cool.  Dy- 
sentery of  a  mild  character,  and  ophthalmia,  are 
the  priiici|)al  diseases  which  affect  Europeans, 
(iranite,  gneiss,  and  red  sandstone,  intermixed 
with  clay,  and  rooting-slate,  and  limestone,  are 
the  i)revalent  geological  rocks;  along  the  Bay  du 
Geographe  basalt  is  abundant;  and  in  one  locality 
there  is  a  colunmar  basaltic  formation  similar  to 
the  Giant's  Causeway.  There  appears  to  be  a 
decidedly  greater  breadth  of  bad  and  inferior  land 
in  this  than  in  the  other  Australian  colonies, 
though  v^'itli  manure  good  crops  may  be  produced. 
'I'lic  weight  of  the  wheat  has  sometimes  exceeded 
70  lb.  per  busliel,  and  its  quality  generally  has 
been  as  goo<l  as  that  of  S.  Australia.  Soil  upon 
which  sheep  have  been  folded  produces  at  an 
average  about  20  bushels  an  acre,  but  the  yield 
might  be  increased. 

The  herbage,  except  in  the  best  watered  dis- 
tricts, is  scanty,  and  at  a  medium  five  or  six  acres 
are  required  for  a  single  sheep.  The  stock  of  the 
latter  Ls  now,  however,  rapidly  increasing.  In 
iHol  the  exports  of  wool  amounted  to  356,153  lbs. 
of  the  estimated  value  of  16,768/.  7«.  Sd,  The 
quality  of  the  wool  is  similar  to  that  from  the 
hi.ster  colonies;  but  owing  to  its  being  at  first  sent 
over  in  bad  condition,  it  brought  a  less  price.  It 
constitutes  the  main  article  of  export,  and  is  sus- 
ceptible of  an  indefinite  increase.  (Southey  on 
Colonial  Wools,  ]).  81.)  Sandal  wood  promises  to 
form  a  valuable  article  of  export,  being  sent  to  Sin- 
gapore and  China.  There  is  likewise  an  available 
8up[)ly  of  ship-building  timber,  which  grows  quite 
close  to  the  sea :  it  is  analogous  to  Honduras  ma- 
hogany, Ls  of  large  size,  resists  the  sea-worm,  and 
is  not*  apt  to  split  or  warp,  while  at  the  same 
time  it  is  more  e^isily  worked  than  any  other  wood 
in  Australia.  It  has  been  used  in  the  colony  for 
building  small  vessels,  and  also  for  rafters,  d:c.,  in 
houses.  A  shipload  was  recently  supplied  at  the 
<iockvard  at  Chatham,  and  was  highly  approved 
of.  ^fhe  Wne,  the  tig,  and  the  olive  are  begmning 
to  be  cultivated.  Zante  currants  thrive  as  well 
as  the  grape,  but  none  have  been  produced  for 
exportation.  Wine  has  been  made  tor  consump- 
tion in  the  colony,  and  projects  are  entertained 
fur  promuing  a  supply  ol  German  vine-dressers. 
In  1852  the  value  of  the  imjwTts  amounted  to 
1»7,304/.,  whereof  those  from  Great  liritain  amounted 
to  65,447/. :  the  value  of  the  exports  in  the  same 
year  amounted  to  16,571/.,  w<k)1  (except  trifiing 
<[uantities  of  timl>er,  whale-oil,  and  whalebone) 
iH'iiig  almost  the  only  article. 

Coal  of  good  quality  has  been  traced  in  veins 
of  ooii-^iilerable  ttiiokness  over  a  large  surface, 
and,  it  has  been  state<i,  within  four  or  live  miles  of 
the  coast.  At  present  the  cost  of  bringing  it 
ilt.wu  for  embarkation,  in  consequence  of  the  high 
l»rii'e  of  lalH)ur,  exceeds  the  cost  of  Engli«h  «>al; 
but  wore  smelling  works  established  near  the  pits, 
the  reduction  of  the  ores  of  S.  Australia  might, 
l»erhaps,  prove  a  profitable  business,  no  coal 
iiaving  hitherto  l>een  found  in  that  colony.  Iron 
ore  of  excellent  quality  is  met  with  in  large 
(piantities,  as  is  also  zinc;  and  traces  of  copi)er, 
leatl,  quicksilver,  Ac,  have  been  found,  though  no 
mines  of  these  metals  have  been  opened.  A  trade 
in  gums  is  commencing,  their  collection  being  en- 
tnjste<l  to  the  aborigines,  who  diijjwse  of  them  to 
the  Europeans  at  the  various  settlements.  A 
species  of  Ffufrmium  tenax,oT  tough  fiax,  is  stated 
to  be  amongst  the  indigenous  plants  which  might 
be  turned  to  account. 

The  total  value  of  the  imports  and  exports  of 
Western  Australia,  in  the  six  years  from  1856  to 
1862,  is  bhown  in  the  subjoined  statement:— 


Tnn 

Iinportt 

Espotta 

£ 

£ 

1856 

123,938 

44,740 

1857 

94.532 

59.947 

1859 

125,815 

93,037 

1860 

169,074 

89,246 

1861 

147,912 

95,789 

1862 

140,003 

111,754 

The  exports  of  the  colony,  very  small  in 
amount,  consist  almost  entirely  of  wool  and  tim- 
ber, the  former  being  of  the  average  value  of 
60,000/.  annually.  The  soil  is  believ^  to  be  rich 
in  mineral  ore,  principally  coppor;  but  as  yet 
mining  has  not  proved  remunerative  in  Western 
Australia. 

The  first  settlements  in  this  territory  were 
established  on  Swan  River  in  1828 ;  and  on  the 
formation  of  the  colony  very  lar^  grants  of  lands 
were  made  to  individuals,  to  which  cause  its  com- 
parative want  of  progress  may  be,  in  part  at  least, 
attributed.  One  settler  had  a  block  of  250,000 
acres,  and  there  were  other  grants  of  a  similar 
nature,  so  that  not  less  than  1,500,000  acres  had 
been  appropriated  previously  to  1841.  Labour  is 
scarce,  and  wages  high.  The  community  being 
small,  they  would  not  be  able,  from  want  of 
capital,  suddenly  to  receive  and  employ  any  great 
number  of  immigrants;  but  it  is  supposed  that 
from  1,500  to  1,600  labourers  annually  mi^ht  be 
provided  for  with  as  much  advantage  as  m  any 
other  colony.  • 

For  years  past,  immigration  into  the  colony  has 
been  confined  to  the  persons  sent  out  by  the  Bri- 
tish Government — ^paupers  and  criminals.  During 
the  ten  years,  from  Dec.  31,  1854,  to  Dec  31, 1863, 
there  were  introduced  to  Western  Australia : — 

Ctonvlcts 4,800 

Oovenunent  immigrants,  prisoners'  families, 
pensioners,  6ui.       .       .      ..       .       .       4,850 

Total     .       .       .       .       •       9,650 

On  the  other  hand,  there  left  in  tlie  same  period^ 
Free  emigrants,  exphees,  &c.    .       .       .       4,791 

It  thus  appears  that  but  one-half  of  the  convicts 
and  immigrants  remain  in  the  colony.  The  cri- 
minal statistics  of  this  convict  population  appear 
to  be,  however,  not  altt^ther  unfavourable.  With 
a  population  of  some  8,000  adult  males,  where  the 
bond  class,  including  expirees,  outnumber  the  free, 
there  were  only  26  cases  of  crime  during  1862,  of 
such  importance  as  to  be  tried  before  the  Supreme 
Court.  Of  these  cases  22  were  of  the  convict 
class,  and  the  majority  of  the  crimes  for  which 
they  were  trietl  were  not  of  a  ver>'  serious  nature, 
not  one  case  of  murder  being  amon^^  them. 

Owing  to  the  extensive  gnmts  originally  made, 
land  may  be  obtained  at  a  low  price  in  this  colony. 
In  1844,  a  million  acres  might  have  been  pur- 
cliased  at  3«.  an  acre.  Owing  to  this  low  price, 
the  sale  of  land  in  the  colony,  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  its  inhabitants,  is  very  great. 
12,000  acres  were  sold  in  1862,  a  larger  amount  in 
the  two  preceding  years,  and  with  a  population  of 
17,000  persons,  the  majority  of  whom  hold  little 
or  no  land ;  nearly  one  and  a  half  million  acres 
of  land  have  been  alienated  in  fee,  and  seven 
millions  of  acres  are  held  imder  lease.  (Keport  of 
Governor  Hampton,  dated  Feb.  20, 1863.) 

The  public  revenue  of  Western  AustraUa,  in  the 
year  1862,  amounted  to  69,406iL,  and  the  expendi- 
ture to  72,267/.  The  government  is  administered 
by  a  lieut,-govemor  appointed  by  the  Crown,  who 
is  assisted  by  an  Executive  Council  composed  of 
certain  office-holders,  namely,  the  senior  officer  in 


278  AUSTRALIA  (QUEENSLAND) 

command  of  the  forces,  the  colonial  secretary,  the 
comptroller-jjeiieral  of  con\'ictH,  the  wirveyor-gen- 
cral,  the  attorney-general,  and  the  treasurer  and 
collector  of  internal  revenue.  There  is  also  a 
Leginlative  Council,  compotHKl,  includiiu;  the  gover- 
nor, of  six  official  au<l  foiv  unothcial  membeni. 
The  ofliciul  members  arc  the  governor,  the  com- 
mander of  the  forces,  the  colonial  secretary',  the 
mirveyor-gcnerol,  the  attorney-general,  and  the 
treai«urer  and  collector  of  internal  revenue.  Tlic 
unofficial  members  are  appointed  by  tlie  Crown,  on 
the  recommendation  of  the  govem(»r. 

III.  QUKKNSL.VND,  the  formerly  northern 
province  of  New  South  'Walets  erected  into  an 
independent  colony  in  18o9.  It  embraces  the 
immen«ie  dirttrict  extending  along  the  K.  coai^t  of 
Australia,  between  the  tropic  of  Capriconi  (28^) 


sandstone  being  less  prevalent  than  in  the  con. 
nnmd  Sydney,  the  soil  in  sujM^rior.  Moreton  Bay, 
the  most  remarkable  geftgraphical  feature,  is  an 
inlet  of  the  ocean  l)etweeu  the  ?7th  and28tli  degs. 
8.  lat,,  and  163  and  153^  degs.  E.  long.:  it  in  .'><) 
m.  in  length  fn>m  N.  to  S.,  20  m.  in  width, 
studdeil  witli  inlets,  and  nheltercd  seaward  by 
Moreton  and  Stradbroke  inlands.  Its  sliores,  which 
ftiim  the  CO.  8tanlev,  are  suitcil  to  the  culture  of 
both  European  and  tropical  products.  Proceeiling 
from  S.  to  N.,  the  principal  stre4imH  floM-ing  E. 
through  tlie  territor\'  are  tlie  Clarence,  Kiciimond, 
I.K^n,  Hrislwrne,  and  VVidebay  rivs.,  all  of  which 
are  navigable,  but,  like  the  streiims  nearer  to  the 
S.,  they  have  bars  at  their  mouths.  The  Cla- 
R'nce,  the  largest  riv.  in  E.  Aiwnralia,  empties 
,     -  -  .  ,  ^,    itself  into  shoal  bay,  lat.  2y°  20' S.     It  is  Mat wl 

and  the  dOth  deg.  8.  lat.    But  the  o<.xnipied  iM>r-  '  to  l)e  navigable  for*steamlM>ats  of  100  tons  bunion 


tion  of  the  territorv  extends  onlv  between  the 
26th  and  dOth  degrees.  The  colony  comprises 
the  whole  north-ea>teni  portion  of  the  Austra- 
lian continent.  It  also  includes,  in  the  terms  of 
her  maje>*tv*s  letters  patent,  *  all  and  even'  the 
adjacent  islands,  their  memljers  and  apimrtenances, 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Carpen- 
taria.' 

It  appeiirs  from  the  statistical  register  of 
Queensland  for  1H61,  that  the  sun'oyor-general 
has  made  a  careful  calculation  of  the  present  area 
of  the  colony ;  and  the  result  is,  in  round  numbers, 
as  follows : — 


AllKA  OF  QirZESgLAKD, 


East  of  loneritiide  ur 
Between  141"  and  138° 

Total    . 


SqnaremUn 
IIS.WM) 


Occupied  Countiiy. 

Approximftte  area  of  country  occnpied  by 
pastoral  tftationa  .... 


G78,GOO 


SquaramUct 
195,000 


The  vast  territory  thus  defined  formed  a  part,  of 
New  South  Wales  imtil  it  was  erwted  into  a 
separate  colonv,  un<ler  the  name  of  (Queensland, 
bv  an  order  of  her  majesty  in  council,  which  t(K)k 
e^ect  on  December  10,  IK.'iO,  upon  the  arrival  of 
the  first  governor.  Sir  G.  F.  Bowen. 

The  populatitm  am(»unted  to  24,870  on  Decem- 
ber 81,  1859;  to  29,074  on  December  81,  I860; 
to  84,867  at  the  same  date  in  1861 ;  and  to  45,077 
on  December  31,  18t)2.  The  increase  of  |Kipulation 
in  the  year  1862  by  immigration  from  Europe 
amounted  to  8,080— namely,  4,703  males  and 
3,877  females;  and  the  increase  by  immigration 
frf>m  other  colonies  was  1 ,725^namely,  1,2«5 
males  and  440  females.    At  the  end  of  1862,  the 

}»opulation  containetl  three  males  for  every  two 
emales ;  but  it  is  remarkable  that  in  the  course  of 
the  year  1862,  though  the  male  births  were  110, 
to  every  100  females  bom,  the  excess  of  births 
over  deaths  gave  but  387  males  and  as  many  as 
618  female*.  The  total  increase  by  immigration 
in  the  year  1862,  from  all  parts,  was  9,H05;  and 
the  population  on  December  31,  1862,  was  esti- 
mated at  45,077,  of  whom  27,186  were  males  and 
17.801  females. 

llie  Australian  Andes,  a  mountain  chain  mostly 
from  60  to  70  m.  <listant  fn>m  the  Tacitic  Ocean, 
and  sei>arating  the  attiuentJt  of  the  Darling  flow- 
ing VV.  fnjm  the  rivs.  flt>\*'ing  E.,  have  a  general 
elevation  varying  between  3000  and  4000  ft. ;  but 
some  heights  in  New  England  are  much  more 
lofty,  and  Mt,  Lindsav,  in  a  spur  near  Moreton 
Bay,  rises  to  5700  f^,  above  the  sea.  Immediately 
on  prrjceeiling  into  the  territory  from  New  South 
Wales,  the  mountains  are  seen  to  assume  a  peaked 
and  volcanic  shape;  tliey  are  mostly  granitic,  and 


for  80  m.  above  its  bar,  and  thnuighonl  lhi>  part 
of  it«  course  its  banks  consist  of  ri(;h  alluvial  soil, 
well  fitteil  for  agricultund  purfSisCM:  in  the  up^MT 
part,  it  waters  a  line  ])a.storal  region  on  M'hich 
many  squatters  are  settled;  an<l  near  its  mouth  it 
encloses  a  large  island.  The  liichmond,  alnuit  45 
m.  further  N.,  is  navigable  for  50  m.  from  the 
ocean.  The  country  between  tliLs  riv.  and  More- 
ton  Bay,  a  distance  of  60  or  70  m.,  is  a  continuous 
forest  of  pnies,  some  of  very  large  size;  an<l  the 
river  Tweed  towards  its  centre  is  a  g<HKl  deal 
resorted  to  for  cedar  timl)er  by  coasting  vesM.>ls 
frt)m  Sydney.  The  Brisbane,  a  large  and  fine 
stream,  with  a  very  circuitous  course,  is  navigated 
bv  steamers  for  60  or  80  m.  from  its  mouth  in 
Moreton  Bay ;  on  it  is  Brisbane  town,  the  cap.  of 
Cooksland.  '  Widebay  riv.  enters  the  jsea  at  Port 
Curtis,  the  N.  limit  of  the  explored  n»gion.  The 
average  temp,  at  Moreton  Bay  was  found  to  Ix; 
alxmt  58°  Fah.;  in  Dec.  of  the  same  year  it  varied 
fn)m  72*^  to  80° ;  and  in  June  it  was  alK>ut  5 1°  Fah. 
Nothing  can  exceed  the  salul)rity  of  the  cliniat4> 
of  this  region.  The  traveller,  it  is  said,  may 
sleep  in  the  *  bush  '  uncovered  on  the  bare  ground  ; 
and  may  fonl  rivers,  ride  in  wet  cloLhes,  an(l 
expose  himself  with  all  but  |K?rfe«.*t  impunity  to 
every  variation  of  teni])erature.  fHodgkinson's 
Australia,  d-c  p.  107.)  Owing  to  ttie  vicinity  of 
the  tropic,  rains  are  more  abundant  and  regular 
than  further  S. ;  and  the  alluvial  flats  along  the 
sides  and  near  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  iMiing  un- 
usuallv  fertile,  the  countr\'  is  better  tit  ted  for 
agriculture  than  the  central  region  of  New  South 
Wales.  The  crops,  also,  arc  less  injured  by 
droughts.  At  present,  wheat,  salted  Ijcef,  wtH)l, 
skins,  tallow,  and  pine  timlK.-r,  are  the  [trincipal 
articles  of  export.  Acconling  to  Mr.  Kent,  g»»- 
veniment  superintendent  at  Moreton  l5av,  the 
average  pn>duce  per  acre  of  the  agricultural  dists 
between  the  Clarence  and  Widebay  riv.,  is  of 
wheat,  from  20  to  30  bushel?,  of  maize  fn>m  50  to 
60  do.,  of  sweet  potntiK's  30  tons,  ami  of  tobacco 
about  15  CYfts.  (Lang's  Co<ik.sland,  p.  238.) 
Sugar-cane  of  the  Tahitian  variety  is  iudigenoiLs. 
Tolwicco,  cotton,  C(»rtee,  indigo,  rice,  bananas, 
oranges,  melons,  pinc-ai)ples,  arrow-r«x>t,  flax, 
millet,  guinea-grass,  come  to  |wrfcction;  the  (miI- 
ture  of  silk  has  been  succ<'s.sfully  atteniptcii, 
though  hitherto  not  to  much  extent:  the  tenii»e- 
rature  is  suited  to  the  \'ine,  but  periodical  rauis 
occurring  when  the  fniit  is  ripe,  spoil  the  grapes, 
so  that  Cooksland  is  not  likely  to  l>ecome  a  wine- 
growing country.  Darling  D*»wns,  New  England, 
and  indeed  most  parts  of  the  territory,  except  tho. 
allu\'ial  flats,  are  extremely  well  aiL'ipteil  to  sjufp 
rearing,  and  a  good  deal  of  land  Is  invupied  in 
large  runs  by  squatters.  Some  squatting  stati<»ns 
have  been  occupied  as  far  N.  as  the  river  Boy  no, 
and  extensive  tracts  have  been  discovered,  hup- 


AUSTRALIA  (N.  S.  WALES) 

po.<)C(l  to  be  well  adapted  for  sheep,  ntill  further  N. 

Mithin  the  limits  of  the  tmpic.     (Laiii?,  pp.  U^2, 

133,  (Jbc.)     Sheep  wei^h  at  an  avera^  frum  70  to 

^0  lb8.  at  Moreton  Bav,  and  cattle  from  18  to  14 

cwts.    The  Moreton  Day  pine  {Araucaria  Cun- 

ninyhami)  is  conthied  to  the  ^geographical  limit  of 

(^iK'tinhland ;  it  grows  to  from  lUO  to  loO  ft.  in 

height,  and  yieUis  excellent  timber  for  mA»X»  and 

hilars.     The  bunya-bunya  pine   (^.  BidwtUia), 

red   cedar,  iron-bark,  blue  gum,  row  and  tulip 

wcmnIs,  box,  silk,  and  forest  oaks,  d;c.,  are  noble 

tn»e«.     *  Dr.  Leichhart  found  not  fewer  than  1 10 

different  8i>ecies  of  trees,  exclusive  of  parasitical 

plants  and  ^hrul>s,  in  the  bnish  or  alluvial  flat 

land  of  Moreton  liay,  and  27  in  the  open  forest, 

and  along  only  30  paces  of  a  cattle  track  at  Lime- 
stone Plain,  near    Ipswich,  not    fewer  than  17 

different  species  of  grass  in  seed  at  the  same  time.' 
(lbi(L  p.  133.)     Honey  is  becoming  an  article  of 

commerce.     Dycwoisls  and  gums  alnmnd  in  great 

variety,  but  they  have  not  yet  (or  had  not  at  the 

date  of  last  re|M)rt)  found  a  place  in  the  markets. 
Turtle  of  various  sorts,  and  pearl  oysters,  are 
abundant  on  most  parts  of  the  coast.    C<»al  has 

been  met  with  on   ixjth   sides  of  the  Australian 
An<les,  but  hitherto  no  mines  have  been  openetL 
Most  of  the  imxluctions  of  both  tcm{)erate  and 
tropical  countries  can  be  cultivate*!  with  success 
in   (Queensland.       The  climate  is  statfKl   to  l>e 
favourable  to   pastoral    occu{)ations,  and    to  the 
growth  of  wool.     Experience  has  shown  that  ex- 
teunive  districts  are  al.-o  a<lapted  for  the  growth 
(»f  cotton.    Many  writers  reganl  this  colony  as 
destined  to  become  the  future  cotton-lield  of  Great 
Britain.     A  bonus  is  offered  by  the  government  of 
ten   acres  of  land  for  ever\'  bale  of  Sea  Island 
cotton  weigliing  3<M)  lbs.     llowever,  the  registrar- 
general  of  (Queensland,  in  his  report  of  June  18G3, 
stated  that  agriculture  had  made  little  progress; 
the  high   rate  of  wages,  uncertainty  ot   getting 
lalsiur,  and  the  diflicidty  of  conveying  produce  to 
market  over  roads  always  rough  and  often  ini- 
]>axsable,  having  hitherto  made  it  more  economical 
to  imi)ort  almost  all  kinds  of  agricultural  produce 
than  to  grow  them.    According  to  an  official  re- 
turn of  March  1863,  the  extent  of  land  set  aside 
fi>r  the  cultivation  of  cotton  at  that  ]>eriod  was 
under  KM)  acn's. 

The  value  of  the  imis)rts  and  exiM)rts  of  (Queens- 
land, in  the  years  1 «()(),  iWil.  and  l«rr2,  Lh  given  in 
the  following  table.  It  shows  that,  during  thb« 
trioimial  jHTitMl,  the  inijxirts  have  nearly  doubled, 
while  the  exisirts  also  have  largely  increased. 


279 

Great  gold  fields  have  hitherto  not  been  discovered, 
though  the  metal  is  believed  to  be  existing  in  large 
quantities. 

The  form  of  government  of  the  colony  of 
Queensland  was  established  l>eoeml>er  10,  iH59, 
on  its  separation  from  New  South^  Wales.  The 
power  of^  making  laws  and  imposing  taxes  is 
vested  in  a  Parliament  of  two  Houses,  the  Legis- 
lative Council  and  the  Legislative  Assembly.  The 
former  consists  of  twenty  members,  nominated  by 
the  Crown  for  life ;  and  the  latter  of  twenty-six 
deputies,  elected  by  all  natural-liom  or  naturalised 
citizens,  who  pay  taxes,*  and  have  undergone  no 
condemnation  for  any  criminal  act.  The  execu- 
tive is  vested  in  a  governor  appointed  by  the 
Crown, 

IV.  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  the  earliest  set- 
tled of  the  British  colonies  in  Australia,  comprises 
the  territory  between  the  tn>pic  of  Capricorn  on  the 
N.  and  Cape  Howe,  in  al>out  37^^  S.  lat.,  having  a 


Yntr 

]S4)0 

is»ii 


ImporU 
74J.n2.3 

n(;7.ii."»o 


Esporta 


Total  Import* 
Mid  Kspwrtt 


.•i2n,47(J 
7oi». .'.!>» 
74S,.>1«J 


i,'i«i:i.4y9 

1,«;77.MH 
2,(h;8,744 


Tlie  commerrial  intcrcour>e  <»f  (Queensland  is 
cliiefly  with  the  <»ther  Australian  colonies,  and, 
next  to  them,  with  Great  Britain,  iLs  sh«»wu  hi  the 
subjoined  tal)le : — 


Year       ImporU    ;   E&porU 


(I  real  Britain 


Australian  colonic,-' 


JH»,!Hi;,  Il!»..M.'i       210,420 

•A'S..V.»1  2  ).'»,<  ••'■»;♦       iA-l,{\:A) 

.V.M.l«i'»  KJl.M*;      (>H4,711 

w  is^il     s;4.71»7  .'.Si»,»i:i:{  il,4tM.431 

I  1n;2  1  ,OSO ,.;:;«  527 .mo  !l,«iy,883 


I  i8r.o 
-  lS4;l 
i  is«:2 

I  lS4iO 


ToUl 


There  an*  several  coal  mines  in  the  colony,  pnv- 
ducing  about  lf<,<K»U    tous    of    coal  \^t  annum. 


coast  line  of  aliout  'J73  m. 

The  Blue  Mountains  extend  irregularly  throogh- 
out  the  whole  length  of  this  region,  parallel  t4)  the 
coast,  at  a  distance  averaging  from  30  to  50  m. 
I'heir  medium    elevation    varies   between  8,0(M» 
to  4,000  fl.,  and  their  slope  is  most  abrupt  on  the 
E.  side,  botwei-n  which  and  the  ocean  is  a  well 
wooded  undulating  territorv,  watered  by  nume- 
rous rivers.    The  LiverisK>l  range,  considerably 
higher  than  the  Blue  M(»untains,  trend  fromW. 
to  E.  in  the  N.  part  of  the  wdony,  dividing  the 
cos.    Bligh    and    Brisbane    from    the    squatting 
district,  Liveri)ool  plains,  N.  E.  of  the  range.   Sea 
view,  perhaps  the  loftiest  in  the  colony,  rises  to  the 
height  of  C,(HM)  ft.     Shores  mostly  iJold;  but  in- 
dented with  some  fine  bays  or  inlets,  as  Botany 
and  Broken  Bays,  Ports  'Jackson,  Hunter,   Ste- 
phens, and  Hacking,  Bateman  and  Twofold  Bays, 
drc.     It  was  on  the  E.  fiank  of  the  Onnabalas 
Mountain,  not  far  from  Bathurst,  and  about  120 
m.  W.N.W.  from  Sydney,  that  the  gold  de|K>sits 
were  first  discovered  in*  1851.      Several  of  the 
rivers. are  of  considerable  size;  but  the  mouths  of 
all  of  them  are  more  or  less  encumbere<i  by  ban, 
so  that  they  are  of  comparatively  little  use  for 
na\4gation.    The  Hunter,  after  a  winding  S.  and 
E.  course,  estimated  at  2<K)  m.,  disemlsigues  in 
port  Hunter,  near  lat,  35°  S.    The  main  stream  is 
navigable  only  for  35  m.,  but  it  receives  st>veral 
tributaries    available    for   shipping    to   a    much 
greater  distance ;  and  the  districts  watere<l  by  it 
and  its  atliuents  arc  the  richest  in  the  colony. 
The  Hawkchburj",  formed  bv  the  junction  of  the 
Nei>ean  and  Grow;  nvers,  boun<ls  the  co.  Cum- 
berland on  the  W.  and  N.,  and  receives  many 
considerable  afliueiits  in   its  course  to  the  sea, 
which  it  en  ten*  at  Bn>ken  Bay.    It  is  naWgable 
for  ve.Nsels  of  100  t^ms  for  140  *m.  from  its  month. 
The    Macl-,t!av  (liscmls^ues   in   Trial  Bay,  lat. 
30°  40'  S.;  it  lian  a  bar  at  its  entrance,  with,  ge- 
nerally, sufficient  water  for  ves.-^tds  drawing  10  or 
II  ft.,  and  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  50  or  CO  tons 
for  34  m.  from  its  mouth.     (Ilodgkinson,  p.  9.) 
Lakes  neither  large  nor  numerous  :  Macquarrie 
and  Brisbane,  Isith  in  co.  Northumberland,  are  the 
largest;  IlLawarra  (Camden)  and   the  Tuggerah 
l)each  lakes   are  mere  inlets  <if  the  ocean,  with 
narrow  mouths.    The  sites  of  lakes  Geoige  (co. 
Mumiy),  an<i   Bathurst  (c<i.  Arg>-le),  in  the  S., 
have  been  for  many  years  dry  and  under  culti- 
vation. 

The  Climate  is  warmer  than  that  of  England, 
mean  temp,  at  Port  .Jackstm  l^eing  C*?^  f/,  and  at 
Port  Maifiuarrie  (i>^  Fah.  In  winter,  that  is,  in 
June,  July,  and  August,  snow  sometimes  lies  on 
the  mountains,  an<l  oc(ra>ionally  in  the  upland 
vjdle^'s,  for  some  days  together;  but  it  is  wholly 


280  AUSTRALIA  (N.  S.  WALES) 

uiikno^ii  in  the  vicinity  of  Sydney  and  along  the    abundant,  this  sort  of  farming  may  Ik?  attempted 
coa8t;  there  the  winter  is  aseanm  of  rain  with    with  wnie  prosptfl  of  Micct^s,  but  not  till  tluMi. 
lilight  frosts.      The  annual  fall  of  rain  at  IVrt  |      Towards  the  end  of  last  ccntiir>'  the  bhwp  in 
^[acquarrie  amounts  to  abrmt  62§  inches,  and  at    N. S.  Wales  con.siHted  primipally  of  tlit  bniMls  of 
I*ort  Jackson  to  oi*42  «lo.;  a  much  kr^cr  amount    lUmj^al  and  the  C'ajH*  of  CicmmI    1Io|H';   and  ih<' 


than  at  Port  Philhp  for  example,  where  the  aver- 
a^  is  (»nly  30'7  inches  (Strzcleeki),  though  the 
latter  is  equal  to  the  avcrai;e  in  most  {lartii  of 
Kn^lnnd,  and  considerably  greater  than  the  quan- 
tity falliiif^  on  her  K.  Ttiast.  Kain  sometimes 
deftceiuls  in  torrcntj)  in  N.  S.  Wales:  it  in  state<l 
that  on  one  oocasiou  20  uiches  fell  at  Port  Jackson 
in  24  hours  (Strzelccki) ;  and  a  river  in  the  moun- 
tainous H'^on  has  risen  from  a  similar  cause,  in  a 
few  hours,  to  97  ft.  above  its  onlinai}'  leveL    But. 


eolonv  is  mainlv  uidcbteil  for  the  uitnHhiction  of 
the  sh(fi>i>-fannni^  system,  and  cons*fjuently  of  its 
staple  source  of  wealtlj,  to  the  example  and  exer- 
tions of  John  Macarthur,  Ks4|.  That  ^'ntleniaii 
ascertained,  somewhere  about  17!>2  or  171*3,  that, 
by  judiciously  cn»«sin^  the  colony  breetls  with 
those  of  (in.>at  Britain,  the  (piality  of  the  fleece  was 
very  much  unprovctl,  and  that  it  ranked  with  the 
best  Kun»t)ean  wool. 

The  foll(»wing  was  the  quantitv  of  sheep  and 


the  w>il  l)eing  in  a  great  measure  crtmpoecd  of  j  other  live  stock  m  New  South  Wale.^,  in  the  thri'c 
disintegratetl  sandstone,  this  exceas  <»f  moisture  is  yean*  lHf>(Mj2  : — 
Mion  drie<l  up.  It  is,  also,  more  ex{)osc<l  tluui  most 
other  parts  of  Australia  to  hot  and  imrching  winds 
from  the  N.  These,  which  bear  a  close  analog\'  to 
tlic  Sim«s»m  of  the  Aralw  and  the  Sirocco  of  S. 
Italy,  arc  vcr^'  oppressive,  and  produce  o|)hthalmia 
amoiig>t  l)oth  the  Kuro}>ean  and  native  raced. 
Dysentery  and  influenza  are  pretty  prevalent, 
attacking  chieHy  tlie  inhalw.  of  Kuroiiean  descent. 
Count  Strzelecki  observers,  that,  C(»m|)ared  with 
tho  virgin  soils  which  be  had  examined  *  in 
Canada,  the  U.  States,  Brazil,  the  Arg(*iitine  Be- 


.Tean 

Tlone* 

Homed 
Cattle 

Shci-p 

I860 
iNil 
liHi-2 

No. 
2.'.1,4{»7 
*2M\,'2'H) 
'27li,liS9 

No. 

i.'.4fi.s,:.«»; 
2.J71, :••.':» 

No 

:»,»ii.'»,o.M 

New  South  Wales  was  first  colonised  by  convicla 
inl7w<.  InMay  17h7, six  trjmsi>ort.i and  three .ston?- 

~  ....     nhips  couvoyetl  by  a  frigjite  and  an  anne«l  tender, 

public,  (tuatemahi,  Mexic<»,  "and^the''islands"of '  «"led  from  Knglandwitli  Mio  male  andlH2  fnoale 
JUUlv  and  U»ml)ok,  tluise  of  N.  S.  Wales  and  Van  convicts,  under  the  command  of  Captam  Phillip. 
Diemeifs  Und  are  gmitly  inferiitr  m  the  amount  H*-*  arrived  at  Botany  Bay  on  Januar>'  2o,  17i*M, 
of  twits  and  alkalies  thevoHitain,  and  therefoR"  in    but,  di«*covering   Port  Jackson   by   a«cid«nt.   he 


remove<l  his  fleet  to  it.  In  1 7H1*  a  harvest  was  first 
reaiKxl  at  Paramatta.  In  17!K)  the  first  grant  of 
land  was  made  to  a  convict.     In  17J»3  there  were 


fertility.'    (Strxelecki,  pp.  3«U, .%!.)     Tins  terri- 
tory is,  in  fact,  much  l»etter  adapted  for  a  grazing 
tluiu  for  an  agricultural  countrw    The  tilliKl  land 
lies  chiefly  al<»ng  the  luinks  of  the  hirger  rivers,  in    1»*^'K»  busheLs  of  suqdus  wheat  gniwn  in  the  colony, 
the  valleys  of  the  Hunter,  Hawk<wlmr>'.  Nei^K.'an,a»dpurt'hased    by   goyeniment.     In    17?<f<    the 

Wollondills,  Goidbi 

quarric  and  Cam 

I'he  farms  of  the  Australian  Ag 


the  Hunter,  Hawkesburw  Xei>ean,  a»"    purcnaseu    oy   govenimeni.     in    i<^f»    iiie 

ioidbuni,  Ac,  and  ahmg'the  Aiac-  wlude  iK.pulation,  including  the  g«»veniment  esta- 

impU»ll,  down  to  Wellington  vallev.  blLshment  and  ccmvicts,  amount«'d  to  1,030.     In 

the  Australian  Agricultural  S«K'ietv  1^03  the  first  newspaper  was  printecl.     In  IHIO 


in  the  N.  are  amongst  the  l>est  conducte<l  and 
most  thri\'ing :  the  neighl)ourhood  of  NeM'castle, 


the  iK)pulation,  free  and  felon,  aimnmted  to  8.21KJ. 
There  wen*  at  the  same  iktIihI  i>7,«537  acres  of  hind 


fr«im  its  excellent  harixmr,  the  facilit  v  of  obtaining  granted,  and  there  were  in  the  (-ohmy  1,111  hors«'s 
coal,  tolerable  irrigation,  and  goo<rn»ails,  is  the  .  H.'^^G  honie<l  cattle,  ;M,:>:>«.»  hhccp.  In  \X'1\  the 
miwt  flourishing  agricultural  district  in  the  colony.  '  l»«»puhit ion  incri'aM'd  to  2l»,7s3,  and  in  1^28  to 
The  state  and  progress  of  agriculture  is  sue-  |  27,<I11  males  and  S,I»7H  females:  total  3r,.;V.»S.  Of 
cinctlv  exhibited  in  the  f\>llowing  table,  which    this  number,  14,1. •>G  were  male,  and  1,.'>13  female 


mg 
shows  the  land  under  crop  at  two  periods : — 


CroiM 


Wheat. 

Maize  .... 

Barley  and  Oats  . 

Rye,  Millet,  nud  Sorglium 

PotatiKw 
VIneyanIs    . 
(ranleiiri 
Tobacco 
Cotton 
Other  Cro|M 

TotAls      . 


sift  March 

3Ut  March 

\mi 

IStSS 

Aem 

Acrpt 

129,37.'»? 
6»,14J»} 

117.S.'.4| 

7K.-2;vj/ 

41,799^ 

W,(MU 

1.4% 

741 

A'.\;2\)'2\ 

32,010 

10,(W!»^ 

9,2H2? 
1 .4.M>1 

1.1  :t0 

8,707^ 

8.4 1  ti 

it^i 

8y.'.j 

Mi 

2,:JG0J 

3,l!IGi 

W7,575 

;W»i,18Si 

convicts;  and  o.3o2  males,  and  1,342  females,  free 
by  ser\itude. 

The  numlxT  of  emigrants  which  arrive*l  in  the 
e<dony  in  the  twelve  years  lX2i>  to  l^*10  aniountcti 
t4»4l,'7lM.  During  the  year:*  ls41  and  1842  tlie 
numlHT  of  emigrants  was  30,221.  The  iK)i)ulatioii 
of  Sydnev  in  1S3;J  wjw  H>,233;  and  in  IKWI, 
1U,72*II.  fn  1S40  it  amounted  to  21»,1,»73 ;  and  in 
l«45-4n,  to  3«,.3r)S.  The  colony  was  nlieved  fmrn 
the  trans])ortation  of  rriminals  in  1hH>. 

While  this  was  a  is-nal  •settlement,  it  was  uMial, 
after  convicts  had  iK-en  d<'tahietl  for  a  ioup-r  or 
shiirter  jwricKl,  in  the  hulks  tjr  governnieiit  e**- 
tahlishmeiits  in  the  colony,  to  assign  tlieiii  as  ser- 
vants to  the  settlers;  and  subsequently  it  bceanie 
customarj'  to  give  them  tickets  of  leave,  enahling 
tln-m  to  engage  themselves  t(>  masters — a  jtrivilege 
wlii<'h  was  commonly  c«iupled  with  a  con«litional 
The  olive  hasl>een  intnKluccd  to  a  small  extent  pardon.  As  might  Ik*  expected,  a  distinct  Ihie  of 
Silk  also  has  been  triwl,  but  only  cm  a  limited  demarcation  was  early  drawn,  and  is  still,  tht)iigh 
scale:  though  not  indigenous,  the  niuUierry  grows  less  strictly,  kept  up*  ln'tMcen  convicts  who  had 
very  well  The  orange  gn»ws  magnificently.  The  aejpiired  their  fniMlom,  and  the  rest  of  the  jKipula- 
cotton  plant,  unlike  the  Ameri<'an  descriptilm,  is  a  tion.  S«Kiety  in  N.  S.  Wales  is  divided  into  the  two 
perennial,  the  same  as  in  Brazil,  the  ICast  Imlies,  '  chisses  of  free  emigrants  and  their  de^^ceiulants, 
and  Kgj'pt.  We  lielieve,  however,  tliat  the>e  and  of  those  convieted  of  any  otlVnce,  or  who  have 
branches  of  industry  are  unsuited  to  the  present  spning,  immt^iiately  or  remotely,  frnm  aconvien-d 
condition  of  the  c<>lony;  and  that  those  who  em-  I  party.  These  chissies  have,  d(»wn  to  a  late  jieriml, 
bark  in  them  on  anything  like  an  extensive  scale  '  kept  as  distinct  fr»>m  ea<'h  otlur  as  the  pure  and 
will  be  hea\'y  losers.  \\  hen  the  sheep-runs  have  I  impure  castes  among  the  llimloos,  ()r  the  white 
bten  all  occupietl,  \ifO\y.  be(.*omc  dense,  and  labour  j  and  black  races  in  the  U.  States  ;  but  within  these 


AUSTRALIA  (N.  S.  WALES)  281 

few  years,  the  prejiulices  in  which  this  separation  vailed  in  1836  and  1837,  the  price  of  sheep  fell 

originated  have  abated  ver>'  greatly,  and  will,  from  upwards  of  2/. to  2s.  6<i!., and  even  Is.  a  head; 

prolmbly  at  no  distant  pcricKl,  wfiolly  disappear.  and  that  of  cattle  from  9/.  or  10^  to  1/.  or  less. 

llie  stimulus  given  to  immigration  by  the  dls-  In  this  desperate  emergency,  when  many  of  the 
covery  of  gold  has  been  less  folt  here  than  in  Vic-  settlers  were  reduced  to  bankniptey,  the  practice 
toria;  but  it  has,  notwitlistanding,  been  very  was  adopted  of  slaughtering  the  sheep  for  their 
p<)werful.  It  is  ini possible,  however,  to  form  any  skins  and  tallow.  To  prociu-e  the  latter,  the  car- 
conjecture  in  regard  to  its  continuance,  as  that  case  was  boiled  down;  the  best  portions  of  the 
must  in  great  measure  dei>end  on  the  futiu^e  pro-  meat,  as  the  legs,  &c,  having  been  first  (in  some 
ductiveness  of  the  gold  tields.  But  whether  it  cases^  removed  for  sale  or  salting.  By  this  means 
continue  about  stationary-,  diminish  or  increase,  the  sheep  were  made  to  yield  their  owners  al)out 
still  it  is  plain  that  the  demand  of  those  engaged  5s.  or  6s.  per  head.  But  this  practice  has  lon;^ 
in  the  searcli  for  gold,  for  provisions  and  other  since  been  abandoned. 

articles  of  accommodation,  cannot  fail  in  the  end  In  the  year  1850,  about  70,000  acres  of  land 

to  give  a  corresjx^nding  impulse  to  everj'  branch  were  in  cultivation  in  New  South  Wales,  and  the 

of  industry,  and  to  re-establish  that  general  equal-  colony  had  5,660,829  sheep,  952,852  homed  cattle, 

ity,  taking  all  things  into  account,  which  usually  63,890  horses,  and  23,890  pigs.     In  1859  the  num- 

subsLsts  between  wjigcs  and  profits  in  different  bers  were:   land  in  cultivation,  217,440  acres; 

department's.     How  prosperous  soever  the  *dig-  sheep,  7,736,323 ;  homed  cattle,  2,110,600 ;  horses, 

^ngs'  may  be,  the  lalwurers  drawn  to  them  in  200,700;   and  pi|^,  92,800.     In  nme  years  the 

the  tirst  instance  from  agriculture  and  other  pur-  number  of  acres  of  land  in  cultivation  had  been 

suits  will  l)e  sure  to  be  restored  to  the  latter,  or  trebled;  and  above  2,000,000  sheep  and  more  than 

replaced  by  others.  1,000,0()0  head  of  cattle  had  been  added  to  the 

ThetotaljK)pulati<mofthe  colony  of  X.S.Wales,  stock.    In  1802,  the  agricultural  statistics  of  the 

on  the  31st  of  December  1852,  was  officially  esti-  colony,  which  in  the  meantime  had  been  deprived 

mated  at  208,254,  of  wliom  118,687  were  males,  of  the  important  district  of  Queensland,  were  as 

and  89,567  females.    According  to  estimates  made  follows: — Acres  in  cultivation,  297,500;    above 

after  the    returns    of   the  registrar-general,  tlie  6,000,000  acres,  as  yet  uncultivated,  were  enclosed, 
population  numbered: — 

Males 
Dfcomber  31,  18r»l    .    202,099 
l>eccmbor31,  18«>2    .    205,531 


Fcnnain 
15«.179 
161,9G4 


Total 
8,'i8,278 
867,495 


The  returns  of  immigration  for  the  ten  years, 
1853  to  1862  inclusive,  exhibit  the  results  shown 
in  the  following  table : — 


The  number  of  sheep  at  the  same  period  amounted 
to  5,600,000;  of  homed  cattle  to  2,270,000;  of 
horses  to  233,000  ;  and  of  pigs  to  146,000. 

In  the  early  period  of  the  colony,  the  best  part 
of  the  country  near  Sydney  was  given  in  free 
grants  to  colonists;  the  rest  has  been  sold  by 
government.  The  abolition  of  free  grants  took 
effect  in  1831,  after  which  land  was  for  a  time 
offered  for  sale  at  a  minimum  upset  price  of  5s. 
per  acre.  In  1839  the  minimum  price  was  raised 
from  58.  to  12s. ;  the  sales  producmg  in  that  vear 
92,968^.;  and  in  1840,  during  the  zenith  of  the 
land  mania,  the  sales  produced  97,499/L  A  period 
of  great  depression  and  general  insolvency  followed, 
during  which,  in  1843,  the  upset  price  of  land  was 
raised  to  the  sum  of  K  an  acre. 
These  figures  show  that,  whilst  the  assisted  im-  ^7  »"  o^d^'  »"  council,  dated  9th  March,  1847, 
migration  has  been  conducted  with  due  regard  to  ^^^  ^^"^  ^^  di\nded  mto  settled,  intermediate, 
the  equalisation  of  the  sexes,  the  voluntarv  immi-  ««^  unsettled;  the  first  of  which  comprises  the 
^ration  sets  at  nought  this  imiwrtant  social  con-  '^^  ^^  ^  ^^^  central  part  of  the  colony,  lands 
suleration.  The  above  numbers  are  exclusive  of  withm  from  10  to  25  m.  of  the  prmcipal  settlo- 
:i,022  Chinese  immigrants,  who  arrived  in  the  vear  ™^"^»  ^  m.  from  either  bank  of  the  Glenelg,  Cla- 
1H59,  and  of  6,958  of  the  same  nation,  which  ar-  ^ence,  and  Richmond  riv.  (for  certain  distances), 
rived  in  1860.     They  were  nearly  all  males.  ^^^  evcr>'where  within  3  m.  from  the  sea.     The 

According  to  Count  Strzelecki,  six  acres  per  governor  is  empowered  to  grant  leases  of  mns  of 
hoad  is  the  least  extent  of  land  required  in  the  ^^^^  "*  t*»«  -^*^1^  districts  of  a  year,  in  the  inter- 
central  part  of  the  colony  for  p.usturage  ;  but  from  mediate  districts  of  eight  years'  duration,  and  m 
Jour  to  tive  acres  is  ixThaps  nearer  the  average  ^'^^  unsettled  districts  for  a  term  not  exceeding 
allowed  in  the  runs.  The  arts  of  breeding,  pas-  fourteen  years,  exclusively  for  pastoral  purposes, 
luring  bv  rotation  of  ground,  <fcc.,  as  pursued  in    tl»e  tenant  being  allowed  to  raise  gram,  hay,  vege- 


Quinquen- 

Aulit«d 

Voluntary 

Total 

nial 
Puriodi 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Male       Female 

180.3-57 
lH.>S-(>2 

24,248'  2:>,4<'i.> 
9,!H;7'    9.:}72 

14,311 
.'.7,982 

9,017 
14,571 

38,559 
67,949 

34,472 
23,943 

Total 

34,210  34,827 

72,2J)3 

23,.')S8 

106,508 

58,415 

llritain  and  in  Silesia,  are  in  general  little  under 
stood,  most  part  of  the  wool-growers  being  persons 
Avho,  before  emigrating,  liad  Uttle,  if  any,  expe- 
rience in  shee|)-farming.  The  rearing  of  otherstock, 


tables,  or  fruit,  for  the  supply  of  his  establishment, 
but  not  for  sale  or  barter.  The  rent  is  propor- 
tioned to  the  number  of  sheep  or  cattle  the  run  is 
estimated  to  be  cai>able  of  supporting :  each  run 


1861  and  1862  was  iis  follows  :  — 


Export*  of  Wwol 


18G1 


1663 


S^^award   . 
Overlaml    and 
Murray 

Totals 


rid     the 


Lbt. 
12,745,891 

5,425,318 
18,171,209 


Lbs. 
13,482,139 

7,506,254 


sheep,  or  an  equivalent  number  of  cattle.  During 
the  continuance  of  the  lease  the  land  is  not  open 
to  purchase  by  any  one  but  the  lessee,  who  may  at 
any  time  purchase  not  less  than  160  acres,  at  not 
less  than  il.  per  acre.  The  lease  is  forfeited  by 
non-payment  of  rent,  &c. ;  and  the  government 
reser\'es  to  itself  the  right  of  entering  upon  any 
portion  of  the  lands  thus  leased  *  for  any  purpose 
of  public  defence,  safety,  improvement,  convenience, 

—    — utility,  or  enjoyment,' 

During  the  revulsion  that  followed  the  wide-        Mining    is  'extensively  pursueil    in    Victoria. 
Fpread  mania  for  buying  land  and  stock  that  pre-    There  were,  in  1862,  coal' mines  to  the  number  of 


20,988,393 


282  AL-3TRALU  {K.  S.  WALES) 

twenty-one ;  Mid  fifte*n  other  mine,  cif  copper.       The  imporla  were  tt  the  n 


mm,  ICtdi  £JIH^  miui  Buici. 

ovLT  thiBe  iliBlrictn,  called 
Noithem  FielilH,  and  " 
fulluiring  U  a  lut  or 
I  be  rolotiy,  from  the 


Litem  Diner  minea.  m  a 
nlver.    The  Kniil  Ikhli  e: 


cajK-u  loe  >V(»t«m  Field,  the  liUL  Ui.iiiJ.|ieT  hva>L    ' 

i  Die  Southern  Field".     The  followiiiij  ariiclw  :— 

■  tlie  annual  yields  c.f  fpM  in  

!  liiKt  discuverien  to  the  eud  ul  ;  E>i>«tt 


t™„   ,         0. 

v^- 

1M.1M 

»I.»H3 

i.Aiiijtiii 

CVI/.M) 

1,IU|!l7i> 
i,JIH.77:l 

«,*Mi,M;a 

The  quantity  of  gold  ftwiid  in  N'cw  South  n'ale^ 
It  will  tie  seen,  ii>  very  eonHiIernlilr,  and  milling 
foduKtiy  cimtinue*  to  lie  on  the  ideiease,  *i  shown 
bv  [he  'above  table^  as  well  as  the  official  retumn 
of  the  number  of  miners'  richl*  an<l  bu^inesK  li- 
cences issued  in  the  rear  IKii'L  The  followiu^ 
(l|nue«  represKnt  the  number  of  licences  livueil  to 
niiners  in  each  of  the  two  yiiara  Idtil  and  UMii:— 


AnHuning  (hat  each  niiner'a  litcbl 
piHenl*  an  individual,  and  that  ita  posseAnr  was 
occupied  during  the  whole  year  in  the  search  for 
l^ilii,  it  would  appear  by  Ihe  return  of  product! 
that  as  nearly  as  poesible  twenty-three  ounces 
tlie  precious  metal  ('UpuuKinR  it'to  be  equallv 
viiled)  would  fall  to  the  lot  of  each  man.  I'hU 
the  mint  value  (31,  17i.  lujid,  jier  oc),  would  p 
<lucc  an  avenge  wage  of  BtU.  13s,  per  annum, 
at  the  tale  of  \L  Um.  lU.  per  weok  i»r  man.     (1 

Sort  of  Govemat  ¥uUD(;,  dated  Sydney,  Oct. 
WM.) 


7-iMl    I 


t^ 

..p-';;^.,,,. 

7.m 

■,t^K 

4;_MT 

umn 

3;it,3M 

;w  South  Wale^  in  the  year 
lieu  m  the  following  Bgorea ;  — 
I  for  the  lear  wen    .      .     «»,M4,1 

■oflpiport*  to  the  extent  of  £x,:u::,uB3  j  i 


'or-2U.Ss.perhead 


Kirh  uud  otiwr  1 


chief  articles  uf  cx|)ot 


in  each  of  the  ti 


■n  from  the  l«-t  tuble  hul 


luntiiiK  10  l,2»3,aliA, 

.  in  viiluu. 

into  New  Smith  Wales. 


From  the  ITiitteclKlnpTlam 


The  principal  part  rif  the  public  rrvtiiui'.  to  the 
amount  of  nmrly  oiiB-hulf,  i»  derivetl  from  tusliHus 
duties,  chief  amouK  them  the  im|iort  dutiiit  on 
nidrita.  The  other  auuicea  irf'  income  c<iii:d>t  of 
niiN.-ellaneinumviplii,theinost  important  of  which 
ore  from  land  sales  and  rent*  of  laiiiL  Uirei-I  tax- 
ation does  nut  FxUt.  The  lutnl  amount  of  the 
puhlic  revenue  anil  expeiiililurp.  in  each  of  tliu 


l^H'nidllnn 


The  coDMitulinn  of  New  Si«ith  Wales,  the  old- 
en of  the  Auftrahviau  I'lihniies,  was  jwoi'laininl  ia 
IHiX,  It  vesta  ttu-  li'id^lallw  power  in  u  I'ar- 
lianieiil  <'f  two  lliiuscs.  the  tir>t  callwl  tlic  lj.fsi»- 

Asscmldy.  The  l..'(dslntii-p  t'ouncil  ciauists  <ir 
twenlv-iiiie  membem  nianinaliil  liy  the  C^iwn  fin- 
the  Icnu  of  fii-e  years;   mid  the  Asscinblv  of 


AUSTRALIA  (VICTORIA) 


a  natural-bom  subject  of  the  queen,  or,  if  an  alien, 
then  he  must  have  been  naturalised  for  five  yc^^ 
and  re4»i(ieiit  for  two  years  before  election.  There 
is  no  property  qualification  for  electors.  The  exe- 
<'utive  Ls  in  the  hands  of  a  governor  nominated  by 
the  Crown. 

V.  VICTORIA,  formerly  PORT  PHILLIP,  or 
PIIILLIPSLAND,  comprising  all  that  portion  of 
the  continent  S.  of  the  nver  Murray,  between  lat. 
a40  an<i  390  S.  and  long.  141^  and  150<^  E.,  ha\dng 
NE.,  N.  S.  Wales,  from  which  it  is  divided  by  a 
straight  line  drai^Ti  from  Cape  Howe  to  the  ncar- 
t'st  source  of  the  Murray,  and  then  by  that  river ; 
W.,  the  colony  of  S.  Australia  ;*  and  S.,  the  ocean 
an<l  liass's  Straits,  by  which  it  is  separated  from 
Van  Diemen's  Land.  It  Is  divided  into  24  cos. 
ex.,  »<^)me  very  extensive,  unsettled  and  s<|uatting 
<listricts.  The  total  area  embraces  80,831  Eng. 
sq.  m.,  with,  according  to  the  census  of  1861,  a 
I)onidation  of  640,322  inhabitant's. 

This  territory,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Glenelg  river, 
its  W.,  to  Cape  Howe,  its  E.  extremity,  has  about 
600  m.  of  coast,  along  the  most  S.  part  of  the 
Australian  continent,  towards  the  centre  of  which 
is  Port  Phillip,  a  magnificent  basin,  about  40  m. 
in  length  and  brcatith,  entered  by  a  narrow  chan- 
nel, only  1|  m.  across.  Melbtmrne,  the  cap.,  is 
hituate<l  on  a  river  flov^-ing  into  the  hcatl  of  this 
bay ;  and  the  fiourishing  town  of  Geelong  stands 
on  tiie  extremity  of  its  W.  arm,  about  40  m,  from 
Mell>oume.  E.  of  P(»rt  Phillip  are  the  bays  of 
Westeniport,  Comer  Inlet,  and  Lake  King;  on 
the  W.  are  Discovery  and  Portland  bays,  and 
Port  Fairy.  Chief  headlands,  capes  Briilgwater 
and  Otway,  and  Wikon's  promontory.  Most  part 
of  the  surface  is  level  or  unduhiting,  and  separatetl 
bv  momitain  ranges  into  dift'erent  basins.  The 
\Varragong  mountains,  or  Australian  Alps,  stretch 
from  the  settled  country  of  N.  S.  Wales  south- 
ward to  the  extremitv  of  Wilson's  promontory : 
Mt.  Wellington,  or  Koscius/ko,  the  culminating 
yK>iiit  of  this  chain,  rises  to  0,000  ft.  above  the  sea. 
W.  of  this  chain  are  succes.<ive  ranges  isolated 
from  ejich  other,  known  by  the  names  of  Mount 
Macedon,  the  Australian  Pyrenees,  the  Grampians, 
tbc. :  they  have  mostly  a  N.  and  S.  direction,  and, 
>vith  the  Australian  Alps,  separate  the  Hume, 
Hovell,  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Murray  from 
the  rivers  tlowing  southward.  The  rich  gold  fields 
of  Mount  Alexander,  near  the  sources  of  the  Lod- 
don,  are  alxmt  00  •)r  70  m.  NVV.  from  Melbourne; 
those  of  Ballarat  He  more  to  the  S. ;  and  there 
are  others  in  diftcrent  parts  of  the  colony.  The 
streams  in  this  region  are  small  and  innavigable  ; 
but  the  country  is  in  general  well  watered,  and  it 
contains  numerous  salt  lakes,  the  princi^ml  of 
which.  Lake  Canmgamite,  is  upwanls  of  90  m.  in 
circuit.  The  climate  ai)pr«)aches  nearer  to  that  of 
Great  Britain  than  that  of  any  other  part  of  Ails- 
tralia.  It  has  •  somewhat  (»f  an  intennediate  cha- 
racter between  the  climates  of  N.  S.  Wales  and 
Van  Diemen's  Land ;  not  so  hot  as  the  fonner  in 
summer,  nor  so  cold  as  the  latter  in  winter.  There 
Is  frost  sutHcient  to  freeze  the  surface  of  the  ponds 
for  two  or  three  days  perhaps  every  season,  and 
snow  falls  occa.sionaIly,  but  more  rarely.  There 
is  a  go<.Kl  deal  of  wet  and  cold  weather  during  the 
three  or  four  whiter  months  ;  and  in  summer 
again,  the  heat  is  tempered  by  cold  l)reezes,  the 
nights  Ix'ing  always  cool,  excei)ting  during  the 
prevalence  of  hot  winds.  Fires  are  agreeable 
morning  and  evening  for  eight  or  nine  months  of 
the  yciir:  (Lang's  PhiUii^land,  p.  330.)  The 
temjHTature  at  Port  Piiillip  has  l)een  found  in 
January'  to  average  from  r»,>o  to  74°  Fah.,  and  in 
.Iniie  from  6<J"  8' to  60^  Fah.  Its  annual  range 
is  from  32°  to  90°,  and  its  annual  mean  about 


283 

6I0  8'  Fah.  (StRdedu,  p.  229.)  Lew  rain  falls 
here  than  in  either  N.  S.  Wales  or  Queensland ; 
the  annual  average  at  Port  Phillip  not  being  more 
than  30*7  inches;  but  evaporation  being  much  less 
rapid  than  in  the  latter-named  regions,  this  ia 
probably  the  district  of  Australia  that  is  best 
supplied  with  moisture.  It  is,  however,  like  the 
other  portions  of  the  continent^  liable  to  severe 
droughts. 

On  the  NW.  and  E.  frontiers  of  Victoria,  there  is 
a  large  extent  of  arid  and  desert  country,  but  on 
the  banks  of  the  N.  rivers  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
land  well  adapted  for  agriculture,  and  this  also  is 
the  case  throughout  nearly  all  the  country  within 
50  m.  of  the  coast.  Gipp's  Land,  in  particular, 
NE.  of  Wilson's  promontorj',  is  a  basin  contain- 
ing, it  is  said,  320,000  acres*  of  alluvial  soil  unen- 
cumbered with  timber  and  ready  for  the  plough. 
The  port  Fair>'  district  is  also  sufficiently  pro- 
ductive ;  and,  according  to  Dr.  Lang,  there  is  on 
the  Glenelg  and  Wannon  rivers  a  tract  of  50  m. 
square  without  an  acre  of  bad  land.  (Ibid.  p.  181.) 
The  produce  of  wheat  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Colac 
is  stated  to  average  30,  and  that  of  barley  40, 
bushels  an  acre ;  in  other  parts,  near  the  coast,  35 
bushels  of  wheat  are  said  to  be  a  fair  average. 
Sheep-rearing  is  in  this,  as  in  other  parts  of  Aus- 
tralia, a  principal  branch  of  industry.  Here,  as  in 
N.  S.  Wales,  it  is  chiefly  let  in  large  runs  to 
squatters  and  grazing-fanners. 

An  attempt  made  by  CoL  Collins  to  form  a 
settlement  at  Port  Phillip  in  1803  not  having 
been  persevered  in,  the  countrj'  remained  little,  if 
at  all,  known  to  Europeans  untU  its  exploration 
by  Messrs.  Hovell  and  Hume  in  a  joumey  over- 
land from  N.  S.  Wales,  in  1824.  About  ten  years 
subsequently  it  was  surveyetl,  and  reported  favour- 
ably of  as  a  grazing  country,  and  various  exten- 
sive tracts  of  lan<l  were,  in  consequence,  purchased 
from  the  natives  by  the  Van  Diemen's  Land  Asso- 
ciation. Immigration  immediately  set  in  with 
great  rapidity  from  Tasmania ;  and  by  the  end  of 
June,  1830,  the  i)op.  exceeded  200,  and  the  stock 
of  sheep  amounted  to  50,000.  *  A  regular  village 
on  the  site  of  the  present  town  of  Mdbounie  had 
been  formed ;  50  acres  of  land  were  in  cultivation; 
gardens  had  been  laid  out  in  various  localities,  and 
the  country  was  occupied  for  50  m.  from  the  port. 
For  the  next  eighteen  months,  the  arrivals,  both 
of  settlers  and  stock,  from  Van  Diemen's  Land, 
continued  at  a  similar  rate.'  (Lang,  p.  29.)  But 
the  colonial  government  having  refused  to  recog- 
nise the  legality  of  any  purchase  made  by  the 
Van  Diemen's  Land  Association  from  the  natives, 
or  any  other  in  which  the  initiative  was  not  taken 
by  the  crown,  tfiat  Association,  with  others,  broke 
up,  its  members  being  allowed,  '  in  consideration 
of  their  payments  to  the  aborigines,  a  remission 
to  the  extent  of  7,000/.  of  the  purchase-money  of 
whatever  lands  they  might  choose  to  purchase  in 
the  pn)v.  from  the  crown.'  (Ibid.  p.  33.)  The 
purchase-money  obtained  by  the  N.  S.  Wales 
govemment  for  lands  in  thia  territory  was  then 
appn)priated  to  further  immigration,  and  by  the 
end  of  1840,  the  \yo\K  had  increased  to  11,738  per- 
sons, who  possessed  60,800  head  of  cattle,  and  up- 
wards of  782,000  sheep,  and  had  4,875  acres  in  cul- 
tivation. In  the  years  immediately  following,  the 
mania  for  buying  land  raged  as  much  here  as  in 
N.  S.  Wales:  land  set  up  by  the  colonial  govem- 
ment in  small  lots,  and  at  extravagant  prices,  was 
so  eagerly  bought  up,  that  Dr.  Lang  states,  that 
'a  single  acre  of  building  ground  in  the  town 
of  Mellwume  realised  10,000/L,  or  from  15  to  02 
guineas  per  foot  of  frtintage.' 

The  reactitm  which  followed  the  land  mania 
was  here,  as  elsewhere  in  Australia,  productive  of 


284  AUSTRALIA  (VICTOEIA) 

wlde-spnad  iJihtren.     Rut  Ibe  colony,  notwilh-  timl  piirauits  ininiinteil  to  S3J!ni,  cxrlnnivf  nl 

MamliiiR,  cuntinued  londwice.    Ilie  piDtirew  uf  6ii  Cliineae  aiid  ■biiriginci',  tlin  latter  iii^urly  all 

Victoria,  eiiic«  the  discovciy  of  the  K[>ltl  tlVliln,  in  in  the  rqaattitmc  ilistrii'ts. 

IHal,  bit  excmhd  evervlhiuK  provigiuly  btaii       The  riJInniii);  lalilin  prraent  o  naciHtict,  view  ul 

of.  and  i;*,   in  ttath,  all  but  iniraculoiu.      The  the  state  of  AgTimltuiu : — 

plinth  of  the  population,  aa  shown  by  the  census 

iif  nine  HQCceMive  periods,  is  exiiibited  in  the  sulf- 

jiiincd  table : — 


i.vsz. 

m     nil 

April ;.  i«ii 

Mi,(i;i|Mo,3ai|    6.-4 

ii  sex,  accutdiii);  ui  the  c( 


Bnglaml  ~ 


BrlciBta   Colonla 


Otha  twrtaof 


VantaMol   (Britlih 


TM.J 

I.iulu»l.  c                 1 

■s 

T<u  »dlDi  X1«  Hvb 

lUl 

iMi 

IMS 

UflW 

Ooign,     .        . 

24,wa 

"wB 

M.Bil  p 

- 

Ib.lUi 

Ilt,31I 

Total    .        . 

4]9rWi|«a,«9i 

4W,430  1 

a  the  produce  of  Ibu 


KHiT.  orCn,p. 

ii=d™            1 

T«  ^iW  Jin  Mf*                  j 

i"m 

iwg 

l^'J 

h.viej'  :  : 

0»M     .     .      . 

Tnraiji.  .    . 
OthiT  Crops' 

ifV  .  :  : 

Ba,M4 

;;  iiS 

„       1,80* 

Bnlh.  ta!ei>3 

(.-WU.     1.34S 

NQ:a,«3l!;il4 
(!ilK  ll,Sti 

"la 

S.18B> 

Cwts.    «;«; 
Tons     S.731 

St -a 

Tons  W,*7B 
Ml..  47,(0(1 

Ba»lu.L.  _ 

Tods  lit-'H 

Cwla.    fl.Ur- 

Tons     4,813 
Budi.  19,1.-'; 

roiu!io!«wi 
nq.i,4!i:],R4:; 

until  the  disenver 


^X  iLlanli  whUeTev  are  h^  fro^b^i^Ji  "'*''  »'"'  I"^*-"^  "f  "^  ""P""  ""■"l"'""'.  "  '^"1 

tally  t«laiieeU,whae  they  are  larllv  11  beuigw  ^e  «^  fmiii  the  ni  q<>in»l  tal.le,  wlrich  exhil>ii» 

inijc  llic  iniinilfiMit  populaliun.    lei  here,  l«o,  .h-  valu..  ..f  the   p?i»,«,  ..f  in-.l    i»II..«    .■..! 

jrt  enomiouB  (fiffcreuee*.   l-he  iraniUmmie  from  r?^™."'*.."'   '."'   "l"'"f  ."'  w-"l.,l»'f"«.  »"•' 


Seutiaiid  and  Ireland  eeeni  more  generally  lu  lie 
accompiuiied  by  tlieir  tamilies  than  thine  liiim 
England,  wliile  amung  the  furei^  imniiKnuila  the 
dispni|>urtiun  in  the  sexee  a  very  Btrikiu)(.  The 
(ierniana  alone  bave  any  considerable  number  uf 
females  among  thetn,  and  tho  rest  of  foreigueti) 


aalea.     The  ■ 


unfavoiunljle  amoiiR  tl 


:  Chinese  Ktllera 
!4,U0U  malcB,  b 


only  eiglit 
1  staling  the 
aborigines. 


females.    The  abov. 

birthplaces,   rioea  not  uiclude 

namely,  l,()lti  males  and  t>M  fe 

uinal  race  Is  drawing  towards  extinction. 

Uy  the  returns  uf  the  census  uf  1061,  the  num- 
ber of  pennna  engaged  in  agricultural  and  jias- 


I-r. 

K«« 

Tdlo. 

111^ 

t 

esfita 

l»l,M'l 

The  total  value  of  the  ini|>ons  an 
tsasfoLows:— 


IHOl  tu  1B<J2 


ATT8TEALU  (VICTORU) 


T«. 

t...^ 

E.p« 

IMI 

ISflM.TSJ 

1».1»39.<W 

The  immeriM  incrcoM  in  both  the  imports  and 
exiwrtii,  viiible  in  the  preceding  table  as  roni- 
mdunnfc  with  the  year  1t»53,  markB  the  eta  of  the 
Victorian  gold  discoverien.  It  will  be  Ktxn  that. 
owinR  tu  these  discnveries,  the  imports  leaped 
inddvDiy  Ihrni  4  to  aboi-e  Ia|  millions,  and  Ihe 
expuits  firom  7  to  1 1  milliona,  between  1H52  and 
irUS.  In  ISJMi  Vietoria  produced  23-^.mili  ounces 
of  (pM ;  in  1857  the  quantity  was  1l.76lfii8  <K 


I   IMuB  il 


8  a.S2N,l8H  0 


1   lt»39  ii 


u  2,072,359  oz.,  and  in 


The  folloirinf;  van  the  eftimat«d  popalation,  dis- 
tinguLthinf;  the  Chinese,  in  each  mining  district 
of  the  gold  flclds,  un  December  31,  1H<>2. 


By^^ 

(U,,„,h.„,.h,„,^ 

l.tW) 
1.710 

3;«j 

Bnlluvt     . 
CMllemsine 
Murjboro' 

1 

4,'W4 
l!4nn 

4.31J 

m)40T 

n9.M. 

,.,.« 

*.-„515 

«K,,nS, 

J4.-«= 

The  24,886  Chinene  enRaRcd  in  search  of  gold 
were  nearly  all  malea,  there  being  but  one  woman 
of  (he  same  race  included  in  the  namber.  The 
latgvr  proportion  of  the  Chinese  malea  were  be- 
tween the  ages  of  20  and  45. 

According  to  returns  of  March  1863,  the  popu- 
latinn  on  the  gold  flelda  amounted  tu  329,600,  of 
whom  8S,(HI0  were  actually  engaged  in  mining. 
Tliev  had  in  use  776  ileam  engines,  equal  to  ' 
11.760  horse  power.  For  alluvial  mining  there 
wne  besides  3,256  paddhng  machinee,  and  a  va- 
riety of  other  marbinerv,  estimated  of  (he  value 
of  l,4«fi,0O0t    The  tctal  area  of  (he  (erriloiy  of 

till  Marcli  INSS,  extended  over  1,7M  m.  The 
produce  of  the  gold  lielils,  however,  appears  la  be 
eleadily  diminishing,  and  agriculture  is  again  be- 
coming the  main  industrv  of  the  inliabitnnts  of 
Victona.  (Westgarlh  Wm.,  The  Colony  of  Vic 
toria,  [.ondun.  INM.) 

The  great,  but  by  no  means  benelicial,  influence 
ejtercised  by  the  gold  discoi-erics  upon  ngricul- 
I,  as  far  as  regard.i  the  rearing  of 


Iw 

H«- 

B«>ii«C*ltl> 

■b-V 

m7 

T« 

IM 

41,33a 

Kfitl 

^M^a» 

4,0fl» 

11  .SW 

Ml, SOS 

IMS 

11. WO 

ibIiss 

K3.efi 

i.ie*':fta 

»7B,80« 

(i.fl3'J,JM 

M,08« 

MO.MIt 

4.077.87a 

IRS* 

*7,R.ia 

614,e37 

t.MlMS 

,7«,Wfi 

g4.ni7 

im3 

B76,60l 

6,iW*'-l 

:istence  on  the  1st 


9,  the  fallowing  lines  :— 


Tlctoriaa  OaUraj*  :- 


liv< 


a  1862,  as  given  in 


It  will  he  seen,  IVom  this  table,  that  the  extra- 
ordinary growth  of  commerce,  bi^inning  with 
(lie  vrar  ltU3,  was  marked  also  by  a  decrease  in 
the  five  stock,  which  cunlinued  steadily  for  several 
yeari.  till  hoving  gi't  to  the  lowest,  it  again  rose, 
and.  in  l(<Hl-tl2,  rpaclnil  ihe  oUl  figure,  showing  ■ 
healthy  revival  of  agriculture. 


buiime  and  BrighKin 
Total    .       .       . 


companies,  the  money  being  raised  by  loans. 

The  total  amount  of  (he  groas  public  revenue 
and  of  the  expenditure  of  the  colony,  in  each  of 
Ihe  yean  1856  to  ISS2,  waa  aa  foUows  :— 


The  chief  sourcea  of  the  revenue  of  Victoria, 
until  the  year  1862,  were  customs' duties  and  salea 
of  public   lands,  which,  with  some   Huctuations, 


n  theieceipts  derived  from  public  works,  inc 
the  railways,  the  management  of  which  n 
in  (he  hands  of  the  government. 
The  debt  of  Victoria  amoun  (a  to  aboDt  nil 


286         AUSTRALIA  (VICTORU) 

lions,  of  which  not  more  than  one  million  w  held 
in  the  colony,  the  Test  being  held  in  Great  l^ritain. 
'ITiis  debt  ifl  alinitst  entirely  composed  of  the  jcreat 
railway  loan  authorised  in  1858,  and  amounting 
to  eiffht  millions.  Seven  millions  of  this  sum 
were  made  i>ayable  in  London,  an<l  the  remaining 
million  in  Mclbmimc.  Tlie  total  of  ei^ht  millions, 
it  is  prrtbahle,  will  be  exceeded  to  some  extent  in 
the  con>*tniction  of  the  railways,  in  consequence 
of  liabilities  involved  in  the  purchase  of  the  Gee- 
lonjf  and  Melbourne  line  fn)m  a  private  company, 
with  the  object  of  completin^f  the  railway  system 
in  the  hamls  of  the  government.  The  remainder 
of  the  colony's  <lebt  consists  of  several  other 
mims,  that  amounted  originally  to  above  a  million 
and  a  half  sterling.  One  of  these  items  was 
6(10,00(1/.,  and  another  200,000/.,  contracted  in  the 
year  18M,  on  behalf  of  the  municipalities  of  Mel- 
bourne and  Geelong,  and  repayable  by  the  govern- 
ment ;  another  was  for  820,(M}0/.,  exjiended  in  the 
constniction  of  water-works  for  Melbourne.  The 
great  railway  loan  is  not  repayable  until  the 
years  1888-80;  but  the  other  liabilities  are  to  be 
discharged  pre\n(»u8  to  1875  (Westgarth,  The 
Colony  <»f  \ictoria,  Lond.  1864;  Report  of  (4o- 
venior  SirC.  Darling,  dated  Melbourne,  Man^h  14, 
1864.) 

The  constitution  of  Victoria  waa  established  by 
an  act-,  passed  by  the  legislature  of  the  colony 
in  186-1,  to  which  the  assent  of  the  Crown  was 
given,  in  pursuance  of  the  power  granted  by  the 
act  of  the  imperial  Parliament  of  18  &  19  Vict, 
cap.  55.  Tliis  charter  vests  the  legislative  autho- 
ritv  in  a  |>arliament  of  two  chambers,  the  Legis- 
atfve  C^»uncil  an<l  the  House  of  Assembly.  The 
council  consists  of  thirtv  and  the  assembly  of 
seventy-eight  memlKsrs.  I'he  memlx?rs  of  council 
must  be  owners  of  freehold  estates  worth  500/.  a 
year ;  and  are  reauired  to  l)e  at  least  thirty  yeiirs 
of  age  and  British  horn  subjects.  Six  memlxjrs 
ictiTe  by  rotation  every  two  years,  and  new  ones 
are  elected  by  voters,  possessed  of  a  proi)erty  qiia- 
liflcation  of  100/.  a  year.  In  the  constituencies  for 
the  election  of  meml)erH  of  the  assembly,  a  vote  is 
given  to  every  man  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years, 
being  a  natural  l)om  or  naturalised  subject,  hold- 
ing a  freehold  estate  situate  within  his  electoral 
district,  or  being  a  householder  of  the  annual 
value  (»f  10/.,  or  having  a  leasehold  of  the  annual 
value  of  10/.  It  is  provided  also  bv  the  electoral 
act  that  no  man  snail  be  entitled  to  vote,  who 
has  been  attainted,  or  convicted  of  treason,  felony, 
or  other  infamous  offence  in  any  part  of  her 
Majesty's  dominions,  unless  he  has  received  a  free 
panlon*,  or  one  conditional  on  not  leaving  the 
colony  for  such  offence,  or  has  undergone  the 
sentence  passed  on  him  for  such  offence.  The 
meml)ers  of  the  House  of  Assembly  receive  com- 
pensation for  their  ser>ice.  The  salary  of  the 
firesident  of  the  Legislative  Council  is  1,000/.  per 
annum,  and  that  of  the  8])eaker  of  the  House  of 
Assembly  1.500/.  The  executive  is  vested  in  a 
governor-general,  appointed  by  the  Crown. 

AUSTRIA  (ARCHDUCHY  OF),  the  nucleus 
and  centre  of  the  Austrian  empire,  divided  into 
the  two  pnn's.  of  Austria  alK»ve  the  Enns  and 
Austria  Inflow  the  Enns,  commonly  termed  Upi)er 
and  \j(mvr  Austria,  lies  between  lat.  ACfi  57'  25" 
and  490  0'  30"  X.,  and  long.  12^  46'  and  17©  7'  E. 
It  contains  15,017  Eng.  sq.  m.,  of  which  7,317 
belong  to  the  u[»per,  and  7,700  to  the  lower  prov. 
ITie  lK)undnr>'  of  the  archduchy  \s  formeil  towards 
Tyrol  an<l  Carinthia  by  the  central  chain  of  the 
North  Alps,  in  which  the  ]>rimitive  formations 
pre<lominate.  The  highest  summits  are  the  Gross 
Glockner,  11,782/  ft.,  Sulzbach  Kces,  11,270  fu, 


AUSTRIA.  (ARCHDUCHY  OF) 

and  Krummhom,  11,104  ft.  Immense  glaciers 
and  l)e<L>»  of  eternal  snow  till  the  clefts  and  cover 
the  higtier  declivities  of  these  mountains,  from 
which  several  important  rivers  derive  their  origin. 
The  N.  limestone  range  of  the  Alps  forms  the 
Ixmndary  Ixitween  the  archduchy  and  Styria,  and 
branches  from  it  cover  large  portions*  of  the 
country.  One  of  these,  the  Wiener  Wald,  ai>- 
proaches  to  nenr  Vienna,  but  it  gradually  dimi- 
nishes in  elevation  as  it  recedes  from  tlie  grand 
chain.  To  the  N.  of  tlie  Danube  the  IJohe- 
mian  forest  throws  out  its  offsets  to  that  river's 
bed,  whose  banks  offer,  in  consequence,  highly 
picturesque  scener\'  during  its  course  from  Passau 
to  Vienna.  The  Lcsmt  (.'arpathians  and  thcLeitha 
hills  mark  the  frontier  towanls  Hungarj'-  on  the  E. 
The  southern,  or  limestone,  range  is  traversetl  at 
several  points  by  the  affluents  of  the  Dannl)e,  the 
Inn,  Salza,  Traun,  and  Enns,  which  are  naWgable 
along  the  greater  part  of  their  course.  The  Leitha 
falls  into  the  Danube  in  Hungar\',  and  the  M<>- 
rawa,  or  March,  which  rises  in  Moravia,  unites 
with  that  river  on  its  left  bank,  a  little  to  the  W. 
ofPresbuig,  after  haWng  for  some  distance  marked 
the  Hungarian  frontier.  Tlie  Mur.  which  rises 
amongst  the  lofty  summits  of  Lungau  in  Salzburg, 
liows  into  Stvria. 

The  Danul>e  enters  the  Austrian  territory  at 
Innstadt.  ojinosite  Passau,  where  it  is  joinetl  by  the 
Inn,  which  is  here  nearlv  as  large  as  the  stream 
into  which  it  merges.  Lm/.  Ix.'ing  Iooke<l  upon  as 
the  key  of  the  river,  strong  fortifications  have  l)een 
erecte<l  for  its  pn)tection.  The  navigation  of  the 
Danube  l)etween  Passau  and  Vienna  is  accom- 
panieil  ^vith  no  diflicultv  except  that  of  over- 
coming a  strong  current  fn  mounting  the  stream. 
The  high  ro<!ky  banks  confine  the  river  in  one  l>eti, 
and  its  depth  is  considerable,  with  the  exception 
of  a  spot  near  Grein,  where  reefs  of  rocks  occasion 
a  surf  which  used  formerly  to  be  much  dreaded ; 
but  they  have  been  so  far  reduced  by  blasting, 
that  they  no  longer  offer  anv  serious  obstacle  to 
navigators.  Between  this  pomt  and  Presburg  the 
fall  of  the  river  is  said  to  amount  to  450  ft.,  and 
the  rapidity  of  its  current  in  the  canal  of  A'ienna 
to  ho  8  ft.  a  seconcL  This  canal  is  an  arm  thrown 
off  from  the  main  stream  a  few  miles  above  the 
city,  under  the  walls  of  which  it  passes.  The 
main  stream  is  separated  from  Vienna  by  the 
Prater  island,  and  one  or  two  small  L^lets. '  The 
island  of  Lobau,  about  2  m.  l>eIow  Vienna,  is 
famous  for  being  the  spot  to  which,  in  1809,  Na- 
poleon retreateil  after  the  l»attle  of  As|>em,  and 
from  which  he  issued  previously  to  the  battle  of 
Wagram.  On  the  frontiers  of  Hungari'  the  Danube 
is  once  more  shut  in  lietween  the  fall  of  the  Al])s, 
which  flatten  down  almost  to  it,s  level  on  the  S., 
and  the  rise  of  the  Lesser  Carixathians  on  the  N. 
l>ank.  ITiis  passage  divi<les  the  river  into  the 
Lower  and  the  Upper  Danube;  the  former  in 
antiquity  was  called  the  Ister. 

The  hikes  of  LTpi)er  Austria  are  celebrated  for 
their  picturesque  scener}',  and  are  eminently  use- 
ful as  means  of  internal  communication.  The  most 
remarkable  are  tha<<e  of  GmUnden  or  Traun,  7Jm. 
in  length,  and  nearly  2  m.  across  in  the  broadest 
part:  and  of  Hallstadt,  5  m.  long,  and  a)>out  1  m. 
broad;  the  lake  of  Aussee,  which  is  much  smaller, 
is  connected  with  the  other  two  by  me^ns  of  the 
river  Traun,  and  the  salt  produced  along  the  line 
it  traverses,  with  the  timber  an<l  other  ]»roducts  of 
the  extensive  forests  of  the  Snhkammerput  (as 
this  portion  of  the  duchy  of  Salzburg  is  named), 
are  forwanled  by  ita  means  to  the  Danube,  Tlie 
Atter  Lake  is  11^  m.  long,  and  2^  m.  bniacL  The 
lakes  Mondsee  and  St.  Gilgen  are  also  extensive, . 
but  arc  not  connected  with  any  navigable  river. 


except  for  the  purpose  of  floating  down  wood. 
The  number  and  variety  of  the  waterfalls  add 
ijreatlv  to  the  beauty  of  the  mountain  sccnerv. 

Extensive  moralises  are  found  in  Upper  Aus- 
tria, in  the  vale  of  Pinkgau,  or  of  the  Salza.  In 
the  Mtlhl  circle,  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Danube, 
and  in  the  neigiilwurhood  of  the  principal  lakes, 
lar^e  tracts  of  marshy  land  also  occur. 

The  climate  of  the  archduchy  varies  according 
to  the  elevation  of  the  ground.  In  Upper  Austria 
the  mean  temi)erature  at  Linz  has  l>een  found  to 
be  +  70  C  Keaumur's  scale  (=48°  28'  Fahr.) ;  at 
Salzburg  it  is  7°  4^'  K.;  at  Kremsmllnster,  7°  4'. 
At  Viemia  the  mean  heat  is  8°  30'  R.  (  =  51°  T 
Fahr.);  in  183G  it  reached  +  5°  63'  R.  The 
gn;ate.st  heat  in  that  year  was  +  26°  8'  li.  (9()0 
48'  Fahr.) :  the  greatest  cold,- 14°  4'  (=  0°  21' 
Fahr.).  The  mean  elevation  of  the  barometer 
was  28'  2"  4'".  In  1837  the  greatest  cold  was 
-1505'R.  (=  -  1-55  Fahr.).  The  elevation  of 
A'ienna  is  954  ft.,  that  of  Salzburg  1 ,250  ft.,  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Baron  VVelden  has  fixed  the 
limit  of  forest  vegetation  at  5,000  ft.,  that  of 
eternal  snow  at  8,000  ft. 

The  surface  of  the  country  in  Upper  Austria 
presents  a  succession  of  mountain  tracts,  whose 
elevation,  in  the  southern  parts,  admits  of  little 
cultivation,  but  which  are  extensively  clothed 
with  fine  and  valuable  forests.  As  thev  subside 
towartls  the  Danube  the  country  assumes  a  more 
cultivated  appearance,  but  the  effects  of  the  c«»hl 
winds  from  the  snow-covere<l  summits  is  detri- 
mental to  the  growth  of  the  more  delicate  plants. 
The  vine  is  first  met  with  at  Krems  in  Lower 
Austria:  it  follows  thence  the  course  of  the 
Danube,  and  where  the  mountains  open  near  the 
c^ipital,  iwth  their  j»ides  and  the  plains  are  coveretl 
with  vineyards,  interspersed  with  fruit  titjes  of 
everj'  description.  The  valley  of  the  Enns  is  re- 
markable for  its  luxuriant  growth  of  com,  as  is 
the  plain  of  Tulla  on  the  Danulic,  The  March- 
fcld  l)etween  the  Moravian  frontier  and  the  Danube 
is  also  highly  pro<luctive,  though  much  exposed 
U)  <ln)ught. 

The  archduchy  is  distributed  into  ten  divisions, 
whereof  five,  including  the  captain-generalship  of 
Menna,  are  in  the  lower,  and  the  like  number  in 
the  upper,  prov.  The  pop.  of  the  former  amounted, 
in  1857,  to  1,681.097,  and  that  of  the  latter  to 
707,450,  making  together  2,389,147. 

Ilie  agriculture  of  the  archduchy  is  generally 
goo<l,  although  open  to  manv  improvements,  espe- 
cially in  the  cultivation  of  the  vine.  The  best 
wines  are  prfsUiced  near  Vienna.  Cyder  is  exten- 
sively made  in  Upi)er  Austria. 

Coals,  iron,  and  alum  are  produced  to  some, 
though  but  a  ver^"  limited,  extent,  in  Lower  Aus- 
tria: and  in  addition  to  tliese  prcslucts,  the  mines 
of  the  up|)er  prov.  supply  small  quantities  of  gold, 
silver,  and  copi)er.  The  salt  works,  at  different 
places  in  the  latter,  furnish  employment  to  more 
than  0,000  individuals,  and  yield  large  qiuintities 
of  salt 

Owing  to  the  great  consumption  of  all  articles 
in  the  capital,  the  province  exports  but  little  pro- 
liuce,  while  its  imports  are  proportionally  great 
As  the  high  roads  from  Triaste  and  llungarj'  to 
the  western  and  northern  provinces  pass  through 
A^ienna,  the  carrj'ing  business  is  extensive,  an<l  in 
general  well  managed;  and  the  communication 
Ix'twcen  the  capital  and  all  the  provinces  is  very 
brisk.  The  roads  throughout  the  archduchy 
are  excellent,  and  the  c<»mmumcation  between 
Vienna  and  the  upper  i)roviuce,  as  well  as  with 
Ilunj^ary.  is  facilitated  by  steam  navigation  on 
the  l)anul)e,  by  means  of  which  the  journey  from 
Linz  to  the  capital  is  performed  in  a  day,  and  that 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF)  287 

from  Vienna  to  Pesth  in  eighteen  hours.  Vienna 
is  also  connected  by  railways  with  all  the  provs. 
of  the  empire^ 

The  inhabitants  of  the  archduchy  are  all  Ger- 
mans, and  are  distinguished  for  their  industry 
and  quickness  of  apprehension.  As  the  popula- 
tion is  more  sparingly  distributed  in  the  moun- 
tainous parts  than  in  the  plains  and  valleys,  there 
is  an  appearance  of  well-doing  throughout  all 
classes  of  the  inhabitants ;  and  the  schools  for  the 
lower  classes  are  both  numerous  and  well  at- 
tended. The  dress  and  manners  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  mountainous  parts,  especially  of  Salzburg, 
resemble  those  prevailing  in  Styria  and  Tyrol,  as 
the  manners  and  customs,  as  well  as  the  occupa- 
tions, of  the  Austrian  mountaineer  are  nearly  the 
same  with  those  of  the  neighbouring  provinces. 
The  business  of  driN-ing  the  cattle  up  to  the  Alpine 
pastures  in  summer,  whence  in  the  autumn  they 
are  brought  down  with  festive  parade,  is  the  de- 
partment of  the  women.  Hand-weaving  and  the 
spinning  of  flax,  cotton,  and  wool,  are  much 
carried  on,  especially  during  the  i^inter.  Agri- 
cultiu'e  is  the  chief  emplojTnent  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  duchy,  and  is  managed  with  considerable 
skill  The  mountaineer  is  confined  to  more  frugal 
fare  than  that  enjoyed  by  the  inhab.  of  the  plain ; 
oatmeal  or  barley  puddings,  prepared  with  the 
milk  and  butter  of  his  cows,  being  his  chief  sup- 
port Whether  this  species  of  nourishment,  or 
the  quality  of  the  water,  or  the  nature  of  his  oc- 
cut)ations,  be  the  cause  of  the  goitrt  or  swelling  of 
the  neck,  which  commences  on  the  mountains  on 
the  Styrian  frontier,  is  unknown.  The  lowlaudcrs* 
enJojTnents  are  sought  in  the  dance  and  in  the 
wine-pot,  of  which  his  libations,  especially  of  the 
one-year-old  liquor  {heuriger),  are  both  deep  and 
frequent  The  large  earnings  of  the  peasantry 
give  a  cheerful  appearance  to  a  large  portion  of 
the  lower  classes,  that  is  scarcely  to  be  met  with 
anywhere  else ;  and  the  Lower  Austrian  deserves 
credit  for  both  earning  the  good  things  of  this 
life,  and  for  enjoying  them. 

The  Gubemia  at  Linz  and  Vienna  are  the  chief 
provincial  authorities  for  the  provs.  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Austria.  Under  these  is  the  captain  of  the 
circle,  who  unites  the  judicial  and  administrative 
powers,  in  as  far  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  country 
are  concerned.  In  towns  the  administration  of  police 
is  confided  to  a  special  commissary,  and  the  magis- 
tracy performs  the  judicial  functions.  The  manorial 
courts  of  the  large  proprietors  are  placed  under  the 
courts  of  the  circle,  and  may  be  appealed  from  to 
the  latter.  The  governor  0/  Upper  Austria  resides 
at  Linz,  the  cap.  of  the  prov.  and  the  seat  of  the 
authorities.  Those  for  Lower  Austria  reside  at 
Vienna,  The  Archbishop  of  Vienna  is  the  head 
of  the  clerical  authorities  in  the  Catholic  Church 
for  Lower  Austria;  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg 
exercises  the  same  functions  for  tne  upper  prov. 
Superintendents  at  Linz  and  Vienna  conduct  the 
clerical  affairs  of  the  Protestants  under  the  Con- 
sistory at  A^ienna.  The  commander  of  the  forces 
for  both  produces  resides  at  Vienna. 

AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF),  one  of  the  largest, 
most  populous,  and  most  important  of  the  Euro- 
pean states. 

Situation  and  Extent. — The  empire  of  Austria  is 
situated  in  central  and  southern  Europe;  and, 
with  the  exception  of  a  narrow  strip  at  its  S. 
extremity,  projecting  along  the  coast  of  the  Adri- 
atic, its  territory  forms  a  compact  mass.  It  ex- 
tends from  about  42<^  to  51'  N.  hit,  and  from 
about  80  30'  to  20°  30'  E.  long.  Its  length  from 
Lake  Constance  to  the  E.  frontier  of  Transvl- 
vania  is  al)out  850  m.,  and  its  breadth  (exclusive 
of  Dalmatia),  from  the  S.  frontier  of  Croatia  to 


2S3 


the  most  X.  point  or  Bchemio,  abnut  4!)2  m.  The 
total  area  in  otimaled,  in  Uuf  ofllcial  rctiinw,  at 
1  Ura-lflJ  Awlrian  «,.  tn„  or  ISn^J  I  KnpL  sq,  m. 
On  the  S.,  Aiutiia  in  buunikil  by  Turlivv,  tliv 
Adriatic  Sea,  smi  the  kinicilum  of  Ilaly;  W.  by 
Italy,  Switierlanil,  and  BsTarin;  N.  by  rnurin 
andKuafian  I'uland  i  and  E.  by  Kiusia  sn<1  Mol- 
davia. Tho  fnmliew  nf  tlie  empire  aiewell  de- 
flnal  liy  natural  bnunrinrieii.  ciinHutIng  minripally 
of  mnuntairu  and  bn^e  riveni,  with  llie  «xcr]>- 
tinii  of  ■  conndcnblc  porlion  or  tho  fmnlier  of 
tialicia,  along  the  KiUHian    temtui}',   wliieh 

Jthiiiimt  anil  Fopalatiim.  —  The  Aiwlnan  e 
nire  is  Poni|K»ed  of  many  aiat^JS  differing  wiili  . 
ni  extent  and  ]wpulali(m.    The  (neater  part  of 

these  slate)  having;  been       

rial  Kceptre  by  jwaccable 
hcrilance  or  by  twalv  —  the 
remain  lu  ihoy  exixlal  wliib 
pendent,  with  the  cxcopliun  of 

The  fulkwinK  table  ebnws  tlie  n 
each  pruT..  arcinlini:  (u  tlie  cenKus 
1HB7.  Dedutted  fmni  the  elnte 
LumluLrd  pruvinL-eri  eeded  tu  Idily  i 


AUSTRIA  (EHFIRE  OF) 

eidiuuvcly  of  the  nobilitv  and  traderH. 
liernian  and  iSUivuiiic  prot'in 


Jiitud  under  llic ' 


.  u'r  all 
tliey  were  itide- 
le  tnlucud  Italian 

n  and  nop.  of 
irOeluiiLrSl, 


Total 


Inrliided  iu  the  a)>ave  total  of  tho  population 
■re  67'J,R«3  men.  of  different  pro\Hn™i,  in«c  "  ■ 
on  the  liatB  aa  iielongrng  to  the  military  wrx'i 

The  population  i^  diviiled  irith  respect  t'l 
and  la□f^n^^  into  the  fnllowin^;  nntionalitic 
cording  to  nil  official  entimateof  the  year  18li 


8,XH),0(W 


i.*;n,oo 


JtupTara 


.    lyiao/iOO 


Nearly  erery  province,  u  lihown  in  the  pic- 
cedinif  table,  difTcni  fmm  the  others  iu  the  ileimily 
and  lUtrilnitiou  oritn  population.  In  Italicia 
Iluiiffftrw  bulb  a^cultural  countriea  with  c 
parativrly  little  traile,  the  vilUcefl  are  usually 
very  Xaifif  and  populous,  but  wiilfly  scattered,  li 
the  sDuIhera  atiil  wenleni  provincea,  the  inhabi- 
luilK  arc  eu  tnuch  iliffiiwd  over  the  face  of  the 

email  )>nipurtii>n  uf  the  wliuir,  and  coiuist  almost 


Bflht  UwaO^.— .VuunMiu.— TheAuKtrinn 
empire  exliiliits  eiTry  variety  of  sartnep.  Two 
grand  mountain  nni(p»,linirirlJnf;  from  Ibecenirel 
KToupof  the  Alps,  traverw  it  in  different  direciinn:', 

branchea.  The  tint  of  these,  which  has  been 
\t  Hrrn/KU-Cnrjialhiaii  chain,  divide*  thp 
..„.  ..  if  t.h-'  iienoan  iWan  and  Itallie  from 
thmeufthoBlaik  Senond  Mniileiranean.  Leavinj; 
of  Criaims,  in  SwilierUnd.  this  mouu- 
Iravprses  Viaaril>eq:  in  a  N'.  direi'lion 
of  < 'onnlance :  theoce  it  [la'wesIhrrHUih 
WirlembctK  and  liavaria,  sepamtini;  the  reKt'x's 
of  tbe  Khine  and  Kllie  from  tluit  of  the  Uanulio, 
and  re-enters  Austria  or  the  NK.  fnmtier  .if  Ifc.- 

ji  exiensii-e  Ivanrh  tif 

,  ,  whii-h  strelche*  into 

tliat  kinKdom  and  into  Saxnnv.  T^ini;  a  SK. 
direetion  rmm  thr  wiurers  of  tite  Eycr.  thia  Aain 
iter  tlw  name  of  tho  'Ilolieinian  Ftnm,' 
I  the  nanuhr.  whpnt  it  once  moiv  dlvcrip'!) 
.  E.,  aiul  (Uviilint;  Mniai-ia  fmm  Iluliemia, 
i^^idii  (Hit  a  bTani'li  into  rnw-ian  Silesia  and  l.n- 
thi-  liieiwn  (diant)  mimntaius.  On 
the  fnuitiem  of  Gnliuia  and  lliingarv  it  juiiis  the 
(iuiuHliians,  whieh  liranch  off  to  the  Daniilw 
near  I'rej'biiTK.  The  central  Cartttlhians  furm  the 
Imondary  benreen  tlie  aNivt-namrd  jimvinces,  a* 
~Lras  tlie  sounvaof  the  Save  and  Uniester,  where 
chain  oTlowheiKhtssiTetchca  from  them  iutii  thn 
luRsian  territories,  sejiaralinK  the  reciim  of  the 
Vistula  from  that  nf  the  llnlecter.  Ilie  eastern 
Cuipathiaiui  cnrer  the  MK.  rounlics  of  lliin);ar<i', 
the  llukawtne,  anil  Transylvania,  as  far  as  the 
Danube. 
The  second  monnlain  ran)^.  which  has  mnch 

'counIrv,dividesthe  region  of  IheMedilpnatiean 
lan  that  of  the  Ulark  Sea :  it  slrelt-tirs  fmrn  the 
IVcMitiers  nf  Switicrland  and  Italy  in  three  chains. 
wbicb.  [hiuuttli  the  Tyrol,  ran  nrarly  parallel  to 
---'-  ------     The  oeulral  chain  cxhiliils  the  pri- 

ationsof  gninile  and  slate :  its  »ummit« 
Kith  eternal  snow,  above  the  elevation 
of  H,(KI0  feet.  Folbmint;  tlie  ri^ht  bank  of  tho 
lun,  as  far  as  tbe  jioinl  uf  junrlion  of  SaUlniq; 
and  Cariutliia.  i(  takea  a  N  E.  directirai  throupli 
'  into  Ilmi|raty,  and  sul>ades  in  tho  I.viiha 
learlhe  Danube.  The  two  ai-companyin)' 
arc  of  limestiine:  thai  on  tbe  >   ■ 


>  from  tl 


t'litral 


chain  to  the  Danube.  The  H.  parallel  chain  M 
ita  ramilicaliiins  from  8.  Ti-rol  into  Italy,  ami, 
paswnjt  thrmiith  Illviia  and' the  Croatian  fnmlicr 
diatrivl,  unites  with  the  lialklian  on  the  iKinlers  of 
Bosnia.  Three  imporlant  branches  strike  off  Ironi 
tills  chain,  one  <if  which  stretches  between  the 
rii-en>  Kaab  and  Drove,  under  the  name  of  Ihc 
Baktaig  Forest,  into  Hungary;  a  WKoiid  divble* 
the  region  of  the  I>rave  from  the  \-aIley  of  the 
Sai-e;  aiut  the  thini,  strelcliing  along  tlie  Adri- 
atic thnHiRh  Dahnatia,  w  rolled  liy  llie  natives, 
from  its  dark  cubiur.  ilonie  Xm,  nr  Ar^tv. 

The  princiiial  valleys  in  Austria  are  situated  in 
the  soutliem  pmvilu^es,  and  run  iianllel  with  the 
Alw,  in  the  ifiwctlon  uf  W.  to  E.  Tliey  are  found 
in  Tyrol,  SalKburp;,  Styria,  and  TlhTia.  Cnialia 
liohn^  fiit  Ibe  grealer  part  to  tlir  vallev  of  the 
Save ;  and  Slavonia  to  the  valley'  of  the  Ilrnve. 

Large  gilains  are  also  found  williiii  Ilie  c-mpire ; 
lhc>-  follow,  for  the  mo'l  (uirt,  the  course  uf  the 
principal  tivera.    The  plain  or  boaiii  of  Vicuna, 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF) 


289 


which  stretches  from  the  Leitha  mountains  to  the 
heights*  of  Moravia,  is  traversed  by  the  Danube 
and  the  March.  In  Hungary  there  are  two  very 
extensive  plains ;  one  in  Upper  Hungary,  situated 
between  the  Carpathians  and  the  Bakony  forest ; 
the  second,  extending  from  the  E.  fall  of  the  last^ 
named  forest  and  the  Matra  hills  to  the  rise  of 
the  Transylvanian  mountains,  and  from  the  cen- 
tral Carpathian  chain  on  the  north,  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Slavonia  on  the  soutli.  The  plain  of  the 
Vistula  and  the  San,  in  Galicia,  is  a  portion  of  the 
^at  level  which  stretches  from  the  fall  of  the 
Carpathians  on  the  north  to  the  Baltic. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — Two  thinls  of  the  Austrian 
empire  are  comprised  in  the  bo-sin  of  the  Danube. 
This  great  river  entere  AiLstria  at  Engelhard's  Zell, 
near  Passau:  in  its  SE.  course  through  Upper 
and  Lower  Austria  and  Hungary,  it  receives  all 
the  rivers  falling  from  the  two  grand  mountain 
ranges  de8cril)ed  above ;  the  chief  of  wliich  are,  on 
its  left  bank,  the  Marcli,  Waag,  CJran,  Theiss,  and 
Temes,  and  on  its  right  bank,  the  Traun,  Enns, 
Kaab,  Drave,  and  Save.  Tlicse  rivers,  with  many 
of  their  tributaries,  are  naNdgable  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent,  and  afford  very  extensive  means  of 
commercial  communication.  Bohemia  belongs  to 
the  basin  of  the  Elbe,  which,  rising  on  its  NE. 
frontier,  traverses  it  in  a  direction  from  N.  to  S., 
and  then  W.  and  NW.,  being  navigable  for  barges 
from  Mclnik,  where  it  is  joined  by  its  im|)ortant 
tributary  the  Moldau,  tiowiug  N.  b^  Budweis  and 
Prague.  The  Oder  has  its  source  m  the  chain  of 
hills  which  connects  the  Silcsian  Mountains  with 
the  Carpathians.  The  Vistula  has  its  sources  in 
the  (Carpathians,  near  Jablunka.  It  may  be  navi- 
gated, in  favourable  seasons,  for  the  greater  part 
of  its  course  along  the  NW.  frontier  of  Gahcia. 
It  receives  the  Dunajetz,  the  Wisloka,  and  the 
San.  The  last-mentioned  river  is  sometimes  navi- 
gable for  a  part  of  its  course  by  Hat-bottomed 
boats  drawing  little  water;  but  the  truth  Is,  that 
the  navigation  of  all  the  Galician  rivers  is  liable 
to  much  obstruction,  especially  in  dry  seasons. 
Even  the  navigation  of  the  Vistula,  from  Cracow 
downwards,  is  frequently  interrupted;  and  the 
dilHculty  of  transport  tlicnce  arising  occasions  the 
extraordinary  discrepancy  that  usually  obtains 
iK^tween  the  prices  of  wheat  and  other  grain  in 
Dantzic  and  in  Galicia.  The  Dniester,  wluch, 
als<»,  has  its  source  in  the  Carpathians,  runs  in  a 
SE.  direction  through  tlie  centre  of  the  E.  portion 
of  (valicia,  being  occasioiiallv  navigable  for  barges 
from  Koniuszki,  35  m.  SVV.  Leml)erg.  The  Adige, 
the  Tagliamento,  and  the  Lisonzo,  traverse  the 
provinces  of  Venice  and  lUyria  in  their  course  to 
the  Adriatic.  The  Rhine  bounds  the  extreme  W. 
fn»ntier  of  the  empire  for  a  small  portion  of  its 
course  l)efore  it  falls  into  the  Laiic  of  Constance. 

On  the  N.  side  of  the  Al|>8  the  largest  Austrian 
lakes  are  those  of  Atter-Gmilnden  or  Traun, 
Hallstadt,  and  Augsee,  connected  together  by  the 
Traun,  and  the  lakes  of  St,  Gilgen  and  Monel 
See.  The  Neusie<llcr  and  Balaton  lakes,  in  UpfK*r 
Hungarj',  are,  however,  ])y  far  the  largest  in  the 
empire ;  the  water  of  the  former  Ls  saltish.  (Jn 
tiie  S.  side  of  the  Alps,  Lake  Garda  forms  the 
western  Ixjundary  of  the  AiLstrian  dominions. 

Climate.  —  Four  distinct  climates  are  found 
within  the  limits  of  this  extensive  empire.  The 
most  southerly  part  of  Dnlmatia  protluces  the  palm- 
tree,  and  at  Bagusa,  the  mean  elevation  of  the 
thermometer  is  stated  by  Blumenbach  to  be 
+  11°  8'  K.,  or  57°  3'  Fahr. :  ui)on  a  lino  drawn 
along  the  S.  foot  of  the  Alps,  the  mean  tempera- 
ture at  Milan  is  +  9°  4' ;  at  Temeswar,  +  9°  2'. 
On  the  X.  side  of  that  chain,  in  Linz,  it  is  +  70°  G' ; 
in  Vienna,  +  8°  6'  (nearly  the  climate  of  Stras- 

Vt»L.  I. 


buig) ;  Buda,  89  8';  in  Klausenburg,  +89  S\  In 
Pwmie,  the  mean  heat  is  +7°  9';  in  Olmutz, 
+  7°  3';  in  Troppau,  +7°  3';  in  Lemberg,  +6°  1' 
R.  Wine  and  Indiaii  com  do  not  thrive  to  the  N. 
of  the  last  drawn  line,  except  in  unusually  favour- 
able situations ;  but  com  of  all  other  descriptions, 
flax,  hemp,  and  hardy  fruits,  attain  perfection. 
The  observations  at  Vienna  give  for  the  mean 
temperature  only  +  7°  2^  R.  The  air  is  for  the 
most  part  clear  and  salubrious;  but  the  heats  of 
summer  and  the  colds  of  winter  are  both  in  what 
we  should  consider  extremes.  The  greatest  quan- 
tity of  rain  falls  in  TjtoI  and  Vorarll)ei^,  the 
smallest  quantity  in  thecentralcUstrictsof  Hungary 
and  in  Dalmatia,  which  often  suffer  from  excessive 
drought.  In  this  last  province,  the  faU  of  rain 
averages  12  in. :  at  Vienna  the  average  is  about 
16  in.  The  classification  given  by  irancini  for 
Switzerland  has  been  found  to  suit  Tyrol  with 
equal  precision. — 1.  The  region  of  the  vine  from 
700  ft,  to  1,700  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.— 2. 
The  region  of  the  oak,  from  1,700  ft  to  2,800  ft— 
3.  The  region  of  the  beech,  2,800  ft.  to  4,100  ft ; 
the  walnut  only  reaches  3,500  ft ;  the  plum-tree 
3,720  fl. ;  pear  and  apple-trees,  4,100 ;  but  little 
wheat  is  grown  in  this  region,  but  the  meadows 
are  excellent — 4.  The  region  of  fir,  from  4,100  to 
5,500  ft — 5.  The  lower  Alpine  region,  famous  for 
its  pastures,  5,500  ft  to  6,500  ft— 6.  The  Upper 
Alpme  region,  6,500  ft  to  8,200  ft.,  above  which 
is  the  region  of  eternal  snow. 

Natural  Productions  and  Minerals. — The  mi- 
neral riches  of  the  Austrian  empire,  supposing 
they  were  fully  developed,  are  probably  not  in- 
ferior to  those  of  any  other  European  country. 
Besides  gold  and  silver,  considerable  quantities  of 
which  are  produced  by  the  mines  of  Transylvania 
and  X.  Hungary,  Austria  has  inexhaustible  sup- 
plies of  the  more  useful  metals,  with  coal  and  salt. 
Native  steel,  or  carbonated  iron  ore,  is  found  in 
Stvria  and  Illyria,  in  masses  that  require  rather 
to  be  quarried  than  excavated.  Of  the  rarer  metals, 
titan  is  found  near  Koese,  in  Hungary,  uran  in  the 
Sudesen  in  Bohemia,  tellurium  in  Hungary  and 
Transylvania,  Besides  the  opals  of  Hungary,  the 
most  beautifiil  that  are  known,  an  inferior  kind  is 
foimd  in  Mora>na;  camelian,  beryl,  chalcedon, 
tftpaz,  garnet,  and  amethyst,  in  Bohemia  and 
Hmigary,  of  superior  quality.  Coal  has  been  found 
in  nearly  every  province,  but  the  cheapness  and 
abimdance  of  fire-wood  have  hitherto  prevented 
much  search  from  being  made  after  it  Upwards 
of  100  descriptions  of  marble,  quartz  for  the  ma- 
nufacture of  glass,  clays  for  porcelain  and  mineral 
dyes  of  all  kinds,  are  also  fomid  in  abundance. 
Upwards  of  100  mineral  springs  are  annually  fre- 
quented ;  amongst  which  Carlsbad,  Toeplitz,  Ma- 
rieubad,  drc,  attract  visitorB  from  ail  parts  of  the 
world. 

Animals. — All  the  domestic  animals  found  in 
England  arc  met  with  in  the  Austrian  empire. 
Exclusi\'Te  of  these  the  brown  bear  is  indigenous 
in  the  Alps  and  the  Carpathians,  the  wolf  in  both 
these  mountain  chains,  and  the  Ivnx  is  found  in 
all  the  proWncea.  The  chamois,  red  and  fallow 
deer,  roebucks,  wild  boars,  all  descriptions  of  game 
known  m  England,  with  the  exception  of  grouse, 
and  several  other  kinds  of  birds  unknown  in  our 
islands,  are  objects  of  chase.  The  urus  and  elk 
are  sometimes  found  in  the  E.  Carpatliians,  but 
only  as  stragglers.  The  ibex  is  nearly  extermi- 
nated. Herds  of  wild  horses  of  a  diminutive  size 
range  the  Hungarian  plains ;  and  even  where  the 
improvement  of  the  breed  is  attended  to,  they  are 
allowed  to  rove  almost  in  a  state  of  nature.  *  The 
golden  eagle  inhabits  Slavonia,  and  othcT  laige 
species  are  found  in  the  Khetian  and  None  Alps. 


290 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF) 


TTerona  of  varioxw  kinds,  flomo  of  the  choicest 
phimn^,  alKmnil  in  the  morasses  of  Hunf^ary; 
niul  there  also  the  land  t/irtoise  if*  found  in  i^'at 
niiniWrs.  The  Miinc  mora&scs  furnish  an  ahuiidnnt 
supply  of  leeches,  whence  thev  arc  rej^larl y  tians- 
ported  by  means  of  a  series  of  ponds  that  serx'c  as 
so  many  stations,  to  Paris  and  the  W.  of  Europe. 
Wax  is  an  important  product  of  the  Bukowine 
and  other  S.  provinces.  Cantharides  are  found  in 
several  parts  of  Hunfi^rv;  cochineal  in  GaUcia; 
and  pearls  of  a  beaudful  water  arc  fished  in  the 
Molfiau. 

Vegetable  Productt. — These  comprise  the  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  com  and  of  cultivated  fi^Tasae»  found 
in  Europe,  with  vines,  flax,  and  hemp,  tobacco, 
Ijopp,  satTron,  woad,  8<»me  sjHioies  of  indifco,  yellow 
woad  or  rhus  attinuA,  galls,  and  an  immense  variety 
of  fniits.  Tlie  forests  are  of  vast  extent,  an<l  will, 
no  doubt,  come  to  be  of  great  valye.  The  moun- 
tain chains  of  the  northern  ])ro\nnces  an<l  of  the 
A\]m  arc  coveretl  with  tir,  pine,  lx»ech  antl  larch. 
The  low  groimds,  inrlu<ling  the  vast  forest  of 
Bakouy  in  Hungary,  with  others  in  Transylvania, 
the  Bukowine,  (ralicia  and  Slavonia,  [>roduoe 
»iaks  of  a  gigantic  size,  with  lieech,  ash,  alder  and 
elm.  Every  prov.  is  well  supj)lied  with  wood, 
with  the  exce])tion  of  Ix)w.  Austria  and  Hungary, 
wl»erc,  from  neglect  of  management  and  bail  eco- 
nomy, the  stock  has  in  many  part«  been  alarm- 
ingly reduced.  In  the  other  provs.  the  forests  are 
well  managed ;  and  care  is  taken  to  supply  the 
annual  consumption  by  sowing  and  planting  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  felled.  The  proprietors 
of  estates  are  obliged,  ni  Austria,  as  aU  over 
G<!rmany,  to  employ  foresters,  who  have  been 
educated  in  forest  schools,  and  have  passed  the 
necessary  examination.  Their  business  is  to 
calculate  the  quantity  of  timl)cr  that  may  be 
felled  without  (hminishing  the  stock.  The  means 
at  their  cr»mmand  in  back  ranges  of  mountains 
are  generally  applied  with  great  ingenuity  to  for- 
ward the  felled  trees  to  the  common  channels  of 
communication.  A  kind  of  hollow  railroad  of 
timber  (/fiejtm),  sloping  down  the  side  of  a  moun- 
tain, often  several  thousand  yanls  in  len|orth,  and 
down  which  the  tnmks  of  trees  are  precipitated, 
is  one  means  of  tTans))ort.  The  tnmks  are  raise<l 
from  a  valley  to  the  summit  of  a  neighbouring 
chun,  over  which  they  have  to  be  transported, 
by  means  of  ropes  and  pnllcys,  worked  by  a  nule 
water-wheel  temporarily  erected  by  the  woo<lman 
on  a  little  bnwfc  (Holzaufzug) ;  and  the  springs 
near  the  summits  being  led  into  a  temporary  reser- 
voir on  the  ridge  of  the  hills,  the  burden  thus 
raised  is  receivwl  by  it  in  order  to  be  precipitated 
into  the  hollow  on  the  otJier  side,  when  tlie  sluices 
confuiing  the  waters  are  oi>ene<i  (Klause).  The 
Tyrolese  arc  particularly  ilistinguished  by  their 
ingenuitv  in  de\'ising  these  sorts  of  contrivances, 
and  by  their  wooden  fabrics.  Among  others  they 
construct  houses  an«l  shops,  the  parts  of  which 
being  regularly  marked  and  numl>ere4,  are  packed 
up  and  conveye<I  by  the  Lake  of  Constance  to 
the  adjoining  countriej*,  where  thej'  are  erected 
with  the  utmo(»t  facility'.  But  while  this  inge- 
nuity is  shown  in  the  management  of  the  moun- 
taui  forest-tracta  of  fir,  the  far  richer  woodctl  dis- 
tricts of  Slavonia,  the  military  frontier,  and  Upper 
Hungary,  in  which  the  more  valuable  forest  trees 
attain  a  size  unusual  in  Europe,  are  neglected 
and  but  little  known.  There  are  3,186*5  AusL 
pq.  m.  of  wo<KUan«l.  The  forests  pro<lure,  on  an 
avorage,  .^o.oOO.'KM)  Vimna  fatlionis  of  wood  per 
annum,  m<Ktlv  of  exocUi.'iit  oiialit\.  The  loro'st'* 
yield,  iKwde.s.'SOOjOOO  cwts.  of  gall  nuts,  UmHX) 
cwts.  of  ])otash,  2r)0,(M)0  cwts.  <»f  turpentine  and 
rcsijj.  iiM'l  4."(X).000  cwts.   of  tunning  bark,  an- 


nually. Without  coimting  considerable  tracts 
within  the  forests  wliich  arc  usetl  for  grazing 
pur{M)ses,  there  are  in  the  empire  2.820*3  sq.  m. 
of  grass  land.  These,  prcnluce.  annually,  alxmt 
3(J3,<H)0,()00  cwtfl.  of  hay,  and  20(i,(K)0,000  cwts.  of 
various  herbage  for  fo<l(ler.  Some  idea  of  the 
extent  of  the  oak  forests  may  Ikj  formed  from  the 
fact  that  nearly  2iK),0()<)  bushels  of  gall  apples  are 
aimually  exiwrted.  The  ilistribution  of  the  forests 
is,  however,  very  irregular;  an<l,  while  in  the 
mountainous  tracts  they  are  of  immeasurable 
extent,  the  want  of  firewood  is  so  great  in  the 
plains,  that  drie<l  dung  is  a  common  substitute 
for  faggots.  In  Transylvania,  especially,  and  the 
militar}'  frontier,  the  fore-sts  are  of  great  extent, 
and  filUni  with  trew  of  the  finest  quality,  equally 
adat)ted  for  the  use  of  the  builder  and  the  naval 
architect, 

Botiffn  and  Baihcay». — The  rulers  of  Austria 
have  always  ]>aid  great  attention  to  the  develop- 
ment of  all  internal  means  of  communication. 
Fn>m  Verona  on  the  SVV.  fronrier,  an  uninter- 
nipted  MacadamiMtd  n»ad  conducts  the  traveller 
to  (?zeniowitz  in  the  Bukowine,  a  distance  <»f  up- 
wanls  of  1,<XX)  m.  Fn)m  the  Italian  fn)ntier  to 
Vienna  there  are  three  lines  of  n>ad,  and  through 
Galieia  the  line  is  double.  Three  grand  hiirh- 
roads  from  Venice,  and  two  firf»m  Trieste,  lead  to 
the  Tyrol  and  Germany,  and  double  lines  run 
from  each  of  these  cities  to  the  capital,  Prague 
is  connected  with  Vienna  by  numerous  lines  of 
communication,  which  are  continued  to  the  fn>n- 
tiers  of  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Prussian  Siloia. 
Materials  for  making  roads  abound  in  most  prr>- 
vinces,  though  not  in  all,  and  the  art  is  well 
understood.  Upwanls  of  sixty  mountain  pa,«»ses, 
varying  from  10  to  70  m.  in  length,  have  been 
made  not  only  practicable,  but  commodi(»us  for 
travelling  and  commercial  pur]M>ses.  On  the 
roads  across  the  Alps,  thnmgh  TjtoI  and  Illyria, 
the  greatest  sums  have  been  exj>ended ;  their  im- 
portance in  a  military  point  of  view,  and  the 
necessity  of  facilitating  the  commimication  with 
a  powerful  and  not  ver\'  well  affected  pn>- 
vince,  ren<lering  them  indisj>ensal)le.  The  road 
over  the  Stelvio,  or  Wiirmser  Jf)ch.  in  S.  T\toI, 
pai«ses  over  an  elevation  of  8,400  feet  alw^ve 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  covered  in  dangerous 
partB  with  solid  stone  arches,  over  which  the  ava- 
lanches glide  into  the  depths  l>elow.  This  un- 
dertaking sur^)asses  the  roads  of  the  Simplon 
and  Mont  Cems  in  boldness  and  splendour  of  exe- 
cution. 

The  railwav  svstem  of  Anstria  dates  from  the  vear 
1H49.  when  the  most  encrg<!tic  efforts  were  made 
by  the  imperial  goveniment  to  raise  the  material 
prosperity  of  the  country.  The  principle  adopte<l 
at  first  was  t^»  construct  the  cliief  lines  at  the  ex- 
|)ense  and  under  the  suiKTvision  of  the  state :  but 
the  financial  emergencies  of  the  government  sul>- 
se<iuently  (»ccasioned  the  abandonment  of  this 
principle,  and  nearly  all  the  railways  thus  con- 
structed were  given  up  to  private  companies, 
formed  by  French  and  German  capitalist*.  Con- 
sidered without  reference  to  the  division  amtmg 
companies,  the  Austrian  railway  system  comiiLsta 
of  two  great  lines,  running  fnim  north  to  south 
and  from  east  to  west,  and  crossing  at  right  angles, 
the  point  of  jimction  l)eing  at  the  capital  of  the 
empire.  Numerous  branches  connect  the  outlying 
districts  with  these  two  great  trunk  lines;  and 
there  is  scared v  a  single  town  of  inij)ortanoe  not 
embraced  within  this  not  work  of  iron  ri»ad<.  The 
subjoined  two  tablo,s  sln»w  the  various  raihvjiys 
extant  in  the  Austrian  empire,  together  with  the 
receipts  and  ex[>enditure  of  each  in  tlie  year 
I8C3:— 


EmptifDr  FaiUoAud'a^NDrUi- 


CVntnl  ItftEluri  Companlcfl — 

1.  VleDim-Tiicntfl  Una 

*.  HniigBTisn  Llnw 

t.  NonhuidSouUiTrnil 

Lfiid        .       . 


1.  Vienm-SalibDrg- 

2.  Bmnch  Lint  Jjudhnrlj- 


nunlehniili'r  Rutway  —  iriUi 


InliFian  (Chucliv-Lnula 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF) 

mraiWuis. 
The  nver  ny 


n  of  Austria,  though  upon  ■ 
I  avaiUlile  fcir  Ihe  ijiirposeB  of 
AiioQ  [hoD  ifl,  pcrhflpii,  u:suatly 

both  by  Houda  uicl  droutihu,  especially  ihe  latlcr. 
]  t  ia  aluo  to  be  ru(TTtleJ  (bat  none  of  tbe  navi- 
gable  Austiian,  HungarUii,  or  CroatiaD  rivers 
have  tb^  embouchure  in  the  Adriatic ;  but  are 
all  BlHucnta  of  ihe  Daniibr,  whicb,  aTCer  tn- 
\e  ccntn  of  the  empire,  |wiin  lu  valm 
Bkrlt  Sea,  whence  ™iy  ii  w  accfMible. 
To  obviale  Ibb  deficiency  it  hiui  ln-en  pnipcecd  lo 
ivigable  river  the  Save,  one  uf  th« 
iDtariea  of  the  Danube,  with  the  port 
uf  FiuDie  on  the  Adriatic;  it  beiiiR  snppoaed  (bat 
and  utbei  produce  of  Hungary  might 
be  cnnveyol  by  ila  meuu  to  a  much  more  con- 
----- -  and  better  maitet  Ibnn  it  ia  everliliely  to 


IlnpriK    Ell^ttttb'B   (W»t^ 


.a<M)|r<T>irllIi  Line 


mth  at  Galati 


"eiiouslj' 

attempted  to  lealiw  thbpn'Ject;  and  though  it 
were  realised,  it  may,  as  pretiuusly  auicil,  be 
doubted  whether  it  wonlil  have  tbe  anticipaled 
nld  coflt  a  very  larj^  sum :  and  the 
expense  of  conveying  M  bulky  a  commnilily  as 
heat  b^  ila  meaujt,  would  be  ao  great  that  the 
robalnlily  ia  it  might  be  broughi  cheaper  1« 
larscillea  by  Ualata  ihan  by  Ihia  cbanneL 
For  many' years  past,  Ihe  Danube  has  been  narf- 
ffMted  by  aieamcn  fnim  Katisbon  lu  VimDa.  which 
thence  convey  good*  and  paarcngeTB  toGalati,  Tre- 

)jatiiiD  is  subject  to  conaideiBble'dilIiculIie«.     From 


iaiTgBble,in. 


.1  the  chanDel  of  the  streani,  and  the  diifUuB  of 
movable  aandbanks.  Lower  down,  for  a  apace  uf 
about  HO  m.,  between  Miildova  and  (iladova,  where 
the  rivet  leaves  the  Aunlrian  territory,  iu  channel 
ia  much  contracted ;  and  Ibe  water  rushes  over  its 
rooky  bwl  wilh  eo  much  liolencc,  especially  at  the 
|Miini  called  the  Iron  Gale,  near  Orsova,  that  it 

during  floods,  and  is  nearly  imiiraclicable  fur  ves- 
sels ascendini"  the  atreaiia.  Various  eflorts  have 
been  made,  in  modem  times,  to  obviate  Ibia  lUffl- 
culty,  but  with  no  very  decided  success.  In  ciin»e- 
guence,  pasaengera  and  gooda,  passing  upand  down 
the  river,  are  now  mosily  conveyed  by  road  from 
[he  one  end  of  the  rajiids  to  Ihe  olbcr.  (See  for 
fun  her  details  on  this  suliiect  the  art.  Dakube.) 

Partiami llarbovn. — The  prindpal  commercial 
port  orAustiia  is  Trieste  upon  the  Adriatic  Itia 
■  free  |)ort,  and  is,  with  Venice,  which  has  the 
same  privilege,  shut  out  of  the  customs  line ;  the 
duly  on  gouils  imported  into  Ihem  not  being  de- 
manded until  they  an  sent  into  tbe  interior. 
Vpuiceis  Ihe  seal  of  ibc  admiralty,  and  baa  dock- 
yards and  naval  arwnola.  I'ula,  in  Istria,  cele- 
I  bniied  for  its  magnilicent  amphithcatie,  has  one 
I  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  Mediterranean ;  but  it 
.  is  so  very  uubeatlhy  (hal  it  is  almost  uninhabited. 
I  Shippuig. — Since  the  loss  uf  FUndeis,  Ibe  mer- 
canrile  navy  of  Austria  has  been  whoUy  concen- 
Iraled  in  (he  porta  on  Ihe  Adriatic  but  it  is, 
DQtwithslandJDg,  very  considerable  i  and  engmssca 
a  large  share  of  tbe  trade  of  the  Metliierranean 
'  lllack  Sea.    The  oak  timber  of  Csmiola  and 


iiuuly  tihecn  millions  of  jiawcngers,  ai 


I    Ibe  Dalmi 


orM ; 


II  shipi 


292 

also  well  manned  and  provided.  The  seamen  are 
expert,  temperate,  and  onlerly;  and  the  laws  for 
the  rcfnilAtiun  of  the  merchant  ser\'icc  are  said  to 
be  excellent. 

By  far  the  greater  nmnber  of  vessels  of  large 
burden  belong  to  Trieste.  The  rest  belong  to 
Venice,  Fiume,  Bagosa,  and  the  Bocche  di  Cat- 
taro.  (hi  the  other  hand,  the  smaller  vcsseU 
employed  in  the  coasting  trade,  which  is  very 
considerable,  are  more  equally  divided;  Venice 
having,  probably,  as  many  as  Trieste,  while  a 
good  number  lielong  to  the  ports  of  Istria,  Hun- 
gary, and  Dalmatia. 

'f  he  foreign  trade  of  Trieste  comprises  all  voy- 
ages beyond  the  limits  of  the  Adriatic ;  and  may 
be  divided  as  follows : — 

1.  The  Levant  trade,  including  the  Ionian  Is- 
lands, Greece^  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  0<lossa, 
dec,  the  ports  in  Syria,  Cy))nis,  Candla,  and  Eg^-pt, 
more  especially  Alexandria. 

2.  The  ponente  or  Mediterranean  trade,  in  the 
west,  comprising  the  coast  of  Barbary,  Spain, 
France,  and  Italy;  being  principally  carried  on 
with  Marseilles,  Genoa,  and  Leghorn. 

3.  ITie  commerce  on  the  ocean,  which  the  Aus- 
trian merchants  have  attempteil  with  considerable 
success.  Several  shitis  sail  for  Brazil,  Cuba,  the 
U.  States,  England,  Hamburg,  Ac 

The  commercial  marine  of  Austria  consisted,  in 
June  1802,  of  9,703  vessels,  of  an  aggregate  bur- 
den of  349,157  tons,  and  manned  by  34,6(M  sailors. 
Only  606  of  these  ships,  of  22H,800  tons  bunlcn. 
with  6,742  seamen,  were  for  the  *long  course,' and 
all  the  rest  small  coasting  vessels.  But  the  list 
comprised  69  steamers,  of  21,338  tonnage,  i^ith 
1,700  sailors. 

There  is  an  important  steam  navigaHon  com- 
pany at  Trieste,  under  the  name  of  Lloy<rs  Aus- 
triaco.  lliey  have  a  large  num))er  of  steam  l>oats 
with  which  a  communication  is  kept  up  l)ctweon 
Trieste  and  Venice,  the  Dalmatian  harbours, 
Greece,  Smyrna,  and  Alexandria. 

State  of  Agriculture, — The  arable  land,  con- 
tinuously or  intcrmittiugly  under  tillage,  com- 
prises 3,582  Aiistr.  sq.  m. 'distributc<l  among  the 
several  provinces,  as  shown  in  the  subjoined  table. 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF) 


Mumhcrof 

8«*I««  of  PfT. 

Proiinoet 

Auctrian 

c«ntai(e  of  the 

8q.  HUM 

wbolu  Area 

Austria,  Lower 

141*4 

41-1 

„      Upper 

7:J-6 

35-3 

Balzbnrg  .... 

11-7 

9-4 

fityria       .... 

86-3 

221 

Carinthia. 

23-9 

13-3 

Comiola   .... 

23-7 

13-6 

Littomlc  .... 

241 

17-3 

Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg 

2«0 

5-1 

Bohcmiia  .... 

43.1-1 

4H-() 

Moravia    .... 

liM5-l 

50-8 

Silexia       .... 

41-6 

46-6 

Galicia      .... 

655-1 

40-7 

Bukowina 

44*6 

24-6 

Dalmatia  .... 

24-4 

11-0 

Loiiibardo-Tenetian  King- 

dom      .... 

109-8 

88-9 

Hnnfrary  .... 

12fi5'3 

83-9 

Croatia  and  Slavonla 

89-0 

26-6 

Trantfylvania    . 

210-1 

22-6 

Military  Uordcrland 

136-6 

23-4 

The  value  of  arable  land  fluctuates  between  30 
and  1,500  florins — 3/.  and  150/.  per  acre;  the  latter 
being  the  average  price  paid  in  the  German  pro- 
\'inces.  (ArenHtein,  Oesterreich  in  der  Weltauss- 
teliung,  18()1 ;  Keijort  of  Mr.  Fane,  Her  Majesty's 
Sec.  of  Emliassy,  1803.) 


1862,  of  the  principal  kinds  of  grain.    It  is  given 
in  metzen  ;  1  mctzcn  equal  to  1*091  bushel : — 


Wheat  (annual  produce) 

Oata      . 

Rye 

Barley  . 

Maize    . 

Mixed  Cknm       „ 

Millet  and  Buckwheat 


n 


Metion 

60,000,<K>0 
100,000,000 
65,«)00,(H)0 
W),0<K).(K)0 
44.01H>,(HK) 
15.0iW.OO0 
10,000,000 


in  Austria 
4*5  florins, 
florins,  and  oats  1*8 
Cereals  form  a  very 


of 
for 


grains 
wheat 


The  following  is  the  estimated  annual  produce, 
afler  government  retuuia  published  in  the  year  |  the  most  active  part  in  the  constant  wars  in  which 


The  mean  market  price 
during  the  year  1801  was, 
rye  2*7  florins,  maize  2*6 
t{(trins,  Austrian  currency. 
im]>ortant  item  in  the  exjK»rt  trade  of  the  empire, 
as  I  have  had  frequent  occasion  to  show  in  my 
former  reports.  In  the  year  IMOI,  the  value  <»f 
cereals  and  fruits  exporte<l  amount^'tl  to  45,5.-W,G98 
florins,  beint;  an  increase  mv  the  value  of  the  ex- 
ports of  1800  of  5,308,482  florins. 

It  is  compute<l  that  of  hemp  and  flax  there  is 
pHHluced  annually  3,000,000  cwta.,  of  hops  4J),(MiO 
cwtH.,  of  other  commercial  plants  230,000  cwts. 
The  amount  of  the  crops  of  Imseed  and  hempset^d 
is  estimated  at  2,600,000  metzen,  of  raiw-seed 
1,2(K),0(M)  metzen :  the  produce  of  olive-oil  is 
100.000  cwts.  The  quantity  of  tobacco  grown  in 
1801  was  1,000,000  cwts.  'Tobacco  (like  salt)  is 
an  article  of  government  monopoly ;  but  by  a  law 
which  has  recently  hQcn  passed,  the  growers  of 
this  important  plant  are  now  permitted  to  exj)ort 
on  their  own  account  any  surplus  of  the  cora- 
racKlity  which  may  be  lelV  on  their  hands  by  the 
government  purchasera. 

Hungary  lias  almost  unequalled  capacities  for 
the  production  of  wheat  and  of  all  sorts  of  com  ; 
but  these  have  hitherto  been  all  but  wholly  neg- 
lected, and,  with  a  few  trifling  exceptions,  agri- 
culture^ within  the  llun|>^ariaii  territon-,  is  in  a 
state  of  prima'val  barbans|;n.  The  comitry  from 
Pesth  to  the  bonlers  of  Transylvania,  and  fn)m 
Belgrade  to  the  \'ine-bcaring  hillB  of  Heg^'alja.  is 
a  vast  plain,  from  12,000  to  15,000  sq.  m'.  in  ex- 
tent, traversed  by  the  Danul>e,  the  Theiss,  and 
the  Maros,  and  presenting,  one  shoidd  think,  the 
most  inWting  field  for  the  lal)our8  of  the  hu8l)and- 
man.  Mr.  Paget,  in  his  work  on  Hungary,  re- 
marks on  tins  vast  plain  as  follows: — 'Tlie  soil 
of  the  plain  {Puszta)^  as  might  be  anticipatc<l 
from  its  extent,  and,  I  might  add,  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  n>cks  from  whose  debris  it  has  lHM»n 
formed,  is  various  in  its  nature  and  in  its  |»owers 
of  pnxluction,  A  considerable  portion  is  a  deep 
sand,  easily  worke<l,  and  yielding  fair  cn»ps  in 
wet  seasons;  a  second,  found  principally  in  the 
neighl>ourhood  of  the  Damilje,  Theiss,  and  Temes, 
is  boggy,  and  much  deteriorated  in  value  fn>m  the 
frequent  inundations  to  which  it  is  subject,  but 
capable  of  the  greatest  improvement  at  little  c<»8t: 
and  a  thinl  is  a  rich  black  loam,  the  fertility  of 
which  is  almost  incre<lil)Ie.  When  the  rea<ler  re- 
flects that  this  fruitful  plain  is  iHunided  on  two 
sides  by  the  largest  river  in  Eur(jpe,  that  it  is  tra- 
versed'frf»m  N.  to  S.  by  the  Theiss,  and  that  it 
communicates  with  Transvlvania  bv  the  Martw, 
it  is  almost  impohsible  to  calculate  what  a  source 
of  wealth  it  might  prove  to  tlie  cfuuitry.  In  anv 
other  part  of  the  ci\dlised  worhl,  we  should  see  it 
teeming  with  habitations,  and  alive  with  agricul- 
tural industry,  the  envy  of  surrounding  |)owejs, 
the  granary  of  Europe.  Here  it  is  the  most 
thinly  populated,  the  worst  cultivated,  and  the 
least  accessible  jx>rtion  of  the  countrj'.  A'arious 
causes  have  contributed  t4>  produce  this  effect. 
Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  jilain  are  Magyars, 
whose  warlike  pro|H;nsities  induccnl  them  to  take 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF) 


the  country  was  formerly  engaged.  .  .  .  Among 
the  Magyars,  too,  the  number  of  children  is  gene- 
rally small :  why  the  Irish  should  be  so  prolitic  on 
starvation,  and  the  Magj'ars  so  much  the  contrary 
on  abundance,  Ls  I  must  confess,  a  mystery  to 
me;  but  such  is  the  fact.  The  ease  with  which 
the  land  is  obtained,  its  cheapness,  the  richness  of 
the  soil,  and  the  few  wants  of  the  people,  have 
also  ojjerat^d  to  check  the  progress  of  improve- 
ment in  agriculture.  The  formation  of  roa«ls,  too, 
Ls  rendered  exceedingly  difficult  bv  the  distance 
from  which  the  necessarv  materials  would  often 
require  to  be  conveyed ;  but  still  more  by  the  un- 
iust  character  of  the  law,  which  throws  the  whole 
bunlen  of  making  them  on  the  peasant^  thus  ren- 
dering it  impossible  U)  expend  so  large  a  capital 
as  would  be  required  for  their  tirst  formation  in 
sucli  situations.'    (Travels  in  Hungarj',  iu  3.) 

Wine  is  a  princii)al  object  in  various  parts  of 
Iluugarj',  and  much  care  is  usually  bestowed  both 
on  tiic  culture  of  the  vineyanls  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  liquor.  The  best  of  sweet  wines,  To- 
kay, owes  its  celebrity  entirely  to  the  care  with 
which  the  ground  is  tilled  and  the  grajjcs  sorted. 
The  vine  is,  also,  extensively  grown  in  Transyl- 
vania ;  and  though  nothing  can  be  ruder  than  the 
pre,sent  process  of  wine-making  in  the  prov.,  the 
wines  are  remarkable  for  their  bouquet  and  flavour, 
and  have  considerable  body.  There  are  tlurough- 
<»ut  the  empire,  according  to  returns  made  in  li<62, 
under  government  inspection,  110  Austrian  sq.  m. 
of  vineyanls,  besides  140  Austrian  sq.  m.  of  *  tields 
planted  with  vine.'  Tlie  annual  prtnluction  of 
wine  ranges  between  30,000,000  and  40,000,000 
t'imers — 1  eimer  being  equal  to  12*449  English 
gallons.  (Report  of  Mr.  Consul  Fane,  dated  Vienna, 
Feb.  16,  1863.)  The  culture  of  silk  Ls  rapidly  in- 
crea'iing,  and  might  be  raised  in  every  part  of 
Hungary.  A  great  obstacle  to  the  improvement 
of  agriculture  was  rera(»ved  l)y  the  Diet  of  1836, 
when  a  hiw  was  passed  for  fixing  the  division  of 
land.  Down  to  that  periml  the  jK-'asant  only  tilled 
his  jKirtion  for  three  years,  after  which  another 
was  allotted  to  him  by  his  lord,  and  the  share  he 
possesse<l  was  either  given  over  to  others  or  turned 
into  grazing  land.  The  want  of  a  market  for 
their  com,  and  their  nomadic  habits,  have  tempted 
the  Hungarians  to  prosecute,  on  a  large  scale,  the 
raising  of  sheep  and  wool. 

Galicia  Ls  throughout  an  agricultural  prov.  Ita 
most  fertile  portion  begins  to  the  E.  of  the  San, 
and  follows  the  course  of  the  Dniester,  being  part 
<if  the  great  plain  extending  ncjurly  from  the  Car- 
Itathians  to  tlie  IJlack  Sea,  and  embracing  Podolia, 
the  Ukraine,  and  Moldavia.  The  soil  is  here 
nearly  as  rich  as  that  of  the  l>est  part^  <if  the 
great  Hungarian  plain,  and  produces  the  beautiful 
white  Dantzic  wheat,  so  much  prized  in  the  Lon- 
<lon  market.  That  large  portion  of  the  land, 
which  is  held  in  small  jtarcels  by  the  peasant's  is 
in  Galicia  particularly  ill  cidtivatcd  and  unpr<)- 
<luctive.  The  rent  of  the  holdings  of  the  ]>easantr)'' 
IS  commonly  rated  in  contributions  of  labour  {ro- 
bttt)^  pavable  to  the  pro])rictors  ;  and  as  the  latter 
generally  insist  on  this  labour  or  ser\'ice  being 
|)erformed  when  it  is  most  valuable,  and  is  most 
needed  by  the  pea'^ants  themselves,  it  leatls  to 
endless  quarrels  and  oppression;  and,  besides  being 
the  bane  of  agriculture,  has  l>een  the  principal 
st)iirce  of  the  atn»cities  that  have  been  committed 
by  the  |K'asantry  on  their  lords..  The  estates  of 
the  nobility  in  Galicia  are  in  general  pretty  well 
farmed,  and  may  be  classed  with  those  of  Bohe- 
mia, Moravia,  Austria,  and  the  provinces  to  the 
south  of  the  DanuU'.  On  these  estates  regular 
rotations  of  cn»ps,  with  artificial  grasMcs,  are  n<f>v 
pretty  general ;  and  many  of  the  machines  m  use 


293 

in  England,  such  as  improved  plonghs,  sowing 
and  threshing  machines,  <tc  have  been  intToduce<l. 
A  gentleman,  who  farms  his  own  estate  in  a  part 
of  Moravia,  where  the  soil  is  of  average  quality 
and  the  climate  has  a  mean  temperature,  has  fur- 
nished us  with  the  following  details : — 

An  estate  of  mean  size  contains  from  850  to 
1,400  Eng.  acres  of  arable  land,  140  to  420  acres 
of  meadow  land,  and  1,000  to  2,500,  or  more,  acres 
wood,  according  to  the  situation,  that  is,  whether 
near  the  mountains  or  in  the  plain.  The  estates 
conferring  the  right  of  reprraentation  (landtiifiicho 
GUter),  and  which  are  only  held  by  knights  or 
nobles,  are  of  all  sizes,  from  a  few  acres  to  several 
German  sq.  m.  These  estates  can,  strictly  speak- 
ing, be  held  also  by  a  commoner,  but  only  on  his 
paying  a  portion  of  the  taxes  twice  over,  and  on 
his  renouncing  the  right  to  all  kinds  of  patronage 
and  judicial  authority.  The  estates  of  mean  size 
may  be  estimated  at  two-thirds  of  the  whole.  In 
Moravia,  about  thirtj'  are  found  to  exceed  32  Eng. 
sq.  m.  in  extent.  In  purchasing  land,  a  profit  of 
from  4  to  4^  per  cent,  per  annum  is  generally 
looked  for.  The  size  of  the  peasant's  holdings  is 
also  very  various.  In  the  plains  a  peasant's  hold- 
ing may  be  about  28  Eng.  acres.  In  the  hilly 
pjuts,  where  the  population  is  thinner,  and  the 
soil  less  productive,  it  is  30,  40,  and  in  some  parta 
70  acres.  Half  holdings,  quarter  holdings,  as  well 
as  ct>ttiers  with  small  ganlens,  are  also  frequent. 
It  is,  however,  supposed  that  of  the  peasant 
families  two-thirds  hold  land,  and  about  one- 
third  may  be  considered  as  mere  labourers.  The 
mode  of  cultivation  adopted  by  the  peasants  in 
the  low  lands  is  a  rotation  of  three  crops,  viz. 
wheat,  r>'e,  summer  com,  fallow ;  the  fallow  being 
only  partially  used.  In  the  hilly  parts  the  fallows 
are  more  used  for  potatoes,  tumi|i8,  flax,  &c ;  in 
the  mountains  tillage  is  more  irregular.  Oats, 
|K)taUies,  and  flax  are  grown;  and  in  the  more 
elevated  spots  oats  and  buckwheat.  On  the 
greater  part  of  the  small  estates  of  the  nobles  a 
better  rotation  of  crops,  with  clover,  green  f(.x>d, 
and  meadows,  prevail,  according  as  the  soil  or  the 
local  advantages  of  common  grazing  (which  is 
very  extensive  everywhere)  render  it  necessary. 

Distilleries  and  breweries  are  commonly  estab- 
lished on  large  farms;  and  the  culture  of  beet 
having  been  of  late  years  greatly  extendwl,  there 
are  numerous  factories  for  the  extraction  of  sugar 
from  the  root. 

It  Is  not  usual  to  let  land  on  lease  in  these  parts 
of  the  empire.  The  few  cases  in  which  this  mode 
of  tenure  occurs  must  rather  be  considered  as  ex- 
ceptions than  as  a  rule,  although  it  is  the  opinion 
of  comi>etent  judges  that  the  incomes  of  the  large 
landholders  would  be  increased  by  the  introduction 
of  the  practice.  In  Poland  villages  arc  often  let 
for  short  terms,  that  is,  an  estate  with  the  resident 
lalx)urer8  upon  it-,  who  are  bound  to  labour  so 
many  ilavs  in  the  week  in  lieu  of  rent  for  their 
lands.  '  In  the  management  of  his  holding  the 
peasant  enjoys  the  liberty  of  tunung  at  pleanuro 
vineyards  into  meadows,  of  tilling  pasture  fields, 
or  of  converting  the  tillage  fields  mto  pasture ; 
only  in  the  case  of  wootls  the  landlonl  reserves 
a  right  of  inspection,  to  prevent,  and  punish, 
their  being  dealt  with  contrary  to  contract.  But 
the  peasant  cannot  let  his  land,  nor  leave  it 
uncultivated,  nor  sell  it  in  parcels.  From  the 
peasants'  holdings  the  lord  usually  derives,  Ist, 
All  that  was  stipulated  on  the  original  cest^ionof 
the  land,  whether  in  the  sha{)e  of  a  rent-charge  in 
money  or  otherwisfe.  2ndly.  The  Landemium,  or 
line,  on  transfer,  whether  by  sale  or  inheritance 
(usually  y  |)er  cent.).  3nlly.  The  Robot,  or  |»cr- 
soual  service,  the  maximum  of  which  has  bcca 


294 


fixed  by  law.  Thb  consisto  generally  in  three 
days'  work,  with  a  waggon  and  horses,  weekly,  for 
the  peasant's  entire  holding;  the  half  holding 
gives  one  and  a-half  day's  work,  and  the  quarter 
holding  two  or  three  days'  labour,  weekly  ;  cot- 
tagers give  from  ten  to  thirteen  davs  per  annum. 
4thly.  Tlie  right  of  grazing  on  imcultivat«d  fallows 
and  stubblon;  which  however  the  [xsasant  may 
exeit^Lse  upon  the  land  of  his  lord.  5thly.  The 
great  and  small  tithes,  which  are  often  ceded  to 
the  church,  or  have  been  otherwise  transferred. 
Dominical  property  (allodial  estates)  pay,  in  ge- 
neral, no  titJie.  The  peasant  may  cede  or  leave 
by  will  his  holding  to  whichever  of  his  sons  he 
1>Wses;  but  it  is  then  usually  charged  with  a 
sum  for  each  of  his  brothers  and  sisters.  The 
custom  prevails  of  leaving  it  to  the  eldest  son ;  but 
it  is  often  ceded  diuriug  the  father's  life,  who  re- 
tains a  certain  quantum  of  the  produce  for  his  own 
use :  this  generally  hanjiens  when  the  father  wishes 
to  free  his  son  from  liamlity  to  the  conscri[)tion.' 

The  gross  amount  of  the  agricultural  and  horti- 
cultural pnMluce  of  the  soil  throughout  the  empire 
is  estimated  at  an  aimual  value  of  1,600,000,<X)0 
florins,  or  160,000,000/. 

Great  attention  is  now  l)eing  paid  to  the  breed- 
ing of  cattle  in  Austria.  Horses,  mules  and  asses, 
oxen,  sheep,  goat«,  and  swine  are  bred  in  vast 
(|uantitics.  The  value  of  the  cattle  of  all  kinds  now 
existing  in  the  empire  is  estimated  at  1,000,000,000 
florins,  and  the  annual  produce  from  them  com- 
prises 100,000,000  eimers  of  milk  (partly  made 
into  butter  and  cheese) ;  20,(XH),000  head  of  young 
cattle;  18,000,000  cwts.  of  meat  and  fat*  from 
grown  cattle ;  12,000,000  hides  and  skins:  700,000 
cwts.  of  wool :  the  whole  being  estimated  at  a 
total  value  of  450,000,000  florins. 

The  rearing  of  silk  worms  is  laiigelv  ])ractiscd 
in  the  south  of  the  empire;  Venetia  and  the' 
Southern  Tyrol  supplying  aimually  about  270.000 
cwts.  of  cocoons,  estimated  at  a  value  of  22,000,000 
florins,  or  2,200,000/.  (Ifeport  of  Mr.  Consul  Fane, 
dated  Vienna,  Feb.  16,  1863.) 

We  refer  to  our  articles  on  Sttria,  Illykia, 
HuNOAKY,andTRAit8TLVAMiA,  for  some  notices  of 
the  mining  wealth  of  the  AiLstrian  empire.  ln>n 
and  native  steel  are  found  in  sucit  abundance  in 
8t}'ria  and  lll>Tia,  that  the  ore  is  merely  quarried 
from  motmtains  several  thousand  feet  in  height, 
which  are  solid  blocks  of  carl>onate  of  iron  ore. 
Yet  these  riches  are  but  very  imperfectly  use<L 
The  whole  production  of  iron,  in  the  year  1863, 
amounted  to  4,918,698  pounds,  the  greater  quan- 
tity of  which,  viz.  3,157,938  pounds,  came  from 
the  German  provinces.  Of  steel,  646,346  pouniis 
were  manufactured  during  the  same  period,  llie 
article  of  native  steel  is  especially  worthy  of  attcn- 
tion;  for  though,  owing  to  the  want  of  improvetl 
means  of  communication,  English  steel  be,  at 
present,  sold  cheaper  at  Trieste,  yet  not  only  is  tlio 
quality  of  the  St>Tian  and  IlhTian  metal  superior, 
but  it  is  foimd  in  such  abundance,  that  it  could 
supply  the  most  extensive  deman(L  The  mining 
industry  of  Austria  occupie<l,  in  the  year  1863,  a 
total  of  107,834  i»crsons,  viz.  98,556  men,  4,009 
women,  and  6,269  children. 

The  total  number  of  factories  in  the  empire 
amounted  to  about  12,(MK)  in  the  year  1858.  iSmcc 
that  time  no  retmns  have  been  pubEshed,  the  old 
system  of  government  supervL-^ion  aiul  regulation, 
ais  well  as  the  privileges  of  clost^  trades  an(l  guilds, 
ha>'ing  succumlx^d  to  a  freer  spirit  of  l(^iMlation. 
Jly  an  inijjerial  decree  of  Dec.  20,  1859,  a  new 
*Gewerbe-ordnung'  was  introduced,  which  re- 
pealed nearly  all  the  restrictions  previously  incum- 
be-ring  the  free  exercise  of  the  various  industrial 
•H-cu pal  ions.     Tln'  prin<'i|»al  seats  of  the   ctjtton 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF) 

and  woollen  manufactures  are,  Tk)hcniia,  Moravia, 
Silesia,  and  Austria ;  and  there  they  have  attained 
to  considerable  perfecrion.  ('oarse  cloths  are  everx'^- 
wherc  manufacture<l ;  and  large  exjMJrts  of  cotton 
and  wor>llen  wares,  esiKH'i.ally  of  inferior  shawls 
and  red  caps,  arc  annually  matle  to  Turkey  ainl 
the  East.  Linen  is  a  lea<ling  article  of  manu- 
facture; spinning  and  weaving  forming  tiie  prin- 
cijwil  employment  of  the  ])easantr>'  during  the 
wmter,  especially  of  the  women,  in  the  northern 
provinces.  In  Galicia,  not  only  a  iwrtion  of  the 
rent,  but,  in  many  laiige  establishments,  a  part 
of  the  wages  of  sen-ants  is  paid  in  linen.  The 
stained  glass  ware  of  liohemia  is  a  tnily  lieautiful 
fabric,  being  KU[»eriorin  the  richne^s  and  brilliaiu  y 
of  the  colours  to  any  that  Is  elsewiiere  pnxlucetl. 
It  is  extensively  ex]M)rte«L  liohemian  pure  crj-stal 
is  not,  however,  equal  to  that  of  England. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  women  and  chil- 
dren employed  in  the  various  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, aiul  the  government  has  framed  for  their 
i)rotecti(m  special  laws,  which  are  rigidly  enforcetl. 
The  chief  of  these  regidatitms  are  as  follows : — 


[■gidati( 

1.  The  earliest  age  at  which  children  can  l>eem- 
ploved  is  at  twelve  years.  2.  The  o\\\y  exception 
shall  be  for  children  who,  at  nine  years  of  a^^e,  have 
for  three  years  received  a  religious  e<lucation  aiul 
atten<led  school;  but  as  limg  as  these  children 
shall  continue  at  an  age  at  which  they  ought  to 
atU'nd  school,  the  manufacturers  shall  wateh  over 
their  education,  and  call  to  their  aid  the  niini.sten* 
of  the  gosjjel,  but  without  internij)tiug  their  work. 
3.  For  children  Iwtweeu  nine  and  twelve  yean*  oltl 
the  maximum  of  the  time  they  are  to  work  is  fix  in  I 
at  ten  hours,  and  between  twelve  and  sixteen  years 
of  age  at  twelve  hours,  but  they  shall  Ik*  allowed 
an  inter>'al  of  one  hour.  4.  Manufacturers  an.» 
bound  to  ]>revent  all  disonler  and  scandalous  con- 
duct among  the  adults  in  their  wtablishments. 

5.  Manufacturers  shall  keep  registers,  in  which 
shall  Ik;  enteretl  the  namcK  and  ages  of  the  chil- 
dren, their  residences,  and  thejwriod  atwliich  they 
entered  the  manufactory'.  This  re^ster  shall  be 
pnxiuced  Ijefore  the  magistrate  and  the  minister 
of  public  worship  whenever  it  may  be  required. 

6.  All  contraventions  of  these  rcguliitions  shall  Ih» 
punished  vfith  a  fine  of  from  2  to  100  tlorins ;  an«l 
m  case  of  a  rej)etition  of  the  ofl'ence,  the  otfender 
may  be  interdicted  from  having  any  chiUlren  under 
twelve  vears  of  age  in  his  employment. 

The  \>e8t  and  surc«t  scale  for  a  ratio  of  the 
development  of  fact^»ry  system  antl  pHnluction  by 
machinery  is  the  consumption  of  mineral  coal, 
this  fuel  having  l>een  comparatively  little  used  in 
the  households  of  Austria.  Ihit  the  consumi)tion 
of  c(»als  has,  since  1 839,  incrcjised  from  10  to  nearly 
70  raillion  cwUs.  Moreover,  there  is  in  the  indus- 
trial districts  of  the  Giant  and  Ore  mountains 
scarcely  any  water-power  left  that  is  n»»t  availed 
<»f,  so  that  at  present  water-works  make  their  way 
out  of  the  valleys  into  the  plains;  and  in  the  ini- 
meiliate  \icinity  of  coal-tields  large  industrial  dis- 
tricts are  lisuig  into  existence  where  the  workii 
are  carried  i)n  with  steam-power. 

Commerce, — The  trade  of  Austria,  owing  to  her 
central  situation,  and  the  distance  of  all  her  most 
imix»rtant  provn.  from  the  sea,  hib4>urs  under  con- 
siderable natural  dilKeultics.  Notwithstanding 
these,  there  has  been  of  late  a  steady  increase 
Ixith  in  ex|H)rts  and  im|H)rts,  owing  chietly  to  ihe 
partial  adoption  of  fnK?-tra(ie  prinriplo.  How- 
ever, a  large  iwrtion  of  the  revenue  is  still  derive«l 
from  customs'  duties,  chieliy  on  iiojiorts.  as  will 
be  seen  fn>m  the  following  table,  winch  >hows  the 
cldef  articles,  and  clasM^s  of  articles,  imported  in 
tlwyejir  1863,  and  the  amount  o\'  diiii<;s  l«'\i«'d  on 
them. 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIKE  OF) 


"^        b.  i>»  Ttr\a 

1°.^ 

»™""* 

CDlontal  WiM  mi  South 

F,«,„. 

Fl^.. 

16,»4»,73J 

fi,oii,i!;t 

8««;441 

Ccr»]  °uy|  Prdju       '.       '. 

lil'iWisHM 

i.sa--.,:*" 

Animal  Prodnqta         '.       '. 

rliMiiii 

18.3*7,1(8* 

6!''4illU 

LhllTnTSna  Edibia    !      ; 

m.m 

M>l«laU  lor  Fuel  nod  Tlm- 

B,CTe.»M 

T,M1) 

MalKamcnoi,       'pertamei. 

Wjcinit.    Tanning,     uid 

Cheml«iatufl«    ".       . 

1J,«1,S07 

MqUI^   prednui,  r«w  and 

M,M6.135 

473,316 

Wearing  Ii  Loom  UaUsriali 

YaniH   .... 

Wo™  and  Loom  Good.     . 

sllH^ioU 

llHiiKIS 

Paper  and  aaMoBeij  .     '. 

L««ba  and  LaClMrGood.. 

»|su|ou« 

KwisSO 

Wood,     OI«B,     and    Clay 

Warei       .... 

I.ITO.SM 

uinio 

Vehlcla        '.'.'.'. 

■jwluw 

i 

Machinm  aid  HardwarB     , 

6,J3S,0T* 

MD,i$» 

(i 

ChcmUal  Pniducu,  Colonn, 

i,0ie,142 

I'rinial  Hooks  aiid  Objeeta 

ofAll        .         .        . '. 

6^11 ,1!B 

11.105 

a(.iai,iiM 

a,,lS!,7l» 

The  Hubjoine.1  tabic  exhib 

w  tlie  ex[ic 

>na  of  ihe 

year  IBUa,  u^ether  iillh  tlic 

CMStoraa'  rt 

venue  de- 

rived theiuTium,  which,  it  w 

ltas  very 

-lib'ht. 

EXPOMTS. 

DMfiuIin  cX  C~^H  cU-td 

P 

colonial  Www       .        .        . 

"°fi!!780 

n«» 

C.™l-«ndPrUll.          .        . 

(a,5;iH.oaH 

V.3-K,jm 

Atdmal  Produ'oU    '.        '.        '. 

*,*>-MW 

4I,1)«I 

w>j;;.iw 

-fU,748 

UnUanK-nta.Vvrtium-i,  !))•!- 

m^,.      .      .      .      . 

4,»ia,WB 

37,133 

; 

Mculo,   precious,  raw    and 

3i.Wl.|l70 

Waving  and  l*oni  Malcrtali 

i37,Wl 

wl™  and  lAwm  (loodi       ', 

Vf',Til',:Jn 

Oood»  m^  of  straw.  Daat, 

Paper,  and  Slalioinry 

' 

Loulwr  and  Luuhcr  Uuuds 

13,a|lS>Hl 

Wood,  (JIBS.,  and  Claj  Wara 

i«,!M;i!ri:i 

8 

Land  and  WaKTVphicla      '. 

1 

In;<trumcuu,  Machioo,  and 

hardware    .... 

KAnfiii 

Chniiloal  I-nxloclM,  CoIobib, 

4,41>»,S3» 

Priiil«d  Iluoka  ami  Olijwla  of 

s.jas/^ 

17,830 

Rrfu«.  liags  "       '.       '■       '■ 

Wli,7W 

Sumtotal        .       .       . 

iiin,eHi,*» 

1 

Tmn 

!.,«<. 

E.PM 

ttato 

norta. 

l!--\l 

W7,Wai290 
W1I,15.-.,01I 
IM8,i9B,HiI 

SIS 

aiw!*(7|onr 

1I11,»I8,»1I6 

l:w.im,«i 
W8,41<1,»1 

i-SS 

iG  Unileil 


The  chieT  commndiliea 

Kingdom  from  Aiuicrla  aj  . . 

claw  beaii*,  olive  oil,  quickMlver,  cumniX 

of  tartar,  lard,  aeeil,  (diumac,  Bponjie,  wood, 

vl.    In  lH6d,  the  total  value  of  the  imports 

amomiicd  to  l,17a,M")W.j  in  1861,  to  l,24«,W6i 

id  in  IttCO,  lo  <Hie,SG4'. 

The  declared  value  of  Britiab  produce  anil  ma- 
jfactuiea  Hliipped  to  the  Aiwtnaii  dominion*  in 
I8W  was  7«7,50R,  an  amount  lem  hy  IWI^lit 
1uui  in    1861,  and  by  206,lU8t   than   in    18641. 

kmon  manuftcturcs  _      _ 

uced  more  than  ■  moiety  of  the  yt*''}'  trauMC- 

The  usual  coins  in  circulation  are  the  ilucat  of 
Hultand=4fl.30kr.;  the  Bovereign  =  13t  fl,;  the 
llurin  of  20  =  1  line  marli,  di>-iiled  Into  liU  kr. ;  11^ 
sterling,  at  par=9  fl.  31  ki.  llank  noleis  of  fi  fl. 
and  upwards  rirculale,  as  well  as  Ihe  notes  be- 
'  iiiginB  to  Ihe  ile()rociatffll  cuirency,  of  which  fi  H, 
^IH.  ini>ilveT,andtH.--24kr.  Thia  is  denomi- 
itdl  Vlfma  Toliu  ;  the  eilvei  value  is  called  that 
r  the  CWnttuK.  PLofes  of  20  kr.,  »ils-er,  3  of 
which  form  a  Horin,  with  mialler  juecea  of  10,  6, 
IT.,  form  the  sih-er  coinage.  The  20  Itr. 
piecv  is  tenued,  in  Italy,  lire  Auitriaco. 
Inomr  ami  ExpauIUnrt. — The  Hnancii ' 

r  Austria  lias  boi- ■"' 

lysteiy.  The  la 
and  are  aekloai  MSemed'on  the  same  imridplen 
... .  distiibnied  imder  the  two  greac 
tieads  of  dirtct  and  huSrtct.  The  funucr  com- 
lirixe,  iHI.  Tlie  laiid-tJUt,  or  eontrilmlum  faniin, 

'inj;  geneiallv  over  the  unijiire,  but  muwwal 

iily  in  rhe  dilTerent  prova. ;  laA.  The  houw- 

lax,  from  which  UuiiKHiy  is  exeinirtwli  3ni,  A 

eunflneil  chivtiy  to  tlie  tlalion  jmivs,; 

K  on  InduMry,  or  mllivr  on  lii'encvi  n- 

cany  on  cenaui  liratichea  of  injiulry; 

he  inJin-ct  tsar*,  which  abm  iliflWr  in 
!>n>vti.,  roiiHist  iirinciimily  nf  exciHe  dulin 

:  munopiilics  vf  tobacco  and  "salt,  stamp 
d  some  others  of  minor  importance. 


-r  1670. 


This 


biHaclK9>  uf  the  ailml 

mouts  of  (lie  iulrrioi 

ilic  eduoalion, 

lisjMuil,  .li-rivi' 


:  of  income  has  Loon  aya- 
le  years.  There  are  scvenl 

;nilion,«ucbas[he  depart- 


AD8TRU.  (EMPIRE  OF) 

"  i    compBiiying  dclicit,  6 


DlRKTTjXHt- 

PoUTltt          ... 

ejtri.ii 

Tkw  on  mUtMTj  Qatr- 

KUmplns  Ucudi   . 

ExPFNUmilB  OT 


Ulnli>ti7  of  Rti 
Uiniatrj  for  K 


War.  Special  Bcvcnm 
N».y      .       .       . 

Compuilfli . 


■  Ihc   yean  IMl    to 


T«r. 

UHIK. 

W,+M.715 

Th«  Auitiian  ImilKCt  wu  Wlli><l,  np  to  thr  vcar 
18G3,  rMiD  tlio  iinc  uf  X.n-emliOT  to  the  U^t'ilav 
of  Oi-tolwr  I'VO}-  \emz.  A  Aanan  ww  iiitniiliuwil 
in  1MJ3,  wbun  it  wuuntuiKed  tluit,ri«  tin  fulurp, 
Ihe  tinonrinl  accountK  of  Ib«  eiu|jini  idiiiuM  ma 
curtpnt  wilJi  tlu;  onlmary  year.  To  aranniilii'h 
Ihc  cbaoKF,  the  budKPt  i»liiDMft<  fiir  l8t>3-«4  wen 
fiir  fuuni!«n  munllw,  tnaa  Xnvcmbcr  I,  lMt.1.  to 


at  a>U,<J47^^  flucinH,  and  the  exprailiture  at 
6im,44Ta«a  floiiiw,  lr>\-ini,'  >  "hfieit  of  31l,HlKi.ilM 
floniiH,  III  be  covered,  with  part  of  fiirniLT  dctjviu^ 
by  Ihe  loui  oT  7II,IHHI,INMI  diiriiw. 

The  ginblic  debt  of  Ihc  empire  ban  Rmim  opera' 
diiatly  MDee  the  miihlle  of  Ibe  laiit  ocnlim-.  At 
tlic  end  of  the  Sei-en  Veni»'  War,  in  17(13,  Auslria 
liad  a  ilebt  uf  15(),IN)U,nuii  of  tlnrin^  whirb  Kivv  lu 
2(I3,UW.I)UU  in  ITHl,  and  at  Uie  ninmienuroent  at 
Ihe  French  Revolution,  in  I 


diavn  up  Ciom  oHicial 


The  ileclitte  of  Ihc  revenue  in  18^9  marks  the 
detaciimvnt  of  the  Hnurishing  Italian  pRivinces. 

■"      if  that  peri"d  in  nlill  muro  strikingly 

be  exjieiHliiure,  Klmwn  in  the  liiliowing 
■M  gives  the  cxjicDcUturc  aud  the  Bc- 


viaible  in 


349,U)N>,IJ[NX     ('mm  thia  periiHl  ttie  debt  i^'W  in 
extiniinlinary  pniporlions.    Fnim  ITHli  nnlii  IKtWI, 


ry  pniporuon 


of  the  Hi 

Slot  Dccrmlirr,  Im!3,  I 

state,  both  cotuudiilaled  ami  llostinK.  amiiunicit 

Id  2,H64,»l(i,7Hl  HotuiN  of  which  the  lloatinc  .lebt 

cunKisted  of  SimST2,ilt6  fhirinii. 

f^irm  o^  GoBtrHuimL — Tlic  empenin  nfthv  hoiiM 
of  H^Mbiint,  previoibly  to  the  year  1B4K,  nilcl 
the  dominimw  aceiimulatml  under  tlieir  nceiifre  in 
■n  atiwlule  manuer,  eommnulv  described  an  '  ]<a- 

'   "-.potu-m.'     The  revolution  of  the  yew 

— ■- log  the  (Jennan  portioii  i>f 


(pricinat 


cinatms  a 


whii'h 


the  emiietor  wa»  fun-e  J  to  sign  on  Ihe  4ih  <>t'  Marcli, 
IMS.  ITua  very  lilieral  cluutcr,  however,  was  re- 
licalod  bv  an  im)<erial  ilrerve  of  Dec.  HI.  IMI, 
which  sutwIitutBl  a  mme  alimiliite  fonn  of  f^veni- 
meiit  'f  and,  during  Ihe  fullmriuff  yean,  new  eiljeta 
allcreil  Ihc  inihlie  charter,  llnally,  by  an  im- 
[leriBl  aiphima,  dated  OeL  30,  iHiMy  followeil  Uy 


,  decree,  or  '  I'atei 


of  Pelmiaiy  ^li,  1HU1,  I 

of  the  einiHPp  w.-u   e*tali- 

fenlnrtsi  are  a  iripnnitc  leLdit- 


iishcd.      Its 

Uturi;,  coruisting,  lim,  of  the  nrovincial  diets, 
repreiientinf;  tlie  variotu  slates  of  the  monan^liv ; 
secondly,  a  central  iliet.  called  the  Rrirhirarli.'ui 
council  of  Ihe  empire :  and,  tliinUv.  a  niluciii 
form  of  the  lalter,  entitled  JCagcr  ftacktraih,  oi 
I'anial  Council  <if  the  Kmpire. 

There  are  eighleeii  PrormFial  Diilt—namtW, 
fiir  IlunKary,  llohemia,  Ix>nil«nh>-Veniiv.  Ual- 
malia,  L^nial'ia  ami  Slavonia,  (ialicia.  llii-her  Xuti- 

VoiarlbciK,  TraUBylvanin.  Iislria  and  '1  ncfte.    The 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF) 

€liets  of  all  thase  provinces  are  formed  in  nearly 
Uie  same  maimer,  only  differing  in  the  number  of 
deputies.  Each  consists  of  only  one  assembly, 
composed,  1st,  of  the  archbishop  and  bishops  of 
the  Koman  Catholic  and  Oriental  Greek  Church 
and  the  chancellors  of  universities;  2nd,  of  the 
representatives  of  great  estates,  elected  by  all  land- 
owners paying  not  less  than  100  florins,  or  10/., 
taxes ;  3rd,  of  the  representatives  of  to>vns,  elected 
by  those  citizens  who  possess  municipal  rights; 
4th,  of  the  representatives  of  boards  of  commerce 
and  trade-unions,  chosen  by  the  respective  mem- 
bers ;  and  5th,  of  the  representatives  of  rural  com- 
nmnes,  elected  by  such  mhabitAuta  as  pay  a  small 
amount  of  direct  taxation.  The  provincial  diets 
are  competent  to  make  laws  concerning  local  ad- 
ministration, particularly  those  affecting  county 
taxation,  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  educational, 
church,  and  charitable  institutions,  and  public 
works  executed  at  the  public  expense.  Hungary, 
Croatia,  and  Transylvania  have  separate  consti- 
tutions, allowing  somewhat  greater  latitude  of 
self-government.  The  diet  of  Transylvania,  con- 
voke<l  for  July  1,  18(53,  consisted  of  165  members, 
of  wliich  number  125  were  elected  by  the  i>eople, 
and  40  nominated  by  the  crown.  In  the  elections, 
everj'  man  \\an  a  vote  who  has  attained  the  age  of 
twenty-four,  and  pays  direct  taxes  to  the  amount 
of  8  florins,  or  15«. ;  and  capable  of  being  elected 


297 


are  all  citizens  of  the  age  of  thirty  who  *  are  of 
irreproachable  character.' 

The  Keichsrath,  or  Council  of  the  Empire,  con- 
sists of  an  upper  and  a  lower  house.  The  upjicr 
house  b*  formed,  1st,  of  the  princes  of  the  imj)erial 
family,  who  are  of  age  ;  2nd,  of  a  number  of  no- 
bler— sixty-two  in  the  present  reichsrath — pos- 
se.<<sing  large  landed  property,  on  whom  the  em- 
jM^ror  may  confer  the  dignity  of  state-comicillors  ; 
3nl,  of  the  archblshojis  and  bishops  who  are  of 
])rincely  rank  ;  and  4th,  of  any  other  life-memlnjrs 
nominated  by  the  emi>eror,  on  account  of  being 
distinguished  in  art  or  science,  or  who  have  ren- 
dered signal  ser\'ices  to  church  or  state  —  forty- 
seven  in  the  present  reichsrath.  The  lower 
house  is  composed  of  343  members,  elected  by  the 
eighteen  provincial  diets  of  the  empire  in  the 
following  proix>rtions :  Ilungar}',  85;  Bohemia, 
54;  Lombardo- Venice,  20;  Dalmatia,  5  ;  Croatia 
and  Slavonia,  9  ;  Galicia,  38;  Higher  Austria,  10; 
Lower  Austria,  18 ;  Salzburg,  3 ;  St}Tia,  13 ;  Ca- 
rinthia,5;  Carniola,  6;  Bukowina,  5;  Moravia, 
22;  Silesia,  «;  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  12;  Tran- 
svlvania,  2<) ;  and  Istria  and  Trieste,  6.  The  elec- 
tion for  the  lower  house  of  the  reichsrath  is 
made  in  the  assemble<l  provincial  diets,  the  elected 
deputies  to  be  members  of  such  diets.  The  em- 
peror has  the  right,  however,  to  order  the  elections 
to  take  place  directly  by  the  varioas  constituencies 
of  the  provincial  representatives,  should  the  diets 
refuse  or  neglect  to  send  members  to  the  reiclisrath. 

The  emperor  nominates  the  presidents  and  vice- 
presidents  of  both  chambers  of  the  reichsrath,  the 
remaiiung  fimctionaries  being  chosen  by  the  mem- 
Ikts  of  the  two  houses.  It  is  incumbent  upon 
the  head  of  the  state  to  assemble  the  reichsrath 
annuallv.  The  rights  which,  in  consequence  of 
the  diploma  of  Oct.  20,  1800,  and  the  *  Patent'  of 
Feb.  20,  I8r»l,  are  conferred  upon  the  reichsrath,  are 
as  follows: — 1st,  Consent  to  aU  laws  relating  to 
military  duty;  2nd,  Cuoperatum  in  the  legislature 
on  trade  and  commerce,  cust^)ms,  banking,  [Xisting, 
telegraph,  an«l  railway  matters ;  3rd,  Examination 
of  the  estimates  of  the  income  and  expenditure  of 
the  state;  of  the  bills  on  taxation,  public  loans, 
and  conversion  of  thefmids;  and  general  con tnd 
ol'  the  public  debt.  To  give  validity  to  bills  |Misse<l 
by  the  reichsrath,  the  couseut  of  both  chambers 


is  required,  as  weU  as  the  sanction  of  the  head  of 
the  state.  The  members  of  both  the  upper  and  the 
lower  hoiLse  have  the  right  to  propose  new  lawa 
on  subjects  within  the  competence  of  the  reichs- 
rath; but  in  all  other  matters  tlie  initiative 
belongs  solely  to  the  government. 

The  Enger  Reichsrath,  or  Partial  Council  of  the 
Empire,  is  formed  by  the  full  reichsrath,  leaving 
out  the  representatives  of  Hungary  and  of  Croatia 
in  both  houses.  The  laws  passed  by  the  partial 
council,  and  sanctioned  by  the  sovereign,  have 
effect  in  the  whole  empire,  excepting  these  two 
provinces.  It  Is  with  the  object  of  giving  the  for- 
merly independent  realm  of  Hungary  and  her 
dependencies  a  larger  share  of,  self-government 
than  the  remaining  provinces  of  Austria,  that  the 
Enger  Reichsrath  has  been  instituted. 

The  legal  code  of  Austria  remains,  in  its  most 
essential  points,  the  same  as  the  *  Gesctzbuch/ 
ilrawn  up  by  a  commission  of  lawyers  by  command 
of  the  late  emjwror  Francis  I.,  and  published  by 
his  order.  It  is  much  praised  as  a  theoretical 
compilation;  but  open  to  the  objections  raised 
against  all  codes  in  practical  respects.  In  Austria 
the  decisions  of  the  judges  are  not  published,  aiul 
each  judgment  interpreting  a  paragraph  of  the 
codes  Is  a  fresh  improvisation  on  the  part  of  the 
judge.  If  it  be  discovered  that,  under  the  same 
circumstances,  a  former  judge  or  another  court 
decided  differently,  the  case  is  referred  to  the 
ministry  of  justice,  which  decides  what  the  law  ia 
in  that  particular  case  ;  but  its  decision  is  not  to  be 
taken  as  a  construction  of  the  law  for  future  cases. 
The  judges  are  removable,  and  may  be  promoted 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  crown ;  but,  like  all  other 
employes,  can  only  Ik;  dismissed  with  pensions, 
unless  convicted  of  improper  conduct  by  some 
court  of  justice.  In  all  cases  trials  under  the  late 
regime  took  place  in  secret,  and  the  proceedings 
were  in  writmg:  even  the  examination  of  wit- 
nesses was  not  public :  the  decision  was  acconling 
to  the  votes  of  the  president  and  assessors  of  the 
court.  Criminal  trials  were  protracted  to  an  enor- 
mous length;  and  acciLsed  persons  were  often 
suffered  tt)  be  in  prison  for  years  before  their  cases 
were  brought  on.  All  this  has  been  altered  under 
the  new  constitution,  by  which  the  laws  of  Austria 
are  brought  more  in  conformity  with  those  of  the 
West- European  states,  particularly  of  France. 
However,  the  police  is  still  entrusted  w4th  very 
great  powers,  infringing  on  the  liberty  of  the  indi- 
WduaL  The  ])olitical  and  local  exercise  of  its 
authority  includes  not  only  the  pre»er\'atiou  of 
public  oriler,  but  the  permitting  strangers  to  reside 
m  any  part  of  the  empire, — the  allowing  subjectA 
themselves  to  change  their  places  of  al)ode  or  to 
travel,  ])assports  bemg  requisite  even  in  the  coun- 
try itself,  and  firequently  only  procured  after 
long  delay  and  much  trouble.  Tlie  police  of  the 
provinces  is  entrusted  in  the  Iai>^e  towns  to  a 
Iward,  whose  officers  are  appointed  by  the  crown : 
in  small  towns  to  the  m^^istracy  :  in  the  country 
the  captain  of  the  circle  united  these  functions 
with  his  judicial  an<l  administrative  powers. 

The  Austrian  prisons  are  dividetl  into  three 
classes : — state  prisous,  for  political  offenders,  the 
cliief  of  which  are  the  Spielberg  at  Brunn  in  Mo- 
ravia, Kuffstein  in  TjtoI.  Munkaes  in  Hungary, 
Leml)erg  in  Galicia,  and  Venice ;  houses  of  correc- 
tion (Zuchthailser)  in  all  the  chief  towns,  in  which 
criminals  are  kept  at  hard  labour  (those  in  irons  are 
sent  to  the  fortresses) ;  and  houses  of  detention, 
under  the  care  of  the  police,  in  which  perscms  who 
are  arrested  are  kept  Ijefore  and  durhig  the  judicial 
proceedings.  A  lai^e  pris<»n,  on  an  impn>ved  plan, 
Wiis  crectetl  some  years  since  in  a  healthy  situa- 
tion at  Vienna.     It  b  usual  to  give  every  needy 


298 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF) 


prit»oner,  on  his  (lischaigCf  a  small  sum  of  moneys 
to  koep  him  from  the  temptations  of  momentary 
indi^^cnce. 

The  Church  awl  Clergy, — The  state  relipon  of 
Austria  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  and  next  in  im- 

iK)itance  stands  the  Greek  ('hurch.  Calvinism  and 
^^utheronism  are  vXm  professed  liy  Lii^e  ntunlKTs 
of  the  i>eoplc ;  the  former  niostlv  in  Hunpir\'^  ami ;  bein^  of  rouri<»  suiiiMJSK-d  tlmt  lie  has  Ho  diri'ct 


The  emperor  nominates  all  tlie  bishops,  with  thf» 
exception  of  the  archbishop  of  Olmliiz,  who  is 
chosen  by  the  chapter  (»f  that  city. 

Chnrcli  projKTty  thr<»n;;hout  all  the  pn>vinrr>-. 
except  Ilunfrary  and  Transylvania,  is  ver>'  hijrhly 
taxtnl;  ami  tlir  .state  inherits  u  moiety  of  tin*  |K-r 
jMMial    propt'rty  of  evi-ry  Catholic 


ck'r;rvni;in.  ii 


Transylvania,  the  latter  in  the  (lerman  provinces 
and  in  Galicia.  The  ecclcMastical  hierarchy  (»f 
Austria  comprises  11  Roman  Catholic  arch- 
bisho^is,  1  Greek  aFchbisho|>,  1  Greek  schi.nmatic 
archbishop,  and  1  Armenum  archbishop.  The 
Roman  Church  has  further  oO  bishoi)s,  withcha]>- 
ters  and  consistories,  and  43  abl)ots  of  ancient 
endowed  monasteries,  la  Austria,  Styria,  11 1\  ri:i, 
Bohemia,  and  Mora>'ia.  Hungary'  has  22  ablK>ts 
with  cndywinents,  124  titular  ablx>ts,  41  en- 
dowed and  29  titular  prebendaries,  and  H  col- 
lege foundations.  Transylvania  has  3  titular 
abbots,  and  u[iwards  of  150  monasteries  and  con- 
vents; and  Galicia  70  monasteries.  The  Greek 
United  Church  lias  1  archbishop  and  1  bishop  in 
<Talicia,  and  5  bishofis  in  Ilun^j^ar^'.  The  Ar- 
menian Catholic  Church  has  an  archbishop  at 
Lemli<  rg.  The  archbishop  of  Carlowitz  is  head 
of  the  Greek  Church,  with  10  bish(»ps  amlOOpro- 
topa])as  or  deans.  The  Protestants  are  placed 
under  10  superintendents  for  the  Lutherans,  and 
9  superintendents  for  Calvinists.  In  llun<j:ar\' 
and  Transylvania,  the  Protestants  ch(K»se  their 
superintendents,  who  arc  contntlled  by  district 
insitectors.  A  great  part  of  the  Mag\'ar  inhabitants* 
of  Hungary  are  CalWnlsLs,  and  I'rotestants  enjoy, 
in  that  kingtiom  and  its  dependent  lands,  e(|ual 
rights  with  the  Catholics.    The  Unitarians  an» 


natural  heirs.  IJut  the  line  of  p«dicy  n'>]>e<*tin;^ 
the  Church  of  liomc,  of  which  tin*  t-niperor  Ji»sf|»h 
laid  the  foun<lation.  has  nor  of  late  l.>een  adhcnvl 
to ;  new  religious  orders  having  l)ee.n  sufTcred  t*> 
estabUsh  themselves,  antl  even  the  Jesuits  have 
\)Qi:i\  perraitteil  oi»enly  to  ?*ettle  in  wvoral  pn>vin- 
<rial  t<»wns.  llie  nunilK>r  of  meml«TS  of  the  various 
religious  persuasions  is  as  follows,  anronlingto  tin- 
census  of  October  31,  lx;37,  deduction  bcuig  made 
of  the  provmces  ceded  in  iHoU  : — 


Catholics 
(inx»k  (..'hurfli 
United  (jrouka 
LmlKTans 


23,»fi8.0«»J  «  ralvini*t? 


:i,»J!»l..s!M; 
1,2S6,7»9 


UiiLt;U'i.in3 
Other  Sects 


2,ir,i,7r,5 

l,«:>4!),s71 


The  Jews.  fi»mierly  muchoi>pressetl.  and  subject 
to  all  manner  t»f  indignities,  have  lK-<?n  not  only 
releaseil  from  all  thesse  nstraiuts  since  the  yviir 
\HA*,K  but  have  even  IsHvime  j>>wt'rful  in  the  slate, 
owing  to  the  great  wealth  amassed  by  many  mem- 
Ijers  of  the  c(»nnn unity. 

Classen  of  Inhahitants.  and  State  of  the  Pn^- 
rinceg. — The  three  cla^^ses  of  nol>le»,  citizen*,  auil 
peoMtntH  were  strictly  detinwi  in  all  the  i)roviiices 
pn»vi<»iLsly  to  the  late  changes.  The  nobility  are 
iMith  numerous  and  rich  in  Austria,  where  estates 
an*  generally  entaileil ;  and  the  higher  »»fHces  of 
the  court,  the  anny,  and  the  church  are  rcMTN-eil 
tolerated,  or  rather  rec«^)gnised  bv  law,  in  Tran- ;  for  this  class.    The  niemlwrs  of  the  male  sex  «f 


sylvania,  where  they  have  a  superintendent,  and 
arc  disi)en«ed  over  1(14  |>arishes.  The  I!<aniui  Ca- 
tholic religion  is  dominant  throughout  the  em])ire ; 
and,  in  cose  of  dispute,  the  riglit  to  the  tithes  is 
assumed  to  be  vested  in  the  parish  priest.  Tlie 
extent  of  landed  property  in  Austria  1)elonging  to 
tlie  Catholic  Church  u  very  considerable.  Th<iugh 
reduced  in  number  within  the  lost  half  ceutiur\', 
there  are  still  nearly  300  abbeys,  and  al)ove  500 
convents  in  the  empin?.  S*»nie  of  the  Koman  Ca- 
tholic prelates  have  ven*'  Lirge  inctimes,  as  the  arch- 
bishop of  Prague,  the  revenues  of  whose  see  amount 
to  loO.OOO  florins,  or  12,o00/.  The  chun^h  is,  how- 
ever, far  from  l)cing  the  only  possessor  of  the 
tithes;  its  wealth  ctmsists  princi]>ally  in  endow- 
ments of  land,  or  revenues  charged  u\)on  estates. 
The  richest  see  Is  the  primacy  of  Hungary,  the 
archbishopric  of  OlmUtz  l)eing  next  in  im|K>ila]ux>. 
On  the  supj)ression  of  the  convents  by  Joseph  1 1., 
a  portion  or  the  confiscated  lands  and  *revenu(«  was 
a]»^>ropriated  to  fonn  a  fund  for  unprt)ving  the  s;i- 
lones  of  the  parish  clergy,  the  minnnuni  of  whose 
incomes  has  been  lixe<i  at  300  11.  for  a  {larish 
priest,  and  150  li.  for  a  chaplain  or  curate.  This 
fund  is  nominally  uiuler  the  control  of  the  bishop, 
08  far  as  concerns  his  dir>cese ;  vet  estates  belong- 
ing to  it  are  constantly  advertised  for  fmblic  sale. 
The  united  Greek  and  Armenian  Churchc>s  are  as- 
similated to  the  l{oman  Catholic  Churcli,  as  far  as 
their  {lorishes  exteiuU  Tlie  schismatic  Gre<;ks  \to»- 


tbevarioiLs  noble  families  thriiughtiut  the  eniiiiriNire 
e^tiniateti  at  2.")0,00«).  Of  the>e,  in.'J.mM)  belong  to 
IIungar}'.24.lM)0  to  Galicia,  and  2,'JOo  to  lJ<»hemiji. 
The  latter  couiitn*  hiis  foune«-n  princely  families, 
172  families  of  counts,  W  i»f  banms.  and  H>0  of 
knights.  Their  total  incomc-s  are  e>timated  at 
l«,Ot»0,(>00  11.,  or  l,^<Ki,(MMi^  The  privilege  of  ma- 
norial rights  can  only  be  enjoye<l  by  a  ni»ble  in 
Austria.  These  include  the  right  of  presentation 
to  livings  and  strhools  on  his  estates,  and  the  right 
to  hohlcourtsuf  justice;  in  the  lirst  instance.  OthtT 
privileges  are  tho?e  of  peculiar  tribunals.  lK'f«»re 
which  he  c^an  only  l>e  cited  ;  the  fre.i'dom  fntni  tho 
conscription:  and  the  right  of  Mtting  in  tin;  prw- 
vuicial  estates.  These  immunities  an.'  also  enjoy e  I 
by  tlie  newlv-creatixl  nobilitv:  but  the  court 
draws  a  niarketl  disthiction  U-twecn  old  fauiili«s 
and  th».»se  recently  ennobled.  ^Vs  the  jMitent  is 
given  without  dilKculty  to  all  who  are  willing  t.> 
punrhose  it,  the  price  thus  paid  by  citizens  win* 
wi^ll  to  become  lamlliolders.  may  l»e  l(K)kod  on  as  a 
tax  laid  u]K)n  the  transfer  <»f  estates.  T'e.rsons  n<'t 
of  noble  birth,  who  dt>  not  purcha.se  a  ])aient  of  this 
kiiul,  fiiiv  a  double  amount  of  certain  taxes.  The 
peasant  is  |)ersonally  frfft»  tliroughout  the  empin- ; 
and  an  api>eal  l)euig  allowed  from  the  manorial 
court  of  his  lord  to  the  circle  court,  his  (MMiditiou 
is  daily  impr«»ving,  and  his  rights  and  proj»erty 
obtain  more  re.spect.  liut  the  fact  that,  in  vsoine 
pn>vinccs  of  the  empire,  the  rent  of  his  cottiige  and 


seas  a  fund,  vesteil  in  bunum  nationis^  in  Hungary,  land  is  jiaid  in  coiitributioiLs  of  hiboiu*.  is  a  great 
which  is  manage<l  by  the  metropolitan  and  three  i  drawback  ufN>n  his  industr}'  ami  upon  the  im- 
assistants.  The  Protestant  confessions  have  no  [provement  of  agriculture.  (}n  the  introduction  of 
endowed  churches  or  parishes  out  of  Hungarv  and  :  the  present  system  of  direct  taxation  by  Maria 
Trans^\'lvania,  the  clergy  elsewhere  iK'ing  clios<»n  j  Then-sa  and  Jos«'ph  II..  an  arhitniry  regulation  of 
and  supiH»rttHl  by  their  thnrks.  The  right  <*f  jire-  \  the  dues  clairaeil  by  the  lan(ll<«rils  w.i«  effecleii, 
sentatiuii  to  livings  is  veste<l,  in  general,  in  the  i  and  the  total  amount  whiili  a  landlord  could  de- 
londed  propriet4irs  and  vari4iiL<(  coiptirations,  as  in  ;  mand,  whet  her  ]>aid  in  money,  ><>rv ice,  or  kind,  was 
England.  The  {mrishes  in  the  gilt  of  the  cn»wn,  |  not  to  exc<;ed  17  fl.  lO'j  kr.  tor  every  loo  tl.  whieU 
as  heir  to  the  suppressed  convents,  are  iiumentus.    the  land  priKhiced.     At  the  same  time  the  \*\.t~ 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE    OF) 


299 


Rant's  property  in  the  laud  he  held,  from  whatever 
lord,  was  declared  mdinputable ;  and  though  the 
latter  may  seize  upon  his  stock  and  moveaWes,  he 
cannot  eject  for  arrears  of  rent,  unless  the  land  be 
held  ou  lease ;  which  is  by  no  means  common  in 
Austria. 

Gn^at  differences  are  found  in  the  state  of  civi- 
lisation of  the  different  provinces.  Among  the 
higher  classes,  in  the  great  capitals,  this  difference 
is  nearly  imperceptible ;  the  universities  and  the 
better  institutions  for  instruction  bein^  open  to  the 
inhabitants  of  all  provinces,  and  bemg  arranged 
throughout  on  a  uniform  plan.  Another  cause  of 
this  similarity  in  the  larger  towns  is  the  great 
proportion  of  Germans  found  among  the  trailing 
classes,  even  in  tlie  Slavonic  and  Hungarian  dis- 
tricts. The  mass  of  the  people  are  most  advanced 
in  the  German  provinces ;  then  come  the  Italian 
population;  and  next  the  Bohemians,  Silesia ns, 
and  Moravians.  The  Slavonians  of  Carinthia, 
Camiola,  and  lllyria,  may  be  ranked  with  the 
Poles  or  Moravian  inhabitants  of  Hungary.  The 
rude  and  almost  nomadic  life  led  by  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  Magv'ars  of  Hungary,  will  be  noticed 
in  treating  of  that  countr>\  The  Dalmatians  stand 
on  the  lowest  footing  of  civilisation  in  Euro]>c 
The  want  of  a  central  point  of  national  interest  to 
which  the  inhabitants  of  the  provinces  might  have 
Uxjked,  and  which  might  have  directed  the  cur- 
rent of  popular  feeling  in  each  to  the  common 
advantage  of  all,  has  been  strikingly  felt;  and 
each  province  having  its  own  representation  by 
estates,  and  many  having  had  a  different  form  of 
goveninient  from  the  others,  each  has  been  led  to 
look  upon  itself  as  having  interests  separate  from 
the  rest.  The  effects  of  this  system  have  of  late 
years  grown  especially  perceptible  in  the  rei)eated 
applications  made  by  the  Bohemians,  Poles,  and 
Hungarians,  to  have  their  rcsjiective  languages 
exclusively  use<l  in  pubhc  business,  ami  m  the 
provincial  schtM)ls. 

As  evcrj'  province  forms  a  separate  land,  each 
has  its  peculiar  language  or  dialect,  and  its  distin- 
guishing customs  and  habits.  Of  the  Slavonic 
languages,  the  Polish  pt^sesses  the  richest  litera- 
ture; but  the  l^>hemian  has  of  late  years  been 
most  cultivated,  and  forms  the  written  lan- 
guage of  the  Moravians  and  Slowaks  of  the  N\V. 
counties  of  Hungarj'.  The  dialect  of  Camiola  has 
l)een  nicthidised,  and  is  grammatically  taught  as 
the  written  language  of  lllyria  and  Croatia.  The 
Slavonian  nations  have  all  the  di^Jtinj^Lshing 
characteristics  of  ardent  feeling  andsan^me  tem- 
IK?ranient  which  make  them  more  e;isily  elated 
and  s<Mmer  depressed  than  their  neighbours  the 
(iermans.  They  are  fond  of  raasic ;  and  ever}' 
district  has  its  national  airs,  which  are  often  of 
great  antiquity,  and  usually  plaintive.  Among 
the  Slavonians,  the  Poles  are  distinguished  by  a 
martial  dispositic»n  and  love  of  show.  The  na- 
tional costume  is  now  only  kept  up  amongst  the 
jKyLsantry,  whose  winter  dresses  especially  are 
tasteful,  and  even  elegant.  In  the  other  Slavonic 
nations  of  the  empire,  the  love  of  ornament  is  less 
remarkable,  the  national  spirit  having  sunk  in  the 
long  lapse  of  time  during  which  they  have  been 
de|>endent.  No  Slavt)nic  tlialect  was  used  pre- 
viously to  the  late  changes,  in  the  courts  of  justice 
or  in  public  instruction  in  the  higherhchools  of  the 
empire.  The  German  |>casaiits  wear  the  dress 
«t(inmonly  met  with  all  over  Gennany,  ^nth  va- 
rieties in  the  ciilour  and  headgear,  in  nearlv  everv 
villjige.  The  Austrian  wimien  wear  caps  or  Ixni- 
nots  mnde  of  g«>M  lace  and  (lecorate<l  with  span- 
^Mc.H.  In  Tyr»»l  the  German  costume  is  most 
|iietuR'M|uc.  The  German  language  is  used  in 
frau.>i»«img  public  business  in  the  German  and 


Slavonian  provinces,  and  in  the  universities  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Alps. 

The  Magyars,  or  inhabitants  of  the  Hungarian 
plains,  of  lartar  descent,  are  a  high-spirited  i)eoi>le, 
warmly  attached  to  their  national  language,  habits, 
and  rights.  Though  inferior  in  pomt  of  numbers, 
they  have  been  the  ruling  race  in  Hungary  and 
its  subordinate  coimtries  for  nearly  90U  years. 
They  have  sometimes  been  compared  to  the  Nor- 
mans in  England;  but  they  have  not,  like  the 
latter,  intermixed  with  the  subjugated  people,  and 
become  identified  with  them.  On  the  contrary, 
the  Magyars  continue  to  be  almost  as  much  seim- 
rated  from  the  otlier  inhabitants  as  when  they 
first  established  themselves  in  the  country,  towards 
the  close  of  the  10th  century.  Their  costume  is 
the  most  splendid  in  Europe,  and  everv  family 
has  its  distinguishing  colours.  The  rich  J^oUmarm, 
or  Hussar  jacket^  and  the  tasteful  AttUuy  a  frock- 
coat,  trimmed  with  fur,  are  only  worn  on  state 
occasions  by  the  nobles ;  but  the  tight  pantaloon 
and  short  boot  is  the  usual  dress  of  the  peasant, 
who  also  wears  a  blue  jacket  and  a  low  broad- 
brimmed  hat.  Though  fond  of  music  the  Hun- 
garians are  no  musicians ;  the  national  dances  are 
often  highly  pantomimic ;  and  the  Magyar,  who 
is  seldom  seen  to  smile,  exj>resses  the  excitement 
of  hLs  feelings,  whether  in  jojr  or  sorrow,  in 
dancing.  The  Mag^'ar  and  Latin  languages  are 
those  used  in  the  courts  of  justice  and  in  tho 
public  olhces;  and  the  law  passed  by  the  Hun- 
garian Diet,  in  1844,  to  force  the  use  of  the  former 
on  the  Slavonian  provinces  incorporated  with 
Hungarj',  has  helped  in  no  onlinary  degree  to 
exasi)erate  the  existing  animosities  between  the 
Magyars  and  the  Slavonians.  The  dress  of  the 
Walachian  peasantrj',  on  festive  occasions,  is 
highly  ornamented.  The  Italian  costume  is  both 
rich  and  elegant;  especially  the  head-dresses  of 
the  women,  which  are  more  tasteful  than  those 
worn  on  the  north  sicle  of  the  Alps.  The  Italian 
language  is  used  in  the  government  offices,  in  tho 
courts  of  justice,  and  in  public  instruction,  in  the 
still  remaining  Italian  provinces  of  the  empire. 

The  Koman  Catholic  peasantry  in  every  pro- 
vince have  a  religious  turn,  which  they  not  only 
evince  by  their  regular  attendance  at  Church,  but 
by  assembling  in  great  numbers,  at  stated  ]K?rio<ls, 
for  the  annual  pilgrimages  maile  to  the  churches 
of  the  Virgin  Maiy^.  The  chief  of  these  places  of 
resort,  Maria  Zell  m  Styria,  is  aimually  visitetl  by 
more  than  100,0(K)  devotees.  The  next  in  imjM>r- 
tance  Ls  the  shrine  at  Calvaria  in  Galicia,  to  which 
pilgrims  annually  flock  fn)m  I^»hemia,  Silesia, 
Poland,  and  Hungary.  The  ])ilgrimages  are,  how- 
ever, said  to  be,  like  the  field  *  preachings'  for- 
merly held  in  Scotland,  anything  but  conducive 
to  morality.  The  Sunday  evening  is  everywhere 
devoted  to  festive  enjoj-ment,  and  to  indulgence 
in  wine  in  such  provinces  as  pn>duce  thLs  beverage. 
Smoking  is  an  all  but  universal  habit  in  the  pro- 
vinces north  of  the  Alps. 

With  respect  to  the  comforts  of  life,  the  Hun- 
garian, Italian,  and  German  peasants  are  the  most 
advantageously  situated.  The  largest  share  of 
landed  property  falls  to  the  Hungarian,  and  he 
receives  the  best  remuneration  for  his  labour. 
Bohemia  and  M«iravia  rank  on  a  level  with  the 
German  provinces.  The  Galician  peasant  is  the 
lowest  on  the  scale  except  the  Dalmatian. 

Provision  for  the  Pour. — Each  parish  is  Itound 
to  support  its  oMm  poor;  but  as  the  allowance  is, 
in  all  ca-^es,  verj'  small,  the  charge  is  nowhere  bur- 
densome. The  laj^e  towns  have  po<ir-houses, 
supjK)rted  partly  by  revenues  fn»m  foundatitnis, 
{►arily  by  voluntary  contributions;  and,  on  extra- 
ordinar}'  occasion^  government  supplies  a  sum 


300 

from  tlic  public  revenues  to  meet  tlicir  exi^ncics. 
Sa\'ing4'  banks  have  been  introduced  into  the 
cUffercnt  provinces. 

Among  the  institutions  for  ameliorating  the 
state  of  the  poor,  the  hospitals  stand  ui  the  iirst 
rank.  The  exertions  of  Joseph  II.,  to  improve 
the  medical  de)mrtmcnt  of  the  army,  had  a  very 
advantageous  intiuencc  over  the  medical  c.'^tiib- 
lishment.s  throughout  the  empire.  In  the  Al/ge- 
tneinea  Kranken  Haus,  at  Vienna,  one  of  the  tiiicst 
hospitals  in  Europe,  aljout  10,0(M)  ]»au])er  |)aticnts 
are  annually  supported  and  relieved;  and  simi- 
lar establishments  are  foun<l  in  every  provincial 
town  of  importance.  The  numerous  hospitals 
of  the  *  Brothers  of  Charity,'  in  the  varioiLS  i>ro- 
vinces,  likewise  relieve  a  vast  number  of  the  poor. 
These  hospitals  arc  supported  by  voluntary  contri- 
butions. 

Literature  and  the  Fine  ^rf».— Newspapers  and 
periodical  publications  are  published  in  many  lan- 
guages. According  to  oflicial  returns  of  the  year 
1^3,  there  were  at  that  time  3()2  journals  issueil 
in  Austria,  among  them  134  political  ones.  Of 
these  80  were  German,  6  Czecliisli,  4  Polish,  2 
Servian,  2  Ooatian,  1  lllvrian,  2  Uuthcnian,  13 
Italian,  16  Hungarian,  3  iKumenian,  2  Greek,  1 
Slavonian,  2  Hebrew,  and  1  French.  The  non- 
political  papers  comprise  190  German,  13  C'zechish, 
J 4  Polish,  7  Scr\'ian,  4  Slavonic,  6  Croatian,  28 
Italian,  57  Hungarian,  2  Kuthenian.  1  (ireck,  1 
French,  and  2  Hebrew.  At  Vienna  alone  there 
were  68  periodical  publications,  including  15  news- 
papers, dcvotod  to  political  matters. 

The  fme  arts  are  in  a  languishing  state,  in  part 
owing  to  the  apathy  which  i)re vails  both  amongst 
the  higher  classes  and  the  artists.  The  ])ictures 
in  tlie  Imperial  (Gallery  at  Vienna  are  not  per- 
mitteil  to  l)e  copied  by  artists ;  and  cvcrv  compo- 
sition which  is  publicly  exhibited  is  sufvjccted  to 
censorship,  for  the  enforcement  of  moral  and  re- 
Ii^(»us  restrictions.  Kecently  tliore  have  l)een 
annual  exhibitions  at  Vienna.  Music  is  culti- 
vated with  success,  and  enters  largely  into  tlie 
education  of  all  classes  in  Bohemia  and  in  the 
German  provinces.  The  Bohemians  are  remark- 
able for  their  skill  in  instnmfiental  music;  and 
not  only  is  it  common  to  iind  eminent  performers 
in  small  villages,  but  many  of  these  excel  on  two 
or  three  different  instnnnents. 

Educatittn, — The  foundation  of  elementary  in- 
struction in  Austria  was  first  laid  in  the  early 
part  of  last  century ;  and  soon  aAer  about  one  in 
twenty-five  of  the  inhabitants  were  taught  to 
read.  Joseph  II.  directed  his  energies  to  the  in- 
struction of  youth ;  but  the  cleig>',  high  and  low, 
opposed  him,  an<l  after  his  death  succeeded  in 
establishing  generally  their  own  plan  of  educating 
children.  By  the  terms  of  a  law  passed  in  1821, 
it  is  enacted  that  no  U>yn\  or  village  shall  be  with- 
out an  elementary  school — that  no  male  shall 
enter  the  marriage  state  who  is  not  able  to  read, 
write,  and  understand  casting  up  accounts — that 
no  master  of  any  trade  shall,  without  ikying  a 
heavy  penalty,  employ  workmen  who  are  not  able 
to  read  and  write — and  that  small  books  of  moral 
tendency  shall  be  published  and  distributcil,  at 
tlie  lowest  possible  price,  to  all  the  em])cror's  sul>- 
jects.  But  this  law,  which  in  reality  amounts  to 
compulsory  education,  is  far  fn>m  being  enforce<L 
The  German-speaking  population  of  the  empire  is 
most  advanced  in  general  education ;  and  least 
the  people  of  the  provinces  of  Slavonia,  Crt>atia, 
and  Dalmatia.  At  the  conscription  of"  1857,  it 
was  found  that  of  2,041)  recruits  in  the  archtluchy 
of  Austria,  2,323  were  able  to  read  and  write ; 
while  in  Bohemia  there  were  among  11,213  re- 
cruits only  6,597  able  to  read  and  write;  and 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF) 


finally,  in  Dalmatia,  amonj^  928  conscripts,  only 
9  were  possesse<l  of  the  riidim<;nt-'*  of  education. 

The  total  numl»er  of  educational  e^tabllshin«:nLH, 
of  teachers,  and  of  students  was  as  follows,  in 
I8G1 :— 


Niinilx-r  of 

Nambrr  of 

RMaliUxhmpnta 

Sturlcnta 

Superior  InBtitution-* 

l':j,128 

Middle  Schools    .      . 

44J 

7'2,W(J 

Military  Schools 

[>a 

7,«i7;> 

Other  iH.*hool8  : 

For  13oy«  . 

147 

11,M31 

„  Girls  . 

4<'H 

2:i.4<;:J 

Mixed 

;{7 

i.gim; 

National  Schools 

Total    .      .      . 

47.270 

3.732,862 

48,615 

Eleraentarv  instruction  is  not,  perhaps,  so  much 
diffasetl  in  llungary  and  Transylvania  as  in  the 
majority  of  the  other  provinces  of  tlie  empire. 
But  there  is,  notwithstanding,  scarceh'  a  village 
in  the  kingdom  without  one  or  more  scho<»ls. 
*  Where,'  says  a  traveller,  *  the  inhabitants  arc  all 
of  one  religion,  there  are  no  difficulties  to  be  over- 
o)me.  ^^'^lerc  differences  exist,  if  the  separate 
crce<ls  be  too  p<M>r  to  maintain  a  sch(K)l  each,  the 
|Kx)rer  atten<l  that  of  the  m«»re  powerful,  which  is 
commonly  Catholic;  the  rrotes-tant  children,  how- 
ever, not  being  forced  to  take  a  part  in  the  reli- 
gious instruction,  which  is  left  to  the  priest,  or, 
still  more  commonly,  to  liis  capvUan^  or  clerk. 
The  education  extends  to  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, moral  maxims,  and  sometimes  a  little 
geography,  history,  and  Latin  grammar.  These 
schools  are  maintained,  and  the  masters  chosen, 
by  the  peasants  themselves ;  the  landlord  l>eing 
obliged  to  give  gniund  for  a  sclusd-hou.se,  and  3() 
or  40  acres  of  land  fi»r  the  use  of  the  mantcr.  llie 
payment  is  for  the  most  part  in  kind  and  lalsiur. 
There  are  normal  sch<K)ls  in  different  parts  <»f 
the  coimtrj',  for  the  education  of  masters  in  the 
national  schools.  (Paget,  Travels  hi  Ilungarv, 
ii.  533.) 

Tlie  machinery'  for  the  teaching  of  the  higher 
branches  of  etiucation  is  very  complete.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Pesth  is  one  of  the  richest  in  Kuri»|>e, 
its  revenues  amoimting  to  alK)ve  34,0(M)/.  a  year. 
It  has,  exclusive  of  several  m«)re,  nine  theoU)gical, 
six  juridical,  thirteen  meilical,  and  fourteen  jdii- 
losophical  professors,  with  libnmes  an<l  museums, 
and  is  attended  by  above  l.CXJt)  students,  com- 
prising all  religious  denominations.  There  are 
eight  universities  in  the  empire,  at  Vienna,  Prague, 
Pesth,  Gratz,  Cracow,  Innspnick,  I^inl>erg,  an»l 
Padua.  The  number  of  students  attending  these 
imiversities  amounted,  in  l^<t»0,  to  8,25*),  aUtut 
<me-fourth  of  which  numl>er  were  at  V'ienna. 
Next  in  rank  to  the  universities  stand  the  theo- 
logical seminaries,  120  in  numl»er,  with  l.Ool 
pupils;  and  the  Polytechnic  8ch«x>ls,  seven  in 
numl>er,  with  2,672  pupils. 

Army  and  Navy. — The  army  is  raised  in  all  the 
provinces,  with  the  excojuion  of  Hungary  and 
Fronsylvania,  by  conscri])tion,  from  which,  how- 
ever, the  families  of  the  nobility  and  titled  gentry, 
or  so-called  Kleiner  Adel,  are  exempted.  With 
the  exception  of  these  j)rivileged  classc:*.  every 
man  is  liable  to  conscription  who  has  reached  his 
twentieth  year.  In  times  of  peace,  the  govern- 
ment undertakes  to  fiiniish  substitutes,  at  the 
average  price  of  1,200  ilorins,  or  123/.  e^ich.  The 
term  of  service  is  eight  years,  after  which  the 
soldier  is  liable  t<>  ser\'e  two  ye^irs  longer  in  the 
army  of  reserve.  During  |>eaee,  a  large  ]irfn>or- 
tion  of  the  troops  are  sent  home  regularly  on 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF) 


furlough.  It  is  part  of  the  military  policy  of  the 
p»veniraent  to  encourage,  l)y  all  poHsible  meani*, 
the  re-enlistment  of  old  soldiers,  for  which  pur- 
pone  the  fund  contributed  by  those  who  seek  sub- 
stitutes is  distributed  in  Uie  shape  of  bounties. 
The  pay  of  the  troopa,  privates  as  well  as  officers, 
is  smaller  in  the  Austrian  army  than  that  of  any 
other  country  in  Europe,  except  Russia.  The  in- 
fantr}'  are  dressed  in  white  coats,  of  coarse  but 
comfortable  cloth,  with  %ht  blue  trousers,  the 
iluiigurian  regiments  being  distinguished  by  their 
national  light  pantaloons.  Tlie  cavalry  wear  the 
national  dresses  peculiar  to  their  several  descrip- 
tions of  arms.  Hungary  furnishes  the  hussars, 
and  Galicia  the  lancer  regiments;  the  Italian, 
Slavonic,  and  German  cavabry  Foments  wear 
white  uniforms  with  helmets.  The  men  are 
usually  taken  from  the  proviiicei  in  which  each 
rt'giment  has  its  conscription  depot;  hut  the 
officers  are  mixed  throughout  the  army,  and  their 
promotion  is  seldom  confined  to  one  r^^iment. 
The  finest  men  of  each  infantry  regiment  are 
selected  to  form  the  grenadier  companies,  usually 
in  garrison  at  Vienna.  Pesth,  and  Prague.  The 
tn)0{)s  are  well  clothed  and  fed;  and  though 
an  annual  ilrain  of  the  strongest  and  healthiest 
l>art  of  the  population  must  be  felt  by  the  com- 
munity at  large,  the  conscription  is  not  r^anled 
as  a  hardship  by  the  p<K)rer  classes.  In  Hungary 
the  case  is  <lifferent ;  the  regiments  of  that  coun- 
try are  raised  by  recruiting,  and  the  men  arc 
usually  seduced  by  the  pnmiise  of  l)eing  placed 
in  the  hussar  regiments ;  but  in  general  the  Hun- 
garian i>easants  are  averse  from  the  sen'ice,  though 
they  make  excellent  sohliers.  Though  it  is  per- 
mitted to  fiud  substitutes,  the  conscription  too 
<>ftt'n  includes  persons  of  e<lucation,  who,  being 
unable  to  purchase  their  exemptitm,  are  cut  off 
from  all  hopes  of  a<Ivancement,  as  no  promotion, 
except  in  the  artillery,  is  made  from  the  ranks. 
The  colonel-in-chief  of  each  regiment  names  and 
promotes  the  officers  up  to  the  rank  of  captain. 
The  field-officers  are  nominatetl  by  the  emi)eror, 
aiul  usually  a<lvance  acconling  to  seniority.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  officers  are  noblemen.  In 
iHCtl  there  were  103  i)rinces,  590  counts,  898 
banins,  o70  knights,  and  2,h2G  untitled  nobles  in 
the  army;  the  largest  numl)cr  pn>])<>rti(mately  in 
the  cavalr>',  and  the  smallest  in  the  artiller}'  and 
the  enginei'rs.  The  upper  hierarchy  consisted,  in 
l^<04,  of  3  field-marshals,  14  feldzeugmeister  and 
generals  of  cavalry,  77  field-marshal  Ueutenants, 
VIo  general-majors,  in  active  service,  besides 
3^}7  fieUi-marshal  lieutenants  and  generals  on 
half-pay. 

According  to  official  returns,  Austria  possessed, 
on  the  |)eace-footing,  at  the  end  of  October  1863, 
an  army  of  *2()9.lU3  men,  rank  and  file,  with 
42,201  horses.  The  papers  furnished  by  the  war 
office  to  the  reichsrath  descrilK?  the  troops  of  the 
empire  as  constituted  in  the  following  manner: — 

80  rej?imc»nt»  of  infantry  of  tho  line,  each  of 

3  Itattnlions,  with  »>  companiea        .        .    124,590 
1  rogrimont  of  Kaiserjiigur,  of  8  battalions, 

with  4  companies 3,974 

32  battalions  of  FeldjUger,  of  C  companies 

each 23,200 


14  rpjfiment?  of  frontier  infantry    . 
10  comi>anics  of  '  sanitary  trooiM*  . 

Total  of  infantry 

1 2  regiments  of  cuirassiers,  of  fi  squadrons  each 

•i  „         of  drap>ou«.  of  <>  srina<lrons     „ 

21  „         of  husiiar-' and  uklars  of   6 

wjnudrons         .        .        .    „ 
a         „        of    voluutwr  huswinj   and 

uklanii,  8  sfiuatirous  „ 

Total  of  cavalry        .       . 


8,640 
1.U14 


162,318 

11.376 
3,120 

23,400 

2,448 

40,344 


12 


n^gfments  of  fleld-artUlGiy,  of  10  batteries,  \ 
with  4  companies I 

1  regiment  of  coMt-artillery,  of  3  batteries,  I 
with  4  companies [ 

1  regiment  of  raketeois,  of  12  batteries,  with  1 
8  companies } 

3  regiments  of  engineera,  of  4  battalions 

6  battalions  of  pioneera  .... 


301 


83,87ft 


6,998 
8,797 


The  rest  of  the  army  of  269,103  men,  on  the 
peaco-footlng,  according  to  the  government  tabl^ 
consists  of  the  transport  service.    . 

On  the  war-footing,  the  infantry  is  raised  to 
442,003  men,  the  cavalry  to  57,759,*  and  the  artil- 
lery to  54,881  men,  with  a  corresponding  increase 
of  engineers  and  pioneers. 

The  na>'y  of  Austria  consisted,  in  August  1864, 
of  thirty-nine  steamers,  with  639  guns  and  11,730 
horse-power,  and  twenty-sailing  vessels  with  145 
guns,  manned  by  13,991  sailors  and  marines. 

Rue  and  Increase  of  the  Empire, — Tlie  House 
of  Austria  <lerives  its  origin  and  the  foimdationa 
of  its  jjower  from  Kodolph,  count  of  Hapsbuixh, 
in  Switzerland.  Kodolph,  who  was  one  of  the 
ablest  pruices  of  his  age,  having  extended  his 
authority  over  the  greater  part  of  Switzerland, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  ability  and 
bravery,  was  raise<l  in  1273  to  the  imperial 
throne.  His  elevation  was  owing  principally  to 
the  wish  of  the  electors  to  have  an  emperor  of 
undoubted  ability,  capable  of  putting  down  tlie 
anarchy  that  had  long  prevailed  in  the  greater 
I>art  of  the  states  incTuaed  within  the  limits  of 
the  empire,  and  who,  at  the  same  time,  was  not 
jwwerful  enough  to  occasion  anv  fear  of  hb  sub- 
verting the  privileges  of  the  difllerent  states.  The 
family  of  tne  ancient  dukes  of  Austria,  of  the 
House  of  liamberg,  having  become  extinct  a 
short  while  preWously  to  the  elevation  of  Kodolph, 
their  states  were  taken  possession  of  by  Ottocar, 
king  of  Bohemia,  whose  ascendancv  threatened  the 
independence  of  the  empire.  But  kodolph,  having 
secured  the  sanction  of  the  diet,  declared  war 
against  Ottocar,  whose  forces  were  totally  de- 
feated, and  himself  killed,  in  the  decisive  battle 
of  Marchfeld,  in  1278.  This  formidable  com- 
petitor being  removed,  Rodolph  had  little  difficulty 
m  procuring  from  the  diet  the  investiture  of  the 
duchy  in  favour  of  his  eldest  son,  and  it  has  ever 
since  continued  in  the  possession  of  his  de- 
scendants, and  formed  one  of  the  principal  sources 
of  their  power. 

Albeft,  the  son  of  Rodolph,  did  not  inherit  the 
talents  of  his  father.  The  Swiss  revolted  fmm 
his  dominion  in  1307,  and  after  a  lengthened  con- 
test achieve<l  their  independence.  But  notwith- 
standing this  event,  and  the  elevation  of  several 
princes  of  other  families  to  the  imperial  throne, 
the  power  of  the  House  of  Austria  rapidly  in- 
creased, and  in  no  very  long  timcf  its  dommiona 
embraced  some  of  the  largest  and  most  important 
countries  of  Europe.  It  has  been  pnncipally  in- 
debted for  its  extraorrlinary  aggrandisement  to 
fortunate  alliances.  The  marriage,  in  1477,  of 
Maximilian,  son  of  the  emperor  Frederick  III., 
with  the  daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold, 
the  last  duke  of  Burgundy,  brought  to  the  House 
of  Austria  all  the  rich  inheritance  of  the  latter  in 
the  Low  Countries,  Franche  ComXi6  and  Artoia. 
Another  marriage  opened  to  the  House  of  Austria 
the  succession  to  the  Spanish  monarchy,  including 
its  vast  possessions  in  Italy  and  the  5jew  World. 
And  Feniinand  1.,  having  married,  in  1521,  Anne, 
sister  of  I^uis,  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia, 
succeede<l,  on  the  deiith  of  the  latter  at  the  battle 
of  Mohacz  in  1526,  to  these  states.  ITiere  is, 
therefore,  aa  much  of  truth  as  of  point  in  the 
lines, 


302 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF) 


*'  DollA  gnmnt  lUii,  tn,  felbc  Amtrio,  ntibe* 
Nam  qiuc  Marti  oliifl,  dot  tibi  rcgim  Venns." 

Gharlui*  V.*  tJic  xno8t  powerful  monnrch  of  the 
House  of  Austria,  concluded,  in  1521,  a  treaty 
with  hia  Ijrothor  Ferflinand.  by  which  he  assigned 
to  him  the  hereditary  pojuensions  of  the  family  in 
(lenuany.  And  there  con  be  little  doubt  that  thiA 
arrangement  was  for  the  advanta|j:c  of  both 
branches  of  the  house — ^that  of  Austria,  proi)eriy 
80  calle<l,  and  that  of  Sixain. 

'llie  great  power  and  aml>ition  of  the  princes  of 
the  House  of  Austria  excited  a  well-founde^l  alarm 
among  the  other  £uroi)can  powers.  For  a  length- 
ened period  the  whole  pobtics  of  Europe,  its  al- 
liances and  its  worx,  had  little  other  object  than 
the  humbling  of  the  power  of  Austria.  This  wa.<4 
the  motive  of  the  thirty  years*  war,  terminated  by 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  in  1618,  which  sccurell 
the  independence  of  the  different  states  of  the 
iiermanic  empire,  and  the  free  exercise  of  the  l^o- 
testant  religion. 

In  1G99  the  Turks  were  fmaUy  expelled  from 
Hungary' ;  and  the  genius  of  Prince  Eugene  gave 
the  Austrians  an  ascendancy  over  the  Ottomans 
they  have  ever  since  preserved- 

In  1 740,  the  male  line  of  the  House  of  Haps- 
buTg  terminated  by  the  death  of  the  emperi:)r 
Cliarles  VI.  Ihit  fats  daughter,  Maria  Theresa, 
married  to  Francis  of  Lorraine,  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany,  succeeded  to  his  dominions,  and,  even- 
tually, to  the  imj)erial  crown.  Shortly  after  her 
ac<.H>ssion,  Fredenck  the  Great,  king  of  Prussia, 
seized  upon  the  greater  part  of  Silesia.  The  re- 
covery of  this  province  was  the  principal  object 
of  Austria  and  her  allies  in  the  seven  years'  war. 
Rut  his  Prussian  majesty  triumphed  over  all  his 
enemies,  and  Silesia  was  finally  ceded  to  Prussia, 
by  the  treaty  of  Ilubertsberg,  in  1703. 


The  reign  of  Joseph  II.,  the  son  and  successor 
of  Maria  Theresa,  is  im{)ortant  from  t.lie  ri'ronii^ 
he  effecte<I  in  most  departments  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  territories  he  added  to  the  empire. 
It  has  been  objected  to  the  former  that  they  were 
not  introduced  with  sulKciont  caution,  and  tliat  he 
would  have  accomplished  more  hud  he  attempte<l 
less.  No  doubt,  it  must  be  admitted  that  he  did 
not  make  sufficient  allowance  for  the  inveteracy 
of  ancient  prejudices,  and  that  his  innovations 
were  frequently  neither  appreciate*!  nor  approved 
by  those  for  whose  l>enelit  they  were  intended : 
but  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  rectitude  of 
his  intentions;  and.  nt)t^ritlLstanding  the  ol»stacles 
he  ex|n>rieni"e«l,  his  n-fonns,  and  the  change  he 
introduced  inti>  the  mode  of  govejTiment,  have 
l)een  protluctive  of  the  greatest  advantage.  He 
acquired  (ialicia  from  Polxmd,  and  the  Bukov^ine 
from  Turkey. 

It  would*  be  unnecessary,  even  if  our  limits 
admitted!  of  it,  to  attempt  any  sketch  of  the  tluc- 
tuations  of  Austrian  {lower  during  the  eventful 
]>eriod  that  has  ela^ysed  since  the  breaking  out  of 
the  French  revolution,  in  1 789.  At  certain  stages 
of  her  great  struggle  with  France,  Austria  seeme*! 
to  be  depressed  almost  to  the  rank  of  a  sc*cond- 
ratc  power.  But  the  ambition  of  Najwleon  having 
eiTected  his  downfall,  Austria  was  left  at  the  end 
of  the  contest  as  powerful  as  ever;  the  loss  of  the 
Low  Countries  being  fully  compensated  by  her  ac- 
quisitions in  Itxdy,  a  fxi'rtion  of  which,  however, 
was  again  detached  by  the  war  of  1859,  folio wcil 
by  the  peace  of  Zurich. 

The  subjoined  tabular  statement  shows  the  area 
of  the  Austrian  empire  at  different  peri«xls  since 
the  death  of  the  empress  Maria  Theresa,  in 
1780:— 


Period! 
1780 

ProTinew 

Auatrisn  Square  Vile* 

i 

EnirHih 
Sqow  MUea 

Austrian  District 

1,766-92 

37,106 

Buabian  District 

.^ 

149-60 

3.140 

Burgundian  District 

— 

479-00 

10,068 

Folkenstein  District 

— 

2-00 

42 

Bohemia 

902-H5 

18.960 

Moravia 

.». 

386-29 

8,112 

Silesia 

^^ 

89-46 

1,879 

Eastern  QaUcia 

__ 

1 ,42«V60 

29,S31 

Bncowina 

^_- 

181-69 

3,816 

Milan,  Mantua,  Castiglionc,  and  Sabionctta    .... 

— 

124-GU 

2,617 

Hungary 

— 

3,627-13 

76,170 

C*Toatia  and  Slavonia 

_ 

329-00 

6,909 

Transylvania 

_ 

964-27 

2(».039 

MiUtor}' Frontier 

Total  in  1780       . 

— 

682-00 

14,322 

11,095-20 

232,999 

Bubsoqncnt  Alterations 

1782 

Acquired  by  Emperor  Joseph  II., by  Treaty,  in  the  Inn  District 

4-00 

— 

— 

1791 

Acquirod  by  Emperor  Lcopold,in  Alt-Ostrova  and  Unua  DLdtrict 
Total  at  the  beginning  of  the  Reign  of  Emperor  Francis  I., 

1-GO 

Mnreh  17»2 

11,100-80 

233,117 

1705 

Aainirwl  by  the  Third  Division  of  Poland  (Western  Oollcia) 

88:J-40 

— 

— 

17a7  ,  (Poftce  of  Campo  Formic),  by  which  Austria  ceded  Belgium, 

Lonibanly,  and  Brei.«<gan        ....... 

615-00 

— 

— 

And  niMX'ivcd  in  return  Venice,  Istria,  Dalmatia,  and  Albania 

Total  in  1797  . 

613-00 

— 

— 

11,982-20 

261,626 

1801 

(Poacc  of  Loncville)  ceded  Etsch,  Falkenstein,  and  Frickthal 

33-00 

— 

1B03 

Ceded  Ortcuau 

Acqnirod.  Tricnt  and  Brixcn 

8-00 



41-00 
,           89-00 

— 

— 

1804 

Bought,  Blumcnock,  Lindau,  and  Bothenfels  .... 

10-60 

-  - 

i 

'  Total  at  the  A>s'?umption  of  tJie  Title  of  Emperor  of  Austria 

on  the  1  lib  Aui;u!»t,  180-1 

- 

12,040-70 

262.866 

Periods 


1805 


1807 

1809 

1810" 

1814 
1815 


1816 

IH.'Ui 
1846 

1S48 
1859 


AUSTRIA  (EMPIRE  OF) 


303 


PrOTlOCM 


(Peace  of  ProHbnrg),  coded  Venice,  Vonet.-l8tria,  Dalmatia, 
AIbania,Tyr()I,  and  Vorarlberg,  and  all  PomisBionB  in  Suabia 

Acqnircd,  Salzburg,  Berchtcsgadcn,  Matrci-Ziller,  and  Briz- 
enthal 

(Treaty  of  Fontaincblcau),  coded  Monfaloonc         .       • 

Total  in  1807  . 

(Peace  of  Vienna),  ceded  Ralzbnrg,  Bcrchtnigaden,  Matpci- 
Ziller  and  IJrixonthal,  Inn,  and  Half  District  of  HanKrack, 
Vlllach,  Camlola,  Gorz,  Oradlwca,  Aust.-Iptria,  Trieste, 
Fiume.  Half  of  Croatia,  Wi>stem  Galicia,  and  ZamotUc    .    . 

(Treaty  with  Russia),  coded  Tomopol  and  Czortkow      . 

Total  in  1810  . 

(Treaty  of  Paris,  June  8) ,  rooovcrod  North  Tyrol  and  Vorarl- 
Iwrg 

(Vienna  Congress),  acquired  and  recovered  Lombardo-Vene- 
tian  Kingdom,  Qiirz, Gnulisra,  Trieste,  the  Whole  of  iRtria, 
Dalmatin,  llaguj»a,  Vonet.-AllMinia.  (?amiola,  Fiume,  Cro- 
atia, South  T>'to1,  Malrei-Thal,  , Vlllach,  Tamopol,  and 
Czortkow 

Total  in  1815 . 

(Treaty  of  Munich,  April  14),  recovered  Salzburg,  Inn,  Half 
of  Hansruck,  Ziller,  and  Brixcnthal 

Total  at  Aoccsfdon  of  Emperor  Ferdinand  I. 

(Treaty  with  Ruada  and  Prussia),  incorporated  Cracow  and 
District 

Total  at  Accc»<8ion  of  Emperor  Frauds  Joseph  I. 
(Peace  of  Zurich),  ceded  the  greatest  part  of  Lombardy 

Total  in  1859  . 


AotrUn  Sqnart  MIlw 


1,196-60 


186*59 


6-94 


1,851'45 
18017 


218-91 


2,116-72 


212-02 


21*83 


853-16 


KofrUdi 
Squan  Mile* 


11,023*68 


281,497 


9,042-06 


189,888 


11,372*69 


11,584*71 


11,606-04 


11,252-88 


238,827 


243,279 


248,727 


286,311 


J 


In  1801,  Francis  assumeti  the  title  of  hereditary 
emiKTor  of  Austria;  and  on  the  6t.b  of  An^st, 
IWG,  he  renounctMi  the  title  of  emperor  of  (Ger- 
many. This  latter  event  liml  l)een  preceded  by 
the  furmation  of  tlie  oonfe<leniti<m  of  the  Khine, 
and  the  entire  dissolution  of  the  old  Germanic 
Em]  tire. 

AUTUN.  a  city  of  France,  dop.  Saone  et  Loire, 
on  the  Am»ux,  43  m.  SW.  Dijon,  on  the  railway 
from  Dijon  to  Nevers,  Poik  1 1,897  in  1861.  It  is 
picturesquely  situated,  partly  on  the  declivity  and 
jiartly  on  the  top  and  at  the  bottom  of  a  hilL  It 
IS  neither  handsome  nor  rej^iilar;  most  i>art  of  its 
edifici'S  are  ol«l,  and  have  a  mean  appearance;  but 
tlicrc  arc  several  among  them  well  worth  notice. 
It  has  two  cathedrals,  situated  on  the  summit  of 
the  hill ;  but  neither  has  Imx'U  c*>mpleted.  The 
spire  of  one  of  them,  325  ft.  in  hei«rht,  is  remark- 
able for  its  clearance  and  the  lightness  of  its  e<m- 
stnictiitn.  The  church  of  St.  Martin,  built  by 
(^hieen  nnmehault,  an<l  containing  her  tomb,  fur- 
nishes s])ecimens  of  different  kinds  of  architecture. 
The  champ  de  Mars,  in  the  middle  of  the  town, 
a  s[»acious  square  elevated  on  a  terrace,  and  planted 
with  treCvS,  affonls  an  agreeable  promenade.  The 
wpiare  of  the  c«lhe<lral  has  a  raagnilicent  foun- 
tain. Tliere  an-  two  bridges  over  the  Am»ux,  one 
of  which  is  sjiid  to  l»e  built  on  the  foundations  of 
a  llomaii  bridge.  Autun  is  the  S4*at  of  a  bishop, 
«'f  tribunal-  of  original  juris<lii-iion,  and  of  com- 
iiirrcf  :  nnd  ]ia»  a  tollrgr.  a  di(Hi"-nn  seminary,  a 
caMiM-r  (f  .•mfiijuitic'^  :iu<l  iintiirallii-Uiry.  a  colU'*.-- 
tion  of  jiicturi>.  two  .-nmll  hlir.krii-.-.  and  a  lluatre. 
Ir  li.'Ls  also  manufactures  t»f  cotton  velvet,  of 
4  .s<«rt    of  btull'  dcijcrilx'd  as  tapis  di-  ywW,  ditts 


marchauxj  fitted  for  coverlets,  horse  doths,  &<*., 
with  hosiery,  and  tanneries.  There  is  a  coal  mine 
at  the  hamlet  of  Chambois,  within  about  a  league 
of  the  town. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  dties  of  France. 
It  was  originally  called  Bibracte^  and  is  described 
by  Caesar  as  by  far  Uie  greatest  and  wealthiest 
town  (hnge  nuucimo  ac  amiotunmo)  of  the  i£duL 
(De  Bello  GalL  lib.  i  §  23.)  Ha\ing  been  made  a 
lioman  colony  by  Augustus,  it  took  the  name 
of  Augustodufntm  from  that  emperor,  and  dun,  a 
Celtic  term  for  a  hilL  Subsequently  it  was  called 
/laruz  .^kluorum.  The  Burgundians  took  it  in 
427 ;  and  it  was  afterwards  sacked  and  burned  by 
the  Saracens,  and  latterly  by  the  English,  in  1879. 
It  c8pouse<l  the  party  of  the  League,  and  suffered 
much  during  the  religious  wars.  It  still  possesses 
many  fine  remains  of  antiquity.  Of  these  the  most 
celebratcil  is  the  triumphal  arch,  called  the  gate  of 
Amaix,  of  large  dimensions,  and  which,  tnough 
built  without  cement,  is  in  exceeding  fine  preserva- 
tion ;  a  smaller  triumphal  arch ;  the  ruins  of  an 
amphitheatre,  of  a  Roman  burying-ground,  of  the 
temple  of  Janus,  built  by  Drusus,  and  of  a  temple 
of  Minerva,  with  many  bas  rdiefs,  medals,  and 
utensils.  The  ancient  city  was  much  more  con- 
siderable than  the  modem  one.  The  walls  may 
still  \ye  traced,  and  are  so  solidly  built  as  to  bo 
almost  like  ruck. 

Tacitus  mentions  (AnnaL  lib.  iii.  §  43)  that  the 
noble  youth  of  Gaul  resorted  for  mstruction  to 
AugustiHluniim.  Eumenes,  the  rhetorician,  who 
was  boni  hen-  almut  the  year  261,  states  in  his 
oration  (IV)  Kestaurandis  Scholis,  §  2<>).  that  re- 
presentations, or  ma|>s,  of  the  different  countries  of 
the  then  known  world  were  delineated  on  the 


304 


AUXERRE 


porticofi  or  places  where  the  youth  met,  setting; 
forth  their  names,  situatioiiii,  the  riitc  and  course 
«f  their  rivers,  the  outline  of  their  coants,  Ac. ;  an<l 
it  u  worthy  of  remark  that  some  jiortion  of  thiit 
ancient  deUneation  is  said  to  have  been  recently 
discovered.  (Encyc  des  Gens  du  Monde,  art.  An- 
timiitcH  d'Autun.) 

The  Prince  de  TallejTand,  who  afterwards  played 
so  many  important  parts  in  the  political  drama, 
was  bishop  of  thij*  town  at  the  commencement  of 
the  re\'olution.  Tlie  Abbd  Rtwiuette,  whom  Mo- 
libre  is  paid  to  have  taken  for  a  model,  was  al^o 
one  of  its  bishoiis.  This  has  given  occasion  for 
the  following;  epigram  : — 

**  Iloqucttc  dans  mn  temps.  TaIlr>Tand,  dons  Ic  nutrc, 
Furent  lea  C'vCqut-a  d'Autim : 
Tartuffc  est  le  portrait  de  Tun ; 
Ah  I  si  Moli^re  cut  connu  rautrel " 

AUXEKKE  (an.  Autisshdurum),  a  town  of 
France^  cap.  dep.  Yonne,  on  the  left  l)auk  of  that 
river,  95  m.  SE.  Paris,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway.  Pop.  15,081  in  18(>1.  It  is  agree- 
ably situated  on  a  hill,  and  it^  en\irons  are  charm- 
ing ;  but  with  the  exception  of  the  houses  along 
the  quay  and  the  river's  side,  it  is  generally  ill- 
biult,  with  various  crooked  streets,  and  has  a 
gloomy  appearance.  Princi]>al  public  buildings, 
cathedral,  one  of  the  tinest  Gothic  editices  in 
France ;  the  church  of  St.  Peter ;  the  abl)ey  of  St. 
Germain ;  the  bishop's  palace;  and  the  hotel  of 
the  prefect  A  finely  shaded  promenade  sum)unds 
the  town,  and  it  is  well  supplied  with  water  dis- 
tributed from  a  public  fountain.  Auxcrre  was  the 
scat  of  a  bishopric  which  has  l)een  suppressed ;  it 
has  tribunals  of  original  jurisdiction  and  of  com- 
merce, a  college  (high  school),  a  secondary  eccle- 
siastical school,  a  m(Klel  school,  a  society  of  (Mfri- 
ciilture,  a  l)otaiiical  garden,  a  museum  of  antiouities, 
a  public  librarj'  with  24,000  vols.  an<l  180  MSS.,  a 
handsome  theatre,  &c.  It  has  manufactures  of 
calico&s  woollen  coverlets,  hosiery  and  cajw,  hats, 
earthenware,  violin  strings,  and  wine  casks,  'llie 
wines  produced  in  the  environs  are  much  esteemed, 
particularly  those  of  Migraine  and  Chainette  ;  and 
a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  them,  and  in 
casks,  wooil,  and  staves.  The  Yonne  is  na\'igable 
from  a  Uttle  above  the  town. 

AUXONNE,  a  town  of  France,  dt«p.  C<ite  d'Or, 
cap.  cant,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Saone,  18  in. 
ESE.  Dijon.  Pop.  7,103  in  18()l.  It  ranks  hi  the 
fourth  class  of  fortitie<l  towns,  being  defended  by 
works  coiistructe<l  by  Vauban.  It  is  well  built, 
and  the  ramparts  ser\'e  as  ])leasant  promenades. 
There  is  a  tine  bridge  across  the  Saone,  with  a  levy 
pierced  by  twenty-three  arches  to  give  a  passage 
to  the  water  in  inundations.  Auxonne  is  the  seat 
of  a  tribunal  of  commerce ;  and  has  a  college,  a 
school  of  artillery,  a  small  public  library,  d'c,  with 
manufactures  of  cloth,  serges,  and  muslins. 

AVA  {Ang-woy  a  (ish-pond,  so  called  becaiLse 
one  formerly  stood  there) ;  the  ancient  and  again 
the  presentcap.  of  the  Birman  empire,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Irrawadi,  160  m.  SW.  Bhamo,  and 
above  300  m.  N.  Rangoon,  lat.  21°  51'  N.,  long. 
95°  58' 10"  E.  Pop.  imder  30,000.  (Wilson.)  It 
consists  of  an  outer  and  inner  city,  both  fortified : 
the  outer  Ls  5^  m.  in  circuit,  and  is  surroimde<l, 
except  on  the  Irrawadi  side,  where  there  is  scarcely 
any  defence,  by  a  brick  wall  15  ft,  high,  and  \^ 
ft.  thick ;  outside  of  which,  on  the  S.,  is  a  deep, 
rapid,  and  unfordable  torrent,  the  Myit-iha;  on 
the  W.  a  jimgle  and  siA'amp ;  and  on  the  E.  the 
My  it-rip^,  a  rapid  stream,  UiO  yards  bn>ad.  The 
inner  city  is  placed  at  the  NE.  angle  of  the  former, 
and  is  surrounded  by  a  Ijetter  wall,  1  m.  in  circ., 
and  has  abu)  some  natural  defences.  The  inner 
city  is  almost  wholly  occupied  by  the  palace, 


AVEBURY 

council-chamber,  arsenal,  and  the  dwellings  of  n 
few  of  the  principal  court  ier?».  Ava  contains  many 
temples,  in  one  of  which  is  a  sitting  image  of 
Gaudama,  24  ft.  in  height,  said  to  consist  of  a  single 
block  of  marble ;  in  another  all  oatlis  of  conse- 
quence are  administered,  the  breach  of  which  is 
considered  a  heinous  crime.  The  houses  are  gene- 
rally mere  huts  thatched  with  grass :  the  markets 
are  furnished  with  British,  as  well  as  Chinese  and 
Lao  manufactures;  but  for  trade,  wealth,  and 
prosperity,  this  capital  is  very  far  beneath  Bangkok, 
the  cap.  of  Siam. 

AVALLON  (an.  AbaUo)^  a  town  of  France,  dep. 
Yonne,  cap.  arrond.  on  the  Cousin,  25  m.  SSE. 
Aiixerre.  Pop.  5,53<)  in  \f^G\.  U  is  Iwautifully 
situated  <m  a  granite  rock,  and  commands,  esi>c- 
cijdly  from  the  promcnmle  of  the  Petit  Churs^  a 
fine  view  of  the  rich  and  well-cultivate<l  valley  of 
the  Cousin.  It  L*  a  handsome  t4)wn,  with  gcMnl 
houses,  and  broad  and  well-kept  streets.  The  front 
of  the  ]>arish  church,  the  hos])ital,  the  theatre,  and 
the  concert  hall,  deserve  notice.  It  hah  a  court  of 
original  jurisdiction,  a  commercial  tribunal,  and  a 
c<>llege :  with  fabrics  of  ch»th,  paper,  mustonl,  &c. 
The  casks  and  other  articles  of  UmeUerie  are  in 
high  repute.  Tlie  hilLs  round  the  town  jinxhice 
excellent  wine,  of  which  it  is  the  entrepot ;  and 
it  has  also  an  extensive  trade  in  com,  timber, 
staves,  and  casks. 

AvaJlon  is  very  old :  it  owes  its  foundation  to  a 
strong  castle,  every  vestige  of  which  has  now  dis- 
appeared, that  once  occupied  the  summit  of  the 
njck  on  which  it  Is  built. 

AVEBUKY,  or  ABCRY,  a  parish  and  small 
village  of  England,  co.  Wilts,  5  m.  W.  Marllx>- 
rough.  Pop.  747  in  1851,  and  725  in  1861.  The 
parish  contains  the  gigantic  remains  of  what  is 
usually  considered  to  be  a  Celtic  or  Dniidical 
temple.  Tliis  singular  and  stupendous  ruin  is 
situated  in  a  flat  tract  of  count  r>^,  and  consist**  of 
a  large  circular  space  of  gnuind,  having  on  the 
outside  a  bank  or  mound  of  earth,  the  inner  slope 
of  which  measiures  about  80  ft.  in  width :  immedi- 
ately within  this  bank  is  a  bn)ad  and  deep  dit<'h ; 
and  along  the  inner  edge  of  the  latter  stand  the 
relics  of  a  circle  of  vast  upright  stones,  similar  to 
those  of  Stonehenge,  measuring  from  15  t;0  17  ft. 
in  height,  alxiut  40  ft.  roiuul,  and  estimated  to 
weigh  from  40  to  54  tons  each.  The  diameter  of 
this  circle  is  about  1,400  ft :  when  complete  it 
containetl  100  stones,  40  of  which  were  standing 
in  1722,  when  I)r.  Stukeley  examined  it ;  but  in 
1802  only  18  stones  were  left,  and  the  numl)er  hai 
since  been  still  further  reduced.  Within  this  outer 
circle,  or  great  temple,  as  it  is  sometimejj  callc<l, 
were  two  smaller  temples,  each  fomietl  of  two  con- 
centric circles  of  stones,  having  one  a  single  stone 
in  the  centre,  and  the  other  a  group  of  three  stones. 
Some  of  the  stones  in  the  two  inner  temples  are  of 
a  prodigious  size.  They  are  all  of  a  siliceous  grit, 
and  are  of  the  same  species  as  those  that  accomiwiny 
the  great  chalk  formation  that  here  crosses  the 
kingdom. 

In  connexion  with  the  circular  stones,  or  temples, 
alreaily  noticed,  were  two  avenues  each  above  1  m. 
in  lengtli,  formed  by  double  rows  of  vast  ujmght 
stones^  One  of  these  led  in  a  SE.  direction  to 
Overton,  wlicre^  according  to  Stukeley,  it  termi- 
nated in  a  small  elliptical  temple  of  similar  stones : 
the  other,  or  W.  avenue,  terminated  in  a  single 
stone.  Stukeley  supposes  that  the  SK.  avenue 
had,  when  perfect,  200,  and  the  \s\  203  stones ; 
but  of  the  former,  which  had  72  stones  standing 
in  1772,  only  16  are  now  left,  and  of  the  latter 
only  2. 

'I'he  Ndllage  of  Aveburv'  stands  within  the  peri- 
phery of  the  great  circle^  or  temple,  and  is  in  i»art 


AVEIRO 

built  of  the  stones  with  which  it  and  the  minor 
circles  were  composed,  these  having  been  blasted 
and  broken  to  pieces,  to  serve  for  tins  and  similar 
pur|X)se8. 

Immediately  S.  from  the  great  circle  or  temple 
at  Avebury,  dist.  |  m.,  is  the  barrow,  or  artificial 
mound  of  earth,  called  Silbury-hilL  This  huge 
barrow  covers,  according  to  the  measurement 
adopted  by  Sir  R.  C.  Hoare,  5  acres  and  80  perches 
of  ground,  being  2,027  ft.  in  circumference  at  the 
base :  its  diameter  at  the  top  is  120  ft,,  the  sloping 
height  of  its  side  316  ft.,  and  its  perpendicular 
height  170  ft.  It  is  impossible  to  say  for  what 
purpose  this  immense  mass  of  earth  was  heaped 
t<)gether ;  but  it  seems  not  unreasonable  to  con- 
chide  that  it  may  have  been  in  some  way  connected 
with  the  stone  circles  at  Avebury.  (Dn  iStukeley's 
volume  on  Aveburj',  published  in  1743,  and  subse- 
quently Sir  R.  C.  Hoare's  Ancient  Wiltshire.) 

However  desirable,  it  docs  not  appear  very  pro- 
bable that  any  satisfactory'  explanation  will  ever 
be  given  of  the  purposes  for  which  the  singular 
structures  described  above  were  erected.  All  traces 
tX  their  origin  seem  to  be  buried  in  impenetrable 
olwcurity.  The  favourite  thcorv*  is,  that  the  struc- 
tiu^  at  Avebury,  as  well  as  that  of  Stonehenge, 
were  druidical  temples,  where  the  Druids,  or  priests 
of  the  ancient  Britons,  celebrated  their  sacred 
rites.  But,  notwithstanding  the  confidence  with 
which  this  theory  has  been  put  forward,  and  the 
learning  and  ingenuity  displayed  in  its  8up|>ort,  it 
a])i>ears  to  be  entirely  destitute,   not  merely  of 

CToof,  but  even  of  any  considerable  degree  of  pro- 
ability.  Caesar,  Lucan,  Tacitus,  and  Pliny,  the 
principal  authorities  with  respect  to  the  Druids,  do 
not  give  the  smallest  countenance  to  the  notion  of 
their  having  constructed  or  made  use  of  any  such 
temples.  Cftisar  (see  Bello  Gallico,  lib.  vi.  s.  13) 
says  that  they  retired  at  a  certain  period  of  the 
year  Ittco  consecrnto ;  for  which  Gnevius  has  pro- 
posed to  read  luco  consecrato:  and  this  emendation 
IS  rendered  probable  by  what  Is  said  by  Lucan, 
Tacitus,  and  Tliny.  The  first  says,  in  reference  to 
the  Druids, 

*  Nemora  alta  remotia 

Incolitis  lucis.*  Lib.  L  line  453. 

Tacitus  (Annal.  lib.  xiv.  s.  30)  tells  us  that  the 
Romans,  having  taken  Mona,  or  Anglesey,  appa- 
rently the  grand  seat  of  the  Druids,  cut  down  their 
groves  sacred  to  savage  superstitions — excisitpte 
Itici,  gfpvis  super stitioni bus  sacri.  And  Pliny  (HisL 
Nat.  lib.  xvi.  s.44),  states  that  the  Druids  ro6ort/m 
eligunt  lucos.  nee  uila  sacra  sine  ea  fronde  conjiciunt. 
liut  no  classic  author  makes  the  remotest  allusion 
to  the  Druids  using  such  extraordinary  temples  as 
those  preWously  described  Hence,  if  anv  depen- 
ilence  be  placed  on  ancient  authority,  it  would 
seem  that  the  seats  of  druid  suf  erstition  were  in  the 
recesses  of  the  forest — in  places  as  remote  as  pos- 
sible from  Stonehenge,  or  even  Aveburj'. 

AVEIRO,  a  sea-port  to-wn  of  Portugal,  prov. 
lieira,  34  m.  NNNV;  Coimbra,  on  the  iS.  sliore  of 
the  a^tuarv  of  the  Vouga,  lat.  40O  38'  24"  N., 
long.  80  37'54"  W.  Pop.  4.913  in  1858.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric  and  of  a  cust4)m-house  ;  and 
has  a  go<Kl  deal  of  trade  in  salt,  manufactured  in 
the  little  islands  in  the  bay;  in  sardines,  of  which 
there  is  an  extensive  fishery ;  and  in  wine,  orangei*, 
<tc.  It  has  a  college,  a  hospital,  a  workhouse, 
and  seven  convents.  The  oysters  on  the  adjoining 
coast  are  reckoned  the  best  in  Portugal.  The  en- 
trance to  the  mouth  of  the  river  is  j)ointed  out  by 
two  stone  pyramids,  each  seventy  feet  high,  which, 
when  brought  into  a  line,  show  the  course  over  the 
bar.  The  latter  has  about  15  feet  at  high-water 
{Springs,  and  9^  at  low  water  do«:  at  neaps  the 

Vol.  I. 


AVENCHES 


305 


depths  are  respectively  12  and  7^  feet  It  is  ne- 
cessary, however,  to  observe,  that  the  bar  being  of 
shifting  sand,  is  liable  to  perpetual  changes,  and 
that  it  should  never  be  attempted  without  the  aid 
of  a  pUot.  (Tofino,  Spanish  Pilot,  £ng.  trans.,  pb 
97,  &c.) 

AVELGHEM,  a  town  of  Belgium,  prov.  W, 
Flanders,  on  the  Scheldt,  9  m.  ESE.  Courtnay, 
Pop.  4,097  in  1856. 

AVELLA  (an.  Abella)^  a  town  of  Southern 
Italy,  prov.  Avellino,  5  m.  NE.  Nola,  in  a  charm'i 
ing  situation,  commanding  a  view  of  Naples.  Pop. 
5,250  in  1861.  It  is  celebrated  by  ViigU  for  ita 
honey  or  its  apples,  it  is  not  certain  which : — 

*  £t  qaos  mal{ferce  despectemt  mcenia  Abelln.' 

.fin.  viL  740. 
But  some  MSS.  read  meUferee. 

AVELLINO  (an.  ^6e//inum),a  town  of  Southern 
Italy,  cap.  of  province  of  same  name,  on  the  decli- 
vity of  a  hill,  in  a  fertile  valley  near  the  Sabato, 
29  m.  E.  Naples.  Pop.  19,235 'in  1861.  It  is  for- 
tified, is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  of  the  civdl  and 
commercial  coiuts  for  the  prov.,  and  has  a  royal 
college.  It  has  a  cathedral,  three  parish  churches, 
a  square  adorned  with  an  obelisk,  a  public  granary; 
with  manufactures  of  coarse  cloth,  paper,  macca- 
roni,  sausages,  whose  superior  excellence  has  long 
been  admitted,  and  dyeing  works.  It  is  the  en- 
trepot of  the  surrounding  country,  and  has  a  pretty 
extensive  trade.  Chestnuts  are  gathered  in  laige 
quantities  in  the  environs,  but  hazel  nuts  are  their 
most  important  prrxluct.  The  latter  were  greatly 
esteemed  by  the  Romans,  and  were  called  by  them 
nuces  AveUanoi. 

Avellino  is  said  bv  Swinburne  to  be  *  a  con- 
siderable city,  extending  a  mUe  in  length  down  the 
declivity  of  a  hill,  with  ugly  streets,  but  tolerable 
houses.  The  churches  have  nothing  to  recom- 
mend them,  being  crowded  with  monstrous  oriia- 
ments  in  a  barbarous  Style,  which  the  Neapolitans 
seem  to  have  borrowed  from  the  Spaniards.  The 
cathedral  is  a  poor  building,  in  a  wretched  situation, 
with  little  to  attract  the  eye  except  some  uncouth 
Latin  distichs,  and  shapeless  Gothic  sculpture. 
Their  only  edifice  of  note  is  a  public  granary,  of 
the  composite  order,  adorned  with  antique  staitues, 
and  a  ver}'  elegant  bronze  one  of  Charles  II.,  king 
of  Spain,  while  a  boy.  The  town  abounds  with 
provisions  of  every  sort,  and  each  street  is  supplied 
with  wholesome  water.'  (Swinburne's  Two  Sici- 
lies, vol.  L  p.  Ill,  4to  ed.)  It  has,  however,  been 
a  good  deal  improved  of  late  years ;  but  the  above 
is  still  a  pretty  lair  representation  of  its  general 
appearance. 

AVENCHES,  Germ.  Wifflisburg  (an.  Aven- 
ticum),  a  town  of  Switzerland,  in  a  portion  of  the 
canton  de  Vaud  enclosed  in  that  of  Freiburg,  5.  m. 
from  Port  Alban,  on  the  Lake  Neuchatel,  and  1^ 
m.  from  the  shore  of  Lake  Morat.  Pop.  1,756  in 
1800.  This  town,  now  hardly  worth  notice,  wa« 
formerly  one  of  the  most  important  in  Switzer- 
land. According  to  some  authorities,  it  was  built, 
and  a  Roman  colony  placed  in  it,  by  Vespasian ; 
but  others,  with  more  probability,  conjecture  that 
it  was  only  repaired  and  beautified  by  Vespasian, 
after  being  laid  waste  by  Vitellius.  The  ancient 
walls  enclose  a  space  of  more  than  5  m.  in  circum- 
ference. It  has  some  fine  remains  of  antiquity, 
such  as  mosaical  pavements,  an  amphitheatre, 
columns  of  white  marble,  an  aqueduct,  &c ;  and 
its  importance  is  known  from  several  Roman  mile- 
stones found  in  parts  of  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  being  all 
numbered  from  Aventicum.  Though  now  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  lake,  it  was  during 
the  period  of  its  prospejrity  upon  its  margin,  the 
iron  rings  to  which  the  boats  were  fastened  being 
still  visible. 

X 


806 


AVENWELDE 


AVEXWELDE,  a  village  of  Pnwsia,  prov. 
Westphalia,  rc^r.  Minden,  about  half-wav  between 
Bielefeld  and  Wiedenbrack.  Pop.  1,495  in  1861. 
The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in  linen 
manufactures. 

AVERNO  (LAKE  OF),  (an.  i4rmtif*),a  famous 
lake  in  Southern  Italy,  about  10  m.  W.  Naples, 
near  the  sea.  The  lake  occupies  what  there  is  good 
reason  to  think  is  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano, 
and  is  everywhere  surrounded  by  high  hills,  except 
where  there  is  an  outlet,  bv  which  it  formerly 
communicated  with  the  Lucnne  lake.  It  is  from 
1^  to  1|  m.  in  circumference;  the  water  clear, 
very  deep,  and  well  supplied  with  tench.  During 
the  early  period  of  Roman  history  the  hills  round 
this  lake  were  thickly  covered  with  dense  forests, 
which  gave  it  a  gloomy  appearance,  and  by  con- 
fining the  mephitic  vapours  that  rose  from  the 
volcanic  soil,  rendered  the  air  extremely  un- 
healthy. In  consequence  the  place  was  early 
T^^arded  with  supentitious  awe.  The  poets  re- 
present^ Avemus  as  sacred  to  the  infernal  gods, 
and  AS  being,  in  fact,  the  entrance  by  which  Ulysses 
and  iEneas  descended  to  the  lower  regions ! 

'  fama  est  AcherontiB  ad  nndas 

Pandere  iter  csecas  stafmante  Torafrine  fauces, 
Laxat  et  horrendos  aperit  tclloris  hiatus, 
Intcrdomque  novo  pertorbat  lomine  manes.' 

8U.  Italicns,  xii. 

It  was  said  that  no  bird  could  fly  over  the  lake 
without  being  destroj^ed  bv  its  poisonous  exhala- 
tions, and  hence  its  name  Avemus  (AopMf^,  with- 
out birds).  This  is  noticed  by  \iigil,  m  some 
well-known  lines  (iEn.  vi  237). 

But  during  the  reign  of  Au^^ustus,  Agrippa  dis- 
pelled the  obscurity  and  sanctity  that  had  so  long 
encircled  the  Avemus.  lie  cut  down  its  groves ; 
and  having  joined  it  to  the  Lucrine  bay,  he  brought 
ships  into  its  solitudes,  and  used  it  as  a  harbour  in 
which  to  exercise  galleys !  The  Lucrine  lake,  or 
rather  bay,  was  almost  entirely  filled  up  by  the 
subterraneous  emption  of  Monte  Nuovo,  in  1538. 
On  one  side  the  lake  of  Avemo  are  the  remains  of 
a  large  octagon  temple,  probably  appropriated  to 
the  worship  of  Hecate ;  and  opposite  the  temple, 
on  the  other  side  the  lake,  is  the  opening  of  the 
subterranean  conduit  usually  called  the  grotto  of 
the  SybU,  but  which  was,  in  fact,  a  tunnel  leading 
from  the  lake  to  the  sea.  The  hills  n>und  the  lake 
are  now  covered  with  gardens  and  vineyards,  and 
retain  none  of  that  gloomy  grandeur  for  which 
they  were  once  so  celebrated.  They  are  still, 
h(»wever,  at  certain  seasons  unhealthy. 

AVERS  A,  a  town  of  Sou  them  Italy,  prov.  Ca- 
serta,  9  m.  N.  Naples,  and  11  m.  E.  from  the  Me- 
diterranean. Pop.  18,518  in  1861.  It  is  situated 
in  a  beautiful  plam  covered  with  vines  and  orange 
trees ;  is  well  built  anct  well  laid  out ;  is  the  seat 
of  a  bishopric,  said  to  be  the  richest  in  the  king- 
dom; of  a  royal  govemor,  and  of  a  tribunal  It 
has  nine  churches  and  some  convents;  but  it  is 
princi{)ally  distinguished  by  its  foundlinj^  hospital 
and  its  lunatic  asylum.  The  former  is  said  by 
Balbi,  tu  be  a  nurserv  of  artists  and  artlnans  for  the 
entire  kingdom,  llie  latter  i»  exceedingly  well 
managed.  Tlie  apartments  are  laid  out  and  fur- 
nished so  as  to  suit  the  state  of  the  patients ;  and 
every  method  is  resorted  to,  by  amusement  and 
exercise,  to  divert  their  attention.  Those  that  are 
furious  are  of  course  separated  from  the  others,  and 
Bubjectcil,  if  need  be,  to  the'  strait-jacket.  This 
establishment  has  served  as  a  model  to  others,  at 
Reggio,  MtMlena,  and  Palermo.  A  sort  of  almond- 
cake,  called  torrone,  made  here,  is  in  great  demand 
at  Naples. 

Avcrsa  was  built  in  1030,  by  the  Normans;  but 
it  was  subsequently  twice  burnt  down.    Andrew, 


AVEiTlON 

of  Hnngaiy,  husband  to  Joan  I.  queen  of  Naples, 
was  murdered  here  in  1345. 

AVESNES,  a  town  of  France,  d^p.  dn  Nord, 
cap.  aiTond.  and  canton,  on  the  greater  Elrx»,  10^ 
m.  S.  Maubeuge.  Pop.  3,516  in  18(>1.  It  is  a 
fortified  place  of  the  4th  clasx,  its  forrifications 
having  been  n>paired  by  Vauban.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  sub-prefect,  and  has  a  tribunal  of  original 
iurisdiction  and  of  commerce,  a  commercial  col- 
lege,  an  hospital  for  old  ])crsons,  and  an  agricul- 
tural society.  It  is  ill  built,  and  trUte.  The 
cathedral  has  a  spire  300  ft  in  height,  which  has 
five  chimes  of  bells.  It  has  manufactures  of  coanne 
scr^,  woollen  hosiery,  carpentry  work,  with  tan- 
neries, breweries,  soap  works,  and  distilleries.  A 
particular  kind  of  cheese  j»ro<luce<l  here  is  known 
as  *  MaruUes.'  Avesnes  suffered  severely  from  the 
explosion  of  a  powder  magazine,  when  besieged 
by  the  Pmssians  in  1815. 

AVEYRON,  a  dep.  of  France,  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  country,  l)eing  separated  from  the  Me- 
diterranean by  the  Herault;  between  43°  41'  30" 
and  44°  oo'  25"  N.  lat,,  and  1°  50'  15"  and 
30  20'  E.  long.  Area  882,171  hectares.  Pop. 
396,025  m  1861.  This  is  one  of  the  most  moun- 
tainous depts.  of  France.  With  the  exception  of 
some  volcanic  plateaux  detached  from  the  Plomb 
de  Cantal,  and  which  advance  as  far  as  the  Tni- 
yere,  all  the  other  mountains  l>elong  to  the  chain 
of  the  Cevennes,  the  summit  ridge  of  which  forms 
its  S.  frontier.  The  mean  elevation  of  the  soil  is 
very  considerable,  Rhoilez  being  2.280  ft,  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  The  mountains  are  inter- 
sectetl  by  ravines,  and  have  many  subterranean 
caves.  The  soil  of  the  plateaux  and  elevated 
grounds  is  generally  very  inferior;  but  that  of  the 
valleys  is  very  fertile,  and  produces  all  sorts  of 
com.  Principal  rivers,  I^t,  Aveyron,  whence  the 
dep.  takes  it  name,  and  Tarn.  Agricultiurc  is  in  a 
venr  backward  state,  in  consequence  y)artly  of  the 
unfruitful  nature  of  the  soil,  partly  of  the  long 
continuance  of  frosts  and  the  frequent  occurrence 
of  hail-storms,  but  principally  of  tlie  want  of  ca- 
pital and  poverty  of  the  inhabitants.  Field  lal)our 
IS  mostly  performed  by  oxen.  PhhIucc  of  com 
sufficient  for  the  consumption.  Sheep  numerous, 
and  their  wool,  which  is  generally  fine,  estimatetl 
at  800,000  kilogs.  a  year.  A  great  numlier  of 
cattle,  horses,  mules,  and  ]>igs  arc  nusetL  In  the 
district  of  Roquefort,  where  cheese  is  made  frr>m 
sheep's  milk,  and  the  district  of  (luyole,  the  dairy 
is  an  object  of  great  attention.  In  some  jiarts  the 
farms  are  extensive,  and  the  strictest  gradation  is 

C reserved  among  the  labourers  attached.  'ITic 
itter  eat  little  butcher's  meat,  and  their  fiK>d  is 
very  indifferent.  Some  ^iTne  is  made,  but  tlio 
qualitv  is  inferior.  Acconling  to  the  official  tables, 
the  soil  of  the  dep.  is  mostly  distributed  as  follows : 
—Cultivable  hind  365,000,  mearlows  122,000,  \nn*»- 
yards  34,000,  forests  84,000,  and  heaths,  n»ck8, 
wastes,  &c.  209,000  hectares.  The  export  of  agri- 
cultural produce  reaches  at  an  average  12.000,000 
fr.  a  year,  of  which  the  cheese  of  I^tquefort  and 
Guyole,  sheep,  and  wotjllen  stuffs,  enter  together 
for  alM)ut  one- fourth.  The  coal  and  in>n  mines  <»f 
the  AvejTon  are  among  the  most  important  in 
France.  Iron-works  have  l)een  established  within 
the  last  thirty  vears,  and  they  are  no^  prosecuted 
with  great  spint  and  success,  and  fumish  employ- 
ment to  some  thousands  of  workpeople.  A  gotnl 
deal  of  copper  is  also  produced.  Manufacturing 
industry  has  made  very  considerable  pmgress. 
About  20,000  workpeojile  are  supposed  to  be  em- 

Eloyed  in  the  maimfacture  of  coarse  woollen  stuffs, 
osiery,  &c.  In  the  arrondissement  of  St,  Affriquo 
about  900  hands  are  employed  in  the  spinning 
and  manufacture  of  cotton;  and  there  are  in  the 


AVEZZANO 

dep.  about  800  employed  in  the  tanning  and  droat- 
inj?  of  leather  and  the  glove  trade.  There  arc 
also  factr>rie9  of  hats  and  i»aper,  with  dye  works, 
and  coo})ers'  works.  Aveynm  sent  three  memberH 
to  the  legislative  assembly  in  18(>4.  Principal 
town8,  HhiKlcz,  Milhau,  St.  AfTrii^uc,  and  Villc- 
franche.  The  inhabitants  are  said  to  be  much 
addicted  to  drinking  and  quarrelling ;  and  as  they 
all  carry  a  knife,  called  a  capuchadou,  their  quar- 
rels sometimes  end  fatally. 

AVEZZANO.  a  town'of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
Aquila,  in  a  tine  plain,  within  about  a  mile  from 
the  NW.  angle  or  the  lake  Fucino.  Pop.  4,720  in 
1801.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls,  which,  however, 
are  in  a  ruinous  condition.  Tlie  houses  are  gene- 
rally mean,  but  there  are  some  good  buildings, 
among  which  a  castle  belonging  to  the  Colonna 
familv. 

AVIGLIANA,  a  town  of  Northern  Italv,  prov. 
Turin.  15  m.  \V.  Turin.  Pop.  8,441  in  iMOl.  It 
is  tinely  situated  on  a  hill,  has  a  castle,  fabrics  of 
coarse  cloth,  and  filatures  of  silk. 

AVIGLIANO,  a  town  of  Stuithem  Italy,  pnw. 
Potenza,  cap.  cant.,  11m.  NNW.  PotenziL  Pop. 
15,0,')2  in  1861.  It  is  built  on  the  declivity  of  a 
hill,  a  part  of  which  being  undermined,  in  1824, 
by  continue<l  rains,  gave  way,  and  destroyed  a 
jMirt  of  the  town.  It  has  a  fine  coll^ate  church, 
sundry  convents,  and  a  royal  college.  The  sur- 
rounding country  produces  the  finest  oxen  in 
Southern  Italv. 

AVIGNO!"^  (an.  Arenio),  a  city  of  France,  cap. 
dep.  Yaucluse,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone,  53 
m.  NNW.  Marseilles,  on  the  Paris-Mediterranean 
railway.  Pop.  38,081  in  1861.  It  is  the  seat  of 
an  archbishopric,  of  a  tribunal  of  original  juris- 
diction and  of  commerce,  and  has  a  royal  college 
of  the  2nd  class,  a  primary  normal  school,  a  theo- 
logical seminary,  a  school  of  design,  a  public 
librarj'  containing  30,000  volumes  and  500  MSS., 
a  museum  of  pictures,  a  botanical  garden,  with 
stKictics  of  arts  and  agriculture.  HaWng  been 
long  the  residence  of  the  popes,  A\4gnon  was 
filled  with  churches,  convents,  and  other  religious 
houses,  many  of  wluch  have  now  fallen  into  decay. 
It  is  situated  in  a  fine  plain,  and  is  surrounded  by 
high  walls,  flanked  with  numerous  towers.  Its 
prr>menades  along  the  walls,  and  its  quavs  along 
tlie  river,  are  both  said  to  be  very  fine.  The  city 
was  formerly  much  more  populous  and  thri\'ing 
than  at  present,  and  half  the  space  now  included 
within  the  walls  is  occupied  with  gardens,  d:c. 
The  streets  are  narrow  and  cn>oked;  and  the 
houses  and  buildings  have  generally  a  gloomy, 
melancholy  ap]iearance.  Mr.  Inglis  says, —  '1 
never  saw  any  town  that  I  should  not  prefer  to 
Avignon  as  a  residence  :  its  filthiness  is  disgust- 
ing, absolutely  inaniceivable  to  be  found  in  a 
civilised  countrv.  And  it  is  the  less  excusable  as 
the  to\*'n  is  well  sup])lied  with  water.'  (Switzer- 
land, A'c,  p.  186.)  This  was  some  thirty  years 
ago.  and  since  then  things  have  somewhat  mended, 
although  the  ancient  city  is  not  yet  famous  for 
cleanliness.  The  ancient  palace,  occupied  by  the 
p<^>|K',s,  stands  on  the  declivity  of  the  rock  called 
be  Dons.  It  is  a  (iothic  building,  constructed  at 
different  periods,  of  vast  extent,  with  high,  thick 
walls,  and  now  serves  as  a  ])rison,  militarj'  depot, 
and  barracks.  The  cathe<lral  church  of  Notre 
Dame  de  Dons  is  ver>'  ancient^  and  contains  the 
tombs  of  several  distinguished  persons.  The 
church  of  the  Cordeliers,  of  which  oiilv  the  spire 
now  remains,  contained  the  tomb  of  tiaura,  im- 
mortalised by  Petrarch,  and  of  the  *  brave  Crillon,* 
the  friend  of  Henry  IV.,  and  one  of  the  most 
chivalrous  of  French  warriors.  The  Hotel  des 
Invalides,  subsidiary  to  that  of  Paris,  is  on  im- 


AVOLA 


307 


racnse  bnilding,  in  which  1,000  old  soldiers  are 
accommodated.  The  Hotel  Dieu  is  also  on  a  laige 
scale.  The  theatre,  a  large  handsome  edifice,  was 
erected  in  1824.  Avignon  communicates  with 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  river  by  two  bridges,  one 
of  wood  and  one  of  boats.  Since  the  opening  of 
the  railway  from  Paris  to  the  Mediterranean,  which 
has  a  station  here,  the  trade  of  the  city  has  greatly 
improved,  and  it  has  become  the  seat  of  several 
new  manufactures.  Thev  consist  principally  of 
silk  stuffs  and  velvets.  Inhere  are  also  some  wool- 
len and  cotton  fabrics,  with  a  cannon  foun<lry,  a 
t\'pe  foundry,  dye  works,  and  tanneries.  A  good 
rnany  works  are  printed  in  the  town.  Largo 
quantities  of  madder  are  produced  in  the  neigh- 
bouring country,  and  Avignon  is  the  centre  of  the 
trade  in  that  drug. 

Avipion  existed  before  the  Roman  invasion, 
and  aiterwards  became  a  Roman  colony.  In  1305 
Clement  V.  transferred  thither  the  residence  of 
the  popes,  who  continued  to  reside  here  till  1377, 
when  thev  returned  to  Rome:  but  two  schismatical 
popes,  or  popes  elected  by  the  French  cardinals, 
resided  at  Avignon  till  1408.  Clement  VI.  having 
acquired  the  property  of  the  town  and  district,  it 
continued  to  belong' to  the  holy  see;  and  though 
sometimes  taken  by  the  French,  it  was  always 
restored,  till  1791,  when  it  was  finally  incorporated 
with  France, 

AVIGNONET,  a  town  of  France,  d^p.  Haute 
Garonne,  near  the  canal  of  I..anguedoc,  10  m.  N  W. 
Castelnaudry.  Pop.  2,590  in  IHCl.  Here  five 
inquisitors  were  put  to  death  bv  the  Albigeois  in 
1242.  Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse,  suspected  of 
secretly  instigating  the  crime,  was  condemned  by 
Innocent  III.  to  be  stripped  naked  and  whipped. 

AVI  LA,  a  town  of  Spain,  cap.  pniv.  Avila,  on 
the  Adaia,  64  m.  WNW.  Madrid.  Pop.  6,419  in 
1857.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  has  a  uni- 
versity, eight  parish  churches,  and  numerous  con- 
vents and  ho^itals.  Formerly  it  was  richer  and 
more  flourishing  than  at  present.  It  has  still 
manufactures  of  cloth,  cott4)n,  hats,  and  silk. 

AVILES,  a  town  of  Spain,  Asturias,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name;  18  m. 
N.  Ovicdo.  Pop.  8,297  in  1857.  There  is  a 
beaut iftil  stone  bridge  across  the  river.  It  has 
some  manufactures  of  coaise  cloth,  and  prepares 
boilers  and  other  utensils  made  of  the  copper 
obtained  from  the  neighbouring  mines.  It  has 
very  little  trade,  the  water  in  the  port  being 
so  shallow  that  it  is  hardly  accessible  even  to 
coasters. 

AVIS,  a  town  of  the  Tvrol,  near  the  Adi^  18 
m.  SSW.  Rovcredo.  Pop.*  8,530  in  1857.  It  has 
a  castle,  manufactures  of  silk  and  velvet,  and  a 
quarrv  of  flints. 

A  Viz,  a  town  of  Portugal,  prov.  Alentejo,  85  m, 
WSW.  Portalegre,  Pop.  1,530  in  1868.  It  is  the 
chief  place  of  the  knights  of  the  order  de  TAvis, 
fouiKled  by  ^Vlphonso  I.  In  1146. 

AVIZK,  a  town  of  France,  d^  Mame,  capw 
canton,  6  m.  SSE.  Epemay.  Pop.  1,874  in  1861. 
Its  territory  is  celebrated  for  its  vineyards,  which 
produce  large  quantities  of  Oiampague  mouaaeux 
of  the  second  quality.  It  has  an  extensive  trade 
in  wine. 

AVOLA,  or  AULA,  a  sea-port  town  of  Sicily, 
prov.  Sj-raciuie,  12  m.  SW.  Syracuse.  Pop.  10,754 
m  1861.  The  town  is  prettily  and  salubriously 
situated  on  a  woody  eminence,  having  a  marine 
\'illage  on  the  beach,  a  tonnara,  and  a  battery  for 
defence ;  and  from  several  respectable  edifices,  tole- 
rable streets,  and  a  good  market-place,  has  an  air 
of  cleanliness  and  regularity.  Brides  the  pn)fit8 
of  the  tonnara,  the  town  has  a  considerable  traffic 
in  wine,  com,  cheese,  carubbas^  ahnonds,  oil,  honey, 

X  2 


808  AVOLD  (ST.) 

and  fimit  and  some  in  sugar,  made  from  the  only 
cane  y^lantation  now  left  on  the  island.  'Die  ad- 
jacent country  alK>unda  vnth  jrame,  and  Kupplics 
pastun^rc  to  a  pfreat  uumlxir  of  line  cattle,  manv 
of  which  are  exported  to  Malta. 

AVOLD  (ST.),  a  town  of  France,  d<<p.  Moselle, 
cap.  cant.,  on  the  Rtwwel,  18  m.  W.  Sarquemine^ 
Pop.3,2HHin  IHC.l. 

AVON,  the  name  of  several  rivers  in  England, 
of  which  the  most  important  arc : — 

I.  Tlie  ITmer  Avon^  has  it«  acnirco  at  Avon- 
Well,  near  Naschy,  in  Nortliamptonshire,  about 
800  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sca.    It  flows  i«?ne- 


the  Severn  at  Tewkesburj'.  It  has  a  large  l)o<ly  of 
water;  and  is  navigable  by  liaiges  for  about  40  ni., 
or  from  the  Severn  to  Stratfonl,  where  it  is  j<)iue<l 
bv  the  Stratford  canaL  Its  entire  course  may  be 
about  100  m. 

2.  The  lAnter  Avon,  has  its  sources  contiguous 
to  Malmepbury  and  Woot^m-Basset,  in  Wiltsliirc, 
its  two  arms  uniting  near  Great  Somerfimi;  it 
thence  pursues  a  circular  course,  paswing  Chip- 
penham, IJradfonl,  Ilath,  and  Bristol,  falling  into 
the  Bristol  Channel  about  8  m.  Mow  Bristol. 
Owing  t-o  the  great  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide,  the 
largest  class  of  merchantmen  come  up  the  river  to 
Bristol  The  Kennet  and  Avon  canal,  from  New- 
bury to  Bath,  connects  the  Thames  with  the  Avon, 
establishing  a  water  communication  across  the 
kingdom. 

8.  nie  Uampahire  Atfon,  rises  near  Devizes,  on 
the  N.  side  of  Salisbury  Plain.  At  Salisbury  it  is 
Joined  by  the  Wily  and  the  Bourne ;  and  is  navi- 
gable from  Trafalgar-house  to  where  it  falls  into 
the  English  Channel  at  Christchurch. 

There  are  some  other  rivers  of  this  name  in  Eng- 
land, but  none  of  them  seem  to  be  considerable 
enough  to  require  any  special  notice.  There  are 
also  three  small  rivers  of  this  name  in  Scotland : 
one  an  afiiuent  of  the  Spey,  one  of  the  Clvde,  and 
another  having  its  emlx)uchure  in  the  Vrith  of 
Forth,  near  Borrowstoness. 

AV RANCHES  (an. /n^ena),  a  town  of  France^ 
d(^  Manche,  cap.  arronthssement,  on  a  hill  near 
the  Suez,  32  m.  SSW.  St,  Lo,  and  8  m.  from  the 
floa,  on  tlie  railway  fit)m  Argentan  to  Granville. 
Pop.  8,o92  in  1861.  This  is  a  very  old  town.  Its  ca- 
thedral, consecrated  in  1121,  was  unroofed  during 
the  revolution,  and  is  now  in  nuns.  In  it,  in  1172, 
Henry  II.,  king  of  England,  did  penance  and  re- 
ceived absolution  for  the  munlcr  of  Beckett  (Lyt- 
telton's  Hist,,  Henrj'  II.,  V.  p.  123.)  AA-ranciicii 
has  a  tribunal  of  original  iuri^liction,  a  college,  a 
workhouse,  a  theatre,  ana  a  public  lilirarv,  con- 
taining 10,000  volumes  and  200  MSS.,  with  manu- 
Cactures  of  lace  and  blondes.  Small  vessels  come 
up  the  river  to  the  briilge  opposite  the  town,  but 
it  has  little  trade. 

AX,  a  town  of  France,  ddp.  Arricge,  cap.  cant, 
on  the  river  of  that  name^  20  m.  SE.  Foix.  Pop. 
1,679  in  1861.  The  situation  of  Ax  is  very  pic- 
turesque and  romantic^  It  derives  distinction 
from  Its  numerous  hot  mineral  springs,  the  heat  of 
the  water  of  some  of  which  approaches  nearly  to 
the  boiling  point.  Their  reputation  is  increasing, 
and  with  it  the  size  and  importance  of  the  town, 
the  latter  being  entirely  dependent  on  the  resort 
to  the  wells. 

AXEL,  a  fortified  town  of  the  Netherlands,  prov. 
Zeaand,  21^  m.  WNW.  Antwerp.  Pop.  2,631  in 
1861. 

AXM[NSTER,a  m.town  of  England,  co.  Devon, 
hund.  Axminster,  on  the  Axe,  147  m.  WSW. 
Loudon,  16  m.  E.  Exeter.     The  parish  contains 


AY 

6,590  acres,  and  2,918  inhab.,  according  to  the 
census  of  1861,  It  i.^  irregularly  built  on  the  de- 
clivity of  a  small  hill,  ha.^  wide  stroet,s,  and  m 
clean' and  henlthy.  Tlie  church,  a  clumsy  stnio- 
turo,  is  in  part  very  ancient,  and  there  is  a  frt-e 
sch<Kd  where  fourteen  children  are  e<luaitefl  fcratis. 
The  inhab.  are  principally  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  carpets,  in  imitation  of  those  of  Persia 
and  Turkey,  vfhivh  arc  but  little  if  at  all  inferior 
to  the  genuine  fabrics, 

iiXUM,  an  ancient  and  much  deceived  town  <»f 
Abyssinia,  prov.  Tigre,  near  one  of  the  sources  of 
the*  Mareb  {Astusaitpes),  110  m.  SW.  Arkecko,  «»n 
the  Red  Sea ;  lat,  14©  5'  N.,  long.  38^  27^'  K.  The 
[lopulation  is  variously  estimated  at  fn»m  six  to 
i  ten  th(»iisand.  It  is  situated  in  a  niMjk  forrae<l  by 
two  hiUs ;  and  is  said  by  Messrs.  Combos  and 
Tamisier,  by  whom  it  has  been  \'isited,  to  l>e  the 
han<lsomest  t«)wn  of  Tigrtf.  The  houses  arc  of  a 
cylindrical  form,  sunnt>uuted  by  a  cone.  In  its 
centre  is  a  Christian  church,  which  seems  to  oc- 
cupv  the  site  of  an  ancient  temple,  dcscrilnid  by 
Mr.* Salt  (Valentia's  TraveLs,  iii.  88) ;  but  the  tra- 
vellers referred  to  alwve  say,  that  Salt's  statements 
with  respect  to  it  are  much  exaggerated.  Acc<»nl- 
ing  to  them  it  is  inferior  even  to  nmgreniers  ordi- 
nairea ;  so  that  in  this  instance  Bruce,  who  is  ac- 
cused by  SAlt  of  having  undervalued  the  church, 
would  seem  to  be  the  preferable  authority.  ( V<  »yago 
en  Abyssinie^  L  267.)  Axum,  however,  would  not 
Ije  worth  notice  were  it  not  for  it^j  ancient  fame, 
and  its  antiquities.  That  it  is  ver>'  ancient  is 
abundantly  certain ;  and  its  former  greatness  is 
evinced  by  the  ruins  which  still  remain.  Of  these 
the  most  conspicuous  is  an  obelisk  (JO  ft.  in  height 
(Salt  says,  in  Lonl  Valentia's  Travels,  80  ft. ;  but 
he  aftenvards  rectified  his  mistake),  fonne<l  of  a 
single  bU)ck  of  granite,  cn>wned  iJ^ith  a  jxiteray  and 
beautifully  sculptured,  though  not  with  hien>gly- 
phics.  There  are  said  to  have  iKien  formerly  alK)vc 
fifty  oI>elisks  in  the  city;  but.  except  the  one  now 
noticed,  the  others  are  all  prostrate. 

It  Is  known  that  a  Greek  kingdom  was  founded 
in  Ethiopia,  of  which  Axum  was  the  capital,  and 
gave  its  name  to  the  countr}',  some  time  after  the 
Christian  lera.  The  Greek  >\Titers  of  the  later 
ages  used,  in  fact,  to  call  the  Ethi«>pians  Axumites ; 
and  the  I*erii»lus  of  the  Erj-thnean  Sea  afiurds 
authentic  eWdence  of  the  exi.stence  of  the  imle- 
peudent  kingdom  of  Axum,  t»)wanls  the  end  of 
the  second  centurj'.  Some  light  in  thrown  on  this 
intricate  subject  by  the  dwcoverv,  at  Axum.  of  an 
upright  slab  or  strme, bearing  an  inscriptitm,  c«»j»i(il 
and  translated  by  Mr.  Salt.  This  remarkable 
monument  records  the  result  of  a  successful  attack 
made  by  Aizanas,  king  of  the  Axumites,  on  funic 
barbarous  tribes.  And  it  so  happens  that  Aizanas 
was  king  of  Abyssinia  during  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Constantius,  who  atldresse<l  a  letter  to 
him  anno  330.  lliis,  theit'fon',  may  fairly  he  con- 
cluded as  the  date  of  the  inscription  in  question; 
but  there  is  no  evidence  to  sh<»w  the  a'ro  of  the 
foundation  of  the  ^Vxumite  kingdom,  or  how  long 
it  existed  after  the  alK)ve  date. 

AduliSf  situated  at  the  Ixjttom  of  Annesley  Bay, 
on  the  Bed  Sea,  was  anciently  the  port  of  Axum, 
and  a  great  mart  for  the  coinmtHiities  of  Ethiopia, 
Egypt,  Arabia,  &c.  It  was  the  iwrt  whence  Et  hio- 
pian  slaves  were  8hipi)ed  for  all  j>arts  (»f  the  worliU 
(Ancient  Universal  Histon-,  xviii.  329,  8vo.  e<L) 

AY,  or  AI,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  !^Ianie,  cap. 
cant,  on  a  hill  near  the  Mame,  lo  m.  S.  Kheims. 
Pop.  8,418  in  1861.  This  town  is  famous  for  its 
wine,  the  best  of  the  vins  mnu»8eu,v  de  Chain]>agne. 
It  is  said  by  Jullien  to  l>e  fin,  spiritueux,  pt'tUtnnU 
delicate  etjxmrvu  dun  joli  ItouqucU  (T»)pographie 
des  Vignoblcs,  p.  81.)      Dr.  Henderson  says,  that 


AYAMONTE 

it  is  unquestiouably  an  exquisite  liquor,  being 
lip:ht<>r  and  sweeter  than  the  Sillen',  and  accom- 
panied by  a  delicate  flavour  and  aroma,  somewhat 
analogous  to  that  of  the  pine-apple.  That  which 
merely  creams  on  the  surface  {demi  mousxeuut)  is 
preferre<l  to  the  full-frothing  {grund  mowueux) 
\nne.'    (History'  of  Wines,  p.  154). 

AYAMONTE,  a  fortified  town  of  Spain,  prov. 
Seville,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  emlwuchure  of  the 
Gaudiana,  25  m.  VV.  Huelva,  lat.  37°  13'  N.,  long. 
7°  vy  15"  \V.  Pop.  5,9«j9  in  1857.  It  stands  on 
the  decliWty  of  a  hill,  and  has  two  parish  churches, 
a  fomi<lling  hospital,  an  almshouse,  and  some  con- 
vents. The  inhabitants  are  principally  engaged 
in  fishing ;  but  some  ship-building  is  also  carried  on, 
and  lace,  .soap,  and  earthenware  are  manufacturetl 

AYLESBURY,  a  borough,  m.  town,  and  par.  of 
England,  co.  Buckingham,  bund.  Aylesbiuy,  on 
an  eminence  in  the  celebrated  vale  of  the  same 
name,  38  m.  NW.  London.  18^  SE.  Buckingham. 
The  borough  includes  an  area  of  3,200  acres,  and 
a  |)op.  of  6,168  in  1861.  It  is  irregularly  built,  has 
a  modem  market-house,  constructed  after  the  model 
of  the  temple  of  the  eight  winds  at  Athens,  and  a 
handsome  county-hall,  in  which  the  Lent  assizes 
for  the  county  are  held  :  the  county  jail  is  also  hi 
the  town,  and  here,  too,  the  members  for  the 
county  are  nominated,  and  the  return  declared. 
The  church  is  a  large  ancient  stnicture,  with  a 
tower  vLsible  many  miles  round.  The  charities  of 
Aylcsbur>'  are  numerous  and  valuable.  Among 
others  there  is  a  free  school,  for  the  supiwrt  of 
which  a  considerable  amount  of  j)roperty  has  been 
bequeathed,  that  furnishes  etlucation  for  about 
VM)  Iwys;  there  are  also  a  number  of  other  cha- 
rities, with  almshouses,  d'c  Some  lace  is  maiiu- 
facture<l,  and  a  number  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
town  and  its  vicinity  employ  themselves  in  the 
brooding  and  fattening  of  ducks,  of  which  large 
luimbcrs  are  sent  to  the  metropolis.  Aylesbur\' 
has  returned  two  m.  to  the  H.  of  C.  since  1554. 
Troviou.^ly  to  1804,  the  right  of  voting  was  in  the 
iuhab.  (»f  the  borough  paying  scot  and  lot ;  but  in 
consotjuence  of  the  flagrant  corruption  of  the 
electors,  the  privilege  of  voting  for  the  members 
for  the  borough  was  then  extended  to  the  free- 
holders of  the  bund,  of  Aylesburj'.  The  pari 
borough  had  27,090  inhab.,  according  to  the 
census  of  1861,  registered  electors  1,304.  The 
vale  of  Aylesbur}*  is  one  of  the  richest  tracts  in 
the  empire.  It  is  princii)ally  a])propriated  to  the 
fattening  of  cattle  and  dairj-ing. 

AYLESFOKD,  a  village  and  par.  of  England, 
CO.  Kent,  lathe  Aylesford;  the  village  being  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Medwav,  which  intersects 
the  i)ar.,  m.  30,  SE.  London.  The  par.  contains 
8.330  acres,  and  a  j>op.  of  2,057  in  1861.  The 
church,  a  hand.>*ome  builiiing,  is  situated  on  an 
eminence  higher  than  the  roofs  of  the  houses  in 
tlie  village.  There  is  a  bridge  over  the  Medway, 
au<l  an  almshouse,  endowed  in  1605.  Near  the 
Xoww  was  a  Carmelite  monaster}',  granted  at  the 
dis^solution  of  the  monastenes,  by  Henry  VIIL,  to 
Sir  Thomas  VVyatt ;  from  whom  it  has  <lescended 
to  the  Finch  family,  now  earls  of  Aylesfonl,  who 
have  modeniL*ie<l  the  building,  and  made  it  a 
comft.rtable  residence.  But  the  most  remarkable 
monument  in  the  vicinity  of  Aylesford  is  Kitscoty 
]{utuic,  aliout  1  m.  NE.  from  the  village.  It  ccm- 
sists  of  three  large  u[>right  stones,  each  al>out 
8  fl.  in  height,  with  another  lying  <m  the  top,  11 
ft.  in  length  by  «  in  breatlth,  and  2  thick;  and 
there  are  some  similar  stones  in  the  vicinity.  An- 
tiquarians ditiVr  widely  bi  (fpinion  as  to  the  object 
of  llli^  ^ingul.ir  stnuiure;  l)ut  the  more  common 
oi'inion  Kcni.s  to  be  that  it  was  intended  as  a 
monument  to  Catigern,  a  British  thief  killed  in  a 


AYR 


309 


battle,  circa  a.d.  455,  with  the  Saxons  under 
llcngist  and  Horsa.  (Hasted's  Kent,  8vo.  ed. 
vol.  iv. ;  Turner's  Anglo-Saxons,  book  iiL  cap.  60.) 

AYR,  a  marit.  co.  of  Scotland,  on  its  W.  coast^ 
stretchiug  for  about  75  m.  along  the  shores  of  the 
Irish  Sea  and  the  Frith  of  Clyde,  having  N.  the 
CO.  of  Renfrew,  E.  Lanark  and  Dumfries,  SE. 
Kirkcudbright  and  S.  Wigtown.  It  contains 
650,156  acres,  of  which  nearly  a  half  is  supposed  to 
be  arable.  It  is  divided  into  the  three  dLstricta  of 
Carrick,  Kyle,  and  Cunningham.  The  first,  which 
comprises  the  county  to  the  S.  of  the  river  Doon, 
is  for  the  most  part  moorish,  wild,  and  mountain- 
ous. Kyle,  the  middle  district,  lying  between  the 
Doon  on  the  S.  and  the  Ir\'ine  on  the  N.,  possesses 
a  large  extent  of  low,  well-cultivated  land  along 
the  shore ;  but  the  E.  part  is  hilly  and  mountain- 
ous. Cunningham,  though  the  smallest  of  the 
districts,  is  the  most  populous,  best  cultivated, 
and  richest.  Climate  moist  and  mild.  Agri- 
cidture,  down  to  the  close  of  the  American  war, 
was,  speaking  generally,  execrable;  but  it  has 
been  pnwligiously  improved  in  the  inter\'al,  and 
especially  during  the  last  ten  or  d<>zen  years. 
The  whole  co.  is  now  intersected  with  good  roads, 
and  Ls  well  fenced  and  subdivided.  Drainage,  the 
most  im^Ktrtant  of  all  improvements,  has  been 
l)rosecuted  to  a  great  extent ;  and  the  practice  of 
furrow  draining  is  carried  on  with  extraordinary 
zea^  and  the  mast  perfect  success.  Improved  ro- 
tations have  been  everj-where  introduced;  and 
lands  that  formerly  only  produced  poor  crops  of 
black  oats  now  carry  heavy  crops  of  wheat  and 
barley.  The  Ayrshire  cow  is  i>articularly  fitted 
for  the  dairy,  which  is  extensively  earned  on, 
chiefly  in  Cunningham,  the  original  country  of 
the  Dunlop  cheese.  Farm-houses  and  offices,  for- 
merly mean  and  wretched,  now,  for  the  most  part, 
extensive  and  commodious.  The  old  valued 
rent  was  15,967/.,  the  new  valuation  for  1864-5 
amounted  to  762,661/.,  exclusive  of  railways  rated 
at  113,777/.  Coal  is  found  in  several  parts,  and 
is  extensively  MTought  and  exported.  Iron  is 
made  at  Muirkirk,  Glengamock,  and  other  places. 
The  woollen  manufacture  is  carried  on  exten- 
sively at  Kilmarnock ;  and  cotton  mills  have  been 
erected  at  Catrine.  Principal  towns,  Kilmarnock, 
Ayr,  Maybole,  and  Ir%'ine.  Ayr  contains  forty-six 
parishes.  It  had,  in  1801,  a  population  of  84,207; 
in  1821,  of  127,299;  in  18-11,  of  164,356;  and  in 
1861,  of  198,971.  Of  the  pop.  in  1861,  there  were 
males  96,994,  and  females  101,977.  It  sends  two 
m.  to  the  H.  of  C. ;  for  the  co.,  and  the  boroughs  of 
Kilmarnock,  Ayr,  and  Irvine  are  associated  with 
others  in  the  election  of  representatives.  ParL 
constituencv  4,642  in  1864.  (Census  of  Scotland, 
1861;  Oliver  and  Boyd,  Edinb.  Almanack,  1865; 
New  Statistical  Account  of  Scotland;  Robertson's 
Rural  Recollections.) 

Ayr,  a  sea-port,  royal  borough,  and  m.  town  of 
Scotland,  cap.  Ayrshire,  on  the  S.  side  of  the  river 
Ayr,  at  its  confluence  with  the  sea.  65  m.  SW. 
Edinburgh,  and  30  m.  SSW.  Glasgow.  The  pop. 
of  the  burgh  and  parish  amounted,  in  1861,  to 
19,659,  of  which  9,094  males,  and  10,565  females. 
The  number  of  families,  in  1861,  was  4,502,  and 
of  inhabited  houses  2,281.  Ayr  is  finely  situated 
on  the  margin  of  a  broad  level  plain,  and  has 
recently  been  much  impn>ved  and  enlarge<i.  The 
county  buildings,  containing  a  county  hall,  with 
afiartments  for  the  justiciary  court,  <frc.,and  town's 
buildings,  C(.>ntaining  a  news-room,  and  rooms  for 
dinners,  balls,  assemblies,  &c.,  are  both  on  a  large 
s<'ale :  to  the  latter  is  attache<l  a  fbie  spire,  226  tit. 
in  height,  The  Wallace  Tower,  erects  a  few 
years  ago,  on  the  site  of  an  old  builiiing  of  the 
some    name,  is  115  ft.  high.     A  statue  of  iSLr 


310  AZANI 

William  Wallace,  by  Thorn,  has  been  placed  in 
a  niche  in  its  front;  but  the  artist  has  not  been 
80  happy  in  this  instance  as  in  his  statnen  of  Tam 
O'Shantcr  and  Souter  Johnnie.  There  w  an  old 
and  a  new  church,  but  neither  w  remarkable. 
The  academy  is  a  plain  buildinp:,  in  a  poorl  situa- 
tion :  an«l  no  incunsiderable  part  of  the  late  im- 
provement of  tlie  town  may  be  ascril)ed  lo  the 
well-merited  reputation  of  its  teachers,  wliich  has 
attracted  a  jsnreat  number  of  families.  Avt  is  a 
very  ancient  bui^h.  It  was  chartered  in  1202; 
and  parliaments  have  been  frequently  held  in  it. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  8>'nod  and  presbj'tery ;  of  a 
justiciary  and  sheriff's  coiurt ;  has  a  j^chhI  town's 
library,  and  a  mechanic's  institute ;  a  theatre ;  and 
several  cliaritable  institutions.  Alwut  1.000  hand- 
looms  are  employed  in  the  weaving  of  cotton  for 
the  Glasgow  manufacturers ;  and  there  Is  an  ex- 
tensive foundrj',  with  two  tan-works  and  a  flourish- 
ing carpet-manufactorv.  The  total  shipping,  in 
the  year  1HC3,  consisteil  of  430  British  vessels,  of 
32,992  tons,  and  13  foreign  vessels,  of  2,036  tons, 
wliich  entered  the  port.  The  port,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river,  is  formed  by  two  piers,  which  project 
a  considerable  way  into  the  sea ;  but  it  labours 
nnder  a  deficiency  of  water,  not  having  m«)re  than 
6  ft,  water  over  the  bar  at  ebb-tide,  nor  above 
15  ft.  at  high  water  springs ;  and  is  exposed  to 
the  W.  gales,  which  throw  in  a  very  heavj-  sea. 
This  defect  has,  howevej,  been  in  part  obviated 
by  the  construction  of  a  breakwater,  which  it  is 
proposed  to  enlarge.  The  annual  value  of  real 
property,  in  18<J4-5,  was  45,370/.,  exclusive  of 
railways.  A  railway  connects  Ayr  with  (jlasgow, 
Kilmarnock,  and  all  the  chief' towns  of  Great 
Britain.  Ayr  is  joine<l  with  Campbelton,  In- 
verary,  Irvine,  and  01)an,  in  the  return  of  a  mem- 
ber to  the  II.  of  C.  The  parish,  acconling  to  the 
Ordnance  Survey,  contains  an  area  of  7,139  acres, 
and  the  pari,  constituency  in  18C4  was  673,  the 
municiiMl  448.  The  corporation  revenue  for 
1864-5  amounted  to  2,646/.  The  cottage  in  -wliich 
Robert  Bums  was  bom,  with  AUoway  Kirk,  are  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  Avr,  at)out*2^  m.  dixtant^ 
on  the  KMid  to  Maybole.  (Oliver  and  Boyd's  Ediiib. 
Almanack,  1865.) 

AZANI,  a  city  of  Phrj'gia,  on  the  Edrenos 
(RhyHdacu$)f  now  wholly  in  mins.  The  small 
modem  \dllage  of  Tjaudere-Uissar,  22  m.  W.  by 
S.  Kutaleh,  appears  to  have  been  entirely  built 
from  its  remains.  Little  is  said  about  this  city  in 
ancient  authors ;  but  its  mins,  which  have  been 
carefully  described  by  Major  Keppel,  show  that  it 
had  been  a  place  of  great  wealth  and  magni- 
ficence. The  principal  remains  are  two  briciges, 
connected  by  a  superb  quay,  with  a  tem])le  and  a 
theatre,  the  latter  l>eing  232  ft.  in  diameter.  Some 
of  the  columns  of  the  temple  are  still  standing: 
thev  are  of  tho  Ionic  onler;  the  shafts,  formed  of 
a  single  block  of  marble,  being  28  ft,  in  length. 
And  this  is  really  only  a  fair  specimcji  of  the 
numberless  remains  of  antiquity  in  a  country  once 
swarming  with  cities,  and  in  the  highest  state  of 
wealth  and  improvement;  but  now  all  but  deptv 
pulated,  steci>e<l  in  poverty,  and  a  prey  to  everj-  dis- 
ordcr  that  a  barbnnan  government  and  a  debasing 
superstition  can  iiitlict. 

AZEKBIJAN  (an.  Atropatena),  a  prov.  in  the 
NW.  of  Pewia,  between  26°  and  38°  40'  N.  lat,, 
an<i  44°  20^  and  49°  K.  long.,  having  N.  the  Anis 
or  Araxes,  K.  a  ]wut  of  the  Russian  torritories 
and  the  C'as|iian  Sea.  S.  the  Ki/Jl-Ozein,  wliich 
separates  it  fn>m  the  other  Persian  pn>vs.,  ami  W. 
Turkish  Annenia.  It  coiisLsts  of  a  succession  of 
high  mountains,  seiiaratinl  by  extensive  valleys 
and  plains.  Mount  Sevellan  towanls  its  E.  fron- 
tier, the  next  highest  mountaiu  to  Ararat  in  tliis 


AZOFF  (SEA  OF) 

part  of  Asia,  rises  to  between  12.000  and  13,000  ft, 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Sahend  Moun- 
tains, in  the  centre  of  the  prov.,  attain  to  the 
height  of  9,000  feet.  The  TalLsh  Mountains  run 
from  X.  to  8.  parallel  to,  and  at  no  great  distance 
from,  the  Caspian.  The  great  salt  lake  of  Urmiah 
(see  Akmf:nia  and  Ukmiaii)  is  one  of  the  dl^tin- 
guishing  features  of  the  prov.  It  has  numerous 
rivers,  of  which  the  Araxes,  Kizil-Ozein,  and 
lugatty,  are  the  chief.  The  summers  are  hot; 
but  the  winters,  owng  to  the  height  of  the  coun- 
tr\',  and  the  number  of  high  mountains  covered 
with  snow  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  are 
severe  and  long-ctmtinuecL  In  the  valleys  and 
plains  the  land  is  very  fertile,  and  yields  abundant 
cn>i>8.  Mr.  Kinneir  says,  *  Azerbijan  is  reckone<l 
among  the  most  productive  prr>vs.  of  Persia,  and 
the  villages  have  a  more  pleasing  appearance  than 
even  those  of  Irak.  They  are,  for  the  most  part, 
embosomed  in  orchards  and  gardens,  which  yield 
delicious  fruits  of  almost  every  description ;  and 
were  it  not  for  the  tyranny  of  their  rulers,  no 
people  could  anywhere  enjoy  to  a  greater  decree 
the  comforts  of  life.  Provl<dons  are  cheap  and 
abundant,  and  wine  is  also  made  in  consitierable 
quantities ;  but  the  bulk  of  the  people  are  too  poor 
to  avail  themselves  of  these  blessings ;  and,  in  the 
hope  of  bettering  their  condition,  contemplate 
with  pleasure  the  appn)ach  of  the  Kussians.'  (Me- 
moir, p.  149.)  The  principal  towns 'are  Ttd>reez, 
Aniebyl,  and  irrmiah. 
AZINGHUR,  an  inland  town  of  Hindostan, 

SresiiU  Bengal,  prov.  Allahabad,  cap.  distr. ;  40  m. 
Nh:.  Benares;  in  24°  6'  N.  lat.,  83©  10'  E.  long. 
Pop.  incl.  troops,  13,332.  Cotton  stufils  are  largely 
manufactured  here  and  in  the  Wcinity.  It  was 
cede*!  bv  the  Nalwb  of  Oude  in  1801. 

AZM'kRlGUNGE,  an  inland  town  of  India  be- 
vond  the  Brahmapootra,  pres.  and  pn»v.  Beni^al, 
distr.  Sylhet ;  55  m.  NE.  Dacca;  lat,  24©  33'  N., 
long.  91°  5'  E.  It  is  a  place  of  considerable  inland 
trafiic,  and  has  an  establishment  for  building  native 
boats 

AZOFF  (SEA  OF),  the  Palui  MceoHs  of  tho 
ancients,  an  inland  sea  in  the  8E.  quarter  of 
Europe.  It  communicates  bv  the  narrow  Strait 
of  Yenicale  (an.  Boxphonu  ijimtnerius)  with  the 
\E.  angle  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  is  everj'w^herc 
else  surrounded  by  Russian  territories.  Its  name 
is  derived  from  the  town  of  Azoff  (see  next  article), 
near  its  NE.  extremity.  It  is  of  a  very  irregular 
sha|>e ;  its  greatest  length,  from  the  long,  narrow 
sand-bank  facing  the  £.  coast  of  the  Crimea  to 
the  mouths  of  the  Don,  being  about  212  m. ;  and 
its  greatest  breadth  about  1 10  m.  From  the  Strait 
of  Yenicald  to  Tagann>g  is  about  160  m.  It  is 
generally  shalhiw,  an<l  encumbered  with  sand- 
banks, having,  where  deepest,  not  more  than  seven 
fathoms  water,  and  in  some  places  much  less. 
Along  its  western  shore  it  is  marshy;  an<l  its  NE. 
<livision,  or  that  extensive  arm  denominate^!  tho 
Gulf  <»f  the  Don,  is  so  ver\'  shallow  that  it  cannot 
l)e  navigated,  even  where  deei)est,  by  vessels  draw- 
ing more  than  10  or  12  ft.  water.  During  the 
prevalence  of  easterly  winds,  the  waters  at  Tagan- 
rog, and  other  places  in  the  gulf,  recede  sometimcji 
to  a  considerable  distance  from  the  shore,  rushing 
Iwick  with  great  violence  when  the  wind  changes 
I  to  an  <»pposile  direction.  Inasmuch,  however,  as 
I  its  bottom  consLHts  mostlv  of  mud,  vessels  take  the 
'  gmimd  without  l)eing  injurwi ;  and  it  is,  m  con- 
i  so<pienee,  less  dangerous  than  might  have  been 
suppose<L  Owing  to  the  vast  quantity  of  fresh 
water  brought  do^vn  by  the  Don  and  other 
rivers,  its  waters  are  little  more  than  brackish, 
and  at  times  are  potable  more  than  20  m.  1k»Iow 
Tagann»g.    It  teems  >\itli  fish,  and  the  fisheriv.'s 


AZOFF 

arc  important  and  valuable.  It  is  partially  or 
wholly  covered  with  ice  from  November  until 
February',  or  even  March.  The  navigation  of  the 
Sea  of  Azoff  generally  commences  the  first  week 
in  April  and  terminates  the  last  week  in  Novem- 
l>er.  It  is  considered  unsafe  for  vessels  to  prolong 
their  stay  after  that  date,  as  they  incur  the  risk 
of  Iwing  caught  in  the  ice.  When  masters  of 
vessels  ob9er\'e  the  '  barber '  flying,  it  is  an  in- 
fallible sign  of  approaching  frost.  There  are  no 
j-Kirts  in  tlie  Sea  of  Azoff  suitably  adapted  for 
vessels  to  winter  in,  and  Kertch  is  invariably 
chosen  for  that  purpose.  Berdiansk,  however,  pos- 
8csses  on  the  west  side  of  the  spit  a  small  bay 
ca{>able  of  holding  from  150  to  200  lighters,  and 
wliich  is  gcnerallv  made  use  of  by  the  small  craft 
of  the  Azoff.  The  coasting  trade  of  the  Sea  of 
Azoff  has  nearly  trebled  since  the  Crimean  war. 
In  18()3  as  many  as  501  vessels  entered  the  port 
of  Bcrdiansk  with  cargoes  amounting  to  54,205/., 
and  533  cleared  with  cargoes  to  the  value  of 
25,915/.  They  are  principally  employed  in  carrj'- 
ing  government  pro\'ision8  from  the  river  Don  to 
the  different  Black  Sea  stations,  coals  from  Kostoff, 
timber,  fnuts,  salt  and  fish.  (Report  of  Mr.  Acting 
Consul  Wagstaff  on  the  Trade  ol  Berdiansk,  dated 
July  14, 18t»4;  Purdy's  Sailing  Directions  for  the 
Jilnck  Sea,&c.,  p.  212.;  Uagcmeister  on  the  Com- 
merce of  tlie  Black  Sea.) 

Azoff,  a  towTi  and  fortress  of  European  Russia, 
on  an  eminence  on  the  left  bank  oi  one  of  the 
arms  of  the  Don,  near  the  NE.  extremity  of  the 
aU»ve  sea.  This  town  was  founded  at  a  very  early 
I»eri(Kl  by  Carian  colonists  engaged  in  the  trade  of 
the  Euxine;  and  was  called  by  them  Tanaisy  from 
the  river  (Don,  then  Tanais),  of  which  it  was  the 
port.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  called  Tana.  It 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Venetians  after 
the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins;  and 
was  held  bv  them  till  1410,  when  it  was  sacked, 
and  its  Christian  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword,  by 
the  Tartars.  The  latter  gave  it  the  name  of  Azon, 
which  it  still  retains.  Formerlv  it  had  an  ex- 
tensive  trade,  being  the  emiK>rium  of  all  the  vast 
countries  traversed  by  tlie  Don.  But  owing  to 
the  gradual  accumulation  of  sand  in  that  channel 
of  the  river  on  which  it  is  built,  and  the  conse- 
quent difficulty  of  reaching  it  by  any  but  the 
smallest  class  of  vessels,  itj*  trade  has  been  entirely 
transferred  to  Taganrog ;  its  fortifications  have 
also  fallen  into  decay ;  and  it  now  consists  only  of 
a  cluster  of  miserable  cabins,  inhabited  by  little 
more  than  1,200  individuals. 

AZORES  (THE),  or  WESTERN  ISLANDS, 
an  archipelago  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  belonging 
to  Portugal,  from  which  it  is  about  8(X)  m.  distant, 
occupving  a  line  of  about  100  leagues  from  ESE. 
to  VVNW.,  between  3CP  59'  and  39°  44'  N.  lat,, 
and  310  7'  and  25°  10'  W.  long.  It  Ls  dividetl 
into  three  subordinate  groups.  The  1st,  lying  at 
the  WNW.  extremity  of  the  archipelago,  includes 
Flores  and  Cono;  the  2n(l,  or  central,  Fayal, 
Pico,  St.  (ieorge,  (iraciosa  and  Terceira;  and  the 
3rd  at  the  ESE.  extremity,  St.  Michael's,  the 
largest  of  the  whole,  and  St.  Mary's.  The  name 
{Ilhos  dos  Agores)  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the 
vast  number  of  hawks  ( falco  mUcus)^  called  by  the 
natives  a^or,  by  which  ih^y  were  frequented  at 
the  epoch  of  their  discover^'.  These  islands  seem 
to  1)6  of  comparatively  recent  volcanic  formation. 
Their  general  asjX'ct  is  picturesque  and  bt>ld.  For 
the  mor>t  part  they  prestnt  an  irrt^ular  succession 
of  iwdated,  conical,  or  acuminated  liilLs,  with  table 
lands  rising  from  2,<M>0  to  5,000  ft.  in  height ;  the 
former  separated  by  valleys,  the  latter  stratified 
and  intersected  by  tremendous  ravines  and  deep 
cliasnis,  formed  by  the  action  of  rain  on  the  soft 


AZORES 


311 


volcanic  remains  compodng  the  mountains;  the 
whole  are  almost  invariably  bounded  by  magni- 
ficent mural  precipices,  rising  abruptly  from  the 
sea,  and  frequently  rendered  inaccessible  by  soft 
crumbling  lava  and  masses  of  loose  tufa,  of  which 
they  are  formed.  The  peak  of  Pico,  about  7,000  ft, 
in  height,  is  the  highest  elevation  in  the  Azores. 
When  seen  firom  a  distance  it  appears  like  an 
isolated  cone  in  the  middle  of  the  ocean.  This 
archipelago  is  subject  to  the  most  tremendous 
convulsions,  towns  and  villages  being  sometimes 
swallowed  up,  while,  at  other  times,  rocks  and 
islands  have  been  forced  up  from  below  the  waves. 
The  last  of  these  phenomena  occurred  in  181 1, 
when  an  island  was  thrown  up  that  has  since  dis- 
appeared. The  soil  is  extremely  fertile,  and  in- 
dustry' and  intelligence  are  alone  wanting  to  make 
it  in  the  highest  d<^ee  productive.  The  climate, 
though  unsettled  and  humid,  is,  on  the  whole, 
excellent.  The  average  annual  range  of  the  ther- 
mometer is  from  50°  to  75°.  Rains  are  frequent, 
and  often  so  violent  as  to  effect  considerable 
changes  in  the  appearance  of  the  country;  but 
scarce  a  day  passes  in  which  the  sun  does  not,  at 
some  period,  shine  forth.  The  decidedly  fine  days 
may  be  estimated  at  about  200,  and  the  wet  days 
at  about  60.  Sudden  gusts  and  gales  of  wind  are 
frequent ;  and  this,  combined  with  the  fact  that 
they  have  not  to  boast  of  a  single  good  harbour, 
make  the  blands  shunned  bv  the  navigator. 
Tliey  produce  luxuriant  crops  of  all  sorts  of  grain 
and  puLse,  wine,  the  finest  oranges  and  lemons, 
bananas,  sugar-canes,  coffee-plants,  tobacco,  the 
valuable  licnen  roccella ;  and,  with  a  little  care, 
most  vegetable  products  may  be  brought  to  the 
utmost  perfection.  Asses  and  bullocks  are  the 
usual  beasts  of  burden.  Horses  are  scarce  and 
bad ;  sheep  and  goats  numerous ;  and  pigs  and 
dogs  swarm  to  an  excess.  Owing  however  to  the 
idleness,  occasioned  in  part  by  the  productiveness 
of  the  soil  and  mildness  of  the  climate,  but  in  a 
far  greater  degree  by  the  ignorance  of  the  people, 
and  the  influence  01  >4cious  laws  and  regulations, 
industry  is  all  but  unknown.  The  lands  are  gene- 
rally divided  into  large  estates,  held  under  strict 
entail;  and  the  system  under  which  they  are 
leased  out  to  the  actual  cultivator  is  as  bad  as 
possible.  The  latter,  being  exposed  to  every  sort 
of  exaction  and  tyranny,  never  thinks  of  attempt- 
ing any  improvement.  Hence  the  practice  of 
agriculture  is  but  little,  and  the  science  not  at  all, 
understood.  The  rude  svstem  of  their  forefathers 
is  continued  without  ciiange  or  modification  of 
any  kind ;  and  their  implements  are  little  superior 
to  those  of  the  American  Indians.  And  yet,  de- 
spite this  want  of  industry,  such  is  the  extra- 
ordinary fertility  of  the  soil,  that,  though  in  ^;reat 
part  waste  and  uncultivated,  it  not  only  furnishes 
sufficient  supplies  of  com  and  other  things  for  the 
native  population,  but  also  a  considerable  surplus 
for  exportation.  A  good  deal  of  coarse  linen  is 
manufactured,  part  of  which  is  exported. 

The  principal  exports  are,  in  oniinary  years,  to 
England,  about  1 30,000  boxes  of  oranges,*2,000  pipes 
of  wine  and  brandy,  and  some  roccella ;  for  which 
she  sends  in  exchange  woollen  and  cotton  stuffs, 
hard-ware,  and  wearing  appareL  To  Brazil  the 
exports  are  about  5,000  pipes  of  Mrine,  12,000  yards 
coarse  linen,  and  pulse  of  all  sorts;  for  which 
she  sends  back  rum,  coffee,  sugar,  A'c  To  Ham- 
burgh and  the  N.  of  Europe  are  exported  14,000 
boxes  of  oranges  and  lemons,  and  6,000  pipes  of 
wine  and  brandy,  the  returns  being  made  in  pitch, 
iron,  glass,  and  corda^.  To  the  Unit  xi  States  are 
sent  4,0UO  pi|>es  of  wine,  200  of  brandy,  and  12,000 
Isjxes  of  oranges  and  lemons,  the  returns  being 
fish,  staves,  timber,  tar  and  oil.    Tu  Portugal  are 


812 


AZPYTIA 


sent  hof^  quantities  of  grain  and  pulse,  salt  porlc 
and  beef,  coane  linen  and  cheese. 

The  population  of  the  archipelago  was  found,  by 
the  censuH  of  185M,  to  amount  to  240,518,  not  a 
sixth  {Mirt  of  what  it  might  be,  wore  the  Ulanils 
mtxlerately  well  cuItivatctL  They  arc  di\'ided 
into  three  departments,  and  arc  governed  by  a 
governor-general  and  two  lieutenant-governors. 
The  se^t  of  government  is  at  Angra  in  Tenreira, 
but  Ponte  Delgada,  in  St^  Michael's,  is  the  prin- 
cipal town.  The  revenues  amount,  in  all,  to  about 
525,()<)0  crowns  a  year,  and  the  expenditure  to 
nearly  200,000,  leaving  a  Iwilance  of  about  3,30,000  i 
crowns  to  be  remit teil  to  Portugal,  (lioid,  p.  80.) 
The  men  are  well  proportione<i,  strong,  and  well 
made;  and  the  women  fairer  than  thasc  of  Por- 
tugal. All  classes  are  grossly  ignorant :  and  are, 
conscquentlv,  in  the  last  degree  superstitious  and  j 
bigotC(L  The  lower  onlers  are  temperate,  and  all 
ranks  are  passionately  fond  of  music.  The  dress 
of  the  common  people  is  rude,  aiul  they  are  in- 
tolerably tilthy  and  dirty  in  their  persona.  The 
higher  claH.<H>M  are  i»om(K>us,  overi)earing,  and  in 
the  mo8t  abject  state  of  moral  debasement.  The 
ladies  possess  few  acquirements,  have  no  conver- ; 


BAAL-BEC 

sation,  and  lead  a  life  of  excessive  indolence.  The 
low  state  of  intelligence  and  morals  is  principally 
ascrilmble  to  the  ignorance  and  vices  of  the  cleig}'. 
Previously  to  1882,  there  were  numerous  monas- 
teries and  convents,  which  were  suppressed  at  the 
la.'^t-meutitmcd  ep<K!li. 

The  hwtorj'  of  the  Azores  is  oljscure.  They 
were  unknown  to  the  ancients;  but  the  Arabian 
geographers  of  the  middle  ages  seem  to  have  had 
some  knowledge  of  them,  though  it  was  not  till 
towanls  the  middle  of  the  15th  century  that  a 
Flemish  merchant,  who  had  sailed  from  Lisbon, 
was  driven  bv  stress  of  weather  on  their  coasts. 
The  court  of  l*ortug<d,  being  informed  of  the  dr- 
cumstance,  sent  the  na\'igator  Cabral  to  prostKnite 
the  discovery,  who  fell  in  with  St,  Mar\''s,  in  1482. 
In  1467  they  were  all  dlscovereiL  At  this  epoch 
thev  were  entirely  uninhabited  and  covered  with 

•  « 

forest  and  ftiidt;rvv(KHL 

AZPVTIA,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  Guipuscon, 
15  m.  S\V.  San  Scljostian.  Pop.  2,335  in  1857.  It 
is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  has  some  iron  foundries. 
Then*,  are  jasper  quarries  in  its  vi'ciiiitv. 

AZREK  (BAUli-EL),  or  the  BlueKiver.  See 
Kile. 


B 


BAAI^BEC,  or  BALBEC  (the  Hdiopolit  of  tlie 
(ireeks),  ancientiv  a  large  and  splendid  citv ; 
lat.  340  1'  N.,  long.  360  11'  K. ;  40  m.  NW.  Da- 
mascus, 41  m.  SE.  Tripoli,  ,58  m.  NE.  Sidon,  and 
130  \V.  by  S.  Palmyra.  It  is  situate<l  in  a  fertile, 
well-watered  valley,  the  (^l•le-Syria  (hollow  S}Tia) 
of  the  ancients,  and  the  Batena  of  the  modems, 
between  the  ridges  of  Libanus  and  Anti-Libonus, 
at  the  foot  of  the  lower  ranges  of  the  latter. 

Baal-Bee  has  been  declining  for  a  lengthened 
period ;  but,  of  late  years,  its  decay  has  been  {le- 
culiarly  rapi(L  In  1751  the  pop.  amounted  to  5,000, 
in  1785  it  had  diminished  to  1.200,  in  1818  it  did 
not  exceed  500,  and  in  1835  it  barely  amounted  to 
200.  In  1810  it  had  a  serai  (the  residence  of  the 
emir),  two  handsome  mosque^s,  and  onegiM)d  bnth: 
in  1816  one  mosque  had  vanished,  the  other  was  in 
lains;  and  in  18<)5  there  remained  no  trace  of 
cither,  or  of  the  serai.  The  remains  of  ancient 
architectural  grandeur  are,  however,  more  exten- 
sive in  Baal-Jiec  than  in  any  other  city  of  S.vria, 
Palmyra  excepted ;  and  Bu»:;khardt  reganis  them 
as  superior  in  execution  even  to  tliose  of  the 
latter.  Finely  grou|)cd  together,  on  the  W.  side  of 
the  town,  are  three  temples,  the  laigest  occupying 
a  circuit  of  more  than  half  a  mile,  and  originally 
consisting  of  a  portico,  hexagonal  court,  and  a 
quadrangle.  l)esides  the  peristyles  of  the  temple 
itsf^f.  C)f  this  last,  six  gigantic  and  highly  ])o- 
lished  pillars,  71  ft.  G  in.  in  height,  and  23  ft.  in 
circumterence,  with  their  coriii(;e  and  entablature, 
remain  to  attest  the  stufiendous  magnitude  and 
l)eauty  of  the  stnicture  of  which  they  made  a  part. 
The  two  courts  were  encompassed  by  chamiKont, 
open  towards  the  front,  supposed  by  \Voo<l  t»»  have 
l>oen  either  the  dwellings  of  the  priests,  or  public 
schools ;  and  the  i>eristyle  was  surrounded,  towards 
the  W.,  by  an  esplanade  21)^  ft.  in  width,  and  t<;r- 
minated  by  a  slopmg  wall  32  ft,  high.  In  this  wall 
are  three  enormous  stones,  of  which  two  are  (iO 
and  the  other  (>3  ft.  in  length,  their  common 
breadth  and  thickness  being  12  ft.  These  gi;;nntic 
masses  are  more  than  20  ft.  from  the  ground;  and 
the  course  immediately  below  them  consists  of 
bkK'ks,  less  enormous,  certainly,  but  varying  from 
.•JO  to 37  ft.  in  length,  with  a  breadth  of  12  and  a 
thickness  of  0  (\^    The  rcmain<k'r  of  this  cyclopiiui 


wall  is  formed  of  verv  large  stones,  but  there  arc 
none  so  vast  as  the  a!M)ve.  Immediately  to  the  S. 
of  the  great  temple  Ls  a  smaller,  but  more  lx;rlV*ct 
edifice,  of  which  the  peristyle,  walls,  and  twenty 
columns  ri'main.  The  d<M»r-wav  leading  into  the 
IxMly  of  this  temjde  is  25  ft,  hiiKh  by  20  ft  10  in. 
broad,  siumounted  by  a  superb  Imsso-relievo,  re- 
pre»enting  an  eagle  hovering,  as  it  were,  over  the 
worshipper  when  about  to  render  homage  to  the 
presiiling  deity.  Both  ruins  are  among  the  finest 
s|)e(nmens  of  the  Corinthian  order.  Walls,  ceil- 
ings, caiutals,  entablatures,  every  spot  where  the 
chisel  could  be  intrtMluced,  is  coverptl  with  the 
most  exquisitely  finished  carving  and  sculpture. 
Solidity,  too,  has  l)een  most  succttisfuUy  combined 
with,  and  not  sacrifiiTcd  to,  ornament.  Though 
little  cement  has  been  useil,  the  j<»ints  are  so  ad- 
mirably formed  that  a  i)enknife  cannot  be  intrt^- 
duced  into  them.  The  more  ponderous  masonry 
has  preser\'ed  its  position  by  the  mere  force  of 
gravity  ;  the  parts  of  the  pillars  are  comiectctl  by 
iron  cramps.  When  perfect,  the  great  temple, 
with  its  courts,  exhibited  130  pillars  ;  the  leaser, 
GO;  and,  according  to  Woml  and  Dawkiiis,  the 
dimensions  of  each  were  as  follow : — 

GuE.\T  Tkmplr. 


Steps      .    . 
rortico  .    . 
llexap.Court 
Qiuulrangic 


Lenfrth 


Width 


Ff«t 

50 

48 

190 

404 


F«-t 

188 

2Hfi 
420 


Lenirthi  Width 


Feet 

2^K^ 


Peristyle   . 
Esplanade . 

Height  of  Temple  from 
ground  to  pediment,  120 


P««t 

1(K) 
29  i 


Smau.kr  Temple. 

Lniirth  Width  RHirht 

225  ft.  118  ft.  102  ft. 

The  smaller  temple  is  ^-ithout  courts. 

A  barlwrous  Saracenic  wall  L*  built  across  these 
niins  on  the  E. ;  300  or  4(K>  ft.  from  which  is  the. 
third  temple,  a  beautiful  circular  buihling,  mvr- 
rounded  by  Corinthian  pillars;  its  extreme  ex- 
ternal diameter  Ix'iiig  03  ft.,  and  its  interi*ir  32  ft. ; 
most  probably  it  had  l>een  surmounted  by  a  cupola. 
It  is  con.sidereil  as  a  chef-trccuvrv  iA'  art ;  but  un- 
fortunately it  Ls  in  a  very  diLnpidatcd  aiul  tottering 


BAAL-BEC 

state.    Like  the  lai^jcr  temples^  it  is  built  of  com- 
pact limestone,  with  but  little,  if  any,  cement.   In 
the  SW.  comer  of  the  town,  on  the  highest  spot  of 
ground  within  the  walls,  is  a  solitary  Doric  column, 
GO  ft,  high,  inchuiing  capital  and  pedestal.    On 
the  top  is  a  l>a.sin  3  ft.  deep,  from  which  a  hole,  cut 
through  the  capital,  communicates  with  a  ciir\'ed 
channel  9  in.  wide  and  G  deep,  cut  in  the  S.  side  of 
the  shaft,  from  top  to  bottom.     From  this  it  has 
Ixjcn  inferred  that  the  pillar  was  connected  with 
the  water- works  of  the  city;  some  suppose  it  to 
have  l>een  a  clepsj'dra  or  water-dial.    The  walls  of 
the  city,  3  or  4  m.  in  circuit,  exhibit  a  strange 
mixture  of  materials  ;  the  breaches  made  by  time 
or  war,  in  the  older  erections,  having  been  repaired 
at  ditferent  times  from  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
temples  and  other  builduigs.    In  one  place  may 
be  seen  a  large  altar-piece  reversed;   in  others, 
stones  inscribed  with  Greek  or  Roman  characters ; 
but  all  in  confusion,  and  many  turned  upside 
down.    The  gates  are  of  the  Saracenic  period. 
Without  the  walls,  5  or  6  m.  W.,  is  a  remarkable 
isolated  Corinthian  column,  between  50  and  60  ft, 
high,  with  a  square  compartment  on  its  N.  side,  as 
fi»ran  inscription,  but  no  letters  remain.    NE.  of 
the  tt)wn  is  a  subterranean  aqueduct,  16  ft.  below 
the  surface,  with  several  curious  chambers  cut  in 
the  surrounding  rock.    The  whole  neighbourhood 
looks  like  an  immense  stone  quarry ;  and  on  the 
8.E.,  at  50  or  60   paces  from  the  walls,  among 
other  stones  of  immense  size,  is  one  worked  on 
three  side-'<,  larger  than  any  used  in  the  wall  of 
the  great  temple.     It  is  70  ft,  in  length,  with  a 
breadth  and  thickness  of  14  ft.     Greek,  Roman, 
and  Saracenic  niins  cover  the  countn-  for  three  or 
four  leagues  round,  all  eWdently  connected  "with 
the  former  greatne.ss  and  prosperity  of  this  city. 

No  ancient  author  reters  te  the  buildings  at 
Baal- Bee.  John  of  Antioch,  a  Christian  writer  of 
the  7th  century,  ascril)es,  in  an  incidental  manner, 
the  erection  of  a  temple  to  Antoninus  Pius ;  and  this 
is  the  only  account,  with  any  pretensions  to  autho- 
rity, of  the  origin  of  these  extraonlinary  remains. 
IJut  Haal-Bec  was  a  flourishing  city  ag«s  before 
the  Christian  ajra,  and  the  probability  seems  to  be, 
that  the  Baal-Ath,  built  by  Solomon,  in  Lebanon 
i'2  Chron.  viii.  6),  was  identical  \**ith  Baal-Bcc. 
This  Is  indeed,  the  received  opinion  of  all  classes 
in  Syria ;  and  though  the  remains  of  Corinthian 
architecture  cannot  be  referred  to  a  remoter  period 
tlian  that  of  the  Roman  emperors,  the  cyclopian 
wall  is  evidentlv  of  a  far  more  ancient  date,  and 
answers  to  the  description  of  the  '  House  of  the 
Forest  of  Lebanon,'  built  for  the  daughter  of  Pha- 
raoh.    (1  Kings  vii.  10.) 

That  the  S\Tian  deity  Baal  (literally  I^rd) 
was  a  pers(»nitication  of  the  sun,  as  the  vi\'ifying 
principle  of  nature,  is  e^^dent  from  the  Herodian 
(v.  5),  the  various  passages  of  Scripture  from 
.Judges  to  Jeremiah,  and,  indeed,  from  the  united 
testimony  of  antiquity.  (Calmet,  Dictionnaire  de 
la  Bible,  art.  Haai..)  Bec,  or  more  properly  Bk:t, 
is  a  dwelling.  Baal-Bee  signifies,  therefore,  the 
house  or  city  of  the  sun,  and  this  designation  the 
town  retained,  in  the(ireek  fonn,  Htliopolis,  which 
is  merely  a  translation  of  its  Syrian  name.  It 
may  l>e  concluded  that  Ben-hadad  sulxiued  this 
city  with  the  adjacent  country  (2  Chn»n.  xvi.  4); 
and  that,  on  the  overthrow  of  the  Syrian  kingdom 
of  Damascus,  it  passed  l>eiieath  the  sway  of  the 
Assyrians  (2  Khigs  xvL  9) ;  but  the  silence  of  all 
the  "most  ancient  authors,  respecting  so  |xjpulous 
and  wealthy  a  city,  is  as  pn»found  as  it  Ls  remark- 
able. It,  of  course,  shared  the  fate  of  the  re>it  of 
Syria,  passing.  su("cessively.  into  the  hands  of  the 
Persians,  (irocks,  and  llomans.  It  was  the  st.ition 
of  a  garrison  in  the  time  of  Augustus;  but,  while 


BABA-DAGH 


313 


under  the  Romans,  seems  to  have  been  famedt 
rather  for  its  wealth  and  splendour,  than  for  its 
military  importance  It  made,  however,  a  brave 
resistance  to  the  Arab  arms,  a.d.  635,  and  was  at 
length  surrendered  upon  a  capitulation,  the  terms 
of  which  sufficiently  att^»t  its  great  resources ; 
2,000  oz.  of  gold,  4,000  do.  of  silver,  2,000  silken 
vests,  and  1,000  swords,  besides  those  of  the  gar- 
rison, being  the  price  demanded  and  jiaid  to  pro- 
serve  it  from  plunder.  In  748  it  was  sacked  and 
dismantled  in  the  wars  of  the  Ommiyade  and 
Abasside  caliphs,  and  from  this  blow  it  never  re- 
vived. During  the  Crusades  it  submitted,  alter- 
nately, to  whichever  party  happened,  for  the  time, 
to  be  the  stronger.  In  1400  it  was  plundered  by 
the  Tartars  under  Tamerlane  or  Timur  Bec,  since 
which  period  it  has  been  of  no  importance  except 
to  the  antiquary  and  historian.  In  1759  it  was 
shaken  by  an  earthquake ;  and,  judging  from  its 
decline  during  the  last  century,  the  day  is  not  far 
distant-,  when,  like  many  other  eastern  cities,  it  will 
cease  entirely  to  be  inhabited. 

Though  nothing  certain  be  known  of  the  history 
of  Baal- Bec,  it  is  sufficiently  obvious  that  its  opu- 
lence and  grandeur  must  have  been  mainly  owing, 
partly  to  its  situation  in  a  fertile  and  well- watered 
coimtry,  but  more  to  its  being  a  commercial  entre- 
pot. Any  one  who  takes  up  a  map  of  S}Tia  will 
see,  at  a  glance,  that  its  position  is  one  of  the  best 
that  could  have  been  selected  for  an  intermediate 
station  between  Palmyra  and  the  cities  and  ptffts 
along  the  Phoenician  coasts.  Commodities  passing 
from  Palmyra  to  Triiwli,  Berytus  (Beyrout),  Si- 
don,  and  Tyre,  and  coftversely,  would  be  most 
conveniently  and  expeditiously  carried  by  way  of 
Baal- Bec.  No  doubt,  therefore,  it  was  mainly  in- 
debted for  that  wealth,  of  which  its  ruins,  like 
those  of  its  great  rival  Palmyra,  attest  the  magni- 
tude, to  the  trade  of  which  it  was  long  a  princi))al 
centre.  And  the  desolation  in  whicn  these  two 
splendid  cities  are  now  involved  is  at  least  owing 
as  much  to  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in 
the  channels  of  commerce,  as  to  the  barbarism  and 
ignorance  of  their  modem  masters.  (Wood  and 
Dawkins's  Ruins  of  Balbec,  passim;  Volnev,  iu 
195,  205;  Burckhardt's  Travels,  10,  17:  Richard- 
son's Travels,  ii,  502-510.) 

BAAR,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  cant.  Zug,  2  m. 
N.  Zug.  Pop.  3,323  in  I860.  It  is  situateil  in  a 
fertile  plain,  has  a  fine  town-house,  built  in  1674, 
and  a  paper  manufactory. 

BAARLE,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  prov. 
Brabant,  12  m.  SE.  Breda.  Pop.  1,853  in  1861. 
It  gave  its  name  to  Barl^eos,  the  celebrated  lit- 
terateur and  Latin  poet, 

BAB  A  (an.  Lectum)^  a  cape  and  sea-port  town 
of  Asiatic  Turkey,  Anatolia,  22  m.  S.  from  the 
most  southerly  point  of  Tenedos ;  lat,  39*^  30*  5" 
N.,  long.  26°  5'  E.  Near  the  cape  is  the  town, 
small  and  ill-built,  with  about  4,000  inhabitants. 
It  was  formerly  famous  for  a  manufacture  of  knives 
and  sword  blades ;  but,  though  not  entirely  aban- 
doned, this  manufacture  has  greatly  fallen  ofll 
The  port  is  practicable  only  for  small  vessels. 
Ljirge  quantities  of  valonia  are  produced  in  the 
neiglibouring  country.  'Hie  trees,  with  the  fields 
on  which  they  grow,  belong  to  a  multitude  of  in- 
dividuals; one  man  being  the  proprietor  of  five 
trees,  another  of  ten,  and  so  on.  The  right  to 
ex|M»rt  the  valonia  is  a  privilege  annually  con- 
firmed by  a  firman ;  a  less  or  greater  sum  being 
p.aid  to  the  seraskier  by  whom  it  is  obtained. 
(Voyage  du  Due  de  Raguse,  ii  p.  146.) 

BABA-DAGH,  a  to^^-n  of  Turkey  in  Europe, 
prf»v.  Silistria,  near  the  XW.  angle  of  Lake  Ras- 
sein,  which  communicates  with  the  Black  Sea, 
21  m.  S.  Danube.    Estimated  p<»p.  10,000,  con- 


314  BAB-EL-MANDEB  (STRAITS  OF) 

Butin^  of  TartBTRi  Greeks,  Jews,  and  Turks.  It 
is  well  fordfiGd ;  streetA  paved,  but  dirty ;  has  five 
mosques,  two  public  baths,  and  a  colle^^  The 
ground  on  which  it  stands  is  marshy;  and  the 
only  water  fit  for  driiikin|i^  'w  conveyed  to  it  a  dis- 
tance of  al>out  3  m.  by  an  aquetluct.  It  conies 
on  a  considerable  trade  by  menus  of  the  i)ort  of 
Kara  Kerman,  one  of  the  outlets  of  l.*akc  Hussein 
on  the  Black  Sea. 

Bat»ar-I>agh  was  built  by  the  Turkish  sultan 
B^jazet.  It  is  a  place  of  considerable  importance 
in  the  wars  between  Hussia  and  Turkey,  and  ha<« 
sometimes  l)ccn  the  winter  quarters  of  the  grand 
vizier. 

BtVX^EL-MANDEB  (STRAITS  OF),  the  strait 
uniting  the  Indian  Ocean  with  the  Ambic  (iulf  or 
Ked  Sea.  The  distance  across,  from  a  projecting 
cape  on  the  Arabic  shore  to  the  opposite  coast  of 
Africa,  is  about  20  m. :  but  in  the  intermediate 

rce,  though  much  nearer  Asia  than  Africa,  is 
small  uland  of  Perim,  and  some  other  still 
smaller  islands.  Perim  is  in  lat.  12^  35'  30"  N  , 
long.  43°  28'  E.  The  channel  Ix'tween  Perim  and 
the  Arabic  coast,  though  narrower  than  the  other, 
and  the  ciunmt  more  rapid,  is  the  most  frequented 
by  Arabic,  vessels,  probably  because,  being  only 
from  7  to  14  fathoms  deep,  it  allows  of  their  cast- 
ing anchor,  which,  owing  to  its  great  depth,  is 
impracticable  in  the  greater  or  western  channel. 

Bab-el-Mandeb  means  literally  the  gate  of  tears; 
a  designation  it  may  have  derived  either  from  the 
dangers  incident  to  its  navigati(»ii,  or  from  those 
incident  to  the  navigation  of  the  seas  on  either 
side.  , 

BABYLON  (Ba^vAiii.),  or  BABEL  6nn).  » 
city  of  Asia,  cap.  Chaldea,  and  of  the  As^tyrian 
empire,  l)eing  ])robably  the  laigest  city  of  anti- 
quitv,  and  certainly  one  of  the  most  famous. 
]Notning  remains  of  the  ancient  buildings  but 
immense  and  shapeless  masses  of  ruins;  their 
sites  l)eing  partly  occupitfd  by  the  modem  and 
meanly-built  tomi  of  Hillah,  the  cap.  of  a  dis- 
trict, and  the  residence  of  a  l>ey  appointed  by  the 
|Micha  of  Bagdad.  This  town  lies  on  the  W.  bank 
of  the  Euphrates,  and  o<.*cupies  nearly  the  centre 
of  the  S.  part  of  the  old  enclosures;  lat.  32°  28'  30" 
N.,  long.  44<>  9'  45"  E.  Pop.  estimated  at  about 
C/)00,  chietlv  Arabs  and  Jews.  It  is  surrounded 
by  mud  walls  and  a  deep  ditch,  and  has  four  gates, 
lltodem  Babylon,  or  Hillah,  has  a  rude  citadel, 
the  only  public  building  within  the  walls,  except 
a  single  mr^sque,  and  six  or  seven  oratr)ries.  The 
Euphrates,  at  Hillah,  in  its  medium  state,  is  4d0 
ft.  wide,  74  ft.  deep,  and  its  mean  velocity  is  alxiut 
2^  m.  an  hour.  The  whole  surrounding  country' 
is  intcrsecte<l  with  canals.  Tlie  undoubted  anti- 
quity of  many  of  these  works  is  not  a  little  sur- 
prising, considering  the  nature  of  the  soil,  which  ' 
IS  wholly  alluvial,  ami  so  soft  that  the  turning  the  1 
course  of  the  river  by  CynLs  (Herod.  Cli<»,  §  191 ;  . 
Xen.  Cyrop.,  vii.  5),  does  not  appexir  to  Kich  an  ; 
exploit'of  any  groat  difficulty.  (Mem.  17.)  The  j 
Euphrates  annually  overflows  its  banks,  inun- 
dating the  country  for  many  miles  round,  and 
even  rendering  the*  district  beiween  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris  navigable  in  many  places  for  tlat- 
btittomed  l)oatH.  Thw  annual  flood  fills  the  canals, 
and  facilitates  agriculture  in  a  suq)ri»ing  degree. 
The  air  is  salubrious,  and  the  soil  extremely  fer- 
tile, pnnlucing  dates,  rice,  and  grain  of  every 
kind,  in  astonishing  profusion;  but,  in  consequence 
of  the  illegal  and  irregular  exactions  of  the  pnclias, 
and  the  insecurity  to  which  all  kinds  of  pro]>erty 
is  exi)ose<l,  the  inhabitants  exert  no  sort  of  in- 
dustry ;  the  numerous  canals  are  left  dr}'  and  neg- 
lected, except  when  fille<l  s]K>ntaneously  by  tlie 
river;  and  the  small  quantity  of  hmd  that  is  cul- 


BABYLON 

tivated  is  not  half  tilled.  (Nicbuhr,  Vov.  en  Ar.« 
u.  234-237 ;  IJauwolf 's  Travels,  p.  174,  4c ;  Ren- 
nell's  Geog.  Her.,  i.  459,  &c. ;  RicJi's  Mem.  on  Ru. 
liaK,  p]).  1-17;  Mignan's  'lYav.  in  Chaldea,  pp. 
114-122.) 

Such  IB  the  present  state  of  a  city,  once  the 
greatest,  most  magnificent^  and  powerful,  in  the 
world  ;  *the  glorj'  of  kingdoms,  the  beautv  of  the 
Chaldees'  excellency.'  (Isa.  vm,  20.)  Mf'e  need 
say  little  of  the  identity  of  the  site  occupied  by 
the  ancient  and  modem  towns;  this  has  been 
completely  established  by  Major  Rennell.  It  is 
suflicient  to  obser\'c  that  the  traditions  preserved 
by  eastern  i^-riters,  the  universal  belief  of  the 
present  inhabitants,  the  des4:riptions  of  the  ancient 
hii»torians,  and,  above  all,  the  discoveries  by  mo- 
dem travellers  of  stupendous  ruins  answering  to 
those  descriptions, — leave  no  room  or  ground  for 
any  reasonable  doubt  upon  the  subject.  (Henncll, 
i.  459-511.)  The  magnitu<le  assigned  by  ancient 
writers  to  this  celebrated  city  is  so  immimse  as  to 
stagger  belief.  It  was  a  fierfect  square,  and,  ac- 
conling  to  Herodotus,  4(J0  stadia  in  cir.  (Clio, 
§  178.)  Strabo  (p.  738)  gives  the  circ  at  385 
stadia ;  Diodorus  Sicuhts  at  360,  on  the  credit  of 
Ctesias;  but  at  3G5,  on  that  of  Clisarchus,  who 
was  on  the  spot  with  Alexander  (iL  1.).  Quintus 
('urtius  gives  it  at  3(>8  stadia  (v.  1),  and  Pliny 
(vL  20)  at  60  Roman  m.  The  inextricable  ob- 
scurity in  which  the  itinerary  stadium  of  the 
Greeks  is  involved  (sec  Rennell,  i.  17-44)  rendere 
it  exceedingly  wicertain  whether  these  differencea 
are  to  oe  regarded  as  real,  or  as  arising  from  the 
adoption  of  different  standards.  Assuming,  how- 
ever, that  the  same  stadium  is  meant  in  each  case, 
taking  it  at  ita  least  possible  value,  491  fu ;  and 
taking  ab«o  the  measure  of  Diodonts,  the  least  of 
the  whole,  the  area  of  ancient  Babylon,  within 
the  walls,  will  be  found  to  Ik?  upwards  of  72  sq. 
m.,  or  nearly  3^  times  that  of  London  with  all  ita 
suburbs.  If,  at  the  same  value  of  the  stadium, 
the  measure  of  Herodotus,  or  that  of  Pliny,  be 
taken,  the  area  will  amount  to  more  than*124|^ 
sq.  m.,  or  alxiut  5  times  that  of  I^nidon  in  18<>5 ; 
and  finally,  if  the  common  stadium  of  Herodotuf, 
600  Grecian  or  604^  EngU>h  ft.  (Euterpe,  §  149), 
be  adopted,  as  well  as  his  measiurement,  the  area 
will  swell  to  188^  sq.  m.,  or  more  than  seven 
times  that  of  London. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made,  by  comparing 
its  area  with  the  area  and  population  of  modem 
cities,  to  estimate  the  population  of  liabylon.  But, 
on  the  lowest  calculation,  it  would  be  found,  sup- 
posing it  to  have  borne  any  considerable  rcsem- 
olance  to  a  European  city,  to  have  had  a  popula- 
tion of  5,000,000 — a  supiKtsition  to  which  all  but 
insuperable  obstacles  are  opjK)se(L  For,  notwith- 
standing the  amazing  fertility  of  the  surrounding 
country ;  the  fewer  wants  of  its  inhabitants  com- 
pared H-ith  those  of  northern  latitudes ;  and  the 
facilities  afforded  by  the  numerous  canals,  which 
intersct^ted  the  adjoining  provinces,  and  by  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  to  the  iniporlation  of  bulky 
and  distant  products ;  still  there  were  circum- 
stances connected  with  its  situation  and  govern- 
ment sufficient  to  counter\-ail  these  advantages, 
and  to  render  it  all  but  impossible  that  so  vast  a 
population  could  be  supiwrted  >\*ithiu  its  walls, 
i'lie  map  of  iVsiatic  Turkey  shows  that  the  extent 
of  country  round  Babylon  available  for  agricul- 
tural puqM>ses  must  have  been  quite  inadequate 
to  supply  the  ne^-essarj'-  demands  of  the  sup)K>siHl 
population.  The  Babylonian  plain,  fertile  as  it  is, 
IS  soon  lost  in  the  interminable  deserts  of  Sinjar 
and  Arabia;  the  marshes  and  lakes  of  I^wer  Me- 
sopotamia and  l.'haldea  make  a  large  deduction 
even  from  its  fertility;  while,  as  if  wholly  to  ncu- 


BABYLON 


315 


tralise  the  natural  advantages  of  the  city,  the 
Babylonian  monarchs  threw  a  variety  of  obstacles 
in  the  wav  of  commercial  enterprise.  (Her.  Clio, 
§  186.)  fhe  fact  is  universally  admitted,  that  Ba- 
bylon possessed  but  few  pituits  of  resemblance  to  a 
modem  EurojMjan  town.  The  buildings  and  popu- 
lation bore  no  proportion  to  itM  extent,  and,  in  the 
wunls  t)f  Kich,  •  it  would  convey  the  idea  rather  of 
an  cnclosotl  dwtrict  than  that  of  a  reguUr  city.' 
(p.  4iJ.)  Pasture  and  arable  land  was  containetl 
within  the  walb,  sutficicnt,  says  Q.  Curtius  (v.  1), 
Ut  supply  the  wanta  of  all  the  inhabitants.  Thw, 
no  doubt,  is  an  exaggeration ;  but  if,  as  must  have 
lM»cn  the  case,  a  large  jK>rtion  consistetl  of  produc- 
tive ground,  its  pn)duce  might  have  added  consi- 
derably to  the  provisions  it  Was  i)ossible  to  place 
in  store.  Xenophon  affirms,  that  when  the  city 
was  taken  by  C>tus,  it  was  storetl  for  twenty 
years, —  wA«ok  17  »l<coatK  iritv  (Cyroj).  >'iL  o) ;  and 
though  this  may  reasonably  be  considejred  as  much 
beyond  the  mark,  yet,  at  a  sulwequent  period,  it 
actually  did  sustain  a  siege  by  Darius  Hysta.spes, 
of  one  year  and  seven  months,  and  waA  then,  as 
in  the  former  ca.se,  subdued,  not  by  famine,  but 
by  surprise.  (Herod.  Thalia,  152.)  Tliat  only  a 
small  part  of  its  immense  area  was  occupietl  bpr 
buildings  is  therefore  cvitlenU  How  much  is 
another  question,  and  one  which  it  is  impossible 
to  decide.  Perhajw,  on  the  whole,  we  may  esti- 
mate the  j)opulation  of  Babylon  at  from  1,<M)<),()00 
to  1,2(K),<H>U.  This  supjxjhition  derives  supinirt 
fn)m  the  fact  that  Seleucia,  with  a  |)op.  of  G(H),00<), 
is  stated  to  have  been  about  half  the  size  of  Ba- 
bvlon  in  the  days  of  her  greatest  glorj'.  (Strabo, 
xVi.  73i);  Pliny,  vL  U\.) 

But  though  a  {Mipulation  at  all  commensurate 
to  the  magnitude  of  the  city,  calculated  on  a  scale 
of  European  density,  be  thus  improbable,  it  does 
ni»t  follow,  seeing  the  way  in  which  the  area  was 

{)artially  tilled  up,  that  the  magnitude  it»elf  is  to 
)e  discredited.  The  authority  on  wliich  we  must 
mainly  rely  is  of  Herodotus.  Not  only  is  he  the 
earliest  profane  writer  u]M)n  this  subject ;  but  he 
alone,  of  all  the  ancient  historians,  had  the  a<l- 
vantage  of  having  visited  Babylon  in  pereon,  and 
while  it  was  still  in  a  state  of  t(»lerable  pn^'r\'a- 
titm.  Ills  account  of  this  interesting  city  has 
Ixjen,  with  few  exceptions,  amply  c<»m»l>orated  by 
the  testimony  of  succeeding  writers,  as  well  as  by 
the  investigations  of  modem  travellers. 

Herodotus  says  nothing  of  the  foundation  of  the 
city  or  its  founder,  merely  remarking  that,  after 
the  destmction  of  Nineveh,  it  became  the  seat  of 
the  Ass^Tian  empire,  (Clio,  §  179.)  But  even  in 
his  time  it  was  of  considerable  anti(iuity,  and  bil)- 
lical  critics  have  unanimously  referred  its  origin 
to  the  presumptuous  attempt  of  the  early  post- 
diluvians  to  '  build  them  a  city,  antl  a  tower  whose 
top  may  reach  to  heaven.'  (Gen.  xi.  4.)  JtJhephus 
(Antiq.  I.  iv.  3)  expressly  says  that  Nimnxl,  the 
gran(L<on  of  Ham,  was  the  originator  of  this  at- 
tempt; and  to  this  day  the  inhabitants  of  these 
part.M  are  as  fond  of  attributing  everj-  great  work 
to  this  *  mighty  hunter  befi»re  the  Lord,'  as  those 
of  Kg>'pt  iure  of  referring  .»iniilur  works  to  Pharaoh. 
(Kich*,  41 .)  Asshur,  the  tounder  of  Nineveh  ^Gen. 
X.  11  ;  DiwL  Sic.  ii.  1),  having  suUluwl  the  liaby- 
lonian  with  other  sumiunding  ^Mmcn*,  lai(l  the 
fomidations  of  the  Assyrian  empu-e.  A  <h)mestic 
trage<ly,  resembling  in  many  |K>ints  that  of  Dand 
and  Bs'ith^heba,  having  made  liim  the  husl)aiid  of 
.S'niiraniis,  the  stn«ig  mind  and  many  accom- 
plishments of  his  wife  induceil  him,  on  his  death, 
to  leave  her  regent  for  his  son,  though  it  would 
ap|>ear  that  slie  govcmetl  in  her  (»wn  name  till 
hiT  death  (DIihI.  Sic.  ii.  20) ;  and  to  her  was  owing 
most  of  the  grandeur  of  Babylou. 


According  to  Herodotuii,  the  dty  waa  built  on 
both  sides  the  Euphrateii,  the  connection  between 
ita  two  divisions  being  kept  up  by  means  of  a 
bridge  formed  of  wooden  planks  laid  on  stone 
piers.  The  streets  are  descnbed  as  having  been 
parallel,  and  the  houses  from  three  to  four  stories 
m  height.  The  city  was  surroundod  by  a  deep 
and  broad  ditch,  and  by  a  wall  flanked  with 
towers,  and  piereed  by  100  gates  of  brass.  The 
wall  was  built  of  bricks,  formed  from  the  earth 
taken  out  of  the  ditch,  and  cemented  by  a  compo- 
sition formed  of  heate<l  bitumen  and  rcctLs;  the 
former  being  brought  from  Is  (Hit),  on  the 
Euphrates,  about  128  m.  above  Ilabylon.  The 
accounts  of  Babylon  differ  in  the  statements  in 
regard  to  the  height  and  thickness  of  the  wall 
by  which  it  was  surroundetL  Herodotus  savs  it 
was  2(H)  reyal  cubits,  or  alKmt  300  (t.  m03  f>,  G  in.) 
in  height,  and  50  cui)its,  or  75  ft.  thiclc.  Accord- 
ing to  Quintus  Curtius  they  were  only  half  the 
height  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (Curt.  lib.  v. 
cap.  1) ;  and  Stralx)  reduces  them  still  further, 
or  to  50  cubits  or  75  ft.  (lib,  xW.)  Strabo  further 
says,  that  two  chariots  drix'ing  in  contrary  direc- 
tions could  pass  each  other  on  the  summit  of 
the  walls. 

The  temple  of  Jupiter  Belus  (most  probably 
the  Tower  of  Bal>el)  occuj)ie<l  a  central  position 
in  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  city.  Herodotus 
describes  it  as  a  st^uare  tower  of  the  depth  and 
height  of  one  stadium,  ui>on  which,  as  a  founda- 
tion, seven  other  towers  roj^e  in  regular  succession, 
the  last  tower  having  a  I'.rge  cliai)el,  a  magnifi- 
cent couch,  and  a  tal>le  of  s<ilid  gol(L  The  build- 
ing was  ascended  from  without  by  means  of  a 
winding  stair.  The  space  in  which  it  was  built 
was  enclosed  within  walls,  8  stadia  in  cireum- 
ference,  and  consequently  comprising  above  88 
acres.  The  gates  to  the  temple,  which  were  of 
brass,  and  of  enormous  magnitude,  were  seen  by 
Herodotus.  In  the  other  division  of  the  city 
stood  the  royal  palace,  which  seems  to  have  been 
a  sort  of  internal  fortification,  and  was,  no  doubt, 
of  vast  dimensions.     (Clio,  §  181.) 

It  is  diflicult  to  say  to  which  of  the  ancient  build- 
ing the  existing  riuns  are  to  be  ascribed.  The 
princiiMil  of  these  are  the  Kasr,  or  palace ;  the  Mu- 
jellibe,  or  the  overturned ;  and  the  Birs  Neraroud, 
or  tower  of  Ximrod.  These  are  all  of  great  mag- 
nitude, and  are  at  very  considerable  distances 
from  each  other.  The  most  considerable,  the 
Birs  Nemroud,  is  a  mound  of  an  oblong  figure, 
7G2  yanis  in  circumference.  On  its  W.  side  it 
rises  to  an  elevation  of  198  ft.,  and  on  its  sum- 
mit is  a  solid  pile  of  brick  37  ft.  high.  It  con- 
sists entirely  of  brick- work,  and  Niebuhr,  Rich, 
and  Mignan  agree  in  supposing  it  to  be  the 
remnant  of  the  sacred  edifice,  and  identical  with 
the  Tower  of  Bal>eL  (Niebuhr,  iL  230 ;  Rich,  88. 
49,  51,  &c.,  2nd  Mem. /nim.;  Mignan,  202.) 

The  particulars  given  above  of  the  ancient 
state  of  tills  famous  city  have  been  mostly  de- 
rived from  HenKlotiis,  bv  whom,  as  already 
stated,  it  was  visited  after  its  concjuest  bv  Cyrus, 
and  before  it  ha<l  sustamed  any  material  injury. 
But  if  credit  be  given  to  later  and  less  tnist- 
worthy  authorities,  Babylon  had  to  boast  of  still 
more  extraordinary  monuments  tlian  any  pre- 
vioibily  mentione<L  Among  these  mav  be  s|)ecified 
a  tunnel  under  the  Euphrates,  and  the  famous 
hanging  ganlens,  containing  near  four  acres  of 
land,  elevated  far  above  the  level  of  the  city,  and 
bearing  timber  trees  tliat  would  have  done  no 
tliscredit  to  the  Median  forests.  (Diod.  Sic.  ii. 
7,  9,  10;  Strabo,  xvi.  738;  Curt.  v.  1.) 

But  tlierc  are  doubts  as  to  the  existence  of  any 
one  of  these  structures.    Strabo,  who  describes  the 


316 


BABYLON 


luinginf!:  ganlcnfl,  did  not  vuit  Babylon,  and  conld, 
therefore,  proceed  only  on  the  report*  of  othere.  He 
represents  them  as  consistuig  of  a  scries  of  ter- 
races raised  one  above  anotlier  like  scats  in  an 
amphitheatre,  and  resting  on  orclies  and  pillars, 
some  of  the  latter  being  hollow  and  fillcxi  with 
earth.  And  it  is  easy  to  sec  that  structures  of 
considerable  extent  and  altitude  might  have  been 
raised  in  this  way,  and  might  have  afforded  ao- 
commo<iation  for  a  great  variety  of  plants.  Hut 
it  is  hardly  possible  to  8ui)ih>hc,  had  these  gar- 
dens been  of  anything  like  the  magnitude  as- 
cribed to  them,  that  they  should  have  escaj^ed  the 
notice  of  so  curious  an  observer  as  TIenKlotus. 
It  is  also  ver>'  doubtful  whether  the  Babvlonians 
were  not  ignorant  of  the  arch,  antl,  if  so,  the 
difficulties  they  would  have  to  encounter  in  the 
construction  of  the  gardens  would  be  so  much 
the  greater.  On  the  whole,  the  presumption  ap- 
pears to  be,  either  that  the  gardens  did  not  exist 
At  all,  or  that  thev  were  of  such  mo<lerate  dimen- 
Bions  that  their  formation  could  not  be  regarded 
OS  a  work  of  any  extraordinary^  difficulty,  or  likely 
to  arrest  the  attention  of  llenMlotus. 

The  tunnel  below  the  Euphrates,  constnicted, 
we  are  told,  to  enable  Semiramis  to  pass  privately 
between  her  palaces  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
river,  is  mentioned  onlv  by  Diodonis.  Hail  it 
really  existed,  it  would  luive  been  decidedly  the 
most  extraonlinarj*  w(»rk  in  BabyUm,  or,  rather, 
in  the  ancient  world.  But  the  statements  in  re- 
gard to  it  do  not  appear  to  be  entitled  to  much 
regard.  The  obstacles  in  the  wav  of  such  a  work, 
especially  in  the  loose  alluvial  soil  on  which 
Babylon  stood,  were  not  of  a  nature  that  the 
engineers  of  these  days  could  have  overcome. 
Herodotus  des^^ribes  the  bridge  over  the  river, 
which  was  far  less  worthy  of  notice,  and  less  likely 
to  attract  attention  than  the  tunnel.  But  ho  docs 
not  say  a  word  resi)ecting  the  latter,  and  in  this 
reser\'e  he  is  followed  by  Stnibo. 

The  great  works  of  Babylon  were  all  con- 
structed of  brick,  except  the  bridge,  the  stones 
ft»r  which  must  have  been  brr>ught  from  a  dis- 
tance, since  none  are  found  in  the  alluvial  soil 
of  the  country.  The  bricks  are  of  two  kinds, 
sun-dried  and  kiln-dried:  thev  are  much  larger 
than  the  bricks  now  in  use,  and  generally  marked 
with  figures  or  cuneiform  letters.  Straw  or  reeds 
are  mixed  with  the  courses,  and  bitumen,  pro- 
cured from  Is  or  Hit,  is  the  usual  cement,  though 
mortar  and  slime  are  also  frequently  used.  Such 
is  the  extent  of  these  vast  ruins,  that  nearly  all 
the  cities  in  the  neighbourhood  are  built  from  the 
materials  found  there,  and  the  storehouse  seems 
to  be  regarded  as  inexhaustible. 

From  the  death  of  Semiramis,  Babylon  conti- 
nued a  kind  of  second  capital  to  Assyria,  till  the 
revolt  of  Arbaces  and  Boleses  against  Sardana- 
palus,  thirty  generations  later.  1 1  was  subsequent  ly 
sometimes  the  capital  of  the  whole  country,  and 
sometimes  that  of  the  separate  kingdom  of  Baby- 
lonia; but  always  advancing  in  grandeur  and 
prosperity  till  the  days  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  under 
whom  it  may  be  consideretl  as  having  reache<l  its 
zenith.  (Joseph.  Andq.  X.  xL  1.)  In  the  midst 
of  its  glorj',  however,  the  voice  of  the  Jewish 
prophet  was  raise<l  against  it.  The  Median  con- 
quest was  threatened  full  120  years  l>efore  its 
occurrence ;  and  '  this  glory  of'  khigdoms '  was 
doomed  to  the  fate  of  JSodom  and  (iomorrah ;  to 
be  8wei)t  mth  the  l»ei*om  of  destniction ;  to  become 
a  possession  for  the  bittern  and  ]mh)Is  of  water ;  a 
lair  for  the  wild  l)castH  of  the  desert,  doleful  creo- 
tures,  owls,   and  satyrs  (Isa.  xiii.  xiv.  et  pass.)  ; 

Iircdictions,  the  accomplishment  of  which  haslK.'on 
itcral  and  complete.     In  the  rtign  of  Labynetus, 


BACHARACH 

or  Belshazzar,  son  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  Nlto- 
cris,  Cyrus  led  his  army  against  the  city.    Trust- 
iiig  to  their  fortifications,  the  Babylonians  derided 
his  attempt;  but  cutting  a  canal,  he  diverted 
the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  leaving  its  channel 
through  the  town  sufficiently  dr\'  for  the  passage  of 
his  army.    The  same  tiling  had  been  done  on  a 
former  occasion,  by  Nitocris,  t(»  build  the  bridge ; 
but  in  this  instance  an  additional  work  seems  to 
have  been  perf(»nneil  in  the  erection  of  locks  or 
(lams,  to  preserve  the  river  in  its  natural  course 
till  the  verj'  moment  of  attack,  and  thus  prevent 
suspicion  of  his  design  ;  for  had  the  Babylonians, 
says  Herodotus,  been  aware  of  it,  they  might  easily 
have  enclosed  the  Persians,  as  in  a  trap,  and 
effected  their  total  destruction.  Taking  advantage, 
however,  of  a  festal  occasion,  Cyrus  drew  «>fF  the 
waters,  enteretl  the  town  by  suri)rise,  and  captured 
it  almost  without  resistance.     (Xeii.  Cyr.  viL  5  ; 
llen»d.  Clio,  §191 ;  Dan.  v.)    The  sacred  historian 
gives  a  vivid  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
last  Babylonian  king  s|K;nt  the  night  before  his 
death,  and  of  the  awful  warning  \*'hich  preceded 
hw  overthrow.    Babvlon  remained  sul)ject  to  the 
Persian  monarchs  till  the  reign  of  Darius  Hys- 
taspes,  when  it  revolted,  but  was  again  subdued 
by  stratagem.    Darius  took  away  the  gates,  and 
otherwise  injured  the  city,  so  that  its  declension 
may  be  fairly  datetl  from  his  time.     Xerxes  is 
said  to  have  defaced  the  temple  of  Belus  on  his 
return  from  Greece  ;  but  such  were  the  resources 
and  conveniences  of  the  city,  that  it  remained  the 
winter  residence  of  the  Persian  monarchs  for  se- 
veral generations.   It  made  no  resistance  to  Alex- 
ander, who  intended  making  it  the  capital  of  his 
gigantic  empire.    He  contemplated,  also,  the  re- 
st<»ration  of  the  temple ;   and  ha\'inp  employed 
10,000  men  for  two  months,  in  removing  tlie  nib- 
bish,  the  work  was  stopped  by  his  death.  Seleucus 
Nicator,  who,  after  that  event,  became  monarch  of 
Babylonia,  founded  the  city  of  Seleucia,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris,  and  made  it  his  ca]utal.  From 
this  time  the  decline  of  Babylon  was  very  rapid ; 
but  the  mighty  city  which  required  ages  to  rear, 
required  also  ages  in  which  to  i)erish.     It  was  still 
important,  though  in  ruins,  at  the  commencement 
of  the  Christian  a?ra.     (Herodotus,  I'halia,  159  ; 
Strabo,   x\'i  738;  ^Vrrian,  xvi.;   Pliny,   vi.  26.) 
Its  suljsequcnt  history  is  unknown.     It  is  said  to 
have  l)eeii  turned  into  a  hunting-park  by  the  Par- 
thian kuigs,  who  overthrew  the  Seleucidian  dy- 
nasty ;  and  it  Is  probable  that  the  materials  of  its 
vast  buildings  ser>'ed  to  construct  the  newer  cities 
in  its  neighbourhoo(L    It  had  shrunk  to  a  mere 
name  in  the  early  days  of  Arab  greatness  (Kbn. 
Haukel,  70) ;  and  in  the  495th  Hegira,  a.d.  IKU, 
was  founded  the  present  town  of  Hillah.     (Abul. 
Fe<la  Irak,  art.  BabtL)    The  rest  <if  this  once 
famous  district  is  now,  and  has  been  for  age^  a  de- 
solate void ;  its  buildings  masses  of  shapeless  ruins, 
chaimelled  by  the   weather,    and    literally    the 
desolation  which   the  pr«)phet  i)n*dictexl :— *  And 
Babylon  shall  l>ecome  hejips,  a  dwelling  place  for 
(bagons,  an  astonishment,  a  hissing,  without  an 
mhabitant.' 

BACCARAT,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Meurthe, 
cap.  cant.,  on  the  Meurthe,  Iti  m.  SE.  Lunenlle. 
Pop.  4,121  in  IHGl.  This  town  Ls  the  seat  of  the 
nrincipal  manufacture  of  flint  glass  <»r  cr}'stal,  in 
France.  It  was  established  so  far  back  as  17(54  ; 
but  it  did  not  attain  to  any  ver>' considerable  emi- 
nence till  after  the  jH'-ace  of  1815,  when  a  manu- 
facture carried  on  at  Voniche  in  Belgium  was 
transferred  thither.  There  ore  also  cotton  mills, 
and  good  wine  is  grown  in  the  neighbourh<MHl. 

BACHA1{A(,"H,  a  to^\'n  of  Pnis^ia,  pmv.  Khine, 
at  the  foot  of  a  steep  momitain,  on  tlie  left  bank 


BACKERGUNGE 

of  the  Rhine,  25  m.  SSE.  Coblentz,  on  the  railway 
from  Coh^jc  to  Mayenco.  Pop.  1.643  in  1861. 
The  town  i»  surrounded  by  old  waUs,  strengthened 
by  eleven  towers.  Dacharach  i»  a  transla'  ion  or 
corruption  of  Bacchi  ara^  or  altar  of  IJacx'huR,  the 
name  given  to  a  rock  in  the  river,  usually  covered 
with  water,  but  appearing  in  very  dry  season:*,  or 
in  those  most  favourable  to  the  growth  of  the  vine. 
Hence  the  Komans  are  said  to  have  sacrificed  on 
the  n^ck  to  liacchus;  and  its  ap])earance  is  still 
hailed  as  an  omen  of  an  excellent  vintage.  The 
l)est  wine  produced  here  is  known  as  *  Mus- 
kateller.' 

BA(:KEKGUNGE>  a  distr.  of  Hindostan,  prov. 
Bengal,  div.  Dacca,  including  jmrt  of  the  Sunder- 
bunds,  and  the  moutlis  of  both  the  (ianges  and 
Brahma|>ootra ;  having  X.  Dacca,  Jclla|>ore  distr., 
K.  Tipperah  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  S  W.  Jessore ; 
area  3,706  Eng.  sq.  m. ;  estimated  i>op.  734,000  ; 
lan«l  revenue  78,1«0/.  It  is  mostly  covered  with 
jungle,  abounding  with  alligators  and  the  largest 
class  of  tigers;  but  in  partjf  it  is  very  fertile  in 
rice,  it  has  been  noted  for  the  frequency  of  crime, 
C3i)ccially  of  river  piracy  or  dacoity,  the  country 
))re^»cntLug  great  facihties  for  the  shelter  of  the 
culprits.  It  is  subject  to  inundations  that  are 
occasionally  very  destructive. 

BADAJOZ  (an.  Fax  Augvsta)^  a  city  of  Spain, 
cap.  Kstremadura,  near  the  frontier  of  Portugal,  iu 
an  extensive  plain  in  the  angle  between,  and  at 
the  point  (jf  confluence  of,  the  small  river  Kivillas 
with  the  Guatliana:  198  m.  SVV.  Madrid,  13.0  m. 
E.  Lisbon;  laU  3«o  52'  X.,  long.  6*^  11'  W.  Pop. 
23,310  in  1857.  The  castle,  situated  on  a  rock 
overhanging  tlie  confluence  of  the  two  rivers, 
commands  them  and  the  town,  which  is  further 
defended  by  various  very  strong  fortifications. 
The  Guadiana  is  here  crossed  by  a  gtMxl  bridge  of 
twenty-eight  arches,  erected  in  1.>1»6,  and  pro- 
tected* by  a  strong  tele  du  pont.  Street*  narn)w 
and  crooked,  but  they  are  well  pave<l  and  dean, 
and  the  houses  goo(L  It  has  five  gates,  and  a  flne 
promenade  along  the  river,  'lliere  is  a  deficiency 
of  springs,  and  the  supply  of  water  is  derived  from 
rcser>'oirs,  cistoms,  &c  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
and  the  resi<leiicc  of  the  captain-general  of  the 
prov.  The  cathedral  has  some  go<Hl  |mintings, 
esi)ecially  tliose  by  Aiorales,  a  native  of  the  place ; 
and  there  are  several  convents  and  hospitals.  It 
has  manufactories  of  soap  and  coarse  cloth,  with 
tanneries  and  dye-works,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  pretty 
active  trade  (mostly  contraband)  with  PortugaL 

Badaioz  is  very  ancient,  having  been  a  con- 
siderable place  under  the  Komans.  It  has  always 
been  reganletl  a**  a  military  post  of  the  greatest 
irai>ortaiice.  During  the  late  war  with  France,  it 
was  taken  by  the  French  under  Marshal  Soult  on 
tlie  loth  of  Jan.,  iMll ;  the  garrison,  amounting 
to  1.5,000  men,  Ix^roming  prisoners  of  war.  In  the 
course  of  the  same  year  it  was  twice  unsuccessfully 
besieged  by  the  Aiiglo-Portuguese  army.  In  the 
followuig  year  the  siege  was  undertaken  by  the 
army  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington ;  autl,  after 
borae  of  the  outworks  ha<l  been  carried,  it  was 
taken  by  stnrm,  after  a  desperate  resistance,  on 
the  6th  of  A|>ril.  On  tliL*  occasion  the  allied  army 
lost  about  .'>,000  men,  killed  and  woundetl.  The 
glorj-  of  this  brilliant  achievement  was  unhappily 
tarnished  by  the  excesses  commit te<l  by  the  Wc- 
torious  soldiery,  <lespite  every  effort  to  prevent 
them,  on  the  defenceless  inhabitantii  of  the  town. 

BADALON  A,  a  town  of  Sixain,  Catalonia,  within 
a  .sliort  di.staiice  of  the  sea,  with  a  castle;  6  m. 
NE.  Barcelona.  Pop.  'Jjrio  in  18o7.  The  climat« 
is  excellent;  and  the  environs  are  fertile  and 
beautiful. 

itADAUMY,  a  strong  hill  fortress  of  Hindostan, 


BADEN  (GRAOT>  DUCHY  OF)      317 

proy.  Bejapoor,  presid.  Bombay,  55  m.  NE.  Dar- 
war;  lat.  15°  So'N.,  Umg.  760*49'  E.    Pop.  about 
2,500.    It  consisti*  of  fortified  hilLs,  with  a  walled 
town  at  the  bottom,  containing  an  inner  fort.    It 
has  always  been  reckoned  one  of  the  strongest 
hill-fortresses  in  India,  and  successfully  resisted  a 
yrhole  Mahratta  army.    It  was  taken  by  storm  in 
1818,  by  a  division  of  the  army  under  Sir  T. 
Monro.  A  remarkable  chaotic  distribution  of  rockg 
prevails  throughout  the  count  r\'  around  Badaumy 
BADEN  ((;KAND  DUCHY  OF),  in  Germany 
is  bounded  on  the  S.  by  the  Lake  of  Constance 
with  its  two  arms,  the  lakes  Ueherlingen  and  Zdlj 
as  far  as  Stein,  between  which  t(»wn  and  Eglisan, 
the  territories  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  Schaffhauscn 
and  Zurich,  intervene  three  times  between  the 
Bhine  and  the  frontier  of  Baden.    On  the  VV.  tho 
Rhine  forms  the  boundar>'  towards  Switzerland, 
France,  and  Khcnish  Bavaria,  with  the  exception 
of  a  |>art  of  the  territory  of  Basel,  which  lies  upon 
the  right  bank  of  the  fiver.    Towanls  the  X.  the 
territory  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse  and  the 
kingdom  of  Bavana,  and  t4>wards  the  E.  the  king- 
dom of  WUrtemberg  and  Prussia  form  its  boun- 
daries.   It  lies  between  hit,  47^  32'  and  490  47'  N. 
The  surface  is  exceedingly  varied,  the  length  of 
the  grand  duchy  being  about  150  m.  from  N.  to  S.; 
its  breadth,  in  Lower  Khhie  circle,  fnim  the  Rhino 
to  tho  Bavarian  frontier,  being  about  60  m.;  in 
the  Mid<llc  Khine  circle,  from  the  Rhine  to  the 
frontier  of  WUrtemberg,  about  20  m. ;  and  in  the 
Lake  circle,  from  the  same  river  to  the  WUrtem- 
berg frontier,  extending  to  nearly  115  m.;  thus 
fonning  a  long  irregular  figure,  very  njurow  in 
the  centre,  hut  stretching  out  to  some  breadth  at 
the  N.  and  S.  ends.    Tlie  eastern  half  of  this  tract 
of  country  is  entirely  occupied  by  a  mountainous 
tract  extending  from  S.  to  N.,  under  the  deno- 
minations of  the  Black  Forest  and  Odenwald; 
while  the  western  half  extending  from  the  fall  of 
these  mountains  to  the  Rhine  is  partly  an  undu- 
lating, but  along  the  banks  of  that  river,  mostly 
a  level  country. 

•     - 

Mountaint. — The  Black  Forest  stretches  fmm 
the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  where  that  river  forms  the 
Swiss  boundary,  in  a  northern  direction  thr«)ugh 
the  grand  duchy  as  far  as  the  Xeckar,  and  towanis 
the  E.  far  into  the  kingdom  of  WUrteml>erg,  fall- 
ing gradually  in  the  latter  direction  with  prolonged 
offsets,  but  suddenly  and  steeply  towards  the 
valley  of  the  Rhine.  Its  main  stock  is  com|K)sed 
of  gneiss  and  granite,  which  form,  as  in  the  Vosges, 
dome-like  masses,  with  steep  sides,  rising  in  tho 
Feldberg  4.650  ft,,  in  the  Belchen  4,397  ft,  (this 
name  is  analogous  to  the  Ballans  of  the  Vosges), 
and  in  the  llerzogen  Horn  to  4,300  ft,,  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  On  the  granite  red  sandstone  is 
superimposeil,  and  forms  extensive  plateaux,  ca- 
pable of  cultivation  to  a  great  height ;  so  that  not 
only  extensive  forests  cover  these  mountains,  but 
pastures,  and  even  small  villages,  are  found  in 
them  at  an  elevation  of  3,500  and  4,000  ft.  Deep 
valleys,  with  picturesquely  precipitous  sides,  in- 
terse<'t  the  sandstone  layer,  and  pour  rapid  streams, 
for  the  mttst  part  navigable  lor  rafts,  into  the 
Valley  of  the  Rhine.  In  some  hills  as  the  Knie- 
bigs,  for  instance,  the  sandstone  appears  to  form 
compact  isolated  masses.  2.  The  bed  of  the  Nec- 
kar,  which  divides  the  Black  Forest  (Schwarzii^'ald) 
range  from  the  Odenwald,  is  also  of  sandstone, 
which  alternates  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  grand 
duchy  with  blue  limestone  and  marL  The  prin- 
cipal mass  of  the  Odenwald  is  likewise,  acconling 
to  Kefeistein  (from  whose  work  we  take  these 
details),  composed  of  sandstone,  little  interrupted 
by  the  rise  of  the  granite.  The  highest  summit, 
the  Katzenbuchcl,  2,180  ft^  lies  in  Baden;  but 


318 


the  greater  part  of  the  chain  belongs  to  the  grand 
duchy  of  Hesse.  Like  the  Black  Forest,  these 
heights  fall  steeply  towards  the  Khinef  and  along 
the  foot  of  the  range  the  Berastraase^  fn>m  Ileidcl- 
bexg  to  Frankfort,  a  road  celebrated  for  picturesque 
mountain  scenery,  uniting  with  the  rich  luxu- 
riance of  vegetation  of  the  valley,  has  been  carried. 
8.  The  Kaiserstuhl,  in  the  circle  of  the  Upper 
Khine,  is  formed  of  a  clump  of  heights  of  volcanic 
origin,  separated  from  the  Black  Forest  by  the 
Dreisam  and  the  Klz.  On  the  rock,  called  the 
Todtenko[)f  (death's  head),  a  tradition  teUs  us 
that  Kodolph  of  Ilapsbuiig  held  a  court  of  justice, 
whence  the  name  of  KaUterstuhl  (empen)r's  chair) 
is  derived.  The  highest  point  is  1,763  Paris  ft,  in 
elevation.  4.  A  range  of  steep  hilU,  stretching  from 
the  Rhine,  near  Schaffhaui«en,  along  the  W.  and 
N.  shores  of  the  Lake  of  Constance,  is  named  the 
Kanden.  The  dominant  formation  of  these  hills 
is  limestone;  the  highest  point  is  2,527  ft.  in 
height.  They  run  into  the  Black  Forest  on  the 
W.  and  X.,  and  on  the  NE.,  into  the  hilly  district 
of  Nellenbuig  and  Hegan.  The  last  named  ele- 
vations are  composed  of  Jura  limestone,  in  which 
the  basalt  and  other  isolated  volcanic  rocks  of 
Ilohendwyl,  IIohenstofTeln  and  Ilohenhawen  oc- 
cur. 5.  I^mally,  the  Heiligenbeig,  a  rough  and 
sterile  tract,  rises  NE.  of  tlie  Lake  of  Ciinstance, 
and  slopes  down  towards  it«  banks  ;  on  its  summit, 
2,200  ft.  high.  Prince  Furstcnbeig  has  a  hunting 
seat,  from  which  there  is  a  line  view  of  the  lake 
and  the  Swiss  mountains. 

Rivers. — ^The  principal  river  of  the  grand  duchy 
is  the  Rhine,  which  receives  all  it;*  streams  ex- 
cept the  Danube.  After  lotdng  itself  in  the  Lake 
of  Constance,  at  a  distance  of  100  m.  fh)m  its 
source,  it  reappears  as  a  rapid  stream  near  Stein, 
where  its  breadth  is  250  ft,  and  works  ita  way 
through  limestone  rocks  to  Schaifhatisen,  a  little 
below  which  place  it  falls  over  a  precipice  from 
50  to  ()0  ft.  in  height.  Near  Laufenburg  the  bed 
narrows  to  a  width  of  only  60  ft,  forming  a  rapid 
scarcely  inferior  in  grandeur  of  effect  to  the  cele- 
brated fall  at  Schafmausen.  At  Khehifelden  the 
rockv  ravines  in  its  bed  form  a  violent  eddy,  and 
all  these  obstacles  preclude  the  possibility  of  ren- 
dering the  stream  navigable  above  Basel,  from 
which  city  onward  it  takes  a  northerly  and  tran- 
quil course.  Its  breadth  at  l^el  is  toO  ft ;  but 
its  depth  is  by  no  means  proiwrtionate  to  this  ex- 
tent of  surface,  the  stream  being  in  many  spots  no 
more  than  3  ft  deep,  while  \Xa  greatest  average 
depth,  l)etwecn  Basel  and  Strasburg,  does  not 
exceed  10  to  12  ft  At  Mannheim  the  bed  of  the 
river  is  1,000  ft.  in  breadth ;  but  its  average  depth 
between  Strasbuig  and  Mavence  varies  between 
6  ft,  and  24  ft,  Tlie  fall  of  the  Rhine  between 
Stein  and  Basel  is  stated  by  Ilennitsch  to  be  703 
Paris  ft,  and  l)etween  Basefand  Mannheim  494  ft. 
The  navigation  on  the  Rhine  is  the  most  im- 

G)rtant  of  all  the  inland  water  carriage.  Between 
asol  and  Strasburg  boats  of  25  to  30  tons  are 
used,  and  between  the  latter  city  and  Mainz  barges 
of  120  tons  burden.  Steamlx'>ats  go  up  to  Basel, 
notwithstanding  the  islands  and  banks  formed  by 
the  shifting  of  the  river's  bed,  and  the  uncertainty 
of  its  depth,  which  varies  after  every  flood.  The 
Rhine  is  spanned  by  stone  bridges  at  Khcl  and  at 
Mannheim,  besidcsseveral  flying  bridges. 

The  greater  number  of  the  streams  falling  into 
the  Rhine  on  its  right  bank  descend  from  the 
Klack  Forest  with  so  rapid  a  fall  that  but  few  of 
them  are  navigable  even  for  forest  raftA.  Tlie 
most  considerable  are  the  Wielwich,  which,  during 
part  of  its  course,  forms  the  frontier  of  the  canton 
of  Schaffhausen ;  the  Wiesen,  which  falls  into 
the  Rhine  below  Basel,  tlic  Elz,  the  Kiozig,  wliich 


BADEN  (GRAND  DUCHY  OF) 

joins  the  Rhine  near  Kehl,  and  the  Murg.  Tlie 
two  last  named  streams,  on  which  the  greatest 
quantity  of  timber  and  tirewoo<l  is  floated  down, 
have  a  fall  of  nearly  3,000  ft.,  in  a  course  not  ex- 
ceeding 60  English  miles.  The  largest  accessi4»n 
which  the  Rhine  receives  during  its  course  through 
the  grand  duchy  is  the  Xeckar,  which  has  its 
source  in  Wttrtcmberg  in  the  Black  Forest  and 
after  traversing  that  kingdom,  enters  Baden  at 
Heinsheim.  It  is  navigable  for  boats  from  Cann- 
stailt  near  Stuttgart,  l)elow  which  place  it  is  joineti 
bjy  the  Rems,  the  Kocher,  and  the  Jax  on  its 
right,  and  the  Enz  on  its  left  bank :  it  falls  into 
the  Rhine  near  Mannheim. 

2.  The  Maine  forms  the  frontier  towards  Ba- 
varia, but  for  a  short  distance,  and  receives  the 
Taulier  at  Wertheim.  Its  depth  is  n<»t  great  but 
is  regular;  and  its  gentle  fall,  which  is  assiste<l 
by  the  numerous  windings  of  its  bed,  renders  its 
current  well  adapted  to  navigation. 

3.  The  Danul>e,  whose  sources  are  in  the  grand 
duchy,  leaves  the  territory  bef(»re  it  assumes  any 
greater  im{)ortance  than  that  of  a  mountain 
stream.  Its  most  westerly  source  Ls  that  of  the 
Brcge,  Ix^tween  the  Rossuk  and  Briglein,  in  the 
Black  Forest,  a  few  miles  NVV.  Furtwangen.  It 
is  Joined  a  little  above  Donaneschingen  by  the 
Bnzach,  and  into  their  united  streams,  which 
from  that  p<»int  bear  the  name  of  Danu1)e,  the 
waters  fall,  wliich,  issuuig  from  the  springs  in  the 
castle-yard  of  this  t<mTi,  claim  the  honour  of 
being  the  original  sources  of  the  great  river.  After 
traversing  a  small  district  of  Wttrtemlierg,  the 
Danuln?  once  more  enters  the  territxiry  of  Bailen, 
and  finally  leaves  it  atGutcnstcin  on  the  frontiers 
of  Sigmariugen. 

TIic  natural  facilities  for  internal  na\4gation  in 
the  grand  duchy  l)end  for  the  most  part  towanls 
the  W.  and  N.,  and  merge  into  one  grand  channel, 
the  Rhine.  With  the  exception  of  some  cuts  to 
regulate  the  course  of  this  river  between  Kehl 
and  Mannheim,  the  execution  of  which  is  regu- 
lateil  by  a  treaty  with  Bavaria,  acconling  to 
which  those  on  the  left  bank  are  managed  by 
Baden,  and  those  on  the  right  bank  by  3ie  Ba- 
varians, no  navigable  canals  exist  in  the  grand 
duchy. 

The  I^kc  of  Constance  is  an  important  feature 
in  the  natural  facilities  for  water  communication. 
Part  of  its  northern  bank,  from  Immenstadt  to 
Mersberg,  together  with  the  whole  shore  of  its 
northern  branch,  the  Weberlingen  See,  and  the 
north  shore  of  the  Zeller  See,  with  the  city  of 
Constance  on  its  southern  shore,  belong  to  Baden. 
A  considerable  trade  with  Switzerland  is  carried 
on  across  it,  and  the  introduction  of  steamboats, 
which  keep  up  a  daily  communication  between 
Constance,  I^indau,  and  Rolirschach,  in  Switzej- 
land,  has  made  it  a  convenient  ])assage  for  travel- 
lers. ITie  whole  lake  with  its  branches  contains, 
acconling  to  Hennitsch,  an  area  of  0^  German 
sq.  m.,  and  its  deepest  part,  iKJtwcen  Constance 
and  Lindau,  is  85^  Paris  ft.  Its. level  above  the 
sea  is  1,255  ft,  but  at  the  perioil  of  the  melting  of 
the  snow  its  waters  rise  as  much  as  10  ft  A  sud- 
den swell,  which  takes  place  at  other  times,  and 
which  is  termed  the  Rnhss,  w  not  easily  accounted 
for.  The  lake  is  not  unfrequently  frozen  over  in 
winter,  and  in  1830  horsemen  and  carriages  passcHl 
over  it.  The  Ilmcn  See,  near  Pfullendorf,  m  the 
Lake  circle,  and  the  Making  See,  are  rather  fish- 
ponds than  lakes;  and  the  various  meres  in  the 
Black  Forest,  which  are  found  at  considerable 
elevations,  the  largest  of  which  are  the  Feldsee 
at  3,101  ft.,  the  Tittisee  2,598  ft,  the  Mummelsee 


3,130  ft.,  the  Nonnenniattweilir  2,845  ft,,  and  the 
Eichncr  Sec  1.494  Paris  ft  above  tlie  sea,  are 


BADEN  (GRAND  DUCHY  OF) 


819 


neither  interesting  for  their  extent,  nor  for  pic- 
turesque scenery.  The  last-mentioned  lake  (iries 
up  occasionally,'  so  that  com  is  sown  in  its  bed ; 
and  in  the  Nonnenmatt  a  floating  island  of  turf 
rises  and  falls  with  the  water  which  supports  it. 

Climate. — The  climate  in  the  mountainous  parts 
of  the  duchy  is  very  severe,  the  snow  lying  in 
some  sitiuitions  for  the  greater  part  of  the  ^ear. 
But  in  the  lower  districts,  especially  along  the 
Rhine,  tlie  Neckar,  and  the  Maine,  the  tempera- 
ture is  mild  and  genial,  being  suitable  for  the 
growth  of  vines,  chestnuts,  and  even  almonds. 
The  country  is  everywhere  healthy. 

Obser\'ations,  as  to  the  fall  of  rain,  give  a  mean 
at  Freiburg  of  28  in.  per  aimum.  In  Carlsruhe  i 
the  mean  variations  or  the  weather  arc,  23  clear, 
80  sunshine,  161  mixed,  42  partial  cloudy,  54 
cloudy  days  in  the  year.  Rain  falls  146,  snow  26, 
and  fogs  occur  on  12  days.  The  mean  direction 
of  the  winds  Is,  in  Carlsruhe,  S.  88°  W.  or  nearly 
W.,  in  Mannheim  N.  65<^  W.  Thunderstorms  in 
Carlsruhe  occur  on  26,  at  Mannheim  on  21  days 
the  year. 

Production*. — Before  the  accession  of  the  grand 
duchy  to  the  Germanic  Customs'  League,  the  at- 
tention of  the  inhabitants  of  the  valleys  of  the 
Rhine  and  Neckar  was  almost  exclusively  dcvotetl 
to  agriculture,  for  which  the  soil  and  climate  of 
those  district^)  is  admirably  adapted.      Corn  is 
grown  with  great  success;  the  average  return 
given  for  the  wfuAe  state  bv  Berghaus  being,  for 
barley  8  to  9  fold,  wheat  9  fold,  maize  340  to  350 
fold,  potatoes  28  to  30  fold.    The  slopes  of  the 
hills  are  everj'where  covered  with  vineyards,  in 
which  excellent  wine  is  grown,  although  only  the 
N.  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Constance  and  part  of  the 
vale  of  the  Rhine  have  a  S.  declivity;  and  here 
the  vicinity  of  the  Alps,  the  Jura,  and  the  Black 
Forest,  diminish  the  warmth.    Between  the  vines, 
the  walnut,  chestnut,  peach,  apricot,  plum,  and 
cherry  trees  produce  abundantly  the  choicest  fruit ; 
and  the  valleys  above  mentioned  resemble  one 
beautiful  ganlen.    Tobacco,  hemp,  of  a  very  fine 
description,  and  flax,  are  extensively  cultivated ; 
and  the  forests  send  annually  a  large  quantity  of 
excellent  fir  and  oak  timber  down  the  Rhine. 
Mining  is  also  carried  on  with  partial  success. 
Silver  is  found  at  St.  Anton,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Kinzig;  copper  at  Kork  and  Neustadt;  iron  Is 
produced  at  Kandern,  near  Waldshut,  near  Hansen, 
and  in  other  parts  of  the  Black  Forest ;  manganese 
is  dug  near  Villingcn ;  salt  in  two  chief  beds  at 
Rappenau  in  the  circle  of  Lower  Rhine,  and  at 
Durrheim,  in  the  Lake  circle.    Coals  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  OflTenburg ;  besides  alum,  vitriol,  and 
sulphur,  form  the  princijial  mineral  productions. 
Upwanls  of  sixty  mineral  springs  are  counted  in 
the  grand  duchy.    The  thermal  springs  of  Baden 
are  those  which  are  the  best  known  and  the  most 
used  for  medicinal  puqxises. 

The  grand  duchy  is  divided  into  four  circles,  the 
area  of  which,  and  population,  at  two  i)eriods,  is 
shown  in  the  subjoined  table  : — 


1,005,899.  The  numbers  augmented  at  a  rate  of 
rather  less  than  10,000  souu  annually,  till  the 
year  1846,  when  there  was  a  period  cii  decrease, 
extending  till  1855.  From  1846  till  1849,  the  de- 
crease amounted  to  4,712;  from  1849  to  1852,  to 
8,282 ;  and  from  1852  to  1855,  to  the  large  number 
of  42,105,  or  14,035  per  annum.  Since  1855,  there 
has  been  again  a  gradual  increase. 

The  decUne  ofpopulation  has  been  chiefly  owing 
to  emigration.  Prom  1840  to  1849,  the  number  of 
emigrants  was  23,966,  and  from  1850  to  1855,  it 
rose  to  62,444.  In  the  year  1852,  no  less  than 
14,366  people  left  the  country;  in  1858,  the  num- 
bers were  12,932,  and  in  1854  thev  rose  to  21,561. 
Most  of  the  emigrants  were  families  possessed  of 
some  property.  It  was  ascertained  that  the  emi- 
grants of  1853  carried  with  them  property  amount- 
ing to  1,923,903  -florins,  or  rather  more  than  100 
florins — 8/.  Is. — per  hea(L  The  great  majority  of 
the  emigrants  went  to  North  America ;  but  about 
two  per  cent,  were  induced,  previous  to  1856,  to 
go  to  the  French  settlements  in  Algeria.  The 
result  of  this  Algerian  emigration  proved  so  dis- 
astrous that  it  has  been  discontinued. 

iJe/i^ruwi.— The  census  of  1861  showed  896,683 
Roman  Catholics;  445,593  Protestants;  1,221 
Mennonites;  1,749  other  Christian  Dissenters; 
and  24,099  Jews.  The  ecclesiastical  management 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  under  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Freiburg,  who  is  appointed  by  the  pope, 
and  quite  independent  of  the  grand-ducal  govern- 
ment. A  standing  feud  between  church  and  state 
has  been  the  result  of  this  independence. 

Agriculture, — The  cultivated  land  is  divided 
as  follows : — 


ClrelM 

An*  in  EDg. 
Sq.  Win 

PopoUtlon 

1868 

19^,249 
33«.46'> 
4.'i7,3-'7 
346,911 

1861 

Lake   .    .    . 
Upper  Rliino 
Middle  Rhine 
Lower  Rhine 

Total .    . 

1,303 

1,633 
1,314 

198,160 
34.').913 
469,782 
355,436 

6,904 

l,335,9,'i2 

1,369,291 

Armh.  Land,  |    Col.  Mm-      Coromona, 
En^.  AcTM  |dowa,lnAem  tte.  parteulL 

FoTMto 

Vlii«7«rds 

1,212,901      360,791    1    801,826 

1,153,800 

60,561 

The  produce  is  stated  to  amount  to— 


Total 
Proituceof 

Corn. 
Qnaitm 


:i, 728,965^  620,000 


PotatoM. 
Quartcn 


WlM. 

In  Gall. 


13,469,336 


Hnnpi. 
Quintals 


48,000 


Tobaceo. 
Quiuiala 


90,000 


Hops. 
Qntntalt 


10,000 


Tlie  population  of  Baden  has  not  greatly  in- 
creased since  the  year  181C,  when  it  amounted  to 


Of  the  Cerealia,  wheat  is  grown,  but  in  a  small 
proportion,  not  exceeding  l-30th  of  the  whole. 
Spelt  is  the  grain  of  which  bread  is  princiiwUy 
made.   Maixe  is  extensively  cultivated,  but  chiefly 
as  green  food  for  cattle,  lieing  sovm  thick,  and 
allowed  to  run  up  to  a  great  height.    Artificial 
grasses  and  turnips  are  in  univeraal  use  in  the 
vale  of  the  Rhine,  in  which  agriculture,  on  the 
whole,  is  carried  on  upon  the  best  scale,  and  far 
exceeding  the  cultivation  of  any  other  part  of 
Germany.     The  meadows  are  irrigated  in  the 
Italian  stvle,  which  the  numerous  mountain  rilla 
assist,  while  the  corn-fields  are  interspersed  with 
coimtless  fruit-trees,  and  even  the  b(^  are  sur- 
lounded  with  plants  of  hemp,  sown  singly,  which 
attain  a  remarkable  height  and  thickness.    The 
best  descriptions  of  wine  are  those  of  the  Ortenaa 
and  of  the  valleys  of  the  Maine  and  Neckar.    The 
JfClingenberper  and  Wertheimer  grovrths  are  those 
most  admired.    The  produce  of  timber  and  fire- 
wood is  estimated  at  978,000  cubic  fathoms,  of 
which  a  lar^  portion  is  sent  down  the  Rhine  to 
the  ship-builders  of  Holland,  and  is  knovm  by  the 
name  of  Hollctntlerholz.    Masts  of  150  ft.  in  length, 
and  oaks  of  the  choicest  groMrth,  are  yearly  felled 
in  great  numbers  for  exportation  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Rhine. 

The  number  of  head  of  cattle  in  the  grandduchv, 
in  1861,  amounted  to  72^17  horses,  621,486  homed 


320 

cattle,  177,322  sheep,  and  307,198  ])ig8.  Of  the 
sheep,  about  one-fifth  are  de^ifnuited  as  Spanish 
merinoos,  and  the  rest  as  impnjvcd  breeds.  The 
number  of  beehives  in  18()I  amountcsl  to  25,047. 
An  agricultural  association  at  Oarlsruhe  has 
branches  in  several  other  towns,  and  prizes  are 
annually  distributed  to  encourage  improvements. 

Mining  and  Manufactures. — (Jold-washing  was 
formerly  a  principal  object  of  industry  along  the 
Rhine,  fn>ra  Basel  to  Mannheim ;  it  is  now  con- 
fined to  the  district  between  Philirwburg  and  Wit- 
tenweier.  The  minei*  of  Teufelsgrand  yieltled 
formerly  a  small  supply  of  silver,  but  which  seems 
now  exhausted.  The*  mines  of  St  Anthony  in 
the  valley  of  the  Kinzig,  produce  silver  and  colwdt 
ore.  The  salt  springs  are  the  most  productive 
mineral  branches,  the  two  priiici)>al  ones  j-ieUling 
800,000  c^'ts.  aimually.  Since  the  accession  of 
Baden  to  the  Pnissian'Customs'  Jyeague  the  num- 
ber of  factories  has  very  much  increase<L  In  1829 
the  grand  duchy  numl)ered  161  fabrics,  with  2,750 
workmen.  At  the  end  of  1837  the  number  was 
294,  with  9,281  workmen,  and  the  census  of  1861 
showed  6,859  factories,  employing  64,862  work- 
men. The  principal  manufacturing  undertakings 
are  cotton-spinning  and  weaving  establishments. 
The  forest  and  mountain  tracts,  which  occupy  half 
the  countr>',  scarcely  supply  fo<Hl  for  their  scanty 
inhabitants,  whose  manutacturcs  of  clocks,  wcMnien 
toys,  straw  hats,  lace,  and  embn)idery,  have  been 
sent,  from  a  long  date,  into  all  i>arts  of  Europe. 
The  nimiber  of  wooden  clocks  annually  exported 
is  estimated  to  amount  to  500,000,  besides  musical 
snuff-boxes,  barrel-orpns,  and  other  articles  for 
which  the  forests  furnish  the  materials. 

The  subjoined  table  shows  the  nature  of  the 
manufacturing  establishments  in  the  grand  duchy, 
together  with  the  number  of  hantls  employed, 
according  to  the  official  returns  of  the  year  1861: — 


BADEN  (GRAND  DUCHY  OF) 


Faetorld       Workmen 

Bplnning 

Weaving,  Cloth,  Ribbon  Manu- 
factures       .... 

Metals,  Iron  Workg,  &c. 

Metal  Wares    .... 

Mineral  and  Mixed  Goods  for 
Indusitrial  and  DomeBtlc  Use 

Vegetable  and  Animal  Pro- 
ductR  for  Industrial  and  Do- 
mestic Use   .... 

Wooden  Wares,  Paper,  and 
Hardware     .... 

Articles  of  Consumption 

Other  Factories       .       • 

193 

215 

38 

198 

909 

1,314 

813 

8,678 

6 

6,216 

27,382 

M)'2 

7,175 

8,798 

2,746 

3,341 

13,585 

117 

64,802 

Total      ^       •       •       . 

0,859 

Of  the  total  number  of  families  in  the  grand 
duchy  about  42  per  cent  are  employed  exclu- 
aively  in  agriculture  and  the  forests. 

The  prosperous  state  of  the  agricultural  popula- 
tion has  necessarily  acted  favourably  upon  other 
branches  of  industry.  The  building  trade  espe- 
cially has  very  much  increased,  both  in  the  coun- 
try and  in  the  towns. 

Domestic  and  manual  industry,  which  had 
considerably  fallen  ofif  in  consequence  of  the 
rapid  development  of  the  factory  svstem,  has 
very  much  reWved  of  late  years.  The  Baden 
government,  convinced  of  the  many  advantages 
which  domestic  industrj  possesses  over  the  latter 
system  as  regards  the  health  and  moral  condition 
of  the  indiLMtrial  population,  have  done  much  in 
the  last  ten  yearo,  and  are  still  cngagetl  in  pro- 
viding the  best  means  for  improving  the  condition 
of  domestic  manufacturers  by  the  establishment  of 
Industrial  schools  and  tlic  general  diffusion  of 


scientific  knowledge.  (Report  of  Mr.  Baillie,  Ilef 
Majesty's  Secretary  of  Legation,  dated  Carlsmhc, 
February  15,  1864.) 

Form  of  Government. — Tlie  constitution  of  Ba- 
den vests  the  exeaitive  p(m-cr  in  the  grand-dukc, 
and  the  legislative  authority  in  a  house  of  parlia- 
ment composed  of  two  chambers.  The  upper 
chamber  comprises  the  princes  of  the  reigning 
line  who  are  of  age;  tlie  heads  of  ten  noble 
families ;  the  pniprietors  of  herwlitar\'  landed  es- 
tates worth  300,000  florins,  or  t>5,000/. ;  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  archbishop  of  Freiburg ;  the  super- 
intendent of  the  Protestant  Church ;  two  deputies 
of  universities;  and  eight  members  nominate! 
by  the  pjand-duke,  without  regard  to  rank  or 
birth.  The  second  chaml)er  is  composed  of  63 
representatives  of  the  people,  22  of  which  are 
electe<l  by  bui^gesscs  of  t4)wns,  and  41  bv  the  in- 
habitants (►f  rural  district^).  Every  citizen  not 
convicted  of  crime,  nc»r  recciWng  paiish  relief,  has 
a  vote  in  the  elections.  To  Ikj  a  deputy,  it  is 
necessary  to  possess  tax-pajing  property  to  the 
amount 'of  10,(M)0  florins,  or  833/.;  or  to  hold  a 
public  ofiice  with  a  salary  of  not  less  than  1,500 
florins,  or  125/.  The  elections  are  indirect;  the 
citizens  nominating  the  Walilmftnner,  or  deputy- 
electors,  and  the  btter  the  representatives.  The 
members  of  the  second  chamlKT  are  elected  for 
eight  years.  The  chambere  have  to  be  called  to- 
gether at  least  once  every  two  years. 

Public  Revenue  and  Expenditure, — The  chief 
income  of  the  state  is  derived  from  direct  taxes. 
The  direct  taxes  are  levied  as  follows : — The  land- 
tax  upon  the  estimated  value  of  all  lands,  calcu- 
lated according  to  sales  of  landed  property  in 
each  district  at  two  periods,  viz.  between  the 
years  1780-90  and  1800-9,  half  the  average  price 
of  the  district  in  the  one  period  being  added  to 
half  the  price  in  the  second,  and  all  lands  being 
classed,  according  to  their  quality,  in  several 
classes.  The  rent  and  revenue  tax  is  levied  upon 
all  dues  payable  by  landholders  to  their  lords, 
whether  as  rent  or  sendee  dues.  The  capital  taxefl 
is  calculated  at  25  vears'  purchase  for  tithes,  and 
18  years'  purchase  for  other  dues  ;  and  the  cost  of 
collection  is  deducted.  The  house  tax  is  rated 
acconling  to  a  scale  of  the  value  of  each  tenement, 
between  the  years  1800  and  1809.  Tlie  whole  of 
these  direct  taxes  pnxluced  above  seven  millions 
of  florins  in  the  year  18G2.  The  subjoined  state^ 
ment  gives  the  total  public  income  and  expendi- 
ture for  this  period. 

Incoub  for  the  Year  1862. 


Florins 

Produce  of  Crown  Lands 

.       1.345,724 

ForestR  and  Mines . 

.       2,552.921 

Dirwt  Taxes  . 

.       7.<IS4,942 

Salt  Monopoly 

.       1,4:W,503 

CoKtomH 

.      3,o:iS,959 

Few  and  Fines 

733,943 

Mint 

822,009 

Mifwdlaneons  Income 

122,071 

Total 


17,140,1 92  or  £1,428,349 


EXPENDirURE  FOR  THE  YEAR  1862. 

Florint 

Civil  List        ....  752,490 

Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs  .         117.2»0 

„       of  Justice         .        .      1,311.398 

„       of  the  Interior         .      2,134,489 

„      of  Commerce    .        .      1,305,580 

„      of  Finances      .        .         700,524 

„      of  War     .        .        .      2,918,318 

Public  Debt    ....      1.322,348 

Oencral  Cost  of  Administration  5,5t;4.733 

MiM?cl1aneou8  Expenses         .         247,992 

Total       ....    16,411,072  or  £1,367,589 
WHiich  left  a  surplus  of  729,120  florins,  or  00,760/: 


BADEN  (GRAND  DUCHY  OF) 

The  public  debt  of  Baden  consisted  on  Jan.  1, 
18G1,  of— 

Florinf 

Debt,  secnrod  on  the  Crown 
Lands,  &c,  bearing  no  In- 
terest   15,878,761 

Interest-bearing  Debt    .        .    24,625,408 

liailway  Debt  (of  which 
3,262,559  bearing  no  Interest  55,780,202 


BADEN 


321 


Total 


96,284,371  or  £8,023,698 


Army. — The  armed  force  of  the  grand  duchy  is 
formed  by  conscription.  Substitution,  however,  Ls 
allowed ;  the  government  undertaking  the  charge 
of  the  same  at  a  fixed  cost.  In  1862,  the  price 
was  tixed  by  the  minister  of  war  at  550  florins,  or 
46/,,  for  the  troops  of  the  infantrj';  and  to  600 
florins,  or  50/.,  for  the  cavalrj'  and  artillery.  The 
time  of  senice  is  six  years  in  the  active  army,  and 
two  years  further  inscription  among  the  troops  of 
the  reser\'e.  But,  as  a  rule,  about  three-fourths  of 
the  time  is  allowed  to  be  passed  on  furlough. 

The  nominal  strength  of  the  army  consisted,  in 
18G2,  of— 


5  Regiments  of  Infantry 
2  „  of  Dragoons 

1  „  of  Artillery 

Staff,  to.     . 


10,907  men 
1,870    „ 

2,077    „    with  38  gmis 
65     .. 


Total 


14,919  men,  with  38  guns 


The  actual  num>)er  of  men  under  arms,  *  on  the 
peace-fmiting,'  seldom  amounts  to  more  than  be- 
tween 7,000  and  8,000.  In  the  year  1859,  when 
the  German  Diet  ordered  the  *  war-footing,'  the 
army  mustered,  on  an  inspection,  20,722  men, 
with  5.209  hors«*  and  57  pieces  of  onlnance. 

Public  Education  and  Poor-laws. — Education  is 
compulsory  in  Baden ;  and  parents  are  compelled, 
by  strictly  enforced  penalties,  to  send  their  chil- 
dren to  schooL  It  is  prohibited  also  to  employ 
children  in  factories,  until  they  have  complet«l 
their  eleventh  year.  In  1861,  there  was  one  school 
for  every  530  of  the  population.  The  university  of 
Heidelberg  has  a  faculty  for  Lutheran,  and  Frei- 
bui^  one  for  Roman  Catholic  theological  students. 
The  former  had,  in  1860,  63  professors  and  937 
students;  and  the  latter,  215  students.  The  uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg  is  one  of  the  oldest  esta- 
blished in  Germany  ;  it  was  founded  in  1386 ;  that 
of  Freiburg  in  1454. 

There  are  numerous  charitable  institutions  for 
the  poor,  kept  up  by  private  efforts,  and,  as  a  rule, 
each  parish  maintauis  those  which  are  unable, 
through  old  age  or  illness,  to  gain  their  subsistence. 
Since  the  year  1851,  the  decrease  of  pauperism  has 
been  gradual  and  constant,  owing,  in  part,  to 
extensive  emigration.  In  addition  to  the  regu- 
larly organisetl  maintenance  of  the  poor  by  their 
own  parishes,  all  classes  of  civil  and  religious 
functionaries  have  sulwcription  funds  for  provid- 
ing for  orphans  and  widows,  and  sa^•ings'  banks 
are  general,  to  encourage  providence  amongst 
the  lower  classes.  Ik'vond  these  institutions  no 
formal  p^(»^'isi(^n  is  made  for  the  pH>r,  whose  mo- 
derate habits  keep  them  fn>m  being  burdensome. 
In  the  larger  towns,  subsidiary'  relief  Lh  generally 
given  in  the  sha|)e  of  foo<I,  clothing,  or  fuel,  from 
voluntar>'  subscriptions  raLse<l  by  the  inhabitants. 
The  regulations  as  reganLs  settlement  in  the  com- 
munes were  very  despotic  until  the  year  1862, 
when  nearly  all  the  old  municipal  restrictions,  as 
well  as  the  power  of  guilds,  were  swept  away  by 
n<'W  laws,  which  introduced  '  Gewerl)e-Freiheit,' 
or  industrial  freedom.  Foreigners  and  natives  are 
now  at  liljerty  to  settle  wherever  they  please,  and 
to  exercise  anv  trade,  handicraft,  or  profession. 

Roads  and  haihcays. — The  grand  duchy  is  tra- 
versed, in  all  directions,  by  cxceUeut  roads  and  a 

Voul. 


complete  network  of  railways.  All  the  lines  of 
Baden  are  property  of  the  state,  giWng  a  dividend, 
on  the  capital  exiiended,  of  above  15  per  cent.  In 
the  year  1862,  the  gross  income  from  railways 
amounted  to  6,027,637  florins;  and  the  expen- 
diture to  3,646,238  florins,  leaving  a  surplus  of 
2,381,399  florins,  or  191,69U  The  accounU  of  the 
income  and  expenditure  of  the  state  railways,  as 
well  as  of  the  post-office,  are  not  entered  in  the 
general  budget,  but  form  a  special  fund. 

History,— )iAiXesi,  an  old  prov.  of  the  Germanic 
empire,  was  erected  into  a  grand  duchy  at  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815.  The  reigmng  family 
descends  from  Berthold,  landgrave  of  Zfthrinjocen, 
one  of  the  most  powerful  and  meritorious  famUies 
of  the  11th  century,  whose  son  acquired  the  <iis- 
trict  of  Baden.  Marcrave  Augustus  George  united 
all  the  possessions  of  the  two  houses  of  Baden  and 
Durlach,  and  received,  by  the  treaties  at  Luneville 
and  Presbui^,  as  additions,  the  bishopric  of  Con- 
stance ;  the  Austrian  Breiseau  ;  part  of  the  pala- 
tinate of  the  bishoprics  of  Spire,  Strasburg,  and 
Basel;  the  county  of  Hanau  Lichtcnberg ;  the 
Ortenau;  the  island  of  Meinau  in  the  Lake  of 
Constance ;  seven  free  imperial  cities ;  a  part  of 
the  esUtes  of  the  Teutonic  order,  and  nine  abbeys ; 
together  with  the  sovereignty  over  seven  medi- 
atized nobles  of  the  empire,  with  a  territory  of  67 
sq.  Germ,  m.,  and  222,000  inhabitants.  The  reign- 
ing Grand  Duke  Frederick  succeeded  his  father 
in  1852,  and  married,  in  1856,  a  daughter  of  King 
William  of  Prussia. 

Baden,  a  town  and  celebrated  bathing-place  of 
Lower  Austria,  on  the  E.  bank  of  an  afliuent  of  the 
Danube,  at  the  entrance  of  a  fine  valley,  18  m, 
SSW.  Vienna.  Resident  pop.,  with  the  neigh- 
IxHiring  townships  of  Guttenbrunn  and  Weikers- 
dorf  4,150  in  1857.  It  is  increased  during  the 
summer  months  by  3,000  \'isitor8,  amongst  whom 
are  usually  the  emperor  and  other  members  of  the 
imperial  family.  The  presence  of  mineral  springs 
here  was  known  to  the  ancients,  by  whom  they 
were  called  Aqua  Cotiae^  from  the  neighbouring 
mountains ;  and  in  1769,  when  the  modem  baths 
were  constructed,  the  ruins  of  a  Roman  vapour- 
bath  and  other  buildings  were  discovered.  There 
are  16  baths,  each  capable  of  at  once  accommo- 
dating from  50  to  100  persons. 

The  waters,  according  to  the  analysis  of  Volta, 
contain  sulphate  and  muriate  of  soda,  sulphate  and 
carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia,  sulphate  of  alu- 
mina, and  considerable  quantities  of  carbonic 
and  hydrosulphuric  acid  gases :  their  temperature 
varies  from  88°  to  98<>  Fah.  Next  to  the  baths, 
the  most  remarkable  buildings  are,  St.  Stephen's 
Church,  the  palace  of  the  Archduke  Anthony,  the 
town-house,  and  theatre.  There  are  many  well- 
built  private  houses ;  several  hospitals  and  other 
charitable  institutions ;  and  a  handsome  park  and 
public  promenade :  the  neighbourhood  abounds 
with  natural  beauties,  and  contains  various  ancient 
remains. 

Badex,  a  town  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden, 
famous  for  its  hot  baths,  usually  called  Baden 
Baden,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  watering-place 
of  the  same  name  near  Vienna,  romantically  situ- 
ated in  the  MidtUe  Rhine  Circle,  24  m.  SSW. 
Carlsruhe.  Pop.  7,734  in  1861.  It  was  formerly 
the  constant  residence  of  the  maigraves  of  Baden, 
and  the  grand  duke  still  usually  passes  the  summer 
in  a  vilhgi  here.  The  mineral  springs  were  well 
known  to,  and  appreciated  by,  tne  Romans,  who 
planted  a  colony  m  it,  and  ^ve  it  the  name  (^ 
Civitat  Aurelia  Aquensit,  The  springs,  thirteen 
in  number,  burst  out  of  the  rocks  at  the  foot  of 
the  castle  terrace.  The  temperature  Ls  not  affected 
by  the  seasons:  the  hottest  are  54^  Reaumur, 

Y 


322 


BADEN 


the  coldeiit  3?>.  A  hand«onie  building,  in  fann  of 
a  temple,  is  erected  over  the  Ur^trunp,  as  the 
principal  fiprini;  ia  called.  L>r.  Granville,  (ipeak- 
ing  of  thin  Rpring,  says — *  The  water  is  perfectly 
clear,  has  a  faint  animal  8mell,  a  taste  somewhat 
aaltish,  and  when  dnmk  bk  it  is8ue*i  from  the  spring, 
ap)>roaching  to  that  of  weak  broth.'  According 
t«)  a  recent  analyse,  its  npccific  f:fra\'ity  is  H)30. 
A  pint  of  the  water,  containing  7*31)2  grains,  con- 
tains 23*3  solid  matter,  the  principal  ingredient  of 
-which  is  culinary  or  common  salt  (16  gre.) ;  the 
next  in  importance  are  tlie  sulphate,  muriate  and 
aurl)onatP  of  lime  (6|^  gre.)  ;  the  remainder  con- 
Msts  of  a  small  portion  of  magnesia  and  of  traces 
of  iron,  with  about  half  a  cubic  inch  of  carbonic- 
acid  gas  in  addition.  There  is  here  no  public 
building  appropriated  exclusively  to  the  ]>uri><>^cof 
bathing.  The  water  is  conveyed  by  pipes  to  the 
different  hotels,  in  which  tbere  are  numerous 
baths,  some  of  these  being  very  luxuriantly  fitted 
up.  Baden-Baden  is  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
fully situated  of  the  Grcrman  batlis,  even  surpass- 
ing, iu  this  respect,  the  Nassau  Bninnen.  The 
surrounding  country,  witliout  the  sublimity  and 
grandeur  of  Switzerland,  is  distinguished  by  a 
pleasing  and  romantic  wildness,  and  is,  as  it  were, 
a  prelude  to  the  Alps.  July  and  August  are  the 
season  when  the  baths  are  most  frequented  ;  but 
visitors,  to  the  annual  number  of  from  12,0()()  to 
20,000,  come  and  go  from  May  to  October.  There 
are  a  number  of  handsome  buildings,  among  which, 
besides  the  temnle  over  the  Urajintng^  the  Qmver- 
tatianMhaugj  witJi  its  plantations,  is  conspicuous. 
The  dungeons  under  the  Neue  SchiosM^  or  palace, 
are  siip]H>sed  to  have  been  the  seat  and  prisoim  of 
some  secret  and  dreadful  tribunal;  but  nothing 
certain  is  known  of  their  history. 

Badkn,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  cant.  Aaignu, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Limmat,  14^  m.  NF!. 
Aarau.  Pop.  2,930  in  1800.  It  is  Hurrounde<l  by 
walls;  is  the  seat  of  a  tribunal  of  original  juris- 
diction; has  a  good  town-house,  a  handsome 
Catholic  church,  two  convents,  an  hos))ital,  ami  a 
house  of  correction.  The  river  is  crnssed  by  a 
wooden  bridge.  Baden  is  celebrated  for  its  hot 
batlis,  known  to  the  Romans  by  tlie  name  of 
Therma  Helvetica;  they  are  at  a  short  distance 
from  the  town,  on  both  sides  the  river :  tlie  water 
in  the  hottest  baths  has  a  tem|K.'rature  of  87° 
Keaumur:  they  arc  much  frequented  by  the  inha- 
bitants of  Basel  and  Zurich.  Tlie  environs  are 
very  l)eautiful;  and  a  numlierof  fine  cottages  for 
the' use  of  strangers  are  scattered  over  the  neigh- 
bouring heights.  The  de])utic8  of  the  Swiss  can- 
tons have  oflen  held  their  diets  at  Baden.  I'he 
treaty  between  France  and  the  Empire  in  1714 
was  signed  here. 

BADIA,  a  town  of  Austrian  Italy,  prov.  Pole- 
sina,  on  the  Adige,  16  m.  W.  by  N.  Ko>'igo.  Pop. 
4,970  in  1857.  It  has  a  fine  bridge  over  the  Adige, 
and  two  convents  for  monks;  with  a  manufac- 
ture of  earthenware,  and  some  trade  in  com,  silk, 
firewood,  flax,  and  leather. 

BADOLATO,  a  town  (»f  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
Calabria  Ultra,  24  m.  S.  Catanzaro,  situated  on  a 
hill  near  the  sea.    Pop.  4,052  in  1861. 

BADONVILLEIl,  a  town  of  France,  d<<p. 
Meurthe,  on  the  Blette,  20  m.  ESE.  Luneville. 
Pop.  2,711  in  1861.  It  has  a  manufactorj'  of 
awls,  which  produces  about  1,000,000  a  year,  with 
fabrics  of  cotton  and  earthenware. 

BAEt'A,  a  t4)wn  of  Si)ain,  ]>rov.  Jaen,  20  m.  NE. 
Jaen.  Pop.  11,735  in  1857.  It  is  situate<l  on  a 
hill,  in  a  fertile  and  extensive  ])lain;  has  goo<l 
streets  and  squares,  one  of  the  latter  being  adonio<i 
with  a  superb  fountain.  Among  the  principal 
public  buildings  are  the  Gothic  cathedral,  the  col- 


BAFFHTS  BAY 

le^  of  the  Jesuits  and  of  the  oratory,  the  chspel 
of  the  ancient  university,  and  the  prison.  It  has 
a  collegiate  church,  several  parish  churches,  and 
convents  for  both  sexes,  three  liospitals,  an  econo- 
mical society,  and  some  tanneries.  Bae^a  is  sup- 
(Kised  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  Beatia  ; 
and  it  was  the  residence  of  several  Moorii«h  kingn, 
having  been  wrestinl  from  the  latter  iik  1228.  At 
this  epcK'h  its  population  is  said  to  have  amounte<i 
to  150,000 ;  but  this  is  pn»bably  an  exaggcrati(»ii. 
The  bishopric,  of  which  it  was  once  the  seat,  was 
transforred  to  Jaen  in  1248 ;  and  its  university  has 
also  been  suppressed. 

BAENA  (an.  Castra  Vinicma),  a  town  of  Spain, 

firov.  Cordova,  28  m.  SE.  Cordova,  on  the  ^Iar- 
K'lla.     Pop.  (town  and  district)  11,607  in  1857.    It 
has  fourparisli  churches  and  live  convents.    ITiere 
j  arc.  in  its  environs,  very  productive  salt  mines. 

BAFFA  (an.  Panhrm),  a  sea- port  town  on  the 
;  SW.  coast  of  the  utlaiid  of  CHimis  lat.  34©  47'  20" 
N.,  long.  8>o  26'  20"  E.  Tlus  inconsiderable  town, 
not  containing  more  than  1,000  inhab.,  occupies 
the  site  (»f  the  famous  Paphos  of  antiquity,  which, 
after  Ixiug  destroyed  several  times,  was  rebuilt  by 
Augustus,  and  was  thence  called  ^r^«^<u.  During 
the  occupation  of  Cypnis  by  the  Venetians,  I^ffa 
was  a  city  of  considerable  wealth  and  imjxirtance. 
It  is  now  nearly  deserted,  and  is  filled  with  the 
niins  of  churches  an<l  |)alaces  that  are  ever>nihere 
crumbling  tc»  the  grtmntl.  The  bay  is  large ;  but 
the  port,  commanded  by  a  castle  on  the  Wach,  is 
shallow  and  unsafe.  Caves,  <»r  rather  dwcllinjjj:- 
places,  have  l>een  cut  in  several  of  the  rr>cks  in 
the  n«ighbourhcK>d,  some  of  which  are  inhabitcil. 
Tlie  countrj'  round  BafTa  is  fniitful,  and  produces 
considerable  supjilie^t  of  C4)m,  cotton,  and  silk. 

Old  PaphoH  is  supposed  to  have  sto<Kl  about  6  m. 
SE.  of  Paphos  or  Baffa,  at  a  little  distance  from  the 
sea.  It  was  the  favourite  residence  of  Venus,  Dira 
potent  Cypri,  the  place  where  the  sea-lsmi  g^Nidess 
first  t4Milk  up  her  al>ode,  and  was  famous  from  a 
ver\'  remote  epoch  for  its  temples  af)pn>priateil  to 
her*  wowhip,  and   for  the   rites  and  processions 

Krformed  by  her  votaries.     Hence  the  epithets 
iphian  and  Cyprian  applied  to  Venus : — 

*  O  Vcuus.  retina  Gnidi  Paphiqne, 
Speme  dikctam  Cyprou,' 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that,  according  to  Taci- 
tus, the  goddess  was  not  represented  at  PaphoA 
under  the  human  figure,  but  under  that  of  a  cono. 
(liist,  lib.  iL  §  3.)  There  were  also  temples  an<l 
altars  where  sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  g<Kldess 
in  New  Pa])ht>s.  The  ofHce  of  liigh-priest  of  the 
Paphian' Venus  was  Inrth  lucrative  ami  honour- 
able. In  pnM>f  of  this  it  may  be  mentioned,  that 
when  Cato  was  sent  to  (Cyprus,  he  re]>resented  to 
Ptolemy  that  if  he  submitted  without  fighting,  ho 
should  not  want  either  for  money  or  honours,  for 
the  Boraan  f)eop1e  would  make  him  grand  priest 
of  the  Paphian  Venus.  (Larcher,  Memoire  sur 
Venus,  p.  42.) 

BAFFIN'S  or  BYLOTS  BAY,  a  large  inhind 
sea,  l:»etween  Greenland  and  the  NE.  coast  of 
America,  l)etween  68^  and  70^  N.  lat.,  and  52^ 
and  80°  W.  long.  It  extends,  from  SE.  to  NW., 
about  950  m. ;  its  width  varying  frtmi  350  to 
something  less  than  100  m.  at  its  N.  end.  Its 
surface  may  therefore  be  estimated  at  alx^ut 
266,000  sq.  m.,  an  area  exceetiiiig  bv  more  tlian  a 
lialf  that  of  the  Baltic  In  foct,  ^lowever,  it  is 
much  larger  even  than  this;  its  natural  lioiin- 
<laries  Ixing  evidently  CajK?  Fart^well,  the  S.  |K)int 
of  (ireenlonil,  and  Cajie  Chmlleigh,  on  the  coast 
of  Labrador,  both  nearly  <m  the  60th  parallel,  and 
resiKHitively  in  45°  and  GiP  W.  long.  Taking 
these  for  its  dimensions,  its  surface  will  amount  to 
456,000  sq.  m. ;  but  it  is  usual  to  take  for  its  limits 


BAFFIN'S  BAT 


fWl    Bom's  Fiist  Voy_  34-161 1    I'lirry'B   First 
\m.,  6-3S.) 

Modem  iliiwovprv  hut  xhonn  thai  the  NK.  and 
K.  HHUita  of  Am«i^  aa  far  «s  Ijyo  W.,  are  brokea 
inTn  i]]aaineral>le  iiilanilH,  and  thai  BaAin\4  Itay  is 
ciinnecrcd  with  other  jrreat  inlemal  gulfs;  such 
■a  that  of  Itoolhia  (Kom's  Semnrt  Vny..  Ua-lIC). 
■nd  the  Uigrr  Iwitn  of  Ifudaun'K  Bay  (Parry's  Ke- 
conil  Voy..  m7-MT).  ami  also  with  the  Polar  Scl 
(Parry's  First  Vov.,  '29-52.)     The  term  Mtdittr- 

great  eipaiwe  of  water,  sitiec,  la^  a»  it  La,  it  ia 

fin^fnlBTly  torlaoDS  ehannel  connecting  the  N.  At' 
laniic  and  the  Arrtti:  oceans. 

The  nater  of  this  bay  attains  a  Rmit  depth,  the 
rsaitimum  bein(>l,llo(ifaihoms.and  this  was  fnunil 

K„  Iohr.  730  7i'  W.    The  I 


isl,  hov 


e  L'tm 

it  was  rpathed  in  120  fnilioniN.  The  bottom  in 
lioth  cases  was  mud;  anil  thou(;h.  from  the  (creater 

was  procurnl,  i-et  a  imiall  star-Hsli  was  found 
sliekinE  to  the  line  below  the  point  marking  SIK) 
fathoms,  an  extraordinary  depth  for  life  in  litis 
lat.,  if  the  creature  were  broujiht  up  from  the 
point  in dioateiL  (Koss's  First  Voy.,  131,  JM2.)  In 
iliffereni  parts,  Parry  foiinil   no  hoiiom 


name  of  Barrow's  Sirail.  (Tint  Vov.,  B!.)  Unitis 
W.  from  lat,  74''8l»'3"N„lonK.7BorW.  Itisnnw 
in  the  highest  deffree  imjiroliable  that  srr  -I'het 
juttci  should  exist  from  this  hay  in  any  direction. 
There  arc  but  few  islands  in  those  walenu  I>isca, 
in  (he  E.coaat,  in  IsL  'Ifi  N.,  lonn-  68°  W.  (mean), 
IB  a  Danish  whalino  station  ;  and  llare  or  Way- 
^alt  Isle,  a  little  N.  of  the  former,  has  acquired 
iome  celebrity  as  I  tie  place  where  one  of  the  most 
modern  experiments  waa  made  to  determine  the 
ellipticity  of  the  earth.  The  acceleratimi  of  the 
oetululum  between  London  and  this  place  was 
te'^tSAe  vibrations  in  a  mean  solar  day,  shoKinj;  a 
oinutioti  of  gravity  from  pole  to  equator,  niual 
■0055133,  and  a  cc>mprewic«i  of  the  polar  axis 
fljual  to  jijjj.  (Parry's  First  Voy.,  Appen.,  lIHi.) 
rhe  land  m  the  neighbourhood  a  mountainous, 
last  dtgree  barren ;  wood  is  tolally 
.ibsetlt,  and  the  few  phmts  that  are  found  are  i>f 
-growjti);,  turdy  kind,  fitted  to  endure  the 
cold  of  these  regions.  ■  (Hoss's  First  Vov., 
\ppetl.,  141-144;  Parry's  First  Voy„  post.)  The 
ipotdtioQ  of  Ibe  roclu  is  very  Ta'rious,  but  with 
immense  preponderance  of  old  formations 
;t;raniie  and  gneiss) ;  limestone  is  found,  but  not 
Abundantly ;  and  trap  tqtprart  to  form  a  very  cha- 
racteristic feature  of  these  shores.  Basalt  occurs ; 
uid  rook  of  every  kind  is  brought  down 


0  rathoir 


reacheil  the  groi 
and  1211  fathom 
(74JO),  found  the  depth 


while  ir 
2U0  fathoir 


S  125  fathoms, 
I  high  lalilwle 
1,1150  falhomi,  but 
imagined  that  lOU  or  2110  fatbonu  should  be 
allawnl  on  this  for  drift  and  swell  (First  Vov., 
7,8,23,30.)  The  temprsture  of  the  water 'iM, 
in  summer,  from  2°  to  3°  lower  than  that  of  the 
air  in  Ihe  shade ;  and  this  temperature  decreases 
with  the  de|ith.  It  would  Mem,  however,  that 
Ihe  bottom  mud  ia  pretty  miiformly  at  2ao  or 
W)".  (Ponj-'s  rust  Voy.,  27  ;  Hosss  First  Voy., 
A[ipen.,  l:i.4.j  The  moui'h  of  this  Imy  or  sea  Iieing 
lOHonls  the  SE.,  that  is,  lowanis  the  approach  of 
Ihe  liilal  wave,  tides  are,  of  rourse.  experienced 
ill  its  waters:  hot  Ihey  do  nol  appear  to  rise  In 

fei-t  or  It  feet  seems  alioiit  Ihe  average.     (Ross's 
FirMl  Vot,.  41.  Ft  paa. ;  Parry's  First  Voy.,  37,  it 
poH.)     The  meltiiif^  of  th"  ""  ■  —  """  "^  — ""' 
and  ice  prmluces  very  seuMmi.-  un 
appearance  anil  com] n'isil ion  of  llivs 
such  intlupnce,  Ihey  U'lKime  lurbii 
tirown  nilour:  their 

le'obsen'ed 

rxmmea  in  .liilv,  IXll).  were  lir'til  and  UI-1H3. 
(Parry's  rinit  Voy_  7,  -.iN.)  Strong  currents,  set- 
tiiiK  towarcb  the  S.,  are  experii 


»iini-hinB,a 


irf  hounded  by  land 
la  intelligent  1 


lirf  that  UaHin's  llav  wn! 
upon  tlie  N..  as  marked  b 
vi>r..ri  but  would  vielii  a 
Slimmer,  to  Ihe  Arctic  Sea,    (Itiwss Uflu'ii 

only  In  iliroinish  in  intensity  «ilh  im-ri'isi 
liut  e»en  to  run  N.  in  the  uiipiT  i>an  of 
(l-arry's  First  Vuy,.3l};  wliHe  the  cnnii 
land  round  the  )>ay-head  wasfullv  demonstrated  by 
Kiss,  -nhii.  in  IHIIt,  fnlluweil  ven^  nearly  the  iden- 
lieal  track  which  Ualfin  hml  saile.!  over  2l)0  vean 
iK'fore.  (FirslVuy.,153.rti«sK)  Itallin's  Bay  is  full 
of  inik-ntalioiis  iijHin  both  its  coasts,  but  only  o~ 
coiitinuouschaniicl  has  been  iliscoveted;  this  is  I 
Sir  J.  Lanr^lllrri  S<n.n</  nf  ItatHu,  to  the  eontin 
ation  of  whitb  to  the  Polar  Sta,  Parry  gave  t 


^,^ 


te,      (SK'ulloch'B   PniwT!    Hom's  First 
pen.,  69-82  ;    Parry's  First  Voy.,  2li,  r( 

regions  generally  (Kilwanl's  Paper;  Knss's 

Voy.,  41-64) ;  and  in  Ihe  water  the  whale 

4eal  are  particularly  numeroua,     Parn-,  by 

ing  the  poBHihilily  of  crossing  Ihtoogh  the 

.    'hich  always  occupies  the  centre  of  the  Vky, 

[jcrfiirrocd  an  important  sen-ice  to  Ihe  whalers, 

whose  fisheries  had  before  been  confined  to  the 

nMsI  of  (ire^nlaml,  where  the  whales  ar 


mber,  ai 


I  inferi 


in  quality 


[>  thoBi 


-mpt,  Sebastian  Cabot  led  Ih 
e  appioai-heil  this  sea  as  nearl 
of  lat.    He  was  followeil  b 
tlartin   Frolnsber,  who,  between  1576  and  I5TI 

of  Greenland  1 


ive  Ids  name  to  the  st 


.lohn   Dav 


een  KesolutJ 


.rages,  and  proceeiled 
as  high  OS  68°  X.  lat.  1  his  naine  is  veiy  properly 
presen'cl  in  thai  portion  of  ihe  sea  which  he  tra- 
vcrseil;  but  the  term  strait  (Davis's  StkjIIT}  ia 
not  very  appropriately  apiilied  to  it,  the  narmwest 
iiart  of' the  sea  being  1U<I  m.  across.  Lastly,  in 
'■'■"   Kobcrt  Bylot,  or  Bilelt,  commanded  an  er 


pc<liti 


led  out  by  private  adventurers,  for 
veries.     Baffin  was  tiilut  of  this  ship; 

1. .1,.  — .piiraiion  of  Ihe  bay  10 

rtainin|;  of  all  its  points, 
a  precbdon  thai  has  not 


n  the  correction  of  sum 


nihirdi 


20U  years,  suspicions  liegan 

Ihe  authenticity  of  their  si&.. . ,  ,„.„  .»...„  . 

Hay  {S.  of  Of),  if  not  actually  struck  out  of  Iho 
charts,  waa  laid  down  in  the  greater  numlwr  as 
doubtful.  There  never,  however,  was  any  prolahle 
groandfur  this  discredit;  and  late  discoveries  have 
shown  how  unjust  it  was,  and  have  placed  the 
names  of  RaAin  and  Bvlot  in  the  first  class  of  en- 
leriirising  and  truslwnrtbv  navigafirs.  (Hakluyt's 
Collect.  Vov.,  iiL  fi-9,  *«-%,  W-119;  Purcbaa's 
Pilgrims,  iii.  831-«4«,  &c;  lhi(aandPairv,piw.). 


324 


BAFRA 


BAFRA,  a  town  of  Ariatic  Turkey,  pach.  Sivan, 
on  tlie  right  bank  of  the  Kizil  ICnnak,  13  m.  above 
where  it  falls  into  the  Black  Sea ;  lat,  41o  32'  62" 
Km  long.  30°  1  r  45"  E.  Platimatcd  pop.  about  3,000. 
It  has  a  fine  bridge  and  two  mosiqucs.  The  environs 
are  fniitful  of  rice  and  flax,  and  its  bazars  are  said 
to  be  well  supplied. 

BAGDAD,  an  important  prov.  or  pachalik  of 
Turkey  in  Asia,  of  a  triangular  form,  stretching 
NW.  from  the  bottom  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  in  about 
«0O  to  3«o  N.  lat.,  and  lying  lietwecn  the  40th  and 
48th  degree  of  E.  long., 'having  W.  and  S.  the  Eu- 
phrates and  the  Arabian  desert;   E.   Kuzistan, 
mount  Zagros,  and  the  I'crsian  prov.  of  Azerbijnn ; 
NW.  the  Pachalik  of  Diarbekr;  and  N.,  Armenia 
and  the  territories  of  the  Kurrlish  chief  of  Jula- 
merick.    This  immense  tract  extends  over  an  area 
of  above  100,000  sq.  m.,  and  comi>rises  the  whole 
of  the  ancient  Babylonia  and   Chaldea,  and  the 
greater  part  of  Astyria  Proper  and  Sugiana.    Ex- 
cept where  it  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  Eu- 
phrates, the  prov.  is  traversed  in  its  whole  extent 
by  this  great  river  and  its  rival  the  Tigris,  and  by 
the  greater  and  lesser  Zab,  the  Diala,  and  other 
affluents  of  the  latter.   It  is  naturally  di\nded  into 
three  portions,  viz.  Ist,  the  country  between  the 
Arabian  desert  and  the  Euphrates ;  2nd,  that  l>e- 
tween  the  latter  and  the  Tigris,  the  MoKwoiamia 
of  the  ancients ;  and,  3nl,  the  ccmntry  to  tne  E.  of 
the  Tigris.    That  portion  of  Mesopotamia  S.  of 
the  city  of  Bagdad  is  now  called  Irak-Arabia^  and 
that  to  the  N.  of  Bagdad,  Algezirah,  or  the  island. 
The  soil  and  appearance  differ  widely  in  difTcrent 
parts.    At  present  its  most  fertile  p<>rtion  is  that 
situated  between  mount  Zagros  and  the  Tigris,  N. 
to  Mosul.    The  tract  lying  betwen  the  two  great 
rivers,  one  of  the  richest,  best-cultivated,  and  most 
populous  r^ons  of  the  ancient  world  is  now,  in 
most  parts,  an  absolute  desert,  through  the  mis- 
government  to  which  it  has  been  subjected.  *•  llie 
mighty  cities  of  Nineveh,  Babylon,  Seleucia.  and 
Ctesiphon  have  crumbled  into  dust :  the  humble 
tent  (►f  the  Arab  now  occupies  the  sixjt  formerly 
adorned  with  the  palaces  of  kings ;  and  his  flocks 
]irocure  but  a  scanty  pittance  of  food,  amidst  the 
fallen  fragments  of  ancient  magnificence.    The 
banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  once  so  prolific, 
are,  for  the  most  part,  covered  with  impenetrable 
brushwood;  and  the  interior  of  the  prov.,  which 
was  traversed  and  fertilised  by  innumerable  canals, 
is  destitute  of  either  inhabitants  or  vegetation.' 
(Kinneir's  Persian  Emp.,  p.  237.)  The  country  W. 
of  the  Euphrates  is  but  of  limited  extent,  and  at  a 
short  distance  from  the  river  1)ecomes  an  arid  waste. 
The  climate  in  the  S.  parts  in  June,  July,  and 
August,  is  exceedingly  hot  during  the  day ;  but 
the  nights  are  always  cool,  and  fires  are  absolutely 
necessary  in  winter.    The  prevailing  wind  is  from 
the  NWl  The  Simoom  (see  Arabia)  is  more  com- 
mon at  Bagdad  than  in  other  parta  of  the  prov. ; 
but,  in  general,  it  is  fatal  only  to  strangers,  the 
Arabs  being,  in  most  instances,  aware  of  it^  ap- 
proach.   It  would  be  easv,  were  the  government 
not  provert)ial  for  imbecility  and  ignorance,  to  re- 
store some  portion  of  the  ancient  prosperity  of 
Mesopotamia.    Few  countries  are  blest  with  a 
finer  soil,  or  are  capable  of  being  cultivated  with 
less  labour.    The  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  which  are 
seldom  more  than  50  m.  apart,  approach  in  the  lati- 
tude of  Bagdad  to  within  25  m.  of  each  other,  and 
nft'ord  an  inexhaustible  supplv  of  the  finest  water. 
They  rise  twice  a  year  (see  kui'iiiiATEw),  and  as 
the  water  is  then  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  surface 
of  the  plain,  the  irrigation,  so  indispensable  to 
countries  like  this,  is  effect^  with  the  utmost  fa- 
cility. But  the  insecurity  of  projierty  rendem  these 
advantages  of  no  avail    Under  tl.c  stupid  dospo- 


BAGDAD 

I  tism  of  the  Turks,  the  cultivators,  liable  at  all 
times  to  have  their  fields  laid  waste  and  their 
habitations  pillaged  by  the  nn-rmidons  of  those  in 
p»wer,  avoid,  as  much  as  powible,  all  sorts  of 
labour.  Here,  as  in  all  similarly  situated  countries, 
the  natives  restrict  their  tillage  to  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  tovms  and  villages ;  and  it  is  only  in 
rare  instances,  and  under  peculiar  circumstance^ 
that  cultivation  is  pr(»secute<l  on  a  laiger  scale,  and 
^-ith  anything  like  adequate  \'igour.  I'he  products 
of  tills  naturally  fertile  region  are  alike  various 
and  valuable.  Ex(?ellent  crojts  are  raised  of 
wheat,  barley,  rice,  maize,  and  other  grains ;  to- 
bacco, hemp  and  flax,  cotton.  <frc.,  are  cultivated; 
dates  are  an  object  of  much  attejition,  are  rei'konecl 
of  a  p(>culiarly  good  quality,  and  arc  almost  as 
much  prized  here  as  in  Arabia.  The  mountauis 
in  the  E.  and  N.  parts  of  the  prov.  are  covered 
with  vast  forests,  consisting  pnncii>ally  of  oaks, 
which  furnish  the  l)est  gall  nuts  brought  from  the 
E.  Tlie  horses  of  this  prov,  have  been  long  re- 
nowned. They  are  small,  l>eing  seldom  more  than 
1 4  hands  high,  docile,  never  known  to  be  vicious, 
and  capable  of  undergoing  a  vast  deal  of  fatigue. 
The  camel,  however,  is  at  once  the  most  common 
and  ihost  useful  of  the  domesticated  animals. 
Mules  and  asses  are  both  met  with  in  considerable 
num1)ers ;  buffaloes  are  kept  for  the  sake  of  their 
milk,  and  oxen  for  agricultural  purposes.  Among 
wild  animals  arc  lions,  panthers,  hyenas,  jackal^ 
wolves,  and  wild  lK»ar».  All  sorts  of  ]>oultry  are 
bred  except  the  turkey :  ostriches  are  found  in  the 
deserts,  and  black  partridges  are  common  on  the 
banks  of  rivers.  There  are  no  means  by  which  to 
form  any  accurate  estimate  of  the  pop.  of  this 
pachalik;  but  it  probably  exceeds  1,300,000 — a 
number  hardly,  perhaps,  equal  to  the  pop.  of  either 
Nineveh  or  Babvlon.  The  pop.  consists  of  Turks, 
Arabs,  Kurds,  ^Turkmans,  Armenians,  and  Jews. 
The  prov.  is  onl]^  partially  subject  to  the  Porte. 
The  chiefs  or  sheiks  of  the  Aram  and  Kurds,  who 
are  masters  of  the  whole  country  beyond  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  towns,  are  firequently  at  open  war  with 
each  other.  They  are  bound  to  furnish  the  pacha 
with  a  certain  number  of  troops  and  a  certain 
amount  of  tribute ;  but  these  contingents  are  al- 
ways very  irregularly  paid ;  and,  in  many  instances, 
the  chiefs  acknowledge  only  a  nominal  dependence 
on  the  Porte. 

Bagdad,  a  famous  city  of  Asiatic  Turitey,  long 
the  cap.  of  the  caliphate,  and  now  of  the  alxive 
prov.,  on  the  Tigris,  about  19G  m.  in  a  direct  line 
from  the  junction  of  the  latter  with  the  Euphrates. 
Lat.  330  19'  40"  N.,  long,  44©  24'  45"  E.  Pop. 
viuiously  estimated,  but  may  probably  amount  to 
about  90,000,  principallv  Araos  and*  Turks.  It 
stands  on  both  banks  of  the  river,  M'liich  is  here 
about  620  feet  across,  but  the  larger  portion  is  on 
the  E.  side :  the  communication  between  its  two 
divisions  is  maintained  by  means  of  a  bridge  of 
boat^.  It  is  of  an  oblong  shape,  is  surrounded  by 
a  high  wall  of  brick  and  mud,  about  5  m.  in  circ, 
flanked  at  re|^ar  distances  with  towers,  some  of 
which,  of  an  unmense  size,  were  built  by  the  earlier 
caliphs.  Tliere  are  G  gates,  3  on  each  side  the 
river.  The  castle  at  the  N.  comer  of  the  city 
commands  the  passage  of  the  Tigris,  but  is  a  place 
of  no  strengtli.  The  town  is  meanly  built ;  streets 
.so  narrow  that  where  two  horsemen  meet  they  can 
hardly  pass  each  other.  The  bazars,  though  ex- 
tensive and  well  supplied,  are  far  frnm  handsome. 
Few  of  the  ancient  buildings  remain ;  but  these 
few  are  far  superior  in  elegance  and  solidity  U>  the 
more  modem  stnictures.  Of  the  former,  the  most 
w^orthy  of  notice  are  the  gate  of  the  lalisman  ;  a 
lofty  minaret  built  in  785 ;  the  t<»mb  of  Zobeida, 
the  most  beloved  of    the   wives  of  Ilaroun-al- 


BAGNACAVALLO 

Raschid.  The  famous  Madressa  Mostanteroi,  or 
college  founded  in  1233  by  the  caliph  Mo6tanBer, 
and  long  the  bei^t  attended  and  most  celebrated 
seminarv  in  the  K.,  still  exists ;  but  quantum  mu- 
tatus  !  It  is  converted  into  a  khan  or  caravansera, 
and  its  old  kitchen  into  the  cu.stom-house !  (Ni&- 
buhr.)  Nothing  remains  of  the  far-famed  palace 
of  the  caliphs  ;  etiam  ruitue  periere  ;  and  the  spot 
where  it  stood  is  not  even  ascertained.  The  only 
handsome  modem  edifice  is  the  tomb  and  sanc- 
tuary of  a  famous  Sooni  doctor,  the  patron  sunt 
of  the  toMm,  who  flourishc<l  anno  Hegira  560. 

Bagdad  was  recently  a  place  of  great  trade,  and 
the  resort  of  merchants  from  almost  every  quarter 
of  the  E.  It  supplied  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  part 
of  Europe  with  Indian  commodities,  which  were 
imp(»rted  at  Bassora,  brought  in  boats  up  the 
Tigrin,  and  then  transported  by  caravans  to  Tocat, 
Ciinstantinople,  Aleppo,  Damascus,  and  the  W. 
parts  of  Persia.  The  chief  imports  from  India  are 
gold  brocade,  cloths,  sugar,  pepper,  tin,  sandal- 
wood, in>n,  china-ware,  spices,  cutlery,  arms,  and 
bn>ad  cloth ;  in  return  for  which  they  send  bullion, 
copficr,  gall-nuts,  tamarisk,  leather,  and  otto  of 
roses.  From  AlepiK)  are  imported  European  silk 
stuffs,  broad  cloth,  steel,  cochineal,  gold  thread, 
and  several  other  European  articles,  brought  in 
Greek  vessels  to  Scanderoon.  The  imports  frrim 
Persia  are  shawls,  carpets,  Hilk,  cotton,  white  cloth, 
leather,  and  saffron;  and  those  from  Constanti- 
nople are  bullion,  furs,  gold  and  sUver  thread, 
jewels,  brocade,  velvets,  and  otto  of  roses.  The 
principal  manufacture  \&  that  of  red  and  yellow 
leather,  which  is  much  esteemed ;  but  siUc .  and 
cotton  stuffs  are  also  produced.  Of  late  years, 
however,  the  trade  of  the  city  has  a  good  deal  de- 
clined, in  consequence  principally  of  the  inability 
of  the  government  to  repress  the  attacks  and  ex- 
actions of  the  Arabs. 

The  climate,  notwithstanding  its  great  heat,  is 
admitted  to  be  very  healthy;  but  the  natives  are, 
without  exception,  the  ugliest  people  in  the  Turkish 
empire,  and  are  imiversally  subject  to  a  cutaneous 
disorder  similar  to  that  which  prevails  in  Aleppo 
(which  see).  In  this  city,  though  the  former  cap. 
of  the  scientific  world,  reading  and  writing  are 
rare  accomplishments;  and  when  Niebuhr  was 
here,  there  was  not  a  dealer  in  books  in  the  town, 
nor  any  means  of  procuring  a  single  volume. 

Bagdad  was  founded  by  Al  Mansour,  second 
caliph  of  the  Abassides,  a.d.  703,  and  is  said  to 
liave  been  principally  formed  out  of  the  ruins  of 
the  ancient  city  of  Ctesiphon.  It  was  ^»x\y  en- 
larged and  adorned  by  the  grandson  of  its  founder, 
the  famous  Haroun-ol-Kaschid.  It  continue<l  to 
llourLsh,  and  to  l>e  the  principal  seat  of  learning 
and  the  arts,  till  1259,  when  it  was  taken  and 
hacked  by  IIolakoo,gnmd8onof  Genghis  Khan.  It 
has  shice  undergone  various  changes,  and  has  suc- 
cessively fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Persians  and 
Turks.  *  The  latter,  however,  have  held  it  since 
1(138,  when  it  surrendered,  on  capitulation,  after  a 
brave  resistance.  The  tonns  of  the  capitulation 
were,  that  the  lives  and  property  of  the  inhabitants 
should  be  saved ;  but  the  bl«XKl-thirsty  conqueror, 
Amurath  IV.,  regardless  of  this  convention,  bar- 
barously massacred  a  large  projwrtion  of  the  in- 
liabilants.  It  was  ineffectually  l>esieged  by  Nadir 
Shah.  (Kinueir's  Persia,  pp.  24G-252;  Niebuhr, 
Vovagc  en  .Vrabie,  ii.  pp.  239-207.) 

BAGNA-CAVALLO,  a  town  of  Central  Italy, 
prov.  Ilavenna,  on  the  8ino,  12  m.  \V.  Ravenna. 
P«»p.  13,527  in  18G1.  It  has  establL«ihments  for 
the  spinning  of  silk ;  and  large  (quantities  of  hemp 
are  cultivated  in  its  environs,  which  are  also  pro- 
ductive of  com.  &c, 
BAGNA  LOUKA,  or  BANGALUK.V,  a  town 


BA6N£aiES-EN-BiaORRE         325 

of  European  Turkey,  in  Bosnia,  on  the  Vcrbas, 
cap.  sanliak,  80  m.  S.  Gradiska;  lat.  44o  58'  N., 
long.  17*^8' E.  Pop.  estimated  at  7,000.  It  stand* 
in  a  fertile  valley,  is  defended  by  a  castle,  and  was 
for  some  time  the  cap.  of  a  pachalik.  It  has  nume- 
rous mosques,  two  public  baths,  a  powder  manu- 
factory, wluch  furnishes  the  best  in  the  country, 
and  various  bazars.  The  inhabitants  are  partly 
Turks  and  partly  Greeks  and  Jews.  Splendid 
horses  are  bred  in  the  environs  of  the  town,  and 
throughout  the  sanjiak. 

BAGNAKA,  a  town  and  castle  of  Central  Italy, 
prov.  Kavenna,  on  the  Santemo,  7  m.  NNW.  Fa- 
enza.    Pop.  1,746  in  1861. 

Baonara,  a  sea-port  town  of  Southern  Ital^% 
prov.  Reggio,  16  m.  NE.  Reggio.  Pop.  8,537  m 
1 861.  Itnas  a  considerable  trade  in  Muscat  wine, 
pnxluced  in  the  vicinity,  and  in  wood  and  tar. 
liagnara  suffered  severely  from  an  earthquake  in 
1783.  It  is  supposed  by  some  geogr^)her8  to  bo 
the  Portus  Orestis  of  the  ancients. 

BAG  X AREA,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  prov. 
Viterbo,  16  m.  N.  Viterbo.  Pop.  2,897  in  1861. 
It  is  situated  on  a  hill,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  bi- 
shopric 

BAGNE^RES-DE-LUCIION,  a  town  of  France, 
d<^p.  Haute  Garonne,  24  SSW.  St.  Gaudens.  Pop. 
3,376  in  1861.  It  is  situated  in  the  beautiful 
valley  of  the  Luchon,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees, 
within  about  5  m.  of  the  Spanish  frontier.  It  is 
celebrated  for  its  mineral  waters,  which,  as  well 
as  those  of  Bagn^res-en-Bigorre,  were  known  to 
the  Romans.  The  tovm  is  increasing  and  im- 
proving, and  possesses  all  the  establishments  pe- 
culiar to  a  well-frequented  watering  place.  The 
Hotel  des  Thermes  is  the  principal  edifice.  In 
winter  the  climate  is  very  severe,  and  the  town  is 
deserted  not  merely  by  visitors,  but  even  by  a 
portion  of  its  inhabitants.  There  are  nine  mineral 
springs,  all  of  which  issue  from  a  rock  at  the  foot 
of  the  adjacent  mountains;  their  temperature 
varies  from  26^  to  52°  of  Reaumur ;  they  have  a 
fetid  smell,  and  are  said  to  be  very  elBcacious  in 
a  variety  of  complaints.  More  invalids  resort  to 
Bagnferes-de-Lucnon  than  to  either  Bagneres-en- 
Bigorre  or  Bourges.  The  season  lasts  from  May 
till  October,  and  upwards  of  1,500  strangers  may 
be  accommodated.  The  avenues  of  trees  leading 
to  the  baths  are  as  fine  as  can  be  imagined.  In 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  town,  among  the  Py- 
renees, is  the  wild  solitary  lake  of  Seculego. 

BAGXF/RES-EN-BIGORRE,  a  town  of  France, 
dc'p.  Ilautes  Pyrenees,  cap.  arrond.,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Adour,  in  a  delightful  situation  at  the 
entrance  to  the  valley  of  Cam{)an,  and  the  foot  of 
a  finely- wooded  liill,  13  m.  SSE.  Tarbes.  Pop. 
9,169  in  1861.  Bagn^res  is  the  Bath  or  Chelten- 
ham of  France,  and  is  indebted  for  its  celebrity 
and  importance  to  its  hot  mineral  springs,  which 
were  known  and  resorted  to  by  the  Romans.  The 
waters  have  no  peculiar  taste,  but  are  aperient  and 
tonic  During  spring  and  autumn  the  town  is 
crowded  with  mvalids  and  pleasure-hunters  from 
most  parts  of  France,  and  by  many  foreigners, 
particularly  Russians  and  English.  The  town  has 
not  been  built  on  any  rc|^ular  plan,  but  has  in- 
creased according  to  the  infiux  of  company.  It 
has  some  good  streets,  with  very  excellent  houses, 
and  good  inns  and  hotels.  Streets  well  paved, 
clean,  and  well  watere<L  The  promenade,  called 
Coustuusy  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  is  ornamented 
with  a  fountain ;  there  are  several  delightful  drives 
and  promenatles  in  the  vicinity;  and  it  also  affords 
the  finest  excursions  for  the  botanist,  mineralogist, 
and  the  lovers  of  the  picturesque.  There  are  IH 
or  twent>j  bat  lis :  *  Each  is  under  the  direction  of  a 
medical  inspector,  who  must  be  consulted  before 


326 


BAGNOLES 


anv  one  w  pcmiitted  to  employ  the  wntere.  He  w 
paid  by  government,  and  theTcfurc  the  consultation 
C08t8  notliiiig ;  and  the  expennc  of  the  bath  is  not 
more  than  a  franc'  (Inglu'a  Swtzerland,  p.  264.) 
The  principal  bath,  or  that  called  Du  Salut,  \a 
situated  in  a  ravine  ab(»ut  ^  lea^ie  from  the  tovna, 
lia^^refl  haH  a  court  of  ori^al  JuriMliction,  a 
College,  an  hospital,  n^ith  a  theatre,  concert  hall, 
and  numerouH  places  of  entertainment.  It  has 
also  fabrics  of  bimios  (a  kind  of  woollen  stuff), 
linen,  diamines,  crape,  and  ]»aper.  On  the  road  to 
Tarbes  is  a  monument  in  black  and  white  marble, 
in  honour  of  Count  Sepir. 

BA(iNOLES,  a  village  of  France,  d<«p.  Ome, 
in  a  solitary  valley,  13  m.  E.  by  S.  Domfront. 
This  villaKC,  celebrated  for  its  mineral  sprinpt, 
was  bidlt  in  the  I7th  centur>',  the  springs  having 
lieen  discovered  in  the  preceding  century.  During 
the  last  twenty  vears  it  has  l)ecn  embellished  with 
some  new  and  elegant  buildings,  and  in  its  envi- 
rons are  extensive  plantations  that  afford  fme  pro- 
menades. In  1822  an  establishment  for  the  use  of 
the  military  was  founded  here,  capable  of  accom- 
modating about  20U  invalids.  The  temperature 
of  the  water  is  alsmt  2(P  centigrade.  This  is  the 
only  mineral  spring  in  the  ci-devant  prov.  of  Nor- 
mandy. 

BAGXOLI,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
iSannio,  9  m.  SW.  Triveuto,  on  the  declivity  of  a 
hill.  Pop.  4,(>(W  in  1861.  It  has  five  churches,  an 
abl)ey,  and  an  hospital. 

BAGNOLO,  a  t^>wn  of  Northern  Italy,  8  m.  S. 
Bre.scia,  on  the  high  roa<l  from  Brescia  to  Cre- 
mona,    Pop.  2,89 1  in  1 8<>  1 . 

Baonolo,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov.  Prin- 
cipato  Ultra,  on  the  declivity  of  Monte  Calvello, 
9  m.  SW.  St.  Angelo  de  Lombardi.  Pop.  4,816 
in  1861.  It  has  a  tine  collegiate  church,  and  seve- 
ral convents. 

BAIJNOLS,  a  town  of  France,  ddi3.  Gard,  cap. 
cant.,  near  the  Ceze,  on  a  rock  25  m.  NXK. 
Nismes.  Pop.  5,060  in  1861.  It  is  generally 
ill-built^  but  has  a  good  square,  adorned  with  a 
public  fountain.  It  has  a  college,  an  hospital, 
with  filatures  of  silk,  dye  works,  hat  makers,  and 
tanners. 

BAGOLINO,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  prov. 
Brescia,  on  the  Caffaro,  24  m.  NNE.  Brescia.  Po]>. 
3,950  in  1861.  It  has  several  forges  for  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  and  steel. 

BAGULCOT,  a  8ub<livision  of  the  district  Dar- 
war,  Hindostan,  prov.  Beiapoor,  prei^id.  Bomfiay, 
including  the  pei^mnahsnagulcotand  Badaumy. 
Shape  irregular ;  length  64  m.,  breadth  44  m. ; 
area  alx)ut  1,230  nq.  m.  Pop.  estimated  at  alx)ut 
100,000.  It  is  boimded  NK.  bv  the  Krishna  river, 
but  18  badly  watered,  as  well  from  the  want  of 
running  streams  and  large  wells,  as  the  general 
deficiency  of  rain,  which  in  some  years  does  not  ex- 
ceed 26  inches,  a  quantity  sur])assed  in  one  mtmth 
of  the  SW.  monsoon  near  the  coast.  Garden  cul- 
ture is  consequently  very  limited,  and  most  of 
the  villages  are  on  the  banks  of  the  larger  rivers. 
In  1820  these  peigimuahs  contained  819  inhabited 
townships,  including  the  towns  of  Bagidcot,  Ba- 
daumy, KenK»r,  Serot)r,  and  Perwatee.  Un<ier  the 
Mahrattas,  who  obtained  them  in  1755,  they  were 
the  theatre  of  violence  and  rapine ;  but  after  their 
transfer  to  the  British  gov.  in  1818,  a  rapid  and 
complete  change  t<K>k  place,  and  they  soon  became 
singularly  noted  for  the  absence  of  crime. 

Bag u LOOT,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  cap.  of  the 
above  district,  and  of  a  })eigunnah.  Pop.  estimated 
at  about  9,000.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  principal 
merchants  and  l>anker8. 

BAGUIi,  an  inland  division  of  Hindostan,  an- 
ciently described  as  a  svparate,  though  minor 


BAHAMAS  (THE) 

prov.,  but  more  recently  atuched  to  the  pror. 
Malwa  and  Guirat,  Ix-tween  which  it  lies,  in  about 
24°  N.  lat.,  and  74  E.  long.  It  consists  of  a  hilly 
country,  the  several  ranges  of  which  run  N.  and  S., 
decreasing  in  height  from  Malwa  to  Gtnrat,  and 
m(>stlv  covered  with  tliick  low  jungle  forests  of 
teak,  black- woo<i,  drc.  It  is  indifferently  watenni, 
and  the  climate  for  a  considerable  part  of  the 
year  is  reckoned  unhealthy.  From  the  first  cause 
the  pround  is  comparatively  unproductive;  the 
digging  of  wells,  &c.,  w  also  attended  with  great 
labour  and  expense,  but  reservoirs  are  sometimes 
constnicted  by  throwing  an  embankment  across 
the  stream  of  a  narrow  valley.  Tlie  pop.  consists 
chiefly  of  Bheels  and  Meenas,  under  vanous  petty 
chiefs :  many  vestiges  of  antiquity  lie  scatten-d 
over  its  surface ;  but  at  present  this  division  con- 
tains no  inhabited  places  of  any  importance,  ex- 
cept the  towns  of  Doougurpooz,  Bauswarra,  and 
Sangwara. 

BAHAMAS  (THE)  consist  of  several  hundre«i 
islands,  of  various  magnitudes,  extending  in  a 
SK.  and  NW.  direction,  between  Havti  and  Fltv 
rida,  iieariy  600  m.  from  Turk's  Island,  in  21«>  23', 
to  the  Mantanilla  Keef,  in  27°  50'  N.  lat,,  and 
from  7(P  30'  to  79«>  5'  W.  long.     They  are  mwtly 
of  coral-line  formation,  low,  flat,  and  but  scantily 
covere<l  with  soil,  and  the  greater  number  of  them 
uninhabited.    They  belong  to  great  Britain.     St. 
Salvador,  one  of  these  inlands,  was  the  first  laud 
discovered  by  Columbus,  on  the  12th  of  Oct.  1492. 
Like  the  neighbouring   islands,   it  was   densely 
IHMjpletl  by  Indians,  who  were  harmless  and  in- 
offensive.  Tlie  most  im]>ortant  of  the  gn)u|>,  how- 
ever, fn»m  its  harl)our  and  situation  with  reN[)ect 
to  the  Fl<»rida  channel,  is  New  Providence;  ami, 
as  this  is  the  residence  of  the  goVernor,  the  seat  of 
the  legislature,  and  the    head-quarters   of    the 
troops,  and  as  it  differs  fn^m    the  other  islands 
in  no  essential  degree,  we  shall  confine  ourselves 
to  an   outline  of  its  geographical  features   and 
general   appearance,  deeming   it  unnecessary  to 
dwell  upon  anv  of  the  others.    It  lies  in  lat,'  25*^ 
29'  N.,  and  in  long.  76°  34'  W.,  and  extends 
about  21  m.  from  E.  to  W.,  and  7  firom  N.  to  S. 
It  is  nearly  covered  with  laige  trees  and  brush- 
worxl,  anil  much  intersecte<i  with  marshes  and 
lagunes.    A  range  of  slightly  elevated  hills  runs 
along  a  yuut  of  the  island  at  a  very  short  dis- 
tance from  the  sea;  and  upon  the  face  of  this 
ridge  stands  Nassau,  the  capital,  and  the  seat  of 
goremment.    Another  range  of  lulls  runs  parallel 
to  the  former,  at  the  distance  (»f  about  2 J  m. ;  the 
whole  of  the  intervening  space  forms  an  extensive 
marsh.    The  total  numl>er  of  sq.  m.  in  the  Baha- 
mas, including  all  the  Islands  from  New  Provi- 
dence to  Kev  Sal  and  Anguilla,  is,  acconling  to 
Porter's  Tables,  5,424:  but  the  '  Statistical  Tahiti 
relating  to  the  C^)lonial   and  otlier  Possessions/ 
]»resent«d  to  Parliament  hi  1865,  state  the  area  at 
only  2,921   Engl.  sq.  miles.    The  pop.,  in  1831', 
was  4,674  whites,  4,069  coh>ured  an<l  free  blacks, 
and  9,765  slaves.     In   1837   the   total  pop.  was 
19,943.     In  1861  the  number  had  risen  to  35,287, 
of  whom  29,287  coloured  ]>ersons.  The  inhabitants 
are  divided  into  the  two  classes  of  residents  and 
wreckers.     The   latter  are  mostly   employed   in 
rescuing  vessels,  with  their  crews  anil  caTgix»s, 
shipvvn^ks  being  very  frequent  in  these  intricate, 
shallow,  and  dangerous  seas.    They  sail  in  small 
flat-lK>tt/»med   sloops,    admirably  fitted    for    the 
waters  they  navigate.  Tliey  are  excellent  sailors: 
are    familiar    with    all    the    keys,    shoals,    and 
brewers;  and  encoimtej  danger  vrith  alacrity  and 
crmrage.     Their  gnsit  places  of  rendezvous   are 
the    Horida  Gulf,  the  Hole    in   the  Wall,   and 
the  Hog-sties.    "Their  vessels  are  very  numerous. 


BAHAMAS  (THE) 

They  are  liceiwed  by  the  governor,  and  receive 
a  «alvaffe  on  all  property  rescued  firom  the  waves. 
The  climate  varies  verv  considerablv,  both  in 
temperature  and  salubnty,  according  to  the  geo- 
graphical position  and  local  peculiaiities  of  the 
Lslands.  At  New  Providence  the  weather,  during 
the  cold  season,  which  extends  from  Nov.  to 
May,  is  extremely  pleasant ;  the  thermometer  in 
the  shade  bemg  gcnerallv  from  60°  to  7(>°,  the 
mid-day  heat  tempered  by  a  constant  breeze; 
and  the  evenings  cool  and  agreeable.  From  May 
to  Nov.  the  heat  increases  or  decreases,  as  the 
sun  advances  or  retires  from  the  tropic  of  Cancer, 
and  during  this  period  the  range  of  the  thermo- 
meter is  from  75*  to  85°,  seldom  rising  above  90°. 
llic  increase  of  temperature  is  generally  accom- 
panied by  southerly  i^^inds  or  calms,  which  are 
ilescril)ed  as  being  very  oppressive.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  rain  falls  dunng  the  vear,  but  we  pos- 
sess no  exact  measurement  of  it.  The  spring 
rains  commence  about  May,  and  continue  for  a 
few  weeks ;  those  of  autumn  commence  in  Sept,, 
and  generally  terminate  in  Nov.  or  Dec.  Durmg 
the  autumnal  months  fogs  are  very  frequent  in 
the  mornings  and  evenings;  but  from  Dec,  to 
May  the  weather  is  generally  fine^  clear,  and  dry. 
It  in  im|X)Ssible  to  ascertain  the  exact  amount  of 
acres'  cidtivated,  as  o^^ing  to  the  rocky  nature  of 
the  L-^lands,  spots  are  generally  selected  to  plant 
in,  without  any  attention  to  the  regularity  ob- 
served in  more  favoured  soils;  but  the  number 
of  persons  set  down  in  the  official  tables  as  em- 
ployed in  agriculture  are  4,250.  The  chief  articles 
<»f  pro<luce  are  rice,  coflFee,  Indian  and  Guinea  com, 
potatoes,  yams,  beans,  peas,  pine-apples,  cotton, 
tH'hres,  casada,  pumpkins,  arrow-root,  onions  (of 
which  a  great  quantity  are  raised),  oranges,  limes, 
anil  lemons.  There  may  be  about  12,000  acres  of 
pasturage,  which  give  support  to  1,490  horses, 
2,765  homed  stock,  7,890  sheep  and  goats,  and 
3,350  swine.  The  principal  articles  of  exjwrt,  in 
the  year  18G2,  were  cottt>n  and  fruit,  the  value  of 
the  former  amounting  to  309,649/.,  and  of  the 
latter  article  to  345,246/.  The  total  exports  in 
the  year  1H62  were  of  the  value  of  1,007,775/.; 
the  articles,  including  coffee,  to  the  value  of 
22,<»87/. ;  co])per,  to  the  value  of  15,800/.;  sfHrnge, 
to  the  value  of  13,724/.;  sugar,  to  the  value  of 
I0,2«2/.;  and  silk,  to  the  value  of  8,891/.  The 
ti.tal  imports  in  1862  amounted  to  1,250,322/.,  of 
which  213,037/.  for  cotton,  lliis  shows  that  a 
great  part  of  the  commercial  actiWty  was  owing 
to  Intercourse  with  the  so-called  Confederate 
Slates  of  America,  The  numl)er  of  tons  of  Bri- 
tij«h  shipping  employed  inwards  was  83,354  in 
lM(»2.  The  total  shipping,  both  British  and 
fnn'ign,  amounted  to  107,446  tons.  The  govern- 
ment consists  f»f  a  governor,  a  council  of  twelve, 
and  a  house  of  assembly  of  thirty  members.  The 
courts  of  law  are,  the  supreme  court,  which  holds 
its  sessions  in  terms  of  three  weeks,  with  the  powers 
of  the  common  law  at  Westminster,  and  its  prac- 
tice modelled  on  that  of  the  King's  Bench.  The 
rcventie  of  these  islands  for  1863  was  74,511/., 
and  the  ex[>enditure  53,409/.  New  Providence 
wiw  settle<i  in  1629  by  the  English,  who  kept 
]M>s.«icssi()n  of  it  till  1641,  when  they  were  expelled 
Ity  the  Spaniards,  who  murderwl  the  govem<>r,  and 
tomnjitte<l  manv  acts  of  barbarous  cnieltv.  It  was 
rccolonised  in  1666  by  the  Knglish  a  second  time ; 
but  they  were  ai^ain  exi)elled  by  the  French  and 
Spaniartls  in  1703.  an<l  from  that  peri«Kl  it  became 
a  rendezvous  for  pirates,  till  formally  ceded  to  the 
Knglish  in  17?<3,  in  whose  i)ossession,  with  the 
other  i.slan<ls,  it  has  since  remained.  The  propor- 
tion of  the  2o.Onu,o<K)/.  of  comi>ensation  granted 
bv    Britain    awarded    to    the     inhabitants    was 


BAHAR 


327 


128,340/.  7«.  5|dL,  while  the  relative  value  of  the 
slaves  was  290,573/!.  16a.  3|c/. 

The  principal  islands  forming  the  Bahama  groop 
are.  New  Pro^-idence,  containing  the  capital,  Nas- 
sau ;  Andros  Island.  Green  and  (irassy  Keys,  Grand 
Bahama,  and  the  Berry  Islands ;  Great  and  Little 
Abaco  and  Keys,  Harbour  Island,  Eleuthenu  Royal 
Island  and  Keys ;  St  Salvador  and  Little  Island ; 
Watling's  Island  and  Rum  Kev ;  Great  and  Little 
Exuma  and  Keys;  Ragged  Island  and  Keys; 
I^ng  Island ;  Crooked  Islaiid,  Fortune  Island,  and 
Acklin's  Island;  Great  and  Little  Heneagua, 
Mayaguana;  French  and  Attwood's  Kevs;  the 
Caicoss  TuiIl's  Island,  Key  Sal,  and  Angu&a, 

BAHAR  or  BEHAR,  an  inL  pro.  of  Hindostan, 
presid.  Bengal,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  im- 
portant under  the  British  dominion.  It  lies  chiefly 
between  22°  and  27°  N.  Ut.,  and  83°  and  87°  E. 
long. ;  having  N.  Nepaul,  W.  Oude,  Allahabad,  and 
part  of  Gundwana ;  S.,  the  latter  prov. ;  and  £^ 
Bengal:  area,  53,744  sq.  m.  Pop.  estimated  at 
about  9,000,000. 

The  Ganges  runs  a  course  of  200  m.  through  this 
prov.,  W.  to  E.,  dividing  it  into  two  nearly  equal 
parts.  The  other  chief  rivers  are  the  Sone,  Gun- 
duck,  DuDunodah,  Caramnassa,  and  Dewah,  all 
tributaries  of  the  former :  there  are  numberless 
smaller  streams,  and  the  prov.  generally  is  well 
watered,  ej^jecially  its  N.  portion ;  in  the  S.  irriga- 
tion is  artihciallv  effected  by  means  of  wells,  dams, 
and  trenches.  It  may  be  described  under  three 
divisions ;  one  an  uninterrupted  flat  extending  for 
70  m.  N.  of  the  Ganges,  to  the  forests  of  Nepaul 
and  Momng ;  a  second,  or  central  div.  extending 
60  m.  S.  from  the  Ganges,  consisting  only  in  part 
of  plains,  but  yielding  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  annual  produce  of  opium  ;  and  a  third  and 
more  elevated  region,  S.  of  the  latter,  with  an  area 
of  18,0<)0  sq.  m.,  less  fertile  than  the  others,  but 
said  to  contain  diamond  mines,  and  thence  called 
Nagpoor.  Climate  temperate,  but  in  the  hot  sea- 
sons parching  winds  from  the  W.  often  prevail 
during  the  dav.  Frosts  are  rare,  but  during  the 
cold  seasons  tlie  thermometer  often  ranges  from 
35°  to  70°  (Fahr.)  in  the  course  of  the  day,  among 
the  hills ;  and  in  this  district  the  winds  are  very 
bracing  to  Eun>pean  constitutions.  No  diseases 
are  pecidiar  to  the  prov.,  but  bronchocele  is  very 
prevalent  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Ganges.  Soil  fertUe, 
and  pnxluctive  of  the  drier  grains :  it  also  produces 
laige  quantities  of  nitre,  with  sulphate  and  muriate 
of  so<la,  especially  N.  of  the  Ganges,  where  nitre 
is  a  gov.  moiu>poly.  Agriculture,  commerce,  and 
manufactures  have  always  been  in  a  compara- 
tively flourishing  state  in  this  prov. ;  paitly  fronk 
its  central  position,  eas}*  internal  communications, 
and  l)eing  a  thoroughfare  for  the  trade  of  Bengal 
with  the  Upper  ProA-inces;  and  partly  from  its 
fruitfuhiess  and  natural  fitness  for  tillage.  Here,' 
however,  as  well  as  in  Bengal,  only  about  one-third 
part  is  supposed  to  be  under  cultivation.  (Hamil- 
ton's E.  I.  Gaz.,  i.  177.)  Opium,  a  staple  com- 
modity of  the  pn>v.,  is  perhaps  the  best  in  India. 
It  is  a  gov.  monopoly,  Bahar  and  Benares  being 
the  only  provs.  within  the  Bengal  presid.  where  it 
Is  allowed  to  be  cultivated.  For  further  particulars 
see  Bknoau 

Indigo  is  very  extensively  grown  in  Tirhoot, 
where  much  forest  land,  ami  land  formerly  used 
for  grain,  has  been  appronnated  to  its  culture, 
and  where  the  produce  is  also  manufactured  upon 
a  large  scale.  The  planters  and  cultivators  are 
now  on  good  terms  with  each  other;  and  since  it 
was  agreed  that  only  one  planter  should  settle  in 
a  village,  quarrels  among  the  latter  have  also 
j  cease<l.  The  people  in  the  indigo  districts  are 
'  said  to  be  in  a  much  better  condition  than  else- 


828 


BAHAB 


where.  Sugar-cane,  betel,  tobacco,  and  grain  of 
all  kinds,  are  cultivated  largely,  and  there  is  a 
good  stock  of  cattle.  Most  part  of  the  lands  in 
Bahar  are  held  in  small  lots  by  cultivators  or  ryotSf 
who  |>ay  a  land  tax  of  half  the  produce :  the  per- 
manent settlement  has  been  by  no  means  so  widely 
estaliliijihcd  as  in  liengal ;  jaghire.^  arc  there  rare, 
but  frequent  here ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  there 
are  in  Bahar  but  three  large  zemindaries,  viz. 
those  of  Shahatwd,  Tirhoot,  and  Tickary.  This 
ari.Hcs  from  the  circumstance  that  the  zemindars 
of  Ilaliar  were  always  inferior  in  power  and  in- 
fluence to  those  of  Bengal,  and  their  zemindaries 
much  smaller ;  so  that  they  were  sooner  and  mure 
easily  identified  with  the  body  of  cultivators. 

The  chief  manufactures  are,  cotton  cloths  fur 
exportation,  essences,  and  saltpetre,  the  manu- 
facture of  which  scarcely  passes  the  E.  limits  of 
the  pmv.  Bahar  is  dividexl  into  eight  <listricts  or 
collectAratcs,  viz.  Bahar,  Bhaugulpure,  Dhurrum- 
pore,  Kamgur,  Shahalmil,  Sarun,  Tirhout,  and 
JPatna.  The  chief  city  is  Patna.  The  natives 
have  a  finer  physical  appearance,  but  are  inferi(»r 
to  their  B(.>ngal  neighbours  in  cleanliness  and  do- 
mestic economy.  In  the  S.  parts  agricultiurc  is 
wholly  carried  on  l)y  slaves ;  and  many  of  these 
consist  <»f  iudividuais  who,  by  a  practice  peculiar 
to  this  prov.,  mortgage  their  labour  until  able  to 
redeem  a  debt :  a  third  part  (»f  the  pop.  are  Mo- 
hammedans. This  prov.  anciently  is  supposed  to 
have  funned  two  independent  sovereignties — that 
of  Mithila  in  the  N.,  and  Ma^dha  in  the  S. ;  and 
distinct  languages  still  contmue  to  be  spoken  in 
them.  It  was  acquired  from  Cossim  Ah  by  the 
British  in  1765,  since  which  it  has  enjoyed  perfect 
tranquillity.  The  city  of  Gaya  was  tlie  birthplace 
of  Buddha,  but  no  Buddhists  now  remain  in  Bahar. 

Baiiab  ^Distr.  or  Zillah  of),  occupies  the 
central  portion  of  the  above  prov. ;  being  l)ounded 
N.  by  the  (ranges  ;  £.  by  the  distr.  of  Bhaugul- 
pore ;  S.  by  those  of  Bhaugulpore  and  Kamgur ; 
and  W.  by  Shahabad:  extreme  length,  E.  to  W., 
120  m. ;  breadth,  80  m. ;  area,  5,235  sq.  m.  Hie  po- 
pulation is  estimated  at  3,000,000,  of^whom  al)out 
one-third  are  Mohammedans.  Surface  generally 
level,  especially  in  the  X.,  where  the  banks  (»f  the 
(jianges  are  highly  cultivated :  there  are,  however, 
many  scattered  hills,  and  three  principal  ranges,  in 
the  heart  of  the  distr.,  of  primitive  formation,  con- 
taining (granite,  gneiss,  mica,  quartz,  Jasper,  horn- 
stone,  silica,  <frc. ;  but,  except  toward  the  8. 
boundary,  none  of  them  probably  excee<l  700  ft. 
in  heighL  Next  to  the  danges,  the  chief  river  is 
the  Sone,  its  chaimel  being  sometimes  nearly  as 
laige  as  that  of  the  former ;  its  E.  banks  are  over- 
whelmed with  sand,  blown  up  from  its  bed  in  the 
dry  season  :  there  arc  no  lakes,  and  few  marches 
in  this  distr.,  although  in  the  wet  season  much  of 
the  country'  is  under  water.  Tliere  are  many  hot 
springs  in  various  spots;  bituminous  and  other 
volcanic  substances  have  been  also  met  with,  and 
in  one  place  an  extinct  crater  is  distinctly  \isible. 
About  490  sq.  m.  are  covered  with  woods  and 
thickets,  including  the  bamboo,  palm,  mango,  lig, 
apple,  pomegranate,  &C.,  which  are  all  cultivatcil 
(tamarisk  and  zisypbus  bushes  in  huge  quantity) ; 
the  ttrychnoSf  nux  vomica^  soap-nut,  and  the  salhar, 
believed  by  Mr.  Colebrook  to  be  the  tree  yieldmg 
gum  olil)anum.  The  chief  wild  animals  are  a 
large  and  formidable  black  bear,  the  siM»tted  tiger, 
idmeumon  ;  a  few  monkeys,  squirrels,  foxes,  and 
ilogs ;  many  birds  of  prey ;  ]K>n)oises,  and  a  pro- 
fusion of  tisli,  are  found  in  the  Ganges,  as  well  as 
alligators;  but  there  are  no  wild  elephants,  rhino- 
ceroses, or  buffaloes ;  few  tigers,  and  neitlier  par- 
roquets,  Ac^  nor  singuig  birds.  The  lands  near 
.  the  river  yield  two  croi>s  in  the  year,  but  this  is 


not  the  case  with  more  than  ISih  part  of  the 
arable  land  in  the  interior.  Kice  is  by  far  the 
most  important  article  of  culture,  but  the  cans 
only  are  reaped;  the  straw  being  abandoned  to 
the  cattle,  or  left  uncut,  till  wanted  for  thatch. 
Cotton  has  been  extensively  grown  since  tlic 
commencement  of  the  Amencan  civil  war,  ainl 
the  failure  of  the  supply  from  the  Mississippi  cotton 
regions.  Wlieat  is  next  in  importance ;  and  with 
it,  or  with  pulse,  barley  is  often  sovm ;  maize  is 
almost  wholly  confined  to  the  banks  of  the  Gangt-i*. 
Cruciform  plants,  linseed,  and  sesamum,  are  culti- 
vated ftir  their  oil;  ginger,  coriander,  capicum, 
the  potato  and  other  succulent  vegetables,  are 
likewise  grown.  ITie  plough  and  cattle  used  are 
lK)th  vrretched,  though  the  latter  are  somewhat 
l)etter  than  those  more  to  the  £.;  the  grain  is 
trodden  out  by  cattle,  and  kept  by  the  more  opu- 
lent proprietors  in  hovels  of  mud  and  thatch. 
The  <uhrqfy  or  higher  ranks,  pay  no  rent  for  land 
occupied  by  their  houses,  and  no  landlord  may 
refuse  to  grant  them  laud  for  building ;  but  Euro- 
I)eans,  not  being  dignified  with  tlie  title  of  ashraf, 
find  much  difficulty  in  obtaining  it.  Few  of  the 
cultivators  are  rich.  A  large  portion  of  the  land, 
perhaps  about  a  half,  is  exempted  fh)m  the  land 
tax ;  and  yet  it  is  affirmed,  and  we  believe  truly, 
that  the  taxed  portions  ore  the  best  culti^wted 
and  most  pn>ductive.  Some  of  the  rent-free 
estates  are  still  large,  but,  owin|;  to  the  rules  of  in- 
heritance, they  are  rapidly  sulxhviding ;  and  many 
of  the  zemuidars  are  reduced  to  the  condition  of 
peasants,  or  are  but  little  above  beggary.  Many 
(xxnipiers  are  in  the  habit  of  receiving  advauceji 
from  their  landlords,  to  enable  them  to  carry  on 
their  business ;  while  others  borrow  money  for  the 
same  purpose,  at  2  per  cent,  per  mo.  interest ;  and« 
ruinous  as  such  payment  may  appear,  the  latter 
are  universally  observed  to  be  in  the  end  the  best 
oflF.  The  cultivators  are  not  subject  to  the  illegal 
exactions  that  press  on  the  tenantry  in  Bengal, 
and  are  in  conseq^ience  attached  to  their  land- 
lords, and  ready  to  promote  their  interests.  Bahar 
distr.  is  dividell  into  twelve  pergunnahs ;  it  con- 
tains a  number  of  considerable  towns,  one  of 
which,  Gaya,  the  birth-place  of  Buddha,  is  cele- 
brated as  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  and  annually 
visited  by  nearly  30,000  devotees:  there  are  a 
great  many  small  towns,  of  from  100  to  600 
houses.  Cotton  stufis,  blankets,  and  carpets,  are 
manufactured;  with  paper,  soap,  leather,  bricks, 
&c ;  and  there  are  extensive  lutre  factories  and 
sugar  refineries. 

Tnuleiimen  have  very  little  capital;  general 
dealers  seldom  more  than  25  ru])ees,  and  many  of 
the  dealers  in  grain  no  more  than  400  ru]iecs. 
The  people  are  of  a  warlike  dlnposition,  passionate, 
and  jealous;  the  habits  of  the  women  pri>p<.>r- 
tionally  strict.  ITie  great  subdi\-ision  of  pn)])erty 
has  banished  every  thing  like  opulence ;  and  mar- 
riages aii<l  funerals,  by  the  expenses  they  cause, 
often  bring  families  to  poverty.  The  houses  are 
neither  so  well  built  nor  so  clean  as  those  met 
with  in  Bengal.  Drinking  to  excess,  betel  chew- 
uig,  aud  smoking,  are  not,  however,  pursued  so 
far.  Amoii^  other  customs  of  this  distr.,  girls  are 
never  married  till  pul>crty :  the  feet  of  dying 
jMjrsons  are  not  put  inU)  the  Ganges;  but'  the 
parents  and  children,  not  of  the  vulgar,  but  of 
*  men  of  rank  and  learning,'  are  turned  out  of  dcK^rs 
when  they  are  about  to  die,  exposed  to  all  the 
inclemency  of  the  weather.  This  o<lious  custom, 
wldch  would  disgrace  a  nation  of  savages,  has 
been  in  numerous  cases  per\'erted  to  the  most  in- 
fam(»us  pur})oses. 

Baiiak  {VihoTf  a  monastery  of  Buddhists),  a 
town  in  the  above  prov.  and  distr.,  in  hit.  25^  13' 


BAHAWULPOOB 

X.,  long.  85°  35'  E. ;  86  m.  SE.  Patna.  It  w  a 
large,  straggling  place,  containing  about  5,000 
Houses,  and  probably,  therefore,  about  30,000  in- 
hab.  It  has  few  or  no  good  streets;  most  of  its 
public  buildings  arc  in  a  stat«  of  decay ;  and  it 
has  a  ruinous  appearance.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  at  some  remote  asm  the  cap.  of  the  prov. 
1  he  plain  on  which  it  stands  is  well  watered,  fer- 
tile, and  well  cultivatedi 

IJAI1.\WULP00K,  or  DAODPOOTRA,  a  ter- 
rit.  of  Hindostan,  fonnerly  belonging  to  Caubul, 
but  subsequently  tributary  to  the  maharajah  of  the 
Punjaub,  between  lat.  28°  aud30O  N.,  and  long.  7(P 
and  74°  E. ;  length  NE.  to  SW.  280  m.;  greatest 
breadth  120  m. ;  having  N.  the  Punjaub;  E.  the 
liicanere  territ,  (Rajpootana) ;  S.  and  SW.  Jav- 
sulmere  and  Sinde.  Its  NW.  boundary  is  for  the 
most  part  formed  by  the  Sutleje,  but  for  a  certain 
distance  opposite  the  cap.  it  includes  both  banks 
of  that  river,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Chinauf. 
The  banks  of  the  rivers  are  everywhere  fertile; 
but  the  rest  of  the  country  towards  the  E.  is  a 
mere  desert.  For  4  or  5  m.  on  cither  side  the 
Sutleje,  the  soil  is  formed  by  the  slime  deposited 
by  that  river,  and  is  annually  watered  by  its 
inundations :  some  portions  of  it  are  highly  culti- 
vated ;  others  arc  covered  with  a  soft  turf,  and 
the  rest  with  jungle  and  coppice  of  low  tamarisk 
trees,  abounding  with  wild  hogs,  wild  geese,  game, 
Ac,  but  having  interspersed  many  small  hamlets. 
The  inhabs.  are  chiefly  Juts  and  Bel(N)ches,  Mo- 
hammedans, who  came  thither  from  the  district  o 
Sliikarporc,  where  they  were  settled  early  in  the 
reign  of  Aurungzebe.  They  are  a  fair  and  hand- 
some race,  and  apparently  in  a  better  condition 
than  some  of  their  neighbours.  Lieut.  Conolly 
says, '  As  soon  as  we  had  crosseil  the  frontier  (from 
Shikarpore)  into  Bahawal  Khan's  territory,  we 
were  struck  with  the  improved  appearance  of  the 
land ;  the  ground  was  cleared,  and  cultivated  with 
the  better  sorts  of  grain;  the  people,  also,  seemed 
more  orderly  and  respectable.*  The  principal 
towns  are  Bahawulpoor,  Ahmedpoor  (the  residence 
of  the  chief),  Julalpoor,  Seedpoor,  and  Ooch.  Du- 
rawul,  an  ancient  fort  in  the  desert,  is  the  only 
place  of  strength  in  the  country.  The  public 
revenue  is  about  10  lacs  rup.  a  year.  The  khan 
maintains  an  army  of  about  2,000  regular  troops ; 
but  in  time  of  war  he  can  raise  more  than  20,000 
men.  The  government  is  desiwtic ;  but  not  a  few 
of  the  khans  have  ruled  mildly  and  paternally, 
much  belovetl  by  their  subjects.  This  territory 
was  taken  from  the  Moguls  by  the  Persians, 
and,  after  the  death  of  Nadir  Sliah,  belonged  to 
Caubul,  U)  which  kingdom  it  was  tributary  as 
long  as  the  monarchy  lasted.  The  three  last 
rulers  have  been  nearly  independent;  but  the 
political  ixjwer  of  the  country  has  been  broken 
by  the  Sikhs,  and  the  rajah  of  the  Punjaub  only 
spared  it  on  condition  of  pecuniary  payments. 
(Eli>hinstouc's  Caubul;  Bum's  Trav. ;  Hamil- 
ton's E.  I.  (iazetteer.) 

Baiiawulp(k>k,  the  ancient  cap.  of  the  above 
tcrritor\',  near  the  S.  bank  of  the  Sutleje,  320 
m.  \VS\V.  Dellii,  lat,  2l)o  21'  N.,  long.  7'29  10'  E.; 
at  the  point  of  junction  of  the  roatl  leading  from 
Bombay  and  (Jalcutta  to  CaubuL  It  is  ab<>ut  4 
m.  in  circ,  but  includes  gardens  and  mango  groves. 
It  is  surrounded  with  a  thin  wall  of  mud,  the 
houses  Ix-ing  of  unbunit  bricks,  with  mud  terraces. 
The  inhab.  consist  chiefly  of  Hindoos,  mostly  oc- 
cu[iied  in  the  manufacture  of  the  silken  girdles 
and  line  turbans  for  which  Bahawulpoor  is  cele- 
brated. The  Hindoo  traders  are  distinguishetl  by 
their  enteq)ri>e;  they  deal  extensively  in  Eunn 
|>can  g<xMU,  whicli  they  receive  by  way  of  Bica- 
nccr,  and  carr}'  these  and  the  productions  of  India 


BAHIA 


329 


to  Balkh  and  Bokhara,  and  sometimes  to  Astra- 
khan. The  Sutleje  is  navigable,  but  not  used  in 
the  transport  of  merchanduse.  Notwithstanding 
the  manufactures  and  trade  of  Bahawulpoor,  the 
town  shows  many  svmptoms  of  general  decay. 
(Elphinstone*8 Caubul;  ConoUy's  Journey, it  243.) 

BAHIA,  a  marit.  prov.  of  Brazil,  on  the  E.  co&st, 
extending  from  about  9<^  to  15^  45'  S.  lat^  It 
comprises,  as  at  present  diNdded,  nearly  all  the 
territory  included  formerly  under  the  ancient 
captaincy  of  the  same  name^  together  with  a 
portion  of  that  of  Uhcos.  It  derives  its  name 
from  Bahia  de  Todos  o$  Santot,  and  is  bounded  N. 
by  the  provinces  of  Sei^pe  and  Pemambuco 
(from  the  latter  of  which  it  is  divided  by  the  Bio 
San  Francisco) ;  on  the  S.  bv  Porto  Segiiro  and 
Minas  Geraes ;  on  the  W.  by  t^eniambuco,  though 
still  separated  by  the  Rio  San  Francisco,  and  on 
the  E.  by  the  ocean.  Its  length  is  estimated  at 
about  480  m.,  and  its  breadth  at  from  150  to  200. 
The  estimates  of  its  area  vary  from  54,000  to 
97,000  sq.  m.  The  latter,  we  are  inclined  to  think, 
is  nearest  the  mark.  'The  accounts  of  the  pop. 
are  also  very  various,  no  census  having  ever  been 
taken,  the  number  is  generally  estimated  at  be- 
tween 700,000  and  800,000.  The  province  is 
subdivided  into  three  comarcas,  \*iz.  Bahia,  Jaco- 
bina,  and  Ilheos. 

The  province  of  Bahia  is  traversed  from  SW.  to 
XE.  by  the  Serra  Cincora,  Giboya,  and  Itabayana. 
The  Serra  de  Monteque\'ia  forms  the  cldef  ridge 
in  the  interior.  Bays  and  inlets  abound  along  the 
coast,  among  which  the  most  celebrated  is  All 
Saints'  Bay.  Numerous  rivers  traverse  the  pro- 
\nnce,  and  the  Rio  San  Francisco,  one  of  the 
largest  of  the  Brazilian  livers,  flows  along  its 
NW.  frontier. 

llie  cultivation  of  tobacco  is  peculiar  to  the  pro- 
\dnce,  and  its  produce  b  much  sought  after,  not 
only  for  the  market  of  Portugal,  but  also  for  Spain 
and  the  whole  of  Barbary.  The  soil  is  admirably 
adapted  to  the  cultivaticm  of  the  sugar-cane ;  and 
the  sugar  of  Bahia  bears  a  high  character  for  its 
excellent  quality,  which  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  Bahia  exports  more  sugar  tlian  the  whole  <»f 
the  rest  of  BraziL  The  growth  of  cotton  exhibits 
an  unusual  increase,  and  Bahia  is  alreadv  l)ecomo 
a  formidable  rival  to  Pemambuc(>.  'The  oth^r 
productions  are,  rice,  of  a  superior  quality ;  cofTco, 
much  excelled  however  by  that  of  Rio  de  Janeiro; 
and  Brazil-wood,  equal  to  that  of  Pemambuc«>. 
(Report  of  Mr.  Consul  Moigan  on  the  Trade  of 
Bahia  for  the  Year  1864). 

The  proWncc  of  Bahia  was  one  of  the  first  peo- 
pled by  Euntpeans,  and  it  is  also  one  of  those 
from  which  they  have  most  effectually  removed 
all  traces  of  the  original  inhabitants^ 

Bahia,  or  San  Salvador,  the  cap  of  the  above 
prov.,  immediately  within  Cape  St,  Antonio,  wliich 
forms  the  right  of  E.  side  of  the  no!)le  bay  of  All 
Saints  {Bahia  de  Todos  ot  Santos) ,  whence  the 
prov.  and  the  city  derive  their  names;  lat,  (of 
Ughthousc  on  Cai)e  St.  Antonio)  13^  0'  30"  S., 
long.  3MO  30'  W.  It  was  fountled  about  1549,  by 
Thomas  de  Souza,  first  captain-general  of  Brazil, 
and  was,  until  17r»3,  the  capital  of  the  colony. 
Since  that  period  Rio  has  been  acknowledgeil  as 
the  capital,  and  it  also  has  lieen  the  readence  of 
the  court  since  its  emigration  to  Brazil.  But, 
though  now  inferior  to  its  rival  in  population  and 
commercial  importance,  Bahia  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  important  cities  of  S.  America,  'fho 
estimates  of  the  population  vary  from  150,000  to 
180,000,  of  which  a  third  are  supposed  to  be  whites, 
a  third  mulattoes,  and  a  third  nlacks.  It  is  built 
partly  along  the  ridge,  and  partly  on  the  declivity, 
of  a  very  h^h  and  steep  hill  lionting  the  cntrauico 


330  BAHIA 

ti  Ibe  liay.    It  cmuunt*  of  an  upper  and  «  Imreh 
tiiwn,  the  (•snatit  incluiUng  Iha  Huliurba  of  Itiiin    |iuiw. 
Km  and  Victoci*,    Tlip  upp»r  ri>wn  sljunie  o~  ■  ■■  ■       ■"  - 
nif^.  hvtwmn  llie  ras  and  a  lake  on  Ihc  N,, 

'ii  whiili  nijidv  tilt 


nrrpmclf  lUrtjr,  uul  alihoui(ta  (he 

veiy  naiTovr,  il  ia  nil  nncomniiin  ihirif' to ,   _ 

ocninicd  liy  aT)il1eciii,vithlb«iUK>b<anillK'nrh*ii 

The  ritv  w  .irfi;- '   ■  '     "—   ■    " - 

otlwr  fi«tili«ilio 

Tcry  great  HtrciiRtli.  'JTIiv  local  revenue  is  deriveii 


-    I'ld  I*  

rtf,  irul  hiufujur-duKi.  Laii 


upuii  pNiHirtsand  linjiorli',  irul  hnrtujur-duB 
b  Milgrvt  to  ■  lax  rif  ime-lenlh  i>f  itn  pruilaw,  and, 
aincc  tliu  i«Ti<lutian,  rhurcli  lands  bave  aliu>  l>e«i 
Teiii1i>r«d  aidijwt  to  the  same  imiaist,  and  Itic 
clei}!y  are  paid  by  the  pivenimcnt.  The  taxpji 
on  prrtvixitnu,  wldeh  ini'liide  bevff  fLth,  tlonrf  and 
Te);clnlilv<i,  are  annually  farraul  onl  in  iietianiti 
paiinhciL  As  re^iiects  the  number  and  bcanli 
of  ita  jiublic  building!*,  Itahia  ranlu  Hnit  amon^ 
the  dtiM  i-f  llruU,  In  tlic  upper  town,  aniuiiaiii 
tbe  ehivr  may  h«  ennmerateil  the  cnlliedml  (fur- 
meriy  the  church  uT  the  Jnuiti'),  dedkateil  luSat 
SalvadiiT.  Uiilt  c>r  Kurupean  marlile,  and  eiinn- 
deml  tlic  handMimeat  cL-cleiriaHlical  buihlinR  ii 


a  I^iyultt  and  San  Franfiriit  Xai 
tbe  onlv  Tcmarkable  objects  of  art  whiuh  any  of 
the  iiulilic  Iwildituca  "f  liabia  hare  tii  olTor.  (Dcnin 
Knbul,  ]k  1t»4.)  file  ruber  puhlic  buildinj^  ore, 
the  UHient  otjlt^e  of  the  Jeauitu,  now  emivertnil 


paUceH  of  the  ■: 


d  the  Kovemor;  the 
niim-uau  (coza  <ie  camau'd) ;  the  tribunal  of 
apjieal  (caza  de  relafo) ;  the  tlirotre.  liult  upon  a 
itKk ;  ntwral  hw>i»tal»  (|iart  at  i)ic  funda  for  »a\>- 
pnrting  them  arc  deriveil  from  liitterie*) ;  a  caia 
de  miMiivunlia.  a  bunk,  anil  othef  iiiHtilutiunii. 

llaliia  coniaiiw  a  Kieat  number  of  rtUpoun 
hou»ni,aII  of  lliem  nitiisrcil  in  tbe  uppCT  tiinn, 
hnl  they  offer  notliing  worthy  of  olBerrnliim,  It 
alno  cuntninii  between  thirty  and  (any  cburches, 
watleied  Ibmogb  the  upjicr  anil  lower  luwna.  The 
elfTKy  ■'o  i-ery  auroeruut,  in  coniKqucncc  of  iln 
bein|>lhc  rcMilcnce  of  Ihc  an;bbi>>)iu|>,  who  box  the 
contnd  of  tbe  ecelejuoKtical  afFain  uf  the  empire. 

In  (he  h>wer  town  the  ese)uui([e,  a  niosiuve 
building  of  modern  dale,  la  worthy  of  rvmark.  It 
ia  buill  in  a  fieculiat  atyle,  in  which  it  ha*  bpcn 
■tiemptvd  to  imitate  the  (ireciaiu  Tbe  princi|iiil 
atreet  w  tbe  I'raya,  In  whi.'h  i*  situated  tbe  rhun:li 
of  the  IVinceifao  (concept iim),  remarkable  on  ac- 
count of  tlie  irtonen  vitb  which  it  >»  built  bsvin;! 
tH>en  prepared  and  taimbmd  in  Kunipe,  and 
l>rou(;bt  thence  in  two  frigates;  so  that  on  tlitir 
arrival  they  boil  merely  ID  be  arranged  in  tlii> 
inder  iireviously  allultcd  to  them.  (Ilenis  llrcijL. 
p.  -IM.)  The  houHid  are  chieHy  coiislnict«<l  of 
stimc,  and,  contrary  to  tbe  usual  mo.le  in  K. 
America,  many  corisLtt  of  three,  four,  and  et~en 
five  sturiea.  In  the  upper  town  are  many  hnnd- 
aomc  h'luws,  eonslructed  with  balconies  and  blinds, 
inHteiul  »f  HinrlowH. 

Tbe  dty  of  Kan  Ralioiloria  almost  destitute  of 
inslilntHHis  lievnted  to  intelleclual  imjiruvGnient. 
Amunjpit  the  seminaiius  of  nlueatiiHi  la  one  whivh 
fumubeB  a  larye  uumlivriir  etclesiaiiliCT.  There 
is  a  pnblic  lilirary,  widi  from  IKI,WW  to  71),(NKI 
volumea.  among  which  are  a  liiw  ancient  Portii- 
tpicM  works,  and  eunie  U  SS.  The  greater  purtiim 
of  the  K"od  work*  are  in  French, 

Tliv  vehicles  generally  lined  in  lUbia  are  called 
tadarat,  and  are  a  hind  of  palanquin,  supportdl 
by  negroes,  who  make  a  pracilcs  of  cluatenng  at 


ra  of  the  streets,  to  be  hired  fur  that  par- 


The  Bulyinned  statement,  coro[dIed  ftam  the 
offiinal  returns  of  the  dirntur  uf  cur-ioms.  Rives  a 
Hew  of  the  rise  and  growth  of  the  foreign  imiH^rt 
Iraile  of  Italiia  from  the  oiKMiing  of  tbe  yemx  <>f 
Urazil  In  foreign  nalioii.%  when  Dom  John  VU  of 
I'urtuBal.  airived  in  Ibe  city  in  IMOH.  andthe  sul>- 
Bcquciit  iraiHfftancc  given  to  cmnmerce  by  the 
cry  of  tlif   ■- '  — = —  "  ■■■' ' — 


iliscoverv  oi 
1  ItMu  1- 


u  thifl  pruYincc 


I  Valoo  of  Imports  wi 


I  Indcjiendeneo  of  Braill 


The  Ihilish  impiirt*  abmt  into  the  port  li  Bafaia 
in  twelve  yearn,  fium  \Mb  tu  IttAT, iiierHWed  1i>i| 

Kr  cenl^  slanving  a  \ii.m  in  IM4  uf  «III,T3TI„  hi 
'I.'i  of  TU5,I3«,  in  )tf56-u7  uf  lJiMI,ll34f,  in 
IH5;-,W  <if  I.S44,7tti;/.,  hi  I):l6tj-a0  of  1,^7,141'., 
in  mm-Ca  of  !i:UI,-^N.  (liqwrt  of  Mi.  lloigan, 
British  Consul,  on  the  Trade  of  Baliia.) 

The  harixiur  uf  ISabia  a  ime  of  the  very  bett 
ttut  is  anywhere  to  be  mcl  with.  It  may  be  cti- 
lered  either  by  ihiy  or  by  night,  and  at  any  time 
of  the  liile.  Tlie  largest  ftiiiia  ancluir  clwc  to, 
and  immedinlcly  atireust  of,  Ilie  town,  in  fMm  siji 
to  seven  fathoms.  X.  aud  N^V.  of  the  tuwri  tbe 
bay  cxiianila  into  a  noblo  baAiu,  siudiied  with 
islands,  and  affonling  safe  anchorage  for  innume- 
rable ships.  The  trade  of  Itahin  is  very  extensive. 
The  cxiiorts  consist  ptindpally  of  si^flir,  eoitiui, 
and  coDce ;  with  lobacci>,  hiiL<4  and  horns,  rice, 
'ye  and  fancy  woods,  nutii,  bulbon.  and  diamonds. 
The  Niilijuined  lalnilat  slatement  givm  the  value 
'  foreign  im]Hirts  into  Ibe  port  of  Bahia  iluring 
le  tiiuuicial  year  of  t8j»-tiu. 


jp  jnjJ.  p 


Total    , 


mamdiivtun 


of  British  Imports  .  .  .  iCnsa.vas 
most  Imiwrlaut  articles  of  import  are  colliin 
luolleii  and  linen  slulf^  lish,  flour. 
]ic,  «>pf ler,  and  inai.  Theiminrls 
ell  aiul  linen  maniiforlumi  ftttra 
Greal  Uritain  greatly  ileclined  in  the  \n  vean 
lN-^A-64,  having  amounted  tu  ^3,tlH>|Mu-kagni  in 
18B6,  and  to  11.B27  bales  m  ItiM,  (llersirtof  Mr. 
Consul  Itorgnn.) 

—  ■     ■  In  the  sub- 


BAHLINGEN 

I860 

1850 

Sngar 

£242,330 

£86.'i,870 

Cotton      . 

7.2<»6 

9,0C0 

Coffoo 

107,402 

101,743 

Cocoa 

16,100 

13,290 

lliilcs 

74,4yO 

65,181 

Rum 

20,i>20 

32,690 

Tubftcco   . 

311,400 

267,376 

Rosewood 

34,S00 

29,800 

£814,398 

£l,38r).009 

DiamoncLi 

200,000 

560,000 

£1,014,398 

£1,945,009 

BAHREIN 


331 


The  total  shippinf^  which  entered  the  port  of 
Bahia  in  18G0  amounted  to  95l<  vesselfs  of  an  aggre- 
pite  tonnajjc  of  222,0'20,  manned  by  a  crew  of 
l.'),045.  Of  these  vessels  !(>♦>,  of  a  tonnage  of 
H2,tJ9.'),  with  a  crew  of  3,195,  sailerl  under  the 
Brit  ish  flag,  (llcport  of  Mr.  Morgan,  British  Consul 
at  liahia.) 

The  country  round  nearly  the  whole  Bay  of 
Bahia^  to  the  extent  of  from  12  to  20  m.  inland,  is 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Keconcavo,  and  is  the 
most  fertile  and  prtxluctive  in  the  comarca.  Its 
soil,  called  by  the  inhabitants  moMzv^ie,  is  black, 
and  its  fertility  is  proverbial.  In  tnis  district  is 
sitiuitcd  the  town  of  Cachoeira  or  Caxoiera,  which 
ranks  next  Bahia,  as  regards  extent,  population, 
and  imix>rtance.  It  carries  on  an  extensive  trade 
with  the  interior  of  the  province,  and  has  a  popu- 
lation of  alMiut  10,000  inhabitants.  The  district 
called  the  Keconcavo  comprises  several  flourish- 
ing^ viDagcs  and  country  towns,  which  owe  their 
prosf)erity  to  the  abundance  of  their  agricultural 
[inMluctions.  Among  these  Tapagifje,  or  Nossa 
Sonhora  de  Penha,  may  be  dL^tmguished  on  ac- 
count of  its  containing  the  country  residence  of 
the  archbishop  of  the  prov.  It  contains  also  a 
ditckvanl,  whence  nianv  well-built  and  substan- 
(ial  vessels  are  ccmstantly  launchcHL 

The  island  of  Itaparica,  situated  in  the  Bay  of 
Bahia,  is  the  largest  with  which  it  is  8tud<led.  It 
is  als>ut  14  m.  in  length  and  C  in  its  greatest 
width.  Fruit-trees  are  ver\'  extensively  culti- 
vated  thr(»ughout  the  island.  The  industry  con- 
sists chiefly  of  whale-lishing,  the  distillation  of 
mm,  and  some  rope-making.  Several  towns  in 
the  Kec(mcav<>  equi[)  vessels  for  prosecuting  the 
whale-fisherv  in  the  bav,  which  forms  a  branch 
of  indiL^try  on  this  line  of  coast. 

In  the  comarca  of  llheos  the  chief  town  is  San 
Jorge  dos  llheos,  which  was  formerly  flourishing 
and  c<»mparatively  opulent  and  extensive,  but  has 
now  the  appearance  of  being  deserted.  The  ex- 
puL^ion  of  the  Jesuits  gave  the  finishing  blow  to 
Its  importance. 

IIAIILINGEN,  a  town  of  WUrtemberg,  circ. 
Black  Forest  on  the  Eyach,  14  m.  NE.  Kotwell. 
lN»p.  2,295  in  18G1.  It  has  fabrics  of  cloth  and 
w(K)lloii  stuffs,  tanneries,  an<l  numerous  breweries 
and  distilleries.  There  are  mineral  springs  in  the 
vicinitv. 

BAHKEIX,  or  AVAL  ISLANDS,  a  group  con- 
sisting of  one  large  and  several  smaller  islands,  in 
the  Persian  (iulf,  subject  to  the  imaum  of  Muscat, 
in  a  bav  near  the  .Vnibian  shore,  between  lat.  25°  45' 
and  'lip  UV  X.,  and  long.  50O  15'  and  50°  20'  VV. 
The  largest  islan<i  (Bahrein)  Ls  about  25  m.  in 
length,  N.  to  S.,  by  6  or  7  m.  ^^-ijle,  and  80  or  90  m. 
in  circuit :  a  hilly  tract  occupies  its  centre ;  4-5ths 
of  its  surface  are  wastes,  but  the  remainder  is 
well  watered,  i>artially  cultivated,  and  thickly 
inhabited  The  fsip.  of  the  whole  group  of  islamfs 
is,  iKThaps,  GO.Ooo,  and  composed  (»f  several  dif- 
ferotit  irilH's.  The  native  Bahreins  number  about 
4o,o<K>  (ir  ")(J,000 ;  they  are  a  mixed  breed  between 
the  Persians  and  Arabe,  but  possessing  more  of 


the  indolence  and  cunning  of  the  former  than  of 
the  \yold  frankness  of  the  latter.  They  are  chiefly 
cultivators,  merchants,  and  flshermen,  and  for  the 
most  part  Mahommedaus,  of  the  sect  of  Omar; 
the  rest  of  the  inhabitanta  are  mostly  AraliH. 
The  pearl  fishery,  for  which  these  islands  are 
chiefly  noted,  employs,  during  the  season,  30,000 
men;  and  yields  pearls  of  the  value  of  from 
300,000/.  to  *8«0,000/,  yearly.  Most  of  the  fishery 
boats  belong  to  merchants  possessing  consideral)fe 
capital,  but  the  largest  proprietor  in  them  is  the 
sheik  himself,  who  has  upwards  of  2.000  boats, 
each  manned,  during  the  season,  with  eight  or  teu 
men :  he  impo^  also  a  small  tax  on  every  other 
boat.  The  fishing  season  b  from  the  beginning 
of  June  till  October.  The  diving  is  conduct^ 
pretty  much  in  the  same  manner  as  in  Ceylon 
(see  Ceylon)  ;  but  the  divers  attach  their  ovster- 
nets  to  their  waists,  and  are  in  the  habit  of  always 
stuffing  their  ears  and  nose  with  horn  or  other 
substances :  they  can  remain  under  water  nearly 
two  minutes  at  a  time.  They  are  often  in  the 
most  abject  circumstances,  and  generally  in  debt 
to  the  merchants,  who  obtain  the  pearls  at  their 
Gvm  price.  Bahrein  has  a  considerable  traffic,  and 
might  be  rendered  valuable  under  a  goo<l  govern- 
ment, and  made  the  centre  of  all  the  commerce 
on  this  part  of  the  Arabian  coast  Although  the 
only  cultivation  consists  of  date  plantations,  and 
a  few  wheat,  barley,  and  clover  fields,  at  least 
one-fourth  part  of  the  soil  is  very  rich ;  and  by 
irrigation  much  of  the  rest  is  capable  of  being 
greatly  improved.  Pomegranates,  mulberries,  figs, 
and  melons  are  produced ;  and  cattle,  poultr}',  and 
plenty  of  vegetables  are  obtained  from  the  neigh- 
l)ouring  coast.  Numerous  small  villages  and  towns 
are  scattered  over  the  cultivated  parts  of  the 
island ;  and  at  its  N.  portion  there  are  two  towns, 
Manama  and  Ruffar.  Manama  is  the  residence  of 
the  principal  merchants,  and  contains  a  fort  ori- 
ginally built  by  the  Portuguese;  the  remains  of 
several  fine  reservoirs  and  aqueducts,  constructed 
by  the  same  people,  exist  on  this  island.  At  the 
N.  end  are  two  harbours ;  that  to  the  NW.  having 
a  depth  of  four  to  seven  fathoms  water  near  the 
shore.  The  princijial  exports  are  pearls  to  India, 
Persia,  Arabia,  and  Bussorah ;  dry  dates,  tortoise- 
shell,  canvas,  and  sharks'  fins,  to  India;  and 
dates,  canvas,  mats,  and  coloured  cloths,  to  the 
other  countries.  The  chief  imports  are  rice  from 
Bengal  and  Bangalore;  sugar,  pepper,  blue  and 
white  cloths,  planks,  iron  and  other  metals,  cin- 
namon, camphor,  drugs,  and  indigo,  from  India ; 
coffee,  dry  fruits,  and  grain,  from  Bussorah,  Persia, 
and  Muscat.  There  are  twentv  merchant-vessels, 
of  140  to  350  tons,  belonging  to  liahrein,  chiefly  em- 
ployed in  the  India  trade.  The  islands  of  Maharag, 
^Vratl,  and  Tamahoy,  lie  NE.  Bahrein,  and  con- 
tain 7,500  inhabitants.  Maharag  is  the  residence 
of  the  sheik,  and  has  a  town  with  a  pop.  of  C,(K)0. 
The  sheik  of  liahrein  keeps  up  five  armed  vessels ; 
but,  in  time  of  war,  can  fit  out  fifteen  or  twenty. 
One  of  his  ships  is  of  100  tons  burden,  and  mounta 
twenty-two  guns.  He  also  maintains  a  body  of 
trtK)ps,  consisting  of  a  few  hundred  men;  but  the 
l>est  defence  of  Dahrein  is  in  the  multitude  of 
reefs  surrounding  it;  and  tivehumlred  determined 
men  might  oppose  the  landing  of  as  many  thou- 
sands, riie  sheik's  authority  extends  over  a  few 
places  on  the  ^Vrabiaii  coast.  These  islands  were 
known  to  the  ancients  bv  the  name  of  Tvlos,  and 
are  mentione<I  by  ^Vrrian.  The  Portuguese  esta- 
blished a  settlement  here  soon  after  Ormuz  had 
been  taken  by  Albuquerque;  but  they  were  cx- 
peUed  by  the  Persians  suf>seqiiently  to  the  fall  of 
(>rmuz.  For  a  long  ])eriod  the  Persians  and  the 
Alassar  sheiks  contested  the  possession  of  Bah- 


332 


BALE 


Tfdn ;  but  flincc  1700  it  ha»  been  wholly  separated 
frnm  the  Persian  dominions. 

liALEf  a  famous  marine  watering-place  of  an- 
cient Italy,  tJie  Brighton  of  the  Konian  worM,  on 
the  W.  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Naples,  8  m.  VV.  of 
that  city,  and  2^  m.  iJ.  Cape  Miscnum.  Ilaia? 
was  indebted  for  its  rl>*e  and  celebrity  to  a  variety 
of  circumstances — to  the  softness  and  serenity  of 
its  climate,  the  Ijeauty  of  its  situation, — 

'  Nnllus  in  orbe  sinua  Bails  prsBlacot  amocnis,* — 

the  atnmdance  of  its  hot  s])rings,  which  gave  to 
the  Komans,  who  were  passionately  fontl  of  the 
bath,  the  oi>ix)rtunity  of  mdulging  in  that  luxury' 
in  every  form  that  was  most  acceptable.  It  seems 
to  have  come  into  fn.shion  previously  to,  or  about, 
the  era  of  LucuUus,  who  had  a  splendid  \4lla 
cither  in  the  town  or  its  immediate  neighlwurhoiKi, 
ab  had  also  Coisar,  Ponii)ey,  and  Augustus ;  and  it 
continued  to  increase  in  popularity,  and  to  lie  a 
fav^ourite  resort  of  the  emperors  and  of  the  affluent 
voluptuaries  of  liome  till  the  irruption  of  the 
barbarians  under  Thetnloric  the  Goth.  The  town 
was  built  originally  on  the  narrow  slip  of  ground 
between  the  hills  and  the  sea ;  but  as  this  siiace 
was  but  of  very  limited  <limensions,  after  iJaiie 
became  a  fashionable  resort,  the  foundations  of  its 
Btreeta  and  palaces  were  projected  into  the  bay 
itself!    This  is  alluded  to  by  Horace : — 

*  MorifKine  Bails  obstrepentis  urges 
Summovere  littora, 

Tartun  locaplcs  contincnte  rip&.'  11.  Od.  18. 

No  sooner,  however,  had  opulence  withdrawn 
her  powerful  hand,  than  the  sea  gradually  re- 
sumed its  old  domain ;  moles  and  buttresses  were 
torn  asunder,  washed  away,  or  tumbled  headlong 
into  the  deep,  where,  several  feet  beh)w  the  sur- 
face, pavements  of  streets,  foundations  of  houses, 
and  masses  of  walls,  may  still  be  descried.  Earth- 
quakes and  other  convulsions  of  nature  have  also 
largely  contributed  to  the  destniction  of  Haias  of 
which  only  a  small  portion  of  the  ruins  now 
remain. 

BAIBOUT,  or  BMBURDI,  a  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  pach.  Erzenmm,  on  the  Tchorokhi,  62  m. 
W.  by  N.  Erzeroum.  Pop.  estimated  at  about  4,00(i. 
It  is  a  straggling  ill-built  toi^Ti,  supposed  to  occupy 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Varuthtx,  vrith  a  castle 
which  has  some  marks  of  antiquity.  Instead  of 
walls  an<l  basrions,  it  is  defended  by  portable 
towers  made  of  logs  of  wood.  They  arc  musket- 
proof,  of  a  triangiuar  shape,  and  have  raised  tur- 
rets at  each  angle.  If  reauired  in  any  distant  (uirt 
of  Uic  country,  as  not  unfrequently  hap))ens,  thoy 
may  be  taken  to  pieces,  or,  if  the  roads  permit, 
transported  on  wheels.  The  accumulation  of  snow 
in  winter  is  liere  so  great  as  to  cut  off  all  commu- 
nication between  Baibout  and  the  circumjacent 
villages  for  four  months  in  the  year.  Cow  dung 
iMiked  in  the  sun,  and  collected  during  the  simimer 
months,  is  the  only  fuel  the  poor  can  affonl  to  pur- 
chase. The  natives  in  this  part  of  Armenia  are 
«lescribed  as  a  short,  stout,  and  active  race  of  men  ; 
remarkably  dark  in  their  complexions,  brave  and 
hardv,  pasJsionately  fond  of  hunting  the  stag,  with 
whicli  their  mountaiiui  abound,  and  invariably 
civil.     (Kinneir's  Asia  Mhior,  p.  353.) 

BAIKAL  (LAKE  OF),  sometimes  calle<I  the 
Sviatore  Morf^  or  Holy  Scji,  in  Siberia,  in  the  gov. 
of  Irkoutsk,  between  .41°  and  56°  N.  lat.,  and  1U.';° 
and  110°  E.  long.  Its  greatest  length  m  a  NNIC. 
and  SSVV.  direction,  is  nearly  400  m, ;  but,  where 
greatest,  its  breadth  does  nut  exceed  60  m.,  and  is 
in  most  parts  much  less.  It  is  of  very  unequal 
<lenth,  sand-banks  and  shallows  occurring  along- 
side of  all  but  unfathomable  abysses.    It  is  situ- 


BAKEWELL 

ate<l  in  a  momitainous  countn%  and  receivon 
several  considerable  rivers,  while  its  surplus  water 
is  entirely  carried  off  by  the  iVngara,  a  large  aiul 
rapitl  river,  an  affluent  of  the  JenL^seL  The  fish- 
enes  of  this  lake  are  verj'  valuable.  Great  num- 
bers of  seals,  of  a  silverj'  c(»lour,  are  captured,  the 
skins  of  which  are  sold  to  the  Clunese.  Sturgeon, 
to  the  extent  of  al)out  1,000  p<mm1s  a  year ;  sadmon 
are  also  taken;  but  the  grand  object  of  the  tishery 
Ls  the  rnntdj  a  sort  of  herring  {Salmo  aiUumnalis, 
rel  migratorius)f  taken  in  vast  numbr^rs  (aUmt 
100,000  poods  a  yoar)  in  AugiL«t  an<l  Septemlnr, 
when  it  ascends  the  rivers.  The  most  singular 
tish  L>elongingto  the  Ikiikal  is  the  gtdnmynAa  {Qil- 
lyommua  Baicalensix),  fntm  four  to  six  inches  in 
length,  so  verj'  fat  tliat  it  melts  before  the  tire  like 
butter.  The  latter  w  never  taken  alive,  but  Ls 
cast  dead  upon  the  shore,  sometimes  in  immoiLse 
quantities,  after  storms.  It  Welds  an  oil,  sold  to 
great  advantage  to  the  ('bincse.  The  surface  of 
the  lake  is  frozen  over  from  X(»vemlx;r  to  the  i-nd 
of  April  or  the  beginning  of  May.  (Klapn»th, 
Mdmoires  relatifs  h  I'Asie,  iii.  89-108;  Storcli, 
Tableau  de  la  Kuwde,  iL  142^ 

BAILLEUL,  a  town  of  France,  ddp.  du  Nord, 
cajt.  cant,,  on  a  hill  near  the  Meterbecque,  16  m. 
WNW.  Lille,  on  the  railway  from  Lille  to  Dun- 
kerque.  Pt»p.  10,102  in  1861.  The  town  is  open, 
and  is  generally  well  bidlt ;  it  has  various  fabrii^  of 
(doth,  cotton  and  lace,  pa{ier  and  hats,  witli  a  largo 
distiller}',  oil-mills,  tanneries,  and  {K)tterie8.  A 
spedes  of  cheese  called  BaUleuh  made  in  the  envi- 
rons, is  highly  esteemeiL  liailleid  is  the  name 
of  several  small  towns  in  various  parts  of  France, 
but  all  too  inconsiderable  to  deserve  notice  in  tliis 
place. 

B^VIN,  a  town  of  Fmnce,  dep.  Hie  et  Vilaine, 
cap.  cant«,  18  m.  S.  Rennes.  Pt»p.  3,41>0  in  1861. 
It  has  manufactures  of  serges  and  woollen  stuffs. 

BAIS,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  and  orrond.  Mav- 
enne,  cap.  cant.  Pop.  3,083  in  1861.  This  ^so* is 
the  name  of  a  town  of  about  the  same  size,  in  the 
dep.  Hie  et  Vilaine,  arrond.  Vitre. 

I3AJA,  or  BAS,  a  town  of  Hungary,  co.  Bacs. 
near  the  Danube,  20  m,  N.  bv  W.  Zom\x)r,  lat.  46° 
10'  26"  N.,  lohg.  38°  58'  17'"  E.  Pop.  18,621  in 
1860.  It  Is  the  seat  of  the  courts  of  jjistice  for  the 
CO.,  has  a  Catholic  and  a  (iieek  church,  a  s\iia- 
gt^ie,  and  a  Catholic  gymnasium.  There'  are 
four  great  fairs  annually. 

BAKE  WELL,  a  town  of  England,  co.  Derln^, 
hund  High  Peak,  par.  BakeweU,  22  m.  NNW. 
Derby,  Pop.  2,704  m  1861.  Area  of  U)wnship, 
3,380' acres.  The  town  w  beautifully  situated  on 
the  W.  bank  of  the  Wye,  2  m.  above  its  continence 
with  the  Derwent,  The  church,  a  spacious  (vothic 
structure,  on  an  eminence,  contams  many  line 
monuments.  The  Independents  and  W^eslcyans 
have  each  a  chapeL  There  is  a  free-school,  founded 
in  1636,  with  a  small  endovtment,  and  an  alms- 
house for  six  old  men.  Over  a  chalybeate  spring 
(which  had  a  high  reputation  in  the  Saxon  timex), 
mmlcm  batlis  have,  within  a  recent  |x;ri(Hl,  bt>en 
formed;  these  are  constantly  supplied  with  froh 
water,  wluch,  on  its  intiux,  emits  consideRible 
quantities  of  carbonic  acid  giis :  its  temp.  \a  (iO^ 
Fahr.  Near  the  entrance  to  the  town,  fn>m  Ash- 
ford,  is  a  cotton  manufactorj',  built  by  hir  Richard 
Arkwright :  it  employs  aljout  300  liauds.  Many 
of  the  other  inhabitants  are  employed  ui  the  leall 
mines  and  marble  quarries  of  the  neig)iI>ourhood. 
The  town  has  a  station  on  the  Midland  Railway. 
Tlie  weekly  market  is  held  on  Friday,  but  there  is 
little  biLMuess  of  any  kind  transacted.  There  are 
annual  fairs  held,  Easter  Monday,  Wliit  Monday, 
Aug.  21Mh,  M(»nilav  at\er  OcU  lo'rh,  andnmrsday 
after  Nov.  litlu    'I'he  i>etty  sessions  for  the  hun- 


BAKTCmSERAI 

dred  arc  held  in  thft  town.  It  is  the  chief  polling 
town  ft)r  the  N.  division  of  the  county.  ITie  living 
i»  a  vicarage,  in  the  patronage  of  the  dean  and 
chapter  of  Lichtield, 

ITiree  miles  NE.  of  the  town  is  Chatsworth,  the 
splendid  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  on  a 
gentle  rise  near  the  base  of  a  finely  wooded  hill : 
the  Derwent,  spanned  by  a  handsome  stone  bridge, 
Hows  past  its  principal  front.  The  mansion  forms 
a  square  of  liH)  ft.,  enclosing  a  spacious  court,  vrith 
a  fountain  in  the  centre  ;  it  has  a  tiat  roof  sur- 
rounded by  balustrades,  and  is  decorated  i^'ith  Ionic 
columns.  At  the  principal  entrance,  a  grand  Hight 
of  steps  leads  to  a  terrace  extending  the  length  of 
the  buikling.  The  water- works  (with  the  excejv 
tion  of  those  of  Versailles)  are  considered  the  finest 
in  Europe,  The  present  edifice  stands  on  the  site 
of  the  mansion  built  by  Sir  William  Cavendish 
in  the  16th  centur}',  in  which  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  was  imprisoned  tldrteen  years.  It  was  com- 
pleted in  170G,  but  a  wing  imd  other  additions 
have  been  made  to  it  by  the  present  duke,  and 
many  improvements  are  still  in  progress.  Alto- 
getli'er,  it  is  one  of  the  noblest  residences  in  the 
kingdom,  and  contains  a  very  large  collection  of 

Itictures,  statues,  and  articles  of  vertu,  Haddon 
fall,  the  property  of  the  Duke  of  Rutland,  the 
most  perfect  of  the  ancient  baronial  mansions  re- 
maining in  the  kingdom,  is  about  2  m.  S.  of  the 
town,  on  an  eminence  overlooking  the  fine  vale  of 
1 1  addon.  It  was  built  at  different  periods ;  the 
most  ancient  part  in  Edw.  III.'s  reign ;  another,  in 
that  of  Hen.  VI, ;  and  the  most  modem,  in  the 
r<.'ign  of  Eliz. ;  at  which  period  it  came  into  the 
IM>ssession  of  the  Maimera  family. 

The  present  name  of  the  town  is  a  contraction 
of  its  old  Saxon  name,  derived  from  the  chalybeate 
spring.  The  castle  stood  on  a  knoll,  on  the  E. 
bank  of  the  Wye.  The  parish  in  which  tliis  town- 
ship Is  situated  is  the  largest  in  the  co.,  ita  area 
iHjing  43,020  acres ;  and  it  includes,  besides  the 
towns  of  Bakewell  and  Buxton,  eight  chapelries, 
ten  townshifw,  and  four  hamlets.  The  entire  po- 
pulation in  1831  was  9,503,  and  in  1861  it  had  risen 
to  11,254. 

IJ.VKTCHISERAI  (palace  of  the  gardens),  a 
town  of  Russia  in  Europe,  in  the  Crimea,  of  which, 
while  under  the  Tartars,  it  was  the  capital  and  the 
resi<lence  of  the  khan,  7  m.  SW.  SimpheropoL 
Top.  estimatetl  at  about  10,000.  *  Tliis,'  says  Dr. 
(.'larke, '  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  toi^Tis  in 
EurojK; ;  first,  in  the  novelty  of  its  manners  and 
customs;  these  are  strictly  oriental,  and  betray 
nothing  of  a  European  character:  secondly,  in  the 
site  of  the  town  itself,  occupying  the  craggy  sides 
of  a  pnxligious  natural  fosse,  between  two  high 
mountains,  somewhat  like  the  api)e.arance  exhi- 
bitetl  by  Matlock  in  Derbvshire.  I  he  view  breaks 
all  at  once  uix>n  the  traveller,  exhibiting  a  variety 
of  objects  in  a  most  irregular  and  scattered  man- 
ner; wliile  bubbling  foiuitains,  runnhig  waters, 
ganieiLs,  terraces,  Iianging  vineyards,  and  gn)ves 
of  the  black  poplar,  seem  to  soften  the  horror  of 
rocks  and  precipices,  and  even  to  make  them 
aj>|iear  inviting.'  (voL  iu  p.  170,  8vo,  ed,)  But, 
notwithstanding  this  profusion  of  fountains  and 
water,  Baktchiserai  is  not  distinguished  by  its 
cleardiness ;  on  the  contrary,  its  streets  are  narrow, 
winding,  and  filthy.  It  suffered  a  good  deal  after 
its  first  <»ccupati(»n  by  the  Russians,  but  latterly  it 
has  inii>rove<i :  it  is  entirely  occupie<l  by  Tartars. 
The  ancient  palace  of  the  khans  has  been  repaired, 
and  is  ]m\ser\'ed  in  all  its  ft>rmer  magnilicence. 
(S<^'hniizler,  La  Russie,  p.  734  ;  Lyalls  Travels,  i. 


BALA 


333 


p.2Gl.) 

BAKU,  or  BADKU,  a  sea-port  town  of  tlie 
Russian  dominions,  prov.  Daghestan,  on  the  S. 


shore  of  the  peninsula  of  Abscharon,  on  the  W. 
coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  of  which  it  is  one  of  the 
best  and  most  frequented  ports ;  lat.  40°  22'  N., 
long.  SO®  lO'  E.  Fop.  estumated  at  about  6,000. 
It  is  defended  by  a  double  wall  and  deep  ditch, 
constructed  in  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great.  It  has 
some  mosiiues  and  caravanseras,  but  is  meanly 
built:  the  houses,  which  are  flat  roofe<I,  are  co- 
vered with  a  coating  of  naphtha.  Ita  excellent 
harbour,  and  its  central  and  advanced  position, 
give  it  great  advantages  as  a  trading  station.  The 
value  of  the  imports,  consisting  princi]Mdly  of  raw 
silk  and  cotton  goods  from  Persia,  amounted,  in 
1860,  to  2,()(X),000  roubles.  The  exports  consist 
principally  of  naphtha,  saffron,  and  ou. 

The  peninsula  of  Abscharon  is  famous  foV  its 
naphtha  springs  and  mud  volcanoes,  and  before 
the  Mohammedan  conquest  was  a  favourite  resort 
of  the  Ghebers,  or  fire-worshippers.  *  The  qiian- 
tity  of  naphtha  procured  in  the  plain  to  the  SE.  of 
the  city  is  enormous.  It  is  drawn  from  welLs, 
some  o?  which  have  been  found  to  yield  from  1,000 
to  1,600  lbs,  a  day.  These  wells  are,  in  a  certain 
sense,  inexhaustible ;  for  they  are  no  sooner  emptied 
tlian  they  again  b^upm  to  fill,  the  naphtha  con- 
tinuing to  increase  till  it  has  attained  to  its  former 
leveL  It  is  used  by  the  natives  as  a  substitute  for 
lamp  oil,  and,  when  ignited,  emits  a  clear  light 
with  much  smoke,  and  a  disagreeable  smell.  E. 
of  the  naphtha  springs  the  attention  is  arrested  by 
the  Atash-Kudda,  or  fire-temple  of  the  Ghebers ; 
a  remarkable  spot,  something  less  than  a  mile  in 
drc.,  from  the  centre  of  which  a  bluish  fiame  is 
seen  to  arise.  Here  some  small  houses  have  been 
erected ;  and  the  inhabitants,  in  order  to  smother 
the  fiame,  have  covered  the  space  enclosed  by  the 
wall  with  a  thick  loam  of  earth.  >Vhen  fire  is, 
therefore,  required  for  any  culinary  purpose,  an 
incision  is  made  in  the  floor,  and  on  a  light  being 
produced,  the  flame  inunediately  arises,  and  when 
necessary  is  again  suppressed  by  closing  the  aper- 
ture I  With  me  fire  a  sulphureous  gas  also  arises ; 
and  a  strong  current  of  inflammable  air,  with 
which  leathern  bottles  are  frequently  filled,  inva- 
riably continues  after  the  tiame  has  been  extin- 
guished. The  whole  country,  indeed^  around  Baku 
has,  at  times,  the  appearance  of  bemg  enveloped 
in  flames.  It  often  seems  as  if  the  fire  roUed 
dovm  from  the  mountains  in  large  masses,  with 
incredible  velocity ;  and  during  the  clear  moon- 
shine nights  of  Novcml>er  and  December,  a  bright 
blue  light  is  obser\'ed,  at  times,  to  cover  the  whole 
western  range.  This  fire  does  not  consume ;  and 
if  a  person  fmds  himself  in  the  middle  of  it,  he  is 
not  sensible  of  any  warmth.'  (Kinneir's  l^ersia, 
p.  359.)  The  mud  volcanoes,  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  t4^>wn,  often  throw  up  vast  quantities  of  mud. 
Baku  was  acquired  by  the  Russians  from  the  Per- 
sians,  in  1801,  and  along  with  Astrakhan  carries 
on  the  whole  trade  of  the  Caspian.  (See  Caspian 
Ska.) 

Baku,  or  Bakowa,  a  town  of  Moldavia,  on  the 
Bistrit2,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Sereth,  lat. 
460  30'  N.,  long.  26«>  47'  E.  It  is  a  poor,  miserable, 
filthy  place,  but  has  a  considerable  trade  in  cattle, 
com,  salt,  and  wood.  It  occupies  the  site  of  a 
city  which  was  once  the  residence  of  a  C/atholic 
bishop ;  the  ruins  of  the  cathedral  still  exist. 

BALA,  a  township,  market,  and  assize  town  of 
X.  Wales,  CO.  Merioneth,  hund.  Penllvn,  87  m. 
NW.  by  W.  Shrewsbury,  at  the  W.  end  of  the 
largest  of  the  Welsh  lakes,  in  a  wild  and  moun- 
tainous district.  Pop.  of  par.,  6,352  in  1861.  The 
to^'n,  winch  consists  of  one  wide  street,  with  a 
smaller  one  branching  from  it,  has  a  neat  and  re- 
spectable appearance.  It  has  a  chapel  of  Qw*ej  and 
two  other  chapels  belonging  to  Independents  and 


334 


BALACHNA 


Calvinifltic  Methodutto;  an  endowed  grammar- 
fichool,  founded  in  1712,  where  thirty  bovs  are 
clothed  and  educateil  each  for  four  years ;  a  lK>ok 
pocicty,  CAtahlinhcd  in  1M28;  and  a*  town-hull,  to 
whicli  one  of  the  co.  Inidcwelbi  i»  attached.  The 
market  is  held  on  SatordavH,  and  is  well  attended 
There  are  five  fairs,  chietiy  for  the  sale  of  live 
Block,  on  the  Satunlay  lx?fore*,Shrovetidp,  May  14th, 
July  lUth  (a  lai^  lamb  fair),  Oct.  24th,  ami  N(»v. 
8tli.  Bala  api>earH  to  have  I>een  ancientlv  incor- 
porateil,  hut  at  ]>n4tent  is  merely  a  n(»minal  (n^rou^h 
in  the  junwliction  of  the  co.  mapst  rates.  The 
Hprin^  assizes,  tlie  Kumnier  an<l  winter  quarter 
sessions  for  the  co.,  are  held  here,  and  a  co.  court 
f<ir  debts  under  4()«.  ever}'  other  month ;  all  the 
eourta  liein^  alternately  held  here  and  at  Dol- 
tfelly.  The  town  and  neiffhlwurhood  have  Ixjen 
famous  from  a  remote  periml  for  the  manufacttire 
of  knitteil  stocking  and  gloves,  esteemed  for  their 
strcnjfth  and  softness  of  texture ;  but  this  has  of 
late  years  dei'lhied  considerably.  Alxmt  6(»,0(M) 
d(»zeu  stockmgs  and  srurks  are  annually  made^ 
llie  town  is  c«>nnectcd  with  the  English  railway 
system  by  the  Bala  and  I><»lgelly  line,  authorisi'd 
in  1K()2,  of  a  len^h  of  :)^  mile^s.  At  the  SK.  end 
of  the  to^^-n  is  a  large  artificial  mound,  suii|s>sed 
to  be  of  Homan  con^truction,  (wm  the  simmiit  of 
which  is  a  magnificent  view,  having  the  lofty 
Arrans  on  one  sule,  and  Cjuler  Idris  on  the  other. 
llie  lake  Bala,  Tegid,  or  Pimbleraerc,  is  alMmt  4  ra. 
in  length  by  1  m  width ;  it  alMiunds  with  ])ike, 
]M>rch,  tn>ut,  and  still  more  with  the  white-K('4ile<l 
gwyniad.  The  whole  is  the  property  of  Sir  W.  W. 
Wynn,  who  has  a  fishing-seat  on  it.  Tlic  Deo 
rises  in  Arran  l^enllyn,  a  mountain  at  the  head  of 
the  lake,  and  emerge^)  from  it  near  Bala,  wh(>re  it 
is  Bpanne<l  by  a  bridge,  near  which,  on  the  E.  Iiank, 
a  castle  was  erccte<l  in  12(12,  of  which  some  traces 
are  yet  visible.  A  branch  of  the  l{(»man  Watling 
St.  passe<l  through  or  verv'  near  the  present  tiiwn, 
and  at  the  head  of  the  lake  an>  the  remains  of  a 
Koman  station.  The  an  ificial  mound  above  men- 
tione<l  was  occupie<l  by  the  Welsh  as  one  of  a  chain 
of  forts  across  this  part  of  the  itrincipality,  to  pre- 
vent the  incursions  of  the  English  lonls  marchers  : 
at  a  subsequent  f  MiritMl  the  place  was  a  de)»endeiicy 
of  Harlech  Castle.  Bala  is  a  favourite  resort  of 
sportsmen  during  the  gn)use  season. 

BALACHNA,  a  town  of  Euro])oan  Russia,  gov. 
Nijni  NovmmKl,  on  the  Wolga.  Pop.  estimated 
At  4,(K)().  There  are  saline  springs  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. 

BALAGiVNSKOI,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Russia,  gov. 
Irkoutsk,  90  m.  N\V.  Irkoutsk,  on  the  Angara. 

BALAGUER  (an.  Bergtuid),  a  town  of  h>i)ain, 
Catalonia,  on  the  Segre,  14  m.  NE.  Ijerida.  Po]>. 
6,128  in  1857.  It  is  situated  at  the  f(X>t  of  a  steep 
mountain  in  a  fertile  plain,  and  is  defended  by  a 
castle. 

BALAGHAUT  CEDED  DISTRICTS,  an  inl. 
prov.  of  S.  llindostan,  presid.  Madras,  between 
l:;o  15'  and  UP  20'  N.  lat.,  and  75°  40'  and  7\P  20' 
E.  long, ;  consisting  of  part  of  the  region  called 
Balagliaut,  or  above  the  Ghauts  (which  extend-* 
from  the  Kn>hna  to  the  S.  of  Mysore,  an<l  formed 
the  anc  Hind(M>  emp.  of  Kanmta),  having  N. 
Kuniool,  and  the  territories  of  the  Nizam ;  E.  (iun- 
Toor,  Nellore,  and  Arcot ;  S.  Mysore ;  and  W. 
DharH'ar:  length  almut  200  m.,  I)rea<lth  various, 
area,  25,45G  sq.  m.  Pop.  alwut  2,500,000.  It  is 
almost  equally  divided  Ijctween  the  collectorates 
of  liellary  and  C/uddapah.  It  consists  mostly  of 
elevated  table-laiuls  stretching  out  uito  extensive 
plains ;  but  large  tracts  are  rugged,  and  there  is  a 
great  <leficiency  of  w<K>d,  There  are  no  laifre 
rivers:  the  Ttsimbudcbra  forms  jwurt  of  its  N. 
boundary,  and  fills  some  watercourses  about  Bi- 


BALAMBAN6AN 

janagnr,  the  anc  Hindoo  capital ;  but  elsewhere 
irrigation  is  scarce,  and  drought  frec^uently  pre- 
vails, llie  soil  is  in  most  parts  either  black  or 
rt*d  moidd  :  the  fonner  is  int>Ht  common  in  the  W. 
districts,  where  it  forms  an  extensive  plain  :  it  is 
deep,  without  vegetalile  remains ;  and  wlien  cleared, 
broken  up,  and  pro|)erly  pidv(*ris<«l,  is  found  to  \>e 
exceedingly  fertile,  and  is  afterwards  verv  easily 
cultivateiL  But  tliLH  bringing  in  of  the  black  soil 
is  a  verj'  expensive  process :  and,  in  consequence, 
though  the  red  soil  be  less  fertile,  yet,  as  it  is mon* 
easily  brouglit  into  a  productive  state,  the  ^loorer 
clashes  are  generally  settle<i  upon  it.  Drill  hius- 
bandiy  is  universaL  Rain  is  uncertain ;  and  if  it 
fail  in  June,  the  whole  crop  is  in  danger  of  fn-'ing 
lost.  The  dry  cultivation  is  almost  universal ;  the 
wet  not  l)eing  supposed  to  exceed  7  per  cent,  of 
the  whole.  IMantations  of  indigo,  betel,  sugar- 
cane, red  pepper,  tobacco,  &c.,  are  pretty  exten- 
sively scattered  over  the  countrj'.  The  tempera- 
ture is  much  c<M>ler  than  in  the  suminnding  and 
less  elevated  districts.  Manufactures  inconsider- 
able. 

The  land  has  always  been  reganled  as  l)eJonging 
to  government,  and  the  metayer  system  was  ]>re- 
valent  under  l)oth  the  native  and*  Mohammedan 
dynasties.  Between  the  conquest  of  the  latter 
and  the  reign  of  Aunmgzebe,  the  class  ofpoHoarst^ 
who  were  originally  either  mere  collectors  of  the 
revenue  or  heads  of  villnges,  having  greatly  in- 
cn'ased  in  numbers  and  influence,  withheld  the 
niveiiues,  set  up  fi)r  jKitty  chiefs,  ami  having  esta- 
blished a  kin<l  of  feudal  svstem,  di^solated  the 
countrj'  by  their  mutual  wars,  and  rtnluced  it  to  a 
state  of  anarchy  and  of  the  utmost  mLterv.  When 
it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Britisli  in  IHOd, 
its  inhab.  generally  were  the  p<K)rest  in  our  domi- 
nions: 'they  were  seldom  even  fixetl  as  tenants, 
but  migrated  from  farm  to  farm,  and  fA>m  village 

!  to  village,  where  they  clubbed  together  to  carry 

;  on  their  cultivation.'  Tlie  judicious  administra- 
tion of  Sir  T.  (then  Col.)  Munro,who  was  appointed 
princi])al  collect4)r,  not  only  averted  a  famine,  in 
consequence  of  drought,  in  1803,  but  in  seven 
years  raised  the  revenue,  without  biuxlening  the 

I  cultivators,  from  1  million  to  1^  million  paginlas. 
The  average  total  revenue  paid  by  each  inhab.  of 
Bellary  i»  2  nip.  8  an.  8  pic. ;  and  that  pai<l  by 
each  inhab.  of  Cudda]mh,  2  nip.  The  village  K?t- 
tleme.nt  is  predominant  in  this  ]»rov.,  es|>ecially  in 
Cuddapah.  The  inhab.  are  more  lalwrious,  hardy, 
and  manly,  and  their  foo<l,  dress,  and  wea^Kins 
nider  than  those  of  the  people  l)elow  the  (*hauts ; 
they  were  never  thorougldy  sulxlued  by  tlie  Mo- 
hammedans, who  settled  in  this  pn>v.  at  a  com- 
paratively late  period,  and  do  not  now  exceetl 
1-1 5th  |>art  of  the  pop.  Itolaghaut  fonned  part  of 
the  last  Hindoo  empire  of  Bijanagur:  after  the 
fall  of  the  Delhi  dynasty,  it  became  separattxl  into 
several  indep.  states,  was  conquered  by  Hyder 
before  1780 ;  and  after  17J>2  belonged  to  the  Nizam, 
bv  whom,  in  iHOti,  it  was  ceded  to  the  Briti^h. 
(tor  further  particulars  see  Mahicas;  Hamilton's 
E.  I.  (jazett«er;  Madras  Almanatr.) 

BALAKLAVA,  a  small  sea-jMirt  town  of  Eu- 
ropean Russia,  at  the  SW.extremitvof  the  Crimea ; 
lat.  44°  29'  N.,  long.  m°  34'  10"  E.  Pop.  2,07^  in 
1858.  A  great  buttle  was  fought  here  Oct.  2ii, 
1854,  between  the  Russian  and  the  allied  Anglo- 
French  troops.  The  town  has  a  small  but  excel- 
lent harbour,  land-locked,  and  with  water  suth- 
cient  to  float  the  largest  ships.  It  has  no  trade, 
and  is  resorted  to  onlv  bv  coasters. 

BALAMBvVNtlAN',  aii  lmI.  of  the  E.  Archip.,  4th 
division,  lying  off  the  N.  extremity  of  Borneo ; 
lat,  7°  15' *N.,  long.  117°  5'  E.;  15  ni.  long  and  3 
broad,  but  uninhabited.    It  lioa  a  rich  soil,  and 


BALASORE 

two  harbours  abounding  in  fish.  A  settlement, 
formed  in  1774,  by  the  E.  I.  Company,  was  soon 
aft  or  destroyed  by  the  Sooloof*,  and  a  subHequent 
settlement  planted  in  1803  was  afterwards  aban- 
done<i. 

BALASORE  {Valesward)^  a  sea-port  town  of 
Hindo8t«n,  prcsicl.  Bengal,  prov.  Orissa,  distr.  Cut- 
tack,  of  which  it  is  tlie  chief  port ;  lat,  21°  82'  N., 
long.  8G0  66'  E. ;  12.5  m.  SW.  Calcutta.  Pop.  esti- 
mated between  10,000  and  12,000.  It  is  a  large 
straggling  place,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Boori- 
Balang,  and  much  fallen  off.  Formerly  it  was  a 
tlouri»hing  town,  with  Portuguese,  Dutch,  and 
English  factories.  It  has  dr>'  docks,  but  is  at 
prei»cnt  frequented  only  by  Afaldive  vessels,  salt 
boats,  and  other  small  craft :  ita  exiwrts  are  chiefly 
rice  to  Calcutta  in  winter. 

BALATON  (LAKE  OF),  m  Hungary.  See 
Platten-Sek. 

BALBHIGGAN,  a  marit,  town  of  Ireland,  co. 
Dublin,  prov.  Leinster,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
small  river  Dclvan,  fonning  the  co.  boundarv  to 
the  N.,  17  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Dublin.  The  area  of 
the  town  contains  180  statute  acres.  According  to 
the  census  of  1861,  there  were  2,258  inhabitants, 
of  whom  1,042  males  and  1,216  females.  The 
total  numl)er  of  houses  was  535,  of  which  479  in- 
habited. The  place  was  the  scene  of  a  sanguinary- 
battle,  in  1329,  between  the  first  Earl  of  Louth 
ami  some  of  the  Englwh  settlers,  who  disputed 
the  claim  to  the  palatine  dignity  of  the  county, 
but  were  defeated.  William  III.  encamped  here 
on  liLs  march  to  Dublin,  after  the  battle  of  the 
Boyne.  The  town  is  the  head-quarters  of  the 
CO.  constabulary',  and  near  it  is  a  martello  tower, 
with  a  coast-guanl  station.  There  arc  two  cotton 
mills  here,  giving  work  to  ab<jut  100  j)erHons.  The 
census  returns  state  that  67  families  are  employed 
in  agriculture,  172  in  manufactures  and  trade,  and 
253  in  other  pursuits.  138  males  and  148  females 
are  returned  as  meml^ers  of  the  Established  Church, 
and  879  males  and  1,053  females  as  Roman  Catho- 
lic4<.  The  public  markets  are  held  on  Mondays, 
in  a  market  house  erected  in  1811.  The  fairs  are 
on  the  29th  April  and  29th  Scptemlx?r. 

The  harbour,  which  is  naturally  small  and  much 
exj>osed,  was  considerably  improved  by  a  pier 
built  alK)Ut  1765.  The  quay,  wliich  is  now  600  fL 
long,  wth  a  lighthouse  at  the  extremity,  is  fre- 
quently filletl  with  craft.  At  the  i)ier  head  there 
is  14  ft.  water  at  high  spring  titles,  but  the  harbour 
dries  at  low  water.  (The  Census  of  Ireland  for 
1861 ;  Priv.  Information.) 

BALEARIC  ISLANDS.  See  Majorca  and 
MiNourA. 

BALFRON,  a  Ailla^'e  of  Scotland,  in  the  W. 
part  of  Stirlingshire,  m  the  parish  of  the  same 
name,  19  m.  N.  (ilasgow,  and  19  m.  W.  Stirling. 
Pop.  1,9(X)  in  1851,  of  whom  932  males  and  968 
females.  In  1861  the  poimlati(»n  had  fallen  to 
1,517,  of  whom  699  males  and  818  females.  The 
inhabitants  are  principally  employed  as  weavers 
for  the  Glasgow  manufacturers,  and  in  the  Ballin- 
dallm'h  cotton  mills  in  immediate  vicuiity. 

BALFROOSH,  a  town  of  Persia,  i>rov.  Mazun- 
deran,  on  the  Bawool,  about  12  m.  fn)ra  the  S. 
shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea;  lat.  36°  37'  N.,  long. 
h'ip  42'  E.  This  is  a  large  tioiuishing  city.  There 
are,  however,  no  accurate  details  with  respect  to 
its  pofiulation ;  the  e>*timates  varj'  from  120,000  to 
200,(MM>.  It  is  situated  in  a  low,  swampy,  but  rich 
countrA',  and  stands  literally  in  the  middle  of  a 
forest,  it  being  summnded  antl  interspersed  with 
tine  trees.  It  has  an  extensive  tratle,  to  be  ac- 
<'«Minted  for  principally  by  the  comparative  immu- 
nity it  has  enjoyed  fn»m  oppressive  imposts,  as  the 
ri>ads  leading  to  it  are  bad,  and  it^  port,  12  m.  off, 


BALKH 


335 


little  better  than  an  open  roadstead.  It  ia,  or  at 
least  was,  when  visited  by  Mr.  Fraser,  entirely 
peopled  by  merchants,  mechanics,  and  their  de- 
pendents, and  learned  men ;  and  was  prosperous 
and  happy,  far  beyond  any  other  place  he  had 
seen  in  Persia.  Streets  broad  and  straight,  but 
unpaved ;  houses  mostly  constructed  of  bricks,  in 
good  repair,  and  roofed  with  tiles.  It  has  no  pub- 
lic buildings  of  any  consequence ;  the  only  places 
of  any  interest  being  the  bazaars,  which*  extend 
for  a  full  mile  in  length,  and  consist  of  substan- 
tially built  ranges  of  shops  covered  from  the  sun 
and  weather  by  a  roofing  of  wootl  and  tiles,  kept 
in  excellent  repair.  There  are  about  ten  principal 
caravanseras,  several  of  which  are  attached  to  the 
bazaars,  and  are  parcelled  out  into  chambers  for  the 
merchants,  and  warehouses  for  their  goods.  All 
the  bazaars  and  caravanseras  are  well  tillefl  Ti-ith 
various  commodities,  and  present  a  scene  of  bustle 
and  business,  yet  of  regularity,  very  imcoromon 
in  this  countrj',  and  therefore  the  more  gratifying. 
There  are  between  twenty  and  thirty  medrassea 
or  colleges,  Balfroosh  being  nearly  as  much  cele- 
brated lor  the  number  and  eminence  of  its  mtK)- 
lahs,  or  learned  men,  as  for  its  commerce.  The 
river  is  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  nine  arches.  (Fra- 
ser's  Travels  along  the  Caspian  Sea,  pp.  82-99.) 

BALI,  BALLY,  or  LITfLE  JAVA,  an  island 
of  the  E.  Archi|)elago,  W.  or  1st  division,  lietwecn 
80  6'  and  8^  60'  S.  lat„  and  1 14°  40^  and  115°  42* 
E.  long ;  70  m.  long  by  35  m.  average  breaiith. 
Pop.  estimated  at  from  600,(K)0  to  700,000.  Coast 
rugged  and  without  harbours ;  surface  rising  gra- 
dually to  the  centre,  where  a  chain  of  mountains 
stretches  W.  and  E.  across  the  Island,  tenninating 
in  the  peak  of  Bali,  which  is  volcanic ;  geology 
the  same  in  other  respects  as  that  of  Java.  The 
land  is  productive  where  well  watered,  as  around 
the  coasts,  by  numerous  streams,  and  elsewhere 
by  artificial  means.  Irrigation  is  so  necessary 
that  the  sovereigns  of  Bali  impose  a  tax  not  on 
the  land,  but  on  the  water  by  which  it  Is  fertilised. 
In  the  lower  tracts  rice  is  miich  cultivated;  maize 
and  sweet  jxitatoes  in  the  upiier  lands.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  articles,  the  Balese,  though  mostly 
Hindoos,  eat  poultry,  hogs'  flesh,  and  even  beef, 
without  scruple,  excepting  the  saccnlotal  class. 
The  chief  exi)orts  are  rice,  coarse  cloths,  cotton 
yam,  hides,  salted  eggs,  birds'  nests,  oil,  dingding 
(tlried  flesh),  gambier  (catechu),  (tc. :  the  imjiorts, 
opium,  l)etel,  gold,  silver,  and  ivory.  The  natives 
being  su|>erior  to  the  Malays  and  Javanese  in  size, 
strength,  and  intelligence*,  are  preferred  by  the 
Chinese  as  slaves.  Bali  was  divided,  in  1815,  into 
ei^ht  inde[>endent  sUtes,  governed  by  despotic 
clucfs:  the  Ullage  system  prevails  here  as  in 
Java.  There  arc  but  few  Butldhists  or  Moham- 
medans; but  Hind<N>ism  prevails  in  Bali  only,  of 
all  the  islands  of  this  archipelago.  The  mass  of 
the  people,  however,  worship  the  elements,  and 
the  tuteUry  gods  of  rivers,  forests,  mountains,  &c 
There  are  no  religious  mendicantji,  but  suttees  and 
immolations  are  conducted  on  a  much  more  aggra- 
vated scale  than  in  India.  The  Sanscrit  tongue 
may  be  distinctly  traced  in  the  language  of  Bali. 

BALIZE.    See  Honduras. 

BALKH,  or  BULKH  (an.  Bactra),  a  prov.  of 
Central  Asia,  now  subordinate  to  the  khanat  of 
Bokhara,  chieflv  between  lat.  35°  and  37°  N.,  and 
long.  03°  antl  i»90  E. ;  having  N.  the  Oxus.  E. 
Buduk-shun,  S.  the  Hindoo  Koosh,  and  Pan>pa- 
misan  motintains,  and  W.  the  desert.  Length,  E. 
to  W.,  about  250  m. ;  breadth  100  to  120  m. ;  area 
30,000  sq.  m.  Pop.  alxiut  1,0(X),W)0.  (Elphin- 
stone,  ii  195.)  The  S.  part  is  full  of  stony  hills, 
but  has  many  g(KKl  and  well  watered  valleys ;  the 
£.  is  mountainous,  and  more  valuable  than  the 


336 


BALKH 


W.,  which,  as  well  as  the  N.,  is  wincly  and  barren. 
It  formerly  <^)^lpri!H^d  several  <li«tricts  which  now 
lielon^  to  ftcparate  governments,  as  Khooloom, 
Koondooz,  and  others  to  the  K.  Its  capital,  and 
the  territor}'  Kiibordinate  to  it,  have,  since  the  fall 
of  the  I)(N)raunee  monarchy  in  Caiil)ul,  to  which 
state  it  formerly  be]on|]:ed,  been  taken  possession 
of  by  the  khan  of  Bokhara. 

Balkii  (the  Zariaspa  and  Bactra  of  the  Greeks), 
a  dccaywl  city  of  Central  Asia,  cap.  prov.  belong- 
ing to  the  khanat  of  liokhara,  but  governed  by  its 
own  chief,  who  receives  the  whole  of  its  revenues; 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Adirsiah  or  lialkh  river, 
in  a  plain  6  m.  N\V.,  a  range  of  the  Paropamison 
mountains,  18  ro.  S.  the  Oxus.  an<l  2iA)  SE.  Bok- 
hara; lat.  3CO  48'  N.,  long.  C7«>  18'  E.  Pop.  esti- 
inate<l  at  about  6,(M)0.  The  ruins  of  Balkh  o«cupy 
a  circuit  of  20  m. :  they  consist  chieHy  of  fallen 
mosques  and  decayed  tombs,  none  of  an  age  prior 
to  that  of  Mohammed.  Tlie  city,  like  Babylon, 
has  become  to  the  surrounding  coimtry  an  all  but 
inexhaimtible  mine  of  bricks.  There  are  many 
inequalities  on  the  surface  of  the  plain,  prolmbly 
procee<ling  from  buried  ruins,  and  clumi^s  of  tre<»s 
in  many  directions.  Balkh  seems  to  have  eiiclose^l 
many  extensive  gartlens,  but  these  are  now  neg- 
lected and  overgroM-n  with  wee<ls.  The  aque- 
ducts, of  which  there  are  said  to  ))e  eighteen,  are 
drie<i  up  or  choked,  and  overflow  after  rains, 
leaving  standing  pools,  which  make  the  ])lace 
very  unhealthy,  though  Balkh  is  not  naturally  in 
a  marshy  position,  )>ut  on  a  gentle  slope  towanls 
the  Oxus,  about  1,800  ft.  al>ove  the  level  of  the 
sea.  A  mud  wall,  of  late  constructi(m,  surrounds 
a  portion  of  the  present  town,  excluding  the  ruins 
on  ever)'  side  for  al)out  2  m.  Tlie  to^ni  contains 
three  huge  colleges,  but  empty  and  decaving ;  and 
at  its  N.  side  is  the  citadel,  a  solid  building,  but 
not  strong  as  a  fort ;  it  contains  a  stone  of  white 
marble,  ])omted  out  as  tlic  throne  of  'C>tus'! 
Tlic  country'  round  is  flat,  fertile,  and  well  culti- 
vated, said  to  contain  360  villages,  and  is  watered 
liy  eighteen  canals,  drawn  from  a  celebrated  reser- 
voir in  the  Paropamisan  mountains.  Its  wheat 
and  apricots  arc  remarkably  tine.  Balkh  is  said 
to  have  been  built  by  Kyamoors,  the  founder  of 
the  Persian  monarchy,  ajid  is  called  by  the  na- 
tives Omm-el-BuldoHj  'mother  of  cities.'  After 
its  conquest  by  Alexander  the  Great,  it  flourished 
as  the  capital  of  a  Grecian  kingdom.  In  the  fifth 
century  l)efore  the  Christian  era,  Artaxerxes  held 
an  assembly  at  lUlkh  for  the  recognition  of  his  au- 
thority. The  Magi  were  expelled  by  the  Caliphs: 
CienghLH,  Timour,  Aurungzebe,  Nadir  Shah,  and  the 
Affghans,  successively  possessed  it.  Within  the 
last  twelve  years  it  has  belonged,  with  its  terri- 
tory, to  the  khan  of  Bokhara.  (Bum's  Travels, 
it  204,  207.) 

BALKHAN.    See  Turkey. 

BALLKNSTEDT,  a  town  of  the  duchv  of  An- 
halt,  on  the  Getel,  15  m.  S£.  Halberstadt.  Pop. 
4,408  in  1861.  The  town  is  situatc<l  at  the 
foot  of  a  hill,  and  consists  of  an  Old  and  a  New 
town,  the  former  ill-built.  In  its  environs  L)  a 
castle,  the  residence  of  the  duke,  which  commands 
a  fine  view,  and  has  fine  ganiens.  It  has  fabrics 
of  linen,  dvcworks,  and  an  hospitaL 

BALL  IN  A,  an  inland  town  of  Ireland,  co.  Mavo, 
prov.  Con  naught,  on  the  Moy,  126  m.  WNW. 
Dublin.  Its  former  name  was  BeUeek, '  the  ford 
of  flags.'  llie  pop.,  including  that  of  Ardnarce,  a 
vilhige  on  the  Sligo  side  of  the  Moy,  connected 
with  it  by  a  bridge,  and  which  may  Ixj  regarded 
as  a  suburb  of  Ballina,  numl)erc<l  5,419  persons  in 
1861.  In  Ballina  alone  there  were,  according  to 
the  return  of  1861 ,  males  2,081 ,  and  females  2,318 ; 
total  4,3U9  inhabitants.     The  total  number  of 


BALLINASLOE 

houses  was  819,  of  which  782  inhabit<>d.  Of  thft 
841  families  living  at  Ballina  (exclusive  of  Arii- 
naroe)  80  were  eniploywl  in  agriculture,  247  in 
trades  an<l  manufactures,  and  514  in  other  ])ur- 
suits;  194  males  and  206  females  belonged  to  the 
PlttablLthed  Church,  and  1,795  males  and  1,998 
females  were  Koman  Catholics.  The  town,  which 
occupi(»  a  pleasing  and  healthy  position,  contains 
several  g<K)d  streets  an<l  houses.  'Hie parish  church 
is  a  plain  building ;  the  Koman  (!?atholic  chai)el, 
which  is  considered  as  the  cathe<lral  of  the  Koman 
Catholic  bisho]>  of  Killala,  is  a  large  and  very 
ornamental  edifice ;  there  arc  also  places  of  wor- 
ship for  Baptists  and  Methoilists.  'The  toH*n  con- 
taiiii^  eight  public  sch(M»ls,  in  which,  and  in  several 
private  semmaries,  alxtut  800  children  receive  in- 
struction. Here  is  also  a  dispensarj'.  Kaces  are 
held  in  May,  on  a  fine  course  in  the  neighbouriiood. 
(reneral  sessions  of  the  peace  are  held  in  July,  and 
])etty  sessions  every^  Tuesday  in  the  court-house,  a 
nea  t  mo<Iem  buildmg.  Here  is  a  station  of  the  con- 
stabulary', and  a  barrack.  The  market  is  held  on 
Mondays;  fairs  on  12th  May  and  Pith  August. 
Tliere  are  two  ale  and  porter  breweries,  and  two 
large  flour  milK  A  tobacco  and  snuff  manufactory 
has  been  carried  on  since  1801,  and  ctiarse  linen  ls 
woven,  but  not  to  any  extent.  Within  the  last  few 
years  the  provision  trade  has  been  intnKluce<l,  and 
IS  now  ver>'  flourishing ;  large  quantities  of  pi>rk  and 
bacon  being  cured,  cliiefly  for  the  London  market. 
In  the  neighbourhood  is  a  very  productive  salmon 
fishery,  rented  at  1,500/.  per  annum:  the  fish  is 
packed  in  ice,  and  cx(K)rted  to  London.  Eels  are 
also  taken  in  large  quantities  from  Septemlicr  to 
the  iM'ginniug  of^  November;  the  fry  is  sold  at 
"JitL  per  quart.  A  branch  of  the  Provincial  Bank 
was  opened  here  in  1828,  of  the  Agricultural  in 
1835,  and  of  the  National  in  1837.  'Ilie  commu- 
nication with  the  interior  is  kept  up  bv  the  mail 
road  between  Castleliar  and  Sligo,  which  passes 
throuGch  the  town :  a  new  line  is  also  o|)ened  from 
Swin^>nl  and  Foxford  to  Killala.  Tlie  Moy  is 
navigable  for  vessels  dran-ing  1 1  fu  of  water  for 
5  m.  from  the  sea,  but  the  further  passage  is 
checked  bv  a  bar  1^  m.  below  the  town.  (Census 
of  Irehind,'  1861.) 

BxVLLINASLOE,  an  inL  town  of  Ireland,  co. 
Galway  and  Koscommon,  prov.  Connaught,  on 
the  Suck,  78  m.  W.  by  S.  Dublin.  It  owes  its 
origin  to  a  castle  (now  fitted  up  as  a  private  resi- 
dence) on  the  Koscommon  side  of  the  river,  long 
considered  as  one  <»f  the  strongest  forts  in  the 
prov.  ITie  battle  of  Aughrim,  m  1691,  in  which 
the  army  of  William  111.,  under  Ginkell,  after- 
wards Earl  of  Athlone,  completely  defeated  that 
of  James  II.,  under  St.  Kuth,  who  was  killed  in 
the  action,  was  fought  in  its  neighbourhood.  Pop. 
3,738  m  1861,  of  whom  1,731  males  and  2,002 
females.  This  does  not  include  the  portion  situ- 
ate<l  m  the  co.  of  Koscommon,  with  which  t/^ther 
there  are  a  total  of  3,911  inhabitants.  The  two 
portions  into  which  the  town  is  dinded  bv  the 
river  are  connected  by  a  line  of  road,  consisting 
of  a  causeway  and  two  bridges  Itetween  the  l)anks, 
and  an  island  that  intercepts  its  course,  having 
together  sixteen  arches ;  the  whole  line  Ls  about 
500  yards  in  length.  The  private  buildings  have 
increased  rapidly  both  in  number  and  n»iH'cta^ 
bility,  nearly  a  half  ha\ing  been  erectetl  within 
the  last  twelve  years.  The  ])arish  church  is  a 
plain  building,  with  an  octagonal  spire  springing 
from  scrolls,  that  give  it  a  verj-  singular  ap]K!ar- 
ance;  the  Kom.  Cath.  chapel  is  also  a  ue-at  un- 
omamented  stnicture.  'J'he  MethotlLsts  have  two 
places  of  worship.  The  census  returns  of  1861 
showe<l  200  males  an<l  236  females  belonging  to 
the  Established  Church,  and  1,484  males  and  1,708 


BALLINROBE 

females  who  were  Roman  Catholics.  The  district 
lunatic  asylum  for  the  province  stands  on  the 
Koscommon  side  of  the  river.  It  is  built  in  the 
form  of  a  cross,  with  accommodations  for  214 
patients,  and  is  surrounded  by  an  enclosed  area  of 
j^arden  and  airing  ground  of  fourteen  acres.  The 
total  exi>ense  of  the  land  and  buildings  was  ufv 
wards  of  27,000/.  Of  the  828  families  of  the  chief 
]»art  of  the  town,  on  the  Galway  side,  171  were 
engaged,  in  18G1,  in  agriculture,  31  in  trades  and 
manufactures,  and  the  rest  in  other  pursuits.  The 
town  covers  an  area  of  140  statute  acres,  and  is  a 
great  thoroughfare,  a  main  diWsion  of  the  roads 
leading  into  Galwav  and  Mayo  branching  off  from 
it.  The  railway  from  Dublin  to  Galway  has  a 
station  here,  Passengers  are  also  conveyed  by 
the  Grand  Canal  from  Dublin,  by  l)oats  fitted  up 
for  their  accommodation.  The  town  is  well  kept ; 
much  attention  is  [jaid  to  external  cleanliness. 

13ALLINK0BE,  an  inl.  town  of  Ireland,  co. 
Mayo.  prov.  Connaught,  on  the  Kobe,  25  ra.  XNW. 
Galway.  Pop.  2,506  in  1861,  of  whom  1,172  males 
and  1.334  females.  The  returns  of  1861  showed 
72  families  engaged  in  agriculture,  119  in  trades 
and  manufactures,  and  345  in  other  pursuits. 
There  were  70  males  and  57  females  belonging  to 
the  Establi.shed  Church,  and  1,099  males  and 
1,209  females  who  declared  themselves  Roman 
Cath<dics.  The  town  consists  of  a  main  street  and 
tAvo  branches  of  well-built  houses.  Near  it  is  a 
turlogh  or  winter  lake,  called  Lough  Shy,  which, 
though  flooded  to  a  considerable  extent  in  winter, 
dries  in  the  summer  months,  and  affords  pasturage 
for  sheep.  Lough  Mask,  into  which  the  Kobe  dis- 
charges itself,  lies  about  3  m.  W.  of  the  town.  A 
disjx'nsary  is  maintained  here.  Barracks  of  con- 
siderable dimensions,  both  for  cavalry  and  infantry, 
are  now  unoccupied.  A  brisk  trade  in  com  and 
TMJtatoes'is  carried  on,  for  which  a  Monday  market 
Ls  heliL  Fairs  are  held  on  Whit-Tuesday  and  5th 
Dec.  General  sessions  of  the  peace  take  place  in 
June  and  December,  and  petty  sessions  are  held 
on  Mondays  in  the  court-house,  which  is  also  used 
as  a  market-house.  Though  the  town  does  not 
lie  on  any  of  the  great  lines  of  internal  communi- 
cation, it  is  in  a  state  of  progressive  improvement, 
attributable  chieflv  to  the  increased  attention  to 
agriculture  in  the  district, 

BALLON,  a  town  of  France,  ddp.  Sarthe,  cap. 
cant.,  on  the  Ome,  14  m.  NNE.  Le  Mans.  Poj). 
1,939  in  1861.  It  has  manufactures  of  coarse 
linens,  and  some  trade  in  com. 

BALLYCASTLE,  a  marit.  town  of  Ireland,  N. 
coast  CO.  Antrim,  prov.  Ulster,  on  a  bay  to  which 
it  gives  name,  42  m.  N.  by  W.  Belfast,  It  origi- 
nated in  a  castle  built  here  bv  the  Earl  of  Antrim 
in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  James  I.,  but  was 
not  remarkable  as  a  town  until  ahont  1770,  when 
large  parL  grants  were  voted  to  aid  the  working  of 
the  collieries  in  its  neighlM>urhoo<i.  Pop.  1,626  in 
1861,  of  whom  684  males  and  942  females:  that 
of  the  parish  of  Kamoan,  in  which  it  is  situated, 
was  2,104  in  1861.  Of  the  421  families  liWng  in 
the  town,  65  were  returned  in  1861  as  engaged  in 
agriculture,  134  in  trades  and  manufactures,  and  222 
in  other  pursuits.  There  were  224  males  and  280 
females  registered  as  belonging  to  the  Established 
Church;  361  males  and  523  females  who  declared 
themselves  Roman  Catholics;  and  82  males  and 
1 10  females  who  were  Presbyterians.  The  town 
lies  in  a  beautiful  valley  in  the  inner  extremity  of 
the  bay,  and  consists  of  two  detached  portions,  the 
upper  and  lower  towns,  connected  by  an  avenue 
liordered  by  forest  trees.  The  houses  are  mostly 
resjjectable,  all  slated,  and  kept  with  much  neat- 
ness. The  church  is  a  handsome  building ;  the  Rom. 
Cath.  chaf>el  is  small ;  the  Presbyterians  and  Me- 

VOL   I. 


BALLYMENA 


337 


thodists  have  each  a  place  of  worship.  Ballycastle 
was  formerly  a  place  of  considerable  busuiessi 
having  in  it  a  brewery,  glass-house,  and  salt-works, 
all  of  which  have  declined  since  the  stoppage  of 
the  mines ;  and  it  is  now  little  more  than  a  fishing 
village,  and  a  summer  watering-place.  The  col- 
lieries, from  which  it  derived  its  temporary  pros- 
perity, lie  on  each  side  the  promontory  of  Fair 
Head ;  and  the  discovery  of  old  workings  and  rude 
implements,  in  a  part  of  the  cliff  previously  unex- 
plored, shows  that  they  had  been  opened  at  a  very 
remote  period.  The  seam  of  coal,  which  shows 
itself  in  the  face  of  the  cliff  at  a  considerable 
height  above  the  sea,  forms,  in  one  part,  a  single 
bed  4^ft.  thick ;  at  another,  it  api^ears  in  six  strata, 
fn>m  1  to  2^  ft.  each,  four  of  which  are  of  flaming, 
and  the  two  others  of  bituminous  or  blind  coaL 
The  workings,  after  having  been  carrieil  on  for  a 
number  of  years  to  a  considerable  extent,  have 
been  relinquished,  |jartly  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  penetrating  to  the  dip  of  the  old  excava- 
tions, and  partly  from  the  want  of  a  safe  harbour 
for  shipping.  The  only  existing  manufacture  is 
that  of  linen,  carried  on  in  the  houses  of  a  few 
cottiers.  The  fishery  of  salmon,  taken  from  Feb- 
mary  to  September,  appears,  from  the  ofiidal 
return  of  1836,  to  employ  9  boats  and  27  men.  The 
markets  are  held  on  'Tuesdays,  that  of  the  first 
Tuestlay  in  everj'  month  being  so  numerously  at- 
tended as  to  resemble  a  fair.  ITie  regular  fairs  are 
held  on  Easter  Tuesday,  the  last  Tuesdays  in  May, 
July  and  Aug.,  and  on  25th  Oct,,  and  22nd  Nov. 
Large  numbers  of  a  ver\'  small  breed  of  horses, 
called  Kaghery  ponies,  are  brought  for  sale  from 
the  island  of  Kathlin  or  Ragherj'.  This  island, 
which  lies  about  5  m.  off  the  main  land,  is  remark- 
able both  for  the  singularity  of  its  geological 
formation,  and  for  having  afforded  shelter  to  Robert 
Bmce  when  forced  to  fly  from  Scotland*  The  town 
is  on  the  exteme  N.  point  of  the  line  of  road  leading 
round  the  coast  of  Antrim  from  Belfast  to  Cole- 
raine,  and  out  of  the  direction  of  any  great  channel 
of  trade.  The  harbour,  which  was  originally  capa- 
ble of  admitting  vessels  of  large  draughty  was  un- 
safe from  the  hea\'>'  seas  thrown  in  from  the  ocean 
by  the  northerly  gales;  but,  after  upwards  of 
150,000/.  of  the  public  money  had  been  expended 
in  attempting  to  remedy  this  defect  by  the  erection 
of  a  pier,  the  harbour  was  filled  up  with  sand,  and 
the  pier  having  been  neglected,  has  gone  to  min. 
In  consequence  of  this,  and  of  the  stopijage  of  the 
collieries,  the  trade  of  the  place  is  almost  extin- 
guished. 

BALLTMENA,  an  inl.  town  of  Ireland,  co. 
Antrim,  23  m.  NNW.  Belfast,  on  the  Braid,  an 
affluent  of  the  Maine,  which  flows  into  Lough 
Neagh.  The  town  was  taken  by  assault  by  the  in- 
surgents in  1798,  after  a  sharp  engagement,  but 
was  immediately  after  evacuated.  Pop.  5,600  in 
1861,  exclusive  of  a  suburb  of  the  town  called 
Harryville,  with  which  together  there  are  6,774 
inhabitants.  The  census  returns  of  186rgive  94 
families  as  engaged  in  agriculture,  569  in  trades 
and  manufactures,  and  493  in  other  pursuits.  There 
were  586  males  and  654  females  returned  as  be- 
longing to  the  Established  Church ;  632  males  and 
789  females  as  Roman  Catholics,  and  1,177  males 
and  1,372  females  as  Presbyterians.  The  town 
stands  in  the  midst  of  an  extensive  plain  of  unin- 
viting appearance,  though  pretty  well  cultivated, 
and  interspersed  with  low  hills,  marsh,  and  Ix^ 
The  river  is  crossed  by  a  large  stone  bridge ;  many 
of  the  houses  are  antique,  with  gabled  fronts,  but 
those  of  modem  erection  are  generally  of  respect- 
able appearance.  The  ecclesiastical  buildings  con- 
sist of  the  par.  church,  a  R.  Cath.  chapel,  two 
places  of  worship  for  Presbyterians,  one  tor  Seoe- 

Z 


838 


BALLYMONEY 


den,  and  one  for  Methodints.  The  dinceMin  school 
of  Connor  was  removed  here  fh>ni  Canickferynis  in 
1829,  and  laige  schools  for  boys  and  prLs  are 
maintained  on  an  endowment*  by  John  Guy. 
Courts  leet  and  barDn  are  held  annually ;  a  manor 
court  monthly,  for  the  recoverv'^  of  Kmall  debts ;  the 
general  sessions  in  January  a^d  June,  alternately 
with  Rallymoney ;  and  petty  setsions  on  alternate 
Tuesdays*:  there  is  a  well-arranf;ed  bridewell,  and 
a  police  constabulary  station.  The  town  owes  its 
prosperity  chiefly  to  the  linen  trade;  the  brown 
linen  sales  avenge  70,()0<>/L  annually ;  and  upwanla 
of  14,000  pieces  are  bleached  yearly  in  14  bleach- 
inp^fiprounds  in  the  neighlMmrhood.  There  i»  a 
mill  for  spinning;  linen  yam.  'l*he  market  for 
linens  is  held  on  Saturdays ;  there  are  also  two 
other  markets  in  the  week  for  fj^rain  and  provisions, 
principally  jiork,  large  quantities  of  which  arc  sent 
to  Ikilfast.  The  market-house  is  a  well-built  editicc 
in  the  middle  of  the  town.  The  fairs  are  held  on 
the  2Gth  July  and  21st  Oct  A  branch  of  the 
Provincial  Bank  was  opencxl  here  in  1833 :  of  the 
Belfast  and  Northern  ISanks,  in  1834 ;  and  of  the 
Agricultural  Bank,  in  1H36.  The  town  lies  on  the 
mail-coach  road  from  Belfast  to  Ix>ndonderr>%  and 
has  also  a  station  on  the  *  Belfast  and  Nttrthem 
Counties '  line  of  railway,  from  which  junctions 
run  to  Ballymoney,  Colcfaine,  and  Portrush.  Tlie 
line  to  Belfast  was  opene<l  April  11, 1848,  and  has 
]m>yed  the  commencement  of  a  new  era  of  pros- 
perity for  the  town. 

BALLYMONEY,  an  inL  town  of  Ireland,  co. 
Antrim,  prov.  Ulster,  on  a  small  branch  of  the 
Lower  Bann,  8  m.  SE.  Coleraine,  Pop.  2,600  in 
1861,  of  whom  1,213  males,  and  1,387  females.  The 
census  returns  showed  53  families  engaged  in 
agriculture,  225  in  trades  and  manufactures,  and 
258  in  other  pursuits.  There  were  234  malet*  and 
261  females  returned  as  meml)ers  of  the  Kstablishe<l 
Church,  380  males  and  414  females  as  Roman  Ca- 
tholics, and  527  males  and  642  females  as  l^resby- 
terians.  The  town  is  irregularly  built  on  an 
eminence,  about  9  m.  K.  of  the  Bann.  Its  places 
of  worship  are,  the  par.  church,  a  Rom.  Cath. 
ohapel,  and  houses  fbr  Presbyterians,  Remon- 
strants, Seceders,  and  Covenanters.  A  school,  on 
the  foundation  of  Erasmus  Smith,  is  established, 
and  several  others  cm  private  endowments,  in 
which,  including  private  seminaries,  alM>ut  700 
children  are  instructed.  There  is  a  dispensary,  and 
a  mendicity  association.  A  steeple  chase  in  De- 
cember, for  a  gold  cup,  has  been  substituted  for 
races,  which  had  been  a  favourite  six)rt.  A  manor 
court  is  held  on  the  first  Friday  of  every  month ; 
general  sessions  of  the  peace  hi  January  and  June, 
alternately  with  Ball^^nena ;  and  petty  sessions  on 
alternate  Tuesdays.  The  court-hoiise  is  in  the 
centre  of  the  toM-n,  and  there  is  a  well-arranged 
bridewell:  a  chief  constabulan'  station  is  fixed 
here.  The  traile  is  principally  in  fine  linens,  a 
species  of  which,  called  Colerames,  is  in  great  de- 
mand: there  arc  two  markets  for  coarse  linens. 
An  extensive  trade  is  also  carried  on  in  graia, 
butter,  and  pro\isions,  which  has  much  inci^ased 
since  the  opening  of  a  line  of  railway  in  November, 
1855,  connecting  the  town  with  the  system  of  the 
'Belfast  and  Northern  Counties'  railway.  The 
regular  market  days  are  Thursdays :  fairs  are  held 
on  6th  May,  10th 'July,  and  10th  Oct.  A  branch 
of  the  Belfast  Hank  was  opened  in  1834,  and  of 
the  Ulster  Bank  in  1836.  The  town  lies  on  tlie 
railway  from  Belfant  to  Londondem*. 

BALLY'SUANNON,  a  maritime  town  of  Ire- 
land, CO.  Donegal,  prov.  Ulster,  on  the  Erne, 
where  it  dischargcH  itself  into  Ballyshannon  Bay, 
108  m.  NW.  Dublin.  It  consists*  of  three  very 
Bteep  and  irregular  stieets  on  one  side  of  the  | 


BALTIC  SEA 

river,  and  a  poor  suburb,  called  the  Purt,  on  the 
other :  the  communication  between  them  is  by  a 
bridge  of  14  arches.  The  parish  church  stands  on 
the  hummitof  the  hill  on  which  the  town  is  built : 
there  are  two  Roman  Catholic  chapels,  two  places 
of  worehip  for  Methodists,  and  one  for  Presby- 
terians. The  populatitm  was  3,197  in  1861,  of 
whom  1,408  males  and  1,789  females.  Of  the  704 
families,  76  were  engaged  in  agriculture,  252  in 
tnuies  and  manufactures,  and  376  in  other  pur- 
suitii.  Tlie  returns  shitwed  200  males  and  282 
females  belonging  to  the  Ef«tabli2)hed  (Church, 
1,141  malefl  and  1,433  females  who  were  Roman 
Cath(»]icfl,  and  50  maleH  and  39  females  who  were 
PreHb\terians.  An  artillery  barrack  adjoins  the 
place,  an<l  it  is  a  chief  constabulanr  station.  The 
Ixir.  was  incorporated  by  James  I.,  in  1613,  and  re- 
turned two  memlwn*  to  the  Irish  H.  of  C.  till  the 
Union,  when  it  was  dL«franchi:4ed.  A  manor  court 
for  pleas  to  tlie  amount  of  2/.  i«  held  everj'  three 
weeki*,  i)etty  scKsions  once  a  fortnight.  The  court 
sits  in  an  u])peT  ai»artment  of  the  market-house, 
which  Ls  also  used  as  an  assemblv-room.  In  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  town  m  a  magnificent 
cascade  formed  by  the  Enie,  here  150  yanls  broad, 
tluDwing  its  waters  over  a  ridge  of  rock  16  ft* 
high,  with  a  noise  audi1)le  for  several  miles.  Sal- 
mon and  eels  are  caught  in  great  numliers ;  the 
former  chiefly  for  the  British  markets :  the  annual 
produce  is  upwards  of  fifty  tons.  There  are  no 
manufactures  of  any  consequence,  and  the  trade  is 
confine<l  chiefly  to  retail  dealings,  owing  to  the 
badness  of  the  liarbour,  which  is  impracticable  fr»r 
vessels  of  any  draught,  A  l)ranch  of  the  Pro- 
vincial Bank  was  opened  in  1835.  Markets  arc 
held  on  Tuestlays and  Saturdays;  fairs  on  the  18th 
of  Sept,,  and  on  the  2nd  of  ever>'  other  month.  A 
mail-coach  plies  between  Enniskillen  and  this 
town  ever>'  day  in  the  week,  putting  it  in  c«.)m- 
munication  with  the  railway  system  of  Ireland. 

BALTA,  a  town  of  Euro^iean  Russia,  gov. 
Podolia,  on  the  Kad}'nia,  160  m.  SE.  Kamcnetz. 
Pop.  14,036  in  1858.  Its  suburb,  on  the  S.  side  of 
the  river,  now  in  the  gov.  of  Kherson,  was  for- 
merly in  Turkey,  wliile  the  bulk  of  the  town,  or 
the  portion  on  the  N.  side  of  the  river,  was  in 
Poland.  The  latter  is  comparatively  well  built, 
and  industrious.  A  very  extensive  commerce  Li 
carried  on  in  grain  and  other  produce  of  the 
country'. 

BALTIC  SEA,  an  internal  or  meiliterranean 
sea,  in  the  NW.  part  of  Eun>pe,  surrounded  and 
very  nearly  enclose<l  by  Sweilen,  Fmland,  Russia, 
Prussia,  Germany,  and*  Denmark.  It  is  usually 
understood  to  commence  S.  of  tlie  Danish  IslancLs 
(Funen,  Zealand,  and  Laland),  and  thus  limited, 
it  is  the  most  isolated  of  any  similar  b<Hiy  of  water 
in  the  world.  But  N.  of  thene  islands  the  Katte- 
gat and  the  Skager  Rack  can  be  regarded  only  as 
parts  of  the  Baltic,  which  may  therefore  be  de- 
scribed as  commencing  at  the  Naze  of  Norway, 
in  long.  70  E.,  and  extending  to  St.  Peter>«biuqg 
en  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  in  long.  30°  28*  45"  E. 
Ita  extreme  points  in  laU  are  VVismar,  in  Meck- 
lenburg, 530  50'  N.,  and  Tomea,  on  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia,  66^  51'  N.  These  ]K>ints  mark  also 
its  greatest  length,  whicli  is  coiLsequently  about 
840  m. ;  its  width  varies  from  75  to  150  m..  and 
its  area  is  estimated  at  155,000  sq.  m.,  without 
including  the  Kattegat  and  Skager  Rack,  for 
which  an  addition  of  18,000  or  19,0tK)  sq.  m.  may 
be  made.  (Catteau.  Tableau  dc  la  Mer  Baltiquc, 
i.  2-«7;  Thomson's  Travels  in  Sweden,  384.) 

Tlie  direction  in  Mhich  the  lialtic  penetrates 
the  land  is  extremely  tortuous.  The  Skager  Rack, 
the  first  great  gulf  of  the  N(»rth  Sea,  runs  N  K. 
between  the  shores  of  Jutland  and  Norway,  fur 


BALTIC  SEA 


339 


rather  more  than  150  m.,  to  the  W.  coast  of 
Sweden ;  and  the  Ratt<^^  from  the  Skaw  (the 
NE.  \\oint  of  Jutland),  has  a  direction  almost  due 
S.  between  Jutland  and  Sweden  for  about  120  m. 
The  average  ^ddth  of  these  gulfs  is  nearly  equal 
(70  m.) ;  but  the  former  is  much  the  most  uniform, 
the  Kattegat  being  narrowest  at  its  N.  end,  be- 
tween the  Skaw  and  Gotteuburg,  and  widening 
considerably  towards  the  S.  Prom  Laholm  Bay 
to  the  opiMwite  Danish  coast  is  full  100  m.  The 
two  Belts  and  the  Sound  are  tlie  three  straits 
which  connect  the  Kattegat  with  the  l^altic,  pro- 
])erly  so  caDed;  and  their  direction  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  gulf  in  which  they  terminate, 
namely  S.  Thb  sea  has  been  so  long  known  to 
Europeans,  that  its  peculiar  entrance  has  ceased 
to  excite  attention;  yet  there  is  not  one,  per- 
liaps,  where  na\'Tgation  is  so  intricate.  The  direct 
<listance  between  the  Kattegat  and  the  open  sea  of 
the  Baltic,  is  less  than  110  m. ;  that  between  the 
shon<!S  of  Jutland  and  Sweden  is  no  where  more 
t'laii  130  m. ;  and  in  this  space,  which  would  not 
l»e  accounted  large,  even  were  it  clear,  are  crowded 
bi't  ween  sixty  an<l  70  Islands,  with  shoals  and  sand 
iNinks  innumerable.  IVo  of  these  islands,  Funen 
and  Zealand,  may  l)e  called  large,  and  some  of  the 
others,  as  Alten,  Langland,  Lalond,  Falster,  and 
Moen,  of  respectable  size,  their  situation  in  a 
close  sea  Iwing  considered.  It  is  the  tw(»  large 
islands  which,  wth  the  Danish  and  Swedish 
co&'*ts,  form  the  three  straits;  the  smaller  isles 
and  sand  banks  serving  to  break  up  their  chan- 
nels, which  would  otherwise  be  sufficiently  direct, 
into  many  small  and  variable  currents.  The 
Little  Belt  (the  strait  between  Jutland  and  Fu- 
nen)  is,  at  its  N.  end,  less  than  |  m.  in  width. 
It  expands,  however,  immetliately,  and  between 
Arroesund  and  Assens  is  8  m.  broad.  Still  further 
S.  the  continent  recedes  into  a  great  bay;  and 
the  island  bec(>ming  broken  up  into  several 
smaller  islets,  the  greatest  width  of  the  Little 
Belt  is,  perhaps,  not  less  than  45  m.  Its  most 
S.  channel  contracts  again  to  al>out  8  m.,  be- 
tween the  Islands  of  Alten  and  i'Eroe.  The  Great 
Belt  (between  Fimen  and  Zealand)  is  more  uni- 
form in  its  width,  wliich  averages  about  20  m. 
Towards  the  S.,  however,  this  strait  also  stretches 
out  W.  into  a  large  bay,  formed  by  the  islands  of 
Zealand  and  Loland,  and  at  its  S.  termination  it 
is  di\ided  into  two  channels  by  the  island  of 
Langland,  of  which  the  widest  or  most  E.,  be- 
tween Langland  and  Laland,  is  about  8  m.  across, 
the  other  not  more  than  4  m.  The  Sound,  at  its 
entrance  between  Elsinore  in  Zealand  and  Hel- 
singburg  on  the  coast  of  Swe<len,  is  about  4  m. 
wide;  but  it  si)reads  into  a  succession  of  bays 
ujKm  the  Swedish  shore,  and  towanls  its  S.  end, 
into  one  of  considerable  size  (Kidge  Bay)  on  that 
of  Zealand  It  is  here  about  28  m".  across,  but  the 
return  of  the  land  contracts  its  final  outlet  to 
al)out  half  that  amount.  (Catteau,  L  2-26; 
Tliomson,  385 ;  Carr.,  Northern  Summer,  27,80, 
102,  &c.) 

The  direction  of  the  sea  from  these  straits  is 
first  E.  to  Memel  (about  3(X)  m.),  and  then  N.  as 
far  as  the  lat.  of  Stockholm,  51^  21',  a  distance  of 
350  m.  It  is  to  these  portions  that  the  term 
Baltic  Sea,  in  its  limited  sense,  is  restricted,  for 
at  this  ix>int  it  separates  into  two  great  gulfs ;  of 
which  one,  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  runs  nearly  due 
E.  l>etween  the  Russian  territories  of  Finland  and 
Bevel ;  the  other,  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  a  little  E. 
of  N.,  Ijotween  Finland  and  Sweden.  The  Gulf  of 
Finlan<l  is  200  m.  in  length,  with  a  mean  breadth 
of  00  or  70  m. ;  that  of  Bothnia  is  alxjut  400  m. 
long,  and  120  ni.  in  average  width,  but  at  its  nar- 
rowest part,  the  Quarkcn,  opponte  Umea,  it  does 


not  much  exceed  40  m.  The  Gulf  of  Riga,  or 
Livonia,  S.  of  that  of  Finland,  is  idso  an  im- 
portant inlet,  stretching  into  the  countries  from 
wliich  it  is  named,  about  83  m.  from  £.  to  W.,  and 
about  90  m.  from  N.  to  S.  (Catteau,  I  27-114; 
Thomson,  826.)  Beyond  the  Danish  islands  the 
Baltic  is  a  tolerably  clear  sea,  except  on  the  coasts, 
where  alluvial  islands  are  continually  forming.  In 
the  main  stream  the  only  intemintions  to  the  con- 
tinuity of  water  are  found  in  Kugen  (which  is, 
however,  close  to  the  Pomeranian  shore) ;  Bom- 
holm,  between  the  coasts  of  Prussia  and  Sweden, 
but  much  nearer  to  the  latter  than  the  former; 
(ieland,  on  the  SE.  of  Sweden ;  Gothbmd,  XE.  of 
Oeland ;  Oesel,  Dago,  and  several  smaller  islands 
between  the  (Julfs  of  Riga  and  Finland ;  and  the 
Aland  archipelago  at  the  moutli  of  the  (iulf  of 
Bothnia.  Opposite  to  these  last  the  SW.  coast  c^ 
Finland  is  crowded  with  an  innumerable  Quantity 
of  islets,  which  seem  as  though  the  mam  shore 
were  advancing  by  rapid  strides  to  join  Uie  larger 
islands  of  Aland,  as  a  stage  in  its  progress  towards 
a  junction  with  the  opposite  Swemsh  shore.     (See 

Ai^AND,  BORNHOLM,  GOTHLAND.) 

The  Baltic  is  not,  like  other  close  seas,  the 
Mediterranean,  Red  Sea,  <frc,  shut  in  by  rocks  and 
high  mountains.  On  the  N\V,  and  *N.,  indeed, 
the  mountains  of  Sweden  and  Norway  form  a 
sufficiently  detinite  boiindarv';  but,  towards  the 
E.,  SE.,  S.,  and  even  SW.,  its  borders  stretch  away 
in  plains  occupying  much  more  than  half  Europe. 
On  the  S.  the  nearest  high  lands  are  the  Ilartz, 
the  Bohemian  mountains,  and  the  Carpathians ; 
SW.  lie  the  flat  lands  of  Jutland,  Ilolstein,  and 
Holland;  SE.  the  plain  is  unbroken  to  the  shores 
of  the  Black  Sea  and  Caspian ;  and  E.  there  are 
no  hills  except  the  insignificant  elevations  of 
Valdai,  between  the  lUUtic  and  the  Oural  moun- 
tains. The  basin  of  this  sea  is,  therefore,  by  no 
means  well  defined,  except  towards  the  N.  and 
NW.  In  every  other  direction  it  has  to  be  deter- 
mined by  the  direction  of  the  running  water  only, 
and  that  on  land  so  level  that  the  baedn  of  the 
Baltic  is  constantly  combining  with  those  of  other 
seas;  with  that  o^  the  White  Sea,  through  the 
lakes  of  Russian  I^Um<l ;  with  that  of  the  Cas- 
pian, by  the  close  fq)proach  of  many  of  the 
affluents  of  the  Wolga  to  Lakes  On^a  and 
Ladoga ;  and  with  that  of  the  Black  Sea,  among 
the  innumerable  streams  of  Lithuania  and  Poland. 
Thus  the  limits  of  the  basin  are  in  lat.  4^  and  69^ 
N.,  in  long.  7**  40'  E.  (Arrowsmith's  Atlas ;  Von 
Buch's  Travels,  387 ;  CaUeau,  ii  44,  drc)  With 
the  exception  of  some  portions  of  America,  there 
is  no  part  of  the  world  more  abundantly  watered 
than  this  district :  upwards  of  240  rivers  find  their 
way  to  the  Baltic ;  the  lakes  in  its  neighbourhood 
are*  all  but  innumerable,  and  altogether  this  sea 
drains  more  than  a  fifth  part  of  the  wliole  surface 
of  Europe.  The  rivers  which  flow  from  the  8* 
and  SE.  run  the  longest  courses,  varying  from  880 
to  750  m.  (See  Odkk,  Vistula,  Niemen,  Dwina, 
<frc.)  Some  of  those  from  the  E.  appear  at  first  to 
be  much  shorter,  as  the  Neva,  which  from  Laie 
Ladoga  docs  not  exceed  45  m. :  but  as  this  lake 
Is  connected  with  that  of  On^^  by  the  Svix,  and 
as  Onega  receives  the  VoUa,  a  stream  rising  close 
to  the  40th  meridian,  the  whole  of  this  water 
course  is  not  less  than  400  m.  in  len^^  The 
other  Finnish  rivers  are  not  long ;  bat  W.  of  the 
Gulf  of  Bothnia  the  rivers  of  Sweden  varv  from 
200  to  300  miles.  The  most  peculiar  part  of  this 
basin  is  the  SW.  comer,  where,  though  the  nearest 
mountains  are  those  of  the  Uartz,  the  basin  itself 
does  not  exceed  20  or  25  m.  in  width.  The  Elbe, 
which  runs  within  50  m.  of  the  Baltic,  and  the 
Eyder,  which  rises  dose  to  its  shores,  fall  into  'the 

z2 


340 


BALTIC  SEA 


North  Sea,  and  their  affluents  belonfsc  of  course  to 
that  system;  bat  such  is  the  flatness  of  the 
country  in  this  part  of  Germany,  that  the  di/Terent 
waters  are  constantly  uniting,  and  a  canal  of  less 
than  3  m.  has  ser\'cd  to  connect  the  Baltic  with 
the  Elbe  by  joining  the  rivers  Trave  and  Strick- 
iiitz.  below  Lubeck.  A  similar  junction  has  l)een 
effected  between  the  Baltic  and  the  Evdcr,  n  little 
to  the  N.  of  Kiel.  Since  the  cession  of  the  Schles- 
wig-Holstein  peninsula  by  Denmark,  the  Prussian 
government  has  undertaken  to  connect  the  Baltic 
with  the  North  Sea,  by  means  of  a  large  canal, 
deep  enough  for  sea-going  vessels.  The  canal, 
which  crosses  the  southern  (mrt  of  Schleswig. 
where  the  peninsula  is  narrowest,  was  commenced 
in  1865. 

The  Baltic  is  extremely  sliallow,  being  not 
more  in  its  W.  part^  between  Kiel  and  (^oj^n- 
hagen,  than  16  fathoms  deep,  and  m<»st  commonly 
not  more  than  8  or  10  (Von  Buch,  10) ;  but  far- 
ther E.  it  deepens  considerably,  and  midway  l>e- 
tween  Memel  and  Oeland  it  is  from  60  to  100  fa- 
thoms. This  is,  however,  its  greatest  dej)th,  f(»r 
the  Gulf  of  Finland  suddenly  shallows  from  50 
or  60  fathoms  to  16  fathoms,  4  fathoms,  and,  in 
the  Bay  of  Cronstadt,  to  even  less  than  this.  The 
average  depth  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  is  not 
greater  than  that  of  the  rest  of  the  sea,  but  it  is 
less  encumbered  with  sand  banks,  and  its  har- 
bours arc  more  convenient :  none  of  those  S.  and 
£.  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland  have  more  than  20  ft 
water,  and  but  few  have  as  much  as  16.  (Cat- 
teau,  139-114.) 

The  Baltic,  being  a  close  sea,  with  its  entrance 
from  the  approach  of  the  tidal  wave,  is,  of  course, 
not  subject  to  the  phenomena  of  tides.  These,  so 
very  powerful  in  the  German  Ocean,  are  found  to 
decrease  sensibly  in  the  Skager  Back  and  Kattegat, 
to  be  barely  perceptible  in  the  entrance  of  the 
atmits,  and  entirely  to  vanish  S.  of  the  Danish 
Iriands.  (Catteau,!.  115-118.)  But  though  tides 
be  wanting,  a  variation  in  height  equal,  fre- 
quently, to  four  feet  is  observed,  at  irregular  in- 
tervids,  in  the  waters  of  this  sea.  This  phenome- 
non occurs  at  all  seasons,  but  chiefly  in  the  autumn 
or  winter,  or  at  the  time  of  heav>'  rains,  or  when 
the  atmosphere  is  chaiged  with  clouds,  though 
unattended  bv  falling  weather.  The  water  main- 
tains its  height  frequently  for  several  days,  some- 
times even  for  weeks,  produces  considerable  agi- 
tation m  the  gulfs  and  straits,  and,  except  in 
winter,  when  its  power  is  restrained  by  the  accu- 
mulatcd  snow  and  ice,  inundates  the  low  wastes 
to  a  considerable  extent.  Prevalent  winds,  flood- 
ing rains,  melting  snows,  and  many  other  causes, 
have  been  assi^ed  for  this  vrr\'  rcmaricable  phe- 
nomenon, which  continued,  however,  to  occur 
under  circumstances  totally  incompatible  with 
any  or  all  of  these;  but  m  1804  SchuUens,  a 
Swedish  physician,  after  collecting  all  the  observa- 
tions that  had  been  made,  found  that  the  greatest 
height  of  the  water  corresponded  to  the  greatest 
depression  of  the  barometrical  column  and  con- 
versely. Tlie  extreme  variation  of  the  latter 
amounts  in  K.  Europe  to  2^  in.,  equivalent  to 
nearly  34  in.  of  water :  and  combining  this  with 
the  fact,  that  the  movement  of  the  water  always 
preceded,  by  a  little,  that  of  the  mercun',  he  con- 
cluded that  the  former  was  owing  to  the  unequal 
pressive  of  the  atmosphere  upon  different  parts  of 
the  surface;  the  extreme  height  sometimes  at- 
tained being  dependent  upon  local  and  accidental 
circumstances.  The  almost  total  absence  of  oceanic 
action  in  this  sea  leaves  the  cause,  thus  assigned, 
to  operate  with  full  power ;  and  if  Schultens*  hy- 
pothesis be  confirmed,  it  will  serve  to  explain 
aimilar  phenomena,  observed  in  other  close  waters; 


as  the  Caspian,  Lake  Baikal,  and  the  Lake  of 
Geneva,  to  the  similar  variations  in  which  Saus- 
sure  has  assigned  a  cause  analogous  to  that  offered 
by  Schultens  in  the  cose  (»f  the  Baltic  (Mem. 
Acad.  Stock.  1804 ;  Saussure's  Voyage  dans  les 
Alpes,  i.  15.) 

Tlie  currents  of  the  Baltic  depend,  in  a  great 
dcffKCf  upon  its  rivers ;  and  as  these  exist  in  the 
greatest  number  towards  the  N.  and  E.  parts,  the 
general  direction  of  the  water  is  from  XNE.  to 
SSW.,  as  far,  at  leasts  as  the  latitude  of  Konigs- 
l)eTg.  The  imj)uL'*e  from  the  S.  here  given  by  the 
great  rivers  of  Prussia  aids  the  resistance  of  the 
land  to  turn  the  current  W.,  towords  the  Danish 
islands,  among  which  it  of  course  becomes  broken 
into  many  parts,  all  combining  at  last  in  a  general 
X.  direction  through  the  Kattegat,  and  thence 
S\V.  through  the  Skager  Rock  into  the  N.  Sea. 
Tlie  aurents  of  the  Baltic  are,  therefore,  outwards : 
and  when  a  W.  wind  forces  the  water  of  the  ocean 
into  its  gulfs,  these  currents,  always  intricate,  be- 
come extremelv  complicatetl.  and  even  dangerous. 
(Catteau,  L  12'5-132.)  This  general  direction  of 
the  water,  together  with  the  numl)er  of  rivers 
which  flow  uito  the  Baltic,  account  for  the  very 
slight  d^ree  of  saltness  which  it  is  found  to 
pofjsess.  it  is  well  known  that  the  ocean  holds 
m  solution  salt,  muriate  of  magnesia,  sulphate  of 
lime,  and  sulphate  of  soda,  to  the  amount  of  aljout 
l-27th  of  its  own  weight;  but  at  Copenhagen, 
Von  Buch  found  this  proportion  reduced  to  con- 
siderably let<s  than  1-1 00th ;  and  Thomson,  at 
TunalxiFg,  S.  of  Stockholm,  found  it  less  tliau 
l-210tlis — a  quantity  so  slight  as  scarcely  to  affect 
the  palate ;  and  it  is  said  that  farther  to  the  N. 
and  E.  the  sailors  commonly  use  the  water  of  the 
Baltic  for  their  food.  The  followhig  is  the  relative 
gravity  of  the  waters  of  the  Ocean  and  of  the 
naltic^  under  various  circumstances ;  for,  it  is  to 
be  observed  that  the  latter  becomes  much  Salter, 
under  a  W.  wind,  when  the  water  of  the  ocean  is 
forced  into  it,  and  that  this  effect  is  perceptible 
for  a  considerable  distance : — 


Sp.  Gr. 
Open  flea  at  Holi- 

goland     .        .      1*0321 
Frith  of  Forth   .      1-029U 


Sp.Gr. 

Baltic  at  the  Scaw  10!!a3 
Sound  .  1-0047  to  1'0(K>3 
Tunaberg   .       .      l-0u47 


In  a  NW.  wind  the  gravity  at  Copenhagen  rose 
to  1*0189;  and  near  Stockholm  the  following 
changes  were  observed,  under  the  various  circum- 
stances:— 

Rp.  Or.   I  Sp.  Or. 

WIndE.      .       .      10039    storm  at  W.       .      1-0118 
WIndW.     .        .      1-0067  1  Wind  NW..        .      1*0098 

T^AStly,  the  quantity  of  salt  l)rocure<l  from  1,000 
grains  of  water,  from  the  following  places,  was  as 
under : — 


On. 

Or.. 

Frith  of  Forth 

• 

86-6    Sound   . 

11-2 

Scaw      . 

• 

82-0  .Tunaberg     • 

7*4 

When  it  is  considered  that  all  these  experiments 
were  made  S.  of  the  laL  of  Stockholm  (59°  210, 
and  that  an  immense  number  of  rivers  flow  into 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  it  seems  reasonable  to  con- 
clude that  the  N.  part  of  that  gulf  should  be  still 
less  salt,  if,  uideed,  it  be  not  free  from  any  saline 
mixture  whatever.  (Von  Buch,  10 ;  Thomson^ 
38r»-390.)  The  experiments  of  Von  Buch  and 
Thomson,  conducted  independently,  and  with 
ever}'  possible  care,  must  be  received  as  satis- 
factory ;  but  it  is,  perhaps,  necessary  to  observe 
that  Catteau  gives  the  amount  of  salt  held  in 
solution  bv  Uie  Baltic  generally  at  l-30th  to 
l-40th  of  the  water,  (i.  142.)  It  is  not,  however, 
possible  to  reconcile  this  statemejit  with  others  by 
the  same  author :  such  as,  that  in  many  ba^'s  the 
water  is  used  for  cooking;  that  in  swaiaier  the 


BALTIC  SEA 


341 


Gulf  of  Bothnia  yields  only  1  ton  of  aalt  from  800 
tons  of  water,  and  that  the  spedlic  f^vity  varieB 
between  1-0126, 1-0047, 1-0041,  and  1,0038,  (1 144.) 
Neither  is  this  quantity  of  salt  consistent  with  the 
following  table  of  the  relative  amount  in  8  lbs. 
(Cierman)  of  water  taken  from  the  N.  Sea  and 
Baltic ;  which  is  given  by  Catteau,  on  the  autho- 
rity of  Ualem  and  Vogel  (i.  143.) :— 


N.  Scft 

B«ldo 

Muriate  of  Soda 

—  Ma^esia 
Sulphate  of  Lime     . 

—  Soda      . 
Residuam 

Or. 
S22 
198  1 
23 
1  1-M 

1* 

Or. 

263 

111 

12 

1 
1 

Total 

746  l-8d 

388 

The  German  pound  is  a  variable  weight,  but  it 
is  no  where  lighter  than  the  English,  and  in  most 
places  on  the  Baltic  it  is  from  400  to  500  gr. 
heavier;  taking,  however,  the  Englisli  pound  of 
7,000  grains,  the  above  results  give  less  than  l*5th, 
and  not  l-40th,  far  less  r30th,  as  the  proportion 
of  salt  to  the  water  of  the  Baltic.  The  proportion 
of  the  N.  Sea  is  about  l-28th,  diflfering  very  little 
from  that  assigned  above. 

This  freshness  of  the  water  combines  with  its 
shallowness  and  confined  situation  to  render  it 
]ieculiarly  liable  to  congelation;  in  fact,  it  ia 
i'vcry  year  encumbered  with  ice,  and  its  straits 
are  usually  impassable  from  December  to  April. 
Severe  frosta  made  the  sea  passable  in  its  widest 
\MiTts,  between  Prussia  and  Denmark,  in  1333, 
1399,  1423,  and  1429.  The  climate,  like  that  of 
all  Europe,  and  more  especially  of  Germany,  has 
become  more  mild  imder  the  effects  of  better 
drainage  and  cultivation ;  but,  even  within  recent 
times,  Charles  XII.  marched  across  the  Sound 
and  the  two  Belts  to  the  attack  of  Denmark,  and 
»<}  late  as  1809  a  Russian  army  crossed  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia  on  the  ice,  (Catteau,  L  146-158; 
Thomson,  130,  138.)  The  temperature  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  this  sea  does  not  appear  to  dimi- 
nish with  increase  of  laL  so  much  as  might  be 
expected:  at  Tomea,  nearly  66°  X.,  Von  Buch 
athrms  that  the  season  does  not  differ  from  that  of 
N.  (rermany  by  more  than  a  month;  and  that 
the  polar  winter  does  not  set  in  till  the  end  of 
November. 

The  productions,  animal  and  vegetable,  of  the 
surrounding  countries  are  somewhat  modified  by 
the  presence  of  this  considerable  body  of  internal 
water.  (See  Sweden,  Denmark,  Prussia,  Fin- 
land, Ac.)  The  sea  itself  is  extremely  rich  in 
li.nh  of  many  varieties ;  the  takinf^  of  which  forms 
an  important  branch  of  industry  in  all  the  neigh- 
Ixiurin;;  countries.  The  laiger  amphibia — morses, 
lamantins,  &c.,  are  abt<ent;  but  seals  are  very 
plentiful,  not  only  in  the  sea,  but  in  the  neigh- 
lx)uring  lakes  of  Ladt^a,  Onega,  dbc;  they  do 
not  form  a  part  of  human  fotxi,  as  in  other  less 
fertile  countries  of  the  North,  but  are  chased  with 
great  avidity  for  their  oil  and  skins.  Whales  are 
t<tated  to  be  sometim&s  of  enormous  dimensions, 
but  arc  very  rarely  found :  one  was  seen  in  the 
(iulf  of  Bothnia,  in  July  IHU  ;  but  this,  like 
crvery  other  appearance  of  the  animal,  was  re- 
garded by  the  mhabitanta  as  an  evil  omen.  Of 
other  and  smaller  cetacea,  the  marsouin  (Deiphintu 
F/ioaena  of  Linnaeus)  is  common  enough  m  the 
Baltic     (Catteau,  I  199-251.) 

Of  the  often  asserted  important  fact  that  the 
Baltic  M  decrtasing,  there  can  be  little  reasonable 
<loubt,  the  nature  of  the  surrounding  countries  and 
recent  observations  being  taken  into  coiLsidenUion. 


The  innumerable  lakes  that  lie  between  it  and  the 
White  Sea  are  nothing  but  the  last  remains  of  a 
once  continuous  sea ;  which  may  be  considered  as 
proved  by  the  appearance  of  similar  animals  in 
these  waters,  though  now  fresh,  and  the  broad 
band  of  tertiary  strata  which  extends  throughout 
the  whole  space,    (Lyell,  Prin.  Ge^L,  L  209,}    On 
the  S.,  even  within  the  period  of  .modem  history, 
great  changes  have  taken  place.    Lubeck,  which 
when  first  built  was  undoubtedly  a  sea-port,  is 
now  12  m.  from  the  shore,  and  incessant  pains  are 
requisite  to  preserve  its  communication  with  it  by 
the  channel  of  the  Trave.    The  numerous  lakes  of 
N.  Germany,  like  those  of  Finland,  are  but  the 
last  remnants  of  the  sea,  which  once  and  lately  lay 
upon  the  soil,  as  is  incontestably  proved  by  the 
continual  choking  up  of  some,  and  the  constant 
detaching  of  others,  nrom  the  main  body  of  water 
by  the  dcpoaits  brought  down  bv  the  rivers.    The 
Haffs  of  Prussia  are  now  quite  detached ;  the  Isle 
of  Rugen  is  all  but  joined  to  the  German  conti- 
nent ;  while  its  former  division  into  several  sepa- 
rate islands  is  attested  by  the  different  names 
bestowed  upon  its  different  parts;  of  which  Rugen 
Amichy  in  the  language  of  the  country,  means 
Kugen  Proper.    Similar  instances  might  be  accu- 
mulated all  along  this  coast,  all  parts  of  which  are 
full  of  evidences  of  the  same  gradual  and  rapid 
changes,  (De  Luc,  200, 286, 243, 247, 276,  etpase,) ; 
and  were  other  proof  wanting,  it  would  be  found 
in   the  extensive  mosses   abounding  in  marine 
plants,  which  constitute  so  great  a  part  of  N. 
Germany.    (Von  Buch,  2 ;  De  Luc,  192,  et  paee.) 
In  the  N.,  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  the  same  de- 
crease is  going  on  with  equal,  if  not  peater,  ra- 
pidity (Von  Buch,  886) ;  and  though  it  is  certain 
that  the  surface  of  the  sea  cannot  stnA,  this  the 
laws  of  equilibrium  would  prevent;  yet,  from 
every  obser\'ation,  it  is  no  less  evident  that  its  bed 
is  filling  up,  and  that  the  surrounding  land  is 
slowly   (perhaps  not  very  ahwhf)  rising.      Olaf 
Dalin,  a  Swedish  mathematician  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, calculated  the  change  at  1  inch  per  annum ; 
and  judging  by  the  very  eWdent  alterations  in 
many  parts,  this  is  not  probably  too  high,  though 
the   hypothesis  was   held   in  scorn  when   first 
broached.    (Algarotti's  Letters,  86.)    As  the  same 
operation  may  be  traced  on  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian  and  Black  Seas  (see  Caspian  and  BiACK 
Sea),  there  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  these  aze 
the  last  drainings  of  the  European  plain  towards 
the  SE,,  as  the  Baltic  is  towards  the  NW.,  or  that 
these  .waters  were  once  in  connection ;  the  very 
trifling  elevation  between  their  basins  serving  to 
determine  the  direction  of  the  rivers,  and  the  con- 
sequent deposit  of  new  land.    (See  Lyell's  GeoL 
Map  of  Europe,  i,  209,)  ,  One  of  the  most  peculiar 
appearances  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  consists  of 
the  immense  number  of  granite  blocks,  boulden, 
as  they  are  called,  with  which  the  alluvial  soil  is 
everywhere  covered :  after  all  that  has  been  said 
upon  this  subject,  the  appearance  of  these  anoma- 
lous masses  continues  a  mystery.    The  opinion  of 
De  Luc,  that  the^  were  foroed  by  explosion  through 
the  superstrata,  is  perhaps  the  least  objectionable; 
at  all  events,  it  is  less  violent  than  the  supposition 
that  they  were  floated  from  a  distance  upon  water 
or  ice,    (GeoL  Trav,,  59-76,  et/xist,) 

Commerce. — The  Oder,  Vistula,  and  other  great 
rivers  that  have  their  embouchures  in  the  Bahic, 
and  the  many  large  cities  that  are  built  on  or  near 
its  shores,  have  made  it  the  theatre  of  a  very  ex- 
tensive commerce.  In  this  respect  its  imnortance 
was  much  increased  b^  the  foundation  or  Peters- 
burg, the  trade  of  which  is  now  of  great  extent 
and  value.  Raw  products,  including  com,  timber, 
hemp  and  flax,  tallow,  hides,  liiueed,  bristles, 


wnit,  Ac,  conntitnM  the  prinripd  aniclcs  of  ex-  river  oiled  Jonea'a  FiSt,  over  which  ue  ereelf  d 

port  from  tlie  Italtic  portii ;  culunial  prnductf,  m^  thm  handvome  none  hriilges  and  foQT  wooilpn 

nufwHural  gnodn,  drv  >Iufi>,  wino,  >alt,  cn&l,  Ac.  onei.     Id   (he  uutcr  haitmur,  near  Fell's  Point, 

bdn^'ini<in|i:lheTuinctpal«rticleii<iriinpi>n.    Hie  vtnaeii  of  600  or  600  (• 


leaihtiK  port*,  Mllins ' 
!nh«nD,LOheck,Wi 
■ntiic  (which,  next 
jrt,  tiiit  in  Europe  onlv 


Bhipmont  or  wliest),  KCniRfibeiS.  Uemel,  Kisa 
reterabuiK-  "ml  Slockhi.lm.     The  U.  Kingil.iit 


city  ia  rt^fularly  laid 
enenlly  iipacioua 


lied  by  Fun  M'Henn-. 
out  uid  well  buUt ; 
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;a<il,  eimis,  two  theatres,  aii  mai^ 

.    .  ^  .  .    . d  tifly^ix  plaetA  of  wonilup.    Tlie 

■taUioeDt,  which  i^va  the  value  of  the  impurlH  of  exehanKe  i>  >  large  and  liiui(k<iime  edillce,  S6n  It. 
Iha  article  from  the  vsiiaua  porta  uf  the  ]laltiu  by  140;  the  Knraaa  Catholic  valhednil  in  perfaapa 
into  the  United  Kingdom  iluriiigeach  d' (he  three  the  finenl  church  in  the  connlry,  and  cuntaiiia 
yean  1(102, 1SU3,  and  1H64:—  nime  fiwd  painlinK*;  the  Unitarian  church,  SL 
Paul'n  churrh,  tlie  court-bouw,  l.'nion  Itauli,  anil 
xeveral  other  of  the  public  buildinos,  are  Imih 
niBciouii  aiul  elegant.  Su  Marv's  Colktn  ia  a 
Catholic  inaliruliiin,  and  boa  a  librarv  containiDg 
3U,000  rnla.  The  me.li.-ol  college,  now  the  uni- 
veivity.  received  tliat  title  with  a  new  charter  in 
IM12:  the  city  containa,  beaides,  a  muaeuni  and 
a  ^lleiy  of  paintinin.  The  houaea  are  miiatly  '"f 
,Tite  f  if  the  porta  of  bncli ;  the  principal  atreet,  about  1  m.  lon^  and 
further  ahowu  hy  HO  ft.  wide,  mna  panllel  to  the  water.  Cm  an 
ntate  that  in  the  elevatiim,  alnve  the  compact  part  of  the  cily,  ia 
mrla,  of  an  aKfire-  the  Waahingtnn  tnnnumenl,  a  Doric  column  of 
him  the  northem  white  mariile,  140  ft,  iu  height,  <nd  20  ft  in  dia- 
!».,«  .jf  Kuosia;  i,T14  veaaela,  of  6.H-i,<;96  toll*  meler,atandink-upon  a  baaeoflfl.  equare,and23ft. 
ftrim  Prumiai  1,(M0  veaseln,  of  194,967  tutu  ftom  high;  containing  a  circular  slaircaae,  by  which 
Denmark;  and  i.'iSG  vcsoeU,  oflMl^tKI  Inna  from  vinitiira  aivend  to  the  aummit,  on  which  a  coloMil 
Mecklenburg  and  the  Duchiea.  Thixfcivea  a  total  atalue  of  tVaahingtim  ia  placed.  Ttia  by  far  the 
of  nearly  10,000  vewela  awiinx  annually  from  the  most  aplendid  almcture  of  ita  kind  in  the  I'nioii. 
Baltic  into  porta  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  Battle  monnment,  an  degant  marble  obetiak, 
The  andentii  were  but  verv  alighlly  acquainted  3u  (t.  high,  ia  erected  to  the  nemory  of  thoae  vbn 
with  the  Baltic:  it  ia  mentioned  bv  Ihrm  under  fell  in  the  defence  nf  the  citvandFurtM'Henrv.  in 
tbetitleof5finria)abiu(nulfurtheGiithDancJ;  HH,  and  U  inacribed  with  their  namea.  The  dtjr 
Init  it  waa  the  theatre  of  ihnae  marvels  which,  in  ia  aiipplied  with  excellent  water  from  four  Biun- 
ancient  geography,  alwaya  mark  imperfect  know-  taina,  which  are  alao  ornamental  atnictuiva,  ital- 
ledge.  Ila  nhuroi  gaveforth, however,  thewarrioni  timore  iaadmirably  ailuated  for eiimmerre.  and  b 
who  nverthrew  the  Unman  empire,  and  laid  the  a  place  of  conaideraldewrallh  and  trade;  it  cn- 
foundatiuna  of  moilem  Kumpean  aocietv.  In  gnuwca  moet  part  of  the  trade  uf  Marvland,  |n- 
j_j  ^.L    __... ._  ..^,,1^  jigic  jfijj  j,f  pennaj-lvania,  and  part 


The  vaat  commercial  inte 
the  Bailie  i>-ilb  (ireat  llrilai 
the  navigation  retuma.  wh 
year  1W4  th(  -      -  ~  ■- 

gateh    ■■ 


770.6.16  U 


■hipa  of  all  nation*  than  Ihoae  of  any  other  i 
•ea.  Large  quantiliea  uf  amber  are  collected  nn 
ita  ahorex,  isperiallv  thoac  of  Pnuwia.  and  the  isle 
at  Bngen.  (I.'allnui,  i.  1H9-'^.^1.>  The  origin  ul 
the  name  Baltic  haa  divided  elvrao!ogi«l«.  Some 
derive  it  from  the  Danidi  Bilt  (a  ginile),  and 
MJiera  trma  the  word  Baita.  which,  m  the  Li- 
thuanian tongue,    mgnitics  While.      The   great 

bonrhood,  rendeia  Ihi-i  la.'t  derivation  fitrfromim- 
luobablc,  though  Ihe  former  be  evidently  not  leaa 
appliealilv ;  at  all  evenlit,  the  name  baa  exialed 
Btoti   very  eariy   limes,   though  at  present   Ihe 

ahocee,  ia  Oit-m  tHaatein  ^a),  as  serving  to  dis- 
tinpiinh  it  from  the  Atlantic  or  Wratem  0mm. 

ItALTIHOKt;  a  marit.  (it>-of  X.  Ai  ' 
ihini  in  point  of  inie  and  importance  in  I 
Ktatea,  and  the  prinrinal  city,  though  m 
(if  the  state  of  Marvland,  rai  the  S'.  ai 
tapHcn  Hay,  14  m. 'above  ita  entrance  into  the  | 
Cliewipeake,  B7  m.  XK.  Waahington.  and  lUO  m. 
SW.  Philadelphia,  nn  the  Italtimure  and  Ohio 
nUwBV.  Pop,  in  IWKI,  88,971;  in  1830,  6i.7aM: 
in  iHii>.  l.^l.179t  in  IWiil,  1U9.054;  and  in  IBIiO, 
S1S.4IX.  The  lown  is  iJeaaaiitly  aitiiated,  on 
sliglitly  ulHlulalliig  gronnil,  and  is  built  round 
■biiun  or  inner  batliour,  which  aflonta  ■  spacious, 
HKoce,  and  cummcKliumi  harbour  for  venels  of 
2WI  turns  quite  ehise  up  to  Ihe  ti>wn.  The  prin- 
cipal [lart  of  die  etiv  ui  divideil  from  the  por- 
tkau  styled  Uld  Tuwu  and  Fcll'a  Fcinl,  by  ■  amall 


of  that  of  W.  Virginia  and  the  \Cestem  states. '  lla 
inland  communiintion  has  been  much  exletHlFd 
and  facilitated  by  the  oi  instruction  uf  canali,  and 
of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railway. 

The  auUoineil  statement,  drawn  up  from  official 
returns,  gix'ea  the  ex|>urtaof  Baltimore,  in  the  two 
yeaiB  lmi3  and  ItfM :~ 


iB  miv\  Kmda       packs^^l 


T« 

l„p.». 

S.pa» 

10.1  lU.BM 
ll.OM.SIfl 

lCI,4nH.91l3 

11.S7.%99S 

ij).Mi,»a 

llJIlW.fHO 
lOJW.WO 

6.iii.mi 

The  fluctuationa  visible  id  the  above  table  nuuh 
the  dvil  war  in  the  Vaited  Statei,  which  Kreitl/ 
■fleeted  the  trade  df  Baltimore.  (Report  by  Mt. 
Cuiuul  Heraal  on  the  Trade  uf  llaltimuce  iD  1864, 
in  (kinaiilar  Repoitu) 

nufBcturiefl,  and  tluur  and  other  milb  in  opera- 
tion. A  part  of  [he  dty  is  low,  Midwaefonnerly 
accounted  unhealthy ;  but  tLia  haa  been  obviated 
by  the  filling  up  of  the  manhy  grounds.  To  the 
N.  and  F..  the  land  [iM»  to  a  cunsidenble  eleva- 
tion, and  alForda  s  beautiral  pruepect  of  the  cdty 
and  eurrounding  countiy.  The  i^iizena  uf  Balti- 
more pre  distin^^uisbed  as  well  for  bold  and  pene- 
vcrin);  ent«r|)ri»e,  as  for  hoepitality  and  acreeahle 
inannen.  Boliimore  has  had  a  remarkably  lapid 
t^TowtJi.     It  wu  tint  laid  out  as  a  tuwn  m  17^9; 

lirat  erected  into  acity 'in  1797,    A  funnid^ble  but 
umiuccvwfiil  attack  was  made  on  It  in  iH14,  by  a 
British  Turce  under  General  Kosa. 
Ba  ltiuokc,  a  marit.  town  of  Ireland,  co.  Cork, 

CnpeClear  Island ;  46  m- WSW.  Cork.  The  pop. 
which,  in  I83I,was459.  had  sunk,  in  1861,  to  115. 
In  appearance  and  accommodation  it  ia  merely  a 
village,  and  claims  rank  as  a  town  only  fruni 
having  been  iocorpiirated,  and  being  a  port.  The 
houses,  twenty-six  in  number,  are  Miilt  round  the 
rvmains  of  the  old  castle.    Italtimore  was  incor- 

Crated  by  James  I.,  in  fC13,  and  sent  two  mem- 
n  III  the  Irifb  H.  of  C.  till  the  UnioD,  when  it 
ceased  to  be  reptescnt&L,  and  its  other  privileges 
fell  into  disuTie.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  port  ex- 
U'nila  from  UiU  Cove  to  Galley  Head.  uicludinK 
the  creeks  of  Beiehaven,  Bantt}-,  Koss,  (ilcudore, 
and  Casde  Tnwnshcnd. 

UALTIKULAISiJ,  a  par.  and  town  of  Ireland, 
en.  Wickluw.  The  town  is  situated  on  llie  S.  nids 
of  the  Slanev,  34  m.  SVV.  Ihiblin.  Pop.  of  par., 
in  iiWl.a^^j  of  town,  1,304.  The  latter  ix  le- 
markablo  onljr  fruin  a  parliament  having  been 
uncc  held  in  it,  and  trom  its  having  formerly  re- 
lunied  two  meniben  tu  the  Irish  II.  of  C. 

aVMIUilllA,  a  cunsidenhle  count^  of  inle- 
rior  AlKra,  the  precise  pueition  uf  which  is  far 
IVura  being  accuraiely  owertaiued.  Un  Kcimell'a 
nuip  tu  Park's  limt  expedition,  its  tat,  is  given 
friim  12°  tu  l^-i^X.:  Itn  lont;-  tl^HQ  15' £.  to 
ao  W  W.  Tlie  map  to  the  hut  journal  of  Park 
mokes  the  lat.  extend  from  11°  1^' to  10°  126' N. : 
the  long,  fmrn  J°35'E.  tu  4°  52  W.  (See  also, 
AdveHisemenl,  Park's  Second  JouniaL)  Juid, 
tastlv,  ('aillii!  appears  tii  phue  it  between  9°  20' 
aiid'U°  N.  Ut.,  and  Uelween  4°  4*1'  and  9°  20' 
W.  king.  (Tra¥el^  ind  Mfl|i,  i.  304,  «  ko.)  A 
mean  lunong  these  different  statements  will  gi' 
aiiiiiit4<mm.fi>r  its  greatest  length,  from  NW. 
SB.,  ami  about  3<I0  m.  fur  its  greatest  breadth, 
the  direvtiim  of  the  meridian.  Upon  Park's  ms 
llie  an«  is  about  .W,000  sq.  m. ;  ImloT course  lilt 
nrliance  can  be  placed  upon  the  accuracy  of  these 

are  known  with  more  cettiuuly ;  they  ue,  uu  the 


BAHBABBA  3*S 

.,  (lOtto,  Rudoo,  and  Haniana:  OD  lh«  a,  tha 
iandingo  country  and  district  of  SaoKi  on  tha 
W.  Kaana;  and  on  the  If.  and  NE.,  Beeroo  and 
the  tributary  kingdom  of  Hasina.    (Part,  pp.  t>£, 
140,  316,  Ac,  and  Map.)     Bambaira  is,  lor  Uw 
most  part,  a  plain  couatiy,  with  a  general  inclina- 
tion to  the  N.  and  E.    The  W.  portion  is,  liow- 
Er,  mountainous,  or  rather  hilly,  and  furtna  the 
termination  of  the  high  lands  of  KTf*^,  Man- 
ig,  Ac    Theae  mountains  are  of  granite  and 
other  old  formatton)!,  bat  of  no  gmat  height;  and 
the  soil,  both  on  ihdi  sides  and  on  t^  plains, 
■'-lugh  In  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  tin 
baia,  is  generally  good.    The  Niger.  Joliba  or 
.  orra,  has  iu  rise  about  160  m.  SW.  Jrom  the 
rrontien    of  Bambana,    and  flows  through  tba 
whole  length  of  that  county  6om  8W.  to  NE.     It 

important  stream  at  this  early  part  of  lis 

t,  but  by  no  means  so  gigantic  as  U  Mlter- 
wards  becomn.  At  Sego,  the  Bambarra  capital, 
it  is  about  the  uie  of  the  Thamea  at  Weatminstar. 
(Paric,  p.  194.)  There  is  no  other  lirer  of  im- 
portance in  the  countiy,  but  the  smaller  water- 
courses an  innumerable ;  they  all  orertlow  during 
the  rainy  season,  which  lasts  full  5i  months,  » 
"■"-"  the  moisture  is  fully  sufficient  to  rctider 
ind  in  a  very  high  dmeo  pn)ductive.  The 
le  is  one  of  intense  Tieat,  especially  In  the 
here  the  land  borders  upon  the  desert ;  but, 
upon  the  whole,  the  temperature  is  more  endurable 
in  Bambana  than  in  some  of  the  neighbouring 
countries;  and  in  the  S.  parts  it  Is  cold  enough  in 
the  rainy  season  to  render  a  fire  dediable.  (CailliC^ 
L  327.)  The  rainy  season  extends  flrom  June  to 
November,  and  is  ushered  in  by  violent  tomadoea. 
Its  Ceminatiun  is  usually  marked  by  the  dry  NE. 
wind  called  Ilarmattan  (see  Ashahtee),  which 
is  here,  however,  nut  culd,  as  on  the  coast  of 
{juinea,and,  so  far  from  b^g  dreaded,  Is  accounted 
salubrious,  particularly  to  Knrupeans,  from  tha 
rapidity  with  which  it  abeorba  the  supers' 


«  said  to  be  rich  in  gold,  bnt 


further  W.  They  also  produce  iron,  and  Ibencas 
be  little  doubt  but  that  a  well-directed  industry 
would  turn  their  mineral  treasures  to  account. 
Vegetation  is  varied  and  abun<lant;  of  trees  thsrv 
are  tlie  immense  baobab,  the  bnmbax  (silk  cotton), 
oil  palms,  dates,  tamuind,  anil  a  great  variety  or 
foidt  tiees.  I'he  earth  producis,  with  Utile  labnur, 
yams,  cssgavi,  maize,  small  millet,  fuigne,  rice, 
d'c.  many  uf  which  yield  two  crops  a  year ;  and 
the  lotus  (rAmuuis  him  uf  LinnsHis)  is  an  impor- 
tant article  uf  fooiL    The  tropical  (huts,  so  cont- 

I'ark  (p.  JGO)  did  not  meet  with  the  pine-apple, 
orange,  or  banana,  excejit  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Gambia;  and  though  Cailli^  (L  IHl)  mentiona 
tlicm,  ttieir  locality  is  fixed  by  him  also  near  tha 
coast,  and  cuniequcntly  at  a  considerable  cUstance 
from  Banibarra.  The  most  remarkable  pnxinction 
of  this  country  is  the  shea,  ur  butter-tree,  a  plant 

uak,  the  oleaginous  fruit  uf  which  aruwera  every 
purpuse  of  butter  made  from  cow's  milk,  combined 
with  the  advantage  uf  preserving  its  fiirnnens  and 
sweetness  for  the  whole  vear  without  salt,  Thia 
lasi  is  an  article  peculiarly  deficient  in  Bambarra 
and  the  neighbouring  countriee ;  au  rouch  so  as  to 

bought  at  ■  high  rate  vrith  the  com  and  gold  dunC 
uf  the  district.  Tobacco  is  coliivated  m  many 
parts  with  great  success.  The  animals,  except 
niunkeye,  which  are  strangers,  are  the  same  aa 
those  of  Irupical  Africa  generally  ;  lions,  ligen, 
wulve),  pai^heia,  ekidunta,  camels,  gifalTeB,  and 


ZU  BAMBARRA  BA3IB0R0UGH 


aiitelopeo.  Cattle  are  not  abundant,  neither  do 
sheep  or  hogs  appear  to  beplcntifal.  \mt^;oa.t»  and 
dogs  are  very  numeruiu.  There  are  binb*  of  many 


the  power  of  seizing  her  a^  a  slave.  The  domestic 
relations  are,  however,  generally  maintained  with 
great  kindiic»A,  and  the  affection  of  chiMren  to 


spccii^,  and  a  great  variety  of  reptilirrf,  among  .  their  motheni  is  toucliiiig  and  peculiar.  The  foo-L 
which  are  crucoililoj*.  in  the  river,  hut  the;*  <lo  n(»t '  in  ui^ually  vegetable ;  the  amusenientji«,  musif% 
appear  tr»  lie  particularly  dangcmus;  the  luMti*  of  dancing,  and  !»inging:  and  the  effect  of  simple 
powerful  and  venomous'  insects  are  regarded  with  diet,  anil  cheerful  or  rather  thoughtless  dLsp<R»i- 
a  much  greater  d<^jree  of  apprehen^^ion.  I  turn,  is  evinced  by  the  fact,  that  though  the  cli- 

The  natives  of  Bambarra  are  a  j*art  of  the  great  mate  breeds  fevers,  tiuxes,  yaws,  elephantiasis, 
Mandingo  family,  which  extends  from  the  W.  |  lepn»sy,  and  guiuca-wurro,  the  BamliarraiL*,  as  a 
coast  to  the  river  Niger  (s«?e  MAxniSG<»)  ;  they  ■  i^euple,  ma*t  l»e  des*.-ribed  as  healthy,  though  they 


lages  are  very  pirpnlous.  some  of  them  containing    May  no,  on  a  piece  of  uneven  grmmd  on  the  banks 
as  manv  as  iU),(HX>  inhabitants;  but.  on  the  other   of  the  Kegnitz,  about  3  m.  above  its  confluence 


danger  fn»m  wild  lieasts.  and  the  constant  Pup. 
wa»  l)etween  the  different  htates  and  prini-es.  three  {tarts,  the  communirati(m  between  them 
From  Park's  account  of  the  pop. of  Seg«>,  Sansand-  being  maintained  by  two  bridges.  It  is  well  built, 
ing,  \VaiM)la,  and  other  towns,  combine<l  with  the  j  iiave<l.  and  lighted,  and  is  partially  surroundeil  by 
number  of  such  tov^iis  which  ap)iear  on  his  ma)t,  it  |  ramparts  and  fosses.  Among  the  (mblic  buiklings 
may  perhafis  lie  inferreil.  that  Bambarra  contains  i  is  the  cathetlral.  anoble  structure  in  the  Byzantine 
altogether  lietween  2.iHW),imh>  and  3,000,000;  of ;  style,  founded  in  1(K)4,  and  finishetl,  after  being 
whom  3— 4ths  at  least  are  slave*.  In  customs  they  ■  partially  bunit  donvn,  in  1110.  It  contains  tomtxt 
do  not  materially  differ  from  other  negroes  ;  they  ■  of  its  founder,  the  empen>r  llenrj'  II.,  and  of  his 
are  tolerable  agriculturists,  work  in  gold  and  iron.  -  spou^,  the  empress  Cuniguiida,  with  that  of  Pope 
and  tan,  dress,  and  manufacture  leather.  These  ■  Clement  II.,  &c  St.  Martin's  chureh,  erected  by 
are  the  only  arts  which  are  hel<l  in  esteem,  as  dis-  I  the  Jesuits,  is  a  tine  buiUling.  Tlie  church  and 
tinct  callingH ;  but  spinning,  wea\ing,  and  dyeing  j  old  convent  of  St.  Michael  occupy  a  height  a^ljoin- 
are  very  diligently  ])orformeil  by  the  women,  and    ing  that  on  which  the  cathedral  stands,    lliecon- 


the  Bambarran  cloth,  though  a>artjc,  is  soft  and 
durable,  and  generally  of  a  rich,  lasting.  l)lue 
colour.  A  pretty  extensive  trade  is  carried  on  with 
the  Moors  of  the  desert,  the  more  remote  king- 


vent  has  been  converted  into  a  poor-house.  There 
is  also  a  gchloss,  or  palace,  formerly  the  residence 
of  the  bi>hops,  or  princes  of  Bamberg,  a  plain 
building  of  onisiderable  extent,  with  a  gallen*  of 


dtnns  of  Timbuctoo  and  Hoiissa,  the  territory  of  j  bad  pictures ;  a  town-house,  and  theatre.    Bara- 


Kong,  and  even  with  Asliantee  and  Scnegambia.  *  1)erg  U  the  residence  of  an  archbisho{>,  and  has 
Their  exjKirts  are  iron,  cloth,  ivor}',  and  slaves ;  j  numerous  litc'rar>'  and  charitable  institutions.  At 
their  imports  c(»nsist  of  salt)  with  a  few  Man-  ■  the  head  of  the  former  may  be  place<l  the  lyceura 
Chester  goods,  some  hardware,  and  arms.  In  skill,  i  and  gymnasium,  that  have  replaced  the  old  uni- 
refinement,  and  cleanliness  they  are  far  below  the  !  versity,  suppressed  in  l.>(5,  and  which  furnish  a 
n^^rues  of  the  (Jold  (>>ast ;  but  in  moral  feeling  i  very  complete  cc»urse  of  instruction  for  between 
tliey  api>ear  to  be  al>ove  them ;  their  slaves,  who  \  700  and  HOO  pupils:  it  has  aLso  a  seminary  for  the 
are  of  two  kinds,  native  bom  and  foreigners,  either  instruction  of  schrxil masters,  a  s4.*hool  for  mecha- 
jmrehased  or  captured  in  war,  are  usually  treated  nics,  a  museum  of  natural  history',  a  royal  library 
with  kindness;  the  disgusting  cruelties  which  '  with  nearly  80.000  volumes. and  numerous  literary 
mark  the  festivals  of  the  Guinea  Nc^^jes  (see  -  societies  and  private  collections  of  books  and  pic- 
AaiiANTER)  are  unknown  among  them ;  and  they  tures.  The  intirmar>'  has  surgical,  anatomical, 
are  said  to  be  anxious  (especially  the  women)  to  and  other  medical  schools  attached  to  it,  and  a  bo* 
assist,  to  the  utmost  of  their  fXiwer,  the  sick  and  '  tanical  garden.  Large  quantities  of  beer,  in  much 
unfortunate.  The  government  is  rather  oligar- ;  repute  in  the  surrounding  ci>untry,  are  priKlnced 
chical  than  monarchical ;  the  king  is  nominally  '  here;  and  there  an>  aLno  manufactures  of  gloves, 
the  head  of  the  state,  but  he  appears  to  have '  jeweller\%  wax,  tobacco,  porcelain,  &c  A  great 
little  more  power  tlian  to  recommend  certain  lines  deal  of  liquorice  is  raised  m  the  environs ;  and  its 
of  conduct  to  the  flnt>tic$  (governors)  of  towns,  .  pre]>aration  forms  a  ctinsiderable  branch  of  busi- 
which  recommendation  is  not  always  attended  to.  ness.  (ianlen  seeds  are  alM>  largely  pntducetL 
The  Moors  of  N.  Africa  long  since  iutnxluced  Mo-  ;  It  has  two  annual  fairs,  and  is  the  centre  of  a  c«>n- 
hamme<lanLsm  among  the  tril>es  S.  of  the  desert ;  '  sidcrable  commen.'e  which  has  greatly  extendetl 
the  great  majoritv  of  these  retain,  however,  their  '  since  the  o]>eniiig  of  two  lines  of  railway  which 
old  faith,  which,  in  Bambarra,  seems  to  extend  no  '  place  it  into  direct  communii-ation  with  Frankfon, 
farther  than  a  general  acknowleilgment  of  a  su-  Ikrlin,  Munich,  and  all  the  important  towns  of 
]>reme  l>eing  and  a  future  state,  with  a  |>erio<lical  (iermany.  Bamberg  was  formerly  the  caiiital  of 
assembling  for  worship,  (»nlv  at  the  time  of  the  an  independent  bishopric,  secularised  in  1801,  and 
full  mrs)n.    The  only  religious  buildings  are  the    assigned  in  180.')  t(»  Bavaria. 


moeques,  the  ministers  of  which  are  also  srhooi- 
meuters ;  for  instruction,  to  some  small  extent,  is 


BAMBOKOUf;iI,  a  small  town  of  Englanil, 
on  the  coast  of  Northumberland,  nearly  opinwite 


given  to  the  young  Negroes,  but  it  is  in  Arabic,  or  1  to  the  Fern  Islands,  and  17  m.  SE.  lierwick-on- 
}ierhai>s,  in  some  cases,  in  the  native  language,  ■  TweecL  Though  once  considerable,  it  had  only 
written  in  the  Arabic  character,  there  Ix^hig  no ,  403  inhabitants  at  the  census  of  18()1,  and  would 
Negro  tongue  which  {tossesses  an  ali)habet.  The  '.  be  scarcely  worth  notice  were  it  not  for  its  old 
Moslem  Bamliarrans  are  called  Bushruns,  the  |  castle.  The  latter,  which  is  ver>'  extensive,  and 
Pagans,  Katirs  or  intidcbt.     Polvgamv  is  common  j  in  good  preser\'ation,  is  built  on  a  basaltic  nx^k, 


with  both  sects;  and  among  theur  marriage  laws  is 
one  which  is  rather  i)eculiar — a  woman  may  refuse 
to  become  a  wife,  but  should  she,  after  that,  con- 
tract marriage  with  another,  the  first  suitor  has 


150  ft  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  from  which  it  is 
a  most  conspicuous  object.  The  castle  and  some 
other  pTO|)erty  having  been  purchase<l  by  l^»nl 
Crewe,  bishop  of  Durhoin,  he  betiucathcd  it.  ui  1720, 


BAMBOUK 


346 


for  charitable  purposes.  In  pursuance  of  the  l)ene- 
volent  intentions  of  the  founder,  the  castle  has 
been  partially  renovated  and  rcpairc<L  Watch  is 
con.<<tantIy  kept,  and  si^ab*  made  from  the  tower 
in  hazy  weather,  to  warn  ships  of  their  approach 
to  thifl  dangerous  coast ;  a  life-boat  is  also  kept  in 
readiness,  and  the  most  efficient  measures  adopted, 
not  merely  for  the  prevention  of  shipwreck,  but 
for  the  relief  of  those  who  have  undergone  that 
misfortune.  A  school  on  the  Madras  system  is 
established  in  the  castle,  in  which  there  are  also  a 
librar>'  and  a  dispensary,  The  population  of  the 
castle  Ls  given  in  the  census  returns  of  1861  at  38. 
BAMBOUK,  a  countr\'  in  the  interior  of  W. 
Africa,  in  about  fn>ra  12^°  to  U^o  X.  lat.,  and 
from  10|o  to  12^0  W.  long.  In  form  it  is  nearly 
a  |>arallelogram,  140  nu  in  length,  and  100  in 
width,  and  containing  apparently  about  14,000  sq. 
m.  in  area;  but,  as  the  travellers  in  the  country 
had  frequently  no  better  means  of  determining 
positions  than  by  estimating  distances  and  mark- 
ing courses,  the  accuracy  of  these  obser\'ations 
cannot  be  much  relied  on.  The  surrounding  coun- 
trioii  are  Kajaaga,  or  Galam,  and  Kasson  on  the 
N\V.  and  N.;  Brooko  and  Fooladoo  on  the  E.; 
Worada  on  the  S. ;  and  Dentilla  and  Bondou  on 
the  W.  (Voyage  au  Pavs  de  Bambouc,  Paris, 
17H1),  p.  1 ;  Labat,  Nouvefle  Relation  de  TAfrique 
(k'ci.,  iv.  1 ;  (iolberry,  Voy.  en  Afrique,  i.  380 ; 
Park,  1st  Joum.,  p.  63, —  2nd  Joum.,  p.  61; 
Houghton,  Afric  Assoc,  cap.  xiiL  9,  ^c) 

Bambouk  is  a  mountain  country,  most  pro- 
bably a  table-land,  near  the  centre  of  the  Senegal 
system,  with  a  general  inclination  towards  the 
]^.  and  NW.    In  some  places  it  is  very  rugged, 
though  the  peaks  do  not  appear  any  where  to 
attain  a  great  elevation :  the  nighest  are  not  more 
than  600  ft.,  and  those  in  the  8.  rarely  exceed 
300  ft.  above  the  general  level  of  the  land,  which, 
however,  must  itself  be  considerably  higher  than 
the  sea.    Glens  and  valleys  of  the  most  romantic  ! 
kind  are  sirattered  among  these  mountains,  and 
they  arc  skirted  by  plains  of  some  considerable 
extent.     (Park,  2nd  Voy.,  pp.  60,  65,  Ac;  Gol- 
berr>',  L  412,  Ac)     Water  is  very  abundant,  the 
Senegal  forming  the  NE.  boundar>',  and  two  large  '■ 
atHuents  of  that  river,  the  Fa-leme  and  the  liar- 
ting,  constituting  the  W.  and  £.  frontiers  of  the 
country.    Park  considers  the  latter  to  be  the  main 
stream' of  the  Senegal  (1st  Joum.,  p.  336) ;  and  it  ' 
is  certainly  much  larger  tium  the  branch  which 
raeetA  it  at  the  NE.  comer  of  Bambouk,  though 
the  direction  of  the  latter  l)e  the  same  as  the  after 
course  of   the   river.     Besides    these,    there  are 
a  great  abundance  of  rivulets,  more  especially  ! 
tow^ds  the  W. ;  and  there  is  one  other  stream, ' 
the  Sanon  CJolez,  or  Golden  Kiver,  which  is  of  con-  > 
siderable  size.     It  rises  near  the  capital,  and,  after  | 
traversing  the  whole  country  with  a  NW.  course, 
in  receivt^  into  the  Fa-lcme.     (I^abat,  iv.  20,  Ac ;  | 
(^dberry,  i.  381,  412,  Ac)     The  climate  is  ex-  I 
tremcly  hot,  and  Goll»crrj'  remarks  (i.  412),  that  i 
the  heat  of  the  interior,  which  is  scrcene<l  from 
every  wind  except  that  of  the  desert,  is  quite  in-  : 
sup{H>rtahlc    Towards  the  S.,  however,  cool  days  | 
are  experienced,  and  the  grass  is  fresh  and  ver-  ! 
dant    throughout  the  year.     The  rainy  season  ' 
commences  about  July  or  August,  and  lasts  four 
months:  during   this  period   the  low  country  is 
tl<NKled,  the  whole  rendered  frightfully  unhealthy 
for  Europeans,  and  probably  not  very  salubrious 
t4)  the  natives,  since  their  labours  seem  to  be  con- 
tincd  to  the  eight  dry  months.     (V^oy.  au  Pays 
liaml)ouc,  p.  37,  Ac  ;  Labat,  iv.  4,  Ac ;  Golberry, 
i.  411;  Park,  2nd  Joum.,   p.  52,  Ac.)     But  the! 
(■ir(>ct  of  the  heat,  combined  with  thia  abimdant ; 
moiature,  is  to  render  Bambouk  one  of  the  most  | 


proUtic  oountries  in  the  world.  The  few  sterile 
spots  are  on  the  summits  of  the  highest  mountains, 
where,  denuded  of  soil,  the  bare  granite  refuscis 
of  course,  to  nourish  vegetable  Ufe,  but  in  all 
other  situations  the  vegetation  is  rich  and  varied, 
almost  beyond  example  Among  trees,  there  aro 
the  majestic  baobab,  the  banyan,  calabash,  tama- 
rind, every  species  of  palm,  and  a  great  variety  of 
acacias.  Yhe  vine  grows  wild  and  in  great  lux- 
uriance, but  its  fruit,  like  that  of  all  the  other 
trees,  is  extremely  add,  though  eatoi  with  great 
avidity  by  the  natives.  As  in  other  countries  N. 
of  the  Kong  mountains  (see  Bambakra),  the 
rich  fruits  or  Guinea  are  absent ;  but  the  eardi 
produces  in  great  abundance,  and  ahnoot  without 
culture,  maize,  two  sorts  of  millet,  manioc,  water 
melons,  and  nearly  every  species  of  leguminous 
plants.  The  low  lands,  uso,  subject  to  inundation, 
are  covered  with  rice  of  an  extremely  tine  kind, 
and  which  grows  to  the  height  of  8  ft.  Yhe  Guineft 
grass  is  abundant,  which,  with  a  great  variety 
of  other  rich  pasture,  serves  to  feed  innumerable 
herds  of  cattle.  (Golberry,  i.  41V4-411;  Voy.  aa 
Pays  Bambouc,  p.  31-45.)  This  extreme  fertility 
is  strangely  contrasted  with  the  account  given  by 
the  Abbe  Raynal  (E.  and  W.  Ind.,  iil  135),  on  the 
authority  of  a  nameless  traveller,  that  the  soil  was 
an  irredeemable  desert,  producing  nothing  but 
metals,  and  wholly  unlit  for  the  residence  of  man ! 
The  traveller  referred  to  was  probably  Compagnon, 
who,  according  to  the  author  of  Voy.  au  PaysBam- 
bouc,  was  never  in  the  country,  butliad  published/^ 
impottures  Ittpha  absurdei  et  Ua  pltu ptminablet,  by 
confounding  soils,  people,  governments,  and  num- 
ners,  the  most  opposed  to  each  other,  (pp.  2,  6.) 

The  animals  of  Bambouk  are  t^ose  of  tropical 
Africa  generally,  and  all  in  great  abundance  The 
number  of  cattle  has  already  been  alluded  to;  the 
other  domestic  animals  are  horses,  sheep,  goats, 
and  camels.  The  lion  is  not  found  upon  the 
mountains,  but  is  very  numerous  in  the  plains, 
where  also  wander  immense  herds  of  elephanta. 
The  rivers  teem  with  life,  and,  among  other  inha- 
bitants, are  infested  with  very  powoful  crocodiles. 
Birds  of  all  kinds  are  numerous,  and  insects  as 
prolific  as  in  other  equinoctial  r^ons;  bees,  in 
particular,  are  so  plentiful,  that  the  manufacturo 
of  mead  is,  next  to  mining  and  dairy  work,  the 
most  common  occupation  of  tlie  people.  This 
fact  alone  is  a  sufficient  proof  that  Bambouk  must 
abound  in  trees  and  plants  of  the  richest  kind. 
(Golberry,  pp.  405,  408;  Labat,  iv.  pp.  92-99; 
Houghton's  Af.  Assoc,  xiii.  pp.  10,  14.) 

But  that  which  has  rendered  Bambouk  a  8ub> 
ject  of  interest  for  many  generations  is  its  reputed 
riches  in  gold  and  other  metals.  From  the  first 
settlement  of  Europeans  on  the  coast  of  Sene- 
{i^ombia,  now  five  centuries  ago,  they  heard  of  an 
mterior  country,  the  centre  of  all  the  auriferoua 
mountains  in  that  part  of  Africa;  and,  unlike 
most  tales  of  wonder,  the  facts  seem  to  have  veri- 
fied all  that  was  related.  So  abundant  indeed  is 
the  ore,  and  so  numerous  are  the  mines,  that 
curiosity,  even  when  prompted  by  interest,  seems 
to  have  palled,  and  become  insufficient  to  induce 
a  traveller  to  delay  liis  journey  for  the  purpose  of 
inspecting  a  greater  number.  (David's  Joum.  in 
Cvoldberry,  L  p.  475.)  There  are  four  prindpal 
mining,  or  rather  gold-producing  districts;  but 
the  whole  soil  abounds  with  gold,  which  can  be 
collected  with  very  little  labour  and  hardly  any 
skill;  it  lies  so  near  the  surface,  that  merely 
scraping  up  and  washing  the  earth  sen-es,  in  many 
cases,  to  separate  the  metal  in  a  pure  state ;  and 
the  more  elaborate  attempts  at  artificial  operation 
consist  in  isinking  a  few  pits,  and  breaking  up  the 
ore,  which  usually  parts  from  its  matrix  m  such  a 


346 


BAMBOUE 


BtAte  that  wnAhing  only  ia  necoMOiy  to  render  it 
fit  for  the  market  It  need  scarcely  be  remarked, 
thatf  in  8uch  a  country,  the  rivers  literally  run 
over  fi^oldcn  sands ;  and  should  skilled  lalmur  bo 
ever  brought  to  bear  upon  the  land,  there  can  be 
little  doubt  but  that  its  treasures  are  inexhaus- 
tible. At  present,  however,  the  art  of  mininf^i 
prvtperly  so  called,  is  quite  unknown  to  the  na- 
tives. I  besides  gold,  extensive  veins  of  in)n  exist 
in  Itembouk;  and  it  is  extremely  proliable  that 
most  of  the  other  metals  would  \ye  found  if  sought 
for.  (f lolberr\',  L  p.  484— WO ;  Voy.  au  Pays  Ram., 
p.  21-a(i;  Labat,  iv.  p.  54-^;  Park's  2ud  Joum., 
p.  65-oi>.) 

The  population  of  Bambouk  is  dense.  The 
people  form  a  part  of  the  great  Mandingo  family, 
from  which  they  do  not  differ  in  any  respect  with 
rcffard  to  appearance,  religion,  or  general  manners. 
(&e  Mandingo.)  The  government,  though  un- 
der a  king,  as  head,  appears  to  be  oligarchical ; 
the  farims,  or  chiefs,  exercising  almost  unlimited 
authority,  each  in  his  own  district,  but  acknow- 
ledging a  general  de()endence  (perhi^is  little  more) 
upon  the  soverei^pu 

The  Bamboukians  are  inferior  in  activity  and 
industr}'  to  the  other  Mandiiigoes,  and  they  have 
also  corrupted  their  language  by  a  lai^e  mixture 
of  Jaloof,  Foulah,  and  jifoorish  terms.  Tlieir  arts 
are  extremely  few,  but  their  wants  still  fewer ; 
for  though  they  manufacture  nothing  but  some 
rude  tools  and  ornaments,  their  only  imports  seem 
to  be  cotton  cloth,  ornaments  for  their  women, 
and  salt,  of  which  necessary  article,  Rambouk, 
like  so  manv  other  African  countries,  is  totally 
destitute.  P'or  these  they  freely  ^ve  their  gold 
in  exchange,  and  the  commerce  is  one  of  ^at 
jjpofit  to  their  Arab  neighbours.  (Golberry,  u  pp. 
8«1,  8«3-418 ;  Voy.  au  Pays  Bam.,  pp.  46-68 ;  La- 
bat,  iv.  pp.  2-9,  Ac.) 

Buried  in  the  interior  of  a  burning  continent, 
and  surrounded  by  mountains  of  difficult  passage, 
Bambouk  remained  long  totally  unknown  to  the 
rest  of  the  world.  In  the  tifleenth  century  the  Por- 
tugwue  made  themselves  masters  of  the  country, 
and  retained  it  for  some  considerable  time.  All 
Portuguese  authors  are  silent  on  the  subject^  but 
the  natives  affirm  that  they  acted  very  tvranid- 
cally,  but  that  becoming  reduced  in  numbers  bv 
the  unhealthy  nature  of  the  climate  and  their 
own  debaucheries,  the  remnant  were  set  upon  and 
destroyed  in  a  single  day.  lliis  story  is  con- 
liimed,  not  only  from  the  fact  of  many  ruinous 
forts  and  houses  of  Portuguese  construction  still 
existing,  but  from  the  knowledge  which  the  Bam- 
boukians have  that  such  a  people  as  the  Portu- 
guese live  at  a  great  distance;  from  the  deep- 
settled  hate  with  which  they  regard  their  name ; 
from  the  terror  which  they  feel  lest  their  former 
conquerors  should  return  to  take  vengeance  on 
them ;  and  from  the  laige  mixture  of  Portuguese 
words  in  their  language.  The  expulsion  of  the 
Marabouts  or  Mohammedan  priests  from  their 
country  is  another  singular  event  in  Bamboukian 
histor>\ 

With  the  exception  of  the  Portuguese,  who 
have  K'fl  no  reconls  of  their  observations,  the  first 
EurojK'an  who  reached  Bambouk  was  an  KngUsh 
officer  named  Gasche,  wh(>,  ascending  the  Gam- 
bia, contrived  to  reach  the  Bamboukian  capital  in 
1G90.  Ilis  stay  was  short,  and  his  obser\'ations 
merely  general  an<l  inci<lental.    Compagnon  s  re- 

Sirted  visit  was  in  171t>.  Soon  after  tluM,  M. 
nie,  a  director  of  the  French  African  Company, 
forme<l  the  project  of  subduing  Bambouk,  and  se- 
curing its  mines  of  g(»ld.  To  obtain  the  necessar>' 
information  as  to  the  practicability  of  his  project, 
he  attempted  to  enter  the  country  from  Kajaaga, 


BANAOHER 

on  the  X. ;  but  it  does  not  appear  tliat  he  made 
any  gre^it  progress  in  the  interior.  Ilis  imjires- 
sion,  however,  was,  that  \nt\i  a  force  of  I,2<K)  men 
his  plan  could  be  carricil  iut^>  execution,  and  the 
mines  secured  to  Euro]K'an  uidustr>'.  It  is  inde<Kl 
more  than  probable  that  a  less  force  might  suc- 
ceed in  effecting  ti  first  conciuest ;  but  the  fate  of 
the  Portuguese,  and  the  extreme  unhealthiness  of 
the  climate,  make  it  also  certain  that  their  posses- 
sion could  be  retained  only  by  a  frightful  sacrifice 
of  life,  and  the  most  unremittuig  watchfulneA>«. 
Between  1730  and  1744  much  was  done  to  effect 
a  letter  knowledge  of  this  country  by  Messrs. 
I^evens,  Dadd,  Pilay,  and  Legrand ;  tlie  two  first 
governors,  the  others  employ^*  of  the  French 
African  company  at  SenegaL  Gollwrry  speaks, 
also,  in  high  terms  of  an  English  journal  pub- 
lished in  1782;  but  this  work  cannot  now  be 
found.  Mungo  Park,  in  his  first  journey  outward, 
reache<l  die  W.  and  N.  frontiers  of  Bambouk 
(Bondou  and  Kajaaga) ;  and  on  liis  return,  as  also 
in  his  unfortunate  second  joumcv,  he  traversed  a 
considerable  part  of  its  8.  division :  but  the  tra- 
veller from  whom  the  most  perfect  information 
might  have  been  obtained  was  Major  Houghton, 
who  not  onlv  traversed  the  interior  of  the  countn', 
but  resided  m  it  a  considerable  time  under  terms 
of  the  closest  friendship  with  the  king.  The  small 
remnants  of  his  i)a|)eTs  are  the  most  valuable  do- 
cuments which  exist  respecting  lianibouk. 

BAMPOORA,  an  inL  town  of  Hindostan,  prov. 
Malwah,  on  the  liewa  river,  1,344  A,  above  the 
level  of  the  sea;  laU  24°  31'  N.,  long.  760  60'  E. 
In  1820,  it  contained  4,000  houses :  it  possesses  an 
unfinished  fort,  nith  well-built  walls,  inclosing  a 
palace  also  unfinished,  but  containing  a  whit« 
marl>le  statue  of  Jeswunt  Row  Holkar,  by  whose 
order  the  biulding  was  constructetL  Tlie  town 
and  its  territory  formerly  belonged  to  Ilolkar^s  do- 
minions. 

BAMPTOX  with  Weald,  a  parish  and  town  c»f 
England,  co.  Oxford,  hund.  Bampton,  64  m.  WK  W. 
London.  Area,  8,750  acres.  Pop.  of  par.,  in  1H61, 
2,8G3  ;  of  which  the  town  865.  Tlie  latter  is  built 
in  a  level  tract  of  country  near  the  IsLh.  Its 
cliurch  is  an  ancient  and  very  fine  structure ;  the 
living  annexed  to  which  is  a})])ortioned  amonght 
three  vicars.  There  is  an  endowed  free  school, 
founded  in  1635,  and  a  national  school  for  170 
cliildren.  Tlie  chief  trade  of  the  town  is  fell- 
mongcring,  which  was  once  con8ideral>le,  but  i;f 
late  years  has  greatly  declined ;  its  ancient  market 
has  also  fallen  into  disuse,  but  an  annual  horse  fair 
is  still  hel<U  Aug.  26.  Phillips,  author  of  the 
Splendid  Shilling,  was  a  native  of  Bampton. 

Bampt(in,  a  town  and  par.  of  England,  co. 
Devon,  hund.  of  same  name,  on  the  confines  of 
Somersetshire.  Area  8,130  acres;  pop.  of  par.  in 
1831,  1,961,  and  in  1861,  1,971.  the  town  is 
situated  on  the  small  river  Bathem,  an  affluent  of 
the  Exe,  17  m.  W.  Taimtou.  It  is  built  in  a 
straggling  manner ;  and  was  formerly  of  more  im- 

?ortAnce  than  at  ])resent,  having  sent  mems.  to  the 
I.  of  C.  It  has  a  weekly  market  on  Satunlay, 
and  fairs  for  cattle  and  sheep,  which  are  well  at- 
tendi'd,  on  Whit-Tuesday  and  the  last  Thunxlay 
of  October. 

BAN  or  BANOVICS,  a  town  of  Hungary,  16  m. 
SE.  Treuczen,  on  a  hill  near  an  affluent  of  the 
Nenira;  lat,  48°  43'  25"  N.,  hm^y.  18^  5'  55"  E. 
Pop.  2,385  in  1858.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in 
cattle,  W(HKi,  and  iron. 

BANACJHLR.  an  inU  town  of  Ireland,  King's 
CO.,  prov.  Leinster,  on  the  Shannon,  68  m.  WSW. 
Dublin.  The  river  is  here  crossed  by  a  britige  <»f 
19  arches,  400  ft.  long  and  15  wide,  guanlttl  by 
batteries  on  each  side,  this  being  considered  a 


BANALBUFAR 

military  pass  of  some  importance.  Pop.  of  town, 
1426  in  1861,  and  of  parish,  3,013.  Of  the  3*26 
families  in  the  town,  33  were  returned  as  employed 
in  agriculture,  1 18  in  trades  and  manufactures,  and 
175  in  otlier  pursuits.  There  were  returned  as 
belonging  to  the  Established  Church,  193  persons ; 
the  rest  were  Roman  Catholics.  The  town  stands 
on  the  side  of  a  hill  overlooking  the  Shannon,  and 
couKLsts  of  one  long  street  of  well-built  houses. 
The  diurch  and  Rom.  Cath.  chapel  arc  modem. 
Near  the  town  is  a  school  of  royal  foundation,  en- 
dowed with  370  acres  of  land:  in  the  town  U  a 
national  school  and  a  dispensary.  An  infantry 
barrack  stands  near  the  bmlge,  and  the  constabu- 
lary has  a  station  here. 

The  bor.  was  incorporated  by  Charles  I.  in  1628, 
and  sent  2  mem.  to  the  Irish  H.  of  C.  till  the 
Union,  when  it  was  disfranchised.  A  court  of 
petty  sessions  is  held  on  alternate  Mondays.  It 
has  a  distillery,  brewer}',  and  some  tan-yaids.  It 
is  well  situated,  having  a  great  command  of  inland 
navigation.  Markets,  well  supplied  with  com,  are 
held  on  Fridays,  and  fairs  on  May  1,  Sept.  15, 
which  continue  for  four  days ;  28th  Oct.,  and  8th 
Nov.  That  of  Sept.  is  for  live  stock,  in  which  it 
ranks  next  to  Ballmasloe. 

BANALBUFAR,  a  town  of  Spain,  Majorca,  10 
m.  NW.  Palma.  Pop.  about  2,000.  It  is  situated 
on  a  mountain  cultivated  with  the  greatest  care ; 
thegrt)und  being  supported  on  terraces,  and  planted 
with  vines,  olives,  &c  There  is  in  its  environs  a 
quarry  i)f  stained  marble. 

BAN  BRIDGE,  an  inL  town  of  Ireland,  co. 
Down,  prov.  Ulster,  on  the  Bann,  23  m.  SW.  Bel- 
faiit.  Pop.  in  1821,  1,716;  in  1831,  2,469 ;  in  1861, 
4,033,  of  whom  1,910  males  and  2,1*23  females. 
The  census  returns  describe  66  families  as  engaged 
in  agricultural  pursuit^  431  in  trades  and  manu- 
factures, and  355  otherwise  employed  or  not  em- 
[>loye(L  To  the  Established  Church  belonged  5<>4 
males  and  631  females;  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith,  480  males  and  bliS  females ;  and  to  the  Pres- 
byterian Church,  785  males  and  858  females.  The 
town  is  biult  on  the  summit  and  sides  of  a  hill  of 
some  height^  and  so  steep  as  materially  to  im]>ede 
the  pn)gre8s  of  heavy-loaded  carriages.  To  re- 
medy this  inconvenience,  the  centre  of  the  road 
was  cut  down  for  a  length  of  200  yds.,  to  tlie  depth 
of  15  ft,  in  the  middle  part  of  the  section,  so  as  to 
form  a  carriage-way  nearly  level,  wliile  tlie  great 
breadth  of  the  street  still  admitted  carriage-ways 
on  each  side  on  the  original  level,  a  communica- 
tion being  maintained  between  the  houses  on  the 
opi)osite  hides  of  the  streets  by  a  bridge  or  viaduct 
across  the  centre  of  tlie  cut.  I'his  is  a  neat  thriving 
town.  A  handsome  church  lias  been  erected, 
partly  by  voluntary  subscription ;  there  are  also 
places  of  worship  for  Presbyterians,  Remonstrants, 
and  two  for  Methodists;  a  public  school,  and  a 
di*«pensary.  Petty  sewions  are  hel«l  everj'  fort- 
night, and  a  f>arty  of  the  constabulary  is  stationed 
here.  This  town  and  neighbourhood  is  one  of  the 
principal  seats  of  the  linen  manufacture.  The 
great  c(»mmand  of  water  in  the  vicinage  adapts  it 
I>oculiarly  for  bleaching,  and  there  are  laige  ma- 
nufactories of  miion  cloth  and  tliread,  and  che- 
mical works  for  the  ilsc  of  the  bleachers.  The 
markets  are  held  on  Mondays,  in  a  spacious  new 
building:  there  is  also  a  separate  market  place  for 
meal  and  grain,  and  a  brown  linen  hall.  Faint 
ani  held  on  tlie  first  Monday  in  evcr>'  month,  and 
on  12  Jiui..  tirnt  Sat.  in  Marcli,  9  June,  26  Aug., 
and  16  Nov. ;  the  last  Ls  a  ^rciit  horse-fuir. 
Branches  of  the  Pn»vincial  and  Llbter  banks  were 
opened  here  in  18153  and  183(».  The  trade  of  the 
town  is  promoteil  by  lines  of  railway  which  con- 
nect ii  witli  Belfast,  Dublin,  and  all  the  liupi>rtant 


BANBUBY 


347 


towiiB  of  Ireland.  The  Banbridge  Junction  rail- 
way, 6|  m.  long,  which  falls  mto  the  Dublin- 
Beltast  line,  was  opened  in  April,  1859.  Its  ma- 
nufactures have  increased  with  a  rapidity  seldom 
experienced.  The  extemal  appearance  of  the 
place,  and  the  habits  and  manners  of  its  inhab., 
correspond  with  this  progress.  The  wealthier 
classes  live  in  respectable  independence;  and 
squalid  poverty  is  not  perceptible  even  among  the 
lowest.  The  highly  cultivated  state  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  the  calm  beauties  of  its 
scenery,  tend  much  to  heighten  the  pleasing  im- 
pressioiis  excited  by  the  contemplation  of  such  a 
picture  of  proroerons  industry. 

BANBllRl,  a  bor.,  par.,  and  town  of  England, 
CO.  Oxford,  hund.  Banbuiy,  69  m.  NW.  London  by 
road ;  78  m.  by  London  and  North- Westem,  and 
86  m.  by  Great  Western  railway.  Pop.  in  1861, 
of  borough,  4,069,  of  parish,  9,140.  The  town  is 
situated  in  a  fertile  vale,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Cherwell;  is  remarkably  clean  and  well  built; 
and  is  paved  and  lighted  b)^  gas.  The  church,  a 
spacious  structure,  was  built  in  1790.  The  Friends, 
Independents,  Presbyterians,  Wedevans,  Baptists, 
Unitarians,  Quaken,  and  Roman  Catholics  have 
chapels.  There  is  a  blue-coat  school,  founded  in 
170o,  and  endowed  with  80/.  a  year ;  which  was 
incorporated  with  a  national  sehool  in  1817.  A 
free  grammar-school,  once  in  high  repute,  has  been 

fiven  up  for  many  years.  The  market  is  held  on 
huisday;  the  annual  faixs  on  Jan.  22,  March  6, 
April  9,  May  28,  June  18,  July  9,  August  13,  Sep- 
tember 10,  October  6  and  30,  and  December  17. 
The  place  is  in  a  flourishing  state,  from  its  nume- 
rous fairs  and  large  weekly  markets,  all  very  well 
attended,  and  causing  an  extensive  retail  trade, 
greatly  increased  by  two  lines  of  rulway  which 
place  It  in  connection  with  London.  The  Oxford 
and  Birmingham  Canal  passes  close  to  the  town, 
and  gives  it  also  a  considerable  carrying  trade. 
Cheese  of  a  superior  quality  is  made  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood ;  and  the  town  has  long  been  noted  for 
a  sort  of  cake  that  bears  its  name. 

Subsequent  to  the  Municipal  Reform  Act  the 
limits  of  the  bor.  have  been  extended,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  local  g6.vd-nment,  so  as  to  include  the 
whole  town  of  BanVurv,  and  the  suburbs  of  Neith- 
rop,  Calthorpe,  and  V\'atcrloo,  which  are  conti- 
nuations of  It;  the  former  at  the  NW.  end;  the 
latter  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  which  flows 
N.  and  S.,  along  the  E.  side  of  the  town,  with  the 
canal  mnning  nearly  parallel  to  it.  It  was  origi- 
nally incorporated  under  a  charter  in  1st  of  Mary, 
granted  expressly  for  the  whole  parish ;  but  the 
bor.  came  subsequently  to  be  restricted  to  a  part 
only  of  the  town.  Another  charter  was  obtamed 
in  6th  James  I. ;  and  a  third,  in  4th  Geo.  I.,  which 
was  the  governing  charter :  under  it,  the  corpora- 
tion consisted  of  a  mayor,  twelve  aldermen,  six 
capital  l>urgesses,  and  thirty  assistants.  It  was  a 
close,  self-elective  body,  with  no  freemen,  and 
tilled  up  vacancies  for  life,  either  from  residents  or 
non-residents.  They  possessed  the  exclusive  iai-« 
vilege  of  returning  one  mem.  to  the  H.  of  C. ;  uut 
of  this  they  were  deprived  by  the  Reforai  Act, 
which  opened  the  franchise  to  1  Oil  householden 
resident  within  the  limits  of  the  par.,  which  con- 
tains 3,150  acres.  The  population  of  the  parlia- 
mentary borough  was  10,216  in  1861;  registered 
electors  58 1 .  A  court  of  sessions  is  held  twice  a  year, 
There  is  also  a  court  of  record,  which  had  mUea 
into  <lisuse,  but  has  recently  been  revived  and  made 
effective.  The  lighting,  paving,  and  poUce  are 
managed  by  commissioners,  of  whom  the  corpora- 
tion form  a  portion.  Amount  assessed  to  property 
tax  40,338  in  1861.  Banbury  is  the  central  town 
of  a  union  of  thirty-eight  parishes,  and  has  a 


'348 


BANCA 


union  workhouse.  There  is  a  chalybeate  spring 
near  the  town  j  and  on  Crouch  Hill,  1  m.  W.  of  it, 
is  a  circular  entrenchment^  the  site  of  an  encamp- 
ment of  the  parliamentary  army  in  1645,  under 
Sir  William  WaUer. 

BANCA,  an  island  of  the  E.  or  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, first  or  \V.  di\'ision,  lying  oflF  tlic  NE. 
coast  of  Sumatra,  between  hit.  1°  30'  and  8°  8'  S., 
long.  105°  9',  100°  61'  E. ;  length  XW.  to  SE.  135 
m.,  average  breadth  35  m.  Pop.  15,003  in  1H61. 
Its  must  remarkable  feature  is  its  mines  of  tin,  a 
mineral  found  in  its  common  state  of  oxide,  in 
the  alluvial  soil  between  the  primary  granitic 
mountains  and  a  range  of  red  ironstone,  of  infe- 
nor  elevation,  in  its  NW.  quarter,  but  which  is 
also  prevalent  in  other  parts.  Alniut  4,000  tons 
of  tin  are  annually  exported,  mainly  to  China  and 
Java.  The  inhabitants  are  principally  of  two 
races,  one  residing  on  the  shores,  the  other  in  the 
interior,  with  MaJ^ys  and  Chinese :  the  latter  are 
the  workers  of  the  mines.  Previously  to  1812 
this  island  belonged  to  the  sultan  of  Palembang, 
in  Sumatra ;  it  was  then  ceded  to  the  E.  I.  Com- 
panv;  and  in  1816  was  transferred  to  the  Dutch. 

BANCALLAN,  a  town  at  the  W.  end  of  the 
ialand  of  Madura,  E.  archipelago ;  Ut  7^  2'  S., 
long.  112^  45'  E.  It  is  large  and  populous,  con- 
tains the  residence  of  the  sultan  ot^the  island, 
and  a  fort  clase  to  the  palace.  Its  environs  are 
pleasant,  liaving  good  roads,  inteisi)ersed  with 
country  seats  and  pleasure  groun(K 

BAND  A,  an  inland  town  of  Hindostan,  prov. 
Allahabad,  cap.  of  the  distr.  of  S.  Bundlecund,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Cane  river,  80  m.  W.  Alla- 
habad; lat.  260  50'  N.,  long.  80°  20'  E.  A  few 
years  ago  it  was  a  mere  village,  but  has  now  be- 
come a  considerable  town ;  its  cotton  has  of  late 
rears  obtained  a  superiority  over  that  of  Jaloun 
in  the  European  marlcet. 

Bakda  or  Nutmeg  Isijinds,  a  group  of  12 
small  islands,  belonging  to  the  tldrd  or  E.  division 
of  the  E.  Ardiipela^  (see  the  art),  belonging  to 
the  Dutch ;  the  pnncii)al,  Banda  Neira,  Ivuig  in 
40  80'  S.  Ut,  and  130©  E.  long.,  120  m.  ESE.  Am- 
boyna.  Lantoir,  the  largest  of  the  islands,  b  only 
8  m.  long,  and  5  broad.  Pop.  of  the  whole  group 
estimateid  at  110,000,  most  of  whom  are  slaves. 
The  isl^  are  all  high,  and  of  volcanic  origin ;  one 
of  them,  Goonung  Api,  contains  a  volcano,  2,0O0 
ft.  above  the  sea,  which  is  continually  emitting 
smoke,  and  sometimes  flame.  Climate  injurious  to 
strangers :  the  W.  monsoon  brings  rain  and  storms 
in  December,  and  earthquakes  occur  from  October 
to  April.  The  soil  is  chiefly  a  rich  black  mould. 
Four  of  the  lai^r  and  central  islands  are  almost 
entirely  appropriated  to  the  growth  of  nutmegs, 
their  growtn  in  the  other  islands  being  prohibited, 
llie  nutmeg-tree  grows  to  the  size  of  the  pear- 
tree  ;  it  yields  fruit  from  the  12th  to  the  20th  year, 
and  perishes  at  24  years  old.  About  two-thinis  of 
tlie  trees  planted  are  barren ;  the  produce  of  the 
rest  is  said  to  be  about  10  lbs.  each  annually.  The 
'  produce  may  be  about  100,000  lbs.  of  nutmegs,  and 
80,000  lbs.  mace.  These  islands  are  divided  into  a 
number  of  parks  or  plantations,  each  with  a  certain 
number  of  slaves.  The  people  consist  mostly  of 
Papuan  n^roes,  Chinese,  and  Dutch.  Sago  forms 
the  chief  vegetable  food,  but  the  cocoa  also  con- 
tributes a  part :  the  seas  abound  with  fish.  The 
imports  are  various  provisions  for  the  Europeans, 
piece-goods,  cutlery,  and  iron,  from  Batavia ;  sago, 
salted  deer,  &c.,  from  Ceram ;  pearls,  bird  s  nests, 
tortoiseshell,  and  slaves,  for  the  Chinese  and  Dutch 
merchants  from  Arooe.  The  chief  export  is  nut- 
mm.  The  seat  of  government  is  at  Banda  Neira, 
which  is  fortified,  and  has  a  good  harbour.  A 
Portuguese,  nam^  Antonio  Aureus,  discovered ' 


BANDON 

these  islands  in  1512.  In  1524  the  Portuguese,  in 
1599  the  Dutch,  and  in  1810  the  English,  suc- 
cessively possessed  thcniselvt^  of  them.  In  1814 
they  returned  under  the  dominion  of  the  Dutch. 

BANDON,  a  river  of  Ireland,  anciently  calle^l 
Glasheen,  has  its  s<»urce  in  the  Carberry  moun- 
tains, 9  or  10  m.  W.  Hantry.  Fn>m  Dunroanway, 
where  its  main  branches  unite,  it  flows  nearly  W. 
to  Bandon;  it  then  winds  NE.  to  Innis-Sbannon, 
whence  it  pursues  a  SE.  c^»uwe  to  the  sea,  with 
which  it  unites  a  little  1k?1ow  Kinsale,  built  on  its 
estuary.  Its  course  i»  wholly  in  the  co.  Cork.  It 
is  described  by  Spencer,  as 

'  The  pleasant  Baudon  crown'd  by  many  a  wood.' 

But  most  part  of  the  timl)er  that  ornamented  the 
country'  in  the  days  of  Elizabeth  has  been  cut 
down,  and  its  place  is  but  very  indifferently  sup- 
plied by  modem  plantations. 

Bandon,  or  Ban i>ok bridge,  an  inL  town  of 
Ireland,  co.  Cork,  prov.  Munster,  on  the  Bandon, 
14  m.  SW.  Cork.  It  was  founded  in  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and  having  obtaine<l  a 
charter  fn>m  that  monarch,  conferring  several 
valuable  pri\'ileges,  it  increased  so  rapidly  in 
population  and  wealth,  that,  on  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  of  1G41,  it  maintained  four  companies) 
of  foot  and  a  coqjs  of  volunteers;  and  was  the 
principal  garrison  of  the  English  in  these  i^arts. 
On  Cromwell's  approach,  in  1G49,  it  declnnxl  for 
the  pari.,  and  in  the  war  of  1088  the  inhab.  ex- 
pelled the  troops  of  James  II.,  and  declared  for  the 
Prince  of  Orange.  Pop.  6,243  in  1861,  the  great 
majority  of  them  Roman  Catholics.  The  town  is 
situated  on  the  declivities  of  the  hills  on  each 
side  the  river,  which  blend  into  a  richly  wooded 
valley,  and  consists  of  three  parts,  disunguishod 
by  the  estates  on  which  thev  are  built ;  the  old 
town  being  on  that  of  the  Ihike  of  Devonshire,  the 
Irish  town  on  that  of  the  Earl  of  Shannon,  and  the 
western  portion  on  those  of  the  Earls  of  Baudon 
and  C^rk.  It  is  watched,  and  lighted  with  gas, 
under  the  General  Municipal  Police  Act*  It  lias 
two  parish  churches,  two  Hom.  Cath.  chapels,  a 
convent,  a  meeting-house  for  Presbyterians,  and 
two  for  Methodists ;  a  classical  school,  endowed  by 
the  Duke  of  Devonshire ;  a  school  for  general  in- 
struction, on  the  foundation  of  Erasmus  Smith, 
and  several  others  maintained  by  private  contri- 
butions or  bv  religious  associations.  It  has  also  an 
infirmary,  fever  hospital,  and  dispensary;  three 

1>ublic  libraries,  and  two  reading-nK>ms.  *  Asscm- 
>lics  and  concerts  are  held  in  a  suite  of  apartments 
attached  to  one  of  the  hotels.  Large  barracks  arc 
built  on  the  hill  over  the  town,  and  the  constabu- 
lary have  here  a  station. 

By  charter,  dated  in  1614,  the  municipal  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  provost,  12  burgesses,  and 
an  unlimited  number  of  freemen,  elected  at  the 
hundred  court  by  tlie  general  body  of  freemen, 
who  also  elect  a  common  council  of  12  out  of  their 
own  body  for  life.    The  income  of  the  bon>ugh,  in 

1863,  wtis  1,1932.,  and  the  property  and  income- 
tax,  for  the  year  ended  5th  April,  1863,  amounted 
to  866/.  The  bor.  sent  two  mem.  to  the  Irish  H. 
of  C,  and  now  sends  one  to  the  imperial  H.  of  C-. 
The  franchise  is  veste<l  in  const,  lo/.  householders, 
and  8^  rated  occupiers;  registered  electors  216  in 

1864.  General  sessions  of  the  peace  for  the  W. 
riding  of  the  co.  are  held  here  m  October  in  the 
court-house,  a  neat  building,  with  a  well-arranged 
bridewelL  Petty  sessions  take  place  on  Monilays, 
at  which,  through  the  courtesv  of  the  corporation, 
the  CO.  magistrates  sit  with  t^e  provost.  Courts, 
holding  pleas  under  2/.,  are  held  every  three  weeks 
for  the  manors  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  the 
Earl  of  Baudon,  and  the  Earl  of  Shannon. 


BANERES 

The  woollen  manufacture  was  carried  on  here  to 
a  considerable  extent,  and  was  succeeded  by  that 
of  cotton  :  both  are  nearlv  extinct;  but  a  manu- 
facture  of  fine  stuffs  has  been  lately  undertaken. 
Here  are  several  distilleries,  breweries,  and  tan- 
yards,  and  laj^e  filour-mills.  The  commercial  and 
trading  acti\'ity  of  the  town  has  greatly  increased 
since  the  opening  of  the  Cork  and  Bandon  Hallway, 
which  places  the  town  in  direct  communication 
with  the  whole  system  of  Irish  railways.  Tlie  first 
portion  of  this  line,  from  Bandon  to  liallinhassig, 
§4  miles,  was  opened  in  August,  1849,  and  the  re- 
mainder in  December,  1851.  The  Bandon  is 
navigable  for  small  craft  to  Collier's  Qiuiy,  within 
4  m.  of  the  town,  by  wluch  grain,  flour,  and  other 
produce,  b  sent  out,  and  timber,  coal,  wine,  and 
groceries,  received  in  return ;  but  the  domestic 
consumption  b  chiefly  supplied  from  Cork,  to  wliich 
much  of  the  agricultural  pnKluce  of  the  neighbour- 
hood is  sent  by  railway.  Markets  are  held  on 
Wednesdays  and  Saturdays ;  and  fairs  on  May  6, 
the  Thursday  before  Easter-tiay,  Oct.  29,  and 
Nov.  8.  A  branch  of  the  Provincial  bank  was 
opened  in  1834,  and  the  Bank  of  Ireland  has  also 
a  branch.  The  town  is  on  the  mail-coach  road 
from  Cork  to  Bantry,  but  the  coaches  have  ceased 
running  since  the  opening  of  the  railway. 

BANERKS,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Valencia,  28 
m.  NNW.  Alicant,  Pop.  2,190  in  1857.  It  has 
filatures  of  wool,  distilleries,  and  paper  mills. 

BANFF,  a  mar.  co.  of  Scotland,  having  N.  the 
IMoray  Frith,  S.  and  E.  the  comity  of  Aberdeen, 
and  \V^.  Elgin  and  Inverness.  Its  length,  from 
lien  Macdhu  to  Portsoy,  is  about  56  m.,  but  its 
average  breadth  does  not  exceed  12  m.  Area  G8G 
pq.  m.,  or  430,219  acres.  Along  the  coast  the  sur- 
face L)  pretty  level,  and  the  soil,  consisting  of  a 
sandy  loam,  is  in  many  places  well  cultivated,  and 
produces  early  and  excellent  crops.  But,  with 
this  exception,  the  surface  is  mostly  rugged  and 
mountainous,  with  a  few  valleys  interspersed. 
Oats  is  the  principal  crop ;  but  the  main  depen- 
dence of  the  farmers  is  on  their  cattle,  sheep  being, 
in  this  countv,  comparatively  scarce.  Property  in 
a  very  few  Lands;  tillage  farms  mostly  small; 
and  f^picultu^c,  though  in  parts  much  improved, 
generally  backward.  There  are  some  thriving 
plantations,  particularly  in  the  Wcinity  of  Gor- 
don Castle,  the  most  magnificent  seat  in  the  N.  of 
Scotland.  It  is  partly  separated  from  Elgin  by 
the  Spey,  on  which  there  are  several  productive 
salmon  fisheries.  (See  Spey.)  Minerals  of  little 
importance;  but  the  crystals  and  topazes,  com- 
monly called  cairngorms,  are  found  in  the  moun- 
tains. Manufactures  inconsiderable.  Banff  con- 
tains 24  parishes,  and  had,  in  18G1,  a  population  of 
59,215,  in  11,091  inhabited  houses.  It  returns  one 
member  to  the  H.  of  C.  for  the  co. ;  and  the  burghs 
of  Banff  and  Cullen  unite  with  Elgin  and  others 
in  returning  a  member.  The  parL  constituency 
in  1864  was  1,062.  The  old  valued  rent  was 
(J,600/.;  the  new  valuation  for  1864-^  was  182,885^. 

Banff  (commonly  pronounced,  and  sometimes 
written  Bamff),  a  royal  buigh  of  Scotland,  cap.  of 
the  above  co.,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Doveron, 
near  the  entrance  of  that  river  into  the  Moray 
Frith.  Pop.  6,781  m  1861,  with  1,181  inhabited 
houses.  The  town  may  be  said  to  consist  of  two 
parts,  completely  separated ;  of  which  the  one  is 
inland,  and  lies  on  a  plain  on  the  river  side;  the 
other  (callc<l  the  sea-town)  stands  on  an  elevation 
which  terminates  abruptly  near  the  sea,  by  which 
it  is  bounded.  The  castle  of  Banff  stands  on  a 
piece  of  table-land  between  these  two  places.  The 
name  of  the  town,  wliich  is  found  to  have  assumed 
different  forms  at  different  times — Baineffe,  Boi- 
neffe,  Bainffe,  &c. — is  supposed  to  haye  been  de- 


BANFF 


349 


rived  from  the  word  Bovne,  the  name  of  the 
district  in  which  Banff  is  situated.  A  stream 
named  Boyne  traverses  the  district,  and  the  parish 
of  Bovndie  is  contiguous.  The  privileges  of  a 
royal  burgh  were  conferred  on  Banff  by  Robert  IL 
in  1372,  and  were  afterwards  successively  confirmed 
by  James  YI.  and  Charles  II.  The  streets,  though 
composed  of  houses  of  unequal  size,  are  generally 
stra{fht,  and  not  deficient  m  width.  Within  the 
last  few  years,  many  of  the  older  houses  have  been 
pulled  down  and  replaced  by  others,  so  that  there 
IS  scarcely  a  building  now  remaining  to  indicate . 
the  antiquity  of  the  town.  The  streets  were  paved 
so  early  as  1551.  The  Carmelites  (an  order  of 
friars,  so  called  from  Mount  Carmel  in  Syria),  or 
White  Friars,  had  a  convent  in  Banff,  but  at  what 
precise  period  it  was  instituted  cannot  be  ascer- 
tained. (Spottiswood's  Religious  Houses,  p.  16.) 
Of  the  building  no  vestiges  can  now  be  traced, 
with  the  exception  of  some  scattered  arches  and 
vaults ;  nor  is  its  original  extent,  or  exact  position, 
known.  Of  the  castle  of  Banff,  alluded  to  above, 
nothing  remains  but  the  outer  wall  and  the  fosse. 
It  was  a  constabulary,  or  lodging  for  the  king  when 
visiting  this  part  of  his  dominions;  and,  in  his 
absence,  it  was  inhabited  by  the  thane  or  con- 
stable who  administered  justice  in  his  name.  It 
was  essentially  royal  property,  and  continued  so 
till  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  James 
Stuart,  Earl  of  Buchan,  brother  of  James  II.,  was 
created  heritable  thane,  the  castle  of  Banff  being 
at  the  same  time  bestowed  on  him,  as  the  officii 
messuage  of  his  family.  Banff  gave  the  title  of 
peer  to  a  branch  of  the  family  of  Ogilvie,  which 
became  extinct  in  1803,  on  the  death  of  the  eighth 
Lord  Banff  without  male  issue.  Banff  does  not 
make  a  great  figure  in  history.  The  Duke  of 
Montrose  plundered  it  in  1645,  <no  merchant's 
goods  or  gear,'  according  to  Spalding,  '  being  Ici^' 
The  Duke  of  Cumberlajid's  troops  passed  t^ugh 
the  town  in  1746,  on  their  way  to  CuUoden.  They 
destroyed  the  episcopal  chapel,  and  hanged  a  man, 
erroneously  thinking  him  a  spy.  The  names  of 
two  persons,  eminent  in  very  different  walks  d* 
life,  are  connected  with  Banff.  The  &mous  James 
Sharp,  who  was  originally  a  keen  supporter  of 
presbytery,  and  who,  having  betrayed  that  fiuth, 
rose  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  St.  Andrew's,  was 
a  native  of  Banff,  his  rather  being  ^eriff-clerk  of 
the  county.  He  was  assassinated  on  Magus  Muir, 
near  St.  Andrews,  in  1679.  James  Macpherson, 
having  followed  tiie  lawless  and  predatory  life  of 
a  gipsy,  was  apprehended  (1700),  tried,  and  con- 
demned to  be  hanged  at  Banff.  While  he  was  a 
votary  of  the  Muses,  he  was  a  proficient  as  a  player 
on  the  violin ;  and  when  brought  to  the  place  of 
execution,  he  carried  his  instrument  along  with 
him,  and  played  his  own  march,  which  had  been 
composed  by  himself  while  in  prison.  This  com- 
position was  published  after  his  death,  and  has 
ever  since  been  a  favourite  in  Scotland.  Bums 
wrote  a  new  and  improved  version  of  the  song, 
which  is  known  under  the  name  of  MacphermS^ 
Lament^  or  MacpherB(m*s  FarewelL 

The  trade  of  Banff  is  not  very  considerable.  Its 
harbour,  though  it  can  boast  of  a  low-water  pier, 
constructed  in  1816,  is  not  so  ample,  so  convenient, 
or  secure,  as  that  of  Macduff,  a  Dorough  of  barony 
situated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Doveron,  at 
the  distance  of  about  a  mile.  The  entries  of  ship- 
ping into  the  port  consisted,  in  the  year  1863,  of 
394  British  vessels,  of  an  aggregate  burden  of 
23,849  tons,  and  85  foreign  vessels,  of  5,538  tons 
burden.  The  exports  consist  chiefly  of  grain, 
cattle,  salmon,  herring,  and  cured  pork.  They 
are  mostly  sent  to  London,  and  annually  amount 
to  a  considerable  sum.   The  herring  fishery  on  the* 


350 


BANG 


coast  has  not  of  late  years  been  so  proclnctive  as 
fonnerly.  A  (iroenland  whale  fishery  co.,  formed 
in  1810,  and  a  thread  and  sUx^kin/;  *Rianufactor\% 
establiithetl  filty  yearn  ago,  have  been  discontinued, 
IVinfT  ha.s  no  manufactures,  except  a  brewer}*,  an 
iron-foundr}',  a  dLHtillery,  and  a  small  manufactory 
of  ropes  and  sails.  There  are  four  branch  bankinf^ 
establishments,  with  numerous  insurance  offices. 
The  annual  value  of  real  proi)erty,  m  1864-5, 
amounted  to  8,66U^  A  weekly  market  is  held  on 
Friday,  and  there  arc  four  annual  fairs. 

The  public  buildings  are  the  town-house,  built 
in  179H,  with  a  spire  100  ft.  high,  the  jail,  the 
narish-church  and  the  Relief,  Free,  P!pisc(»pal,  and 
lnde])endent  churches.  The  Wesleyan  Metho- 
dists have  also  a  small  chapeL  Gas  was  intro- 
duced in  1831.  A  grammar-school  was  founded 
in  Bauflf  so  early  as  the  year  1 544.  It  has,  also, 
an  academy,  founde<l  in  17KG,  at  which  all  the 
branches  ot  a  learned  and  liberal  e<lucation  are 
taught ;  a  commercial  schtxd,  and  a  clmrity  school 
founded  by  funds  left  (in  1804)  by  Alexander 
Pine,  merchant  in  Banff.  There  are  several  semi- 
naries for  young  ladies,  and  an  etlucational  insti- 
tution, founde<l  l)y  a  legacy  left  by  the  late  James 
Wilson,  of  the  island  of  (Irenada.  Several  libraries 
of  consideralde  extent  and  value  belong  to  dif- 
ferent w>cieties.  Various  sums  have  been  left  in 
mortmain  for  charitable  purposes;  and  a  legal 
assessment  for  the  poor  is  unknown. 

Banff  unites  with  Elgin,  Cullen,  Inverury,  Kin- 
tore,  and  Peterhead,  ui  sending  a  member  to  the 
House  of  Commons.  Macduff,  which  is  rapidly 
rising  to  importance,  chiefly  owing  to  the  excel- 
lence of  its  harbour,  has,  since  the  passiiif^  of  the 
Reform  Bill,  l)een  united  to  Banff  in  formmg  one 
parliamentary  burgh,  the  joint  constituency  in 
1804,  being  231,  of  which  the  municipal  138. 
There  is  a  splendid  bridge  of  seven  arches  over 
Doveron,  which  connects  the  two  towns  in  ques- 
tion. It  is  governed  by  a  provost,  two  bailies, 
and  nine  councillors.  The  corporation  revenue  in 
1863-4  was  1,110. 

BANG,  an  inl.  town  of  Hindostan,  prov.  Mal- 
wah,  dom.  of  Scindia;  at  the  confluence  of  two 
tributaries  of  the  Nerbudda  river,  on  the  chief 
road  through  Gujerat  and  Malwah;  82  m.  8W. 
CXozcin,  and  145  m.  NE.  Surat.  Iron  ore  is  fuse<l 
here,  and  l)efore  the  present  century  the  town 
contained  2,000  houses ;  at  present  this  number  is 
much  reduced.  Bang  is  noted  for  some  remark- 
able cave  temples  of  Buddliic  origin,  excavated  in 
a  range  of  low  sandstone  and  claj'stone  hills,  about 
8^  m.  S.  of  the  town.  Four  caves  exist;  the  most 
northerly  of  which  is  the  most  perfect,  and  is 
reached  Iby  a  flight  of  seventy  rudely  formed  stone 
steps,  terminating  in  a  platform  overhung  by  the 
hill,  which  has  once  evidently  been  formed  into  a 
rf>gular  verandah  supported  by  columns;  and  at 
either  end  of  which  there  is  a  small  apartment, 
containing  some  ill-car\'ed  figures  of  modem  work- 
manship, and  one  of  them  a  bad  representation  of 
the  Hindoo  Ganesa.  The  cave  witnin  this  vesti- 
bule is  entered  by  a  rectangular  doorway  in  a 
plastered  and  ornamented  wall,  and  is  a  grand 
and  gloomy  apartment  84  ft.  square  and  14^  ft.  in 
height ;  tile  roof,  which  is  flat,  and  has  been  once 
ornamented  with  paintings,  is  supported  by  four 
ranges  of  massy  columns.  Around  this  apartment, 
on  three  sides,  are  a  number  of  small  celb,  9  ft.  in 
depth,  as  well  as  several  niches,  in  which  have 
been  carved,  in  bold  relief,  some  draped  male  and 
fi^male  figures :  from  one  of  the  cells  on  the  left 
hand  you  enter,  through  narrow  excavations,  five 
otlier  similar  cells,  each  in  a  plane  elevated  above 
the  former,  ascending  through  the  hilL  At  the 
farther  end  of  the  principal  cave  is  an  oblong 


BANO-KOK 

recess  supported  by  two  hexagonal  columns, 
through  the  centre  of  which  a  small  doorway  leads 
to  an  inner  apartment,  where  the  d/tpop,  or  *  chum,' 
supiMK«(Hl  to  contain  a  Huddhic  relic,  is  seen,  cut 
out  of  the  rock,  with  the  plain  dome  forming  its 
summit,  reaching  nearly  to  the  roof,  to  which  it  is 
joined  by  a  small  square  omament.  The  second 
and  f(»ufth  caves  of  Bang  contiun  little  worth 
notice ;  but  the  thirfl  is  nearly  as  large,  and  has 
Iteen  somewhat  similar  in  its  arrangement  to  the 
first.  The  whole  of  the  walk,  nx»f,  and  columns 
have  been  covered  with  a  fine  stucco,  and  orna- 
mented with  paintings  in  distemper  of  consider- 
able taste  and  elegance.  It  contams  the  dagap  in 
its  inner  a|>artment;  but  wants  the  recess,  and 
car\'ed  sculptures  mentioned  in  the  first  cave.  It 
is  considerably  dilapidated,  and  a  fifth  cave  is  so 
much  so  at  its  entrance  as  to  l*  at  present  inac- 
cessible. (Dangertield  in  Bombay  Trans.,  iu  194- 
201.) 

BANGALORE,  an  inland  fortified  town  of  My- 
sore, S.  Hindustan;  lat.  12*^57' N.,  long.  77°  .38' 
E.,  60  m.  NE,  Seringapatam.  Pop.  estimated  at 
about  70,^K>0.  The  town  is  built  on  a  table-land, 
nearly  3.000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  so  salu- 
brious that  Europeans  often  resort  thither  for  the 
benefit  of  their  health.  The  thermometer  seldom 
rises  alwve  82^,  or  sinks  below  56°  Fahr.  The 
monsoons  have  their  force  broken  bv  the  Ghauts ; 
but  this  table-land  is  constantly  refreshed  by  genial 
showers.  Tlie  vine  and  c>^)rus  grow  luxuriantly, 
and  apples,  peaches,  and  strawberries  are  raL«»ed  m 
the  ganlens.  The  town  is  enclosed  with  double 
walls ;  but  the  chief  fortress,  which  contained  the 
palace  of  Tii>poo  Saib,  is  quite  detached  fit»m  the 
other,  and  is  built  in  a  soli<l  manner,  with  a  deep 
ditch  and  spacious  glacis.  The  palace,  though  of 
mud,  built  m  the  Saracenic  style,  is  still  a  striking 
building,  and  is  used  by  the  present  rajah  for  public 
entertainments.  There  are  good  barracks,  assem- 
bly and  reading-rooms,  Euroi>ean  shops,  Ac.  Tlie 
houses  arc  large,  some  l)eing  of  two  stories,  built  of 
red  earth,  and  roofed  with  tiles ;  the  chief  l)azaar  is 
wide,  regular,  and  ornamented  with  rows  of  c<.>coa- 
nut  trees.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Hindot^. 
•Silk  and  cotton  are  the  chief  manufactures ;  the 
former,  which  is  very  stn>ng,  is  made  from  raw 
silk  importerl,  none  Being  produced  in  the  neigh- 
lH>urhood.  Bangalore  was  founded  by  Hyder  Ali, 
on  the  site  of  a  small  Wllage ;  and  under  him  it 
became  a  place  of  much  importance.  It  was  taken 
by  Ijord  tfomwallis  in  1791. 

BANG-KOK,  or  BANKOK.  a  city  of  Siam, 
having  been  the  cap.  of  the  kingdom,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  sovereign,  and  seat  of  government 
since  the  destruction  of  Yuthia  by  the  Burmese  in 
1766.  It  stands  on  a  sM'ampv  tract  on  both  sides  of 
the  Menam,  lat.  13°  40'  N.,  long.  101°  10'  E.,  15  m. 
N.  from  the  (lulf  of  Siam.  Pop.  estimated  at  from 
200,000  to  300,000.  The  Menam  is  here  im.  wide, 
exclusive  of  the  large  space  on  each  side,  occu- 
pied by  floating  houses,  and  from  5  to  10  fathoms 
deep :  there  is  a  l>ar  of  soft  mud  at  its  mouth,  but 
vessels  of  fn)m  200  to  250  tons  bunlen  may  always 
reach  Bang-kok  without  difliculty.  The  traffic 
above  this  city  Ls  trifling,  though,  from  the  want 
of  roads,  all  the  intercourse  is  by  water,  liang- 
kok  consists  of  three  parts ;  the  j^lace,  the  town, 
and  the  floating  town.  The  first,  built  on  an 
island,  is  of  an  oblong  shape,  surrounded  by  a 
brick  wall  of  considerable  height  in  some  parts, 
and  fumlshe<l  with  some  indifferent  bastions  and 
many  gates ;  it  contains.  l>esides  the  residences  of 
the  ^sing  and  his  chief  officers,  many  tenijdes 
gardens,  inferior  shops,  and  much  waste  gr*»uiid. 
Tlie  town  without  sfaretches  for  some  <iistanoc 
along  the  banks  of  the  river,  but  a  very  little  way 


BANGOR 


351 


inland.  The  houses,  most  of  which  are  of  wood, 
or  mere  huts  of  palm  leaf,  are  built  on  postii 
driven  into  the  mud,  being  each  provided  ^^^th  a 
boat.  The  floating  town  consi^txS  of  a  number  of 
bamboo  raftA,  bearing  rows  of  eight  or  ten  houses, 
with  a  platf«>nn  in  front,  on  which  the  wares  for 
sale  are  exposed ;  and  most  of  the  trade  is  thus 
con(hicted  on  the  river,  where  it  is  believed  that 
half  the  jH)p.  reside.  There  are  many  temples,  all 
of  which  are  built  in  a  pj-ramidal  form,  with  much 
gilding  and  paltry  decorations:  each  contains  a 
colossal  gilded  metal  statue  of  Buddha,  and  a 
variety  of  others  in  clay  or  wood.  The  chief  tem- 
ple, or  Ka-i-heh-tap-jiou,  which  is  2(H)  ft.  in  height, 
contains  as  many  as  1,500  of  these  images.  The 
palace  possesses  a  really  handsome  audience-hall, 
m  ft.  long  by  40  ft,  broad,  and  30  ft.  in  height, 
painted  and  gilded,  and  furnished  with  English 
cut-glass  lustres :  it  Is  surrounded  by  three  differ- 
ent walls,  and  is  built  of  brick ;  of  which,  or  of 
mud,  the  palaces,  temples,  and  a  few  of  the  chief 
residences  only  are  constnicted.  Bang-kok  has 
manufactures  of  tin  and  iron  articles,  and  leather 
for  mattrasses.  Its  trade  is  probably  more  ex- 
tensive than  that  of  any  other  emporium  in  the 
K.,  Canton  exce])ted,  not  occupied  by  Europeans. 
The  shipping  of  Bang-kok  consisted,  in  18G0,  of 
hixty-four  vessels,  of  an  aggregate  burthen  of 
24,.')29  tons,  nearly  the  whole  of  them  built  within 
the  two  years  1868-60.  Twelve  of  them  are  royal 
property,  the  rest  belong  to  Chinese  merchants. 
Commercial  intercourse  is  principally  carried  on 
with  China  and  the  Malay  archipelago,  but  mostly 
with  the  former.  The  great  articles  of  export  are 
sugar  (from  10,000  to  12,000  tons),  black  pepper 
(4.000  to  5,fM)0  tons),  stick-lac,  ivorj*,  sapan  wood, 
and  hidc^  The  trade  with  China  employs  about  130 
('hinese  junks  yearly,  some  of  1,(K)0  tons  bunlen. 
Tlie  imports  are  porcelain,  tea,  quicksilver,  lack- 
soy,  dried  fnnts,  silks,  fans,  and  other  native 
manufactures  from  China;  with  camphor,  edible 
birds'  nests,  and  other  articles  for  the  Chinese 
market  from  the  Malay  archipelago:  and  British 
and  Indian  piece  gootls,  opium,  and  British  wool- 
lens, and  glass  from  India.  Half  the  pop.  consists 
of  (.'hinese  ;  and  besides  them  there  are  numerous 
Birman,  Peguan,  Laoan,  Camlnyan,  Tavoyan,  and 
Malay  foreigners;  some  Christians  of  Portuguese 
desi'ent ;  and  a  few  Brahmins,  who  are  supported 
by  the  king,  and  have  a  small  temple  of  their  own. 
(Crawfurd's  Embassy  to  Siiim ;  Finlayson's  Mis- 
sion; Report  bv  Mr.  Knox,  Acting  Consul  at 
Bang-kok,  18Go'.) 

BANGOR,  a  city,  sea-port  and  par.  N.  Wales, 
CO.  Carnarvon,  hund.  Isgorvac,  on  the  Holyhead 
road,  at  the  head  of  Beaumaris  Bay.  about  2  m. 
from  the  Menai  Bridge,  and  238  m.  XW.  London, 
by  the  London  and  North-Westem  railway.  It 
consists  chiefly  of  one  principal  street,  stretching 
E.  and  W.  through  a  romandc  vale,  bounded  on 
the  S.  by  high  precipitous  rocks,  oh  the  N.  by  a 
more  gradual  acclivity,  and  opening  on  the  E. 
over  a  splendid  and  extensive  prospect,  including 
the  rocky  shores  of  Anglesea  and  the  town  of 
Beaumaris.  It  has  been  mostly  rebuilt,  and  other- 
wise very  much  improved,  within  the  last  few 
years.  Pop.  of  pari,  borough,  6,738  in  1861  ;  of 
pari*<h  10,662.  The  population,  which  amounted 
to  <»,338  in  1851,  is  but  slightly  increasing.  The 
numl>er  of  inhabited  houses  within  the  borough 
was  1,336  in  1861,  and  1,228  in  1851.  The  cathe- 
dral i-*  an  embattled  cruciform  structure,  ha\'ing  a 
low  massive  tower  crowned  with  pinnacles.  It 
stands  in  a  spacious  area,  with  a  fine  avenue,  and 
has  a  very  pleasing  effect,  fr<im  its  situation  and 
the  just  pntporti(»n  and  simplicity  of  its  architec- 
ture ;  near  it  are  some  old  endowed  almhouses  for 


6  poor  persons,  and  an  endowed  free  school  for  100 
boys,  built  in  recent  times  on  the  site  of  an  ancient 
friary ;  it  was  foimded  in  Elizabeth's  reign,  and  its 
revenue  is  upwards  of  250iL  a  year.  There  are  also 
4  national  schools  in  the  parish ;  2  in  the  town 
for  300  boys  and  girls ;  1  at  Vaenol  for  75,  and  1 
at  Pentir'for  60.  The  Baptists,  Independents, 
Calvinistic  and  Wesleyan  Methodists  have  each  a 
chapel ;  there  is  a  town-hall  and  shambles  in  the 
centre  of  the  town,  and  near  it,  on  the  London 
road,  is  the  Carnarvon  and  Anglesea  dispensary. 
The  market  is  held  on  Fridays :  daring  the  sum- 
mer on  Tuesdays  also.  There  are  4  fairs,  April  5, 
June  25,  Sept.  16,  Oct.  28 ;  besides  which  4  largo 
fairs  for  cattle  (called  *  booth  fairs')  are  held  at 
the  Menai  Bridge  (which  is  in  this  parish,  and 
about  2  m.  SW.  Bangor),  Aug.  26,  Sept,  26,  Oct. 
24,  Nov.  14.  Tliey  are  the  most  fr^uented  of 
any  in  N.  Wales.  It  Ls  accessible  to  vessels  of 
200  to  300  tons,  which  may  enter  the  bay  at  any 
time  of  the  tide :  the  trade,  however,  is  compara- 
tively insignificant,  and  is  confined  to  the  import 
of  coals  and  other  necessaries.  By  the  Reform 
Act,  Bangor  was  constituted  one  of  six  contri- 
butory boroughs,  which  conjointly  send  one  mem. 
to  the  H.  of  C. ;  the  bailiffs  of  Carnarvon  being 
returning  ofiicers.  There  are  in  Bangor  about  1 95 
houses  of  10^  and  upwards.  It  has  been  the  seat 
of  a  bishopric  from  tne  remotest  period.  The  see 
comprises  the  cos.  of  Anglesea  and  Carnarvon 
(except  four  parishes),  about  half  Merioneth,  one 
deaneiy  in  Denbigh,  and  seven  parishes  in  Mont- 
gomery :  in  all  179  par.  The  income  of  the  bishop 
averages  4,000/.  per  annum.  The  church  is  used 
both  lor  cathetlral  and  parish  services ;  the  former 
in  English,  the  latter  m  Welsh.  The  living  is 
a  consolidated  vicarage  belonging  to  the  vicara 
choral,  the  church  of  the  township  of  Pentir  being 
annexed  to  it  as  a  chapel  of  ease.  There  is  an 
episcopal  residence  and  a  deanery.  The  famous 
controversy  between  Drs.  Hoadley  and  Sherlock 
took  its  name  from  this  see ;  the  former  being  its 
bishop  from  a.d.  1715  to  1721,  when,  on  being 
translated  to  Salisbury,  the  latter  succeeded  him. 
The  neighbourhood  is  for  the  most  part  unen- 
closed, and  everywhere  presents  scenery  of  sur- 
passing interest,  having  the  Snowdon  range  on 
the  S.,  and  Penmanmaur  on  the  E.,  and  the  Menai 
Strait  and  bridges  immediately  contiguous  to  the 
town.  The  opening  of  an  important  line  of  rail- 
way, and  the  construction  of  the  Menai  Bridge, 
have  rendered  Bangor  a  great  thoroughfare,  and 
made  it  be  resorted  to  in  summer  by  crowds  of 
visitors.  When  Dr.  Johnson  visited  the  city  in 
1774,  with  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Thrale,  he  complained 
that  they  found  *  a  very  mean  inn,  and  had  some 
dilHculty  of  obtaining  lodging.  I  lay  in  a  room 
where  the  other  bed  had  two  men.'  But  modem 
travellers  need  fear  no  such  difficulties  since  the 
opening  of  the  railway.  The  line  from  Bangor  to 
Carnarvon,  7^  miles  long,  forms  part  of  the  Chester 
and  Holyhead  railway,  and  was  amalgamated  with 
the  'London  and  North-Westem  railway  in 
March,  1859. 

Banoor,  a  marit.  town  of  Ireland,  co.  Down, 
prov.  Ulster,  on  the  S.  shore  of  Carrickfergus  Bay, 
12  m.  ENE.  Belfa.st.  Pop.  in  1821,  2,943  ;  in  1831, 
2,741;  in  1861,  2,525,  of  whom  1,012  males  and 
1,513  females.  The  returns  of  1861  showed  677 
of  the  inhabitants  belonging  to  the  Established 
Church;  149  Roman  Catholics,  and  1,666  Presby- 
terians. Tlie  town  took  the  name  of  Bangor, 
lk>.anchoir,  or  *  the  White  Choir,'  from  a  celebrated 
monastery  which,  about  the  year  820,  was  de- 
stn)ycd  by  the  Danes,  when  upwanls  of  900 
monks  are  said  to  have  been  massacred.  It  is 
much  frequented  as  a  sea-bathing  place,    llie 


852 


BANG-PA-SOE 


public  buildinfi^s  are  a  church,  two  PrTObytcrian, 
and  two  Methodist  meeting-houf^8,  and  a  market- 
house  :  there  \»  alsc)  a  dispensarv,  mendicity  in- 
Btitution.  saWnp*'  bank,*  and  public  librarv.  It  is 
a  con8tabuhin'  and  coattt-guard  station.  The  cor- 
poration, under  the  charter  of  161;),  consists  of  a 
IMTovoflt  and  twelve  free  burgesses.  It  retumetl  two 
niemberR  to  the  Irish  H.  of  C.  till  the  Union,  when 
it  was  dirfrancliised.  A  court  leet  is  held  once  a 
year,  and  a  manor  court,  with  jurisdii*tion  to  the 
amount  of  20/.,  everj*  three  weeks,  and  petty  ses- 
sions every  fortnight.  There  are  two  cotton  fac- 
tories; linen  is  also  made  for  home  consumption. 
The  iisherv  is  carried  on  to  some  extent,  and  in 
the  neighbouring  village  of  Groom8p<»rt,  where 
the  Duke  of  Schombeig's  army  landed  in  1(»89, 
lai^'  oysters  are  taken  in  abundance,  l^farkets 
are  held  on  Tuesdays;  fairs  on  Jan.  12,  May  1, 
Aug.  1,  and  Nov.  22.* 

BANG-PA-SOE,  a  considerable  town  of  Siam, 
cap.  of  a  distr.  on  the  left  liank  of  the  Bang-])a- 
kung  river,  near  its  mouth,  39  m.  ESE.  Bangkok : 
lat.  130  30'  N.,  long.  101°  11'  E.  It  is  pt)puloiis, 
has  a  wooden  stockade,  and  is  considered  by  the 
Siamese  important  as  a  place  of  defence  against 
the  encroachments  of  the  Anamctic.  The  Iking- 
na-kung  river  is  here  little  iufvrior  in  size  to  tlic 
Menam ;  it  has  the  same  depth  of  water  on  its 
bar,  and  within  it  from  2^  to  3  fathoms.  There  is 
said  to  be  a  good  carriage  road  from  this  town  to 
Tung-yai,  a  distance  of  nearlv  2(K)  m.  The  distr. 
of  Bang-pa-soe  is  an  alluvial  flat,  verv  fertile  in 
rice  and  sugar-cane.  (Crawfurd^s  Mi;«ion  to 
biam,  p.  441,  442.) 

BANJAHMASSIN,  or  BANDERMASSIN,  a 
town  and  distr.  on  the  SE.  coast  of  Borneo ;  the 
town  is  built  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  in  lat. 
fioS.,  long.  1140  65'  E.  The  district,  inhabited 
by  a  population  estimated  at  2,000,000,  is  imder  a 
native  chief,  but  tributary  to  the  Dutch.  Tlie 
liver  has  a  shallow  bar  at  its  entrance,  over  which 
even  a  light  boat  cannot  float  till  after  the  first 
quarter's  flood.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  town 
enjoys  a  considerable  trade,  especially  with  China ; 
many  Chinese  being  settled  in  and  near  it.  There 
is  some  trade  with  Singapore,  but  it  is  discouraged 
by  the  Dutch,  who  have  a  factor>%  forts,  and  go- 
vernment building  in  Banjormassin.  The  im- 
ports consist  of  opium,  piece  goods,  coarse  cutlerv, 
gunpowder,  and  nre  arms.  Tlie  exports  are  chietfy 
gold,  diamonds,  and  i)epper;  rattans  to  Java,  cam- 
phor, wax,  birds'  nests,  tripang,  spices,  and  steel, 
of  superior  quality.  (Earl,  Eastern  Seas,  p.  33<>- 
888.) 

BANN,  UPPER  and  LOWER,  two  rivers  in 
the  N.  of  Ireland :  the  first,  or  Upper  Bann,  rises 
in  the  plain  called  the  Deers  or  King's  Meadow,  in 
the  K.  part  of  the  Moume  mountains,  in  Down. 
Its  course,  at  first,  is  winding  :  but  its  general  di- 
rection is  NW.  After  passing  Gilford  and  Porta- 
down,  it  falls  into  Lough  Neagh  at  Banfoot  Ferr\'. 
Near  Portadown  it  is  joined  by  the  Ne^Tv  Canal ; 
and  is  thence  navigable  by  barges  to  the  lake. 

The  Lower  Bann  issues  from  Lough  Beg,  con- 
nected on  the  NW.  with  Lou^h  Neagh,  and  flow- 
ing N.  with  a  little  inclination  to  the  W.,  falls 
into  the  sea  5  m.  below  Coleraine.  The  current  of 
the  Lower  Bann  is  rapid  ;  and  in  some  places  it 
is  precipitated  over  leilges  of  rock.  The  salmon 
and  eel  fisheries  on  this  river  are  important  and 
valuable.  It  is  na\Hgable  by  boats  as  far  as  Cole- 
nine,  but  only  with  difficnltv. 

BANNALfiC,  a  toi^-n  of  (ranee,  d<^  Finisterre, 
cap.  cant.,  9  m.  NW.  Quimperl^  Pop.  4,425  in 
18C1. 

BANNOCKBURN,  a  town  of  Scotland,  co. 
Stirling,  par.  St.  Ninian's,  3  m.  SSE.  Stirling,  on 


BANSWARA 

both  sides  of  the  small  river  Bannock,  wldch,  after 
a  course  of  a  few  miles,  falls  into  the  Frith  of 
Forth.  Pop.  2,627  in  1851,  and  2.258  in  1861. 
Number  of  mhabited  housoA  277  in  1861  ;  of  fami- 
lies, bUO,  Tlie  name  of  this  ])lairc  is  imperishably 
associated  tvith  one  of  the  most  memorable  events 
in  British  history'.  In  its  imme<liatc  Wcinity,  on 
the  24th  of  June*,  1314,  was  fought  the  great  little 
between  the  English  under  Edward  H.,  and  the 
Scotch  under  RolK;rt  Brui'c,  wliioh  terminated  in 
the  total  defeat  of  the  f«>nn('r.  The  lt»ss  of  the 
English,  in  the  battle  and  pursuit,  is  estimated  by 
the  best  informed  historians  at  30,IKK)  men,  in- 
cluding a  great  number  of  nobles,  and  persoius  of 
distinction.  The  loss,  on  the  part  of  the  Scotch, 
wh(jse  army  was  verj'  inferior  m  respect  of  num- 
bers to  that  of  tlie  English,  did  not  probably  fall 
short  of  8,0<K).  This  decisive  victor}-  secured  the 
permanent  indeiiendence  of  Scotlaiid,  and  esta- 
blished the  familv  of  the  conqueror  on  its  throne. 

About  1  m.  >V.  from  the  village,  at  Sauchic 
Bum,  James  HI.  was  defeated  in  1488  liy  his  re- 
bellious subjects  and  hb  son,  James  IV.;  and. 
after  being  wounded  in  the  engagement,  was 
a^is-issinnted  at  a  mill  in  the  N-icuiity. 

In  more  recent  and  tranquil  times  Bannockbum 
has  been  dLntinguished  in  a  very  different  depart- 
ment— tliat  of  manufactures.  Various  fabrics  of 
wo<»llen,  particularly  tartans,  ore  succeshfully  car- 
ried on  in  it ;  and  it  has  ]inKhice<l  all  the  tartan 
worn  by  the  Highland  regiments  in  the  British 
army  for  upwanis  of  half  a  centur\'  pajit.  The 
manufacture  of  tartan  shawls,  so  generally  worn 
by  females  in  the  middle  and  lower  ranks  in  Soot- 
land,  was  long  confined  to  it,  and  they  are  hence 
known  by  the  name  of  Bannockbum  shawl*.  Car- 
pets, particularly  Bmsselss  and  hearth-nigs,  are 
pnMluced  here  to  a  considerable  extent ;  and  of  all 
these  no  small  portion  w  sent  to  the  English  mar- 
ket. The  manufacture  of  Tweeds,  or  coarse  strijXHl 
woollen  cloth  for  trowsers  and  plaids,  such  as  that 
for  which  Galashiels  and  Hawick  are  eminent,  has 
been  introduced  into  Bannockbum,  but  is  not  car- 
ried to  any  great  extent.  Tanning  is  also  a  ct>n- 
siderable  branch  of  trade.  The  ]>ortion  of  the 
parish  of  St«  Ninian's  in  which  this  village  is 
situated  has  recently  been  erected  into  a  separate 
parish,  under  the  name  of  Bannockbum;  and  a 
handsome  parochial  church  has  been  built  It  has 
also  a  dissenting  church,  an  excellent  schiNd,  a 
sul)8cription  library,  and  an  annual  fair  for  horses 
and  cattle  on  the  second  Tuesday  of  June,  old 
St  vie. 

BANSTEAD  DOWN'S,  in  EngUmd,  co.  Surrey, 
1st  div.  of  Copt  home  hund.,  par.  Banst^id ;  a  tract 
of  land  remarkable  for  its  verdure  and  excellent 
sheep  pasturage,  12  m.  S.  by  W.  lA>ndon  by  road, 
and  12  m.  by  London,  Brighton,  and  South  Coast 
railway,  on  which  it  is  a  station.  The  Banstead 
Downs  are  376  ft,  above  the  sea  leveL  The  \yansh 
had  1,461  inhabitants  in  1861.  The  Epsom  Down-t 
are  a  continuation  of  these  on  the  W.:  their 
geoh^cal  posiHon  is  between  the  London  clay 
on  the  N.  and  the  chalk  formation  on  the  S.  The 
Brighton  line  of  railway  from  the  metro[iolis  was 
opened  in  June  1865.  It  ends  at  Epsom  race- 
course. 

BANSWARA,  an  inland  town  of  Hind(«tan, 
prov.  Gujerat,  and  cap.  of  a  small  rajpoot  princi- 
palitv  under  British  protection ;  80  m.  E.  Anmed- 
nuggur ;  lat,  23°  31  N.,  long.  74°  32'  E.  It  is  a 
handsome  place  for  this  yiart  of  India,  and  its  walls 
include  a  large  circuit ;  though  much  of  the  space 
is  occupied  by  ganlens.  There  are  some  ha]uls<)me 
temples,  and  a  tolerable  bazaar :  at  S4.>me  distance 
is  a  pool  of  water  with  a  stately  flight  of  ste^is, 
overhung  by  jMlms,  peepuls,  and  tamarind-trees ; 


BANTAM 

kn(\  beyond  it,  on  the  crovm  of  a  woody  hill,  the 
towers  of  a  large  castle,  furmerly  the  palace  of 
lianswara.  In  1820,  there  were  1,000  families  of 
Brahmins,  and  a  considerable  number  of  Muwnil- 
nians  in  the  town :  in  the  wilder  districts  of  it« 
territory,  the  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Hhcels.  The 
rajah  is  a  branch  of  the  family  of  the  Odeypoor 
sovereign,  and  holds  the  highest  judicial  authority 
in  his  own  hands.  In  1820  he  had  a  kind  of  feudal 
nobility  of  thirty-two  subordinate  rajpoot  chiefs, 
who  each  furnished  his  quota  of  iightnig  men.  In 
the  same  year  the  l^nswara  tenritor)'  j-ielded  a 
revenue  of  20,78()iL,  but  it  was  then  only  recover- 
ing from  a  state  of  great  desolation  and  misery, 
from  which  it  liad  been  relieved  by  the  British, 

BANTAM,  a  decayed  town  of  Java  belonging 
to  the  Dutch,  once  ca|),  of  a  dLstr.,  but  now  of  no 
greater  importance  than  the  smaUe>t  residence  on 
the  coast.  Its  bay,  fj)nnerly  a  great  rendezvous  of 
Euro|)ean  shipping,  is  choked  up  by  coral  reefs, 
and  islands  formed  by  the  soil  washed  down  into 
it  from  the  mountains.  The  Dutch  aban<loned  it 
in  1H17  for  the  more  elevated  station  of  Sirang  or 
Ceram,  7  m.  inland 

BAXTKY,  a  marit.  town  of  Ireland,  co.  Cork, 
prov.  Munster,  at  the  bottom  of  Bantr\'  Bav,  48  m. 
W.  by  S.  Cork,  Pop.  2,444  m  186*1,  of  whom 
1,164  males  and  1,280  females.  The  census  re- 
turns give  1 67  persons  as  belonging  to  the  Esta- 
blished, and  2,203  to  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 
The  town  is  ill-built:  it  has  a  church,  a  Roman 
Catholic  chapel,  Methodist  meeting-house,  and  a 
neat  court-house,  with  a  bridewell.  General  ses- 
sions are  held  in  February,  and  petty  sessions  on 
alternate  Fridays.  A  party  of  tlie  constabulary  Ls 
stationed  here.  Manufactures  confined  to  that  of 
Hour;  and  there  is  a  small  porter  brewery.  The 
tishcr>'  of  herrings  and  sprats  has  been  unpro- 
ductive since  1828:  pilchards  were  once  almndant, 
but  have  deserted  the  coast  since  1823.  Tlie  trade 
of  the^Kirt,  which  was  once  very  considerable,  is 
now  contined  to  tlie  export  of  grain. 

Bant  a  Y  Bay,  an  inlet  of  the  sea,  in  tbc  SW. 
extremity  of  Ireland,  co.  C^>rk,  between  Crow 
Point  on  the  N.  and  Sheep's  Head  on  the  S.  Tins 
is  one  of  the  finest  and  most  ca]>acious  harlxmrsin 
Euro[^)e.  It  stretches  inwards  in  a  NE.  direction 
above  25  m.,  with  a  breadth  varj'ing  from  4  to  6 
m.  Near  the  entrance  of  the  bay,  on  its  NW. 
side,  IS  Bear  Island,  separated  from*  the  main  land 
by  a  crooked  strait  about  a  mile  broad,  haWng 
from  10  to  30  or  40  fathoms  water,  and  affonling  a 
safe  retreat  for  the  laigest  vessels.  Farthej  up  the 
bay  is  \Vliiddy  Island,  on  the  S.  side  of  which, 
nearly  op])osite  to  Bantry  to-mi,  there  is  an  a<l- 
rairable  roadstead,  where  ships  lie  land-locked  in 
fn»m  24  tf>  40  ft.  water.  Bear  Island  forms,  as  it 
were,  a  naturftl  breakwater,  protecting  the  bay 
fn)m  the  8\V.  winds.  There  is  close  to  both  its 
shores  a  considerable  depth  of  water ;  it  is  not  en- 
cumbere<l  by  any  shoals  or  rocks  that  may  not  be 
easily  avoided,  even  at  night ;  and  the  anchoring 
ground  l)eing  everj-where  good,  it  furnishes, 
thn>ughout  its  whole  ex|>anse^  convenient  shelter 
and  accoromixlation  for  the  largest  8hi[^ 

Having  no  considerable  town  on  its  shores, 
which  are  wild  and  rugged,  nor  any  communica- 
tion with  the  interior,  this  noble  h&v  is  but  little 
frequented  by  shipping.  Occasionally,  however,  it 
has  l)een  resorted  to  !)y  large  fleets,  and  has  been 
the  theatre  of  naval  warfare;  an  indecisive  action 
having  been  fought  in  it  on  April  30,  1689,  be- 
tween a  |K»rtion  of  the  French  fleet  that  conveyed 
King  James  to  Kinsale,  and  the  English  fleet 
under  Admiral  Heri)ert,  afterwanls  Earl  of  Tor- 
rington.  It  was  in  it,  also,  that  the  I'^ench  fleet, 
with  General  Uoche  on  board,  auchoied  in  1796, 

Vol.  I. 


BAEBADOS 


353 


BAPAUME,  a  town  of  France,  d^.  Pas  de 
Calais,  cap.  cant.,  15  m,  SSE,  Arraa.  Pop.  8,149 
in  1861.  This  town  was  originally  fortifled  oy 
Charles  V,,  but  having  been  ceded  to  France  in 
1659,  its  fortifications  were  enlarged  and  com- 
pleted by  Vauban.  It  is  neat,  well  laid  out,  and 
well  built.  The  parish  church  and  the  hosintnl 
are  worth  notice.  There  are  manufactures  of 
woollens,  calicoes,  and  other  cotton  stuffs,  and  of 
the  fine  thread  used  in  the  manufactiure  of  a  species 
of  lace  carried  to  the  marketa  of  Lille  and  Amiens, 
In  the  neighbourhood  are  several  l)©etroot  factories. 
Being  situated  in  a  dr>'  country.  Bai»aume  lalx)ured, 
for  a  lengthened  period,  under  a  deficiency  of 
water,  but  in  1723  an  Artesian  well  having  been 
sunk  in  the  Wcinitv,  fumishetl  an  abundance  of 
excellent  water,  which,  being  conveyed  into  the 
{jowTif  supplies  a  hamlsome  fotmtain. 

BAR,  a  town  of  European  Russia,  gov.  Podolia, 
on  the  Row,  48  m.  N.  Moghilef.  Pop.  7,800  in 
1858.  The  town  has  various  manufactories.  It 
is  defended  by  a  citadel  built  on  a  rock.  It  was 
called  Row,  from  the  river  on  which  it  stands,  till 
the  reign  of  Sigismund  I.,  who  gave  it  to  his  tvife, 
by  whom  it  was  called  liar,  in  honour  of  her 
native  country,  Bari.  It  is  famous  in  Polifdi 
history,  from  Uic  confederation  establishe<l  in  it  in 
1768,  by  the  Pulawaki  and  other  Polish  nobles 
hostile  to  Russia. 

Bar,  a  fortified  town  of  France,  ddp.  Bas-Rhin, 
cap.  cant,  19  m.  SW.  Strasburg,  It  is  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  Vosges,  surrounded  by  hiUa 
])lanted  with  vineyards.  Pop.  1,005  in  1861.  An 
explosion  of  the  arsenal,  in  1794,  destroyed  most 
part  of  the  houses,  so  that  it  is  now  almost  new. 
It  has  some  manufactures,  and  a  considerable  trade 
in  wine,  spirits,  com,  and  cattle. 

Bar,  an  inland  tovt-n,  of  considerable  extent 
and  trade,  in  liindostan,  prov.  Bahar,  on  the  S. 
bank  of  the  Ganges,  18  m,  NE.  Bahar;  lat.  25<> 
28'  N„  louK.  85°  46'  F^ 

BARAHAT,  an  inl.  town  of  N.  Ilindostan,  cap, 
rajah  of  Gurwal,  but  some  years  since  a  most 
wretched  and  paltry  place,  48  m.  WNW.  Serinagur. 

BARAITCIIE,  an  inland  town  and  district  of 
Hindostan,  prov.  Oude;  the  district  divided  be- 
tween the  King  of  Oude  and  the  British;  Uie 
to^^-n  belonging  to  the  former,  and  pleasantly 
situated  50  m.  NE.  Lucknow;  lat.  27©  33'  N^., 
long.  810  30'  E.  The  N.  tracts  of  the  district  are 
elevated  and  covered  with  forests;  the  more  S. 
parts  open,  fertile,  and  tolerably  well  cultivated. 
Slany  of  the  old  Patan  race  inhabit  the  Baraitdie 
distnct. 

BARBADOS,  the  most  easterly  of  the  Caribbee 
islands ;  it  is  21  m.  in  length,  and  14  in  breadth, 
and  contains  106,470  acres,  of  which  it  is  suppoaed 
about  90,000  arc  in  cultivation,  and  that  the  re- 
mainder, 16,470,  arc  occupied  by  roads,  buildin|n, 
&C.  Bridgetown,  the  capital,  is  in  latl  13^  5' N., 
long.  590  41'  W.,  situated  in  the  parish  of  St. 
Michael,  the  principal  of  eleven  parishes  into 
which  the  island  was  divided  at  a  very  early  date. 
The  time  of  its  discovery  is  not  distuictly  known, 
but  the  first  permanent  settlement  on  it  was  made 
by  the  English  in  1625,  and  it  has  remained  in 
their  possession  ever  since. 

The  island,  viewed  from  the  sea,  has  nothing 
interesting  in  its  appearance,  and  the  land,  as 
compared  with  the  ailjoining  colonies,  is  low,  not 
being  discernible  many  miles  from  the  shore. 
The  surface  b  very  irregular :  on  the  N.,  S.,  and 
W.  sides  the  land  is  low  towards  the  sea,  and 
rises  abruptly  by  precipitous  acclivities  in  terraoea 
of  greater  and  less  extent,  to  the  point  of  highest 
elevation.  On  the  E,  side  it  ris<»  almost  perpen- 
dicularly from  the  sea  to  A  height  of  60  and  80  ft. 

A  A 


354 


BARBADOS 


On  the  windward,  or  XE.  side,  there  in  a  ledge  of 
rocks,  called  the  Cobblera,  at  a  short  distance  from 
the  shore,  which  renders  the  approach  to  the  island 
dangerous  in  the  extreme,  and  has  doubtless  con- 
tributed greatly  to  protect  it  from  hostile  attacks 
in  the  wars  in  which  Great  Britain  has  been 

It  IS  highly  cultivated :  scarcely  an  acre  upon 
it,  on  which  a  blade  of  grass  can  grow,  remains 
unproductive ;  and  a  better  svstem  of  agriculture  \a 
ponued  than  that  followed  in  the  other  colonies. 
The  base  of  the  island  is  calcareous,  consisting  of 
the  spoils  of  zoophytes,  of  which  there  are  several 
apedee.  These  are  so  cemented  tt^ther,  as  in 
aome  places  to  form  a  hard  compact  limestone, 
which  is  quarried,  and  very  extensively  used  for 
building ;  and  in  other  places  they  exist  as  a  dry 
ioft  marl,  on  which  are  found  a  great  variety  of 
ahells,  many  of  them  in  perfect  preservation. 
Upon  this  formation  there  is  a  deposit  of  a  strong 
■tiff  clay,  in  some  places  of  considerable  depth, 
which  constitutes  the  soil  of  the  most  fertile  dis- 
tricts. On  the  S.  and  W.  sides,  adjoining  the  sea, 
the  soil  is  sandy  and  light ;  but  in  other  places  it 
ia  Btrong,  and  aidmirabl y  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
the  cane.  In  one  distnct,  on  the  NE.  side,  called 
Scotland,  the  scenery  and  soil  are  strangely  con- 
trasted with  the  flat  and  shelving  table-land  of 
the  other  parts.  The  scenery  there  is  wild,  irre- 
gular, and  picturesque,  and  the  soil  composed  of 
mineral  subitanccs  belonging  to  the  clay  genus, 
Murticularly  loam,  potters'  clay,  and  slate  clay. 
Beds  of  bituminous  shale  are  likewise  frequent, 
and  petroleum,  or  mineral  oil,  more  or  less  abounds 
in  this  district.  There  are  some  remarkable  in- 
itances  of  the  soil  in  this  district  becoming  de- 
tached from  its  original  bed,  and  slipping  down 
from  a  considerable  elevation,  carrying  with  it 
whole  fields  of  canes  to  a  position  below ;  in  which 
extraordinary  migrations  rows  of  cocoa-nut  trees 
have  accompanied  the  mo\'ing  masses.  The 
highest  point  of  land  in  the  island  is  Mount  Hil- 
laby,  which  rises  1,147  fu  above  the  level  of  Car- 
lisle Bav. 

The  climate  is  very  healthy.  Except  the  bilious 
remittent  fever,  common  to  all  the  West  India 
colonies,  there  is  no  malignant  disease  peculiar  to 
it;  and  the  island  is  free  from  any  venomous 
reptile.  The  average  quantity  of  rain  amounts  to 
68  in.  The  range  of  the  thermometer,  on  an 
average  of  five  years,  was, — max.  87,  med.  81, 
min.  75.  Owin^  to  the  flatness  of  the  island,  and 
its  being  open  m  almost  every  part  to  the  sea 
breezes,  the  heat  is  not  so  oppressive  as  the  maxi- 
mum range  of  the  thermometer  would  seem  to 
indicate.  The  prevailing  wind  is  the  NE.  trade. 
It  begins  generally  about  10  o'clock  a.m.,  and 
continues  tUl  sunset,  but  it  is  very  feeble  during 
the  night  In  Jan.,  Feb.,  Mar.,  April,  and  May, 
it  is  strong  and  r^i^lar,  and  the  climate,  in  these 
months,  is  peculiarly  agreeable.  In  June  the 
lains  set  in,  and  from  August  to  October,  which  is 
called  the  hurricane  season,  and  during  the  month 
of  Nov.,  the  heat  is  very  ofjpressive.  The  cane  is 
the  chief  article  of  cultivation,  but  a  considerable 
quantity  of  com,  arrowroot,  cotton,  ginger,  and 
aloes  is  also  raisetl,  and  exported. 

Bari)ados  has  been  frequently  vbited  by  hurri- 
canes, of  which  those  of  Aug.  10,  1674,  Oct,  10, 
1780,  and  Aug.  11, 1831,  have  been  the  most  de- 
itructive  in  their  effects.  In  that  of  1674,  800 
houses,  8  ships,  and  most  of  the  sugar-works,  were 
destroyed,  and  200  persons  killed :  in  that  of  1780 
the  loss  in  human  life  was  reckoned  between  4,000 
and  5,000,  and  the  whole  amount  of  damage,  in 
buildings,  cattle,  and  stock,  was  estimated  at  up- 
wards of  A  miUion  steriing:  but  the  fuiy  and 


violence  of  the  last  hurricane  far  exceeded  that  of 
either  of  the  former:  in  it  2,5(K)  persons  were 
killed,  and  considernblv  more  than  that  number 
wounde<I,  and  the  loss  m  propertv  amounted  to 
two  millions  and  a  half  sterling.  I'he  munificence 
of  parliament,  and  the  industry  of  the  inhabitants, 
have,  however,  enabled  the  planters  to  recover 
from  these  heavy  losses ;  and,  except  the  absence 
of  trees,  which  gives  a  bare  and  naked  appearance 
to  the  count^',  the  effects  of  this  severe  visitation 
can  now  be  traced  only  with  difficulty.  The 
island  contains,  besides  the  principal  tovm,  a 
smaller  town  to  leeward,  called  Speights  Town, 
and  two  other  towns,  which  arc  scarcely  to  be 
d^Hcribed  as  such ;  Oistins,  or  Charlestown,  Saint 
James,  or  the  Uoletown,  the  spot  first  settled. 
Bridgetown  with  a  population,  in  1861,  of  18,957, 
extends  along  the  shore  of  Carlisle  Bay,  and,  pre- 
viously to  the  hurricane,  being  skirted  with  a  oelt 
of  cocoa-nut  trees,  it  presented  a  ver\'  pretty  and 
interesting  appearance  to  the  stranger.  Hie  po- 
pulation of  the  island  in  1851  amounted  to  135,939, 
and  although  the  cholera  of  1854  carried  off  some 
20,000  people,  the  census  of  1861  showed  a  toul 
of  152,727  inhabitants,  of  whom  16,594  white,  and 
the  remainder  coloured  and  black.  The  barracks 
at  St,  Peter's,  about  2  m.  to  the  S.  of  Bridgetown 
are  spacious  and  airy,  having  been  all  rebuilt 
since  the  last  hurricane ;  they  will  contain  com- 
fortablv  1,200  men.  There  is  an  excellent  parade- 
ground,  a  brigade  of  gun?,  and  a  very  complete 
establUhment  for  warlike  purposes.  The  govern- 
ment-house Is  about  1  m.  from  the  town,  situate 
on  some  rising  ground,  and  commands  a  beautiful 
view  of  the  town  and  bay.  The  market  in  Bridge- 
town is  well  supplied  nHth  poultry,  mutton,  and 
pork,  of  excellent  quality,  quite  equal,  if  not  supe- 
rior, to  the  corresponding  productions  of  England. 
Veal  b  ^ood,  but  not  in  ver>'  great  plenty.  Ikref 
is  but  indifferent.  Many  of  the  esculent  vege- 
tables of  Europe  are  common.  The  quantity  of 
tropical  fruits  grown  in  the  island  is  small,' but 
the  quality  excellent.  The  supply  of  fish  is  in 
general  abundant.  One  description,  the  tijong- 
fish,  about  the  size  of  middluig  herrings,  but  firmer, 
and  not  so  fat,  arc  sometimes  so  plentiful  as  to  bo 
undervalued  bv  the  opulent,  and  within  the  reach 
of  the  poorest  inhabitants. 

The  population,  as  in  the  adjoining  udands,  may 
properly  be  divided  into  four  classes :  Cret»le  or 
native  whites ;  European  whites ;  Creoles  of  mixed 
blood ;  native  blacks.  Previously  to  the  abolition 
of  slavei^',the  population  was  estimated  at  102,521 ; 
viz.  whites,  12,797,  coloured,  6,5H4,  and  slaves, 
88,140.  Formerly  the  cultivation  of  sugar  was 
almost  the  only  thing  attended  to,  and  the  popu- 
lation depended,  in  great  measure,  on  imported 
f)rovisionH.  But,  for  years  past,  this  system  has 
)cen  materiallv  modified.  I^arge  supplies  of  pn>- 
visions,  though  still  far  below  the  demand,  ore 
now  raised  at  home,  and  a  n>tation  of  crops  has 
been  intnxluced  intt>  agriculture.  Here,  as  ever\'- 
wherc  else  in  the  West  Indies,  the  blacks  are  ex- 
tremely desirous  to  acquire  slips  of  lan(L  Generally 
they  are  not  well  off;  and  from  their  large  num- 
bers supplier  of  labour  may  usually  be  obtained. 

I^badoes  is  the  residence  of  the  bishop  of  Bar- 
bados and  the  Leeward  Islands,  and  of  one  of  the 
archdeacons,  llie  clerical  estabUshment  is  fixed 
upon  a  very  liberal  and  effective  scale.  In  Bridge- 
town, besides  the  cathedral  and  parish  church, 
there  is  St.  Mary's  Church,  and  in  the  neighbour- 
hood three  other  chapels  of  ease,  with  a  minister 
appointed  to  each,  and  paid  by  the  British  govern- 
ment and  the  Christian  Knowledge  Society.  There 
are  two  Wesleyan  chapels,  and  two  Moravian 
chapela. 


BARBADOS 

There  are  several  public  esUblishments  for  the 
education  of  the  youth  of  the  island : — Codrington 
College,  Codrington  Foundation  School,  Harrison's 
Free  School,  and  the  Central  School ;  the  two  latter 
are  in  Bridgetown.  Codrington  College  is  situated 
13  or  14  m.  E.  of  Bridgetown,  and  was  founded 
bv  Colonel  Codrington,  a  native  of  the  island,  who 
died  in  1710.  The  object  of  the  founder  was  the 
education  of  a  certain  number  of  white  youths, 
and  the  religious  instruction  of  the  blacks;  for 
which  purposes  he  liequeathed  landed  property, 
capable  of  clearing  3,000/.  sterling  a  year,  to  the 
Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in  Foreign 
Part^  This  establishment  is  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  who  is  vi- 
sitor, a  principal,  and  two  tutors.  It  is  open  to 
all  young  men,  for  whatever  profession  intended, 
throughout  the  West  India  colonies.  There  are 
twelve  theol(^ical  exhibitions.  The  college  ex- 
pense to  each  commoner  is  about  30Z.  sterling  per 
annum.  The  course  of  study  embraces  theoio^, 
the  classics,  l(^c,  and  mathematics.  All  candi- 
dates are  required  to  be  at  least  seventeen  years 
of  age  at  the  time  of  admission. 

At  the  Central  School  about  160  white  children 
are  educated,  upon  the  plan  of  the  national  schools 
in  England.  All  the  children  are  fed,  and  the 
major  part  clothed.  From  this  class  of  boys, 
master  tradeanen,  mechanics,  and  overseers  are 
supplied.  A  girb'  school  has  also  been  founded 
under  the  auspices  of  the  ladies  of  Barbados. 

The  trade  of  the  island  has  varied  very  much 
at  different  periods,  owing  to  the  uncertainty  of 
the  crops,  occasioned  bv  hurricanes  and  bad  seasons. 
The  imports  amounted  to  1,049,2362.  in  1M59;  to 
941,761/.  in  I860;  to  923,847/L  in  1861;  and  to 
913,141/.  in  1862,  showing  a  gradual  decline  within 
these  four  years.  The  exm>rts  likewise  declinetl 
during  the  same  period,  falling  from  1,225,571/.  in 
1859,  to  1,075,374/.  in  1861,  and  1,067,612/,  in  1862. 
The  U.  States  have,  next  to  the  U.  Kingdom,  the 
greatest  share  of  the  trade  of  the  colony.  The 
imports  from  the  U.  Kingdom  consist  principally 
of  cottons,  linens,  woollens,  and  other  manufac- 
tured gocMls,  haberdashen'  and  millinery,  hardware 
and  cutler}',  apparel,  leather  goods,  coal,  and  salt. 
The  imports  from  the  U.  States  consist  principally 
of  tlour,  meal,  Indian  com,  rice,  timber,  and 
shingles.  Large  quantities  of  cod,  dry  and  wet, 
are  l>rought  from  the  British  N.  American  colonies. 
The  U.  Kingdom  supplies  about  two-fifths  of  the 
imports. 

The  government  of  the  island  is  administered 
by  a  governor,  who  Ls  also  gov.-gen.  of  the  islands 
of  Grenarla,  St,  Vincent,  Tobago,  Trinidad.  St. 
Lucia,  and  their  resi)ectivo  dependencies.  There 
is  a  legislative  council,  consisting  of  twelve  mem-  ! 
hers,  and  a  representative  assembly,  constituted 
by  a  return  of  two  members  from  each  of  the  pa- 
rishes— making  twenty-two  members.  The  dura- 
tion of  the  assembly  is  twelve  months.  If  there 
be  less  than  seven  members  of  council  resident  in 
the  island,  the  governor  may  fill  up  the  number 
to  seven  for  the  despatch  of  business.  The  governor 
is  chancellor,  but  he  sits  in  chancery  with  the 
council,  who  act  as  judges  both  in  the  court  of 
error  and  in  equity.  There  is  a  court  of  common 
pleas  held  for  each  district,  monthly,  during  eight 
months  of  the  year,  but  no  court  of  kinjEc's  bench. 
A  general  sessions  of  the  peace  is  held  twice  a  year. 

The  revenue  of  the  island,  previously  to  the  abo- 
lition of  slaver}',  was  raised  by  a  poll-tax  upon 
slaves,  and  by  duties  on  sjiirituous  liquors  and  li- 
censes ;  but  it  is  now  derived  principally  from 
duties  on  imports  and  export^  on  the  tonnage  of 
ships,  on  spirituous  liquors,  and  several  minor 
articles.   The  revenue  for  the  year  1862  amounted 


BARBABY 


355 


to  98,682/.,  and  the  expenditure  to  98,46U ;  for 
the  year  1863,  the  revenue  was  102,572/.,  and  the 
expenditure  104,795/.  Both  revenue  and  expendi- 
ture doubled  in  the  ten  years  1853-68. 

The  proportion  of  the  20,000,000/.  voted  by  par- 
liament  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  paid  to  the 
colony  was  1,721,845/.  19*.  Id,  The  value  of  the 
slaves  was  estimated  at  3,897,276/.  19«. ;  and  the 
average  value  of  a  slave,  from  1822  to  1830,  was 
47/.  U  ^d, 

BARBANTANE,  a  townof  France,  d^p.  Bouchea 
du  Khone,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Durance  and 
the  Rhone,  4  m.  SW.  Avignon.  Pop.  8,060  in 
1861.  The  railway  from  Lyons  to  Marseilles  has 
a  station  here.  The  environs  produce  excellent 
wine. 

BARBARY,  the  name  usually  given  in  modem 
times  to  that  portion  of  N.  Africa  which  compriaea 
the  various  countries  between  the  W.  frontier  of 
Egypt  and  the  Atlantic  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
N.  'firontier  of  the  Sahara,  or  Great  Desert,  and  the 
Mediterranean  on  the  other;  or  between  25^  E. 
and  10©  W.  long.,  and  30©  to  37^  N.  lat.  It  con- 
sequently includes  within  its  limits  the  empire  of 
Morocco  and  Fez,  with  the  regencies  of  AlgierB, 
Tunis,  and  Tripoli,  including  Barca.  Under  the 
Roman  dominion,  it  was  divided  iiUo  MaurUama 
Tingitanaj  corresponding  to  Morocco  and  Fes; 
Mauritania  QuarUnsU,  to  Algiers;  Africa  Propria^ 
to  Tunis ;  and  Oyrenaica  and  the  Regia  Syrticoy  to 
Tripoli  Its  extent  may  be  taken  at  from  650,000 
to  700,000  sq.  m. ;  and  its  population  has  been  va- 
riously estimated  at  from  10,000,000  to  14,000,000. 

The  name  Barbaiy  has  not,  as  has  sometimea 
been  supposed,  been  given  to  this  portion  of  Africa 
because  it  is  occupied  by  a  barbarous  and  ignorant 
people.  It  is  derived  from  tlie  name  of  its  ancient 
inhabitants,  usually  styled  Berben  or  Kahyletj 
and  should  therefore,  in  strictness,  be  called  Ber- 
bery. The  Arabians  call  it  Maghreb^  or  the  r^on 
of  the  W. ;  but  though  this  name  correctly  pomta 
out  its  situation  in  relation  to  Arabia,  it  would  be 
incorrect  if  used  by  Europeans.  If  a  new  name 
were  now  to  be  adopted,  it  might  be  called  the 
Region  of  AfUu^  inasmuch  as  it  includes  the  whole 
of  that  great  mountain  chain,  with  its  numerous 
ramifications.  This  designation  has,  in  fact,  been 
given  to  it  bv  some  geographers. 

In  antiquity,  this  part  of  Africa  was  distin- 
guished as  being  the  seat  of  ('arthage — that  great 
commercial  republic,  that  waged  a  lengthened, 
doubtful,  and  desperate  contest  with  Rome  henelf 
for  the  empire  of  the  world.  After  the  fall  of 
Carthage,  it  formed  an  important  part  of  the 
Roman  empire.  It  had  many  laige  and  flourish- 
ing cities,  and  was  long  regarded  as  the  principal 
granary  of  Rome.  After  being  overrun  by  the  N. 
barbarians,  it  was  subdued  bv  the  Saracens ;  and 
under  their  sway  acquired  a  fustre  and  reputation 
scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  the  most  brilliant  period 
of  its  ancient  histor}'.  But  the  Saracenic  govern- 
ments in  Barbary,  like  those  in  other  countries, 
gradually  lost  their  \igour,  and  became  a  prey  to 
every  sort  of  disorder ;  and  this  great  country  ulti- 
mately sunk  into  the  lowest  state  of  barbarism 
and  degradation.  A  handful  of  Turks  and  rene- 
gades acquired  the  government  of  ita  finest  pro- 
vinces, and  subjected  them  to  the  most  brutal  and 
revolting  despotism.  Bein^  unable  to  contend 
H-ith  the  European  powers  in  regular  war,  they 
had  recourse  to  a  system  of  piracy  and  marauding ; 
which,  though  often  partially  abated,  waa  not  en- 
tirelv  suppressed  till  the  conquest  of  Algiers  by 
the  t'rencn. 

Barbarv  has  far  more  of  a  European  than  of  an 
African  cnaracter.  Owing  to  ita  being  pervaded 
by  the  great  chain  of  Atlas,  it  has  every  divenitj 

AA  2 


356 


BARBASTES 


of  mrikce,  and  is  remarkably  well  watered.  The 
climate  ia  excellent;  and  it  pmduces  all  the  grains 
and  fruits  of  S.  Europe,  in  tnc  pvatest  peTfection. 
In  ancient  timpi«  its  fertility  was  such  as  to  be 
almost  proverbial : 

*  Frumenti  quantum  metit  Africa.' 

Hor.  8at.,  lib.  ii.  sat.  8. 

and  notwithstanding  the  wretched  treatment  to 
which  it  is  now  subject,  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
continues  unimpaired,  and  with  no  manure,  except 
occasitmally  burning  weeds  and  stubble,  it  pn>- 
duces  the  most  luxuriant  crops.  The  site  of  the 
famous  gardens  of  the  Hci<|)erides  was  originally 
placed  hi  llarca;  but  they  were  carried  farther  \V. 
as  the  Greeks  became  better  acquainted  with  the 
coast,  and  with  the  riches  and  cu)iabilitie~s  of  the 
country.  (F<»r  a  full  account  of  this  inten>sring ' 
region!  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  art  iolos  on  the 
diflerent  countries  comprised  within  its  limits  and 
to  those  on  Atlas,  Constantine,  &c.) 

BAKBASTES,  or  IIAUBASTRO,  a  town  of 
Spain,  Aragon,  near  the  <  'inea,  2H  ni.  SE.  Ilncsca. 
Pop.  7,<mO  in  1S57.  It  is  surrounded  by  walld,  is 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric^  and  has  some  tanneries. 

BAKBP:ZIEUX,  a  t<>wn  of  France^  de'p  Cha- 
lente,  cap.  arrond.,  on  the  road  from  Angouleme  ! 
to  Bordeaux,  21  m.  SW.  Angouleme.  Pop.  3,«78 
in  1861.  It  Ls  advantageously  situated  on  the  de- 
clivitv  of  a  hill,  at  the  extremity  of  an  extensive 
and  fertile  plain.  It  is  well  built ;  has  a  court  of 
original  jurisdiction,  a  linen  manufacture,  and  some 
trade  in  wine,  com,  cattle,  and  especially  poul-  I 
try.  The  chapona  truffet  of  Barbczieux  are  lughly 
erteemeil 

BARBUDA,  one  of  the  W.  Indian  islands  l)e- 
loiu^ng  to  Great  Britain,  27  m.  X.  Antigua,  1 5  m. 
in  length  by  8  m.  in  breadth.  Total  area,  acconl- 
ing  to  official  measurement,  75  square  miles.  The 
census  of  1861  showed  a  pop.  of  713,  of  whom  only 
4  white.  There  were  318  males  and  395  females. 
The  island  is  flat  and  fertile.  It  is  a  proprietary' 
of  government,  and  belongs  to  the  Codrington 
family.  Com,  cotton,  pepi>er,  tobacco,  arc  pro- 
duced in  abundance,  but  no  sugar.  It  has  no  har- 
bour, but  a  roadstead  on  its  W.  side. 

BAKBY',  a  town  of  Pnissian  Saxony,  on  the 
Elbe,  14  m.  SE.  Magdebiug.  P«»p.  4,697  in  1861. 
It  is  well  built  has  an  old  castle,  two  Lutheran, 
and  one  Calvinlst  church,  with  fabrics  of  cloth, 
cotton,  and  flax,  soap-works,  breweries,  and  dis- 
tilleries. 

BARCA  (Bapxyi),  a  district  of  N.  Africa,  forming 
the  E.  ]Mirtion  of  Tripoli,  exten<ling  from  2ii^^  to 
nearly  38®  X.  Ut,  and  from  19°  to  2.')^°  E.  long. 
Tlio  iimits  are,  however,  very  uncertain  towards 
the  S.  and  E.,  the  country,  in  the  former  direction, 
terminating  in  the  Libyan  Desert,  and  being,  in 
the  latter,  dixnded  from  Egypt  by  wandering 
tribes  of  Bedouins,  who  acknowledge  no  authority 
in  any  settled  government.  On  the  N.  Barca  is 
bounded  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  on  the  W. 
by  the  Gulf  of  Sidra  (the  Sjprtu  Magna  of  the  an- 
cients), and  the  govemment  of  Sert  or  Sort. 
(Becchy,  210;  Pacno,  19;  Beechy  and  Pacho's 
Maps.)  It  extends  500  m.  from  l(.  to  S.,  but  the 
cultivated  and  inhabited  portion  terminates  at 
about  the  31st  parallel,  or  140  m.  only  from  the 
farthest  X.  point  of  the  coast.  The  greatest  width 
from  E.  to  W.  is  about  390  m.,  and  the  area  may 
be  estimatetl  at  about  78,000  sq.  m.  (Becchy  and 
Pacho's  Maps.) 

A  mountain  range,  at  a  short  distance  inland, 
fronts  the  whole  extent  of  coast  line:  this  range 
appears  to  have  its  greatest  elevation  near  the  22n(I 
meridian  (at  the  town  of  Cyrene),  and  to  decline 
Uieoce  both  towards  the  £•  and  W.|  tenninating, 


BARCA 

in  the  former  direction,  in  the  plain  of  Lower 
Egypt;  in  the  latter  l»oing  continued  nmnd  the 
gulf  till  it  vanishes  in  a  low  swamp  S.  of  Mc*surat». 
llie  least  elevation  of  these  mountains  is  e.stimate<l 
at  400  or  500  ft,  and  the  greatest  at  1,8<»5  ft.  It 
is  \i\yon  the  sidei)  and  summits  of  these  hills  that 
the  only  population  and  production  is  found, 
though  the  great  plain  towards  the  S.  is  probably 
prR9er\'ed  from  some  of  the  wont  features  of  the 
desert  by  a  range  of  sand  hills  extending  from  the 
oasis  of  Ammon  to  that  of  Maradeh,  which  must 
of  necessity  form  mtme  pn»tecti<>n  frt>m  tlie  cfiVvts 
of  the  sirocct>.  (Beet^hy,  107,  216,  2u2,  434,  &c.; 
Pacho,  57,  83,  134,  272,  &c) 

There  are  no  rivers,  but  innumerable  mountain 
torrent44,  and  wells  arc  also  tolerably  abundant^ 
though  many  of  them  contain  only  salt  or  bracki.sli 
water.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  mouHtnin  land 
is  not  very  badly  irrigate<l.  Some  year*  since,  tlie 
Americans  made  a  temporar)''  settlement  at  Denia, 
where,  taking  advantage  of  the  many  rttKnled 
ravines,  they  liuilt  a  water-mill  of  verj- simple  ciMi- 
stniction,  whicth,  by  a  little  skill  in  dnmming  up 
the  stream,  worki*  nejirly  all  the  year.  (Pacho.  99.) 
The  ancient  sacred  fdiuitain  of  Cyrene  is  perma- 
nent (lieechy,  424.),  and  pr»>bably  the  only  stream 
in  liarca  that  is  so,  with  the  exception  of  a  sulv- 
terranean  rivulet,  ncAr  Bengazi,  which  is  supposed 
by  Becchy  (329),  on  good  grounds,  to  be  the  La- 
thon  or  Lethe  of  Pt4>lemy  (iv.  4),  Pliny  (v.  5),  auil 
Strain)  (xWi,  8,'J6),  anil  the  Erceus'  of  Scylax. 
(Perip.  1 11.)  Though  stretching  as  far  as  33*0  X., 
Ilnrca  has  an  equinoctial  climate.  The  rainy 
season  appears  to  commence  sometimes  as  early  oa 
XovemlKT,  and  at  othera  to  delay  its  violence  till 
the  end  of  December,  or  even  till  Januar>- :  during 
such  delay,  however,  the  intermetliate  season  is 
showery^  and  when  the  rains  descend  in  tluir 
strength,  the  mountain  roads  become  nearly,  if  not 
quite,  impassable.  The  ravines  i>our  down  tor- 
rents, which,  in  their  pn>gre5»s,  carry  ynX\\  them 
earth,  trees,  and  stones  of  enormous  size;  and  con- 
vert the  nantiw  belt  of  flat  land  between  the 
mountains  and  the  sea  into  enormous  marshes. 
'ITie  temperature  is,  of  course,  generally  high,  but 
the  powerful  evaporation  makes  that  of  winter 
something  lower  than  might  be  anticipated,  and 
al)solutely  cold  nighta  are  not  unknown,  llie  wet 
season,  as  in  other  countries,  is  ushered  in  by 
storms.     (Beechy,  41,  59,  247,  281, 847,  &c.) 

Xot^Hthstandm^  the  celebrity  of  this  country 
in  ancient  times,  it  is  only  within  the  last  forty 
yean  that  any  thuig  accurate  has  been  learned 
concerning  it.  Its  very  outline  was  erroneously 
marked  in  every  map  and  chart  previously  to 
1828  (see  Syrtir)  ;  and  every  account  of  it»  s<»il, 
climate,  and  fertility  was  nearly  the  direct  reverse 
of  what  ex])erience  has  shown  to  I)e  the  tmili. 
Tlie  ancients,  with  the  single  exception  of  Hero- 
<lotus,  have  combined  to  represent  the  coasts  of 
the  Svrtis  aa  an  irredeemable  desert.  At  least 
such  is  the  impression  given  by  Strabo,  Pliny, 
Scylax,  and  others  of  all  the  country  W.  of  Bere- 
nice (Bengazi) ;  while  the  mo<lems,  following  I..eo 
Africanus  and  the  Arab  historians,  have  extended 
the  same  description  to  all  the  land  Itetween 
Tripoli  and  Alexandria,  till  the  texm  Barca.  became 
synonymous  in  European  language  with  barren- 
ness. (Strabo,  xvii.  838;  Plinv,  y.  4,  &c; 
Scylax,  Perip.  113,  &c:  Leo  Airic  v.  72,  A-c.) 
But,  to  say  nothing  of  the  ganlens  of  the  Ilcspo- 
rides,  situated  on  this  coast,  it  is  impossible  to 
reconcile  this  idea  of  utter  barrenness  with  the 
pastoral  life  said  by  Henxiotus  to  be  le<l  by  the 
aborigines  (Melp.  186),  or  with  the  subs<K]uent 
colonisation  of  the  country  by  the  Greeks.  Xeither 
is  it  likely  that  HerodotuSi  who  so  accurately  de- 


BABCA  357 

irrihta  the  '  nri  tandy  darrl '  in   the  interior  tpinlile  (to  strant^is  at  Icvt)  tJian  the  royruds  oT 

(Mc1i>.  Ill),  ahuuld  have  iimittcil  all  montion  of  fliee,  beetloi,  fluu,    Bnd   other  iioxiou*  VGnuin, 

the  imrched  and  lianen  wiil,  had  any  mch  existed  which  the  heat  of  the  climate  and  the  filthy  neg- 

nn  the  high  lands  near  the  coast.     In  fact,  the  ligence  of  the  inhabitants  prcserre  in   conalant 

prevalent  descriptinns  of  Rarca  have  been,   fur  strength  and  activitv.     (Pacho,  61Si,  235-S46, 

yeniK,  little  tiuire  tliui  fableni  the  SW.  romer,  in-  Ac  ;  Beechv,  107,  ill,  im,  301,  etpaa.) 
ilcFil  (jiiitiingun  the  dcwrl),  uctos  fully  in  ju^iifr       The  inhahilanta  ore  cxdusivcly  Bedouin  Arabs, 

tlie  arri'unts  of  utter  dewlatinn  Riven  uf  it ;  hut  with  the  excc])tian  of  a  few  Jews  in  the  towna. 

V,.  nnd  N.  the  country  rapidly  impnives,  and  pre-  The  Arabs  diflcr  in  notiiin);lroiii  their  caunli^-men 

Slants  ejclcnsive  crops  of  com  and  lorce  jichiA  nf  in  other  partj^,  except  in  bcin^  dirtier,  less  active, 

excellent  poslnnigc.   The  mountain  xides  are  in  and  exhibiting  the  worst  pans  of  tbeii  national 

moHt  coscK  thivkly  wooded,  and  covered  with  an  character  in  a  more  exaggerated  form.    The  coun- 

escellenl  anil ;  and  even  the  sand  itself  (on  the  try  b  governed  by  a  bey,  subject  to  the  pacha  of  ' 

shore)  is  made,  by  little  bilxiur,  iuxuTiaatly  pro-  'Iripoti ;  and  the  population,  notwithstanding  the 

ductive  during  the  rainy  season.  The  trees  consist  res.>urcea  of  the  country,  is  thin.     Its  amountpro- 

of  pines,  olives,  laurels,  with  a  great  variety  of  bably  does  not  exceed  1,000,000.     {Beechy  and 

duwerinR   shrubs  and  climbcts;   such    as  roses,  Pacho,  ;ia«wi.) 

laurestinas,  honcysucklei-,  and  mjTIicsj  but  the        TheoriBinalinhabitantaoftbiadistrictarecalled 

trees  must  in  esteem  here,  as  in  every  other  Mo-  by  Herodotus  (Mitpom.  pati.)  Africans  (Ai^no), 

hammeihin  countrv,   ore   the   various  species  of  a  term  which  he  seems  always  to    distinguish 

dates,  palmis  and  rigs,  which  fluurL'h  iu  great  vo-  carefully  from  Egyptians    (Ai-yui-rui'),  but  which 

ritlyand  abundance.  Tlie  com  which  this  countrj-  certainly  did  nut  mean  a  black  race  of  men.    Ac- 

]iixslni^e9  is  chietly  barley,  or  dLiourra,  and  oats,  curding  to  Strabo,  it  would  appear  that,  even  irom 

Captain  Ilcechy  saw,  in   the  neighbourhood  of  the  earliest  times,  thev  were  Arabs  following  the 

lU'iigazi,  large  quantities  nf  oats,  which  he  con-  wandering  pastoiid   life,  which  pivvaih  among 

sirlernllubethe^wiiAnicaiuiHMductiunorthesiHL  them  to  the  present  day.  (xvii.e3.5.)     The  Phoi- 

Thi^uluation  was,  however,  in  open  tracts  among  nicians  appear  to  have  traded  with  them  at  a  very 

forisls  aiipatently  deserted  cultivations  (p.  347),  early  period  i  and  from  their  description  of  the 

.md  the  grain   was  IhereTore,  pmbably,  the  pro-  country  pnil>ably  arose  the  liist  fanciful  iilea  of  the 

duct  nf  the  last  neglected  crops.     It  ia'a  singular,  Hesperian  tianlcus,  which,  as  abeady  observed. 

Iiul,  except  in  a  few  accidental  instances  like  the  were  supposed  to  have  their  seat  in  this  rountry. 

present,  a  universal  foci,  thatthe  bread  corns  are  no  It  is  probable  that  the  report  of  this  luxuriance  of 

w-HEiiK  imnoKwoD*.     The  fruit— grapes,  melons,  the  district  was  one  inducement  to  the   Greek 

numiJiins,  melonrani  (or  egg  plants),  mcnmbers,  settlement  in  Cyrenet  but  the  immeiliate  cause 

itas :  a  peculiar  plant,  called  uouria,  is  also  seems  to  have  been   the  preesuie  of  population  in 

._.«!.  ..„.  :«  ,->— t  .1 — J B ■:  Ijccdormon,  amsequent  to  the  expuLsion  of  the 

descendants  of  the  Argonauts  from  Lemnus  by  tba 

[ilenMfuL    ifiit  the  ijlani  for' which' this  country  is  Pelosjrian  population  of  Attica.    After  a  troubled 

the  niMt  Tematkable  is  the  Silphium,  an  nmliel-  residence  ufsome  yeara,  these  exiles  threw  olT  a 

liferous  pcreiniial  resembling  the  hemlock  or  wild  lar^  body  of  emigrants,  who,  utidcr  the  command 

rarrut,  of  which  the  most  marvellous  tales  are  re-  of  llattiis.and  by  onler  of  llie  Delphic  urocte.  esta- 

laled  hy  the  aticlenis.    Its  origin  was  said  to  be  blished  the  lint  Greek  colony  in  Africa  of  which 

miracuions;  it  gieriahed    under    cultivation,  but  there  is  any  reconL    Tlie  (ircssure  of  popuUlJon 

tlinne  in  the  rtu'st  savage  and  neglected  deserts,  continuing  in  Ijieedsemon,  and  the  oracle  urging 

A  li^iuor  produced  from  it  was  esteemed  on  almost  the  Ureeks  to  follow  their  cuuiitrymen,  a  general 

miivental  remeily  for  inward  ailments ;  andvaiious  pMpensity  tv  emigrate  was  at  last  excited;  and, 

IS,  manp(iundcd  of  the  stalk,  leaves,  and  about  sixty  years  after  the  lirst  adventurers  had 

.     ..      re  Iwld  to  be  etiaally  cfBcocii'us  in  outward  landed,  a  movement  that  mi(;hl  almost  lie  called 

nji]>lication&    The  tdlpliium  was  an  object  uf  pub-  national,  was  made  toward   the  African  shores. 

luthoririiledkingoftheGonntry,and  itsligurewos  equally  alarmed  at  this  imiptiuni  they  combined 

Ktum|ied  unirn  llie  coins  of  Ci'rcnc.  (I'liuv,  xix.fl;  to  expel  the  intru'krs,  but  received  so  decisive  ■ 

xxii.  :ti;  I'henphraslus,  iv.  3;  Aman,  kiat.  Ind.  defeat  that  few  of  the  iilgypiians  relumed  to  their 

xliii.;  Exik  Alex.  iiL  2N,  Ac.)     It  does  not,  how-  own  country.     In  the  succeeding  generation  the 

ci-cr,  B|i|»ar  to  diOcr  cssentiatly  from  other  sopo-  town  of  llarca,  which  subsequently  gave  name  to 

rillcplantsofthcsumefamilv,    (Beechy,  409-4^ ;  the  wliole  count  n-,  vas  bull  C    This  once  faraoiu 

I'aclio,  247-26.^)     Thuii,  though  not  verv  varied,  city  hasnow  vanL>hed,3ndevcn  ilssitc  is  amatler 

the  iirodiictiuusofllarra  are  siil&nenlly  aliundonl,  ofilispnte.     For  a  generation  or' two.  there  were 

and  mthiug  but  industry  seems  reqi'ii^te  to  re-  now  twuUreek  kingdoms  in  Africa,  that  nfCyrene 

store  lliis  eounliy  tu  the  state  in  which  Herodotus  and  that  nf  Itarua;  iHith,  however,  shared  the  fate 

K'heUl  it,  when  three  successive  hnn-esis,  on  the  of  tlHnrEgy|itian  neighbour,  and,  under  C'amhyaes, 

■.''uihl,  un  the  Miles,  and  on  the  summits  of  the  became  a  luirt  uf  the  Persian  empire,  aiol  so  re- 

luonnlaius,   ocruincil   liy   the  llreek  inliahitanls  maineil.  till  the  concjuests  of  Alexander  changed 

I'igbt  rmmlhs  in  every  year,     (livechy,  Sii],  3.W.  the as|iect  of  Eastern  affairs.    Under  bui  successon 

•'MT,  tl  pait.;  Pacho,  uU,  UO,   153,  -23i,  tt  paa.;  they  fotmed  a  part  of  the  (irrco-Egyptinn  king- 

lleriid.  Mvl|>.  lull.)  dom;  Imt  Ix-foTK  its  fall   iliey  pasHKl   into   the 

The  domesliu  animals,  camel*,  hnnvm,  nxen,  hands  of  Rome.  Withtbeiminiionofibe  northern 

o>-i'S.  sheep,  anil  gimls,  are  extremely  numerous,  nations,  Africa  fell  for  a  while  liencath  the  power 


liiililen  by  the  Jlohnmmeilan  law  to  the  faithful,  Iu  tlujr  dumiuiims.  itiis  was  the  lost  imiiortar 
is  finiiid  only  in  Ids  savage  stale;  but  in  this  Terulution.  During  the  many  centuries  Inat  tl 
Mate  lie  exists  in  gn-at  numlKts,  maintaining  his  i  (iivck  anil  Kinnan  ruleil  bi  Barco,  civilisation, 
griHind  against  the  jackals,  hyieiias,  and  uttier  arts,  and  sciences  Hourishtd  :  the  remains  of  aqnc- 
ls^3su  uf  I'lrey  that  infect  the  same  locality.  In-  iiiicts,ti'm|>les,  and  other  iiughtyworks,sulGciently 
s-'CIs  are  exceedingly  numerous ;  and  even  tlie  attest  this  fact ;  but  the  relinement  was  entirely 
locust,  which  is  a  freiiueut  visitor,  is  scarcely  more  I  foreign,  and  vanished  with  the  exotic  population 


358 


BARCELOXA 


which  introdaced  it.  The  Arab  is  again  the  sole 
possessor  of  the  soil ;  and  the  description  of  the 
shepherd,  who  held  it  before  the  Greek  arrived, 
would  in  cverv  important  particular  apply  to  him 
at  this  day.  Yhe  cities  of  this  countrv,  Specially 
those  of  Ik'renice  (Bmptizt),  Arsinoe,  Barca,  Apol- 
lonia,  and  C^nnene,  which  gave  name  to  the  dLstriot 
called  Pentapolis  (n«i^airoAi«),  are  vor>'  famous 
in  antiquity.  These  towns,  however,  fretjuently 
changed  their  namo),  so  that  it  is  sometimes  dif- 
ficult to  follow  the  ancient  writen«.  The  name 
Baica  has,  however,  undergone  no  clinnge,  and  the 
W.  di\i»ion  of  the  country  is  still  callwl  Cyre- 
naica.  The  £.  portion  is  called  Marmorica,  which 
is  also  an  ancient  denomination. 

BARCELONA,  a  city  and  sea-port  of  Spain,  on 
the  Mediterranean,  cap.  prov.  Catalonia,  on  the 
margin  of  a  fruitful  plam,  between  the  riven  Besos 
and  Llobregat,  at  tlie  foot  of  Monjouich  {Mans 
Jboif),  315  m.  ENE.  Madrid,  194  m.  NE.  Valencia, 
connected  by  railway  with  both  these  cities.  Pop. 
160,014,  aiul  including  the  suburbs  183,787,  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1857.  The  town  is  strongly 
fortified,  being  surrounded  with  stn.>ng  walls,  fusse;*, 
and  batteries.  The  citadel  to  the  NE.  of  die  city 
is  a  r^^lar  octagon  on  the  system  of  Vauban, 
with  accommodation  for  7,000  men.  The  citadel 
communicates  with  the  fort  of  San  Carlos  on  the 
sea,  by  a  double  covere<l  way,  which  surrounds  the 
city  as  far  as  Harcelonetta.  The  fortress  of  Mon- 
jouich, on  the  mountain  of  that  nnnie,  Lh  looked 
upon,  if  properly  garrisoned,  as  impn^nablc ;  it 
commands  the  town  on  tlie  S\V. 

The  cit^  is  divided  hv  the  promenade,  called  I^ 
Bambla,  into  two  nearly  equal  parts ;  that  to  the 
N W.  being  called  the  new,  and  that  to  the  N  E. 
the  old  city.  The  streets  in  the  latter  arc  nar- 
rower and  more  crooked  than  in  the  former.  Tlie 
houses,  which  are  mostly  of  brick,  are  generally 
from  four  to  five  stories  high,  with  numerous  win- 
dows and  balconies.  The  old  Romau  town  may 
still  be  distinctly  trace<l.  occup\4ng  a  small  emf- 
nence  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  with  one  of  its 
gates  and  some  of  its  towers  well  preserved.  With 
the  exception  of  the  cathedral  and  custom-houM', 
and  the  old  palace  of  the  kings  of  Aragon,  few  of 
the  public  buildings  are  worth  any  special  notice. 
The  cathedral  is  a  noble  structure,  in  the  Inter 
Gothic  style,  with  finely  painted  windows,  and  a 
choir  of  good  workmanship  and  singular  delicacy. 
With  the  exception  of  that  of  the  Domuiicaiis, 
the  convents  are  destitute  of  any  attractions;  and 
the  records  and  pictures  of  the  heretics  who  liad 
suffered  in  the  city  from  14x9  to  172H,  described  by 
Mr.  Towujiend  as  existing  in  the  latter,  are  no 
longer  to  be  met  with. 

liurcelona  has  a  royal  junta  of  government,  and 
18  the  seat  of  the  proWncial  authorities.    A  Junta 
de  CmmerdOf  or  board  of  trade,  supports  public  ' 
professorshi|>s  of  navigation,  architecture,  paint- 
mg,  sculpture,  perspective  landscape,  and  orna- 
mental   fiower-drawing,    engraving,    chemistry, 
experimental  philosophy,  agriculture,  and  botany  ; . 
short-hand  writing:,  commerce,  and  accounts ;  me-  ■ 
clumics,  and  the  English,  French,  and  Italian  lan- 
guages.   It  has  a  large  cabinet  of  coins,  and  awards  ; 
pansicms  and  rewards  for  sui>erior  attainments  and  ' 
useful  inventions.    It  also  maintauis  some  of  its  j 
Btndents  in  foreign  })arts,  to  perfect  themselves  in  i 
their  studies ;  and  has  expended  large  sums  in  ! 
drawing  plans  and  taking  levels  of  the  ground  for  ' 
canals  and  other  public  works  in  the  province.    It ' 
has  also  four  pubhc  libraries,  an  ecclesiastical  semi-  I 
narv,  eight  collegeis  a  college  of  surgeons,  and  J 
professorship  of  practical  m^cine,  a  college  of ! 
phannacy,  academies  of  arts  and  sciences,  and  of ' 
otUet  Uttret,  a  school  for  deaf  and  dumb,  house  of  ^ 


industiT  {Real  Cam  de  Caridad)^  numerous  hos- 
pitals, a  foundling  institution,  and  several  other 
charities.  The  general  hospital  L<)  a  well  managed 
institutitm.  The  population  of  the  city  has  not 
an  exclusively  Spanish  api)earance.  Si>anii»h  hats 
are  scarcely  to  be  seen,  and  the  mantilla  is  not 
indispensable.  The  features  of  the  females  are 
more  regular,  their  forms  slighter,  their  c<»m- 
plexions  clearer,  and  their  hair  less  coarse  than 
that  of  the  Andalusian  ladies ;  but  their  eyes  have 
less  expression.  The  dress  of  the  peasantrj-  is  ]>e- 
ciiliar,  their  red  caps  hanging  a  foot  down  their 
backs;  crimson  girdles,  and  gaudy  coloured  plaids, 
give  them  a  higliU'  grotesque  appearance.  liar- 
celona  has  some  mie  public  walks;  the  Rambla, 
already  referretl  to,  Ls  always  crowded,  and  w 
hardly  inferior  to  the  lk)ulcvaids  of  Paris.  There 
is  also  a  charming  walk  round  the  ramparts,  with 
delightful  views,  particularly  towards  the  sea. 

The  opera  here  enjoys  a  considerable  reputation ; 
the  interior  of  the  theatre  is  large  and  handsome. 
There  are  several  valuable  libraries  and  collections 
of  MSS. ;  especially  the  royal  archives  of  the  king- 
dom of  Arugon,  containing  20,000  lotwe  ilSS., 
8,000  in  folio  volumes,  and  900  papal  bulls.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  those  of  silk,  leather, 
lace,  W(M)1,  and  cotton,  but  none  of  them  are  very 
flourishing. 

The  trsuie  of  Barcelona  has  declined  since  the 
emancipation  of  S{>anish  America ;  but  it  is  still 
far  from  hicunsid<'rab]e^  The  subjoined  state- 
ment, compiled  from  official  returns,  gives  the 
number  of  nritith  vessels  which  enteretl  the  ix»rt. 
of  Barcelona  during  the  five  vears  13t)0-64,  to- 
getlier  with  the  amount  of  their  tonnage,  and  tlie 
total  value  of  cargoes : — 


Tfv* 

YetteU 

1860 

170 

1861 

Vi9 

186*2 

ITiO 

iHt;:) 

185 

im* 

104 

Toua 


37.793 
34,7S5 
4«.9»2 
4i),G20 
27,Uli5 


Vftloe  of  CUVOM 


30S,W>.'i 
9(5.7iO 

107,615 
8:),870 


The  principal  imports  are  cotton,  sugar,  fisfi, 
hides,  cocoa,  iron  h<K»ps,  cinnamon,  dye-wtKHls,  in- 
digo, staves,  cheese,  bees'  wax,  coflTpe,  horns,  and 
specie^  mostly  from  America,  Cuba,  and  P<»rto 
liico.  The  exports  consL'*t  ()f  wrought  silks,  soap, 
firearms,  paper,  liats,  laces,  ribands  and  steel.  Tlie 
harbour  is  formed  by  a  mole  running  to  a  con- 
siderable distance  in  a  S.  direction,  having  a  light- 
house and  batterj*  at  its  extremity.  The  depth 
of  water  within  the  mole  is  from  18  to  20  ft ;  but 
there  is  a  bar  outside,  which  has  frequently  not 
more  than  10  ft,  water.  When  in  the  hartxiur, 
vessels  are  pretty  well  protectetl ;  they  are,  how- 
ever, exposed  to  the  S.  winds,  and  great  damage 
w^as  done  by  a  dreadful  storm  in  1821.  Imt,^ 
vessels  are  obliged  to  anchor  outside  the  mole. 
ITie  commerciaJ  actiWtv  of  the  city  has  greatly 
improved  since  the  opening  of  the  lines  of  railway 
which  connect  it  vrith  the  capital  and  the  most 
important  towns  of  Spain.  A  railway  across  the 
Pyrenees  to  Perpignan  completes  the  direct  in- 
tercourse with  the  northern  states  of  Europe.  The 
line  from  Barcelona  to  Saragossa  was  chiefly  con- 
structed vrith  the  aid  of  French  capital. 

Barcelona  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded 
about  200  years  before  the  Cliristian  era,  and  JiO<) 
after  the  establLnhment  of  the  Carthaginians  in 
Spain,  and  to  have  been  named  after  its  founder, 
Hamilcar  Barcino.  After  the  Romans  and  the 
Goths,  it  was  subjugated  by  the  Arabs,  in  the 
Ijeginning  of  the  eighth  centur\';  and  was  n'- 
conquereil  from  them  by  the  Catalonians,  aidetl  Ity 


BARCELONA  (NEW) 

Charlemagne  and  Ludovico  Pio,  m  SOI.  It  was 
then  governed  by  counts,  who  were  independent 
sovereigns,  till  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century, 
when  it  was  ceded,  by  marriage,  to  the  crown  of 
Aragon.  Barcelona  is  distinguijihed  in  the  history 
of  the  middle  ages  fur  the  zeal,  skill,  and  success 
with  which  her  citizens  prosecuted  commercial 
imdertakings.  She  singly  rivalled  the  maritime 
towns  of  Italy  in  the  commerce  of  the  Levant; 
and  was  one  of  the  lirst  to  establish  consuls  and  | 
factories  in  distant  countries,  for  the  protection  j 
and  security  of  trade.  She  would  seem  also  to  be  ' 
entitled  to  the  honour  of  having  compiled  and 
promulgated  the  famous  code  of  maritime  law, 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Cono$kito  dd  Mare ; 
and  the  earliest  authentic  notices  of  the  practice 
of  marine  insurance,  and  of  the  negotiation  of  bills 
of  exchange,  are  to  be  found  in  her  annals.  She 
has  been  more  celebrated  as  a  commercial  than  as 
a  manufacturing  town ;  though  iu  this,  also,  her 
progress  has  been  ver}'  respectable. 

Barcelona  has  sustaincKl  seven  regular  sieges 
since  its  recovery  from  the  Arabs.  During  the 
greater  part  of  the  war  of  the  Succession,  it  ad- 
hered firmly  to  the  party  of  Charles ;  but,  after  a 
desperate  resistance,  it  was  taken,  in  1714,  by  the 
forces  of  Pliilip  V.,  commanded  by  the  Due  de 
licirwick.  The  French  got  possession  of  it  in 
1^08,  and  kept  it  all  through  the  Peninsular  War, 
In  1821  it  was  attacked  by  dhe  yellow  fever,  which 
h»  said  to  have  carried  oflf  a  fifth  part  of  the  popu- 
lation. Thirteen  councils  have  been  held  here, 
and  above  twenty-four  assemblies  of  the  Cortes, 
down  to  the  last,  m  1706.  It  has  had,  also,  many 
visits  from  the  Spanish  monarchs,  as  they  were 
obliged  by  the  laws  of  Catalonia  to  ap|)ear  here 
in  person  to  be  crowned  and  take  the  oaths  as 
sovereigns  of  this  principality  and  of  Aragon : 
which  ceremony  was  obsejr\'ed  down  to  the  time  of 
Philip  V.  ^Minano,  Diccionario  Geografico,  ii. 
390-396,  anu  Suppl.,  art.  *  liarcelona ;'  Keport  of 
Mr.  Consul  Uaker  on  the  Trade  of  Barcelona  for 
1864,  in  *  Consular  Keports.') 

Bakcklon'A  (New),  a  town  of  Colombia,  cap. 
pro  v.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Neveri,  about  3  m. 
from  the  sea,  and  40  m.  8W.  Cumana;  lat,  lO*'  6' 
62  "  N.;  long.  64©  47'  W.  Estimated  pop.  1 0,000 ; 
about  half  of  whom  are  whites.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  it  had  a  considerable  trade 
with  the  W.  India  islands.  It  Ls  still  a  place  of  some 
commerce,  being  well  situated  for  the  exportation 
of  the  cattle  and  other  produce  of  the  Uanot  to  the 
W.  India  islands.  Speaking  generally,  it  is  badly 
built ;  the  houses  bemg  of  mud  and  ill  furnished. 
The  streets  are  unpaved,  which  makes  them  filthy 
during  the  rains,  while  in  dry  weather  the  dust  is 
intolerable.  It  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  most  un- 
healthy places  in  S.  America.  It  was  founded  in 
1634 ;  previously  to  which,  the  cap.  of  the  distr. 
was  Cumanagoto,  two  leagues  higher  up  the  river. 

BAKCKLOXETA.  a  suburb  of  Barcelona,  on 
the  SE.  side  of  the  river,  often  considered  as  a  sepa- 
rate town.  It  was  built  in  1754,  on  a  uniform 
plan,  under  the  direction  of  Marquis  Mina:  the 
bouses  are  all  of  red  brick. 

BAKCELONETTE,  a  town  of  France,  d^. 
Basses  Alpes,  cap.  arrond.  on  the  Ubave,  SO  m.  NE. 
Digne.  Pop.  2,426  in  1861.  It  is  beautifully 
situated  in  a  fine  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps, 
above  3,800  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It 
consists  principally  of  two  main  streets,  which  in- 
tersect each  otlier  at  right  angles ;  the  houses  are 
neat  and  good ;  and,  altogether,  this  is  perhaps  the 
handsomesttownof  thel'renchAlps.  It  has  a  court 
of  original  jurisdiction,  a  coUege,  a  primary  nor- 
mal school,  and  an  agricultural  society.  Above 
200  silk  looms  have  recently  been  established  here, 


BAREILY 


36a 


and  it  has  also  some  manufactnies  of  doth,  and 
fulling-mills. 

Barcelonette  is  believed  to  oocnpy  the  site  <^ 
a  Koman  town.  Being  on  the  frontier  of  two 
states  frequendy  at  war,  it  has  been  repeatedly 
taken  and  retaken:  but  was  definitively  ceded 
to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  It  was  the 
native  place  of  Manuel,  the  liberal  deputy,  to 
whose  memory  a  monument  has  been  constructed 
in  the  principal  square.  It  consists  of  a  fountain, 
surmounted  by  a  funeral  urn,  and  having  on  one 
of  its  sides  a  bust  of  Manael,  with  the  insoription, 
taken  from  Beranger,  '  Bras,  t^te  et  coeur,  tout 
^tait  peuple  en  loL 

BARCELOS,  or  BARCELLOS,  a  town  of  Por- 
tugal, prov.  Minho,  on  the  Cavado,  28  m.  N. 
Oporto.  Pop.  5,200  in  1858.  It  is  surrounded 
by  walls  flanked  with  towers :  streets  broad  and 
straight,  houses  well  built:  it  has  a  fine  bridge 
over  the  river,  a  grammar-school,  a  hospital,  and 
a  workhouse.    The  town  is  very  ancient 

BAKDSET,  a  small  island  of  N.  Wales,  in  the 
Irish  Sea,  near  the  N.  point  of  Cardigan  Bay, 
CO.  Caernarvon;  lat  62©  45'  N.,  long.  4^  46'  W. 
Length  about  2  m. ;  breadth  1  m.  The  pop.  in 
1831  was  84,  but  had  decreased  in  1861  to  81.  The 
island  contains  370  acres,  one-eighth  of  which  is 
a  mountain  ridge,  feeding  a  few  sheep  and  rabbits; 
the  rest  a  tolerably  fertile  clay  soil,  growing  good 
wheat  and  barley.  Its  rental  does  not  exceed 
lOOA  a  year,  in  three  distinct  holdings.  It  is  ao- 
ceftsible  only  on  the  SE.  side,  whero  there  is  a 
small  well-sheltered  harbour  for  vessels  of  thirty 
or  forty  tons.  On  the  N.  and  NE.  it  is  sheltered 
by  the'promontory  of  Braich-y-PwU,  2^  m.  distant 
In  the  channel  between  them  is  a  very  rapid  cur- 
rent, rendering  it  unsafe,  except  to  experienced 
hands.  The  perpendicular  and  projecting  difb 
are  a  great  resort  of  puffins  and  other  migratory 
birds  in  the  breeding  season,  and  their  eggs  form 
a  considerable  trade,  being  gathered  by  men  sus- 
pended from  the  summits  of  the  promontory.  There 
IS  a  lighthouse  on  the  island  (with  fixed  and  re- 
volving lights),  established  in  1821,  under  the 
Trinity  House,  ha^nng  the  lantern  elevated  141  ft. 
above  the  sea.  It  is  said  to  owe  its  present  name 
to  its  forming  a  refuge  for  the  last  Welsh  baids. 
It  had  an  ancient  and  celebrated  abbey,  the  annual 
revenue  of  which,  at  the  general  suppression,  was 
46^  Is.  A^d,  The  site  is  traceable  only  from  nu- 
merous walled  graves,  and  a  building  called  the 
Abbot's  Lodge.  In  a  ruined  antique  oratory,  with 
an  insulated  stone  altar  at  the  E.  end,  the  church 
service  is  read  on  Sundays  by  one  of  the  inhabw 
to  the  rest,  when  the  weather  does  not  permit  them 
to  resort  to  the  parish  church  of  Aberdavon,  on 
the  promontory. 

BAREILY,  an  InL  distr.  of  Hmdostan,  pror. 
Delhi,  mostly  between  28<)  and  29^  N.  lat ;  having 
N.  the  distr.  of  Pillibheet,  E.  and  SE.  Shahje- 
hanpore,  and  W.  and  SW.  Saiswan  and  Monda- 
bad :  area  6,900  sq.  m. ;  surface  generally  level 
and  well  cultivated :  the  Ganges  bounds  it  W., 
and  the  Ramgunga  and  many  small  streams  inter- 
sect it  In  summer  the  heat  is  intense,  but  during 
winter,  with  N.  winds,  the  thermometer  falls 
below  30^  Fahr.,  and  water  freezes  in  the  tents, 
A  few  years  ago  there  were  said  to  he  4,458,880 
kucha  begas  of  land  in  cultivation,  assessed  with 
a  land-tax  of  2,266,280  rupees,  or  a  httle  more  than 
8  annas  per  bega.  Most  of  this  is  realised,  though 
the  gov.  not  resorting  to  sales  of  land  for  arreaia 
of  taxation,  as  in  thelower  provinces  the  land-tax 
has  always  been  diffinilt  to  collect,  and  much 
de|)ends  upon  the  decision  and  judgment  of  the  col- 
lector. 3,362,022  begas  are  fit  for  culture,  bat  not 
in  actual  tillage;  and  8,558,899  b^aa  are  reported 


360 


BAKEILY 


u  waste.  To  the  N.  there  is  much  jungle,  and 
^between  Barnily  citv  and  Ano[tither  extensive 
wastes  prevail,' consbting  of  lands  which  were 
formerly  cultivatcfl,  but  are  now  wvered  with 
longgra«*,  which  nareheaand  inflames  in  summer, 
and  swarmH  with  foxes,  jackals,  hogs,  and  game. 
Bii»hop  Ilcber  .say.s  that  the  soil  and  climate  gene- 
rally are  very  fine;  in  most  jwirts  date-palnw  and 
plantains  arc  common,  as  well  as  walnut,  apple, 
and  pear-trees,  vines,  drc.  This  distr.  is  noted  for 
a  fine  s|)ecies  of  rice  called  Ixumati  (pregnant  with 
perfume),  suiierior  to  the  best  of  Patna.  Hua- 
bandrj',  in  general,  'w  superior  to  that  of  Oude, 
and  the  articles  produced  of  a  better  qualitv :  the 
sugar,  rice,  and  cottoq  are  the  highest  prfced  in 
India.  Tlie  roads  and  bridges  are  better  than  in 
most  part«  of  the  liritish  provinces;  and  the  cart 
commonlv  in  use  is  a  larger  and  more  convenient 
vehicle  tlian  that  of  Bengal.  Formerly  a  groat 
deal  of  salt,  called  hurrah  salt,  was  made  collate- 
rally with  nitre,  in  this  distr.,  and  exported  in 
luge  quantiti(>i4.  The  im]K)rts  fn>m  the  lower 
|m>v.  are*  chietly  chintzej*.  giidjf k?9,  salt,  coarse  sugar, 
and  cutleiT,  cottons,  cheap  trinkets,  coral,  beiuls, 
and  slave-girl.H :  articlct*  from  the  hill  region,  and 
even  from  Thibet,  were  formerly  im]K)rted  thither 
on  the  bocks  of  goat«.  The  inhab.  are  pretty 
equally  divided  into  IIindrK>sand  Mohammedans: 
the  tribe  of  Banjorees  (carriers  and  bullock 
drivers),  estimated  at  M.OOi),  have  been  all  con- 
verted fn)m  the  former  to  the  latter  faith.  Not 
long  since  Bareily  distr.  was  overrun  bv  clans  of 
Monamme<lan  warrion<,  or  rathex  banditti,  ready 
to  join  any  leader  who  chose  to  hire  them,  and 
many  thousands  of  whom  served  under  Holkar, 
Jeswunt  iSow,  &c. :  they  were  disaffected  t4)  the 
British  government,  and  for  many  years  distnrl)ed 
tlie  couiitrj'  by  rob!>eries  and  other  crimes  :  they 
have  at  length  mostly  either  (Usperseil  or  settled 
down  into  more  quiet  lives :  but  Bore.ily  is  still 
a  distr.  from  which  judicial  ap]>eals  to  the  supreme 
courtH  are  verj-^  frequent.  There  are  lOtt  Pershin 
and  1()5  IIind<x>  schools  in  this  distr.,  entirely 
supported  by  the  pupils.  Hindoos  an<l  Mif«sul- 
maiis  have  no  scruples  as  to  mixing  together  in 
thci»c  estaldishments :  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
and  Perfiian  constitute  the  principal  branches  of 
tuition.  The  original  Sanscrit  name  of  this  terri- 
tory was  Kuttair,  till  incorjxirated  with  Bohilcund ; 
with  which  it  was  cede<l,  m  1774,  to  the  nabob  of 
Oude:  since  IKOl  it  has  been  under  the  Briti;$h 
linfid.  of  Bengal. 

Bareily,  a  city  of  UindoAtan,  cap.  of  the  alK>ve 
district,  seat  of  a  court  of  circuit  and  appt^al,  head 
of  a  judicial  divi^don,  and  one  of  the  six  chief  pro- 
vincial cities  in  the  Bengal  presidency ;  on  the 
banks  of  the  united  .l(H>ah  and  Sunkrah ;  lat.  2'^  23' 
N.,  long.  7'jo  16'  E.:  42  m.  XW.  of  the  (ianges, 
and  7(K)  m.  i^W.  Calcutta.  Total  area  2,i)37  sq. 
m.;  pop.  1,37(<,208  in  IMGl.  The  princiivil  street 
is  nearly  2  m.  long,  and  tolerably  well  built,  but 
the  liouMis  are  oidy  one  st(»ry  high.  There  are 
several  mosques,  and  an  old  fort  crun]bling  to 
ruin,  llie  British  civil  station  and  cantonments, 
consisting  of  a  quadrangular  citadel,  surroundecl 
by  a  ditch,  stand  S.  of  the  town. 

The  chief  manufactures  are  brazen  water-iwts, 
dect)rated  with  vamLth  and  a  remarkable  imitation 
of  gilding;  other  household  articles;  withsad<ller\', 
cutlery,  car])ets,  embroiden*.  and  hookahs.  There 
are  131  Persian  and  Hindoo  schr)ols  in  Bareily, 
300  seminaries,  attendetl  by  alnrnt  3,<XX)  pupils, 
and  an  cstablL-«he<I  English  college  ^ith  00  stu- 
denta;  11  {lersons  tea4'h  Arabic,  and  2  others  me- 
dicine, and  in  the  vicinity  there  are  9  Hindoo  and 
18  Persian  scluNds.  In  IK  10  an  alarming  insur- 
jecdon  broke  out  in  this  city,  oecasionetl  by  an 


BARJOLS 

attempt  to  impose  a  police  tax,  which  waa  not 
quelled  without  much  difficulty  and  bloodshed. 
The  lands  in  the  vicinity  are  but  8  fu  above  the 
waters  of  the  Ramgunga,  and  are  annually  inun- 
dated. 

BARENTON,  a  town  of  France,  ddp.  LaManche, 
cap.  cant,,  7  m.  SE.  Morlaix.    Pop.  2,918  in  1801. 

BAKFLEUR,  a  sea-port  to^Ti  of  France,  ddp. 
I^  Manche,  16  m.  E.  Cherbouig.  Pop.  13^  in 
1801.  Its  hari)our,  which  waa  once  considerable, 
is  now  choked  up  with  sand. 

BARCtA,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  prov.  Lucca, 
new  the  Scrchio,  16  m.  N.  Lucca.  Pop.  of  dis- 
trict 7,790  in  1861.  There  are  line  jasper  quarries 
in  its  environs. 

BAh<;A,  a  town  of  Northern  Italv,  prov.  C<»ni, 
28  m.  SSW.  Turin.  Pop.  3,900  in'  1861.  It  ia 
situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Alp8,  near  the  left  bank 
of  the  (rrandon.  It  haa  a  manufactory  of  arms, 
and  a  pretty  active  commerce.  There  are  slate 
quarries  in  its  vncinitv. 

BARGEMOXT,  a' town  of  France,  d(«p.  Var,  7 
m.  NNE.  Draguignan.  Pop.  1.870  in  1801.  It 
stands  on  a  hill  coverenl  with  vines  an<l  olives,  and 
sheltereKl  bv  mountaius.  Moreri,  the  author  of 
the  famous  liistorical  and  biographical  dictionary 
(I^  Grand  Dictionnaire  Ilistonque),  was  bora 
here<  in  1043. 

BAH  I  (an.  Barium) ^  a  sea-port  and  city  of 
Southern  Italv,  cnp.  pn)V.  of  some  name,  on  the 
Adriatic,  50  ni.  NNW.  Tarentum  ;  lat.  41^  7'  :.2" 
N.,  long.  10©  53'  2"  E.  Pop.  31,327  in  1801.  The 
town  occupies  a  t<»ngue  of  land  of  a  trianpilar 
form,  and  ls  defended  by  double  walls  and  a  cita- 
del. The  views  from  the  rampart  above  the  har- 
lK>ur  are  extremely  tine.  Streets  narrow,  crook e<l, 
an<l  filthy ;  houses  mostly  mean ;  water  brackish 
and  Imd.  Principal  public  buildings,— cathe<lral. 
with  a  steeple  203  ft.  high ;  the  old  priorj'  of  St, 
Nicholas,  founded  in  1087,  resorted  to  by  thonsamls 
of  pilgrims;  the  collegi%  founded  in  1S17  for  the 
education  of  nobles :  the  lyceum,  the  new  theatre, 
and  the  vai't  building  of  the  diocesan  seminar^', 
wliich  admits  120  scholars  from  four  provinws, 
who  are  fed,  lodgeil,  clothed,  and  instruct wl  fiir 
eight  ducats  a  month  each.  It  is  the  seat  of  an 
archbishopric^  and  of  a  civil  and  criminal  nmrt. 
Besides  the  cat  hedral  it  has  several  parish  chun*he.'*, 
and  convents  for  lH»th  sexes,  an  orfihan  asylum, 
I  two  hospitals,  and  a  lai^e  arsenal,  inclu«ling  within 
!  it  corn  magazine.^  and  a  mtmt  de  piete.  It  lias 
fabrics  f»f  cfjtton,  cloth,  silk,  hats,  soap,  gl&<ss  &c. 
The  aequM  stomachiray  a  liquor  made  of  herbs  an«l 
spices,  and  use<l  all  over  Naples  as  chasse  caffi\  is 
])rei>ared  here  in  great  perfectitin.  The  p<jrt,  which 
is  encumbered  with  san«i,  only  admits  small  vej»- 
sels ;  but  in  the  roads  there  is  good  anchorage  in 
fn>m  10  to  18  fathoms.  Nearer  the  shore,  in  from 
10  to  12  fathoms,  the  ground  is  foul  and  ro<-ky. 
A  railway,  o{)ene<l  in  1805,  connects  the  town  with 
Trani  an«l  Ancona,  and  may  i>ossil»ly  crmtribute  to 
raise  the  fallen  fortinies  of  the  place.  Ban  is  a 
verv  ancient  citv.  1 1  is  referred  to  bv  Horace,  Hnri 
mienia  piacvsi.  (Sat.  i.  5.)  In  more  mo<lem  times 
it  full  successively  u»to  the  jK^ssession  of  the  Sara- 
cens and  Xonnans.  It  has  Ihm'u  tliree  times  nearly 
destroyed,  and  as  often  rebuilt  on  the  same  place. 

BAKILE,  a  town  <if  Southern  Italv,  prov.  Po- 
tenzu,  4  m.  SSE.  Melfi.  P«>p.  4,272  in  1801.  It 
sta?uls  <kn  a  hill,  and  has  three  churches.  It  wjw 
fouiK'.ed  by  a  Greek  colonv  of  the  Lower  Empire. 

BAIUAC,  a  town  of  l^rance,  de'p.  (iard,  cap. 
cant.,  19  m.  E.  Alais.    Pop.  2,523  in  18t;i. 

BAK.TOLS,  a  town  of  France,  d<'p.  Var,  cnp. 
cant.,  12  m.  NXW.  BrignoUes.  Pop.  3,43.">  in 
1801.  It  has  a  filature  of  silk,  with  fabrics  of 
l)ai>er  and  earthenware,  distilleries,  and  taimeries. 


BARKING 

•The  subterranean  chapel  of  the  ci-devemt  convent 
of  the  barefooted  Carmelites  has  some  very  curious 
stalactites. 

BARKING,  a  town  and  par.  of  England,  co. 
Essex,  hund.  Beacontra,  on  the  Koding,  8  m.  E. 
London.  The  population,  which  was  3,404  in 
1H31,  liad  risen  to  5,076  in  1861.  The  whole  pa- 
rish had  a  pop.  of  10,996  in  1861.  The  town  is 
sit^iatcd  at  the  head  of  Barking  Creek  (as  the  Ko- 
ding, below  the  town,  is  usually  called),  where  it 
^videns  and  receives  the  tide  of  the  Thames,  2  m. 
above  its  intlux  into  that  river.  The  Roding  con- 
tracts much  immediately  above  the  town,  but  has 
l)cen  made  navigable  for  small  craft  to  Ilford. 
The  church  was  formerly  attached  to  the  celebrated 
abbey,  and  has  many  curious  monuments.  The 
living  is  a  vicarage,  with  two  chapels  (one  at  Il- 
ford, the  other  at  Epping  Forest)  annexed ;  it  is 
in  the  patronage  of  All  Souls'  ColL,  Oxford. 
There  is  a  free  school  and  market  house.  A  court 
is  held  bv  the  lord  of  the  manor  everv  third  week, 
where  causes  of  trespass,  and  of  debts  under  40«. 
are  tried.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  fishermen, 
or  engaged  as  bargemen  and  market  carriers  to 
Londtin.  The  parish  contains  10,170  acres,  about 
1,500  of  which  are  occupied  bv  the  forest  of  Hai- 
naiilt,  where  is  the  famous  t'airlop  Oak,  round 
which  an  annual  fair  is  held  on  the  first  Friday  in 
July.  Another  portion,  called  the  Level,  is  so  low 
that  high  tides  are  only  kept  out  by  an  embank- 
ment ;  and  it  has  been  subject  in  former  times  to 
frequent  inundations.  The  last  serious  one  oc- 
curred in  1707,  when  1,000  acres  of  rich  land  were 
lost,  and  a  sandbank  formed  at  the  breach,  1  m. 
long,  stretching  half  across  the  river.  After  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  by  the  proprietors,  parlia- 
ment took  it  up  &s  a  national  concern,  and  a  fresh 
emlmnkment  was  made,  which  cost  40,000/!.  This 
has  been  since  kept  in  reimir  un<ler  commissioners 
appointed  for  the  purpose.  The  bank  is  from  8  to 
14  ft,  high,  and  has  a  pathway  on  its  summit, 
(ireat  quantities  of  vegetables  are  supplietl  from 
this  {)ariHh  to  the  London  markets,  being  for- 
warded chiefly  by  railway.  Under  the  Poor  Law 
Amendment  Act,  the  whole  parish  i»  placed  in  the 
Romford  union,  and  has  eight  guardians. 

The  abl)ev  was  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
ancient  in  the  kingdom;  it  was  founded  about  677, 
for  nuns  of  the  Benedictine  order,  and  several  of 
its  abbesses  were  canonised.  In  870,  it  was  de- 
stroyed bv  the  Danes,  and  in  the  10th  centurv 
rebuilt  and  restored  to  its  former  sjilendour  by 
Edgar.  Sul)sequent  to  the  Conquest,  its  govem- 
nieiit  was  frequently  a^ssumed  by  the  nnglLsh 
queens.  Its  abbess  was  one  of  the  four  who  held 
barr»nial  rank,  and  lived  in  great  state.  At  the 
general  sujipression,  its  annual  revenue  was,  ac- 
cording to  Speed,  1,08}/.  6«.  2^^/. ;  according  to 
Dugdale,  86_V.  125.  3^^/.  The  abljess  and  thirty 
nuns  were  pensioned  off.  There  is  scarcely  a  trace 
left  of  the  building. 

HAU-LE-DUi;,  or  BAH-SrR-ORXAIN,atomi 
of  France,  cap.  dop.  Mou.'-e,  on  the  Omain,  128  m. 
1'^.  Paris  on  tlie  Paris-Sira-^ljourg  railway.  Pop. 
11.1)22  in  1801.  It  stands  partly  on  the  summit 
and  declivity,  and  partly  at  the  foot  of  a  hill.  Its 
<\'istle,  of  which  only  the  ruins  now  remain,  was 
burnt  down  in  1649,  and  its  fortifications  were  dis- 
mantled in  1670.  The  lower  town,  traverse<l  by 
tlie  Ornain,  over  which  there  are  three  stone 
bridges,  is  the  best  built,  and  Ls  the  seiit  of  manu- 
factures and  trade.  Among  the  public  buihlings 
are  the  hotel  of  the  prefect,  the  town-house,  col- 
h'^e,  and  theatre.  In  one  of  the  churches  is  the 
cek'lirated  ni(»nuniont  of  Kene  de  (yhalons.  Prince 
of  Orange,  by  liichier,  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo. 
Besides  tile  college,  the  t4)wn  has  a  nunncrj',  a 


BARMOUTH 


361 


normal  school,  a  society  of  agricolturo  and  of 
arts,  and  a  public  library'' ;  it  is  also  the  seat  of 
tribunals  of  original  jurisdiction  and  commerce, 
and  of  a  council  of  prudes  hommes.  The  establish- 
ments for  spinning  cotton  produce  annually  about 
600,000  kilogs.  yam;  and  there  are  fabrics  of 
cotton  stuJSs,  handkerchiefs,  hosiery,  hats,  and 
jewellery,  with  tanneries,  works  for  dyeing  Turkey- 
red.  The  railway,  as  well  as  the  river  Omain, 
which  is  navigable  from  the  town,  furnish  great 
faciliti^  for  forwarding  timber,  wine,  and  other 
articles,  for  the  supply  of  Paris.  Its  wnjiturea  de 
gro$eiUes  are  highly  esteemed. 

BARLETTA,  a  sea-port  town  of  Southern 
Italy,  prov.  Caserta,  on  the  Adriatic,  34  m.  NW. 
Bari;  \&t,  41©  19'  26"  N.,  long.  16°  IS'  10"  E. 
Pop.  26,379  in  1861.  It  is  encompassed  by  walla, 
and  defended  by  a  citadel ;  streets  wide  and  well 
paved,  but  slippery ;  houses  large  and  lofty,  built 
with  hewn  stone,  which,  from  age,  has  acquired  a 
polish  little  inferior  to  that  of  marble.  Principal 
public  building — the  cathedral,  a  CJothic  stmo- 
ture,  remarkable  for  fts  high  steeple,  elegant  ex- 
terior, and  the  antique  granite  columns  in  its 
interior :  there  arc  also  several  other  churches  and 
convents  for  both  sexes;  an  orphan  asylimi;  a 
college,  founded  by  Ferdinand  IV.;  and  a  hand- 
some theatre.  Near  the  church  of  St.  Stephen,  in 
one  of  the  principal  street*,  is  a  colossal  bronze 
statue,  17  ft.  3  in.  high,  representing,  as  is  sup- 
posed, the  Emperor  Ueraclius.  Barletta  is  the 
residence  of  a  sub-in tendant,  and  an  inspector- 
general  of  the  adjoining  salt-works.  A  magnificent 
gateway  communicates  from  the  town  to  the  har- 
bour. This  is  formed  by  a  mole  running  out  from 
the  shore  with  a  breakwater  lying  before  it.  On 
the  latter  is  a  low  light-house.  The  harbour  only 
admits  small  vessels ;  but  there  is  good  anchorage 
in  the  roads,  with  off-shore  winds,  at  from  1  to 
3  m.  N.  by  W.  of  the  light-house,  m  from  8  to  13 
fathoms,  soft  muddv  bottom.  It  carries  on  a  con- 
siderable trade  v^-itK  other  ports  of  the  Adriatic, 
and  the  Ionian  Islands.  Principal  exports — wine, 
oil,  salt,  com,  wool,  lamb  and  kid  skins,  almonds, 
and  liquorice,  Mr.  Keppel  Craven  says  that  Bar- 
letta appeared  to  him  infinitely  superior  to  most 
Neapolitan  towns.  In  winter  the  cUmate  is  ex- 
ceedingly mild;  but  during  part  of  the  hot  m«»nth8, 
it  is  unhealthy.  There  are  very  productive  salt 
springs  al)out  7  m.  N.  from  the  town,  managed  on 
account  of  government,     (Craven's  Naples,  p.  86.) 

BAR^IKX.    See  Elbekfeldt. 

BARMUUTII,  or  ABERM  AW,  a  town  and  sea- 
port of  N.  Wale^s,  co.  Merioneth,  hmid.  Ederaion, 
par.  Corwen,  55  m.  VV.  Shrewsbury ;  lat  h^P  48* 
N.,  long.  40  2'  W.  Pop.  of  registrar's  district, 
7,643  in  1861.  The  town  is  situated  on  the  N.  side 
the  entrance  of  the  Maw,  in  Cardigan  Bay,  where 
that  river  opens  to  an  estuarj'  (of  about  1  m.  in 
breadth  at  high  water),  which  forms  its  harbour. 
The  houses  are  built  in  successive  ranges  up  the 
steep  accli\'ity  of  a  bare  rocky  mountain,  from  the 
biise  to  about  the  summit,  and  are  sheltered  on  the 
X.  and  E.  by  other  mountains.  The  whole  has  a 
singularly  romantic  appearance.  There  are  seve- 
ral churches  of  the  established  worship,  and  the 
Independents,  Calvinists,  and  Wesleyans  have 
chapils.  Barmouth  ranks  high,  as  a  favourite  place 
of  restirt,  among  the  watering  towns  of  this  coast. 
There  are  excellent  hotels,  with  sea-water  l)aths, 
billiard  and  assembly-rooms,  and  numerous  re- 
spectable lodging-houses.  The  entrance  to  the 
harbour  is  partiallv  closed  by  the  small  island  of 
Yns-y-Brawd,  or  i-Viar's  Isbuid,  and  by  a  gravel 
l)each,  on  the  S.  There  are  shifting  sands,  called 
the  N.  and  S.  bars,  which  make  the  entrance  diffi- 
cult ;  and  it  is  accessible  only  to  vessels  of  any 


862 


BAENAKD  CASTLE 


great  burden  at  spring  tiden.    In  1802  it  was  im- 
proved by  building  a  9mall  pier,  on  which  there  is 
a  beacon.    There  are  weekly  markets  on  Tucfldays 
^d  Fridavis  and  four  fairs,  held  on  Shrove-Tues- 
day,  Whi't^Monday,  Oct  7th,  Nov.  2l8t.    Ship- 
building and  tanning  are  carried  on  to  some  ex- 
tent in  the  port.    PreAnously  to  the  lant  French 
war,  it  traded  with  Ireland  and  the  Mediterranean, 
but  the  coasting  trade  is  now  the  only  one.    It 
exports  timber,  bark,  copper,  l^d,  and  manganese 
ores,  and  slates ;  and  imports  com  and  Huur,  (n^ahy 
limestone,  hides,  and  groceries.    The  river  Ls  na\n- 
gable  for  bfligos  of  20  tons  to  i\4tliin  2  m.  of  Dol- 
gelly.    There  is  a  large  turbar\'  in  the  vicinity, 
through  which  a  wall^  canal  is  formed,  and  by  it 
and  ue  Maw  fuel  is  conveyetl  to  both  towns.  liar- 
mouth  is  a  creek  of  the  |K>rt  of  Aberyst^ith: 
Abermaw  is  the  Welsh  name,  indicative  of  its 
locality :  the  English  one  was  adopted  at  a  meet^ 
ing  of  masters  of  vessels,  in  176«.    From  the  har- 
bour to  where  the  Astro  joins  the  sea,  there  is  a 
smooth  sandy  beach,  the  view  from  which  is  mag- 
nificent.   On  the  W.  are  the  o])posite  shores  of 
Caemar^'on ;  on  the  N.  high  moimtains  protrude 
into  the  sea ;  above  which,  in  the  distance.  Snow- 
don  mav  be  seen  in  clear  weather.    The  line  of 
road  to  bolgcUy,  10  m.  E.  of  Barmouth,  comprises, 
perhaps,  the  moM  magnificent  sccnerv-  in  Wal(«.     I 
BAKNAKI)  CASTLE,  a  markct^to.  of  Eng-  ' 
lan<l,  CO.  Durham,  on  the  Tees,  227  m.  NNW. : 
I^ndon,  and  2  m.  SW.  Durham.     Pop.  4,477  in 
18(>1.    It  derives  its  name  fn>m  its  founder,  liar- 
nard,  an  ancestor  of  John  Baliol,  and  a  native  of  | 
the  place,  who  erected  a  strong  castle,  which  after- 
wards liecame  the proiierty  of  Ricli.  III.  when  Duke 
of  (xhiucester,  in  right  of  liis  wife,  Anne  Neville. 
During  a  rebellion  in  the  time  of  Elizal)eth  it  was 
taken  by  the  insurgents,  after  a  stublMirn  defence. 
The  town,  situated  on  a  steep  acclivity  over  the 
Tees,  consists  principally  of  one  street,  nearly  a 
mile  long,  well  paved,  and  supplied  \*-ith  water, 
and  of  a  very  cheerful  ap[)cnranco,  from  the  houses 
being  built  of  a  white  freestone.   St.  Marj-'s  church 
is  an  ancient  stnicture,  with  a  square  embattled 
tower.    The  Wesleyan  and  Primitive  Methodists  i 
and  the  Independents  have  places  of  worship.     It 
has,  also,  a  national  school,  forme<l  and  supported 
by  voluntary'  subscriptions ;  an  hospital  for  \^idows, 
founded  by  John  Baliol ;  and  a  mechanics'  insti- 
tute, with  a  library'.    A  jurj',  chosen  at  the  court 
liaron,  of  Darlington  manor,  which  hns  jurisdiction 
for  debts  under  40s.,  together  with  the  steward  of 
the  manor,  have  the  jycovemment  of  the  to^n.    It 
is  a  station  for  receiving  votes  at  elocutions  for 
members  for  the  S.  division  of  the  co.    The  manu- 
facture of  Scotch  camlets,  which  was  carried  on  to 
a  considerable  extent,  has  lately  declined ;  but  the 
manufacture  of  carpet**,  liats,  and  threa<l,  for  spin- 
ning which  there  are  several  mills  on  the  river,  is 
in  a  thriving  state.    N.  of  the  town  was  Marwood, 
once  a  considerable  town,  and  giving  name  to  an 
extensive  tract  of  country',  but  now  to  be  traced 
only  in  the  ruins  of  the  church,  which  is  converted 
into  a  bom.    About  2  m.  di^itant  there  is  a  chaly- 
beate spring.    The  com  market,  which  is  one  of 
the  largest  in  the  N.  of  England,  is  held  on  Wed- 
nesdays, that  for  cattle  on  alternate  Wetlnesdays ; 
fairs  on  the  We<lnesdays  in  Easter  and  Whitsun 
we^s,  and  on  St.  Magdalen's  day. 

BARNAUL,  a  mining  town' of  Siberia,  gov. 
Tobolsk,  drc  Tomsk,  on  the  river  Obi,  near  the 
Altai  Mountains,  lat.  ba9  20'  N.,  long.  HSP  26'  E. 
Pop.  11,635  in  1858.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  a 
board  for  tlie  administration  of  the  mines,  and  large 
quantities  of  gold  and  silver  ore  are  melte<l  here. 
Considerable  quantities  of  gold  arc  obtained  from 
the  latter. 


BARNSTAPLE 

BARNET  SHIPPING),  a  i^ar.  and  town  of 
England,  co.  Hertford,  hund.  Cashio,  11m  NNW. 
London.  Pop.  of  parish,  2,989  in  1861.  It  crowns 
a  hill  on  the  line  of  the  great  N.  road  from  the 
metropolis;  and,  being  a  considerable  thorough- 
fare, and  having  a  station  on  the  Great  Northem 
railway,  has  usually  a  bustling  appearance.  The 
church  is  ancient,  with  an  embattled  tower.  There 
is  also  an  independent  chapel ;  a  free  grammar- 
school,  founded  by  Elizal)eth ;  another  free  school, 
founded  1725 ;  and  two  sets  of  almshouses,  each  for 
six  poor  women.  A  weekly  market  on  Monday, 
and  fairs  April  8  and  September  4:  the  latter 
l)eing  one  of  the  principal  cattle  fairs  in  the  king- 
dom. It  is  the  central  town  of  a  poor  law  union 
of  nine  parishes. 

On  the  14th  April,  1471,  the  decisive  battle  took 
place  between  Edward  IV.  and  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick, on  Gladsmuir  Heath,  in  the  vicinity  of  this 
town ;  when  the  latter,  at  the  head  of  the  Lancas- 
trian forces,  was  totally  defeated  and  slain.  An 
obelisk  was  erected  in  1740,  in  commemoration  of 
tlie  event. 

BAKNSLEY',  a  market-to.  of  England,  W.  rid- 
ing CO.  York,  on  the  Deame,  155  m.  NW.  by  N 
London,  84  m.  SW.  York,  and  9  m.  S.  Wakefield, 
on  the  Groat  Northem  railway.  The  population, 
which  was  8.28-1  in  1821,  and  12,310  in  1841,  had 
risen  to  17,890  m  1801.  The  to.  (in  Domesday 
Book  called  Bcmesieye)  is  situated  on  the  side  of 
a  hill.  Streets  generally  narrow,  and  houses  old. 
but  latterly  it  has  been  much  improved,  and  is 
]>ave4,  lighted  with  gas,  and  well  supplied  with 
water,  it  has  two  episcopal  places  of  worship, 
with  a  Koni.  Cath.  and  several  dlnsenting  chaiMils. 
A  free  grammar-school  was  founded  in  1665,  it 
has  also  national  and  other  schools,  a  subscription 
library,  and  a  scientitic  institurion.  A  court  boron 
is  held  aimually,  under  the  Duke  of  Leeds,  lord  of 
the  manor ;  a  court  leet,  for  the  honour  of  Ponte- 
fmctf  with  jurisdiction  to  the  amount  of  5/.,  every 
third  Saturday;  and  petty  sessions  on  Wednesday. 
The  meetings  are  held  in  the  new  town-hall.  This 
is  one  of  the  places  for  receiving  votes  at  general 
elections  for  the  riding.  Linen  is  extensively 
manufactured,  as  is  also  steel  wire  for  needles. 
'Hiere  are  three  foundries,  in  which  steam  engines 
are  made,  and  bleaching  and  dyeing  are  carried  on. 
The  place  is  surrouiuled  with  coal-pits,  a  great 
portion  of  the  prcxluce  of  which  is  sent  by  rail  to 
t  he  metropolis.  Markets  on  Wednesday  and  Satur- 
day; fairs  on  the  last  Wednesday  in  Feb.,  13th 
May,  and  1 1  th  Oct,  A  canal,  connecting  the  Oalder 
and  Don,  passes  by  the  to^^n. 

BARNSTABLE,  a  sea-port  town  of  the  United 
States,  Massachussetts,  cap.  co.  same  name,  on  the 
narrow  isthmus  bounding  Cape  C^kI  Bav,  to  the 
S.,  63  m.  SE.  Boston.  Pop.  5,590  in  1860.  It 
has  harbours  on  both  sides  the  isthmus;  that  on 
the  St.  side,  called  Hyannes  Harbour,  is  pro- 
tected by  a  breakwater,  formed  at  the  expense  of 
the  general  govemment.  There  ore  extensive  salt 
muixhes  in  the  neighbourhrxKi,  whence  large 
quantities  of  salt  are  obtained,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants are  largely  engaged  in  the  fisher^'  and  coast- 
ing trades.  The  port  has  about  80,000  tons  of 
shipping,  one-half  of  which  is  employed  in  the 
coasting  trade  and  in  the  cod  and  mackerel  fish- 
eries. 

BARNSTAPLE,  a  port  of  entry,  bor.,  and  toT*-n 
of  England,  co.  Devon,  hund.  Braunton,  on  the  E. 
bank  of  the  Taw,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Y'eo, 
and  at  the  point  where  it  begms  to  expand  into 
an  estuary,  172  m.  W.  by  S.  London,  by  road,  and 
233  m.  by  (ireat  Westem  Railway.  The  |wpu- 
lation,  which  amounted  to  11,371*  in  1851,  had 
fallen  to  10,738  in  1861.    There  were  2,116  iuha- 


BARNSTAPLE 

bited  hoiwes  in  1851,  and  2,187  in  1861.     The 
town  is  situated  in  a  vale,  sheltered  on  the  £.  by 
a   semicircle  of  hills,  and  contains  many  good 
open  streets  and  well-built  houses;  it  is  adequately 
supplied  with  water,  and  paved  and  hghted  under 
a  local  act.     The  communication  with  the  oppo- 
site side    the  river  is  kept  up  by  means  of  an 
ancient  bridge  of  16  arches.     Besides  the  estab. 
church  (a  spacious  old  structure  with  a  spire),  the 
Baptista,  Independents,  and  Methodists  have  each 
a  chapel.    The  guildhall  is  a  handsome  modem 
building,  the  under  part  of  which  b  occupied  as  a 
market-place.     There  is  a  good  theatre  and  bil- 
liard and  assembly-rooms ;  a  free  grammar-school 
endowed  in  1649,  in  which  the  poet  Gay,  a  native 
of  the  vicinity,  and  some  other  distinguished  in- 
dividuals, have   been  educated;    two  other  en- 
dowed charity-schools :  in  one  50  boys  and  20  girls 
are  clothed  and  instructed,  in  the  other  20  girls 
are  taught  to  read  and  knit ;  with  national  and 
other  schools  suprx)rted  by  subscription.     There 
are  three  sets  of  almshouses  in  the  town  for  aged 
poor:   Paige's,  founded  in  1553;    Litchdon's,  in 
1624 ;  and  Horn  wood's  :  they  provide  for  about  60 
individuals.     The   N.   Devon   infirmarj'   is   near 
Barnstaple  :  it  is  an  extensive  establishment,  sup- 
ported by  subscription,  for  the  medical  relief  of 
the  district.    The  town  has  a  weekly  market  on 
Fridav;  monthlv  cattle-markets  on  the  same  dav, 
which  are  numerously  attende<l;  two  great  markets 
on  the  Friday  preceding  April  21st,  and  the  se- 
cond Friday  m   December;  and  a  large  annual 
fair  for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  held  on  the  19th 
JScpt,  and  two  following  days.     In  the  town  are 
manufactories  of  serge,  inferior  broad  cloths,  and 
lace ;  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  six  or  seven 
tan-yards,   a    paper-mill,  and  an    iron-foundr)' : 
considerable  quantities  of  earthenware,  tiles,  and 
bricks,  are  also  made  in  the  neighbourhood.     The 
quay  Is  only  approachable  by  the  smaller  classes 
of  vessels ;  and  the  only  deep  water  within  the 
bar,  for  vcs-scls  to  ride  in,  is  at  the  Pool  of  Apple- 
d(ire.     This  bar,  which  Ls  at  the  outer  entrance  to 
the  estuary  of  the  Taw  (7^  m.  W.  of  Barnstaple), 
hoii,  at  low  water  springs,  not  above  2  ft, ;  at  high 
water  ditto,  27  ft. ;  and  at  high  water  neaps,  about 
14  ft,     The  shipping,  on  Jan.  1,  1H64,  comprised 
1,061    saiUng  vessels,   of   42,058   tons,   and   210 
steamers,  of  17,465  tons,  which  entered  the  har- 
bour.    The  clearances,  in  1868,  amounted  to  a 
total  of  407  vessels,  of  28,647  tons,  inclusive  of 
207  steamers,  of  16,5<)8  tons.     The  imports*  of  the 
town   consist  chietiy  of  timber  and   deals  from 
(.'anada  and  the  Baltic,  coals  and  culm  from  Wales 
and  Bristol,  and  gnxieries.     The  exports  consist 
of  the  manufactured  and  agricultural  produce  of 
the  town  and  district.     The  town  is  connected 
bv  railwav  with  Exeter  and  other  towns  in  the 
west  of  England.     The  new  pari,  borough  com- 
prises the  par.  of  Barnstaple,  and  portions  of  that 
of  Pilton,  on  the  N.,  and  Bishop's  Tawton,  on  the 
S. :  it  is  divided  int4i  two  wanls,  and  governed  by 
a  mayor,  six  aldermen,  and  eighteen  councillors. 
Courts  of  pleas,  and  sessions,  are  held  quarterly, 
in  the  guildhall ;  and  a  county  court  is  established 
here.     Barnstaple  has  returned  two  mem.  to  the 
II.  of  C.  since  the  23rd  of  Edward  I.,  the  right  of 
election  being  in  the  remaining  old  freemen  and 
10/.  householders.     Kegist.  electors,  793  in  1864. 

Barnstaple  is  of  great  antiquity,  having  been  a 
burgh  in  the  reign  of  Athelstan.  It  harl  a  castle, 
built  in  the  reign  of  William  I. :  at  the  Domesday 
8ur\'ey  there  were  forty  burgesses  within,  and 
nine  without,  the  borough.  It  furnished  three 
ships  against  the  Spanish  armada,  and,  in  the  latter 
fjart  of  Eli7.al>eth's  reign,  it  is  mentioned  as  a 
comdderable  dci>6t  for  wool,  and  as  trading  largely 


BAEODA 


363 


with  France  and  Spain.  It  had  a  monastery  of 
Cluniac  monks,  founded  soon  after  the  Conquest, 
which  continued  till  the  general  suppression. 

BAROACH  or  BROACH  (Barigosha),  a  marit 
British  district  of  Hindostan,  prov.  Gujerat,  pres, 
Bombay,  chiefly  between  lat,  21°  25'  and  22^  20' 
N.,  and  long.  729  50'  and  73^  23'  E. ;  having  N. 
Kairah  distr.,  E.  Baroda,  S.  Surat,  and  W.  the 
Gulf  of  Cambay :  area  1,600  sq.  m.  Pop.  esti- 
mated at  250,000.  It  is  one  of  the  best  cultivated 
and  most  populous  tracts  in  the  W.  of  India ;  ita 
aspect  is  however  rendered  rather  unpleasant  from 
the  absence  of  trees,  and  the  ill-built  villages  of 
unbumt  bricks.  Cotton  is  one  of  its  chief  pro- 
ducts. Three-fourths  of  the  pop.  are  Hindoos; 
tlie  rest  Mohammedans.  It  has  formed  since  1803 
part  of  the  British  dominions. 

Bakoach  (an.  Barygaza^  water  of  wealth),  cap, 
of  the  above  district,  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Ner- 
budda,  25  m.  from  its  mouth ;  lat,  21°  46'  N.,  long. 
73°  14'  E.  Pop.  esthnated  at  30,000  in  1820,  and 
at  20,000  in  1858.  Town  poor  and  mean ;  streets 
narrow  and  dirty ;  climate  hot,  and  considered  un- 
healthy. The  Nerbudda  is  here  two  m.  across,  is 
very  shallow,  and  abounds  with  carp  and  other 
fish.  Baroach  maintains  a  considerable  trade  in 
cotton,  grain,  and  seeds,  ^ith  Bombay  and  Surat. 
Two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants  are  Hindoos.  The 
Brahmins  have  a  hospital  f()r  sick  ajid  infirm  ani- 
mals, supported  by  voluntary  gifts,  taxes  on  mar- 
riages, Ac.  The  vicinity  of  liaroach  is  very  fertile. 
It  was  taken  bv  storm  W  the  British  in  1772. 

BARODA,  or  BUODERA,  an  inland  district  of 
Hindostan,  prov.  Gujerat,  between  laL  21°  23'  and 
22°  AQ'  N.,  and  long.  73©  12'  and  74©  8'  E.:  area 
alwut  12,000  sq.  m.;  estimated  pop.  140,000.  Mr. 
Forbes  obser\'es,  *If  I  were  to  decide  upon  the 
most  delightful  part  of  that  province  (Gujerat),  I 
should  without  hesitation  prefer  the  peigimn^is 
of  Brodera  and  Neriad.'  It  is  fertile,  generally 
well  cultivated,  and,  down  to  1821,  was  decidedly 
one  of  the  most  flourishing  tracts  in  India.  *  The 
crops  in  other  districts,'  says  Mr.  Forbes,  *  may  be 
equal  in  variety  and  abundance ;  but  the  number 
of  trees  which  adorn  the  roads,  the  richness  of  the 
mango-topes  round  the  villages,  the  size  and  ver- 
dure of  the  tamarind  trees,  clothe  the  country'  with 
uncommon  beauty.'  The  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  in- 
digo, com,  oil,  pulse,  opium,  flax,  hemp,  and  cotton 
are  grown  ;  the  latter  being  the  staple  commodity. 
I*rovision8  are  abundant  and  cheap;  deer,  hares, 
partridges,  quails,  and  water-fowl  extremely  cheap 
and  plentiful  'I'he  fields  are  divided  by  high 
green  hedges.  The  numerous  villages  look  more 
in  the  European  than  the  Indian  style ;  and  large 
stacks  of  hay  are  piled  up  and  thatched ;  a  cus- 
tom which  increases  a  resemblance  to  European 
scener>',  and  is  not  found  in  E.  India. 

IMore  than  half  the  inhab.  are  Coolies;  the 
wilder  tracts  are  peopled  by  Bheels :  the  remainder 
of  the  population  are  a  race  of  Rajpoots,  Hindoo 
Banyans,  and  a  few  Mohammedans  around  Baroda 
city.  Agriculture  b  the  prevailing  occupation, 
es|)ecially  of  the  Coolies ;  who,  though  a  turbulent 
race,  ranging  themselves  under  different  chiefs, 
yet,  when  properly  restrained,  are  not  bad  tenants, 
rhey  wear  a  petdcoat,  like  the  Bheels,  round  the 
waist,  a  cotton  cloth  round  the  head  and  shoulders, 
and  a  quilted  kirtel,  or  lebada,  which  they  cover 
with  a  shirt  of  mail ;  they  are  armed  with  sword, 
buckler,  bow  and  arrows,  and  the  horsemen  with  a 
spear  and  l)attle-axe :  they  often  undertake  secret 
nocturnal  marauding  expeditions.  They  are  but 
little  subject  to  the  laws ;  and  the  magistrates  are 
obliged  to  oppose  force  to  force,  by  maintaining 
large  bodies  of  armed  men  in  their  employ.  The 
local  administration  of  justice,  and  the  collection 


864 


BARODA 


or  the  revenue  in  Baroda  are  in  the  handB  of 
mamhttdan,  or  head-farmen),  subject  to  the  con- 
trol of  the  prince  or  liis  ministers.  Both  person 
and  nroperty  are  more  secure,  and  the  cultivation 
in  a  better  state,  in  the  adjacent  districts,  wliich 
have  been  ceded  to  the  British.  Of  late  years  the 
produce  of  this  district  has  greatly  diminished, 
the  land  lost  a  third  part  of  its  former  value,  and 
the  revenues  been  considerably  depressed,  through 
the  mis^ovemmcnt  and  raiiacity  of  the  reigning 

Crince,  Syajee  Row  Guicowar.  *In  1802  the  tur- 
ulence  of  the  Arab  soldiery,  and  the  involved 
state  of  the  finances,  induced  Anund  Row  to  beg 
the  assistance  of  the  British  government  of  Bom- 
bay. It  continued  under  British  protection,  and 
in  a  comparatively  flourishing  state,  till  1820, 
when  Syajee  ascended  the  throne^ 

Baroda,  an  inL  city  of  Ilindostan,  cap.  of  the 
above  district,  and  of  the  (luicowar  dominions, 
and  the  seat  of  a  British  resident,  with  a  bodv  of 
tr»»ops;  lat  220  21'  N.,  long.  73°  23^  E.;  45*  m. 
KNW.  Baroach,  and  230  m.  Bombav.  The  pop., 
in  1818,  was  estimated  at  100,000  It  stands  in  a 
marshy  situation,  on  the  left  luink  of  the  Vis- 
wamitra  river,  and  is  surrounded  (says  Ticffen- 
thaler,  who  calls  it  a  handsome  city)  by  a  double 
wall,  the  inner  existing  under  the  Mt)gul  djTiasty, 
the  outer  built  by  the  Maharattas,  when  they 
took  tlic  city,  in  1725.  The  walls  are  low,  of 
mud,  have  round  towers  at  inter\'als,  and  several 
double  gates.  It  is  divided  into  four  equal  parts, 
bv  two  spacious  streets,  which,  intersecting  it  at 
right  anglc^  meet  in  the  centre,  in  the  market- 
place,  wliich  contains  a  square  pavilion,  with  three 
arehes  on  each  side,  and  a  flat  roof,  adorned  with 
seats  and  fountains.  This  is  a  Mogul  building, 
and,  like  some  others  of  that  kind,  not  devoid  of 
beauty ;  but  the  Maharatta  structures  are  all  very 

C)or.  In  the  reign  of  Aurunp:el)e  this  was  a 
Tge  and  wealthy  city,  and  still  enjoys  a  consi- 
derable trade.  In  its  vicinity  are  many  gardens 
and  gn)ves,  the  latter  adome<l  with  the  remains 
of  Mohammedan  mosques  and  tombs.  In  the 
vicinity  is  a  stone  bridge  over  the  VisT^'amitra, 
remarkable  as  being  the  only  one  m  Gujerat ;  an(i 
some  celebrated  wells,  with  handsome  flights  of 
stefK)  and  balustrades  in  the  environs ;  the  largest 
of  these,  SoUman's  well,  is  famed  for  the  purity 
of  its  water,  though  that  obtained  mthiu  the  city 
is  said  to  be  unfit  for  use. 

BARQUESIMETO,  an  inl.  town  of  Venezuela, 
South  America,  at  the  extremity  of  a  table-land 
enclosed  by  still  higher  eminences,  92  m.  WSW. 
A'alencia,  and  90  m.  NE.  Truxillo;  lat.  ^  55'  N., 
long.  fi90  25'  W.  In  1807  it  contained  15,0()() 
persons ;  but  it  suflFercd  severely  fn)m  the  terrible 
earthquake  of  1812,  which  scarcely  left  a  house 
entire,  and  buried  1,500  individuals  in  the  ruins. 
llie  po)).  of  tlie  town  and  its  environs  is  now 
perhaps  10,000  or  12,000. 

BAKKA,  an  island  of  Scotland,  one  of  the 
Hebrides,  being  the  most  S.  of  the  Outer  Hebrides, 
or  group  forming  what  is  called  the  Long  Island. 
IW  1,009  in  1801.     (See  llKnuiDEs.) 

Barha,  a  village  of  Southern  Italv,  3  m.  from 
the  city  of  Naples.  Pop.  8,176  in  1801.  It  has 
many  countr}'  nouses  belonging  to  inhabitants  of 
>iaples. 

BAKRACKPOOR,  a  seat  of  the  British  pov. 
gen.  of  India,  and  a  milirarA'  cantonment,  in  a 
iK'.'iutiful  and  healthy  s|K)t,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the 
Hooglily  river,  10  m.  N.  Calcutta.  Bishop  Hebcr 
observes, '  It  has  what  is  here  unexampled,  a  park 
of  alK>ut  250  acres  of  tine  turf,  with  spreading 
scattered  trees,  of  a  character  so  European,  that  if 
I  had  not  been  on  an  elephant,  and  bud  not  from 
time  to  time  seen  a  great  a»coa-tree  towering 


BARROWS  STRAITS 

atxivc  all  the  rest,  I  could  have  fancied  m^'self  on 
the  banks  of  the  Thames  instead  of  the  Ganges.' 
The  park  grounds  are  four  miles  in  circumference, 
contain  an  aviary  and  menagerie.  The  canton- 
ment is  a  laige  military  village,  with  superior 
bungalows  for  the  officers. 

BARRAMAIIL,  a  subdiv.  of  the  prov.  of  Salem, 
Hindostan,  presid.  of  Madras.     (See  Sai.em.) 

BARREAU,  an  inL  town  of  Hindostan,  prov. 
Gujerat,  cap.  of  a  small  uidep.  princi()alitv,  75  m. 
ENE.  Cambay ;  hit,  22°  44' N.,  long.  74<>  E.  It 
stands  near  the  right  bank  of  a  tributary  of  the 
Maye,  and  is  neatly  built;  many  houses  are  of 
brick.  Its  territory  is  wild,  covered  with  jungle, 
and  inhabited  by  only  a  few  wandering  and  prtSa- 
tory  Bheels :  the  revenues  of  the  rajah  are  almost 
entirely  derived  from  compensations  from  his 
neighlx)urs  to  abstain  from  plundering,  together 
with  certain  moderate  duties  on  trade. 

BARREMiES,  or  BARRE^GES  LES  BAINS,  a 
watering-place  in  France,  dop.  Ilautes  Pyre'ncfes, 
12  m.  SSW.  Bagneres-de-Bigorre.  It  is  situated 
in  the  narrow  valley  of  the  liastan,  in  the  centre 
of  the  P^Tenees,  about  4,200  ft.  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  valley  is  gloomy  and  desolate,  being 
annually  devastated  by  the  torrent,  or  (iavc  of 
Bastan,  which  frequently  tlireatens  destniction  to 
the  town.  It  is  freoucnted  on  account  of  its  hot 
baths,  the  most  celebrated  in  Europe  for  the  cure 
of  scrofula,  gout,  rheumatuon,  and  the  eflcct  of 
wounds.  In  consequence  of  this  latter  property, 
Barreges  is  much  resorted  to  by  the  militar}^,  aiul 
an  hospital  is  pro\'ided  for  their  use  capable  of 
accommodating  500  officers  and  men.  The  baths 
did  not  attain  to  celebrity  till  the  reign  of  Ix>uis 
XIV.,  when  they  were  visited  by  Madame  de 
Maintenon  and  the  Due  de  Maine.  The  springs, 
like  those  in  the  other  Pyrenean  deps.,  are  under 
the  control  of  government.  The  supply  of  water 
being  sometimes  insufficient  for  the  demand,  it  is 
distributed  with  the  strictest  impartiality.  The 
temperature  of  the  water  reaches  10°  Reaumur: 
it  has  a  disagreeable  smell  and  taste.  The  season 
begins  at  the  end  of  May,  and  ends  at  the  be- 
ginning of  October.  The  town  is  then  entirely, 
or  all  but  entirely,  deserted.  Government  incuj>t 
a  considerable  expense  in  the  annual  repairs  of 
the  roads  and  baths 

BARROW,  a  river  of  Ireland,  being,  next  to 
the  Shannon,  the  mr>st  im]M>nant  in  that  island. 
It  rises  in  the  Sliebhbloom  mountains,  barony  of 
Tinnehiiich,  (Queen's  co. :  its  course  'is  first  KE. 
to  Portarlington,  then  E.  to  Monastereven,  an«l 
thence  nearly  due  S.,  past  Athy,  Carlow,  Gniig, 
and  New- Ross;  about  8  m.  l>elow  which  it  falls 
into  the  estuary  of  Waterford  harbour,  of  which 
it  forms  the  right  arm.  Considering  its  moderate 
magnitude^  the  Bam>w  is  navigable  to  a  great 
distance  ;  large  shi[»s  a'«cending  it  as  for  as  New- 
Ross,  which  is  its  port,  and  barge-s  as  far  as  Athy 
(alx)ve  00  m.  in  a  direct  line  from  the  sea),  whore 
it  is  joined  by  a  branch  from  the  Grand  C!nnal. 
Tliis  length  of  navigation  has  been  partly  efl'cctcrd 
by  artiti(rial  means,  that  is,  by  removing  olwtriic- 
tions  and  dcci)ening  the  IkhI  of  the  river:  and 
notwithstanding  it  is  occasionally  lia1)le  to  im- 
jjcdiment,  it  has  been  of  singular  mlvantage  it> 
Kildare,  Queen's  co.,  Carlow,  and  Kilkenny,  by 
giving  them  access  not  only  to  the  im}M»rtant 
markets  of  New-Ross  and  Waterfonl,  but  also  to 
those  of  Dublin. 

BARROW'S  STRAITS,  in  NW.  America,  the 
Sir  Jamks  Laxcastkr's  Soi-nd  of  IS^iffin,  is  the 
connecting  channel  between  l^ffin's  Bay,  on  the 
E.,  and  the  Polar  Sea,  on  the  W.  It  lies,  in  a 
direction  mrallel  to  the  equator,  between  the  lats. 
of  73^  45   and  74°  40'  N.,  and  is  considered  by 


BARSAC 

Parry  to  terminate  at  Wellington  Channel,  in 
long.  91©  47'  \V.,  the  mouth,  in  Baffin's  Bay  being 
nearly  on  the  8()th  meridian.  It  i»  therefore  about 
200  m.  in  length  from  E.  to  W.,  and  between  60 
and  70  m.  in  average  width.  Both  8horc8  are 
broken  by  a  great  number  of  inlets,  and  that  of 
the  Prince  Regent,  on  the  S.,  is  of  very  consider- 
able extent.  It  was  found  by  Ross  to  terminate 
in  a  great  gulf,  called  by  him  Boothia.  Welling- 
ton Channel  is  even  wider  at  its  mouth  than 
Prince  liegent's  Inlet.  It  divides  a  large  tract  of 
land  (North  Devon),  the  W.  continuation  of 
Greenland,  from  Coniwallis  Inland,  the  first  of  a 
succeeision  of  islands  terminating  at  Mehdlle  Island. 
The  coasts  are  generally  rugged,  consisting  of 
high  mountains  and  sometimes  table-lands,  v^nth 
Indd  bluff  headlands,  but  in  all  coses  extremely 
sterile,  'flie  stratitication  is  horizontxd  :  the  com- 
port tiiui  generally  limestone,  but  mixed  with  older 
formations,  as  dayslatc,  homl)lende,  and  granite. 
The.  water  of  this  strait  is  exceedingly  deep,  the 
soundings  frequently  giving  upwards  of  200  fa- 
thoms, and  very  often  no  bottom  can  be  found. 
The  tide  upon  the  shore  rises  about  3  or  4  ft.,  but 
of  current  there  Ls  very  little  appearance  in  any 
direction,  and  what  there  is  does  not  seem  to  be 
uniform  in  it.s  set.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable 
circumstance  connected  with  this  strait  is,  the 
sluggishness  of  the  compass  in  its  waters.  This 
is  so  great,  that  after  advancing  a  short  distance 
W.,  no  alteration  of  course  pro<luce8  a  change  of 
more  than  three  or  four  points  in  the  direction  of 
the  needle;  a  fact  the  observation  of  which  led 
iirst  to  the  conclusion  that  the  magnetic  pole 
would  be  found  in  its  neighbourhood.  Wholes 
and  other  natives  of  the  northern  seas  are  very 
abundant ;  but  in  this  respect,  and  also  in  general 
productions,  the  strait  docs  not  differ  from  liatfin's 
iJav,  which  see.  (Parrv's  First  Voy.,  29-52, 
2G4-2r)9;  Purchas's  Pilgrims,  iii.  847.) 

BARSAC,  a  village  of  France,  dep.  Gironde,  on 
the  Garonne,  21  m.  S£.  Bordeaux.  Pop.  2,9o9  in 
18G1.  It  is  famous  for  its  white  wines :  they  are 
of  the  same  class,  and  sell  for  about  the  same 
price,  as  those  of  Sauteme.  '  lis  en  different,' 
says  Jullien  (Topographic  de  Vignobles), '  par  un 
peu  moins  de  finesse,  de  seve,  et  de  bouquet ;  mais 
lis  sont  plus  spiritueux.' 

BxUi-SUR-AUBE,  a  town  of  France,  ddp.  Aube, 
cap.  arrond.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Aube,  28  m. 
E.  Troyes.  The  pop.  numbered  4,727  in  1861.  A 
line  of  railway  connects  the  town  with  Paris  and 
with  the  eastern  de'i*.  of  France.  It  is  agreeably 
situated  at  the  foot  of  a  fountain,  in  a  fine  valley ; 
but  is  generally  ill  laid  out  and  ill  built.  It  was 
fonnerly  much  more  consideralde  than  at  present, 
as  is  evinced  by  the  numenius  remains  of  thick 
walh*,  and  fosses  not  yet  entirely  filled  up.  There 
is  a  line  promenade  along  the  river.  It  has  a  tri- 
bunal 01  origmal  jurisdiction;  manufactures  of 
cotton,  cotton  hosiery,  and  serges;  with  nail- 
works,  tanneries,  and  distilleries.  The  vineyards 
in  its  neighlK>urhood  produce  whito  and  red  wines 
in  considerable  estimation.  An  obstinate  conflict 
took  place  here  on  the  24th  May,  1814,  between 
the  I<rench,  under  Mortier,  and  the  allied  forces 
under  Prince  Schwartzenbeig,  when  the  latter 
were  repulsed. 

BAR-SUR-SEINE,  a  town  of  France,  d^p. 
Aube,  cap.  arrond.,  on  the  Seine,  19  m.  SE.  Troyea, 
Pop.  2,770  in  1861.  The  town  has  a  station  on 
the  railway  from  Paris  to  Mulhousc.  It  is  situated 
in  the  middle  of  rich  vinevards,  at  the  extremitv 
of  a  narrow  valley;  is  well  built  and  well  laid 
out :  and  has  some  tine  promenades  on  the  banks 
of  the  Seine,  which  is  hero  crosse<l  by  a  handsome 
stone  bridge.  1 1  has  a  court  uf  original  j  urifldiction : 


BARTIN 


365 


and  has  fabrics  of  popoTj  cotton,  hosiery,  cutlery, 
and  tanneries.  Its  principal  trade  consists  in  tho 
com  and  wine  of  the  neighbourhood. 

This  town  was  formerly  fortified,  and  was,  in 
comtequcnce,  repeatedly  taken  and  retaken  in  the 
Burgundian  wars.  In  1596  the,  inhabitants  de- 
stroyed the  fortifications,  and  it  has  since  enjoyed 
comparative  tranquillity. 

BARTEN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  prov.  E.  Prussia, 

10  m.  X.  Rastenburg.  Pop.  1,685  in  1861.  It  is 
well  l)uilt,  and  is  defended  by  a  fort. 

BARTEXSTEIN,  a  town  of  Prussia,  prov.  E. 
Prussia,  on  the  Allc,  84  m.  SE.  Konigsbcrg.  Pop. 
4,695  in  1861.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  court  of  justice 
and  of  domains,  and  of  an  ecclesiastical  inspection ; 
has  tliree  churches,  a  college,  an  hospital,  tanneries, 
and  fabrics  of  cloth,  linen,  and  potterv. 

BARTFA,  or  BARTFELl),  a  free  town  of 
Hungary,  co.  Sarosch,  on  the  Tope,  at  the  foot  <^ 
the  Carpathian  Mountains;  15  m.  NXE.  Zeben; 
lat,  490  16'  10"  N.,  long.  21°  18'  61"  E.  Pop.  5,300 
in  1857.  It  is  well  built,  has  several  Catliolic 
churches,  and  the  Lutherans  have  a  church  and  a 
school.  It  fonnerly  enjoyed  considerable  distinc- 
tion as  a  seat  of  learning ;  and  in  the  16th  centui;^ 
several  esteemed  works  proceeded  from  its  presses. 

1 1  has  a  valuable  collection  of  old 'records,  and  i» 
the  residence  of  several  noble  families.  It  has 
some  trade  in  wine,  linen,  and  woollen  yam.  lu 
its  vicinity  are  two  chalybeate  springs  much  re- 
sorted to,  and  the  waters  of  which  are  carried  to 
other  parts,  like  those  of  Seltz. 

BARTU,  a  sea-port  town  of  Prussia,  prov.  Po- 
merania,  reg.  Stndsund,  on  the  Binnen-Zee,  which 
communicates  with  the  Baltic,  17  m.  WX  W.  Stral- 
sund.  Pop.  5,757  in  1861.  It  has  a  chapter  for 
ladies,  founded  in  1733,  and  three  hospitaK  It 
carries  on  some  trade  in  com,  wool,  and  in  ship- 
building. 

BAirrHELEMY  DE  GROXIX  (ST.),  a  viUago 
of  France,  ddp.  Isere,  15  m.  SSW.  Grenoble.  Pop. 
750  in  1861.  Near  this  is  the  *  burning  fountain,* 
one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  ci-devant  Dau- 
phin^. It  is  a  spring  issuing  from  a  calcareoua 
plateau,  aI)out  8  it,  long  by  4  in  breadth.  The 
water,  though  at  the  temperature  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, is  always  bubbling  and  boiling ;  and  when 
it  is  stirred,  or  a  burning  body  is  approached  to  it, 
it  takes  fire,  as  it  sometimes  does  spontaneously 
after  summer  rains.  This  phenomenon  is  sup- 
posed to  be  produced  by  the  escape  of  hydrogen 
gas,  generated  by  the  decomposition  of  iron,  'rhe 
gas  is  easily  collected,  and  is  at  first  very  inflam- 
mable, but  speedily  loses  this  quality.  There  are 
no  volcanic  phenomena  in  the  vicinity.  Of  late 
years  spontaneous  combustions  arc  said  to  be  rarer 
than  formerly. 

BARTHOLOMEW  (ST.),  one  of  the  lesser  N. 
Caribbee  islands,  belonging  to  Sweden,  30  m.  X. 
St.  Christopher's ;  hit.  17<>  55'  36"  N.,  long.  62o  SC 
W.  It  is  of  an  oblong  shape,  its  greatest  length 
being  from  E.  to  W.,  and  contains  about  25  sq.  m. 
Estimated  pop.  10,000,  of  whom  two-thhrds  are 
blacks.  It  18  abundantly  fertile,  producing  sugar, 
tobacco,  cotton,  and  indigo ;  but  it  has  no  springs 
nor  fresh  water  of  any  sort,  except  such  as  is  sup- 
j>lied  by  the  rain.  Being  surrounded  by  rocks 
and  shoals,  it  is  difficult  of  access ;  but  its  harbour, 
Le  Carenage,  on  the  W.  side  of  the  island,  is  safe 
and  commodious.  Contiguous  to  the  haiiwur  is 
the  principal  town,  Gustavia.  Ttus  island  was 
settled  by  the  i<>ench  in  1648,  and  was  ceded  by 
them  to  the  Swedes  in  1784. 

B.VRTIX,orPARTHIXE,atownofAsiaticTur- 
key,  Anatolia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  tho 
same  name  (the an.  PartheniMt),  in  the  Black  Sea; 
lat.  410  33'  br  X.,  long.  82^  14'  £.     Estunated 


866    BARTOLOMEO  IN  OALDO  (ST.) 

pop.  11,500.  It  Ia  Burroundcd  by  a  niinons  wall, 
has  twelve  mosques,  five  klians,  aud  four  bathH. 
There  i«  deep  water  in  the  buy  at  the  river's 
month ;  but  there  being  no  more  than  7  ft.  water 
over  the  bar,  small  vesflcls  only  can  come  up  to 
the  town :  these  load  with  timber,  fruit,  efqp,  &c., 
for  Constantinople.    The  principal  import  is  salt. 

BARTOLOMEO  IX  GALDO  (ST.),  a  town  of 
Southern  Itely,  prov.  Fo|2^gia,  27  m.  WSW.  Foggia. 
Pop.  7,997  in  18til.  It  is  situated  on  an  elevated 
huTto  the  E.  of  the  Fotorc ;  has  a  coUei^iate  and 
■ome  other  churches,  and  a  diocesan  seminary. 

BARTON-ON  HUMBER,  a  market-town  of 
England,  co.  Lincoln,  N.  div.  wap.  of  Yarborough, 
on  the  S.  side  of  the  Humljer.  It  includes  the 
pariahes  of  St,  Peter  and  St.  Mary:  area,  6,710 
acres.  Pop.  3,797  in  1861.  The  main  body  of  the 
town  is  abi»ut  1  m.  from  the  river,  but  a  portion 
called  '  liarton  water-&ide,'  is  quite  contiguous  to 
it.  Formerly  it  was  a  place  of  very  considera)>le 
importance,  and  was  surrounded  by  a  rampart  and 
fosse ;  but  at  present  it  is  principally  known  by 
the  well-frequented  ferry  on  one  of  the  great  N. 
loads,  leading  hence  across  the  Humljcr  to  Hull. 
There  is  a  branch  line  of  railway  to  New  Holland, 
which  places  the  town  in  communication  with  the 
eastern  coimdes  railway  system.  It  has  some 
jMretty  good  streets  and  inns,  and  two  churches, 
St.  Peter's  and  St,  Mary's;  the  former  l)eing  verj' 
ancient.  It  has  some  trade  in  com,  and  a  con- 
uderable  portion  of  tlie  iiiliabitants  are  engaged 
in  the  making  of  bricks  and  tiles,  ni])es  and  sack- 
ing. The  weekly  market  is  held  on  Monday,  and 
another  for  cattle  is  held  once  a  fortnight. 

BARWALDE,  or  BARENWALD  (that  is, 
•  Forest  of  the  Bears'),  a  town  of  Prussia,  prov.  Bran- 
denburg, on  a  lake,  32  m.  N.  Frankfort,  on  the 
Oder.  Pop.  4,015  in  1861.  (iustavus  Adolplius 
mgned  here,  in  1631,  a  secret  treaty  with  France. 

BASELICE,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
Bencvento,  cap.  cant.,  21  m.  SE.  Cam|»oba>«o. 
Pop.  4,508  in  1<<61.  'ihe  town  is  situated  on  the 
declivity  of  a  mountain,  has  an  liospital,  and  two 
numta  de  piett;  established  to  portion  and  marr>' 
])Oor  girls. 

BAS-EX-BASSET,  a  town  of  Franco,  d^p. 
Haute  Loire,  cap.  cant.,  on  the  Ix>irc,  12  m.  N. 
Isscngaux.  Pop.  3, 189  in  1861.  It  has  maimfac- 
tnres  of  blond  lace,  ribbons,  and  earthenware. 

BASH  EE  ISLANDS,  a  cluster  belonging  to  the 
K  Archipelago,  5th  div-ision  {Crawfurd),  lying 
due  N.  of  Luzon  (Philippines),  between  lat.  20° 
and  21°  N.  They  are  rocky,  and  five  in  number, 
with  four  smaller  islets.  Dampicr  visited  them, 
and  called  the  largest  Grafton  isle ;  it  is  about  13 
leagues  in  circuit,  and  has  good  anchorage  on  the 
W.  side.  It  produces  fine  yams,  sugar-cane,  plan- 
tains, and  vegetables,  besides  hogs  and  ^ats  in 
plenty.  Gooil  water  close  to  the  beach  is  found 
m  abundance.  Gold  in  considerable  quantities  is 
waslied  down  bv  the  torrents  in  tlie  Bashee  Island, 
which  the  inhalntants  work  into  a  thick  wire,  and 
wear  as  an  ornament :  iron  is  the  favourite  medium 
of  exchange.  The  natives  are  civil,  uioflensive, 
and  s<Kual.  These  islands  belong  to  Spain;  the 
governor  resides  on  (irafton  Island,  with  about 
100  soldiers,  some  artillery,  and  a  few  priests. 

BASEL,  or  BASLE,  a  canton  in  the  NW.  of 
Switzerland,  the  11th  in  the  Confederation,  between 
470  25'  and  47°  37'  N.  hit. ;  having  N.  France  and 
the  g.  d.  of  Baden,  W.  France  and  Solothum,  S. 
the  latter  canton  and  Berne,  and  E.  Argovia : 
shape  \ery  irregular ;  the  greatest  length  is  24  m., 
and  the  greatest  breadth  from  13  to  17  m.:  area 
8  G.,  or  169*6  E.,  sq.  m.  The  Jura  chain  runs 
through  the  countr}',  its  surface  displaying,  of 
coturse,  mountains  jiud  valleys,  with  a  le>'el  tract 


BASEL 

in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  of  Basel.  The  moun- 
tains reach  an  elevation  of  from  2,000  to  3.(K)0  fr. 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  most  elevated  is 
the  Hauenstein,  over  which  there  is  a  much-fre- 
quented excellent  new  road,  leading  from  Basel  to 
Aarau  and  Zurich,  llio  Rhine  Hows  tlmjugh  the 
N.  part  of  the  canton,  separating  a  small  dLstrict 
from  its  main  body.  Near  the  city  of  Basel  the 
Birse,  which  rises  in  the  canton  of  Berne,  falls  intt» 
the  Rhine:  it  is  not  navigable,  but  teems  with 
tish.  Besides  this,  there  are  various  rivulets  de- 
scending from  the  Jura  chain  to  the  Rhine.  Cli- 
mate mild.  Since  1831,  when  the  coimtry  popu- 
lation revolted  successfully  against  the  aristocratic 
rule  of  the  citv,  the  cant,  has  been  divided  into 
Basel  city  and  Basel  countr>\  Pop.,  cant,  of  Basel 
city,  42,251,  in  i860,  and  of  Basel  country  51,773 
at  the  same  census.  The  territon*  of  the  former 
comprises,  besides  the  city  of  Basel,  that  portion  of 
the  canton  lying  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine. 
The  valleys  and  the  plain  near  the  city  are  well 
cultivated,  and  the  country  produces  com  enough 
for  its  consumption.  There  are  32,560  acres  of 
arable  land,  16,817  ditto  meadows,  8,410  ditto  vine- 
yards, and  15,520  ditto  of  wood.  Wine  is  made  of 
pretty  good  quality,  the  best  being  that  of  St. 
Jacob,  called  6VAirei7zffr6/M/  (S\»tss  olood).  Ma- 
nufactures form  the  principal  employment  of  the 
]>eople.  Ribbon  making  had,  sq  early  as  the  com- 
mencement of  the  17th  century,  become  an  im- 
portant business  in  BaseL  After  the  revocation 
of  the  etlict  of  Nantes,  great  numbers  <»f  French 
emigrants  settled  in  the  town,  who  gave  a  fresh 
impulse  to  the  manufacture.  In  1846,  there  w^ere 
3,550  ribbon  looms,  2,950  of  which  were  in  Basel 
town  and  600  in  Basel  country.  In  186.'),  tlie 
number  of  looms  had  increatied  to  4,500.  'riiere 
were  78  great  manufacturers  in  1863,  employing 
about  12,000  hands.  In  a<ldition  to  the  ribbon 
manufacture,  silk  thread,  taffetas,  with  satini>  and 
cotton  ribbons,  are  made  on  a  small  scale.  Pat- 
terns were  formerly  intnxluced  fn»m  France,  but 
now  14  or  15  pattem-<irawers  are  kept  to  provide 
designs  for  the  manufacturers.  The  value  of  the 
exports  of  ribbons  amounts  to  about  600,000^, 
nearly  half  of  which  goes  to  tlie  I.'.  States:,  and 
the  other  half  to  Germany,  France,  Holland,  Den- 
mark, and  Sweden.  Salt-springs  were  (iL<covere<l 
in  1838  in  Basel  country,  and  salt-works  either 
have  been,  or  are  to  be,  establisheiL  Each  of  tlie 
two  divLsions  of  the  canton  has  half  a  vote  hi  the 
Swiss  diet ;  and  each  has  its  independent  govern- 
ment, consisting  in  both  of  a  grand  council  and  a 
petty  council,  the  former  with  a  president,  and  the 
latter,  in  liasel  city,  with  a  burgomaster,  and  in 
Basel  cx)untr^',  with  a  president,  at  the  heatL 
AlH»ut  9-lOths  of  the  iuhab.  are  Prot.,  and  1-lOth 
Cath.  Primary  and  secondary'  schools  have  been 
generallv  established.  Previously  to  1832,  the 
only  university  of  Switzerland  was  in  Basel  It 
was  founded  in  1459  by  Poi)e  Pius  II.;  but  at 
present  it  has  no  great  reputation.  The  revenue 
of  Basel  towi  for  18(^3  amounted  to  1,239,465 
francs,  or  49,578/.,  al)out  one-eighih  of  which  was 
derived  from  excise  duties,  mcluding  tax  for  sale 
of  beasts.  The  public  debt  amounts  to  95,070/L 
The  canton  contributes  22,950  fr.  to  the  treasury 
of  the  confederacy,  and  furnishes  918  men  to  the 
federal  army.  Tlie  communes  are  obliged  to  pro- 
vide for  those  poor  persons  who  have  the  right  of 
citizenship;  but,  as  charitable  institutions  and 
private  subscriptions  commonly  suffice  for  this 
pur[Kise,  a  poor-rate  is  seldom  necessary*.  The  in- 
hab.  of  Basel  city  are  aristocratical,  and  attached 
to  their  ancient  laws,  customs,  and  manners :  those 
of  lioscl  country,  on  the  otlier  hand,  have  demo- 
cratical  tendencies,  and  instead  of  being  averse 


BASEL 

from,  are  prone  to,  innovationB ;  violent  animon- 
ties  have  existed  between  the  two  divisiona. 

The  country  which  forms  the  canton  of  Basel 
belon^;^,  in  the  times  of  the  Romans,  to  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Rauraci.  In  the  middle  ages  it  formed 
part  of  the  Borgundian  empire,  till  1026,  when  it 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  German  emperor 
Conrad  II.  Basel  was  subsecjuently  governed  by 
an  imperial  bailiff;  but  the  bishop  of  Basel  shared 
with  tha  citizens  in  the  government.  By  degrees 
the  city  acquired  the  same  immunities  as  a  free 
city  of  *  the  empire.  Basel  assisted  the  Swiss  in 
the  Buigundian  war,  and  was  admitted  a  member 
of  the  confederacy  in  1501.  (Dr.  Bowring's  Re- 
port on  the  Manufactures  of  Switzerland;  Report 
Dy  Mr.  Burnley,  Secretary  of  Legation,  dated 
June  29, 1863.) 

Basel  (city  of),  one  of  the  principal  in  Switzer- 
land, c^  of  the  above  canton ;  lat.  47^  30*  36" 
N.,  long.  70  35  E. ;  35  m.  NNW.  Berne ;  on  both 
sides  the  Rhine,  where  its  course  turns  N.,  near 
the  French  frontier.    The  portion  on  the  S.  side 
the  river  is  called  Great,  and  that  on  the  N.  Little 
Basel,  the  communication  between  them  being 
kept  up  bv  a  bridge  600  ft.  long.    Pop.  of  dty 
37,918  m  i860.    This  is  the  population  of  the  dty 
prope-r ;  that  of  the  canton,  going  by  the  name  of 
Basel-city,  being  42,251.    The  city  presents  to  the 
visitor  a  peculiar  mixture  of  the  gaiety  of  a  French, 
with  the  sombre  Gothic  air  of  a  German  town : 
*  It  looks,'  says  Dr.  Beattie,  *  like  a  stranger  lately 
arrived  in  a  new  colony,  who,  although  he  mav 
have  copied  the  dress  and  manner  of  those  with 
whom  he  has  come  to  reside,  wears  still  too  much 
of  his  old  costume  to  pass  for  a  native,  and  too 
little  to  be  received  as  a  stranger.'     It  is  sur- 
rounded by  some  unimiiortant  fortifications,  and  is 
tolerably  well  built.    He  cathedral,  built  1319, 
on  the  spot  where  the  Roman  emperor  Valcntinian 
originally  erected  the  stmng  fortress  called  JkuUiaf 
contains  the  tombs  of  CEcolompadius,  Erasmus, 
and  the  Empress  Anne,  consort  of  Rodolph  of 
Hapsburg.     The  other  public  buiUlin^  are,  the 
arsenal,  the  tovm-house,  with  some  hne  stained 
glass  win<lows,  and  the  hall  where  the  Council  of 
Basel  was  held.    There  is  a  university  (see  pre- 
ceding article),  a  gymnasium,  and  numerous  other 
public    schools ;    a  public  library,    with    53,000 
printed  vols,  and  manv  valuable  MSS.,  medals, 
and   paintings  bv   Iloibcin ;   a  botanic  garden ; 
museums  of  natural  history  and  anatomv;  literarj' 
and  philanthropic  societies,  &c     Basel  is  the  rich- 
est town  in  Switzerland;  its  inhabitants  are  in- 
dustrious and  well  instnicted.    About  one-fifth 
part  of  the  state  revenues  are  applied  to  public 
education.    Its  trade  is  flourishing:  manufactures 
consist  chiefly  of  ribbons  and  other  silks ;  those  of 
leather,  paper,  gloves,  and  stockings,  are  compara- 
tively inconsiderable.     Basel  was  a  distinpiwhed 
dty  throughout  the  middle  ages;  near  it,  m  1414, 
a  few  hundred  Swiss  made  an  heroic  resistance  to 
an  army  of  40,000  French.    It  was  the  birth-place 
of  Holbein,  Erasmus,  and  BemouilU. 

BASILICATA,  a  prov.  of  Southern  Italy,  in 
the  former  kingdom  of  Naples.  Pop.  520,789  in 
1861.  In  the  reorganisation  of  the  kingdom,  in 
1863,  it  was  named  Potenza, 

BASINGSTOKE,  a  par.,  bor.,  and  town  of 
England,  co.  Hants  div.  and  hund.  Basingstoke, 
45  m.  WSW.  London.  Area  3,970  acres.  Pop. 
4,263  in  1851,  and  4,664  in  1861.  The  *numl>er  of 
inhabited  houses  in  1851  was  892,  and  rose  to  938 
in  1861.  It  is  a  neat,  respectable  toy^Ti,  in  the 
midst  of  a  fertile,  well  wooded  district,  at  the 
1  unction  of  five  roads,  one  of  which  is  the  great 
W.  line  from  the  metropolis.  The  line  of  the 
London  and    Southampton  railway  also  passes 


BASS 


367 


dose  to  the  N.  of  the  town,  and  has  a  station 
there ;  so  that  it  usually  wears  the  appearance  of 
much  bustle  and  activity.    It  is  well  paved  and 
lighted,  and  has  had  many  new  houses  added  to  it 
within  the  last  few  years.    A  stream,  called  the 
Town-brook,  flows  past  it  to  join  the  Loddon,  of 
which  it  is  a  prindpal  branch  ;  a  canal,  formed  in 
1796,  at  an  expense  of  180,000/!.,  extends  from  the 
town  to  the  Wey,  which  river  communicates  with 
the  Thames,  and  so  completes  the  water-line  be- 
twixt Basingstoke  and  London.    The  church  is  a 
spadous  structure  of  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII.  The 
Friends,  Independ^its,  Wesleyans,  and  followers 
of  Whitfield,  have  chapels  in  the  town.    There  is 
a  free  grammar-school,  in  which  12  boys  are  edu- 
cated; a  blue-coat  school  for  the  same  number, 
supported  by  the  Skinners'  Company,  of  London ; 
and  a  national  school,  for  200  boys  and  girls;  there 
are  also  almshouses  for  1 1  poor  |)eople,  and  several 
charitable  benefactions,  the  principal  being   an 
estate  left  by  Sir  James  Lancaster,  the  annual 
proceeds  of  which  amount  to  250L  a  year.    Near 
the  town  is  a  tract  of  108  acres,  on  which  every 
householder  has  a  right  of  pasture,  from  May  to 
Christmas.    There  is  a  good  town-hall,  built  in 
1829 ;  at  which  period  tiie  maricet-place  was  en- 
larged.   The  weekly  market  is  held  on  Wednes- 
dav,  and  four  annual  fairs  on  Easter  Tuesday, 
WKit  Wednesday,    23rd  Sept.,  and   10th    Oct, 
chiefly  for  cattle.    On  the  first  introduction  of  the 
woollen  trade  into  the  kingdom,  this  town  obtained 
a  good  share  of  it,  and  was  for  a  long  period  note<l 
for  druggets  and  sh^oons ;  but  at  present  there 
are  no  manufactures.   The  malting  and  com  trades 
constitute  its  chief  business;  and,  wing  the  centre 
of  a  rich  agricultural  district,  its  markets  are  very 
well  attended,  and  its  retail  trade  considerable. 
Under  the  >Iunidpal  Reform  Act  there  are  four 
aldermen  and  twelve  councillors;  and  the  boun- 
daries of  the  borough,  which  were  previously  co- 
extensive with  the  parish,  are  restricted  to  the 
area  on  which  the  town  stands.  It  was  incorporated 
by  a  charter  in  the  20th  James  I.,  confirmed  by 
another  in  17th  Charles  I.    Courts  of  ])etty  and  of 
quarter  sessions  for  the  bor.  are  held,  and*  there  is 
a  court  of  pleas,  which  has  now  scarcely  any  busi- 
ness.   The  revenues  of  the  corporation  are  derived 
from  lands  and  tenements  in  the  parish,  and  ave- 
rage above  1,000/!.  a  year.     Under  a  liKal  assess- 
ment for  paxing,  lighting,  &c.,  about  S50L  are 
annually  coUectetL    It  is  the  central  town  of  a 

rr  law  union  of  37  parishes,  and  a  polling  town 
the  northern  division  of  Hampshire. 

The  town  is  mentioned  in  Domesday  as  having 
a  market.  From  23  Edward  I.  to  4  Edward  II.  it 
sent  two  members  to  the  H.  of  C,  but  thenceforth 
the  priv-ilege  ceased  to  be  exercised.  John  de 
Basingstoke,  a  distinguished  scholar  of  the  13th 
century;  Sir  James  Lancaster,  tlie  navigator;  and 
Joseph  and  Thomas  Warton,  were  bom  in  the 
town. 

BASQUEVILLE,  a  town  of  France,  dA)  Seine 
Infeneure,  on  the  Vienne ;  10  ra.  SSW.  Dieppe. 
Pop,  2,974  in  1861.  It  has  fabrics  of  linen  and 
serge. 

BASRAH.    See  Bu880ra« 

BASS,  a  rocky  islet  of  Scotland,  frith  of  Forth, 
about  3  m.  from  Tantallon  castle,  coast  of  Had- 
dingtonshire. It  is  of  a  circular  form,  about  800 
ft  in  diameter,  and  nearly  400  ft  high.  Some 
parts,  not  less  than  from  200  to  300  ft  in  height, 
pn>ject  in  lofty  terrific  predpices  over  the  sea. 
riie  summit  resembles  an  obtuse  cone.  The  con- 
tinual beating  of  the  waves  has  opened  vast  exca- 
vations all  round  the  lower  sides.  The  sea  is  of 
great  depth  on  the  N.,  E.,  and  W.,  but  shallow  on 
the  S. ;  towards  which  also  the  rode  declines,  and 


388 


BASS'  STRAITS 


is  accessible  in  calm  weather.  It  is  perforated  bv 
a  cavern,  running  NW.  and  SK. ;  it  in  quite  dark 
in  the  centre,  where  there  is  a  deep  jkh)!  of  water, 
whence  it  widens  towards  both  apertures ;  that  to 
the  SE.  l)eing  the  highest.  There  is  a  spring  of 
water  near  the  centre,  Iiigh  on  t)ie  rock,  and  grass 
for  a  few  sheep  kept  on  it.  Various  corallines  and 
Aici  are  produced  in  the  surrounding  sea.  Va^t 
quantities  of  solan  goese  resort  to  the  Bass  in 
March,  for  the  purpose  of  breeding,  and  depart 
in  Septemlx^r.  There  was  here  fonncrly  a  castle, 
aflorwordrt  converted  into  a  state  prison,  wliere 
various  individuals  have  been  confined.  Aftor  the 
Revolution,  a  f*arty  of  the  adlierents  of  James 
VII.  having  o])tainod  jM>»se.sHion  of  the  castle,  hold 
out  after  the  rest  of  the  kingdom  hatl  8urren<leretl. 
But  their  boafj*  being  at  length  seizes!  or  lost,  and 
not  recoiviiig  any  supply  of  provisions,  they  were 
coro]ielled  to  capitulate,  when  the  fortitieations 
were  destn)ved.  TliLs  islet  is  a  ver>'  conspicuous 
object,  and  is  vL«»ible  from  a  considerable  distance. 

BASS'  STHAITS,  the  name  given  to  tlie  strait 
separating  New  Holland  fn>m  Van  Diemen's  LaniL 
It  is  so  called  from  Mr.  Bass,  a  surgeon,  by  whom 
it  was  explored  in  1798,  wldle  on  a  sealing  voyage 
from  P(»rt  Jackson  in  an  open  boat.  Where  nar- 
rowest it  is  about  105  m.  across,  and  is  much  en- 
cumbered with  islands  and  ctiral  reefs,  so  that  its 
navigation  requires  gre-at  attention.  The  prevail- 
ing winds  are  from  tlie  W.  The  tide  rises  from  8 
to  12  ft.,  running  at  from  1^  m.  to  3^  m.  an  hour. 

BASSAIN,  a  marit.  town  of  the  Birman  em- 
jnre,  cap.  of  a  prov.,  and  residence  of  its  govem<»r; 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Birman  river  (the  right 
branch  of  the  IrrawatU) ;  lat.  16°  49'  N.,  long. 
9-1°  45'  E.;  W)  m.  W.  Rangoon,  and  aCO  m.  SSVV. 
Ava.  Pop.  estimated  at  5,()0().  It  is  one  of  the 
three  principal  ports  of  the  Birman  empire. 

BASSANO,  a  town  of  Austrian  Italy,  prov. 
Vioenza,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Brenta,  17  m. 
NNE.  Vicenza,  21  m.  N.  by  W.  Padua.  Pop. 
13,1  UO  in  1857.  It  is  situated  in  a  salubrious  hilly 
Gountrv,  suitable  for  the  culture  of  the  vine  and 
the  olive ;  is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  well  built 
of  stone.  It  is  joineil  to  a  suburb  on  the  op])OHite 
aide  of  the  river  bv  a  fine  bridge,  180  ft.  in  length. 
Some  of  its  chinches  are  handsome,  and  adorned 
with  pictures  by  Giacomo  da  Ponti  and  his  son, 
natives  of  the  town.  There  are  here  four  con- 
vents for  nuns,  a  hospital,  a  mont  de  puHe^  and 
barracks.  The  mineralogical  cabinet  and  botanical 
garden  of  M.  Parolini  deserve  the  traveller's  atten- 
tion. Bassano  has  manufactures  of  cloth,  straw 
hats,  and  copi>er  utensils,  with  extensive  silk  fila- 
tures and  tanneries.  But  the  printing  establish- 
ment of  Bemondini  is  not  merely  the  most  im- 
portant work  in  the  town,  but  is  one  of  the  most 
extensive  establishments  of  the  kind  in  Northern 
It«iy.  It  employ's  50  presses  and  about  1,000 
hands,  and  has  attached  to  it  paper  mills  and 
an  engraving  department,  which  has  pnHluced 
Voli)at4)  and  other  distinguished  artists.  l*he  town 
cainea  on  an  extensive  trade  in  silk,  the  produce 
of  its  territory,  cloth,  wood,  iron,  com,  wme,  and 
cattle.  A  great  deal  of  charcoal  ia  shipped  here 
for  Venice. 

BASSE'E  (LA),  a  town  of  France,  d<<p.  du  Xord, 
cap.  cant.,  14  m.  W.  Lille,  on  the  canal  of  the  same 
name.  l*op.  2,985  in  18G1.  It  has  establishments 
for  spinning  cotton,  combing  wool,  with  soap- 
works,  distilleries,  and  potteries.  Owing  to  its 
position,  it  is  the  entrei)6t  of  the  arrondissements 
of  Bethime  and  St.  Pol,  and  has,  in  cctnsequence,  a 
considerable  trade.  It  was  formerly  fortined ;  but 
Louis  XIV.  having  taken  it  from  the  Spaniards, 
made  the  works  be  dismantled. 

BAS8£IN|  a  marit.  town  of  Hindo6taO|  prov. 


BATAVIA 

Anmngabad,  distr.  N.  Concan;  separated  frnm 
Salsette  by  a  narrow  channel,  and  about  20  m.  N. 
Ikmibay ;  l&L  1{P  20'  N.,  long.  72^  66'  E.  It  was 
taken  possession  of  by  the  Portuguese  in  1531, 
who  fortifie<I  it  with  ramparts  and  bastions,  anil 
supplied  it  with  no  fewer  than  seven  churches.  It 
was  captured  by  the  Mahrattas  in  1750;  and  it 
was  here  that  the  peace  with  the  peishwa,  which 
annihilated  their  federal  empire,  was  signed  Dec. 
81  st^  1802,  since  which  it  has  belonged  to  the 
British. 

BASTIA,a  sea-port  town  of  Corsica, cap. arrond., 
on  its  E.  coast,  witlun  23  m.  of  its  N  E.  extremit  v  ; 
lat.  42^43'  N.,  h.ng.  9°  26'  E.  Pop.  19,304  "in 
1861.  This  town,  which  was  formerly  the  t*ap.  of 
the  island,  is  built  amjihitheatrc-wise  on  a  rising 
ground,  and  has  a  tine  npiMuirance  from  the  sc>a. 
Uut  on  entering,  it  L*  found  to  l>e  ill-built,  and 
the  streets  narrow  and  cnK)ke<l.  It  Ls  defended  by 
a  citadel,  and  by  walls  and  bastions;  but  thcM? 
art*  of  no  use,  except  for  the  defence  of  the  jH»rt, 
lieing  command(Hl  by  the  height/i,  at  the  foot  of 
whieh  the  town  is  built.  The  harbour,  fomicrl  by 
a  mole,  Ls  tit  only  for  small  vessels;  its  entrance  is 
narrow  and  difficult,  and  vessels  are  exposed  U> 
the  land  winds,  which  sometimes  blow  violently 
from  the  NW.  There  is  anchorage  outride  the 
mole  in  10  or  1 1  fathoms.  It  is  the  scat  of  a  n^yal 
court  for  the  island,  and  of  tribunals  of  commerce 
and  of  primary^  jurisdiction ;  and  h.a8  a  communal 
college,  a  model  school,  a  society  of  ))ublic  instruc- 
tion, and  a  theatre.  It  produces  soup,  leather, 
li(^ueurs,  and  wax ;  and  exports  oil,  wine,  goat- 
skms,  coral,  wood,  and  hides.  It  was  taken  by 
the  English  in  1794,  but  was  soon  after  recovennl 
by  the  French,  in  whose  [wssession  it  has  ever 
since  remained.  At  the  entrance  to  the  port  is  an 
insulated  rock,  called  II  Ijvtme,  frr>m  tlie  striking 
resemblance  it  Ijears  to  a  I'um  couchunt. 

BATAVIA,  a  sea-port  and  city  of  Java,  cap.  of 
that  island ;  seat  of  the  gov.  of  the  Dutch  posses- 


According  to  an  enumeration  made  in  1861,  the 
t4>wn  had  135,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  alx)ut 
80,000  natives  and  27,000  Chinese,  Batavia  is 
built  in  a  marshy  situation,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Jaccatra  river ;  several  of  its  streets  l)eing  inter- 
sected by  canals,  crossed  by  numerous  bridges,  and 
their  banks  lined  with  trees  in  the  Dutch  fashion. 
But  these  canals,  being  receptacles  for  the  tilth  of 
the  city,  contributed,  together  with  the  nature  of 
tlie  ground,  to  render  it  very  unhealthy.  In  this 
respect,  however,  it  has  been  materially  imptrovwl 
since  1815,  partly  by  building  a  new  town  on  the 
heights,  a  little  more  inland,  where  the  govern- 
ment functionaries  and  principal  merchants  have 
their  residences;  and  partly  by  the  demolition  of 
useless  fortifications,  the  filling  up  of  some  of  the 
canals,  and  the  cleaning  of  others,  and  the  widening 
of  several  of  the  old  streets.  'The  older  i»arts  of 
the  town  are  now,  in  fact,  principally  occupied 
by  Chinese  and  natives,  and  though  intermittent 
fevers  are  still  said  to  be  prevalent,  we  doubt  whe- 
ther it  be  much  more  unhealthy  than  most  other 
places  on  the  island.  The  existing  fortifications 
consist  only  of  a  few  small  batteries  and  redoubtji 
in  and  about  the  city.  The  houses,  of  brick  and 
stuccoed,  are  spacious  and  neat;  the  ground  floors 
in  the  principal  houseit  are  formetl  of  marble  llogs; 
the  chief  street  lies  along  both  sides  of  the  river, 
and  consists  of  the  offices  and  warehouses  of  the 
princii)al  merchants,  none  of  whom,  as  alreaily 
statcil,  pass  the  night  in  Bata\ia.  The  Stadthaus, 
in  which  the  courts  of  law  are  held,  U  on  the  S. 
side  of  the  city ;  at  the  opposite  quarter  is  the 


BATAVIA 

cUadel,  a  square  fortress  with  a  bastion  at  each 
anf^le,  containing  the  residence  of  the  gov.  and 
some  warehouses :  there  are  three  churches,  and  a 
theatre.  The  Jaccatra  is  navigable  for  2  m.  inland 
for  vessels  of  40  tons  burden;  the  harbour,  or 
rather  road,  which  is  very  extensive,  is  protected 
by  a  range  of  small  islands,  and  affords  good 
anchorage  for  ships  of  from  300  to  500  tons,  about 
1^  m.  from  the  shore.  Bata\'ia  is  the  depot  for 
the  produce  of  all  the  Dutch  possessions  in  the  E. 
archipelago ;  inc.  spices  from  the  Molucca  islands ; 
coffee  and  pepper  from  Celebes  and  Sumatra; 
gold-dust  and  diamonds  from  Borneo;  tin  from 
Banca;  tortoise-shell,  bees'  wax,  and  dye-woods 
from  Timor  and  Tumbawa,  Originally  no  Dutch 
ship  was  suffered  t<)  proceetl  homewanl  without 
first  touching  here.  Many  junks  from  China  and 
Siam  formerly  traded  thither;  but  since  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  British  at  Singaix>re,  their  trade 
with  liatavia  has  greatly  decreasecL  The  manu- 
factures, inc.  those  of  leather,  lime,  earthenware, 
sugar,  and  arrack,  are  mostly  in  the  hands  of  the 
Chinese :  their  camjxmg,  or  peculiar  quarter,  Ls  the 
chief  seat  of  bustle  and  activitv ;  and  the  trade  of 
the  town,  except  in  the  articles  monopolised  by  Eu- 
n)peans,  is  wholly  in  their  hands.  Many  of  them 
are  wealthy ;  they  are  governed  by  tlieir  own  laws 
and  magistrates.*  The  British,  according  to  Mr. 
Earl,  form  an  important  body  of  merchants  here, 
and  possess  alx>ut  2,000  sq.  m.  of  land  on  the 
island,  nmch  of  which  is  cultivated  with  sugar : 
there  are  said  to  ]>e  about  200  English  subjects  in 
Batavia,  including  those  sending  in  the  Dutch 
mercantile  navy.  (Temminck,  Sur  les  l*osses- 
sions  Neerlandaises  dans  I'lnde  Archipelagique, 
i  198.) 

Perhaps  no  colony  in  the  world,  not  even  ex- 
ce])ting  Cuba,  has  made  so  rapid  a  progress  as 
Java  during  the  last  twenty  years,  in  the  produc- 
tion of  all  the  great  colonial  staples,  but  especially 
in  rlujse  of  coffee,  sugar,  and  indigo.  The  trade  of 
Batavia  has,  in  consequence,  been  very  greatly 
increased;  but  the  recent  statements  of  the  im- 
ports and  exports  that  we  have  seen  refer  to  the 
island  generally,  and  we  have  no  means  of  spe- 
cifying exactly  how  much  belongs  to  Batavia. 
llie  total  exports  of  Java  during  the  year  18C2 
amounted  to  105,923,884  florins,  of  which  45,529,31 1 
florins  for  account  of  private  traders,  and  57,394,543 
florins  for  the  Dutch  government.  The  imports  for 
the  same  period  were  of  the  value  of  03,(524,569 
florins,  two-fifths  of  which  for  government  account. 
The  far  greatest  portion  of  this  extensive  commerce 
passes  through  Batavia. 

Mr.  Earl  gives  the  following  account  of  the 
roarniers  and  habits  of  the  Dutch : — '  The  mwle  of 
life  pursued  by  the  European  residents  at  Batavia 
is  rather  monotonous,  but  is  easily  supported  by 
those  who  have  great  pecuniary'  advantages  in 
view.  Early  rising  Is  generally  practisetl,  the 
morning  being  by  far  the  most  agreeable  part  of 
the  day.  The  time  before  breakfast  is  spent  in 
riding  or  gardening,  according  to  the  taste  of  tlie 
individual :  and  after  a  substantial  meal  at  eight 
o'clock,  they  repair  to  their  town  offices.  At 
the  conclusion  of  the  business  of  the  day,  thev 
retire  to  their  country  houses  to  a  five  o'clock 
dinner;  and  a  drive  round  the  suburlw  occupies 
the  interval  between  that  repast  an<l  the  closing  in 
of  night;  when  they  either  return  home,  or  pnv 
ceed  to  spend  the  evening  at  the  Harmonic,  an 
establishment  formed  uj)on  the  same  principle  as 
the  large  chibs  of  London,  the  majority  of  the 
EuroiH'an  residents,  Dutch  and  foreign,  being 
nieniU-rs.  The  regulations  are  particularly  fa- 
vourable to  strangers;  a  resident,  who  is  not  a 
member,  cannot  be  admittcil ;  but  a  visitor,  after 

Vol.  I. 


BATH 


369 


being  introduced  by  a  member,  may  resort  to  it 
whenever  he  pleases  during  his  stay  at  Bata\*ia. 
The  evenings  at  the  Harmonie  are  spent  in  con- 
versation, or  in  playing  at  cards  and  billiards,  and 
it  is  perhaps  the  more  frequented  by  the  gentle- 
men from  their  having  little  intellectual  amuse- 
ment at  home.  The  greater  number  of  the  Dutch 
females  have  been  bom  on  the  island,  and  are 
rather  deficient  in  point  of  education.  They  are 
often  remarkably  fair,  owing  to  their  being  seldom 
exposed  to  the  weather ;  the  heat  of  the  climate 
renders  them  extremely  listless,  and  they  soon 
attain  that  embonpoint  which  we  are  apt  to  asso- 
ciate with  the  idea  of  Dutcli  beautv.  '  There  are 
few  public  amusements.  On  Sunday  evenings  a 
military  band  performs  on  the  Koning's  Plain, 
which  attracts  the  residents,  who  attend  in  car- 
riages or  on  horseback;  and  the  community  is 
occasionally  enlivened  by  an  amateur  play,  or  a 
grand  ball  given  by  one  of  the  public  functionaries. 
The  annual  races,  which  are  always  well  attended, 
were  established  and  are  principally  supported  by 
the  English.  Some  verj'  good  half-bred  Arabs  are 
occasionally  run  ;  but  the  race  between  the  coun- 
try horses,  ridden  by  native  jockeys,  is  by  far  the 
most  amusing,  and  the  riders  jockey  and  are 
out-jockeyed  m  a  style  that  would  not  disgrace 
Newmarket.*     (Eastern  Seas.) 

Batavia  was  built  by  the  Dutch,  in  1619 ;  in 
1811  it  was  taken  by  Sir  S.  Auchmuty,  and  be- 
longed to  the  British  till  1816,  when  it  was  re- 
stored to  its  former  possessore. 

Batavia,  a  town  of  the  U.  States,  New  York, 
Genesee  co.,  40  m.  NE.  Buffalo.  Pop.  5,270  in 
1860.  This  flourishing  town  was  laid  out  in  1800. 
It  has  a  court-house,  gaol,  and  other  public  build- 
ings, and  considerable  trade  in  agricultural  pro- 
duce. 

BATE  ISLE,  an  island  belonging  to  Hindostan, 
prov.  Gujerat,  and  off  its  W.  extremity ;  lat.  229 
27'  N.,  long.  69°  19'  E.  It  has  a  good  liarbour,  and 
contains  about  2,000  houses;  but  is  chiefly  noted 
for  a  celebrated  temple  dwiicateil  to  the  god  Kun- 
chor,  and  much  frequente<l  by  pilgrims. 

HATH,  a  city  of  England,  N  K.  part  co.  Somer- 
set, 102  m.  W.  by  S.  London  by  roati,  and  106|  ra. 
by  Great  Western  railwav.  The  city  stands  on  the 
Avon,  along  which  its  buildings  extend  for  upwards 
of  2  m.,  ascending  the  acclivities,  and  cro^Tiing 
some  of  the  summits  of  the  a<ljoining  range  of  hills. 
Pop.,  in  1801,  33,150;  in  1841,  52,346;  and  in 
1851,  54,240.  The  pop.,  after  this  period,  began 
slightly  to  dechne,  and  the  census  of  1801  showed 
but  52,528  inhabitants.  There  were  7,744  inhab. 
houses  in  1851,  and  8,021  in  1861.  Bath  is  dis- 
tinguished for  its  architectural  elegance,  and  the 
l)ejiuty  and  extent  of  its  public  promenades.  The 
fineness  of  the  freestone,  of  which  its  edifices  are 
mostly  built,  and  the  noble  scale  and  symmetrical 
arrangement  of  the  ground  plans,  fuUy  equal  the 
taste  disi)layeii  in  their  elevations.  Amongst  the 
most  prominent  places  are  the  Circus,  in  which 
the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  orders  are  com- 
bined, and  from  whence  three  spacious  streets,  of 
corresponding  character,  diverge;  the  N.  and  S. 
parades,  which  have  noble  terraces,  raised  on 
arches,  and  commanding  extensive  views;  King- 
ston Square,  and  the  new  streets  and  fine  esplanade 
formed  along  the  river  side,  beneath  the  terraces 
last  nameii ;  Queen  Square,  of  the  Corinthian  order,, 
with  an  obelisk  in  the  centre ;  the  Royal  Crescent, 
with  Ionic  columns  springing  from  a  rustic  base- 
ment, and  crannied  by  a  rich  entablature ;  with 
Lansdown  and  Cavendish  crescents;  Belle  Vue, 
Portland,  and  two  or  three  other  places;  Paragon 
buildings.  Belvedere  and  Marlborough  buildings  ; 
in  the  level  plain,  extending  on  the  NE.  side,  are 

BE 


870 


BATH 


the  fine  ruif^  of  Kensington,  Gioevenor  Place, 
•nd  Walcot  Terrace ;  lostlv,  the  structuros  in  the 
new  town,  on  tlie  river,  'fhe  latter,  whicli  Kkinihi 
thmu^y  and  adds  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the 
cit^,  ifl  crossed  bvnine  bridges,  three  suspension  and 
two  railway  bridges;  tiie  most  remarkable  being 
Pulteney  bridge,  on  three  arches;  Bathwick  inm 
bridge;  North  Parade  liridge,  1Q5  ft,  span,  and  the 
Old  bridjcre.  The  river  is  navigable  to  Bristol,  and 
oommonicates  with  the  Thames,  at  Reading,  by 
the  Kcnnet  and  Avon  canal. 

The  famous  thermal  springs  of  Bath  rise  in  the 
midst  of  the  limitefl  plain  skirted  on  the  £.  and  S. 
b^  the  Avon,  from  thrf>e  distinct  sources,  at  a  small 
dutancc  fmm  each  other.  Tlio  waters  of  each  are 
receive*!  intti  four  extenHivo  re8er\'oirs,  to  wliicli 
suitable  baths  are  attached :  that  called  the  King's 
Bath  is  the  principal,  and  is  supplied  by  a  spring 
rising  alwut  1 50  ft.  S\V.  of  the  abliey.  The  Queen's 
Bath,  which  is  much  smaller,  adjoins  this,  and  is 
Bupplie<l  fn>m  the  same  source.  The  Cross  Bath 
is  supplictl  from  a  distinct  spring,  rising  at  a  short 
distance  SW.  of  the  former;  and  the  Hot  Bath 
from  another,  V20  ft  further  on,  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. The  grand  pump-room,  connected  with  the 
King^s  Bath,  a  ver^  handsome  building,  erectetl  in 
1797,  forms  the  pnncipal  centre  of  attraction  dur- 
ing the  fashionable  season :  it  has  an  orchestra,  ond 
a  line  statue  of  Nash.  Like  the  King's,  the  Hot 
Bath  has  a  pump-room,  on  a  smaller  scale,  and 
each  hoA  a  public  pump  connected  with  its  npring, 
of  which  the  gratuitoits  use  is  allowed  during  the 
day.  Besides  the  public  l>aths  (which  arc  princi- 
pally used  by  the  hospital  ))atients  an<i  the  poon.>r 
class  of  invidids),  there  arc  private  baths,  belong- 
ing to  the  cor]x)ration,  and  otherH,  callcil  the  Abl>ey 
liatlis,  belonging  to  Earl  Manvcrs  :  these  arc 
chiefly  resorte*!  to  by  the  wealthier  classes,  and 
are  aJnply  provided  with  sudatories,  and  ever>' 
aocomm<Hlation.  Tlie  medicinal  waters  of  these 
springs,  when  fresh  firawn,  are  quite  transparent 
and  destitute  of  colour  and  smell,  the  temperatures 
being— <if  the  King's  Bath,  1  \VP;  of  the  Cross  Bath, 
1 12° ;  of  the  Hot  Bath,  IITO  Fahr.  They  contain 
carbonic  acid  and  nitrogen  gases,  sulphate  and 
muriate  of  soda,  sulphate  and  carbonate  of  Ume, 
and  siliceous  earth,  with  a  minute  portion  of  oxide 
of  iron.  Bespccting  both  the  gross  amount  and 
relative  (juaiitities  of  these  there  is  much  dis- 
crepancy m  the  numerous  treatises  on  the  subject, 
by  which  occasional  variation  may  l)e  inferre<l: 
the  imprecation,  both  chalvbeate  and  saline,  is 
greatest  in  those  of  the  King'^s  and  the  Hot  Bath; 
the  water  of  the  Cnms  Bath  has  most  earthy  con- 
tents. Large  quantities  of  gas  pass  up  with  the 
water,  in  bubbles  of  considerable  size.  Taken  in- 
ternally, the  waters  act  as  stimulants,  raising  the 
pulse  considerably,  and  ejcciting  the  nervous  sys- 
tem :  they  are  considered  peculiarlv  eflicacious  in 
coses  of  gout  and  of  biliary  ol>ritnictlons ;  as  baths, 
they  are  used  for  various  chronic  and  nitaneoiut 
disonlers;  their  topical  application,  by  forcing  a 
stream  on  the  diseased  part  (called  dry  pumphig), 
is  also  much  in  request  Tlie  moniing  is  the  usual 
time  both  for  drinking  and  batliing.  The  reser- 
voirs are  dischaige<l,  at  regular  iiiter\'als,  through 
channels  connected  with  the  Avon. 

The  princi|)al  buildings  devoted  to  religious 
purposes  are,  —  the  abbey  church,  210  ft.  long, 
lighted  by  fifty- two  windows,  a  beautiful  structure, 
once  called,  from  the  larse  size  and  number  of  its 
windows,  the  lantern  of  England ;  it  was  founded 
on  the  site  of  a  more  ancient  church,  a.u.  1495, 
and  was  completed  in  1606 ;  its  Urvf cr  is  162  ft.  in 
height:  St>  Michael's  Church,  a  Gothic  structure, 
with  a  handsome  spire,  erected  in  18S6 ;  St.  James's 
Chuichi  rebuilt  in  1768 ;  that  of  Walcot,  a  very 


spacious  building,  with  free  sittings  for  the  poor ; 
Christ  Church,  a  fine  structure,  erected  by  sub- 
scription in  1798 ;  with  other  churches  and  chapela 
connected  with  the  established  church,  and  mostly 
raised  within  the  last  centurv.  The  Komaii 
Catholics,  Moravians,  Friends,  fiapti»ts.  Indepen- 
dents, Methodistji,  and  Unitarians,  have  also  puces 
of  worship.  Of  the  establishmentj)  devottnl  to 
charitaldc  puqioses,the  principal  are,^ — Bath  Hos- 
pital rcompleti>d  in  1742),  for  the  reception  of  sick 
p<»or  m»m  all  (tarts  of  the  kingdom  (except  the 
citv  itself),  who  come  for  the  lienefit  of  the  water*; 
it  IS  incoqx>rated  by  a  charter,  and  siipporte<l  by 
donations  and  su1)scriptions :  the  Iteth  Unitcil 
Hospital,  combining  the  name  objects  ba  the  pre- 
vious dLipcnsary  and  thottc  of  a  casualty  iutirmar>' ; 
it  is  supiKirted  like  the  last.  Itellott's  HospitJil, 
endowe<l  in  the  reign  of  Jas.  II.,  for  the  same  pur- 
pose as  the  Bath  Hospital,  but  for  men  only ;  it 
provides  hxlging  and  bathing  for  about  eighteen  : 
Black  Alms,  endowed  by  E<lw.  \^.,  f(»r  the  support 
of  ten  poor  persons  of* the  place:  St,  John's,  on- 
dowwl  in  Hen.  Il.'s  reign,  for  the  support  of  six 
poor  men  and  as  many  women :  Partis's  College  (a 
laige  ciuadrangular  range  on  the  upiter  road  to  Bris- 
tol), for  the  supi>ort  of  thirty  decayed  gentlewomen, 
ten  of  whom  must  be  wi<lows  of  clergymen  ;  ejich 
has  a  house,  ganlen,  and  handsome  annuity.  The 
chief  establiMhmentH  for  education  and  litenitiiro 
are, — a  free  f^rammar-school,  endowed  by  E<lw.  VI. ; 
its  mastership  (which  carries  with  it  the  rectory  of 
Charlcoml>e)  is  in  the  gift,  of  the  corporation :  the 
Blue  Coat  charity  school,  founded  a.d.  1711,  for 
clothing,  and  teaching  fifty  boys  and  fifty  girls 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic;  two  other  frii» 
schools  for  girls  only;  one  for  the  instniction  of 
poor  children  of  Bath  and  Bath-fonim :  a  national 
strhool;  the  Catholic  and  the  MothcNiist  free  schools. 
The  Bath  and  West  of  England  Stnaetv,  established 
in  1777  for  the  encouragement  of  agriculture,  art.**, 
manufatmires,  and  commerce,  ha.«i  devote<l  it>ielf 
chiefly  to  the  first  of  these  objects,  and  pul)lb(hc<l 
several  volumes  of  transactions :  the  Bath  Literarj' 
and  Philosophical  Institution,  established  in  1820; 
it  is  a  handsome  Doric  building  (oiTupving  the 
site  of  the  Lower  Assembly  Kooras,  which  were 
then  burnt  down),  and  comprises  a  library',  mu- 
seum, laboratory,  and  lecture-room  :  the  Publii; 
Subscription  Library,  establishcii  in  1800,  has  an 
extensive  collection  of  books  ;  and  there  are  many 
ciivulating  libraries.  A  mechanics'  institute  was 
established  in  1828.    The  public  buildings  appn>- 

{>riated  to  business  or  amusement  are, — the  GuiKt- 
lall,  the  seat  of  the  quarter  sessions  and  the  courts 
of  reconl  and  request ;  the  two  first  named  by  the 
corporation,  the  last  by  commissioner  a|>pointed 
under  an  act  of  45th  Geo.  III.,  for  rcoover\'  of 
debts  under  10/.;  its  juris<Uction  extends  over  the 
city,  and  several  parishes  in  the  hundreds  of  Bath - 
forum  and  Wellow :  this  court,  which  sits  every 
Wediiestlav,  has  nearlv  absorlnjd  the  business  <if 
the  court  of  record.  The  prison  Is  a  s|)acious  build- 
ing in  Bathwick,  chiefly  occupied  by  debtors,  and 
by  delinquents  previously  to  their  being  fully 
committe<L  Commercial  rooms  were  established 
in  1 8,*J9.  The  market-house  is  an  extensive  range 
of  buildings  behind  the  Guildhall;  market  days 
Wednesdavs  and  Satunlavs.  The  theatre,  in  the 
Grecian  style,  finished  in  1805,  towers  over  the 
surrounding  structures,  in  the  central  part  of  the 
city;  the  Freemasons'  I^odge  (built  in  1X17)  is 
also  conspicuous.  The  Subscriptif>ii  Club  House, 
and  the  Bath  and  West  of  England  Subs<Tiption 
Rooms,  are  establishments  similar  to  the  London 
dub  houses.  The  lTp|)er  Assembly  Kooms  are  a 
superb  suite  of  apartments,  in  which  the  subscrif>- 
tion  balls  and  oonoerta  oif  the  season  are  heUl, 


BATH 


371 


rnicler  the  direction  of  the  master  of  the  ceremo- 
nies.  The  city  as»embliei)  are  occasionally  held  in 
the  banqueting  room  of  the  GuildlialL  These 
concerts  and  assemblies  constitute  the  chief  amuse- 
ments of  the  place :  besides  which,  however,  there 
are  two  spacious  riding-schools,  for  exercise  in 
batl  weather :  when  fine,  Lansdown  and  Claverton 
Down  are  the  favourite  equestrian  resorts  There 
are  annual  races  on  the  former,  the  week  subse- 
quent to  those  of  Ascot,  and  a  spring  meeting  in 
April  for  half-bred  mares.  Besides  the  various 
pn)menades,  and  the  Sidney  Gardens  previously 
mentioned,  ten  acres  of  the  Bath  common  have 
been  laid  out  in  public  walks  and  pleasure  grounds, 
named  the  Royal  Victoria  Park. 

Bath  no  longer  boasts  its  ancient  pre-eminence 
in  the  gay  world  as  a  fashionable  resort.  It  is 
now  suri^assed  by  Brighton,  and,  jierhaps,  also,  by 
Cheltenham,  which  attracts  a  large  portion  of  the 
companv  by  which  it  used  formerly  to  Ik*  visited. 
It  is  still,  however,  much  resorted  to  during  its 
season.  It  is  favourably  situated  for  tra»le,  the 
Great  Western  railway  haxing  a  station  here,  on 
the  main  line  to  Bristol,  and  the  Avon  being  navi- 
gable to  Bristol  on  one  side,  and  the  Avon  and 
Kennet  Canal  on  the  other.  Two  branches  of  this 
canal  extend  from  Bath  into  the  coal  district  SVV. 
of  the  citv.  But  business  and  pleasure  do  not 
often  amalgamate;  and  the  only  manufacture  is 
the  coarse  woollen  cloth  called  liath  coating,  and 
kerseymere,  made  in  the  imme<liate  neighbour- 
hiHHl.  There  are  two  fairs,  one  held  on  the  14th 
Feb.,  the  other  July  10th,  but  thev  have  lost  most 
of  their  ancient  consequence,  which  was  mainly 
attributable  to  the  woollen  manufacture,  first  in- 
tHKluced  here,  under  the  auspices  of  the  monks, 
in  the  reign  of  Edw.  I.,  who  granted  the  char- 
ters by  which  the  fairs  are  held.  Bath  stands  on 
the  lias  and  oolite  formations ;  in  the  latter  (which 
lx»imds  it  on  the  NE.  and  a  portion  of  the  S.)  the 
noble  freestone  quarries  occur  whence  its  building 
materials  are  derived ;  l)oth  formations  also  afford 
lime  and  fuller's  earth,  and  abound  in  fossil  re- 
mains, as  well  as  in  fine  springs,  which  rise  to 
w^ithin  40  or  50  ft,  of  the  summits  of  the  sur- 
rounding hills,  and  fumLsh  an  ample  su|>ply  of 
water  to  every  part  of  the  city,  conducted  thither 
from  various  reservoirs,  by  pijws,  the  greater  part 
of  which  have  been  laid  by  the  corporation.  Itath 
claims  to  be  a  borough  by  prescription,  confirmed 
by  charter :  it  is  now  divided  into  seven  wards, 
and  governed  by  a  mayor,  fourteen  aldermen,  and 
forty-two  councillors,  under  the  Mimicipal  Reform 
Act,  It  has  sent  two  members  to  the  H.  of  C. 
since  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  The  constituency  is 
fiirmed  by  10/.  householders;  there  were  3,1  Mf)  re- 
gist(!Ted  electors  in  \HVA.  Previously  to  the  Re- 
form Act,  the  elective  franchise  was  exclusively 
vei^tetl  in  the  mayor,  aldermen,  and  common 
council,  who  were  also  self-elected.  Conjointly 
with  Wells,  Iteth  gives  name  to  a  diocese,  co- 
extensive (excluding  Bedminster)  with  the  co.  of 
Somerset,  The  see  was  fixed  at  the  latter  a.d. 
90o,  and  has  since  l)een  transferred,  successively, 
to  llath  and  to  (ilastonburj*,  and  again  restored  to 
Wells,  whose  dean  and  chapter  now  elect  (nomi- 
nallv)  the  bishoj).  ((iibson's  ed.  Camden's  Brit, 
pp.  186,  187;  «  &  7  W.  4,  c.  77.)  The  bwhop's 
revenues  amount  to  alK>ut  o,0{K)/.  per  annum. 

The  present  city  may  almost  be  called  a  crea- 
tion of  the  last  centurj';  f»)r  previoiLsly  it  was 
c(»m prised  in  an  aroji  of  about  50  acres  (on  the 
limited  plain  amidst  which  the  hot  springs  rise), 
and  surn»unded  by  walls  in  the  form  of  an  irre- 
gular j>entagon,  its  suburbs  consisting  then  merely 
of  a  few  dctJiched  cottages ;  so  that  the  parishes 
now  forming  its  most  hnportant  portions  bad,  at 


the  close  of  the  17th  century,  scarcely  an  inha^ 
bitant;  whilst  the  three  small  ones  within  the 
walls  (judging  from  the  church  registers)  coidd 
not  have  contained  a  fourth  part  of  their  present 
numbers.  Its  rapid  extension,  celebrity,  and 
former  magnificence  were  due  mainly  to  two  in- 
dividuals :  one,  the  clever  person  known  as  Bean 
Nash ;  the  other,  Mr.  Wood  the  architect.  The 
former  was  elected  master  of  the  ceremonies  in 
1710,  and  thereafter  ruled  as  arbiter  eiegantiarum 
for  upwards  of  50  years  (the  most  flourishing 
period  of  its  fashionable  annals) ;  using  the  in* 
tiuence  his  peculiar  talents  gave  him  in  the  pro- 
motion of  oligects  of  permanent  importance  to  the 
city.  The  other  commenced  his  architectural 
labours  with  Queen's  Square,  the  foundations  of 
which  were  laid  in  1729.  '1  his,  and  the  streets 
diverging  from  it,  as  well  as  the  N.  and  S.  pa- 
rades, he  lived  to  finish,  and  also  to  plan  and 
commence  the  Circus.  All  these  remain  as  monu- 
ments of  his  genius,  unexcelled  by  any  subsequent 
achievements. 

Bath  was  founded,  and  its  first  walls  built,  by 
the  Romans,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius:  they 
named  it  Aqua  SolUy  and  retained  the  place  be- 
tween three  and  four  centuries.  The  walls  and 
gates  (which  remained  till  the  18th  centoiy) 
were  built  during  the  later  Saxon  period,  on  the 
Roman  foundations,  and  partly  from  the  ruins  of 
their  temples,  arches,  Ac.  Camden  gives  many 
inscriptions  from  fragments  thus  imbedded  (Brit, 
pp.  188,  189) ;  and,  in  Warner's  History  of  Bath 
(pp.  23,  29,  32),  the  remains  of  Roman  temples, 
baths,  coins,  Ac,  that  have  l)een  discovered  at 
various  times  many  feet  beneath  the  present 
surface,  are  figured  and  descrilxMl.  Hand-mills 
of  stone,  Ac,  relics  of  the  British  ;  and  coffins, 
coins,  Ac,  of  the  Saxon  period,  are  also  given  by 
these  authors.  Its  first  charter,  making  it  a  freia 
borough,  was  granted  by  Richard  I.  The  manu- 
facture called  Bath  beaver  had  attained  much 
repute  at  the  close  of  the  15th  century,  at  which 
time  three  guilds  of  artificers — weavers,  tailors, 
and  shoemakers— existe<l,  to  whom  Bath  owecl 
its  then  importance.  (Leland's  I  tin.  il  67.)  It 
was  first  made  a  corporate  city  by  a  charter  of 
32nd  of  Eliz.  This  and  the  charters  of  9th  and 
34th  Geo.  III.,  extending  the  limits  of  its  juris- 
diction, were  the  governing  ones,  previously  to 
the  late  municipal  act.  The  gnjss  revenue  of 
the  corporation,  in  1848,  amounted  to  16,957/., 
chiefly  deriveil  frrjm  the  rents  and  renewals  of 
their  estates,  water-rents,  market-<lues,  and  profita 
of  the  baths.  (Municipal  Commlns.  Report,  1836, 
App.  pt.il  p.  1109,  et  geq.)  The  immense  thick- 
ness of  its  walls  must  have  made  it  a  stronghold 
in  the  earlier  periisl  of  its  history;  but  in  later 
times  it  has  never  been  a  station  of  any  military 
ini|M)rtance.  It  was  fortified  and  held  for  the 
king  at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  wars ;  and  after 
being  taken  and  retaken  several  times,  was  ulti- 
mately ceiled  to  the  parliament  in  1645.  Chris- 
U)phef  Anstcy,  author  of  the  New  Bath  Guide, 
and  John  Palmer,  author  of  the  ])lan  for  convey- 
ing mails  by  coaches,  with  other  distinguished 
persons,  were  natives  of  Bath.  (Solinus,  Polyhist, 
c  22;  Hen.  of  Hundngdon,  lib.  ii. ;  Gildas,  cap. 
ult, ;  Leland'H  ColL  v.  2 ;  Dugdale's  Monas.  tome  i. ; 
Matldox's  Hwt.  Excheq.  c  13,  may  be  referred  to 
for  the  earlier  history  and  trade  of  the  place. 
The  Fourth  Report,  pp.  369,  et  »eq,\  and  the 
Eighth,  pp.  567,  et  aeq.^  of  Commiss.  on  Charities, 
contain  an  account  of^ those  of  Bath.) 

Bath,  a  town  and  port  of  the  U.  States,  Maine, 
CO.  Lincoln,  on  the  W.  side  of  the  Kennel>ec,  about 
10  m.  from  the  sea,  lat.  43^  5.5'  N.,  long.  69®  49* 
W.    Pop.  4,700  in  18G0.    It  is  pleasantly  situated, 

DB  2 


872 


BATHGATE 


and  IB  one  of  the  most  commercial  towns  in  the 
state.  The  river,  which  is  seldom  frozen  over, 
admits  vessels  of  considerable  bnrden.  Bath  is 
Uie  name  of  several  other  towns,  and  also  of 
sevejal  counties  in  the  U.  States. 

BATHGATE,  a  town  and  par.  of  Scotland,  co. 
Linlith^w.  Pop.  4,H27  in  1861,  of  whom  2,549 
males  and  2,278  females.  The  number  of  inha- 
bited houses  amounted  to  748  in  18C1,  while 
there  were  1,()42  separate  families.  The  town  is 
situated  on  the  middle  mad  between  Edinbuj^h 
and  Glasgow,  18  m.  WSW.  the  former,  and  6  m. 
8.  Linlithgow.  It  stands  on  the  S.  declivity  of  a 
ridge  of  hills  extending  acmss  the  co.,  and  com- 
prises an  old  and  a  new  portion ;  the  former  con- 
sisting of  narrow  crooked  lanes,  on  a  steep  declix-ity, 
and  the  latter  of  more  modem  and  better  buUt 
houses,  on  more  level  ground.  The  streets  are 
well  paved  and  lighted,  and  it  is  abundantly  sup- 
plied with  good  water,  brought  from  a  distance. 
The  churcl^  a  clumsy  edifice,  was  erected  in 
1739,  and  there  are  three  or  four  dissenting  meeting 
houses.  Batligate  was  created  a  free  buigh  of 
barony  in  1824.  The  inhab.  are  principally  em- 
ployed in  the  weaving  of  cottons  for  the  (vlasguw 
manufacturers,  and  in  the  adjacent  coal  and  lime 
works.  It  has  an  excellent  academy,  liberally 
endowed  by  a  native  of  the  t«wn,  who  acquired  a 
fortune  in  the  W.  Indies,  which  fumLnhes  educa- 
tion, of  the  best  sort,  gratis,  to  all  natives  of  the 
nar.  It  has  six  annual  fairs,  two  of  which,  at 
\\1iitsuntide  and  Martinmas,  are  of  verv  consider- 
able im(K>rtance,  as  cattle  fairs.  A  weekly  market 
is  held  on  Wednesday.  The  ])ar.  is  generally  in 
a  high  state  of  cultivation. 

BATHUKST  TOWN,  a  town  of  W.  Africa,  on 
the  8.  side  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  Gambia; 
ca}).  ot  the  British  possessions  on  that  river,  and 
scat  of  a  civil  lieutenant-governor;  lat.  13^28'  X., 
long.  16°  32'  W.    It  stands  on  the  E.  end  of  St. 
Mary's  Island,  a  fertile,  but  low  and  swampy 
apotj  about  4  m.  in  length,  and  3  m.  in  breadth. 
Top.  (of  the  town  and  island)  6,939,  of  whom  191 
only  are  Europeans;   the  rest    being   liberate<l 
Africans,  Mandmgocs,  Jolofs,  Sec,     Of  the   191 
white  inhabitants,  there  are  177  males  and  14 
females ;  the  coloured  p<»pulation  comprises  3,808 
males  and  2,94<)  females.    The  main  street  facing 
the  river  is  occupied  with  European  warehouses 
and  private  dwellings ;  the  other  streets  are  laid 
out  in  straight  lines,  but  unpaveil,  and  are  lined 
mostly  with  African  hutJS  inclosed  within  small 
gardens.    The  (iovemment-house,  like  the  otiicr 
Enmpean  buildings,  coiisists  of  one  Hoor,  rauunl 
upon  brick  pillars,  funiLshod  mth  verandahs,  and 
a{)proached  by  a  long  flight  of  steps.    There  is  a 
ajiacious  hospital  for  libemted  Africans  near  the 
town;  there  are  three  Wcsleyaii  chapels  and  a 
missionary  school.    Most  of  the  Euro{>ean  settlers 
are  merchants,  trading  chiefly  in  gum  Senegal, 
bees*  wax,  hides,  ivory  and  gold :  the  other  prin- 
cipal   exports   are    tortoise-shell,    rice,    cotton, 
African  teak,  camwtxMl,  ]>alm-oil,  country'  cloths, 
Ac    The  imiM)rt8  amounted  to  73,138/.  in  1860; 
to   109.r>8U  in   1861;  and  to  99,825/.  in  1862; 
while  the  exports  were  of  the  value  of  109,137/. 
in   1860;  of  136,838/.   in  1861  ;  and  of  154,443/. 
in  1862.    Tliere  entered  the  river  157  vessels,  of 
86,339  tons,  in  1862 ;  of  these,  75  vessels  of  21,332 
tons  were  Britisli,  and  73  vessels  with  13,095  tons 
were  French.    The  settlement  was  established  in 
1816 ;  it  was  several  years  ago  threatened  by  the 
neighbouring  Barra,  chieftain,  but  friendly  re- 
lations have  since  been  entered  into  with*  that 
nation.     (Alexander's  Voyage  to  the  Colonies  of 
W,  Africa,  in  1835,  pp.  65-72) ;  Martin's  History 
and  Statisrics  of  the  Colonics. 


BATTERSEA 

BATIXDAH,  a  large  inland  town  of  Hindo- 
Stan,  prov.  Kajpootana ;  lat  SiP  12'  N.,  long.  74<> 
48'  £.  Its  vicmitp  has  been  celebrated  for  its 
breed  of  horses. 

BATLEY,  a  town  and  par.  of  England,  W.  K. 
CO.  York.  The  par.  contains  6,390  acres,  with  a 
nop.  of  26,278  in  1861.  It  is  principally  in  the 
Wapentake  of  Aggbrig,  but  partly  also  in  that  of 
Morley :  the  town,  which  has  7,206  inhab.,  is  in 
the  former.  The  pop.,  both  In  the  town  and  the 
contiguous  district,  is  principally  engaged  in  the 
woollen  trade,  especially  in  the  manufai*ture  of 
what  is  called  white  cloth.  The  church,  built  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  has  several  monuments 
of  the  Fitzwilliam,  Saville,  and  other  principal 
families  in  the  -vicinity.  There  is  here  also  a  well- 
endowed  free  school,  founded  in  the  reign  of 
James  I. 

BATOUM,  a  sea-port  to^Ti  of  Turkey  in  Asia, 
prov.  Trebizond,  near  the  Russian  frontier,  on  the 
E.  shore  of  the  Black  Sea.  4  m.  N.  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Tchorok,  lat.  41°  38'  41"  N.,  long.  41^ 
38'  55"  E.  It  is  built  in  a  straggling  manner, 
and  is  not  fortified.  Tlie  harbour,  which  is  open 
to  the  EXE.  and  N.,  is  defended  on  the  W.  by  a 
projecting  tongue  of  land,  and  has  deep  water, 
large  ships  anchoring  within  a  few  feet  of  the 
shore.  1  he  contiguous  countrv  is  fertile  in  fruits, 
com,  and  rice;  but  it  has  very  little  trade.  (Klai>- 
roth.  Tableau  du  Caucasc,  p.  162.) 

BATTAGLIA,  a  village  of  Austrian  Italy,  prov. 
Padua,  on  the  canal  of  Monselice,  10  m.  S.'by  W. 
Padua.  Pop.  2,454  in  1857.  It  has  hot- water 
baths,  which,  with  commtMlious  buildings  and 
agreeable  promenades  along  the  canal,  attract  a 
considerable  influx  of  company. 

BATTALAH  {Vattda),  a  large  tcwn  of  Hindo- 


BArrEGOLL^VH  (Batucala,  the  round  town), 
a  maritime  town  of  some  size  in  Ilindostan,  prov. 
Canara ;  lat,  13°  56'  N.,  long.  74°  37'  E. 

BATTERSEA,  a  par.  of  England,  hund.  Brix- 
ton, CO.  Surrey,  4  m.  SW.  St.  Paul's.  Pop.,  1821, 
4,992;  1831,  6,540;  1861,  24,615.  Area  3,020 
acres.  The  parish  coropriseii  a  low  level  tract  on 
the  S.  bank  of  the  Thames,  and  forms  one  of 
the  suburbs  to  the  metropolis ;  a  wooden  bridge 
connects  it  with  Chelsea,  and  a  suspension  bridge, 
erected  in  1857,  with  Pimlico  and  the  western 
parts  of  the  metropolis.  A  |)ark,  called  Battersea 
park,  was  formed  in  1855-9  on  some  low  ground 
near  the  river.  It  contains  many  respectable 
houses  and  detached  \-illas.  The  parish  church 
is  a  modem  brick  building,  with  tower  and  spire, 
beside  the  river ;  another  has  been  erecte<l  bv  the 
commissioners  appointed  for  such  puqioees.  Then> 
is  a  free  school  for  20  boys,  and  a  national  scluml 
for  150  boys  and  prls.  The  jMirish  is  intersects  I 
bv  railways  in  all  directions;  the  London  and 
South  Westem  line  paa'ting  through  its  whole 
length,  and  the  I^ndon,  Chatham,  and  Dover,  the 
London,  Brighton,  and  South  Coast,  and  other 
railways  crossing  and  re-crossing  it  from  north  t» 
south.  A  portion  of  the  parish,  which,  however, 
is  yearly  getting  more  restricted  by  the  building 
of  new  houses  and  *\'illas,'  is  still  laid  out  in 
market-gardens,  for  the  supply  of  vc^tablcs  to 
the  metro{x>lis,  for  which  the  parish  is  notd; 
especially  asiMragus,  said  to  have  been  timt  culti- 
vated here.  The  place  is  called  Patricerk*  in 
Domesday,  and  the  manor  was  given  to  the  abbey 
of  Westminster,  in  exchange  for  that  of  Win<i- 
sor,  by  William  I. ;  hence  the  i)resent  name.  It 
was  granted  by  the  crown,  in  1627,  to  the  Sl 
John  family,  and  the  celebrate<l  Lord  Bolingbroke 


BATTLE 

was  bom  and  died  in  their  mansion  (since  re- 
moved).    It  is  now  the  property  of  Earl  Spencer. 

BATTLE,  a  par.  and  town  of  England,  co. 
Sussex,  raiKj  Hastings,  hund.  Battle,  62  m.  SE. 
London,  and  67  m.  by  South  Eastern  railwaj^, 
which  has  a  station  here.  Pop.  of  parish,  3,293  in 
DStil.  The  town  is  pleasantly  situated  amidst 
woody  knolls,  which  bound  it  on  the  S.  and  SE., 
and  enclose  it  in  a  vale  which  winds  on  to  the 
sea,  at  Hastings.  The  principal  street  (about  |  m. 
in  length)  is  terminated  by  the  magniticent  gate- 
way of  the  old  abbey.  There  are  a  few  good 
modem  stmctures,  but  the  greater  part  of  the 
houses  are  ancient,  and  of  mean  appearance.  The 
church,  partly  in  the  Roman  and  partly  in  the 
Gothic  style,  has  many  antique  devices  on  the 
glass  of  it«  windows.  There  is  an  endowed  school 
for  30  girls  and  boys,  and  a  charity  school  for  40 
b<iys,  supported  by  subscription.  A  weekly 
market  is  held  on  Tuesday ;  a  monthly  one  on 
the  same  day,  for  cattle ;  and  two  annual  fairs  on 
Whit  Monday,  and  Nov.  22.  Gunpowder  is  the 
only  manufacture,  for  which  there  are  several 
extensive  mills  in  the  vicinity :  its  excellence  w 
sur|iasscd  only  by  that  made  at  Dartford.  Battle 
is  the  central  town  of  a  poor  law  union  of  14 
parishes.  The  ancient  name  of  the  town  was 
Epiton;  its  present  name  is  derived  from  the 
great  battle  between  Harold  and  William  of 
Normandy,  in  1066,  of  which  it  was  the  arena. 
Ill  the  following  year  the  Conqueror  founded  the 
abbcv,  in  commemoration  of  his  victorv,  the  ruins 
of  which  still  sufficiently  attest  its  ancient  mag- 
nificence. On  the  completion  of  its  church,  he 
<le|)Osite<l  in  it  the  famous  roll  in  which  the  names 
of  all  the  leaders  who  had  accompanied  him  on 
the  expedition  were  inscribed.  Copies  of  it  are 
still  extant,  though  not  free  from  the  siL«picion  of 
being  interi^olated  and  falsified.  Benedictine 
DKiiiks  from  Normandy  were  its  first  occupants : 
their  abl)ot  was  mitred,  and  a  peer  of  parliament. 
The  abbey  was  built  on  a  gentle  acclivity,  over- 
l(N>king  a  fine  extent  of  woods  and  meadows,  and 
was  endowed  with  all  the  lands  for  a  league 
n)und,  besides  various  manors  and  churches  in 
other  counties.  Many  sulwequent  royal  and 
private  donations  were  added  to  the  original  en- 
dowment, and  its  prerogatives  and  immunities 
were  placed  on  the  same  footing  as  those  of 
Christ  Church,  Canterbury.  In  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward III.  leave  was  obtained  to  fortify  tlie  abbey. 
At  the  general  suppression  its  annual  revenue 
was,  acc»)rding  to  Speed,  987/.  0«.  lOJrf. :  Dug- 
dale  makes  it  880/.  14».  If^d,  Sixty  monks  were 
I>en8ioned  off.  The  remains  occupy  three  sides 
of  a  laige  quadrangle.  (Camden's  Brit, ;  Dug- 
<lale*s  Monas. ;  Pennant's  Tour;  Gilpin's  Coast  of 
Sussex.) 

BATURIX,  a  town  of  European  RiLssia,  go- 
vernment of  Tchemigoff,  beautifully  situated  on 
the  Seim,  an  affluent  of  the  Desna.  Pop.  esti- 
mated at  5,500.  It  is  chiefijr  remarkable  for  the 
castle  in  its  xacuiity  l)elonging  to  Count  Rasou- 
mofski,  who  has  establishe<l  manufactures  in  the 
town  of  cloth  and  wax  candles. 

BAUGE',  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Maine  et  Loire, 
cap.  arroncL,  on  the  Couanon,  or  Couemon,  23  m. 
ENE.  Angers.  Pop.  3,540  in  1861.  The  town  is 
agreeably  situated  in  a  fine  vallejf^,  and  has  some 
good  houses,  but  it  is  built  with  the  greatest  irre- 
gularity. It  has  a  tribunal  of  original  juristliction, 
a  college,  or  high  schm)!,  and  manufactures  of 
cloth  and  coarse  linen.  The  English  forces,  under 
the  Duke  of  Clarence,  wert^  totallv  delcatcd  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  this  town  in  1421,  and  the  duke 
killed. 

Not  far  from  Baugd  is  the  village  of  Baug<^lc- 


BAUTZEN 


373 


Vieil,  with  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle  that  formerly 
belonged  to  the  dukes  of  Anjou. 

BAULEAH,  an  inland  town  of  Hindostan, 
prov.  Bengal ;  on  the  N.  side  of  the  main  tnmk 
of  the  Ganges,  20  m.  NE.  Moorshedabad.  It  is 
large,  nopulous,  has  considerable  trade,  and  Is  the 
seat  of  a  commercial  resident  on  the  part  of  the 
E.  I.  Companv* 

BAUMAN.^HOHLE,  i  celebrated  cavern  in 
the  duchy  of  Branswick,  near  Blankenburg.  It 
abounds  with  stalactites,  and  is  interesting  to  the 
geologist  from  the  variety  of  fossil  bones  found  in 
it ;  among  which  are  those  of  the  great  cave  bear, 
now  extinct.  The  cavern  was  named  after  a 
miner,  who  discovered  it  in  1660. 

BAUMEEAN,  or  BAUMIAN,  atown  of  Caubul, 
the  Thebes  of  the  E.,  country  of  the  Hazanrehs, 
on  the  face  of  the  Koh-i-Baba  range  of  moun- 
tains; hit  340  34'  N.,  long.  68^  8'  E..  56  m. 
WNW.  CaubuL  The  valley,  on  one  declivntv  of 
which  it  stands,  contains  many  caves,  dug  in  a 
soil  of  indurated  clay  and  pebbles,  and  in  which 
rings  and  relics,  coins,  &c,  bearing  Cufic  inscrip- 
tions, are  found;  but  Baumeean  is  chiefly  cele- 
brated for  two  gigantic  male  and  female  figures, 
cut  in  alto  relievo^  on  the  face  of  the  mountain. 
The  male  figure  is  the  largest,  and  about  120  ft. 
high ;  it  is  without  much  sjinmetry  or  elegance, 
and  is  considerably  mutilated,  the  Mohammedans 
that  pass  that  way  always  tiring  a  shot  or  two  at 
it.  The  lips  are  large,  the  ears  long  and  pendant, 
and  there  appears  to  have  been  the  resemblance 
of  a  tiara  on  the  head ;  the  body  is  covered  by 
the  remains  of  a  mantle,  which  has  been  formed 
of  a  kind  of  plaster,  and  fixed  on  with  wooden 
pins.  The  female  figure  is  more  perfect  than  the 
other,  and  has  been  dressed  in  the  same  manner : 
it  is  about  half  the  size,  and  cut  in  the  same  hill, 
200  yards  from  the  former.  The  niches  in  which 
both  are  situated  have  been  at  one  time  plastered 
and  ornamented  with  paintings  of  human  figures, 
but  these  have  nearly  disappeared.  These  images 
are  supposed  to  be  Buddhic.  Sir  A.  Bumes  savs 
the  head  of  the  large  one  Is  not  unlike  that  of  tfie 
great  trifaced  idol  of  Elephanta,  and  near  the 
celebrated  tope  of  Manikyala  (Punjab)  he  found 
an  antique  exactly  resembling  this  head.  Another 
antiquary,  from  an  inscription  above  the  head  of 
one  of  them,  has  believed  them  to  have  been  cut 
about  the  3rd  century  of  our  era,  while  the  Sassa- 
nides  tilled  the  thn»ne  of  Pers*ia.  They  arc  not 
mentioned  by  any  of  the  historians  of  Alexander 
the  Great ;  but  both  the  idols  and  excavations  of 
Baumeean  are  referred  to  by  those  of  Timour  or 
Tamerlane. 

BAUME-LES-DAMES,  a  town  of  France,  d<m. 
Doubs,  cap.  arrontL,  on  the  Doubs,  18  m.  NE. 
Bcsan9on.  Pop.  2,577  in  1861.  It  is  a  handsome 
little  town,  finelv  situated  in  a  basin  formed  by 
hills  planted  with  vines ;  has  a  court  of  original 
jurisdiction,  a  college,  and  a  small  public  library, 
with  paper-mills  and  tanneries.  It  derives  its 
name  from  a  rich  and  celebrated  convent  for  nuns, 
founded  in  it  during  the  oth  century,  and  de- 
stroyed at  the  Revolution. 

BAUTZEN,  a  town  of  Saxony,  cap.  Upper 
Lusatia,  on  a  height  at  the  foot  of  which  is  the 
Spree,  33  m.  ENE.  Dresden;  on  the  railway  from 
Dresden  to  Lobau.  Pop.  1 1,237  in  1861.  The  town 
is  surrounded  by  walls,  except  one  of  its  suburbs 
on  the  left  of  tJie  Spree,  and  is  well  built,  with 
straight,  broad,  and  well-paved  streets.  Its  ca- 
thedral, dedicated  to  St,  Peter,  founded  in  927  by 
the  Kaiser  Heiir>'  II.,  has  a  tower  300  ft,  high. 
The  Ortenhurffj  formerly  a  royal  palace,  is  now 
used  for  public  oilices ;  it  has  also  a  fine  town- 
ball,  a  landhamcr  or  house  of  assembly  for  the 


874  BAUX 

■tat««,  ui  orphm  asylum,  uid  roar  othei  hoainUls, 
•  hcHue  of  cuTTCClion,  thcalre,  Ac^  with  r 
rium,  a  CBtbulie  chapler-houitf,  a  nni 
Bowhaiiiai'  wbool,  auil  olher  wuli 
the  purjxiM  of  educiUflu,  and  twu  puiiiu.'  iiuranes. 
'liiwe  tTV  miiBMleialjle  inanufacliiret  of  wooUl-n, 
linm,  Biia  ootlon  Mufli,  loliawo,  wnj,  paper,  and 

tiUeriRK,'  «ini  laimcritH.'    TbB  town  «  the  centre 
*  ■      "  e,  particularly  in  woollen 


and  line 


.  effKled 


Near  Ilautien.on  Ihc  antli  and  HUt  May,  l«13, 
waa  fought  the  battle  which  btsrx  iu  name,  lie- 
iwcen  the  French  anny  under  Napoleon,  and  the 
cutDbined  furcis  of  KuBiiia  and  I'lunia,  9ti,IKH)  meu 
ttrong,  and  uoEnmanded  hv  the  nionarcKa  in  per- 
atm.  The  French  were  Ticlotious;  ' 
on  both  tides  wan  great,  anil  Ihv  i 
their  retreai  in  ^ood  nrdi^r.  I>arc>c 
ftiend  of  Napoleon,  waa  killed  by  hia  aide  in  Ibia  I 
cngifccment.  About  T  m.  E.  by  K.  froin  Itautzen, 
ti  Bochkireh,  Iho  acme  uT  one  of  the  great  battles 
irfthe  Seven  Years'  War. 

BAUX,  a  amall  town  of  Fcnnoe,  di<p.  Douche* 
ilu  Khonc,  III  m.  NK.  Arle*.  I'op.  KIO  in  mil. 
It  atan<b  on  the  nimmk  nf  a  xlmp  hill,  aiiil  in  re- 
matliatdc  fiir  the  niins  "f  ita  raatle,  Ciinneriy  the 
Kridence  nf  the  counts  of  Uaux,  who  conltnited 
the  wiTrieignty  of  I'rovenee  with  the  counts  of 
Uarcclona. 

B&VAItlA  (Gerra.  Bagen;  ¥r.  Bavltrr),  a 
CDunlry  in  the  8W.  of  (icrmany,  anciently  a 
Uueliy,  afterwanla  an  electorate,  and  now  rumcd 
to  the  rank  of  a  kiu)(dom,  lieing  one  of  the 
ciiial  of  the  secnmlary  Eunipran  slatea, 
thml  in  rank  of  the  Matea  romprisinK  the  urnimu 
tiHifedcralion.     llavaria  is  roin|ai*ed  af_two  di»- 


and  On 


the  Khine.'    Ilie  former,  which  cninpiiiwa  ali 
7-«tha  of  Ihe  monarchv,  exiemls  from   47°  iv 
to  50»  41'  N.  Ut.,  and  frinn  «»  61'  to  13°  44'  K, 
lonjf.,  and  ia  bouniled  N.  by  the  kingiU 
Saxniiy,    tho   pr' — ■ — '"'■"    -'   " — 


iniien ;  E.  and  R  by  the 
Oniiirei  and  W.  hy  the 


dein- 


of  Electoral 
B«we,  HesK-Darmiilndt,  lladeii.  and  the  kingdom 
(if  WUrtembcrft.  The  Rhine  lerritur}-  lies  on  the 
W.  siilo  of  tliat  river,  Iv  which  it  ia  partly 
bounded,  and  in  completely  separatcil  frmn  tlie 

ntiun  of  Ihe  territories  of  Baden  and  Hessc- 
UarmJitadt,  The  kinKdoni  axtenibi  from  48°  67 
to  4yo  W  X.  lat.,  and  from  7>  ii'  lo  «"  Si'  E. 

Ana  ami  Pipxlotloii.—The  total  ores  of  the 
hinDdom  amounts  to  l,iH*4  (ierman,  or  211,61? 
EDe.iv|.in.,n'itha|><>pulati(>n,inlKi'.l,or4,eHl>,»3? 
inhabitants,  or  IAS  on  Ihe  Huare  mile. 

The  kintciluin  is  divided,  ia  n.lraininlrnlive  pur~ 
IMSBS,  iuto  eight  Krcise,  or  circlea,  of  the  fiillowiiift 
extent  and  ponulatlou,  according  *"  ■"■ ' 


BAVAKIA 

consisted,  on  the  average,  of  tittle  more  than  tonr 

Sur/art. — Jfinottniiu.  —  Bavaria   hag    on    tho 

walled  in  by  lofty  mountains  on  the  X.  and  Si., 
but  having  cximsivc  chains  miming  tluiHwh  its 
interior.  The  loftiest  miiuiitains  are  the  None 
A][i"  on  the  8.,  whifh  separate  it  from  the  Tyrol; 
their  most  ele\'ated  points  are  the  Zugnpita, 
circk!  of  (sar,  %6m  ft,  and  the  WetteischniBni, 
9387,  Tlie  Allgau  Aln«,  in  the  nrov.  of  the  ITpper 
Danube,  extend  from  Kemptcn.in  aXE.dirKlion, 
to  near  Mindelheim.  The  HiichvoKcl  in  this  Tango 
is  S,47e,  and  the  TeufclfrsUss,  in  the  same  prov., 
%-iia  ft.  The  high  lands  on  the  N'.  nde  of  the 
Danube  contain  the  finelv-wooded  chain  of  the 
MiHSsart,  which  commences  on  the  Maiae,  at  the 
plai-c  where  that  river  iw[jarate»  it  firnn  (he  chain 
[>r  Ihe  OdenwaUl,  and  trnvenm  the  prov.  of  Lower 
Maine  from  N.  to  S.,  covering  an  am  of  147  sq. 
m.  The  loftiest  summtta  of  this  range,  such  as 
the  Engebibeig  and  the  Geyersberg.  rise  to  tho 
I  height  of  alumt  -i.tiou  (t  The  most  commcm 
rucks  in  the  Spewart  are  granite,  giiviM,  syenite, 
^  and  |ioTph\77,  whieh  serve  as  a  support  for  sand- 
intone,  argil  and  calcareous  rocks.  S.  of  the  Maine, 
I  and  along  tho  frontiers  of  the  Ijiwer  and  Ujiper 


course  of  the  Maine.  "The  felnme-Geb 
and  desolati!  chain  nf  mountains  in  tlie  circle  iif 
Lower  Frannmia.  unite  on  the  W.  with  the  chain 
of  the  Yiigelsbei);,  and  nn  the  E.  with  Ihe  Thu- 
riiiKer-Wald  :  they  are  more  estrnsive  aiul  more 
etevateil  than  the  range  of  Ihe  Spessart,  and  ore 
cnvered  half  the  year  with  nnow.  The  Fiehtcl- 
Uebfrge,  wldch  oninect  the  Khienc  moimlains 
with  the  Bajhrner-Wald,  lie  in  the  NK.  part  of  the 
Upper  Mune.  They  consist  chteHv  of  granite, 
pieisn,  quartz,  and  claystatc.  The  highest  point 
in  Ihe  range  is  the  summit  of  tiie  Ocbscnkoiif  or 
Ox's  Hea.1  (S.2H0  ft,).  The  chain  of  the  Btthmer- 
Wald,  which  commences  at  the  nniircea  of  Iho 
Eger,  and  running  along  the  E.  confines  of  11a- 

Ihnnving  out  several  branches  into  the  circles  of 
the  l.ower  l)anul>e  and  Kegen,  mav  be  about  -iW 
m.  in  length.  The  most  clevaleil  Himmitsarellie 
A-ibcr,  4,«4  ft,;  the  Itiwher,  4,720  ft,;  and  the 
l>niKell,  4,n.'il  It.  The  Bavarian  mountains  arein 
general  well  woodeiL  In  the  flat  counnv  along 
lhel>auulie  there  arc  some  very  extensive  marshes. 
Airrrs. — Bavaria  is  waterdlbv  the  largest  riieis 
of  Oermany.  Tlie  most  considerable  of  these  in 
the  Danutie,  which,  on  entering  Bavaria  from  ihe 
WUrtemberg  dominion^  is  of  sufficient  size  to  be 
nai-igable,  and  afterwanls  tiows  tlirough  the  heart 
' 'in*!,  "jth  il 


™gh 


December  IfCl:— 

r.i.uH~ 

AlMI 

tTiiKr  Bavaria 

,       .       tfiU 

t:»M<< 

L6^  Daigiria 

»70,M» 

PalUllioU 

'.       '.       «)«« 

•ns.iHia 

Um«  !■.]«[»«» 

*«!i,MIW 

»ifl.r4s 

UlildlP  Prancnnia 

'.      .      »!«^ 

Blubla      . 

DTK,  ISO 

Total  . 

.        ,       W,I!17 

4,«89,1«"7 

The  «-nHi-  of  I>i-e.™lsT  IKfil   staled  the  ex- 

iatcnL'c  of  !,131,lli- 

families,  m  that  each  famil.r 

the  Bavarian  teniKiry,  it  Hows  past  the  towns  of 
(iUnsburg,  Ilnech^tMt.  Itnnaiimerth.  Ncubiu};. 
Ingolsloilt,  Itatislwn,  Stranbing,  Vlkdiofeii,  aiu) 
Passau,  and  receives  no  fewer  than  3H  rivers:  the 
chief  of  these,  on  the  right  bank,  are  the  lller,  Ihe 
l>reh,  Ihe  Isai.and  Iho  Inn.  all  having  (heir  Miim-e 
among  the  Aliis.  Tlie  lller.  Iiefure  its  jumtion 
with  the  Daimbe,  receives  the  Bleibach;  llie  Isnr 
is  joined  by  the  Luisach,  Ani|ier,  and  WUrrn.  and 
fulls  into  the  Danube  below  Ueggcmloif ;  the  Inn, 
which  rise*  in  Switzeriand,  Hows  thniugli  tlie 
T.vTul,  aiul  is  navigatde  before  it  enters  HavarL-i : 
it  rei'nves  Ihe  All,  llie  large  river  Snlxn.  drc.  and 
iirins  the  Danube  near  I'nssau.  The  streams  ou  the 
left  or  Fnuminian  nidii,  which  are  by  no  means  ••> 
lsi){e  OS  Ihiwe  on  the  o|ipo9iii'  bank*  are  the  Wiir- 
nilz,   the  lUlmUlit,  which  lin»  its  source   in  llie 


!lteiRer-W*ld  and  foils  into  tho  Duiabe  new 
Kfhleimj  the  Kuhriiach,  neu  Bnbeitlitim ;  the 
Nuib,  whith  (Icscendu  from  the  Kiclitel-Gobii^e, 
unci  duchatges  itoelf  into  the  Danube  above 
lialubiin ;  uiil  the  K%en,  that  flowi  from  the 
Kwhmer-Waltl.onii,  (raveniim  the  ciicle  tti  which 
iCjriveB  name,  join»  the  l>«nule  opposite  Baiigbon, 

'Die  iinlv  connidenble  river  in  the  N.  put  of 
Itavaris  ia  the  Maine,  fnimed  bv  the  junction  of 
the  Keii  and  Wbit«  Maine,  the  lonner  ori^oalinff 
in  the  vicinity  of  Ncubsu,  and  the  latter  descendin); 
fnun  Ochsenkopf,  part  of  the  Fithwl-Gebirge,  in 
tliecircleofthc  Ujipcr  Danube.  Tht«e  unite  near 
Cuhnbach,  and  ixavcnic  Pranconia  in  a  W.  dilu- 
tion, leceivin);  in  their  progtesa  the  Kodach,  the 
Linn,  and  the  Francunian  Saale,  which  flow  from 
the  Hhivne-fielHrEc.  the  licgnilz,  and  many  amaller 
Ktreanis.  The  Khine  forma  the  K.  boundary  of 
the  Bavarian  province  which  bean  its  name. 

Ltiitt, — The  lakes  arc  numemua,  and  aoroe  of 
them  large.  Besides  the  lake  of  Con«tance,  only 
a  Mnall  portion  of  which  in  ritualed  in  Bavaiin,  the 
ranat  exleiiaive  are  the  Ammer.  about  13  m.  Inni; 
and  37  in  circuit ;  the  WUtm,  14  m.  in  length  and 
4  in  breadth ;  aiid  the  Chiem,  about  Iti  m.  in  vir- 
cuil.  The  SUifien  or  Slaffel,  the  Walchen,  the 
Kuchel,  and  the  King's  or  Ittutholumeus  lakeis  are 
aI*o  of  eonsidciable  extent.  Moat  of  these  lakes 
abound  in  Huh,  and  acveial  valuable  fiaheries  have 
been  establiihcd  on  them. 

Itavaria  |iauo»<es  numeroiis  canab,  A  canal  was 
made  in  ltll)7  between  Kciwnhcim,  ',4(10  ft.  lung 
and  36  ft.  bruacL  Another  canal  was  linuhed  in 
tdlK  between  WSrth  and  Knitlingen,  lu,li24  ft. 
liniR  and  62  ft.  brriaiL  There  is  a  canal  in  the  \V. 
I>art  of  (he  circle  of  the  Jwr  13,0tKI  ft,  ill  leuf^lh, 

(laii^feroua  navigation  of  rbe  Ammer  I^kc    A 

Sraud  canal,  called  (he  Lucluri|['s  Canal,  after  the 
itcking,  wiiich  joina  the  Danulie  with  thelthuie, 
was  cunijileled  in  IHfiO.  It  exteniln  from  Diel- 
fiinli.  un  the  AllmUhl,  a  navigalile  affluent  of  the 
Danube,  tu  Bamberg  on  the  Maine,  a  distance  of 
•i3i  (iemum,  or  alHHit  11-^  F^ig.  m.     It  is  on  a 

■if  above  a  iiiillion  aterlintc-  Thki  mogniHcent  un- 
■lertaking,  which  ha*  come  to  tcaliw  the  pnijcct  of 
Charlemngiie  for  jiHniiig  tlio  lUai'k  Sea  to  the 
(ierman  th-can,  woa  canieil  out  at  the  instiKatiun 

menl.    It  in  n(  gnu  impununce  to  Ilavaria. 

Oi'mofr.— Tlie  cliniatc  of  Jtavoria  ia  in  genmi 
terniierate  aiul  aalulirious,  but  the  leinperaiiire  ia 

-   " — "--modillod  by  iural  differeius"  "  "' - 


HI  (^  (he  s<hL 
cold  and  bleak,  but  milder 


larEfCiuii 


The  following  tabic  exhibita  an  approximalfi 
riew  of  the  extent,  in  acres,  of  the  forests  in  the 
lifferent  circles,  diatribulod  among  the  daaaea  to 
ihich  they  belong : — 


'""" 

«' 

'i's 

H^  :   : 

Lower  Danube 
Upper  Daouta 
Lower  UidDD  . 

sir.sai 

8M,(WT 

lUl.UBS 

Im.m: 

JKfiU 

IDO.iW 
111. MS 

"•■■" 

S743IS    IU,l7a 

1S!.C1«    MI,W« 
JO.*M    71M,IM 

ToUl  . 

W1S.»>9 

,H«3H 

i,-nn.uatx*Ait 

1  (he  lowcouiitt}':   h 


The  groaa  annual  t-alue  of  the  woods  and  fureau 
belnnffuig  to  the  state  amounts  to  neariy  SaOfitM. ; 
but,  m  consequence  of  the  heavy  expenaea  at- 
tending their  management,  the  net  produce  n>- 
ceiveii  bv  the  state  amounts  only  te  little  mure 
than  haU' that  sum. 

Minerals, — The  mineral  products  of  Bavaiia  an 
important  and  vidoable ;  but  □otwitbstanding  the 
encouragement  held  out  bygovemmentjtheyliave 
hitherto  been  cumparatively  ncglcctol.  Tlie  prin- 
cipal products  an  aalt,  cool,  and  iron.  Salt  U  a 
royal  monopoly,  and  producea  a  conaiclerable  reve- 
nue. There  are  a  considerable  number  of  iron- 
woriia  and  coal-ininc3  in  operation;  they  belong 
partly  lo  the  crown,  and  partly  to  private  indi- 
viduals. Illacklcailiaublainedinaome]ilacca;  and 
small  quiuitidcs  of  cupper  and  quicksilver  are  also 
produced.  There  are  an  immense  variety  of  mar- 
bles. The  porcelain  clay  of  llaviuia  is  probably 
■'le  finest  in  Europe. 

^^imitMn,— The  soil  of  Bavaria,  where  it  is 
not  covered  by  morasses  or  muuntaina,  is  gene- 
rally good  i  and  in  the  plains  and  vallovs  it  ia 
deq>.  fertile,  and  ca|able  of  prDdiiiring  all  binils  of 
cn>pa.  A  f{Teat  deal  of  waste  land  has  recently 
lieen  reclaimed ;  and  an  improved  system  of  ml- 
tivotiun  has  been  intnxluced  into  vanous  distriirts, 
and  is  diffwdng  itself  over  the  whole  country. 
"lovcmmcnt  has  lealoualy  exerted  itself  to  pni- 
lote  improvement,  not  merely  by  the  reforms  it  lias 
tfected  in  the  syatema  of  admin'iHtratioii  and  cdu- 
aticin,  but  by  (he  drainage  of  CKlensive  mombea, 
nd  by  iU  efforts  to  improve  the  breed  of  sbeep. 
There  were,  in  Ittei,  according  to  otRcial  esli- 
l,1)Sa,Wm  sbeep,  37<),UUU  honlC^  3,-i3II,000 


in  (he  |ilains  and  valleys  the  summer  heats  oi 
Bomelimes  ojijircssive. 

f'nnilt. — Ihe  Itavatian  forests  are  verv  ex- 
tensive and  valualjle;  a  considerable  iHininn  of 
the  kintpliim  being  still  civcml  with  nutuml 
e»  are  oak  an  J  lieedi 


in  (be  [d 
Tlie  mo. 


indrin. 


iu<l  Hr  oi 


. , mil  ifhiene  mountains,  ami  in  the  neigh- 

iHHirimud  iif  Kemptcn.  where  tliev  corer  a  surface 
of  ,I.S.1,141I  acres.  IV  aniiuol  lauduct  of  the  Iki- 
varian  forvMa  is  wliniatnl  at  2,3TIMMU  klalleni 
mill  timber  is  one  of  the  must  important  articles  nf 
I'sjHirt.  However,  in  recent  years,  (he  trade  in 
tills  article  hns  mdirr  fallen  off,  owing  to  (he 
clearing  of  (Ik  fiirrHts  in  tlie  more  fertile  provinces 
of  (ho  Idngdom,  ciipFrinllv  those  ill  (he  (erritory 
■iftbelthiiie.   Tlie  grralef  qitan(i(y  of  the  exjBirts 


a  cattle,  &W),iHHl  (ligs,  and  1(>J,0(IIJ  goals. 


Agriculture  is  most  improved  m  the  valley  of 
(he  Danube,  Ihe  circlca  of  llezat,  and  of  the  Upper 
and  LoiFcr  Maine.  The  plain  lying  to  (he  S.  of 
Munich  has,  (HI  account  of  its  prw'luctiveueas,  been 
styled  the  granary  of  (lermany.  I'lindpal  cn>[ia 
— lye,  wheal,  uats,  and  barlev :  but  rice,  maize, 
and  buckwheat  an;  also  partially  cultivated.  Nu 
acuurate  estimate  can  be  formedof  thepnxiuetire- 
ne*s  of  Ihe  ciups,  varying,  as  they  must  nctxHariiy 
■111,  not  onlv  according  to  the  nuality  of  the  soil, 
but  also  acoHding  to  the  skill  with  which  it  U 
cultivated,  and  the  nature  of  the  seasons.  But 
EiiKlislimen  who  have  been  in  Bavaria  state,  that 
under  projiei  culture,  ihc  produce  of  com  and 
liimipB  is  equal  to  what  it  b  in  the  best  cultivated 
distiicia  of  Kiigland;  and  Dotwithstanding  the 
vast  consumption  of  coin  in  the  Ineweriee,  Bavaria 
lins  invarialily  a  large  mriilus  for  eic[M>rtatiotu 

KninKiHiriiil  returns  for  the  year  lr<ii2.  it  appears 
(hat  thi'  loiiil  uudur  crop  Uiioughout  the  kingdom 


376 


BAVARIA 


Cropi 

Number  of  Aem 

undrr  Crop  — 

Bsvariui  *  Morgcn ' 

Amonnt  of  Pmduet 
.Schffffel 

Wheat 

Rye    . 

Barley 

Oatd  and  MiUct . 

Potatoos     . 

1.439,629 
2,369,874 
l,I2/i,fi99 
1,876,6M 
913,827 

12.413,128 
14,707.210 
8.09 1, 4«K) 
l.'i,171.37fi 
60,730,047 

The  average  produce  of  wheat,  per  Bavarian 
acre,  is  U  KcheflFel ;  of  rye,  6  schoffcl ;  of  barley,  7 ; 
of  oatd  and  niillet,  8X ;  and  of  iwtatoes,  55  Hcheffel. 
The  Bavarian  acre  u  equal  to  0*65  I^ng.  acre,  and 
the  Boheffel  equal  to  701  imp.  quart. 

The  hop-})lant  is  cultivated  to  a  considerable 
extent,  particularly  in  the  circles  of  Kezat  and  the 
Upper  Danube :  the  qimntity  raised  varies  fh>m 
80,000  to  40,000  cwt.  a  year,  of  which  ab«)ut  a  half 
ia  exported.  The  culture  of  the  \'ine  is  well  un- 
derstood in  Bavaria.  The  best  vineyards  are  in 
Uic  circles  of  the  Lower  Maine  and  the  Rhine, 
The  former  produ(*es  the  wines  of  Franconia,  known 
by  the  names  of  the  Maine,  Were,  Saale,  and 
Taubjr  wines.  The  famous  Steinwein  and  Lies- 
tenwein  are  produced  on  the  banks  of  the  Lei.ste, 
not  far  from  Stcinl)erj^,  in  the  mark  of  WUrzburjj. 
The  best  wines  in  the  circle  of  the  Khine  are  those 
produced  near  Deide^heim  and  Wachenheim.  The 
Rveraf^c  vearly  pnKluco  is  estimated  at  alK>»t 
800,000  eimers.  Hemp  and  flax  arc  p^)wn  in 
some  districts,  but  the  supply  is  not  sufficient  for 
home  consumption.  Madder  and  liquorice  are 
very  extensively  produce<i.  and  form  considerable 
articles  of  export.  The  culture  of  the  potato  has 
rapidly  increase<l  durin)^  late  vcars,  particularly  in 
the  N!  ]>rovinces.  Beetroot  is  raised  in  consider- 
able quantities,  and  there  are  several  factories  for 
its  conversion  into  sugar.  Tobacco  is  grown  in 
considerable  quantities  in  the  circles  of  Kez;it  and 
Khine.  Silk  has  been  raised  of  late  years,  but  not 
to  any  great  extent.  Considerable  portions  of 
ground  have  been  laid  out  in  nurseries  and  tiowcr- 
gardens,  and  large  quantities  of  fruit  are  exported 
from  the  territories  of  Alaine  and  the  Rhine. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  pn>duce  of  hops  in  1801 
amoimted  to  224,000  Zollvcrein  cwt.,  representing 
a  value  of  1 1,000,000  florins ;  of  these  00,000  were 
consumed  by  the  Bavarian  breweries,  and  144,(M)0 
cwt.  ex{>ortcd  abroad,  valued  at  7,770,000  florins. 
The  produce  in  barley  for  the  same  i>eri(Kl  was 
equal  to  0,500,000  cwt,,  of  which  6,500,000  were 
devoted  at  home  to  the  fabrication  of  beer.  The 
beer  of  Bavaria  therefore  (estimated  for  1801  at 
8,500,000  eimers,  with  00  measures  to  the  eimer) 
costs  annually  circa  19,000,000  florins,  paying 
0,000,000  florins  malt  tax  to  the  state,  and  further 
2,000,000  florins  for  municipal  excise,  showing  a 
total  cost  of  27,mK>,000  florins. 

From  the  5th  of  August,  1801,  to  the  9th  of 
May,  1802,  185,208  schettel  of  malt  were  employed 
in  the  breweries  of  l^Iunich  alone;  one  single 
brewer  having  paid  300,000  florins  (25,000/.)  malt 
tax  in  the  course  of  the  year  1801-2.  Tlie  con- 
sumption of  beer  per  licad  of  the  population 
is  reckoned  at  2^  eimer  yearly  in  Franconia, 
the  Palatinate,  awl  Lower  havaria;  at  8^  eimcr 
in  Upper  Bavaria ;  and  at  4|  eimer  ]>er  head  of 
the  jmpulation  in  the  capital.  (Report  of  31r. 
Consul  Bonar,  dated  ^lunich,  July  15,  1805.) 

The  immense  quantity  of  beer  cousunuMl  in 
Munich  alone,  is  forcibly  illustnited  as  follows  by 
a  journal  of  that  city  of  June  1803 : — 

*  Acconling  to  the  most  authentic  returns,  the 
brewers  of  3Iunich  alone  have  now  hiid  in  a  stock 
amounting  U*  no  less  than  032,754  eimer,  or  01,9iK) 
mom  than  in  1802;  each  eimcr  containiiig  00 


measures  (each  measure  being  equal  to  between 
4  and  5  pints  English). 

*  A  flowing  spnng,  \ielding  two  measures  per 
minute,  would  require  to  tiow  unintcmiptedly 
during  the  space  of  thirty-six  years  and  a  half  in 
order  to  pnHluce  the  above  quantity. 

*  That  amount  of  beer  would  till  to  the  brim  a 
pond  or  small  lake,  of  a  surface  equal  to  iOi 
Bavarian  acres,  and  4  ft,  in  dqjth ;  or,  again,  it 
would  form  a  river  of  32  ft.  wide,  4  ft,  average 
depth,  and  2A  m.  long. 

*  The  barrels  required  to  contain  it,  and  such  as 
are  commonly  in  use  in  this  countr}',  if  laid  beside 
one  another,  would  occupy  a  space  of  12^  leagues 
in  length  (or  nearly  32  English  m.),  and  supiK>sing 
the  above-said  amount  of  beer  to  cover  the  ex- 
pected demand  during  the  coming  summer  (which, 
however,  is  seriously  called  in  doubt),  it  would 
average  1|  measure  per  head  of  the  whole  popu- 
lation of  Munich  irrespective  of  age  or  sex.  In 
Munich  alone  212,308  scheffel  of  malt  have  l)een 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  beer  from  August 
1802  to  May  18<;3.' 

But  some  ]x)rti()n  of  this  large  stock  in  hand  is 
cimsumed  out  of  the  capital,  for  the  Munich  beer 
is  largely  exported  to  tlie  most  distant  markets. 
Austria  and  France  consume  it  in  considerable 
quantities,  and  it  flnils  its  way  acn)S8  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Hrazils,  and  traverses  the  Atlantic  and  In- 
dian Oceans  to  Java,  lUtniet^,  and  other  coimtries. 
Professor  Ihirckhardt  has  declared  that  whilst  in 
1859  Bavaria  produced  only  72,000  cwt.  of  ho|>s, 
the  yield  in  184)2  amounted  to  no  less  than  15O,0iK) 
cwU,  whilst  others  compute  it  even  at  180,000  cwt. 
As  in  England,  however,  so  aLso  in  Bavaria, 
there  is  a  notable  diiference  as  to  quality  in  the 
prisluce  of  the  various  soils.  Among  the  best 
m  liavaria  are  tlie  districts  of  Spalt  and  Hers- 
bruck  :  the  former  ha\'ing  produced,  in  1802, 
11.108 cwt.  13  lbs.,  yielding  1,119,347  florins;  the 
latter,  27,409  cwt.,  fetching  upwanls  of  3,000,000 
florins. 

The  above  statistics,  then,  show  the  vast  import- 
ance to  Bavaria  of  this  branch  of  her  agricultural 
produce,  and  of  her  commerce  in  hops,  of  wliicli 
Kumbeig  is  the  chief  emporium.  The  total  har- 
vest of  nops  in  Bavaria  during  the  four  yean* 
1858,  1859,  1800,  and  1801,  amounted  to  211.090 
cwt.  53  lbs.,  sold  at  22,453,398  florins.  (Keis»rt 
of  Mr.  Consul  Bonar,  dated  July  15,  1803.)  'The 
establishment  of  Herr  Pschorr,  at  Munich,'  says 
a  traveller,  *  almost  rivals  the  works  of  our  Bar- 
clay and  Perkins'.  In  everj*  comer  of  the  city 
you  tind  beer-houses ;  and  when  you  see  a  liavariaii 
I>easant  not  working,  you  are  sure  to  And  him  with 
a  can  of  l)eer  in  his  hand.'  ((rermany  in  1831,  iL 
377.)  It  may  be  supixtsed,  {)erha{>s,  that  this 
enormous  consumption  of  beer  must  be  injuri(»us 
to  the  labouring  population;  but  this  docs  not 
seem  to  be  the  case.  The  desire  to  ikwscss  this 
luxury  stimulates  their  industry;  and  notwitli- 
standing  their  indulgence  in  it,  they  are  well 
clothed  and  well  fetl;  there  is  no  apjiearance  of 
al)ject  poverty  amongst  them,  and  beggars  are 
never  seen. 

Next  to  l)eer,  the  staple  pnKlucts  of  maimfao- 
turing  industry  are  coarse  linens,  wtnillens,  cottons, 
leather,  paper,  glass,  earthenware,  jewellery,  in>u- 
ware,  liasket-ware,  and  wotnleu  articles.  C<»arye 
linens  are  manufactured  to  a  considerable  extent ; 
but  the  supply  of  wwdlen  stuffs,  worstcil  hose,  .ind 
cotUm  gcKxis,  is  inadequate  to  the  consumption. 
The  leather  manufacture  Ls  extensive  and  impor- 
tant, and  leather  is  largely  exiK>rted.  Then'  arc 
al>ove  130  |;aper-milLs  about  50  glass-houses,  2,ooo 
saw-mills,  many  establLnhments  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  wo«nlcn  clocks,  and  toys  and  of  porcelain 


BATABIA 


377 


and  eanbcnwaro.     Hut  aomc  of  these  ti 

on  tlie  decline,  and,  loiaiigt  from  the  ceiuqste-  pxc« 

turnn.  it  would  appeiir  that  the  industiial  popula-  ciinm 

t inn  in  ^vncnil  bu  been  decreaidnR  between  the  n^iun 

vMTa  lS-10  and  Is6l  very  nearly  nine  per  cent.  .iui.{.i 

This  is  awribed  ti>  the  dyitein  uf  industrial  pro-  ]i[i.jmi 

lection  prevailiiift  W  the  present  day,  nearly  all  li;'.i) 

trades  being  uniteil  in  guilds,  possesuiig  great  ['no 

|irivilcges  and  munopohcs.  ['ii 

Tlie  occupatiuns  of  the  people  were,  according  r.|i.[K 

In  the  census,  in    every   thousand  inhabitanta,  i.f  lit 


11  Sonke.  Fuml-boLiiers,  Jic. 


of   1 


.eConti 


n  Nut 


nberg  a 


Fuith,  opened  in  1835.  Bavaria  has  a  great  n 
aourcG  for  commercial  undenakinttn,  in  the  credit 
enjoyed  by  the  bankers  of  AugMbiuK,  which  is 
siill  one  of  the  nrindpal  places  uf  the  Continent 
fur  the  negotiation  of  bUls. 


leather,  glass,  hops,  fruit,  beer,  wiml,  optical  and 
mnlhenuiiicBl  instmments,  wooden  toy*,  jewellery, 
maps,  and  artiHlic  nUtcU,  of  an  aven^  annual 
value  of  H,()(lll,()IU>  iT,  or  l.S2£,IIOOf.  The  quan- 
tities of  the  principal  articles  exported  arc  at  an 

Homtd  CsttlB        .       .       190,1100  to  WD.em)  h«d 


The  im|Hifta  eonsUt  principally  nf  Migar,  ealtfr, 
and  iitlierniliHiial  jinHhii'tn;  npiiw  and  dyestuRn; 
oilloii  Ml  iiHa,  silks,  wuoUenp,  ami  tine  manufactures 
of  all  kiiidt;  ilruga,  hemp,  and  tlox.   The  in^nna 


if  cattle  an  alao  extensive,  and  those  of  hoisea 
xcreil  the  cxpoRa.  Further  details  as  to  tha 
iinimerce  of  Bavaria  are  given  in  the  statistical 
i^iumj'  of  the  tiade  of  the  Zollverein,  or  Uennaa 
iiit.jini,'  liague,  of  which  it  forms  ■  part.  It* 
iri.jMiriiiin  irf  the  joint  revenue  of  the  league  i* 
'■■■.>i,  IV  IT  per  oenL     {See  Zoi4.*kbkik  ;   alao 

I'niil  iho  formation  of  the  league,  which  liai 
■IBEiwl  n  vast  extent  of  country  to  the  produda 
vnri^i.  its  natural  focilitm  fw  commercial 
»i>r-<>  were  defeated  by  its  own  prohibitory 
iii<)ii~.  and  those  of  moat  of  its  nelghboura. 
liT  uiid  more  enlightened  views,  aa  to  com- 
'.  are  now,  however,  beginning  to  prevail  all 


L'  lisva 


justice  to  add,  tt 
gaveramenc  has  giron  a  powerful 
iduatiy  by  establiiihing  meehaniof 


highly  flourishing  state!  Ironware,  especially  nails  ' ' 
and  needles,  is  extensively  manufactured,  and  the    ' 
exports   are  considerable.     The   opticaL  mathe-    ' 
maiical,  surgical,  and  musical  instruments,  made 
at  Munich,  are  highly  prized  on  the  Continent, 
especially  the   lele«ci>|ic«  of  FraUenhi>fer,  which    ' 
an  superior  to  those  nuute  anywhere  else.   There    * 
are  also  foundries  for  cannon,  and  manufactoriea    ] 
of  muslieta  and  other  small  arms,  ^c  t  and  cua-    ^ 
siilcrable  quantities  of  jewellery  are  exported  lo    ' 
most  Kuropean  markets.    The  princiiial   manu-    ' 
factnriug  towns  are  Aiigaburg,  Nuremberg,  Fnrth, 
Schwabach,  Hcif.  and  Itaj-rauth.  i  | 

Commtrct, — The  central  situation  of  Havana  i 
renders  berwcll  suileil  for  the  transit  and  carrying 
trade;  and  to  this  Augsbutg,  Nuremberg,  Ha-  ' 
lisbim,  and  Spires,  owed  the  greater  part  of  their 
wealtli  and  cctehritv  during  I  he  middle  ages.  But 
in  mrHlem  limes  the  meana  of  protitiiig  by  the 
natural  advantages  of  the  country  in  this  way 
have  been  comparatively  neglected.  Within 
recent  years,  however,  they  have  begun  to  attract 
the  attcntiuu  they  so  justly  deserve.  Beiudos 
the  great  canal  uniting  the  Danube  with  the 
Ubine,  a  joint  stock  comjiany  CMtabUshed  in 
IHSH  a  regular  steam  communication  between 
KatiHbnn  and  Linz.  in  Austria,  which  was  ex- 
tended in  1B39  to  Donauwerth  and  Ulm.  The 
I  introduced   upon 


>  abolltii 


niuii-  t"  lie  effected  before  industry  can  maks 
y  i,-j^  jiriigresa  in  this  and  moat  other  German 
Ill's.  N'liinerous  poUce  regulations  still  interfeiB 
til  lilt  Iri'e  exercise  of  industrial  purauita,  and  a 
.-ill  mjiny  things  which  ought  to  be  lefl  to  the 
irkiii;;  ..rthe  great  laws  of  demand  and  supply, 
:  h  11/.  ih<-  nnmlier  of  labourers  permitted  to  re~ 
li-  111  towns,  the  number  and  distribution  of 
iili'.i.  t}ie  prices  of  bread  and  meat,  and  even 

iml  by  nrtificial   arrangemcntiil  depenilent  on 

Isiliins  pievail,  that  industry  should  be  in  a  da- 
i^Hcd  c.ndiljon,  but  that  it  should  exist  at  all, 
id.  in  I'liot  of  fact,  the  progress  it  has  made  ia 
inn|ially  sscribabletothefact  of  Bavaria  having 
iliin  ber  limits  Augsburg,  Nuremberg,  and  other 
in."  tiLnl,  being  formerly  free  imperial  cittea, 
11'  iH'tn  lint  little  injured  by  these  prepostenma 

jUoncy  nruf  Mtiwirtt. — The  Bavarian  flniin,  di- 
ti'd  iTitii  i>0  kreulser,  is  equivalent  to  2ld.  ater- 

.|;t  the  i'imer,ormeasnreor wine, toSlgatlona; 
d  ilir  ;(lifffel,  or  measure  of  com,  (o  -761  imp. 

Fi-jrul-ilum. — Considering  the  lengthened  period 

rniiK|nlllity  that  Itavana  has  enjoyed,  and  the 
nmhn  ;,-'iven  to  industry  by  the  Sf     "    '    '' 


■f  i^niijds  and  corporations,  the  progress  of 
iiiioii  has  been  slower  than  might  have  been 
lid.  This  slow  progress  would  seem  to  be, 
■I  HI  least,  accounted  for  by  the  law  which 


capital  thaU  As  aJhvrd  viUuntt  the  prrvumt  ptr- 
n,]niim  of  a,t  poor  iMMhtution, ;'  that  i^  of  the 
principal  inisons  in  each  provincial  district  elected 

nn<  liiiiini!  ro  refuse  such  permission,  unless  th» 
i<i'i'  A  ri'ii'iiiioble  prospect  of  the  partiea  bebig  abfe 
I. p  |irpii(li' lor  the  children  that  maybe  exited 
111  ^imiii;   from  the  prt>poscd  unic"      '■''*  ■"— — 


art  m  amwrr  far  iht  makHnmrna  qT  Hit  laid 
familirM,  shoulil  they  not  be  able  lo  muntain 
ihcmselvHi,'  Undoubtedly,  a  law  of  this  aort 
must  tend  powerfuUv  tn  prevent  impitfviilent 
uniims;  anil  it  is  slated  that  it  has  retarded  the 
increase  of  population,  and  had  likewLw  a  co- 
tain  effect  in  averting  extreme  poverty  and  eon- 
sequmt  miserv.  (See  Ap|>endix  F,  In  Poor  Inquiry 
Kelnms,  p.2-i.)  The  subjoined  table  shows  the 
slow  pm)^wiB  of  pi^lation  in  the  coume  of  very 
nearly  linlf  a  centniy ;— 


o- 

ma 

lUl 

l,eS9,MI 

Palitlniue  .    .    . 

SSSRSS 

nulla  FiXKODl. 
LowH  ft«Dconi» 
SsabU    ,    .    .    . 

Total     .    .    . 

♦M.ies 

40II^H1 

a,;o7.9M 

T44JC1 

<»1I.D1S 
U)^H7 

4^1  ^« 

belong 

The  soil  of    the  kingdom  ii  divided  unonji      .   .   . 

947,010  progiiielon:    the  divinun  being  grutHil  The  rr' 

in  the  PakCinUe,  namely  228,076,  and  BtniUul  in  year  ■ " 

Upper  Bavaria,  vii.  109,  IBS.  (llennann,  Dr.  Von, 

BeiCrlb^  lur  Suiiitik  von  Bayem,  18<>3.)  I 

la  jiavaria  all  dealitule  penwua  have  a  1^^  | 

daiin  lo  relief;  and  nu  duutiC  it  wna  the  irinh  to  i  ^^„^ 
"  a  right  f        "    " 


lagc  chivalry.    The  weallh  of  the  laige  Uwiu  on 

the  navigalilc  rivera  in  tlie  middle  age*,  and  tbo 
expeniiive  hahita  which  it  produced,  may  yet  lie 
traced  in  the  cwtunieii  of  the  wives  aiid  daiiKhters 
of  the  buishera.  I'he  hi-ud  of  rieh  gold  lace,  and 
the  bodice  umamented  with  golil  or  silver  chain^s 
from  which  a  number  of  medals  hany.  form  the 
common  die»  of  the  richer  portion  of  Ibis  claas, 
and  an  amliitioualv displayed  by  aenauta  anil  tbo 
poorer  tradeo-propte  on  Suiiitaya  and  holidays. 
Hauii  and  BaiiicayM. — Bavaria  has  exceUent 
1 2S6  (iennan  m.  of  nilways,  of  which  163 
and  aie  mnnaced  by  the  9lat«  ;  together 
post-oflice,  trfej^jih.  (he  Danube  and 
Canal,  and  the  Danube  Steam  N'avi^tion. 
of  tlicac  public  undertaldnga,  in  the 


I  of  the  h 


I    tbia 


cited.    ■ 


it  diffeicnt  opinioni 

jcnce  on  pubUc  morals.  We  aie  nut 
Bure,  however,  that  it  can  be  auccessfully  im- 
peached on  this  KTuuod.  At  Munich,  indeed,  half 
the  birtlis  are  illegiiimale ;  but  the  residence  of 
the  etnut,  and  of  a  numeroog  garriwn,  and  the 
ffrcaC  tntlux  of  Btianeera,  seem  auflicionily  to  ac- 


led  as    I     Canal 


Danube  Steam  Hai 


■K"J': 


1HI,S0^      IU,H3 


The  IGS  German  m.  of  railway  belonging  (o  the 
ate  were  constructed  at  a  coet  of  r/O.UOO.OOO 
'"    ■  ofpri  vale  lines  were 


ffrcaC  tntlux  of  Btiangera,  seem  auflic 
count  for  (hie.    In  Oie  country,  we 

morals  of  the  Itavarians  are,  in  this  leniieci,  [^uiie  iiiuuiiv,  mine  me  nvivnusi 

on  a  level  H-ith  Ihuae  of  the  otiier  deiman  states,  made  fur  alwiut  86,0G0,UU0     .        .  ,  . 

The  jitopoitiuD  of  illegitimate  lu  legitimate  biitJis  lines,  the  Lastem  rwlway,  joining  Mniiich,  Katis- 

ia,  however,  very  high,  being  aa  1  to  4-4.  bon,  and  Nuremberg,  is  the  most  important.    The 

C11ariirf<rra~/;Uii>uKrj.— The  Havarians,  though  stale  railways,  in  IXU'J,  carried  above  4,1>IH),U0U  of 

■11  Gcmuna,  dilfer  eaarntially  in  choncter,  accord-  pai9acn|*ers,  and  21,631,1)110  cwt.  of  goods ;  but  pro- 

Iiig  to  their  descent  from  the  different  tribes  of  duceil  onlja  not  retumoffourand  o  half  |b.t  cent, 

that  people,  and  tJie  different  ein^umslances  under  on  the  capital  disbursed,  while  the  y^vatc  lines  oti 

vhicb  they  hare  been  placed.    The  inliab.  of  tlie  tlie  other  hand,  pai<l  a  dividend  of  from  fi\x  lu 

Kbeuish^v.  are  the  must  livcly,active,gay,and  six  per  cent.    But  these  lines  aie  neither  so  well 

cmeipriamg.    The  Swabians  are  remarkable  for  n  managed,  nor  so  free  from  accidents,  us  those  under 

cenam  good-natured  indolence,  which  has  exposed  Htaie  control. 

them  to  much  undeserved  ridicule.    The  tna-        Ckmtfitut«m  and  Govrmntent. — The  present  con - 

conians  are  diligent,  intelligeut,  and  steadv,  but  Milution  of  Ihokingdom  was  iiromulgaled  Mav  'lit, 

TBiy  in  their  social  habits  according  to  the'influ-  ISIM,  but  underwent  variiius  modincations,  'in  a 

ence  which  Prote«tanti<ai  has  exercised  upon  tlio  democratic  sense,  in  1848  and  1M8.    According  to 

in  hub,  of  the  Upper  Maine,  or  the  dumininn  which  this  charter,  Bavaria  is  declared  an  integral  part 

the  Catholic  prelates  or  the  empire  have  had  upon  oT the  Germanic  confisientioni  the  domains  of  the 

thdr  brethren  in  the  fertile  valley  of  iJie  lower  slate  inalienable,  and  the  crown  hereditary.    Tlie 

)iartion  of  that  river.    Tbepcipulationof  the  prova.  executive  power  ism  the  bonds  of  the  king,  whose 

S.  of  the  Danube  retain  miire  choracteriBlic  pecu-  {lerson  is  inviolable;  but  bis  minister  are  re»)<on- 

liaritiea;  and  tile  Bavarians,  though  eiiually  brave  sible  for  all  his  acbt.    The  Iq^latirefiinetiinuorc 

and  well  di^f>oaed  with  the  rest,  ore  heavier,  more  oxcrciiicd  juuitly  bv  the  king  and  parliament,  tlie 

superstitious,  and  leas  active,  though  not  less  in-  latter  consisting  of  an  upper  ttnd  a  lower  house, 

ilustrious.     In  the  valleys  of  the  Alps,  the  die«s  The  upper  bouse — chamber  of  rncAirilMr,  or  cum- 

and  maiincis  of  the  Bavarians  and  Swabians  bear  seUoTs  of  the  realm — is  formcdoflheprincesof  the 

■  great  resemblance  to  those  of  the  Tyrolese  ;  and  royal  family,  the  crown  dignjtariea,  the  archbisbi^v, 

the  climate  inclines  them  to  prefer  pasture  10  ara-  and  the  beada  of  certain  old  niMiic  familicn,  all 

Lie  husbandly.    The  women  are  here  more  in  the  theae  being  hereditorv   members;  to  which    are 

lielda,  and  partake  more  of  the  oul'door  labour  of  added  a  Itoman  Calhoiic  bishop  and  a  I'rotcsiant 

the  men  Ilian  ia  the  case  in  the  N.  prova.    They  clergyman  nominated  by  the  king,  and   aa  iin- 

drive  the  cattle  up  to  the  bills  in  summer;  and  limited  number  of  oibermemliersaiiiiointeil  by  the 

tlicir  robust  health  manifests  itself  in  tlie  zeid  with  crown.    The  lower  bouec.  or  chamber  or  rcpies*-ii. 

which  tlie^  join  in  the  walti,  and  in  (heir|>eeubBr  lati^'es,  conssts  of  depiitiea  of 

manner  of  singing,  called  '  /urfr/n.'  The  character  sitii-s,  and  various  roligi 

uT  thdr  songs  is  not  unlh^ueiitly  rather  free ;  Imt  dt^uty,  it  is  necewory  lu  ue  yan  uuny,  ann  lo  no 

the  Indispensable  requisites  <'f  a  ravounid  lover,  in  possession  of  an  assured  income,  fnmi  fuml^,  a 

according  to  the  *  Sthaada-iepfil,'  are    superior  trade,  or  iirofcssion ;  tu  lie  un  the  elci^toisl  lists,  it 

■giljty   and  akill  aa  a  sportsman  ntul  wrestler,  is  required  lo  be  twenty-Hve  years  of  age,  ami  lu 

which  must  lie  prnv«l  by  the  pcwieHiiion  of  suiulry  be  rated  at  a  minimum  uf  ten  llniiiis,  <ir  IIhi.  NiL 

trophies  of  the  chose,  such  as  cluimois  beanls  or  [ler  annum.    The  represciitatiun  of  tlie  muulry  is 


IS  corporalui] 


fealiiera  of  the  rarer  birds,  which,  when  worn  on  calcuUittil  at  the  rale  of  one  dc|M>ty  tu  7^KHI 

Ilia  pointed  ha^  form  a  cballenge  to  rival  heroes,  lies,or  about  3u,0UII  souls,  of  the  wlioki  )>n|iuL 

who  not  unrrequenily  niii-m|.t  lo  wrest  them  from  Tlie  nuiiibi-rB  arc  chiwen  ever^' 

Iheir  owner  by  foree,  according  lo  the  tawa  of  vil-  the  king  dissolve*  the  cliambcri 


la  I>n|iulation. 

niers 


BAVARIA 


379 


They  are  generally  convened  once  a  year,  and 
must  be  assembled  at  least  once  in  three  years. 
The  session  usually  lasts  two  months,  but  it  may 
be  extended  or  adjourned.  In  case  of  a  dissolu- 
tion, a  new  election  must  take  place  within  three 
months.  No  taxes  can  be  levied  or  augmented, 
and  no  law  be  passed  or  repealed,  without  the 
sanction  of  the  l^^lature. 

The  cabinet  is  composed  of  seven  members — the 
presidents  of  the  departments  of  foreign  affairs, 
justice,  home  affairs,  finance,  army,  public  educa- 
tion, and  commerce.  The  ministers  are  not  ne- 
cessarily members  of  the  chambers,  but  they  have 
a  right  to  be  present  at  their  deliberations.  At 
the  commencement  of  each  session,  they  must  lay 
before  parliament  an  account  of  the  appropriation 
of  the  public  revenue;  and  the  national  debt 
cannot  be  increased  without  its  consent.  The 
priv>'  council  which  is  at  the  head  of  public  affairs, 
consists  of  the  king,  certain  princes  of  the  royal 
family,  the  ministers  of  state,  the  field  marshal, 
and  SIX  counsellors  appointed  by  the  king.  The 
kiuf^  has  power  to  grant  pardons  and  mitigate 
pimishments,  but  in  no  ca.se  to  stop  the  progress 
of  a  civil  suit  or  criminal  inquiry.  The  co<le  Na- 
poleon is  in  force  in  Khcnish  Bavaria;  but  in 
«>ther  parts  of  the  kingdom  there  is  an  extreme 
difference  in  the  procedure  as  to  dvil  matters; 
and  a  new,  improved,  and  uniform  code  is  much 
wanteiL  The  penal  code,  introduced  in  1813, 
might  be  much  improved  both  in  its  regulations 
and  in  the  form  of  its  procedure.  There  is  a  high 
court  of  appeal  and  cassation  at  Munich  ;  and  in 
each  of  the  provs.  an  inferior  tribunal,  to  which  an 
appeal  lies  from  the  courts  of  primary  jurisdiction 
in  the  towns,  and  the  scignorial  and  cantonal 
courts  of  the  country  districts.  A  law  has  been 
pa^d  providing  for  the  purchase  of  the  seignorial 
jurisdictions  on  paying  an  equivalent  to  their 
proprietors. 

Each  of  the  eight  circles  into  which  Bavaria  is 
divided  is  under  the  superintendence  of  two  pro- 
Aancial  boards ;  one  for  the  management  of  the 
police,  schools,  Ac. ;  the  other  takes  charge  of  al 
financial  matters.  Each  circle  is  subdivided  into 
districts,  which  have  assemblies,  whose  duties  are 
to  decide  all  local  questions  respecting  public 
bunlens  and  district  rates. 

According  to  the  fundamental  principles  of  the 
constitution,  all  citizens  are  eligible  to  the  different 
offices  of  the  state,  without  any  regard  to  birth  or 
rank  in  society;  all  are  liable  to  |»ersonal  service 
in  the  nation^  defence ;  religious  hbcrty  and  free- 
dom of  opinion  are  practically  granted  to  all ;  and 
no  one  can  be  imprisoned  or  condemned  but  by 
the  sentence  of  a  judge.  All  religious  and  cha- 
ritable endowments  are  placed  imder  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  state. 

Religion. — Kather  more  than  two-thirds  of  the 
population  of  Bavaria  are  Roman  Catholics.  In 
the  censijs  of  18()1,  as  well  as  the  precetling  one  of 
1858,  the  religious  persuasion  of  the  inhabitants  is 
not  stated ;  and  in  the  last  in  which  this  has  been 
the  case,  that  of  18o2,  the  numbers  stand  as  fol- 
lows :— Catholics, 3,1 76,333 ;  I*rotestants,  1 ,233,894 
— subdivided  into  Lutherans,  900,380;  Cahinists, 
2,131;  and  Unitarians,  325,077 — Mennonites  and 
(ircek  Catholics,  5,500 ;  and  Jews,  50,033.  The 
kingdom  is  divided  into  2  Koman  Catholic  arch- 
])isho])rics,  those  of  Munich  and  Bamberg ;  6 
bishoprics;  171  deaneries,  and  2,750  parishes. 
The  administration  of  the  Protestant  Church  is 
uinler  a  (ieneral  ConsLstorj' — OlHT-cowtixtorium — 
and  four  proNincial  consistories.  Of  the  three  uni- 
versities of  the  kingdom,  two,  at  Munich  and 
Wiirzburg.  are  Koman  Catholic,  and  one,  at  Er- 
langen,  I'rotcstanU     Among  the  Koman  Catholics 


there  is  one  clergyman  to  464  soula ;  among  tho 
Protestants,  one  to  1,013.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  is  richly  endowed,  poflscssing,  according 
to  semi-ofHcial  statements,  pro|)erty  amounting  to 
above  100,000,000  florins,  or  8,500,000iL  A  Iwrge 
proportion  of  this  wealth  consists  of  landed  estatcas, 
which  are  annually  increasing  in  value.  Thus, 
the  propertv  was  stated  to  l^  worth  79,000,000 
florins  in  1838,  and  92,000,000  in  1851.  The  state, 
besides,  pays  1,562,000  florins,  or  130,000/L,  annually 
to  the  clergy.  The  archbishop  of  Munich  has  a 
government  salary  of  20,000  florins,  or  1,667(., 
and  the  archbishop  of  WUrzburg,  15,000  florins,  or 
l,250iL  Three  of  the  bishops  have  an  allowance 
of  10,000  florins,  and  the  other  three  of  8,000,  ex- 
clusive of  episcopal  residences.  The  constitution 
guarantees  complete  religious  liberty  to  all  inhar- 
bitants  of  the  state,  and  Protestants  as  well  as 
other  dissenters  enjoy  unrestricted  freedom  of  wor- 
ship, and  are  eligible  to  all  civil  offices  and  military 
appointments.  (Hermann,  Beitrilge  zur  Statistik 
von  Bay  em.)  In  the  Palatinate,  which  was  left 
in  possession  of  many  valuable  privileges  at  the 
peace,  the  Protestant  church  is  a  completely  oigar- 
nised  body  with  Presbyteries  and  Synods  as  in 
Scotland. 

Education, — Of  late  years  the  Bavarian  govern- 
ment has  made  the  most  praiseworthy  efforts  to 
diffuse  knowledge  among  the  mass  of  the  people. 
The  system  pursued  is  similar  to  that  of  Prussia. 
A  school  Is  established  in  every  parish,  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  ministers  and  elders.  Over 
these  are  the  inspectors  of  district  schools,  who 
are  subordinate  to  the  chambers  of  the  interior,  in 
the  several  provincial  governments.    The  superin- 
tendence of  all  the  educational  institutions  m  the 
kingdom  b  committed  to  a  board  entitled  '  The 
Superior  Board  of  Education  and  Ecclesiastical 
Affairs.*    Attendance  at  school  is  imperative  on 
all  children  who  have  not  received  permission  to 
be  instructed  by  private  tutors.  Bavaria  has  one  ly- 
ceum,  twenty-tive  gymnasiums,  thirty-four  gnun- 
mar  schools,  seven  seminaries  for  the  education 
of  teachers,  thirty-one  local  school  commissions, 
and  about  5,000  primary  schools.    There  are  nine 
seminaries  for  educating  CathoUcs  for  the  minia- 
try.     In  the  year  1861  there  were  in  the  kingdom 
7,126  schools,  with  8,205  teachers.    Elementary 
schools  —  Volk»-schulen — exist  in  all  parishes,  and 
attendance  on  them  is  compulsory  for  all  children 
till  the  age  of  fourteen. 

Bavaria  has  three  universities — those  of  Mu- 
nich, WUrzburg,  and  Erlangen:  the  two  former 
are  Roman  Catholic,  the  latter  Protestant.  The 
university  of  Mimich  is  attended  by  above  1,300 
students,  the  others,  respectively,  by  about  400 
and  300  each.  In  1828  a  new  and  improved  sys- 
tem or  study  was  adopted  in  the  Bavarian  uni- 
versities, and  a  number  of  injurious  regulations 
were  suppressetL  Besides  these  seminanes,  there 
are  in  Munich  numerous  literary  associations: 
such  as  the  Royal  Institute;  an  academy  of  arts 
and  sciences ;  anotlier  of  the  fine  arts ;  an  agri- 
cultural society ;  a  mHitarv  and  veterinary  school, 
drc. ;  and  there  are  a  number  of  literary  and  scien- 
tific institutions  in  WUrzburg,  Erlangen,  Nurem- 
berg, Ratisbon,  Augsburg,  ^c.  The  National 
Library  in  Munich,  formed  chiefly  of  thoto  be- 
longing to  the  suppressed  monastic  establishments, 
contains  540,000  v<dumes,  including  an  extensive 
collection  of  curious  manuscripts,  pamphlets, 
Ac. ;  and  the  university  library  contains  1 00,000 
volumes.  In  this  city  there  is  also  an  extensive 
Sunday  school,  in  which  there  are  upwards  of 
1,0<K)  scholars,  with  sixteen  masters,  wlio  teach 
their  pupils  morals,  tlie  principles  of  physics,  geo- 
grapliy,  natural  history,  chemistry,  and  geometry. 


380 


BAVARIA 


The  sum  vut4Ml  by  the  Bavarian  lepnlatuTe  for  the 
support  of  education  in  the  bud^t  for  1801-7 
amounts  to  1,153,073  tlorins,  or  96,089^ 

PriaoH  Syaiem, — The  system  pur8ue<l  in  the  pri- 
son of  Munich  is  peculiariv  worthy  of  attention. 
The  principle  of  the  establishment  is  that  even* 
one  m  prison  shall  support  himself.  Every  pri- 
soner, therefore,  is  obliged  to  work  at  his  own 
trade ;  and  those  who  have  not  learnt  a  trade  are 
permitted  to  make  choice  of  one,  which  is  taught 
to  them.  Whatever  the  criminal  cams  by  his 
labour  more  than  is  sufficient  for  his  maintenance, 
is  kept  until  the  term  of  his  imprisonment  ex- 
mres,  and  is  then  given  to  him,  deducting  a  quota 
lor  the  ex])cnses  of  the  establishment,  fhe  sur- 
plus thus  ]>ie»erved  for  the  benetit  of  the  prisoners 
themsdves,  after  the  expenses  of  the  establish- 
ment have  been  defrayed,  usually  amounts  to 
nearly  50,000  florins  (4,3702.)  per  annum.  In- 
stances have  been  known  of  persons  at  the  expiry 
of  their  term  of  punishment  recdving  no  less 
than  800  florins  (702.)  upon  leaving  the  prison. 
The  number  of  persons  confined  in  the  prison  is 
generally  between  600  and  700.  It  is  gratifying  to 
learn  that  the  system  has  produced  the  most  satis- 
factory results.  In  but  few  cases  are  offenders 
committed  a  second  time,  and  thone  who  have 
been  dismissed  with  the  largest  sums  have  in  no 
instance  returned.  Many  of  the  young,  who  have 
been  taught  trades  in  the  prison,  have  aftem'ards 
become  respectable  handicraftsmen  and  trades- 
men ;  and  crime  is  yearly  on  the  decrease.  The 
pro{K)rti()n  of  capital  puiushmeuts  in  Bavaria  is  as 
1  to  20,(M)0  persons. 

Revenue  and  Expenditure, — At  the  conclusion 
of  the  war  in  1815  the  flnandal  affairs  of  Bavaria 
were  in  a  very  embarrassed  state;  but  through 
the  judicious  economy  and  measures  of  the  sove- 
reign and  the  legislature,  they  arc  now  greatly 
improved.  In  1819,  the  excess  of  the  expenditure 
over  the  income  was  2,(K)7,800  florins;  but  in 
1831-32,  the  revenue  amounted  to  29,217,(X)9 
florins,  while  the  expenditure  was  only  27,095,883 
florins.  The  budgets  of  the  kingdom  are  voted 
by  the  chambers  f()r  the  lengthened  term  of  six 
years,  which  counts  as  a  financial  period.  The 
gross  annual  revenue  for  the  period,  from  1861  to 
1867,  was  calculated  at  40,720,597  florins,  or 
3^93,5972.,  and  the  expenditure  at  the  same  sum. 
The  national  debt,  amounting  to  136,000,000 
florins,  includes  the  loans  taken  up  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  state  railways.  In  the  budget  for 
1861-7,  the  proceeds  from  direct  taxes  are  esti- 
mated at  9,333,037  florins,  and  those  fn)m  indirect 
taxation  at  18,260,843  florins.  The  direct  taxes 
are  levied  as  follows :— For  the  land  tax,  estates 
are  selected  for  valuation  in  every  district  by 
royal  commissioners  and  tax  asscsHon,  named  by 
the  district  itself.  The  estates  thus  chusen  are 
supposed  to  represent  the  mean  of  the  surrounding 
lands,  and  according  to  their  ]>roduce  the  tax  is 
levied.  Land  of  afl  kinds  is  divided  into  clasi«es, 
differing  fn)m  each  other,  in  their  ascertained  pro- 
duction, by  about  one  bushel  per  acre,  and  one- 
tliird  being  deducted  for  fallow,  a  rate  called  a 
mmpimn,  of  1  kreutzcr  in  the  florin,  or  Ij  per 
cc^nt.,  is  calculated  on  the  remainder.  Bents,  rent- 
charges,  services,  and  tithes,  are  considered  as 
part  of  the  produce  of  the  land,  and  the  rate  is  a{>- 
portioned  between  the  holders  of  these  charges  and 
the  cultivator  of  the  land,  who  pays  a  smaller 
share,  in  proportion  to  the  heaviness  of  his  bunions. 
The  value  of  houses  is  estimated  according  to  ex- 
isting contracts  of  r(;nt:  where  no  such  contracti* 
exist,  the  value  of  a  houAe  is  found  by  apprait^- 
ment,  in  the  same  way  as  the  land.  The  total 
rate  at  present  levl&l  on  land  and  houses  is  5 


amploj  or  8  l-5th  per  cent,  on  the  produce.  Tlic 
family,  or  rather  capitation  tax,  is  paid  by  the 
whole  pop.  in  12  classes,  llie  flrst  class  embraces 
the  widows  of  labourers  living  on  their  labour, 
who  are  rated  at  10  kr..  or  about  4</.,  annually; 
labourers  paying  M,i  the  highest  class  pays*!/, 
per  annum.  The  industry  tax  is  paid  by  cver>' 
individual  or  comfiany  earning  on  tnule  or  manu- 
factures, according  to  five'classes,  each  with  five 
subdivisions.  The  classes  are  fixed  acconting  t<» 
the  number  of  inhab.  in  the  i)lace  where  the  trade 
is  carried  on.  The  lowest  rate  is  Is.  per  aimura 
for  common  labour  in  villages ;  the  highest  is  15/. 
;  per  annum,  paid  by  bankers,  mercliants,  wholesale 
dealers,  and  iimkeepers,  in  towns  containing  more 
than  2,000  families.  The  direct  taxes  arc  less 
heavy  in  Bavaria  than  in  most  of  the  other  Ger- 
man states.  The  large  income  of  the  sovereigns 
of  Bavaria,  from  private  domains,  and  otlicr 
sources,  has  been  extensively  curtailed  of  late, 
under  the  constitutional  government.  The  civil 
list  of  the  king  and  the  other  membeni  of  the 
royal  family  amounts  at  present  to  249,633/.,  an(l 
strict  supervision  is  exercised  by  the  chamlicr  of 
representatives  that  this  amount  be  not  exceedi^L 
In  1849,  it  was  discovered  that  ex-king  Ludwig 
had  taken  sums  amounting  to  1,529,000  florins,  or 
127,400/.,  from  the  public  exchequer  without  ac- 
counting for  them ;  whereu|)on  the  chamber  de- 
mande<l  the  restitution  of  the  money,  which  his 
majesty  was  forced  to  give  from  his  private  pun^. 
(Kolb,  Handbuch  der  vcrgleichcnden  Statistik, 
Leipzig,  1862,  p.  223.) 

Army, — The  armed  force  of  the  kingdom  com- 
prises the  permanent  armv,  the  army  of  reserve, 
and  tlie  landwehr,  or  militia.  All  men,  from  the 
age  of  twenty-one,  are  liable  to  ser>'e,  with  the 
exception  of  the  upper  nobilitv — hohe  adel — who 
are  entirely  free  fn)m  conscription ;  while  the  sons 
of  the  lower  nobility  and  superior  empk»yc?s  in  the 
service  of  the  state  have  the  privilege  of  entering 
the  military  school  of  cadets.  The  |>eriod  of  ser- 
vice is  six  years.  The  j»urchase  of  sulMtitutes  is 
permitted  by  law,  and  takes  place  verj'^  exten- 
sivelv.  During  the  years  1851-61,  the  tn»ops  of 
the  kingdom  amounted  to  the  fixed  number  of 
84,708  men,  of  whom  61,509  were  in  the  i>ermanent 
army,  and  23,199  men  in  the  army  of  reserve. 
ITiis  number  was  largely  increase*!  in  1861 :  the 
chambers,  after  long  and  stormy  debates,  having 
granted  funds  for  the  maintenance  of  105,757 
troops,  namely,  81,337  for  the  permanent  army, 
and  24,420  for  the  army  of  reserve.  Besides  the 
permanent  army,  there  is  a  reser\'e  destined  to 
reinforce  it.  There  is  also  the  lambrehr,  or  militia, 
composed  of  all  liavarians  (excepting  noblemen 
and  clergj'men),  between  the  ages  of  19  and  60, 
who  have' not  ueen  drafted  into  the  armv  or  into 
the  reser\'e.  In  cases  (»f  cmergencv,  they  may  \wi 
called  upon  to  reinforce  the  army,  but  only  in  the 
interior.  There  is  a  corps  of  gais  d'armes,  com- 
posed of  nine  companies,  making  in  all  about 
1,700  men.  Not  more  than  a  third  part  of  the 
troops  are  permanently  embodied,  the  rest  being 
dutbanded  after  the  dnlls  in  simng,  return  home 
to  their  families.  The  ]jay  of  a  cavalry  holdier  is 
10^  kr.,  about  Ad,  a  day,  with  rations ;  that  f>f  »u 
infantrv  soldier  is  9^  kr.,  also  with  rations.  Prin- 
cipal fortresses:  Landau,  circle  of  the  Khine; 
Passau,  on  the  Danube;  WUrzburg,  with  the 
citadel  of  Marienbcrg ;  and  Ingolstadt,  at  tlie  con- 
fluence of  the  Sell  Utter  and  the  I)anul>e. 

HiAory, — ^The  earliest  inhabitants  «»f  Bavaria  of 
whom  tradition  htos  preserv'etl  any  account  wore 
the  Ik>ii,  a  tribe  of  Celtic  origin:  from  them  its 
old  I^tin  name  Boiaria,  and  the  <Tcrman  name 
Baiern,  are  derived.   About  the  reign  of  Augustus 


BAVAY 

it  was  Bttbdued  by  the  Romans,  and  formed  part 
of  what  they  termed  Khoetia,  Vindelicia,  and 
Xoricura.  After  the  downfall  of  the  Roman 
empire,  the  Bavarians  fell  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Ostrogoths  and  Franks,  and  after  a  protracted 
resistance,  it  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of 
Charlemagne.  After  the  death  of  that  monarch, 
the  kings  of  the  Franks  and  Grermans  governed 
Bavaria  by  their  lieutenants,  who  bore  the  title  of 
margrave,  till  920,  when  the  ruling  margrave  was 
raised  to  the  title  of  duke.  HLs  successors  continued 
to  bear  this  title  till  1623,  when  they  were  raised 
to  the  electoral  dignity.  In  1070  I^varia  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  family  of  the  Guelphs, 
and  in  1180  it  was  transferred  by  imperial  grant 
to  Otho,  count  of  Wittelsbach,  whose  descendants 
branched  out  into  two  families,  the  Palatine  or 
Kodolphine,  and  the  Bavarian  or  Ludovician ;  the 
former  inheriting  the  palatine  of  the  Rhine,  the 
latter  the  duchy  of  Bavaria.  Duke  Maximilian  I. 
was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  elector  in  the  Thirty 
"i'ears'  War,  in  recompense  for  his  opposition  to 
Protestantism.  During  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
sucoession,  Bavaria  suffered  severely  from  follow- 
ing the  adverse  fortunes  of  France;  but  it  received 
a  great  accession  in  1777,  when,  upon  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  younger  line  of  Wittelsbach,  the 
palatinate,  aftera  short  contest  with  Austria,  was 
added  to  the  Bavarian  territory.  During  the  late 
war  with  France,  Bavaria,  being  long  the  firm 
ally  of  Napoleon,  was  rewarded  with  large  ac- 
cessions of  territory  from  the  spoils  of  Austria  and 
Trussia;  and  the  Bavarian  monarch  having  con- 
trived to  change  sides  at  a  critical  moment,  when 
the  fortunes  of  Napoleon  were  still  doubtful,  was 
confirmed  in  his  extensive  acquisitions  by  the 
trt^aties  of  1814  and  1815;  for  though  Austria  re- 
covered her  ancient  possessions  in  the  Tyrol  and 
the  districts  of  the  Inn  and  Hansruck,  Itavaria 
received  eqiuvalents  in  Franconia  and  the  vicinity 
of  the  Rhme.  Elector  Maximilian  Joseph  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  king  by  Napoleon  I.,  in 
1805,  and  the  new  title  and  dignity  was  recognised 
by  all  the  European  powers  at  the  Congress  of 
Vienna. 

BAVAY  (an.  Bagacum),  a  town  of  France,  de'p. 
du  Nonl,  cap.  cant.,  13  m.  ESE.  Valenciennes. 
Pop.  1,046  in  1861.  The  streets  are  neat  and 
clean ;  and  it  has  fabrics  of  iron  plates,  agricul- 
tural implements,  with  tanneries.  This  is  a  very 
ancient  t4^)WTi,  having  been  made  the  cap.  of  a 
prov.  by  Augustus,  and  destroyed  by  the  Ilims  in 
385.  It  was  formerly  surrounded  bv  walls;  and 
in  the  middle  of  the  market-place  is  an  obelisk 
with  seven  faces,  indicating  the  direction  of  the 
Roman  roatis  that  terminate<l  at  this  point.  This 
obelisk  is  modern,  but  it  replaces  a  Roman  column, 
which  is  saiil  to  have  existed  in  the  17th  centurv. 
The  remains  of  a  circus  and  an  aqueduct  are  still 
dLncoverable. 

BAWTRY,  an  inland  town  of  England,  W.  R. 
CO.  York,  on  the  bonier  of  Nottinghamshire,  9  m. 
SE.  Dtmcaster.  Pop.  1,011  in  1861.  It  is  situated 
on  a  decli\nty,  sloping  to  the  Idle,  which  is  navi- 
gable for  baiges,  and  is  traversed  by  the  great  N. 
road  from  London  to  York.  It  has  a  national 
school  The  (Jreat  Northern  railway  has  a  sta- 
tion here.     Market  day,  Thursday. 

BAYAZID,  a  citv  of  Armenia,  cap.  sanjiack, 
65  m.  NNE.  Van,  and  32  m.  SSW.  Mount  Ararat; 
lat.  39<5  24'  N.,  long.  44°  26'  E.  It  stands  on  the 
decli\nty  of  a  high  hill,  at  the  top  of  which  is  the 
citadel,  containing  a  well-built  mosque,  and  the 
palace  of  the  i)aclia.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
and  ramj)arts;  and,  besides  three  mosques  and  two 
ehurchcs,  has  the  monastery  of  Karu  Kileesea, 
celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  ita  architecture,  aii- 


BAYLEN 


381 


tiquity,  and  grandeur.  Messrs. 'Smith  and  Dwi^ht, 
the  American  missionaries,  by  whom  it  was  visited 
in  1832,  represent  the  town  as  being  in  a  miscr^ly 
ruinous  state,  and  without  one  decent  house  except 
the  pacha's.  *  Most  of  them  were  constructed  like 
the  undeiground  cabins  of  the  villages ;  the  streets 
were  obstructed  by  every  species  of  filth;  and 
nearly  all  the  shops  in  the  bazar,  originally  very 
few,  were  deserted.'  (p.  415.)  Kinneir  estimates 
the  pop.  at  30,000  (Mem.  Pers.  Empire,  p.  327), 
but  this,  doubtless,  is  now  greatlv  beyond  the 
mark.  The  missionaries  previously  referred  to 
estimate  the  Moslem  inhab.  at  300  or  400  families, 
and  the  Armenians  at  190  families;  and  if  so,  the 
pop.  must  be  considerably  under  5,000.  Large 
numbers  of  the  Armenians  have  emigrated  to  the 
territories  now  occupied  by  Russia. 

BAYERSDORF,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  circ.  Rezat, 
near  the  Regnitz,  14  m.  N.  Nuremberg,  on  the 
railway  from  Bamberg  to  Nuremberg.  Pop.  1,625 
in  1861.  The  Ludwig  canal,  connecting  the 
Rhine  vrith  the  Danube  (see  Bavaria),  passes 
near  the  tt)wn.  It  is  well  built.  In  its  vicinity 
are  considerable  copper  works. 

BAYEUX,  a  town  of  France,  d^p.  Calvados, 
cap.  arrond.,  17  m.  W.  by  N.  Caen ;  lat,  49®  17' 
N.,  long.  (P  44'  W.  Pop.  9,482  in  1861.  Bayeux 
is  a  very  ancient  city,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
the  principal  street,  is  meanly  built,  with  narrow 
and  crooked  streets.  The  fortifications  by  which 
it  was  formerly  surrounded  have  almost  entirely 
disappeared ;  and  it  has  been  enlarged  by  the 
i  unction  of  several  suburbs.  Principal  public 
building — the  cathedral,  a  large  and  venerable 
Gothic  edifice,  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  In  the 
ancient  episcopal  palace,  now  the  Hotel  de  Ville, 
is  preserved  the  famous  tapisserie  de  Bayeux^  re- 
presenting the  princii>al  incidents  in  the  hbtory 
of  the  conquest  of  England  by  William  the  Con- 
queror. It  is  supposed  to  have  been  executed  by 
Matilda,  the  Conqueror's  wife,  or  by  the  empress 
Matilda,  daughter  of  Henr}'  I.  It  consists  of  a 
linen  web  214  ft.  in  length  and  20  in.  broad ;  and 
is  divided  into  72  compartments,  each  having  an 
inscription  indicating  its  subject.  The  figures  are 
all  executed  by  the  needle ;  and  it  is  valuable 
alike  as  a  work  of  art  of  the  period  referred  to, 
and  as  correctly  representing  the  costume  of  the 
time.  This  remarkable  monument  narrowly  es- 
caped destruction  during  the  frenzy  of  the  Revo- 
lution. (See  an  excellent  article  on  the  Bayeux 
Tapestry  in  the  Penny  Cyclopadia.)  Bayeux  is 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  has  tribunals  of  original 
jurisdiction  and  commerce,  a  collie,  and  a  public 
library  containing  7,000  volumes.  The  lace  ma- 
nufactures in  the  town  and  neighbourhood  employ 
a  large  number  of  females;  and  there  are  also 
manufactures  of  table  linen,  calicoes,  serges,  hats, 
earthenware,  &c,  with  establishments  for  cotton 
spinning.  It  haJs  a  station  on  the  railway  from 
Paris  to  Cherbourg.  The  country  round  is  undu- 
lating, and  affords  good  pasture.  Large  quantities 
of  excellent  butter  are  made  in  the  vicinity,  sent 
partly  to  Paris,  and  partly  shipped  for  the  (Vench 
colonies. 

Bayeux  existed  previously  to  the  invasion  of 
Gaul  by  the  Romans.  Under  their  sway  it  was 
successively  called  Aragenus^  Bajoca,  and  dvitaa 
Bajocaaaium,  whence  its  modem  name.  It  be- 
longed for  a  considerable  period  to  the  English, 
and  was  twice  burned  dovm  in  the  contests  of  the 
latter  with  the  French :  it  also  suffered  severely 
during  the  religious  wars. 

BAiLEN,  or  BAILEN,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov. 
Jacn,  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  22  m. 
N.  Jaen.  Pop.  7,831  in  1857.  It  is  surrounded 
by  old  waUs;  commands  the  road  leading  from 


88S 


BAYONNE 


Castile  into  Andalusia;  has  a  parish  church,  a 
palace  belonging  to  Count  Baylen,  and  a  hospitaL 
It  has  also  numerous  oil  mills,  with  manufactures 
of  coarse  cloth,  glass,  bricks,  and  soap. 

Baylen  derives  its  principal  cenity,  and  which 
events  which  took  place  in  its  \'icinity,  aud  which 
led  to  the  ctmitukUum  of  Baylen^  signed  the  20th 
June,  18()8,  oy  which  General  Duix)nt,  and  about 
16,000  French  troops  under  his  command,  surren- 
dered to  the  Spaniards  on  condition  of  their  l>eing 
conveyed  to  France  by  the  S|)aniMh  ^vcmment ; 
but  the  latter  part  of  the  capitulation  was  not 
carried  into  effects  The  inca])acity  of  Dupont  was 
mainly  instrumental  in  bringinf^  about  this  result, 
which  inspired  the  Spaniard^  with  confidence,  and 
was  always  rc^^ded  by^  Napoleon  as  the  principal 
source  of  his  disasters  m  the  Peninsula. 

BAVONNE,  a  sea-rmrt  tovm  and  fortress  of 
France,  ddp.  Basses  Pyrdn<^s,  cap.  arrond.,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Neve  with  the  Adour, 
i^ut  4  m.  from  the  embouchure  of  the  latter, 
and  b»  m.  WNVV  Pau.  Pop.  25,011  in  1801. 
Bayonne  has  a  station  on  the  great  line  of  rail- 
way, opened  in  18G4,  which  leads  from  France 
across  tne  Pvrenees  into  S(>ain.  The  town  is  di- 
vided into  t^ee  nearly  equal  parts,  which  com- 
municate by  bridges.  On  the  left  bank  of  the 
Keve  is  Great  Bayonne;  on  the  right  bank  of 
that  river,  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Adour,  is  Little 
Bayonne ;  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Adour, 
in  the  d^p.  Landes,  is  the  suburb  of  St.  Ksprit^ 
Joined  by  a  long  wooden  drawbridge  to  the  rest  of 
the  town.  Bayonne  b  a  first-class  fortress ;  the 
dtadel,  one  of  the  finest  works  of  Vauban,  in  the 
suburb  of  St.  Esprit,  commands  the  to^n  and 
harbour;  and  recently  the  fortifications  have  l>ex^n 
still  further  augmented  and  strengthened.  It  is 
well  built ;  the  streets,  without  being  regular,  arc 
broad,  and  set  o£f  with  good  houses.  There  arc 
some  fine  public  places,  of  which  that  called  de 
Grammont  is  the  best.  Its  (juays  are  superb,  and 
though  a  little  interrupted  m  parts  by  the  new 
fortifications,  afford  fine  promenades.  Principal 
public  buLldings---cathedral  and  mint.  Bayonne 
18  Uie  seat  of  a  bishopric,  of  tribunals  of  original 
JurisdicHon  and  of  commerce ;  it  has  also  a  chamber 
of  commerce,  a  diocesan  seminary,  schools  of  na- 
vigation and  design,  a  public  library,  and  theatre. 
A  mint  is  established  hero,  the  coins  issued  from 
which  are  marked  L. :  attached  to  the  mint  is  an 
assay  office.  About  two-thirds  of  the  population 
of  the  suburb  of  St,  Esprit  consist  of  tJews,  most 
of  whose  ancestors  had  )>een,  at  different  times, 
expelled  from  Spain.  Thev  have  three  syna- 
^gues,  and  there  is  one  in  the  bodv  of  the  town. 
There  are  hero  yards  for  the  building  of  ships  of 
war  and  merchantmen,  with  distilleries,  sugar  ro- 
fineries,  glass  works,  and  fabrics  of  cream  of  tar- 
tar, chocolate,  and  liqueiurs.  Exclusive  of  these 
articles,  the  Adour  brings  down  supplies  of  timber, 
masts,  pitch  and  tar,  cork,  and  other  articles,  from 
the  Pyrenees,  many  of  which  are  largely  exported. 
The  hams  of  Bayonne  have  long  enjoyed  a  high 
celebrity,  and  its  \eines  and  brandies  are  also  much 
est^med.  It  used  formerly  to  tit  out  a  consider- 
able number  of  ships  for  the  cod  and  whole  fish- 
cries,  but  this  trade,  though  not  abandoned,  has 
latterlv  fallen  off.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive 
contraband  trade  with  Spain. 

The  river  is  rather  dangerous,  at  least  in  rough 
weather,  or  when  there  is  a  strong  current  of  fresh 
water.  It  can  only  be  entered  at  high  water, 
when  there  is  from  13  to  15  ft.  over  the  l)ar  at 
SfHringK,  and  from  9  to  11  at  neaps.  The  sea  with- 
out is  usually^  rough ;  and  as  the  bar  is  liable  to 
shift,  a  pilot  IS  always  required. 

llie  military  weapon  called  the  bayonet  takes 


BAZA 

its  name  from  this  city,  where  it  is  said  to  hare 
been  tint  invented  and  brought  into  use  during 
the  siege  of  1523.  Though  often  besieged,  Ba- 
yonne has  never  been  taken ;  and  hence  the  motto, 
nnnquam  poOuUx.  It  was  invested  by  the  British 
in  1814;  who  sustainetl  considerable  loss  from  a 
amrtit  made  by  the  garrison.  At  the  castle  of 
Merac,  in  the  ^adnity,  the  transactions  took  place 
between  Napoleon  and  Charles  IV.  and  Ferdinand 
VII.  of  Spain,  that  led  to  the  invasion  of  the 
Peninsula  by  the  latter.  Mr.  Inglis  was  highly 
pleased  with  Bayonne,  which,  he  says,  he  should 
prefer  as  a  residence  to  almost  any  place  in  the 
south  of  France. 

HAYPOOR  (FiiOTxwrfl),  a  maritime  town  of 
Ilindostan,  prov.  Malabar,  7  m.  S.  Calicut;  lat. 
no  10'  N.,  long.  75°  52'  E.  Teak  shi|)S  of  400 
tons  are  built  hero. 

BAYREUTH,  or  BATREUTH,  a  town  of  Ba- 
varia, cap.  cire.  Upper  Mavne,  on  the  Red-Mayne, 
26  m.  E.  Itemberg;  Ut.  41)°  67'  X.,  long.  11°  40^  E. 
Pop.  18,230  in  1861.  It  is  partially  suiroimdcd 
l)y  old  walls,  and  has  six  gates  and  two  bridges ; 
is  well  built,  with  broad  well-paved  streets,  foun- 
tains, and  promenades;  but  it  has  notwithstanding 
a  cheerless,  deserted  character,  the  absence  of  the 
court,  on  which  it  formerly  depended,  not  being 
sufficiently  compensated  by  manufactures  or  com- 
merce. It  has  two  palaces ;  the  oldest,  burnt  down 
in  1 753,  but  again  rebuilt^  is  now  converted  into 
])ublic  offices :  the  new  palace,  a  handsome  eilifice, 
the  resilience  at  times  of  members  of  the  royal 
family,  has  a  gallery  of  indifferent  pictures:  in 
the  square  before  it  is  an  equestrian  statue  of  the 
Maigrave  Christian  Ernest,  and  behind  it  is  a 
public  gonlen.  Among  the  other  public  buildings 
is  the  o|K'ra  house,  the  manege^  or  riding  school, 
the  g}nfnnasium,  founded  iu  1664,  <tc  It  has 
several  churches,  and  a  synagc^^e ;  with  a  public 
librar\',  hospitals,  a  lunatic  asylum,  &c.  In  its 
suburb,  called  the  Geoigam  See,  now  a  drieil  lake, 
is  a  penitentiary,  where  a  great  voriety  of  marblca 
from  the  Fichtelgebirge  ore  polished  and  wnmght 
up.  Besides  being  the  seat  of  the  administration, 
and  tribunals  for  the  circ,  it  has  a  Protestant  con- 
sistory. The  geological  cabinet  and  collection  of 
fossils,  belonging  to  the  family  of  C^^unt  Munster, 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  Germany.  There  is  here  an 
extensive  manufactory  of  pon^Iain,  and  tolwieco- 
pipe  heads;  parchment,  linen,  cottons,  &c  are 
also  produced,  and  there  are  breweries  and  tan- 
neries. About  2  m.  to  the  E.  is  the  Hermitage,  a 
fanciful  building  erected  in  the  early  part  of  last 
century,  at  on  immense  cost,  w^ith  gardens  con- 
taining temples,  terraces,  statues,  and  fountains ; 
and  a  fine  park,  now  much  out  of  order.  The 
Margravine,  sister  to  Frederick  the  Groat,  wrote 
her  celebrated  memoira,  so  often  mentioned  in 
Mr.  Carlvle's  history  of  the  Prussian  hero-king, 
in  the  I^ermitage. 

Bayreuth  formerly  constituted  the  cap.  of  an 
independent  principality — the  maigraviat  of  Bay- 
reuth. On  the  death  of  the  last  margrave  without 
issue,  in  1791,  his  possessions  devolved  on  the  King 
of  Prussia,  who  ceded  them  to  France  in  1x07.  In 
1810,  Napoleon  transferred  them  to  Bavaria;  and 
their  possession  has  been  confirmed  by  subsequent 
treaties.  (Carlyle's  History  of  Frederick  II.  of 
Prussia,  called  Frederick  the' Great,  1863-5,  which 
contains  some  interesting  notices  about  Bayreuth.) 

BAZA,  a  town  of  Spain,  Granada,  near  the 
Guadalquiton,  in  an  extensive,  well  watere<l.  and 
fertile  valley,  54  m.  E.  by  N.  Granada ;  lat,  37^  30' 
X.,  long.  2^*  60'  W.  Pop.  7,275  in  1857,  including 
2  cants,  in  its  jurisdiction.  (Mifiano.)  It  has 
a  cathedral,  3  parish  churches,  6  convents,  an  ec- 
clesiastical seminary,  and  a  hospitaL    Tlie  inhab. 


BAZAS 

tre  entirely  dependent  on  aj^cultore.  Baza  is 
either  on  the  site  of  the  Bcuti  of  the  Romans,  or 
very  near  it,  and  vases  and  other  interestim;  Ro- 
man remains  are  dug  up  in  its  vicinity.  It  was 
taken  from  the  Moors  after  along  siq^  in  1489. 

BvVZAS,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Gironde,  cap. 
arrond.,  on  a  rock  33  m.  SSE.  Bordeaux.  Pop. 
4,560  in  1861.  It  is  old  and  ill-built.  It  was  for- 
merly the  seat  of  a  bishopric;  and  the  ancient 
catliedral.  now  the  parish  church,  though  not 
large,  is  a  remarkable  monument  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. It  has  a  court  of  original  jurisdiction, 
and  an  agricultural  society ;  with  a  royal  saltpetre 
manufactory,  a  glass-work,  and  tanneries.  Bazas  is 
very  ancients  It  is  the  country  of  the  poet  Au- 
somus,  who  flourished  in  the  4th  century,  and  was 
also,  for  a  lengthened  period,  the  residence  of  the 
dukes  of  Gascony.  Tlie  country  round  was  long 
known  as  the  Basadois, 

BAZOCUES-GONET,  a  village  of  France,  di^p. 
Eure  ct  Loire,  15  m.  SSE.  Nogent-le-Itotrou.  Pop. 
2,192  in  1861.  Bazochcs  is  the  name  of  several 
other  small  towns  in  France. 

BAZZANO,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  prov. 
Emilia,  15  m.  W.  Bologna,  on  the  Sammoggia. 
Pop.  1,973  in  1861. 

BEACHY  HEAD,  a  conspicuous  bold  promon- 
torv  on  the  S.  coast  of  England,  co.  Sussex; 
lat,'  50O  44^  24"  N.,  long.  0°  13'  E.  It  is  formed  of 
chalky  white  cliffs,  that  project  perjKjndicularly 
over  the  beach,  whence  it  denves  its  name,  to  the 
height  of  564  fl.  A  lighthouse  of  the  first  class 
was  erected,  in  1828,  on  the  summit  of  the  second 
cliff  to  the  W.  of  the  head,  285  fu  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  caverns  have  been  cut  in  the  cliffs, 
between  the  Heatl  and  Cuckmore  Haven,  in  the 
view  of  affortling  places  of  refuge  to  mariners 
wrecked  on  this  dangen)us  coast. 

BE:AC0NSFIELD,  a  market  town  and  par.  of 
England,  co.  Buckingham,  hund.  Bumham.  Area 
of  the  par.  3,710  acres.  Pop.  1,662  in  1861.  The 
town  is  situated  on  an  eminence,  on  the  high  road 
from  I^ondon  to  Oxford,  being  24  m.  W.  by  N.  of 
the  former.  It  consists  of  four  streets,  arranged  in 
the  form  of  a  cross,  and  its  houses  are  mostly  con- 
Btnicted  of  a  mixture  of  flint  and  brick.  The  re- 
mains of  Edmund  Burke  are  deposited  in  the 
church,  formerly  a  part  of  th^  monastery  of  Bum- 
ham  ;  and  the  church-yard  has  a  marble  monu- 
ment in  honour  of  the  poet  Waller,  to  whom  the 
manor  belonged.  Bullstro<ie,  formerly  a  celebrated 
seat  of  the  Portland  family,  is  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  Beaconsfield.  Market-day,  Wednesday. 
It  has  fairs  for  the  sale  of  cattle,  on  Feb.  13,  aiid 
Holy  Thursday,  at  which  a  good  deal  of  business 
is  done. 

BEAMINSTER,  a  par.  and  town  of  England, 
CO.  Dorset,  hund.  Beam instcr- Forum,  div.  Brid- 
port,  on  the  Birt,  123  m.  WSW.  London.  Area  of 
par.  4,350  acres.  Pop.  of  par.  2,614  in  1861.  The 
town  is  surrounded  by  hills,  whence  the  springs, 
forming  the  river,  issue.  It  has  a  clean  respectable 
appearance,  and  is  paved,  and  lighted  by  gas.  The 
church  is  a  large  structure,  on  an  eminence  on  the 
N.  side,  being  a  chapel  of  ease  to  tliat  of  Nether- 
huTv.  A  free  school,  founde<l  in  1684,  educates 
100  boys:  the  ann.  amount  of  its  endowment  is 
160/.  a  year.  There  are  almshouses  for  six  poor 
women.  The  weekly  market  on  Thursday,  and  ann. 
fairs  Apr.  14,  Sep.  10,  and  Oct,  9.  There  is  a 
manufactory  of  sail  cloth,  and  tin  and  copper  wares 
arc  made  in  the  town.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  union 
of  26  ])ari8hcs.  Beaminster  is  a  town  of  consider- 
able antiquity;  but  it  has  been  several  times 
wholly  or  partly  destroyed  by  fire,  to  which  its 
modf-rn  appearance  is  attributable. 

BEAU  LAKE  (GREAT),  a  very  iiregularly- 


BEAXJPORT 


383 


shaped  and  extensive  sheet  of  fresh  water,  in  the 
N  W.  part  of  N.  America ;  between  about  65°  and 
67^  N.  lat.,  and  under  the  120th  deg.  of  W.  long. 
The  Bear  Lake  river  flows  from  it  to  tne  Mackenzie 
river.  Its  waters  are  very  pure,  and  it  is  said  to 
be  well  supplied  vrith  flsh. 

BEAT  (ST.),  a  town  of  France,  d^.  Haute 
Garonne,  on  the  Garonne,  13  m.  S.  St.  Gaudens. 
Pop.  1,363  in  1861.  The  town  is  entirely  built  of 
marble  furnished  by  the  neighbouring  quarries; 
but  being  situated  in  a  narrow  valley,  between 
mountains  which  conceal  the  sun  for  a  part  of  the 
day,  it  is  nevertheless  very  gloomy.  It  is  the 
entrepSt  of  the  contiguous  valley  of  Arran,  in 
Spain. 

BEAUCAIRE  (an.  t/^crrmm),  a  town  of  France, 
ddp  Gard,  cap.  cant,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhone,  opposite  to  Tarascon,  14  m.  £.  Njmes;  lat, 
430  48'  82^'  N.,  long.  4°  38'  50"  E.  Pop.  9,644  in 
1 86 1 .  As  a  town,  I^ucaire  is  not  remarkable,  and 
has  no  public  building  worth  notice ;  but  its  com- 
mand of  internal  communication,  afforded  by  the 
railway  from  Lyons  to  Marseilles,  with  the  branch 
line  to  Cette,  as  well  as  the  navigation  by  the 
Rhone  and  the  canal  of  Beaucaire,  which  unites 
with  the  canal  du  Midi,  make  it  favourably  situ- 
ated for  an  entrepot.  Its  chief  consequence  and 
celebrity  is  derivwi  from  its  fair,  which  commences 
on  the  22nd,  and  flnishes  on  the  28th  Julv.  This 
was  formerly  the  greatest  of  European  iairs,  and 
though  much  fallen  off,  it  is  still  attended  by  a 
vast  concourse  of  people,  not  from  France  only,  but 
also  from  (Germany,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Spain,  and 
the  Levant  Almost  every  sort  of  article,  whether 
of  convenience  or  luxury,  is  then  to  be  met  with 
in  the  town.  It  is  said  that  the  influx  of  visitora 
still  amounts  to  nearly  100,000,  and  that  the 
business  done  exceeds  150  millions  of  francs;  but 
both  these  estimates  are  probably  exaggerated. 
The  accommodations  in  the  town  and  at  Tarascon, 
not  being  nearly  sufficient  for  the  great  and  sudden 
influx  of  strangers  to  the  fair,  large  numbers  of 
them  are  lodged  in  tents  and  other  temporary 
erections  in  the  meadow  where  the  fair  is  held, 
along  the  Rhone.  All  bills  due  at  this  fair  are 
presented  on  the  27th,  and  protested  on  the  28th. 
A  tribunal,  instituted  for  the  purpose,  takes  cog- 
nisance of,  and  immediatelv  settles,  all  disputes 
that  grow  out  of  tiwisactions  at  tlie  fair.  De- 
tachments from  the  garrisons  of  Nimes  and  Ta- 
rascon assist  in  keeping  order,  and  everything  is 
conducted  with  the  greatest  regularity.  The  pre- 
fect of  the  dep.  is  aiways  present,  and  entertains 
the  leading  merchants. 

The  communication  between  Beaucaire  and  Ta- 
rascon used  to  be  kept  up  by  a  bridge  of  boats,  but 
this  has  been  replaced  by  a  suspension  bridge  of  a 
total  length  of  441  metres,  or  nearly  a  mile.  The 
bridge  is  alike  substantial  and  handsome.  There 
is  at  Beaucaire  a  public  librarv,  of  14,000  volumes. 

BEAUFORT,  or  BEAUFORT-EN-VALLE'E, 
a  town  of  France,  ddp  Maine  et  Loire,  near  the 
Couesnon,  16  m.  £.  Angers.  Pop.  5,260  in  1861. 
It  has  a  college,  or  high  school,  two  workhouses,  a 
large  markets-place,  and  manufactures  of  canvas 
and  coarse  linen. 

Beaufort,  a  small  sea-port  town  of  the  U. 
States,  S.  Carolina,  on  Port  Royal  Island,  75  m. 
S.  Charleston,  and 58 m.  N.  Savannah;  Ut  32^25' 
N.,  long.  8OO  32'  W.  Pop.  2,500  m  1860.  It  has 
a  deep  and  spacious,  but  httle  frequented,  haiix>ur. 
This  also  is  the  name  of  an  inconsiderable  sea-port 
town  of  N.  Carolina,  on  Gore  Sound.  Its  harbour 
admits  vessels  drawing  12  ft  water. 

Beaufort,  a  town  of  France,  d<^  Savoy,  near 
the  Doron,  30  m.  ENE.  Chambery.  Pop.  2,750  in 
1861.    In  the  neighbourhood  are  extensive  mines 


384 


BEAUGENCY 


of  coal,  copper,  and  lead,  the  latter  containing 
alver. 

BEAUGENCY,  a  town  of  France,  d4p,  Loiret, 
capL  cant.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  16  m. 
SW.  Orleans,  on  the  railway  from  Paris  to  Totirs. 
Pop.  5,052  in  18Gi.  This  is  a  very  ancient  town, 
and  occupies  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  hiintory  of 
the  foreign,  civil,  and  religious  wars  of  France. 
It  fell  successively  into  the  hands  of  the  Huns, 
Saxons,  Normans,  and  English ;  but  it  suffered 
most  from  the  religious  wars  of  the  16th  century. 
It  was  surrounded  by  walK  flanked  with  towers 
and  bastions,  part  of  which  are  still  standing,  the 
rest  having  been  pulled  down,  and  converted  into 
promenades.  It  was  also  defended  by  a  castle,  of 
which  nothing  now  remains  but  a  massive  tower, 
115  ft.  high.  It  has  a  bridge  over  the  Loire  of  I 
22  arches ;  with  fabrics  of  cloth,  distilleries,  and 
tanneries,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  wine,  com, 
and  wooL 

BEAUJEU,  a  town  of  France,  d^p.  Rhone,  cap. 
cant.,  on  the  Ardi^re,  80  m.  NNVV.  Lyons.  Pop. 
8,998  in  1861.  It  is  situated  at  the  f<>ot  of  a  hill, 
on  the  top  of  which  are  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle. 
It  has  manufactures  of  casks  and  lanterns,  and  b 
the  entrepot  of  all  the  products  exchanged  be- 
tween the  Saone  and  the  Loiret, 

BEAU  LIEU,  a  town  of  France,  d^p.  Correze, 
cap.  cant.,  on  the  Dordpgne,  22  m.  S.  Tulle.  Pop. 
2fSiiO  in  1861.  It  has  some  trade  in  wine.  Beau- 
lieu  is  the  name  of  24  other  small  towns  in  France. 

BEAULY,  a  sea-port  and  village  of  Scotland, 
CO.  Inverness,  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Beauly  Water, 
where  it  falls  into  the  bottom  of  the  Beauly  Frith, 
9  m.  W.  Inverness.  Pop.  917  in  1861,  of  whom 
484  males  and  488  females.  The  place  is  finely 
situated.  The  Beauly  is  here  crossed  by  a  bridge 
of  five  arches,  and  the  village  has  some  trade. 

BEAUMARIS,  a  bor.  and  sea-port  town  of  N. 
Wales,  CO.  Anglesey,  hund.  Dendaethwy,  near  the 
N.  entrance  to  the  Menai  Strait,  in  Beaumaris 
Bay,  4  m.  NNE.  the  Menai  bridge;  lat  63°  17' 
N.,  long.  40  5'  W.  Pop.  of  borough,  2,558  in  1861. 
It  IB  finely  situated  near  the  edge  of  the  bay,  in  a 
low  level  tract,  which,  however,  commands  some 
of  the  finest  views  in  Wales.  It  is  neatly  built. 
The  castle,  erected  by  Edward  I.,  though  m  a  di- 
lapidated state,  is  a  tme  ruin :  it  is  surrounded  by 
a  fosse,  flanked  by  twelve  circular  bastions.  The 
building  is  nearly  quadrangular,  with  a  round 
tower  at  each  an^le.  The  par.  church  is  at  Llan- 
de&n,  but  there  is  a  chapel  of  ease  in  the  town, 
in  which  service  is  performed  in  English  and 
Welsh.  There  are  four  chapels,  belonging  to  Cal- 
vinists.  Independents,  Baptists,  and  Wesleyans,  all 
well  attended;  a  free  grammar-school,  well  en- 
dowed, the  head  master  of  which  must  be  of  the 
Established  Church  and  M  j^ ;  a  national  school, 
for  240  boys  and  girls,  in  the  town,  and  another 
in  Llandagvan  (endowed  by  the  late  Duchess  of 
Kent),  for  60  scholars :  each  of  the  religious  sects 
have  also  large  Sunday  schools ;  and  in  all  the 
English  language  b  now  taught  The  town-hall 
is  a  commc^ious  modem  structure,  with  rooms 
for  the  bor.  business,  courts  of  justice,  and  a  spa- 
cious ball-room.  There  are  also  a  co.  hall,  a  co. 
prison,  and  a  custom-house.  The  weekly  markets 
are  held  on  Sat  and  Wed. :  annual  fairs  on  Feb. 
18,  Holy  Thurs.,  Sept  19,  Dec  19,  all  for  cattle. 
No  particular  manufacture  or  trade  is  cairied  on 
in  the  town.  There  is  good  anchorage  in  the  bay, 
opposite  the  town,  in  7  fathoms  stiff  clay;  or  ves- 
sels may  be  grounded  near  it  on  soft  mud.  The 
W\  passioge  may  be  entered  at  any  time  of  tide. 
Vessels  often  resort  thither  for  security  in  hard 
gales ;  and  occasionally  some  are  repaired  on  the 
beach.     In  the  year  1»63,  there  entered  2,220 


BEAUMONT-LE-VICOMTE 

vessels,  of  291,649  tons,  and  there  cleared  62fl 
vessels,  of  135,993  tons.  About  one-half  of  tlie 
sliipping  consisted  of  steamers.  Beaumaris  is  the 
cliief  port  of  the  island  and  of  the  Menai  Strait, 
and  comprises  in  its  jurisdiction  those  of  Conway, 
Amlwch,  Holyhead,  I*wlhely,  Barmouth,  and 
Caernarvon,  nliat  trade  the  town  itself  possesses 
is  chiefly  coastwise.  Tlnere  is  a  steam-packet  com- 
munication between  I^umaris,  Liverpool,  and 
Dublin,  but  the  latter  has  almost  ceased  since  the 
erection  of  the  great  Menai  bridge,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  more  direct  mail  communication  via 
Holyhead.  Tlie  pier,  quays,  and  warehouses,  are 
protected  by  extensive  sea  walls.  Tlie  place  de- 
rives considerable  advantage  from  \Tsitors  fnmi 
Liverpool,  who  resort  to  it  for  sea-bathing,  in  which 
respect  it  can  scarcely  be  surpassed.  There  arc 
many  bathing  machines,  and  the  fine  firm  sands 
of  the  beach  form  a  delightful  promenade,  from 
whence,  as  well  as  from  tlie  green,  a  magnificent 
prospect  presents  it»elf.  Baron  Hill,  tlie  seat  of 
the  Bulkeley  family,  is  on  an  eminence  near  the 
toniTi,  and  its  fine  grounds  slope  towards  it :  there 
are  several  other  good  mansions  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. The  hotels  and  inns  in  the  town  are  ex- 
cellent There  is  a  fine  road  from  the  town  to 
the  Menai  bridge  (4^  m.),  which  also  commands 
splendid  views. 

Since  the  Municipal  Reform  Act.,  the  limits  of 
the  bor.  have  been  restricted  so  as  to  comprise  only 
the  town  and  its  imme<liate  neighlM)urliood.  The 
ancient  bounds  included  its  own  parish,  and  parts 
of  six  others,  for  an  extent  of  upwanls  of  10  m. : 
it  has  now  four  aldermen  and  twelve  councillors. 
Its  governing  charter,  previously,  was  granted  in 
the  4th  of  Eliz. ;  this  quotes,  by  intpeximvt,  ten 
others,  the  earliest  l)eing  in  24  Ldw.  I.  The  go- 
vernment was  vested  in  a  self-elective  body,  con- 
sisting of  a  mayor,  2  bailiffs,  and  21  biugesses,  who 
had  the  privilege  of  returning  1  mem.  to  the  H.  of 
C.  The  Reform  Act  divested  them  of  this  privi- 
lege, and  made  Beaumaris  the  principal  of  5  ci>ii- 
tributory  bors.,  which  jointly  return  1  mem.  to 
the  H.  of  C.  The  Beaumaris  district,  conlpri^ing 
Amlwch.  Holvhead,  and  Llangefni  had  547  regis- 
tered electors  in  1864,  the  constituency  being  fonne<l 
by  a  few  members  of  the  old  corporation  and  10/. 
householders.  The  '  influence '  is  divided  Wtween 
the  Marquis  of  Anglesey  and  the  Stanley  and 
Bulkeley  families.  The  corporation  revenues  are 
derived  from  rents  of  lands,  tenements,  oyster- 
beds,  and  harbour  dues :  they  average  about  5502. 
The  town  derives  its  origin  from  Edw.  I.,  who, 
after  founding  the  castles  of  Caemar\'on  and  C'On- 
way,  built  that  of  Beaumaris,  in  1295. 

BEAUMONT-DE-LOMAGNE,  a  town  of 
France,  ddp.  Tarn  et  Garonne,  cap.  cant,  on  the 
Gimone,  21  m.  SW.  Montauban.  Pop.  4,570  in 
1861.  This  little  town  is  alike  remarkable  by  the 
regularity  of  its  plan,  the  neatness  of  its  houses, 
and  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  its  territory.  It  is 
built  round  a  spacious  square,  and  its  streets,  which 
are  broad  and  straight,  intersect  each  other  at 
right  angles.  It  has  fabrics  of  coarse  cloth,  liata 
and  tanneries. 

BEAUMONT.LE-^^COMTE,  or  BEAU- 
MONT-SUR-SARTHE,  a  to^-n  of  France,  dep. 
Sarthe,  cap.  cant.,  on  the  Sarthe,  17  m.  N.  Mans. 
Pop.  2,184  in  1861.  It  has  manufactures  of  drug- 
gets and  other  descriptions  of  woollen  cloth  ;  and 
has  a  considerable  trade  in  com  and  fat  geose. 
The  town  has  a  station  on  the  line  of  railway  from 
Mans  to  Caen  and  Cherbouig.  There  is  a  fine 
promenade  on  an  adjoining  hill.  Beaumont,  either 
singly  or  with  some  addition,  is  the  name  of  a  vast 
numl>er  of  small  towns  in  France.  The  most  con- 
siderable is  Beaumont  sur  Oisp.,  dep.  Seine  et 


BEAUNE 

Oisc,  21  m.  N.  Paris,  on  the  Northern  of  France 
railway.  r<»i).  2,431  in  18(>1.  It  stands  on  a  hill, 
nntl  has  glass-works,  ami  a  manufactory  of  salt- 
lK?tre. 

BEAITNE,  a  town  of  France,  d<«p.  Cote  d'Or, 
cap.  ammd.,  in  an  a^p-eeable  country,  at  the  foot 
of  a  hill  which  produces  excellent  inine,  on  the 
small  river  Bouzeoise,  20  m.  SSW.  Diion.  Pop. 
10,719  in  1861.  There  is  a  station  on  tlie  railway 
from  Dijon  to  Lyon.  The  town  is  well  built; 
streets  broad,  straij?lit,  and  watered  by  the  foun- 
tain de  TAimie.  The  church  of  Notre  Dame  is 
handsome  ;  but  the  finest  building  in  the  town  Is 
the  magnificent  hospital,  foundetl  in  1444,  and 
endowed  by  Nicholas  KoUin,  chancellor  to  Philip 
Duke  of  IJurgundy.  Bcaune  Ls  the  seat  of  tri- 
bunals of  commerce  and  primary  iurisdiction ;  has 
a  communal  college,  and  a  punlic  library  with 
above  10,(K)0  volumes.  Its  ramparts,  which  are 
planted,  afford  fine  promenades ;  and  it  has  an  ex- 
tensive public  ganlcn,  public  Imths,  and  a  theatre. 
It  imxluces  cloth,  cutlery,  leather,  x-inegar,  casks ; 
and  has  dye-works  and  large  nurseries  of  fruit 
tn'os.  But  the  principal  celebrity  of  l^iiune  is 
tlerived  from  its  being  the  centre  of  the  trade  in 
the  wine  that  bears  its  name;  that  is,  in  the  best 
of  the  second  gn)wths  of  Burgundy. 

BKAUNE-LA-KOLANDE,  a  town  of  France, 
de'p.  Loiret,  cap.  cant.,  16  m.  W.  by  N.  Montargis. 
Pol).  2,095  in  1801. 

BEAUPREAU,  a  town  of  France,  de'p.  Maine 
et  Loire,  cap.  arrond.,  on  the  E\Te,  28  m.  SW. 
Angers.  Poj).  3,H21  in  1861.  It  has  a  court  of 
original  jurisdiction,  with  dye-works  and  tanneries. 
In  1 793  the  Vendeans  obtained,  in  the  vicinity  of 
this  town,  a  complete  victor}'  over  the  republicans 
under  General  Ligonnier. 

BEAUSSET,  a  town  of  France,  de'p.  Vnr,  cap. 
CAnt.,  9  m.  NW.  Toulon.  Pop.  2,992  in  1861.  It 
has  fabrics  of  hats  and  tiles,  with  tanneries  a  glass- 
work,  anil  a  considerable  trade  in  oil,  wine,  spirits, 
soap,  and  coarse  cloth  and  linen. 

BEAUVAIS,  a  town  of  France,  cap.  dep.  Oise, 
on  the  Therain,  where  it  is  joine<l  by  the  Avelon, 
in  a  vallev  surroundecl  bv  wooded  hills,  42  m.  N. 
by  W.  Paris ;  lat.  49^  26'  7"  N.,  long.  2^  fJ  E.,  on  a 
branch  line  of  the  railway  from  Paris  to  Boulogne. 
Pop.  10.364  in  18(>l.  This  is  a  xery  ancient  city, 
and  has  undergone  many  vicissituiles.  So  late  as 
1803  it  was  surroundetl  by  ramparts  and  foss<^ 
but  these  have  been  since  jMirtly  levelled,  and  con- 
verted into  agreeable  promenades^  It  is  ill  built, 
the  houses  consisting,  for  the  most  part,  of  wood, 
clay,  and  mortar :  the  streets  are  not  narrow,  nor 
dirty,  but  they  are  badly  planned.  Had  the  ca- 
thedral lieen  finished  on  its  original  plan,  it  would 
have  Ijcen  the  fine*st  Gothic  e<lifice  in  France,  but 
the  chuir  only  \»  complete.  It  contains  a  fine  mo- 
nument of  Cardinal  de  .Janson,  bishop  of  Beauvais. 
The  church  of  St,  Stephen,  erected  in  997,  is  cele- 
brate<l  for  its  fine  painted  glass  windows.  The 
e]>iscof)al  palace,  now  the  hotel  de  prdfet,  is  very 
large  and  ancient,  and  has  the  appearance  of  a 
(i<»tliic  castle.  Previouslv  to  the  Revolution  there 
were  in  Beauvais,  besides  the  cathedral,  6  colle- 
giate churches,  12  parish  ditto,  with  6  convents 
for  men  and  2  for  women.  Now,  however,  the 
convents  have  ceased  to  exist ;  and  all  the  churches, 
save  two,  and  two  chapels  of  i^sse^  have  either 
Ix'cn  ])ulled  down  or  applied  to  other  pur{x>ses. 
The  other  public  buildings  are  the  college,  theatre, 
hotel  de  Dieu,  with  40  beds,  and  an  Imperial  ma- 
nufactory of  tapestry.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
of  courts  of  premiere  instancey  and,  besides  the 
college  has  a  diocesan  seminary,  with  145  pupils, 
gratuitous  courses  of  geometry  and  mechanics  ap- 
plied to  the  arts,  and  a  public  library  with  7,500 

Vol.  I. 


HECCLES 


385 


volumes.  Beauvais  has  considerable  advantages, 
in  the  command  of  watcr-]>ower,  and  in  the  cheap- 
ness of  turf  fuel  for  the  prosecution  of  manufac- 
tures ;  but  though  tliose  carried  on  in  the  town  be 
considerable,  they  are  not  fiourishing.  The  prin- 
cipal Ls  that  of  a  sort  of  flannel  {moUetan) ;  at 
present,  however,  it  is  said  to  be  in  a  retrograde 
condition,  owing  to  the  want  of  capital  and  enter- 
prise in  those  engaged  in  it.  A  goo<l  deal  of  cloth 
is  made  of  a  minlium  quality.  There  Is  also  a 
rrn'al  manufactory  of  t-apestry,  established  in  1664 ; 
but  these  establishments  are  of  little  or  no  use, 
except  as  works  of  art,  their  products  l>eing  too 
dear  to  come  into  general  demand.  The  fabrics 
of  printed  cottons  are  much  fallen  off;  but  the  art 
of  dyeing  is  still  successfully  ])ractised,  and  there 
are  extensive  bleach-fields,  with  flour-mills,  and 
tanneries.  The  trade  of  Beauvais  is  extensive. 
Large  quantities  of  com,  and  of  linen,  called  demi 
Hollander  manufactured  in  its  vicinity,  are  dis- 
posed of  in  its  markets. 

Beauvais  existed  under  the  Romans,  and  has 
since  been  held  by  the  Normans  and  the  English, 
from  the  latter  of  whom  it  was  wrested  in  the  15th 
century.  In  1477  it  was  besieged  by  Charles  the 
Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  and  though  without  a 
garrison,  the  citizens,  led  on  by  the  famous  hen)ine, 
Jeanne  llachette,  re[)elled  the  enemy.  An  annual 
festival  Is  still  celebrated  in  honour  of  this  event. 

BEAUVOIR,  or  BEAUVOIS-SUR-MER,  a 
town  of  France^  ddp.  Vendee,  cap.  cant.,  opposite  to 
the  Island  of  Noirroutier,  al)out  3  m.  from  the  sea, 
with  which  it  is  united  bj'  a  canaL  Pop.  2,616  in 
1861.  Vessels  of  from  sixty  to  eighty  tons  come 
up  to  the  town,  to  load  with  com  and  salt,  pro- 
duced in  the  salt  marshes  in  the  vicinity.  The 
sea,  in  ancient  times,  came  up  to  the  walls  of  the 
town.  It  was  formerly  fortified,  and  had  a  castle, 
which  was  besieged  by  Henry  IV.  in  1588,  who 
having  fallen  into  an  ambuscade,  was  involved  in 
the  greatest  danger. 

BECCLES,  a  bor.,  par.,  and  town  of  England, 
NE.  border,  co.  Suffolk,  on  the  Waveucy,  95  m, 
NE.  London,  13  m.  SE.  Yarmouth,  on  the  Great 
Eastem  railway,  formerly  the  Eastern  Counties. 
Pop.  3,493  in  1*821 ;  4,086  in  1841 ;  and  4,226  in 
1861.  The  town  is  well  built  on  the  S.  side  of  the 
river,  and  consists  of  several  streets,  diveiging^ 
from  a  central  area  where  the  market  is  held. 
The  church,  with  a  modem  detached  steeple,  is 
an  ancient  structure  on  the  edge  of  a  cliff,  over- 
looking the  level  pastures  through  which  the 
Waveney  flows.  There  are  two  dissenting  chapels  ; 
a  free  school,  founded  under  James  I.,  for  100 
boys;  a  grammar-school,  endowed  in  1713,  which 
has  ten  exhib.  to  Emanuel  C-olL,  Cambr. ;  a  na- 
tional school;  a  new  town-haU,  theatre,  and  as- 
sembly-rooms. Tlie  wedcly-maricet  is  on  Satur- 
day. Annual  fairs  are  held  on  Whit-Monday, 
June  29,  and  Oct.  2 ;  the  lost  being  a  horse  fair. 
There  are  no  manufactures,  but  malting  is  carried 
on  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  town  has  been 
rendered  accessible  to  vessels  of  100  tons  burden, 
partly  by  deepening  the  river  Waveney,  and 
I>artly  by  the  aid  of  the  Norwich  and  Lowestoft 
navigation.  It  has,  in  consequence,  some  coasting 
trade,  in  the  importation  of  coals,  timber,  dc,  and 
in  the  exportation  of  com  and  other  pHxluce.  The 
shipping  belonging  to  the  trade  Is  inconsiderable, 
and  is  included  in  that  of  Yarmouth,  of  which  it 
is  reckoned  an  out-port.  The  railway  from  Beccles 
to  Bungay,  opened  March  2,  1863,  has  given  in- 
creased facilities  of  commercial  intercourse. 

Since  the  Municipal  Reform  Act  the  limits  of 
the  bor.  have  been  contracted  so  as  to  include 
only  the  part  on  which  the  town  stands,  an  area 
of  950  acre&    It  was  previously  oo-extensivc  wHk 

CC 


386 


BETDALE 


tlic  pojuth,  and  was  first  incorporated  in  34  Henry 
VIII.,  when  Becclc8  Fen,  consiHtini;  of  1,400  acrw 
of  pasture,  was  granted.  The  governing  charter 
was  granted  in  2  Jamei*  I.  Tlie  privilege  of  de- 
pasturing stock  on  the  fen  extends  to  every  house- 
nolder;  and,  of  the  original  grant,  940  acres  re- 
main unalienateiL  The  corporation  also  possess 
an  estate,  called  the  Huspitai  Hill,  and  a  lease  of 
the  tolls  of  markets  and  fairs,  &c ;  making  the 
average  amount  of  their  annual  revenue  upwards 
of  1,800/L  Their  business  is  transactxMl  in  the  town- 
hall,  where  quarterly  sessions  for  the  neighbour- 
hood are  also  held  by  the  co-magistrates. 

liKDALK,  a  market  town  and  i»ar.  of  England, 
N.  R.,  CO.  York,  on  an  affluent  of  the  Swale,  34  m. 
NNW.  York.  Area  of  i»ar.  7,(»70  acreA  Pop.  of 
par.  2,8(>0  in  1801 ;  of  town,  1,107.  The  town  is 
well  built,  and  the  chiurch  is  a  large  and  lian<lsome 
edifice,  constructed  in  the  reign  of  Edward  HI. 
Tlie  living,  wliich  is  a  rectorj',  is  one  of  the  best 
in  the  county,  having  beeji  w(»rth,  at  an  average 
of  the  three  years  ending  with  1831 ,  2,000/.  a  ycAr. 
It  has  a  grammar-school,  and  some  charities.  The 
country  round  is  very  fertile,  and  it  has  a  well- 
Bupplied  market. 

BEDAIJIEUX,  a  town  of  France,  d<«p.  Herault, 
cap.  cant,,  on  the  Orb,  20  m.  N.  IJeziers.  Pop. 
9,087  in  18G1.  It  is  neat,  and  well  built,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  industrious  towns  of  its  size  in 
France.  It  has  manufactures  of  fine  and  coarse 
cloth,  of  stuffs,  of  silk  and  wool,  w<M>llen  and  cot- 
ton stockings,  hats,  oil,  pai)er,  and  soap,  with  dye- 
works  and  taimeries.  It  Ims  a  staticm  on  the 
branch  line  of  railway  from  Graissessac  to  Hcziers, 
which  connects  it  with  the  general  railway  system 
of  the  country. 

BEDFOKD,  an  inland  co.  of  England,  ha>'ing 
N.  and  NW.,  Huntingdon  and  Northamptr»n  shires; 
£.,  Huntingdon  and  Cambridge ;  8.,  Hertfoni ; 
and  W.,  Buckingham  and  Northampton.  Area, 
295,582  acres,  of  which  about  250,(MK)  are  sui>- 
poHctl  to  l)e  arable,  meadow  and  pasture.  Surface 
diversificil  with  low  hills,  valleys,  and  extensive 
level  tracts.  On  the  S.,  the  Chilteni  hills  rise  to 
a  considerable  elevation,  I*rincipal  rivers,  Ouse 
and  IvelL  It  has  every  variety  of  soil,  fmm  the 
Rtiffest  clay  to  the  lightest  sand.  In  the  vale  of 
Bedford,  the  soil  is  clayey ;  the  sandy  soil  is  well 
suited  for  the  turnip  husbandry  and'  garden  cul- 
ture ;  and,  on  the  wiiole,  the  co.  may  l^  said  to  Ix; 
of  about  an  average  degree  of  fertility.  It  is 
chiefly  under  tillage,  which  is  in  a  medium  state 
of  improvement — not  so  far  advanced  as  in  some 
counties,  nor  so  backward  as  in  others.  Wheat 
and  l)eans  are  the  principal  produce  of  the  clays, 
and  tuniipe  and  barlev  of  the  sandy  soils.  La^e 
quantities  of  vegetaLles  are  raised  in  various 
places,  for  the  supply  of  the  markets  of  London 
and  Cambridge.  Cattle  of  a  mixed  breed.  Stock 
of  sheep  estimated  at  about  200,000.  There  are 
some  large  estates ;  but  property  is  notwithstand- 
ing a  gfMxi  deal  subdivided.  Average  size  of  farms, 
150  acres ;  average  rent  of  land,  in  1842-43, 
25«.  5</.  an  acre.  Fullers*  earth  is  dug  up  in  con- 
siderable quantities  in  the  vicinity  of  Wobum. 
Excellent  straw  platt  for  ladies*  hats  is  made  at 
Dunstable:  the  manufacture  of  pillow  lace,  once 
widely  tlilFused  thmugh  the  countrj",  has  much 
declined,  and  there  is  no  other  manufacture  of  any 
imi)ortance.  Principal  towns,  Bedfonl,  Biggles- 
wade, Leight4)n-Buzzard,  an(l  Luton.  Bedfonl- 
shire  contains  9  hundreds,  and  123  parishes ;  and  in 
1811  had  21,235  inhab.  houses,  and  107,936  inhabs. 
The  census  returns  of  1801  shovred  a  motierate 
increase  of  poimlation,  there  l>eing  27,419  inhab. 
bouses,  and  a  |K)p.  of  135,205,  of  whom  03,780 
inalcs  and  71,485  females.    The  co;  returns  two 


BEDFORD 

mcmberR  to  the  II.  of  C.  The  constituency  con- 
slstod,  in  1865,  of -1,701  registered  electors.  Be*l- 
fonlshire  was  part  of  the  Saxon  kingdom  of  Mercia. 
Watling  Street  may  be  traced  in  the  tlirection  of 
the  route  from  Dmistable  to  Stratford. 

Bedford,  a  bor.  and  to\*ni  of  England,  cap.  co. 
Be<lfoTd,  on  the  Oiums  45  m.  XNW.  London,  on  the 
Midland  railwav.     Pop.  5,460  in  1821;  9,178  in 
1841 ;  11,693  in*1851 ;  and  13,412in  1861.     Num- 
lx>r  of  inhabited  houses  2,307  in  1851,  and  2,754  in 
1861.    The  town  is  situated  in  a  pleasant  vale,  on 
both  sides  the  river,  which  is  spanne<l  by  a  hand- 
some live-arche<l  stone  bridge,  built  in  1810.     It 
consists  chiefly  of  a  wide  street,  l)etwee.n  1  and  2 
m.  long,  interaectetl  by  several  smaller  streets  at 
right  angles.    The  houses  on  the  S.  side  of  the 
river  are  handsome  modem  structures;  the  rest, 
an  intermixture  of  ancient  and  nuHlcni,  but  mostly 
well  built  and  neat ;  the  whole  is  paved,  lighted 
by  gas,  and  amply  supplied  with  water.     There . 
are  five  churches :  St.  Peter's,  the  most  ancient, 
has  a  Norman  porch  and  a  fine  tower ;  St,  John's, 
St.  Marj-'s,  and  St.  Paul's,  are  all  in  the  Gothic 
style,  with  good  towers.    The  BaptL*<ts,  In<lei)en- 
dents  Weslcyans,  .lew^s,  and  Moravians,  have  each 
places  of  worship ;  the  last  have  also  a  female 
establishment.    Tliere  is  a  flourishing  grammar- 
school,  founded  in  1.556,  which  educates  l>etwi'(en 
70  and  80  of  the  town  Iwys  free ;  and  alnnit  the 
same  numl)er  who  Ixtard  with  the  head  master, 
and  pay  :  it  has  8  exhib.,  of  HOI.  a  year  each,  to 
Oxfonl,'  Cambridge,   and   Dublin:    another    free 
school,  founded  in  1727,  for  10  lK)ys  and  10  girls ; 
and  a  blue-coat  sch(K>l,  founde<l  in  1760,  for  cloth- 
ing and  educating  25  boys:  this  last  is  now  unite<i 
with  the  national  schoid,  but  the  endoiMnont  is 
kept  distinct.    The  charities,  compared  with  the 
size  of  the  town,  exceed  in  amount  those  of  any 
other  in  the  kingdom.    I'he  principal  charity  con- 
sists of  pn»perty  in  Bedfonl  and  Ixmdon,  left  l»y 
Sir  William  Harpur,  who  was  bom  in  the  fvimier, 
'■  and  became  lortl  mayor  of  the  latter.     Tlie  tnis- 
i  tees  are — the  lonl-lieut. ;  the  memliers  for  the  co. 
1  and  the  l)or. ;  the  first  and  second  masters  of  the 
■  grammar-school ;  eighteen  persons  chosen  by  the 
I  mhabitants  of  Bedfonl ;  and  the  corj)oration ;  tlie 
last  being,  in  fact,  virtually  its  managers.    The 
revenue  is  distributed  amongst  the  free  grammar, 
English,   national,  and  commercial   schools  ;  58 
almshoiLses;  and  in  marriage  portions,  apprentice 
fees,  premiums,  and  donations  amongst  the  p<Mir. 
Besides  this,  the  principal  charity,  there  Is  the  h<»s- 
pital  of  St,  John,  founded  in  the  reign  of  Edwanl 
II.,  for  a  master  and  10  poor  brethren ;  iuid  8 
almshouses,  endowed  in   1679,  for  decayed  fdngle 
folks  of  either  sex.    Tliere  is  a  sessions-house,  a 
theatre,  and  a  public  library;  reading,  lecture, 
billiard,  and  assemblv-nwms,  all  in  one  handsome 
stmcture,  recently  fcuilt.    There  is  also  a  new 
building  in  the  I'udor  style,  enacted  by  the  tms- 
tees  of  the  Be<lford  chiuity,  with  rwims  for  the 
English  and  national  schiM)ls.    The  co.  gaol  and 
house  of  correction  are  at  the  N.  entrance  to  the 
town.    The  co.  lunatic  asylum,  and  the  co.  inlir- 
mary,  are  also  near  the  town,  on  the  Amptliill 
road*:  the  infirmar\',  a  laige  fine  building,  wan 
erected  in  1833,  chiefly  from  funds  beqiieathe<l  by 
the  late  Samuel  Whitbrea<l,  Esq. ;  but  the  Mar- 
quis of  Tavist<>ck  subscrilxHl  2,000/.   towanls  its 
completion.    The  penitentiary'  (a  large  estab.)  on 
the  Kettering  nia(L    The  cldef  market  is  held  on 
Satunlay :  the  weekly  s,ale  of  wheat  averages  alsjut 
()00  quarters.    There  is  a  smaller  market  on  Mon- 
day, chiefly  for  pigs.    Annual  fairs  are  held  first 
Tuesdav  in  Lent,  April  21,  Julv  5,  Aug.  21,  Oct. 
12,  Nov.  17,  and  Dec.  19.    That  in  Oct.  is  ralU-d 
the  statute  fair,  and  is  the  most  im]M>rtant :  the 


BEDFORD  LEVEL 


387 


othcra  arc  cattle  fairs.  The  Oiise  is  navigable  firom 
hiwivii  to  Lyim  Kogirt,  and  a  considerable  traftic  is 
carried  on  Iwtwwn  the  two  towns,  chietiy  in  malt, 
coals,  thnber,  and  iron.  l.<ace-making  formerly 
employed  a  greAt  many  of  the  women  and  chil- 
dren, and  now  straw-j)latting.  There  are  no  other 
manufactures.  The  town  has  great  facilities  for 
trade,  being  on  the  crossing  of  two  great  lines  of 
railway,  the  Midland,  and  a  branch  of  the  great 
London  and  North  Western  line.  The  bor.  is 
co-extensive  with  the  five  parishes  of  Sts.  Peter, 
Paul,  Cuthliert,  Mary,  and  John ;  the  area  of  the 
wliole  is  2,n>4  acres,  the  town  being  in  the  midst, 
with  a  fertile  1)elt  of  land  all  round.  It  is  diWded 
into  two  wanls,  and  govemwl  by  a  mayor,  six 
aldermen,  and  eighteen  councillors.  'Die  annual 
reveime  of  the  corporation,  derived  from  lands  and 
houses  in  the  l)or.,  amounts  to  alxnit  1,500/.  a  year. 
There  are  local  courts  of  petty  and  quarter  sessions, 
and  of  pleas.  The  co.  sessions  and  assizes  are  also 
held  in  the  town. 

Under  the  I*oor  Law  Amendment  Act  Bedford 
is  the  union  town  for  44  parishes.  It  Is  repre- 
sente<l  in  the  union  by  six  guardians.  The  lH)r. 
has  returned  two  members  to  the  IL  of  C.  since  the 
23  Edw.  L  Previously  to  the  Reform  Act  thev 
were  elected  bv  the  burgesses  and  freemen,  both 
bodies  consisting  of  an  indefinite  number.  In 
lK(i4,  the  constituency  consisted  of  98G  registered 
electors,  of  whom  48  remaining  *old  frt*emen,' 
and  210  *  pot-wallopers.'  Bedford  is  also  the 
principal  polling  town  of  the  co.  A  strong  castle 
was  built  here  soon  after  the  Conquest,  which  in 
subsequent  reigns  endured  many  sieges;  part  of 
its  entrenchments  may  still  be  traced.  John 
Bunyan  was  imprisone<l  in  Bedfonl  gaol  from 
indo'till  1672;  and  in  it  he  wn)tethe  first  portion 
of  the  Pilgrim's  Progress.  He  8uljse<juently  con- 
tinued, for  the  most  part,  to  reside  in  the  to^n 
till  his  demise  in  1(>88.  The  Kussell  famUy 
derive  their  title  of  duke  from  the  town. 

BKDFOKD  LEVEL,  a  distr.  on  the  E.  coast  of 
England,  com])rising  the  greater  portion  of  a  flat 
marshy  tract,  called  the  Fens,  which  extends  into 
six  counties,  and  is  bounded  on  the  NE.  by  that 
great  inlet  of  the  German  Ocean,  known  as  the 
Wash;  and  in  all  other  directions  by  ranges  of 
hills  that  enclose  it  in  the  form  of  an  elli|>se.  It 
includes  alxmt  450,000  acres  of  tlds  fen  countrj', 
and  extends  N.  and  S.,  fwm  Tydd  St.  (liles  to 
Milton,  33  m. ;  and  fn)m  Peterl)on)ugh  to  Hrandon, 
in  an  E.  and  W.  direction,  40  m.  Its  boundaries 
are  im*gidar ;  but,  commencing  fn>m  Peterborough 
nf»rtherly,  the  line  extends  by  Peakirk,  Crowland, 
Whaplode  Drove,  Parson  Drove,  Guyhim,  Salter's 
Lode,  and  Methwold,  to  Brandon ;  and  thence,  on 
the  S.  side,  by  Mildenhall,  Milton,  Earith,  Ram- 
say, Wo<k1  Walton,  and  Yaxley,  to  Peterborough. 
This  ct»mprises  the  vrhrde  Isle  of  Ely  (the  >f. 
<liv.  of  Cambridgeshire),  and  a  few  parishes  in 
the  S.  division  of  that  countv;  30,000  acres  of 
Sufl'olk;  63.000  of  Norfolk;  5*7,000  of  Hunting- 
<l«»n:  l)etween  7,o00  and  H,000  of  Northampton- 
shire ;  and  the  SE.  jx)rtion  of  Lincohishire.  • 
The  whole  tract  appears  to  have  been  gra- 1 
dually  formetl,  by  si:dimontar>'  depositions,  hi ! 
an  inlet  of  the  (»cean,  bnmght  thither  by  the  \ 
tidal  currents,  fn>ra  the  ddtris  of  the  coast,  and 
by  torrents  from  the  surrounding  uplands.  Eight 
prinripal  rivers,  <»r  drains,  originally  traversed  the 
level,  tlirce  of  which  had  their  outfalls  in  the 
sea:  the  Welland,  in  Foss  Dyke  Wash;  the 
None,  in  the  Sutton  Wash  Way;  and  the  Ouse, 
at  Lynn  Regis:  of  the  re.xt,  the  Glen  joined  the 
Wtliund,  near  its  outfall;  the  Wisbeach  was  a 
branch  of  the  Nene ;  the  Cam,  the  Larkc,  and 
the  little  Ouse,  fell  iuto  the  Great  Oubc  on  its  £. 


side.  The  Romans  appear  to  have  been  the  fiwt 
who  formed  sea  embankments,  and  shut  out  the 
tide:  subsequently  to  which,  for  a  pn)Iongcd 
period,  it  was  a  very  fertile  and  populous  tract. 
The  outfalls  of  the  streams,  and  the  depths  of 
their  channels,  remained  adequate  to  carry  off 
the  superfluous  water,  and  effect  a  proper  drainage, 
although  it  is  a  well-ascertained  fact  that  the 
average  level  of  the  surface  was  formerly  several! 
feet  lower  than  at  present  (at  Spalding  and  Wis- 
beach not  less  than  10  f>.,  and  at  Peterborough 
6  ft.).  The  roots  of  large  trees,  grass  lying  in 
swathes,  as  when  first  mowe<1,  boats,  and  shoes  of 
a  i>attem  worn  in  Richard  Il.'s  reign,  have  been 
discoveretl  in  various  places  at  the  depth  of  several 
feet  under  silt  or  peat.  At  the  setting  down  of 
Skirbeck  sluice,  near  Boston,  a  blacksmitirs  shop 
was  found  under  16  ft,  of  silt  These  changes, 
therefore,  were  occasioned  by  the  continued 
operation  of  the  same  causes  to  wWch  the  for- 
mation of  the  district  Is  originally  attributablci 
and  which  arc  still  in  ceaseless  action  on  the 
coast.  By  shutting  out  the  tide  also,  its  scouring 
acrion  would  be  greatly  limited;  and,  conse- 
quently, the  channels  and  outfalls  of  the  streams 
would  silt  up  and  contract  more  rapidly,  unless 
prevented  by  some  artificial  means,  lliis  pro- 
cess, however,  would  be  gradual;  and,  down  to 
the  time  of  Stephen,  we  find  the  district  round 
Thomey  described  by  Heiury  of  Huntingdon  as 
most  beautiful  and  fertile;  whilst  at  the  period 
when  Francis,  Earl  of  Bedford,  and  his  coadjutors, 
undertook  the  drainage  of  the  great  level  that 
is  named  firom  him,  this  tract,  comprising  18,000 
acres,  was  an  inumlated  morass,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  small  hillock  on  which  the  abbey  stood. 
As  early,  however,  as  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  the 
silting  up  of  the  rivers,  and  the  want  of  adequate 
drainage,  had  become  an  evil  of  great  magnitude ; 
and  as  a  large  proportion  of  the  fens  then  be- 
longe<l  to  rich  religious  establishments,  they  made 
many  vigorous  efforts  to  ob>'iate  the  increasing 
Q\\\.  But  it  was  not  till  the  era  of  Elizabeth 
that  the  drainage  of  the  fens  was  viewed  in  its 
true  light,  that  of  an  important  national  concern ; 
and  an  act  was  passed  for  effecting  it  in  the  44th 
of  her  reign.  In  consequence  of  the  queen's  death, 
nothing  was  attempted  till  1634,  when  a  charter 
was  granted  by  Charles  I.  to  Francis,  Earl  of  Bed- 
ford (who  had  succeeded  to  the  pn^nirty  of  Thomey 
Abbey),  and  13  other  adventurers,  who  undertooK 
to  drain  the  level,  on  condition  of  being  allowed 
95,000  acres  of  the  reclaimed  land:  this  was  par- 
tially accomplished  within  three  years,  at  the 
cost  of  100,000il  The  principal  cuts  then  made 
were,  the  Old  Bedfortl  River,  6  m.  long,  20  ft, 
wide ;  Sam's  Cut,  of  the  same  length  apd  size ; 
lievil's  I^am,  10  m.  long,  and  40  ft.  wide ;  and 
Peakirk  Drain,  of  the  same  length,  and  17  ft, 
wide.  Tlie  old  drains  were  aL^  repaired  and 
enlarged,  and  four  sluices  formed  to  keep  out  the 
tide :  two  at  Tidd,  one  at  Wisbeach,  and  one  at 
Salter's  J..o<ie^  After  all  these  works  had  been 
accomplLshe<l,  at  so  great  a  cost,  by  the  corpora- 
tion, the  contract  was  set  aside,  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  government,  under  the  i)lea  of  the  drains 
l)eiiig  inadequate.  An  offer  was  then  made  by 
the  king  to  undertake  the  drainage  of  the  fens, 
on  being  allowed  152,000  acres,  which  was  57,000 
more  than  were  to  have  b<.*en  allotted  to  the  cor- 
poration for  effecting  it.  ITiis  disgraceful  attempt 
to  swindle  the  latter  out  of  the  advantages  likely 
to  result  firom  their  outlay  and  exertions  was, 
however,  defeated  by  the  national  disttuitanccs 
that  shortly  after  broke  out.  But  the  neglect 
consequent  on  the  <listracted  state  of  the  country 
rcndcnxl  what  had  been  cfllbcted  in  a  great  measure 

cc  2 


388 


BEDFORD  LEVEL 


useless,  w>  that  the  district  remained  a  waste,  tiH 
1649,  when  William,  Earl  of  Ikdfurd,  had  aU 
his  father's  rights  restiinnl  by  the  Convention 
parliament :  another  effort  wxis  then  made,  under 
his  direction;  and  at  the  cost  of  300,000/.  the 
ori^nal  adventurers  were  enabled  to  claim  their 
05,000  acres.  The  principal  cut  last  made  was 
that  of  the  New  Bedford  river,  100  fu  wide,  a 
short  distance  from,  and  running  nearly  parallel 
with,  the  old  one.  In  1668  a  corporation  was 
established  by  an  act  (15  C.  II.  c.  17),  to  pn>vide 
for  the  maintenance  and  repair  of  the  works,  and 
to  Ic^y  assessments  on  the  prf»prietors  for  the 
sums  necessary  to  defray  the  exjK'nses.  The  c<»r- 
poration  consists  <if  a  g<»venior,  i\  luiiUfts,  20  conwr- 
vators,  and  a  commonalty,  consisting  of  all  who 
possess  100  a<nres  within' the  levcL  The  conser- 
vators arc  required  to  have  200,  the  bailiffs  and 
governor  4(H)  each ;  the  officers  are  electe<l 
annually.  Several  subsequent  acts  liave  l>e<?n 
passed  to  explain,  alter,  and  amend  the  original 
one;  but  its  main  outlines  have  been  preser\'e<l, 
and  continue  to  form  the  basis  of  the  government 
of  the  Fen.  In  1697  the  level  was  divi<le<l  into 
throe  parts — the  N.,  Middle,  and  S.  levels:  the 
first  comprises  the  lands  between  the  Welland 
and  the  Nene;  the  second.  th<»se  lietwetui  the 
Nene  and  Old  Be<ifonl  rivers;  the  third  extends 
from  Old  Bcnlford  rivej  to  the  southeni  limits. 

In  1795,  an  act  f)assed  for  impmvingthe  <»utfall 
of  the  Ousc>,  and  for  making  a  out  from  Kaubriiik 
to  Lynn ;  this  was  not  effectnl  till  1H20,  and  lins 
proved  highly  beneficial.  To  enumerate  the 
various  cuts  and  drains  that  have  been  made  at 
various  times  would  lie  tedious  and  useless.  The 
water,  in  the  rivers  and  great  artificial  cut^t,  is 
mostly  above  the  level  of  the  lands  they  pass 
through,  and  is  confine<l  bv  cml)ankments :  the 
water,  therefore,  collected  in  the  smaller  land- 
drains  and  ditches,  has  to  be  lifted  into  these 
main  channels  bv  pumps,  which  are  mostly 
worked  by  windmills,  but  in  a  few  instances  by 
steam-engines.  The  most  recent,  and  by  far  the 
most  efficient,  improvement  that  has  been  made 
in  the  drainage  and  na\'igation  of  the  Fens,  has 
been  accompllMhcd  under  act«  passe<l  in  1827  and 
1829,  'for  improving  the  outfall  of  the  Nene; 
for  draining  tlic  lands  which  discharge  their 
waters  into  the  WLsbeach  river ;  and  for  improx-ing 
the  navigation  of  that  river,  from  Kiiider»ley  cut 
to  the  sea ;  and  embanking  the  salt  marshes]*  A 
new  tidal  channel  was  cut  for  the  discharge  of 
the  Nene :  this  begins  ab<iut  6  m.  below  Wisbeach, 
and  extends  to  Crabbole  (6^  m.) ;  thence  the 
river  has  shaped  for  itself  a  natural  channel  (1^  m. 
in  length)  to  the  Wash.  The  surface  width  of 
the  new  cut  varies  from  200  to  300  ft. ;  its  depth, 
from  the  surface  of  the  adjacent  land  to  the  betl 
of  the  stream,  is  24  ft.  throughout:  the  spring 
tides  rise  al)out  22  ft.  at  the  end  nearest  the  sea, 
and  18  ft.  where  it  joins  Kiiiden«ley  cut.  A 
bridge  has  been  thrown  over  this  channel  at  Sut- 
ton Wa.sh,  8  m.  below  Wisbeach,  and  an  embank- 
ment made  across  the  sands,  forming  a  new  and 
safe  line  of  road  between  Norfulk  and  Lincoln- 
shire. Between  7,000  and  8,000  acres  of  marsh 
have  been  reclaime<l  from  the  sea,  and  brought 
to  a  cultivated  state  by  these  operations.  An  un- 
interrupted communication  with  the  sea  from 
Wisbeach  (the  empf>rium  of  a  large  district)  has 
been  efTocted  for  small  vessels  at  all  times  of 
tide,  and  in  any  weather;  and  at  springs,  for 
large  vessels;  where,  previously,  those  drawing 
6  ft  could  only  reach  with  a  spring  tide  and 
ikvourable  wind.  But  the  most  important  result 
is  the  improved  drainage  that  has  been  effected. 
In  this  new  chaxmel  the  tide  ebbs  nearly  10  ft 


BEEDER 

I  lower  than  in  the  old  one,  immediately  opposite 
I  the  S,  Uolland  and  N.  I-^vel  sluices,  which  are 
!  the  outlets  fiir  the  water  of  aljout  100,000  acres  of 
!  fen-lan^L  A  new  m;un  drain  and  sluice  has  been 
formcHl,  to  take  the  proper  advantage  of  this;  and 
also  several  minor  drains.  The  Nene  outfuU  was 
finished  in  18.'15,  at  a  cost  of  200,000^  The  drain- 
age of  the  N.  I^vel,  under  an  act  obtained  in 
1830,  cost  150,000/.  Following  the  example  of  his 
ancestors,  the  Duke  of  Bedford  has  lK*n  the 
chief  supporter  of  lM)th  those  undertakings,  whi<'h 
liave  rendered  pumping,  either  by  wind  «>r  stenm, 
unnecessary*  in  the  N.  Level;  and  proved,  tlwit 
by  due  skill  and  exertion,  all  the  waters  of  this 
inqKirtnnt  tract  might  have  an  adequate  out- 
fall createtl  for  them.  'ITie  sale  of  the  agriail- 
tural  prcnluce  of  the  district  has  l>een  gn-^tly 
facilitated  by  the  construction  of  several  lines  of 
railway.  The  longest  of  these,  the  line  from 
Peterborough  to  li(4»ston,  with  a  branch  to  S|Mild- 
ing,  was  made  by  the  (ireat  Northern  c<>mi»anv, 
acting  under  parliamentary  powers  obtaintMl  in 
1848.  A  new  line  of  railway,  right  acn>ss  the 
Iknlford  I^vel.  from  Peterbt>n>ugh  to  Thomey, 
Wisbeach  and  Sutton,  was  oi»ened  in  1865. 

BKDNOKE,  a  Utvni  of  Ilindostan,  cap.  of  a 
district  of  Mvsore,  hit.  13°  50'  N. ;  long.  75©  6'  E. ; 
150  m.  NW.*  Seringaimtam.  300  m.  WNW.  Ma- 
dras. It  is  situateii  on  one  of  the  best  n^ads  in 
the  W.  Ghauts,  which  lea<ls  fn)m  Maugalori'. 
When  Hyder  Ali  took  it  in  176:^,  it  was  sjud  to 
l)e  8  in.  in  circ. :  it  afforded  him  (xinsidernblc 
plun<ler.  In  1783  it  was  taken  by  the  English; 
but  in  the  following  year  the  tnx>ps  in  p«^ssession 
were  either  <lestn»ye<l  or  dislodged  by  Tipp<K).  At 
his  death  it  had  but  1,5(M)  houses:  some  additions 
have,  however,  been  made  to  it  since.  Its  trade 
is  increasing,  but  it  has  no  manufactures. 

IJEDWIN  (OBEAT),a  bor.  and  par.  of  Eng- 
land, CO.  Wilts,  bund.  Kindwanlstone,  64  m.  W. 
bv  S.  London.  Area  of  par.  10,420  acres.  Pop.  of 
par.  2,191  in  1831,  and  2,263  in  1861.  The  town, 
which  is  old,  stands  on  an  elevate<l  site,  on  n 
chalky  soil.  Its  church  exhibits  spei^'imens  of 
the  style  of  various  eras  ffrom  the  Norman  to 
Henry  VIII.),  and  is  a  cruciform  structure,  with  a 
fine  embattled  tower  rising  from  the  intersection. 
Tlie  market-place  is  in  the  princijial  street ;  but  the 
market  has  long  been  disused.  Fairs  are  held, 
April  23.  and  July  26.  The  place  is  in  the  juris- 
diction of  the  county  magistrates,  Iniing  merely  a 
nominal  borough,  with  a  portreeve,  bailills,  &c., 
elected  at  the  manor  court  leet.  It  sent  two  mem. 
to  the  parhaments  of  Edward  I.;  thence,  with 
some  interruptions,  to  nine  Ilenrj'V.,  and  thence, 
continuously,  till  the  Keform  Act,  by  which  it 
was  disfranchise<l.  There  is  a  tine  relic  of  Saxou 
earth-work,  called  Chisburj'  Castle,  about  a  mile 
NE.  of  the  town  ;  it  encloses  an  area  of  about  til'teen 
acres.  Some  Koman  remains  have  also  In.'en  f(»und 
about  half  a  mile  SW.  of  the  town.  Bed  win  has  a 
station  on  the  Hungerfonl  branch  of  the  Great 
Western  railway,  and  the  Kennetand  Avon  (^anal 
passes  through  the  parish,  and  furnishes  coals. 
The  living  is  a  vicarage,  with  the  chapel  of  Ea>t 
Grafton  annexed. 

BEEDEK,  a  considerable  prov.  of  Ilindostan  ; 
part  of  the  Deccan ;  chiefly  between  lat,  17°  and 
20°  N.,  having  N.  Aurungalmd  and  Berar;  E.  Hv- 
deraljod  and  Gundwana ;  S.  Ilvderaljad,  and  \V. 
Beja[)oor  and  Auningabad :  it  is  included  in  the 
nizam's  domin.,  and  divided  into  seven  dbtricts ; 
viz.  Call>erga,  Naldroog,  Akulcotta,  Calliuny, 
Beeder,  Nandere,  and  Patree.  It  is  hilly  but  iint 
mountainous,  and  watered  by  many  rivers,  of 
which  the  Manjera  and  Godavery  are  the  chief, 
and  is  generally  fertile.  It  is  but  Uiinly  inhabited, 


BEEDER 

the  Hindoos  being  to  the  Mohammedans  as  three 
to  one :  before  the  conquest  by  the  latter  it  was 
comparatively  populous.  Tluree  languages,  the 
Telinga,  Maharatta,  and  Canarese,  are  spoken  in 
this  \mn\j  and  their  mutual  point  of  limit  is  some- 
■where  in  tlic  neighbourhood  of  the  principal  town, 
IJeedcr.  The  Bhamenee  dynasty  reignwl  here 
after  the  Moham.  conquest,  and  other  small  states 
were  subsequently  founded,  one  of  which  was 
hxcd  in  l^der  as  the  capital.  The  Moguls  con- 
quered it  at  the  end  of  the  17th,  and  the  nizam 
early  in  the  18th  century,  since  which  it  has 
always  been  occupied  by  the  successors  of  the 
latter. 

Bkkdrr,  a  citv  of  Hindostan,  cap.  of  the  above 
prov.,  in  Ut.  17*^  49'  N.,  long.  77°  46'  E. ;  73  m. 
N\V.  Hyderabad,  and  325  m.  ESE.  Bombay.  It 
stands  in  an  open  plain,  except  to  the  E.,  where 
it  rests  on  ground  having  a  declivity ;  is  fortified 
by  a  st4)ne  wall,  with  many  round  towers,  and  a 
dry  ditch ;  has  remains  of  some  good  buildings, 
and  was  formerlv  famous  for  its  tut«nague  ware. 

BEER  ALSTON,  a  bor.  of  En^hind,  co.  Devon, 
hund.  Roborough,  par.  Beer-Ferris,  211  m.  VVSW. 
London.  Pop.  of  the  par.  2,847  in  1861 ;  area, 
.'),M50  acres.  The  village  is  situated  between  the 
'J'avy  and  Tamar,  1  m.  from  the  latter :  its  market 
and  fair  (granted  in  1295)  have  been  long  dis- 
continued. Silver-lead  mines  were  opened  in  the 
H'.ign  of  Edw.  I.  conti^ous  to  the  place,  which 
owes  what  importance  it  possessed  to  them ;  but 
thovare  now  discontinued.    The  bor.  claimed  bv 

»  • 

prest^ription,  but  di<l  not  return  mem.  to  the  H.  of 
C  till  the  reign  of  Eliz.,  from  which  period  two 
were  regularly  elected,  till  the  passing  of  the 
Reform  Act,  by  which  it  was  disfranchised.  In 
the  ancient  church  are  some  curious  monuments 
of  the  old  families  of  Cham|)cmowne  and  Ferrers. 

BKERHIIOOM,  orBlRBOOM  (riraftA«/iii,the 
land  of  heroes),  a  distr.  of  Hindostan,  prov.  liengal, 
chief! v  between  hit,  28°  25',  and  24°  25  N.,  and4ong. 
860  and  H><P  E.;  havuig  N.  the  distr.  Bhaugul- 
pore ;  E.  Moorshedaba<l  and  Nuddea ;  S.  Burdwan 
and  the  Jimgle  Mehab<;  and  W.  Ramgur.  Area, 
3,«70  sq.  ra.  Pop.  estimated  at  about  1, 000,000. 
INIuch  of  it  is  liiUy,  covere<l  with  jungle,  and  thinlv 
inhabited ;  there  are  no  navigable  streams,  which 
im)>edes  its  cultivation  and  trade;  l)ut  the  roads 
and  bridges  are  kept  in  good  order  by  government 
convicts,  and  its  pop.  and  pros|)crity  are  increasing, 
(iooil  coal  and  iron  ore  are  found;  the  latter  is 
worked  in  numerous  native  forges,  supplied  with 
fuel  from  extensive  forests.  The  other  most  im- 
{Mtrtant  products  are  rice,  sugar,  and  silk.  The  land 
revenue  in  the  year  1829-30  was  091,876  rup. 
Highway  depredations  are  frequent,  especially  by 
the  petty  hill  chiefs  in  the  W.;  the  head-quarters 
of  the  judicial  establishment  are  at  Soory ;  the 
<»lher  chief  towns  are  Nagore,  Noony,  and  Seram- 
pore. 

BEER-REGIS,  or  BERF^REGIS,  a  par.  and 
market  town  of  England,  co.  Dorset,  huncL  of 
same  name.  Pop.  of  pur.  1,024  in  1H61 ;  of  town, 
1,IH9.  The  town  is  situated  on  an  atlluent  of  the 
Piddle,  7  m.  NW.  Wareliam.  It  Iuls  a  good 
church,  with  some  monuments.  Its  annual  fair, 
held  on  W(HHlbury  Hill,  IHth  Sep.  and  three  fol- 
lowing days,  used  to  l>e  one  of  the  mo»t  important 
ill  (he  CO.  for  the  sale  of  cattle  and  horses,  and  is 
still  verv  considerable, 

BEES  (ST.)  HEAD,  a  ca\\c  of  England,  being 
the  most  westerlv  ])oint  of  the  co,  of  Cumlierland, 
aU.ut  3  m.  SW.  Whitehaven ;  lat.  5 1©  3(»'  i),j"  N., 
long.  3°  37'  24"  NV.  It  is  comi>osed  of  abrupt, 
hi;^h,  rocky  cliffs;  and  is  surmonnte<l  by  a  light- 
house, exhibiting  a  fixed  light,  having  the  lauL<nii 
elevaicd  333  fu  above  high  water  mark. 


BEHRING'8  STRAIT 


389 


BEESKOW,  a  town  of  Prussia,  prov.  Branden- 
burg, on  the  Spree,  18  m.  SW.  Frankfort  on  the 
Oiler.  Pop.  4,277  in  1861.  The  town  is  the  seat 
of  a  court  of  jiuttice,  and  has  manufactures  of  cloth 
and  linen,  with  breweries,  tanneries,  and  lime- 
kilns. 

BEFORT,  or  BELFORT,  a  town  of  France, 
d<^p.  Haut^Rhin,  cap.  arrond.,  on  the  Savoureuse, 
88  m.  SSW.  Colmar  on  the  railway  firom  Mul- 
house  to  Besan^on.  Pop.  8,101  in  1861.  When 
this  town  was  ceded  by  Austria  to  France,  in 
1648,  it  was  not  fortified;  but  the  importance  of 
its  position  for  the  defence  of  the  plain  to  the  E. 
of  the  Vosges  being  ob>'ious,  works  were  con- 
structed on  a  new  principle,  by  Vauban,  which 
made  it  a  fortress  of  the  second  class.  It  consists 
of  two  parts — the  high  and  low  town;  is  well 
built ;  has  lai^  barracks,  a  handsome  church,  a 
college,  a  pubhc  library,  containing  20,000  volumes, 
and  a  tribunal  de  premiere  nutance,  Belfort  has 
iron-toundries,  with  fabrics  of  iron-wire,  printed 
calicoes,  hats,  paper;  and  is  the  entrepot  of  a 

great  part  of  the  trade  of  France  with  Alsace, 
orraine,  Grermany,  and  Switzerland. 

BEG  (LOU(HI),  a  small  Uke  of  Ireland,  about 
2  m.  from  the  NW.  comer  of  Lough  Neagh,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  the  river  Bann.  (See 
Louon  Neaoh.) 

BE(;ARD,  a  town  of  France,  dc^p.  Cotes  du 
Nonl,  cap.  cant,  3  m.  NW.  Guingcamp.  Pop. 
4,182  in  1861. 

BEHABAN,  a  town  of  Persia,  prov.  Ears,  on 
an  extensive  and  fruitful  plain,  aoout  3  m.  £. 
from  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  dtv  of  Aragian,  and 
130  m.  WNW.  Shiraz.  Mr.  Ivinneir  says  that 
the  walls  are  about  3  m.  in  circumference,  and 
that  he  was  informed  by  the  governor  that  the 
pop.  amounted  to  about*  10,000.  It  is  the  rwi- 
dence  of  a  lieglerbeg.     (Kinneir*s  Persia,  p.  72.) 

BEHRlN(i*S  STRAIT,  the  channel  which  se- 
parates the  NE.  comer  of  Asia  fti)m  the  NW. 
comer  of  America,  and  which  connects  the  N. 
Pacific  with  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  is  formed,  in 
its  narrowest  part,  bv  two  remarkable  headlands, 
the  extreme  points  IC.  and  W.  of  the  continents 
to  which  they  belong ;  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  on 
the  American  coast^  in  lat  65°  46'  N.,  long. 
168°  15'  W. ;  and  East  Cape,  on  the  shore  of  Asia, 
in  hit  66°  6'  N.,  long.  169°  3H'  W.  The  disUnce 
between  the»e  points  is  about  36  m. ;  but  N.  and 
S.  of  them,  the  land  on  both  sides  rapidly  recedes, 
and,  on  the  N.  especially,  it  trends  so  sharply 
that  the  name  of  strait  lis  not  very  applicable  to 
any  part  beyond  the  capes  in  that  direction.  It 
is  usual,  however,  to  regard  it  as  extending  along 
Asia  firom  Tchukotskoi  Noss,  in  64°  13'  to  Serdre 
Kumen  in  67°  3'  N.,  which  gives  it  a  length  of 
400  m. :  its  width  between  Tchukot.skoi  Noss 
(173°  24'  W.)  and  Ca[>e  Rodnev,  on  the  opposite 
shore  of  America  (UHi9  3'  W.),ls  about  250  m. 

The  land  on  lM>th  sides  is  considerably  indented, 
the  Asiatic  shore  especially  exhibiting  several  ex- 
tensive and  commiHlious  bays,  as  St  Lawrence, 
Metchickma,  and  others ;  but  the  country  is  not 
of  a  kind  to  tempt  navigators  to  its  coasts,  which 
are  generally  steep  an<l  n>cky,  very  bare  of  woodj 
and  not  at  iill  abundant  in  other  vegetation.  The 
water  has  an  equal  Init  nor  great  depth.  Ontk 
remarks,  that  on  l>oth  sides  of  the  strait  the 
soundings  are  the  sanoe,  at  the  sanne  distance  from 
the  shore ;  that  near  land,  he  never  found  more 
than  23  fath(»ms ;  and  by  his  chart  it  aT>|)ears  that 
he  nowhere  found  more  than  30.  Siioal  water 
af»pears  Ui  l)e  principally  confined  to  the  bays 
and  inlets  (»n  the  Amencan  sitle.  Tliere  are  a 
few  small  islands  scattered  here  and  there  along 
I  the  strait ;   ami  one  of  some  size,  St  Lavrrenoe 


390 


BEHRING*8  ISL.VND 


or  Gierke's  IslontU  lies  at  a  short  distance  S.  from 
ita  entrance.  Tlic  temperature  is  low ;  by  the  end 
uf  Aii^st  the  thonnomcter  sinks  to  the  frei'zin^ 
point,  and  N.  of  tlio  two  cai)es  tJu-re  is  always  a 
st<irc  of  ice  which  the  heat  of  suninu'r  is  (pilte 
iwwerloss  to  disj)erse.  ITie  strait,  is  fn»zen  ovej 
every  winter,  logs  and  hazy  weather  are  very 
common,  almost  [)erpetual ;  for  though  the  sum- 
mer sun  is  al>ove  the  horizon  for  a  very  con- 
siderahle  time,  yet  he  seldom  bhines  for  more 
than  a  few  hours,  and  often  is  not  seen  for 
fteveral  days  in  succession.  The  animals  on  Isith 
sides  the  strait  arc  similar;  they  consist  of  the 
common  fur-l)earing  trilKis  and  birds  of  the  arctic 
regions,  but  not  in  great  numlK>rs.  A  corn»>iK»nd- 
ing  similarity  does  not  exist  in  the  human  mi'e 
on  eacli  side  of  the  channel;  the  Tchutski 
(Asiatics)  are  hmg-faced,  stout,  and  well  made ; 
while  the  Americans  are  of  low  stature,  with 
romid  clmbby  faces,  and  higli  cheek  lM)nes.  The 
Asiatics,  also,  ap{>ear  to  rswsess  more  arts,  to  I>e 
more  retined — in  bhr)rt,  to  i»e  of  a  superior  race.  On 
both  shores,  the  principal  occupations  are  hunting 
and  lisliing,  for  the  latt<.'r  of  M-ldch  the  waters  are 
well  titted,  being  much  more  abundant  in  Life  than 
the  barren  lamL  Whales  fre({uent  the  stnut^  and 
the  walrus  (morse)  seems  to  Ije  more  abundant 
here  than  in  any  other  (mrt  of  the  world.  The 
flesh  of  the  latter  creature  is  fit  for  ftKxi  (GtKik's 
Third  Voyage,  ii.  p.  457),  and  it  appears  prolwble 
that  the  natives  of  the  coasts)  feed  also  upon  the 
whale. 

In  1728,  Vitus  Behring,  a  German  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Empress  Catlierine,  sailed  fn>m  Kam- 
tschatka,  in  the  view  of  discovering  whether  Asia 
were  or  were  not  terminated  by  tlie  sea  towanls 
the  NK.  He  reached  the  Senire  Kumen,  and  laid 
down  the  Asiatic  coast  in  a  maimer  t4>  call  forth 
tJie  unqualilied  appnilmtion  of  Cook.  In  a  second 
voyage  to  explore  the  American  shore,  he  unf«)rtu- 
natcly  perished  under  circumstances  of  groat 
misery,  liehring  may  Ite  considered  as  having 
settled  tlie  fact  of  the  existence  of  this  strait,  anil 
therefore  it  is  most  proiterly  called  by  his  name ; 
but  the  complete  discovery  was  reser\'ed  for  C(H»k, 
who  in  17«8  sur\'eved  the  wliole  length  of  botli 
coast^s,  with  a  precision  and  accuracy  which  left 
nothing  for  after  voyagers  to  i)erform,  and  wliicb 
has  made  the  geography  of  tliis  remote  and  l)ar- 
barous  region  as  precise  as  that  of  our  own  couu- 
tiy.  It  mav,  perhaits,  be  interesting  to  know,  that 
a  very  (»1<1  Japawite  map  of  the  world,  now  in  tlie 
Britifiih  ^luseum,  lays  down  the  leading  features 
of  this  strait  witii  surprising  acciuracy.  (KuKsian 
Vovages  and  Du*coveries,  ]».  'W;  Cook's  Third 
Voyage,  p.  4:i8,  4«7-47r),  &c. ;  iii.  p.  242.) 

IJEIIKING'S  ISLAND,  a  srajill  island  in  the 
Pacilic ;  lat.  00°  N.,  long.  11)54°  E.,  the  most  W. 
of  the  Aleutian  chain,  it  Ls  rocky  and  desolate, 
without  inhabitants,  and  only  remarkable  as  the 
place  where  the  great  navigator,  whose  name  it 
Dears,  breathed  his  last,  Afler  suflering  great 
hardships  in  his  attx^mpt  to  explore  the  coast  of 
America  (see  hnt  article),  the  scurvj'  broke  out 
among  his  men,  and  in  the  attempt  to  return  to 
Kamt>chatka,  he  was  wrecki>d  on  tliis  liarren  nntk, 
where  was  neither  food,  except  marine  animals, 
nor  covering,  ext^pt  line  sand,  in  wliich  the  ca{>- 
tain  anilcrew  attempted  tost-reen  themscdvcs  from 
the  effect  of  a  Northern  winter,  and  in  which  the 
former  diwl  worn  out  by  didca.se  and  disapi>oint- 
ment.  Dec.  8,  1741.  (Kussiaii  Voy.  and  Discov. 
p.  97.) 

BEILA,  or  BELA,  an  inland  town  of  Beloo- 
chistan,  ciip.  pro  v.  Lus,  on  an  elevatetl  rock  on 
the  N.  bank  of  the  P.>orally,  lat.  20°  11'  N.,  long. 
^&^  30'  E..  and  5U  m.  N.  of* the  Indian  Ocean.    It 


'  BEJAPOOR 

contains  about  2,000  houses,  3(X)  of  which  belong 
to  Hindoos.  The  streets  arc  narrow,  but  the 
Itnzar  is  neat,  and  the  town  generally  clean  mid 
tidy :  on  the  NW.  it  Is  prytc<;ted  by  a  tt»leral)ly 
g(KKl  mud  wall;  elsewhere-  it  has  no  external  de- 
fence.    (Pottinger's  Travels,  p.  ID.) 

BEILAN,  a  town  of  Svria,  near  the  sea.  D  m. 
SE.  Iskenderoon ;  lat.  UP  I'D'  ao"  N.,  long.  3«o  17' 
E.  Pop.  estimated  at  5,000.  The  houses  are  of 
stone,  with  Hat  nnifs,  occupy  lH)th  sides  of  a  moun- 
tain gorge,  and  are  sotlisi^)sed  that  the  ierrac<«s  of 
the  lower  buildings  ser^'e  as  streets  to  those  alxjve. 
A  large  stream  rushes  thnjugh  the  middle  of  the 
town,  and  in  winter  cascades  |K>ur  down  on  every 
side.  A  considerable  numlter  of  a(|ueduct.s,  s«imo 
of  them  ver\'  ancient,  conduct  tliis  abumlant 
Mipply  of  water  to  the  houses  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. 

Beilan  gives  name  to  the  mountains  among 
which  it  stands  (an.  Amanus),  the  S\V.  tenniiia- 
tion  of  the  Taurus.  The  summits  of  these  moim- 
tains  arc  usually  snow-topped ;  hence  the  winter 
cold  is  ver}^  severe,  but  the  summer  climate  de- 
lightful, and,  at  all  times,  the  atmosphere  Ls  pure 
and  salubrious. 

The  town  was  f(»rmerlv  much  frequente<l  by  the 
inhabitants  (esiiecially  Luro])eans)  of  Aleppo  and 
Iskenderoou,  as  a  refuge  from  the  burning  heats 
and  unwholesome  vai»ours  of  the  plains  during  the 
summer.  The  decline  of  these  phices  has  aflectwl 
Iteilan,  but  its  natural  advantages  have  drawn  to 
it  a  great  many  wealthy  Turks,  who  find  a  further 
inducement  to  reside  here,  in  the  fact,  that,  thougii 
nominally  a  part  of  the  i)achalic  of  Alep|s»,  the 
town  is  really  governed  by  a  sheikh,  electe<l  by 
the  inliabitantji  from  among  themselves.  In  1x32 
Beilan  was  the  scene  of  a  decisive  battle  between 
Ibralum  and  Hussein,  ]mchas.  (Voluey,  ii.  135, 
130;  Robinson,  u.  27»-2«l.) 

BEJA  (an.  Pax  Julia) ^  a  town  of  Portugal, 

Iin»v.  Alentejo,  cap.  Comarca,  85  m.  SE.  Lisbon. 
*op.  6,275  in  1858.  The  town  Is  sunMumled  by 
walls,  tiimked  Tvith  40  towers,  and  dcfende«l  by  a 
castle.  It  has  a  cathetiral,  a  rich  hospit^il,  a  Latin 
schiwd,  a  fabric  of  eari  henware  ami  tanuerie.s. 

BEJAPOOK,  a  large  pniv.  of  the  Deccan,  Hin- 
dostan,  comprised  {tartly  in  the  British  dom.  iind 
nartly  in  those  of  the  rajah  of  Sattanih  and  the 
Nizam,  ami  containing  tlie  Portugiie^se  lerrit.  of 
Goa.  It  extemls  from  15®  to  18®  N.  lat..  luul  W- 
tweeii  73®  and  78®  E.  long.,  having  N.  pn»v. 
Aunmgabad;  E.  the  same  ]»rov.  ami  that  of  lly- 
deraliad;  S.  the  T<.Hjnibu<idra  an<l  Wunla  rivers, 
and  disir.  of  Canara:  and  W.  the  Indian  Ocean: 
length  320  m.,  by  200  m.  average  breadth. 

Its  W.  districts  are  very  mountainous,  Iteiiig 
intersected  by  the  W.  (ihauts;  and  there  arc*  nu- 
merous strong  hill  jHisitions  on  Isolated  eminences, 
with  i)eq>endicular  sides,  often  crowned  by  for- 
tresses. The  principal  rivers  are  the  Krishna  or 
Kistnah,  TcKimbuddra,  and  lk>ema.  'Die  Krishna 
is  remarkable  as  fonning  the  iMuuidary  Ix'twei-n 
two  regions  in  which  distinct  language-s  and 
si)ecies  of  Imilding  prevail;  N.  of  that  sta'am 
tlie  Maluiratta  tongue  Ls  s|M)ken,  and  the  roof^i  of 
the  ordinar>'  houses  are  pitched  and  thatchetl ;  S, 
of  its  banks  the  Canara  language  prevails,  and 
tlie  houses  are  fiat-roofed,  and  covered  with  mud 
and  clav.  The  liamooses,  a  tribe  resemblin':  the 
lower  castes  of  the  Maharattas,  with  the  thievish 
habits  of  the  Bheels,  but  more  sulxlued  ami  civi- 
lised, inhabit  the  hills  joining  the  Ghaut.i  in  S.ii- 
tarah,  Unween  Poonah  on  the  N.,  CoLipiKjr  S., 
and  Beja]K)or  E.  They  are  n)blKTs  by  tnidt-, 
]ilundering  the  country  when  not  kept  in'sulNmli- 
nation;  addicted  to  hunting,  and  neither  tilling 
the  ground,  nor  disintseil  to  any  fixed  or  laborious 


BEJAPOOB 

cmplo\n3)cnt    They  do  not  eat  beef,  but  are  with- 
out caste. 

AftQi  the  (1iM<olutioii  of  the  Bhamenee  empire  of 
the  Deccan,  in  14K9,  Adil  Shah  efltal>lii(hed  a 
d}iiai«ty  in  Bejapoor,  which  lasted  till  16^9,  and 
was  Hingular  m  conferring  Hindoo  titles  of  di^ 
tinctituif  which,  aratmg  other  Mohammedan  go- 
vcnimentiS  were  alwayH  Arabic  It  next  became 
nominally  subject  to  Aurungzebe;  then  really 
Hubject  to  the  Maharattos :  after  nuffering  all  the 
evils  of  anarchy  from  1804  to  1818,  most  part  of 
it  l)ecame,  in  the  latter  year,  subject  to  the 
British ;  but  portions  of  it  have  since  that  period 
been  again  entrusted  to  the  rule  of  subsidiary  na- 
tive princes. 

Be.tai'(>or  {VijayapurOy  the  impregnable  ciiy\ 
the  aiic.  cap.  of  the  al)ove  prov.  under  the  Adil 
Shah  dynasty,  stands  near  the  right  bank  of  a 
tributar>'of  the  Krishna,  115  m.  SK.  Sattarah,lat. 
lt)0  4<l'  S'.,  long.  7r>«>  47'  E.      In  the  beginning  of 
the  17th  century  it  was  a  city  of  great  size  and 
strength  ;  but  at  present  it  consists  merely  of  an 
immense  number  of  mosques  and  otlier  public 
buildings,  many  of  which  are  in  a  state  of  partial 
dec-ay  ;  and  a  scanty  i)opidation  scattered  among 
their  ruins,  and  oocupynig  miserable  huts,    *As 
the  traveller  approaches  the  city  fn)m  the  X.,  the 
great  ditme  of  Mahometl  Sliali's  tomb  is  discemeii 
fnim  the  village  of  Kimnoor,  14  m.  distant,    A 
nearer  view  gives  the  idea  of  a  splendid  and  popu-, 
lous  metn»{)olis,  from  the  innumerable  domes  and 
spin's  and  buildings  which  meet  the  eye.'   *  On  en- 
tering, the  illusion  vanishes;  jungle  lias  shot  up 
in  the  i)artiy  obliterated  streets,  and  the  visitor 
may  now  lose  himself  in  the  solitude  of  ruins, 
where  crowds  were  formerly  the  only  impediments 
t«»  a  free  passage.'    It  comprises  an  outer  fort,  or 
old  citv,  and  an  inner  fort  or  citadel,  partly  en- 
cl(>se<l  W,  and  lying  E.  of,  the  former :  the  space 
Ixitween'the  walls  of  these  two  is  said  to  have 
lK?en  sufficient  for  the  encampment,  in  1G89,  of 
ITi.iMM)  of  Aurungzelw's  cavalrj'.   The  walls  of  the 
outer  fort  are  8  m.  in  circ.,  and  but  little  dilapi- 
daie<i,  though  the  outworks  be  in  great  part  (le- 
st roye<l;  the  inner  fort,  on  the  contrary,  is  fast 
crumbling  away.    The  old  city  (besides  a  stone 
htUAit,    its    only  fre(|uente<l  spot)    contains   the 
mausoleum  and  mosipie  of  Ibrahim  Adil  Shah, 
built  on  a  basement  I'M)  yds.  h>ng,  by  52  yds, 
broad,  covered  by  an  immense  dome  raised  on 
ari'hes,  and  so  elegant  as  to  ))ear  a  favourable  com- 
{tarison  with  the  most  celebrate<l   Mogul   sepul- 
chres of  Upper  Hindostan.     ThLs  structure,  as 
well  as  others  in  Bi^ai)oor,  is  dLitingubhed  by 
rich  overlapping  conuci>s,  and  small  minarets  pe- 
culiar t4>  this  pbu':e,  and  terminating  in  a  glol>e  or 
]iinnacle,  instead  of  the  o|)en  s<iuare  turrets  com- 
mon in  the  X.  of  India.      The  inner  fort,  the  S. 
walls  of  which  Umnd  IkJajKK»r  in  that  direction, 
encloses  the  niins  of  the  |>alace,  the  great  mosfjue, 
an  imjMKsing  edilice  in  ginnl  re[>air,  the  celel>rated 
mausoleum  of  Mahomed  Shal),  and  a  multitude 
of  other  tombs  and  mos(iucs.     Sir  James  Mackin- 
tosh, who  visited  this  city,  says,  that  the  elaborate 
Htonewt)rk  in  some  of  these  is  exquisite,  and  not 
suri>assc<l  by  that  of  any  cathedral  he  hatl  ever 
s<?en.    Here,  also,  is  a  low  Hind<M>  temple,  the  only 
building  of  the  kind  in  or  ab(»ut  BejaiMM)r ,  it  is  in 
the  eariiest  and  rudest  style  of  art,  and  popularly 
thought  t(»  have  l>een  raiseil  by  the  Pandoo*  (a 
mythologieal  race) :  the  militarj'^  Khaj«K>s  (trea- 
sniry)  luLs  ma«isive  stone  chains  cut  out  of  solid 
bl*K:k.s  su>|x'nde<l  from  its  angles.     Excepting  the 
pnlace,  little  w<hkI  having  l>een  used  in  the  c<m- 
stniction  <if  th«  public  buildings,  they  are  in  tole- 
rable preservation.  Two  ]v»rallel  streets  (one  nearly 
'6  m.  long  and  50  ft.  wide,  paved  throughout  and 


BEITH 


391 


regularly  built),  inteniect  the  inner  dty,  the  moat 
populous  part  of  which  adjoins  the  great  mosque. 
Mud  hovels  are  stuck  up  here  and  there  among 
the  ruins,  but  the  space  within  the  walls  is  mcMtly 
a  wilderness  covered  with  grass  and  shrubs.  There 
are  here  some  enormous  brass  guns,  formerly  be- 
longing to  the  fort,  one  of  whicli  would  require  a 
ball  weighing  2,046  lbs.  For  5  m.  W.  of  the  fort 
the  country  is  studded  with  ruins,  chietly  Moham- 
medan tombs.  (Mackintosh's  Memoirs,  2nd  edit. 
l4G;J.) 

BEJAR,  a  fortified  town  of  Spain,  prov.  Sala- 
manca, 48  m,  S.  Salamanca.  Pop,  10,()83  in  1857. 
Tlie  town  is  distinguislieti  by  its  woollen  manu- 
factures, which  have  been  much  improved  and  ex- 
tended since  1824.  It  is  alw>  famous,  throughout 
Spain,  for  its  hams.  There  are  mineral  waters  in 
the  neighbourhood.  A  laige  fair  is  held  here  on 
the  25th  Sept.  and  the  two  following  days. 

BEJETSk,  a  town  of  Russia  in  Europe,  gov. 
Twer,  cap.  district,  on  a  lake  near  the  Mt)loga,  62 
m.  XXE.  Twer.  Pop.  3;290  in  1858.  It  is  an  old 
town,  of  sombre  aspect,  with  thirteen  churches  and 
two  convents. 

BEIUA,  a  prov.  of  Portugal,  which  sec 

BEIT-EI^FAKIH  (vulg.  Beetkfaekie),  a  town 
of  Arabia,  cap.  of,  and  giving  name  to,  one  of  the 
six  depts.  of  the  Tehama  of  Yemen  Pn)per,  about 
100  m.  ESE.  Loheia,  and  90  m.  X.  Moclui;  Ut 
140  31'  X.,  long.  4:^0  28'  E.  A  huge  and  strong 
citadel  (the  residence  of  the  doU),  an<l  a  mosque, 
are  the  only  public  buildings,  A  few  of  the  houses 
arc  of  stone ;  but  the  majority  are  mere  huts  of 
wicker-work  or  chiy.  It  is  unwalled.  There  is 
no  account  of  the  pop. ;  but  it  mav,  perhaps,  be 
estimated  at  from  7,000  to  8,000.  It  is  the  great 
centre  of  the  coffee  tjwle  of  Yemen ;  the  bcyrrics 
are  brought  from  the  neighbouring  mountains  half 
a  day's  journey  distant ;  the  best  in  May,  but  the 
general  supply  is  afmost  constant  throughout  the 
year.  TTie  ports  of  Loheia,  Ilodeida,  and  Mocha 
are  supplietl  frtim  hence  (the  last  taking  annually 
about  22,000  tons) ;  in  addition  to  which,  caravans 
fn»m  El-Hedjaz,  Oman,  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt, 
A'c,  resort  to  the  town,  in  which  merchants  of 
almost  every  trading  nation  are  settled.  All  pur- 
chases are  made  for  ready  money. 

Beit-el-Fakih  (that  is^  houae  of  a  taint),  derives 
its  origin  and  name  from  a  famous  sheikh,  whose 
tomb  in  this  neighbourhoo<l  became  an  object  of 
veneration  ;  and  to  whose  memory  an  annual  fes- 
tival of  three  tlays  is  oliserved,  during  which  mi- 
racles are  sometimes  said  to  be  performed.  The 
town,  which  rose  in  consequence  of  pilgrimages  to 
the  tomb,  gnwlually  drew  to  it<»elf  the  coffee  trade, 
which  before  had  centred  in  /ebid,  a  town  about 
20  m.  to  the  S.  (Xiebuhr,  Dcscr.  de  TAr.  197, 
198 ;  Vov.  en  Ar.  I  253-256.) 

BEITII,  a  town  of  Scotbuid,  in  the  co.  of  Ayr, 
9  m.  S\V.  PaLsley.  Pop.  3,420  in  1861,  of  whom 
1 ,651  males  and  'l  ,769  females.  The  town  is  plea- 
santly situated  on  a  rising  ground ;  and  has  grown 
into  importance  since  the  earl  v  part  of  last  century. 
It  was  at  one  time  famous  for  its  manufacture  of 
linen ;  it  was  afterwanls  no  less  eminent  in  the 
department  of  silk  gauze ;  but  cotton  has  of  late 
constitute<l  its  staple  manufacture.  It  has  also 
two  tiax  and  three  com  miUs.  A  groat  number  of 
the  female  inhab.  are  engaged  in  tambouring  and 
(lowering  muslin  for  the  markets  of  Paisley  and 
(ilasgow.  'I'he  line  of  the  (Jlasgow,  Paisley,  Kil- 
manuK'k,  and  Ajt  railway  i>asscs  thruugh  the  town. 
In  the  neighlmurhood  are  quarries  and  mines  of 
limestone,  freestone,  ironstone,  and  coaL 

The  parish  of  I$eith,  which  borders  on  that  of 
Dunlop,  Ls  famous  for  its  dairies;  ami  the  one 
l)arish  produces  as  much  of  what  is  called  JJuMiup 


392 


BEKES 


cheese  as  the  other.  Bcith  has  a  town  house,  built 
by  subscription,  a  parish  church,  and  two  ilKsont- 
ing  chapeb,  two  branch  banks,  and  a  subscription 
library. 

BEKES,  a  town  of  Hungan*,  cap.  of  an  exten- 
sive CI),  of  the  fiame  name,  at  the  coiifhionce  uf  the 
Black  and  Wliite  Koros,  40  m.  SW.  GrosAwanlcin : 
Ut  4«o  4«>'  16" X., long.'iio  7  :W"  E.  I't.p.  20.150 
in  lHo7.  Ttie  town  lias  three  churches,  and  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  cattle,  com,  and  wine,  the  pro- 
duce of  the  surrounding  country.  There  Is.  clo!*e 
to  the  town,  a  stadon  on  the  railway  ftava  Pcsth 
to  Arad.    The  place  was  formerly  furtilie<L 

BELALCAZAR,  a  town  of  ^)I)ain.  pmv.  Cor- 
dova, 4X  m.  NNW.  Conlova.    Pop.  4.420  in  1807.  j 

BELASi*OOR,  an  inl.  to\ni  of  X.  Hiuduiitan, ' 
cap.  of  the  Cahlore  rajah,  on  the  loft  bank  of  the  ; 
Sutleje,  l,l<>5  ft,  aNive  the  level  of  the  sea ;  IHO  m.  i 
X.  Delhi,  300  m.  XXW.  Agra;  bit.  31°  li)'  X.,  I 
long.  1(P  4o'  E.  Tlie  town  luis  alniut  3.tH)0  houses :  i 
it  is  regularly  bmlt ;  the  houses  of  stime,  cemente<l ; 
ikith  mortar,  and  the  streets  roughly  pavetL  The  ; 
8ut1eje  is  here  about  1(N>  yanls  bn>ad,  when  its  ■ 
waters  are  lowest.  In  1^22.  this  town,  with  the  ! 
rest  of  the  Cahlore  territor\%  devolved  to  the  j 
British  government,  on  the  death  of  its  previous  \ 
sovereign.  I 

BELBEIS.  a  town  of  Lower  Egj^pt,  on  the  most  i 
W.  arm  of  the   Xile,  20  m.  XE.  Cairo.    It  was  ! 
occupied  in  1798  by  Xapoleon,  who  repairetl  its  : 
fortifications ;  but  they  are  now  of  little  imiKir- 
tance,  the  walls  consi>ting  chietly  of  muiL    it  Ls 
ill  Imtlt,  has  several  mosques,  and  its  pop.  has  l)een 
estimated  at  5,<HM).     It  is  suj>poise<l  by  D'Anville 
to  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  Pharba*tus  ;  but 
the  preferable  opinion  seems  to  be  that  the  site  of 
Pharbft'tus  is  identical  with  Horbegt.     Belbeis  is  a 
place  of  considerable  im{>ortance,  from  its  situation 
on  the  road  to  Svria. 

BELC ASTRO,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
Catanzaro.  15  m.  XE.  Catanzaro.  Pop.  3.042  in 
1861.  The  town  is  situated  on  a  nxrk,  is  the  seat 
of  a  bishopric,  has  a  cathedral,  .a  diocesan  semi- 
nary, and  a  mttnt  de  pi't'\  VjOI^  quantities  of 
cattle  are  bnxl  in  its  vicinity. 

BELEM,  a  suburb  of  Lisljon,  M'hich  see. 

BELFAST,  a  sea-port  town  and  [^arl.  bor.  of 
Ireland,  cos.  Antrim  and  Down.  prov.  Ulster,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Lagan  with  Carrickfergiis 
Bay:    102  m.  X.  Dublin,  and  78  m.  SE.  L<»n- 
donderrj'.     At  a  verj'  early  period  Belfast  wjis 
known  as  a  fortified  station,  and  on  the  arrival 
of  tlie  English  it  was  further  secured  by  the  erec- 
tion of  a  castle,  of  which,  however,  no  trace  now 
exists.    It  owes  its  present  imiiortance  to  its  com- 
merce and  manufactures,  which  have  rais^ed  it  to 
the  first  rank  among  the  great  marts  of  In'lau<l. 
The  town  comprises  an  area  of  5.«>37  stat.  acTes,  i 
whereof  4.318  are  in  Antrim,  and  1.^^10  in  Domh.  : 
The  population  has  very  rapidly  increase*!  in  the 
oouxve  of  half  a  centurV.    It  amountnl  to  37.277  i 
in  1821  ;  to  58,287  in  1N31 ;  to  75.308  in  1841 ;  to  I 
100,301   in   18.J1 :  and  to  121,602  in  1^61.     The  \ 
census  of  1861   showed  55,842  males  and  65.7t;o  > 
females.    The  same  n>tunis  stated  the  total  num- 
ber of  families  to  Ik?  2 1,IW1,  of  whom  only  3n8  were  | 
engaged  in   agriculture,  while   10,051  were  em-  | 
ployed  in  tratles  and  manufactures,  and  13,722  in  : 
other  pursuits.  ' 

Though  lying  low,  a  great  portion  of  the  town  ' 
not  being  more  than  6  ft.  above  high  water  mark, 
it  is  verv  healthv.  Tlie  town  is  nlxMil  12  m.  from 
tlie  sea,  at  the  mouth  of^he  Lagan,  wliich  bounds  . 
it  on  the  SE.,  ami  flows  immediately  iiit4)  lielfx^t  j 
I«ough,  wliich  is  12  m.  in  length,  and  5  in  breadth  ■ 
at  the  entrant,  gradually  n:uTovp-ing  as  it  ap- ; 
pruachcs  the  town.    The  river  Lagan,  which  sei>a- 1 


BELFAST 

rates  the  cos.  of  Antrim  and  Down,  is  crossed  by 
three  bri«lges  and  two  boat  ferries;  the  Queen^s 
Inridge,  built  of  granite,  on  the  site  of  the  old 
king  bridge,  which  had  twenty-one  arches,  is  a 
sidendid  structure :  and  C)rmeau  briilge,  of  four 
arches,  o|iene<l  in  184h),  at  a  cost  of  17,(101.1/.,  i;i  a 
magnificent  work.  Tlie  houses,  mostly  of  modem 
construction,  are  of  brick ;  the  streets  arc  wide, 
air}-,  well  pavetl  an»l  rtagge<l,  clean,  and  lighted 
with  g.is.  Principal  ecclesiastical  buildings,  the 
pantchial  churi'h,  with  a  tower  of  the  Lniic  onler  ; 
St.  Ge<^rge's  Church,  or  cha^^l  of  ease,  with  a  very 
fine  {Mirtia^,  and  Christ  Chtm!h :  it  has  in  all  14 
places  of  worship  for  the  adherents  of  the  Esta- 
i>!i>hed  Cbun'h :  4  R«imaii  Catholic  cha{)els:  24 
Presbyterian  plai-es  of  worship,  one  of  ver}'  elegant 
arrhitecture  :  3  meeting-lmiu'o  for  Unitarians  :  3 
f<»r  Covenanters ;  12  for  MetluNlists;  2  for  Inde- 
{lendents :  and  1  for  (Quakers.  The  inhabitants  are 
verv'  nearly  e(|iially  diWdwl  Wtween  the  three 
forms  of  worship  prevalent  in  Ireland — the  Esta- 
blished, the  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  Pre>byteriau 
Church.  Acct»nling  to  the  census  of  I8»ii,  thert* 
were  14,151  males  and  I5,l>29  females  Ijelonging 
to  the  Establiaheil  Church;  18,285  males  and 
28,121  females  adhering  to  the  Roman  Cath(»lic 
faith;  and  10.850  males  with  22.745  females  re- 
turned as  Presbyterians.  Tliere  wen»,  l>esides, 
4,046  Methodists';  323  Independents;  230  \\n\y. 
lL*ts;  2o2  (Quakers:  and  1,80<) persons a«lherinxr  to 
other  forms  of  religion,  (hily  11  individuals,  10 
males  and  1  female,  were  retunieil  as  Jews. 

Of  the  (nlucational  establishments,  the  principjil 
is  Queen's  Colk^».  foun«led  under  the  «  Or  0  Vi«;r. 
c.  6«N  and  0|ieiie<i  in  ixlji.  It  is  dividetl  into  Fa- 
culties of  Arts,  ^ledicine,  and  I^w,  and  has  a 
president,  vice-president,  an«l  20  professi.»rs.     Pu- 

IdLs  of  all  religious  denominations  are  a«bnitte«L 
t  has  30  junior  scholarshiiis  of  21/.  each,  and  10 
senior  do.  of  40/.  each.  Prufes><jrs'  fiH^s  var\'  from 
5o«.  to  3<^«.  for  each  cla>s  for  the  sea>«»n.  The 
building,  in  the  Tudor  ^tyle.  compri.-ing  a  niiiseuni 
antl  hbrary,  is  outside  the  towii,  ailjacont  t<»  tliii 
]t4)tanic  Ganlens.  The  Royal  Acjideinical  Institu- 
tion originate«l  in  a  suliscription  of  the  inhaliitauti^ 
ill  1807,  by  whom  a  fund  of  alM»ve  25,iM>o/.  w;is 
raised  for  the  erection  of  the  buildings,  and  the 
endowment  of  pn»fes>ors  and  teachers.  It  was 
afterwanls  incorjNtrateti  by  act  of  |»arliament,  and 
receives  an  annual  parliamentary  grant  of  I.Jhmi/, 
It  consists  of  a  collt^jiate  or  higher,  and  of  a  suIh 
onlinate  or  elementarv'  department.  In  the  tirst, 
the  professftrs  of  natural  phil«>s<iphy.  mi>ral  ]»hil(»- 
sojihy,  h»gic  and  belles-lettres,  anatomv  and  physi- 
ology, mathematics,  church  histori-.  ilebrew,  and 
(treek  and  I^tin,  receive  annual  .sdaries  of  15o/„ 
lx?sides  students*  fees;  two  prof'.-ss«»rs  of  dixnnity 
n-ceive  loo/,  each,  with  fees:  while  the  profr>s<irs 
of  chemistry,  midwifery,  materia  medicra,  .»«urger\-. 
Ihttany,  and  biblical  criticism,  are  left  to  de|K-!id 
on  fees  onlv:  in  the  schiwd  dejwirtment  there  are 
classes  fur  Latin  aiul  Greek,  mathematics.  Engli>h, 
and  French.  The  number  of  ]uipils  in  both  <tivi- 
hions  am<nints  to  alniut  1<M).  The  IJelfast  aca<lemy, 
founde<l  in  1786.  comprises  an  assemblage  of  highly 
efficient  classical,  mathematical,  and  other  sch«MiI>. 
There  is  ab«o  an  exien>ive  Lancastrian  soIum.). 
.'Vmong  other  literarv'  and  scientilic  institutions, 
su[)i»orted  by  the  cjintriluitions  of  the  niemUrs. 
are  the  Sx-iety  for  Prr»m<ding  Knowktlge.  founded 
in  17HS  witha  librarj' of  alniut  IOJ.hmj  vols.;  tlic 
Literar\'  Society,  fur  the  fii>«.'US'ii«»n  of  subjet'is  of 
general  literature,  science,  and  art.  founded  in 
1S(H:  and  the  Xatural  History  Society,  foundctl 
in  l^<21  :  the  meetings  of  this  institution  an*  heM 
in  a  hands4»me  building.  erei>te<i  at  the  cost  of  the 
subscribers,  who  have  al^«»  forme<l  a  hurge  botanic 


BELFAST 


803 


garden  near  the  town.    Belfast  has  four  public 

news-rooms,  and  ten  newspapers,  some  of  which 

arc  ably  conducted.    The  general  state  of  educa- 
tion, as  shown  in  the  census  returns  of  18C1,  is 

nevertheless  not  very  favourable.    Enumerating 

all  the  indivitluaLs  five  years  old  and  upwards,  Uie 

returns  ffive  32,242  males  and  28,377  females  as 

being  able  both  to  read  and  write;  while  there 

were  8,403  males  and  18,603  females  able  to  read 

only,  and  7,139  males  with  11,231  females  who 

could  neither  read  nor  write. 

The  poor  house,  for  the  reception  of  aged  and 

infirm  paupers  and   destitute   cliildren,  a  laige 

building,  in  an  elevated  situation  at  the  N.  ex- 
tremity of  the  town,  maintains  about  700  inmates, 

of  whom  those  capable  of  work  are  employed  in 

useful  manufactures,  or  in  its  domestic  arrange- 
ments.   Attached  to  it  are  useful  medical  and 

surgical  hosiutals.     The  house  of  industry  is  now 

puperwded  by  the  union  workliouse,  established 

under  the  new  poor  law.     The  fever    hospital, 

with  a  dispensary  attached  to  it,  has  accommoda- 
tion for  220  patients,  and  an  annual  income  of 

aJK»ut  l.OOOi    A  lying-in  hospital  is  maintained 

by  public  subscription.  The  district  lunatic  asylum, 

for  tlie  COS.  of  Antrim  and  Down,  and  the  town  of 

('arrickfcrgus,  situate  about  1  m.  from  the  town, 

in  an  enclosed  area  of  33  acres,  has  accommoda- 
tion for  250  inmates.    The  new  deaf  and  dumb 

asylum  is  an  elegant  building.     There  are  also 

two  female  penitentiaries.     The  only  places  of 

amusement  are  a  theatre,  occasionally  o|>ened  for 

dramatic  performances,  and  a  suite  of  rooms  in  the 

(.lonimercial  Ruildings  for  balls,  assemblies,  and 

coucerti«.     The  exchange^  erecte<i  by  one  of  the 

Marquises  of  l)t)negal,  is  now  used  only  for  the 

ekirtion  of  magistrates,  and  other  corporate  piu*- 

|)oses.     Adjoining  the  town  are  barracks  for  in- 
fantry and  artiller>'. 

Helfast  was  incoq>orated  by  James  I.  in  1613. 

Under  the  late  act^  it  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  ten 

aldermen,  and  thirty  councillors.     The  Iwrough 

returned  two  members  to  the  Irish  parliament:  at 

the  Union  it  obtained  leave  to  send  one  meml)er 

to  the  H.  of  C,  and  in  1H32  the  IJeform  Act  again 

confemMl  on  it  the  privilege  of  returning   two 

numiU^rs.    The  right  of  elei'tion,  which  hatl  been 

previously  confined  to  the  members  of  the  ctirpora- 

tion,  was  at  the  same  time  given  to  the  10/.  house- 
holders, and,  later,  to  8/.  rated  occupiers ;  and  a 

new  and  somewhat  more  extended  boundary  was 

laid  down  for  elective  purposes.     The  pari.  c«»n- 

stituency,  in  1«(>4,  consisted  of  3,o03  registenxl 

elcciort».     (leneral  sessions  for  the  co.  are  held 

here  four  times  a  year:  then;  is  aL*o  a  court  of 

ncord  for  pleas  of  debt  to  the  amount  of  20/. ;  a 

manor  coiu"t,  a  court  leet,  and  a  petty  se^ssions 

court  twice  a  week.    The  town  is  a  constabulary 

statitm,  and  Is  the  resitlence  of  the  bti]HMuliar\*    the  imports  were  upwards  of  10,000,000/.,  and  the 

mau:istrate  for  the  county.    The  jimpon y  and  in-    exix>rts  al)out  8,00(»,01K)/.    Tlie  number  of  vessels 

entered  inwards  from  foreign  i)arts  in  1863  was  318 
— tonnage,  87.401 ;   and  cleared  outwanis  106 — 


in^.  There  are  also  print  works,  flour  mills,  che- 
mical works,  oil  mills,  aUbaster  and  barilla  miUa, 
saw  mills,  breweries,  distilleries,  several  tan-yards, 
patent  felt  manufactories,  flax-steeping  works,  &c, 
five  large  ship-yards,  with  two  patent  slips,  and 
yards  for  manufacturing  ropes  and  sail-cloth. 
There  is  an  iron-ship  builduig  yard  on  Queen's 
Island,  employing  1,200  hands,  from  which  has 
been  launcned  some  of  the  finest  ships  afloat. 
Markets  on  Friday,  b^des  daily  markets  for  do- 
mestic purposes. 

The  mcrease  of  trade  and  commerce  has  kept 
pace  w^ith  that  of  manufactures.  The  situation  of 
tlie  town — at  the  bottom  of  Carrickfergus  Bay — 
has  made  it  the  chief  mart  for  the  circulation  of 
foreign  produce  tlunough  the  most  populous  and 
wealthy  portion  of  Ulster.  To  improve  this  ad- 
vantage, a  line  of  inland  navigation  was  com- 
menced in  1787,  to  connect  the  town  with  Lough 
Xeagh,  partly  by  still  water  and  partly  in  the  bed 
of  the  river;  but  the  unavoidable  casualties  at- 
tending this  latter  mode  of  conveyance  have  so 
retarded  the  progress  of  the  vessels  employed  in 
it  as  to  render  it  comparatively  useless,  and  the 
inland  trade  has  in  recent  times  been  mostly  car- 
ried on  by  railway. 

The  first  line  of  railway  from  the  town,  the 
Belfast  and  Ballymena,  now  called  the  Belfast 
and  Northern  Coimties  railway,  was  opened  on 
the  11th  of  April,  1848.  The  Belfast  and  Comity 
Down  line  was  opened,  in  its  first  portion,  to 
Holywood,  on  the  2nd  of  August,  1848,  and  in  ita 
completed  state,  on  the  3rd  of  June,  1861.  The 
Belfast,  Holywood,  and  Bangor  railway  was 
opened  in  February,  1865 ;  and  the  lielfast  Central, 
incor}M)rated  July  24,  1864,  and  intended  to 
connect  all  the  other  lines,  is  to  be  opened  in  1869. 
All  these  railways,  together  with  regular  st<>am- 
boat  communication  with  Glasgow  and  Liver- 
I)ool,  have  greatly  contributed  to  raise  the  trade 
of  Belfast, 

Pre\-iously  to  1637  Belfast  was  a  creek  of  the 
port  of  Carrickfergus;  but  the  privileges  of  the 
latter  having  been  purchased  in  that  year  by  the 
crown,  the  custom-house  was  transferred  to  Bel- 
fast, The  bay  is  peculiarly  favourable  to  the 
purposes  of  commerce,  being  safe  antl  easy  of 
access.  Large  vessels  formerly  lay  at  the  pool 
of  Garmoyle,  about  4  m.  fn)m  the  town.  But  Uie 
channel  thence  wai«  so  much  deepened  and  im- 
proved in  1840,  that  vessels  drawing  16  ft.  water 
reach  the  quays  at  neaps,  and  those  drawing 
18  fK  at  s|)rin'gs.  Tlie  superintendence  of  the 
harbour  is  vested  in  the  Ballast  Con^^^^ition,  es- 
tablbhed  mider  an  act  {Missed  in  1831,  which 
gives  it  laige  powers  towards  the  improvement 
of  the  quays  and  harlK>ur. 

The  commerce  of  l^lfast  is  extensive;  in  1864 


come  tax  for  the  year  en<le<l  5th  April,  1863, 
amounted  to  35,711/.  The  valuation  of  proi)orty 
in  1«60  was  270,tKiO/.,  and  in  18G3,  21>6,833/.  Tixe 
]H>lice  and  borough  rates  in  1863  amounted  to 
about  32,000/.  The  assizes  are  held  here;  also 
quarter  sessions  and  dailv  petty  sessions,  at 
wlii(!h  the  mayor  presitles.  The  paving,  lighting, 
and  cleau.<ing  are  vested  in  a  police  committee, 
chosen  by  the  town  council, 

Bella-st  is  the  nucleus  of  the  Irish  linen  manu- 
fjicture^  and  the  country-  sjiinners  and  manufac- 
turers meet  those  of  the  town  on  Friday  in  the 
Commercial  Ihiihiings,  which  is  the  public  ex- 
chan^'c.  This  trade  i»  now  in  a  fiourishing  t»on- 
(liiion,  ainl  mpiiUy  incren.sing.  The  other  chief 
branches  of  iujlustn*  are  linen  and  cott<m  weaving, 
iron  tbun<ling  on  an  extensive  scale,  and  bleach- 


tonnage,  3ti,326.  In  1864  there  entered  the  jHirt 
from  foreign  countries  130  British  vessels,  of  a 
total  burden  of  24,390  tons ;  and  195  foreign 
vessels,  of  an  aggregate  bunlen  of  34.026  tons. 
There  clcare<l  outwards,  in  the  same  year,  21 
British  and  21  foreign  vessels,  the  former  of  a 
t«.tal  burden  of  3,958,  and  the  latter  of  7,693, 
tons.  On  the  1st  of  Jainiar}*,  1865,  there  bo- 
longed  to  the  port  of  Ikilfast  153  sailing  vessels 
under  50,  and  32(>  sailing  vessels  al)ove  50,  tons ; 
l»esides  11  steamers,  of  an  aggregate  tonnage  of 
1,365. 

T\\G  fallowing  table  shows  the  qnantities  of 
the  principal  imjiorts  and  exports  fur  1862  and 
1863:— 


304 


BELFAST 


Importa 


Artldm 


Exports 


I 


1803 


TkuLtiti    .  cwtH.      83.H41 
toils 

CWtdi. 

cwu. 
lieod 

tUlM. 

nnd> 


Barley  , 
lieaiLs 
Beef 
Brandy 
Butter 
Cattle 
Coal 
Cottons 
Mii8lms,]>kji.  ( 
CottouWoolUH 
Fdt  .  tonti 
Flax  .  tuns, 
Flaxfiood  tons' 
Floor  .  tons 
Guano  .  tons 
HoniH  .  c\vtH. 
Herri nRs  l»rl«. 

MidcS     bUIKllCii, 

Indian  Corri  ")  , 
terns  j  . 
Iron      .    tons 

Ore    t^jns; 

\jaxd     .  cwtj.l 
Leather    balojjt 


1,075 


1S03 


739,182 

15-J,00U 
1,851 

18,1188' 


16&2 


1863 


438,393'    444,442        — 


88,273 

Ml 

428! 

30,45«' 

12<».2iVi 
8(>,iH>9 


18,769,      1«,024'       14,053 


Linen    .      yiU.  3»721,f)0O  4,048,«m>0  r>o,08iJ,fKHi  78,475.fH)() 


9<K),144 

10,flti5 
319 
13,8001 
1,01«! 
23,153 
17.2<il 
18.259 

41,017 

19,719 

32,51 1! 
4,095 


983.136        — 


6,200 
265 

6.219 

1.749! 
5:».^^2^ 
l(i,::(i:t. 
18.156; 

42,6501        — 
16,938;        — 


3.190' 
5,117 
15t^ 
1,492 

93,045 

29,948* 


_       I 


41.6H1 
4,947 


3,2<>2 
21.8:J7 


86,000 

10 

401 

30,739 

-     i 

117.<^3 

13,494 

3.817 

9.0K4 

620 

1,018 

129,768 

2l>,906' 

i 

_     i 

9,203 
23.516 


Macbincry  tns 
Ootmcul  tons 
Oats  .  tons! 
Oil  .  gallfi. 
IMgs  .  .  I 
Pork  . 
Potatoes 
Ra^ra     . 


914!        l,2t)4 


299.980    326,630 


Rum 
Salt 
Soda 
8tarch  . 
Sugar    , 
Tallow  . 
Tea 
Thread 
TIml»er . 
Tobacco 
Tow 
^>'heat  , 


cwts. 

tons. 

tons 
gallH. 

tons 

tons' 
cwti^.! 
cwts. 
cwts.! 


764 

20,399 

4,568| 


801 
24,390 


1,213 
2,471 
2,258 

19.114 

23,w;9 

4,676 
1,860 


9,850:        — 


275,149 
55.146 


264.610 
62.499 
11*8.2,601,519  2,800,713 

llw.!      —      I      

loiulsi      16.362 
lbs. 
tons 
tons 
Whisky    galls.     332.3:^3 
Wine     .  galls.;    165.648 
Wool     .      lbs,'      — 


876! 

I 
89,220 


41.«98 


1,4S3. 

2,1!».> 

l,42l>. 

—        I 

15.766 

18,360 

1 ,926 

1,692 

306 

41,389 

45,876 


924,896 
64,429 


16,597 
92'»,o80 

43,975 
626.410 
159,852 


1,128,960    1,183,516 


1,109 

7,303 

147,961 


—       I      177,120 


853: 
3,811 
201,152 

185,2WV 


Yam.  Linen  „  6,420.400  5,787 ,(!<J0  15,685 .(KM)  20,()22,:.6O: 

—  Cotton  „  '2,417,250  2,170,950      633,610      690,450 

! : I I I 

In  the  appearance  of  the  town,  and  in  the 
habitH  of  the  |)eople,  the  character  of  lk'lfa.<>t  is 
almost  cxcliihivel y  commercial  and  manufacturing. 
Tliere  are  in  it  few  of  the  laiulcnl  aristwracy ;  its 
higlier  classes  arc  formed  cliiefly  of  those  who 
have  attained  aii  elevated  iM>sition  in  society  by 
their  perHonal  exertions,  or  those  of  their  imme- 
diate pri»penitors.  There  is,  therefore,  little  of 
external  sh(»w,  but  much  of  internal  comfort,  in 
their  d<»mestic  anraiigemonts.  The  middling 
cla.>«8e8  enjoy  all  the  comfnrts,  and  many  of  the 
luxuries  of  civilisation;  the  working  doi^ses  have 
Huflereil  less  fn»m  the  pros.«*ure  of  distrc>s,  arising 
fn»m  te.mjxirary  st<»pi>«g»»  of  trade,  or  manufac- 
turing employment,  than  those  of  most  of  the 
other  great  towns  similarly  circumstanced :  on 
the  whole,  there  Is  to  be  Mten  here  little  of  the 
aspect  of  dc^titution  which  marks  the  suburbs  of 
most  other  lrL«h  t4)wns.  The  oliicial  and  other 
documents,  which  have  supplied  the  data  already 
given,  show,  by  a  review  of  its  condition  at  dif- 
ferent [Mirioils,  that  it  is  steadily  and  ra]»idly  ad- 
vancing in  manufucturhig,  commercial,  and 
literary  improvemenr. 

IJklfast,  a  bea-port  town  of  the  U.  States, 
Maine,  on  the  !N\V.  angle  of  Peuobdcut  Bay, 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 

224  m.  NE.  Boston.    Pop.  7,0.V>  in  18G0.    It  has 
an  excellent  harlxnir,  and  is  a  thriving  town. 

BKLFOKD,  a  market  towii  and  par.  of  Eng- 
land, CO.  N(jrthumlx'rlan<l.  BamUirough  wanl. 
The  |>ar.  contains  l»..'WO  acres,  and  hml  1,724 
inhab.  in  18t»l,  an<i  the  town,  l,0r>7.  The  hitter 
is  tinely  situatevl  on  the  great  mad  from^  York  to 
Edinburgh,  and  has  a  station  on  the  Newcastle 
aiul  Berwick  railway. 

BELGAHI),  a  tow-n  of  Pnis^^ia,  pnjv.  Pomerania, 
<ap.  circle,  IG  m.  SSW.  (:«K*slin.  Pop.  4,i>r>2  in 
IS()I.  The  town  is  situated  at  the  coutluencc  of 
tlie  Leitnitz  with  the  Persante,  and  is  almost  en- 
tirely surrounded  bv  water.  It  has  jm  old  castle, 
3  churches,  2  h«»spitaK,  and  fabrics  of  cloth. 

BELGAUM,  an  inl.  town  of  llindostan,  prov. 
IkyajKJor,  i)n'j»id.  B«»mbav,  di.str.  Darwar,  in  a  small 
subdivLnion  of  which  it  is  the  ca]>ital,  lO.^i  m. 
SW.  Ik'jajKM)^  55  m.  NW.  Darwar ;  lai.  15°  .')2'  N., 
long.  740  42'  E.  P<»p.  e>timated  at  H,m),  It  is 
strongly  fortified,  with  massive  and  solid  wall*, 
ram]»art8  llankeil  by  bastions,  a  broad  and  deep 
ilitch,  and  is  surrounded  by  an  esplanaile.  Its 
interior  is  extensive,  but  covere<l  with  ruins  of 
native  buildings,  amongst  which  are  two  ancient 
teui[)les.  Tliis  town  is  well  supplieil  with  w.iter, 
and  held  out  against  the  British  longer  than  any 
other  garrisoned  by  the  jwishwa's  forces :  it  was, 
however,  taken  in  181«.  The  snlwlivisiiin  of 
Belgaum  has  a  healthy  climate ;  but  all  extem.il 
traiie  is  stop|»ed  for  six  m(»nths  a  year  by  the 
vitdence  of  the  rains.  A  thinl  [larl  of  the  inhab. 
are  Maliarattas,  and  alsmt  one-sixth  Mohamme- 
dans, one-eighth  Jain>4,  and  one-ninth  ItnihmiiLs 

BELGEBX.  a  town  of  Pmssia,  ]»rov.  Saxony, 
on  the  Ell)e,  7  m.  SE.  Torgau,  on  the  railway 
J  fn>m  Ikjrlm  to  Dresden.  Pop.  3,232  in  mil. 
The  town  is  very  ancient,  has  a  hospital,  and  a 
town-house,  before  which  is  a  triumphal  column. 
It  has  some  trade  in  com. 

BEUilOJOSO,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy, 
prov.  Pavia,  cap.  dL>tr.,  9  m.  E.  Pa  via,  and  23 
m.  SSE.  Milan.  Pop.  8,643  in  mV2.  llw  town 
is  situated  in  a  fmitful  plain,  between  the  Po  and 
the  Olona;  it  b  well  Iniilt,  has  a  magniticent 
j  aqueduct,  and  a  tine  castle,  in  which  Francis  1. 
siKint  the  night  sul>se(iuent  to  the  battle  of  Pavia. 
!  BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF)  Is  situated  Ik.- 
tween  France  and  Holland,  and  has  l)een  e-'^ta- 
blishe<l  since  the  separation  of  its  provinces  fnun 
those  of  Holland  by  the  revolution  of  1H3U.  Its 
territ<»r\'  is  small  as  compared  with  the  gn-at 
European  state.^,  Iwing  only  about  one-eighth  of 
that  of  (treat  Itritain,  while  its  po])ulation  in 
not  nearly  live  millions.  However,  the  imjsirt- 
ant  i)osition  which  this  countrj'  has  occupied  in 
the  {silitical,  military,  commercial,  and  agricul- 
tural history  of  Europe — its  fonner  celebrity  in 
nnuiufactures  and  the  tine  arts — and  its  pre."»ejit 
rapid  progre^  in  ever}'  industrious  ])ursuit  and 
social  improvement,  give  it  a  jieculiar  interest. 

JSj'tent. — Bounilarivs, — Area, —  Ik'lgium  ex- 
tends fn)m  4yo  27'  to  51°  31'  N.  lat,  and  from  2^  37' 
to  G*^  E.  long.  On  the  N.  the  Iwiundary  line  is 
formetl  by  Holland,  along  a  line  of  3^^^,^•0U  metres ; 
on  the  E.  by  Prussia,  377,000  metres ;  on  the  S.  by 
France,  5i»i,(()00  metres;  and  on  the  E.  by  the 
North  Sea,  GD.OOO  metres. 

The  general  outline  of  the  territorj*  forms  a  tri- 
angular figure,  of  which  the  longest  side  extends 
on  the  frontier  of  France,  from  a  |H)int  midway 
between  F'umes  and  Dunkirk  to  one  S»  m.  SE.  of 
Arlon,  or  6  E.  fmm  Longwy.  The  gn^atest  length 
of  the  territory  of  Belgium  from  NVV.  to  SE.  is 
Gl  lejigues,  of  5,000  metres,  aliout  11»3  English 
miles;  and  the  greatest  breadth  from  NE.  to  S\V. 
\&  42  leagues,  or  about  127  miles.    The  whole  area 


BELGIUM  (KCNGDOM  OF) 


contains  11,313  EngL  sq.  m.,  or  7,363,982  Engl 
acrcH. 

Tlie  kingdom  consists  of  nine  provinces — Ant- 
^vori)  in  the  N.,  East  and  West  FUuidcn  and  Hal- 
nniilt  in  the  W.,  liraluint  m  the  centre,  Liniburg 
and  Liege  in  the  K.,  Namur  in  the  S.,  and  Lux- 
emburg in  the  SE.  These  formerly  constituted 
tlie  duohj'  of  Brabant,  tlie  marquisatc  of  Antweq), 
the  princinalitvof  Liege,  the  seigneurie  of  Mechlin, 
the  comtes  of  Flanden,  Hainault,  Lou  vain,  and 
Naniur,  and  the  duchies  of  Limburg  and  Luxem- 
buig.  At  the  tmie  of  the  IJelgic  revolution,  in 
IH'M)^  tlie  nine  provinces  of  Belgium  formed,  in 
conjimction  with  thoMC  of  Holland,  the  kingdom 
»»f  the  Netherlands,  which  bv  that  event  was  <lis- 
ftolved  into  the  present  kingdoms  of  Holland  and 
Belgium. 

BnL>«sels  is  the  capital,  and  scat  of  government, 
for  the  administration  of  which  the  kingdom  Is 
divided  into  the  9  provinces  above  enumerated,  44 
arrondisseuients,  98  towns,  and  2,<>4()  rural  com- 
munes. For  military'  jmrposcs  it  is  divided  into  9 
commanderes,  correMj)onduig  to  the  9  i)rovinces: 
and,  la.stly,  for  judicial  procee<lings,  it  is  divided 
into  29  arrondissements,  and  237  cantons. 

General  Aspect  of  the  Country. — Tlie  north  and 
west  provinces  of  Belgium,  in  their  tiatness,  fer- 
tility, dykes,  and  canals,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
continuation  of  Holland.  This  portion  of  the 
kingdom  is  so  densely  |)eopletl,  that  it  presents  to 
the  traveller  the  ap|>earance  of  one  vast  continu- 
ous village.  The  Houth  and  east  provinces  have 
an  op|H»site  character:  they  are  generally  more 
thinly  |)eopled,  and  less  cultivated,  and  exhibit  a 
nlo^t  irregular,  moimtainous  surface,  with  tracts  of 
marshy  land,  and  extensive  forests.  With  the 
exception  of  these  hilly  districts  in  the  south  and 
east,  the  whole  territory  presents  a  series  of  nearly 
level  plaiiLH,  traverseil  by  numen)us  streams,  de- 
lightfully diveraitied  by  wo<mLh,  arable  lands*,  and 
meadows  of  brilliant  venlure,  enclose<l  by  hedge- 
n»w  trees,  and  thickly  studded  throughout  with 
towns  and  Ullages. 

In  «ur\'eying  the  general  face  of  the  countrj',  and 
proceeding  from  W.  to  E.,  we  obser\-e  that  the 
co&Ht  is  uniformly  tlat,  and  fonne<l  of  tine  loose 
sand,  which,  by  the  frefpient  action  of  the  sea 
winds,  is  raise<l  into  gently  undulating  downs,  or 
dunes.  These  Imnks  of  sand  extend,  nearly  with- 
out intemii>tion,  from  Dunkirk,  along  the  entire 
coasts  of  Belgium  and  Holland.  In  breadth  they 
vary  from  one  to  three  miles,  and  rise  in  the 
hi^^'hest  parts  to  40  or  50  feet.  They  are  formed 
entirely  by  the  o|)eration  of  the  sea  winds,  in  ele- 
vating the  deep  saujls  of  the  shore ;  and  since  they 
serve  as  a  natural  bjirrier  to  the  encroachments  of 
tl>e  ocean,  it  is  an  object  of  great  im)M)rtanc*e  to 
check  their  constant  tendency  t<»  advance  inland. 
For  the  purpose,  therefore,  of  rendering  the  sand 
comjMict  and  stationar}',  the  dune*  are  sown  with 
a  sjH'cies  of  reed,  fln/wrfM  aremtna„  until  a  sufficient 
stnituni  of  vegi'iable  mould  w  collected  to  supfiort 
plantations  of  lirs  (F'mus  nuiritimus),  with  which 
n»o>t  of  the  Belgic  dunes  are  thickly  coverwL 

Though  no  [>art  of  the  surfarc  of  Ik>lgium  be 
actually  lx»low  the  sea  level,  like  that  of  ll<»lland, 
yet,  in  common  with  the  latter,  its  shore,  in  some 
parts,  is  dcfende*!  from  the  encn»achnients  of  the 
!sca  by  broad  and  elevate<l  tlykcs;  and  whole  dis- 
tri«'ts,  which  formerly  were  alluvial  morasses,  have 
lH;cn  drained  and  embank<^<l,  or  have  lM>en  gained 
entirely  from  the  IknI  of  the  «K'<'an.  Theembankeil 
enclosi'u"es  of  this  dejH'ripfion  Jire  calletl /x>///cr«.  On 
tli«'  sea  coast,  and  along  the  lower  banks  of  the 
Scheldt,  they  are  ver\'  nunuTous,  and  some  con- 
Uiin  above  1,000  acrt^s  of  rich  alluvial  soil,  which 
lb  appropriated  with  great  advantage  to  the  pur- 


395 

poees  of  agriculture,  under  which  head  vrill  be 
found  some  further  account  of  them. 

To  the  SE.  of  the  dunes  the  pro\Tncc8  of  West 
and  East  Flanders,  and  Hainault,  form  a  far- 
stretching  phiin,  of  which  the  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion indicates  the  indefatigable  care  and  labour 
bestowed  upon  its  cultivation ;  for  the  natural  soil 
consists  almost  wholly  of  barren  sand,  and  its  great 
fertility  is  entirely  the  result  of  ver>'  skilful 
management,  and  judicious  application  of  various 
manures. 

The  undulations  in  the  surface  of  the  northern 
districts  are  so  slight  that,  from  the  hifty  top  of 
the  cathedral  of  Antweq),  the  view,  on  a  clear  day, 
extends  on  every  side  over  a  radius  of  nearly  5U 
miles,  including,  on  the  E.,  the  city  of  Tumhout ; 
on  the  W.  that  of  Cihent ;  and  on  the  S.  the  city 
of  Mechlin ;  the  whole  {Minorama  towards  the  W. 
and  S.  displaying  a  beautiful  succession  of  vividly 
verdant  iieUUs  varied  by  masses  of  wood,  streams, 
and  picturesque  villages.  Around  the  cities  of 
Antweri)  and  Mechlin  are  great  numbers  of  elegant 
and  highly  ornamented  ci>untr\'  mansions,  belong- 
ing to  the  wealthy  classes.  The  northern  [tarU 
of  the  provintHTS  of  Antwerp  and  Limburg  are  less 
varied  and  fertile  than  any  others.  The  soil  is 
for  the  most  |)art  compose<l  of  pure  sand,  very 
imrtially  mixed  with  argillaceous  earth.  Tho 
largest  unbroken  plain  in  the  kingdom  is  called 
Campine,  and  comnrl^'s  the  NE.  iHirtion  of  Ant- 
werp, and  the  NVV'.  of  Limburg.  It  consi^-ts  of 
marshes,  desolate  moors,  ])eat  Isigs,  and  extensive 
tracts  of  sand,  covennl  with  heath,  broom,  and 
stunted  firs.  Some  tiarts,  however,  contain  natuml 

f>rairies,  and  serve  for  pasturage  to  herds  of  excel- 
ent  horses ;  and  the  portion  of  Limburg,  near  the 
banks  of  the  Meuse,  is  fertile  and  carefully  cnilti- 
vated.  The  scenic  character  of  Brabant  resembles 
that  of  Flanders,  with  rcs))ect  to  its  beautiful 
fields,  and  gardens,  and  luxuriant  trees ;  but  the 
surface  is  more  varie<i  by  hills  and  valleys.  In  the 

{)rovince  of  Liege  tlie  N.  bank  of  the  Meuse  ovcr- 
ooks  a  fertile  plain,  pro<lucing  all  kinds  of  grain 
and  v^etablcs,  and  affonling  excellent  pasturage 
for  cattle,  and  for  dairy  husbandry;  but  the 
country  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  river  belongs  to  the 
mountainous  district  which  constit^ites  the  pro- 
vinces of  Luxemburg  and  Namur.  A  part  of  this 
comparatively  wild  and  rugpfcd  regicm  is  covered 
with  dense  forests,  which  still  furnish  an  asylum 
for  the  wild  boar,  the  roe-buck,  the  bear,  and  the 
wolf.  The  surface  Ls  very  irregularly  varie<U  in 
some  parts  by  large  tracts  of  barren  heath  and 
marshy  lands,  anti  in  others  by  ridges  of  hills, 
mantled  on  the  s1o|h>s  and  summits  witli  mas^jies  of 
dark  wikxIs,  and  by  [irecipitous  rocks,  whose  bare 
&(car|)ments  form  a  striking  contrast  with  tho 
brilliant  venlure  of  the  well-cultivate<l  valleys 
they  enclose,  llie  hills  are  often  hitersected  in 
different  directions  by  deep  ravines  and  rapid 
streams ;  and  the  romantic  beauty  of  the  scenery 
is  much  heightened  by  numerous  ruins  of  old 
feudal  cai'tU»s.  The  course  of  the  Meuse,  from 
Dinant  to  Maestricht,  offers  some  ver>'  picturesque 
combinations  of  laii<lscai)e  and  rock  sccneTV.  Ihe 
river  LS  ch»selv  shut  in  bv  lofty  cliffs  of  various 
hues,  si>me  of  which  are  surmounteil  by  ruins  of 
mmlcm  vilUis.  Here  they  overhang  the  river  and 
are  l)eautifullv  shroudetl  with  bushes  uf  box,  wiUl 
mvrtle  and  ivy;  there  they  slope  away  to  its 
margin,  or  vertically  are  cleft  asunder,  and  present 
through  the  cha>«m  a  delightful  view  of  highly 
cultivated  Hurms  and  villages  half  hidden  by  trees 
in  the  distant  uplands.  The  wild  state  of  nature 
in  Naniur,  Liege,  and  Luxemburg;  the  various 
fitssil  and  mineral  pnnlucts;  ami  the  charms  of  the 
scenery,  luivc  long  made  this  port  of  the  country 


396 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 


a  favourite  resort  of  the  naturalist,  the  f^ologist, 
and  the  painter.  All  anmnd  the  city  of  Liei^e,  and 
the  celebrated  Rpnngs  of  Sfm,  ornamental  villas  of 
the  rich  are  thickly  Htatiouwl,  wliere  vineyanls* 
occupy  the  declivities  of  the  hills,  and  hop-gardens 
tiourL-th  in  the  valleys. 

Climate. — Meteorology. — The  climate  of  Belgium 
is  less  chilly  and  damp,  and  more  temperate  and 
favourable  to  healtli,  than  tltat  of  Holland ;  how- 
ever, it  is  certainly  humid,  comjmred  with  France 
and  Germany,  and  may  be  conflidered  as  very 
similar  to  Kiigland,  except  that  it  »  still  more 
subject  to  frequent  variations,  with  a  tendency  to 
exc-ess.  The  pn>vinces  ditfcr  considerably  in  the 
character  of  their  atmfwphere.  In  general,  the 
air  in  the  more  elevated  central  and  SK.  districts 
is  clear,  fre»ih,  and  salubrion.t;  but  in  the  low 
NW.  piainrt  it  is  damp  and  hazy.  In  the  pro- 
vinces of  Flanders  and  Antwerp  the  N\V.  wm<ls 
from  the  sea  produce  a  cold  and  ungenial  tempera- 
ture throughout  the  winter,  which  is  long  and 
often  wet ;  and  their  influence  u|)on  the  currents 
of  the  rivers,  which  are  wholly  unsheltered  by 
hills,  renders  the  adjacent  country  liable  to  dis- 
astrous inundations.  The  great  atmospherical 
humidity  pro<luce<l  by  ft^  from  the  sea,  and  the 
unwholenome  miasmata  exhaUnl  fn)m  exlen.sive 
tracts  of  low  marshy  and  alluvial  lands,  enclosed 
by  dykea  and  ditches,  and  from  almost  stagnant 
canals  occasion  annual  \'isitationM  of  dangen>us 
fevers.  ITie  noighbourh<KKl  of  Fumes,  in  West 
Flanders,  is  rendered  especially  nickly  by  the 
malaria  fnim  these  sources.  The  pn)vincea  of 
Ilainault,  Namur,  and  Luxemburg  are  accounted 
m<»st  worthy  of  preference,  with  reganl  to  healthi- 
ne!*s;  and  the  t^'o  Flanders,  though  first  in  culti- 
vation, must,  in  {xiint  of  salubrity,  be  placed  last. 
Tlie  air  of  the  polders  is  generally  unhealthy,  and 
affei*ts  those  not  inured  to  it  with  fever  and  ague. 
S]Kfakuig  of  the  whole  kingdom,  it  may  be  Mtatcni 
that  the  winter,  or  rather  the  rainy  season,  ofl«n 
comes  on  precociounly  and  continues  late;  and 
that  the  numniers  are  either  very  hot  and  dry,  or 
extri'mely  wet^  N«)veml>er  and  April  are  nearly 
always  rainy;  the  transitions  t>f  temperature  are 
frequent  anil  sudden,  so  that  in  the  ^*ame  <Iay  ani 
cxi>erienced  o]>pressive  extremes  of  heat  and  coUL 
llie  most  violent  winds  are  from  the  SW.,  and 
the  most  frequent  from  the  N.  ami  the  W.  A  W. 
wind  most  frequently,  and  K.  i^-ind  mast  rarely, 
brings  on  rain.  From  obsen'ations  made  at  Hnw- 
sels  during  three  succewive  years,  the  medium 
height  of  rain  which  fell  in  one  year  was  OJiiJ 
millimetres;  the  extremes  were  7G1  and  511. 
The  numl)er  u(  rainy  da^-s  averages  ITO.  The 
medium  tenqxirature  of  the  year  is  10'52  centi- 
grammes, and  it  is  well  reprcsente<l  by  that  of 
(JctolKjr  aixl  April.  The  temp<«rature  of  the 
hottest  month  is  20^  36',  and  of  the  coldest  {p 
85';  difference,  10°  51'. 

jiltnintains.—^o  elevation  in  Belgium  is  pro- 
jHjrlv  entitled  to  the  appellation  of  mountain.  A 
ramitication  of  the  chain  of  the  Anlennes  ex- 
tends in  a  NK.  direction  through  Luxejuburg, 
Namur,  and  Liege,  and  forms  a  moimtainous 
crest,  which  separateji  the  waters  of  the  Meiu«c 
from  tlujse  of  the  Moselle,  towards  each  of  which 
it  gradually  descends.  Another  offshoot  of  the 
Ardennen  rises  parallel  with  this,  on  the  N.  banks 
of  the  Sombre  and  Meuse,  between  Mons  and 
Maestricht.  The  highest  p<Mnts  of  elevation  are 
about  2,200  ft.  alK»ve  the  sea;  and  one  of  these  i» 
the  hill  which  overlooks  the  celcbratc<l  springs 
and  town  of  Sjui. 

Forests  and  Waods. — A  space  of  nearly  050,000 
hectares,  or  one  fifth  of  the  whole  surface  of  the 
kingdom,  is  covered  with  forests  and  woovls.    ^Ul 


the  common  trees  of  Europe  arc  abundant ;  as  the 
oak,  {Miplur,  pine,  tir,  larch,  ash,  beech,  maple, 
as|)en,  plane,  linden  or  lime,  chestnut,  birch,  elm, 
alder,  and  numerous  others.  Plantations  for  hm>- 
poles,  oak  l>ark,  and  firewo<Ml,  occur  frequently 
tlmiughout  the  western  pmvinces.  Hainault  ha« 
several  forests  of  fine  oaks ;  but  by  far  the  nuvst 
thicklv  wooded  provinces  are  Namur  and  Luxem- 
burg, m  many  i>arts  of  which  the  soil  \»  less  fer- 
tile, and  better  adapted  for  the  gn>wth  of  timber 
trees  than  for  the  cultivation  of  com  and  grasses. 
The  forests  belcmging  to  the  state,  to  the  ct>m- 
mune.H,  and  public  institutions,  occupy  l^l.OoO 
hectares,  and  arc  submitted  to  an  establitihiNl 
svHtem  of  public  management.  From  the  oak 
timber  of  the  forests  of  Luxemburg  are  derive<l 
imnieuHe  supplies  of  charcoal  for  the  iron-works 
in  that  jwirt  of  the  countrv'.  The  Imrk  fonns  a 
considerable  liranch  of  commerce,  and  is  priuci- 
I»ally  exporteil  to  Knglaud. 

The  forest  of  S<»ignies,  between  Bnissels  and 
Waterloo,  so  interestingly  ass<H.'iat<Hl  with  the  me- 
morable battle  in  that  locality,  is  9  m.  in  length 
by  8  in  breadth,  and  contains  11,9X8  hectares,  or 
29,641  acres.  The  timber  is  valuable  for  building, 
and  a  thousand  acres  of  it  are  p<»i>e!^-d  by  the 
familv  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  grante*!  to  the 
late  (iuke  in  connection  v^ith  his  title  <>(  Prince  of 
Waterloo.  The  forests  in  the  pnjWnce.s  of  Xamur, 
Liege,  and  Luxemburg,  are  remains  of  the  im- 
mense ancient  forest  of  Ardennes,  which  c<jvere<l 
a  vast  extent  of  the  countr\'  between  lk»nn  and 
Khcims,  aswe  hiam  from  the  great  Uonian  author. 
*  Sylva  Anlueima,  qua*  ingenti  magnitudine  h. 
ilumine  Kheuo  ad  initium  Kheniorum  i>ertinet.* 
(Cius.  Ora.  V.  3.)  The  n.>mantic  forest  of  St.  Hu- 
l>ert,  on  the  W.  side  of  the  province  of  Luxemburg, 
between  Marche  and  Neufchateau,  is  the  scene  <if 
Shaksj)oare's  '  Forest  of  Anlen.'  A  general  wo<Hly 
api>earance  is  given  to  even  the  rawt  cultivated 
parLs  of  lk?]gium,  by  the  cu>tom  of  planting  tn»rs 
in  the  hedge  enclosures  of  the  fields ;  the  principal 
roa<ls  are  also  lined  by  double  rows  of  raajotic 
lindens,  and  the  canals  are  usually  shaded  by  rows 
of  |H>])lars  Iweches,  and  willows.  The  Belgian 
proprietors  of  land  derive  a  large  and  securt»  in- 
come fn>m  the  produce  of  timber  and  underw«Hnl, 
independent  of  rent;  and  i)lanting  is,  theref«»n'. 
sometimes  pn>secuteil  to  a  gnMter  extent  by  the 
landlords  than  is  consistent  with  the  convenience 
and  advantage  of  the  cwcupiers  of  farms.  The 
latter,  however,  are  remunerated  by  the  use  of  a 
certain  share  of  the  W(kh1. 

Kxtcnsive  artificial  woo<ls  of  Scotch  ]»ine  are 
createtl  by  sowing  about  six  pounds  of  seed  to  an 
acre,  generally  on  the  poorest  soil,  which  is  ])re- 
parc-fi  by  burning  the  heathy  surface^  and  st.'attcr- 
mg  the  ashes.  In  six  years  many  bnrreu  tracts 
are  converte<l,  in  this  way,  to  fiourishing  i»lanta- 
tions  of  firs,  from  5  to  9  ft.  in  height.  The  prt'- 
8»»rvation  of  trees  is  ver^'  strictly  enjoined,  not  »»nly 
by  ] proprietors,  but  by  the  government,  l^ory 
famicr  is  compelled  to  destroy  caier])illars,  and 
remove  every  other  cause  of  iiijurj*  to  the  trees  on 
his  premisiw.  All  the  trees  <»n  the  public  roads 
beM<les  those  of  the  numerous  n>val  forests.  U'ltiuir 
to  the  government,  and  the  laws  for  their  nian;igc- 
ment  an»  enforced  with  great  vigilance  by  in- 
spectors api>ou)te<l  for  that  piurjK»se. 

Rivers. — Belgium  is  one  of  the  m»>Ht  eiTiriently 
watered  comitnes  in  Kur«»i>e.  All  its  strt*ams  U*- 
loug  to  the  North  Sea,  The  Siiheldt,  in  the  W., 
and  the  Meuse,  in  the  E.,  can  alone  !>€  projKTly 
denominated  rivers.  They  traverse  the  kingiloiu 
generally  in  a  direction  from  N.  to  S.  There  are 
I  about  ft)rty  rivers  and  rivulets,  whitrh  form  the 
I  lateral  branches  of  these  two  princi}Kil  streams; 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 


but  thouf^h  their  utility,  in  fertilising  the  soil  by 
irriffation,  and  as  feeders  of  canals,  is  highly  im- 
portant, they  can  hanlly  be  entitled  to  s|)ccial 
notice  in  a  general  account  of  the  physical  features 
of  the  territon'. 

Tlie  Schohit  rises  in  France;  flows  through 
Cambray,  Valenciennes,  and  Conde;  and  enters 
13elgiuin  on  its  confluence  with  the  Scarpe,  a  few 
miles  S.  of  Toumay ;  through  which  town  it  passes, 
and  pursues  a  northerly  course  to  Ghent,  where  it 
rectives  tlie  Lys.  Thence  it  flows  tortuously  to 
Tennonde.  whence,  turning  northwanl,  it  is  aug- 
mented by  large  tributary  streams  on  each  side, 
and  iK'comes,  beA>re  the  walls  of  Antwerp,  a  ma- 
jestic river,  2,000  ft.  in  width,  and  navigable  for 
fleets  of  the  largest  shii)S.  The  length  of  its  course 
in  IJelgium  Is  *ir2,<M)0  metres,  and  the  upper  half, 
and  several  of  its  aflluents,  are  navigated  by  boats 
of  200  t4»ns.  The  Meuse  also  rises  in  France,  and 
enters  Ikdgium  on  the  S.  of  Dinant,  through  which 
town  it  flows  to  Namur,  where  it  receives  the 
Sambre ;  then  turning  eastward  it  passes  Andcnne 
and  liuy,  to  the  city  of  Liege :  there  resuming  its 
northerly  course^it  continues  through  Maestricht, 
and  winds  across  the  NW.  of  Limburg  into  Hol- 
land and  the  North  Sea.  T\\e  length  of  its  course 
in  Ik'lgium  is  about  1 20,000  metres.  It  is  navi- 
gatetl  by  large  strong  bt^ats,  from  100  to  160  tons. 
Fnmi  Liege  to  Venloo  the  navigation  is  particu- 
larly difticult.  The  affluents  of  the  Meuse  at  Liege 
ilescend  in  some  parts  of  their  courses  at  an  angle 
of  40®,  and  the  long  narrow  boats,  which  shoot 
down  with  the  velocity  of  an  arrow,  are  tlrawn  up 
by  ropes  and  pulleys.  The  principal  aflluents  of 
the  Scheldt,  on  the  E.,  are  the  Dendre,  and  the 
Scnne,  Dyle,  Geete,  Demcr,  and  Nethe,  which 
unite  below  Mechlin,  and  flow  into  the  Scheldt, 
in  tlie  channel  of  the  Kupel.  On  the  W.  it  receives 
the  Lvs  and  Durme,  and  communicates  with  se- 
veral  canaLs. 

Of  the'ie  rivers,  Injlonging  to  the  basin  of  the 
Sirhcldt,  the  following  are  each  navigable  to  the 
extent  expressed  in  metres : — 

The  Dcmer,  in  Limburg  and  Brabant 


I)ondr6, 

Dunne, 

Dyle. 

Scheldt, 

Lvs, 

Ncthe, 

Rupcl, 


»» 


» 


.  81,000 

Ilainault  and  East  Flanders     .  67,C's) 

Wwt  Flanders   ....  1W,*200 

Brabant  and  Antwerp       .        ,  22,200 

Hainaiilt,  E.  Fland.  &  Antwerp  212,mK) 

Wc8t  and  East  Flanders    .        .  90,000 

Limburg  and  Antwerp      .        .  13,000 

Antwerp 12,000 


The  Meuse  on  the  E.  is  joined  by  the  Semoy, 
Lesse,  Ourthe,  Ambleve,  ^  esdre,  and  Koer.  and 
on  the  W.  by  the  Sambre,  Jaar,  and  several 
smaller  streams. 

The  rivers  lx?longing  to  the  basin  of  the  Meuse 
are  navigable  as  follows : — 

The  Meuw,  in  Namur,  Lioge,  and  Limburg  .  126,000 
Ourthe,  „  Luxwiibiirg  and  Liege  .  .  1(»2,(MK) 
Hambre,  „  Hainault  aJod  2samur         .        .    94,y-'»fi 

Tostlre,   „  Liege 30,000 

Ambleve,,  Liego 10,000 

The  Our,  Sure,  and  Azette,  in  Luxemburg,  flow 
into  the  Moselle,  near  the  town  of  Treves,  and 
Wlong  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhine.  The  Sure  is 
naviga!>le  in  Tkdgium  52,000  metres  the  Moselle 
37,000.  and  the  Yst^r  41,o4(K  The  total  length  of 
navigable  rivers  is  002,7 1(5  m^tres. 

Oeologi/. — Mineral  Prodticts, — West  and  East 
Flanders  are  composetl  of  horizontal  strata  of 
white,  yellow,  and  grey  sand,  and  clay,  separate, 
and  mixed  in  different  proiK)rtions.  \Vhen  the 
stnitum  of  sand  forms  the  surface,  the  soil  Is  arid, 
anrl  of  ilifficult  cultivation;  and  it  i»  rich  and 
fertile  in  proiwrtion  to  the  depth  at  which  the 
sand  lies  below  the  vegetable  depasit,  Numerous 
beds  of  turf  prove  the  ancient  existence  of  maztAies. 


.  897 

The  only  mineral  product  of  these  provinces  is 
clay,  for  the  manufacture  of  tiles,  bricks,  potteiy, 
and  pipes.  In  some  localities  it  contains  oxide  of 
iron.  The  sand  stratum,  in  \V.  and  E.  Flanders, 
is  deep,  and  constitutes  one  fourth  of  the  area.  In 
deep  wells,  descending  to  the  primitive  granite, 
alternate  beds  of  sand  and  clay  are  found  mixed 
with  marine  shells,  which  are  evidently  deposits 
of  the  ocean,  and  prove  that,  in  remote  ages,  this 
whole  region  was  submerged  undf  r  its  waters. 
Four  or  eight  feet  below  the  surface,  where  it  is 
of  clay,  are  the  beds  of  peat  or  turf,  var\^ing  in 
depth  from  4  to  12  ft.  To  the  poorer  classes  it 
supplies  a  cheap  fuel,  and  its  ashes,  mixed  with 
sand,  are  much  useil  as  a  very  successful  manure 
for  clover  and  grains.  Turf  is  also  produced  plen- 
tifully in  the  province  of  Luxemburg,  and  in 
several  other  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Silidous 
pebbles,  agates,  chalcedons,  and  red  cornelians,  are 
found  in  the  sand  and  clay  of  £.  Flanders,  and 
many  vegetable  and  animal  petrifactions.  Among 
the  latter  are  large  antlers  of  deer,  and  horns  of 
oxen ;  with  bones  of  the  horse,  ox,  d(^,  and  wolf. 
A'egetable  fossils,  consisting  of  various  productions 
of  the  soil,  are  frequently  obtained  by  the  pe&<tants 
f(>r  fueL  They  include  numerous  trunks  of  the 
oak  and  ash,  which  are  hard,  black,  and  polishable, 
and  yield  red  ashes  in  combustion.  The  geolo- 
gical character  of  the  province  of  Antwerp  and  of 
the  X.  part  of  lirabant,  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
western  region;  and  the  ocean  apparently  once 
covered  the  whole  northern  half  of  the  kingdom,  as 
well  as  the  plains  of  the  W.,  for  the  hill  on  which 
Brussels  is  built  contains  many  marine  remains. 

The  rock  strata  of  Ilainault  exhibit  three  suc- 
cessive formations:  the  flrst,  or  lowest,  is  com- 
posed of  i)orphyry  and  quartz;  the  second  of 
calcareous  earths,  coal,  and  schisti ;  and  the  third 
comprehends  argillaceous  earth,  with  deep  deposits 
of  sand,  and  various  del)ris. 

In  the  high  south-eastern  districts  strata  of  red 
sandstone  and  limestone,  containing  organic  re- 
mains, are  incuml)ent  upon  rocks  of  granite,  quartz, 
and  slaty  schlsti,  which  have  generally  an  incli- 
nation or  dip  fn)m  XE.  to  S\V.  Defending 
thence  towards  the  XW.,  the  rocks  of  sandstone, 
limestone,  quartz,  and  schisti,  containing  vast 
beds  of  anthracite,  form  a  basin  extending  about 
40  m.  around  the  city  of  X^amur.  The  strata  of 
these  rocks  are  often  nearly  vertical,  so  that  the 
large  coal  pits  in  the  \'icinity  of  Xamur  and  Mons 
require  to  be  worked  by  shafts  resembling  wells, 
Xamur  pnHluc«»,  besides  coal,  abundance  of  car- 
bonated lime,  silex,  excellent  clays  for  the  manu- 
facture of  porcelain,  common  potter>',  and  pipes, 
an<l  a  sand  from  which  m'stal  is  obtaine<l.  Pebbles 
susceptible  of  a  beautiful  polish  are  found  about 
Fleurus,  The  S.  and  E.  portions  of  Uelgium, 
comprehending  Hainault,  Xamur,  Luxenibur)g, 
and  Liege,  are  especially  interesting  to  the  mine- 
ralogist, as  cx>ntaming  almost  every  article  in  the 
geological  inventory,  especially  iron,  coal,  marble, 
various  kinds  of  stone  and  slate,  copper,  lead,  zinc, 
manganese^  calamine,  sulphur,  alum^  <tc  Curious 
animal  fossils  are  found  in  the  province  of  Liege, 
where  numerous  caverns  in  the  hills  furnish  bones 
of  the  lx>ar,  hyaena,  elephant,  rhiuiXM^ros,  and  frag- 
ments of  the  human  skeleton.  Xear  Maestricht 
is  a  subterranean  lab>Tinth,  extending  several 
miles  in  length  and  breadth,  in  rocks  of  soft 
yellow  stone  under  the  hill  of  St.  Peter,  where  are 
h>und  the  sheUs  of  large  crabs  and  turtles,  and 
the  bones  of  gigantic  lizards  above  20  ft.  in  length. 
The  numerous  rocky  valleys,  by  which  the  south- 
eastern half  of  the  territory  is  intersected,  have 
apparently  been  formed,  not  by  the  corrosive 
action  of  water,  but  dianiption  of  rocks,  which 


898  BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 

Rilaequtnitlf  sRbnltil  chanMb  fiir  the  jirucnt  Hinui  of  iim  ue  namnunii,  cntftially  in  the 

livm  uiil  Hrrninw,    At  tlieTilln)rc  iirilan,  on  thp  ilistrict  lietwcen  Ibp  Sainlirv  anil  the  Hniw;  uid 

rivcT  Lpkio  (]lani>iiT-I.«iiBp),  in  thv  SK.  i-l  Namiir.  many  an  wnrknl  in  tlir  iimvincea  iif  Lux(TObui)c, 

an  imiiii'iiw  ravuTii  vxlvii<l)>  ncHTlya  mile  itinnif;i>  l^fv-  aiiil  l.imbui);.  In  qiniUly  tbc  mclal  r»nn- 

thi>  limcst'ine  nicli,  Mid  rormn  the  niLifrninFiiuH  blrs  thnt  ofKranw,  but  (he  price  ia  liwcr.   Copi«r 

clinnni'l  "f  the  I.ciue.  The  numeniuK  aiiil  t^iBcinus  is  ruund  in  thv  iirurinrcs  of  HhiiibuIi  and  Uvkv  ; 

rvniBihaliie  cavern  ate  ualu-  anil  lead  in  Linfe.  Namur,  and  Luxembms.    Tho 

eluKlvn  uC  Kli'lenini:'  Kla-  lead  mine  of  L(Nip'iIly,  in  Luxemlm^.  in  the 

'---■---)  of  the  KTOtenque  larf(«it  in   the  kinpluni.      Zinc  ia  obtained    in 

c  Binwlaliir  of  liie  N'amur  ukI  Hainsuii ;  muif^anese  in  Lie^.'e ;  and 


mlty  «ma 

Uclitm.  nnd  oHer  comlni 
■nd  vrnnderftU  that  reniind 
celelimtol  (trotlo  of   Anliji 
Krijiliuns  of  it  liave  been  given  by  Quchdet,  Kikx, 
•nd  VaniltrmRelen.  ' 

Tliu  wiirkiiii;  uf  mino  conitilutes  a  mmt  ini|>ar- 
tant  part  of  the  oalional  iniluHliy  of  lidtciiun. 
The  iiiiniiii;  lUiilriftf  fiinn  Ihrer  divinmis  iif  llie 
terrilury-  Theflntiaintheiinnrincc  of  Ilainault; 
the  hcccikI.  in  the  nnivinrea  uf  Xamoi  ami  Lnx- 
emliuR';  and  tbp  tliinl,  in  the  pcuvince*  of  IJivv 
anil  LunlintK,  Tbe.  total  nuralicr  uf  mine*,  in  the 
Tear  IWl,  amoiintnl  in  1^1,  of  whii^h  niiinlwr 
lUonnireroalniiniH  Thei-c<>\-ctau  areauf  UV*' 
bertanisaiul  pve  occupatinn  tn  >>,S1I3  worlieni, 
inchidiii|i-  lt,Titl  wnroen.  In  cutimalini;  the  rela- 
tive Value  iiflhv  inlnvnl  pmlueta  of  Ih'linuin,  nial 
muHl  be  nimildifvil  lltxt  In  imhT,  and  of  ibc  hif;heMt 


pyrilt^,  calamine 
and  l.iejte. 

tlie  S.  of  Lui 


mlphur,  and 


n  Nan 


7  U  io  full  iiiUi)icriiy.  anil  It*  Immi'iiiio 
imply  Kup|)liui  lliG  nianufkrluTiiitc  and 
cifluuntiitinn  of  the  l(iii(><l<im,  and  ■■> 
iHiKrly  expuited  to  France.  The  annual  qiwnlity 
cxlraeteil  fium  the  cual  lichl*  of  Ilunaiilt  atone  u 
Ul^'r  than  the  whi.le  iiriMluce  of  Fiaiiec.  Tlic 
llilur  (creat  cmtt«it  of  Ihc  cual  miiiehwhivh  are  c 


tvrials  for  biiildini; — lYwHlone,  limeininic.  Kmiiip, 
liavinj;  vlala,  Hlalefi,  ic. :  there  are  alfo  many 
niiame*  of  excellent  niarlile  cif  varinnx  kindii. 
Tlw  hhirk  mnride  of  Uinant  is  hifrhlr  vnliieil.  nnd 
Hpet'iea  called  ftttile  gnutilt^  in  which  nre  tiinnd 
many  marine  I'tKanic  remainik  Snperior  larue 
'"  ire  quarrinl  in  the  prcirinoeaof  >'BmuT  and 
iliui;.  At  Ilerbemimt.  n  little  to  the  W.  of 
,  in  the  miwt  important  elate  quofiy  in  the 

■late*,  tiandntune  la  quanied'in  Lief^  and  I.im- 
burc,  but  diietty  in  llainault.  Ample  mipplie?  of 
rEVcDent  millatonep,  grinJalimes.  and  «hpt;rtnne« 
KK  fumisheil  from  the  stone  quarries  of  liece  and 
Luxemburg :  and  the  hoiie.i  from  the  qDnrrie(>  near 
"-la  are  not  exceeded  in  qoaUly  by  any  in  £uro]ie, 

all  i-arta  of  whirh  thev  are  expiirteiL 

Mintral    tt'al,  "  '  ' 


Hicnl  pnilnce  of  Itelfpi 


f;tlieyearlHltS.TIie 
mniueaeh  weiKhin); 
ciunrbi  less  tlutn  an  Knfrliiih  ton  :  — 


r™,^ 

T«II«>1 

c™i.      .      . 

etc.: 

ffl.nio.ans 
10J,liT.2Si 

lr.>nOre.wa.licJ 

Pyrites     .       . 

frni'ct! 

LSKUoi 

HI™'"'  ■   ■  UZe.: 

OBli™,L«dOm     {{^a,: 
Total  TalDeotUtnenls       . 
TmonMinca      .       . 
Irr-n,  Cs-t  and       J  Ion.     . 

l.lHMi.WH 

iao,«iia,«i 

4!l.',,Btl 

fiP  1.1133 

6i.<i:3.RnT 

.,^.    .    .     ■ 

fmnw; 

wi.imi) 

ill 

1-; 

ijin>j 
w,fl.-H.n7S 

GIllA 

Iraua.' 

33.1.3IH; 

ifl.i,ia.uiK> 

Bl.-al  ITt-lueo  ' 

]^. 

iM.osa.us 

Miiirml  k  MlnmO 
i.ruiuJ  TmUiI  Vuliir 

!>»•=■ 

,».„,»  1 

ipniij,' 


ieinnl  n 


..,~  ....  the  SW.  of  the  cilv  of  Llejre,  are  n.,. 
ImiUxl  thruii(!hi>Dt  Kunipe.  'tliuy  isHue  from  wren 
dilEi'irni  suun-es,  i>f  whieh  Ibe  one  nameil  the 
i«  Ihc  iirinriiwl.  Tlie  wbiit  ia  perieclly 
It  pxv*,  after  atanilin?.  a  Hlitfht  dcpnsdl  iif 
_ It  has  an  arid,  ferm^ioiia  taste,  nnd  bub- 
Ides  uf  pis  continually  eiica|ie  at  the  nirface.  The 
quanlitiea  nfinin  and  carbonic  add  which  it  hulds 

aiilntiuii  are  inuater  than  in  any  otiier  km-im 
mineral  water.  Its  temperature  ia  50"  Fuhr.,  and 
Ihc  S|ieritic  wd^ht  l-OmiiiM.  Numennw  maladies 
arc  lielict-cd  lu  be  remmcd  by  u^int;  il  fur  drink- 
inj^  and  lathini:.  About  a  thousand  iHitllenof  it  are 
daily  scut  lo  fun^eo  part«,  and  the  annual  number 
of  %-u'ilanta  nt  the  Hiring  amount"  to  between  two 
and  tliree  llicHiKand.  The  eaUbliatiments  for  their 
aecummodation  are  convenient  and  eletcanl;  and 
the  scenery  of  the  vicinity  affords  ample  amu^e- 
ment  for  the  admireis  uf  the  |iielure«qiip  :  but  as 
S]Hi  is  the  favourite  itwort  of  sperulalinK  aiiil 
rcekless  i-utarie*  of  Gudiion,  it  ia  too  true  that  the 
authorised  system  of  gamhlini;  priKhices  a  et<vt 
amount  uf  evil  to  uppusc  (o  tlu:  guud  eOectcd  by 
the  virtues  of  the  water. 

Tho  hot  tarings  of  Chaudfimlaine,  in  the  same 
locality,  but  nearer  tn  l.i^^  are  also  much  liiiileil, 
and  Mbm  nt  Alurimont,  near  Xamur.  At  tlis 
Biident  town  of  Timgrea,  near  Mncslrirhl,  is  a 
mineral  fountain  of  a  tempprnluiv  abuiit  fiO^. 
I'tiny  thus  ileacriliea  it,  and  it  still  tdains  its 
andenc  i>rDpvrtic«  ;  —  '  TunRii.  vivilas  (iallhe, 
funtem  hnbct  inaignem,  idurilnni  Iwllia  slilhuilem, 
fi^miginei  «a|i(>ria  quiKl  ipsum  nun  piai  in  line 
jnilda  intclliptur.  I'urnat  hie  noiwra,  tcrtianas 
fcbrea  diHiutil,  ealeulorumnue  vitia. 

Anions  Frodurtiann. — All  the  domestic  animals 
of  the  other  cuuntries  of  Kurojio  are  fiiund  in  Del- 
Kiiim.  Amnnii:  the  wiM  animals  are  a  ttv  iKMta. 
rueliiieks.  bears,  and  wolvea,  whieh  still  llnd  reftiKe 
in  the  immeuM  furestH  uf  Luxi.'mliuiK.  Fuses  aiv 
not  tiunieron>,  hut  nil  the  enmmon  hinds  of  same, 
qunitnjiKMi'S  and  hJnls,  ore  plinitilhl  In  the  wcvviv 
jiorts  of  tUecuimtiy;  nfpecuilly  in  Kamur,  hun- 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 

cmburpf,  Licpro,  and  Limburp.  The  heaths  of 
Verviers,  iu  the  province  of  Lie^e,  are  believed  to 
be  the  only  spot  in  Europe  where  the  jfreat  heath 
cock,  gnxiid  coq  fie  hruyere,  can  l>c  found. 

Horses. — Flanders  has  long  l)een  famous  for  its 
breed  of  v,*ork-horsea,  and  by  their  frequent  im- 
portation into  England,  the  English  draught-horse 
breetl  lias  been  much  improved.  The  Suffolk 
punch-horse  very  nearly  resembles  the  species 
most  common  in  Flanders,  The  colour  of  the 
Flemish  horses  generally  is  chestnut,  in  all  its 
»hade»s  and  roan.  They  arc  of  the  true  working 
character,  remarkably  docile,  and  possessed  of  su- 
I>erior  bulk  and  strength.  The  chief  defect  occa- 
sionally obser\'able  in  their  form  is  a  want  of 
depth  in  the  girth,  and  a  dip  behind  the  withers, 
but  in  all  other  res]KK.'ts  they  are  finely  shapeiL 
A  small  head  and  pricked  ear,  rising  neck  and 
<Test.  short  back  and  couples,  great  strength  over 
the  loins,  round  hips  and  lengthy  quarters,  open 
chest,  a  good  arm,  short  legs  of  |K>werfiil  sinew, 
short  pasterns,  semicircular  hoofs,  with  a  roimd 
frog  and  (»]>en  lieel — these  points,  comprised  in  a 
compact  form,  with  a  height  of  about  15  hands, 
constitute  a  work-horse  of  grexit  merit,  which, 
when  three  years  old,  can  be  purchased  at  20  or 
30^  They  are  kept  in  excellent  condition,  and 
are  shod  with  so  much  care  that  a  defective  foot 
or  lame  horse  is  never  to  be  seen.  A  dietary  sys- 
tem is  obser\'ed  with  great  precision  and  regularity. 
Chopi)e<l  straw  is  invariably  given  with  oats,  and 
the  water  is  always  well  whitened  with  meal  of 
n'e,  oats,  or  barley.  Clover  is  the  common  fodder 
in  summer,  and  carrots  in  winter,  never  omitting 
the  chopped  straw  and  meal  water.  Of  late  the 
IJelgic  horses  have  been  materially  improveti  by 
propagating  from  select  breetls,  and  judicious  cross- 
ing. Every  farmer  in  Flanders  breeds  his  own 
work-horses;  but  the  business  of  breeding  is  only 
a  subordinate  and  accessor^'  branch  of  husbandr}'. 
The  i)olders  and  prairies  of  Antwerp  afford  pas- 
turage to  numen)us  Flemish  horses;  and  there 
are  in  E.  and  \V.  Flanders  a  great  many  fairs,  at 
which  they  are  sold  for  exportAliou  to  France  and 
P^ngland.  13elgium  producei*  several  other  va- 
rieties of  the  horse,  among  which  the  Luxemburg 
cob  Is  a  valuable  breed,  and  has  been  imported 
into  England  for  its  excellent  qualities,  as  a  very 
compact  and  powerful  little  horse,  short-legged, 
well-ljoned,  alx)ut  13  or  14  hands  in  height,  and 
equal  t/>  C4irr\'ing  the  heaviest  rider,  as  well  as  fit 
•for  hard  work  m  harness.  The  Belgic  govern- 
ment, with  the  view  of  improving  the  native 
breeds  of  horses  by  crossing  them  with  those  of 
England,  has  formed,  at  Ter\aieren,  a  beautiful 
stud  of  about  40  stallions,  and  appointed  stations 
for  them  in  all  the  provinces.  The  beneficial  re- 
sult of  thw  expedient,  which  has  been  in  operation 
since  1834,  is  apparent  in  the  production  of  a  very 
superior  race  of  horses.  The  government  also 
awards  premiums  to  the  pn)prietors  of  winning 
horses  at  the  public  races. 

In  Flanders,  the  eager  thriftiness  of  the  farmer 
induces  him  to  put  his  colts  to  hard  work  often  at 
Iht;  jigeof  eighteen  months,  which  is  long  before 
the  requisite  strength  is  acquired;  and  the  con- 
sequence is  verj'  injurious.  Horses  arc  employed 
f«>r  all  kinds  of  work  in  harness ;  but  the  pea'tantry 
commonly  prefer  making  use  of  asses  for  riding, 
esjHJcially  in  the  sandy  districts  along  the  sea 
shore. 

Horned  Gittle, — The  breeding  and  management 
of  all  kiiwLs  of  live  stcK'k  in  Ilelgium  are  much  less 
exemplary  than  the  culture  <»f  the  soiL  The  cattle 
are  tliu  sliorl-horned  Dutch  breed,  but  tliev  are  not 
in  general  so  well  formed  as  in  HollancL  Indeed, 
but  little  attention  api>ears  to  have  been  devoted 


899 

to  the  niceties  of  breeding,  and  the  advantages  of 
selection.  The  colour  is,  for  the  most  part,  black, 
and  black  and  white.  Flanders,  W.  and  K,  con- 
tain more  than  290,000,  many  of  which  are  fat- 
tened and  sold.  The  oxen  are  larger  than  the 
cows,  and  weigh,  when  fattened,  from  6  to  8  cwt. ; 
but  the  same  eagerness  for  gain  which  occasions 
the  too  early  working  of  the  horses,  induces  the 
farmer  to  hurry  his  oxen  to  market  at  abr>nt  two 
years  of  age,  before  they  are  perfectly  fattened, 
riic  same  penurious  spirit  is  apparent  in  the  prac- 
tice of  having,  in  general,  only  1  bull  to  150  cows; 
and  in  some  localities  to  upwards  of  200,  Nu- 
merous herds  of  cattle  are  reared  on  the  wild 
herbage  of  the  la^e  forests  in  the  central,  S.,  and 
E.  parts  of  the  kingdom,  an<i  are  finally  fattened 
on  oil-cake,  at  a  very  small  expense.  )so  part  of 
lielgium  produces  better  oxen  and  calves  than  the 
prairies  of  the  great  Campine  plain,  between  Ant- 
werp and  Maestricht.  Cows  are  kept  in  great 
numbers  on  the  pastures  about  Fumes  and  Dix- 
roudc,  in  W.  Flanders,  and  a  large  quantity  of 
butter  is  made  for  exportation.  In  their  cow 
stables,  the  Flemish  farmers  preserve  the  tem- 
perature of  the  month  of  May ;  indeed,  so  much 
attention  is  paid  to  the  state  of  these  places,  that 
Mr.  Katcliff,  in  his  Affricultural  Surrey  of  Flan- 
ders, sjieaks  of  having  taken  coffee  in  one  of  them, 
with  the  proprietor,  iii  the  middle  of  winter,  with- 
out having  l)een  in  the  least  incommoded  by  cold, 
dirt,  or  offensive  (nlour.  For  the  preservation  of 
cleanliness,  they  adopt  an  o<ld  expedient,  which  is 
very  common  in  Holland,  keeping  the  cows'  tfuls 
erect,  by  means  of  a  cord  which  passes  over  a 
pullev  in  the  r»>of.  The  usual  food  in  summer  is 
chieffy  clover;  and  in  winter,  turnips,  which  are 
rather  poor  and  small,  with  carrots,  potatoes,  a 
yen-  little  hay  and  straw,  and  the  white  soup 
which  is  given  to  horses ;  coiuusting  of  tepid  water, 
thickened  witli  oat,  rve,  or  barley  meal,  and  a 
small  i>ortion  of  oil-cake.  However,  not  only  the 
breed,  but  the  tn>atment  of  cows  in  Flanders  is 
regarded,  by  Enghsh  writers,  as  very  inferior. 
They  are  constantly  confined  to  the  stalls;  and 
as  the  clover  and  other  forage  crojw  are  there  con- 
sumed in  their  ^een  state  iu  the  summer,  a  de- 
ficiency of  roots  in  the  ^^-inter  re<iuces  their  diet  to 
dry  straw,  so  that,  as  M.  Vandermaelen  remarks, 
they  are  often  so  emaciated  in  the  month  of  May- 
as barely  to  be  able  to  walk ;  and  Mr.  Pr>'se  Gor- 
don, in  his  work  on  Belgium,  states,  that  their 
wretche<l  state  in  the  spring  is  almost  incredible  ; 
that  they  resemble  those  of  Shetland,  which,  in 
scanty  seasons  of  the  year,  are  fed  on  dried  stock- 
fish ;  or  the  cows  of  the  N.  Cape,  which  are  occa- 
sionally kept  alive  on  pickled  salmon  I  In  the 
forest  of  Soignies,  and  other  partsof  Brabant,  the 
cattle  are  large  and  coarse.  The  Belgians,  in  fact, 
do  not  yet  appear  to  be  generally  aware  that  ani- 
mals 01  a  moderate  size  are  more  profitable  tlum 
those  of  larger  dimensions;  that  light,  compact, 
and  short-legged  horses  are  most  enduring  fvit 
work  requiring  not  strength  alone,  but  activity ; 
and  that  small  and  slight-firamed  cows,  such  as 
theAldemey,  Suffolk,  and  Ayrshire  breeds,  pro- 
duce more  and  richer  milk  than  many  larger 
kinds. 

The  Belgic  government  has,  for  some  years, 
taken  much  pains  to  introduce  superior  breeds  of 
cattle ;  and  the  proprietors  are  gradually  becoming 
convinced  of  their  interest  in  effecting  a  change 
in  their  kinds  of  stock,  though  the  characteristic 
tenacity  with  which  they  cling  to  old-establbhed 
notions,  still  greatly  retanls  the  beneficial  accom- 
plishment of  the  government  plans  of  improvement. 

On  an  average  of  the  last  fourteen  years,  the 
annual  produce  of  cattle  in  the  whole' kingdom 


400 


BfiLGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 


was  898,076 ;  and,  on  tho  same  avGragCf  there  were 
in  each  [iruvincc  the  follo\«ing  uumlxirs : — 


Antwerp    . 

fW,41'i 

Liegtf 

83,576 

Brabant 

9H,2:W 

Litnbtirg    . 

.       104,340 

W.  Flundcra      , 

,       132,0J>G 

Luxemburg 

.       I2(».a(;«) 

E.  Flanders 

,       r2«,3I7 

Nomur 

68,327 

Uoinault  . 

92,4U 

In  18G2  the  number  of  draught  oxen  employed 
in  agricultural  labour  was  31,;^7o. 

Sheq}. — On  the  I'amis  of  I^^l^um,  the  sheep 
Ptock  ia  ^ncrallv  a  secondary  object  of  attenti(»n. 
'Diere  are  two  princi|)al  indigenous  breo<ld,  the 
Flemish  and  the  Anlenne.  The  indigenous  Fle- 
mish hheep  is  a  tall,  thin,  long-eareil  animal,  fur- 
nislilng  a  coarse  long  wool,  and  the  wur>t  kind  o 
mutton.  Tlie  Anieimc  bree<l  is  smaller,  and,  from 
ranging  over  the  swrt't  wild  herb-nge  of  the  hills 
of  Liege  and  Luxemburg,  the  mutton  ac(}uires  an 
excellent  tiavour,  but  the  wool  is  not  of  su|K>rior 
qiuility.  The  mtnle  of  feeding  sheep  in  Flanders 
atNX)unts  for  much  of  their  bad  qualities :  they  are 
howled  at  night,  and  during  the  day  are  followed 
by  the  shepherd  and  his  dogs,  along  the  lanes, 

Gthways,  and  margins  of  amble  fields,  w*here  they 
rely  pick  a  subsistence,  and  never  enj«iy  the 
range  of  a  sweet  and  wholesome  pasture.  In 
"winter  they  are  let  out,  for  a  short  time,  but  once 
a  <iay,  and'  are  fed  upon  r}'e,  mraw,  and  hay ;  and 
though  thn.»e  or  four  years  would  l)e  retjuiretl  t«> 
fatten  them,  they  are  slaughtered  at  one  year  old, 
in  a  condition,  savs  Mr.  RatclilT,  verv  nearlv  that 
of  carrion.  The  sheep  which  are  fed  on  the 
prairies  of  the  Campine  plain  produce  the  best 
wool  of  the  kingdom ;  and  that  of  the  Artlenne 
bree<l  is  next  in  quality.  The  wo4d  and  nmtton 
of  the  ilockh  of  Xamurare  considered  com|)aratively 
gooiL  Some  tine  specimens  of  the  Ixricester  ami 
Cotswold  !)ree<ls,  which  have  recently  l>een  im- 
ported from  England,  are  expected  to  produce  a 
much  improved  race,  that  will  supersede  the  pre- 
sent uiferior  kinds.  Tlie  total  number  of  sheep  in 
the  khigdom  is  above  1,INKMKI0;  about  one-half 
of  them  arc  in  the  provinces  of  Liege,  Limburg, 
Luxemburg,  and  Namur.  The  provinces  of  Kast 
and  West  f'landers  have  each  about  4<),00<)  sheep. 

Swine. — The  Helgic  swine  are  similar  to  those 
of  IVance,  and  have  more  resemblance  to  the 
fi^ybounds  than  the  hagA  of  Kngland.  Their 
long  and  thin  bodies  are  mounteil  up(»n  ilcet  and 
lengthy  legs,  and  the  ridge  of  their  backs  describes 
the  arc  of  a  circle.  Herds  of  these  animals  are 
tunietl  into  the  forests,  where  they  feed  abundantly 
u)x>n  the  iieech  mast  and  acorns  that  strew  the 
ground.  They  make  very  good  pork  and  bacon 
aAer  ha\'ii:g  been  long  and  well  fed;  but  this 
kind  of  meat  is  the  dearest  in  the  market.  Better 
breeds  have  l)een  imiK>rted  from  England;  and, 
from  the  prolific  nature  of  the  animal,  thev  will 
probably  so4in  l)ecome  numerous  and  l»encticiaL  A 
few  pigs  are  reared  by  ever>'  farmer  in  Flanders 
for  domestic  supply  of  })ork,  which  is  the  commcm 
animal  fotKi  of  the  working  classes ;  but  the  mar- 
kets are  supplied  by  distillers  and  millers,  who 
luive  great  facilities  for  feeding  with  the  refuse  of 
their  establishments. 

I'M. — Fresh-water  fish  abound  in  most  of  the 
larger  streams.  Those  of  the  tinest  quality  are  found 
in  tlie  S.  |)arts  of  the  kingdom.  The  principal 
kinds  arc  pike,  trout,  carp,  fterch,  tench,  eel,  lam- 
prey, sturgeon,  salmon,  barbel,  shad,  gudgeon, 
whitebait,  anchovy,  and  ecrevisse,  or  fn»h-water 
lobster. 

In  the  fishery  off  the  sea-coast,  and  in  the  mouth 
of  the  Scheldt,  are  taken  skate,  plaice,  bret,  soles, 
turbot,  dab,  angels,  whiting,  smelts,  lobsters,  cralx*, 
pilchards  and  shrimps ;  and  from  the  deep  sea  f  ish- 
eiy  arc  supplied  cod,  herrings,  oysters,  and  muscles. 


The  dog-fish  (chien  de  mer)  commits  so  mach 
injury  to  the  fishery  of  the  Scheldt,  that  the  go- 
vernment gives  a  rewani  for  its  <lestmction.  Abimt 
2(H)  boats  are  employed  in  the  cod  and  herring 
fisheries,  the  prixluce  of  which  has  always  been 
the  subject  of  a  considerable  commerce.  The 
national  fishery  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  pn*- 
miums,  amounting  to  4(i,0(K)  francs,  are  annually 
awarded  by  the  government  for  its  promotioiu 

Agriculture, — In  consecpience  of  the  new  po- 
litical system  wiopted  in  Itelgium  since  the  lJev<>- 
lution  of  1830,  ever\'  branch  of  industry'  has  Ixn-n 
greatly  improved  and  extended.  The  ct>nst ruction 
of  numerous  roads,  railways,  and  canals,  has  prr»- 
duced  an  enormous  iniTease  in  the  value  of  land 
and  buildings,  amounting,  in  several  whole  dis- 
tricts, to  one-fourth  of  former  estimates;  and  the 
government  has  established  an  especial  council, 
charge<lwith  the  care  of  ascertaining  tlie  means  of 
pnimotingthe  interests  of  agriculture.  At  Brussels 
lias  lieen  formed  a  veterinary  and  agricultural 
college  on  a  lai^  and  lil)eral  strale,  which  is  ex- 
pected to  eflTect  many  lieneficial  improvement**, 
esj>ecially  in  the  bree<ls  of  live  htock.  The  natural 
soil  of  Ik^lgium  is  composed  of  mere  sand  and  clay, 
c<»mb'med  in  various  pn>portions.  The  clay  alone 
contains  the  nutritive  projierties  required  ftir  the 
support  of  vegetation,  but  without  a  due  .idmix- 
ture  of  sand,  to  render  it  iM>rous  and  friable,  it  is 
jKirfectly  sterile,  from  its  too  great  adhesiveness, 
retention  of  water,  and  liabilit  v  to  become  baked 
by  the  sun.  Ilie  artificial  soil,  in  Flanders  and 
many  other  highly  cultivated  parts  of  the  country, 
is  rich,  l>lack,  and  loamy,  and  possessed  of  great 
fertiHty,  through  the  vast  quantities  of  manure, 
vegetable  and  animal,  which  for  ages  have  been 
constantly  intermixe<l  with  the  natural  sand  an«l 
clay.  Although  in  Belgium  the  cultivation  of 
the  earth  is  carried  to  a  great  extent,  about  ime- 
twelfth  jiart  of  the  whole  surface  remains  stDl  un- 
cultivated; one-eighth  consists  of  grass-lands,  the 

■  best  of  which  are  in  the  two  Flanders;  and  the 
arabh;  lands  occupy  one-half.  The  liest  are  in  the 
two  Flanders,  Hainault,  and  Bralmnt.  In  these 
provinces  no  waste  land  whatever  is  to  lie  seen ; 
but  in  Antwerp,  Limburg,  and  Luxemburg,  it 
covers  a  considerable  extent  of  country.  Associa- 
tions have  recently  been  formed  for  tlie  purjxjse 
of  cultivating  the  waste  lands  of  the  great  Campine 

I  plain  in  Limbui^,  and  for  clearing  some  of  the 
forests  of  Luxeinbui^. 

Agriculture  of  the  Polders. — The  name  polders 
is  given  to  tracts  of  low  alluvial  soil,  artificially 
gained  from  the  sea  or  the  Scheldt,  by  lofty  em- 
bankments, and  drained  by  numerous  intersecting 
ditches,  from  wlm^h,  in  some  instances,  the  su|K?r- 
fiuous  water  is  continually  pumpeil  by  the  agejicy 
(»f  windmilK  These  embanked  encl«>sur»'j4  arc 
highly  cultivated,  and  form  an  extensive  chain  of 
square  green  islands  along  the  muddy  banks  of 
the  Scheldt  and  its  atiluent  the  Kupel,  in  the  ])ri>- 
^-inces  of  Antweq)  and  E.  Flanders,  and  on  the 
sands  of  the  sea-shore.  Twice  a  day  the  tides 
reach  the  broad  and  high  digues  or  embankments, 
which  bound,  on  each  side  of  the  Scheldt,  a  wide 
extent  of  alluvial  gn>und,  and  protect  the  adjacent 
country  from  inundation;  and  while  the  waters 
remain  upon  thui  surface  they  defMvsit  a  fine  argil- 
laceous and  calcareous  mud,  the  debris  of  various 
vegetable  and  animal  substances,  collected  in 
tlieir  drainage  of  the  loose  and  rich  soiLs  of  Flan-> 
ders,  and  brought  from  the  ocean.  These  alluvial 
accretions,  when  first  enclose<l  by  iSlykes,  l)ect»roc 
naturally  covered  by  a  fine  tender  grass,  and  are 
called  in  Flemish  schors.  They  arc  first  sown 
with  colza  ;  that  is,  oleaginous  colewort,  Brttssica 
oleracea  arvenms^    not    the   Jirassica   Aapus    of 


Prorineaa 


Antwerp     • 
Brabant 
Flandere^  Wert 
Flandera,  East 
Hainault     . 
Licfpe  . 
Limborg     . 
Loxemboig 
Namor 


Ayerago 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 

LinnieiiH.  but  the  Brasdca  eampegtris  of  De  Can- 
(loUc    Tlie  crops  of  tliis  vejcotaWe  on  the  polders 
arc  always  ven*  abundant,  \Vhen  these  encWurea 
have  been  completely  brought  into  cultivation, 
which  H'ciuircs  several  yean*,  they  con^Lxt  partly 
of  natural  meadow,  affording  excellent  pasturage 
for  numerous  henLs  of  cattle,  and  partly  of  arable 
lands  <)n  which  are  raLKe«l  the  finest  crops  of  all 
kindn  of  pTiiu;  ei?pecially  barley,  H  or  10  quarters 
per  acre,  and  oats  10  or  12  quarters  per  acre.    Two 
crojw  in   the  year  arc  comnu»nly  obtaine<l;   no 
rci»ose  is  ^ivon  to  the  s<»il,  an<l  it  nec<ls  no  ma- 
nuring ;  but  in  the  course  of  time  it  l)ecomes  too 
compact  and  a<lhesive,  an<l  grcatlv  decrcases  in 
fertility,  if  not  renovate*!  by  artiticial  assL^tance, 
so  that  the  older  Lin<ls  of  this  description  are  fal- 
lowfii  once  in  six  years,  and  the  rotation  is  winter 
IwirU-y,  l)eans,  wheat,  tiax,  clover,  and  p<»tat<Ks. 
The  rolour  of  the  soils,  in  their  primitive  state.  Is 
a  bluish  prey,  which  is  owing  to  the  prcs<'ncc  of  a 
considrnible  quantity  of  tlie  oxide  of  iron.     Tlie 
embankments  arc,  ma<le  in  some  instanccM  by  the 
government,  in  others,  by  com{)anics,  or  imlivi- 
duals.  under  a  grant  and  tenure  <»f  the  enclosures, 
fn»m  government,  for  about  twenty  yeaw,  either 
rent  free,  or  for  small  annual  payments.    It  Is  cal- 
culated that  alnrnt  4-5ths  of  the  surface  which, 
in  the  sixteenth  centur}"-,  was  submerged  by  the 
Scheldt  antl  the  sea,  now  produces  agricultural 
crojH,  and  is  studded  with  numen)us  farm  estab- 
lL(hments.    The  area  of  each  polder,  the  chemical 
analysis  of  their  soils  and  various  other  particulars, 
are  given  in  M.  Vandermaelen's  ( Jeog.  Diet,  of  the 
Provinces  of  Belgium.     Thev  varv  from  20,  50, 
ami  KM)  acn»s,  up  to  1,000.    The  polder  of  Snaers- 
kirke,  on  the  sea-coast,  near  Ostend,  contains  1,300 
acres  <livide«l  by  ditches  into  rectangular  tiekls  of 
13  acres  eiu'h.     The  l>ank  or  dike  is  15  ft.  high, 
30  ft,  in  brcatlth  at  the  l>ase,  and  19  ft.  at  the  top. 
The  fatal  devastations  which  have  l)een  occasione<l 
by  the  c<»ncurrence  of  high  wimLs  and  tides  in  nip- 
ttiring  the  dikes  that  are  reared  as  Iwirriers  to  the 
rivers  an<l  the  sea,  render  it  an  object  of  gre*at  im- 
portance with  the  government  to  8U{)erintend  the 
maintenance  of  their  efficiency.      A  system  of 
]»ublic  regulations  for  this  purpose  is  therefore  en- 
fon'e<l  with  great  vigilance  and  promptitude. 

Agriculture  of  the  Bruyeres, — The  sterile  heaths 
whith  extend  over  the  NE.  iwirts  of.  the  previnces 
of  Antwerj),  and  the  NW.  of  Limburg,  as  well  as 
over  many  s(|.  m.  of  the  surface  of  the  SK.  portion 
of  the  kingdom,  are  calle<l  bruytrtt^  from  the  fact 
of  their  chiefly  prmlucing  the  heath-plant,  bruyere, 
Kricti  Bntbttnticti.  It  gn>ws  siK»ntaneously  and 
abundantly  in  the  most  ari«I  sands,  as  well  as  in 
hiunid  marshes ;  and  it  naturally  jxissesses  so  much 
vitality  and  pmlilicness  that  its  complete  eradica- 
tion cannot  Ik?  eflected  without  considerable  tnmble. 
In  summer  its  prefusion  of  tlowers  verj*  agreeably 
varies  tlie  drearj'  a«<i)ect  of  the  level  wa«*tes  on 
which  it  t^ouri^hes:  and  theyab«o  affonl  plenty  of 
f«M»d  for  the  Ikh?;  but  the  honey  it  pnKluces  is  not 
of  a  giMHl  description.  The  plant  Is  browsed  by 
slufp :  gathrred  for  Uttering  cattle;  used  in  tan- 
ning; an«l  applie<l  to  s<»venil  other  useful  purposes. 
Tin*  great  ol»stacle  to  the  cultivation  of  the  heath 
lands,  or  bruyrres  is  the  frequent  occurrence  of 
Ix'tU  of  femiginous  turf  and  stiff  clay  near  the 
surface;  however,  many  extensive  tracts  ha\-e 
iK'cn  bntught  into  prr>titable  cultivation  bv  the 
lentifiil  application  of  rich  manures  and  the  la- 
M)rious  attention  and  management  for  which  the 
JU'lgic  hu:<l>andman  is  so  proverbially  distinguishecL 
The  surface  on  which  he  l)egins  to  operate  is  a 
very  thin  external  cont  of  black  mould,  consisting 

of  vegetable  putn'factions.     This  in  some  parts  is 
sufh  •       •     •  ....  -  .       . 


401 

ingit  into  the  subjacent  sand,  with  copioos  qtumti- 
ties  of  dunghill  manure ;  and  from  this  combination 
are  obtained  crops  of  potatoes  barley,  oats,  clover, 
an<l  buckwheaL  Sheep  are  remarkably  fond  of  the 
scattered  blades  of  natural  grass  on  the  bruyiras, 
and  cattle  are  fed  in  ^^reat  numbers  on  those  parts 
of  them  which  are  laid  out  in  pasture,  consistiiu^ 
for  the  most  part  of  spuny,  Speryula  arvauis^  whi£ 
is  their  favourite  food. 

Agrictdtvral  Produce  and  Praetiee. — Com,  flax, 
hemp,  and  timlier,  constitute  the  most  im{K)rtant 
materials  of  the  agricultural  wealth  of  Uelgium. 
The  soil,  artificially  enriched,  produces  commimly 
more  than  double  the  (piantitv  of  com  required  for 
the  consumptiou  of  its  inhabitants  which  is  com- 
puted at  6,000,<XK)  hectolitres  per  annum.  The 
average  pretduce  of  the  soil  in  the  various  provinces 
is  shown  in  the  subjoined  table,  which  gives  the 
results  of  18G1 — a  me<lium  year  in  every  resftect. 


Wb€«t 

B7» 

Amoont  at 

Amount  of 

l*rodur«<  |*r 

l*ruduc«  pn 

H«cUr« 

BecUuv 

Ileetol. 

Ilwtol. 

18W 

19-4I 

J  7-63 

19-42 

21-62 

23-79 

W 

25 

19 

20-80 

19 

18 

15-69 

16-65 

15 

18 

18 

17-90 

18-48 

19-88 

Btfley 


Amoont  of 

Produce  per 

Uvrtar* 


Hactol. 

26-U 

81 

37 

38 

38 

24 

25 

21 

28 


29-79 


I 


ProTliiMi 

o*t« 

PotAtOW 

Flu 

Amoont  of 

Amount  of 

AoKNintor 

Frodo'v  P«T 

Produce  per 

Produce  p« 

Utctar* 

Uactv* 

Ilmtara 

HcetoL 

KUoiu 

KUoc 

Antwerp     . 

36*89 

8.HIH) 

8K3 

Brabant 

42 

7,264 

543 

Flanders,  West   . 

4-i-16 

7.623 

699 

Flandcn,  Bast    . 

49 

8,190 

600 

Hainaolt     . 

50 

5,130 

475 

Liofcc  .        • 

35 

9,000 

— 

Limborg     . 

34 

7.896 

361 

Luxemburg 

31 

6,237 

•^ 

Kamor       • 
Average        . 

86 

7,545 

— 

39-65 

l,7-/0 

493 

The  hectare  it  equivalent  to  2-4711431  English  acrea ; 
the  hectolitre  to  2*7512085  English  bushels;  and  the 
kilogramme  to  2-2046213  English  lbs.  avoirdupois. 

The  average  prices,  for  the  whole  of  Belgium^ 
of  the  al)ovc-mentioii(Ml  kinds  of  com  and  potatoes, 
during  the  nine  months  ending  September  30, 1861, 

were  as  follows : — 

Fr.  a. 

Wheat,  per  100  kilogrammes  •  •  32  H4 

Kyo                    „  •  .  21  9 

Barley                 „  •  .  20  87 

Oats                     „  .  .  23  77 

Potatoaa             ,.  .  .  10  50 


(Report  of  Mr.  Hcrries,  Her  Majesty*8  Secretary 
of  Legation,  dated  Umssels,  March  1862.)  The 
kinds  of  agricultural  produce  in  Belgium  are  very 
numerous  including  the  following  grains  and 
plants,  all  of  which  arc  culti^-ated  in  Flanders : — 
>Vheat  (white  and  red),  rj^e,  barley,  oats,  colza, 
buckwheat,  hemp,  flax,  ])otatoe8,  tobacco,  hops, 
turnips  red  carrots  parsnips,  peas  beans  clover, 
lucerne,  madder,  saintfoin,  chicory',  beet, 


spurrj", 

woad,*  and  poppies 
fli<>ien  tly  deep  to  recompense  the  labour  of  fdough-       The  central  part  of  the  kingdom,  contained 
Vou  I.'  D  D 


402  BELaiUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 

-within  A  line  passing  through  MalincA,  Tcnnond, 
Touma>%  Mom»,  Kamur,  and  Louvain,  includes 
much  of  the  richeftt  portion  of  the  noil ;  but  it  docs 
not,  on  the  whole,  exceed  the  ftrenip*  fertility  of 
the  inland  countiea  of  England,  and  must  decidedly 
be  considered  inferior  to  the  rich  allu\nal  soils  de- 
nominated the  carses,  in  Scotland.  The  land  in 
general  is  not  so  neatlv  tilled  as  in  the  liest  Eng- 
lish agricultural  counties.  The  husl)andr>'  of  tlie 
central  parts  diflfers  considerably  from  that  of 
FlanderH.  The  farms  are  larger,  and  less  carefully 
cultivatetL  The  spade  is  less  used  in  the  fields, 
and  they  have  consequently  not  the  same  resem- 
blance to  ganlens.  In  Hiunault  and  Antweq)  the 
cultivation  of  Hax  and  hem[>  is  IxxMiming  a  primary 
object ;  but  these  valuable  croM  arc  produced  to 
far  greater  extent  in  the  two  r  landers,  the  agri- 
culture of  which  is  so  highly  reputed  as  to  require 
a  separate  notice,  which  hereafter  is  given.  In 
the  richer  parts  of  Brabant,  Hax,  hemp,  and  colza 
are  extensively  cultivated,  with  much  manuring, 
and  a  succession  of  wheat.  Kye,  in  this  province, 
is  always  a  laige  crop,  for  bread  and  distillation. 
The  oleaginous  plants  tlourisli  in  all  the  provinces, 
and  the  culture  of  hope  is  very  successful  in  Bra- 
bant, Flanders,  and  along  the  valley  of  the  Meusc, 
in  the  pn)%ince  of  Liege.  Maize  has  been  partially 
int  roduced,  and  found  to  succeed.  Madder  is  gnm^n 
chiefly  in  Flanders  and  the  province  of  Antwerp 
Most  of  the  principal  farms  throughout  the  king- 
dom possess  distilleries,  and  the  stalled  cattle  are 
fed  upon  the  refuse  wash.  With  the  exception  of 
Flanders,  no  particular  rotations  of  crops  arc  ad- 
hered to.  The  fields  are  cropped  according  to  the 
wants  of  the  farmer  and  the  state  of  the  land.  An 
abundance  of  manure  allows  of  rapid  returns  of 
white  straw  crops.  All  the  clover,  and  other  forage 
crops,  are  used  green,  in  the  stalls  and  stables,  as 
food  for  cattle  and  horses.  Little  hay  is  made,  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  cattle  kept  throughout 
the  winter ;  so  that,  on  the  failure  of  green  fooil, 
the  chief  recourse  is  to  rrjots,  namely,  ttimij^s, 
carrots,  and  potatoes.  The  stall-fed  cattle  fumL<(h 
ample  supplies  of  manure,  the  liquid  part  of  which 
is  collected  in  laige  tanks  of  brickwork,  and  is 
either  carried  out  and  poured  over  the  land,  or  is 
used  to  moisten  and  accelerate  the  fermentation 
of  tlie  dry  dung-hea})8  and  composts. 

Flemish  Huahamdrp. — Flanders,  in  consequence 
of  its  great  commercial  prosperity,  was  remarkal>le 
for  the  advanced  state  of  its  agriculture  long  bef(»re 
impn>vement  in  this  important  art  was  obsm'able 


in  any  count  r>'  N.  of  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees. 
Bruges  and  Ghent  were  important  commercial 
towns  in  the  11th  century*,  and  supplied  the  va- 
rious courts  of  Europe  Mrith  the  rich  silks  and  ta- 
pestries which  then  were  their  chief  luxuries.  The 
commerce  and  agriculture  of  Flanders  grew  to- 
gether; and  in  onler  to  account  for  the  remarkable 
excellence  of  the  Flemish  huslmndr}',  which  has 
been  celebrated  for  upwards  of  GOO  years,  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  in  view  the  close  connection 
which  in  that  countr>'  exists)  between  the  farmer, 
the  manufacturer,  and  the  merchant;  and  the 
efforts)  of  a  continually  incruasing  population,  in 
stimulating  the  exertions  of  those  who  pi'ON'ide  the 
necessaries  of  life.  In  Flanders,  as  in  every  countr>' 
densely  populateil,  where  the  villages  arc  thickly 
8cattere<l,  and  where,  by  means  of  water  carriage 
on  rivers  and  canals,  manure  can  l)e  transi>orted 
to  the  land  at  a  trifling  exi)ense,  fallowing  and 
laying  d(»wn  to  pasture  are  necessarilv  supersetled 
bv  increased  tillage  and  manuring,  tt  is  remark- 
able that,  in  China,  where  a  similar  density  of 
population  exists  there  prevails  the  same  anxiety 
an  m  Flan<lers  to  collect  every  substance  and  liquid 
|hat  can  possibly  serve  to  increase  the  fertilising 


powers  of  the  soil ;  and  that  in  both  these  countricA 
ordure  of  all  sorts  is  carefully  collected,  sold  as  a 
most  valuable  article  of  commerce^  and  applierl  iu 
the  fields  and  gardens  as  the  ne  vlu*  ultra  of  stimu- 
lating manure.  Were  the  whole  of  Flandeivi  laid 
out  in  laige  farms,  and  a  third  or  fourth  part  fal- 
lowed e\*ery  year,  or  a  half  left  iu  natural  grass, 
the  population  could  not  be  fed;  and  instead  of 
exiNirtmg  agricultural  procluce,  as  at  present,  a 
great  imfjortation  would  be  requisite,  to  supply 
the  demand  of  internal  consumption.  Besides 
the  poor  soils  of  Flanders  ci»uld  never  Ije  recruited 
by  such  a  course.  Without  repeatetl  manuring, 
there  could  be  no  vigorous  vegetation;  and  th« 
land  left  to  nature  would  return  to  its  original 
state  of  heath.  The  necessity  of  proN-iiling  for  con- 
stantly increasing  numbers  of  mhab.  prrxlui'ed  the 
agricultural  |)erfection  ioit  which  Flanders  has  long 
been  renowned;  and  the  demands  of  commerce 
and  manufactures  have  so  multiplied  the  object.s 
of  cultivation,  that  tlax,  hemp,  the  oleaginous 
seeds,  and  various  other  plants  required  for  the 
arts,  ver\'  often  produce  a  greater  prolit  to  the 
farmer  tLan  the  farinaceous  grains.  The  verv 
large  produce  obtained  by  the  Flemish  farmer  is 
solely  attributable  to  indefatigable  industry',  for 
the  soil  is  naturally  p»or,  and  Uie  climate  is  W  no 
means  especially  favourable,  the  winters  being 
longer  and  more  severe  than  in  England.  Three 
or  four  ploughings,  and  two  or  three  harrowings, 
are  commonly  bestowed  upon  each  crop.  The 
collection  and  application  of  manure  is  also  a  great 
principle  of  Flemish  husbandry'.  In  Flanders  mH 
thing  can  be  effected  without  abundance  of  manure ; 
and,  consequently,  the  greatest  care  is  taken  to 
procure  it,  ITie* maxim  is,  no  forage  no  cattle; 
without  cattle  no  manure;  and  without  manure 
no  crops.  The  stall-fed  cattle  arc  the  ])rinci|^l 
source  of  supply;  but  every  expedient  w  resorted 
to,  in  order  to  increase  the  quantity  and  improve 
the  quality.  All  kinds  of  animal  and  vegetable 
matters  aro  carefully  collected  in  pits  walletl  with 
brickwork,  where  they  undergo  the  putrefactive 
process,  by  being  mixed  with  sulistances  already 
IMirtially  decom|)Osed.  Another  indispensable  ainli 
universal  auxiliary  of  the  Flenush  farmer,  is  the 
tank  of  liquid  miuiure,  collected  fn»m  the  draiu- 
ings  of  the  stables,  cow  stalls  and  dunghills,  and 
from  sources  which  in  England  fill  tlie  i'essjKnd 
{tidange).  In  Ghent,  the  sum  receiveil  by  house 
ser\'auts  for  liquids  collecte<l  for  manure,  often 
amounts  to  as  much  as  their  wages.  The  liquiil 
manure  is  carried  to  the  field  in  water  carts,  an«l 
carefully  distributed  over  the  surface  <»f  the  land 
shortly  previous  to  the  sowing  of  seeti,  espe^'ially 
tliat  of  flax.  Ever>'  farm-yard  possesses  one  t>f 
these  tanks,  which  are  commonly  of  large  di- 
mensions— slwut  40  ft.  in  length,  by  14  in  breadth, 
and  8  in  depth;  and  usually  constructed  bi*neath 
the  stalls  for  cows.  An  acre  of  land  destined  f»>r 
flax  receives  ver\'  comm<mly  2,500  gallons  of  this 
animal  liquid  sul>se(iuent  to  an  abundant  applica- 
tion of  solid  manure,  which  is  deeply  ploughe<l  into 
the  8f»il.  The  efficacy  of  the  liquid  is  often  height- 
ened for  flax,  by  dissoU-ing  in  it  large  (luantities 
of  rape  cake.  Even'  dl«<tiller>'  of  mo<lerate  extent 
has  hfky  or  sixty  h(»d  of  cattle  constantly  stalletl, 
and  fed'  upon  the  grains  and  refuse  wash.  The.sc 
establishments  were  formerly  verj*  numerous ;  but 
the  duty  on  spirits,  and  the  interference  of  the 
government,  have  much  reduced  their  number, 
and  consequently  occasioned  a  deficiency  of  manure 
and  of  crops ;  as  it  is  estimatwl  that  every  beast 
priMluces  annuallv  ten  or  twelve  tons  of  soU<l,  and 
twentv-six  hogsheads  t»f  liquid  manure.  Large 
quantities  of  peat  ashes,  im[>orted  fn*m  Holland, 
are  used  as  a  dressing  for  clover;  and  lime,  )m>w- 


dcreil  bon(^  marl,  and  the  dung  of  piji^cons,  arc 
used  in  particular  districts. 

The  Hpade  is  one  of  the  most  important  im- 
plements in  Flemish  a^culture,  and  is  useil  to  a 
much  f^reater  extent  than  in  any  othej  country. 
The  trench ing-8j>ade  Is  constantly  employed  on  all 
the  light  lands,  and  the  blade  of  the  Flemish  hoe, 
a  most  efficient  instrument,  resembles  and  operates 
as  a  substitute  fur  that  of  the  spade.  Indeed,  the 
garden  has  evidently  l>een  the  original  model  of 
the  Flemish  farms,  and  those  of  forty  or  fifty  acres 
must  still  be  regarded  as  enlargecf  gardens.  In 
comparing  the  cultivation  of  land  in  Flanders  with 
that  of  England,  we  can  only  adduce  the  large 
ganlens  in  the  neighl)ourh<)od  of  I^ondon,  whejre 
the  common  kin<ls  of  vegetables  are  raised  for 
supplying  the  markets ;  where  green  crops  are  cut 
early  for  horses  and  cows  kept  in  London,  and 
where  the  soil  is  continually  enriched  with  the 
manure  London  supplies.  By  the  prosecution  of 
s])ade  husbandry,  an  industrious  Fleming,  with 
tifleen  acres  of  good  light  land,  brings  up  Ids 
family  in  decent  independence,  and  in  the  course 
of  his  life  accumulates  sufficient  means  to  put 
them  in  possession  of  a  little  farm  of  their  own. 
There  are  many  small  proprietors  who  have  risen 
slowly  by  the  laUmr  of  their  own  hands ;  and  their 
habitations  shuw,  by  the  great  care  and  neath&^s 
obser\*ed  in  every  particidar,  that  an  honest  pride 
is  felt  in  possessing  this  reward  of  industrious 
exertion.  Incessant  lal)our  of  the  body,  and  occu- 
pation of  the  mind,  are  not  regarded  by  the 
Flemish  peasant  with  discontent,  for  to  the  one 
they  are  found  to  secure  good  health,  and  to  the 
other  tranquillity. 

The  fanns  in  the  Pays  dc  Waes,  between  Ghent 
and  Antwerp,  are  cultivated  with  astonishing 
method  and  neatness,  and  afford  the  most  perfect 
specimens  of  field  ctdture  on  the  principles  of 
gardening.  The  soil  is  artificial,  and  the  result  of 
centuriesof  systematic  manuring,  which  has  con- 
verttxl  a  barren  sand  into  a  rich  black  loamy 
mould.  The  fields,  as  in  all  parts  of  Flanders,  are 
enclosed  by  hedges,  an<l  they  are  remarkably 
small — from  half  an  acre  to  an  acre;  every  part  of 
them  is  kept  jxirfectly  free  from  weeds,  and  they 
are  elevated  in  the  centre,  so  as  to  have  a  gently 
ir.clined  slope  towards  tlie  extremities,  where 
ditches  carry  off  excessive  rain,  and  prevent  in- 
jury and  reduction  of  the  soil.  Nearly  similar 
rare  and  preciseness  are  observable  in  the  whole 
of  W.  and  K.  Flanders ;  but,  while  the  Flemish 
farmers  are  greatly  suiH'rior  to  the  English,  in 
minute  attention  to  the  qualities  of  the  soil  and 
to  circumstantial  |)articulars  of  cultivation,  in  the 
systematic  economy  of  land  and  the  judicious 
succession  of  cro|)s,they  are  much  inferior  in  amount 
of  (rapital,  in  varied  and  improveil  implements  of 
tillage,  and  especially  in  the  choice  and  breeding 
of  cattle  and  sheep. 

'Hie  extent  of  fanns  in  Flanders,  and  throughout 
Belgiiun,  ver>'  rarely  exceetLs  1()0  acres.  The 
numlK;r  crmtaining  fifty  acres  is  not  great,  but 
those  of  twenty,  fifteen,  ten,  and  five  acres,  es- 
]M*<ially  between  ten  and  five,  are  ver\'  numerous. 
The  extensive  manufactures  whicli  formerly 
flourished  in  Belgium  collected  a  dense  population 
of  artisans   in   tfie  neigblMuirhood  of  the   great 


BELGIDM  (KINGDOM  OF)  403 

Crcpa  in  FlaHderg,^GreAt  attention  w  bestowed 
upon  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  so  as  to  secure 
the  most  abundant  crop  from  the  smallest  quan- 
tity of  seetL  About  one-third  less  is  used  in 
Flanders,  for  broadcast,  than  in  England  for 
drilling. 

Bye  is  a  very  luxuriant,  and  a  principal  crop,  as 
it  forms  an  important  article  of  consumption  for 
bread  among  the  working  classes.  The  crops  of 
wheat  arc  uniformly  fine,  and  free  from  smut  and 
miMew,  which  are  effectually  preventt^d  by  care- 
fully selecting  the  seed,  by  changing  it  eveiy 
second  year,  and  by  steeping  it  in  a  solution  of 
blue  vitriol,  or  conper  (sulphate  of  copjier) ;  four 
ounces  in  four  gallons  of  water,  for  three  bushels 
of  grain.  After  thoroughly  stirring,  skimming 
off  the  light  grains,  and  remaining  half  an  hour, 
the  grain  is  strained  off  in  baskets,  washed  in  pure 
water,  and  when  dried,  is  ready  for  sowing.  It  is 
steeped  by  some  in  brine,  and  Tlried  by  sifting  lime 
upon  it.  One  bushel  of  seed  wheat  produces  al)ove 
twenty  bushels.  Barley  is  a  crop  (»f  much  impor- 
tance, malt  liquor  being  the  common  beverage  of 
all  classes  of  the  population.  The  winter  barley, 
or  sucrion,  is  the  favourite  kind.  It  is  sown  in 
autumn  and  reaped  in  July.  Oats  thrive  well, 
with  little  manure,  in  almost  every  soil  of  Flan- 
ders. Buckwheat  is  raised  chiefly  as  food  for 
poultry  and  pigs,  and  for  distillation.  Peas,  beans, 
and  tares,  are  commonly  cultivated  as  fodder  for 
cattle.  Clover  is  the  glory  of  Flemish  farming, 
and  in  no  country  is  it  found  in  such  perfect 
luxuriance.  Repeated  ploughings,  rich  manuring, 
and  a  vigilant  prevention  of  weetls,  ser\'e  to  pro- 
duce a  vigour  and  weight  of  produce  which  is 
surprising.  Peat  ashes  from  Holland,  about  forty 
bushels  per  acre,  are  invariably  used  as  a  dressing 
for  clover.  From  Flanders  this  valuable  grass  waa 
first  intro<luced  into  EnglamL  It  Is  a  crop  of  great 
value,  and  indispensable  to  the  Flemish  farmer, 
who  ploughs  all  his  land,  and  fi^eds  his  cows  and 
horses  on  green  food  brought  to  the  stall  The 
common  red  species  is  more  cultivatetl  in  Flanders 
than  the  other  varieties,  llic  liquid  manure  from 
the  tank  is  believed  to  pnxluce  a  strong  taste, 
with  which  the  cattle  are  disgusted.  The  potato 
crop,  at  the  season  of  its  full  gniwth,  also  exhibits 
a  remarkable  luxuriance.  The  stalks  exceed  a 
yard  in  height,  and  their  tops  form  a  surface  as 
level  as  the  land  from  which  they  rise.  The  pro- 
duce is  often  ten  tons  per  acre,  and  it  constitutes 
one  of  the  principal  articles  of  food  of  all  classes  of 
the  population,  and  of  the  farmer's  live  stock, 
especially  cows  and  horses.  This  useful  root  was 
introduced  into  Flanders  from  England  at  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  it  has  long  appeared 
in  each  n)tation  of  the  Flemish  cto{>s*  Turnips 
and  cant»ts  are  extensively  cultivated  for  stall-fed 
cattle,  after  rye  and  barley.  The  turnips,  in  size 
and  weight,  are  much  inferior  to  those  of  Norfolk, 
and  the  carrots  also  yield  a  comparatively  poor 
return.  The  cultivation  of  the  white  and  yellow 
l)eet,  for  the  extraction  of  sugar,  is  continually 
l>ecoming  more  extensive,  aud  several  large  fac- 
tories have  been  established  for  the  manufacture  of 
this  important  article  of  commerce.    The  chicory- 


plant,  (»f  which  the  root,  when  properly  terrified, 
j  IS  a  very  good  substitute  for  coffee,  is  nusod  in 


towns;  but  when  the  busy  scene  of  manufacturing    large  quantities  in  Flanders,  where  establishments 


industry-  was  tran^^fe^red  to  other  countries,  this 
po]>ulation  was  deprived  <»f  it«*  means  of  handicrofl 
employment,  an<l  was  obliged  to  resort  to  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  soil  for  subsistence.  Such  appears 
to  have  \yoen  the  chief,  though  possibly  not  the 
sole,  origin  of  the  still  prevalent  system  of  small 
farms,  which  are  geiu«rally  cultivated  by  the  holder 
and  his  family  without  any  other  aaaii^tance. 


are  formed  for  its  preparation.  The  flax  crop  is 
an  object  of  the  greatest  care  and  exertion.  Its 
cultivation  is  thoroughly  understood,  as  well  as 
every  process  of  its  preparation  for  the  loom ;  and 
the  land  which  produces  this  plant  exhibits  all  the 
neatness  and  precision  of  a  carefidly  managed 
garden.  Flax  is  a  staple  commodity  in  Flandeis, 
it  serves  to  employ  a  great  portion  of  the  popu- 

DD  2 


404 


lation,  and  it  is  lar^gtly  exported.  The  finest 
description  is  raised  in  the  noi^chlwurhood  of  Coiir- 
tray.  Crops  of  flax  prinhice*!  from  native  see<l  are 
found  to  l>e  HU|)erior  in  (|uantity«  hut  inferictr  in 
quality,  to  thohe  pnNluced  from  the  seod  of  Kiga, 
wliich  Is  therefore  jirocuriHl  hy  the  Flemish  fanners 
every  year.  Hemp  is  cultivated  with  j^«it  ciire, 
but  not  to  the  same  extent  as  tiax.  Colza  {Bnu- 
»ca  campestrin)  and  a  8j)ecies  of  poppv,  the  wlette 
iPajMVtr  nimniferuni)^  are  exten«vefy  cultivate*! 
for  the  oil  contahied  in  their  mkmIh.  Woad  is  rai-se<l 
for  its  dye  of  bhie^  weld  for  yclhiw,  and  ma<lder  for 
retU  The  two  Flanders,  anil  tin*  |in»vinee  of  Ant- 
weqi,  produce  a  etmsiderahle  quantity  of  madder, 
but  the  whole  aimual  product;  <»f  the  kin^lom  is 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 

Rood  repair:  it  has  always  a  small  ccllaragie  for 
the  dair^',  a  store-room  for  the  jrrain,  an  oven, 
an  outhouse  for  jM^tatoes,  a  roomy  cattle-stall,  a 
pijcjrcr}',  and  a  h)rt  for  the  poultry'.  The  furniture 
IS  decent,  the  l)oddinR  amply  suflicient,  and  an  air 
of  comfort  and  propriety  ]K?n'ades  the  whole 
establishment.  The  cows'  are  suppliwl  M'ith  straw 
to  lie  ujKm ;  tlie  duufj  an«l  its  drainings  arc  care- 
fully collected  in  the  tank ;  and  a  com|»ost  heai^  is 
mH.n*imulated  from  ever}'  possible  source,  j'he 
I»rcmis«'s  are  ke])t  extnrmely  neat,  with  a  ct>nst.'uit 
ol>s<Tvance  of  the  most  rii;i<l  econ<»ray.  industry, 
and  re^nilnrity.  No  mcmhcr  of  the  family  is  eviT 
seen  rn;rjjetl  or  Hlovenlv:  hut  all  are  decently 
clothed,  tliou^h  it  be  with  the  awirsest  matenaU. 


insuihcient  to  supply  a  fourth  of  the  (juantity  I'on-  j  The  men  iniiverwilly  wt»rk  in  linen  canvas  fmtrks, 
Bume<l  at  one  of  the  lar;;e  factories  of  cotton  an<!  1  an«l  Imth  women  and  men  weiu"  wtsxlen  sh«>e!>. 
woollen:  thoseof  (Ihent  ahmemake  useof  mad<ler  i  Kvc  liread  and  milk  oft«"n  t^Mistitute  their  diet. 


to  the  value  of  six  millions  of  fran<^*«  ]ier  annum. 
Woad  thrive!*  Isrst  un  gravelly  and  san<ly  s(»iLs; 
but  mailder  nquin-s  land  of  the  lM.*st  dox-ription, 
and  nhundaiKM)  of  manure.  The  cultivation  <if 
tolxacco  wan  common  «»veral  vears  agr»  in  u(?arlv. 
all  tlie  pn.»vinces,  but  at  present  it  is  connn(^d  to 
Flanders;  and  the  priMlucreuow  Is  reduce<l  toal>out 
one-tenth  of  its  former  annmnt.  The  Iwst  tobacco 
is  raised  and  prepared  at  Werwick,  in  the  neigh- 
bourluMxl  of  Vpres.  An  acre  produces  alxiut  4,OO0 
lbs.  The  culture  of  this  plant  requires  a  great 
amount  of  hibour.  attention,  ex])ense,  and  manure. 
Hops  are  grown  in  small  ivatches  <»n  almost  everj' 
farm  in  Flanders.  Pasttires  of  grass  are  scarcelv 
to  Ije  met  with,  except  in  the  polders,  and  the  vi- 
cinity of  Dixmunde  and  Fumes,  where  they  are 
most*  luxuriant,  and  afford  graxing  for  numerous 
cows ;  stall-feciling,  however,  is  universallv  prac- 


thoughr«?c<'ntly  wheaten  breatl  has  Iss-Nime  a  mure 
genend  article' «»f  cimsumption.  The  great  suiv- 
rioritvof  the  Itelgian  «»ver  the  Irif»h  )>eas.'uit  farmer 
is  owing  not  to  any  advantages  of  si>il  or  climate, 
but  to  a  iK'tter  system  of  cultivation,  and  espct^ially 
tj»  established  habits  of  s«)briety,  forethought,  and 
pnident  econ<»my.  The  points  i»f  his  suiieritirity 
conhi>t — 1st,  in'  his  keeping  as  many  »tall-fi^i 
cattle  as  |K»ssible,  to  secure  a  supply  of  mainirc; 
2nd,  in  can-fully  collecting,  an«l  skilfully  applying, 
maimre ;  3rd,  in  a<lhenng  to  an  advantagefuis  n>- 
tation  of  6  or  7  crojjs,  by  wliich  is  obtauied  the 
utmost  amount  of  prtwluce  witlmut  any  fallowing. 
On  farms  of  C  an^s  are  found  no  horse,  plougli, 
nor  C4irt :  the  only  agricultural  implement,  l>esides 
a  H]»a«le,  fork,  an<l  wheelbarn>w,  is  a  light  w^mhIcu 
harrow,  drawn  by  hand.  The  whole  <»f  the  laujl  is 
dug  an<l  deeply  trenche<l  with  the  H|Mide^  and  the 


land  is  a  common  pn>i)ortion,  and  where  s])ade 
husbandry  ])revails,  a  larger  number  are  found 
Chop]MMl  turnips  carn>ts  and  potatis's,  Ixiiled  up 
with  tin*  meal  of  l>eans,  rye,  or  buckwheat,  consti- 
tute tlie  usual  fiH>d  of  i:attle,  and  it  is  called  braMtn. 
Large  <piantities  of  giKsl  butter  for  home  consumiv- 
tion  and  ex}s>rlation  are  produce4l  from  the  milk 
of  cows  thus  fed,  with  the  addition,  in  summer,  of 
clover  and  other  gn*en  fcslder,  cut  imd  brought  to 
the  stalls.  The  chums  are  ingeniously  worktnl  by 
a  horse.  Cheese  rarely  Is  made  in  Flanders,  almost 
all  the  demand  for  it  being  supplied  by  imiK>r- 
tation  fn^m  IIollantL 

The  land  in  Flanders  is  generally  freehold,  or 
the  proi»erty  of  civil  or  religious  corjMirations.  The 
estates  are  small,  and  if  not  cultivated  by  the -pro- 
prietor himself,  winch  is  more  freiiuently  the  case, 
they  are  lei  on  leases  generally  of  7,  14,  or  21 
years'  duration.  The  occupier  is  bound  to  live  on 
the  i)remises,  pay  taxes,  effect  repairs,  preserve 
timlxT,  not  sul)-let  without  a  written  agreement, 
and  to  give  certain  usual  accommtNlations  to  the 
next  tenant  at  the  end  of  the  lease.  The  farm 
establishments  are  always  convenient,  and  gene- 
rally more  ample,  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of 
the  land,  than  in  England  and  Scotland.  In  ad- 
<Ution  to  the  usual  accommodations,  the  larger 
farais  are  commonly  pnn'idefl  with  a  <listillerj',  a 
crushing-mill  for  tlie  preparation  of  oil  from  the 
colza  and  ()oppy,  and  sometimes  a  mill  for  grinding 
com. 

Peamnd  Farmers. — The  small  farms,  between 
5  and  10  acres,  which  abound  in  many  ])arts  of 
Ikdginm,  have  much  rcsc-mblance  t4»  the  small 
holdings  in  Ireland;  but  while  the  Irish  cultivat^ir 
exists  in  a  state  of  miserable  ]»rivation  of  the  com- 
mon c«mvenienccN  of  civilised  life,  the  IJelgian 
peasant  famier  enj<»ys,  conqxaratively,  a  great  de- 
gree of  comforts  Ills  cottage  is  built  substantially, 
with  an  upper  tluor  for  sleeping,  and  is  kept  in 


tise<L    One  Ijeast  for  ever\'  three  acres  o^  arable    whole  fann  work  is  carried  on  without  any  assist - 

ancelwyond  that  of  the  family.  The  live  stiK-k 
commonly  consists  of  two  ct>ws,  a  calf  or  two,  one 
<»r  two  pigs,  a  goat  or  two,  and  some  poultrj'.  All 
the  different  kinds  <if  cnnw  which  have  aln^atly 
Ikhjii  noticed,  are  cidtivated  up<»n  tliejy*  small 
establisliments  with  the  same  care  and  success  as 
<»n  the  rinest  farms  in  the  kingdom.  (Mr.  Nichtdl's 
Ke]>ort  on  Hcdland  and  Belgium,  paxmrn.) 

Uort'wulture. — Nunierous  and  extensive ganlens 
are  cultivated  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom  for 
the  supply  of  the  to^Ti  markets  with  culinary 
vegetabli's,  and  the  common  baniy  fruits,  which 
are  pnxluced  in  great  abundance  and  excellence. 
The  annual  value  of  this  kind  of  pnxluce  is  esti- 
mate<l  at  a  million  sterling.  Apples  an<l  cherries 
are  especially  good  and  plentiful  and  are  found  in 
everj'  farm-house  garden  in  the  kingdom.  'Hie 
culture  of  the  x-ine  is  attended  with  consi«lerable 
success  in  several  elevateJ  U)calilies  on  the  banks 
of  the  Meuse ;  and  some  of  the  wine  there  pruduce<l 
is  far  above  mediocrity.  Fn»m  Ik'lgium  Kngland 
obtainetl  the  c4ibl>age.' lettuce,  and  goosel>erry. 

Floriculture. — In  Belgium  the  culture  of  Howers 
is  an  object  of  as  much  gratitication  as  in  Holland, 
and  the  climate  is  far  more  genial  for  bringing 
forth  the  beauty  of  tliese  amiable  ornaments  of 
civilisiMl  life,  l^he  last  cla>4sitication  of  the  Belgic 
population  ui  ISoO  shows  that,  in  the  whole  king- 
dom, there  were  then  113  professional  florists,  of 
whom  two-thirds  were  in  E.  Flanders  and  Brabant, 
'n>e  tulip,  camation,  anjl  wall-liower,  were  brought 
into  England  from  Belgium. 

Manufactures, —  Wool,  in  Belgium,  is  the  olmK't 
of  an  immense  industry,  'llie  manufactures  of  all 
kinjb*  employ  a  quantity  of  foR'ign  w«tol,  the  im- 
lM>rt  of  which,  in  IW 12.  amounted  to  1«.(J14  tons,  of 
the  value  of  o«,25l),o6o  francs;  in  18r>3,  to  i\.\\f<'l 
tons,  value<l  at  43,7(i5,0U()  francs:  ami  in  1«<*»4,  to 
21,oi<G  tons,  valuwl  at  r>(>,H92,()0<)  francs.  Tin  is 
the  average  nnn^'ft^  value  of  tlie  wool  imi)orte<l  is 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 

above  tyro  millionR  stcrlin;;.  It  is  imported  from 
Saxony,  Prussia,  Silesia,  Poland,  Bohemia,  Hun- 
paryj  Morana,  and  the  southern  provinces  of 
KuMRia.  The  annual  production  of  the  indij^enous 
wool,  of  pure  and  mixed  breeds,  scarcely  amounts 
in  value  to  200,000  francs. 

W(K>llcn  cloths  form  one  of  the  mo«t  important 
branches  of  manufacturing  industry,  and  they  are 
jrreatly  superior  in  quality  to  those  pnxhiced  in 
France.  The  dye  of  the  black  cloths,  wluch  are 
made  in  lai^e  quantities,  is  considered  to  be  more 
pormanent,  deep,  and  beautiful,  than  that  of  the 
best  Enjrlish  cloths.  The  casimirs  of  the  Bel^c 
looms  are  also  as  excellent  as  those  of  France.  The 
(birf  seats  of  the  woollen  manufacture  arc  at 
Ver\'iera,  Licfje,  Dolhaim,  Limburg,  Hodimont, 
Stavelot,  Thuin,  Ypres,  and  Poperinpfhe.  The 
w'<N)Ilen  manufactures  ofVerviera  and  its  environs 
employ  alone  a  population  of  50,000  operatives. 
Flannel,  coverlets,  sci^pe,  Iwlting-cloth,  camlet,  <frc., 
are  made  in  all  the  provinces  of  the  kinp^dom,  but 
principally  in  Antwerp  and  Hainault.  The  car|)et 
manufactory  of  Messrs,  Schumacher  and  Co.  at 
T«)uniay  Is  the  most  extensive  and  important  in 
Kurope.  It  pro<luces  all  kinds  of  what  are  called 
y^r«/*»«?& carpets,  from  those  which  adorn  the  sump- 
tuous palaces  of  kings,  to  such  as  are  used  for  the 
H«M»r  of  the  cottage.  Besides  the  principal  manu- 
facture at  Touniay,   there  are  several  others  of 


405 


secondary  rank  in  the  same  town;  in  Brussels 
Antwerp,  Ghent,  Bruges,  and  Courtray. 

Helgium  pnKluces  a  large  quantity  of  flax.  The 
various  manipulations  to  which  this  pnKiuct  of  the 
^<»il  is  submitted  form  one  of  the  most  ancient  and 
iiiiIM)rtant  source.s  of  the  manufacturing  wealth  of 
the  kingdom.  The  mode  of  culture,  the  order  of 
cn»ps,  the  j»reparation  of  the  soil,  the  svstem  of 
manuring,  the  careful  cultivation  of  the  plant,  and 
the  pntcess  of  steeping,  are  so  well  undorsttXHl  in 
Belgium,  that  its  flax  is  always  in  great  demand 
throughout  Kurope.  Knghuid  and  France  buy 
nearly  all  the  flax  which  is  pn)<luce<l  in  the  pro- 
vinces of  Hainault^  Hrabant,  and  N'amur.  The  two 
Flanders  supjily  a  ver}'  large  quantity  to  the  Eng- 
lish market. 

Linen  manufactures  have  l»een  long  extensively 
cnrri(;d  on  in  Belgium,  and  their  prcnlucts  have 
been  deservedly  celebrateil  for  their  excellence.  Of 
late  years,  however,  they  have  l)een,  for  the  most 
part,  far  from  flourishing.  The  businesses  were 
^litVused  over  the  country,  particularly  over  East 
and  West  Flanders,  and  were  carrie<l  on  in  the 
ct)ttages  of  the  peasantry  much  in  the  same  way 
ax  the  Irish  linen  trade  was  formerlv  ditfused  over 
rL>*tor,  and  the  lace  trade  over  |>arts  of  EnglamL 
Hut  since  the  successful  application  of  steam  to  the 
spinning  and  weaving  of  flax  and  the  production 
of  la<;e,  the  A  reign  demand  for  the  linens  and  laces 
of  Flaiuh'rs  has  greatly  declined;  and  the  {.xtpu- 
lation  (ief>ending  on  these  branches  of  indiLHtry  has 
bien  exposed  to  the  greatest  privations.  In  iHtM, 
tlierc  were  no  fewer  tl;an  1*20,000  female  spmners 
in  K.  Flanders,  and  J>r),ooO  ditto  in  \V.  Flanders, 
exclusive  of  a  large  number  of  weavers,  all  of  whom 
were  in  a  very  tleprcsx'd  and  impoverished  con- 
jlirion.  There  cmi  Ix*  no  doubt,  that  here  as  else- 
where, the  old  domestic  manufacture  of  linens  and 
laces  will  l>e  extingiiishe<l ;  and  that  the  manu- 
facture, if  carried  on  at  all,  will  have  to  be  cairied 
on  in  factriries. 

The  pnnliiction  an<l  manufacture  of  silk  has 
rectiutly  ls»c<ime  an  im{s»rtant  source  i)f  llelgic 
industry.  The  bR-ecling  of  the  silkworm  was 
intnxluced  into  Belgium  in  1820,  and  this  dej)art- 
nicnr  of  business  is  continually  incnuELsing  under 
the  fo.st(ring  care  of  the  government.  The  mul- 
Ix'rr}'  apj)ears  to  thrive  iu  the  soil  of  the  country, 


and  the  number  of  young  plants  now  cultivated 
exceeds  two  millions.    In  the  opinion  of  the  boit 
judges,  the  Belgic  silk  is  quite  as  beautiful  and 
valual>le  as  the   choicest  kind  proiluccd  in  the 
French    proxinces    of  Medmont  and   l)au])hin^, 
wliich,  in  fact,  is  tlie  finest  in  the  worht    The 
most  extensive  establishments  for  rearing  the  silk- 
worm are  at  Meslik  TEveque,  near  Ath,  and  at 
Uccle,   near    Brussels.    Antwerp,  which    is   the 
principal    centre    of    the  manufacture,  contains 
establishments  for  the  production  of  various  kinds 
of  silk  fabrics.    Velvets,  satins,  gros  de  Naples, 
and  other  stuffs,  obtained  formerly  from  Naples, 
are  made  with  a  l)eautv  of  tissue  and  tints  that 
cannot  be  suqiassed.    I'he  silk  factoiy  at  l.'cclc  is 
remarkable  for  excellent  dyed  and  pnnted  fabrics. 
*  Brussels  lace,'  the  thread  of  which  is  made  of 
the  finest  flax  of  the  country,  is  superior  to  every 
other  description  made  in  lielgium  or  in  foreign 
countries.    Its  peculiar  qualities  are  delicate  fine- 
ness, and  a  great  elegance  and  variety  of  design. 
The  patterns  are  all  worked  se|)arate,  and  are 
stitched  on.    The  flax  emploved  grows  near  Hal, 
and  the  best  at  Uebecque.    The  finest  description 
costs  from  3,000  to  4,0(K)  francs  a  pound,  and  is  worth 
its  weight  in  gold.    The  spinning  is  performed  in 
darkened  rooms,  with  a  beam  of  light  admitted 
only  upon  the  work,  through  a  small  afierturc. 
The  lace  of  Malines  is  second  in  rank,  with  res|)cct 
to  richness  and  elegance.    It  is  made  also  at 
Antwerp,   Lierre,  and   Tumhout.    The  cities  of 
Hruges,  Menin,  Ypres,  Courtray,  Cihent.  A  lost,  and 
St.  Nicolas,  employ  a  great  numl)er  of  hands  in 
the  manufacture  of  Valencien  {stint.    Mons  con- 
tains a  school  for  special  instruction  in  the  art  of 
making  the  finer  kinds  of  Ince. 

The  principal  manufactures  of  tulle  are  at  Ghent, 
Termonde,  ^leclilin,  Brussels,  and  Itouillon.  The 
excellence  of  the  Belgic  embroiderj'  on  tulle  is 
universally  acknowledged,  and  a  great  number  of 
females  are  emploved  in  this  department,  the 
earnings  of  each  l)euig  alx)ut  5(1  cents  a  day. 

The  manufacture  of  ffold  and  silver  lace  was 
fonncrly  a  considerable  source  of  wealth,  but  it  is 
now  much  rethiced  bv  foreign  competiti(»n.  How- 
ever, the  ({ualities  of  this  article  still  produced  in 
Brussels  are  fully  ciiual  to  those  of  the  best  de- 
scripti(tn  manufactured  in  Paris. 

Hibbons  of  every  species  are  made  principally 
at  Antwerrs  Toumay,  and  Ypres.  Tliis  branch  of 
industry  formerly  employed  1,00()  looms  and 
12,000  persons  and  produmi  annually  alxiut  three 
thousajid  million  yards  of  ribl)on;  but  the  maim- 
facture,  in  conse(iuence  of  large  importations  of 
cheat  KT  kinds  from  France  and  Germany,  has  very 
considerably  decrease^l. 

The  manufacture  of  hosiery  employs  al)out 
00,000  persons.  Its  princiiml  centre  is  in  the 
arrondissement  of  Toumay,  where  2,.'>ot)  hstms  are 
kept  in  activity.  About  the  same  numlx-r  are 
found  in  other  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  coarser 
articles  are  more  succes^ful,  and  are  |»artly  ex- 
p4irte<l.  Finer  kinils  are  imported  chiefly  from 
Saxony.  At  Arendonck,  in  the  pn»vince  of  Ant- 
weq),  al)out  22(J.tMKi  pairs  of  w<K»Uen  hose  are 
annually  manufact4ired,  and  the  most  beautiful 
articles  of  knitting  and  netting  arc  produced  at 
Brussels  mid  Toumay. 

Hats  of  felt,  or  l>eaver,  are  made  sufliciently 
goo<l  to  meet  the  comp«*tition  of  foreign  roanu- 
factiux'rs, — and  those  of  silk  are  of  very  superior 
({uality.  The  latter  kin<l  are  made  in  nearly 
every  city  in  the  kingdom,  so  that  the  maimfacturo 
of  beaver  hats  has  conseciuently  much  decn»ase<l. 
Straw  liats  are  abundantly  made  in  Brussels 
Ghent,  and  Antwerp. 
The  preiiaration   and  variouB  manufacture!}  of 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 


406 

leather  arc  carried  on  with  undimiuished  sncoem. 
The  principal  tannericB  arc  at  Stavclot  and  Lie^ ; 
there  are  aLso  many  at  KruBselM,  Namur,  Antwerp, 
Ghent,  Ypres,  and  Toumay. 

Paper  mcUtrie8  exi«t  in  every  province,  and  the 
manufacture  of  thiii  important  article  is  pn)gre8- 
sively  improving,  and  in  recent  yeare  much  has 
b€«n'exporte<i  to  England.  It  was  stated,  in  1864, 
that  a  portion  of  the  lai^i^e  sujiplv  renuire<l  for  the 
*  Times'  newspaper  was  made  in  ^elpum. 

Printing  is  carried  on  extonsiveU',  forming  an 
important  department  of  national  indiLstrv.  The 
printing  of  Belgitim  is  in  no  r«<|)ect  inferior  tt) 
that  of  Paris,  in  lieauty  and  neatness  of  exeniiion, 
or  correct  ness  of  text.  ( hie  printing  estalilL^hment 
at  Brussels  now  pnMluces  more  tlian  all  the  presses 
of  the  country  in  the  time  of  its  suhjection  to  the 
ftench  Government  ITiis  remarkable  increase 
arises  fn>m  the  reprehensible  system  of  pirating 
the  Ijcst  works  of  Paris,  which  immediately  appear 
in  Belgium  commonly  at  about  half  the  original 
price.  Thev  can  be  sold  at  this  rcilucetl  rate,  the 
])aT)er  used  in  their  manufacture  l)eing  usually  in- 
ferior, and  the  publishers  having  no  wpyright  to 
pay.  Tt  need  scarcely  l>e  said  that  the  system  is, 
notwithstanding,  most  injurious  to  the  interests  of 
literature,  and  is  discreditable  in  the  extreme  to 
the  lk>lgians. 

Lithography  has  attained  a  high  degree  of  ex- 
cellence, and  some  of  the  productions  of  Brussels 
will  bear  a  comparison  witli  the  finest  8p)ecimens  of 
German  artists. 

Cabinet-making  is  a  source  of  employment  to 
numen)us  skilful  operatives.  Brussels  is  its  prui- 
dpal  seat ;  and  it  exports  various  articles  to  Ger- 
many and  America. 

Tlie  only  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of 
clocks  is  at  Chende,  near  Liege.  The  machinery 
is  moved  by  steam.  But  all  kinds  of  time-pieces 
are  supplied  chietly  from  France  and  Switxerland. 
With  the  view  of  promoting  the  home  pnxlnction 
of  these  useful  mstninients,  the  government  an- 
nually awards  premiums  and  medals  for  the  most 
perfpct  specimens  protlucetl  by  native  artists. 

MetaUurgy. — The  abiuidance  of  metals  and  com- 
bustibles in  Belgium  has  occasi«>ned  the  establish- 
ment of  several  extensive  foiges  for  the  melting 
and  manufacture  of  iron,  copper,  and  tin.  There 
are  three  principal  groups  of  forges, — 1.  On  the 
banks  of  the  Meuse,  oxteiuling  from  its  entrance 
into  Belgium  to  the  limits  of  Namur* and  Liege; 
2.  ]^tweeu  the  Meuse  and  the  Sambre;  and  3.  At 
Charleroy.  liesides  these  principal  groups,  there 
are  numerous  forges,  foundries,  and  tin-works 
along  the  banks  of  the  Iloyoux,  the  Ourte,  and  its 
athueuts.  All  the  mines,  quarries,  steam-engines, 
and  metallurgical  e.^ttablishmeuts  of  Belgium  are 
under  the  sujiervision  of  an  insp<;otor-general  and 
eight  insi»ectors.  all  siibonlinate  to  t))e  '  Directeur- 
Gene'nd  des  Ponts  et  Chaussctjs  et  des  Mines*  in 
the  Miuistrv  of  Public  Works.  Thev  are  tlivided 
into  two  directions  and  eight  arrondissementj»,  as 
follows : — 


Dircctt»ni 


1.  Hoinault . 


2.  Tlie  other  eight  pro- 
vluccs  . 


AiToadlMMUcnts 


r  1.  Mons  and  Toumay 

I  2.  Chnrleroy 

CZ,  Namur,  province  of 

4.  Lnxcmburir,  province 

5.  Llegc,  loft  bank 
-'  ft.  Lif^ge,  right  bank 

7.  Huy 

8.  The  flvo  Northern  pro- 
vinces 


liberativc  attributions,  especially  referring  to  con- 
cessions and  extensions  of  mines.  Tlie  organisation 
and  taxation  of  mines  is  maiulv  regulated  by  the 
laws  of  the  21st  April,  IKK),  aiid  2nd  May,  1887. 
All  mining  operations  must  l)e  previously  authf>- 
rised  by  a  Koyal  Act  of  ('oncessi<m,  which  confers 
peq)etiial  property  in  all  deposits  of  any  specilieil 
mineral  ^itliin  a  certain  defined  area  on  the  pay- 
ment (jf  certain  dues  to  the  owner  of  the  land,  as 
well  as  to  the  Treasurw  The  concession  is  alwavs 
refused  if  the  existence  of  the  mineral  w  not  pn>ved 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Council  of  Mines.  If,  in 
the  process  of  working,  another  mineral  should  l»e 
discovered,  a  fresh  concession  must  l^e  applied  for. 
Tliis  is  generally,  but  not  necessarily,  grante<l  to 
the  same  *c<inn.issi<mnaire.'  Tlie  tax  on  mines  is 
divided  into  the  *  redevance  fixe '  and  the  '  rede- 
van  cc  proportionnelle,'  the  former  amounting  to  10 
centimes  i>er  hectare  (247  acres),  the  latter  to  2^ 
per  cent,  of  the  net  priMhice.  lk>th  of  these  chaiges 
go  to  the  Treasury.  There  are  besides  two  similar 
charges  which  vary  in  different  concej<sions,  ]>ay- 
able  to  the  owners  of  the  surface :  a  fixed  chai^, 
generally  amounting  to  1  franc  per  hectare,  and  a 
graduated  rate  of  fn>m  1  to  3  per  cent,  of  the  net 
pro<luce. 

The  importance  of  the  metalluigical  industry 
of  Belgium  is  shown  by  the  subjoiiic<l  statement, 
which  gives  the  official  of  the  several  branches 
during  the  years  1859  ami  18G0. 


There  is,  moreover,  a  body  of  live  memlien*,  called 
*Conseil  des  Mines,'  invested  with  certain  dc- 


1S59 

I8«> 

Franca 
M,."»7ri,202 
107,1 27 .2«2 
129,ei>9,ll.'J 

17,.'W3/.74 

Metallic  Ores      . 
Coal    .... 
Metals,  Gloss,  &  Alum 
MRrl)lefl,  atones,  and 
Slates 

Total     . 

Total  In  £  sterling 

1 

Francs 
14,<HJI.737 
1()4.006,2>H 
121,207,878 

16,070,4.M 

2M,346,260 

2(57.7iHJ,171 

10,173,848     i      10,711,844 

The  royal  cannon  foundry  at  Liege  has  the 
requinite  apfmratus  for  manufacturing  the  lanrest 
piece-s  of  artillery  in  iron  and  bn^nze,  which  it 
prtMhices  of  the  l)est  quality.  Kstablishnients 
for  the  constnn;tion  of  steam-engines  are  princi- 

EUly  at  Liege,  Brussels,  Cliarleroy,  Tillemont,  and 
niges. 

Nail-making  is  an  important  branch  of  metal- 
lurgy at  Lic^  and  Charleroy.  In  the  latter 
]>lace,  about  o,5(H)  haiuls  arc  employed  in  this 
I)usiiiess  throughout  the  winter.  Liege  is  also 
the  centre  of  a  manufacture  of  yfre-«rw«,  the  pro- 
duce of  which  and  of  various  i)ther  fa<^torie4»  \& 
exportcji  to  America,  Eg\'pt,  Turkey,  Germany, 
Italy,  and  Spain.  The  principal  kinds  rannu- 
facturetl  are, —  1.  Single  and  double  barrelletl 
guns  for  s])orting;  2.  Muskets  for  military  use; 
3.  Common  guns  for  various  purp<»ses :  4.  i*istols, 
which,  as  well  as  the  Iwst  description  of  guns,  are 
made  and  finished  with  great  care  and  skill. 

The  wages  of  pitmen  in  Belgium  average  912 
francs  per  annum,  or  .S  francs  4  centimes  per  dav, 
reckonmg  300  working  days  in  the  year,  fii 
Ilainault  a  collier  earns  an  average  of  %0  franco 
lK?r  annum,  or  3  francs  23  centimes  \vetx  day.  The 
average  earnings  of  all  ages  and  sexes  eniployeil 
in  and  about  the  mines  amounted  in  18(>0  U*  7os^ 
francs,  or  2\  francs  per  workhig  day.  During 
the  same  year  the  operatives  paid  (»n  an  average 
5  francs  per  hea<i  to  the  *  caisscs  de  pn'Vi)yance,' 
and  11  francs  48  centimes  to  the  *caisses  de 
secours;'  U>tAl,  16  francs  48  centimes,  or  2^  |H.r 
cent.  (»f  their  earnings. 

Ample  provision  seems  to  be  maile  for  the 


407 


Impobib. 


I860 


Total  Imports  (including 
transit): — 

BySe.     .       .      \^^ 

Fnu30» 


tt 


Land  &  River 


Total. 

In  Transit  :— 
By  Sea      . 

Land  &  River 


» 


Francs 
£ 


France 
£ 

Francs 
£ 


279,«W.867 
11.196,716 

608,966,668 
24,858,6M 


888368,696 
36,664,341 


Total. 


(Francs 

Entered  for  Homo  (  Francr 
Consomption      (  £ 


120,672,199 
4,822,888 

319,639,463 
12,781,678 


440,111,662 
17,604,466 

461 ,066,786 


1801 


836,361,110 
18.464,444 

687.469,160 
83,498,866 


923,820,370 
36,962,810 


116,871.168 

4,674,846 

292,429,297 

11,697,172 


409,300,460 
16,372,018 

616,686,694 


18,042,271  I    20,667,464 


Exports. 


Total  Exports  (including 

transit) : — 

I  Tk   n  f  Francs 

By  Sea     .       . 


I860 


1861 


i> 


Land  &  River 


Total 


Transit 


Belgian  Produce 


•£ 
FrancH 

*! 

Francs 
£ 

Francs. 


(Francs, 

1  * 


276,066,468 
11.042,668 

677,372,467 
23,i)»4,898 


296,298,973 
11,811.969 

684.269,804 
23,370,392 


BELGIUM  (KINGIX)M  OF) 

material  welfare  of  the  miner.  Of  all  the  89,878 
owratives  engaged  in  this  industry,  80,788,  or 
nine-tenths,  are  affiliated  to  the  'caisaes  de 
secourH,'  and  to  the  *  caisses  de  prdvoyance.*  The 
furmer  are  funds  established  at  every  mine  for  the 
temporary  relief  of  wounded  and  sick  minen ;  the 
latter  are  funds  crcatetl  by  the  association  of  all 
or  mo«<t  of  the  mines  bellmging  to  each  of  the 
six  groups,  for  the  puri^ose  of  giving  permanent 
relief  to  disabled  miners,  or  to  the  widows  of  those 
kille<l  by  accidents,  and  temporary  relief  to  their 
children.  Affiliation  to  these  latter  *  caisses'  la 
mailc  a  condition  of  all  concessions  granted  since 
1H40. 

The  powerful  Society  of  *  La  Vieille  Montagne* 
possesses  numerous  concessions  of  calamine,  lead, 
pvrites,  and  coal  in  different  parts  of  Belgium, 
l*russia,  France,  and  Sweden,  It  employed  in 
1«(I(),  5,027  operatives,  representing,  with  their 
families,  17,(X)(>  individuals,  of  whom  -11,756  live 
in  IJelgium  or  Moresnet.  The  wages  paid  by  the 
s(K"iety  in  the  same  year  were  3,638,896  francs. 
No  »<)ciety  has  made  greater  efforts  to  ameliorate 
the  moral  and  matenal  condition  of  its  servants. 
It  has  adopted  the  plan  of  encouraging  their  zeal 
by  ensuring  to  each  one,  in  addition  to  his  fixed 
wages,  an  eventual  share  in  the  result  of  his  own 
lalMtur,  calculated  on  the  task- work  principle, 
appliwl  eiiher  individually,  or  to  the  squad  of 
hands  attached  to  each  furnace  or  workshop.  It 
has  founded  a  *caisse  de  secours,'  a  'caisse  de 
nrt'voyance,'  and  a  savings  bank,  for  the  exclusive 
iK'nc^fit  of  its  own  operatives;  built  dwelling- 
lu>uscs,  churches,  schools,  butchers'  and  bakcw' 
»ho]>s ;  oigamsed  choral  unions,  archers'  and  rifle 
c< unpanies,  and  an  annual  festival.  1  ts  pnnluction 
of  raw  zinc  amounted  in  1860  to  the  enormous 
amount  of  28,925  tons,  principally  manufactured 
at  Angleur  and  Tilff,  near  Liege.  The  net 
\)n>i\tA  of  the  society,  notwithstanding  tlie  con- 
stant fall  in  the  price  of  zinc,  were  in  1860, 
3,11^,132  francs,  allowing  a  dividend  of  25  per 
cent,  on  the  paid-up  capital  of  9,000,000  francs, 
l)csi(ies  lil)eral  allowances  to  the  directors.  Their 
zinc-works  at  Angleur  arc  the  largest  factory  in 
the  kingdom,  and  a  mtMlel  of  order.  (Kei>ort  of 
Mr.  IJarron,  Her  Maiestv's  Secretary  of  Legation, 
datwl  Brussels,  April  15',  1862.) 

In  order  to  encourage  and  facilitate  improve- 
ment in  manufactures  and  industrial  pursuits,  the 
government  has  instituted  public  exhibitions 
where  only  the  products  of  the  country  and  its 
inhabitants  are  admitted. 

A  ver\'  considerable  part  of  the  revenue  of 
Bclgium'is  <lerived  Irom  a  tax  on  patents,  no  one 
l>oing  allowed  to  exercise  anv  trade  or  profession 
with<»ut  a  ]»atent,  the  price  of^ which  depentls  upon 
the  amount  of  prolit  obtaine<i.  Reports  of  inconie 
an',  required  from  each  individual  engaged  in 
l)usincss.  and  the  government  assessors  exerdse 
inqui.sitorial  power  in  assigning  the  citizens  to 
clitHses  of  different  degrees. 

TraJt  and  Q>mmrrce. — The  eommerre  of  Bel- 
gium extends  its  relations  to  most  pnits  of  the 
world,  and  includes  everv  species  of  indigenous 
and  foreign  ])roduction.  Its  average  annual  value 
may  I )e  estimated  at  71  millions  sterling,  of  which 
:»♦*>  millions  imports,  and  IM)  millions  exports.  In 
1«61,  the  total  imports,  including  transit,  were  of 
the  value  of  3S,9r)2,KH»/.;  in  1X62,  of  the  value  (»f 
41,1 14,77U;  andin  l«63,ofthe  value  of  42,737,1 89(. 
The  t<»tal  exports,  including  transit,  amounted  to 
3:),  1X2,351/.  in  1861;  to  37,594,113/.  in  1H62;  and 
t(»  39,667,701/.  in  1K6.3.   The  following  table  gives 

the  total  H'al  value  of  the  in)iK)rts  and  ex|M)rts        Shippmg. — Belgium  communicates  with  the 
(exclusive  of  specie)  of  Belgium,  in  1860  and  1861,    by  Ostend,  by  Antwerp,  by  Nieuport,  by  the  canal 
wliich  were,  in  many  rcsiiccis,  average  yean : —     ( of  Brugen  to  Oustburg,  by  the  canal  of  Dunkirk 


8^3,438,916 
34,137,666 

440,111,662 
17,604,466 

413.327,263 
16,633,090 


879,668.777 
36,182,361 

409,300,460 
16,372,018 

470,268,817 
18,810,832 


The  commercial  intercourse  of  Belgium  with 
other  states  is  exhibited  in  the  foUo\^ing  state- 
ment, showing  the  value  of  importa  and  exports 
from  an  d  to  t^e  seven  principal  countries  in  the 
vearl863:— 


1 

Importi 
Pniia 

Ezporti 

Frmaes 

Germany— ZoUverein 

204,7<»3,000 

62,417,000 

France 

200,628.(KX) 

97,329.000 

Netherlands 

176.098,000 

114,469,000 

Great  Britain     . 

14i(,66.1,000 

91,32«,(NX) 

Russia 

40,691,000 

83,348,000 

United  States     . 

40,670.000 

26,996,000 

Bradl 

16,003,000 

10,677,000 

The  articles  which  Belgium  supplies  to  England 
are  bark,  flax,  cattle,  madder,  clover-seed,  linen, 
spelter,  books,  and  sheep's  wool;  in  return  for 
which  England  sends  various  kinds  of  East  and 
West  India  produce,  with  cotton  fabrics  and  vam, 
earthenware,  salt,  and  coaL  A  portion  of  the 
cotton  yam,  cotton  cloths,  and  lace  which  aro 
exporte<l  from  England  to  Belgium,  are  smuggled 
across  the  French  frontier.  The  commerciaiand 
manufacturing  cities  of  Belgium  are,  Brussels, 
(ihent,  Liege,  Namur,  Toumay,  Ypres,  Mons, 
Louvain,  Ver\'iers.  Mechlin;  to* which  arc  to  be 
adde<l  the  maritime  cities  of  Antwerp,  Ostend, 
Nieuport,  and  Bru^^  Some  notice  of  the  great 
extent  of  the  Belgic  commerce  in  the  middle  ages 
Ls  given  under  the  head  of  Hittury ;  but  for  more 
particular  accounts  of  its  astonishing  prosperity 
at  that  remote  period,  reference  must  be  made  to 
the  articles  Axtwkup,  (wiirnt,  and  Bhuues. 


^os 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 


to  Fiime8,  by  tho  canal  of  Ghent  to  Tcrnautcn,  by 
the  canal  of  Termondt  to  Hulst,  by  the  Scheldt 
from  Flcssin^e  to  Antwerp,  by  the  Scheldt  and 
the  canal  of  Willebroek  from  BniMHela  to  Antwerp, 
and  by  the  cannl  of  Louvam  and  the  Scheldt  from 
Lonvain  to  Antwerp. 

The  principal  ports  are  Antwerp  and  O^tend. 
The  fonner  u  one  of  the  fmest  in  Europe,  and 
affords  rcceptitm  to  vesjiels  of  the  larj^cst  tijiina^e. 
The  nituation  of  Antwerp,  l)etween  the  N.  and  S. 
countries  of  Kun)]>e,  and  the  establii^hnient  of  a 
nilroad  communication  thence  to  Cologne,  make 
it  a  port  of  great  importance. 

The  numlter  of  merchant  vessels  belonging  to 
the  ports  of  Belgium,  excluding  thttHC  in  the 
firiheri&s  is  but  triiiing.  And  this,  notwithstand- 
ing premiums  arc  given  by  government  for  the 
ocmstructiou  of  shi]w  for  sea  naxigation. 

Steam-boats  are  established  on  all  the  nrincipal 
lines  of  communication  by  water,  as  well  within 
the  country  as  to  foreign  |K>rts.  Bv  far  the  largest 
pn»portion  of  the  foivign  trade  of  Ilelgiuro  centres 
m  Antwerp.  The  annexed  statement  shows  the 
amount  of  shipping  frequenting  that  port. 


MatioDAllty 

6n>at  Britain       .       • 
Franco  .... 
America        •        •       . 
Brazil^  .... 
Mitlitcrronean 
Spain    .        .        .        . 
India     .        .        .        . 
Caba     .        .        .        . 
6t  Domingo 
Rio  de  la  Plata     . 
Turkey  and  Black  Sea 
Pacific  Oocon 


1S63 
683 

lij65 

784 

126 

112 

85 

110 

35 

43 

97 

87 

155 

178 

30 

21 

47 

40 

87 

36 

128 

123 

165 

113 

85 

53 

DEPAirriTiiKs. 


Ynn 

WlUiCwgoM 

In  BallMt 

618 
819 

Toul 

1862 
1863 

1,691 
1,752 

2,300 
2.571 

BlUTLSH. 


TMn 


1862 
1863 


With  Cmrfom 


657 
759 


In  Bftllut 

Total 

762 
9(»8 

105 
149 

The  following  was  the  numlier  and  tonnage  of 
merchant  vessels  of  the  kingdom  at  the  close  of 
1862:— 


Doc.  31, 
1862 

Sailing  vessels . 
Steam        „ 

Total      .    . 

Number 

Tonn«|(« 

138 
7 

89,279 
5,771 

145 

45,050 

The  number  of  vessels  belonging  to  the  IWgian 
merchant  si-rvico,  at  the  close  of  18G1,  was  111. 
At  the  en«l  »f  1H<»0  it  was  120. 

Ostend  L)  princiimlly  a  packet  station  ;  and 
Bruges,  which  in  the  middle  ages  was  one  of  the 
greatest  emiwriums  in  the  N.  of  Europe,  is  now 
of  very  inferior  commercial  im|K)rtance  as  com- 
pared with  Antwerp. 

Monet/. — Tlie  franc  is  the  monetary  unit  of  liel- 
giimi,  and  its  divisions  are  maile  according  to  the 
decimal  system.  There  are  eleven  ditlcrent  Helgic 
coins ;  namely,  two  of  gohl, — the  piece  of  40  franc*, 
and  the  piece  of  20  fraiua ;  five  of  silver, — i)ieces 
of  5  francs,  2  francs,  1  franc,  half  a  franc,  and  a 
ipiarter  of  a  franc ;  four  of  copper, — pieces  of  10 
Mmtimcs,  of  6,  of  2,  and  of  1  centime.   The  dorin 


of  Brabant  is  worth  1  franc  81  centimes,  and  it  is 
divided  into  20  sous,  each  sou  being  again  div^ided 
into  12  dcniers. 

The  value  of  the  English  sovereign  in  Belgic 
money  is  25  francs  20  centimes ;  and  the  English 
shilling,  1  franc  IC  centimes. 

liaiiki  and  CommvrciiJ  Societies,  —  Bi'.lgium 
possesses  several  large  financi:il  estabUshment.s 
devoted  to  industrial  and  commercial  o|)eratii>iu*, 
which  render  an  immense  service  to  the  manu- 
factures and  commerce  of  the  country.  At  HnLs- 
sels  an  association  was  f(»mied,  by  royal  autliority, 
on  the  28th  of  August,  1822,  with  a  charter  for 
27  years.  It  is  entitled  the  SocitiU'  Genirrale  jtotw 
favoriser  rindusirie^  and  its  object  is  t4)  <levelo]K5 
the  resources,  and  promote  the  pntsperity  of  agri- 
culture, commerce,  and  manufactures.  Its  capital 
consists,  1st,  of  .O(»,000,000  llorins  (10o,H20,O0<)  fr.), 
of  which  2O.(M)O,0O0  are  vested  in  real  propertv, 
and  .'J0,O(M),0()0  in  BO,(MX>  shares,  each  of  nOO  tlorius, 
at  an  interest  of  5  per  cent.;  2nd.  of  a  rtvervwl 
fund,  formed  of  a  third  of  the  dividends.  It  issues 
notes  to  the  amount  of  UMMKJ.OOO  francs  f<»r  simis 
of  oO.  100,  o(H),  and  1,000  francs;  and  its  general 
o!>erations  cimsLst  of  the  discounting  of  comniercial 
bills,  n»ceiving  de|K)sits,  making  I(»ans  ami  ail- 
vances,  aiul  in  varioits  ways  afibrding  acconinnK 
dation  to  facilitate  commercial  transacti<ms.  The 
administrative  b<)dy  is  formed  of  a  governor,  who 
is  nominated  by  the  king,  six  directors,  a  secretary', 
and  a  treasurer. 

The  Bank  of  Belpium^  at  Brussels,  was  in^titute<l 
by  a  royal  decree  of  the  I2th  (»f  Feb.,  183;').  with 
acharter  for  2')  years.  Its  capital  is  20,lM)0,(MiO 
francs,  in  20,(MM)  jshares,  each  of  1,000  frant*N.  The 
rate  of  interest  is  5  ix'r  cent.  It  operates  at  onre 
as  a  bank  of  dei)osits,  of  circulation,  of  discount, 
and  of  accommo<lation  to  the  commercial  dashes 
similar  to  that  afforded  by  the  society  just  dc- 
scril>ed.  A  director  and  four  administrators  are 
nominate<l  by  the  king,  and  the  accounts  are  an- 
nually auditcil  by  a  general  assembly  of  the 
holders  of  ten  shares. 

Among  the  deiK-ndoncies  of  the  Socittii  Gi-nArale 
are  the  Society  of  CapitaH$t»^  with  a  capital  of 
oO.OOOjOOO  francs;  the  Socitrty  of  O^mmerce^  ca- 
pital 10,000,Om) :  and  the  Natiotiol  Society,  with 
a  cai)ital  of  15,000,000  francs. 

The  IJank  of  Ik'.lgiura  Iuls  formed  a  Si*ciftu  of" 
United  SharcJi,  with  a  capital  of  40,(K)0,0<H)  franc's. 
Under  the  same;  patronage  was  establishe<l,  in 
l8.*Jo,  the  Bank  of  Liege,  for  40  years;  it  has  a 
fund  of  'l,OtH),000  francs,  in  shares,  each  of  l.oiM) 
francs.  In  1K37,  a  gnat  tinancial  s«»cicry  w;w 
founded,  under  the  title  ut  the  Commercial  Dank 
of  Anticerp ;  its  terra  is  for  25  vears.  and  it^  cxk- 
pital  25,<MX),0O0  francs,  in  shares,  each  of  1,<hm> 
francs.  Numerous  other  iuhtitutions  of  thi<i  nat  iire 
exist  in  tiifferent  parts  of  tlie  kingdom.  The 
amount  of  capital  ]K»ssessed  by  anonyinitus  so- 
cieties authorised  bv  the  goveniment  exc«H'<ls 
100,0<M),()(M)  francs,  or  4,000,000/.  The  conditions 
«»f  siurcess  to  tlurse  societies  are  that  thev  contine 
their  competition  to  such  industrial  ojM-ration.s  as 
the  manufacture  of  the  metals  ami  other  sul)stancc5* 
of  intrinsic  and  pi*nnanent  value. 

Weiyhts  ami  Mvasnres. — lt<-lgium  has  adopted 
the  weights  and  measures  of  the  French  metrical 
system;  tho  fundamental  principle  of  which  i.s  the 
nieasun*  of  length.  Ils  unity,  the  metre,  is  th«^ 
ten-milli<mth  {lart  of  a  quadrant  of  the  mondionnl 
circle  of  the  earth.  The  length  <»f  the  metre  is 
nearlv  an  inrh  less  than  an  English  vard  and  half 
a  quarter;  that  is,  3-28l>i»'.>2  ft.  The  unit  of  su- 
{)er(icial  measure,  the  arc,  is  a  square,  of  which  the 
side  is  10  metres.  The  unit  of  the  measure  of  ca- 
pacity, the  litre^  is  a  cube,  of  which  the  side  la  ihc 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 

tenth  part  of  a  mbtrc  The  stere  is  a  cubic  mjitre. 
The  unit  of  the  measure  of  weight  is  a  centimetre 
cube  of  distilled  water ;  that  is,  a  cube  of  which 
a  side  is  the  hundredth  part  of  a  m^tre.  The 
itinerary  measures  are  the  elecametre,  kUometrt^ 
and  mi/riamttre ;  that  is,  measures  containing  se- 
verally 10,  1,000,  and  10,000  metres.  Measures  of 
length  are  the  metre^  or  lineal  unity,  the  decimetre^ 
centimetre^  and  millimetre ;  which  severally  repre- 
sent the  tenth,  hundredth,  and  thousandth  piarts 
of  a  mbtre.  Land  is  measured  by  the  hectare^ 
containing  10,000  square  mbtres;  the  arey  con- 
taining 100  square  mbtres ;  and  the  centiarey  which 
Ls  1  square  metre.  For  liquid  and  dry  measure  are 
U8C<1  the  /i/re,  which,  as  already  descril)ed,  is  a 
cube  of  which  the  side  is  the  tenth  part  of  a 
mbtre;  an<l  the  deccditre,  hecUdiirey  and  kilolitre^ 
decimal  multiples  of  the  litre,  or  10,  100,  and 
1,(M)0  litres.  The  decalitre  is  a  tenth  part  of  the 
litre.  For  solid  measure  are  used  the  stbre  and 
diH'Lstbre ;  that  is,  a  cubic  mbtre  and  its  tenth  part. 
For  the  measure  of  weiglit  are  used  the  gramme^ 
already  explaine<l ;  the  decagramme^  or  lOgrammes ; 
the  kiloaramme^  or  1,000  grammes;  and  the  quintal, 
or  100  kilogrammes.  The  decagramme  is  a  tenth 
part  of  the  gramme.  It  may  be  useful  to  atld  the 
correspondent  value  of  a  few  of  these  measures 
with  those  of  England. 

Belglo 
Hectare 
Litre 
Dtealitre 
Hectolitre 
Qramnie 


409 


Bclgle 
M^tre  = 

MilliniiMre  = 
Centimetre  = 
Decimetre  = 
Myriamtitre  = 
Mrtre  carr6  = 
Are  s= 


En«IUh 
3-280  feet. 
0-039  inch. 
0-a93  inch. 
3-937  inch. 
6-213  mil. 
M9«8q.yd. 
0-098  rood. 


Gnfflliih 
2-473  acres 
1-700  pint 
2-2<H  gal. 

22-009  gill. 

15-4:Wg.tr. 

Kilogramme=  ]  2..^o51te.a. 


The  ancient  i)ro\'incial  measures,  whicli  are  still 
partially  use<l,  are  too  numerous  for  explanation. 

Roads  and  Raihcayg. — Roads  of  the  first  class, 
paved  or  macadamised,  and  numerous  others  of 
secondary  character,  intersect  the  Belgic  provinces 
in  every  direction.  After  England,  Belgium,  in 
fact,  is  the  next  country  of  Euroi)e  in  which  lines 
of  road  exist  in  the  greatest  number,  and  are  kept 
in  the  best  condition.  Thev  are  broader  and  more 
regular  than  those  of  England,  and  are  l)€tter 
managed  than  the  roads  of  France  :  they  are  also 
capable  of  sustaining  the  greatest  extremes  and 
changes  of  weather,  'H'ithout  undergoing  anv  in- 
jury worthy  of  notice.  The  highways  o/"  the 
state,  of  the  first  class,  have  a  width  of  19  mbtres 
60  centimbtres;  those  of  the  second  class  are  made 
13  mbtres  60  ceutimbtres  in  width,  if  they  traverse 
w<)0<ls  and  thickets;  if  not,  11  mbtres  70  centi- 
metn«.  Provincial  roads  have  a  width  of  9  metres 
75  centimetres.  In  these  dimensions  the  lateral 
banks  or  ditches  are  not  included.  The  whole 
surface  occu]ncd  by  the  roads  of  Belgium  is  esti- 
matoil  at  70,000  hectares,  or  210,000  English  acres. 
Those  of  the  first  and  second  class  are  made  and 
maintaine<l  by  the  state ;  the  provincial  roads  are 
the  affair  of  the  provinces ;  and  the  smaller  by- 
ways lK*h»ng  to  the  communes.  It  is  calculated 
that,  in  Ik'lgium,  a  IcJigue  of  roa<l,  or  3  m.  English, 
costs  in  constmction  160,000  francs,  liesides  se- 
veral new  state  roads  in  course  of  execution,  about 
30  now  pn)vincial  njmls  have  been  plaimed  and 
undertaken  ;  and  a  company  has  l)een  formed  for 
the  ojiening  of  300  m.  of  ruads  and  canals,  on  the 
plan  of  the  Campine. 

Belgium  is  the  first  state  in  Europe  in  which  a 
general  system  of  raihcayx  has  been  planne<i  and 
executed  by  the  government  at  the  public  cost. 
The  undertaking  was  tirst  pn>j(vted  in  1833,  and 
the  object  pro|»osed  wa**  to  unite  the  princifval 
c«>mmercial  towns  on  one  side  with  the  sea,  and 
on  the  other  with  the  frontiere  of  France  and 
Prussia.    In  this  respect  Belgium  is  most  favour- 


ably situated  for  a  general  system  of  railroads.  It 
is  compact  in  form,  of  moderate  extent,  is  sur- 
rounded on  three  of  its  sides  by  active  commerdal 
nations,  and  on  the  fourth  by  the  sea,  by  which  it 
is  separated  by  only  a  few  hours*  voyage  from 
England.  On  the  W.  side  are  the  two  large  and 
commodious  ports  of  Antwerp  and  Ostend,  and  its 
E.  frontier  is  distant  only  a  few  leagues  from  the 
Khine,  which  affords  a  connection  with  the  imtiona 
of  central  and  S.  Euro[)e.  It  is  tliercforc  in  pos- 
session of  convenient  markets  for  its  pnsluctions, 
and  of  great  facilities  for  an  extensive  transit 
trade.  The  physical  nature  of  the  countr)'  is  also 
most  favourable,  being  for  the  most  part  tlat,  and 
requiring  but  few  of  those  costly  works  of  leveUing, 
tunnelling,  and  embankment,  which  serve  to  in- 
crease so  enormously  the  expense  of  similar  under- 
takings in  England.  The  government  tirst  em- 
ployed skilful  engineers  to  sur\'ey  the  kingdom, 
and  to  determine  the  main  lines,  with  regard  not 
only  to  the  physical  circumstances  of  the  surface, 
but  to  the  interests  of  the  large  towns  and  their 
various  relations,  internal  and  foreign.  In  May, 
183'1,  a  law  was  passed  for  the  prosecution  of  tlie 
{)Un  proposed,  and  the  city  of  Mechlin  was  made 
the  centre  of  the  svstem,  with  four  principal  bran- 
ches extending,  1^.  to  Autwerp;  E.  to  Louvain, 
Liege,  Venders,  and  the  frontiers  of  l^nissia,  to  be 
continued  by  a  private  company  to  Cologne;  S. 
tlirough  Brussels  and  the  province  of  Ilainault,  to 
the  I-rench  frontier  near  Valenciennes;  and  W. 
by  Dendermond,  Ghent,  and  Bruges,  to  Ostend. 
By  adoptuig  the  lines  that  concentrate  at  Mechlin, 
a  larger  number  of  towns  are  passed  than  by 
taking  Brussels  for  the  central  station,  and  the 
distance  from  Antwerp  to  the  E.  frontier  is  con- 
siderably less.  The  subjoined  table  ^ves  a  view 
of  the  railway  system  of  Belgium  as  e^i^isting  in 
the  vear  1804,  distinguishing  between  lines  built 
by  the  state  and  by  private  companies : — 


LloctofRaUway 

Length  of 
Lloet 

Com  of 
CoutrucUon 

!    By  TiiJB  Statk.— North. 
BrustscLs  to  Malines 
Malincs  to  Antwerp     . 

1  Branch  Tiine  of  Lierre . 

Total    i^f*^*"*    • 
^^""   1  English  Miles 

West. 
Malinofl  to  Tcrmonde  . 
Termonde  to  fJhent 
Ghent  to  Brupoa  . 
\  Bruges  to  Obtend  . 

Branch  Lino  towards  Lille 
and  Toumay. 
•  Ghent  to  Deynae-Petoghem 
Doynze-reteghem  to  Courtrai 
Courtrai  to  the   French     | 
JVontier    .        .        .        j 
Mooscron  to  Toumay . 

Trtfoi      Mbtres    . 
^^^  1  English  Miles 

EAfH". 

Malinos  to  Louvain      • 

I.oavain  to  Tirlemont .        . 
1  Tirlemont  to  Wtu-emmo 
1  Waremmc  to  Ans 

Atik  to  Mcn»o 

Pont  du  Val-Benolt      . 

Mense   to   the   Pnusian     \ 
Frontier    .        .        .       | 

Landcn  to  Saint-Trond 

MOtres 

20,320 
6,176 

Francs 
8,6«4,644 
4,812,794 
381,864 

63,477 
33 

8,869,202 
£  354,369 

26,264 
31.f«8 
44,668 
24,672 

[    43,660 

16,062 
19,135 

3,432,460 
6,291,689 
6,981,938 
3,823,003 

6,246,474 

8,366,6.'i6 
3,127,020 

206,229 
128 

30,269.029 
£1.21U,361 

23,683 
19.071 
27,024 
18,996 

1      6^10 

89,680 
10,220 

4.30f»,437 
6,076.632 
6.(W9,.-96 
3,4^,938 

7,001.650 

23,676.766 
1,228,805 

TotRl  /Mbtres   . 
^°^  1  English  Miles 

145,084 
90 

60,89<;.7O8 
£  2,036,868 

Bnwui'lii  Co  Tubids 


I(rM«hLlne»Bru«h      . 

T.1 

iBmlShJUlM 

Total 

1  KuglWi  UllM 

BdUdlDgili 

rr:-Inc]n,(!njl 

WtsUm  FIsiKlmi         ', 

EnCrc  Samhrp  uul  Uchh 

leray  to  ErqaeJIuiHS 
PeplniiliT  lo  SpB  . 
IlaliAiilC  ami  FlDDilcni 
to  RuUiTclain 


BELGIUM  (KINODOai  OF) 


"TEi-i 


«  worthy  of  remarfc,  that  Iho  sctiinl  coat 
nI  in  Itvlf^ium  h»  exccedol  tlic  cslitnsl«  of 
innm  1^  onW  10  p^  «tnt. ;  while  in  Entr- 
tit  iiutanra,  of  tJic  Lunilim 
d  nf  ilie  Girat  'H'rMHn  nil- 
ro  excceclnl  'm  tlie  cmt  liv  nion>  thnn 
liHlpcrcfiit.  In  cliripiHMi  of  fami.  thv  ItclKiaii 
nulrnads  far  mirpaag  thone  of  F.nKlsnil.  Ttu^  leiiKtti 
<if  the  line  lei  wiwn  Anlwomand  llnuwls  in  ilk  m.; 
the  Ans  in  a  Unt  cUm  racTiai.-o,  i:  Cd.;  while  a 
iWArlj- nimilar  digtnncr  in  £n);]nnil,  from  Liverpool 
ti>  MnnclK'Klcr,  in  lu.  6d.  In  Bvliiiiim  then  an 
faa  kinik<  nf  railway  rarria([«: — the  Dcrlin.  ilili- 
DtDce,  char-ji-biuic,  and  vapin.  The  cbnimi  Id 
UielwoHrat  inat  therat«of  l^dL  a  mile,  and  tli^v 
■ninrer  to  th«  English  mail  aiiil  coach,  for  whirh 
the  rale  of  charm  per  mile  in  nearly  doulile.  The 
ehanuk-tiinc,  whicli  arc  used  hv  i^nt  mimlieni  of 
the  poorer  cIum.  arc  but  three  farthinga  a  mile, 
and  the  wngnnii  are  onlv  one  hnlfiienny. 

The  KTow  leeeiiilH  of  the  ^5'^  m.  of  nilway  atl- 
ninlinereil  liy  [lie  Mat«  amiumleit  in  lHti3  to 
4S,4T«  rraius  per  kilometre,  or  ij»i3l.  per  mite,  of 
which  Mim  aboot  67  per  cent,  was  jiroiliieed  hy 
Uw  finnU  traflir,  and  iW  per  cent.  I>y  pasnenjiery. 
It  b  mentioned,  to  tlie  credit  of  Ihe  Sute  Kailwar, 
thU  not  one  paiweniteT  was  killcil  in  IfUl  iir 
18B3)  and  that  of  IIHI^WD^min  pawengen  carried 


snllinjt  from  the  seri-ice,     Tho  n 

doubled  within  (he  taut  (en  years,  and  hoa  now 
risen  to  a  sum  e<|ua]  to  l,*"*  jwr  mile.  Xearly 
all  the  linn  conceileii  liy  the  Gnvemment  were 
eunstnictcd  between  iKi»  and  1HJI>.  bv  Knglisti 
comiiBniai.  Prlrate  linen  that  compete  in  (he 
i<U(th(eiit  degree  with  (hat  of  the  Mate  are  aub' 
jeolcd  (fl  Teiy  oneniiu  irrmB.  Tlicv  are  tar  tho 
miMt  part  biuicli  line^  and  nlthouufi  cuBlini;  lea) 
"—  the  SUIe  Railway,  wUidi  iitdudi      ' 


State  Railway  to  nxliYm  itself  with  i._  . , 
capital!  in  cither  wonts,  to  purchaxe  iiwlf  with  i 
own  HurjiluM  reit-nue.  The  year  ISKl  wa«  II 
lirnt  year  whieh  nhowcd  an  actual  profit  on  tl 


exiieeted  ihat  the  State  italhray  will 
have  iBiuBlit  iUwlf  up  in  ihe  year  1»W-1.  by  whieh 

to  SiflllD.IHm  trancn,  or  9l>ll,<HI(ii.  per  annnm,  or 
enough  to  pay  (he  then  reduced— tli[nu||;h  the 
nnkinii!  fund— interest  of  the  national  deljt.  Ah 
each  concedeil  railway  lapses  gratuitously  to  the 
alate  in  ninety  yean  fhim  (lie  periiHl  of  ita  con- 
struction, (lie  entire  system  will,  by  tlie  efflux  of 
time,  become  national  pniperty. 

Oani^—Thf.  length  ol  the  canals  in  Delgium 
amoiintii  (o  ^>il.S£iJ  metres,  and  that  of  the  nari- 
fnble  rik-eni  to  lli;2.7'l6  niMres.  Hence  the  tiiial 
extent  or  inbuid  navigalion  i*  lAiiiWii  mi'trus 
or  Hoi  KngliiOi  miles,    Tlie  fflclllliea  thus  affonled 

ciJtuial  produce  lielween  the  pilnei|>al  ]ilBcei>  in 
the  kinKiIoiii  ii  a  prreat  ailvantago  to  the  provecu- 

clal  biwine™. 

of  Itflgium,  by 


fallmduiliialandcoT 
/■upM/iidM.- The  popula 
ie  (¥nsu9  of  (»cu  1,9.  ]x.v:.  i 
ivideil  as  follows  over  die  i 


10  iiro™ 


Flairicrii  j 


It 


More  recent  calculations,  made  on  the  ImsU  of 
e  rtat-citU,  or  rn^trv  uf  hirtlm  anil  dcathK. 
ite  Ilus  numhets  of  the'  iwpulation  on  the  1st  of 
innari-,  IHiil,  at  4,894,(171.  This  uires  440  xouli 
the  M|.  m.,  piDi-iiig  Drlgium  (o  be  the  ilenseKC 
haliiliil  country  in  Eun^ic.  Ahinit  two  and  a 
ilf  millions  of  the  inhabitants  are  FleroiHh,  the 
't  Walloon  and  French.  Tlie  Fleminpt,  whu 
;iprak  in  {general  a  dialect  of  (he  IhiU-h  lan|;:uagL'. 

and  that  of  tho 
iweip.  ine  two  f  landers,  and  (he 
UreatfM  portion  of  the  province  of  Limliui):.  Tlie 
lieminns  occupy  a  |iart  of  the  jnuvuicca  of 
liUxembuTie  and  l.imbur);.  The  nutbniiH,  who 
■  clialB.1  of  the  andent  Fiench,  inhabil  tht 
s  of  Liege,  Namur,  llainault,  the  airm- 
It  of  i^ivelles,  in  llnbmit,  and  a  part  of 
inee  of  LuxembuT}^. 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF)  411 

The  French  Ungiu^e  ii  nmd  in  public  affun  I  Louviin,    83,036;    Tnomav,    81,172;    Venien, 
snil   by   all   the  edunled  uul  wcalthv  eludes.    2K.69I ;     Huns.    WJ<J9;     Uuaai,    26,989;    ud 
Among   the    Flemish   ind   German    inlialalanu,    CourtraT,   2a,tiS  inhalntaiiU.      In   tlie  coanUy 
jmprehend   population,  the  two  Beiea  are  very  nearly  «qnil 


it,  iTie  po|«iUlion  «  very  un&iiinllv  diHtributed 
IhnniKhnut  the  tmilniy.  Kant  Flancluis,  the 
rirhCKt  and  best  cultivated  province,  cuntaiiw,  in 
pRiportion  In  itH  extent,  (be  greateM  nuinbeTor 
pcnuuB,  Tbe  ilennily  of  its  popiilatinn  i>  twice  as 
KTvat  ai  that  of  Antwerp  or  Liree,  Tour  times 


1  of  Nai 


number ;  in  (he  (uwub,  then 
cem  of  female*.  The  pruporliun  or  the  married  to 
the  whole  population  »  u  1  t«  2.  The  proportiim 
nf  unmaincd  to  mBtricil,  in  an  equal  number  of 
each,  ia  companilively  KreatpsI  among  mnlea  in 
(he  counlr)'.    'Ilie  number  of  wldowg  i*  doul>le 


Luxemburs-  The  Payn  de  Wi.  . 
diiMoment  of  Termotirle,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Ucinnray,  contains  more  inha^taiitH  than  are  to 
lie  found  iu  any  part  of  Europe  on  the  same  extent 

The  population  of  Ttrl^i 


IKW. 

The  followinii  Ubie  show 

a  the  ann 

iial  state 

on  l>ecen.bor  Bl,  lOKOthcr  with 

he  Intlhn  an<l  i 

onths  d 

riHK  the  year,  and  the 

len»ii. 

of  p')pulalioii  per 

«|,i.rc  kilometre;— 

=£■;. 

.:;:;::: 

HF 

^", 

'Ski 

1*W 

4,i«j.«iro 

i 

pi 

4.3311,441 
4.a.-,9."ai 
4.3*),*il> 
4.4ai!,Kht 

^m 

I««4 

la 

IMI 

4JJS.1M 

4,iiis.ilfil 

IM 

INH 

tAUIfil 

uis.iia 

VtH 

4,aiM,KW 

U« 

4.«]r>i4 

IWi 

4.ffllI,0M 

t.m.tn 

S4fl 

4/71  JflW 

4,1  U>U 

140 

1KM 

4.M»,1*7 
4.«].M« 

iS 

US 

I'.iriMM 

144 

iwm 

ll^iS 

lOJ 

!"!;; 

^■?mi 

''^ 

I IIHI  familif*,  or  Bonielhinj;  abot-e  4}  li>  each 
family;  in  (he  country,  60.1  perHins  to  li>0  fami- 
li»,  or  5  to  each  fcinily.    The  births  to  the  whole 

'  population  are,  in  the  countrr,  as  I  to  2H-9 ;  and 
in  the  tflwnii,  I  to  27-7.    The  deaths  to  the  whole 

linms,  1  tu  84-9.  The  to'ial  muTii^;cs  (o  the 
I  population  areas  I  to  1B4-9;  thenuml«rdi- 
«l,  as  1  to  W-i-IH.  Tbe  proportion  of  the 
ilation  of  (own*  (o  that  of  (he  euuntty  is  aa 
3'22.  The  mairiaiies  in  the  tuwns  are,  to 
[b<«e  in  the  couniry.as  31  lo  100.  or  )  to  3 ;  which 

Cniportum  is  Klentical  with  tluit  between  ibe  two 
inds  of  jiopuUtion.    Tlie  averaf^  proportion  of 
births  to  marris«;eis  in  the  whole  population,  is  aa 
;  and  of  deaths  (o  liirtbs,  1  to  l-t»  in  (he 
■  ■  ■    ■  " Tbe  illcffiti- 


hinliH 


e  as  1  lo  12  u 


■.-.  and  1  to3S 
Luxemliuif;.  the  poorest  provinre  in  the  king- 
dora :  the  fceneial  ai-erage  is  I  (o  21.  The  nanil«r 
otpaupprs  {la  aidigenU}  constitute  i4-H  ficrcent, 
or  1  in  T  of  the  whole  population ;  and  it  is  n- 
markable  that  in  those  provinces  where  indusliy 


the  proportion 
kingdom,  it  is 


Kium,  ail 
Xelherlii 


■Ion,  ntmeil  April  19,  IH39,  and  rsdiied  on  June  N 
f'llliiwing,  whii-h  definitely  settled  tlui  limiU  of 
tlw  kingilom. 

'Ibc  traulcne}r  vlnhle  in  moM  Earopran  coun- 
(riiw,  of  an  a^lnineTaliDii  oT  iha  PH'I^Id  in  tl>o 
lan^T  lownH,  u  also  a{i)ian-M  in  Heljiiuin.  Of 
tliioUnuweUis  themnat  Miikiiixeicani)ile.  There 
were,  In  INtHI,  onir  nU.2tl7  inlialritants  in  the 
town,  and  10,129  iu  the  suburb*  of  llrtissrls,  while 
the  niimlwr  at  tlieend  of  IMKl  amounteil  toabine 
llim.iHJii;  (be  suljoinal  table  shown 


.r  IKM:- 


,»,».„ 

T«i 

.^ 

m.»i 

3l'K^i41 

i 

9S,W9 

a>i!i7" 
so.ia:. 

riiiM7 

S^rs  exceeds  21  ] 
e  poorrst  prov 
[)'7,  or  lees  than  i  per  eenu      ine  operative 
n  form  thrpc-fourllisof  the  whole  population, 
Lumltrof  insane  persons,  of  whom  mote  than 
one-half  ore  paupers,  areas  I  lo  1,000  of  tbe  whole 

T\te  Kovemment  census  of  (he  population  nf 
Delftium  is  coiiUucled  wiih  (he  mmt  exemplarv 
attention  to  systematic  mctlioO.  All  (lie  useful 
iminis  of  iiii|uiry  are  ineluileil,  so  that  the  renilla 
exhiliil  a  most  valiuilile  ouemblage  of  scientiSo 
ilala,  which  in  saiisfoctoiy  completeness  and  pn- 
cinion  are  not  surpassed  by  similar  dooimenta  of 
any  other  country.  A  particular  of  great  import- 
aiii'e  in  the  calculations  of  life  insurance — the 
age*  of  the  liring  otul  dyin)>— which  in  many 
enumerations  nf  the  inhalutants  of  cither  cvuntrira 
has  been  omitted,  is  ascertained  with  great  on  in 
the  populalicm  inqairies  of  llelfrium. 

Juanwrs  and  Oufoiiu — llie  iirlfnans  have  been 
suerK*ively  snlijectcd  to  tbe  influence  of  so  many 
diffenrnigmenimcnts— French,  Austrian,  Spanish, 
Dutch— that  (hey  pcwsess  no  di«(inc(ivc  anil  )iecu- 
liai  nalional  cbnmcteT.  The  apathy  and  pcR«- 
verinfc  inrluslry  of  tbe  Dutch  is  blendeil  with  tho 
rivacily  and  self-assurance  of  the  French,  witbiait 
prwlucing  an  agreeable  compouniL     The  liiffercnt 


■s  IlruBsels,  there  arcclcven  til 


manners.  <>n  tbe  bonlers  of  Iloltand  i 
are  ttenerally  similar  lo  the  Iluich,  i 
their  customs,  amusements,  and  ifiess; 


be  pe..plo 


French  In  aimeorance.  habits,  costmrur,  ann  lan- 
guage. The  lielgian  burghers  have  Mlwayidia- 
pUyeil  a  jKuwiomue  fomlnees  fur  social  lilieny— 
an  (inpativncc  of  contrul  that  c 


t  embroiled  IhciD 


412 

with  their  ralcra,  and  involved  them  in  ruinoun 
dbiasters  during  succesnive  centuries.  WriterH  of 
all  agc»  have  agreed  in  describing  them  as  restless 
and  unnilv ;  always  treating  their  best  rulers  the 
worsts  while  the  luul  overawed  them.  In  the  his- 
tory of  no  other  countrj'  do  we  find  so  much 
liberty  vrith  S4)  great  a  disT>osition  to  its  abuse. 
They  no  sooner  emanciiMited  themselves  from  the 
despotism  of  their  feudal  lords,  tluin  jealousy  of 
each  other's  power  engaged  them  in  frequent  and 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 


and  the  display  of  musical  skill  is  quite  astonish- 
ing. These  contests  excite  the  greatest  interest 
in  the  localities  of  the  different  cum|)etitors,  who 
are  accompanied  to  the  places  of  meeting  by 
processions.  Music,  in  fact,  is  so  commonly  and 
carefully  leAmt,  even  by  the  lalKiuring  classes, 
that  the  harmony  of  the  airs  which  are  sung  by 

S roups  of  {Hiasantjs  while  at  work,  is  often  de- 
ghtful    to   the    most    cultivated    nnisical    ear. 
The   national    taste  for  mu^ic   is   further  mani- 
fatal  hostilities ;    so  that  *  liberty  never  wore  a  !  festwl  in  the  numerous  and  singularly  excellent 


more  unamiable  count trnance  than  among  these 
buighers.  i\ho  abused  the  ^)trength  she  gave  th«in 
by  cruelty  an<l  insolence.'  (llallam's  Middle 
j\^s,  i.  r27,  ed.  1819.)  They  conlirmetl  every- 
compact  with  ceremonious  oaths,  and  broke  them 
under  the  pretence  of  encroachments  l>eing  made 
n\Hm  their  lil>ertie.s;  and  it  is  alUgHl  that  their 
desirendants  are  still  nither  deficient  in  goinl  faith. 
*.\  facility  for  making  promises  and  breaking 
them  is  said  Ut  nm  through  the  lielgian  ])eople, 
in  all  the  channels  of  business,  wholesale  or  retail, 
of  the  bureau  or  in  the  worksho]».'  Ihit  it  is  at  the 
same  time  said  that '  this  general  want  of  venicity 
does  not  extend  to  great  national  transactions, 
nor  to  the  priK-eedings  of  diplomacy.'  The  most 
ubvious  peculiarity  by  which  the  llelgians  are  n«)W 
distinguished  is  their  devout  ol)servance  of  reli- 
gious rites  and  cen^monies.  Long  and  imiM)sing 
processions  (►f  the  priesth»M>d  in  their  sacenlotal 
dresses  are  frequently  parading  the  streets  of  the 
principal  towns ;  and  it  is  evident  in  the  whole 
conduct  and  customs  of  the  Helgians,  as  descrilMHl 
by  writers  of  every  jMurty,  that  the  higher  class«^ 
are  grt»atly  influence<l  by  bigotry,  and  the  lower 
classes  by  suiK'rstition.  In  the  rural  districts  the 
cletg>'  aire  reganled  with  great  veneration,  aiul 
they'  exercise,  and  endeavour  to  maintain,  a 
I>owerful  dominion  over  the  great  mass  of  work- 
men and  peasants.  The  churches  are  opened  at' 
jive  or  six  o'chxik  every  morning,  when  every 
g«MKl  C'atholic  attends  to  repeat  his  prayers  l>efore 
entering  upon  the  business  or  pleasure  of  the  day  ; 
but  the  af"tem(M)u  and  evening  of  everj'  Sunday 
are  enlivened  by  the  entertainments  (»f  tavern 
gardens,  grounds  for  sh<K»ting  with  the  cr«>ss-lKiw, 
ball-rooms,  theatre^s  and  ottier  public  places  of 
amusement.  Another  remarkable  trait  in  the 
Ikdgic  character  is  a  p(>rtinacious  adherence  to 
long-established  notions,  habits,  and  customs,  with 
an  aversion  to  proposed  improvements,  however 
worthv  of  consideration  an<i  adoption.  Tliis,  how- 
ever, is  more  especially  true  of  the  rural  ]s>pula- 
tion ;  for  the  middle  classes  of  the  towns  are  dis- 
tinguished by  a  spirit  of  enter|»rise,  and  readiness 
to  act  upon  every  suggestion  of  advantage,  in  the 

iin)secution  of  industrial  and  commercial  business. 
lence,  while  the  a|»athy  of  the  furmcr,  and  their 
preference  for  what  has  Wen  established,  nn»  fa- 
vourable to  the  cause  of  onler  and  of  j>ublic  tran- 
quillity, the  enter|)ri<»e  and  ingenuity  of  the  hitter 
conspire  to  developc  the  nationnl  resources,  and 
enable  Ik'.lgium  io  innintaiu  her  ])osition  in  the 
EuroiK'an  commonwealth.  The  wealthy  inhabi- 
tjuits  of  the  cities  have  ver>'  generally  adopted  the 
language,  fa«ihioiL««,  dress,  manners,  an<l  amuse- 
ments of  the  French,  8<>  that  IJnissels  may  be  re- 
garded as  Paris  in  miniature — with  much  of  the 
uulne^  of  a  mere  pnA-incial  ttmn. 

Music  and  dancing  are  very  favourite  amuse- 
ments, especially  with  the  middle  an<l  lower 
classes.  On  every  fuie  summer  evening,  balls 
are  given  in  the  tavern  ganlens,  which  are  iiu- 
men>us  in  the  outskirts  of  everj'  large  town. 
Musical  festivals  arc  annually  celebrated  at 
Brug(»s,  Ghent,  and  Antwerj),  by  amateur  per- 
formeri.    Prizes   arc  given  ou  these  occasions; 


layed  by  means  of  a  revolving   barred 
V  machmerv,  but  bv  kevs,  similar  to 


chimes  of  oO  or  UK)  Udls,  called  eariUons,  which 
are  place«l  in  the  church  stwples  and  towers  of  the 
town-halls.  Those  in  the  large  cities  are  not 
always  p' 
worked  o 

thosti  of  an  organ,  though  of  far  greater  dimen- 
sions. The  |.wrfomiers  are  paid  a  considiTable 
salary  for  amusing  the  citizens,  during  an  hour 
or  two  everv  <lay.  with  the  finej4t  musie^il  com- 
positions, ^riieir  hands  are  case^l  with  tliick 
leather,  and  the  physical  force  nypunul  is  so 
severe  as  to  exhaust  the  strength  of  a  powerful 
man  in  a  quaurter  of  an  hour.  In  some  l(»calities. 
the  difVeri^nt  chimes  are  so  inconveniently  nunie- 
nMis,  as  scarcely  to  leave  an  uiierval  of  silence, 
dav  or  night. 

in  geiwral  the  laboring  classes  in  Belgium  are 
ruder  and  less  instnicted  than  in  Holland,  but  in- 
dustrious and  itroWdent  habits  are  o)isi>rvnble  m 
ever>'  part  of  the  kingdom,  es|)ecially  in  Flanders. 

Sclvncenand  Arts, — Since  the  pnivinccs  t»f  15el- 
gium  have  formed  an  inde|>en(leut  nation,  a  s]>irit 
of  emulation  and  desire  of  hnprovenient  have 
arisen  among  all  classes  of  the  }K)palation.  The 
govennnent  encourages  the  pn»gniss  of  science, 
learning,  the  fine  arts,  and  literarj-  taste :  {li'usions 
are  given  to  young  men  of  tident  to  eiuible  them 
t<»  develojie  tlie  powers  of  their  genius  in  foreign 
countries,  by  studying  the  works  of  the  groat 
masters;  and  a  national  exhibition  Ls  ojK'nol 
every  year,  in  which  are  displayed  the  paintings, 
sirulptures,  engravings,  and  designs  of  the  N-st 
artists.  It  is  alternately  held  at  IJrussols.  Ant- 
werp, and  (ihent,  so  that  each  of  thcy*t»  cities  l>e- 
conies  a  centre  of  attraction  to  the  lovers  of  art- 
ever\'  thirtl  venr. 

Architecture,  has  Wen  carrie<l  to  a  high  de- 
gn-e  of  jicrfection  in  the  constniction  of  the 
cathedrah*  and  town  halLs  of  Ikilgium,  which 
<lisplay  the  finest  specimens  of  the  onumiental 
(iothic  style  (»f  the  middle  ages.    The  caibetlnils 

arc  magiiiti- 
K>ii  work  tower 
of  the  latter  Ls  of  the  12th  centur>',  and  tlmu^xh 
unliiushe<l,  it  is  higlier  than  the  d(»me  «»f  St, 
Paid's.  In  England,  (iothic  architecture  is 
chiefly  c*»nfined  to  churches,  but  in  lielginm  it 
has  Utii  successfully  applieil  to  civic  editiees 
and  ]irivate  houses.  FrontsS  richly  decorated 
with  quaint  and  fantastic  sculDtures.  lofty  >lo]>- 
ing  nM»fs.  full  of  wind«)ws,  iM)inted  g:ible>,  cas- 
tellated towers,  battlements  an:l  projectuig  win- 
dows, combine  to  imnluce  a  general  itfeci,  whicli, 
fn>m  its  grandeur  and  intricacy,  delights  and 
amusc-s  the  sjK'ctator.  The  Utym  lialls,  (»r  rather 
munici}ml  palaces  oC  Brussels.  Louvain,  (ihent, 
Vpre-s,  and  Bruges,  are  une<pialled  in  magnitu<!e 
and  elaborate  ornament  by  any  similar  edit  ices  in 
Eur(»|)e. 

Belgium  possesses  several  public  lihrana.%  con- 
rich  collections ;  and  the  gi>venHn<'nt 
exerts  the  greatest  care  to  increase  and  pre-Mjm-e 
Ihem.  At  Brussels,  the  libran'  of  Bourg(»gne, 
founded  aWut  loGO.  consists  exclusively  «)f  a  col- 
lection <»f  l.oOU  MSS.  The  Boval  Librarv  has 
'200,000  printed  and  18,000  MSS.  vols.    The  *rown 


of  Antweqi,  (ihent,   and   Mechlin, 
cent  (iothic   structures.    The  oik>ii 


taming 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 

Library  of  Bnipcs  has  10,000  voK  At  Lou  vain, 
the  Univcraity  Library  has  lOa.CMK)  priiitwl  vols. ; 
and  that  of  the  JcstutA  22,006  vols.  At  Liege, 
the  library  uf  the  university  has  7(»,(M)0  imntcil 
volumes,  and  437  MSS.  The  University  Lilirary 
of  Ghent  lias  00,000  printed  and  556  MS.  vols. 
The  Public  Library  in  the  town-house  of  Ant- 
werp contains  30,000  volumes.  At  Toiunay,  tlie 
Town  Library,  oi>ened  to  the  public  in  1818,  con- 
tains 27,000  printed  volume^s,  and  5H  MSS,  The 
state  also  |H>ssosses  several  valuable  deijota  of 
archives,  'lliat  at  Liege  inohules  the  archives  of 
the  ancient  principality  <»f  Liege,  which  are  vcrj' 
numerous  and  interesting.  In  the  dejHJt  of  Mons 
are  the  archives  of  the  sovereign  court  of  Ilainault, 
and  other  curioiLs  antiquarian  documents. 

Leanie<l  stx'ietie,'^  devt>te<l  to  general  or  parti- 
cular objects  are  very  numeroiw.  The  mtwt  im- 
portant, jLs  well  as  the  most  ancient,  is  the 
Acadr.my  of  Sci(;nces  and  li<;lles  Lettrej*  of  Brus- 
wl'*,  the  operations  of  which  commenceil  m  the 
rei;cn  «»f  Marie  T1utcs<>. 

PuhUc  Instruction. — Belgium  possesses  four  uni- 
versities devoted  to  the  higher  range  of  scientific 


413 


and  literarj'  sturlies ;  tw(»  lielonging  to  the  state, 
at  Ghent  and  Liege;  the  Catholic  university  of 
Louvain,  founded  by  the  clergv;  and  the  free 
univer>ity  of  Brussels,  founded  by  association. 
Li  the  lOth  century  the  university  of  Laivain 
was  the  lirst  in  Kuro])e  as  a  school  of  Catholic 
thetdog}',  and  was  attended  by  0,000  students. 
Besidej*  the  usual  faculties  of  law,  metiicine, 
8cieu(?e,  pliilosophy  and  literature,  the  university 
of  Liege  contains  a  school  for  teaching  the  useful 
arts,  manufactures  and  mining.  That  of  Ghent 
gives  a  courj«e  of  ci>'il  enipncering ;  and  the  uni- 
versity of  Lmvain  a  course  of  theology.  Each 
of  the  universities  |K>ssess<»s  a  chemical  labora- 
tory-, cabinets  of  physical  science,  of  mineralogy, 
zoology,  and  comparative  anatomy,  a  theatre  of 
anatomy,  botanic  ganlen,  and  chambers  for  clini- 
cal practice.  The  nundjer  of  students  who  attend 
the  collegiate  courses  at  Liege  is  usuallv  alNiut 
f)<K),  at  Cihent  300,  and  at  Unt'^^els  about  4in).  The 
largest  cla«Jses  are  those  of  law  and  mwlicine. 
AlM»ut  420  st\ident.«<  of  divinity  att«nd  the  Catholic 
university  of  Louvain,  which  is  opposed  to  the 
lil>eral  university  of  Bnissels. 

There  are  two  degrees  in  each  department  of 
knowle<ige — mndiilate,  or  graduate,  and  doctor^ 
which  Ls  understood  and  applied  simply  in  it8 
original  and  abstract  signitication  of  a  person 
<*om])etent  t^)  teaidi ;  tliat  is,  leanied.  The  class 
of  moral  and  mental  philosophy,  and  that  of  p<dite 
literature,  have  each  a  jury  appropriated  to  ex- 
amine and  confer  degrees,  as  have  also  those  of 
law  an<l  metUcine,  The  memlH»rs  of  the  examining 
l)ody  are  api>ointed  for  one  year :  two  of  each  Jury 
are  nominated  by  the  chaml)er  of  representatives, 
two  by  the  senate,  and  three  by  the  ministers  of 
the  government.  In  the  budget  of  18<»4,  the  sum 
S4't  down  for  puldic  education  amounted  to 
4,.')(M),(M»0  francs,  or  18t),(M)()/.  It  was  pkced  to  the 
credit  (»f  the  minister  of  the  interior. 

A  military  nhoul  at  Bnissels  aimually  furnishes 
M-ell-iristructe<l  oOicers  to  the  army  ;  and  the  go- 
veniment  has  taken  measures  for  the  re-organLsa- 
tion  of  this  establishment,  in  order  to  form  it  into 
a  iMdvtechnic  academv. 

There  are  two  vtterinari/  »7<oo/^  one  at  Brussels, 
the  other  at  Liege.  That  at  Brussels  Ijelongs  to 
the  giivenmunt:  and  although  it  is  <lesignated  a 
M'ti'iinnry  s«.']»(»ol,  its  arrangements  afford  the 
means  «»t  complete  instnu'tioii,  not  only  in  that 
ilepartment  of  science,  but  in  all  the  different 
brandies  of  agricultural  knowledge,  theoretical 
and  practical 


Besides  these  establishmcntfi,  -which  are  sup- 
ported bv  the  state,  or  bv  the  communes,  some  of 
the  provinces  have  Catholic  coUegtSt  wliich,  as  well 
as  the  university  of  Louvain,  are  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  clcurgy.  Four  of  these  ecclesiastical 
institutions  arc  possessed  by  the  corporation  6f 
J(^uits ;  namely,  one  at  Brussels,  one  at  Namur, 
one  at  Alost,  and  one  at  Ghent.  There  is  also  a 
thecdogical  seminarv  in  the  diocese  of  each  Catholic 
bishop ;  that  is,  at  Mechlin,  Bniges,  Ghent,  Liege, 
Namur,  and  Toumay ;  and  smaller  sch(M>Is  of  Uio 
same  nature  in  each  diocese;  at  Mechlin,  Ronlcrs, 
St.  Nicolas,  Kolduc,  Bonne-Es}x>rance,  liastogne, 
and  Floreffe.  Iklgium  may,  therefore,  be  consi- 
dered as  am])ly  provided  with  the  means  of  main- 
taining and  propagating  ecclesiastical  doctrines. 

IwJtutritd  and  commercitd  schools  are  established 
at  Brussels,  and  at  Ver\'iers,  where  courses  of  in- 
struction are  given  in  mathematics,  mechanical 
science,  chemistr\',  geography,  Ixxik-keeping ;  in 
short,  in  every  de]tartment  of  science  and  practical 
knowle<lge  that  is  or  may  \)C  8ub«<^rvient  to  tho 
purposes  of  commerce  and  the  manual  arts.  At 
Toumay,  a  scho<d  hjus  Unm  especially  formed  for 
teaching  the  most  useful  arts  anil  trades ;  and  in 
the  cities  of  Mons  and  Namur,  schools  are  opened 
for  giWng  instructions  in  the  various  operations 
apf>ertaining  to  mining.  The  tine  arts  are  still  an 
object  of  much  emulati(m  in  Belgium,  and  acade- 
mies of  painting  are  verj'  numenmslv  attended  in 
BnisseLs,  Antwerp,  Liege,  Ghent,  Louvain,  and 
Toumav. 

The  i^oyal  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Antwerp 
is  the  principal  schoid  of  {lainting,  and  it  produces 
every  vear  several  artistes  of  the  highest  distinc- 
tion. It  is  supporteil  by  the  public,  and  is  usually 
attended  by  at  least  a  thousand  students. 

ik-lgium  is  remarkable  for  its  large  and  nume- 
rous schools  of  music,  called  amxervatoirea.  llio 
mo^t  important  is  that  of  Brussels,  which  is  com- 
monly attende<l  by  4(»0  pupils;  and  the  most 
ancient  is  at  Liege,*with  200  pupils.  Tlie  (ihent 
Couservatory  of  Music,  though  a  very  recent  esta- 
bhshnient,  cuntahis  above  IGO  pujals.  nierc  are 
several  others,  numen>usly  attendinj,  at  Monn, 
Louvain,  an<l  Namur.  The  Grand  Ilarmonic  So- 
ciety of  Brussels,  which  is  accounted  the  firet  of 
the  kind  in  existence,  includes  among  its  best 
performers  many  who  were  taught  in  the  Brussels 
conservatory. 

Primary  instruction  in  Belgium  has  made  no 
perceptible  progress  since  the  rev<dution  by  which 
the  Belgic  i)n)vince8  became  indei)endcnt  of  the 
Dutch  gtn'emment,  an  event  which,  however  be- 
ueticial  and  desiral)le  for  other  national  objects, 
has  doubtless  been  grt»atly  injurious  to  the  cause  of 
national  education.  The  compulsory  and  normal 
system  of  Holhind  was  then  njected  by  tlie  Belgic 
authorities,  who  adopted,  in  its  stead,  the  ViAuntary 
princiide;  but  this  has  not  secured  either  the  com- 
l>etency  of  teachers  or  the  attendance  of  scholan ; 
so  that  general  confusion  and  ignorance  have  suc- 
ceeded to  that  onler  and  intelligence  which  was 
steadily  extending  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Dutch.  The  Catholic  cleigy  and  monastic  orden 
have  inarle  energetic  and  very  successful  exertions 
to  iKissess  the  ground  which  the  Belgic  government 
left  unoccupied,  especially  the  brotherhood  of  the 
Christian  Doctrine. 

Public  instruction  in  the  Belgic  provinces,  down 
to  the  time  of  their  union  with  those  of  Holhmd  in 
1815,  was  in  a  very  backward  and  depres8e<l  state. 
Primarj'  education  had  been  systematically  and 
ver>'  successfully  established  in  Holland  since' 1805, 
ami  it  is  «lue  to  the  government  of  that  country  to 
acknowledge  that  its  anxious  attention  was  at 
uucc  bestowed  upon  the  great  deficiencies  and 


414 

abiiiioii  of  the  Bchnul  Bystom  of  Dolgiiim,  on  it« 
union  with  IIollantL  In  1K17,  the  I)uti*h  normal 
an<1  oomi»ulM>ry    nystoin    tintt  bepin  to  o|MTate 

t^nerally  thn»u^hout  the  pout  hern  |>ruvinc(*.s  (»f  th(> 
(inf^iom  of  the  NctherlaiulH,  now  const  it  iitint;  liel- 
f(ium ;  and  during:;  tlie  twelve  yean*  fmni  that  time 
t4)  1829,  the  pn^jpreflsand  value  of  primary  instruc- 
tion wap  far  j^xiatcr  than  at  any  peri<Ml  before  or 
since.  Well  arraiige<1  mrhiM)!]*,  and  aide  teacheni, 
were  epiablishcd  in  almost  ever\'  commune,  and 
improvement  was  rnjiidly  and  universally  extend- 
ing. Antiquate<l  and  awkward  routine  was  replaced 
by  more  rational  and  advanta^^etnui  methods  of 
teaching  ;  uniformity  was  (»bsc^r\'ed  in  the  use  of 
dass-lxNiks ;  normal  schools  were  opene<l  for  the 
instruction  and  traininf^  of  masters;  coiu>«cs  of 
lectures  were  pven  in  tlie  prim*i|ml  towns  <m  the 
requiml  qualifications  and  duties  of  teachers; 
funds  wore  8up]»lie<l  in  advance  for  the  construc- 
tion of  school-houses;  WK'ieties  of  masters  were 
formed  for  circulating  usi^ful  IxKiks  and  professional 
knowl(>d^\  Notwithstanding?  the  obvious  advan- 
taf^es  of  this  system,  a  s])irit  of  o])position  l)e|;an  to 
be  generally  manifested  in  1 82K.  and  it  ap|K'Ars 
to  have  l>een  mainly  attributable  to  ecclesiastical 
partisanship.  Tlie  people  and  institutions  of  llol- 
land  arti  chiefly  Pnitestant,  while  those  of  llel- 

fium,  with  little  excejition,  arc*  ("atholic.  The 
telginns  are,  moreover,  most  ri^d  adlierents  to 
the  ri(;hts  and  d(i|;:mas  of  the  Church  of  Kome, 
and  are  remarkably  subject  to  the  influence  of 
their  spiritual  ]>astors.  Tliey  ct»nse<iuently  never 
heart ilv  concurred  in  the  iwtablishment  of  the 
educational  svstem  introduced  by  the  Dutch,  and 
e\'entually  they  chained  it  with  being  instru- 
mental in  proiiagatiug  Protestant  d<K'trincs,  at 
rariance  with  those  of  the  Catholic  church.  The 
refusal  of  several  Catholic  congn^at  ions  to  submit 
to  tlie  rulers  respecting  examinations  and  cer- 
tificates, which  led  to  their  j)n>scription  by  the 
Ifovernment;  the  relK'llious  diKis)Mtion  of  teachers, 
■who  w<iuld  not,  or  could  not,  uiHU>rgo  the  requireil 
pnK>f  of  their  qualifications,  and  the  offence  often 
unavoidably  given  bv  the  district  ins|)ectors  in  the 
execution  of  their  functions,  ser\'ed  at  length  to 
create  an  amount  of  opfsisition  and  per|)lexity 
tliat  inducctl  the  gt)v<'mment  to  pr(»iH)se,  in  1K29, 
before  the  revolution,  a  return  to  the  principle  of 
'  freedom  of  teaching.*  Since  IK'U)  the  adoption 
of  tluit  principle,  whatever  may  be  its  ultimate 
effect,  has  liecn  ])roductivc  of  great  immediate 
injure'  to  the  primarv'  schools,  a  laige  number  of 
whicfi  liave  fallen  back  to  the  use  of  t>ad  old 
mellKsls  and  the  employment  of  ml**embly  incom- 
petent teachers.  A  few  primary  s<*hools  receive 
siibsidiiM  from  the  ]>resent  government,  but  most 
of  tlie  excellent  stH'ieties  which  arose  umler  the 
normal  system  for  the  encouragement  of  go«Ml 
teachers,  the  use  <»f  sufwrior  l)ooks,  and  the  adop- 
tion of  im])roved  metlKKls,  have  disapi>eared,  and 
the  government  neither  excn-ises  any  su}K>rin- 
tendence,  nor  makes  any  insjM^ction,  even  of  the 
mode  of  appropriating  the  insufhricnt  sums  which 
are  voteil  by  the  legislature  for  the  s<'h(M»L*  still 
de{)endent  u'lMm  the  national  funds.  'Hierc  is  but 
little  eilucational  progress  visible,  and  the  number 
of  sch(M>ls  and  s<*holar8  was  scarcelv  hii^r  in 
1861  than  in  18.01.  In  18ol,  there 'wen?  5,520 
achools  with  51 1.OIU)  pupils  :  ami  1801.  the  number 
of  schools  wos  5,510  with  ol»0,731  jnipiK 

T\\e  numl>er  of  schtilars  is  far  mun  l>eing  equal 
to  that  of  the  individuals  requiring  elementary' 
€ducati«)n :  with  reganl  to  which  the  |>opulation 
inav  Ik?  dividetl  into  four  parts.  The ^rnt  consists 
of  children  uiuier  the  age  of  2  years,  who  form 
alM)«it  vne-eit/hternlh  «)f  the  whole  iMipulatioii,  and 
whutiti  education  is  merely  maternal,    llic  second 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 


consista  of  children  between  the  ages  of  2  and 
6  yearn,  who  form  about  unt-tweljltk  part,  and  who 
ought  to  lie  for  the  most  jmrt  committed  to  the 
guanlian  or  asylum  sch<M>ls,  to  he  preiuuned  to 
receive  instruction.  Si'hools  of  this  description 
are  at  present  established  onlv  in  some  of  the 
large  t4)wns,  and  the  total  number  of  children  be- 
longing to  them  does  not  exceed  8^)(M),  which  is 
scarcely  a  hundre<lth  part  of  the  requisite  amount. 
The  third  part  consists  of  children  i»etween  f>  and 
15,  who  form  alxtut  one-nxth  of  the  whole  pop., 
and  should  all  receive  the  instruction  which  is 
afforded  in  primary  scho<iLs,  but  it  appears  tluit 
only  alsmt  one-half  of  this  class  have  that  advan- 
tage. The  fourth  an<l  hist  part  comprises  all 
above  the  age  of  1.5.  In  18:^6,  more  than  half 
the  young  men  who  were  enliste<l  for  the  militia 
in  the  metmixditan  province  of  Brabant  were 
entirely  unable  to  n^ad. 

Of  the  young  men  drawn  for  conscription  in 
the  three  periods  1851,  185G,  and  1859,  there 
were : — 


Not  able  to  rend  nor  write 
Able  only  to  n-od 
Able  to  road  and  write 
Of  feuperior  education  . 

Of  ever}'  thousand  convicta  who  entered  the 
prisons  in  185U  and  1855,  there  were : — 


1nlS51 

U,'2liS 

4,213 

9.843 

10,6J>3 


TnIS56 

1»,»49 

3,778 

9,718 

12,961 


13.939 

3,211 

11.206 

1 4,41*7 


Not  able  to  read  nor  write 
Able  only  to  read  . 
Able  to  ntul  and  write . 
Of  superior  education    . 


In  1850 

uo 

29A 

136 

18 


1.17 
14 


It  appears  that  the  total  mass  of  indi^-iduals 
destitute  of  primary  instniction,  consisting  of 
adults  and  children  above  two  years  of  age,  is  to 
the  whtde  pop.  as  53  to  1(H),  or  more  than  one- 
half,  llio  instniction  given  to  children  is  far 
from  l>eiiig  adequate  t4)  their  wants ;  it  is  limited 
to  reading,  writing,  and  avery- little  of  arithmetic. 
The  scholars  are  (tfteii  merely  kept  in  charge,  aiul 
learn  nothing;  and,  commonly,  in  the  countr\' 
districts,  the  attendance  of  more  than  one-half 
is  discontinued  throughout  the  summer,  in  order 
that  something  may  l)e  earned  by  their  serxni^es 
in  the  fiehU.  The  e<lucation  of^  girls  is  more 
neglected  than  that  of  lN>ys,  and  both  sexes  -arc 
generally  taught  together  on  the  same  ))enches, 
by  male  teachers.  Two-tliinls  of  all  the  scho<d- 
niasters  in  the  kingdom  are  self-appointeil,  and 
miwarrante<l  !)y  any  certificate  of  ct»m|)etency. 

Cathtdic  Sunday  sch(K>ls  for  religious  instruction 
are  ver^'  numerously  attended  in  the  provincres 
of  Flanders  and  Antwerp.  Evening  schools  f«»r 
the  working  classes  are  established  in  several  of 
the  principal  towns ;  and  also  some  excellent  in- 
stitutions  for  instructing  the  deaf  and  dumli. 

Public  Charitiea  and  Pauperism* — Belgium 
|s>ssesses  a  great  numljer  of  charitable  institu- 
tions, consisting  of  richly-endowed  liospitals  and 
almshouses,  for  the  relief  of  every  kind  of  mis- 
fortune, misery,  and  want,  and  for  indiWduals  of 
all  ages. 

Each  commune  has  its  bureau  of  charity  for 
the  distribution  of  money,  footl,  or  clothing!  j>er- 
manently,  to  the  sick  poor,  and  occasionally  to 
those  hi  health.  Private  establLshnients '  arc* 
formetl  at  Brussels,  Verviers,  and  Liege,  for  the 
emploj-ment  of  indigent  artisans.  Ateliers  de 
Charih',  at  Antwerp,  (ihent,  anil  other  cities, 
afford  work  and  maintenance  to  numerous  desti- 
tute o|K»ratives.  The  one  at  Ghent  constantly 
contains,  on  an  average^  45()  inmates. 

Nunien)us  hospitals  and  asylums  for  lunatics 
are  established  in  the  princi]>ul  citii*s  of  the  king- 
dom; and  in  general  the  arrangemoutj)  and  the 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 


treatment,  phvfdcal  and  moral,  arc  very  judicious 
and  commendable.  There  arcHcvcral  ancient 
endowed  institutionH  for  the  maintenance  of 
or|»hanH;  and  in  Antwerjjit  Fhmdcns  ItmlNUit, 
and  Ilainault,  arc  several  fuundling  limtpitaU 

Belgium  has  five  great  workhoui^e  eAtabli«hment8 
for  the  reception,  confinement,  and  maintenance  of 
the  |Kx>r.    They  arc  ttituat^d  at  la  Cambrd,  near 
BruHiteK  for  the  province  of  Braliant;  at  BrugeH, 
for  the  two  Flanilen*;  at  HtM)jcfltraeten,  for  the  pro- 
viniw  of  Antwer]);  at  Mouh,  for  llainault,  Namur, 
and  Luxemburg ;  and  at  Keickheim.  for  the  pro- 
vinces of  Liege  and  Limburg ;  and  tliey  arc  not 
only  asylums  for  indigent  jjerwns  either  sick  or  in 
healtli,  but  prisons  for  condemned  vagabonds  and 
Wggarji.     It  is  stated  by  Mr.   NicholK  in  his 
]{i>iHirt  on  the  condition  of  the  |H>or  in  Holland  and 
lU'tgium,  that,  under  the  present  regulations,  these 
]>rovinoi»l  workhouses,  or  tit-pott  de  mntdicite,  arc 
verv  <lefective  institutions — nurseries  of  idlene„*«s 
aiui  promoters  of  pauperism ;  and  that  hence  the 
neceiteity  arose  ft)r  resorting  t«)    more   rigorotia 
measun>s,  which  enjled  in  the  establishment  of  the 
|M>or  colonies,  to  wliich  all  persons  found  begging 
are  sent,  if  aide  to  work,  and  are  compelled  to  la- 
lK)ur  for  subsisteniH.*.  under  strict  discipline  and 
low  diet.     He  remarks  that,  ha<l  the  old  work- 
houj«s  l)een  rendered  etficient  by  the  introduction 
of  r^^ulationa  calculated  to  make  them  t4>sts  for 
distinguLthing  between  poverty  and  degtitutiottr— 
providing  only  for  the  latter — there  would  have 
lMM>n  no  neccsMty  for  the  poor  odonies,  where  the 
test  of  strict  discipline,  hanl  laliour,  and  scanty 
diet,  is  so  applieil  as  to  be  held  in  the  greatest 
dreail  by  the  vagrant  classes.    All   In^gars  are 
apprehemkHl  by  tlie  police.    If  aide  to  work,  they 
are  sent  to  the'  jHinal  colony ;  if  aged  or  infirm,  or 
imablo  to  perform  out-<l(M>r  work,  they  are  sent  to 
the  workhouses;    and  although  the  discipline  of 
the  latter  is  defective,  and  their  manogi^ment  in 
'  niany  nw|)ects  faulty  in  principle,  they  ser\'e,  with 
the  aid  oi  the  coercive  ccdonies,  to  seciure  the  re- 
]>ression  of  public  memlicity.    The  establishment 
at  la  Cambre,  near   Bnissels,  U  sui)erior,   in  its 
internal  arrongi'ments,  to  the  great  workhouse  at 
Amstenlam,  ivarticularly  in  the  s«'parate  classifica- 
tion of  the  aged,  the  chihlren,  and  adults,  and  also 
in  the  giHid  arrangement  and  cleanliness  of  the 
sleoping-nmms.      The  sexes  are  strictly  se|>arated 
in  all  the  Belgic  institutions  of  this  natun\  ]{y  the 
]H'nal  cisle,  a  mendicant  once  c«indemned  to  the 
workhouse  for  public  begging  may  l>e  kept  there 
<hiring  the  remainder  of  his  life ;   but  in  pnurtici- 
he  is  ullowe<l  to  leave  it  whenever  the  commission 
of  suiK-rintendence  are  satisfiwl  that  he  is  disiK>sed 
and  able  to   labour  for  his  subhistencc  without 
res4)rting  again  to  mendicaiicv. 

The  iMiu]H?r  colony  of  Itefgium  is  near  Hoog- 
straeten,  in  the  N.  extremity  of  the  nrovince  of 
Antweri>;  it  ^'ft«  established  in  1H*25J,  oy  a  chari- 
table MK'iety,  wliich  enten>d  into  a  contract  with 
th«'  goveniment  at  that  time,  to  nrovide  for  1,«MM) 
mendicants,  on  receiving  f«»r  each  35  llorins  |»er 
annum,  or  "21,  13ji.  Tlie  tract  of  bniyere,  or  ptwr 
hrathy  land,  which  the  s<K-iety  pun*haseii  to  form 
tlu'  e«*»hiny,  extends  to  alMiut  1,K(X)  acres  in  the 
commune's  of  Merxplas  and  Hykevorsel. 

The  cultivation  of  this  land  Ls  carrieil  on  by  the 
paujier^  an<i  its  croi»s  of  ptitatoes  and  other  vege- 
table pnKluce  are  generally  as  abundant  as  those  of 
the  snrr«)un«Ung  ciminmnes^     The  buildings  arv 


415 

shop,  refectory,  and  dormitory.  The  inmates 
sleep  in  hammocks,  ami  are  clad  in  a  very  coarse 
uniform.  They  hiboiur  with  the  spade  in  the  fields, 
or  in  making  bricks,  or  at  manufactures  in  the 
house,  under  the  sui>crintendcnco  of  an  inspector. 
All  particulars  res|)ccting  the  work,  food,  clothes, 
and  exix^nscs  of  each  individual  arc  entered  daily, 
in  books  kept  in  the  military  manner.  Mounted 
guanls  patit)l  the  iMiundaries  of  the  odony,  to  pre- 
vent the  eHca}Ht  of  deserterfs  and  rcwanls  are  given 
for  bringing  back  those  who  niccced  in  getting 
away,  for  each  is  com|)elled  to  remain  at  least  one 
year.  Thet-e  rigorous  meamires  for  the  suppresskm 
of  mendicancy'  have  Inh^u  adopted  in  the  alwence 
of  any  acknowledgment  of  a  right  to  relief,  and 
notwithstanding  that  a  large  |)ortion  of  the  relief 
actually  administered  arises  from  endowments  and 
voluntary  contributions.  No  right  to  relief  exists 
either  in  Holland  or  Belgium. 

According  to  an  ollicial  statement  made  in  1857, 
there  were  at  that  time  iM)H,(MM)  families  in  Bel- 
gium, of  which  89,080  were  in  gooil  circumstances, 
873,000  in  fltraitene<l  (jMhubif)  condition,  and 
440,0i)0  families  in  poverty.  Stated  in  percentage, 
this  gives  9  to  the  first,  42  to  the  hecon<l,  and  49  to 
the  third  class.  The  social  ctmdition  of  the  people  is 
further  dcscril>ed  by  a  return  of  Oct,  1,  1865, 
which  states  the  numlter  of  *  known  beggars '  to 
amount  to  88,019  individuals,  of  which  4><,()41  wer3 
of  the  male  sex.  Of  the  five  million  inhabitants 
of  Belgium,  alxmt  one  million  and  a  half  live 
in  8(i  towns,  and  three  millions  and  a  half  in 
2,445  country-  parishes. 

Priauns  and  Criminal*, — In  Belgium,  the  ptmish- 
ments  of  death,  and  of  branding,  although  still 
written  in  the  laws,  arc  practically  abolished. 
Criminals  arc  place<l  in  four  central  prisons; 
namely,  at  (ihent,  for  those  condcmne<l  to  ihrcefi 
]  lal)our;  at  Vilvonle,  s<dely  for  confinement ;  at  St. 
Bernard,  near  Antwerp,  for  correction;  and  at 
Alost,  for  militar>'  offences.  There  is  aL<o  in  the 
chief  town  of  each  ])rov.  having  a  court  of  assize^ 
and  of  each  anroncL,  a  prison  for  i)ersons  amwtvd, 
or  c(»ndemneil  to  less  than  six  months'  ctHifino- 
ment,  and  for  debt4irs.  A  se|Mirate  i)enitentiary  for 
female  criminals  is  pstabluhetl  at  Namur.  Tlie 
su|X'rintendenc(>  and  instruction  of  female  prisoncrM 
are  c(»ntideil  to  the  religious  order  of  the  8idters  of 
Pnividence. 

In  general,  there  L<t  in  Belgium,  1  person  accnsed 
of  crime  among  5,0(N)  inhabitants,  and  1  of  mis- 
demeanitur  among  170.  In  100  accused  of  crime 
against  the  iMtrstm,  20  are  acquittc<l ;  and  of  tlie 
same  number  ai'cused  of  crime  against  proiierty,  15 
are  ac(^uitte<l.  The  numl)er  (»f  crimes  against* pro- 
jHTty  IS  three  times  gn>ater  than  that  of  crimes 
against  persons.  From  the  reiN>rt8  of  the  central 
prisons  in  the  years  1850  ami  1855,  it  ap])earsthat 
m  100  individiuils  there  ctmfined,  55  were  uttcaiy 
ignorant  of  reading  and  writing,  29  could  read 
only,  but  were  othem'ise  extri'mely  ignorant, 
and*  U)  could  read  and  write  with  sonie  degree  of 
facility. 

Government, — Belgium  is  govemcil  by  a  con- 
stitutional monarchy — under  a  dynasty  c-lectc<l  by 
the  ci>nstitiients  of  the  nation.  Itx  mde}>endonco 
was  first  pnK'laimed,  in  an  al>solute  manner,  by  a 
provisional  pivemment,  on  the  4th  of  Oct.,  It&O, 
and  on  the  18th  of  the  fidlowing  Nov.  it  was  again 
pnK*laime<l  by  the  national  congress.  Ilv  the 
terms  of  the  tfi'aty  of  the  15th  of  Nov.,  1831*,  Bel- 


spacitMisand  well  ventilated,  and  the  arrangi'ments  gium  forms  a  ^tate  ])cri>(>tually  neuter  vnth  reganl 
nmi  discipline  are  such  as  to  Kvure  the  general  I  to  ail  other  states.  I'he  Itelgian  constitution, 
iH'ulthiness  of  the  inmates.  There  is  a  scluxd  for  '  decree<l  by  the  nati«)nal  congress  on  the  7th  of 
eh'nMntar\'  instnn'tion,  an  infinnar>',  with  various  Feb.,  18,31,  pla<>es  all  govenmiental  power  in  the 
workshops,  storr's,  and  mai'liiner\'  for  spinning  and  nation,  oi>erating  by  means  of  the  n'pre.«entati\'e 
weaving.     One  ward  'u  udcd  in  common  as  work-    system.    It  QBtabliabes   individual   liberty,   tlic 


416 

inviolability  of  every  man*s  house  and  property, 
the  perfect  liberty  and  independence  of  reli^ous 
wonthip  and  opiniona,  the  ri^ht  of  aflsenibling  and 
asjkK'iating,  the  lil>erty  of  the  prcMs,  the  lilwrty  of 
teacldng,  niiniHtcrial  reHponHibility,  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  judicial  power.  No  8tate  church 
la  reco^i»ed,  and  no  one  can  be  comi)cllcd  to  con- 
ibrm  in  any  way  whatever  to  the  forms  and  cere- 
monies of  any  ecclesiastical  system.  Tlie  state 
has  no  ri^ht  to  interfere  in  the  nomination  or 
apiKiintment  of  the  ministers  of  any  reli^ous  de- 
nomination, nor  to  prevent  the  publication  of  thoir 
acts.  The  t(>rm  of  marriage,  as  a  civil  compact, 
is  requinxl  to  precede  tlie  act  of  religious  l)enedic- 
tion.  Ik>lgians  have  the  right  to  assemble  peace- 
ably and  unarmed ;  but  assemblages  in  the  open 
air  arc.  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  ixdice.  All  ]yiwer 
emanates  from  the  people,  and  must  lie  exercised 
in  the  manner  establiishpd  by  the  constitution. 

The  Irgislative  power  is  exenasi'd  collectively 
by  the  king,  the  cnanilK.T  of  roj>ri.'sont4itive!!«,  and 
the  w^nate.  Kach  branch  p<»ssi'fsst*s  the  |M)wer  of 
first  moviug  the  adoption  of  laws;  but  such  as 
nilat.e  to  theVtate  expenses  and  receipts  must  )te 
first  voted  by  the  chamber  of  representatives.  The 
interpretation  of  the  laws,  with  re.»*pect  to  autho- 
rity, Inrlongs  only  to  the  legislature.  Tlie  execu- 
tive iMiwer  is  exerciseil  by  the  king,  as  dire<;ted  by 
the  constitution,  and  the  judiciary  jK)wer  by  the 
coArts  and  tribunals.  All  det»rees  and  Judgments 
are  executed  in  the  name  of  tiie  king.  (Questions 
relating  exclusively  to  provincial  aiul  communal 
matters  are  detennined  by  the  councils  of  the 
pn>vinces  and  communes. 

The  members  of  the  two  chaml)ers  represent  the 
nation,  and  not  merely  the  province  or  sulxHvLsion 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 

nominate  his  successor,  with  the  assent  of  the 
two  chambeiH,  and  if  no  nomination  be  made,  the 
throne  is  vacant.  The  person  of  the  king  is  in- 
violable. His  ministers  alone  are  responsible.  No 
act  of  the  king  Ls  valid  unless  countersigned  by  a 
minister,  who  thereby  becomes  responsible.  The 
king  nominat-es  and  dismisses  his  ministers  at 
will,  confers  gnulations  of  rank  in  the  army,  and 
appoints  all  persons  employed  in  the  general  ad- 
ministration, with  some  exceptions,  indic^ated  by 
the  law.  He  sanctions  the  laws,  and  issues  the 
orders  and  decrees  for  their  execution,  without 
posses^ing  any  power  either  of  8UHjK?uding  the  laws 
themselves,  or  of  diNfK'Using  with  their  execution. 
He  commands  tlie  laud  and  sea  forces,  declares 
war,  negotiates  tn'iaties  of  peace,  of  alliance,  and 
of  commerce  ;  but  treaties  of  conmierce,  and  others 
involving  important  c<»nsequ«;uces,  are  of  no  effect 
withiiut  the  sinction  of  thechamlKTs.  The  king 
may  es]K?cially  (^invoke  or  a(l|ouni  and  tlissidve 
the  chamlx'.rs,  and  he  can  mitigate  or  remit  the 
sentences  of  punishment  pronouncetl  by  the  ju<lg«!s. 
He  can  also  coufer  titles  of  nobilitv*  but  he  has  ni» 
IM>wer  to  attach  t/>  them  any  privileges  whatever, 
all  Ik-lgiaiih  being  absolutely  eoual  in  tlie  eye  «»f 
the  law.  The  nobility  enjoy  only  a  penwrnal  title, 
without  constituting  a  social  onler.  No  roem1>er 
of  the  n»yal  family  can  l>e  a  minister,  and  no  one 
who  is  not  a  Itelgian  by  birth  <»r  naturalisation. 
Ministers  have  no  delilxTative  voice  in  the  cham- 
bers unless  they  are  memlwrs.  They  can  enter, 
however,  and  demand  a  hearing  ;  and  the  cham- 
bers can  demand  their  ]>resencc  when  requiretL 
They  are  liable  to  be  accused  by  the  chaml>er  n{ 
representative^*,  who  can  bring  them  bef«»re  the 
court  of  cassation,  which  alone   is  empowered  to 


of  a  province  by  which  they  are  nominateil.    The  judge  them.    The  king  cannot  withdraw  a  mi- 


nittings  of  the  chambers  are  pubUc,  but  each  cham- 
ber can  form  itself  into  a  secret  committee  on  the 
demand  of  its  pn^ident  and  ten  meml>ers.  M(>m- 
bers  of  either  chamber  cannot  receive  any  pension, 
or  hold  any  {)aid  office  under  the  government, 
and  during  the  sessitm  thev  cannot  Ik?  arrested  or 
detained,  except  for  any  flagnint  misdemeanour. 
The  chaml>er  of  representatives  is  composed  of 
deputies  chosen  directly  by  citizens  who  pay  taxes 
to  the  amount  of  at  least  20  florins,  aI)out  38  shil- 
lings. The  number  of  deputies  cannot  exceed  the 
proportion  of  1  to  40,000  inhabitants.  To  l)econie 
a  deputy,  it  is  necessary  to  be  a  Itelgian  by  birth 
or  by  naturalisation ;  to  l>e  in  possession  of  the 


uister  from  resfMnsibility,  nor  panlon  him  when 
condemned,  without  a  demand  for  panlon  fn>m  one 
of  the  chaml)ers.  There  are  five  ministers ;  namely, 
a  minister  of  justice,  of  the  interit»r,  of  fort^ign 
affairs,  of  public  works,  of  war,  and  of  finance. 
The  king  is  declared  of  age  at  eighteen  years. 
Before  he  can  exerci^ie  the  functions  of  n>valtv,  he 
must  take  the  following  oath  in  the  presence  of 
the  two  legislative  chambers: — '  1  swear  to  ol>- 
ser\'e  the  constitution  and  the  laws  of  the  Belgian 
people ;  to  maintain  the  inde|)endence  of  the 
nation,  and  the  integrity  of  its  territory.'  Judges 
receive  their  apiM)intment8  ilirectly  from  the  king, 
and  hold  them  for  life,  so  that  tliey  cannot  1ms 


civil  and  |K>litical  rights  of  the  kingdom  ;  to  have    superseded  but  by  their  own  consent,  or  by  a  judg- 
attained  the  age  of  25 :  and  to  be  resident  in  Bel-  |  ment  and  for  reasons  pnmounced  in  open  court. 


gium.  No  other  condition  of  eligibility  can  l)e 
required.  The  rej^resentativcs  are  elected  for  four 
years,  and  one  half  (»f  the  whole  are  renewed  every 
two  yeiirs.  On  a  dissolution,  the  whole  chamber 
is  renewed.  Each  representative,  except  those 
■who  live  in  Brussels,  receives  200  tlorins  (IG 
guineas)  each  montli  of  the  session,  as  indemnity 
of  ex|>enses.  The  senate  is  comiK>&ed  of  half  as 
many  memliers  as  the  chaml)er  of  representatives, 
and  they  are  elected  by  the  same  citizens  for  eight 
years.  Half  are  renewed  ever>'  four  years,  and 
the  whole  on  a  dissolution,  'flie  (|ualitications 
are  the  same  as  for  the  representatives,  except 
that  the  age  must  Ite  at  least  forty  years,  and  the 
amount  i>aid  in  direct  taxes  must  be  at  least  1,000 
fiorius  {iAl.)  The  senators  receive  no  payment, 
on  account  of  indemnity  of  expenses.  The  session 
of  the  chambers  must  last  at  IcAst  forty  days.  The 
numl)er  of  repri'sentatives  is  102,  and  of  senators 
61.  The  constitutional  powers  of  the  king  are 
hereditarj'  in  a  direct  male  line,  natural  and  le- 
gitimate, in  the  order  of  primogeniture,  to  the 
perpetual  exclusion  of  females  and  their  descend- 
ants,   lu  default  of  male  issue,  the  king  may 


The  trial  by  jury  is  established  for  all  criminal 
and  political  charges,  and  ft»r  offences  of  the  press. 
No  extraordinary  judicial  commission,  or  tribunal, 
can  be  created  under  any  denomination  whatever. 
No  taxes  can  l>e  levied  by  the  state  unless  or- 
dained by  a  law  of  the  legislative  chaml>ers;  and 
all  taxes,  as  well  as  the  extent  of  the  army,  must 
be  votetl  annually.  The  civil  list  is  lixed  for  the 
duration  of  each  reign.  For  tliatof  kiug  Le<i]K>ld  1 1. 
it  was  fixed  at  2,7.')l,i}23  francs,  or  1UM»4(»/., 
besides  the  appropriation  of  the  royal  etlitices,  an«l 
court  expenses,  raising  it,  together  with  aUowanceit 
to  the  niemlK?rs  of  the  royal  family,  to  4,20 1,3 J»0 
francs,  or  lG8,05Gil 

In  each  province  a  governor  is  appointed,  <li- 
rectlv  amenable  to  the  minister  of  the  interior, 
for  tfie  purpose  of  superintemling  and  seciuiiig  the 
due  execution  of  the  laws,  and  each  administra- 
tive arrondissement  is  sui>eriutended  by  a  com- 
missary, under  the  provincial  govenior.  The  ex- 
clusive interests  of  each  [irovince  are  committed 
to  a  provincial  council,  elected  by  the  citizens, 
who  elect  the  national  representatives.  The  num- 
ber of  councillors  m  each  province  is  from  fifty  to 


■evtnty.    Each 


•iiSKe  I 


e  alTaiii 


li  belong  eJtcliuive! 


re  elected  u  Ihoie 
of  iLie  pruviiiciaL  councibs  in  Ihe  proportion  uT  one. 
on  an  avcm^p,  ro  187  JnhabilanU.  Each  com- 
mune has  from  (wo  to  four  baililfs,  and  a  buif(o- 
mssier,  who  U  the  principal  local  oifli  * 
■drainiaimiion  of  jualice,  and  the  direclion  of 
police  alTkira,* 

Judicial  SyMtem-^-ktrtbitnalde  pair\nfAtAa 
toiif  a  iribvTud  de  prtmHre  inttancr  in  each 
rondissement,   and    three    courte    of   appcal,- 
llnLSHelit,  UhenI,  and  Lit^, — fonn  three  degrees 
ofciviljuiisdiciion.     MJedemeanoura  beloDf^^  '~ 
tlie  coirectional  police  ore  judged  by  a  acciiou 
the  tribumil  tie  prrmiire   inttaiKt-,    crimes  and 
Kiaver    mi»ilenieanour»,    political    offences,    and 
sbunee  of  the  press,  are  judged  by  a  cuurt     " 
assizes  in  each  province,  wiib  a  jury  of  citii 
1>ossesBiDg  certain  qua]i&»tioliA  indicated  by 

A  Cour  da  Quflofion,  or  annulment,  at  Bi 
aela,  decides  upon  demands   agaiiiHt  judgments 

Commercial  affairs  are  judged  by  tbirteen 
nalri  of  cimmerce,  in  the  principal  comnj 
towns.  Military  lawa  are  administered  by 
cibi  of  war,  and  by  a  high  court  at  BruMela  for 


The  Court  of  Cassatioi 
(he  validity  of  legal  fonn: , 
—  9  of  violation   or  misapplicE 


hetcfore  Ktaa  all 
n  of  the  law 
to  another  tribunaL     The  co'uru  of  appeal  decide 
upon  appeals  respecting  the  judgmenta  (eudeied 


e  rtefinii 


jiaix  determine  ei 

iOII  fr.  with  appei 

liuitals  of  municipal  po 

juslii-e  of  pface,  a  commitisarv  of  poll 


itending  to  50  fr.  or  to 
mperior  courts.    The  Iri- 

,1?™ ^pngej   „f  a 

f -.  , , _.  police,  and  of 

the  buigomaater  or  bailiff  of  ibe  commune.  The 
hif^esi  dq;ree  of  Judicial  pruceedinga  la  exercised 

U'nisHcls,  Ghen[,  and  Liege,  are  ciimposed  of  a 
president  and  four  asaessors,  cliuecn  from  ttiecouu- 
cillorM  ofthe  courts  of  appeal. 

In  the  other  chief  pruvituaal  cities  (bese  courts 
are  formed  of  four  juitges  de  prtmiert  intlunce, 
ami  a  councillor  of  the  courts  of  appeal  as  pre- 
siileiit.  Twelve  Jurymen  are  choiK-a  for  each 
caM  by  ballot,  from  uualilicd  citizens,  and  decitte 
upon  (he  qoeetion  of  guilt ;  and  then,  according 
tu  Ehdi  decision,  the  court  acquits  or  opplitis  the 
nnninhiaeiil  which  the  law  declarus.  It  is  calcu- 
lu(ed  (hat  (be  buiuness  of  the  oiurts  requires  an- 
nually the  services  of  J,IGU  jur\'men,  and  that  the 
kiiiMihim  contains '2t>,3J9  citizeiia  quaUiied  as  the 
Inw  demands  for  the  performance  of  (bat  impor- 
tunt  ollit.'e. 

Fiaanca. — The  public  income  and  enpendilure 
of  Itfigium  has  averaged  for  (he  hist  few   years 


;-2!l,llKI  frail 
e  for  the  i 


5,!Hu,lU;j.,  ai 
10  for  1NC':>  w. 


f>,ii:i.UJViL;  thereven 
francs,  iir  l>,lW,&T9r.,  and  the 
113,17)1.330  fnuicii,oro,HOT,ik'io/.i  an 
for  INiiS  was  ldS,314^9lt  ftuiics,  o 
while  the  eziMmlltu 


'.im.  Tlief).llowi: 


nmotci  D?  IBM. 

T.,MldTB.        .        .        . 
T«  on  Trade  Ucenia    '. 

14,»TS,000 

ro-lOHloe        .       .       . 

17B.WI) 

Total  Incoms  .       , 

21,tWg 

1M.1H.490 

11,144.380 

B««.-DmrM  o»  ISOfl.                          1 

4J^"o 

£ 
1,«B.«§0 

i,u].sm 

10!I,4». 

(.vil  Lit  and  Crown    I 

Mlni3tiy  or  Foreign  AOsln 
Oi€>  liiBTior 
Fiimric™ 

Poblic  Work. 
Wsr        .       . 
MbceUuicDus  Items 

Total  Ejpendlcnts  . 

4,wi.a» 

«,aJW.9M 

is.mii7 

|tS.7S8Jtll» 

1«.17B,SI« 

ii,aos,!s» 

The  Belgian  budget  is  at  first  «ght  calcubited 
iB]ipear  larger  tbui  it  is  in  reality,  all  the  gnsa 
'ceipts  of  the  post-office,  (he  railway,  and  (he 
lecraphs  being  recorded  as  revenue,  while  the 
orfeing  eipenses  of  those  establishments  are  in- 
ribed  In  the  budget  of  pul>lic  wortis,  and  swell 
le  apparent  amount  of  expenditure.  Of  the 
whole  revenue  recorded  for  1863.  about  49.000,000 
J  ore  derived  from  sundry  and  patrimonial 
ES,  and  1 1 2,000,000  francs  from  taxation. 
B  national  debt  of  Belgium  was  as  follows  in 


Cuuils.  Hoods,  and  Railways  . 

Bailways.  Original  I 

Amount.  miiillXBO  1 

War  Indemnity,  Ori-  I 


CiplU       I  IdUt. 


iking  fund,  or  oafHC  (fuiiiorrianml.  On  Sep- 
nber  1,  1M64,  the  (utal  debts  had  beea  reduced 
639,000,U<IO  francs,  or  go,660,000t  It  la  calcu- 
lated that,  in  (he  vear  IB84,  the  net  income  of  (he 
state  rsilwava  will  be  aufficient  to  pay  the  entire 
Kerest  of  the  debt. 

Atv^  tmd  JVnry.— The  quota  of  (he  Beldo 
rmy  is  determined  evoj  yau  by  a  lav.    Tdb 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 


418 

expenses  of  the  war  department  in  1830-31  were 
86,643/275  francs.  In  1838  it  had  fallen  to 
42,07b,786  francs,  or  less  than  half;  and  it  con- 
tinued to  decrease  till,  in  1847,  it  am(»untod  to  only 
27,482,607  francs ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  revo- 
lution in  France,  and  the  commotions  in  the  other 
parts  of  the  Continent,  by  which  the  tranquillity 
of  Belgium  was  seriously  threatened,  the  war  ex- 
penditure for  1848  rose  to  al)out  38,000,000  francs. 
It  was  gradually  reduced,  howover,  and  in  the 
year  1863  amounted  to  but  33,292,132  francs,  or 
1,331,685/. 

According  to  the  law  of  June  8, 1853,  the  stand- 
ing army  of  Belgium  is  to  cunsist  of  100,000  men, 
^tributed  over  sixteen  r^ments  of  infantry, 
seven  regiments  of  cavalry,  and  four  regiments  of 
artillery.  HThe  actual  number  of  soldiers  under 
arms,  at  the  end  of  1862,  amounted  to  73,718 
rank  and  file,  comprising  56,560  infantry,  8,202 
cavalr>',  6,700  artillery,  1,690  engineers,  and  576 
train.  The  artilleo'  ^'as  possessed  of  152  pieces 
of  ordnance. 

The  army  is  formed  by  conscription,  to  which 
every  able  man  who  has  completed  his  nineteenth 
year  is  liable.  Substitution  is  permitteiU  The 
l^al  peritKl  of  service  is  eight  years,  of  which, 
however,  one-half  is  allowed,  as  a  rule,  on  fur- 
lough. A  comparatively  laige  number  of  men 
arc  on  scrNHce  in  the  eleven  fortresses  of  the  king- 
dom, Antwerp,  Mons,  Charleroy,  Philippcville, 
Tirlcmont,  Ash,  Toumay,  Menin,  Ypres,  Ghent, 
and  Namur. 

The  navv  of  Bel^um  consists  of  seven  vessels, 
namely,  a  brig  of  twenty  guns,  a  sloop  of  twelve, 
and  two  gunI>oats  of  five  guns  each,  with  tliree 
transport  steamen.  Belgium,  on  her  hc] Miration  from 
Holland,  was  left  entirely  without  an  armed  navy. 

History, — In  the  ag(i  immediately  preceding 
and  subsequent  to  the  Clunstian  era,  much  of  the 

rit  pliun  which  now  compriw»s  the  provinces  of 
and  E.  Flanders  and  Antwerp,  was  partially 
overrtowed  by  the  ocean.  The  soil  was  so  marshy 
that  an  inundation  or  a  tempest  threw  down 
whole  forests,  such  as  are  still  discovered  below 
the  surface.  The  sea  and  rivers  had  no  limitH, 
and  the  earth  no  solidity'.  Many  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  this  low  plain  kved  in  huts  placed  u)x>n 
the  mounds  of  sand,  or  elevated  above  the  reach 
of  the  tides  upon  stakes.  Tliey  had  fish  for  AmmI, 
rain  water  for  drink,  and  peat  for  fuel.  (Plinv's 
Nat  Hist.  lib.  16.)  The  higher  S.  and  E.  parts, 
forming  at  present  the  Walloon  country,  were 
coveHHl  by  the  immense  forest  of  the  Ardennes, 
which  extended  from  the  Khine  to  the  Scheldt, 
and  afforded  shelter  to  numerous  tribes  of  the 
German  race  (Ctes.  lib.  ii  4,)  who  lived  by  hunt- 
ing, and  by  rudely  cultivating  the  earth.  They 
formed  a  part  of  the  third  divisitm  of  Gaul,  which 
by  the  Komans  was  called  Belgia,  Bel^um,  or 
Gallia  Belgica,  and  were  the  least  civilised  and 
most  courageous  of  all  the  Gallic  nations.  (C«s. 
lib.  i.  1.)  They  had  cities,  surrounded  by  lofty 
atone  walls  and  fortified  gates,  requiring  the  use 
of  the  Roman  battering-rams  and  moving  towers. 
Tlieir  armies  contained  troops  of  cavalrj';  the 
countr>'  produced  supplies  of  com,  and  abundant 
henls  of  cattle.  The  people  consisted  of  two 
classes,  chiefs  and  slaves;  and  Druidism  from 
Britain  was  universally  predominant. 

In  the  3rd,  4th,  and'5th  centuries,  the  character 
of  the  Belfpc  population  was  greatly  changed  by 
successive  mvasions  of  Salian  Franks  fn)m  the 
north,  whose  progress  westward  terminated  in  the 
eatablishment  of  the  Frankinh  or  French  empire 
in  Gaul,  and  under  whose  dominion  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  the  Ardennes  were  either  destroyed 
or  roduoed  to  Bla\*ery.    Christianity  was  intro- 


duced, and  monasteries  were  founded  in  the  im- 
mense forests  and  solitudes  of  the  higher  countrv'. 
In  the  rime  of  Charlemagne,  a.d.  800,  the  physical 
state  of  the  country  had  become  much  impfoveiL 
In  the  W.  embankments  were  raised  agaimit  tlie 
encroachments  of  the  sea,  and  in  the  E.  lai>]^ 
tracts  of  forest  were  cleared ;  but  the  fierce  and 
valiant  warriors  who  formerly  occupied  the  soil 
were  succeeded  by  an  abject  race  of  serfs,  who 
cultivated  the  domains  of  haughty  lords  and  im- 
perioufl  priests.  The  clergy  enjoyed  immense 
{Missessions :  14,000  families  of  vanMus  belonged  to 
the  single  Abbev  of  Nivelle^  and  the  income  of 
the  AblKi.v  of  Alne  exceede<l  1/JOO,<M)0  dollars. 
The  Flemings  formed  associarions  called  Gilden 
(the  English  guilds)  for  protection  against  the 
dei^)otic  violence  of  the  Franks,  as  well  as  for 
social  assistance.  These  were  the  origin  of  all 
the  ancient  municipal  corporations,  and  within  a 
century  after  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  Flanders 
was  covered  with  corporate  towns.  At  the  end  of 
the  11th  centur>',  when  all  the  states  except 
Flanders  were  reduced,  by  the  tierce  quarrels  of 
the  feudal  lords  and  prince  bishops,  to  a  checrlea« 
waste  of  bondage,  the  fanatical  phrensy  of  the 
crusades  induced  many  of  the  nobles  to  part  with 
lands,  and  to  grant  great  privileges  and  political 
powers,  in  order  to  obtain  the  means  of  equipping 
armies  to  fight  the  Saracens.  Their  wealthy 
vassals,  the  Flemish  burghers,  were  thus  enabk^ 
to  purchase  independence,  and  a  jiirii^diction  of 
theur  own.  They  consequently  formed  themselves 
into  communes,  elected  bailifts,  directed  their  own 
afllairsand  built  magnificent  town-halls  with  huge 
belfries,  as  tem])les  and  trophies  of  their  libertifrs. 
The  people,  conwious  of  their  power,  gnulually 
extorttMl  from  their  rulers  so  many  concessions, 
that  the  provinces  f(»rmed,  in  reality,  ademtK'raey, 
and  were  only  nominally  subject  to  the  monaix'h 
of  France  and  his  nobles.  When  the  rest  of 
Europe  was  subject  to  despotism,  and  involved  in 
comparative  ignorance  and  barbarism,  the  court 
of  the  counts  of  Flanders  was  the  chosen  residence 
of  lilierty,  civilisation,  and  useful  knowle<lge ; 
and  when  the  nhiy)»  of  other  nations  scarcely  ven- 
tured Iwyond  the  sight  of  land,  those  of  the  FlemiMh 
merchants  traversed  the  ocean,  and  Brugi>s  and 
Antwerp  poAfiesscd  all  the  commerce  and  wealth 
of  the  north  of  Euroi»e.  In  this  state  the  pn>- 
vinces  long  continued,  until  they  came  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  about  the 
middle  of  the  15th  centurj'.  Prev-ious  to  this 
event,  we  find  only  unconnected  duchies  counties, 
lordshifis,  towns,  with  innumerable  rights,  claims, 
and  privileges,  advances!  and  enforcetl  now  by 
sulgects  and  va<*sals  against  each  otlier  or  against 
their  lonls ;  and  now  by  lords  and  vassals  against 
the  monarch,  without  the  expression  of  any  col- 
lective idea  of  Belgium  as  a  nation.  Under  the 
Burgnndian  d^^iiasty  the  commercial  and  manu- 
facturing towns  of  the  low  country  enjoyed  a  re- 
markable prosperity.  The  famous  order  t»f  the 
Golden  Fleece  was  instituted  in  1430 ;  and  l»ofore 
the  end  of  the  15th  century'  the  city  of  Ypres  had 
4,000  looms,  and  tlie  city  of  Ghent  50,000  weavers. 
Bniges  and  Antwerp  were  the  great  marts  of  the 
commercial  world,  and  contained  each  aljout 
200,000  inhab.  In  the  Flemish  court  of  the  Duke 
of  Buigundv,  named  Philip  the  Good,  about  1-155, 
luxurious  ^ving  was  carried  to  a  viciou»  and 
foolish  excess.  The  wealthy  were  clad  in  gorgeous 
velvet*!,  satins,  and  jewellerj',  and  their  banquets 
were  given  with  almost  incredible  splendour. 

This  luxury  pHKiuced  depravity  and  crime  to 
such  an  extent,  that  in  one  year  1,400  munlcrs 
were  committed  in  Ghent,  in  the  ganibling-hcmse.s 
and  other  resorts  of  debauchery-.    The  arta  were 


BELGIUM  (KINGDOM  OF) 

cultivated  with  j^cat  success.  Van  Eyck  in- 
vented the  beautiful  oil  colours  for  which  the 
Flemish  school  is  renowned.  Painting  on  glass, 
])olishing  diamonds,  lace,  tapestr}',  and  chimes 
were  also  invented  in  Belgium,  at  this  periixl. 
Most  of  the  magniticent  cathedrals  and  town-halls 
in  the  countrv  were  built  in  the  13th  and  14th 
centuries,  lllstorj',  poetry,  and  learning  were 
much  cultivated;  and  the  university  of  Louvain 
was  the  most  celebrated  in  Europe.  In  1477 
lielgium  passed  under  the  dynasty  of  the  empire 
of  Austria:  and  after  manv  vears  of  contest  be- 
twcen  the  des|)otic  Maximilian  and  the  demo- 
cratic Flemings,  the  government,  in  l.MO,  de- 
scended to  his  grandson,  Charles  V.,  King  of 
Spain  aiul  Emperor  of  Germany.  In  his  reign  the 
alHuence  of  the  Flemish  buighers  attained  ita 
highest  point.  The  city  of  Ghent  contained 
175,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  100,000  were  cm- 

5)loyed  in  wea^^ng  and  other  industrial  arts, 
liruges  aimually  exported  stuffs  of  English  and 
Spanish  wool  to  the  value  of  8,000,000  florins. 
The  Scheldt  at  Antwerp  often  contained  2,.500 
vessels,  waiting  their  turn  to  come  to  the  wharfs : 
her  gates  were  daily  entered  by  oOO  loaded  waggons ; 
and  her  exchange  was  attended,  twice  a  (lay,  by 
5,000  merchants,  who  expended  180,000  golden 
crowns  in  a  single  banquet  given  to  Philip,  the 
s<jn  of  Charles  V.  The  value  of  the  wool  an- 
luially  imjK)rted  from  F^ngland  and  Spain  exceeded 
4,000,000  ])ieces  of  gold.  Tins  amazing  prosperity 
experienced  a  ra])id  and  fatal  decline  under  the 
tvranny  and  bigotry  of  Philip  II.,  son  of  Charles  V. 
'fhe  doctrines  of  the  protestant  reformation  had 
found  numerous  adherents  in  lielgiiim.  Luther- 
anism  was  preached  with  great  zeal  by  several 
reformers,  who  drew  around  them  crowds  amount- 
ing to  10,000  or  1 0,000.  Parties  of  iconoclasts 
also  api>eared,  and  demolished  the  ornamental  pro- 
jK*rty  of  400  churches.  Pn>testant  persecution  by 
the  Inquisition  had  been  commenced  by  Charles  V.; 
but  by  Philip  II.  it  was  established  in  its  most 
diabolical  extravagance.  He  tilled  the  countrj' 
with  Spanish  soldiers,  and  commissioned  the  Duke 
of  Alva  to  extiq)ate,  without  mercy,  every  pro- 
testant heretic  in  Belgium.  Kuin  and  dread  (»f 
death  in  itj*  most  hideous  forms  drove  thousands 
of  artisans  to  England,  where  they  intnxiuccd  the 
manufacturing  skill  of  Bruges  and  Ghent.  Com- 
merce and  trade  in  Flanders  dwindled  awav,  manv 
of  the  rich  merchant.s  were  reduced  to  beg  for 
bread,  the  great  cities  were  half  deserted,  and 
forest  wolves  (»ften  devoured  the  scattered  inha- 
bitants of  desolated  villages.  Belgium  remained 
under  S[»anish  d<munion  until  the  memorable  vic- 
tory of  hainillies,  in  170G,  after  which  it  was  sub- 
ject again  to  Austria;  and  having  been  several 
times  conquered  by,  and  reconquered  from,  the 
French,  it  was  incorporated,  in  17i>5,  with  the 
French  republic,  and  diWded  into  deimrtments. 
By  this  union,  lielgium  secured  a  sujipression  of 
all  the  old  feudal  privileges,  exemption  from  ter- 
ritorial contributions,  the  abolition  of  tithes,  a 
more  extensive  division  of  real  projierty,  a  re|)eal 
of  the  game  laws,  an  admirable  registrj"-  law,  a 
cheap  system  of  tax  collection,  the  advancement 
of  education  in  central  schools  and  lyceums,  a 
uniform  system  of  legi>hition  by  the  creation  of 
c<Kles,  publicity  of  judicuil  j)roceedings,  trial  by 
jury,  and  the  general  use  of  the  French  language. 
By  tlie  congress  of  Vienna,  the  provinces  of  Bel- 
gium were  annexe<l  to  those  of  Holland,  to  form 
the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  which  existed 
until  the  revolution  in  1H30,  when  Bel^um  be- 
came an  indeinMident  nation.  Her  uinon  with 
Holland  Avas  one  of  convenience  on  the  part  of 
those  by  whom  it  y,'aa  negotiated,  and  not  attri- 


BELGRADE 


419 


butable  to  any  congeniality  of  the  people  joined 
together,  who  differ  in  national  character,  in  re- 
ligion, and,  to  some  extent,  in  language.  Tho 
lielgians  complained  of  being  forced  into  a  union 
which  they  would  not  have  sought,  and  that  its 
terms  were  unequal.  The  French  revolution  of 
1830  excited  the  predisposition  to  insurrectionary 
movement,  and  the  result  was  a  declaration, 
and,  finally,  a  general  recognition,  of  independence, 
leading  to  the  election  of  Prince  I..eoj)old  of  Saxo- 
Coburg-Gotha  as  first  King  of  the  Itelgians. 

Antiquities. —  No  part  of  Europe  contains,  within 
the  same  extent  of  area,  so  many  object^s  and  fur- 
nishes so  many  associations,  to  interest  the  anti- 
quarian, the  political,  ecclesiastical,  or  niihtary 
historian,  the  artist,  and  the  poet.  Numerous 
ancient  cities  and  towns,  some  of  which  existed 
long  before  the  Christian  era,  still  arc  adorned 
with  magnificent  Gothic  structures  of  the  middle 
ages,  that  recall  to  the  imagination  the  gorgeous 
pageantry  of  the  days  of  cliivalry;  and  on  many 
a  lone  hill,  and  forest  solitude,  stand  the  ruins  of 
castles,  abbeys,  and  chateaux,  whose  lordly  owners 
have  been  the  heroes  of  romantic  legends.  In  the 
S.  and  E.  provinces  are  found  lithoi,  tumuli,  and 
other  remains  of  the  Celtic  Dniids,  to  whom  is 
attributed  the  excavation  of  numerous  apartments 
and  passages  in  several  subterraneiin  cavenis, 
particularly  that  of  the  hill  of  St.  I*eter,  near 
Maestricht,  which  contains  alwve  1(MJ,000  different 
avenues,  12  ft  in  ^adth,  and  from  G  to  24  in  height. 
Numerous  coins  and  medals  of  the  Komans  have 
l)een  found  on  the  sites  of  their  camps  and  roads ; 
and  lioman  masonry,  containing  inscriptions  in 
honour  of  the  Menapian  divinities,  has  l>een  dis- 
covered among  the  relics  of  ancient  towns,  in 
places  now  overflowed  by  the  se-a.  Near  Charleroy, 
m  the  midst  of  beautiful  scenerj-,  are  the  ruins  of 
the  celebrate*!  Abl)ey  of  Alne,  the  cloisters  of  which 
were  forme^l  by  800  columns  of  the  finest  marble. 
The  old  castles  of  the  loth  centur}*,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Liege,  are  described  in  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  novel  of  Quentin  Dunvard. 

The  number  of  eminent  and  remarkable  indivi- 
duals who  were  bom  in  Belgium  is  verv  great. 
Belgium  is  the  countr\'  of  birth  of  the  I^mperor 
Charles  V.,  of  Scaliger,  Lipsius,  and  Van  Helmont ; 
of  the  geographers  Ortelius  and  Mercator;  of 
John  of  (jaunt,  or  Ghent ;  of  Perkin  Warbeck, 
who  was  the  son  of  a  Jew  of  Toumay;  of  the 
painters  Van  Eyck,  (^entin  Matsys,  Kubens,  Van- 
dyke, Teniers,  Jordaens,  Snyders,  and  many  other 
painters  of  the  Flemish  school. 

BKLGRADE  (an.  Singidunum)^  a  fortified  town 
of  the  principality  of  Ser\'ia,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Danube,  at  the  [K»int  where  it  is  joined  bv  the 
Save;  lat  44°  47' 4G"  N.,  long.  20°  39' E.  'Pop. 
estimatetl  alx>ut  30,000.  From  its  position,  on  the 
limits  of  the  Austrian  and  Turkish  empire,  at  the 
confluence  of  two  great  rivers,  its  great  strength, 
and  the  numerous  sieges  it  has  sustained,  much 
interest  has  long  been  attached  to  Belgrade.  Its 
citadel,  on  a  steep  hill,  100  ft  high,  near  the  centre 
of  the  to\*'n,  occupies  a  most  formidable  position. 
It  has  been  \QTy  strongly  fortified ;  and  if  it  were 
properly  repaired  and  garrisoned,  with  the  forti- 
fications on  the  low  ground  at  the  junction  of  the 
rivers  sweeping  as  they  do  every  approach  by  land 
and  water,  it  would  be  all  but  impregnable.  lat- 
terly, however,  its  works  have  been  neglected, 
and  they  are  now  going  fast  to  ruin.  Within  the 
citadel  are  the  arsenal  and  magazines,  the  prin- 
cipal mosr^ue,  and  the  palace  of  the  pacha ;  the 
latter  constructed  of  wood  and  mud !  The  town 
lies  principally  to  the  W.  and  SW.  of  the  fortress, 
partly  along  the  Save,  and  partly  on  higher  ground, 
and  is  surrounded  by  walls  and  palisades,  gene* 

SIC  2 


420 


BELIDA 


rally  in  a  rainons  Btate.  The  situation  of  the  town 
is  no  better  than  that  of  the  citadel.  Many  of  its 
houses  are  in  ruins ;  most  of  them  arc  of  the  meanest 
possible  description,  *  worse  even  than  the  cabins 
of  the  Irish ; '  and  the  streets  are  disgustingly  filthy, 
and  infested  with  herds  of  half-starved  dogs.  The 
bazar  consists  of  several  rows  of  miseralide  wooden 
booths,  entirely  open  towards  the  street :  their  as- 
sortment of  goods  corresponds  with  their  appear- 
uice.  The  reigning  Prince  of  Servia  formerly  re- 
sided at  Kragugewatz,  but  he  has  built  here  a 
handsome  house  m  the  upper  part  of  the  town,  a 
Greek  church,  and  barracks.  The  manufactures 
are  inconsiderable,  consisting  principally  of  carpets, 
silk  goods,  some  descriptions  of  hanlware  and  cut- 
lery, with  saddlery,  drc.  It  has  a  good  port  on 
the  Danube,  and  it  is  admirably  situated  for  trade, 
of  which,  in  consequence,  it  still  preserves  some 
small  share. 

The  Turks,  under  Soh'man  the  Magnificent, 
took  Belgrade  in  1522,  and  held  it  till  Iti^,  when 
it  was  taken  bv  the  Imperialists.  Two  veara  after, 
it  again  fell  fnto  the  hands  of  the  iVrks ;  ancl 
though  it  has  since  been  repeatedlv  taken  by  the 
Imperialists,  they  have,  in  most  instances,  soon 
after  restored  it  to  its  Ottoman  masters,  of  whose 
miserable  government  its  present  abject  and  de- 
graded condition  is  a  striking,  though,  unhappily, 
not  a  rare  example.  It  was  taken,  in  1807,  by 
the  Servian  insurgents,  who,  on  being  obliged 
to  abandon  it  in  1818,  burnt  the  suburbs,  and 
partly  destroyed  the  fortifications.  The  town  was 
placed,  in  1815,  along  with  ServHa,  under  the  sove- 
reignty of  Prince  Milosch ;  but  its  citadel,  acconling 
to  treatv,  is  still  occupied  by  a  Turkish  garrison. 

BELIDA,  an  inland  town  of  the  regency  of 
Algiers,  prov.  Titteri,  at  the  foot  of  the  Lesser 
Atlas,  near  the  plain  of  Metidjah ;  25  m.  S.  Algiers, 
and  10  m.  NE.  Me<ieah;  lat.  86®  18'  N.,  long.  2^ 
45'  E.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  12  to  16  ft, 
high,  which  has  four  gates,  one  at  each  of  the 
caniinal  points.  Its  streets  are  wider  and  more 
agreeable  than  those  of  Algiers :  the  town  is  well 
supplied  with  water,  and  contains  many  gardens. 
It  suffered  much  from  the  violent  earthquake  of 
1825,  since  which  the  houses  have  been  with  only 
a  ground-floor.  Helida  has  some  trade  in  grocer}', 
spices,  and  other  natural  pn>duce ;  its  vicinity  is 
fertile  and  picturesnue.  in  July,  1830,  the  in- 
habitants invited  the  French  to  defend  them 
against  the  Kabyles ;  but  after  their  arrival  the 
Bedouins  compelled  the  citizens  to  take  up  amis 
against  them.  Next  year,  however,  the  French 
took  Belida. 

BELIXZONA,  or  BELLENZ,  a  town  of  Swit- 
zerland, cant.  Ticino,  of  which  it  is  the  cap.,  in  a 
deep  valley  on  the  banks  of  the  Ticino,  5  to.  above 
where  it  falls  into  the  Lago  Maggiore,  and  15  m.  N. 
Lugano ;  lat  46®  10'  35"  N.,  long.  8©  55'  ZO"  E. 
Pop.  2,196  in  1860.  Being  situated  near  the  S. 
extremity  of  the  great  road  from  Italy  to  Switzer- 
land, by  the  St.  (tothard  pass,  it  is  a  depot  for  the 
merchandise  passing  between  them.  It  has  a 
handsome  church,  and  a  bridge  over  the  Ticino, 
714  ft.  long,  and  24  ft.  wide. 

BELITZ,  or  BELZIG,  a  town  of  Prussia,  prov. 
Brandenburg,  12  ni.  S.  by  W.  Potsdam.  Pop. 
2,674  in  1861.  It  is  surrounded  by  old  walls  and 
fosses ;  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Ijoard  of  ecclesiastical 
inspection.  Flax  is  grown  extensively  in  its 
Tianity,  and  it  has  manufactures  of  linen  and  two 
paper-mills. 

BELLA,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov.  Po- 
tenza,  cap.  cant.,  15  m.  S.  by  W.  MeltL  Pop. 
5,460  in  1861.  It  is  situated  on  a  hill;  has  a  col- 
l^ate  and  one  other  church,  a  hospital  and  three 
charitable  foundations. 


BELLEVnXE-SUR-SAONE 

BELIxAC,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Haute  Vienno* 
cap.  arrond.,  on  the  decli\nty  of  a  steep  hill,  near 
the  confluence  of  the  Vincou  and  the  Gartemp<\ 
24  m.  NNW.  Umoges.  Pop.  .S,633  in  1861.  Tlio 
town  has  a  tribunal  of  original  jurisdiction,  an 
agricultural  society,  with  various  manufactures 
and  a  considerable  trade  in  cattle,  oak  timber,  and 
chestnuts 

BELLARY  (Fo/oAart),  a  distr.  or  collectorate  of 
Hindostan,  presid.  Madras,  part  of  the  Balaghaut 
ceded  distr.     (See  Bai.aoiiaut.) 

Bkli  ART,  the  cap.  of  the  al)ove  collectorate,  and 
the  head-quarters  of  a  civil  estab.  and  a  military 
di\-ision,  280  m.  NE.  Madras;  hit,  16°  5'  N., 
long.  76°  59'  E.  It  consists  of  a  square  fortress 
on  an  isolated  rock,  i^ith  a  pettah  or  small  town 
below  it,  containing  the  best  militaiy  bazar  in 
India.  This  also  is  the  name  of  a  ruined  town  of 
Allahabad,  formerly  of  great  extent,  and  having 
some  fine  Hindoo  temples  in  its  viciiiitv. 

BELLE-FONTAINE,  a  village  of  l-'rance,  depu 
Vosges,  7  m.  W.  Kemiremont,  Pop.  2,566  in  1861. 
There  are  manufactures  of  cotton  goods  and 
cutlerv. 

BELLEGARDE,  a  fortress  of  France,  d(«p.  IV- 
n^ncH'ii  Orientales,  on  the  Spanish  frrmtier,  18  m. 
S.  Perpignan,  clase  to  the  railway  from  Pemignan 
to  Barcelona,  across  the  I^nrenees.  It  is  a  ft)rtres9 
of  the  first  class,  constructed  in  the  reign  of  I»uis 
XIV.,  to  command  the  pass  of  Pcrthus.  It  was 
taken  in  1793  by  the  Spaniards,  and  ret&kcn  the 
following  year  by  the  French.  Bellegarde  is  also 
the  name  of  several  small  towns  in  liififerent  parts 
of  France, 

BELLEISLE,  an  island  at  the  X.  entrance  to 
the  straits  of  the  same  name,  between  the  country 
of  the  Esquimaux,  or  New  Britain,  and  the  N.  end 
of  Ne^-foundland.  It  is  21  m.  in  circuit,  and  16  m. 
from  the  coast  of  I^brador.  On  the  NW.  side  it 
has  a  harbour  for  fishing  vessels  or  small  craft. 

BELLE-ISLE-EN-MER,  an  Lshind  of  France, 
in  the  Atlantic,  8  m.  S.  of  Quiberon  Point,  being 
included  in  the  dc^p.  Morbihan.  It  is  almost  everv- 
where  surrounded  by  high  steep  rocks.  Its  N\V. 
end  is  in  hit.  47°  32''N.,  and  its  S.  part  in  lat,  47° 
16'  N.  It  is  al)out  11  m.  in  length,  its  greatest 
breadth  being  about  6  m.  It  is  acc*essible  only  at 
three  havens  or  ports,  all  of  which  are  dry  at'hiw 
water.  Of  these  Palais,  on  the  E.  coast,  is  the 
principal,  as  well  as  the  capital.  Pc»p.  3,931  in 
18(51.  The  haven  here  is  formed  by  a  stone  pier, 
200  ft,  in  length,  and  is  protected  by  a  strong 
citadeL  It  has  only  5  ft.  at  high  water,  but  the 
road  is  generally  safe.  Tlie  two  other  accessible 
points,  Sauzon  and  Loc  Maria,  are  also  both  for- 
tified. The  island  is  fertile,  producing  cxci*llent 
wheat  and  horses.  The  inhabitants  are  exten- 
sivelv  engaged  in  the  sardine  fishcrA%  and  make 
excellent  pilots. 

Til  is  island  was  purchased  in  1658  by  Fouquet, 
intendant  of  finance  to  Louis  XIY.,  and  was  ex- 
changed in  1718  by  his  descendant  for  the  comt^ 
ofGLsors.  In  176i  it  was  taken  by  the  English, 
but  was  restored  to  France  in  1 763. 

BELLESME,  or  BELLI^ME,  atoTi-n  of  France, 
ddp.  Ome,  CBp,  cant.,  on  a  hill  M'hich  commands 
the  environs,  near  the  forest  of  the  same  name, 
22  m.  ESE.  Alen<?on.  Pop.  8,156  in  1861.  The 
houses  are  well  built ;  streets  straight,  neat,  and 
well  paved.  ITie  want  of  running  water  is  supplied 
by  wells.  It  has  fabrics  of  coarse  linens  and  cottons, 
and  a  considerable  trade  in  wmnl  and  horses. 

BELLEVILLE-SUR-SAONE,  a  to\ni  of  France, 
de'p.  Rhone,  cap.  cant.,  on  the  Rhone,  K^  ni.  N. 
Villefranche.  Pop.  3,052  in  1861.  It  has  a  manu- 
facture of  stuffs,  called  cttton  hrochee^  and  mtu^lin.s 
A  good  wine  is  made  in  the  neighbourhood. 


BELLEY 

BELLEY,  a  town  of  France,  ddp.  Ain,  cap.  ar- 
rond.,  between  two  hills,  within  4  m.  of  the  Knone, 
42  m.  E.  Lvons  on  the  railway  from  Lyons  to 
(Jeneva.  Lat.  450  45'  29"  N.,  long.  60  41'  19"  E. 
I*up.  4,786  in  1861.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop ;  has 
a  tnbunal  of  first  instance,  a  director  of  customs, 
a  secondary  ecclesiastical  school,  a  public  library, 
and  a  museum  of  antiquities.  The  episcopal  palace, 
linished  only  a  few  years  before  the  Revolution, 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  edifices  in  the  depart- 
ment   The  bishopric  was  founded  in  412. 

BELLINGHAM,  a  market  town  of  England,  co. 
Northumberland,  on  the  Tyne,  22  m.  W.  Morpeth, 
and  28  m.  WNW.  Newcastle.  Pop.,  in  1821,  404 ; 
1831,  464;  in  1861,  866.  The  parish,  in  1861,  had 
a  fK>pulation  of  1,662.  The  town  is  supposed  to 
occupy  the  site  of  a  Roman  station,  ana  several 
cin^ular  intrcnchments  of  the  fortitied  villages  of 
tlic  Britons  are  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  entire 
]uirish  belonged  to  the  Earl  of  Derwentwater,  and 
was  given  to  Greenwich  Hospital,  with  the  other 
estates  of  that  nobleman,  on  his  attainder  in  1715. 
'Hie  church,  dedicate<l  to  Sl  Cuthbert,  is  sm^ 
and  old.  There  are  places  of  worship  for  Seceders 
and  Roman  Catholics;  a  free  school,  poorly  en- 
flowed  ;  and  a  book  club,  formed  in  1809.  It  is  a 
station  for  receiving  votes  at  elections  for  members 
fir  the  S.  div.  of  the  co.  Markets  are  held  on 
Saturdays;  fairs  on  the  first  Saturday  after  15th 
SppL,  and  the  Wednesday  before  Good  Friday : 
also  •  hirings '  for  ser\''ants  on  the  Saturdays  before 
12th  May  and  12th  Nov.  (An  interesting*  account 
of  the  piuish  of  I^Uingham  was  read  by  Mr.  VVm. 
Hy.  Charlton,  of  Hedeyside,  before  the  British 
A8MK:iation,  at  Newcastle,  August  18G3,  The 
]}a\\eT  was  published  in  the  '  Journal  of  the  Statis- 
tical Society,'  Dec.  1863.) 

liELI^ROCK,  a  dangerous  ledge  of  rocks,  off 
the  coast  of  Scotland,  in  the  (irerman  Ocean,  op- 
po.site  to  the  Frith  of  Tay,  12  m.  E.  Buttonness 
I'oint.  The  ledge  is  about  850  yards  in  length, 
by  about  110  in  breadth.  At  low  water,  some  of 
its  .summits  appear  from  4  to  8  ft.  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  but  at  high  water  they  are  always 
covered.  Many  vessels  have  been  lost  on  this 
rock,  over  which  the  sea  breaks  with  tremendous 
fury.  To  lessen  the  chance  of  such  disasters,  a 
magnificent  lighthouse,  constructetl  on  the  model 
of  the  Eddvstone,  was  erectcKl,  on  one  of  its  points, 
in  1808-10.'  The  total  height  of  the  building,  in- 
cluding the  light-room,  is  1 15  ft.,  the  lantern  being 
elevated  90  ft.  above  the  sea  at  high-water  mark. 
The  light  is  revolving,  the  fiashes  succeeding  each 
other  ever\'  two  minutes.  Lat.  of  lighthouse 
5«o  26'  N.,  long.  2<^  23'  W.  During  foggy  weather, 
bells  are  tolled  every  half  minute. 

BELLUNO  (an.  BeUunum)^  a  city  of  Northern 
Italy,  cap.  prov.  same  name,  in  the  valley,  and  on 
the  S.  l>ank  of  the  Piave,  at  the  place  where  it  is 
joined  by  the  Ordo,  on  the  great  road  connecting 
Vienna  with  Venice,  48  m.  N.  of  the  latter ;  lat, 
40O  7'  46"  N.,  long.  12^  13'  51"  E.  Pop.  13,600 
in  1857.  The  town  \»  surrounded  by  an  old  wall; 
Ls  well  built ;  has  a  cathedral,  designed  by  Pal- 
ladio,  and  several  churches  and  convents;  a  rich 
lios])ital,  a  gN'muasium,  with  various  other  educa- 
tional cstablishmcntH,  and  a  valuable  public  library. 
A\'atcr  is  conveyed  into  the  town  from  a  distance 
by  a  tine  aqueduct.  It  Ls  the  seat  of  the  provincial 
(Austrian)  authorities,  and  has  fabrics  of  silk,  wax, 
li'At  her,  hats,  and  earthenware ;  with  a  considerable 
trade  hi  timl>er,  and  large  fairs  in  February  and 
April.  NaiK>leon  conferred  on  Marshal  Victor  the 
title  of  Duke  of  I^lluno. 

IlKLMONT,  a  town  of  France,  de'p.  Loire,  cap. 
cant..  HI  ni.  NK.  Roanne.     Pop.  3,591  in  1861. 

BELMONTE,  a  town  of  Sjuthem  Italy,  |»ov. 


BELOCCHISTAK 


421 


Coscnza,  on  a  mountain  not  far  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean, 14  m.  WSW.  Cosenza.  Pop.  4,142  in 
1859.  The  town  has  a  castle,  four  churches,  and 
some  trade  in  silk. 

BELOOOHISTAN  (an.  Gtdrona,  and  the  conn- 
tries  of  the  Ichthyophagi,  Orite,  Arabitae,  Ac., 
Arrian),  a  country  of  8.  Asia,  lying  between 
240  55'  and  SO©  15'  N.Ut,,and  570  60' and  69°  16^ 
E.  long.;  having  N.  Afghanistan,  Seiatan,  and 
the  sandy  desert  of  Canbm ;  £.  Upper  and  Lower 
Sinde;  w.  Persia;  and  S.  the  Indian  Ocean: 
length,  E.  to  W.,  700  miles ;  breadth,  on  either 
side,  850  m.,  and  190  in  the  centre :  area  200,000 
English  sq.  m.  Pop.  has  been  .estimated  at 
3,000,000 :  this,  no  doubt,  is  far  beyond  the  mark; 
probably,  1,000,000  would  be  nearer  the  truth. 

Mr.  Potting  describes  the  country  under  the 
following  divisions : — 

Ch.  T.    Mo.  of  Inhak. 

1.  Prov.  of  Sarawan   .       .       .       Kdat        30,000 

—  Jhalawan .        .       .       Zuhree       2,(»00 

2.  —       Hukran    .       .       .       Kcdje 

—  Lns  .        .        .        Bela  3,000 
8.      —       Catch  Gundava        .       Gundara  (Uor- 

(and  Horrand  Daje  nmd) 

4.  Kohifftan         .       •       .       •       Pohrf^Sorhad 

5.  TbeDcacrt. 

6.  Siude. 

The  first  four  divisions  only  vrill  be  noticed  iu 
this  article ;  the  5th  belongs  properly  to  Caubul, 
and  the  6th  will  be  treated  of  separately. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  BeloochLstan  is  moun- 
tainous, and  especially  its  E.  and  W.  divisions, 
which  consist  of  two  table-lands ;  those  of  Kelat 
and  Kohistan  (the  land  of  ftumntahu),  whoae 
ranges  run  mostly  N.  and  S.,  and  commuiiicate 
with  each  other  by  several  other  extensive  ranges 
nmning  E.  and  W.  acnws  the  central  prov.  of 
Mukran.  Those  in  the  E.,  which  separate  Bc- 
loochistan  from  Sinde,  and  bound  Cutch  Gundava 
VV\,  are  a  lateral  branch  from  the  Hindoo-Kooeh, 
bv  which  the  country  is  so  intersected  in  various 
directions  *  as  to  resemble  a  piece  of  network  :*  it 
varies  greatly  in  width ;  in  lat.  30^^  being  275  nu, 
but  at  Cape  Monze,  which  is  formed  by  it,  it  ia 
only  40  m.  across :  the  height  of  the  range  has  not 
been  measured;  but  Kelat,  the  most  elevated 
point,  is  thought  by  Pottinger  to  be  8,000  fL,  and 
by  Bell  (Notes  on  KoUin's  Anc  Hist,)  to  be  10,000 
ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  These  *  Brahooic 
mountains '  terminate  SW.  in  a  remarkable  range 
nmning  N  W.  to  about  28*^  N.  lat,  where  it  divides ; 
one  arm  passing  NE.  toward  the  Afghan  hills,  the 
other,  the  Wushatee,  or  Much  mountains,  direct 
VV.  for  two  degrees,  bounding  the  desert  S.,  and 
then  uniting  with  the  W.  table-land,  or  that  of 
Kohistan.  This  latter  communicates  N.,  by  a 
long  chain,  with  the  Paropamisan  mountains  W. 
of  Herat,  and  after  enclosing  the  deserts  of  Bun- 
poor  and  Bushkurd  by  another  chain,  W.,  with 
those  of  Kerman  (Persia).  A  considerable  range 
passes  in  a  waving  manner  E.,  to  meet  the  Bra- 
hooic mountains,  var}'ing  in  its  distance  from  the 
sea  from  25  to  100  m.,  and  dividing  Mukran  into 
two  parts,  the  coast  and  the  interior.  The  height 
of  the  W.  is  somewhat  inferior  to  that  of  the  £• 
mountains. 

Exceptuig  those  of  Lus  and  Cutch  Gundava, 
which  pro\*s.  are  entirely  flat,  and  that  of  Wudd, 
in  Jhalawan,  there  are  but  few  plains  of  any  fer- 
tility. Tlie  coast  division  of  Mukran  is  covered 
by  Aat  barren  sands  destitute  of  water,  and,  ex- 
cepting date  trees,  of  all  vegetation.  The  desert 
of  Bunp<x)r,  a  sandy  waste,  155  m.  long  bv  80  m. 
broad,  is  a  continuation  of  the  deserts  which  pre- 
vail in  the  middle  of  Persia  and  the  SW.  of 
.Vfghanistan.  It  was  through  the  plains  of  Muk- 
ran and  the  sucoeediug  dttert  of  Buupoor  that 


422 


BELOOCmSTAN 


Alexander  the  Great  led  his  army  into  Pcreia, 
during  which  march  »o  much  wa«  suffered  from 
thirst  and  famine.  It  is  mit  now  believed  that 
his  loss  of  men  was  so  ffrvat  as  has  In'cn  reprc- 
Kntcd,  but  the  troops  kept  Coo  near  the  hiUs:  had 
they  l;)ecn  close  to  the  shore  they  would  have 
found  fresh  water  on  digging  a  foot  or  tw^o  below 
the  surface. 

Cutch  Gundava,  inten^ected  by  some  of  the  W. 
tributaries  of  the  Indus,  is  the  only  well-watered 
TOOvdnce.  The  remainder  of  Itelooohistan  suffers 
from  want  of  water,  excepting,  perhaps,  a  few 
rice  grounds  in  the  prov.  of  Lu:*.  Tlnrre  is  not  a 
rivulet  in  the  N.,  and  only  a  few  along  the  coast, 
which,  although  sometimes  swollen  in  a  few 
minutes  to  torrent*,  by  pn)fu8e  rains,  are  for  the 
most  part  of  the  year  nearly  dr}'.  The  principal 
stream  w  the  Dust  or  MooleiMlaiice  (probably  the 
I)4»odoi>r  of  the  desert,  and,  if  so,  rising  X.  of  the 
Wushatee  mountains,  and  runnuig  a  course  of 
1,(K)0  m.  bcf«»re  reachhig  the  sea,  in  61°  45'  E. 
long.) ;  the  Poorally  (an.  Arabis),  the  second  in 
size,  rises  in  Lus,  N.  of  Rela,  and  falls  into  the 
Kay  of  Soumeany :  for  25  m.  this  stream  is  naNn- 
gable  for  small  boat,**.     (Pottinger,  p.  297.) 

'ITie  geologj'  of  this  region  Is  nearly  unknown : 
the  rocks  in  the  mountainous  partM  are  grey  or 
black  ;  the  soil  is  commonly  stony,  but  consisting 
mostly  of  a  black  loam  in  the  valleys ;  in  Kohistan 
wime  of  the  lofty  hill  tracts  arc  covere*l  by  a 
vegetable  mould.  Former  volcanic  action  is  evi- 
dent in  this  i)rovince,  which  yields  most  of  the 
minerals  found  in  IkrhK)chist'an,  Wz.,  sal  am- 
moniac, brimst(»ne,  alum,  nitre,  rock-salt,  lead, 
iron,  copj)er,  tin,  naphiha,  <tc.  (Pottinger,  pp.  322, 
Ac.)  Gohl  and  silver  are  found  only  in  Jhalawan, 
150  m.  SSW.  of  Kelat;  antimony  in  vast  quan- 
tity 8.  of  Kelat,  sulphur,  ahim,  anrl  a  red  aperient 
salt  in  the  hills  between  Kelat  and  Cutch  Gun- 
dava ;  white  and  grey  marble  near  Nooshky  on 
the  borders  of  the  desert ;  salt  in  cfUorcscence  on 
the  plains  of  Lus. 

'I'he  climate  is  healthy  except  in  Mukran.  In 
the  mountainous  provinces  there  are  four  different 
seasons  in  the  year,  as  m  Euro|)C ;  the  spring  from 
the  middle  ofFcbruarj'  to  the  middle  of  April: 
the  summer  thenceforward  to  the  beginning  of 
August,  the  heats  of  which  are  intense  only  to- 
wanls  the  latter  end :  the  autumn  lasts  till  the 
Octol)er  snows;  and  the  winter,  which  is  ver>' 
severe,  for  the  rest  of  the  year.  In  the  spring 
there  are  snow,  hail,  and  violent  winds,  and  the 
weather  is  quite  as  fluctuating  generallv  as  in 
England.  In  Mukran  and  Lus  there  are  four  sea- 
sons; two  wet,  and  a  cold  and  a  hot :  the  cold  one 
is  much  milder  on  the  coast;  the  hot  one  lasts 
from  March  to  October.  In  Kohistan  the  June 
rains  are  often  verv  ]MirtiaU  and  a  famine  not  un- 
frequently  ensues  Jn>m  drought.  Cutch  Gundava 
enjr>ya  a  much  milder  climate  than  any  other 
pnivince,  and  is  resorted  to  in  the  whiter  by  many 
neighlx Hiring  chieftains. 

The  l>est  timl)er  is  that  of  the  Zui/phut  jujulta^ 
which  is  similar  to  teak ;  the  palm  tree  grows  in 
the  W. ;  the  tamarind,  neem,  peepul  {Ficus  re- 
Zm^'owi),  sL<i!V)o,  chinar  {Platanua  orientaU*)^  mango, 
walnut,  and  sycamore,  gmw  in  this  and   othei 

Jmrts  of  the  country'.  Fruits  of  almost  all  kin<Ls 
mown  in  Europe,  as  apples,  pears,  apricots, 
peaches,  pistachio,  nuts,  muU)erries,  jy>megrn- 
iiates,  with  the  plantain,  guava,  A'c,  are  common 
in  many  districtj*.  Miikmu  is  famous  for  its  dates 
^hich  are  exporteil  in  large  ([uantities:  N.  of 
Kelat  the  almonds  are  so  fine  that  thev  may  be 
blanched  with  a  drv  cloth;  and  mefons  often 
grow  so  large  that  a  man  is  scarcely  able  to  lift 
them.     (Pottmger,  pp.  327, 328.) 


Lions  and  tigers  are  rare,  but  both  are  foond 
on  the  E.  border ;  hyenas,  wolves,  and  jackals, 
prevail  over  the  whole  country,  and  wild  dogs, 
which  hunt  in  packs  of  twenty  or  thirty.  Leo- 
pards, wUd  cats,  and  other  species  of  the  feline 
tribe,  infest  the  jungles;  and  wild  assca,  ante- 
lopes, elks,  red  and  moose  deer,  haree,  mon- 
gcxwes,  and  mountain  goats,  are  common ;  eagles, 
kites,  magpies,  arc  found  round  Kelat:  water- 
fowl, herons,  flamingi^es,  bustards,  {tartridges, 
lapwings,  and  snif^es,  are  natives:  (ish  atmuncl 
on  the  coasts;  where  they  form  the  chief  fixnl  of 
both  man  and  l>east,  but  not  in  the  rivers :  Che- 
Ionia  and  Teftacea  are  also  abundant ;  vermin  and 
venomous  animals  are  bv  no  means  so  common  as 
in  Hindostan.     (Pottinger,  pp.  328,  829.) 

Pasture  lieing  considerably  more  abundant  than 
arable  land,  and  the  population  consisting  chiefly 
of  wandering  shepherd  tribes,  tlie  number  of  cattle 
is  considcnd>lc.  Tlie  sheep  are  of  the  fat-tailed 
kind ;  the  goata  have  rrmgh  and  black  hain  the 
large  cattle  are  mostly  of  the  black  brceil,  or 
buffaloes.  The  horses  of  Cutch  Gundava,  and  the 
count r\'  S.  of  Kelat,  which  are  those  chiefly  sent 
to  India,  are  laige^  strong,  and  bony,  but  >'icioas ; 
those  of  Mukran  and  Lus  are  small  and  spiritless : 
there  are  mules  and  asses ;  but  camels  and  drr>- 
medaries  are  preferred  as  Ixuists  of  burden.  C-amel- 
grass  and  straw  are  the  chief  foixi  of  the  cattle: 
ill  the  S.  of  Mukran  and  Lus  there  are  two  crops 
of  the  former  vearly,  owing  to  the  two  wet  seasons. 

Excepting  m  Cutch  Gundava,  which  is  fertile, 
well  cultivated,  and  said  to  be  capable  of  prcNluoing 
enough  of  grain  for  all  the  inhabitants  of  Bi-Ioo- 
chistan,  not  a  hundredth  part  of  the  countrj'  is 
cultivated :  the  table-lands  yield  onlv  the  coarst-r 

IinKluce  of  Afghanistan.    All  the  kinds  of  grain 
:nown  in  India  are,  however,  grown ;  viz.,  rice,  in 
the  marshes  on  the  coast  (but  it  will  not  thrive 
in  Cutch  Gundava,    though    it   be    abundantly 
moist),  wheat,  barley,  I/olcus  spicatus  anil  wrghwm, 
maize,  sesamum,  ^c    The  wheat  and  barley  d(» 
not  ripen  so  soon  as  in   Britain :   in  the   ujifH^r 
parts  of  Sarawan  and  Jhalawan  the  former  is  S4>wn 
in  August  and  Sept eml)er,  and  reaped  in  June; 
barley  sown    a   month  later  comes    to  maturity 
in   al>out  eight  months;    maize,   in   warm  aiul 
sheltoR'd  places,   in   three  or  four  montlia.     In 
Cutch  Gundava,  Lus,  and  a  part  of  Mukran, 
wheat  ri{K;ns  in  six  months,  barley  in  Hve  months 
an<l  oriental  grain  in  from  two  to  five  months. 
Cotton,  indigo,  and  madder,  are  grown,  but  the  in- 
digo does  not  thrive :  all  the  pulse  and  ve^tables 
commcm  with  us  are  grown  near  Kelat.     (Pot- 
tinger, pp.  321-32r>;  Elphinstone,  Caubul,  p.  495.) 
Manufactures  are  vcrj'  few  ami  rude ;  nny&t  of 
the  articles,  beyond  what  are  absolutelv  necessary 
to  the  support  of  life,  Iwing  im]K>rted  f'rom  neigh- 
bouring countries,  in  exchange  for  the  few^  natural 
pnnlucts.    Sugar  is  i)rppared  near  Bela,  the  canes 
being  pressed  m  a  mill,  the  juice  boiled  in  flat 
c«)pper  pans,  and  the  jurtide  afterwards  packed  in 
bugs  of  j»almyra-leaf,  and  exported  :  the  seiliment 
is  u-setl  tor  manure.     Gum  a<isaf(ctida  is  extracted 
fn^ra  the  stalk  of  the  Fentla  a»mf.^  by  incisions 
near  the  r<K>t,  which  permit   the  escape  of  the 
juice :   al)out   1  lb.  is  obtained  fn)m  each  plant. 
The  gold  and  silver  ores  are  never  workeiU  but 
I  pass   into  the   hands  ot    the    Hindoo  traders   in 
tlieir  rough  state.     At  Kelat  there  is  an  armmiry 
iM'longing  to    the   khan,  for  swonls,  s{>earH,   and 
nintcldocks ;    but    their    workmanship    is    very 
clumsy  and  inferior.    (Pottinger,  pp.  2G-1 09.) 

The  principal  ex})orts  are  burses,  and  other 
cattle,  skins,  date-s  grain,  some  rice,  cotton,  silk, 
oil,  indigo,  salt,  lM»rax,  nitre,  ttc;  from  Lus.  grain, 
felt,  and  coarse  car}>ers,  are  sent  into  Mukran  and 


BELOOCmSTAN 


423 


Arabia.  From  tho  latter  conn  try  almonds  and 
Cafire  slaves  are  imported,  the  CaiSres  being  deemed 
very  valuable ;  from  Inclia,  iron,  tin,  lead,  steel, 
cM'pper,  indigo,  betel-nut,  cochineal,  sugar,  spices, 
8ilks,  ^old-cloths,  chintzes,  and  coarse  woollens; 
from  Caubul  and  Khorassan,  steel  and  copper; 
from  Seistan,  white  cloths,  loon^ees,  turbans ;  nom 
8inde,  Shikarooor,  &c,  porcelain,  tobacco,  coffee, 
and  opium.  Broad  cloth,  Scotch  pliuds,  and  other 
European  manufactures,  are  highly  prized. 

The  people  are  nearly  equauv  divided  between 
two  distinct  nations,  the  Belooches,  occupying  the 
W.,  and  the  Brahoo^s,  inhabiting  the  £.  division 
of  the  country.     The  former  are  desirous  to  be 
thought  descendants  of  the  Arabs,  but  are  not 
physically  like  them,  and  are  considered  by  Pot- 
tinger  to  have  been  ori^ally  Seljukds.    They  are 
tall,  long'faced,  but  with  not  unpleasant  features, 
and  have  generally  strong,  active,  and  athletic 
frames.     Tnev  are  subdi\i(led  into  three  tribes ; 
tlie  Nharoo<^s,  who  live  W.  of  the  Great  Desert, 
and  Kinds  and  Mughsees,  in  Cutch  Gundava,  and 
near  the  Desert  of  Kelat.    They  are  brave,  im- 
])ctuous,  inured  to  fatigue,  freclxtoters,  abhorring 
l>etty  thefts,  but  applauding  wholesale  plunder; 
often  wasting  and  destroying  whole  districts,  yet 
curiously  blending  an  '  ingenuous  hospitality  with 
this  predatory  ferocity.'    Like  all  pastoral  nations, 
th(>y  have  no  permanent  residence,  but  live  in 
kheiUf  or  societies  of  four  or  five  tents,  moving 
alxmt  as  pasture  is  found  siutablc  for  their  Aocks 
and  henls.    Their  food  consists  of  whcaten  and 
barky  cakes,  rice,  dates,  cheese,  sweet  and  sour 
milk,  legume  soup,  onions,  garlic,  ass^ifa'tida,  red 
iK'piKT,  and  <x;casionally  tiesh.     All  the  IJeliKKrhes 
an*  Mussidmaus  of  tlie  mH'.t  of  Omar,  and  their 
customs  are  those  of  other  Mohannne<lans,  mixed 
with  some  plainly  derive<l  from  the  ancient  Jews. 
Tolygamy  is  allowed,  but  they  treat  their  women 
with  respect  and  attention ;  they  have  often  nu- 
merous slaves,  and  in  many  respects  behave  to 
them  with  great  kinthiess.     They  arc  armed  with 
a   match Unrk.  swonl,  sjHiar,  dagger,   and  shield, 
which  they  commonlv  <!erive  fn*m  foreign  traders. 
They  are  goo<l  marksmen,  invariably  hitting  a 
target  G  inches  square,  while  on  horseback,  at  full 
gallop.    A  popular  sp(»rt  with  them  is  to  remove 
and  carrj'  away  on  the  top  of  a  spear,  while  at  full 
gallop,  a  stake  driven  deep  into  the  ground ;  an 
oi>eration  which  requires  much  dexterity.    Cudgel 
playing,  wrestling,  warlike  exercises,  and  lield- 
siM>rts,  form  the  rest  of  their  amusements.     The 
dress  of  the  men  is  a  white  or  blue  calico  sldrt, 
buttoned  round  the  neck,  and  reaching  below  the 
knees ;  trowsers  of  the  same,  puckere<l  round  the 
ankles;  siipfwra;   a  close  quilted  cotton  cap  or 
turban,  and  scarf.    'Die  w(»men  wear  long  garments 
of  re<l  or  brown  cotton,  reaching  to  the  ankles,  but 
ofH'n  in  front  from  the  bosom  downwanls;  veiy 
wide  trowsers  of  silk ;  and  the  hair  either  parted 
in  N'parate  locks  in  fnmt,  and  then  tied  up  together 
in  a  knot  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  or  cmveied  by 
a  handkerchief.    The  language  of  the  Belooches 
is  a  dialect  of  the  Persian,  corruptly  pronouncetl, 
hut  from  which  tongiie  half  the  w«)ni'< are  borrowed. 
(I'ot  linger,  pp.  .'m-67,  270;  Elphinstonc,  p.  405.) 
The  Brahooe's  are  inferior  in  height  to  the  i^ 
hM)ohes,  have- short  thigh-bones,  a  round  face-,  flat 
features,  and  often  brown  hair  and  beanls.     Their 
liabits  are  still  more  unsettled  than  those  of  the 
BehxMjhes,  but  they  are  not  so  prcilator^",  rapacious, 
avaricious,  revengeful,  or  cruel.    Pottniger  prefers 
tlieir  general  character  very  nun;h  to  that  of  the 
former,  and  repn/M-nts  them  as  active,  industrious, 
lalN)rioiLs   qui(>t,   hospitable,   f:uthful,   and   more  ' 
under  the  control  of  their  chiefs.    They  live  chiefly  j 
on  animal  food,  of  which  they  are  xoiy  voracious,  j 


and  are  admitted  by  the  Belooches  to  be  better 
marksmen  than  themselves.  They  live  either  in 
tents,  about  12  yards  long  by  as  many  feet  wide, 
built  of  sticks,  and  covered  with  coarse  blankets, 
or  in  houses,  which  in  the  towns,  as  well  as  the 
open  country,  are  built  of  tamarisk  or  other  wooden 
framework,  flanked  with  mud,  or  bricks  of  unbomt 
clay,  and  ill-thatched  with  grass.  The  men  are 
occupied  in  the  outdoor  and  the  women  in  the 
indoor  employments,  but  Uie  latter  are  not  ke^ 
secluded,  and  all  mix  and  eat  together.  Their 
religion  is  Mohammedan;  their  dr^  very  similAr 
to  that  of  the  Belooches,  except  that  felt  for  cape, 
and  garments  of  felt,  are  often  worn  bv  the  men. 
Their  language  is  like  the  Hindoo  of  the  Punjab. 
(Pottinger,  pp.  12-54, 70-76.) 

A  race  called  Dewahrs  inhabit  different  parts  of 
the  country,  who  are  probably  descendants  of  the 
Guebres,  (&iven  from  Persia  by  the  Arabs  in  the 
38th  year  of  the  Hegira ;  they  are  below  the  middle 
height,  with  blunt  features  and  high  cheek-bones; 
are  civil  and  obliging,  though  not  hospitable; 
being  faithful  and  trustworthy,  the  guard  of  the 
palace  of  the  khan  of  Kelat  is  entirely  composed 
of  them.  Their  language  is  pure  Persian;  their 
treatment  of  females  better  than  that  of  any  other 
Moslem  people.    (Ibid.  pp.  80-274.) 

Huidoos  are  tolerated,  and  monopolise  most  of 
the  trade  in  Kelat  and  the  neighbouring  provinces, 
but  they  are  not  allowed  to  settle  in  Beloochlstan 
with  their  wives  and  families.  There  is  a  con- 
siderable infusion  of  Hindoo  blood  and  manners 
among  the  inhabitants  of  Cutch  (xundava  and 
Lus,  where  the  people  are  indolent  in  their  habits, 
and  incessantlv  smoking.  In  Mukran  the  people 
are  larger  built  and  darker  in  colour,  from  inter- 
marriages with  Caffre  slaves ;  the  women  in  this 
prov.  arc  ill-favoured,  and  none  of  them  long-lived. 
(lbid.pp.  11-^0,  78-ail.) 

The  government  is  nominally  under  the  khan 
of  Kelat,  but  chieHy  in  the  liands  of  the  sinlars  of 
each  individual  tri*l>e.  The  khan,  however,  can 
obli(^e  each  sirdar  or  chief  to  furnish  him  with  a 
c<mtmgent  of  tnmps  in  case  of  need.  The  public 
revenues  are  perhaps  about  350,000  rupees  a  year 
(35,000/.),  a  large  i)art  of  which  is  paid  m  nroducc, 
which  the  khan  afterwards  disposes  of^  to  the 
Hindoo  merchants.  The  taxes  arc  moderate; 
l-20th  of  the  produce  Ls  paid  for  lands  requiring 
irrigation  and  much  labour;  from  l-l<)th  to  1-lOth 
for  other  lands :  the  respective  sirdars  stop  a  part 
of  this,  in  payment  of  collection.  Five  rupees  ia 
paid  for  a  camel-load  of  gotxls  entering  Kelat,  and 
1  k  per  cent,  on  goods  sold,  excepting  cattle.  The 
khan  generally  sits  in  j  udgment  m  cases  of  murder. 
This  crime  mav  sometimes  bo  compromised  with 
the  friends  of  tbe  di^ceaseil,  but  in  the  event  of  the 
munter  of  a  foreigner,  immediate  execution  waits 
upon  the  criminal  Adultery  may  be  punished  by 
the  death  of  both,  by  the  hand'  of  the  offended 
party.  Burglarv  and  night  robbery  are  capital 
crimes.  Petty  differences  are  adjusted  or  disposed 
of  by  the  sirdars,  and  minor  offences  are  pumshed 
by  f1<igging  and  imprimmment.  (Ibi<Lpi).28U-294.) 

Almost  all  the  inhabitants  of  Beloochlstan  axe 
nearly  barbarous  an<l  micivillscd :  neither  the  Be- 
loocheekee  nor  Brahooekee  are  written  tongues, 
and  he  is  greatlv  honoured,  and  called  *  moollee,' 
who  can  read  the  Koran.  They  are  quite  igno- 
rant of  all  tlie  countries  in  their  neighbourhood, 
and  fancy  the  British  K.  I.  Company  (of  which 
they  have  heanl  fn)m  the  Hindoos)  to  be  *  an  okl 
woman  with  plentA'  of  money.'  Medicine  they 
are  totally  unaccpiainted  with ;  and  to  cure  a  fever 
thev  will  shamfsH)  or  thump  the  body  all  over. 
(Ibid.  pp.  2(UH0,  dc) 
This  comitiy  was  quite  unknoMm  to  Europeans 


424 


BELP 


autil  the  time  of  Alexander  the  (ireat :  the  hills 
were  then  inhabited  by  a  race  of  savages,  the 
nhorc  by  people  who  sut:^isted  as  at  present  on  fish, 
thence  called  by  the  Greeks  Ichtnyophagi,  For 
nearly  ten  centuries  afterwards  there  are  no  records 
of  Heh^ocliiMtan.  A  caliph  of  Bagdad,  in  the  year 
!)'2  of  the  Ilcpra,  led  an  army  thriiojjrh  it  to  Sinde ; 
it  was  afterwards  taken  possession  of  by  Musaood, 
son  of  the  Emp.  Mahmood,  and  remained  governed 
by  his  d^-nastv  till  1739,  when  Nadir  Shah  having 
conquered  it,  Wtowed  it,  with  the  title  of  bc^ler- 
beg,  on  an  ancestor  of  the  present  klian  of  Kelat, 
Until  1758  it  was  tributary  to  the  khan  of  CaubuL 

BELP,  a  village  of  Switzerland,  cant.  Berne,  on 
the  Gurben,  at  Uie  foot  of  the  Belperg,  near  the 
8.  bank  of  the  Aar,  6  m.  SE.  Berne.  Pop.  1,867 
in  18r,0. 

BELPEGII,  a  town  of  France,  dop.  Aude,  cap. 
canU,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Lers  and  theVixicge, 
15  m.  SW.  Ca.'*tclnaudary.  Pop.  2,482  in  18G1. 
There  is  a  manufactory  of  cloth. 

BELPFjK,  a  market  town  and  chapelry  of  Eng- 
land, c«K  Deri>y.  par.  DulHeld,  and  bund.  A])pletree, 
H  m.  N.  Derby,  54  ra.  SE.  Manchester,  and  134  m. 
NW.  I^)n<lon.  It  has  a  station  on  the  north  branch 
of  the  Midland  railway.  P«»p.  0,885  in  1841,  and 
9,509  in  18r»i.  The  tmvn  is  situated  in  a  valley, 
through  which  the  Dem'ent  flows.  This  river  is 
croHs<Ml,  at  the  X.  end  of  the  toi^-n,  by  a  stone 
bri<lge  of  thn-e  arches.  The  town,  though  irre- 
gular, is  well  built.  The  market -(tlace,  in  an  ele- 
vated situation,  is  surrounded  by  handsome  shops. 
Courts  leet  arc  held  here  at  Easter  and  Michael- 
mas, when  the  ofKcers  of  the  town,  composing  a 
constable,  and  other  public  othcers,  an>  elcn-ted  and 
Hwom.  Bel|>er  is  one  of  t  he  places  for  taking  votes 
•  at  the  election  of  M.P.  for  the  S.  divlnion  of  the 
CO.  The  living  is  a  curacy,  in  the  archdeaironrj' 
of  Derby,  dim-ese  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry:  pa- 
tron, vicar  of  DufhehL  There  are  i)laces  of  worsliip 
for  dL<sentors,  and  aLno  Sunday  and  infant  schcMils. 
and  almshouses.  There  are  some  cotton  works, 
giving  employment  to  2,000  j)eople.  The  manu- 
facture of  silk  and  cotton  hosiery  in  the  town  and 
neighl>ourho(>d  Is  very  exteuMve.  There  are  als4i 
in  tbeneighlM>urho<)<l,|M>tteries, bleacbing-gri»und>?, 
and  coal-works.  Hie  O<»mfonl  Canal  passes  within 
2  m.  of  the  town ;  but  its  most  imjiortant  channel 
of  communication  is  the  North  Midland  Kailwuy. 
The  sunrounding  sccner>'  is  \ety  beautiful  and  jiic- 
turesque. 

BELT  (GREAT  AND  LITTLE),  two  of  the 
entrances  into  the  Baltic,  which  see. 

BELTUKBET,  a  town  of  Ireland,  co.  Cavan, 
on  the  Erne,  61  m.  NAV.  by  W.  Dublin.  6.J  m.  N. 
by  W.  Cavan.  Pop.  1,789  in  1861,  about  one- 
third  of  whom  are  Prot<»«tants.  It  is  a  corjs>mte 
town,  lias  a  goo<l  market-house,  and  a  »]>ncious 
church;  but  it  h&«  n<»  staple  manufacture  or  trade, 
and  is  not  increasing.  There  is  a  considerable 
distillery  within  the  limits  of  the  bor.  It  returned 
2  mem.'  to  the  Irish  II.  of  C,  but  was  disfran- 
chised at  the  Union.  Its  trade  is  injured  from 
there  being  a  rnpi<l  or  fall  in  the  river  on  its  one 
aide,  and  a  shallow  on  the  other. 

BELVEDEUE,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
C-osenza,  on  a  hill  washed  bv  the  Mediterranean, 
26  m.  NNW.  Closenza.  Poi).*5,600  m  18()2.  It  has 
a  fort,  several  churches  and  convents,  and  3  monts- 
fie-pit^f:,  the  revenues  of  which  are  a])propriated 
to  tlie  ]x>rtioning  of  \HyoT  girls  on  their  marriage. 
Its  wine  and  raisins  are  in  considerable  repute. 

HELVES,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Donlogne, 
am.  cant,  14  m.  SW.  Sarlar.  Pop.  2,50(;  in  1«61. 
It  has  mills  for  extracting  oil  from  nuts;  and  its 
Dun  and  markets  are  well  freouented. 

BKLVOIK,  an  extra-panK'hial  district  of  Eng- 


BENARES 

land,  partly  in  co.  I^cester,  partly  in  that  of 
Lincoln,  in  hund.  Framland  of  the  former,  and 
soke  of  Grantham  of  the  ktter;  98  m.  N.  by  W. 
London.    Pop.  105  in  1831,  and  171  in  1861,  area 
170  acres.    The  inliabitants  are  connected  with 
the  establishment  at  ltelv(»ir  Castle,  the  splendid 
seat  of  the  Duke  of  KutUind,  which  crowns  the 
summit  of  an  eminence  overl«Miking  the  beautiful 
vale  whence  its  name  is  derived.    The  site  was 
fmt  occupied  by  Robert  de  Todeni,  standard- 
bearer  of  William  the  Conqueror,  and  remained 
with  his  lineal  descendants  till  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.,  when  it  passed,  by  marriage,  to  the  Manners 
family,  in  whose  nomession  it  has  since  remained. 
The  structure,  wnich  had  been  destroyed  in  the 
wars  of  the  Roses,  was  rebuilt  bv  the  first  Earl 
of  Rutland,  whose  title  dates  12  Hen.  VIIL     In 
the  last  civil  war  it  was  alternately  garrisoned  by 
the  n)yal  and  parliamen tar}- forces,  and  was  much 
injured :  after  the  Restoration  it    was  again  re- 
paired by  the  first  Duke  of  Rutland,     (ireat  im- 
provements  and  adilitic»ns   were    made   to    this 
magnificent   pile  by   the  fifth   duke,   under  the 
■  direction  (»f  Wyatt.'   Whilst  they  were  in  progress 
a  lire  nearly  destroyed  the  whole  :  the  irrejianible 
,  iiyury  was*  the  destruction  of  the   fine  picture 
I  gallerj',  in  which  were  several  of  Sir  J.  Reynolds's 
I  ]>ainti*iigs ;  and  amongst  others  that  of  the  Na- 
'  tivity.    The  c^istle  is  now  restoretl  to  more  than 
its  ftjrmer  magnificence,  still  i»resen'ing  the  style 
of  an  ancient  Iiaronial  reMdence. 

BENARES,  a  prov.  of  Hinilo>tan,  formerly  in- 
cluded in  that  of  Allahabad,  i>n>sid.  f>f  Bengal ; 
containing  the  di:*tricts  of  licnares,  Mirza)s*re, 
(ihazeiKins  and  JuaniK>re;  chiellv  between  lat. 
24°  and  HP  N.,  and  li.ng.  82^  aiid  84°  30'  E. ; 
having  N.  GoruckiMire;  E.  Bahar:  S.  the  liorar 
cede<l  distr. ;  and  W.  the  territor\'  of  the  ]2ajah 
of  Rewah,  and  the  districts  of  Allahnl>ad  and 
Juaniiore.  Area  8,070  sq.  m.  Pop.  estimatoil  at 
alx)Ut  3,000,(MK).  It  coiisl-^ts,  for  the  most  p;irt, 
of  a  cultivated  fiat,  on  ls»th  sides  of  the  Ganges, 
and  is,  besides,  well  wat.ere<l  by  the  Gwrnipty, 
Sone,  Caramnassa,  &c.  It  chietly  prcMluces  the 
drier  grains,  as  wheat  and  barley,  legumes,  fiax, 
'  d:c.,  indigo,  sugar,  and  large  quantities  of  o])iuni. 
I  The  latter  is  a  government  inon«»]K)ly,  and  Babar 
i  and  Benares  are  the  only  pr<»vince»  in  the  Bengal 
1  presid.  in  which  it  is  pennitte<l  to  Ik?  grown.  This 
;  j>rov.  is  amongst  the  most  fiounshing  in  India, 
and  increasing  greatly  in  trade  and  pros|>erity, 
particularly  since  the  establishment  of  railway 
commtmication,  inaugurated  by  the  opening  of 
the  gn-at  liast  Indian  line,  fn»ni  Calcutta  to  the 
northern  provinces.  Muslins,  gauzes,  brocades, 
and  some  salt  of  an  inferior  kind,  are  among  the 
manufactures.  1-lOtli  of  the  jMip.  iji  the  cities, 
and  l-20ih  in  the  rest  of  the  prov.,  arc  Moliannne- 
«ians ;  the  judicial  and  other  regulations  of  Bengal 
extend  to  this  prov.  Before  1775  I{enar«s  Ixv 
I  longed  to  the  nabob  of  Oude,  who,  in  Umt  year, 
ceded  it  to  the  British. 

Benakks    {Varanaslti,  Sanscr.,    or    Aan\    the 

splendid),  a  large  and  celebratxid  city  of  Hindo- 

staii,  presid.  Bengal,  cap.  ]>rov.  and  distr.  of  the 

same  name,  seat  of  a  court  of  circuit  and  a]qH'nl, 

and  (»ne  of  the  six  chief  provincial  cities  in  the 

I  presid.  at  thn  head  of  a  judicial  division.     Lar. 

'  25°  30'  N.,  long.  8;>o  1'  E. ;  on  the  NW.  bank  of 

the  Ganges,  alwrnt  300  feet  above  the  level  of  the 

sea;  do  m.  E.  Allahabad,  and  400  m.  NW.  Cal* 

cutta.  on  the  E:L««t  Indian  railway,  fn»m  Calcutta 

to  Delhi.     Pop.  estimated  at  (»(M),00(I.     It  Is  the 

j  *  most  holy'  city  of  the  Hind<M>s ;  the  ecclcsiasiirnl 

I  metnuHilis,  in  fact,  of  India,  and  is  resorted  to  liv 

I  pilgrims  from  all  (piarters,   es|>ecially   from   the 

i  Maharatta  countries,  and  from  even   TWhh  and 


BENARES 

Birmah.  According  to  Bishop  Heber,  it  *  is  cer- 
taiiily  the  richest,  as  well  as  probably  the  most 
popuioius  city  in  the  peninsula.*  Its  hist  ^iew  is 
extremely  line ;  it  extends  about  4  m.  along  the 
bank  of  the  river,  which  is  considerably  elevated, 
and  adorned  with  large  ghauts,  or  landing-places, 
with  lung  and  handbome  tiights  of  vteps.  *Its 
buildings,  which  are  crowded,  built  of  stone  or 
brick,  and  uniquely  lofty;  here  and  there  the 
sculptured  pyramidal  tops  of  small  pagodas ;  and 
the  great  mosque  of  Aurungzebe,  with  its  gilded 
dome  glitteiing  in  the  sunbeam,  and  two  minarets 
towering  one  above  the  other,  form  a  grand  and 
imposing  coup-doe'iV  The  streets  are  extremely 
narrow,  and  the  opposite  sides  approach  in  some 

{>arts  so  near  each  other  as  to  be  united  by  gal- 
erics;  the  only  open  space  is  the  market-place, 
conatructed  by  the  present  gov.,  but  the  aty  is 
w^cll  drained  and  healthy.  In  1801  there  were 
upwards  of  12,000  houses,  from  one  to  six  stories 
high,  built  of  brick  or  stone,  and  16,000  more  of 
mud,  with  tiled  roofs.  The  former  lodge,  at  an 
average,  about  15  persons  on  a  iioor ;  those  of  six 
stories  often  containing  from  150  to  200  indivi- 
duals each  :  they  are  bmlt  round  a  court-yard,  and 
have  small  windows,  many  verandalis,  galleries, 
&c. ;  much  painting,  car\'ing,  and  elaborate  stone- 
work ;  and  are  '  often  not  unlike  those  represented 
in  Cunaletti's  '*  Views  of  Venice." '  The  causeways 
are  much  lower  than  the  lower  floors  of  the 
houses,  which  have  mostly  arched  rows  in  front, 
with  little  shoiKs  behind  them:  each  street,  or 
bjizanr,  is  devoted  to  a  separate  trade.  The  prin- 
ci|>ul  [mblic  building  is  the  mt>8(iue,  built  by 
Aurungzebe,  on  the  highest  {)oint,  and  in  the 
centre  of  the  city,  which  it  completely  overlooks. 
A  Ilind«M>  temple  was  destroyed  to  make  room 
f«>r  it.  Many  other  mostpies,  which  remain,  are 
built  on  etpially  holy  spot^*,  much  to  the  an- 
noyance ol  the  IhndiH)  [M)])ulation.  There  are 
numerous  IIind<M>  temples;  and  fakirs*  houses, 
OS  they  are  culled,  adonied  with  iddL*,  occur  at 
every  turn.  Benares  is  cn)wded  with  mendicant 
l»ri<'.*^t.s;  there  are  said  to  be  H,0()0  houses  occupied 
l>y  Bnilmiins,  who  live  ui>on  the  alms  and  olFer- 
ingN  of  the  pilgrims;  only  1-lOth  of  the  jxjp.  are 
JSiohunimedans ;  and  Europeans,  who  are  few  in 
number,  reside  not  in  the  city,  but  at  Seroli,  a 
little  way  otT.  Turks  4*ersians,  Armenians, 
Tartars,  Ac,  are  settled  in  Benares.  Its  trade  is 
con.Mderable  in  shawls,  diamonds  of  Bundlecund, 
l):u'(-a  and  other  muslins;  in  silks,  cottons,  and 
tine  W(H>llens  of  its  own  manufacture,  and  in  Eu- 
ropean articles.  The  llindiH>  ^Sanscrit  college  of 
tliLs  city  is  the  chief  seat  of  native  learning  in 
India.  It  \a  attended,  on  the  average,  by  iJOO 
pupils:  an  English  college,  established  in  1832, 
lias  from  140  to  150  pupils.  Numerous  Cluistian 
missitms  have  been  establishe<l  here,  and  there 
are  private  teachers  of  both  the  Mohammedan 
and  Ihndoo  law.  One  of  the  greatest  curiosities 
at  Benares  is  an  ancient  obserx'atorj',  built  before 
the  Mussulman  conquest,  by  the  celebrated  Kajah 
.leh-singh.  It  is  of  stone,  and  contains  a  large 
htjuare  tower,  in  which  are  preser\'ed  many  instru- 
ments, chieHy  of  stone,  some  of  them  havnig  been 
evidently  used  for  ju<licial  astrologj' :  a  few  miles 
to  the  E.  there  is  a  solid  stone  ruin,  similar  in  ap- 
jK'arance  to  the  Buddhist  temples  in  the  W.  of 
India,  called  the  Saranath.  The  country  aromid 
Ik-nares  is  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  but  bare  of 
wiKxl :  fuel  is,  thereA»re,  very  dear,  and  sutteeSf  in 
consequence  of  this  scarcity,  are  said  to  have  been 
less  common  than  in  many  parts  of  India.  The 
trade  of  this  city  has  much  increased  since  the 
o|K*ning  <»f  a  line  of  niilway  to  Calcutta,  which 
took  place  on  December  22,  1802.    This  city  is 


BENEVENTO 


42& 


believed  by  the  Hindoos  to  form  no  part  of  the 
terrestrial  globe,  but  to  rest  upon  the  point  of 
Siva's  trident:  hence,  they  say,  no  earthquake 
ever  aflccts  it.  In  1017  it  was  taken  by  Sultan 
Mahmoud,  and  from  1190  followed  the* fortunes 
of  the  Delhi  sovereigns :  since  1775  it  has  enjoyed 
tranquillity  under  the  British,  interrupted  only  on 
one  occasion  by  a  religious  conflict  uetween  the 
Hindoos  and  Mussulmans,  on  the  latter  breaking 
down  a  pillar,  called  *  Siva's  walking-stick.'  The 
rajah  of  Benares  is  a  pensioner  on  English  bounty, 
and  without  any  political  power. 

BENCOOLEN,  a  marit.  town  of  Somatra  (£.. 
archipelago),  and  the  principal  settlement  of  the 
Dutcn,  as  formerly  of  tne  Bntish,  on  that  island. 
It  stands  on  the  SW.  coast,  in  lat.  39  49'  N.,  long. 
102O  16'  E.  The  town,  which  is  small  and  w^ 
built,  is  said  to  be  unhealthy ;  but  Fort  Marl- 
borough, originally  constructed  by  the  British,  in 
1G85,  stands  a  little  farther  inland,  in  a  healthier 
situation.  The  pop.  is  composed  of  Dutch  and 
other  Europeans,  or  their  descendants,  Ooloos, 
Chinese,  Balinese,  and  Malays.  The  trade  of 
Bencoolen  had  greatly  declined  previously  to  the 
cession  made  by  Great  Britain  in  1825.  The 
imiwrts  consist  chietiy  of  cloths,  rice  and  salt, 
to)>acco,  sugar,  handkerchiefs,  Ac,  from  Batavia ; 
opium  and  various  fabrics  from  Bengal  and  the 
Coromandel  coast;  printed  cottons,  cutlery,  and 
metallic  articles,  from  Europe;  and  salt^  fish, 
I'^^^S  ^PS^  poultry',  oil,  and  timber,  fn>m  other 
parts  of  the  island.  The  English  endeavoured  to 
cultivate  the  clove  and  nutmeg  here,  but  the 
J  pn)duce  was  very  inferior  to  that  of  Amboyna  and 
■  the  Banda  Jsiands.  Bencoolen  was  always  an 
unprofitable  settlement  to  the  British,  the  ex- 
penses of  its  government  luiving  uniformly  ex- 
ceeded its  revenue.  During  the  five  years  pre- 
ceding its  cession  to  the  Dutch,  the  excess  of 
expenditure  over  revenue  amounted  to  about 
85,000/.  a  year.  It  was  ceded  in  1825  to  the 
Dutch,  in  part  exchange  for  the  town  and  fortress 
of  Malacca  and  other  settlements. 

BENDER,  a  town  of  European  Russia,  prov. 

Bessarabia,  on  the  Dniester,  about  58  m.  from  the 

Black  Sea.    Pi>p.  18,100  in  1858.    The  town  is 

I  fortified  bv  a  wall  and  ditch,  and  has  a  citadel  on 

I  • 

j  an  eminence.  In  1770,  the  Russians  took  this  town 
by  storm,  and  reduced  it  to  ashes.  They  again 
took  it  in  1800,  and  it  was  finally  ceded  to  them, 
with  the  prov.  of  Bessarabia,  by  the  treaty  of 
Buchorest  in  1812.  It  was  formerly  a  place  of 
much  greater  consequence  than  at  present ;  and  is 
said,  previous  to  its  capture  in  17/0,  to  have  had 
30,000  inhabitants.  In  its  Wcinity  in  Vamitxa,  the 
retreat  of  Charles  XII.  after  the  battle  of  Poltava. 
BENE,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  prov.  Mon- 
doNd,  on  a  hill  between  the  Stura  and  Tanaro,  16  m. 
N  E.  Coni.  Pop.  6,127  in  1862.  It  is  defended  by 
an  old  castle;  has  a  coll^^te  church,  and  a 
hospital. 

BENEVENTO  (an.  Beneventum),  a  city  of 
Southern  Italy,  cap.  of  province  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  declivity  of  a  lull  between  and  near  the 
confluence  of  the  Calore  and  Sabato,  32  m.  NE. 
Naples;  on  the  railway  from  Naples  to  Foggia. 
Pop.  18,882  in  1862.  It  Is  surrounded  by  walls,  and 
defended  by  a  castle.  The  modem  town  occupies 
the  site  of  the  ancient  one,  and  is  almost  entirely 
constructed  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  Utter.  In  fact, 
u-ith  the  exception  of  Rome,  hardly  any  Italian 
town  can  boast  of  so  many  remains  of  antiquity  as 
Benevento.  Of  these  the  most  perfect,  and  by  far 
the  most  worthy  of  notice,  is  the  arch  of  Trajan, 
now  the  Porta  Aurea^  erected  in  honour  of  the 
great  emperor  whose  name  it  beaiH,  about  a.c.  1 14. 
This  singularly  beautiful  structure  is  of  white 


4»  BENGAL  (FRESmENCY  OF) 

nuble,  at  the  compoidia  arder,  uid  ctmnita  of 
angle  arch.  Its  tutal  height  is  b2  ft.,  Ihe  iniei 
columniAfionH  and  friozoA  twin);  covered  wirhbiwv 
tdievuo,  re|)TeiieDtiii^  the  biitrl««  and  Iriumphs  i 
the  Diiciui  war.  llieH,  which  on  nf  tlie  mw 
exqiuBtlc  wotkmanship,  are  ■  guod  deal  mnlilated; 
bat  otherwise  thi»  noble  fabrii:  is  nearly  entire. 
The  calhedral  is  ■  clumev  edifice,  in  the  wills  of 
which  [he  fineat  remains  lif  antiquity  are  huddled 
together  without  any  repird  tu  unlcr.  'Hie  cupul 
tfthe  church  nf  St,  Sophia  rests  gn  a  cinmlai  cu 
loonade  of  antiqne  marble ;  and  scarcely  a  wall  i 
to  be  seen  that  Ih  not  lilled  with  &agmtn  is  of  altars, 

a  fine  paliato  jmblUo,  or  town-hall,  a 

with  a  icooil  library,  a  collide,  an  orphan  hospital,    ' 
threeotbtrhospitals,  and  two  oumtidipieta,    Con- 
vderable  taliE  are  held  at  different  periods  of  the 
ynx.  It  suSeied  neverelv  from  the  pWue  in  Itioli. 
■nd  from  on  earthqueke'in  16»B. 

Benevenlo  is  verv  ancient,  its  nriipn  being  aa- 
ciibed  to  Diom«L  It  waa  fimt  called  Maleventiin- 
bnl,  on  being  taken  and  colonised  br  the  Human 
it  was  called  Beneventum.  Id  its  vicinity,  in  I2& 
waa  fuueht  the  great  battle  belweeo  Charles  i 
Anjoa  and  his  rival  Manfred,  iu  which  the  Ittu 
waa  killeil.  and  bis  amy  totally  defeated.  I  >utiii 
the  ascendancy  of  Napoleon,  Belicvento  wan  formt 
Into  a  principality,  conferred  on  M.  de  Tallcyraiii. 
lait,  on  the  downiUl  of  Napoleon,  it.  attain  reverti 
to  the  piipe,  till,  in  UW,  it  was  annexed,  tii^thi 
with  Napkii,  to  the  kingdom  of  Itnly. 

BEXGAI,  (PRES^UE^■CY  OK),  a  territory  i 
AMa,  the  mnit  impnrtatit  aiHl  extensive  uf  tli 
nine  Ktvat  jimviiiceii  iuto  wliich  Die  Urltisli  di 
mininns  in  the  Last  are  diridcd.  Ihe  prcsiiivncy 
ntcDda  between  Ut.  HV  and  Ul°  K.,  and  l»n|c. 
7^  to  UP  K.,  Iiavmg  N.  Ilivtan,  Kepaul.  and  tlw 
Iflilus;  W.  the  Utter,  Ihe  tciritoiies  of  tlic  iSikhi 
and  Kajiiootana;  S.  Ihe  Icniloiies  of  Ilvmr,  the 
iladns  piesideiicv,  and  the  Buv  of  Bengal ;  and 
K.  the  liiimese  ilommions.  Tlie  total  area  of  the 
Ilenfial  rireaidency  amounts  to  2GI,3MII  Eng.  cq. 
In„  iiihnlriled,  according  to  retimis  of  the  vear 
1MJ3,  by  a  population  of  4(),4i;il,iiW  souls.  {Hta- 
tlalical  Tables  relating  to  the  Ctdoiiial  and  other 
Piinesaiona,  {"ait  ix.)  llic  troop  stationed  ' 
Itoiigal  on  the  BUth  April,  IStil,  numbered  07,1 
divided  aa  foUowa : — 


i 

1 

6.480 

1 
1 

! 

I 

em 
i3.aito 

I 

Sliff  and  KI«II  Corps     . 

BorH  and  Foot  Artil- 
Iwj      .       ,       .       . 
Cawlry 
Infantry        .        .        . 

ToUit     . 

CBI5 

a7,isj 

.  The  presidency  is  divided  into  the  Upper 
Western,  the  Cenlial,  and  the  Lower  pruvino< 
the  former  including  Delhi;  the  Central,  Allaha- 
bad, Uebar,  and  uthtn ;  and  the  Lower  pruv,, 
Ilengal,  an<l  the  rest  alill  farther  E.  These  proi-s. 
are  divideil  inln  lifty  ilistricts,  of  the  foUuwiug 
ana  and  iwpulation : — 


h,.HU« 

Jawore  .... 

a.sia 

JWI  7M 

Twtnlj  -Four  Firgunnaiu 

1,1  HS 

llOi.(H0 

I'f-itnMO 

llMt 

1!«,TM 

],«« 

*m<fm 

6W,I)(» 

r,'i„']CTlrore 

»>■■« 

»,«K^OM 

SJtM 

i.auii,ooo 

r''!!r'?,'.ih    ;     '. 

i'.toi 

Boii.uno 

i.noo 

mjM 

'v^''^.    '.    : 

I'-ti  1 

1,000.(100 

!>«' 

t.'*.aDS 

^h.h,,LjH,n.«,dHldgaUM 

S6B.M3g 

11. 11^1 -mb       .        . 

S 

l/HS.'nOO 

RflMiaje        .        . 

i.abt 

Bri>«) 

■i.etia 

6oi>;»xi 

Ik-<^ljhoim    '.        [ 

l,OI".«7fi 

t|si» 

aiu.ooi) 

FumcriporB  and    Deosn  | 

I,i»J 

Nr.,i>aa 

Myui.-n-inK  ".        '. 

i,*sr.«» 

^Uiift.inrfaaing  Jintca    . 

81411 

l;,.l^r^,..,K,..   InduOlng        1 
^^^..-.^..nHii,L.anBie          J 

»,7!14 

i.imn.oon 

l.iOO.lKiU 

1. |!'"_"i 

Tijipcnih  and  Bulloah  .       . 

']^eKim&Thonlts. 

t.-^tn  ' 

1,1— M-o 

ti«»> 

is=[5=   ;   : 

aiKvH.i 

"™"  ( Uurrung ,        .        , 

""-JS",^*'"" 

I.!I.W 

»»:„„ 

^'^^'I.Siidja.ino.  Mui™i 

ilH.f«i 

0.,^,«™       .       .       .       . 

^'.ui 

M1.-.L-J 

iif.:*.ii 

r^iwoUuljiore  .... 

BW.IW1 

aisMt 

Loliur-  1  Chntta  Migpon     . 

S'?iS} 

**s.Bna 

sill^'tloin  .'■"'.    :    : 

asijwrt 

'  """''""'" ■ 

_  —  "1 

__!_!_ 

the  Gai 


The  principal  cities  are  Calciitla.  the   niitish 

ijhuf  Itidla;  Delhi,  the  Mohamnirdiin  cajdial; 

ith  llenares,  Uouishedabad,  Dacca,  Ikhor,  I'atna, 

llalialiad,  ARm,  anil  Lahore. 

Tile  surface  of  this  vast  lerritorv  has,  in  differ. 

cnt  parts,  every  variety  of  elevation  and  as[ici-t. 

But  liy  far  the  larger  portion  consisls,  notwith- 

"ing,  of  Immense  plains,  indurling  tiiin'i'  of 

anges  and  Brahmaputra.     K.'ccliisive  i>f  the 

iiulaya  and  Garrows  mountaiuH.  which  bmind 

1.  and  E.,  it  has  no  monniainn  of  any  imixirt- 

r.  with  the  exceirtion  of  tlie  Vinrlhvaii  rnngc, 

S.  of  the  Ganges. 

rhftkal  Ftalum^—i^a  part  nf  India  is  so  well 

»lered,orhasBonianygreat  rivets.  Tlie  Ganges 

iwa  in  a  SK.  direction  through  ibe  whole  extrnt 

of  the  presidency,  being  Joined  in  its  prciKrew  l,y 

nunieruus  tributaries,  some  of  them,  as  [he  Jumna, 

ChHmhul,Goera,Gun.lQck, and  Sone,  of  great  nrng- 

nitude  and  imm.rtanoe.  It  is  also  travereed  in  its  K, 

by  the  BTBhrnnputm,  which,  as  well  as  the 

:ea.  falls  lulo  the  N.  part  of  the  Hav  of  H.'iignl. 

e.-icb  other.     Both  of  them,  but  especially  the 

,,vs.divulein(onHmer.iu*araisl*forer<™-hing 

theses;  oud  Ibdr  luiited  deltas  fonn  a  tract  ofallu- 


BENGAL  (PBESIDENCY  OF) 


427 


vial  soil  of  above  30,000  sq.  m.  in  extent,  and 
^reat  natural  fertility,  but  mosUy  overrun  with 
1  unfile.  There  are  no  lakes  similar  to  those  in 
Tibet,  or  other  parts  of  Asia :  but  many  extensive 
laf^ines,  or  Jeeb,  especially  in  the  lower  prov.,  and 
above  all  in  the  districts  of  Dacca  and  lUjeshaye. 

P^very  kind  of  scenery  is  met  with  in  this  pre«- 
dcncy.  Kumaon,  the  most  N.  part,  is  a  *  vast  and 
tumultuous  ocean  of  mountains,'  elevated  in  suc- 
cessive ridges  to  7,000  ft.  in  height,  backed  by  the 
snowy  ri(^e  of  the  Himalaya,  and  covered  in 
great  part  with  an  uninterrupted  forest  of  both 
Asiatic  and  European  vegetation.  The  W.  parta 
of  Delhi  trench  on  the  Indian  desert,  and  have  an 
arid  look,  and  thirsty  soil ;  other  portions  of  this 
prov.  arc  also  Hat,  but  fertile  and  highly  cultivated. 
The  Doab  is  Hat,  and  abounds  in  long  grass,  but 
is  singularly  deficient  in  timber.  Allahabad  is 
amongst  the  most  productive  provs.  in  Hindostan ; 
its  surface  is  unequal,  the  S.  part  rising  pro- 
gressively into  a  hill  tract,  which  extends  through 
ilandah  and  i>art  of  Kalpee  districts.  Bundlecund 
and  the  ceded  districts  on  theNerbudda  form  part  of 
the  high  central  table-land  of  India;  they  abound  in 
deep  ravines,  fertile  valleys,  and  extensive  foresta ; 
but  are  in  many  parts  sterile,  as  are  also  some  of 
the  dUtr.  even  in  the  ncighbourhotnl  of  the  Gan- 
ges. The  central  provs.  are  undulating,  often  well 
cultivated,  intersected  by  rivers,  and  adorned  in 
many  parts  by  groves  and  forests.  Behar,  X.  the 
(langes,  is  Hat  and  waste;  but  is  very  fertile  on 
the  S.  side  of  that  river;  ita  height  aLw  increases 
as  it  advances  more  to  the  S.,  so  that  in  Kamghur 
we  tiiid  a  mountainous  and  rocky  country  two- 
thirds  waste,  participating  in  the  natural  features 
of  the  ( luudwanah  district^*,  joining  those  on  the 
Nerbudda.  Orissa,  near  the  sea  coast,  is  low  and 
s%vampy ;  but  its  interior  contains  cultivatetl  plains 
and  (lense  jungles,  backed  W.  by  a  mountainous 
forest  region,  which  descends  gradually  through 
the  Jungle  Mehuls  and  Beerbhoom,  into  the  low- 
lands of  ItengaL  The  latter  are  enclosed,  both 
toward  the  sea  and  the  N.  bonier,  by  immense 
l)cit,s  of  jungle,  and  have  E.  the  noble  valley  of 
the  Brahmaputra,  which  constitutes  the  prov.  of 
Assam.  From  Sylhet  to  Aracan  the  interior  is  ex- 
tremely hillv,  the  coast  swampy,  but  the  surface 
often  very  fertile  and  well  cultivated:  the  other 
ceiled  lUmiese  provinces  have  dense  forests  and 
jungles,  rice- plains,  and  a  rocky  coast,  preceded  by 
low  Lslan(i<<. 

G eulogy  and  3Iinerals, — The  Himalaya,  in  Ku- 
maon, is  comjiosed  of  granite,  gneiss,  porphjTv, 
quartz,  mica,  and  hornblende;  and  its  lower 
miigcs  contain  sandstone,  brecciatcd  limestone, 
copi>er,  and  iron  t)res.  Tlie  Vuidhyan  mountains 
l>etniy  a  volcanic  chara<*ter  throughout,  and  the 
( Jamjws  mountains,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  delta 
of  the  ( ranges,  exhibit  a  similar  structure.  Ter- 
tiary* l>e<ls  are  met  with  in  Sylhet  and  where  the 
l^nihmaputra  isMies  from  the  Assam  valley,  con- 
taining organit^  remains  of  crocodiles.  Testacea^  Ac. 
The  Bhaugulpore  distr.  is  peculiarly  ricli  in 
iron,  and  considerable  mines  have  A»rmerlv  been 
worked ;  the  ore  is  nodular,  and  ^-iehls  20  to  2o  i)er 
cent,  metal.  In  the  Sylhet  hills  there  is  a  hue 
granular  iron ;  and  in  Hamghur,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Jumna,  an<t  in  the  Himalaya,  ore  is  found 
yielding  30  to  »»0  ]>er  cent.  Coal,  in  conjunction 
with  iron,  is  found  in  considerable  quantity  both 
in  Iluniwan  and  Svlhet ;  that  of  the  former 
distr.  is  preferred,  and  is  largely  consumed  at  Cal- 
cutta: some  has  recentlv  tM*eii  «liscovered  in  the 


shallow  alluvium  in  the  delta  of  Bengal  In  Be- 
har, and  elsewhere,  it  affords  efflorescences  of  nitre 
and  muriate  of  soda,  in  immense  quantities ;  the 
former  in  greater  abundance  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  The  annual  export  of  nitre 
from  Calcutta  has,  of  late  years,  been  about 
200,000  bags ;  sent  chiefly  to  Great  Britain,  CWna, 
America,  and  France.  I'he  manufacture  of  salt  is 
a  gov.  monopoly,  within  the  provs.  of  Bengal  and 
Behar,  and  the  district  of  Cuttack.  The  upper 
provs.  arc  supplied  with  salt,  partly  fh>m  the  lower 
ones,  and  partly  from  salt  mines  in  the  W.  of 
India.  Diamonds  are  found  in  Bundlecund,  the 
matrix  being  a  conglomerate  bed,  with  quartzoae 
pebbles ;  silver,  and  gold  dust,  in  many  nvers. 

The  Climate,  in  so  wide  an  extent  of  country,  ia. 
of  course,  very  varied ;  at  Calcutta,  the  annual 
mean  temp,  was  found,  by  three  years'  observa- 
tions, to  be  1^  39*  F. ;  at  Benares,  for  two  years* 
770  81';  and  at  Saharunpore  (Delhi),  ld9  b'l  the 
barometer,  at  each  of  these  places,  for  like  periods, 
averaged  respectively  29*764,  29*464,  and  28-766 
inches.  June  is  the  dampest,  January  the  driest 
month ;  drought  is  often  experienced  in  the  upper 
prov.,  where  the  depression  of  the  moistened  ther- 
mometer sometimes  exceeds  35^ ;  but  at  Calcutta 
the  average  fall  of  rain  for  three  recent  years  was 
59'83  inches.  Bengal  prov.  is  subject  to  f<^; 
from  these  Tirhoot  (Behar)  is  free,  and  temperate, 
producing  almost  every  Piluropean  fruit  and  vege- 
table ;  the  upper  produces  are  also  temperate, 
excepting  in  the  hottest  season,  when  burning 
winds  prevail,  oc(.*asionally  obliging  the  inhab.  to 
resort  to  underground  habitaticms.  In  Kumaon 
the  surface  is  wholly  covered  with  snow  from  Sep- 
tember to  April,  although,  during  the  rest  of  the 
vcar,  the  thermom.  in  the  stm  often  rises  to  110^ 
i^ahr. 

Vegetable  Products, — Teak,  saul,  sLssoo,  banyan, 
ebony,  rattans,  bamboos,  and  a  large  number  of 
trees,  yielding  material  for  cordage;  oaks  and 
pines  in  the  hill  forests ;  and  along  the  coasts  of 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  coct^ya,  areca,  and  other  palms, 
are  met  with  in  profusion.  (See  Hindostan.) 
The  lower  pro\'ince8  are  highly  favourable  to  the 
production  of  rice,  the  staple  article  of  food,  and 
consequently  of  nroduction ;  the  central  and  upper 
provs.  to  that  or  the  drier  grains ;  Euroi)ean  pro- 
ducts, and  those  peculiar  to  the  tropics,  being 
raised  in  alternate  seasons.  Grain  forms  a  valuable 
export  from  Bengal.  Indigo  is  cultivate<l  fh>m 
Dacca  to  Delhi,  and  occupies  more  than  1,000,000 
statute  acres;  its  annual  produce  being  worth  from 
3  to  4  mill.  sterL,  half  of  which  is  expended  in  its 
production.  There  arc  900  indigo  factories  in  the 
presid.,  and  the  exports  to  Europe  of  the  article 
amr>unts,  in  some  years,  to  9,000,000  lbs.  The  cul- 
ture of  opium  is  monopolised  by  the  government, 
and  is  carried  on  only  in  parts  of  Behar  and  Benares. 
The  opium  grown  in  these  provs.  is  considered  by 
tlie  Chinese,  by  whom  it  is  mostly  all  made  use  of, 
to  be  much  sui>erior  in  flavour  to  the  opium  of  3Ial- 
wah.  The  average  annual  produce  of  the  Patna 
and  Ghazeepore,  or  Ik^nares  State  opium  maimfao- 
tories,  b  45,(KK)  chests,  each  sold  at  120^  The 
produce  is  sufficient  to  bar  competition  in  China, 
and  the  price  proportionate  to  the  Bombay 
drug,  which  |»ays  60A  duty.  On  an  average  of 
years,  Bengal  has  never  sent  less  than  Ave  mil- 
lions sterling  worth  of  opium  to  China.  Cotton 
als(»  is  largely  grown,  and  the  cultivation  has  in- 
creawMl  immeiLiely  since  1801,  owing  to  the  dearth 
(M'casioned  by  the  civil  war  in  the  United  States. 


Saugor  distr.,  on  the  Nerbudila,  which  showe<i  near  J  The  soil  of  Benares  is  especially  adapte<i  to  the 
the  surface.      The  upjKT  s<»il  is  dn-,  light,  and    sugar-cane,  and  HUgar  might,  fterhaps.  I »c  ])roduccd, 


sandv,  in  the  N\V. :  clavev  in  the  Doab  and  its 
neighbourhood ;  sandy  again  m  Allahabad ;  and  a 


were  sufficient  care  taken  in  itH  manufucture,  of  as 
good  quality  as  that  of  the  W.  Indies.    Coffee, 


BENOAL  (PRESIDENCT  OF) 


42S 

pepper,  uid  toliacEo,  the  Utter  chiuHy  in  Bhangnl- 
pat«  BUd  Itundlecunil,  are  aUple  cxpuTta :  the  rare 
Bplus  of  the  E.  uchipelB^ro  tiiTe  hcen  nuturstiiieii 
■t  Calcutta,  anil  i  nmlliindc  ur  treci.  fruits,  and 
uther  vcKVUtjIca  of  China.  Caubul,  Kapific,  aiiiJ 
AmeriRB,  are  {;ruwii  in  different  )>art«  of  the  preaicL 
AniiiKilt,*^Al\ii^aUffa  abound  In  the  Gauffea  and 
Brahmaputra ;  liKem  inrait  the  jun(;leii  i  and  H'e 
meet  with  wild  elephants,  ihinocenwra,  loipaids. 
wolves,  besre.  jackals  a  preat  variety  uf  Iwrd*.  a 
profunon  of  fiab,  and  dilTercnt  fiieciex  uf  derpoiiti^  '  i«iiy  id 
both  innoceut  and  noxious.     (Sec  HiSDosTAN.}    F.astlc 
Silk  ii  procured  fmni  both  the  native  and  the  Chi-    Bnil  So 
nese  or  annular  wnim  ;  the  mulberry  and  ca>tui    Inilian, 
oil  plants  being  cultivated  for  the  purpoK.    The 
—       0  is,   nerhtjM,  inferior  to   that  of    Ilalv, 
the  beat  Initian  silk  retchen  a  vov  hi|i;li 


of  Calmtla  ftn  whom  the  other  biiih(q»  hi  India 
■re  Huivinlhiale),  an  archdracun,  and  .IT  chaplains. 
ITieie  u  alsu  a  miall  public  cmnUishroent  of  the 
Sculcli  kitk.  The  Roman  Catholic  esiab.  receiTa 
the  couiuenance  and  nuppon  nf  gov. ;  itsmembcn 
arc  Bubuidinate  lu  a  vicar  apoxloljc  at  ARTa,  with 
direct  authority  frum  the  pope;  and  a  Icf^te  at 
Calcutta,  onder  the  aulhoriiy  of  the  K.  C  bishop 
of  Madras.  Christianity  is  said  lo  )>e  increasme. 
Aiibw^t.— There  are  tluec  ^Teat  tines  of  rail- 

'-  the  presidency,  called,  respectively,  the 

lian,  the  Kaslpm  Itengal,  and  the  Calcntla 
th  F^lem.'  Uf  the  nxrtioD  of  the  Fjst 
lirusted  in  the  Benftal  division,  674  miles 


though  the 


;oi«t,a™.    .    .  .„. 

Racri  a/  3tm A  number  of  wiilcly  lUlTering 

trit»e«  inhabit  the  territ.  under  this ' '     '"- 


trit»e«  inhabit  the  territ.  under  this  nrpMiL  :  llin-    }x! 
dons,  diffeiiii);  in  pliysical  and  mental  qualitiea  in    bir 
almost  every  iirov. ;  tlie  hill'pcii|ile  in  Bhangul-    ~'" 
pore,  and  (iiinds  in  Uundwaiiah,  iiT  wlikh  tmcM 
they  are  Uelirved  t«  be  the  alnjitRines ;  Hahrotttw, 
Moguls,  Seik^^Wpooll>,  espedallv  ill  l»r"'   "- 
dlecund,  and  Oude;  Cooshes,  Khyens, 
Coosyahfi,  anil  Muffhp,  ultra  <jan^tic  n 
■pparenlly  of  a  different  family  fnim  the  Hindoijs, 
with  [fuile  different  usages  and  [di(^ 


Dacca,  via  Pubnn,  with  a 

lieHy  between  2^  and  |  Jcasure;   total  lenfrth,  IIU  miles.    The   railway 

-    -  openeil  llimughout  Xnv.  15, 186a.    The  Cnt- 

s  and  Mouth   Emtem,   incorporated  July  3. 

r,  and  i>iiened  Jan.  £;i,  ll<R3,  consists  of  a'line 

1  Intally  to  the  Mutla,  anj^miles  hmK.    All 

English  caiuiaL    The  £a,.tem  Upji^I 


Public  RnvHM.— The  total  revenue 
eidency.  in  ihe  three  yenis  ]XIM-r.i.  as 
expenditure  durinj;  Ihe  same  iivriud, 
the  Bulijoincd  statement: — 


'ISK- 

£ 
l?,IIIB,UU7 

£ 
<,IUU,6Ja 

JMO 

s,  and  the  monopoly  of  opium.  The  laiid- 
tuc,  including  cidse,  '  Saver '  (variable  bnpcists, 
■neb  mt  town  duties,  tolls,  and  licences),  and  'Mo- 
tuniha'  (tax  un  hoiuen,  shops,  and  trades),  was 
pmlnctive  of  a  revenue  of  3.82(1,08(1/.  in  1SIH\; 
of  SiOW^StU:  in  IMil  :  and  of  434-2.1091.  in 
1M2.  Tlie  cuBbnm  pruduced  2,(H)3,t>0!M:  in  lM(il); 
2,a»U.!l8t  in  IHUi  ;  and  l,i7T,WWt  in  1862. 
finally,  omuia  was  productive  of  a  net  revenne  of 
IMi86,4J3J:  ill  I860;  of  li.Ilie,(ilH/.  in  IHtil;  and  of 
1.608,706(.  in  INili,  U  will  besceu  that  the  hitter 
important  source  of  revenue  suffered  a  groat  de- 
cline, or  the  minor  items  of  revenue,  slamns 
..jnodoccd  6a7,7ii'JL:  salt,  l,GUS,7U5f.: 
aiBesBedtaxes,576,.4nB/.;andibepoei  .  ,  .. 
and  miscellaneous  items,  4tiii,104(.  in  the  yei 
IWii. 

Heligiun. — The  Hmdoo  and  Mohammedan  are 
Uio  prevailing  religions.  In  tlie  pniv.  Itenf^al, 
the  Mohnmmeihins  constitute  aliout  nne-scventh 
of  the  i)»|i.,  but  their  ilislribution  is  remarkable, 
as  in  the  W.  of  that  piov.  (anil  iu  Ilahar)  they 
-    '     "  imer  liut  as  I  to  4,  while  they  equal 


their 


n  (he  K..  a 


lough  n 


s,  whet 


llindons.  Uuildliiam  is  couGned  to  Aracan  and 
Ihe  lUrmesc  proi-s.  Tliero  are  ujiwanls  of  SOJIIIO 
native  Christians,  atteiidiuf^  tlie  different  l'ro~ 
tenant  cburchat  stalionnt  m  the  presid.  'Ihe 
ctinlch  establishment  consists  of  the  Lord  Bishop 


n-  Knglis] 

ihe  f  a^t 

.     'as  made  at  acost  of  l,4!t%*J9 

Calcutta  and  ihe  Calcutta  and  South  Eastern  at  a 

cost  of  JMHIpOOO/,    The  lanii  required  for  the  latter 


notary.— \n    170  ,   

■iously  been  suUiidiiinte  w 
GjiaTBiepresid.:  and  in  173<S 


Miblra?.  was  made  i 
a  charter  was  fn^anteil 
lo  rue  coin[),  enaiiiing  mem  lo  establish  a  penal 
conrt  tiller,  as  well  as  at  the  other  pn-si<<.  In  1 7ISI), 
!>}-  a  truuty  with  Mecr  Co>Jm,  Ihe  soubahdar  of 
Bengal,  the  revenues  of  Ituniwan,  Midnaporc, 
and  Chitiagong,  were  assigned  lo  the  E.  I.  Comp., 
and  in  ITIki  an  imiierial  grant  fmm  Shah  Allum 
to  the  English  to  receive  Ihe  i^enaes  of  iLc  de- 
wonn^v  of  llengal,  Uahar,  and  Orissa.  (^ve  them 
tlie  virtual  aovereignly  of  those  iiroviiices.  which 
they  actually  aatumeilin  177S.  In  1773  a  gover- 
nor-general was  apixnnted  to  reviile  in  lienKal,  to 
which  presid.  the  two  olhen  were  mode  sul  lOTdinale, 
and  a  supreme  court  of  judicature  established,  with 
juilges  appointed  Iiy  tlie  civwn ;  iu  177o  the  comji. 
liccame  possessed  of  Benares  and  Lis  teiritory.  In 
17LI3,  under  the  administration  of  Loni  Comwallis. 
the  Perpetual  Settlement  was  iiitrvihicd  into 
Kengal ;  prov.  courts  of  appeal  were  at  Ihe  same 
Ume  established  in  Calcutta.  Patna,  Moorsbedabad 
anil  Dacca,  with  ihe  courts  of  sudder  denannv, 
andnizamuladawlut:  in  17»K,  the  Kn$(li»h  I.x'.k 
IKsHessionofAllahaliad;  in  1801.  the  soubalularuf 
(hiilc  rulinquishc<l  Huhileund.  Oomckpnor,  and  the 
Uoab,  lo  the  Biituh;  and  in  ltW2,  the  nabob  of 
Fumickabod  ceded  Ids  teiritury  on  rccciiit  of  a 
jiension.  In  l»l»5,  the  empire  of  Delhi  Anally  full 
before  the  llritisli  aims.  Kumaoii  was  olituinol 
frum  Nepaul  m  181S ;  Saiigor  and  Ihe  terrilorics 
on  tlie  NcrbudiU  were  ceded  in  1818;  in  WH, 
Smgapore  and  Malacca,  the  latter  ceded  by  the 
"  ■  '     prere  acquired ;  and  in  lW2ii,  laij^  dihtr.  in 

.nail  were  ceded  by  Ihe  nijah  of  Iterar; 

Martaban,  Ye,  Tavov,  and  Meiipii,  were 
.-eded  also  in  t82l>  by  the  Birmese,  as  well  as  all 
dominiin  over  Assam.  Tlie  capital  of  Beu);al 
has  alwavs  been  the  seat  of  the  British  )rm-erii- 
meiit  in  India.  The  goveruors-geueml,  since  ITof, 
have  been  as  follows : — 


M  LoitI  Telitnniontli. 
«  Uati|.  Wellwley. 
1-  Uarq.  (inmwnUli. 


i  Morqnu  of  U  ul  \net 


BENOAZY 


BENOUELA 


429 


1847  Marq.  DalhoaMc 
18i>5  Lord  Canning. 
\Mi  Lord  Elgin. 
1863  Sir  John  Lawrence. 


18?3  Lord  Amherst. 
1H28  Lonl  W.  Bentinck. 
1H'4.'>  Ijord  Auckland. 
1842  Loni  Ellen Iwrotigh. 
1844  Sir  Henry  Uordiuge. 

(For  further  details  regarding  the  presidency  of 
Benf2:al,  see  India.) 

BEN'GAZY  (an.  HesperU  and  Berenict),  a 
marit.  town  of  N.  Africa,  district  Barca,  n^.  Tri- 
poli, on  the  E.  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Sidra  (an. 
SyrH*  Major)  ;  lat  320  7  30"  N.,  long.  20°  ^  E. 
KMtimated  pop.  3,000.  It  is  finely  situatctl  on  the 
margin  of  an  extensive  and  very  fertile  plain,  but  is 
miserably  built,  filthy  in  the  extreme,  and  infcstod 
to  an  almost  intolerable  ext«nt  with  tiies.  The 
harliour,  which  seems  to  have  formerly  had  deep 
wat€r,  is  filled  up,  so  that  it  cannot  now  be  entered 
by  vessels  drawing  more  than  7  or  8  ft.  water ;  and 
that  only  in  moderate  weather.  At  the  entrance 
to  the  p<)rt  is  a  castle,  the  residence  of  the  bey,  but 
worthless  as  a  means  of  defence.  Notwithstanding 
its  iwverty,  and  the  indolence  of  its  Arab  inhabi- 
tants ]V?ngazy  has  some  trade,  principally  carried 
on  by  Jews.  The  value  of  the  exports,  consisting 
principally  of  wool,  oxen,  and  sheep,  salted  butter 
and  com,*  amounts,  on  the  average,  to  atmut 
12,000/.  per  annum.  The  traile  is  mostlv  carried 
on  with  the  other  Barbary  states  and  Malta. 

It  is  believed  that  Bengazy  occupies  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Berenice,  wliich  ha<i  the  gardens  of 
the  Hes^rides  in  its  vicinity.  It  is  singular,  that 
though  Its  walls  were  completely  repaired  under 
Justinian,  hardlv  a  trace  of  them  is  now  to  be 
met  with.  In  fact,  scarce  a  vestige  of  the  old  city 
LH  to  be  found  al)ove  the  surface  of  the  plain ;  but 
very  extensive  remains  are  found  on  digging  a 
foot  or  two  below  the  surface. 

HEXGOKE  HEAD,  a  promontory  of  Irchmd, 
N.  coast,  CO.  Antrim,  adjoining  thc(iiant's  Cause- 
way: lat.  65°  \&  10"  N.,  long.  C©  23'  20"  W. 
This  remarkable  promontory  is  made  up  of  a 
numl)er  of  capes.  Of  these  the  most  perfect  and 
striking  is  Pleaskin.  *  Its  summit,'  to  use  the 
wonls  of  the  Kev.  Mr.  Hamilton,  *  is  covered  with 
a  thin  grassy  soil,  under  which  lies  the  natural 
rock,  having  generally  a  uniform  hard  surface, 
somewhat  cracketl  and  shivereiL  At  the  depth  of 
10  or  12  ft.  from  the  summit,  this  nick  begins  to 
assume  a  columnar  tendency,  and  forms  a  range 
of  massy  pillars  of  basalt,  which  stand  perpen- 
dicular to  the  horizon,  presenting,  in  the  sharp 
face  of  the  promontor\-,  the  appearance  of  a  mag- 
nificent gallerj'  or  colonna<le,  of  upwards  of  60  ft. 
ill  height.  This  colonnade  i.s  supporte<l  on  a  solid 
Imse  of  coarse  black,  irregular  rock,  nearly  60  ft. 
thick,  abounding  in  bid m  or  air-holes ;  but  though 
rom]mratively  irregular,  it  may  l)e  evidently  ob- 
served to  affect  a  peculiar  figure,  tending,  in  many 
places,  to  run  into  regular  forms,  resembling  the 
sluH>ting  of  salt  and  many  other  substances, 
during  a  hasty  crk'stallisation. 

'  Under  this  great  bed  of  stone  stands  a  second 
range  of  pillars,  between  40  and  50  ft.  in  height, 
less  gross  and  more  shari)ly  defined  than  those  of 
the  upj>er  8tor\' ;  many  of  them,  on  a  close  view, 
emulating  even  the  neatness  of  the  columns  in  the 
(liant's  Causeway.  This  lower  range  is  borne  on 
a  layer  of  red  ochre-stone,  which  serves  as  a  relief 
to  >>liow  it  to  great  advantage. 

'  These  two  admirable  natural  galleries,  together 
with  the  interjacent  m&«(s  of  irregular  n>ck,  form  a 
IKTiK'ndinilar  height  of  170  ft.;  fn)m  the  base  of 
which,  tlie  promontory,  covered  with  rock  and 
gra'is,  Hln|>c»  down  to  the  sea  for  tlie  space  of  200 
ft.  more,  making,  in  all,  a  mass  of  near  400  ft,  in 
height,  which,  in  beauty  and  variety  of  colouring, 
in  elegance  and  novelty  of  arrangement,  and  in 


the  eztnordinaiy  magnitado  of  ita  objects,  cannot 
readily  be  rivalled  by  anything  of  the  kind  at 
present  known.'  (Letters  on  the  Coast  of  Antrim, 
rimo,  ed.  p.  91.) 

BENGUELA  a  countrjr  of  W.  Africa,  the  limits 
of  which  are  usually  considered  to  be  the  Coawirn 
river  on  the  N.,  the  Cumene  river  on  the  E.,  the 
mountains  behind  Cape  Negro  on  the  S.,  and  the 
shcre  from  that  cape  to  the  mouth  of  the  Coawirn 
on  the  \V.  According  to  this  outline,  it  extends 
from  9°  to  16°  N.  lat.,  and  fiom  120  to  17®  E. 
long.,  having  a  mean  length  of  460  m.,  a  breadth 
of  270  m.,  and  an  area  of  considerably  more  than 
1,000,000  sq.  m.  (Labat,  Relat  Hist'de  I'Ethiop. 
Or.,  L  67 ;  Barbol,  Voyage  to  Congo  River,  p.  601.) 

Face  of  the  Country. — Benguela  appears  to  be 
mountainous  throughout  its  whole  extent;  the 
land  rising  sometimes  so  high  that,  if  it  do  not 
actuall;^  reach  the  snow-line,  a  very  great  dmee 
of  cold  is  experienced.  (Battel,  Purchas'  Pilgnma, 
li.  275 ;  Bowditch's  Portuguese  Discoveries,  p.  62.) 
These  mountains  come  down  to  the  sea,  are  in 
general  very  difficult  of  j^assage,  but,  like  other 
African  elevations,  rise  in  masses  rather  than 
peaks,  and  abound  in  terraces,  table-lands,  and 
valle^-s,  to  their  very  summits.  The  rivers  are 
numerous  and  important,  and  as  the  direction  of 
the  mountains  is  from  XE.  to  SW.,  the  chief  of 
them  run  a  NW.  course  to  the  Atlantic  This  is 
the  case  with  the  large  river,  without  a  name, 
which  falls  into  the  ocean  at  Cape  Negro,  and 
with  the  Cobal,  Coporao,  (^timabela,  and  Cuvo. 
Besides  these,  which  are  very  large,  there  are  an 
immense  number  of  small  streams  running  short 
and  almost  straight  acn)ss  from  the  VV.  fianks  of 
the  mountains,  and  the  various  afHuents  of  the 
principal  rivers  are  almost  innumerable ;  in  addi- 
tion to  which,  springs  of  sweet  water  are  so  abun- 
dant, that  in  almost  every  part  of  the  country, 
they  may  be  found  by  digging  to  the  depth  of  two 
feet.  The  natural  consequence  of  this  abundant 
moisture  in  tropical  countries  Ls  obHer>'ed  in  Ben- 
guela, and  nowhere  is  vegetation  more  abundant 
or  more  varied.  Dense  forests  of  cedars,  palms, 
boobash,  date-trees,  tamarinds,  with  every  other 
tropical  tree — and  some  that  belong  to  more  tem- 
))erate  climates,  clothe  the  sides  and  tops  of  the 
mountains,  intermixed  with  vines,  bananas* 
ananas,  and  all  the  finest  species  of  tropical  fhiit. 
Lions,  tigers,  elephants,  rhinoceroses,  hippopotami, 
and  other  large  animals,  are  extremely  numerous ; 
in  addition  to  which,  the  zebra  is  veiy  commonly 
met  with,  and,  in  short,  every  wild  animal  for 
which  Africa  is  noted  is  found  within  the  linuts  of 
Benguela.  llie  elk  (which  is  also  a  native  here) 
is  particularly  prized,  from  its  being  8uppose<l  that 
one  of  his  hoots  has  power  to  cure  the  ejulepsy ; 
deer  and  antelopes,  of  course,  are  abunuant. 
Cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  are  veir  numerous.  The 
ostrich  is  also  found  here,  with  all  the  reptiles, 
dangerous  and  harmless,  for  which  this  part  of 
Africa  is  so  mucli  reputed ;  crocodiles  being  espe- 
cially numerous  and  powerfuL  The  mountams 
are  kno^t-n  to  yield  copper,  sulphur,  petroleum, 
and  crystals ;  and  are  supposed  to  p<isse8s  gold  and 
silver.  Some  of  the  rivers  onquestionabTy  bring 
down  the  former,  but  probably  in  small  quantities, 
which  the  natives  work  into  the  handles  of  their 
hatchets. 

The  rainy  season  is  accounted,  in  Benguela,  to 
last  through  May  and  June ;  but  it  is  extremely 
irregular,  and  sometimes  no  rain  falls  for  the  space 
of  three  years.  (Bowditch,  voL  ii.)  The  coast  is, 
by  all  accounts,  excessively  unhealthy;  but  the 
interior  is  salubrious,  and  apparently  well  fitted 
for  cultivation  of  all  kinds ;  every  d%ree  of  tem- 
perature  seems   to  be  experienced  at  different 


480 


BENGUELA  VELHA 


elevations,  and  it  probably  is  not  exposed  to  the 
uncertiunty  of  rain,  which  exists  on  the  coast.  Bat- 
tel, who  resided  in  different  parts  of  the  interior 
for  a  considerable  time,  never,  amongst  all  his 
miseries,  complains  of  the  climate. 

Ben^uela  is  inhabit4.Ml  b^'  a  number  of  petty 
tribcfl  of  indei)endent  barbarians,  whose  habits  and 
manners  do  not  differ  from  those  of  other  ne|2Tocs, 
with  the  exception  of  one — the  Gaf^as,  or  (jigo^s 
a  wandering  herd  of  robbers,  which  api^ear  to  ap- 
proximate nearer  to  perfect  barbarism  than  any 
other,  even  of  the  Afncan  races.  Tliey  are  of  no 
tribe  nor  nation,  destroy  all  their  own  cliiUbren, 
and  keep  up  their  strength  and  numl)ers  by  steal- 
ing those  of  twelve  or  thirteen  years  of  age  from 
the  countries  which  they  overrun.  They  are  \xAd 
and  skilful  soldiers,  but  ruthless  cannibals,  without 
the  slightest  idea  of  art  or  industr}*^,  so  that 
wherever  they  encamp,  they  destroy  all  around, 
and  then  depart,  to  inflict  the  same  desolation  on 
some  other  district.  They  api)ear  fref^uently  to 
cause  a  famine,  where  such  a  calamity  would 
otherwise  seem  to  be  imixwsible,  verifying  the 
animated  description  of  the  locust : — 'Hefore  them 
is  a  garden,  behind  them  a  barren  desert.'  Battel, 
who  was  their  prisoner  for  more  than  two  years, 
has  left  a  full  and  curious  account  of  these  sa- 
vages, whicli  carries  the  impress  of  truth  on  every 
line.  Bengiiela  was  formerly  subject  to  Angola, 
At  least  nominally,  and  was  accounted  one  of  the 
Mventecn  pro\'inces  of  that  kingtiom.  The  Portu- 
guese have  long  had  settlements  (»ii  the  coast  and 
the  interior,  but  their  power  does  not  seem  to  ex- 
tend far  bevond  their  forts.  See  Angola.  (Bat- 
tel's Turchas,  ii.  974-977;  Barlwl,  p.  501;  Mc- 
ToUa,  pp.  60-08;  Labat,  i.  66-70;  Bowditch, 
pp.  26-4>4 ;  Capt.  Owen's  Nar.  of  Voy.,  il  271- 
276.) 

BENGUELA  VELHA  (Old  BengueJa),  the 
narive  capital  of  the  country  above  described,  lat. 
IQO  46'  S.,  long.  15°  6'  E.  It  is  well  situated  on 
the  coast,  between  the  rivers  Cuve  and  Lonjo,  in 
A  very  fruitful  champaign  countrj',  and  about 
8  m.  to  the  S.  is  a  convenient  harbour,  called  by 
the  sailors  Hen's  Bay,  from  the  numl)er  of  do- 
mestic fowl  which  are  collected  about  it.  There 
are  no  accounts  preserved  of  the  pop.  or  other  sta- 
tistics of  Old  B^iguela ;  its  trade,  if  it  ever  had 
anvt  having  long  since  been  transferred  to 

bENGUELA  (ST.  FILIPPE  DE),  the  Por- 
tuguese capital  of  the  same  country,  lat.  12^  12' 
8.,  long.  16  E^.,  about  100  m.  S.  of  the  old  town. 
Pop.  about  3,000,  the  greater  portion  being  free 
blacks  or  slaves.  It  is  a  wretched  place,  built  of 
half-baked  bricks,  and  so  slightly  that  no  tene- 
ments are  ever  Tepaired,  but  as  soon  as  they  begin 
to  decay,  others  are  built  by  their  sides.  It  stands 
on  an  oi>en  bay,  and  is  watered  by  a  tolerable 
stream,  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  small 
rivers.  Its  site  is  a  marsh,  full  of  stagnant  pools, 
and  so  extremely  unhealthy,  that  the  Portuguese 
affirm  none  of  their  countrywomen  could  endure 
it  three  months.  It  was  once  nearly  destroved  by 
an  invasion  of  dephants,  a  number  of  them  having 
entered  it  in  search  of  water  during  the  dry  sea- 
son ;  and  danger  always  threatens  the  inhabitants 
ftom  the  alligators  and  hippopotami  in  the  river. 

BENICAKLO,  a  marit.  town  of  Spain,  in  Va- 
lencia, on  the  Me<literranean,  25  m.  S.  Tortosa. 
Pop.  6,950  in  1857.  Tlie  town  is  defended  by 
walls,  a  ditch,  and  an  old  castle.  Streets  narrow 
and  dirty,  and  the  houses  mean.  The  surrounding 
territory  is  very  fruitful,  particularly  in  wine ; 
large  quantities  of  which,  of  a  dark  red  colour, 
consideraiilc  strength  and  flavour,  arc  shipped  fn)m 
this  town,  whence  it  has  its  name,  princi|)ally  for 
Cettc.    It  is  thence  conveyed  to  Bordeaux,  where  | 


BENIN 

it  is  employed  to  give  body  and  colour  to  the 
clarets,  especiallv  to  those  exported  to  the  Eng- 
lish markets.     (Henderson  on  \Vines,  p.  194.) 

BENIN,  a  country  of  Africa,  near  tlie  E.  ex- 
tremity of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  between  4°  and  9^ 
N.  hitl,  and  4°  and  8Jo  E.  long.  It  has  S.  the 
Gulf,  W.  Dahomey,  NW.  Yarriba,  and  NE.  and  E, 
the  lower  Niger,  which  separates  it  from  the  states 
of  NyfTe^  Jacoba,  Funda,  and  CalalMur.  It  has  a 
triangular  form,  is  aliout  340  m.  in  length,  by  300 
m.  in  extreme  width,  and  contains  probably  not 
less  than  50,0(K)  sq.  m.  (Adams'  Remarks  on 
CV»ast  from  E.  Palmas  to  N.  Congo,  p]).  109-128  ; 
Clapjwnon's  Second  Expect,  pp.  1-37 ;  Landers 
Travels,  pp.  632-<»94.)  On  the  coast,  the  country 
is  level,  but  it  rises  gradually,  till,  in  the  central 
parts,  the  continuation  of  the  Korg  mountains 
attains  an  elevation  of  2,5(X)  ft.  It  Is  well  watereil, 
for  the  delta  of  the  Niger  comprises  more  than 
140  m.,  that  is,  more  than  7-lOths  of  the  whole 
sea-tM>anl.  The  W.  branch  of  this  delta  is  the 
stream  which  has  alwavs  l)een  called  the  river  of 
Benin  ;  the  farthest  E.  Is  the  main  limb,  formerly 
called  the  Nun  ;  but  demonstrate<I  by  Lander  to 
be  the  Niger.  (See  Niger.)  Besides  these,  there 
are  several  other  streams  upon  the  coast,  nor  can 
there  be  any  doubt  but  that  the  mountains  give 
forth  many  aflluents  to  the  great  river  in  the 
interior.  (Smith's  Voyage  to  (Jluinea,  p.  227 ; 
Lander,  p.  467  et  se^.  ;*Adama,  pp.  109,  119,  Ac.) 
Under  the  influence  of  abundant  irrigation,  and  a 
tropical  sun,  the  productions  of  the  eortli  are  ver>' 
numerous.  Tliey  do  not,  however,  dilTer  fnmi 
those  of  other  parts  of  the  same  coast^  except  that 
wood  is  rather  more  abundant.  (Adams,  p.  111.) 
The  hipporic»tAmus  is  more  common  than  in  otlu-r 
countries  of  Guinea  (Lander,  p.  639),  in  pn>portion 
to  the  more  magnificent  scale  of  the  hydrc^i^phy ; 
but  in  other  respects,  tlie  animals  of  Benin  are 
also  described  in  those  of  Guinea  generally ;  and 
the  same  remark  ^ill  apply  to  the  habits  and  cus- 
toms of  the  natives:  the  same  arts,  with  the 
exce]>tion  of  gold  working,  for  gold  is  not  found  in 
Itenin  (Adams,  p.  170J  ;  the  same  government; 
the  same  religion  (Feticism)  ;  the  same  festivals, 
marked  by  the  same  disgustiug  omelties,  are  ol)- 
8cr\'ed  here  as  in  Ashantee  (see  Ashaxtee),  with 
one  additional  aggravation,  namely,  the  annual 
sacrifice  of  human  victims  to  the  iKiwer  of  the  sea, 
(Adams,  p.  115.)  Benin  is  well  peopled  ;  the 
capital  contains  15,000  inhab.,  and  tfic  town  of 
Warre  5,000.  (Adams,  iii.  123.)  Clap|>crton  also 
found  the  N.  frontier,  on  the  Akinga  river,  very 
populous,  as  did  Lander  that  of  the  E.,  u|K>n  the 
banks  of  the  Niger.  Previously  to  the  nominal 
abolition  of  the  8lave-tra<le,  this  country  was  the 
great  theatre  of  that  troflic.  An  annual  fair  is 
held  at  Bonnv,  on  the  coast,  at  which  not  fewer 
tlian  20,000  slaves  are  sold,  of  whom  it  is  alleged 
16.000  are  brought  from  the  single  district  of 
Heebc  or  Eboe,  a  port  of  Benin,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Niger.  Some  few  of  these  are  sold  to 
native  masters,  as  the  kings  of  Now  and  Old 
Calabar,  but  the  vast  majority  are  disposed  of  to 
foreign  traders,  and  are  ship[)eil  priuoiiially  for 
Brazil  and  Cuba.  (Adams,  p.  129  ;  Buxton, />asWii?, 
tbc.)  A  more  harmless  trade,  and  to  a  considerable 
extent,  is  earned  on  in  salt,  palm  oil,  and  blue 
coraL 

Benin,  a  large  town  of  Africa,  cap.  of  the  above 
kingdom;  lat.  6©  15'  N.,  long.  5°  53'  E.  Poj). 
estimated  about  16,000.  It  stands  on  the  riglit 
bank  of  a  large  stream,  Idtherto  called  the  river 
of  Benin,  but  now  known  to  Ihj  one  of  the  nume- 
rous mouths  of  the  Niger;  it  is  built  without  any 
onler,  the  housc>s  bcuig  detached  from  each  other, 
and  consequently  occupyuig  a  great  deal  of  gnnind. 


BENIN  (BIGHT  OF) 

They  are  large,  constructed  of  day,  and  neatly 
thatched  with  reeds,  straw,  or  leaves.  There  is  an 
almost  continual  market  for  cattle,  sheep,  goats, 
pigs,  poultry,  yams,  cotton,  ivory,  and  Kuropean 
wares  ;  it  was  also  formerly  the  great  emporium 
for  slaves ;  but  the  river  not  being  navigable  for 
large  shi{)e  higher  than  40  m.  below  Benin,  tliis 
traffic  is  now  carried  on  nearer  the  coast,  and 
chiefly  at  Brass,  the  outlet  of  the  main  branch  of 
the  ^iger.  Benin  has  a  system  of  municipal 
guvemmcnt  resembling  that  of  more  civilised 
communities.  Gatto,  or  Agatton,  is  the  port  of 
I$enin ;  it  lies  about  40  m.  down  the  river,  or 
rather  on  a  large  creek  which  the  former  gives 
out  from  its  bank,  and  Ls  accessible  to  crafl  of  the 
burden  of  GO  tons.  It  is  said  to  be  larger  and  more 
populous  than  Benin  itj«elf.  The  surrounding  coun- 
trj-  is  well  w<Kxled,  fertile;  but  low,  tiat,  swampy^ 
and  very  unhealthy.  It  was  here  that  Belzoni 
die<l  of  dysenter}'  in  1823,  on  his  road  to  Houssa 
and  Timbuct4)o.  (Smith's  Voyage  to  Guinea, 
p.  234  ;  Adams's  Bemarks  on  the  Country'  from 
Cape  PolmaSj  p.  Ill,  8tc ;  Nouvelles  Auualcs  des 
Voyages,  xxii.  142.) 

Benin  (Bight  of).  The  coast  of  Benin  is  so 
called.  It  is  a  considerable  indentation  of  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea,  extending  from  the  Akinga  to 
the  Niger.  It  is  an  iron-bound  coast,  offering  ni) 
entrance  to  vessels,  except  at  the  mouths  of  rivers, 
and  scarcely  there,  if  the  vessels  be  of  much 
burden. 

Benin  (River  of),  called  also  the  Formosa), 
falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  about  180  m.  below 
Ikiiin,  in  lat  5°  40'  N.,  long.  6°  E.  It  is  a  deltoid 
branch  of  the  Niger,  commencing  at  Kirree,  about 
KK)  m.  above  Ik'nin,  and  its  whole  course,  in- 
chisive  of  windings,  may  be  about  210  m.     (See 

NlOKU.) 

BENISUEFF,  a  to\ni  of  Egj-pt,  cap.  prov.  same 
name,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Nile,  64  m.  S.  Cairo. 
Pop.  estimate<l  at  7,000.  It  has  a  line  of  railway 
to  Cairo,  which  places  it  in  direct  communication 
with  Alexandria  and  the  Mediterranean.  Beni- 
sueff  Ls  a  pretty,  well  built,  important  town,  being 
tlie  entrepot  lot  all  the  i)roduce  of  the  fertile 
vallcv  of  Favoum.  It  has  a  cotton-mill,  and 
several  other  manufactures,  and  is  well  supplied 
with  pr«>visions  of  all  sorts.  Quarries  of  alalmster 
have  l>cen  <liscovere<i  in  its  vicinity.  (Scott's 
Kg^'pt  and  Can<lia,  p.  2ri5.) 

BENNECKENSTEIN,  or  BENKENSTEIN, 
a  town  of  Prussia,  prov.  Saxonv,  reg.  Erfurth,  on 
the  BaplxKle,  at  the  f(M>t  of  the  llarz,  in  an  emiare 
situated  in  the  duchv  of  Brunswick,  13  m.  NNW. 
Nordhausen.  Pop.  4,223  in  1861.  The  town  has 
an  irou-foundr\',  a  nail-work,  a  brewery,  and  a 
manufactory*  o(  baskets 

HKN  N  EVIS,  a  mountain  of  Scotland,  in  Dum- 
l)artonshire,  the  second,  in  ]K)int  of  altitude,  of  the 
British  mountains.  It  lies  immediately  to  the  E. 
of  Fort  William,  being  separated  from  the  Gram- 

1)ians  by  the  desolate  tract  called  the  Moor  of 
iannoch.  It  rises  4,370  fl,  above  the  level  of  the 
sea ;  being  only  20  ft.  lower  than  Ben  Macdhu, 
the  highest  mountain  in  Scotland,  while  it  is  799 
ft.  higher  than  Snowdon,  the  most  elevate<l  of  the 
Wel«h  mountains.  Its  circumference  at  the  base 
excee<ls  24  m.  Its  outline  all  round  is  well  de- 
iine<l.  Its  N.  front  consists  of  two  grand  ascents 
or  terraces  :  the  level  top  of  the  lowest  of  which, 
at  an  elevation  of  about  1,700  ft.,  contains  a  wild 
/am  or  mountain  lake.  'The  outer  accliWtics  of 
this,  the  lower  part  of  the  mountain,  are  ver>' steep, 
though  coveretl  with  a  short  grassy  sward,  inter- 
niixe<l  T^ith  heath ;  but  at  the  lake,  this  general 
vegetable  clothing  ceases.  The  surface  of  the 
upper  and  higher  part  of  the  mountain,  where 


BERAB 


431 


not  absolntely  precipitous,  is  strewed  with  ang^nlar 
fragments  of  stone,  of  various  sizes,  wedged  toge- 
ther, and  forming  a  singularly  nigged  covering, 
among  which  we  look  in  vain  for  any  symptom  of 
vegetable  life.  On  the  NE.  side,  a  broad,  terrific, 
and  tremendous  precifdce,  commencing  at  the 
summit,  reaches  down  to  a  depth  of  not  less  than 
1,500  ft.  The  furrows  and  chasms  in  the  black 
beetling  rocks  of  this  precipice  are  constantly  filled 
with  snow,  and  the  brow  of  the  mountain  is  also 
encircled  with  an  icy  diadem.  From  the  summit, 
the  view  is  remarkably  grand  and  sublime :  it 
C(»mmands  most  of  the  W.  islands,  from  the  Pass 
of  Jura  to  Cuchullin^  in  Skye ;  and  on  the  E.,  the 
view  extends  to  Schiehallion,  Cairngorm  and  Ben 
Macdhu.'     (Anderson's  Highlands,  p.  266.) 

Ben  bein^  a  term  used  in  the  Gaelic  to  signify  a 
high  summit,  is  applied  to  several  of  the  Scotch 
mountains,  as  Ben  Lomond,  on  the  E.  side  of  Loch 
Lomond,  3,195  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
the  best  known  of  all  the  Highland  mountains ; 
Ben  Macdhu,  on  the  confines  of  Banff,  InvemeM, 
and  Aberdeen,  4,390  ft.  above  the  sea,  being,  as 
already  stated,  20  ft,  higher  than  Ben  Nevis; 
Ben  SaMT^'ers,  Ben  Gloe,  Ben  Wyvis,  Ac.    (See 

SCOTI^AMD  ^ 

BENOIT  (ST.),  a  town  of  the  Isle  de  Bourbon, 
on  the  E.  coast  of  the  island,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Marsouins.  Estim.  po]).  4.000.  The  pn>ducts  of 
the  district  are  ship})ed  in  small  vessels  at  the 
creek,  or  bay,  for  St.  Denis,  the  cap.  of  the 
island. 

BENSHEIM,  a  town  of  the  grand  duchy  of 
Hesse  Darmstadt,  15  m.  S.  Darmstadt  Pop. 
4,477  in  1861.  llie  town  has  a  church,  a  college, 
and  an  hosjiital. 

BEKAK,  an  old  province  of  the  Deccan,  India, 
comprising  Nag})oor,  and  a  considerable  portion 
of  Gundwanah ;  between  lat.  17®  48'  and  22®  48' 
N.,  long.  78°  20'  to  80°  48'  E. :  greatest  leng^ 
N.  to  S.,  330  m. ;  breadth  800  m. ;  area  56,728  sq. 
m.  (Capt.  Sutherland.)  Pop.  about  2,500,000. 
In  the  N.  its  lK>undary  is  a  high  table-land ;  its 
SW.  limit  is  for  the  niost  part  identical  with  the 
course  of  the  Wurda.  The  other  chief  rivers  are 
the  Pain-(iunga,  its  tributary  the  Khahan;  and 
the  Mahanuddy.  llie  land  is  fertile  in  dr>'  grains; 
peas,  vetches,  flax,  sugar,  betel,  and  toliacco,  are 
also  raised ;  and,  since  the  outbreak  of  the  Ameri- 
can civil  war,  it  has  become  a  great  field  for  cot- 
ton. The  Nagp<x>r  wheat  is  reckoned  the  most 
nutritious  in  India;  it  comes  to  perfection  in  three 
months,  and  with  miuze,  which  is  sown  after  it  as 
a  second  crop,  forms  the  chief  sulwistence  of  the 
inhab.  A  laige  pro()ortion  of  the  land  has  been 
brought  uito  cultivation  since  the  British  have 
had  the  government  of  this  country ;  the  capital 
of  the  cultivators  generally  has  mcreased,  and 
irrigation  and  the  state  of  the  wells  are  better 
attended  to.  Sugar,  betel,  and  tobacco  are  largely 
manured,  but  not  with  cow  dung,  which  is  used 
by  the  Hindoos  for  the  floors  of  houses,  and  for 
fuel,  though  plenty  of  wood  suitable  for  the  latter 
purpose  is  scattered  over  the  country.  Indigo 
grows  wild,  but  is  not  cultivated  to  any  extent, 
and  opium  very  little.  A  great  portion  of  t^e 
countiy  belongs  to  zemindan,  who  pay  nothing 
but  a  quit-rent  to  government,  and  are  in  other 
respects)  independent  of  any  superior  authority; 
but  these  are  less  numerous  m  the  central  dutricts. 

The  revenue  is  collected  under  the  village  set- 
tlement ;  the  chief  fanner  of  the  ^dllage  being 
the  potail,  responsible  for  the  payment  of  the  ryots 
under  him  ;  receiNing  their  rents ;  a<lvancing  them 
money  when  necessary,  and  receiving  for  his  own 
remuneration  one-sixth  part  of  the  whole  sum 
collected.     Cowls,  or  agreements   between  the 


432 


BEKAR 


govemmcnt  and  the  notail,  or  between  the  potail 
and  the  rvot,  that  only  so  much  shall  be  collecte<l 
from  the  laml  in  a  certain  term  (generally  live  or 
seven  yean*),  arc  verj'  common,  and  were  intro- 
duced by  the  Malirattas  when  they  conqiiere<l 
this  terntorj',  in  order  to  promote  cultivation, 
which  at  that  time  had  been  greatly  neglected. 
The  system  is  said  to  be  advantageous;  and  if 
the  assessant  were  moderate,  and  the  term  of 
agreement  extended,  and  the  conditions  abided 
by,  it  perhaps  would  be  as  good  a  system  as  the 
principle  on  which  it  is  bottomed  will  admit  of. 

The  office  of  [>otail  w  usually  consi<lered  heredi- 
tary, but  is  dependent  on  the  pleasure  of  the  go- 
vernment. The  revenue  is  a1)out  46  or  47  lacs, 
and  the  civil  expenditure  seven  or  eight  lacs  ru- 
pees a  year.  The  ascending  ranks  of  judicial 
authorities  are  the  potail,  the  native  pergunnah 
collector,  the  soubahdor  of  the  district,  and  the 
rajah  himself,  who  holds  all  the  soubahdar  juris- 
diction round  the  capital  The  punchayet,  a  bod v 
of  five  judges,  two  of  whom  are  chosen  by  each 
of  the  contending  parties,  and  the  tifth  by  the 

gotail,  decides  most  civil  suits,  and  its  <Iccision  is 
nal.  This  system  is  said  to  w(»rk  well,  excejit 
near  Nagpoor,  where  corruption  is  common.  It  is 
always,  however,  resorted  to ;  for,  when  the  rajah 
decides,  he  exacts  \  of  the  sum  in  dispute  as  a 
fine  from  the  loser,  and  another  |  as  a  a)mpen8a- 
tion  for  the  decision  from  the  winner.  There  are 
no  statute  laws;  succession  to  property  is  com- 
monly determined  by  the  Hindoo  axle,  and  there 
are  a  few  men  of  learning  in  the  cap.  versed  in 
this ;  but  where  one  of  these  is  not  called  in,  most 
matters  are  determined  by  the  punchayet  Educa- 
tion is  not  much  countenanced ;  it  is  mostly  con- 
fined to  the  children  of  the  Brahmins,  and  mer- 
cantile classes,  and  amongst  thcne  extends  little 
beyond  reading,  writing,  and  accounts.  All  other 
classes  are  very  illiterate,  and  it  is  rare  that  a  cul- 
tivator can  write  his  oivn  name.  Previous  to  tlie 
introduction  of  railroads,  there  was  little  com- 
mercial intercourse ;  the  public  roads  were  few ; 
there  were  no  canals;  and  communication  was  ver>' 
trifling  generally.  The  opening  of  the  railway 
from  Nagpoor  to  Bombay,  along  the  valley  of  the 
Taptee,  gave  an  enormous  impulse  to  trade,  par- 
ticularly as  furnishing  the  necessary  means  of 
conveyance  to  the  sea  of  the  produce  of  the  cotton 
districts. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Mogul  empire,  the  Mahrattas 
overran  this  countrj',  and  under  the  second  Mah- 
ntta  rajah,  Jenjee,Vho  lived  about  the  middle  of 
last  centurj',  it  is  said  to  have  been  in  a  more  flou- 
rishing condition  than  at  any  other  periofl  The 
rajah  of  Nagpoor,  however,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  having  become  hostile  to  the 
British,  was  deprived  of  the  proy.  of  Cuttack,  which 
had  previously  belonged  to  him,  and  some  terri- 
tories adjoining  Hyderabad,  which  wore  given  to 
the  nizam.  In  1817  the  rajah  was  again  in  arms 
against  the  Englwh,  who  then  took  upon  them- 
selves the  administration  of  his  t<jrrit<>ry.  This 
continued  for  8^  years,  during  which  time  much 
improvement,  to  the  general  satisfacticm  of  the 
people,  was  effected.  The  annual  revenue  had 
risen  from  37  to  47  lacs  of  rupees,  when  the  central 
parts  were  delivered  up  to  the  jroimg  rajah  Bajee 
Kao  Booslah,  on  his  majority  m  1826,  at  which 
time  he  ceded  to  us  a  territory  on  both  banks  of 
the  Xerbudda,  and  parts  of  Gundwanah,  together 
with  an  annual  tribute  of  8  lacs ;  the  whole  of  our 
acquisition  by  this  treaty  being  estimated  at  30 
lacs  rup.  a  vear.  In  18*29  the  rajah  was  jmt  in 
possession  of  the  re.st  of  his  prov.,  with  an  agree- 
ment that  instead  of  a  force  of  3,000  h<>rse  and 
2,000  foot,  he  should,  for  the  future,  maintain  a 


BERDIANSK 

standing  army  of  1,000  horse  only.  This  agree- 
ment remahicd  in  force  till  the  year  18/>,3,  when, 
on  the  death  of  the  rajah  (Dec.  11),  his  territories 
were  addetl  to  the  British  poKnessions  in  India. 
(Hamilton's  E.  I.  Gaz.,  I  217-221 ;  Rejwrts  on  the 
Affairs  of  the  E.  I.  Comp.,  Evid.  of  Mr.  Jenkins, 
pp.  140-150;  Append.,  vi.  103.) 

BERAT,  a  town  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  in  the  N. 
I>art  of  Albania,  on  the  Tuberathi  (an  Apms),  28 
m.  XE.  Aulona;  lat.  40°  48'  X.,  long.  19°  52'  E. 
It  consists  of  an  acropolis  or  cita^lcl,  on  the  summit 
of  a  pretty  high  hill,  and  of  a  lower  town.  The 
foiroer,  which  was  repaired  and  strengthened  by 
^Vli  Pacha,  is  very  extensive,  and  contauis  within 
it  the  palace  of  the  vizier,  several  Greek  churehes, 
and  about  250  houses.  Being  conmianded  by  the 
neighbouring  heights,  and  without  either  springs 
or  cisterns  (Pouqueville),  it  couUl  oppose  no  effec- 
tual resistance  to  an  invading  army  properly  sup- 
plied with  artiller>',  or  strong  enough  effectually 
to  blockade  it.  The  lower  Ui\m,  at  the  foot  of  the 
acrojwlw,  is  intersected  by  the  river,  over  which 
there  is  a  gotxi  bridge  of  eight  arches.  It  has 
numerous  mosques,  and  a  large  and  hantUorae 
bazaar.  Merchants  import  British  and  other  foreign 
goods  through  the  port  of  Aulona.  Scanderbc^ 
failed  in  an  attempt  to  take  thu  town,  which  lias 
always  l)een  regarded  as  an  irafx>rtant  post,  and 
the  kovjin  fact,  of  tliis  part  of  the  countrv.  (Pou- 
que\'ilie,  Voyage  de  la  (iriKje,  I  301,  &L  1820: 
Hughes'  Albania,  il  385.) 

BERAUN,  a  walled  to\*'n  of  Bohemia,  cap.  cirr, 
same  name^  on  the  Beraun^  20  m.  WJSVV.  Prague, 
on  the  railway  from  Prague  to  Pilsen.  Pop.  4,010 
in  1857.  It  has  fabrics  of  earthenware  and  lire- 
arms;  and  in  its  neighbourhoo<l  are  quarries  of 
marble  and  coal  mines.  In  the  vicinity  of  tliw 
to"wn,  the  Austrians,  in  1750,  gained  a  signal 
victorv  over  the  Prussians. 

BERBER  A,  a  sea-port  tovnn  of  Africa,  in  the 
country  of  the  Somaulls  on  the  Sea  of  Ba)>-el- 
Mandeb,  at  the  bottom  of  a  narrow  and  deep  bay; 
lat.  \(P  24'  X.,  long.  45°  8'  E.  It  Is  rather  an  en- 
campment than  a  town,  the  inhab.  dwelling  mostly 
in  tents  or  huts  constructed  of  a  few  sticks,  and 
coverwl  with  skins.  It  has  few  permanent  resi- 
dents; but  from  September  to  Apnl,  during  which 
peri(Hl  a  great  annual  fair  Ls  held,  there  l<  a  large 
concourse  of  visitors,  sometimes  to  the  amount  of 
7,000  or  10,000.  The  Somaulis  bring  with  them, 
from  the  interi<)r,  ghee  or  butter,  coffee,  sheep,  va- 
rious descri[>tions  of  gums,  myrrh,  ostrich  feathers, 
gold  dust,  hides,  and  slaves  of  b<>tli  sexes,  which 
they  exchange  for  iron,  lead,  cotton,  cloth,  rice, 
and  dhounrah,  brought  from  the  Arabian  ptjns  of 
Mocha,  Hodeida,  and  MakuUnh.  Tlie  trade  is 
almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of  Banian  merchants, 
who  are  said  to  realise  large  protits.  (W'ellsted's 
Arabia,  il  360,  ic) 

BERBICE.    See  Guiana. 

Bkkda,  a  small  river  in  South  Russia,  gov.  Tau- 
rida,  falling  into  the  sea  of  Azof.  It  is  not  navi- 
gable, and  very  often,  during  the  summer  months, 
partially  dr\'.  On  the  eji.stem  banks  of  this  river 
stan<is  the  little  town  of  Petrofsky,  the  pruicii>al 
station  of  the  Azof  Cossacks. 

Bkkdiansk,  a  rising  m;uitime  toym  of  South 
RiLssia.  gov.  Taurida.  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Berda,  on  the  N.  shore  of  sea  of  Azof,  150  m.  XE. 
Simferopol  Pop.  6,498  in  1849,  and  11.351  in 
1804.  The  town  is  built  upon  a  low  sandy  plain 
of  one  mile  wide  and  several  miles  in  length,  im- 
mediately underneath  an  acclivity  wliicli  rises  ab- 
niptly  to  the  steppe,  00  ft.  high.  It  is  a  stereo- 
tyiKjd  edition  of  all  Russian  to^-ns — the  streets 
running  at  right  angles  to  one  another.  'Die 
houses,  1,424  m  number,  are  generally  of  one  storj' 


BERDITCHEF 

high,  and  principally  built  of  bricks ;  some  are 
constnicted  with  a  soft  sort  of  stone  brought  from 
Kcrtoh,  where  it  is  found  in  immense  quantities. 
This  kind  of  stone,  o^ing  to  its  non-endurability, 
is  ver}'  imsuitable  for  building  purposes ;  never- 
theless, on  account  of  the  great  facility  in  working 
it  into  different  shapes,  which  Russian  masons  do 
easilj'  vnih  their  axes,  it  has  been  largely  em- 
ployed in  the  south  part  of  Russia.  The  walls  of 
the  houses  are  very  thickly  built,  to  enable  them 
to  resist  the  severe  cold.  Besides  the  foregoing 
number  of  houses,  there  are  189  grain  magazines, 
which  are  capable  of  holding  about  50,000  quarters. 
Tlie  quantity  of  wheat  exported  from  this  port  in 
the  year  18G3  amounted  to  137,355  quarters.  The 
ex|x)rts  were  largest  in  1861,  when  they  rose  to 
351,1>57  quarters.  (Report  of  Consul  Wagstaff  on 
the  trade  of  Benliansk,  dated  Julv  14,  1864.) 

BERDITCHEF,  a  town  of  Russia  in  Europe, 
gov.  Volhynia,  on  its  SE.  confines,  25  m.  S.  Jito- 
mir.  It  is  dirty  and  ill  built,  and  Is  principally 
inhabited  by  Jews.  It  is,  however,  the  centre  of 
a  considerable  trade.  Its  fair,  called  Ofumjrief 
frief^ahu  is  much  frequented. 

BEREZINA,  a  river  of  Russia  in  Europe:  it 
rises  in  the  district  of  Dissna,  gov.  I^Iinsk,  which 
it  traverses  from  N.  to  S. :  after  recei%'ing  various 
afHuents,  and  being  joined  by  a  canal  with  the 
Dun,  it  falls  into  the  DniejMir  a  Httle  below 
Ritciiitza.  This  river  has  become  celebrated  from 
the  dirticulties  and  disasters  attending  the  passage 
over  it  of  the  army  under  Napoleon,  when  re- 
treating from  Moscow  in  1812.  The  al>ove  river 
must  not  l)e  confounded  with  another  and  smaller 
river  of  the  same  name,  which  also  rises  in  the 
gov.  Minsk,  and  which,  having  divided,  during  a 
[mrt  of  its  course,  the  govts,  of  (iroduo  and  Wilna, 
falls  into  the  Nicmen,  at  Nikolaef. 

BERCJAMO,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  cap. 
prov.  and  distr.  same  name,  on  low  hills  between 
the  Serio  and  the  Brembo,  29  m.  NE.  Milan,  on 
the  railwav  from  Milan  to  Venice.  Pop.  35,200 
in  1862.  'rhe  to^vn  is  surrounded  by  walls,  and 
has  an  old  castle ;  but  these  are  useless  as  means 
of  defence.  It  is  well  built ;  has  a  massive  cathe- 
dral, 14  churches,  12  monasteries,  10  nunneries,  a 
large  hospital,  a  mant-de-piete^  an  orphan  asA'lum, 
and  other  charitable  institutions,  a  lyceum,  and  a 
iteminario ;  the  Carrarese  school,  founded  by  Count 
Carrara,  where  gratuitous  instruction  is  given  in 
music,  painting,  and  an*hitecture ;  a  public  library, 
with  ()0,00()  vols.,  and  two  theatres.  There  are 
extensive  establishments  for  the  spinning  and 
weaving  of  silk,  great  quantities  of  wliich  are 
[mnhiced  in  the  vicinity,  with  wwdlen  and  cotton 
fabrics,  and  in)n-foundries.  The  trade  of  the  town 
has  much  increased  since  the  opening  of  the  rail- 
wav to  Milan :  it  is  now  a  chief  station  on  the 
line  from  Milan  to  Venice.  A  great  fair  is  an- 
nually held  on  the  22nd  of  August,  and  fourteen 
following  days,  in  a  large  quadrangular  building, 
called  the  jiera^  containing  540  booths  or  shops. 
All  the  products  of  Loml>ar<ly  are  exposed  to  sale 
at  this  fair;  but  silk  is  the  staple  article,  and  next 
to  it  iron  and  wine.  It  has  also  a  considerable 
trade  in  grindstones,  quarried  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. The  value  of  the  goods  dispo.sed  of  at  the 
fair  is  said  sometimes  to  amount  to  1,200,000/. 
It  has  also  other,  but  less  considerable,  fairs, 
and  cattle-markets.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
of  the  provincial  a.ssembly,  and  of  a  judicial  tri- 
bunal. 

Bergamo  is  verj'  ancient,  having  existed  under 
the  Romans.  In*  1428,  the  inhab.  placed  them- 
selves under  the  pnitection  of  the  republic  of 
Venice,  of  which  it  continual  to  form  an  integral 
part  till  the  submersion  of  the  latter  in  179G,  with 

Vol.  I. 


BERGEN 


433 


the  exception  of  about  seven  years  after  the  battle 
of  Agnadello,  in  1509,  when  it  was  taken  b^ 
lA)m»  XII.  During  the  French  ascendancy,  it 
was  the  cap.  of  the  dep,  of  Serio.  The  to¥m  fell 
to  Austria  in  1815;  but,  in  consequence  of  the 
events  of  18C0,  was  incorporated  with  the  new 
kingdom  of  Italy. 

Bergamo  has  given  birth  to  some  very  emi- 
nent men,  among  others,  to  Bernardo  Tasso,  the 
father  of  Torquato  (a  colossal  statue  has  been 
erected  in  the  Piazza  GrantU,  in  honour  of  the 
latter) ;  Tiraboschi,  the  author  of  the  learned, 
elalwrate,  and  valuable  work  on  the  history  of 
Italian  literature  {Storia  delta  Letteratwra  Ita- 
liana) ;  and  to  the  Abb^  Serassi,  author  of  the  Life 
of  Tasso.  The  Beigamesque  dialect  is  peculiar, 
and  one  of  the  mast  corrupted  forms  of  the  lan- 
guage spoken  in  Italv. 

BERGEDORF,  a 'town  of  the  distr.  or  ter.  of 
Hamburg,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Rille  with  a 
canal  that  joins  the  EIl>e,  9  m.  SE.  Hamburg. 
Pop.  2,251  in  1861.  It  is  connected  by  railway 
with  Hamburg. 

BER(tEN,  a  town  and  sea-port  of  Norway,  cap, 
of  the  diocese  of  S.  Bergenshuus,  at  the  bottom  of 
a  deep  bay,  165  m.  WNW.  Christiania ;  lat,  60© 
24'  N.,  long.  5°  20'  E.  P(»p.  26,.'>40  in  1860.  The 
town  is  built  on  a  promontor>',  and  surrounded  on 
every  si<le  by  water,  except  NE.,  where  it  is  en- 
close<l  by  mountains  considerably  above  2,000  ft, 
in  height ;  and  in  protected,  besides,  by  lofty  walls, 
and  several  forts,  mounting  in  all  about  100  guns. 
The  harbour  is  safe  and  commodious,  and  the 
water  deep ;  but  the  bay  all  round  is  so  beset  'with 
rrx.'ks  as  to  render  its  navigation  dangerous  with- 
out a  pilot.  Bergen  Ls  generally  well  built,  though 
some  of  its  streets  be  narrow  and  crooked ;  viewed 
from  the  sea,  it  appears  remarkably  picturesque, 
being  built  amjihitheatrewise  round  the  harbour. 
It  contains  a  cathe<lral  and  four  other  churches, 
three  hospitals,  a  prison,  a  house  of  correction,  six 
establishments  for  the  |K>or,  a  national  museum, 
five  public  libraries,  a  naval  academy,  a  superior 
college,  established  by  Bishop  Pontoppidan  in 
1750,  and  various  schooK  It  is  the  seat  of  a  tri- 
bunal of  secondary  jurisdiction,  the  residence  of 
the  high  sheriff  and  bishop  of  the  diocese.  One 
of  the  three  public  treasuries  of  the  kingdom,  and 
a  division  oi  the  National  Bank,  are  established 
at  Bergen.  It  has  a  governor,  and  a  garrison  ot 
300  men ;  and  a  squadrrm  of  the  navy  is  stationed 
here.  There  are  manufactories  of  tobacco  and 
porcelain,  manv  distilleries,  and  some  rope-yarda. 

The  fisher}'  is  the  princiiial  business  carried  on 
here ;  but  both  the  internal  and  foreign  trade  are 
considerable.  The  imports  from  the  N.  provincea 
consist  of  codfish,  roes,  fish-oil,  tallow,  skins,  and 
feathers,  which  are  brought  by  a  fieet  of  above 
100  small  vessels,  twice  a  year  during  the  sum- 
mer; and  which  take  back  in  return  the  other 
necessaries  and  some  of  the  luxuries  of  life.  The 
articles  brought  from  the  other  parts  of  Norway 
are  less  important :  they  consist  chiefiy  of  iron 
manufactures,  glass,  tiles,  millstones,  and  fir  tim- 
ber ;  but  the  planks  and  deals  of  Ber;^B  arc  not 
equal  in  quality  to  those  of  ChristMoia.  The 
foreigh  trade  is  chiefly  with  the  Baltic,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  Holland,  Hamburg,  England,  France, 
and  the  Mediterranean.  The  imports  from  Ham- 
burg far  exceed  the  exports  thence  from  Bergen, 
and  consist  of  fabrics  and  colonial  goods  of  every 
description.  England  supplies  her  manufacture! 
and  colonial  prtnlucta;  but  the  trade  with  this 
count rv  has  much  decreased.  France  sends  thither 
salt,  wine,  and  brandy ;  and  receives  most  of  the 
salted  fish  roes.  The  dried  cod,  or  stockfish,  a 
staple  commodity  of  the  place,  ia  sent  to  most 

F  F 


434 


BERGEN 


Catholic  countries.  The  shipping  of  the  port  of 
Beigen  is  considerable.  There  entered,  m  the 
year  1801,  according  to  official  returns.  3*14  Nor- 
wegian vesseLi,  of  18,%7  tons  and  428  fon'ign 
vessels,  of  14,487  tons,  all  with  cargo.  Rcj^idos 
the8C,  there  came  10  Norwegian  an<l  83  fi»roigii 
vessels  in  ballast,  giNing  a  total  of  8(»5  vessels,  of 
an  aggregate  burden  of  36,554  t<ms.  The  clear- 
ances, daring  the  same  year,  consij<te(l  of  841 
vessels,  of  34,513  tons ;  a  rather  laigc  j)ercentage 
of  them  in  ballast,  naroelv,  64  Norwegian  vessels, 
of  8,144  tons,  and  47  fore^pi  vessels,  of  3,545  tons. 
The  merchant  haw  lielonging  to  I^igen  c<»n- 
sisted,  at  the  end  of  1861,  of  6i»2  vessels,  of  a 
burden  of  16,.580  tons,  manned  by  a  crew  of  3,102 
men.  During  the  year  1«61,  there  were  41  vessels 
of  1,001  tons,  newly  built. 

The  inhab.  of  Ifergen  are  industrit)us,  and  seve- 
ral of  the  mercantile  housics  are  iK'lievwl  to  l)e 
wealthv.  The  modem  town  was  founded  by  one 
of  the  Tkings  of  Norway  in  the  Uth  centurj'.  In 
the  13th,  traden  from  the  Hanse  towns  begnn  to 
fettle;  aii<l,  in  the  succ(M'ding  ccnturiin*,  acf^uireil 
•n  almost  sovereign  supremacv  in  Ik*r^en,  until 
chockttl  by  an  act  of  the  l)anl*h  govenmient  in 
1560.  The  principal  part  of  the  tnnle  \n  now  in 
the  hands  of  natives.  (Itoard  of  Tnnle  Papers, 
and  Kt?|)ort  by  Mr.  Hamilton,  British  S<'<Tetary 
of  Legation,  dated  Sto<*kholni,  Aug.  31,  1863.) 

Bkkokn,  a  town  of  PniKsiii,  cap.  wland  of 
Rugen,  15  m.  NE.  Stralsimd.  Pop.  3,650  in  1861. 
It  stands  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  i<dand ;  has 
a  court  of  justice,  a  castle,  and  a  convent  i)f  noble 
ladies. 

BERGEN-OP-Z(K)M,  a  strongly  fortified  town 
of  the  king,  of  H<dland,  pn»v.  Bralwnt.  23  m. 
WSVV.  Breda,  near  the  left  bank  of  the  E.  Scheldt, 
with  which  it  communicates  by  a  canal,  and  on  the 
ndlway  from  Antwerp  to  Rottenlam  Pop.  8,8i>0 
in  1861.  Be-sides  its  fortifications,  which  are  ex- 
oeedinglv  strong,  it  is  surroundel  by  marshes  that 
render  the  access  to  it  very  diflicult.  It  has  a 
grammar-school,  and  a  school  of  design  and  archi- 
tecture, with  numerous  fabrics  of  earthenware. 
Its  ancli<»vie8,  taken  in  the  river,  are  in  consider- 
able demand. 

Tliis  was  one  of  the  first  towns  occui)ie<l  by  the 
Stat«s  General.  In  1622  it  sto»Ml  a  memorable 
si(^c  by  the  Simnianls,  who  were  compelled  to 
retire,  after  losing  10,000  men.  In  1747  it  was 
taken  by  the  French  by  stratagem.  In  1814  it 
was  nearly  taken  by  the  Hritish  by  a  cottp  tie 
main;  but  they  were  finally  repulsed  with  con- 
siderable loss. 

BERGEKAf^  a  town  of  France,  dc<p.  DonU^e, 
caj).  arrond.,  in  an  extensive  and  fi?rtile  plain,  on 
the  Dordogne,  27  m.  SSW.  IVrigueux.  l*op. 
12,116  in  1861.  Tlie  town  is  neat,  well  laid  out, 
generally  well  built,  and  thriving.  It  has  a  mag- 
nificent bridge  of  five  arches  over  the  I><>nlt>gne, 
a  theatre,  and  some  fine  promenades.  The  fortifi- 
cations by  which  it  was  once  surrounde<l  were 
demolished  bv  order  of  I^ub*  XIII.,  in  1621,  It 
has  a  ccjurt  of  original  jurisdiction,  a  college,  and 
a  secondary  ecclesiastical  schm)L  Excellent  paper 
is  made  here;  and  there  are  manufactures  of  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  iron  and  coi>|.)cr  goods,  serges, 
hosuery,  hats,  and  earthenware;  with  tanneries, 
distilleries,  and  imn-foundries.  It  maintains  an 
intercourse  with  Bordeaux  and  Liboume,  and  is 
the  principal  entrepot  for  the  trade  of  the  dep.  A 
Inranch  line  of  railway  i)laces  the  town  in  com- 
munication with  the  Paris-Bordeaux  railwav. 
Bergerac  suffered  much  from  the  religious  wars, 
and  still  more  from  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
l^antcs. 

BEHGUES,  a  town  of  France,  d^  du  Nord, 


BEREHAMSTEAD  (GREAT) 

cap.  cant,  at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  on  the  Colme,  5  m. 
SSE.  Dunkirk.  Pop.  6,022  in  1861.  The  town  is 
strongly  fortified  bv  Vauban,  and  has  the  means 
of  laving  the  adjoining  pbiin  un<ler  water.  Tliough 
old,  It  is  pretty  well  Imilt.  In  one  <»f  its  squares 
are  two  high  towers,  the  remains  of  two  ancient 
churches  destroye<l  during  the  revolution.  It  has 
a  communal  college,  a  hospital,  and  a  small 
public  lilirary.  It  lias  distilleries,  refineries  of  salt 
and  sugar,  with  potteries,  and  fabrics  of  S4»ap  and 
tobacco.  A  canal,  8,701  mt'tres  long,  connects 
Bergiies  with  the  port  of  Dunkirk,  and  it  has 
likewise  a  station  on  the  railway  from  Dunkirk  to 
Paris.  Owing  to  its  favourable  situation,  it  is  the 
entrepot  of  the  com,  cheese,  andlace,  produced  in 
the  adjoining  country. 

BERKELEY,  a  bor.  and  par.  of  England,  co. 
Gloucester,  hund.  Berkeley.  Area  of  par.  14,08<i 
acres.  The  pop.  of  the  parish  was  3,My9  in  1831, 
and  4,316  in  1861 ;  the  ]H>p.  of  the  U>rr>ugh,  or  the 
*  Old  Boniugh,*  as  it  is  termed  iji  the  census  re- 
turns, was  1.011  in  1861.  The  town  is  situated 
amidst  rich  jtasture  lands,  in  the  vale  of  Berkeley, 
on  the  Avon  (which  joins  the  Severn  1^  m.l>clow}. 
101  m.  W.  bv  X.  London.  It  consists  mostlv  of 
four  streets,  diveigiiig  fn»m  the  market-pl.ico ; 
housin*  but  imlifferent.  The  chun^h  is  a  large 
handsome  buihling.  in  the  {xtinted  style,  with  a 
motlem  tower  at  s<»me  distaiire  from  it.  niere  is 
al<«o  a  ('ha|X'l  of  ease  at  Stone :  four  dissenting 
eha])elsin  the  town,  and  two  in  the  tithing.  There 
is  a  free  grammar-school,  endowed  with  aliout  40/, 
a  vear,  in  which  26  Ih)vs  are  educate<L  The  town- 
hall  (a  hanilsome  structure  built  in  1825)  is  nc»w 
used  as  a  chapel  by  the  Inde]HMidents :  the  market 
house  is  beneath  it.  The  market  is  held  on  Tuesday, 
and  two  annual  fairs  on  May  14  and  Di'C.  I  :  there 
are  also  cattle  markets  on  the  lirst  Tuesdav  in  Sept. 
and  in  Nov.  The  (iloucester  and  Ik'rkelev  Canal 
(navigable  for  vessels  of  (iOO  tons)  has  its  entrance 
2^  m.  from  Berkeley,  but  the  ]>lace  can  only  1»c 
considered  as  a  large  agricidtural  village.  The 
cor|s>ration  exists  bv  ])rescription  only ;  there  arc 
no  charters,  nor  has  it  now  any  duties  to  perform. 

Berkeley  Castle,  on  an  eminence  SE.  of  the 
town,  is  amongst  the  most  perfect  specimens  of  its 
kind  remauiing  in  the  kingdom,  l>eing  in<^»mplete 
re|>air,  and  occuf)ied :  it  is  an  im>gular  pile,  with 
a  keep  and  mauy  castcllaterl  buildings,  enclosing 
a  s])acious  court.  There  is  a  fine  liaroniul  luill,  a 
chai>el,  and  a  dungeon  chamlier  28  fr.  deep.  The 
other  apartments  are  numerous  and  gloomy:  in 
one  of  these  Edward  II.  is  su|>posed  to  have  been 
murdered,  in  1327  :  this  castle  is  nearly  surrounded 
bv  a  fine  terrace.  The  tlate  (»f  its  fomidation  is 
uncertain,  but  it  was  gran teil,  in  1 150.  by  llenn*  II. 
to  I^)1)ert  Fitzharding :  and  in  the  last  ci\'il  war  it 
was  garrisoned  for  the  king,  and  for  a  time  awe«l 
the  surrounding  district;  it  was  subsequently 
surrendered  to  the  parliamentary  army,  after  a 
nine  davs'  siege, 

liKRkllAMSTE  AD  (GREAT),  a  par.  and  town 
of  England,  co.  HertfonI,  hund.  Dacorum,  20  m. 
NW.  London.  Area  of  jwir.  4,250  acres.  Pof>.  of 
par.  2,3ri9  in  1831,  and  3,5H5  in  IWil.  Tlie  town 
IS  in  a  deep  vale,  on  the  SW.  side  of  the  BulUtm 
and  the  Grand  Junction  Canal,  which  here  run  in 
a  line  together,  parallel  with  the  high  road,  which 
iiasses  through  the  town.  ITie  London  and  N4.«rth 
VVestem  railwav  also  has  a  station  here,  Hie 
principal  street  is  alMiut  half  a  mile  in  length  ;  a 
smaller  street  branches  fn>m  the  church  in  the 
middle  of  the  town,  towards  the  old  castle.  Houses, 
irregular  brick  buildings,  but  many  of  them  verj* 
respectable.  The  church  is  a  (Jot hie  cnicif<»Tm 
structure^  with  a  tower,  and  several  small  chan- 
tries,  and  curious  monuments.    There  Is  a  free 


BERKSHIRE 

school,  establij^hetl  in  the  rei|^  of  Henry  VTII, ; 
ann.  amount  of  its  revenue,  634^ ;  but  it  has  long 
l>cen  unavailable  to  the  tovm.     All  Souls  CoDepje 
has  the  patronage.     Another  school,  founded  in 
1727,  has  an  ann.  revenue  of  279/.:  in  it  20  boys 
and  10  girls  areclothetl  and  educated.  The  ca«tle, 
on  an  eminence  E.  of  the  tonni,  enclosed  a  space  of  ; 
1 1  acres,  and  was  very  stn>ng.     It  originated  in  I 
the  Saxon  |)erio<l ;  was  strengthened  in  the  reign  t 
of  Wm.  I.,  and  rebuilt  in  that  of  Henry  II.,  w^ho 
at  one  time  held  his  court  in  it,  and  conferretl 
many  privileges  on  the  town.    Cowpcr,  the  poet, 
was  born    here,  lus  father  being  rt-tctor  of  the 
{jarish. 

BKRKS,  or  BEKKSIIIRE,  an  inland  co.  of 
England,  having  X.  Oxfonl  and  Bucks,  from 
which  it  is  se|)arate<l  bv  the  Thame-s,  E.  Surrey, 
S.  Hampshire,  and  W.  ^Viltshire,  and  a  part  of 
(iloucestcrshire.  It  is  very  irregularly  shaped,  and 
contains  451,210  statute  acres,  about  two-thinls  of 
which  are  under  tillage.  Nearly  25,000  acres,  in- 
cluding ]»art  of  liagshot  Heath,  are  waste  lands. 
Berks  is  a  very  beautiful  co.  \  has  every  variety  of 
w>il  and  surface,  and  is  well  «tr»cked  with  timix?r, 
iiartii'ularly  tmk  and  l>eech.  Exclusive  i»f  the 
riiamoH,  it  is  watered  l»y  the  Kennet,  I^xldon,  Ock, 
ami  other  rivers.  It  is  about  e<|ually  divided  be- 
tween tillnge  and  stock  and  dairA'  husbandry. 
The  Ik^rk.thire  breed  of  jiigs  is  much  celebrated. 
Agriculture  is  in  a  rather  backward  state;  four  or 
five  horsc;s  are  generally  yoked  t<>the  plough ;  and, 
from  the  want  of  pro|M»r  covenants  in  leases,  land 
is  often  left  in  a  bad  and  exhausted  state  at  their 
tcnnination.  ProiH?rty  much  dividexl ;  a  thin!  yiart 
of  the  CO.  is  sup]X)se<l  to  lie  occuj>ied  by  small  pn>- 
])rietors.  Farms  of  all  sizes,  under  1,200  or  1,400 
acres ;  but  few  al)ove  500  acres,  or  imder  50/.  a 
year.  Average  rent  ()f  land  30*.  an  acre.  Windsor 
Castle,  the  ancient  and  magnificent  residence  of 
the  Engli.sh  wtvereigns,  is  in  this  co.  This  was 
formerly  one  of  the  princii>al  seats  of  the  woollen 
manufacture ;  but  it  has  entirely  dUap|>eAred,  and 
the  nnmufactures  nowcarriwl  on  are  but  of  trifling 
im|K>rtance.  BrincijMil  towns,  Reading,  Windst>r. 
and  Abingdon.  Berkshire  is  divided  into  20 
hunds.  and  151  ymrs.  The<*ensu8of  18(>1  stated  the 
j>op.  at  170,256,  of  whom  80,875  males,  and  89,381 
fbmnles.  The  number  of  families,  at  the  same 
jKmiHl,  was  40,055,  and  the  numl)er  of  inhabited 
houses  35.701.  The  county  returns  three  memlwrs 
to  the  House  of  Conmions.  The  constituency 
consisted,  in  18<>4,  of  4,847  regi-stennl  electors. 

l{El{LEHL'i:c;,a  town  of  the  l*nis>ian  States, 
prov.  Westphalia,  cap.  circ.  Wittgenstein,  27  m. 
SSE.  AmslK'rg.  Pop.  2.000  in  1  KOI.  The  town  is 
the  residence  of  the  Prince  <if  Wittgenstein.  It 
has  a  castle,  a  haras,  and  some  forges. 

BEIJLIC'HIN(;EX,  a  WUage  of  WirtemlK»rg,on 
the  Jaxt,  9  m.  WNW.  Kunzelsau.  Pop.  1,407  in 
1^01.  It  has  a  castle,  a  Catholic  church,  and  a 
synagogue. 

PEIiLlX,  the  capital  of  the  Pnissian  States  and 
the  ordinary  residence  of  the  monan*h,  on  the  Spree, 
127  ft.  alM>ve  the  level  of  the  st-a.in  the  middle  mark 
of  Brandenburg,  and  on  the  line  <»f  railway  from 
Paris  to  St.  Petersburg.  Streets  broad  and 
straight,  some  of  them  ornamented  with  n)ws  of 
trees;  sipiares  regular  and  sjwicious;  hou.ses  all  of 
brick,  and  moNtly  stucc«>ed  over;  public  buildings 
and  monuments  numerous  and  magniOcent;  so 
that,  notwithstanding  its  sameness,  the  want  of 
bustle  and  liveliness,  and  the  poverty  of  its  en- 
virons, llerlin  in  one  of  the  finest  cities  of  Europe. 
It  was  founded  about  the  middle  ()f  the  12lh  cen- 
tury. In  HWH  the  iv»pulation  was  alnrnt  18,000; 
in  1700  it  was  29,000;  in  1775  it  had  incTcascd 
to  135,500;  in  181G  it  was  182^7;  in  1838  it 


BERLIN' 


436 


amounted  to  290,797;  in  184C  to  408,502;  and  in 
1861  to  547,571.  The  latter  figure  is  exclusive  of 
the  military  pop.,  numbering  22,026  in  1861.  The 
]K>p.  was  calculated,  fn»ra  the  returns  of  births  and 
deaths,  to  amount  to  552,020  on  the  Ist  of  January, 
1864.  The  town  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  nearly 
circular,  7  EngL  m.  hmg,  opened  by  17  large  and 
2  small  gates — the  largest  of  them  being  the 
celebrated  Brandenbui^r  gate,  surmounted  by  a 
gigantic  car  of  victory.  The  wall  and  ramparts 
serve  only  for  purposes  of  police  and  revenue,  and 
are  useless  as  means  of  defence. 

Berlin  owes  much  to  the  taste  and  munificence 
of  its  sovereigns.  The  quarter  called  the  new 
town  (Neustadt)  was  built  bv  the  great  elector, 
Frederick  William  (1 640-1  ('»88*),  who  also  planned 
the  IJnter  den  Linden  street,  and  othen^ise  greatly 
enlarged  and  beautified  tlie  city.  The  succeeding 
monarchs,  e8])eciaUy  Frederick  I.,  Fretlerick  the 
Great,  and  hrcclerick  William  HI.,  added  many 
new  streets,  square.s  and  suburl)s,  and  eml>elUshed 
the  city  with  many  splendid  buihUngs  and  monu- 
ments. Among  the  nrincipal  of  these  is  the  royal 
palace,  imposing  by  its  magnitude,  having  about 
600  saloons  and  chambrt>s.  It  l>«  sumptuously 
furnished;  one  of  the  saWns  (the  White  Hall), 
was  fitted  up  at  a  cost  of  120.000/.  The  museum, 
begun  m  1823  and  fiuishwl  in  18.'j0,  it*  cme  of  the 
finest  buildings  in  the  city.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a 
piirallehigram,  280  fu  in  length,  by  182  ft.  in 
width.  It  has  some  noble  ai>artments,  and  very 
extensive  c  Elections  of  picturej*,  vases,  statues, 
coiiL<*,  and  other  works  of  art.  (.)pi)osite  the  grand 
entrance  is  an  immense  granite  vase,  or  basin, 
22  ft.  in  diameter.  It  was  formed  out  of  a  huge 
Ismlder,  or  isolated  block,  found  alsMit  30  m.  from 
the  city,  to  which  it  was  conveved  by  the  Spree. 
Tlie  o})era-hou8e,  burnt  down  m  1843,  has  since 
been  rebuilt;  and  there  are  several  other  fine 
theatres.  The  Koyal  Librarj'  is  a  large  hca\'y- 
looking  building.  *  llie  collei'tion  of  books  com- 
j)risej»  about  500,000  printed  and  5,000  MS.  vols., 
many  of  the  former,  including  Luther's  Hebrew 
Bible,  beuig  both  scarce  and  valuable.  This 
librarj'  Ls  entitled  to  a  copy  of  every  work  pub- 
lished hi  the  Prussian  states.  The  arsenal,  one  of 
the  greatest  in  Euro})e,  forms  a  square,  each  side 
of  which  is  268  ft,  m  length.  It  was  formeriy 
reckoned  the  finest  buihiing  in  the  city,  and  con- 
tauieii,  j)reviously  to  the  revolutionary  disturb- 
ances, in  1848,  a  very  large  st4)ck  of  all  sorts  of 
warlike  implements.  It  was  then,  however,  taken 
I)ossession  of  by  the  mob,  who  carried  off  large 
quantities  of  the  fire-anns  and  military'  stores  with 
which  it  was  furnished.  Among  the  other  public 
buildings  may  be  spe<*ified  the  Koyal  Academy ; 
the  *■  KUnigswache,'  built  after  the  model  of  a 
Roman  castrum;  the  university;  the  old  palace, 
fonnerly  lieloiiging  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John ; 
and  the  palace  of  Monbiiou,  occuincd  by  Peter  the 
Great  when  he  x-isited  the  city.  The  Brandenburg 
gate,  already  mentioned,  one  of  the  m<»st  coloss^ 
structures  of  the  kind  in  Europe,  was  erected  in 
1790,  after  the  Propyheum  at  Athens,  but  on  a 
much  larger  scale.  It  is  sunnounted  by  a  statue  of 
Victor}',  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses.  It  was 
carried  away  by  the  French  in  1807,  and  brought 
back  in  triumph  in  1814.  The  monument  to  the 
brave  men  who  fell  in  the  campaigns  of  1813, 1814, 
1815,  is  immediately  outside  the  Halle  gate.  Oppo- 
site the  guard-house  are  the  statues  of  Schamhorst, 
BUlow,  and  Marshal  BlUcher.  A  monument  erected 
in  honour  of  Frederick  the  Great,  consisting  of  an 
eijuestrian  statue  in  bn>nze,  by  Kauch,  stands  at 
a  conspicuous  place,  at  the  Unter  den  Linden 
street,  opposite  to  the  University.  It  is  one  of  the 
grandest  monuments  of  its  kind  in  Europe.    Tlie 

F  F  2 


436 


BERLIN 


horse,  Wft.  hi^h,  stands  on  a  pedestal,  and  at  each 
of  its  comcrR  is  an  equestrian  statue  of  one  of 
Frederick's  generals.  Tlie  churches,  which  are 
verv'  numerous,  arc  generally  inferior;  the  prin- 
cipal are  the  cathe<1rtd ;  St.  Bi!rar>''s,  with  a  steeple 
292  fL  in  height ;  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas,  con- 
secrated in  1223 ;  the  church  of  the  garrison ;  and 
the  church  of  St.  Hedwige.  The  Spree,  which  in- 
tersects the  city,  and  insulates  one  of  its  quarters, 
is  crossed  by  about  40  bridges,  principally  of  stone, 
but  partly  also  of  iron.  Some  <»f  thcjn  are  hand- 
some structures.  The  *Long  Bridge,'  of  stone, 
has  a  tine  equestrian  statue  of  the  *(ireat  Elector.' 
The  Unter  den  Linden  street  is  the  finest  in  Berlin, 
and  one  of  the  finest  in  Euroiie.  It  is  |  m.  in 
length,  from  the  Brandenburg  gate  to  the  royal 
palace ;  the  five  avenues  in  the  centre  being  com- 
posed of  chestnuts,  linden,  aspen,  acacia,  and 
plantain,  whose  varied  foliage  contrasts  beautifully 
with  the  numerous  el^ant  palaces  and  public 
buildings  that  line  e^ch  side  of  the  street.  It  is 
the  corso  of  Berlin ;  for  here  the  fashicmable  and 
the  wealthy  exhibit  themselves  and  their  equi- 
pages. Here  are  several  palaces ;  the  h(>minaries 
of  the  artillerj'  and  engineers,  the  Academy  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  the  opera-house,  the  arsenal,  ami  the 
king's  palace,  Anctther  splendid  th«>n.»ughfare, 
Frederick  Street,  is  al>out  2  m.  in  length.  The 
Schloss  Platz,  or  square  of  the  ]uilace,  the  Gens- 
d'armcs-market,  Wilhelm  Plutz,  the  most  fashion- 
able square  in  the  city ;  the  square  of  Im  BtUe 
Alliance,  and  a  number  of  other  public  )>Iaces,  ore 
well  built,  and  most  of  them  highly  ornamented 
But  few  of  them  arc  planteil  inside,  and  conse- 
quently, notwithstandhig  the  fineness  of  the 
buUiiings,  have  not  half  the  effect  they  would 
have  were  they  projM'riy  laid  out. 

Besides  its  inilitary  and  judicial  establishments, 
Berlin  has  to  lH>ast*of  many  celebrated  literarj* 
institutions.  The  university,  establb*hed  in  18<H», 
enjovs  a  high  degree  of  reputation,  especially  its 
medical  school.  It  has  man^'  dLttuiguished  ]>ro- 
fe8s<»r8  and  teachers;  and  ls  attended,  on  the 
average,  by  about  2,000  students.  The  library 
has  above  600,000  vols.  There  are  also  seven 
royal  gAnnnasiums  or  high  schools,  with  many 
inferior  academies  and  public  schools,  amounting 
to  5C  altogether.  The  militarv  seminary  has 
above  300  pupiK  The  hospitals  and  other 
charitable  institutions  are  numerous  and  well 
conducted.  The  orphan  asylum  su]){N)rts  alK>ut 
400  children  in  the  house,  exclu>ivc  of  about 
700  boanled  out  of  doors. 

Berlin  may  be  regarded  as  the  political  and 
literary  metfo|K)lis  of  N.  Germany;  and  is  dis- 
tingui>«hed  alike  for  the  numl»er  and  celebrity 
of  her  statesmen,  y)hilosophers,  scholars,  and 
artists.  Her  press  is  ver>'  active  and  annually 
ffives  birth  to  a  great  many  Inxiks,  scientific  and 
literary  journals,  uews|»apers,  and  magazines. 
About  3,000  ))ersons  are  engaged  in  literature, 
and  the  vari»)us  trades  connectetl  then»with,  such 
as  printers  pajier-makers,  anil  lM)ok binders. 

lierlin  is  one  of  the  principal  manufacturing 
cities  of  Gennany.  Am<mg  other  branches  are 
included  the  manufacture  of  steam  engines, 
woollens,  silk  stutfs  anil  ribands,  cottons,  porce- 
lain, cast-irr»n  goo*!*!.  pa|»er,  coaches  and  light  car- 
riages, jewellery,  watches  and  clocks,  hats,  snuflf, 
and  ttJi>acco,  n-finetl  sugar  and  spirits.  Tlie 
great  steam-engine  factory  of  Messrs.  Borsig, 
one  of  the  largest  on  the  c<»ntuient,  furnishes 
locomotives  for  nearly  all  the  German  railways. 
ITie  cast-iron  goods,  manufactured  at  the  foundry 
outside  the  Oranienbuig  gate,  C4>mprise  all  sorts 
of  articles,  from  colossal  pillars  and  statues,  down 
to  the  minute  furniture  of  a  lady's  toilet.    In 


delicacy  of  impression  they  are  unequalled  hy 
those  made  in  any  other  country.  The  caxts  in 
relief  of  some  of  the  finest  pictures  are  particu- 
larly admired.  The  porcelain  is  of  tlie  fir*t 
quality.  Part  of  it  is  the  T>roduce  of  a  roynl 
manu/actor>' ;  but  the  l>est  kuid  is  manufactured 
at  a  private  CHtablishmcnt  in  the  suburb  of 
Moabit.  llierc  are  numerous  cotton-spinniug 
establish  men  tH  in  the  city. 

All  the  great  roads  of  the  kingdom  centre  in 
Berlin.  There  are  five  great  lines  of  railway, 
with  their  chief  stations.  The  first  runs  north- 
wanl,  towards  Stettin  and  the  Baltic  ;  the  second 
g<ies,  by  way  of  Frankfort-on-the-Otler,  to  K6nig?s- 
l)erg,  Wihia,  and  St.  Petersburg,  with  branches  to 
Warsaw  and  Cracow ;  the  third  runs  direct  south 
to  Dresden,  Prague,  and  Vienna,  thnmiug  off 
arms  towards  Bavaria,  Wtlrteml)erg,  and  t>ther 
German  states;  the  fourth  line  stretches  west wanl 
towanls  Magdei)uTg  and  Cologne,  connect ujgit.«elf 
with  the  Belgian  and  French  railway  system ; 
and,  finally,  the  fifth  line  runs  in  a  n<»rth-w-ej«torly 
direction  towards  Hamburg,  with  ]>rolongation 
into  Schleswig-HoLstein.  Besides  this  most  ex- 
tensive network  of  imn  roads,  Berlin  has  a  large 
command  of  inland  navigation,  extending  to  the 
Elbe  and  Hamburg  on  the  \V.,  to  Stettin  and 
Swinemunde  on  the  N.,  and  to  the  Vistula  on 
the  E. 

Owuig  to  the  flatness  of  the  ground  on  which 
it  Is  built,  the  drainage  of  the  city  was  fonuerly 
verv*  imf>erfect ;  and,  insteatl  of  running  off.  the 
water  in  the  streets,  in  wet  weather.  sto))[)cd  and 
stagnated  on  the  surface.  But  this  defect  has 
Ikjcii  reme<lied  in  recent  times,  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  system  of  drainage.  There  are  nume- 
nnis  hackney  roaches  and  other  street  carriajres, 
placed  under  judicious  regulations.  All  the  streets 
are  lighted  with  gas. 

There  are  numerous  places  of  amusement  in 
and  near  Berlin.  The  largest  and  mi>st  celebrate*! 
is  Kroll's  Garden,  near  the  Brandenburjy  ^te, 
capable  of  acc(>mmodating  ,5,000  persons.  The 
theatres,  dedicated  to  the  drama  and  o)«ni,  are 
generally  well  attendetL  With  the  exception  of 
Vienna,  then?  is  no  city  where  nuia:ic  is  moret  uni- 
versally ])atronised,  or  where  the  oj^era  is  l>etier 
r>erformed  or  more  heartily  ap)>reciated,  than  in 
Berlin.  The  Conditoreien  ore  much  fre<pieuted  by 
the  upper  classes.  They  resemble  our  confec- 
tioners' sho^>s;  but  are  far  more  &{iacious.  and 
fitted  up  with  greater  attention  to  comfort  and 
elegance.  Besities  refireshments  of  all  sorts,  they 
are  well  supplied  with  domestic  and  fi»rcigu  newsi- 
pai)ers  and  literary  and  scientific  joumab.  Tea 
and  coffee  c<mstitute  the  favourite  beverage  of  the 
higher  classes :  and  the  latter  is  po)iular  with  all 
ranks.  ChiciJry  and  roasted  ai,'oms  are  not  un- 
frequently  used  as  substitutes  for  coffee  among  the 
|HK)rest  classes.  The  taverns  of  Berlin  are  much 
frequented  by  the  middle  classeii.  ITie  favourite 
beverage  Is  a  thin  kind  of  ale.  c<mtaining  but  a 
vcrj'  small  iieri-entage  of  alcohol,  called  *  weiss- 
bief,'  <ir  white  beer.  It  is  drank  out  of  tumblers 
of  immense  size,  an<l  being  very  watery,  a  great 
quantity  of  it  may  be  consumed  with  impunity. 
The  custom  of  smoking  prevails  among  all  classes ; 
and  the  consumption  of  tobacc«)  is  immense. 

Berlin  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive  commerce, 
and  the  centre  of  the  jwcuniarj'  transactions  of 
the  monarchy.  I'he  Iwoval  Bank  was  foundeAl 
in  1705,  U|s)n  the  model  of  that  of  Hamburg ; 
and  so  it  exLoted  until  1840,  when  it  was  re- 
organised under  anew  charter,  by  which  more  ex- 
tension was  given  to  its  operations.  In  acc«)rdance 
with  this  new  constitution,  the  issue  of  note^  has 
been  raised  since   1850,   to  21,000,000   thalexn. 


BERMEO 

the  thaler  being  equal  to  2«.  lOfcf.  The  capital 
of  the  bank  is  always  to  be,  in  proportion  to 
the  notes  in  circulation,  2-6th8  in  silver,  S-Oths 
in  bills  (liAcountecl,  and  the  rest  in  loans  on  se- 
curities. The  l>ank  notes  are  from  25  to  50 
thalcrs  each.  The  share  of  the  government  in 
the  bank  amount^  at  most^  to  500,000  thalers. 
The  shareholders  are  entitled  to  an  annual  in- 
tx'rest  of  3^  per  cent,  upon  the  capital,  and,  after 
deduction  of  the  sum  set  af^art  for  the  reser\*e  or 
rest,  which  is  not  to  exceed  30  fXir  cent,  of  the 
capital,  one  moiety  of  the  surplus  protita  is  ap- 
porti(>ne<l  to  them  in  addition,  and  the  other  pyea 
to  the  treasiuy.  The  bank  has  branches  m  a 
great  number  of  cities,  as  Breslau,  Konigsberg. 
D.intzic,  Stettin,  Magdeburg,  Munster,  Cologne, 
IVIemcl,  Posen,  Stolpe,  Ell^rfeld,  Treves,  Aix- 
la-C^hapelle,  Dusseldorf,  Ck»blentz,  Minden,  Er- 
furt, Frankfort-sur-Oder,  Stralsund,  Kostin,  Lieg- 
iiitz,  and  OpfKsln,  and  thus  forms  a  vast  network 
of  linancial  o))erations  through  all  the  kingdom. 
Here,  also,  is  the  seat  of  the  association  for  mari- 
time commerce,  called  the  '  Seehan<llung,'  and  of 
numerous  insurance  and  other  offices.  The  town 
revenues  amounted,  in  the  year  1802,  to  2,882,140 
tlialers,  but  the  expenditure  was  much  greater, 
Imving  reached  the  sum  of  3,532,344  thalers. 
The  dcHcit  was  made  up  by  loans  and  increased 
ltK.'al  taxation.  At  the  end  of  18G2,  the  ])ublic 
debt  of  the  city  amounted  to  nearly  6,000,000 
thalers. 

Outside  the  town,  about  |  m.  from  the  Halle- 
gnte,  on  a  low  sandhill,  which,  however,  L*  almost 
tlie  only  eminence  near  Berlin,  is  the  '  National- 
<knkmal,'  People's  M<»nument.  It  consists  of  a 
(fothic  cross,  60  ft,  high,  erected  to  commemorate 
the  expulsion  of  the  French,  and  the  recovery  of 
the  national  independence.  It  is  of  cast-iron  from 
the  royal  foundry,  and  was  designed  by  SchinkeL 
'J'he  Mtatues  in  the  niches  are  the  work  of  Kauch 
and  Tieck.  (Keller,  I)er  Preussische  Staat ;  Kit- 
ten, (ieographisch-Statistisches  Lexicon,  1864.) 

llKliMEO,  a  sea-port  town  of  Spain,  on  its  N. 
coast,  prov.  Biscav,  on  a  rather  shallow  bav,  16  m. 
NK.  Billxja.  Pop.  3.913  in  1857.  The' inhab. 
are  principally  de|>en(lent  on  the  fisherA',  which 
tliey  carry  on  to  a  considerable  extent.  Tliis  town 
gave  birth  to  the  distinguished  epic  poet  Don 
^Vlonzo  d'Ercilla,  the  author  of  the  Araucana,  who 
waj*  bom  here  in  1528. 

BERMUDAS  (TH  K),  or  SOMER'S  ISLANDS, 
a  group  of  small  islands,  al)Out  300  in  number,  in 
the  N.  Atlantic  Ocean,  l)clonging  to  Great  Bri- 
tain, stretching  XE.  by  E.  and  SW.  by  W.  about 
20  m.,  the  lighthouse  on  Gibb's  Hill  being  in 
lat.  \y29  14'  54 "  N.,  long.  61°  52'  W.,  about  350  m, 
SK.  by  E.  CajK?  Ilatteras.  They  are  estimated 
to  contain  al>out  3<)  sq.  m.  The  censiw  of  1861 
gave  the  \m)\\.  at  1 1,451  agauist  10,l)>s2  in  1851 
About  two-lifihs  of  the  fwip.  of  the  islands  are 
■\\ hires.  When  viewed  fn)m  the  sea,  their  eleva- 
tion Is  trifling,  the  highest  land  si^arce  attaining 
to  a  height  of  200  feet.  Their  general  as]>ect  \» 
^inliIar  to  the  West  Indian  islands,  except  that 
llicy  renjind  the  voyager  (from  their  proximity, 
aud  the  sea  tiowing  between  them)  of  the  lake 
HU'uery  of  European  climates.  Tliey  are  almost 
evcrj-where  surroundtid  by  extensive  coral  reefs, 
the  channels  thnmgh  which  are  extremely  intri- 
cate, and  can  only  be  safely  uangated  by  native 
pilots. 

The  principal  islands  are  those  of  Bermuda,  St, 
(Jeorge,  Ireland,  an«l  Somerset.  The  protection 
atVorded  to  sliipping  by  their  numerous  bays,  their 
position  in  the  track  of  the  homeward-bound  W. 
India  ships,  and  in  the  most  advantageous  locality 
for  rcllttijig  Uie  ship:}  of  war  employed  in  the  >V' 


BERMUDAS  (THE) 


437 


Indian  and  American  seas,  have  led  to  the  con- 
version of  the  Bermudas  into  a  principal  maritime 
station.  The  harbour  of  St.  George's  island,  one 
of  the  most  easterly  of  the  group,  has  water 
enough  to  float,  and  stmce  to  accommodate,  the 
whole  British  navy.  Formerly,  its  entrance  was 
so  narrow  and  encumbered  with  reefs  that  it  was 
rendered  in  a  considerable  d^pree  useless ;  but  by 
the  expenditure  of  large  sums  and  a  certain 
amount  of  conA-ict  labour,  the  channel  leading  to 
St.  George's  harl>our  has  been  greatly  improved ; 
a  dockyard,  with  a  breakwater  for  its  protection, 
have  been  constructed  on  the  E.  side  of  Ireland 
Island ;  and  some  very  strong  fortifications  have 
been  erected  on  it  and  St.  Geoige's,  for  the 
security  of  the  islands  and  of  the  shipping. 

Dennuda,  the  principal  island  (or  main  land,  as 
it  is  called),  is  about  16  m.  in  length,  Int  it  rarely 
exceeds  1^  ra,  in  width.  In  the  centre  of  this 
Island,  and  on  the  N.  side  of  a  beautiful  bay,  is 
the  town  of  Hamilton,  now  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment. The  town  of  St.  George's,  on  the  island  of 
that  name,  is,  however,  the  largest  on  the  group. 
Re])rescntative  government  was  introduced  in 
the  Bermudas  as  early  as  1620.  In  1621  the 
liermuda  Company  of  London  issued  a  sort  of 
charter  to  the  colony,  the  liberal  nature  of  which, 
together  with  the  favourable  reports  of  climate 
and  soil,  attracted  a  consideraulc  number  of 
British  emigrants  But  the  charter,  nevertheless, 
met  with  opposition,  and  was  annulled  by  the 
home  government  in  1685.  Since  then,  the  go- 
vernors have  been  afipointed  by  the  cri.wn,  and 
laws  for  the  colony  enacted  by  a  local  legiiilature, 
in  concert  with  the  executive. 

The  legislature  is  composed  of  10  members  of 
council,  named  by  the  cromi,  and  36  of  assembly : 
each  parish,  of  which  there  arc  nine,  returns  four 
of  the  latter,  who  are  elected  ever>'  seven  years, 
or  whenever  a  new  sovereign  ascends  the  thnme. 

There  are  numerous  churches  and  chapels.  The 
Admiralty  have  established  a  school  on  Ireland 
Island,  and  there  are  various  private  schooK  Tlie 
numl)er  of  public  schools,  or  'free  st^hools,* 
amounted  to  18  ui  1860,  with  621  pupils,  357 
male  and  2()4  female. 

The  cultivation  carried  on  in  the  islands  is 
rather  horticultural  than  agricidturaL  Most  sorts 
of  fniits  and  vegetables  may  be  raised.  The 
arrow-root  grown  "here  is  said  to  be  superior  to 
that  of  any  other  place,  and  large  quantities  of  it 
arc  exported.  The  oranges  are  also  xcry  fine; 
and  sweet  potatoes,  onions,  and  other  articles  are 
exporteiL  They  derive  their  8upplie>s  of  flour, 
rice,  Indian  com,  &c.j  from  the  U.  States,  and  of 
manufactured  goods  from  the  U.  K.  The  seas 
around  the  islands  abound  in  fish,  and  the  inhalNS. 
are  ex]>ert  fishermen.  They  possess  about  100 
sail  of  vessels,  of  from  100  to  150  tons  burden. 
An  inconsiderable  whale-fishery  employs  a  few 
boats  and  their  crews  three  months  in  the  year : 
the  numl>er  of  whales  seldom  exceeds  20  in  the 
season,  yielding  about  1,000  liarrels  of  oil.  The 
Islands  abound  in  i>oultrv  of  the  best  kind.  Beef 
and  mutton  ma^'  generallv  be  pr«)cured,  but  the 
only  meat  that  is  plentiful  is  veaL  The  climate 
almost  reali:»es  the  idea  of  a  pepctnal  sjiring. 
The  islands  are  celebrated  alike  for  their  salubrity, 
and  for  the  beaut v  and  richness  of  their  vege- 
table pnxlucts.  'fhe  air,  however,  is  extremely 
damp,  es])ecially  during  SW.  winds,  which  are 
the  most  common.  During  the  winter  season, 
which  commences  in  November  and  terminates 
in  April,  the  islands  are  subject  to  strong  gales 
fnim  the  NW.,  which  often  do  great  damage  to 
the  shipping  in  these  seas.  The  total  value  of 
the    im|H>rts  in    1860,  amounted   to   152,888^1; 


438 


BERN  (CANTON  OF) 


cxiK)rt8,*23,4r>7/.  Thcrovenuciii  1«60  was  15,(»1C/.,  I  nia<le  in  this  cant,  is,  next  to  that  of  Fribourp-, 
and  the  expenditure,  17.400/.  The  larjifest  item  j  the  Ix'^^t  in  Swit/.erlnml ;  the  aveni^».  produce  isi 
in  the  expenditure,  4,2H.V.,  wan  for  '^nlarits  to  estiniate«i  at  HiMXio  cwt.  a  ye^r:  a  p^^at  deal  i» 
jjovemor  and  principal  (tfficers.'  The  le^slatures  ^  snit  fnmi  the  EnjmenthnI  into  (fcrmany  and 
of  th<?se  i^lan<U  and  Antigua  wore  the  (»nly  co-  j  Italy.  The  hoase>  in  the  OU'rland  are  j^enerally 
loninl  legislative  IkkHcs  that  aiNdished  slavery  j  of  woo<l,  but  in  the  Jura,  and  n>unil  l{<'ni,  of 
without  the  intervention  of  apprenticeship.  Tlie  ftone:  the  IJemese  are,  for  the  mottt  (uirt,  well 
pn)p«»rtion  of  the  20,(XX),0<M)/.  voted  by  iMirliament  I'Kl^ed.  The  estate  of  a  father  w  everj-wliere 
fi>r  compensation,  received  l)y  Bermutla.  wa«  divide<l  into  equal  shares  amouf;  his  childn>n 
6(>,.5H4/.,  bein^,  for  4.2o;i  slaves,  27/.  4».  Ih/.  each,  without  rp.'*|)ect  to  sex  or  seniority,  except  in  the 
IJERN  (CANTON  OF),  the  larj^st  and  the  EmmenthaL  where,  by  a  i»eculiar  law,  land*^l 
Wicond  in  rank  in  the  Swiss  Confedcnition.  in  the  .  projx'rty  <lescen(U  to  the  yoim^est  son.  Hence, 
central  an«l  W.  part  of  Switzerland,  Iwtween  '  m  the  ^rr^'ater  part  of  the  canton,  land  is  verv 
lat.  4r,o  19'  and  47°  30'  N.,  lonjr.  rfi  oO'  and  H®  28' '  nnich  sulKliWdctl.  and  the  holder*  in  |»oor,  thou»rh 
E.,  hannf^  N\V.  France;  X.  and  NE.  the  cant.  I  not  depressed  circumstances.  There  are  but  very 
of  Ba>H>l,  Soleure,  an«l  AjiT>;au;  E.  Lucerne,  I  few  estates  tliat  n-ach  to  1.50  atrres,  unless  thvy 
ITnterwalden,  and  l.'ri:  S.  the  Valais:  S\V. «  belonj:  to  village  or  town  communities;  but  the 
Vaud ;  and  VV.  FrilMmri;  an<l  Xeufchatel ;  length,  ix>ssi'Ssions  of  the  latter  are  fn^uently  surticiwitly 
NW.  to  SE.,  82  m. ;  jrreatest  breadth  at  its  S.  i  iar^jfc  not  only  to  defniy  the  annual  exiionj*cs 
part  02  m.;  area  2,502  sq.  m.  The  pop.,  accord- '  of  the  community,  including  the  relief  of  the 
m{r  to  the  census  of  1800,  was  408,510,  or  178  to  po<>r,  but  sometimes  to  yiehl  a  sun>liis  revenue, 
the  «|.  m.,  l»ein^  s(»mewhat  alK>ve  the  avera^  .  after  all  outjjoinf^s  are  <leducted,  which  is  divided 
density  <if  jwp.  in  Switzerland,  which  is  1,')7  in-  j  amongst  the  citizens.  Each  comnumc  is  obli;;e<l 
habitants  per  sq.  m.  The  sexes  are  nearly  eijually  l  to  supjwjrt  its  own  poor,  who  do  not  l>e<*ome 
divided  in  the  canton,  tliere  lieiuf^  only  HtJ2  more  changeable  u|)on  other  communes,  or  up«m  the 
males  than  females.  Thej:freatmajority  of  theiii-  stale;  they  j^enerally  receive  out-door  relief,  but 
habitants, namely, 40.1,599, are  Pn>testants.  Most  ;  if  sul)!*equ<rntly  pn>s[Mrous,  are  bound  to  return 
|mrt  of  this  cant,  is  mountainous,  es|M.H.>iaIly  the  S.,  what  they  have  receive<i.  Manufactun^  and 
which   is  intcrsecte<l    by  the   IJemese  Alps,  to  |  trade  arc  <»f  conr-idcrable  im|K>rtance ;  linen  and 

woollen  clotlis  are  made  in  the  Kmmenthal: 
jMijK'T  anmnd  lU^ni :  watches,  jewellery,  and  fire- 
arms are  made  in  Ileniand  Porentnii  ;'t  bread  and 
printe<l  calico,  near  Bienne;  silk,  e.s|>eci.Hlly  for 
umbn'llas.  and  leather,  in  the  former  bishopric  of 
Ba'*el.    There  is  also  an  extensive  manufactory'  of 


which  Indonj?  the  Finsteraarhi»m.  Monch,  Jung- 
frau,  S<'hreckhom,  A'c,  some  of  the  hi;rhest  sum- 
mits in  Switzerland :  in  the  X.  the  ranges  belong 
to  the  Jura,  and  are  consideraldy  h»wer.  'ITie 
region  Ixitween  the-ne  two  mountain  systems  cim- 
tains  the  valley  of  the  Aar,  the  Emmenthal,  and 
other  fertile  valleys,  but  hi  no  part  presents  any-  agricultund  implements  at  llofwyl.  The  exjHirts 
thing  like  an  extensive  jdain.  S.  of  the  lakes  of  consist  chiefly  (»f  cattle,  cheese,  and  butter;  iron 
Thun  and  Brienz,  l)egins  what  is  called  the  lk»r-    from  the  Jura,  and  a  few  manufactured  good? 


ncsc  01>erland,  a  mountainous  region,  including 
the  four  celebrattnl  vallevs  of  the  Siuimen, 
I^uterbrunnen,  Grindelwald,  and  IlaslL  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Aar  and  its  tributaries,  Dirse 
and  Doubs:  the  lakes  those  of  Thun,  Brienz.  and 
Bienne;  l)etweim  the  two  former  of  these  is  the 
rnnall  but  highly  cultivated  plain  of  Interlachen. 
The  climate  varies  with   the  elevation,  and  is. 


the  imi.»orts  are  com,  salt,  colonial  priMluce,  anil 
articles  of  luxur>'.  The  revenue,  in  1802, 
amounted  to  4,704,478  francs,  and  the  cxpenrli- 
ture  to  4,971.881  francs. 

The  government  of  the  canton  is  entnmtefl  to  a 
grand  and  an  executive  c<»uncil ;  tlie  former  c«»n- 
sistii  of  140  members,  cho>en  by  the  |)eople  in  the 
primitive  assemblies  of  the  27'])refecturos,  and  is 


besides,  subject  to  sudden  change,**  of  t<»m|>erature:  pn'Mtled  over  by  the  landaniann.  who  is  the  lir-t 
even  in  the  Interlachen.  where  it  is  the  mihlest !  magistrate  of  the  cant.  It  meets  once  a  month, 
after  a  w*arm  day,  very  severe  fn»sts  often  if  necessan',  but  determines  on  nothing  withiuii; 
occur  at  night.  Rains  and  fogs  are  frequent ;  but  the  (?o-t»|)€ration  of  the  executive  council,  which 
the  canton,  as  a  whole,  is  generally  healthy.  It  .  consists  of  9  memlxTs,  chosen  from  among  the 
is  divided  into  28  pTefecturi»s,  under  four  principal  former  for  the  term  of  four  years.  Meml^ors  of  the 
divisions;  viz.,  the  Olwrland,  countr>'  of  B<'ni,  I  grantl  council  must  Im  29  years  old,  and  have 
Emmenthal,  and  the  old  bishopric  of  Basel.  Iron  j  lande<l  pr<»i)erty  to  the  value,  at  lea>t,  of  5.(m»o  fr., 
ore  is  found  in  gn>at  abund.incein  the  Juramoun-  or  200/.,  excepting  pr(»fe.«.sors  of  the  university, 
tains;  gold  dust  is  met  with  in  the  sands  of  the  ■  advcMUite-s  and  physicians,  of  whom  such  quali- 
Aar  an(l  the  Emmen,  and  crystals  in  the  <jirim.sel  |  ticatitm  is  not  required.  The  salary  of  the  lan- 
irnrks ;  and  there  aro  m.any  mineral  si)rings  some  ■  tlaniann  is  4,0J>0  fr. ;  that  of  a  member   of  the 


used  as  bath>  and  much  fre<]uented.  The  soil  is 
in  great  part  stony  and  barren,  and  the  arable 
land  occupies  but  a  small  ]>n»i)ortion  of  the  whole 


executive  coumil  ."3,000  fr.  a  year;  memlxTs  of  tlie 
gnmd  council  are  allowed  2A  fr.  a  <lay  during  the 
time  thev  are  ass<«nibletl.     Ever\'  male  frr>ra  10  to 


fturl'ace,  and,  though  wcsll  cultivated,  the  pHwhice  5(J  years  of  age  is  liable  to  sene  in  the  army.  The 
of  corn  is  insutlicient  for  the  supply  of  the  inhab.,  ;  contingent  of  tr«ioi>s  fumLshed  to  the  ctmftHienicy 
and  large  (piantities  are  im|H)rte<l.  There  are  in  is  .0,158  men.  There  i*  a  judicial  tribunal  in  each 
I>arts  plantations  <»f  fruit-trees :  white  mullx'rry,  I  distr.,  and  a  court  of  ap[teal  in  IU*ni ;  the  latter 
chestiuit,  ]x*ach,  and  tig,  aiulafew  vines  are  raise<l  ccmsLsting  of  14  memb.,  with  a  president.  Savings' 
on  the  shores  of  Lakes  Thun  and  Bienne,  but  not .  banks  are  general,  and  eilucation  well  attendee  I  t«». 
to  any  considerable  extent :  in  the  Lauterbnmnen,  !  At  the  city  of  Bern  there  is  a  university,  be^iiU'zt 
wheat  is  treate«l  as  an  ext)tic,  cultivateil  in  small  two  upfjer  schools,  and  a  scliool  of  indnstrv*,  and 
beils,  and  trained  on  sticks.  Cattle  of  a  sufjerior  ,  '  g^^nnasia,'  or  u|>j)er  schtnds,  are  also  at  Itiel, 
bree«l  form  the  chief  wealth  (»f  the  canton,  and  j  Thun,  Xeuenstadt,  Pruntnil,  ind  Delslxji^.  The 
breeding,  grazing,  and  dairying  are  the  principal  university  has  faculties  of  theohigy,jurispnidence, 
branches  (►f  indu.-try.  The  pastures  in  the  Ober-  medicine,  and  philoso])hy,  each  havnng  three  onli- 
land  and  Emmenthal  are  excc^llent,  and  pnwluce  nary,  and  fnmi  two  to  five  extraordinary  pn»fes- 
the  finest  cattle ;  the  latter  valley  has  also  a  strong  sors;  the  salary  of  the  former  is  from  2.400  to 
and  active  bree<l  of  horses,  ex|>orteii  to  France  for  1 51,000  fr.incs,  and  of  the  latter  from  1,200  to  1,4(M» 
drauglit  and  heavy-armed  cavalry.    The  cheese  I  do.    There  i»  also  a  veterinary  school,  and  some 


BERN 

difltinguishcd  private  educational  establishments, 
especially  that  of  M.  Von  Fellenlwtg,  at  HofwyL 
Kilucation  is  universal ;  in  1860,  there  was  not  one 
inliabitant,  native  of  the  canton,  unable  to  read 
and  write.  Except  about  50,000  individuals  of 
French  extraction,  in  the  ancient  bishopric  of' 
Ikmel,  the  inhab.  are  of  Ciennau  stock  ;  and  Ger-  ' 
man  is  the  prevalent  language.  The  German  part 
of  the  pop.  are  generally  much  superior  in  their  phv- 
sical  appearance  to  the  French  portion,  especially 
those  m  the  Oberland.  The  lieniese  are  brave, 
h(>s]>itablc,  public-spirited,  and  really  good-tem- 
)>ered,  nutwiihstandmg  they  are  subject  to  fits  of 

Itassion,  which  sometimes  occasion  the  effusion  of  i 
>1o(kI.  Catholics  are  less  industrious  than  the 
Pnitestant*^  This  cant,  entered  the  Swiss  Con- 
federation in  1353 :  at  tiwt  its  territory  was  very 
limited,  but  afterwards,  by  conquest  and  purchase, 
it  acquired  nearly  the  whole  of  the  now  existing 
cant,  of  Vaud  and  Aargau,  which,  in  addition  to 
its  ])resent  extent,  it  held  till  1798,  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  French.  In  1815,  in  indemnification 
of  Vaud  and  Aargau,  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
ad(UHl  to  its  dom.  the  tavm  of  Bienne  with  its 
territory,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  ancient 
bii^hopnc  of  Basel,  otherwise  entitled  the  bailliages 
of  the  Jura. 

Bkkn,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  cap.  of  the  above 
cant,,  and,  altematelv  with  Zurich  and  Lucerne,  of 
tiie  Swiss  Confederation,  on  the  Aar,  52  m.  S.  Ikisel, 
and  i'A)  m.  SW.  Zurich,  on  the  railwav  from  Zurich 
to  (Jcneva.  PopuUtion  29,016  in  1860.  The  town 
stands  1,708  ft,  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  on  a 
hill,  which,  except  on  the  W.,  is  summnded  on  all 
hides  by  the  Aar.     A  stone  bridge  260  ft.  Umg,  is 
eri'oted  over  the  river,  and  three  gates  lead  to  the 
interior  of  the  town.    The  fortifications,  by  which 
it  was  formerly  surrounded,  were  demolished  in 
1«35.    Three  princi[>al  streets  extend  in  a  parallel 
line  from  K.  to  W.,  and  are  intersected  by  a  num- 
J»er  of  lateral  streets.    The   hoiuses  are  massive 
htructures  of  freestone.    Pia/zas  run  along  the 
lioiises  on  Ixjth  nides  the  principal  streets,  which 
are  also  ailorned  with  liandsome  fountauis.    Prin- 
cipal pubH<;  edifices  : — The  cathedral,  a  fine  G(»thic 
stnicture,  founded  in  1421,  and  finished  in   1502, 
160  ft.  long,  an<l80  ft.  broad;  the  steeple,  though 
unlinlthed,  is  liM)  ft.  high.     It  has  some  fine  glass 
paintings,  and  various  trophies  and  monuments. 
The  church  of  the  Holy  (iluist,  founded  in  1722, 
is  also  a  fine  stnicture,  as  well  as  the  mint,  built 
in  17iM)  :  the  genernl  buryerspital  (hospital  of  the 
ritizenj*),  built  fnmi  1730  to  1740;  another  magni- 
ficent hospital,  called  the  Inxl  (island),  founde<l  in 
1718,  occupying  one  whole  street,  and  affonling  a 
splendid  prosi^ect  from  the  Aar;  the  state-house 
of  the  avoyer,  previously  to  1831  the  residence  of, 
and  now  partly  (.K:cupied  by,  the  French  embassy  ; 
the  hou>e  of  correct  it  >n,  the  largest  building  of  the 
kind  in  Switzerland,  and  one  of  the  best  o>ntrived 
in   KurofK*.   linisheil  in   1833,  at   an  expense  of 
l,2i.M>,(MM)   fr. ;  the  com   magazino,  a  large  and 
massive  edifice,  having  on  the  fi»)or  an  extensive 
ofM.'n  hall,  with  forty-three  pillars,  in  which  the 
corn  market  is  held  twice  a  week.     Beni  has  also 
an  an^enal  and  a  large  town-hall,  both  old  e<Utices. 
The  charitable  institutions  are, — two  large  hospi- 
tals: two  or]>han  houses,  one  for  boys  and  another 
for  girls ;  a  fund  for  the  support  of  poor  students ; 
a  lunatic  asylum,  situate<l  alxmt  2  m.  from  Beni; 
and  an  asylum  for  old  p<K»r  persons.    The  univer- 
sity and  gj'innasium,   noticeil   in  the  precc<ling 
article,  are  situatetl  in  the  t<iwn.    There  are  al?io 
a  Swiss  economical  and  a  Swiss  historical  society ; 
with  societies  of  natural  hi.story,  medicine,  and 
arts  ;  a  botanic  garden  ;   a  public  library,  with 
valuable  MSS.  relating  to  Swiss  history,  and  a 


BEKNABD  (GBEAT  ST.)  439 

collection  of  Roman,  Greek,  Gothic,  and  Swiss 
medals,  Roman  antiquities  and  portraits  of  the 
Bernese  avoyers,  Ac.  There  is  also  a  museum  of 
natural  history,  with  bas-reliefs  of  the  Bernese 
Oberland,  of  the  cantons  of  Vaud  and  Valais,  and 
of  St.  Gothard ;  and  many  private  scientific  col- 
lections weU  worth  notice.  The  trade  of  the  town 
is  of  some  importance.  Two  fairs  are  annually 
held ;  one  after  Easter,  and  another  in  November. 
There  are  manufactories  of  silks,  straw-hats,  wool- 
len clotli,  and  stockings,  aryd  also  tanneries  and 
breweries.  About  2  m.  from  Bern  there  is  a  gun- 
powder mill,  the  powder  made  in  it  being  formerly 
reckoned  the  best  in  Europe.  The  corporate  pro- 
perty of  the  citizens  b  large,  amounting  to  above 
30,000,000  fr. ;  and  the  revenue,  besides  defra^ring 
the  municipal  expenditure,  supplies  every  citizen, 
gratis,  with  fuel,  and  leaves,  over  and  above  all 
this,  a  surplus  sum,  which  is  annually  distributed 
among  the  citizens.  The  inhab.  are  serious  and 
reserved,  and  proud  of  the  ancient  glory  of  their 
city.  The  aristocracy,  or  the  *  patricians,*  as  the 
old  families  are  called,  live  secluded  from  the  other 
classes.  Bern  is  the  birth-place  of  llaller;  it  has 
not,  however,  to  boast  of  so  many  distinguished 
men  as  Zurich,  Basel,  and  Geneva.  The  town 
has  ^ears  for  its  amis ;  and  some  of  these  animals 
are  maintained  in  a  place  called  B&renffraben 
Qyeai'a  ditch),  on  funds  appropriated  to  that  ^ledal 
purpose. 

Bern  was  founded  in  1191,  by  the  Duke  Ber- 
thold  V.  of  Zaehringen.  Its  hLstory  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  canton.  The  environs  are  beautiful, 
affording  the  most  splendid  views  of  the  Alps,  on 
one  hand,  and  the  Jura  on  the  other.  There  are 
many  tine  public  walks ;  amongst  which  are  the 
piatiformy  a  terrace  near  the  cathedral,  180  ft. 
alK)vc  the  Aar  ;  and  the  £i^  a  magnificent  walk, 
affording  a  fine  prospect  over  the  river,  the  city, 
and  the  lower  mountains,  to  the  high  Alps.  Hoif- 
wyl  (which  8e(>)  is  about  4  m.  from  Bern.  Thoe 
are  also  several  mineral  baths  in  the  vicinity,  such 
as  Blumenstein  and  GumigeL 

Mr.  Inglis  speaks  very  favourably  of  the  advan- 
tages of  Bern  as  a  place  of  residence,  *  It  is,'  sa3r8 
he, '  greatly  superior  to  Basel,  Lucerne,  or  Geneva. 
It  is  a  jdeasant  thing  to  walk  in  wide  airy  streets, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  have  the  advantage  of 
shade,  if  required.  Where  there  are  arcades  one 
may  always  choose  between  bustle  and  quiet- 
bustle  under  the  arcades— quiet  in  the  centre  of 
the  streets;  and  in  the  agrementu  of  a  city,  Bern 
has  dei*idedly  the  advantage  of  its  rivals.  It 
]iossesses  all  those  public  establishments  which 
make  a  place  agreeable  as  a  residence.  It  has 
excellent  libraries,  excellent  academies,  delightful 
)>romeiiades,  convenient  and  well  ordered  baths ;  a 
theatre  ;  concerts  and  balls  during  winter;  clever 
lecturers  upon  most  of  the  sciences ;  eloquent  and 
pious  clergymen  of  almost  every  denomination  ; 
and  to  this  list  may  tie  added  abundance  of  shops, 
where  all  that  contributes  either  to  comfort  or 
luxury  may  be  found.'  (History  of  Bern,  by 
Stapfer,  late  Minister  of  the  Helvetic  Republic  ; 
Inglis's  Switzerland.) 

BERNARD  (GRI«L\T  ST.),  the  name  given  to 
a  famous  pass  of  the  Pennine  Alps,  leading  aver 
the  mountains  from  Martigny  to  Aosta.  In  its 
highest  part  it  attains  to  an  elevation  of  above 
8,000  ft.,  being  almost  impassable  in  winter,  and 
very  dangerous  in  spring,  from  the  avalanches. 
Very  near  the  summit  of  the  pass,  and  on  the  ed^ 
(»f  a  small  lake ;  is  the  famous  hospice  founded  in 
9t>2,  by  St.  Bernard,  and  occupied  by  brethren  of 
the  onler  of  St.  Augustine,  whose  especial  duty  it 
is  to  assist  and  relieve  travellers  crossing  the  moon- 
In  searching  for  timvelleis  who  have  IxM 


440 


BERNAU 


tlieir  way,  or  been  buried  in  the  snow,  they  avail 
themselves  of  the  assistance  of  a  peculiar  bree<l  of 
d<»gfi  of  extraordinary'  »\ze  and  sagacity.  Tlie 
brethren  liave  faithfully  dischai):c<^d  the  arduous 
duties  ini)>o!<ied  ou  tliein,  and  have  n^scued  hun- 
dreds of  travellere  from  a  premature  death.  Tlie 
hospice  U  a  massive  stone  building ;  it  possesses 
8ome,  but.  not  much,  independent  ]in>perty,  and  is 
ymncipally  dependent  on  collectiiais  made  in  the 
Swias  cantons  and  other  states,  and  on  donations 
from  the  richer  class  of  travellers.  In  1800,  when 
the  road  was  not  nearly  so  good  us  it  has  since 
liecn  made,  Xajwleon  le<l  an  army  (»f  :jO,o<H>  men, 
with  its  artillery  and  cavahy,  into  Italy  by  this 
])om.  The  railway  at  present  extends  to  Martigny, 
at  the  foot  of  the  (ircat  St.  Ik>nuird,  and,  on  the 
Italian  side,  to  Itiella,  so  that  the  mountain  is 
easily  crossed.  The  hos])ice  contains  a  monument, 
erecteil  by  onler  of  Napoleon,  in  honour  of  Dessaix, 
who  fell  at  the  battle  of  Marengo.  (linK'kedon's 
I'asses  of  the  Alps.) 

hEKNAU,  a  town  of  Prussia,  prov.  Branden- 
1)urg,  on  tlie  Panko,  15  m.  NK.  lierlin.  P(»p. 
5,040  in  1^<(>1.  ]t  is  in  part  fortified,  and  has 
fabrics  of  silk,  velvet,  calicoes,  and  linen,  ^ith 
numerous  and  celebrated  breweries.  In  the  church 
and  town-house  are  tents,  bows,  arrows,  drc,  taken 
from  the  IIu.vdtes. 

BEKNAY,  a  town  of  France,  (U*p.  Eure,  cay. 
amtnd.,  on  the  Charentonne,  2t;  m.  WX \V.  E\Teux. 
pop.  7,5t>6  in  18G1.  This  is  a  thriving  town, 
and  has  latterly  Ix'cn  a  good  deal  improved.  It 
has  a  court  of  primary  jurisdiction,  a  commercial 
tribunal,  a  commmmi  college,  ^^ith  manufactures 
of  woollen  gotnls,  linens,  cotton  yarn,  ])ap(>r,  wax, 
&c.,  and  bleach-tields  and  tanneries.  Tliere  is  a 
station  here,  on  the  railway  from  Paris  to  ('her- 
bouxg,  and  a  branch  line  runs  from  Hemay  to 
Elboeuf  and  Rouen.  The  greatest  of  the  French 
fairs  for  hor^'s  is  held  here  on  the  Wednesthiy  of 
the  tiflh  week  of  Lent.  It  b  said  to  be  attended 
by  from  40.000  to  50,000  i(K*keys,  amateurs,  and 
other  indinduals,  some  ol  them  from  great  dis- 
tances. There  is  an  immense  show  of  Xornmndy 
horses. 

REKNllURG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  duchv 
of  Anhalt,  on  the  river  Saale,  by  which  it  is 
inten^ected,  23  m.  S.  Magdeburg. '  Po|).  7,20()  hi 
1861.  The  town  consists  of  tliree  ]>arts,  two  on 
tlio  lef^,  and  the  other  on  a  hill  ou  the  right  I>ank 
of  the  river,  which  b  here  crossed  by  a  bridge. 
The  first  two  parts  are  surrounded  by  walls;  the 
other,  or  the  Mount  town,  has  a  castle  on  its 
Hiunmit,  and  is  open.  A  branch  line  of  railway 
connects  the  town  with  Cothen,  and  the  railway 
from  Berlin  to  Leipzig.  Bemburg  is  well  built, 
well  i>aved,  and  clean.  It  is  the  twat  of  the  (hical 
goveniment,  and  has  several  lit<'rar}'  and  chari- 
table uistitutions,  with  some  manufactures  and 
trade. 

BERNCASTEL,  a  town  of  the  Pnissian 
States,  pHiv.  Lower  Rhine,  on  the  Mosell4i,  21  m. 
NE.  Treves.     Pop.  2,281  in  18G1. 

BEKNSTADT,  a  town  of  Prus^ia,  prov.  Silesia, 
reg.  Brei'lau,on  the  Wida,24  m.  E.  Ptre^shui.  Pop. 
3,736  in  1861.  It  has  an  old  castle,  two  churches, 
a  hospital,  and  manufactures  of  cloth  and  linen. 

BERRE,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Rouches  du 
Rhone,  cap.  cant.,  on  the  E  side  of  the  lagtnie 
of  the  same  name,  16  m.  XW.  Marseilles.  Poj). 
2,091  in  1861.  It  is  agreeably  situated,  and 
is  regularly  built,  but  the  vicinity  of  the  lagime 
makes  it  unhealthy.  It  was  formerly  fortitied,  and 
it«  ramivarts  still  exist. 

BERTHOUD.  or  BURGDORF,  a  town  of 
Svritzerland,  cant.  Benie,  on  a  hill  on  the  bank  of 
UieEmmen,  13  m.  XE.  Ik'me.  on  the  railway  fn)m 


BERWICK 

Berne  to  Aaraa.    Pop.  4,250  in  1H60.    Tliore  is  a 

{>ulilic  library  and  a  cnstle,  in  which  Pestalozzi 
aid  the  foundatitms  <if  his  establishment.  The 
commercial  business  of  the  place  is  rather  im- 
)>ortant,  it  behig  the  de])6t  for  the  Emmeutlial 
cheese. 

BERTIXORO,  a  to^^-n  of  C'entral  Italy,  pinv. 
Forli.  on  a  mountain  having  the  Ronco  at  its  f(M>t, 
7  m.  SE.  Fctrli,  on  the  railway  from  Bologna  to 
Ancona.  Pop.  (»,(*14  in  18(;2'.  It  is  the  sent 
of  a  bishopric ;  has  a  cathedral,  and  four  ftari^h 
churches.  The  wines  produced  in  its  enviR>ns 
have,  a  considerable  rei>utation. 

BERVIE,  or  IXVERlJERVIE,a  royal  bor.  and 
sea-]K)rt  of  Scotland,  co.  Kmcanline,  on  the  coast- 
mad  from  Dundee  t«>  Aberdeen,  on  the  S.  bank  of 
the  small  river  Bervie,  where  it  j(»ins  the  sea. 
Pop.  952  in  1861 ;  inhabited  houses,  181.  It  was 
created  a  n)yal  burgh  in  lo62  by  Dav-id  II.,  who, 
after  having  narrowly  escai)ed  shipwreck  on  the 
coast,  and  haWng  In'en  kindly  treate<l  by  the  in- 
habitants of  this  small  lishiug  village,  testified  his 
gratitude  by  conferring  on  it  the  honour  in  rjucs- 
tion.  The  inhabitants  have  from  the  earliest 
perifHi  been  emj)l<iyed  chiefly  as  fishers.  They 
engage  not  only  in  tlie  salmim  and  whale  fi»lnnga 
in  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  (»n  the  coast,  but  in 
the  herring  tishery  on  the  X.  shores  of  Scotland. 
Manufactures,  alxt,  have  I>een  introduccKl  into  the 
buigh ;  namely,  the  du<'k  and  dowlas  linen  weav- 
ing. This  enjplovmcnt  Ls  furnished  by  manufac- 
turers of  Alontnise,  Arbn>ath,  an<l  Alicrdeen.  In 
addition  to  periodiczil  markets,  there  is  a  grain- 
market,  which  Ls  yell  attended.  The  quantity  of 
grain  annually  purchased  here  Ls  alniut  40,0<»0  qrs., 
of  which  nearly  the  whole  is  shipi>ed  at  Gourdon, 
a  ])OTt  about  1  m.  S.  of  the  town,  where  there  are 
lai^e  granaries.  The  harlxnu  at  the  mouth  of  the 
IVr\-ie  Ls  very  inferior  to  that  at  Gourdcm,  and  ntl- 
mit*  only  small  vessels  and  l>oats.  Tlie  staple 
business  of  this  latter  place,  however,  is  tishinir. 
Ii<rvie  J4»ins  with  Montrose,  Arbroath,  Foriar,  and 
Brechin,  in  sending  a  mem.  to  the  H.  of  C.  Regis- 
tered electors,  86  in  1864.  Annual  value  of  real 
]in)|>erty,  1,728/.  in  18C4-5 ;  conioration  revenue, 
167/. 

BERWICK,  a  marit.  co.  of  Scotland,  having  X, 
and  XE.  East  I^>thiau  and  the  German  Oivan, 
and  on  the  SE..  S.,  and  W..  part  of  England,  and 
the  crw.  of  I^lxburgh  and  Mid-lA)thian.  Area, 
30i>,.S75  acres,  of  which  al)Out  one-half  L«»  arable. 
The  X.  parts  of  the  co.  are  occupied  by  the  ajld, 
bleak.  unjinHhictive  range  of  the  La'mmerrooor 
hills ;  but  the  Merse,  or  level  porti«m,  hnng  between 
the  Lammermoor  hills  and  the  Tweed,  by  which 
the  CO.  is  seiMurated  from  England,  Ls  one  of  the 
most  fertile  an<l  best  cultivated  districts  in  the 
empire.  The  farms  in  the  Merse  are  large,  the 
fanners  opulent  and  intelligent,  and  the  lan«l 
cultivated  acc(»rduig  to  the  most  approved  princi- 
ples of  modem  husbandry.  Ulieat  and  tumi))ji 
are  here  the  gn»at  objects  of  attention;  but  barley 
and  (»ars  ore  tiho  raL-^ed  in  considenil)le  qu.antitie^ 
Steam  j)ower  is  employed  in  several  thrasliing-milU 
in  thLs  CO.  Few  small,  but  no  very  large  ei«tat€^ 
The  old  valued  rent  was  14,864/. ;  the  new  valua- 
tion for  1864-0  was,  exclusive  of  railways,  326,20.*;/. 
The  Lammermoor  liills  are  principally  deuostuitNl 
by  sheep  of  the  Cheviot  bretuL  Theco.  w  rather 
scantily  supplied  with  wood,  but  some  j»roprie!oTH 
have  made  con»iderable  plantations.  Manufac- 
tures and  minerals,  of  no  imiwrtance,  Princi]Mil 
rivers,  Tweed,  Whittadiler,  Rlackadder,  and  Leader. 
Berwickshire  contauis  33  pars.;  and  had  36.(il3 
inhabitants  in  1861,  with  VtM.'t  inhab.  houses,  'flie 
CO.  returns  one  mem.  to  the  H.  of  C.  Registenul 
electors,  1.248  in  1864.    (ireenlaw  is  the  «».  town. 


BERWICK-UPON-TWEED 

IJERWICK-UPOX-TWEED,  a  fortified  tow-n 
and  sea-port  of  Kn^^land,  NE.  extremity  of  the 
kiiif^doTn,  on  the  X.  bank  of  the  T>\'ecd,  and  close 
to  it«  mouth,  306  m.  X.  by  W.  London  bv  road, 
and  342  m.  by  Great  Xorthem  railway.    t*i*\h  of 
lH)n)uj?h,  13,2G5  in  180 1.     Berwick  in  built  on  the 
iicclivity  and  flat  summit  of  an  elevation  rL«hi^ 
abruptly  from  the  estuarj'  of  the  river;  many  of 
its  stn?ct«  are  narrow  and  irrej^ular,  but  the  prin- 
ciiMil  one  i.n  HpacioiLS  well  pavwl,  and  li^^hted  with 
ira.H  :  an<l,  on  the  whole,  the  town  ha?*  a  resiwctable 
a)>f>onrance,  and  contains  many  well-built  houses. 
The  Tweed  is  here  crosse<l  by  three  britl^es:  an  old 
brid;re  of  15  arches,  built  in  the  reijjjn  <»f  Charles  11.; 
the  Union  Su.s|)en.'*ion  bridj^e,  some  miles  up  the 
river ;  and  bv  Stephenson's  Koval  IJonler  radway 
brid^'e,  on  2«  archei*,  12ii  ft.  hij,'h,  and  2,H)0  ft. 
lon^.    The  suburbs  of  Tweedmouth  and  Snittal, 
on  the  S.  side  of  the  river,  are  meanlv-built  vil- 
la^es,  the  inhab.  being  almost  wholly  emph)yed  in 
the  Hsheries,  or   the  businesses  connect<'d  with 
them.     S)tittal,  however,  is  occiu^ionally  resorte<l 
to  by  visitors  for  sen-bathing,  and  it  has  a  few  re- 
P]H>ctable    Iwlging-houses.     The    i>op.    of   these 
suburbs  are  included  in  the  ]>arl.  bor.     The  old 
fortifications  of  lienvick  were  erecttnl  in  tlie  reign 
of  Klizabcth,  and  about  1|  m.  in  circ.,  fonniug  an 
irregular  pentag<»n :  a  batterj*  of  22  guns  com- 
man<ling  the  Kngll^h  side,  and  a  four  nnd  six  gun 
batter\'  defending  the  entrance   of  the  harUuir. 
The  ramjMirts  form  an  agreeable  pronienade.     The 
Twee<l  in  navigable  as  far  as  the  old  bridge,  be- 
von<l  which  the  tide  flows  alnnit  7  m.   The  luiriMiur 
IS  defended  by  a  pier  half  a  mde  in  length,  with 
a   lighthouse  at  the  hea<l,  pntjecting   in   a   8K. 
direction  from  the   X.  extremity  of    the  river's 
mouth.     Ihit  notwithstanding  the  pn>tection  af- 
fonled  by  this  barrier,  and  though  there  be  18  ft. 
water  over  the  l>ar  at  oniinary  tides,  and  2(>  at 
springs,   the   harbour  is  ver\'  indifferent.      The 
channel  Is  very  narrow;  a  large  iwrtiou  of  the 
harbour,  particularly  on  the  llerwick  side,  dries  at 
low  water,  and  Is  nx'ky  and  inca[)able  of  being 
deepened;  and  after  heavy  rains  the  frrshea  run 
out  with  great  violent.     The  chief  public  struc- 
ture** are,  IlolvTrinitv  and  St,  Marv  churches;  a 
iunul>er  of  dissenting  <"haj>el>:  a  free  grammar- 
scIhmiI  ;  and  six  other  free-sclunds,  supi>orted  by 
the  corjioration,  and  educating  in  all  about  300 
children.     Other  notable  buildings  are  the  tuwn- 
hnll,  in  the  centre  of  the  high  street,  with  a  spire 
and  ring  of  Ik'Us  ;  the  com  market,  built  in  18.>8 ; 
the  music-hall ;  a  pau{>er  lunatic  asylum;  a  dis- 
jK-nsary,  through  which  medical  relief  is  afforded 
to  the  |K)or  re^sident  within  12  m.;  a  theatre;  a 
])ublic  library ;  and  assembly  rooms.     There  are 
annual  races  in  July,  the  course  Iwing  at  Lainber- 
toii,  o  ni.  di>tant.   There  Ls  a  good  suj)ply  of  water, 
brought  fn»m  a  spring  1^  m.  off,  to  the  several 
public  conduits.    At  the  XW.  eml  of  the  town  are 
infantry  Iwirracks.     '1  he  lishi'ries  form  the ))rinci|>al 
bii>ine.ss  of  the  place.    Those  of  salmon  in  the 
'J'weed  have  h»ng  been   amongst  the  most  cele- 
brat<'d  and  jmHluctive   <»f   any   in    the    empire,  i 
Ijitterly,  indeed,  lM>th  their  pr«Hluce  and  rental,  . 
though    still   very   considerable,    have    declinetL  j 
The  principal  fisheries  are  within  a  short  distance  | 
(»f  Ik'rwick  ;  and  the  fish,  excepting  a  small  ]K)rtion  j 
n.'tmned  for  home  consumption.  Lsall  packed  in  ice, ! 
and   shipiKMl  for  the  metro|K>lis,     (See  Twekd.)  ■ 
Trout   and  whiting  also  atsMUid  in   the  Tweed. . 
The  sea  fi>hery  of  tlu?  bay  con.Hi.sts  chiefly  of  co<l,  ! 
ling,   halibut,   haddock,  and  whiting;    crabs  and, 
lobsters  al.>^)  abound,  aii<I  the.se  last  are  forwanled  i 
to  the  London  market.     IJerwick  has  ship-yanls. 
and  a  good  coasting  trade.     The  im)K>rts  consi.>t 
chiefly  of  timber,  staves,  in»n,  hvmp,  and  tallow,  ^ 


BERWICK  (NORTH)  441 

firom  Xorway  and  the  Dal  tic,  and  of  groceries 
Ac,  coastMrise ;  the  exports,  of  salmon,  com,  wool, 
and  other  agricultural  pniductj*,  coals  to  Ix)ndon 
and  a  few  <»ther  ports,  coastwise.    In  the  year 
18(;3  there  entere<l  the  |M)rt  420  veasels,  of  21,069 
tons  bunleu,  ami  there  cleared  200  vessels,  of  1 1,646 
tons.    The  whole  of  them  were  sailing  vesselii, 
with  the  exception  of  tw«»  small  steamers,  of  84 
tons,  which  entered  the  port.   Uy  a  treatv  between 
E<lward  VI.  and  Mary  11.  of  Scotlaml*,  Berwick 
was  made  a  free  town,  hidependent  of  Iwth  king- 
doms; but.  by  the  Munici|)al   Keform  Act,  it  ia 
constituted  an  Kngli^h  co.  for  all  purjK>ses  except 
parliamentan-  electituis.     Its  present  municipal 
limits  comprise  that  {xirtion  of  tlie  par.  on  which 
the  towTi  stands  and  the  suburbs  of  Tweedmouth 
and  Spittal,  exclu<iing  all  the  agricultural  portions. 
It  is  diWded  into  3  wanis,  and  has  18  councillors. 
The  revenue  of  the  coqN>ration  is  derived  from 
town  and  harbour  dues;  nMital  of  the  fisheries, 
tenements,  and  tithes  in  Berwick ;  lands  on  tho 
\V.  side  of  the  river,  and  a  tract  called  Meadowh 
and  Stints.   The  tract  lies  near  the  town,  and  was 
granted  to  the  corporation  by  James  I.     It  is  di- 
vided into  three  {Mirtions :  the  first  is  let  in  farms, 
and  the  rent  api)n>prLite«l  to  defray  the  general 
ex|)enses  of  the  c(»rj)oration ;  the  second  is  sub- 
divided in  jMircels  of  ^  to  2^  acres,  whose  value 
varies  from  1/.  14«.  to  D/. ;  there  are  054  of  these, 
called  meadows:  tlu;  third  is  jwirted  in  farms  of 
alMMit  40  acres  each,  the  rents  of  which  are  each 
diWded  in  11  or  22  equal  part*«,  c.illed  stints;  <»f 
those,  there  are  oiJl.     These  me.idows  and  stints 
are  allotted  to  the  burgesses  for  life,  with  n*main- 
<ler  to  their  widows;  and,  as  vacancies  occur,  ar« 
<dlotted  to  others  at  annual  public  meetings  held 
ft)r  the  purpose,  and  called  'meadow  and  stint 
guihls.'    The  total  revenue  of  the  borough,  in 
1861,  amounted  to  10,633/.;  gross  sum  assessed  to 
poor  rate,  41,996/.;  net  rateable  value,  41,26')/.; 
amount  assesseil  to  jmiperty  tax,  36,986/.    The 
first  English  charter  of  Berwick  was  in  30th  Edw. 
I.,  by  which  it  was  made  a  free  borough,  with  a 
market  and  fair:  otheiv,  in  30th  Edw.  III.  and 
22nd  Kdw.  IV.,  confimi  the  laws  and  imvilegcs 
(»riginally  enjoywl  under  Alexander  I.  of  Sc<ttland. 
The  g(»vemiug  charter,  previously  to  the  Munici- 
i>al  Kefomi  Act,  was  granted  in  2nd  James  I. 
L'nder  the  I*<K)r  I^w  Amendment  Act,  Benviek  is 
the  central  town  of  a  iinitui  of  17  fiarishes.    Tho 
town  has  returned  two  meml)er8  to  the  II.  of  C. 
since  the  reign  of  Mary.    l*reviously  to  the  Ite- 
fonn  Act,  the  privilege  was  restricted  within  the 
limits  of  the  ancient  borough,  and  to  the  free 
burgesses.    The  constituency,  in  1864,  consisted 
of  710  registen'd  electors,  of  whom  287  old  free- 
men, an<l  the  rest  10/.  householders. 

The  first  authentic  notice  of  Berwick  occurs  in 
the  early  i>art  of  the  12th  century,  when  it  be- 
longwl  to  Scotland,  and  was  the  chief  town  of 
Lothian.  During  the  nrigns  of  Alex.  I.,  David  I., 
and  Malctdm  IV.,  it  had  a  castle  and  several 
churches  and  religious  entablLshments.  It  was  at 
that  jwricHl  the  chief  sea-|N>rt  of  Scotland,  and 
one  of  the  four  royal  burghs.  Its  castle  wa.**  sur- 
rendered to  England  hi  1174,  under  a  treaty  for 
the  ransom  of  Wm.  the  Lion;  subsequently  to 
which  it  was  rejteatedly  taken  and  retaken,  l)eing, 
from  its  fnmtier  situation,  almost  invariably  the 
first  object  of  attack  at  everj-  renewal  of  hosti- 
lities, till  on  the  accession  of  James  VI.  of  Scot- 
land U}  the  English  throne,  its  im}>ortance  in  tliia 
res})ect  ceased.  During  the  last  ci\'il  war  it  was 
garrisoned  bv  the  |Mirliamentary  forces. 

BEUWICK  (XOUTH),  a  royal  burgh,  par., 
and  sea-port  of  S<.'otland,  co.  Haddington,  at  tho 
S.  entrance   to  the  Fntb  of  Forth,   22  m.   E. 


442 


BESANCOX 


Edinburgh.  It  was  crontcd  a  biiijph  by  James  VL 
Pop.  of  burfch  1,10)  I  in  1801  ;  iiihabitoil  liousea 
179,  Tlie  burj^li  coiiHii*ta  of  two  main  t«t recti*,  one 
ninniu^  E.  an<l  W.,  the  other  leading  N.  t4>  the 
harbour.  It  is  a  place  of  little  or  no  trade,  and 
has  no  manufaetureM.  Its  pier  is  pood;  but  it8 
harlM>nr,  which  i«  <lr>'  at  low  water,  h  diflicnlt  of 
accew*.  A  branch  line  connectH  the  i>ort  Tinth  the 
Edinbnrgh-lJerwick  railway.  Fn»m  its  beiiip  in  ! 
the  neiphl>ourhood  of  one  of  the  iMirtt  com-jfruwinp  ! 
districts  of  Scotland,  ficniin  is  a  considerable  article 
of  export.  It  is  a  g«HKi  deal  freqnentcil  in  sum- 
mer as  a  bathinp-place.  It  johis  with  Hadding- 
ton, Dunbar.  Lauder,  and  Jetlburgh,  in  sending  a 
mend)er  to  the  H.  of  ('.  Kegisten'tl  electors,  87 
in  1805.  (N)rporation  revenue,  H80/.  Alntnt  2  m. 
to  the  K.  of  the  burgh  8tan(b«  the  famous  castle  of 
Tantallan,  one  of  the  strongholds  of  the  Douglas 

family. 

BIvSANCOX,  a  town  of  France,  cap.  dep.  Doul)s, 
on  the  river  of  that  name,  by  which  it  is  inter- 
aei^ted,  47  m.  E.  Dijon,  on  the  railway  frr>m  Stras- 
bourg to  Lyon.  Pop.  40,780  in  1801.  'J'he  town  is 
ver\'  strongly  fortified,  and  is  one  of  the  bulwarks 
of  France  on  the  side  of  Switzerland.  The  works 
were  imj)roveil  by  Vauban ;  but  they  have  been 
since  much  extended  and  strengthenwl.  Exclu- 
sive of  the  fortifications  round  tlie  city,  it  has  an 
extremely  strong  citadel,  on  an  almost  inaccessible 
n)ck,  and  outworks  on  some  of  the  adjoining 
heighU.  The  t<»wn  is  generally  well  built ;  but 
its  streets  are  nam>w  an<l  gl<»omy.  llic  ymrt 
called  the  citv  is  almost  surround<'d  by  the  Douljs: 
the  communication  with  the  suburb  on  the  oppo- 
Hte  bank,  called  Artnes,  being  kept  up  by  a 
bridge,  llien;  is  a  station  on  the  railway  from 
Mulhouse  to  Lvon.  Principal  buildings,  the  ca- 
thedral, hotel  of  the  pnfect,  hall  of  the  courts  of 
justice,  the  royal  college,  erected  in  1097,  the 
arsenal,  hotel  de  ville,  barracks,  theatre,  public 
librarj',  containmg  54,()IK)  vtdumes,  exclusive  of 
manus<>ripts,  and  sevend  tine  public  fountains. 
The  hospital  of  St.  Jacques  is  a  vast  establihh- 
ment,  with  600  betls,  and  is  said  to  be  extremely 
well  managed.  A  Koman  triumphal  arch,  though 
a  good  deal  mutilateil,  still  exists,  and  8er\'es  as  a 
sort  of  portico  to  the  c^tlHulral.  IJesan^on  is  the 
seat  of  an  archblHhopric,  of  a  niyal  court  for  the 
dtps,  of  Doubs,  Jura,  and  Haute  Saone,  with  tri- 
bunals of  primarj'  jurisdiction  and  commerce.  The 
university,  which  existed  previously  to  the  revo- 
lution, has  been  replaced  by  an  acuth^mie  univer- 
tsUaire,  orftwul^  (k»  lettres;  and  it  has  also  a  roval 
college  of  the  second  class,  with  about  *250  pupds; 
a  diocesan  seminary,  a  secondary  medical  sch(K>l, 
a  pnmary  model  school,  two  schools  for  the  in- 
struction* of  deaf  and  dumb,  a  n)yal  aciidemy  (»f 
science  and  belles-lettres,  a  lyceum,  a  society  of 
agriculture  and  arts,  a  museum  of  antiquities,  and 
a  free  school  of  design  and  sculpture  for  120 
pupils.  There  is,  adjoining  to  the  town,  a  house 
of  correction  and  refuge.  Watch-making,  intro- 
duced fn»m  Switzerland  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  is  the  m<»st  imi>ortant.  branch  of 
mdustry  carried  on  here.  It  enifiloys  above  2,000 
hands,  who  annually  furnish  some  80,000  watches. 
About  200  work-})eople  are  emjiloyed  in  the  cari»et 
manufacture,  and  there  are  bcMdes  fabrics  of  jewel- 
lery, hosiery,  hats,  hardware,  including  coach  and 
carriage  springs,  and  gloveji.  Its  breweries  and 
tanneries  are  both  on  an  extensive  scale ;  the  ale 
of  Kesan^on  is  noted  all  over  France^  Among 
other  articles,  it  annually  funushes  al>out  000,000 
bottles  of  Seltzer  water:  it  is  also  tlie  seat  of  a 
considerable  and  growing  commerce. 

Besan9on  is  very  ancient.    It  was  laid  waste  by 
Attila;  and  has  since  undergone  many  vicLszii- 


BETHLEHEM 

tudes.    It  came,  along  with  Franche  Comt<^  into 
th(;  possession  of  France  in  1074. 

HKSSAKABIA,  or  EASTERN  MOLDAVIA, 
the  most  s<iut!i- westerly  prov.  of  Kussia  in  Euro|M% 
having  E.  the  Dniester,  S.  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
I)anul>e,  \V.  the  l*ruth,  and  N.  (iallicia.  The  area 
is  estimated  at  K^H  geog.  sq.  miles,  while  the  fmn. 
amounted  to  792,000  in  1840,  and  to  919,107  m 
I8rt8.  Exclusive  of  the  great  rivers  by  which  it 
is  nearly  surrounded,  it  is  intersected  by  several 
consi<lerablo  streams,  most  of  which,  however, 
are  either  wholly  drieti  up  or  greatly  diminished 
during  the  heats  of  summer.  The  5f  W.  portion, 
contiguous  to  (iallicia,  is  hilly,  or  rather  moun- 
tainous, and  is  occuj>ied  by  extensive  forest* ;  but 
elsewhere  the  surface  is  nearly  flat.  Soil  abun- 
dantly fertile,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  tract 
along  the  Danube,  which  is  marshy  and  eiicum- 
Ix-red  with  lakes,  it  is  suitable  for  most  agricid- 
tural  purposes.  *  Xo  trees,  a  few  shnibs  only,  are 
ol>ser\'ed  near  the  rivers;  the  lakes,  or  stagnant 
waters,  are  covered  with  ree<ls;  and  in  the  jdains 
between  the  marshes,  the  ox,  buffalo,  and  bunm 
wander  among  pastures  where  the  herl>age  rises  to 
the  height  of  their  horns.  In  the  cultivateil  land 
millet  yicilds  100,  and  barley  00  fold.  The  horse 
and  the  sheep  exist  in  a  wild  state.'  (Malte-Bnin, 
vi.  379,  Eng.  trans.)  But  these  returns  seem  ex- 
aggerated. Wheat,  barley,  and  millet  arc  the 
oidy  s]>ecies  of  com  that  are  raise(L  According 
to  official  accounts,  139,141  chetwerts  pnHlui.^  a 
return  of  Oi)l,,'J20  chetwerts,  that  is,  of  alK>ut  5  to 
1.  Hemp,  tiax,  and  tobacco  are  pitMlucetl  in  ci»n- 
siderable  quantities.  The  breeding  of  cattle  is 
the  prineiftal  business  of  the  inhabitants;  and  they 
are  largely  ex]M»rte<l,  with  hides  and  tallow.  With 
the  exception  of  tanneries,  distilleries,  and  tallt>w 
and  s<iap  works,  there  are  either  no  manufacturing 
establishments  in  the  country,  or  none  worth  no- 
tice. Large  quantities  of  salt  are  pr<Khiced  fh>m 
the  lakes  contiguc»us  to  Akerman  (which  see),  A 
goo<l  deal  of  inferior  wine  Is  made.  Education  is 
not  much  attended  t/>,  though  great  progress  in 
this  res|)ect  has  been  made  in  rctrent  years,  par- 
ticularly since  the  accession  of  Alexa'mler  1 1,  to 
the  throne  of  Kussia. 

BKSSE,  a  town  of  France,  di^).  Puy  de  Dome, 
cap.  cant.,  20  m.  SSW.  Clermont.  Pop.  1,910  in 
1«01.  The  town  is  built  of  basalt,  in  the  middle  of 
a  volcanic  country ;  and  the  envin>iis  otTer  several 
natural  curiosities.  It  has  some  trade  in  cattle 
aiiil  cheese, 

BKSSINES,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Haute 
Vienne,  cap.  cant.,  on  the  Gartemin.*,  10  m.  1^, 
Bellac.  Pop.  2,o90  in  1801.  The  phice  has  si>me 
trade  in  cattle  and  agricultural  prt>duce, 

BKTHLEHKM,     {lieit  ^  el  -  Uhm,     I/otue    of 

Bnad,)  a  famous  town  of  Palestine,  0  m.  S.  Jem- 

salem:  lat.  31°  44'  X.,  long,  dlfi   l.V   K.     Pop. 

fnmi  3,000  to  4,000,  of  whom  by   far  the  greater 

jMirt  are  Catholic,  (ireek,  and  Armenian  Christians. 

A  splendid  church,  erected  by  the  empress  Helena, 

stands  over  a  grotto  or  cave,  said  to  be  the  birth- 

:  place  of  Christ.    Connet^ed  with  the  church  are 

convents  for  the  three  sects  of  Christians  noticed 

abov<%  of  which  that  boloiiging  to  the  latins  is  a 

fine  building ;  but  more  resembling,  externally,  a 

ft)rtress  than  a  religious  establishment,     Scmiere- 

,  mains  of  un  old  a(pieduct,  formerly   IG  or  18  m. 

in  length,  exist  on  the  W.  side  of* the  town;  but 

the  chief  buildings  'consist  of  chai)el$,  and  other 

memorials  of  holy  persons,  and  of  the  event*  for 

which  the  place  and  neigh Ixiurhood  are  celebrateil 

I  in  sacred  history.    The  houses  of  the  inhabitanls 

'  arc  mean  in  the  extreme. 

I      The  country  round   Bethlehem  is    extremely 
,  friutful,  yielding  tigs,  grapes,  olives,  and  sawmum 


BETHUNE 

in  preat  abundance ;  Imt  lierc,  as  in  other  parts 
«)f  thia  nei^loctcd  land,  cultivation  is  wanting. 
There  is  no  deficiency  of  water ;  three  extensive 
restrrvoirs,  called  the  \xx}U  of  Si>lomon  (PIccles.  ii. 
<>),  and  a  copious  fountain,  said  to  be  the  *»eaied 
fountiiin '  of  the  same  prince  (Sol.  Sonjr,  iv.  12), 
lie  on  the  S. ;  «»n  the  NW.  is  a  lai^c  cistern  of 
rain  water,  saitl  to  be  the  *well  by  the  gate,' 
whence  David's  mighty  men  drew  water,  while 
the  place  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Philistines 
(*J  Sam.  xxiiL  10) ;  and  the  whole  neighbourhood 
alMiunds  in  hprings  and  rills. 

The  tract  between  Itethlehem  and  Jerusalem  is 
the  valley  cif  Ilephaim  (Giant's  Valley,  .Ttwh.  xv. 
8),  the  scene  of  many  combats  between  the  Jews 
and  IMiilistines.  (2*  Sam.  v.  18,  et  al.)  Here  are 
shown  many  pretended  relics  of  the  scriptural 
age ;  as  the  house  of  Simeon,  the  tomb  of  Kochel, 
the  \*illage  of  Kama,  the  cave  of  Engadi,  the  well 
in  which  was  seen  the  star  of  the  Messiah,  and 
many  others.  The  original  name  of  Itethlehem 
was  Ephrath  (Gen.  xxxv.  19) :  a  term  which,  like  ; 
its  prc'sent  designation,  referred  to  the  fertility  of 
its  soil.  It  was  never  very  considerable  in  respect 
of  size  (Micah  v.  2),  but  seems  to  have  been 
always  regarded  as  im|>ortant;  and  being  the 
scene  of  the  pastoral  tale  of  Kuth,  and  the  i)irth- 
plnce  of  Davul  and  Jesiu*  Christ,  it  has  acquired  a  j 
celebrity  hardly  surjiassed  even  by  that  of  Jcru-  i 
salem.  '  It  was  fortified  by  Kehobi)am  (2  Chron.  i 
xi.  0),  and,  in  a  subsequent  age,  the  empen)r  Ha- 
drian is  said  to  have  built  a  temple  here  to  Adonis. 
(.)f  thi-*,  however,  no  vej*tige  remains.  The  present 
inhab.  enjoy  a  considerable  share  of  lil>erty  :  they 
are  Iwild  and  hardy,  and  successfully  rej«ist  every  j 
attempt  at  oppression  by  their  governors.  They 
are  consequently  stigmatised,  by  tlie  Turks,  as  of 
a  rebellious  spirit.  There  was  formerly  another 
Bethleliem,  more  to  the  X.,  belonging  to  the  tril)e 
of  Zabulon  (Josh.  xix.  15).  (Maundrcll,  116-123; 
Volnev,  ii.  270,  271.) 

BETHUNE,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Pas  de 
Calais,  cap.  arrond.,  on  a  rock,  at  the  foot  of  which  j 
is  the  Hrette,  IM  m.  NNW.  Arras,  on  the  railwav  = 
from  Paris  to  Calais.     Pt.p.  8,264  in  1861.     The  , 
town  is  well  fortified,  by  works  jwirtly  constructed  j 
by   Vauban.     Its  plan   is   that  of   an   irregular 
triangle;  the  citadel,  which  l**  ist»lated,  ot^cupyitig 
one  of  the  angles.     It  has  a  tribunal  of  pnmarv' 
jurisdiction,  a  communal  college,  two  hospitals, 
niamifactures  of  linen  and  cloth,  breweries,  and  a 
consiilerable  trade  in  linen,  cheese,  and  ra^ye  oil, 
the  canal  of  the  Lave,  which  unites  with  the  Lys, 
as  we'll  as   the   railway,  greatlv   facilitating  its 
trade.     It  was  taken  by  the  alliens  in  1710;  but 
was  n»stored  to  France  l>y  the  treatv  of  Utriwht. 

J5ETLIS,  or  IJITLIS,  a  town  o*f  Turkish  .Vr- 
nienia,  18  m.  \V.  from  the  W.  extremity  of  Lake 
Van,  and  alxuit  l.'U)  m.  E.  bv  N.  l)iari)ekr,  lat. 
;J80  ;J.V  X.,  long.  42^  50'  E.  It  stands  in  a  wide 
ravine,  open  to  the  E.,  but  closed  by  high  moun- 
tains to  the  W. ;  the  houses  being  disi>ersed  over 
the  steep  banks  of  a  stream  which  runs  through  it, 
and  on  several  of  the  neighlsniring  liills;  it  Is, 
therefore,  most  irregular.  The  houses  are  built  of 
red  stone,  and  an^  generally  of  two  stories,  wth 
grated  windows  to  the  streets,  the  latter  being 
pave<i  with  n)und  st<»nes.  The  houses  1)eing  much 
scattered  and  intermingled  with  gardens,  the 
town  covers  a  large  extent  of  ground :  it  is  not 
enclosed  by  a  wall,  and  this  is  hardly  neccssar}' ; 
each  hoiLse  l>eing,  in  fai^t,  a  pretty  stning  fortress. 
It  is  said  to  cctntain  1,500  hcuises,  of  which  500 
iK'long  to  Armenians:  and  if  so,  its  pop.  may 
amount  to  about  9,000,  By  some,  the  jwp.  is 
estimated  at  15,000.  Tlie*  town  contains  four 
caravanseras,     tliree     large    and    twelve   small 


BEVERLEY 


443 


mosques,  three  baths,  eiglit  Armenian  churches, 
and  one  Xestorian.  I'lie  most  remarkable  object 
in  the  town  \»  the  old  castle,  in  its  centre,  on  a 
rock  30  ft.  in  height,  and  built  up  with  thick  walla 
to  an  elevation  of  100  ft.  There  are  a  consider- 
able number  of  butchers,  Imkers,  gunsmiths,  and 
silversmiths ;  but  the  ])rincipal  manufacture  con- 
sists of  coarse  cotton  cloth,  and  tobacco.  Tlie 
territory  produces  fruits  and  vegetables  in  per- 
fection. The  army  of  the  Turkish  sultan.  Sidy- 
man  the  Magnificent,  sustained  a  signal  defeat  6y 
the  Persians,  near  Betlis,  in  1554. 

BEL'THEX,  a  town  of  Prussia,  pn>v,  Silesia, 
reg.  Oppeln,  cap.  circ.,  35  m.  XE.  Hatiljor.  Pop. 
4,004  in  1861.  It  has  three  Catholic  churches, 
three  convent^*,  with  fabrics  of  coarse  cloth,  pot- 
t^rv,  zinc,  and  calamine,  and  breweries.  There  Is 
another  town  of  the  same  name  in  Silesia,  r^. 
Licgnitz,  on  the  Oder,  12  m.  \V.  by  X.  Glogau, 
on  the  railway  from  Breslau  t4>  Poscn.  The  latter 
place,  with  a  population  of  2,850,  is  commonly 
distinguished  as  AU-Beuthen,  It  has  fabrics  of 
cloth,  earthenware,  and  straw  hats,  and  some  boat 
building.     Its  environs  are  very  fertile. 

BEVEREX,  a  town  of  Belgium,  prov.  E.  Flan- 
ders, 6  m.  W.  Antwerj).  Pop.  6,9fM)  in  1864.  It 
stands  on  the  road  from  Antwer])  to  Ghent,  is  well 
built,  and  lias  a  fine  church,  with  a  lofty  spire. 
About  2,»K)0  women  arc  employed  in  the  laco 
manufacture,  and  there  are  several  breweries,  tan- 
neries, and  distilleries. 

BEVEKLEY,  a  parL  bor.  and  market  town  of 
England,  E.  riding  co.  York,  of  which  it  is  the 
cap.,  near  the  Hull  river,  to  which  it  is  united  by 
a  canal,  157  m.  X.  London,  28  m.  ESE.  York,  and 
9  m.  XXW.  Hull,  on  the  railway  from  Hull  to 
Scarlx)n)ugh.  Pop.  of  municipal  borough  9,654, 
and  of  pari,  borough  10,868  in  1861.  The  town  is 
l)elieve<l  to  owe  its  origin  to  an  ancient  monastery, 
which,  after  having  been  sacked  by  the  Danes  in 
867,  was  restoretl  by  Athelstan.  who  granted  the 
place  several  privileges,  and  made  the  monasteiv 
a  sanctuary  for  criminals.  It  is  a  well  built,  hand- 
some town.  The  great  glory  of  Beverley  is  the 
minster,  or  collegiate  church  of  St,  JohnJ  which, 
in  size  and  beauty  of  architecture,  is  far  superior 
to  many  cathedrals.  This  sftlendid  structure, 
which  has  l)een  erected  at  different  periods,  in 
what  are  called  the  <!ecorated  and  i)eri>endicular 
English  styles,  is  :iU  ft.  from  E.  to  W. :  the 
length  of  the  great  cross  aisle  is  167  ft.,  and  the 
two  towers  at  the  W.  end  are  each  200  ft,  in 
height.  Xear  the  altar  is  the  seat  of  refuge,  with 
an  inscription  assuring  criminals  of  their  safety 
while  there,  and  a  tablet  with  effigies  of  St.  John 
<»f  Beverley  and  Athelstan.  The  parishes  of  St. 
John  and  St.  Martin  have  the  muister  as  a  church 
common  to  both.  It  is  kept  in  excellent  repair  by 
the  rent  of  estates  ap[>ro))riated  to  that  purpo:4e 
by  (^uecn  Elizabeth  and  Sir  Michael  Warton,  St. 
Mary's  church  is  also  a  magnificent  structure  in 
the  old  Xorman  style;  and  lands  pnHlucing above 
800/.  a  year  have  Wn  left  for  its  sujiport.  The 
Primitive  and  VVesleyan  Methodists,  Indepen- 
dents, Baptists,  Roman  Catholics,  and  Society  of 
Friends,  have  chap<ds  here.  The  sessions-house, 
i  and  house  of  correction  for  the  E,  riding,  are 
'  situated  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  town  : 
I  tlie  latter,  which  is  a  very  large  establishment, 
j  and  constructed  <m  the  most  approved  principles, 
cost  above  40,000/.  Here  also  is  the  Register- 
!  office  for  the  E.  riding.  The  endowe<i  schools  are, 
a  grammar-sch(M>l,  of  great  antiquity,  to  wliich  is 
attache<i  two  fellowships,  six  scholarships,  and 
three  exhibitions  to  St,  John's,  Cambridge;  a 
Blue-coat  Sch(sd,  founded  in  1709;  (rraves's 
School,  founded  in  1804 ;  and  schools  on  the  sys- 


444 


BEWDLEY 


terns  of  I-Ancaplor  and  Boll.  Tlicrc  are  alpo  seve- 
ral almAhouhOK.  an  h<l^{>ital,  du|)enMin',  mot'hnnies' 
institute,  public  roadin^-nxtms.  a  Huvin;?h*  hank,  a 
theatiOf  oyten  occa*»ionally,  and  as!^ml>ly-nM»niK. 
Itaces  are  hold  near  the  t<»wn  cv*t>'  June.  The 
corporation  of  Heverloy  e<»nhistj«  of  a  mayor,  re-  1 
ciirder,  kIx  aldonnen,  and  eighteen  couiuillor^. 
electe«l  by  the  bni^OM^s  «nd  irt'cnjon.  The  Ixir. 
receipts  amount  to  aUmt  *2.nOo/.  |K?r  annum.  Thr 
ciHTporation  hohl  a  criminal  court,  with  im»w(t  of 
life  and  death,  which,  however,  is  never  exerci>e<i : 
A  court  of  se^ion,  calleil  the  Prov(»ht's  Ci»urt,  fi»r 
all  pleas  to  any  amount,  except  those  for  landed 

Koperty ;  ami  a  irourt  of  requests  fur  debts  un<ier 
.  The  ])ublic  business  is  trans.icted  in  the  Ilall- 
pirth  or  (luildhall,  where  the  quarter  sessions  for 
the  riding  are  heliL  Tlie  elective  franchise, 
granted  by  K<lw.  I.,  was  not  exerciswl  till  the  l»e- 
Kinuing  of  Klir.»  since  which  time  the  lH>rough 
lias  continuc-d  to  return  two  memlK'rs  to  the  II.  of 
C,  the  right  of  election,  previtmsly  to  the  lU-fbrm 
Act,  being  vested  in  the  freemen,  win  t'»cr  n  si 
dent  or  not.  The  electoral  iHiundaries  comprise 
the  parishes  of  St.  Mar>',  St.  Martin,  and  St.  Ni- 
c-holas.  and  the  jiart  of  St.  John's  within  the  libor- 
ticfl.  The  constituency,  in  18()4,  consisted  of  1,213 
registere<l  electors,  of*  whom  013  old  Ireemcn,  and 
the  rest  10/.  householden*.  The  electi<»n  for  the 
members  of  the  E.  riding  is  ludd  hen*.  The  town 
ifl  eituate<l  in  a  fertile  countT\',  and  has  an  exten- 
sive retail  trade;  tanning  is  also  extensively  car- 
ried on.  Near  the  town  is  a  large  factorj'  for 
])aints,  cement,  an<l  Paris  while,  which  last  Ls 
made  from  the  cliff-stone  raised  at  <^ueen's  (Jate, 
and  found  to  be  iKxniliarly  adapted  to  the  puri)ose : 
there  are  also  factorit^  for  ]»ateiit  wn>ught-iri»n 
wheels,  and  for  fancy  ironwork  and  agricultural 
implements  of  all  di»scription».  A  brisk  c(»ni  trade 
is  carried  on.  Markets  for  general  purposes  on 
tMitunlays,  and  for  cattle  on  alternate  Wednes- 
days, held  in  an  enclosed  area  of  four  acres,  orna- 
mented by  a  stately  cmss  nsling  on  eight  columns. 
ITiere  are  here  eight  gn-at  cattle  fairs.  Two  pri- 
vate banking-houses,  a  branch  of  the  Hull  liank- 
ing  Co.,  and  a  savuigs'  bank,  have  been  of>ened 
here  Fisher,  bishop  of  II<M'hMter,  who  sullered 
martyrdom  imder  Henry  VIII.,  was  a  native  of 
the  town. 

HKWDLEY,  an  ancient  market  town,  lM>r.,  and 
chapelr>'  of  England,  co.  Worcester,  14  in.  NNW. 
Worcester,  IJi  m.  SW.  Birmingham.  108  m.  NW. 
I»ndon,  on  a  branch  of  the  (ircat  Western  railway. 
l*op.  of  munici]>al  lM)r.  2,905,  and  of  |>arl.  bor. 
7,084,  in  18G1.  The  town  is  locally  in  the  bund, 
of  Doddingtree,  but  has  separate  Jurisdictioiu  It 
is  built  on  the  descent  of  a  hill,  on  the  W,  bank  of 
the  Severn,  over  which  there  is  a  fine  stone  bri«lge. 
llie  more  ancient  part  of  the  town  was  built  at 
some  distance  from  the  river.  It  had  fornierlv  4 
gates,  2  of  which  were  standing  in  1811,  but 
they  have  been  since  (udled  down :  the  princijial 
street  is  well  built  and  }taved.  The  town-hall  is  a 
line  modem  building,  erected  on  3  arches,  with 
handsome  iron  gates  leading  to  the  market-] dace. 
The  church  is  a  neat  stone  c<lil'K?e,  with  a  tower. 
A  charter  was  granted  by  Edward  IV.,  but  the  go- 
verning charter  was  given  by  James  I.,  and  con- 
tinned  by  Anne,  llie  coqKiration  hold  a  court  of 
itession  annually,  and  a  court  of  record  for  all 
]>lea8,  and  for  the  rec«)very  of  debts  not  exceeding 
lOOL  Tlio  lord  of  the  manor  holds  an  annual 
court  leet^  at  which  constables  and  other  officers 
are  aptiointcd.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  liewd- 
ley  enjoyed  many  privileges ;  among  them,  that  of 
Iwing  a  sanctuary  for  ])ersons  who  had  shed  blooiL 
Tills  Utvm  has  sent  1  member  to  the  li.  of  C. 
eiiice  3  James  I.,  who,  previously  to  tlie  Reform 


BEYROUT 

Act,  was  rotumetl  by  the  coq>oration,  a  self- 
ele<.'te<l  l»«Mly.  The  new  Iniundarv'  act  delines  the 
limits  of  the  lM)r.  to  l»e  the  jar.  «>f  Kibl>estV»rd,  and 
the  hamlets  of  Wribbi'nhall.  Hoarstone.  Black- 
stone.  Netherton,  and  I^jwer  Mitton.  with  I^ck- 
hill,  which  together  had  a  constituency'  of  370  re- 
gisicred  elector*  in  1X04.  There  are  several  well 
en<l<»wefl  charities.  The  manufacture  of  woollen 
('n|»s,  called  Dutch  caf»s,  fonnerly  tlourishixl  here, 
but  has  many  years  since  dLiapjieartfl.  llie  prin- 
cipal trades  and  manufactures  ni»w  existing  are  in 
malt,  tanning  and  currying  leather,  and  making 
coml>s:  Ijcsides  which  there  are  K»me  rope-w«>rks 
and  a  bnL««>- foundry.  There  l<*  abm  a  considerable 
(•arrj'iiig-trade,  connected  with  the  Severn :  near 
the  town  is  a  mineral  spring.  Market-<lav,  Satur- 
day. Fairs,  23nl  April,  21th  July,  and  11th  Dec., 
for  cattle  and  i>edlarj'. 

BEX,  a  town  of  .Switzerland,  cant.  Vaud,  cap. 
circ,  in  the  fertile  phiin  of  the  Bhone,on  the  Aven- 
con,  20  m.  SE.  I^iutanne,  on  the  railway  fri»ra 
Lausanne  t<»Martigny.  Pop.  2.4 '>3  in  1  soo*.  The 
town  is  chielly  celebrated  for  the  salt  bprings  and 
halt  mines  in  its  vicinitv. 

BEYHOLT,  or  BElIiOrT  (an.  lierytiiM, 
Btjput<k),  a  sea-jMirt  town  of  Syria,  on  the  S.  ^il^^; 
of  an  extrusive  bay  <»p<'n  to  the  N..  4h  m.  SSW. 
Tripoli.  lU  m.  NXW.  Sidon,  and  alsmt  3  m.  E. 
fmin  Ca|>e  Bevn»nt,  the  btter  Ixing  in  lat.  'XV^ 
V.)'  45"  N..  loiig.  3.»o  27'  ol"  E.  P<.]..  12.0(K)  «.r 
lo,0<H).  There  are  here  n«»  ]iublic  buildingx  of 
any  iM'auty  or  im|N>rtance,  nor  are  many  reni.ains 
of  antiquity  to  be  met  with;  f«»r  thiiugh  the 
nuMlem  t<»wn  occupies  the  site  «»f  the  amient  one, 
the  latier  was  long  since  destp>yed  by  rejH;ated 
earthi{uakes.  and  the  mtNlem  buildings  are  ereote*! 
over  tlie  ruins  of  the  ancient  edilices.  Along  the 
shore,  however,  and  in  part  under  the  water,  are 
w»me  mosaic  |iaveinents,  fragments  of  columns, 
and  (W.  t»f  the  town)  a  thick  wall,  supposed  to 
Ik*  of  the  time  of  Hentd  the  (Ireat.  The  iNiz.aars 
are  large  anl  well  frequented:  but  there  seems  to 
\h.\  a  deliciency  of  private  shops,  and  the  streets  are, 
in  general,  nam»w  and  cnM»ke<l.  A  plentiful  suji- 
ply  of  water  fn>m  a  tolerably  larj;e  river  {\tthr 
Btyrtnit).  and  a  gre'ai  number  of  wells.  m«MUfy, 
in  some  degree,  the  heat  of  tiie  atm»»sphere.  and 
render  the  town  much  cleaner  than  the  generality 
of  those  in  the  E.  The  walls  (of  a  soft  saiuUit4>ne^ 
are  ab«^ut  3  m.  in  cire.,  and  tlie  suburbs  are  ikt- 
hajw  equal  in  extent  to  the  t(»wn  itself.  The 
neighbourhfXNl  is  very  fertile,  ]iro<lucing  all  kinds 
of  fruit;  but  the  chief  art  ide  of  cultivation  is  the 
mullx?rr>'  tree,  an  extensive  and  iin]K)rtaiil  manu- 
facture being  carried  (ni  here  of  silk  goods,  es|it^- 
<:ially  of  saslies.  Beyn»ut  had  ft»mKTly  a  small 
jM)rt,  formed  by  a  strong  mole,  but  ics  prc-ir.t 
mole  or  jetty  is  of  very  inferior  <iiniensi«iii*i,  and 
is  scarcely  sufficient  to  shelter  boats,  Tbv-re  i>, 
however,  go<Ml  anchorage  j^  m.  frem  the  t«»wn,  in 
six  or  seven  fathoms ;  and  large  ships  may  ancb<ir 
a  little  farther  out  in  10  or  11  fathoms.  After 
centimes  of  neglect,  it  has  in  recent  times  again 
become  a  place  of  some  iniportitnce.  Three  lines 
of  steamers  French,  Aui^tnan,  and  Ilussinn,  coiinei  t 
Beyrout  with  thechief  fK»rist»f  the  Meiliterranean, 
while  there  is  a  pxMl  carri/ige-n»ad,  completed  in 
1805,  to  Damascus,  and  a  line  of  telegraph  to 
the  Stime  place.  The  imports  and  exiKirts,  as 
well  as  the  shipping,  in  the  live  years  18o<>-i;i>, 
are  shown  in  the  subjoined  statement.  The  great 
decH'ase  of  the  exports  in  18.'>i>,  and.  more  still,  in 
1800,  was  owing  to  the  failure  of  the  cn)ps  in  many 
I«rts  of  Syria,  which  entailed  great  privatioiis 
ujxin  the  inhabitants.  (Kei>ort  by  Mr.  Mo«»re, 
British  Consul-tjieneral  at  Bevrout,  in  '  Consular 
Keiwrls,'  1802.) 


BEZIERS 


BHAUGULPORE 


445 


Namb«T  of 

ViUne  of 

Value  of 

Tran 

VeMelt 

Toon«f« 

Imports 

Exports 

£ 

£ 

1h:*6 

92 

3r),oo3 

6l9,4(tG 

42,765 

18o7 

m 

20,381 

276.472 

66,912 

IS-IS 

73 

30,ft37 

432,987 

81.348 

1K.VJ 

63 

2'>,rt(U 

861,719 

8,052 

18<i0 

63 

81,761 

363,585 

2,9U9 

The  exports  chiefly  consLst  of  galls,  madder, 
guni8,  tiilk  (raw  and  vinrought),  wine  and  oil. 
The  imports  are — miudins,  cottons,  tin,  hardware, 
clothy,  an<l  West  India  pro<Iuce. 

Heryiiw  was  a  very  ancient  town  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians, deriving  its  name,  according  to  Stephen 
of  Hy/antium  (art.  BijpvTo?),  from  the  numl>er  of 
its  wells,  the  prelix  berr  signifying  a  well  in  the 
language  of  the  countrj'.  Un<ler  the  Homans  it 
rose  to  great  eminence,  notwithstanding  it  had 
iKvn  entirely  destroyed  in  the  wars  of  Alexander's 
successors,  alK>ut  HO  years  before  the  Homan  con- 
(|uest  of  Syria.  Augustus  planted  in  it  a  colony, 
gave  it  his  daughters  name,  with  the  addition  of 
the  e])ithet  Felix  (Berutus  Coionia  Julia  Felix), 
(IMin.  V.  20.)  A  sch(K>l  of  law,  established  here 
in  the  iM'giiining  of  the  thinl  centurj'  (probably 
by  Alexander  Sevenis),  continued  for  300  years, 
or  till  the  to^^Ti  was  ovenvhelmed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  5')1,  to  Ik*  the  most  celobrate<l  institution 
of  the  kind  in  the  empire,  ((jiblxm,  cap.  1 7.)  liui 
tlie  town  again  revived;  an«l,  under  the  Saracens, 
attained  to  considerable  imjwrtance.  It  was  fre- 
quently captured  and  rccapture<l  during  the  Cru- 
siid<'S.  at  which  |)eriod  the  mole,  forming  its  port, 
was  <lestn>ye<l.  in  the  seventeenth  century  it 
was,  for  a  short  while,  the  ca])ital  of  the  famous 
hruse  Krair,  Fakr-ed-I>in,  ond  latterly  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Djezzar,  ptutha  of  Acre,  who  built 
its  present  walls,  cut  a  canal  fnnn  the  river  to  the 
tiiwn,  erected  several  f»)untains,  and  titherwise  im- 
]mived  and  In^autitiiMl  the  place.  At  jirescnt  it  is 
the  capital  of  a  small  i>ashalic,  the  ^>asha  being  a 
French  renegade,  formerly  a  colonel  m  Napole<»ifs 
army.  The  Pho-nician  deity  Haal-Hcerith  (I^nl 
of  \Vells)  is  Kai«l  to  have  been  name<i  from,  or  to 
have  given  name  to,  this  i)lace,  which  is  also 
famous  in  Christian  legends  as  the  scene  of  St. 
Cie<)rge'8  victory  over  the  dr:igon. 

IJK/IKIIS,  a  city  of  France,  de'p.  Ilerault,  cap. 
arrond.,  agreeably  situated  <»n  a  fertile  hill,  in  a 
rich  country,  at  the  junction  of  the  Canal  du 
Midi  with  the  Orb,  and  of  the  railways  from 
Cette  ti»  T(»uluuse,  and  from  Narbonne  to  ('arcas- 
sonne,  3H  m.  S\V.  Alontis'lier,  and  4G  m.  F-. 
Touloust*.  P»)p.  2-l,*270  in  1801.  At  a  distance 
the  city  lias  a  line  appearance,  but  on  entering 
the  illusion  vanishes.  The  houses  Jire  mean,  and 
the  streets  narrow  and  cns>ke<L  Its  citadel  has 
l)een  demolishetl;  but  it  Is  still  summnded  by  old 
walls,  flanked  with  towers,  round  which  isanewly- 
phinled  promenade.  The  catlietlral,  a  (Jot hie 
building,  has  a  noble  interior,  oiul  its  shaq>  towers 
and  castellated  walh»  give  it  at  a  distance  the  ap- 
jH-anmce  of  a  superb  Gothic  mansion.  The  view 
from  its  terrace  Ls  extensive  and  delightful.  'Ihe 
ancient  episcopal  ]>alace  Is  the  seat  of  the  courts 
and  government  otHces.  Its  ctinvents  have  all 
Im-ou  alK)lished.  Heziers  has  tribunals  of  primary 
juris(li(!ti(in  and  commerce,  a  communal  college, 
an  agricultural  society,  a  public  librarj'  with  5,0(M) 
vt»luniis,  and  a  theatre.  It  pro<luces  silk  stock- 
inns,  dimities,  j)archment,  venligrls,  starch,  glov«», 
glass,  and  higlily-esteemed  sweetmeats ;  but  it  is 
principally  distinguisheil  by  its  distilleries,  which 
arc  extensive,  and  jiroducc  brandy,  little,  if  at  all, 
inlerior  to  that  of  (^>gnac.  Its  situation  makes  it 
the  centre  of  a  confliderable  trade. 


Beziers  is  ver>'  ancient;  and  the  remains  of 
an  amphitheatre,  and  of  cbtems  and  other  Ro- 
man works,  may  still  be  recc^piised.  In  1209, 
during  the  first  crusade  against  the  Albigenses, 
Beziers  haWng  aflfordeil  protection  to  numbere 
of  the  fugitives,  was  besieged  by  the  Catholic 
army,  who,  having  carried  it  by  assault,  com- 
mitted, at  the  instigation  of  the  pope's  legate, 
an  indiscriminate  massacre  of  those  found  within 
its  walls,  whether  heretics  or  not.  It  also  sufTerod 
severely  during  the  religious  wars  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 

Barbevrac,  the  learned  transhitor  and  annotator 
of  (rrotius  and  Puflfendorf,  and  Kiquet,  the  en- 
gineer of  the  Ccmtd  du  Midi,  were  both  natives  of 
BezierH 

BHADRIXATH  (Vadarinatha),  a  small  to.  in 
N.  Ilindostan,  prov.  Kumaon,  in  a  valley  of  the 
Himalaya,  80  m.  N.  Alm(»rah,  and  10,294  ft-,  above 
the  level  of  the  sea;  Ut.  30^  43'  N.,  long.  79®  39' 
R.  It  Is  remarkable  for  a  temple,  much  venerated 
by  the  HindiMM ;  and  visited  annually  by  50,000 
jnlgrims  from  all  parts  of  India.  It'hais  wann, 
sulphureous,  and  cold  springs. 

BHAMO,  or  BAXMO,  (Hie  of  the  chief  towns 
in  the  Birman  emp.,  cap.  <»f  a  Shan  principality, 
and  chief  scat  of  tne  Chinese  trade  iiith  Birmah ; 
on  an  elevated  bank  of  the  Irrawadi,  170  m.  NNE, 
Ava,  and  ?0  m.  W.  the  Chinese  loonier;  lat.  24<^  UV 
X.,  l<»ng.  96°  45'  E.  Xext  to  Ava  and  liangoon  it 
is  the  largest  place  in  the  empire,  and  contains 
2,0<K)  hoiuiies,  inhabited  mostly  by  Chinese ;  is  sur- 
n)unded  by  numerous  well-))eopled  villages,  and 
defeiKled  by  a  wiMxlen  st«M!kade.  The  houses  in 
Hhamo  and  its  district  are  l)etter  than  those  in 
most  parts  of  the  Ilirman  dominions;  those  of  the 
Chinese  arc  built  of  brick,  and  tluKse  of  the  natives, 
of  ree^ls,  thatched  with  grass,  and  sefwirately  railed 
in :  there  is  a  go(xl  bazar.  'The  trade  in  woollens, 
cottons,  and  silks  is  wholly  in  the  hands  of  tho 
Chinese,  who  mostly  arrive  here  in  caravans  in 
December  and  January',  but  500  of  them  live  con- 
stantly in  the  town,  as  well  as  many  other  fo- 
reigners. 

'The  Shans,  Singphos,  and  others,  purchase  salt, 
gnapee  (drieil  lish),  and  rice,  in  large  (jimutities, 
especially  salt,  which  fetches  a  ver\'  high  price. 
The  piHipIe  ap{)ear  opulent ;  have  a<lopte(l  in  great 
imrt  the  Chuiesc  costume;  and  wear  more  orna- 
ments than  in  any  town  in  Birmah.  The  revenue 
of  the  district,  which  is  of  no  great  extent,  is  said 
to  amount  to  3  lacs  of  rupees  a  year.  01<l  Bhamo, 
the  original  Shan  town,  is  situate<l  two  days' 
journey  up  the  Topan,  the  nearest  tributary  of  the 
Irrawaili.  (Crawfunl's  Embassy;  Asiat.  Journal, 
Calcutta,  Xo.  Ixiv.) 

BIIATCiOXG,  a  city  of  X.  Ilindostan  (AV/wir/), 
said  formerly  to  c<mtain  12,(MM)  houses;  once  the 
seat  of  an  indep.  chief,  and  though  much  decayed, 
still  the  favourite  residence  of  the  Xepaulese  Brah- 
mins; 8  m.  ESE.  Catinandoo;  lat.  27°  40' N., 
long.  85°  8'  ¥4,  The  palace  and  other  buildings 
have  a  striking  appearance,  owing  to  the  excellent 
quality  of  the  bricKS  and  tiles. 

BIIATXEEH,  a  to.  of  Hindostan.proy.  Kajpoo- 
tana,  the  mod.  cap.  of  the  Bhatty  country,  amfthe 
most  E.  town  in  the  prcsid.  Bengal,  195  m,  WSW. 
Delhi;  lat.  29°  3(>'  N.,  long.  74©  12'  E.  It  was 
taken  and  destroyed  by  Timoiir,  in  1398,  and  ag«m 
taken  by  the  rajah  of  Bicancre  in  1807,  who  re- 
tained |)osses8ion  of  it  for  seycral  vears. 

BHAUdCLPOKE,  or  BOGLfPOOR,  a  distr. 
of  Iluidostan,  principally  in  prov.  Bahar,  but  the 
E.  portion  (Kajemahal)*in  Itengal,  between  lat. 
230  4'  and  25<^  49'  X.,  and  long.  8OO  15'  and  87®  81' 
E.,  hadng  X.  Tirhcwt  and  Pumeah  distr.;  E.  the 
latter  and  Moonhedabad ;  8.  that  of  Be^hoom 


446 


BHAUGULPORE 


and  W.  Bahar  and  liamghur :  lenfi^h,  NW.  to  SE., 
183  m. ;  breadth,  80  m. ;  area,  b,T2b  eq.  m.  Pop. 
tJ,020,0(>0.  It  ctunprJHOg  a  torriton'  on  Iwth  sides 
the  Gaiigiv,  u  dividcil  into  "22  thannuhs,  and 
oontaiuH  the  townH  of  Miin^er,  liaiomahaU  and 
Ifluragnlporo.  S.  of  tlic  (ian^cs  it  is  nillv%  and  itn 
hilla arc  cunnecti'd  with  the  Vindhvan  chain ;  thev 
are  in  two  nritarate  chi stent,  one  in  t.)ie  E.,  the 
other  in  the  >\  .,  and  eonnectetl  by  a  third  lateral 
range :  the  E.  hilLi  a|»proacli  nearer  than  any  other 
to  the  Ganj^ei*.  Jk'^ides  this  river,  whioh  nnis 
tlirough  BhauguliHtre  for  CO  m.,  the  chief  rivers 
are  the  Gogg«^  and  (tandahi.  To  the  S.  of  the 
Ganges  the  Ptream.s  are  mere  hill  torrentf»,  which, 
though  wide,  are  nsually  fordable,  llic  jheeh,  or 
mamheH,  are  neither  large  nor  niimenuiH.  In  the 
dr\'  seaiMtn  their  betU  arc  often  ]>{irtly  overgrown 
unth  the  wild  K>f»e,  a  nign  of  the  fertility  of  the 
aoil,  which  L*,  however,  not  iniiv<^rhal,  much  of 
I)haugul]M)re,  even  in  the  plains,  being  stony  and 
Itare.  The  climate  is  wanner  than  in  Pumeah, 
the  hills  hotter  than  the  plains.  E.  and  W.  uinds 
are  the  nioht  prevalent:  night  frosts  with  the  latter 
often  occnr  to  the  S.  of  the  ( lunge's;  but,  for  a 
ivarm  climate,  the  W.  \mtX  is  wmarkably  healthy, 
and  fevcp*  are  common  only  in  the  K.  Vegetation 
very  similar  to  that  alnmt  Calcutta.  There  are  a 
few  wild  elephants  on  the  E.  hilb*,  but  the  m<wt 
remarkable  quadru]>ed  is  the  Ilanuman  aiM.>.  which 
alM>un(U(  in  immense  numlK>rs.  Some  trilK>s  of 
people  inhabit  the  E.  hills,  dittering  gn'atly  fnmi 
the  rest  of  the  ]M)pulation,  and  thought  to  be  de- 
Bcendantrf  of  the  alM»rigines.  In  ]K'rs<m  they  re- 
fvmble  theothe.r  tril)esof  the  Vindhyan  inhabitants; 
their  faces  are  oval,  but  not  lozenge-shajuMl,  ilm  in 
tlic  Chinese;  eyes  similar  to  those  of  Euro]H>ans; 
noHes  obtuse,  sehhtm  archeil,  but  not  Hat ;  lijis  full. 
but  not  like  the  negro's.  They  call  themselves* 
JVa/rr,and  numl>er  about  ftH.OOO;  divided  into  two 
Fections,  called  the  N.  aiul  S.  mountaineers,  who 
differ  materially  in  manv  of  their  mainu-rs  and 
cuBtoms,  and  do  not  intermarry.  Thev  are  goinl- 
natUT(><l,  but  not  hospitable;  less  civiltsed,  but  in 
quite  as  comfortable  a  condition  as  the  inhabitants 
<»f  the  low  c(»untr\';  their  houses  are  neater,  and 
the  ornaments  of  their  women  more  numerous  and 
valuable,  llieir  chiefs  were  formerly  much  ad- 
dicted to  ])redatorj'  <lct^ents,  but  have  l>een  ]K»n- 
dioned  by  the  govermnent  to  refrain  fn>m  them. 
Tlicy  resi)ect  Brahmins,  although  of  a  diilerent 
religion:  their  own  deities  have  neither  images 
nor  temples.  Another  rude  tril)e^  called  Mulytu^ 
«>f  alMJut  100  families,  live  on  the  \V.  hills,  and 
Hubsist  by  felling  and  selling  timber.  The  land 
in  the  E.  parts  of  this  district  is  more  fertile  than 
that  in  the  W. :  rice,  wheat,  ganlen  produce,  at 
Muugger;  legumes,  richus^  cotton,  and  sugar- 
cane, are  the  chief  olyects  of  adture:  alwmt  3,0(^0 
sq.  m.  are  under  tillage,  The  high  rice-lands  are 
manured,  and  drill  husbandry'  pratrtised :  and  some 
of  Uie  implements  of  agriculture  are  a  decided  im- 
jirovement  u})on  those  of  Bengal.  The  farms  are 
Fmall,  and  s<imetimes  cultivated  by  several  larmers 
clubbing  together :  most  of  the  zemindars  cultivate 
their  own  estates,  emph>ying  their  ixK>rer  relatives 
in  the  ojieraiive  duties.  *2H-i,0(K>  begas  were  once 
purchased  by  government,  to  afford  a  land  settle- 
ment to  veteran  and  invalid  soldiers ;  but  the  plan 
was  not  found  to  answer,  and  has  l)een  given  up. 
Cottons,  mixed  cloth  (silk  and  cotton),  sugar,  fire- 
arms, and  metallic  and  domestic  articles,  are  the 
principal  manufactures.  The  establishment  of  the 
line  of  railway  fn)m  Calcutta  to  the  northern  and 
north-we>tem  ]in)vinces,  which  runs  in  part  through 
Bliauguli)ore.  has  given  a  great  impulse  to  com- 
mercial transactions. 
Portions  of  the  four  ancient  countries  of  Augga, 


BHOOJ 

Gaur,  Mithila,  and  ^lagadha,  are  comprised  in  this 
distnct,  wliich  contains  manv  Biiddhic,  Brahmini- 
cal,  and  Mohammedan  antiquities.  In  the  12th 
centurj'  \V.  Bhaugulporc  was  seized  by  the  Mos- 
lems, and  the  E.  by  the  Bengalese,  and  down  to 
the  time  of  British  supremacy  Inith  were  in  a  state 
of  constant  anarchy.  Ci*»sim  Ali  intrenched  him- 
self in  this  district ;  but  after  his  works  were  de- 
stroyed, in  17G3,  the  Britijih  dominion  was  s<x^n 
fluietlv  establi>he<I.  (Martin's  I  list,  of  E.  India, 
ii.  l-*2})0.) 

BiiAUOUi.PORK  (the  abitdc  of  refuyees),  cap.  of 
the  al)ove  distr.,  seat  of  a  gov.  rc*sident  and  court 
of  circuit;  beautifully  situatetl,  2  m.  S.  of  the 
(langes;  110  m.  N\V.  Moorshedabad ;  240  m.  XW. 
Calcutta,  i\'ith  a  station  on  the  East  Indian  rail- 
way :  lat.  2oO  13'  N..  U»ng.  84)0  5^-  y.,  l>op.  about 
30,000,  chieHy  Mohamnie<Ians.  The  city  covers 
a  great  extent  (»f  gnnind,  but  is  meanly  built,  ctm- 
sisting  of  scattentl  market-places,  badly  supplii>d, 
and  inconveniently  ]>laced  on  declivities.  Its 
greatest  ornaments  are  the  Luro|K>an  and  Moslem 
jilaces  of  worship;  the  latter  are  of  brick,  and 
among^t  the  handsomest  in  the  ])rov.,  although 
small  and  some  of  them  ruinous :  the  monument 
of  Iltjseyn  Khan,  a  .^rjuare  building  with  five  neat 
domes,  is  worth  notice.  Then*  are  a  gaol  and 
hos]iit<Ml,  a  Mohammedan  Arabic  college,  and  an 
EnglL-h  sch<M»l.  The  Koman  Catholit*s.  partly  de- 
si'cndants  of  the  Portuguese  and  jMirtly  native 
Hindoos,  have  a  small  chun'h.  A  monument  ti> 
the  memory  «)f  Mr.  Cleveland,  by  the  council  <if 
Bengal  and*  the  inhab.  of  Bhauguli)ore,  has  iK-en 
erected  alMiut  1  m.  from  the  t<»wn.  A  little  to  the 
NW.  an'!  two  remarkable  round  towers,  resjxjcting 
which  no  tmdirion  exi.sts,  but  they  continue  to  be 
visited  by  the  Jain  sect.  Bhaugiilpore  is  enilH>- 
somed  in  gn)ves  of  palmyra,  tamarind,  and  mango ; 
its  vicinity  abounds  \dth  swelling  hilLsand  is  ex- 
tremely fertile,  well  culiivatwl.  and  healthy.  It** 
tnule  has  much  incn-ased  since  the  ojK'uing  of  the 
line  of  railway  which  connri-ts  it  with  Calcutta, 
which  took  ]ilace  Nov.  1,  IMIJI. 

BHO(.)J,  a  city  of  Himlostan,  prov.  Cut<*h,  of 
which  it  is  the  nuMlem  cap. ;  built  about  two  cen- 
turies ago,  in  a  plain  SW.of  o  hill  calle<l  Bh<K>jan, 
60  m.  NK.  the  Indian  Ocean;  lat.  23°  15'  N.,long. 
(»l)0  52'  E.  Pop.  alH.ut  20,000.  From  the  X.  the 
city  has  an  impo.sing  u])[veanince :  its  white  build- 
ings, mosques,  and  j>agoiL'u*  behig  uitemiixed  with 
idantations  ui  dat(strees;  but  the  interii»r  ha:*  a 
vcrj-  different  api»earance.  It  is  surrouudeil  by  a 
high,  thick,  and  well  built  stone  wall,  tlankeil  w'itli 
round  and  K<piare  towers,  mounte<l  with  artillery. 
Street.s  narrow  and  dirty,  and  turning  at  sharp 
angles:  house's  generally  within  strong  walled  en- 
closures, providc<l  with  Imtpholes,  and  each  form- 
ing in  itself  a  complete  fort.  'Hie  ]>alace  is  a  well- 
built  castle,  adorned  with  sevenil  cu]>olas.  and 
domes  covered  with  enamel  in  the  Chinese  style; 
temples  numerous,many  of  them  large,  and  present- 
ing a  multitude  tif  elaborate  decorations.  Ever}-- 
wliere  are  seen  memorials  of  tuttw  and  other 
immolations:  the  maus<deum  of  Bow  I^cka, 
grandfather  of  the  present  ruler,  and  of  a  la<ly  who 
ascended  his  funeral  pile,  is  the  most  rrmarkable, 
and  would  be  considere<l  a  beautiful  ornament  in 
any  Euroi.>ean  city.  Some  others  are  in  MtH>rish 
architecture,  worke<l  up  with  stucco  to  n»semble 
marble.  The  hill  BluKijan  is  surmountetl  by  ex- 
tensive but  ill  built  fort illcat ions,  which  are  no 
protection  to  the  town;  they  enclose  a  temple  de- 
dicated to  the  A'tf^,  or  cobra-ile-cai>ello.  llils  fort, 
was  taken  by  CH^alade  by  tlie  British,  in  lx|l». 
W.  of  the  city,  and  close  to  the  walls,  then*  is  a 
large  tank  or  ikk)1  containing  an  elevated  terrace, 
formerly  a  place  of  recreation  for  the  chiefs;  but 


BHOPAUL 

the  buildings  are  now  in  ruins.   Bhooj  is  celebrated 
for  it«  gold  and  silver  works. 

BHOPAUL,  a  state  of  Ilindo«tan,  tributary  to 
the  Uritlsh,  pruv.  Malwa  and  Gundwanah;  be- 
tween lat,  2-29  30'  and  *23o  40'  N.,  and  long.  7(>o 
40'  and  Til^  E.,  having  N.  and  W.  Scindia's  dom. ; 
E.  and  S.  those  of  the  prcj^itl.  of  liengal  and  the 
Ncrbudda  river,  whicli  forms  its  entire  S.  bonn- 
dar>' :  length,  E.  to  W.,  14o  m.,  greatest  breadth 
«0  m. ;  area,  G,772  sq.  m.  The  countrj'  is  full  of 
jungles,  and  uneven ;  the  chief  range  of  the  Viu- 
dh van  mountains  interaectA  itji  S.  portion ;  but  the 
soil  is  generally  fertile,  especially  in  the  valleys, 
and  watered  by  numerous  streams.  The  ruling 
j>eople  are  Patans,  established  here  by  Aurungzebe 
early  in  the  18th  centur}-,  and  of  course  Mahom- 
medans.  In  1812,  the  S'izier  Mahomed  made  a 
vigorous  defence  against  Soindia,  the  rajah  of 
Berar,  and  the  Pindarries;  but  on  his  death,  in 
181G,  the  British  interfered  to  protect  his  dom., 
and  the  Marquis  of  Hastings  conferred  on  his  suc- 
cessor, Nusscer  Mahomed,  in  1817,  a  contdderable 
j)art  of  the  ]>resent  territtjry  in  reward  for  his 
licjirty  co-oporation  with  the  British.  It  was  then 
calculated  that  in  tive  years  the  revenue  of  the 
rajah  would  in<;rease  to  nearly  30  lacs  a  year. 
llUopaul  continues  in  a  tranquil,  and  evidently 
priMperous  condition. 

BiioPAiii^  the  ca]).  of  the  alM)ve  state,  placed  on 
the  boundar\''  Wtween  Malwn  an<l  (iundwanah, 
lat.  '21P  1 7'  N.,  long.  77°  30'  E. ;  110  m.  E.  Oojcin ; 
310  m.  SW.  AUahalMuL  It  is  siurounded  by  a 
stone  wall,  but  is  in  a  <lila])idated  state,  as  well  as 
its  suburb,  and  a  Hindoo  fortress  at  it«  SW.  ex- 
tremity. There  are  two  considerable  tanks  im- 
niciiiately  adjouiiug  it,  frt)m  which  two  riverj 
take  their  rise. 

liHUKTJ'ORE,  a  small  territory  of  Ilindostan, 
prov.  Agra,  including  the  small  ]>erginniah  Tanna; 
shape  somewliat  triangular,  having  N  E.  the  Uritish 
d<»m. ;  SE.  those  of  Scindia:  and  \V.  the  raj))4K)t 
state  of  Macherry:  area.  1,94G  hq.  m.  It  is  mha- 
)>ite<l  by  Jauts,  who  migrate<l  fn»m  the  banks  of 
the  Indus,  and  settled  liere  alniut  1700,  and  who 
have  assumed  to  themselves  the  title  of  the  mili- 
tary caste,  and  their  chief  that  of  rajali.  The  soil 
of  iihurtpore  is  light,  but  well  watere<l  and  culti- 
vated: cotton,  com,  and  sugar,  are  the  chief  agri- 
cultural pnxlucts.  Wood  is  very  scarce  and  dear ; 
the  houbes  are  all  of  red  sandstone,  and  the  villages 
in  g(M»d  condition  and  rciwir.  Wells  are  nume- 
rous, and  constnictetl  by  builduig  the  masonry 
tirst,  which  is  afternards  undermined  and  sunk. 
The  i>eac<M'k  is  an  object  of  veneration.  'I'he  chief 
towns  are  BluirtiHire  ami  Deeg.  Large  quantities 
of  salt  arc  pnKluccd  from  brine  springs  at  Combher. 
In  17<J8  tins  territory  was  at  its  greatest  extent; 
stretching  along  the  course  of  the  Jumna  river, 
from  near  Dellii  to  Etawah  ;  but  the  greater  por- 
tion was  soon  after  conquered  by  NuiljifT  Khan. 
In  1H2G,  having  lK»cn  usurped  from  its  rightful 
wjvereign,  the  British  hitcrtered  and  ttM)k  the 
capital,  since  which  it  has  been  under  their  pro- 
tection. 

HnuuTP0RK,the  cap.  of  the  above  territor\',  and 
seat  of  its  raialu  31  m.  X  W.  Agra ;  laU  27°  17'  X., 
long.  77*^  23  E.  It  is  alnrnt  8  m.  in  circum.,  and 
was  formerly  surrounded  bv  a  mud  wall  CO  ft. 
thick,  tiankc'd  by  many  bastions,  and  defended  by 
a  strong  fort;  but  these  fortitications  have  been 
mostly  blown  up  and  demolished.  This  city  was 
built  with  part  of  the  siK)il  pillaged  by  the  Jauts 
from  the  baggage  of  Aunmgzel)e's  army  during 
Ins  lost  march  to  the  Dex^can,  and  l»ecame  after- 
wanls  a  cclebratcil  mart  for  military  stores.  It 
resisted  %%ith  great  vigour  the  ftirces  of  I^ml  Lake, 
who  lost,  in  1806,  3,100  men  under  its  walla;  but 


BICANEBE 


447 


it  at  last  capitulated  to  him.  In  1826  it  was 
stormed  and  taken  by  Lord  Combermere  from  the 
usurper  Dooijun  S&l,  when  the  present  rajah  Bul- 
wunt  Sing,  was  established  in  its  possession. 
(llel)er's  Narrative,  ii.  3o7-v}G0.) 

BIAGGIO  (ST.),  a  town  of  Southern  Italv, 
prov.  Girgenti,  3  m.  W.  Xicastro.  Pop.  2,107  in 
1862.  Its  situation  is  insalubrious,  and  it  sufTcred 
severely  fmm  an  earthquake  in  1783.  It8  terri- 
tor>'  produces  good  ^ine,  and  has  some  mhieial 
springs. 

BIALYSTOCK  (Russ.  Bjelostoch\  a  circle,  or 
administrative  division  of  Kussia  in  Europe,  form- 
ing itart  of  the  government  of  Grodno.  Area,  3,436 
sq.  m.  Pop.  about  260,000.  Surface  flat,  -with 
some  slight  undulations;  soil  generally  sandv, 
but  fertile.  It  is  IxiundoJ  on  the  S.  by  the  \V. 
Bug,  a  navigable  alHuent  of  the  Vistula^  which  is 
its  ])rincipal  channel  of  communication.  Forests 
extensive  and  valuable,  but  much  dilapidated, 
through  want  of  proper  regulations  as  to  their  ma- 
nagement. Agriculture  is  almost  tlie  only  employ- 
ment; and  considerable  quantities  of  com,  espe- 
cially rye  and  wheat,  with  linse«d,  hofM,  and 
timber,  are  sent  to  Dantzie  and  Elbing.  The 
nobles  arc  very  numerous,  l)eing  estimatc<l  to 
amount  to  9,000  families,  or  nearly  50.000  in«li- 
viduala ;  but  the  great  bulk  of  them  are  stec))Cfi 
in  jx>verty,  many  l)oing  com]>elled  to  cultivate 
their  little  ])atches  of  land  with  their  own  hands, 
or  hire  themselves  to  others.  Manufacturing  in- 
dustry is  all  but  unknown,  and  only  the  most 
common  and  indispensable  trades  are  carried  on. 
(Schnitzler,  La  Kussic,  p.  057.) 

BiALYSi^JCK,  a  town  of  Kussia  in  Europe,  cap. 
prov.  same  name;  lat.  53^  7'  3.V'  X.,  long.  23°  IH* 
E.  Pop.  13,630  in  lHo8.  It  is  a  handsome  town ; 
houses  of  brick,  with  the  gables  to  the  streets, 
which  are  straight  and  well  j>aved.  The  castle  of 
(>>unt  Branicki  is  the  distinguishing  feature  of 
the  town. 

BIAXiV,  a  to.  of  Hindostan,  prov.  Agra,  territ. 
BhurtiHire,  .jO  m.  WSW.  -fVgra,  lat.  25©  57'  N., 
h>ng.  77°  8'  E.  It  stands  at  the  fiM)t  of  a  hill,  the 
ridge  of  which  is  covered  with  the  remains  of 
buildings,  including  a  fort  and  a  high  pillar,  con- 
spicuous at  a  great  distance.  The  town  Lh  large, 
contains  many  8t<me  houses,  and  a  good  bazar. 
It  prece<led  Agra  as  the  cap.  of  the  prov.  and  is 
often  mentioned  in  the  memoirs  of  the  Emp. 
Bal)er. 

BIBERACII,  a    town    of   WUrtembeig,    circ 

DanulM!,  cap.  bailiwick,  in  a  fertile  vallev,  on  the 

!  Kies,  22  m.  SSW.  Ulm,  on  the  railway  fnim  LHm 

to  the  lake  of  Constance.    Pop.  5,720  in  1861. 

The  town  is    encircled    bv  walls  tlaiike<l  with 

towers,  and  has  four  churches,  among  them  the 

parish  church  of  St.  Martin,  with  some  fine  fresco 

'.  iMiintings,  a  college,  tliree  sch<K)Is,  and  a  well 

.  endowed  hiispital.    Some  branchy  of  the  linen 

an<l  woollen  manufactures  are  carried  on,  and 

there  are  numerous  tanneries  and  breweries,  and  a 

:  bell-foundry.    The  mineral  waters  of  Jonlansbad 

I  are  at  a  short  distance  from  the  town.    It  is  the 

'  birthplace  of  Wieland;  and  in  17iHJ  the  French, 

'  under  Moreau,  defeated  the  Austrians  in  its  vici- 

I  nitv. 

I  BICAXERE,  or  BICKAXEER,  a  territ.  of 
;  IIind<Mtan,  prov.  Rajnootana,  divis.  Marwar, 
cldetiy  between  hiU  2<*  and  290  X.;  having  N. 
the  Bhatty  countrj' ;  S.  the  Jondpoor  and  Se\'poor 
dom. ;  E.  Ilurriana  and  the  Shehawntty  country', 
and  W.  Jei<«elmere  and  the  great  desert,  of  which 
it  forms  a  part :  area,  18.000  sq.  m.  The  surface 
is  elevated,  but  tlat,  sandy,  and  destitute  of  water 
where  not  irrigateil  by  wells,which  arc  from  100  to 
200  feet  deep.    The  crops  ore  very  precarious, 


448 


BICANERE 


and  firrcatly  dependent  on  the  periodical  rains ; 
rain-water*  is  carefully  preserved  in  cistonift. 
Beiurah  and  other  Indian  pulse  are  almost  the 
only  articles  prown,  other  nec<'Rsari<*.s  XyQiw^r  sup- 
pUe<l  from  the  contif^uous  prov.  Coarse  and  line 
rice  are  imported  from  Laliore ;  wheat  from  Jey- 
poor;  wilt  from  Combher;  spires,  cop]»er,  and 
coarse  cloth  firt)m  Jesselmere.  The  other  impiirts 
are  cui^ar,  opium,  and  indif^o:  liorses  and  bullocks 
of  an  inferior  breed  are  nearly  the  sole  exports. 
Bicanere  and  Choon>  are  the  chief  towns.  In  1818 
the  rajah  was  admitted  under  Hritbdi  ])rotection. 

UiCANKKK,  the  cap.  of  the  alnive  dom.,  and 
residence  of  its  rajah,  in  the  Indian  desert ;  2  iO 
in.  \VS\V.  Delhi,  and  14ft  m.  NXW.  Ajnieer; 
lat.  270  57'  X.,  lonp.  730  2^  E.  It  is  fortitied  by  a 
strong  wall  stren^jthcned  with  many  round  t<»wers. 
and  contrasts  imiK>sui^ly  with  the  desolation 
anmnd  it.  which  is  as  p^tat  as  that  (»f  the  wildest 
tract  of  Arabia,  except  on  ib»  X.  side,  where  there 
is  a  woo<le<l  valley.  Most  t»f  the  dwellin^js  in  the 
town  are  mere  mud  liuts  luiinted  re<l :  tliore  are 
some  lofty  white  houses  and  temples;  and  at  one 
comer  a  citadel  about  \  m.  sq.,  encom])assed  by  a 
wall  30  feet  hif;h,  and  a  ffo<»d  drj-  ditch,  a  con- 
fusi'd  assemblj^eof  towers  and  battlements,  over- 
to])i)ed  by  cn)wde<i  houses.  Its  U'st  security  is 
in  the  scarcity  of  water  in  the  country  anmnd. 

BK'KSTKk,  a  par.  and  town  of  kn^^land,  co. 
Oxford,  hund.  Plouf;hley,  o2  m.  N\V.  by  N. 
London,  on  the  Lon<!oii  and  North  Western  niil- 
wav.  Arcaof  par.  2..')2()  acres.  Pop.  of  par.  3.04y 
in  1801  ;  of  town,  2.7il8.  The  town  is  well  built 
on  a  small  stream,  that  joins  theCharwell  atlslip. 
The  chun^h,  built  in  lloO,  on  the  site  of  an  older 
one,  contains  many  ancient  mcmuments,  and  has 
a  lofty  tower.  There  is  a  charity  schtM»l,  where 
30  l)oys  are  clothed  and  educated;  and  another 
for  the  instruction  t>f  <»()  jjirls.  The  weekly  market 
is  held  on  Friday,  and  aimual  fairs  on  ?!Iaster 
Friday,  1st  Friday  in  June,  Aug.  5,  Friday  after 
old  iViichaelmas,  and  2  following  Fridays,  and  the 
Ist  Friday  in  Dec;  they  are  for  cattle,  and  both 
fairs  and  market  are  well  attended.  Its  proximity 
to  the  Oxford  Canal,  aa  well  as  the  railway,  give 
it  84)mc  business  ;  but  no  particular  manufactures 
are  carried  on,  except  that  of  l)one  lace  by  a  few 
females,  and  the  brewing  of  ale,  noted  for  its  ex- 
cellence. The  jmr.  is  divide<l  into  two  townshii»s. 
King's  End,  and  Market  End.  In  the  latter  the 
town  is  situated. 

BID  ACHE,  a  town  of  France,  ddp.  Rosses  P.\t<<- 
nees,  cap.  cant.,  on  the  Bidouze,  18  m.  E.  Bayoime. 
Pop.  2,706  in  18G1.  In  the  neighbtmrhood  arc 
good  quarries. 

BIDEFOKD,  a  sea-port,  bor.,  and  par.  of  Eng- 
land, CO.  Devon,  hund.  SlieblKiare,  on  the  T(»r- 
ridge,  about  1^  m.  above  where  it  unites  with  the 
cstuar>'  <>f  the  Taw  I  180  m.  W.  by  S.  I^mdtm,  on 
a  branch  f»f  the  Taw  Vale  railway,  Pi>]).  5,742  in 
1861,  against  6,21 1  in  1841.  Tlie  greater  part  of 
the  town  stands  on  an  acclivity  on  the  \V.  of  the 
river,  and  is  connected  with  its  E.  division  by  a 
stone  bridge  of  24  arches,  built  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury. It  consists  chiefly  of  two  spacious  strw^ts : 
the  houses,  though  improved,  are,  fr>r  the  most 
part,  but  indifferent  structures.  liesides  the 
church  (in  the  earlier  Gothic  style),  the  Baptists, 
IndependeJita,  and  Wesleyans,  have  chapels. 
There  is  a  neat  town-hall,  and  another  hall,  with 
a  Bchool.  is  attached,  belonging  to  the  trustees  of 
the  Hridge  estate.  Being  a  place  of  frequent  re- 
«>rt  from  tlie  neighliouring  watering-town  of 
Appledore,  it  has  public  assembly-rooms,  llie 
river  is  faced  by  a  tine  quay,  1,200  ft.  in  length, 
broad  and  convenient.  It  has  an  ancient  end(»we<l 
grammar-school,  a  national  school  for  iiOO  chil- 


BIELGOROD 

dren,  and  a  school  supported  by  the  diMentmi. 
An  endowed  hospital  maintains  seven  aged  poor. 
Kopecs  sails,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  com- 
mon earthenware,  are  manufactured;  it  has  also 
a  small  lace  manufactor\',  and  several  docks,  in 
which  the  smaller  class  of  vessels  are  built :  in  the 
vicinity  are  tan-vards.  Tlie  port  is  within  Barn- 
staple bar  (see  IJarnstaple),  and  is  accessible 
for  vessels  of  200  tons  as  far  as  the 'bridge; 
alH»ut  2i  m.  alwve  which  the  Torrington  Canal 
unites  with  the  river.  Shii)s  of  larger  size  unload 
at  Appledore.  Its  principal  imports  consist  of 
timlKT,  from  the  Baltic  and  from  Canada;  coals, 
from  Bristol  and  Wah'S ;  .and  groceries  and  other 
colonial  produce,  from  Bristol  and  other  ports.  Its 
chief  exports  are  sails,  cordage,  and  articles  of 
general  su))ply,  for  the  Newfoundland  fisheries; 
oak  bark,  to  Ireland;  earthenware,  to  Wales;  and 
com  and  flour,  to  Brist^d.  There  entere<l  the 
p(»rt.  in  18»kJ,  according  to  official  returns,  82;J 
vessels  of  a  total  tonnage  of  3r),tI45.  Among 
them  were  99  steamers,  of  6,fil2  tons.  Then! 
cleared,  in  the  same  year,  224  vessels,  of  12,0oO 
tons  burden,  including  the  same  nunil>er  of 
st(>amers.  The  ]>ort  comprises  those  of  C-lovelly 
and  Ilartland  in  its  jurisdiction.  Its  municifial 
affairs  are  managed  by  a  mayor,  three  aldermen, 
and  twelve  councillors.  Previously  to  the  muni- 
cipal act  (o  &  0  W.  IV.  c.  7r>).  it  was  governed  by  a 
charter  of  IG  James  I.,  confirming  and  extending 
a  pn^vious  one  (1<»  Elizalwth).  The  corjioraiion 
rc^venue  dm*^  not  exceed  50/.  a  year,  derive<l  fn>m 
tenements  in  the  Inmnigh  :  the  quay  (lues  belong 
to  the  lord  of  the  manor,  ami  are  regiilate*!  by  an 
act  ]>assed  in  1828.  Bideford  is  styled  a  boniingh 
in  the  Sax<m  reconls.  It  sent  members  to  the 
H.  of  C.  during  the  reigns  of  Edward  I.  and  II., 
but  grudging  the  ex|»ense  which  this  occasioned, 
it  got  n;lieved  from  what  was  then  deemeii  a 
heavy  burden,  and  has  l>een  disfranchised  ever 
since.  In  1271  it  obtained  a  market  and  fair. 
The  expeditions  under  Kaleigh  and  Grenville,  to 
Carolina,  ap]H'ar  to  have  originate<l  ins  foreign 
commerce.  Silk  weaving  was  introduced  in  BJoO, 
and  in  I680  many  French  refugees  settled  in  it, 
and  increased  its  trade.  At  the  close  of  this 
centurv  its  Newfoundland  trade  had  iK'Come  ex- 
tensive;  and  for  the  fii>it  half  of  the  18th  century 
its  im|H)rts  of  tobacco  were  only  cxcee<led  by 
those  of  l^mdon.  Dr.  Shebbeare,  of  pamphlet<^- 
ing  notoriety,  wa«»  a  native  of  Bidefonl. 

BIDSCHOW.  orBlDZOW,  a  town  of  Bohemia, 
cap.  circ.,  on  the  Czidlina,  16  m.  W.  Konigratz.. 
Pop.  5,12,3  in  1857.  A  variety  of  precious  stones 
are  found  in  the  neighl>ourlu>od. 

BIELEF,  a  town  of  Kussia  in  Eurr»pe.  gov. 
Toula,  on  the  Oka,  5(>  m.  SW.  Toula,  Pop.  7,t»:>0 
in  1858.  This  ancient  town  \»,  at^er  Toula,  the 
most  inqiortant  in  the  government.  The  inhaU 
carr>'  on  a  considerable  commerce. 

BIELEFELD,  a  town  of  Prussian  Westphalia, 
cap.  circ,  38  m.  E.  IMunster  on  the  railway  from 
Diissehlorf  to  Hanover  and  Ilambui^.  Pop.'l3,84t> 
in  18G1,  exclusive  of  a  garrison  of  027.  The  town 
is  one  of  the  most  thriving  in  Western  IVussia, 
having  more  than  doubled  its  population  in  the 
course  of  twenty  years.  It  has  excellent  bleaching 
gniundsond  extensive  manufactures  of  thread  and 
linen.  It  is  defendetl  by  a  rampart  and  ditch ; 
and,  besides  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches  has 
a  synagogue  and  an  orjihan  asylum.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  its  tobacco  pi|)es  made  of  carijonatni 
magnesia,  and  known  in  ccmmerce  by  the  name 
of  t'cinne  tie  wicr,  or  meerschaum, 

BIELCiOBOD  (Buss.  Bjehorwl),  a  town  of 
European  Bussia,  gov.  Koursk,  cap.  district,  on 
the  Donitz,  80  ui.  i:^.  Koun<k.    Pop.  8,PJU  in  18iM<. 


BIELITZ 

It  conRiflts  of  on  old  and  new  town  and  three 
Hiiburba.  Houscii  mostly  of  w<m)<1.  Its  name, 
White  totcn.  Is  derived  from  a  chalk-hill  in  the 
neighbourhood. 

HIELITZ,  a  t«wn  of  the  Austrian  States,  in 
Silesia,  on  the  Kiala,  16  m.  ENK.  Teschen.  l*op. 
8,740  in  1857.  The  town  id  well  built,  and  is  the 
seat  of  a  Protestant  consistory,  which  has  under 
its  jurisdiction  Moravia  and  Austrian  Silesia. 

BIELLA,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  cap.  prov. 
and  mand.,  on  the  Cer\'o,  jjartly  on  the  summit 
and  partly  on  the  declivity  of  a*  mountain,  12  m. 
NE.  Ivrea,  on  a  branch  line  of  the  railway  from 
Turin  to  MiUn.  Pop.  9,800  in  1858.  The  town 
is  tlie  seat  of  a  bishoimc ;  has  four  parish  churches, 
two  hospitaLf),  and  a  college ;  and  produces  linens, 
silks,  aii<l  paper. 

BIELO  OZERO,  or  WHITE  LAKE,  a  lake  of 
Russia  in  Europe,  goy.  Novgorod,  about  240  m. 
E.  Petersburji^h.  It  is  of  an  elliptical  8ha|)e,  its 
greatest  length  being  nearly  30,  and  its  greatest 
breadth  20  m.  Its  bottom  consists  of  a  whitish 
clay,  which,  during  tempestuous  weather,  com- 
municates its  colour  to  the  water,  whence,  doubt- 
less, its  name  is  derived.  It  receives  numerous 
small  rivers ;  its  surplus  waters  are  carried  off  by 
the  Chexna,  an  affluent  of  the  Wolga.  It  is  deep, 
and  generally  limpid,  and  is  well  stocked  with 
fish. 

BIELOZERSK,  a  town  of  Russia  in  Europe, 
gov.  Novgorod,  S.  side  of  the  above  lake,  on  a 
canal  which,  by  means  of  the  rivers  Kowska  and 
Schleskna,  unites  the  Baltic  and  the  Caspian  Sea. 
Pop.  4,331  in  1857.  The  town  has  a  castle,  or 
kreml,  is  fortified,  and  has  some  tratle. 

BIELSK,  a  town  of  European  Russia,  prov. 
Bialystok,  70  m.  SSW.  Grodno.  Pop.  3,177  in 
1857.  The  town  is  well  built,  paved,  has  a  hand- 
some custom-house,  and  f^ave  its  name  to  the 
palatinate  of  Bielsk,  of  which  it  was  the  cap.  till 
1 71>5.  This  is  one  of  the  towns  from  wldch  Jews 
are  excliide«l. 

BIENNE,  or  BIEL,  a  town  of  Switzerland, 
cant.  Ik?mc,  in  a  fertile  little  plain  at  the  E.  foot  of 
the  Jura,  near  the  lake  of  Bienne,  and  on  the  rail- 
way from  Neiifchatel  to  Berne,  16  m.  \V.  of  the  lat- 
ter. The  Suze  flows  through  the  town.  Pop.  6,973 
ill  1860.  The  railway  connects  the  place  with  all 
the  important  towns  of  Switzerland.  It  has  a  good 
g>'miiasium,  with  six  professors.  The  public 
librar\',  which  was  plundered  in  the  revolution, 
contains  at  present  only  2,500  volumes.  Bienne 
is  very  ancient :  previously  to  1798,  it  was  a  free 
and  independent  city;  but  in  that  year  it  was 
unite<l  to  France,  and,  in  1815,  to  the  canU  of 
Ik*nie. 

The  lake  of  Bienne  extends  along  the  Jura 
chain ;  being  about  10  m.  in  length  by  3  in 
breailth.  It  is  not  pre-eminent  for  beauty  of 
scenery,  and  owes  its  celebrity  principally  to  it» 
ha\'iiig  within  it  the  isle  of  St,  Peter,  the' retreat 
of  Rousseau. 

BKjGAR,  a  village  of  Scotland,  co.  Lanark, 
27  m.  SW.  E<linburgh.  Pop.  1,448  in  1861,  of 
wliorn  667  males  and  781  females.  The  barony 
of  Biggar,  in  wliich  the  village  is  situated,  has 
for  centuries  Injeii  the  proiwrty  of  the  Flemings, 
ftjrmcrly  ICarls*  of  Wigton,  to  which  family  the 
grojiter  part  of  it  still  belongs.  The  ])lace  am- 
sL<t8  chietly  of  one  wide  and  spacious  street.  The 
chief  employipent  of  the  inliabitants  is  cotton 
weaving  for  the  Glasgow  market.  The  parish 
churi'h  Ls  a  venerable  Ciothic  e<lifice,  bmlt  in 
15(iO.  There  are  also  two  dissenting  cha])els,  a 
savings'  bjuik,  and  three  public  subscription 
librnrir«j. 

BKiGLESWADE,  a  par.  and  to^n  of  England, 
Vt>L.  I. 


BUANAGUB 


449 


CO.  Bedford,  hund.  Biggleswade,  41  m.  NNW. 
London  on  the  Great  Northern  railway.  Area 
of  par.  4,220  acres;  iK>p.  of  nar.  4,631,  of  town 
4,027  m  1861.  The  town  is  situated  on  the  great 
North  road,  by  the  Ivel,  over  which  there  in  a 
stone  bridge.  Houses  chiefly  brick,  and  have  a 
neat,  modem  appearance.  The  church  is  a  Gothic 
building,  founded  in  1230,  and  extensively  re- 
paired in  1832.  There  are  two  free  schools,  one 
for  twelve,  the  other  for  eight  boys:  a  charity, 
pro<lucing  300iL  a  year,  supports  them,  and  is  ap- 
plied also  in  various  other  specified  modes.  The 
river  is  navigable  to  the  town,  by  which  means,  and 
the  railway,  it  is  supplied  M'ith  coals,  timber,  and 
com.  The  weekly  market,  on  Wednesday,  is  one 
of  the  laigest  in  England  for  com.  There  are 
five  annual  fairs;  Feb.  14,  Saturday  in  Easter 
week,  Whit-Monday,  Aug.  2,  and  Nov.  8.  There 
is  a  small  manufacture  of  thread  lace,  employing 
some  females,  and  a  steam  fiour-milL  A  pett^ 
sessions  for  the  three  neighbouring  hundreds  la 
held  in  the  town. 

BIJANAGUR  (Vijai^anagura,  the  dty  of 
triumph),  Ann AOOONDT  (Canarese),  or  Alpatna, 
an  anc  and  celeb,  city  of  Hindostan,  prov.  Beja^ 
poor,  occupying  both  banks  of  the  Toombuddn ; 
that  part  of'^  it  on  the  S.E.  bank  only  being  pro- 
perly called  Bijanagur,  and  belonging  to  the  Brit- 
ish dom.,  presid.  Madras;  117  m.  SSE.  Bejapoor. 
27  m.  N  W.  Belhirv ;  lat.  15°  14'  N.,  long.  76^  87* 
E.  It  was  formerly  the  metropolis  of  a  kingdom, 
which,  in  1515,  comprised  the  two  Caraatics, 
above  and  below  the  Ghauta,  and  is  said  to  have 
then  been  24  m.  in  cire. :  this  [portion  of  the  con- 
joined cities  is  now  about  8  m.  m  cire.,  nearly  un- 
mhabited,  and  in  ruins ;  these,  however,  are  all  of 
granite,  and  far  excel  in  extent  and  grandeur  those 
of  any  other  Hindoo  citv.  Biianagur  has  a  most 
remarkable  site.  *  It  is  built,'  says  Hamilton, 
'  in  a  plain,  enclosed  by  and  encumbered  with 
stupendous  masses  of  granite,  which,  in  some 
places,  swell  up  from  the  surface  to  the  form  and 
magnitude  of  liills,and  in  others  present  detached 
blocks  of  various  forms,  ])iled  over  one  another  in 
all  sorts  of  fantastical  combinations ;  occasionally 
surrounding  little  isolated  valleys,  and  elsewhere 
obstmcting  all  passage  except  through  the  narrow 
winding  defiles  which  separate  the  fragments.  The 
communicadons  firom  street  to  street,  and  in  some 
cases  the  streeta  also,  follow  the  mazes  of  these 
chasms,  and  in  one  quarter  the  princii)al  thorough- 
fare is  under  a  naturally  covered  pa<»age  formed 
by  the  rocks ;  the  ancient  battlements,  turrets,  and 
gateways  are  still  in  a  high  state  of  preservation : 
the  main  streets  paved  with  immense  flags  of 
granite,  are  intersect^  at  intervals  by  aqueducta ; 
and  tanks  and  weUs  are  excavated  in  the  rock. 
Temples,  choultries  ^lotels),  and  many  other  edi- 
fices, public  and  private,  of  tlie  purest  style  of 
Hindoo  architecture  and  great  dimensions,  are  seen 
perche<l  on  the  most  conspicuous  eminences  of  the 
naked  rock,or  ranged  in  long  lines  on  the  plain. . . . 
There  is  a  continued  succession  of  ][iavcd  streets, 
now  nearly  uninhaliited,  for  three  miles,  from  the 
T(M)mbaddra  ferry  to  Humpa,  at  the  W.  extremity ; 
and  the  apfiearance  of  the  ruins  about  CamlaiMtor, 
on  the  SW.,  indicate  tliat  they  also  were  once  m- 
cluded  within  the  city  boundaries. . . .  The  walls, 
pillars,  arches,  and  even  the  flat  roofs  and  beams 
of  all  these  structures  are  composed  of  granite. . . . 
Some  blocks  arc  firom  12  to  15  feet  broad,  and  thick 
in  proportion ;  and  though  of  uneaual  bulk  and 
vanous  shapes,  are  univenall^  well  cut,  fitted  to 
each  other  with  the  greatest  nicety,  and  dis))lay  at 
this  day  an  exterior  fustre  surpassing  that  of  most 
buildings  of  20  years'  standing.'  The  Toombuddra 
is  about  one-third  of  a  mile  broad,  but  at  the  upiier 

G  G 


450 


BIJNEE 


part  of  the  dty  oontaracts  greatly,  and  here  there 
was  once  a  stone  bridge :  its  bed  is  clogged  by  de- 
tached granite  rocks,  which  rive  above  its  surface, 
and  are  generally  surmounted  bv  some  religious 
edifice.  It  forms  the  N.  and  E.  boundary  of  the 
city,  which  is  enclosed  S.  and  E.  fMirtly  by  it^ 
natural  barriers,  partly  by  strong  Btonc  walls.  The 
chief  edifices  are — the  temple  of  Wittoba  (an  in- 
carnation of  Vishnu),  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the 
dty,  which  consists  of  one  central  and  four  subor- 
dinate buildings,  surrounded  by  several  smaller 
pagodas  and  numerous  cells,  and  occupying  an 
area  400  it.  long  bv  20  wide ;  this  temple  contains 
a  chariot  cut  entirely  out  of  granite,  on  which  the 
image  of  the  god  is  exposed  on  holidays :  the  temple 
of  Mahadeva,  at  Ilumpa,  with  a  pyramidical  por- 
tico of  10  stories,  and  160  ft.  highj  well  endowed 
and  attended  by  many  Brahmins,  faces  a  fine 
street  90  ft.  wide,  lined  with  handsome  stone 
buildings  decorated  with  sculptures,  nmniiig  nearly 
fMrallel  to  the  Toombuddra,  from  wliich  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  rows  of  troes,  and  loading  to  niiDtncr 
tenii)l<>,  where  there  is  an  image  of  the  bull  Xundy, 
12  ft.  high,  carved  out  of  the  solid  nK'k.  Ik-twron 
Humi»aand  Camlai)oor  the  rooks  are  studdcnl  with 
pago<la8,  the  pruicipal  of  which  ore  the  gri'at 
temple  of  Krisnna,  and  a  smaller  one  dedicated  to 
Gancsa,  but  which  contains  also  a  colossal  granite 
image  of  the  formei",  Iti  ft.  high  by  10ft.  broad. 
The  inner  dty  near  this  is  the  residence  of  the 
njah,  and  contains  the  remains  of  four  differont 
palaces.  Bijanagur  has  a  temple  of  Kama,  mth 
pillars  of  black  hornblende,  and  amongst  a  group 
of  temples  near  the  ferry  is  a  gigantic  figure  of 
Huniman,  carved  in  bas-relief.  This  dty  was 
built  by  two  brothers,  between  a.d.  1336  and 
1843 :  in  1564  it  was  taken  and  completely  sacked 
by  the  Mohammedans. 

BIJNEE,  or  KHUNTAOHAITT,  a  territory  of 
British  India,  prov.  Bengal.  It  lies  on  both  sides 
the  Brahmaputra,  extending  S.  as  far  as  the  Gnr- 
rows  mountains,  and  omsists  chietiy  of  a  level 
country,  well  fitted  for  the  production  of  rice,  espc- 
dally  that  portion  8.  of  the  Brahmaputra,  winch 
is  the  most  valuable,  and  besides  wheat,  produces 
barley,  mustard,  pulse,  betel,  sugar-cane,  and  mul- 
berry-trees. The  villages  are  generally  neatoj 
than  those  in  Bengal,  and  have  sugar-cane  and 
betel  plantations.  For  a  considerable  period 
Bi|nee  was  not  known  to  be  included  in  the  Dc- 
wanny  territories,  but  was  considered  to  belong  to 
Bootan;  presents  of  elephants  were,  however, 
made  yearly  to  both  the  Deb.  rajah  and  the  Brit- 
ish government^  and  a  kind  of  dependence  on 
dtheror  both  of  them,  acknowledged  by  the  Bijnee 
lajah.  In  1785  the  pavment  in  elephants  was 
commuted  bv  the  British  government  into  a  tri- 
bute of  2,000  rupees.  The  people  are  dn-ided  into 
two  sections,  the  Bhakat,  or  worshippers  of  Krishna 
and  the  Gorami,  who  eat  pork  and  other  meats, 
and  drink  liquors. 

Bijnee,  a  town  of  Hindoetan,  cap.  of  the  above 
i^hship,  23  m.  X.  Goalpara ;  lat.  26^  29',  long. 
90^  47'  £.  It  contains  a  fort  defended  by  a  brick 
wall,  the  residence  of  the  rajah,  some  sxnall  brick 
temples,  and  about  100  thatched  huta. 

BILBAO,  a  sea-port  town  of  Spain,  the  andent 
cap.  of  Biscay,  in  a  fine  plain,  on  the  Ner\'ion  or 
Ibidzabal,  about  10  m.  above  its  confluence  with 
the  sea  at  Portugalete,  and  45  m.  W.  of  St.  Se- 
bastian. Pop.  17,649  in  1857.  It  is  the  ter- 
minus of  two  lines  of  railway,  from  Madrid,  and 
from  the  French  frontier.  Tlie  town  is  said  to  l>e 
healthy,  notwithstanding  the  climate  is  remark- 
able for  humidity.  Houses  lofty,  uniform,  and 
well  built,  with  projecting  roofs,  that  afford  shelter 
from  the  son  and  rain.    Streets  well  paved  and 


BILBAO 

level ;  seyeral  of  them  may  be  washed  at  pleisare 
with  water  conveyed  by  an  aqueduct  from  a  moun- 
tain a  league  distant    No  wheelHl  carriages  are 
allowed  to  pass  along  the  streets,  but  all  goods 
are  carried  in  panniers  on  mules,  or  in  sledges, 
which  have  a  contrivance  bv  which  thev  con- 
stantly moisten  their  path  with  water,    llicre  is 
a  fine  promejiade  by  the  river's  side,  over  which  a 
suspension-bridge  is  thrown  in  Ueu  of  tlie  old 
wooden  one  that  fiirmerly  existed.    There  is  also  a 
st4>nc  bridge  of  three  arches,  and  a  handsome  ceme- 
tery, formed  by  the  corjNiration,  at  an  expense  of 
30,000^    Convents  and  monasteries  are  here  very 
conspicuous.    Tliey  are  immense  pUes,  of  little 
architectural  beauty,  having  strong  gratings  to  all 
the  windows.    Some  of  them  are  verv  rich ;  and 
a  nun  must  take  alwut  30,IKK)  reals '(300/.)  into 
tlie  convent  on    admission.     The   o^otftofrs,    or 
slaughter  houses,  in  the  Tuscan  style,  in  the  centre 
of  the  tim-n,  are  well  cfmtrived,  well  vcntilatoil, 
and  (Hjpiously  supplie<i  H-ith  fresh  water.      The 
coqMtratioi)  is  extremely  riclu    On  the  occasion  ut 
the  visit  of  Fenlinaiid  Vll.  no  less  than  2,0<Mj,(KK) 
reals,  or  about  20,000/.,  were  exiiended  in  feasts, 
decorations,  and  bull-fights.    Their  fumls    ari-se 
from  octrois,  or  tolls,  uiwn  the  various  nexiessorics 
imported  by  sea  or  lanjl,  and  the  monopoly  of  tlie 
supj»ly  of  beef,  which  is  farmed  to  the  butcherii. 
They  maintain  an  elementary  s<.>hool  for  teaching 
reading,  writing,  and  Latin,  by  an  imiK>st  of  4 
reals  p4'.r  ton  on  foreign  vessels  entering  the  port. 
The  Consulado,  or  'Iribunol  of  Commerce,  sup- 
ports schools  of  drawing,  architecture,  mathematics, 
and  the  French  and  EnglLsh  languages,  for  the 
children  of  the  town  and  neighbourhood.    Tliea* 
is  a  hospital    calculated    to    accommodate  250 
{Mitients.    The  bank  of  Bilbao,  founded  in  1857, 
with  a  capital  of  100,000/.,  docs  a  very  extensive 
business,  and  circulates  notes  to  the  amount  of 
treble  its  capital.    Tlie  manufactures  consist  of 
various  descnptions  of  hardware,  anchors,  leather, 
papier,  hats,  tobacco,  and  earthenware.    'There  arc 
several  docks  for  building  merchant  vessels,  and 
two  large  rope  manufactories.    Bilbao  is  tlie  prin- 
cipal \\oTt  for  the  N.  of  Spain.    The  exporta  prin- 
cipally consist  of  iron  and  steel,  wool,  fish,  fruits, 
and  sometimes  large  quantities  of  com  from  the 
interior ;  but  the  trade  of  the  port  has  declined 
ever   since   Saxon  wools  began  to  be  preferred 
to  those  of  Spain  in  foreign  markets.    Tne  shii>- 
ping  in  the  two  years  1859-60  b  represented  in  the 
following  figures : — 


Tmt 

Entered 

Ocand 

18.19 
18(M) 

Ship*          Tent 

Rhipa 

Tom 

4C6 
54'i 

83,847 
47,570 

486      !  27.517 
628      i  45,2&8 

The  value  of  the  exports  in  the  two  yeara  1859-60 
was  as  follows : — 


T««r 

Whwt  and  Flour 

Ocnctml  Expona 

Tocal 

18A9 
1860 

£ 

5,839 
128,463 

£ 
21,659 
63,755 

£ 
27,491 
177,281 

The  total  value  of  the  imports  in  1660  amoonted 
to  839,747/.,  divided  between  the  following  coun- 
tries : — 

£ 

Great  Britain 845.130 

Norway 229..%97 

France 110.816 

Venezuela 106,912 

Cuba  and  United  States    .       .       .  36,896 

Holland,  Belgium,  and  Germany     .  10,897 


BILEDULGERID 

The  impoTtfl  consist  principally  of  cotton  and 
M'oolkn  fabric(s  and  colonial  products.  Large 
vessels  usually  stop  at  Portugalete,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  river,  or  at  Olaviaga,  about  4  m.  below  the 
town.  Spring  tides  rise  about  13  ft.;  and  by 
taking  advantage  of  them,  vessels  of  considerable 
burden  occasionally  reach  the  town.  There  is 
steam  communication,  by  regular  lines  of  steamers, 
between  the  peart  and  London,  Amsterdam,  Liver- 
pool, Barcelona,  Bayonne,  Seville,  and  Santander. 

Bilbao  was  founded  under  a  charter  granted  by 
a  lord  of  Biscay,  in  1300 ;  from  whom,  and  suc- 
ceetling  sovereigns,  it  obtained  several  privileges. 
The  Consulado  of  Buigos  was  transferred  thither 
at  the  end  of  the  15th  century ;  and  its  decisions 
in  matters  of  commerce  were  referred  to  throughout 
Spain,  and  re^^ded  as  of  the  highest  authority 
out  of  it.  It  has  been  alternately  occupied  by  the 
different  \'ictorious  parties  in  the  late  ci\'il  war. 
(IntToduccion  a  la  (rcogratia  dc  la  Kspana;  Report 
of  Mr.  Young,  British  Consul  at  Bilbao,  in  Consular 
Kepdrt.-^  l«r,-i,) 

HlLKDUI/jJERID,  the  name  given  to  an  exten- 
sive territorj'  of  Africa,  embracing  the  country 
lying  between  the  S.  dcclivitv  ijf  Atlas  and  the 
Sahara,  or  Great  Desert ;  and  l>etween  Fezzan  on 
the  K.,  and  Cape  Non,  on  the  Atlantic,  on  the  W. 
It  mostly  consists  of  vast  ileserts,  differing  but 
little  from  the  Great  Desert,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected In  parts,  however,  where  there  is  water, 
extensive  plantations  of  the  date-palm,  which  here 
flouristiQs  m  great  luxuriance,  are  met  with.  It  is 
said  by  some  that  its  real  name,  Blaid-el-Jeridy 
means  country  of  the  date-palm ;  while  others, 
amon^  whom  is  Shaw,  interpret  Blaid-el-Jerid  as 
meaning  dry  or  parched  country.  (Shaw's  Travels, 
p.  4^  4  to  e<l.) 

BILLEKICAY,  a  chapelr>'  and  hamlet  of  Eng- 
land, CO.  Essex,  hund.  Barnstable,  par.  Great 
Burstead,  24  m.  ENE.  London.  Pop.  1,390  in 
1801.  The  hamlet  is  on  an  eminence  overlooking 
a  rich  vale,  and  commanding  extensive  Wews. 
Silk  braid  and  laces  are  the  only  manufactures, 
and  these  are  declining.  There  is  a  weekly  market, 
Tues.,  and  fairs,  Aug.  2  and  Oct,  9,  for  cattle. 
Tlie  parish  church  is  about  2  m.  from  Billericay, 
but  there  is  an  episcopal  chapel  in  the  centre  of 
the  town,  and  three  dissenting  chapels;  there  is 
m\m  a  small  8ch(X)l.  Billericay  is  the  central  town 
of  a  |)0or  union  of  26  pars.,  and  of  a  registrar's  dis- 
trict of  15,031  inhab.  About  1  m.  from  the  church 
are  some  earth -works,  called  Blunt's  Walls,  where 
lioman  remains  have  been  dug  up. 

BILLITON,  a  rocky  sterile  island  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago,  between  Sumatra  and  Borneo.  It  is 
of  a  circular  form,  about  50  m.  in  length  and  45  in 
breadth.  The  population  is  very  scanty,  not  being 
supiH)sed  to  excee<i  2,000  or  3,000.  Iron  ore,  which 
ill  tropical  countries  is  usually  scarce,  is  found  here 
in  great  abundance,  and  the  metal  produced  from 
it  iM  said  to  be  of  excellent  quality.  The  produce 
of  rice  is  not  sufficient  even  for  the  consumption  of 
the  pop.  The  Dutch  maintain  a  garrison  in  the 
Lsland,  and  some  cruisers  on  the  surrounding  seas, 
to  clieck  the  piracy  in  which  the  natives  are  prone 
to  indulge.  The  interior  has  not  been  explored. 
It  is,  however,  belie  veil  to  contain  mines  of  tin. 

BILLOM,  a  town  of  France,  d<*p.  Puy  de  Ddme, 
cap.  cant.,  on  a  hill,  14  m.  E8E.  Clermont.  Pop. 
4,t>00  in  1861.  This  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
towns  in  Auvergne.  The  walls,  by  which  it  was 
formerly  surrounded,  have  disappeared,  and  its 
manufactures  and  commerce  have  also  declined. 
A  univiTsity,  founded  here  in  1455,  continued  to 
flourish  till  1555,  at  which  epoch  it  was  made 
over  to  the  Jesuits,  by  whom  it  was  administered 
till  the  suppression  of  their  order,  when  it  also 


BILSTON 


451 


cea0ed  to  exist.  At  mesent  the  town  has  m 
departmental  college.  During  the  period  of  the 
League,  Billom  was  a  princifMil  focus  of  the  dis- 
orders that  agitated  Auveigne.  Storms  are  very 
frequent  in  this  district;  and,  in  consequence  of 
the  prevalence  of  ndny  weather,  the  town  has 
sometimes  been  called  Cepoui  de  la  Daue  Auvergne, 

BILSA,  a  town  of  ilindostan,  prov.  Malwa, 
belon^ng  to  Sdndia,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  Betwa, 
near  its  confluence  with  the  Buss,  32  m.  NE. 
Bhopaul.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall,  and 
had,  in  1 820, 5,000  houses.  The  contiguous  country 
is  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  its  tobacco. 

BILSEN,  a  town  of  Belgium,  prov.  Limbuig, 
cap.  cant.,  on  the  Demer,  7  m.  W.  Maestricht,  on 
the  railway  from  Maestricht  to  Hasselt,  Pop. 
8,500  in  1856.  It  produces  earthenware  and 
cutlery. 

BILSTON,  a  maricet  town  and  chapelry  of 
(England,  co.  Stafford,  X.  div.,  hun(L  Seisdon,  par. 
Wolverhampton,  2^  m.  SE.  Wolverimmpton,  1 1  m. 
NW.  Birmingham,  and  107  m.  NW.  London.  The 
population  amounted  to  20,181  in  1841,  and  had 
risen  to  24,364  in  1861.  The  towi^  stands  on 
rising  ground,  and  is  very  irregularly  built.  The 
princiiml  streets  contain  s<»me  substantial  and 
handsome  houses,  and,  within  the  last  few  years, 
its  appearance  has  been  much  im])roved ;  though, 
from  the  number  of  foi]^es  and  collieries,  it  has  a 
sombre  aspect.  On  this  account  the  country  all 
around  Is  usually  designated  the  '  Black  Countn'.' 
The  principal  buildings  arc — the  parish  churcb ; 
St.  Mary's,  a  fine  stnicture,  built  in  the  Gothic 
style  of  architecture,  in  1830 ;  and  the  Rom.  Cath. 
chapel,  a  handsome  structure  in  tlie  same  style, 
erected  in  1838.  The  gov.  of  the  town  is  vested 
in  two  constables,  appointed  annually  at  the  court 
leet  held  by  the  lord  of  the  manor.  Under  the 
Reform  Act,  Bilston  forms  part  of  the  borough  of 
Wolverhampton,  vrith  which  it  is  intimately  con- 
nected ;  but  for  all  parochial  imriMises,  it  is  inde- 
pendent Petty  sessions  are  held  on  Tuesday  in 
each  week;  and  a  court  of  requests,  for  the 
recovery  of  debts  not  exceeding  5/.,  is  held  every 
second  month,  alternately  with  WiUenhalL  The 
liN-ing  is  a  curacy,  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
dean  of  Wolverhampton ;  the  patronage  is  in  the 
inhab.  at  large,  every  householder,  whether  male 
or  female,  being  entitled  to  vote  at  the  election  of 
the  minister.  There  are  places  of  worship  for 
Independents,  Baptists,  IMmitive  and  Weslevan 
Methodists,  and  Roman  Catholics.  There  u  m 
blue-coat  school,  founded  and  endowed  by  Hum- 
phrey Perry,  Esq.,  of  Stafford,  for  clothing  and 
educating  six  boys ;  since  extended  to  the  idmis- 
sion  of  two  or  three  more,  by  additional  small 
bequests ;  two  schools  under  the  British  or  national 
system ;  and  an  ^  Orphan  Cholera  School,*  erected 
and  endowed  in  1833,  for  the  instruction  of  450 
orphans,  left  destitute  by  the  cholera,  which  pre- 
vailed in  the  previous  year.  This  disease  nu^ed 
here  with  such  desolating  effect  as  neariy  to  ctear 
entire  streets  of  their  inhabitants,  and  to  oblige 
many  laige  manufactories  to  stop  working  from  the 
number  of  hands  that  fell  victims  to  its  violence. 

Bilston,  which,  down  to  a  comparatively  recent 
period,  was  but  an  inconsiderable  place,  is  wholly 
indebted  for  its  growth  and  importance  to  the  iron 
trade  carried  on  in  it  and  its  immediate  vicinity. 
Its  advantages  in  this  respect  are  not  surpassed  by 
those  of  any  other  place.  Round  the  town  are  all 
but  inexhaustible  mines  of  coal  and  ironstone,  the 
main  bed  of  coid  being  30  ft.  thick,  with  strata  of 
ironstone  both  above  and  below ;  and  laige  sup- 
plies of  the  finest  sand  used  in  the  casting  of 
metals,  are  also  found  in  the  vicinity.  Bilston  haa 
the  farther  advantage  of  being   connected,  by 

GO  2 


462 


BINCHE 


nnmeroufl  canals  and  river  navk^ation,  as  well  as 
by  several  lines  of  railway,  with  1x)udon,  Livcr- 

SK)1,  Bristol,  Hull,  and  the  chief  triwns  of  (;rent 
ritain.  The  importance  of  these  ini|»roved  means 
of  communication  may  be  judged  of  frf)m  the  fact 
that,  preN-iously  to  the  opening  of  the  first  canal  in 
1772,  there  was  onlv  one  blast  furnace  for  smelting 
iron  at  BUston.  T^heir  subscr^uent  increase  has 
been  quite  extraordinarv ;  and  there  are  now  great 
numbers  of  furnaces,  ioiges,  rolling  and  slitting 
mills,  which,  with  the  coal  trade,  furnish  emph>y- 
ment  to  a  large  popuUtion.  The  manufacture  of 
japanned  and  enamelled  gcMHls  is  verj'  extensively 
canrieil  on  in  the  town,  of  which  it  may  be  said  to 
be  the  staple  trade.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  a 
remarkable  (|uarr\',  the  stones  in  which  lie  upon 
each  other  m  l5  distinct  layers,  increasing  in 
thickness  from  the  surface,  the  lowest  Ixung  alMmt 
tt  ft,  thick.  Tliis  stone  is  used  for  various  pur{)oses, 
and  is  formed  into  grindstones,  whetstones,  mill- 
stones, and  cisterns.  At  Kradlev,  a  small  adjoining 
vUbige  (in  the  W.  div.  of  Cuttlestone  hund.),  a  tire 
rises  from  a  stratum  of  coal  about  4  ft.  tliick  and 
80  ft,  deep,  which  has  been  burning  for  above  half 
m  centur}',  and  has  reduced  several  acres  of  land 
to  a  calx  or  cinder,  used  in  the  making  of  roads. 
This  place  formojlv  l>eh>nged  to  the  portionists  or 
prebendaries  of  Wolverhampton,  and  in  their 
charter  was  called  Ttilsreton.  It  was  a  royal 
demesne  at  the  time  of  the  Omquest;  and  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  under  the  name  of  *  Billes- 
tune,'  was  certitied  to  be  free  of  toll  In  1824,  an 
Act  of  Parliament  was  obtained  for  a  market,  now 
held  on  the  Monday  and  Saturday  of  each  week, 
independently  of  the  toll-free  markets,  or  fairs  for 
cattle,  which  are  held  on  Whit-Monday  and  the 
Monday  next  before  Michaelmas-day. 

BINCHE,  a  town  of  Belgium,  prov.  Hainault, 
cap.  cant.,  on  the  Haine,  9  m.  ESE.  Mons.  Pop. 
6,600  in  1 866.  It  produces  earthenware  and  cutlerj', 
and  has  tanneries,  glass-works,  and  tile-works, 
with  a  considerable  trade  in  lace,  paper,  and  marble 
and  coal  jirocunni  in  the  vicinitv. 

BINDKABUND,  a  town  of'  Hindostan,  prov. 
Agra,  on  the  Jumna,  35  m.  NNW.  Agnu  The 
place  is  famous  in  the  histon'  of  Krishna,  to  whom 
many  temples  are  de<licated.  *  The  princi))al  pagoda 
is  one  of  the  most  elaborate  and  massive  works  of 
Braliminical  architecture.  There  arc  also  numerous 
sacred  p«N>ls,  where  pilgrims  perform  ablution. 

BINGEX,  a  town  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse 
Darmstadt,  prov.  Khine,  cap.  cant.,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Nahe  with  the  Khine,  14  m.  W. 
Bientz,  on  the  railway  from  Mentz,  or  Mavence,  to 
Cologne  Pop.  6,020'  in  1 86 1 ,  The  town  has  some 
manufactures,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  com  and 
wine.  iCear  it  is  the  Bingerloch,  a  rapid  in  the 
Khine,  which  is  dangerous  when  tlie  water  is  low, 
and  on  the  removal  of  which  large  sums  have  been 
at  different  times  expended.  Bingen  is  verj'  ancient^ 
having  existed  under  the  Komans. 

BINGLEY,  a  market  town  of  England.  W.  K, 
CO.  York,  178  m.  NW.  by  N.  London,  32  m.  W.  bj- 
8.  York,  near  the  Aire,  on  a  branch  line  of  the 
Great  Northern  railway.  Pop.  6,238  in  1861.  Tlie 
town  consists  chiefly  of  one  long  street^  tolerably 
built,  and  well  supj)lied  with  water.  All  Saints 
Church  is  a  neat  ethlice,  in  the  later  English  style ; 
the  Baptists,  Independents,  and  Methodists,  have 
places  of  worship.  A  free  grammar  si'hool  was 
endowed  by  Henry  VIII.;  there  is  also  a  national 
0ch(M)l  and  wrme  almshouses.  The  worsted,  cotton, 
and  {taper  manufactures  are  carried  on,  and  there 
is  some  trade  in  malt,  which  is  conveyed  t4)  other 
parts  by  rail,  as  well  as  by  the  Leeds  and  liver- 
p(H)l  cxuifll,  that  passes  bv  the  town. 

BIK,  or  BEEK  (an.  ^irtha),  a  town  of  Asiatic 


BIRMAH 

Turkey,  on  the  declivity  of  a  steep  hill,  on  the  E. 
l>ank  of  the  Euphrates.* 75  m.  XE.  Aleppo,  and  38 
m.  WSW.  Orfa  ;  lat.  36°  iiil'  N.,  long.  38°  7'  15" 
E.  Pop.  estimated  at  f).«)00.  It  is  sum»undedon 
the  land  side  by  a  well-built  walL  Within  the 
town,  on  a  steep  rock,  is  the  citadel  or  castle,  now 
in  a  state  of  dilapidation.  It  has  several  mostpies, 
a  public  bath,  and  a  caravansera.  The  rocks  on 
which  the  town  l<(  built  consist  of  chalk;  and  the 
houses  bi>ing  also  formed  of  this  material,  its  white- 
ness, during  sunshine,  jK^werfully  affects  the  eyes, 
which  are  als«)  injured  by  the  dust  that  w  bU»wn 
about  Bir  is  the  )X)int'at  which  travellers  and 
caravans  l»etween  Aleppo,  on  the  one  side,  and 
Orfa,  Diarbekr,  &c.,  on  the  other,  usually  cniss 
the  Eui)hrates,  which  they  do  in  Ixtats  of  a  pecu- 
liar descri[)tion.  It  is  aLso  the  nearest  point  on 
the  Euphrates  to  Iskenderoun,  and  has  latterly 
accjuired  considerable  celebrity  fn>m  its  being  tlie 
ponit  at  which  Colonel  Chesney  has  pn)p(>sed  to 
begin  and  terminate  the  na\igation  of  the  Eu- 
phrates bv  steam.    (See  Euphrates.) 

BIKKfcNHEAD,  a  sea-pt>rt  town  of  England, 
CO.  Chester,  hund.  Wirrall,  on  the  W.  shore  of  the 
Mersey,  15  m.  E.  of  Chester,  and  199  m.  NW. 
London  by  road,  or  199^  m.  by  London  and  North 
Western  railwav,  of  wliii'h  it  is  a  termirml  station. 
The  ]M)p.,  which  was  \mt  110  in  1801,  increa|ted  to 
2,669  in  1831 ;   to  8,223  in  1841 ;  U>  37,513  in 
1851 :  and  to  51,649  in  1861.    This  extraordinary 
increase  has  taken  place  }Hirtly  from  the  siiri>lus 
pop.  of  Liverpool  coming  here  to  reside,  and  partly 
from  the  construction  of  docks  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  shipping  frequenting  the  Mersey. 
The  Birkenhead  docks  were  first  i»rojected,  in  1827, 
by  the  late  Mr.  Wm.  I^ird.    The  corporation  of 
Liver[KX)l,  in  1828,  purchased  the  necessar>'  land 
to  prevent  the  sclieme  ;  notwithstanding  which  a 
bill  was  carried  through  parliament,  hi  1844,  au- 
thorising the  scheme,  and  by  another  act,  ]>asse<l 
in  1857,  the  docks  on   both  sides  of  the  Alerscv 
were  placet!  under  the  management  of  one  trusty 
called  the  IMersev  Docks  and  Harbour  l^mrd.  The 
Birkenhead  docks  altt^ether  consist  of  16u  acres 
of  water  space,  including  the  Great  Float  of  120 
acres,  with  a  minimum  depth  of  water  of  22  ft. 
The  total  cost  of  these  works  has  been  upwards  of 
8,000,000/.    There  are  several  large  manufactories 
on  the  margin  of  the  Great  Float,  including  the 
Canada  Works  of  Messrs.  Peto  and  Co.,  and  Alcssrs. 
Lc^an  and  Todd  Naylor  and  Co's  extensive  ore 
crushing  works;  and  fronting  the  river,  closely 
adjoining  the  docks,  arc  ten  private  graving  doi'ks, 
four  in  the  occupation  of  Messrs.  John  I^Aird,  S<ms, 
and  Co.,  and  six  in  that  of  Messrs.  Clover  and 
Koyle,  and  the  Woo<lside  Graving  Hock  Com]»any. 
Two  of  the  docks  at  Messrs.  Lords'  works  are  large 
enough  to  take  in  men-of-war  of  the  first  class, 
and  at  this  establishment  arc  employed  between 
2,000  and  3,000  men,  in  ship-building,  engineering, 
and  boiler  making.    The  communication  between 
Liveq)ool  and  Hirkenhead,  by  means  of  st«am  fi<JT>'- 
l)oats,  b  extensive ;  so  much  so  that,  in  fact,  it  may 
be  considered  as  but  a  suburb  of  Liver(>ool.     Hir- 
kenhead  returns  one  meml>er  to  the  H.  of  C. : 
re;pistered  electors  3,589  in  1865.    (For  further  de- 
tails see  LiVERpoou) 

BIKMAH,  or  THE  BIRMAN  EMPIUE,  an 
extensive  country  of  India  Ijeyond  the  Ganges, 
formerly  the  most  |x>werful  state  of  that  {wninsula, 
and  considerably  larger  than  at  present ;  exteii<i- 
ing  betwwn  the  lat.  of  9*^  and  27°  N.,  upwanls  of 
1.000  m.  in  length,  and  nearly  (MK)  m.  in  breaiith. 
At  present  it  ci>mprises  the  territor\'  l»etweeii  lat. 
160  45'  and  27^  22'  30"  N.,  and  long.  92°  43'  and 
99°  E. ;  having  W.  the  Iiritish  prov.  of  Aracaii, 
Chittagong,  and  l^egu;  N.  irpi)er   ^Vssam    and 


BIRMAH 


453 


Tibet ;  E.  the  Chinese  prov.  of  Yan-nan,  Laos, 
the  country  of  the  indep.  Shans,  and  the  prov.  of 
3Iartaban  belonfi^ing  to  the  British,  and  S.  the 
kingdom  of  Siam  and  the  British  province  of 
Pe^.  Area,  about  200,000  sq.  m.  Pop.  estimated 
at  2,000,000. 

Mountains  (snd  Rivers, — Birmah  is  enclosed  £. 
and  W.  by  two  priiiciual  offsets  from  tlie  Hima- 
laya chain  :  in  the  N.  and  central  parts  of  the 
country  there  are  also  many  subordinate  mountain 
ranges,  running  mostly  parallel  to  the  former,  and 
like  them  decreasing  graduallv  in  height  toward 
the  S.  From  lat,  16^  (Cape  Kegrais)  to  289  X., 
the  Anopectomoo,  or  Yoomadong  mountains  con- 
stitute the  \V.  boundary.  At  uie  latter  point  of 
lat.  this  ran^e  is  200  m!  in  breadth,  and  from  2,000 
to  5,000  ft.  m  height :  in  lat.  21^  the  elevation  u 
couiniderably  greater,  but  thenceforward  it  rapidly 
declines,  and  the  breadth  becomes  so  much  less 
tliat,  in  17^  lat,  it  scarcely  exceeds  20  m. ;  this 
chain  terminates  in  a  rockv  promontory,  bounding 
8K.  the  Bay  of  Ben^L  6n  the  £.  border  a  suc- 
ccssftion  of  ranges,  uihabited  by  wild  and  half- 
subjected  tribes,  stretch  from  the  Gulf  of  Martaban 
to  the  Chinese  frontier.  Zingyet-Thoiengy  the  high- 
est point  of  the  southernmost  of  these  ranges,  is 
no  more  than  3,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea ; 
but  between  lat,  18^  and  2'29  N.  they  rise  much 
higher,  and  in  the  N.  attain  a  very  considerable 
elevation,  the  Phungan  mountain  in  about  27^  15' 
N.,  and  97°  16'  E.,  being  12,474  ft.  high,  and 
covered  with  perpetual  snow.  W.  of  the  vale  of 
Ku1m>,  the  Muring  range  now  bounds  the  Birmese 
and  Munueepoor  territoriei< ;  and  E.  of  these,  four 
hill-ranges  extend  in  parallel  lines,  f<»r  a  long  dis- 
tance S.,  enclosing  three  extensive  valleys  of  the 
Khyendwen,  M(M),  and  Irrawadi  rivers.  Ranges 
running  E.  and  W.  are  unfrequent,  but  there  is  one 
in  20^  N.  lat.,  about  50  m.  SE.  of  Ava ;  and  a 
small  range,  the  Galla<lzct  hills,  in  about  18°  20' 
N.,  bounding  N.  the  great  plain  of  Pegu. 

There  are  many  plains,  but  none  of  them  very 
extensive.  The  largest  Is  the  valley  of  llukong, 
in  the  X.,  50  m.  long,  and  varying  from  15  to  45 
m.  in  breadth  ;  boimdedon  all  sides  by  hills,  which 
probably,  like  that  of  Munnce{x)or,  at  one  period 
formed  the  bed  of  an  alpine  lake.  (^Vuiat.  Joum.) 
Excepting  these,  there  are  few  plains  of  any  size ; 
but  numerous  valleys,  of  the  highest  fertiUtv  and 
beauty,  as  Kubo,  Bhamo,  and  those  of  the  larger 
rivers :  these  arc  chiefly  in  the  S.  and  central  parta 
of  the  country  ;  in  the  X.  they  arc  mostly  rocky 
defiles,  or  narrow  step|)es. 

The  principal  rivers  arc  the  Irrawaili  {EriwcUe)^ 
with  iti)  afHuent^  the  Xhigthee,  Moo,  and  Lung- 
tchuen  ;  and  the  Than-lweng,  aiul  Si-tang.  The 
irrawadi,  an  ^Vsiatic  river  of  the  first  class,  rises  in 
Tibet,  and  runs  generally  S.  through  a  great  part 
of  the  Birman  empire,  falling,  after  a  course  of 
(}(N)  m.,  into  the  sea,  by  a  great  number  of  mouths 
in  the  Briti!«h  pro\'ince  of  Pegiu  The  Than-lweng, 
<»r  Sauluen,  is  also  a  river  of  the  first  class,  and 
rises  in  Tibet,  beyond  the  soimjes  of  the  Irrawadi : 
it  descends  in  a  nearly  uniform  S.  direction  in 
almosit  all  ita  course,  bounding  the  Birman  empire 
E.,  and  falls  into  the  sea  between  Martaban  and 
Moidmcin  in  Siam. 

Tlie  Si-tang  rises  from  the  I^ake  of  Guanngrue, 
in  lat.  2(/^  20'  X.,  runs  S.,  and  diiiigorges  it«elf,  after 
a  course  of  about  200  m.,  by  a  lai^e  mouth,  but 
nearly  useless  as  a  harlNmr,  or  for  navigation, 
iKH'aiLie  blocked  up  by  an  island  and  many  dan- 
gerous shoals,  with  no  more  than  a  fathom  water 
< luring  the  cHlux  of  the  tides,  and  not  available 
fur  any  vf.NS<*Ls  drawing  d  ft.  water.  This  river 
communicates  by  cro^s  branches  with  both  the 
Irrawadi  and  Than-lweng.    The  Xingthce  rises  in 


the  Patkol  chain,  on  the  borders  of  Assam  ;  and 
running  in  a  SW.  direction,  faUs  into  the  Irra- 
wadi, opposite  Yandabo,  in  21o  40*  N.  lat.,  under 
the  name  of  the  Khyen-dwen.  It  is  navigable  for 
the  largest  class  of  boats  as  far  as  Kingnao,  in 
23°  45' X.  lat.;  almost  all  the  streams  which  fall 
into  it  on  the  E.  side  are  auriferous. 

llie  largest  kike  is  that  of  Kandangyee,  or  the 
Great  Royal  Lake,  25  m.  X.  Ava,  which  is  30  m. 
long,  8  or*  9  m.  broad,  and  traversed  by  the  Moo 
river,  a  tributar\'  of  the  Irrawadu 

Minerals.— The  X.  pro\'ince8  are  the  richest  in 
valuable  minerals.  Besides  fine  marble,  serpen- 
tine, and  nephrite,  and  amber  mines  are  worked 
by  the  Chinese.  Amber  is  found  in  large  quan- 
tities in  the  valley  of  Hukong;  gold  to  the  value 
of  100,000t,  and  silver  to  that  of  120,000^  per 
annum ;  all  the  varieties  of  the  sapphire,  with 
spinelle  rubies,  are  found  in  great  abundance  at 
about  five  days'  journey  ESE.  from  the  capital, 
and  are  an  im|>ortant  article  of  export;  topazes, 
a  few  emeralds  and  diamonds,  though  of  an  in- 
ferior qualitv ;  iron,  copper,  tin,  lead,  antimony, 
arsenic,  vitriol,  sulphur,  and  nitre  are  found.  Pe- 
troleum is  obtained  in  large  quantities  on  the 
Irrawadi,  above  Prome,  near  the  frontier  of  the 
British  province  of  Pegu.  The  wells,  about  2  m. 
from  the  river,  produce  each  a  daily  average  of 
150  gallons,  which  sells  on  the  spot  for  about 
1*.  85.  per  cwt.  The  gross  annual  produce  is  almut 
80,000,000  lbs.  It  is  used  for  lights  and  }>aving 
boats,  and  is  said  to  have  the  valuable  pniperty  of 
securing  wood  from  the  attacks  of  insects.  Coal 
is  met  with  in  various  spots.  The  ^vemment 
has  a  monopolv  of  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones. 
(Crawfunl's  Jouni.,  pp.  441,  442;  Pemberton,  pp. 
13,  133-142;  Malcolm's  Travels.  L  169.) 

The  Climate  b  generally  healthy,  especially  in 
the  hilly  tracts,  "rhe  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
are  seldom  ex|>erienced,  except  before  the  perio- 
dical rains.  Fr»>m  I*n»me  to  hit,  2iP  or  27°  X., 
there  are  three  seasons ;  a  cold,  lasting  from  Xov. 
to  Feb.;  a  hot,  from  March  to  June;  and  rain 
falling  during  the  remaining  months.  Heavy 
mists  occur  in  Nov.  and  Dec,  but  no  snow  falls; 
and  onlv  a  little  hail  in  April  or  the  banning  of 
^lay.  Earthquakes  are  n«)t  unfrequent,  and  often 
usher  in  ami  conclude  the  wet  season.  The  tran- 
sitions of  the  seasons  are  extremely  sudden ;  the 
greatest  heats  are  in  March  and  April ;  the  trees 
shed  their  leaves  in  May,  but  only  to  be  imme- 
diately clothed  with  new  ones.  In  June,  July, 
and  August,  the  inundations  from  the  mountains 
raise  the  river  at  Ava  to  32  ft,  above  its  lowest 
level  (Feb.) ;  but  all  the  waters  are  drained  oflf 
again  by  Oct,  (Sangermano's  Descr.,  pp.  164, 165; 
Pemberton's  ReiM»rt.) 

VegetaJUe  Products. — Sixteen  thousand  different 
species  of  plantj*,  natives  of  the  Birmese  <lominions, 
were  collecte<l  by  Dr.  Wallich,  when  he  visited 
the  empire  in  1826 :  amongst  them  were  the  teak, 
saul,  7  kinds  of  (»ak,  2  kinds  of  walnut,  3  species 
of  willow,  a  roHC ;  the  almost  unique  Amherstia 
nobilis^  a  magnificent  sitecies  of  Legumiwmt,  20  ft, 
high,  handfuls  of  whose  fine  deep  scarlet  fiowen 
are  offered  by  the  natives  Itefore  the  images  of 
BiMMlh;  the  Jlibiscus  Lindlei;  many  new  genera 
of  Orcliidcfe,  Scitaminea;,  and  Liliaccas.  (Wal- 
lich's  Piantje  Rariores.)  l*he  teak-tree  abounds  in 
forests  along  the  hills  skirting  the  Irrawadi,  and 
in  the  X.  produces,  both  on  hills  and  in  valleys; 
in  lat.  23°  30'  it  approaches  closely  to  the  baiiks 
of  the  river.  The  most  amvenient  and  accessible 
forest  in  the  country  is  that  of  Sarawadi,  which 
furnishes  nearly  the  whole  of  what  is  expi>rte<l  to 
foreign  countries.  The  teak  of  Ava  is  said  to  be 
less  durable  than  that  of  the  coast  of  Blalabar,  but 


454 


BIKMAH 


it  hofl  been  anccrtaincd  by  experiment  to  be 
fetronger  than  the  \a»t,  and  therefore  titter  for 
machinery-.  In  the  vale  of  Kiilw  the  wiiil  and 
vamLnh-trce  are  most  plentiful ;  baml)oo  ^^ws  to 
the  circumference  of  24  in.  in  the  jungles,  which 
contain  whatever  other  underwomls  are  preva- 
lent in  India.  The  mimosa  catechuy  Ru^^-cane, 
indigo,  and  cotton-plant,  arc  common ;  and 
the  tea-plant,  of  a  genuine  character,  besides 
inferior  sorta,  flourishes  on  the  heiKhts  of  the  N. 
and  central  provinces.  Every  month  produces 
some  fresh  fruit ;  the  banana,  cocoa,  palm,  pine- 
apple^ guava,  jambo,  and  mango  are  abundant,  but 
citrons,  pomegranates,  and  oranges,  are  the  oniv 
fruit  shared  in  common  with  Euro))e.  Pulse  of  ail 
kimis,  wheat,  maize,  miUet,  rice,  and  many  pot- 
herbs, are  usual  articles  of  culture.  Firs  are  rare, 
but  junipers,  rhododendron,  and  other  European 
plants,  grow  on  the  upper  repon  of  Mount  I'huyen 
and  oUter  considerable  heights  in  the  N. 

Animeds, — Elephants  of  three  different  varieties, 
the  angle-homed  rhinoceros,  wild  boar,  tiger, 
leopard,  4rc,  inhabit  the  jungles ;  buffaloes,  por- 
cupines, civet  and  wild  cats,  and  great  num))er8  of 
apes,  deer,  and  antelopes  are  found.  Occasionallv 
m  white  elephant  is  met  with,  which  is  mucb 
prized,  and  one  is  always  kept  as  part  of  the  roval 
establishment  at  Ava,  where  he  is  treated  with 
great  care  and  attention.  There  are  no  jackals  or 
foxes,  but  dogs  are  numerous.  Game  is  not  so 
abundant  as  in  Hindostan ;  there  is  a  small  spe- 
cies of  hare,  but  very  inferior,  and  found  only  in 
the  high  lands.  Snipes,  quaUs,  pigeons,  our 
oommon  fowl  in  the  wild  state,  three  species  of 
peafowl,  with  one  species  of  pheasant,  are  found ; 
parrots,  and  other  birds  of  ricli  plumage,  are  plen- 
tiful; the  gaviol,  in  the  Irrawadi,  chameleon, 
many  lizards  and  formidable  seri)ents,  as  the 
eobra-de-capella,  cobra  ctnu ;  tortoises,  the  mango- 
fish,  sable,  and  many  others;  scorpions,  si)iders, 
and  centipe<les.  leeches,  whicli  altound  in  dangerous 
numbers  in  the  marshes,  mos(}uitoes,  and  a  very 
voracious  ant^  destructive  to  house  furniture,  are 
among  the  animals,     ((^rawfurd,  pp.  4o4-4;'>7.) 

Fei^de. — Several  distinct  trilies  inhabit  the  Bir- 
man  territories;  viz.  1.  the  Mranma  (lUnnnns), 
between  19®  and  24°  N.  lat, ;  2.  TaJain,  lx>twecu 
tlie  Than-lwcng  river  an<l  the  Galladxct  and  .Vno- 
pectomoo  hills;  8.  Sharu,  with  more  affinity  to 
the  Siamese  than  otlier  races,  and  spreading  over 
the  E.  and  X.  provinces ;  4.  Casaayers,  cliieHy  in 
the  capital;  5.  A'Aye/is,  a  rude  people,  scattered 
among  the  other  population,  but  living  in  the 
mildesit  parts  of  the  countrj- ;  6.  the  Yd,  prolmbly 
a  Chinese  tribe  who  have  adopted  Birraese  customs, 
residing  between  the  latter  and  the  Irrawadi ;  7. 
Karyen*^  inhabiting  an  extensive  hilly  tract  be- 
tween tlicThan-lweiigaiKl  Si-tang.good  cultivators 
but  unsubjected,  and  bearing  great  enmity  to  the 
Birmese;  Xht*  Zahainq*^  Taong-su;  the  Rhamti, 
Singi>hos,  and  other  Yibetan  or  Tartar  tribes  in 
the  X.  Most  of  these  nadons,  though  differing  in 
language  and  manners,  are  of  the  physical  t^-pe 
common  to  all  th«)sc  situated  between  India  and 
China.  ll»ey  differ  from  the  nations  of  both  these 
regions  in  certain  particulars,  and  resemble  more 
the  Malays.  The  Birraese  are  short  and  stout,  but 
well  proportioned,  with  coarse  lank  black  hair,  and 
an  olive  complexion ;  the  women  are  fairer  than 
the  men,  who  have  more  beard  generally  than  the 
Siamese ;  the  physiognomy  of  U>th  sexes  is  open, 
cheerful,  and  not  unpleasing,  and  vei^'  few  of 
them  are  in  any  way  deformed.  They  are  rubust^ 
active,  iniiuisitive,  not  deficient  in  courage,  and 
form  a  total  contrast  to  their  neighbours  of  Bengal 
in  Iiabits  and  disposition.  They  are  lively  and 
imiMtient;  much  addicted  to   Uieft  and  lyuig. 


deceitful,  servile,  and  proud;  but  at  the  mrae 
time  courteous,  benevolent,  and  religions.  The 
foreigners  consist  of  about  16,000  Siamese  slaves; 
1,000  Anumeee,  descendants  of  some  who  were 
formerly  in  a  state  of  slavery ;  about  3,0(K)  Chi- 
nese, chiefly  from  Ynnnan,  settled  in  the  towns  or 
working  the  mines ;  many  Hindoos  from  Bengal ; 
Molumimedans,  and  a  few  Europeans.  Tliough 
fond  of  repose,  when  an  inducement  to  exertion 
offers,  the  Birmese  exliibit  not  only  great  strength, 
but  courage  and  peraeverance,  and  often  accom- 
plish what  we  should  think  scarcely  pos^ble. 
But  tJie  mildness  of  the  climate,  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  and  the  badness  of  the  government,  render 
these  valuable  qualities  of  little  avail.  In  coun- 
tries like  Birmah,  the  customary  standard  of 
competence  is  easily  attaine<L  The  poorest  classes 
obtain  the  necessaries  which  they  require  with 
comparatively  little  labour;  and  those  who  should 
^  further,  and  attempt  to  make  a  display,  or  to 
improve  their  lands  and  houses,  would  expose 
themselves  to  extortion,  and  perhaps  to  personal 
danger.  Sloth  is,  in  consequence,  the  solace  of 
the  p(H»r,  and  the  principal  enjoj-ment  of  the  rich. 
rCrawfurd,  pp.  371,872,  465-470,  dtc;  Malcohu, 
i  220,  &c.) 

AariatHure. — Excepting  near  the  towns,  most 
of  the  land  is  waste  and  unappn>priated,  unless 
occasional! V  by  wandering  tribes,  who  raise  crtps 
with  little  labour  on  the  virgin  «>il.  The  culti- 
vated lands  are  assigned,  with  their  inhabitants, 
by  the  sovereign,  in  large  districts  to  his  various 
favourites,  who  are  not  unaptly  entitletl  their 
'eaters,' and  wlio  grind  down  the  cultivators  by 
the  most  oppressive  exactions.  ITie  farms  gene- 
rally consist  of  onlv  a  few  acres  each ;  and  agri- 
culture, excqit,  peniaps,  among  the  Kar>*eas,  is 
in  its  rudest  and  most  imperfect  state.  Rice  is  the 
chief  article  of  produce,  and  forms  the  main  fixnl 
of  the  people ;  it  is  mostly  grown  in  the  S.,  where, 
although  the  plough  b  seldom  used,  and  the  S4>il 
only  trcHlden  by  cattle,  a  single  crop  is  saiil  to 
yield  50  or  60  fold.  In  the  X.  proWnt^es  a  plough, 
similar  to  that  of  India,  is  used,  and  the  si»il  is 
afterwards  pulverised  by  means  of  a  wooden  cylin- 
der, and  a  rough  harrow  dragge<l  over  it :  2  or  3 
crops  a  vear  are  here  obtained,  but  they  are  not  so 
productive  as  the  single  crop  ot^the  lower  pivvinces. 
I'ulse  of  various  kinds,  Indian  millet  and  maize, 
are  grown  in  tlie  X.  prov..  the  latter  j-ielding  (Uit 
such  statements  are  almost  always  exaggerateil) 
100  fohL  Good  wheat  is  gn)wn  in  the  neighUiur- 
hood  of  the  capital,  but  it  is  little  used  tor  bn*aiL 
Seaamum  is  miivewally  cultivated  for  its  oil  and 
oil-cake,  which  is  given  to  the  cattle.  Cotton 
{Goiuti/pium  AtrirtreM/ii,  Wallicli)  of  a  firm  and 
silky  texture,  but  of  short  staple,  is  gn>wii  in 
even*  part  of  the  empire  and  of  its  dependencies, 
but  principally  in  the  upper  provinces.  Indigo  In 
alst>  generally  grown,  and  is  naturally  of  gt»oti 
quality;  but  the  culture  and  manufacture  of  the 
]dant  are  lK)th  so  Vfr>'  rude,  as  to  n*nder  the  pn>- 
duce  whoUv  unfit  ftir  exportation.  The  potato 
and  pot-herbs  of  Europe  are  quite  unknown ;  but 
yams,  and  a  species  of  sweet  potato,  are,  as  well 
as  tobacco,  very  general  articles  of  culture  in  the 
X'.  There  are'  no  melons,  cucuml)ers,  or  egg- 
plants ;  but  the  banana  and  tamarind  are  exten- 
sively grown ;  and  in  some  tracts  the  numl>er  «if 
fruit  trees  forms  the  Imsia  of  taxation.  The  sugar- 
cane is  cultivated,  and  the  stalk  eaten  when  rifH.*, 
the  manufacture  of  sugar,  except  a  verj'  c<vuve 
sort,  being  unknown.  An  inferior  kind  of  tea, 
with  a  lar^  leaf,  is  grown  on  the  hiUs,  and  eaten 
by  the  natives  ivith  garlic  and  onions,  which  arc 
also  produced  there,  (.'apsicum,  next  to  salt^ 
forms  the  cliicf  condiment ;  from  the  highest  to 


BIRHAH 


465 


the  lowest,  all  season  their  rice  with  this  plant, 
and  its  consumption  is  *  incredibly  great ; '  betel- 
nut  is  raised  for  home  consumption ;  and  the  piper 
betel  \»  cultivated  lai^ly,  and  of  excellent  quality. 
In  addition  to  rice,  pumpkins,  and  pulse,  gnapee 
and  oil  compose  the  main  food  of  the  peasantry. 
Gnapee  is  made  of  prawns,  shrimps,  or  any  cheap 
fish,  pounded  into  a  consistent  mass,  and  frequently 
allowed  to  become  partially  putrid.  It  is  known 
in  commerce  by  the  name  of  Balaehong,  Animal 
food  being  prohibited  by  the  Buddhisriod  religion, 
is  not  £^erally  eaten,  excepting  poultry  or  &^ 
which  nave  died  a  natural  death,  lizards,  serpents, 
and  iguanas,  by  the  lower  clames;  or  game  by 
some  individuals  privately.  Many  of  the  hill 
tribes  do  not,  however,  regard  the  injunction,  and 
kill  bullocks  and  other  cattle  for  food,  or  to  sacri- 
fice to  their  deities;  many  others  also,  by  one 
moAns  or  other,  evade  the  Law  of  not  spilling  the 
bluod  of  animals,  or  openly  break  it.  The  com- 
mon beverai^  of  the  people  is  water;  but  spirits, 
th(»ugh  prohibited,  are  imported  or  distilled  from 
rice,  and  toddy  is  made  from  the  juice  of  the 
palmyra,  date,  or  cocoa-tree. 

Cows,  buffaloes,  goats,  and  a  very  few  sheep, 
are  kept;  but  neiUier  for  their  flesh  or  milx. 
Oxeji  are  used  only  for  draught,  and  prevail 
chiefly  in  the  Jipper  country,  the  buffalo  bdng 
more  common  in  the  lower.  The  Birman  horse 
is  not  more  than  thirteen  hands  high,  but  strong, 
active,  esteemed  in  the  countr}',  and  used  enly  for 
the  saddle.  The  elephant  is  domesticated  and 
U9cd  for  carriage;  the  camel  is  altogether  un- 
known. Hogs  are  plendful,  but  commonly  used 
only  as  scavengers. 

Art»  and  ManufcKhtret  are  in  the  most  back- 
ward state.  Ploughing,  cleaning  cotton,  spinning, 
weaving,  and  dyeing,  are  operations  mostly  per- 
formed by  women  or  captive  Cassays :  the'  loom 
used  is  like  that  of  Bengal.  Silk  and'  cotton  goods 
are  woven,  the  former  chiefly  in  the  capital  and 
the  large  towns  in  its  vicinity,  but  are  verj-  inferior 
to  those  of  India  and  China.  The  Khyens,  how- 
ever, though  considerably  less  civilised  than  the 
Birmese,  surpass  them  greatly  in  the  manufacture 
of  silk,  and  produce  some  superior  crimson  scarfs, 
embn>idere<l  with  gold,  and  narrow  shawls.  The 
Khyen  hnims  can  only  make  fabrics  one  cubit, 
while  those  of  the  Birmese  pro<luce  some  two  cu- 
bits in  width.  Printing  on  cotton  is  unknown; 
but  dyeing  with  indigo  and  turmeric  is  practised ; 
and  the  coUmrs  of  the  Birmese  fabrics  are  much 
ndmire<l  tor  their  brilliancy :  alum  is  the  only 
luonlauut  usc<i.  No  fine  linen  is  manufacture<l ; 
and  British  goods  of  all  qualities  are  commonly 
imporK'tl,  and  sold  cheaper  than  any  produced  by 
the  natives.  Some  cr>arse  earthenware  is  made; 
hut  all  the  porcelain  useil  \»  im{)orted  from  China. 
The  Birmese  cast  bells,  and  execute  filagree  in 
gold  and  silver  respectably;  but  otherwise  they 
do  not  work  well  in  metals,  Some  rude  cutlery 
and  matchlocks  are  made  at  Ava ;  but  their  swords 
are  chiefly  bought  from  the  Shans,  and  old  muskets 
from  the  English ;  the  latter  fetch  from  37s.  to 
5()ff.  each,  wliile  new  Birmese  muskets  are  only 
considered  worth  25*.  Lacquered  ware  for  trays 
and  betel  boxes  is  amongst  their  best  manufac- 
tures. Their  paper  is  of  three  sorts,  one  of  wliich 
is  made  of  bamboo  fibres,  covered  over  with  a 
mixture  of  charcoal  and  rice-water,  and  written 
on  with  a  piece  of  steatite,  as  we  do  on  a  slate. 
Nearly  all  their  manufarturra  are  domestic  Ex- 
cepting carpenters,  nmiths,  masons,  can'crs,  and 
gilders,  who  work  for  the  palace,  temples,  and 
priests,  there  are  but  few  public  artisans,  and  these 
resi<ie  only  in  the  laiger  cities.  The  common 
boats  are  mere  canoes,  decked  with  split  bamboo, 


and  partly  covered  in  with  mats,  with  one  bamboo 
for  a  mast  and  another  for  a  yard. 

JhceUingt, — The  ordinary  houses  consist  whollv 
of  bamboos  and  matting,  badly  thatched  with 
leaves  or  grass,  vei^  soon  built  or  removed,  and 
in  the  lower  situations  raised  3  or  4  ft.  from  the 
ground  on  wooden  posts ;  thoee  of  the  priests  are 
of  a  superior  kind,  and  somewhat  similar  to  those 
of  the  Chinese,  or  those  of  the  Shans  in  the  N. 
provinces,  having  a  long^  roof  rounded  at  the  end& 
matting  walls,  and  being  divided  into  several 
compartments.  The  ordinaiy  beds  of  the  people 
consist  of  merely  a  small  mat  laid  on  the  ^und. 
The  temples  are  of  diffonent  styles  in  different 
provinces ;  at  Pugan  they^  are  heavy,  broad,  and 
surmounted  hj  a  small  spire ;  in  the  southern  pro- 
vinces pyramidal,  and  adorned  with  many  figures 
of  griffins,  sphinxes,  and  crooxiilefl.  They  are  all 
much  gilt  and  decorated,  and  often  oontiun  vexy 
solid  masonry :  many  are,  however,  in  ruins,  since 
most  of  them  are  biult  and  endowed  by  wealthy 
individuals,  and  it  is  deemed  more  meritorious  to 
build  a  new  than  to  repair  an  old  one. 

Commerce^ — In  the  lower  provinces  the  traffic  ia 
almost  wholly  by  water  conveyance ;  in  other  parts 
goods  and  passengers  travel  by  carts  or  waggons 
drawn  by  oxen,  or  on  the  backs  of  these  animals : 
the  upper  districts  send  to  the  lower  petroleum, 
nitre,  paper,  huxiuered  wares,  silks  and  cottons, 
cutlery  and  metal  wares,  palm-sugar,  onions,  tSr 
marinds,  &c,  and  receive  irom  Rangoon,  Tongho, 
and  Bassein,  whidi  are  the  chief  trading  places, 
rice,  salt,  pickled  and  dried  fish,  and  foreign  com- 
modities. The  Shans  export  cottons,  silks,  ivory, 
bees'  wax,  stick-lac,  varnish,  lacquered  wares, 
swords,  and  metals,  to  Ava,  and  take  oack  salt  and 
dried  fish.  The  principal  foreign  trade  is  with 
China,  and  its  chief  seat  the  town  of  Bhamo, 
whither  the  Chinese  caravans  come  and  meet  the 
Birmese  and  Mohammedan  merchants ;  and  from 
Dea  to  April  this  town  presents  a  most  animated 
scene  of  active  industr}',  and  a  greater  variety  of 
tribes  than  is,  perhape,'found  at  any  other  fair  in 
Asia.  The  principal  articles  of  import  from  China 
are  silk  (to  the  amount  of  about  27,000  bundles, 
worth  81,000/.  a  year),  copper,  carpets,  fur  jackets, 
orpiment,  quicksilver,  vermilion,  verdigris,  drugs, 
tea,  fresh  and  dried  fruits.  The  exports  to  China 
are  chiefly  raw  cotton  (averaging  14,000,000  lbs., 
and  worth  228,000/.  a  year) ;  feathers,  ivory,  wax, 
edible  birds'  nests,  rhinoceros'  and  deer's  horns, 
sapphires,  and  some  British  manufactures ;  chiefly 
broad  cloths  and  carpets.  The  total  value  of  the 
trade  with  China  is  variously  estimated  at  from 
400,000/L  to  700,000/. 

Measures  and  Coin, — ^The  chief  measure  of  ca~ 
parity  for  rice  is  the  basket =581  lbs.  avoird. ;  of 
length,  the  finger-breadth,  hand-breadth,  span,  culnt 
(2  spans,  or  19*1  Eng.  inches),  biunboo=3  28  cubits 
( 1  i\  yds.) ,  tainff = 7,000  cubits  (2  m.  1  furl,  nearly) ; 
the  chief  weights,  the  Heal  (nearly  ^  oz.  avoird.), 
viss=  100  ticals,  or  3  catties  (8  lb.  2  ok.). 

There  is  no  coined  mone}%  excepting  some  of 
very  base  qualit;^,  and  of  lead,  struck  at  Aman- 
pura ;  gold  and  nlver  ingots,  of  a  tical  weight,  and 
various  degrees  of  purity,  form  the  rest  of  the  cur- 
rency. Gold  is  valued  at  about  seventeen  times 
the  worth  of  silver,  a  tical  of  which  latter,  nearly 
pure,  is  worth  2s.  8^^ 

Revenue  and  Taxation, — One-tenth  part  of  the 
products  of  the  cultivator,  which  is  often  taken  in 
kind,  and  10  per  cent,  on  all  imports,  5  per  cent, 
on  exports  and  on  the  petroleum  collected ;  the 
monopoly  of  marble,  amoer,  the  precious  metals, 
and  gems  above  a  certain  size,  <^  wrecks,  and  the 
projierty  of  certain  foreigners  dying  in  the  country, 
all  belong  to  the  king.    Then  is  no  direct  land- 


466 


BIRMAH 


tax,  but  the  people  arc  aMetsecl  in  (miportion  to 
their  »upp<i$<e(i  meanB.  Mo9t  of  the  pn>vinccA  are 
oon.si(lere<l  the  pniperty  of  the  n)yal  family  or  prin- 
cipal r<iiirt  fuvoiiritofl;  the  kin|<:  asacMtes  each  of 
hia  viceroys  in  a  certain  sum;  the»e  assesK  their 
snbordiimte  diMrict  ^ivemors  for  a  lar^r  sum.  and 
the^e  a^ain  force  still  more  nut  of  the  unhappy 
peaitantr}*,  who  ^nerally  are  made  to  pay  double 
the  Mim  oripnally  demanded  by  the  kin^.  The 
p>ld  and  ttilver  that  thus  rpAche.s  the  royal  treasury 
111  never,  excei>t  on  ur>^nt  occasions,  disburaed 
af^ain :  the  only  channels  of  it8  expenditure  arc  in 
pre!H^ut8  to  favourites,  piduig  templet*  (for  which 
mo8t  of  the  gold  in  the  count r\'  i»  used),  and 
makuig  omamenta.  The  obligation  to  make  pre- 
sents to  obtain  favour  or  justice  prevails  univer- 
sally, and  from  the  ton  to  the  bottom  of  the  social 
scale,  there  is  one  uniform  system  of  extordon  and 
rapacity,  w^hich  has  so  completely  crusheil  the 
spirit  of  the  people,  that,  although  few  are  in  beg- 
gar)', all  fear  to  lie  rich,  lest  they  should  be  maricetl 
out  and  impoverished  by  the  haques  of  the  state. 
(Cra^-furd's  Joum.,  pp.  41i>— 132.) 

TTie  Government  is  an  hereditary  and  absolute 
despotism,  the  sovereign  l)eing  *lord  of  life  and 
limb '  over  liLs  subjects,  who  style  him  *  golden ; ' 
speak  of  informing  the  'golden  ear,'  throwing 
themselves  at  the  *  golden  feet,'  They  approach 
him  with  their  hands  joined  al)ove  their  heads 
and  even  make  olKrlnancc  to  the  palace  walK 
before  which  all  must  dismount  and  take  off  their 
shoes.  The  sovereign  Is  assisted  by  4  woongees, 
or  chief  public  ministers ;  4  atween-woons,  or  pri- 
vate counsellors;  4  wo<in-d(>cks,  ministers  of  the 
interior ;  4  state  secretaries  ;  4  reporters ;  4  officers, 
to  regulate  ceremonies,  aiid  9  to  read  petitions. 
Their  several  ranks  are  determined  by  their  dresses, 
C(»ronets,  and  number  of  gold  chains ;  the  monarch 
himself  only  being  privileged  to  wear  24.  The 
whole  nation  is  divided  into  the  royal  family, 
nobles,  and  commonalty,  and  none  dare  assume 
the  dress  of  a  superior  grade.  The  Birmese  have 
no  farther  distinctions  of  castej  as  in  India,  nor 
any  here<titary  distinctions;  although,  in  other 
respects,  a  kind  of  feudal  system  ]>revails;  and 
the  king  can  command  the  ap])eanince  of  his 
nobles  in  the  field,  with  their  quota  of  vassals, 
(ilamilton's  Gaz.,  pp.  48-50;  Sangermano,  p.  58 ; 
Wilson's  Docum.,  Aj»pend.,  p.  38;  Crawfurd,  p. 
491 ;  Trant,  pp.  247-2C.8.) 

Armed  Force. — Tlie  Birmese  arc  not,  as  a  nation, 
a  military  people,  but  would  make  good  soldiers 
un<ler  able  officers.  There  is  no  regidar  system  of 
conscription ;  ever>'  man  is  liable  to  serve :  but 
no  large  force  is  ever  dis})osable ;  and  it  is  Ixilieved 
that  tlte  whole  levies  niLsed  to  oppose  the  British 
tnx)i)s  in  the  war  of  1852,  did  not  amount  to  more 
than  5(>,0(X)  men.  Kxce|)ting  a  small  body  of 
Cassay  huise,  and  one  of  artiller}',  all  are  infnntrv, 
and  armed  \n[h  long  spears,  two-handed  swonls,  old 
muskets,  and  the  jinjal,  a  kind  of  carbine.,  carrying 
large  balls,  which,  as  they  are  gocxl  marksmen,  is 
a  formidable  weajjou,  except  in  close  coral>at. 
They  are  adepts  at  raising  stockades,  which  they 
do  wherever  they  take  up  a  ]K»sition;  but  these 
arc  not  generally  defended  with  much  vigtmr. 
However,  the  great  stockade  of  liangoon,  erectwi 
by  the  Birmese  in  January,  1852,  withstxMxl  the 
operations  of  the  British  tnK)pe  for  nearly  three 
uionths,  and  was  capture<l  with  some  loss  on  the 
14ih  of  April  of  the  same  year. 

Jun^)riu/ence. — Kach  large  city  has  its  judicial 
tribunul,  and  townships  {mj/o)  have  each  a  gover- 
nor, called  myo-su-ffi  who  is  assisted  by  inforior 
|Milice  officers,  plaoiul  over  the  several  wan  Is : 
from  the  decisions  of  the  »iyf>-«iH//,  tboro  is  ap|K'.;il 
to  the  provincial  governors,  and  from  the  latter  to 


a  higher  law  officer  in  the  capital  The  code  of 
lawi-s  is  derived  from  the  *  Institutes  of  Menii,*  and 
contains  many  salutary  rvgulations;  but  through 
a  most  corrupt  administration,  the  aims  of  justice 
are  frequently  perverted,  and  the  greatest  t;vTanny 
is  exercLswL  The  slavery  of  a  debtor,  <»r  his  cliil- 
dryn,  in  discharge  of  a  debt,  is  common:  and 
females,  in  such  a  case,  may  be  used  as  concubines. 
Trial  by  ordeal  often  takes  place,  and  in  criminal 
cases  the  minlshments  arc  marked  by  the  greatest 
cruelty.  The  Birmese  seem  to  have  taxcid  their 
ingenuity  to  invent  terrific  and  revolting  modes 
of  death.  These  they  bear  with  an  intrepidity  or 
indifren>nce  common  to  all  Asiatics:  but  owing 
to  the  extreme  corrupdon  of  the  Birmese  officers, 
there  are  verv  few  offences  that  mav  not  be  ex- 
piated, or  their  punLnhment  materially  alle\iated, 
by  a  pecuniarj'  sacrifice.  (Crawfurd,  pp.  4 1 3,  49 1 , 
&C;  Sangermano,  pp.  65-70;  Wilsons  Docum^ 
Append.,  p.  44.) 

Religion  is  Buddhism,  1)elieved  to  have  been 
introduced  by  Gaudma,  the  chief  deity,  himself,  in 
the  Gth  century  B.C.  This  faith  is  universal  here, 
except  among  foreigners;  indixHiduals  who  have 
been  converted  to  Christianity;  a  few  Zodi, 
l)elieved  by  Sangermano  to  be  Jews;  and  some 
hill  trilies,  as  the  Khvens,  Kar^'ens,  and  Cassavs, 
in  the  lowest  stage  of  idolatry.  *  The  priestji,  calle^l 
]{haliaans,  are  much  re^i^iectcd ;  they  arc  br»l  up 
like  monks  to  their  calling  from  an  early  age,  and 
observe  celibacy,  but  may  at  any  time  renounce 
their  vows  and  marry.  They  are  voluntarily 
maintained  b}'  the  population,  and  not  suffered  to 
engage  in  manual  labour,  their  chief  ocou{Mition 
being  the  instruction  of  youth.  All  foreigners  are 
allowetl  the  fullest  exercise  of  their  religion,  and 
may  build  places  of  worship  anywhere,  and  have 
their  public  festivals  and  pnicci^ions  witliout 
molestation.  But,  though  thus  tolerant  to  strangers, 
they  are  most  intolerant  to  their  own  (leople.  No 
Birman  dare  join  any  of  these  relipon**,  under  the 
severest  penalties ;  and  the  most  ngoroiLs  measures 
are  adopted  for  suppressing  all  religious  innova- 
tions. 

Education  is  so  far  diffused  tliat  almost  every 
male  Birman  can  read  and  write ;  and  this  is  the 
case  with  many  of  the  females.  The  Ivhvens  have 
no  knowletlge  of  books  or  reading,  and  hold  medi- 
cine in  contempt ;  the  Birraans  themselves  arc 
grossly  ignorant  of  physic,  and  whether  fur  fever 
or  rheumatism,  they  shampoo  the  patient,  treading 
him  till  he  is  in  a  profuse  perspiration :  any  one 
may  pract  ise  this  profession.  Diseases  of  the  diges- 
tive organs,  and  of  the  skin,  cholera,  and  lejtntsy, 
are  the  most  fretiueut;  inflammations  are  not 
generally  acute,  and  wounds  of  a  very  severe 
character  are  said  to  heal  with  singular  rapidity. 

The  Birmese  are  possessed  of  some  knowledge  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,  and  the  signs  of  their  zodiac 
are  the  same  as  ours :  their  year  consists  of  ;i54 
days,  the  errors  in  which  computation  they  par- 
tially rectify  everj'  tliird  vear.  They  have  12 
mouths,  of  29  and  30  days  alternately,  and  7  days 
in  the  week,  named  from  the  planets,  in  the  same 
onler  as  ours.  There  are  70  hours  betM'een  sun- 
rise and  sun-set,  calculated  at  the  capital  by  the 
successive  filling  of  cups  by  dropping  water;  but 
as  the  length  of  the  days  changes,  these  cuim  miLHt, 
of  course,  be  also  continually  change<L  Their 
common  epoch  begins  from  the  year  a.t>.  038, 
making  our  year  18i{9  the  Birmese  year  1201. 

L(ingwtt/e, — 'Hie  language  sis^ken  by  the  bulk 
of  the  ]ieople  is  the  Birmese,  Ik>st<les  this,  then-  Is 
the  Pali,  or  sacred  language,  which  has  a  jdistiui-t 
written  character.  In  the  common  Birmese,  the 
letters  are  formed  of  circles  and  segmenis  of  clifles 
probably  derived  from   the  Pali  alphabet.    The 


BIEMAH 


457 


structuro  of  the  language  is  exceedingly  simple. 
There  is  no  iuHectiun  of  any  part  of  speech.  Rela- 
tion, number,  mode,  and  time  are  all  indicated  by 
prefixing  or  attixing  certain  articles.  The  words 
follow  each  other  in  their  natural  order,  an  arran^ 
ment  indispensably  necessary  to  a  dialect  so  m- 
artiticiol.     (Crawfurd's  Joum.,  p.  3«7.) 

lJres»  and  Social  Habits. — liiat  of  the  men  is  a 
covering  from  the  loins  reaching  half-way  down 
the  leg;  over  this  a  frock  with  wide  sleeves,  tied 
all  the  way  to  the  knee ;  on  the  heofl,  a  stiiiare 
handkerchief  of  English  or  Madras  manufacture, 
or  a  turban  of  English  ))ook  muslin.  The  women 
wear  a  somewhat  similar  dress,  but  shorter  than 
that  of  the  men ;  and  the  petticoat,  being  open  in 
front,  permits  the  tliigh  to  be  seen  at  every  step ; 
they  wear  no  head-dn>ss.  The  hair  of  botli  sexes 
is  worn  long,  and  tied  in  a  knot  on  the  top  of  the 
head;  the  men  pluck  out  their  beani;  but  the 
practice  of  blackening  the  teeth  is  not  followed  as 
It  was  formerly,  and  still  is,  by  some  neighbouring 
nations;  sandals,  but  neither  boots,  shoes,  nor 
stiK'kiugH,  arc  worn.  The  dress  of  the  peosautr}'  is 
mostly  bliick ;  yellow  is  a  sacred  colour,  and  only 
used  by  the  priests  and  upi)er  classes ;  a  quilte<l 
jacket  is  sometimes  worn,  and  in  the  NE.  the 
(Chinese  co.«»tume  is  adopte<L  The  court-dress  of 
the  nobility  is  handsome,  consisting  of  a  long  robe 

of  tloweretl  satin  or  velvet,  reaching  to  the  ancles, 

with  an  open  collar  and  l(M»se  sleeves,  velvet  cajM 

with  g(ild  circlets,  and  many  ornaments. 

Chewing  betel  is  common,  and  smoking  univer- 
sal, even  with  children.    The  Bimicse  eat  twice  a 

<lay,  viz.  early  in  the  morning  and  in  the  evening ; 

their  food  is  served  up  on  trays,  in  red  lacquered 

]>lates  and  small  cups ;  8|)oons  are  used,  but  not  so 

much  as  fingers ;  knives  and  forks  are  utiknown. 

The  ]>eople  are   very  sui>erstitious,  consult   the 

stars,  beheve  in  fortunate  or  evil  times,  wear  talis- 
mans, and  practise  alchemy.     If  any  meml>er  of 

tlieir  small  communities  of  four  of  tive  houses 

chance  to  die,  the  Khyens  believe  the  evil  wpirit 

has  taken  ]M>sMession  of  the  place,  break  up  their 

settlement^   and  remove   to    another  spot;  and, 

when  an  eiirthquake  ha[)|)ens,  shout  and  beat  their 

house.M,  to  ex|)el  the  tiend. 

Slavery,  and  especially  the  selling  of  women,  is 

general ;  ixdygamy  is  allowed ;  marriage,  although 

a  mere  civil  contract,  Ls  miiversally  rcs|)ected,  and 

the  sovereign  himself  has  no  right  to  seize  for  his 

Iiarem  a  married  woman.     Divorces  are  exceed- 

inj^ly   common.    Females  are  allowed  as  much 

lilx-rty,  usually,  as  males ;  they  are  engaged  in  all 

sorts  of  tlrudgery  and  continual  occu|)ation,  yet 

intidelity  among  those  who  are  married  is  rare, 

though  chastity  among  the  others  is  a  virtue  little 

pracii>cd  or  appreciatetL    To  avoid,  it  is  pretende*!, 

the  seizure  of  their  females,  who  have  naturally 

some  beauty,  the  Khyens  have  long  adopted  the 

custom  of  tattooing  their  countenances ;  a  tattoo- 
ing of  their  bodies  in  all  kuuls  of  figures  also  pre- 
vails amongst  the  Birmese.    (Jor|Kses  are  either 

bunied  or  buried ;  i)enw)ns  of  rank  are  publicly  laid 

out   in   state ;  antl  amongst  all   classes  v\»its  of 

condolence  and  presents  are  received  by  the  sur- 
vivors of  deceased  i>ersons,  and  musicians  attend 

to  play  before  the  bixly  till  the  funeral,  which  is 

conducte<l  with  as  much  magnificence  as  the  friends 

can  afford.  The  funerals  of  priests  are  nublic  fes- 
tivals, and  many  accidents  are  caused  ov  timber, 

and  other  heavy  bodies  that  are  fire<l  up  in  the  air 

on  thoiie  occasions,  falling  on  the  crowd  that  has 

coUectetl ;  the  Khyens  also  treat  ileatlis  as  matters 

of  public  rejoi«'ing.   Many  curious  customs  prevail 

amoitgM  the  Itirmese,  such  as  the  ]>rivilege  tliat 

every  one  has  to  throw  water  over  any  others,  «>f 

whatever  rank,  during  the  last  three  daysof  the  year,    tiou  of  the  war  with  Birmah  was  procLiimed  on  tho 


Boxing,  cockfighUng,  foot-ball,  throwing  a  quoit 
of  bamboo,  a  few  games  of  chance,  chess,  and 
dancing,  arc  amon^  the  chief  rccreaUons.  The 
Birmese  are  good  mimics,  and  very  fond  of  acting ; 
their  drama  is  by  far  the  best  among  the  Indo- 
Chinese  nations.  .  Their  Aausic  possesses  decided 
melody ;  they  are  much  attached  to  it,  and  usually 
sing  at  their  work.  Their  principal  instruments 
are,  a  drum  of  bamboo  or  cane,  covere<l  with  skin, 
a  kind  of  hurdy-^rdy,  oboe,  and  lute.  In  their 
dances  they  exhibit  many  contortions  of  the  body. 
They  have  several  epic  and  religious  poems,  be- 
sides some  other  literary  productions. 

Uittory, — The  earliest  reconls  go  back  to  the 
year  B.C.  «>13.  The  first  kings  aie  said  to  have 
come  from  Bahar,  and  fixed  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment at  I'rome,  where  it  continued  for  336  yearn. 
In  A.D.  107  it  was  removed  to  Pugan  (Pagahm 
Mew),  where  it  remained  for  12  centuries,  and 
where  are  still  to  be  seen  extensive  ruins,  includ- 
ing many  temples,  and  some  relics  of  Hindoo  wor- 
ship. In  1322,  the  court  was  removed  to  Sa-kaing ; 
in  1364,  t4)  Ava ;  in  1752,  Alompra  transferred  it  to 
his  native  place,  Monchobo ;  one  of  his  sons  carried 
it  back  to  Ava ;  another  to  Amarapura :  from  1822 
to  1837,  Ava  again  became  the  capital,  when  the 
revolution  that  placed  the  Prince  of  Sarawadi  on 
the  throne,  resU>red  that  honour  to  Monchobo. 

In  the  18th  century  the  Birmese  l>ecam(>.  the 
most  powerful  nation  of  the  E.  peninsula  of  .Vsia. 
Ava  hail  been  governed  by  the  King  of  Pegu  for 
some  time  previous  to  1753,  when  Alompra,  the 
founder  of  the  present  dynasty,  expelled  the  Pe- 
guans  from  Ava  and  Prome,  and  in  175G  effected 
the  conquest  of  Pegu,  The  Slian  country  waa 
cjmquered  by  his  son  in  1708;  Cassay  in  1774; 
Aracan  in  1783  ;  in  1790,  theTenasserim  provinces 
taken  from  the  Siamese;  and  Assam  conquered  in 
1823.  Embtddened  bv  these  successes,  the  court 
of  Ava  entertained  designs  t>n  the  neighlxmring 
British  territories;  our  frontiers  were  subject  to 
continual  irruptions,  and  our  ambassadors  to  all 
kinds  of  contempt  and  insolence;  until,  after  a 
hostile  invasion  of  Cachar,  a  state  with  which  we 
were  allied,  and  renewed  outrages  on  our  ))osseEi- 
sions  in  Chittagong,  Sir  A.  Campbell  was  sent  with 
an  army  up  the  IrrawadL  After  a  variety  of  en- 
gagements, in  which  the  British  were  always  suc- 
cessful, a  treaty  was  concluded  Feb.  24,  r820,  at 
Yandabo,  50  in.  from  the  ca]>ital,  by  winch  the 
provinces  of  Aracan,  \4^  Tavov,  Mergul,  and  part 
of  Martal)an,  were  ceded  to  tiie  British,  tx^gether 
with  5,(X)0,<M)0  rupees  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
the  war;  and  the  King  of  Ava  ceased  to  have  do- 
minion over  Assam,  .Jyntea,  Cachar,  and  Cassay. 
In  April,  1837,  the  Prince  of  Sarawadi,  brother  to 
the  former  king,  seized  the  thnme ;  put  to  death 
or  otherwise  disposed  of  the  courtiers  who  had 
been  opposed  to  him;  and  removed  the  seat  of 
government  from  Ava  to  Monchobo. 

Another  dispute  Ijetween  the  British  govem- 
raent  in  India  an<l  the  ruler  of  Birmah  broke  out 
towards  the  end  of  the  year  1851.  On  tlie  29th 
of  October,  a  British  naval  force  arrived  before 
Kangoon,  and,  after  some  delay,  broke  through  the 
st4>ckades,  and  force<l  the  pa*«agc  of  the  river  Irra- 
wailL  Martaban  was  stormed  on  the  5th  of  April, 
1K52,  and  the  city  of  Kang(x>non  the  14  th  of  April. 
On  the  4th  of  Jmie  following,  Pegu  was  capture<l, 
and  on  the  9th  of  July,  Prome;  and  though  both 
had  to  be  evacuated  8<.>on  after,  they  were  recap- 
ture<l  in  Octol)er  and  November.  Finally,  <m  the 
20th  of  December,  1852,  by  a  proclamation  of  the 
Governor-General  of  India,  the  ])rovince  of  Pegu, 
which  formetl  {tart  of  the  Birman  <'inpin>,  was 
annexed  to  the  British  jiossassions.   Thetcrmiuo- 


4o8  BIRMAH  (BRITISH) 

2Uth  of  June,  1858,  by  the  Governor-General  of 
IndU. 

BIKMAH  (BRITISH).    See  India. 

BIRMIN(;HAM,  a  pari  bor.,  an<l  the  princi]>al 
hanlware  manufacturing  town  of  England,  co. 
Warwick,  at  the  NW.  extremity  of  the  co.,  and 
nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  kin^lom  18  miles  NW. 
Coventry ;  67  NNW.  Oxford;  69  SSE.  Man- 
chester; 102  NW.  London  by  nmd,  or  112^  m.  b^' 
London  and  North  Western  railway,  of  which  it  is 
a  principal  station.  The  parL  bor.,  which  includes 
the  contiguous  townships  of^Vstonand  Kdgbast<»n, 
extends  over  an  area  of  18,7H0  acres,  and  had  in 
1801  a  pop.  of  73,fi70 ;  in  IWJl,  of  14«,1W6 ;  in  1811, 
of  182,922;  in  1851,  of  232,841 ;  and  in  1861,  of 
296.076,  inliabiting  59,060  houses.  Birmingham 
atanikt  on  undulating  ground  sloping  down  to  the 
river  Rea.  The  older  ixirtion  of  the  town,  in  a  K»w 
lutuation,  exhibits  some  curious  specimens  of  an- 
cient domestic  arcldtecture.  Hut  the  more  miMlem 
part,  on  higher  ground,  esi)ecially  the  centre  of  the 
town,  contains  many  magnilicent  and  costlv  buihl- 
iiigs,  a  great  number  of  spacious  and  well  laid  out 
Htrects,  with  houses,  princiiuUly  of  brick,  though 
many  of  those  more  recently  erected  have  stone 
fronts.  At  a  distance  the  appearance  of  Binning- 
ham  is  not  prepossessing,  fn)m  the  immense  num- 
ber of  tall  chimneys  IxAonging  to  its  various  fac- 
tories, the  smoke  with  which  the  atmosphere  is 
loade<l,  and  the  dirty  blackened  colour  of  the 
buildings. 

Among  the  public  buildings  may  l)e  specified 
the  toiin-hall,  modelled  on  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Stator  at  Rome.     It  consists  of  a  nistic  basement 
about  20  ft,  in  height,  on  which  is  raise<l  a  second 
story  having  18  Corinthian  columns  on  each  side, 
and  8  in  the  principal  front.    It  Is  built  of  brick 
fai*e<l  with  Anglesea  marble,  tlie  columns  being 
of  the  latter;  length   externally,  195  ft.,  width 
102  {t„,  and  height  83  ft. :  the  grand  saloon,  in 
which  the  musical  festivals  are  Iield,  is  a  noble 
aiiartment  140  ft,  in  length,  65  ft,  in  width,  and 
65  ft.  in  height,  with  a  ven'  jKiwcrful  oi^an,  and 
sitting  room  for  about  4,(XK)  visitors.    Tlie  market 
hall  is  one  of  the  finest  of  its  kind  in  the  U.  King- 
dom.    Length  260  fc,  breadth  lOK  ft.,  height  60 
ft.    The  Free  Grammar  Scliool  referre<l  t«>  below 
is  amongst  the  tincst  public  buildings  in  Birming- 
ham ;  and  the  public  priM>n,  the  lunatic  asylum, 
school   of  design,  and  general  hospital,  arc  all 
worthy  of  notice.    The  churches  and  cliapels  are 
]>articularly  handsome;  that  of  St,  Philip,  on  the 
summit  of  the  highest  einiucnce  in  the  toi^-n,  is 
ailmirod  for  its  architectural  l)eauty ;  the  church 
of  St.  (Jeoige,  in  the  early  English  decorate<l  style, 
has  1,400  free  sittings ;  other  notable  chun^hes  are, 
St.  Mar>''s,  built  in  1817  ;  the  Holy  Trinity,  Bor- 
desley,  and  St.  Peter's,  nearly  destroveti  by  lire  iu 
1H81,'  but  since  restored.    The  barracks,  erected  in 
1793,  at  the  NE.  extremity  of  the  town,  ctM»t 
13,000/.    Tlie  theatre,  on  the'site  of  similar  fabrics, 
burnt  down  in  1791  and  1820,  isahaii<Ls<nne  build- 
ing, well  suited  to  its  purposes.    The  buildings 
connected  ¥rith  the  railway  station  cover  and  en- 
close 20  acres  of  ground.    There  are  some  very 
superior  hotels  and  shoi)s.    A  bronze  statue  of 
Nelson,  by  Westmacott,  stands  nearly  opposite 
the  markct-halL 

Birmingham  is  but  newly  incoqjorated,  and  pre- 
viously to  1676  it  was  not  even  a  market  town. 
It  was  formerly  governed  by  two  constables,  a 
head-borough,  a  high  and  low  bailiff,  with  other 
inferior  officers  chosen  annually  at  the  <*ourt  lect 
of  the  lord  of  the  manor.  Under  its  present  cliarter 
of  incori>oratir>n,  gnuite<i  in  lUliHy  it  is  divided  into 

15  wards,  and  is  govemwl  by  a  mayor,  a  recorder, 

16  aldermen,  and  48  common-couucilmen.    The 


BIRMINGHAM 

charter  constitntes  the  corporate  body  a  court  of 
reconl  for  the  borough,  to  be  held  on* Wednesday 
for  the  recovery  of  debts  under  20/.  A  court  of 
quaner  sessions  is,  also,  held  in  it ;  and  it  is  the 
seat  of  a  co.  court.  There  is  a  board  of  officers, 
under  a  local  act,  for  the  administration  of  relief  U) 
the  poor.  The  streets  are  all  paved,  drained,  and 
lighted  with  gas. 

I^or  to  1751,  Birmingham  formed  only  one 
parish,  and  for  all  civil  {mrposes  is  still  so  con- 
sidered.   In  that  vear,  however,  a  portion  of  the 
imrish  of  St,  Martin  was  formed  into  that  of  St. 
Philip;   and  iu   1H29  two  other   parishes   wei« 
formed,  viz.  St,  Cieoige  an<i  St.  Tht»mas.    The 
census  n>tums  of  1K61  enumerate  fourteen  eccled- 
astical  <li  visions,  the  largest  of  which,  St.  Thomas, 
hail  27,417  inhabiunts,  and  the  smallest,  St.  I'eter, 
4,356.    A  numlM>r  of  district  and  other  chiut:hca 
have  l>een  built  by   the  i)arhamentar>'  commis- 
sioners with  several  chapels  of  ease.    There  are 
many  places  of  wondiip  for  Pn)testaiit  dissenters, 
Koinan  Catludics,  SwedenlH)igians,  Presbyterians, 
Unitarians,  and    other    diswoiting    btHlies.    Tlie 
Komaii  Catholic  cathedral,  built  by  Pugin,  an<l 
constHiratwl  in  1K38,  is  a  very  large  edificis  with 
palace  and  nunner>'  attached.   There  are  numerous 
charitable  institutions,  both  medical  and  educa- 
tional.   The  General  Hospital,  Queen's  Hospital, 
and  General  Ilispensary  are  f  npported  by  volun- 
tar>'  contributitms,  legacies,  and  other  donations. 
The  ciwt    of  erecting  the  (xcneral  Hospital  ex- 
ceede<l  1(),<MM)/.     It  was  begun  in  1776,  and  com- 
pleted in  1778  ;  but  in  1791  it  was  enlargc<l  by 
tlie  addition  of  wings :  it  is  divided  into  14  wanis, 
and  has  165  IkhIs.    (Queen's  Hospital,  founded  in 
1840,  was  c(»mi)leted  in  1847  at  a  cost  of  8,74»i/. 
The  (ieneral   l)ispensar\',  instituted  for  the  me- 
dical  assisunce  of  p<K>r,    sick,    and   midi^-ifcry 
patients,  at  their  o^-n  houses,  was  cstablishe<l  iii 
1794.    Besides  these  benevolent  establishments, 
there  is  an  institution  for  the  relief  of  bodily 
deformity,  an  mtlrmary  for  diseases  of  the  eye,  *• 
Magdalen  a>iylum  and  several  sets  of  almshoutics, 
fouiideti  by  VV.  Ixinch  in  the  reignof  IIenr>-  VIII. 
The  s<*hools  of  Birmingham    are   excee<lingly 
numemus.    The  twentieth  report  of  the  charity 
commissioners  contains  114  closely  printed  folio 
pages,  solely  upon  the  charities  of  the  town.    The 
grammar-sch<M>l  was  foundeii  in   1552,   *  ftir  tlie 
e<lucntion,  institution,  and  instniction  of  Ixiys  and 
youths  in  grammar,'  and  endowed  with  the  reve- 
nues of  the  ancient  piild  of  the   Holy   Cn>ss; 
which,  with  those  arising    from    other'  soun*es, 
amount  to  from  8,000/.  to  10,000/.  a  year.     It  has 
Ion  exhibitions  of  50/.  a  year  each.    They  are 
given  for  four  years  to  tlie  most  disthiguislunl 
scholars,  and  are  o|K*n  to  any  college  in   eithtr 
universitv.    The  buihling  attached  to  the  school 
having   lxH:oine  unseemly   and  dilapidatcsl  the 
governors  were  empowered  by  an  act  of  1X31  to 
exf)end  5(J,0iMI/.  upon  a  new  and  suitable  sohiwd- 
house.     Uiulcr  the  is.wers  so  given,  Mr.  Uarr;**.  the 
architci't  of  the  new  houses  of  {Mirliament.  ewte*! 
one  of  the  most  com^>lete  and  extensive  struct iiifs 
of  its  kind  in  the  United  Kingdom.    The  classical 
school  is  attended  by  about  240,  and  the  commer- 
cial by  about  300  boys.    It  has  also  five  branch  «ir 
subsidiary  schools  to  which  girls  as  well  as  lM>ys 
are  admitted.    In  the  Blue-coat  8ch<H>l  (foundo«l 
in  the  early  part  of  the  last  centurj-,  and  su])y)ortctl 
by  voluntary  contributions,  rents  of  lands,  and 
funde<l  stock),  al)out  300  chihh^n  of  U>th  sexes 
are  taught  writing,  reading,  sewing,  an»i  other 
useful  arts.    The  <»ther  principal  schooki  are — the 
Birmingham  and  Edgliaston  Pro])rietar>*  ScIumiI  ; 
variouh  National  Schools;  the  IVacstaiit  Dissen- 
ters' Girls'  Charity-school,  the  Koyal  Lancastrian, 


BIRMINGHAM 


459 


the  Female  Lancastrian,  and  Madnw  School^  on 
the  principles  of  Dr.  Hell's  system,  and  St.  Philip's 
Industrial  SchooL  There  are  also  infant,  raf^ged, 
and  Sunday  schools ;  a  school  for  deaf  and  dumb ; 
a  college  for  the  education  of  young  men,  esta- 
blished by  the  Independents;  a  philosophical 
institution  ;  an  athenasum,  for  the  diffusion  of 
literature  and  sciendiB ;  a  society  of  arts ;  and  a 
mechanics*  institute.  An  important  institution, 
culled  Queen's  College,  established  by  subscrip- 
tion, was  incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  1843. 
It. furnishes  complete  courses  of  academical  in- 
stniction  in  languages ;  natural,  moral,  and  poli- 
tical philosophy :  medicine ;  civil-engineering ; 
law,  and  theology.  It  occupies  a  handsome  build- 
ing opposite  the  town-hall ;  and  has  accommoda- 
tion h>r  seventy  resident  students,  with  museums, 
and  libraries.  Birmingham  has  two  public  libra- 
riits.  The  old  library,  a  neat  structure,  has  about 
700  subscribers ;  and  a  collection  of  books  com- 

{>rising   upwanls  of  35,000  volumes.    The  new 
ihniry  is  a  smaller  building,  containing  about 
10,000  volumes. 

Though  so  distinguished  by  its  population,  in- 
dustry', and  wealth,  Birmingham  did  not,  till  after 
the  passing  of  the  Reform  Act,  enjov  the  privilege 
of  sending  representatives  to  the  ti.  of  C.  But 
the  statute  referred  to  put  an  end  to  this  anomaly, 
and  conferred  on  it  the  right  to  send  2  mems.  to 
parliament.  The  pari  bor.  comprises  a  consider- 
able extent  of  country',  including  the  ]3arishe8  of 
Birmingham  and  Pxlgbaston,  with  the  hamlets  of 
Dcritcnd  and  Borde^slev  and  Duddeston  cum 
Nechills.  Pari,  const,  in  1 1,330  in  1861 ,  \mng  all 
U)L  householders.  Annual  value  of  proi)erty 
assessed  to  the  poor  rate,  9?>8,563/.  in  1 80 J.  The 
amount  assessed  to  pn)]jcrty  tax  averages  1 ,300,000/. 
The  gross  annual  value  of  real  ])ropertv,  including 
railways  and  canals,  assesseil  to  mcome  tax 
under  iSchcdide  (A)  amounted  to  1,108,034/.  in 
1857,  and  to  1,279,787/.  in  1802. 

Manufactures, — As  a  place  of  manufacture  Bir- 
mingham has  long  held  an  important  {losition, 
and  has  never  been  surpassed  in  the  production 
of  articles  of  ingenuity  and  utility :  most  articles 
in  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  brass,  steel,  mixed 
met^ds,  and  glass,  are  produceil  here,  from  the 
m<»st  trilling  trinket  to  the  most  [.Kindcrous  and 
jMiwerful  machine.    Of  tlic  early  history  of  its 
manufactures  we  know   nothing  certain.     It  is 
sujijMKHed,  ami  with  great  pnjbabiliiy,  to  have 
bcH-u  the  place  where  tlie  arms  with  which  the 
early  inlialiitants  defended  their  shores  from  the 
invaders  under  Julius  Ca?sar  were  manufactureil: 
a  supposition  favoured  by  the  fnct  of  moulds  for 
si>ear,  arrow,  and  axe  hc-atis  having  been  found 
either  in   the   neighl>ouriuNMl,    or   at    no   great 
distance  fn.>m  it,  adde<l  to  the  proof  afforded  bv 
the  enormous  mountain  of  calx  or  cinder  which 
Ixmlers  on  the  parish  of  ^Vstoa,  and  with  fcgard 
to  which  Ilurton  (Hist.  Birmingham)  remarks, 
*  From  an  attentive  surs-ey  the  observer  would 
su])))«>se  so  pnxligious  a  heap  could  not  accunm- 
lute  in  a  hundred  generations;  however,  it  shows 
no  |)erceptible  admtion  in  the  age  of  man.'     »So 
far  I  jack  as  the  I2tli  ccnturj'  it  was  noted  for  the 
t.'uining  of  leather;   but    this   branch  of  trade 
gradually  subsided,  until  at  length  it  became  all 
but  extinct  under  the  advance  of  other  and  more 
extensive  enterimses,  so  that  in  1795  there  was 
but  one  person  who  followed  that  ancient  occupa- 
tion.   Leland,  in  his  'Itinerary'  (1540),  descril)e8 
the  town  as  a  place  inhal)ited  by  *  smithes  that 
nse<l  to  make  knives  and  all  manners  of  cutting 
took's,  lorimers  that  make  bittes,  and  a  great 
muny   nailours.*     Previously    to  the   revolutitm 
(1008)    the  articles  chiefly  manufactured  were 


heavy  iron  goods,  whereas  the  principal  existing 
manufacture  of  Birmingham  is  hardware.    The 
gieat  growth  of  this  trade  may  be  dated  from 
about  1740,  at  which  epoch  the  quantity  of  pig 
iron  made  in  England  and  Wales  amountCMl  to 
only  about  17,000  tons,  whereas  it  has  since  in- 
creased to  at  least  1,200,000  tons.    The  growth 
of  Birmingham  to  its  present  height  of  opulence, 
celebrity  and  magnitude,  is  principally  ascribable 
to  the  invaluable  resources  or  iron,  stone,  and  coal, 
M'ith  which  the  district  abounds,  aided  by  the 
improvements    which    have    progressively  been 
effected  in  the  means  of  transit,  and  in  some 
degree   also    by   its   freedom    from    corporation 
restraints.    Tlie  manufacture  of  the  larger  de- 
scription of  articles  is  carried  on  with  increasing 
vigour  and  efficiency.     Most  sorts  of  cast-iron 
articles  are  made;  and  the  largest  manufactory 
for  steam  engines  in  the  world  was  established 
at  Soho,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  town, 
though  in  the  co.  of  Stafford,  by  Boulton,  the 
partner  of  James  Watt,  the  great  unprover  of  the 
steam  engine.    These  works  consist  of  4  squares, 
with  connecting  links  of  shops.    They  are  not, 
however,  restricted  to  the  maimfacture  of  thooe 
gigantic  ^  steam-laboureis,'  but  also  produce  im- 
mense (quantities  of  vases,  candelabras,  and  other 
descriptions  of  goods  in  bronze,  and  or-molu,  of 
exquisite  woi^manship,  vrith  articles  of  plate  and 
Birmingham   ware  generally.    At  these  worics, 
too,  the  princijial  part  of  the  cop])er  coinage  of 
the  country  was  wont  to  be  executed.    There  are 
many  iron  and  brass  foundries  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, and  there  are  metallic  hot-house  maimfac- 
tories.    Casting,  modelling,  die-sinking,    engra- 
ving, staining  and  cutting  gla.ss,  and  many  other 
branches  of  manufacture,  have  been  brought  to 
great  perfection.    There  arc  no  means  of  stating 
the  total  value  of  the  articles  produced,  inasmudi 
as  the  manufacture  ofplated  goods,  which  is  carried 
on  in  Sheffield  and  Birmuigham,  is  one  of  those 
branches  of  industry  the  progress  of  which  we 
have  no  means  of  ascertaining.    It  a})pears,  how- 
ever, that  the  exports  of  hardware  from  KngU^d, 
1)rinci|)ally  from  these  two  towns,  have  risen  from 
ess  than  a  million  to  close  upon  four   millions 
sterling  in  the  cour^  of  20  yean.    The  returns  of 
the  Board  of  Trade  give  the  exports  si)ecitied  as 
*■  hanl wares    and   cutler}','  as   of  the    value    of 
3.809,255/,    in    1859;    of  3.770,009^1    in    1800; 
3,425,010/.    in  1801;    3.310,342iL    in   1862;   and 
of  the  value  of  3,833,149/.  in  1803.    The  value 
of  the  material,  it  is  to  be  obsen-ed,  in  most  of  the 
Birmingham  giMNls,  Ix^iars  a  very  small  proportion 
to  that  of  the  labour  exfiended  upon  them  ;  as,  for 
example,  ui  the  ariich;  of  watch-springs,  where 
the    value    of    the    raw    material    is     not    a 
200,000th  part  of  the  value  of  the  finished  aniclc. 
It  is  from  the  extreme  sulxlivii^ion  of  employment 
that  the  su|)crior  skill  of  the  workmen  and  the 
excellence  cf  the  manufacture  is  mainly  de<lucible. 
Of  the  ])resent  mamifoctures,  that  of  muskets  is  the 
most  ancient,  liaving  l)een  introduced  in  the  reign 
of  William  III.    Since  tliat  e\yoci\  this  branch  has 
l>een  gradually,  but  greatly,  augmenting ;  and  of 
late  years  the  manufacture  of  fowling-pieces  has 
been  added  to  it.     Until  the  close  of  the  great 
war  with  France,  the   government  contract  f«ir 
muskets  extende<l,  upon  an  average,  to  30,000  per 
montlu    On  tlie  cetsatitm  of  hostilities,  this  de- 
partment   seriously  declined;    but  it  is  still  of 
great  value  and  importance.    In  1813  an  act  of 
parliament  was  passed,  requiring  the  gun-makers 
to  raise  a  pniof-house ;  in  which,  under  a  heav>' 
penalty,  all  fire-arms,  after  being  subjirtcnl  to  a 
severe  test,    are   stamj>ed  by    the  mastere  and 
wardens,  under  whose  nuq;x!€tion  the  business  is 


460 


BIRMINGHAM 


condnctcd.  Swordn  also  arc  a  princi[)al  article  of 
manufacture.  In  the  above  statutics  of  cx^mrts 
of  *  haniwareA  and  cutlcr\','  arniH  and  ammunition 
are  not  included.  The  value  of  the^e  exiiorta  is 
above  two  millions  sterling  per  annum.  The  ex- 
iiorta of  *  small  tire-arms"  were  of  tlie  value  of 
lC«,297t  in  1M59;  a.>8,847/,  in  18G0;  515,3GU 
in  18G1;  1,573,706^  in  1802;  and  856,0(H)i  in 
1863.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  foreign  demand 
for  these  articles  is  very  fluctuating.  The  metal 
button  and  buckle  trades  were  intnHluce<l  into 
Birmingham  shortly  after  the  revolution,  and  con- 
tinued to  flourish  for  nearly  a  century.  15 ut 
these  tradeit  have  been  greatly  iinj)aired;  partly  in 
<»>n»equcncc  of  the  emigration  of  artizans  to  the 
Continent,  who  carried  with  tliem  a  knowle<lge  of 
Uie  art^  and  partlv,  and  principally,  fn>m  changes 
of  fasliion.  The  button  manufacture  is  still,  how- 
ever, extensive.  The  manufacture  of  Florentine 
butUms  has  also  l>een  introiluced,  and  is  now  ex- 
tensively carried  on.  The  declhie  of  the  buckle 
maimfacture  mav  be  dated  from  1781,  at  which 
IKrimi  shoe-ties  Logan  generally  to  be  worn;  and 
notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  George  IV.,  when 
Prince  of  Wales,  to  stem  the  tide  of  fasliion,  it 
proved  too  strong  for  him,  and  the  manufacture 
was  gradually,  but  completely,  destniyetl.  The 
tile-trade,  which  at  one  time  flourished  in  Bir- 
mingham, has  nearly  all  gone  to  Shcffi<>ld,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  superior  advantages  i)ossessetl  by 
the  latter  for  that  manufacture;  while,  on  the 
other  band,  and  from  a  similar  cause,  much  of  the 

1)lated  trade  of  Sheffield  has  migrated  to  liirming- 
mm.  The  making  of  silver  i>encil-cases  is  carried 
on  to  a  great  extent,  and  the  numlter  protluced  Ls 
increasing  every  year.  The  manufacture  of  g«MMls 
in  brass,  or  brass-founduig,  iutnKluced  about  1718, 
has  l)een  greatly  extended  and  iraprovetl  within 
the  present  century,  and  comprises  a  large  number 
uf  articles.  lK)th  useful  and  ornamental ;  including, 
among  others,  lumps,  chanilelicrs,  candlesticks, 
vases,  fenders,  tirc-scruens,  han<lle8  for  locks,  doors, 
knockers,  and  many  other  articles.  It  may,  per- 
haiw,  be  now  reckoned  the  staple  trade  of  the  town. 
Of  lumps  and  chandeliers,  Binningham  has  almost 
the  exclusive  manufucture.  In  1772,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  great  amr>unt  of  her  plated  manu- 
factures, an  act  of  parliament  was  [)as^e<i,  ap|K>int^ 
iiig  wardens  and  an  aAsay  master.  The  quantity 
of  silver  jilate  ma^le  is  comparatively  small.  Like 
silver,  gold  is  extensively  uijed  in  gilding  the 
various  articles  before  eimmerated.  Indeed,  to 
such  a  pitch  had  the  art  of  gilding  been  carried 
as  early  as  the  year  1818,  that,  according  to  Hut- 
ton,  three  i>ennyworth  of  gold  was  sufficient  to 
cover  a  gross  of  buttons.  There  is  a  consiilerable 
trade,  too,  in  the  manufacture  of  pins,  and  a  still 
larger  one  in  tlie  manufacture  of  stctd  i>ens.  The 
exact  period  when  i)ens  made  of  steel  began  to  lie 
sul)stituted  for  quills  is  not  known  ;  but  down  to 
1818,  the  manufacture  was  contine^l* within  very 
narrow  limits.  Since  then,  however,  the  qualitv 
of  the  pens  has  been  vastly  improved,  and  theur 
i)ricc  very  greatly  reduceil,  and  the  tlemand  has 
in  consequence  l>een  extended  in  a  degree  not 
easily  to  be  imagined.  It  is  stated  that  al)ove 
5(>0,OU(),(K)0  pens  are  annually  manufactured  in 
I'.irmingham.  The  art  of  making  nails  by  hand 
still  keeps  its  ground;  those  so  ma<le  being  con- 
sidered superior  to  those  made  by  steam  jiower. 
Jupamied  articles,  of  great  beautv  and  variety, 
are  exten^ively  manufnciure<l.  'I'he  best  trays, 
baskets,  and  other  articles  of  similar  demTi])tion, 
are  made  of  papier  marhe,  the  manufacture  of 
wliich  is  very  luiii^ely  carried  on.  The  glass  trade 
is  also  ver}'  extensive. 

Mr.  burke  said  tliat  Birmingham  was  the  '  toy- 


shop of  Europe,'  and  the  statement  ieems  to  be 
])enectly  well  fonndeiL  An  immense  quantity  of  < 
vary  U'autiful  articles,  as  seals,  brooches,  clasps, 
an(l  other  trinkets,  are  made  of  gold,  silver,  gilt 
and  plated  metal,  and  polished  steel.  This  trade, 
which  has  not  existed  more  than  fifLy  or  sixty 
years,  has  greatly  increased  within  the  last  thirty 
years.  The  toy  and  trinket  trade  is  astonishingly 
great ;  and  the  transactions  are  often  immense,  in 
articles  of  comparative  insignificance. 

The  manufacturing  dbtrict,  of  wliich  Birming- 
ham is  the  centre,  includes  a  considerable  tract  to 
the  N\V.  of  the  town,  embracing  the  southern 

fiart  of  Staffonlshire,  w^ith  the  extreme  northern 
Mmler  of  Worcestershire  and  a  detached  part  i»f 
Salop.  Within  this  district  are  the  populous 
towiis  of  Dudley,  Wolverhampton,  BiLston,  Wal- 
sall, Wednesbury,  and  Stourbridge.  Indepen- 
dently of  the  production  of  the  crude  material,  in 
which  m<ist  of  these  towns  arc  extensively  en- 
gaged, different  branches  of  the  hardware  manu- 
facture are  curried  on  in  them,  as  the  nail  and 
juimn-wore  trade,  bridles,  and  stirrup  plating, 
couch  and  harness  ornament  making,  and  sad- 
dlers* ironmongery.  The  japan-ware  is  mostly 
confined  to  Bilston  and  Wolverhampton,  as  is  the 
lock  trade  to  the  latter,  and  the  saddlers*  iron- 
monger}' to  Walsall,  Wolverhampton,  and  W'ed- 
nesl)ury.  But  all  these  departments  are  carried 
on  in  Birmingham,  though  not  to  so  great  an  ex- 
tent as  in  these  separate  T>laces.  The  inhabitants 
are  distinguished  by  industry,  ingenuity,  and  in- 
vention. The  mode  of  conductnig  biisini'M  in 
liirmingham  has  undeigone  a  considerable  change 
from  what  it  formerly  was.  There  are  now  but 
few  larger  capitalists.  With  the  exception  of  the 
Soho  works,  and  a  few  other  laige  manufactories, 
the  business  b«  conducted  on  a  small  scale  in  in- 
numerable di\'isions.  The  system  generally  acted 
upon  is  as  fallows : — The  workmen,  each  in  their 
}>urticular  line,  undertake  to  execute  the  orders 
received  by  the  merchants  and  agents  settled  in 
the  tow^u,  which  they  accomplish  by  the  following 
means :  A  building,  containing  a  great  nimibcr 
of  rooms  of  different  sizes,  is  furnished  with  a 
steam-engine.  These  rooms  or  shops  being  all 
supplied  with  shafts,  lathes,  benches,  and  such 
other  necessary  conveniences  as  are  requi>ite  for 
the  work  to  be  done ;  and  when  an  order  is  given 
to  one  of  these  workmen  to  execute,  he  hires 
such  one  or  more  of  these  rooms  as  the  occasion 
requires,  and  stipulates  for  a  certain  amount  of 
steam-power,  ancl  continues  the  occupant  of  this 
a])artmeut  till  the  order  be  tinished.  (Porter,  on 
the  Progress  of  the  Nation.)  In  1786  there  was 
only  one  steam-engir.e  at  work,  w^hich  was  of 
25  horse-power,  and  was  used  for  grinding  llour. 
In  1803,  there  were  ten  engines,  producing  37'J 
ln)rse-y)Ower,  of  which  260  h(>r8e-jM>wer  was  used 
in  manufactures.  In  1823,  the  number  of  engines 
was  HG,  tlie  hoise-power  1,222.  In  1835,  tlie  num- 
ber of  engines  was  169,  and  the  horse-ix>wer 
2.700;  of  which  275  were  used  in  grinding 
flour,  1,770  in  working  metals,  279  in  pumping 
water,  87  in  glass  grinding,  97  in  working  woo^l, 
44  in  paper-making,  37  in  grinding  clay,  (U 
in  grinding  colours,  and  50  in  sundry'  other* occu- 
pations. In  1849,  the  steam  iK)wer  employed  in 
the  town  was  estimate<l  as  equal  to  5,4()0  horses, 
and,  in  18G3,  equal  to  11,500  horses.  Women  are 
extensively  employed  in  polishing  the  goods  in 
the  glass  toy  brunch,  and  in  all  parts  of  the  manu- 
factures of  the  town  except  brass-Amndiiig.  Boys 
are  principally  engagetl  by  the  out-workmen  and 
undertakers,  as  ajiprcntices ;  and  receive  a  pn>- 
gressivc  amount  of  wages,  varj'ing  from  3*.  to  10*. 
]>er  week,  according  to  their  ages  and  occupations ; 


BISACCIA 
t^ev  eft  Ihrit  rood  at  hnmr,  and  in  tortur  Imlance*  i 
wiick  in  ihe  hinima  of  iheir  parenu.  »iinc  of  Ihe 
■mall  mnniiraclun-M  have  awumiilnlnl  laige  fot- 
tuiive.  Tlic  gimdiliuu  ot  tiie  wuTk|>ei.]iIc  ip,  on  the  | 
whult,  favourable  It  i»  impweihle  in  give  on 
averaiK  of  Ihe  wanea  iinid  iii  diflcrrnt  tradcB,  they 
are  m>  vrry  vaiitmR;  fi>r  instance,  in  tlic  making; 
of  bultiina,  a  Rreat  numliei  of  handi  are  empluycil 
—mi,  111*  pien-er,  the  culler,  the  atarajwr,  tlie 
{.■tiller,  and  tlw  Uimisliei^who  all  receive  dif- 
ferent wikcs  ;  and  mi  bIhi  in  the  other  dqartnicDia. 
Tlie  town  imHHMumillvc  large  JMiit-Hiiwli  bank*, 
with  numnniu  liodieii  of  i>n>iicietors.  Tliey  iwue 
nnlex  i^  the  lluilc  of  Engluid,  which  has  a  branch 

lliimingham  in  of  great  antiquity.     In  Domca- 

ncitico  nf  the  place,  it  u  imelt  UvrmenKehnm.     Its 
histotj',  previiiusly  I"  Ihe  Nr 
exiTciTicly  iilwrure.     IndcKl,  i 
I'hacles  I.,  liitle  L>  ie<:[irdeil  of  i 
Bcafi'ely    any    intcrrM.      In    i 


unlil    the    time  of 

and  that  Utile  rif 

'    rei^    of  tliat 

Parhament,  and 

'     in  IHfiu 


In  1701,  high  ehiirch  and  Torj-  puliti 
liave  been  very  [ircvolent ;  and  a  riot  having 
ariwii  out  of  a  feBiivnl  in  mmmemomiDD  iiT  the 
Vieni'h  Tevuiuli<in,  much  imperty  was  drstmycil, 
inrludinK  llieliouHu  anil  librario  uf  thcrelelirateil. 
Init  Ihen  obiioxicnus  Dr.  1-rieMley,  and  of  Mr. 
Ilutlon.  Ihe  hixlorian.  The  luw  on  thia  nrca»ion, 
■moiinlini;  to  tM.miitL,  wan  partially  maile  good  to 
the  nufferem  liv  Act  ot  I'arl.  Tile  great  itiureaae 
of  (meiierily  o^  the  town  commenced,  aliuut  forty 
yearn  ago,  with 

lEailway,  now  one  oi  tiie  most  imponani  iinc«  in 
the  kiiigiliim,  won  built  bv  a  company  inciiTixiraled 
in  ma  Itwiwo|»iiedtWughr™t!<epi.aiMHln. 
Hie  next  line  ronslrucleil  waa  tlie  tirand  Jnnclion 
lIoilwBv,  meeting  tlie  Iji\-en-uol-Manchetilel  line 
at  Wairiiigtim.  after  which  the  railway  from  Uhy 
mingham  to  Manchetrter  came  to  be  built.  Tho 
latter  waH  ojiened  Ihniughout  in  AugUKt,  1N12. 
Birmingham  u  nowbrcume  a  grand  renire  of  rail- 


BISCAY  461 

BISCARI,  a  t«wn  of  Southern  Italy,  island  nf 

Sicily,  i^Tov.  SyracuK,  10  m.  NW.  Uodica.     The 

I,  and  1,945  in"~lB57r  The  I 
.km  dale,  having  been  founded  in  the  1 5  th  ceni 
DISC' AY,  a  ilistrict  in  tlic  X.  of  Siuiiii,  < 
prising  lUscay  Pro^,  Gnipuicoa,  and  Aliva 


and  S.  Uurg»«,  and  other  ports  of  Old  Cantilei  and 
on  the  X.  tlo  Bay  of  Biscay.    Tlieii  mean  length 


Hyrene. 

Into  highly  pieluiCMjiie  glens  and  vallevs.  inler- 
spenwd  wilh  some  fertile  plains.  The  district  has 
marble  of  various  cohiuis.  lime  and  sanibitone,  a 
profusion  of  iron  ore.  and  some  copper  and  gypsum 
of  good  quality,  as  well  as  talt-mines,  and  saline 
and  sulphiimiu  cold  and  hot  springs. 

The  subjoined  table  shows  tho  area  of  each  of 
the  three  provinces,  together  with  the  populalioD, 
aceorduig  to  the  census  of  1IM6,  and  of  May 


veiling,     ltd 


It  W.* 


urn — distance 


1   l^rt.«. 

j.r.i..,.i... 

r<v.iSiT 

■  iiu^ :  : 

UulKUSwa 

"ijs 

»6..-tl» 

'       Total 

S.971      !    wa,*w 

S18.470 

to  4}  liinirs.  and 

Dublin  in  fh>m  lUj|  to  13  hours,  and  with  £iUn~ 
burgh  and  (ilaspnr  in  from  9  to  10)  hours. 
Maricets  on  Montiavs.  'Hiursda^ii,  and  Salurdavp. 
and  fain  on  tlie  TiiurMilav  in  ^'bil sun- week,  and 
on  the  ThiiMtay  tiext  Uiore  Michaelmas-day,  fiu- 
eatlle,  Blieep,  boivos,  and  hanlware  generally. 
Xotwithslanding  Ihe  smoke  of  ils  innumerabli 
furnaces  aniL  forges,  Bimingham,  owing,  jierha|i«, 

nently  sa'lubriuun.  The  deaths,  in  jirupurtion  to 
the  numl>cr  of  Ihe  inhabitants,  are  lewtr  than  in 
LiveriHiol  or  Manchester.  The  Isitiuiieal  gai^ena 
in  tlie  Tiiinity,  supfiorteil  hy  public  sut>scri|itim], 
cover  a  space  of  14  aere^  and  are  extremely  well 
laiil  out.  Tlie  musi  relehraled  seals  in  the  vieioity 
are  Ilaglev,  the  seal  .if  L..ni  I.villeton,  13  mile» 
iliitani:  F.nville,  thesent  of  Ihe  Karl  of  Stamford. 
IX  :  ami  Ihe  Lcosowes,  the  creation  of  Shenstunc, 

UISACCIA.'a  town  of  Southern  Italr,  imiT. 
Avellin».on  a  hill,  II  ni.NI-X  Si.  AngeloiIe'l.om- 
banll  Po|i.HAtllin  txiit.  It  ban  sin-CTaldiuichca 
and  ail  bwiHtBl,  aru)  is  sujiposvl  lu  occiiur  the  site 
(iT  the  ancient  Kumiilen,  menliioinl  bv  i.ivv  (lib. 

x..aii.l7>.    Tlielii.li.-ric.irf' ' 

fomirriy  tlie  seal,  bas  been  ui 
Aiigvlo'de'  Lunbardi, 


11  of  St. 


Ilie  K.  Uuiiiuzroa ;'  on  Ihe  S.  Alava 
and  Old  Castile;  and  on  the  W.  also  Okl  Castile. 
Uniler  the  new  division  of  Spain,  maile  by  the 
Ctirtni  in  11422,  it  fonna  part  trf  the  proriiice  oT 
llilbao.  Tho  cily  and  territory  of  IMuila,  which 
are  insulateil  by  Alava  and  Obi  Castile,  beloru;  to  ' 
it,  BillAo  is  the  seat  of  government ;  and  thei^ 
are  also  Uurango,  Uucmica,  Ikliaaseila,  and  a  few 
other  small  towns.  liiiiTnc  of  Ihe  miiuniaius  look 
as  if  they  consisteil  of  a  congeries  of  hills  heaped 

has,  on  ils  summit,  a  considerable  extent  of  level 
land.  rriiici|iBl  riven,  Xerva.  Ansa  oi  Ibaitabal, 
CailaKua.  Miitidnca,  and  Lequeitio.  The  coast  is 
abni]ii,  and  ileeply  indented  by  bays  formed  bv 
Ihe  mouths  of  Ihe  rivers,  and  by  a  niunbei  of  small 
luubours.  Tlie  iron  mince,  which  are  frequent, 
and  prwiucesume  of  the  best  metal  in  Kunipe,  par- 
ticularly tliut  at  Somorrostro,  the  ore  of  which 
vieliis  above  a  tliini  part  of  iron.  According  to 
Ihe  annual  produce  of  this  mine  used  to 
0  nninlals.  Climate  humid,  but  not  in- 
Ilouses  good,  and  conveuieiillj  built ; 
the  n|mj  parts,  wliich  were  anciently  of  wuoil,  are 
lunr  III  stone.  There  are  many  very  ancient  chi- 
teaux,  mostly  dank»l  wilh  strong  towers,  that 
lielong  to  the  heads  of  families.  With  the  exce|^ 
tion  of  Ihe  toh'ns  namnl  above,  and  a  few  others, 
[be  inhali.  live  ilispcrsed  in  oueHoi  of  Ave  or  six 
houses  each,  wii  h  lanils  aliarhcd,  which  are  mostly 
cultivated  by  ilic  owners,  in  whose  families  they 
have  reinoined  tor  centuries,  it  beuig  n^uneii  dis- 
creditable to  |iart  wilh  the  paternal  |ini|iertv. 
Where  land  is  hireil,  the  rent,  wliich  is  jiaid  m 
money,  usually  amounts  to  alwut  ■  third  |iart  of 
the  value  of  the  nrmluce.  The  soil  is  mostly  m 
HlifTclaViand  wouldpruduce  tittle  but  pasturage 
or  wood,  wCTe  it  nut  lur  the  {iMieat  induitiy  of  the 


Aiililion 


462 


BISCAY 


inhabitants,  who  break  it  np  with  a  curiously 
shaped  implement  called  a  /oya;  but  in  lighter 
Boilis  where  wheat  only  is  CTOwn,  they  use  a  strung 
ploui^h.  As  arable  land  is  scarce,  they  break  up 
patches  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains,  where  the 
ground,  not  being  deep  enough  for  the  growth  of 
uuge  trees,  is  covere<l  with  thick  shrubs.  These 
they  grub  up  and  bum,  and  spreading  out  the 
ashes,  get  fertile  crons  of  wheat  the  first  tliree 
years ;  barley,  or  rye,  tiie  fourth ;  flax,  the  fifth ;  and 
good  pasturage  till  the  ground  be  again  overgrown 
by  brambles.  They  do  not,  however,  ncttwithstand- 
ing  their  industry,  reap  grain  enough  for  their  con- 
sumption, but  supplv  the  deficiency  by  importa- 
tions from  Alava.  ^ext  to  agriculture',  the  chief 
employment  of  the  peasantry  is  yi  the  making  of 
charcoal  for  the  iron  foundries,  from  the  wood  cut 
in  the  forests,  with  which  the  sides  of  the  moun- 
tains arc  covere<l.  These  contain  plantations  of 
excellent  white  oak,  and  in  the  glens  mid  valleys 
are  numerous  groves  of  grafte<l  chestnuts,  which 
iiimish  a  «ronsi(iemble  article  of  export.  The  grapes 
are  not  ginwl :  there  L*  a  great  pn»fusioii  of  anples, 
with  pears,  cherries,  figs,  «frc.  Cattle  small  and 
hardy;  shwp  difiicult  to  rear,  from  their  getting 
entangled  in  the  bram!)les ;  the  wild  lK>ar  is  (K'ai- 
sionally  seen,  as  are  wolves  and  l>enrs:  th<»ugh 
both  are  vQTy  rare,  especially  the  last.  Fish  abun- 
dant and  excellent. 

The  staple  busin&«8  of  Biscay  Proper,  and  the 
other  two  provs.,  is  the  manufai^ture  or  iron,  which 
is  made  into  a  great  variety  of  tools  and  imple- 
ments: but  owing  to  the  8us]iension  of  work  in 
the  roval  arsenals,  the  loss  of  the  American  colo- 
nies,  and  the  introduction  of  foreign  iron,  as  well  as 
the  long  wars  of  which  this  countrv  has  beeji  the 
theatre,  this  important  branch  of  industry  has 
greatly  fallen  off.  The  Spanish  Academy  of  His- 
tory say  that,  in  1802,  when  their  account  of 
Biscay  was  compiled,  there  were  180  iron  works, 
prtKlucing  aimually  80,000  quintals  of  iron,  of 
165  lbs.  ejich.  which,  when  Miiinno  wrote  (Ifrifi), 
were  reduced  to  117  works,  yiehling  only  45,(M)0 
quintals.  Copper  boilere  were  also  ma<ie  at  lial- 
maseda,  and  factories  for  cordage  aiul  rigging, 
made  of  hemp  brought  from  Aragon  and  Navarre, 
were  established  in  various  parts;  and  tanneries 
at  Balmaseda  and  Bilbao ;  out  these,  abto,  arc 
much  fallen  off.  The  other  manufactures  are  those 
of  coarse  {xircelain,  table  and  other  household  linen, 
fine  and  coarae  hats,  brazier>',  carpentry  and 
joiners'  and  cabinet  work,  straw  and  rush  chairs, 
tallow  candles,  &c.  The  people  near  the  coast 
occupy  themselves  a  good  deal  in  fishing,  and  the 
exports  of  dried  fish  are  sometimes  verj'  consiiler- 
ablc.  (Diccionario  por  la  Kcal  Academm,  iL  487 ; 
Minano,  X.  41-44.) 

The  second  largest  of  the  three  Bas(jne  pro- 
vinces, Guinuzcoa,  has  the  seignory  of  Biscay  on 
the  W. ;  Alava  on  the  S.;  Navarre  and  the  Bi- 
<la8Boa,  which  separates  it  from  France,  on  the  E. ; 
and  the  Bay  of  Biscay  on  the  N.  Since  1822  it 
has  been  called  the  prov.  of  St.  Sebastian.  The 
country  is  rough  and  mountainous.  The  highest 
mountain  on  the  frontiers  of  Alava  rises  1,800  ft. 
above  the  sea,  and  contains  some  salt  mines  and 
saline  springs.  The  prov.  is  watered  by  the  Deva, 
Urola,  Oria,  dc,  and  the  Bidassoa,  which  all  run 
N.  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  The  coast  is  rocky, 
and  the  ports  insecure,  with  bars  at  their  entrances, 
except  Pasages,  which  has  deep  water,  and  is 
spacious  and  well  fortified.  At  Mondragon,  on 
the  Deva,  is  a  celebrated  inm  mine ;  the  ore  yields 
no  less  than  40  per  cent,  of  metal.  At  Vergara  is 
a  college,  where  the  young  nobility  are  educated, 
and  other  useful  institutions.  On  the  N.  of  this, 
at  Placenda,  is  a  royal  manufactory  of  fire-arms. 


Guipuzcoa  yields  to  no  ppt  of  Spain  in  the 
magnificence  of  its  ecclesiastical  and  other  build- 
ings. The  roads  are  well  paved,  and  kept  in  good 
repair ;  the  inns  commodious,  and  well  conducted. 
Climate  soft  and  temperate;  but,  like  the  other 
provs.,  it  is  subject  to  heavy  rains  and  violent 
storms,  both  in  summer  and  winter.  The  pit>v. 
proiluces  most  kinds  of  grain  and  other  neces- 
saries, but  not  in  nearly  sufiScient  quantities  for 
the  support,  of  its  inhab.  Fruits  and  other  natural 
products  nearly  the  same  as  in  Biscay.  The  fish, 
including  salmon,  are  excellent;  and  tunny,  rays, 
and  sardines,  are  sui)plie<l  to  the  neighbouring 
provs.  The  grapes,  though  indifferent,  furnish 
the  light  wine  called  chacoli.  A  good  deal  of 
cider  is  also  produced.  The  growth  of  timber  in 
the  woods  and  plantations  is  not  equal  to  the  oon- 
sumpti(»n  of  the  iron  works.  Agriculture  neariy 
the  same  as  in  Bincay. 

Iron  may  l»e  had  in  any  quantity.  According 
to  Antillon  (( Jec^jjaphie  Physique,  p.  K.j),  100.0<HI 
quintals  use<l  to  1h>  annually  wrought  up'  into 
hinges,  nailH,  ht»rse-shoes,  boilers,  kitclien  uton*>ils 
arms,  anchors,  working  to«.)ls,  4rc.  They  make, 
also,  fishing  tackle,  rigging,  tanned  leather,  coarse 
cloths  of  goats'  hair,  coarse  linen  and  sail-cloth. 
Shi|>-buil(ling  has  l(»st  its  activity,  but  some  vessels 
an*  titted  out  for  the  cimI  and  whale  fisheries. 

Guipuzcoa  imports  what  grain  it  wants  from 
Alava ;  wine,  from  Navarre  and  Rioja ;  soap,  oil, 
fiax.  (Src,  fntm  Castile  and  Andalusia ,  woollens, 
cottons,  cloths,  silks,  jewellery,  and  articles  of 
fashion,  from  England,  Holland,  and  France.  It 
exports  little  native  produce  but  iron,  liardwaiv, 
and  fruits;  but  wool,  and  sometimes  com.  are 
brought  fn>m  the  interior  to  its  ix>rt  for  shipment. 
Formerly,  it  had  a  considerable  coasting  trade  to 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  an<l  a  laigc  share 
of  the  whale  fishery  and  the  co<l  fishery  at  New- 
foundland. The  famous  ('aracas  Company  origi- 
nated here.  Its  commerce  has  fallen  off  since 
1809.  lieing  a  frontier  pn)v.,  it  admits  the  royal 
troops  to  garrison  its  strong  posts.  (Diccionario 
por  la  Academia,  L  321 ;  MiSano,  iv. ;  Antillon, 
p.  85.) 

llie  third  and  smallest  of  the  three  provinces, 
Alava,  has  the  seignory  of  Biscay  and  Guipuzcoa 
on  the  N. ;  Navarre  on  the  £. ;  and  Ohl  Castile, 
from  which  it  is  divided  by  the  Ebro,  on  the  S. 
and  W.  ft  now  forms  a  princiiial  part  of  the 
prov.  of  Vittoria,  the  name  of  its  chief  town.  The 
other  towns  arc  Salvatierra,  Lequiana,  and  Gam- 
boa,  ft  is  surrounded  and  intersected  by  moun- 
tains, similar  to  tliose  in  the  other  Basque  provs., 
and  affording  the  same  prcnlucts  of  iron,  black  and 
re<l  marble,  gypsum,  &c  They  are  covered  with 
oaks,  wild  apple  trees,  thorns,*  box,  yews,  limes, 
hollies,  &c.  Tne  crops  of  grain  exceed  the  demand 
of  the  inhab.  Climate  cold  and  damp,  with  long 
whiters,  frequent  and  heavy  rains,  snow,  frosts, 
fogs,  and  mists ;  but  it  is  healthy,  and  the  inhab. 
stnuij^  and  long-lived.  Agriculture  is  the  chief 
pursuits  In  some  parts  they  plough  with  oxen, 
as  in  Navarre ;  and  in  others,  use  the  layay  as  in 
Biscay  and  Guipuzcoa,  weeding  the  ground  re- 
peatedly till  it  looks  like  a  garden.  The  iron* 
works  are  greatly  reduced  in  consequence  of  the 
destruction  of  the  forests  which  supplied  them 
with  fuel,  and  of  the  weight  of  the  duties  paid  on 
iron  taken  into  Castile.  Tlie  manufactories  of  hats, 
shoes,  boxes,  &c.,  arc  also  in  a  state  of  decay ;  but 
a  good  many  hands  are  occupied  in  the  manufacture 
of  table  linen  and  coarse  cloths.  They  also  make  a 
good  deal  of  salt^  (Diccionario  por  la  Academia. 
i.  13 ;  Minano,  L  54 ;  Antillon,  p.  92 ;  Journal  of 
the  British  Legion  by  a  Staff  Omcer,  p.  155.) 
The  Basques  have  a  peculiar  language,  wiuch 


BISCAY 


463 


is  undoubtedly  of  great  antiquity.  L^Inse,  in  his 
*  Grammaire  Basque,'  eiidcavours  to  trace  it  to  the 
Hebrew,  as  a  dialect  of  the  Pboenicianf  brought  to 
Carthage,  and  thence  to  Spain ;  and  attempts  by 
its  means  to  inteqiret  the  speech  of  Hanno  in 
Plautus !  From  the  supposed  prevalence  of  Basque 
names  of  mountains,  pl^ns,  forests,  rivers,  and 
towns  in  every  part  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  it  has 
been  concluded  that  the  Basques  once  pervaded 
the  whole  peninsula.  They  have  no  alphabet  of 
their  oym,  but  learned  men  write  the  language 
with  Roman  letters,  Its  cluef  characteristics  are 
its  similarity  to  the  Hungarian  and  Turkish,  in 
its  inversion  of  the  order  of  its  particles,  and  its 
unparalleled  variety  of  verbal  intlections.  Their 
only  books  arc  the  New  Testament,  printed  at 
Kochelle  in  1571,  some  devotional  tracts,  cate- 
chisms, national  poetry,  dictionaries,  and  vocabu- 
laries. They  c(»unt  by  twenties  up  to  a  hundred, 
and  Hcem  originally  to  have  hml  but  three  days  in 
their  week,  there  not  being  ancient  names  for 
more.  Few  natives,  except  the  gentry,  know  any 
language  other  than  the  Basque.  It  in  alw> 
s]^)oken,  with  some  variation,  in  part  of  Navarre, 
as  well  as  bv  the  French  iiasques.  (L<?cluse, 
Grammaire  IVasque,  p.  2,  3,  14,  20,  2«,  219 ;  Vi. 
Humboldt,  Prilfung  der  Untersuchungen  ttber  die 
Urbcwohner  Hisiianiens.) 

The  government  of  these  prov-inces  has  ha<l, 
from  the  earliest  times,  a  republican  form.    The 
people  choose  the  members  of  the  a^untamientosj 
or  municipal  cori>orations,  who,  again,  elect  the 
deputies  to  the  provincial  assemblies,  which  meet 
everj'  two  years  in  Biscay,  once  a  year  in  (vuipuz- 
coa,  and  twice  a  year  in  Alava,  to  provide  for  the 
interior  administration  of  their  respective  pro- 
vinces, to  vote  the  supplies,  and  to  determine  the 
appropriation  of  the  money  granted.     Each  as- 
sembly chooses  a  magistrate,  in  whose  hands  the 
executive  power  is  placed  when  the  junto*  arc  not 
sitting,  and  who  treats  on  equal  terms  with  the 
corret/iduren,  or  ambassadors,   appointed   by   the 
king  of  Spain  to  reside  in  each  pn)v.,  but  who 
must  not,  on  any  account,  be  natives  of  these 
provinces,  nor  exercise  any  authority  in  them. 
The  people  choose,  also,  the  tax-collectors,  and 
pay  tlieir  civil  officers  mf>dcrate  salaries  for  their 
services.    Their  taxes  are  light,  and  levied  ac- 
conling  to  a  valuation,  which  is  frequently  modi- 
fied,    fhcir  ancient  pri\'ileges,  or  fueros,  order 
that  they  shall  not  be  taxed  by  the  Spanish  g«»- 
vemment,  except  in  a  small  sum,  paid  by  Gui- 
puzcoa  and  Alava,  continuing  at  about  540Z.  ster- 
ling, the  amount  paid  in  the  14th  century.    But 
Biscay  b  free  from  this,  and  pays  a  larger  sum 
every*  four  or  five  years  under  the  name  of  dona- 
ticOf'oT  gift.    They  have  no  monopolies  nor  cus- 
tom-houses, every  article  being  unported  duty 
free.  They  are  also  free  from  the  conscription  and 
impressment,  to  which  every  other  part  of  Spain 
is  subject ;  but,  in  case  of  foreign  mvasion,  they 
arc  bound  to  defend  their  frontiers  without  the 
king's  troops.    Another  of  their  important  privi- 
leges is  that  of  being  exempted  from  torture,  or 
tlureat  of  torture,  direct  or  indirect,  on  any  pre- 
tence whatever,  within  Biscay  or  out  of  it.  (Fuero 
Sit.  Lev,  xii.)     On  the  other  hand,  they  have 
always  \>een  prohibited  from  trading  directly  with 
the  Spanish  colonies,  and  are  shut  out  from  a  free 
trade  with  the  rest  of  Spain,  by  hea\'y  duties  and 
a  line  of  custom-houses  all  along  the  Kbro ;  and 
are  also  oblige*!  to  resort  to  the  court  of  chancery 
at  VaLladolid,  for  the  decision  of  their  lawsuits. 
Their  tinanoial  system  seems  t4»  have  been  well 
managed,  since  the  price  of  the  Alava  3  per  cent, 
(hrbt,  before  the  breaking  out  of  the  present  civil 
war,  was  93 ;  and  in  Biscay  and  GuipuzcoOi  the 


extra  taxes  impoeed  during  the  French  inva- 
sion were  being  refunded  to  the  contributorB. 
Foreigners,  not  of  the  Catholic  religion,  cannot 
establish  themselves  in  any  line  of  business  in 
the  Biscay  provinces.  (Dicdonario  Greografico 
por  la  Real  Academia  de  la  Historia,  Madrid, 
1802,  ii  488-510;  El  Fuero  Privilegios,  &Cy  do 
Vizcaya,  Medina  del  Campo,  167.5 ;  Spun,  Past 
and  l^iresent,  Monthly  Chronicle,  Novemberi  1838, 
p.  440.) 

The  Biscayans  being  devoted  to  agriculture, 
na%'igation,  and  commerce,  and  having  little  in- 
eqnauty  of  condition,  possess  those  virtues  that  are 
seldom  found  united  with  ease,  and  riches  ac- 
quired without  toil.  They  are  honourable,  brave, 
cheerful,  and  courteous,  without  being  mean. 
They  are  also  docile,  when  well  treated ;  but,  if 
roused  by  ill-usage,  are  stubborn  and  inflexible. 
In  general,  they  retain  the  dress,  customs,  and 
simplicity  of  manners,  as  well  as  the  institutions 
of  the  TSth  century;  and  pride  themselves  on 
their  independence,  and  the  antiquity  of  their 
lineage.  The  women,  who  arc  robust,  assist  the 
men  in  their  severest  laljours.  Not  only  the  in- 
dcH)r,  but  the  out-door,  work  of  the  house  is  dono 
by  female  servants ;  and  even  seHoras,  delicately 
brought  up,  may  be  seen  in  their  walks  climbing 
the  ro(.'ks  with  no  other  protection  than  a  parasol. 
(Diccionario  por  la  Real  Academia,  ii.  484 ;  Mi- 
Qano,  i.  320.) 

They  are  verv  fond  of  dancing,  and  assemble 
every  Sunday  a^moon  to  enjoy  that  amusement. 
Some  of  their  dances  are  of  a  grave,  majestic,  and 
ceremonious  character;  others,  gay  and  lively. 
They  also  delight  in  bull-fights,  and'  play  much  at 
a  game  with  a  ball,  called  pelota^  for  which  public 
sites  are  evcr^'where  appropriated.  At  their  wed- 
dings they  discharge  guns  and  pistols,  on  entering 
and  quitting  the  church.  Some  villages  distribute 
brrad  and  cheese,  wine  and  walnuts,  at  their  fune- 
rab ;  some  beg  money  for  masses  for  the  soul  of 
the  deceased.  They  are  sober,  but  are  fond  of 
gooil  li\'ing.  They  dress  with  a  blue  cap,  red  sash, 
and  alpargatetj  or  hempen  sandals,  tied  on  with 
blue  or  red  ribands ;  and  in  wet  weather,  eqMuUUot, 
or  brogues  of  hide.  The  women  dress  as  in  Cas- 
tile :  the  married  wear  a  thin  muslin  handkerchief, 
tied  on  the  head,  like  the  Irish ;  the  girls  wear 
their  hair  braided  down  their  backs.  There  are 
tlieatres  at  Bilbao  and  Yittoria,  where  plays  and 
operas  are  performed  ;  and  the  upper  classes  follow 
the  fashions  of  France  and  the  rest  of  Europe. 
(Diccionario  por  la  Real  Academia  de  la  Historia, 
L  32G ;  Bowles,  p.  306  ;  Henningson's  Campaign 
in  Navarre  and  the  Basqi^e  Provinces,  p.  72.) 

Little  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  the 
Basques  before  the  time  of  the  Romans,  or  during 
the  ascendancy  of  the  Goths  and  Saracens  ;  by  all 
of  whom  the  country  was  partially  overrun.  The 
Spanish  Academy  of  History  says,  there  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  any  family  ever  had  that 
absolute  sovereignty  over  it  that  has  been  sup- 
posed, but  that  its  rulers  were  subject  to  the 
Spanish  kings  of  Astuiias,  Navarre,  and  Outile, 
like  the  rest  of  the  principal  seKors  of  the  kingdom, 
with  the  exception  of  that  difference  which  arose 
firom  the  great  power  of  the  family  of  Haro,  who 
held  the  u>rdship  for  many  years.  In  1382,  the 
deputies  of  the  three  provinces  offoed  the  dignity 
to  Alphonso  XI.,  king  of  Castile,  who  accepted  the 
lordship ;  but  before  the  grant  was  executed,  the 
most  formal  reserves  were  made  of  their  franchises 
and  privileges,  and  the  king  was  obliged  to  sign  a 
treatv,  one  of  the  articles  of  which  was,  that  the 
Castilian  monarch  should  never  possess  any  vil- 
lage^ fortress,  or  house,  on  the  Basque  teiritory. 
Their  country  has  been  the  scene  of  frequent  and 


461 


BISCEGLIA 


long-cnntinned  wnra  with  forciprn  natirms,  anil  in 
now  the  mincipal  theatre  of  a  iio8tnivtivc  civil 
coutlicU  Though  n>]»ublioan  iu  ail  thoir  institu- 
tioni*,  they  are  much  aiiochetl  to  the  »>i>aiii!i]i 
dominion. 

lUSCEGLIA,  a  sea-port  town  of  Southern 
Italy,  prov.  Hari,  on  a  roi'ky  promontor}',  on 
the  Adriatic,  12  miles  KSF).  liarletia,  and  18  miles 
SE.  Trani.  Pop.  iy,715  in  l«t>2.  A  railway  con- 
nects Bisce^lia  with  the  Gulf  of  Taranto,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  Ancona  and  the  central  and  north 
Italian  lines  on  the  other.  The  town  is  Hiurounded 
by  lofty  Ht4>ne  wolLs  <u)d  is  ill  built :  it  i^  tlie  seat 
of  a  bishopric,  has  a  cathedral^  two  collepatc  and 
some  other  churches,  convents  for  both  sexeji,  a 
public  school,  a  hospital,  a  munt-de-piitvj  and  a 
tine  theatre.  Its  |)ort  admits  only  bmoll  vesi^ols, 
aiul  it  has  little  trade.  It  has  nunien)us  reser\'oirH 
and  cisterns  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  and  an^hed  (»ver, 
for  the  collection  and  i»rcser\-ation  of  the  rain 
water,  the  place  beini;  entirely  destitute  of  sprin^^ 
It  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  NaiMum  of  the 
Peutini^erian  tables,  but  other  critics  contend  that 
its  ancient  name  was  Vigiiia,  Swiidjunie  says 
that  it  is  de»titute  of  anv  remains  of  antiquity. 
(Swinburne's  Two  Sicilies,  1. 185, 4 to.  etl. ;  Craven's 
Naples,  p.  l»3 ;  Diet,  Geographique,  &c.) 

HISCHOFSllUKG,  a  vilUfre  of  Prussia,  prov. 
K.  l*russia,  on  the  Dimmer,  lo  m,  SSW,  Jiossel. 
Pop.  3,183  in  18G1.  There  are  facU»ries  of  linen 
and  thread. 

lilSCIlOFSTElN',  or  BISCHSTEIX.atownof 
Prussia,  prt»v.  E.  I^russia,  reg.  Konip*berg,  on  a 
marshy  lake,  47  m.  S,  by  E.  K6nip*ber>?.  Pop. 
8,274  in  18G 1 .  The  town  has  two  Catholic  churches, 
a  hii^h  school,  fabrics  of  cloth  and  stockings,  with 
distilleries  and  breweries, 

BISCHWILLEK,  a  town  of  France,  dqj.  Bas 
Khin,  cap.  cant.,  on  the  Motler,  15  m,  N.  Stra.*^ 
burg,  on  the  railway  from  Strasbuig  to  Mayence. 
l*i)p.  8,780  in  18G1.  Tlie  t<twu  was  once  fortilied ; 
but  the  wt»rks  were  destroyed  by  the  Imi^erialLsts 
in  1706.  It  manufactures  coaree  woollen  and  linen 
doths,  woollen  gloves,  pottery,  tiles,  and  bricks,  and 
has  woollen  mills,  madder  mills,  and  tanneries. 

BISENTO,  a  tovm  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
Teramo,  cap.  cant.,  in  a  vallev,  10  m.  NW,  Ci\'ita- 
di-Penne.  Pop.  3,513  in  1862.  The  town  has 
several  churches,  a  dyework  for  cloth,  and  fairs  on 
Jdav  16  and  17. 

BISHOPS-AUCKLAND,  a  market-town  and 
township  of  England,  co.  Durham,  N  W.  div.,  Dar- 
lington wanl,  par.  St.  Anihew  Auckland,  10  m. 
S\v.  Durham,  on  the  South  Durham  and  I-Anca- 
Bhire  Union  Branch  railway.  Pop.  6,480  in  1861, 
llie  town,  which  is  well  built,  stands  on  an  emi- 
nence, having  the  Wear  on  the  N.,  and  the  Gaun- 
less  on  the  SE.  The  par.  church  is  alK)ut  1  m. 
distant,  but  there  is  a  chapel  of  ease  in  the  town, 
and  the  Methmlists,  Independents,  Quakers,  d'C, 
have  also  chapels.  There  is  a  grammar-school 
founded  by  James  I.,  and  farther  endowed  by 
several  prelates;  a  school  on  the  Madras  system 
for  2(M)  Iwys,  and  a  school  for  girL*,  both  founded 
by  Biwhop'Banrington.  The  town,  owing  to  great 
facihties  of  railway  communication,  is  flourishing, 
and  the  ]>opulation  on  the  increase ;  but  the  place 
owes  its  importance  to  its  having  at  its  NE.  end 
the  magniticent  castle  or  episcoi)al  |>alace  of  the 
bishop  of  Durham.  The  building  is  of  great 
extent,  has  a  tine  chapel  built  by  Bishop  Cosins, 
and  si»me  goo<l  pictures.  The  ^)ark  includes  about 
800  acres. 

BISHOP'S  CASTLE,  a  par.,  l>or.,  and  town  of 
England,  co.  Salop,  hund.  Parslow,  144  m.  NW. 
bv  W.  I-ondou.  Area,  t),000  acn>s.  Po]>.  of  \tf\T., 
1821,  1,870;  1831,2,007;  and  2,083  in  1861.   The 


BISIGNANO 

town  stands  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  near  a  amall 
branch  of  the  Clare.  There  are  some  good  houses, 
in  detacheii  situations;  but  thegreatejr  part  of  the 
town  is  inregidarly  and  mejinly  built  of  unhewn 
stone.  The  church  (originally  a  line  structure  of 
the  Xorman  i>eriod)  was  iwrtly  destroyed  in  tlie 
civil  war,  antl  suliseauently  restored.  *  There  are 
several  dissenting  ])laces  of  worship,  and  a  free 
scluKtl,  educating  60  boys  and  girls.  The  town- 
hall,  built  in  1754^  contains  ])risons  for  criminals 
and  debtors.  A  weekly  market  w  held  on  Frirlay, 
and  animal  fairs,  Feb.  13,  Friday  before  (>o<'kI 
Friday,  Friday  after  Mav  1,  July  5,  Sept,  9,  and 
Nov.  13.  Tliat  in  May  is  a  pleasure,  and  that  in 
July  a  wool  fair ;  the  rest  are  for  cattle.  A  cliarter 
of  the  26th  of  Elizalieth  conferred  on  the  corpora- 
ti(»n  the  privilege  of  returning  two  mem.  to  the  H. 
of  C,  which  it  exercised  till  the  passing  of  the 
Heform  Act,  when  it  was  disfranchiseii  lt»  local 
limits  were  extensive,  having  a  circ,  of  15  nru  Its 
name  is  derived  from  an  ancient  castle  of  the 
bisho|)s  of  Hereford,  which  has  be^  long  <lemo- 
lishetl ;  the  site  of  it,  however,  mav  still  be  traced. 

BISHOP'S  STOKTFORD,  a  par.  and  town  of 
England,  co.  Hertford,  hund.  Branghin,  on  the 
Stort,  26  m.  NNE.  London  on  the  Great  Knsleni 
railway.  Area,  3.080  acres.  Pop.  of  par.,  5,390 ;  of 
town,  4,673  in  1861.  The  greater  part  of  the 
town  stands  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  on  the  W.  side 
of  the  rivej,  and  consists  of  two  lines  of  street,  in- 
tersecting each  other  at  right  angles,  and  forming 
a  cross.  It  is,  on  the  whole,  well  built.  The 
church  stands  on  an  eminence,  and  has  a  fine 
tower.  There  is  a  national  school  for  300  cliildrcn, 
and  a  public  library.  It  has  an  excellent  market- 
house  (biult  at  the  intersection  of  the  streets,  in 
1828,  with  an  Ionic  front),  which  contains  a  large 
hall,  used  as  a  coni-exchange,  over  which  are 
assembly  and  magistrates'  rooms.  Hie  Wi>ekly 
market  is  on  Thurs<lay,  and  three  annual  fairs  are 
held  on  Holy  Thursday,  Thursday  after  Trinity 
Sunday,  and  lOth  Octol>er.  The  malting  andatra 
trades  cfmstitute  the  chief  busuiess  of  the  town, 
for  which  there  are  convenient  wharfs  along  the 
river  and  the  canal  (both  of  which  arc  contiguous 
to  it) ;  and  being  in  the  centre  of  a  good  com  dis- 
trict, the  trade  is  considerable.  There  is  also  a 
silk-mill,  which  employs  many  hands.  Under  the 
Poor  Law  Amendment  Act  it  is  the  union  town 
for  20  pars.;  its  own  rates  average  IJ231L  It, 
Petty  sessions  are  held  ever\'  fortnight  by  the  co. 
magistrates;  it  is  also  a  polling  to>n  for  Herts. 

BISHOP'S  WALTHAM,  a  par.  and  town  of 
England,  co.  Southampton,  div.  Portsdown,  hund. 
of  Bishop's  Waltham,  62  m.  SW.  by  W.  Lomlon, 
on  the  London  and  South  Western  railway.  Pop, 
of  parish,  2,267  in  1861,  The  town  is  situated  by 
the  Harable  (a  small  stream  rising  1  m.  from  the 
town)  in  the  viciiuty  of  Waltham  Forest,  It  has 
a  good  church,  an  endowed  charity  school  for  36 
boys,  and  a  national  school  for  160  boys  and  girls. 
It  has  a  weekly  market  on  Friday,  and  aiuiual 
fairs  on  second  Friday  in  May,  July'dO,  and  Friday 
folloiiving  Old  Michaelmas-day,  Leather-dressing 
is  the  chief  trade  of  the  town,  which  is  mostly 
dls]>oscd  of  at  its  own  fairs,  and  those  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood. There  is  also  some  malting  business 
carried  on.  It  is  a  polling  town  for  the  northern 
di\'ision  of  the  county.  The  i\'y-covero<l  ruins  to 
a  line  (»ld  castle  are  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  It 
originated  in  the  reign  of  Stephen,  but  owed  its 
subsequent  magnilicence  to  William  of  Wykeham. 
The  castle  was  demolished  by  the  parliaJmentary 
annv  in  the  last  civil  war. 

BlSHOP-WEAKMOUTIl.    '  (See     Sonder- 

LAND.) 

BISIGNAXO  (on.  Besidia),  a  to\iii  of  Southern 


BISSAGOS 

Italy,  proT.  Cosenza,  15  m.  N.  Coeenza.  Pop.  3,821 
in  1859.  The  town  is  defended  by  a  castle  sita- 
ated  on  the  highest  of  the  seven  hiUs  by  which  it 
is  surrounded ;  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric ;  has  a  tine 
cathedral,  numerous  churches,  a  nunnery,  several 
convents,  two  hospitals,  and  a  house  of  refh^ 
Large  quantities  of  silk-worms  are  reared  in  uie 
vicinitv. 

BIS^AGOS,  a  group  of  small  volcanic  islands, 
on  the  W.  coast  of  Africa,  opposite  the  embouchure 
of  the  Kio  Grande,  between  10°  and  129  N.  lat., 
and  15^0  and  16^°  W.  long.  The  largest  is  about 
15  m.  in  length,  and  some  of  them  are  uninhabited. 
The  inhab.,  who  are  described  as  brave  but  trea- 
cherous, raLte  some  maize,  but  are  principally  de- 
pendent on  their  cattle,  goats,  and  fishery. 

BISZTKITZ  {ii>\&v.Beszterze  VideAt),  a  town  of 
Trans vlvania,  Austria,  cap.  diHtrict,  in  a  tine  valley, 
on  the  Bisztritz ;  Ut,  47°  5'  46"  N.,  long.  240  32'  18" 
E.  Pop.  6,800  in  1857.  The  town  is  fortified,  lias 
a  gymnasium,  two  schools,  and  two  hospitals,  with 
a  considerable  trade  in  cattle. 

BITCHE,  a  town  and  fortress  of  France,  d^p. 
Alosolle.  cap.  cant.,  at  the  fiwt  of  the  Vosges,  15  m. 
ESE.  Sarguemines.  Pop.  2,965  in  1861.  The 
population  is  declining.  The  fortress  or  citadel 
stands  on  an  almost  inaccessible  rock  nsing  from 
the  middle  of  the  town.  The  interior  of  the  rock 
is  vaulted  and  casemated;  the  fort  mounts  80 
pieces  of  cannon,  may  be  garrisoned  by  1,000  men, 
IS  well  supplied  with  water,  and  is  looked  upon  as 
next  to  impregnable.  The  town,  formerly  called 
Kaltcnhausen,  is  built  at  the  foot  of  the  rock, 
surmounted  by  the  citadel,  near  a  lai^  shallow 
lake  or  mere,  where  the  Home  has  its  source. 
It  produces  different  sorts  of  fine  pottery. 
The  glass-works  of  Munsthal,  in  the  vicinity, 
furnish  flint  glass  of  the  value  of  600,000  fr.'a 
vear. 

BITETTO,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
Terra  di  Bari,  in  a  fertile  ])lain  on  the  Adriatic, 
10  m.  SW.  Bari.  Pop.  5,K85  in  1859.  The  town 
is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric ;  has  a  cathedral,  remark- 
able for  its  pictures  and  marbles,  and  several 
convents. 

BITONTO  {an,Butuntum),  a  town  of  Southern 
Italy,  pruv.  Terra  di  Bari,  cap.  cant.,  in  a  tine 
plain,  10  m.  WSW.  Bari,  on  the  railway  from 
Ban  to  Taranto.  Pop.  24,221  in  1859.  Bitontois  a 
tine  town,  and  the  inhabitants  are  said  to  be  mucJi 
easier  in  their  fortunes,  and  more  polished  and  im- 
pn>ved  in  their  manners,  than  those  that  dwell  in 
the  cities  along  the  coast.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric;  has  a  fine  cathedral,  twelve  parish 
churches,  convents  for  both  sexes,  a  hospital,  and 
a  nunnery.  The  environs  produce  a  wine  called 
gagariUo^  said  to  be  excellent,  and  in  which  the 
tiiwn  trades  extensive! v.  In  1734  the  Spanianls, 
under  the  Count  de  Afortemar,  gained,  in  the  \i- 
cinity  of  this  town,  an  important  victory  over  the 
AuHtrians. 

BITKITTO,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
Terra  di  l^ri,  7  m.  S.  Bari,  on  the  railway  from 
Ikuri  to  Taranto.  Pop.  3,771  in  1859.  It  has  a 
tine  collegiate  church,  and  its  territory  b  celebrated 
for  its  wines  and  almonds. 

BITTHUK(i,  a  town  of  Prussia,  prov.  Lower 
Rhine,  cap.  circle,  18  m.  NNW.  Treves.  Pop. 
2.267  in  1 861.  The  town  has  a  castle,  two  Cathohc 
churche.s,  and  some  trade  in  com  and  catile. 

BITTEKFELD,  a  tovm  of  Pni88ia,prov.  Saxony, 
reg.  Mer.-^ebourg,  cap.  circle,  16  m.  S.  Dessau,  at 
the  junction  of  the  railways  from  Berlin  to  Halle, 
and  from  I)(>s.sau  to  Leipzig.  Pop.  4,284  in  1861. 
The  town,  which  is  in  a  flourishing  condition,  was 
founded  by  a  colony  of  Flemings,  whose  descend- 
ants hold  their  property  in  common,  and  are  go- 

Vou  L 


BLAOEBUBN 


465 


vemed  by  peculiar  lawn.  It  has  fabrics  of  cloth 
and  earthenware. 

BIZEKTA,  or  BENZART  (an.  Hwpo  Diarr- 
hytusj  or  Zaniu»)t  a  sea-port  town  of  Tunis,  at  the 
bottom  of  a  deep  ^ulf  or  bay  {Simu  HippomamM)^ 
on  a  channel  uniting  the  gulf  with  anintemal  lake 
or  lagoon,  40  m.  NW.  Tunis;  lat.  87©  17'  20"  N., 
long.  9^  b(y  35''  £.  Pop.  variously  estimated  at 
from  8,000  to  14,000.  it  is  about  1  m.  in  cure, 
and  is  defended  by  walls,  and  two  castles ;  but  as 
the  latter  are  commanded  by  a  height  within  a 
short  distance,  it  could  oppose  no  effectual  resist- 
ance to  an  army  attacking  it  by  land.  Though  it 
has  a  good  appearance  at  a  distance,  it  is,  like 
most  other  Turkish  towns,  really  mean  and  dirty. 
Its  port,  which  now  only  admits  small  vessels,  was 
formerly  one  of  the  best  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
might  easily  be  restored,  in  this  respect,  to  its 
ancient  pre-eminence.  The  channel  on  which  the 
town  is  built  has  in  parts  tive  and  six  fathoms 
water,  and  it  might,  with  no  great  labour,  be  every- 
where deepened  to  that  extent.  The  lake,  or  inner 
harbour,  is  of  great  extent,  with  a  depth  of  water 
var^dng  from  ten  to  tifty  fathoms,  and  is  capal)le 
of  accommodating  the  bjrgest  naxnes.  The  country 
round  is  also  exceedingly  fertile;  so  much  so 
that,  notwithstanding  its  neglected  state,  large 
quantities  of  com  are  occasionally  exported  from 
J^izerta. 

BLACKBURN,  a  market  town  and  pari.  bor.  of 
England,  co.  Lancaster,  hund.  and  par.  of  Black- 
bum,  on  an  afiluent  of  the  Ribble ;  183  m.  NW.  by 
N.  London,  31  m.  NE.  Liverpool,  21  m.  NW.  by 
N.  Manchester,  12  m.  N.  by  W.  Bolton,  and  9  m. 
E.  by  S.  Preston,  at  the  junction  of  the  railways 
from*  Preston  to  Bumley,  and  from  Bolton  to  Chat- 
bum.  Blackburn  is  one  of  the  great  manufactur- 
ing centres  of  England  which  have  had  an  extra- 
ordinaiydevelopment  in  the  course  of  half  a  cen- 
turv.  The  population  of  the  bor.  numbered  15,083 
in  i811 ;  rose  to  21,940  in  1821 ;  to  36,629  in  1841, 
and  to  63,126  in  1861.  The  parish,  which  had 
39,899  inhabitants  in  1811,  counted  no  less  than 
110,349  in  1861.  The  town,  situated  on  a  rivulet, 
call^  in  Domesday  Book  '  Blackebnme,'  was, 
with  the  surrounding  district,  a  manor  during  the 
reign  of  William  the  Conqueror,  who  granted  it  to 
Ibbert  de  Lacy.  A  castle,  of  which  no  trace  exists 
at  present,  is  said  by  Whitaker  to  have  been  a  sta- 
tion of  the  Romans,  and  of  the  Saxons.  Camden 
and  Blome  both  notice  it  as  a  thriving  market- 
town  in  their  da3r8.  The  eminences  in  the  vicinity 
are  naked,  and  in  winter  the  place  has  a  dreary 
aspect.  It  b  irregularly  built,  owing  {partly  to  its 
antiquity,  and  partly  to  the  intermixture  of  glebe 
and  other  lands,  the  tenures  of  which  interfered 
with  a  better  arrangement  of  the  avenues.  The 
parish  church  of  St.  Mary,  originally  built  before 
the  Conquest,  was  rebuilt  on  a  new  site  in  1819,  at 
an  expense  of  26,000/. ;  it  is  in  the  Grothic  style, 
contains  2,000  sittings,  of  which  700  are  free :  and 
in  boldness,  symmetry,  and  correctness  of  design, 
is  said  to  be  surpassed  by  but  few  ecclesiastical 
stiuctures.  It  sustained  some  injury,  which  was 
soon  alter  repaired,  from  a  fiire  in  1831.  There  are 
ten  other  episcopal  churches  in  the  town  and  24  in 
the  parish.  The  Methodists,  Baptists,  Independ- 
ents, Roman  Catholics,  Swedenborgians  and  So- 
ciety of  Friends  have  all  one  or  several  places  of 
worship.  The  educational  establishments  com- 
prise a  grammar  school  founded  and  endowed 
temp,  Elizabeth ;  Leyland's  school  for  the  educa- 
tion of  girls ;  with  National,  British  and  Foreign, 
and  other  schools.  The  public  buildings,  witli  the 
exception  of  those  iq)plied  to  theolo^cal  purposes, 
are  few  in  number,  and  consist  prmcipally  of  a 
small  neat  theatre,  and  a  doth-^iaU.    It  has  a 

HH 


466 


BLACKHEATH 


(liitpenraiy  ami  a  hing-in  institution,  a   horticul- 
tural 8<H.*icty.  and  Wo  weekly  {Mipent. 

The  Reform  Act  conferred  on  Blackburn  the  nri- 
^-ilejj^e  of  retiuniing  2  mem.  to  the  H.  »»f  (\  The 
bor^  which  in  identical  with  the  to\*ii8hip,  com- 
priflofl  H.OlOarres ;  and  had  1,753  re^  electors  in 
1W51,  being  all  occupierH  of  10/.  houses.  The  go- 
remment  of  the  town  in  vested  in  commiaxionera ; 
and  the  magiittrates  of  the  humlred  hold  petty  se»- 
Wiuw  in  it.  A  county  court  Ls  establi.she<l  here. 
Tlie  awenment  for  tlie  relief  of  the  pi  Mir  in  Black- 
bum  [Jnion  amounted  in  iMfil  to  12«»;H73/. :  and  the 
amount  aHdesiH.>d  to  pn»perty  tax  to  17H»91W. 

The  manufacture  of  a  kind  of  cloth  made  of 
linen  warp  and  cotton  woof,  each  partly  of  dyed 
thn*iid,  giving  the  web  a  chenuenMl  apiiearaniT. 
and  thence  called  Blackimm  cheque,  was  carried 
on  here  in  165().  It  was  afterwardii  superxeded  by 
that  of  Blackburn  greys,  conrtisting  also  of  linen 
and  cotton,  so  called  from  their  being  printed  in  an 
imbleached  state^  James  Hai^greaves,  a  working 
carpenter,  the  inventor  of  the  sfnnning-jenny,  the 
lirat  great  step  in  that  wonderful  career  of  inven- 
tion and  discoverv  that  has  rabicd  the  cotttwi 
manufacture  to  iu  present  unexam|>led  state  of 
pnwperity,  was  a  native  of  Blarkl»uni.  In  17<>7 
he  pHNluced  the  jenny;  but  instead  of  meeting 
with  the  countenance  and  su{)fM>rt  due  to  his  sin- 
gular deserts,  he  was  driven  out  of  the  town,  and 
eventually  out  of  the  county ;  and  it  was  n<»t  till 
about  \HU)  or  1812  that  tJie  i)e<jple  of  Blackburn 
began  lai^ly  to  emlwrk  in  the  cotton  trrnle,  and 
t/»  avail  themselves  of  the  dL*<coveries  that  had 
originated  in  their  town.  Now,  however,  s[»inning 
of  the  CTiarser  kind  of  calicoes,  and  their  weaving 
by  the  |)ower-loom,  constitute  the  staple  trade  of 
the  place. 

Tlie  abun«lance  of  coal  raised  from  the  coal  field 
a  few  m.  to  the  S.  has  largely  contributed  t4)  the 
progress  of  manufactures.  Thev  have  ahm  lieen 
much  facilitated  by  the  Liverptnif  and  LeeiL*  ("anal, 
which  {tasses  close  to  the  town,  and  by  the  opening 
of  railways.  Markets  are  held  on  \Ve<bies<lays  and 
Saturdays,  in  an  inconvenient  place ;  fairs  f(»r  cloth. 
in  the  cloth-hall,  on  Easter-Monday,  lltli,  12th 
May,  and  17th  Oct.;  and  ftir  cattle,' on  the  alter- 
nate Wednesilays  from  the  beginning  of  February 
to  Michaelman.  The  banking  establishments  are 
branches  of  the  Manchester  and  County  liank,  of 
the  Manchester  and  Liver|)ool  District  Bank,  and 
a  j)rivate  banking-house,  called  the  Old  Bank. 

'  In  the  early  stages  of  the  cotton  manufacture,' 
says  Mr.  Ikdnes,  *  the  inhabitants,  in  general,  were 
indigent,  and  scantily  proWded  (and  this  is  still 
the  case  so  far  as  the  hand-loom  weavers  are  con- 
cerned) ;  but  decisive  proofs  of  wealth  now  appear 
in  this  place  on  ever>'  hand ;  handsome  new  erec- 
tions are  continually  rising  up:  public  institutions 
for  the  improvement  of  the  mind,  and  the  exten- 
sion of  human  happiness,  are  rapidlv  increasing ; 
and  this  i)Iace,  atone  time  proverbmi  for  its  rude- 
ness and  want  ofcivilisation.maynow  fairly  rank, 
in  point  of  opulence  and  intelligence,  yrith  many 
of  the  principal  to^nsin  the  kingilom.* 

BLACKHEATH,  an  elevated  moory  tract,  in 
the  vicinity  and  forming  a  suburb  of  the  British 
metropolis,  which  gives  name  to  the  hund.  in 
which  it  is  situated,  in  the  lath  of  Sutton-at 
Holme,  CO.  Kent.  The  greater  portion  of  the  hun- 
dred ofBlackheath  is  in  the  |>arish  of  Greenwich, 
but  it  also  extends  into  those  of  Charlton,  Lewis- 
ham,  and  Lee,  and  is  1^  m.  in  an  E.  and  W.  di- 
recti<m,  and  about  half  that  X.  and  S. ;  from  St. 
Paurn  to  the  nearest  i>art  is  aliout  5  m.  SE.  Tlie 
population,  according  to  the  census  of  1801, 
amounted  to  10,173.  The  dwtrict  is  intcnwH^tCil 
by  the  South  Eastern  and  North  Kent  railwciy. 


BLACK  SEA 

It  commands  many  fine  prospects,  and  has  nume- 
rous elq^t  villas.    There  are  several  churches 
and  chapels,  and  a  great  number  (^{ffivate  scho«il.<*. 
I  On  the  E.  side  is  Morden  CloUege,  a  quadrangular 
I  structure,  founded  in  1708,  for  decayed  merchiuitji; 
I  its  revenue  Is  about  h^OOOl.  a  year,  in  the  hand^ 
of  seven  trustees,  who  nominate  the  pensioners, 
,  and  appoint  the  treasurer  and  chaplain  :  there  are 
about  40  supported,  each  of  whom  receives  oL  a 
month,  and  has  a  seiiarate  apartment ;  but  they 
■  eat  at  a  common  table :  none  arc  admissible  under 
j  50ypan«  of  age.    A  Koman  road  (Wat  ling  Street), 
from  I/ondon  t4>  L)over,  traverses  the  heath,  nearlv 
,  in  the  direction  of  the  mrxlem   line :  there  are 
some  large  ancient  tumuli  on  it.     In  the  11th 
!  centurv  the  Danes  (whose  tieet  lav  offtireenwich) 
were  encam|M>d  on  the  heath  some  months  whence 
'.  they  made  many  excursions;   in  one   of  which 
Caiiteri)ur>'  was  sacked,  and  the  archbishop  car- 
ried off,  and  afterwanls  killed.    Wat  Tyler,  and 
sulisequently  Jack  Cade,  took  up  (xi^itions  with 
j  their  followers  on  it ;   as  did  the  Cornish  rel»elH, 
-  under  Loni  Audlev,  defeated  with  great  slaughtfT 
i  bv  Ilenrv  VII.    I'hither  also,  in  former  times,  the 
i  lord  mayor  and  cori>orati(»n,  and  occasional Iv  tli«> 
•  king  and  his  court,  were  wont  to  go,  when  illu^- 
'  trious  iiersonages  were  to  be  welcomed  to  the  capi- 
tal    (llasted's  Kent.) 

BLACK  SEA  (the  Euxine,  or  Uorrnt  Ev^eirtK 
of  the  Greeks  and  Komiuis).  a  large  internal  ^a 
i  lying  between  the  SW.  jinn-inces  of  Kussia  in 
Eunj|)e  and  A>ia  Minor,  extending  frv>m  40°  5o'  to 
4Cfi  4.V  N.  hit.,  aiul  fn»m  270  25'  to  4<P  48'  E.  long. 
It  is  Ixmnded  on  the  N.  and  NW.  bv  the  RiiMsinu 
provinces  of  Taurida,  Kherson,  and  Bessarabia; 
on  the  NE.  and  E.  by  the  Caucasian  couutrii.'S 
Circassia,  Mingrelia,  and  Imeritia;  on  the  SK. 
and  S.  by  Annenia  and  A^ia  Minor :  and  on  the 
I  W.  by  the  TurkL^ih  gm-emraents  of  Kunielia  au«l 
Bulgaria.  Its  extreme  length  from  E.  to  W.  I* 
upwanLs  of  700  m. ;  its  gn*atest  width,  on  the31>t 
meridian,  400  m. :  E.  from  this  it  narrows  by  the 
projection  of  the  Crimea,  and  the  advance  of  tlie 
opposite  sh(»re  of  Asia  Minor,  to  hVl  m. ;  again  it 
widens  to  265  m.  lK?tween  the  Strait  of  Yenikale 
and  the  Gull  of  Sumsun.  but  from  the  last  ]H>int 
it  constantly  and  rapidly  diminishes^,  till  it»  K. 
coast  (running  due  N.  and  S.)  docs  not  exceed  ()o 
m.  in  width.  Iti»  surface  is  estimated  at  ab(»ut 
LOO.'XN)  sq.  m.,  and  its  coast  line,  inclutiing  its 
sinuosities,  considerably  exceeds  2,0tKl  m.  (Che- 
valier, Vov.  tie  la  Prop«»n.  et  du  Pont,  Eux,  p. 
320;  Jong's  TraveK  iL  383;  Kennell'a  Comp. 
Geog.  of  W.  Asia,  iL  277.) 

The  Black  Sea  is  connected  with  the  Sea  of 
Azoph  by  the  Strait  of  Yenikale'  (an.  Bomhunu 
Cimmeriua)^  and  with  the  Sea  of  Marmara,  by  the 
Cliannel  of  Constantinople  (an.  Botphorua  fTtra- 
ciiu).  With  these  exccprions  it  is  wholly  li«olato<L 
It  is  also  much  more  compact  in  form  than  mi):<t 
other  large  bodies  of  water ;  giN'ing  off  no  great 
liml)s,  like  the  Italtic,  Mediterranean,  drc,  and 
having  very  few  even  moderately-sized  gulfs. 
The  mi>st  important,  that  of  Kirkinit  (the  Carri- 
nitus  Sinui  of  the  ancients)  lies  between  the  NW. 
shore  of  the  Crimea  and  the  oppi>site  shore  of  S. 
Russia,  extending  as  far.  E.  as  the  Isthmus  of 
Perekop.  The  coast  of  the  sea  is,  however,  by  n^i 
means  iron-bound ;  small  bays  and  harboun  innu- 
merable occur  at  short  distances,  through  all  its 
circuit,  but  none  of  tliem  is  in  the  least  comparable, 
as  to  size,  with  the  Gulf  of  Kirkinit,  unless,  in- 
deed, the  Sea  of  Azoph  and  the  Sea  of  Marmara  be 
reckoned  gulfs  of  the  Black  Sea.  Tlie  straits  of 
the  Black  Se^  are  very  remarkable;  they  scarcely 
break  the  continuity  of  the  land,  for  at  their  nar- 
rowest part,  that  uf  Vcuikale,  ia  not  moru  titan 


BLACK  SEA 


467 


2  m.  acrof^s,  nml  that  of  Constantinople  less  than 
H  m.  (Pallas's  Travels  in  S.  Kumia,  ii.  288; 
rhevalier,  p.  44.)  The  former,  indeed,  spreads  ont 
in  low  and  s\«'ainpy  fi^rouiidM  into  a  kind  of  manthy 
hay,  theffreateHt  width  of  which,  mca-surcd  trans- 
versely, is  about  34  m,  (Pallas,  ii  300) ;  but  the 
Thracian  Bosphonis  tlows  throup:h  its  whole 
lenjj^th  of  about  17  m.,  like  a  magniticent  river,  be- 
tween mountainous  banks,  and  in  no  part  attains 
a  width  (i(  more  than  2  m.  or  2^  m.  (Jcmes,  ii. 
448.) 

Tlie  depth  of  water  in  this  sea  is  variable,  but 
the  variations  appear  to  be  extremely  re^lar, 
doi)endinj?  generally  upon  the  proximity  of  the 
land :  so  much  so,  indeed,  tliat  in  many  places 
(tift'the  mouths  of  the  I)anul)e  in  particidar)  the 
distance  of  the  shore  may  be  known  within  ^  m. 
from  the  soundings  onlv.  (Kton,  Commerce  of 
the  lllack  Sea,  p.  6.)  In  the  Strait  <»f  YenikaM,  the 
depth,  in  its  shallowest  part,  does  not  exceed 
1 1  ft.,  nor  in  its  deepest  is  it  more  than  22  ft. ; 
but  passing  this  the  sea  itself  is  found,  in  the 
neigh l)ourhood  of  the  strait,  to  have  a  general 
<lopth  of  4  fathoms,  deepening  rapidly  to  20 
fathoms  or  more;  while,  in  the  8,  i>arts,  48 
fathoms  are  found  at  the  entrance  of  the  Thracian 
I{o:*phorus;  an  equal  or  greater  depth  along  the 
W.  shore,  at  a  little  distance  from  the  land,  as  far 
as  the  mouths,  of  the  Danul)e ;  and  in  the  main 
cea,  between  the  Bosjihorus  and  Sebastopol,  in 
Jlie  Crimea,  no  bottom  is  found  at  1(K),  120,  140, 
and  IfiO  fathoms.  The  sea  upon  the  S.  coast, 
from  (Constantinople  to  Sinc»pe  (long.  35°),  Ls 
tolerably  deep;  thence  to  the  L.  coast,  it  is  known 
only  that  vessels  of  any  draught  may  navigate 
its  waters ;  and  the  NE.  shore,  between  the  rivers 
I'hasis  and  Kuban,  may  be  reganled  as  yet  un- 
known to  Europeans.  ( Voy.  of  the  Blonde,  1829 ; 
iieog.  Journal,  i.  106 ;  Eton,  pp.  7-15 ;  Ad- 
mirahy  (Charts,  sect  iv.  1)1.  73.) 

The  Euxine  Ls  enclosed  on  the  XE.,  ES.,  and 
SW.  by  high  mountains,  which  run  doAm  close 
to  its  margin;  even  on  the  W.,  the  Carpathians 
appn)ach  its  shores  tomtldu  170  m. ;  but  towanls 
the  NW.  and  N.,  it  opens  on  the  great  plain  of 
Sojithem  Eur«4)e.  Not  a  mountain  rises  near  its 
l>ed  in  these  directions,  except  the  small  range 
iu  the  S.  of  the  Crimea. 

The  basin  of  the  Euxine  expands  in  a  westerly 
direction,  from  about  40  m.  to  nearly  or  quite 
2r>0  m.  in  width  :  but  immediately  N.  of  the  Cau- 
<>aMan  mountain,  it  suddenly  stretches  E.  31)0  m., 
tlie  sea  receiving,  thn>ngh  the  Kul)an,  nearlv  all 
the  water  that  tlows  from  the  NE.  face  o(  the 
Cauca'*us,  and  by  various  other  channels,  consider^ 
al»ly  the  larger  part  of  all  the  drainage  from  the 
low  and  swampy  lands  W.  of  the  ("aspiiui.  (Sec 
Casi'ian  Ska.)  '  On  its  N.  c«tast,  the  Hlack  Sea 
receive^**  the  waters  c»f  some  of  the  lirst  class  Euro- 
pean rivers  fwrn  a  distance  of  7(K)  m.  from  its 
shores.  (SecDoN,  Dnikstr,  Dxikpil)  The  Don, 
indee<l,  falls  into  the  sea  of  Azoph;  but  this  u*, 
physically  considcreti,  only  a  part  of  the  larger 
Ixuly  witii  which  it  is  conncotctl  But  by  far  the 
nuKst  remarkable  part  t»f  the  basin  of  the  Euxine 
that  towards  the   W.    The  Car])atldans  a|>- 


is 


])roach,in  this  direction,  to  within  ac<»m]Miratively 
slu»rt  distance  (»f  its  slu>res;  but,  notwithstanding 
this,  the  Danube,  after  breaking  through  the 
mountains  at  Orsova,  reaches  the  Euxine  charged 
with  all  the  suqdus  waters  of  the  E.  and  NE. 
iieclivities  of  the  Alps,  the  S.  and  part  of  the  NE. 
cNrlivitiesof  the  Carpathians,  the  S.  decli\'ities  of 
tlie  Sudetes,  and  theN.dech\'itiesofthe  lialkhan; 
in  other  wonls,  the  whole  water  of  N.  Turkev,  of 
the  Austrian  empire,  with  the  excepti(>n  of  Jk>- 
Itcmia  and  Lombonly ;  together  with  a  great  port 


of  that  of  Southern  (Germany.  (See  Danube.) 
ITiese  countries  extend  above  1,(MK)  m,  W.  from 
the  Black  Sea ;  their  surface  is  equal  to  more  than 
1-1 1th  part  of  the  whole  of  Euro^te,  and  their 
running  water  to  almost  l-8th  part.  (Lichtenstein, 
Cosmog.  i.  328  et  ata,)  When  to  this  is  added  the 
supply  from  the  NE.  and  S.,  it  will  Ix^  eWdent 
that  the  l>a8in  of  the  Euxine  is  of  very  great 
extent.  The  much  lai^r  portion  behmgs  to 
Europe,  of  which  it  drains  almost  l-3rd  i>art; 
and  the  amount  of  water  receivini  bv  the  sea  is 
equal  to  that  given  from  the  same  division  <»f  the 
world  to  the  Mediterranean  {direct)  and  lialtic 
together.  It  is  indeed  by  far  the  lal*ge^t  of  tho 
European  basins,  nor  is  there  anj'^vhere  a  similar 
tract  of  cmmtiy  so  abundantly  irrigated. 

There  are  no  tides  in  this  close  sea,  but  from 
the  vast  quantity  of  water  receive<l,  the  currents  are 
very  marked,  powerful,  and  regular;  a  little  varia- 
tion is  caused  by  winds,  and  some  tritling complex- 
it^'  near  tlie  mouths  of  rivers  ;  but  in  general  the 
direction  is  from  all  {xiints  towanls  the  Channel 
of  (Constantinople,  through  which  a  very  cotDstant 
tlow  is  kept  up  to  the  sea  of  Marmara.    Within 
this  strait,  however,  the  currents  l)ecome  rather 
more  variable,  being  thrown  from  side  to  side  by 
the  inequalities  of  the  coasts,  and  the  nammniesa 
of  the  channel     (Chevalier,  p.  45 ;  Jones,  il  31>4, 
447;  Pallas,  il  288;  C.eog.  Joum.   I  107,    *c.) 
The  water  of  the  Black  Sea  a{»pears  to  contain 
more  salt  than  could  have  l>een  expeirted,  under 
existing  circumstances.     It  has  been  obsers'eil, 
of  the  constant  action  of  the  St.  LawTence  on  the 
N.  American  lakes,  that  it  has  been  continued 
long  enough  to  make  them  sweet  and  clear,  even 
had  they  originally  been  tilled  with  ink.     But  an 
operation,  not  less  powerful,  has  been  at  wrrk 
fully  as  long  upon  these  waters ;  and  though  the 
Sea  of  Azoph  has  become  y>otable,  except  when  a 
SW.  wind  prevails,  the  Black  Sea  itself  Is  said  to 
be  only  about  l-7th  part  less  salt  than  the  Atlan- 
tic,  and   fully   1-lOth  salter   than   the   Baltic 
(Chardin,  p.   155;  Jones,  il  143,  &c,)     This  w, 
in  all  probability,  attributable  to  the  saline  nature 
of  the  sea-l)ed.    The  N.  coast  is  almost  one  con- 
tinued plain  of  salt,  and  the  numerous  lakes,  with 
which   these  steppes  alM>und,  are,  by  the  action 
of  the  summer  sun,  covered  with  a  thick  white 
cnist  of  the  same  nuneral,  perfectly  crj-.stallised, 
and  ha\'ing  the  appearance,  and  almost  the  con- 
sistency,   of   ice.       (Pallas,    il    4(>(>-477;    Mrs. 
Gutlirie's  Tour  thnmgh  the  Tauri<la,  ]>p.  55-51), 
&c.)     It  is  very  inipn>l)able  that  this  peculiarity 
of  soil  should  be  continuetl  to  the  \ex\  edge  of 
the  sea,  and  then  suddenly  cease ;  and  on  the 
(tther  hand,  if  it  be  farther   continued   to   any 
distance,  it  will  necessarily  counter>'ail  in  a  great 
degree  the  influence  of  the  immense  supply  of 
fresh  water.    The  fact  is,  however,  that  but  very 
little  i**  kno^vn,  with  anything  like  certainty,  of 
the  chemical  comixmition  of  the  Black  Seiu    'Hie 
Kussian  obser>-ations  are  limited  to  the  N.  shores ; 
the  few  French  and  English  travellers  who  luivo 
traversed  its  surface,  have  done  so  only  partially 
and  hurriedlv :  among  tra<ling  navigators  there 
has  been  no  i^onas  llanway ;  and  the  statementa 
of  the  Turks  exhibit  nothing  but  ignorance  and 
misrei>res<iitation.    However,  many  old  prejudicca 
with  resfiect  to  it  are  fast  vanishing;  and  the 
Euxine  is  no  hmger  rcganle<l  as  a  dark  and  de.so- 
late  region  of  st4>rms,  danger,  and    shipwreck. 
That  such  an  opinion  should  have  ever  prevailed, 
is  not  a  little  n>markable ;  but  it  did  prevail  in 
ancient,  and  in  mo<leni  times  till  a  com|Miratively 
late  |>eri(Kl    Toumefort  was  the  ttn<t  who  at- 
tempted to  ill^^pel  the  prejudices  and  misrepresen- 
tatioDfl  referred  to ;  and  who  vcatuicd  to  represent 

uu  2 


468 


BLACK  SEA 


Acts  as  he  found  them,  and  not  as  they  had  been 
disguised  by  the  poets  of  antiquit>%  and  by  blind 
and  ignorant  Turkish  navigators.  (Totunefort, 
a  1640 

The  prevailing  wind  in  the  Euxine  is  from  the 
NE.,  and  as  it  blows  over  a  great  extent  of  Hat 
and  swampy  country,  it  is  laden  with  moisture ; 
and  being  confined  by  the  high  land  on  the  E., 
S.,  and  SW.,  heavy*  fogs  are  occasionally  pro- 
duced. Dr.  Clarke  states  that,  *  in  winter  these 
fogs,  and  the  falling  snow,  cause  sometimes  a 
daricness  so 'great,  that  mariners  arc  unable  to 
discern  objects  at  the  distance  of  a  cable's  length 
from  their  vessels.'  (Travels,  L  641.)  But  this 
inconvenience  involves  scarcely  any  hazani,  for 
the  depth  of  water  is  always  sufficient  to  allow  of 
lying  to  without  danger  of  drifting  upon  sand  or 
rock;  and  with  the  least  break  in  the  weather, 
landmarks  of  the  very  best  kind  come  into  view, 
which  may  be  seen  at  20,  and  often  60  m.  distance. 
(Eton,  pp.*  8,  9.) 

From  the  confined  extent  of  the  water,  a  short 
and  tnublesome  sea  is  caused  by  anything  like  a 
gale;  out  it  is  not  dangerous;  and  storms,  to 
which  the  Black  Sea  is  nut  more  subject  than 
other  seas,  are  rarely  of  long  duration.  (Eton, 
n.  6.)  While  they  last,  the  dose  pent  up  water 
Jocing  greatly  agitated,  accidents,  of  course,  some- 
times occur;  but  it  would,  iierhapH,  l)e  rather 
difficult  to  point  out  any  sea  of  limited  dimensions 
where,  under  such  circumstances,  they  do  not 
occur.  The  NW.  shore  is  low  and  sandy:  a 
sandbank  3  m.  in  extent  lies  near  the  entrance  of 
the  (/hanuel  of  Constantinople;  and  on  tlie  eoa»t 
of  Crimea  two  rocks  lie  close  in  shore. 

There  is  also  an  opening,  called  Yiahn  Bokur 
(false  mouth),  a  little  to  tlie  N.  of  the  (Channel  of 
Constant inojile,  and  very  considerably  resembling 
it,  though  eaedly  enough  distinguished  when  the 
landmarks  arc  \dsi1)lc  Ignomnt  pilots)  fre<)uently 
conduct  their  ships  into  this  mouth ;  and  as  it  runs 
upon  a  low  and  dangerous  shore,  the  consequences 
are  mostly  fatid.  These  are  the  only  known  real 
dangers  of  this  sea.  (Eton,  \\  4-9;  Jones,  iu 
887-397.)  On  the  other  hand,  the  Euxine  is  deep, 
and  singularly  free  from  rocks  and  shoals :  there 
are  but  two  islands  in  its  whole  area ;  the  Isle  of 
Serpents,  off  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  and  Kerpe, 
or  Carpah,  on  the  shore  of  Asia  Minor.  The  navi- 
gation is  therefore  of  the  openest  kind,  and  even  in 
the  worst  of  storms  there  is  no  want  of  sea  room. 
The  largest  ships  may  sail  close  to  its  high  shores: 
the  anchorage  grounds  are  good,  and  hold  well ;  and 
many  of  its  ports  are  excellent.  In  tine,  the 
Euxme  may  he  described  as  a  clear  open  sea, 
whose  navigation  is  as  easy  as  possible  to  skilful 
nuiriners,  the  bad  character  which  \t  has  so  long 
undeser\'edly  borne  being  whollv  ascrilmble  to  the 
bad  construction  of  the  vessels,  their  want  of 
charts  and  compasses,  and  the  utter  incapacity 
of  the  sailors  by  whom,  till  recently,  it  has  been 
navigated.  From  the  loth  to  the  latter  part  of 
the  18th  century,  the  Turks  excluded  every  other 
nation  from  its  waters.  At  length  the  Russians 
fought  their  way  to  its  shores,  and  in  1799  it  was 
pamally  opened  to  British  and  other  European 
traders.  Conventions  to  the  same  effect  were  made 
with  the  Turkish  government  by  Queen  Elizabeth, 
James  I.,  and  Cities  I.,  &c.  (T^ty  of  Adria- 
nople,  Sept  1675),  but  they  seem  to  have  l)een 
without  any  effect;  and  it  is  only,  therefore,  since 
the  latter  date,  or  from  the  beginning  (»f  the  present 
century,  that  the  Black  Sea  has  become  known  to, 
and  been  justly  appreciated  by,  navigatore. 

The  chmate  of  the  Black  Sea  and  its  neigh- 
bouring countries  is  subject  to  great  extremes,  but 
at  an  average  is  lower  than  would  be  supposed  from 


its  latitude.  This  would  seem  to  be  aacribablc 
principally  to  its  want  of  shelter  on  the  N. ;  the 
winds  from  the  polar  regions  reaching  its  coast,  an<l 
blowing  over  its  surface,  unmitigated  except  by 
the  temperature  of  the  plain  land  over  which  they 
pass.  Winds  from  the  S.  are  less  frequent  than 
those  from  the  N.,  and  having  to  climb  the  snowy 
heights  of  tlie  Taurus  before  they  reach  the  coAst, 
they  arrive  there  materially  chiUed.  Even  on  its 
S.  shores,  the  N.  wind  sometimesprevents  travelling 
even  in  the  month  of  May.  (Toumefort,  iiL  87.) 
Its  N.  gulfs  and  bays  are  m  certain  seasons  frozen 
hard  enough  to  open  a  passage  for  troops ;  and  it 
is  recor«led  by  Strabo  (lib.  \'ii.)  that  the  soldierx  of 
Mithridates  engaged  those  of  the  Tauric  Cherso- 
nesus  (Crimea)  in  the  winter,  on  a  part  of  tlie 
Ikisphorus  where,  in  the  prece<ling  summer,  a  naval 
action  had  been  fought  In  lOtio,  the  width  of  the 
strait  was  measured  on  the  ice  (Pallas,  it  300) :  an 
equal  degree  of  cold  has  been  expejienced  in 
seveml  winters  within  the  present  century ;  and, 
although  such  extreme  inclemency  is  not  very  com- 
mon, navigation  is  always  suspended  with  every 
return  of  winter  in  the  sea  of  Azoph,  and  most 
commonly  along  the  whole  N.  shore  of  the 
Euxine.  *  On  the  other  hand,  the  summers  are 
usually  hot,  the  thermometer  in  the  shade  fre- 
quently standing  at  98°,  100°,  and  even  102o  Fahr. 
It  often,  however,  varies  in  the  same  day  from 
22^  to  2t^,  both  in  winter  and  summer,  and'  in  the 
former  the  barometer  partakes  of  the  irregularity, 
but  is  subject  to  fewer  changes  in  the  latter. 
Thunder-storms  aro  raro,  but  tremendous  when 
they  do  occur,  being  fre()ueutly  accompanied  bv 
dcbtnictive  haihttoncs  and  water-spouts.  The  cli- 
mate is  accoimted  healthy,  except  in  the  autumn, 
when  bilious  fevers  are  prevalent.  The  scourge  of 
Mohammedan  countries,  the  plague,  is  more  or  less 
common  all  round  the  coast,  but  this  is  a  conse- 
quence of  the  filth  of  the  inhabitants,  and  nut  of 
the  climate.  (Palhis,  ii.  376-380 ;  Mrs.  Guthrie, 
pp.  33,  55,  &c ;  Tournefort,  iiL  16,  Ac.) 

Tlie  Euxine  teems  with  seals,  porptiiscs,  stur- 
geons, dolphins,  mackerel,  mullet,  bream,  and 
other  fish,  mostly  of  the  same  kind  as  those  caught 
in  the  Caspian  and  Sea  of  Aral  (see  Caspian  Sea): 
there  are^  however,  few  fisheries  established  along 
its  shores,  though,  where  thev  do  exist,  they  aro 
extremely  productive.  (Pallas,  iL  51,  132,' 289, 
461-463  ;*  Olivier,  Voyage  dans  TEmpire  Othcmian, 
i.  135,  Ac) 

Tliere  are  many  conflicting  opinions  as  to 
whether  the  Euxine  be  or  be  not  of  permanent 
magnitude.  It  was  a  commonly  received  opinion 
among  the  ancients,  that  it  was  formerly  separated 
:  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  that  the  Thracian 
liosphorus  was  burst  through  by  a  convuhiion  of 
nature,  or  bv  the  deluge  of  Deucalion ;  and  Aris- 
totle even  Relieves  that  this  event  did  not  long 
precede  the  time  of  Homer.  (Josephus,  Antiq.  L 
8 ;  Diod.  Sic  v.  3 ;  Aristotle  de  Met  xiv. ;  Pliny, 
\L  1,  d:c.)  Without  supfjosing  any  great  degree  of 
physical  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  Greeks,  it 
may  be  supposed  that  the  inhab.  of  the  countries 
bordering  on  the  Euxine  would  have  a  vivid  re- 
collection of  such  a  catastrophe,  had  it  occurred, 
and  that,  consequently,  it  would  scarcely  have  been 
an  invention  or  hypothesis  of  the  writers.  Add  to 
this,  that  geological  appearances  strongly  confirm 
the  supposition ;  and  the  fact  though  sneered  at 
by  some,  will  appear  not  a  little  probable.  (Pallas, 
i.  80, 83 ;  Toumefort,  ii  346-390 ;  OU\-ier,  i.  122 ; 
Dureau,  de  la  Malle,  G<k).  Phys.  de  la  Mer  Noire, 
pp.  196-225.)  It  will  be  observe,  that  among  the 
ancients  only  historians  and  naturalists  have  oeen 
cited,  but  it  may  be  added,  tliat  the  same  revolu- 
tion is  dwelt  upon  by  their  poets  and  fribulista. 


BLACK  SEA 

(See  in  particular  Lucan,  vi  5.)  It  was,  in  a  word, 
the  universal  belief  of  all  ranks  and  orders.  But 
if  this  sea  were  ever  thus  confined,  its  surface  must 
have  been  considerably  higher  than  at  present ; 
and  this  also  appears  to  be  the  fact,  from  the  ac- 
cumulation of  saltnlakes  and  marshes  in  the  plain 
countr}*^  of  its  N.  borders.  It  is  evident,  indeed, 
that  a*  rise  of  a  few  hundred  feet  in  its  surface 
would  be  quite  sufficient  to  flood  the  greater  part 
of  southern  Russia,  the  whole  of  which,  except  the 
mountains  of  the  Crimea,  bear  evident  marks  of 
ha^'ing  been  laid  bare  at  a  comparatively  recent 
))eriod  (Pallas,  panim) ;  and  the  whole  appearance 
of  its  N.  shores  is  that  of  a  diminished  oed.  Po- 
lybius  supposes  the  Euxine  to  be  gradually  de- 
creasing ;  and  he  has  offered  reasons,  in  support  of 
this  opmion,  formed  on  more  solid  premises  than 
ancient  writers  often  depend  upon  (iv.  5).  In 
this,  however,  he  appears  to  have  been  mistaken. 
Ttie  change  in  extent,  if  any  ever  did  take  place, 
seems  to  have  occurred  at  once  with  the  subsidence 
of  the  waters,  by  the  opening  of  the  Thracian 
Bosphorus.  Since  the  age  of  Polybius  no  change 
seems  to  have  taken  place  in  the  size  of  the  sea ; 
but  that  it  has  become  clearer,  is  evident  from  two 
facts ;  first,  that  a  bank,  called  bv  Polvbius  Steihe 
(Sn}9i}),  formed  at  the  mouths  of  the  f)anube,  and 
more  than  100  m.  in  length,  has  wholly  disap- 
peared ;  and  that  the  Cyanean  Isles,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Bosphorus,  so  ^ebrated  in  the  voyage  of 
the  Argonauts,  are  now  reduced  to  low  and  insig- 
nificant prolongations  of  the  two  opposite  shores, 
((leo.  Joum.  L  105 ;  Jones,  ii  444 ;  Olivier,  i.  122.) 

Notwithstanding  the  horror  entertained  by  the 
Greeks,  or  rather  the  Greek  poets,  of  this  sea,  its 
shores  are  famous  in  their  true  and  fabulous  history. 
Colchis,  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  and  scene  of  the 
Aigonautic  expedition,  were  on  its  £.  coast ;  the 
Cimmerian  land  of  everlasting  darkness  was  ori|p- 
iially  fixed  upon  its  N.  shore;  and  in  more  his- 
torical times,  the  Lydian,  Persian,  and  Bvzantine 
powers,  and  the  exploits  of  Mithridates,  illustrated 
Its  S.  and  SVV.  borders.  At  an  early  period  many 
Greek  colonies  were  planted  on  its  shores.  Its 
commerce  was  also  reckoned  of  first-rate  import- 
ance. Athens  drew  from  it  her  principal  supplies  of 
com  and  naval  stores ;  and  it  furnished  the  favou- 
rite slaves  to  the  market^*  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
<  )vi(l  (iie<l  in  exile  somewhere  on  its  borders,  but 
whether  on  the  Danube  or  Dniestr  is  disputed. 
From  the  time  of  Constantine  till  the  15th  century 
it  formed  the  centre  of  the  Roman  world,  and 
during  thLs  iKTitKl,  a  i>art,  at  least,  of  the  Indian 
tnido  was  carriwi  on  through  it :  the  Venetians 
and  Genoese  were  the  conductors  of  this  traffic. 
S<M>u  after  the  faU  of  Constantinople  in  1453,  all 
but  Turkish  vessels  were  exclu<ied  from  tlie 
Kuxine;  and  it  was  not  till  after  the  treaty  of 
Kainaniji,  in  1774,  that  the  Russian  eagle  was 
displayed  on  its  waters.  Ever  since  that  time, 
there  has  been  a  powerful  Russian  fleet  of  war 
stationed  in  the  Black  Sea.  In  consequence  of 
the  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  the  latter  as- 
si.ste<l  by  England  and  France,  the  Czar  bound 
himself,* by  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  in  18o<>, 
to  limit  his  fleet  of  war  on  the  Euxine  to '  six  steam 
vessels,  measuring  15C)  metres  at  their  water-line, 
and  four  other  light  sailing  vessels,  not  above  two 
hundred  tons  each.'  But  it  is  believed  that  this 
limitation  is  not  strictly  adhered  to  by  the  Russian 
government. 

The  name  of  this  sea,  Euxinfy  is  only  a  mo- 
dernised ft»rm  of  the  original  Greek  word  afcrot 
(inhos])ital)Ie),  tx^stowed  upon  it  for  the  imaginary' 
reasons  previously  alluded  to.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, that  sul>sequently,  the  Greeks  imbibed  a 
somewhat  better  opinion  of  it,  and  changed  its 


BLANDFORD  FORUM 


469 


designation  to  Ev^firoc  (hospitable) :  it  was  some- 
times also  called  simply  nd^-of  (the  sea).  The 
Turkish  name  is  Caca  Denisi,  and  the  Russian 
Czomo  More,  both  being  literally  translated  in  the 
term  Black  Sea. 

BLACKWALL,  a  hamlet  of  England,  co.  AGd- 
dlesex,  par.  Stepney,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Lee 
with  the  Thames.  5  m.  E.  St  Paul's,  being  in 
fact  a  suburb  of  London.  Here  are  the  E.  and 
W.  India  Docks,  for  an  account  of  which  see 
London. 

BLAIN,  a  town  of  France,  d^  Loire  Inf^eure, 
cap.  cant,  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Isac,  22  m. 
NNW.  Nantes,  on  the  railway  from  Nantes  to 
L'Orient  Pop.  6,781  m  1861.  The  castle,  of 
which  only  a  small  part  now  remains,  was  formeriy 
one  of  the  strongest  in  Bretagne.  It  was  partly 
demolished  in  1629.  Calvinism  was  early  intro- 
duced into  this  town,  a  synod  having  been  held 
here  in  1565,  at  which  there  were  reckoned  above 
1,200  Protestants. 

BIAMONT,  a  town  of  France,  d^  de  Im 
Menrthe,  cap.  cant,  on  the  Vezouse.  Pop.  2,800 
in  1861.  The  town  was  burnt  down  in  1527  and 
1636.  It  produce  yam  for  hosiery,  and  has  con- 
siderable tanneries. 

BLANC  (LE),  a  town  of  France,  d^  Indre, 
cap.  arrond.,  on  the  Creuse,  in  a  pleasant  situation, 
33  m.  WSW.  Chateauroux,  on  the  railway  from 
Paris  to  Bordeaux.  Pop.  5,882  in  1861.  The 
town  is  divided  by  the  river  into  two  parts,  called 
the  high  and  low  towns :  both  are  ill  built,  par- 
ticularly the  former,  the  streets  of  which,  brides 
being  narrow  and  crooked,  arc  also  precipitous. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  tribunal  of  original  jurisdiction. 
There  now  remain  but  few  traces  of  its  ancient 
fortifications,  which,  however,  were  once  strong 
anough  to  resist  several  si^es.  This  is  a  very 
ancient  place,  and  was  often  frequented  by  the 
Roman  legions.  The  road  from  Le  Blanc  to  St 
Sa\'in  is  still  called  the  Lev^e  de  Ceaar, 

BLANCO  (CAPE),  a  celebrated  cape  on  the 
W.  coast  of  Africa;  lat  20©  46'  26"  N.,  long. 
170  4'  10"  w.  This  cape,  which  was  discovered 
by  the  Portuguese  in  1441,  forms  the  extremity  of 
a  rocky  rid^  called  the  Geb-el-reid,  or  White 
Mountain,  projecting  into  the  sea  in  a  S.  direction. 
Inside  the  cape  is  a  |pacious  bay,  which  has  on 
its  S£.  side  the  bank  and  town  of  Aigiiin. 

BLANDFORD  FORUM,  a  par.,  bor.,  and  town 
of  England,  co.  Dorset,  hund.  Coomb's  Ditch, 
Blandford  (or  N.)  div.,  98  m.  SW.  London,  on  the 
Ix>ndon  and  South  Western  railwav.  Pop.  of 
parish  3,349  in  1841.  and  3,900  in  1*861.  It  is  a 
neat  little  town;  is  situated  on  a  beml  of  the  St4)ur, 
amidst  one  of  the  finest  tracts  of  sheep  pasture  in 
in  the  kingdom ;  a  six-arched  bridge  crosses  the 
stream,  and  there  are  two  others  to  facilitate  the 
c<^)mnmnications  of  the  town  during  occasional 
fltxHls.  l*he  houses  are  uniform  brick  structures, 
arranged  in  regularly-formed,  and  well  paved  and 
lighted  streets.  The  church  is  a  mfxiem  building 
in  the  Grecian  style,  with  a  tower  and  spire. 
There  are  also  an  Indei)endent  chapel,  a  free  gram- 
mar sch(K>l,  and  a  blue-coat  school,  each  with 
small  endowments ;  almshouses,  supporting  ten  old 
people ;  a  charity  producing  120/.  a  year,  for  ap- 
prenticing poor  boys ;  and  another,  now  producing 
300/.  a  year,  originallv  left  for  the  purpose  of  edu- 
cating four  poor  chiTdren.  There  is  a  handsome 
town-hall,  and  a  neat  theatre ;  and  on  a  fine  down, 
near  the  town,  annual  races  are  held  in  August. 
The  weekly  market  is  held  on  Saturday,  and  tliroe 
aimual  fairs  on  March  7,  July  10,  Nov.  8 :  they 
are  for  horses,  cattle,  and  cheese.  A  manufacture 
of  shirt-buttons  employs  many  women  and  chil- 
dren of  the  town  and  neighUwrhood,  but  it  is 


/ 


470 


BL.VNKENBURG 


much  loss  extensive  tli/m  fonnorly.  Tlic  Iwrmiffh 
wa«  incorp<.>ratc(l  hy  charter  of  3rd  of  Jamofl  I., 
which  also  f^nted  the  manor.  Under  the  Muni- 
cipal lieform  Act  there  arc  four  aldermen  and 
twelve  conncilh»n»,  and  the  limits  of  the  l>orouj;h  arc 
ruptricte*!  U*  the  t«>wn,  when*  1M>  of  ever>'  100  of  the 
pop.  of  the  par.  reyide^  The  revenue  of  the  cc>rpora- 
lion  i^  derive<l  fn^m  tolls  of  the  market  and  fairs, 
landn,  and  (]iiitrentJ4,  and  avera^eti  Hl)out  225/.  a 
year:  thev  hold  a  court  leet  annuallv.  A  court 
of  rer<»nl  was  jippant^il  by  tlie  first  charter,  which 
has  lonjj  Unrn  disu.*«tHl.  IVtty  Missions  for  the 
lilandford  tliv,  are  held  in  the  town,  hy  the  co. 
majxi»trate» ;  and  monthly  courts  of  the  l)^^«hop 
and  arclKloAcons  of  the  diocene^  It  is  also  a  poll- 
inji:  t<»wn  for  the  c<mnty,  and  tlie  central  town  of 
a  union  of  33  parishes,  und4*r  the  P<M»r  I>aw  Act : 
it  has  three  piardians.  Its  rates  amount  to  1,3.'>0/. 
Arc.hhiMho|>  Wake  was  a  native  of  the  t4>wii ;  and 
it  ^ve8  the  title  of  marquis  to  the  Marlborough 
family. 

HL'ANKEXRUnC;,  a  town  of  the  Duchy  of 
IJrunswick.  cap.  distr.,  and  formerly  of  tlie  pnnci- 
l)ality  of  lilankcnlnir^,  on  a  rivulet  of  the  same 
name,  37  m.  SSK.  Jlmnswick.  Vo\\,  3,1>80  in  ISJJl. 
The  town  is  surrriunded  hy  M-nlls,  has  some  pH»d 
Imildin^s,  including  a  gymnasium  and  a  schocd  of 
indu*'tr\'.  On  a  hill  immediately  adjr*ining  the 
town  is  a  large  luvi\'>*-lookiug  palace  of  the  duke 
of  linmswick:  it  had  agcKKl  collei'tion  of  pictures, 
Imt  the  iK'st  of  them  have  iK^en  reniove<L  On  the 
Hunnnit  of  the  Kegenstein,  also  at  a  short  distance 
fnmi  th(;  town,  an>  the  n>mains  of  a  large  castle, 
constructed  by  Henry  the  Fowler,  in  6l9,  con- 
sisting (»f  chamlKTs  cut  out  of  the  n>ck. 

JUiAXTVIIK,  a  parish  of  Scotland,  co.  I^nark, 
in  v.'hich  manufactuns  have  made  great  progress. 
The  Hlantvre  mills,  in  the  village  of  lUantATe,  on 
the  Clyde,*3  m.  W.  Hamilton,  and  8  m.  SK.  Glas- 
gow, were  erected  in  178.'>,  for  the  s]>hming  of 
water  twist.  In  171H,  amtther  mill  was  built  for 
mule  twist,  Inith  moved  by  water  |K)wer.  In  1K13, 1 
a  cotton-weaving  factory  was  established,  which  j 
empb»yed  stM>n  after  nearly  oOO  hands,  the  moving  | 
power  Ixring  partly  water  and  ])artly  steam.  The 
ilyeing  of  Adrianople  or  Turkey  red  on  cotton 
ynni  lias  |)een  carried  on  here  from  the  year  IJSOO. 
The  total  num1>er  of  han<ls  employed  in  these  va- 
ri(»ns  works,  exclusive  o(  the  hand-loom  weavers, 
is  alK)ut  1,000,  of  whom  considerably  more  than  a 
lialf  are  females.  There  is  a  school  connected 
with  the  mills.  There  is  also  a  library  for  the 
use  of  the  workmen,  a  funenil  swnety,  and  a  »*- 
ciety  for  nsligious  purposes,  all  established  by  the 
workmen. 

liLAYE,  a  sea-]>or!  and  fortilied  town  of  France, 
dc^p.  (iironde,  cap.  arrond.,  on  the  right  bank  of, 
the  (iinmde,  34  m.  NNW.  Bordeaux:  lat.  45*^  7' 
N.,  long.  (P  40'  \V.  Pop.  4,07-2  in  18«1.  A  rail- 
way, which  has  its  terminus  on  the  opjKisite  bank 
of  the  river,  connect,<i  Hlaye  with  Bordeaux,  The 
jMjrt  Ls  div-ided  into  the  high  and  l(»w  to\^iifl;  the 
former,  however,  is  merely  the  ca«*tlc  or  citadel, 
built  on  a  rock  commanding  the  (.iironde.  The 
river  is  here  about  2 J  m,  wide;  and  for  its  defence 
Fort  I*aie  has  been  constructwi  on  an  island  in  its 
I'hannel,  al>out  1,0(M>  yanls  from  Waye,  and  Fort 
Me<loc  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  All  ves- 
sels inward  l>ound  are  requiretl  to  anchor  in  the 
port  or  road  of  lilaye,  and  deliver  a  manifeitt  of 
their  cargo,  and  many  of  the  outwar<l-bonnd  shijjs 
call  here  to  take  on  boanl  provisions,  and  c<»mplete 
I  heir  cargoes.  'Hie  tow^n  has  also  a  considerable 
direct  trade,  exporting  wine,  brandy,  com,  oil, 
«)ap,  timls.r.  apT-les  &c.  Many  uf  the  pilots,  st> 
indis|)ensable  to  ships  navigating  the  (linmde,  re- 
side in  Blayc.    It  has  tribunals  of  original  jiuia- 


BLENHEIM  PARK 

diction  and  of  commerce,  an  agricultural  society, 
a  theatre,  d'C  In  the  centre  of  the  town  m  a  line 
public  fountain.  Blaye  is  very  ancient.  In  15*>8 
it  was  taken  by  the  Protestants,  and  more  recently 
by  the  Leaguers,  The  cxten>«ive  marshes  by  which 
it  was  formerly  mirrouuded  having  been  diuined 
by  Henry  IV,,  have  become  very  fruitful  of  com 
aiid  other  pro<luct».  In  1K32,  the  iDucheM  of  Bern, 
when  confined  in  the  castle  of  Blaye,  was  brooght 
to  l>ed  of  a  daughter. 

BLKICH  ERODE,  a  town  of  Pniwia,  pr^v. 
Saxony,  w^.  Erfiirth,  between  the  IVxIe  and  tlic 
Wipper,  10  m.  SW.  Nonlhausen.  Pop.  2,830  in 
1H(H.  Tlic  town  has  s(»me  oil-mills  and  fabrics  of 
serges  and  otJier  destTiptions  of  woollen  cloth. 

BLENHEIM,  or  BLIXDHEIM  ((ierra.  »Homc 
of  the  Blind'),  a  small  village  of  Bavaria,  circ 
rp|H»r  Danube,  on  the  Danube,  near  Hr)chstedt. 
Pop.  725  in  18(J1.  This  village  is  famous  in  mo- 
dem history  as  Iwing  the  scene  of  the  great  battle, 
fought  Aug.  13,  1704,  l)e.tween  the  English  and 
Im)H>rialist-s,  under  the  Duke  of  jMarll^op^ugli  and 
Prince  Eugene,  and  the  French  and  Bavarians, 
under  M.'irslials  Tallanl  and  Marsin  and  the  Elec- 
tor (»f  Bavaria.  Each  army  consisted  of  nearly 
AO,000  men.  The  Englisli  and  their  allies  gain«i 
a  complete  and  decisive  victory.  Their  encniied 
left  above  10,000  men  killed  and  wounded  on  the 
field ;  a  vast  numlier  more  were  drowned  in  the 
I.)anul>e,  and  above  13,000  were  made  pridoner>i; 
among  the  latter  were  Marslial  Tallanl  (whone  s<»n 
was  killed)  and  many  other  officers  of  distinction. 
All  the  artillerv',  Iwiggage,  &c.  of  the  French  and 
Bavarians  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqnerors. 
The  loss  of  the  latter,  though  sevens  was  not 
greater  than  might  have  been  expected,  having 
amountefl  to  alxait  o.OOO  kille<l  and  8,00(»  wounde^i. 

BLENHEIM  PARK,  an  extra-ivanx-hial  di*- 
tri*'t  of  ICngland,  co.  and  lil>erty  of  Oxford,  IJO  m. 
WN\V.  London.  Area  2,700  acres,  being  the  de- 
mesne attached  to  Blenheim  House,  an  e<lirice 
CHM'ted  in  the  reign  of  Amie,  as  a  token  <)f  the 
national  gratitude  for  the  public  services  renderetl 
by  tlu?  first  Duke  of  Marlliorough  :  ft)r  which  jiur- 
])Ose  oOO,0(K>/.  was  voted  by  parliament,  and  the 
queen  added  the  honour  of  Woodstock  (an  ancient 
pro[K>rty  of  the  cn)wii)  to  the  grant.  It  was  willed 
J>ienheim  fn)m  the  great  battle  noticed  alnn-e. 
The  usual  entrance  to  this  splemlid  domain  is 
fnnn  the  Wtvod^tock  side,  under  a  triumphal  an*h- 
way  of  the  Corinthian  onler,  erected  by  the  first 
duclu^ss.  Fnniting  the  fuilace  is  a  fine  she^^t  of 
water,  partaking  of  the  character  both  of  a  lake 
and  river,  and  winding  away  thn>ugh  a  deep  vale; 
tins  is  s})anned  by  a  magnificent  bridge,  ami  on 
an  eminence  l>eyond  the  briflge,  in  the  midst  of  a 
fine  lawn,  is  a  fiuted  Oirinthian  pillar,  130  ft,  high, 
surmounted  by  a  statue  of  the  duke  in  a  Roman 
dress;  on  one  si<le  the  pe<lestal  is  an  inscription 
(written  by  Lord  P>olingbroke)  reciting  his  public 
services;  on  the  others,  the  acts  of  pariiament 
declarat»)ry  of  his  services,  and  abstracts  of  the 
entail  of  his  estates  and  honours.  The  mansion 
occupies  three  sides  of  a  7>arallelogram,  the  prin- 
ci[»al  fn)nt  being  N.,  and  the  E.  and  W.  si»U»s 
forming  wings  for  the  domestic  offices,  stables,  tfrc; 
a  terrace  with  several  flights  of  steiw  give*  due 
effect  to  the  elevations.  The  north  or  princi|v.'d 
frf»nt  extends  348  ft  from  wing  to  i^ing ;  it  has 
five  compartments,  and  is  highly  enriched,  es- 
pecially the  central  one,  which  has  a  Oirinthuin 
portico  and  fine  pi'diment  at  the  height  of  two 
floors;  over  which  is  an  attic  8t*irv'.  The  south 
or  ganlen  fmnt  is  of  a  plainer  character;  but  it* 
com|>artmentfl  correspond  v^ith  the  other,  antl  a 
flight  of  steps  leads  to  a  |H»rtico,  over  the  enta- 
blature of  whicii  itf  a  colotwal  bust  of  Louid  XIV., 


LLERE 

tAkcn  from  the  gateway  of  T^iirnay.  The  inte- 
rior is  ma^iificcntly  finished,  and  contains  a  fine 
collection  of  sculptures,  paintings,  and  tapestry. 
A  well-known  satirical  couplet  nused  a  prejudice 
aj^ainst  this  noble  pile,  which  prevented,  for  a 
k'H^thcned  period,  a  fair  estimate  being  formed  of 
its  merits.  The  details  have  been  severely  criti- 
cised ;  aful  some  of  them  may  be  open  to  censure. 
]lut  whatever  may  be  the  defects  of  particular 
parts,  thev  are  lost  in  the  tout  enaemble.  The 
general  effect  of  the  building  is  excellent;  its 
parts  seem  to  be  admirably  combined,  and  it  has 
a  most  magnificent  ap|)earance.  It  is  now,  mdeed, 
ndmitteil  by  general  consent  to  be  a  noble  pnmf 
of  U»e  genius  of  its  architect.  Sir  J.  Van  burgh,  as 
well  as  an  *  illustrious  monument  of  Marlborough's 
glorv,  and  of  Britain's  gratitude.' 

liL^^KE,  a  town  of  Ii  ranee,  d(?p.  Tndre  et  Loire, 
cap.  cant,,  on  the  Cher,  17  m.  ESE.  Tours,  near 
the  railway  from  Tours  to  Kourges.  Pop,  3,477  in 
l«t)l.  'llie  castle  of  Chenonceaux,  once  tlie 
pro|>erty  and  residence  of  the  celebrated  Diana  of 
iViitiers,  is  situatcil  in  the  immediate  vicmity  of 
lUi>r(f.  Diana,  having  been  dispossessed  of  the 
castle  by  her  rival,  Catherine  de  Medici,  the  latter 
8urr«)unded  it  with  a  superb  park.  AJfter  many 
vicissitudes,  it  was  acquired,  in  1733,  by  M.  Dupin, 
a  gentleman  distinguished  by  his  wealth  and 
leandng,  but  more  by  the  wit  and  beauty  of  his 
wife.  Under  its  new  master  Chenonceaux  be- 
came the  resort  of  some  of  the  most  illustrious 
jK'nmnagesof  the  18th  centiury,  including,  among 
others,  Voltaire,  Montesquieu,  liufTon,  Fontenelle, 
and  liolingbroke.  liousseau  wrote  several  pieces 
for  the  theatre  of  Chenonceaux,  and  it  was  here 
that  the  Devin  de  Viilnpe  first  appearecL  Chenon- 
ceaux escaped  the  revolutionary  frenzy,  and  con- 
tinues to  be  one  of  the  most  interesting  objects  in 
this  part  of  France. 

IILETCH1X(;LY,  a  par.  and  town*  of  England, 
CO.  Surrey,  hun<L  Tanndge^  16  m.  S.  of  London, 
on  the  Suith-Eastem  railway.  l*op.  of  i)arish 
1,<>91  in  18«)1.  The  town  is  situatetl  near  the  end 
of  the  chalk  range  that  traverses  the  co..  and  com- 
mands extensive  views.  The  church  is  a  tine 
specimen  of  the  earlier  Gothic  style :  there  is  an 
eii<i«iwe<l  sch(K)l  for  20  boys,  11  almshoiLses,  and 
^^•veral  small  charitable  donations.  There  are  2 
annual  fairs,  held  June  22,  and  Nov.  2;  the  latter 
is  for  horses,  pigs,  aii<l  lean  ciitlle.  Its  ancient 
weekly  market  has  l>een  long  discontinued.  The 
inhab.  are  chiefly  engaged  in  agriculture :  the 
upiMT  p;irt  of  the  par.  (in  which  the  town  is 
siluattd)  is  a  sandy  and  chalky  hoil,  the  lower  part 
clay,  llletihingly  returned  2  mem.  to  the  II.  of 
C.  fn»ra  the  23<1  of  Edw.  I.  till  the  ])assing  of  the 
K'ff«»nn  Act,  by  which  it  was  disfranchised;  the 
right  of  election  was  in  the  holders  of  burgage 
tenures,  aniomiring  to  130.  A  castle^  built  soon 
afror  the  Conquest,  formerly  stoo<l  on  the  brow  of 
a  hill  at  the  \V.  end  (tf  the  town.  There  are  some 
vestiges  in  this  i»arish  <»f  the  residence  of  Earl 
(iodwin,  wh(»  retreated  hither  when  his  Kentish 
estates  were  inundated :  the  railway  passes  through 
it.  on  the  N.  si<le. 

IJLOIS,  a  town  of  France,  cap.  de'p.  T^iir  et 
ClwTj  on  the  acclivity  of  a  hill  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  I/»ire,  3.')  m.  SSW.  Orleans,  on  the  rail- 
way from  Paris  to  ] Bordeaux.  Pop.  20,231  in 
1«01.  Klois  is  neither  a  large,  a  well-built,  nor  a 
hamlsi^ime  town ;  on  the  contran*,  manv  of  its 
houses  are  me^m  and  its  streets  narrow,  crcMikeil, 
and  sometimes  n<it  accessible  to  carriages;  but  it 
is  n'mnrkable  from  the  beauty  of  lis  situation,  its 
antiipiity.  its  monuments,  ami  the  historical  events 
of  whii'h  it  has  been  the  theatre.  At  one  extre- 
miiy  of  the  town  is  the  castle,  and  at  the  other 


BOBROV 


471 


the  cathedraL  Tlic  former  is  an  immense  pile, 
built  at  different  epochs  and  in  different  styles  of 
architecture.  I^uis  XII.  was  bom  in  this  castle; 
and  in  it  also  Margaret  of  Anjou  was  married  to 
the  Due  d'AIen9on,  and  Margaret  of  Valois  to 
Henry  IV.  But  it  derives  its  principal  interest 
from  events  of  a  very  different  character.  Here, 
in  December,  1588,  the  Due  de  Guise,  and  his 
brother  the  Cardinal,  were  basely  murdered  by  the 
order,  and  almost  in  the  presence,  of  Henry  III. 
This  also  was  the  scene  of  the  imprisonment  of 
Mary,  and  of  the  death  of  Catherine  de  MedicL 
The  last  rays  of  ^lorv  fell  on  this  castle  in  1814, 
when  Maria  Louisa  held  her  court  in  it  after  the 
capitulation  of  Paris.  It  b  now  occupied  as  a 
barrack.  The  cathedral  is  a  handsome  edifice; 
but  the  finest  building  in  the  town  is  the  hotel  of 
the  prefecture,  formerly  the  episcopal  palace.  The 
view  from  its  gardens  is  extensive  and  fine.  In 
the  church  of  St.  Vincent  are  fine  monuments  to 
(xaston,  Due  d'Orleans,  and  a  daughter  of  that 
prince.  A  suburb  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river 
IS  connected  with  the  town  by  a  handsome  bridge 
of  11  arches,  begun  in  1717.  The  most  ancient 
monument  in  the  town  is  a  superb  aque<luct,  as- 
cribed to  the  Itomans,  cut  in  the  solid  rock.  It  is 
in  excellent  preservation,  and  conveys  the  waters 
of  several  springs,  a  distance  of  about  half  a  mile, 
to  a  reservoir  close  to  the  town,  whence  they  are 
distributed  among  public  fountains  disperseil  in 
different  parts  of  the  city.  Blois  is  the  seat  of  a 
bbhopric,  a  court  of  original  jurisdiction,  a  de- 
partmental college,  a  diocesan  seminar^',  and  a 
secondar}' ecclesiastical  school;  a  botanical  garden, 
founded  by  Henry  IV.;  a  public  library,  with 
19,000  volumes ;  a  royal  society  of  agriculture ;  a 
departmental  nursery',  drc.  It  has  also  a  port,  well 
frequented  by  the  craft  navigating  the  Loire ;  a 
theatre,  an  abattoire,  and  a  dtpot  tfetaions.  It 
produces  serges,  hosier}',  and  gloves,  cutlery  and 
liardware,  and  leather,  and  has  a  considerable 
trade  in  wines,  spirits,  vinegar,  firewood,  and 
staves,  liquorice,  and  other  articles.  Bemier,  the 
celebrated  Eastern  traveller,  was  a  native  of 
Blois. 

BLITHE  (S.)  or  BLYTH  NOOK,  a  sea-port 
tov^-n  of  England,  co.  Northuml)erland,  on  the 
Blvth,  12  m.  NIC.  by  N.  Newcastle-on-Tvne,  and 
8  ra.  SE.  by  E.  Morpeth.  Pop.  in  1801,  1,283 ;  in 
1831,  1,944;  and  1,9.33  in  18()1.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  pop.  is  almost  on  a  standstilL  The  town 
is  situate  on  the  S.  side  of  the  river,  where  it  dL^ 
charges  itself  into  the  German  Ocean,  and  con- 
sist4Kl  till  lately  of  a  few  narrow  ill-laid-out  streets; 
but  modem  improvements  arc  giving  it  a  new 
as))ect.  Its  church  is  a  chapel  of  ease  to  the 
p;uish  church  of  Earsdon:  Methodists,  Presby- 
terians, and  other  dissenters  have  places  of  worship. 
The  ooal  trade  is  carrie<l  on  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent, and  in>n  from  the  Bodlington  works  is  largely 
exporteiL  The  harboiur  is  excellent  for  ships  of 
small  burden,  affording  free  entrance  and  safe 
anchorage  in  all  seasons ;  and  the  coast  for  some 
miles  is  i>eculiarly  adapteii  for  batliing.  There  is 
here  a  dry  dock,  a  custom-house  dependent  on 
that  of  Newcastle,  a  lighthouse,  and  a  beacon- 
light, 

no  A  VIST  A,  the  most  easterly  of  the  Cape  dc 
Verde  islands,  which  see. 

KOBHIO,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  pmv. 
(ienoa,  on  the  Tn*bbia,  3^1  m.  NE.  Genoa.  Pop. 
4,r»30  in  1858.  The  town  is  sornmnded  by  walh>, 
and  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  of  a  triimnal  of 
original  jurisdiction.  It  was  ceded  to  Sardinia  in 
1743,  by  Austria. 

BOBKOV,  a  town  of  Russia  in  Europe,  gov. 
Voronege,  on  the  Bitioug,  52  m.  SE.  Voronege ; 


472 


BOBRUISK 


lat.  60©  6'  K,  long.  40°  10'  E.  Pop.  8,592  in  1858. 
The  town  has  two  churches,  and  includes  a  laii^e 
space  laid  out  in  gardens.  It  derives  it«  name 
from  the  number  of  beavers  {bobry)  formerly  found 
in  its  vicinitv. 

BOBKUIJ^K,  or  BOBRISK,  a  town  of  Russia 
in  Kuro|>e,  gov.  Minsk,  on  the  ISobruio,  where  it 
falls  into  the  Berezina,  cap.  dist,  90  m.  8R.  Minsk. 
Pop.  22,055  in  1H58.  The  town  was  strongly  for- 
titiod  in  1810  and  1812,  and  was  incflectually 
attacked  by  the  French  during  the  last  of  those 
years.    It  has  four  churches  and  a  g^'mnaaum. 

B(K^IINIA,  a  town  of  Oalicia,  cap.  circ,  near 
the  Kalia,  25  miles  ESE.  Cracow,  on  the  railway 
from  Cracow  to  Vienna.  Pop.  5,500  in  1857.  The 
town  has  a  g^'mnasium,  and  a  lx>ard  for  tlic  ad- 
ministration of  mines  and  salt-works.  For  an 
account  of  the  latter,  wliich  arc  very  extensive, 
see  WiELiczKA. 

BOCHOLD,  or  BOCKHOLT,  atown  of  Prussia, 
nrov.  Westphalia,  reg.  Munster,  on  the  Ahc?,  15  m. 
KNE.  Cleves.  Poij.  5,183  in  1861.  Tliere  are 
rich  iron-mines  in  its  vicinitv ;  and  it  has  some 
trade  in  com  and  spirits,  with  manufactures  of 
cotton  and  silk. 

B(X3HUM,  a  town  of  Prussia,  prov.  West- 
phalia, reg.  Amslieig,  cap.  circ.,  25  m.  NP].  l)Us- 
»<eldoif,  on  the  railway  from  DUssehiorf  to  Mtlnstcr. 
Pop.  9,855  in  1801.  The  town  has  three  chuR'hes 
and  a  college,  and  manufactures  of  cloth,  steel, 
iron,  and  jewellery. 

BOCKINly,  a  par.  and  village  of  England^ca 
Essex,  hund.  Ilinckfonl :  area  of  par.  3,800  acres. 
Pop.  8,555  in  1801.  Tlie  village,  almost  con- 
tiguous to  Braintree,  and  81  m.  E.  by  N.  London, 
consists  principally  of  a  single  street,  extending 
along  the  high  road  from  London  to  the  E.  coun- 
ties. There  arc  several  com  and  fulling  mills  on 
the  river  Brain.  It  has  a  free  school,  endowed  by 
l>r.  Gaudcn,  bishop  of  Worcester,  for  the  education 
of  30  boys ;  an  almshouse,  founded  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.;  and  some  other  charities.  (See 
Braintrer.) 

BODMIN,  a  bor.  and  town  of  England,  co. 
Cornwall,  hund,  Trigg,  25  m.  W.  by  N.  PljTnouth 
on  the  Great  Western  railway.  Bodmin  is  nearly 
in  the  centre  of  the  countv,  is  built  on  a  gradual 
acclivity,  between  two  hills,  and  consists  chiefly 
of  one  main  street  nearly  a  mile  in  length,  llie 
houses  are  an  intermixture  of  low  irregular 
ancient  structures,  and  neatly  built  moilem  ones. 
The  church  (rebuilt  about  a.d.  1472)  is  a  spacious 
stmcturc  in  the  later  (lothic  style,  situatx^(l  in  the 
vale  of  the  K.  end,  whence  the  town  gradually 
ascends.  The  Calvinists,  Wesleyans,  and  Hr}'an- 
itcs  have  each  cha{)els.  There  is  an  endowed 
grammar-school,  founded  by  Elizal)eth,  and  a 
national  girls'  school  Tlie  town-hall  was  origi- 
nally the  refectory'  of  St.  Austin's  Priorj' ;  otch  of 
its  ends  are  fitteil  as  courts  of  justice,  and  the  in- 
termediate area  used  as  a  corn-market ;  orer  the 
whole  are  grand  jury  and  public  assembly-nwms. 
Tlie  population  of' the  municipal  borough  was 
4,406,  and  of  the  pari,  borough  6,381  in  1861.  The 
pari,  Imundaries  comprise  the  entire  parish,  and 
also  the  adjoining  parinhes  of  Helland,  Lanivet, 
and  I-ianliydrock,  in  all  an  area  of  16,300  acres.  It 
has  returned  2  mem.  to  the  H.  of  C.  since  the  23d 
of  Edw.  I. ;  the  right  of  election  having  been 
vested,  previously  to  the  Reform  Act,  in  the  cor- 
poration. In  1864  there  were  408  registered 
electors.  Tlie  market  is  held  on  Saturday,  and  it 
has  several  fairs.  Tlie  chief  manufacture  is  shoes, 
of  which  a  considerable  number  are  made,  and 
sold  at  the  different  markets  and  fairs  of  tho 
county.  A  branch  railroad,  commencing  at  Wade 
bridge  (at  the  head  of  Padstow  harbour),  about 


BOGNOR 

6  m.  in  a  XW.  direction,  terminates  at  the  bade  of 
the  town,  by  which  coals  and  other  articles  are 
brought  to  it,  as  well  as  lime  and  sea  sand  to  the 
agricultural  district  through  which  itpassea  Bod- 
min is  governed  by  a  mayt)r,  3  aldermen,  and  12 
councillors.  It  is  a  stannary  town,  and  hail  at  an 
early  period  the  privilege  of  stampuig  tin.  The 
summer  assizes,  3  of  the  general  quarter  sessions, 
and  the  election  courts  for  the  £.  division  of  Corn- 
wall, are  held  here. 

BCEOTIA,  a  famous  region  of  ancient,  and  now 
of  indep.  Greece,  prov.  E.  Hellas,  and  forming  the 
N.  part  of  the  monarchv  of  Attica  and  Bceotia, 
between  kt  3fP  9'  and  '38o  44'  N.,  lonp.  22©  53' 
and  23°  49'  E. ;  shape  triangular,  havmg  NW, 
Phocis,  N.  the  Opuntian  Locris,  NE.  the  channels 
of  Talanda  and  Egripo,  and  S.  Attica  and  the 
Corinthian  Gulf;  length  E.  to  W.  about  42  m.; 
greatest  breadth  27  m. 

Its  mountains,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  is 
Zagora  (an.  Helicon)  mostly  surround  or  divide  it 
into  two  principal  basins,  those  of  the  Ceplusus 
and  Thebes.  Its  chief  rivers  arc  the  (iav-rioM 
(Cephims)  and  the  Aso|)o  (Awnpvs),  It  contains 
three  lakes,  those  of  Topolias  (CopaU),  Sarzina 
{Hylica),  and  I^aralimni;  the  first  the  largest  in 
Greece.  It  is  a  high,  but  well-watered  ri^on ; 
and  as  many  of  the  streams  find  their  way,  and 
the  lakes  a  vent  to  the  sea,  only  by  means  of  sub- 
terraneous courses,  marahes  abound;  and  the 
atmosphere  is  damp,  foggy,  oppressive,  and  un- 
healthy in  some  places,  as  at  Livadia,  wliere  inter- 
mittent fevers  are  prevalent.  The  fertility  of 
Ikcotia  is,  however,  such,  that  it  has  always  an 
abimdant  crop,  though  elsewhere  famine  should 
prevail  The  land  is  well  cultivated,  especially 
with  wheat,  rice^  madder,  cottrm,  maize,  hemp,  and 
tolmciro.  Helicon  lh  clothed  in  its  lower  parts  with 
eveigrecus ;  above  these  there  is  a  forest  of  piui^ 
and  its  top  is  often  capped  with  snow ;  kermcs  oak 
grows  abundantly,  and  6,000  okes  (258,000  lbs.)  of 
gall-nuts  are  collected  yearly.  The  lake  Ti>]M>lia8 
still  produces  the  reeds*  anciently  so  celebrated  for 
rustic  flutes,  and  Ikeotian  pipen  are  still  in  high 
repute.  Most  of  the  cottages  in  the  neighbourhood 
are  built  of  these  reetls.  Flocks  of  bustanls  inhabit 
the  bonks  of  Topolias ;  and  its  large  eels,  dried  and 
salted,  form  a  considerable  article  of  trade.  Many 
si>ots  in  l^opotia  present  striking  scenery.  It  forms 
two  eparchies,  those  ofThebes  {Thiva)  and  Livadia, 
which  are  it*  two  principal  towns, 

B0GE5D0RF,  a  village  of  Prussia,  prov. 
Silesia,  reg.  Licgnitz,  18  m.  WSW.  Sagan.  Pof). 
1,750  in  1861.  Tlie  village  has  in  it«  v-icinity 
mines  of  the  precious  metals,  and  of  C(^p|x;r  and 
hvid. 
IIOGLIPOOR.  See  Bhau(;ulpore. 
HOiiNOK,  a  marit.  town  and  chapelry  of  Eng- 
land, CO.  Sussex,  rape  C!hiclicster,  hund.  Aldwick, 
par.  S.  Bereted,  56  m.  SW.  by  S.  I^>ndon,  at  the 
terminus  of  a  branch  line  of  the  London,  Brighton, 
and  South  Coast  railway.  Pop.  2.523  in  l^<61. 
The  town  is  situated  on  the  coast  Iwtween  Selsey 
Bill  and  Worthing,  amidst  rooks  that  extend  in  a 
curving  direction  2  or  3  m.  into  the  sea,  and  make 
it  inaccessible  except  to  the  smaller  class  of  coast  ing 
vessels;  there  is  a  good  beach,  and  every  accom- 
modation for  bathing.  Previously  to  1780  it  was 
a  small  fishing  village,  and  this  is  sdll  the  occupa- 
tion of  its  resident  population,  who  send  their 
pniduce  to  the  I/>ndon  market.  In  the  above 
year  Sir  K.  Ilotham  commenced  building  a  villa 
and  some  good  lodging-houses,  since  which  thU 
watering-place  has  continued  to  enlaige,  and  forms 
a  favourite  resort  for  those  who  seek  retirement, 
rather  than  gaiety,  in  occasional  change  of  scene. 
It  is  sheltered  on  the  N.  by  tlie  South  Down  hills. 


BOGODOUKHOF 

a  range  extending  from  Portsdown  to  Dover.  The 
Portsmouth  and  Arundel  Canal  passes  within  8  m. 
There  are  Episcopd,  Independent,  and  Weslcvan 
chapels;  a  school,  in  which  20  girls  are  clothed 
and  educated ;  another  ^founded  by  the  late  Prin- 
cess Charlotte)  for  50  girls ;  and  good  hotels  and 
ItKlging-houses  for  the  accommodation  of  visitors. 
The  regulation  of  the  town  is  placed  imder  com- 
missioners (by  an  Act  of  Parliament),  who  meet 
monthly,  and  levy  a  duty  of  2s.  a  chaldron  on 
coals,  to  defray  the  expenses  of  repairing  roads, 
&C.  Weekly  markets  are  held,  in  a  spacious  modem 
market-place,  on  Thursday  and  Saturday,  and  an 
annual  fair  on  the  5th  and  6th  of  Julv. 

BOGODOUKHOF,  or  BOGODUCtlOW,  a  town 
of  Russia  in  Europe,  gov.  Kharicof,  cap.  distr.,  on 
the  Merlo,  60  m.  NE.  Poltava ;  lat.  50°  2'  N.,  long. 
350  50'  E.  Pop.  10,600  in  1858.  The  town  is 
surrounded  by  a  rampart  and  a  ditch.  The  in- 
habitants are  principally  employed  in  tanning  and 
dressing  leather,  and  making  it  up  into  boots  and 
shoes ;  thev  also  carry  on  a  considerable  trade  in 
cattle  and  liides. 

BOGORODITSK,  a  town  of  Russia  in  Europe, 
gov.  Tula,  cap.  distr.,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Lcsnoi-Oupert  and  the  Viarkova,  40  m.  SSE.  Tula. 
Pop.  4,504  in  1858.  The  town  has  an  Imperial 
castle  and  four  churches.  The  country  round  is 
pnxluctive  of  com,  hemp,  flax,  and  honey,  which 
form  the  principal  objects  of  the  trade  of  the  town. 

BOGOTA  (formerly  Santa  Fe  de  Boaota),  a  city 
of  Colombia,  of  which  it  is  the  cap.  and  the  seat  of 
the  govemmcnt,  on  an  elevated  plateau  at  the  foot 
of  Alount  Chingasa,  8,615  ft.  above  the  level  of  the 

«>a;  225  m.  E.  the  Pacific  Ocean,  50  m.  E.  the 
ver  Magdalena,  65  m.  SE.  Houda,  and  134  m. 
NE.  Ney^a;  lat,  4°  37'  N.,  long.  74°  10'  W. 
I»op.  from  30,000  to  40,000.  Owing  to  its  eleva- 
tion, the  city  cnjovs  a  fine  and  equable  tempera- 
ture ;  the  climate,  however.  Ls  exceedingly  humid, 
though  not  unhealthv.  The  first  appearance  of 
the  town  from  the  ^W.  is  very  imfMsing :  being 
built  on  lising  ground,  it  forms  a  sort  of  amphi- 
theatre, and  the  white  towers  of  the  cathedral  and 
the  monasteries  of  Montserrat  and  Guadalupe  are 
seen  seated  on  lofty  peaks  behind  it.  Streets  gene- 
rallv  narrow,  but  regular,  intersecting  each  other 
at  nght  angles,  and  some  having  a  stream  of  water 
cun.staiitly  flowing  down  the  middle;  all  of  them 
arc  paved,  and  the  principal  ones  have  footpath:}. 
The  cliief  street,  or  Calie  /fea/,  has  at  its  extremity 
the  pla{ti  mayor^  or  principal  square,  where  the 
market  is  held ;  it  is  formed  by  the  cathe(iral,  the 

)iilacc  of  the  president,  and  the  custom-house. 

^>gota  being  subject  to  frc({uent  earthquakes,  the 
houses  are  low,  with  thick  walls,  elegance  being 
commonly  sacrificed  to  solidity.  Nearly  half  the 
area  of  the  city  is  occupied  bv  religious  stmeturcs ; 
there  are  26  churches,  besides  the  cathedral,  9 
monasteries,  and  3  nunneries ;  and  four-sixths  of 
the  houses  in  l^)gota  are  said  to  belong  to  them. 
The  cathedral,  built  in  1814,  and  distinguishetl  by 
the  simplicity  of  its  interior,  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  in  1827.  Most  of  the  other  churches 
are  more  remarkable  for  gorgeousncss  and  gilding 
than  for  taste ;  gems  are  la\'lshed  in  profusittn  upon 
the  statues.  The  palace  of  the  former  viceroys  of 
New  Granada,  now  occupied  by  the  president  of 
the  republic,  can  boast  no  architectural  beauty. 
I1ie  mint  is  a  large  plain  building.  There  are 
three  sets  of  barracks,  two  quarteU,  and  an  artillery 
depot,  where  all  military-  equipments  are  made,  and 
articles  of  European  manufacture  repaired ;  some 
of  the  convents  have  hospitals  attached,  but  they 
are  wretchedly  conducted,  and  verj'  dirty.  It  has 
a  uiiiven*ity  and  three  collies,  the  prindiial  of 
which  belongs  to  the  Jesuits;  aschoolof  chemistr}' 


BOHEMU 


473 


\ 


and  mincraloi^;  a  Lancastrian  school  on  the  moat 
liberal  principlai;  a  national  academy;  and  a 
public  Ubrarv.  'There  is  a  theatre,  a  well-con- 
structed building,  and  well  attended ;  but  the  per- 
formances are  bad.  The  private  houses  in  Bogota 
arc  constracted  of  sun-dried  brick,  whitewashed, 
and  tiled ;  latterly  their  style  has  been  considerably 
improved.  Beams  are  now  concealed  by  a  ceiling ; 
glass  has  been  introduced  into,  and  bamcadea  re- 
moved from,  the  windows;  the  street  doors  are 
better  painted,  and  light  balconies  have  begun  to 
supersede  enonnous  and  hea\7  galleries.  In  gene- 
ral, the  hooMi  are  built  with  a  court  in  the  centre, 
round  which  runs  a  galler}'  or  a  covered  terrace. 
The  furniture  is  simple,  but  European  carpets  and 
other  manufactures  are  now  in  verv  general  use. 
There  are  no  chimneys,  stoves  only  oeing  used. 
In  the  principal  streets,  the  ground  floors  are 
occupied  by  shops ;  these  are,  however,  dirty  and 
dark,  and  the  only  admission  for  daylight  is  by 
the  door.  Almost  every  inhabitant,  not  in  the 
emplo]^  of  government,  in  the  chureh,  or  in  the 
armv;  is  a  shopkeeper.  '  Seated  upon  his  counter, 
smoking  incessantly,  and  giving  laconic  answers 
to  his  customers,  the  Colombian  merchant  in  many 
respects  resembles  those  of  Smvma  or  Aleppol' 
The  city  is  very  badly  lighted ;  there  are  no  com- 
mon sewers;  and  the  filth  being  cast  into  the 
streams  that  run  through  the  streets  renders  them 
infectious.  Owing  to  the  scantiness  of  the  popula- 
tion, and  the  want  of  carriages,  some  of  the  streets 
are  overgrown  with  pass.  The  market  is  well  and 
cheaply  supplied  with  provisions;  but  European 
manufactures  are  said  to  be  extravagantly  dear. 
There  are  no  carts  or  vehicles  of  any  description, 
traffic  being  carried  on  exclusivelv  bv  mules.  The 
environs  of  Bogota  are  agreeabfe,  but  little  fre- 
quented, the  mvonrite  promenade  being  the 
alamedOf  or  public  walk,  at  one  of  the  entrances 
to  the  town.  The  costume  of  the  females  is  pecu- 
liar. Rich  and  poor  dress  alike  out  of  doors :  the 
mantilla  is  worn ;  a  piece  of  blue  cloth  envelopes 
the  head,  and  coven  all  the  features  excepting  the 
eyes,  reaching  to  the  waist;  and  the  whole  is 
crowned  by  a  broad-brimmed  beaver  hat.  The 
women  of  Bogota  are  generally  acknowledged  to 
l)e  handsome;  their  complexions  are  fair  and 
clear;  their  physiognomy  is  Spanish.  Visiting, 
evening  parties,  balls,  masquerades,  and  religious 
processions  are  their  chief  amusements;  as  bull- 
fights, cock-fights,  the  theatre,  and  gambling  are 
those  of  the  men. 

I^gota  was  founded  by  Gonzalo  Ximenes  de 
Quesada,  who  built  twelve  huts  here  in  1538 ;  in 
1548  it  was  created  a  city,  and  maile  the  seat  of  a 
n>yal  audiencia;  and  in  1561  advance<l  to  the  ho- 
nours of  a  metropolitan  see.  It  was  the  capital 
of  New  Granada,  while  a  colony  of  Spain ;  a  dis- 
tinction which,  since  the  war  of  liberation,  it  has 
changed  for  the  greater  one  it  at  present  enjoys, 
as  the  head  city  of  a  free  state. 

BOGWANGOLA,  an  inL  town  of  Hindostan, 
prov.  Bengal,  8  m.  NE.  Moorshedabad ;  lat. 
240  21'  N.,  long.  88O  29'  E.  It  is  buUt  entirely  of 
bamboo,  mats,  and  thatch ;  but  is  a  place  of  con- 
siderable trade,  and  from  hence  the  cap.  of  the 
district  is  chiefly  supplied  with  grain. 

BOUAIN,  a  town  of  France,  ddp.  Aisne,  cap. 
canton,  16  m.  NNE.  St.  Quentin,  on  a  branch  line 
of  the  Northern  of  France  railway.  Pop.  5,051  in 
1861.  It  has  a  fabric  of  German  clocks  6  carUhmf 
and  produces  shawls  and  gauzes. 

BOHEMIA  (German  Bohmen,  Boh.  Czech) 
(Kingdom  of),  an  inland  country,  occupying  the 
centre  of  Eurofte,  and  forming  an  important  p<»r- 
tion  of  the  Austrian  empire,  oetween  lat.  4Ko  :U' 
and  510  3'  N.,  and  long.  V29  6'  and  IG^  46'  E., 


471 


BOHEMIA 


having;  NE.  Pniwian  SUo8laf  X.  and  KW.  Saxony, 
S\V.  IkivariAf  and  S.  and  HK,  the  archduchy  of 
Austria  and  Siloraviiu     Sha[>f ,  an  irrr^ilar  rhom- 
boid ;  jfTcatest  length,  E.  and  W.,  2<M)  m. :  gn»atc«t 
breadth,  N.  to  S.,  170  m.    The  total  area  of  the 
khigdom  araonntfl  to  902*A5  Austrian,  or  20,2H5  ■ 
Enfrlinh  square  mileB.    The  population  numliered  ' 
8^28.749  in  1K3U  and  had  increaK-d,  at  tlie  gene-  ! 
lal  census  of  Oct.  81,  1«57,  to  4,700,525.    About  i 
two-thirds  of  the  number  »\reak  the  Slavonic,  and  ! 
the  rest  the  German  langua^.     liohemia  is  more  i 
densely  populated  than  any  otiier  part  of  the 
Austrian  empire. 

Mountahu  aiul  Birers. — Rohemia  is  a  basin, 
Rurrounded  on  every  side  by  mtiuntain-ran^'s, 
which  in  some  part«  rise  lo  upwanls  of  5,<KM)  ft.  in 
heif^ht.  Fn>m  the  Fichtelf^ebirj^  (pine  mountains), 
near  the  W.  extremity,  the  chain  called  the  Er/fje- 
bii^  (ore  mountains)  runs  NE.,  forming  the 
boundary  between  Bohemia  and  Saxony,  as  far  as 
the  exit  of  the  Ell)e  from  the  lirst-mentioned 
countr}-.  The  hif^hest  ]M)int  of  this  ran^  is  the 
SchwarzwalrU  al>out  4,000  ft,  alxn-e  the  sea ; 
])arallel  to  it  is  the  Mittel^biijj^c  (midland  moun-  j 
tains),  which  runs  as  far  as  the  1.  luuik  of  the 
Elbe.  From  the  r.  Iwmk  of  the  EIIm*,  E.  and  SE., 
forming  in  part  the  frimtier  ajj:ainst  Prussia,  nm  a 
series  of  chains  entitled  successivelv  the  Lannitzer, 
Iscr,  Kiesen  (j^iant),  and  SudetX'njj^^biiT^e,  tlie 
loftiest  jKiint  of  which,  the  Smnp-cap,  is  from  5,200  | 
to  5,400  ft.  in  height.  The  SW.  Ixmier  is  formed 
l)y  the  BOhmerwahl,  or  Tioliemian  forest  moun- 
tains, included  in  the  Hercynian  forest  of  the 
ancients,  and  a  branch  from  the  Fichtelfjebirge: 
they  are  wild  and  precipitous,  and  contrast  re- 
markably with  the  Moravian  chain  in  the  SE., 
whi«rh  is  of  gentle  ascent,  varkHnp:  from  2.000  to 
8,000  ft.  in  height,  and  separating  the  affluents  of 
the  FAhc  from  those  of  the  Daimbe.  Within  these 
boundaries,  B<»hemia  presents  an  undulatiug  sur-  j 
fiic(>,  with  an  inclination  for  the  most  part  towanis  ' 
the  N. ;  its  hills  are  sometimes  steep,  and  even 
j>recipitou8,  but  rising  generally  no  higher  than 
about  500  or  600  ft.  alx>ve  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Bohemia  forms,  in  fact,  an  elevated  plateau, 
sloping  towards  the  N.,  and  draine«l  by  the  El!»e, 
which  traverses  two-thirds  of  its  breath,  and 
receives  the  numerous  brooks  and  streams  that 
dejicend  from  its  lofty  barriers.  The  s«nirces  of 
this  great  river  are  in  the  Kiesengebirge  moun- 
tains, whence  it  descends,  in  a  S.  direction,  to 
Pardubitz,  and  thence  W.  as  far  as  Melnik,  where, 
after  receiving  the  Moldau,  it  l>ecomes  navigable. 
In  its  course  to  the  frontier  of  Saxony,  it  w  joined 
besides  by  the  Adler,  at  Konigingriitz,  the  Iser, 
and  the  Eger;  the  Wattawa,  Sasawa,  neraunka, 
and  Luschnilz  fall  into  the  Moldau  U'fore  its 
junction  with  the  Elbe.  Tlie  Moldau  is  navigable 
from  Bndweis,  and  a  railway  between  that  t(»wn 
and  Linz,  on  the  Danube^  com])leted  as  early  as 
1824,  forms  a  connecting  link  of  commnnicati(»n 
l)etween  the  Herman  Ocean  and  the  Black  Sea. 
This  Budweis-Linz  railroad  was  one  of  the  first  in 
Kun)]x? ;  but  bebig  only  a<la]>ted  to  carriages  drawn 
by  horses,  and  having  to  pass  over  c<»nsiderable 
heights,  which  occasion  much  dilHculty  an«l  ex- 
p<*nse  in  transporting  goo<ls,  the  advantages  it 
aiVorded  were  insufficient  to  divert  the  coiursc  of 
trade  int4)  this  new  channel. 

Minerals. — The  mineral  riches  of  Bohemia  are 
of  considerable  im]>ortance  and  value.  From  the 
I'Mh  to  the  1 7th  centuries,  crmsidcralile  quantities 
of  gold  and  silver  were  obtidned ;  the  first  is  now, 
however,  no  longer  met  with,  except  occasionally 
in  small  quantities,  in  the  beds  of  some  of  the 
streams ;  but  alx)ve  20,000  marks  of  silver  arc  still 
obtained  annually  from  the  lead  mines,    llic  lat ter 


produce  about  f)fl,000  c^'ts.  a  year  of  lead  and 
litharge.  Iron  is  found  in  most  |tarts  of  the  king- 
dom, but  the  product  is  but  tritliug,  not  exceeding 
from  15.000  to  20,000  tons  a  vear.  There  are  also 
tm  mmes  (the  only  ones  in  the  Austrian  domi- 
nions), with  mines  of  cofiper,  zinc,  cinnaljar, 
arsenic,  col)a]t.  drc.  Coal  is  pretty  abundant,  par- 
ticularly in  the  N.  part^i  of  the  kingdom ;  and  the 
province,  which  has  increased  ven'  rapidly  of  late 
vears,  b*  above  100,0<M)  tons  a  vear.  There  are  a 
great  vanety  of  mineral  springs,  those  of  Tiiplitx, 
Oarlwliad,  iui<l  Seidlitz  having  a  European  reputa- 
tion. About  800,<K)0  bottU-N  of  water  from  these 
springs  are  annually  exi>orted.  All  the  salt  used 
in  liohemia  is  imported.  Tlie  working  of  the 
mines  is  superintended  by  two  mining  commiH- 
sions,  at  Joachimsthal  and  Przibram.  V  nder  these 
are  28  inferior  mining  court;?  and  branches,  the 
miners  having  their  own  codes  of  law  and  especial 
courts  of  justice;  the  whole  is  controlled  by  a  de- 
piirtment  of  the  ministr\'  of  finance  at  Vienna. 

Climatr  verj'  healthy,  but,  from  the  elevation  of 
the  country-,  it  is,  on  the  whole,  rather  t»old.  In 
the  mountain«»us  regions,  the  snow,  which  often 
lies  12  ft.  deep,  does  not  disap|»ear  until  April; 
the  mildest  cUmate  is  that  of  the  valley  of  the 
P'll)e.  At  Prague^  the  moan  temperature  of  the 
year  is  alx)ut  47°  Fahr.  'llie  prevalent  winds  are 
westerly. 

Soil  antl  Agrlnilture. — The  soil  of  Ikthemia  con- 
sists principally  of  a  clayey  loam,  but   in   ]«rts 
sandy  loams  and  san<l  predominate.     In  simie  of 
the  mountainous  circles  there  is  a  gotnl  <leal  of 
waste  land ;  but.  s]>eaking  genenilly,  the  valleys 
are  yerv  fertile.    The  finest  land  is  ui  the  circle  of 
Saaz.    Of  the  total  area  of  the  kingdom,  amounting 
to  20,285  Eng.  sq.  m.,  or  12,0«2,'H»0  Eng.  acres,  it 
is  estimated  that  1  l,05t»,G78  acres  are  under  culture 
or  otherwise  productive,  Ijeing  distributed  as  fol- 
lows:— Arable    lands.    5.582,509  acres;  common 
IMisturc  lands,  809.()(;2  acre,^;   wckxIs,   3,398,215 
acres :  vineyanls,  G,857  acres :  meadows  and  gar- 
dens, 888,980  acres ;  the  rest  being  barren  moun- 
tains, water,  roads,  and  other  uncultivable  lands. 
Here,  as  in  all  the  re4»t  of  (Jermanv,  n'e  forms  the 
iirinciiukl  cro]),  and  next  t(»  it  is  oats,  and  then 
barley  and  wheat.    Potatoes  are  now  ven-  cxten- 
sivelv  cultivated,  particularly  in  the  mountainous 
districts,  where  they  form  the  greater  part  of  the 
f(MKl  <»f  the  p<K>ple.    F'lax  and  hemp  are  principal 
objects  of  attention,  and  supply  the  material  for 
the  staple  industry'  of  the  coiuitr%'.     Hops,  which 
are  excellent,  are  raised  in  considerable  quantities 
a\nmt   12,0(M>  cwt.   being  annually  exp<»rte«l   to 
Bavaria  only.    The  culture  (»f  l>eot-ro«»t,  with  a 
view  to  the  manufacture  c>f  sugar,  has  of  late  years 
increased  ver}*  rapidly;  there  were,  in  \HVu>y  al.M»ve 
100  factories  in  operation.     Some  wine  is  maile, 
but  the  quality  is  verv  inferior,  and  beer  L*  the 
national  beverage.      I  util    n^cently,    but    little 
attention    has    been,  paid   to   stock  husluindrv' ; 
latterly,  however,  considerable  eir«»rts  have  ImVu 
made  to  improve  the  breeils,  and  these  have  iKrn 
verv'  succ<^sful,  ]>articularly  in  the  case  of  the 
shwp.    Tlie  supply  of  cattle  is  inadequate  for  the 
consumption,  and  there  is  annually  a  large  impor- 
;  tation  from  Poland  and  Ilun^n'. 
i      On  the  whole,  agriculture  m  Bohemia,  though  a 
I  good  deal  improvwl,  Ls  still  in  a  very  l»ackward 
'  state.     This,  no  doubt,  u«  asi-rilMible  to  a  variety  ».f 
,  cau^es  :  but  principally,  perhaps,  to  the  dei»n*s>('d 
.  state  of  the  peasantry,  and  the  want  of  IcaM-s. 
:  Most  of  the  land  is  parcelletl  out  into  immense 
leMates;  and  these  are  cultivated,  either  by  pea- 
I  sants  employed  by,  and  working  on  ai'count  (jf,  ilie 
I  Inndloni,  or  by  petty  occupiers,  paying  a  lalxuir 
,  rent  for  their  land.  *  Mr.  Gleig  has*  given  h.^uic 


BOHEMIA 


il!} 


curious  details  in  reference  fo  this  subject  in  bis 
Travels  in  (icrmony,  Ikihemia,  &c.  *  Of  lar^c 
t^miiK,'  he  says,  *  there  seems  to  be,  in  Bohemia, 
very  few ;  but  every  vale  and  strath  is  crowded 
with  human  dwelling  ;  village  succeeding  village, 
and  hamlet  treading  on  hamlet,  with  the  most 
remarkable  fecundity.  On  the  other  hand,  you 
may  strain  your  eyes  in  vain  in  search  of  those 
s|>ecie8  of  habitations  which  give  to  our  English 
landscapes  t  heir  peculiar  charm.  There  is  no  such 
thing  in  all  Bohemia — I  question  whether  there  be 
in  all  Germany — as  a  jwrk ;  and  as  to  detached 
larm-houses,  they  are  totally  unknown.  The  nobi- 
lity inhabit  what  they  temr  schlosses,  that  is  to 
nay,  castles  or  ].mlaces,  which  are  invariably  planted 
ilown  either  in  the  very  heart  of  a  town  or  lar^e 
village,  or  at  most  a  gun-shot  removed  from  it. 
No  .sweeping  mea<lows  surround  them  with  their 
tasteful  swells,  their  umbrageous  covers,  and  lordly 
avenues ;  no  tleer  troop  from  glade  to  ^lade,  or 
cluster  in  groups  round  the  stem  of  some  gnmt  oak, 
their  favourite  haunt  for  ages.  But  up  to  the 
very  hall  door,  or  at  least  to  the  foundations  of 
the  wall  which  girdles  in  the  court-yard,  perhaps 
12  or  20  ft,  wide,  the  plough  regularly  passes.  A 
garden,  the  graf  generally  iK^ssesses,  and  his  taste 
in  flowers  is  goo<l ;  but  it  almost  always  haptens 
that  IiLh  very  garden  affords  no  privacy,  and  that 
his  flowers  are  huddled  together  within  some 
narrow  sfiacc,  perhaps  in  the  verj'  court-yanl  of 
which  I  have  already  spoken  as  alone  di\'i(Ung  his 
mansion  fn)m  the  open  and  cultivated  fieUK  With 
reM})ect,  again,  to  the  condition  of  the  cultivators, 
that  is,  in  all  respect.s,  so  diflerent  from  the  state 
of  our  agricultural  gc*ntlemen  at  home,  that,  even 
at  the  h/ixanl  of  saying  over  again  what  has  l>een 
statwl  a  thousand  times  alre^ady,  I  must  describe 
it  at  length.  In  the  tirst  place,  then,  there  is  no 
class  of  persons  in  Bohemia  corresponding  to  our 
English  fanner.  Nobiwly  hires  land  in  order  to 
make  a  prolit  out  of  it,  at  least  nobody  for  such  a 
purp<»se  hires  a  large  tract  of  land  ;  but  each  indi- 
vidual cultivates  his  own  estate,  whether  it  be  of 
wide  or  of  narrow  extent.  Tlius  the  graf,  or 
prince,  though  he  be  the  owner  of  an  entire  circle, 
IS  yet  the  only  farmer  ^Wthin  that  circle.  He  does 
noi  let  an  acre  of  ground  to  a  tenant;  but  ha^nng 
built  what  he  conceives  to  be  an  adequate  nural>er 
of  bouerin-houses,  he  plants  in  ea<:h  of  these  a 
bouer-man,  and  pays  him  for  tilling  the  ground, 
'i'hcse  IxMicrin-houses,  again,  are  all  clustered  toge- 
ther into  villages,  so  that  the  bouer-man  is  never 
without  an  abundant  society  adapted  to  his  tastes; 
and  verj'  hai)pily,  albeit  very  rudely,  hw  days  and 
nights  api)ear  w  l>e  s^kmiU 

'  The  land  in  Bohemia  does  not,  however,  belong 
exclusivelvtoanv  onler  in  the  communitv.  Many 
lH)uer-men  are  owners  of  their  farms,  some  of  them 
to  the  extent  of  100  acTQA  and  more;  wldle  almost 
every  towuHhip  has  its  territories,  which,  like  the 
nobJe's  estate,  are  cultivated  for  the  benefit  of  the 
biugh.  But  in  all  cases  it  Is  the  owner,  and  not 
the  cultivatttr,  to  whom  the  proceetls  of  the  harvest 
U'long.  These  are,  indeed,  gathered  in  andlioused 
for  him  by  his  representatives,  who,  in  addition  to 
some  tixed  money  i>ayments,  for  the  most  part 
enjoy  the  pri\'ilege  of  keeping  a  cow  or  two  on 
the  wastes  belonging  to  the  manor ;  but  all  the 
risk  and  trouble  of  converting  his  grain  into  money 
attaches  to  the  proprietor  of  the  soiL'     (ii.  19.) 

But  though  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  the  land 
Ik;  cultivatetl  in  the  way  des4^rilx*d,  by  hire<l  lalxHir, 
still  it  is  certain  thata  good  deaf  is  let  in  Bo- 
licniia,  ns  in  all  similarly  situated  countries,  not 
for  money  or  a  quantity  of  prwluce,  but  for  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  lalxnir  to  be  |K'rformedon  the  estate 
ol  the  lord,  which  amount  is  regulated  by  a  law 


called  the  JRoboth-natenL  Mr.  Rccvc,  in  his  Sketches 
of  Bohemia,  has  the  following  statement  as  to  the 
relation  subsisting  between  the  lords  and  those 
occupying  their  estates,  under  this  system : — 

*  The  subjects,  as  they  are  termed,  are  all  roq^ 
tered  in  the  books  of  the  estates  ;  the  lonl  collects 
the  king's  taxes,  besides  his  own  dues,  and  sends 
an  annual  supply  of  recruits  to  the  imperial  army. 
He  has  the  power  of  expelling  misdemeanant3 
from  his  estate,  and  he  exercises  a  certain  con- 
trol over  his  subjects ;  but  the  peasants  are  by  no 
means  attached  to  the  soil ;  and  they  may  always 
appeal  to  the  courts  of  justice  against  their  lord, 
with  a  proverbial  certainty  (such  is  the  policy  of 
the  government)  of  giuning  their  cause.  On*  the 
other  hand,  the  lord  represents  the  government  to 
his  f)easants,  and  the  peasants  to  the  government ; 
and  wliilst  he  is  accountable  to  the  justice  of  the 
countrjf,  he  has  it  in  his  power  to  exercise  a  bene- 
ficent influence  over  the  lower  orders.  He  provides 
for  their  instruction ;  he  introduces  improvements, 
and  encourages  trade :  he  increases  their  commer- 
cial relations ;  he  arbitrates  in  their  disputes :  and 
in  proportion  to  his  fulfilment  or  neglect  of  these 
functions,  the  estate  is  prosperous  or  poor.  It  often 
haj>|»ens  that  the  nobility  and  gentry  have  ac- 
quired a  purely  Germtm  character,  in  accordance 
with  that  of  the  Austrian  government,  but  very 
much  opposed  to  the  national  spirit  and  national 
wants  of  the  Bohemian  people.  All  the  ancient 
seignorial  rights  which  were  not  legalised  and 
regulated  by  Joseph  II.,  as  the  Koboth  dues,  &c, 
were  abolished  by  that  monarch.  But  the  tradi- 
tion of  feudal  attachment  and  of  feudal  obedience 
still  exists  amongst  the  ])eople :  thus,  although 
the  consent  of  the  lord  is  not  legally  required  to  a 
marriage  between  his  peasants,  it  is  generally 
asked,  and  considered  imUspensable.  The  posses- 
sions of  some  of  the  Bohemian  nobles  are  immense ; 
Prince  Schwartzenberg  o\«-ns  one-eighth  of  the 
country  ;  and  the  estates  once  held  by  the  great 
Wallenstein  were  so  vast  as  to  have  formed  the 
appanage  of  six  great  families  after  his  death  and 
attainder.'  (Metropolitan  Mag.,  April  1H87.)  This 
state  of  things  still  exists  in  part,  although  mmlem 
political  and  social  reforms,  originating  in  the  revo- 
lution of  1848,  and  the  subsequent  intnMluction  of 
constitutional  government,  have  brought  about  a 
great  change,  particularly  as  relates  to  the  Koboth 
system. 

Here,  as  in  most  other  countries,  indtistry  flon- 
rishes  most  where  it  has  to  contend  with  the 
greatest  difliculties.  The  rich  level  lands  of  Bo- 
hemia, instead  of  being  the  best,  arc  the  worst 
cultivated.  The  occupiers  of  the  mountainous  and 
poorer  districts  display,  speaking  generally,  not 
only  the  greatest  indukr>',  but  the  greatest  skiU, 
ami  the  most  improved  methods  of  cultivation. 

The  forest/i,  as  already  seen,  are  very  extensive ; 
they  are  mostly  situated  in  the  W.  parts  of  the 
kingdom,  and  especially  in  the  distnct  of  Prachin. 
They  are  estimated  to  yield  annually  above 
2,0(M),000  cubic  fathoms  of  wood. 

JUanufactureM, — With  the  exception,  perhaps, 
of  Mora\'ia,  Bohemia  has  long  been  the  most  cele- 
brated of  all  the  Austrian  states  for  its  manu- 
factures. It  long  pnKiuced  the  finest  linens  and 
linen  yam  of  any  country  in  Europe.  Spinning 
is  the  universal  and  favourite  emplo\'ment  of  the 
women ;  and  no  fewer  than  500,000  females  are  said 
t<»  prosecute  it  as  a  subsidiary  business.  About 
55,0(H)  hands  are  suppose<l  to  be  still  employed  in 
han<l-loom  linen  weaving ;  and  the  total  annual 
value  of  the  pnxlucc  of  this  branch  of  industry, 
including  that  of  lace,  may  be  estimated  at  alnuit 
1,200,000/.  a  year.  This  branch  of  industry  is 
said,  however,  to  be  (m  the  decline,  in  consequence 


476 


BOHESOA 


fA  the  pmrth  of  the  cotton  mannfactnre.    There  | 
aie  abriut  ^jO  bleaching  establL-hnicnu  in  full ' 
work.  And  the  manufartore  of  potash  b  ven*  <»d- 
eiderable.    The  wor^llen  manufacture  u  ven-  ex- 
tensive :  in  ^innin^,  onlv  oo.'.^fiiJ  handd  anr  MUil  ^ 
to  be  en^HM^ed  :  and  in  wea\inf;.  frrim  I-vmni  to  \ 
16/MMi :  the  weaving;  of  woollen  jitoeking^  empkiys  ■ 
finnn  2^j00  to  3,<JiiO  hands.    The  hat-roakers  fur-  | 
riers  4c  are  estimated  at  about  1.2tXJ,  and  the 
leather  manufacturen  at  4jNj4i.     There  are  aNnit , 
HH)  paper-mills;  and  the  imperial  toljacco  manu-  I 
factorj   at  Seidlitz  rapplie^  the  whole  countr}- 
with  that  article,  thrrnij^h  the  afrency  of  above ' 
7,0(»0  retail  shops.    The  manuCtcture  of  metals 
and  minerals  and  of  beet-root  sugar,  has  already  ' 
been  alluded  to.  i 

But  of  all  the  Bohemian  manufactures  none  v  ' 
nearly  so  well  known  in  fiMeign  countries!  ma  that  \ 
of  glass.    Bffhemian  (rUwe  is  n<it  so  pure  as  that  of 
Ei^land  or  France :  but  the  art  of  »taininj?.  paint- 
ings and  gildinff  glass,  is  much  better  understot^l 
here  than  in  other  countries  and  articles  <^  Bo- 
hemian manufacture  are  unequalled  in  point  of 
lightness  and  richness  of  appemnce.    Alt4igether. 
from  1-oth  to  l-4th  part  of  the  inhab.  of  Buhemia 
are  engaged  in  manufactures.    But  nearly  all  the 
hand-z^pinners  and  weavers  combine  with  their  I 
business  that  of  cultivaton  c^  patches  of  land,  xmd 
other  employrocntsw 

Owing  to  the  want  of  capital,  many  of  the  great 
landed  propdetors  are  obliged  to  engage  in  manu- 
factures. Thus,  Prince  Kinsky,  and  Counts  Har- 
rach  and  Bucquoy,  are  the  greatest  glass  manu- 
facturers ;  Prince  Anersberg  manufactures  sulphur, 
vitriol,  and  colours;  Count  Urtma  and  IMnce 
Windizhgratz,  tin  plates ;  Count  Thun,  porcelain : 
I*rince  Lobkowitz,  earthenware ;  Prince  Wallen- 
stein  and  others,  beet-mot  sugar,  and  so  forth. 

RatxM  cf  FeopU,— Of  the  4.7rMi.C)04)  people  in 
Bohemia,  about  d,OiX).()0<)  arc  Czeches.  i>f  Slavtniic 
origin,  and  the  rest  Germans  and  Jews.  The 
Germans,  to  the  amount  of  £H)i).(HXl.  principallv  in- 
habit the  capital  and  the  circlm  of  Elbugen,  §aaz, 
I^itmeritz,  liidschow,  and  Kdnigratz.  In  these 
circles  German  is  the  more  prevalent  language, 
though  even  in  than  Bohemian  is  often  the  ver- 
nacular tongue  of  the  lower  classes,  as  it  is  that  of 
the  mifldle  classes,  and  even  of  the  higher  ranks 
in  other  parts.  The  Grerman  pop.  is  more  indus- 
trious, intelligent,  and  enter[m:*ing  than  the  Sla- 
vonic Tlie  Jews  have  been  settlcil  in  IV)hemia 
from  a  very  remote  eprxrh.  Here,  as  in  othiT 
countries,  they  are  mostly  engagni  in  mercantile 
and  {Nxruniary  transactions;  an'i  they  are  alM> ex- 
tensively engaged  in  the  businei«  of  dbtilling  and 
l.re\i*ing. 

Rdiginn, —  Notwithstanding  Bohemia  may  be 
truly  said  to  be  the  cradle  of  the  Reformation,  and 
the  determinc<l  and  long-continued  stand  livr 
inhabitants  made  in  defence  of  the  doctrines  pro- 
mulgated by  Huss  and  his  ful lowers,  she  is  now 
liecome  one  of  the  princifud  strongholds  of  Catho- 
licism. The  spirit  of  the  ancient  l^>hemians  has 
iN^en  entirely  subdued;  and  they  have  become 
amongst  the  m«>st  bigote<l  and  superstitious  ad- 
herents of  a  faith  imposed  on  them  bv  the  sword 
of  the  cr>nqneror  and  the  rack  and  gibbet  of  the 
iiiquihitor.  The  church  hierarchy  consists  of  an 
archbishop  (of  Prague),  3  bishops,  7  deans  of  chap- 
ters, with  numerous  canons,  11  archdeacons,  1H3 
(leacijns,  1 , 1 07  (Murish  uid  oOo  minor  cures.  Though 
the  monastic  institutions  were  much  diminished 
by  the  vigorrms  and  salutar>'  reforms  effected  by 
Joseph  II.,  there  are  still  no  fewer  than  75  monas- 
teries and  7  convents,  comprii<iug  about  l.U'20 ; 
monks  and  150  nuns ;  these  are,  however,  obliged  ; 
to  do  the  duty  of  parish  clergy,  or  to  employ  them-  | 


selves  in  edncatioa,  or  in  the  care  of  the  hospitals. 
Joseph  IL  granted  full  toIerati<xi  to  all  vyrXA  of 
rcli^ons.  The  Lutherans  and  (Jalvinists  together 
amixmt  to  from  60.«ni«^  to  70.IJUO.  The  Jews, 
amtwnting  to  neariy  70,0i)0,  are  imder  the  gnmd 
nibbi  at  Prague. 

Edmratkm. — Bohemia  has  a  great  number  of 
edncatiimal  estabtishmentSw  The  institutions  con- 
sist of  a  nniver»ity  at  Prague:  a  puh-tcchnic 
soho'd:  26  gymna.«inms:  3  philosopnical  semi- 
narien :  3  the«»logical  seminaries :  1  militar\*  aca- 
demy :  3  convents  fur  female  education :  1  Jewish 
c«ill(^:  40  grammar  schools:  2,500  Catholic,  36 
Protestant,  and  20  Jewish,  schawls;  and  there  are 
aL«o  6cho(jIs  for  music  and  drawing,  an  obeervatori', 
and  numerous  libraries  and  cabinets  of  natural 
historv.  arts,  and  sciences.  The  Academy  of  Prague, 
thougli  not  long  established,  enjoys  considerable 
celebrity.  But  notwithstanding'  this  imposing 
number  of  educational  establishments,  the  educa- 
tiun  of  the  people  is.  in  reality,  at  a  very  low  ebb. 
There  are  detailed  official  returns  on  the  subject, 
but  the  general  state  of  educatir^n  in  Bohemia  may 
be  measured  by  the  (act  that,  at  the  c« inscription 
of  1857,  it  was  found  that  in  the  archduchy  of 
Austria,  of  2,t^9  recruits.  2.323  were  iU>le  to  read 
and  write,  while  in  Bohemia  there  were,  among 
11.213  recruits,  only  6,597,  or  scarcely  one-half, 
able  to  read  and  write. 

Lhiring  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.  the  lue  of  the 
Bfihemian  language  was  forbiddeiu  not  only  in  the 
courtit  of  justice,  but  also  in  the  colleges  and  higher 
academies.  But,  instead  of  supprea(i4ng  the  lan- 
guage of  the  people,  this  seems  to  have  occasioned 
a  reaction  in  its  favour;  and  during  the  prnitent 
century  Bohemian  literature  has  been  a  good  deal 
attended  to,  and  made  considerable  progress. 

Poor.— The  number  of  hospitals  and  charitable 
institutions  in  the  capital  and  principal  towns  is 
%'ery  considerable,  and  in  the  towns  the  poor  are 
cartfuUy  proWde«l  for.  No  regular  poor-rates  are, 
however,  collected:  where  the  foundation  funds 
xmd  voluntary-  subscriptions  do  not  suffice,  the  de- 
ficiency is  made  up  by  government.  But  the  con- 
tributions of  the  latter  are  afforded  very  sparingly, 
and  bef!ging  is,  after  all  the  great  res«'nirce  of  the 
Bohemian  poor,  as  it  must  be  of  the  poor  of  every 
Cfjuntry  where  a  compulscnry  provision  is  not  es- 
tabrL'«hed.  It  is  here,  in  fact,  universal :  and  all 
travellers  are  disgusted  with  the  numbers  and  im- 
portunity of  the  mendicants. 

Manners  and  Cuttoms. — ^Tlie  Bohemians  are  pas- 
sionately fond  of  mu<ic  and  dancing,  and  have 
attained  to  great  proticienc}'  in  both.  'The  natiitual 
airs  are  nearly  the  same  with  those  of  the  Slowaks 
of  the  N\V.  part  of  Hungary-,  and  are  generally 
plaintive.  Tlie  waltz  is  the  favourite  dance:  and 
two  of  its  most  fashionable  varietiev.  the  Bfdotrak 
and  the  Gahppe^  have  been  borrowed  from  the 
Bohemian  peasants.  The  men  are  generally  robust 
and  well  pn)porrioncd :  and  the  women  arc  cele- 
brated for  their  beauty.  The  dispositions  of  the 
people  are  more  mercurial,  and  their  manners  more 
gav,  frank,  and  open,  than  those  of  their  Saxon 
neighbours.  How  much  soever  the  objects  of  their 
veneration  may  be  changed,  thev  are  still,  as  in 
the  days  of  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  zealous 
defenders  of  what  they  believe  to  be  right  and 
proper.  There  is  a  nearly  total  want  of  a  middle 
class — an  intermediate  nmk  between  the  lortlsanil 
their  vossaK  With  the  exception  of  Prague,  there 
are  no  great  towns,  none  of  those /on'  whence 
intelligence  and  civilisation  are  difllnsed  over  a 
country.  But,  however  ignorant  and  projudice«U 
the  character  of  the  Bohemian  peasant  is  roost  re- 
spectable. In  point  of  morals,  he  is  quite  on  a 
level  with  the  peasantry  of  other  natiuoa.    Crimes 


BOHEMIA 

of  violence  are  of  raie  occunence.  The  proportion 
of  illegitimate  to  legitimate  births  is  as  1  to  8 ; 
bat  in  the  capital  it  is  as  high  as  1  to  2. 

Government, — Up  to  the  year  1849,  the  chief 
political  power  in  Bohemia  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  nobility,  some  2,260  in  number,  including  14 
princes,  172  counts,  80  barons,  and  more  than  100 
hereditary  knights  as  heads  of  families.  The  total 
revenues  of  the  nobili^  were  estimated  fifty  vears 
ago  at  180,000,000  of  florins,  or  18,000,000/.  ' 

The  year  1849,  which  gave  a  constitution  to  the 
AuHtrian  empire,  destroyed  to  a  great  extent  the 
influence  of  the  nobility,  b^  giving  to  Bohemia, 
as  well  as  to  the  other  provinces  of  the  monarchy, 
so-called  Provincial  Diets.  All  these  Diets  are 
formed  in  the  same  manner,  only  differing  in  the 
number  of  deputies.  Each  consists  of  only  one 
assembly,  composed,  Ist,  of  the  archbishop  and 
bishops  of  the  lioman  Catholic  and  Oriental 
Greek  Church  and  the  chancellurs  of  universities ; 
2nd,  of  the  representatives  of  great  estates,  elected 
by  all  landowners  pa^dng  not  less  than  100  florins, 
or  1{)L,  taxes ;  3rd,  of  the  representatives  of  towns, 
elected  by  those  citizens  who  possess  municipal 
riglits ;  4th,  of  the  representatives  of  boards  of 
commerce  and  trade-unions,  chosen  by  the  re- 
H[)ective  members;  and  5th,  of  the  representa- 
tives of  rural  communes,  elected  by  such  inha- 
liitants  as  pay  a  small  amount  of  direct  taxation. 
The  Provincial  Diets  are  competent  to  make  laws 
concerning  local  administration,  particularly  those 
afli^cting  county  taxation,  the  cultivation  of  the 
soil,  educational,  church,  and  charitable  institu- 
tions, and  public  works  executed  at  the  pul)lic 
exixjnse.  The  executive  is  directed  by  the  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  ministry  at  Vienna ;  the 
princii)al  of  which  is  the  imperial  united  chancery, 
under  which  is  the  Gubemium  at  Prague.  The 
court  of  appeals  at  Prague  is  imder  the  ministry 
of  justice  at  Vienna ;  the  receiver  of  taxes  is  under 
the  flnance  minister  at  Vienna.  To  these  central 
authorities  the  various  branches  in  every  circle 
arc  subject ;  the  courts  of  justice  of  the  circle 
being  at  the  same  time  courts  of  appeal  from  the 
manor  courts  of  the  nobles,  who  exercise  judicial 
authority  over  their  estates.  The  city  and  town 
magistrates  have  their  own  civil  and  criminal 
courts,  from  which  appeal  lies  to  the  court  of 
appeals  at  Prague.  The  military  have  a  peculiar 
jurisdiction.  Independent  of  all  authorities,  judi- 
cial or  administrative,  the  police  forms  a  branch 
apart,  being  in  the  towns  confided  to  especial 
commissaries,  and  in  the  countr}'  to  the  captain 
of  the  circle,  in  whom  the  three  functions,  judi- 
cial, administrative,  and  those  of  police,  are 
united. 

History. — After  innumerable  mutations,  Bo- 
hemia, with  Hungary  and  Transylvania,  fell,  in 
1526,  under  the  dominion  of  Ferdinand  of  Austria, 
brother  of  Charles  V.,  who  had  married  the  sister 
and  heiress  of  Louis,  king  of  Ik)hemia  and  Hun- 
gary, killed  at  the  battle  of  Mohacz.  Bohemia 
was  at  this  epoch  in  the  enjo^nnent  of  a  com- 
]>aratively  free  constitution,  and  three  fourths  of 
the  population  were  attached  to  the  reformed 
faith.  The  attempts  of  the  Austrian  sovereigns 
to  undermine  the  free  institutions  of  the  country, 
and  to  lay  restraints  on  the  exercise  of  the  Pro- 
testant worship,  provoked  a  desperate  contest, 
which  continued  till  1620,  when  the  Austrian 
tr(H>f)s  totally  defeated  the  Bohemians  at  the 
battle  of  Weissenberg,  near  Prague.  The  perae: 
cution  which  followed  has  seldom  or  never  been 
equalled  for  atrocity'.  Many  of  the  best  and 
noblcdt  Bohemian  citizens  lost  their  lives  on  the 
scaflbld,  and  thousands  upon  thousands  were 
driven  into  exile,  and  had  their  estates  and  pro- 


BOEHARA 


477 


perties  confiscated.  The  free  constitation  of  the 
kingdom  was  entirely  annihilated;  the  Protestant 
religion  all  but  extirpated ;  and  such  was  the  com- 
bined influence  of  massacre  and  exile,  that  in 
1687  the  pop.  did  not  exceed  780,000.  Subse- 
quently the  government  gave  every  encourage- 
ment to  the  settlement  of  German  colonists  in 
the  country :  and  in  the  reign  of  Maria  Theresa 
and  Joseph  II.  a  new  era  began ;  and  the  milder 
and  more  liberal  system  of  government  which  they 
introduced  has  since  b^m  followed  up. 

BOIS-LE-DUC,  or  HERIOGENBOSCH,  a  for- 
tified town  of  Holland,  cap.  prov.  N.  Brabant,  in 
a  morass,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Dommel  and 
Aa,  27  m.  S.  by  E.  Utrecht  Pop.  28,500  in  1861. 
The  town  is  about  5  m.  in  circ,  is  defended  by  a 
citadel  and  two  forts,  and  in  case  of  need  the 
environs  may  be  laid  imder  water.  It  is  a  well- 
built  handsome  town,  and  is  intersected  by  several 
canals,  over  which  there  are  a  great  many  bridges. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  vicar-gener^  and  tribunals  of 
original  jurisdiction  and  commerce,  and  has  a 
fine  town-hall,  on  the  model  of  the  Stadt-house 
at  Amsterdam ;  six  churches,  of  which  the  cathe- 
dral church,  or  that  of  St.  John,  built  in  the  end 
of  the  Idth  and  the  beginning  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury, is  one  of  the  finest  in  Holland ;  a  grammar- 
school,  in  which  Erasmus  was  partly  educated; 
an  academy  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  archi- 
tecture ;  two  hospitals,  an  orphan  asylum,  and  a 
houi«c  of  correction.  Its  manufactures,  which  are 
considerable,  consist  of  linen  and  thread,  needles 
and  pins,  cutlery,  Ac,  with  distilleries,  glass- 
works, Ac,  It  is  well  situated  for,  and  has,  a 
considerable  trade. 

Ikiis-le-Duc  was  founded,  in  1184,  by  Godfrey 
III.,  duke  of  Brabant.  In  1629  it  was  taken  by 
the  Dutch,  after  a  lengthened  siege.  It  was 
held  by  the  French  from  1794  to  1814,  when  it 
surrendered  to  the  Prussians,  by  whom  it  was 
again  made  over  to  its  old  masters. 

BOJADOR  (CAPE),  a  celebrated  promontory 
of  the  W.  coast  of  Africa,  desert  of  Sahara ;  laL 
26©  r  10"  N.,  long.  14°  29^  6"  W.  This  headland 
forms  the  W.  extremity  of  a  rocky  ridge,  called 
the  Geb-el-khal,  or  Black  Mountains.  It  was 
long  the  limit  of  navigation  towards  the  S.,  and 
was  first  passed  by  the  Portuguese  in  1483. 

BOJANO  (an.  Soptonvm),  a  town  of  Southern 
Italy,  in  the  former  kingdom  of  Naples,  prov. 
Sannio,  cap.  canton,  on  the  Bifemo,  in  a  deep 
gorge,  at  tne  foot  of  Mount  Matese,  16  m.  ESE. 
Isemia.  Pop.  5,249  in  1862.  This  town  has  suf- 
fered severely  from  earthquakes,  the  last  calamity 
of  this  sort  having  occurred  in  1805.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  has,  or  had  before  the 
earthquake,  a  cathedral,  with  several  churches  and 
convents,  and  an  hospital.  During  the  early 
period  of  Roman  history,  Bovianum  was  a  very 
important  place.  In  the  Social  war  it  was  one 
of  the  strongest  holds  of  the  confederates.  It 
was  taken  by  Sylla,  and  afterwards  retaken  by 
the  MarsL  Under  C«esar  it  became  a  militaiy 
colony.  Strabo  says  that  in  his  time  it  was 
ruinous  and  deserted. 

BOJANOWA,  a  town  of  Prussia,  |m>v.  and 
reg.  Posen,  9  m.  NW.  Rawiez.  Pop.  2,867  in 
1861.  It  is  divided  mto  the  Old  and  New  towns ; 
most  part  of  the  houses  are  of  wood ;  it  has  a 
large  town-house,  and  fabrics  of  coarse  cloth. 

BOKHARA  or  UZBEKISTAN,  a  country  of 
Central  Asia,  comprising  considerable  portions  of 
the  anc.  Sogdiana  or  Tranaoxianaf  and  Bacbria, 
forming  the  most  powerful  state  of  what  is 
named  by  the  modems  Independent  Tartary,  or 
Turkestan.  It  lies  between  the  87th  and  43rd 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  80th  and  88th 


478 


BOKHARA 


d^^Tccs  of  cast  lonptudc,  haWng  N.  the  desert 
and  the  khanat  of  Kokan;  K.  the  mountainoiui 
re^diiA  of  His^or  and  Kix>n(l(M)z ;  S.  Caubiil ;  and 
W.  the  khanat  of  Khiva  or  Khiirnnm.  Arca^pn^ 
bablv  alxmt  285,0(X)  Hq^  m^  Pop.  e.stimatCMl  at 
2,000.(MK).  Only  one-tenth  of  the  territory  in 
inhabited  by  a  stationary  populatiim;  the  re- 
mainder conHists  of  8tepi>e  or  det»ert,  on  which 
the  wandering  tri])C8  ])itch  their  movable  dwel- 
ling!, and  tend  their  flocks  of  hor^ca  and  sheep. 

JPhysicai  As/)ecL — Bokliara  in  mountainous  only 
in  the  K.,  w^horc  itn  raountaiuH  are  northern  npurn 
from  the  Hindoo  Koofh,  and  on  it8  S.  frontier, 
where  they  seem  to  Itelon^  to  the  (ihiM)r  or  Paro- 
)>amisan  range,  except  a  few  h>w-lyinp  hilln  alniut 
Si>huhr-Subz,  Samarcand,  and  Bokhara.  The  height 
of  the  former  ranjje,  in  about  lat.  .•$9°,  is  HU]iiM)sed 
14}  1m?  at  least  1H,0I)U  A.  The  ))lain  repon  which 
comprises  all  the  rest  of  Bokhara,  is  nothing  bat 
a  sandy  desert,  with  a  few  oaje«,  Htrctching  for  a 
few  miles  <in  either  side  the  banks  of  rivers ;  in 
which  are  planted  the  chief  cities  and  towns;  and 
which  constitute  the  only  cultivable  lands,  and 
are  densely  peopled.  The  rivers  are  of  the  high(*t 
im)M)rtauce :  there  are  five,  viz.  the  Jihon  or 
AmiM)  (Oxus),  Kohik  or  /tr-afchnn.  Kurshec  or 
Karchi,  Zourhab,  and  Balkh.  The  Oxus  intcr- 
aects  the  country*  SK.  to  NW.,  dividing  it  into 
two  unequal  portions,  and  var\'ing  in  width  fmrn 
800  to  upwanls  of  *<(»()  yanU,  The  course  (»f  the 
Zer-afchan  (river  of  gold)  is  entin-ly  within  this 
country;  it  rises  in  the  highlands  E.  of  Samar- 
cand, runs  N.  this  city  and  Bokhara,  and  after  a 
course  of  about  450  m.,  chietiy  l\,  to  \V.,  falls 
into  the  lake  Denghiz.  Tlie  Kurshec  rises  in 
the  same  highlands  as  the  Kciliik,  nms  NK.  to 
SW„  by  Shulir-Subz  and  Kurshee,  and  is  lost  in 
the  desert.  The  Zourhat  nins  frrjm  X.  to  S.,  and 
is  similarlv  lost.  The  Balkh  river  riscj*  S\V.  the 
Hnidoo  ivoosh,  and  runs  N.  to  Balkh,  where  its 
wnters  are  distributed  all  over  the  summnding 
country  by  means  of  ciuials.  The  lake  Denghiz, 
or  '  the  «»,'  is  GO  m.  .SSW.  Bokluira,  surri>«nrle<l 
on  all  sides  by  sand  hills :  25  m.  long,  and  very 
dee]) :  its  water  is  salt,  and  it  api)ears  neither  to 
incr(>ase  nor  decrease  at  any  season  of  the  year. 

Tlie  fertility  of  the  country  is  said  to  have  Ix'en 
anciently  much  greater  than  at  present ;  the  valley 
of  Sogdiana  has  been  spoken  of  as  a  paradL«e  by 
both  (ireek  and  Arabian  ^Titers;  but  it  is  mostly 
destitute  of  large  trees,  and  the  banks  of  the 
Kurshee  entirely  so.  The  desert  is  varied  only 
by  sand  hDls,  15  or  20  fU  high,  raiseil  by  the 
wind;  of  a  horse-shoe  shape,  the  bow  tr^wanls  the 
N.,  and  always  resting  on  a  l)ase  of  hanlcned  clay. 
Some  stunted  herbage,  h>w  bnishwcKMl,  and  the 
camel-thorn,  are  the  only  signs  of  vegetatitm ;  and 
a  few  rats,  lizartls,  beetles,  and  solitary  binls,  the 
only  permanent  inhal>itants.  S.  of  the  Oxus, 
however,  it  is  not  quite  so  bare  as  elsewhere. 
Curtius  has  well  described  the  present  state  of  the 
n^ion  round  Balkh.  in  his  glowing  description  of 
anc.  Bactriana.  (See  Bunies,  il.  211.)  Many  re- 
mains of  former  splendour,  aque^iucts,  temples, 
A'c,  are  to  l)e  met  with  in  various  spots,  as  be- 
tween Khooloom  and  Mazar;  the  ruins  of  Bykiuid, 
20  m.  VVSW.,  and  of  KJiojouban,  25  m.  NVV. 
Bokhara,  &c. 

GeoitHfy  and  Mineraltfffy — X.  of  the  Oxil«,  and 
from  the  base  of  the  mountains  to  Bokhara,  there 
is  a  succession  of  ranges  of  limi^stone,  oolite,  and 
gravel,  alternating  with  vast  and  hanlened  jilalns 
of  ai^illaceous  clay  of  qiuirtzose  sand :  the  pebbles 
in  Mijinkal  are  sliaq)  and  angular,  and  look  very 
unlike  having  ever  been  subjectetl  to  the  action  of 
water.  There  is  more  g«»ld  in  the  sand  <»f  the 
Oxus  than  in  any  other  livcr  rifling  in  the  Hindoo 


Koosh;  but  other  metals  are  not  fonnd  in  any 
quantity  in  this  countiy ;  silver,  iron,  and  copper, 
are  all  imported  from  L'ussia.  Sal-ammoniac  is 
native  near  Juzzah,  an<i  th(>re  is  a  bed  5  m.  in 
circ  of  dark-coloure<l,  imperfectly  cr\'8tallise<l 
salt,  near  Cbaijooee,  5(K)  llw.  of  which  »(*\\  for  .tx. 
in  liokhara  citv.  'The  water  in  the  wells  of  the 
desert  Ls  often  found  brackish  and  unfit  to  drink, 
especially  S.  of  the  Oxus ;  l)etween  that  river  and 
Bokhara  the  water  is  go<Ml,  and  exudes  through 
tlie  sand. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  elevated  E.  frontier 
is  very  different  from  that  of  the  rest  of  the  crmn- 
try.  In  the  )>lains  it  is  generally  dry  and  salu- 
brious ;  in  the  winter  sometimes  so  cold  that  the 
Oxus  is  frozen  over,  and  the  snow  lies  fur  thnv^ 
months  at  Bokhara:  in  the  desert  in  snimmMT 
the  heat  excee«ls  100®  Fahr.  The  seasons  an* 
ver>'  regular;  at  the  beginning  of  Mar^*h  the 
spruig  opens,  the  heat  soon  increases  to  an  oppres- 
sive degree,  being  seldom  refreshed  bv  showers, 
and  for  four  months  the  l)ed  of  the  Ko^iik  is  dry 
at  the  city  of  liokhara,  and  the  countrj'  suffrrs 
fn>m  dnnight.  The  summer  last^i  till  (>ct<ilH>r, 
when  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks*  rain  sets  in, 
succeeded  by  frosts,  and  these  again  by  rains  fn»ni 
the  middle  to  the  end  of  Feb.,  which  are  often 
very  heavy,  but  evapomtion  is  rapid.  Vitdei;t 
tonfadoes  sometimes  arise,  blowing  frr^m  ttic 
NW. ;  but  a  steady  wind  from  the  N.  blows  acroM 
the  desert  in  the  hot  season :  tlie  atmos{)here  is 
remarkiibly  clear  and  cloudless  at  ]{okhara,>and 
meteors  are  frequently  seen  in  criiisiderable  num- 
bers at  night.  At  Balkh  the  summer  heat  is  very 
oppri'ssive,  and  the  climate  unhealthy.  Kheum.!- 
tL>m  is  a  fn*quent  disease  there :  and  ophtlmlmia 
aud  blindness  are  the  SiNiurges  of  the  desert: 
fevers  an?  rare,  but  leprosy  is  common. 

Vrpetuhle  Protiitcts, — There  is  but  little  large 
timlK*r:  willow  and  poplar  are  tlie  principal  trves 
in  the  plains,  and  the  latter  is  used  for  house- 
building: tamarisks  and  legiuninous  ]dants  are 
the  most  frequent  shrubs.  A  bastard  indipt 
fiourislHis  pmfusely  on  the  banks  of  tlie  Oxus 
but  neither  the  true  plant  nor  the  sugar-cane 
grow  wild.  S<tme  BoraginetE  and  CrucifertF  are 
found  universally ;  lilies,  asph<Klels,  and'  euphor- 
bias less  commonly.  The  (Jalenia  afrietma,  the 
favourite  fotxl  of  the  camel,  covers  many  parts  of 
the  desert:  rhuljarb  grows  in  Kurfdiee;  bat  the 
gigantic  Ferubi  jyersica  (which  produces  aj««afn^ 
tida)  is  the  sole  meml>er  of  the  uml>elliferr*i» 
family.  l*okhara  is  celebrated  for  it*  fniits:  it 
is  iK'lieved  to  l»e  the  native  amntry  of  the  melon, 
which  grfjws  here  to  more  perfection  than  any- 
where else;  ami  most  of  the  fruits  familisir  to  na 
grow  there  in  gn*at  perfection. 

Animals. — Wihl  animabt  are  few:  the  lion  is 
not  now  found,  though  Alexander  killed  (»ne  in 
Transiixiana.  Diminutive  tigers  on  the  banks 
of  the  Oxus,  wild  hogs,  and  asses,  deer,  antelo]«s, 
bears  in  the  K.,  wolves,  foxes,  jack.!!"*,  cats,  mar- 
tens, rats,  and  marmots,  are  the  chief  3/umma/M ; 
ostriches  in  the  S.,  eagles,  hawks,  owls,  cn>ws. 
storks,  j)igcons,  plovers,  and  water-fowl,  are 
common  ;  but  there  are  no  singing  birds ;  and  all 
kinds  of  game  are  scarce.  Tortois^es  and  lizanl'i 
are  foimd  in  the  desert;  but  there  are  neither 
alligatoR4,  nor  many  snakes.  The  fish  in  the 
lAikc  Karakool  are  good :  tlu^^c  of  the  Cbcus  are 
the  same  as  in  other  Asiatic  rivers ;  a  large  dog- 
fish is  caught  there  often  of  G<K>  ll»s,  weight. 
There  are  few  insects;  locusts  sometimes  infest 
the  neighbourhood  of  Balkh;  the  sctirpion  is 
common,  but  not  (Uingcrous ;  a  kind  of  c<K*hineal 
insect  lives  on  the  bastard-indigo,  imt  the  dye  it 
produces  is  very  inferior,  and  the  proiier  mode  of 


BOKHARA 


479 


treating  it  is  unknown.  The  Biikwonn  is  abun- 
dant on  tlic  banks  of  the  Oxus,  where  the  mulberry 
is  planted  for  it  in  great  quantity ;  and  the  Turk- 
mans in  the  summer  m(mths  arc  nearly  all  occu- 
pied  in  the  production  of  silk,  llic  quality  of 
the  water,  or  s(mie  other  cause  in  Bokhara  city, 
produces  the  rishtu  or  Guinea  worm,  and  ^  put 
of  the  population  are  said  to  be  attacked  annually 
with  a  painful  du^ease,  owing  to  the  formation  or 
growtli  of  these  worms  beneath  the  skin.  When 
obser\'cd,  they  are  extracted  by  means  of  needles ; 
an  o])eration  in  which  the  Bokharese  arc  very 
expext, 

naces  of  Men, — Baron  Meyendorff  estimates  the 
pop.  an<l  the  (litferent  races' of  which  it  is  made 
up,  at  above  2,000,000,  reckoning  the  Uzbeks  at 
1,500,000,  the  Tadjiks  at  500,000,  and  enumerating 
a  dozen  smaller  tribes,  of  a  few  thousand  souls 
each.  Bumes,  on  the  other  hand,  estimates  the 
total  pop.  at  no  more  than  a  million,  half  of  whom 
he  thinks  are  wandering  tribes.  The  Uzbeks, 
the  last  race  who  conquered  this  country,  say  they 
originally  came  from,  the  neighbourhood  of  Ai- 
trakhan,'and  arc  divided  into  a  number  of  tribes, 
of  which  that  of  Mangout  is  the  principal,  and 
the  khan  always  belongs  to  it.  In  their  physical 
appearance  they  resemble  a  mixtiu%  oi  Tartar 
and  Kalmuck,  but  those  of  the  capital  are  scarcely 
to  be  recognisexl  as  belonging  to  either  of  the^e 
families,  from  their  great  intermixture  with  Per- 
sian blood.  The  Uzbeks  are  chiefly  established 
in  the  principal  towns,  and  in  the  valley  of  the 
Zer-afchan  :  they  are  all  warriors,  and  the  govern- 
ment offices  are  for  the  most  part  tilled  by  them. 
Many  are  employed  in  trade ;  tliey  are  avaricious, 
and  much  adilictcd  to  deceit.  They  are  naturally 
proud,  and  have  a  great  wntempt  fiir  the  other 
races,  especially  the  Tadjiks;  but  are  also  said 
to  l>e  often  well-dis{K>8ed,  and  are  simple,  and 
easily  subject  to  im|)osition. 

The  Tadjiks  are  regarded  as  the  aborigines,  and 
desc(?ndants  of  the  ancient  Sogdians.  They  are 
siuiilar  to  European  races  in  both  features  and 
complexion,  the  latter  being  much  less  brown  than 
that  of  the  Persians ;  their  hair  is  black ;  they 
are  active,  laborious,  and  intelligent,  but  pusil- 
lanimous, and  never  take  arms:  they  therefore 
<liffcr  in  numerous  particulars  from  the  Uzbeks. 
They  do  not  Icail  a  wandering  life,  but  are  culti- 
vators, artisans,  and  merchants;  in  the  latter 
capacity,  like  the  Uzbeks,  they  are  greetiy  and 
avaricious.  Most  of  them  know  how  to  read  and 
write;  and,  excepting  the  clei^y,  they  are  the 
most    ciWlbed    i)eoplc    of   the  country.      Their 

{)hy8iognomy  exi)re«Mes  mildness  and  tranquillity ; 
)ut  they  arc  deceitful,  and  unfeeling  towards 
their  slaves. 

There  arc  about  20,000  Kalmucks  in  the  coun- 
try, a  large  portion  of  them  descendants  of  the 
hordes  of  Jenghiz-khan ;  the  remainder  are  Tor- 
gout  Kalmucks,  who  in  1770  abandoned  the  banks 
of  the  Wolga,  to  return  to  their  original  seat. 
The  former  are  to  be  recognised  only  by  their 
l)hysical  appearance;  they  have  almost  foi^ttcn 
X\w\t  original  tongue^  and  have  adopted  the  cus- 
toms of  the  Uzlx?ks,  amongst  whom  they  live,  in 
villages  of  their  own. 

Another  tril)e,  the  Turkmans,  or  Toorkmuns,  in- 
hal)it  chiefly  the  region  S.  of  the  Oxus  (which 
forms  jxart  of  Turkwitan,  or  Toorkmania) ;  they 
Wlong  to  the  gri'-at  Tartar  family,  and  differ  from 
tlie  Uzbeks  in  lieing  exclusively  a  wandering  tribe, 
having  the  face  larger,  and  the  figure  more  squat ; 
in  these  particulars  resembling  the  Kalmucks. 
They  cultivate  rice  <»n  the  banks  of  the  Amoo,  but 
have  many  herds,  and  live  much  on  their  milk 
and  flesh.    Their  horses  arc  excdleot,  and  have 


been  celebrated  since  the  time  of  Alexander.  The 
Turkmans  are  bv  profession  dealers  in  slaves ;  they 
have  chiefs  of  tKeir  own,  named  b^s,  but  all  pay 
tribute  to  the  khan  of  Btikhanu 

The  Arabs,  numbering  probably  about  50,000, 
have  been  established  here  ever  since  the  age  of 
the  caliphs.  They  are  immediately  recognised,  by 
their  swarthy  complexion.  Some  are  wandering, 
and  others  demi-nomadic  tribes;  a  third  soctioii 
live  in  villages,  some  of  which  are  near  Bdihara ; 
others  arc  cultivators,  and  possess  docks  in  the 
steppes :  it  is  chiefly  the  latter  who  furnish  the 
lamb-skins,  in  such  general  demand.  The  Persians 
arc  mostly  slaves,  who  have  been  captured  by  the 
Turkmans ;  and  a  proyMrtion  of  eight  indiWdnala 
in  every  village  of  twenty  houses  is  perhaps  a  fair 
average  throughout  the  coimtry.  (Bumes.)  The 
Kiighiz  are  a  small  wandering  horde,  found  espe- 
cially N.  the  valley  of  the  Zer-afchan.  Some  of 
the  Afghans  and  Kiighiz  are  descendants  of  the 
hostages  retained  by  Timour:  there  are  some 
Chinese  who  have  a  similar  origin.  The  Bohe- 
mians, or  Zingeunes,  here  called  Mazan^  arc  of 
unknown  extraction,  and  live  in  different  com- 
panies in  every  part  of  the  country;  they  tell  for- 
tunes, and  have  all  the  other  occupations  of  gipsies. 
The  Jews  live  almost  entirely  in  Bokhara  city; 
where  there  are  also  300  Hindoos,  who  arc  not  al- 
lowed to  build  temples,  have  idols,  walk  in  pro- 
cessions, bring  their  families  beyond  the  Oxus,  or 
purchase  female  slaves,  and  are  prescril)ed  a  par- 
ticular dress.  Thev  come  chietiv  firom  Sinde ;  are 
very  sober  and  orderly,  industnous  and  devoted 
to  trade,  in  which  they  often  amass  considerable 
wealth. 

Agricultwe. — This  is  the  princinal  source  of  the 
national  wealth;  rice,  wheat,  barley,  jowarec,  se- 
samum,  maize,  moong,  melons,  and  l>eans,  arc  the 
chief  objects  of  culture.  S.  of  the  Oxus  the  wheat 
fields,  when  sown,  yield  crops  for  tliree  successive 
years.  When  the  first  har\'est  is  finished,  the 
cattle  are  turned  in  upon  the  stubble  fields  ;  and 
next  season  the  stalks  grow  up  and  ear;  and  a 
third  but  scanty  crop  is  reaped  in  the  same  way. 
At  Karakool,  in  Bokhara  Proper,  the  return  is  said 
to  l>e  sevenfold ;  at  Balkh  the  wheat  ripens  in  a 
month  ;  the  crops  are  very  good,  and  the  stalk  aa 
high  as  in  England.  Wheat  is  usually  sown  in 
autumn,  and  reaped  in  July ;  and  the  fields  are 
afterwanls  ploughed  for  peas,  which  are  gathered 
in  the  same  year.  Barley  is  sown  early  in  March, 
and  reaped  before  wheat :  it  comes  in  the  place  of 
oats,  which  are  not  used  in  Bokhara.  Jowaree 
{Holcus  taccharatus),  which,  with  wheat  and  me- 
lons, occupies  most  of  the  surface,  comoa  to  matu- 
rity in  nearly  the  same  period  as  barley  :  it  grows 
to  five  feet  in  height,  and  affords  both  grain  for  the 
poor,  and,  by  its  leaves,  good  forage  for  the  cattle. 
It  Ls  commonly  surrounded  by  tanabsof  hemp  and 
cotton,  from  the  seeds  of  which  oil  is  extracted. 
A  considerable  quantity  of  cotton  is  grown  and 
exported,  both  raw  and  manufactured,  the  greater 
part  of  it  being  sent  to  Russia.  iWoil  is  cut 
seven  or  eight  times  a  year;  madder  is  grown, 
and  tobacco ;  the  best  of*^  which  Is  from  Kurahee. 
Beet-root,  turnips,  canots,  abound.  Kurshee  is  a 
*  sheet '  of  gardens  and  orchards,  but  mast  of  the 
stone  fruit  ls  inferior  to  that  of  Persia.  There  are 
many  kinds  of  grapes,  and  the  raisins  prepared 
from  those  of  Bokhara  are  unrivalled  for  size  and 
flavour,  and  l>eautifully  transparent  The  mul- 
berry Is  largely  grown  Yor  rearing  silkworms,  and 
much  attention  is  bestowed  upon  them.  The  vines 
are  not  prune<l,  as  in  Europe.  The  wines  have 
little  flavour,  and  will  not  keep  long.  The  most 
celebrated  fruit  is  the  melon,  which  is  of  several 
kinds;  one  is  oval,  with  a  green  or  yellow  skin, 


4S0 


BOKHARA' 


BometimeB  4  it.  in  circnmference,  and  of  a  most 
delicious  flavour.  Winter  melons  are  said  to  sur- 
pass all  the  others.  Cucumbers  also  attain  great 
size  and  excellence.  The  iris,  rose,  aster,  and 
sunflower,  are  cultivated  a  great  deal  in  the  esj- 
dais,  which  are  very  lazge  and  numerous.  The 
fields  are  parted  into  tamabsy  each  of  which  com- 
prises a  surface  of  3,600  square  yards  ;  their  limits 
are  formed  by  ditches  for  irrigation.  The  want  of 
water  is  the  great  hindrance  to  the  progress  of 
agriculture,  as,  wherever  there  arc  neither  riven 
nor  canals,  the  ground  is  uncultivated.  Property 
in  land  is  of  Ave  kinds  :  Ist,  llie  state  property, 
which  is  the  most  considerable.  2ndly,  The  khia- 
radjj  the  right  to  which  was  formerly  doubtful 
between  the  government  and  certain  propriet4)rs, 
and  has  been  cc<iud  to  the  latter,  on  payment  of  a 
li^ht  tax.  8r(llv,  Fiefs,  bestowed  for  military  ser- 
vices. 4thly,  I*roperties  of  individuals..  And, 
6thly,  Legacies  for  religious  purposes.  The  state 
temtory,  as  well  as  other  pro))erty,  is  let ;  govern- 
ment receiving  as  rent  two-fifths  of  its  pnxlucc. 

Cattle. — Bokhara  is  rich  in  cattle;  the  sheep 
and  goats  claim  the  first  notice,  since  the  one  yiehb 
the  celel)rated  skins  and  the  other  a  wool,  only 
inferior  fur  shawls  to  that  of  Cashmere.  These 
flocks  graze  on  furze  and  dry  grass,  and  their  ticHh 
is  sweet  and  well-flavoured.  All  the  shitep  are  of 
the  variety  with  large  tails,  some  of  which  ^aeld 
as  much  as  15  lbs.  tallow.  The  description  of 
sheep  which  produces  the  jet  black  curly  fleece, 
made  into  caps  in  Persia,  and  so  much  esteemed 
evciywliere,  is  peculiar  to  Karakool,  a  small  can- 
ton between  Bokhara  and  the  Oxus.  The  animal 
will  thrive  nowhere  else,  and  has  been  traus]M)rte(l 
to  Persia  and  other  countries  without  success: 
when  removed  it  loses  the  peculiarity  in  its  fleece, 
and  becomes  like  other  sheep.  The  annual  ex]X)rt 
of  skins  amounts  to  about  200,000,  the  best  of 
which  are  sent  to  Constantinople.  The  goats 
yield  the  shawl  wool,  and  are  about  the  common 
size,  of  a  dark  colour ;  and  many  belong  to  the 
wandering  Kiighiz  tribes.  Hie  oxen  are  neither 
luge  nor  strong,  and  beef  is  eaten  only  by  the 
poor :  mntUm  is  the  food  for  which  there  is  the 
greatest  market*  The  horses  of  Toorkmania  are 
large  and  bony,  and  more  remarkable  for  strengtli 
and  bottom  than  symmetry'  or  beauty.  The  Uzbek 
ttibe,  of  Karabeer,  possess  the  most  matchless 
horses  in  the  East :  the  breed  was  introduced  by 
Tamerlane,  or  Timour,  into  the  country  round 
Samarcand  and  Shuhr-Subz.  All  the  traffic  of 
Bokhara,  however,  is  carried  on  by  means  of 
camels :  these  have  a  sleek  coat,  as  fine  as  that  of 
a  horse,  and  shed  their  hair  in  summer,  from  which 
a  fine  waterproof  cloth,  of  close  and  heavy  texture, 
18  manufactured.  The  Bactrian  camel,  with  two 
humps,  and  tufts  of  black  hair  on  the  neck  and 
thighs,  abounds  S.  of  the  Oxus,  and  can  carry  a 
burden  of  6  cwt. ;  the  dromedary  is  common'  in 
Bokhara ;  the  asses  are  laige,  sturdy,  and  much 
used :  there  arc  no  mules. 

Xo  considerable  manufacture  is  found  in  Bok- 
hara; none  employing  more  than  four  or  five 
woriunen  at  a  time.  Cotton  thread,  silk  stuffs  of 
different  colours,  leather,  excellent  shagreen,  good 
sabres,  knives,  and  other  steel  articles,  lucks,  Imrd- 
ware,  gold  and  silver  mountings  for  knives  and 
aabres,  rings  and  other  jewellery,  articles  of  turnery, 
and  fire-arms,  are  amongst  the  chief  pnKluctions. 
Women  are  often  emploved  in  embroidery,  and 
especially  in  divesting  the  cotton  of  its  seeds, 
which  occupies  many  hands.  No  farther  use  is 
made  of  hemp  than  to  procure  an  intoxicating 
drug ;  sugar  and  confectionery  are  made  from  the 
manna  found  on  the  camel-thorn.  Tlie  Jews  and 
others  excel  in  the  art  of  dyeing,  but  leather  is 


generally  bad,  and  the  cutlery  inferior  to  that  of 
Persia.  The  canals  are  large ;  and  all  the  villages 
are  situated  on  the  banks  either  of  a  river  or  caiial, 
and  consist  generally  of  about  a  hundred  houses 
built  of  earth,  sometimes  walled  round,  and  inter- 
sected by  public  ways  not  so  narrow  as  those  of 
the  towns :  in  their  centre  is  commonly  a  public 
fountain,  or  small  reservoir.  There  are  very  few 
toMms ;  they  are  all  built  on  rivers,  and  surroonded 
by  cultivated  fields:  Bokhara,  Samarcand,  Kur- 
shee,  Karakool,  and  Balkh  are  the  principal ;  the 
rest  arc  but  laige  villages. 

Ckmimerce. — Bokhara,  though  politically  of  se- 
condary importance,  hohls  a  pretty  high  position 
in  the  commercial  world.  Fruitful'  in  the  finxluc- 
tions  of  the  earth,  w^ere  all  around  is  desolation, 
it  is  a  central  mart,  where  the  commodities  of 
Europe^  China,  Persia,  India,  and  Caubul,  may  be 
exchanged  with  advantage.  Peter  the  Great  of 
Husfda  wished  to  open  a  communication  between 
the  Caspian  and  the  banks  of  the  Oxus :  he  suc- 
ceeded m  opening  roads  from  the  S.  of  Asiatic 
Russia  to  the  E.  of  the  Aral  Sea ;  and  for  more 
tlmn  a  century  they  have  been  annually  travelle<l 
by  the  caravans  of 'Bokhara,  which  bring  back  the 
manufactures  of  Russia.  The  first  caravan  leavcA 
the  city  of  Bokhara  about  the  vernal  equinox.  The 
river  Sir  is  crossed  when  frozen.  This  caravan 
reaches  Troitska  QaU  54°  N.,  long.  61^  20'  E.)  in 
about  G5  days.  The  second  starts  a  month  later, 
but  does  not  reach  the  Sir  till  May,  the  merchants 
uiining  it  in  the  interim.  Its  destination  is  Oren- 
burg. Tlie  third  and  largest  leaves  about  thft 
middle  of  May,  and  rcoi^hes  the  Russian  frontier 
at  Novo  Iletsk'  in  45  or  60  da>'8.  Its  coursie  w  by 
the  NE.  extremity  of  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and  over  the 
Mugajar  mountains  to  the  sources  of  the  Ilek. 

The  caravans  from  Russia  set  offfrom  the  middle 
of  September  to  the  middle  of  November.  That 
from  l^oitska.  with  ironware  bought  in  the  go- 
vernment of  Orenburg,  is  the  earliest.  Merchants 
who  have  attended  the  fair  at  Nijni-Novgonxl 
send  their  goods  by  the  great  caravans  which  leave 
Orenburg  and  Orsk  in  the  fir«t  half  of  November. 
The  want  of  fuel  obliges  them  to  scatter  in  tlie 
Russian  stei)pes,  but  ei:M*whcre  the  saJcsaul  grows 
abundantly.  The  Kirghiz  are  the  princintd  car- 
riers. There  is  a  caravan  n)ute  from  Bokhara  to 
Petropavalusk,  or  Kizziljar  (lat,  54°  30'  N.,  long. 
69°  E.)  on  the  Issim,  by  Tashkand.  This  is  a 
journey  of  90  days.  Russian  iron  is  brooght  by 
this  route,  and  is  sent  to  Hissar,  Badakhshan, 
Khulm,  and  Maimanna.  Two  caravans  arrive 
yearly  from  Khokand  vdth  Chinese  goods,  and 
three*  from  Mashhad.  (Mr.  Daxies's  Kepxtrt  on 
the  Trade  of  Central  Asia,  published  by  order  of 
the  H.  of  C,  of  Feb.  11, 18G4.) 

The  exports  from  Russia  comprise  silk,  cotton, 
wool,  coarse  cluntzes,  cotton-thread  (which  is  in 
much  request),  lamb-skins,  and  otlierH.  The  re- 
turns arc  paid  in  Dutch  crowns  and  ducats,  Span- 
ish piastres,  and  Russian  silver  roubles.  The  total 
exports  to  Russia  are  valued  at  320,000/.  Silk 
and  cotton  are  sent  in  large  quantities  to  Caubul, 
and  even  into  India;  and  wool  as  well,  which 
fetches  from  6^  to  8  tillas  (42.  to  5^  7«.)  per  256  lbs. 
Eng.  The  lamb-skins  of  Karakool  are  paid  for  in 
ready  money  by  foreign  merchants. 

The  imports  hom  India  are  the  same  as  those 
into  Caubul ;  a  half  of  the  2,000  camel-loads  that 
reach  the  latter  country  yearly  from  India  pass  on 
into  Turkestan.  Muslins,  Benares  brocade  (about 
b()0  pieces),white  cloth  from  the  Punjab  for  turbans, 
sugar,  and  shawls,  which  iiass  through  to  Russia, 
are  the  chief  imports.  Till  within  the  last  50 
years  the  trade  in  European  fabrics  was  with  Rus- 
sia only,  through  Orenburg  and  Troitska ;  but  it  is 


BOKHARA 


481 


now  carried  on  more  cxtensivolv  thron^jh  India 
and  Caubul.  The  imi>orts  from  Huhsia  are  white 
cloth,  mu.slin.o,  chintzes*,  and  broadcloth,  both  of 
Kuftsian  and  English  manufacture,  and  the  chintzes, 
often  Polish  or  (Jerman,  imitation  br(K?ade,  velvet, 
nankeen,  gold  thread,  hardware,  metals,  cutlery, 
jewellery,  leather,  paper,  Kirmiz  dye,  refined 
sugar,  &C,  Not  less  than  three-fourths  of  the  arti- 
cles from  Russia  and  India  are  of  British  manu- 
facture, Bri tish  chin t  zes,  which  realise  sometimes 
50  per  cent.,  and  broadcloth  are,  like  most  other 
British  manufactures,  valued  by  the  feinales  of 
lK>th  Caubul  and  Bokhara  greatly  above  those  of 
Hui^sia. 

The  routes  to  Caubul  and  Bokhara  from  Pe- 
shawar are  by  the  Khybur,  Tatra,  and  Abkhana 
Passes,  which  unite  at  Dakkain  the  Jalalabad  dis- 
trict.   The  distance  is  about  116  kos   (equal  to 
193  miles)  to  Caubul;  and  in  all  492  kos  (equal 
to  829  miles)  to  Bokhara  by  the  Bamian  n>ute, 
l>eing  40  days'  journey.    ITie  route  by  the  Kou- 
shan  Pass  is  three  days  shorter,  but  more  difficult. 
From  Bokhara  to  Khokand  is  15  days*  journey, 
thence  to  Kashgar  18,  and  on  to  Yarkand  5.    The 
Khybur  Pass  is  generally  avoided   bv  caravans. 
The  Afrijlis  even  when  subsidizetl  will  not  refrain 
fnim  plunder,  and  the  Amir  of  Caubul  has  there- 
lore  recently  discontinued  the  allowances  hitherto 
pai<l  to  them ;  otherwise  the  Khybur  is  by  far  the 
easiest  route.    The  others  are  protected  by  the 
Momund  chief  of  I^lpoora,  who  holds  his  lands  on 
this  condition ;  at  the  ])asses  tolls  are  levied  on 
horsemen   and    foot  pa««enger8.    The  road  from 
Peshawur  to  Caubul  is  tit  for  camels  throughout, 
and  ix>t»«e8ses  the  great  advantage  of  being  prac- 
ticable throughout  the  year;  but  kafilas  seldom 
travel  in   the  months  o*t  Januar\'  and  Februar\'. 
Between  Caubul  and  Khulm  the  highest  passes  arc 
Ilnjigak  ([\,7{)()  ft.),  Kahi,  and  Dundan  Shikan; 
ill    traversing  these,  pn)\Hsions  miujt  be  carried. 
This  jx)rtion  of  the  Hindu  Khush  Is  entirely  desti- 
tute of  trees;  camels  and  ponies  are  used  in  the 
summer ;  l)ut  the  former,  acconiing  to  Khanikoff, 
have  only  come  into  use  during  the  last  40  years. 
On  this  route  caravans  enjoy  a  fair   degree  of 
securitv.     (Mr.  Davies's  Keport  on  the  I'ratle  of 
Central  Asia,  1864.)     The  transport  through  (.'au- 
bul  costs  little;  and  if  Russia  naWgate  the  Wolga, 
Britain  commands  the  two  great  thoroughfares  of 
the  (Janges  and   the   Tndiu*.     By  the  tnide  ^ith 
the  Cliincse  terriu  of  Cashgar  and  Tarkund,  Bok- 
hara derives  coarse  i)orcelain,  musk,  bullion,  tea, 
silks  raw  and  manufactured,  rhul)arb,  and  Tibet 
wool.    The  Persian  trade  Is  inconsiderable  ;  Kir- 
man  shawls,  sugar,  and  opium,  arc  the  chief  im- 
pf>rts:  the  latter  is  re-exported  to  China.     From 
Kokan   are  received  white  cott*»n8,  silks,   more 
durable  than  those  of  B(»khara,  and  a  raw  silk  of 
inferior  quality.     The  commerce  with  RiL^^sia  is 
said  to  employ  3,000  camels ;  that  with  all  other 
countries  as  many  more :  but  it  is  said  that  none 
of  the  men*hants  are  possessed  of  40,000/.,  from 
their  frequent  and  severe  losses  by  the  pillage  of 
the  wandering  tril>es. 

Money. —  H'^eiyhts. — Tlie  coins  in  use  are  the  HUa 
(g<»ld),  worth  iJ."*.  4r/.;  the  tonga  ^silver)  =  7*r>«/. ; 
trndthe/ww/  (copper)  = '276^/.  Weights:  the  W- 
»««M=  131-104  kilog.  (291  llw.);  jeer  (35§  ll»s.) 
Tlie  duties  on  Kuro]vean  go<ML«»  are  very  moderate, 
being  only  2]^  per  cent,;  a  Chri*Jtian  must,  how- 
ever, pay  20,  and  a  Hindoo  10  per  cent.  These 
injunctions  are  deriveil  from  the  Koran;  but  as 
ihc  Koran  inculcates  strict  protection  to  the  mer- 
chant, and  as  the  ]>eople  are  strict  observers  of  its 
prtrepls,  in  no  MohanmuHlan  countrj' is  there  so 
mu<h  sal'etv  and  freedom  fn«m  exaction  for  the 

m 

trader. 
Vol..  I. 


The  Public  Revenue  is  professedly  spent  in  the 
support  of  mosques  and  moollahs,  but  the  presenir 
khan  is  supposed  to  use  a  considerable  portion  to 
maintain  his  armed  force.  These  revenues  are  de- 
rived chiefly  from  land,  which  in  Turkestan  is 
valued  according  to  the  water  which  fertilises  it : 
the  total  amount  is  estimated  by  MeyendorfT  at 
about  400,000/.  (by  Bumes,  at  369,350/.) ;  but  half 
the  land  Is  enjoyed  by  the  church.  Other  taxe:t 
arc  those  on  merchandise,  which  in  the  late  khan  s 
reign  were  not  leWed  until  the  goods  were  sold ; 
taxes  on  the  farmers'  produce,  on  gardens,  orchanls, 
and  melon  beds ;  on  dried  fruits,  manna,  and  skins ; 
customs  on  goods  entering  the  capital ;  a  capita- 
tion-tax  on  ^1  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  not 
Mohammedans,  and  in  time  of  war  a  tax  on  each 
householder.  The  land  revenues  are  received  by 
the  hakimst  or  governors  of  districts,  who  pay  the 
employes  and  troops  cantoned  ui  their  prov.  l)eforc 
fbrwanling  the  collections  to  the  roval  treasury : 
the  administration  of  the  finances  is  entirely  iu 
the  hands  of  the  khan  himself  and  his  vizier. 

17ie  Government  is  a  combined  monarchy  and 
hierarchy :  the  khan  is  despotic ;  but  does  nothing 
without  the  advice  and  authority  of  the  moollahs, 
or  priests.  This  arises  fnim  no  inability  on  his 
part  to  assert  his  power ;  but  fn)m  the  constitution 
of  the  nionarchv,  which  is  exclusivelv  based  on 
the  laws  of  the  Koran,  here  more  strictly  enforce<l, 
perhaps,  than  in  any  other  Mohammedan  countr}'. 
The  order  of  succession  to  the  throne  formerly  re- 
quired only  that  the  khan  should  be  of  the  family 
of  Jenghiz,  whether  by  the  male  or  female  line ; 
but  that  family  is  not  now  on  the  throne.  He 
takes  the  title  of  ameer  ool  moomuneeny  or  *  com- 
mander of  the  faithful,'  and  l(M)ks  upon  himself  as 
one  of  the  heads  of  the  Mohammedan  religion, 
paying,  however,  a  respect  to  the  sultan  of  (Jon- 
stantinople,  of  whom  he  calLs  himself  *  the  bow- 
bearer.'  The  koosh  begee^  or  vizier,  has  great  in- 
fluence, and  his  high  office  has  latterly  become 
hereditary' in  his  family:  all  the  local  governments 
are  filled  bv  his  dependants  or  nominees.  Every 
town  or  village  is  ruled  by  moollahs,  the  descen- 
dants of  the  first  caliphs,  and,  excepting  the  khan, 
the  vizier,  and  priesthood,  there  is  no  other  body 
having  any  weight  in  the  countn':  there  are  no 
subontinatc  khans,  nobles,  or  rajahs,  as  in  India ; 
nothing,  in  short,  l)earingany  semltlance  of  a  feudal 
aristocracy.  The  court  dis])lays  no  magnificence : 
the  same  system  of  government  has  existetl  in 
Bokhara  from  the  earliest  ages  of  Mohammedanism. 
The  tomans,  or  districts,  are  governed  by  hakims, 
who  are  in  direct  communication  with  the  khan ; 
each  is  assisted  bv  three  functionaries,  ^-iz.  a  super- 
intendent of  police,  a  receiver  of  imposts,  and  a 
secretarv'.  All  the  chief  towns  have  a  cadi,  or 
judge;  the  smaller  ones  only  a  commissary  of 
police :  the  ca(H  is  assisted  by  a  mufti,  and  in  the 
capital  by  two :  the  iM>lice  is  strict  and  efficient, 
and  the  roads  in  the  interior  are  free  from  rol>l>ers. 

Justice  is  summary  and  severe ;  guided  wholly 
bv  the  Koran,  and  often  capricious  and  contra- 
dictor)'; bat  nowhere  in  Asia  is  there  so  much 
protection  afforded  to  all  classes.  The  most  tri\nal 
oflfences  are  punished  with  death ;  fines,  imprison- 
ment in  dungeons,  an<l  blows,  are  also  emploved. 

7%e  Armed  Force  consists  of  about  20JMM)  liorse 
and  4,000  foot,  levied  from  the  different  provs., 
but  without  discipline;  independent  of  a  militia 
of  50,000  horse,  10,000  of  which  are  from  Balkh 
and  the  countries  S.  the  Oxus ;  and  whit:h  are 
seldom  called  on  to  ser\*e,  and  when  embodied  n*- 
ceive  no  ]>ay.  Tlie  regulars  are  paid  in  grain,  each 
soldier  receiving  8  maiinds  of  256 11)8.  yearlv;  their 
chiefs  have  assignments  of  laniL  TheVpgufar  force 
consists  wholly  of  Uzlwks,  who,  though  not  gWKl 


482 


BOKHABA 


BoldicTS,  are  superior,  as  irrefin^ilar  cavalry.  They 
arc  armcil  with  curved  aabreH,  hmg  kmv(»,  and 
heavy  spears  20  ft,  in  len^h,  with  a  sliort  blade : 
fK)me  wear  a  short  cr>at  of  mail,  a  helmet  of  iron^ 
or  a  round  shield  of  buffalo  hide;  tlie  infantry 
carr>'  matchlocks,  but  use  them  very  indifferently. 
There  are  no  native  artillerv-men ;  the  artillery 
consists  of  41  field  pieces,  which  lie  neglected  in 
the  citadel  at  Bokhara.  Few  troofis  are  drawn 
from  the  S.  of  the  Oxus;  the  Arabs  are  ^ood 
soldiers,  but  the  Turkmans  cannot  be  coerced. 

BeliffioH. — The  people  are  all  Soonite  Mahora- 
medans ;  their  religion  has  great  influence  over  all 
their  usages;  and  the  intolerance  of  their  sect 
causes  incessant  hatred  towards  their  Shiite  neigh- 
bours, the  Persians.  Iiittderance  and  bigotry'  are 
amongst  the  most  prevalent  national  vices,  and 
no  religion  other  than  the  national  one  may  be 
publicly  professed ;  though  the  Jews  find  means 
to  avoid  the  injunction.  Dailv  public  prayer  is 
enjoined,  and  in  the  capital  not^iing  is  allowed  to 
be  sold  during  the  hdur  so  employed:  and  the 
police  officers  exi)el  with  whi|)8  persons  then  ex- 
posing their  merchandise  in  the  markets.  There 
are  collegia  at  Ik>khara,  but  theologv'  alr>ne  is 
studied,  and  pnwelytism  is  greatly  encouraged  by 
the  government,  A«trolog\'  is  honouriHl  highly, 
for  superstition  is  verj''  prevalent;  magic  is  tirmly 
believed  in,  and  its  origin  referred  to  India. 

Education  antl  Social  Life. — liokhara  it.«»elf  fur 
a  lt>ng  period  was  considered  a  learned  as  well  as 
a  holy  place;  Timour  and  Bal)er  encouraged  lite- 
rature; which  has,  however,  greatly  decHuetl  since 
the  Uzbek  conque-st  Notwithstanding  a  great 
number  of  colleges  in  the  capital,  and  schools  in 
the  country,  most  of  the  jwp.  know  neither  how 
to  read  or  write.  The  children  of  the  Tadjiks 
acquire  these  branches,  and  some  knowle<lge  of 
figures,  to  serv'e  them  as  men^hants,  since  they  are 
very  rarely  members  of  the  chief  clergy:  the  sons 
of  the  most  opulent  jjerstins  generally  learn  onlv 
to  read,  write,  and  get  the  Koran  bv  heart.  Still 
a  respect  for  knowle<lge  and  its  pwfessors  is  gene- 
rally prevalent :  to  found  sch(M)ls  is  an  act  of  piety, 
as  well  as  to  feed  poor  scholars ;  and  these  often 
come  uninvited  and  unknown  to  the  mendges  of 
the  rich,  and  receive  money.  Geography,  astro- 
nomy, histor\',  and  medicine  are  nevertheless  in  a 
very  low  state. 

The  diet  of  the  people  is  very  simple :  after 
morning  prayers,  they  take  tea,  mixed  with  milk, 
salt,  and  oily  substances,  of  which  mixture  they 
are  very  fond.  At  four  or  five  o'clock  they  dine 
on  rice,*  carrots,  turnips,  &c,  with  mutton,  or  other 
meat.  The  Uzbeks  sometimes  eat  horsefiesh,  but 
it  is  expensive;  cheese,  milk,  and  fat  are  much 
used ;  a  sheep  is  killed,  and  the  entire  tail,  how- 
ever large  or  fat,  is  melted  up  with  the  mcAt,  and 
cooked  in  a  single  boiler.  lmme<liately  after  dinner 
they  take  tea,  prepared  as  in  Europe ;  coffee  is  not 
used.  They  eat  with  their  fingers,  knives  and 
forks  being*  unknown.  Drunkenness,  if  public, 
would  be  perhaps  punished  even  with  death. 

The  dress  of  the  men  consists  in  one  or  two 
long  robes  of  cotton  cloth ;  the  under  longer  than 
the  upper ;  and  a  white  cotton  turban ;  or,  amongst 
the  Uzbeks,  a  cap  of  red  cloth,  bonlercd  with 
martens'  skins:  here,  as  well  as  at  Constanti- 
ni>ple,  the  form  of  the  head-covering  indicate^}  the 
distinctions  of  rank.  All  wear  lai^e  white  trow- 
sers,  and  close  short  drawers:  the  rich  public 
functionaries  are  often  habited  in  Cashmere  shawls, 
and  cloth  of  gold.  The  dress  of  the  women  differs 
little  from  that  of  the  men ;  they  wear  the  same 
pelisses,  but  the  sleeves  are  tucked  together,  and 
tied  l^ehind;  richlv  decorated  Ixiots;  and  have 
alwavs  a  black  veil  over  the  face :  the  Turkman 


women  are,  however,  not  veiled.  Both  sexes  often 
stain  the  nails  red  with  henna,  and  the  Pendans 
use  this  herb  to  dye  their  beards;  the  women 
braid  their  hair,  and  blacken  their  eyelids  and 
eyebrows  ynX\\  plumbago.  The  languages  in  une 
are  the  Persian  an<l  Turkman ;  the  latter  is  spoken 
by  the  Uzbeks  and  wandering  tribes  S.  of  the 
dxus,  and  Lm  remarkal)lc  for  its  rudeness.  The 
articles  of  luxur\'  in  use  are  ver\'  few;  their  dnws 
and  horses  constitute  nearly  all  the  personal  pro- 
perty of  the  petjple;  their  houses  are  iU  built, 
almost  destitute  of  furniture ;  they  have  neither 
plate,  glass,  nor  clocks,  and  very  seldom  a  watch. 
The  rich  have  many  slaves,  who  are  brought  from 
Orgiinje,  and  are  mostly  Persians,  seldom  Kussians 
or  Chinese, 

History, — Alexander  penetrated  into  both  Bac- 
triana  and  Transoxiana,  which  were  after  his 
death  ruled  by  his  successors.  The  Arabs  con- 
quered this  country  at  the  end  of  the  7th,  or  in 
the  early  part  of  the  8th,  and  Jenghiz  Khan  de- 
vastated it  m  the  l.-Uh  centur^"^:  it  was  the  native 
countrj'  of  the  next  great  eastpm  conqueror,  Ti- 
mour, whose  successors  were  dispo«)e8sed,  by  the 
Uzl)eks,  in  the  l)eginning  of  the  16th  oenturj-. 
Nadir  Shah,  early  in  the  18th  centur>',  took  Bok- 
hara; but  the  government  soon  after  fell  again 
into  the  hands  of  the  Uzljeks  and  of  the  de:«cen- 
dantii  of  Jenghiz :  that  family  has,  however,  cea.W 
to  reign  since  18(K).  The  late  khan  devoted  him- 
self wholly  to  religion,  and  died  in  18*25,  leaving 
a  kingdom  that  had  suffered  insults  and  encroach- 
ments on  everj'  side,  from  his  own  want  of  attc>n- 
tion  to  temporal  concerns.  The  present  sovereign, 
his  son,  is  on  amicable  terms  with  the  neighlmur- 
ing  states  of  Khiva  and  Caubul,  and  the  empires 
of  China  and  Turkey:  with  the  Persians  tlie 
Uzbeks  hohl  no  communication;  and  in  Kokan 
the  influence  of  Itussia  predominates.  (Bumess 
Travels  in  Bokhara  in  1832-1834,  3  voK  8vo., 
1835 ;  Mevendorff,  Voyage  d'Orenbouig  k  Bouk- 
hnra.  Pans  182(>;  Khanikoff,  Reisen  in  Buk- 
hara, 18r»3;  VamlK^r>%  Travels  in  Central  A#ia. 
Lond.  1HC5;  D.iWes's  Report  on  the  Trade  of 
Central  Asia ;  and  official  papers.) 

Bokhara  {the  treasuiy  of  sciences)  ^  a  celebrated 
city  of  Central  Asia ;  cap.  of  the  above  kkanat, 
and  seat  of  the  khan ;  on  the  left  bank,  and  with- 
in 0  or  7  m.  of  the  Zer-afclian,  at  the  VV.  end  of  itJi 
valley;  115  m.  WSW.  Samarcand,  and  250  m. 
N  W.  Balkh  ;  lat  39«  48'  N.,  long.  Cy40  26'  K  Pop. 
estimated  at  from  100,000  to  150,000.  Tlie  town 
is  8  m.  in  circ. ;  of  a  triangular  sha^^  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  of  earth  about  20  ft.  high, 
flanked  by  round  towers  and  bastions,  and  pieivvd 
by  twelve  gates,  with  brick  masonry.  Bokhara 
is  surrounded  by  a  flat  but  rich  country,  and  is 
quite  embosomed  in  trees,  ^ving  it  a  'beautiful 
appearance  at  a  dbtance,  wluch  however  vanishes 
on  entering  it.  The  streets  are  so  narrow  that  a 
laden  camel  fills  up  even  the  largest,  and  in  the 
smaller  ones  two  persons  have  difliculty  in  pasang 
each  other:  they  are  also  extremely  dirty,  and 
always  crowded  with  camels,  horses,  and  asse^. 
The  houses  are  mostlv  small,  and  of  one  ston- : 
the  common  ones  built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  oii  a 
frame- work  of  wood ;  others  of  a  superior  kind  are 
painted  and  stuccoed,  with  Saracenic  or  puinted 
arches  set  off  with  lapis  lazuli  and  gilding ;  the 
r«>ofs  of  all  are  fiat ;  and  they  have  but  a  bore 
wall  without  M-indows  facing  the  public  ways: 
except  in  one  building,  there  is  no  glass  whatever. 
About  100  ponds  and  fountains,  constructed  c^ 
squared  stone^  furnish  the  population  with  water : 
the  city  is  also  intersected  by  canals  shaded  by 
mulbcny-trees,  which  bring  water  from  tlie  Zer- 
afchan ;  the  main  canal  from  which  is  opened  cver>' 


BOEHABA 


483 


fifteen  days.    There  is  scarcely  a  garden  or  bufr- 
ing-ground  within  the  walls ;  *  the  traveller  winds 
his  way  among  lofty  and  arched  bazars  of  brick, 
and  sees  each  trade  in  its  separate  quarter  of  the 
city :  here  the  chintz-sellers,  there  the  shoemakers ; 
one  arcade  tilled  with  silks,  another  with  cloth. 
Everywhere  he  meets  with  ponderous  and  massy 
buildings,  collies,  mosques,  and  lofty  minarets.* 
The  principal  structure  is  the  Aerk,  or  khan's 
palace,  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  built  on  a 
natural  elevation  between  250  and  300  ft.  high, 
surrounded  by  a  brick  wall  70  ft.  high,  with  a  lofty 
entrance  of  brick  decorated  by  a  minaret  on  either 
side.    This  fortress  contains  the  residence  of  the 
sovereign,  his  harem,  and  a  mosque,  all  encircled 
by  a  garden,  together  with  the  residence  of  the 
vi/ier,  and  his  public  courts  of  audience ;  stables, 
barracks,  ^c.:  the  gates,  both  of  the  palace  and  of 
the  outer  city,  are  shut  at  twilight,  and  a  double 
guard  mounted.    There  are  360  mosques,  and  366 
schools  and  colleges  in  Bokhara,  superintended  by 
about  300  moollahs,  who  undertake  the  charge  oi 
both  religion  and  education ;  Bokhara  always  en- 
joyed the  titles  of  holy  and  learned.  The  mosques 
and  colleges  are  generally  situated  opposite  each 
other,  and  have  a  striking  resemblance  in  tlieir 
architecture :  that  of  the  former  is  the  most  varied ; 
the  princii)al  mosque  covers  a  space  300  fl.  square, 
and  has  a  cupola  rising  to  one-  third  that  height, 
and  covered  with  blue  enamelled  tiles:  most  of 
these   buildings  are  of  brick,  and  the  courts  of 
some  paved  with  stone.  The  handsomest  structure 
in  Bokhara  is  a  college  of  King  Abdoolla,  built  in 
1650,  which  has  a  lofty  arched  entrance,  some 
l)eautiful  enamel,  and  a  white  marble  pavement : 
the  largest  college  here  was  built  at  an  expense 
of  40,000  roubles  in  specie,  defrayed  by  Cathe- 
rine II.  of  Kussia.    Attachcid  to  the  j^^uit  mosque 
is  a  brick  tower,  or  minaret,  210  ft.  high,  built  by 
Tiinour,  in  good  proportions;  the  materials  dis- 
pos(^d  in  ingenious  ]>attems,  and  the  whole  in  good 
preser\'ation.      Criminals  are  thrown  from  this 
tower ;  but,  excepting  on  these  occasions,  no  one 
ascends  it  but  the  high-priest^  to  call  the  people 
to  prayers ;  and  he  only  on  Fridays,  since  it  over- 
IrH)ks  most  of  the  private  ganlens  in  the  city,  and 
the  most  scrupulous  endeavours  are  made  to  se- 
clude the  women  in  Bokhara  from  the  gaze  of 
every  stranger.      W.   of  the  palace  is  a  small 
square,   the  Segistan,  surrounded  with  massive 
buildings,  colleges,  shops,  and  stalls;  a  third  part 
of  the  city  consists  of  shops  and  hotels ;  and  the 
jewellerj'  and  cutlery  of  Eun>pe,  the  tea  of  China, 
the  sugar  of  India,  the  spices  of  Manilla,  the 
shawls  of  Cashmere,  and  every  other  article  of 
use  or  ornament,  may  be  purchased.    Many  of  the 
merchants  remain  night  and  day  in  their  shops, 
having  no  other  habitation :  the  bazars  are  gene- 
rally open  every  day,  excepting  those  for  slaves, 
gems,  and  other  such  luxuries,  which  are  open 
but  twice  a  week.    There  are  4,000  Jew^s  in  Bok- 
hara, which  is  proportionally  more  than  in  any 
other  eastern  ntv,  and  thev  contend  thev  are 
iK'tter  treated  here  than  elsewhere,  though  they 
are  contined  to  a  residence  in  three  particular 
streets,  are  subject  to  high  imposts,  and  not  per- 
mitted to  build  a  new  synagogue.    Sir  iV.  Bumes 
gives  a  gra])hic  description  of  the  daily  scene  in 
Aikhara  (Travels,  il  237-239)  :—*  From  mom  to 
night  the  crowd  which  assembles  raises  the  hum- 
ming noii>e,  and  one  is  stunned  at  the  mo>*ing 
moMis  of  hnman  beings.    In  the  middle  of-  the 
area,  the  fruits  of  the  season  are  sold  under  the 
shade  of  a  square  piece  of  mat,  supported  by  a 
single  pole.    (Jne  wonders  at  the  never  ending 
employment  of  the  fniiterers,  in  dealing  out  their 
grajics,  melons,  apricots,  apples,  peaches,  pears, 


and  plums,  to  a  continued  succession  of  purchasers. 
It  is  with  difficulty  that  a  passage  can  be  forced 
through  the  streets,  and  it  is  only  done  at  the 
momentary  risk  of  being  ridden  over  by  some  one 
on  a  horse  or  donkey.    The  latter  animals  are  ex- 
ceedingl^r  fine,  and  amble  along  at  a  quick  pace 
with  their  ridera  and  burdens.    Carts  of  a  hght 
construction  are  also  driving  up  and  down,  since 
the  streets  are  not  too  narrow  to  admit  of  wheeled 
carriages.    In  every  part  of  the  bazar  there  are 
people  making  tea,  which  is  done  in  laige  Euro- 
pean urns,  instead  of  teapots,  and  kept  hot  by  a 
metal  tube.    The  love  of  the  Bokharese  for  tea  i«>, 
I  believe,  vrlthout  parallel ;  for  they  drink  it  at  all 
times  and  places,  and  in  half  a  dozen  wavs :  with 
and  without  sugar ;  with  and  without  milk ;  with 
grease;  with  Mlt,  &c    The  day  is  ushered  in 
with  guzzling  and  tea-drinking,  and  hundreds  of 
boys  and  domtevs,  laden  with  milk,  hasten  to  the 
busy  tlirong.    I'he  milk  is  sold  in  small  bowls, 
over  which  the  cream  floats:  a  lad  will  bring 
twenty  or  thirty  of  these  to  market  in  shelves 
supported   and  suspended  by  a  stick  over  his 
shoulder.    Whatever   number  may  be  brought, 
speedily  disappear  among  the  tea-drinking  popu- 
lation of  this  great  city.    Next  to  the  venders  of 
this  hot  beverage,  one  may  purchase  "  rahut  ijan," 
or  **  the  delight  of  life,'*  grape  jelly,  or  syrup  mixed 
up  with  chopped  ice.    This  abundance  of  ice  is 
one  of  the  greatest  luxuries  in  Bokhara,  and  it 
may  be  had  till  the  cold  weather  makes  it  un- 
necessary.'   Another  and  more  recent  traveller, 
Armenius  Yamb^ry,  a  Hungarian,  who  >nsited 
the  city  of  Bokhara  in  1863,  describes  a  scene, 
to  which  he  was  led  by  a  native,  as  follows : — 
*  He  conducted  me  through  the  Timtche  Tchay 
Furushi  (Tea  Bazar)  to  the  renowned  place  Lebi 
Hauz  Divanbeghi  (bank  of  the  reser\'oir  of  the 
Divanbeghi).    For  Ik)khara  I  found  this  a  most 
attractive  spot.    It  is  almost  a  perfect  square, 
having  in  the  centre  a  deep  reser>'oir,  100  ft.  long 
and  80  broad ;  the  sides  are  of  square  stones,  with 
eight  steps  leading  to  the  surface  of  the  water. 
About  the  margin  stand  a  few  fine  elm  trees,  and 
in  their  shade  the  inevitable  tea  booth,  and  the 
Samovars  (tea-kettle)  looking  like  a  colossal  cask 
of  beer.     It  is  manufactured  in  Kussia  expressly 
for  Bokhara,  and  invites  every  one  to  a  cup  of 
green  tea.    On  the  other  three'  sides,  bread,  fruit, 
confectionery,  and  meats  warm  and  cold  are  ex- 
posed for  sale  on  stands  shaded  by  cane  mats. 
The  hundreds  of  shops  improvised  for  the  occasion, 
around  which  crowds  of  longing  mouths  or  hungry 
customers  hum  like  bees,  present  us  with  a  very 
characteristic  spectacle.    On  the  fourth  side,  that 
to  the  west,  which  is  in  the  form  of  a  terrace,  we 
find  the  mosque  Mesdjidi  Divanb^hl    At  its 
front  there  are  also  a  few  trees,  where  Der\'ishe8 
and  Meddah  (public  reciters)  recount  in  verse  and 
prose,  and  actors  represent  simultaneously,  the 
heroic  actions  of  famous  warriors  and  pn>phets,  to 
which  performances  there  are  never  wanting  orowds 
of  curious  listeners  and  spectators.'     (VamUfrv, 
Travels  in  Central  Asia,  Lond.  1865.)     At  Bok- 
hara, the  learned,  or  would-be-learned,  are  seen 
poring  over  the  tattered  pages  of  Tooikee  or  Per- 
sian lore^  at  book-stalls,  and  at  the  doors  of  the 
colleges  the  students  arc  often  seen  lounging  after 
the  labours  of  the  day ;  '  not,  however,  so  gay,  or 
so  young,  as  the  tyros  of  a  European  university, 
but  many  of  them  grave  and  demure  old  men, 
with  more  hypocrisy,  but  by  no  means  less  vice, 
than  the  youths  in  other  quarters  of  the  world.' 
Each  of  these  resident  students  has  a  fixed  allow- 
ance, as  well  as  tlie  professors;  the  colli^^  are 
well  endowed,  and  possess  many  of  the  surround- 
ing lands,  which  have  been  purchased  by  pious 

II  2 


484 


BOLBEC 


individuaU  for  that  purpose,  as  well  as  the  whole 
of  the  bazar:)  and  Iwths.  The  baths,  of  which 
there  are  eighteen,  can  accommodate  270,000 
people  yearly,  and  bring  an  annual  revenue  of 
1,8(M)/. :  some  are  verj'  large.  The  colleges  are 
shut  for  six  months  in'the  vear,  when  the  students 
work  in  the  fielcls  for  a  suWistence ;  their  course 
of  study  generally  lasts  seven  or  eight  years: 
they  come  from  all  the  neighbouring  countries 
except  Persia.  *  With  the  twilight,  the  busy  scene 
in  Bokhara  closes,  the  king's  drum  beats,  it  is  re- 
echoed by  others  in  everj'  i>art  of  the  city,  and  at 
a  certain  hour  no  one  is  permitted  to  move  out 
without  a  lantern.  From  these  arrangements,  the 
|)olice  of  the  city  is  excellent ;  antl  large  bales  of 
cloth  are  left  on*  the  stalls  at  ni^ht  with  perfect 
safety.     All  is  silence  until  monung.' 

The  origin  of  Itokliara  is  uncertain,  but  it  is 
b<*lieved  to  have  been  at  first  but  a  collection  of 
fisliennen's  huts,  its  site  having  abounded  with 
small  lakes.  It  is  suppose<l  tr>  be  at  no  great 
distance  from  the  ancient  Trybactra,  but  which 
Ptolemy  ])laces  on  the  opposite  side  the  Zer- 
afchan.  or  river  of  Sogdiana.  In  A.n.  705  it  was 
taken  by  the  Arabs,  and  lietween  Hl>6  and  99«  was 
very  flourishing,  auii  the  seat  of  the  Samanide 
d.vnasty.  Jenghiz  Khan  burnt  it  in  1219,  and  it 
was  not  rebuilt  till  near  the  end  of  his  life :  it 
was  threatened,  but  saved,  by  his  grandson.  Un- 
der Timour  it  flourixhed  anew  ;  but  since  the  rule 
of  the  Uzbeks  has  rather  declinwl,  though  it  Ik* 
still  the  most  renowned  city  in  Central  Asia. 
(Bunies's  Travels,  ii.  229-261 ;  Meyendorff,  V«y. 
l)p.  164-188;  Vambery,  Travels  in  Central  Asia, 
186.5.) 

IJOLBEC,  a  town  of  France,  ddp.  Seine  Infc«- 
rieure,  ca]).  cant,  at  the  foot  and  on  the  declivity 
of  a  hill  washed  by  the  Bolbec,  18  m.  EXE.  Havre, 
near  the  railwav  from  Kouen  to  Ha>Te,  Pop. 
9,o74  in  1861.  I'his  is  a  handsome  thriving  t(»wn. 
Having  been  almost  entirely  burnt  down  in  17rio, 
it  was  rebuilt  on  a  regular  plan.  Houses  [tartly 
of  lirick,  and  partly  of  hewn  stone ;  streets  wide 
and  well  laid  out,  the  principal  being  ornamented 
with  two  fountains  surmounted  by  statues  in  mar- 
ble. Ill  the  environs  are  a  number  of  country 
houses.  It  has  a  chamber  of  commerce,  and  a 
council  of  prud'-hommes ;  and  was  early,  and  is 
now,  verj'  extensively  engaged  in  the  spinning 
and  manufacture  of  cotton.  '  Boll)ec,'  says  M. 
Uupin, '  is  advantageously  situated  for  commerce, 
bringing  raw  cotton  from  Havre,  and  coal  from 
Fecamp  and  Harfieur,  while  she  sends  her  products 
to  Hoiien — the  great  mart  for  all  sorts  of  cotton 
gootbt.  The  manufacturers  tif  Boll)ec  unite  a  spirit 
of  onler  and  economy  to  acti\nty  and  enterprise: 
their  establishments  arc  on  a  level  with  the  pro- 
gress of  industry.  Tlie  workmen  are  not  all  con- 
centred in  the  toi^n ;  many  of  them  live  iu  the 
adjoining  country;  they  are  in  comfortable  cir- 
cumstances and  happy.'  There  are  in  the  district 
of  which  Bolbec  is  the  capital,  above  20,000  work- 
people employed  in  the  spinning  and  weaving  of 
cotton,  pitxliicing  goods  of  the  annual  value  of 
above  25,000,000  fr.,  or  l,000,000i  sterling.  Ex- 
clusive of  cotton,  it  also  pnMiuces  various  descrip- 
tions of  woollen  and  linen  goods,  and  has  tanneries 
and  dye-works.  There  is  here  no  local  tax  or  oc- 
troi on  the  goods  imported  into  the  town. 

BOLGAUV,  or  OUSPENSKOI,  a  village  of 
Russia  in  Europe,  gov.  Kasan,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Wolga,  16  m.  SW.  Spask.  Pop.  900  in 
1858.  In  the  vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Boulghor,  the  capital  of  the  Bulgarians. 
It  was  visiteil  by  Peter  the  Great  in  his  ex{)edi(ion 
a^inst  the  Persians  in  1722,  and  has  since  been 
visited  and  described  bv  Erdmann  and  others. 


BOLIVIA 

BOLI,  a  citv  of  Asiatic  Turkev,  in  Natolia,  cap. 
sanjiak,  86  m.  X\V.  Angora ;  lat*  40°  S5'  N.,  long. 
31©  19'  E.  intimated  pop.  10,(M)0.  It  is  situat«i 
on  an  eminence,  at  the  W.  extremity  of  a  rich 
and  fertile  plain,  on  or  near  the  site  of  the  ancient 
citv  known  to  the  Romans  bv  the  name  of  Jlad- 

•  — — — —  * 

riawtjiolis.  The  ruins  of  a  castle  stand  on  the 
summit  of  a  small  hilL  It  is  a  jioor  place,  con- 
sisting of  about  1,000  houses,  principally  inhabited 
by  Turks,  with  a  few  Armenians,  but  no  Greeks. 
It  has  twelve  mosques,  a  square  or  maricet-place, 
a  public  bath :  is  the  residence  of  a  pacha  of  two 
tails,  and,  as  it  lies  on  the  direct  road  frrnn  Krze- 
rouin  to  Constantinople,  is  a  considerable  thorough- 
fare for  caravans.  There  are  mineral  baths  within 
about  4  m.  of  the  town,  to  which  the  Turks  resi>rt 
in  gH'at  numbers. 

BOLIVIA,  a  republican  state  of  S.  America, 
comprised  lietween  lat,  8^  30'  and  25°  40'  S.,  and 
long.  58°  and  71®  \V.;  having  X.  and  NW.  the 
states  of  X.  and  S.  Peru,  E.  Brazil  and  Paraguav, 
S.  La  Plata  and  Cluli,  and  W.  the  Pacific  <.>ceaii. 
Extreme  length,  X,  to  S.,  above  1,100  m. ;  ditto 
breadth,  above  750  m. ;  area,  47.3,298  Eng.  sq.  m. 
Pop.  1,987,352  in  185H.  Includctl  in  the  iKifmla- 
tion  returns  are  245,000  ludians.  The  republic  is 
divided  into  nine  provinces,  as  shown  in  the  sub- 
joined table : — 


ProflncM 

IntiAbltanu 

47r.,:{22 

La  Paz      . 

Cochabamba     . 

»4<J.HJ>2 

Potorf 

281,2-J9 

Chuquiaaca 

223.B68 

Oruro 

110,9:n 

Santa  Gnu 

1M.1G4 

Tarija 

88,fto<) 

Veni . 

6:;,9T3 

Atocama  . 

5.273 

Aborigines 

24fl,(KH) 

Total     . 

1,987,352 

The  capital  of  the  republic  is  Chuquisaca,  in 
the  i>rov.  of  the  same  name,  mth  19,760  inliabi- 
tants.  But  there  are  thret*  lai^er  towns,  namely. 
La  Paz,  with  76,872.  C^tchabamba,  with  40,i;7K 
and  Potosi,  with  22,850  inliabitants,  all  acct»niiii^ 
to  the  census  of  1«58.  There  is  only  one  jmrt  ««f 
any  imtiortance,  Cobija,  on  tlie  Soutb'l*acilic,  with 
a  population  of  2,380. 

Surface. — MouHtains, — ^Tlie  country  presK-nt*!.  in 
its  various  divisions,  ver\'  different  c(»iiditions  of 
surface,  elevation,  and  climate.  On  the  W.  it  is 
traversed  by  lofty  mountains,  while  on  the  E.  it 
stretches  out  into  immense  plains.  The  Andes, 
which  enter  Bolivia  at  its  S.  extremity,  give  off, 
near  lat.  24®,  a  lateral  £.  range  of  no  great  elev.t- 
tion,  which  forms  the  boundary  for  a  considerable 
distance  between  B4»livia  and  La  Plata.  About 
lat.  20®  the  Andes  divide  into  two  great  chains, 
which  run  parallel  to  each  other  to  between  lat 
14°  and  15°  S.,  where  they  again  unite.  The 
farthest  W.  of  these  chains  is  called  the  Conlillera 
of  the  Coast,  or  of  the  Andes ;  and  the  farthest 
E.,  the  Cordillera  Real:  including  the  intennedi:it« 
country,  they  occupy  a  breadth  of  more  than  2iJ«» 
m.  X.  of  lat.  18°,  and  S.  of  that  parallel  of  u]>- 
wanls  of  300  m. ;  and  cover  at  least  lOO.OOO  sq. 
m.  of  surface,  which,  however,  is  i>artly  in  Peru 
Many  lateral  ridges,  sent  off  by  the  Cordillera 
Real,  a)ver  the  deps.  of  Cochabaroba  and  Chuqui- 
saca, together  with  a  part  of  tliose  of  Potosi  and 
St  Cruz  de  la  Sierra :  the  princiiml  of  these  trans- 
verse ridges  branches  off  from  the  Conlillera  about 
lat.  17°  10',  and  running  X.  past  the  city  of  Cocha- 
bamba,  terminates  within  a  few  leagues  of  the 
town  of  St  C>uz  de  la  Sierra.    The  summits  of 


BOLIVIA 


485 


the  \V.  CorcHllora  generally  appear  in  the  form 
cither  of  a  truncated  cone,  or  of  a  dome,  an<l  are 
often  volcanic :  those  of  the  E.  Cordillera,  aa  seen 
from  the  W.,  offer  a  succession  of  sharp  ra^;^ 
jH'aks  and  serrateil  ridpes,  and  are  not  volcanic, 
but  in  many  parta  highly  metalliferous.  The  de- 
clivity of  the  Boli\ian  Cordillera  is  rapid  on  either 
side,  but  particularly  so  »m  the  E. :  the  principal 
elevations  of  botli  Cordilleras  are  about  lat.  18^  to 
140  S.,  where  that  of  the  W.  chain  is  22,350  ft. 
(Sahama) ;  of  the  E.  21,286  ft.  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  Many  of  the  passes  across  both  chains 
an*  Ixitween  lo,000  and  16,000  ft.  in  elevati<m,  or 
n«yxr  the  limit,  in  this  region,  of  perpetual  snow ; 
while  Iwueath  the  peaks  of  the  Illimani  there  is  a 
g<ir^e,  or  valley,  perhaps  18,000  ft.  below  the  neigh- 
iMuiring  summit,  pn)bably  the  greatest  difference 
m  elevation  that  has  ever  yet  been  observed  be- 
tween any  two  similarly  contiguous  points.  (See 
Am)?:s.)  ' 

In  the  E.  the  country,  which  is,  in  many  parts, 
very  little  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  watered 
by  the  Heni,  Mamore,  Ubahy,  Pilcomayo,  and 
other  considerable  rivers ;  a  few  isolated  ranjjjces  of 
hilU  are  si^attered  over  it,  and  in  its  S.  part  is  the 
watorslied  Iwtwecn  the  sources  of  the  Amazon  and 
La  Plata  rivers.  Unh  of  which  receive  considerabit 
atHuents  fn>m  Bolivia;  but  neither  this  last-named 
tract,  nor  the  i.solated  hills  previously  mentioned, 
a]>i)ear  to  rise  to  any  great  height  above  the  sea. 
Tlie  whole  region  is  extremely  fertile ;  but  it  is 
nearly  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  covered  with  vast 
prinieval  forests.  The  desert  of  Atacama  occupies 
the  country  l)etween  the  Andes  and  the  Pacific:  it 
extends  for  alnrnt  250  m.  along  the  coast,  having 
a  variable  breadth  of  from  30  to  60  m.  It  is  never 
refreshed  by  rain,  and  is  almost  as  sterile  and 
worthh^>*s  as  the  Sahara.  The  surface,  which  is 
uiuhilating,  and  in  parts  hillv.  is  covered  with 
l<Mise  sand:  the  only  habitable  i>arts  l»eing  the 
narn»w  strii)S  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers. 

There  are  numerous  valleys  in  the  Andes ;  the 
principal  is  the  great  valley  of  Desaguadero,  Ik>- 
tween  the  two  Conlilleras,  extending  from  lat.  15^ 
to  HP  30'  8.,  having  an  area  (including  the  Lake 
of  Titicaca  in  its  N.  part)  of  18,500  sq.  m. 

Hirers. — Lakes. — The  nrincii)al  rivers  are  the 
Ik'ui,  Mamore,  and  the  otners  which  unite  to  form 
the  Madeira,  the  lai^est  aitiuent  of  the  Amazon, 
and  which  run  mostly  in  a  X.  direction  ;  and  the 
Pilcomayo,  one  of  the  chief  branches  of  the  Plata, 
which  waters  the  S.  part  of  the  countr}',  flowing 
mi»>tly  i:i  an  E.  direction.  I^)livia  includes  the  E. 
uu<l  S.  sh(»res  of  the  largest  accumulation  of  fresh 
water  on  the  S.  American  continent — the  lake  Ti- 
tic.'H-a,  which  occupies  an  area  of  4,000  sf|.  m.  at 
the  height  of  12,847  ft.  al)ove  the  ocean,  an  eleva- 
tion su|H'rii>rto  that  of  the  highest  summits  of  the 
I'yrenees.  (See  Titicaca.)  It  contains  nume- 
rous small  islands,  from  one  of  which,  celebrated 
f<»r  some  Peruvian  ruins,  it  derives  its  name :  the 
only  outlet  f»»r  its  waters  L*  the  river  Desaguadero, 
nniningfrom  its  S\V.  extremity  through  the  valley 
ti>  the  nmall  lake  of  Aullagas;  'which  latter,  haWng 
no  outlet,  is  kept  at  the  same  level  by  s)xmtaneous 
evaponition.  In  the  E.,  lakes  are  liumerous,  and 
S4«me  of  them,  as  those  of  I'bahy  and  Grande,  50 
or  60  m.  in  length ;  but  they  have  l»een  little  ex- 
]»lored  by  Eun»^H'ans. 

C/tma'te. — IJam,  as  already  stated,  never,  or  but 
very  rarely,  falls  on  the  coast  ;  in  the  ])lains  to 
tlu-K.  of  "the  Andes,  the  rainy  season,  which  is 
iiUnf  leal  with  summer,  lasts  from  October  to  A]»ril, 
ihiring  which  the  rains  are  almost  contnmous,  and 
ilie  rivers  inun<late  the  country  to  a  gn-at  extent. 
In  the  plains,  the  climate  is  excessively  hot,  and 
far  from  healthy ;  but  in  the  valley  of  the  De- 


Baguadero,  13,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  it 
is  temperate,  and  snow  falls  in  Nov.  and  April,  at 
the  beginning  and  end  of  tlie  summer  season. 
The  winter,  from  May  to  Nov.,  in  the  Desagua- 
dero valley,  is  extremely  dry,  and  although  the 
nights  arc  cold,  the  sky  Ls  serene  and  cloudless. 
Tremendous  hail  and  thunder-storms  arc  ft^uent 
on  the  mountains,  and  earthquakes  on  the  coast. 
The  reflection  of  the  sun  on  the  snow  pnMluces, 
in  the  higher  regions  in  winter,  a  temporary 
bluidness :  few  remarks  as  tocorajiarative  salubrity 
have  met  our  eye ;  but  the  banks  of  the  Beni  have 
been  particularised  as  remarkably  healthy. 

Minerals. — Gold  is  foimd  in  niany  places,  espe- 
cially on  the  E.  declivity  of  the  E.  Cordillera,  and 
in  tlie  sands  of  all  the  rivers  which  fall  from  that 
range  into  the  Beni  or  its  branches.  Every  one 
has  heard  of  the  riches  of  the  silver-mines  of 
Potosi ;  but  it  is  supposed  that  they  are  nearly 
exhausted,  and  at  all  events  they  are  now 
comparatively  neglected.  (See  Potosi.)  Copper 
abountU  at  Corucuero,  &c, :  ores  of  lead  and  tin, 
salt,  brimstone,  nitre,  and  other  volcanic  products, 
are  also  found. 

Vegetables. — The  mighty  forests  which  cover 
the  banks  of  the  E.  rivers  abound  in  the  finest 
timber,  fit  for  every  purpose  of  ship-building,  car- 
I>entr\',  &c.  The  cocoa  of  Apolonamba,  Moxos, 
d^c,  IS  infinitely  superior  to  that  of  (luyaquil 
(Ecuador)  :  it  is  used  by  all  classes,  and  is  cele- 
brate<l  for  its  nutritious  and  restorative  qualities. 
Tamarinds,  the  chirimoya,  oranges  lerocms,  Ijgs, 
sugar-cane,  ]>ine-apples, 'plantains,  &c,  flourish  in 
profusion  on  the  banks  of  the  BenL 

Cascarilla,  indigo,  cotton,  rice,  coffee,  grain,  cin- 
chona, co])ail)a,  sarsaivarilla,  and  other  valuable 
dnigs :  gum-elastic,  vanilla,  dye-woods,  tobacco, 
and  canes  of  various  kinds,  arc  all  priMluced  in 
an  extraordinary'  abundance  £.  of  the  Andes. 
Amongst  other  products,  there  is  a  species  of 
cinnamon,  called  canela  de  clavOj  said  to  differ  only 
in  the  greater  thickness  of  its  bark,  and  darker 
colour,  fnim  the  true  cinnamon.  The  vegetation 
of  the  Desaguadero  valley  is  peculiar:  it  has  no 
trees ;  but  the  lower  districts  if  uncultivated,  are 
covered  with  a  very  fine  turf.  There  are  here 
extensive  plantations  of  quinoa  (Chenopodium 
quiiuM^  Lhin.)  and  of  p<ttatoes,  which  arc  found 
wild  on  the  adjacent  hills ;  but  it  does  not  ripen 
the  drier  Euro()ean  grains,  nor  are  there  anv  pecu- 
liar seasons  for  sowing  or  har\'esting,  botli  these 
operations  being  carried  on  consentaneously.  In 
the  narrow  strips  of  land  along  the  rivers  tliat  run 
thnnigh  the  desert  of  Atacama,  maize  is  raise<l, 
with  excellent  fruits,  cotton,  sugar-canes,  and  the 
plant  called  Arundo  danar. 

Animals. — The  tapir,  jaguar,  leopanl,  and  six  or 
seven  s*»rta  of  monkeys,  inhabit  the  banks  of  the 
Heni ;  guanacos,  aliwcos,  a  kind  of  hare,  and  a 
small  animal  of  the  family  of  Rodentia,  whose 
burn>wing  often  renders  travelling  on  horseback 
unsafe,  are  found  in  the  Desaguadero  valley.  Par- 
rots, a  bird  of  beautiful  plumage,  as  well  as  a 
multitude  of  singing  binls  including  the  thrush 
and  whistler ;  several  kindn  of  turkeys  drc ;  several 
species  of  Amphibia^  and  an  abundance  of  fine  river 
fish,  are  met  with  in  Bolivia:  the  E.  plains  arc 
infeste<l  with  myriads  of  aimoying  reptiles  ancl 
insects.  Vast  her*ls  of  homed  cattle  feed  on  the 
banks  of  the  rivers ;  horses,  asses,  and  mules,  are 
the  other  domestic  animals:  the  climate  of  the 
plains  is  too  hot  for  sheep. 

People. — The  inhabitants  of  Boliina  are  of  mixed 
race,  with,  on  the  whole,  more  Eumftcan  than 
American  blood  in  their  veins.  Oulv  at)out  one- 
seventh  of  the  population  are  aborigines,  or,  as 
they  are  commonly  called,  *  Indiana.*    The  latter 


486 


BOLIVIA 


are  divided  into  a  frreat  variety  of  tribes,  present- 
ing conHiderable  (Ufferencefl  in  their  phygical  and 
mental  endowments,  dispoAitiont  and  progress  in 
civiliAation.  Some,  on  the  Bcni,  are  wild  and 
warlike,  and  go  naked,  even  the  women  wearing 
nothing  but  a  few  leaves  tied  round  the  waixt ; 
another  tril)e.  the  Maropas,  in  the  immediate  vici- 
nity of  the  former,  although  also  a  warlike  and 
proud  race,  evince  considerable  ingenuity  and  apt- 
nezts  far  manv  sorts  of  wori( :  they  manufacture 
beautiful  clotfis  ;  are  pretty  good  carpenten;  and 
are  said  to  show  a  marked  taste  for  music  and 
painting,  in  which  they  were  initiated  by  the 
JcsuitA.  Tlic  Indians  axe  excellent  sailors  on  their 
own  rivers,  and  very  dexterous  in  the  manage- 
ment of  their  canoes,  which  are  often  50  or  GO  ft 
in  length,  and  of  considerable  burden;  in  these 
they  freciuently  make  long  inland  voyages,  sub- 
sisting wholly  on  the  wild  animals  and  vegetables 
they  may  happen  to  meet  with.  Some  of  the 
Monetenc  tribea  on  the  I^eni  display  a  remarkable 
ac(^uaintancewith  tlic  medicinal  a  ualities  of  plants, 
wluch  they  administer  in  cases  or  sickness.  These, 
as  well  as  some  other  tribes,  are  peaceable,  frien<lly 
to  strangers,  and  free  from  superstition.  Not  a 
few  Indians,  especially  in  the  Desaguadero  valley, 
and  on  the  coast,  where  the  Quichua  langus^  is 
spoken,  have  been  converted  to  the  Catholic  faith : 
such  as  have  embracetl  Christianity,  instead  of 
going  naked,  or  leading  a  roving  life,  wear  a  light 
dress  of  cotton,  have  fixed  dwelling-places,  and 
apply  themselves  to  agricultural  pursuits,  though 
in  these  they  are  said  to  make  but  little  prc^^ss. 
The  foreign  settlers  are  mostly  of  Spanish  descent 
in  the  mining  districts,  and  the  valleys  of  Co- 
chabamba  and  Cachy  Pilco :  those  of  the  pure 
African  race  are  few ;  but  those  of  mixed  blood 
ore  numerons  on  the  C(»a8t. 

Manvfactures  chiefly  consist  of  cottons,  the  best 
of  which  are  made  at  On)pe8a,  almost  exclusively 
by  women  ;  w<M>llcns,  of  the  hair  of  the  llamas  and 
alpacos.  the  best  at  I^  Paz:  hats,  of  the  wool  of 
the  vicuna,  at  St,  Francisco  dc  Atacama ;  glass  at 
Oropesa ;  vessels  of  silver  wire  in  the  mining  dis- 
tricts ;  fans,  parasols,  and  plumes  of  the  feathers 
of  the  American  ostrich,  by  the  Indians. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  Boli\'ia  is  at  pre- 
sent not  very  considerable.  This  docs  not  arise  so 
much  from  the  low  state  of  industry,  or  the  apathy 
of  the  people,  as  from  the  difficulties  they  have  to 
encounter  in  bringing  their  produce  to  market. 
They  have  not  yet  learned  to  avail  themselves  of 
the  means  afforded  by  the  great  rivers  of  S.  Ame- 
rica, for  oi)cning  an  mtercourse  with  the  ports  on 
its  E.  shore.  At  present,  nearly  all  the  commodi- 
ties brought  from  Bolivia  to  Eumpe  come  through 
the  ports  on  the  Pacific,  to  reach  which  they  have 
to  be  conveyed  first  by  toilsome  passages  against 
the  currents  of  the  rivers  to  the  foot  of  the  Cor- 
dillera, so  fatal  by  its  rigorous  climate  to  the 
Indians  of  the  plains ;  and  then  across  the  Andes, 
the  passage  of  which  has  been  considered  by  Con- 
damme  as  equivalent  to  1,000  leagues  of  transport 
by  sea.  The  country  W.  of  the  Andes,  besides 
being  a  desert,  has  no  really  good  harbours,  and  is 
traversed  by  but  one  roacl,  that  from  Omro  to 
Cobija  (the  only  Bolivian  port),  and  that  is  prac- 
ticable only  for  mules  and  llamas.  Cobija,  though 
it  has  been  made  a  free  port,  is,  owing  to  these  dis- 
advantages, little  frequented.  The  arrivals,  in  the 
year  1863,  amounted  to  126  vessels,  of  20,745  tons 
bunlen.  The  total  value  of  the  imports  was 
3,3/)  1,993  piastres,  and  of  the  exports  2,500,000 
piastres.  The  exports  to  the  United  Kingdom,  in 
the  year  1863,  were  of  the  total  value  of  259,196/. 
They  consisted  of  copper  ore,  108,147/. ;  regtdus, 
62,024^ ;  copper  uuwrought  and  part  wrought, 


BOLOGXA 

8,524/. ;  guano,  76,784/. ;  tin,  2.736iL ;  and  other 
articles  to  the  value  of  981/.  The  imports  from 
the  United  Kingdom  into  Bolivia  are  altogether 
insignificant,  not  amounting,  on  the  avenge,  to 
l.WH)/.  per  annum. 

Tlic  K.  and  most  fertile  portion  of  Bolivia  is 
traversed  by  the  Madeira,  and  other  navigable 
affluents  of  the  Amazon,  on  the  one  hand,  and  by 
the  I*ilcomayo,  and  other  affluents  of  the  Para- 
guay, on  the  other  ;  so  that,  if  the  extraordinary 
facilities  which  these  great  rivers  afford  for  pene- 
trating into  the  interior  of  S.  America  be  ever 
made  use  of,  the  products  of  Bolivia  will  meet 
with  a  ready  and  a<ivaiitageous  outlet ;  and  her 
all  but  boundless  capacities  of  production,  which, 
at  present  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  in  any  degree 
availed  of,  will  receive  a  stimulus,  of  the  mflucnce 
of  which  we  can  form  no  adequate  idea. 

Within  the  Brazilian  dominions,  not  very  far 
from  the  Bolivian  frontier,  a  short  break,  of  3  m. 
only,  separates  a  tributary  of  the  Amazon  from 
one*  of  the  Plata  river :  were  these  streams  con- 
nected by  a  canal,  there  would  be  a  continuoiu 
water  communication,  for  the  most  part  na\igable, 
thnmgh  the  heart  of  S.  America,  from  Buenos 
A  jTes,  in  lat,  85°  S.,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco, 
in  nearly  9°  N.  Tlie  Bolivian  government  is 
endeavouring  to  promote  internal  traffic,  by  offer- 
ing grants  off  land  to  i)ersons  settling,  and  con- 
siderable premiums  for  the  estal)lishment  of  steam 
naWgation  on  the  S.  affluent  of  the  Amazon. 

The  public  revenue  in  1862  amounted  to  1,976,000 
piastres  ;  the  public  expenditure  to  1,739,000  pias- 
tres. The  public  debt  in  the  same  year  was  only 
about  1 ,500,000  piastres,  inclusive  of  a  *  war  loan  * 
of  1,000,000  piastres  raised  in  the  year  18o7. 

The  standmg  armed  force  is  limited  to  2.000 
men,  and  there  is  a  navy  of  three  small  vessels 
with  24  guns. 

History  and  Goremment, — Bolivia,  under  the 
name  of  U]>per  Peru,  formed,  preWously  to  the 
battle  of  Ayacucho  in  1824,  a  part  of  the  Spanish 
viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  republicans, 
under  (>eneral  Sucre,  having  then  defeated  the 
royalists,  the  independence  of  tlie  coimtry  was 
secured.  Its  present  name  was  given  to  it  in  1825, 
in  honour  of  the  liberator  Bolivar,  who,  on  being 
request e<l,  drew  up  a  constitution,  which  was 
adopted  in  the  year  following.  This  constitutiou, 
which  was  excee<lingly  c<»mplicated,  vested  the 
executive  power  in  a  president  for  life,  with  the 

Crivilegc  of  naming  liis  successor  ;  and  the  legis- 
itive  functions  in  three  bodies,  a  senate,  tribunes, 
and  censors.  The  code  and  constitution  of  Bolivar 
were  soon  after  almndoned ;  but  the  l^:islative 
powers  are  still,  nominally  at  least,  vested  in  the 
three  bodies  above  named ;  and  the  executive 
power  is  in  the  hands  of  a  president  elected  for 

BOLKHOF,  or  BOLCHOW,  a  town  of  Russia 
in  Europe,  gov.  Orel,  cap.  distr.,  on  the  Nougra, 
36  m.  X.  Orel  Pop.  19,400  in  1858.  It  is  weU 
built  of  wood,  has  numerous  churches,  with  manu- 
factures of  hats,  gloves,  and  stockings,  and  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  hemp,  linseed  ou,  tallow,  and 
hides. 

BOLLENE,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Yaucluse, 
cap.  cant.,  24  m.  N.  Ayignon,  on  the  railway  fn>m 
Lyons  to  Marseilles.  Pop.  5,007  in  1861.  The 
town  stands  on  the  declivity  of  a  hilt  and  has 
filatures  of  silk  and  dye-work's.  Various  remains 
of  antiquity  have  been  found  in  the  vicinity. 

BOLOfi'NA  (an.  Bononia),  a  city  of  N*  Italy, 
cap,  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  between 
the  rivers  Keno  and  Savena,  on  the  verge  of  the 
valley  of  the  Po,  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  forming 
the  commencement  of  the  Apennine  chain ;  and 


BOLOGNA 

on  the  railway  from  Milan  to  Ancona,  22|^  ni.  SE. 
Mcxlena,  25  m.  SW.  Fcrrara,  and  399  ft,  above  the 
level  of  the  Adriatic  It  is  nearly  1^  m.  in  len^h 
by  ^  m.  hi  breadth,  and  4  m.  in  circ. ;  is  walled, 
and  divided  into  four  quarters.  Pop.  96,600  in 
18()2,  Except  one  square,  it  is  indifferently  built; 
streets  crooked  and  narrow ;  houses  mostly  three 
stories  hif^^h,  in  a  palace  style  of  architecture, 
chietiy  of  brick  fronted  with  stucco,  with  deep 
project uig  roofs,  and  generally  surrounded  witn 
nrcailea.  The  Picuza  Mcygiore^  or  principal 
M}uare,  boasts  of  many  fine  buildings;  amongitt 
tlieni  are  the  Palazzo  Publico,  the  seat  of  the 
courts  of  justice :  in  the  centre  of  the  square  is  a 
fountain,  adorned  with  a  statue  of  Neptune, 
reckoned  one  of  the  l)e8t  modem  statues  in  Italy, 
the  work  of  (riovanni  di  Bologna.  In  the  middle 
of  the  city  stand  the  two  leaning  towers,  inclining 
in  different  directions:  that  of  Asinelli,  320  ft. 
high,  inclines  about  3^  ft ;  Garisenda,  145  ft  in 
height,  8  ft  It  is  said  that  from  the  top  of  the 
former  103  cities  may  be  seen.  Bolc^::na  has  74 
churches,  35  convents  for  monks,  and  3M  for  nuns. 
But  many  of  the  convents  have  recently  ]>een 
closed,  and  the  inmates  dispersed.  The  cathedral, 
built  A.  r>.  432,  has  the  .meridian  line  by  Cossini 
traced  on  its  floor,  and  possesses  the  Annunciadon 
(the  last  work  of  LodoWctj  Caracci),  and  other 
tine  paintings.  The  church  of  Madonna  di  San 
Luca,  3  m.  distant,  has  a  covered  walk  to  it  the 
whole  wav  from  the  citv.  The  universitv,  one  of 
the  oldest  and  most  celebrated  in  Italy,  owes  its 
origin  to  the  Emperor  Theodusius,  a.  l>.  425,  and 
was  restored  by  Charlemagne ;  it  has  a  library  of 
200,000  vols.,  and  was  formerly  attcnde<l  ])y  many 
thousand  students:  but  it  has  declined  m  cele- 
brity, and  at  present  is  not  attended  by  above 
1 .0(K).  There  is  another  public  library,  the  legacy 
of  a  clergjman,  containing  83,000  vols,  and  4,000 
MSS. :  there  are  also  cabinets  of  minerah^y,  na- 
tural histor}',  and  other  physical  objects ;  acade- 
mies of  sculpture,  science,  music,  and  the  fine 
arts  :  the  whole  city  abounds  in  pictures,  statues, 
and  other  works  of  native  artists.  There  is  a  pub- 
lic schtMil  for  the  poorer  classes,  where  the  rudi- 
ments of  education,  with  Latin,  arithmetic,  sing- 
ing and  drawing,  arc  taught  gratuitously ;  nine 
hospitals;  a  monte  dipirta;  and  many  other  1)6- 
nevolont  institutions.  The  manufacture  of  crai)e, 
for  which  the  city  has  been  long  famous,  and 
■wliich  was  at  one  time  verv  extensive,  has  de- 
<rlined  within  the  last  thirty  years.  ITiere  are 
manufactures  of  silk,  glass,  sulplmric  acid,  nitric 
ditto,  kid  gloves,  wax  candles,  musical  instru- 
ments, paiKT,  cards,  mortadeUe  sausages,  cele- 
brated all  over  Europe,  exclusive  of  prei»arations 
of  wine,  oil,  hemp,  flax,  and  other  natural  pro- 
duce. Itologna  is  an  archbishop's  see,  and  has 
l>een  so  since  the  4th  ccntur}',  and  the  court  of  ap- 
l>eal  for  the  four  provinces  of  Bologna,  Ferrara, 
Kavenna,  and  Forli,  sits  here,  and  consists  of  six 
judges.  The  lk)lognese  are  courteous  and  affable^ 
independent,  and  remarkable  for  their  love  of 
lil)ertv;  industrious,  quick,  ingenious;  anient 
alike  m  their  friendships  and  enmities ;  the  women 
linndMime.  The  middle  classes  are  well  informed; 
they  are  fond  of  the  ca««in(»s,  or  reading-rooms, 
conversazioni,  and  theatres,  of  which  there  are 
three.  The  higher  classes  are  wealthy ;  the  lower 
bold,  turbulent,  and  noisy.  Tlie  prevailing  dia- 
le(!t  is  not  in  use  elsewhere ;  there  Is  a  tendency 
to  pronounce  words  with  nia^uUne  terminations, 
and  in  other  rej-j^ects  it  is  the  coari»est  in  Italy. 
The  i>ro|iortion  of  illegitimate  births  is  as  one  to 
seven.  No  Italian  city,  Flon'uce  exi-epted,  has 
]iriKlu<-(>d  so  many  celebrated  men  in  science  and 
the  fine  arts.    Bologna  always  assumed  the  title 


BOLSENA 


487 


of  *  learned,*  and  had  the  motto  Bononia  doctt  on 
its  money  and  public  building  as  well  as  the 
word  libertas.  It  has  given  birth  to  eight  popes 
(including  Benedict  XTv.),  nearly  200  cardmals, 
and  to  more  than  1,000  literary  and  scientific 
men  and  artists ;  amongst  them,  the  naturalists 
(yalvani  and  Aldrovandi ;  tho  anatomists  Mondino 
and  Malpighi ;  the  astronomer  Marsigli ;  the  ma- 
thematicians Manfrcdi  and  Canterzanl;  the  bro- 
thers Zanotti,  Ghedini,  and  (xuercino;  and  the 
painters  Franda,  (vuido,  Albano,  Baibicri,  Do- 
menichino,  the  three  Caracci,  Zambeccari,  and 
AldinL  The  air  of  Bologna  is  pure,  but  subject  to 
sudden  changes,  which  produce  frequent  inflam- 
matory diseases.  Its  environs,  both  on  the  hiUs 
and  in  the  plain,  are  studded  with  a  number  of 
country  residences  in  a  richly  productive  soiL 

This  dty,  originallv  built  by  the  Etruscans,  was 
anciently  called  FeUtna ;  it  was  subsequently  oc- 
cupied by  a  Gallic  tribe,  the  Boii,  who  designated 
it  Bononia,  It  received  a  Roman  colony  a.  u.  c 
653.  A  Christian  church  was  built  here  so  early 
as  the  3rd  century.  Alaric  besieged,  but  did  not 
take  it :  it  escaped  Attila,  and  formed  a  portion  of 
the  exarchate  of  Kavemia.  Pepin  ^ave  it  to  the 
Holy  See,  to  which  it  belonged  durmg  the  Carlo- 
vingian  dynasty ;  after  which  it  was  governed  by 
its  own  magistrates;  it  w^as  next  governed  b^ 
feudal  nobles ;  but  these  haWng  abandoned  their 
pretensions,  and  been  admitted  as  private  citizens, 
it  became  a  republic,  extending  its  rule  over  all 
Komagna  as  far  as  KiminL  In  the  13th  century 
it  fell  again  under  the  Holy  See,  to  wliich  it  was 
finally  annexed  in  1500.  In  1796  it  was  taken  by 
the  I*rench,  but  restored  to  tho  Popedom  in  1815. 
The  city  and  provinces  remained  imder  Pa[)al  go- 
vernment till  the  year  1860,  when  it  was  annexed 
to  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy. 

BOLOTAN  A,  a  town  of  the  island  of  Sardinia, 
Italy,  prov.  Alghen>,  16  m.  W.  Bosa,  near  the 
centre  of  the  island.  Pop.  2,822  in  1858.  The 
town  is  situated  on  a  hill,  and  the  air  is  said  to  be 
good.  The  ctmtiguous  country  is  productive  of 
cum  and  pasture. 

BOLSLNA  (an.  Vulsinium),  a  town  of  central 
Italy,  prov.  Viterbo,  11  m.  WSVV.  Orvieto.  Pop. 
2,170  in  1858.  The  town  stands  near  the  N.  shore 
of  the  lake,  to  which  it  gives  its  name.  It  is  sur- 
nnmded  by  a  high  wall,  flanked  with  towers  and 
a  deep  ditch  ;  but  is  remarkable  only  for  the  ruins, 
in  or  near  it,  of  the  temide  of  the  Etruscan  gt>d- 
dess  Nortia,  a  granite  sarcophagus,  ornamented 
with  bas-reliefs,  and  other  remains  of  antiquity. 
This  was  anciently  a  place  of  great  wealth  and 
luxurj'.  l*liiiy  says  (Hist.  Nat.  lib.  xxxiv.  §  7) 
that  when  taken  by  the  Komans,*  anno  266  b.  c, 
it  contained  no  fewer  than  2,000  statues.  Having 
been  destroyed  by  the  conquerors  and  rebuilt,  it 
was  noted  at  a  later  period  as  the  birth-place  of 
Sejanus,  the  minister  of  Tiberius. 

The  lake  of  liolsena  continues,  as  of  old,  to  be 
surrounded  by  finely -wooded  hills — 

Aut  poedtis  nemorosa  inter  juga  Volidniis. 

Jut.  OaU  ill.  191. 

It  is  of  an  elliptical  shape,  about  12  m.  long,  by 
8  m.  in  breadth ;  its  depth  is  various,  but  near  the 
banks  it  Ls  generally  shallow ;  it  is  well  stocked 
with  fish.  It  has  two  islands,  wliich,  in  Pliny's 
days,  were  believe<l  to  be  floating.  Its  superfluous 
waters  are  carritHi  off  by  the  river  Marta,  t<> 
which  it  gives  birth.  The  country  round  this  lake 
is  now  become  exce<^dingly  unhealthy ;  a  circum- 
stance which  has  most  prolmbly  oc*casioned  the 
decay  of  BoLsena,  as  well  as  the  total  niin  of  seve- 
ral other  cities,  that  once  gave  life  and  animation 
to  its  banks.  (Cramer's  Ancient  Italy,  i.  221; 
Conder's  It«l|r,  iii.  84.) 


488 


BOLTON 


BOLTOX.or  BOFiTOX-LE-MOOKS,*  flourish-  I  j«crii>tion  oTicoolIem  pjiKvls  that  went  by  that  name, 
ing  \h)T.  ami  manufactiiritig  town  of  Ku}{lan«l,  co.  .  Cotton  p:«mnLs,  however,  U^i^an  to  Ije  produced  in 
I^ancastor,  hand.  Salfonl,  jjar.  Biltun.  on  the  Bolton,  in  con*tiderable  quantities,  al)out the  middle 
Cniale,  an  atlhient  of  the  Irwell :  170  m.  X \V.  by    of  the  lart  centnrj'.    But  the  real  pn>j«perity  of  the 


N.  Loiulon,  31  ra.  EXE.  Liverpool,  and  10  m.  X\\\    town  ilat«2*  from*  1770-1 780,  when  the  wonderful 

!Manchej*ter,  on  the  London  and  Xorth-Westem  i  inventions  of   ArkwriKht,    himself   a   native   irf 

The  po|».  of  the  Iwrouf^h  was  1H,5h:^  in  |  IV)lton.  b<^]:an  to  come  into  operation.     I 

lad  rir-en  to  .')2,97.*J  in  1«21 ;  to  b'l^W)  in  ;  ep«K>h  its  pro^^tw  has  been  rapid  in  the 


railwav. 
l«Ol;*it  ha 
1M41 ;  and  to 


ro,39o  in  1H(>1. 


parisli  wjw  2i>,«-*0  in  1801 ;  50,197  in 
in  1811 ;  and  1>7,-J10  in  1801. 


The  jHip. 
1821 ; 


From  that 
extreme ; 
of  the  I  and  it  i^«  now  a  principal  i«eat  of  the  cotton  manu- 
73,UU5    facture.    The  articles  chietiy  produce*!  are — mui*- 
lins,   Mipertine  printing  calicoes,  quiltings,   and 
ironnteriianes,    dimitieis    Kalteena.   jeans     cr»tt4»n 


The  apf>oaran(>i.>  of  the  town  scarcely  corresponds 
with  its  real  opulence  and  imixirtance,  a  consider-  !  shawls,  &c.     The  principal  manufacturew  l»ayc 
able  ]K>rtion  of  the  houses  being  cn>wdeil  in  nar- 
r«.>w  irre;^ilar  Lines,  which  an*  but  indifferently 
paved  and  sewennL    More  recently  ^^'at  inipn»ve- 


warehouses  in  Manchester,  wheje  they  j^nerally 
atti-nil  on  the  Tuesday,  to  effect  the  sale  of  their 
irtHxha :  but  sales  are  also  effected  on  other  days. 


ments  have  been  effecte<l;  rtaKj;eil  ftnitpaths  have  j  though  not  to  the  same  extent.  The  cotton  fac- 
iKjen  formed  in  m«>st  of  the  street*,  and  the  whole  tt)rios  are  on  a  very  lar^  scale.  ITierc  are  upwanU 
t4Hiv'n  has  been  completely  lighteii  with  pas;  I  of  70  mills,wliichempU»yed,  in  1801,  above  17,00«* 
various  new  sqiuires  have  been  formed;  and  a  j  workers.  There  are  also  extensive  bleachins: 
considerable  nunilwr  of  handsome  houses  and  '  frnmnds.  besides  paper  mills,  machine  work**,  and 
villas  have  been  erected,  mostly  near  the  S.  en-  lar^  iron-foundries,  where  steam-enirines  mills, 
trance.  It  Is  well  supplied  with  excellent  water,  and  machines  of  various  sorts  are  constmcteiL  A 
from  a  reser\'oir  covering  an  area  of  15  acres,  great  many  coal  mines  have  l)ecn  opene<i  ui  diffcr- 
pla<;e<l  at  such  an  elevatitm  as  admits  of  this  in-  ent  parts  of  thei>ar.;  and  thepnts|>erity  of  Ifcdttm, 
dis|H>nsalde  fluid  being  conveyed  into  the  upper    like  that  of  tlic  rest  of  the  dustrict  m  which  it  Is 


riMiins  of  every  hoiLse  in  town.  This  im|)ortimt 
impn)vemcnt  was  effected  bv  a  coni])anv,  under 
an  act  (jbtained  in  1824,  at  a  cost  of  4<^<K)0/,  The 
parish  church  of  St.  Peter's,  on  an  eminence  at  the 
E.  end  of  Bolton,  is  a  plain  ancient  structure  with 
a  low  tow<'r,  built  of  the  dark  retl  sanilstone  of  the 
district.  There  are,  besides,  eight  other  churches, 
and  the  Meth«Mlb«ts,  liaptists,  Independents,  Uni- 
tarians, Catholics,  Friends,  an<l  Swcdenboi^dans 
have  all  one  or  more  places  of  worship.  The  free 
gmnnnar-si^hool,  founded  in  1041,  has  an  annual 
revenue  of  alsnit  4^5/. :  jVinsworth  and  I-icmpriere, 


situatevi,  may  be  said  to  have  originated  in,  and  to 
depend  upon,  its  supply  of  coaL 

There  is  a  joint  st4Nrk  banking  Ci>mpaiiy  at 
Bolton;  a  private  l>anking  company,  and  bninchcs 
of  some  other  luinks.  The  savuigs  bank  had,  on 
the  2(»th  Xov.  1848,  i>4,0.3i»/.  of  dcijosits. 

Sir  K.  Arkwright,  the  inventor,  or  at  all  events 
the  introducer,  of  the  sinnning  frame,  was  a  native 
of  llidton.  lie  was  the  youngest  «>f  a  numenttis 
family,  and  was  bn>ught  up  to  the  humble  tK'cu|>a- 
tion  of  a  bari)er.  B«>lton,  also,  was  the  birth-place 
of  Samuel  O>mpton,  the  inventor  of  the  mule- 


comjMlers  of  the  well-known  dictionaries  whi<'h  Jenny,   and  one  of  the    founders  of  the   cotton 


Ixjar  their  names,  were  masters*  of  this  scIhhiI. 
Here,  also,  are  Xational  and  British  and  Ft)reign 
schools,  and  Sunday  schoob*.  Among  other  en- 
ih>we<l  charities  are — Ciosnel's,  which  consists  of 
lands  proilucing  80/.  a  year,  two-thinls  of  which 


manufacture.  A  bronze  statue  to  his  memory  was 
erecte»l  ui  1802  by  the  inhabitants,  at  a  cost  of 
2,0(M)/. 

The  Reform  Act  conferre«l  upon  B^dton  the  pri- 
vilege of  returning  two  mem.  to  the  11.  of  C,    The 


is  appropriate<l  to  a  church  lecturer,  one-sixth  U*  '<  limits  of  the  parliamentary'  bor.  and  municiiol 
the  grammar-scho<d,  the  rest  to  the  poor;  Hul- i  Inir.  coincide,  the  pop.  of  Inith,  in  1801,  bc'ing 
ton's,  lands  and  houses  proilucing  277/,  a  year,  for  [  70.00r>.  The  constituency,  in  18ti4,  cr)nsL4ted  <rf 
a  church  lecturer,  apprenticing  pt>or  boys,  and  pro-  !  2,131  registered  electors,  all  10/.  householders, 
viding  a  classical  teacher;  and  donations  left  by  |  The  lM>rough  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  12  alder- 
Mr.  Popplewell,  who  died  in  1829,  and  his  sisters, '  men,  and  3»5  councillors,  assisted  by  a  recorder, 
amounting  to  27,700/.  3  per  cent,  consols,  for  the  ■  The  mayor  is  chosen  by  the  aldermen ;  th<rse,  by 
jiromotion  of  religion,  learning,  and  charitable    the  councillors;  and  the  councillors  by  such  of  the 

burgesses  as  are  qualified  to  vote  for  members  of 
parluiment.  I*etty  sessions  for  the  U>r.  are  held 
everv  Monday  and  Thimjdav.    Bolt4>u  Ls  the  seat 


purposes, 

liolton  has  an  exchange,  a  town-hall,  two  cloth- 
halls,  a  theatre,  assemldy  an<l  concert-rooms,  a 


dispensarj",  estaldishod  in  1825,  ami  tlu-ee  public  ■  of  a  countv  coiul,  and  the  centre  of  a  union  under 
libraries,  all  well-built  modern  stnictures.  tlie  Poor  Law  Amendment  Act,  which  comprLsi's 

2i'i  other  townships  and  chapelries.    The  rental  .is- 
soHsed  to  poor  rate  amountetl  to  120,373/1  in  1801, 

"8,998^ 
IS  com- 


The  ])rogrcss  of  Bolton  has  been  greatly  pro- 
moted by  its  improved  communications.  The 
}k)lton  Canal  extends  to  Manchester  (12  m,),  and 
a  bmnch  from  it  to  Bury;  a  railway  fn>m  Btdton 
to  Leigh  (8  m.),  anil  thence  to  Ken  von,  where  iX 
Joins  the  Liver|>ool  and  Manchester  kailwav,  was 
oiiened  in  1831.  A  railway  along  the  canal  banks, 
vta  Bury,  to  Mancheitter,  was  o])ened  as  early  as 
J  833.  ii'mvG  then  the  great  I»ndon  an<l  Xorth- 
Westem  line,  with  all  its  bmnches,  have  come  to 
form  a  network  of  railways  in  and  around  the  town, 
connecting  it  hi  five  different  directions,  with  all 


and  the  capital  assessed  to  pn>perty  tax  to  178 
The  parish  within  which  the  Iwrough  is 
prised  extends  over  31,390  acres,  and  includes  iif 
other  townships,  chaijelries,  ami  hamlets:  the  en- 
tire p(»pulation,  in  1801,  being  97,215.  The  |>ari«h 
is  geologicjdly  situated  in  a  large  coal  formation, 
and  its  surface  is  for  the  most  part  of  a  {teaty 
nature.  It  contains  numerous  quarries,  some  t»f 
excellent  flagstones,  a  few  of  rooting  slate  ami 
veins  of  learl;  but  of  these  none  are  at  present 


the  centres  of  industry  in  Lancashire,  as  well  as    wrought.  Three  small  streams  (the  Tonge,  Croale, 

and  limdshaw)  take  their  rise  in  the  hilL*  that 
overlook  the  town.  It  contains  a  few  well- wihkIciI 
and  n>raantic  valleys,  but  its  general  as[ioiT  is 
barren  and  cheerless,  with  scarcely  a  tri'e  visibU', 
AlM)ut  «me-foiu'th  part  is  under  tlie  phuigh ;  of  the 
rest  no  im'ousidenible  ])ortion   consists*  of  unre- 


thrrnighout  England. 

'Hie  entire  consequence  of  Bolton  is  derived 
from  its  mannfactures,  which  were  carried  on  at  a 
very  remote  peri(ML  As  early  as  1337,  some 
Flemish  clothiers  established  themselves  in  the 
town;  and  in  the  reign  of  Heiir)'  VIII.  it  w;is 


famous  f(.»r  its  cottons,  that  is,  for  a  jK^cuHar  de-  |  claimed  mosses ;  and  though  the  land  increases  in 


BO  MBA 

value  near  the  town,  such  is  not  the  cose  in  its 
northern  township.  Bolton  is  a  place  of  consider- 
able historical  interest:  its  inhabitants  fn)m  a 
remote  period  were  distinguished  for  their  archerj', 
which  is  still  continued  as  a  sport,  there  being  a 
t^rffct  ground  near  the  E.  entrance  of  the  town, 
for  the  use  of  a  society  of  archers,  who  shoot  for 
]>ri/.es  during  the  summer.  The  labouring  classes 
■w  ere  formerly  accustomed  to  settle  their  quarrels 
by  single  combat,  or  by  what  is  called  an  *  up  and 
(lawn  *  tight.  Death  often  followed  from  these  brutal 
contests. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  civil  war,  the  in- 
habitants took  the  parliamentary  side^  and  held 
out  till  1G44,  when,  after  a  desperate  struggle  and 
sovoral  repulses,  the  town  was  at  length  taken  by 
tlie  Karl  of  Derby,  who  held  it  till  after  the  battle 
of  Worcester.  He  was  subsequently  taken  and 
l>ehcaded  here. 

H:  )MBA,  a  \'illage  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
Chif'ti,  cap.  cant.,  on  the  Monte  Pallano,  watered 
by  the  Sangro,  18  m.  WSW.  Vasto.  Pop.  3,179 
ill  1«*>1.  The  parish  church  is  one  of  the  hand- 
somest in  the  pr()vince.  On  the  mountain  on 
which  Bomba  is  situated  are  the  ruins  of  walls, 
gates,  and  towers,  on  the  most  gigantic  scale. 
They  are  formed  of  enormous  blocks  of  stone, 
united  without  cement^  after  the  Etruscan  fashion. 
Large  caverns  have  also  been  excavated  in  the 
TM-k,  and  coins  of  the  most  renowne<l  cities  of 
Magna  Gnecia  have  been  found  among  the  ruins. 
Nothing  authentic  is  known  with  respect  to  the 
history*  of  t\\e»e  extraordinary  niins.  (Del  Ke 
Descrizione  de  TAbnizzo,  ii.  p.  421.) 

BOMBAY  (PKESIDEXCY  OF),  the  second 
lanrest  in  extent  of  the  nine  great  provs,  of  British 
India;  l>etween  lat.  14°  18^and  28°  30' X.,  and 
long,  iu^  and  7«o  25'  E. ;  having  W.  the  Indian 
<  )conn,  and  Beloochistan ;  N.  Gundava  and  the 
I'unjab;  E.  the  Nizam's  dom. ;  and  S.  Mysore  and 
tlie  Madras  presid. ;  area  142,043  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
12,802.544  in  1«()2.  (Statistical  Tables  relating  to 
tiie  colonial  and  other  jxjssessions  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  Part  ix.,  presented  to  both  houses  of 
Parliament,  18<>4.)  The  presidency  is  divided,  for 
administrative  pmriwses,  into  f<«ir  great  territorial 
divisions,  exclusive  of  Bombay  Island,  which  is 
-'iider  tlie  direct  control  of  the  Governor.  The 
tlivisions  are : 

1.  Poonah,  comprising  the  colleotorates  of 
Tannji,  also  called  Northern  Konkan,  Satara, 
Ahmcflfjuggar.  and  Candeish. 

2.  'J'he  N.  divL'*ion,  including  the  collectorates 
i»f  Siirat,  Baroach,  Ahmedabad,  and  Kaira,andthe 
prtivinces  of  (iujrat  and  Kattv'war. 

3.  The  Sindh  ilivision,  in  which  are  the  collecto- 
nites  of  Knrrachee,  Hydrabad,  and  Shikarpur,  the 
province  of  Cutch,  and  the  territorj'  of  Khairpur. 

4.  The  S.  division,  comprising  the  collectorates 
of  Ilutnagherr>',  also  called  Southern  Konkan, 
Ifelgaum.  Sholaiwre,  and  Dharwar,  and  the  pro- 
vince of  Kolapore. 

Phymcal  Axpect. — The  NW.  parta  of  the  prei»id. 
are  more  level  than  the  S.  and  E. :  Ahmedalmd, 
Kaira,  and  Barr»ach  are  well  watered,  and  some 
parts  amongst  the  best  cultivated  and  peopled 
l.-inds  in  India ;  Surat  is  more  undulating,  its  E. 
]»art  hilly  and  jungly,  and  much  of  it  waste;  Can- 
ilei'^h  is  inters|K«rsed  with  low  barren  hills;  some 
s|50tsare  in  go<Kl  cultivation,  but  much  is  covered 
with  jungle;  Ahmednuggaralwundsin  rocks,  hills, 
and  waters ;  l'(M)nah  is  irregular  and  mountainous, 
but  with  manv  fertile  vallevs;  Danvar  is  an  ele- 
vatod  table-land:  and  the  Konkan  a  long  namiw 
tract  stretching  for  225  m.  along  the  sea-ci>a*«t, 
having  K.  a  chain  of  rockv  hills,  fcirmerlv  crowned 
by  a  number  of  fortresses,  and  \V.  a  low,  straighi 


BOMBAY  (PRESIDENCY  OF)     489 

shore,  broken  into  numerous  bays  and  harbours, 
till  lately  affbrding  a  resort  to  pirates,  by  whom  it 
had  long  been  infested. 

Tlie  moimtain  ranges  in  the  8.  belong  to  the 
W.  Ghauts :  in  Candeish  to  the  Sydaree  (a  con- 
tinuation of  the  former)  and  Sau't]M>ora  ranges ; 
and  N.  the  Ncrbudda — they  are  brant^hes  from  the 
Vindhyan  ch£un.  The  princi]>al  rivers  are  the  Ner- 
budda,  Taptee,  Mhye,  and  Saubcrmuttee,  falling 
into  the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  in  the  N.;  in  the  central 
parts,  the  earlier  branches  of  the  Godavery  and  Bee- 
mah ;  and  in  the  S.  the  Klstiiah  and  To<>mbuddra. 

Porphyritic  trap  forms  the  inland  hill  ranges; 
sandstone,  with  many  shells,  and  ci>nglomerated 
containing  fossils,  are  common  in  N.  Koncan  and 
the  N.  parts  of  the  presid.  A  primitive  range  of 
red  sandstone  formation,  extending  fn)m  Delhi, 
terminates  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Cambay. 
The  great  basaltic  district  of  India,  which  com- 
mences at  Nagpoor,  occupies  the  whole  coast  from 
between  Goa  and  Bombay  to  the  hea<l  of  the 
Cambay  gulf;  which  coast  has  been  the  theatre  of 
^volcanic  phenomena,  earthquakes,  and  tremendoiui 
whirlwinds,  even  within  the  last  few  centuries. 
Basalt  and  amygdaloid,  yellowish  porphyrj',  and 
green  claystoiie,  are  f<mnd  at  Salsette  and  Elc- 
phanta,  and  near  Rattanpoor  an  abundance  of  cor- 
nelian st4)nes,  embe<ided  in  red  graveL  A  black 
soil,  well  suited  to  the  culture  of  cott^m,  is  widely 
diffused  throughout  the  centre  of  thb  presidency. 

The  mean  temp,  at  Bomljav,  about  the  centre 
of  the  pres.  is  between  81°  and  Hii^  Fahr.  But 
though  Bombay  be  rather  unhealthy,  the  Koncan 
an<i  Malabar  coast  generally  is  by  no  means  so,  ex- 
cept in  the  marshes  below  the  GhautJ«.  The  climate 
of  the  N.  distr.  is  reckoned  amongst  the  worst  in 
India :  the  thennom.  in  the  hot  season  rises  some- 
times to  1 IG^  Falir. ;  and  Eurr>|>eans  are  affected 
with  fever,  ague,  and  other  tropical  complaints. 

Vegetable  Products  and  Animals. — Teak  of  very 
good  quality  grows  on  the  Ghauts  and  Uiwer  hilf- 
ranges,  and  in  some  parts  poon  is  plentiful ;  the 
di<«trict  of  Surat  abounds  with  the  wild  date  and 
babool.  Cocc»a  palms  cover  an  immense  tract  of 
sandy  land,  bordering  the  coast  of  the  Koncan ; 
and  various  other  trees  of  the  same  family  are 
abundant.  The  N.  part  of  this  presidency  is  re- 
markable for  the  great  variety  of  fniits  it  pnjduces ; 
the  district  of  Ahmedabad,  in  particular,  is  noted 
for  the  size  of  ita  mango-trees,  and  their  fruit. 
Ki^e,  cotton,  and  the  other  chief  articles  of  culture,  • 
will  bo.  mentione<l  presently. 

Wild  elephants  are  met  with  in  the  (ihauts, 
that  is,  in  the  woody  chain  of  mountains  running 
along  the  \V.  side  of  Southern  India ;  and  tigers, 
panthers,  leopards,  and  hyaenas,  are  numerous  in 
the  jungles  and  wooded'  parts;  buffaloes,  wUd 
Ixiars,  deer,  antelopes.  Jackals,  generally  so,  and  ui 
the  N.  the  flving  macanco  is  found.  Bunds  in  great 
variety  inhabit  this  part  of  India. 

Peonle. — Besides  Hindoos,  Mahommedans,  Par- 
sees,  Jews,  and  Euro|)eans,  manv  distinct  tribes, 
some  of  whom  are  supposed  to  i)e  ab(»riginal,  in- 
habit this  ])residency.  Bheels  live  Y,.  of  the 
(ihauts,  from  the  hills  near  Pinmah  to  the  banks 
of  the  Nerbudda  and  Taptee ;  the  Kamooses  meet 
these  S.  of  Poonah :  W.  of  the  Ghauts,  and  around 
the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  Koolies,  a  very  barbanius 
tril)e,  Kiside ;  Catties.  Aheers,  and  Babreeas,  are 
found  in  Katty war;  Dhooblas  and  Koombies  in 
Gujrat.  The  Jain  sect  is  verj'  numen>us  in  the 
(vujnit  district-* :  an<l  nearly  all  the  Parsoes  in 
India  have  settled  within  the  limits  of  the  IV>mbay 
pH'sidency.  A  tribe,  called  Boras,  resides  in  the 
di»trict  of  Surat  and  its  neighlMnirluxxl ;  these 
people  are  Mahommedans  as  to  religion;  but  in 
I  all  other  rcspecta  are  similar  to  Jews. 


490 


BOMBAY  (PRESIDENCY  OF) 


Agriculture  and  Cattle, — Rice  and  cotton  arc 
the  chief  articles  of  culture ;  c«mi(>an?d  with  these, 
the  other  j^reat  8ta]>leM  of  Indian  jinxiuce  an?  grown 
only  in  insignilicaiit  quantitie«.  Kice  in  largely 
fOrown  in  the  central  partn  of  the  presidency ;  and 
in  S.  Koncaii  it  con.stitutCM  4-5th»  of  the  whole 
cropa.  The  culture  of  c«itt(»n  in  cxteiu<ive,  and  the 
produce  Ls  an  important  article  of  export.  The 
cotton  of  this  Hide  of  India  is  decidedly  PuiHTior 
to  tluit  of  the  other;  that  gn>wn  in  liroach  is  par- 
ticularly good.  Sugar  and  indigo  are  cultivated 
in  Candeinh,  where  the  first  occupies  acon^derable 
extent  of  country,  and  where  late  reiwrts  si»eak  f)f 
an  intention  on  the  part  of  goveninieut  to  erect 
au^j^-mills.  The  indigo  of  Candcish  has  l>oou 
Mid  to  be  as  fine  as  that  of  Bengal,  but  wanting 
in  depth  of  colour.  The  mull»errj'-tree  grows  in 
some  parts  with  imnieutse  rapidity,  and  fpreM  ex- 
ertions are  being  made  by  various  private  in- 
dividuals to  introduce  the  culture  of  6i1k,  and  to 
render  it  im]H>rtant  as  an  article  of  trade.  Wool 
has  lately  Imh'I)  im))orted  in  considerable  quantities 
from  Bombay,  and  efforts  are  making  by  the 
p>vemment  to  improve  the  breed  of  sheep,  bv 
importing  stocks  into  the  presidency  from  C'aubul, 
Sinde,  and  Cutch,  and  crossing  them  with  Merino 
and  Saxon  breeds  from  the  Cape  of  Good  ll(»pc 
The  cattle  of  Gujrat  are  of  a  remarkably  large 
fize,  and  in  great  request  throughout  India;  at 
Surat  there  is  a  diniiimtive  species  of  ox,  2  ft,  only 
in  height.  8.  of  Surat  the  ox  suiK'rsedes  the  horse 
for  both  draught  and  carriage :  below  the  (ihauts, 
the  only  other  domestic  animal  is  the  buffalo. 
Poultry  are  not  generally  kept  by  the  natives. 

Fublic  Revenue, — ^I'he  total  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure of  the  pnwidencv  in  the  three  years, 
1800-1 8G2,  was  as  follows :— 


5(Hh  April     1         R«»««u« 

Expenditora 

18G0 
18«l 
18G2 

7.277,604 
8,407. 1(17 
8,512,633 

& 

9.r.oj),p,n 

7.712.041 

6,yo«,r>42 

Tlie  revenue  is  derived  chiefly  from  three  great 
sources,  viz.  the  land-tax,  opium,  and  customs. 
The  land-tax,  including  excise,  and  Sayer  and 
]dotur|>ha — Sayer  l)eing  variable  imf)osts  such  as 
town  duties,  and  Moturpha  taxes  on  houses  and 
trades — brought  a  revenue  of  2,872,746/.  in  IWiO; 
of  2,97(>,8<U/.  in  ISOl :  and  of  3,082,91H/.  in  l«t;2. 
Opium  realised  1.533,825/.  in  1800;  2,441,(i79/.  in 
18<>1 ;  and  2,438,458/.  in  1862.  Fiiiallv,  the  cus- 
toms were  productive  of  1,000,261/.  in  1800;  of 
1.034,701/.  in  1861 ;  and  of  »20,732/.  in  1862. 
It  will  be  seen  that  while  both  the  land-tax  and 
opium  increased  during  the  triennial  period,  the 
customs  decreased  in  productiveness.  Ikrsides 
these  three  great  branches  of  revenue,  there  are 
several  minor  ones,  such  as  stamps,  income  and 
assessed  taxes,  post-<»ffice  and  mint  profits,  imposts 
on  salt,  and  tributes  from  native  states.  Stamps 
pnKluced  281,617/.  in  18(52;  income  and  assessed 
taxe^  407,28(>/.;  post-office,  Ac,  480,781/.;  salt, 
o40,802/.;  and  the  tributes  and  contributions  from 
native  states,  101,390/.  l\y  far  the  largest  item 
of  expenditiure  is  that  for  military  charges,  which 
amounted  to  5,39l«,581/.  in  i860;*  to  3;^1 3,624/.  in 
1861,  and  to  2,372,431/.  in  1802.  'ITie  extra- 
ordinary decline  of  this  military  expenditure,  in 
the  short  space  of  three  years,  \s  a  very  remarkable 
fact. 

Trade  and  Roads. — Tliis  presid.  is  much  less 
favourably  situated  than  that  of  Hengal  f<»r  com- 
merce and  internal  communication.  It  has  no 
large  navigable  river,  like  the  Ganges,  intersecting  ! 


its  richest  provinces;  the  streams  of  tlie  Deocan 
are  tmt  impetuous  for  naNngation,  and  the  internal 
trade  is  thus  wholly  dependent  on  Und  carriage. 
Until  within  the  last  ten  years,  the  country 
suffered  greatly  for  want  of  good  n>ada ;  but  this  is 
now  l)eing  remedied  by  the  establishment  of  a 
complete  netwurk  of  railways.  The  chief  line  in 
the  i>residency  is  the  IlomlMy,  Baroda,  and  Central 
India  railway,  which  connects  the  capital  with 
iVgra  and  Central  India,  by  way  of  Surat,  Baroda, 
and  Xeemuch,  and  the  vallevs  of  the  Mhye  and 
the  Chumbul,  and  tluxiws  off  branches  from  Suiat 
along  the  valley  of  tlie  Taptee,  into  the  great 
cotton  districts  of  Candel<h  and  Berar.  and  the 
coal  and  mineral  districts  of  the  Neriiudda.  Most 
of  the  ordinarA*^  roads  are  impassable  for  carriages, 
and  men'handise  has  therefore  to  bo  conveyed 
cliiefly  by  fMtck-hullockM ;  indeed,  the  only  good 
line  of  road  is  from  Panwell  to  Ahmednuggar,  a 
distance  of  105  m.;  and  it  is  both  unconnected 
with  the  S.  of  India,  and  at  a  distance  unavailable 
for  the  produce  of  Candeish  and  Berar. 

For  au  account  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the  presi- 
dency, see  Bombay  (City), 

History. — In  1617,  liombay  was  created  a  re- 
gency, and  made  supreme  over  all  the  company's 
establishments  in  India ;  but  in  1707  Calcutta  was 
declared  indenendent  of  it.  In  1726  a  chartered 
court  for  penal  causes  was  estalilisheii :  and  in  1776 
Salsette,  mssein,  and  the  revenues  of  Baroarh,  and 
other  places,  were  acquired  by  treaty  with  a 
Mahratta  chief.  In  1780  Dobhoy  and  Ahmedahad 
were  taken,  but  restored  to  the  Mahrattas  in  1782. 
In  1803  Baroach  an<i  Ahmednuggur  districts  were 
acquired,  and  the  latter,  with  Poonah  and  Ahme- 
dabad,  were  formally  ceded  in  1817.  Koncan, 
Marwar,  Ciindeish,  and  tftic  remainder  of  the  ex- 
peishwa's  dom.,  fell  to  the  British  in  1818,  The 
seat  of  gov.  was  transferred  fn)m  the  city  of  Surat 
to  that  of  Bombay  in  1086.  (For  further  particu- 
lars as  to  the  Instorj-,  government,  army  and  na\7', 
trade  and  commerce,  &c.,  of  the  presidency  of 
Bombay,  see  India,  and  abo  the  following  art.) 

Bombay  {Buon  Bahia^  Portuguese,  a  good 
harfMmr)y  a  marit.  city  of  Ilind<»stan,  prov.  Aurun- 
gabad,  cap.  of  the  above  presidency,  and,  after 
Calcutta  and  Canton,  the  greatest  emporium  of  the 
East.  It  is  built  at  the  SE.  extremity  of  the 
small  island  of  the  same  name,  contiguous  to  the 
Konr:an  coast,  650  m.  NW.  Madras,  1,060  m.  SW. 
Calcutta,  and  150  m.  S.  Surat;  kt,  liP  ,70'  N., 
long.  T29  bl'  E.  Pop.  506,119  in  1861.  Bombay 
Island  l>elongs  to  a  group,  including  Sah^?tt<'.ioiuod 
to  it  by  a  cau.*ieway,  Caranja,  Elephanta,  ColaMia, 
Butcher,  Wmnly,  and  Cross  Islands,  wliich,  l>eing 
<lisposed  in  a  crescent  manner,  enclose  its  harbuur. 
The  island  itself  is  of  an  oblong  shape,  8  m.  in 
length,  N.  to  S.,  by  about  2  or  3  m.  wide ;  it  is  for 
the  most  part  low,  swampy,  and  barren,  and  was 
formerly  very  mihealthy ;  but  in  this  respect  it  has 
l)een  much  improved,  by  means  of  drainage  and 
embankments.  The  city  consists  of  two  portions : 
the  old  town,  or  fort,  and  the  new  town,  or  Ihin- 
garee.  The  fort  stands  on  the  SE,  extremity  of 
the  island,  on  a  narrow  neck  of  land  immediately 
over  the  harbour;  it  is  surrounded  by  extensive 
fortiticatious,  which,  however,  are  somewhat  neg- 
lected, and  would,  probably,  be  of  little  use  in  war. 
Tlie  old  castle  stands  about  the  centre  of  the  forti- 
fications, on  the  sea  side ;  wliile  a  long  semi-circa- 
lar  line  of  ramparts  stretches  along  the  land  side, 
llie  Portuguese  began  to  build  the  town  within 
the  walls  in  the  same  style  that  has  ever  suice 
been  followed:  the  verandahs  of  the  hoiiscs  are 
sui)p<»rteti  on  wooden  pillare,  and  shut  up  with 
Venetian  blinds;  the  upper  storeys  project  beyond 
the  lower,  and  the  roofs  are  sIo)>ei  and  tiled. ' 


BOMBAY 


491 


Bombay  bears  no  cxtomal  resemblance  to  Cal- 
cutta or  Madras,  and  its  best  streets  scarcel v  equal 
their  suburbs.    There  is  no  Asiatic  magnificence : 
evcr>'tliing  has  an  air  of  age  and  econoiny,  though 
the  shops  and  warehouses  are  built  on  an  extensive 
scale.    The  new  government-house,  a  large  struc- 
ture, somewhat  like  a  German  free-city  Mtadthaut^ 
is  little  used  except  for  holding  councik,  and  other 
public  business ;  there  is  a  castle,  now  occupied  as 
un  arsenal,  an(l  near  it  are  the  capacious  docks, 
capable  of  accommodating  shi|)8  of  any  size.  These 
establishments,  together  with  the  barracks  and  the 
other  biuldings  within  the  fort,  have  cost  very 
large  sums.    The  supreme  judicial  court,  or  tudfler 
adatclut;  the  cathedral;  the  Elphinstone  institu- 
tion and  great  medical  college;  the  town-hall, 
designed  by  Colonel  Cowpcr,  and  built  at  an  ex- 
pense of  60,000^ ;  and  the  office  of  the  gov.  secre- 
tarj',  on  the  green,  an  open  irregular  area,  are 
amongst  the  chief  edifices;  there  are  many  Portu- 
guese and  Armenian  churches,  both  within  and 
without  the  M'alls,  some  synagogues,  and  a  vast 
number  of  mosques  and  temples.    The  new  town 
of  Bombay  is  laiger  than  that  within  the  fort,  and 
in  a  low,  wet,  unwholesome  situation,  N.  of  the 
latter,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  esplanade ;  it 
extends  in  one  part  from  the  harbour,  on  its  R., 
quite  across  the  neck  of  land  to  Back  Bay.    For 
seven  or  eight  months  of  the  year  the  inhab.  suffer 
from  inun(lation,  or  its  effects,  few  of  the  ground- 
rtoors  of  the  houses  being  above  high-water  mark. 
Tlie  most  remarkable  stnicture  in  the  new  town  b 
a  pagoda,  the  largest  in  Bombay,  dedicated  to  the 
M-ornhip  of  Mtmba  Devi,    Substantial  buildings 
now  extend  to  3  m.  from  the  fort,  outside  of  which 
most  of  the  poorer  classes  live  in  huts  of  claj', 
nM)fed  with  mats  of  palmyra  leaf.     Ground  m 
the  city  is  very  valuable,  'e8p«cially  within  the 
fortress.    Most    part  of   the    island    belongs   to 
Parsees,  who  form  a  wealthy  and  influencing  part 
of  the  population,  and  are  comparatively  more 
numerous  than  in  any  other  large  town  in  India. 
They  are  the  descendants  of  the  Ghebers,  <lriven 
out  of  Pernia  by   Shah   Abbas:  a  comely,  tall, 
athletic,  active  race,  fairer  than  the  other  natives ; 
mild  in  their  manners;  bold,  enterprising,  intelli- 
gent, persevering,   successful   in   the    pursuit  of 
wealth,  and  contributing  greatly  to  the  prosperity 
of  the  place. 

It  is  said  that  there  is  not  a  European  house  of 
trade  in  Bombay  in  which  one  of  them  has  not  a 
share;  and  generally  it  is  the  Parsee  that  pro- 
duces the  larger  part  of  the  capital  In  every 
department  connected  with  shi|>-buil<Hng  and  the 
d»>cks,  the  Parsees  have  the  chief  interest;  the 
whole  N.  quarter  of  the  fort  is  occupied  by  them; 
their  country  houses  are  fumishetl  with  European 
decorations  ;*  and  they  make  no  scruple  to  eat, 
drink,  and  hold  constant  communication  with 
Europeans.  They  have  many  temples  for  the 
adoration  of  Fire,  and  morning  and  evening  all  the 
males  repair  to  the  esplanmle,  and  prostrate  them- 
selves in  worship  to  the  sun ;  the  females  do  not 
join  in  these  devotions,  but  of  whatever  rank,  con- 
tinue, as  in  patriarchal  times  to  fetch  water  from 
the  welK  The  Parsees  are  firmly  attached  to 
tlieir  original  customs,  amongst  which  is  that  of 
exposing  their  deatl  to  be  devoure<l  by  vultures,  in 
buildings  open  at  the  top  for  the  purpose.  They 
are  <Urty  m  their  persons,  but  their  women, 
although  enjoying  more  lil)erty  than  any  others 
in  India,  are  certainly  the  chastest.  Tlie  Parsees 
provide  for  their  own'|>oor,  and  not  a  single  cour- 
tesan of  their  sect  is  to  be  found.  Of  Ihe  rest  of 
the  (Htpulation,  al)out  two-thinls  are  Hindoos,  one- 
tifth  jwirt  Mohammedans,  and  one-thirteenth  part 
Christians.    The  floating  pop.,  besides  the  native 


and  British  seamen,  consists  of  Armbs,  Persians, 
Goa-Portuguese,  Parsees,  and  the  crews  of  vessels 
belonging  to  most  other  nations  frequenting  the 
port.  The  harbour  of  Bombay  is  one  of  the 
largest,  safest,  and  roost  coromodious  in  India ;  it 
is  8  m.  in  diam.,  and  affords  good  anchorage  and 
shelter  for  fleets  of  ships  of  the  largest  burden.  It 
is  also  the  only  great  mlet  in  India  where  the  rise 
of  the  tides  is'sufficiejit  to  permit  the  construction 
of  wet-docks  on  a  large  scale,  the  spring  tides 
ordinarily  rising  14,  and  occasionally  17  (L 
Frigates  and  ships  of  the  line  may  be  built  at 
Ik)robay  in  a  very  durable  manner.  Previously  to 
1819,  a  considerable  fleet  of  small  armed  vessels 
was  kept  at  Bombay,  to  check  the  piracy  which 
had  prevailed  on  the  Malabar  coast  ever  smce  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  but  at  this  epoch 
the  nuisance  was  finaUy  abated,  by  the  capture  of 
the  strongholds  of  the  pirates  in  the  Arabian  and 
Persian  gulfs. 

Bombay  has  a  more  extensive  trade  with  China 
than  either  of  the  other  presidenciM ;  the  rest  of 
its  commerce  is  chiefly  with  Great  Britain,  the 
Arabian  and  Persian  gulfs,  Calcutta,  Cutch, 
Sinde,  and  the  Malabar  coast.  The  imports  from 
China  consist  principally  of  raw  silk,  sugar,  and 
sugar-candy,  silk  piece-goods,  treasure,  &c  The 
principal  articles  of  export  to  China  are,  rair 
cotton,  opium,  principally  from  Malwa,  pearU, 
sharks'  fins,  fish  maws,  sandal- wood,  dfc.  The  ex- 
ports to  Cliina  being  much  larger  than  the  imports, 
the  returns  for  several  yeais  past  have  been  made 
to  a  huge  extent  by  bills  on  London,  drawn  bv 
American  and  other  houses  in  China,  and  in  bills 
on  the  Indian  government,  drawn  by  the  agents  of 
the  £.  I.  Company  in  China.  The  trade  with  the 
United  Kingdom  has  been  r^ularly  increasing 
since  the  abolition  of  the  restrictive  system.  The 
chief  articles  of  import  thence  are,  cotton  and 
woollen  stuffs,  cotton  yam,  hardware,  copper,  iron, 
lead,  glass,  apparel,  fur,  stationery,  wine,  and  scune 
minor  articles.  The  total  value  of  these  imports 
— exchtive  of  treasure,  which  is  very  lai)ge, 
amounting  to  from  7  to  9  millions  per  annum — 
was  as  foUows  in  the  years  1861  and  1862 : — 


ManbandlM 

Imports  from 

1861 

1803 

£ 

£ 

United  Kingdom      . 

7,837,484 

7,380.879 

Aden         .... 

116,072 

160,976 

Africa,  Coart  of 

18)),»d7 

191,223 

America.  North 

48.213 

43,69g 

Arabian  and  Perrian  Oolfs 

419,6U8 

490,189 

Batavia  and  Java     . 

8,198 

— 

Belgium    .... 

88,6.V> 

18.916 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  . 

A28 

1,076 

Coylon       .... 

7,032 

3,976 

China        .... 

919.267 

821,760 

France       .... 

74,126 

78,500 

Germany  .... 

3,220 

11,306 

Gibraltar  .... 

— 

— 

Hamburgh 

— 

— 

Manilla     .... 

— 

— 

Maoritins  and  Bourbon   . 

4,613 

14,491 

Mediterranean  Ports 

>— 

— 

New  South  Wales     . 

64,071 

43,851 

New  Zealand    . 

1,139 

117 

Penang,  Singapore,  and 
Malacca 

161,719 

97,598 

Saint  Helena    . 

29.A62 

3,926 

Siam  and  Bnrmah    . 

8,w6 

43.4M1 

Sonmcanee  and  Mcckran 

16,221 

16,249 

1  Sues          .... 

54.014 

484)89 

i  Sweden     .       .       .       . 
Total 

18,336 

13,605 

9,448,210 

0,468,965 

The  principal  exports  to  Britain  are,  raw  cotton. 


492 


BOMBAY 


raw  silk  from  China  and  Porsin,  ivon',  pepper  and 
hpit'cs,  iiiecc-g<Mxls,  coffw,  and  wool.  The  total 
value  of  these  exports,  in  the  two  years  18GI  and 
18G2,  is  tihowu  in  the  subjoined  table: — 


Exports  to 

1401 

IPG'i 

c 

I  iiitcd  Kingdom 

i7.-.'i.s,7n 

!0.n!M).2«l 

Atlen         .... 

li>J.:;7:J 

i:{.*t,i;oo 

Africa,  Cooat  of 

U'J,:jc;9 

8:l,:ri0 

America  J  j^„^j^       ^ 

ll9.:r,o 

62,U5 

Arabian  and  IVrwian  Gnlfn 

808,:W7 

841, .-.7S 

Aurtmlla,  Now  rt.  Wuk-u  . 

1-J7 

♦J22  1 

Batnvia  nud  Java     . 

«.«.'.« 

4,I«;!> 

Coylon       .... 

liJ,9:n 

1:;.«;19 

China        .        .        .        . 

8/»nK,.-,9J 

C,fil0.7;,8 

Franco      .... 

207  ,W0 

171,121 

n        ..,-  '  Hftinbnrffh     . 
«>^-"'^"y  lOtherl'orta  . 

87,997 

— 

(Jibrnltar  .... 

— 

'— . 

Holland     .... 

I7.7:n 

Mauritius*  and  Bonrbon    . 

8-i,«9« 

«'»,828 

MciUtorran<'au  Port* 

— 

17.H44  ; 

N«'w  Zcjiland    . 

90 

1 

Norway     .... 

7,8:iO 

14,498 

i'cnanK.  Singapore,  and ) 
Malacca 

19(5,9W 

98,375  . 

Piani 

11 /.Si? 

42.<;70 

Snnnioanoo  and  Mrckran  . 

21.177 

1 1  >S7 

SUt.'Z 

l20,S«rt 

04.1.VI 

Swi-don      .... 

24 

— 

Total 

KJoD.M.-J  i 

18.r,22.4<52  1 

There  enrereil,  at   the 

1  .     ..r   _   A.  .A_i    I I 

IKirt  of  IU»i 

nlMiy,  3,1  «3 

veasels,  of  a  t4»tal  burden  of  17(>,>«53  timn,  in  the 
vear  (ending  30th  April)  IHOl  ;  an<l  2.K14  ve,«wel.s. 
I)f  U'A)Mi\  tons,  in  18C)2.  Tlierc  cleare<i  3.330 
ven-selH,  of  152,935)  tonn.  in  18G1 ;  and  3,002  vestiels, 
of  15(1,44  9  tons,  in  18i>2. 

At  Bondmy,  wnRt»H  are  hipjher  than  in  Benj^al ; 
!>ut  provu^iiins  are  also  <learer.  The  market^  are 
i«»t  equal  to  those  of  Calcutta,  but  superior  to  those 
«)f  Mudnis.  There  are  fewer  Kuro])ean8at  Bombay 
than  at  the  other  presids.,  neither  are  their  salaries 
ao  hifch.  n»e  Bombay  Native  Education  Society 
have  their  central  schooL*  here,  which  are  well 
attended  by  native  pupils.  Several  literary^  sooie- 
ticit,  and  many  charitable  and  reli^ous  mstitu- 
tit>ns,  have  been  entablishetL  Bombay  is  the  s(>at 
of  a  Pnitestiuit  bishop.  Koman  Cat  Indies  are 
immerous;  (me  of  the  four  vicars-aiiostolic  of  India, 
with  direct  authority  fn)m  the  Poj)e,  resides  at 
Bombay,  where  the  ("atholic  bishop  lias  live  diffe- 
rent churches,  all  of  which,  except  one  at  (.\dabba 
Island,  are  endo%ved.  The  juris4liction  of  the 
supreme  court  is  conHnetl  to  the  island  of  Bombay, 
and  to  Kuropeans  in  the  rest  of  the  presid. :  the 
civil  and  criminal  laws  are  those  of  England,  but 
this  cfuirt  is  not  one  of  appeal  from  provincial 
(iourts,  like  the  stuhier  aduwlut  at  Calcutta.  The 
garrison  consu»ts  of  alK)ut  4,000  tnx>i)8,  one-fourth 
of  whom  are  Kuropeans. 

IV)mbay  is,  next  to  Madras,  the  oldest  of  our 
possessions  in  the  East ;  it  was  founded  soon  after 
the  cession  of  the  isL  to  the  ^o^tugue^e,  and  was 
celled  to  (,'harles  1 1,  as  part  of  (^ueeu  Catherine's 
dowry,  in  1G(51;  but  the  l*ortuguej«e  governor  re- 
fusctl  to  deliver  it  up,  and  it  waji  not  until  1GG4 
that  it  came  into  our  liands.  In  1G08  the  city  and 
i.«land  were  transferred,  by  n>yal  letters  patent,  to 
the  E.  I.  Comimny.  The  seat  of  government  was 
removed  thither  from  Surat  in  l(»8t),  andtwo  vears 
after  Bomliay  was  l>esiegeil  by  the  Moguls.  'I'hese 
were  oniered  to  withdraw  by  Aunmg5a.*l>e,  which 
they  did  in  the  suttceetling  year ;  but  plague. 
iiiracv,  and  rebellion  continue<l  for  manv  vears  to 
devastate  and  disturb  this  ctdonv.  The  first  line 
of  railway  in  India  wag  opcnctl  in  1«5:^,  between 


BONIFACCIO 

Bomlmy  and  Tannah,  20  m.  NXE.  At  pmraty 
Bombay  rules  the  whole  N\V.  roast  of  India,  and 
its  intiuenye  is  felt  along  the  shores  uf  Persia  and 
Arnbia. 


of  land  projecting  into  a  spacious  Ijay  (Gulf  uf 
Btma),  ncjir  the  mouth  of  the  SeilK>ufi,  in  a  eM>me- 
M'hat  unhealthv  countn- ;  lat,  36°  i^V  3(»"  X.,  long. 
70  IS' 20"  E.   ^op.  alwut  12,0(J<).    It  ia  surrwinded 
with  walls  30  ft.  in  height,  and  nearly  2  m.  in 
circ.  with  ft>ur  gat<.«.    Uiie  town  and  har!>our  are 
commanded  by  the  citadel  {Kawbd),  on  a  hill  to 
the  X.  <»f  the  city,  having  thick  walls  au<l  a  circuit 
of  altout  a  quarter  of  a  mile.     The  citadel  was 
much  injured  in  1837  by  an  accidental  explosion 
of  gunpowder;  but  it  has  siniH*  been  rcpairetl.  and 
made  stronger  than  ever.    Bona  haa  been  much 
improve*!  since  its  occupation  by  the  French.    The 
streets  are  narrow  and  CTooked,  but  there  are  seve- 
ral gCKMl  houses,  a  good  market,  with  shopa,  reaii- 
ing-HKims,  coffee-houses,  and  even  a  theatre.    The 
road  of  B<ma  is  far  from  being  safe,  the  NE.  an<l  E. 
winds  tlm»wing  in  a  heavy  sea.    The  Si'iboiis  wa» 
navigable  when  the  Romans  possessed  Bona,  and 
it  might  be  rendcn'd  so  again  by  clearing  away  a 
bar  which  has  accumulated  at  its  mouth,  where 
there  art^  but  3  or  4  ft.,  whereas,  within  this,  there 
an;   13  ft.  water.     Bona  Ls  the  seat  of  a   French 
judicial  court :  has  manufactures  of  bemoMn  and 
other  ganncnb*,   tajH'stry,  and  saddles:  exporta 
com,  wool,  ox-hides,  and  wax.     It  was  f«»rmerly 
the  (HMitre  of  the  French  trade  on  this  coast,  and 
is  at  ppisent  the  principal  seat  of  the  coral  lishen'. 
(See  Aloikiis.)     The  Kasba  was  taken  March  2.% 
1832.  by  a   few  Fniuch  soldit^rs  and  sailors,  the 
Turks   left  in   it,    Iniing  dissatisfied   with    their 
leaders,  having  oi>ened  the  gates  to  them.     Bona 
was  aftenvanls  pillaged  and  burnt  by  the  Aral  is, 
but  the  French,  having  received  reinforcements, 
took  possession  of  it.  and  captured  115  pieces  of 
cannon.     About  a  mile  to  the  S.  are  the  rem.iins 
of  Hippo  Kegius,  once  a  residence  of  the  Numidian 
kings,   and  afterwards  the  episco])al   see   of  St. 
Augustine.     It  was  situated  between  the  rivors 
Boojermah  and  Seibous,  being  about  2  m.  in  circ. 
Its  cldef  relics  are  some  lai^v  tistems  and  part  of 
the    Koinan   walls.     A    swampy    tract    exteiuis 
Iwitween  it  and  Ikma,  probably  its  ancient  haven. 
IlipjK)  was  taken  by  the  G<»ths,  and  finally  dt*stroywl 
by  Othman,  the  third  caliplu     Its  materials senc-d 
to  build  the  modem  town. 

B(  )N AVISTA,  one  of  the  Cai>e  dc  Verde  islan«ls, 
which  see. 

BONDENO  (an.  Pculinum)^  a  town  <»f  central 
Italy,  prov.  Ferrara,  at  the  continence  of  the 
Panaro  and  Po  d'Argento.  Pop.  2,072  in  18<i2. 
The  town  lies  at  the  mouth  of  a  defile  which  leads 
acr«>ss  the  Apennines. 

BONEFKO,  a  town  of  S<Mithcm  Italy,  in  the 
ft>rmer  kingdom  of  Naplei*,  prov.  Sannio,  cap. 
cant.,  on  the  declivity  of  a  mountain,  t>  m.  SSE. 
Larino.  Pop.  4,7(>9  in  18G2.  It  has  a  fine  f^talace 
and  a  magnificent  parish  church,  with  four  houses 
of  refuge^ 

BON  1 FACCIO,  a  to^-n  and  sea-port  of  the  blanti 
of  Corsica,  cap.  cant.,  <»n  a  small  peiunsula  at  the 
S.  extremity  of  the  island,  on  the  strait  which 
l>ears  its  name,  45  ra.  SSE.  Ajaccio;  lat,  -W^  23' 
11"  N.,  long.  90  9'  16"  E.  Pop.  3,453  in  18G1. 
The  town  is  well  built  and  fortified,  but  not 
strongly.  Its  port,  which  lies  lietween  the  ]>enin- 
sula  on  which  the  town  is  built  and  the  main- 
land, stretches  nearly  1  m.  inwanls,  has  deep  water 
throughout,  and  Ls  one  of  the  Ix'St  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean.   Its  entrance,  however,  is  not  more  Uian 


BONIFATI 

from  80  to  90  yanla  broad,  which  rcndeis  it  a 
little  difficult  of  access. 

HONIFATI,  a  town  of  Southern  Italv,  prov. 
Cosenza,  4  ui.  SE.  Iklvidere.  Pop.  3,329 'in  18(>2. 
The  town  has  several  cliurches,  and  a  convent; 
a  ^n^at  number  of  silk-worms  are  raised  in  itji) 
environs. 

BONDOU,  a  country  of  W.  Africa,  which,  Uke 
moHt  others  in  the  same  part  of  the  world,  has  not 
had  its  astronomical  position  precisely  ascertained. 
On  liennell's  map  to  Park's  First  Journey,  it  is 
phicetl  iKjtween  the  lats.  of  13^°  and  14^°  N.,  and 
between  long.  10°  10'  and  11°  20'  W.  On  the 
map  to  Park's  Second  Journey  the  lonj^.  remains 
unaltered,  but  the  lat.  is  removetl  one  degree  more 
to  tlie  N.,  with  the  whole  of  the  traveller's  route, 
in  order  to  make  that  route  agree  with  the  few 
ol>ser\ations  which  were  taken.  Though  powerful 
among  its  barl>an)us  neighbours,  it  Ls  a  small 
statt:,  not  exceeding  in  length,  from  E.  to  \V., 
78  m.,  nor  in  width,  from  N.  to  S.,  70 ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, verj'  comjjact  in  form,  and  its  area  is  pro- 
bablv  not  less  than  5,000  sq.  m.  Its  pop.  may 
amount  to  1,500,000  or  2,000,000.  It  is  bounded 
E.  by  liamlxuik :  SE.  and  S.  by  Tenda  and  the 
Simbani  Wilderness  (wf>oded,  not  desert) ;  SVV.  by 
the  same  wilderness  and  VViwlli;  W.  by  Foota 
Toria;  and  on  the  N.  by  Kujaaga.  Bondou  is 
tolerably  elevate<l  among  the  Senegambian  system 
of  mountains,  and  some  parts  of  it^  surface  rise 
into  considerable  peaks.  The  land  slopes  towards 
the  X.  and  \V.,  as  w  shown  by  the  direction  of  the 
riv(?rs,  the  Fo-le-me  holding  a  N.  course  to  the 
Senegal,  and  the  Nerico  a  SW.  one  to  the  Gambia. 
The  siib-tributflries  of  these  afHuents  are  so  nume- 
rous, that  though  neither  of  the  tirst-class  rivers 
(Senegal  and  (lambia)  j>ass  through  Bondoti, 
there  are  few  districts  better  or  more  abundantly 
watered.  As  a  natural  consequence,  vegetation 
is  of  a  most  Wgorous  kind ;  the  hills  are  covered 
with  thick  wo<k1s,  and  in  native  fertility  the  soil 
is  not  suqmssed  by  any  in  the  world.  The  pro- 
tl  net  ions  are  the  same  with  those  of  the  neigh- 
bouring countries  (see  Bambarra,  Bamuouk, 
A'c.) ;  but  a  winter  or  drv  season  harvest,  tht)ugh 
not  quite  peculiar  to  this  country,  is  sutficiently 
remarkable  to  attract  the  attention  of  travellers. 
The  com,  called  by  lK>tanL«*ts,  ITolcua  cornuus^ 
fn»in  the  <U'iM'n«ling  position  of  its  ear.  Ls  sowed 
about  Noveml>er,  Lh  in  full  vigour  by  the  end  of 
December,  and  is  reajHMl  in  the  early  part  of 
January.  It  is  exceednigly  prolific,  and  a[)pears 
to  l)ear  a  strong  resembhnice  to  the  Arabic  ilhour- 
nih.  In  climate  and  divLxion  of  seasons,  Ikmdou 
agrees  also  with  the  surrounding  countries,  but  it 
api>ear.s  to  |K»ssess  the  advantage  of  being  more 
healthy,  and  seems  to  be  rather  less  infested  by 
fenKUous  animals.  The  inhabitants  differ  essen- 
tially in  comj)lexion  and  mannera  from  their 
iiinnwliate  neighlH)urs.  They  l>elong  to  the  great 
Foulah  family,  next  to  the  Mandingoes  the  most 
consi<lerable  of  all  the  W.  African  nations.  '1  hev 
have  tawny  or  rather  yellow  skins,  with  small 
featurcts,  and  soft  silky  hair.  They  hold  the 
negroes  to  be  their  inferiors ;  and,  when  talking 
of  ditterent  races,  always  class  themselves  among  i 
white  people.  They  have,  indeed,  most  of  the 
distinctive  marks  of  an  Arab  race;  l)ut  though 
many  of  them  sjK^ak  a  little  Ambic,  their  native  ■ 
tongue  bears  no  resemblance  to  that  language, 
nor  have  they  any  legends  that  trace  their  origin 
farther  IC.  than  FiM>la<loo  (literally,  'the  countr}' 
of  the  Foidahs'),  near  the  s(»urces  of  the  SenegaL 
In  iudu.-try,  energy,  and  resources  they  are  su- 
jK^ior  to  tlieir  negro  neighbours ;  they  are  tolerablj' 
g<M»d  agriculturists,  and  an*  said  to  be  well  versed 
in  grazing  and  dairj'  husbandry,  though   they 


BONN 


493 


make  no  cheese.  Cattle  is  their  chief  wealth,  and 
they  possess  also  a  handsome  breed  of  horses. 
There  are,  indeed,  but  few  African  countries  where 
so  many  of  the  necessaries,  and  even  conveniences, 
of  life  are  enjoyed,  and  that  not  by  the  rich  only, 
but  by  the  greater  part  of  the  population. 

Centrally  situated  between  the  Senegal  and 
Gambia,  Bondou  has  become  a  high  road  for 
traffic;  the  slave  dealers  from  the  coast  usually 
I)ass  tluttugh  it,  and  by  their  means  a  consider- 
able commerce  is  carried  on  with  the  neighbour- 
ing and  even  distant  countries.  The  native  exports 
consist  of  com,  cotton  cloths,  some  sweet-smelling 
gums,  and  probably  sometimes  cattle.  The  transit 
trade  consists  of  slaves,  salt^  iron.  Shea  butter, 
and  gold-dust  The  government  is  monarchical, 
and  the  king  is  often  at  war  with  his  Mandingoe 
neighbours. 

The  Mohammedan  religion  is  very  generally 
professed,  but  not  exclusively ;  the  king  himself 
IS  a  katir  (infidel),  and  it  does*  not  api)ear  that  any 
intolerance  is  practised  by  either  sect;  but  the 
maxims  of  Islamism  seem  to  have  had  some  in- 
tiuence  over  the  lk)ndou  Foulahs,  who  are  less 
hospitable  than  the  poorer  or  more  ignorant 
negn)es. 

Sch(K>ls  arc  established  in  the  different  towns, 
where  children  of  all  persuasions  arc  taught  to 
read  and  write.  The  character  used  is  Arabic^ 
and  the  instructors  the  Mohammedan  priests; 
by  thijfi  means  Mohammedanism  possesses  a  strong 
hold  over  the  people. 

Customs  and  duties  on  travellers  are  extremely 
high.  An  ass  load  of  gocnls  [>avs  a  bar  (two 
shillings)  at  all  places;  and  at  ^athcomla  (the 
royal  residence)  a  musket  and  six  bottles  of 
gunpowder,  or  the  value  of  them,  are  exacted  as 
the  common  tribute ;  besides  which,  neither  the 
king  nor  any  of  Ids  chief  officers  are  delicate  in 
requesting  presents,  which  requests,  under  tho 
circumstances,  are,  in  fact,  demands  which  cannot 
be  evailexL 

BONN,  a  very  ancient  handsome  town  of 
Prussia,  cap.  circ.,  prov.  Rhine,  on  the  left  l)ank 
of  that  river,  about  15  m.  S.  Cologne,  on  tho 
railway  from  Cologne  to  Mayence.  Pop.  20,857 
in  18G1.  The  princi|)al  celebrity  of  B«»nn  Is  <le- 
rived  from  its  university,  founded  in  1818,  and 
intended  to  replace  that  of  Cologne,  suppressed 
by  the  French.  Niebuhr,  the  historian  of  Home, 
was  one  of  its  professors;  and  it  has  still  to  boast 
of  some  very  dLstinguished  names.  There  are,  on 
tlie  average,  st)me  GOO  students.  The  electors  of 
Cologne  formerly  resided  here ;  and  their  castle,  a 
building  of  immense  extent,  is  now  the  university. 
The  library  that  belonged  to  the  university  of 
Col(^]^e,  comprising  from  80,000  to  100,000  vols., 
has  been  removed  thither.  In  the  museum  of 
Khenish  antiquities,  in  the  university,  is  an 
ancient  monument,  inscribed  Decs  Victoria  Sa- 
crum^  suppose<i  by  some  to  be  the  identical  Ara 
Ubiorum  mentitmed  by  Tacitus.  (^VimaL  lib.  i, 
§  3!).)  This,  however,  is  doubtfuL  The  cathe- 
dral, or  metropolitan  church,  in  the  older  Gothic 
style,  with  a  high  tower,  has  a  statue  of  the 
Empress  Helena,  and  is  said  to  be  btult  on  the 
site  of  a  churi'h  she  had  founded.  There  is  also 
a  goo<l  town-hall,  theatre,  drc.  A  line  aveime  of 
chestnuts  conducts  to  the  Castle  of  I\tjmelsdorjf\ 
appropriated  to  the  use  of  the  university,  con- 
taining the  museum  of  natural  history,  aiul 
having  attached  to  it  a  spacious  and  well-kept 
botanical  garden.  The  situation  of  B«)nn  Is  de- 
lightfuL  It  is  one  of  the  most  agreeable  towns 
on  the  Rhine  as  a  place  of  residence.  Beethoven, 
the  miLsician,  was  bora  here  on  the  17th  De- 
cember, 1770. 


494^ 


BONNAT 


BONNAT,  a  town  of  France,  dAi.  Creiisc,  cap. 
cant.,  on  a  hill  not  far  fnmt  the  little  CrcuM.  Poji. 
2,712  in  1861.  The  place  in  distinguished  by  the 
old  castle  of  Boaiivais. 

BONNET-LE-CIIATEAU  (ST.),  a  town  of 
Franco,  dcfp.  Loire,  cap.  cant.,  17  m.  S.  Montbrison. 
Pop.  2,230  in  1H61.  This  is  a  place  of  {rreat  anti- 
quity ;  it  is  situated  on  a  Koman  n>ad,  craistrucrtCMl 
by  Agrippa,  and  occupies  a  picturps(]uc  position 
on  the  summit  of  a  hill,  surmounttHl  by  a  fortntss, 
anid  to  be  of  the  age  f)f  the  Romans.  Part  of  the 
ancient  walls  and  towers  by  Mhich  the  town  was 
formerly  surrounded,  still  exist.  It  has  a  han<l- 
mroe  Gothic  church.  Locks  of  various  sorts  arc 
maile  here,  and  some  lace;  and  the  place  has  a 
considerable  trade  in  timl>er,  forwarded  to  the 
building-vards  at  St.  Hambert. 

BONNKTABLE,  a  t4)wn  of  Franco,  dop.  Sarthe, 
cap.  cant.,  on  the  Dive,  16  m.  NK.  Mans,  near  the 
railway  from  Paris  to  Mans.  Pop.  4,056  In  1861. 
It  has  a  castle,  constructed  in  the  loth  centuri% 
The  inhabitants  arc  princi|)ally  engaged  in  the 
cotton  maimfacture. 

BOXNEVAL,  a  tovm  of  France,  dc^p.  Euro  ot 
I^irc.  cap.  cant.,  on  the  Loire,  in  a  fejrtilc  valley, 
111  m.  SSW.  Chartres.  Pop.  3,<KM;  in  1H61.  Stn-ets 
broad  and  well  laid  out.  It  was  formerly  fortitied, 
and  had  an  abbey.  The  church  is  surmounted  bv 
a  vori'  high  steeple.  It  has  a  cotton  mill,  witL 
manufactures  of  calicoes,  carpets,  coverlets,  <S:c., 
and  some  considerable  tanneries. 

BONOKVA,  a  ttmn  of  the  island  of  Sardinia, 
prov.  Sassari,  18  m.  ENE.  Bosa,  in  a  healthy 
situation,  on  the  declivity  of  a  mountain.  Pop. 
4,879  in  I85H.  The  town  has  two  convents,  one 
of  them  for  Jesuits.  Aharas,  or  dejfot  d^vtaUmt^ 
iras  ostablishe<l  here  in  1803. 

BOODUOOM,  or  IWJDKUX,  a  sea-port  town 
of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  Natolia,  coast  of  the  Arehi- 
T)clago,  m>posite  the  island  of  Cos,  KM.)  m.  S. 
Smyrna;  lat.  37°  1'  21"  N.,  long.  27°  25'  18"  K 
Pop.  estimated  to  be  12,0<>().  The  town  is  benuti- 
fullv  and  conveniently  hituated  on  a  rising  ground, 
at  the  lN)ttom  of  a  deep  liay,  commanding  a  view 
of  the  inland  of  Cos,  and  the  southern  shore  of  the 
Ccraunic  gulf,  as  far  as  Cape  Krio.  It  has  a  small 
but  well-sholterod  har1)our,  witli  fn)m  two  to  three 
fathoms  water,  resorted  to  by  Turkish  cruisers,  and 
having  generally  a  ship  of  war  on  the  stocks.  In 
the  l>ay  outside  the  harbour  there  an;  from  10  to 
20  fathoms.  Houses  of  stone,  and  irregularly 
scattered  along  the  shore  of  the  bav,  being  inter- 
8peri«o<l  with  gardens,  tombs,  and  cultivated  fields. 
Streets  narrow  and  dirtj',  and  the  bazars  VTetched. 
The  castle  or  fortress,  situated  on  a  projecting 
rock  on  the  E.  side  the  harbour,  was  built  by  the 
Knights  of  Rhodes  in  1402 :  it  is  still  in  tolerably 
good  repair,  and  mounts  50  pieces  of  cannon.  The 
serai,  or  i>alacc  of  the  moosellim  or  g(»vemor,  and 
some  small  mosques,  stand  along  the  western  mar- 
gin of  the  harbour. 

It  is  supposed  that  Boodroom  occupies  the  site 
of  the  ancient  HalicamatsuSf  the  country  of  Hero- 
dotus, and  ofDionysius  the  historian.  AI)ove  the 
town  are  the  remains  of  a  theatre,  280  ft.  in  dia- 
meter, and  which  seems  to  have  liod  30  rows  of 
marble  scab).  Old  walls,  exquisite  sculptures, 
fragments  of  colimins,  and  other  relics,  evincing 
its  ancient  splendour  and  importance,  aliound  in 
the  town  and  its  vicinity.  (Deaufort's  Karaniania, 
p.  96 :  Turner's  Tour  in  the  Levant*) 

BOON  DEE  {Bunfii),  arajahship  of  Hindostan, 
prov.  HttjiMJOtnna,  distr.  Ilamotee,  under  protec- 
tion of  the  British  ;  estimat  area,  2,291  sq.  ni.  It 
was  formerly  much  more  extensive,  but  Kotah  and 
its  territory* have  l>een  sopanited  from  it;  in  1817 
more  than  half  the  revenues  were  usuriKMl  by 


BOORO 

Scindia  and  Holkar,  and  the  peaaantiy,  imporpr- 
ished  b}'  endless  exactions ;  but  in  1818  liie  rajah 
received  a  considerable  accession  of  dominion,  and 
the  toiKii  of  Patuu,  from  the  hands  of  the  British. 
Although  small,  this  state  is  important,  as  it  con- 
tains tlie  principal  pames  from  the  8.  into  Upper 
Hind«Mtan.  Tlie  natives  are  of  the  Harm  tribe, 
which  has  pnKluced  many  celebrated  men,  and 
amongst  others  one  of  Aurungzebe's  best  generals, 

B(N>NDEE,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  prov.  Kaj poo- 
tana,  cap.  of  the  above  rajahship,  and  residence  of 
its  sov.,  on  the  S.  declivitv  of  a  long  range  of  hilL«, 
90  m.  SE.  Aimeer,  200  m*.  S\V.  Agra ;  lat.  25°  2«* 
N.,  long,  75^  30'  E.  It  is  divid^  into  New  and 
( )ld  Boondee :  the  f(»rmer  is  surrounded  by  a  high 
stone  wall,  which  extends  up  the  acclivity* to  some 
ffirtitications  which  crowD  the  hill ;  the  bouses  are 
mostlv  of  stone,  and  two  stories  higli.  The  palace 
is  half-way  up  the  hill,  and  is  a  very  striking 
stone  oditice,  supported  partly  by  a  perpendicular 
nwk  400  ft.  high,  but  principally  by  solid  piers  of 
mo-Honrj'.  This  city  is  also  rendered  picturesque 
by  its  numerous  temples,  magnificent  ftmntains. 
and  spacious  main  street  opening  to  the  palace,  at 
the  lower  extremity  u(  w^hich  stands  a  grojU 
temple,  dedicated  to  Krishna,  with  many  gniups 
in  bns-n>lief,  and  other  sculptures.  Old  Boondee 
is  W.  of  the  former,  covers  a  considerable  surface, 
and  contains  some  tine  fountains  and  pagodas,  but 
is  in  a  state  of  general  decay.  The  i)asscs  N.  of 
lioondee  are  strongly  defended,  and  abound  in 
natural  beauties,  in  royal  and  religious  edifices, 
and  other  works. 

B()(>I{HANP(X)R  (Barhanpura),ti  town  of  the 
Deccan  India,  prov.  Candeish,  of  which  it  was  the 
ancient  cap. ;  built  in  a  plain,  on  the  N\V^  baidc  uf 
the  Tiiptoe,  135  m.  SSL.  Oojcin,  and  215  m.  E. 
Surat:  lat  21°  19'  N.,  h»ng.  76©  18'  E.  Tliis  » 
one  of  the  largest  and  best  built  cities  in  the 
Dex'tran,  though,  as  a  whole,  devoid  of  architectural 
Ix'auty.  Most  of  the  houses  are  of  brick,  many 
three  stories  high,  with  neat  facades,  framed  in 
wo(k1,  as  at  (k»jein,  and  univen»ally  roofwl  with 
tiles ;  but  the  fort  and  palace  of  its  ancient  sove- 
reigns, and  many  Mohammedan  mosques,  chapels 
and  tombs,  are  heaps  of  niins.  Some  of  the  streets 
are  M'ide,  regular,  and  paved  with  stone;  and  there 
is  a  scpiare  of  considerable  extent:  the  finest 
building  is  a  mosque,  calle<i  Jiunnia  Musjud,  a  ])ile 
of  grey-stone,  -with  a  handsome  fa9ado,  and  octa- 
gonal minarets,  but  destitute  of  a  cupola,  the  usual 
api»endage  to  ^Iohamme<lan  structures.  The  Tup- 
tee  is  a  clear  and  beautiful  stream,  but  here  of  no 
great  breadth,  and  easily  fordable  in  the  dry  season. 
Boorlianp(H)r  is  supplied  with  water  by  aquc«lucts, 
which  bring  it  a  distance  of  4  m.,  and'iUstribute  it 
through  every  street  l)elow  the  pavement,  whence 
it  is  drawn  up  by  leathern  bucKots.  500  of  the 
best  houses  are  occupied  by  Bokrahs,  a  Moham- 
medan sect,  who  are  the  great  merchants  in  this 
part  of  Hindostan,  wear  the  Arabian  costume,  ami 
call  themselves  Arabs  by  descent,  Tliis  city  was 
conquered  by  the  Mahrattas  in  1760,  since  which 
it  has  pnigressively  decaved.  It  was  captured  by 
the  British  in  1803.  l^he  grapes  grown  in  its 
vicinitv  arc  said  to  l)e  the  l>est  in  India. 

BoOKO,  an  i!*land  of  the  E.  Archii>eIago,  in  the 
so-called  4th  divis.,  between  lat,  3°  and  4^  S.  and 
long.  12r>o  and  127°  E.,  50  m.W.  C^ram ;  length,  E. 
to  W.,  75  m.,  breadth  38  m.  Rice,  sago,  a  provi- 
sion of  an>matic  and  other  woods,  tropical  fruits, 
and  the  best  cajoput  oil,  arc  found  here ;  the  inte- 
rior is  peopled  by  Horafooras,  who  subsist  on  sago 
and  the  chase.  Some  of  the  other  inhabitants  are 
Mohammedans.  Chinese  lunks  and  S.  Sea  whalers 
visit  it,  and  the  Dutch  have  a  settlement  on  the 
island. 


BOOROOGIRD 

BOOROOGIRD,  a  town  of  Peiaia,  prov.  Irak- 
Kennanshaw,  cap.  govemU  in  a  fine  and  fruitful 
valley,  100  ra.  NW.  I»pahan.  Estimated  pop. 
12,000.  It  haA  a  fine  castle  and  several  moeques. 
The  town  and  dist,  attached  to  it  belong  to  the 
tribe  of  Lack,  who  do  not  wander  far  from  the 
spotA  to  which  they  arc  partial,  but  settle  in  vil- 
laj^es,  and  employ  themselves  in  the  improvement 
of  their  estates.  ' 

BOOTAN,  or  BHOTAX,  an  indep.  state  of  N. 
Ilindostan,  between  lat.  26°  30'  and  28©  80'  N., 
and  long.  88^  30'  and  949  E.,  having  N.  the 
Himalaya,  which  divides  it  fn)m  Tibet ;  E.  and  S. 
Assam  and  Bengal;  and  W.  the  river  Tcesta, 
which  separates  it  from  Sikkim  :  length,  E.  to  W., 
aI)out  350  m.,  by  from  90  to  100  in  width ;  but  its 
limits  would  greatly  exceed  this  estimate  were  it 
described  as  comprising  all  the  country  imme- 
diately adjoining  the  Himalaya  on  both  sides, 
from  Cashmere  to  (^hina,  which  is  termed  by  the 
Hind(H>s  Bhote,  and  its  inhabitants  Bhotjftu, 
Assuming  it  to  include  the  districts  now  referred 
to,  it4S  are^  has  been  estimated  at  about  G4,500 
»q.  m.,  and  its  pop.  at  1,500,000.  The  external 
n|i|iearance  of  Bootan  is  the  very  reverse  of  that 
of  Tibet,  which  is  a  level  table-land,  whereas  it  is 
almost  entirely  mountainous  or  hilly. 

Mountains. — Its  N.  portion,  which  is  the  S.  de- 
clivitv  of  the  Himalava,  constitutes  an  almost  im- 
IMissable  frontitT,  consisting  of  lofty  mountains, 
either  covered  with  snow,  or  black  and  destitute  of 
all  verdure  excepting  towards  their  base,  where 
short  and  scanty  herbage,  a  few  bushes  of  holly, 
and  occasionally  a  stunted  pine,  are  all  the  signs 
of  vegetation  existing  in  this  region. 

About  10  m.  from  this  boundary  the  aspect  of 
the  country  changes,  becoming,  although  still 
bold  and  lofty,  more  ])icturcsque  and  smiling ;  the 
hills  are  cultivated  to  a  considerable  height,  or 
covered  with  verdure  often  to  their  summits,  hav- 
ing on  their  slo))es  luxuriant  forests.  The  valleys 
are  mere  wetlge-shapcd  intervals,  or  water-courses, 
!x»tween  the  liills,  and  their  vegetation  Ls  similar 
to  that  of  the  temi)erate  parts  of  Kurojie.  The 
coimtry  continues  of  this  character  for  alx>ut 
50  m.  from  X.  U)  S.,  gradually  lx.»coming  less 
striking  in  its  features  as  it  api)n)aches  the  terriano, 
which  divides  it  from  BengaL  This  is  a  tract  of 
marsh-land,  25  m.  in  width,  and  covered  with 
jungle^  I>eing  the  only  plain  belonging  to  Bootan  : 
it^  climate  is  most  pestilential. 

The  principal  river  is  the  Tchinchien,  which  in- 
tersects the  countr}'^  X.  to  S.,  i)assing  througti  the 
valley  of  Tassisu('on,  receiving  the  waters  of  the 
Patcliien  and  Hatchien,  and  after  a  turbulent 
course  of  a1)out  150  m.,  during  which  it  forms 
several  cataracts,  and  rushes  over  vast  masses  of 
rock,  falls  into  the  Drahmaputra,  a  few  miles  be- 
low lUngamatty,  where  it  is  called  the  Gadawhar. 
There  are  several  rivers  of  le^w  consideration,  sup- 

i)osed  tributaries  of  the  Brahmaputra ;  but  the  vio- 
ence  of  their  course  prevents  the  simplest  form  of 
navigati<m  being  practicable. 

The  primary  rocks  in  the  mountains  arc  chiefly 
granite  and  an  imperfect  quartz,  haWng  the  ap- 
)>earance  of  marble,  but  employed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  a  s|)ecies  of  porcelain ;  good  limestone  is 
abundant,  but  not  used  either  for  agricultural  or 
other  pur{)oses.  It  is  conjectured  that  the  moun- 
tain ranges  contain  much  mineral  wealth,  but  they 
remain  almost  wholly  unexplored.  Iron  and  copper 
are  the  only  metals  hitherto  discovered,  and  the 
former  alone  is  applied  to  any  purpose  by  the 
natives. 

The  climate  exhibits  every  variety,  according 
to  elevation,  and  summer  heats  and  v^inter  cold 
are  severally  felt  in  i>Iace8  within  sight  of  each 


BOOTAN 


495 


other.  In  the  mountainous  r^ons  it  is  not  un- 
healthy, and  resembles  the  climate  of  the  S.  of 
Europe,  not  being  subjected  either  to  the  biurning 
suns  or  periodical  rains  of  Bengal.  Snow  prevails 
during  a  great  part  of  the  winter,  except  m  some 
few  districts;  showers  are  frequent  in  summer,  and 
in  consequence  of  the  exhalations  arising  from  the 
numerous  springs  and  cataracts,  a  certain  humidity 
pervades  the  atmosphere,  even  at  this  season.  Pa- 
nukka,  although  but  a  few  miles  distant  from 
Tassisudon,  has  a  climate  so  much  milder  than 
the  latter,  that  it  has  been  chosen  as  the  winter 
residence  of  the  sovereign. 

The  mountain  forests  abound  with  beech,  ash, 
maple,  birch,  ^ew,  pine,  fir  and  cypress,  but  contain 
no  oaks.  JSumerous  fruits  comm(m  to  Europe 
flourish ;  as  apples,  pears,  apricots,  peaches,  wal- 
nuts, melons,  mulberries,  strawberries,  raspberries 
(the  two  latter  fruits  growing  wild),  oranges,  and 
pomegranates,  which  are  excellent.  In  the  colder 
districts,  the  cinnamon-tree,  and  a  species  of  rhu- 
barb, are  found. 

The  marshes  of  the  S.  abound  with  elephants, 
rliinoceroses,  tigers,  buflaloes,and  other  formidable 
wild  animals ;  but,  excepting  in  these  i)art8,  they 
are  not  abundant.  Captain  Turner  speaks  only  of 
a  kind  of  monkey,  which  inhabits  its  vicinity,  and 
the  yaik,  or  grunting  ox,  which  is  found  among 
the  mouuUins  of  the  N.  boundary,  but  descends 
into  the  lower  countr)'  for  pasture  during  the 
winter  months.  The  Tangun  horse,  a  8i>e<aes  pe- 
culiar to  Bootan,  about  13  hands  high,  well-formed, 
short-bodied,  clean-limbed,  deep  in  the  chest,  ex- 
tremely active,  and  well  suited  to  mountainous 
countnes,  is  an  object  of  considerable  tnUfic  with 
Bengal.  These  have  a  tendency  to  l)ecome  pie- 
bald ;  those  of  one  colour  amongst  them,  idthough 
rare,  and  less  valued  by  the  natives,  are  much  more 
esteemed  by  the  British  merchants. 

Pwple.— Ill  physical  formation  the  people  differ 
greatly  from  the  Bengalese,  being  hardy,  robast, 
stn)ng,  and  occasionally,  in  the  mountain  districts, 
attaining  a  height  of  more  than  6  ft.  Their  skins 
are  smooth,  and  often  not  darker  than  those  of  the 
inhab.  of  the  S.  of  £^iurope ;  faces  broad,  and  cheek- 
bones high,  from  which  point  the  face  rapidly 
narrows  downwards ;  the  eye  is  small  and  bkrk, 
with  long  pointed  comers,  looking  as  if  extended 
in  width  bv  artificial  means :  they  have  scarcely 
any  eye-lashes,  beanl,  or  whiskers.  *  They  are  often 
greatly  afllicted  with  goitre,  especially  those  who 
Uve  near  rivers  subject  to  inundation.  Though 
not  deficient  in  courage,  they  are  peaceably  inclined 
and  inexpert  in  the  arts  of  war:  the  bow  and 
arrow  (in  the  use  of  which  they  are  skilful),  sword, 
and  falcluon,  are  their  chief  weapons.  No  mili- 
tary discipline  whatever  is  maintained,  and  ambush 
is  more  fTe(|uentIy  resorted  to  than  open  conflict. 
They  dress  m  woollen  cloth ;  use  animal  food  and 
spirits.  Tea  is  the  usual  beverage,  but  so  prepared 
as  to  suit  few  palates  but  their  own.  Their  dwell- 
ings seldom  exceed  one  story  in  height ;  the  palace 
of  the  rajah,  at  Tassisudon,  consists  of  several,  and 
is  magnificent,  as  compared  with  the  other  edifices. 
Much  ingenuity  is  displayed  in  the  construction 
of  their  brid^^  which  are  composed  either  of 
timber  or  chains  of  iron :  there  is  one  of  the  latter 
kind  across  the  Tchinchien,  at  Chuka,  deserving 
of  admiration ;  the  founder  of  which  is  unknown. 
Their  aquetiucts  are  formed  of  the  trunks  of  trees 
hollowed  for  the  purpose.  Both  polygamy  and 
iK)lyandry  are  in  practice ;  marriage  is  not  ratifie<l 
by  any  religious  form,  and  it  frequently  happens 
that  one  female  becomas  the  jomt  projierty  of 
several  mcml)er8  of  a  family ;  the  dea<l  arc  burnt, 
and  their  ashes  plunged  into  a  river,  on  which 
occasion  certain  ceremonies  are  performed  by  the 


406 


BOOTAN 


Gylonpw,  a  numeroiw  ikhjI  of  recluses,  who  ap]>ly 
themHC'lvofl  exi'liwivoly  to  adiniiiiHtcriu;;  tlie  dutit's 
of  relipon.  Tlioro  are  two  annual  ft'stivals ;  one 
in  the  spiring,  calkil  the  AWi,  cousistinj^  of  diflerent 
Fports,  m  which  those  of  all  ranks,  sex,  and  a|xe. 
mix  M'ilh  unrestrained  free<ioni :  and  an  autumnal 
festival,  called  muUaum,  embracing  a  multitude  of 
Hindoo  alle^)rieH. 

Agricultttre. — In  the  culture  of  the  lan<l  the  na- 
tives display  iujlustiy  and  care.  Kice,  wheat, 
barley,  and  a  si)eoies  4)f  triauf^ilar  seed  l)earing  an  | 
atlinity  to  t)ic  polyixonum  of  Linna'usare  the  chief 
agricultural  pnxlucts.  The  valley  of  Ta>sisudon, 
and  some  of  the  lan<ls  skirting  the  river,  yield  two 
crojMt  annually:  the  fipround  on  the  sIojk's  of  the 
hills  is  levelle<i  l)y  cutting  it  into  shelves,  to  enahle 
it  to  he  irrigated  hy  the  mountain  stn*ams.  The 
most  lalxirious  olHces  of  husbandry  fall  to  the  lot  , 
of  the  females.  Notwith.siauding  the  climate  | 
afTonls  gr(>at  mlvantages  for  the  production  of  culi- 
nary vegetables,  the  turnip  is  the  only  one  culti- 
vated with  much  Mu;ces>»;  cucumliers,  shallots, 
melons,  d'C,  are  gni%vn  ;  but  porat(»es  have  failc<l, 
and  are  now  totally  neglecteii.  | 

The  trade  with  the  surrounding  c(»untriei»  is  a  I 
monojMily  in  the  hands  of  the  goveninient.  ('oar.-<' 
wtMillen  cloths  horses,  wax,  ivory,  gold-dust,  silver 
ingots,  mu.sk,  the  various  fniits  of  li«M>tan,  and 
Chinese  manufactures,  fonn  the  chief  articles  of 
ex|K)rt  to  Iktngal;  and  the  same  articles,  with  the 
aildition  of  nu-k-salt,  leather,  tok'uro,  papi>r,  rice, 
to  Til>et.  An  annual  caravan  is  s<'ut  bj'  the  del>- 
rajali  into  the  IJengal  presid.,  which  ri'turns  la<leu 
with  indigo  (n»ni|Kising  half  the  cargo),  Kngli>h 
wotdlcns,  linen  cloths,  cottons,  sandal-wu<Ki,  sjtices, 
assatVetida,  sheet -copis-r,  tin,  gunp^iwdor,  otter- 
gkins,  honis,  hides,  the  \\hole  usually  amounting 
in  value  to  about  8o,0(i0  ruiwes.  A  small  tratfic 
with  the  K.  division  of  the  Kungpoor  district  is 
also  maintainetL  A  base  silver  coin,  worth  alsiut 
l^W.,^t^uck  in(.?^K>ch  Ilahar,  is  current  throughout 
liootan,  where  there  is  no  mint. 

MnnufiU'turt'8. — The  princiiml  is  paper,  made 
from  the  Iwirk  of  a  tree.  fn»m  which  material  a  kind 
of  i«ilk  and  satin  is  al.so  made.  Pan)  is  the  only 
market  in  lltKitan,  and  here  are  manufactured  idols, 
ftwonls,  daggers,  and  the  barbs  of  arrows ;  the  latter 
arc  dipjKMl  in  a  pouiou  pn>cured  from  a  tree  un- 
known to  ICuropisans,  which,  however,  seldom 
jin)ves  mortal. 

lieh'ffiu/i, — Rudilhism,  of  the  Lama  8<K:t,  is  the 
prevalent  religion ;  but  a  difierence  of  opinion 
GxL<t-s  on  certain  ])oints,  one  sect  {H:rmitting  the 
use  <»f  f»>od  consideriHl  impure  by  the  Hrahmiiis. 
No  intemiption  wh.itever,  of  a  dipUmiatic  or  other 
character,  b*  allowe<l  to  interfere  during  the  f»erimi 
of  the  i.vlebration  of  sacre<l  rites  :  there  are  many 
similarities  in  religious  custonui  here  with  those 
of  Tilwt, 

Corcrnmttnt — The    sovereign    iK>wer.    though  ; 
vestetl  in  the  hands  of  the  dlianna-rajah,  who  is  ; 
reganled  as  posseK^ing  divine  attributes,  is  exer- j 
cisetl  only  by  the  delj-rajab,  who  resides  at  Tas- 
sisudon.    llie  several  pah.<es  into  the  couutrj'  are 
under  the  juris<lictii»n  «if  ollicer''  calbnl  xm/m/Ax,  who 
usually  inhabit  the  fortresses  of  their  peculiar  dis- 
tricts, except  in  winter,  when  they  vi.Mt  the  lower 
countr}',  to  escajK;  from  the  rigour  of  the  season, 
and  for  the  puq>«>se  of  establWiing  their  authority, 
which  is  uncertain  in  its  extent. 

The  interior  and  S.  jiarts  of  the  coimtr>'  are  di- 
vided into  difl'erent  domains,  each  controlled  by  a 
resident  functionar\'.  whose  dutv  consl^ts  in  the  ! 

•  •  I 

exaction  of  the  gov.  dues,  and  general  adnnnistra-  I 
tioii  of  his  distr.     The  most  ^ubordinate  of  the  ' 

Eublic  oHicers  are  caUtnl  mookrea,  which  situation, 
owcver,  atlbrds  au  (»piK)rt unity  for  consideralle 


BORDEAUX 

preferment  The  revenuca  of  the  rajah  are  paid 
mostly  in  articles  of  pnxluce  and  merchandii***. 
Tassisudon,  Wandipoor,  Tamnukka,  GhasMi,  and 
Murichom,  are,  the  chief  towns;  but,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  tirst  two,  they  are  no  better  than 
small  idllages. 

//wfory.— Of  tliis  country,  called  bv  the  andent 
Brahmins  Madra,  no  early  record  has  been  tTans- 
mitte<l,  nor  was  public  attention  much  directt^tl 
towards  it  until  the  delKrajali's  invaaion  of  the 
neighl)ouriiig  territory'  of  C'ooch  Bahar,  in  1772, 
which  the  British  government  opposed;  but, 
through  the  intervention  of  the  lama  of  Til»et,  a 
{leace  was  effccte*! :  the  disputed  district  being 
awanled  to  the  B4K)tanese. 

It  is  extre^mely  ditlicult,  and  in  some  parts  im- 
|Hi^sible,  to  determine  the  exact  boundaK'  of  the 
country';  a  regular  system  of  encn>achment  on  the 
surnuinding  states  having  lieen  long  practiced  by 
the  liootanese,  who  have  at  different  periods  ai'- 
j>ropriatcd  to  themselves  coiLsideralde  possessions 
belonging  to  Bengal  and  Assam,     (ireat  alarm 
was  created  in  1810  by  a  supi>ose<l  threiatened  in- 
vasi(»n  of  the  Chinese,  who  liad  entere<l  Nepaul ; 
and  the  del»-rajah  was  excited  by  his  feaiy  to  dt^ 
dare  himself  amicably  t<iwanls  the  BritL^h,  in  the 
\\o\h:  of  gaining  assL>ta]ice,  if  required.    But  a  very 
seri«»us  dispute  U'tween  Ikiotan  and  the  govern- 
ment of  C.'ucutta broke  out  in  the  autumn  of  IKtU. 
An  Knglish  envoy  having  l)een  insulted,  and  satis- 
fa<'tion  and  re<lress  l»eing  refus«il,  a  fi>rce  <*<»mpo«<efl 
<if  H.ood  men,  all  natives  of  India,  except  2(>  British 
artillerymen  with  two  guns,  were  sent  mto  Bootan. 
They  to«jk  several  furtilied  places,  but  were  at- 
tacked at  Dewangire  on  the  3rd  of  Februarj-,  lx*>.\ 
and  driven  l^ack  to  K(H)mrehatta,  the  Bengal  na- 
tive regiments  ilying  in  utter  confusion.    I>i  the 
news  of  thL-<  disaster  becoming  known,  the  Governor 
(ieneral  at  once  despatched  a  sufficient  numlier  rif 
Kurojwan  trooi>s,  who  tw)k  possession  <»f  the  h»st 
ground,    llie  low  countrj-  t>f  Boot.in  at  the  same 
time  wiis  decdared  aimexed  to  the  British  pos- 
ses.<ion^  in  India. 

n(  )OTON,  an  isl.  of  the  E.  Arehipelagn,  2nd 
«livihion  :  lying  off  the  SE.  extremity  €>f  CeleU-s; 
length,  N.  to  S.,  «.")  m.;  average  breadth  alh-ut  2«» 
m. ;  iK'tween  lat.  4°  and  6°  S.,  long.  12;io  E.  It 
is  high  anil  wcxnly,  but  well  cultivate*!,  yielding 
rice,  maize^  an  abundance  of  tmpical  fniits, *|Mml:n-, 
A'c.  The  Dutch  had  fiirmerly  a  settlenient  lu. re. 
and  sent  an  oflicer  annually  to  destroy  all  tlie  clove 
tn*es  on  the  islamL 

BOrPAKT  (an.  Baydabriga),  a  town  of  t)io 
Prussian  States,  pn)V.  Khine  on  the  left  bank  of 
that  river,  9  m.  S.  Coblentz,  on  the  railwav  fn.ni 
Cologne  to  Mayence.  Pop.  4,402  in  IHtll.'  Thw 
is  a  verj'  ancient  tim-n,  its  walls  apiiearing  to  Iks 
built  on  the  foundations  of  a  fort  constmctul  by 
Dhlkus.  In  the  middle  ages  it  wa«»  an  imperial 
city,  and  several  councils  have  been  held  h»  it. 
The  houses  are  mostly  of  wood  and  plaster,  with 
projecting  upi>er  stories;  and  the  streets  aix.*  nar- 
niw  and  ill-paved.  The  large  convent  of  Marien- 
burg.  founded  in  1123,  and  some  Eimilarcstabli>h- 
nients.  have  been  cimverted  into  cfitton  factories. 
The  parL«<h  chureh  and  the  old  chureh  of  the  Car- 
melites are  worth  notice^ 

IJOKDEAUX  (an.  Burdigala).  an  important 
commercial  city  and  sca-ix)rt  i»f  France ;  ca|>.  dei». 
(iironde,  in  the  centre  of  an  extensive  ))biin,  on 
the  left  or  W.  bank  of  the  (varenne,  o.')  m.  SK. 
from  its  emlxiuchure,  102  m.  XNE.  Kiyonne,  aii«i 
307  m.  S\V.  Paris,  on  the  railway  fntin  Paris  to 
Madrid.  Vv\).  I(;2,7o0  in  1«G1.'  The  Ganmne 
here  describes  a  s«micirele,  along  the  outer  Mde 
of  which  the  city  extends  for  alsmt  2^  m..  with  a 
breadth  of  aUtut  1  m.  in  its  greatest  diamotvr. 


BORDEAUX 


497 


Tlie  city  is  divided  int^  the  old  and  new  quarters ; 
the  former,  or  southern  portion,  which  inchidcs 
the  ancient  Roman  town,  contains  only  narrow, 
cHM^ked,  and  dirty  streets,  with  ill-biiilt  stone 
houses;  while  the  latter,  compri^^iin^  the  N.  part 
of  the  city,  has  mostly  risen  up  since  1743,  when 
the  Intendant  M.  de  Toumy  commenced  his 
enlijifhtcned  administration.  It  is  extremely 
handsome,  and  deservedly  celebrated.  ITie  wide 
Kue  du  Cliapeau  Kouge,  which,  with  its  continu- 
ations, divides  the  city  into  two  nearly  equal 
parts,  has  many  elei^ant  shops,  and  some  n<)ble 
edilices,  as  the  i^>urse,  and  Grand  Theatre.  The 
Alle'es  an<l  Cours  de  Toumy,  the  Omrs  du 
Jardin  Public,  the  Cours  d'AJbret,  and  several 
(»ther  streets  and  squares,  are  remarkable  for  their 
beauty  t>r  size.  The  Faul)ourg  des  Chartnms, 
which  contains  the  Jardin  Public,  was  s{)oken  of 
as  perhaps  the  tinest  suburb  in  Kurope.  till  the 
extension  of  building  made  it  part  of  the  city. 
The  approach  to  I^rdcaux  by  water  is  very  strik- 
itij;.  The  river,  hi  its  narrowest  part,  opposite 
tlie  Place  Koyale^  is  720  yards  across,  with  a 
de|»th  of  IC  ft.  at  low,  and  nearly  6  fathoms  at 
hi^h  water ;  the  length  of  the  port,  fwm  one  end 
to  the  other  of  the  city,  ls  reckonwl  at  upwanls 
of  a  league ;  it  i»  capable  of  accommodating  1 ,200 
ships  ;  and  such  as  do  not  exceed  500  or  GOO  tons 
niny  enter  it  at  all  times  of  the  tide.  The  Garonne 
is  skirted  along  the  city  by  a  succession  of  superb 
quays,  which  descend,  by  a  gentle  inclination,  to 
the  water's  edge,  and  besides  their  utility,  arc 
amongst  the  principal  ornaments  of  the  town, 
lieiug  lined  with  haiulsome  buildings,  whose 
fa<;u«les  have  an  im|)Osing  effect  *  On  viewing,' 
says  Mr.  Inglis,  *  this  magniticent  crei»cent  from 
any  opi,o8ite  p<jint  fn»ra  which  the  eye  may  em- 
brace its  whole  extent,  one  cannot  hesitate  in 
ascril)ing  to  it  a  de<?i<led  su|»eriority  over  any  coim- 
</'«//  presented  to  us  either  hi  the  French'or  the 
Knglish  metropoUs.'  (Switzerlaiui,  &c.,  p.  816.) 
On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  there  is  the 
suburb  of  La  Hastide.  The  communication  be- 
tween the  citv  and  its  suburb  is  mauitained  by 
the  famous  bridge  of  Ponleaux.  It  is  532^  yards 
in  length  (or  120i  yards  longer  than  Waterloo 
Pridge),  by  48  ft,  broad;  has  17  arches,  the 
piers  being  of  stone,  and  the  upper  |>arts  partly 
of  stone  and  jmrtly  of  brick.  It  Mas  commenced 
in  1X10,  and  c<tmpleted  in  1}<21,  at  a  cost  of 
2r»(M»(>()/.  Owing  to  the  dipth  and  strength  of 
the  current,  it  was  a  most  lalmrious  undertaking. 
The  public  buihlings  most  worthy  of  notice  are 
the  cathedral,  the  churches  of  St.  Michel,  St. 
Croix,  St.  Seurin,  Paul,  liruno,  and  others;  the 
P«  lurse  ( Kxchange) .  ( 'u>t  om  I  louse.  Grand  Theatre, 
Hall  {»f  Justice,  Palais  Koyal,  Port  de  Ila,  syna- 
gogue, and  public  baths.  The  cathedral  is  a  line, 
but  unfiuisluHl,  (Jot  hie  edifice,  commenced  in  the 
11th,  and  continued,  by  several  different  archi- 
tects, in  that  and  the  succeeding  centuries,  from 
which  circumstance,  although  Wautiful  in  parts, 
it  wants  harmony  and  regularity.  It  is  413|f  ft. 
in  length;  the  height  of  its  nave  is  85  ft.;  that 
arm  of  the  cross  in  which  its  grand  entrance  is 
placed  is  adorned  with  two  spires,  each  nearly 
l<;o  ft.  in  height.  At  a  short  distance  from  it 
stands  the  ancient  l)elfrv,  formerlv  nearlv  320  i\, 
high  :  but  having  I)een  nuich  dilapidate<i  during 
the  Pevolution,  it  is  nt»w  reduced  to  little  more 
than  loo  ft.  high,  and  serves  as  a  shot  tower. 
The  (rhurrh  of  St.  Michel,  built  in  the  12th  cen- 
turv,  is  in  a  more  i)erfect  architectural  stvle  than 
the  catheihal:  but,  like  other  churches  in  IJor- 
dcaux.  it  LS  dark  ami  gloomy.  It  also  has  an 
isolated  belfry,  which  was  320  ft.  high  until 
mutilated,  and  in  part  destroyed,  by  a  tempest 
\'ou  I. 


in  17G8.  Beneath  it  is  a  cavern  in  which  dead 
bodies  have  been  prese^^'ed  for  a  lengthened 
period.  Tlie  church  of  St.  Croix  is  the  mo«t 
ancient  of  all.  having  l>ecn  built  l>efore  the  middle 
of  the  7th  c»eiiturv,  and  restored  by  Charlemagne. 
The  churches  of  \otre  Dame,  St.'  Paul,  and  the 
College  Hoval,  are  of  much  later  date.  The  syna- 
gogue is  a  fiandiome  building,  erected  in  the  time 
of  NaiX)leon.  There  are  two  Protestant  churches, 
but  they  present  nothing  worthy  of  remark.  Tlie 
Bourse  is  a  lai^  e<liHce,  witli  a  splendid  staircase, 
and  a  hall  in  it.s  centre,  98^  ft.  in  length,  by  65i 
ft.  broad,  lighte<l  by  a  large  glazed  dome,  78J 
ft.  high,  an<l  adorned  with  a  gallery  support< 
by  a  double  rank  of  arcades.  In  the'  upiier  part 
of  the  buihling  are  the  Council  Chamber,  Tribunal 
of  Commerce,  and  rooms  used  for  other  public 
purposes.  The  Custom  House,  built  on  the 
corresponding  side  of  the  Place  Koyale,  is,  ex- 
ternally, like  the  Bourse^  The  Grand  Theatre, 
built  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.,  at  an  expense  of 
170,000^,  will  accommodate  4,000  persons,  and 
has  a  fine  concert-room,  a  spacious  hall,  caf^s, 
and  other  apartments.  There  are  several  other 
theatres,  but  none  particularly  distinguished.  The 
Palais,  or  Chateau  Koyal,  built  in  1778,  and 
formerly  the  residence  of  the  archbishop,  is -an 
extensive  and  fine  structure,  with  a  large  quadri- 
lateral court  in  its  centre.  Na}K>lcon  I.  made  it 
an  imperial  palace.  The  Palais  de  Justice,  the 
seat  of  the  royal  court,  and  civil  tribunal,  has  a 
marble  statue  of  Montesquieu.  The  modem  town- 
hall  is  of  (lothic  architecture ;  of  the  ancient  one, 
built  in  the  13th  century,  nothing  at  present 
remains  but  an  oval  tower,  surmounted  bv  adome, 
flanked  by  two  turrets,  called  the  Tour  de  iHorloge, 
Bonleaux  was  for  a  long  period  fortifie<l;  but 
the  streets  planned  by  M.  de  Toumy  for  the  most 

1>art  occupy  the  sites  of  the  fonner  works:  the 
ii'ort  de  Ila,  constructed  by  Charles  ^^I.,  is  now 
converted  into  the  prison  :  the  Chateau  Trompette, 
built  by  the  same  Sovereign  in  1-153,  was  de- 
molished in  1817;  and  its  site,  which  now  forms 
the  Place  Louis  Philippe,  laid  out  as  a  promenade, 
and  planted  with  trees.  There  are  some  remains 
of  antiquity  in  IV)nleaux  :  the  principal  is  what  is 
called  the  '  Palace  of  (lallienus,*  a  vast  amphi- 
theatre of  brick  and  stone,  believed  to  have  been 
erected  about  a.u.  2G0,  but  now  much  dilapidated. 
It  stands  in  the  N.  half  of  the  city,  al>out  |  m. 
fmm  the  ancient  Roman  town.  It  api)ears  to 
have  been  of  an  elliptic  form,  144|^  yards  long,  by 
neiurly  1 15  yards  witle,  and  capable  of  accommo- 
dating 15,000  spectators;  it  sufl'eretl  greatly  dur- 
ing the  revolutionarj'  phrensy  in  1792  (when  the 
Palais  d'Ombriere,  or  Castnnn  Umbrari;c,  another 
Uoman  edifice,  was  also,  for  the  most  part,  dc- 
stroyetl) ;  but  its  two  principal  entrances,  28|  ft. 
high,  by  19  1-Gth  ft.  wide,  and  a  [Murt  of  its  cir- 
cumference, are  still  nearly  pcrfecL  M(»st  other 
nrlics  of  the  Koman  dominion  have  disap|>eared. 
The  Temple  of  Tutelle^  supi)osed  to  liave  been 
dedicated  to  the  tutelar^'  divinity  of  the  place, 
and  to  have  been  erected  early  in  the  first  centur}% 
was  88  ft,  in  length  on  each  side,  and  contained 
24  enormous  columns,  17  of  which  were  standing 
towanls  the  end  of  the  17th  centur>'.  It  was 
much  mutilated  in  1G49,  and  totally  demolLshed 
under  Louis  XIV.,  in  1G77,  to  make  room  for  the 
glacL^,  constmcted  by  Vauban,  n>und  the  Chateau 
Tromi)ette.  No  trace  is  found  of  the  Temple  of 
Diana  and  Fountain  of  Divona;  and  the  stream 
Divitia,  now  I^  Devise,  mentioned  by  Ausoniua 
(Claras  L'rbcs,  xiv.  B.), 

Per  modiuiiKiuo  urbis  fontani  fluminls  alvcnm : 
Qucni  pater  Oceanua  rctluo  cum  iinpleverit  ae»tu, 
Adlabi  totum  Bpectabis  claasibas  nqnor^ 

K  K 


408 

iiwfoxul  of  suppftrtinfic  fleets,  w  now  arched  over, 
and  no  veHti^cH  are  extant  of  itH  dock. 

Bonlcaux  hw  many  0triictnre8drv(ito<l  to  trade, 
arts,  and  manurartiirt>8.  There  an*  wveral  huild- 
in^-<lockH,  in  which  hn^^s,  fri^atoft,  and  even  }«hi|K4 
of  the  line  may  be  amHtructed,  but  which  are 
ordinarily  employed  only  ft/r  commercial  pur|)Oi«e9. 
Ship-buildinf;  iit  carried  on  extensive]  v:  thenuniU'r 
of  rtailin;;  vc^fiseLs  c(tnhtructv<l  in  t^ie  year  \tHVA 
amounte<l  to  4.'),  of  a  total  tonna^  of  l(»,0*Ji>,  be- 
Hidtrri  2  HteamerH  of  .0(10  tona. 

On  the  31  .St  of  I)e<vmU»r.  lHr,3,  thenunilier  and 
tonna^'!  of  ve«Hol»  U'lon^ng  t4»  the  |K»rt  of  Bor- 
deaux were  as  follows  : — 


f^AIUNO  Vkssfja 

8  of  8f>ft  tonrt  and  alx>vt>,  moaaurinir 
8  from  7rt»  Ut  whj    „  „  „ 


11 

coo  to  Too 

98 

.^'H)  to  tVH) 

fiH 

400  to  MNt 

73 

aiHI  to  4>HI 

lOtf 

*2(K)  to  :m»o 

ill 

1(H)  to  '2tM 

44 

(W  to  loo 

87 

:toto  (U) 

6 

ttOtO    30 

443  vessels,  mraiiariiiK 

Btramkiu*. 

1       280  liortfc- power 

1         'JJO 

11       8.10          „ 

Vemelii   .    13    l,:)oO 


Torn 
in,4!»'» 

:{.i;o.'» 

7.12.- 
ir,,oi«» 
3o.*ili( 
2.'.»;7i 

•i'..7'.'8 

J>.l-i.*> 

8,470 

1,.'.7« 

1*;:) 

13J,193 


tu|P«  anil  river  paa- 


»♦ 


»» 


»i 


BORDEAUX 

imMlucc;  it  reccivoa  from  America,  ^"****'J"V^ 
Afri«'a,  coffee,  wipar,  pep|M?r,  ciK^ni,  canella  wirk, 
indiico,  quinquina,  tea,  rice.  ^•(K'oa,  ^kin*.  dyc- 
w(M)d.s  Ac;  inm,  lead,  and  otliiT  metal**  are  im- 
lMirt<Hl,  esiieciallv  fn>m  Kni;land  ;  fiiih,  jjl"^?  *."** 
taHow  fr«.m  Kusaia;  timlier  from  the  Baltic; 
metalK,  oil,  liquorice.  MfTron,  Ac  from  Spain; 
zinc  and  steel  from  fitermany :  cheese  and  i»t'«*k- 
fish  fn.ni  Holland;  linens  f mm  Knjrland  and  the 
two  last-named  conntrie**.  lliere  arrivwl,  in  the 
vear  IKr^J.  in  the  port  of  B«»nlPoux  3.381  vesivlji. 
of  .')()8.:»44  t«>n«  burden,  while  the  deport  upw  con- 
sisttil  of  :i:\7\  veitfeK  of  r»'>\,72^  Um».  The 
nunilier  of  Hritish  f-hiiw  which  enten»<l  the  iN»rt 
in  iWhi  amounted  to  41 1,  of  120.1*75  tons  bunhn, 
whili-  the  de|iartures  were  3!)3,  of  llfi,-»tvi  ttMi*. 
(l:e|K)rt  <»f  Mr.  OmimiI  Scott  on  the  traile  of  lUff- 
deaiix  for  the  vear  1H«».').) 

The  trade  of  Ikmleaux  'with  the  interior  l« 
irreatlv  facilitated  bv  the  three  lnie«  of  railway, 
ifnim  Paris,  from  Madrid,  and  fn>m  Mars«-ilU-s 
which  converge  at  the  city,  oa  woll  n*  by  tlie 
«'hi«'f  water  communication  of  the  Canal  du  Midi 
(S<«e  Kkanck.) 

Bordeaux  jMwseK*»e«  neveral  charitable  institu- 
tions. *  The  New  llntipital.  erected  to  replace  that 
«.f  St.  Andn"  (built  in  131M)),  i»,*  says  Mr.  In^rlis. 
*  niKui  a  scale  of  mapn licence  and  <x*mfort  l>eyond 
what  is  to  l>e  found  in  any  c»ther  town  in  Eiiroix". 
I  dwlicateil  the  second  of  my  days  at  B^mh-aux 
to  a  visit  to  this  hospital,  aiid  was  equally  siir- 
]>ris<Hi  at  its  extent,  ami  delif^hted  with  the  a<l- 
mirable  arran^ments  that  p»T\-ade  ever\*  i>art  of 
it.  There  in  nothing:  that  this  ho^qiital  diw*  m t 
contain.  It  inclu«le»  71<»  lieds  for  sick  ]mtsimis. 
and  lHchaml)en»  for  the  acc«»mmo«latif»n  of  persi»us 
who  pay  for  the  attenti«»ns  they  receive.  [(  c<»n- 
tains  Imths,  bakehouse**,  cmirts.   an  aj>i»tliei;ar>'s 


Besides  its  maritime  industr>',  Bonleaux  has 
many  other  imiMirtant  manufactun-s.  There  are 
numerous  brandy  distilleries,  su^ar  n-lhieries. 
vinejrar.  Klass-lM>ttle,  shot,  and  c<inla;re  factoritjs, 

inm   and    st(H..l   fonjes,   potteries,  and  tanneries,    ^j;;"';  7;;;7.^;rn;;V;;7 panVel'isTaJu'l  n^T,nimr«U- 
wth  manufactures  olc.ott<ms,W(K|lh.ns.kidj;h.Aes,    ^.J   ^^^^  ^^^^.^.^   men.     There    are    nUo   in   the 

[•mvisiitn 
scari.vly 

-       .  .  ■  I  •    i.1         :  -1 1    .._».  .„!    iMui,  mill.  111  m«:  \ ivjmitmrwt  «>i   ^»*-i»    uei»art m«*nt. 

chemical  preparations ;  and  m  t he  neij;hU,urho<Hi    „,,.  ,„     i,^,  -^      rf.^.t  .  ^nd  that  iii  thi  smalh^ 

of  IU,nleaux  somr  KnmiH.wder  fabrics.  minutiii,  ever>'thin>c  is  fi.und  that   can  c-ontribute 

Ihe  tnule  of  the  ,|ort  is  a.nsiderable  in  the  pro-    ^..^j^^.^  ,o'l„.alth  ..r  to  comfort.     'Hie  Br,rd«-lai-  are 


jnthmanulacturesoi  cottons,  W(K.llel,s.KlaKi<•^ OS.  ,i„,;   f,,^  ^.^^i,.^   ,„en.     There    are    aW 

bonnets,  corks,  playiii^r^-anls,  hqneun.,   nniMcal  ^       -^^^^  j^.,  ^.^.^^^.j^^  f^,  ^-„tor.  a^  a  j- 
instruments,  liarrc'ls,  turiKntine,  and  (»ther  dnp  l^^^^  ^      containhi^'  1,410  hlidn.  I  nee*l 

lUKUi^^alum,   vitriol,  mnieral  vk^aters    and    other  ^i,,,  t,,„,,  i„  the  cleanline*«  »f  evei^'  dej- 


also  of  that  quarter  is  iM'cupied  with  celhirs,  wime 
of  which  are  cai>able  t»f  containing?  1,0(M»  tons  of 


wine. 


The  quantity  of  wine  exi>orted  to  the  united 
kingdom  from  Bofth'aux  has  l>eeu  progressively 
iiicreasini;.  ever  since  the  condusiim  of  the  treaty 


biiUdinpi 

river,  each  lid  yanls  square,  devotenl  to  public  Iwth? ; 
their  exterior  is  cnmiied  with  an  af;i^e«)ile  terran'. 
and  the  interior  of  iMith  is  fittetl  up  with  all  the 
various  kinds  of  Imths,  mcHlicinnl  and  otheiwi^-. 
The  vinevanl  of  the  former  monastterv  of  the  Car- 


Quantity  exported  in  lS(i2 

lWi3 


2/i71.f>n3gRllonfl. 
3,«)'>a,iri        „ 


Increase  in  1863 


481,2(9 


royal  court  and  court  of  aKsize,  and  lrii.iun.il!*  of 
primary  jurisdiction  and  of  c<iinnierce.  It  has 
nunicroua  scientific  and  Hchola^tic  institutitll1^. 
The  Museum  occupies  a  lar^re  extent  of  j^iuiui. 
Besides  wines  and  brandies,  which  are  furnished  and  comprises  the  public  lilirary,  cabinet  of  natural 
to  ever>'  country  with  which  Bonleaux  has  any  histor>'  an<l  antiques,  a  picture-paJlory,  Mtluiols  of 
trade,  the  chief  ex|H>rta  are  liqueurs,  walnuts,  di'sifjil  and  [tainting,  and  an  rdii«er>''ator>*.  n»e 
chestnuts,  dried  fruits,  vinegar,  tartar,  skins,  flour,  public  library*  contains  llO.iKM)  vols*.,  amnnct 
cork,  and  various  drugs  t4>  England.  Spirit  of  which  are  some  rare  works,  and  several  valiuiUe 
^-ine,  tartar,  molasses,  and  colonial  protluce  to  MSS.:  the  other  departmenta  are  ntit  verv  rich : 
the  N.  of  Kuro|H':  fruits,  venligris,  and  a  few  the  f)icture-galler}',  however,  lioast«t  of  aom'e  p»*-i 
manufacturetlartirlesto the U. Static;  to SiJanii^h  paintings  of  the ' French,  Italian,  and  FleiniA 
America  and  tlie  \V.  India  colonies  of  P'rance,  hclxxils.  There  is  a  l»otnnic  ganlen.  at  which  a 
French  manufactures,  furniture,  cattle,  and  tlour;  to  cdurse  of  lectun?s,  nn'ogiiiseil  bv  the  L'iiivcr«itv  of 
the  S.  Seas,  the  K.  Indies,  and  fbina,  all  sorts  Fnince,  is  annually  deUvereir;  a  nniversitv  iii-a- 
of  manufactures,  fiinuture,  silver,  A-c.  Bordeaux  demy,  ntyal  academy  ot  artH.  M>ii*nces,  and  belle*- 
ii  the  chief  ptirt  of  Soul  hem  France  for  colonial    lcttrc>s,  a'  royal  colle^,  a  fucultv  of  theul<in'.«ith 


BORGIA 

Bchools  of  navigation  and  medicine,  a  normal 
school,  a  Rchool  for  deaf  and  dumb ;  an  Atlicnanim  ; 
Linnivan,  philoraathic,  and  medico-cIiirur<;ical  so- 
cieties, a  nival  society  of  mc<iicine,  a  st>ciety  of 
romnicrcial  emulation,  &c  In  the  vicinity  of  the 
city  i»  an  cxi)erimental  farm,  and  a  race-course  or 
liin]>odrome :  the  country  round  u  chietly  appro- 
l»riated  to  the  culture  of  the  vines;  but,  from  it^ 
llatticss,  is  devoid  of  much  picturesque  l)eauty. 
Since  lH2o,  this  city  has  been  lighted  with  gas. 
Tlic  inhabitantjt  are  generally  opulent,  and  live  in 
n  style  superior  to  that  common  in  any  other 
FrtMuh  city,  l*aris  except^'d.  The  jurisdiction 
of  the  royal  court  of  Bordeaux  extends  over 
the  dc'ps.  Gironde^  Charente,  and  Dordognc  :  its 
jurchljishopric,  which  originated  in  tlie  third  cen- 
tury, has  fi>r  suffragans  the  bisliojvs  of  ^Vgen,  An- 
goulome,  Toictiers,  l*erigueux,  La  liochelle,  and 
J^u9()n. 

History. — Tlie  e|x>cli  of  the  foimdation  of  Bor- 
deaux is  imknown.  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
Bitnri(/es  I'lrwrt,  a  Celtic  nation  of  (iaul,  and  a 
cclcl)rated  commercial  city  in  the  time  of  Strabo. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Romans  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus:  and  Hadrian  made  it  the  metn>p<ilis  of 
tlie  sci'ond  Aquitaine.  In  the  reign  of  (xallienus, 
Totricus,  the  governor  of  this  prov.,  one  of  the  so- 
called  thirty  tyrants,  assumed  the  puqile  here,  and 
it  is  most  probable  (Hugo)  that  it  was  he  wlio 
built  the  celebmted  amphitheatre.  In  417  the  Vi- 
sigoths, in  0(19  Clovis,  and  in  729  the  Saracens, 
ijossessiHl  themselves  of  it ;  un<ler  Charlemagne, 
It  was  governed  by  a  count  of  its  own  ;  in  the 
ninth  century  it  was  ruined  by  the  Normans.  It 
hulwcquently  became  the  cap.  of  Guienne,  and  fell 
with  the  rwt  of  that  duchy  under  the  kings  of 
Kngland,  to  whom  it  almost  uninterruptedly  be- 
h)nged  till  the  English  were  finally  exi>elled  from 
France  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  Generally  speak- 
ing, this  city  has  in  later  times  l)een  attached  to 
the  interests  of  the  Bourl>on  family  ;  but  in  1830, 
on  the  publication  of  the  ordonnances  of  Charles 
X.,  the  standard  of  revolt  was  hoL^ted  here  before 
news  arrived  of  tl»e  same  occurrence  in  Paris.  Bor- 
deaux and  its  vicinity  have,  in  all  ages,  produced 
celebrated  men  :  amongst  others,  Montesquieu  and 
>I<mtaigne;  the  Latin  iK)etAusonius,  in  the  fourth 
century ;  Chaptal  de  Buch,  Kdtvard  the  Black 
I*rin<'e,  Jay,  De^seze,  drc.  ;  Pope  Clement  V.,  and 
Ki<rhard  II.  of  Kngland,  were  also  natives  of  tliis 
city. 

BORGIA,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov.  Ca- 
tanzaro,  cap.  cant.,  in  a  plain  0  m.  \V.  Catanzan>. 
P«jp.  4,KM)  in  1859.  Having  been  almost  totally 
<icstn»yed  by  an  earthquake  in  1783,  it  was  relmift 
by  F(?r<liuand  IV.,  King  of  Naples,  Its  environs 
pnxluce  highly-esteemed  wines,  and  large  quan- 
tities of  silk-womis. 

liORGO,  or  BORGA,  a  sea-port  town  of  Rus.Hia 
in  Europe,  princip.  Finland,  g<»v.  Nyland,  at  tlie 
lH)ttora  of  a  bav  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  35  m. 
KNE.  Helsingfofs;  lat,  (MP  22'  N.,  long.  25°  45' 
!•:.  Poj).  2,789  in  185H.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
bi>hopric,  and  has  a  g^'n^la>«ium.  The  harbour 
is  iniiifferent,  and  it  has  but  little  trade.  It  was 
here  that  the  emi>en)r  Alexander  I.  received  the 
oath  of  fidelity  tendered  by  the  states  of  the 
principality. 

BORfiU-MANERO,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy, 
rov.  Novara,  cap.  arrond.,  on  the  Gogna,  18  m. 
>N\V.  Novara.  Pop.  7,h95  in  1^02.  It  is  sur- 
roumled  by  walls,  and  is  well  built  ;  has  a  fine 
stpiare,  several  convents,  a  hobiutal,  and  a  nwnt- 
de-pii  tr, 

1;()I;(;0-SAN-1)ONINO,  a  town  of  Northern 
Italy,  in  the  li»nner  du«.'hy  of  Panna,  ca|).  distr., 
on  the  Stinme,  22  m.  SE.Placentia.    Poi).  9,992 


BORNEO 


499 


^ 


in  1802.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls,  has  a  palace, 
a  cathedral,  four  parish  churches,  a  college,  a  semi- 
nary, a  workhoase,  and  some  falirics  of  silk  and 
linen.  It  owes  its  name  to  St.  Donino,  who  was 
beheaded  here  in  304. 

lioigo  is  prefixe<l  to  the  name  of  various  small 
towns  in  different  parts  of  Italy. 

BORISSOF,  a  town  of  Russia  in  Europe,  gov. 
Minsk,  on  tlie  left  bank  of  the  Bcrdzina,  45  m. 
NE.  Minsk.  Pop.  5,825  in  1858.  Ik>ris8of  has 
acquired  celebrity  from  the  disastrous  passage  of 
the  Berezina,  effected  near  it,  by  the  remains  of 
the  French  army  un<ler  Napoleim,  on  its  retreat 
from  Moscow,  oii  the  IGthand  17th  Nov.,  1812. 

BORISSOGLEBSK,  a  town  of  European  Russia, 
gov.  Jaroslaf,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Wolga, 
opposite  to  Romanof.  Pop.  6,600  in  1858.  The 
town  is  picturesquely  situated  on  a  hill  declinmg 
towards  the  Wolga,  and  surrounded  with  dense 
forests.  It  is  also  the  name  of  another  Rus- 
sian town,  gov.  Tambof,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Vorona. 

BORKIIUM,  a  small  island  in  the  North  Sea, 
belonging  to  Hanover,  off  the  mouth  of  the  ?!Ims, 
about  9  m.  from  the  nearest  point  of  the  mainland. 
Pop.  485  in  1861.  The  ishmd  is  included  in 
the  Imiliwick  of  Pewsum,  and  is  so  low  that 
at  lugh  water  it  is  divided  by  the  sea  into  two 
pretty  equal  parts.  The  hihabitants  are  mostly 
seamen,  several  of  them  being  employed  as  har- 
pooners  in  the  shi|)s  engaged  in  the  northern 
whale-fishery.  They  ah«>  raise  com,  fruits,  and 
cattle.  It  is  an  established  custom,  that  a  third 
part  of  all  articles  saved  from  shipwreck  goes  to 
the  individual  on  whose  land  the  disaster  took 
place.  Ik>rkhum  is  a  mr.,  nHth  a  church  and  a 
schooL  The  spire  of  the  chiuvh  serves  also  as  a 
lighthouse.  The  lantern,  which  is  famished  with 
retlecting  lam|)S,  is  150  ft.  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  is  in  hit.  63°  35'  20"  N.,  long,  6°  40'  26" 
E.     (Coulier,  sur  les  Phares,  2nd  edit.  p.  61.) 

BORMIO,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  prov. 
Sondrio,  at  the  confiuence  of  the  Fredosso  M'ith 
the  Adda,  30  m.  NE.  Sondrio.  Pop.  1,684  in 
1862.  A  lai^c  cattle  fair  is  annually  held  here, 
from  the  22nd  to  the  25th  of  ( )ctober ;  and  in  its 
vicinity,  on  the  declivity  of  Mount  BragUo,  are 
celebrated  mineral  springs,  nmch  fretiuented  by 
I>atients  from  the  Valteline  and  the  (inaons.  This 
tov^n  was  formerly  much  more  considerable ;  but 
being  sacked,  burnt,  and  its  inhab.  put  to  the 
sword,  in  1621,  it  has  never  recovered  from  the 
dn<aster. 

BORNEO  (called  by  the  natives  Tauna  Kle- 
tnanian),  the  largeEit  island  in  the  world,  Australia 
being  reckoned  a  continent,  occup>'ing  nearly  the 
centre  of  the  E.  Archipelago ;  between  lat.  4^  10^ 
S.,  and  7°  N.,  and  long.  109°  and  119°  20'  F-.; 
having  N.  and  W.  the  China  Sea ;  E.  the  Celebes 
Sea  and  Straits  of  Macassar ;  and  S.  the  Sea  of 
Java :  form  compact ;  length,  NE.  to  SW.,  750  m., 
breadth  3.50  m. ;  area  260,000  so.  m.  Estimated 
IN)p.  3,000,000.  The  coasts  are  less  indented  by 
deep  bays,  or  creeks,  than  those  of  most  islands  of 
the  Archip. ;  notwithstanding  which,  it  has  seve- 
ral fine  and  spacious  harbours.  The  shores  consist 
usually  of  mud  banks,  with  numbers  of  minute 
and  r(K*ky  b«lets  around  them ;  the  land  for  several 
miles  towards  the  interior  continuing  manthy  and 
alluvial,  interspersed  with  gentle  acclivities,  co- 
vereil  with  underwood.  In  the  maps  a  chain  of 
mountains,  mnning  NE.  to  SW.,  were  long  re- 
I)ri>sentcd  as  passing  throu{^h  the  centre  of  the 
island;  but  Mr.  Earl,  who  visited  the  interior  in 
1834,  saw  no  traces  of  these,  nor  does  he  believe 
in  their  existence.  Excepting  the  volcanic  chain 
of  mountains  passing  thiou^^  Java,  and  the  S. 

K  K  2 


500 


BORNEO 


]Mirts  of  the  arehipcln^o,  to  the  K.,  nil  tlic  hill 
ranges  of  th(N«o  islundH  nin  ]S\V.  and  SK.,  and 
BCftm  to  1)6  continuations  of  thej^rrat  ranj^H  which 
run  in  that  directi«)n  through  the  ultra-Ciunpotir 
poninHuln,  and  of  which  the  rtMiky  island  Pulo 
(.-ondor  and  the  Natunns  seom  to  l>e  conntTting 
links.  They  arc  all  of  the  sanj(j  geological  cha- 
racter— granitic;  and  in  llonuH»  |irobai>ly  termi- 
nate in  a  range  wliich  lin«»s  the  SK.  shore  f<»r 
90  ni.,  cnllcKl  the  Hundred  Mountniiu*.     Then>  are 


of  the  rivers :  iron-wooil,  ehony,  camphor,  dam- 
mer,  ami  tankiimem  tree;*  (from  the  latUT  of  which 
w(K>d-oiI  is  obtained),  c<»coa-palm,  betel,  cinna- 
m<»n,  sago,  A**?.,  are  amongst  the  principal  tree^ 
The  camphor-tree  gnm-s  to  15  or  16  ft.  in  cin:., 
and  pn»|M»rtit»nully  high :  it  is  cut  down,  i«plit  inUj 
nitH'w,  and  tlu-  prcnhice  (wliich  is  ]>robably  the 
iKAt)  found  in  the  fissures:  none  of  either  the 
IJornw)  or  Sumatra  camphor  is  im portal  int*)  Eng- 
land, which  is  supplietl  with   that   article   fn^m 


many  isolated  hills  in  lV»meo,  and  a  range  stretch-  j  China  only.     Hice  w  excellent ;  but  tlie  Dutch 
ing  along  theNW.  coast,  of  aUmt  8,<XK)  ft,  in  !  are  very  je'alous  of  its  exportation,  except  thniugh 

themselves.  Mai/.e  and  the  sugar-c.ine  are  culti- 
vated, as  well  as  the  plantain  and  many  other 
tropical  fruits. 


Animal*, — 'l*he  elephant,  rhinoceros  and  IfO- 
par«l,  are  contined  to  the  NE. 'comer  of  the  i^L; 
tlie  ox  and  wild  lu^  are  natives  of  the  fune^tji; 
and  the  jungle*  funiish  an  emlless  variety  of  tlic 
ape  and  m(»nkey  tril)e8:  amongst  which  are  the 
the  town  of  the  !  orang-outang,  and  a  species  of  l»alHX>n,  thought  by 
'he  Passir,  dAx,    Mr.   Karl  to  be  hitherto    uiidescribwl,  3  ft,  in 

height,  tailless,  with  short,  glossy,  bn»wni  hair,  ami 
an  aquiline  nose  projecting  1^  in.  from  the  face. 


height.  (See  Earl's  Map,  &c.)  There  are  mmie- 
rous  and  extensive  plains,  espe<>ial1y  in  the  N. ; 
but  the  most  imfKirtant  yet  known  to  Eunmeans 
is  that  of  Montradok,  near  the  W.  c^>ast.  There 
arc  Siiid  to  be  u]iwanls  of  1(K)  rivers,  many  Ix'ing 
navigable,  and  8<ime  of  con^ideraI)le  size.  The 
principal  is  the  Itaiijamiassin,  wliich  has  a  S. 
course  nearly  thn>ughout  the  whole  inland,  and 
falls  into  the  sea  not  far  fmm 
same  name  on  the  S.  coast.  The 
and  many  others,  are  met  with  on  the  Vs.  coast ; 
on  the  W.  the  Sambas,  Pontiano,  Landak,  Suc- 

caflan,  are  the  ]>rincii)al ;  the  iirst  is  1  m.  wide  at  The  tapir,  numl)ers  of  deer,  and  small  l>ear»,  m* 
its  mouth,  and  much  more  a  little  farther  inland,  larger  than  badgers,  but  with  shaggy  hair,  inhahii 
It  has  l)een  ascended  in  small  veswJs  by  the  llorneo.  The  Sooloo  Sea  is  much  frequcnt«tl  by 
Dutch  for  80  m.,  and  l)cyond  that  is  said  to  l>e  i  English  whalers  for  the  spennaceti  whale.  The 
available  for  caiUK>s  to  within  two  days'  walk  of  seas  alM)nnd  with  turtle,  ana  plenty  of  fish,  oysters, 
liomeo  Proper.    Tlie  larger  rivers,  whitrh  come    and  other  testaeett, 

fn^m  the  centre  of  the  island,  apiiear  not  to  have  Ptople. — The  interior  and  part  of  the  NW.ooa.*t 
their  origin  in  any  mountidnoiut  region,  as  tlnry  '  arejxHjpled  by  Dyaks,  and  by  a  race  with  woolly 
rise  no  higher  diuring  the  rainy  season :  they  sei-  hair,  like  the  Papuan  negroes ;  the  W.  c«>a5!  I'V 
dom  contain  any  sandbanks  or  rapi<ls.  Malays,  Chinese,  and  Dutch  colonist^u;  the^  NW. 

Nothing  satisfactory  has  been  communicated  by  half-caste  descendants  of  the  Moors  of  W,  Hin- 
respecting  the  geologj'  of  Donieo,  except  the  gm-  dostan;  the  N.  by  Anamese;  NE.  bv  Suluks:  E. 
nitic^  character  of  its  primary  mountains;  its  soil,  and  S.  coasts  by  Ilugis.  of  Ceh'liefu  Ikwides  thc^e, 
in  the  neighl)ourh(MMl  of  the  F^unii)ean  settlements,  '  three  tribes  live  in  small  craft,  in  n  wandering 
vies  in  richness  with  that  of  anv  other  island  of  |  manner,  about  the  shores:  viz.,  the  L.innns,  Ihhh 
the  Arch ip.  In  the  NE.  it  is  said  to  l>e  sujierior  !  Magindanoa;  the  ()rang-Ha<lju,  and  Onuig-Ti- 
to  all  other  j^rtJt.     liomeo  is   rich   in  valual>le    dong;  soun:e  unknown. 

mineRibt:  it  is  the  only  island  of  the  An-hip.  The  Dyaks  (Orang  llenua),  a  savage  race,  l)e- 
"where  iliamonds  are  found;  the  chief  of  which  ,  lieved  to  be  the  aborigines,  arc  scattered  all  over 
are  fnim  Landak,  in  the  Chinese  terriUirj' :  one  in  the  island  in  different  small  tribes.  Thev  are  (•f 
the  n)Ugh  state  weighing  3(>7  carats,  and  worth,    a  middle  size,  and,  except  when  craniijwl  up  by 

l)eing  constantly  in  a  canoe,  are  invariably  *'traii:ht- 
limlK'd  and  well-formed,  muscular,  though  inferi«iT 
to  the  Chinese  in  ability  t4>  c;irr>'  huMcns;  ft-t-l 
short  and  bn>ad;  toes  tunieil  rather  inward<i: 
cheek-l»ones  high ;  forehead  bmad  and  tlat :  eyi'« 
rather  long,  and  the  outer  higher  than  the  inner 
angle ;  faces  prominent,  with  a  plctont  expT\»ssi4»n. 
and  more  like  that  of  the  .Vnamese  than  otInT 
Asiatic^  nations ;  hair  straight  and  black ;  »<»  bcanl. 
Tlie  women  are  intr'resting,  <»fien  goisl-looking, 
and  sometimes  even  fair;  many  are  marrie<l  ti> 
Chinese,  and  make,  it  is  siiid.  giKnl  wives  and 
mothers.  Their  manners  are  mild  and  prept*?***!^ 
ing,  but  as  thev  dread  the  Malays,  fn»m  whom 
they  have  suffered  formerly,  they  commonly 
avoid  strangers. 

In  the  NE.,  and  near  Ilanjarmassin,  their  ci>n- 
dition  is  the  most  ameliorated.  At  the  latter  place, 
and  on  the  S.  coa^t,  they  are  said  to  pi>we>p  a 
written  character.  Kice  is  their  chief  ft»o«l,  laith 
lK>rk,  fish,  deer,  ami  other  wihl  aniinaK  which 
they  sluKit  by  means  of  arrows  blown  through  a 
tul)e.  This  is  their  general  wea|K>n,  but  tlicy 
sometimes  use  cnioked  Iwws  and  arn»ws,  the 
latter  «)f  which  are  dip|)e<l  in  |»oison.  They  spend 
much  time  in   shallow  canoes,  al>out  10  h.  loii^. 


according  to  the  common  but  absunl  method  of 
estimating  such  articles,  'JGU.STH/.,  has  bc^*n  found 
there,  and  was,  in  181o,  the  property  of  a  jH'tty  , 
chief.  Diamonds  are  most  numen)us  in  the  allu-  j 
vial  soils,  in  which  gold  is  also  found ;  and  are  of 
g(K>d  water,  though  lutually  small.  The  plain  of 
Montrad<»k  is  said  to  have  formerly  yielded  ><8,,H(>2 
oz.  annually  of  pure  metal  (Hamilton) :  the  wnl 
in  which  it  is  found  is  stiff,  and  the  veins  lie  from 
8  to  15  ft,  l)elowthe  surface.  It  is  met  with  chiefiv 
in  small  |>articles,  nearly  as  fine  as  sand,  although 
sometimes  in  irregular  pieces  of  the  size  of  a  six- 
pence. There  are  uiexhaustible  mines  of  ore  of 
antimony  of  very  superior  quality  at  Serawak ; 
1,400  ttms  of  which,  at  l()s.  to  2b«.  {kt  ttm,  are 
annually  exported  to  SingaiMjre :  tin  is  plentiful 
in  some*  jwrts,  and  a  little  iron  is  procured  from 
tlie  interior. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  N.  is  similar  to 
that  of  Ceylon,  and  not  subject  to  the  hot  lan<l 
winds  that  prevail  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel , 
the  VV.  coast  has  no  rainy  season  in  particular, 
but  is  refreshed  by  showers  all  the  year  roun<L 
£urop<.'ans  have  had  but  little  intercourse  with 
the  eaiitcm  parta,  and  little  respecting  them  is 
known. 


Borneo  is  generally  ver>'  fertile;  but,  except  in  '  and  made  bv  hollowing  out  a  single  tree;  but  t»n 
Borneo  Proper,  the  grain  pnKlucetlLs  not  sufficient  .  shore  inhabit    thatched  Immbtw  houses.  elevat»sl 


for  home  consumption.  Timber  w  often  wry 
large ;  but  not  generally  of  the  kinds  suited  for 
Hhip-building.  No  teak  has  been  yet  dis<!overed : 
ipangrovc  and  rattans  arc  plentiful  on  the  banks 


on  }K)Sts.  and  entensl  by  a  ladder,  which  is  alway* 
drawn  up  at  night:  these  habitnticnis  are  often 
collected  in  small  villages,  and  dffeiidvti  by  slm^k- 
ades.     The  men  wear  but  little  clotldng;   tlie 


BORNEO 


501 


i^'omcn  much  more,  and  arc  ba-shful  and  mcKlestt; 
lioth  »cxc8  love  fincr\%  e8i)ecLally  beads  and  fea- 
thers. Tattooing  is  in  use  among  some  of  the 
tril)es. 

Upon  the  banks  of  the  larger  rivers  many  tribes 
often  unite  together,  under  the  rule  of  one  stnmger 
than  the  rest ;  but  in  the  forests  they  keep  s<'|>a- 
rate,  and  speak  dialects  so  different  as  to  I>e  often 
unintelligible  to  each  other.  The  more  civilised 
have  adopted  Mohammedanism;  others  less  civi- 
lised believe  in  a  Supreme  liemg  and  a  future 
htate,  but  !*uppose  that,  in  the  latter,  the  owner  of 
n  human  head  will  have  the  former  wearer  of  it  as 
his  slave,  a  l>elief  which  has  naturallv  led  to  a 
widely-extended  system  of  human  sacrifice.  No 
one  C4in  marry  without  the  head  of  some  one  hav- 
ing l>een  first  obtained  by  himself  or  his  fricmls; 
and  at  the  funerals  of  pereons  of  consequence,  or 
treaties  of  |)eat;e  between  chiefs,  slaves  or  prisoners 
are  <leoapitated  to  obtain  these  trophies:  tne  heads 
are  dried  and  hung  up  in  the  houses:  and  pirati- 
cal exiHMlitions  are  oflcn  undertaken  with  no  other 
olject  than  to  obtain  them.  Some  Dyaks  are  (x;- 
cupied  in  washing  gold,  and  dispose  of  the  gi>ld- 
dust  to  the  Malays  for  red  and  blue  cotton  cloths, 
iK'ads,  brass  wire,  salt,  and  other  necessaries  of  life, 
and  tobacco,  of  which  they  are  extravagantly 
fond.  To  avoid  more  intercourse  than  necessary 
with  the  Malays,  they  oblige  them  always  to  dis- 
pose of  their  merchandise  at  ihe  nearest  Dyak 
t<iwn.  Next  to  human  heads,  which  appear  to 
thorn  the  most  valuable  of  all  articles,  Chuia  jars 
arc  valued,  and  from  some  sui)erstitious  motives 
are  s*>  highly  prized  that  they  have  been  known 
to  fetch  2o<)/.  or  more,  A  curious  cireumstAnce, 
stated  by  Mr.  Earl,  is,  that  if  any  one  drink  the 
smallest* quantity  of  the  blood  of  a  lt«>mese  in  a 
cup  of  water,  he,  by  doing  so,  binds  him  by  ties 
closer  than  those  of  consanguinity.  The  Lanuns 
are  a  ]iiratical  i>eople,  who  infest  the  N\V.  coast 
for  ."^1)0  m.,  and  cniise  hi  other  parts  of  the  Archi- 
jK-lago,  plundering  villages,  and  often  carrj'ing  off 
their  whole  |K)pulation  into  slavery.  Sometimes 
the  Dyaks  join  A^Hth  them  in  these  predatorj'  ex- 
{ledi lions,  and  bring  away  the  iron  and  human 
heads,  while  the  I^nuns  appropriate  the  rest  of  the 
s|w»il.  The  Umng-IVmiju  are  a  kind  of  sea  gipsies, 
in  ]iers<in  like  the  Malays;  living  at  the  mouths 
of  most  rivers  on  the  E.  border,  in  families  of  about 
a  dozen  or  hfteen,  in  boats  of  frt»m  eight  to  ten  tons 
each,  covered,  when  in  harbour,  with  a  nwf  of 
matting.  They  are  employed  chietly  in  fishing, 
taking  triiMingi  and  making  salt  from  burnt  sea- 
wceiL  They  are  generally  Mohammedans,  but  by 
no  means  ritfid  in  their  tenets.  The  Orang-Tidong 
live  to  the  N.  of  the  latter,  and  cruise  among  the 
Philippines  and  Soidoo  Isles,  where  thev  disjxise 
of  sago,  on  which  they  chiefly  subsist.  They  are 
a  lianly  race,  and  are  said  to  be  occasionally 
cannibals. 

ihe  Dutch  have  two  small  stations  on  the  W. 
coaM,  Sambas  and  Pontiana,  about  DO  m.  aiuirt. 
The  town  of  Sambas  is  meanly  built,  and  contains 
no  habitation  of  stone,  or  other  substantial  mate- 
rial :  the  houses  of  the  government  oftices  are  low, 
w«MKlen,  thatched  buihlings;  the  hutt  of  the  na- 
tives are  chiefly  raisetl  on  jMwts,  ascended  by  la<l- 
ders,  but  many  are  built  on  floats  on  the  river,  as 
in  Siam.  The  (.'liiuese  caw/Mmg  is  the  only  stR'set; 
the  fort  Ls  a  mere  enibanktnent,  surrounded  by  a 
stoeka<le  of  |m>1os,  and  mounted  with  a  few  niue- 
iMiunders:  it  contains  the  barracks,  with  a  garrison 
of  forty  nun,  half  of  whom  are  EuMpeans,  lia- 
fore  the  Dutch  settled  hert',  the  place  was  a  ne.st 
<f  pirates,  ile.st roved  by  the  IJritish  in  1812;  the 
eliniate  is  not  unltealthy,  though  the  ct»ast  is  co- 
vered uith  swaiu{>s  and  jungle.    Sambas  has  the 


lietter  river,  but  Pontiana  is  the  lictter  town.  Be- 
tween the  two  are  the  Chinese  settlements  of  Mon- 
tradok  and  Landak.  The  gold  mines  near  the 
former  place  are  generally  worked  bv  companies 
of  merchants  clubbing  together.  Spades  and  mat- 
tocks are  the  only  mining  instruments  in  use. 
The  ore  is  brought  up  in  baskets,  then  washed 
(for  the  Chinese  have  no  other  method  of  treating 
it),  and  the  gold-dust  made  into  little  packets, 
each  weighing  two  Spanish  dollars.  About  8.80() 
oz.  troy  a  year  are  sent  to  Singapore,  which  may 
be  about  one-tenth  of  the  present  produce  of  the 
island.  The  Chinese  appear  to  be  of  a  class  like  the 
lowest  at  Canton.  Previouslv  to  the  Dutch  settle- 
ment here  in  182,3,  8,000  of  them  arrived  annually 
as  settlers;  but  emigration  has  now  ceased,  owing  to 
the  treatment  they  have  received  from  the  Dutclu 
In  1834,  the  Chinese  expressed  a  great  desire  to 
trade  with  the  British  at  Singapore,  but  the  Dutch 
interdicted  all  communication  between  them  and 
foreign  nations,  except  thnnigh  the  medium  of 
Samhas  and  Pontiana;  and.  being  in  possession 
of  the  west  coast,  they  were  enabled  to  prevent  it. 
The  north-east  coast,  however,  soon  rose  into  a 
far  more  flourishing  condition,  chiefly  through  the 
exertions  of  Sir  James  Brooke,  who  established 
himself  as  ruler  here,  under  the  title  of  Kajah  of 
Sarawak.  The  W.  coast  was  cede<l  to  the  l)utch 
by  the  King  of  Bantam  in  1780 ;  but  the  cession, 
for  some  time  afterwards,  was  resisted  by  the  Sul- 
tan of  Succadan.  In  1823,  the  Dutch  settled  at 
Pontiana,  and  purchased  the  mono|)oly  of  some 
diamond  mines  from  the  Malay  sultan.  Finding 
these  unprofitable,  thev  endeavoured  next  to  take 
forcible  possession  of  tfie  Chinese  mines,  but  being 
repulsed,  they  blockaded  the  Chinese  between 
their  two  settlements,  obliging  them  to  trade  by 
their  jjorts,  and  guarding  the  coast  by  several  ves- 
sels. The  Dutch  revenues  are  chiefiv  derived  from 
monopolies  of  salt  and  opium,  the  former  of  which 
is  imported  from  Java  and  other  colonies  in  vessela 
chartered  by  government,  and  sold  at  seven  rimes 
the  import  price,  the  interior  being  entirely  de- 
pendent on  the  coast  for  its  supply.  Other  re- 
sources arc  from  capitation  taxes  on  the  Chinese, 
and  imposts  on  their  entering  or  leaving  the  Dutch 
settlemenL  The  pop.  of  the  Chinese  and  Dutch 
territories  are  estimated  as  follows : — 

1. "50,000 

ftO.OOO 

10,(HH) 

400 

150 

80 

Dyaks 2.'>0,000 


Chinese 

Blalays 

Buffls 

Arabs 

Javanese  and  Amlx>ynci9e  soldiers 
Dutch 


Total 


460,630 


Exports, — ^The  principal  exports  of  the  W.  coast 
are  gold,  diamonds,  andmony,  camphor,  bees'  wax, 
deer's  horns,  dammerj  ebonv,  wood  oil,  rattans, 
[Mapper,  bezoar-stones,  and  iron,  to  Java,  for  the 
manufacture  of  kriaeB,  The  iron  of  the  ulterior  is 
either  exceedingly  good,  or  the  Dyaks  are  able  to 
temi)er  it  astonishingly  well ;  for  their  steel  scimi- 
tars are  callable  of  cutting  through  an  iron  nail  or  * 
wire  without  difficultv.  The  total  exports  from 
B<jmeo  to  the  Unite<l  Kingdom,  in  the  year  1868, 
were  of  the  value  of  AhjhbhL  They  included  314 
toiuj  of  ore  of  antimony,  value  8,454^ ;  1,854  cwts. 
of  gutta-percha,  value  20,765/.;  21,065  cwts,  of 
sago,  value  lo,588iL;  and  1,218  loads  of  hewn 
W(mmI,  value  5,032/.  The  ex|)orts  fn)m  Borneo  to 
the  Unite<l  Kingdom  quadrupled  fn>m  1859  to 
1863,  having  been  but  of  the  value  of  11,218/L  in 
the  first-named  year. 

BoRNKo  pRoi'KK,  Tlift  state  next  hi  imp;»rt- 
ance  to  the  colonies  L»  Bomef)  I*r»»per,  a  Malay 
sovereignty  in  the  N\V.,  probably  the  most  ancient 


502 


BORNEO 


of  all  in  the  island,  and  fn>m  wliich  the  latter  has 
derived  it«  name  :  it  L*  Inmnded  NK.  bv  the  S«mk 
1<M>,  and  S\V.  by  the  Dutch  territorv,  and  exicndf* 
from  100  to  150  ni.  inlancL     The  MalavH  here  arc 
dit<tin^ii»hed  fur  their  han^i^htincHH  and  huloU'noc; 
and  the  8ultan,  n'ho  enjovH  a  hi;;l)  veneration, 
maintains  more  ntate  and  di^iity  tlian  most  Ma- 
lay princes.    Tlie  chief  town  lias  Xkhmx  much  re- 
duced bv  piracy  and  intej*tine  commotion,  wliich 
have  »lnven  away  forei^i  settlers :  it  is  on  a  river, 
an<l  in  ap{)earance  like  other  Malay  towns,  but 
not  so  laff^c  as  either  (»f  the  Dutcli  wttlements :  | 
the  inhabitants  are  chielly  MohammeduuM.    The  j 
exiKirts  are  camnhor,  sea-shi;;,  tortoise-shell,  birds'  I 
nests,  clove-bark,  i>ep})er,  ^old-dust,  !<andalw(MKl,  | 
and  rattans.    There  is  nnu-h  tine  timlier  on  the  • 
banks  of  the  rivers,     Th<'re  was  fimnerly  an  ox-  ' 
tensive  tnule  Iwlween  IJomeo  I*roi>er  and  China, 
as  well  as  mmie  commerce  with  the  Kn^liMi  in 
piece-g<MKls.   Since  the  establishment  «»f  t  he  Sinjja- 
iMire  c«»lony  the  iiritish  trade  has  rectimmenced. 
The  Malays  are  not  destitute  of  some  arts,  amon^ 
which  is  that  of  caMting  cannon,  in  which  they 
are  verj*  skilful. 

Pappal,  Malluda.  Man^lara.  Paitan,  and  Ti- 
nui,  m  the  NK.,  are  mostly  Suluk  settirnienrs. 
The  count rv  here  alxmnds  in  ftm'sts  of  loftv 
trees;  extensive  plains,  covered  with  henb*  <»f  larf^e 
cattle,  fn»m  breeds  intr<Hluccd  by  the  S])aniards  j 
two  centuries  aj^o;  manv  rivers,  and  much  mine-  i 
ral  wealth.  Gobi  and  diamonds  ant  collected  with  | 
little  tn)ublc;  tin-oni  is  sometinKS  ])icked  upon 
the  surface^  Sa^^o,  rice,  l)ct«l-nut,  c<K*oa-nut  (ul, 
camphor,  wax,  a  little  pepiHT  and  cinnaimm, 
iiearls,  rattans,  clove-bark,  and  grain,  in  Malluda: 
i)inls's  nest.s,  lacka-w(Kid,  and  torloiseshell,  in 
Mangcdara;  timber,  limestone,  eaglewoo<l,  and 
Bca-slug,  in  Paitan,  are  the  chief  pnKlucts.  Tinin 
yields  more  binls'  nests  tlian  any  other  region  of 
tlie  K. ;  its  coast  is  generally  a  low  Hwamp  over- 
grown with  mangroves;  its  rivers  are  numer<.)u.s 
large,  and  often  navigable ;  its  interior  is  covenui 
•witn  sago-trees,  which  form  the  chief  subsistence  of 
the  people,  and  yields  l>esides.  canes,  rattans,  wax, 
honey,  liezoar,  gold,  and,  it  is  said,  salti>et re.  Many 
Anamese  have  settled  on  the  NE.  Coast;  emigra- 
tion fnim  CiK'hin  China,  in  c<instH[uenc«  of  na- 
tional disturlmnces,  having  prevaileil  lately  to  a 
great  extent.  Voyage^H  hence,  to  and  from  ^Viiam, 
mav  l)e  made  at  any  time  of  the  year. 

'hiG  chief  state  on  the  E.  coast  is  that  of  Coti, 
or  Coti-Iiania,  l)elonging  to  Uugis,  from  Celelx'S. 
Coti  town  stands  oO  m.  up  the  river  of  that  name, 
the  Iwinksof  whi«:h  are  inhabited  bv  nejirlv  3(«MK)0 
peojile.  It  is  the  chief  place  on  this  coast:  its 
people  are  commercial,  and  many  annually  visit 
8ingai)ore  in  their  prahua  <»r  trading- vessels.  Pas- 
sir  stands  «)n  a  large  liver  a  little  S.  of  ih<*  former: 
it  is  a  den  of  pirates.  Ikmjarmassin.  on  the  banks 
of  the  river  of  that  name,  Ls  sum>unded  by  a  terri- 
tory priKlucing  rattans  of  the  lH»st  description  in 
abundance,  as  well  as  gold,  diamtmds,  an<l  i>ep|>er. 
The  i)op.  are  m«>stly  liugis,  who  rnrcupy  nearly 
every  nver  and  creek  on  the  E.  and  S.  coasts. 
They  have  had  wmie  trade  with  Singap<»re,  but 
which  is  discountenanced  by  the  Dutch  authori- 
ties ;  all  the  S.  coast  l>eing  claimed  by  the,  latter, 
who,  in  1747,  established  a  factory  at  IJanjamias- 
ein.  On  tliis  coast  there  exi.-t  the  remains 
of  temples,  images,  and  other  relics  of  a  more 
civilLsed  people  fonnerly  inhabiting  it;  but  no 
detailed  history  of  these* has  been  given.  (Earls 
Eastern  Seas,  in  1«.12-.J-1,  pp.  2.>2-;^l2;  Lo\  den's 
Sketch  of  liomeo;  Crawfunl's  Ind.  Archipelago; 
Private  Letters  of  Sir  .lames  JJriM»ke,  ix.^.H  ; 
Annual  Statement  of  Trade  and  Navii^Mti«»u  for 


BORNOU 

nOIkNIIOLM,  an  island  belonfrin^r  to  Demiuirk, 
in  the  IJaltic,  about  24  m.  E.  by  S.  from  the  near- 
est point  of  Sweilen,  and  IK)  E!  fn>m  ZeaUnd.     It 
is  of  a  rhomlMiidal  sha]»e,  being  aNuit  20  m.  in 
length  by  14  in  breadth.     Pop.  2>»,IM)0  in  18«»o. 
IJi^irnholm    differs    considerably   from    tlie    «ither 
Danish  islands:  it  rises  high  alM>ve  the  level  t»f 
the  sea.    Its  shores  are  formed  for  the  most  |art 
of  steep  lofty  rocks,  surrt>undefl  by  reefs,  which 
render  their  ap])roach  not  a  little 'dangenms.     It 
is  well  supplietl  witli  freestone,  whitih  w  lanrely 
exiMirte«i  to  Coiwidiagen  and  other   placcit;  ami 
with  limestone,  bhie  mari^le,  variouiji   Kjiecies  rf 
clay,  (K*hn»s,  ami  coaL    The  clay  is  suitable  ft«r 
the  making  of  c«>arse  and  tine  {lotten-,  and  u  use^l 
in   the  china-factory  at  CofM-'uhageu.      Climate 
<lrier  and  more  salubrious  than  that  of  Zi-aland. 
The  centre  of  the  island  Is  occupied  by  an  exten- 
sive heath;  but  elsewhere  the  soil  is' moderately 
fertile,  pnKlucing  all  mru  of  grain,  but  espi-cially 
oats,  with  flax  and  hemn.     Cattle  inferior  to  thoM.^ 
of  tlie  other  Danish  islands,  but  the   hordes  arp 
stmng  and  active.     Timlier  is  scvirce  ;  large  iri-es 
lK>ing,  however,  frequently  found  in  a  state  of  jier- 
fect  preser\'ation  imUilded  in  miiss.     'Hiere  an*  a 
great  many  rivulets  well  stoc-.ktHi  with  lish,  which 
are  also  ver>'  abundant  nnmd  the  Ci^ast,     Exclu- 
sive <»f  agricultun'  and  fishing,  brewing  and  lUs- 
tillatitm.  tile  and  brick-making,  the  manufactun' 
of  C4iarse  and  tine  earthenware  and  of  clocks  an; 
carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent.    An  ingeni<»iis 
native  of  the  island  having  accidentally  taken  ti> 
pieces  a  w<H>den  clock  imjMirted  fmm  abroad.  t«t>k 
it  for  a  model,  an<l  set  about  making  another. 
Ilis  example  waj>  foll«)we<l  by  others;  and  sucii 
was  their  success,  that  woo<len  clocks  soim  l»egan. 
and  still  continue,  to  \\c  a  princi|)a1  article  of  ex- 
port.    Linens,  spun  and  ])re|KiT€4l  in  the  houses  i-f 
the  iKiasantry,  are  also  eximrted.     C<»lFee,  sugar, 
tobacco,  and  spices  are  the  princi|»al  articles  pf 
import.    ]\(K'nne,  tlie  capital,  and  the  re^idenci>  >i 
the  govenior,  is  situated  at  it.s  SW.  angle.    It  is 
tlefcnded  by  batteries,  has  a  considerable  trado, 
and  a  numl>er  of  vessels  and  l)4>ats  engaged  in  tlie 
lishing;  but  its  harbour  is  shallow,  having  ouly  G 
or  7  ft,  water.     Nex:e.  on  the  SE.  shore,  is  fain»«iis 
for  its  lieer.     A  lighthouse,   having  the  l.nnleni 
elevated  272  ft.  als»ve  the  level  of  the  f*ca,  h.is 
been  erected  on  Cape  Hammersen,  the  m«»>t  N. 
)M>int   in  this  island.    The   feudal  sys^tem  ncvtr 
obtained  any  f(K>ting  in  Ilomludm.  'Persiin-*  ao 
cuse<l  of  political  offences  used   to  be   banisheii 
thither,  but  this  has  now  ceased. 

BOKNOCa  kingdom  of  Ontral  Africa,  in  fnun 
H»o  t«>  VP  N.  lat.,  and  fnmi  VI9  to  l»o  E.  hmg.: 
it  is  bounde<l  on  the  N.  by  Kanem  and  the  Sll. 
comer  of  the  <lesert:  on  the  E.  by  lleghanrd:  i^ii 
the  S.  by  Mandaro;  and  on  the  W.  by  vnri<ais 
small  tribes  extending  to  lloussa  and  the  Fellata 
country.  Boniou  apiiears  to  have  licen  formerly 
more  extensive,  both  in  lat.  and  long.:  at  pn-siiit 
it  may,  jwrhajis,  Ik»  alM)ut  40o  ni.  in  length,  fn»m 
E.  to  \V.,  the  same  in  extreme  wi«ltb,  fn»ni  N.  t«» 
S.,  and  its  area  is  probably  not  le>8  than  12n.inm 
wj.  m.,  of  which,  however,  more  than  20,oiii»  arc 
covered  by  the  waters  of  Lake  Tchad.  (IK-uhstn 
and (  lapperton.  p.  314 ;  Lucas,  Afric.  Asj^k*.  i.  1:JI.> 
The  surface  of  Itoniou  is  an  immen>e  plain,  liic 
greater  jiorl  ion  of  which  is  Mibjcct  to  annual  ovi-r- 
fiow,  from  which  cinMmistance,  joined  to  the  gn-..t 
heat  (»f  the  climate,  the  soil  has  every  cnj\al>ilir/ 
of  abundant  ]troduction ;  owing,  however,  j-artly 
to  the  want  of  industry  in  the  jH'tiide,  ami  |^ar:ly 
t«»  the  stale  of  warfare  in  which  the  inrfn:.il 
countries  of  Africa  seem  (^instantly  to  live,  little 
a«lvantagf  is  taken  of  tluN  favoiirnble  state  .'f 
thing>,  and  the  inhabitants  are  not  much  .sii|>eriir 


BORNOU 


603 


«s  a^culturists  to  other  n<^]procs.  Clapperton 
(Jouniev  frum  Konka  to  Sokkatoo,  p.  ID)  found 
the  natives  of  lluussa  raisinf;  a  second  crop  of 
wheat,  l)y  irriju^ation ;  but  8uoh  iustances,  while 
they  prove  the  natural  fertility  of  the  land,  are 
extremely  rare  in  liomou.  The  ])rineiiial  rivers 
arc  the  Shary  and  the  Yeou;  the  former  appa- 
rently rising  in  the  mountains  of  Mandara,  the 
latter  in  those  of  Iloussa.  The  smaller  streams 
are  very  numerous,  but  all  are  reccive«l  into  Lake 
Tilind. 

The  climate  of  Bomou  is  one  of  verv  great  but 
not  uniform  heat.  In  summer,  that  is  from  March 
to  June,  the  thermometer  stands  at  105°  to  107*^ 
at  noon,  and  even  at  ni^ht  is  rarely  lower  than 
HHJO,  except  l)efore  sunnse,  when  it  sinks  to  8G° 
or  i<H<^.  The  v^dnter  tem]H>rature  is,  however,  lower 
than  the  lat.  would  warrant  the  expectation  of — 
rarely  higher  than  74°  or  75° :  it  frequently  falls 
in  a  morning  as  low  as  58°  or  60°.  The  NW.  wind 
is  cold,  the  S.  and  SF2.  hot  and  suffocating;  which, 
considering  that  the  first  blows  over  the  Sahara, 
and  the  otiiers  over  the  high  mountains  of  Kong, 
is  a  remarkable  fact,  which  seems  to  require  ex- 
)iIanation.  The  seasons  may  be  divided  into  wet 
and  drv,  but  the  first  can  scarcely  be  denominated 
raint/j  in  a  tropical  sense.  About  April  or  May, 
indc<;d,  a  short  peritMl,  varj'ing  fn)m  three  to  nine 
days,  is  marked  by  violent  tempests,  rain,  thunder, 
lightning,  and  wind;  but  the  remainder  of  this 
wet  jKuriod,  extending  to  Octolx'r,  by  no  means 
interferes  with  outd«M)r  labour,  except  in  June, 
when  there  is  another  burst  of  falling  weather,  at- 
tended with  a  most  oppressively  sultry  atmo- 
sphere^ At  this  time  it  is  tliat  the  lakes  and  rivers 
overflow  their  banks,  flo<Hling  the  land  in  their 
neighlKHirhood  for 'many  miles.  The  dry  and  cold 
se«s<m  usuallv  commences  in  October.  (Denham, 
pp.  lHl-2-25,  *314;  Lucas,  p.  131.) 

In  a  countrv  dev(»id  of  mountains  there  are,  of 
cour!«e,  no  minerals.  Iron  is  procured  from  the 
neighbouring  state  of  Mandara,  in  the  hills  of 
which  it  is  ver^*  abundant,  and  gold-<iust  is  a  prin- 
cipal article  in  liornouese  trade ;  but  whether  the 
last  Ikj  brought  down  l)y  the  rivers,  or  procured 
fr«»in  a  distance,  does  not  appear.  (Denham,  pp. 
14<I,  317;  Lucas  p.  155.)  I'rees  are  extremely 
searee  throughout  tlie  countr}\  except  here  and 
there  upon  the  banks  of  rivers;  though  the  neigh- 
lM)uring  states  of  Kanem,  Mandara,  iloussa,  <tc.  ap- 
pear to  l)e  well-wooded.  The  Mn\.  which  is  chiefly 
alluvial,  is  highly  productive,  but  its  productions 
are  l)y  no  means  varied,  consisting  chiefly  of 
millet,  barley,  beans,  Indian-coni,  cotton,  and  in- 
<ligo.  The  tliMHlecl  lands  on  the  shores  of  I^ke 
Tcliad  .ire  peculiarlv  well  adapted  for  the  growth 
of  rire,  but  none  is  cultivated;  and  there  is  no 
tro])ieal  country  nor  denert  so  destitute  of  fruit.s 
and  edible  r.)ots.    (Lucas,  p.  134;  Denham,  jip.  50, 


grouse,  guineafowl,  and  other  game  are  also  very 
numerous — as  are  the  domestic  fowls,  which  con- 
stitute the  cheapest  kind  of  animal  food  that  can 
be  purchased.  Keptiles  are  numerous,  consisting, 
besides  crocodiles,  of  scoipions,  centipedes,  enor- 
mous toads,  an<l  many  varieties  of  serpents ;  one  of, 
which,  measuring  14  or  16  ft.  in  length,  though 
said  to  be  harmless,  is  probably  of  the  boa  or  py- 
thon species.  In  such  a  climate  insect  life  is 
naturally  abundant;  bees  are  so  numerous,  that 
Lucas  (p.  138)  affirms  the  wax  is  often  thrown 
away,  as  an  article  of  no  value  in  the  market ;  and 
Denham  remarks  (p.  820)  that  the  honey  is  only 
partially  collected.  Tlie  curse  of  tropical  countries, 
the  locust,  is  a  frequent  visitor;  and,  though  a  fa- 
vourite article  of  food,  is  regarded  with  dread,  since 
desolation  always  follows  in  its  train.  The  rivers 
and  lakes  abound  in  fish,  of  many  different  species, 
most  of  tliem  peculiar.  (Lucas,  p.  187 ;'  Denham, 
pp.  2-29,  284,  319,  321,  &c.) 

The  inhabitants  of  Bomou  consist  of  two  classefli 
— the  Shouas,  descendants  of  Arab  settlers  from 
the  N. ;  and  Kanowry,  or  Kanuri,  as  the  native 
race  is  called,  who  are  true  negroes.  The  former 
are  the  dominant  people ;  they  have  fine,  open, 
aquiline  countenances,  large  eyes,  a  light  copper 
complexion,  and  bear  a  strong  personal  resem- 
blance t  >  the  best  specimens  of  English  gii)sies. 
They  are  divided  into  tribes,  and  still  bear  the 
names  of  some  of  the  most  powerful  Bedouin 
hordes.  Their  language  is  Arabic,  and  to  them  is 
owing  the  introduction  of  the  arts  of  writing  and 
reading.  They  are  shrewd,  active,  and  courageous, 
but  these  are  almost  tlie  only  good  trails  in  their 
character.  Deceitful,  arrogant,  cunning,  and  dis- 
honest, their  superior  attainments  are  used  by 
them  onlv  as  a  means  to  rob  and  oppress  their 
black  nefghbours.    These  last  present,  in  their 

{)hysical  appearance,  all  the  usual  n^jpro  pecu- 
iarities — fiat  noses,  large  mouths,  and  inexpressive 
countenances.  They  are  peaceable  and  orderly, 
but  destitute  of  eneigy,  and  ap^iear  to  regard  the 
Shouas  as  a  superior  race  of  beings.  At  least  ten 
different  languages  or  dialects  arc  spoken  in 
Boniou.  No  estimate  can  be  made  of  the  popula- 
tion of  tliLs  kingdom ;  but  as  towns  possessing  30,000 
inhabitants  are  met  with,  and  marketa  are  said 
to  be  sometimes  attended  by  80,0<M)  or  100,<H)0 
|)ersons,  and  the  Shouali  population  alone  can  raise 
an  army  of  15,000  men,  the  number  of  inhabi- 
tants must  be  verj'  considerable.  (Denham,  j»|».  79, 
80,  329,  d'C.)  The  ri'ligion  of  the  court  is  Ma- 
hommedanL«m;  but  no  disabilities  appear  to 
attend  the  profession  of  feticism,  which  is  the 
faith  of  the  bulk  of  the  ne^jes.  The  government 
is  absolute,  and  till  lately  was  elective.  The  laws 
are  arbitrarv,  and  punishments  summary,  but 
usually  administered  with  justice;  and  there  is  a 
kind  of  ins(dvent  act,  which  relieves  a  man  from 


lOi,  3n;,  A'c. ;  Clapperton,  pp.  6,  15,  ^v.)  \  his  debts  on  proof  of  his  pj>verty,  leaving  any 

The  wild  animals  (»f  Tropical  Africa  are  all  com-    future  pro^wrty  he  may  acquire  at  the  mercy  of 


ipie; 
nion  in  liomou ;  and  the  ferocious  kinds,  lions, 
]»anthers,  and  jackals,  which  in  the  wet  season  ai>- 
l»n»aeh  the  walls  of  the  towns,  are  particularly 
dangerous.  The  bnftahi,  girafle,  ele))l)ant,  hip}H>- 
]>otaniiis,  and  crf>ciMlile  are  animals  of  chase;  the 
llrsh  of  all  of  them  Is  eaten,  and  that  of  the  last 
three  accounted  a  great  delicacy.  The  civet-cat 
i>  eonimon,  ami  the  animal  itself,  .is  well  its  its 
M'erelion,  is  an  innM)rtant  article  of  trwle.     f)f  do- 

inestie animals  the  nuinlK.T  is  inmiense  :  cattle  juid  j  comfi>rts  and  raanv  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  the 
h«irM'>  are  of  tine  breetls,  and  plentiful;  camels  are  '  slave-tra<le  is  carrfed  on  to  a  great  extent.  It  is 
rare,  and  sheep  have  a  hairy  in»te«id  of  a  woolly    tuiid  that  the  natives  arc  very  anxious  for  a  direct 


his  creditor,  without  further  process.  In  other 
respects  the  I^>mouesc  resemble  the  n^pxies 
genenilly ;  their  arts  are  few,  and  apparently  in- 
tHsluceil,  in  most  cases,  by  the  Aralw.  But  the 
Arabs  also  introduced  the  slave-trade,  which  was 
unknown  before  their  arrival,  and  is  said  to  be 
reluctantly  submitted  to.  The  Moors  of  Barbaiy, 
however,  pr(>fer  slaves  to  any  tiling  else;  and 
as    Ik»niou  is  de|)endent  upon  them  for  all  the 


cnvenn;;.  Pelicans,  s|>oonl)ills,  cranes,  sniiK'S, 
dufk>.  geese,  ami,  in  short,  almost  cvcrA'  sp<'ciesof 
■vvaleilowl,  are  abundant  in  the  extensive  marshes: 
the  t»>lrjcli  traverses  the  [tlaius,  and  partridges. 


trade  with  Kngland;  but  consi<lering  that  their 
ctMintrv  is  situated  full  000  m.  from  the  coast,  and 
in  a  climate  destructive  to  Kuropeans,  we  confess 
we  are  not  of  the  number  of  thote  who  entertain  a 


504 


BORODINO 


BOSNA-SERAY 

X.   Edinbiir^lu    Pop.  of  buiych)  including  Cor- 
Inehall,  8,814  in  18Gl,ofwhoin  1,889  malcfl  and 
l/J'2o  females.  BorrowstonncBS  Is  one  of  the  oldest 
Scottish  8ea|K)rt.  townn,  and  it'«  name  often  occurs 
in  history.    The  harbour  i»  wife  and  comm<HUv>u8 ; 
but  the  revenue  which  it  yieltU  ist  insufficient  to 
ark  after  the  delude,  and  that  the  pntrianrh  iirst    ke(>i>  it  in  rejiair,  even  though  an  in^|K>st  «if  -Id, 
cstablij»hed  himself  in  its  extensive  plains.    (Lucas.    (Scotch)  has  lieen  levied  f«ir  the  puqKi^  for  nenrlv  a 
p.  131.)     The  ne^>  name  apix-ars  to  l>e  Kaniiri.    centiury  (17  (leo.  II.)  on  everj'  St*<>tch  pint  of  ale 


Muiguine  expectation  that  any  such  trade  will  ever 
be  carried  on  to  any  extent  or  to  any  protit.  (I)en- 
liam, pp.  321-22o,  etpass,;  Lucas,  pj).  140-159, Sec.) 
The  name  liomou  is  Arabic.  It  is  literallv  Barr- 
Noa^  *  the  Land  of  Noah,' the  Arabs  iK'lievinjj  that 
the  mountains  in  its  neif^htxmrlKMHl  received  the 


(Dr.  liarth.  in  .lounial  of  the  Koyal  (rco^iphical 
Societv,  vol.  XXX.  1800.) 

BOkODINO,  a  %'illa;;e  of  Russia  in  Euro|>e, 


or  iKvr  brought  into  the  town.  Bo'nes»  c-arries  nn 
shi])buil(Iing  to  a  small  extent,  and  has  s^mio 
little   trade  with   the  I^ltic.     It  engages  pretty 


jTOv.  Aloscow  on  the  Kologa,  10  m.  W.  M<»jju>k. '  i-xtcnsivoly  in  the  hcrring-tishery,  and  ha*  not  uu- 
TliLs  village  ydW  l)e  for  ever  memorable,  from  its  ■  frequently  of  late  years  sent  one,  two,  or  mure 
being  the  scene  of  one  of  the  most  sanguinary'  vessels  to  the  N.  whale-lisherj'.  The  l<»wn  is  the 
contlicts  that  has  taken  place  in  modem  times,  seat  of  the  most  extenedve  saltwi>rks  on  the  Frith 
On  the  7th  Sept,  1812,  the  FnMKrh  anny,  under  of  Forth,  and  it  ex|K)rts  alsiut  oO.JHJO  luislieU  «»f 
Napfdeon,  in  its  advance  u{>on  Moscow,  attacked  salt  a  year.  Here  arc  two  dLttilleries,  an  earthen- 
at  this  i>oint  the  entrenchments  of  the  grand  ,  ware  nianufact«>ry,  and  vitriol  and  sonp-works. 
]{ussian  army,  120,000  strong,  under  Kutousott*.  I  PriMluctive  collieries  aI)ound  in  the  immediate 
The  KiLssians  madt^  a  desjKTate  resistance,  but  in  I  neighlM>urhoo<l,  and  have  been  wrought  for  c<;n- 
tHe  en<l  their  |)osition  was  carried.  The  slaughter  ■  turies.  The  mines  exteml  nearly  a  mile  l>eh»w 
was  innnense :  the  Hussians  having  lost  alMivc  .  the  bed  of  the  Frith,  so  as  almost  t6  mei^t  those  of 
40,000  men,  killcil  and  wounded,  and  the  French  ('uln»ss  on  the  o|>iiosite  side,  which  run  in  a  S. 
nearly  3U,000,  Few  pri.>oMcr.s  were  made  on  either  '.  direction  to  the  diAtance  of  2  m.  Near  Bo'ness  i-* 
side.  i  Kinneil  H<»use,  a  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Hamilton, 

BOROFSK.  or  BOKOWSK,  a  town  of  Ru.csia    and  h»ng  the  residence  of  Dugald  Stewart, 


in  KuroiK*,  gov.  Kalouga.  ca|».  distr.,  on  the  Prorva, 
65  ra.  SW.  Mo-K-ow  ;  lat.  :uP  10'  30"  N.,  long.  30© 


r»(>SA,  a  seajMtrt  town  on  the  \V.  ix»a>t  of 
island    of  Sardmia,  prov.   Cagliari,   div.  .Sasis 


the 
Sassari, 


H2'  l.V  E.  IVip.  H,lt;o  in  1808.  It  is  an  old  I  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ttrmo:  immediately  op|M»- 
town.  ceh'brateil  in  Russian  hi>tory  for  its  tlefence  site  to  the  latter  is  the  islet  of  Iit»sa.  lat,*40^  10' 
by  Prince  Vidkonski,  hi  1010,  against  the  pre- ,  40"N.,  long.  8°  25' 31"  K.,l)etwe.en  which  and  the 
ti-nder  Dimitri  It  h;w  4  cliurches,  a  manufacture  \  shore  small  vcjwels  lie  in  tolerable  security.  IN-p. 
of  sailcloth,  and  its  envin»ns  pnxluce  excellent  '  0,234  in  1802.  The  town  is  lieautifully' situate! 
onions  and  garlic.  At  a  short  distance  is  the  con-  in  a  Ihie  valley  between  two  hills,  is  tolerably 
vent  Pa*snoutief-Barofski,  founded  in   14-11.  con-    clean,  and  has  several  paved  streets ;  but  in  >uiii- 

nier  it  is  ill-supplied  with  water,  aiul  i:i  then  aL'i'> 
very   uidiealthy.      It   is  a   bishop's  see ;    ha-*    U 


taining  o  chundies  and  a  consideralde  treasure. 

BOROlKniHRIlXil;:,  a  bor.,  market-town,  and 
township  of  England,  W.  R.  co.  York,  (!laro  waiKMi-  \  churche-*.  »  ct>nvent  of  Capuchins  and  one  of  ( ',ir- 


take,  par.  Al<ilM)ruugh,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Tre, 
17  m.  SE.  York,  on  a  branch-line  of  the  York 
and  Newcastle  railway.  Ptjp.  901)  in  1801.  The 
town  has  some  goul  houses,  but  is  decaying ;  its 
former  importance,  that  (»f  l>eing  on  the  ]M»sting- 
road  from  London  and  York  to  Edinburgh,  having 
been  lost  bv  the  introiluctic»u  of  railwavs.  The 
town  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  sending  2  mem.  to 


the  II.  of  C  fn»m  ir)r»3  down  to  the  fuissing  t)f  tlie  '  prov.  Naples,  at  the  foot  of  Vei*uvius,  12 

Reform  Act,  by  whi<;h  it  was  dLsfraiu-hised.     It    Naples     Ptip.  1>,448   in   1H02.     It  w  on 

has  several  fairs  ;  of  these  the  most  import^mt  is 

held  in  June,  for  the  sale  of  hardware.     Many  n;- 

mains  of  British  and  Roman  antiquities  art»  found 

in  this  town  and  \ii>  immediate  vicinity.   ( )f  these, 

the  most  celebrated  are  the  obeUsk.s,  called  the 

Arn)ws,  about  ^  m.  S.  from  the  town.   A  beautiful 

tesselated  iMivement  was  discovere<l  in  1831,  a  little    land,  co.  Sussex,  3^  m.  \VS\V.  Chichester,  on  tlie 


melites,  with  a  seminary  for  the  study  of  pl.ili>- 
sophy  aiul  the<»Iogy.  On  a  hill  immediately  alMive 
the  town  are  the  remains  i»f  a  castle  or  acrop<dLs 
where  the  prhicipal  families  used  formerly  to  re- 
side. The  natives  are  verv  active,  ciirr\-iny:  their 
prcHluce  all  over  the  island  ;  auil  most  fKirt  alao  of 
the  travelling  pedlars  lK"lt»ng  to  the  town. 

IK)SC(  >-TRi:-CASE.  a  village  of  Southern  Italy, 

'  *  m,  E.M.. 

aples  I'tip.  U,448  in  1«02.  It  ls  one  «»f  four 
villages  situated  at  a  little  dLstanw  fnun  taeli 
other,  com|»rised  under  the  general  term  i>o«rT»; 
has  several  churches  and  c»>nvcnt-s  a  roval  maim- 
factorj'  of  arms,  a  j)owdermiIl,  and  an  extensive 
fabrii'  u{ inite  (Tltalie. 

BOSIL\M,  a  small  village  and  parish  of  Eng- 


to  the  W.  of  the  ti)wn.  At  this  t«»wn,  on  the  10th 
of  March  1322,  the  anny  of  the  n4)el  baron.s,  under 
the  Earl  of  Laiu*aster,  was  defeated  by  the  troops 
of  Edward  11m  in  an  attempt  to  cross  the  river; 
and  their  leader,  being  taken  prisoner,  was  im- 
mcdiatelv  behea<ied. 

B(>R()VITC11I,  a  town  of  Ru>«sia  in  Europe, 
gov.  Novgonnl,  cap.  distr.,  on  the  Msta.  10(»  ni. 
ESE.  Nov/rorml;  lat.  o«o  10'  N.,  long.  33°  oO'  E. 
Pop.  8,727  in  1858.  The  town  has  4  churches,  a 
convent,  ami  a  goo<l  deal  of  trade.  In  the  ne.igh- 
iMmrhiKxl  are  cataracts,  that  interrupt  the  course  of 
the  river;  but  the  obstacles  to  its  navigation, 
thence  arising,  have  been  su<'cessfully  obviated  by 
works  undertaken  for  that  purpose. 

BORROMEAN  ISLANl)S,  a  group  of  small 


London,  Bright«>n,  and  South  C<MLst  railway.  Pt»|i. 
of  par.  1,158  in  18(il.  The  village  is  of  historical 
interest.  It  was  a  place  of  stmie  importance  in 
the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have  reconi,  and  is 
more  than  once  mentioned  in  the  (dd  Saxon 
chroiiieles.  The  Sax(»n  kings  lived  here,  and  the 
remains  of  an  ohl  forest  still  ])asscs  by  the  name 
of  Old  Park.  Canute's  daugliter  was  buridi  in 
Ik)sham  church;  and  it  is  more  prt>bablc  that  if 
the  story  of  Canute's  lecturing  his  courtiers  on 
th<;  sea.shore  l>c  tnie,  the  incident  t<M»k  place  hern 
rather  than  at  Soutljarapton.  This  was  tlie  tir>t 
jdace  upon  the  Sussex  cojb«t  in  which  Christianity 
was  taught ;  for  when  Wilfrid  landed  at  SeWv, 
alumt  the  year  O^O,  he  found  a  jKKir  monastery 
already  exi««tuig  at   Ro>hain.     It  was  from  this 


islands  in   the   Lago  Maggiore,  Northern   Italy,    place  that  Harold  started  when  he  visited  Nor- 
iii  the  former  kingdom  of  Sardinia.  :  mandy,  and  Rositani  church  makes  a  con>pieuou<« 

BORROVVSTONNESS,  <»r  RO'NES.^,  a  burgh    feature  near  the  commencement  t»f  the  Bnyeaux 
of  baron V,  and  seal  wjrt  of  S<*oihiiul.  co.  Linlitliu:o\v, !  tap(-strv. 
oil  the  S.  side  of  the  Frith  of  Forth,  17  in.  \V.  by  |      BOSNA-SERAI,  or  SERAJEVO  (an.  TiUrio- 


BOSNIA 

polis)y  a  city  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  cap.  prov. 
]k)<«uia,  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Mii^linzza,  'ilti  m. 
»S.  Duda,  and  575  m.  NW.  Con8tantino])le ;  lat. 
430  54'  X.,  long.  I80  26'  E.  Ivstimatcd  pop. 
(50,000.  The  town  \b  well-built,  and  lias  an 
a^O^eable  appearance,  owing  to  the  number  of 
minarets,  towers,  and  gardens  which  it  encloses. 
It  cont-ains  &»erai.  or  palace,  built  by  Mahomet  II., 
to  which  the  city  owes  it3  name;  about  100 
niosquea,  some  of  which  are  elegant  structures; 
Kcveral  (J reek  and  Koman  Catholic  churches,  with 
colleges  and  bazars.  Most  of  the  hoiwes  are  of 
v.(X)(l ;  the  Migliazza  is  here  crossed  by  a  massive 
Htone  bridge,  'J'he  city  was  formerly  encompvassed 
•  with  walls,  but  these  are  now  decayed,  and  its  only 
defence  consists  in  a  large  citadel,  built  on  a  rocky 
hciglit  at  it.s  E.  extremity,  and  mounting  80 
cannon.  The  inhabitants  are  industrious,  and  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  arms,  iron,  and 
cnp|ier  articles,  horsehair  bags,  morocco  and 
other  kinds  of  leather,  and  cotton  and  woollen 
stuffs.  Near  Ik)sna-SeraT  are  the  principal  iron- 
nunes  in  liosnia.  It  is  the  chief  mart  in  the  prov., 
the  centre  of  the  commercial  relations  between 
Turkey  and  Dalmatia,  Croatia  and  S.  Gennany, 
and  lias  considerable  trade  with  the  cities  of 
Saloniki  and  Vanina.  The  most  %vealthy  families 
in  Bosnia  reside  in  this  city ;  two-thirds  of  the  |K>p. 
are  said  to  Iw  Turks,  but  the  Jews  monoiwlise  the 
chief  |)art  of  the  trade. 

BOSNIA,  or  BOSXA,  the  most  westerly  pacha- 
lic  or  eyalet  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  comprising 
Ikisnia  l*roper,  Turkirth  C'roatia,  and  Herzegovhia. 
It  lies  between  ht.  42°  30'  and  A:P  lo'  N.,  and 
long.  150  4(K  and  21°  2'  E.;  having  NW.  and  N. 
the  Austrian  prov.  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  E. 
J^ervia,  and  S.  and  W.  Albania  and  Austrian  Dal- 
matia, the  latter  separating  it  from  the  Adriatic. 
Area  variously  estimate<i  at  fn)m  1(5.000  to  22,000 
Mj.  m.  Pop.  from  800.000  to  1.000,000.  It  is 
ahno.st  entirely  occupied  by  the  Dinnric  and  Julian 
Aljxs,  which,  with  their  otf^^ets,  separate  it  into 
several  well-marked  divisions.  Principal  river  the 
ISave,  forming  the  N.  Iwundary  of  Ik^snia,  with  its 
ailiuents  the  I'nna,  which  in  |mrt  separates  Turkish 
from  Austrian  Croatia — V'erbaz,  l)rin,  and  Il»ar 
fonniiig  its  E.  boundaries.  The  Bosna  traverses 
Bosnia  Pn>per,  the  Sanna,Cn)atia,  and  the  Xarenta, 
ll('rzeg«)vina.  It  has  numerous  fertile  valleys,  but 
no  lakes  of  importance,  and  only  one  plain  of  any 
M/e,  that  of  Livno  in  Herzegovina.  '1  his  country 
is  supp(»sed  to  be  rich  in  minerals,  but  only  the 
iron-mines  and  a  few  lead-mines  are  wrought.  Gold 
an«l  silver  exist  in  various  places,  and  mines  of  the 
lirst  of  these  metals  were  worked  under  the  Boman.s; 
nu)st  of  the  large  affluents  of  the  Save  bring  down 
gold-dust.  Quicksilver  is  also  found,  an«l  there 
are  «juarries  of  millstone,  fn.*estune,  alabaster,  and 
marble,  coal-mines,  and  numerou.>  mineral  s])rings, 
.siine  of  which  furnish  salt,  thougli  not  in  sulHcient 
quautily  for  the  supply  of  the  country-.  The 
climate  is  generally  cold,  but  not  unhealihy;  the 
winter  snows  lie  on  the  ground  fi>r  a  long  time, 
and  the  spring  is  short.  In  the  S.  violent  winds 
jtrevail  in  winter,  and  the  summer  is  extn.'mely 
hot.  The  mountain-chains,  especially  in  the  X., 
are  coven'<l  with  dense  forests  of  pine,  oak,  bee<'h, 
lin<len,  chp>tnut,  ttc. ;  but  the  S.  branches  of  the 
l)ituiric  Alps  ]»resent  a  remarkable  deficiency  of 
vo:4ctation.  The  greatest  elevations  are  the  Kam, 
h.Auo  ft.,  and  the  l)(»nnitor,  7,i)80  ft.  high.  The 
bc-t  soil  in  the  valleys  is  devoted  to  {lasture,  and 
Bosnia  is  generally  l>etter  adapted  for  the  fee<ling 
of  cattle  than  f»)r  Jigriculture.  The  B«)sniaks,  how- 
ever, seem  t<»  prefer  the  chase  to  more  settl«'<l  |»as- 
toral  o4-('upations  ;  and  as  the  wckmIs  alxmnd  with 
wiUl  animals,  as  deer,  wild-boars,  bears,  wolves, 


BOSPHORUS 


505 


and  foxes,  they  have  everj-  facility  for  carri-ing  it 
on.  The  inhab.  consist  of  several  races,  dislributed 
as  follows : — 


Nation 

Beligion 

Turks    .    .    . 

240.000 

Moliftmmwlan? 

4f.0,000 

Bosniakg   .    . 

3/)O,0O0 

Greek  Church 

230,000 

Servians     .     . 

11>(>.0<M) 

i 

Morlachians  . 

75,(HM) 

Rom.  Catholics     161.000    | 

Croats  .     .    . 

40.000 

(.iipslcs .    .    . 

1 6,000 

Gipsies      .    . 

ifi.noo 

Jews      .    .    . 

•i.OOO 

Jews     .    .    . 

2,000 

Armenians     . 

1,000 

Armenians    . 

1,000 

Total  .    . 

8.W,000 

Total.    . 

8-'iO,000 

It  is  only  in  the  valleys  that  any  cultivation  is 
carried  on.  Wheat,  barley,  maize,  and  legumes 
are  grown  in  suflicient  quantity  for  home  con- 
sumption, and  flax  and  tobacco  near  Zvomik  an<l 
NovilmzaL  A  great  variety  of  fruit  is  met  with. 
A  b(|[neur  is  made  fn>m  plums,  and  a  sweet  drink 
called  pi'kmes  from  pears.  The  olive  and  vine  are 
both  cultivated ;  the  wines  are  strong  and  lier\', 
I^>snia  has  a  breed  of  strong  horses,  but  it  Ls  much 
neglectctl,  except  by  the  Turks;  there  are  large 
henls  of  tine  cattle,  and  flocks  of  sheep,  the  wool 
of  which  is  greatly  csteeme<l  in  the  markets  of  the 
Levant.  Gi>ats,  hogs,  and  |)oultry  are  everywhere 
plentiful,  and  in  (.'roatia  many  bees  arc  kept, 
which  3'ield  go<Kl  honey,  but  inferior  wax.  The 
manufactures  of  lk)snia  are  limite<I  to  in»n  articles 
of  comm(»n  use,  leather,  coarse  woollen  stutfs,  salt- 
petre at  Jaiczn,  cannon-balls  at  Kamcngrad,  gtm- 
powder,  firearms,  and  other  weapons.  The  princi|)al 
exports  are  leather,  hides,  wool,  giwts'  liair,  honey, 
cattle,  chried  fish,  timber,  and  mineral  waters;  the 
chief  imp<»rts,  linens,  woollens,  silks,  lace,  glass, 
and  metallic  wares — [wiper,  colonial  produce,  salt, 
oil,  dried  fruits,  ami  silver  coin  ft-ora  Dalmatia. 
The  transit  trade  in  levant  produce  is  not  incrm- 
siderable ;  the  chief  seat.s  of  commerce  are  the 
towns  of  Bosna-SeraT,  X(mbazar,  Zvomik,  Bagna 
Louka,  Mostar,  and  GradLska.  The  roads  are 
generally  verv  bad,  and  impracticable  for  wheel- 
carriages.  The  total  government  revenue  deri%'etl 
from  tliis  province  is  estimated  at  about  a  million 
sterhng  a  year. 

Bosnia  is  under  the  government  of  a  pacha  of 
three  taib*;  it  is  divided  into  six  saiyiaks  or  circle^ 
and  again  into  forty-eight  sulxlivisions,  each  of 
which  is  sulx)rdinate  to  a  militarj*  governor  and  a 
cadi,  or  judicial  officer.  Bosna-SeraT  is  the  capital 
of  the  prov.,  but  Trawnik  is  the  residence  of  the 
imcha.  This  officer  is  changed  generally  every 
three  vears;  he  has  under  his  orders  a  militarv 
force  of  fnmi  3,000  to  4,000  men.  The  Bosniakrt 
are  of  Slavonic  origin,  tlu^ugh  nntstly  Mohamme- 
dans. They  ditfer  from  the  Turks  in  many  usages, 
and  are  n(»t  addicteil  to  polygamy. 

Ik^snia  was  anciently  include<l  in  I^wer  Pan- 
nonia.  In  the  middle  ages  it  tirst  belonged  to  the 
Eastern  Empire,  and  afterwards  became  a  separate 
kingdom,  depeiulent  nix»n  Hungary.  The  Turks 
con«iuere<l  it  ni  14><0,  after  a  war  of  17  vears;  but 
it  was  not  till  lo'i'i  tliat  Solyman  the  Alfagniliccnt 
finally  annexed  it  to  the  Turkish  <lominions. 
(Cannal)ich,  Lehrbuch  der  (ieog.,  pp.  74 J,  74G; 
Von  Zctllitz,  Brief  Survey  of  Bosinia.) 

BOSPHORUS  (m.ire  properiv  BOSPORUS) 
OF  Tin:ACE,orCHANXEL  Of'  COXSTAXTl- 
XOPLE,  the  strait  which  connects  the  Black  Sea 
with  the  Se^  of  Mannara,  and  separates  the  E. 
corner  of  Thnice  from  Asia  Minor.  The  length  of 
this  remarkable  channel  is  al>out  17  m.,  its  width 
varying  from  ^  m.  to  2  m. ;  its  course  slightly 
winding ;  its  direction  very  little  \\\  of  S.,  and  its 


60G  BOSPHORUS 

cml>ourhiirc  in  the  Soa  of  Marmara  is  in  41^  X. 
lilt.,  21P  !•:.  hmjr. 

A  current  sets  constantly  from  tlie  Black  Soa 
Ihnmj^li  the  lV«s|»honis  but.  t)iou;;h  generally  very 
Htnm;;,  it  is  Hiibje<;t  to  considerable  mo<liticatious; 
a  lon«j-<;oijtiimetl  wind  fnim  the  SVV.  renders  it 
H»nietuneM  almost  ini|K>rceptibIe;  'while,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  bre<*ze  fn»m  the  NK.  so  ailds  to  itx 
fon*e  that  it  is  alnuM^t  impjssible  for  a  ve.ss<d,  under 
nuch  eircimistanc<'S,  to  make  head  afjainst  it.  The 
inequalities  of  coa«it  cauw  several  cliantres  of  jlirer;- 
tion  in  the  set,  as  the  water  Ls  thmwn  fn»m  side  to 
»«Ie  by  the  numerous  bold  promontories  that  pri»- 
ject  from  l)oth  sh<»n>t»;  but  these  do  not  afltn-t  the 
^noral  c«mrse,  exi-ept  by  making  it  m<»re  tortuiius; 
that  course  tending  constantly  towanis  the  S.  and 
the  Sea  of  Mamnira.  The  depth  of  water  b«  con- 
viderable :  there  is  but  one  bank  in  the  channel ; 
consequently  there  is  no  danger  in  its  navigation, 
nor  any  difficulty,  except  in  an  upwiurd  passjige 
against  its  current;  this  is,  however,  sufliciently 
baflling  to  tlie  unskilleil  Orientals.  At  its  X. 
mouth,  on  the  Black  Sea,  are  two  groups  of  islets, 
one  on  the  Eun>i>ean,  the  other  on  the  Asiatic 
shore;  these  are  the  famttus  Cyanean  Isles  or 
Symplegades  of  the  ancients,  which  it  was  once 
l»elieve<l  no  vessel  ever  ftassed  in  safety,  except  by 
miracle,  (Aptdl.  Khod.  ii.  v.  435,  dv.)  Tht-y  are 
now  quite  harmless,  being,  hi  fact,  notlnng  but  low 
continuations  of  the  rof-pective  shores;  thev  are 
in  a  continual  state  of  decay,  and  might  easily  be 
overhM)k(Hl,  did  n<»t  their  andent  celclmty  induce 
the  modem  navigator  to  search  for  them.  In  its 
freedom  fnim  all  danger,  its  nam»w  channel,  the 
strength  and  constant  si't  of  its  current,  and,  in 
short,  in  most  of  its  characteristics,  the  Hosphi»riis 
resembles  a  magnificiMit  river  more  than  an  arm  of 
the  sea;  and  this  resemblance  is  bv  no  means  im- 
jmired  by  the  branch  which  it  gives  oil'  at  its  S. 
end,  and  whicin  enclosing  Constantinople  on  the 
X.,  ft»nn.s  what  is  called  the  (iohlen  Horn,  one  of 
the  finest  harlnmrs  in  the  worid.  The  countrj' 
thn)ugh  which  the  I$r«phonis  tiows  is  unrivalled 
forl>eauty ;  animaUand  vegetables  of  almost  everj* 
variety  abound,  and  the  geology  is  |»eculiarly  inte- 
resting, fnmi  the  unequiviK^al  evidences  it.  exhibits 
of  igneous  action.  'Ihe  cliffs,  which  are  stately 
an<l  abrupt,  consist  of  ja.'<{K>r,  agate,  cornaline.  caJ- 
cedoine,  |x>r]ihyry,  trap,  and  calcareous  s|MJth.  in 
verj'  great  but  jticturesque  confusion.  They  are 
all  more  or  less  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  and 
traces  of  metals  are  seen  in  the  cohmring  of  the 
various  stones.  Anpoarances  seem  to  warrant  the 
conclusion  that  this  stmit  was  o|>ened  by  a  con- 
vulsion of  nature,  and  this  iK'lief  was  very  gene- 
rally entortauictl  by  the  ancients  (See  I^lack 
Ska.)  At  about  half-way  U'tween  the  two  seas, 
or  rather  nearer  to  that  t»f  Mamiani,  at  the  nar- 
n>wcst  part  of  the  channel,  stand  two  castles,  one 
on  each  bank,  named,  from  the  Turkish  provinces, 
Anadoli  and  Kumeli  (Asia  iMinor  and  Thraw). 
Thev  form  almost  the  oiilv  defence  to  Coiistan- 
tinople  on  the  X..  and,  if  well  manne<i,  would  lje 
very  dithcult  to  iiass.  These  a]ipear  to  be  almost 
the  only  public  buildings,  but  private  houses  and 
ganlens  extend  ah»ng  nearlv  the  whole  length  of 
the  straits  especially  »in  the  i'.uropean  si«le.  (Che- 
valier, Voy.  de  la  Trop.  pp.  4o-4y  ;  Olivier,  Voy. 
dans  TEnipirc  Olh.  i,  rJO-124  ;  Jones's  TraV. 
ii.  4li-4.')l.) 

The  name  Bosponis  (Bo<rwopo^),  which  has  been 
impro|»erly  corrupted  l)y  m<Mlern  orrhogra]»!iy  to 
Bosphorus  (Boa^opo?),  is  indicative  of  the  narnm-- 
ness  of  this  channel,  and  c<nnes  from  B«»?,  an  ox, 
and  rrojMK,  a  lor<l.  The  pa^jsage  across  it  of  Kn- 
ro)>a,  bonic  by  Jupiter  in  the  form  of  a  bull,  is  a 
well-known  Greek  legend,  and  theuce  the  ancients 


BOSTON 

calleil  those  channels  B<ispori,  which  were  ziarn>w 
enough  to  allow  of  kinc  swimming  across  them. 
Two  especially  were  so  distinguLtlKKl,  namely,  tlic 
stmit  now  under  consMeration,  and  the  Cimmerian 
I^»s|M>rus  (Strait  of  YenicahO.betwei'n  the  Kuxine 
and  the  Palus  Mteittis.  Over  the  Thracian  B(M^ 
|H>nis,  Darius  IIystasi>es  threw  a  bridge  of  lK>ats 
when  he  "^lav^eil  from  Asia  to  his  disastrous  war 
with  the  Scythians;  and  the  pillars  of  marble 
which  he  erectetl  to  commemorate  tliat  event  are 
sup|N>se<l,  with  great  reason,  to  have  strnMl  ufxm 
the  sjKits  now  occupied  by  the  Turkish  caMles. 
(Henslotus  Melistm.  ]>i>.85-t<8;  Strabo,  ^Hi.  3'JU ; 
I'tolemv,  iii.  1 1 ;  Plinv,  vi.  1 .) 

B(  )SS1XKY-VVITH'-T1JEVEXA,  a  lx»r.  of  Eng- 
land, CO.  C^>niwall,  hun(L  Lesnewth,par.  Tintagel, 
2<w  m.  W.  by  S.  London.  Its  area  is  3.'»()  acres ; 
its  ])Op.  is  retunie<l  with  that  of  the  {«.,  which,  in 
iwn,  was  1,(MH>,  but  in  iWil  only  JMM).  It  1-4  on  a 
rugge<l  exposed  j»art  of  the  X^.  c«'»ast  of  theci»unty, 
and  consists  of  two  small  villages  ^^  m.  afuirt. 
There  Ls  a  town-hall  nt>w  otvupiinl  as  a  charity 
scIkmiI  :  an  annual  fair  is  held  the  firxt  Monday 
after  lOth  Oct,  It  claimed  to  be  a  l>or.  by  itd- 
scription,  and  returned  two  memliers  to  the  li.  tX 
('.,  under  a  charter  of  7  Edw.  VI.,  till  disfranrhiM*d 
by  the  Beform  Act :  the  elective  right  was  in 
burgesses  holding  freehold  property  in  the  b<:»r. ; 
of  whom  there  were  24.  The  area  of  the  whole 
J)ari^h  is  3,060  acres,  'i'he  remauis  of  King  Ar- 
thur's castle  are.  on  the  table  summit  of  a  huge 
nwk,  imitruding  int()  the  sea,  and  c«.mnc»'te<l,  by  a 
narr«»w  isthmus,  with  the  rest  of  the  p.orish. 

BOSTAX  (EL)  (an.  Coinom*), a  town  <»f  Turkey- 
in  Asia,  Xatolia,  pach.  Marasch.  at  the  N\  foot  «it 
Mounc  TaiiriLs,  in  a  tine  plain,  on  the  Syhuiin  (an. 
Sftrus).  KO  m.  X.  fnim  the  bottom  of  the  l>ay  of 
Iskendenxm,  and  11. ">  m.  S.  bv  W,  Sivas,  lat,  3^^ 
X..  long.  3r,o  20'  E.  Pop.  8,<HK)  or  9,lMHj.  Mr. 
Bruce  (Appendix  to  Kinneir's  Travels,  p. tik\\\)  say* 
of  El  B^jstan  that '  it  has  forty  de|>endent  villages 
in  the  adjacent  plain,  surroundetl  with  tine  tn.*vs 
and  cultivate<l  lields  and  meadows.  Few  9\HA-i 
in  Asia  Minor  »»fl"er  a  ?ight  more  agreeable.  There 
is  a  gR'at  trade  in  wheat,  sohl  to  the  Turkmans, 
who  carr}'  it  even  as  far  as  Aleppo.  When  feiirful 
of  being  attacked,  the  inhabitants  lay  the  en\i- 
rons  of  the  town  under  water.  It  has  four 
mosques,  one  of  which  is  supjwsed  to  l>e  verj' 
ancit^nt.' 

In  antiquity  Comana  was  famous  forthe  worship 
of  3Ia,  the  (.'ap])ad(K*inn  lielloiia.  'llie  )>opulnti«in 
consi'*ttMl,  in  a  great  i legree,  of  s<»othsayer!<,  priests, 
anil  slaves  l>elonging  to  the  high-priest,  and  em- 
jiloyed  in  the  senice  of  the  temple.  The  hitter, 
in  the  time  of  Strains,  are  s,iid  to  have  exceeihil 
(;.(HM»  of  lH>th  sexes.  It  receivetl  a  Boman  mlony 
in  the  reign  of  Ant«)nius  Pius,  and.  pi»rha|v».  aL-s 
in  that  of  Caracal  la.  (Oamer's  AsLi  Minor,  iu 
13J».)  ^ 

BOSTOX,  a  f:ea-]K>rt,  m.  town,  and  lM»r.  of 
England,  co.  Lincoln,  on  the  Witbam,  102  m.  X. 
Loiulon  by  rimd,  2m  m.  SE.  Lincoln,  and  \y\'i\  ni. 
frtim  London  by  («reat  Xorthem  railwav,  on  which 
it  is  a  station.  Pop..  1801,  5/J2ri;  1831,  l,1.24n: 
1841,  12,m2.  and  1801,  14,712.  The  town  is  snp- 
|M>sed  by  some,  from  antiquities  found  in  it>  neigh- 
lH)nrl)»(Mi,  to  h.ive  been  a  Boman  station,  and  ti» 
have  taken  its  name  from  a  monaster^-  built  bv 
St.  Botolph,  A.D.  ()54,  «lestroyed  by  the  Danes  in 
870.  That  it  became  a  place  of  considerable  n:eT- 
cantile  imjMirtance,  after  the  Xorman  conque^'t. 
ajUK-ars  fn»m  the  fact  that,  in  1201,  its  asM'>siuoiit 
towards  a  tax  f»f  a  tifte<rnth,  im]>o<4Hl  on  the^^rts. 
amounted  t«»  7so/.,  while  that  (»f  London,  the  ••uly 
jiort  taxed  highir  than  it.  was  but  8itii/.  In  Viiiy 
it  sufferetl  by  lire,  and  iu  1280  by  an  inuutlatiuii. 


BOSTON 


507 


ITndoT  an  act  of  27  Edw.  III.  it  became  a  staple 
for  wool,  woolfclls,  leather,  and  IcaiL  About  the 
Hamc  time  it8  mercantile  pro8|>eTity  was  mucli 
increased  by  several  Haiiseatic  mcrchanta  nettlinp; 
in  it,  who,  liowcver,  emi^^tcd  about  a  century 
after,  in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  the  towns- 
men, which  terminated  m  bloodshed.  During 
the  intermciliate  peri(xl  its  shi^)ping  was  so  con- 
siderable tliat  it  furnisheil  17  ships,  an<I  860  men, 
towanls  an  armament  for  the  invasion  of  Brittany, 
and  ranked  the  twelfth,  as  to  number  of  vessels, 
among  the  H2  ports  which  were  assessed ;  but  it 
fell  off  rapidly  after  the  departure  of  the  Han- 
seatic  merchants  The  cUs8oluti(»n  of  the  monas- 
teries by  Hen.  VIII.  injured  the  town,  though 
compensation,  in  some  degree,  was  made  to  it  bv 
a  grant  of  511  acres  of  the  sequestered  lands,  ft 
after\*ards  suflFercd  by  the  plague,  and  by  inun- 
dations, to  which  this  flat  countr>'  was  ))articularly 
liable.  During  the  civil  wars,  it  was  for  some 
time  the  head-quarters  of  Cromwell's  army. 

The  town,  situate  on  the  VVithani,  called  by 
Leland  the  Lindis,  about  5  m.  from  its  mouth, 
and  divide»l  by  it  into  two  nearly  ccpial  parts,  con- 
ncotetl  together  by  an  iron  bridge,  built  by  Kennie, 
of  a  single  arch  of  80^  ft.  span,  o|)ened  in  1837, 
c'oiL<»ihts  of  two  long  streets,  one  on  each  side  the 
stream,  from  each  (»f  which  others  diverge.  It  is 
well  built,  contains  many  goo<l  dwelling-houses 
and  shops,  and  extensive  granaries  and  warehouses. 
The  borough  Ls  well  |)aved  and  lighte<I  under  the 
provisions  of  a  local  act,  and  also  well  supplied 
with  water.  Its  most  remarkable  building  is  the 
|»nrish  church  of  St.  Hotolph,  erected  in  IJJOl).  It 
IS  the  largest  churcli  without  ai.sles  in  the  kingdom,  :  could  not  come  up,  except  at  springs.    The  drain- 


im[)ortant,  is  used  by  the  corporation  for  their 
municipal  meetings.  Petty  sessions  are  held  on 
Friday.  A  court  leet  for  the*  l>orough  sits  annually : 
its  principal  duty  is  to  present  nuisances.  Aci>urt 
of  record,  wliich  decides  pleas  in  all  actions,  real, 
mixed,  and  personal,  sits  on  Wednesdays  an(l 
Satunlays.  it  is  also  the  seat  of  a  county  court. 
The  gross  estimated  rental  assessed  to  poor  rate 
was  51,0702.  in  IHOl,  and  the  amount  assessed  to 
pnmerty-tax  79,713/. 

The  manufactures  of  lioston  arc  mostly  confined 
to  sailcloth,  canvas  and  sacking;  there  arc  two 
iron  and  brass  foundries,  and  three  shiiv-yanls, 
with  patent  slips,  where  vessels  of  200  tons  are 
built.  Markets  are  held  on  Wednesdays  and 
Saturdays ;  fairs  for  cattle  and  sheep  are  on  May 
4  and  5 :  for  fat  cattle  on  Aug.  1 1 ;  for  hones 
al)out  Nov.  18  and  3  days  after;  and  for  homed 
cattle  only  on  Dec.  11.  Immense  numbers  of 
the  finest  cattle  and  sheep  are  sold  at  these  fairs, 
the  town  being  in  the  centre  of  one  of  the  richest 
grazing  districts  in  the  kingdom.  The  banking 
establishments  are — the  National  and  Provincial 
Bank  of  England;  a  branch  of  the  Stamford, 
Spalding  aittl  lk>ston  Bank ;  with  two  private 
banking  houses.  The  principal  drainages  in  the 
vicinity  are  those  of  the  Holland  fens  made  by  a 
cut  of  12  m.  fnim  the  town  to  Dogdyke,  near 
Tattersall,  by  which  22,000  acres  were  reclaimed ; 
and  the  Wildmore  fens,  41,fN)0  acres,  drained  in  a 
similar  manner.  ()winj*-to  the  neglect  of  keeping 
the  river  clear,  the  trade  fell  off  si)  as  to  l>e  almost 
extinct.  In  1721,  vessels  of  250  tons  could  dis- 
clinige  at  the  town  ;  in  1751,  sloops  of  U  ft.  draught 


Wing  382  ft.  by  i>8  ft.  within  the  walls.  Its  tower, 
called  *  Boston*  Stump,'  'Hui  ft,  high,  built  on  the 
same  plan  as  that  of  Antwerp,  is  capped  with  an 
(K'tngonal  tmns|)arent  lantern,  of  very  Wautiful 
con.st ruction,  and  forms  a  remarkable  landmark 
<in  this  low  coast,  being  visible  at  40  ra.  distance. 
A  chnpel  of  ease  was  ere<'ted  in  1H22.  The  (»nly 
traces  of  St,  John's  Church,  taken  down  aUnit 
two  centuries  ago,  are  found  in  its  cemeter\',  still 
used  as  a  ]>lace  of  burial.  The  other  j daces  of 
worship  are  those  of  the  Unitarians,  VV'esleyan 
New  (.'onnexion,  and  Primitive  MellMMlists,  (ienc- 
ral  and   Particular   Baptists,   Independents,  and 


ages,  already  mentioned,  revived  attention  to  the 
state  of  the  river,  and  under  special  acts  of  parlia- 
ment, have  improve<l  it  s«)  far  that  vessels  of  120 
tons  come  up  to  town,  whence  the  navigation  is 
continueil  to  Lincohi  by  small  steamers  and 
luirges,  A  sluic*c  was  also  erecte<I  to  retain  the 
water  above  the  town.  The  navigation  to  Linccdu 
is  exten(ie<l  by  the  Fosstlyke  Canal  to  the  Trent, 
at  Torksev,  and  thence,  either  bv  still  water  or 
river  navigation,  to  (iainsborough,  Nottingham, 
an<l  Derby,  thus  opening  a  vent  for  the  export  of 
the  manufactures  of  the  midland  counties.  The 
ftindgn  trade  is  chiefly  contined  to  the  importa- 


Jfoman   Cathoru*s.     A   free  grammar-sch<K»l  was  I  tion  from  the  Baltic  of  timl>er,  hemp,  tar,  pitch, 


founded  in  1544;  Laugliton's,  for  the  sons  of  poor 
freemen,  in  1707;  a  blue-coat  sch<Md  in  1713,  for 
3()  boys  and  25  girls:  and  a  national  Britb<h  and 
Infant  school,  together  e<lucating  ainrnt  500  pu- 
pils of  both  sexes :  there  is  also  a  <lispensary 
an»l  a  very  handsonu^  Union  house,  this  i>eing  a 
'  union  '  under  the  new  P(M»r  Law.  The  other 
jiublic  pla<'esare  the  com  exchange  and  athena'um, 
three  sulxscription  libraries,  as>ombly-nK>ms,  a 
th<'atre,  and  a  public  promena«le  at  Vauxhall 
(Jardcns.  Since  the  pas.sing  of  the  Munici|)al 
Ii<'fomi  Act  the  town  has  been  dividetl  into  two 
wards,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  six  aldermen. 


and  iron.  The  coastuig  tnule  is  chiefly  in  the 
exp»>rt  of  com,  wo«)l,  and  other  agricultural  ]>ro- 
duce,  the  return  cargoes  consisting  of  coal  and 
manufacturer!  gcMKls.  The  shipping,  in  the  year 
18<J3,  consisted  of  GOG  vessels  of  28,7  IG  tona 
bunlcn,  which  entered  the  jwrt,  and  347  vessels, 
of  ll»,J)23  tons,  which  clearetL  The  greater  num- 
ber of  these  were  sailing  vessels.  Of  steamcns 
there  entered  43,  of  3,440  tons,  and  there  cleareil 
38,  of  3,(Mt0  tons.  There  is  a  g<MKl  custom-housi^ 
and  a  pilot  establishment  of  a  master  and  12 
])ih»ts.  Extensive  jsiwers  are  vested  in  the  may<ir 
and  burgesses  by  two  h»cal  acts  for  impn)ving  the 


an<l  18  coun«"ilIors.     It  has  returned  two  memWrs  ;  |K>rt  and  harlKiur,  under  which  they  are  em|)owexe<l 


to  the  II.  of  C.  since  the  reign  of  Edwanl  VI. 
Previouslv  to  the  Bcfonn  Act  the  franchise  was 
vcstwl  in  the  memlK'rs  of  the  corjK>ration,  and  in 
the  freemen  who  resided  in  an<l  fvaid  s<'ot  and  lot 
in  tlic  Ixirungh.  The  pari,  borough  includes  the 
parishes  of  Bostou  and  Skirbeck,  and  the  hamlet 


to  collect  tonnage,  wharfage,  and  last.ige,  fn>m 
vessels  that  enter;  the  rex^eipts  to  Ijc  applied  to 
its  improvement.  They  are  also  empowered  to 
make  bye-laws,  to  which  all  vessels  are  to  bt? 
subject.  Part  of  the  port  dues  are  collected  at 
SiMilding  and  at  Waintleet,  to  each  of  which  the 


nntl  fen  aUotnicnt  of   SkirU'ck  quarter,  extend- jjuriMliction  of  the  coqx>ration  extends.     On  the 
ing  in  all  over  7,023  acres,  and  had  in  1^<(J1  a  '  31si  Deceml)er,  1>M)3,  thcR*  lK?h>nged  to  the  port 


jM.j).  of  17,H'.>:j.  Kcgistercd  ele*'tors,  I.OIU  in  1HG4, 
of  which  171  remaining  old  freemen.  It  is  a 
l>olling-pla<'e  for  the  county.  There  were  several 
guilds,  Iwith  religious  and  civil,  all  of  which  hax^e 
fallen  into  douetude ;  the  hall  of  that  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  which  was  one  of  the  m<»st 


(»f  lioston,  82  Miiling  vessels  of  and  under  50  tons, 
the  whole  of  2,U25  tons  bunlen,  and  47  sailing 
vessels  alwve  50  tons,  of  a  total  burden  of  ;t,35t> 
tons.  There  were.  lM>sid(>s,  2  small  steamers,  of 
33  tons  luirden.  (Dugdale's  Hist,  of  Kml>anking 
and  Draining ;   Noble's  Gazetteer   of   Liucohi ; 


60S 


BOSTON 


Thompson's  Histon'  of  R«)stnn  ;  annunl  ptntcmcnt 
of  trade  and  navigation  for  the  yoar  \XiVd.) 

Boston,  a  niarit.  city   of  tlic   United   States, 
the  priiK'i|»al  phice  in  New  Knj^lsind,  ami  tlie  cap. 


minor  offences,  and  the  examination  of  criminal 
charges  ;  as  well  as  a  municipal  Cf^iirt,  held  by  a 
single  judge,  with  jurisdiction  in  all  criminal  canfes 
n(»t  capital.    The  annual  expenditure  of  the  city 


of  Mas,sachnM>tts  ;  on  a   !«mall  iK'ninsula  at  the  ,  amounts  to  al>out  r>U(Kn(M)  dolLirs. 


lK)ttoni  of  MassachuwttA  IJav,  ci»nn«'Cted  with  the 
mainland  hy  a  narrow  i.sthnuis,  calle«l  lioston 
Neck,  'JO?  ni.  NK.  New  Y«»rU;  lut.  <»f  lighthouK-, 


l]o>ton  is  connected  with  the  interior  both  by 
canals,  railways,  and  river  navigation  ;  and  has  a 
ver>'  extensive  trade  both  with  ff>reign  countries 


4'29  Vy  41"  N.,  long.  70°  :»;<'  l.T'  W.     Aoc.rding    and  also  with  the  S.  Ptatea  of  the  L'nion.     The 


to  thecen.suscjf  1M«I0,  I{4>Nton  was  the  fourth  largest 
eitv  in  the  I'nitotl  States,  only  New  York,  I'hi- 
laiielphia,  and  Baltimore  having  a  larger  |)opu- 
hition.  There  were  177,«12  inhabiUuit^  in  l«tJ(), 
against  13(;,s«l  in  IK.OO. 

The  bav.  which  is  verv  extensive,  is  studded 


town  is  wholly  indebte<l  to  the  latter,  and  prin- 
cij^ally  to  New  York,  .Maryland, and  Pennsylvania, 
for  su|ipliei«  of  tlour  ami  wheat,  and  fur  large  quan- 
titiej*  of  oats,  rj'C,  barlev,  an*!  other  grain ;  as  well 
as  for  cotton,  toliacco,  nee,  staves,  and  coal.  The 
returns  are  made  partly  in  native  raw  pnKluce,  as 


■with  numerous  small  Islands,  which  pn»te«-t  the  l)eef,  p«»rk,  lanl,  d'c. ;  partly  in  the  pnxlucc  of  her 
harbour  from  the  winds,  and  afford  convenient  :  manufacturing  industry,  in  which  i)ilas!WchiiM.<!tts 
hitnations  for  fi>rtH  commanding  the  approaches  to  is  deci«le«ny  suiterior  t<»  every  other  8tatc  in  the 
the  city  by  water.  The  harlMnirih  excellent,  l»eing  j  Tnion  ;  and  i»artly  in  the  pnMluce  of  ti.s}ieric8  and 
of  great  size,  with  water  KdhcieTit  to  admit  the'  f(>reign  trade.  Her  exfK)rtj»  to  foreign  states  cc»n- 
lai^^est  ships,  and  m  completely  land-hK.'ked,  that  ;  sist  principally  of  the  same  articles  tdie  sends  t^ 
the  vessels  in  it  are  almost  as  secure  as  if  they  j  the  S.   states;   but  she  also  re-cxixjrts  a   large 


were  in  dock.    At  the  outer  entrance  tit  the  I  my 
is  a  lighthouse  <!o  ft.  high,  with  a  revolving  light. 


amount  of  the  foreign  pnKluce  she  had  previously 
im|Kirtcd.     Her   im]M)rts    from  foreign   countries 


'ITie  bridgejj,  some  of  which  are  of  great  length,    consist   ]mnci|)ally  of  cotton,   wwdlcn,   and   silk 

connecting  the  city  with  itA  adjacent  sulnirlis  ami  -  gisnls  ;   hardware;    sugar,  tea,  coffee,  wines  and 

the  continent,  are  all  of  W(mkI;  but  it  is  joined  bv  .  brandy,  indigo,  and  otlier  dye  stuffs,  spices,  iic. 

a  caus*»way  of  earth  to  ltn)oklyn,   and   the  V\ .  i  The  subjoined  statement   shows   the   nunilwr  of 

Avenue,  as  it  is  called,  leading  across  the  bay  to  ]  vess<ds,  with  tonnage,  which  entervnl  the  jwrt  of 

l{oxbur\%  Is  also  t»f  earth,  but  is  partlv  onlv  arti-    Boston  in  the  four  vears  18G0  to  1803  : — 

licial,  Ixdng  fenceil  on  each  side  by  walN  of  stone. 

This  avenue  ser\-es  the  double  purpose  of  a  bridge 

and  a  dam,  and,  with  the  addition  of  a  cn>ss  dam 

of  a  similar  construction,  forms  two  large  babins  ; 

one  of  which  being  fillwl  with  every  iUnn\.  and  tlie 

other  emptied   with  everA'  ebb  ti«le,  a  perjH'tu.il 

cum'Ut   for  the  u.'«e  of  mills,  d-c.  is  e-stabli^hed. 

The  wharfs  are  very  <'Xtensive  :  the  Long  Wharf 

is  1, <;.'»()  H.  in  length,  bv  2(H>ft.  wide,  and  contains 

seventy-six  large  wan'lmuseM  ;  the  Central  Wharf 

is  l.'i.Vofi.  long,  by  !.'>(»  ft.  wide;  and  theni  are 

others  nearly  as  exten>ive.     Tlie  wharfs,  as  well 

as  many  other  parts  4if  the  city,  have  been  built  <»n  ! 

hites  formed  bv  raiMug  grmnid  originally  covered 

by  the  tide.     iMtist  of  the  streets  are  narr<»w  and 

cnmkcil ;  but  the  houses,  which  are  generally  of 

brick,  though  many  of  them  are  of  granite  and 

sienite,  are  large  and  well  built.    The  priui'ii  al 

imblic   buildings   are  the  state-house ;  co.  court- 
louse;  the  Faneuil-hall.  in  which  pidtlic  meetings 
and  public  assemblies  are  held;  the  Masttju-husctts 
General  Hospital ;   and  the   miu'ket-house.    The 
Ftate-house,  a  brick  building,  fronts  the  common, 
a  fine  park  of  75  acres,  and  the  principal  publiir , 
K)uare  in  the  city,  of  which  it  occujnos  the  must  ] 
elevated  |)art,  loi)  ft.  alwne  the  bav.   The  market-  | 
house  is  a  handhome  granite  edifice,  two  stories  : 
lugh,  5-10  ft.  in  length,  and  50  ft.  wide ;  the  cojut-  " 
house  is  also  of  granite,  170  ft.  long,  57  ft.  high, 
and  54  ft,  wide,  a«lonied  with  massive  Doric  jMtr- 
ticos.    The  genend  hos]»ital  is  a  hanib*«»me  granite  ! 
))uilding.  surrounded  by  ojreu  grounds  of  four  acres  ! 

in  extent.    Tn'mont-hou>e,  tlie  front  of  which  is  }  ~  ~  .   .  -      .  . 

builtof  grey  sieuite,  in  the  Doric  onler,  and  several  ■  Boston  is  the  seat  of  the  American  ice  trade, 
of  the  bank  build higs,  are  rendere<l  deser%ing  of  and  there  ur*  numerous  com] tan ies  engaged  in  the 
notice  by  their  anrhitecture.  There  are  al)ove  sixty  business  of  8hii)ping  ice  for  the  southeni  jvirts  of 
churches,  two  theatres,  an  odeon,  A'c.  ;  an  eye  and  the  L'nion,  the  Havannali,  «fcc.  lioston  ice  is 
ear  infinnar\' ;  with 


is<;n. 

Vr»Tl« 

Ton* 

Ameriran     . 

s.;« 

2s:;.;J41 

lureijni 

2,"«l 

;;:.SAS'j 

Total     . 

2,U19 
1861. 

6l2,(»-.>3 

Ameriran     . 

9-.>6 

344.101 

Fon:igu 

2,I!H 

:J74.:;r*r> 

Total     . 

1862. 

7iy,.VS7 

American    . 

7M 

217,004 

ioreiKU 

2,'j:n 

a^t;,H::t 

Total     . 

b,uu 

lSG-1. 

G;i3,4U7 

Anifri<ran    . 

nw 

gr.n.nr,!) 

roreigii 

2,oS8 

S74,KJM 

Total 


3,07:J 


The  value  of  Indh  imports  and  exjwrts,  in  the 
two  vears  l^ii'iand  I^'m,  was  as  follows  : — '- 


\f<r.2 


l-rio 


A^"^^(■pateof  Import?,  iiiclud-  \ 
iiijr  Sjn-eie  ami  liiilliijii     .     )' 

Do.  KxiKirts.  iiieliulhig  do. 

luiixjrtM.  «.«X4lusivc  of  SiKvie  i 
iiml  Bullion       .        .        .    > 

li.viM^rtw,  (jxchwive  of  do.     .    . 


21.4o8.S(»:j  27,1»-'  1  ,o  |:i: 
10,:M4.:jf»:,   17.l7(i,l.-». 


2.5,10  l.W  I 
l6,Si)(>,7G!» 


27.<tt»o.oin 


tion,  and  corn'ction 


I  house,««  of  indiL<*tr}',  refonna-  foun<l  in  every  part  of  the  worhl,  immense  quan- 
;  a  county  gaol,  A-c.  lioston.  tilies  l>eing -hipj)C»d  for  S.  America,  the  K.  and  W. 
with  the  small  town  of  Chelsea,  constitutes  the  Inilie-^,  and  China.  It  in  mostly  callett  *  Wenham 
county  of  Suffolk,  which  is  represented  in  the  ;  I>ake,'  but,  in  reality,  only  a  very  moilerate  quan- 
H-nate  of  the  state  by  six  senators.  The  city  is  '  tity  is  cut  on  that  pond.  It  is  so  much  an  anicle 
divided  into  twelve  wards  ;  the  municif»al  govern-  '  of  nece>sity  with  all  Americans  that  nothing  sur- 
nient  is  vej«ted  in  a  mayor,  eight  ahh'rmen,  an«l  a  prises  and  annoys  them  more  on  their  travcU  thai 
common  council  of  forty-eiglit  meiulK-rs,  all  <»f  the  parsimonious  us«^  of  it  in  Kurope.  They  fre- 
whom  are  chosen  annually  by  the  citizens.  Tln're  queutly  say  that  the  first  ring  of  it  against  the 
id  a  i)olicc  court  of  tluree  justices,  for  the  trial  of    tumbler  on  their  return  ia  like  a  sweetest,  and 


(Itrpoit  by  Mr.  CntiBul  Lnunaila  on  the  Trade  mi) 
i'lintn^rcc  iif  MaHHauliiiMrtW  Torthe  yrar  IHiH.) 

ll<wti>[iliMnlwayitliccnrtvounil>lyiJi»tiii)wiiihal, 
lij-  her  atleiiliiHi  tii  islucition  and  litcniiurc  The 
Snttb  Americsn  UevKw  and  nlher  valiinble  workn 
an  puhliHlusI  here.  Hinitd  Uiiiv«n>itf  IbvhU- 
IdMicd  about  H  m.  Truin  the  dty,  which  contniiu 
ilHmr'liral  ikjiartmeiK.  tt  ha*  also  a  Latin  ami  a 
hi;;ii  xrltnnl ;  numecoiu  puhlic  KranimBr  awl  writ- 
ii>a  wrhiHiIii,  in  ichicU  aritlllnvtu^  Hcot^niphy,  aiul 
hi«i«irv  are  tauj^l ;  inAiiv  primnrv  MchmLi,  and  an 
Ardin'n  KcliMil  I  all  uf  whirh  are'  under  (he  rliiev- 
lliHi  nf  a  uliwil  mminittee,  cnmistinK  uf  Ihc  msyur, 
nlikrtnen,  and  twelve  ether  membcni,  dci-liil  an- 
niiiillf.  'lliprv  isalnu  an  Atlirnsuin,  with  alilirarv 
of  iliKUOO  Tois,  a  pielure  K«!ler\-,ond  a  [iiiblii;  linli 
r«r  hitiircH.  The  bcIkmiI  fur  the  iiutruciion  oT  the 
blind,  fiHinded  in  IHSn,  ui  xaid  ti>  lie  exlirmely 
well  nianii{fed.  Ilie  American  Aeailemy  or  Artii 
and  Si'leiicei,  tlw  lliilorinil  and  Xaliirul  Hi»tnry 
rwietieH,  an  anianp<(  it*  leanied  a)»i>clatii>na:  it 
ha;>  iiIhii  a  humanu  WHiety.  iirgilian  aiiyluniit,  nnd 
iiunirniuii  iitheT  i-luiiitalilp  edabliKhmenls  A  h<iiii 
cirijnilv,  tri-weekty,  weekli',  nuinlhly,  and  uther 


BOTIIWELL  000 

I     BOSWOKTU  (MARKKTj.Bpar.andtomof 

Enfjlond,  eu.  Leiwnti-r,  Iniiid.  Siiarkenhoe.  Area 
orpar,7,2MatTen  l>o|).uf  par.S^t;)  in  I81i,uHl 
2^78  in  IMGl  j  pop,  .if  town  i.iao  in  IWl,  and  997 
in  l«il.  Uwill  be»eentbattheii..p.i»d«rea«lni[. 
It  u  a  next  little  town  un  an  cininence,  in  the 
centre  of  a  fertile  distiiel.  It  haK  a  wcll-cndoweil 
gninimar-Mhool,  in  which  Dr.  Johnson  wait  once 
an  uiihiT  1  but  its  propOTIv,  abin-e  TOO/,  a  year,  has 
been  the  nuljjct't  nf  a  knin  chancerv  suit.  It  hu 
2  felluwHliip*  and  4  ivhalamliips  in  Krnaniiel  Caiubr. 
liters  aie  S  cattle  fain  held  annually.  May  H  and 
July  lu.  The  Aalibr  Canal  fMfaea  within'a  mile, 
anil  ixHivcyn  co«1j%  ic.     ■■  '     ■ 


I  of  3H  p 


ro  70.V. 


Dwlun  n-UK  friimdcd  in  lG.W,and  m  nnmeit  fnim 
the  town  in  Knf;1uitil  iireiiuunly  dcMiiibcit,  whence 
many  uf  itn  inhalHtanlo  Iwd  enngialnl.  llimiich- 
out  the  wliole  periu]  ut  iia  hiiitiiiyi  ila  inhab.  hare 
iliaplaycd  Krvtit  eneiKy  In  anatMHilt  pi<|mlaT  riiflilH, 
and  liwk  the  leail  in  upiiiMinK  Ihe  loxatinn  or  the 
Ainerieiin  njhniicB  in  the  lelftn  uf  GeorK*  III. ;  in 
ciinseifiiciire  of  which,  the  port  i^  ttoatiai  waa 
cloHil,  liy  an  aetuf  parliament,  in  IT74,  A  nritirA 
Karrinun  wm  abu  ■lationeil  in  iIk  city.  Iiut  brinf; 
lioriejn^l  by  the  American  army  In  I'lj-'li,  Ihc 
llritinh  were  at  laat  o)i%ed  lu  evacualc  it.  ll»nton 
i»  iIhi  lilrtliplace  uf  I>r.  Itei^.  Franklin,  vliu  was 
Iwni  hereon  llie  Glh  <>f  Janiiaiy.  ] TlHi.  (Odkial 
I'apcra,  |ni>>Ui'linl  bv  (.'ui4t<'»<  t  The  Natiunal  AI- 
inan»i',  lHli4i  Itcporla  uf  Ur.Ciaiiwl  Uni-vuln  on 
till.'  Trade  <■(  MaMachustltB,  iu  Consular  lliimrts, 
i»C4.) 


Tlie  deiiiive  battle  'between  lii.-banl  HI.  and 
le  Etrl  of  Uichmonii,  altcrwanln  Henp'  VII.,  in 

which  lerminateil  the  lon(>-ci  in  tinned  irtnig^e 
;  lietween  ihe  huune*  of  Yurlt  and  Laiicanler,  takea 
Its  name  from  tliLi  town,  in  ihe  vicinilv  of  which 
It  tm.k  place,  on  the  SItiid  of  AoKUKt.'  HC5.  In 
Ihe  batlle-lielit  in  nwell,  name<lfrom  Kichard  III., 
with  an  inscription  by  the  late  Ur,  Pnrr;  and  an 
elevation,  called  Crown  Hill,  where  Loid  Stanley 
b.  taid  til  have  placed  KicliBBrn  crown  on  Ihe  Enil 
of  llK'hinond'a  hwuL  (Xichol'ii  LeiceHlerah.;  Hirt- 
ton'B  lloBwcU  Fkdil.) 

liOSZKA,  a  town  of  Svria.  fonnwlv  the  cap.  of 
the  Aunuiilea:  .■>»  m.  S.  Damn-ni..,  MO  m.  XE. 
Jeruaalem;  lBt.a2ojO'.\"„luii){.atiO!nrE.  Though 
now  almoiit  dencned,  Ihe  ruiim  are  extensive  and 

l^teir-ltoluuia  {House  of  ItohauB),  so  callwi  from 
licliiK  cinuccralvd  to  u  monk  of  Ihut  name,  who  b 
said  to  have  imiclalinci!  the  Bacrwl  chiinicler  of 
Mohammol,  when  Ihe  projihet,  in  his  l:lih  vear, 
vi*itPd  Syria  with  his  uncle,  llie  KTcat  miiiqiie, 
a  very  andent  temple,  a  triumphal  arch,  a  casUa 
of  tieat  strrni.lh,  icmnantn  of  the  city  walU,  aud 
a  n..«n-oir  5U0  ft.  lonL',  WD  wide,  and  ill  dw]^  ate 
anion);  Ihc  remains  of  ancient  Knindeur;  in  addl- 

covereil  wilh  [ullaiK  anil  ntlier  niiiu  uf  the  1!iiast 
wnrkmanahip,  HcHizra  is  verv  ancient :  it  i*  loeii' 
tioned  in  Ihe  Sacred  Writini^  aa  one  of  the  riliM 
which  the  half  tribe  nf  Slanaimrh,  bevnnd  Jiddu, 
eavetothet^ilei^  (Josh,  xxi  27.)  At  thia  lime, 
and  for  af^e*  snlseqiientlv,  it  was  cehilnateil  forila 
vineyards,  which  are  comniemorated  on  Ihc  (irpek 
mwlals  of  KMsFia  DmpiK.  lilt  of  tho«e  no  vrstiite 
now  remains.  After  the  ettnhiifthmcnt  of  Cliria- 
liaiiily,  it  was  an  arclilrialiop's  see.  n-ith  I'J  bisbup- 
rics  umlcT  ita  Jiuisiliction.  Its  stroni;  eastle  waa 
buitt  1^  (he  Saraivns,  lietween  whom  and  the 
I^lin  kinits  of  Jeruaalem  it  several  times  chanfted 
maslersand  under  Baldwin  IV.,  a.ii.  Ilwi.itwaa 
entirely  nuned  awl  dc|>ri|nilnted.  (Ahiil-Peila,  Vit. 
Mali,  e.i  ;  Tall.  Sit.  pii.  n!.  !IH;  Adrictiomiui>, 
Ter.  Sanc.79,8B!  fiurckhnn-  "■ —  " 


IIOTANV  BAV. 


i}T.pp,iS4- 
e  At:8Tii.\T.iA  and  Kkw 


IH>THNIA  (GULF  OF),  the  X.  ann  of  the 
Iloltii-,  wtiioh  see. 

IWirilWlCLU  a  par.  and  villnce  of  Scotland, 
comity  Ijinark.  on  the  S.  luile  of  the  Clvde.  The 
village  lie*  on  the  mad  fnnn  (ilascowtolfamillnn, 
S  m.  K.  of  tlie  former,  and  3  N\V.  oT  the  latter, 
near  the  R<l<nbuT|,'h-(jlas|<owrailwav.  I'op.  1,057 
in  IMDI,  nf  wlKim  4.1!l  males  ami  CIH  fcmalra. 
AlKMt  a  mile  fnim  tlie  vilhue,  towards  the  SK., 
the  niail  to  Hamilton  ii  coiricil  over  Ihe  Clvde  \ir 
llothB-ell-lffidKe,  ilic  scene  of  one  of  the  must 
memurablc   uveDIa   in   Scuttiab    liiirioy.     The 


611*  IIOTZEX  BOULOGNE 


covenanters,  to  the  niinilxTuf  4,000  or5,(KM),havinfc 
taken  iKH«M^Sf>i«in  of  the  bri<i<;e,then  much  namiwer 
than  at  present,  were  attAeke<i,  on  tlie  22nd  of 
June,  HITl»,  the  l)riil^  fonxHl,  un<l  their  anny  to- 
tallv  n>uted  by  the  royal  foruen,  under  the  £)uke 
(»f  5lonmout)i.  (I^ng't)  Scotland,  iv.  I(i4.)  Near 
the  tillage  is  the  maf^iitioent  niin  of  Bothwell 
Castle,  once  an  important  Sciftti'th  fortresB.  The 
par.  is  w«'ll  wtKHled  and  well  cultivated, 

IIOTZEX,  or  BOLZANO  (an. /V»*  Dnu!),  a 


N  W.  Marscillej^  They  and  the  cont  innoos  nuu^hes 
occupy  a  js^reat  extent  of  land,  and  in  summer 
are  very  unhealthy.  Priucii>al  ri\'en,  Rhone  and 
Durance;  the  latter  ruithesi  alon^  with  gnmt  vio- 
lence, frequently  overtlowin£:it8l«nk«,  ami  cansinf^ 
gn^t  <lainaKC.  *  There  are  aW  some  smaller  rivens 
an<l  the  dcjiartment  'i»  intersected  by  several  canaLt. 
Climate  p^nerally  hot  and  dr>%  and  the  country  m 
summer  lias  a  barren  fiarohed  appearance,  A^- 
cidture  \miU  a  consequence  ascrilwible,  partly  to  the 


t<twn  <if  the  Au>triAn  states,  Tyn»l,  cap^  circ  in  a  !  minute  division  of  pnt}ierty,  and  the  attachment 
pleasant  well-sheltered  valley,  at  the  contluence  i  of  the  little  pntprietors  to  mutine  practices,  but 
of  the  Kisach  and  Talfcr,  a  little  aUive  where  their  j  mon>,  pe.rha|ts,  to  the  unfavourable  nature  of  the 
united  waters  fall  into  the  Adi^e,  30  m.  NNM.  .  8<»il  and  climate.  In  the  mountainous  parts  in  the 
Trent.  Pop.  8,2U0  in  lXo7.  It  Is  a  thriving  well-  !  K.  and  NK.  there  is  a  p)od  deal  of  spade  hus- 
built  town, in  the  Italian  ^tyle;  has  a  ca.*<tle,  sevenil  -  banilr\':  in  the  S.  and  NW.,  mules  are  employeil 
convents,  a  C(»llege.  aud  some  manufactuR^s  of  ^ilk  !  in  tield-labour,  an<l  liorsc?*  in  the  W.  and  the  island 
stockings.  A  >lroiig  dyke  of  niit>«4>nry,  nearly  '2  \  i»f  Camai^ucA  I'he  pnxhice  of  com  is  insufKcient 
m.  in  length,  and  in  jMirts  24  ft.  thick,  has  been  for  the  ct>n>umptiou :  but  the  )>niduce  of  wine  b* 
constructed  to  tiefend  the  town  fn»m  the  irrupt  tons  ;  estiinateti  at  aUmt  820,ii<HJ  hectolitres,  leaving  a 
of  a  ueighlNiuring  niountuin-torrent.  lieing  in- ;  huge  sur]>lus  for  exportation.  The  pnMhice  of  silk 
ten*ecte4i  by  higli-ntatls  leading  lt»  Switzerland,  j  L<  estimat(><l  at  alwut  iJiM>,0<H)  kilog.  Olives  are 
Austria,  and  Italy,  with  a  station  on  the  milway  :  largt*ly  cultivated;  and  the  gathering  of  kcnnes 
over  the  Al|»s,  from  Innsbruck  to  Verona,  Ikitzen  '  ctmtinues  to  be  a  gotKl  deal  attended  to.  The 
has  an  exteuMve  tran>it  tnidc.  It  is  al-^o  cele-  drie<i  fruits  of  the  de'p.  are  much  esteeme«L  Httrses 
bratetl  for  it^  fairs,  commencing  the  iMih  Mar^-h,  and  cattle  are  few  in  numU'r.  and  not  of  giMul 
1  ith  June,  !tth  Septenil>er,  and  ot»th  NovemlK-r,  quality.  The  great  wealth  of  the  dep.  cr>nsi'Sts  in 
continuing  each  fourteen  davs.  which  are  attended  its  >he<'p,  of  which  it  jMiKHesses  aUiut  8i.Hl,<.HHi. 
by  a  great  conc»»un*e  of  Irench,  (ienuans,  and  Fn»m  4'M».ooO  to  oOO.'XH)  of  these  sheep  are  au- 
Italian!>.  The  countr\'  n»und  pnNluces  excellent  nually  driven,  aUnit  the  l>eginning  of  spring,  tn 
wine,  and  fruits  in  abundance.  lk)tzen  is  su)h  the  mountains  of  the  Drome,  the  Berre,  and  the 
ptNMMl  to  (K*cupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  Koman  high  and  low  Al]>s,  where  they  are  de{tasture«l 
citadel.  Ponn  /}rusL  i  during  the  summer.     When  the  (leriod  for  setting 

UOL'L'IIAIN.  a  fiirtific<l  town  of  France,  dcp. ".  out  arrives,  several  pn»prietors  join  their  tl<vks 
du  N(>nl,  cap.  cant.jon  the  Sclieldt,  by  which  it  is  :  tjigether,  to  the  numl>er  sometimes  <if  S-VJ^H'. 
iutersectetl,  12  m.  SK.  Douai,  on  the  railway  fn>m  I  Previously  to  the  devolution,  the  migratory  tlock?* 
Douai  to  Cambray.  Poj).  l..'>ol  in  l^iGl.  'Jhefor-  '  enjoyed  privil^jes  somewhat  similar  to  tho^e  of 
tilications  are  of  verj-  coiisitlerable  strength,  and  iha  Jlenta  in  S)Miin,  but  they  were  then  abolishcft 
the  adjacent  country  may  lie  laid  under  water.  .  The  lagiK»ns  are  resorted  to  in  winter  by  mvriad^ 
The  Duke  of  MarllM>roitgh  took  it  in  1711.  after  a  ;  of  aquatic  fowl,  which,  when  the  fn>st  sets  in.  are 
memorable  Moge;  but,  being  retaken  by  Marshal  taken  in  vast  numbers.  Minerals  of  little  im|i(>r- 
Villars  in  the  following  year,  it  wxs  linally  cedc<l  tance.  There  are  brine  springs,  and  salt  i«*  uia«le 
to  France  at  the  treaty  of  L'trechi.  It  was  one  of  in  sevenU  places.  This  is  more  of  a  comnier^Mul 
the  frontier  fortresses  occupietl  by  the  allies  after  than  of  a  manufacturing  de'p.  With  theex«repti<rti, 
the  ]tcaci'  of  l^lo.  /  indeed,  ol"  fabrics  of  soap  and  aoudr  f artier,  hoi^iery, 

IJOL'CHKS-DU-iniONK,  a  marit.  dcp.  S.  of  j  sugar  relineries,  s<»me  establishments  fi»r  the  ma- 
France,  situateil,  as  its  name  implies,  at  the  mtMiths  |  nufacturc  of  njtlerj',  coral-works,  oil-mill>  .^nd 
of  the  Khone.  it  is  Umnded  K.  by  the  dv^x,  of  the  :  silk  lilatures,with  di>tilleries,  taiuieries,  4rc.,  manu- 
Var;  N.  and  VV.  by  the  Durance,  h'hone,  and  the  factures  are  of  little  im|Mirtance.  The  ci»mnienv 
\\\  arm  of  the  latter,  which  K'|>arate  it  from  the  <»f  thedcp.  is.  however,  verj*  extensive,  Mar^ieillfs 
dcpts.  of  Vauclu.-e  and  (ianl;  and  S.  by  the  Me-  having  l>een  for  several  years  past  at  the  heoii'if 
(bterranean.  Area,  ri01,JMU>  hectares,  or  2,.'i;n  Kng.  ,  thecounnen.*ialcities<if  France.  iS*x*Maisseii.I-1-s,) 
M].  m.  pop.  .507,1 12  in  IKGI.  Soil  and  surface  '  The  herring  and  anclu ivy  fisheries  anf  extensively 
various,  but  the  former  generally  inferior.  The  carried  on.  Principal  towns,  Marseilli's,  Aries 
last  olfk'ts  fnnn  the  maritime  Alps  (»ccupy  the  K.  Aix,  Tarrascon,  and  Aubagne.  The  dcp.  is  tliN-idetl 
]»arts  of  the  dcp.,  but  they  are  not  remarkable  into  three  arronds.,  namely,  Marseilles,  Aix,  and 
either  f(»r  their  height  orapiiearance.    The  highest ,  Arles-sur-Ilhone. 

summit,  that  of  St.  Viclf>ire,  is  l.(H2  metres  (i{,l20  \  l$OLlN,  an  Ltbud  on  the  coast  of  France,  be- 
ft.)  alx»ve  the  sea.  The  plain  of  Le  i'rau  and  the  ■  tween  thede'pts.  of  Loire  Inferieureand  I^  Vendir. 
isle  of  Camargue^  occupy  a  hu'ge  ]>ortion  of  the  l>elunging  to  the  latter,  friim  which  it  is  sejkaratctl 
surface.  The  tirst  w  of  gn-at  extent,  stretching  by  a  narrow  channel.  It  is  of  a  triangular  sha|N>, 
fn»m  ArU^  to  the  lagoon  of  Ik-rre.  It  has  ver\-  low  and  marshy.  An>a,  3  sc].  leagues.  Pop,2.>Ml 
little  vegetable  niimld,  ami  Ls  formed  princiivallv  ;  in  l^'()l.  It  produces  com  and  cattle,  but  especially 
of  tlints  and  other  small  ^toues;  during  winter  it  ;  salt,  obtaineil  in  huge  quantities  fmm  the  salt 
furnishes  ])asture   to  large  Hocks  of  she<*p  and    marshes  that  surround  the  village  of  lk>uin,  in  the 


goats ;  the  fonner  being  driven  in  summer,  when 
it  is  arid  and  waste,  to  the  mountains.     It  Ls  su|>- 


centreof  the  island.  According  to  S4»me  historiau-s 
it  was  here,  in  820,  that  the  Normans  made  tlieir 


]HxM^i  by  many  that  this  phun  was  fonnerly  a  gu'f  j  tin*t  descent  on  the  coast  of  France, 
of  the  sea,  and  various  circumstaiures  c<»n^pire  to  I  BOl'LOCiNE,  or,  a*»  it  is  sometimes  calleil. 
strengthen  the  fiupiK»sit if »n.  The  island  of  Ca- ;  I*OULO(iNE-SL*K-MKK,  a  seaport  town  of 
ma::gues  is  the  delta  or  alluvial  land  lying  lietween  ;  France,  dcp.  Pas  du  CalaL^,  ca|i.  arr«)mL,  on  the 
the  E.  and  W.  arms  of  the  Khone,  and  is  partly  Liane,  near  where  it  falls  int<i  the  English  ChannoL 
cultivated  and  in  i»a>tiire,  and  partly  occupie*l  by  20  in.  SSVV.  (alais  and  lHi»  m.  NNW.  Paris  by 
mar-hes  and  lnf,'oons.  The  laiier,  indee»l,  make  the  N<»rtlKm  railway.  Pop.  ;t<;.2ri.')  in  l*<iil.  JitKi- 
oiieof  the  ]>rir.«'ipal  fealnresof  thedep.  The  prin-  logne  is  divide«l  into  the  upper  and  h>wer  towns. 
ci}Kd  are  the  lag«>on  of  Vnlcarris,  in  the  island  of,  Tlie  fonner  is  pretty  well-built,  but  is  irregularly 
Camai7^ue.><,  aud  that  of  l>erre  or  Martha,  12  m.  j  laid  out.    It  has  two  squares,  ornamented  with 


BOULOGNE 

fountains;  and  contains  the  cathedral,  the  ancient 
c])i»co|>ttl  palace,  the  hi>tel-<ic-ville,  and  the  courts 
of  jiKstice,  It  also  ctrntauis  the  house  where  Le 
Sa^e,  the  author  of  Gil  I{la.s,  lived  and  died.  The 
fort  iticat  ions,  by  which  the  upjyer  town  was  for- 
merly defendeti,  have  been  mostly  demolished,  the 
old  castle  and  the  walls  only  remaining.  The 
ramf>arta  have  been  planted  with  trees,  and  affonl 
a  delightful  ])n)raenade,  commanding  a  view  that 
extends  to  tlie  coasts  of  England,  which  are  dis- 
tinctly visible.  The  lower  or  new  town  is  situated 
at  the  Inittoni  of  the  hill, and  is  intersected  by  the 
Liniie :  it  is  the  most  populous,  most  commercial, 
and  best  built.  It  is  regularly  laid  out,  and  has 
several  public  buildings,  among  which  may  be 
s|)eciried  the  l>aths,  the  general  liospital  (founded 
in  lGi)'2),  the  barracks,  a  public  library  containing 
SO.OOO  volumes,  an<l  a  tlieatre.  A  magnificent 
cohinin,  dedicated  by  the  grand  army  collected 
here  in  lK();>  to  Na[)oleon,  but  not  finished  till 
1K21,  standi  on  a  hill  nearly  a  mile  from  the  town : 
it  is  cn>wned  by  a  gallery  surmounted  by  a  dome, 
and  is  1(54  ft,  high.  The  harbour,  which  was  for- 
merly (Ir>'  at  low-water,  and  nearly  shut  up  by  the 
bar  at  tlie  river's  mouth,  has  lieen  vastly  improved, 
tliougli  it  SI  ill  lalK)ur.s  under  a  deficiency  ot  water. 
It  is  formed  of  two  large  basins,  connected  by  a 
quay.  Shi|M*  may  anchor  at  from  A  to  |  m.  off  the 
harljour,  in  from  G  to  9  fathoms,  lioulogne  is  the 
seat  of  tribunals  of  ])rimary  jurisdiction  and  com- 
merce, and  has  ;tocieties  of  agriculture,  commerce, 
arts,  and  sciences ;  a  museum  of  antiquities  and 
natural  history;  a  free  school  for  navigation,  drc. ; 
with  manufactures  of  coarse  wrM)llen  stuffs,  sail- 
cloth, earthenware,  and  lH)rtle-gla.ss:  and  tanneries, 
ropc'-works,  and  tile-works.  A  go<Ml  deal  of  trade 
is  carried  on  from  the  town,  and  the  herring, 
mackerel,  and  c(hI  fisheries  all  vigorously  prose- 
cuted. NiJtwithstanding  the  lai^e  quantities  of 
lish  tliat  are  constantly  l)eing  sent  to  Paris,  the 
siip]>ly  in  the  town  is  always  abundant  and 
chcnp. 

lioulngne  has  recently  l)een  much  resorted  toby 
I'jjglish  visitors  and  families,  and  many  of  the 
latter  have  made  it  a  permanent  residence,  juir- 
ticularly  since  the  opening  of  the  railway  to  Paris. 
A  constant  communication  is  kept  up  with  London 
and  Folkestone,  by  means  of  steamlxmts ;  and  the 
nmte  from  London  to  Paris  by  lioiilogne  is  now 
fn*quentlv  preferred  to  that  bv  Calais,  In  conse- 
<|UL'nce  ot  this  infiux  of  Knglish  visitors  and  resi- 
dents, the  population  of  the  town  has  more  than 
d(»ub]ed  since  1815,  and  it  has  now  much  of  the  a]>- 
lK'arance<»f  an  ICnglish  town.  Numerous  boarding- 
M'liools  have  l>een  o|)eiied,  and  balls,  horse-races, 
and  ba/aars  have  been  established  for  the  instruc- 
tion and  amusement  of  the  Knglish. 

lloul«»gne  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity.  During 
the  dominion  of  the  Komans  it  bore  successively 
the  names  of  Gesoriacum  Navah^  and  Botumia, 
w  hence  \U  modem  name  is  derived.  During  the 
middle  ages,  and  in  more  modem  times,  it  has 
undergone  many  vicissitudes,  having  been  fre- 
(piently  l)esieged  and  taken.  In  the  early  part  of 
this  century  it  rose  into  great  celebrity,  from  Na- 
pohx^n  having  collected  a  large  fiotilla  in  its  port, 
and  mwle  it  the  hea<lquarters  of  the  army  avowedly 
intended  to  invade  England. 

lk>uu)GNK,  a  vil.of  France,  de'p.  Seine, lietween 
the  Seine  and  the  wcmmI  of  lioulogne,  4  m.  VV. 
Paris  a»d  forming  a  suburb  of  the  French  me- 
tropolis, by  means  of  the  chemin-de-fer  de  t*einture, 
or  'ginlle  railway.'  Pop.  (J.OKJ  in  1«41,  and 
l."^,IMl  in  l>*r»l.  The  increa'»e  of  ]M>pn1ation  has 
Ih'«*ii  entirely  owing  to  the  inllux  of  nwidents  fnmi 
Paris.  Boulogne  is  handsome:  the  adjoining 
w  ood  LH,  in  the  line  season,  the  favourite  promenade 


BOURBON  (ISLE  OF) 


511 


of  the  Parisian  fashionablea.  The  Chalwtu  de 
Madridy  in  this  wot  si,  built  by  Francis  I.,  was  de- 
molished in  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.;  and  only  a 
small  port  now  remains  of  the  Chateau  de  la 
Muette,  some  time  occupied  by  Louia  XV.  (See 
Paris.) 

BOURBON  (ISLE  OF),  also  called  ISLE  DE 
LA  K£ UNION,  an  island  belonging  to  France, 
in  the  Indian  Ocean,  lietween  lat.  20°  50',  and 
21°  24'  S.,  being  90  m.  WSVV.  the  island  of  Mau- 
ritius, and  440  m.  E.  Madagascar.  Shape  oval ; 
greatest  length,  NW.  to  SE.,  40  m.;  greatest 
breadth,  27  m. :  area  232,000  hectares,  or  nearly 
900  Eng.  sq.  ro.  Estimated  pop.  180,000,  of  whom 
about  one-fifth  whites,  and  the  rest  negroes  and 
coolies.  The  island  is  geologically  formed  by  two 
systems  of  volcanic  mountains,  one  at  either  ex- 
tremity :  the  central  point  of  the  most  northerly 
system,  the  Piton  des  NeigeSj  the  highest  summit 
in  the  island,  is  3,150  metres,  or  10,855  ft.,  above 
the  level  of  the  sea;  the  highest  point  of  the 
southerly  system  is  the  Piton  de  Fimmaise^  an 
active  volcano,  7,218  ft.  in  height.  These  two 
volcanic  centres  are  connected  by  a  chain  of 
mountains  running  N.  and  S.,  which  diWdes  the 
hdand  into  two  ]>arts — that  on  the  E.  side  i)eing 
called  the  windward,  and  that  on  the  W.  the  lee- 
ward divLnon  {Partiet  du  Vent  and  Sou*  le  Vent)^ 
in  consequence  of  the  prevailing  winds  in  Bourbon 
being  fn>m  E.  to  S.  There  are  no  plains  of  any 
size:  although  the  island  is  watered  by  many 
small  rivers,  none  of  which  are  navigable ;  there 
are  several  lakes,  one  occupying  an  extent  of  about 
40  acres.  The  shores  are  not  generally  high ;  but 
the  island  has  no  safe  niads,  nor  any  harbour^ 
circumstances  which  have  always  lieen  felt  aa 
serious  drawbacks.  The  climate  is  healthy  and 
agreeable,  esjiecially  that  of  the  E.  part :  the  air  is 
pure,  the  sky  clear,  though  this  tranquillity  be 
sometimes  broken  by  violent  hurricanes.  l:''n>m 
Dec.  to  iMay  is  the  hot  and  rainy  season,  when  the 
mean  temiWrature  is  80°  F'alir. ;  during  the  re- 
maining or  temperate  months,  the  mean  is  7()° 
Fahr.  The  soil  is  verj-  fertile,  i>articularly  in  the 
vicuiity  of  the  shores,  where  there  are  extensive 
allu  villi  de|K>sits,  which,  like  the  soils  in  other  parts 
of  the  island,  consist  largely  of  volcanic  matters. 
The  surfat^e  is  distributed  as  follows :  cultivatctl 
lands,  Co,702  hectares:  pasturage,  14,040  ditto; 
wooils  and  forests,  55,921  ditto ;  waste  lands,  95,887 
hectares. 

The  cultivated  lands  form  a  ginlle  round  the 
island,  and  in  some  imrts  ascend  the  mountain- 
slofies  to  considerably  more  than  3,0<M)  ft,  above 
the  level  of  the  ocean.  They  are  estimated  to  be 
divided  as  follows : — 


Arrirlec  of 
Culture 


Sugarcane 


llectam  In 

Culture 


Product 


14,r>30 


Coffee    ,    . 

4,179 

Cloves  .    . 

•2,980 

Cftcno    .     . 

2% 

Tobacco     . 

471 

Grain,  Ax.. 

AZfiU 

Total      . 

6.'>,702  hect. 

(  IlawSngar23,.'W4,n6kllog. 
]  Molaf^8eIj,jlX^  1  ,<;'»H.8^iO 
[  Rum    .    .       .•>:i.*i,H42  litre*. 
Coffee  .    .       928.'.>ookilog. 
Cloves .    .       ]9;{..'>4N) 
Cacao  .    .         ]0,(K)0 
Tobacco    .         82,(X>0 
:Grain(value)2,CWi,947  fr. 


The  sugarcane  is  mostly  of  the  Bat  avian  va- 
riety ;  it  was  not  very  extensively  cultivated 
l>efore  1818,  but  Ls  now  largely  grown,  esiKJcialiy 
hi  the  E.  divi.sion  of  the  island,  where  it  has  al- 
most entirely  8upe.*s€de<l  coffee.  The  coffee-plant 
was  intriMluccd  from  Mocha  in  1717,  and  was 
sul)sequently  much  cultivatwl ;  but  having  been 
found  to  suffer  severely  from  hurricanes  and  in- 


612  BOURBOy  (ISLE  OF) 

Mctfs  ite  ciiltiin»  ha-s  lioon  in  proat  jiart.  discon- 
tinued :  the  IK'S!  cutfei*  is  pniducL*d  un  the  locwanl 
i»ide  <»f  the  i^hind.  The  cloven  are  ehietly  ^ent  to 
India,  wlierc  they  are  exohanji^eil  for  riee :  the 
tobacco  obtained  ix  not  enough  for  home  con 


B0UBB0NNE-LES-BAIN3 

It  is  tlie  seat  «»f  a  royal  court,  and  of  a  cornt  of 
primar}'  juri}«<Uction.*and  has  a  college  with  about 
100  ])U|>ils,  a  hospital,  au  arsenal,  and  a  celc- 
bratefl  Ixitnniral  jj^arden.  St.  PauL  the  «econ<l 
Uivni  in  the  island,  on  it8  W.  coast,  has  10,000  in- 


Fumption :  and  the  wheat,  riee,  maize,  and  other  '  habitants,  with  a  tine  church,  a  tribunal  of  ori^nal 


P^ain  raii^ed  in  the  Ltlund.  dm':*  not  excee<i  one- 
fourth  |Mirt  of  the  reipiired  supply.  Potat<x*s, 
U'ans,  and  other  le^niinous  phiiitf*,  a  preat  va- 


jurindiciion,  and  a  hospital.  Neither  St.  Denis 
nor  St.  Paul  have  harbrmrs,  but  onlv  open  and 
exiws«?d  roacNtead**.     (Notices  Statistrque:^  imr  Iw 


riety  of  fniits  A-o.,  succeed  remarkably  well.  The  ColonieH  Fran^ai^'s,  p.  1-M(>;  Ktat^  de  la  Popu- 
culturc  of  cotton  has  lieen  all  but  abandoncti:  i  lation  de<(  Colonies*  Fran^abHrs.) 
maniiK*,  iutroduceil  into  the  Liland  by  tlie  cele-  |  BOrKHON-LANCV,  a  town  of  France,  d«^p. 
brate<l  M.  dc  la  liounlonnais  forms  the  staple  |  Saone  et  I^ciire,  cayK  cant.,  on  the  declivitA'  of  a 
food  of  the  blacky*.  Pa^turaJ]ce  b<.4n<;  deficient, ;  hill  near  the  I^»ire.  '27  m.  \VXAV.  (.'haroUcM.'  Pop. 
oxen  arc  im|»ortiHl  from  Madaga^tcar  :  a  jrreat  ;  2.«14  in  \xt\\.  It  is  ci>mmanded  bv  an  old  castl«» 
numlM'r  t»f  the  lyiltle  are  fe*l  for  six  months  of  on  the  summit  of  a  steep  rock.  This  town  is  cele- 
the  year  upon  the  leaves  of  the  su^rnr-cane.  At  i  brate<l  for  its  min<'ral  sprint^  of  which  tliere 
the  |»eri«Kl  at  which  l^>urbon  was  lir.-'t  <Krcupie«l    are    seven,   six  cold   ami   one    hot.      They   arc 


bv  the  French,  the  sides  of  the  mountains  wen*. 


employe! i  in  nerx'ous  affect ioiLs  and  rheum.atlsnis. 


c<ivere<l  with  ft»rej«ts  which  reached  even  t(»  the  These  sprin;;:*  were  known  to  the  Itomans  bv  the 
fihures;  the  wlude  of  the  lower  lands  have  lKH>n  '  name  of  At/ute  yisinei  i  and  remains  of  the  fuillLs 
clcare<l,  but  the  centre  t»f  the  island  is  still  t»overed  ;  they  had  erecte<l  are  said  still  to  exist,  while  nu- 
with  its  primitive  ve^^etation.  which  aflords  forty-  '  merous  Itoman  medals  and  an  entire  and  l»eautiful 
one  diiren-nt  si^ecies  »if  woods  ^•e^^•iceable  for  arts  ^  statue  have  been  du;^  u|).  The  present  l^aths  were 
and  nianufiictures.    The  c»msts  alxtund  wiih  ti^h  |  be^un  by  Ilenrv  III.  and  finished  by  ilenrj*  IV. 


and  hin;e  turtles,  and  furnish  also  coral  andambtT- 
frris.  Tlie  fisheries  (K'cupv  alnjut  4tJ0  individuals, 
whot.'ikc  abitut  1.'>(MHM)  kiloij.  of  lish  anuuallv,  tw<»- 
lifihs  of  which  are  consumed  bv  themsi'lvrs  and 


and  Louis  XllT. 

Uuri:iK)N-L'Al{CHAMBAUD.  a  town  of 
France.  d<"p.  Allier,  cap,  cant.,  13  m.  W.  Muulins. 
Pop.  ;J,2-'»i{  in   iwil.     The  town  L'i  situate^l  at  the 


their  families,  and  the  other  thnx?-lifih»  sold  in  '.  bottom  of  a  vallev,  in  a  rich  and  tinelv  variejjateil 


the  bdaiid,  reali.Ninjj  aUmt  r>00,(H)()  francs  a  year, 
llie  iAbind  is  divide<i  into  two  arrondissements 
calle«l  '  I)u  Vent,'  and  •  Sous  le  Vent,'  .six  cantons, 
and  thirt(.><'n  communes;  and  c<mtaiiis  two  t(»wns. 
those  of  St.  Denis  and  St.  Paul.  There  are  eiirht 
market-towns,  heads  of  cantons  m»»st  of  which 
are  built  on  the  coast.     The  chief  manufacturing 


establishments  are  brick  and  lime  kilns,  tanneries,    and  said  to  lie  of  j^reut 

for;y:es  and  foundries,  lin-wan*  factories,  a  brewery, '  sis,  rheumatiMu,  and  pni-shot  woinids.     Thcv  am 


countrw  The  towers  are  all  that  now  remain  of 
the  famous  Chateau  <le  IJourbon^  rebuilt  in  the 
thirteenth  centurv.  The  H»ily  ChapeL,  erecte*!  in 
the  fifteenth  centur\',  bv  Anne  of  France,  and  »> 
much  admired,  was  destroyed  at  the  lievolutitvn. 
The  town  is  now  celebrated  only  for  its  mineral 
springs  and  baths,  known  to  the  ancient  Komsn^ 

ethcacy  in  cases  of  paraly- 


aml  manufactories  of  ba^s  of  ]Mili.-i-leaf  {»ic8  <ie 
rtn-nuu).  N(  ariy  all  the  ex|)orts  j;:*)  to,  and  nearly 
nil  the  im|)orts  come  from.  France.  The  commerce 
with  (ircat  Ihitain  is  insignificant.    The  total  ex- 


jHg'ts  t<»  the  l.'nit<.'<l  Kingdom  din^ct  amounted,  in 
the  year  iS'il.  too,5yi/.,  represent hij;  G/J71  cwts. 


frequented  fn^m  May  to  SeptemUr.  Tliere  is 
goo<i  accommodatiuu  for  visitors,  and  a  hospital 
for  the  hiilij^ent. 

This  town  had  for  a  len;;thened  ]*eriod  lonN  of 
its  own,  who  iHire  the  title  of  kirons.  Aimar, 
who  live«l  in  l»21,  hi  the  rei;rn  <»f  Charh's  the 
Simple,  was  the  first  of  the>e  barons  of  whom 
there  Ls  any  authentic  account.  Having  l^vn 
succeeded  by  his  third  son  Archambaud.  bis  name 
became  that  of  all  hi**  succesM»rs  in  the  f.ei;rnor\'. 
Archambaud  IX.,  the  last  <f  the  name,  bavin;; 


of  unnfined  sujr«r.     In  1?<.V.>.  as  widl  as  in  \xC^'l 

and  lMi:j,  the  commence  with  (jreat  liritain  Avas 

nil.     The  chief  imports  from   France   are   rice, 

wheat,  oil,  wines,  cattle,  timber,  salt,  ^lass  i»<^rce- 

lain,  &c.,  with  cottons  and  other  manufmrtun>4l 

poods.     The  total  imiM»rts  from  France,  in  IH'Wl,    accom|»anicd  St.  Louis  to  the  Fast.  <liinl  in  CvpRbi. 

were  of  the  value  of  :>1',(J.V1,1H0  fr.,  or  I. .'>«({,  10 7/.:    lJ<'atrixof  liurj^undy,  his  jn'and-<Iauj;hter.  niarrie«l 

Kolx^rt  of  France,  (.'ount  of  C'lcmumi,  one  of  the 
Wins  (»f  St,  Louis,  brinjriii;;  to  him  in  <hiwr\'  the 
lordshiits  of  Bourbon,  Charolais,  ami  St.  Just,  in 


and  the  total  ex|>orts  to  Fnmce  amounted  to 
5?8,47iM.V»  fr.,  or  l,lax.^«Sl^</.  The  p»vemment  Ls 
similar  t«»  that  of  the  other  French  ct)lonies,  and 
is  administered  by  a  p)vernor,  and  a  council  of 
thirty  members,  electe*!  by  the  doniiciliatcil  FriMich 
cohmists  paying  a  (linnet  contribution  of  2ilO  fr. 
annually.  There  Ls  a  royal  court,  with  two  courts 
of  assize,  twi»  tri))unals  of  primary  jurisdiction, 
and  a  justice  of  the  pe.ice  in  each  canton. 
Bourbon  c<intains  a  c«)lle;je  .ind  numerous  schools. 


Champa;rne.  Their  posterity,  ac«»ordin^  to  the 
custom  of  the  house.  to*)k  the  surname  of  I>our- 
Imhi  ;  and  subse(piently  tilled  the  thrones  of  France, 
Spain.  Naples,  and  Lucci, 

B0[:i;H0NN1:-LKS-DA1XS,  a  town  of  France, 
dep.  Haute  Marne,  cap.  cant.,  at  the  contlueiice  of 
the  Home  and  the  A]>ance.  21  m.  ENE.  I^n;jnnes, 


nixteen  churches  two  hospitals,  two  establi>hments  •  Pop.  -IjMMO  in  18dl.  The  town  is  aj^-enbly  siiu- 
for  the  relief  of  the  jM.M>r,  and  two  prismis.  Four  •  ated  on  the  plateau  and  acclivity  of  a  hill ;  an«l 
newspa]jers  are  published  in  it,  and  there  is  a  jmb-  \  haviujx  been  nearly  burnt  downi  hi  1717,  has  Unm 
lie  library-  at  St.  Denis.  The  island  was  discovered  j  rebiult  on  a  repilar  plan,  an<l  has  s<^me  line  pro- 
menades and  fountains.  It  owes  its  celebrity  to 
it,s  hot  Imth-s  which  <»ccupy  the  site  of  a  thernnd 
establishment  of  the  Bonians.    The  nuMlern  buikl- 


in  15 15  by  Ma.-.carenhas,  a  Pi)rtuguese  navigator, 
whose  naine  it  l)ore,  till  the  French  took  jx)5=ses»*ion 
of  it  in  the  next  centun*.  The  English  t«K»k  it  in 
1810  ;  but  it  was  restore<i  to  Fnuice  in  1815.   The 

i»rincipal  towns  arc  St.  Denis,  St.  Paul,  and  St. 
ienoit.  St.  DenLs,  the  cap.,  is  situated  on  a  pla- 
teau on  the  N.  coast  of  the  island,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  <»f  the  .same  name;  lat.  20°  51'  oU' 


ings  connected  with  the  baths,  including  the  Hoii  1 
lie  Ville,  a  recent  erection,  most  part  of  which  :.* 
a]»propriated  to  the  use  of  the  c«mipany  using  the 
waters,  are  among  the  tuiest  of  the  kind  in  Fnmc»\ 
A  hospital,  founded  here  in  1732,  for  the  U2*e  of 
S.,  long.  55*^  \W  E.  It  has  about  12,000  inhab.  :  the  mililar}-  atleii<ling  the  Itaths,  has  been  much 
It  is  moirtly  of  wck;<1,  the  Hotel  dit  Gourcrnemrnt  enlaiged  since  1815,  and  is  now  ca]>able  of  aciMni- 
bcing  the  only  public  building  of  any  iuiportancc.    moihiting  500  soldiers  and  100  ulliccTd.    The  heat 


BOURBON-VENDUE 

of  the  water  varies  from  40<'  to  62°  Reflumur,  or 
frDiB  about  12()o  to  156°  Falirenheit.  lliey  are 
principally  employed  in  c&ies  of  paralytdd  and 
rheumatism. 

BOUKIJON-VENDF/E,  or  NAPOLE'OX- 
VENDE'E,  a  town  of  France,  d^p.  Vendee,  of 
which  it  Ih  the  capital,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Yon,  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  d<?p.,  40  m.  S. 
Nantes,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway. 
Pop.  8,298  in  1861.  lliis  town  occupies  the  site 
of  Koche-sur-Yon,  a  strong  feudal  castle,  having 
near  it  a  miserable  little  town.  The  castle,  aHer 
undergoing  many  vicisnitudes,  was  dismantled 
by  LouLH  XIII.,  and  finally  destrc^yed  in  1793. 
After  the  establishment  of  the  imiierial  govern- 
ment^ and  the  pacification  of  Vend<$e,  it  became 
necessarv'  to  select  a  place  for  its  capital,  and 
Koche-siir-Yon  was  fixed  upon.  Naixdeon  gave 
the  town,  which  had  to  be  entirely  created,  his 
ovra  name,  which  it  bore  till  1815,  when,  with 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbon,  it  recovered  its  old 
name.  But  the  accession  of  Napoleon  III.  once 
more  brought  back  the  imperial  prefix,  by  which 
tlie  place  is  still  ofiicially  known  ;  though  the 
]H><tpie  mostly  adhere  to  the  original  name.  The 
old  t<>wn  occupies  the  ravine  iKJtween  tlie  barracks 
and  the  new  tovm.  The  town  has  a  tribunal  of 
primurj'  juri«liotion,  a  dei>artmental  college,  a  so- 
ciety of  agriculture,  sciences,  and  arts,  a  public 
library  with  5,000  volumes,  a  hospital,  and  a 
theatre, 

IJOURROURG,  a  town  of  France,  dop.  du  Nord, 
cap.  cant,,  on  the  canal  of  Colme,  communicating 
with  Dunkirk,  9  m.  SVV.  Dunkirk.  Pop.  2,617  in 
1X61.  Its  name  is  derived  fn)m  the  miry  nature 
of  the  soil  (bourl)eux)  on  which  it  is  built.  It  has 
fal>rics  of  tobacco,  potteries,  an<l  tile-works.  Pre- 
viouslv  to  the  revolution  there  was  here  an  ablmcy 
for  nol>le  ladies,  of  which  the  unfortunate  Marie 
Antoinette  was  mtroness. 

HOURt;,  or  BOURG-EN-RRESSE,  a  town  of 
France,  dep.  Ain,  of  which  it  is  the  cap.,  on  the 
Reyssouse,  21  m.  ESE.  Macon;  on  tlie  railway 
from  Macon  to  Chamber}'.  P»)p.  1 1,052  in  l86i. 
Situation  pleasant;  streets  narrow  and  cnniked: 
formerly  almost  all  the  houses  were  built  of  wood, 
and  many  of  them  are  so  still,  but  within  the 
last  half-century  the  use  of  stone  has  l)ecome  more 
general.  It  is  traversed  by  the  little  rividet  Cone, 
and  has  several  fine  fountains.  Tlie  ditches  by 
which  it  was  surrounded  were  drietl  in  1771,  and 
have  l)een  converte<l  into  gardens.  Princiftal  pub- 
lic luiildings — the  cathedral  or  high  clmreli,  the 
halle-au-bk'  or  grenette,  theatre,  Hotel  de  Ville, 
prefecture  and  a  monument  in  honour  of  (ien. 
JoulxTt,  It  has  a  court  of  primary  jurisdiction,  a 
do|mrtmental  college,  a  primary'  normal  sch<M>l,  a 
pul)lic  librarj'  with  1X,0*>0  volumes,  a  society  of 
emulation  and  agriculture,  a  departmental  mu- 
senni,  a  Ixitanical  ganlcn,  and  several  gratuitous 
courses  of  instruction  in  difli-rent  de]>artments  of 
science  and  art.  Six  high  roads  meet  here,  be^ides 
the  railway,  which  on  this  place  nms  a  liranch  line 
to  Besan<;<>n.  The  celebrated  astn»nomer  Lalande 
was  a  native  of  Bourg.  A<lj»)ining  Bouig  is  the 
church  of  Brou,  a  vast  edifice,  l)egun  in  1511,  and 
containing  some  fine  tombs.  There  is  attached  to 
it  a  diocesan  seminar}',  with  140  scholars.  Ik>uig 
is  ver\'  ancient,  t>eing  supfM>«e<l  by  De  Tium  to 
occupy  the  site  of  the  Fonim  Segusianorum  of  tlie 
Romans;  but  according  to  D'Anville,  Feurs  on 
the  Loire  is  identical  with  the  Fonim  Segusia- 
norum. After  being  long  sulyect  t<)  the  house  of 
Savoy,  Ik)urg  was  united  to  I<  ranee  in  1601. 

BoURfJ,    or    B<>URG-J8UR-(jilKONDE,   A    tOWn    of 

P'rancc,   <ie'p.  Gironde,   cap,  cant.,  on    the  Dor- 
dotme,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Garonne,  15  m. 
Vou  I. 


BOURGES 


513 


N.  Bordeaux.  Pop.  2,781  in  1861.  It  hasagmall 
port,  where  the  com,  wine,  and  other  products  of 
the  environs,  are  shippe<L 

BOURGANEUF,  a  town  of  France,  d^p,  Creuse, 
cap.  arrond.,  agreeably  situated  on  the  Thorion, 
18  m.  SSW.  Gueret.  Poj).  3,226  in  1861.  It  haa 
two  porcelain-works,  and  a  paper  manufactory. 
This  town  was,  for  a  considerable  i>eriod,  the  resi- 
dence of  Zizim,  or  Djem,  the  younger  brother  of 
Bavazid  II,,  em])erer  of  the  Turks,  who  was  confined 
in  It  and  other  places  in  France,  in  consequence  of 
a  dishonourable  treaty  negotiated  in  1482  between 
Bayazid  and  Pierre  d'  Aubusson,  grand  master  of 
the  Knights  of  St.  John,  lord  of  Bouiganeuf,  who 
had  given  Zizim  a  safe  conduct.  A  large  tower, 
in  which  the  latter  is  said  to  have  been  confined, 
still  exists.  Having  been  liberated  from  his  im- 
prisonment in  this  place,  the  unfortunate  prince 
was  carried  to  Italy  in  14k7,  where  he  is  said  to 
have  been  poisoned  in  1 405,  by  an  agent  of  hi« 
brether  and  the  infamous  Poj>e  Alexander  VI, 

BOUR(JAS,  or  BOlJRGIIAS,  a  sea-port  town 
of  Turkey  in  Europe,  Roumelia,on  the  Black  Sea, 
at  the  bottom  of  the  gulf  of  the  same  name,  70  m. 
NE.  Adrianonle;  Ut.  420  29'  20"  N.,  long.  27©  28* 
E.  Pop.  6,000.  It  is  built  on  a  promontory  of  a 
moderate  height,  and  has  a  neat  clean  appearance. 
Its  fortress  is  in  ruins.  It  has  a  celebrated  manu- 
factorv  of  potter}'.  *  A  fine  clay  is  found  in  the 
neighbourhood,  which  is  formed  into  pijie  bowla, 
cups,  and  other  utensib.  'Hiese  are  unglazed,  but 
highly'  polished,  and  oniamente<i  with  gilding. 
In  this  state  they  areex]K)sed  for  sale  in  the  shops 
of  the  bazar,  which  forms  the  principal  street  of 
the  town ;  and  as  these  shops  are  matted,  and  kept 
clean  and  neat,  the  whole  lias  a  rich  and  showy 
ap)>earance.  They  jiride  themselves  on  this  little 
manufacture,  and  sell  it  proiK>rtionally  dear.* 
(Walsh's  Journey,  p,  120,  4th  ed.)  Thet'own  has 
also  some  trade  in  com,  wine,  butter,  cheese,  in>n, 
and  other  pnsluctions  <»f  the  contiguous  country. 
The  Gulf  of  Bourgas  is  o|>en  to  tlie  E. :  the  an- 
chorage is  to  the  S.  of  the  town,  and  has  a  depth 
of  from  12  to  5  fathoms. 

B()URG-I)E-PE'A(;E,  a  town  of  France,  ddp. 
Drome,  cap.  cant.,  on  the  Isere,  10  m. NE.  Valence, 
Pop.  4,264  in  1861,  The  river  separates  it  from 
Romans,  of  which  it  is  j)n»|>erly  a  suburb.  It  ia 
ne^t  and  well  built ;  and  has  manufactures  of  hata 
and  coarse  hilk,  with  dye-works,  rope-works,  and 
tanneries,     (See  R<»mans.) 

BOrR(;-D'OYSANS,  a  town  of  France,  d^n. 
Isere,  cap,  cant.,  on  the  Rive,  near  where  it  falls 
into  the  Romanche,  in  a  deep  vallev  at  the  bottom 
of  a  steep  hill,  18  m,  SE,  Grenoble,  l*op.  2,796 
in  1 86 1.  The  town  ])rincipally  consists  of  two 
long  streets,  with  ill-built  houses,  many  of  which 
have  their  windows  fitted  up  with  oiled  paper  in- 
stead of  glass,  llie  valley  in  which  the  town  is 
situated  seems  to  be  on*  all  sides  enclosed  by 
mountains,  and  was  for  a  while  completely  sub- 
merged and  formed  into  a  deep  extensive  lake. 
Ill  is  inundati(m  was  occasioned  by  the  course  of 
the  Romanche  haWng  been  obstructed,  in  the  11th 
centur}',  at  the  point  where  it  escapes  from  the 
valley,  by  rubbish  brought  down  fn)m  the  a(\join- 
ing  mountains,  lliis  natural  mound,  having  been 
gradually  undermined,  at  length  gave  way,  and 
the  waters  of  the  lake  made  their  escape  on  the 
15th  Sept,,  1211>,  sweejiing  all  before  them  as  far 
as  (irenoble,  which  was  laid  under  water. 

BO  URGES  (an.  Acaricum),  a  city  of  France, 
dep.  Cher,  of  which  it  is  the  cap.,  in  an  extensive 
plain  at  the  confiuence  of  the  Auron  and  the  Evre, 
124  m.  S.  Paris,  on  the  railwav  fin>m  Orleans  to 
Lyons.  Pop.  28,064  in  1861.  'hie  town  is  agree- 
ably situated  on  the  declivity  of  a  bilL  and  ii 


614 


BOUBGNEUF 


Mirrounded  by  a  thick  wall  flanked  at  regular 
dbtanc^d  with  lofty  towers;  but  the  houses  are 
mean-l<Mtking.  l>ein^  low  and  having  their  gables 
to  the  streeu.    Large  tractii,  ocfupied  by  gank'n-s 
nurM-'ries,  and  pn»menadeH.  are  enclocM.ti  within 
the  wall.s  <*o  that  the  streets  have  a  deserted  as- 
pect, though  less  ao  at  pre^nt  than  formerly,  the 
population  having  incTeai«ed  rapidly  during  the 
LL>»t  ten  yean*.     Bourgcs  omtains  some  tine  old 
public  buildings.     At  the  head  of  these  is  the 
cathedral,  one  of  the  noblest  Gothic  e»iilices  in 
France,  begun  in  ^.),  but  not  finished  for  some 
ctntnrics  ^terwards.     It  is  348  ft,  in  length,  by  i 
I'i'f.i  in  breadth,  and  has  several  towers,  the  highest  | 
of  which  has  an  elevation  of  2*21  ft.    The  palace 
of  the  an*hbishop  is  also  a  fine  etlitice:  its  ganlen,  i 
laid  out  by  I^  Xotre,  ha*«  an  olielisk  in  honour  of  ] 
the  Due  de  Charcot.  The  Hotel  de  Ville.  built  by  '. 
Jacques  C€Dur,  famous  alike  for  his  skill  and  sue-  j 
cess  as  a  mercliant  ami  financier,  his  iromen^  ■ 
wealth,  and  the  injustice  of   which  he  was  the  1 
victim,  Is  a  splendid  (iothic  maiLsion,  that  cost  a  j 
vast  sum.     liesides  the  mavoraltv,  it  furnishes  , 
acc4>mmodation  for  the  courts  of  law.  The  pristms 
are  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  palace  of  the 
dues  de  lierri ;  anil  the  remains  of  the  old  tower 
that  formerly  commanded  the  town,  anri  which 
was    demolished  in    1H.51,  serve  to  enclose  the 
OMirts  of  the  prison.    There  are  also  the  Hotel  de 
Prefecture,  formerly  the  Hotel  de  I'lntendance, 
barracks,  a  small  but  elegant  theatre,  a  ci»llege, 
two  large  hospitals,  and  a  public  librar>'  with 
13,iKX)  volumes.     Bouiges  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishopric, of  tribunals  of  primary  juhs<liction  and 
commerce,  of  a  royal  college  with   about  240 
pupils,  a  primary  normal  school,  a  diocesan  semi- 
narj'  with  above   100  pupils,  and  a  secondar>' 
(Hxrlesiastical  school ;  it  has  abo  a  society  of  agn- 
culture,  commerce,  and  arts;  a  course  of  get>metr>* 
and  mechanics  applied  to  the  arts,  and  a  school  of 
midwifer}'.    It  has  manufactures  of  fine  and  coarse 
cloths,  and  hosiery,  and  its  cutlery  has  been  long 
in  high  estimation.    There  are  in  the  town  two 
mineral  springs. 

IJourges  was  formerly  the  seat  of  a  celebrated 
university  established  by  I^uis  XI.  in  \4(ui ;  but 
this  having  been  suppresse<l  at  the  Revolution,  its 
place  has  been  supplied  by  the  royal  college  already 
alludetl  to.  I»uis  XI.  was  bom  in  this  town;  and 
it  Is  also  the  birthplace  of  the  celebrated  preacher 
13ourdaloue,  Jacques  C(eur,  and  other  distinguished 
persons. 

To  mark  his  respect  for  his  native  place,  Louis 
XI.  not  only  gave  it  a  university,  but  also  con- 
ferred on  its  mayors  and  magistrates  the  pri\'ilege 
of  nobility.  This,  however,  was  anything  but  an 
advantai^e,  inasmuch  as  it  ser\'ed  only  to  till  the 
town  1^^th  poor  gentlemen,  and  to  discourage 
manufactures  and  commerce.  The  cleigy  were 
also  exceedingly  numerous.  But  ma^t  of  the 
religious  establishments  were  suppressed  at  the 
revolution,  when  the  privileges  and  distinctions  of 
the  nobility  and  gentry  were  also  alMjlished. 

liourges'is  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
France.  It  was  taken  by  Caesar,  anno  52  B.C., 
and  was  for  475  years  the  capital  of  Aquitaine. 
It  has  suffered  much  at  different  periods  from  war, 
fire,  and  pestilence.  Several  councils  have  been 
held  in  it ;  and  here,  in  1483,  the  ecclesiastical 
constitution,  denominated  the  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion, was  accepted  by  the  French  cleivy. 

BOURGNKUF,  a  sea-port  town  of  France,  dep. 
Loire  Inferieure,  cap.  cant.,  23  m.  SW.  Nantes. 
Pop.  2,893  in  1801.  The  pt)rt  dries  at  low  water; 
and  the  bay,  which  is  extensive,  is  gradually  fill- 
ing up  with  sand.  A  branch  line  of  railway  con- 
nects the  town  with  Nantes  and  Bourbon-Vend(^ 


BOLTIN 

There  were  formeriy  in  the  vicinity  vay  exten- 
sive salt  marshes,  the  produce  of  which  w£s 
largely  exported;  but  these,  though  still  very 
considerable,  are  now  material  Iv  diminished. 
Thtre  are  on  the  coast  large  beds  of  oyster*. 

BOLKGOIN  (an.  Betyusium),  a  town  of  France, 
dep.  I  sire,  cap.  cant^  on  the  Ikmrhre,  in  a  fine 
situation,  summnded  by  beautiful  hills,  9  m.  W. 
La  Tuur-<lu-Pin.  Pop. '4.851  in  1861.  The  town 
bi  neat  and  well  built ;  has  a  tribunal  of  original 
junsfUction,  and  manufactures  of  calicoes  with 
paper-mills  and  tiour-mills.  It  is  favourably 
situate<i  for  commerce,  being  traversed  by  the 
railwav  fn>m  Grenoble  to  Lvons. 

n<  )t'K(;-ST.-ANDEOL.  a  town  of  France,  d^u 
Anicche.  in  an  agreeable  situation  on  the  Rhone, 
9  m.  S.  Viviers.  Vop.  4.6iM  m  1861.  The  town 
has  several  goo«l  buililiugs.  and  neat  well-kept 
streets ;  a  quav  along  the  river,  and  a  handsome 
sus| tension  bn<lge  over  it,  with  some  trade  in 
com.  wine,  and  silk.  It  is  named  from  St. 
Ande«>U  who  suffered  martj-rdom  in  the  Vivanus, 
in  the  begiiming  of  the  3rd  centur>'.  Within  a 
short  distance  of  the  ti^wn  is  a  remarkable  monu- 
ment of  antiquity,  sculptured  on  the  face  of  a 
rock,  but  now  a  good  deal  defaced.  It  has  been 
very  variously  interpreted;  some  antiquaries 
having  supplied  it  to  be  Diana  in  chase  of  a 
stag,  and  others  that  it  represents  a  sacrifice  in 
honour  of  the  god  Mithras. 

BOURGL'EII^  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Indre-et- 
Loirc,  cap.  cant.,  in  a  fine  vallev  on  tlie  Doigt, 
9  m.  NXW.  Chinon.  Pop.  3,416  in  1861.  It 
has  a  communal  coU^^,  and  is  summnded  by 
fruitful  ganlens,  where  anise,  coriander,  liquorice, 
and  other  plants,  are  cultivated  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  supply  materials  for  a  pretty  extensive 
tratle.     Its  vicinitv  also  produces  fine  red  wine. 

BOURLOS,  or  'BOORLOS,  a  lake  or  lag»»on  of 
^g>'pt,  iK-tween  the  Damietta  and  Rosetta  branches 
of  the  Nile,  parallel  to  the  Mediterranean,  fn>m 
which  it  is  everywhere  separated  by  a  nanrow 
neck  of  land,  except  at  one  point  where  it  ci>in- 
municates  with  the  sea  by  a  narrow  channel  an- 
ciently the  Sibbenitic  moutli  of  the  Nile.  It  is 
altout  .38  m.  in  length,  and  17  m.  in  its  greatest 
breadth.  It  is  connecte<l  with  the  Nile  by  se\end 
canals ;  and  is  mi^tly  shallow  and  marshy,  being 
na\-igable  only  along  its  N.  shore. 

B()URN,  a  par.  and  town  of  England,  co. 
Lincoln,  parts  of  Kesteven,  wa{>entake  Aveland, 
91  m.  N.  London.  Area,  8,190  acres.  Pop.  t'f 
par.,  1821,2,242;  1831,2,589:  1861,3,730.  ?o^ 
of  town,  3,060  in  1861.  Bourn  is  situated  in  a 
level  district  adjacent  to  the  fens,  the  town  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  one  long  str\»et  of  well-bullc 
modem  houses:  the  church  is  the  remaining 
portion  of  a  much  larger  structure,  in  the  Noraiaii 
style  with  2  towers.  There  arc  Ba(>tist  and  W'es- 
leyan  chapeb;  an  endowed  free  school  for  S*) 
children ;  2  almshouses,  one  supporting  6  old 
men,  the  other  6  women;  and  a  town  hall  a 
handsome  m(Klem  edifice,  on  the  site  of  one  built 
by  Lord  Burleigh  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth:  it 
has  a  market-place  under.  The  weekly  market 
is  on  Saturday.  Annual  fairs  are  held'  April  7, 
May  7,  and  Oct,  29.  A  navigable  canal  extends 
from  the  town  to  Spalding  ami  Boston,  by  which 
coal,  timber,  and  other  commodities  are  supplied. 
The  Great  Northern  railway  also  has  a  statitm 
here.  The  chief  trade  of  the  place  is  in  leather 
and  wool  There  are  several  laige  tan-yanls. 
Petty  sessions  for  the  parts  of  Kesteven  are  also 
held  in  the  town,  and  it  is  a  polling  plac«  for  that 
district  and  Holland.  The  name  is  derived  fmin 
a  small  stream  of  remarkably  pure  water,  which 
gushes  from  a  source  near  Bourn.    Roman  coin* 


BOURTANG 

and  tcssdatcd  pavements  have  been  found  on  the 
site ;  trenches  and  mounds  of  a  Saxon  castle  are 
traceable:  a  priory  of  Au;nu$tine  monks  was 
founded  in  Wm.  II.'s  rei^,  whose  revenue,  at  the 
general  suppression,  was  197/L  17«.  5dL  Wm. 
Cecil,  Lord  Burleigh  (£lizabeth*s  minister),  was 
bom  in  this  town  in  1620.  Dr.  Dodd,  once  cele- 
brated as  a  i)opular  preacher,  but  now  princinally 
remembered  by  his  disgraceful  death,  was  also  a 
native  of  Bourn. 

BOURTANG,  a  fortified  vUhigc  of  the  Nether- 
lands, prov.  Groningen,  in  the  extensive  morass 
of  the  same  name,  31  m.  ESE.  Groningen.  The 
mornss,  though  it  increases  its  strength,  renders 
it  unhealthy.  Pop.  360  in  1861.  The  nlace  was 
taken  by  the  S[3aniard8  in  1593,  and  by  the 
French  in  1795. 

BOUSSA,  a  city  of  Interior  Africa,  and  cap. 
of  a  prov.  of  the  same  name,  on  an  isL  of  the 
Niger;  lat.  lO©  14'  X.,  long.  60  11'  E.     Pop.  ac- 
cording to  Clapperton,   10,000  or  12,000;  but, 
atrconling  to  Lander,  16,000  or  18,000.     The  coun- 
try in  the  neighbourhood  is  bold  and  rocky,  which 
renders  Doussa  a  place  of  considerable  strength, 
for  its  walls  (which  are  tolerably  well  built,  and 
kept  in  good  repair)  extend  to,  and  are  united 
with,  the  two  extremities  of  a  rocky  precipice 
which  skirts  the  W.  branch  of  the  enclosing  river. 
The  houses  are,  however,  built  in  detached  patches, 
and  do  not  occupy  more  than  a  tenth  part  of  the 
walled  area,  presenting  the  appearance  of  several 
small  villages,  rather  than  of  one  continuous 
t<»wn.    The  prov.  of  Ik)ussa  extends  about  50  m. 
N.  of  the  river,  and  is  about  the  same  length  from 
N.  to  S.,  the  city  lying  about  16  m.  from  its  S. 
extremity.    The  soil  is  very  fertile,  espocially 
that  of  the  isL,  producing  com,  yams,  cotton,  rice, 
tim!)er  trees,  and  other  African  vegetation,  in 
gn^at  abundance :  it  also  abounds  in  the  usual 
African  animals;  elephants,  hippopotami,  lions, 
and  tigers.     Boussa  is  considered,  politically,  as 
part  (^  the   great  kingdom   of  I^igoo;   but  it 
ap))ears  as  if  the  dilfereJit  states  were  perfectly 
indei)endent  of  each  other,  though  all  speaking 
the  same  language ;  at  all  events,  the  communi- 
cations of  the  Sultan  of  Boussa  with  Clapperton 
and  Lander  seem  to  have  had  no  reference  to 
any  controlling  iK)wer.    Of  the  Ik)rgoo  states, 
Boussa  is,  if  not  the  largest,  the  most  populous 
and  most  powerfuL     (Cwpperton's  2nd  Lxped. 
pp.  96-106 ;  Lander's  Records,  i.  141-143.) 

Boussa  possesses  a  melancholy  interest  from  its 
being  the  spot  where  the  enterprising  Mungo 
Park  met  his  death.  After  his  first  successful 
expedition  in  the  service  of  the  African  Associa- 
tion, that  adventurous  traveller  was  employed  by 
government  to  complete  his  ovm  partial  discovery 
of  the  course  of  the  Niger.  This  commission  he 
did  not  live  to  effect;  after  traversing  a  far  Urger 
portion  of  Africa  than  had  before  been  traversed 
by  any  European,  his  boat  was  attacke<l  by  a 
nati  ve'arm  V  at  this  place,  where  the  river  is  shut  in 
by  two  high  rocks,  leaving  Iwirely  passage  room  for 
the  current,  as  thrungh  a  door.  (Adami  Fatouma*s 
Journal,  p.  214.)  Assailed  from  the  t<»p  of  these 
n>cks.  Park  defende<l  himself  for  a  long  while, 
throwing  all  his  pro\4sion8  overboard  to  lighten 
his  l)oat ;  till,  finding  all  hope  of  successful  re- 
sistance at  an  end,  he,  with  nis  remaining  com- 
])anions,  leaped  into  the  water,  in  a  last  attempt 
to  escape  by  swimming,  and  was  drowned,  or,  as 
is  more  probable,  dashed  topieces  by  the  missiles 
hurled  down  ujxin  him.  Tlie  boat  subsequentlv 
drifted  on  a  reef  of  sunken  rocks,  not  luilf  a  stone  s 
throw  fn)m  Boussa ;  and  a  slave  of  Park,  the  only 
living  remnant  of  his  unfortunate  exj>edition,  was 
made  prisoner,     llic  cause   of  thia  muideroiia 


BOVA 


515 


attack  is  represented   by   Tsaacco   and  Adami 
Fatouma,  Park's   native  friend:),  to  have  been 
owing  to  the  knavery  of  a  chief,  who,  secreting 
the  presents  entrusted  to  him  by  Park  for  the 
kinjr,  excited  the  indignation  of'  the  latter,  by 
telling  him,  *  the  white  men  had  left  uothiiig  for 
him.*    The  explanation  given  to  Lander  on  the 
spot,  twenty  vears  later,  however,  was,  that  the 
natives  took  the  adventurers  for  a  party  of  Fella- 
tahs,  wlucb  nation  had  just  then  commenced  that 
series  of  usurpations  which  they  have  since  carried 
to  an  extreme  height.    Be  this  as  it  may,  the 
destruction  of  the  traveller  was  signalised  by 
feastings  and  rejoicings ;  but  before  the  revelries 
were  ended,  it  so  chanced  that  an  infectious  dis- 
order broke  out  among  the  Boussians,  sweeping 
off  the  sultan  and  a  great  number  of  his  subjects, 
among  whom,  it  is  reported,  the  murderers  of  the 
party  were  included.    The  effect  of  this  upon  a 
suiMirstitious  people  may  be  conceive<l;  prayers 
an<l  sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  white  man's 
god,  and  an  expression  grew  into  use  among  the 
surrounding  nations,  of  which  subsequent  travel- 
lers have  felt  the  full  benefit,  » Do  not  hurt  the 
white  men^  unless  you  would  jterish  like  the  people 
of  Boussa,'    The  Boussians  themselves  share  fully 
in  this  feeling ;  they  are  overwhelmed  with  shame 
at  a  recurrence  to  the  sulyect,  and  plead  their 
youth  at  the  time,  or  their  personal  innocence, 
without  attempting  the  slightest  exculpation  of 
their  fathers.    (Park's  Journal :  Lander's  Records. 
L  144-90 

BOUSSAC,  a  town  of  France,  de'p.  Oeuse,  cap. 
arrond.,  on  a  steap  rock,  near  the  confluence  of  the 
Veron,  and  the  Little  Creuse,  21  m.  NE.  Guerot, 
on  the  railway  from  Moulins  to  Limoges.  Pop.  9'J6 
in  1861.  Boussac  contains  fewer  inhabitants  than 
the  capital  of  any  other  arron  Ji<«sement  in  France. 
It  stands  on  a  rock,  and  is  almost  hiaccessible  to 
carriages;  surrounded  with  walls  flanked  with 
bastions,  commanded  by  an  old  embattled  castle, 
firom  which  the  view  extends  along  a  defile  formed 
bv  arid  and  wild  mountains.  The  town  is  as 
gkK)my  a  residence  as  can  well  !»e  imagined.  • 

BOUXWJLLER,  or  BUSCHWEILER,a  town 
of  France,  d<^p.  Bas  Rhin,  cap.  cant.,  near  the 
Moder,  surrounded  by  mountains  and  forests,  20  m. 
NW.  Strasbuig.  Pop.  3,825  in  L861.  It  is  com- 
manded by  a  fine  old  Gothic  castle,  and  has  ma- 
nufactures of  cotton,  linen,  arms,  and  braziers' 
ware,  with  breweries  and  bleachfields. 

BOVA,  an  inland  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
Reggio,  cap.  cant.,  on  a  mountain,  17  m.  ESE. 
Reggio.  Pop.  4,020  in  1862.  This  town  suffered 
severely  from  an  earthquake  in  178,3,  but  was  re- 
built in  better  taste  under  the  patronage  of  Fer- 
dinand IV.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric ;  has  a 
cathedral,  and  several  churches,  a  seminary,  a 
hospital,  and  2  mont9-de-pitt^. 

This,  as  well  as  sev^al  other  towns  in  the  Nea- 
politan states,  is  believed  to  have  been  founded, 
or  at  all  events  to  have  been  occupied,  by  fugitives 
flying  from  Epirus  and  the  Morea  to  escape  the 
cmelty  of  the  Turks.  The  foimdation  of  Bova  is 
ascribed  to  the  great  immigration  which  took 
pUce  in  1477,  when  John  Castriot,  son  of  the 
famous  George  Castriot,  or  Scanderbeg,  was  ex- 
pelled from  his  hereditary  dominions  by  the  Turk- 
ish conqueror,  Mahomet  II.  At  later  periods 
simihir  immigrations  took  place  from  Corona  and 
Maiha.  The  immigrants  and  their  draoendants 
have  continued  to  be  a  distinct  race,  and  have 
preserved  the  language  and  dress,  though  not  the 
religion,  of  their  forefathers.  They  occupy  several 
towns  and  villages  in  different  parts  of  the  kiiig- 
dom,  their  total  number  being  at  present  supposed 
to  amount  to  about  52,000. 

LL  2 


^16 


BOVEY  TRACEY 


BRA 


BOVEY  TRACEY,  a  par.  and  town  of  En^^land,  |  convents*    A  battle  took  place  nexir  this  town  in 


CO.  Devon,  hund.  Teignbridge,  16G  m.  S\V.  by  W. 
I>mdoii.  Area  6,480  acres.  Pop.  of  par.,  1K21, 
1,68.3  ;  1831,  1,697,  ami  2,080  in  1861.     The  town 


1734,  l)etween  the  STMniardfi  and  the  ImperiAlidUs 
in  wliich  the  f<irmer  were  dcfeate<L 

BOXTEL,  a  \illaKo  of  the  Xethcrlands,  prov. 


8tan<l«  on  the  8lo|>e  of  a  hill,  at  the  base  of  which  Brabant,  on  the  Dommel,  7  m.  S.  Boia-le-Duc. 
the  IVa'cv  flows  and  ls  crosf»ed  l>y  an  ancient  I'op.  4,*205  in  1861.  Here  was  fought,  on  tlie 
bridge  of  three  arches.  There  is  one  main  >treet,  |  14th  Aug.,  1794,  an  obstinate  actioo  between 
which  branches  off  at  the  ancient  market-]dace  the  French  and  the  allied  British  and  Dutch 
like  a  Y,  one  part  cr»ntinuing  up  the  awcent,  the  troops,  under  the  command  of  the  Duke  of  York, 
other  extending  to  the  bridge.     There  are  a  few    The  latter  were  defeated  with  considerable  lo*, 


re}*|>ectable  mcKleni  houses,  but  the  greater  ]>art 
are  ancient,  and  meanly  built.  Tlie  churcli  is  a 
(iothic  .structure,  with  a  go<^l  tower,  at  the  E.  end 
of  the  town  ;  there  are  alj^o  liaptist  and  Weslcyan 
chaiK'ls,  and  an  endowed  free  school  for  twenty- 
four  children.  Annual  cattle  fairs  are  held  on 
Eaj^ter  Mon.,  Holy  Thurs.,  1st  Thurs.  July,  Ist 
Thurs.  Nov.  The*  market  (granted  in  12.V.'o  has 
been  dis4?ontinued  A^-ithin  tjie  prcNcnt  centurj*. 
There  are  two  |)otteries,  which  employ  many  of 


and  obliged  to  retire  behind  the  Maese. 

BOYLE,  an  inL  tovm  of  Ireland,  co.  Roscom- 
mon, pn>v.  C.'onnaught,  on  the  Bovle,  94  m.  WNAV. 
Dublin.  «>n  the  Midland  Great  ^Vestem  railwav. 
Pop.  3,433  in  1831,  and  3,o98  in  1861.  Tlie  cenMW 
of  l«6l  gave  160  males  and  201  females*  as  be- 
longing to  the  Establi<«hed  Church,  and  1, 2r>8  male 
with  1,375  female  K'oman  Catholics;  the  re!< 
Presbyterians  and  Methodists.  Bovle  is  dinded 
by  the  river  into  two  portions,  which  are  con- 


the   inhabitants;  the  remainder  are  engaged  in    nected  by  a  fine  mcKieni  bridge;  and  there  are 
agriculture;    serge   weaving  an«l  wool   combing  '  two  other  bridges  near  the   town.     The  public 


were  once  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent,  and 
have  become  <;xtinct  only  within  a  recent  period. 
A  |)ort reeve  and  bailiff  are  annually  ap|K)inted  at 
a  court  leet  held  by  the  lord  of  the  manor. 

The  Bovey  heathHeld,  extending  at  the  base  of 
the  town,  is  a  low  moorj'  tract,  In'tween  7  and  8  m. 
in  circ,  surrounded  by  hills  which  open  to  the  SE., 
in  which  direction  the  Tcign  flows  after  being 
joined  by  the  I^)vey.  The  granite  hills  on  the 
outskirts  of  Dartmoor  rise  on  the  W.  side,  and 
the  green  sand  range  of  Haldon  on  the  E.  The 
Ik>vey  coal  and  clay  formations  traverse  this 
plain' in  a  SE.  direction,  their  outcrop  being  at 
the  f(K)t  of  the  hill  on  which  the  town  stands. 
There  are  seven  be<ls  of  lignite,  in  all  forming 
continuous  strata  of  about  70  ft.  in  thickness, 
and  dipping  at  nn  angle  of  23  ft.  at  the  part 
where  they  ar«'  worked  for  the  use  of  the  \h)X- 
ter}',  wliich  stands  on  the  sj^ot,  and  which  is 
almost  the  only  nurjMvsc  to  which  the  fuel  Ls  ap- 
propriated, the  miperfect  combustion  and  large 
pro])ortion  of  ashes  rendering  it  unavailable  for 
gener«il  f)urposes,  though  (K'casionallv  used  in  the 
cottages  of  the  neighl>ouring  jxmr.  ^fhe  clay  l>eds 
overlie  the  lignite :  there  are  five  in  all.  nnniing 

{mrallel  with  each  other,  an<l  alternating  with 
)eds  of  sand  and  gravel :  the  ftnir  western  Inids 
are  |K^tter's  clay;  the  other  pi|>c  clay:  shafts  are 
Kunii  on  and  through  them,  at  intervah*,  for  6  or 
7  m.  along  their  course,  at  such  parts  as  are  found 
sufticiently  pure  for  the  market ;  they  vary  in 
de[»th  fn>ra  40  to  90  ft.,  the  lignite  being  always 
arrived  at  in  sinking  through  the  four  western 
beds,  and  a  fine  sand  under  the  eastern  one.  Fn>m 
.00,000  to  60,0()0  tons  of  this  clay  are  shipj)e<l 
annually  at  the  port  of  Teignmoulh  for  the  Staf- 
fordshire potteries,  the  greater  |K)rtion  of  which  is 
excavate<l  in  the  |>arish  of  Kuigsteinton,  and  con- 
veved  thither  by  the  Stover  Canal,  forme<l  tlmmgh 
tins  inland  basin,  and  locking  into  the  Teign, 
nlj<»ut  3  m.  al>ove  the  place  of  shipment.  TliLs 
canal  cfFectually  drained  the  greater  part  of  what 
had  previously  been  an  unhealthy  morass,  and 
fitted  it  for  cultivation  ;  a  railwav  from  the  Ilavtor 
granite  quarries  traverses  the  heathfield,  and  ter- 
minatej*  at  the  hea<l  of  it :  both  were  creations  of 
the  Temj)lar  family,  whose  mansion  and  projierty 


buildings  are  the  parish  church,  two  Rom.  Cath. 
cha|>els,  and  Baptist  and  Methodist  meeting- 
houses ;  a  new  market-house,  a  lecture-n>om,  anil 
large  barracks.  It  is  a  constabulary- station ;  and 
has  a  dis|)ensar\',  bridewell.  saWngs'  bank,  and 
loan  fund.  Tlie  chief  articles  of  trade,  which  is 
wlifdly  carried  on  by  land  carriage,  are  grain, 
butter,  and  tlax  :  s<»rae  coarse  woollens  are  manu- 
factured. The  butter-market  Ls  on  Mondays,  but 
the  princijial  market-dav  is  Satuidav :  fairs  ^m 
March  6,  April  3,  May  9*  and  30,  July  9  and  2o, 
Aug.  16,  Oct.  1,  and  Nov.  25. 

The  corp<iration,  under  a  charter  granted  by 
James  I.,  in  1613,  consLs<ts  of  the  Iwrough-master, 
twelve  biu^i^essc's,  and  an  indefinite  numl>er  of 
freemen.  It  returned  two  mem.  to  the  Irish 
II.  of  C  until  the  Union,  when  it  was  disfran- 
chised, (reneral  sessions  are  held  every  nine 
months,  and  petty  sessions  on  Mondays.  A  sene- 
schal's court  in  the  town  has  jurL<diction  in  several 
adjoining  baronies,  but  none  in  the  Utrough. 
Branches  of  the  Belfast  and  Agricultnral  banL^ 
were  oivencd  here  in  18^*5  and  1836. 

BOYXE,  a  river  of  Ireland,  which  ha«  its  source 
in  the  Im^  of  Allen,  ne^r  Carl)erry,  in  Kildaro, 
225  ft.  alx»ve  the  level  of  the  seii.  It  flows  NI- 
by  Trim,  Navan,  and  Slaiie,  to  Tulloghallen, 
whence  it  follows  an  E.  course  to  Droghetla, 
uniting  with  the  sea  alK>ut  2  m.  lower  doi^-n.  Tlie 
bar  at  its  mouth  has  only  2  ft,  water  at  low  spring- 
ebbs,  and  frr*ra  9  to  10  ft,  at  high  water:  hence 
only  the  smaller  class  of  vessels  can  come  up  to 
Drogheda.  It  has  been  rendered  navigable  for 
barges  as  far  as  Navan. 

Tlie  Boyne  will  be  ever  memorable  in  British 
historj'  for  the  important  victorj'  gained  on  its 
banks,  alwut  3  m,  above  Drogheda,  on  the  1st  of 
Julv,  1690,  bv  the  forces  under  the  command  of 
\ViUiam  111.,  over  those  of  James  II.  This  vic- 
tory, by  securing  the  triumph  of  the  liberal  prin- 
ciples of  government  establuhed  at  the  Revulu- 
ti<ni,  may  l)e  said  to  have  l)een  one  of  the  causes  of 
the  suljsetpient  progress  of  the  British  empire  in 
wealth,  power,  and  {population.  In  173»>,  an  obeli;»k, 
150  ft.  in  height,  was  erecte<l  in  commemoration 
f>f  this  great  event,  on  the  point  facing  the  foni  at 
<  )ldbridge,  2  m.  W.  Dn^jheda,  where  King  Wil- 


have  since  Ixicn  transferre<l  to  the  Duke  of  Somerset,    liam  was  wounded  in  the  arm  on  tlie  evening  pre- 

lUjVINO  (an.    Vibinum),  a  town  of  Southern  ..»•..» 

Italy,  prov.  Foggia,  Capitanata,  cap.  distr..  i>n 
the  declivitv  of  a  mountain,  watered  bv  the  Cer- 
varo.  19  m.' SSW.  F<»ggia.  Pop,  6,790  in  1862. 
It  is  fortitied,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  the 
residence  of  a  judge  of  jirimary  juris<liction ;  it 


has  a  cathedral,  two  parish  churches,  and  several  j  cotton.    It  is  reckoned  particularly  healthy. 


vious  to  the  battle. 

BRA,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  prov,  Cuneo, 
cap.  mand.,  near  the  N.  bank  of  the  Stum,  22  m. 
N.  Mondovi.  Pop.  12,946  in  1862.  It  lu»s  three 
parish  churches,  a  hos}ntal,  with  fabrics  of  silk 
and  linen,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  corn  and 


BRABANT 

BRABAXT,  X.  and  S.,  proviiicea  of  the  low 
countnc8,  the  first  makini?  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  Xetherlands,  and  the  latter  of  that  of  Belgium, 
which  see. 

IJRACCIAXO,  a  town  (an.  Sabate)  and  lake 
(an.  Lacus  Habatiniui)  of  Central  Italv,  25  m.  N. 
Kome.  Pop.  2,500  in  1862.  Tlie  towii  is  situated 
on  the  W.  side  of  the  lake,  ia  well  built,  has  a 
flouriiihing  paper  manufactory,  and  an  appearance 
of  prosperity.  It  ha8  a  magiiilicent  feudal  castle 
bcloii|ring  to  the  Torlonia  family,  now  dukes  of 
Bracciano. 

The  lake  is  nearly  circular;  ita  circumference, 
without  following  all  the  windings  of  the  shore, 
bc?mg  about  20  m.  It  is  not  generally  deep,  but  is 
well  stocked  with  fish.  The  Monte  Rocca  Ro- 
mana,  covered  with  wood,  rises  on  the  NE.  side  of 
the  lake,  and  it  is  in  most  parts  bordered  by  hills. 
Resides  Bracciano,  it  has  on  ita  mai^n  Trivig- 
nano  (an.  Trebonianum)^  Anguillara  (an.  Angu- 
lara),  Vicarcllo  (an.  Vicus  Aurelii),  San  Stcfano, 
near  which  are  the  ruins  of  several  Roman  villas, 
&c.  It  gives  rise  to  the  river  Arone  (an.  Aro), 
which  fails  into  the  sea  about  8  m.  N.  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Tiber.  The  scener>'.  round  the  lake 
Is  of  the  most  pleasing  and  sylvan  kind, 

BKACKLKV,  a  bor.  and  town  of  England,  co. 
Northampton,  hund.  King's  Sutton,  56  m.  NVV. 
London,  on  the  London  and  North  Western  rail- 
way. Pop.  2,239  in  1861.  The  town  stands  on  a 
»Io|)e,  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Ouse,  which  is  here 
crossed  by  a  two-arched  bridge.  Houses  mostly 
of  unhewn  stone.  There  are  two  churches  of 
great  antiquity;  a  national  school;  almshouses 
founded  in  166^3;  and  a  good  town-hall.  Awecklv 
market  is  held  on  Wetlnesday,  and  an  annual  fair 
on  St  Andrew's  day.  Under  a  charter  of  2  James 
H.  it  had  a  mayor,  seven  aldermen,  and  26  cajntal 
burgesses;  and  these,  until  the  passing  of  the 
Reform  Act,  when  it  was  disfranchised,  had  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  returning  two  mem.  to  the 
H.  of  C.  The  charter  authorised  courta  of  reconl 
and  of  quarter  sessions  but  thcv  have  long  been 
<UsusetL  The  borough  comprises  two  distinct 
parishes,  only  ecclesiastically  united,  Brackley  St. 
James,  and  Hrackley  St.  Peter.  It  is  the  union 
town  of  30  parishes. 

BHAUFOKD,  a  par.,  market  town,  and  parL 
and  municipal  bor.  of  England,  W.  riding  co. 
York,  31  m.  W.  bv  S.  Y(»rk,  an<l  8^  m.  W.  Leeds, 
18,'J  m.  NNW.  London  by  romi,  UHJ  m.  by 
(Ireat  Northern  railway,  and  21 2^  m.  by  the  Mi<i- 
land  railway.  The  par.  contains  33,710  acres, 
and  had,  in  1841,  105,257  inhab.,  and  156,053  in 
18()1.  The  township  of  Bradford  had,  in  1801,  a 
l)op.  of  6,393;  iu  1821,  of  13,064;  in  1841,  of 
34,560;  and  1861,  of  48,646.  But  in  addition  t<i 
the  township  of  Bradford,  the  townships  of  Man- 
iiingham,  lk)wling  and  Horton,  including  the 
Hum  lets  of  Great  and  Little  Horton,  are  included 
in  the  ])arl.  and  municipal  bor.,  which  had,  in  1841, 
a  i)op.  of  66,508  ;  and  in  1861,  of  106,218. 

Bradford  Is  situated  on  an  afiluent  of  the  Aire, 
at  the  junction  of  three  extensive  valleys.  Though 
the  streetij  in  the  older  parts  be  in  general  narrow, 
those  of  a  more  recent  date,  whicli  are  by  far  the 
most  extensive,  are  sufficiently  broarl,  and  thev 
are  all  well  paved  and  lighte<L  The  tow^  is  well 
supplied  with  water,  brought  from  a  distance  of 
upwards  of  20  miles.  Houses  wholly  of  stone,  and 
well  sup[>lied  with  water.  The  town  has  a  thriv- 
ing apf)earance,  indicative  of  its  highly  fiourish- 
iiig  ct»ndition.  The  parish  church  u(  St.  Peter  ia 
a  structure  in  the  ]M>inted  stvle  of  architecture, 
built  in  the  reign  of  Henry  Vl. ;  there  are  17  other 
churches.  The  Wesley  an  and  Primitive  Metho- 
diats,  Unitarians,  Indcf)cndent«,  Baptists,  Presby- 


BRADFORD 


517 


I  terians,  Roman  Catholics,  and  Society  of  Frienda, 
have  all  places  of  worship.  A  free  grammar- 
school,  founded  in  the  reign  of  Edward  W.^  and 
chartered  and,  in  ])art,  endowed  bv  Charles  II., 
was  rebiult  in  1830.  It  is  open  to  all  Iwys  belong- 
ing to  the  parish,  who  may  become  candidates  for 
exldbitions  to  Queen's  College,  Oxford.  Here, 
also,  arc  national  schools,  with  I^ncastrian  scIumiIs, 
schools  of  industry,  and  infant  schools.  The  Bap- 
tists and  Independent's  have  each  a  college  or  acA- 
demical  institutiou  within  ^  m.  of  the  towni  for 
the  preparation  of  candidates  for  their  res{)ective 
ministries ;  and  the  Methodists  have  a  school  for 
the  sons  of  their  preachers  at  Wootihouse  (irove, 
4  m.  distant.  The  Exchange,  a  handsome  build- 
ing, in  which  assemblies  are  sometimes  held,  has 
attached  to  it  a  library  and  news-room.  A  me- 
chanics' institute,  founded  in  1832,  has  a  library, 
reading  rooms,  and  lecture  rooms.  Among  the 
other  notable  buildings  are — the  Court-house, 
built  in  1834,  where  the  sessions  are  held;  Piece 
Hall,  144  ft.  long,  for  the  sale  of  alpaca  and  other 
stuffs;  and  St.  Ge<iige's  Music  Hall,  in  the  Italian 
style,  with  a  hall  capable  of  accommodating  3.350 
persons.  There  is  also  a  line  park,  called  Peel 
Park,  for  public  use.  A  dl*pen«ary  is  libcrallr 
supported ;  and  there  are  numerous  other  chari- 
table institutions.  The  first  temperance  society  in 
England  was  ei^tablished  here. 

The  town  was  incor|)orateil  in  1 847,  and  divided 
into  8  wanls,  governed  by  a  mayor,  14  aldermen, 
and  42  counciUors.  The  parliainentarv  and  inuiii- 
cipal  bounds  arc  co-extensive.  The  \>orough  in- 
come was  9,698/.  in  1861.  The  amount  assessed 
to  propertv  tax,  in  1861,  was  4«0,021/.,  and  the 
net  rateable  value  290,919/.  The  Bcform  Act 
made  Bradfonl  a  parL  bor.,  and  conferred  on  it  for 
the  first  time  the  privilege  of  returning  two  mem. 
to  the  1 1,  of  C.  1  he  number  of  registered  electors, 
in  1861,  was  3,880.  Bradford  is  altfo  a  polling 
place  for  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire. 

The  present  imixirtance  and  rapid  growth  of 
Bradfonl  are  wholly  owing  to  the  spirit  and  suc- 
cess with  which  the  inhabs.  have  engajL^ed  in 
manufacturing  industry'.  The  production  of 
worsted  yam  and  stuffs  constitutes  the  staple  busi- 
ness of  the  town.  Norwich  was  formerly  the  great 
seat  of  the  worsted  manufacture,  which,  indeed,  in 
supi>osed  to  have  derive<l  its  name  frt>m  the  par. 
of  Worsted  in  Norfolk,  into  which  it  had  been 
early  intHxluced.  But  the  sunerior  facilities  for 
the  pn)secution  of  the  manufacture  enjoye<l  by 
Brailford,  chiefiy  in  conse<iuence  of  the  luiliinitcd 
command  of  coal,  have  given  it,  in  this  re»i)ect,  a 
decide<l  advantage  over  Norwiclu 

There  were  in  the  par.  of  Bradford,  and  princi- 
pally in  the  town,  in  1861,  156  w^orsteil,  woollen, 
and  cotton  miUs.  Large  iron  foundries  are  esta- 
blished at  Bowling  ami  Low  M(M)r.  At  Saltaire, 
on  the  Aire,  is  the  extensive  factory  of  Messrs. 
Salt,  in  which  above  4,000  hands  are  employetU 
The  entire  imr.  of  Bradfonl  is  very  densely  peo- 
pled, and  along  all  the  princif>al  n)ads  there  is  an 
almost  uninterrupted  succession  of  towns  and  vil- 
lages. I^ides  tlie  worsted  and  woollen  trades, 
which  are  the  principal  emplo\'ment^  and  others 
more  recently  intnuluced,  tlie  iron  trade  has  ex- 
isted from  time  immemorial,  as  is  pnive<i  by  the 
discoverv  of  a  number  of  Roman  coins,  in  the 
mi<Lst  oi^a  mass  of  scoria*,  the  refuse  of  an  ancient 
bl«x>mer>'  in  the  neighlxmrhcKKl  of  the  town.  The 
supply  of  ore  Is  abundant ;  but  tlie  works,  though 
considerable,  are  not  so  extensive  as  might,  per- 
haris,  have  been  anticipated.  The  commaiul  of 
unlimited  supplies  of  coal  has,  as  state<i  al)ovc, 
iw^en  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  rapid  pro- 
gress of  the  mauulActurcs  of  the  town.     Thii 


618  BRADFORD  (GREAT) 

proprcsfl  hiks  also,  been  j;je«tly  promoted  by  the 
facility  of  communication  with  the  |>orts  on  the  E. 
and  W.  coasts  of  the  kinp^dom,  hy  the  Livcn>ool 
anil  I^ceiLs  canal,  a  branch  from  which  m  carried  mto 
the  to\%ii ;  and  bv  the  network  of  railwavH,  which 
connect  Bradford  with  aU  parts  of  the  countr}'. 

A  festival  numerously  attende<l,  and  celebrated 
with  much  gaiety,  Ls  held  at  Hnulfonl  even'  seventh 
year,  in  honour  of  Hishop  lUaise.  said  to  be  the  in- 
ventor of  wool-combinj;.  Markets  are  held  on 
Thura<lays;  fairs  on  March  JJnl,  4th,  July  17th, 
18th,  Ii)th,  and  Dec.  9th,  loth,  Uth;  the  last  is  a 
great  mart  for  pip».  The  banks  are  th(!  Bradford 
iJanking- Ompany,  HradAjnlDistrict  Bank,  Brad- 
ford Comrac'rcial  lianking  C<)mi>any,  branches  of 
the  Leeds  and  \V.  IJiding  and  of  the  Yorkshire 
banks,  a  private  banking  house,  and  a  pavings' 
bank.  A  cust(»m-house  and  inland  bonding  ware- 
house have  been  established  here  under  the  pro- 
vwions  of  the  (.'usU»ms  Act  of  I8t>0.  The  customs 
revenue,  in  18G2,  amounted  to  32,710/. 

Bradfoui)  (Great),  or  BRADFoRn-ow-AvoN, 
a  par.  and  town  of  England,  co.  Wilt.s,  hund. 
Bradfonl,  on  the  Avon,  %\  m.  VV.  hy  S.  London  by 
road,  and  100  m.  by  (ireat  AVestem  railway  and 
branch  line.  Pop.  of  town  4,291,  and  of  parish 
8,032  in  18G1.  The  river  divi.les  the  to^^-n  into  2 
parts  (called  the  New,  and  Old  towns),  and  is 
crossed  by  2  bridges,  one  ancient,  ^s-ith  *j  anrhcs; 
the  other  modern,  with  4.  The  ol<l  town  consists 
chietly  of  3  streets,  each  alM)ve  the  other,  on  the 
slojie  and  brow  of  a  hill,  rising  abmptly  fn»m  the 
N.  bank ;  most  of  the  streets  are  very  narrow,  but 
in  this  respect  many  impn>vements  have  lx?en 
made  witliin  a  recent  periotL  The  houses  are  all 
of  stone,  and  many  of  them  ver\'  respectable 
Htructures.  The  church  is  an  ancient  building  at 
the  foot  of  the  hill.  Six  of  the  principal  sects  of 
ilLssenters  have  places  of  worship  in  the  town ; 
there  is  a  charity  scIkkjI  for  (JO  l)oys,  foun<led  in 
1712,  and  2  sets  of  almshouses,  one  for  men,  one 
for  women.  A  weekly  market  is  held  on  Saturday, 
and  an  aimual  fair  on  Trinity  Montlay.  There  is 
also  a  cattle  fair  at  Bradfordleigh,  a  hamlet  in 
the  par.,  the  day  following  that  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
The  chief  manufactures  of  Bradfonl  are  tine  broad- 
cloths and  kerseymeres — for  these  it  has  Ix'cn  notetl 
for  a  very  long  |>eriod.  The  stone  quarries  in  Wins- 
ley  tithing  employ  alx)ve  100  men.  It  enjoys  an 
extensive  water  communication  with  the  towns  to 
the  E.  and  VV.,  by  means  of  the  Avon  and  Kennet 
Canal.  A  court  of  re<iu»»^ts  for  debti*  uncler  o/.  is 
held  every  third  Tuesday :  its  jurisdiction  com- 
prises 3  adjoining  hundreds,  and  it  is  held  on  the 
interme<liate  Tuesdays,  at  Trowbridge  and  Melk- 
sham.  Bratlford  is  a  union  town,  under  the  P(M»r 
Law  Act.  The  area  of  the  whole  jwyish,  11,740 
acres,  comprising,  l>eside  the  town,  4  chapelries 
and  1  tithing.  There  is  much  picturesque  seen erj*- 
along  the  windings  of  the  river  and  the  delLs  of  its 
W(K)deil  hills,  and  many  line  old  mansions.  The 
town  must  have  Ix-en  of  some  consequence  in  the 
Saxon  ]K»ri(Kl,  for  St.  Dunstan  was  elected  !>ishop 
of  Worcester  at  a  svnod  held  in  it.  Bradford  sent 
memlx-rs  Xi>  one  parliament  in  Edwanl  l.'s  reign, 
but  never  since;  nor  Ls  there  any  recorrl  of  its 
having  ever  been  incoq>orate<L 

BBADIXG,  a  par.  and  marit.  hor.  to^Ti  of 
England,  co.  Ilants,  div.  Isle  of  Wight,  liberty  E. 
Medina,  73  ni.  SW.  London.  Pop.  of  parish  3,709 
in  18«il.  The  town  is  situated  at  the  head  of 
lirading  Haven,  at  the  E.  extremity  of  the  island, 
and  consists  of  one  long  street  of  irregular  build- 
ings. The  church  Ls  said  to  have  been  I>uilt  in 
704,  but  it  must  IiaA'c  undergone  exten-ive  altera- 
titnis  and  repairs.  There  are  also  two  dissenting 
chai>els,  a  national  school  for  GO  children,  and  a 


BRAGANZA 

small  town-hall,  imtler  which  is  a  markctr-place, 
but  the  market  has  ceased  to  be  held.  There  are 
still  annual  fairs,  May  1,  September  21.  There  is 
a  quay  for  the  accommoilation  i>f  small  ve9(sel.<s 
the  i)lace  being  approachable  by  such  at  high 
water;    but  the  tract  which  forma  the  estuanr 

m 

(alxiut  90O  acres)  Ls  uncoveJe«l  at  every  tide.  An 
attempt  to  embank  it^  and  shut  out  tlie  sea,  was 
made  by  Sir  H.  Middleton  (the  pn Hector  of  the 
New  IJiver),  but  unsuccessfully.  The  town  wa« 
incorporated,  and  a  market  and  fair  granted  in  1 1 
Edw.  I. ;  there  wa.s  another  in  6  E<iw.  VI.,  under 
which  the  town  was  governed  by  two  bailiffi»  and 
two  magistrates,  the  former  elected  annually ;  the 
latter  were  the  bailiffs  of  the  preceding  J-ear. 

BBADNINCH,  a  par  ami  bor.  of  England,  co. 
Devon,  hund.  Ilayriclge;  150  m.  W.  by  S.  London, 
pop.  of  parish  l,*79t)  in  1H61  ;  area  4,320  acres^ 
The  town  is  pleasantly  situated  on  an  eminence, 
surrounde<l  by  higher  hills,  except  on  the  S.,  and 
consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  a  collection  of  neat, 
thatched  cottages.  The  church  is  an  ancient 
structure;  and  there  Ls  a  gtdldhall,  with  a  gaol 
under,  built  sul>sequently  to  a  fire  that  nearly  de- 
8tn>ye<l  the  place  a  few  years  since.  It  once  had  a 
considerable  woollen  trade,  but  this  has  ceased, 
and  ita  ancient  weekly  market  has  been  discon- 
tinued. There  are  still  two  annual  fairs  held, 
May  6  and  C)ct.  2.  It  had  a  charter  of  incorpora- 
tion, granted  by  Reginald,  Earl  of  O^mwall,  which 
was  renewe<l  and  extended  bv  James  I.  and  .Iames« 
II. ;  uniler  it  were  appointed  a  mayor,  reccailer,  12 
masters,  24  inferior  burgesses,  &c. ;  and  aiurta  <^ 
quarter  sessions  and  record  were  held,  which  have 
l)een  alMilishe<l  by  the  Municipal  Reform  Act.  It 
returned  2  mem.  t»)  the  H.  of  C.  from  the  reign  of 
E«lw.  II.  to  that  of  Henry  VII.,  when  inability  to 
]>ay  their  wage^  was  pleaded,  and  admitted,  ou 
paving  a  line  of  5  marks. 

IJKAtiA  (an.  Atufitsta  BrcuMra),  a  city  of  Por- 
tugal, cap.  prov.  Flntre  Douro  e  Minho,  and  of  the 
comarca  of  the  same  name,  on  a  hill  in  the  middle 
of  a  large  ami  fertile  i)lain,  between  the  Cava*lo 
and  the  Dieste,  32  m.  NXE.  Oporto,  lat,  41<^  42* 
N.,  long.  8°  20'  W.  Pop.  17,152  in  1858.  The 
city  is  (lefende<l  by  a  citadel,  and  is  surrounded  by 
walls  llanke<i  wit^i  towers.  The  streets  are  rather 
narrow,  and  the  houses  old  :  it  is  the  seal  of  an 
archbi.ihopric,  and  has  a  large  cathedral,  several 
pjirish  churches  and  convents,  an  an.*hie|n'<eopal 
l)ala<;e  and  seminaries,  and  seventy-eight  foun- 
tains, some  of  which  are  highly  ornamented.  It 
has  great  numl>er8of  silversmiths,  harness-makers 
and  hjitters,  who  supply  with  their  wares  all  the 
fairs  in  the  adjoining  Portugue«*e  districts,  as  well 
as  most  of  those  in  Gallicia  in  Spain. 

Braga  is  a  verj'  ancient  city,  its  fonndation 
l>eing  ascribed  to  the  (.'arthaginians.  Down  to  a 
recent  period  it  had  the  ruins  of  a  Roman  amphi- 
theatre and  aqueduct,  but  these  are  now  nearly 
obliterated,  and  it  possesses  few  memorials  of  its 
ancient  grandeur,  except  some  coins,  found  in  the 
vicinity,  and  some  Roman  millstones.  Alnmt  1| 
m.  E.  injm  the  city,  on  a  hill,  is  the  renownetl 
sanctuary  do  Sentior  Jesus  tio  MotUe,  annually 
resorted  to  by  crowds  of  pilgrims, 

BBAG^VNZA,  a  town  of  Port»igal,  prov.  Tras- 
os-^lontes,  cap.  comarca,  in  a  fertile  plain,  on  the 
Ferrenza,  35  m.  NW\  Mirandella.  Po|k  5,25^)  in 
1x58.  The  town  is  partially  fortified,  has  a  g»«<»il 
citadel,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  has  two  churehes. 
a  college,  and  some  manufactures  of  silk  and 
velvet.  It  was  erected  into  a  duchy  in  1442  ;  aihl 
in  KMO,  John  II.,  «th  duke  of  Bra^uza,  as^-ended 
the  Portuguese  thn>ne  under  the  title  of  John  IV. 
His  descendanta  continue  to  enjoj*  tlie  crown  of 
I'ortugal,  and  have  also  acqiured  that  of  BraziL 


BRAHILOW 

BRAHILOW,  BRAILOFF,  or  IBRAILA,  a 
town  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  in  Wallachia,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Danube.  12  m.  SSW.  Galacz,  and 
abi>ut  105  m.  by  water  from  the  Ulack  Sea.  Pop. 
estimated  at  9,000.  Brailoff  ma^  be  said  to  be 
the  sea-pr)rt  of  Wallachia,  and  in  it  all  the  foreign 
tra<le  of  the  province  centres.  All  vessels  capalde 
of  entering  the  Danube  may  ascend  to  Brailoff; 
and  its  port,  on  one  of  the  arms  of  the  river,  being 
defended  by  a  small  island  from  the  drift  ice  ear- 
ned down  by  the  current  in  the  spring,  ships  may 
winter  here  in  perfect  safety.  Uonscs  regularly 
built,  principally  from  the  ruins  of  the  castle, 
which  has  been  demolished ;  and  the  importance 
of  the  town  having  increased  with  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  povince,  and  the  increasing  com- 
merce and  navigation  of  the  Danube,  several  hand- 
M)mc  new  streets  and  edifices  have  been  recently 
erected.  The  warehouses  are  capable  of  containing 
al>ove  300,000  chetwerts  of  com.  The  great  arti- 
cles of  export  are  the  raw  products  of  the  country ; 
including  wheat,  maize,  and  barley,  with  tallow, 
hides,  beef,  wool,  timber,  tobacco,  and  yellow- 
berries.  These  exports,  especially  com,  have  lately 
much  increased.  The  quality  as  well  as  the  quan- 
tity of  the  wheat  shipped  from  this  port,  and  from 
(ialacz,  has  also  greatly  improved.  It  was  for- 
merly, for  the  most  pwt,  damp^  with  an  earthy 
iRMte  and  smell,  origuiating  in  its  being  usually 
kept  in  holes  in  the  ground ;  but  this  practice  is 
now  verj-  generally  abandoned,  and  the  grain  is 
sliipped  in  comparatively  good  order.  Tallow, 
which  is  an  important  article,  is  divided  into 
tallow  an<l  chcrvice :  the  latter,  consisting  of  the 
I'at  of  the  carcass  and  marrow  boiled  togetlier,  is 
in  much  request  at  Constantinople.  Tlie  trade 
i^onietinie  hincc  was  principally  managed  by  (Jreek 
houses  ;  but  merchants  from  Knglund  and  other 
foreign  countries  have  now  established  themselves 
here  and  at  Galacz.  (See  the  arts.  Danubk, 
GAT.ACZ,  an<i  Wallachia.) 

BKAHMAPUTliA  {the  aon  of  Brahma),  \'ulg. 
BuKKAMp<x>TKK,  ouc  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Asia, 
forming  the  ])roper  E.  boundary  <>f  llindostan ;  the 
peninsula  beyond  which  should,  therefore,  rather 
be  called  *  India  beyond  the  Brahmaputra,' than 
*  beyond  the  Ganges,'  since  the  former  se|)Arates 
two  regions,  for  the  most  part  unlike,  not  only  in 
their  topographical  features,  but  also  singularly  so 
in  the  races  of  people  who  inhabit  them,  their  rc- 
li<;ion,  customs,  <Src  The  Brahmaputra  has  three 
separate  sources,  viz.  the  Dihong,  Dibong,  and 
Lohit  rivers,  which  unite  in  L'p])er  Assam ;  the 
lirst  has  lieen  tracc<l  bv  ('apts.  Bedford  and  Wilcox, 
and  Lieut.  Burlton,  through  the  llimalava  chain 
to  lat,  2«o  15'  N.,  and  long.  95©  10'  E.,  and  is  in 
all  proliability  a  continuation  of  the  great  Saii-po 
of  1  ibet.  (Sec  San-po.)  The  Dihong,  at  the  jwint 
to  which  Lieuts.  Wilcox  and  Burlton  penetrated, 
ua.s  300  ft.  wide,  hatl  considerable  depth,  and  con- 
tained many  rapids ;  one  of  which  being  found 
ini])a.'<sable,and  the  adjacent  country  wild  and  dif- 
licult  in  the  extreme,  prevented  the  future  prose- 
cution of  the  8ur\'ey :  the  Dihong  carries  twice  as 
much  water  as  the  Ix)hit  into  the  Brahmaputra. 
The  Dilwng  is  the  central  and  smallest  of  the  three 
rivers  :  it  rises  N.  the  Himalaya,  near  lat.  28°  10' 
N.,and  long.  97°,  and  passes  through  the  mountains 
into  As^aIn,  near  lat.  28°  1;V,  and  long.  9G°.  The 
l.ohii,  cjdled  bv  the  Assamese  'holv  stream,'  and 
cun!-i<lerc<l  by  the  Brahmins  as  more  esjK'cially  the 
origin  of  the  Brahmaputra,  is  fomie<l  by  the  union 
of  Uje  Taluka  and  Taluding,  two  streams  rising  in 
the  high  mountain  region  of  Til)et,  !>etween  lat. 
2s°  an<l  29°  X.,  and  long.  97°  and  9«°  E.,  which 
having  joined,  the  river  thence  resulting  takes  a 
SW.  course,  (Kuictrating  the  Long-tarn  chain  of 


BRAINTREE 


619 


monntains  (a  continuation  of  the  Himalaya),  and 
passing  through  a  remarkable  basin  of  rocky  hills, 
a  place  of  pilgrimage  often  frequented  by  Brah- 
mins, in  which  it  is  augmented  by  the  waters  of 
the  Brahmakund,  a  holy  pool  fal)led  to  owe  its 
origin  to  an  intri^^e  bctw^een  Brahma  and  the  wife 
of  a  sauton.  At  its  exit  from  this  basin  the  river 
receives  the  name  of  Brahmaputm,  and  is  200  tL 
broad :  for  the  next  60  m.  its  course  is  mostly  W. ; 
15  m.  below  Suddya,  in  lat  about  27°  50'  N.,  and 
long.  95°  30'  E.,  at  a  height  of  1,150  (Paris)  ft 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  streams  of  the  Dihong 
and  Dibong  join  it  It  now  Hows  in  a  SW.  di- 
rection through  the  centre  of  Assam,  with  a  very 
variable  width,  since  its  channel  is  continually 
subdividing  to  enclose  a  prodigious  number  oi 
islands,  the  largest  of  which,  that  of  Majuli,  in 
central  Assam,  is  nearly  70  m.  long,  and  10  m.  in 
its  greatest  breadth.  Uliile  in  Assam  the  Brah- 
maputra is  said  to  receive  as  many  as  sixty  tri- 
butary riven.  It  enters  Bengal  in  the  Rungpore 
distr.,  and  soon  after  changes  its  direction,  flowing 
at  fint  S.  and  SE.,  encircling  the  W.  extremity  of 
the  Garrow  mountains,  and  finally,  SSW.,  to  fall 
into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  by  a  mouth  5  m.  wide,  in 
lat  22°  60*  N.,  long.  90°  40'  E.,  in  conjunction 
with  the  largest  branch  of  the  Ganges.  'The  chief 
tributary  streams  it  receives  in  Bengal  are,  the 
Soormah,  Barak,  and  Goomty,  on  the  left,  and  the 
Gadada,  Neelcomcr,  Tecsta,*  and  Megna.  on  the 
right  hand ;  the  latter  of  which  rivers,  though  not 
one-tenth  part  its  size,  communicates  its  own  name 
to  the  Brahmaputra  after  their  junction.  The  af- 
fluents of  the  Brahmaputra  bringing  down  vast 
quantities  of  mud,  its  waters  are  usually  extremely 
thick  and  dirty,  and  its  surface,  during  the  floods, 
is  covered  with  foam,  intermixed  with  h^  of  wood, 
large  masses  of  reeds,  and  carcasses  of  men  and 
cattle.  Its  rise  commonly  b^ns  in  April;  it 
attains  its  greatest  elevation  at  the  beginning  of 
August,  towards  the  end  of  which  month  its  in- 
undation subsides.  Some  rise^  but  no  overflow,  is 
exficrienced  in  September  and  October.  In  Bengal 
it  IS  not  fordable  at  any  season,  but  it  is  by  no 
means  so  readily  na\'igated  as  the  Ganges ;  the 
direction  of  the  wind,  which  blows  for  so  many 
months  contrary  to  the  course  of  the  latter  river, 
is  commonly  coincident  with  the  direction  of  the 
Brahmaputra,  and  adverse  to  all  progress  upwanls. 
Its  banks  arc  mostly  covered  with  jungle  or  marsh- 
land, and  in  many  places  quite  destitute  of  tracks ; 
and  its  corrent  is  so  strong,  that  1  m.  a  day  against 
the  stream  is,  for  a  canoe,  considered  a  tolerable 
advance.  (Bitter's  Enlknnde  von  Asien,  vol.  ill ; 
Hamilton's  E.  I.  Gaz.  L  286-28«.) 

BRAINTREE,  a  par.  and  town  of  England,  co. 
Essex,  bund.  Hinkford,  36  m.  NE.  I^ndon  by  road, 
and  44^  m.  by  the  Great  Eastern  railway,  on'which 
it  is  a  station.  Area  2,500  acres.  Pop.  of  par. 
4,020,  and  of  town  4,305  in  1801.  The  town  is 
built  on  an  eminence,  and  consists  of  several  narrow 
irregular  streets,  in  which  a  few  good  houses,  of 
m(Mlem  date,  are  dispersed,  but  the  greater  part 
arc  ancient  mean  buihiingH,  man^'  of  them  wood : 
the  village  of  Bocking,  in  the  pansh  of  that  name, 
is  a  continuarion  of  this  town  on  its  N.  side,  ami 
consists  of  one  long  street,  in  which  are  many  well- 
built  houses.  Bocking  parish  includes  3,800  acres, 
and  had  a  pop.  of  3,555  in  1861.  Braintree  church 
is  a  spacious  Gothic  structure,  with  a  tower  and 
spire,  on  the  elevated  site  of  a  still  ohler  encamp- 
ment. Tliere  are  sevejral  dissenting  chapels;  an 
endowetl  school  for  10  boys  (in  which  Ray,  the 
naturalist,  was  educated) ;  and  several  charities : 
the  principal  one  produces  350/.  a  year,  which  is 
sharetl  by  the  poor  of  this  and  two  adjoining  pa- 
rishes.   A  weekly  market  is  held  on  u  edncsday ; 


520 


BRAKEL 


and  two  annual  fairs,  each  la^tiiif];  three  davs, 
which  commence  May  7  and  Oct^jlier  2.  The  in- 
habitants wore  f«)rmerly  en^aj^l  in  woollen  manu- 
facture, but  thw  ha8  now  become  quite  extinct. 
I5raintree  is  mentioned  in  I)omesday-l)ook  under 
the  names  of  Haines  and  Branchetrea.  It  is  a 
polling  t<>w^l  f<ir  the  X.  divisi(m  of  Essex. 

JUkAKKL,  a  town  of  I*nI^sia,  prov.  \Ve»tj>halia» 
rejr.  Minden,  cap.  circle,  on  the  IJrucht,  near  its 
contluence  with  the  Xette,  iV>  m.  NNW.  Ca.sHel. 
Pop.  2,734  in  1861.  The  towi  has  a  Catholic 
parish  church,  a  hospital,  a  workhouse,  and 
fabrics  of  linen,  tobacco,  and  a  gla<'*-w<»rk. 

liUAMllKI',  a  par.  and  bor.  of  Kn^land,  co. 
8uHjH»x,  hund.  Steyninjtr,  <m  the  Adur,  whifh  is 
navi^ble  fi>r  smail  vessels,  4.">  m.  S.  by  W.  1-ion- 
don  by  road,  and  53  m.  I>y  I^ndon,  Hrii^hton,  and 
South  Coast  railway,  on  which  it  is  a  station. 
Pop.  119  in  IHOl.  "liramlK-r  claims  to  be  a  bor. 
by  ]»rescription,  and  was  of  sufficient  imiK)rtance 
to  ^ive  its  name  to  the  rape,  in  which  it  is  situ- 
atecl.  It  sent  2  mem.  to  the  H.  of  C.  from  the 
23  Edw.  I.,  with  (KU'a'<ional  omissions  between 
that  date  an<l  7  Ivlw.  IV.;  and  subse(|uently, 
without  intemiption,  till  it  was  disfranchised  by 
the  Kefonu  Act :  the  ri^^ht  of  election  was  in  bur- 
t^iio.  tenure  v(»ters  |>ayiii^  scot  and  lot,  of  which 
there  were  about  20. 

BKA^IPTON,  a  parish  and   market  town   of 
Ku'^land,  CO.  CuniU^land,  Kskdnlo  Wanl,  on  the 
Newcastle   and   (.'arli^le  railway.     Area  of  par. 
I(),ii70  aiTcs.     Pop.  (»f  par.  3,58.3,  and  of  town 
2,370  in  1 801.     The  to\ni  is  situatcil  10  m.  NK. 
<^■lrlish*,  in  a  deep  narrow  vallev.     It  has  a  tovni- 
hall,  built  by  the  Karl  of  (.'arlisle  in  1817,  in  which 
courts  an*  held  for  the  barony  of  (xilsland.    The 
par.  church,  now    in  ruins,  is  at  the  villaj^  of 
Irthin^tou,  al)out  1  ^  ni.  distant ;  but  it  has>a  pa- 
rochial chapel,  built  in   17«U,  an«l  repaired  and 
cnlargetl  in  1827 :  it  has  also  4  dissenting  cha]K>ls, 
a  grammar-school,  a  national  school,  erecteil  by 
the  Karl  of  Carlisle,  an   infant  school,  ami    12 
almshouses  for  0  old  men  and  as  many  women. 
At  the  E.  end  of  the  town  is  the  m(»at,  a  conical 
mounts  rising  300  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  streets. 
The  weaving  of  checks,  ginghams,  and  <>ther  de- 
scriptions of  cotton   g(Hsls,   on   account  of  the 
Carlisle  manufactures,  is  carried  on  to  some  extent. 
BRANl)ENBL:K(i,ftn  imi>ortant  prov.  of  Pnis- 
Fia,  consisting    principally  of  the  ancient  mark 
or  raaniuisate  of  Brandenburg,  having  N.  Aleck- 
lonbuig  and  Pomerania,  K.  the  provs.  of  Pnissia 
and  Posen,  S.  Silesia  and  the  kingdom  of  Saxony, 
and  W.  Prussian  Saxonv»  Anhalt,  and  Hanover ; 
between  51°  10' and  53°  37' N.  lat.,  and   110  13' 
and  \CP  12'  K.  long.     Area  irv'MJ.'i  sq.  miles:  iH>p. 
2,403,515  in  1801,  of  whom  2,408,l(Hl  civil  inhabi- 
tants, and  /'>5,415  military.     The  province  is  di- 
vided into  two  regencies  and  34  circles.   Princi]^al 
towns,  Berlin,  Piitsdam,  Fninkfort,  lirandenbuig, 
and  Spandau.    The  province  consists  principally 
of  an  immense  sandy  i)laiu,  watere<i  by  the  Oder, 
Spree,  Havel,  Warta,  ^etz,  and  other  rivers,  and 
by  numerous  hikes.   Soil  generally  poor :  in  many 
parts,  indeecl,  it  consists  of  vast  tract-?  of  I)arre.n 
sand,  divei'sitied  with  extensive  heaths  and  moors; 
but  in  other  parts,  particularly  along  the  rivers  and 
lakeit,  there  is  a  g<M>d  deal  of  meailow,  marsh,  and 
other  comparatively  rich  land.  Fore^^t^  very  exten- 
Mve.    Estimating  the  whole  extentof  the  prov.  at 
15,800,000  m(»rgen,  or  German  acres,  it  is  supf)Osed  ! 
to  be  distributed  as  follows : — water,  300,000  mor- 
gcn;  wo<kIs,  3,500,000  do. ;  arable  lands,  0,700,0fX) 
do. ;  gardens,  05,000  do. ;   waste  lands,  3,250,000 
do. ;  buildings,  roaiLs,  &c..  550,000  d<>.  Com  of  all 
iH)rt9  is  raised.     Buckwheat,  however,  succeeds 
better  than  any  other  sort  of  grain  ou  the  .sandy 


BRANDON 

*w>ils,  and  next  to  it  rye    Potatoes  are  now  rerr 
!  extensively  cultivated.    The  other  principal  pro^ 
ducts  are  wool,  hemp,  and  flax,  tobacco,  timber, 
and  hops.     Agriculture,  tliough   backwani,  ha# 
made  great  advances  since  1815.     The  breeds  of 
;  horses  and  sheep  have  been  materially  improved ; 
fiarticulur  attention  is  paid  to  the  raising  of  woul, 
which  lias  become  a  most  important    product. 
iirandenbiu^,  in  fact,  pnHlucesmorc  wik>1  tnan  any 
other  j>n»vince  of  the  kingdom.    With  the  exce|>- 
tion  oilime  and  gyimim,  the  inineraLs  are  of  no  im- 
i  portance.     Manufactures  were  introduced  by  the 
j  refugees  from  France,  subsequently  to  the  revoca- 
;  tiou  of  the  e<lict  of  Nantetn,  and  are  very  extensive. 
They  arc  princi))ally  carried  on  at  Berlin  (wliich 
see,  and  Pku88I«).'    There  are  manufactures  uT 
steam-engines  and   agricult4iral    implements^  of 
woollen,  silk,  an<l  C(»tton  stufTii,  of  optical  and 
mathematical  instruments,  and  of  chemical  pro- 
duce, l)esi<les  numenius  brewerien,  distiUerieH,glaft^ 
works,  brick-kilns,  tanneries,  potash,  chaicoaL  and 
lime  manufactories.     Tlie  internal  trade  of  the 
prov.  is  very  considerable,  and  is  much  facilitale<l 
by  railways,  rivers  and  na\'igable  canals.     The 
mil  ways  centre  in  Ikrlin,  connecting  every  im- 
IMirtant  town  of  the  province.     The  svf^tem  trf 
water  communication  lilkewiseLs  very  ci>mplcte ;  it 
owes  its  origin  chitjtly  to  Elector  Frederick  William. 
suniamc*d  the  (Ireat  Elector.     The  province  of 
Braiuleuburg  formed  the  nudeus  of  ail  the  state:* 
now  united  in  the  Prussian  monarchy.     It  was 
given  in  1410  by  Kaiser  Sigismoud  to'  Frederick 
VI.,  Count  of  Hohenxollem  and  Buigraveuf  XOni- 
berg.  ancestor  of  the  present  kings  «»f  Prussia. 

Bkandeniu'Ru,  a  town  of  Pnuisia,  prov.  same 
name,  reg.  Potsdam,  cap.  circ.  W.  Ilavellaud.  *m 
the  Ilavel,  35  m.  WSW.  Berlin,  and  3«  m.  NE, 
Magileburg ;  lat.  52°  27'  N.,  long.  V29  32'  E.  Pi.ji. 
23,.'<00  in  1801.  The  town  has  a  station  on  the 
railway  fn»m  Berlui  to  Magdeburg.  The  rivtr 
divides  it  into  throe  {)arts ;  the  old  town  on  the 
right,  and  the  new  on  the  left  bank ;  while  on  an 
ihlan<l  betwetni  them  is  built  the  *  C-athedral  Town,* 
which,  fnun  standing  ou  piles,  is  also  called 
*  Venice.'  Streets  of  the  old  to^ii  narrnw  and 
crooked ;  but  those  of  the  new  town  arc  compara- 
tively broad  and  straight;  both  are  walletl  and 
conniK^ted  by  a  bridge.  On  the  island  Ls  the  ca- 
thedral, a  stnicture  of  the  14th  centurj-,  the  ca?>tle, 
and  an  equestrian  academy.  It  has  eight  churches, 
live  hospitals,  a  council-house,  with  a  public 
library',  a  gymnasium,  a  citizens'  school  {Bii/yer- 
tehule)^  a  superior  female  school,  with  numerous 
elementary  and  charity  sch(x>ls ;  a  workhouse,  a 
thexitre,  and  three  ])ubhc  squares,  in  one  of  which 
stands  the  KolandsaUle,  a  c<dumn  hewn  out  of 
a  single  block  of  stone^  Tlie  font  and  monuments 
in  St,  Catherine's  church  are  worthy  of  notices  as 
are  also  the  works  of  art  ui  the  cathedral.  There 
are  manufactures  of  woidlens,  fustians,  linens, 
stockings,  i»ai)er,  A'c;  with  numenms  breweries, 
dLstiUeries, tanneries, and  some  boat-building;  and 
it  has  a  brl^k  trade  both  by  land  anil  water.  It 
has  been  several  limes  bcsi^ed — by  Henry  tlie 
Fowler,  Albrecht  the  Bear,  and  Giistavus  Adol- 
phus.     It  was  the  birthplace  of  Julius  von  Vc*s. 

BiiANDKNuuKG  (Nkw),  a  towu  of  the  gRtnd 
duchj'  of  Mecklenburg  Strclitz,  on  a  rivulet  which 
falls  into  the  lake  Tollen,  17  m.  N.  by  E.  New 
Strclitz,  Pop.  5,950  in  1801.  It  is  walletl,  and 
well  built ;  has  a  castle,  a  grammar  school,  schixib 
for  the  sons  and  daughters  of  townspeople,  a  work- 
house, and  some  woollen  and  cotton  fabricK ;  but 
the  business  of  distillation  is  the  most  imptirtaut 
carrieil  on  in  the  town. 

BIJANDON,  a  par.  and  town  of  England,  co* 
Suffolk,  himd.  Lockford ;  73  m.  NN  K.  iXndon  by 


BRANTOME 

road,  and  88  m.  by  Great  Eastern  railway,  on 
which  it  has  a  station.  Pop.  of  parish  2,218,  and 
of  town,  2,203  in  18G1 ;  area  of  parish,  5,570  acres. 
It  Ls  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Little  Ouse,  or  Brandon 
river,  which  forms  the  N.  boundary  of  the  county, 
and  is  here  crossed  by  a  neat  stone  bridge.  Gun- 
Hints  arc  made  in  the  town  and  sent  to  various 
parts  of  the  kingdom  :  they  are  produced  about  a 
mile  \V.  of  it,  from  beds  traversing  a  chalk  stratum, 
and  alternating  with  others  of  pipe-clay:  many 
labourers  are  employed  in  quarr}'ing  these  flints. 
There  U  also  some  traffic  carried  on  in  com,  malt, 
coals,  and  timber.  In  tlie  neighbourhood  arc  ex- 
teuMive  rabbit  warrens.  Fain  are  still  held,  Feb. 
14,  June  11,  Nov.  11;  but  the  market  has  been 
dis<.*ontinued.  There  is  an  endowed  free  schooL 
liraudon  camp,  a  so.  earthwork  in  the  vicinity,  is 
8up{)osed  to  be  the  Bravinium  of  the  Romans.  The 
Duke  of  Hamilt4>n  and  Brandon  derives  his  Eng- 
lish title  from  tliis  town. 

BRANTOME,  a  town  of  France,  d^.  Dordogne, 
cap.  cant,  on  tlie  Drume,  near  its  confluence  vrith 
the  Colle,  12  m.  NW.  P^rigueux.  Pop.  2,584  in 
1H()1.  Braiitome  is  agreeably  situated,  and  is  a 
neat  handsome  town.  The  walls  and  ditches  by 
which  it  was  formerly  surrotmded  have  been  de- 
niolishe(L  It  has  some  fabrics  of  woollen  stuffs, 
hosiery,  and  cotton.  Near  the  town  i»  an  abbey 
of  the  lienedictines,  the  foundation  of  which  is  as- 
crilwl  by  some  to  Charlemagne,  and  by  others  to 
Louis-le-Debonnaire.  This  abbey  was  held  i» 
ctnnmentium  by  the  historian  Brantome,  who  re- 
tired thither  after  the  battle  of  Jamac,  and  com- 
posed in  this  retreat  a  part  of  his  works. 

BKAUNSBEIfG,  a  town  of  Prussia,  prov.  E. 
Prussia,  cap.  circ.  on  the  Possargc,  about  3  m. 
above  where  it  falls  into  the  Frische  Haff.  l*op. 
10,1G4  in  18G1.  The  town  is  very  thrixiug,  and 
has  a  station  on  the  railwav  from  Berlin  to  KiV- 
nigsl)crg.  The  river  is  navigable  as  far  as  the 
town  by  vessels  of  small  burden,  and  it  has  some 
shipping,  and  exix>rts  com  and  timber.  It  is  the 
resulence  of  tlie  bishop  t)f  Ermeland,  the  seat  of  a 
royal  court  of  justice,  and  has  several  churches,  a 
monaster}',  a  normal  school,  and  four  hospitals. 
I{ut  it  derives  its  principal  claim  to  notice  from  its 
seminar}',  the  Lyceum  llosiunum,  for  the  educa- 
tion of  Catholic  dergv'men.  It  is  so  called  from 
its  having  been  founded  and  endowed  by  the 
learned  Stanislaus  Ilosius,  bishop  of  Ermeland. 
It  has  six  professors,  and  al)out  30  students. 

BRAY,  a  township  of  England,  co.  lierks,  hund. 
Bray.  Pon.  2,93i>  in  18(51.  The  town  has  acquireil 
some  celebritv  in  connection  with  the  well-known 
*  Vicar  of  Bray.'  It  appears  that  the  person  who 
held  the  living,  a  vicarage,  in  tlie  reikis  of  Henry 
VI II.,  Edwanl  VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth,  was 
giftctl  with  a  most  accommo<lating  conscience.  He 
commenced  a  Papist,  then  became  IVotestant,  next 
Papist  o^ain,  and  then  l*rotestant  again.  On  being 
taxed  with  inconsistency,  he  defended  himself  by 
saying  tliat  he  had  always  adhered  to  one  prin- 
ciple, which  was  *  to  live  and  <Ue  Vicar  of  Brav! ' 
The  well-known  song  represents  this  worthy  \'icar 
as  living  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  and  his  suc- 
cessors ;  but  the  above  is  Fuller's  account  of  the 
matter  (vol.  i.  79,  ed.  1811). 

llKAY,  a  marit.  town  of  Ireland,  cos.  Wicklow 
and  Dublin,  prov.  Leinster,  on  the  Bray  or  Daigle, 
12  nu  8E.  l)v  S.  Dublin,  on  the  railway  from 
Dublin  to  Wicklow.  Poj».  4,182  in  18G1.  The 
town,  which  takes  its  name  from  Bre,  or  Bree,  a 
headland  at  the  f(M>t  of  which  it  stands,  is  divided 
into  two  portions  by  the  river,  which  also  separates 
the  counties  of  Wicklow  and  Dublin.  The  part 
on  the  N.,  or  Dublin  side^  is  called  Little  Bray : 
the  communication  between  the  two  divisions  is 


BR.VZIL 


521 


kept  up  by  an  old  bridge.  It  has  a  parish  church, 
a  large  and  elegant  Itoman  Catholic  chapel,  a 
Presbyterian  meeting-house,  and  several  schools, 
one  of  which,  an  infant  school,  is  a  spacious 
buildinj^ ;  it  has  also  a  savings'  biuik,  a  loan  fund, 
an  hospital,  and  a  dispensary.  An  old  castle  in 
Little  Bray  has  been  converted  into  a  barrack.  A 
constabuUury  and  a  coast-guard  force  are  sta- 
tioned here,  and  near  the  town  is  a  martello 
tower.  l*he  town  \&  neatly  bnilt^  and  is  become  a 
fashionable  watering-plac^  It  was  formerly  in- 
corporated, and  parliaments  were  held  here,  but 
its  chartered  privileges  have  fallen  into  desuetude. 
A  manorial  court  is  held  monthly,  and  petty  ses- 
sions on  alternate  Mondays.  It  manufactures 
small  quantities  of  linen  and  coarse  woollens. 
Markets  are  held  on  Tuesdavs  and  Saturdays; 
fairs  for  friezes  on  Jan.  12,  May  4,  Aug.  5,  and 
Nov.  12;  and  for  cattle  on  Inarch  1,  May  l, 
July  1,  Aug.  15,  Sep.  20,  and  Dec.  14.  The  nar- 
botur  is  barred  by  a  oed  of  shingle,  which  greatly 
obstructs  the  iia\'igation.  A  considerable  fishery 
of  cod,  haddock,  and  herring  was  formerly  carried 
on,  which  has  been  completely  annihilated.  The 
salmon  fishery  has  also  declined. 

BRAZIL,  an  empire  of  S.  America,  and  one  of 
the  largest  states  in  the  world — very  nearly  the 
size  of  the  whole  of  Europe — stretches  along  two 
thirds  of  the  E.  c(»ast  of  that  continent,  whUe  its 
superficial  area  occupies  nearly  half  its  whole  ex- 
tent. It  lies  l>etwecn  4°  17'  N.  and  32<5  35'  S.  lat^ 
and  350  and  70^  W.  long.  The  length,  from  N. 
to  S.,  is  between  2,G00  and  2,700  m.,  and  its 
breadth,  from  E.  to  W.,  Injtween  2,000  and  2,3(M) 
in.  Its  extent  of  coast  along  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
exceeds  4,000  m. ;  its  area  has  been  estimated  at 
frr>m  2,500,000  to  3,000,000  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded, 
S.  and  E.,  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ;  N.  by  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  French,  Dutch,  and  British  (iuiaiia, 
and  the  republic  of  Venezuela,  and  W.  by  the  re- 
publics of  Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Paraguay. 

A  laige  proportion  of  Brazil  consists  of  high 
land  and  mountains,  and  the  extent  of  cultivate<l 
land  bears  but  a  ver\''  small  proportion  to  that  of 
the  whole  countr}'.  'l*he  subjoined  table  gives  the 
area  and  population  of  the  twenty  provinces 
into  which  the  empire  is  divided,  according  to  a 
su{)erficial  enumeration,  or  rather  estimate,  of  the 
year  1850 : — 


ProriocM 

Ar« 

Popalatloa 

MinasOeraos    .    .    . 
Rio  Janeiro  .... 

Bahia 

Pcmaiubuoo     .    .    . 
Han  Paulo    .... 

Ceara 

Maranhao     .... 
I'arahyba     .... 

Para 

Alagoas    

Rio  Grande  do  Snl     . 
Rio  Grande  do  Norte 

Sergipe 

Go>az 

Piauhy 

Santa  Catharina  .    . 
Matto  Grusao    .    .    . 

Parana 

Esphritu  Santo .    .    . 
Amazonaa    .... 

Total    .... 
or      ... 

0«o»Sq.  MilM 
11,413 

6,(>91 

l,73tf 
6,759 

W,W»7 

530 

4,(»9 

80i 

his 

lS,r»!M 

4,597 

(i94 

28,716 

643 

1,200,000 

1,200,000 

1,10J»,«HK) 

950,000 

fiOO,0<K) 

395,800 

360,(K)0 

209,300 

207,400 

204,-JOO 

201,300 

190,«KK) 

183,600 

180,000 

15(>.44)0 

105.«K)0 

85,0(.H) 

72,400 

51.300 

42,600 

147.624 
8,1U0,104  Eng 

7,677,800 
^lish  sq.  miles 

According  to  these  returns,  the  density  of  pop. 
is  less  than  three  per  square  mile,  on  the  average. 
Otlier  estimates,  more  recent  (Almanak  Adminis- 
trativo  par  18G2)  state  the  number  of  the  popula- 


522 


BILVZIL 


titJii  at  above  8,000,000,  roni])Ofio<l  of  more  than 
f).<M>u.iM»o  freemen,  2,oO(),0(M)  slaves,  and  alniut 
500,000  of  native  IndiunH.  Larjce  tracts  of  Ilrazil 
are  uninhabitetL,  or  |K'o|»le«l  only  bv  a  scattered 
]>opulation,  and  the  masM's  of  inliabitants  conj^re- 
pate  near  the  coa.**t,  and  around  the  chief  scaiwirts. 
All  the  pnnci]>al  cities  are  on  the  c<»a>t.  The 
har))ourH  are  among  the  finest  in  the  worhl :  and 
Rome  of  them  are  connected  with  the  interior  by 
large  rivers,  navigable  for  a  great  way  inland. 
The  principal  rivers  an\ — the  Ania/o]i.   gene 


of  coiLsiilerable  burden.  It  receives  several  laiige 
rivers,  so  that  its  waters  in  the  N.  part*,  or  th«i>c 
farthest  from  the  sea,  are  but  slightlv  bmckidh. 
There  are  a  great  many  other  lake^s^  in  dilVerent  parts 
of  the  empire,  but  none  of  them  are  very  extensive. 
They  are  most  numerous  in  the  pn)v.  of  Para. 

Ph/su'fd  Aitj}tct. — The  form  of  Brazil  nwy  be 
said  almost  to  resemble  that  of  a  heart,  of  which 
the  greatot  diameter,  from  E.  to  W^  in  a  straight 
line  from  Olinda  to  the  territories  claimed  by  Pern, 
may  l>e  alK)Ut  80  degrees.     The  K.  side  of  Brazil  is 


rally  c<in.sidered  the   largest  river  in  the  world,  ■  traversed,  from  N.  to  S..  at  more  or  leM  distance 
fonned  by  the  junction  of  the  m<Klem  Maniilon  I  from  the  coast,  by  a  mountanious  range,  of  which 


(Tungura^ua)  with  the  U<?ayale.  or  ancient  Ma 
ranon.  It  ton<'he.s  lira/il  on  the  N.at  its  iunctio]i 
with  the  Mjuleira  in  alxnit  .V.>o  \\\  long.,  and  (inters 
it  at  alKuit  the  oTtli  do. ;  and  then  flowing  through 
the  prov.  of  I'ara  and  fonning  an  immeiist?  estuarj', 
it  disi'harges  it«elf  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  under 
the  equator  in  about  r>()0  W.  long.  It  receives  in 
its  course  through  lira/il  from  the  S,  some  of  its 
principal  tributaries,  including  the  Madeira,  the 
largest  of  them  all,  which  forms  a  portion  of  the  W. 
Isujndary  of  the  empire,  with  the  Tapajos,  and  the 
Xingu  :  the  atlluents  of  the  Amazon  from  the  N. 
in  its  course  through  Brazil  are  comparatively  un- 
im]M>rtant.  Of  the  other  rivers  the  jirincipal  are 
the  T(K.tantins  or  Para,  an  immense  stream  formed 
by  the  j miction  of  tlie  Araguay  (the  principal 
branch)  «nd  Tocantins  projK'rly  so  called  :  it  has 
its  s«»urces  \\\  the  S.  parts  of  the  provs.  of  Matto 
(JroKso  and  Goya/,  and  flowing  NNW.  falls  into 
the  Atlantic  in  abtmt  1°  S.  lat.  and  IW^  W.  l(»ng. 
At  the  mouth  of  the  Para,  the  jihenomenon  of  rlu- 
hore,  to  which  the  Indians  have  given  the  nanie  of 
jMironna^  niaMife.>«t<  itself  in  a  very  striking  manner. 
Three  days  jireviously  to  the  new  or  full  moon, 
when  the  tides  are  highest,  an  immense  ^xave, 
upward^  of  lo  ft.  in  perpendictdar  height,  nisli*'^ 
from  shore  to  shore  >\ith  a  tremc-ndous  noise,  and 
is  succeeded  immediat<'lv  bv  a  secoTul  imd  a  third, 
and  hometinM!8  by  a  fourth.  The  tide,  instead  of 
occupying  six  hours  to  How,  att^iins  it*<  gn*atest 
Ijeiglit  in  a  few  minutes.  The  roaring  of  the  poro- 
roca  is  heani  at  a  distance  of  nenrlv  two  leagues. 
(Denis,  IJrtfsil,  p.  20».  Paris,  1837.)*  The  IJio  San 
Francisco,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Brazilian 
rivers,  ri.-^es  in  the  S.  part  of  the  prov.  of  Miiias 
(ieraes,  near  the  sources  of  the  Parana.  It  is  the 
only  river  of  importance  between  Bahia  and  Per- 
nambuco,  but  its  navigation  is  intemiptedby  the 
cascade  ("f  Pa«>lo  Affbnso.  The  Bio  (Irande  do 
JSul,  in  the  prov.  of  San  Pedro,  is  another  large 
river,  as  is  the  Parana,  of  La  Plata,  separating 
lirazil  from  Panignay  and  tin;  states  of  La  Plata, 
and  forming  als<)  the  bonnilarv'-line  between  the 
j>rovs,  of  San  Paul,  Matto  (iross(»,  and  (Joyaz  : 
the  Itio  Pardo,  the  Ivahy,  and  the  jgnazu  enii)ty 
themselves  into  it. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  we  may  succinctly 
enumerate  the  Parahyba,  separating  the  pn>vs.  of 
Maranham  and  Pinuhy;  the  Itapicani :  the  Itio 
(Jrande  do  Belmonte  ;  the  liio  I)oee,  and  a  host  of 
others.  ALiny  of  the  rivers  of  Brazil,  especially 
the  Maraiion,  overflow  their  banks,  and  subject 
the  c(»untry  to  extensive  inundations.  The  na- 
vigati<»n  of  some  (»f  the  larger  rivers  is  int<'rrupted 
by  falls  and  rapids,  and  the  mouthsof  s(»me  of  the 
pmaller  rivers  are  subject  to  winds  and  currents, 
which  Hinder  their  navigation  difiicidt. 

The  lake,  or  rather  higoon.  L*i(fini  dos  Patos,  in 
t!ie  ]>rov.  of  Kio  (Jrande  do  Sul,  is  the  most  exten- 
sive in  Brazil.  It  stretches  N.  from  Kio  (irnnde, 
at  its  S.  extremity,  where  it  communicates  with 


the  average  height  is  al)oat  3,000  fit«  known  by 
the  name  of  Serra  do  Mar,  itd  greatest  height 
iK-ing  -LotK)  ft.  This  range  serves  to  divide  the 
coast  land  from  the  high  land,  consisting  of  Cam- 
I»os,  or  tracts  destitute  of  wood,  the  average  height 
of  which  is  alM)ut  2,500  ft.  It  gradually  becomes 
lower  in  the  direction  of  Paraguay,  until  it  isi  li><t 
in  the  h>w  and  mostly  marshy  plains  inhabited 
by  the  Indian  tribe  of  Guaycurus,  Many  geo- 
graphers have  fallen  into  the  error  of  supposing 
that  the  prov.  of  Matto  Grosso  contain.**  the  highest 
moimtains,  aud  that  they  form  a  junction  wiuithe 
Cordilleras  of  Peru  and  Chili.  But  Escbwcge, 
who  resided  in  the  countrj-  for  ten  yeaw,  during 
which  |)eriod  he  \Tsited  the  greater  part  of  it, 
confutes  this  supposition  in  his  Brazilien  die  neue 
Welt  (voL  i.  p.  105,  Braunsch.  183(»).  He  olie^r\te» 
that  broad  and  extensive  plains  lie  Ix'tween,  and 
that  the  sources  of  the  Madeira,  which  tlows  in  a 
northerly  direction  towards  the  Amazon,  and  i»f 
the  Paraguay,  taking  a  southerly  course  towards 
the  La  Plata,  are  both  within  a  few  miles  of  earh 
otluT.  and  that  their  elevati(»n  is  inconsiderable. 
The  highest  range  of  the  Brazilian  mountains  U 
that  which  traverses  the  i-enta*  (»f  the  country, 
an<l  its  greatest  altitude  is  about  0,(hm)  ft.  The 
mountains  of  Brazil  mav  be  subdivided  into  three 
different  ranges  :  1.  The  C4)ast  range,  or  Scrra  do 
Mar,  above  mentioned.  This  is  by  far  the  un*t 
])icturesque  of  the  Brazilian  chains,  and  in  st^me 
parts  approaches  within  1(1  or  18  m.  of  the  &«'a. 
while  in  others  it  sweeps  inwards  to  a  distance  of 
from  120  to  140  m.  At  a  distance,  and  in  the 
N-icinity  of  the  mountains,  are  found  ancient  forests 
(matto  virgem),  whose  giant  trees  au<l  comitlos 
plants  and  shni]»s,  of  luxuriant  gr«»wth,  so  thickly 
interwoven  as  almost  to  defy  the  attempts  of  roan 
to  force  a  passage,  sufliciently  attest  the  excel- 
lence of  the  soil  on  which  they  grow.  On  crossing 
the  Serro  do  Mar.  we  meet  with  a  liarren  table- 
land. caUed  CamiK»s  Geraes,  with  few  tracts  of 
cultivation.  In  tlie  valleys,  gold  and  diamonds 
are  Imiuently  discovered.  The  S<*rra  do  Mar 
chain  commence-s  in  theCamp<»sde  Vacaria,  sin^ 
abruptly  in  the  direction  of  the  Kio  l)i»cc,  and  hws 
itself  c(»mplctely  at  Bahia.  The  celebratetl  Mimtc 
PiLscoal,  which  was  seeu  by  the  early  navigators, 
f«»rms  a  part  of  tlie  Serra  do  Mar.  It' is  known  by 
various  name.s  in  the  dLstrict.M  through  which  it 
runs.  On  the  E.  side  it  is  styled  St-rra  dos  Ayniores, 
while  in  the  neighbourhotKl  of  Bio  it  i.<  stylctl  Scrra 
dos  ( )rgoc«s.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  plants 
growing  in  the  Cam^jos  arealt<»gethcr  distinct  fr«»m 
those  on  the  other  side  the  Serra  do  Mar;  and  the 
zoologist  may  discover  quite  a  new  race  of  animals 
as  well  as  binls,  iu  this  region.  2.  The  central  chain, 
called  in  some  parts  Serra  do  Mantegueira,  and  in 
others  Serra  do  Espinhaco,  is  more  exteiL<ive  than 
the  former,  and  comprises  the  highest  )x>inu  hi 
Brazil :  viz.  the  Itacolumi,   near   Vill.irica  ;  the 


Serra  do  Canissa,  near  Caltas  Altas  ;  and  the 
the  sea,  to  Porto  Alegre,  a  distance  of  above  1-15  Itambe,  near  Villa  do  Princi|.>e.  This  range 
m.,  being  in  parts  about  10  m.  in  breadth.  Though  traverses  the  prov.  of  Miuas  Geracj<,  running,  in 
encumbered  witli  shoals,  it  is  navigable  by  ve^fsels    its  northerly  course,  through  Bahia  and  Pcnwui^ 


BRAZIL 


523 


biicn,  and  in  its  southerlv  course,  thron^h  San 
]*aiilo  and  Kio  Grande.  It  is  not  only  remark- 
able as  compri8ing  the  hif^hcst  points  in  the 
empire,  but  is  hij;hly  intereMtiiifi^  in  a  jjeognos- 
tical,  botanical,  and  zoological  point  of  view.  In 
difTercnt  ))arts,  it  bears  tlie  various  local  names 
of  Serra  do  I^>po,  Serra  Sallado,  Serra  de  San 
(it-nildo,  Serra  clos  EKmcraldas,  and  many  others. 
3.  The  Serra  dos  Vertentes,  or  the  Water-sepa- 
rating Mountain,  so  called  because  it  divides  the 
K.  tributaries  of  the  rivers  Amazon  and  La  Plata 
from  the  river  San  Francisco.  This  chain  is  some- 
times called  the  Brazilian  PA^cnees.  Its  loftiest 
and  mcKSt  remarkable  ]X)ints  arc  those  of  Serra  do 
( -anostra  and  Matto-Gorda,  where,  on  one  side,  the 
Kio  San  Francisco,  and  on  the  other,  the  most  im- 
]M)rtant  tributaries  of  the  Kio  (irande,  take  their 
rise ;  and  the  Pyrineos,  in  the  province  of  <>oyaz, 
whore  the  tributaries  of  the  Parafla  are  found. 

Kxclusive  of  its  mountainous  and  hilly  districts, 
and  of  its  table-lands,  the  plains  of  Brazil  are  of 
vast  extent ;  the  prov.  of  Para,  including  a  portion 
of  the  contiguous  prov.  of  Matto  Grosso,  comprises, 
in  fact,  the  whole  of  the  lower  and  most  level  \yoT- 
tion  of  the  gigantic  plain  of  the  Amazon.  During 
the  inundations,  large  tracts  of  this  plain  are  sub- 
merged. Its  soil  is  soft,  alluvial,  and  of  the  great- 
est fertilitv.  It  is  mostly  covered  by  immense 
]irim:eval  ((orests.  There  are  also  some  very  ex- 
tensive plains  in  Maranhan  and  other  parts  of  (lie 
empire.  That  which  includes  the  Lagoa  dos  Patos 
extondH  for  above  220  m.  along  the  shore. 

Soil. — The  soil  of  Krnzil  is  of  various  descrip- 
ticms.  It  is  of  great  fertility  in  some  parts,  but  by 
no  moans  throughrmt,  and  the  often  rei)eate<l  story 
of  the  HUiHjrabundant  wealth  of  the  soil  in  everj' 
part  of  the  empire  is  decidetlly  erroneous.  Mr. 
(lonsul  Cowper,  in  one  of  hw  rc|)orts  to  the  KritLsh 
(loveniment,  alludes  to  this  in  saving : — '  I  believe 
the  fertility  of  tlic  soil  of  Brazil  to  be  absurdly 
exaggerated.  I  liave  heard  much  but  seen  little 
of  its  extraordinary  powers  of  pro<luction.  I  have 
travelled  a  great  deal  in  this  empire,  and  as  a 
gonoral  rule  liave  found  along  the  coast  a  sandy 
unproductive  soil  covered  with  cocoanut  trees  and 
mangroves,  varied  occasionally,  near  the  emlx)uch- 
iiros  of  rivers,  by  alluvial  de|K)sits,  hanl  as  a  rock 
in  summer  and  im])a>sable  mud  in  the  winter ; 
further  inland,  undrained  valleys,  forming  muddy 
lakes  in  winter,  and  verj'  proc«mous  cane  fields  in 
snnnner;  thepnKluce  of  the  hills,  in  common  with 
that  of  the  whole  countrj',  being  a  prev  to  that 
groat  destroyer,  the  *  Formiga  de  K<K:a,^  or  *  red 
ant ;'  and  in  the  verv  interior  sterile  mountains 
and  vast  pasture  lands,  but  so  subject  to  droughts, 
that  not  onlv  cattle,  but  hundreds  of  the  popula- 
tion fall  victims  to  them.'  Senhor  LuizCar\'alho, 
Acting  Insix'ctor  of  Customs  at  Pemambuco,  in  a 
pamphlet  pubUshed  with  a  view  to  the  recom- 
mendation of  certain  measures  ft»r  the  benelit  of 
the  agriculture  and  traileof  the  province,  says: — 
*  0)m|>ared  with  the  va«»tness  of  territory,  m  its 
greatest  part  uncultivated,  our  population  is  in- 
tinitehimal  (diminutLHsima).  Its  slow  natural  in- 
crease, j)erio<lically  chetrked  by  the  visitation  of 
scourges,  droughts,  yellow  fever,  ami  cholera,  cer- 
tainlv  does  not  satisfv  either  the  necessities  of  the 
present  or  the  aspirati«»ns  of  the  future.'  The 
sjiine  causes,  in  fact,  which  ren<lere<l  impossible 
the  foundation  in  Brazil  of  a  civilisation  analo- 
gous to  that  which  was  establi.Hhed  in  Mexico, 
Central  America,  and  Pom,  ages  before  the  dis- 
covery of  this  continent  by  Knro|H'ans,  are  still  in 
aetion  to-dav,  and  in  undiniini>hed  force.  Not- 
withstanding,  it  would  l)e  imisissible  to  overrate 
the  extraonlinarv  fertilitv  (»f  those  vast  tracts  of 
laud  of  wliich  Para  is  the  capital  in  the  north,  and 


Kio  de  Janeiro  in  the  south.  A  recent  writer  ol>- 
ser^'ea  with  much  truth,  that  in  estimating  the 
physical  conditions  which  detennine  ciWlisation, 
we  have  to  look  not  merely  at  the  exuberance, 
but  also  at  what  may  be  called  the  manageability 
of  nature.  All  the  operations  of  nature  proceed 
here,  however,  on  the  grandest  scale.  Swarms  of 
insects  dispute  with  the  lalKiurer  the  possession 
of  his  field.  Droughts  are  frequent  and  of  long 
continuance.  Floods  in  winter  overrun  consider- 
able tracts  of  countr}'.  Latterly  epidemics  have 
swept  o£f  large  numbers  of  the  inhal)itaiits.  All 
these  things  naturally  conspire  to  clieck  the  efTorta 
of  the  cultivator,  and  the  doubt  is  suggested  to  the 
mind  of  an  oltserver  whether  any  real  progress  is 
actually  being  made.  (Keport  by  Mr.  Consul 
Lennon  Hunt  on  the  Trade  of  Pemambuco  for  the 
Year  1863.  In  ♦  Consular  Kej^rts.') 

Climate, — The  great  extent  of  Brazil  will,  of 
course,  account  for  a  considerable  variation  of  cli- 
mate. Along  the  coast,  the  onlinary  temperature 
is  from  Id^  to  20^  Keaumur,  with  some  mtMlitica- 
tions,  according  to  the  localities.  Thus,  while  the 
thermometer  seldom  rises  above  20^°  at  Bahia,  it 
sometimes  stands  as  high  as  20°  and  27°  at  Kio 
Janeiro.  Winter  is  severe  in  tlie  S.  provinces,  and 
it  even  freezes  at  Kio  Grand  de  San  Pedro  and 
San  Catharina.  The  climate  in  the  vicinity  of 
San  Paulo  is  usually  accounte<l  the  most  agree- 
able, and  the  temi>erature  {lermits  the  growth  of 
European  fruits.  The  west  wind,  in  the  interior 
of  Brazil,  is  unwholesome,  as  it  passes  over  vast 
marshy  forests.  The  sea  coast,  fn>m  Para  to 
Olinda,  appears  to  |M>ssess  a  similar  climate  to 
Guiana.  Notwithstanding  the  position  of  lirazil 
between  the  equator  and  the  tropics,  the  air,  owing 
to  the  height  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  countrj', 
is  in  general  tem|>orate,  rather  than  hot,  PeV- 
nambuco  and  a  few  of  the  other  provs.  suffer  occa- 
sionally from  drought,  to  which,  however,  the 
coast  lauds  are  seldom  subject 

The  seasons  may  be  proiK*rly  reduced  to  two, 
the  rainy  and  the  dr\',  alt  hough  s<»me  diWde  them 
into  four ;  viz.  the  spring,  commencing  in  Se|)t, ; 
the  summer,  in  Dec, ;  the  autumn,*in  March  ;  and 
the  Tftinter,  in  June.  The  rainy  season  usually 
sets  in  about  Oct  or  Nov.,  and  is*prece«letl  in  some 
parts  by  ft^,  thick  grou|»s  of  clouds,  and  suddoii 
gusts  of  wind,  as  well  as  by  occa.Monal  showers, 
and  the  tem|>eraturc  is  also  extremely  variable. 
ThLs  season  generally  lasts  till  March.  The  )R*riiNl 
of  its  commencement  and  tennination  varies  ac- 
cordhig  to  latitude  and  natuRil  ismition. 

Prince  Maximilian  ol)serves  (Keis  nach  Braai- 
lion,  ii.  IIM),  that  in  the  region  of  Campos  Goraes, 
Feb.,  March,  April,  and  May  arc  usually  the 
rainy  months;  June,  July,  Aug.,  and  Sept  arc 
called  the  cold  seas(m;  and  that  during  Oct., 
Nov.,  Dec.,  an<i  Jan.  the  greatest  heat  prevails. 

M.  Von  LangsdoHT,  fonnerly  Kussian  consul  at 
Kio,  makes  the  following  remark  u|)on  the  seasons 
in  Brazil,  in  a  letter  to  a  frieml,  given  in  Eschwege's 
Journal  (iL  IGO) : — 'Winter,  in  this  countrj',  re- 
sembles summer  in  the  N.  of  Euro|>e ;  summer  ai>- 
pears  one  continuous  spring;  wliile  spring  and 
autumn  are  unconsciously  lost  in  wmter  and 
summer.' 

Products. — The    most  celebratetl,    though  far 

from   the  most  imisirtaut,  of  the  natural  pnv- 

ductions  of   Brazil,  are   diamonds.     They   have 

1)een  found  in  Minas  (ieraes.  (ioyaz,  ami  Matto 

(irosso;  but  it  is  supfN>sed  that  other  provinces 

arc   fumishe<l   with   these   highly    prized   gems. 

Those  (»f  Minas  (ieraes  are  generally  the  largest. 

1  The  most  celebratwl  mines   are    those  of  Si-rra 

j  do  Frit).     These   mines  were  not  actually  dLs- 

I  covered  until  the  government  of  Don  IJorcn9u 


(>2I 


BRAZIL 


<\' Almeida,  although  diamonds  were  known  to 
liave  been  in  the  ix>«j*e»Hion  of  the  ne^^>C!»,  who 
met  with  them  acci<lentally  while  employed  in 
^old-washin^f  and  other  |)enionH  ipionuit  of  their 
value,  long  before  that  ihticmL  They  were  firnt  | 
brouj;ht  from  Brazil  to  LLnl^n  in  1728,  by  Ber- 
nanlo  da  Silva  Lolx).  He  8howed  them  to  the 
Dutch  resident  consul,  who  recojriib«e<l  them  at* 
diamonds  and  informed  Inm  of  hi«  imi>ortant  <li»- 
covery.  The  mines  of  Serra  do  Frio  arc  also 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Arrayal  Diamaiitino,  I 
or  diamond  district  properly  mo  calle«L  This  <Ii»- 
trict  is  surroimded  by  almost  inaccessible  rockn, 
and  was  formerly  guarded  with  so  much  vigilance 
that  the  governor  of  the  province  could  not  enter 
it  without  the  special  permission  of  the  director  of 
the  mineii. 

The  dmmonds  are  sought  by  accumulating  the 
cascalhao,  a  kind  of  ferrugin<»us  earth  (in  which 
the  diamonds  are  found  mixed  with  flints),  and 
-washing  it.  The  former  o{)eration  is  generally 
performed  during  the  hot  season,  at  a  time  when 
the  l)e<ls  of  the  rivers  and  torrents  are  drv.  and 
the  diamond-sand  can  Ix;  easily  extmct^'cL  When 
the  wet  season  arrives,  the  operatitm  of  washing 
commences.  It  is  wrfonned  in  the  o|)en  air,  and 
frequently  under  slieds,  where  the  action  of  the 
sun  is  least  likely  to  injure  the  negroes.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  shwl  glides  a  small  stri'am.  which 
occupies  one  of  its  sides.  Seats,  nused,  and  with- 
out backs,  are  arranged  along  the  shed,  in  such  a 
manner  tliat  the  sulialtcm  ofticers  (fcitores)  are 
enabled  to  watch  the  negroes  at  work.  One 
officer  superintends  eight  negroes.  Each  negn) 
works  in  a  compartment  of  the  shed,  separated 
or  wnlled  off,  as  it  wen».  from  the  others.  The 
cascalhao  to  be  examined  is  placed  in  troughs 
elosi'  to  the  stream,  and  the  ne^)es  are  intro- 
duced ejitirely  naked,  excepting  m  times  of  ex- 
treme cold,  when  they  arc  allowed  a  kind  of 
waistcoat,  but  without  either  i)ockcts  or  lining. 
They  are  furnished  with  an  alavanca,  a  kind  of 
hanilspike,  by  means  of  which  they,  8e|)arate  the 
earth  from  the  tiint,  ainl  then,  taking  the  krgest 
stones  in  thei^  han<b^  they  prcK'eed  to  search  for 
the  diamomls.  Notwithstamling  the  precaution 
of  making  the  nejfn)es  work  nake<l,  n)bberics  are 
of  frequent  occurrence.  When  a  negro  discovers 
a  diamond,  having  first  shown  it  to  the  officer,  he 
deiKwits  it  in  a  large  wootlen  vessel  susiH'.nded  in 
tlie  middle  of  the  shaU  If  any  negro  is  fortunate 
enough  to  discover  a  diamond  weighing  1 7  carats, 
ho  is  purchaseil  by  the  govenmient,  and  nH:eives 
his  liberty.  The  *  discovery  of  a  stone  of  less 
weight  also  confers  lil)erty  uix)n  the  finder,  but 
with  some  restrictions.  Various  premiums  are 
distributeil,  according  to  the  value  of  the  stone, 
even  to  a  pinch  of  t4)l)acco.  (I)<?nis,  l)n>sil,  p. 
345.)  Notwitlistanding  every  imaginable  pre- 
caution, negroes  find  means  to  purloin  diamonds, 
which  they  sell  to  smugglers  (contralmndistas)  at 
a  very  low  price.  The  latter  dispwe  of  them 
chiefiv  at  Tijuco  and  Villa  do  Principe.  Work  in 
the  diamond  mines  is  most  unhealthy ;  it  is  esti- 
mated that  the  Brazilian  mines  have  c<»st  above 
lUO.UOO  lives.  (Klddeu,  Uandbuch  der  Erdkunde. 
18<J2.     III.  040.) 

Diamonds  differ  greatly  in  size.  There  arc  some 
80  small  that  16  or  20  would  scarcely  make  a  carat. 
It  is  rare  that,  in  the  course  of  a  year,  more  than 
two  or  three  are  found  weighing  from  17  to  20 
carats ;  and  two  years  may  ])ass  without  dwcrover- 
ing  one  of  the  weight  of  80  carats.  The  largest 
diamond  of  which  we  have  any  account  was  found 
in  the  Kio  Abacte  in  1791 :  it' weighs  138 J  carats. 
The  administration  of  the  diamonil  mines  is  regu- 
lated by  a  law  of  the  2nd  Aug.,  1771,  entitled  *  Kegi- 


18,537 


mento  para  a  Heal  Extrac^o  do6  Diamantes  do 
Arrayyal,  do  Tijuco,  do  Serro  do  Frio,*  consisting  of 
51  articles.  Down  to  the  date  of  this  law,  the 
right  of  working  the  diamond  mines  was  fanned 
out;  but  from  that  period  the  government  have 
taken  it  into  their  own  hands,  and  they  are  all 
under  the  superintendence  of  a  board,  Jwnia  Htal 
para  a  Administnt^So  dos  THamanies. 

Ewhwege  (Brasilien  die  neue  Welt,  L  120)  gives 
the  following  table  of  the  weight  of  the  diamonds 
extracu^l  from  the  first  discoverv-.  As  lit4le  w 
known  respecting  the  weight  of  those  discovertyl 
during  the  first  ten  years  (from  1730  to  1740),  he 
commences  with  the  latter  year : — 

Cania 

From  1740  to  1772    .        .      .    1,666.569 

1772  —  1806    .        .      .       910^1 1^ 

In  the  years  1811. 14, 15.  and  16         74,147 
During  the  1 1  years  of  which  there 

are  no  statirtical  acoonnts  to 

which  he  conld  gain  aoceM  (i.e. 

frr»m  1H06  to  IH'J'i,  deducting  the 

above),  and  during  which  the 

produce  remarkably  decTeaaed, 

it  cannot,  at  an   average,  bo 

estimated  at  more  than     .      .      283,000        12,000 

Eschwege  estimates  the  total  value  of  these,  at 
the  rate  of  8,000  reis  the  carat,  to  be  2B.869,534.0U<) 
reis  =  50,673,8.*l5cniKidoes  =  3!),782,556  Prussian 
dollars,  or  3,475,537/.  The  estimate  is,  pn>l)al>Iy, 
rather  alwve  than  under  the  truth.  Acctjrding  to 
('astelnau,  whose  statLHtics  come  down  to  1850,  the 
pnKluctix-ity  of  the  mines  continued  decreasing 
enormously  of  late.  So  that  it  follows  that  the 
total  value  of  the  diamond-washings,  during  a 
IK'riiHl  of  above  100  years,  was  hardly  equal  to  18 
months'  ex|H)rt  of  sugar  and  coffee. 

(iold  Lh  found  in  Brazil  throughout  the  district 
wliich  extends  from  the  neighbourhood  of  San 
Paulo  and  Villarica,  as  far  as  the  amtincs  of  the 
river  Ytones.  The  most  celebrate*!  mine  is  that 
of  Congo  Soco.  in  a  beautiful  valley,  about  4ii 
leagues  fn»m  Villarica,  It  was  l»egim  to  be 
wrought  in  1740,  tlie  pn>prictor  having  in  a  short 
time  amassed  a  splendid  fortune.  In  consequence, 
however,  of  the  want  of  care  aiid  activity  on  the 
part  of  his  descendants,  the  mines  ceased  to  be 
productive,  and  were  disiK>sed  of,  in  1825,  to  a 
company  of  Englishmen,  known  as  the  *  Anglo- 
Brazilian  Minhig  Company,'  for  70,<K)ft/.  sterling. 
The  o{>erations  of  this  company  extend  als«)  to 
other  jilaces.  Al)out  Villarica  gold  is  sometimes 
found  in  the  form  of  powder  and  fine  dust,  in 
crj'staLs,  and  w»metimes,  though  rarely,  in  lump<*. 
Spix  and  Martins  (Eng.  Trans.  iL  182),  mentiiin 
an  instance  of  a  massy  piece  weighing  Iti  lbs. 
having  been  found. 

The  pnKluce  of  the  gold  mines  was  most  con- 
siderable in  the  first  half  of  last  century.  Towanls 
its  close,  from  70  to  80  arrobas  were  annually 
smelted  in  Villarica;  while,  previously  to  the 
arrival  of  the  English  company,  the  quantity  hail 
dwindled  dovtn  to  40.  The  actual  prinluce  of  the 
entire  gold  and  silver  mines  and  washings  iji 
Brazil  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  from  l,oQ0,0(K)  to 
1,600,000  dol.  a  year,  l>eing  little  more  than 
adequate  for  the  wants  of  the  country*. 

Iron-ore  w  found  in  great  abundance  in  various 
parts  of  Brazil.  At  Ypanema,  in  the  prov.  of  Kio 
(irande  do  Sui.  the  ore  is  particularly  rich,  lint, 
though  knoi^-n  to  exist,  this  mine  was  not  wrought 
previously  to  1810,  when  it  was  commenced,  on 
account  of  government,  by  a  party  of  Swetlish 
miners.  The  works  have  since  Ikhmi  ct^nsideralily 
extende<l ;  and,  excliLsive  of  the  articles  manu- 
factured for  govenmient,  ordera  have  latterly  been 
executed  for  private  i)arties.  But  a  work  of  thu 
kind,  carried  on  at  the  expense  of  govenmient,  ia 


BRAZIL 


525 


rarely  successful;  and  many  ]mvate  iron-work» 
have  since  been  established  in  different  part-s  of 
the  empire  that  arc  of  ^eater  importance  than 
those  of  Ypaneraa.  It  is  probable,  indeed,  that 
p>vemment  mil,  at  no  distant  period,  cease  to 
bunion  itself  with  tlie  expense  of  the  latter.  Not- 
withstanding the  multiplication  of  iron  foundries, 
the  quantity  of  iron  produced  is  still  far  below  the 
want«  of  the  country ;  and,  along  with  hardware, 
it  is  larj^ely  imiwrtetl. 

llie  working  of  iron  mines  was,  for  unknown, 
but  certainly  bad  reasons,  long  pn)hibited  by 
povennnent ;  but  that  prohibition  no  longer  ex- 
ists, having  been  repealed  soon  after  the  arrival  of 
the  court  in  Brazil.  As  evincing  the  importance 
attached  by  the  Brazilians  to  the  openhig  of  the 
mines,  a  gigantic  pyramid  has  been  erected  upon 
the  summit  of  the  Garasoava,  in  commemoration 
of  the  event.  In  smelting  and  other  operations, 
the  Swetlish  method  is  practised. 

Kock-salt  has  not  hitherto  l)een  discovered  in 
Brazil;  but  this  deficiency  is,  in  part  at  least, 
supplie<l  by  the  numerous  tfdt-licka  and  salt- 
springs  that  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the 
countr}'.  Salt  steppes  also  are  found,  two  of  which 
are  ver>'  extensive  :  one  of  these  is  situated  iiartly 
in  the  prov.  of  Pemambuco,  and  {tartly  in  that  of 
liahia,  on  both  sides  the  San  Francisco,  the  other 
l>eing  near  the  W.  boundary  of  the  empire,  in  the 
prov.  of  Matto  (irosso.  The  salt,  which  is  found 
on  the  surface  after  the  rains,  is  obtained  by  wash- 
ing the  earth  and  leaving  the  water  to  evai)oratc. 
Saltpetre  and  alum  are,  also,  met  with  in  various 
parts. 

Among  the  other  mineral  productions  of  Brazil, 
may  \ye  mentioned  platina  and  copper,  found  in 
the  prov.  of  Minas  (icraes.  Precious  stones 
abound,  esjK'cially  toi>azes,  of  which  there  are 
many  varieties. 

Vegetable  Prodwts. — Among  these  are  sugar, 
coffee,  cotton,  cocoa,  rice,  tobacco,  maize,  wheat, 
roaiulioc,  bananas,  ipecacuanha,  ginger,  yams, 
oranges,  fjgs,  and  sarwiparilla.  Of  these  the  most 
im|x>rtant,  in  a  commercial  point  of  Wew,  are 
sugar,  cotton,  and  coffoe,  which  are  now,  in  fact, 
the  staple  pnxlucts  of  the  empire,  and  the  culture 
of  which  L^  increxised  with  almost  unexampled 
rapidity.  Sugar  b<  principally  raised  in  the  prov. 
of  llahia,  the  soil  of  which  is  admirably  suited  to 
ix»  growth  ;  hut  it  is  also  extensively  pr(Nluce<l  in 
some  of  the  other  provs.  The  value  of  the  sugar 
<'xp<)rtetl  from  the  different  parts  of  the  empire  to 
(Ireat  Britain  amounted  to  1,2:J7,9IK)/.  in  1862, 
and  to  1,11)2,779^  in  1«(>3.  The  culture  of  cot- 
ton is  of  more  recent  growth,  and  its  extension 
owing  in  great  part  to  the  American  civil  war. 
The  ex|x>rts  to  Great  Britain,  in  1802,  were  of 
the  value  of  1,G7(),741/.;  and  in  18()8,  of  the 
value  of  2,077,088/.  The  coffee  of  Brazil  was 
formerly  not  liked  in  Europe,  owing  to  defects  in 
its  treatment.  The  merit  of  having  introduce<l  a 
l>etter  system  is  due  to  Dr.  I<.ecesne,  a  planter 
from  St.  Domingo,  who,  havnng  established  himself 
in  the  Wchuty  of  Kio,  instructetl  the  cultivators 
in  the  most  appr(tve<l  nieth<Mls  of  treating  the  plant. 
The  effects  of  this  lilx>ml  conduct  have  been  most 
(striking.  Coffee  is  still  juincifially  ])roduce<l  in 
the  vicinity  of  Rio :  and  so  ranidly  has  its  culti- 
vation been  exten<ied,  that  while  its  pro<luce  in 
1818  only  amounted  to  74,215  bags,  it  at  pre«*cnt 
averages* 2.000.000.  The  ex|>orts  to  (ireat  Britain, 
in  1802,  amounted  to  13,(WO,m77  U>s.,  valueil  at 
387,401/.;  and  in  1803  to  9,409,720  lbs.,  valued  at 
290.450/. 

Tobacco  is  principally  grown  in  the  islands  in 
the  bay  of  Kio  Janeiro,  and  in  that  of  Angra  dos 
Beys,  on  the  lowest  coast-land ;  it  is  inferior  in 


quality  to  that  of  the  U.  States.  The  exports  of 
tol)acco  are  verv  fluctuating.  Those  to  Great 
Britain  amountc^l  to  1,793  lbs.  in  1859,  to  905,649 
lbs.  in  1862,  and  to  178,328  lbs.  in  1868.  Kice  is 
largely  cultivated  in  some  places,  and  is  exported ; 
but  tlie  principal  dependence  of  the  population  is 
on  the  mandioc,  manioc,  or  cassava  (Jatropha 
Manihot),  regarded  by  the  Indians  as  a  bequest 
from  their  prophet  Sund,  and  which,  on  that 
account,  has  sometimes  been  supposed  not  to  be 
indigenous.  But,  if  connected  at  all  with  the 
plant,  the  function  of  the  prophet  was  most  pro- 
uably  confined  to  instructing  the  Indians  in  the 
mode  of  its  use.  And  this,  though  a  most  essential 
sen-ice,  was  by  no  means  an  obvious  one ;  for,  in 
its  natural  state,  the  root  of  the  plant,  which  is 
the  only  part  that  is  made  use  or,  is  extremely 
dangerous,  the  juice  being  a  deadly  poison  in 
which  the  Indians  were  accustomed  to  dip  their 
arrows.  When,  however,  the  latter  is  expelled, 
the  residuum,  or  farinaceous  part,  is  perfectly 
wholesome,  and  makes  a  highly  nutritious  and 
excellent  food.  Long  l)efore  the  discoverv  of 
America  the  Indians  were  in  the  habit  of  expelling 
the  Juice,  by  first  peeling  and  then  beating  the 
roots  into  a  coarse  powder  and  subjecting  the 
latter  to  pressure  and  to  the  influence  of  heat 
in  bags  made  of  rushes.  On  the  estates  of  the 
planters  the  roots  arc  now  ground  in  mills,  pressed, 
and  the  perfect  expulsiim  of  the  juice  effected  by 
heating  the  residuum  in  vessels  placed  over  a  brisk 
fire.  Manioc  is  found  on  every  table  in  Brazil,  and 
supplies  a  great  number  of  excellent  dishes.  Tapi- 
oca, so  well  known  and  extensively  nscd  in  Europe, 
is  a  preparation  of  manioc,  and  Is  almost  wholly 
brought  from  BraziL  The  imports  of  this  article 
into  (Treat  Britain  amounted  to  8,385  cwt.,  valued 
at  13.838/.  m  1862;  and  to  2,696  cwt.,  valued 
at  4,193/.,  in  1863.  The  culture  of  the  manioc  is 
said  to  be  most  unfavourable  to  the  soil,  exhausting 
it  in  the  course  of  a  few  years.  This,  however,  is 
of  comparatively  little  consequence  in  a  country 
where  waste  land  is  st)  abundant  as  in  Brazil.  A 
s])ecies  of  sweet  manioc  {Mttnihot  Attim)  is  also 
found  in  BraziL  It  is  boiled  and  eaten  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  potato ;  but  it  is  not  service- 
able in  the  manufacture  of  flour. 

Notwithstanding  her  fertility  and  extent  Bra- 
zil is  hidebted  to  foreign  countries,  and  etipecially 
to  the  U.  States,  for  large  supplies  of  wheat  flour. 
This  has  been  said  to  be  a  consequence  of  the  un- 
suitableness  of  the  soil  for  the  culture  of  wheat ; 
but  this  does  not  really  appear  to  be  the  case,  that 
species  of  grain  being  found  to  succeed  extremely 
well  in  the  southern  provs.  and  on  the  table-lands 
of  the  interior.  The  importaticm  of  flour  is  rathe 
a  consequence  of  the  indolence  of  the  natives. 
The  prov.  of  Para  is  particularly  fitted  for 
the  growth  of  rice,  and  might  supply  it  in  any 
quantity. 

The  culture  of  the  tea-plant  has  been  tried  in 
Brazil,  and  the  soil  and  climate  have  been  found 
suitable  to  its  gn>wth;  but  its  culture  has  not 
made,  and  couUl  not  rationally  be  expected  to 
make,  much  progress,  inasmuch  as  it  can  only 
be  successfully  carried  on  where  labour  is  abundant 
and  cheap ;  whereas  it  is  here  both  scarce  and  dear. 

The  forests  of  Brazil,  which  are  of  vast  extent 
and  luxuriance,  furnish  almost  every  variety  of 
useful  and  ornamental  wood ;  their  pitMlucts  being 
adapted  alike  to  ship-building,  caipenters*  woric, 
cabinet  work,  dyeing,  &c.  The  cocoa-tree  is 
plentiful  in  the  sandv  soils  along  the  coast.  It 
is  thicker  and  taller  than  in  the  £.  Indies ;  cocoa 
is  in  general  use  among  all  ranks,  and  forms  one 
of  the  chief  articles  of  Uie  internal  trade,  and  also 
supplies  considerable  quantities  for  exportation. 


526 


BRAZIL 


The  carassAto,  or  ca.«tor-tTW,  is  an  indiponoiis  pro- 
duction, and  i«  nrnoh  cultivatii«l  for  the  sake  of  tlie 
oil  extrnrteil  fmin  its  w*iil,  in  j^eneral  Uf»e  for  Innips 
and  other  puriiosen.  The  jacamndii,  or  rohe-wo<Mi, 
ia  petniHarly  vahiahle  for  cabinet  work,  and  if* 
extensively  exporteil.  <>ne<»fthe  most  valuahle 
"W<um1s,  the  Qrmlpiniti  Braztlftto.  or  llrazil-w<MHl 
(o^IUkI  Ihiripltanffa  hy  the  natives),  produrinjj 
a  In-antiful  reil  dve,  has  been  alreadv  refemtl  to. 
It  VA  found  in  the  pvate.st  abnnclance,  and  of  the 
bent  quality,  in  the  prov.  of  Pemambuco;  but 
bein^  a  government  monojHily.  it  has  l>e<fn  cut 
down  in  bo  improvident  a  manner,  that  it  is  now 
aeldom  Been  within  wveral  leaf^es  of  the  coa.«*t. 
There  are  also  ccnlarM,  1ojo''o<kI  and  mahogany. 
The  forestH  of  Urazil.  particularly  those  in  the 
prov.  of  Para,  ahnig  the  Amazon,  yieM  vast 
quantitii's  of  caoutchouc  or  india-niblK-r.  the  uses 
of  which  have  l>een  so  vctry  great  Iv  extended 
during  the  la^t  thirty  or  forty  years,  'flie  exjMirts 
of  caoutchouc  to  (In'at  Britain  are  i)rettv  regular. 
Thev  amounted  to.'JO.tJ'iO  cwt.,  value«l  at'*27-2,:i4!l/., 
in  IHiJ-J,  and  to  JM.KH'i  cwt..  valuetl  at  21>1>.()11/., 
in  Ixn.'J.     Nuts  are  bLmi  extensively  exj^ortetl. 

Animals, — The  Brazilian  forests  are  full  of  rapa- 
cious animals :  among  which  are  the  tiger-cat. 
the  hyena,  the  saratu,  an  animal  about  the  size 
of  a  fox.  but  far  more  fen)cious,  the  jaguar,  or 
tiger  of  S.  America,  the  sloth,  an<l  the  |Mircu])ine. 
The  planters  are  much  annoye<l  by  ountres;  wild 
hogs  are  common,  and  the  singular  animal  calletl 
the  anta,  or  tapir:  the  latter  resembles  the  hog 
in  8hapt^  but  is  much  larger;  it  is,  in  fact,  the 
largest  of  the  native  quadrufKKls,  is  timid  and 
liannless,  feeds  like  a  horse,  is  amphibious,  and 
capable  of  n>maining  for  a  long  time  at  the  Imttom 
of  lakes  without  coming  up  to  rt»spire.  When 
killed,  its  tlwh  is  generally  eaten,  and  ia  said  to 
difffr  but  little  from  that  of  the  ox. 

Tbe  useful  animals,  as  the  horse,  ox,  and  sheep, 
are  all  tles«»ended  fnmi  the  8to<*ks  bnnight  from 
Kun)|)e  by  the  early  settlers.  Their  increase,  es- 
pecially that  of  cattle  and  horse-*,  has  been  a^iton- 
ishingiy  great.  Vasthenlst»f  wild  cattle  are  met 
with  in  all  the  ojjen  ])arts  of  the  country,  par- 
ticularly in  the  llano*,  or  plains  of  the  S.  provinces. 
Hides,  tallow,  jerked  beef,  horns,  and  lM>nes,  have 
l<mg  fonned,  and  still  continue  to  form,  leading 
articles  of  ex|)ort  from  Brazil.  In  l«r)2,  the  ex- 
p«irts  of  hides  to  (ireat  itritain  amounted  to 
i:U.2.SS  cwt.,  valued  at  -lii^J^aiJ/.,  and  in  lK«a  to 
127.192  c^^-t.,  valued  at  347,52: J/.  It  is  imly  in 
imrticular  situations  that  any  use  is  made  of  the 
beef,  which  mostly  Ijecoraes  the  yn^y  of  vultures, 
wild  dogs,  an<l  <»ther  ravenous  animals.  Sheep 
being  less  able  to  defend  themselves  fri>m  attack, 
and  being  probably,  t(K),  not  t-o  well  suite<l  to  the 
ctmntry,  have  not  imTeased  so  rapidlv  as  cattle 
and  horses.  Horses  are  of  middling  size,  stn^ng, 
active,  and  lleet. 

The  emu,  or  American  ostrich,  is  found  in  the 
Brazilian  plains;  and  the  forests  swarm  with 
innumerable  varieties  of  birtls  and  monkeys.  In 
the  marshy  countries  the  boa  attains  to  an  enor- 
mous size,  and  they  are  also  infested  with  the 
corral  snake,  and  otiier  venomous  reptiles. 

Manufactures, — Thcse^  imless  we  call  the  pre- 
]mration  of  sugar  a  manufacture,  can  hardly  be 
aaid  to  exist  in  Brazil,  and  are  restricted  to  the 
])rodnction  of  the  coarsest  species  of  cotton  cloths, 
the  tanning  of  leiither,  and  a  few  of  thi»se  that 
are  simplest  and  most  necessary.  In  the  interior, 
as  in  the  provs.  of  Matto  Gn>sso  and  Goyaz,  the 
mechanical  arts  are  in  the  most  backward  state 
imaginable. 

In  the  cities,  however,  a  great  number  of  trades 
ore   necessarily   carried    ou.      'The    European 


stranger  in  Rio,'  says  Dr.  Von  Spix,  *  is  ■§- 
t4>nislied  at  the  number  of  gold  and  sUremniths 
ami  jewellers,  who,  like  the  rdher  tradesmen,  live 
together  in  one  street,  which  calhj  to  mind  the 
magnillcent  ruas  tie  Ouro  and  de  Praia  of  Lisbon. 
The  workmanship  of  these  artisans  is,  indeed, 
inferior  to  that  of  the  European,  but  it  is  not 
<Iestitute  of  taste  and  solidity.  Many  trades 
which  are  very  necessary  in  Eun>{)c  are,  at  present, 
almost  sui)erliuous  in  the  interior  of  tljL»  country, 
on  account  of  the  circumscril»ed  wants  erf"  the 
inhnb.  In  the  capital,  however,  and  the  other 
towns  on  the  coast,  joiners,  whitesmiths,  anil 
other  artisans  are  numenms;  but  tannen*,  soap- 
boilers, an<l  workers  in  steel  arc  scarce.  There  Ls 
a  great  <lemand  f<ir  mechanics,  to  build  sugar  ami 
other  mills,  to  construct  machines  for  working 
the  g»»ld  mines,  Ac. ;  and  verj'  high  wagesi  are 
judd  them.  Hitherto  no  glass,  china,  cl«>th,  ut 
liat  manufactures  have  l)een  establL^licd  in  the 
capital :  and  their  en>ction  would  not  Ix*  ailvlsable 
in  a  countrv  which  can  obtain  the  pnxluctions  of 
Euroi)ean  industry  on  the  lowest  terms,  in  ex- 
change for  the  produce  of  its  rich  soiL'  (Travels, 
i.  l!w.) 

Commerce. — The  extremely  cirramscriljed  ex- 
tent of  her  manufactured  products,  on  the  one 
hand,  and,  on  the  other,  the  lai>^  amount  of  her 
coflee.  sugar,  cotton,  and  other  tropical  ppotiucis, 
give  Brazil  a  powerful  motive  to  engage  in,  and 
the  means  of  canning  on,  an  extensive  cr>mmerce. 
Her  c«>mmereial  policv  has,  also,  been  character- 
ised bv  c<msideralde  libenjitv.  The  dtitiw  on 
im|K>rts  and  exports)  have  been  mostly  mcnlerate; 
and  have  been  imposed  more  for  the  sake  of  re- 
venue than  of  protection.  Her  imports  comprise 
most  s«)rts  of  manufactured  g<xxls  suitable  fcH*  her 
)M>pulation  and  climate,  particularlv  cottons.  linens, 
w<H)llens,  and  hardware^  fn)m  lilngland:  Hour, 
wuirse  cottons,  beef,  pork,  &c.,  from  the  U.  States ; 
wine,  silks,  salt,  brandy,  olive  i»il,  Ac,  from  France 
an<l  Portugal ;  linens,  lace,  pitch,  drc,  from  Ham- 
buigh.  Great  Britain  enjoys  the  lai^gest  share  of 
the  trade  of  UraziL  The  total  value  of  imptirts 
into  Brazil  from  the  United  Kingdom  amounted 
to  3,810,UU4/.  in  lHo9;  to  4,571 .3UW.  in  18*10:  to 
4.«lM),K7i>/.  in  1H61 ;  to  3,KC0,342/.  in  1862;  and  to 
4,082,(14 1  /.  in  1 8<>3.  Cotton  manufactures  form  the 
largest  item  of  these  im)>ort8.  They  are  «»f  the 
average  value  of  2,tKH>,tMX>i  sterUng  .\ier  annum ; 
during  the  live  vears,  18n9-(i.3,  thev  tluct natal 
between  1 .7(M),(W0/.  an<  1 2,4(H»,(KK)/.  Next  to  cott4in, 
but  far  l>elow  it  in  value,  are  the  imports  of  British 
w<Nillens  and  linens,  each  class  averaging  about 
2r»0,(M)0/.  per  annum.  'Hie  rest  of  British  iro^virts 
consist  of  miscellaneous  manufactures  and  co- 
lonial pnnluce. 

The  articles  of  export  from  Brazil  have  been 
already  enumerated  in  our  acctmnt  of  the  pioiluc- 
tions  of  the  comitry.  The  princii>al  are  c<jffee, 
sug.ar,  and  cotton :  that  of  coffee  aitmc  averaging 
more  than  one  half  of  the  total  value  of  all  exports, 
and  that  of  sugar  nearly  one-lifth.  Next  to  these 
staple  articles  of  export  follow  hides,  bones,  horse- 
hair, caoutchouc,  gohl,  diamonds,  cabinet  and  dye 
wooils,  drugs,  gums,  nuts,  and  other  agriailtural 
produce.  The  total  value  of  the  exports  in  the 
three  years  1801-3  amounted  to: — 


Te«n 

Exporta 

1861 
1R62 
1863 

96,199,785 
106.782,222 
112,950,011 

10,822.470 
12,018,000 
12,706,876 

The  im{)orts,  during  the  some  period,  amounted 
to:— 


BRAZIL 


527 


T*«n 

Imports 

1H61 
1S62 
1863 

MilivU 
130,3«H,573 
127,181,193 
111, 622.684 

M. 
14,666,014 
14.307 ,8H4 
12,557,551 

Tlie  inii>orts  were  diWded  as  follows  between 
the  various  countries  in  the  two  last-named 
years: — 


Importi  fk'om 


ISCS 


1803 


Great  Britain  and  British ) 

PosHessions  .  .  j" 
France  and  French  Pes- ) 

tvrtsions  ...        J 
nan»o  Towns    . 
Portugal  and  Portnguese  1 

Possftjirions      .        .        f 
Spain  and  Spanish  Posses-  i 

t<lonis  .  .  .  j" 
Belginm  .  .  .  , 
Swoiien  and  Norway 

Italy 

United  States    . 

Chill 

Mtfxioo  .  .  .  . 
Bio  dc  la  Plata . 
Rui^sia  .  .  .  . 
Autitria  .  .  .  . 
Denmark  .  .  .  . 
Holland  and  Datch  Pos- ) 

flOiwions  .  .  .  ) 
Equador  .... 
Portd  of  the  Empire . 

„     not  specified    . 
Finhories    .... 
Africa       .... 


Milrvis 
67,591,015 

18,441,774 
6,590,916 
7,241,070 

1,609,259 

1,948,558 

503.918 

812.914 

13,328,303 

902,(MW 

252 

5,407,253 

33,^9 

1,244,526 

44,509 

129,756 

22,845 

1,030.156 

61.903 

6,990 

821,870 


Total 


127,2«J8,196 
£14,317,672 


MUr«U 
54,600,474 

19,3.53,461 
3,828,250 
6,957,494 

1,755,679 

2,424,161 

312,5<;i 

696.:^V> 

12,889,591 

663,963 

4,921,198 
12,005 

1,484,867 
77,082 

177,861 

88 

645.540 

626,506 

6,470 

249,027 


111,622,687 
£I2,i>57,5{>l 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  aI>ove  table  that  Great 
Britain  fumishea  al>out  <»ne-half  of  the  imports  of 
DraziL  Of  the  exportj*  of  lirazil.  Great  Britain 
takes  alN>ut  one-third,  as  shown  in  the  statistics 
before  given. 

Pfjpitfa^iVm.— Of  the  8,000,000  inhabitants  of 
Brazil,  5,000,000  are  estimated  to  be  freemen, 
'2,500,000  nej,rn)  slaves,  an<l  about  500,000  native 
Intlians.  As  alrea<Iy  stated,  the  ma.*«ses  of  the  in- 
habitants congregate  near  the  coast,  and  around 
the  chief  sea-fMrts;  thus  the  district  of  the  muni- 
cipality of  Kio  de  Janeiro  comprises  about  450,000 
inhabitants,  and  the  slaves  in  that  district  are 
rather  lens  than  half  of  the  numl>er.  In  the  pro- 
vince of  Kio  de  Janeiro,  the  slaves  excee<l  in  number 
the  free  iM>])ulatioiv.  Bahia  contains  but  a  small 
proportion  of  whites,  and  the  black  inhabitants  are 
HO  numerous  that  it  resembles  an  ^Vfrii.'an  city. 
Out  of  125,000  inhabitants  of  Bahia,  seven-<*ightlis 
are  said  to  l)e  blacks,  and  nearly  all  the  negroes 
■are  slaves.  Pemambuco  has  a  population  of  about 
^0,000,  of  whom  one-third  are  estimated  to  be 
slaves  one-third  coloured  free  blacks,  and  remain- 
ing one-thinl  are  Brazilians  and  foreigners.  Whilst 
Brazil  remained  a  colony  of  Portugal,  but  few 
women  accompanied  the  emigrants  to  South  Ame- 
rica. Tlie  earliest  European  settlers  intermarried 
and  mixed  with  Indian  women ;  afterwards  an  ex- 
tensive intermixture  of  race  occurred  with  the 
Africans  who  were  bought  for  slavery.   The  mixed 

SopulatioR  increases  continually  and  rapidly  in 
traziL  In  the  northern  provinces  the  Indian* ele- 
ment preponderates.  In  South  Brazil  the  negroes 
are  numerous.  The  greater  part  of  the  popuUtioa 
of  the  Brazilian  empire  consists  of  mixe<l  breeds, 
each  of  which  has  a  distinguishing  name ;  thus 
Mulatto  denotes  the  offspring  of  a  white  with  a 
negro;  aad  Mameluco  that  uf  a  white  with  an 


Indian ;  Cafozo  denotes  the  mixture  of  the  Indian 
and  negro;  Curiboco.  the  cross  between  the  Ca- 
fuzo  and  the  Indian;  Xiban),  that  between  the 
Cafuzo  and  the  negro,  and  so  forth. 

The  2,500,000  of  negro  slaves  belong  to  about 
40,000  proprietors.  A  law  for  the  suppression  of 
the  trade  in  slaves  was  sanctioned  by  the  emperor 
on  June  5,  185-1.  The  immigration  of  settlers 
from  Europe,  particularly  Germans  and  Swiss,  has 
been  greatly  encouraged  bv  the  Government  for  s 
number  of  years.  According  to  an  official  report 
of  the  year  1861,  there  existed  in  the  empire  5.5 
colonies  of  these  settlers,  inhabited  by  83,970 
foreigners.  The  nucleus  of  these  settlements,  re- 
garded as  an  antidote  to  slavcxy,  is  in  the  province 
of  Bio  Grande  do  SuL 

In  Brazil,  unlike  the  Spanish  and  English  co- 
lonies, there  is  hanlly  any  pcditic4il  division  of 
castes,  and  very  few  of  those  galling  and  degrading 
distinctions  which  have  been  mi^e  by  all  other 
nations  in  the  management  of  their  colonies.  This 
was  not  intended  by  the  mother  countrv,  but  has 
arisen  from  the  circumstances  connecteii  with  the 
colonisation  of  this  vast  territory,  which  rendered 
intermarriage  vtith  the  natives  inevitable.  It  is 
true  that,  according  to  the  old  code,  people  of 
colour  are  not  eligible  to  some  of  the  chief  offices 
of  government,  nor  can  they  become  members  of 
the  priesthood ;  but,  from  the  mililness  of  the  laws, 
the  mixed  classes  have  gained  ground  oonsdderably, 
and  the  regulations  against  tiiem  are  evadtnl,  or 
rather  have  become  obsolete.  Marriages  between 
white  men  and  women  of  colour  are  by  no 
means  rare ;  and  the  circumstance  is  scarcely  ob- 
ser\'ed  upon,  unless  the  woman  be  decidedlv  of  s 
dark  colour,  for  even  a  considerable  tinge  will  pass 
for  white^ 

The  diseases  and  the  vices  introduced  by  Eu- 
ropeans are  said  to  produce  a  feaifol  mortality 
amongst  the  natives.  At  the  time  when  the 
JesuitH,  Anchieta  and  Nobr^;^  exerted  themselves 
to  introduce  European  milisation,  an  epidemical 
small-pox  suddenly  carried  off  two-thirds  of  the 
pop.    (Southey's  Brazil,  t  294.) 

The  Brazilcrois,  or  native  Brazilians,  bom  of 
Portuguese  i>arenta  in  Brazil,  inherit  all  the  idle- 
ness and  inactivity  of  their  European  ancestois, 
VVeech  remarks, '  that  the  ver\'  narrow  compass 
in  which  the  necessities  of  the  poorer  clashes  are 
confined  is  almost  incredible.  A  hut,  constructed 
of  thin  poles  of  wood,  plastered  together,  as  it 
were,  with  earth,  and  covered  with  straw,  is  ample 
security  against  the  sun  and  rain ;  a  straw  mat 
ser>'es  them  as  a  )M>d,  seat,  and  table ;  a  dish  and 
{>ot  complete  tlic  house  and  cooking  apparatus ;  s 
oouple  of  C(»tt4>n  shirts,  a  pair  of  lijien  trousers,  a 
calico  jacket,  a  ]iair  of  wooden  shoes,  and  a  coarse 
straw  hat,  complete  a  wardrobe  that  furnishes  them 
handsomely  for  a  year ;  and  a  kitchen  garden,  a 
few  fruit-trees,  and  a  mandioc  field,  furnish  them 
with  a  {dentiful  subsistence.  Give  them  but  a 
viola  (a  small  guitar  strung  with  metal  strings), 
and  some  tobacco  to  make  their  much-loved  paper 
cigars,  and  their  dearest  wishes  are  gratified. 
Smoking  the  latter,  and  strumming  on  the  former, 
they  can  beguile  entire  half-days  in  a  state  of 
enviable  forgetfulness,  vegetating  like  the  plants. 
A  few  fowls,  sent  to  the  city  from  time  to  time,  turn ihh 
the  necessary  supplies ;  and  thus  live  thousands  of 
families,  whose  annual  income  does  not  exceed  20 
milreis,  or  about  \L  10s.* 

The  number  of  negro  slaves  in  Brazil  is  believed 
to  be  on  the  decline,  although  the  importation  of 
them  from  Africa  has  never  entirely  ceased.  In 
182H  a  treaty  was  made  between  (ircat  Britain 
and  Brazil,  pmviding  that  at  the  expiration  of 
tliree  years  from  the  yxcbange  of  ratifications,  the 


iS28 


BRAZIL 


carrjnng  on  of  the  filnve  trade  bv  any  Brazilian 
puhiect  Hhould  be  unlawful,  and  sfiould  l>c  dc*enie<I 
nncl  troateti  as  pirafv.  During  those,  tliroe  years 
terminating  in  18H0,  n  considerable  increase  of  the 
trade  in  nlaveH  t4N)k  place ;  much  Brazilian  capital 
was  embarked  in  thcnlave  traffic,  an<l  the  ^nreatest 
possible  use  of  that  source  of  protit  was  made  as 
long  as  it  was  pcrmitte*!. 

In  1H-2H  the  numl)er  of  slaves  imported  into 
Bit)  amounte<l  to  ilijiiio ;  and  during  the  twelve 
months  ending  3()th  June,  1830,  the  same  port 
ri'ceived  5<i,777  negroes,  besides  which,  there  were 
21,554  im])orted  into  otlie.r  {lartsof  lirazil,  making 
a  total,  in  that  year,  of  78,331  imjwrted  slaves. 

For  twentv  vears,  after  1830,  the  slave  tra<le 
contiiuied  without  abatement,  and  during  that 
wriod  a  million  of  slaves  were  im|x»rte<l  into 
Brazil.  I^nl  Howden,  minister  at  Kio  de  .Janeiro, 
reporteil  an  inqK^rtation  of  upwards  of  00,0(10 
negroes  in  18-17.  Slavers  were  seized  in  1800  bv 
onlers  of  the  British  (ioveniment  in  the  Brazilian 
]H)rts  and  rivers,  and  this  decided  measure  le<l  to 
Huch  active  el^'orts  on  the  part  of  the  Brazilian 
Government  to  suppress  the  slave  trade,  that,  in 
1851,  Sir  James  Hudson  rejwrted  that  only  400 
slaves  had  been  imfH>rted  mto  Brazil  during  the 
first  quarter  of  that  year.  The  slave  tra<le  has 
not  been  continue<l  in  Brazil  since  1X51,  but  there 
arc  upwards  of  three  millions  of  slaves  now  in 
that  empire. 

C<»ft'ee  plantations  have  been  so  profitable,  that 
thev  have  much  increased  in  numi)er,  and  manv 
slaves  have  U-en  brought  from  the  northeni  (»r 
e(|uatoriul  proA'inces  of  IJrazil  to  the  coffee  grounds 
of  the  more  southerly  provincn^s.  Chiefly  on  this 
account  an  internal  slave  trade  has  l)een  kept  up, 
involving  some  of  the  worst  cruelties  of  f(»rce<l 
removal  of  slaves  from  homes  and  sejiaration  of 
families.  Mr.  Westwtx)d,  the  Consul  at  Kio  de 
Janein),  wrote  to  the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  22nd 
January-,  1^57,  '  During  the  last  year,  the  value  of 
plaves  increased  so  much  in  this  province,  that 
laige  numlwrs  were  purchas(»<l  in  Biihia,  Peniam- 
bm'o,  aini  other  parts,  bv  unfeeling  speculators, 
and  brought  to  this  city  /or  sale.  Many  of  these 
unfortunate  l)eings  were  brought  from  estates 
where  they  were  lK»ni,  and  torn  away  from  rela- 
tions and  old  assiH'iations  in  the  most  inhuman 
and  cruel  manner  ]>ossible.'  '  Among«it  the  slaves 
transported  fr<»m  the  north,'  said  a  Hrazilian  se- 
nator in  the  senate,  '  1  have  seen  some,  in  the 
market  of  Kio  de  Janeiro,  who  are  chihlren  of  ten 
and  twelve  years  old,  who  have  left  their  parents 
in  the  north,  and  are  sold  here.  A  slave  from  the 
north  tolil  me  that  he  was  married  in  the  province 
where  he  was  sold,  and  that  his  wife  remained 
there,  and  he  was  sent  hen?.'  Mr.  Scarlett,  minister 
at  Kio  de  Janeiro,  made  a  strong  ap])eal  to  the 
Brazilian  Government  to  stop  this  tnilKc  in  1H58, 
but  without  effect.  According  to  recent  reports 
from  Mr.  Christie,  al>out  5,000  slaves  a  year  have 
been  iinporte<l  in  this  way  for  sale  into  Kio  de 
Janeiro  during  the  last  twelve  years.  (Consular 
Be|)orts,  1864.) 

The  ])lantcrs  of  Brazil  are  ver>'  similar  to  those 
of  other  countries.    The  ix>ssession  of  an  engenho 
(sugar  plantation  and  manufactory)    establishes,  j 
among  the  cultivators,  a  sort  of  nobility.  A  »e»har  ; 
ffrngmho  is  always  s|K)ken  of  with  res|H«ct  ;  aiul  to  ' 
attain  this  rank  is  the  object  of  ever>*  one.    When  ' 
the  senbor  is  in  the  company  of  his  inferiors,  or 
even  of  his  equals,  he  is  reser%'ed,  holds  his  head 
high,  and    si>eaks  in   that   loud  and  command- 
ing tone,  that  betokens  a  man  accustomed  to  be 
obeyed. 

I'he  mulattoes  (commonly  called  Pardos,  signi- 
fying  of  a  brown  colour,  for  the  term  mulatto  ia 


\  reganled  as  a  reproach  in  Brazil)  are  the  offspring 
'  of  Kuro^K>ans  and  negro«».  They  show  consi- 
!  derable  ingenuity  and  |)erHeveran'ce  in  the  me- 
chanical art^  and  are  said  to  display  a  taste  for 
;  paintuig. 

Tliere  can  l)e  no  doubt  of  the  effectual  inilaence 
of  the  mulatto  in  the  f>olitical  affairs  of  the  coun- 
trj' :  a  physical  organisation  es^entiaUy  energetic, 
and  which  lits  him  to  bear  up  against  the  heat  of 
the  climate,  his  activity  and  his  intelligence, 
pcdnt  him  out  as  a  person  likely  to  make  a  con- 
s])icuoiLs  figure  in  a  revolution,  if  not  to  organic  a 
movement. 

The  Creoles  are  those  bom  in  Brazil  of  African 
parents;  the  Mamlucos  are  the  offspring  of  whites 
and  Indians  ;  the  Curibocos,  of  negroes  and  In- 
dians ;  an<l  the  Cubn)s  of  mulattoes  and  n^roes. 
The  African  negroes  form,  as  has  been  iteen,  a  verj' 
large  prop«)rtion  of  the  population.  Their  con- 
dition, though  not  equal  to  that  of  the  slavcat  in 
Buenos  Ayres  and  the  adjacent  countries,  i«  upou 
a  far  l)etter  footing  than  in  many  other  colonies. 
It  varies,  however,  in  the  diffejent  pro\*inee3*,  and 
is  l)est  in  those  situated  in  tlie  interior.  In  the 
prrivinces  formerly  inhabited  by  the  less  warlike 
races  among  the  Indians,  who  formed  early  al- 
liances with  Kuroi)eans,  the  introduction  of  negroes 
has  been  less  necessarj'.  Such,  for  example.  Is  the 
case  with  Kio  (irande  do  Sul,  JSan  Paulo,  and  the 
countries  traversetl  by  the  Amazon.  The  negro 
fjopulation  is  most  numerous  in  the  prr»vinces 
devoted  to  the  raising  of  sugar  and  coffee,  as  l^hia 
and  Kio  Janeiro  ;  and  in  these  probably  they  have 
the  greatest  facilities  for  obtaining  their  liljerty. 
The  negroes  brought  to  Brazil  l)elong  generally  to 
Ang(d«,  Anguiz,  Benguela,  Cabinda,  Mozambique, 
and  Congo.  Since  the  attempts  to  repress  the  trade, 
Koromantines,  or  negn)es  friim  tlie  Gold  Coa>t, 
who  are  thought  to  possess  a  greater  degree  of  in- 
telligence, are  not  so  frequently  met  with.  There 
are  three  modes  by  which  the  negroes  of  Itrazil 
obtain  their  lilwrty :  it  may  be  granted  ihem  by 
their  master  while  living,  or  he  may  bequeath 
it  to  them  by  his  will,  or  they  may  obtain  it  by 
ransom. 

The  Brazilians  divide  the  Indian  race8  into 
*Indios  mansfis,'  civihse<l  or  c<>nverte<i  Imlians 
speaking  the  Portuguese  language,  and  Tapuios  or 
Gentios,  unciviliseti  honies. 

The  general  opinion  has  been  that  the  whole 
American  race,  from  the[xdar  n^ons  to  the  Straiw 
of  Magellan,  offered  no  distinctive  traits,  and  that 
it  was  almost  imj^ssible  to  sulNliWdc  it.  But  a 
closer  inspection  has  shown  that  there  Ls  nn  great 
a  difference  amongst  them  as  among  any  of  the 
other  great  varieties  of  the  human  race. 

With  few  exceptions,  the  natives  of  Brazil  ap- 
pear to  beUmg  to  the  great  family  of  the  (ruaranir', 
the  differences  in  the  trilM?8  resulting  frr>ra  the  dif- 
ferent situations  in  which  they  have  liecn  placed; 
and  originating  jvartly  in  physical  and  partly  in 
moral  and  accidental  circumstances. 

Sjieaking  generally,  the  natives  of  Brazil  are  of 
a  bright  yellow  copper  colour;  sliort,  robust  and 
well  made ;  hair  black,  lank,  coarse,  and  delicient 
on  the  chin ;  face  round ;  cheek  bones  not  particu- 
larly prominent ;  skin  soft  and  shining;  n^M^  short, 
nostrils  narrow;  mouth  middle  sized;  lips  tliin; 
eyes  small,  oblinue,  and  elevated  towanls  the  ex- 
terior angle.  Tney  are  in  an  extremely  low  state 
of  cinlisation ;  their  indastrj'  being  ot-»nfined,  in 
addition  to  the  arts  of  hunting  and  fishing,  and  the 
gathering  of  wild  fruits,  to  the  culture  of  manioc 
and  bananas.  In  some  tribes  clothes  are  wholly 
or  all  but  wholly  unknown ;  in  others  the  women 
wear  a  scanty  covering  round  their  middle ;  and  in 
others  both  sexes  are  partially  clothed.    The  prac- 


BRAZIL 


520 


ticc  of  painting  the  skin  is  universal;  and  some  of 
them  were,  and,  indeed,  Htill  are,  in  the  habit  of 
instTtinjj  w<XMlcn  rin^  bv  way  of  omnnient  in  the 
under  lip.  Ahncwt  all  tlie  trilxt*  were  anthro{M>- 
plia^ist^,  devourini^  the  captiveH  they  had  taicen 
in  war;  but  thirt  horrid  euj^tom,  if  it  did  not  en- 
tirely cease  at  the  ejwch  of  the  conquent,  Ima  since 
fallen  int4>  disuse.  Tliey  are  in  ^neral  grave  and 
serious;  but  they  are  notwithstanding  fond  of 
feastit  and  pastimes;  an<U  like  the  other  Indians, 
ore  fond,  to  excess,  of  spirituous  liquorH.  In  some 
trilx's  they  ailniit  of  a  plurality  of  wives ;  and  the 
men,  engaged  in  chase  or  in  war,  or  sunk  in  apathy 
and  idleness,  devolve  on  the  women  the  princi|>al 
care  of  the  duinestic  concerns.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  some  of  the  more  Imrbarous  tril>es  have 
any  idea  of  a  Supreme  Ikdng;  but  they  mostly  all 
bciieve  in  the  existence  of  malignant  demons, 
whom  they  are  anxiou»  to  conciliate.  Among  the 
trilH>  call(Hl  Tupinamlms,  the  diief  was  at  the  same 
time  elcK^tive  and  here<litar)' ;  that  Ls,  a  ]>reference 
was  generallv  given  to  the  son  as  his  father's  suc- 
cessor, though  the  custom  does  not  a])pear  to  have 
UfU  immutable.  Montaigne,  on  meeting  an  In- 
dian chief  at  Havre,  imiuinKi  timmgh  an  inter- 
preter, what  was  his  right  among  his  tribe;  upon 
which  the  latter  replied,  *  It  in  that  of  marching 
foremost  to  l>attle;  and  this  might  l>e  said  to  ex- 
press succinctly  the  extent  of  |H)wer  assigned  to  him 
l)y  his  pe<»ple.  The  Tupinamluu  chiully  inhabit  the 
coast  from  the  river  Camama  to  the  San  Francisco, 
Tlu'  (,'or\'ados,  formerly  very  numerous,  are  now 
redncwl  to  a  number  comiwiratively  insignificant. 
Thev<lwell  chieliy  <»n  the  lianksof  the  KioXipoto, 
in  Minas  Genuy*.  They  have  one  trait  that  dis- 
tinguishes them  from  most  other  Indian  triUrs,  i.r. 
they  l)ur>*  their  dead.  The  <'or\'a(los,  it  apjM'ars, 
liave  lost  much  (»f  their  primitive  fenxrity,  and 
with  it  also  much  of  their  former  courage  and  in- 
telligence. 

Tlie  Cafuzos,  a  mixture  of  Indians  and  negroes, 
arc  a  very  singular  race.  What  gives  them  a  pe- 
culiarly striking  appearaiuv,  is  the  excessively 
longhair  of  the  head,  which,  es|)ecially  at  the  end, 
is  half  curled,  and  rises  almiMt  iM>ri>endicularly 
fn)m  the  forehead  to  the  height  of  a  fiN)t  or  a  foot 
and  a  half;  thus  forming  a  prtKligious  and  vcr}' 
ugly  kind  of  ]>emke.    (Spix  and  Martins,  i.  3'2I.) 

The  l*uris,  at  the  commencement  of  the  preM*nt 
centurw  were  verv  troublesome  enemies  to  the 
lirnzihans.  A  great  many  fa/.endos  have  been 
frt»m  time  to  time  (h-stroytnl  by  them.  The  Kio 
I)m'e,  the  S.  banks  of  the  Parahyba.  San  l''i<lelis, 
and  the  countrj'  watered  by  the  Kio  Ponilm,  in 
Minas,  are  the  chief  jxiints  exfXMed  to  their  in- 
cursions. This  rac<'  is  more  implacable  than  any 
of  the  Indian  races  of  HraziL 

The  Itotocudos,  descended  from  the  Aj-mores, 
o<rupy  at  pres<«nt  the  territ<»ry  lying  l>etween  the 
Kio  liiHV  and  the  Kio  Panlo.  Thev  inhabit  the 
n»cesses  of  the  forei*ts ;  are  little  adihcted  to  agri- 
culture ;  and  are  exc'eedingly  fierce.  The  name 
given  to  them  by  the  Portuguese  is  derivetl  from 
patofpu!  or  Ixttixpie  (literally  the  bung  of  a  cask), 
fnnn  the  circular  ornament  they  wear  in  their  ears 
and  lips. 

The  estimates  that  have  been  fonned  of  the 
numlxT  of  Indians  in  lira/il  diffvr  in  the  most 
ex traor« Unary  manner.  Thus,  they  were  estimated 
by  Hnndxddt  to  amount,  in  JHIO,  to  2.VJ,-loo 
(Voyage  aux  Krgions  Kquinoxales  &c.,  ix.  179; 
xi.  10  4);  whereas  they  have  since  lx.»en  computed 
by  Voloso  de  Oliveifa  at  Whmhmi,  ond  by  the 
Vi'j<'ount  dc  Santan-m  at  1,.'><hi,()(M).  (l)"()ri>igny, 
L'lloninie  Americain,  ii.  2iU.)  Tlie  latest,  and, 
in  nil  probability,  most  trustworthy  estimates, 
give  the  number  of  Indians  at  half  a  milliun. 

V«)U  I. 


Public  Income  and  Expenditure, — Considering 
the  small  and  much  scattered  population  of  tho 
empire,  it  hajit  a  considerable  n.>venue,  but  a  atill 
more  considerable  cx|HMiditure.  The  actual  in- 
come during  the  four  tiuaucial  yean*  18oG>00  was 
as  follows : — 


Tnn 

Rtreaoc 

18.')7-.'>« 

Mllrrti 

62.7:kj.I(» 

6«,:J7.'»,723 
47.07<».7t»l 

£ 
«,IMW.75« 
fi,W5,4(>4 

The  actual  exiK>nditure  during  the  same  period 
was  as  follows : — 


Tvari 


1R.-I7-.-.H 


Espmdllor* 


MllrH* 
41,yj(i,719 
W, 0*^7.379 
5.'j.l9i.4t'i 
M.OOA.'iK!) 


£ 
4,71«,7WS 
C.07K,CJK« 
r.."2«I>,149 
fi,076/»»* 


But  tt  very  small  |x>rtion  of  the  revenue  is  de- 
rivetl from  taxation.  The  great  bulk,  amounting 
to  nearly  two-thinls,  is  dcTived  from  imiN>rt  duties. 
Sul)joined  is  a  statement  of  the  revenue  for  two 
j)eri«xl*: — 


BranclMa  of  BrTtno* 


Import  Datics  .  . 
Shipping;  Dues  .  . 
Kxix)rt  Dnties  .  . 
Inland  Taxw  .  . 
MuniciiwI  Taxos  . 
Extruordinar}-  rucciptt* 


lHoO-07 


Total    . 


Loans 


General  Total 


\ 


Mllrvlii 

3-i,S.'i«,-if»3 

•i49.44.''> 

R.9 10,999 

7,0«.'i,737 

l.MI.?^ 

A42,'ilG 


49.K>r>.414 
8..->9!»,«9.'» 

,12,7.'if»,l(>9 


1U0-6(J 

Mtlrvft 
27,24(;.295 
2Hi).«23 
l»,.W9,«73 

l,773..'il6 
M;5,7U5 


43.r>n,«Xi 
y,4u9,-2S5 


47.070,791 
.C.'i,21>.'..4«J4 


The   expenditure   during  the  same  two  years 
was  as  folliiws  : — 


Brasrhc*  of  Expraditora 

lSM-57 

lft6U-«0 

Mini-itry  of  InUrior  . 
„    Justiot*     .    .    . 
„    FMivipn  Aifairjt 
„    Marine     .    .    . 
„    War     .... 
„    Finance   .    .    . 

Total     .    .    . 
DepoBittf  paid  oft   .    . 

General  Total  | 

MUnH* 

6.«:.4;,227 

3.:Ui9,733 

fi:J9,n74 

B,.'il0.4.>7 

10,IM1,7«W 

13,fn(S.403 

MilrHt 

»,«2«,2M 

4,.'il7.70'i 

Ri;i.:W2 

9,*i47,4*Jl 

12,087,047 

14,7dO.<^ft3 

40,373,»«3 
l,6.Vi,7o6 

M, 293.400 
2,711,HS9 

54,005,289 
£6,075,595 

41.92fi,719 
£4,716.7,W 

The  annual  deficits  in  the  binlget,  shown  in  the 
alxive  tables,  were  covered  by  loans,  rai.sed  lx)th 
at  home  and  abroad.  The  public  debt  of  Brazil 
amounted,  at  the  end  of  the  year  1H<»4,  to  about 
lH,tMM),(MH)/.  sterling,  of  which*  1(K%.*>,(MK)/.  c<msti- 
tute<l  the  foreign  debt — chiefly  hehl  by  British 
crwlitors— and  the  rest  the  funde<l  internal  debt. 
But  besides  tlys  funded  debt,  there  was,  at  the 
same  time,  a  floating  debt,  consisting  of  treasure' 
IxMuht  and  government  ])a|)cr-m(»ney,  to  tho 
amount  of  4,r><KM)00/.  sterling.  Tlie  total  amount 
of  liai>er  currency  in  cin.*ulation  throughout  the  em- 
pire wax  estimat4r<l,  in  June,  1HG4,  at  X0.()21 ,0.>(),0(M) 
milreis,  or  rather  more  than  f»,<)0<MHH»/.  sterling. 

Railwaya. — Tlie  great  want  of  internal  commu- 
nication within  the  immense  area  of  the  empire, 

M  M 


530 


BRAZIL 


has  been  remedied  to  some  extent,  in  recent  years, 
by  the  e^tabli^hinent  of  rail wn vs.  Thev  consist 
ciuctly  of  four  lines  constructed  by  private  com- 
iwinie.H,  an<l,'  in  the  main,  with  Kriti.sh  capital, 
but  with  the  aid  and  Hubveiition  (»f  the  Brazilian 
government.  The  four  lines  are  known  as  the 
Don  Pedro  II.,  the  Hahia  and  San  Fnincisco, 
the  IVmambuco,  and  the  San  Paulo  railways. 
The  tlrf«t-named  i.s  a  main  line,  which  is  to  exton<l 
into  the  int<*rior  from  Ilio  de  Janeiro,  and  is  in- 
tended to  l>e  the  (irand  Tnmk  from  which  many 
branches  will  ramifv  on  either  side.  The  lirst  sec- 
tion (alxuit  40  m.  in  extent)  was  commenced  in 
IHoT.  The  second  sei^tion  was  offertMl  to  <'on- 
tractors  in  the  latter  part  of  the  same  year,  since 
which  time  this  section,  14  m.  lon^,  an<l  contain- 
ing; the  tunnel  of  Mendez  has  Ut-n  linished.  The 
whole  nnist  be  complete<l  by  1st  January,  18(W, 
but  it  is  likely  to  Im>  o|)ene<l  fn)m  Santos  to  Jun- 
diakv  two  vears  before  that  <late. 

The  vSei*on<l  line,  the  Haliia  and  San  Francisco, 
77  m.  loiij;,  was  built  by  an  PLni^lLsh  company, 
under  the  'Limited  Liability'  Act,  an<l  opened 
Jan.  31,  1H()3.  The  line  traverses  the  sugar  and 
tobacco  districts,  and  o|:)ens  up  the  cotton  Held  of 
the  im]>ortant  province  of  the  Ilahia.  It  com- 
menc*?s  at  San  Salvmlor,  the  chief  port  of  that 
]»rovince,  and  the  second  larjjest  city  in  the  empire, 
and  tenninates  at  or  near  the  t4>wn  of  Joazeiro, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  great  river  San  Fnmcisco, 
the  navigati<m  of  which  is  free  and  uuintemipte<i 
fnmi  that  tt>wn  for  1,()0<I  m.  into  the  interior  of 
Brazil.  This  railway  cost  l,HcH),(MW)/.,  on  which 
pum  an  intcn'st  is  guaranteed  of  seven  \h.'T  cent,, 
namely,  tive  |)er  cent,  by  the  Brazilian  govern- 
ment, and  two  per  cent,  by  the  provincial  legis- 
lature of  Hahia. 

The  third  line  nms  frtim  the  city  and  port  of 
Peniambuco  to  the  town  of  Agoa  Preta  in  the 
interior,  a  distance  of  78  m.     It  L*  inti^nded  to 

1)rolong  this  railway  ultimately  to  the  river  San 
•'ran<;isco,  at  the  j)oint  where  its  waters  iKM^ome 
navigable.  Both  this  Peniambuco  line,  and  the 
fourth  Brazilian  railway,  that  of  Bahia — a  work  of 
extraordinary'  ditKcultv — were  constructe<l  entirelv 
by  English  engineers,  as  well  as  with  English 
C4ipital,  on  which,  however,  there  is  in  everv'  case  a 
guaranteed  interest  of  seven  p<*T  cent.  Ilithertt), 
neither  of  these  lines  have  pn)ve<l  commercially 
remunerative,  though  they  liave  Ijeen,  undoubt- 
etllv,  of  vast  benelit  to  the  countrv. 

Heliyion. — The  established  religion  of  Brazil  is 
the  Boman  CatluHic;  but  all  otlier  religions  art^ 
tolerate<l,  and  there  is  not  now.  whatever  there 
mav  have  Injen  formerly,  much  intolerance  among 
the  Brazilian  Catholics,  except  among  the  lowest 
and  least  iustmcted  classes.  Indeed  the  others 
are  generally  distinguished  by  a  want  of  zeal  in 
ndigious  matters;  and  are  more  occupied  with  the 
outward  ceremonies  of  religion  than  with  its  spirit 
or  practical  intluence.  Some  of  the  clergy  |^M)ssess 
the  virtues  ami  acquirtnnents  that  are  suitable  to 
their  station  ;  but  such  is  not  generally  the  case; 
the  majoritv  being  ignorant,  bigoted,  and  not  uu- 
frequently  imm(»ral. 

Ecclesiastical  affairs  are  under  the  direction  of 
an  archbishop,  at  Bahia  (originally  a  bishupric, 
being  the  first  founded  in  Brazil,  in  1522,  and 
raise<i  to  the  archiepiscopal  rank  in  1(><>7),  fix 
bisho|>s,  viz.  at  Kio.  Peniambuco,  Maranhao,  Para, 
Mariana,  and  San  Paulo;  and  two  *  prelacijis,*  with 
epis<'o{»al  powers,  viz.  Goyaz,  and  Cuyaba.  The 
church  of  Brazil  has  been  for  some  time  engaged 
in  a  dis|iute  with  Home  as  to  the  ap{K)intmeiit  of 
the  bishoj)s.  the  po|x*  claiming  the  sovereign  right 
of  nomination,  which  the  church  rejects. 
Monasteries  and  nunneries  arc,  or  rather  were, 


numerous  in  many  parts  of  Brazil.  The  saints' 
days  are  said  to  be  celebrated  ui  a  manner  as 
splendid  as  at  Rome,  A  recent  writer  ol>sorve« 
tiiat  neither  the  carnival  at  Venice,  nor  the  de- 
clining masquerades  t»f  Paris,  can  convey  an  exai*t 
idea  of  the  tumult  and  extreme  absurdities  whicli 
prevail  during  the  days  of  the  *  intrurlo,'  or  carni- 
val, not  only  at  Rio,  but  throughout  the  cities  (4 
Brazil.  Recently  measures  have  been  taken  f4*r 
lessening  the  numl)er  of  monasteries  and  nun- 
neries. The  revenues  of  many  of  them  have 
reverted  to  the  crown,  and  their  buildings  have 
lK»eii  applieil  to  other  purposes. 

Government. — The  constitution  under  which  the 
empire  is  governed  was  framed  immediately  after 
its  se{>aration  fmm  Portugal,  and  bears  date  I>ec. 
11,  1823.  It  recognises  four  powers  in  the  state, 
namely,  the  legislative,  the  executive,  the  judicial, 
and  the  'miHlerating'  power,  or  the  royal  preroga- 
tive. The  legislative  power  is  vesteil,  for  the 
affairs  of  the  empire,  in  a  general  legislative  a*- 
semblv,  and'for  provincial  aflfairs  in  the  pnn-indal 
assemliiies.  The  general  legislative  assembly  ta»n- 
sists  of  two  Houses,  the  Senate  and  the  Congress. 
The  memliers  of  both  Houses  are  elected  by  the 
|>eople,  but  under  different  forms.  Senators  arc 
chosen  for  life  at  electoral  meetings  exprwsly 
convene<l,  each  of  which  has  to  nominate  three 
candidates,  leaving  the  choice  between  them  to 
the  sovereign  or  his  ministers.  A  senator  must 
be  forty  years  of  age,  a  native-bom  Brazilian,  and 
possessing  a  clear  annual  uicome  of  8()0  milreis, 
or  alK^ut  !♦()/.  A  salary  of  3,6t)0  mihneb,  or  4(Wi, 
for  each  session  is  paid  to  everj'  senator. 

The  meml)er8  of  the  House  of  Congress  are 
clu»sen  bv  in<lircct  election,  for  the  term  of  four 
years,  lor  this  purpose,  the  country  is  divided 
into  electoral  districts,  where  every*  2<K>  voters 
ap|)oint  one  elector,  and  a  number  of  the  latter, 
var>'ing  according  to  pi>pulation,  nominate  the 
deputy.  The  qualification  for  a  voter  is  an  annual 
income,  of  any  sort,  of  100  mihreis,  or  a  little  more 
than  10/.  The  electors  must  have  an  income  of 
200  milreis,  or  a  little  more  than  20/L  a  vear.  as  a 
qualificatitm;  and  the  deputies  mast  have  an  in- 
come of  400  milreis  each,  or  about  45/,  per  annum. 
All  v(»ters,  inscri1>ed  on  the  lists,  are  bound  to  give 
their  votes,  under  a  [tenalty.  Minors,  monks,  and 
servants  are  not  allowed  a  vote ;  and  naturali^ 
foreigners,  as  well  as  persons  not  profe^sdng  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion,  are  inca^'kable  of  being 
elected  deimties.  The  latter  receive  a  salary  (>f 
2,400  milreis,  or  270/,,  each  session,  besides  txavel- 
ling  expenses. 

The  annual  session  of  the  legislative  assembly 
has  to  commence  on  Mav  3,  and  ordinarily  extends 
«>vcr  four  m(mths.  Each  House  nominates  its  own 
officers.  The  two  Houses  sit  ui  general  assembly 
at  the  opening  and  close  of  the  session  for  the  de- 
lil>crntion  of  im))ortant  measures;  and  on  these 
<»cc:isioiis  the  president  of  the  Senate  takes  the 
chair,  and  the  senators  and  deputies  sit  in  mbceil 
order.  The  two  Houses  sit  a^>art  diuring  the  rest 
of  the  session,  in  the  execution  of  the  or^linary 
duties  of  legislation.  The  Chamber  of  De[>utie0 
has  the  initiative  in  the  assessment  of  taxes,  in 
matters  concerning  the  army  and  navy,  and  in  the 
choice  of  the  sovereign  of  the  realm,  should  the 
latter  act  Ixicome  necessary.  The  Senate  has  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  taking  cognizance  of  ofTences 
committed  by  meml>efs  of  the  Imperial  family, 
and  by  senators  and  deputies,  if  committed  during 
the  session.  It  is  alw  invested  with  the  right  of 
ci»nvoking  the  legislative  assembly,  should  the 
empi'ror  fail  to  <lo  so,  within  two  mouths  after  the 
perifKl  fixe<l  by  law. 

The  executive  power  is 'vested  in  the  sovereigiit 


BRAZIL 


531 


asAuited  by  his  tninutcTS  and  a  council  of  state. 
The  ministers  are  resijonsible  for  treason,  corrup- 
tion, abuiie  of  power,  and  all  acts  contrary  to  the 
constitution,  or  the  liberty,  security,  and  property 
of  the  citizens.  From  this  res|)onRibility  they 
cannot  escape  upon  the  plea  of  orders  from  the 
sovereign.  The  executive  functions  consist  in  the 
convocation  of  the  ordinary  meetings  of  the  l^is- 
lative  assembly ;  the  nomination  of  bisho])s,  presi- 
dents, and  governors  of  provinces;  the  declaration 
of  peace  or  war;  and  the  general  execution  and 
superintendence  of  all  measures  voted  by  the 
legislature.  The  '  moderating '  power,  likewise 
veste<l  in  the  sovereign,  gives  him  the  authority 
to  select  ministers  and  senators ;  to  temporarily 
withhold  his  sanction  from  legislative  measures,  to 
convoke  extraordinary  legislative  assemblies;  to 
dissolve  the  Chamber  of  Deputies ;  and  to  grant 
amnesties  and  pardons. 

The  minL«ters  arc  assisted  by  a  council  of  state, 
consisting  of  twelve  ordinary  and  twelve  extra- 
onlinary  members,  all  named  by  the  emperor  for 
life.  The  twelve  ordinary  members  arc  constantly 
consulted  on  matters  of  administration  and  inter- 
national questions,  and  form  part  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  whole  twenty-four  are  convened  on 
special  occasions.  The  councillors  of  state,  ordi- 
nary and  extraordinary,  are  mostly  ex-ministers. 
The  heir  to  the  throne,  if  of  age,  is  by  right  a 
councillor  of  state. 

At  the  head  of  each  province  is  a  president  ap- 
pointed bv  the  central  government ;  and  in  each 
province  tliere  are  district  chambera  and  a  general 
council,  called  the  Legislative  Assemblv  of  the 
province,  the  members  of  which  are  nominated  by 
the  same  voters  who  elect  the  deputies  and  se- 
nators. These  voters  likewise  elect  the  justices  of 
the  peace  for  the  municipal  districts.    All  these 

Crovmcial  elecrions  are  for  four  years.  The  L^^ 
itive  AssembUes  of  the  pronnces  exennse  the 
same  power  within  their  districts  as  the  Congress 
for  the  whole  empire. 

Army  and  Nary. — The  land  forces  amount  no- 
minally to  from  G(),000  to  65,000  men :  of  whom 
22,546  were  under  arms  and  received  pay  in  1864. 
The  remainder  of  the  military  force  consists  of 
regular  and  local  militia :  the  former  may  be  de- 
spatched on  foreign  service,  while  the  latter  do 
not  leave  the  place  o{  their  al>o<ie.  The  local 
militia,  in  which  every  man  from  sixteen  to  sixtv, 
who  is  not  already  enrolled  in  the  regular  militia 
or  the  truo|)s  of  the  line,  may  be  oulcd  upon  to 
ser\'e,  constitutes  an  important  defence,  and  is 
chiefly  employed  in  maintaining  internal  order. 
One  great  use  may  l)e  said  to  be  that  of  keejnng 
up  a  certain  military  order  among  the  people.  Its 
chief  officers  are  the  '  capitao  mors,'  or  colonels. 

The  navy,  in  18r>4,  numbered  15  sailing  vessels 
and  21  steamers.  The  former  comprised  1  frigate, 
6  con'ettes.  and  5  brigs ;  while  the  latter  were  all 
small  vessels  of  from  120  to  250  horse-power. 

Discovery  and  HUtoriced  Sketch, — It  is  generally 
believed  that  the  first  dbnioverv  of  Brazil  wais 
made  on  the  26th  of  January,  1500,  by  the  Sjian- 
ianls  under  Vincente  Yanez  Pinion,  a  native  of 
I'alos,  and  one  of  the  companions  of  Columbus, 
lie  is  said  to  have  touche<l  at  Cape  St.  Augustin, 
and  to  have  subsequently  coasted  along  the  shore 
as  far  as  the  river  Amazon,  and  thence  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco.  His  discovery  does  not 
apijoar  to  have  been  attended  by  any  important 
reitults  for  he  made  no  settlement,  but  merely 
claimcfl  the  countrj'  for  Spain. 

In  the  same  year,  Pe<lro  Alvarez  Cabral  was 
ap{H>inted  admiral  of  a  large  fleet  sent  out  by 
Emanuel,  king  of  Portugal,  to  follow,  up  the  suc- 
cessful voyage  of  Vasco  de  Gama  in  the  east. 


Adverse  winds  drove  the  expedition  so  far  W. 
that,  on  the  25th  of  April,  Cabral  fell  in  with  the 
coast  of  Brazil,  which  he  su{vposed  at  first  to  be 
an  inland;  and  on  Good  Friday  the  fleet  cast  an- 
chor in  a  commodious  harbour,  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  Porto  Scguro.  Ha^dng  taken  posses- 
sion of  the  country  for  the  crown  of  Portugal,  by 
erecting  a  cross,  and  gi^'ing  it  the  name  of  Tierra 
de  Santa  Cruz,  Cabral  proceeded  on  his  voyage 
taking  care,  however,  in  the  first  place,  to'sena 
information  of  his  discovery  to  his  sovereign. 
Soon  after  this  intelligence  reached  Portugal, 
Emanuel  despatched  a  small  squadron  to  explore 
the  country',  under  the  command  of  the  famous 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  had  been  invited  from 
Seville  for  that  purpose,  in  1 502,  and  who  made  a 
second  voyage  in  a  subsequent  year.  In  1504,  he 
again  returned  to  Europe,  bringing  ¥rith  him  a 
cargo  of  Brazil  wood,  drc 

It  was  not  until  1508  that  a  tliird  voyage  of 
discover)'  was  undertaken  to  Brazil,  as theadvan- 
tages  which  had  accnied  on  the  former  voyages 
did  not  appear  to  have  answereil  the  expectations 
of  the  projectors  Amerigo  Vespucci  was  then 
despatched  by  the  king  of  Spain,  to  whose  service 
he  had  returned,  to  take  possession  of  the  country. 
But  this  produced  a  remonstrance  from  Portugal ; 
and  a  dispute  having  arisen  amongst  some  of  the 
leaders  of  the  expedition,  it  returned  to  Spun 
¥rithout  effecting  anything  of  importance.  In 
1515,  another  expedition  was  fitted  out  from  Spain, 
the  c(»mmand  of  which  was  assigned  to  Juan  Diaz 
de  Solis,  with  the  ostensible  purpose  of  finding  a 
passa^  to  the  great  Pacific  Ocrean.  To  this  navi- 
gator IS  supposed  to  belong  the  honour  of  having 
discovered  the  harbour  of  Kio  Janeiro,  on  the  1st 
of  Jan.,  1516,  though  the  priority,  in  this  respect, 
has  been  disputed  by  the  Portuguese  admiral, 
Martin  Affonso  de  Souza.  On  the  retnm  of  the 
expedition  to  Spain,  the  Portuguese  government 
claimed  the  cargoes,  and  again  remonstrated  (m 
this  interference  on  the  part  of  Spam. 

In  the  reign  of  Joan  III.,  the  coast  was  di^nded 
into  captaincies,  many  of  which  extended  50 
leagues.  It  is  needless  to  follow  step  by  step  the 
rising  fortunes  of  the  Brazilian  territory.  Various 
towns  sprung  up  along  the  shore,  which  were  sul>- 
ject  to  the  vicissitudes  that  then  usually  awaited 
newly  founded  colonies.  They  were  successively 
taken  and  plundejed  by  the  French,  Dutch,  Eng- 
lish, &c,  who,  if  not  ex|»elle<l,  usually  contentCMl 
themselves  with  a  short  possession,  and  abandoned 
them,  after  frequently  committing  the  most  bar- 
barous atrocities.  Notwithstanding  these  calami- 
ties, the  colony  continued  to  increase  in  pro«i)erity 
and  imiH>rtaiice  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
Portuguese  government.  But  it  ex|>erienced  a 
severe  check  on  the  annexation  of  Portugal  to  the 
crown  of  Spain  in  1588,  during  the  reign  of  Philip 
II.  As  the  mines  that  had  been  discovered,  down 
to  that  fieriod,  yielded  less  wealth  than  tliose  of 
the  Spanish  possessions  in  S.  America,  Brazil  did 
not  receive  much  favour  from  that  monareh.  The 
Dutch  took  advanta^  of  this  indifference  on  the 
part  of  Spain ;  and  it  was  not  indeed  until  they 
had  made  considerable  inroads,  that  an  expedirion 
was  fitted  out,  in  1640,  to  exf)el  them  from  the 
territory.  Almut  this  period,  the  house  of  Bra- 
ganza  was  restored  to  the  throne  of  Portugal 
After  a  long  and  desperate  struggle,  the  Dutch 
were  compelled  to  evacuate  Brazil  in  1654.  Hence- 
forward it  continued  in  the  pc^session  of  Portu^, 
but  the  latter  countrj'  being  in  a  very  abject  im- 
poverished state,  instead  of  rendering  assistance 
to  its  colony,  was  compelle<l  to  rest  its  principal 
hopes  of  being  able  to  maintain  an  independent 
existence  on  the  wealth  and  resources  of  Brazil, 

MM  2 


532 


BRAZZA 


which  it  suhjectcd  to  all  the  pnllinp:  and  vexatious 
restruiiitM  of  the  old  colonial  system. 

In  ixOM  a  new  era  l>e^an  in  Brazil.  The  French 
havin;^  invaded  Fortu^cal  in  the  conrse  «»f  the  |)re- 
vions  year,  the  j)rin«v  recent,  Jolni  VI.,  and  \m 
court,  accompanied  hy  a  lai^c  lM>dy  of  enii;^rants, 
hct  sail  for  Brazil,  where*  they  arrive*!  on  the  *J.')th 
of  .Jan.,  IHOM.  Bnizil  initniHliately  cea-^il  to  Ik* 
treatetl  as  a  colony.  In  the  conrse  of  tlie  same 
year,  h(?r  ])orts  were  thrown  open  to  all  friendly 
an<l  neutml  nations ;  and  hv  a  d<*cree  <iate<l  the 
l.')th  of  Nov.,  1K14,  all  nations  were  allowcti  to 
trade  freely  with  tliem. 

The  revolution  in  Portugal  in  lft2()  was  very 
speeilily  followed  hy  a  rev(dutionar\'  movement  of 
tlie  same  des<*ription  in  IVrnamtxico;  and  tore- 
store  tranquillity,  and  anticipate  the  further  \m>- 
Kress  of  n»v<dution,  the  j^ovemment,  in  1H21. 
proclaimed  the  ado|>tion  of  the  Portu^u»se  consti- 
tution. SfMin  after  this,  the  kin^  having  h*ft 
Brazil  for  I*ortuj^al.  a  srru^i^li»  commenceti  l»etw«'en 
the  l*ortu;cuese,  who  wished  to  recover  their  fonn*T 
ascendaiicv  over  Brazil,  and  the  Brazilians,  who 
were  rtrsolved  to  preserve  their  newly  acquiretl 
liberties,  which  ended  in  the  complete  scparat  ion 
of  all  connection,  other  than  that  Hul)sistin^  l>e- 
twcen  inde{)endent  states,  l>etween  the  two  coun- 
tries. The  goveniment  of  Brazil  having  been 
entrusted  to  the  crown  [)rince,  Don  Pedn^,  he  re- 
fuwsl  to  admit  the  tnKJjw  s(»nt  out  hy  Portugal  to 
i*up|M»rt  her  authority,  or  to  ol)ey  the  instructions 
of  the  king,  his  father.  In  the  following  year, 
1X22,  Brazil  was  declare<I  to  Iw  a  fn'C  and  inde- 
jK-ndcnt  state,  and  Don  Peilro  aHsume<l  the  title 
(»f  emperor.  After  several  stormv  debates,  the 
])roject  of  a  constitution  (sec  antt;),  sulnnittcMl 
by  the  emiH'n)r,  was  accepted:  but  the  disputes 
iK'tween  the  em|>eror  and  the  chamber  of  deputies 
having  c(»ntiuued,  the  fonner  alMlicated  the  throne 
in  favour  of  his  son,  a  minor,  in  IKJl.  and,  singular 
as  it  may  seem,  the  riglits  of  the  latter  have 
hitherto  lx*en  ])reser\'ed :  and  some  attemi)ts  at 
insurrection  by  the  republi(ran  party  have  l>een 
suppress<»d  without  much  <litliculty,  ami  intt»nial 
traiupiiliity  has  lM*en  ])retty  well  niaiutaint^l. 

t'onsidering  the  lengthened  periol  <luring  which 
Brazil  has  l>een  Cidonisetl;  its  vast  extent  and 
fertility;  the  variety  of  its  pnxluctions,  and  its 
favourable  situation  for  commerce,  its  progress  in 
the  accumulation  of  populatiim  and  wealth  has 
Ikmmi  extremely  slow.  This  apparent  anomaly 
may,  however.  Ikj  easilv  ex|)laine<l.  The  slow 
progress  of  Brazil,  like  tliat  of  the  contiguous  ri- 
f/erunt  Spanihli  colonies,  is  entindy  owing  to  the 
vicious  principles  on  which  it  was  governed  by 
the  mother  country';  to  the  rigid  exchiMon  of 
foreigners  from  thecountr)-;  the  oppressive  restric- 
tions laid  on  the  tnuh-  and  industry  of  the  colonists : 
and  more  than  all  the  rest,  to  the  ignorance  of 
the  P(»rtugue8e,  and  their  infcri<»rity,  in  rcs|)ect  of 
Kcience  and  art,  t<»  most  other  nations  of  Euroiw?. 
Portugal  could  bequeath  nothing  t^)  her  colonies 
but  pritle,  su|)erstition,  and  intolerance.  But  since 
the  downfall  of  the  old  cohmial  system,  consequent 
on  the  emigration  of  the  court  to  Brazil,  the  foun- 
dations of  a  new  and  lx.*tter  order  <»f  things  have 
bet'ii  laid.  The  settlement  of  foreigners  in  Brazil, 
and  the  unfettered  intercourse  she  n(»w  carries  <»n 
with  all  the  m<»st  civilised  countries  of  the  world, 
have  already  had  the  iK'st  effects.  And  though  it 
will  require  a  lengthened  |)eri(Kl  to  counteract  the 
joint  influence  of  ignorance,  slaver}',  and  a  de- 
mising sui»erstition.  lirazil  is  rising,  not  merely  in 
t\\o  scale  of  wealth  and  jKJpulation,  but  also  in  that 
<»f  civilisation. 

BKAZZA.  an  islan<l  of  the  A<lriatic  Sea,  near 
the  ct«ist  of  Dalmatia,  <lei>endent  <m  the  circle  <if 


BRECniN 

I  S|>alatTO.     It  is  al>out  24  in.  lonpf,  hy  from  6  to  7 
broad,  and  contains  a  small  market  town  and  23 
villages,  with  (in  IHO(i)  1.3,497  in^iabitants.     It  Lt 
very  inountainiMisandntcky:  in  the  ini»M  elcvateil 
(larts  there  are  large  tracts  quite  stony,  and  hardly 
tit  to  bear  the  wildest  plants.     Great  labour  ami 
ex|>ense  rtv  nec'essary  to  bring  the  ju^round  to  a  tit 
state  for  tillage ;  vet  the  inhabitants  f^  on  pn>- 
gressively  incn'Asing  their  cultivated  lau^U  and 
consequently  their  vintage,  and  diminishing  ttieir 
W(mmIs  and  cattle.     Its  wine  is  accounted  the  heA 
in  Dalmatia;  the  other  vegetable  prtKluctions  are 
oil.  ligs,  almcmds  and  saffron.     ITie  c<»m  cn»p  ia 
extremely  scanty,  scarcely  affording  sulvtistence 
to  the  iniiabit-anLs  for  tluree  months  in  the  year: 
hence  they  are  oblige<l  to  im(>i>rt  to  a  large  extent 
from  the  mainland.    The  st^ony  nature  of  the  soiU 
and  the  scarcity  of  fresh  water,  subject  the  island 
to  frequent  droughts  Brazza  was  famoas  in  ancieot 
times  for  its  kids,  which  still  continue  in  their 
former  jnirtection.    The  pastures  here  give  to  the 
tlcsh  not  only  of  kids,  but  of  lamliA,  a  r»articular 
delicacy  of  taste ;  the  milk  Uw  of  this  island  L^  far 
suiM;rior  to  that  of  the  neighbouring  CiHintric:s  s*> 
that  its  cheese  is  in  great  repute  in  Dalmatia,  and 
wherever  it  is  known.    Bees  and  silk  are  cultivated 
with  some  success ;  and  Ihe  hemes  of  the  lenti»k 
furnish  the  peasants  with  oil  during  a  scarcity  it( 
olives.    This  island  l)elonged  formerly  to  the  re- 
public of  Venict\  ami  wjis  ceded  to  Austria  at  the 
\MiAce  of  CamjK)  Formio, 

BH  KC 1 1 1 N,  a  n>yal  burgh  of  Scotland,  co.  Forfar, 
on  a  slojiing  bank  on  the  left  side  of  the  S.  Lsk, 
7^  m.  W  .  from  its  junction  wit  h  the  sea  at  Montnisc. 
Pop.  7,171)  in  iHtll  :  inhabitetl  houses  782.  TJ»e 
main  street,  which  runs  nearlv  N.  and  S.,  is  alnmt 
a  mile  in  length.  Some  (xirtions  of  the  town  aiv 
very  stn-p,  |virticularly  alxmt  the  Cror*».  It  w** 
fonnerly  walled,  and  was  abu>  a  bu«hop's  see:  the 
bishopric  was  founded  by  David  I.  aU>ut  the  mid«ile 
of  the  Pith  centurj*:  and  the  i.K>rtion  of  the  ca- 
the<lral  which  now  fonns  the  i>arish  church  still 
remains.  It  wa.s  originally  a  stately  Gothic  struc- 
ture, but  it,s  architectural  beautv  and  sxmmetn,' 
have  Ikm'ii  defaced  by  the  liad  taste  displayed  in 
modem  re]>airs.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  square 
steeple  120  ft.  high.  In  addition  to  the  Y>ari>h 
church,  which  is  collegiate,  there  are  fotir  l*rfc>by- 
terian  dissenting  cha|)elB,  one  Episcopal  cha{iel, 
and  a  place  of  worship  in  connection  with  tlie  o- 
tablished  chuR*h.  In  the  churi'hyard,  near  the 
catlu'dral,  Is  one  of  tht>se  n»und  towers,  of  whifh 
then»  is  oulv  another  in  Scotlan<l.  at  Abemethv. 
an«l  which,  it  is  suppose<l,  were  built  hy  the  Piils, 
but  for  what  pur]MK>e  is  unknown.  It  is  KiK  ft, 
high,  is  surmounted  by  a  conical  roof  of  grey  slate, 
and  has  no  staircase,  either  without  or  within,  la 
another  fiart  of  the  town  Ls  an  ancient  h(K«pitaI. 
caUed  the  Mainan  Dieu^  now  nsetl  as  a  stable;  l>ut 
certain  funds  which  Iwlongctl  to  it  afford  weekly 
allowances  to  p4N>r  inhab.  lK.>ing  the  widows  or 
childn'n  of  burgesses.  The  Bed  Friar»  seem  t« 
have  had  a  monastery  here,  hut  all  trac<»  of  it 
have  disap|>eare(L  (Keith's  Scot,  Bishops.  e<lit, 
1«24,  p.  3'J7.)  Brechin  is  a  busy  raanufacturini; 
place.  Its  staple  manufacture  Ls  linen,  }tartly 
Ideached  (hence  the  nural)er  of  bleaching  groun«i* 
in  the  immetUatc  vicinity),  an<l  OsnalmrghK,  sack- 
cloth, coffee  ami  C4)tton  bagging.  There  is  much 
commercial  activity,  greatly  favoured  by  the  Aber- 
deen railway,  with  which  the  town  w  cf»unected 
by  a  short  branch  line.  The  annual  value  of  real 
l»ro|>erty  amountcHl  to  11,211/.  in  IK1I3.  Brechin 
unites  with  Montrose.  Forfar,  Ber\'ie,  and  Ailini«;li 
in  sending  a  mem.  to  the  11.  of  (J.  Kegi>tentl 
electors,  27.'1  in  1«<>3.  Of  the  eminent  men  whi»  h 
this  place  has  produccil,  Dr.  John  Gillies,  autluir 


BRECON 

of  A  History  of  Greece,  a  translation  of  the  Politics 
of  ArLstotle,  and  royal  hiiitoriographer  for  Scotland, 
di«cr>'es  special  mention. 

IJrechin  ('a?«tlc,  which  has  been  for  manv  cen- 
tnries  the  residence  of  the  Maides  of  Panmure, 
stands  on  a  precipice  overlookin^f  the  Esk,  and  is 
H^paratcd  from  the  town  by  a  deep  ravine.  This 
enstle  was  formerly  a  fortress.  In  1303,  it  with- 
stiMHl  a  si^e  of  twenty  days  bv  the  English  under 
Kdwani  I.;  and  surrendered  only  when  Sir  Thomas 
Maule,  its  brave  commander,  was  killed. 

BRECON,  or  BRECKNCX^K,  an  inland  co.  of 
S.  Wales,  having  N,  the  cos.  of  Cardigan  and 
I^idnor ;  W.  Cardigan  and  Caermarthen ;  S.  Gla- 
morgan and  Monmouth ;  and  E.  the  latter  and 
llerefonL  It  is  about  3o  m,  in  length,  by  about 
<U)  m.  in  breadth,  and  contains  460,158  acres.  It 
is  per\'aded  by  two  princi{>al  mountain  chains, 
which,  with  their  ofTsetH,  occupy  a  large  portion 
(»f  the  surface.  The  highest  summits  are  the 
beacons  of  Brecknock,  Capellante,  and  Cradle 
mountain :  respectively  2,HG2.  2,.'}l)4,  and  2,545  ft, 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  There  are,  however,  a 
numlxT  of  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys.  The  \V  ve 
skirts  the  co.  for  a  considerable  distance  on  tlie 
N  VV.,  and  it  w  traversed  by  the  Usk,  Taaf,  and 
other  lesser  streams.  Climate  rather  severe  and 
humid.  Though  a  good  deal  improved,  agricul- 
ture Ls  still  in  a  backwanl  state:  and  no  proper 
rotation  of  cto\)»  is  ol)sen'e<l.  Oats  and  barley  are 
the  jirincipal  objects  of  attention,  but  a  good  deal 
of  wheat  is  also  raised.  Turnips  are  more  exten- 
hivelv  cultivate*!  than  formerlv,  and  the  stock  of 
cattle  and  sheep  w  aW  improve<L  Farms  niostlv 
small,  and  generally  occupied  by  tenants  at  will. 
The  principal  manufacture  isthatofw(K)llen  cloth, 
the  pnHluce  of  domestic  industrj'.  There  are  large 
iron  works  at  Beaufort  and  C'lydach,  near  the  con- 
lines  of  Monmouthshire.  The  principal  towns  are 
Brecon,  Crickhowell,  and  Builtlu  'J'he  Welsh 
languiige,  though  still  spoken  in  difTerent  parts  of 
the  CO.,  is  falling  rapidly  into  disuse.  Brecon  is 
divided  into  G  hund.  and  Gti  pur.  In  18(11  it  had 
12,i>13  inhab.  houses,  and  Gl,(i27  inhab.  It  returns 
2  mem.  to  the  II.  of  C,  1  for  the  co.,  and  1  for  the 
lM»r.  of  Brei'on.  Kegistere<l  electors  for  co.,  2,503 
in  1WJ5.  The  amount  assessed  to  property  tax 
was  235,054/.  in  IHHl,  and  the  gross  rental  assessed 
tt»  iKM)r  rate,  204,8.jyi 

Brecon,  or  Bkecknock,  a  bor.  and  town  of  S. 
Wales,  caf».  of  the  above  co.,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Honddii  and  Tarrel  with  the  Usk;  144  m.  W. 
by  N.  Ix>ndon.  Pop.  within  the  parL  iMumds 
5,(>3U,  and  within  the  municipal  bounds  5,235  in 
1^01.  Brecon  is  an  ancient,  irregularlv  binlt  town, 
on  a  verv  beautiful  and  picturesque  site;  there  are 
three  pnnci{)al  streets,  which  <liverge  from  the 
high  street,  and  contain  many  well-built  hoa-^es: 
the  meanest  buildings  are  towards  the  approaches, 
on  either  sile;  which,  however,  on  the  line  of  the 
chief  thoroughfan*.  have  been  much  widened  and 
iinprovwl  within  a  recent  iwriwi :  it  is  paved,  and 
lii^'iited  with  gas.  There  are  four  churehes — St. 
Joiiirs,  originally  attached  to  the  prit)r>';  St, 
Marj^'s,  a  cha])el  of  ease  (iM)th  (lotliic  and  nearly 
rebuilt  in  lleiir}'  VIIl.'s  reign) ;  St.  David's,  built 
s<M)n  after  the  conqueiJt,  and  one  of  the  oldest  in 
the  country;  and  Christ  Church,  a  collegiate 
chureh,  estabhshed  bv  HenrvVlII. :  it  is  extra- 
par(»eliial,  and  hasa  granimar-sch<M>l  attached  t4)  it. 
There  is  nn  endowed  free  school  for  50  U)vs,  and 
three  or  four  small  charities  (the  iirincipal  of  which 
amounts  to  'MM.  a  year,  for  apprenticing  \ntoT 
children),  and  a  Ixmnigh  and  county  hall,  rebuilt 
ill  1770.  a  g(Kxi  spacious  building,  in  the  high 
smxt,  with  the  market  place  under  it.  There  Is 
a  promeiiude  along  the  L'&k,  under  the  old  town 


BR^DE  (LA)  633 

walls,  which  commands  a  noble  range  of  mountain 
scenery ;  and  a  more  retired  one  through  the  priory 
w(hmIs.  The  Brecknock  and  Abergavenny  Canal 
(35  m.  long)  commences  at  this  town,  and  joins 
the  Monmouthshire  C^nal  (iH  in.  long),  which  last 
joins  the  Usk  near  Newport,  Regular  passage 
and  trading  boats  ply  on  the  canal.  Weekly  mar- 
kets are  held  on  Friday  for  cattle ;  Satunlay  and 
Wednesday  for  general  provisions ;  and  5  annual 
fairs,  for  stock  and  agricultural  pnNluce  (each 
preceded  by  a  leather  fair),  1st  VVedneM<Uiy  in 
March,  4th  May,  5th  July,  0th  September, 'and 
IGth  November :  those  of  May  and  November  are 
also  statute  fairH,  for  hiring  servants.  There  aru 
no  manufactures;  and  its  trade  chiefly  ccmsista 
in  the  supply  of  ardcles  of  general  consumption 
to  the  neighbourhood,  which  comprises  the  greater 
part  of  the  co.  The  limitj»  of  the  parL  borough 
comprise  the  par.  of  St,  David's,  St.  Johirs.  Su 
Marj-'s;  the  Castle,  and  Christ  Church  precincts, 
and  the  ward  of  Trecastle,  which  is  10  m.  off,  and 
only  connected  with  it  for  election  puriXKses.  Its 
present  munici|)al  limits  are  restricted  to  about 
one-third  of  the  former,  and  comprise  only  the  town 
and  some  small  portions  immediately  contiguous. 
The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  4  aldermen,  andl 
12  councillors.  Amount  assessed  to  pn)i>erty  tax 
2(),5G5/.,  and  gross  estimated  rental  assessed  to 
poor  rate  li<,775/.  inl^Gl.  The  assizes  and  quarter 
sessions  for  the  co.  are*  held  in  Brewm.  Brecon  has 
re'tumed  1  mem.  to  the  II.  of  C.  sinire  the  reijp  of 
Mary.  Previously  to  the  Reform  Act  the  privilege 
vested  mil  burgesses.  Tliere  were  315  registered 
electors  in  l«Gl,  all  10/.  householders.  Bre^^oii  is 
the  chief  polling  town  of  the  co.  The  castle  of 
Brecon  was  buUt  in  1004,  from  which  ])eri(Nl  the 
town  also  dates  its  origin  ;  many  Norman  families 
then  settled  m  the  co.,  whose  descendants  still  re- 
main. It  was  surrounded  by  strong  walls:  these 
and  the  castle  were  destroyetl  in  the  last  civil  war, 
by  the  inhabitants,  to  }>revent  a  siege,  or  being 
saddled  with  the  maintenance  of  a  garrison. 

BREDA,  a  fortilietl  town  of  the  kingdom  of 
Holland,  prov.  Braltant,  cap.  arrond.  and  cant.,  on 
the  Merk,  24  m.  WSW.  iJoLs-le-Duc,  and  30  m. 
NNE.  Antwerp,  on  a  branch  line  of  the  railway 
from  Antwerp  to  Kotterdam.  Pop.  15,100  in  1861. 
It  is  one  of  the  strong^it  places  in  tlie  kingdom, 
being  regularly  fortified  and  defended  by  a  citadel 
rebuilt  by  William  III.,  king  of  England;  its  |)o- 
sition,  in  the  middle  of  a  marsh  that  may  be  laid 
under  water,  contribute*  materially  to  its  strength. 
It  is  well  built,  with  broad  and  well-paved  streets; 
has  4  s(|uares,  a  fine  quay,  several  canals,  an 
arsenal,  town-hall,  2  Protestant  and  4  Uatholic 
churehes,  an  orphan  hospital,  t!L*c.  The  priiici|)al 
Protestant  church  has  a  spire  3G2  ft.  in  height. 
The  ramparts  are  planted  with  trees,  and  affonl 
fine  promenades.  It  Ls  the  seat  of  tribunals  of 
primary  jurisdiction  and  of  ctimmerce ;  and  has 
s(»me  manufacture's  of  woollen  goods,  linen,  hats, 
with  breweries  and  tanneries. 

Breda  was  taken  fn>m  the  Sfmniards  by  l*rincc 
Maurice^  in  1590,  by  means  of  a  stratagem  sug- 
gi'sted  by  the  master  of  a  iMiat  who  sometimes 
supplied  the  garrison  with  fueL  With  singular 
address,  he  contrived  to  intro<luce  70  chosen  s<d- 
diers  into  the  town,  under  a  cargo  of  turf;  who, 
having  attacked  the  garrison  in  the  night,  and 
secured  the  gates,  their  comrades  came  to  their 
assistance,  and  gamed  |M)ssession  of  the  town.  It 
was  retaken  by  tlie  SpanianU,  uniler  the  Manpiis 
of  Spinola,  in  ir»25;  but  was  finally  cediii  to 
Holland  bv  the  treatv  of  Westphalia,  in  1G48, 

BREDP!  (LA),  a*  town  of  Fraiu-e,  dep.  Gi- 
nuide,  cap.  cant.,  near  Bordeaux.  Po|).  1,G21  in 
1801,     In  the  ncighbourhoud  of  this  town  stands 


.534 


BREMEN 


the  (bateau  de  hi  Brrde,  where  the  illustrious 
autlior  uf  tlic  K»f>rit  dea  Ijoi*  waA  l>om,  and  where 
he  c(>mp(»se(l  the  fin^ator  iM>rti«>n  of  hiA  immortal 
vrorkA.  It  Ls  a  lar^^e  ^loumv-kN»king  huilding,  in 
the  niid<lle  of  exten^qve  ])lainA  and  meadows,  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  deep  ditch  tilled  with  water, 
over  which  is  a  drawbridge.  In  the  oluinilier  use<l 
l)y  Montesquieu,  the  furniture  has  Ijeen  carefullv 
preserved  as  in  his  time :  it  consists  of  a  plain  bed, 
a  few  easy  churs  of  a  Gothic  shaite,  and  some 
family  pictures;  the  niom  is  wainscotted,  and 
from  the  window  there  is  a  tine  view  over  the 
mirroimdin)?  countr}*.  Montesquieu  was  much 
attached  to  this  retreat.  Sic  puis  dire,' says  he, 
*<|ue  la  Br^le  est  un  des  lieux  aussi  agreables 
qu'il  y  ait  en  France;  au  chateau  pres,  la  nature 
p'y  tnmve  en  n»l«  de  chambre,  et  pour  ainai  dire 
au  lever  du  lit.' 

HKEMEX,  one  of  the  three  free  f^crman  Ilan- 
Beatic cities, on  the  \Vef<er,by  which  it  is  intersected, 
CO  m.  S\V.  Hambur^rh,  and  about  37  m.  direct 
from  Bremerhaven.  at  the  mouth  of  the  Weser :  on 
the  railway  fn>m  Hanover  to  Bremerhaven.    I*op., 
in  lH40,53,47><,and.  according  to  the  latest  census, 
in  1HIV2,  IW.oTo.  Tlie  city  i»f  Bremen  is  lifteiMi  Ger- 
man or  alxMit  seventy  English  miles  distant  fix>m, 
an<l  aU  »ut  thirty  feet  al>ove  the  North  Sea,  Tlie  river 
We>er,  short Iv  before  it  reaches  lireroen,  sejvirates 
into  two  diflerent  arms,  the  broader  of  which  is 
callttl  the  Large  Weser.  and  the  «»ther  the  Little 
Weser ;  the  I-^irge  Weser  runs  thnnigh  the  town 
of  Bremen,  dividing  it  into  two  parts,  which  are 
connected  bv  a  stone  bridge.    Below  the  town  the 
two  arms  of  the  river  reunite,  and  ft>rm  the  Lower 
Weser,  which  at  this  point  is  oulv  deep  enough 
for  vessels  drawhig  from  seven  to  eight  feet  water. 
Sea-going  shi|«  are,  therefore,  in  general  unable  to 
come  up  to  the  city  of  Bremen,  and  have  to  unload 
their  caigoes  at  some  port  hiwer  down  the  river. 
Before  the  vear  1M*-J7  m«»st  vessels  discharged  their 
cargoes  at  i3rake  (in  Oldenburg),  at  that  time  the 
«»nly  port  ofconsequenc*eonthe  Ix»wer  Weser;  but 
in  that  year  Bremen  purclub*ed  from  Hanover  (for 
the  sum  of  77,*2U0  dollars  gold)  a  piece  of  ground 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  mouth  of  the  Weser.  and 
founded  the  port  of  Bremerhaven,  which  has  since 
l»ecoroe  a  flourishing  town  of  about  8,()0()  inhaln- 
tantj*.    The  larger  p<»rtion  of  the  city,  called  the 
Altstadt,  or  old  town,  lies  on  the  right,  and  the 
ynutufk.  or  new  town,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river.    The  streets  in  the  latter  are  comiwuratively 
straight  and  bn)ad,  but  those  in  the  former  are 
mi>stly  narrow  and  mx^ked,  and  the  houses  being 
high,  they  have  a  gl(X»roy  apfiearancc.    An  island 
in  the  river  is  included  within  the  city;  the  c*»m- 
munication  between  its  two  great  divisions  being 
keyit  up  by  a  briilge,  which  crosses  this  island  The 
ramparts  by  which  the  town  was  formerly  sur- 
rounde<l  have  been  IcvelleiL  plante<l,  and  converted 
into  fine  gardens  and  pn»raeuades.      It  has   13 
chuTY*hes,  of  which  the  cathedral,  built  in  11(>(\  is 
the  principal :  the  church  of  St,  Ausgarius  has  a 
spin*  325  ft.  in  height,     Tlie  new  town-hall,  for- 
merly the  archiepiscopal  palace,  is  a  buikling  of 
the  same  elaborate  character  as  the  toi%-ii-halls 
in  Bnigea,  and  other  cities  of  the  Xetherlan<ls. 
There  is  also  an  old  town-hall,  built  in  140'),  be- 
neath which  are  the  famous  wine  cellars,  containing 
vats  considerably  more  than  100  years  (dd.   It  has, 
also,  an  excliange,  with  omcert  and  l»all-ro«»ms ; 
a  museum,   built   in   1801,  containing  a  public 
libnirj',  lecture  and  reading-n>»»ms ;  a  theatre ;  a 
building  called  the  Srhitttituf.  or  ytlace  of  meeting 
of  the  elder  merchants  ((.oMrcn/icu/iuw  Seniorum) ; 
a  weighing-luiuse ;   a  patiitpogium  (for  scientific 
instruction),  gymnasium,  high   school,  sch(K>l  of 
commerce  and  navigation,  school  of  design,  2 


or|>han  asylums,  and  nnineroiui  oth«r  charitable 
institutions.  Both  sides  the  river  are  lined  with 
handsome  and  con\'euie.nt  quavB. 

The  manufactures  of  Bremen  are  ooosiderible. 
The  principal  are  those  for  the  prepantion  of 
snuff  and  cigars,  which  employ  a  great  many 
hands.  There  are  also  manydistilleriea;  nu- 
merous factories  for  weaving,  and  establiiihments 
for  bleaching  linen :  with  factoriea  for  the  spurning 
of  cotton;  sugar  refineries;  tanneries,  sail  and 
canvas  factories;  soap  and  candle  do.;  airdage 
;  do. ;  oil  worics,  d;c  A  considerable  trade  is  alM) 
carried  on  in  the  building  and  fitting  out  of  vessfela. 

Ttie  situation  of  Bremen  at  a  na\'igahle  river, 
and  connected  by  railway  ¥rith  all  the  important 
;  towns  of  (Germany,  renders  her  the  principal  em- 
imrium  of  Hanover,  Brunswick,  Hesse,  and  other 
countries  traversed  by  the  Weser.  In  consequence, 
she  luu<  an  extensive'  and  increaung  trade.  Ships 
of  large  size  stop  at  Bremertiaven;  vessels  dmwiog 
from  13  to  14  ft.  water  ascend  the  river  as  far  as 
Vegesack,  13  m.  below  Bremen;  and  vesseb  not 
drawing  more  than  7  ft.  water  come  up  to  the 
citv.  The  great  articles  of  impcMl  are  tobacco. 
cofJ\>e,  sugar,  and  other  colonial  products ;  whale- 
oil,  cotton,  and  cotton  yam,  vegetable  oil,  cheei^, 
butter,  wine,  tea,  rice,  iron,  smces,  and  dye-woods 

C)f  the  articles  of  export,  linens  occupy  by  far 
the  most  prominent  place ;  and  next  to  them  are 
snuff  and  cigani,  ¥rith  hams  and  bacon,  oak  bark, 
rags,  bones,  chicor\',  oil-cake,  refined  sugar,  quills, 
soa|),  lead,  and  \itrioL 

'1  he  following  table,  com|uled  from  official  re- 
turns, shows  the  commerce  of  Bremen  with  other 
nations,  in  the  year  1863 : — 

IMPORTB  IM  1863, 


Trvm 

Total  I»pOT«i 

The  States  of  the  German  Cos- ) 
toms'  Union         .        .        .       i" 
Other  parts  of  Europe    . 
Ctrwnland  and  British  N.  America 
United  Statues  of  America 
Mexico    nd  Central  America 
South  America        .... 

West  Indira 

Africa 

Aida 

Sandwich  Islands   .... 

OoldlMlu* 

30,665300 

1&,S14.»7 

131,681 

10.M9.710 

698,997 

9,7<>».91ft 

4,719.090 

177.750 

4,521, 7a6 

617.495 

Total       .... 

67.145.146 

Exports  in  1863. 


To                                         Total  EsiMm 

The  States  of  the  Qennan  Cn»-  > 
toms*  Union         .        .       .       / 
'  Other  parts  of  Europe     . 
,  British  North  America  . 

United  States  of  Amerhat      . 

Mexico  and  Central  America . 

South  America        .... 

West  Indies 

Africa 

Asia 

Australian  and  Sandwich  Islands  . 

For  the  equipment  of  Merchant ) 
Ships \ 

Total       .... 

GoUDolhn 
W,497,6a0 
17,635,029 

8,683.043 
338,736 
876336 
944.479 
30«S,156 
319,jl6« 
»49,489 

738,550 

60.406,656 

Bremen  has  a  considerable  importance  as  the 
chief  iMirt  of(terman  emigration.  Tlie  number  «)f 
emigrants  which  leH  (Germany  for  transatlantic 
ctHintries,  \ik  Bremen  (Bremerhaven),  amounted 
in  the  year  186H  to  18.175  ;  their  various  deytioa- 
tions  were  as  follows : — 


BREMEN 


BRENTFORD 


635 


Number 

Namhet  of 

Dminatlon 

of  Ship* 

EiniKninU 

Quebec 

2 

409 

j  New  York     .... 

71 

16,428 

1  Baltimore     .... 

13 

1,110 

'  Mexico 

1 

1 

New  Granada 

2 

2 

Venezuela     .... 

3 

6 

Jirazil 

4 

90 

Buenos  Ayrcs 

4 

72 

Wctft  Indies  .... 

18 

15 

West  Coast  of  Africa    . 

3 

8 

C'ape  of  Good  llojie 

1 

12 

Burmah,  China,  and  Asia    . 

1 

1 

Australia      .... 

1 

3 

Honolulu      .... 

Total   .... 

In  1862    .        .        .        . 

2 

19 
18,175 

121 

122 

15,187 

According  to  their  nationality  the  above  ships 
belonged  to: — 


Bremen     . 
British      . 
Hanoverian 
Olilenburg 
Other  German  . 
Other  Countries 

Total 


Na  of  Ships 


108 

3 
6 
2 
2 


121 


Tlic  North-German  Lloyd  steamers  conveyed 
6,231  emigrants ;  all  the  rest  were  sliipped  in  sail- 
ing vessels.  Compared  with  the  average  number 
of  emigrants  conveyed  from  Bremen  during  the 
last  ten  years,  the  number  in  lUCtS  was  smalL  As 
a  proof  of  the  importance  to  the  Bremen  ship- 
owners and  merchants  of  making  Bremen  a  port 
of  embarkation  for  emigrants,  the  circumstance 
may  be  mentioned,  that  a  society  has  recently 
been  established,  consisting  principally  of  shi|>- 
owners,  for  encouraging  emigration,  and  has  pur- 
chased an  immense  building  at  Bremeriiaven, 
laige  enough  to  aflford  shelter  to  above  2,000  emi- 
grants at  a  time,  and  provided  with  a  chapel,  a 
hi>spital,  and  all  ot.hej  requisite  accommodation. 
According  to  an  ordinance  issued  by  the  Senate, 
on  March  2oth,  18G3,  all  emigrants  must  \fe  con- 
veyed from  liremen  to  Bremerhaven  or  (ieeste- 
mUnde,  either  by  railway  or  by  steamers  (which 
is  a  great  improvement  on  the  old  custom  of 
sending  them  m  small  boats  and  baiges  fn>m  Bre- 
men to  tiie  out  ports),  and  other  regulations  are 
laid  down  relative  U)  the  quality  of  f<Mxl  to  be 
given  to  the  emigrants,  and  to  their  treatment 
(iuring  the  voyage.  (Keport  of  Mr.  Ward,  British 
Consul,  on  the  Trade  of  Bremen,  in  Commercial 
lIe|)orts  received  at  the  Foreign  Office,  1865.) 

Bremen  is  p<»sscssed  of  a  tract  of  territory  lying 
rr>und  the  city,  on  l)oth  sides  the  Wescr,  con- 
tmning  in  all  a))out  74  sq.  m.,  with  a  {sip.,  exclu- 
sive of  that  of  the  city,  of  31,302,  making  the 
total  {top.  of  the  state,  acconling  to  the  census  of 
1 862,  98,575.  The  land,  which  is  lt»w  and  marsh v, 
intersected  by  canals,  and  ver\'  fertile,  is  mostly 
appropriated  to  pasture.  The  inhab.  of  the  city 
nnd  countrj'  are  all  Protestants,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  >maU  nunitn^r  of  U.  Catholic.H  and  Jews. 
The  executive  govenmient  is  veste<l  in  a  senate 
of  14  memlK'rs  elected  for  life,  aiul  the  legislative 
nuthoritv  is  in  the  hands  of  the  as.seml)lv  of  bur- 
g<»Hses  {Biirye.rschujX)^  comfstsed  of  120  memlien*, 
chosen  by  the  memlK'rsof  the  12  colleges  or  guilds 
of  the  city.  A  conmiittee  «»f  30  burgesses,  pre- 
sided over  by  a  chairman  elected  tor  two  years, 


has  the  duty  of  representing  the  assembly  in  the 
intervals  of  tlie  ordinary  sessions.  At  the  head 
of  the  executive  are  two  burgomasters,  who  hold 
office  for  two  years  each  and  retire  in  rotation. 

The  public  revenue  for  the  year  1862  amounted 
to  1,642,843  thalers,  or  246,426i,  and  the  expendi- 
ture to  1 ,671 ,25 1  thalers,  or  250,687^  Very  nearly 
one-half  tlie  revenue  is  raised  by  indirect  taxes ; 
while  about  the  same  amount  is  expended  for  in- 
terest and  reduction  of  tlie  public  debt.  The 
latter  amounted,  in  1862,  to  11,734,165  thalen«,  or 
1,760,124/.  This  sum  includes  a  railway  loan  of 
4,000,000  thalers,  at  4A  per  cent.,  negotiated  in 
1859.  A  peculiarity  of  Bremen  is  the  [>ayment 
of  the  income-tax,  assessed  at  1  per  cent,  of  the 
income  on  aU  property  above  500  thalers,  or  75/. 
per  annum.  Only  the  first  tive  thalers,  or  15c.,  are 
paid  publicly  to  Uie  tax  gatherer ;  and  whatever 
sum  IS  due  above  this  amount,  the  tax-payer  has 
to  throw  secretly  uito  a  close  box  with  a  slit  on 
the  top,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  b  impossible  to 
discover  what  each  individual  has  actually  paid. 
Notwithstanding  this  facilitv  for  fraud,  it  is  found 
that  the  sums  annually  paid  for  income-tax  sur- 
pass considerably  the  government  estimates. 

To  the  army  of  the  Confederation  Bremen  has 
to  contribute  /48  men,  of  which  101  are  cavalry, 
llie  whole  of  the  tnK>iKi  of  the  infantry  are  en- 
listed for  a  term  of  five  years,  at  a  bounty  of  200 
thalers,  or  30/.,  with  an  annual  pay  of  40  thalers, 
or  6/.,  l)esides  board.  The  cavalry  is  contributed, 
according  to  the  terms  of  a  military  convention,  by 
Oldenburg,  which  state  also  furnishes  most  of 
the  commissione<l  officers. 

Bremen  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  788. 
She  was  long  one  of  the  leading  towns  of  the  Han- 
seatic  league.  In  1640,  she  was  summoned  to  the 
diet,  and  allowed  a  seat  and  vote  on  the  Khenish 
bench,  in  the  college  of  imiierial  cities.  In  1648, 
at  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  the  archbishopric  to 
which  liremen  had  given  name  was  secularised  in 
favour  of  Sweden,  who  held  it  till  1712,  when  it 
was  taken  possession  of  by  Denmaric,  by  whom  it 
was  ceded  to  Hanover  in  1731.  Bremen  ac<)uirod 
from  the  electors  of  Hanover  a  full  recognition  of 
\t»  independence  and  other  prerogatives,  which 
had  sometimes  been  disputed  oy  the  Swedes.  In 
1806,  it  was  taken  by  the  French ;  and  from  1810 
to  1813,  it  was  the  cap.  of  the  department  of  the 
Mouths  of  the  Weser.  In  1815  the  old  republican 
form  of  goveniment  was  restored  by  the  congress 
of  Vienna. 

BKENTFORD,  a  town  of  England,  co.  Mid<ile- 
sex,  hund.  Ossulton  and  Elthome,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Brent  with  the  lliames,  8  m.  W.  I)y  S.  I»ndon 
by  road,  and  10^  m.  by  South  Western  railway. 
Pop.  9,521  in  1861.  Tlie  town  consists  of  one 
long  indifferently-built  street,  on  the  great  W. 
load  from  the  metropolis;  a  modem  stone  bridge 
connects  it  with  the  S.  bank  of  the  Thames,  and 
another  (built  in  1824,  on  the  site  of  one  very  an- 
cient) spans  the  Brent,  which  dividtts  the  town 
into  Old  and  New  Brentfonl;  the  former  in  the 
parish  of  Ealing,  the  latter  a  distinct  parihh.  The 
church  at  Old  Brentford  is  dependent  on  that  of 
Ealing ;  that  of  New  Brentford  is  a  chapel  of  ease 
to  llanwell :  both  are  modem  stmctures.  There 
are  several  dissenting  chapels,  three  end(»we<i  fn« 
schools,  an<l  two  national  schooL«.  A  weeklv 
market  is  held  on  Tues<iays,  and  annual  fairs  17lli 
May  and  12th  September.  There  arc  Hour-mills, 
a  distiller)',  and  an  iron  foundry  in  the  town ;  the 
malting  bu^ine^s  is  also  carried  on  to  some  extx^nt. 
These  employ  many  of  the  inhabitants;  the  mar- 
ket ganlens  of  Ealing  employ  others;  and  the 
tratUc  arising  from  its  thonnighfan*  is  rouhiderable, 
and  occupies  another  portion.    The  Grand  Juuc- 


snc  BRK^'CIA  BRESLAU 

ii««ii  rnrial  jriins  iJu?  Ilrciit  alittlclK-low  Ilanwrll. "  pavrmont  was  forniii  a  bmnze  statnc  of  Victorr, 
niul  its  r:<>iiimiiiiirntioii  i*  ct-uuuuM  by  it  to  tlio  iM-tu-ccii  5  ami  t>  ft.  high,  represented  as  a  tot 
'riinrn^H,  wii  whicli  tlifn-  nro  ••<rv«T:il  wJiarf*'.  U*-    fiiu*  .-i  •<•<•!  fn«n  of  art. 

tu«'*ii  ilii.  tiiwn  and  K«'\v  <ianlMi*<.  lJniiif<inl  is  .  I{ItK>LAr.  t]ie  second  Imprest  city  of  Prusfla, 
ii-^iially  cMn.-jiIcn-fl  ih<'  co.  t<iwii.  hut  it  lia**  in»  cn|».  pruv.  Silosia.  and  of  a  n-ycncy  and  rin:.  of 
piiMif  liall.  nor  S4'{ianit4>  jnri>difti«in.  Tlifn*  is  a  -ami'  namo.  at  the  contiuence  of  the  small  river 
4-ourt  of  n•lJUl>t^  f«ir  doljtr' under  4<iit.  Ju-M  durin;;  (Htlauwith  the  Oder,  and  on  the  railway  from 
tlie  suminrr  half  year  in  tlie  town;  durinj^  the  Ji«^rUn  to  Craeow.  P»«p.  H.'j.iWt*  in  l^Hl.  exclusive 
<»ther  at  I'xhridire:  its  juriwlirtinn  extend.-  over  uf  a  ;rarrif*on  of  (J.O.Sx  men.  The  city  i»f  Hre!>Iaa 
til*'  linndn'<U  of  Klthonie  an<l  S]>fntln«nv.  It  is  eomjirises  tlie  old  and  new  town^  with  variou 
the  ch'u'f  pollin<j^  town,  wh«Te  the  co.  menilx-rs  suhurl^.  siime  of  them  built  on  i^Iaud^  irf^  the 
ar<*  iioiniruit(r<I.  ( >d«*r.   an<!   unit<il  to   the  biHiy  of  the  town  l<y 

IJIIKS<  'I  A  fan.  BriTia),a  city  of  Nortb^-m  Italy.    niimeriMis  britlj^en.    Streets  in  the  oM  town  m<»>ily 
cap.  ppiv.  ^amr•  name,  ontlu-  (iarza.  and  nt.-ar  thr    nam»w:  but  those  in  the  newer  ]iartA  are  bn«il, 
1<  ft  bank  of  tlie  Mi-lla,  at  tlie  fiMit  i»f  tin*  Alp«*.  on    ami  tlie  liou«:es  j^mx!  ;  while  the  number  and  ma:?- 
thi*  margin  of  the  j;n*at  plain  of  Lonibardy,  .'»1  ni.    nitieen<'e  of  the  >quare!»  and  public  buildinpi  pive 
K.  Milan,  and  .'in  in.  NNK.  Tremona.  on  the  rail-    it  an  air  of  splendour.     Amon^  the  latter  may 
way  from  Milan  to  Venire.     Pop.  .Tl,t*H2  in  \Ki\'2.    I»e  .-"iM-cilieil  the  cathedral,  f(»anded  in  1I4X:  the 
The  city  i.H  siirroiinded  by  walls  and  rami);irts.  and    ebnrrh  of  St.  Klizalieth,  with   a  spire  3CA  ft.  in 
has  a  castle  on  a  hill  on  an  eminence  within  the  .  hei;iht;  and  several  other  churche?* ;  theci-drraat 
walls:  the  stn-ets  an?  broad  and  straight,  and  its    conv«?nt  of  the  Au;ni'»ti"*^s;  the  palace,  now  the 
niiiiieroiis  M{uan>s,  publi<'  building,  jialaces  and    >x<»v»-mment-lioiL'«<'.  built  by  Frederick  the  Great; 
foiinOiins,  pvc  it  an  air  <«f  ^^randciir  and  ma<^)iti-    the  an;hii'piscopal  fialace,  town -hou.*»e,  mint,  (.i- 
«rcn<'c.     It  is  the  K'at  «>f  abi>h<ipric:  and  has  a  Ihie    thnli,- trymnasium.  theatre.  Exchange  BuiliUuirs. 
intNlern  cathedral  of  wliitc  marble.  U-<^un  in  ITiO},  .  uiiiv<'r>ity,  and   kirracks.     A    coli«.sal  statue  in 
iind    lini<ihed   onlv  in   \X'2't:   an   eh-jjant  mMh-ni    ca^t-imn   of    Marslial    Hluehcr,   hv    Hnurh.  was 
epixropal  palace,  and  many  churches  and  <-onvents,  '  ercctetl   op{M)site   to  the  Kxchanj^  ISuiMiiur*  in 
nunc  of  which  an^  ornamented  with  piciim's  by     1^<'27,  to  com ineniomte  the  decisive  oiul  in>|i<Krtant 
the  ina'<tcrs  of  the  Venetian  s«'h«M»l.     The  Palace    vict4>rv  i^iined  bv  tlie  Marslial  and  the  Pni.'^iau 
ofJuftii-e  (Pnlnzzo  Publico),  built  on  the  site  of    landwehr  under  liLs   command   over  the  French 
«n  ancient  temple,  is  curious,  jl**  exhibiting;  that    iimier  Maolonald.  on  the  KatNlioch,  in  iKliJ.   TIip 
mixture  of  tJothic  and  (In-cian  architecture  ti>  Ik?  ,  university  wa-*  fi»unde<!  in  17<»*2,  and  has.  on  the 
Ibund  in  si»  many  of  the  edilici-s  of  Northern  Italy.  '  average.  fn»m  7(H)  to  H«K>  students.     Hn^ilau  is  the 
It   has  iiIjmi  a  liuo  museum  of  antiquities,  a  lar^e    seat  of  pjvemment  for  the  pntWnce,  has  a  conn. 
tlH'atre,  livumtc-ile-pifta.  a  public  library,  lyceum,  I  of  a])i>eal  ft)r  the  latter  and   for  the    rejjpncy,  a 
^\mna!<ium,  an  at hen:eum.  jjr  academy  <if  science    siipn-nn-  council  of  mines,  .ind  other  admini«tra- 
and  lM'lle>-lettre'*.  with  numerous   hospitals   and    tive  otaldishments.     14<'si«les    the   university,  it 
<'leemosynary  establishments,  and    no  fewer  than    has  a  school  of  indiLstry,  of  deaf  and  clum'b.  <*{ 
72  public  rountaiii.*..     It  is  distin^uishe<l  by  its  in-    surgery,  one  ('ath<irK\  and  three  Pr(»ti"»taiit.  :^"io- 
dustry  and  trade.     Near  it  are  lar;;e  iron  works,    nasiums  a  seminary  for  the  in*«tn»ction  of  s«'ht«»l- 
aiid  the  anns  and  <!utle.rv  of  Hn-scia  hav<'  Imm-u  ,  masters,  a  schind  of  ari*hite«"turi',  a  s«'hool  of  art^. 
Imit;  re<-koned  the  be>t.  in  Italy:  it  has  ab^o  fabrics  I  and  an  immense  luimUT  <»f  inferior  s<-ho»»ls.    Thfi 
of  silk,  tlax,  pa)M'r.  d-c..  with   numerous  oil-mills    library  of  tlu-  university  cont.iins  alnivc  2<X\<>m) 
and  taniHrries.     A  faircomnienceNannuallv  on  the    V(»iumes,  and  tln're  arc  s<*veral  smaller  ci^lltrtimis 
(ith  of  Au«riist ;  an<l  a  larire  buildini;  is  constnicted  ■  all  <»pen  to  the  public.     Then?  are  a  p^.at  uumlR-r 
outside  for  the  ac»'ommodalioiM)rth(».-«efre(juenti:i^    of  richlv  endowed  hospitals  aiul  other  charitable 
the   fair.     Itre-H-ia  has   produced   many   eminent    in'^tituiionx,  amon;;  which  may  be  Rpecitie«l  tnic 


men,  arnon^  whom  may  l>c  s|K-citie<l  Tartaglia, 
Ma//u<'helli,  and  A^oni. 

This  <'ity  is  very  aiunent.     It  iH  supposed  to 
hav<?  Iwen  th<?  cap.  of  the  Cernmuini,  an<l  it  subse 


f<»r  faithful  servants.  It  has  numerous  bn.*weri«;s 
and  di**iilleries,  with  manufactures  of  linen,  o«»tti»n. 
wool  and  silk,  alum,  soap,  plate,  jewelleiy,  and  is 
tin*  centre  of  a  ver>' extensive  commerce,  heuij;  in 


<piently  iM'came,  a  Koman  colony  anil  wMniW/»//w.  some  measure  the  f »/r*pof  of  the  prox-iiu-e,  Kx- 
II  was  sacked  by  Attila.  IV<nn;;  declared  by  Otho  |  <'hi>ive  of  its  own  pnMlu<;ts,  the  f^rejif er  part  fjf  the 
I.  a  fre^'city,  it  was  pjverned  for  nearly  .'{(M)  years  |  linens,  ot»ttons,  and  ek»th  manufactunsi  in  Silesia 
by  its  own  <'onsuls:  but  beinic  distracted  by  the  j  are  disjxjse*!  of  at  its  fairs.  Metals  from  the 
contests  of  the  (luelphs  and  (ihilK'liines,  it  pla(re<l  mines,  ami  timlM'r  from  the  forests  in  the  upjHT 
itself,  in  M2<i,  under  the  Venetian  j^oveniment,  part  of  the  pnivince,  are  aljMi  bn»ujTbt  here  in  lar.re 
It  was  taken  by  the  French  <lurin;;  the  Leapic  of  ((nantities,  with  tlax  and  hemp,  madder,  and  oxen 
Cambray,  antl 'haviuix  revolted,  was  retaken  by  from  tlie  Ukraine  an<l  M<d<lavia.  Exelu>ive  "f 
them  by  stonn  in  l.'»i"2,  when  it  was  pven  up  to  I  its  other  fairs,  two  great  fairs  for  the  ^ale  <»f 
military  <'xe«Mition.  On  this  occanitHi,  the  Che-  ,  wool  are  held  annually  in  June  nntl  (VioUt. 
\ali<'r  n.'iyard,  the  knif^lit.  mns  peitr  et  mint  re-  :  The  Hrst  of  these  is  the  fijeatcst  fair  of  its  kind 
/;rcA7/f,  was  severely  wounded.     It  has  also  \h\o\\    in  (lermany,  the  (piantitv  sold  liein;;  usually  altotit 


rejK'atedly  lai«l  waste  by  the  pla;;ue  and  small- 
\Htx  ;  and  was  in  part  destroye»l,  in  17f»0,  by  the 
explosion  of  a  |M»wder    magazine.     During    the 


ns<ren<lancv  (»f  Najjoleon,  it   was  the  cap.  of  the    eastern  city. 


(),()(Ki,00()  lbs.  During  its  continuance,  the  t«»wn, 
owing  t^i  the  number  of  pers^ms  in  the  Orient.il 
costume^  has  a  gtKnl  deal  uf  the  ap],icarance  of  an 


dep.  of  M<dla.  The  e»)ngn'ss  of  Vienna  restored 
i(,  withtlu!  whole  <»f  I^nnbardy,  to  Austria;  but 
the  war  of  1  «.*){»,  followed  by  tlie  Treat  v  of  Villa- 
francii,  united  the  city,  with  the  surr«.)unduig  pn)- 
vince.  to  the  m-w  kingdom  of  Italy. 

The  chief  inten'.-t  of  i.rescia  is  derived  fnun  its 


anti(|uities.     During  excavations,  iH-gun  in   IN'JO  ■  ILshment  of  the  city. 


riie  fortifications  with  which  Breslau  was  fi*- 
merly  surn)un(UMl  were  demolisheti  by  the  French. 
The  ramparts  have  since  been  levelle*!,  planteil, 
and  laid  out  in  public  walks;  the  bastions  have 
been  converted  into  terraces;  and  the  ditch  into 
an  ornamental  sheet  of  water,  Ui  the  great  enilK-1- 


iind  continued  till  ls2r»,  there  wa^  disi-overed  a 
beautiful  temph^  of  white  marble,  adorne<l  with 
colutnu»  of  the  Corinihian  order :  and  under  the 


Hreslau  is  (»ne  of  the  most  aniraatctl  town-*  in 
Pnissia.  The  inhabitants  are  eviclently  wealthy : 
iuul    the    i^crea^ing   number  of  ucw"  buildings 


BRESSAY 

omaniGntcd  villa8,  and  plcasiire-finnDundA  in  the 
vicinity,  attest  ita  growinfr  ])n>Ht)erity.  It  is  salu- 
brioim;  provisions  ore  abundant  and  cheap;  e<lu- 
cntioii  excellent;  the  people  intelligent,  frank, 
and  sociable;  the  literary  institutions  numerous 
Hiui  eiu«ily  accessible;  and  the  country  round 
lM>nutiful.  Tlie  comlittori*^  or  coffee-houses,  are 
v('r\'  splendid.  Dram-drinkinp  is  prevalent,  and 
spirits  constitute  the  princi|)al  beverage  of  the 
lower  classes,  althoui^h  of  late  the  consumption 
of  nuilt  liquors,  particularly  of  Bavarian  beer,  or 
what  is  known  as  lager-beer,  has  greatly  iu- 
cri'XHe<i. 

Itreslau  was  taken  from  Anstria  bv  Frederick 
the  (Jreat,  in  the  course  of  the  Seven  Vears'  War, 
and  has  ever  since  formed  i>art  of  the  kingdom 
of  Pnissia. 

ItUESSAY,  one  of  the  Shetland  islands,  which 

SCO 

HHESSUIRE,  a  town  of  France,  d^p.  Deux 
Si'vros,  cap.  arromL,  on  a  hill,  at  the  foot  of  which 
is  the  Dolo;  lt>  m.  N\V.  Partenay.  Pop.  2,%3  in 
l«(Ji.  The  town  is  the  scat  of  a  tribunal  of  pri- 
mary juris<lict  ion,  and  of  an  agricultnnil  m>cicty. 
It.  was  formerly  fortified  and  defended  by  a  castle, 
!)ut  which  wiLs  destroyed  in  179.%  when  the  town 
was  burnt  to  the  gn^und,  with  the  exception  of 
the  church  and  of  a  single  house. 

HIIKST,  a  strongly  f(>rtilie<l  marit.  town  of 
Frantv,  dep.  Finisterre,  cap.  arrond.  of  the  same 
name,  «H»cupyi»g  the  foot  and  declivity  of  a  steep 
hill,  on  the  N.  side  of  a  spacious  bay,  near  the 
extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Hrittanv;  30  m. 
iNW.  (J|uim|)er,  132  m.  WXW.  Kenners*  and  314 
in.  WSW.  Paris  bv  road,  and  325  m.  bv  Western 
milway,  of  which  it  is  the  terminal  station.  Pop. 
07,*.KJ3  in  IHGI.  The  town,  inclusive  of  its  suburb 
Jtecouvrance,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
river  Pen  fold,  is  alxnit  3  m.  in  circuit,  and  of  a 
triangular  sha])e.  Brest  pro|)er  ^situate<l  on  the 
Va.  as  Jiccouvnince  \»  on  the  W.  side  (»f  the  river) 
LH  natunilly  divided  into  the  up|ier  and  lower 
town:  in  the  first,  which  is  the  most  ancient  iM)r- 
tion,  though  containing  a  considonible  numlK*r  of 
g<MKl  m<MU'ni  e<litices,  the  stn-ets^  are  irregular, 
cHMiketl.  and  narn>w,  and  the  houses  !H>  unevenly 
plaeeil,  that  the  gardens  of  some  are  on  a  level 
with  the  tifth  stories  of  adjacent  ones.  In  some 
]tluces  the  declivity  is  so  rapid,  that  the  niad  to 
the  lower  town  is  formed  by  flights  of  steps.  In 
the  lower  Xoym.  many  of  the  streets  near  the  port 
are  well  laid  out,  clean,  and  healthy ;  elsewhere 
tliey  are  cpiite  the  reverse.  Kecouvrance,  although 
inipn>ved  latterly,  offers  but  an  unfavourable  con- 
trust  to  Brest.  The  ramparts  wliich  surround  the 
town  are  plante<l  with  trees,  and  form  a  pleasant 
pmnienaile,  with  tine  views  toward  the  harbour. 
The  |M>rt,  t»r  inner  harlsuir.  fonned  by  the  mouth 
of  the  Penfeld.  is  Ihied  by  giKsl  quays  adomeil 
wttli  large  and  hantbiome  stone  buildings.  It  is 
landhH'keil,  ca|mble  of  accomuMNliting  oO  frigates 
aiul  other  vessels,  and  is  pn>tected  by  fonnidable 
batteries,  and  by  an  ancient  castle  on  a  nK'k  at  its 
entrance.  A  large  portion  of  Brest  is  oc<'upie<i  by 
niarine  establiMiments.  It  has  a  noble  arsenal 
establislie<l  by  Louis  XIV.,  excellent  docks  for 
building  and  repairing  ships,  large  rojKS  walks, 
and  varimts  magazines  for  the  stores  necessary  to 
tlie  fitting  out  of  a  navy,  ii-ith  marine  barracks 
and  a  hospitaL  In  the  upper  part  of  the  town 
is  the  Jktffne,  a  building  for  the  reception  of  con- 
virts  sentence<l  to  the  galleys;  and  the  largest 
e<lilice  of  its  kind  in  France.*  It  is  277  yanU  in 
length;  its  centre  ami  extremities  are  occupied 
by  the  various  officers  having  charge  of  the  con- 
\i«'ts:  the  intermediate  spa^t»s  an*  sei>arated  into 
four  divisions,  each  ca|uible  of  ioiiging  500  men. 


BBETIGNY 


637 


It  combines  security  with  salubrity.  But  despite 
the  severe  dis(>ipliuc  enft»rceil  in  tliis  prL-Mjn,  it  is 
said  to  be  rather  demoralising  than  reformatory. 
Among  other  public  buildings  are  the  |>arish 
church  of  St.  Louis,  with  a  hancbtome  altar,  the 
town-hall,  and  the  theatre.  There  are  several 
public  fountains,  one  of  which  is  ornamented  with 
a  tine  statue.  Brest  is  the  seat  of  a  tribunal  of 
original  juris<liction,  and  the  residence  of  a  sub- 

F refect,  a  maritime  prefect,  and  other  functionaries, 
t  contains  two  public  libraries,  a  cabinet  of  na- 
tural history,  lx>tanic  ganlen,  and  obsen'atory, 
schools  of  naval  artillery*,  navigation,  medicine, 
surgery,  and  pharmacy,  Siicieties  of  agriculture 
and  emulation,  a  tribunal  of  commerce,  and  an 
exchange. 

The  outer  harbour  or  road  of  Brest  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  world.  It  is  of  great  extent,  beini; 
cajtable  of  accommodating  the  laigest  navies,  and 
has  deep  water  throughout.  The  channel,  /xf 
Goulety  by  which  it  communicates  with  the  ocean, 
is  only  1J805  yards  across,  defended  on  either  side 
by  ver>'  strong  I>atteries;  and  it  is  further 
strengthened  by  having  a  rock  in  its  centre, 
which  obliges  ships  to  pass  close  under  the  guns 
of  the  iMitterics.  Several  small  rivers  discharge 
thenL«telves  into  the  outer  harbour,  by  one  of 
which,  the  Chateanlin,  there  is  an  inland  com- 
munication with  Nant(^.  Brest  has  some  tan- 
neries and  manufactures  of  gia/.e<l  hats;  and  a 
fieet  of  fishing  boats  for  pilchanis,  c<m1,  ami 
mackejxiL  Its  commerce  Lh  com])aratively  trifling, 
and  mostly  confined  to  supplying  provL«ions  to 
the  marine:  there  is,  howey'er,  sonic  trade  in 
grain,  fish,  and  salt ;  and  a  fair  fi»r  cattle,  leather 
cloths,  and  similar  articles,  is  held  monthly. 

This  town  is  aflinned  by  some  authorities  to  be 
the  Brirates  Partus  of  the  Romans ;  but  of  this 
there  is  considerable  doubts     It  was  of  little  con- 
se<pience  till  it  was  fortified  by  a  duke  of  Brittany 
in  the  1 1  th  century.     It  was  assigneil  to  the  Eng- 
lish, in  1372,  by  John  IV.  duke  of  Brittany,  antl 
was  held  by  them  till  1397.     In  14«U  it  was* taken 
by  the  French  ;  and  was  soon  after  permanently 
!  united  to  the  monarchy  by  the  marriage  of  Charles 
I  VIII.  ^p-ith  .Vnne  of  Brittany.   Cardinal  liichelieu, 
l)eing  sensible  of  its  great  natural  advantages  for  a 
naval  station,  Ijegan.  in  1G31,  the  omstruction  of 
the  fortifications  and  magazines,  which  were  com- 
]>lete«l  by  Vauban,  in  1(>80.     In  1604,  an  English 
and  Dutch   force  that  had  attacked  Brest,  was 
defeated   with  peat  loss.     The  space  includetl 
within  the  fortilicati(»n  was  considerably  enlargetl 
;  in  1772.   The  Em|K.*n)r  Na|K>leon  III.  visite<l  Brest 
I  in  lt<5«,  when  onlers  were  given  for  the  construo- 
i  tion  of  a  new  commercial  harlM»ur  lietwcen  the 
j  Chateau  and  L'aiice  de  Kerhuon.    The  new  port — 
I  intendotl  to  be  an  outer  naval  harbour  in  time  of 
war — was  completed  in  IWIo. 

BIIETEl'IL,  a  town  of  France,  dej).  Eure,  cap, 
cant.,  on  the  I  ton,  10  m.  SW.  E\Teux.  Pt»p.  2,108 
in  18()1.  Hie  cimntry  alxtunds  in  iron  mines, 
the  working  of  which,  and  the  smelting,  ic,  of 
the  ore,  afftird  abundant  employment  for  the 
inhabitants. 

BuKTKi'ii.,  a  tomi  of  France,  de'p.  Oise,  cap. 
cant.,  at  the  source  of  the  Annoy,  IG  m.  NE.  <if 
Beauvais.  Pop.  2,904  in  18G1.  *Thc  to\*ii  is  ill- 
built,  ill-pave<i,  and  dirty.  There  are  manufac- 
tures of  woollen  stuffs,  iMii)cr,  and  shoes,  for  the 
use  of  the  troojis  and  hospitals  of  Paris.  It  is 
very  andeiit,  and  was  once  fortified  and  hail  a 
castle ;  but  few  vestiges  of  the  hitter  or  of  the 
f<»rtifications  now  exist.  Its  ancient  ablH>y  still 
remaiiiH.  Then;  are  some  fine  nurseric-s  ui  the 
environs. 
BllETIGNY,  a  hamlet  of  France,  dcp.  Eure  ct 


638 


BRETTEN 


Loir,  6  m.  SE.  Cliartros.  It  is  remarkable  for  a 
treaty  of  peace,  a)iiclu(lcd  between  Frainje  and 
England  in  13t»0,  which  restored  John,  kinjj  of 
France,  to  his  free<lora,  lost  at  the  battle  of  l*(>i- 
tiere.  in  1356,  when  he  was  made  prisoner  by  the 
EnffliMh. 

liKETTEX,  or  UKETIIEIM,  a  town  of  the 
^and  duchy  of  Baden,  cap.  bailiwick.  12  m.  ll. 
Carlyruhe,  on  the  railway  from  Carl>ndie  to  Stntt- 
gart.  Pop.  3/20(>  in  1H61,  The  t<»wn  is  remark- 
able as  bc>inf{  the  birth-place  of  the  le^inied  and 
amiable  reformer  Melancthon.  The  hoiu*e  where 
lie  was  born,  in  1497,  in  Htill  to  \)c  wen  in  the 
market-place,  with  a  Htatue  and  an  inscription 
erect<Hl  to  his  memor}'  in  1705.  This  tc»wn  sutlered 
much  during;  the  wars  (»f  103*2  and  ir»><9. 

liKI  ANroX,  a  Htron^ly  ftirtitied  town  of  France, 
dc^p.  Ilautes  Alj>es,  cap.  arrond.,  (m  the  Durance, 
50  m.  ESE.  (irenoble.  Pop.  4,510  in  18r,l.  This 
is  the  lii^hest  town  in  France,  iK-in^  4,280  metres 
alnive  the  level  of  the  pea.  Fn)m  its  commanding 
a  pra(;ticable  delile,  le^uling  from  Piedmont  into 
Fnuice,  it  has  always  l)een  l(M)ked  uix)n  as  one  of 
the  Iceys  of  the  kinplom  on  the  side  of  Italy.  In 
consequence  no  exiKjnse  has  l)een  sfwired  on  its 
foriilications,  which  are  now  deemed  all  but  im- 

{»rejj:nable,  TheV  consist  principally  of  stnmij:  forts 
milt  on  the  conti^ous  height**,  and  which  com- 
mand all  the  appn»achea  to  the  town.  The  two 
principal  forts,  Tr<ns-Tete»  &tu\  Handouillt't,  com- 
municate  with  each  other  and  with  the  t<»wn  bv  a 
bridge  of  a  single  arch  130  ft,  (40  metres)  in  span, 
thrown  over  a  deep  ravine.  With  the  exception 
of  a  single  street,  the  town  is  ill-built,  gloomv.  an<i 
dirty.  It  has  a  tribunal  of  primar>'  jurisdiction, 
and  a  departmental  college;  with  fabrics  of  cotton 
gotnls,  hosierv,  st«el  and  cutlery. 

HKIANSIv,  a  town  of  Russia  in  Europe,  gov. 
Orel,  cap,  distr.,  on  tlie  Desna,  55  m.  W.  (►rel; 
lat.530  16' N.,  long.  340  24'  E.  Pop.  12,3IM)  in 
1858.  The  town  is  verj'  prosperous,  having  doubled 
its  population  in  the  course  of  le-ss  than  twenty 
years.  It  has  numerous  churches,  a  foundry'  of 
cannons,  tanneries,  and  there  in  in  the  vicinity  a 
manufactory  of  arms.  The  neighbouring  forest.s 
supply  fine  timbt*r. 

liklAKE,  a  town  of  France,  d<^p.  Loiret,  cap. 
cant.,  on  the  Loire,  at  the  iH»int  where  it  is  joined 
by  the  canal  of  IWare,  25  m.  S.  IMontargis  on  the 
railway  from  Paris  to  Lyons  via  Koaime.  l*op. 
8,1)27  m  1861.  The  canal,  to  which  the  town  is 
indebted  for  its  importance,  is  the  olde.st  w(»rk  of 
the  kind  in  France,  having  been  l>egun  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV.,  though  it  was  not  finished 
till  1740.  It  establishes,  by  means  of  its  jimction 
with  the  canal  of  Loing  at  Montaigis,  a  commu- 
nication Iwtween  the  lioire  and  the  Seine ;  and 
conveys  the  various  |)roduct8  of  the  prov.  watered 
by  the  former  to  Paris. 

BKICQUEIJEC,  a  town  of  France,  de'p.  La 
Manche,  cap.  cant.,  8  m.  WSW.  Valognes,  Pop. 
3,969  in  1861.  It  has  in  its  cnWrons  a  copper 
mine. 

BKIDGENOKTII,  a  l)or.  and  town  of  Englan<l, 
CO.  Salop,  hund.  Stottesden,  on  the  Severn,  125  m. 
NW.  London  by  road,  and  149f  m.  by  Great 
West  em  and  West  INIidland  railway.  Pop.  of 
j)arl.  bor.  7,699,  and  of  nnmicipal  Iwr.  6,240  in 
1^61.  It  is  divided  by  the  river  into  the  upper 
and  lower  towns  ;  the  former  is  built  up  the  accli- 
vities and  on  the  sunmiit  of  a  nx*k,  rising  abruptly 
from  the  W.  bank  of  the  stream  to  the  height  (»f 
1  Hi)  ft,  Ranges  of  detached  houses,  many  of  which 
are  handsome  nKKlern  structures,  are  lniilt  each 
over  the  other,  so  that  the  nxifs  of  one  range  are 
lower  than  the  foundations  of  the  next  above  it, 
from  the  base  to  the  summit  of  the  precipice ;  with 


BRIDGENORTH 

these  arc  intermixed  other  dwelliivTS,  excavated  in 
the  rock  itself;  rude  cavema,  gardens,  and  trees. 
Crowning  the  summit,  at  the  8.  end,  is  the  equare 
niiniHl  tower  of  the  ancient  castle,  leaning  con- 
siderablv  from  the  perpendicular ;  and  the  church 
of  St,  Mary  Mag.,  a  handsome  structure,  with  a 
lofty  tower  and  cupola,  built  in  1792.     At  the  N. 
end  U  the  ancient  church   St.   Leonard,  with  a 
square  pinnacletl  t*)wer,  built  in  1448.     Half-way 
iKitween  the  two  churches  is  a  reservoir,  raised  <*n 
lofty  brick  columns,  and  looking  at  a  distance  like 
a  handsome  portico:  to  this  tank,  water  i5  ft«rced 
by  machinery  fA>m  the  river,  to  supply  the  upper 
town.    There  are  several  g<Kxi  streets  leading  fixim 
the  high  street  to  the  churches;  and  parallel  over 
these  are  others  of  a  hke  character.     A  carriage 
road  winds  round  the  n)ck,  and  several  tligbt!>  of 
almost  f)erpiM)dicular  pebbled  steps,  secured  in  ima 
framing,  lead  u]>  through  the  rook  into  the  inte- 
rior of  the   town.     The  whole   has  a  singularly 
picturesque  effect,   and  from  the  palisaded  wall 
round   the  castle   hill,  extensive  and  diven^^itied 
views  are  commande<l  over  a  fertile  and  romantic 
district,    A  handsome  stone  bridge  of  &Lx  arches 
connects   the  lower  with   the   iip^ier   town.     Its 
strc*ets  have  an  intermixture  of  ancient  and  mo- 
dem  houses.     St.  Letmanl's  church  is  endowed 
with  600/.  private  l>enefaction,  and  1,100^  public 
grant.     St.  Mary's,  formerly  the  castle  chapel,  and 
exem^)t(^l   by  king  John  from   all  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction,  is  endowed  with   200/,  private,  and 
1,500/.  public  grant:  Iwth  arc  curacies  in  private 
patronage.    The  ItaptLsts  and  Independents  have 
each  a  chapeL    There  is  a  free  gramniar-schcK>l, 
founded  in  1503,  which  educates  10  scholaiH.  and 
has  three  exhib.  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  a  blue- 
coat  school,  in  a  building  over  one  (»f  the  ancient 
gateways,  where  30  boys  are  clothed,  educated, 
and  apprenticed  ;  and  a  national  school,  suppoit<^d 
by  suljscription,  for  200  Iwys  and  150  girls.    The 
hospital  of  St.  Leonard  sup]>ort8  10  aged  widows; 
and  endowed  almshouses,  with  158Z.  a  year,  main- 
tain 12  burgesses'  widows.    The  town-hall,  in  tlie 
mi<idle  of  the  principal  street,  erected  l!546,  is  a 
spacious  old  building  of  timl>er  frame-woik.  and 
plaster,  raised  ^n  brick  pillan   and   arches :  the 
coriK)ration  meetings  and  courts   are   held  in  it, 
and  the  market  in  the  covered  area  underneath. 
There  is  a  gaol,  built  by  the  corporation  in  1823, 
A  neat  theatre,  built  alx^ut  the  same  i)eriod,  stands 
hi  the  castle  moat,  and  there  is  also  a  public  iiUaiy, 
with  a  g(KHl  collection  in  general  hteratiure.    The 
weekly  market  is  held  (»n  Saturday ;  and  there  are 
seven  annual  fairs.   There  is  a  carpet  manufactctiy, 
and  another  for  tobacctvpipes,  in  the  t4>wn.    Its 
iron  trade  has  declined,  but  nails  are  still  made  to 
some  extent ;  and  vessels  are  also  built  for  the 
navigatiim  of  the  Severn.    The  greater  part  of  its 
labouring  ]K)p.  are  employed  upon  the  river.    It 
has  a  spacious  line  of  quay  N.  of  the  bridge,  and 
ofl'ers  every  facility  for  tlie  transit  of  goods,  so  that 
large  quantities  of  com,  malt,  beans,  A^c,  are  sent 
thither  from  various  parts  of  the  coimtry,  and  it 
has  liecome  a  thriving  inland  port :  its  retail  trarle 
is  also  verj'  considerable. 

I'reviously  to  the  Municipal  Reform  Act  the 
government  was  nominally  vested  in  2  bailiffs.  24 
aldermen,  and  the  whole  of  the  burgesses,  wh<iwj 
number  (including  the  former)  was  634 ;  but  in 
reality  it  was  a  self-electing  lK>dy  of  14.  It  is  now 
governed  by  a  mayor,  4  aldermen,  and  12  coun- 
cillors, Ik)rough  income,  1,995/.  in  1861.  Amount 
assessed  to  proi)erty  tax  34,954/. ;  gross  rental 
assesseil  to  p<M>r  rate,  32,363/.  Petiv  sessions  f*»r 
the  l>or.  an^  held  over>'  alternate  Monday,  and 
general  sessions  once  a  year  ;  but  no  felonies  are 
tried.    A  court  of  record  is  held  ou  the  same  davs 


BRIDGEPORT 

aA  the  petty  sesBions,  which  takes  ct^nuancc  of 
actions  to  any  amount ;  but  not  more  than  three 
a  year  are  entered. 

'  'Rri<lgenorth  has  returned  two  mem.  to  the  H.  of 
C.  from  the  23rd  Edward  I.  Previously  to  the 
Reform  Act  the  elective  franchise  was  vested  in 
the  corporation  and  freemen,  of  whom  there  were 
<)34.  In  1861,  the  constituency  consisted  of  656 
roistered  electors,  including  305  old  freemen. 

Bruges  was  the  ancient  name  of  the  borough, 
from  a  Saxon  bridge  over  the  Severn,  which  was 
destroyed  to  prevent  the  incursions  of  the  Danes. 
A  now  bridge  was  subsequently  erected,  1^  m.  N. 
of  the  old  site ;  and  hence  the  present  name  ori- 
ginated. The  Earl  of  Shrewsbury  built  the  walls, 
in  which  were  six  gates,  in  the  reign  of  WUL  II. ; 
the  castle  was  built  in  that  of  Hen.  II.,  and  it  has 
since  undergone  many  sieges.  Dr.  Percy,  bishop 
of  Dromore,  was  bom  here  in  1728. 

BRIDGEPORT,  a  town  and  sea-port  of  the  U. 
States,  Connecticut,  on  Long  Island  Sound,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  l*equanock,  17^  m.  SW.  Newhaven. 
Pop.  8,105  m  18G0.  The  town  has  a  consider- 
able trade.  Among  the  principal  buildings  is  the 
church  of  the  Anabaptists,  who  are  numerous  here. 

BRIDGETOWN,  the  cap.  of  Barbados,  which 
see. 

Bridoktowx,  or  Bridoeton,  a  town  and  sea- 
port of  the  U.  States,  X.  Jersey,  on  the  Cohanzy, 
20  m.  above  its  entrance  into  the  Delaware,  and  56 
m.  S.  Philadelphia.  Pop.  3,300  in  1860.  The 
town  has  a  good  trade,  vnth  a  foundry,  and  manu- 
factures of  glass  and  earthenware. 

BRIDGEWATEK,  a  bor.,  par.,  and  sea-port  of 
England,  co.  Somerset,  hund.  N.  Petherton,  on 
the  Parret,  about  7  m.  in  a  direct  line,  and  12  m. 
by  water,  S.,  from  its  embouchure  in  Bridgewater 
Bav,  in  the  BrisUd  Channel,  28  m.  SSW.  Bristol ; 
and  151 A  m.  W.  London  by  Great  Western  rail- 
wav.  rop.  of  borough  11,320,  and  of  parish 
12,120  in  186 1.  The  tijwn  is  situated  in  a  fertile 
well-W(NHlcd  plain  of  considerable  extent,  having 
E.  the  Mcndip,  and  W.  the  Quantock  hills ;  it  is 
built  on  both  sides  the  stream,  but  chiefly  on  the 
W.,  the  2  parts  being  connected  by  a  handsome 
iron  bridge  of  1  arch.  That  on  the  W.  bank  has 
a  remarkably  ne^t  appearance,  the  houses  being 
well  and  uniformly  buUt,  and  the  streets  spacious, 
clean,  and  well  paved;  the  other  (Eastover)  is 
inferior  in  these  respects,  but  has  also  of  late 
years  been  much  improved :  the  whole  is  lighted 
by  gas,  and  well  supplied  with  water  from  man^ 
fine  springs.  The  church  is  an  ancient  (iothic 
structure,  with  an  embattled  tower  and  lofty 
spire ;  there  are  chapels  for  Baptists,  Friends,  In- 
dependents, Wcsleyans,  Quakers,  and  Unitarians ; 
a  tree  grammar-school  (founded  by  Elizabeth  in 
1561),  and  two  other  endowed  schools,  each  of 
which  educates  about  30  children;  almshouses, 
with  an  endowment  of  about  18^  a  year;  and  an 
iiifirmar^',  established  1813,  and  supported  by 
subscription.  The  judge's  mansion  is  a  handsome 
modem  edifice,  in  which  the  courts  of  justice  are 
held;  the  market-hou^c  is  also  a  g(K>d  recent 
building,  with  a  dome  and  Ionic  portico.  Tliere 
is  a  spacious  quay,  accessible  to  vessels  of  200 
tons  ;  but  the  entrance  to  the  harbour  is  difficult. 
The  tide  in  the  river  frequently  rises  to  a  great 
height,  rushing  forward  with  a  perpendicidar 
front  and  with  extiaordinary  velocity.  There 
are  3  weekly  markets :  Tuestiay,  for  vegetables ; 
Thurmlay,  com  and  cattle;  Saturday,  general 
provihious.  Fairs  arc  annually  held  on  the  first 
Monclay  in  I^nt,  July  24,  Oct.  2  (the  principal 
one),  and  Dec.  27;  they  are  for  linen  and  wof»llcn 
go(Mis,  cattle,  and  general  merchandise.  The 
imports  from  foreign  parts   consist  chiefly    of 


BRIDLINGTON 


539 


wines,  hemp,  tallow,  and  timber.  The  imports, 
coastwise,  consist  of  groooies,  general  merchan- 
dise, and  coals ;  the  exports,  of  agricultural  pro- 
duce. The  shipping  of  the  port,  in  1 863,  consisted 
of  3,589  vesseL^  of  162,616  tons,  which  entered, 
and  2,342  vessels,  of  66,440  tons,  which  cleared. 
Among  the  vessels  which  entered  were  243 
steamers,  of  21,388  tons,  while  the  clearances 
included  242  steamers,  of  21,266  tons.  The 
customs  duties  in  1863  amounted  to  7,794(.  The 
Taunton  and  Bridgewater  Canal  connects  the  two 
places.  Considerable  quantities  of  Welsh  coal 
are  conveyed  by  it  inland,  and  the  agricultural 

Cnxluce  of  the  fertile  district  round  Taunton, 
rought  for  shipment  to  Bristol  and  otiier  ports. 
A  jcreat  quanut}'  of  bricks  are  made  in  the 
vicinity,  both  common  and  of  a  peculiar  kind, 
and  large  size,  resembling  Bath-stone.  The  town 
is  di>i(ied  into  2  wards,  and  governed  by  a  mavor, 
6  aldermen,  and  18  councillors.  Courts  of  pieaa 
and  of  petty  sessions  are  held  every  Monday,  and 
of  general  sessions  quarterly,  for  the  bor. '  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  county  court,  before  which  752  plainta 
were  entered  in*  1848.  The  general  quarter 
sessions  for  the  co.,  in  summer,  and  the  co. 
assizes,  once  in  2  years,  are  also  held  in  the 
town :  at  such  times  its  gaol  is  usually  crowded, 
otherwise  it  has  few  prisoners.  It  lias  sent  2 
mem.  to  the  H.  of  C.  since  the  23  Edw.  I. ;  the 
right  of  election,  previously  to  the  Reform  Act, 
being  in  the  inhabitants  paying  scot  and  lot, 
and  having  resided  in  the  town  for  a  certain 
period;  the  constituency  in  1861  consisted  of 
591  registered  electore. '  The  revenues  of  the 
corporation  are  derived  from  market  and  fair 
dues,  tithes,  and  rent«,  and  average  al>out  2,000^ 
a  year.  The  living  is  a  vicarage,  united  with  the 
rectory  of  Chilton  Trinity,  and  in  the  gift  of  the 
crown.  Bridgewater  is  a  polling  place  for  the  E. 
di\'ision  of  Somerset,  and  the  central  town  of  a 
union  under  the  Poor  Law  Amendment  Act.  The 
net  rental  assessed  to  poor  rate  was  28,1481.  in 
1861,  and  the  amount  assessed  to  property  tax 
39,931/. 

The  town  derives  its  name  from  Walter  de 
Douay,  to  whom  it  was  granted  bv  William  I., 
and  is  s|)elt  *  Burg'  and  *  Bnij^ge*  \^''alter,  in  the 
old  records.  In  the  great  civil  war  it  sided  with 
the  king,  and  being  well  fortified  and  provisioned, 
was  the  depositor}'  of  much  valuable  property, 
sent  thither  for  securitv ;  all  of  which,  together 
with  1,000  prisoners,  feli  into  the  hands  of  Fairfax, 
after  an  olistinate  resistance.  The  ill-fated  Duke 
of  Monmouth  was  proclaimed  king  at  Bridgewater, 
pre^-iously  to  his  defeat  and  capture  at  the  Battle 
of  Sedgemoor.  The  famous  Admiral  Blake^  one 
of  the  greatest  of  the  naval  heroes  of  England, 
was  a  native  of  this  town,  having  been  bom  here 
in  1599. 

BRIDLINGTON,  a  market  to.  of  England,  E. 
riding  CO.  York,  37  m.  ENE  York,  24  m.  N.  by  E. 
Hull,  196  m.  N.  London  by  road,  and  245  m.  by 
(ireat  Northern  railway.  Pop.  5,775  in  186i. 
The  town,  which  is  about  a  mile  from  the  sea- 
coast^  consists  of  one  long  street,  with  some 
smaller  streets  narrow  and  irregularly  built    A 

Erior>',  erected  In  the  early  part  of  itie  reign  of 
[enry  I.,  at  the  E.  end  of  the  town,  is,  though 
much  decayed,  a  venerable  and  magnificent  speci- 
men of  the  old  FInglLsh  cliurch  architecture.  It 
was  endowed  with  very  large  estates:  its  last 
prior  Xmng  convicted  of  high  treason,  wasexecnte<l 
m  1537.  A  {Mirt  of  it,  use<l  as  the  parish  church, 
accommodates  above  1,900  persons.  The  other 
places  of  worship  are  those  of  the  Wcsleyan  and 
rrimitive  MethtHiists,  BaptLitts,  Indei>(endents, 
Presbyterians  and  Quakers,    llie  schools  are,  a  free 


olO 


BRIDPOnT 


frrammnT- school,  foundoil  in  Uu)7:  two  Innro  na- 
tioiuil  M-h(M»K  nil  infants'  Hciiool,  and  a  schix)!  of 
industn',  fomultnl  in  17^1,  toinstnKM  fnjor  t-liiMn-n 
iu  ranlin;r,  knittii);jr<  a"d  W(m»1  fijiinninj^.  A  de- 
taclu'<l  iMiildiii;;,  whioli  IViniHMl  part,  of  the  |>riory, 
irt  used  for  a  town-hall  and  pri.xon.  Jk'si<lfS  a 
liri.nk  rt'tail  trade,  an  oxt«'nsive  <'orn  tra<lu  is 
oarriwl  on.  Tiio  buMness  is  tra!i>ai-trd  in  the 
Kxchange,  a  neat  conimodions  huihliri;;.  Hats 
nre  al.no  maniifai-tnretl  here,  and  in  the  nei^hlxnir- 
h<K>il  are  wveral  wind  an»l  water  niilN.  and  a 
Heam-niill  for  j^rindin^  liones.  Tlie  malt  tnide, 
whic-ii  was  formerly  ven'  extensive,  is  nnicli 
fallen  of!*.  IMarketH  are  held  on  Saturdays,  anvl 
a  eatll«  market  ever\'  fortnight ;  fairs  on  the 
Monday  before  WhitMindav,  and  Oct.  21.  Brid- 
lin^^on  is  a  .station  forn-oeivinj^  votes  at  eleeti(»ns 
for  the  E.  K'idin^.  The  banks  are,  a  branch  of 
llie  York  Union,  and  a  private  banking  house. 
Uri<llin)rton  (^uay  is  a  n<»at  villafre,  alnrnt  a  mile 
from  Hridlin^^ton,  and  fomhs  an  eel.  district,  wiih 
n  IM»p.  in  l^r»l,  of  2,»)77.  its  ])rin(-i)>al  street, 
whieh  is  verv  bn»ad.  leads  <lirectlv  to  the  harlxmr. 
where  tln're  is  excellent  anchoraj^e  :  it  isdefende<l 
by  two  batteries.  Here  an'  hot  and  coKl  baths, 
and  a  chalylK'atc  sprin*;,  whoNe  medicinal  pr«>- 
jH'rties  are  bij^hly  esteemed.  An  ebbing?  antl 
flowing;  spring,  tliscoven'd  in  IJSII.  supi>lies  the 
inhabitants  with  abundance  of  excellent  water. 
The  i>ort  is  a  mem  I  kt  of  that  of  Hull,  and  has  a 
neat  custom-honse  on  the  (piay.  It  is  much 
fnijuente<l  in  summer  by  visitor^  f(»r  sea-lwithing. 
lil{ll)l*<)irr.  a  lM)r.  and  .sea-|K>rt  of  England  co. 
Dorset,  hund.  Hridjiort,  127  m.  WSW.  London 
!)V  road,  and  H'i3  m.  bv  (iri'at  Western  Kailwav. 
l*op.  7,71i»  in  lxr>l.  The  town  lies  in  a  fenile 
vale  i'ucircled  by  hills.  b<'twren  the  Hrit  and 
Asher,  which  are  crossed  by  si^veral  bridges,  and 
iniite  a  short  <listance  Udow  the  town.  It  con- 
M-«ls  chietly  of  three  main  strwts,  well  lightiKl 
and  paved,  with  many  handsome  nnuUm  Imuses 
on  either  side.  The  church  is  a  cnuifonn  stnu!- 
ture  of  the  later  (iothic,  with  an  embattleil  and 
]>iMnacle<l  tower  in  the  centn*.  Tlie  Friends,  In- 
deiH*n»lents,  Wesh'vans,  and  rniiarians,  have 
each  chapels.  The  town-hall  where  the  council 
meet,  and  the  b»»rough  ses'^icais  an*  held,  is  a  han<l- 
(*ome  mcKleni  edifice  in  the  centre  of  tlie  place; 
there  b»  also  an  end«»wed  free  school,  founded 
170H.  and  an  almshouse,  founde*!  KiJKI.  The 
pier  harlM>nr  is  alM)ut  one  m.  S.  of  the  ttiwni,  Ik»- 
tween  Lyme  and  l*ortlan»l.  an<l  is  safe  and  c«)ni- 
modious,  though  rather  shallow.  An  a<'t,  passed 
in  1722  for  restoring  its  piers,  and  fonning  a  sluice, 
was  carried  into  etl\-ct  in  1712,  the  corp»)nition 
iK'ing  tnistee.  In  lt<'22  another  act  i)as>e<l,  by 
which  sevenil  private  ihtsous  wen*  u>ine(l  A\ith 
the  coqwinition  in  the  trust,  and  the  harl)our  was 
then  materially  improved  and  i-nlargrd,  at  an 
t'Xfionse  of  nearly  20.tH)(»/..  and  is  now  suitable 
for  vess«ds  of  2tM)  tons;  since  which  the  increase 
of  its  trade  lias  Ix'en  progn^ssive.  In  1.*<.S2  it  was 
mad*'  inde|K'iuh*nt  of  Lyme,  within  whose  juris- 
diction it  had  previ<»usly  lKt*n.  and  established 
as  a  bonding  |>ort.  The  <'ustoms'  duties  amountinl 
to  2,7.V.»/.  in  ISO.'?.  Themanufacturi'san' — twine, 
lines,  and  tlshing-nets,  for  the  home  and  colonial 
lisheries,  and  sail-cloth  and  shoe  thread :  these 
employ  several  hundnil  |>ersons.  The  expirts 
consist  chietly  of  those  manufactures,  and  of 
butter  an<l  cheese,  the  pnxluce  of  the  m-ighlKUir- 
ho<Ml.  The  imiKirts  comi>rist^  hemp,  llax,  and 
deals,  fn>m  the  lialtic:  tallow,  skins,  coal,  culm, 
slate,  wines,  spirits  and  gnK'tries,  C(»astwise. 
Tlun*  entered  the  iH>ri.  in  l?<r.;I,  loo  sailing 
\»'>sei^.  of  ?<,sir)  tons  burden,  and  tln-re  quilt<<I 
lo  sailing   vessels,  ^^  ^^^  tons.     There  are  2 


BRIEL 

weekly  markets  (U'ednewlay  and  Satunlay),  an<l 
.'3  fairs  (Ajiril  <>,  Holy  Thursday,   and  <>r^.  lo; 
chii'tly  for  horses,  cattle,  and  olie<?j»o).     The  U»r. 
is  divide<l  into  2  wards  and  goveniwl  by  a  mayor. 
r»  aldennen.  an«l  1«  councillors :  the  revenue  **( 
the  coqxjration   derived   from  market   dui-s  and 
rents   amounte<l   to  4\H)l,  in  iKiM,     hridpt^  han 
st'ut  2  nn-m.  to  the  House  of  Commons  sin<*  23 
Kdw.  1.    Ihrcviously  to  the  Keform  Act  the  right 
of  election  was  vested  in  the  houj^eholders  f«yiiig 
scot  and  h>t,  the  numl^er  of  votern  lieiiijg  neariy 
'MH).     In  IHOo  it  had  4»»1  regist.  electors,  iiicludiiif; 
It)  sci^t  and  lot  voters.      Amount    a:*!iesse<l    t« 
projuTty  tax  li>,27r>/.  in   li<CA,     Briiljx^rt   was  a 
l)orough  during  the  Saxtm  |)erio«l :  at  the  time  <jf 
the  Dome^dav  sur\-ev  it  hail  UH)  liouses,  a  mint, 
and   an   ecck>siastical  e^tal>lishment.     Tts  .staple 
manufacture  is  of  remote  origin  ;  Camden  notices 
a  s|Mcial  law  of  IIenr\'  the  Eighth's  reign,  by 
which  the  na\y  was  to  be  exclusively  »iipplieil 
with  cordage  made  at  liridport;  and  (iibMrn.  in  a 
note  on  the  j)a.ssage,  R[)eaks  of  the  failure  of  an 
attempt  in  hw  day  to  form  a  harlH-»ur  ((iibs,  V.d 
Hrit.  17(».)     It  confers  the  title  of  viscount  on  the 
H<K)d  family.  , 

IJKIE-COMTE-KOBERT,  a  town  of  France, 
d«'p.  Seine  et  Manie,  cap.  cant.,  near  the  Vt'res 
I(Hn.  NNW.  Melun.  Pop.  2.SM  in  IKtll.  The 
town  was  built  by  Rolnrt  of  Fran<*e,  ct^unt  of 
I)reux,  to  whom  his  brother  Louis  VII.  gave  the 
lordship  of  IJrie.  Its  old  feudal  castle  has  l)een 
demolishe<l.  The  ])arish  church,  foun<k>d  in  the 
ll>th  century,  is  n:markable  for  the  height  of  its 
tower.  The  Hotel  l)ieu  is  nearly  of  the  same  age 
as  the  church. 

ItKlE(i,  a  fortified  town  of  Pnis4.ia,  pniv.  Sile- 
sia, cap.  circ,  on  the  Oder,  alH>ut  half  wav  l-e- 
tween  Ilreslau  and  Opixdn,  and  on  the  railway 
from  lirt'slau  to  Vienna.  l*oi».  ]2,1>70  in  IWii. 
The  town  is  situated  on  an  elevate«l  bank  of  the 
river,  ovvr  which  it  has  a  wooden  bridge,  ami  is 
well  built  and  thriving,  rrincijial  [tublic  build- 
ings, a  ir>'mnasiuni,  formerly  a  university,  to  which 
is  attached  a  goml  library*,  a  lunatic  asylum,  with 
MHcral  churches  antl  hospitals.  It  has  extcn>ive 
manufactures  of  linens,  wtndlens,  and  cottons,  and 
carries  on  a  considerable  traile. 

HKMEL  or  HKIELLE,  a  fortified  sea-port  town 
of  the  NetherlaiKls,  prov.  S.  Holland,  cap.  amauL, 
on  the  N.  shore  of  the  Island  of  V<M»ni,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Mai>8e,  13  m.  W.  Rotterdam;  lat. 
olo  r>4'  1 1"  N.,  long.  40  9'  51"  K.  Pop.  4,.S04  in 
lS(il.  It  is  a  handsome  well-built  towni ;  is 
strongly  fortified:  has  a  good  h.arb(»ur.  a  tribunal 
of  primar\' juris^Hction,  aiul  semLs  a  deputy  to  the 
states  of  the  pn>vince. 

The  IJnel  is  remarkable  in  Dutch  histor\-  for 
iKMiig  the  plaee  when*  the  first  foundation  of  the 
npublic  was  lai<l.  The  exiles  from  the  Nelher- 
lainls.  wh<»  had  taken  refuge  in  England  fn>ni  the 
|)irsecution.s  of  the  Duke  of  Alva,  were  <»rdcred  by 
Queen  Elizal)eth,  ui  consequence  vf  the  urpMit 
repre.sentaticnis  of  Alva,  to  leave  this  kingdom. 
Ik'iiig  thus  driven  to  despair,  tliey  a.'«embU><l  a 
small  fleet  at  Dover,  under  the  conimantl  of  Wil- 
liam de  Lumey,  Count  de  la  Marck,  and  resolved, 
if  |M>ssible,  to  get  possession  of  some  place  «-f 
strength  in  their  native  conntr>-.  Their  original 
intention  was  to  make  an  attempt  on  Enohuysen; 
but  the  wind  l)eing  unfavourable,  they  cast  amluT 
U^fore  Uriel,  of  winch  they  t<H»k  {x^ssession  on  the 
1st  of  April,  1572.  Thus  was  stmck  the  rirs:  bl«.w 
in  that  appanMitly  ra<»8t  uneipial  and  long-iHMi- 
tiiUH'il  struggle  l)etween  Holl:uid  and  Spain,  th.it 
ended  in  the  i in Iei>eiidence  of  the  former :  aMru;:- 
gle  whieh.  wht-ther  we  coii>ider  the  sacrirK\.>  a::tl 
IKTseverance  of  the  weaker  party,  or  the  bencndal 


BRIENNE 

conficquonccs  of  their  sticceAA,  K  perhaps,  the  rnont 
extraonliiiory  aiid  iin|>ortaiit  of  which  histon'  has 
prv.Hcrvod  any  account.  (For  an  accoiyit  of  the 
o^ptun;  of  liricl)  sec  Watson's  Pliilip  II.,  i.  p.  427, 
8vo.  e«!.) 

]iriol  v,an  the  birth-phicc  of  the  heroic  Admiral 
Van  Tromp,  wlio  fell  in  an  en;^.'if;enient  with  the 
Knj^lisli,  under  Blake,  o£f  the  Tuxel,  on  the  8th  of 
Au^.,  lijr>:J. 

BUIKNNE,  a  town  of  France,  dc^p.  Aube,  cap. 
cant.,  on  the  f^reat  road  fri»m  Paris  t4>  (^haumont, 
\i>  m.  NW.  liar-»ur-Au»>e,  Pop.  2,057  in  1«G1. 
The  t«»wn  has  a  tine  castle,  erected  a  nhort  while 

itreviously  to  the  iievohition,  by  the  miniftter 
>oni(>ni<;*de  Hrienne^  It  stanib  on  an  artificial 
plateau,  and  commands  an  extensive  view.  Ma- 
}H)k*on  I.  n'ceived  the  tirst  rudiments  of  his  c<lu- 
catinn  in  a  militarv  academv  that  formerlv  existed 
in  tliLH  town,  but  which  was  suppressed  m  171H); 
and  here,  in  18U,  in  an  engagement  with  the 
Buiisians  and  Prussians,  he  was  iu  imminent 
danger. 

IJKIEUC  (ST.),  a  sea-port  town  of  France,  d<<p. 
Cotes-<lu-Xord,  of  which  it  is  the  capital,  on  the 
Gouet,  near  its  embouchure  in  the  Bay  of  SL 
Brieuc,  38  m.  WSVV.  St.  Malo,  on  the  railway 
from  Paris  to  Hrest.  Pop.  15,341  in  1861.  The 
jwrt  of  St.  Brieuc,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  at 
the  village  of  Ligouc^,  has  a  handsome  quay,  and 
a  comm(Mli()U!4  harltour,  accessible  to  vessels  of  350 
tons.  The  town  is  pretty  well  builL  The  cathe- 
dral, a  (iothic  (.^Htice,  was  l>egun  iu  1220,  and 
lini>lieil  hi  1234;  there  are,  also,  a  hotel  de  ville, 
an  hospital  on  a  large  scale,  a  workhou^ie,  and  a 
theatre.  The  bridge  over  the  river  is  a  handsome 
stone  Htmclurc  of  three  arches.  There  are  some 
g<M)d  H(|uares  and  fine  pmmenades.  St.  Brieuc  is 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  of  tribunals  of  primary 
jurisdiction  and  ctiniraerce;  and  it  has  a  liejMirt- 
mentui  college,  a  dim'esan  seminary  ^^-ith  KiO 
]iupil.s  a  school  of  arts,  and  a  public  library  with 
24,(M)()  volumes.  There  are  hi  the  town  fabrics  of 
linen,  serge,  tlannel,  and  pajwr,  with  tanneries 
an«l  breweries.  The  inhabitants  used  to  employ  a 
considerable  number  of  shiiis  in  the  whale  and  cod 
fisheries,  jiarticularly  the  latter,  but  this  industry 
has  j'reatly  declined  of  Ute  years,  chiefiy,  it  is 
stateil,  on  account  of  the  strict  laws  of  maritime 
conscription,  which  impreswes  the  greater  part  of 
the  rising  generation  for  the  Imi^erial  navy.  The 
cojLst  fi^ihery,  lK>wever,  is  still  carried  on  t^>  a  con- 
sido.raldc  extent.  Horse  races  were  established 
here  in  1807.  and  are  kept  up  with  gwat  sjiirit. 

HKKiHTON,  formerly  BKIGHTIIELM- 
STONK,  a  fashionable  marit.  town  and  |»arl.  bor. 
of  ILnglnnd.  co.  Sussex,  rajie  Lewes,  huiid.  IVells- 
ittninit,  vulg.  lyhaleshoney  47  m.  S.  Lond<m  bv 
roa<l,  and  50  m.  bv  London.  Brighton  and  South 
('.»ast  railway.  Pop.  21,42S»  in  1«21  ;  41,Ui»4  m 
1831  ;  4i>,t»(»rin  1841 ;  tii»,r.73in  1«51 ;  and 87,317 
in  l^t'il.  The  latter  is  the  pop.  within  the  bounds 
of  the  pari.  lM>rough;  that  of  the  municiiial 
ls»rough  was  77.<>V*3  in  18«;i.  Brightim— the  nio- 
dern  IJaia* — is  situateil  on  the  ct»ast  of  the  British 
<'haunel,  Ix'tween  Beachey  Heat!  and  Sidsey  Bill. 
It  is  of  an  irregular  shape,  being  built  along  the 
shore,  and  on  the  slopes  of  a  gentle  valley,  the 
centre  of  which,  the  Steyne,  a  long,  nam)w  slip  of 
laud,  lying  N.  and  S.,  divides  the  town  into  tlie 
K.  and'W.  portions.  In  this  valley  are  the  Pa- 
vilion, and  St.  Peter's  Church ;  a  statue  of  George 
IV.  by  (.'hantrey,  and  a  handsome  f<mntain  con- 
st nutVd  in  IxiCi,  The  town  E.  the  Steyne.  has 
Is-en  wholly  built  within  the  la-*t  eighty  years. 
Along  the  rlilTs,  which  in  this  jiart  rise  high  alx)ve 
the  H-a,  has  U'en  fomit^l  a  very  lM>autiful  marine 
liromenotie.    A  wall  of  immeiiM!  Uiickncss  (at  the 


BRIGHTON 


541 


fomidation  30  ft.  wide),  and  from  60  to  70  ft,  high, 
formed  of  concrete,  protects  a  fine  pavement,  and 
a  road  upwanls  of  100  ft,  ui  width.  From  the 
extreme  E.  entrance  of  the  town,  this  magnificent 
uromenade  and  drive  is  skirted  to  the  Stejiie  by 
large  mansions,  and  lodging-houses  of  the  first 
description.  Among  others  are  those  of  Kemp 
Town,  and  its  squares,  a  splendid  range,  forming 
three  sides  of  a  quadrangle,  and  having  a  row  of 
houses,  of  similar  architectural  character,  diveiging 
from  either  extremity :  the  spacious  area  in  fnmt 
18  laid  out  in  walks,  and  has  an  arched  passage 
communicating  with  the  l)each,  the  crescent,  and 
various  spacious  streets,  oi)ening  from  the  line  of 
cliff  to  the  northward.  \\  est  of  the  Ste^-ne  is  the 
old  town,  consisting  princifmlly  of  old  and  irr^^- 
lar  buildings.  Many  4)f  these  liave,  however,  been 
pulled  down,  and  on  the  sites  of  some  of  them,  a 
new  market  was  amstructed  in  1829,  and  a  town- 
hall  in  1831;  but  the  latter,  though  large,  and 
making  a  good  appearance  externally,  is  not  well 
adapted  for  public  meetings.  In  ever^'  direction 
round  the  old  town  new  streets  and  squares  have 
been  erected ;  particuUrly  along  the  line  of  coast, 
called  the  King's  Road  to  Hove,  where,  facing  tlie 
sea,  are  some  fine  ranges  of  mansions,  including 
Bedford  Square,  Regency  Square,  Brunswick  Ter- 
race and  Square,  AdeUide  Terrace,  Royal  Crescent, 
Palmeira  ^^uare,  and  numerous  others.  The  cliffs, 
along  this  ^mrt  of  the  coast,  rise  only  a  few  feet 
above  the  highest  part  of  ihe  I)each :  in  their  fnmt 
is  a  fine  i)ronienade,  and,  beh>w  this,  a  level  s|>aoe 
of  green  sward  reaching  down  to  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  the  water.  ( )n  the  Lewes  roa<i  are  Hanover 
Crescent,  Richmond  Terrace,  the  Grand  Parade, 
and  ParkCrescent,  recently  erected  on  the  site  of  the 
Koyal  Gardens  and  Cricket  Ground.  On  the  London 
road  are  York  and  St,  (reorge's  Places,  and  many 
structures  in  the  cottage  style.  The  palace  called 
the  Pavilion,  was  lx>gun  by  George  IV.when  Pruice 
of  Wales,  in  1784,  and  completed  in  1827;  it  ia 
in  the  oriental  st vie,  lieing  coftied  from  the  Krem- 
lin at  Moscow ;  its  stone  fh)nt  extends  200  ft ;  it 
has  a  cin*uhir  building  in  the  centre,  surmounted 
bv  a  pilUred  dome.  The  ClhajHjl  Royal  is  on  the 
\V.,  and  behind  is  a  circular  range  of  stables  in 
the  Arabian  style,  lightejl  by  a  glass  dome.  The 
palace  is  shut  out  fn»m  the  view  of  the  sea  by  the 
Albion  Hotel  and  other  buildings;  and  little  cad 
be  said  in  favour  of  the  taste  dis|)layed  in  its 
ere<'tii>n.  This  building  and  the  ground  attached 
to  it,  comprising  about  seven  acres,  have  l»een 
[nirchased  by  the  town,  at  a  cost  of  53,0(KJ/.,  and 
the  place  has  been  converted  into  reading  and  as- 
sembly rooms,  and  a  sort  of  refuge  for  miscella- 
neous entertauiments.  The  old  church  of  great 
antiquity,  a  mean  fabric,  itartlv  in  the  oniamentetl 
and  jiartly  in  the  later  Gothic  style,  has  a  low, 
massive,  square  tower,  which,  asit  stands  on  a 
hill  150  ft,  alwve  the  sea,  ser\'es  as  a  lan<lmark  fi»r 
vessels.  SL  Peters  church,  an  elegant  Gothic 
structure,  c<implete<l  in  1827,  at  the  public  exiiense, 
has  upwards  of  1,100  free  sittings.  Besidejt  these, 
there  are  li»  other  churches,  and  28  chapeU,  for 
Roman  Catludics,  Huntingdonians,  Quakeis,  In- 
def)endents.  Baptists,  S<^)tch  Seceders,  and  Wes- 
leyan  and  Whitfield  Methodists.  There  are 
numerous  free  scIkmiIs,  partly  supported  by  sub- 
scriptions and  partly  endowed,  with  or))han,  na- 
rional,  infant,  and  ragged  schools.  Among  the 
other  educational  establishments  are  Brighton 
College;  the  I)i(Mx«an  Training  C<>llege,  on  the 
cliffs;  St,  Mar>''s  Hall.  f«>rcleigj-men'8  daughters; 
and  the  Dissenters*  Pn>prietar>'  College.  The 
County  Hospital,  in  the  neighliourhood  of  the 
colh*ge,  is  a  laige  and  well  suoimrted  establish- 
mcuL    There  arc  baths  of  all  kinds,  coustrucled 


5(2 


BRIGHTON 


with  even'  rej^anl  to  comfort  and  convonience,  as 
well  a.H  numen>u.s  bathing  ma<'hinps.  The  (iennnn 
S|Mi,  in  a  valley  facing  the  sea.  at  the  foot  of  the 
l{ow  Hill,  was*  establLshejl  in  lH2r>,  for  the  pnv 
{tamtion  of  artificial  mineral  waters,  in  imitation 
of  the  natuml  springs  at  Carlsl>atl,  Ems,  Marien- 
bad,  and  Pyrmont. 

All  (^lasses  of  visitors  find  suitable  accommoda- 
tion here,  in  fumishe<l  lodj^in^s,  inns,  and  hotels ; 
of  all  which  there  is  everv  varietv,  fn»m  th«>se  of 
the  most  superb  and  exjK'nsivc  chanicter,  to  the 
plaini>st  and  most  economical.  On  the  Downs  is  a 
well  kept  course,  where  races  are  held  the  first 
week  of  August,  There  are  many  fine  promenades; 
amonf^st  tljem,  a  very  favourite  t>ne  is  the  sus- 
|>ension  chain-pier,  constnicted  in  1H21»  at  an  ex- 
iK'nse  of  30.(MH)/. :  the  pier  head  is  (M)  {{.  by  20.  and 
lias  seats  and  awnings,  with  galleries  and  Mights 
(»f  steps,  to  facilitate  landing  and  embarkation  at  * 
difterent  stages  of  the  tide :  tlie  pier  itself  is  1,200 
ft.  in  length  Ity  14  ft.  in  width  ;  and  an  esplanade 
of  the  same  length,  40  ft.  wide,  connects  it  with 
the  Steyne.  Hrighton  has  no  harlxMir,  and  no 
maritime  tnule;  but  al>out  150  lK)ats  arc  empl<»ye<l 
in  fishing.  Mat^kerel,  herrings,  turt>ot,  soles,  and 
skate  arc  caught  in  considerable  quantities,  and  in 
part  supply  the  London  markets.  The  intercourse 
with  the  metrojwlis,  fonne.rly  effected  by  fast 
coaches,  has  increased  immensely  since  the  ojK»ning 
of  the  railway,  by  which  frequently  2t>,000  persons 
are  carried  down  in  a  day,  in  so-called  '  excursion ' 
trains.  • 

The  IJeform  act  conferred  on  Rrighton  the  pri- 
vilege of  returning  two  meml>ers  to  the  H.  of  C  ; 
The  jMirl.  bor.,  inc.  the  parishes  of  Brigliton  and 
Hove,  extends  (►ver  2,820  acres.  Itegistcred  con- 
Ptituency,  5,G27  in  IKGo.  By  a  charter  date<l  1st 
April,  1854,  the  munici}>al  bomugh  is  divided  into 
6  wanls,  and  governed  by  a  mayor,  12  aldermen, 
and  8(5  councillors.  Borough  income,  .V.),4iM/.  in 
1801  ;  amount  assessed  t^  pn^perty  tax  .5(54,205/. 

Brighton  has  three  banknig  establishments,  and 
a  Savhigs'  Bunk.  The  town  8upix)rts  seven  news^ 
papers. 

Ft»r  some  centuries  Brighton  was  a  mere  fishing 
village,  anil  was  frequently  attacked  and  plunderetl 
by  the  French;  to  prevent  which,  Henry  VIII. 

trected  some  fortifications,  which  were  strength- 
ned  and  extendetl  by  Eliz.  But  it  has  suffered 
more  from  the  action  of  the  sea  undermining  the 
clifts,  than  from  anything  eke.  *  In  the  reign  of 
Klizalieth  the  town  of  Brighton  was  situated  on 
that  tract  where  the  chain-pier  now  extends  into 
the  sea.  In  1(JG5,  22  tenements  had  been  «h'stn>yed 
nn<ler  the  cliff.  At  that  pericxl  there  still  remained 
under  the  clitf  118  tenements,  the  whole  of  which 
were  overwhelmed  in  1708  and  1705.  No  tract»s 
of  the  ancient  town  are  now  perceptible.'  (Lyell's 
(ieology,  i.  418,  cd.  1885.)  The  great  sea-wall, 
noticed  al>ove,  was  constructe<l  to  prevent  the  en- 
croachment of  the  sea  on  the  eastern  cliffs,  on  which 
it  was  making  the  most  serious  inroads. 

Brighton  Ix'gan  to  come  into  repute  in  the  reign 
of  George  II.  as  a  watering  and  sea-bathhig  place, 
principally  through  the  writings  of  Dr.  Itichanl 
Kuss<'ll.  an  eminent  phvsician  of  that  dav.     In 
17(i()  the  chalylx'ate  spring  was  oksers'ed.  which 
tended   to   incn'sase  its  growing  popularity.     No 
doui)t,  however,  it  was  principally  indebted  for  Ua 
rapid  rise,  and  for  the  high  rank  it  has  long  con- 
tinued to  hold  among  watering  and  fashionable 
places,  U>  the  zealou-^  and  continued  patronage  of  ■ 
George  1 V.  when  Prince  of  Wales,  and  when  re-  j 
gent  and  s(>vereign.     It  has  nearly  quadrupled  its  i 
population  in  the  course  of  half  a  centurj',  as  will  \ 
ix!  si'en  from  the  census  returns  l>ef(»re  given  ;  and 
the  advantages  it  enjoys  in  its  situation,  and  in  its 


BRIOUDE 

l)eing  the  nearest  port  on  the  S.  coant  to  London, 
will  prol>ably  insure  its  prosperity. 

BHIGNOLKS,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Var,  cap. 
arr(»nd.,on  the  Carami,  22  m.  NNE.  Toulon.  P«i^). 
(*>,148  in  18()1.  The  town  is  neat  and  well  built, 
and  is  finely  situateil  in  a  fertile  Ua^in,  .Hurroundeti 
with  high  woode<l  hills.  Its  principal  omameut  is 
its  magnificent  public  fountain,  in  the  square 
Carami.  It  has  a  tribunal  of  primary  jurL^ictiiW, 
a  primarj'  normal  schwd,  a  secon<lar>'  ecclesiastical 
school,  a  public  librari%  an<i  a  soiMeiy  of  agricul- 
ture, with  filatures  of  silk,  fabrics  of  wine,  camlles 
and  tanneries.  A  considerable  trade  i»  carried  on 
in  olive-oil,  wine,  liqueurs,  brandy,  and  excellent 
prunes,  known  by  the  name  of  brigntUU*, 

BIULLON,  a  town  of  Prussia,  prov,  West- 
phalia, reg.  Amsl>erg,  cap.  circ  24  m.  SE.  Sow^t, 
Poj).  4,800  in  18()1.  The  town  haa  two  chnn-he^ 
a  adlege,  an  hospital,  and  fabrics  of  linen  aiul 
brass.  1  n  the  cnvin)ns  are  mines  of  silver,  lead,  and 
calamine. 

BBINDISI  (an.^rtfm/M«iwm),asea-i>nrt  and  city 
of  Southern  Italy,  prov.  I^cce,  cap.  distr.,  at  the 
l>ottom  of  a  bay  Ixitween  ca|M?s  Cavallo  andGol1<». 
and  on  the  railway  Irom  Trani  to  Leccc  and  the 
gidf  of  Taranto.  Pop.  8,844  in  18t>2.  In  antiquity 
thl"*  was  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  Italy, 
and  was  tlie  i>ort  whence  the  intercoun«e  between 
Italy  and  (ireece,  and  the  East,  waa  usually  carrittl 
on.  It  owed  this  distinction  aa  much  to  the  ex- 
cel lentx;  of  its  harbour  as  to  its  situation  :  but  in 
mwleni  times  it  is  sadly  changed  for  the  worst.  It 
is  still  of  great  extent  within  the  walls;  hut  the 
inhabitetl  houses  do  not  occupv  above  half  the  in- 
closure.  The  strwts  are  crooked  and  n»ugh,  and 
the  houses  poor  and  in  disrepair.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  citadel,  a  large  bea\y-Iooking  ca- 
the<lnd,  and  a  few  remains  of  antiquity,  there  \* 
nothing  in  it  that  desen'es  attention.  This 
melan(?holy  change  has  been  pnxluced  by  the 
nearly  total  loss  of  the  inner  haihour.  Tliis,  which 
encompasses  the  city  on  two  of  its  sides,  and  is 
deep  and  capacious,  was  united  to  the  outer  har- 
bour, or  l»ay,  by  a  nam>w  entrance,  like  that 
leading  to  Portsmouth  harbour  or  the  Havannah. 
Unfortunately,  however,  this  entrance  ha\ing  been 
nearly  shut  up,  the  inner  harbour  was  in  conse- 
quence renderetl  inaccei«ible  to  all  but  the  smallest 
vessels  and  in  summer  l)ecame  fetid  and  un- 
healthy. Julius  C'lesar,  who  attempted  to  bltK-k 
up  Ponq>ey*8  fiwt  that  had  met  in  the  inner  har- 
Ixmr.  by  running  mounds  into  its  outlets,  may  be 
sjiid  to  have  commence<l  the  niin  of  Brindisi.  which 
was  completed  in  the  15th  century  by  a  prince  of 
Tarant(»,  wh(»  sunk  vessels  filled  with  earth  and 
stones  in  the  passage  left  open  by  Ca»sar.  The 
destruction  that  was  thus  bn>ught  on  the  town 
an<l  its  offsets  roused  at  length  the  attention  of  (he 
Nea|)ohtan  gov.,  by  whom  a  vigonuis  effort  was 
ma4le  in  177G  to  (jbviate  the  catu$e  of  the  misi'hicf, 
by  cutting  a  new  channel  between  the  two  har- 
iKuirs.  But  owing,  as  it  would  seem,  to  some  de- 
fect in  the  plan,  the  pnyect  has  only  partially 
succeeded ;  the  new  channel  soon  filletl'up,  and  the 
entnince  to  the  iimer  harbour  l>ecame  neariy  as 
much  encumlx'red  as  before.  Tlie  caiial  is  n4>w, 
however,  kept  oi>en  by  dredging  and  otherwi'<'  t«» 
the  depth  of  10  or  12  palmi,  so  that  vessels  of  this 
draught  of  water  may  enter  the  inner  |K»rt,  The 
outer  harl)our,  or  l)ay,  is  deep  and  capacious,  and 
has  gooil  anch(»ring  ground.  It  is  partially  pnv- 
tecte<i  by  an  island,  on  which  a  fort  is  built ;  but 
it  is  exj>oseii  to  the  easterly  gales,  which  throw  in 
a  heavy  sea.  A  vast  plan  for  the  rcconstiiiction<^ 
the  old  harbour  was  approved  of  by  the  Italian 
govcniment  in  18G5. 

BKIOUDE,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Haute  Loiie, 


BRISACH  (NEW) 

cap.  arrond.,  in  a  vast  plain  near  tho  Allier,  30  m. 
N.W.  Puv,  on  the  railway  fwm  Clermont  to  Puy. 
Pop.  4,050  in  1861 .  The  town  \»  old,  ill-built»  and 
dirty.  It»  most  remarkable  edilices  are  the  coUc^e, 
situated  on  a  hill,  and  commanding  a  fine  view, 
an<i  the  church  of  St.  Julian,  a  venerable  Gothic 
fabric,  founded  in  the  9th  centurv.  Besides  the 
colleije.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  court  of  primary  juris- 
diction, and  has  a  small  public  library,  and  a  so- 
ciety of  a^culture.  Brioude  was  the  birthplace 
of  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  who  acted  so  cdn- 
spicuous  a  part  in  the  American  and  French  revo- 
lutions. At  Old  Brioude,  about  3  m.  SSE.  of 
Brioude,  is  a  bridf;^  over  the  Allier,  built  in  1845, 
con^iMtin^  of  a  single  arch  182  ft.  in  sfuin. 

BKISACH  (NEWO,  a  fortified  t<»wn  4)f  France, 
dep.  Haut.  Khin.  cap.  cant.,  near  the  left  bank  of 
the  Khine,  o))posite  to  old  Brisach,  9  ra.  SR.  Col- 
mar.  Pop.  3,456  in  1861.  The  town  was  built  in 
1690  by  I^ids  XIV.,  and  fortified  by  Vauban.  It 
is  a  ref^ular  octagon,  and  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  finest  works  constructed  by  that  celebrated 
engineer.  Tlie  streetit  all  terminate  in  a  place  in 
the  centre,  and  the  houses  are  all  of  the  same 
height.  It  is  of  no  importance  except  as  a  fortifi- 
cation, beuig  without  trade  or  commerce. 

BKISTOL,  a  city,  co.,  parL,  bor.,  and  sea-port 
of  England,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Avon  and 
Frome,  8  m.  SE.  of  the  embouchure  of  the  former, 
in  the  Bristol  Channel,  108  ra.  W.  Ixtndon  by  road, 
and  118^  m.  by  Great  Western  railwav.  Pop. 
95,758  in  1821 ;  140,158  in  1841 ;  137,328 'in  1851 ; 
and  154,093  in  1861.  The  city  extends  over  7 
hiUs  and  their  intermediate  valleys,  amidst  a 
pictures(iue  and  fertile  district  In  the  older  por- 
tion, along  the  river  side,  forming  the  nucleus  of 
the  m<Miem  city,  the  houses  were  originally  of 
wood  and  plaster,  with  upper  stories  projecting 
over  narrow  streets;  but  these  are  now  greatly 
diminished.  In  the  more  modem  and  elevated 
portions  of  tlie  t4>wn,  the  streets  and  squaR>s  are 
spacious,  and  the  houses  are  mostly  well  built  and 
substantial,  lliose  of  Kings<lown,  St  Micliael's, 
and  Clifton  hills  on  the  N.  and  W.,  rise,  with  their 
terraces  and  gardens  each  a)x)ve  the  other,  like  an 
amphitheatre.  Kedcliffe,  on  the  S.  has  narrow 
fitreets  and  densely  crowde<l  houses,  rcsembling 
those  of  the  older  part  of  the  city ;  but  the  pn>cess 
of  widening  them  has  been  undertaken  by  the 
Impn>vement  Committee  under  a  local  act  of 
parliament.  Bedminster  is  mostly  occupied  by 
small  mo<lem  tenements  for  the  working  classes, 
and  tan-yard:^,  llie  whole  city  is  well  paved  and 
sewered,  and  is  lighted  with  coal  gas,  supplied  by 
two  public  companies.  Water  is  conducted  by 
pipes  to  several  public  conduits  and  public  pum])s, 
and  also  by  waterworks,  established  under  an 
incorporated  companv,  which  fetches  it»  supplies 
from  springs  rising  m  the  Dundr>'  and  Mcndip 
Hills.  The  cathedral  in  College  Green,  of  the  age 
of  Stephen,  and  anciently  part  of  St.  Augustine's 
abl>ey,  is  a  venerable  edifice.  It  was  r>riginally  in 
the  form  of  a  cross,  and  di.s|)lays  the  different 
styles  of  F)nglish  church  orchitei'ture ;  length  175 
feet,  breadth  of  transept  128,  and  of  nave  and 
fdsles  73  do.,  height  of  tower,  140  do.  The  nave 
was  destroyed  during  the  civil  war  in  the  reign  of 
(.'harles  I.  The  Chapter  House  vestibule  Ls  re- 
markable for  its  simi)li(rity  and  the  beautv  of  its 
comi>osition.  Among  the  other  churches,  belong- 
ing to  the  establishment,  the  principal  are  St. 
Mnr\-\H  Ke<icliffe,  crowning  the  summit  of  that 
hill:*  St  Stephen's,  with  its  richly  decorated  tower, 
the  l>eautiful  pinnacles  of  whioh,  l>eing  in  a  dilapi- 
dated state,  were  nnnoved  some  years  since ;  All- 
Saints,  which  has  a  statue  of  Colston,  by  Uysbrack ; 
the    Mayor's   Chapel,    formerly   called   Gaimt's 


BBISTOL 


643 


Chnrch,  and  St  Michael's.  The  dissenters  of 
various  denomuiations  form  a  very  numerous  and 
important  part  of  the  community,  tnd  have  a 
proportional  number  of  places  of  worship.  There 
are  about  a  dozen  endowed  charity  schools.  The 
free  grammar-school,  founded  in  1*532.  has  several 
exhibitions,  and  two  fellowships,  each  of  30^  a  year, 
in  St.  .John's,  Oxford.  The  endowments  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Hospital,  founded  by  John  Carr  in 
1586,  produce  about  5,000£.  a  year.  They  are 
employed  to  educate,  clothe,  maintain,  and  after- 
wards apprentice  about  200  boys,  who  are  lodged 
in  a  noble  building  lately  erected  in  the  Eliza- 
bethan style  on  the  N\V.  sule  of  Brandon  Hill. 
Alderman  Whitson's  Ked  Maids'  school,  founded 
in  1621,  lias  an  income  of  about  4,000^  a  year;  it 
maintains,  clothes,  and  educates  120  young  girls, 
daughters  of  freemen,  from  eight  to  eighteen  years 
of  age,  who  are  then  placed  in  suitable  situations ; 
and,  if  they  conduct  themselves  with  propriety, 
they  have  a  small  portion  when  they  marry.  This 
school  has  also  been  rebuilt  in  the  Elizabethan 
style,  and,  with  the  preceding  schools,  is  onder 
the  management  of  the  Charity  Trustees.  There 
are  also,  the  KedclifTc  free  grammar-school,  founded 
in  the  13th  of  Eliz.,  and  Colston's,  in  1708,  for  the 
maintenance,  clothing,  and  education  of  100  boys. 
Besides  these,  there  are  many  other  schools,  sup- 
ported either  wholly  or  partially  by  benefactions 
and  public  subscriptions,  in  wiiicfi  upwanls  of 
3,0<)0  children  are  educated,  and  upwards  of  10,000 
receive  instruction  in  the  Sunday  schools  of  the 
various  sects.  There  are  21  alms-houses,  which 
receive  in  all  110  old  men  and  236  old  women. 
The  other  charitable  institutions  comprise  the 
Infirmar}',  establishe<l  in  1735,  capable  of  accom- 
modating 200  patients ;  it  has  an  annual  average 
of  1,600  til  and  5,000  out  patients,  who  are  sup- 
ported partly  by  its  own  funded  property,  and 
partly  by  subscriptions  and  donations :  the  (leneral 
IliK^pitai,  a  smaller  establishment  than  the  former, 
and  partly  on  a  self-supporting  princi)>le:  the 
r)isi>en.sar>',  which  gives  medical  reUef  to  the  poor 
at  their  own  dwellings :  asylums  for  the  blind,  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  and  for  orphan  girls :  a  female 
penitentiar\%  and  between  4U  and  50  other  chari- 
table societies,  which  distribute  in  various  ways 
ver}'  considerable  sums.  The  poor  are  maintained 
under  a  local  Act  The  gross  sum  assessed  to  poor 
rate  was  535,873/.  in  1861. 

The  principal  public  buildings  are, — the  Guild- 
hall, a  modem  structure  in  the  florid  (^thic  style, 
on  the  site  of  the  old  building:  the  Council  House, 
built  in  1827,  at  a  cost  of  about  14,(KX)/. :  the  (latd, 
a  large  well-arranged  structure,  built  in  1820:  the 
Bridewell,  rebuilt  after  the  riots  in  18:^1 :  the  Ex- 
change, an  extensive  building  of  the  Corinthian 
order,  was  erected  by  the  corporarion  in  1760,  tMit 
not  being  adopte<l  by  the  merchants  as  a  place  of 
meeting,  the  interior  is  occupied  as  a  com  market, 
and  its  Ijack  forms  part  of  the  sj[)acious  quadrangle 
in  which  the  princijial  market  is  held.  The  Com- 
mercial Booms,  built  in  1811,  and  used  as  an 
exchange,  have  a  handsome  dome,  an  Ionic 
IK»rtico,  a  large  hall,  reading  room,  and  various 
ai»artments  for  the  desi)atch  of  business.  The 
branch  of  the  bank  of  England,  a  modem  baild- 
ing,  in  the  Grecian  style,  adjoins  the  GuildhalL 
Tlie  Brist4d  Literary  and  Philosophical  Institu- 
tion, a  handsome  edifice,  opened  m  1823,  has  a 
readiing-nH>m,  librar\',  theatre,  and  museum:  in 
the  latter  are  goo({  collections  both  in  natural 
history  and  the  tine  arts,  among  them  Baily's 
statue  of  ^Eve  at  the  Fountain.'  Courses  of 
lectures  are  given,  philosophical  papers  read, 
and  it  has  occasional  exhibitions  of  paintings. 
The  Mechanics*  Institute,  built  in  1832,  has  a 


541 

locturo  ami  a  roa<linf;-r(Kini.  Tlio  llri«?t(il  Libran', 
0>tal)lUhcMl  ill  1772.  has  a  colkrtion  of  alNuit 
r>0.(M)il  \oh.  in  ^CTU-ral  literature.  'I'licro  an*  alM» 
law  and  nuHli<'aI  ]il)rari(>s;  a  medical  .H<'h(M>l,  es- 
talili.shod  in  iH.'il,  in  wliicli  (Muiplctc*  courses  of 
leoturos  an*  jfivcn,  the  t-ertitieates  <if  itn  professors 
iK'inj;  reeoj^iiised  at  A|)olhcraries'  Hall:  an  en- 
d«)wed  '  Arademy  for  the  advancement  of  the  Fine 


BiaSTOL 

lM)th  ends,  on  onch  of  which  a  tower  ia  erected.  The 
Avon.  alM)ve  i)ri»t4>l  liri«l^c,  Is  navi^^jle  for  bar;^-:* 
to  Hath,  whence  the  water  ct>mnii in icatirm  Lt  con- 
tinued to  London  by  the  Avon  and  Kcimet  canal 
and  the  Thames.  Thn'e  railway?*,  viz.  the  Bristol 
and  (iloucester,  (Jreat  Western,  and  the  Ihri^itol 
and  Kxeter,  have  termini  in  tlie  city,  which,  c»«- 
sequently,  ha.H  a  rapid  means  of  c<>mmunicariun 


Art.n;'  and  an  academy  f(»r  the  education  of  y(»un;( :  with  the  metro|K>lLs  and  all  (>art8  of  the  c«)untn. 
men  for  the  Ikiptist  ministry,  to  whi<h  an  ex-  i  'i  he  Kxchanj^e  market,  and  tliat  of  St,  .fameit,  are 
tensive  lihrarA'  and  museum  are  atta<»hed.  There  '  oiK'n«Uiily  for  ^enenil  provisions;  the  chief  !tu|)fily 
is  a  handsome  e«lifioc  of  the  (,'<»rinthian  order  in  j  heinj;  <m  Wednesilays  ami  Saturdays;  c»om  and 


is  a  handsome  edifice  of  the  Corinthian  order  in 
lYinces  StnxM,  in  the  ^»at  room  of  which  concerts, 
halls,  and  other  entertainments  are  sometimes 
pven.  The  Vict<iria  ass«'ini»ly  roonis  have  a 
HaliH>n  117  ft.  in  leni^th,  hy  ;'».'»  do.  in  width,  an<l 
4h  do.  in  heijjhr.  The  theatre  wjls  said  hy  (Jarrii'k 
to  be  one  of  the  best  (»f  its  size  in  Kurope.  At 
Clifton  arc  baths  and  dump-nnims;  and  connected 
w^ilh  the  hot  wells  is  a  handsome  editice  of  the 
Tuscan  order. 

The  l{rist<il  channel  is  coh'hrated  for  its  ]ii<;h 
tides.  They  rise  at  Kinniad,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Avon,  from  -ix  to  49  ft.  at  springs,  and  23  ft.  at 
neajfs,  while  their  rise  at  the  entrance  to  the 
float  in^;  harlKjur  at  Kownham,  varies  from  .'{()  to 
Xi  ft.  In  consecjuence  of  this  extnutnliiuir}'  nso, 
the  larjrest  ships  come  up  to  the  city.  The  ti<le 
nets  with  j^H'at  rapidity  in  the  river.  es|M'cially 
between  the  precipitxius  nK^ks  of  ( 'lilton  and  Lei^^h, 
which   seem    to   Ik'   rent  asunder    to    admit  its 


fwrinj;  <m  Wednesilays  ami  Saturdays;  c»»>m  and 
leather  markets  are  hehlTuewlays  and  TTiurs4Liy<. 
The  cattle-market  is  heh!  on  'Hmrsdays,  in  a  walie<l 
area  <»f  4  acres,  outside  the  city,  at  Temple  Mea«l<. 
at  the  junction  of  the  (ireat  \Ve>tem  ami  Exeter 
milwavs.  At  the  great  market  on  the  Thun«iUy 
pHH-eding  Christmas,  the  show  is  usually  ver>' 
lijie.  Two  anuual  fairs,  commencing  Isit  March 
and  1st  Sept.,  that  were  formerly  resented  to  by 
clothiers,  hosiers,  and  cutlers,  from  all  (tart^  of 
Knf,'land,  having  fallen  int«  desuetude,  wcrt- 
aboli>hetl  in  l«a7;  but  fairs  for  cattks  horsjes,  and 
leather,  are  still  held  on  the  above  daya. 

Itrist(d  was,  for  a  lengthened  period,  secrmtl 
only  to  London  a^^  a  commercial  emporium ;  but, 
though  its  comi»arative  importance  hax,  in  thi-* 
respcvt,  greatly  decline<l,  it  continues  to  be  the 
M'at  of  s»»me  imi>ortant  manufactures  and  «f  an 
extensive  and  increasing  traile.  The  jtrincij^il 
manufacturers  are  those  of  n;(med  sugar;  bra-^i 
and  coj»j»cr  wares,  for  the  priMluction  vf  wliich 


V  iMiJ  >  <•  It  ill     (<'     <•    iv  t  1      «i>n  rw,    >i<».-i      irtiii      1  i'ii.~>i,i  !•«.  i\  ■<• 

This  imiMirlant  work.  Ixigun  in  1H(I4  and  com|deted 
in  l«uy,  was  efft'cttMl  by  changing  the  bed  of  the 
river.  Ihit  tin*  original  entrance  t<»  the  harlsmr 
being  Unt  small  to  admit  steam  shi^is  of  the  lar- 
gest size,  anew  entrance  of  the  requisite  dimensions 
was  made  to  it  in  \HV.K  The  harlsmr  extends 
aUiut  ',\  mih*'«  from  the  entrance  lock  at  Uownham, 
to  the  dam  at  Temple  Meads,  (K'lnipyhig  the  (dd 
ImhI  of  tlie  Av(»n.  and  the  iK'd  of  that  branch  of 
the  P'ronie  that  lies  U-tween  St.  Augustine's  and 
St.  Stephen's  quays,  and  cost  in  all  a  very  large 
num.  The  quay  is  upwards  of  a  mile  in  length, 
and  so  constnu'ted  as  to  admit  of  any  further  ex- 
tension that  any  increased  trade  may  re<piire. 
There  are  two  basins  f<»r  the  tenqiorary  acc<»mo- 
dalion  of  vess<'ls  entering  or  leaving;  one  at 
Kownham  f»»r  large  ships,  the  other  Udow  the 
inni  bridge  at  Ikidminster,  for  ve.-sels  under  i>(i(i 
tons.     There  arc  also  st»veral  capacious  gniving- 

of  anv 


steam-engines  and  other  machincnk*.  tolja^vo, 
earthenware,  tl<M»r  cloth,  brass  wire^  pin.H,  patent 
shot,  slMvt  leatl,  zinc,  saltpetre,  tin  pi|)es,  hats, 
dnigs,  c(»l<»urs,  dyes,  starch,  bricks,  Itritish  spirits 
malt  liquors;  witli  extensive  wwla  works.  There 
is  al>4>  a  cott»>n  mill,  which  employs  about  l,7<h) 
hands.  Many  of  the  iron  foundries  are  «»n  a 
large  scale,  and  are  increasing  Iwth  in  their 
number  and  the  extent  of  their  exjKtrts.  The 
establishments  for  gla«*s,  sugar,  brawt,  fl«Kir  cloth, 
and  earthenware,  are  also  on  an  extensive  st*nle. 
'I'here  wen;  8.782,<K)0  letters  delivered  in  IK^In; 
!i,l>;j;i,(HM)  in  IHCI ;  and,  10,185,000  in  1H<;2.  The 
p<»siage  collected  amounte<l  to  32,.56r)/,  in  l8»;o; 
3.V«m/.  in  IXOI;  and,  3,*),72(»i  in  IkOJ.  There  is 
a  savings'  bank,  establL«hed  in  1813,  and  7  other 
banking  establi>hmentji,  inclmling  the  branch  of 
the  bank  (»f  EnglaiuL 

IJri.Ntid  early  possessetl,  and  continues  to  enjov, 
a  large  shan;  of  the  tnide  with  the  Wte^t  Jndii-^: 


doi'ks.  and  ship-yards  suitable  f«»r  vessel.-     .  _..^    ^  ..  .._ 

dimeuhions.  The  (ireat  Western  and  (ireat  IJri- ;  ami  among  her  foreign  im|>ortf«  the  mo:»t  imjx.n ant 
tain  steam-ships,  with  the  Severn,  the  Avon,  and  ;  »n.'  tlmsc  of  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  tea,  and  c*Hi»a; 
others  of  inferior  size,  were  built  in  the  |M»rt.  ]  the  next  most  im|H)rtant  are   tliose  of  tobaix^s 

Five  bri«lges  connect  the  opjuisite  sides  of  the  timber,  wine,  brandy,  tallow,  fruits,  wo(d,  henqi. 
floating  harbour  an<l  rivers,  viz.  Jiristol  Bridge,  of.  dye  .stuffs,  <ii  Is,  salt|)etre,  and  hitles.  The  ex|i«irts 
*J  stone  arches,  built  in  17(»x,  spanning  the  Avon,  consist  principtilly  c»f  the  prinluce  of  the  vari«nis 
and  connecting  the  central  part  of  the  city  with  manufa<iures  of  the  city,  with  salt,  iron,  cmiU 
Ii«'dclifle;  2  iron  bridges,  each  with  a  .>»ingle  si>an  ;  and  culm,  in  part  the  pr»>duce  of  the  neighlxmr- 
of  loo  ft.,  one  on  the  Bath  and  Wells,  the  other  '  hcMxl ;  and  cotton, linen,  and  woollen  goods.  In  the 
<»n  th<'  Kxet<*r  line  of  road;  a  swivel  inm  bridge  !  year  1H(;3, theprincij>alexixjrti*consistedofrailn«a'l 

/*.-  _.i..  •*    »i.»    -./•    ,.u:.,..\     *:.,—    w*      ;r..ii     i-.iL./wi    nf    iiirv.)u<*/  .     ^..♦* /■ 


— "    — ■-     -     '      -- 7     —  —   —    --     --      r^  -- 

(to  admit  the  pas.sagc  of  ships),  connecting  St. 
Augustine's  and  ("hit on  with  the  re>il  of  the  city, 
and  a  tine  susjicnsion  bri<lge,  complete<l  in  1H(>4, 
and  connecting  Clifton  with  the  co.  of  Somerset. 


iron,  valued  at  105,28(1/.;  cotton  manufaxrture.'s 
11, 14 1/. ;  wrought  copjjer,  17,227^ ;  and  unwrought 
copi)er,  13,4 if i>/.  The  total  value  of  the  exinirts 
in  ixr,3  was  341,r>74/.    The  customs'  duties  during 


and  striking  works  of  its  kind  in  the  kingdom, 
the  roa<iway  Indng  H50  ft.  in  length  and  220  ft. 


vessids,   of   103,813   tons,  foreign.     The   largest 
tonnage,  50,080,  in  107  ves.>eLs  came  fnmi  the 


iiiu    iii<t<m<iv     in-iii^    "f/v    II..  ill    iviij.;iii  *iiin    ..^w    ii-.      i»»iiiu«j,\,    ./«/,./•>>■,    m.ii     i'»f      » vj>.-?t.-i:«,    «.-«ii]f    ironi     lllv 

Above  high-water  mark,  with  precipitous  rocki«  at    North iVinericau  colonics;  tlic  next  Iar;gcst^2(>,414 


BRISTOL 


545 


t^ns,  in  52  yesselB,  came  from  the  United  States. 
The  total  number  of  vessels  which  entered,  in 
1863,  was  6,495,  of  494,511  tons  burden;  among 
them  1,780  steamers,  of  307,254  tons.  The  totiU 
number  of  vessels  which  cleared  was  4,252,  of 
404,942  tons;  among  them  1,772  steamers,  of 
291,403  tons  burden.  There  belonged  to  the  port 
of  Bristol,  on  the  31st  December,  1863, 380  sailing 
vessels  and  41  steamers.  Of  the  sailing  vesself, 
183,  of  5,363  tons,  were  under  50  tons  burden, 
and  197,  of  61,319  tons,  above  50.  Of  the  steamers, 
18  were  under,  and  23  above  50  tons  burden.  A 
communication  by  steam  for  the  conveyance  of 
^oo<is  and  passengers  to  Ireland  was  established  as 
early  as  1826,  and  has  led  to  a  great  increase  of  the 
trade  with  that  part  of  the  empire.  Bristol  also  had 
the  honour  of  being  the  first  port  in  the  empire  to 
establish  a  regular  communication  by  steam  Mrith 
the  U.  States.  The  first  voyage  by  the  Great 
Western  steamship  was  perform^  in  1838. 

The  parL  and  municip.  limits  of  Bristol  coincide. 
The  borough  is  divid^  into  12  wards,  and  is  go- 
verned by  a  mayor,  16  aid.,  and  48  councillors. 
Previously  to  the  Municipal  Reform  Act,  the 
government  was  vested  in  a  mayor,  12  aid.,  and 
30  common  councillors,  the  reconier  being  senior 
alderman :  they  were  a  self-elected  body,  and  filled 
up  their  vacancies  from  the  freemen,  of  whom  there 
were  3,109  registered.  The  governing  charter  was 
granted  in  the  8th  of  Anne ;  the  earliest  in  the 
9th  of  Hen.  II.  A  court  of  sessions,  or  gaol  de- 
livery (except  for  capital  cases,  now  tried  at 
Gloucester),  is  held  quarterly  bv  the  recorder. 
The  tolzey,  or  sheriflTs  courts,  for  all  kinds  of 
actions  in  cases  under  40«.  A  county  court  is  held 
at  Bristol  for  part  of  the  county  of  Gloucester. 
Bristol  has,  also,  a  district  court  of  bankruptcy, 
and  a  court  of  assize  for  niti  priuM  cases,  held  the 
week  afYer  the  Somerset  assizes,  by  the  senior 
judge  on  the  western  circuit. 

The  county  jurisdiction  by  water,  extends  over 
the  Avon,  from  4  m.  above  the  city :  and  sea-ward, 
to  the  steep  and  flat  Holmes,  and  to  the  high 
water-mark,  on  the  English  side  of  the  Severn, 
from  Aust's  Passage  to  Clevedon.  The  corpora- 
tion are  conser\'atorB  of  the  port  and  harbour;  and 
have  the  power  of  licensing  pilots,  on  whom  is 
ctmferred  the  exclusive  privilege  of  piloting  all 
vessels  passing  up  or  down  to  the  £.  of  Lundy 
Island,  except  Irish  and  coasting  traders:  the 
ports  of  Bristol,  Newport,  Cardiff,  Swansea,  Ilfra- 
combe,  and  Bridgewater  are  comprised  iidthin  this 
jurisdiction.  A  board  of  commissioners,  elected  by 
the  rate-payers,  has  the  exclusive  power  of  paving, 
lighting,  and  cleansing  the  town ;  they  levy  an 
annual  assessment  on  the  inhab.  for  these  purposes 
var>'ing  from  11,000/.  to  12,000/,  The  corporation 
revenues,  derived  from  towns  and  market  dues  and 
rents  of  houses  and  lands  in  the  city  and  neigh- 
bourhood, as  well  as  from  rates,  amounted  to 
81,515/.  in  1861.  of  which  sum  23,000/.  was  from 
rates.  The  Dock  (.'ompanv  was  incorporated  by 
an  act  of  43  Geo.  III. ;  but  in  1848,  the  docks  were 
transferred  from  them  to  the  incorporation,  and 
the  rates  have  been  since  greatly  reduced.  The 
management  of  the  poor,  within  the  old  limits  of 
the  citv,  was  vested  in  a  corporate  body  by  an  act 
7  &  8  W.  III.  c  32,  and  subsequent  acta  have  been 
passed  regulating  their  numlier  and  powers.  The 
guardians  consist  of  the  mayor  and  12  members 
elected  annually  by  the  town  coundl  out  of  their 
own  body,  the  senior  churchwardens  of  the  different 
parishes,  the  senior  overseer  of  the  castle  precincts, 
and  48  other  inhabitants.  The  gniss  sum  assessed 
to  poor  rate  was  535,873/.  in  1861,  and  the  net 
rateable  value,  459,659/.  Amount  assessed  to  pro- 
perty tax,  805,445/. 

Vol.  I, 


Bristol  has  sent  2  mem.  to  the  H.  of  C.  since 
1283 :  previously  to  the  Reform  Act,  the  right  of 
election  was  in  the  freeholders  and  freemen  only. 
Registered  electors,  13,302  in  1861,  including  1,854 
freemen,  and  2,041  scot  and  lot  voters.  Bristol 
was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  1541.  It  is 
now,  in  conformity  to  the  act  6  A  7  W.  IV.  c.  77, 
united  with  Gloucester,  in  a  see  comprising  the 
city  of  Bristol,  the  deaneries  of  Cricklade  and 
Malmsbury,  in  Wilts,  and  the  previous  diocese  of 
Gloucester. 

The  Bristol  hot-well,  under  the  Clifton  rocks,  is 
much  resorted  to  by  invalids,  its  waters  being  con- 
sidered efficacious  in  consumptive  cases.  The 
temp,  of  this  saline  spring,  when  fresh  from  the 

Cump,  is  74^  Fahr.,  and  it  then  evolves  free  car- 
onic  acid.  It  issues  from  the  cliff,  between  the 
high  and  low  water-mark.  The  hot-well  house  is 
finely  situated  beside  the  Avon ;  a  carriage  road 
winds  from  it,  behind  the  rocks,  to  Clifton  Down ; 
a  shorter  foo^th  at  the  back  also  leads  to  that 
suburb,  which  is  the  fashionable  part  of  Bristol : 
the  scenery,  by  either  line,  is  singularly  interest- 
ing. The  acclivities  are  occupi^  by  handsome 
edifices  in  squares,  terraces,  and  crescents,  forming 
fine  promenades ;  the  most  magnificent  of  these 
ranges  are  York  Crescent,  Victoria  Square,  and  Ca- 
ledonia Place.  Another  spring  higher  up  the  cliff, 
but  probably  from  the  same  source,  has  oaths  and 
a  pump-room  attached  to  it.  The  geological  fea- 
tures of  the  place  may  be  thus  briefly  described : 
— If  the  entire  area  be  divided  N.  and'S.  into  three 
unequal  portions,  that  on  the  £.  will  fall  within 
the  limits  of  a  coal  formation,  which  extends  N. 
and  S.  of  the  city,  but  chiefly  to  the  N.,  about  80 
m. :  its  t>eds  are  thin,  as  compared  with  those  of 
other  coal-fields.  The  central  or  largest  portion 
is  chiefly  occupied  by  the  new  red  sand,  in  which 
saurian  remains  occur ;  the  western  part  is  chiefl v 
mountain  lime.  Some  of  the  summits  in  the  ^. 
and  W.  parts  of  the  city  are  250  ft.  above  the  bed 
of  the  Avon.  In  the  rocks  of  Clifton,  and  the 
opposite  ones  of  Sl  Vincent,  ouartz  crystals  of 
CTeat  purity  occur,  known  as  Bristol  diamonds, 
'fhere  are  remains  of  three  Roman  encampments 
at  Clifton,  Kownham,  and  Abbots-Leigh. 

Acconling  to  Camden  ^Gibson's  ed.  of  the  Brit. 
L  74),  Bristol  first  ruse  mto  notice  towards  the 
close  of  the  Saxon  dynasty.  It  is  noticed  by 
William  of  Malmsbury  as  a  place  of  great  trade, 
frequented  by  ships  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  It 
had  then,  as'now,  an  extensive  intercourse  with 
Ireland ;  but  daves  were  a  principal  article  of  ex- 
port to  that  country.  (Henry's  Great  Britain,  vL 
268.)  Its  castle  was  built,  or,  at  all  events,  en- 
larged and  strengthened,  by  the  Karl  of  Glouces- 
ter, brother  to  the  empress  Matilda.  During  the 
wars  of  the  Roses  the  town  was  comparatively 
undLsturbed  and  flourishing ;  but  in  the  ci\'il  war 
of  the  seventeenth  century  it  suffered  severely. 
At  the  commencement  of  hostilities  it  was  garri- 
soned by  the  parliamentary  army ;  subsequently 
it  was  stormed  by  the  king's  forces,  and  surren- 
dered to  Prince  Rupert.  The  following  year 
(during  which  it  sufrered  under  the  unit^  evils 
of 'pesulence  and  war)  it  was  again  stormed,  and 
retaken  by  Cromwell,  who  subsequently  demo- 
lished its  castle.  In  1247  a  great  improvement 
in  its  port  was  completed,  by  cutting  a  new  chan- 
nel for  the  river,  and  forming  a  double  line  of 
Quay  between  Bristol  and  Redcliffe :  a  bridge,  on 
tne  site  of  the  present,  was  built  at  the  same 
period.  Thence,  to  the  sixteenth  century,  its  fac- 
tories supplied  a  large  portion  of  the  kingdom  with 
woollen  goods,  soap,  and  glass.  In  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.  it  was  made  a  staple  of  wool ;  imd  it 
then  tnuled  extensiTely  idtli  uehuid,  France,  and 

NN 


.'»;f;  BRITISH  EMPIRE 

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Ii.'ivi-    }f<iTi    «)i-     '.'T'- i  :    ^•'■I'li-y,   ih»'   i«--r    -ti-!  liT-T.v:.  i- :-  2i  ni. :  !»at  fn-«Tn  the  Mull  tif  Cantin*  t>« 

littrriittMr '.   >\t  T?i":nri-   J.-'f-ir'-ri--*'.   t?.«-  •-njin^-nt  T^r  P'lir-t  in  Ir^-lan-l.  ihe  ili-stan**  is  nnly  lojk  m. 

fi«ii.?ir:  :i!-'l  I{.ivl*'V.  rh'-  -*  nliir.  r.  TJj*-  lon^'M  lin*-  that  *^n  lie  ilrawn  in  Ire-IaniL  in 

MKrM>II  KMrillK  'TIIK  .  '-p'- "f  tli**-  m-i-t  a*- wt   thf  -anK*  nri»ri'lian.  extpml*  fn»ni  thf  uM 

|p<iw»ifiil  aii'l  imiH-rranr  -tat'"*  of  Kiir 'f '-.  '■■•n-i-i*  If**;!-!  ••!  KinMlo  in  •'•»rk  !••  the  Bk>)ily  F'arlaii'l 

of  thi-  i-i!;i!iiN  <'f  'in.-.it   Itriiaiii  an-!  Irt'Iaii-!.  wirh  p..int  in  I  J"iie-.:fil.  a  lii^tanoc  of  aUmt  J;C  ni. :  the 

tli«;  <>rnalliT  i-Ia!i«l-  r«»nt;j"iii'ii-  r«i  ih^m.  a::-!  tli»-ir  Innji--:  lint*  that  ran   lie  rlra^ii  eni^-iwise  in  Iti"- 

t\*\ifjA*-\v  i»-'  in  viiriou-  jart-  i-f  th»^  wi-rM.    ^in-at  lni;il.  in  iii-irly  rh*»  same  }>anillel  of  lat..  exiirnds 

Ifrirain.  lUo  lar::*  -r.  .iti-1  liv  far  tli**  r;i-*i»-t  an«l  fr-m    I-nila^'li    Ka«li.  ••n  the  oia,-!  of  May«>.   l«> 

fn«r-t  imjiisli'M-  'if  th-  I*riti>h  I-li'in-l'.  in«:!ii-i*- what  ♦^iiinii?!  l*i»int,  at  the  ini'Uth  of  Loii^rh  Srra?!^''PJ- 

M-j-p'  f'«nij'-rly  tlK*  ift.i''i.<-ii'l'iit  kin^'iii-m-"  itf  Lnj-  **\\  \\a-  i"«»a««t  i»f  iJuwri.  U*in.r  aUinr  l*"i  ni. :  hut  in 

lari'l  aii'l  Sr^tlarnI:  th**  fi»nn»T  «wi:u|iviM::  it-*  S..  •■thi.-r  ]»l:ii-*"s  the  hR-a-itli  i*  a  ^^h'mI  deal  lej^-*.     Si« 

ino-i  <-xt«-ij-iiv<-  ftiMl  jt-rtiji'.  ami  th»*  laitrT  ir<  N.  riinvun»-i,ily  is  Iiv-lanii   sirtiatctl   in    r*!tf*\n    nf 

aiiil  ni«i-i  liaTT'-M  [Mirti'iri.     Th»"»i*  twn  kiiiL'*!""!*.  wair-r  •7>!i:munii*atinn.  that  there  ij*  no  f«an  mf>n* 

havin-j  \*-*-\\  iiniti-'i.  funn  wiih  th;it  ««f  In-i.-ni'l.  ilu*  than  '»•»  nr  .>•>  ni.  ili>taut  fniiu  the  >«»a,  or  fp»ni  oni* 

f 'nihil  Kinnditm  t>f  (irriit  Brituin  ami  Inlniui.  <ifir-arTns.    Tlie  area  of  Iivlanil  L*  ef^tiniated  at 

Mlii«-li  ron-tituti'-i  n'it<>iily  th»'  nn-.-MMi-  Jinilfi-ntri-.  ?»'l.'*\'l  m|.  m. 

hut   rlM*  Mia  ill  IhmIv  an' I  s»'at  «»f  thr-  woiilih  an«l  I'htfi'util  Axpf't. — Perhaps  no  country  ever  ex- 

jfiwi.T  «if  jIh' *'fnpirf:.  isrc'<i  more  favnnrably  situate<l.  or  {ilaoeil  iuhIiT 

'I'll*'  i-IamU  of  iirr-at   Itriraiii  anil  Ir«-lanil  nro  nion*  nflvaniairefnu-*  phyMcal  ciroum«itani>e^.  than 

Mtiiatr-il    i:i   thr*   N.  Athmtir   *  »r-«-nn.  <.ff  th*-  W.  tho  I'nitf'il  Kin;^lom.     It  is  sufficiently  extensive 

hhor*-  of  I'liniininral  Miin»f>f.  o|i|Hi^ite  to  tho  N.  to  In.- the  centre  of  a  mighty  empire ;  andtMSui^- 
|«irt-of  Framr*'.  tli<' N«*thi-rlani1-,  tlif  i»f"nin-ula  of   p«ir:.   in'h>|K'n(lent   (»f  any  extrinsic   lesininvs,  a 

Jiitl.'in'l,  «n«l  tlic  N  part*  of  S\vi"h-n  mill  Ni'Hvav.  very  lar.:i.'  fHi]»nlation.  an«l.    oon'»eqiiently.  |*«- 

Im-i  w»r<-n  'iu"-'  an<l  -'»(•'-'  N.  hit..  ninl  '1"^  K.  aii'l  1 1°  W.  H'«i«^-  that  native  and  inhcn-ni  power  that  i**  no- 

hmjr.     <in-at   liriraiii,   wliiili.   \ri*\\\   it-   sujK-rinr  c<-i*ary  to  secure   the  tirst  condition  of  ]ii»lirical 

ma:riiitiidf  anti   inifMirtanri*,  -^ivv-*    nam<r  t«i  the  ini^ninance — national  indi-pendem-e.     li>  iiiMiLir 

1'nitc<l  Kin;;difin  and  the  empire,  is  ni»t  only  the  simation  i<  also  of  immen>e  advantair^';  it  cive^  a 

Inr^'-f   of  I  he   Kiiroi^'nii  i>hinr{s.  hut  ^^w  of  the  well-ih'f*-ndeil  frmtier.  on  which  tlivre  can  lie  no 

IarL''>t  in  th'*  worhi.     It  !i<-i  to  the  K.  uf  In-Ianil.  encroachment,  and  alxuit  which  there  can  l>e  no 

and  npproa'-iier.  at  its  SK.  exlrcniitv  at  hover  to  dispute :  and  while  it  n>main5  ct^mparatividy  k- 

wifhin  21  m.  of  ihc  c)pfMi«.it<*  <*«iai*tof  France.     Ihit  cure  from  hostile  attacki^.  afTortls  unequalled  faci- 

OM  tlu-   C'la-t   of  Cin-at   Hritain  stretches  XNW.  litics    for  commerce;  ever\'  |"»art  of  the   fn*ntier 

from  iKivcr  to  l)uncan!>hy  Ilrarl.  the  extreme  XK.  i  lM'in;r.  a.s  it  were,  a  temiimis  to  the  *  (irreat  hi^h- 

[Mfiiit  of  the  island,  while  thi>  op[H)site  .shore  of  the  way  of  nations.'     The  surface  «>f  the  c«Mmtry  is 
(.'ontinent   n-ccdt-s  in  a  NF..  «lirc<'t Ion.  tin*  inter- '  a^*eahly  diversifuMl  with  hill  and  dale,  moun- 

venin^  -juii**',  called   the  North  Sea  or  (iennan  tains  anrl  plains;  ancl  while  the  soil  is  nut  s*>  very 
Orean.  is  of  very  rons|d<-rali]e   dimensions.     To    fertile  as  to  yiehl  cnips  with  little  lalxinr.  and  so 

tlie  S.  of  the  Hritish  Inlands  wp  have  the  Kn;rli'*li  ,  ti>  encoura^  sloth  on  the  part  of  the  cultivitor.  ii 

Channel,  and  \V.  and  N.  the  hroad  expanse  of  the  is  in  jireneral  sutficiently  ])n«luctive,  and   vieMs 

aliundant  returns  to  the  laUoriuu**  and  .^kiltul  Iiu>- 
handnian.     It  han  been  well  obn-n-wl  of  On-a! 


At  Ian  I  if. 

<ire«t  lirit.'iin  is  very  irre^julnrly  shaiied.  iK'infj 
deeply  in<h>nted  hy  nuinenMis  ^ulfs  and   anns  of  I  Britain,  and  the  same  ia  e<|ually  true  of  Ireland, 
the  sea,  hut  on  tJie  whole  it  appntaches  to  the  j  that  '  it  is  not  fertile  emai^h  to  make  men  indii- 
lipip'  of  a  \ved;;(?,  Iwin^  narrow<'st  at  its  \.  and  I  lent,  nor  barren  t«i  such  a  di^jrec  as  to  »leny  grate 
broadest  at  its  S.  extremity.    The  Ion<;est  line  not    ful,  if  not  ample,  retunis  to  the  iudustri 


intrrseeted  bv  any  eonsiderablc  ami  of  the  soa 
that  can  U' drawn  in  (in^at  Britain,  extends  from 
Uve  in  Su'M'X  (lat.  .'MP  57'  1"  N.,  long.  i)ft  AV  K.), 
to*  Capj'  Wrath   in   Sntherbind  (lat,   nxo  a«'  N., 


long.  AiPitW  W.)f  a  distance  of  uliout  580  m. ;  and  |  for  industr\'  and  improvement. 


rifKtf  culti- 
vator. In  a  woni,  it  enjoys  the  fortunate  medium 
Utween  fertility  and  iMinrenness,  or lietween ea>y 
and  diflicult  culture;  inclining  rather  to  the  r-idi' 
of  <lifticulty,  and  affording  opportunity  sufficient 


BRITISH  EMPIRE 


'    647 


All  the  moiit  valuable  species  of  the  CereaJia^ 
as  wheat,  i>rtts,  and  barley,  succeed  quite  as  well 
in  the  British  Islands  as  in  any  other  country. 
Potatoes,  t<Mj,  and  a  vast  variety  of  useful  vege- 
tables and  fruits,  are  raised  in  the  f^atest  abund- 


of  life ;  and  it  is  to  coal  mines  that  Great  Britain 
owes  abiindant  and  cheap  supplies  of  so  indis])en- 
sable  an  article.  Had  they  not  existe<l,  wood  must 
have  been  use<i  as  fuel ;  and  it  is  quite  im])ossiblc 
that  any  attention  to  the  ^:n^wth  of  timlK*r  could 


ance.     Owing  to  the  fieculiar  aptitude  of  the  soil    have  furnished  a  supply  equal  to  the  wants  of  the 


and  climate,  no  C(»untr\'  can  comi)are  with  the 
Unitwl  Kinj^dom  in  the  luxuriance  of  its  verdure 
and  the  richness  of  its  |)astures.  In  consequence 
]trinci|>ally  of  tliis  circumstance,  but  i>artly,  also, 
of  the  care  l)est^)wed  on  the  st^Uvtion  of  the  most 
improve<l  stock,  the  luirses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  other 
useful  animals,  are  all  equal,  if  not  8u|K.»rior,  to  the 
tincst  brecils  to  be  found  in  any  other  jMirt  of  the 
world, 

Tlie  British  Islands  are  also  singularlv  fortunate 
in  respwt  of  climate.  Thouirh  exyMised  to  sudden 
changes,  it  is  exemnte<l  from  all  violent  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold.    The  great  defects  in  the  climate 


present  ]x>pulation  of  <ireat  Hritmn,  even  though 
a  large  pro]K)rtion  of  the  cultivates!  land  had  1>een 
a))i>ropnated  to  the  raising  of  trees.  Hut,  how- 
ever great  and  signal,  this  Ls  not  the  only  advan- 
tage derived fnjm  coal  mines:  they  are  the  princi- 
pal souR'e  and  foundation  of  the  manufacturing 
and  commercial  jm>si)erity  of  Great  Britain.  Since 
the  hivention  of  the  steam-engine,  coal  has  bo- 
come  of  the  highest  importance  as  a  moving  jKiwer : 
and  no  nation,  however  favourablv  situated  in 
other  respects,  not  plentifullv  supplied  with  this 
mineral,  need  hoj)e  to  rival  those  that  are,  in 
mo^t  branches  of  manufacturing  in<!ustr\'.      To 


are  the  prevalence  of  cohl  blighting  E,  win«ls  in  what  is  the  astonishing  incn*ase  of  <llasgow,  Man- 
April  and  May ;  and  not  unfreciueutly,  of  rainy  i  Chester,  Birmingham,  Leeds,  and  Shettield,  and 
weather  in   August   and    Se]jteml)er.      It   is  but  |  the  com]>aratively  stationary  or  declinihg  utate  of 

of  drought ;  I  Canterbury',    Winchester,    Sali^bur^^    and    other 


rarely  that  cro|)8  suffer  from  excess 

but  they  occasionally  suffer  from  backward  sum 

mcrs,  and  autumnal  rains.    On  the  whole^  how- 


towns  in  the  south  of  Kngland,  to  Ik>  ascrilnMlV 
It  cannot  lie  pretended  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 


over,  the  climate  of  the  British  Islands  is,  •  former  are  naturally  more  ingenious,  enterprising, 
notwithstanding  its  defwts,  one  of  the  best,  if ;  or  industrious  than  those  of  the  latter.  Theabun- 
not  the  very  Wst,  in  Kuro^>e.  j  dance  and  cheapness  of  coal  in  the  north,  and  ita 

Among  the  other  physical  circunu^tances  that  |  scarcity,  and  consequent  high  i)ri<.*e,  in  the  south, 
have  pronn)te<l,  in  no  onlinary  degree,  the  |M>wer    is  the  rt^al  cause  of  this  striking  disi'repancy.     The 


citizens  of  Manchester,  (Jla«<gow,  and  other  bee- 
liives  of  industry',  are  able,  at  a  com[»arativeIy 
small  expense,  to  put  the  most  |K)werful  and  com- 
plicated machinery'  in  motion,  and  to  pnsluce  re- 
sults (piite  beyond  the  reach  of  .those  who  have 
not  the  same  command  over  coal,  or,  as  it  has 
l>een  happily  defined,  hoardetl  lalM>ur. 
The  huiyoinw!  table  gives,  af^er  official  returns, 

and 
in  the 
together  with  the  estimated  value  at 
the  place  of  pnHluction : — 


and  prosiM'rity  i>f  the  empire,  may  \to  si>ecified  the 

numiH'r  and  excellence  of  tlie  harbours,  and  the 

numlM^r  of  rivers,  their  <lepth,  and   the  facilities 

they  afford  to  internal   communication.     In  tliis 

respect,   the  physical  as|>ect  of  (Jreat  Britain  is 

stnkingly  diflen-nt  from  that  of  other  countries  on 

the  face  of  the  glol>e.     Great  Britain  and  Ireland 

Iieing  islan<Is,  with  no  part  verj'  remote  from  the 

8ea,  it  might  be  supposed  that  their  rivers  woiUd    the  quantities  of  coal   and  other  minerals 

l)e  of  comi)aratively  small  magnitude,  an<l  of  but    metAis  proihu'ed  m  the  I'nitwl  Kingdom  ii 

little  us*>  in  navigation.     But  the  fact  is  distinctly    year  IHG'i,  together  with  the  estimated  val 

and  completely  the  reverse.     The  Thames,  Trent, 

and  Severn,  iii  Knglaiui,  and  the  Shannon,  in  Ire- 
land, are  all  navigable  to  a  verj-  great  distance. 

The  first,  notwithstanding  its  limite«l  length  and 

volume  of  water,  ranks,  as  a  navigable  channel, 

among  the  first  rivers  of  Eun>i)e ;  its  mouth  is  un-  | 

enciunlKTCil  by  any  bar.  and  it  is  navigated  from  I 

the  sea  to  London    Bridge,  a  distance  ()f  4;')  m.,  I 

l»v  th«'  ver>'  largest  ships,  and  to  a  much  greater  ; 

distance    by    kirges.     The    S<»venK    Tri-ni,   and 

Shannon  have  Ik'cu  rendere<l  navigable  for  barges 

and   steam-lsiats   for  the  greater  |)art   of   their 

<-ourse;  the  latter,  which  flows  through  the  inte- 
rior of  Ireland,  almost  to  its  ver\'  source.     The 

means  affordwl  by  the  rivers  for  facilitating  inter- 
nal communicatiiin,  have  been  vastly  extended 

by    the  c«instmction  of  canals;   and,   with    the 

single  exception  of  Ibdlaml,  the  United  Kingdom 

has  a  gri'atcr  extent  of  artificial  navigation  than 

anv  otiier  country. 

The  mineral  "riches  of  Great  Britain  arc  n<tf 

merelv  equal  to  those  of  anv  other  country',  hin 

superior.     Iron,  the  most  us4'ful  <if  all  the  m«;tals,  I  raised  in  England,  H,4(H>.4.>.')  in  Wales,  11,()7<),()00 

is  found  in  the  greatest  abundance,  and  of  an  ex-  !  in  Scotland,  and  127,000  in  IrelamL  (Miscel- 
laneous Statistics  of  the  Uuite<l  Kingdom, 
Part  V.) 

Jiacet  of  People. — At  the  earliest  perio<l  to  which 
hLstor}'  ascends,  the  British  islands  were  (K'cupied 
by  Celts  or  Gael,  who,  it  is  prolmble,  had  fxassed 
over  into  Britain  from  the  contigimus  coasts  of 
France,  and  from  Britain  into  Ireland  To  tho 
Celtic  |N»pulati<»n  of  Britain  succee<led  the  (iothic 
At  a  i>eri<Kl  long  iireciKling  the  (.'hristian  era,  the 
Gotlis  or  Scythians,  advancing  from  the  east,  had 
occupied  a  large  |Kirtiun  of  the  N.  and  NW^.  |tarts 
of  Eurofic    The  Low  Countnes  and  the  N.  {tny- 

3CN   2 


I         Minrr»U  aiul  Mrtmli 


Coal  . 

Cojipcr,  Fine    . 
Iron.  Via  . 
I^'.id.  Mi'tallic. 
Tin,  Wliluj 
Zinc  . 

Silver  from  Lead 

Ooia . 

other  Metals  . 
Total  of  Metals 
Total  of  Goal  &  MetalK 


QaaDtitiM 

VkllM. 

Ton* 

£ 

81  .♦;;w.:|.'jH 

,T0,409,r.ft4 

14.HI3 

i,4nn.24i 

3,lU:t.4«;i) 

U.K-'»H,ti72 

«i».«n;j 

1 ,4:i(;.:t4;> 

7..'.T8 

87!),04H 

'.'.<».'»  1 

48,1  i)8 

Ott. 

6»«:.l2:} 

189.041 

.'i,*Jtf9 

2O,.15>0 

— 

200,000 

— 

14,174,935 

U,r,mj,i9 

Of  the  81.fi:J«,3.3K  tons  of  c«ial  pro<luce<l  in  1862 
in   the  Unite*!   Kingdom,   ri2,(>*Jo.iW:^   tons  were 


grci 

ceedingly  gixxl  quality,  in  most  parts  of  the  em- 
pire. The  tin  minesan*  the  most  pnMluciive  <»f 
any  in  Europe;  and  there  are  also  ver\'  ]>ro<luctive 
mines  of  cop])er,lead,  manganese,  and  <»ther  mine- 
rals. Salt  springs  and  l>etls  of  fi>ssil  salt  are  alone 
surticient  for  the  supply  of  the  whole  world.  But 
coal  is  by  far  the  most  imiHtrtimt  mid  valuable  of 
all  the  mineral  tn-asures.  It  is  hanlly,  indee<!, 
fM»ssil)le  to  overrate  the  advantages  Gn-at  Britain 
derives  from  her  vast,  and,  to  all  practical  pur- 
|M>ses,  inexhaiLstible  U^ls  of  coal.  In  the  northern 
climes,  fuel  ranks  among  the  princiiMil  necessaries 


5^8 


BRITISH  EMPIBE 


vincM  of  France  were  in  the  age  of  C»nr  peopled 
by  (Toth.%  who  had  acr|uired  the  distinctive  appel- 
lation of  Bflffit:  and  ii  ai^pears  fiT>m  CiEMr,  that 
loD}?  previously  tu  his  invo^^ion  of  Britain,  colonics 
of  Bel^ni)  had  |ias:«ed  over  into  it,  and  then 
occupied  itrt  maritime  and  mt*»t  fertile  portion^t. 
(I>e  Ikllo  Gallicii.  lib.  v.  ^  12.)  The  Romans 
though  they  subduetl  (ireat  nritain,  did  not  settle 
in  great  numiiers  in  it ;  and  the  Belgse,  by  whom 
it  had  1)een  coloni;<ed  at  the  epoch  of  their  inva- 
sion, mav  t>e  n^nied  an  the  principal  progenitors 
of  tlie  ^^nglLith  nation ;  for,  though  the  various 
Gothic  trilien  who  f)ai*i^l  over  into  Britain  after 
the  departure  of  the  HoraanM  were  nufficieutly 
powerful  to  ifuMiie  it.  and  one  of  them  (the  Am^es) 
fiucccede  I  in  giving  itM  name  to  the  greater  ]K>rtion 
of  Britain,  they  were  far  too  few  in  number  to  have 
occupied  it  fully,  or  given  it  a  new  language,  had 
their  own  differed  materially  fn»m  that  previouslv 
in  ujse.  (Pinkert(»n*M  <  reog.'.  art.  England,  and  lus 
DlMtert.  on  the  Gotlut,  pasMtm,)  But  the  ancient 
and  the  more  recent  Saxon  and  Belgian  colonii«tsi 
being  eMflentially  the  name  i)eople,  readily  amal- 
gamated. The  invaderH  having  expelled  the  ori- 
ginal or  Celtic  inhabitants  fn»m  tlie  lower  and 
more  fruitful  parts  of  the  tvuntrj*,  the  latter  were 
compelled  to  reT^ort  to  the  faf)tnet»&ies  of  Wales*,  tho 
HighlandH  of  Scotland,  and  the  remote  parts  of 
Devon  and  (i'omwalL  The  fai'iiities  which  these 
countries  afforded  for  resisting  and  eluding  an 
invading  force,  preventeil  them  being  overrun  by 
the  Goths.  They  were  never  subdued  by  the 
Koman  legions;  and  at  tins  moment  we  find  them 
a  distinct  race,  speaking  the  language  of  their 
remote  ancestors. 

The  temporary  conquest  of  England  by  the 
Danes,  and  its  subset] uent  subjugatirm  by  the 
Normans,  however  important  in  other  res|)ects, 
made  no  sensible  change  in  the  stock  of  the  inha- 
bitants, llie  Normans,  though  long  settled  in 
France,  where  they  had  acquired  the  use  of  the 
French  language,  originally  emigrated  from  Nor- 
way ;  and  I>elonged,  as  well  as  the  Danes,  to  the 
Gothic  family. 

The  I{(»mans  did  not  invade  Ireland ;  and  the 
Goths  do  not  appear  to  havu  passed  over  into  it, 
at  least  in  any  conMderable  numl)ers.  Hencc.its 
population,  in  so  far  as  it  is  not  alloyed  by  emi- 
grants from  England,  shice  the  invasion  under 
Senr\-  II.  and  ilieir  descendants,  may  lie  regarded 
as  of  Celtic  origin.  In  fact,  the  Irish  language,  a 
dialect  of  the  (laelic,  is  at  this  moment  sicken  to 
the  almost  total  exclusion  of  English,  in  various 
secluded  districts  of  Ireland ;  and  it  is  generally 
considered  that  nenrly  two-thirds  of  the  f)eople  <»f 
that  island  are  descended  from  the  ancient  occu- 
pants of  the  count r>'. 

Pvpulatum. — The  progress  of  popidation  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  was  long  ver>'  slow.  I^itterly, 
however,  it  has  increased  with  extraonlinarv  ra- 
pidity, chiefly  in  consequence  of  the  wonderful 
rise  of  manufactures  and  commerce. 

The  population  of  England  and  Scotland  was,  for 
the  first  tmie,  determhiedby  actual  enumeration  in 
1801 ;  since  which  a  census  has  been  taken  every 
ten  years.  In  Ireland,  an  incomplete  census  was 
taken  in  1813  ;  but  it  was  not  tdl  1821  that  the 
population  of  that  part  of  the  empire  was  exactly 
ascertained.  The  registration  of  births  and  deaths, 
an  almost  indispensable  basis  and  accompaniment 
of  the  census  returns,  was  not  introduced  into 
Ireland  till  the  year  1804,  while  in  England  it 
commenced  in  18*37,  and  in  Scotland  in  185o. 

The  striking  progress  of  the  population  of  the 
United  Kingdom  in  the  course  of  a  century  and 
a  half  will  be  seen  in  the  following  condensed 
atatement :— 


Cnttod  Klnffdoai 

TCUB 

PopliUi.. 

1700 
1750 
1801 
1851 
1861 

7,650,000 

9,670.000 

15.800,000 

S7,74-'i,949 

29,SS  1.288 

In  England  and  Wales,  during  this  period,  the 
progress  was  as  follows  : — 


1                Ef  iMd  and  Wales 

Tctfs 

Popalatioa 

1696 

5,500,000 

1710 

fi.066,337 

17.W 

5,687,993 

1750 

6,0.t9.684 

1760 

6,479,730 

1780 

7,8U,«27 

1801 

9.187.176 

1851 

17,927,600 

1861                20,228.497         | 

I      In  Scotland,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  subjoined 
tabic,  the  ratio  of  increase  was  far  less  striking : — 


ScetUnd 

,       ^m» 

PopuUUoQ 

1707 
1755 
1801 
1851 
1861 

1,050,000 
1,265.380 
1,599.058 
3.888,742 
3,096,808 

The  increase  of  population  in  Irelsnd,  and  the 
decrease  in  the  last  decennial  period,  shows  aome 
notable  features : — 


Itdand 


Tcan 

Poimlattoa 

1672 

1,100,000 

1712 

2.099,094 

1754 

2,!J72,6»4 

1777 

2,690,556 

1785 

2,845,932 

1805 

5.395,456 

1851 

6,661 .830 

1861 

5,850,809 

1 

Subjoined  is  a  summary  of  the  census  retnms  of 
!  1801,  together  with  the  proportion  of  papulation  in 
each  of  the  divisions  of  the  United  Kingdom : — 


United  Kingdom 


England  and  Wales  . 
St-oiland    .        .        .        . 
In'land      .        .        .        . 
Islands  in  the  British  Seas 


ToUl 
Popaladon 


PntpoTtioa  of 
|>o|NiUtl«a 


29,321,288  !   100^ 


20.228.497 

3,096,8(« 

5,850.309 

145,674 


69-1 

10-5 

19-9 

•6 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  preceding  tabular  state- 
ments that  the  pop.  of  the  United  Kingdimi  in- 
creased by  about  thirteen  and  a  half  millions  in 
the  course  of  the  sixty  years,  from  1801  to  1861. 
This  increase,  however,  was  not  regular,  for  while 
it  amounted  to  full  fifty  per  cent,  during  the  first 
half  of  this  period,  it  was  not  more  than  twenty  in 
the  second  half.  This  serious  retardation  in  the 
rate  of  progress  has  been  ascribed,  partly,  to  a 
vastly  augmented  emigration,  made  possible  by  the 
perfection  of  all  the  means  of  international  com- 


BRITISH  EMPIRE 


549 


munication,  and  i>artly,  and  to  a  still  greater 
extent,  to  the  fact,  demonstrated  b^  experience 
that  as  soon  as  the  density  of  population  rises  to  a 
certain  point,  the  increase  of  i)opulatiou  becomes 
gradually  lessened. 

Acconling  to  the  census  of  1861,  the  male  pop. 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  including  the  absent  sol- 
<liers  and  sailors,  was  14,380,634 ;  the  female  pop. 
was  14,954,154 :  the  females,  therefore,  exceeded 
the  males  by  573,530,  and  this  excess  of  more  than 
half  a  million  is  lai^ly  increased  by  excluding 
the  men  ser\'iiig  out  of  the  country.  To  every 
100  males  in  tlie  British  islands  there  were  IOnS 
females.  No  doubt  the  disproportion  of  the  sexes 
existed  long  before  it  was  made  apparent  by  the 
first  enumeration  in  1801,  and  ot  la^  years  it 
has  been  increasing,  as  the  following  figures  will 
show : — 

Proportion  of  FraulM  to  crery  100 
NaIm  In  Uie  United  Kingdom 

104-9 


CcnioiTMr 


1841 
IH.')! 
1861 


10.V1 
106-3 


In  Great  Britain,  of  children  bora  alive,  105 
lK)ys  arc  born  to  100  girb,  and  the  proportion  m 
Fiance  is  nearly  the  same.  The  males  continue 
to  preponderate*  until  tlie  8event€enth  year,  when 
the  number  of  the  two  sexes  are  nearly  equal ;  at 
all  subsequent  ages  the  females  are  m  excess  of 
the  males,  the  change  in  the  proportions  being 
mainly  due  to  a  difference  in  degree  of  the  dan- 
gers to  which  they  are  exposed,  to  a  lower  rate  of 
mortality  amongst  females  from  diseases  as  well 
as  from  violent  causes,  and  to  emigration.  The 
disparity  of  the  sexes  has  always  l^en  regarded 
as  one  of  the  least  satisfactory  conditions  of  the 
population  of  the  United  Kingdom,  but  in  a  country 
where  more  than  three  millions  of  adult  women 
arc  withdrawn  more  or  less  from  domestic  duties 
to  follow  emplovTnents  in  the  different  manufac- 
tures and  trades,  the  evil  is  not  without  some 
mitigation.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  in  Australia  and  otlier  British  colonies 
the  proportion  of  the  sexes  is  reversed  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  render  a  well-organised  system  of 
female  emigration  from  the  mother  country  highly 
desirable.    (Sec  Australasia.) 

Emigration, — The  number  of  persons  who  an- 
nually quit  the  United  Kingdom  to  found  a  home 
in  other  countries  is  very  considerable.  Subjoined 
is  a  statement  of  the  emigration  for  the  three 
years  1860-^2,  with  destination  of  the  emigrants : — 


Number— 

DttUnaUon  of  EmlfftanU 

Yf«n 

Unltod  Kinicdoni 

J 

1860 

)         ST^-iOO 

United  States      . 

1861 

-        49,764 

1862 

&8.7()6 

1860 

9,786 

British  North  America    • 

1861 

r       12,707 
16,/i22 

1862 

I860 

)        24,302 

Australian  Colonics   . 

1861 

23,738 

186-i 

41,843 

£ 

1860 

\          6,881 

Other  Places 

1861 

fi.Ml 

g 

1862 
1860 

J          6,143 

\      128,469 

Total 

1861 

91,770 

1 

1862 

)      121, -214 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  Uniterl  States  attract 
considerably  more  than  one-half  of  the  number  of 
voluntary  exiles  who  annually  quit  the  shores  of 
the  Uniteil  Kingdom.  The  stream  of  emigration  is 
stronger  from  certain  parts  of  the  country  than 
from  others.  The  general  direction  is  exhibited 
in  the  following  talHe,  which  ehows  the  principal 


porta  of  embarkation  of  emigrants  in  the  year 
1862  :— 


Poru 


In  England  .  « 


'^j  London  . 
j  Plymouth 
j  Liverpool 
!  Southampton 
Other  Ports  . 


In  Scotland     | 


In  Ireland 


Total    . 

Glasgow  and  Greenock 
Other  Ports  . 

Total    . 

Belfast  .        .        .        . 
("ork 
I  Galway 
Londonderry 
Other  Ports  . 


1863 


20,375 
6,787 

64.314 

2,816 

260 


93,492 


8,046 
18 


8,069 


81 

14,183 

163 

6,072 

224 


Total     . 
Total  from  United  Kingdom 


19,663 


121.214 


The  total  number  of  emigrants  who  left  the 
United  Kingdom  in  the  sixteen  years,  1849  to 
1864,  amounted  to  nearly  four  millions.  The  rise 
and  fall  of  emigration  during  these  sixteen  yean 
is  concisely  shown  in  the  suLJoined  table : — 


NambcroT 

Number  of 

Ttart 

Emifrmnti 

T«n 

Emifranu 

1849 

299,498 

1867 

212,876 

18-'i0 

280,849 

1868 

113,972 

1 851 

S;i6.966 

1869 

120,432 

18A2 

368,764 

1860 

128,469 

18.->3 

829,937 

1861 

91,770 

1864 

323,429 

1862 

121,214 

18.V> 

176,807 

1863 

223,768 

1866 

176,664 

1864 

Of  the  223,758  emigrants  who  left  the  United 
Kingdom  in  the  vear  18(»d,  there  were — Engliah, 
61,243;  Scotch,  lo,230;  Irish,  116,391 ;  foreignera, 
7,833 ;  not  distinguished,  23,061. 

In  the  twenty-three  years  ending  1863,  there 
were  276,837  efnigranta'sent  out  to  Australia  by 
the  (ioverament  Kmigration  Board;  38,420  of 
them  were  nominated  in  virtue  of  contributions  in 
the  colony  from  private  sources,  amounting  to 
1 64,290/.   The  total  passajge  money  was  3,669,088/. 

W'ealth  of  the  Papulatum.— The  assumed  v^ue 
of  real  property  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  shown 
in  a  Parliamentary  return  issued  in  the  session  of 
1864.  The  information,  extending  over  the  five 
yeaiB,  1857  to  1862,  is  gathered  from  Schedule  A 
of  the  income-tax  returns.  The  gross  annual 
value  in  1857  of  real  property  in  England  was 
103,496,253/.  It  had  increased  in  1862  to 
120,069,96.3/.  As  respects  Scothind  the  figures 
were,  in  1857, 12,582,749/: ;  and  in  1862, 1 5,1 28,538^,; 
and  as  regards  Ireland,  in  1857,  11,915,286/. ;  and 
in  1862,  13,400,546/. 

The  following  return,  published  in  pursuance  to 
an  order  of  the  House  of  Commons  of  June  30, 
1863,  shows  the  population,  the  gross  receipt  of 
the  revenue,  after  deducting  repaymenta,  aUow- 
anc€»,  discounts,  drawbacks,  and  bounties  of  the 
nature  of  drawbacks,  and  excluding  therefrom  mis- 
cellaneous receipti*,  and  the  rate  per  head  of  the 
population  of  such  revenue ;  also  the  amount  of 
propertj'  and  jirofits  assessed  for  the  income  tax, 
the  amount  of  income  per  head  of  the  population, 
and  the  poundage  of  said  taxation  on  such  income. 


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BRITISH  £MPIBE 


551 


liosed,  to  some  extent,  up<«  the  preceding 
agricultural  statutics  of  Ireland,  the  mo8t  reliable 
aa  yet  obtained  'm  the  following  table,  containing 
an  estimate  of  the  extent  of  land  in  the  United 
Kingdom  under  the  principal  descriptions  of  crops, 
with  the  produce  per  acre : — 


Cropt 


Wheat 
Barley 
)atri  ttnd  Rye 
"3  !  Beans  and  Peas . 


Aeraa  in  Crop 


l|J^«'^f'^Tui?^i;2//M),'cH)0   1 
I  ^        niiw,  &  Rape  j  |    '^     '         Y 

!w     Clover        .        .  ■  l.:300,000   ) 


Clover 

Fallow 

Hop^  . 

VGardcns 


3,«00,000 

,  l,2<^),0«io 

2,400/MH) 

500,000 

2/»00,l.H)0 

l.:300,000 
l,l»0«>,000 
fiO,000 
2.'»0,«H)0 


/Wheat 

3.''»0,000 

Barley        .        .       4:»o,<KH) 

OjiU  .        .        .    1,2(K),<M»U 

BcauR  and  Peas   i      fto,(KK) 

Fallow       .        .  ;     HM>,(KH) 

Potatoes    .        .  ,     20<»,«MIO 

Tumiprt     .        .  .     4'>0,01H) 

mover        .        .       46<),(HK) 

Flax  .        .        .  ;         5,<KM) 

Vg  aniens     . 

,       3*),«K)0 

-12,800,000 


( 


=  I 


B. 


Wlicat 

Barley 

Oau  . 

Potatoes 

Fallow 

Flax  . 

Gardens 


Totals 


3,290,000 


500,000 

320,(M>0 

2.200,04)0 

1,4IM»,«MM) 

3(H),<M)0 

140,()00 

15,000 


4,875,000 


20,965,000 


Pro<!iic*p«r 
Aer« 


Qumrten 
5 

7/.  per  acre  ■ 


15/.  per  acre 
15/.  per  acre, 

Quarten 

H 

4 
5 
3 


7/.  per  acre 

15/.  per  acre 
15/.  per  acre 

Qtuutrn 
3 

H 
5 

8/.  per  acre 

15/.  per  acre 
12/.  per  acre 


The  total  net  rental  value  at  which  the  land 
in  the  United  Kingtlom  wa.**  asseswcti  in  the 
financial  year  lH»)l-t>2  amounted  to  54,(>78,4r2/. 
Thirt  amount  doe-s  not  include  crown  lands,  n<»r 
land  l»eing  ihe  prt>iK'rty  of  charities,  all  which  are 
not  asscHsed.  1  Jy  Act  38  (ieo.  III.,  the  land  tax  to 
Ik*.  raise<l  in  the  United  Kingdom  was  tixed  at 
2,U37,G27/.  dt.  i</.,  which  was  apportioned  thus : — 


England  and  Wales 
Scotland 


£1,989,673     7  10  J 
47,951     1     2 


Tlie  total  land  tax  redeemed  up  to  the  25th  of 
March,  1804,  amounted  to — 


England  and  Wales 
{Scotland 

Total 


£766.842    5  10} 
12,977    «    yj 

£779,819  12     7  J 


A  certain  amount  of  land  tax  has  been  *  re- 
dci-med  but  not  exoncratecL'  In  this  case^  tlie 
tax  is  still  chargctl  and  collected,  but  instead  of 
l)eing  jMiid  inti)  the  exchequer,  is  handed  to  the 
|K»rM>n  on  whose  behalf  the  redemption  has  been 

made. 

Bent.^The  first  authentic  information  m 
regard  to  the  rent  of  knd  in  (Jreat  Britain  was 
obtainwl  under  the  Pn»perty  Tax  Act.  It  appears 
from  the  returns  made  by  the  pn)perty  tax  com- 
missioners, that  the  total  rental  of  Enghmd  and 
Wales  amounted,  in  1810,  to  2(».o03.070/.,  and 
that  of  Scotland  to  4,851,104/.  (h%ing  to  the 
rapid  rise  of  prices,  in  the  years  imme<liately 
subhcqiient  to  1810,  the  gross  rental  of  England 
and  Wale-"*  had  increase*!,  in  1815,  to  34,330,4«;2/., 
and  that  of  Scotland  to  5,075,242/.  Since  then 
no  authentic  information  hits  been  publishetl. 
The  only  approximative  statistics  on  the  subject 


arc  found  in  the  official  returns  of  the  value  of 
the  lands,  houses,  and  other  lixed  property,  aa- 
sesse<l  to  the  existing  property  and  income  tsx. 
But  this  tax  does  not  affect  thdse  holding  lands 
and  houses  whose  gross  incomes  are  under  100/. 
a  year ;  and  in  consequence  a  considerable  num- 
l>er  of  the  smaller  class  of  proprietors  were  not 
assessed.  As  there  is  no  account  of  the  precise 
niunber  or  value  of  the  pn)})erties  thus  excepted 
from  the  assessment,  there  are  no  means  of 
arriving  at  the  exact  amount  of  the  total  grosa 
annual  value  of  the  land  and  other  fixe<l  pro- 
perty. However,  a  siunmarj'  of  the  returns  in 
questi<m  may  not  be  without  interest,  as  showing 
the  constant  progress  of  the  value  of  real  property. 
The  subjouied  table  exhibits  the  gross  annual 
value  of  real  property  in  boroughs^  assessed  to 
income  tax  under  Schetlule  (A),  in  the  two  years — 
April  5—1 862  and  1857.  The  striking  i'ncTease 
in  the  value  of  property  in  England,  and  the  very 
slight  increase  m  that  of  Ireland,  is  remarkable. 


itkt'j                    ib57 

England 
{Scotland 
Ireland 

United  Kingdom 

£ 

60/»;J4,457 
6,854,474 
2.443.195 

58,832,126 

£ 
42.962,193 
4,5<i9,744 
2,089,191 

49,621,128 

The  subjoined  table  giv<»  the  gross  annual 
value  of  real  proi»erty  assessed  under  Schedule  (A) 
in  counties  for  the  same  jMiriods : — 


18C9. 

England 
Scotland 
Ireland 

United  Kingdom 

£ 

69,535,506 

9,274,064 

10,957,;i5l 

89,766,921 

1S57 


£ 

60,534,060 
8,013.<»05 
9,826,095 

78,373,160 


Adding  together  boroughs    and   counties,  the 
summary  will  be  as  follows : — 


is(n 


1847 


England 
Scotland 
Ireland 


£ 

120,0«>9,963 

15,128,538 

13,400,546 


£ 

103,496.253 
12,.'»M2,749 
11,915,286 


I 


United  Kingdom  j     148,599,047    |     127,994,288 


Suffply  of  Fottd. — Down  to  the  peace  of  Paris, 
in  17(>:^,  England  was  in  the  habit  in  ordinary 
years  of  exporting  laige  quantities  of  com.  liut 
notMritlistanding  the  astonisliing  impn>vementa 
made  in  agriculture,  and  the  consequent  increase 
of  iiroducc  since  that  eiMX*h,  there  is  now,  owing 
to  the  still  more  rapid  growth  of  our  population, 
a  necessity  of  im{)orting  supplies  of  all  sorts  of 
grain.  The  imports  (le|>end,  in  a  great  degree,  on 
the  produce  of  harvests;  being  comparatively 
large  in  bad,  and  com|)aratively  small  in  favour- 
able seasons.  The  quantities  of  com  imported  in 
the  Unitcil  Kingdom  in  the  two  years  1802-3  ia 
given  in  the  subjoined  statement : — 


I 


QuMiUtin  Imported 


1863 


j  Wheat       .        .        .   Qrs.1 
;  Other  kinds  of  Com  antl  i 
Grniu      .        .        Qrs.  j 
Wlicutnjcal  4:  Flour    Cwts. 
Othor  kinds  o(  Meal  and  t 
Flour     .        .      CwtH.  i'  i 


9,469,270 

6,905,921 

7,207,112 

17,935 


1H65 


I 


5,622.601    1 
8,234,898 
5,218,976 
14,812 


65-i 


BRITISH  EMPIRE 


The  sumii  paid  for  these  supplies  of  food  from  I  of  the  United  Kiofsdom,  exported  in  1862  and 
abroad  in  1862-3  were  as  foIkjWA  : —  ;  1^63,  is  given  in  the  following  table : — 


I 


Vala*  of  Importi 


!'•« 


Wheat        .        .        .        . 
Other  kimb  of  Corn  and  ) 

frrain     . 
WhnatnifMl  and  Flniir 
Other  kimlfl  of  Meal  and  i 

F\onr     .        .        .        1 


> 


5,3H7.nM 
8.690 


C 
12.ftl5,00« 

10.41 1.74-1 

3,.Vi.!,!Wl 

6,257 


Articln  bpamd 


laes 


I.  Cotton  manntectura: 
Piece  (roods  white  or  |riain  . 
Do.  printed,  checked,  or  dyed 
Do.  of  other  kinds . 
Cotton  yam  .       •       •       . 


£  £ 

Total  of  cotton  mannfiKtiirai  ■  96,750,971 !  47,44),W4 


For  her  flu{>|>liej«  of  com  from  abroad,  the  United  [ 
Kinplom  is  )ia|>|»ily  not  dependent  on  any  one 
country,  but  rrlies  upon  a  fl^reat  number.     In  the 
two  year;*  1862-3.  the  imports  came  from  the  fol- 
lowing countries : — 


From 

IM-i 

l*fi3        1 

Qr*. 

Rnsffia,  Northrm  Port«    . 

477.307 

M1.228    ■ 

'     1.632.ftft4 

1,193,161    ' 

Sweden       .... 

.'»70,729 

M.10,99.1 

Denmark  and  the  Dudiicn 

7»«,224 

1.076.071 

PnwHa      .... 

l.ft-M.-'Wl 

1,7  1.013 

Hanw  Town*    . 

,        4>9..M8 

379>i4.1 

Germany  (Other  Parts)    . 

i        194.:t64 

2«i«.349 

Holland     .... 

201,10.1 

162.731 

France       .... 

7H7,142 

1,099,7.1.1 

Spain         .... 

74.101 

2.fWJ0 

lulian  State*    . 

236.019 

144.907 

Wallachia  and  Moldavia  . 

3.18.470 

437,680 

TnrkiKh  Dominions,  not ) 
otherwise  spedfled 

1, 02.1,994 

1,4.10,020 

Egypt        .... 

1,"00,«W 

1,079,311     , 

Britijih  North  America     . 

1.646,146 

920,071    ' 

United  8tat4ss    . 

6A'»3,712 

8,807,Oft4    ' 

Other  Countries 
Total 

234,442 

24.1,471 

18,441,791 

16,3.13..3.12 

2.  WooMen  and  worstMi  mano- 

factuiw: 
Cloths,  coatings,  &c.,  on-  t 

mixed  and  mixed 
Flannels,  blankets,  blanket' 

ine.  and  baixes  . 
WortitMl  rtaff«,  unmixed  and 

mixM.  ... 
Carpets  and  druggets  . 
Of  all  other  sorts  . 


1 

I 
I 

4,425,123  AfiOifiH 

l,S88,5!»2  l,411.;«> 

5,8K1.789  9,327,729 

671,315  810,319 

781,713  9b3.222 


Total  of  woollen  and  worsted  ) 
manufactures  -  •       .       / 

3.  Metali*: 
Iron,  pig  and  puddled  . 

bar,  angle,  bolt,  and  rod 
railroad,  of  all  sorts 
wire       .... 
cast       .... 
hoopA,  sheet  and  boiler  j^ , 

plates         .        .        ) 
wrought,  of  all  sorts    . 
old.  for  re-manufacture  ■ 
steel,  unwTought  . 


lS,148,43i:  15,518,942: 


♦» 


»♦ 


I 


t* 


u 


I 


Total  of  iron  and  steel  . 

4.  Linen  manufactures : 
White  or  plain,  damask,  &o. 
Printed,  chocked,  or  dyed     . 
Poilcloth        .... 
Of  othc»  sorts 

Total  of  linen  mannfactores 

.1.  Haberdashery  and  millinery 


1403,641 

2.2.10.!)64, 

2,817,877 

574,142: 

1,318,917 

1,937,317 

9^.464 

848,933 


1496.361; 

2,.'Wi>437: 

349(>,319i 

«W,9S3: 

73244*! 

],fi82,ft»| 

3,171,1  l»j 

51.614 

935>«l 


11465,150  13,111,477 

5429,101 
264,269; 

82749tt 

588,662^ 


4,193.359 

200,66.1] 
258,078 
482334 


5,133436 


6409470{ 


8,57l622     4462419 


Down  to  a  late  period  various  restraints  were  I 
laid  on  the  trade  in  com ;  the  tcndcncj'  of  which  | 
was  to  fetter  imfK>rtation,  and  artificially  to  elevate  j 
the  home  prices.    All  these  restraints  were  re-  j 

pealed  in  1H16,  when  Parliament  decided  that  on       «..  ^  f^ii«„^r.«.  ^^i^^t^  *^»x*...<».»  ♦k^  ..»»».: 
i::<l  after  Feb.  1.  .M49,  only  a  nomi-jal  duty  of  I  „.^\^' «TrS'SL.„'S:^"iS  ^SE^^ 

one  shilling  per  quarter  was  to  be  levied  on  com.  > ,,__  *. ^.» „ \^.T.tZ."L—L2.,^ 

Much  of  the  actiml  prosfierity  of  the  United 
Kinf^om  <lates  from  this  period. 


Manu/acture$.  —  The  manufactures  of  Great 
Britain  are  more  extensive  and  im|X)rtant  than 
those  of  any  other  nation.  The  kingdom  may, 
indeed,  be  said  to  lie  pur\'evorof  most  descriptions 
of  manufactured  articles  for  all  the  world ;  and 
there  are  but  few  nations,  how  remote  or  Imritarous 
soever,  that  are  not  mdebted  for  some  considerable 
portion  of  their  comforts,  and  sometimes  even  of 
their  necessaries,  to  the  skill  and  inj^enuitv  of 
liritish  artisans.  A  ver\'  large  proportion  of'  the 
people  are  eiigaf^  in,  and  directly  dcpemi  upon, 
manufactures  for  their  support ;  and  they  supply 
the  materials  of  tliat  commerce  for  which  the 

Unite<l  Kingdom  is  so  peculiarly  distinguished ;  "  actual  pnxlucc,  it  will  be  found  that  the  manu- 
and  which  extends    to,  civilises,  and    enriches    facturing  industry  of  the  United  Kingdom  has 


drawn  from  property  assessment  and  custom-houde 
returns : — 

£ 

Cotton 35,000,000 

Woollen 36,000.000 

Iron  and  Hardware    ...  32,000,000 

Watches,  Jewellery,  &c     .       •  3,000.000 

Leather 13400,000 

Linen 8.000,000 

Silk 10,000,000 

(jIaMs  and  Earthenware      .       .  4,250,in)0 

I'afwr 2,i>oo.ooo 

Hats 3,000,000 

Comparing  thc.«e  figures  with  the  preceding 
table,  and  aiimitting  the  value  of  total  exports  of 
each  arricle  as  amounting  to  about  one-half  the 


almost  every  country  of  the  globe. 

There  are  no  returns  from  which  the  actual 
pro<luce    of    the    manufactures    of    the 


progresse<l  somewhat  unequally  in  the  course  of  a 
quarter  of  a  century.     While  some  branches  c-f 


United  j  industr\%  such  as  the  making  of  cotton  goods,  liavc 
kingdom  can  l)e  ascertained ;  but  the  magnitude  \  apparently  more  than  doubled,  othen  fitve  gniwn 
of  this  industrial  activity  may  be  measured,  to  but  little.  However,  the  estimates  of  manufac- 
some  degree,  Ivy  the  expc)rts  sent  to  foreign  coun-  turcs  in  1840  are  very  va^e,  and  may  be  wide  of 
tries.  These,  m  all  pn»bability,  embrace  not  more  the  mark.  But  they  exhibit,  if  nothing  else,  the  vast 
tlian  half  the  actual  pnnluce,  the  other  half  being  extent  and  importance  of  British  mannfactores.  h 
Tetainc<l  for  home  consumption.  There  are  five  would  be  desirable,  on  many  accounts,  to  be  aWe 
principal  articles  of  export,  namely,  cotton  manu-  to  separate  the  sums  mentioned  alwvo  as  coosti- 
factures ;  woollen  ditto ;  metals,  chiefly  iron  and  tuting  the  gross  annual  value  of  the  principal 
steel ;  linen  manufactures ;  and  haberdashery  and  manufactures  into  their  constituent  parts,  that 
millinery.    The  total  value  of  these  manufactures   is,  to  show  how  much  of.tho  total  value  of  any 


BRITISH  EMPIRE 


553 


branch  of  manufacture  is  made  up  of  raw  pro- 
duce, or  of  the  value  of  some  other  branch  of 
mauufacture  embodied  in  it,  and  how  much  con- 
sists of  the  waii^es  of  labour  and  superintend- 
ence, and  how  much  of  the  prutita  and  wear  And 
tear  of  capitaL  But  to  do  this  is,  in  many  cases, 
nejct  to  impossible ;  and  in  all  cases,  the  li^reatest 
care  and  circumspection  are  required  to  avoid 
falling  into  the  most  serious  errors.  It  Ls  ne- 
cessar}'  also  to  observe,  that  considerable  care  is 
always  required  in  drawing  conclusions  from 
the  gross  value  of  any  manufacture,  in  regard  to 
the  addition  really  made  by  it  to  the  aggr^ate 
wealth  of  the  country.  Thus,  assuming  the 
gross  annual  value  of  the  woollen  manufacture 
to  be  about  30,000,000/.  a  year,  we  should  fall 
into  the  greatest  imaginable  error,  if  we  sup- 
posed, as  is  commonly  done,  that  it  made  an  an- 
niml  addition  of  that  amount  to  the  gross  produce 
of  the  country.  Of  this  sum  of  30,000,000^., 
nearly  a  half,  or  about  15,000,000/.,  may  consist 
of  the  value  of  the  wool ;  and  the  value  of  the 
British  wool,  which  is  by  far  the  largest  portion 
of  the  whole,  being  already  included  in  the  esti- 
mate of  the  annual  produce  of  agriculture,  would 
be  reckoned  twice  over  were  it  also  included  in 
the  estimate  of  the  produce  of  the  woollen  manu- 
facture. The  same  caution  must  be  used  in 
almost  every  case ;  and  unless  it  be  carefully  at- 
tended to,  none  but  the  most  misleading  in- 
ferences need  be  looked  for. 

Comparing  t  he  table  of  exports  with  the  preceding 
one.  giving  the  value  of  the  imports  of  com  and 
bread-stuff,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  exports  of  cotton 
manufactiupes  alone  more  than  pav  u>r  the  supply 
of  fo<xl  derived  from  foreign  nations.  The  total 
imports  of  com  into  the  United  Khigdom,  in  the 
year  1862,  were  of  the  value  of  37,772,194/.,  while 
the  total  ex|)orts  of  cot  ton  manufactures  amounted 
to  36,750,971/.  This  was  a  very  unfavourable 
year,  there  having  been  a  deficient  harvest ;  and 
tlie  next  annual  period  showed  a  very  different 
result.  In  the  year  1863,  the  total  value  of  the 
com  imports  amounted  to  25,955,939/.,  while  the 
ex|)orts  of  cotton  manufactures  reached  47,443,964/. 
The  statistics  of  the  latter  year  showed,  on  the 
whole,  a  fair  average  of  imports  and  exiK>rts,  and 
as  such  may  be  taken  as  a  basis  for  further  cal- 
culations on  the  manufacturing  industry  of  the 
Unite<l  Kingdom. 

The  progress  made  by  Great  Britain  in  manu- 
factures, since  the  middle  of  last  century,  has  been 
quite  miprecctlenteiL  At  that  period  the  quantity 
of  iron  ])roduced  in  England  and  Wales  is  not 
supposed  to  have  exceeded  18,000  tons  a  year ; 
but  the  application  of  pit-coal  to  the  production 
of  iron  having  soon  after  become  pretty  general, 
the  manufacture  l>egan  gradually  to  increase,  the 
proiluce  in  1788  being  estimate<i  at  68,000  tons,  in 
179t)  at  125,000  tons,  and  in  1806  at  250,000  tons. 
Since  this  last  menuoned  period,  the  progress  of 
the  iron  trade  has  l>ecn  such  that,  as  already 
stated,  there  were  not  Icj*  ihan  3,943,469  tons  of 
iron  produced  in  the  year  1862.  The  biminess  has 
now  become  of  the  very  highest  importance.  Iron 
l«*  emiiloyed  with  the  greatest  advantage  in  many 
ways  for  which  it  wa.s  formerly  8U|)]K>sed  not  to 
l>e  at  all  suitable,  such  as  the  construction  of  shi]K*. 
And  it  is  to  tlie  cheapness  and  al)undance  of  our 
supply  of  iron,  as  much  as  to  anything  else,  that 
the  su|)eriority  of  our  machinery,  and  consequently 
of  most  branches  of  our  manufactures,  is  to  be 
ascril>cd. 

Hut  the  progress  of  the  Britwh  cotton  manu- 
facture, since  17<)0,  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
extraordinary  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  in- 
dustry.   In  1764  the  consumption  of  raw  cotton 


did  not  amount  to  4  million  \bs»,  whereas  the 
imports,  in  the  year  1863,  reached  5,978,422  cwt., 
valued  at  56,277,953/.  It  b  difHcult  to  give  any 
very  satisfactory  explanation  of  this  astonishing 
progress.  Much,  no  doubt,  must  be  ascribed  to 
the  influence  of  the  general  causes  already  speci- 
fied, but  much  also  has  been  owmg  to  what  may 
be  called  accidental  circumstances.  The  cotton 
manufacture  may,  in  fact,  be  said  to  be  wholly  the 
result  of  the  invenrions  and  discoveries  of  Har- 
greaves,  Arkwright,  Watt,  Crompton,  and  a  few 
other  Englishmen  which  gave  to  the  country  that 
priority  and  early  superiority  in  the  manufacture, 
which  a  favourable  situation  in  other  respects  has 
enabled  her  to  maintain.  It  is  seldom  an  easy 
matter  for  new  rivals  to  come  into  successful 
competition  with  those  who  have  already  attained 
to  considerable  proficiency  in  any  art  or  manu- 
facture ;  and  they  rarely  succeed,  unless  they  have 
some  ver\'  material  advantage  on  their  side.  But 
in  this  instance,  besides  ha\'ing  the  start  of 
foreigners,  the  natural  and  moral  circumstances 
under  which  liritish  manufacturers  have  been 
placed  have  given  them  advantages  not  enjovod 
in  anything  like  the  same  degree  by  the  manufac- 
turers of  any  other  country.  Were  anv  change  or 
revolution  effectetl  in  machinerv  that  should  admit 
of  coal  being  advantageouslv  dispensed  with,  it  is 
diflicult  to  say  what  effect  it  might  have  in  the 
long  mn  on  British  manufactures.  While,  how- 
ever, coal  continues  to  be  as  indispensable  in 
industrious  undertakings  as  at  present,  and  while 
the  kingdom  retains  her  free  institutions,  there  is 
but  little  ground  for  supposmg  that  her  manufac- 
turing prosperity  vrill  be  impaired.  On  the  contrary, 
it  is  reasonable  to  expect,  seeing  the  increasiiij;^ 
wealth  of  foreign  customers,  the  greater  comi)eti- 
tion  at  home  and  abroad,  and  the  greater  attention 
paid  to  scientific  investigations,  that  it  will  go  on 
increasing,  and  that  the  discoveries  and  progress 
to  be  made  in  the  next  age  will  surpass  Uiose 
made  in  the  present,  wonderful  as  they  nave  been. 
Commerce. — Neither  the  commerce  of  T\Te  or 
Carthage  in  antiquity,  nor  that  of  Italy  in  the 
middle  ages,  nor  of  Holland  in  the  1 7th  century, 
could  compare,  for  the  variety  and  value  of  the 

{>roducts  which  it  distributes,  and  the  all  but  un- 
imited  range  which  it  embraces,  to  the  existing 
commerce  of  England.  British  products  are  found 
in  every  countr\%  and  the  British  flag  Hoats  over 
every  sea.  And  as  all  commerce  is  based  on  a 
principle  of  reciprocity,  and  is  sure  to  stimulate 
the  industry  and  to  add  to  the  wealth  of  all  who 
engage  in  it,  it  may  safely  be  affirmed,  that  while 
the  i>eople  of  Britain  are  pursuing  only  their 
own  interests,  they  are  contributing  in  the  most 
effectual  manner  to  diffuse  the  blessings  of  civili- 
sation, and  a  taste  for  luxury  and  refinement.  It 
is  irai)ossible,  indeed,  to  overrate  the  beneficial 
infiuence  of  that  commerce  of  which  the  United 
Kingdom  is  the  centre  and  mainspring.  No  one 
aware  of  its  vast  extent  can  have  the  smallest 
doubt  that  it  is  by  far  the  most  important  means 
of  ci^^lisation  and*  improvement  e\*er  brought  into 
active  o{)eration.  And  it  may  be  concluded,  that 
instead  of  having  approached  its  zenith,  it  will 
continue  to  increase  with  the  increasing  wealth, 
and  consequently  growing  wants,  of  the  various 
nations  it  is  now  rousing  to  activity  and  enter- 
priw ;  and  that  it  will  <icrive  new  vigour,  and  have 
Its  foundations  widened  and  consoli«lated,  bv  everv 
circumstance  calculated  to  promote  the  industry 
and  to  add  to  the  riches  of  the  nations  of  the  earth. 
Philosophically  speaking,  all  organised  society 
resolves  itself  into  a  series  of  exchanges;  ever>- 
individual  is  in  some  sort  a  merchant ;  and  the  prin- 
cipal biuincaii  of  life  consists  in  the  exchange  of 


551 


BRITISH  EMPIRE 


one  Mirt  of  floiricc  or  article  for  another.  Hence 
in  all  countrii*8  the  mercantile  transactions  carried 
on  at  home,  or  in  the  home  trade^  infinitely  ex-  I 
cceil  in  numt>er  and  value  those  carried  on  with 
forcijniers  or  in  the  foreign  trade.  The  latter, 
however,  is  not  on  that  accimnt  the  lera  important 
<ir  valuable.  But  tor  the  intercourse  carried  on 
with  foreijniers  Clreat  Britain  would  be  whollv 
destitute  of  man^'  most  dej»irable  pnKlucts — !*ucL 
as  tea,  coffee^  wine,  the  precious  metaln,  <i'e.,  »» 
well  OA  of  the  raw  material  of  many  mo^t-  impor- 
tant manufactures,  includiuf;  those  of  cotton  and 
Bilk,  (ienerally,  too.  manufactures  are  impntvcnl  and 
jierfwited  accordinj^  to  the  scale  on  which  they  are 
carriexl  on  ;  so  that  an  extensive  ct>mmerce  is  at 
once  a  con>c({ueuce  and  a  cause  of  manufacturing 
pre-eminence.  The  cotton  mills  of  I..anca.<hire 
and  I^narkshirc  could  not  have  t^een  amstmcted 
had  the  demand  for  their  pnxlucc  l>een  confined 
to  the  empire  only :  they  have  not  been  built  to 
8up]tly  the  limited  consumption  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  but  the  unlimited  ct»n8umption  of  the 
world. 

It  is  impossible  to  form  any  estimate  of  the 
extent  of  the  home  traile  carrieil  on  in  any  great 
count  r\',  or  of  the  exchanj^es  effected  amongst  ita 
citizens.  F»)rmerly,  accurate  accounts  were  ke|>t 
of  the  iToss-channel  trade  between  Great  Britam 
and  Ireland ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  com,  no 
offici.'U  account  is  now  kept  of  the  priKlucts  con- 
veyer! fn)m  the  one  to  the  other.  However,  this  is 
nor  the  case  with  the  trade  with  foreign  countriea. 
I>uti<js  U-ing  laiii  on  most  articles  imiNirted  from 
abn^.  it  is  necessary  for  fiscal  pur^xtses  that  their 
amount  should  lK*a8cenaine<l  with  as  muchaccuracy 
as  }X)^ible ;  and  it  is  belie ve<l  that  the  declarations 
of  the  real  value  of  the  exports  made  by  the 
exporters  do  not  differ  materially  from  the  truth. 

The  trade  carried  on  \i'ith  colonies,  or  the 
colonial  trade,  though  conducted  under  <lifferent 
regidations  and  duties,  is  substantially  the  same 
w^ith  the  foreign  trade;  and  may  be,  and  indeed 
generallv  is,  considered  as  a  branch  of  the  latter. 

Subjoinecl  are  a  few  general  statements  re- 
specting the  principal  articles  imported  from  and 
exported  to  the  countries  with  which  the  United 
Kingdom  has  the  greatest  intercoujrec;. 

Jiussia — Im]>ort8  from  : — Tallow,  com,  flax  and 
hemp,  flax  and  linseeil.  timber,  bristleii,  ashes, 
hides,  iron,  and  wax.  Exports  to: — C(»tton  twist, 
W(S)llen  fabrics,  salt,  coal,  hardware,  colonial 
products,  d'C 

Swtdtm  and  Norwatf — Imports  from : — Timber, 
iron  and  l)ark.  Exports  to: — Cottons  and  cotton 
yam,  w(K»llcnfl,  earthenware,  hardware,  cofice,  in- 
ilig(»,  tobacco,  sugar,  d:c. 

Denmark — Imports  from  :— Com  and  rape-seed, 
butter,  bristles,  wool,  hides,  and  bark.  Kx|N)rt8 
to:  —  Coal,  tiiihj  iron  and  steel,  earthenware, 
machinery-,  coffee,  indigo,  A'c. 

PntHsia — Im))orts  fn)m : — Com,  oak  and  fir  tim- 
ber, bork,  bristles,  wool,  s])elter,  flax,  A'c.  Exports 
to : — Kefined  sugar,  salt,  ct»ttr)ns,  hardware,  earth- 
enware, &c.  Our  tnule  with  Pntssia  is  principally 
carried  on  through  Hamburgh. 

Germany — Imprtrts  from  : — Wool,  com,  wines, 
butter,  linens,  hides,  clover,  rape-seed,  smaltz, 
spelter,  zaflFre,  furs,  woo<len  clocks,  &c.  Exports 
to: — Ct>tton  stuffs  and  yam,  woollens,  refined 
sugar,  hanlware,  earthenware,  iron  and  steel,  coal, 
salt,  indigo,  coffee,  mm,  tobacco,  cotton  w<ki1, 
spic<.'s,  A'c.  A  gowl  deal  of  the  inrijwrts  from  and 
exports  to  Holland  and  lielgium  are  on  German 
account. 

Netherlands — Im]>ort8  from :  —  But ter,  ^cheese, 
com,  madder,  geneva,  flax  and  tow,  hides,  linens, 
seeds,  toys,  &c.    Exjiorts  to : — Cotton  stuffs  and 


yam,  woollcitf,  haidware,  earthaiwire,  salt,  ooti, 
and  colonial  produce. 

France — Imports  from: — Brandy,  wine,  silk 
(raw  and  manufactured),  glovcis  madder,  ef^ 
skins,  and  fmit.  Exporta  to : — Wool,  linens  and 
linen  yam,  brass  and  copper  manofacturea,  ma- 
chinery-, coal,  hones,  drc.  Lai^  quantities  td 
Nottingham  lace  are  smuggled  into  France,  and 
brandy  int(»  England. 

Portugtd  and  iS|pani— Imports  from  : — Pon  and 
sherr\'  wines,  barilla,  wool,  raisins,  dried  fniitA, 
lemons,  oranges,  olive  oil,  quicksilver.  &c.  JLx- 
]s>rt8  to: — Cotton  stuflls,  woollens,  linens,  hard- 
ware and  cutlery,  iron  and  steel,  soapy  candles, 
leather,  and  cinnamon. 

Italy — Im^Nirts  from: — Thrown  tdlk,  olive  oil, 
straw  for  plaiting,  straw  plait  and  hata,  currants, 
lemons,  oranges,  wine,  barilla,  shumac,  baik, 
cheese,  lamb-skins,  hemp,  ^c.  Exports  to:  — 
Cotton  stuffs  and  yam,  refined  sugar,  woollen 
manufactures,  hardware  and  cutler\\  iron  and 
steel,  coffee,  indigo,  tobacco,  pimento^  drc. 

Turkey^  Greece^  See,  —  Importa  from:  —  Silk, 
o])ium,  madder,  figs,  raisins,  valonea,  oil,  cuttiio, 
currants,  senna,  d;c.  Exports  to:— Cotton  manu- 
factures and  twist,  linens,  hardware,  iron  and  steel, 
cordage,  woollens,  earthenware,  inrUgo,  and  coffee. 

Egyftt  ami  Africa — Im|N)rt8  from :— -Cotton  wool, 
flax,  linseed,  senna  and  other  druj^  Expoiu 
ti»:— Cott(»n  manufactures,  iron  and  steel,  aims 
an<l  ammunirion,  and  machinery. 

Foreign  West  Indies — Imports  from: — Sugar, 
coffee,  cotton,  cigars,  dec.  Exports  to: — CVitt4« 
manufactures,  earthenware,  linen  manufactmvs, 
hardware,  iron  and  steel,  woollens,  glass,  madii- 
nerv,  Ac. 

(jnited  States — Imports  from  : — Cotton,  tobacco, 
wheat  flour,  wheat,  rice,  maize,  skins  and  funs 
hides,  staves,  Ac  Exports  to  : — Cotton,  linen, 
and  W(K>llen  mannfactores,  hardware,  cutleiy. 
earthenware,  salt,  brass,  and  copper,  i^yparel,  boob, 
Ac 

South  American  Stofea— Imports  finnm  : — Cottoo 
wool,  su^ar,  coffee,  bullion  and  prccioiu*  stoncis 
cocoa,  hides,  fruits,  bark,  dye-woo«ls,  fun,  Ac 
Ex|)ort8  to: — Cotton,  linen,  and  woollen  mana- 
factures,  earthenware,  hardware,  soap,  candle^  Ac 

African  British  Colonies — Im}M)rts  from— ^Tape 
and  Constantia  wines,  hides,  ivory,  skins,  aloe«, 
palm-oil,  teak,  Hmber,  wax,  dye-woods,  sugar 
from  the  Mauritius,  Ac.  Exports  to: — Cotton, 
w(N>llcn.  and  linen  manufactures,  apparel,  earthen- 
ware, hardware,  iron  and  steeL  soap,  candles,  sta- 
tionerj',  fire-arms,  salt,  macluner\%  Ac 

Asia  and  Anatralia — lm))(»rt8  ftivok : — Tea,  wool, 
indigo,  cotton,  sugar,  silk,  coffee,  pepper,  saltpetre, 
])iece-gt»od8,  rice,  lac-<ive,  cinnamon,  mace,  clovfs, 
ciKJoa-nut-oil,  whale-oil,  ivory,  tin,  and  the  pre- 
cioiu)  metals.  Eximrts  to : -^-Cotton  stuffs  and 
yam,  woollens,  linens,  earthenware,  copper,  hafd- 
ware,  inm  and  steel,  leather,  gUss,  roachineiy,  Ac 

American  British  Colonies — lra|)orts  fitin:— 
Timl>er,  furs,  fish,  com,  ashes,  skins,  turpentine. 
&c.  P-xport8  to : — Woollens,  cottons,  linens,  hard- 
ware, iron  and  steel,  soap,  candle^,  earthenware, 
apparel,  glass,  conlage,  coal,  butter,  chee^.  Ac 

British  IVest  Indies — Imports  from  :  — Sugar, 
coffee,  mm,  cotton,  {limento,  molasses,  mahogany, 
logv,'(.KHl,  fustic,  cocoa,  cochineal,  ginger,  hidtts 
Ac  Exports  to : — Cotton  stuffs,  linens,  woollens 
a]>parel,  H^ap.  candles,  hanlware,  iron  and  steel, 
fist),  earthenware,  cordage,  beef  and  poik,  amu 
and  ammunition. 

The  declared  real  value  of  the  total  imports  and 
ex|)ort8  of  merchandise  into  and  from  tlie  Unit«d 
Kingdom  for  the  years  184>2  and  1863  is  shova 
in  the  following  table : — 


BBITISH  EHFni£ 


,  aajitfiit  a*s,»ii.M 


I  Briiliiii  produce 
uoru  1  turelim   imd 
[    CuUdikl 

TdU]  tlxporta    . 


Valur  or  tsFotrm. 


Tuui  or  Dritiiii  rum. . 


TgUl  o[  GcnmiB/ 


'  Kcirrln  Ve>a  InMok 


'  Arviiiiinv  Urpublh: 


Talci  or  luvoim. 


Autrtu 'I'BillariM 


32.0I7.71IV:  .. 

ID  the  place  Tunnaly  occupied  h. 
St&tesj  lUnda  France,  which,  id  tha  fear  IxhK, 
Itiund  m  the  p«iiite  of  GieBt  llriuin  ciutomem  fur 
Ihe  pnduclB  oT  hn  induatiy  to  ihv  unwinL  of  mon 
llivi  34,000,000  jila-IiiiK,  or  aljuut  A  tiiiilh  nut  ot 
Ihe  entire  total  «« take  fioni  jUl  UiE  couatricii  oT 
the  world.  _  !Next  comM  EbttiI,  whii'li  in  iho 
dnabiN  bi?T  import  UbJb 
Turkey,   allliouEh 


Cfdinj; 


witli  iho  Cnitcd  Kinitdui 
Bhe  in  Imtct  in  tlie  list,  like 

|m«rt»».     Prom  Japad  Ui_ , 

di>ulil«i  in  IBCa,  cumiHUtKl  with  ihc 
ytar.  Among  ihc  nroainiiig  coantrica. 
dpal  of  Ihusc  which jBoent  ill  incmiw  orci.  [iinJi, 
tliu  KctliuUDd*,  BolKium.  Swo.It'n.  lV>rtuK*l. 
Deiimark,  Ihc  rbUippine  talanda,  tl><?  An.-cnlina 
Kei>ul.lir.  Unifc-uaj,  Groeeo,  and  Ilavii.  ThOBa 
►howiiiK  a  d«rea»  are  German)*.  Uii'-iis.  [lalv. 
Western  Africa,  New  Granada,  and  Il^livin. 

The  ejcporu  of  Itriliih  produce  duriiii;  iln'  rears 
IMJand  l8fig  were  diiidvllKtwcen  till'  r<,l)uHini; 
llritiilh  posMnJim*  ani  foreign  [■■■unlrii--.  Tho 
relunware  iln^-r  r.f  W  Ilnnr,)  lY  Tniilc;  Iml  the 
eouHiri-'.s  n^'  nn:irr-.,(  rii  the  onler  of  Ihiar  im- 
iwruuicu  on  buyers  ot  Britiih  produce^ 


Brit 

Auxrfi1j»ii>     . 
llriil-h  North  Araerlot 

Vltp-BlOOBinapB 

t-b 

HoncI  IrianO.      . 
u     .      .      . 

miuda 

lo 

ilji'luiand,.' 

K 

IMi,      .        .        . 

.«, 

.«j 

e 

»n;wa 

BBITIBH  EBfPIRE 


Ipcklenburg 
Tolol  of  Gcnnui; 

Turkey       .         . 
luJr.eulud.lUimuil 


ArvcdtioA  Rofublk 


AJgait      '. 

tiigucH  Vom.  [n  Indli 

lUH.VitlTsTFrTlbirlf 
ilicni  Wlule  Jlihs]' 


iitlM,8Hl 


btjos 


s,«n.]« 


CM,  Ml 


It  will  be  seen  (tnra  Ihn  preceding  Iiblo  His 
the  llirn;  beat  ciulomera  nf  Great  Bntiin  in  r.li 
yciir  IHea,  wore  Indi»,  Ibe  United  Statcn,  mi 
tiermiiiiy.  In  the  total  exports  of  Dritish  an 
Irish  prttluce  there  waf  an  increue  of  18  perci'iii 
in  18tiS,  compared  with  that  of  the  nreceiliH 
year.  The  incnsMe  wai  chieBy  due  to  llie  Ian;,-! 
Biigmenlcd  ■hipmcnli  to  liniisb  pOHesaioiif 
irliiuh  louk  about  51,000,000  of  gooda,  or  ecu 
aidembly  more  than  oiie-lliinl  of  the  aum  total  ci 
»11  the  exports. 


BfCiirea  given  aie  agieial  tabu,  diffinng,  •■  tt  nil 
knowD,  )^Bt]v  from  rail  or  dtdand  ca&c  The 
tables,  compiled  from  official  retuma,  gire  the 
value  of  the  totai  import  ajad  export  md*  <i 
Ureat  Britain  with  foreign  councriea  and  Ebitirii 
poasHBiani    abioad,    unuged    ander    trimoiil 


nwibBpM. 

TWIEM-^ 

OAcWru» 

oa.u.d. 

sa,iw.?ns 

M.flSlJ.TOn 

M,Bl5/rfl 

M^UM 

«n.34«.i>Mi(i»,:ia.ii» 

Annatl  ATcroge  of  the  Trt- 1 
enn  Lai  Period  .  .  { 
Turn  mdlagS  JaoDuy  IIOS 


endlogJI  Dscember  1»8  IS».B»3.7)*»U.tw,(M 


l.]19,m,l»«»,TIfW 


M,S4o.sMajijM,ril 


by  which  the  official  v 

id   in    1096,  and,  owing  to   the   iniraue  of 
mifactures  and  the  cheapening  of  neaiiy  ill 
goiida,  they  now  are  much  above  the  real  value, 
although  they  at  first  were  aa  mucb  below. 

The  Hbjouied  two  tables  give  the  ra/or  A- 
fhirrd  talue  of  the  total  import  and  rxpon  tradr 
of  the  United  Kingdom  with  foreign  cDontrie*  and 
Hritish  poMeeaionn  abroad,  in  iht  two  triennial 
periods  1858-60,  and  1861-63. 


JII.S0t|lS9,4«l,( 


.AnniuU  Aveni^  of  the  Tr 


ti30»fi7tfieaiB»,tntjm 


^- }  'm,M«,«o  infitiM* 


The  relative  importance  of  the  twelve  raindi*! 
porta  uf  the  United  Kingdom  in   ngui  in  the 


value  oT  exporta  of  Brituh  and  liijh  pnidaec  ia   r 

shown  in  the  rulloirinit  table,  compileil  tram 
nluma  of  the  inipeclor-nneral  a(  impnru  and  I 
exports.  mui«  on  June  20,  18G4,  uil  in  June 
IXIi.1.  The  Ogata  exhibit  the  declurd  value  of  | 
Biilioh  an<l  Irish  produce  and  mBDufaclDiei  eS' 
purted  trom  the  respective  ports  (o  (bceign  coun- 
tries  uiil  Briiiah  poiweiHiom  abroad,  in  the  yean 
1862  aud  leKI :— 


,». 

>.,«. 

IM,         1         IK. 

LUnpool    .         .         . 
Lomlon       . 

SowcartLfl  ,       .       . 

BrtS"   ■.    ;    '. 
ifcifJt    :   '   ; 

Taul      . 

i,398,nw 

*8.J77 

4.isa 

W,1M.1W 

la.SM.SM 

1,«M.»1 

lOfl.wjji.w 

\W.l06JXi 

It  win  be  KGD  that  aa  nffacda  the  vahit  of 
Brilish  Gxpoita,  Lirenxwl  atanda  at  the  head  of 
all  the  porta  uf  the  tfnited  Kingdom,  the  mei- 
chandise  paaaing  through  it  being  equal  in  amount 
to  that  of  all  the  other  eleven  porta  tofcelher. 
However,  the  relaUon  is  very  diflerent  aa  regatda 
the  quantity  oT  ihipi/ing,  and  entecially  the  num- 
ber of  inwaid-lound  veaaela.  It  will  be  inlerwl- 
iiuC.  in  thia  reapect,  lo  compare  the  above  table  | 
with  that  in  the  lower  part  of  the  aecond  column  I 
of  pat^  fi&9.  I 

Raad$  and  Tailrayt—The    mctau   of  ittlrrwd    I 
conmtatimiioK    in    (inat    Britain    are    probably 
au|icTior  lo  thnaa  enjoyed  by  any  other  eountfy. 
The  ordinary  high  roada,  which,  during  the  tint 
half    of  last    century,    were    execrable,    have    | 
been  nignally  improveil  since  the  cloae  of  the    | 
American  tear;  and  since  the  graeral  introduction 
of  the  practice  of  maaidamaaig,  tliey  may  be 
confidenllv  nronounocd  (o  be  the  very  heal  in    ' 
Europe.    M'Uh    the  exception   of   Holland  and 


Loan*  and  Debgotarc  Block  1 1 


Total  Fuamuma  CoTrsroi  \ 
OooDe  Cosveted:— 


«,la."- 


siipiiiicd 


i,  and  the  aid  afforded 

(vigable  rivera,  Ihe  conveyance  of 
the  bulkieat  artirlea  haa  been  rendered  both  eaay 
and  cheap.  It  ia  now,  however,  obvious  that 
railroads  are  destined  In  supersede  the  former 
methods  of  conveyance,  in  ao  far  at  leaat  aa  the 
trannit  of  paiMiigen  and  of  the  ligliler  and  more 
valuable  apccies  of  goods  is  conctmBl;  and  the 
wonderful  qtccil  wilh  which  lenRlhenod  trains  uf 
carriages  are  im|iel1ed  by  steam-cn^^ncs  along 
these  roads,  ia  among  the  moat  valuable  and 
aatonishing  results  of^modem  science  and  dia- 
coverv.  Sy  facilitating  travelling  tn  a  degree  that 
could  not,  a  few  years  aeo,  have  been  conceived 
poasble  \  rendering  all  the  great  markets  of  the 
emjiire  eaailv  acceasible  to  the  products  of  the  re- 
motest districts ;  obliterating  local  prejudices  and 
customs ;  reducing  the  country  to  a  hiimo^neous 
mass;  and  producing  evenrwhere  a  epirit  uf  emu- 
lation and  competition,  theac  imj 
comrounkalion  are  < 
most  powerful  kind 
higlily  appreciated. 

Subjmned  are  lomi 
the  United  Kingdoa 


Total  Reolpta 
PiDporKon  tTom : 


exercising  an 


l»!gTn>a 


668 


lUilwaT* 


3ixl  ClOM  Olid  Parliouicntury 
Total        .... 


(ISfiO 
-  ls«!l 


irnltrd 

KInxiliiiD 


BRITISH  EMPIBE 

tainctl,  judging  from  the  fact  that  some  Una  chuge 
twice  or  even  three  times  as  much  an  others  frr 
nmvovaiK-o.  The  rabjoincd  table  ffhown  the  ave- 
ni^e  Ijiren  on  the  principal  railways  of  the  United 
Kin^doro,  for  each  of  the  three  usual  dawa  <n 
Itasscu^cn,  in  the  year  1862  : — 


rroportion  from  Wl  Clww  ( 1  ^v\ 
t<i  Tot  111  Kcccipw  from  -,  \M\ 
l'atjm.'iigers    . 


i  ISU'i 


ATorago  per  PasBeiigcr 


AvpTftfrc  per  Mile  of  mean 
Length  of  Kailways 

Pcrio*lical  Tickets      . 


{IM^ 
IMil 
184!'.' 

,     flHfiO 

*  \  lHf.1 

•  (  IHti'i 

(ls(;o 
1H<;1 


4.1 02.487 
4.3Wi.7«H» 
4.«;^J!».'J.V) 
P*r  Cmt. 

;i7:« 
;i7-7:J 
J. 

lo-4fi 
1(»:»(> 
£ 
407 
412 
401 
272.K07 
2S7,K-'« 
;to:,,422 


TtrrALRBCEirTBfrom  Passsuus. 
RoLU>'G  Stock  :— 
LocomotiTOS    . 


(18(M) 
-  IHtil 
(  IHG2 

ri8r>o 

IMil 
184J2 


Carriappp  used  for  Convey-  j  i^;i  i 
ancc  of  PaMcngcn*  only  ^  j^^-.j  | 

MlIJCAGR  TIIAVKLLKD  IIY  TrAIXH  :— 

By  PoMcnscr  Trains      .   ■!  IKCl  I 

1 1W52  ■ 

ilHiM) 
l««;i 
im'2 


ll,.V.o.!>l2 
11.7:m>.!H»:{ 

12,2!t.'i,27a 

No. 

C.«i»l 

i:..»7«J 

14.»;o!» 


By  Goods  Trains 


Mlln 
fi2.Kl«..'»79 
W,o.-..l.47« 
r.7..'»42.Kni. 
49,427.113 
61,(»H.'i.0O4 
(>0,.'il8.!H>6 


Total 


NUMnKR  OF  Traixh  :— 
Pawengcr 


Goods 


Total 


flWJO  I02,243.fl5>2 
l»*«n  10.\I41.4H> 
1WI2      10H,U6 1,707 


f  18rt0 
J  iw;i 

I  IM'2 
KliO 

1 

1802 


IlKlii 
1W5 
180 


(1S4*.0 
J  IWU 
(  184>2 


AcciDKSTJ*— /rof»»  all  Causes : 
PcraouH  Killed  :— 

Passengers     . 


(1800 
iw;i 
l8t;'_» 

I  1800 

Servants  of  Companies,&c.  •!  184>1 

1 1802 
Persons  Injured  :— 

f  1800 

.   J  11 


Passengers 


Servants  of  Companics,&c 


ilWJO 
1802 


J  801 

I  1802 

IWJO 

il 

1802 

By  Accidents  to  Trains:  (Tn  1802) 
From  Collisiona  be-  )  Persons  killed 

tweon  Trains.  &c. ) 
From  nmninR  off 

proper  Lines  by 

Points         being 

\^'rong.  &c. 
From  Breaking   of 

parts  of  Engines 

and  Carringes.  kc. 


tf 


injured 


Persons  killed 
injured 


ft 


Persons  killed 
injured 


•I 


No. 

2.»-''>o.r,.',8 
2.."J'»2.:j:{Jj 

2..'»'»-5.f»f):l 
1. .'.40,402 
l,r.2«.0.M 

l.lMM),7(U 

3.8no.!»i;o 
:i  .881  ,*»»•) 
4,l.'i4.7.'»7 


20 

79 

3.') 

0 

2or. 

181 
78!) 

Ano 
in 

04 

20 
421 

1ft 
100 


ft 
47 


Tlic  cheapness  of  the  transport  of  both  g;oo4l8 
and  pa«H»nj;er8  by  railway  hn»  l>een  (me  of  the 
main  reasons  of  the  enormous  proj,rreR8  of  tliis  new 
meaiiH  <»f  locomotion.  However,  it  is  prolwblc 
that  a  minimum  of  coBt  has  lecn  by  no  means  at- 


Ebff*.snd  wad  Wale* 


Brirtol  and  Exeter 

Comw.ill    . 

Great  Kii>*t<'m    . 

Gnat  Northern 
.  (tn-.it  Wi'^ti'm  . 

Lnncn^hi^>  and  Yorkshire         . ; 

Ixuidoii,  Brighton,  and  S.  Const 

T/)ndon,  Chatham,  and  Dover  . 

Ixmdon  and  North  Western 

London  and  South  Western 

Lonilon  ami  Blockwall 

Txmdon.  Tilhur>-,  and  Sonthend 

Manchester,  Sheffield.  &  Lincoln 

Manrh(i<t<T.  South  Junction, 

ami  Altrinchom 
'■  Midland      .... 

Mr»nmoutht«hire  Railway  and  ) 
Cnnal      .        .        .        .        / 

North  Tx>ndon   .... 

Ni>rth  E«»tem   .... 

North  Staff»»nlnhire  . 

South  F^a^teni  (including Lon- 
I     dtm  and  Grei-nwich) 
'  South  Yorkshire  Railway  and 
River  Dun 

Stockton  and  Dnrlington  . 

South  T>evon      .        .        .        , 

St.  H«'h>n'r<  r*anal  and  Railway 
i  Taff  Vnl»'  Railway     . 

We^t  Midland    .        .        .        . 


Plrrt 
CIbm 


} 


2*  1.3 
2-Oft 
l-«0 
2-04 
2-14 
1-07 
2*42 
2-M 
1-fKl 
2-M 

1-44 

2-37 

2-47 

0-71 
2-27 
2-00 


P«<cc>ad 


1-70 
1-77 
2^10 

1 
I 

1-47 
1  -.12 
1-4.''. 
1-72 
1-09 
0-fiS 
1-W 


TMM 


I 


1-14 
1-72  ' 

1-48 

n-42 

l-.'.7 
1-W»  I 


O-.C 

o-« 

0'7i> 
0-S7 

0-91  I 


I 


1'78 

l-W 

I'M 

1*40 

2*26 

1-fil 

2-57 

1-72 

1-9S 

I'M 

2*^ 

VM 

2*73 

1-77 

o-« 

l-<-) 
0-78 

i-i: 

iv:*4 
1-irt 


I 


Rcotlaod  and  Ireland 


FiTtt 

ClaM 


Scon  AMI. 

CaUvlnnion         .... 

DecHide 

Dundt>o,  Perth,  and  Aberdeen ) 
Junction         .        .        .        / 
Fidinburvrh  and  Glas^row  . 
Ghfigow  and  South  We<tem     . 
(Jn-at  North  of  Scotland  . 
Tnvpme»i<  k  Aberdeen  Junction 
North  British    .... 
Se«)ttish  Central 
Scottibh  North  Kafitcm     . 

IRKI..VND. 

Belfa««t  and  Northern  Conntlea . 
Belfa^t  nmd  ('ounty  Down 
Cork.  Blackrock.and  PaA^age 
Dublin  and  Belfast  Jimction  . 
Dublin  and  Droghcda 
Dublin  and  Kingstown,  and  > 
Dublin,  Wicklow,  k  Wexford  / 
Gn»at  Southern  and  Western  . 
Irish  North  Western . 
Midland  (f  rcat  Western  of  Irlnd. 

l.'lster 

Waterford  and  Limerick  . 


:i 


«#. 

1*29 
1-43 

2-00 

!•<» 
1-79 
l-7.'i 
2*00 
1-96 
2-1 R 
2-M 

1-R9 
1*24 
1-03 
2-30 
1-C2 


CteM 


TTiW 

ClM 


d. 

1-19 


0-71  I 


1*87  .  0-K 


1-20 
103 


.Vt 


1 

1-.-.4 

I'M 

1-JW 
0-97 
1-22 
1-72 
1-21 


rrr«  : 
o-«*9  j 

0« 
0-SI 

ft-«K 
0-7> 


1'99       1-.V)      O-fl^ 


2-20 
2*10 
2-1.^ 
1-97 
2-28 


l*fi5 
l-fiO 
1-70 
l-4« 
1*06 


11* 


Tlie  immense  importance  of  railways,  while  it 
has  induced  many  continental  go'\'emment<  M 
make  them  state  institutionfi,  like  the  Post  (>t?iL*e, 
has  also  led  the  Parliament  of  the  United  Iudj:- 
dom  to  a  distinct  aseertion  of  control. 

Sfiijtpina. — Tlic  mercantile  marine  of  Great 
Britain  lirst  l)0^n  to  attain  to  considerable  iro- 
]>ortance  in  the  reipi  of  Elizabeth ;  and  it  has  mn- 
tinued  ]^ropne«sivcly  to  increaae  with  the  incrwwftr 
colonies  and  commerce  of  the  country.  The  *ab- 
joined  tables  give  a  view  of  iU  prmcn't  mai;nilu<)f* 
and  of  the  iia>ngation  of  the  empire.  Subjoined  v 
a  statement  of  the  total  tonnage  of  British  vA 
foreign  vessels — sailing  and  steam— which  entovd 


BRITISH  EHHRB 
aniteleand  ax  ports  in  llie  United  Kingdom  in  tbi 
fifteen  yai^  1nl9  to  \HSj :— 


!«. 

E„«»l 

BridA 

^           r^ 

i™ 

JwUS 

i.iiy>.m 

».a7II.TM 

1IM» 

*3«.ai' 

™ 

BHd* 

Fo-I*. 

T«l 

*^.1B1 

i^4injiM 

1«03 

8,;,!W,i4r. 

4>j:l,441 

iiijsa,«o 

>  »ub)oined  taWa  gires  the  tntal  -nQmber  nnd 
[fe  of  retti*"T«l  wiUing  «nil  ttmm  vcweU — 
dve  nf  river  uteamcra — of  the  Cniied  Kin([- 
?niplnyed  in  tiie  home  nnd  foiruio  mde,  with 


bemimbcTDrinei 

,  in  the  T 

eiirtlWS- 

GB:— 

E»p.„^ 

v™.l. 

T«. 

SI, 

IMl 

IM.M1 

IRM 

I'ril 

JI4."H 

i^.HO 

iii'^iil 

«w 

MO.iW 

'"Sv^."- 

iS",; 

'■iS 

lM,lns 

IWKI 

IJtO 

aiTioo 

1I.M( 

4;i«|nTj 


l-mrf. 

,[^  rt.~.rd.      1 

^ 

T~ri. 

t™. 

—.1. 

t™ 

London    .    . 
Uynpool     . 

■s 

sSS'S! 

MMj" 

''iwH 

flH.IOT 

o'lr-    ■ 

ijw.ara 

IM 

ViV^j 

^i^ 

87^1 

1« 

<,tw.ito 

«l.«« 

B,MO^ 

In  the  year  \6I3,  Itum  iren  &^  in  the  Umted 
Kin^m  l,1G0rtsi>(d9,iifSan,9i17tiing.  Of  Uiciv 
Sei  wwe  «ulin«  ve»eU,  md  2?fl  ulenmere.  Of 
the  uiling  Te»3ii.  Hi  -weti  'built  of  inm,  nnd  of 
theitearaen  240,  London, SmidptUnrl,  Ne«pfl.-lh', 
Liverpool   Hull,  rirmonth,  and  Briftl'i!.  are  iliu 

GRicipal  IrnDditie  porta.  6tdps  built  in  London, 
vecpool,  liriKtol,  and  olbei  weatcin  partji.  ■»  in 
bi)(;heT  estimation  than  those  ImJU  on  the  Tvne 
and  the  WMf,  at  lent  fiir  Ihoae  Innchca  of  tnuie 
where  IliB  beM  ahip*  are  required.  Witbin  the  lut 
ten  VNnthebuildinRofinin  tteani  Rhip«  has  been 
immeniwl.v  extended  on  the  Tyne  and  tlia  CI  vde. 
Monai. — The  melallio  monev  of  the  United 
Kingdom  conn*ta  partly  of  gohl,  and  partly  of 
mIvu  nud  copper,  mim.  The  atandanl  of  pohi 
enin  in  1  porta  ^c  to  part  alloy :  a  pimud  jroy 
of  thi*  standard  ^old  i>  «i»iied  iato  46  aavereigfoB 
^ths  of  a  wmraen,  Of  inu  lU  Ut,Od,;  m 


560 


BRITISH  EMPIRK 


that  the  ftovercippi  containH  113*001  grains  fine, 
and  r23"27t  ^ain^«  stmidard,  gold. 

Tlio  standard  of  silver  coin  is  1 1  oz.  2  dwt.  fine 
to  18  dwt,  alloy.  Since  IHHJ,  a  jxiund  of  thi.s 
standard  silvrr  has  been  ooinc<l  into  <><>  shillings, 
so  that  each  shilling  ctuitains  80'727  grains  jnire 
silver,  and  87*27  grains  standard.  Silver  coins 
fonn  a  mere  subsidiary  currency,  and  are  legal 
tender  to  the  extent  only  ol  -lO*. 

('(»|)per  coins  are  much  over- valued  in  currency, 
and  are  legal  tender  to  the  extent  only  of  1«. 

Hut  by  far  the  greater  jmrt  of  the  considerable 
transactions  in  the  I'nited  Kingdom  having  re- 
ference to  nionev,  arc  settletl  bv  the  int€:r\'ention 
<»f  iMiper;  that  is.  by  the  agency  of  the  notes  of 
the  difll'erent  banking  companies,  or  of  bills.  In 
Kngland  and  Indand,  no  bank  note  can  Ixi  L«sued 
for  less  than  5^,  but  in  Scotland  thev  may  be 
issued  so  low  as  1/.;  they  are  all  made  payable  to 
bearer  on  demand,  either  in  coin  or  in  notes  of  the 
Hank  of  England.  The  latter,  with  the  banks  of 
Sc(»tland  and  Ireland,  are  the  principal  banking 
establishments.  Hills  vary  in  every  |K)ssible  way, 
in  n'gard  to  amoinit,  time,  and  place  of  pajTnent, 

Omstitntion. — For  full  details  in  regard  to  this 
imp<»rtant  head,  the  n'ader  is  referred  to  the 
artich^s  Knoland,  Scotland,  and  Iuelaxd. 
It  is  here  sufticient  to  observe,  that  the  Hritish 
ctmstitution  ap^^iears  to  have  been  at  its  outset 
substantially  the  same  with  the  constitution 
originally  established  in  most  of  the  othej  Euro- 
pean states  formed  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  Roman 
empire.  Hut  England  alone  has  had  the  goixl 
fortune  to  pTeser\'e  that  distribution  of  power 
among  the  different  oniers  of  the  community 
which  at  one  time  prevaibnl  among  the  French, 
Spanianls,  and  other  continental  nations.  The 
pn-emment  Ls  mixetl,  being  partly  monarchical, 
partly  aristoc.ratical,  and  ])artly  democratical.  The 
executive  authority  is  yested  in  the  sovereign,  or 
rather  in  the  ministers  chosen  bv  him,  while  the 
legislative  authority  is  shared  by  the  sovereign 
and  by  the  houses  of  Lords  and  Commtms.  The 
former  of  these  houses  consists  of  the  heads  of  the 
church,  and  of  nol»les  whose  dignity  is  here<litary, 
and  who  are  generally  possesseti  of  large  fortune^j. 

In  18C5  it  consisted,  inc.  minors,  of — 


reers  of  the  blood  royal 
A^*llbi^hops  (1  lri^h  representative) 

Pukes 

Mrirquif«8 

Earls 

Viw-onnts 

Bar«)n8 

Jvotch  n'presentative  Peers  . 

\t\>\\  ditto 

KiiKli»])  Bisho])3     .... 
Irish  represent tttivc  ditto 

Total     . 


3 
•i 

•JO 

ly 
no 

•J8 
4 


4.''>5 


The  House  of  Commons — the  predominating 
power  in  the  state — consists  of  O.08  representa- 
tives chosen  bv  electors  in  the  different  counties 
and  represented  towns  ;  and  though  the  sovereign 
be  not,  his  ministers  are,  res|w»nsible  to  it  and  to 
the  II.  of  Lonis  for  all  acts  done  by  them  in  their 
public  capacity.  Acconling  to  the  theory  of  the 
constitution,  the  II.  of  C.  is  chosen  by  and  repre- 
sents the  wishes,  feelings,  and  prejudices  of  the 
British  ]»eople.  Hut  if  by  |>eople  be  meant  the 
full-grt)wn  male  pop.  of  the  L.  Kingdom,  this 
statement  is  altogether  err«)neous.  Hy  far  the 
greater  portion  of  the  pop.  has  not,  and  never  had, 
anything  directly,  and  but  little  indirectly,  to  do 
with  the  choice  of  the  members  of  the  fl.  of  C. 
Down  to  the  ]>assing  of  the  Heform  Act  in  1832. 
the  members  for  counties  in  England  were  chosen 
by  persons  having  a  freehold,  or  a  life  interest  in 


freehold  property,  worth  40«.  a  year ;  and  in  towrw 
the  right  of  election  wai*  usually* in  the  corpocation, 
or  in  the  corporation  and  fineenien.  That  hnstilitr 
to  the  old  system  that  jmved  the  way  for  the  Re- 
f(i»rm  Act  was  not  occasioned  so  much  by  the  faultr 
mmle  in  which  representatives  were  chosen  in 
towns  entitled  to  send  them  to  the  H.  of  C-  *« 
bv  the  decayed  condition  of  many  of  thew  towns 
Ihe  fMU-l.  boroughs  had  all  been  specified  pre- 
viously to  the  Revolution ;  and  no  provision  wts 
made  in  the  constitution  for  admitting  represen- 
tatives for  such  new  boroughs  as  mi/^ht  aAenrarU 
attain  to  im)X)rtance,  or  for  the  disfranchu^ment 
of  such  of  the  part  boroughs  as  mi^ht  happen  to 
fall  into  insignificance.  Hence  it  came  to  ptw 
that  many  commercial  and  manufacturing  towiw. 
such  as  Manchester,  Birmingham,  Paisley,  and 
others,  which  ha<l  attained  to  vast  wealth  an«i 
importance  after  the  narL  borougha  were  selected, 
were  excluded  fmm  all  share  in  the  representation, 
while,  on  tlie  other  hand,  many  boroughs  that  Itad 
become  quite  unimportant  continued  to  enjoy  thi-i 
valuable  privilege.  A  distinction  of  this  sortcon)*! 
not  l>e  long  endured  ;  and  but  for  the  engitt&sin): 
exiitement  occasione<i  by  the  late  French  war. 
it  would,  most  likely,  have  been  obviated  some 
twenty  years  sooner.  Tlie  Reform  Act,  by  di- 
franchising  a  grnxl  many  decayed  and  trifiim: 
bon)Ughs,  and  enfranchising  the  greater  ones,  aid 
giving  the  right  of  voting  at  the  election  of  mem- 
l)ers  to  the  holders  of  10/.  houses,  rendered  the  H. 
of  C.  more  democratical  than  formerly,  and,  con- 
sequently, made  it  correspond  better  with  the 
theorj'  of  the  constitution.  This  tendency  has 
ahio  been  strengthenetl  by  the  changes  that  were 
at  the  same  time  made  in  the  county  reprwen- 
tation.  The  total  number  of  representatives  in 
the  House  of  Commons  was  as  follows,  in  the 
session  of  18G5  : — 


England  . 
St-otliuid  . 
Ireland    . 

Total 


OfCountiw 

102 
30 
64 

256 


OfCttimand 

23 
41 

402 


To4sl 

soft 

S3 

6-'>8 


Tlie  pmperty  qiialification  for  members  was  not 
disturbiMl  by  the  Keform  Bill :  it  amounted  to6<><>i. 
for  the  knights,  and  300/.  for  the  burgeitses;  but  it 
has  l>e«n  ab(dL<»hed  by  21  «Sr22  Vict,  c.  2(5,  of  June 
28,  1858.  The  other  grounds,  of  exclusion  have 
n>mained,  and  have  even  been  partially  increased. 
No  one  can  sit  or  vote  in  parliament  who  has  not 
attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  years.  No  excise, 
custom,  stamp,  or  other  revenue  officer  is  eligible. 
Since  1840,  the  judge  of  the  Admiralty  Court » 
excluded  from  being  electe<l ;  the  same  holds  goo-l 
with  respect  to  all  the  later  judges.  The  master 
of  the  ndLs  alone  is  eligible.  No  English  or  Sctuch 
\tQQT  can  be  elected  to  the  House  of  Commrms,  Ijut 
an  Irish  peer  may ;  finally,  foreigners,  even  when 
naturalised,  unless  the  right  be  conceded  ui  ex- 
l)ress  terms,  as  well  as  persons  who  luive  been 
convictwi  of  treason  or  felony,  are  ineligible. 

To  }H>ssess  the  franchise  in  a  borough,  a  person 
must  occupy,  as  owner  or  tenant,  a  house  of  the  clear 
yeiurly  value  of  not  less  than  10/.  The  rights  i-f 
the  old  burgesses  or  freemen  to  vote  have  been  pro- 
served.  All  persons  who  as  burgessee  or  tL»  froe- 
men  would  have  l)een  entitled  to  vote  if  tiie  Reform 
Hill  had  not  been  passed,  are  still  permitted  tj» 
exercise  the  franchise.  If  a  person  have  property 
which  would  qualify  him  as  a  borough  elector,  he 
cannot-,  instead  of  becoming  a  borough  elect«v. 
ch(X)se  in  respect  of  that  pn)perty  to  qualify  as  a 
county  elector.  The  qualifying  estate  fur  the 
county  must  be  either— firetj  a  freehold  of  inhe- 
ritance of  the  clear  yearly  value  of  not  le!«  than 


BRITISH 'EMPIRE 


561 


forty  shillings  ;  secondly,  a  freehold  for  life  of  the 
same  value,  provided  it  is  in  the  actual  and  bond 
jide  occupation  of  the  party  claiming  to  vote,  or 
shall  have  been  acquired  by  marriage,  marriage 
settlement,  devise,  or  promotion  to  any  benefice  or 
office.  If  the  freeholder  for  life  is  not  in  actual 
occujiation,  or  shall  have  acquired  his  estate  other- 
^'isc  than  in  the  mode  above  mentioned,  his  free- 
hold must  be  of  the  clear  yearly  value  of  not  less 
than  10/.  per  annum.  Before  the  Keform  Act  all 
who  held  freehold  property  for  life  of  the  clear 
yearly  value  of  forty  shillings,  were  entitled  to 
vote  irre8])ective  of  the  manner  of  its  acquisition, 
and  without  the  necess*ity  of  occupation.  Persons 
so  qualified  to  vote  at  the  time  of  tlie  Keform  Act 
are  still  permitted  to  exercise  the  franchise  so 
long  as  they  continue  seized  of  the  same  freehold. 
Tliiixily,  copyhold  or  other  property  not  of  free- 
hold tenure,  proWded  the  interest  be*  for  life,  or  for 
any  larger  estate  of  the  clear  annual  value  of  not 
less  than  10/.  Fourthly,  leaseholds,  of  the  clear 
vearly  value  of  10/.,  if  the  term  was  originally  not 
less  than  sixty  years,  and  of  the  clear  yearly  value 
of  50/.  or  upwards,  if  the  term  was  originally  not 
less  than  twenty  years.  Fifthly,  by  the  occupa- 
tion of  any  lands  or  tenements  for  which  the 
tenant  pays  a  vearly  rent  of  not  less  than  50/. 
This  latter  qualificatfon  was  introduced  by  the  so- 
called  Chandos  clause.  The  other  l^al  require- 
ments for  electors  have  continued  in  force.  Aliens, 
jicntons  under  twenty-one  years  of  age,  or  of  un- 
sound mind,  in  receipt  of  parochial  relief,  or  con- 
victed of  certain  ofTunces,  are  incapable  of  voting. 
No  one  can  vote  who  pousesses  a  freehold  conveyed 
to  him  merely  for  the  purpose  of  empowering  him 
to  vote.  The  judges,  constables,  and  many  officera 
who  are  concerned  in  the  collection  of  the  revenue, 
are  dL^K^ualified. 

To  prcscr\''e  the  independence  of  members  of  the 
II.  of  C,  it  was  enacted,  by  statute  6  Anne,  that, 
if  any  member  shall  accept  any  office  of  profit 
from  the  crown,  his  election  shall  be  void,  and  a 
new  writ  issue,  but  he  is  eligible  for  re-election. 
This  provision  has  been  matle  the  means  of  re- 
lieving a  member  from  his  trust,  which  he  cannot 
resign,  by  his  acceptance  of  the  stewardship  of 
the  rhiltem  Hundnnls,  a  nominal  office  in  the  gift 
of  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  Tlie  practice 
began  only  al)Out  the  year  1750,  and  lias  suice 
been  generally  acquiesced  in  from  its  convenience 
to  all  parties,  though  it  is  open  to  question  how 
for  the  office  can  now  be  strictly  deemed  within 
the  disqualifying  words  of  the  statute  of  Anne. 
In  the  construction  of  this  act  the  resignation  of 
office  has  not  I  teen  held  to  be  complete  until  the 
appointment  of  a  successor,  and  the  resumption  of 
office,  no  appointment  intervening,  not  to  vacate 
a  seat.  Further,  that  a  first  commission  in  the 
army  or  navy  vacates  a  seat ;  but  subsequent  com- 
mlssioiis  do  not. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  advantage  resulting  from 
the  free  constitution  of  the  II.  of  C.  has  been 
indirect  rather  than  direct.  The  people  owe  to  it 
what  no  other  European  nation  has  enjoyed — a 
really  free  press.  According  as  the  people  in- 
cre4ii<ed  in  wealth  and  intelligence,  and  members 
for  {M>pulous  places  found  it  necessary  to  conciliate 
])iiblic  o])inion,  it  became  of  importance  to  them 
to  have  their  speeches  printed  and  circulated  over 
the  country.  Hence,  though  the  reporting  of  de- 
bates be  a  breach  of  privilege,  it  has  long  been 
pructLsed,  n^-ith  the  consent  ot  all  parties.  Mem- 
ix;rB,  in  fact,  speak  less  to  the  house  than  to  the 
reporters,  and,  through  them,  to  the  coimtrj'; 
and  the  censures  and  comments  in  which  they 
are  accuAtome<l  to  indulge  become  a  warrant  and 
an  a|)ology  for  similar  ccnsurcn  ou  the  port  of 

Vou  I. 


journalists.  It  would  have  been  subversive  of 
every  principle  of  justice  to  punish  the  latter  for 
what  had  been  proclaimed  with  impunity  by  the 
former.  Hence  it  is  that  the  nation  is  really 
indebted  for  the  freedom  of  the  press — that  is,  for 
the  palladium  and  only  real  sweguard  of  rights 
and  liberties — not  so  much  to  the  votes,  as  to  the 
debates  carried  on  in  the  H.  of  C.  Freedom  of 
debate  produced  freedom  of  printing;  and,  con- 
sequently, gave  the  only  effectual  security  for 
good  government,  and  the  only  real  check  upon 
abuse.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  the  people 
of  the  United  Kingdom  are  mainly  indebted  to 
this  free  press  for  the  high  place  among  the 
nations  of  the  earth. 

Next  to  the  security  affordni  by  the  freedom 
of  the  press,  trial  by  jury  has  been  the  grand 
bulwark  of  the  liberties  of  the  people  of  Eng- 
land. This  institution  is  of  very  remote  origin, 
and,  like  representative  assemblies,  was  at  one 
time  intn>duccd  into  several  European  countries. 
It  is  expressly  laid  down  by  the  great  charter, 
that  *nuUus  \iber  homo  capiatur,  vel  imprisom- 
etur^  aut  extdet,  aut  aliquo  alio  modo  dettruetur, 
nisi  per  legale  judicium  pariwH  morum^  vel  per 
legem  terrcR^  ♦  The  founders  of  the  English  laws,* 
says  Blackstone,  'have  with  excellent  forecast 
contrived  that  no  man  should  be  called  to 
answer  to  the  king  for  any  capital  crime,  unless 
upon  the  preparatory  accusation  of  twelve  or  more 
of  his  fellow  subjects  (the  grand  jury) ;  and  that 
the  truth  of  everj'  accusation,  whether  preferred  in 
the  shape  of  indictment,  information,  or  appeal, 
should  be  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  unanimous 
suffrages  of  twelve  of  his  equals  and  neighbours 
{the  petty  jury),  indifferently  chosen,  and  superior 
to  susi)icion.  So  that  the  liberties  of  England 
cannot  but  subsist  so  long  as  this  palladium  re- 
mains sacred  and  inviolate,  not  only  from  all 
open  attacks,  which  none  will  be  so  hardy  as  to 
make,  but  also  from  all  secret  machinations, 
which  may  sap  and  undermine  it,  by  intnMlucing 
new  and  arbitrary'  methods  of  trial,  by  justices  of 
the  peace,  commissioners  of  tlie>  revenue,  and 
courts  of  conscience.'     (Book  iv.  cap.  27.) 

With  the  exception  of  England,  trial  by  jurj*, 
in  m(Mt  other  countries,  was  not  long  in  being 
either  suppressed  or  pcr\'erted;  that  is,  iuries 
were  either  entirely  dispensed  with,  and  the 
power  to  try  prisoners  entrusted  to  judges  ap- 
pointed by  the  different  governments,  or  the 
institution  was  kept  up  in  name  only,  its  object 
and  spirit  bein^c  totally  changed.  Instead  of 
jurjTnen  being  *  indifferently  chosen,  and  free  from 
suspicion,'  which  is  of  the  very  essence  of  jury 
trial,  they  were  not  unfrequently  selected  by  the 
crown,  or  its  creatures. 

In  England,  the  selection  of  jurymen  having 
been  always,  or  at  least  very  generally,  made  on 
fair  principles,  jurj*  trial  has  been  deservedly  in 
the  highest  degree* popular.  The  chaige  has  to  be 
referred  to  twelve  individuals  fairly  selected  from 
among  the  freeholders  of  the  neighbourhood; 
and  unless  they  are  untmimoutly  of  opinion  that 
the  charge  is  wr'll  fouMded,  the  accusation  falls  to 
the  ground,  and  no  farther  legal  proceedings  can 
be  instituted  against  the  acctUMed. 

The  signal  benefits  derived  from  jury  trial  in 
criminal  cases,  and  in  charges  of  treason  and 
sedition ;  and  the  fact  that,  were  it  given  up  in 
one  class  of  cases,  it  might  gradually  fall  into 
disuse  in  othens  seem  to  be  the  principal  causes 
of  its  being  continued  as  a  means  of  trying  all 
descriptions  of  civil  suits.  The  fair  presumption, 
however,  would  seem  to  be,  that  a  Large  class  of 
ciWl  cases  might  be  as  well  or  better  decided  by  a 
judge  or  judges  appointed  for  that  purpose. 

GO 


562 


BRITISH  EMPIRE 


The  powers  of  pArliamont  an?  politically  omni- 
|M»t<>ut  within  the  I'lnted  Kinploin ami  itrf  colonies 
}iii(l  (le|K'n<leu('u>}t.  It  can  make  new  laws,  and 
enlarge,  alter,  or  r('|K>al  those  existing;.  It«  au- 
thoritvexten<l»  to  all  t\rle!*iastical,  teni|M»ral.  eiWl, 
or  miiitarA'  matters,  and  its  ]>owers  to  alterinf?  or 
ehnn^n^  its  own  constitution.  It  is  the  highest 
Cfturt.  over  which  no  other  has  jurisdiction. 

The  following  is  a  tahh'  of  the  dunttion  of  par- 
liaments of  the  I'nitiHl  Khtgdtini,  fnmi  the  {leriud 
of  the  I'nion  : — 


lUiifn 

1   mcmt 

Whramn 

When  dl»MlTwl  E 
Y 

.silted 

i 

1 

.  M.  II. 

<Joor»jr  III. 

1st 

27  St-pt. 

17lHi«_>f»  Jan.  1H02-. 

11    IH 

*> 

•Jnd 

:il  Au>r. 

ls«»2  24()ct.    lSiW4 

1   2.1 

tt 

:Jnl 

l.Mkv. 

l«o«{2!»  Apr.  1S07  0 

4  in 

»f 

4th 

•2'2  Jnnc 

lM<f7  24  S«i>t.  1M12.'> 

;>   7 

•t 

.')th 

24  Nov. 

1S12  10  June  ISIXA 

*i  Mi 

t« 

(»th 

4  Au»f. 

lslj<M»  Feb.  l«2ni 

0  2.") 

Oeortrc  IV. 

7th 

n  Apr. 

1X2««    2Junel^2^I« 

1     » 

•» 

Kth 

1 4  Nov. 

1S2«:24  Julv  IHiVtli 

8  10 

WillliimlV 

!>th 

2i{  ( Kt. 

lS:lo22  Apr.  1«:»0 

.1  2S 

>         1. 

loth 

14  June 

IM-U    :i  Dec.  U<:{2  1 

.I  'M) 

«« 

nth 

•at  .Inn. 

ls:W:lODw.  IS:;4  1 

11      1 

•  • 

l'2th 

1!»  Fi-h. 

1S:|.'»  18  Julv  1h:{7  2 

P»    0 

Victoria   . 

l:{ih 

14  Nov. 

1h;J7  2:i  June  1K41  :i 

7     9 

>f 

Uth 

11  AuK'. 

1S41  2:J  Julv  lSI7r> 

11     C 

It 

l.'»th 

21  Si'pt. 

1H47    1  Julv  IX.V2  4 

11     9 

«t 

mth 

'  4  Nov. 

is.-.i»  •_>«»  Mur.  is:.7  4 

4  lit 

If 

17th 

.10  Apr. 

1K.-.7  2:J  Apr.  1H.->!H 

U  2.1 

1* 

isth 

:il  Miiv 

IK.-.!)  (I  July  imrto 

1     C 

•1 

IDth 

0  Fvb. 

\SM 

• 

The  union  of  Ireland  with  England  was  carried 
int4i  effect  Januan*  1,  18(K^  and  tlie  ])arliament 
which  Silt  the  wuno  month,  and  which  includerl 
till'  memlwrs  from  Ireland,  is  styletl  the  tipst 
Jin|>eri)il  l*arliainent.  The  parliament  which  as- 
WMuided  Janiiar>'  *2!),  l^<i]H,  i.i  .styled  the  timt 
llefonned  Parliament. 

litliffUm. — The  mt»st  |>erfect  toleration  is  piven 
to  the  |)r«>fessors  of  diffen*nt  reli^ous  cn»eds  in  the 
U.  Kiu^loin.  Ihit,  from  the  Kevidntion  down  to 
IX'JIK  Catholii's  were  exchidwl  from  ]tarluiment. 
anii  wen>  incu|)ul>le  of  holding  most  otric<>s  of  trust 
and  emolument.  These  unjust  and  de^^radin^  dis- 
altilities  wen\  however,  removed  at  tlie  epiM'h  n»- 
fernil  to;  and  Catludics  iiiav  imw  Ik*  eU*cted 
memltent  of  tlie  le^islatun>.  and  are  eli^iljle  to 
almost  all  otKces.  The  re|K'al  of  the  test  and  c«>r- 
]>oration  acts,  in  1828,  removeci  sundri'  liisahilitieM 
under  which  disst»nten«  ])re\'iously  lalMutrptL 

The  Kstahlished  Church  of  Kn^iand  hasretaineil 
the  episc<»i»al  form  of  church  pn-emnient  with 
its  sulM>r(iination  of  ranks,  and  is  a  ver>'  richlv- 
end<»wetl  institution.  Its  tenets,  which  are  partly 
J^utheran  and  ]mrtly  Calvinistic,  an>  eml)odic>tl  in 
the  fam«»us  :V.)  Articles.  Tlie  Kirk,  or  estahlished 
churi'h  of  Si-iitland,  which  is  l*rt»sliyterian  in  form 
and  Calvinistic  in  princiide,  is  ra«Hlerately  well 
endowed.  The  j^'atest  equality  sul)sists  amon^ 
its  members :  and,  on  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  to 
be  an  essentially  iH»piilar  InkK'. 

The  Chun*h  of  En/i^land  enjoys  the  ctmtidence 
and  8up{M)rt  f»f  the  jrn'at  bulk  of  the  i>e«>ple  tif 
En^laiui,  and  such  also  was  the  case  with  the 
Churrh  of  Sc<»tland  previously  to  the  disniption, 
in  \M'X  occasione<l  by  the  disputes  rclatinjj  to 
patronage,  which  le<l  to  the  formation  of  the  Free 
Church.  Hut  it  has  always  been  quite  otherwise 
with  the  Establi.<he<l  Church  of  Ireland.  The 
latter  is  identical  with  the  Church  of  En^IninL 
Inasnnioh,  however,  as  the  diK'trines  of  the  IJe- 
fonnation  never  made  any  considemble  pnipxess 
in  Indand.  and  .^  the  ^reat  bulk  of  its  inhabitants 
have  always  l)eeii  Koman  (.'atholics,  the  Estal^- 
lLshc>tl  Church  luu  beeu  that  of  a  bmall  niiiiurity 


only,  and  lia.<<  never  po<«GWcd  the  esteem  (4  the 
p**ople.  On  the  contrary*,  they  have  alwars  iv- 
f^anieii  it  as  a  usurpation,  as  l>ein^  ori^nnally  foiteil 
iifMHi  them  by  the  armtf.  and  upheld  by  the  fhmer 
vi  Eiif^land,  and  as  beiii^  hostile  alike  to  thinr 
rclipoM  and  their  i«e<nilar  interests,  "hiuch.  of  the 
disturttanc*e  and  dlsaffectitm  that  always  prevail  in 
Ireland  may  lie  asoriUfl  to  this  unhappy  con!i>ti- 
tntion  of  the  E^tablLsheil  Church.  The  fuVniz'hin;; 
of  reli^ons  instruction  to  the  bulk  of  the  peo|ile, 
io  those  who  are  too  po«.»r  to  be  able  easily  t*»  fur- 
nish it  for  themselves,  has  alwaA*^  liecii  held  to  W 
a  principal  obitn^  of  an  estahlishol  churcli.  And 
it  is  in  truth  tittle  better  than  a  contnulu.tion  an*[ 
an  aljsuniity.  to  make  the  church  of  a  small  anil 
opulent  minority  the  national  chun*h,  aiid  to  aii- 
pnipriate  t4)  its  exclusive  use  funda  that  mi:r)it 
anifily  pro\-ide  for  the  reli^ous  inAtnictiou  of  the 
whole  peoph>.  It  »  not  to  be  8u^>posed  that  tl>e 
majority  shouhl  tamely  acquiesce  in  such  a  >tate 
of  thinp< :  they  cannot  but  r^>:ard  it  &«  an  insult 
to  their  rcli^on,  and  aa  an  outrage  upon  their 
sense  of  justice,  (.'ommon  seni»e  would  snjrsrcRt, 
either  that  the  Catholic  nhouhl  be  Dioile  the  olal^ 
lished  relipon  of  Ireland,  or  if  not,  that  the  Ca- 
tholic cler;;y  should  i>artici{iate,  in  pnifairtion  to 
the  numlier  of  their  adherents,  in  the  eniiowments 
now  exclusively  enjoyed  by  the  olerj^Tnen  of  tlie 
Chun?h  of  Enj^iainC 

Bevi'nHt  ami  Ejrjtenditmre. — That  f^ortion  *A  the 
national  revenue  that  is  withdrawn  fn>m  thepublii' 
by  means  of  taxes,  and  api^mpriated  to  the  n-e  of 
^A'enmient.  amounts  in  round  numbers  to  ai»>.>ut 
7<MMM),iUM»/.  sterlinfT.    The  reveinie  increaseil  hv 
2(MKH),<MH>/.,  or  forty  pt*r  cent.,  in  the  ctmrs*-  of  a 
quarter  of  a  centur\'.    It  was  abtMit  o4M)<m),0iki/.  in 
the  year  1M40.  and  mse  to  r»2.rNKM>i)02.  in  1x4:).  and 
to  oi{.(K)0,(MM)/.  in  1845.     From  1845  till  18:»2,  the 
rt>venue  remained  stationar\':  hut  in  I8.>:1  it  ha<l 
risen  to  .>«,000.(l{)0/^  in  1854  to5t;.<»0<MHN»/.,  in  InVi 
toti:j,(MKMMMi/.,in  l8,'>«to68.iK)0.t)»K;/..andin  lKV.«nj 
the  7<M)fMMH)0/.  when*  it  n»iw  stands.  This  Isa  vvry 
hu^  sum ;  but  it  must  not  thence  lie  inferred  thiit 
taxation  is  here  ct>mi>aratively  heavy.   Icat  pnssim* 
is  not  to  1k>  estimate*!  by  the  a(.*tnar amount  of  the 
jjium  taken  fmra  the  |)eo)ile  and  lo«l;ye<l  in  the cufTiis 
of  the  treasun':  but  bv  the  mode  in  which  taxef  are 
imposed,  and  the  ability  of  the  fie<»|de  to  bear  thrni. 
In  some  countrii*s  taxes  are  im{>i»sod  on  certain 
classes  only:  and  even  where  this  |;nicv  inet^uality 
does  not  exist,  they  arc  often  iinp4iHe<l  on  f«Tone«iaji 
principles,  and  in  a  way  that  makes  their  asiv^<<^ 
ment  and  collectitm  jieciiliariy  diffiirult  ami  inju- 
rious.    Hut  in  the  I  .  Km^dom  taxation  pie^sm 
e<]ually,  or  ver>' nearly  mi,  on  all  claj»^»i:  ouiL 
without  |>reten<rinp  to  say  that  this  system  of  tax- 
ation is  ])erfect,  or  that  it  might  not  be  materially 
improvc<l,  it  ap|)ears,  speaking  generally,  to  l« 
foundeil  on  sound  principles,  and  is  prnctically  as 
little  injuriotLH  as  it  (\iuld  well  be  remlenHL    The 
influence  of  taxation  m  (ireat  Britain   has  ni>t 
])een  hostile  to  the  incrca<«e  of  public  opuleoceaiiil 
private  comfort.     To  the  desire  of  rising  in  tls* 
w<»rhl.  the  iniTDashig  pn*sure  of  taxation  itariiur 
times  of  war  su|»eradded  the  fear  of  being  thn»wi) 
down  to  a  lower  station;  and  the  two  t^v^thi'r 
produceti  results  not  to  lie  hxiked  lor  fnHii  the 
unassisted  agency  of  either.     Oppn-s^ive  taxiH« 
would  have  had  an  opposite  effect :  out  I  insteaii  of 
priKiucing  new  displava  of  industn*  and  eomomy. 
would  have  produce<l  only  dei«]iair  and  natiuual 
imjioverishment. 

ANiut  tw«>-thinls  of  the  public  revenue  9Xo  de- 
rived fn>m  duties  of  customs  and  excise ;  and  tlie 
rest  from  the  proptTty  and  income  tax,  the  duties 
on  stamiN*.  the  asse.4setl  taxes,  and  tlie  }>4Mt-ot!i(V. 

The  subjoined  statement  ia  the  ufficial  account 


BRITISH  EMPIRE 


563 


of  the  p*ofw  public  income  of  the  United  Kimrdom 
in  the  year  ended  the  30th  day  of  June,  18C4  :— 


PUDUC  IXCOME,  1863-4. 

£ 

Cnstoms 22,821,000 

Excise 18,<»6,000 

8tarapK 9,462,000 

Taxes  (Land  and  AjwcBBcd)       .        .      8,260.000 


ProptTty  Tax 

l»oj«t  <  Mfloo 

('rown  LaiulR  (Net)  •. 

MiK'KLLANBOUS  : — 

I'roduw  of  the  Sale  \ 
of  CM  Storw  and 
other  Military  and  1- 
Nnval  extra   Ue-  I 
ccipts   .        .        .  j 

Amount  reoeivwP 
from  the  Revenues 
of  India  on  ac- 
count of  the  Effj-c- 
tivo  and  Non- 
effective CliarireB 
of  BritUh  Troops 
oervinf?  in  that 
country  (includ- 
ing :Mi9,8H9M  8*  7(/ 
arrear  charges)    .> 

Allowance  out    of 
l*njfitB     of    Ipsuo 
rewivwl  from  tlie 
Hank  of  England,  I 
I»frAct24Vict.c.3i 

Mi«'ceUanoouB   lle-^ 
ceipt*,     includinfr 
TmproHt  and  other 
Moneyn 

China  War  Indem- 
nity 


s.  <L 


644,094    1    1 


8.6:J5.00<) 
3,820,(M>0 
305,600 


*.  d, 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 


^1,164,889  18    7 


131,578    0    0 


648,161     4    4 


"}     434,747    0     0 


Total  Revenue 


8,023,460    4    0 

69,992,960    4    0 

The  public  ex|)enditure,  for  the  last  quarter  of 
a  centurj',  has  kej)t  |)ace  with  the  revenue.  The 
prent  items  of  ex|H»ndituro  are  the  intercut  of 
the  National  Debt,  and  the  maintenance  of  the 
army  and  na\y,  which  together  take  conniderably 
more  than  two-thinls  of  the  whole  sum  raise<l 
by  taxation,  leaving  less  than  one-third  for  the 
penernl  pjvemment  of  the  n*alm.  Subjoined  is 
the  official  a<vouiit  of  the  jjnins  public  expendi- 
ture of  the  United  Kingdom  in  the  year  ended 
the  3Uth  June,  18G4  :— 


Punijc  ExrKXDrruiiK,  1863-4. 


*.    d. 


Interert  and  Manafmnent  of  the  Per 

manent  Debt   .        .        .     ■  . 
Terminable  Annuities 
Interest  of  ExchequtT  Bonds 
Intvrest  of  Exchc'quer  TMlls 

Chonrw  on  Consolidated  Fund :-  - 

Civil  Li^t 

Annuities  and  Pensions 
Falnri(>s  and  Allowances 
Diplomatic  S.ilarie8  and  Pensions 
C'ourts  of  Justice         .... 
MijvellHneou't  (Tiarjres 

Supply  ScrviccB : — 
Army   .....*• 
iSttvy     .•••... 
Mi«Vllaneon8  Civil  P<'rvices 
Salaries..  4:c.  of  Il»'venue  Deportments 

Pa<-k«'t  Service 

Kert<h  and  Yc-nikale  Prize  Money     . 
Scheldt  Toll  Redemption    . 

Total  Expenditure         .  66,643,078    2    3 

Tlic  following  table  exhibits  the  total  amount 
of  the  actual  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the 
VnitM  Kingdom  during  the  16  yean*  18.\I0-«V1. 
In  acconlance  with  the  system  upon  which  the 
budget  estimatcii  have  Iteen  framinl,  the  financial 
fM.'ri<Kl  up  to  the  year  18o4  ende<l  on  the  5th  of 
April,  and  inibsequcntly  on  tlie  laat  day  of  March. 


28,714.810  11     7 

2,174,350  12    4 

92,WV>    0    0 

316,558    6  10 

406,0;5  14 
822,4:i5    8 
176.2:.0    5 
170.327     2 
68o,0<U  18 
181,488  16 

6 
9 
1 

1 
11 
11 

14,650,154     6 

10,9<»9.rt02    7 

7.8W>.8:{3  19 

4..'>4H,8M3  10 

679.3JMJ  18 

85,925    0 

174,598  16 

1 
9 
1 
1 
2 
0 
1 

The  net  amonnts  of  revenue  and  expenditure  arc 
given  up  to  the  end  of  the  tinancial  year  1855-56, 
and  the  grou  amounts  after  that  period : — 


T«ancnd*d 

RtTMIM 

Expcnditar* 

N«t  smounU 

Aprils,      1850 
„            1851 
„            1852 

1858         .         . 
1854         .        . 
MazY^h  81, 1855 

1866         .        . 

1857         .        . 
„            18.'i8 
„            1859 
„            1860 
„            1861 
„            1862 
„            1863 

1864 

£ 

52,916,919 
53.067.0.'i8 
52,4«W,319 
53,243.218 
54,774,905 
59 ,496,1. '4 
65,704.491 

« 

50,878.417 
49,882,322 
60,2!M  ,323 
50.782.476 
51,250,120 
Im,692.962 
88,428,845 

GroM  amounta 

72,384,062 

67,881,518  , 

65.477,284 

71,(»89,6IK) 

70,283,674 

69,674,479 

70.«W,561 

70,208,964 

75,588,667 
68,128.859 
64,6<;3,882 
69.502,289 
72,792,»>59 
71.116,485 
«9.302.ft08 
67,056,286 

Subjoined  is  a  statement  exhibiting  the  gross 
revenue,  after  dwiucting  reimyments,  allowances, 
discounts,  drawbacks,  and  tHmntiefl  in  the  nature 
of  drawbacks,  for  Great  Itritain  and  Ireland,  for 
each   year  from  18'l2-3  to  l><r.l-2,  calculate*!  in 

feriods  of  iive  years  each,  nie  re<*eij)ts  of  the 
*ost-office,  crown  lands,  and  of  all  other  soun'Cfl 
raised  in  Ireland  towards  the  revenues  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  are  included  in  the  revenue  of 
Ireland. 


T«v 


1842-13 
184:)-44 
1844-45 
.1845-46 
1846-47 


Gratt  Britain 


£ 
46.041.93.1 
61.150.846 
63,249.712 
61.324,6.'i7 
62,325,578 


IrvUnd 


£ 

4,208,691 
4,148.487 
4.4«).218 
4,708.2Jn 
4,959,013 


1847-48 
1K48-49 
184J»-50 
l8/.4»-51 
1861-<62 


1852-58 
18.VW4 
1H54-55 
18.'>5-,'t6 
1866-67 


1857-58 
1858-59 
185;mM> 
IMkMSl 
1861-62 


254,092,727 

51.469.546 
62.8.'i4,J«»5 
52,558.841 
62,404.119 
61,811,649 

260,699,160 

62.400.659 
65.406,658 
67.453.206 
62,663.208 
64,721, r»83 

302,644,809 

59,928,848 
66,819,977 
62.224.689 
62.498,743 
61,360,749 

802,823,451 


22,484,700 

4.4M.437 
4,571.«»98 
4,8:{5.2(»7 
4.2fil.561 
4.324.866 

21,947,7ia 

4.466,998 
6.9fM,527 
5,!Mn;.786 
6.719.399 
6.977.839 

30,0.15,544 


6,737.151 
6,438.870 
7,076,732 
6.i!22,148 
6,792,(W6 


33,667,507 


A  return  moved  for  in  parliament  in  the  se»;ion 
of  18r>3,  shows  that  in  1801  the  gross  revenue  col- 
lected in  Great  Britain,  excluding  miscellaneous 
receipts,  amounted  to  35,2l8;.')25/.,  and  in  Ireland 
to  2,919,217/.  In  the  tinancial  year  18(;i-4;2  the 
amount,  as  seen  in  thealK>ve  table,  wasr>1.3(;o.74ii/. 
received  of  (ireat  Britain,  and  6,792.«J<m7.  of  Ire- 
land. Therefore,  in  1801  the  gross  n*venue  n*- 
ceived  in  Great  Britain  amounted  to  IM.  7s.  per 
head  of iiopulation,  and  in  Izeland,  II jt.  2<iL ;  while, 

oo  2 


BEITISH 
IK  iJ:  131.  in  I 


Hriufn  juid  In:l.iiiii'rci,[,v'i5'v..]y.  aft'^de 


uA  ElQ^cktm 


r.r™t  Uritalu 
United  Kingdom 


T.II4JM 


Suljouied  is  the  accouiil  of  the  lotal  expendi- 
ture, iiicIwIinK  chnrgftH  uf  aillefition,  oflheUniled 
Klngitum,  fur  tlic  year  eadiug  March  31   iSfiS: — 


thkBkvinvk  : 

HOfCOLLKCTl-SU 

^         1 

Wood.,  7ontta 

'udLud  Be^ 

1.474,<S» 

IfHtOnoB  . 

TOT*L          . 
lultlw           .          '. 

hequn  Btni 

S,II04.SM     ' 

Mji-  Debt  : 

TeraduMbl..  An 

M.«M,M7 
371^17 

W^l^J     1 

Koyia  F»mUy  .       .        .        - 

Cini   Deputrngnu   (loolmliiw 

•     •   at   InUwT, 


OimOl    PBTUUStT 


e  Boidi  In  WiJo.  Bi 


1  atmiad.  Siilula  and 


:tudiiig  OidniUKB 


i:PDbl)cBdiiatli>D 


---l 


TtniHat   .... 
Irel«nd;  Public  BdoMdno 

ud  CoUegn,  Ac     . 
BrbDoli  or  Dalgii,  PabUc  U 

C0I.OHU.L  CHtHimn  I 


ToTU.  Expixnnrfu 


1,»1J91    I 


Thi!l4ition>lt>ebI  ijr<!irt«t  Biiuin.  tbeintrrnt 
All  which  conenmiB  more  iJiui  onMhird  of  Ihcir- 
wnii6»  of  llip  I'luled  Kingdom,  itait*  frmn^ 
lime  DriUeHbvolution,  and  from  tlijtl  period  bv 
Im«d  increasiog  in  ihe  roUowing  iirapuitioiu  i— 


BBITISH  EMPIRE 


ia  ucfiflfdon  of  ] 
[.,inlJ14.  I 
off  during  the  \ 


;  in  i:)5  . 


"'-■'"I 


ID^I,3«0 


Debt  rantrKteii  linrlng  I 
tha  Fivnch  wur     .       J 

ToMI  (nmkd  unci  nn- 
otFi^b..  IHll.wlimthe 

Debt  oincrflHi  from  Ihrl 


3»fiM 
l,»Tl,OW 


J»J4a^lJ 


In  18C4  Ibe  mm  oT  E.OOn.ono/.  of  the  nun- 
deemed  funded  debt  *iu  canpellHl,  and  a  teimin- 
■ble  annuity  created  in  lieu  thereof,  onder  tlie  JCth 
Vict  c«p,  25,  sect.  2. 

Under  ■  preriouB  Act,  4fl  Geo,  III.,  ceii,  142.  the 

Debt  were  empowered  to  convert  cnnsoli  into  life 
annuitiea.  The  commissioners  have  to  present 
annual  accounta  to  parliament,  in  respect  to  all 
tiBnuctiuna  in  connection  with  the  public  debt. 

The  balances  in  the  exchequer  at  the  end  of 
each  financial  period,  durim?  the  16  years  from 
■- '"  to  1864,  were  aa  foUows :— 


f,„„,uut™™.« 

Am.no, 

Aprils,      IMO      . 
Man*  ai,  law     ! 

£ 
B.10--.,.-*S 

«,4m|-JU0 
J,M»,JTS 

«,Boo,irai 
s,ewi,ii;i 

S.BTS.ISi 

In  the  financial  year  ending  with  March  1863, 
the  amountof  proixTty  and  prtiflt*  assessetl  to  in- 

!_^___.  ,.^._. 301,3S0.730£,lieiii([ 

population,  taking 


7^d.  per  head  o 


It  (he  u 


It  the  o 


^ 

b. 

"* 

■*            1        r.DM         1     KordrnM 

t™i 

1«J  nS,ieB.S1«  1  1T.7.W,7W 

in  April  1861;  in  Ireland,  21,ti»8.!>7i^.  or 
•-ir.  141,  T|a.  per  head.  The  graft  amount  nl  the 
public  rei-enue,  exclmling  misccllancouB  receipta, 
wn»  in  Ureat  Britain  2/.  ia«.  per  bead  of  the  popu- 
lation, or4i.  did.  in  the  pounil  upon  the  incoms 
aasewted  to  income  tax;  in  Ireland,  11.  8i.  .'id.  per 
head  of  the  population,  or  6*.  3)if.  in  the  pound 
upon  the  income  aiwewed  to  income  lax. 

jfnay  ami  Nary. — The  forroalicin  of  a  standing 
army  Imng  long  icganled  with  extreme  jealousy 
and  avernun.  its  eslabliahmeut  in  England  is  of 
compamlivelv  modem  oriRin,  not  dating  farthct 
back  than  the  rei){n  of  Oiarlcs  II.  It  is  annually 
provided  for  byavote  of  the  II.  ofC:  so  that  ft 
w  always  in  the  power  of  the  latter  al  anv  time  to 
reduce,  or.  it  it  see  cause,  totally  to  disband,  the 
anny.  But  the  old  jealuusieii  of  which  it  was  the 
object  no  longer  exist ;  and  there  can  be  nn  dnubt 
thai  the  eBtablishment  of  a  ptiiperly  trained  r^ni- 
lar  military  forc«  is  indispenaable  to  guarantee  the 
[lalional  independence  trom  hostile  attack.  The 
BriiiHli  armv  has  been  employed  in  cverv  quarter 
of  the  world,  and  has  ei-erywhere  exhibited  all 
those  qualities  thai  go  to  form  a  petfecl  military 
fotee— the  most  unHinchiiij;  courage,  combined 
with  the  grealeet  patience  and  fort  it  uile  under  pri- 
vatiuna  an{l  hard^ips,  and  the  constant  obseiv- 
aocc  uf  the  strictest  disdpline. 

The  British  army  is  recruited  by  means  of 
voluntary  enlistment  only :  and  it  ia  to  be  hoped 
that  all  attempts  to  inUtKluce  the  ciinscripiion 
into  this  cODUtry  may  meet  with  no  better  Hticcem 
in  fuluic  than  that  vhirh  has  hitherto  attended 
them.  If  soliliera  could  not  be  procured  \ty  utiier 
means,  necessity  would  form  a  valid  excuse  for 
the  introduction  of  a  conscrijition.  But  no  such 
necrmty  boa  ever  existed.  No  country  that 
choosw  to  pay  fair  wages  to  ilH  troofm,  anil  winch 
treats  them  as  men  employed  in  the  service  of 
th^  country  ahoold  be  treated,  can  ever  wont  for 


666  BRITIBH 

a  Mpfily  "f  »nlmit«ry  icrniiU.  The  aimual 
Uullny  Art,  «nil  llw  ArtwW  (if  W«i  umicd  liy 
thf  i-nnrn,  auil  miljiniiiil  rii  the  Mutiny  Act,  eun- 
iilitiKc  llii-  riHlv  fit  martial  law  in  furcc  in  the 
|liili;-h  iirmy.  ,  ...  , 

AcriTrlinu  hi  the  annv  cslimniH'  laid  befrwe  thp 
]1.  iif  f.  ill  ihe  wwiiu  'of  1»64,  Urn  linil  ''«•■»  •/ 
tlir  I'liiird  Kinicdom,  during  tha  yaw  1KG1-»S, 
ci-m»isi«l  iif  IW-'ea  men.  iTiii  force  kw  com- 
]Minl  iif  Ih*  fo(l"wing  rq^imenla,    lieyutt,    and 


countricis  in  1792,  IfltS,  and   1058.    Tbt  lUM- 

iny  H'Tvc  u  a  cmniuuiilivi!  table  in  nsuil 
ictiuU  Einnpli  or  liie  anny  : — 


iJfrOiwnliaaJIIuno  ; 

OiniTT  o(  ika  Una 

milM  ■rtahlMim»at  ■ 
ll'-ial  KnaliMfffii  . 
MlfliuyTnln     . 


niu'OnKii'  Tmiias  Hb 
nnynl  llurHi  AnUlcrj' 


Roynl   Slilltarr   Col- 1 


TMMl     .          .          . 

H 

Tssri 

TmiiiinB  Bohoal. 

:"i 

Sulgiiiiiril  i"  an  accnunt.  Uken  rnim  iiOirinl  diiru- 
mtiil",  -if  tlip  rcffiilar  trwi|i«  (uxultiniw  of  thr  iml- 
naniu;}  at  liumi^  in  tlic  colunioi,  aiid  in  fureign 


RoDKhoUCaviiJiT  . 
Foot  Unanla 


fiffi-ign  Conv  - 


lM,»i    laijt-v  I 


The  Rritiwh  fmcnin  lai^vixcliuiinBef 'Ifluti 

in  thiK  rounin-,  isnnpriK  the   foUowinc  Ifwl*. 
t!Tant<,iI  by  parliament  ftw  the  year  IKM-fiS : — 


The  tionp«  here  cniimaaled  do  nnt  eorwtilnM 


.„,  i^tlii'  UailMl  KlnKdnm ;  but  the 
ite>  fiir    »*4-ll5,  aa_WflI  «a  the  ^ 
cmllnK   j-em,  v 


of  auxiliary  font* — namely,  tln^  miliii". 
the  reonianiy.  din  volimtefra,  the  mnilli.l  ]iin- 
eiimera,  and  the  anny  tttttvf  Cnrrf.  Hie  l.rtii 
cost  .if  the  abuveJoroet  am<iunl«l  to  U,Mt.»*.<, 
■which  Bum  iucloilea  tlie  chawe  fur  •io»-rffaiiii 
HTvicea,  thai  b.  for  half-pay  and  ixinwau  m  ■*- 
cent  «ud  mon,-iFhich  amuuaUd  duiii^  the  yior 
to  2.  •)*•,  67i  ,  ^ 

Tlio  ]iay  thd  other  eraoluniiuita  uf  ti*  oB«m 
and  noil  det<ond  partly  on  ibo  tcn^  d'  Ifacit 
- — ----  "  »  portly  on  iM  depaitmeiit  of  the  -srr- 


a  which 


Ey  bdonp.     In  JJio  h 


9^u, 


.    ..  .■avalry  -of  the  line  ii  a 
.'      ■  'I  ^ujiPiii,  la.  2J. ;  anduiiliii 

ii.rv  ^f  (he  .   I.,   li      SoUien,  huwevrt, 

n.ji  cnlilk-d        ixiive  tho  vbu]«  •jl'Xiiaaiae 

\^ ,\    li.itoe  and  in  buradu,  they 

■,i,>|il.<'il  »Mli  .-.Tlaiu  nliuu,  for  wbicb  U. 
i.LuU:dcJuoli;dAiHntb«Tpaj.     Theen^M 
of  their  clolhea  and  m       '  ' 


niahcd  Dl  tiie  pulilie  expeon 
liinis  are  mane  fium  their  p 


panu 


piTOl 


tu  aoldien   diicliBigod  allcr  certain  ivtiodi  iJ 

The  volunteflr  force,  which,  thoush  of  old  (taw, 
haa  l«cn  newly  reroiulnictBi,  Camut  a  very  im- 
portant body  fiirthedefenceof  Ihe  kiiwlomi.  TlF 
total  tiiroc  uuoUed  jn  lbs  whole  (if  Grekl  Rritaiu 
wa«  S.i<a  in  Apiil  IMO,  10MM  ID  IMl.  ami 
lG3.fl'<l  in  IfiM:  ihis  last  niunber beine  nratpovd 
■if  682  light  lume.  93-MS  artaierv,  !,B04  en^cineeri^ 
>'.'.(1  jnountffi  riflra.  and  l.li.npB  rifle  volunteer! 
Thcic  ia  nu  volunteer  foicc  in  Ireland. 


BRITISH  EMPIRE 


567 


From  a  return  made  to  the  House  of  Ommons 
at  the  end  of  the  session  of  1864,  it  appears  that,  in 
April  1HG4,  there  were  109,700  non-commissioned 
ofli»:ers  and  men  in  Her  Majesty's  land  forces  who 
declared  themselves  Episcopalians,  20,798  I*resby- 
terians,  .">,290  other  l*r<)tcrtumts,  and  58,508  Roman 
Catliolios.  The  numl)er  (»f  Episcopalians  is  rather 
det'rea}<inf?.  The  Roman  Catholics  in  the  artillerj' 
increase;  in  18G1  tl»ey  were  but  8,344,  but  by 
April  IH«>4  they  had  increased  to  8,161.  Out  of 
the  08.508  Roman  Catholics  in  the  army,  46,348 
were  in  the  mfantrv;  of  the  135,848  Protestants, 
only  X2,518.  In  the  royal  marines  there  were  in 
the  tirnt  quarter  of  1864,  12,398  Episcopalians, 
41(>  Presbyterians,  2,379  other  Protestants,  and 
1,118  Roman  Catholics. 

In  round  numl)ers,  every  soldier  of  the  British 
anny  costs  the  country  100/.  per  annum.  But  tliis 
sum  includes  all  extraneous  military  expenses,  as 
well  as  the  disbursement  for  the  non-effective 
serxices. 

The  na>y  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  a  perpetual 
establishment,  and  the  statutes  and  onlen  W  which 
it  Ls  governed  and  its  discipline  maintained— un- 
like the  military  laws,  which  the  soverei^  has 
al)solutc  power  to  frame  under  the  authority  of  an 
A<'t  of  Parliament — have  been  permanently  esta- 
blished and  detined  with  fp^at  precision  by  the 
U-gislature.  The  distinction  also  prevails  in  the 
nuMle  of  voting  the  charge  for  these  two  forces. 
F(»r  the  army,  the  lirst  vote  sanctions  the  number 
of  men  to  be  maintained ;  the  second,  the  charge 
f«)r  their  ]>ay  and  maintenance.  For  the  navy,  no 
vote  is  taken  for  the  number  of  men ;  the  first 
vote  is  for  the  uniges  of  the  stated  numl)er  of  men 
and  Ixtys  fo  l>e  niaintaine<l;  and  though  the  result 
may  l>c  the  same,  this  distinction  exists  both  in 
prat^tice  and  principle. 

The  navy  is  g<»veme<l  by  the  lord  high  admiral 
f«>r  tlic  time  iMting,  or  by  a  Ixnly  of  commissioners 
called  the  Board  of  Admiralty,  of  which  the  power 
is,  in  fact,  vested  in  the  first  lord.  This  board 
has  the  supi'rintenclence  of  all  naval  matters;  all 
appointments  of  commissioned  officers,  and  war- 
rant officers  with  some  exceptions;  promotion, 
lionourSf  {>ensions;  and  the  general  ccmtrol  of 
everything  relating  to  the  discipline  of  the  fleet. 

Those  who  enter  the  service  with  a  view  to  ob- 
tain commissions,  begin  as  volunteers,  •  and  then 
serve  as  midshipmen ;  after  six  years  in  the  latter 
cluiracter,  and  attaining  the  age  of  nineteen,  they 
jHisa  an  examination  for  the  rank  of  lieutenant — 
the  lowest  commissione<l  officer.  But  the  attain- 
ment of  a  commission,  and  subsequent  promotion, 
are  entirely  at  the  disiM>sal  of  the  admiralty. 
Certain  advantages  are  enjoyed  by  those  who 
have  com))leted  their  education  as  students  at  the 
naval  college  of  Portsmouth.  The  discipline  of 
the  navy  is  maintained  by  articles  embodied  in 
acts  of  'parliament.  Sailors  enter  the  navy  by 
voluntary  enlistment ;  but  in  cases  of  emergency 
they  may  be  obtaine<l  by  impressment.  The  |K)wer 
of  the  government  to  impress  seamen  for  the  fleet 
is  of  such  ancient  date  that  it  is  sai<l  to  be  part  of 
tlie  common  law.  It  has  no  direct  statutor\'  sanc- 
tion, though  the  preamble  of  the  stat.  2  Rich.  II. 
c.  4,  by  its  recital  of  the  arrest  and  retenti<m  of 
mariners  for  the  king's  service,  shows  that  it  was 
at  that  time  a  well-kncm'n  practice,  and  its  exist- 
ence has  also  been  incidentallv  recognisetl  by  se- 
veral later  statutes.  Tlie  continuance  of  the  prac- 
tice has  iHMjn  warrantetl  by  the  necesj»itics  of  the 
serxice,  to  enable  the  admiralty  to  man  a  fleet 
with  speed  on  an  emergency.  The  authority  of 
parliament  in  the  control  of  the  naxy  was  first 
exerci«*c<l  in  1661,  by  an  enactment  of  13  Charles 
II.,  pussexi  to  regulate  the  government  of  the  fleet. 


This  act  win  repealed  by  the  22  Geo.  II.  c  28, 
which  WAS  explained  and  amended  by  the  19  Geo. 
III.  c  17.  These  two  latter  statutes  contain  the 
articles  of  war  and  the  rules  for  holding  naval 
courts  martial,  and  form  the  permanent  code  under 
which  the  navy  is  governed.  The  laws  relating 
to  the  pay  of  the  navy  were  consolidated  and 
amended  by  stat.  1 1  Gea  IV.  c  20. 

For  a  number  of  years  the  navy  of  the  IT.  King- 
dom has  cost,  on  the  average,  about  10,000,000/. 
per  annum.  The  parliamentary  grant  for  tlie  na- 
val force,  for  the  financial  year'l  864-5,  amounted 
to  10,118,380^:,  divided  as  follows  :— 

Wages  to  Seamen  and  Marines  .  .  .  £9,874.647 
Yictnals  and  (nothing  for  ditto  .        .        .       1,304,119 

Admiralty  Office 168,605 

Coast  Guard  Service,  Royal  Naval  Coast 

Volnnteers,  and  Royal  Naval  Reserve   .         300,718 

Scientific  Branch 71.'i76 

Her  Majesty's  Establishment  at  ITome      .  19*2,574 

Her  Majesty's  Establishments  Abroad       .  37,666 

Wages  to  Artificers,  die.,  employed  16  Her 

Majesty's  Establishments  at  Home  .  1,276,316 
Wages  to  Artiflocrs,  &c.,  employed  in  Her 

Majesty's  Establishments  Abroad   .        .  69,205 

Naval  Stores  for  the  Building,  Ilopair,  and 

Outfit  of  the  Fleet ;  Steam  Machinery, 

and  Ships  built  by  contract : — 
Section  1.  Storekeeper-Oeneral  of  tiie 

Navy 1,164,100 

Section  11.  Controller  of  the  Navy      .         662,212 
New  Works,  Improvements,  and  Repairs 

in  the  Yards,  &c 449,298 

Medicines  and  Medical  Stores    .       •        •  64,!UO 

Miscellaneous  Services        ....  102,320 


£8,736,406 


697,790 
41K).20l 
193,983 

£10,118,380 


Total  for  the  Effective  Service 
Half-poy,  Rewrved  Half-pay,  and  Retired 
Pay  to  Officers  of  the  Navy  and  Royal 

Marines 

Military  Pon.sions  and  Allowances     . 
Civil  Pensions  and  Allowances  . 

Total  for  the  Naval  Service     . 

The  navy  of  Great  Britain,  on  January  1,  1865, 
numbered  975  ships  of  all  cUwses,  including  *  non- 
effective sailing  ships.'  The  list  comprised  72  ves- 
sels ranking  as  line-of-battle  ships,  mounting  from 
74  to  131  guns  each;  39  of  from  50  guns  to  72 
guru)  each ;  69  frigates  of  from  24  guns  to  46  guns 
e^i,  most  of  which  were  of  a  tonnage  and  horse- 
power equal  to  a  line-of-battle  ship ;  30  screw  cor- 
vettes, each  mounting  21  guns ;  and  upwards  of 
600  vessels  of  all  classes  mounting  less  than  20 
guns.  In  addition  to  the  above,  there  was  a  fieet 
of  185  gnnl)oats,  each  mounting  two  heavy  ^Vrm- 
strong  guns,  and  of  (iO  hoise-iK>wcr,  besides  a 
numerous  squadron  of  iron  and  wooden  mortar- 
vessels,  built  during  the  Russian  war,  and  laid  up 
at  Cliatham.  Tlie  number  of  line-of-battle  and 
other  steamers  composing  the  squadron  on  the 
North  American  and  West  Indian  station  was  29. 
The  squadron  in  the  Mediterranean  numbered  28 
vessels  of  all  classes.  The  East  India  and  China 
squadrons  consisted  of  61  vesschi,  including  gun- 
boats. The  number  of  ships  stationed  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  for  the  suppression  of  the 
slave  trade,  was  22.  The  Pacitio  squadron  num- 
bered 13  ships,  and  that  on  the  south-east  coast 
of  America  1 1  shi{)S.  There  were  8  line-of-battle 
and  other  ships  stationed  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  7  ships  were  attached  to  the  Australian 
station.  The  Channel  squadron  consisted  of  5 
sliips,  all  iron-plated. 

The  iron-platetl  or  armour-clad  fleet,  built  or 
building,  consLste<l,  according  to  a  return  onicred 
i  by  the  House  of  Commons  on  May  3,  1864,  of  27 
ships  and  7  floating  batteries. 

Coioniet  and  Dtpendenciea. — The  colonies  and 
dependencies  of  Great  Britain  embrace  about  onc- 
third  of  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and  nearly  a 


668 


BRITISH  E3CPIRE 


fourth  of  its  pofmlition.  The  area  of  theijc  poff- 
B«A-i«iiM  covfx%  3>)11>.<>49  oquarc  milca^  or  nearly 
thtrtv  timo:*  the  extent  of  the  L'niteii  Kin^cdnm. 
Kxcfiuive  of  Imlia.  by  far  the  mostt  imp^frtant  of  all 
the  jfOMMeAMoniA  or<yreat  Briiaia.  the  colonies  may 
be  divulevi  int^t  four  principal  (j^rotipK.  namely,  thow 
in  Nnrth  America:  m  Centnl  .Vmerica,ort)ie  West 
IntlicH :  in  Aiutrahkda :  and  in  Africa.  At  present, 
the  North  American  group  takes  itrecedence  uver 
the  othen»  in  rey^ard  to  populati^m :  but  there  b*  little 
doubt  that,  in  the  course  of  another  generation,  or 
perhaps  two,  its  growth  will  be  outj«tripped  by 
that  of  the  much  younfic*^  cokmies  of  Au-Htralasia. 
Official  return."*,  calculated  fur  the  vcar  186-2.  state 
the  area  ami  populati«>n  of  the  British  possessions 
as  follows : — 


ColonlnaaA 


ftiammlmm 


Am 


I5T>IA    .         •         •         . 

North  America 
(.'anada 

Xew  Itmnswick 
Nova  .Scotia 
IMnce  Olward  Inland 
Newfonndloml  . 
BritiHh  Colambia     . 

Total  of  North  Amori-  » 
can  Colonies     .        /  ; 

Bermuda     . 

Hondoras    . 


Wkpt  Ivnira : 
Itahanias  .        •        • 
TurkK  L«land8  . 
Jamaica    . 
Virf^n  iHlandfl . 
St.  Christopher 
Nevis  .       . 

Antif^ia  ... 
Montwrrat 
Dominica . 
St.  Lticia  . 
St.  Vincent 
Barbadocs 
Grenada  . 
ToliaKO  . 
Trinldarl  . 
British  Guiana 

Total  for  West  Indies 

Falkland  Islands 


AUBTRAIJinA : 

New  Houth  Wales 
Victoria    . 
South  AiifftTAlia 
Western  Australia 
Tasmania . 
New  Zealand    • 
Queensland 


Total  for  Australasia 


Hongkong  . 
Lal)uan        .        • 
Ceylon 
Mauritius    . 
Natal   . 

<.apo  of  Good  Hope 
St.  Hcloiia  . 
<io](l  CeoKt  . 
i^ierra  Loone 
Gambia 
(rihraltor  . 
Malta  . 

dcncral  total . 


S<|.'lBil« 


342,482 

27.aJ7 

15.fi20 

2,173 

200.000 


PepBlatSao 


Nnob^r 


2/.07.«.'i7 

277.117 
-  H<i.M7 
122.IW8 
No  return 


•  :i23,162 

3,182,069 

i      20 

10,982 

17,000 

25,635 

8,i522 

27.619 

— 

4,372 

6,400 

377,433 

»4 

6,051 

68 

20.741 

20 

9,822 

108 

87,125 

47 

7.053 

291 

25,005 

8O0 

27,141 

131 

31,755 

IM 

152.727 

i:w 

81,900 

97 

15,410 

2,012 

84,438 

76,<K)0 

127,695 

89,389 

986.347 

13,000 

666 

478,861 

348,546 

86,944 

M0,322 

80<),<M)0 

126,83^) 

4.'»,000 

15,593 

22.629 

89,977 

95,000 

139,968 

,  W)9,000 

30,115 

!  1,587,434 

1,291,3^1 

29 

94,917 

M 

2,442 

i   24,700 

1,919,487 

1     708 

322,517 

18,000 

157,583 

104,931 

267,096 

47 

6,860 

6,0<)0 

151,346 

300 

41,624 

— 

6,939 

1§ 

17,017 

n:. 

147,683 

3,319,0493  1  14-1,499,761 


The  growth  of  the  British  colonial  empire — re- 
sult of  three  centuries — of  peaceful  and  warlike  on- 
tc*r]iriso — ^is  illtististcd  in  the  sabjoincd  table  >~ 


Ecropie: 

Gibraltar 

HeUgr)land  . 

Malta  and  Goao 
A>ia: 

Ceylon . 

Benfral. 

Bombay 

Madras 

N.  W.  Provinces 

Ponjanb 

Hongkong    . 

Labuon 

lFRICA  : 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 
Gambia 
Gold  Coast  . 
Natal    . 
St.  Helena    . 
Sierra  Leone 
Mauririns     . 

AMRmcA : 
Bermuda 
Brici?>h  Columbia 
Cai^la,  Lower 
Canada,  Tppcr 
New  Brunswick 
Newfoundland 
Nova  Scotia 
Prince  Edward  Island 
Guiana,  British 
.  Falkland  Islands 

Wb»t  Indies  : 
Antigua 
Bahamas 
Barbadoes    . 
Dominica     . 
Grenada 
Honduras     . 
Jamaica       . 
Montserrat  . 
Nevifl    . 
St.  Ritts 
St.  Lucia      . 
St.  Vincent  . 
Tobago 
Tortola,  &c 
Trinidad 
Turks  Island 

AUSTRALAPLA  : 

Australia,  South 
Australia,  West 
New  South  Wales 
QuGeni«land  . 
New  Zealand 
Tasmania     . 
Victoria 


Capture 
Cendon 
Capture    . 


1704 ; 

1814  ■ 
1809  . 


Capitulation     .       1796 

Settlement  and  con- 
quest   at  Tsrioos 
^'      periods  from 

1635  to  1649 

]A49 


I  Cesdon      • 

Cairitnlation 
SeCtlenumt 

t» 


t 


capitulation 

Settlement 

Capitulation 
Cession 


Settlement 

Capitulation 
Cession     . 

Settlement 
Cevion     • 


Capitnladon 
Settlement 
»t 

Capitulation 
CesBion 

Settlement 

Capitulation 

Settlement 

Settlement 
» 
>• 
»f 
i» 
t* 


]8<)6 
16J] 
1661   ■ 
1838 
1<»I  I 
1787  ■ 
1810 


1609 


aJid  ( 173  ^ 
.      \  1763  I 


1497 

1803 
1837 

1632 : 

ISi**  I 
WA  I 
176$) 
1763 
1670 
1655 
]6» 
1«W 
1623, 1650 
l^'U 
1763 
176S 
1665 
1797 
1619 

1836 
18e* 
1787 
1859 
18.« 
18itt 
1836 


The  total  exports  of  British  and  Irish  prodare 
and  manufactures  to  the  colonies  and  dependende» 
of  the  kinj^dom  were  of  the  value  of  42,345.8772.  in 
1861,  of  41^95,349/.  in  1862,  and  of  50,919.6.>4^ 
in  1 863.  (For  further  details  see  the  names  of  the 
various  colonies  and  dependencies.) 

Uutory. — A  sketch  will  be  found  in  the  article 
Engijind  of  the  principal  events  in  the  historr 
of  that  most  important  part  of  the  empire.  Ttie 
leading  epochs  in  the  histcMry  of  the  latter  are  ^— 

I.  The  invasion  and  establishment  of  the  Eng- 
lish power  in  Ireland  during  the  reifpi  of  Henrv  II. 

II.  The  union  of  the  crowns  uf  England'aod 
Scotland  in  1604,  on  the  accession  of  JameSf  kin^; 
of  Ijaotland,  to  the  throne  of  England,  vacant  br 
the  death  of  Elizabeth. 

III.  The  great  civil  war  in  the  reign  of  Chailei 
I.,  followed  by  the  execution  of  that  monarch  ia 
1649:  the  establishment  of  the  Conim<mwealtb; 
and  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  in  1660. 

IV.  The  Revolution  of  1688,  which  expelled 
the  fiunily  of  Stuart  from  the  throne;  defined 
and  firmly  estabUshed  the  principlea  of  the  cnoAti- 
tntion;  and  introduced  a  Ubenl,  tolennu  wad 


BRITTANY 

rwilly  responsible  system  of  government,  unda 
"William  III.,  Prince*  of  Oranffc 

V.  The  establishment  of  the  legislative  union 
of  England  and  Scotland,  1 707. 

VI.  The  accession  of  the  House  of  IIanover,1714. 

VII.  'llie  American  war,  1776-1784. 

VIII.  The  war  with  revolutionary  France,  1793- 
18ir>. 

IX.  The  legislative  union  of  Ireland  with  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  1799. 

X.  The  passinp  of  the  Reform  Act,  1832. 

XI.  The  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  colonies,  1834. 

XII.  The  transfer  of  the  administration  of  India 
to  the  Im|>erial  government,  1858. 

BKITT.VNY,  or  BRETAGNE,  one  of  the  most 
considerable  of  the  ancient  provinces  of  France, 
occupying  the  peninsula  of  that  name  on  the 
Atlantic.  It  is  now  distributed  among  the  depts. 
of  Loire  Infe'rieure,  Ille-et-Vilaine,  Finisterre, 
Morbihan,  and  C6te»-du-Nord. 

RRIVE,  or  BKIVE-LA-GAILLARDE,  a  town 
of  France,  dc^.  Corr^ze,  cap.  arrond.,  in  a  beautiful 
and  fertile  plain,  on  the  Corrfeze,  15  m.  SW.  Tulle, 
Pop.  9,854  in  1861.  The  town  is  well  built,  the 
houses  being  all  of  hewn  stone,  and  covered  with 
slates.  It  hai)  a  considerable  trade  in  vrine,  chest- 
nuts, and  cattle,  and  Ls  the  centre  of  the  trade  in 
trutHcs  and  rolaUees  truffees.  The  famous  Cardinal 
Dubois  was  a  native  oi  Brive. 

BKIXILtVAI,  a  sea-port  and  par.  of  England,  co. 
Devon,  hund.  Ilaytor,  186  m.  WSW.  London  by 
road,  and  2*25  m.  by  Great  Western  railway.  Pop. 
of  u»wn  4,390  in  1861.  Area  of  par.  5,210  acres, 
pop.  of  par.  5,984  in  1861.  The  town  is  built  in 
a  narrow  ravine  opening  towards  the  sea,  and  on 
the  cliffs  impending  over  it  on  either  side,  and  is 
di>nded  into  the  upper  and  lower  towns.  In  the 
latter  the  buildings  are  much  crowded,  in  narrow 
irregular  streets  and  alleys;  but  the  upper  town 
contains  many  good  houses,  as  does  also  the 
immediate  neigh ix)urhood,  which  Ls  remarkablv 
picturesque.  The  church  in  the  upper  town  is 
an  ancient  structure,  with  some  interesting  mo- 
numents ;  in  the  lower  town  is  a  chapel  of  ease, 
which  has  300  free  sittings ,  the  living  is  a  vicar- 
age in  the  gift  of  the  crown.  It  has  also  a  Baptist 
and  a  Wesleyan  chapel,  and  a  national  school,  in- 
corjwrated  with  an  endowed  one  founded  1634, 
which  etlucates  about  400  boys  and  girK  There 
m  a  pier  harbour  at  the  end  of  the  lower  town, 
consisting  of  an  inner  and  outer  basin,  which 
communicate  with  each  other,  and  are  safe  and 
commodious.  The  spring  tide  rises  al)out  24  ft,  at 
the  pier-head.  The  principal  trade  of  the  place  is 
connected  with  the  1  orbay  fishery,  in  which  about 
120  vessels,  of  20  t4)  45  tons,  and  70  smaller  boat8, 
are  engaged ;  there  are  also  upwards  of  120  vessels 
of  60  to  120  tons,  belonging  to  the  place,  chief!  v 
engaged  in  the  coasting  trade  of  the  ChanneL 
There  arc  extensive  marble  quarries  in  the  neigh- 
bourho<Kl.  The  most  remarkable  historical  event 
connected  with  this  place,  or  with  Torbay,  is  the 
Linding  of  William  III.  at  ita  pier,  on  the  5th  of 
November,  1688. 

BKOADSTAIKS,  a  small  sea-^rt  and  water- 
ing-place of  England,  co.  Kent,  h.  coast.  Isle  of 
Thanet,  half-way  between  the  N.  Foreland  and 
lUmsgate,  69  m.  E.  by  8.  London  by  road,  and 
77  m.  by  I^ondon,  Chatham,  and  Dover  railway. 
Pop.  of  eccL  distr.  1,378  in  1861.  There  are  seve- 
ral good  lodging-hoiLHcs,  warm  l)aths,  two  public 
libraries,  gocnl  hotels,  asscmblv-room,  and  an 
e))iscopal  chapel,  built  in  I82«.  'fhere  is  a  wooden 
pier  (formed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIIL),  which 
IS  accessible  f«)r  small  vessels. 

BKODV,  a  town  of  the  Austrian  States,  N£. 
part  of  Galicia,  circ  Zloczow,  near  the  oonlinea  of 


BROMLEY 


569 


Russia,  52  m.  E.  by  N.  Lembcrg;  lat  5(P  V  N., 
long.  250  18'  E.  Pop.  18,748  in  1857.  Nearly 
one-half  the  inhabit4&nts  are  Jews.  The  town  la 
situated  in  a  marshy  plain ;  and  the  houses  l)eing 
mostly  of  wood,  and  the  streets  unpaved  and  filthy, 
it  is  well  entitled  to  the  name  it  bears — hrody 
meaning  a  dirty  place.  But,  notwithstanding  its 
unpromising  appearance,  it  enjoys  a  verv  con^ 
siderable  trade.  In  1779  it  Required  the  privilege 
of  a  free  commercial  town ;  that  ia,  a  town  into 
which  commodities  may  be  imported,  and  from 
which  they  may  be  exported  free  of  duty.  This  * 
franchise  has  rendereil  it  an  important  emporium ; 
and  ita  fain  are  attended  by  dealers  from  the  . 
Ukraine  and  Odessa,  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  as 
well  as  the  contiguous  Austrian  and  Russian  pro- 
vinces. The  principal  articles  brought  from  the 
S.  are  cattle,  especially  horses,  with  hides,  tallow, 
and  wax,  which  are  exchanged  for  colonial  pro- 
duce, manufactured  goods,  hanlware,  j>articularly 
scythes,  iiirs,  and  jewellery.  There  is  a  regular 
exchange  with  Odessa.  The  greater  part  of  this 
important  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  Jewish  mer- 
chants settled  at  Brody,  of  whom  many  are  verv 
opulent.  The  annual  commerce  of  the  place  is 
estimated  of  tlie  value  of  30,000,000  florins,  or 
3,000,000/.  Brody  is  the  seat  of  a  mercantile 
tribunal ;  has  a  Catholic  and  three  (xreek  churches ; 
one  large  and  two  or  three  smaller  s^'nagogues ;  a 
convent  and  hospital  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity; 
grammar  and  commercial  sch(K>ls,  with  peculiar 
schools  for  Christians  and  Jews;  a  theatre,  in 
which,  during  the  fairs,  plays  are  alternately  re- 
presented in  the  Cierman  and  Polish  languages ; 
and  a  Jewish  hospital.  The  town  is  on  the  estate 
of  Count  Potocki,  who  derives  a  princely  revenue 
from  it,  and  has  a  large  castle  within  its  precincts. 

BROEK,  a  village  of  Holland,  6  m.  NE.  Am- 
sterdam.' Pop.  1,466  in  1861.  Tlie  village  is 
celebrated  for  the  wealth  of  its  inhab.,  but  more 
for  the  extreme  cleanliness  of  its  bouses  and 
streets,  the  attention  to  which  has  been  carried  to 
an  absurd  and  ridiculous  excess.  The  entire  pop. 
consists  of  retired  merchants  and  their  families, 
who  amuse  themselves  in  killing  fiies,  and  keeping 
their  dwellings  free  from  every  speck  of  dust. 

BROMBERG,  a  town  of  Prussia,  prov.  Posen, 
cap.  circ.  same  name,  on  the  Braa,  6  m.  from  its 
confiuence  with  the  Vbttila,  at  the  junction  of  the 
railwavs  fn>m  Ikrlin  to  Warsaw,  and  from  Berlin 
to  Kohigsberg.  P«)p.  22,474  in  1861 ;  excL  1,970 
militarj'.  The  town  is  one  of  the  most  thriv-ing  of 
eastern  Prussia ;  it  more  than  doubled  its  popula- 
tion in  the  20  years  1841-61.  The  canal  joining 
the  Vistula  with  the  Netz,  an  afiluejit  of  the  Oder, 
runs  between  this  town  and  Nakel  on  the  Netz.  It 
has  a  court  of  appeal  for  the  circ.,  a  g\'mnasium, 
and  other  literary  establishments,  several  distil- 
leries and  breweries,  chicory  and  tobacco  worlu, 
and  a  considerable  and  increasing  trade. 

BROMLEY,  a  par.  and  town  of  England,  co. 
Kent,  lath  Sutton-at-Hone,  hund.  Bromley  and 
Beckenham,  10  m.  StL  London  by  road,  and  12  m. 
by  South  Eastern  railway.  Pop.  of  parish  5,505  in 
1861 ;  area  4,630  acres.  The  town  is  on  the  N. 
bank  of  the  Ravensboume,  and  chiefly  consists  of 
one  street  of  neat  respectable  houses,  extending 
for  some  distance  along  the  line  of  road  from  the 
metropolis  to  Tunbrid^  The  church  is  a  spacious 
structure,  with  an  embattled  tower;  the  Inde- 
pendents and  Wesleyans  have  each  a  chapel ;  a 
national  school  for  lx>th  sexes  is  supported  by 
subscr. ;  there  is  an  almshouse  for  old  iicople,  rent 
free ;  a  charitable  estab.,  called  Bromley  College, 
founded  in  1666,  and  enlarged  and  endowed  by 
manv  subsequent  benefactors,  supports  40  cler]^*- 
men  8  widows,  who  each  receives  38£.  a  year,  with 


f}7ii 


BROMSGROVE 


BRUGES 

laud,  CO.  Salop,  huml.   Weulork,    127  m.  XW. 
London,  on  ihe  S<'veni.  by  which  it  i*  rsf^jani**-.! 


ro.'ils  and  ramilon:  the  cilifu'C  onclof»os  tM'o  qiiad- 
nin;:iilar  an^as  and  hnn  a  cha|K'l :  tlie  charity  ii« 
midrr  tin-  dint-tion  of  14   tnislK-s.    Them  is  a    ti^un  .Matlfley.     Awa  cif  par.   l..'»r>*»  arrt-C:   pup. 

w<<'klv  market  on  Thur?«dav.  a  monthlv  one  for     '  """"  *     »,-.      -  •  

cattU'.  even'  third  '^ll^r^4lay,  and  ann.  fairs  Fel>. 
II,  An;;.  4,  ehielly  f<»r  live  ^to(■k.    It  i-  the  central 


4.721  in  iHiii.  The  town  Cimsi<te>  prineipaily  nf 
oiw  lonj;  .street,  with  smaller  one*  l>ranchin;:  -.fr 
to  the  different  c<»llicriei>  and  oth*>T  wi.rk!*.  It  his 
t»»wn  of  a  ]HMir  law  nnion  of  HI  jiiirs. :  its  oynx  rat<>j«  a  parish  church,  ami  cha|ieh«  for  different  df-nomi- 
avera^e  l.'Joii/.  TUo  iidiah.  are  chii-tly  enj^aj^i'il  nations  of  ^Ussenter* ;  and  then*  is  a  ohaiK-l  i»f  (».*« 
in  a^riculliirc.  From  the  ^th  ccntitrA'  tlie  manor  at  Jacktield.  within  the  fiarislu  It  u*  within  tin- 
has  vi>t<f<l.  with  little  interruption,  in  the  hishops  jurisdiction  of  the  l>or,  of- Wenhii'k.  Ouirt?  Wt 
of  l{<Khe>ter.  The  ]»re.M'nt  |»jdace  was  rehuilt  on  for  the  mamtr  anr  held  in  the  t4.iwn-hall  in  April 
an  ancient  siti*  in  1777  :  it  is  a  ]ilain  hrick  huihl-  and  CMoIk-T,  at  the  latter  of  which  four  consrah:«rs 
in;:.  «in  an  eminence  ^  m.  from  tlie  town;  an  are  ap|K»inte<l:  and  a  court  of  iv<|uetsts.  lor  tho 
ancii-nt  sprinjr  in  its  ^janU-ns  ha>  medi'-inal  ])ro-  n^covery  of  small  debt*,  is  hold  j^'uerallv  every 
l>erties  similar  to  tho.se  of  Tunhrid^je:  aft<'r  In-inj;  alternate  \Ve<hn'sday.  Then*  are  here  exien-ivV 
netjh'«'t4'd  two  or  three  centurie.s,  it  was  reopi-ne*!  c(»,il  and  in»n  mines,  with  lan^^  inm-founiirie?:  and 
in  17.')(».  andcontinui's  to  Ik*  nujcli  renirted  to.  hn  it  is  celebrated  for  its  extenjsive  manufacture  of 
wet'kly  market  wa.s  ^n^nted  to  the  town  in  1  177.  tubacco-pipert  jmd  ^inlen-iM)t:t.  A  huniin;;  sprim: 
niJOMStjlIOVK,  a  )>ar.  and  town  of  Kn^jland,  or  well  was  discoveivtl  here  in  1711,  which  ili*- 
co.  \Vi>nester.  hund.  IIalf-^hirt^  IW  m.  N'W.  Lou-  '  apix-ared  on  the  sinking  of  a  coal  mine  in  17.V). 
<lon  by  road,  and  127^  m.  by  Loudon  and  North  Owin^  to  the  depn-ssion  of  tlie  iron  tra*le.  the 
Western  railway  riu  Birmingham.  Pop.  of  town,  town  cleclined  consiilerablv  previouMy  t4i  the  «»n>us 
f),2»J2,  and  of  iliiri>h  lo.s22  in  l^fil.  The  town  of  \X'M,  there  having  linm  a  falliji|^  off  in  the 
is  situateil  on  tin*  \V.  bank  of  the  Salwaq),  in  a  ■  ixipulation,  since  1811,  of  nearlv  an  vi^htli  jiart: 
fi-riile  and  well  wimmIciI  vale,  and  chiefly  consists    the  )M>p.  at  the  lat ter  perioil  being  4,.>wi;  but  in 


of  on4>  sjtacious  stri'ct  nlxtut  a  mile  in  length.  Its 
church,  on  a  gentle  rise,  luis  a  tow<T  and  spin*, 
together  IM*  ft.  in  lieight,  and  considered  the  tinest 
in  the  co.  There  are.  thn^e  diss<.>nting  cha|Kds;  a 
fn'C  grammar-sclHMjl.  f(»unded  by  Kdwanl  VI.  (in 


l'<4l  it  had  nearly  recoverwl  it6  old  level,  and  in 
1«»I1  slu>wed  a  slight  ijicrease. 

HliorAClE,  a  town  and  sca-fK^  of  Franco, 
(h'p.  Chan'nte  Inferieure,  on  the  strait  liiviiliiu,' 
the  Island  of  ( Heron  fn>m  the  mainland.  i<  m. 


which  twelve  lK»ys  an*  clothe<l  and  (Hhicateil,  with  ,  SSNV^  lIochef«»rt  by  railway.     Poji,  i*>i»l  in  lS#;i. 
'    '  "  ^ '  *    '     '  "       * "      ■    "'  Its  iK»rt  admits  <»u'ly  of  Vl•^sel8  t»f  :<mall  iHinlcn. 

Around  the  town  are  extensive  salt  raaishe.4,  fp»ni 
which  sidt  is  obtained  in  great  quantities,  and  of  aii 
excellent  tpiality.  To  facilitate  it«  shipment,  the 
marshes  are  iniversed  by  a  canal  running  fnmi  tlie 
Chan*nte  alxive  Kocheftirt  to  a  little  In'hiw  Bmuagc, 
lUU.'liKS,  a  city  of  Belgium,  ca|i.  \V.  FlainUr:-, 
and  of  an  arrond.  and  ,5  cantons,  in  a  va^^  le^•♦  1 
f)lain  of  sandy  soil  at  the  junction  of  the  canal> 
fn»m  (Jhent,  Ostend,  and  L'Eclujie,  and  at  tin- 
railway  fn»ra  Ostend  to  Antweri»;  7  m.  from  the 

cestcr   railway  passes   near  the  town.     It  is  the  i  N.  Sea,  12  m.  K.  Ostend,  24  m.  "WNW.  (ihent.an! 

_  .  ._  I  .  r  .  -     _i  •  -.    r  .;.. .       '  x.         00  m.  N  \V.  BhisscIs.  Hruges  is  the.«tcatofauepL•^-l>- 

pal  see  under  the  archbishop  of  Mechlin :  the  sea:  "j" 
a  court  of  assize,  of  a  high  ct>urt  «»f  jusiic*',  and  i-f  j 
court  of  commen-e.  Pop.  m  1K^»,  42.1I»X;  in  1  *<:>•. 
41,874;  and4/<,G7ain  IhM,  This  last  enumtm- 
tion  showed   a  tlccrease  of  (VAo  ui  the  pn^i^iiliiu: 


wven  w:holarshii»s,  and  six  fellowshi)is  in  Worces- 
ter CoHcgt!,  Oxford);  and  a  town-hall,  with  a 
market-place  umler  it.  The  weekly  marktrt  is  on 
Tues<lay;  twoamuial  fairs  are  held,  June  24  aiul 
Oct.  1.    Nail-making  i.s  the  chief  buMuess  of  the 

i>Iace;  then*  is  also  a  large  button  manuf:ictory. 
u  the  adjoinhig  ]iarish  of  Stoke  Prior  there  arc 
large  salt  nnd  alkali- works,  in  which  some  of  tlie 
inhab.  of  Bnmisgrove  ant  employtnl:  the  linen 
manufacture  was  fomn'rly  carried  <«i,  but  is  now 
extinct.    The  line  of  the  Hinningham  and  (ilou- 


central  t(»wn  of  a  ]>oor  law  union  of  nine  j^arishes; 
its  own  rates  average  ;{.(MH»/. :  it  has  live  guardians. 
A  court  f»f  rc(pie.sis  fur  debts  under  40s.  is  held  in 
t\u'  town  evcr^•  thinl  WetincMlay.  IJromsgrove 
Lickey,  a  l«>fty  nmge.  in  which  the  Salwarp,  Itea, 
and  some  other  streams,  have  their  source,  lies  on 
the  N.  of  the  town. 

niJOiMYAlIl),  a  jyar.  and  town  of  Kngland,  co. 
Hereford,  hund.  liroxash,  110  m,  WV.  I^)ndon. 
P«»p.  of  tiiwn  1  ,iJ*<r),  and  of  parish  2,Wit  in  IS^U  ; 
area.  iKSIO  acres.  The  town,  situated  near  the 
Frome,  in  an  orchard  district,  consists  of  several  I  wide  and  handsome,  and  all  are  genemllv  clean. 

•  t  a.  ^  I'l  1  ll'l^^l  %<  1  111  •  •        • 


decennial  rK*ri<Ml.  the  ])0|i.  of  184ri  hanng  lurn 
41KoO«.  The  <'ity  has  a  circ.  of  nearly  4 A  ra..  ami 
is  entered  by  six  gates.  It  has  six  l.-irge  s«]ua^'N 
in  which  are  held  weekly  markets  aiul  aimual 
fairs,  and  alnn-e  2(M)  streets  and  lanes ;  Mime  azv 


irri'gular  streets,  which  are  i«ived  and  lighted; 
many  of  its  houses  are  of  wihkI.  There  is  a  spacious 
church,  in  the  Norman  style;  an  Inde)K'ndent 
chaj>el ;  a  free  grammar-8ch(H)l  founded  by  lOliza- 
iK'th;  a  national  school,  for  120  children;  and 
almshouses  for  seven  ohl  women.  'ITie  weekly 
market  is  Monday;  corn,  cheese,  and  butter  are 
the  <rhief  articles.  Petty  sessions  for  the  hund.  are 
hehl  in  the  town.  The  par.  comprises  three  town- 
ships anil  one  cha]H'lr\'. 

lilM  )NTK,  «)r  in:o'NTl,  a  town  of  Sicily,  Val  di 
Catania,  ca]).  cant.,  near  the  (iiaretta  at  the  W. 
base  t»f  Mount  yEina,  22  m.  NN  W.  (.'atania.  Piip. 
11,<)21>  in  l^<^51.  The  town  has  several  churches 
and  convents;  is  healthy;  luis  manufactures  of 
w<M)llens  and  paper;  and  the  adjacent  territory' 
prmluces  com,  wine,  silk,  iK'stachio  nuts,  and 
ahnonds.  l/»rd  Nelson  was  createtl  Duke  of  Bronte 
in  17'.''.',  with  an  income  of  (ijOOt)  oncie  a  year. 

1JK(K>KLVX,  a  suburb  of  New  York,  on  Long 
Island.   Svr  Nkw  Vokk. 


Many  large  and  noble  ancient  raansiuns,  nm 
spacious  public  editices,  present  their  iminteil 
gables  to  the  streets,  and  affonl  interesting  sjnfi- 
mens  of  the  ornamental  Gothic  architecture  i-f  tl'.i» 
middle  ages,  remindnig  the  ttjiectator  of  the  gran- 
deur and  o])ulenceof  Bnigcs  in  the  daysof  chivalrw 
when  its  gorge<jus  halls  and  c^mrts  were  s«.^-itcs  U 
regal  pomp  and  |)ageantry.  Bruges,  in  t'^mur.^^i 
with  all  the  t«)wns  of  W.  F'landers,  is  destitute  •'f 
s])ring  water,  ao  that  the  inh.ibitauts  art*  t,bligi  I 
as  were  their  ancestors  in  the  lime  of  Pluiy,  to  have 
n-course  to  supplies  fn»m  the  clouds.  '  For  ihi* 
purj^ose  ever>-  house  is  providetl  with  a  cistern  f-'f 
collecting  nun  from  its  nK)f:  and  that  whicli 
gathers  in  the  ditchwof  the  rain|tarti«  is  o'nveM-'l 
by  means  of  hydraulic  machinery-  to  public  ('Mir:- 
tains  and  tanks,  whence  it  is  diAributtM  in  |iii»T' 
throughout  the  city.  There  are  ,'»4  bridgt^  a^P«-* 
the  numerous  canals,  by  which  the  htreeL«  arv 
intersecte<l,  of  which  12  are  of  wckhL  ami  rotat-rv. 
and  42  of  stone  or  brick:  hence  the  Flemish  namt 


BKOSELKV,  a  market  town  and  par,  of  Eiig-    of  the  pUce, — Brligge,  tliat  is,  bridgm  iu  Fienth 


BRUGES 


671 


Bruges.  The  Ostcnd  canal  presents  an  expanse  of 
surface  that  resembles  a  stately  river,  and  is  suffi- 
ciently wide  and  deep  to  admit  the  passage  of  ships 
of  oOO  tons  from  the  sea.  The  canal  to  Ghent  'm 
also  navigable  for  lai^e  and  heavy  vessels.  Its 
trekschuit^  or  i>assage-bi>at,  is  a  huge  floating  hotel, 
affording  everv  accommodation;  but  delicate 
possenf^ers  arc  liable  to  much  annoyance  from  the 
state  of  the  nearly  stagnant  water,  which  often  is 
nearly  black  with  putridity,  and  covered  with  dead 
iUhj  owing,  it  is  said,  to  die  extensive  steeping  of 
tiax  in  the  river  Lys,  which  joins  the  canal  at 
(ihent.  The  level  character  of  the  country  is 
sluwTi  by  the  fact,  that  between  Bruges  and  Ghent, 
a  distance  of  nearly  35  m.,  this  great  canal  has  not 
a  i*ingle  lock.  The  central  basin  or  d(K!k  of  Bruges 
is  ca])able  of  containing  above  100  vessels  always 
afloat ;  and  the  convenient  quays,  stores,  and  s\y&- 
cioiLs  warehouses  by  which  it  is  surrounded,  afford 
great  facilities  f«)r  the  despatch  of  business.  The 
city  is  advantageously  situated  for  both  maritime 
anil  inland  commerce';  and  though  its  commercial 
transactions  are  now  infinitelv  inferior  to  those  of 
which  it  justly  Iwasted  in  the  15th  century,  they 
are  pwrsevcringly  carried  on  with  most  of  the 

i)rincipal  })orts  of  France,  Spain,  Holland,  Italy, 
England,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Russia. 
The  leading  manufactures  of  Bruges  consist  of 
lace,  linens,  woollen  and  cotton  goods,  and  of  salt 
and  ^'ugar  retining.  Breweries  are  numenms ;  and 
several  establishments  are  in  operation  for  the 
manufacture  of  st)ap,  })ottery,  leather,  tobacco,  and 
e?«[Kfially  for  bleaching,  dutilling,  and  dyeing. 
The  blue  dves  of  the  stuffs  of  Bruges  are  believed 
to  derivi;  their  |)cculiar  excellence  (mm  the  qua- 
lity of  the  canal  water  in  which  they  are  scoure<L 
The  lace  manufacture  is  the  most  important.  It 
employs  7,4(X)  i)ersons,  or  more  than  one-sixth  of 
the  whole  population.  Children  are  taught  to 
make  lace  in  at  least  200  schools  established  for 
this  purjMkse.  Tlie  exports  comprise  com,  cattle, 
and  (»ther  agricultural  produce  of  the  soil,  and 
the  pHKhicts  of  the  various  manufactories.  The 
imports  consist  of  wool,  cotton,  metals,  <lye-woods, 
dnigs,wine.s,  and  mist'cllaneoius  foreign  priNluctions. 
Among  the  most  remarkable  public  e<litices  are 
the  cathcilral  of  Notre  Dame  (Onser  Vrouw),  the 
tower  (if  which  is  so  lofty,  that  when  the  atmo- 
spliere  is  iwirticularly  clear,  it  Ls  visible  from  the 
mouth  <»f  tlie  Thames.  The  interior  contains  an 
ex([ui<itely  car\-e<l  pulpit ;  a  marble  statue  of  the 
A'irgin  and  Child,  attributed  to  Michael  Angelo, 
and  for  whidi  Horace  \Vali)ole  offere<l  30,000 
florins  :  and  two  Ci>stly  old  monuments  of  Charles 
the  Itold,  Duke  of  Burgun<lv,  and  his  daughter, 
the  wife  of  the  EmiK?n)r  ^faximilian,  in  richly 
gilded  bronze  and  silver.  The  old  Gothic  hosjntal 
of  St.  John,  ami  the  elegant  cathe<lral  of  St. 
Saviour,  have  several  celel>rated  pictures  by  Hans 
Hcmling,  Van  Dyke,  and  others.  In  the  great 
hall  of  the  liotef  de  Ville  is  the  public  library', 
containing  many  curious  illuminate<l  MSS.,  a 
missal  of  the  14th  centurj',  and  the  scheme  of  a 
lottery  <lrawn  at  Bruges*  in  1445.  These,  and 
other' Gothic  buildings  in  the  city,  belong  gene- 
rallv  to  tlie  14th  centur>',  and  are  ornamented 
with  windows  of  rich  coloured  glass,  sculptured 
monuments,  and  paintings  by  the  old  Flemish 
masters.  In  the  gR'at  square  is  a  lofty  (iothic 
tower  or  belfry,  the  most  l)eautiful  in  Euroi>e,  and 
its  chimes  or  carillons  are  esteemed  the  most  com- 
p1et<;  and  harmonious  in  the  Netherliinds,  where 
only  superior  qualities  are  approved  in  thb  species 
of  musical  instrument,  or  rather  machine.  In  this 
tower  there  are  forty-eight  bells,  some  weighing 
six  tons:  they  are  played  upon  ever>' quarter  of 
an  hour  commonly  by  means  of  an  immense  copi)cr 


cylinder  communicating  with  the  clock,  and  weigh- 
ing about  nine  tons.  Its  surface  is  pierced  by 
30,500  square  holes,  so  that  an  infinite  variety  of 
airs  may  be  set  upon  it,  by  merely  shifting  the 
iron  pegs  that  lift  the  hammers.  On  particular 
days  a  paid  professor  of  music  performs  tlie  finest 
pieces  by  striking  with  great  effort  upon  huge 
keys  with  well-guarded  fists,  and  upon  pei ials  with 
his  feet.  Watchmen  are  ctmstantly  fiosted  at  the 
top  of  this  tower  to  make  alarm  signals  of  fire,  by 
ringhig  a  loud  bell,  and  exhibiting  in  the  day,  a 
Hag,  and  in  the  night,  a  lantern,  towards  the  fHiint 
whither  the  engines  are  rt>quLred  to  hasten,  which 
is  further  indicated  by  a  s{)eaking-trumpet.  The 
city  tire  establishment  consists  of  mne  engines  and 
140  men.  The  ancient  abbev  of  the  Dunes  is  a 
vast  and  solid  building,  in  wdich  is  held  the  epis- 
coi>al  academv.  llie  Jerusalem  church  is  a  fac- 
simile of  the  lloly  Tomb.  There  is  a  Beguinage, 
or  convent  of  B<^uin  nuns,  and  also  a  convent  of 
English  Augustin  nuns,  possessing  a  richly  onia* 
mented  church.  The  city  is  divided  into  seven 
Catholic  parishes,  and  contains  one  Prgtestant 
church.  Several  other  public  edifices  are  worthy 
of  notice,  as  well  as  ancient  private  mansions  in- 
terestingly asstxiated  with  unportant  hbtorical 
events  and  personages.  The  council  chamber  of 
the  Palais  de  Justice  contains  an  immense  chim- 
ney-piece of  woo<l  beautifully  car>'e(l.  in  1529, 
with  figures  of  Charles  V.  and  his  family  as  laxgo 
as  life.  There  is  a  small  theatre,  a  botanic  ganlen, 
a  museum  of  natural  history,  several  literary  and 
scientific  societies,  a  well-attended  athemeum  or 
collegiate  school  for  the  higher  degrees  of  edu- 
cation ;  a  good  surgical  scho(»l,  attended  commonly 
by  fifty  students  ;  and  a  very  flourishing  academy 
of  painting  and  sculpture,  in  which,  besides  the 
student's  course,  gratuitous  instruction  is  given  to 
others  in  architecture,  design,  and  drawing.  Its 
gallery'  of  paintings  comprises  several  by  the 
celebrated  Van  Eyck. 

Few  cities  are  better  provided  with  endowed  cha- 
rities and  asylums  for  the  destitute  and  afilicted, 
and  ¥rith  schools  for  instructing  the  children  of 
the  piN>r.  The  average  numlx^r  of  persons  in  a 
state  of  indigencre  within  the  city  is  estimateil  at 
5,000.  The  itoor-house  is  a  central  establishment 
for  the  two  Flanders,  and  will  contain  55u  |»aupers : 
the  number  of  inmates  is  generally  about  5(KK  The 
prison  is  kept  remarkably  clean,  and  the  walls  uf 
Its  cells  are  rendere<l  drv  and  secure  by  a  casing  of 
thick  iKiards  of  oak.  'Inhere  is  a  motU-de-puii';  or 
I)enevolent  institution   for  lending  money  u|n)ii 

1)ledges.  The  temperature  of  the  atmtJHphere  ab<»ut 
tniges  is  subject  to  sudden  anil  extreme  tran- 
sitions ;  and  opprc^ve  heat  of  the  mid-<lay  sun 
in  summer  is  often  succeeded  by  very  chill  iiig 
evening  damps.  Health  and  longevity  api>ear, 
however,  to  be  kept  up  to  the  average  points,  and 
those  who  posscns  the  means  of  choosing  their 
))lace  of  residence  often  prefer  this  locality  ;  so  that 
the  spacious  mansions  of  the  opulent  buighers  of 
former  times  are  now  tenantetl  by  many  of  the 
highest  families  of  Flanders,  and  by  retire<l  in<le- 
]>endent  merchants,  to  whom  this  old  city  wouhl 
seem  t4)  have  i)eculiar  attractions.  The  adjacent 
rural  districts  to  the  W.  display  the  most  exu- 
berant 8{)ecimens  ftf  the  Flemish  farmeries;  and 
orchards,  which  alxmnd  in  ever}'  part  of  W.  Flan- 
dere,  are  es})ecially  numerous  in  the  vicinity  of 
Bruges,  producing  excellent  cherries,  apples,  pears, 
walnuts,  plums,  and,  less  commonly,  apricots  and 
peaches. 

The  history  of  Bruges  commences  at  a  ver\'  early 
date.  It  was  a  pnwiieious  scat  of  manufacturing 
and  commercial  industry  lon^  before  (ihent  and 
Antwerp  rose  to  the  same  distinction.    In  the  7ih 


6T1  BRUnRS 

(Tiiliirv  il  was  nipi>n,v  noquirliiK  impnrUnw,  nnil 
iiiiiliTi'liarlvniaKiiv,  nl  tlie  mrliif  rlw  wh  niitory, 
itH  wiMivrr"  Kiw  hiilhlv  aiwinBiiii'ImU  Ihinnit 
tlir  pivi-mnipnt  iif  llii- ncli  anil  ibiwotTiiI  nniiitimr 
Fluiilrni.  Willi  nsiilnt  U  llrut^  from  tlu'  '.nh  to 
th»  l.'iihcf'iiliirit^  ili>  wuullcii  maiiufauliirRi  i^w 
■nil  tl<Hirl-)Hil  to  ail  «inaxiniti>xt(mt,  wi  llial  I'liiliii 
Id  lion,  in  I4n<>,  ro  ninimtnminilr  itH  ttimt  imi- 

?>prity.inHli(utiHlthcrhivalriviinli'rid' (lH'<:»IiIra  | 
\i-rri.  Al  dip  Fliiniuli  (imrt  "t  thuiiii<rpiita(i<Hiii 
DutP  iiT  HuiKiiniiv,  wlMrtf  hTpmiiny,  uul  nol  hU 
expini>(ii'ii  fnnn  I'lnlp  nnil  cruelly.  lanruml  liim 
the  r«t;niinii'iii>f(n<o<)iil  numplniiw  ii|ilrii>lnur  iiT 
uaioiuilrv  unw  dUiilByiHl,  whii-h  nii  Kiinipr»nin">- 
lun-li  iinilil  imitatr.  ami  on  aliHddtcwnm  win 
fxin-iml,  whii-h  lump  itarwliliqiute.  Tlwrmint. 
of  luxuriiiuK  luniiiwtii  uhI  anMivl  at  ihh  jicniiil 
an'  nltmiBt  liirmhlilf.  Nirt  rnily  th»  ifrnwn  iiT 
nii'ii  anil  vianvn,  hut  the  hnimnKH  of  thrir  bimmi, 
wen-  nf  vplvi-l.  >«lin,  and  iwUL  pnifiuoly  riiam;lp<l 
with  lirilllaiit   inrfli.— an  ntravaf^aiicr   wliirh 

ChacUw  V. 

to«i| 
wralll 


BnilSN 
F.tlzalicth,  ami  hn-amc  Itie  meaiut  of  estahlMuoK 
fhr  wiii<ll«i  inanuractiirN.  for  wliii-h  tbU  mraiiy 
liaH  wnop  becnmp  mi  distinifuUhciL  TW  nibw- 
qiH'iit  hutim- of  llm^teii,  uoilpt  tbi.- iIomiiiiunnrtlM 
Kroiiiih.  FnMich,  and  Austriaiu,  is  ciimparaiiiL'Ir 


irli*  V_  ill  tfiv  riillinriiiR  imtuiy,  wan  "'>%" i 
iiiiiiin-iiii  hr  ciiarling  «uiii|iliiat7'  law*.  TliR 
jlllianil»rfiiiiliililltl«oflhccitiMn»iifHniKiii 
liail  lull);  M'li  wljiTlii  irf  ToiiHrr  :  Dir  whni  tliv 
muvu  iir  I'liillp  Ic  Ih-l.  iif  FiBiicr.  rititnl  lhi»  city 
in  l»i)ll,  Hhr  i«  mLI  to  havF  pxrlainMl  villi  acliin- 
ialinicnl,  '  I  hpn-  wo  liuntlmlH  v)in  liavo  mine 
th<'  niiix-aninn-  at  qiiwiw  tlian  myM-ir.'  Tb(-  pulilir 
■nil  iirivatF  ImiUinfpi  iif  Ihp  city  were  worthy  t.i 
dliHiUy  "udi  iiiiirtly  maRnilit^nrv ;  wHliat  Simtbpy, 
JuiltnnR  Ihira  Ihe  I'XinlinK  aHiilPCtural  n'niains  nf 
tlial  ani'ipnt  Kniuleur,  navB,  in  hia  '  rilgriniagc  to 
\VaH-ri™>,— 

*  IVtim  1  max  resil  nt  ttUn  In  ^jt  ot  oM, 

at  touniRyii  emcnl  liy  ctiEpftAiiiA  nC  ivonvn. 
Fair  rliuiHx.  (TTBTP  diironi^  ami  warrion  IniM — 

If  fanry  miulil  ponrtny  mme  AaMy  town 
WliU-h  ..I  Hicli  i<inn|i  lit  tlioatn.-  minht  bo. 
Fair  iminiil  I  aball  then  RnutalxTUMs. 
Thin  iiiililp  city,  thninidioal  tliR  14th  anil  ISlh 
tmturii-H.  VOK  Iha  cpnlml  pnii»riam  i>r  llw  nrlmlp 
"       lI  liail  lesiiifT"  — ' ' 


IlaiiM-atir   Li^ip 

i;uni|ii-an  imrtu  fii , — 

BniKn  wan  tlw  kwling  rity,  anil  the  )^nil  dc^Mi 
or  nai'Bl  fli>ni>.  llor  quay*  wmt  cnimli'd  with 
fiirriKii  Mfi-  and  meivliBUln.  anil  lirr  pileH  iiT  maii:- 


in>lHii 


V  lillcil 


ritli  II 


RKll  iiT 


KiiKlitiJ-  '!>"  l'i>^  "f  Fluniliw.  niul  thu  i<ilk  of 
I'rrMa.  Ilrr  wcaiiix  wito  rel?l>nuiil finmnhinfc 
thp  tmii'l  lio«iitil\il  it«HTi|ilioii  Iif  tapniliy  mon- 
than  a  cvnlury  lirfi>iu  i1h>  (iiiliFliin  iBBnufai.-ture 
was  roiniiinu'Vil  untlpT  tlic  (tim-tiim  iif  thinr  ilr- 
HTFiiilanl^     Till'  wrolth  c^  thp     "  " 


flic  ihv  ranwnn  nf  jpan  uii*  i'na.  thr  last  ( 
of  FlaniUiis  li<  the  omiiiiiit  i>f  4I1(I^1LM>  rnni 
l^iilil.  Tlic  annual  ex|iiirW  mwi-ly  nf  atiiffl*  n  .  .  . 
liu'Iuml  fnim  KiiKlinb  aiul  Spaniiib  vmnl  aminuiWil 
laKjHKI^lUU  lliinn]swul  llic  Huriu  wan  tbrn  quad- 
Tn))lo  itn  pniiPDt  tbIuu.  Tliii  ainaiinKI>i»f ■(!«■¥ 
cnnllnnnl  unilimiiiishnl  dniin);  Ibc  ilinniniuii  m 
thedulu-ooT  IhiiKuinly;  but  unikr  iho  Aus-"— 
dynnxlv,  at  thv  duMi  uf  tho  l.'ilh  rnitim. — 
lebrlliiiun  cmuliut  iif  il*  Inhaldtantii,  in  fimilily 
im|iri.ii>uiu|:  tlio  Airhilnkp  Ma:(iintUBii,  indiircd 
luH  falluT.  the  Kmppnir  nf  Ucmuuiy.  tii  viwt  tlw 
city  with  Kuril  ilmtnictivc  i-i>nt;i-a»«!  Ilial  bence- 
fiinh  it*  Ktcatnew  ili«l  awayi  ili  intile  wib-  traiu- 
fcrml  tn  .Vntwirp,  anil  the  ivllipiiuH  prnwutiiin 
*  and  limtalftiivilvof  till- )'>)iaiiivliuniln'  I'hili{iII. 
and  IW  ))i)1u>  iif  \lva  nini|ilitiiil  iIip  iirmiwii  iif  liii 
niiiu  at  tlipcnil  <>f  tlic  ll.lh  italun-,  bj-  uHiitKllin^ 
itn  arli/juis  to  Pnoape  fiir  Ihtiir  livtn  to  KnRland. 
when  thar  liiund  a  bcarty  welcome  ftum  <Juci:i 


tii'iuiiih  jnrisconxulu,  thHil'igiaii!!,  physicians  and 

KItfViOF.X.  a  town  of  Pmuia,  prnv.  Khinp, 
TPi;.  l>niB<plil'>rf.  »n  the  Si-hwalmon.  10  m.  SW. 
Kpm[i™.  I-op.  Ii7n  in  IHfi!.  TIk-  t-wn  hiw  a  Hot 
rnlliritii'.andnCalvinlti'hurcli.with  linen  fabrics 
bloach-tlpliK  'lil-roilki.  and  a  lanniTi-. 

IIItlTCUll^ItK.  or  L.V  I»:U(a;iF.liE.  a  lown 
uf  Fnuice,  iIpii.  Tini.  ca|i.  ratit„  nii  t  In-  Tlioc^.  4  m. 
■'  Caitttm,    I'lm.  S,*''*")  in  iwll,     Ttw  iiiwn  lufl 

aniifacturp9  iiTltannFli.fuverlpla,  ami  uihtrd«- 

liptiiniii  iif  wimllpn  RiKul't, 

Itlil  III.,  a  town  uT  Pruwia.  prnr.  Rbinp.  n)c. 

ilofniP,  4  m.  v.  tlie  Ithiue.  an<l  U  m.  .S.  <.'»l"i^r. 
.,.1  ilie  ndlwavftom  Odi^nie  to  Ilnniu  I'i>i<. '^.u'l 
in  INttl.  It  ia  fununiuleil  by  wall>,  i*  well  huih. 
and  has  a  Kuninary  fur  the  iiiatruf  lion  nf  tchooi- 
mastCTH ;  but  it  dnivea  ita  piiiicipal  cnoMqanKr 
from  tlif  ma):nilii'eat  caMle  in  ita  vicinity,  ohd- 
miiiLiil  in  ITi.l  bv  the  eWtor  Gement  Aiipi-.tu. 
nf  Itavaria,  and  finished  by  Haximilinn  Fivlrrii-tL 
It  in  i<|j|piidiil1y  Hited  up,  and  liaa  csten.-'ive 
iikaniin'-KX'unib  anil  icar(lrii!i. 

llIUrMATH,  lit  IHtL'MlT.  a  ti.wn  of  Ftarn. 
dpp.>tBH-lihin.oa|i.nint.,iintlip)^>ni,  13ni.NXn'. 
Hlrnbunt.    I*o[i,4joi3in  IKBl,     'Hie  town  i,  Hip 

anil  tho  mrilaK  maiblen,  and  unw.  wbii-h  bait 
Im'ii  fiuinil  hele  pniv«,  at  leant,  tbat  it  ha<)  lava 
inhalntnl  bv  the  Kmtinnn.  Some  hanl  ri^hiiii; 
link  plarp  In  ita  vidnai^,  in  t7SI3,  between  tJw 
Frenr\i  and  AuHtrianii. 

»lil!.NN,  a  town  of  the  Austrian  States  rtf. 
Moravia,  al  Ihe  cfinlluenee  of  the  Sthwana  atA 
/witiawa,  7U  m.  NNtl  Vienna,  on  the  railwav 
fnmYipnna  to  I'rBKoe-  IVip.  W.UiNI  in  It4.i7.  T!i' 
town  in  built  on  the  ileelivity  nf  a  bilL  bavim;  th' 
pntheilral  on  itx  mininul.  anil  the  aubnrbB  at  ii> 
foot:  in  Fiicirclril  by  walls  banlumn,  and  irrnrlin<. 
and  wan  fonprrly  dpfeiided  Iiy  the  dtailel  of  A«el- 
bvi);,  Oil  the  lull  of  that  name  to  the  W.  lA  ihr 
town ;  tail  Ihe  defeneM  of  Uie  latter  havini;  Ivrii 
ikntniyeil  liy  the  Frmefa.  it  wait  anlHeaumlly  awl 
an  a  nfale  joinon.  and  han  more  nmitly  In^  ci«i- 
verteil  into  banarfcs.  Silvio  I'ellieo  wan  nhnt  b;i 
in  tlip  StHpllieilc  fill  olmve  pifcht  yeanu  Tliou^:! 
naiTiiw  and  eninkiil,  the  ntn.'eta  i>f  the  town  ate 
well  jiaved,  I'lRlitpd,  anil  jinivbled  with 


—Ihe  <■!- 

rer  ufilVi. 
.  anil  -k^DF 

formerly  a  rich  AuKuxltne  ennrcnt,  imw  Ih'  ip- 
iDdence  of  the  ginrvrtus,  and  the  |>lace  of  mn-lin^ 
of  the  ittate«  of  the  tiroT.  i  the  lown-houne.  a  <  ivthic 
■trueture,  built  in  IJil  1 ;  the  bamckn,  an  eiiomfv* 
pile,  funneity  the  Jewiitn'  eollei^.  hannc  wi-ea 
court*,  a  line  ehun-b.  and  a  riiiiiiK-^-hiBil :  ihe  thu- 
trr,with  ilnamipmbly-toi'inn:  and  the  Sliuia  whi'oi 
for  youii^t  ladies.  Many  of  the  iiutality  Iwliau;- 
hiK  tn  the  |iniv.  have  had  line  {laliKWi  vhiKb  iprt 
an  air  of  tiraiuli-UT  to  the  liiwn.  llie  qnantrrsllr-l 
the  Fmnxi'nnbPTK  in  very  |ai'tiire>iiiiD.>:  iu  ibi'  sn- 
denn  a  inarlilo  ntouumeni  wan  crei-led  in  WIC  ia 
huiiiiuT  of  the  late  emperor  Fraiicin  I.  The  An^ 
gortun,  a  [lark  laid  out  aa  a  garden,  wai  upeoed  U' 


BRUNSWICK  (DUCHY  OF) 


67S 


the  public  by  Joseph  IT.  Brilnn  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric  nml  of  the  f*:*>vcniment  of  Moravia  and 
Austrian  Silesia,  of  a  Prot<M*tant  consistory,  a  court 
of  api)eaL,  high  criminal  and  military  courts,  the 
landrtcht,  or  nobles'  court  for  the  prov.,  and  is  the 
place  of  meeting  of  the  provincial  estates,  and  the 
residence  of  their  standing  committee.  It  has  a 
philosophical  institute,  a  g>iiinasiura,  a  principal 
normal  school;  schools  for  young  ladies,  trades- 
men, and  mechanics ;  a  theological  seminary,  and 
numerous  parish  and  infant  schools ;  an  imperial 
society  for  the  encouragement  of  agriculture  and 
of  the  natural  history  and  geograi)hy  of  Moravia, 
to  which  is  attached  a  valuable  museum,  a  bota- 
nical garden,  and  a  public  library.  It  has  general, 
<>ri>Iian,  and  lying-in  hospitals;  a  lunatic  asylum; 
with  numerous  institutions  for  the  relief  of  tlie 
lH>or.  The  manufactures  of  Brilnn  are  of  very  con- 
siderable value  and  importance.  ITiose  of  woollen 
goods  are  the  most  extensive  in  the  empire ;  and 
the  town  has  thence  been  called  the  Austrian 
Leeds.  The  woollen  manufacture  occupied  18,000 
hands  in  18til,  and  the  annual  value  of  the  pnKhice 
is  esdmated  at  20,000,000  florins,  or  2,000,000/. 
The  cotton  manufacture  has  been  introduced,  and 
has  made  considerable  progress;  and  silk,  glass, 
soap,  tobacco,  and  machinery',  are  extensively  pro- 
duced. Its  trade  is  very  extensive ;  and  has  beeji 
much  increased  by  the  opening  of  the  Kawer  Fer- 
dinand railway,  which  connects  it  with  Vienna, 
Prague,  Dresden,  and  all  the  imiK)rtAnt  towns  of 
Germanv.    There  are  seven  annual  fairs. 

BKUNSWICK  ((;er.  Braunschweig),  THE 
DLU'HY  OF,  in  Germany,  consists  of  five  de- 
tached portions  of  territory  on  the  rivers  Wescr, 
Seine,  Ocker,  and  Aller,  between  lat,  51°  38'  and 
52<5  59'  X.,  and  h.ng.  \P  10'  and  11°  22'  E.  It  oc- 
cupies part  of  the  vast  plain  wliich  stretches  from 
the  foot  of  the  Harz  mountains,  and  tlieir  conti- 
nuation (the  SolUng)  to  the  German  Ocean  and 
the  lialtic,  with  a  portion  of  the  rise  of  those  chains 
f»n  the  N.  side.  The  largest  portion  contains  the 
districts  of  WolfenbUttel  and  Sch5ningen,  in  which 
tlie  cities  of  IJruuswick  and  WolfenbUttel,  and  the 
towns  of  Konigsbutter  antl  llclmstadt,  are  situated. 
The  district  of  WolfenbUttel  is  traversed  by  the 
Ocker,  which  rises  in  the  Harz  mountains,  and  is 
not  navigable.  Tlie  Aller  traverses  the  district  of 
Schoningen,  but  is  not  navigable  in  that  part  of 
its  course;  nor  is  the  Seine  navigable,  which  tra- 
verses the  district  of  that  name,  llie  Weser, 
which  forms  the  l)oundary  of  the  duchy  towards 
Pnissian  Westphalia  for  a  considerable  distance, 
aflbrds  an  excellent  water  communication  with  the 
sea  and  the  harbour  of  Bremen  (»n  the  one  side, 
and  with  the  states  of  Hesse  and  Tliuringia,in  the 
heart  (»f  (Jermany,  r»n  the  other,  by  means  of  the 
W<'rra  and  the  Fulda,  which  unite  near  Minden, 
and  thence  take  the  name  of  Weser.  This  river, 
which  forms  the  main  outlet  for  the  waters  falling 
from  the  N.  and  W.  sides  <»f  the  Harz,  and  the 
Thuringian  forest,ultimately  receives  all  the  smaller 
streams  which  pn*viously  unite  with  the  Aller,  ex- 
cepting the  liiiKle,  which  falls  into  the  Saale,  a 
tributarj'  of  the  Elbe,  and  which  traverses  the  third 
and  most  southern  detached  portion  of  territory, 
the  district  of  Blankenburg.  Of  the  Harz  moun- 
tains, which,  with  the  Thuringian  forest,  separate 
the  tributaries  of  tlie  EUk?  from  those  of  the  Weser, 
a  considerable  portion,  valuable  for  minerals  and 
forests  of  vast  extent,  belongs  to  Brunswick.  Tlie 
hummit  of  the  Brocken,  and  the  rude  and  almost 
impassable  Ontral  Har/,  in  which  granite,  mica 
slate,  and  primitive  formations  predominate, belong 
to  Hanover,  while  the  E.  and  W.  falls  of  the  range, 
in  which  the  transition  and  secondary  formations 
prevail,  form  i)art  of  the  Duchy  of  BiiiDswick.    A 


portion  of  this  momitain  chain  belongs  jointly  tu 
the  two  governments,  and  is  distinguished  by  the 
denomination  of  Communion  Harz,  The  highest 
summits  within  the  Duchv  are  the  WormbeiVi 
2,880  ft,  and  the  Ackemianshtihe,  2,706  ft  m 
height.  The nextconsiderablemountain, or,  rather, 
forest  range,  is  the  Soiling,  which  lies  between  the 
rivers  Seine  and  W^eser,  and  is  ctjvered  with  ejc- 
tensive  and  valuable  woods  of  oak  and  beech.  The 
summits  of  this  cham  are  of  no  great  elevation. 
Iron  is  found,  and  sandstone,  known  under  the 
name  of  Sollinger  stones,  is  quarried  in  them. 
The  Elm,  a  slight  range  of  heights  between  the 
Ocker  and  the  Aller,  is  covered  with  woods  of  oak 
and  beech,  and  contains  veins  of  iron  and  beds  of 
coal,  with  occasional  mineral  springs. 

Tyro  small  <letached  i)ortions  of  territory',  viz. 
the  circuit  of  Thedinghausen  on  the  Weser,  to  the 
NW.  of  Hameln,  and  that  of  Badenburg,  are  en- 
closed by  the  Hanoverian  territory,  and  form  part, 
the  former  of  the  Weser  district,  the  latter  ot  tlie 
Seine  district.  Finally,  the  detached  circuit  of 
Kalvorde,  inclose<i  within  the  Prussian  province 
of  Saxony,  belongs  to  the  district  of  Scbtiningen. 

The  duchv  has  an  area  of  1,520  square  miles, 
witli  a  population  of  282,400  inhabitants,  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1861.  Tlie  population  num- 
bered 209,527  in  1814 ;  had  risen  to  253,232  in 
1834 ;  to  269,228  in  1840 ;  and  to  273,394  in  1858. 
ITiere  are  only  two  towns  with  a  |K)p.  of  above 
10,000,  namely,  WolfenbUttel,  and  Brunswick,  the 
capitaL  The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are 
engaged  in  agricultiurai  and  mining  operations. 

With  the  exception  of  1,107  Calvinists;  2,458 
Roman  Catholics,  and  1,078  Jews — census  of  1861 
— all  the  inhabitants  adhere  to  the  Lutheran  faith. 
The  most  perfect  toleration  and  eauality  of  civil 
and  religious  rights  are  shared  by  all  the  bhristian 
persuasions. 

The  hillv  parta  of  the  duchy  are  covered  with 
forests  of  hr,  oak,  and  beech ;  about  390,000  acres 
are  arable  and  meadow  land,  29-1,000  acres,  forests, 
and  228,000  uncultivated  moorft,  water,  d'C  The 
plain  at  the  N.  fall  of  the  Harz  is  mostly  of  a 
limestone  soil,  alternating  with  beds  of  loam,  and 
is  fertile;  the  districts  along  the  Weser  and  Seine 
are  also  fertile;  but  the  predominant  feature  u 
sand  in  those  fmrts.  Towards  the  N.  part  of  the 
duchy,  these  Iruitful  plains  merge  into  the  arid 
and  unproductive  sandy  heaths  of  Dolgen  and 
LUneberg.  The  average  prcnluce  of  com,  of  all 
descriptions,  is  estimated  at  about  575,000  qra.; 
oil  fn)m  linseed,  rape,  and  poppies  at  1,200  tons, 
flax  4,500  tons,  Ijesidcs  tobacco,  madder,  and 
hofvs,  in  each  of  which  articles,  the  produce  con- 
siderably exceeds  the  consumption.  Cattle  breed- 
ing is  carried  on  successfully  in  the  river  districts; 
and  improved  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  found 
on  all  the  larger  estates.  Hogs  are  very  exten- 
sively reared;  but  the  sausages  and  hams  of 
Brunswick  enjoy  so  much  reputation,  that  a  laise 
importation  of  hogs  takes  place  from  tlie  neigh- 
bouring states,  the  produce  of  which  is  sent  to  all 
parts  of  the  Continent.  Horses  are  not  reared  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  supply  the  wants  of  the 
duchv,  and  are  annually  brought  from  Holstdn 
and  Mecklenburg. 

The  extensive  forests,  which  had  suffered,  from 
many  years  of  neglect  and  wasteful  management, 
have  of  late  been  improved  under  scientific  direc- 
tion, and  are  divided  into  four  inspectorships 
{Fortmeistereien),  and  61  foresters'  districts.  Tim- 
ber, of  valuable  quality,  is  annually  floated  dowi^ 
the  Ocker,  Seine,  Innerste,  and  Weser,  especially 
from  the  Harz  and  the  SolUng  forests,  and  forms  a 
considerable  object  of  export  trade.  Tlie  game 
in  these  forests  is  not  very  abundant,  consisting  of 


674  BRUNSWICK 

n^l  «lc'CT,  rf)ol>uckK.  hares,  ami  rtibhit?*,  with  occa- 
Hional  wild  Imars.  A  h|K'ricH  of  throhtlc  {Krtimmt»- 
rttfftl)  caii^ilit  hy  lliousaiuls  in  th<*  wiiiliT  st-asuii, 
is  cst<Mni<'<l  a  irrvat  delicacv.  Fish  ii(»t  vorv 
ubiindant,  nor  <»f  rart'  soils.  The  mineral  nchcs 
of  the  llarz  mountains,  a1tlion;;h  no  lon^jror  w» 
|)n>litic  as  n'p<irte«l  in  former  times,  affoni  employ- 
ment to  aljout  T.'>o  |rt-o|ile,  workin;;  in  t!urt»*en 
mines.  Of  the  latter,  time  are  private,  and  tlie 
oth<r  p»v<'mnH'nt  undrrtakinp*.  manajred  partly 
in  <*<»njunetion  with  Hanover,  and  partly  by  IJnm.s- 
"wiek  alone.  The  Ilammels  Iwr^;.  near  (i(j>lar,  of 
whi<*h  .'{-7ths  is  the  .'•hare  of  llrmiswirk,  an<! 
4-7t)js  that  of  Hani>ver,  is  the  most  imjHirtant  of 
all  the  min<»s,  ]»r«Mhieing  antimony,  leail  and 
cop]>er,  t<»j;ether  with  s^mall  quantities  of  ^oM — 
alMtut  a  hundre<l  oun<*es  a  year.  Iron  is  the  ehief 
j)rtMhu'e  <»f  the  mines  worke<l  s<']>arat<'ly  hy  Hnins- 
wiek  in  tl«e  thn^e  districts  «»f  the  llarz.  Weser,  and 
lilankenlMT^.  Mo^t  of  them,  as  aln'ady  stated, 
an*  worke<i  <jn  p»venmient  account.  an«l  as  well 
as  the  salt  mines,  stone  cutting;  nulls,  f<»ur  j^lass 
liouses.  and  the  |M)reelain  manufactory'  at  FUrsten- 
hvT}X,  .ire  under  the  din^ctitm  of  a  minin;;  hoard  at 
llnniswick.  '1  he  s:ili  works  an'  vi-r\- con>id«  nd>le  : 
they  are  estal»li>hed  at  Sal/tlahluui  and  Sal/lie- 
Ixnliall.  in  the  di>trict  <»f  Wolfenhilttel,  and  at 
S'lMinin;<i-n.  That  at  Salzdahhnn  has  U'cn  worked 
hince  the  13th  centurv.  The  brine  s]irinf;  at 
Julinshall  is  worked  jointly  'with  Hanover.  In 
the  Jinnuienhol/,  near  Helni>tadt,  tlun-  is  a  coal- 
mine with  two  shafts,  and  aui»ther  near  Walken- 
ried,  when*  alaba.«iter  and  abates  are  found. 
[Mineral  >prinj;s  «K*cur  in  several  jiarts;  those 
near  Helmst.'idt  and  Se<*sen  are  fn-i|uente<i  by 
invalids.  A.»)>haltum  an<l  other  bitumin*nis  sul»- 
frtances  arc  found  in  many  ]»arts  of  the  Harz 
mountains,  esjKMially  at  the  Kammels  berg  an<l 
lUr^. 

lii'^iiles  the  iron-works,  linen  weavinfr  is  the 
chief  article  of  nianufactun\  which,  however,  has 
fjeatly  tleclined  of  late  years.  Candets  an>  the 
only  description  of  W(M»ih'ns  woven  within  the 
duchy;  a  spinnin;^-mill  for  w«M>llen  yam  has 
Ikmu  established  at  lU-vem:  an<l  s)iinnin^  Ls  a 
source    of   industr\'   ainon;;   manv  of   the   small 

Iieasant  propri<'tors  (Uauem)  *»f  the  country-. 
Jn^wing  is  extensively  carrietl  on  in  all  the 
principal  towns,  but  the  beer  is  bail,  and  <l<»cs 
not  prevent  the  universal  use  of  brandy  amongst 
the  lower  <'las.-es.  The  Munime.  a  heavy  draught 
t'Xtnict(Hl  fn>m  malt,  is  n«»w  principally  uschI  l>y 
pors<ins  in  delicate  health,  ami  is  ex|>«»rtCHi  for 
that  puq>ose  to  all  ]»arts  of  (iennany.  (Ml  and 
sawiujj  mills  are  found  on  nearly  all  the  prin- 
cipid  streams,  and  the  pn>paration  of  the  riM>t  of 
chicorv' as  a  substitute  for  c«>lVee,  which  attained 
to  a  great  extent  during  the  exclusion  of  coU»nial 
pnnhice  imder  the  c<intinental  system,  is  still 
favoured  by  high  duties  on  such  pnuhice  within 
the  limits  of  the  customs'  Ic-ague  t»r  Zollverein. 
Trade,  esjWHMally  the  t^;m^it  trade,  is  a  gn^at 
POun*e  of  emolunu'Ut  lM>th  to  the  town  and  duchy 
of  Hnmswick.  and  is  principally  transactetl  at  its 
ancient  fair,  which,  in  spite  of  railways,  still  keejis 
up  its  importance.  The  government  wisely  dinvla 
its  attention  to  the  encounigemmt  of  the  diften^nt 
industrial  resour<*es,  and  haspnferred  establishing 
a  liln'rally-emlowetl  ami  well-conducted  system  of 
education  to  the  im|M>sition  of  protecting  duties, 
by  whi«-h  one  class  of  the  people  is  aide<l  at  the 
c<*»st  of  the  others.  The  foundation  of  the  *  Keal 
In>titute.'  which  unites  with  practical  in-^tniction 
in  agriculture  an<l  the  management  of  fon'sts  the 
scientific  information  on  which  the  higher  branches 
of  these  (Kru])ations,  as  well  a.s  mining,  and  the 
niecluuiicol  and  chemical  ort^i  ought  to  be  foimdcd, 


(PUCHY  OF) 

marks  an  e]Kx*h,  even  in  Germany,  where  jtoonirh 
can*  is  .-hown  for  intellectual  inif»n»veincnf.    Xor 
are  the  higher  branches  of  knowlctl^  neglectttL 
'i'he  Lv(?eum,  formerly  the  (^an>lino  (.'olJejrc  :  iho 
normal  schools  for  teachers ;  and  six  g^^'mnasia. 
aftonl   ample  meanx  of  cultivating];    them.     The 
university  formerly  existing   at    Ilelm.«tiidt.  the 
n'V<'nues  an<l    librarv  of  which  were  transfem.il 
during  the  Westplialian  n^ime  to  CJiittingen.  has 
not  In-en  n'-establishe«l.  but  (iOttinfjon  is  reganlol 
as  the  university  of  the  ducliy.     There  are  '13 
burghers'  schools,   and  JlGl*   elementary  sch«»'>K 
giving  (jne  to  nearly  everj'  %'illage.    The  revenues 
i»f  nine  sccularisi'd  tMmvent*  and  religi<»us  founda- 
tions  are  a))plied  to  supfM^rt  a   nuin^>er   of  un- 
marrie«i  yoinjg  women  and  i»ther  person-*  on  the 
])n*sen  tat  ions    of  the   itatnmB.     The    charitable 
foundations  are  5*2  in  number. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  duchy  are  miwtly  de- 
scendants of  the  ancient  *  Broknianner.'  a  branch 
i>f  the  Sassen  or  Saxons,  and  the  L«»w-(jerman 
language  is  universal  among  the  vill.^oTH,  ex- 
cept on  the  Har/,  whose  mining  iMtfiulation  wa^ 
drawn  fn>m  L'f»|Kr  <;emmny,  and  speaks  High- 
(iennan.  The  names  of  some  villages,  as  Wcnden, 
an'  ]H-rha]^  the  s«de  n^mains  of  the  ancient  Wen- 
di>h  or  Slavonian  hdiabitants  of  the  nonh-4-a!>tem 
parts  of  the  duchy.  The  higher  chis*.es  of  tin* 
towns  s]K>.'ik  High-(ierman,  which,  as  all  over 
(icnnany,  is  the  language  of  public  bu>ine.>!>  ainl 
of  the  schoids. 

The  constitution  of  Ilmnswick  liears  date  ^V- 
toUr  12,  l^'i'i.  but  was  mcHlitied  by  tlie  ftmda- 
mental  law  of  November  22,  iKil.  The  legislative 
|xiwer  is  vested  in  one  Chaml)er,  coiu«L>iiing  of 
forty-three  meml)ew.  Of  these,  nine  are  elect^I 
by  the  highest-taxed  landed  pn.»prietors ;  ten  by 
the  niagi>trates  of  the  chief  towns:  three  by  the 
Protestant  clergy;  ten  by  the  inhabitant.-*  of 
towns,  and  eleven  by  thi>se  of  rural  dis-tricts. 
IIjc  Chamlx'r  meets  v.vvtv  thn»e  years,  and  the 
deputies  hohl  their  mandate  for  two  ses>ion->. 
With  the  exception  <»f  the  nieml»er«»  of  the 
clergy,  which  must  l»e  chosen,  no  fli>tinction  of 
nink  or  pro|K'rty  intluences  or  limits  the  choice 
of  this  last  portion  of  the  assembly.  The  mem- 
U'rs  clios<'n  for  the  t(»wns  and  for  the  c*iuntr\' 
nuist,  however.  beh»tig  to  that  cla>s  of  each  whith 
fuiys  the  highest  amount  of  taxes,  and  which  is 
tixetl  to  include  one-tenth  of  the  houses  in  t<»wn. 
and  one-fourth  of  the  landeil  holdingK  Tlie 
budget  is  votetl  for  three  year»,  and  the  C'haniUr 
has  the  right  of  contndling  the  ex]:ien»es  of  the 
state.  The  public  n-venue  for  the  years  l**i»I-;i 
was  l.Dx.^.odO  thalers,  or  747.4ot»/.,  and  the  ex- 
IKMiditure  of  the  same  am<»unt,  giving  an  annual 
income  and  exjH'nditure  of  24J>,l.')<l/.  X,it  in- 
<'lude<l  in  the  budget  is  the  very  large  n*venue 
fn»m  the  State  domains,  out  of  which  the  civil 
list  of  the  Duke,  ami  a  variety  of  subvention**  to 
(>ducational  establishments,  are  pai(L  The  suqdus 
of  this  fund  only  is  luiid  into  the  general  e\- 
che<pier,  and  set  down  at  432.«'HK)  thalers.  i»r 
tVl,3on/.,  f,»r  the  i)eriod  I>«>l-i5a.  The  Duke 
further  derives  a  revenue  of  170,(kK)  Horiiis  fn»m 
the  duchy  of  Gels,  in  Silesia,  and  a  medinti^td 
princi]vality  under  the  sovereignty  of  l*nissi;i, 
which  Ls  an  a|)panage  of  the  sec<»nd  branch  of  the 
House  of  Bnniswick.  Finally,  the  esiat*'^  of  th»! 
C(»nvents  and  religious  foundations  5eciilari.-HH|  at 
the  |K'ri<Hl  of  the  n'formation,  an<i  then  dotimd 
tn  MipjMJrt  the  clerg}'  and  institutions  of  <-^hic.n- 
tion,  form  a  separate  fund,  which  does  not  enter 
into  the  budget,  yielding  the  sum  of  34o,«it.»,) 
dollars  annually. 

The  militar}'  organisation  of  the  dnchy  is  ««n 
the  PnuMian  system  of  general  liability  to  Uie 


BRUNSWICK  (DUCHY  OF) 


675 


nervice  of  arms.  Practicallv,  however,  no  more 
men  are  raised  by  ccniscription  than  are  re()uircd 
ns  c(>ntril)ution  to  the  army  of  tlie  Confederation. 
The  troops  amount  to  one  reji^ncnt  of  infantry, 
numbcrinp^  about  2,000  men ;  one  battalion  of 
life-f^anU,  some  seven  hundred  strong ;  one  re- 
giment of  light  dragoons,  of  437  men ;  and  one 
]>riga<le  of  artillery,  with  301  rank  and  tile.  In 
former  times  the  army  of  the  duchy  was  far 
more  numerous.  During  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
lirunswic'k  had  never  less  than  12,000  men 
under  arms.  In  the  war  of  1813-14  the  coun- 
try- niisetl  above  10,(MK)  triKips. 

The  present  Duke  of  Brunswick  is  the  lineal 
descendant  of  Henry  the  Lion,  the  last  of  the 
house  of  Welf,  who  held  the  united  duchies  of 
Kavaiia  and  Saxony.  In  their  rivalry  with  the 
Suabian  house  of  Hohenstaufen  in  the  12th  cen- 
tury-, the  party  of  the  powerful  Welfs  was  stronger 
in  italy  than  in  (rermany,  and  the  jealousy  enter- 
tained' of  their  |x>wer  in  the  former  country, 
causcil  all  the  princes  of  the  empire  to  unite  with 
the  KmfK'n»r  Freilerick  Darbarossa  in  humbling 
them.  HenrA'  the  Lion  having  refused  to  aid  that 
emiteror  in  his  wars  with  the  free  Italian  cities 
and  the  poi)e,  was  deprived,  by  a  decree  of  the 
diet  in  llJHO.  of  both  duchies,  and  onlv  left  the 
possession  of  his  allodial  domains  of  l^runswick 
and  Lllneburg,  which  were  subsequently  split  into 
inimerous  brandies,  but  merged  finallv  in  the 
still  reigning  lines  of  LUneburg  (or  ilanover) 
and  Brunswick,  which  is  the  elder  branch.  As 
such,  tlie  crown  of  p^ngland  would  have  devolved 
to  tins  line,  which  claims  descent  from  the 
dnugliter  of  llenrv  II.  on  the  extinction  of  the 
House  of  Stuart,  fiad  not  the  Duke  of  LQneburg, 
afterwanls  (leorge  I.,  bv  marrying  the  daughter 
c»f  Klizabeth,  Countess  IPalatine,  the  daughter  of 
James  I.  of  England,  procured  a  prior  claim  to  the 
younger  line.  Trt*aties  of  mutual  inheritance 
exist  l)etween  the  h(»uses  of  Hanover  and  Bruns- 
^^ij'k,  and  the  succession  only  |>asses  to  the  female 
side  when  legitimate  male  heirs  faiL  The  inti- 
mate familv  connci'tion  which  in  the  last  centurv 
sul»sisted  In^tween  the  House  of  Bnmswick  and  the 
n*igning  families  of  Great  Britain  and  Prussia, 
enj^agetl  the  princes  of  Brunswick  in  political 
alliances  with  these  two  powers,  in  opposition  to 
France,  and  <x.vasionally  to  Austria.  The  Prassian 
army,  at  the  outset  of  the  disastrous  campaign  of 
1H(»';,  wiis  commanded  by  the  Duke  Charles 
William  Ferdinand  of  Bruns\i-ick,  who  fell  in  the 
luittle  of  .Tena.  Although  he  had  declared  his 
duchy  neutral,  and  no  Brunswick  troops  were 
with  the  Prussian  armv,  vet  his  lands  were  im- 
mediately  seize<i  by  the  conqueror,  and  mcor- 
]K»rated  with  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  His 
y»»ungest  son,  Frederick  William,  after  the  death 
of  his  eldest,  and  the  alnlication  of  his  second 
brother,  the  sole  remaining  heir,  sen*ed  for  some 
time  in  the  Prussian,  and  afterwanls  in  the 
Austrian  army.  In  1809,  this  adventurous  prince 
rai>ed  a  small  corps,  and  attempted,  in  co-opera- 
tion with  the  grand  Austrian  army,  to  excite  a 
diversion  in  the  north  of  (Jermany;  but  finding 
his  cause  ruineil  by  the  victory  of  the  French  at 
Wagram,  he  cmssed  the  whole  of  Germany,  at 
the  head  of  a  small  l>ody,  not  exceeding  2,000 
men,  and  marched  from  the  Ikthemian  frontier 
to  the  sea  coast  near  Bremen.  Eluding  and 
alternately  fighting  the  various  French  corps 
which  crosse<l  his  passage  with  equal  g<H>d  for- 
tune and  braverA',  lie  succeeded  in  emlutrking  for 
England,  where  his  tnK)|)s  joined  the  British 
anny,  with  permission  to  retain  the  black  uni- 
form which  their  braverv  ha<l  rcndereil  celebrated, 
and  scr\-cd  until  181-1  in  the  peninsula.    Having 


regained  his  dominiona,  under  the  Rtipulationa 
of  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  Frederick  William  fell 
at  the  head  of  his  troops  while  maintaining  the 
position  of  Quatre  Bras,  two  days  before  the 
battle  of  Waterloo.  His  successor,  Charles,  was 
driven  away  in  1830,  and  the  throne  made  over 
to  his  brother  William,  the  present  duke,  and  the 
last  of  the  line.  He  being  without  legitimate 
heirs,  the  duchy  at  his  death  will  fall  to  Hanover, 
in  conformity  with  ancient  treaties. 

Brumswick,  a  city  of  (Jermanv,  cap.  of  the  above 
duchy,  on  the  Ocker,  8  m.  SF^.  Hanover,  on  the 
milw'ay  from  Ilanover  to  Berlin.  Pop.  42,209  in 
18G1.  One  Bruno,  who  appears  alxmt  the  year 
842  as  Duke  of  Ostfalen,  is  said  to  have  first  buUt 
walls  round  the  little  town  of  Brunswick,  to  pro- 
tect it  from  the  incursions  of  the  Normans.  Heniy 
the  IJon,  Duke  of  Saxony  and  liavaria,  and  the 
grand  champion  of  Christianity  and  (iennanic 
civilisation  against  the  Slavonic  nations  on  the 
Elbe  and  the  Baltic  Sea,  towards  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century  made  Brunswick  his  place  of  re- 
sidence, and  extended  and  adorned  the  citv.  He 
finished  the  cathedral  church  of  St.  Blaize,  an 
interesting  monument  of  the  Byzantine  Gothic 
style,  endowed  it  with  lands  and  relics  brought 
from  Constantinople  and  the  Holy  T.«and,  and 
erected  a  bronze  figure  of  a  lion,  said  to  have 
been  cast  in  the  (rreck  capital,  upon  a  pedestal  in 
front  of  his  palace,  on  the  site  of  which  a  barrack 
now  stantK  From  tliis  period  Bnmswick  became 
one  of  the  most  important  cities  in  X.  (Germany ; 
and  the  wealth  of  its  dukes,  who  were  owners  of 
the  extensive  mines  and  salt  works  in  the  Haiz, 
mountains,  and  in  the  vicinity,  was  principally 
expended  in  the  cities  of  LUnebeig  and  Brunswick, 
the  seats  of  the  chief  lines  of  the  Welf  family. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  Brunswick,  which,  owing 
to  these  resources,  had  advanced  in  commercial 

iirosperity,  became  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic 
jeague,  and  flourishe<l  as  one  of  the  leading  cities 
of  L()wer  Germany.  On  the  decline  of  the  league 
the  increased  power  of  the  territorial  princes  ex- 

IHtsed  the  city  to  the  vicissitudes  wldch  their  po- 
itical  speculations  ilrew  uiwn  the  count r\';  and 
Brunswick  suffered  in  common  with  other  2(.  cities 
upon  the  advance  of  the  Imperial  armies  under 
Tilly  and  Wallenstein,  in  the  thirty  vears'  war. 
The  division  of  the  reigning  house  into  many 
branches  was  also,  atthatpenod,  disadvantageous 
t4>  Brunswick,  which  saw  the  rival  cities  of  \Vol- 
fenbuttel,  Celle,  Hanover,  and  G&ttingen  spring 
up  and  prosper  as  so  many  diminutive  capitals, 
each  the  scat  of  a  |)ctty  court.  The  city  was 
further  almost  drained  of  its  small  remains  of 
wealth  during  the  French  occupation ;  but  through 
the  industry*  of  its  inhabitants,  and  the  celebrity 
of  its  fair,  held  in  Febniary  and  AugiLSt,  and  fre- 
quently visited  by  20,000  strangers,  it  keeps  ui)  its 
importance  as  a  commercial  city.  The  railway  from 
Brunswick  to  the  foot  of  the  Harz  mountains, 
o|>ened  in  1839,  is  one  of  the  ddest  in  Germany. 
The  fortifications  of  the  city  have  been  levelled 
since  the  i)eace,  and  converted  into  agreeable  plan- 
tations, with  walks  and  drives;  and  the  city,  al- 
though bearing  rather  an  antiquated  ajip<!afance, 
has  S4>me  gtKxl  streets,  and  abounds  in  interesting 
remains  of  the  middle  ages.  The  cathedral,  and 
church  of  St.  Giles,  which  has  been  fitted  up  as 
a  repoeitor>'  for  works  of  art,  the  bronze  lion 
before  mentioned,  and  the  town  house,  with  a 
airious  gallery  adorned  with  the  statues  of  many 
of  the  dukes  in  niches,  and  the  bronze  fountain 
in  its  vicinity,  are  deserving  of  notice.  A  splendid 
new  ducal  palace,  built  at  an  enormous  expense, 
to  replace  the  residence  of  Duke  Charles,  destroved 
by  the  mob  in  1830,  was  burnt  down  in  1865.  the 


f)76 


BRUNSWICK 


c]mn*li  of  St.  Andrews,  M-ilh  its  Ktocjilof*,  one  of 
which  is  :n8  ft,  in  height ;  and  that  uf  St.  Cathe- 
rino,  with  painting  hy  1  )it'l>ric)i,  and  stained 
glass  windows  from  desij^ns  hy  Cranacli  and  Durer, 
AS  well  as  the  chunh  of  St.  Martin,  in  the  pointCHl 
<iotliic'  htyle,  are  interesting  ^»  U>vers  of  the  line 
arts.  In  the  nmscuni.  anu»n;:st  a  nunilK>r  of  in- 
ferior jiaintings,  an*  siune  of  high  value  of  the 
J'lemish  and  Dutoh  heh<M)ls,  \W  Keinhrandt,  Jan 
Steens  Vandyke,  and  Kul)ens.  together  with  a 
jM.rtrait  (»f  KaffaeUe,  said  to  be  hy  his  own  haiid; 
luid  others  hy  (Juido,  Ciiorgit»ne,  &e.  An  Ecee 
Homo,  hy  AIIktI  Durer,  a  crueitix,  hy  lienvenuto 
Cellini,  with  a  coUeetion  of  antique  statues  and 
eohis,  are  worthy  of  his|K'cti«»n.  The  celebratetl 
Onyx  vase,  purchastrd  hv  one  of  the  dukes  of 
IJriinswick,  who  seeunKl  it  as  IiLh  share  of  booty 
when  l^Iantua  was  sacked,  in  the  course  of  the 
thirty  vears'  war,  together  with  several  other  ob- 
jects <>/  value,  were  carried  off,  and  arc  still  re- 
tained bv  Duke  Charles.  The  Caroline  college, 
now  divide<l  into  a  lyceura  or  classical  college, 
with  a  gymnasium  or  grammar  schcnd,  and  a  're^il 
j^chule,'  or  njeehanics'  and  c<mimercial  institute, 
with  a  branch  ft>r  agriculturists  and  foresters,  a 
college  for  teachers,  several  elementary'  schools, 
a  general  aiui  a  lying-in  hospital,  with  schcM)ls  of 
hurger^',  orjdian  antl  deaf  and  dumb  asylums,  are 
the  public  institutions  for  educatiitn.  The  town 
lias  also  manufactures  of  linen  and  wcndlcn  stuffs, 
and  hardware ;  and  numerous  charitable  institu- 
tions. 

Ukl'Nswick,  a  to^-n  of  the  U.  States  of  Ame- 
rica, Maine,  on  the  Androscoggin,  26  m.  SW.  Au- 
gusta, and  30  m.  NE.  Pi)rtland :  lat,  43°  53'  N., 
long.  Gt)0  5.5'  W.  P«)p;  ri,10l)  in  IJSOO.  It  is  a  place 
of  considerable  trade.  On  the  opi>osite  side  of  the 
river  is  'rop,iham,  with  which  town  it  is  connected 
by  two  bridges.  The  falls  of  the  river  afford  a 
convenient  supply  of  water  power,  which  is  used 
to  some  extent,  to  give  motion  to  com  mills,  and 
woollen  and  cotton  facttiries.  liowdoin  College, 
founded  in  17'.>4,  stands  on  an  elevated  plateau 
near  the  town.  It  j>oftses<H»s  a  philoso])hical  and 
chemical  aj>i»aratus,  laljorator>-,  cabinet  of  mine- 
rals, galler>'  of  paintings,  and  a  library'  containing 
*Jl,l>oO  vols.  A  medical  school,  connected  with 
the  college  was  establi.*<lied  in  1H2().  In  18G2,  the 
college  had  8  ]>rofessors,  and  l>3y  students. 

IJkunswick.  (Nkw),  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  in 
the  United  Slaters  of  America,  partly  m  Middlesex 
and  partlv  in  Somerset  cos.,  on  the  SW.  side  of 
Karitan  river,  22  m.  NE.  Trent(»n.  Pop.  1U,990  in 
18t)0.  The  town  liii*  rather  low;  but  Is  considered 
healthy,  and  has  a  g<M>d  deal  of  trade.  It  has  a 
c«)urt-house,  jail,  market-house,  two  banks,  a  theo- 
logical seminar}',  and  several  places  of  worship, 
llutgers  College*  foumled  in  1770,  under  the  name 
of  Queen's  College,  is  a  handsome  stone  building 
three  stories  high,  with  librarit»s  containing  ujv 
wards  of  12,0(»0  volumes.  The  Karitan  Is  navi- 
gable as  far  as  New  Brunswick  for  sloops  of  80 
tims  burden. 

Brunswick  (New),  a  territory'  belonging  to 
England  in  N.  Amerii;a.     See  Nkw  Buuxswuk. 

BKUSSELS  (Lat.  Bruxellee,  Flem.  Jinissel,  Fr. 
Bruxelles),  cajjital  of  the  kingdom  of  Belgium, 
and  of  the  ])rov.  of  Brabant,  about  50  m.  E.  by  S. 
from  the  sea,  on  the  Scnne,  a  small  river,  which, 
rising  near  Soignics  in  llainault,  and  tlowing  N., 
falls  into  the  Scheldt,  through  the  Bujk'I.  Pop. 
177,954,  according  to  the  census  of  185G;  and 
300,341,  acconling  to  an  enumeration  of  Dec.  31, 
1803.  The  latter  number  comprises  the"]K)p.  of 
eight  surrounding  parishes,  not  inchided  in  the 
census  returns,  'j'he  scener^'  of  the  adjacent  coun- 
trj'  is  beautifully  diversiticd  by  sloping  heights, 


BRUSSELS 

and  green  valleys  refreehMl  by  the  watfn  of  ih« 
Si'une.  A  large  portion  of  the  city  being  bulk 
on  the  acclivity  of  a  hill,  it  presents,  when  viem-td 
from  the  W.,  a  picturesrjue  amphitheatre  of  boami; 
and  the  great  inequality  of  the  elevation  of  its 
site  has  often  induced  a  comparison  with  Naples 
and  (ieiiita.  The  rtgure  descritxHl  by  the  outlin*^ 
of  the  surrounding  wall  resi^mbles  tliat  of  a  (tear, 
the  smallest  part  pointing  SSW.  Tlie  enruXsA 
extent  of  the  city,  from  NNE.  to  SSW.,  l*  aU»ui 
3  m. ;  and  the  extreme  width,  from  NW.  to  SE., 
about  2^  m.  Brussels,  a  century  agit,  was  com- 
pletely surrounded  hy  stn»ngly  fonitieil  ramparts, 
with  salient  angles,  and  ditches  or  mtvafcK.  tiuppUe*! 
fntni  the  river  Senne.  Thew  furtitications  are  now 
almost  wholly  removetl,  and  their  site  Lsi  formed 
into  spacious  boulevards,  planted  with  n>ws  r^" 
stately  linden  trees,  that  encircle  two-thirdi»  of  the 
city,  t»n  the  N.,  the  E.,  and  the  S.  The  city  wall 
is  overlooked  by  the  boulevards,  which  command 
extensive  views  of  the  ci>untry,  and  affonl  an 
agreeable  promenade,  extending  alK>ut  5  m.  frrnu 
the  Port  au  Kivagc  on  the  N.,  to  the  Porte  de 
Hal  on  the  S,  There  are  nine  of  thc^  partet  «* 
nmral  gates,  several  of  which  are  tine  old  ardii- 
tectural  arches  of  great  strength.  They  commu- 
ni(*atc  with,  and  bear  the  names  of,  the  high  niads 
that  traverse  the  kingdom  and  centre  in  the 
capitaL 

The  Senne  enters  the  city  on  the  XAV.  siiie  by 
two  branches,  mid  forms,  within  the  walls,  four 
islands,  of  wliich  the  princi|>al  are  named  St,  <  Jer^- 
and  Bon  Secours,  This  nvulet  is  only  about  30 
ft.  in  width,  an<l  from  4  to  6  ft.  in  deptth,  and  ii 
not  navigable  in  any  part  of  itj»  course  BruvM'Ls 
however,  l)esides  being  in  the  network  of  the 
Belgian  railway  svstein,  possesses  the  advantage 
of  water  communication  with  Charleroy  on  the  .N., 
and  with  Mechlin,  Antwerp,  and  the  ocean,  on  the 
N.,  by  means  of  two  ca})aciouH  and  well  appointal 
canals.  The  width  of  the  Antwerp  canal  is  45  fr. 
It  wais  openeil  in  1551,  and  cost  nearly  2,<.NM\0tii» 
of  tlorins,  or  10<),000/.  Five  k»cks  overcome  a 
descent  of  50  ft.,  in  a  course  of  17  no.,  lietween 
Bnishcls  and  the  town  of  Ikx>m,  where  the  canal 
joins  the  Ku])el,  a  large  affluent  of  the  Scheldt. 
The  head  of  this  canal,  in  the  N  W.  quarter  of  the 
city,  is  furnished  with  several  commodirms  lia>in3 
and  quays,  whence  gtKxls  are  conveyed  in  large 
barges  to  the  junction  of  the  KupeL  'The  Cluurle- 
roy  canal  cost  4,350,205  Horins,  and  was  o|»eiHi! 
in  1830.  It  is  carriwl  along  the  W.  boun<lar>'  *•( 
the  city,  in  the  ancient  ditches  of  tlie  fortiticaiioo!) 
to  the  Port  au  Kivage,  where  it  communicates 
with  the  canal  to  Antweq).  Fifty-five  lockj  (il>- 
viate  a  fall  of  432  ft,,  in  \t»  course  of  45  m.  to 
Brussels.  It  passes  through  a  tunnel  of  1,175 
yards,  and  is  crossed  by  fifiy-five  aqueducts  and 
thirty-six  bridges.  The  soil  of  the  elevated  ground, 
occupied  by  the  S.  and  E.  portions  of  the  city.  » 
sand,  interspersed  with  fossils,  marine  fmbetaiices, 
calcare<ms  stones,  and  layers  of  ferruginous  earth; 
and  that  of  the  lower  N.  and  W.  section  amsuita 
of  a  sandy  marsh,  mixed  with  marine  substances, 
and  covered  with  a  deep  bed  of  \>eAX  or  tiirf. 
The  highest  liart,  on  the  S.  extremity,  lietween 
the  portes  of  Hal  and  Namur,  Is  alxnit  220  ft. 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  upper  town,  known 
as  the  Quartier  Leopold,  contains  the  royal  court 
and  government  offices,  the  l^ark,  the  finest  squares, 
streets,  and  hotels,  and  the  mansions  of  the  higher 
classes.  The  central  and  h)wer  town  cimiprises 
chietly  the  trading  and  o]>erative  portion  of  the 
po])ulation,  and  has  generally  a  more  crowded  and 
mean  api)earance,  though  it  still  alx>unds  in  tine 
old  oniamented  buildings,  once  occupied  by  the 
ancient  nobles  of  Brabant.   The  Rivfxgey  at  the  N. 


BRUSSELS 


677 


extremity,  m  inhabited  by  rich  merchantu,  and 
presents  a  constant  scene  of  commercial  activity. 
J'he  city  is  abundantly  supplied  with  sprin^^-water, 
by  means  of  pipes  and  powerful  hydraulic  eni^pines, 
from  three  subterranean  caves  at  Ktterbeeck,  a 
lieautiful  villa^  in  the  southern  \'icinity.  There 
arc  besides  ten  spring  within  the  walls,  thirty 
fountains,  and  about  nmety  pumps.  Several  foun- 
tains are  ornamented  by  elegant  obelisks  and 
groups  of  exquisite  bronze  and  marble  sculptures. 
Tiie  most  remarkable  are  Les  Fontainet  de$  Fleuveg^ 
in  the  court  of  the  Hotel  de  Yille,  formed  of  river 
gods  in  white  marble,  and  dolphins  in  bronze; 
the  Fontaine  de  Minerve,  in  the  Place  du  Grand 
Sablon,  consisting  of  a  beautiful  group  of  figures 
in  white  marble,  erected  in  1741,  by  the  Earl  of 
Aylesbury,  in  attestation  of  his  respect  for  the  in- 
liabitants,  after  residing  among  them  forty  years ; 
and  the  Mannikin  Pisj  near  die  Hotel  de  Villc, 
in  the  centre  of  the  city.  This  is  an  exquisite 
bronze  figure,  about  2  ft.  in  height,  of  an  urchin 
boy  who  discharges  a  stream  of  water  in  a  natural 
manner.  Great  value  and  historical  interest  are 
attaclicd  to  this  antique  little  figure  bv  the  old 
citizens  of  Brussels,  who  regard  it  with  pecu- 
liar solicitude  as  a  kind  of  municipal  palladium. 
1'he  ancient  part  of  Brussels  is  ornamented  by 
manv  fine  specimens  of  the  fiorid  style  of  Gothic 
architecture  of  the  sixteenth  century;  and  the 
modem  part  exhibits  numerous  excellent  build- 
ings, erected  about  fifty  years  ago ;  but  the 
newly-built  dwelling-houses  have  commonly  the 
uncouth  form  and  fashion  of  granaries  or  manu- 
fact<iries,  and  are  often  constructed  with  very 
inferior  bricks,  and  with  timbers  too  slender  for 
the  lofty  tiled  roofs.  Their  uniformity  of  ap- 
pearance too  is  destroyed  by  the  custom  of 
]>ainting  the  fnmts  with  strongly  contrasted  co- 
lours such  as  yellow,  green,  and  white,  which 
often  produce  a  glaring  effect,  more  suitable  for 
isolat^  inns  or  fancy  cottages  than  the  streets  of 
a  metropolitan  city.  In  the  Rue  de  la  MadeJeine 
and  Rue  Montague  de  la  Cour  are  many  elegant 
shops,  and  these  arc  accounted  the  liveliest  and 
most  frequented  streets  in  Brussels,  though  in  ap- 
pearance and  business  they  are  certainly  dull, 
compared  with  Paris  or  London.  Indeed,  the  dul- 
ness  in  general  forms  a  common  subject  of  remark 
among  the  French  and  English  residents  in  the 
capital  of  Belgium.  Four  uniformly-built  streets 
surround  the  large  palace  ganlen  called  the  Park, 
namely,  the  Rue  Koyale,  which  will  admit  of  com- 
parison with  some  of  the  finest  streets  of  the 
European  capitals ;  the  Rue  Ducale,  in  which  are 
the  palace  or  the  I*rince  of  Orange  and  the  grand 
concert  rrHim ;  the  Kue  Bellcvue,  containing  the 
king's  {»a3ace ;  and  the  Kue  Brabant,  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  the  palace  of  congress,  or  houses  of 
l^arliament.  The  Grande  Place,  or  great  market- 
place, in  the  centre  of  the  city,  is  a  noble  and  ver%' 
interesting  scjuare,  containing  the  gorgeous  old 
<iothic  Hotel  de  Ville,  the  Maison  du  Hoi,  and 
many  other  rich  specimens  of  the  ancient  orna- 
mental architecture.  Here,  in  1568,  counts  Egmont 
and  Home  were  beheaded  by  the  Spanish  viceroy 
the  Duke  of  Alva,  whose  persecutions  brought 
ruin  and  death  into  almost  every  house  in 
BrusseK  The  Place  Koyale,  near  the  king's 
jialace,  is  perhaps  the  finest  square  in  Brussels. 
The  houses  around  it  are  remarkably  handsome 
and  regular.  Tlie  Place  du  Grand  2Sablon  is  the 
largest  square,  and  is  used  as  a  marRet-place.  The 
Place  de  la  Monnaie  is  also  extensive,  and  a[>- 
pn>ached  by  several  spacious  streets :  it  contains 
thii  theatre,  the  mint,  the  exchange,  and  some  of 
the  finest  cafes  in  the  city.  The  Place  de  St. 
I^ichel,  better  kncwn  since  the  Revolution  as  the 
VouL 


Place  des  Mart^nrs,  is  planted  with  rows  of  linden 
trees,  and  surrounded  bv  nniform  and  elegant 
buildings  omamented  with  Doric  columns.  This 
square  was  chosen  for  the  sepulture  of  those  who 
fell  in  opposing  the  royal  forces  during  the  revo- 
lutionary stmggle  in  September  1830.  There  are 
14  other  squares  of  less  distinction,  but  which  at 
once  serve  the  purposes  of  health  and  ornament. 
The  park  is  an  open  oblong  space  of  about  14  acres, 
on  the  high  eastern  side  of  the  city.  Its  surface 
is  covered  with  smooth  verdant  tiirf,  and  Ls  for- 
mally laid  out  in  broad  straight  walks  and  winding 
paths,  which  are  overshadowed  and  sheltered  by 
lofty  beech  and  chestnut  trees  and  plantations  of 
acacias.  There  are  several  fountains,  and  many 
excellent  marble  statues,  busts,  vases ;  and  groups 
of  persons  and  personifications  from  classical 
mythology  and  history  are  distributed  about  the 
^unds.  The  walks  command  a  great  variety  of 
interesting  scenery,  including  the  old  Gothic  edi- 
fices of  the  lower  town  and  the  surrounding 
country',  which  is  very  picturesaue.  In  the  n£ 
comer  of  the  park  is  *Vauxhall,'  comprising  a 
small  theatre  for  vaudevilles,  and  a  ball-room. 
Along  the  banks  of  the  Antwerp  Canal,  issuing 
from  the  N.  point  of  the  citv,  is  the  beautifiu 
promenade  called  the  AUee  Yerte^  that  is,  the 
Green  Alley.  It  is  formed  of  a  broad  carriage- 
road,  and  on  each  side  a  foot-way,  divided  by  four 
rows  of  umbrageous  elms,  extending  about  a  mile 
and  a  half.  Here  the  royal  family,  and  multitudes 
of  all  classes,  are  seen  every  fine  evening  eiijoying 
the  freshness  of  the  country  air,  and  the  pJeasing 
views  of  numerous  villas  and  rural  scenery.  In 
fact,  the  environs  of  Bmssels  are  in  general*  so  in- 
teresting, that  thev  form  the  sulnect  of  a  large 
portion  of  every  full  description  of'^the  citv.  Be- 
sides the  excursion  to  the  battle-field  of  Waterloo, 
and  its  surrounding  localities,  still  exciting  to  the 
curious,  about  85  villages  in  the  more  immediate 
vicinity  of  Bmssels  are  well  worth  the  attention  of 
strangers.  Among  the  objects  of  interest  are^-the 
splendid  royal  palaces  of  Laecken  and  Tervueren, 
and  the  great  workhouse  and  penitentiary  es- 
tablishments of  Vilvorde  and  La  Cambre. 

The  royal  palace  at  the  8.  extremity  of  the  park, 
presents  a  facade  of  120  yards  in  length,  with  a 
central  iiortico  and  arcades.  The  style  of  archi- 
tecture is  plain,  and  the  general  aspect  of  the 
stmcture  not  at  all  remarkable.  The  interior  too 
offers  little  worthy  of  inspection  beyond  the  usual 
suites  of  n)yal  saloons  and  apartments,  which  are 
very  superbly  furoished,  and  covered  with  rich 
velvet,  satin,  and  gilt.  The  paintings  are  neither 
numerous  nor  very  valuable,  with  the  exception  of 
A^andyke's  Chapeau  de  Vehurt,  The  Palab  da 
CongT^  at  theN.  end  of  the  park,  is  a  magnificent 
building,  omamented  with  nuted  Doric  columns 
and  appropriate  sculptures.  Marble  stairs  on  each 
side  of  a  spacious  hall  ascend  to  the  two  chambers 
of  parliament,  which  are  elegantly  fitted  up  for 
the  reception  of  the  members.  The  public  are  ad- 
mitted mto  both  chambers  during  the  debatesi 
females  as  well  as  males ;  and  for  this  accommo- 
dation, the  Chamber  of  Deputies  contains  a  capa- 
cious gallery.  On  the  £.  side  of  the  park  is  a 
fialace,  which,  before  the  revolution  of  1830,  was  # 
occupied  by  the  herwlitary  Prince  of  Orange.  It 
was  built  in  1820.  Tlie  exterior  is  nobly  simple, 
presenting  a  fagade  230  ft.  m  length,  with  a  lofty 
central  dome  and  cupola.  The  interior  is  not  sur- 
jiassed  by  any  European  fudace  in  sumptuous 
furniture  and  elegant  ae(^>ration8.  The  paintings 
arc  not  numerous,  but  of  the  highest  order,  com- 
prising some  of  the  most  choice  productions  of  the 
flemish  and  Italian  schools.  The  Hotel  de  ViUe, 
in  \he  Gcaode  Place,  or  great  oential  market^plaoe, 

PP 


678 


BRUSSELS 


is  one  of  the  larjypst  and  most  mmarkaMo  of  thoi>«e 
civic  |uilace.«.  in  the  llorid  (iothic  Mtyle,  that  htv  t<» 
Im'  seen  in  iKTfwtion  only  in  the  Nelherlan*!?*.  It 
wiiM  ercrtni  in  IMMI.  The  an-hiteetiire  is  l/«>ni- 
har(lo-(fothie,  with  a  ^n>at  pntfusiim  uf  <]uaint 
s«'u1|)tiires.  |M>inte(l  turret^*,  and  oth«'r  faneifiil  ami 
intri<>atf  urnainent.s.  In  the  front  lurv  40  windows, 
and  in  the  lofi y  hh)])in^  riM»f  W  more.  At  a  iH»int 
reniarkahlv  distant  from  the  <'e.ntrc  of  the  front, 
an  ehi}N)nit<'Iy  ornamented  pyramidal  tower,  o]M>n 
tlirou^hout  to  the  Hummit,  risen  to  the  height  (»f 
'M'A  ft.,  and  eonnnands  a  tine  view  of  the  snrround- 
inj^eountr}',  in«'hidin^  the  hattle-liehl  of  Waterhjo. 
It  is  snnnonnted  hy  a  cohiNsal  eop|K«r  {;ilt  statne, 
17  ft.  hi;;h,  of  St.  Michael  cnishin^a  dni^on,  which 
turns alMHil  tost'rveforaweather-trock.  The  interior 
of  the  huiidin^  is  entered  by  a  s]>acions  tli^ht  of 
st<>ps,  and  the  loft v  halls  and  sahMnis exhibit manv 
curiouA  old  paintin^^,  gilded  carvings,  and  s|>eci- 
men«f»f  tine  ta|>ej*tr\'.  (>piM)site  the  town-hall  is  a 
venerable  (iothic  editice,  built  ab<»ut  a.i>.  KMM), 
ealksl  the  HriNKl  Huys  (bread  house)  or  Maison 
du  Koi.  The  Palais  <Ic  Justice  is  a  larjje  building 
containing  the  court"*  of  law:  its  front  displays  a 
nobh'  jMirtico,  imitated  fr«>m  that  of  Ajjrippa's 
Tenii>lc  lit  Home.  The  Palais  du  Conseil  d'Ktat, 
the  Hotel  des  Monnaies,  and  several  other  state 
olli<*es,  are  structures  more  or  le«sH  elcK.int :  also  the 
theatre,  which  was  o|H'ned  in  IHVJ,  and  cost 
f)(),0()0/.  Its  int<?rior  displays  very  comm<Mlious 
arrangements  and  tasteful  deconitions.  The  sta^e 
in  fnmt  ifi  of  ^n>ater  width  than  that  of  the  (irand 
OjK'ra  at  l*aris.  Near  the  Phu'e  li(»yale  is  the 
larjre  and  handsome  old  Palace  or  Const,  founded 
in  1. *{()(),  and  rebuilt  in  1740.  When  this  was  the 
residence  of  the  Sjuinish  and  Austrian  jjovemors  of 
the  \etherlan<ls,  it  was  one  of  the  richest  palaces 
in  Kurope.  It  n«)W  contains  the  public  library', 
lecture-r«M»ms,  museums,  and  pilleries  )>f  |wiintin^s 
and  sculptures.  The  Palace  of  Industry  is  a  larj^e 
adjoining  building  for  the  exhibition  of  the  manu- 
factures of  the  kingdom,  mechanical  models,  and 
new  invent i(ms. 

Hnissels  contains  several  grand  an<l  venerable 
<*athedral  chun'hes,  ere<'ted  in  the  middle  ages. 
>'our  only  of  U\  are  considered  primary,  and  l>elong 
each  to  one  of  the  4  arrondisi^ement.H  into  which 
the  city  is  divided  :  the  others,  although  little  in- 
ferior in  ap}K*arance,  are  secondary'  in  rank.  The 
cathedral  of  St.  Gudule,  the  largest  and  linest  in 
Rmssels,  was  founded  in  1010;  and  here  the  first 
chai)ter  of  the  chivalric  onler  of  the  (Jolden  Fleece 
wa«  held  by  Philip  le  Hon,  in  14.H5.  There  is  an 
as|:)et^t  of  imiMtsing  grandeur  in  its  s|MK-ious  front, 
Hurmounted  by  two  large  square  towers,  from  the 
top  of  which  Antwerj)  is  distinctly  visible  at  a  <lis- 
tance  of  *27  miles,  and  one  contains  a  bell  that 
weighs  14.500  lbs.  Against  the  iiillars  which  di- 
vide* the  lateral  Jiisles  from  the  nave,  an<l  sup|iort 
the  lofty  roof,  are  placed  tinely  s<.'ulptunHl  statues 
of  the  twelve  ajxxstles,  10  ft,  hi  height,  at  an  ele- 
vation of  *2')  It,  from  the  tliMir.  The  pulpit  is 
fonned  of  wonderfully  carved  groups  of  figun\sthe 
size  of  life,  representing  the  expulsion  of  Adam 
an<l  Kve  from  paradise.  The  glasw  of  the  principal 
window  display^!  a  magnilicent  re]>reseiitation  of 
the  last  jutlgment,  by  the  celebrated  Flemish 
jwiinter,  Francis  Flors,  ami  seveml  other  antii|ue 
paiiite<l  windows  of  this  noble  cathedral  are  ex- 
cee<lingly  brilliant  and  l>eautiful.  Its  altars  and 
sumptuous  mauM>leums  of  sculptured  marble,  and 
numemus  tine  painthigs,  are  objects  worthy  of 
e^*l»ccial  notice. 

The  ciithedral  of  yotre  Dame  r/e  la  Chaj)elle  is  a 
beautiful  (iolbit:  structure,  founded  hi  1134.  and 


are  even  morn  numcroua.  Tho  tnt^^rior  omanmiM 
of  this  line  cathedral  coii>ist  of  numerouit  i>aint- 
ings.  statues,  and  moiiiimentiil  sctilprurcM,  by  emi- 
nent artist.s;  and  a  very  curiou**  car\-wi  pul|Mt. 
n>pn'S(>n ting  Elijah  fell  by  an  aiij^I  iiiukTatanufiy 
of  palms.  The  church  of  Ntitre  jyame  tits  Vir- 
tnin-H  IS  a  pn»fusely  omamente<i  (lOthic  sttnKlim* 
(»f  the  I.'Uli  centur>',  dis{)lAyin):^  the  mi«t  exa^-t 
symmetry  in  itM  plan  and  pn>portioiia.  It  is  (4ua- 
ment4'd  by  marble  statues  and  sculptured  toinlk>: 
its  windows  are  brilliantly  painted:  and  the  tone^ 
of  its  (»rgaii  are  exceedingly  grand  and  hannonii>u>. 
Xotre  Dame  dr  bon  Secoursj  built  in  the  17th  c<»ii- 
tury.  is  the  best  attended  church  in  BruM<eK  ]x» 
handsome  fn)nt  facade  ia  sumiuunted  by  a  U^ty 
dome,  and  the  ornamenta  of  the  interior  are  ex- 
hibit e<l  to  great  advantage  by  the  frequent  jter- 
fonnance  of  high  mass  with  f>eculiar  saoenlotal 
pngeantry.  St.  Catherine  ami  St.  NichttLis  are 
ver}'  irregular  and  uncouth  Gothic  oditicet  of  the 
12th  (*eiitur\'.  adorned  with  numeittus  tine  oM 
IMiiiitings.  The  churches  of  Caudenhurg,  St.  Au- 
gustine, and  Notre  Dame  de  FiniiiteTrp.  are  han-i- 
somc  s|Krimens  of  the  Grecian  at  vie.  and  were 
erected  in  tlu-  17th  ccnturw  A  convent  of  IVguiii 
nuns,  calletl  I^  Grand  B**guhMige,  Ixiilt  in  H>.'m, 
at  an  ex])eiise  of  .-)32,000  tlorin*8,  hasi  a  beautiful 
church,  which  contains  many  finepaintinga.  Tliere: 
were  here  fonnerly  a  thousand  nuns :  at  pre-^i^iit 
the  numlK'r  is  greatly  reduced.  There  an?  tuo 
other  nunneries,  the  convent  of  Berlaimiait.  and 
that  of  Lth  S(rvr»  Noire* — the  Black  Sisten^.  TIm' 
Church  of  England  serAnce  ia  j.»erformod  in  iseveral 
l*n)testant  <'ha|K?ls,  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
nnmenuis  English  residents:  and  the  Jews,  of 
whom  there  are  10,000  in  the  whole  kingdom,  have 
their  general  consiatory  in  Bru.stiela,  and  a  hand- 
«»mc  sj-nagogue;  but  the  great  mas»  of  the  jwifm- 
latioii  are  zealously  attached  to  the  rire"*  and 
dwtrines  t>f  the  chiuf  h  of  Kome,  while  their  La- 
tlieran  king.  Leoptdd,  attends)  the  Prutestant 
service  in  his  private  cha^iel.  l*re>-ious  tn  the 
supi>re8sion  of  religioua  housea  in  I^elgium  by  the 
French  republican  government,  at  tlie  close  of  the 
l;ist  centurj',  Bnissels  contained  31  monaftteries 
2  convents  of  Ik^iins,  2  of  Kngliah  nuns,  and  IK 
oratories;  and  during  the  middle  a^esa,  the  extent 
and  magnilii^ence  of  the  monastic  eatablL>hnieuis 
in  this  locality  were  tnily  amazing. 

The  two  princifial  medical  hoHjdtoIa  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  John  are  admirably'  regulated.  There  \* 
also  a  well-managed  lyiug-iu  hospital,  and  a  mih- 
tary  hos^iital  attached  to  the  luurackt*.  Nothing: 
can  exceed  the  care  and  cleanliness  observe*!  in 
every  jMirt  of  the  hospital  of  St.  Peter;  indent  to 
this  remarkable  attention  is  attributed  the  fact 
that,  in  the  calamitous  year  of  cholera,  not  urn* 
ca*ie  of  that  dn>adful  malady  occurred  in  the  wants 
of  this  establishment,  amongttt  a  misoellaneouii 
asK-mbhige  of  (JOO  [tatients.  Tlie  iMtspital  of  St. 
John  contains  bi>tween  200  and  300  beiht.  and  m- 
cludes  a  c(»mmunity  of  the  Slaters  of  Cliarity. 
The  earnest  piety  and  genuine  benevolence  which 
induce  these  and  other  cxcraplary  femaleai  of  the 
Catholic  religioua  onlers  to  go  alnrnt  doing  gu("li 
by  visiting  the  sick  p<ior,  especially  in  the  h>i;«{H- 
tals,  often  excite  the  admiration  of  strangers  w}m> 
justly  appreciate  virtue  and  goodness,  and  convtv 
a  tacit  reproach  to  the  pious  Pn»t«istant  la<iies  \A 
England.  There  is  an  excellent  society  for  gra- 
tuitous vaccination,  which  is  efficiently  suppiirt^'d, 
and  is  very  beneficial  to  the  jioor. 

'Hie  civd  and  militarv  prison  of  Brussels  is  .in 
a]>)>ro])riatc  modem  buildmg,  having  9  or. 10  \*w\\ 
courLs.     It  is  situateil  very  healthily  in  the  hi^di 


but  little  inferior  in   dimensions  to   that  of  St.  ■  SW.  quarter  of  the  city,  and  is  under  excellent 
Gudulc.    Its  (MUiitings  and  sepulchral  monuments  |  mauagemcnt.    llie  part  forci\il  offencea  will  con- 


BRUSSETii 


579 


tain  500  prisoners.  There  are  three  public  cenie- 
tcrios  outside  the  ImiilevanlM,  adjacent  to  the  j^ates* 
of  the  Ilal,  Louvain,  and  Flanders.  The  English 
rcHidentj*  in  Brussels  have'nlso  two  hnrial-frrotmdH 
on  the  roads  to  Uccle  and  I^ouvain.  The  markets 
<»f  Hnissels  amount  to  more  than  20,  and  are  all 
well  and  abundantly  supplied.  The  principal 
njrn-market,  in  the  lower  NW.  quarter,  forms 
«»n(»  of  the  thiest  squares  in  the  city.  It  is  sur- 
ruunde<l  by  harulsome  hoases,  and  planted  with 
double  Tovin  of  lofty  trees.  Adjoining  the  lish- 
mnrket,  which  Is  one  (»f  the  iK'st  in  the  kingdom, 
is  the  market  for  poultrj',  in  which  are  exhibited 
b.'iskets  full  of  the  hinder  legs,  or  gigoU,  of  large 
frogs,  neatly  twiste<l  aiul  skewered  up  rea<ly  (or 
dn'ssing.  iTheir  appearance  is  bright  and  plump, 
anil  by  no  means  so  disagrt^eable  as  to  increase  the 
nnfavt)urable  [)reju<lice  of  an  English  jtalate. 
IJm.ssels  is  amply  supplied  with  culinary  vege- 
tables from  market-gardens.  Game  is  rather 
|)lentiful,  and  ixmltrj'  abundant.  Fresh-water 
lish  are  cheap,  sea-fish  rather  dear. 

The  climate  of  Hntssels  is  t<»m|)erate,  moist,  and 
extremely  variable.  The  inhabitants  of  the  upper 
town  enj<>y  a  warmer  and  <lrier  atmosphere,  and 
a  greater  exemption  fn>m  dLse^ises,  than  those  of 
the  lower  town,  from  whit^h  the  epidemics  that 
m'cur  most  commonly  arise.  In  genend  the  city 
is  healthy,  and  rarely  visited  by  malignant  <ir 
IM'stilential  fevers,  l^he  air  is  genial  and  mild, 
and  the  sky  often  serenely  blue.  Ifefreshing 
breezes  blow  from  the  sea,  but  fc^  not  unfre- 
cjuently  descend  in  the  morning  and  evening. 
The  temjieratu re  of  Brussels  compared  with  that 
of  Paris,  is  colder  in  winter,  an«l  less  warm  in 
summer ;  compared  with  I»ndon,  it  is  also  colder 
in  winter,  but  warmer  in  summer.  'I'he  dry  nature 
<jf  the  soil  in  the  higher  jiart.  reflects  the  sun's 
ravs  in  summer,  so  as  to  render  the  heatextremelv 
oppressive.  In  genenil,  the  we^ither  is  more  damp 
and  variable  than  in  Paris,  and  less  so  tliau  in 
L<»ndon. 

For  the  instruction  of  youth  of  both  sexes  in 
all  de]wirtments  of  scholastic  knowledge,  ami  every 
elegant  accomjdishment,  there  are  many  excel- 
h'Ut  academical  institutions,  public  and  private. 
The  m<Hlem  collegiate  establishment,  called  the 
Free  University  of  Brussels,  oflers  every  desirable 
facility  for  prosecuting  a  complete  course  of  study 
in  science,  language,  and  literature,  l$(»si<les  a 
magniticent  library',  it  ]>ossesses  a  chemical  lalnn 
ratory ;  museums  of  natural  histor}',  mineralogj', 
geoI<»gy,  comparative  anatr»my;  an  anatomical 
theatre,  and  chambers  for  clinical  pracrice.  ITie 
IJoyal  Athena'um  is  a  highly  useful  and  prosper- 
ous institution,  established  on  liberal  and  rational 
principles,  and  kept  in  full  (»])eration  by  15  pn>fe»- 
sors  and  masters.    The  attenti(»n  formerly  deviated 

m 

to  the  ancient  languages,  so  as  to  engross  exclu- 
sively the  whole  |)eri<Ki  of  youth,  Ls  pro|K'.rly  di- 
vidwl  l)etween  ancient  literature  and  the  more  im- 
p^Jrtant  mtslem  ex|)erimental  sciences  ami  indus- 
trial arts.  In  the  former  de|)artment  there  are 
usually  from  150  to  2<N)  pupils,  and  in  the  latter 
fn»m  250  to  ;J00.  The  hall  for  lecturing  will  hohl 
1,200  |)ersons.  Tliere  is  a  tine  veterinary  and 
agricultural  college,  with  150  stu<lents,  a  military 
s<'liool,  and  a  sch<H>l  for  instructing  lM)ys  scientifi- 
<ally  in  the  principles  of  commerce,  and  the  oj)era- 
tioiis  of  the  mechanical  arts.  Several  societies 
and  establishments  for  the  promotion  of  science 
ami  literature  have  a  high  and  well  merite<l  repu- 
taticm.  The  Ii(»yal  Academy  of  Brussels  was 
fouiidt'd  in  ITiiO.  The  <ie<»graphical  EstablLsh- 
UK'iit,  in  the  Faubourg  <le  Flandres,  was  founded 
ill  IK'iM,  by  ^r.  Vandirr  Maeleii,  an  aflluent  and 
(latriotic  gentleman.    On  the  boulevards,  at  the 


E.  angle  <»f  the  cify  wall,  is  the  Obsen-atorj',  a 
neat  and  ap|)n>priate  edifice,  with  two  towers  com- 
manding an  extensive  horizon.  Its  site  is  1!N)  ft. 
alM)ve  the  level  of  the  North  Sea.  This  establish- 
ment is  fumishe<I  with  an  apparatus  of  very  sujte- 
rior  philos4>phical  instruments,  and  serves  not  only 
for  the  prosecution  of  astronomical  anil  meteort>- 
logical  oliS(>r\'ati(»ns,  but  for  the  promotion  of  all 
the  kindred  mathematical  and  ex|M.>rimental 
sciences,  especially  that  of  horology.  Near  the 
Obser\'atory,  on  the  out«r  side  of  tlie  city  wall,  is 
the  Ik)tanic  Garden,  which  Is  generally  allowed  t4» 
be  one  of  the  finest  in  Eun>pc.  An  institute  of 
fine  arts  awards  priy.es  to  distingubthed  students 
of  {minting,  engraving,  sculpture,  and  architecture, 
and  afTonis  them  the  means  of  professionally  visit- 
ing Kome,  and  the  other  celebrated  schools  and 
repositories  of  art.  I*rize8  are  also  distribute*!  by 
an  academy  of  jwiinring,  sculpture,  and  architec- 
ture, whitrh  Is  numerously  attended  by  students, 
whose  pHKluctions  form  an  annual  exhibition. 
There  is  also  a  society  of  friends  (»f  the  fine  arfj*. 
A  rt»yal  conservator}'  of  music  is  attended  by  400 
pupils,  many  of  whom  Injcome  eminent  performers ; 
and  infirm  and  aged  musicians  ar(>  assisted  by  an 
institution  called  the  SiK-iety  of  Apollo. 

For  the  prrmiotioii  of  mercantile  and  me<^hani- 
cal  knowledge,  there  is  a  commercial  sinriety,  and 
one  for  the  encoura^ir^ment  of  arts  and  industry. 
Two  medical  societies  comprise  very  numerous 
bodies  of  learned  physicians,  and  other  distin- 
guished men  of  si'ience.  In  the  old  court,  or 
Palace  of  the  Fine  Arts,  is  a  museum  of  natural 
history,  that  sun>asses  in  extent  and  value  every 
other  in  the  kingdom.  The  defmrtments  of 
z*iology,  oniithologj',  entomology',  and  mineralogy, 
arc  especially  replete  with  rare  and  admirable  s|)e- 
cimens,  including  animals  from  the  Dutch  East 
Indian  colonies,  Uussian  minerals,  and  all  the  vol- 
canic pHnlncts  of  Mount  Vesuvius.  Anotht:r  ])or- 
tion  of  the  edifice  contains  the  grt^at  public  libntrv 
of  nearly  150,000  vols.,  and  15,000  histt»rical  MSI§. 
and  minerals.  The  latter  were  collecte<l  at  a  very 
early  j)eriiKl,  by  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  and  are 
of  extreme  value ;  many  lx?ing  richly  adorned  with 
miniature  paintings  of  exquisite  Ijicauty,  by  the 
early  Flemish  artLst-s,  and  the  greater  part  no 
splendidly  l>ound  in  crimson  Monnvo.  Above 
2,000  vols,  of  the  books  were  printed  in  the  15th 
<;entury.  The  third  division  of  the  jmlace  is  occu- 
pietl  by  a  collection  of  alxtut  500  |)auitings,  by  tlio 
great  Flemish  masters  from  Van  Eyck  to  Kubens, 
and  his  numerous  pupils.  The  library,  museums, 
and  gallery,  are  constantly  open  to  the  public 
This  spacious  building  serves  also  for  public  lec- 
t  ures,  which  are  delivered  gratuitously  everj*  day, 
by  the  most  eminent  professors,  on  geologj',  1k>- 
tany,  chemistrv',  architecture,  doctrine  of  chances, 
philosophy  of  history,  history  of  the  sciencei*,  his- 
tory of  Belgium,  general  literature,  hygiene,  indi- 
vidual and  public,  and  industrial  mechanics.  Bc- 
sitles  the  great  literarv*  treasures  in  the  old  palace, 
there  is  a  national  library  possessing  (!(),000  vols., 
and  1,100  MSS. ;  and  several  of  the  public  insti- 
tutions have  large  and  choice  collections  of  scien- 
tific and  literarj'  works. 

The  manufactures  of  Brussels  consist  principally 
of  its  celel»rated  lace  and  tulle^  and  of  caqiets,  fine 
linen,  hosier}',  printed  cottons,  hats,  paper,  S4ia|), 
<?andles,  chemical  pro<lucti<»ns,  painteil  porcelain, 
leather,  fabrics  of  horse-hair,  and  caoutch(»uc,  arti- 
cles of  iron,  brass,  gold,  silver,  bnmze,  and  cut 
glass;  clocks,  lamps,  nmthcmatical,  optical,  and 
surgical  instruments.  Tlie  establishments  are 
numerous  and  of  the  highest  description  for  brew- 
ing lieer,  rotining  sugar  and  salt,  cabinet-making, 
carriage-building,  lithography,  tyiie-founding,  and 

pp  2 


680 


BRUSSELS 


printing  and  binding  bookft.  In  addition  to  the 
commerce  anting  from  it»  manufacturet*,  and  ihe 
consumption  by  the  inhabitantfi,  Bmssels  ix)«»8e8»e9 
an  imp<irtAnt  tranBit  trade,  by  means  of  its  rail- 
ways and  two  canals,  consisting  <»f  all  kinds  of 
grain,  coals,  timber,  iron,  stones,  lime,  bricks,  and 
various  other  products  of  the  soil,  and  of  foreign 
countries.  Establishments  connected  with  com- 
mercial operations  are — the  Commission  Supt^ 
rieure  d'Industrie  et  de  C^>mmerce,  Tribunal  de 
Commerce,  Chambre  de  C<)mmerce,  Socic'Uf  Genc^ 
rale  pour  favoriser  rindustrie,  Societe  du  Com- 
merce de  Bruxelles,  six  insurance  companies,  the 
Entre{)6t^  Hoyal  Exchange,  Custom  House,  and 
very  commtNlious  public  rooms  called  the  Brussels 
Lloyd's,  where  merchajUs  meet  for  the  transaction 
of  bubiuesH  and  perusal  of  the  daily  papers.  There 
are  two  large  annual  fairs  for  the  sale  of  all  kinds 
of  merchandise;  one  of  12  days,  commencing  May 
2*2d;  the  other  of  14  days,  banning  the  18th  OcL 

Tlie  munici))al  authority  of  Brussels  b  vested  in 
a  burgomaster  and  four  sheriffs.  They  constitute 
the  city  regency,  whose  sanction  must  be  obtained 
to  all  measures  affecting  the  rights  and  interests 
of  the  citizens.  The  supreme  court  of  law,  and 
other  national  tribunals  seated  in  the  ca])ital,  arc 
noticed  in  the  article  on  Belgium. 

Brussels  is  believed  to  liavc  been  founded  in 
600,  and  to  have  been  walled  in  1044.    A  code  of 
municipal  laws  was  formed  in  1229,  involvhig  the 
principle   of  trial   by  jury.    About   1300,  sixty 
trades  were  incorporate*!  in  nine  classes,  to  tc^tq- 
sent  the  citizens  in  all  questions  of  taxation. 
Lil)eral  notions  of  government  continued  to  pre- 
vail, and  the  population  and  extent  of  the  city 
were  much  increased.     In  the  general  persecution 
of  the   Jews  during  1370-71,  hundreds  of  that 
race  were   put  to   death   in    Brussels,   and   the 
amount  of  their  coutiscated  property  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Brabant  was  nearly  13,000,000  florins, 
Under  the  Dukes  of  Burguncfy,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  15th  century",  Brussels  became  a  dis- 
tinguished seat  of  learning  and  the  arts,  and  was 
the  residence  of  a  magnificent  court,  which  greatly 
jromoted  the  progress  of  science,  literature,  com- 
merce, and  manufactures,  especially  the  weaving 
of  linens  and  woollens,  and  beautiful  tai^estrj'.   In 
1489,  during  the  dominion  of  the  House  of  Austria, 
the  city  was  desolated  by  a  dreadful  plague,  which 
destroyed  30,000  inhab.,  and  produceil  a  famine, 
whose  effects  lasted  4  years.    Brussels  was  liighly 
prosperous  under  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  who 
often  dwelt  in  its  palace,  and  made  it  the  scene  of 
his  final  abdication  in  1555.    The  intolerant  and 
oppressive  proceedings  of  Philip  II.  kindled  that 
rebellion  in  the  Low  Countries  which  ended  in  the 
establishment  of  the  independence  of  the  United 
Province.  In  15C8,the  martyrs  of  freedom,  Counts 
Egmont  and  Home,  were  beheatled  in  the  Grand 
l*lace.     Alva's   violent    exaction  of  exorbitant 
taxes  at  length  excited  a  general  revolt  of  the 
citizens,  and  after  many  changes  and  party  con- 
tentions, and  the  loss,  in  1578,  of  27,000  inhab.  by 
the  plague,  the  Spanish  governors,  in  1598,  gave 
up  the  i)lacc  to  the  Austrian  dynasty,  under  which 
the  arts  and  sciences  again  revived  and  prospered. 
Brussels,  in  1695,  was  imsuccessfuUy  besieged 
and  bombarded    by  the  French,  under  Marshal 
Villerov,  when  14  churches  and  convents  were 
destroyed,  with  4,000  houses.    In  1706  the  keys  of 
tlie  city  were  delivered  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough, 
and  in  1746  it  was  again  attacked  bv  the  French 
under  Marshal  Saxc,  to  whom  it  capitulated  after 
a  siege  of  three  weeks.     In  1794,  after  the  storm 
of  the  French  revolution  had  biurst  upon  it,  and 
Belgium  was  annexed  to  France,  it  became  the 
.cliicf  town  of  the  department  of  the  Dylc.    In 


BUCHAREST 

1803  Napoleon  entered  the  city  with  great  pomp, 
at  the  head  of  10,000  troox>s,  with  a  body  guard  of 
the  citizens  in  splendid  uniform.  Twelve  year* 
afterwards,  on  his  return  from  Elba,  Bruasels  was 
the  head-quarten  of  the  Britiiih  army,  and  sent 
forth  the  troops  who,  on  the  plains  of  Waterlto, 
put  an  end  to  the  ambitious  career  of  that  extra- 
ordinar>'  individuaL  From  that  period  BnisseU, 
conjointly  with  the  Hague,  was  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  until  the  Belgic  re- 
volution of  Sept.  1830,  which  made  it  the  capital 
of  Belgium. 

BKUTON,  a  town  of  Enj^land,  co.  Somerset, 
hund.  and  par.  Bruton,  on  the  Bnie,  24  m.  S.  by 
E.  Bristol,  120  m.  W.  London  by  road  and  Via  m. 
bv  Great  Western  railway.  Pop.  2,232  in  1«>I. 
1* he  town  is  well  built,  consisting  principally  nf 
three  streets,  having  a  common  centre,  with  agnod 
market-house,  where  the  8essii>ns  for  the  E.  <ii>'i- 
sion  of  the  co.  are  sometimes  held.  Here  Ls  a 
well-endowed  hospital,  founded  by  a  native  «>f  the 
town,  for  the  support  of  poor  men  and  women, 
and  for  the  support  and  education  of  a  certaiu 
number  of  childreju  There  are  manufactures  of 
silk,  which  emjUoy  some  hundred  pei»ple.  Mxuicet, 
Saturday  ;  fairs  for  cattle,  29th  of  April  and  19th 

"*  BUCHAREST,  or  BUKOREST,  a  city  of  Wal- 
lachia,  of  which  it  in  the  cap.,  being  the  residence 
of  the  hotspodar,  and  of  a  Greek  archbishop,  on 
the  Damboritza,  over  which  there  is  here  a  baitlge ; 
37  m.  (direct  dist.)  from  its  ccmtluence  with  the 
Daimbe,  and  280  m.  WNW.  Constantinople ;  lat. 
440  26'  45"  N.;  long.  46©  47'  E.  Pop.  estiinato^i 
at  80,000.  It  is  situated  in  a  vast  swampy  plain,  i* 
divided  mto  above  60  (quarters,  and  though  «)f  cc«n- 
parativelv  recent  origin,  is  not  built  acconiing  to 
any  regular  plan,  and  presents  a  curious  display  of 
barl)ansm  and  civilization  in  its  mud  cabW, 
brick  houses  covered  with  shingles,  and  spaciout 
hotels ;  and  in  the  vulgar  finery  of  the  boyais  or 
nobles,  and  the  rags  and  filth  of  the  other  classes. 
It  also  presents  a  curious  mixture  of  European 
and  Oriental  habits  and  costume ;  half  the  inhab. 
wearing  hats  and  coat-s,  and  half  calpacs  and 
IHilisses.  Some  of  the  streets  are  paved;  but  they 
are  mostly  boarded  over,  or  rather  coveie^l  wii'h 
trunks  of  trees,  or  other  large  Iqp  laid  transversely, 
instead  of  a  pavement ;  and,  nom  the  flatnefis  tif 
the  ground,  and  the  slovenliness  of  the  inhab.,  all 
the  tilth  of  tlie  streets  <x)llects  under  this  rude 
Hoot,  The  streets  are  thence  called  pontic  <x 
bridges,  and,  accordixig  to  the  testimonv  of  a 
recent  traveller,  they  *  are  reallv  bridges  boating 
on  rivers  of  filth.  In  winter  this  is  continually 
splashing  up  through  the  interstices,  and  in  sum- 
mer it  rises  in  clouds  of  black  dust ;  and  at  all 
seasons  Is  attended  with  a  foul  imwholesome  odour, 
generating  putrid  fevers  and  the  plague^*  The 
palace  of  the  hospodar,  or  prince,  an  imyaense  ol«i 
])ile,  and  the  metropolitan  church,  are  in  the 
largest  square  m  the  centre  of  the  town.  Near  10 
them  is  the  fire  tower,  60  feet  in  height,  whence  a 
full  view  of  the  city  is  obtained.  It  has  a  vast 
mumber  of  churches,  each  with  from  3  to  6  spires 
or  towers!  It  has  also  about  20  monasteries  and 
convents,  and  30  khans,  or  Oriental  inns,  with 
several  hospitals,  one  of  which,  for  the  military-, 
managed  by  German  physicians,  is  said  to  be  ven' 
well  conducted :  another  hospital,  founded  in  IsSi, 
by  a  bequest  left  by  Prince  Brankovano,  is  aL-j^* 
stated  to  be  worthy  of  notice.  TTiere  is  a  wwidea 
theatre,  where  French  plays  and  Italian  operas 
are  sometimes  performed.  The  other  prinrifial 
buildings  are  a  large  bazaar,  and  the  re^*a*iencfT» 
of  the  consuls,  or  ambassadors  of  the  diflfereut 
European  powers.    Since  1834  improvements  of 


BUCKFASTLEIGH 

all  kinds  have  begun  to  be  set  on  foot,  and  efforts 
have  been  made  to  supply  all  cla»^  eHpecially  in 
the  cai>ital,  vnth  the  means  of  education.  In  this 
view  tiie  college  of  St,  Sauvain  has  been  organuted, 
which  furnishes  instruction  to  500  pupils.  The 
French  language  has  been  adopted  as  the  basis  of 
iiiHtruction,  and  the  institution  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Frenchmen.  In  addition  to  this,  four  other 
schools  have  been  opened  in  the  city,  where  in- 
htniction  is  afforded  gratuitously  to  all  who  choose 
to  accept  it.  There  is  also  a  tyce'um  for  the  Greeks ; 
and  a  public  library,  a  society  of  belles  lettres, 
and  an  agricultural  society,  have  been  established. 

Formerly  the  boyan  used  to  ride  on  horseback ; 
but  about  50  years  ago  they  adopted  the  nractice 
of  riding  in  carriages,  and  now  would  hardly  cross 
to  the  opposite  side  of  the  street  without  using 
one  of  them.  The  number  of  carriages  is  estimated 
at  4,(HH).  Bucharest  is  princi{)ally  dLitinguLshed 
by  pn>Higacy  of  manners.  Gambling-houses  are 
most  abundant;  and  prostitutes  are  said  to  be 
more  numerous  in  it  than  in  any  other  £uroi>ean 
citv  of  the  same  size. 

The  trade  of  tlie  town  is  very  considerable. 
The  exijorts  consist  of  wool,  butter,  wheat,  hides, 
vellow  berries,  tallow,  honey,  and  wax,  sent  by  the 
l)unube,or  by  Varna,  to  Odessa,  Coii8tantino))le, 
dc :  they  alifo  ex|K)rt  immense  herds  of  homed 
cattle  and  hogs  to  Germany,  whence  they  import 
almost  everything  they  have,  from  the  cheapcitt  ne- 
cessaries up  to  the  most  expemdvo  luxuries.  There 
are  considerable  numbers  of  German  artizans,  parti- 
cularly of  watchmakers  and  jewellers,  in  the  town. 

iiucharest  was  visited  in  1847  bv  a  tremendous 
fire,  which  destroyed  several  churches  and  khans, 
an(l  a  great  many  private  houses.  It  has  since 
been  rebuilt  on  an  improved  plan. 

The  old  cap.  of  Wallacliia  was  Tergovest ;  but 
in  1G98  the  seat  of  government  was  transferred  to 
the  present  citv,  then  only  a  miserable  vilhige, 
Iwlonging  to  a  l)oyar,  calle<l  Buchor,  fn)m  whom 
it  has  taken  its  name.  At  the  union  of  the  two 
provinces  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  into  the 
Heini-inde|)endent  state — tributary'  to  Turkey^f 
Bouniania,  Bucharest  became  the  capital. 

HUCKFASTLEIGII,  a  par.  and  town  of  Eng- 
land, CO.  Devon,  hund  Stamborough,  172  m.  SW. 
by  W.  London.  Pop.  of  parish,  2,644  in  1861 ; 
area,  6,720  acres.  It  consists  of  one  main  street, 
on  the  line  of  the  great  western  road  fn)m  Ltmdon 
to  Plymouth ;  and  of  another,  branching  from  it 
on  the  \\\  side  down  the  incline,  and  called  the 
Ix)wer  Town.  (Jenerally  speaking,  the  houses  are 
meanly  built.  The  church  is  on  an  eminence 
overlo<)king  the  Dart,  on  the  N.  of  the  town  in  the 
meadows  beneath  which  there  are  some  remains  of 
an  ancient  Cistercian  abbey.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  emploved  in  wool-combing  and  weaving 
serges,  for  whiah  there  are  three  or  four  manufac- 
tories in  the  town.  Tliere  is  abu)  a  copper  mine  Li 
the  iMirish ;  and  limestone  is  quarried  and  burnt 
in  considerable  quantities,  for  manure  to  the  sur-  i 
rounding  district.  There  are  fairs  held,  for  the 
sale  of  hve  stock,  the  third  Thursday  in  June,  and 
second  Tlmrsday  in  Sept.  The  weekly  market 
has  been  long  di^ntinued.  There  are  the  remains 
of  an  ancient  encampment  in  the  parish. 

BUCKINGHAM,  an  inl. co.  of  KngUind,  having 
N.  Northamptonshire,  E.  the  cos.  of  Uedford,  Ilert- 
ft)rd,  and  Middlesex,  S.  Berks,  and  W.  Oxf»>nl. 
Mia|)c  ver>'  irregular  ;  area  46(),932  acres,  of  which 
about  440,000  are  supiK)se<l  to  l)e  arable,  meadow, 
and  pasture.  The  vale  of  Aylesburv',  one  of  the 
richest  tracts  in  the  empire,  occupies  the  middle  of 
the  CO.,  and  has,  on  either  side,  ranges  of  hilK  It 
is  about  equally  divide<l  between  tillage  and  pas- 
ture.   The  grass  lauds  are  partly  used  for  the 


BUCKINGHAM 


581 


dairy,  and  partly  for  fatting.  Agriculture  but 
indifferent :  there  is  a  great  waste  of  horse  power, 
and  a  proper  rotation  is  not  idways  observed. 
Sheep  are  an  important  stock,  and  the  average 
weight  of  their  floeco  is  supposed  to  have  been 
increased,  during  the  present  century,  from  3  to  6 
lbs. ;  many  hogs  are  also  kept;  and  large  quan- 
tities of  ducks  are  raised  at  Aylesbury  and  other 
places.  There  are  some  huge  esCates.  Farms  of 
a  medium  size  average  about  180  acres.  Leases 
pretty  common;  but  they  are  not  granted  for  a 
sufficiently  long  term,  and  are  defective  in  not 
laying  any  restrictions  on  the  tenant  as  to  croi>- 
ping.  Cottages  generaUy  good,  and  most  of  them 
have  gardens.  The  maniuacture  of  pillow  laoe 
has  greatly  declined ;  but  a  good  deal  of  straw 
plat  is  made  in  the  parts  of  tne  county  next  to 
iWford.  Minerals  of  no  importance.  The  Thames 
bounds  the  co.  on  the  S.,  and  the  Ouse  partly 
intersects  it,  and  partly  bounds  it  on  the  N.  It 
contains  8  hunds.,  and  202  parishes.  Pop.  167,993 
in  1861,  of  whom  83,023  males,  and84,£70  females ; 
inhab.  houses  34,909  in  1861.  It  returns  1 1  mems. 
to  the  H.  of  C,  viz.  3  for  the  co.,  and  2  each  for  the 
lx)roughs  of  Aylesbury,  Mariow,  Buckingham,  and 
Wycombe ;  registered  elecUire  for  co.  5,637  in  1865. 
'Vhe  gross  estimated  rental  assessed  to  |)oor  rate 
was  665,902  in  1862  ;  the  gross  annual  value  of 
real  property  assessed  to  income  tax  amounted  to 
667,410/.  in  1857,  and  to  765,516/.  in  1862. 
^  BucKiNOHAM,  a  pari,  and  municipal  bor.  of 
Eng.,  CO.  Buckingham,  hund.  of  same  name,  on 
the  Ouse,  56  m.  N\V.  London  by  road,  and  61  m. 
by  Londtm  and  North  Western  railway.  Pop.  of 
municipal  bor.  3,849,  and  of  pari  bor.  7,626  in 
1861.  Except  on  the  N.  side,  the  town  is  sur- 
rounded by  the  Ouse^  over  which  there  are  thre« 
stone  bridges.  It  consists  chiefly  of  one  long  street, 
which  is  paved  and  lighted  ;  houses  of  brick,  and 
neatly  built.  The  church,  with  a  good  tower  and 
spire,  was  built  in  1780,  principally  at  the  expense 
of  the  Temple  family,  it  has  a  free  grammar  and 
green-coat  sch(M)I  for  26  boys,  and  a  national  school 
for  300  boys  and  girls ;  two  ancient  hospitals  sup- 
porting 6  green-coat  and  10  blue-coat  pensioners ; 
and  a  few  minor  charitable  benefactions.  The 
weekly  market  is  on  Saturday,  and  there  are  ten 
annual  fairs  for  cattle  and  sheep.  A  branch  of  the 
Grand  Junction  Canal  extends  to  the  town.  No 
particular  manufacture  is  carried  on :  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood are  paper  and  corn-mills,  and  a  few  lime 
quarries.  Under  the  Municipal  Reform  Act  there 
are  four  aldermen  and  twelve  councillors,  and  the 
limits  of  the  borough,  which  were  previously  co- 
extensive with  the  i>ar.,  are  restricted  to  that  por- 
tion of  it  on  which  the  town  stands,  and  which 
comprises  about  three-fourths  of  the  pop.  The 
town  was  incori>orated  by  a  charter  in  1st  of  Mary, 
for  services  rendered  by  its  inhab.  in  the  Duke  of 
Northumberland's  rebellion  ;  the  corporation  was 
a  self-elected  body,  consisting  of  a  bailiff  and 
twelve  chief  burgesses,  who,  till  the  passing  of 
the  Reform  Act,  returned  two  mem.  to  the  H.  of 
C.  Tlie  last-mentioned  act  not  merely  gave  the 
suffrage  to  the  10/.  householders  of  the  bor.,  but 
included  with  them  the  10/.  householders  of  the 
oar.,  and  those  of  several  of  the  adjoining  parishes. 
Rqpstered  electors,  373  in  1861.  There  is  a  court 
of  gen.  sessions  for  the  Ixir.  held  twice  a  year.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  summer  assize  for  the  co.  The 
gaol  was  built  in  1758,  by  Lord  Cobham,  through 
whose  influence  the  act  for  holding  one  of  the 
assizes  here  was  pnicured  ;  both  having  previously 
been  held  at  Aylesbury.    The  revenue  of  the  cor- 

K ration  amounted  to'  972/.  in  1861.     Under  the 
>or  Law  Amendment  Act  it  is  the  central  town 
of  a  unioD  of  thirty  paruhca.    Buckingham  is  n 


r)K2 


lUTDA 


]M)lling  town  for  tin-  ro.  Till  within  a  n'cont 
]KTi«M|.  \\u'  inanufac-tun*  of  larc  by  han«i  funiixlu'*! 
ciniilovniont  to  nianv  (»f  tlic  women  and  e1iililn>n 
Tlitr  iliiral  title  of  t\\v.  T«;ni|»le  family  ii*  dcrivwl 
from  tlH!  town. 

Bl'I)A  (.SVar.  IJIDIN  :  Germ.  OFK'S),  n  royal 
frtf  fity  of  Hungary,  of  wliicli.  in  conjunction 
with  Pcsth.  it  i.s  the  cap.  and  t^cat  of  jjovcnimont, 
on  the  ri;^ht  bank  of  the  l>anulK>,  imnie<liately 
opfxiHte  to  1'ef.th,  1  Hi  m.  \V.  Debn-tzin:  l.sr*  ni. 
KSIO.  Vi<'nna  bv  road,  and  l<il  m.  bv  South  Auj*- 
trian  railway.  1*«>|».  rM/iJo  in  ]H.',7.  The  ihi|i.  of 
J*<*sth.at  the  >ame  cen>UN  was  l:i(l.;'>r>(i;  w)  that,  if 
we  rej^anl  them  as  one  city,  its  jM>p.,  <!X«'hiMv<*  of 
the  military,  will  lN>alN>ut  1!MI.(MN).  Ihida  is  built 
«m  and  round  the  last  hill  of  a  ran;;e  whiclHlccn'a>es 
in  hei;;ht  as  it  a]tfiroaches  the  I)anulH>,  and  is 
<livided  into  six  quarters.  The  ujifwr  town,  or 
citadt'I.  <H'cu]Mfsthe  centre  and  hi^xhest  part  <»f  the 
city,  the  S'ldos«ilK'i^ :  it  is  encloH'd  by  bastinncd 
walls,  but  is  no  l<»np>r  of  any  im|H»rtance  as  a 
fortress.  Althoujxh  the  smallest  division,  it  c(»n- 
tains  juost  of  the  tinest  buildin;rs.  The  roval  caMle. 
or  palace.  U*^un  ni  171I»,  is  a  quadnuipilar  struc- 
ture of  ^rreat  <!xtent,  containin;;  2<»<S  aiiartm<>nts. 
Home  <»f  which,  tin  the  throne-nMim,  audience-hall, 
and  <lrawinK-nMinis,  are  extremelv  ma^nitieent. 
In  this  building  arc  kept  the  ri'^alia  of  th(>  kin::;- 
dom.  to  which  the  Hungarians  attach  an  cxtra- 
onlinary  (legrtK*  of  imjMjrtanre.  A  large  ganU*n 
Mirroun<ls  the  |>alace,  and  the  view  from  <»nc  of  its 
balconies,  elevated  on  a  rock  al><)ve  the  I)anul>e. is 
verj'  striking.  The  church  of  the  Virgin's  Ascen- 
sion, and  the  garris<in  church,  lK>th  (iothic  edi- 
fices, the  Htat<''s  palace,  liigh  judicial  chaml.)er.  j 
town-hall,  residence  of  the  commandant,  arsenal, 
iM»st-ortice,   and    manv   other  militarv   and   civil  ' 

I  •  * 

jiublic  buildings,  are  situated  in  this  quarter.  To 
the  N..  and  at  the  base  of  the  nn'k  on  which  the  " 
citadel  stands,  is  the  hmer,  or  *  Water  town,'  , 
which  in  M»me  ]»arts  vies  with  the  fonner  division 
in  elegance.  It  contains  the  chun^h  of  St.  Anne, 
and  s<!veral  others.  The  J^mthtrasse,  a  widl-built 
quarter;  the  new  town,  a  cheerful  suburb  toward 
the  K.,  reac'hing  to  the  bank  (»f  the  Danube  ;  the 
Kai;sen>tadt,  or  7>/^/«,  to  the  S.,  the  most  jM>pu- 
lous  quarter  of  all;  and  the  *  Christina  t«>wn,  t^) 
the  S\V.,  extending  into  the  rich  and  Is'autiful 
Christina  valley,  an;  the  other  divisions  of  Ihida. 
The  chief  n'uiaining  buildings  deserving  notice 
are  the  churches  of  the  Capuchins,  the  Klizaln-than 
nuns  of  St.  Klorian,  the  (Jreek  church,  the  syna- 
gogue, several  moniLsterics  and  convents,  the  ]»alace 
of  the  ])rimate  in  the  L'Uidstrasse,  with  the  palace.s 
of  Counts  Sandor.  T<'leki.  l-irdiidv.  Zichv,  l*echv, 
Itatlhyany,  and  other  noblemen.  A  well  appointed 
ol)ser\'atory,  att.'iched  to  the  l■niver^ity  of  I*e>th, 
stands  on  the  IJlocksbcrg.  an  adjacent  hill,  to  the 
S.,  ,'{(M)  ft,  alwive  the  level  of  the  river.  Copious 
hot  springs,  strongly  impregiiate«l  with  sulphur. 
isMie  from  the  si(h>s  of  the  hills  on  which  lluda  is 
partly  built,  and  espe<'ially  from  the  HlockslM'rg. 
riie  successive  oi'cupiers  of  the  ])lac<',  Komans. 
Turks,  and  (.-hristian>,  hav«?  taken  atlvantage  <if 
these  Pprings,  and  have  con  vert  e<l  them  int<)  com- 
podious  baths.  Of  tlios<*  constructed  by  the  K«>- 
mans,  only  broken  fragments  now  remain ;  but 
the  Turkihh  baths  are  in  a  iKTfect  state  of  pre- 
servation, and  tin-  largest.  api)ropria(ed  to  the  use 
of  the  town,  is  a  line  specimen  of  Sara<'enic  archi- 
tecture. The  linestof  the  nuMJeni  baths,  that  of 
the  '  KmiK'nir,'  in  the  vi«ini(y  of  the  I^ndstrasse, 
is  sum»un«led  by  ganlens  and  pleasure-grounds. 
These  numerous  hot  baths  have  pnM'unM  fur  the 
city  itstJennan  njime  of  Ofvn^  which  is  *  <»ven.' 
Among  the  many  establihhment>*devrited  to  science 
uikI  education  in  Ijuda,  are  on  archi-gymnasium 


(high  rolh'ge).  a  liigh  school  in  each  of  tlw.*  «lif- 
fen'Ut  quartern  of  the  city,  a  K-hrnd  of  design,  flly- 
rian  female  soh<»ols,  n  i>ublic  lilimn-.  cat^4iiet'>  «•! 
miiu'rahigA'auil  conchologj'.  Moiiyof  the  riobiliiy, 
the  Franciscan  fri.irs,  and  tit  her  bmlies,  p<»<sc^ 
giMHl  libraries,  to  which  liberal  aecew  Is  iKYTnitt«sl: 
in  the  royal  fmlace  there  is  a  ^^allerv  of  ^laiiitiiigs. 
Then*  are  various  charitable  insttitutioiift.  incluiliiig 
four  hospitals. 

A  m.ignilitvnt  suspension  liri<lge.  three  qiiari<»rs 
of  a  mile  in  length,  sfiaus  the  Danulie.  c«»nne«tjng 
Ihida  with  Pesth.  It  was  built  at  a  e<wt  of  7«.H«,oo«i/.. 
aft«T  the  «l(»signs  of  an  Kut^lLoh  an*hite*t.  >lr. 
Clark,  and  was  o|»ened  in  1K48.  The  liriilge,  44K' 
of  the  tinest  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  ha«*  a  c]«ar 
water^vay  of  1. !';'»<>  It,,  the  centre  span  (>r  oftening 
iH'ing  kui)  ft.  The  height  of  the  su^pen.Mon  iMWer* 
fnun  the  foundation  is  2tH>  ft^  U>in^  fi>uniledin  ■>• 
ft.  of  water.  The  strtional  area  of  the  susiiendiug 
<*hains  is  .O'JO  square  inches  of  wrought  iriHi.  ninl 
their  total  weight  i;]tM)  tons.  Thb*  ii»  the  tir^t 
IK'mianent  bridge  which  has  lK«n  elected  over  tlie 
DanuiN',  Ih'Iow  Vienna,  since  the  time  of  Trajan. 
Its  solidity  was  ex|Mise<l  t<»  a  severe  trial  verk'  ^'-m 
after  its  completion  :  for  it  was  cr«>s(ieii  on  the  '»th 
of  .January,  1?<4I>,  and  the  immediately  following 
days,  by  large  dixisions  of  Hungarian  ajid  IniiK'rial 

tnH»|KS. 

Tlie  summit  of  the  Block8l>efg  c^^ramands  a  tine 
\'iew  of  the  surrounding  country,  and  especially  uf 
the  river  and  the  omxisite  city.  A  retvnt  travellfr 
des<'ril.)es  it  as  folloMrs  : — *  On  thin  sside  ii»  Buila, 
full  of  jirchitectural  anomalies^  yet,  friHn  tliat  vcr\- 
circumstaiuv,  an  object  of  i)eculiar  interest :  fti 
the  other.  Pesth,  laid  out  in  all  the  rt^rularity  .rf 
street,  and  s(|uan\  and  mall,  and  public  ganlen. 
There  is  not  a  greater  contnwt  l>etween  the  old 
and  new  towns  of  Kdinburgh  than  l>etwe*?n  Buiia, 
the  ancrient  capital  of  the  Magyars*,  and  I\»!.tlu  a 
city  of  yesterday's  growth.  Tlie  »>nc  waiidf-rs  fnnn 
terrace  to  t(frrace,  in  dark  and  <Ung>'  masses,  cr 
stn'tches  in  a  long  line  wherever,  l^tween  tln^ 
river  and  the  basis  of  the  hiU,  a  Sfiaw  «»f  level 
ground  can  ret-eive  it :  the  other,  a  series  of  >tnvts 
wiruh  cn>ss  each  «>ther  at  right  angles,  shines  in 
all  the  sfilendour  of  a  plan  rigidly  ailhezed  to.  and 
materials  the  U-st  calculated  to  preserve  an  ap|«car- 
ance  of  tinifonnity.  even  in  separate  edificesf.'  AiM 
to  thin  striking  contrast  the  va«tnes£i  of  the  river, 
the  p:issing  of  baigcj*.  shijis,  and  tfteani-i>ai.'kei.N  in 
the  ver\'  centn\  as  it  were,  of  Eurti|H%  and  the 
scene  and  the  iissm-iations  connectwl  with  it  must 
be  admitted  to  Ik*  of  no  common  kind. 

IJuda  is  the  usual  residence*  of  the  govennw- 
gi'neral  of  the  kingdom,  the  seat  iif  the  vi«v-rv-^al 
<-ouncil,  and  the  highest  admini.strative  aulh«-T- 
ities.  It  hiLs  nuich  Ici^s  of  a  bustling  and  ohii- 
nuTcial  charact<'r  than  Pejsth.  There  are  a  ftw 
manufactures  of  linens  w«K>llen.s  silks,  velvef. 
le;ither,  gun|M)wder,  earthenware,  and  a  cannon - 
fomidry ;  but  its  principal  traile  is  in  its  tiih 
wines,  of  which  alK»ut  2.'J(»,tKMl  einiers  an*  \^>- 
iluced  ainiually  from  the  vineyards  anjund  the 
heights  HI  \{s  neighl)ourhinNl. 

Ihula  is  Udieved  by  some  writers  to  Ik*  eitlh^r 
the  Curta  of  Ptolemy,  or  the  Aquinrum  of  tin' 
Itinerary  of  AntoniiULs.  It  was  held  bv  tlu- 
h'omans  till  nearly  the  end  of  the  4th  tviituri. 
Attila  made  it  «K*casionally  his  residemv.  Arjwi. 
the  ^higyar  chief,  made'  it  his  hexul  quancrs  in 
IMMJ;  an<l  it  then  lKH:ame  the  cradle  of  the  Hun- 
garian monarchy.  It  was  cnlai^ged  luid  improNfl 
by  succee<ling  Hungarian  monarchs  ami  modi-  a 
free  city  by  Ikda  IV.,  in  1*2 b'>.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Turks  inider  Solyman  the  Magniti«-4>nt.  iii 
l.')2f>;  but  was  nraptured  by  Fenlinanrl  I.,  kinu 
of  Uuhemia,  brotlier  of  tlic  cm|icror  Cliarl<>  V- 


BUDUKHSHAN 

in  the  foUowinji:  year.  It  was  af^oin  taken  by 
Stlyman  in  15*29,  and  was  held  by  the  Turks  till 
IC^Vi,  when  it  was  taken  bv  the  Imitcrialists,  after 
a  (U>M|>erate  resistance.  Jose|)h  II.  reniuve<l  the 
scat  of  the  Hungarian  f^vemment  thither  in 
17K3.  In  IHIO,  the  Tal)an  quarter,  and  a  i>art  of 
the  Water  t4mTi,  were  destn)yetl  bv  fire.  The  city 
HiifTcrcd  a  p^reat  deal  in  the  revofutionar}'  war  of 
lM4iK  A  monument  in  honour  of  (General  Hentzi, 
and  the  troo|M  under  his  command,  who  fell  in 
this  war,  was  erected  in  the  *  Hentzi-squarc '  in 
18.VI. 

131  DUKIISHAN,  a  prov.  of  Central  Asia,  now 
a  de)M'ndencv  of  the  klian  of  Khoondooz,  Itetwecn 
hit.  8(1°  and*;WO  n.,  and  lon^.  70°  JJO'  and  72©  3*/ 
K. ;  having  N.  and  NE.  a  chain  of  mountains,  in- 
habited by  trilies  claiming  a  Macedonian  origin ; 
SK.  and  S.  the  Bolor-Tagh  mountains,  and  the 
high  c«)untry  of  the  Cautirs;  and  W.  the  other 
t«Tritorie»  of  Koondooz.    It  consists  of  the  valley 
of  the  Koocha,  a  tributary  of  the  Oxus,  which 
rises  at  its  SE.  comer,  and  soon  becomes  a  con- 
siderate river,  unfordable  even  at  Ihulukshan 
(Fyzabad).    The  scenery  of  this  country',  and  its 
natural  ]>r(Nlucti(ms,  are  siM>ken  of  in  high  terms 
by  all  wlio  have  visited  it ;  it  contains  ruby  mines, 
aiid  clift's  of  lapis  lazuli      Near  the  Oxus  the 
former  are  still  worked  by  the  khan  of  KtMHidooz, 
and  the  latter  article,  much  <»f  which  was  for- 
merly sent  into  China,  is  obtained  by  lighting  a 
tin>  tinder  the  cliffs,  and,  when  hot,  dashing  cold 
water  u|Nm  tliem,  which  causes  them  to  fracture. 
The  nibv  mines  were  well  known  to  the  emperors 
of  Delhi,  and  at  a  much  earlier  period :  they  are 
at   a  place  calletl  Gharan,  on  the  verge  of  the 
(.)xum;  are  dug  in  low  hills;  and  the  gems  eni- 
iHMlded  in  lim€»tone  like  n)und  ))ieces  of  pebble  or 
tlints.    Tlie  inhabitants  of  Budukhshan  arc  Tad- 
jiks;  very  social  and  hospitable;  si)eaking  the 
Persian  language,  and  retaining  the  manners  and 
customs  prevalent  N.  the  Hindoo  Koosh  iK'fore 
the  Tartar  invasion.    Neither  l;zl)eks  nor  Toorkecs 
had  settled  in  the  country  l)efore  the  chief  of 
K<K)nd(M)z  overran  it,  by  wliom  its  own  chief  was 
dethrone<l;  since  which  its  |K>asantr>' liave  been 
<lriven  out,  and  a  rabble  of  lawless  soldiery  quar- 
tered in  their  stead.    The  capital  is  also  called 
HiKlukhshun,  or  Fvzabad,  and  is  near  the  K.  iumk 
of  the  K«KKha,  in'lat.  'MP  2«'  N..  K»ng.  71°  23'  E. 
It  is  said  to  have  l)een  peopled  from  lialkh,  and 
m(»st  of  t  he  inhabitants  are  of  the  Shiak  sect.   This 
country'  sufferwl  much  from  a  terrilic  earthquake 
in  .laiiuar}'  iKi2j  which  npp<'are<l  to  exhibit  its 
chief  vi«»lence  in  this  valley,  and  destmyed  many 
roads  and  villages,  and  a  great  part  of  the  po])u- 
lation. 

lU'DWEIS,  a  town  of  U<»hemia,  ca)>.  cin*le  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  r.  liank  of  the  Moldau.  75 
in.  S.  Prague  bv  road,  and  15'.>m.  NVV.  Vienna  bv 
railway.  Pop.'l  1,H11  in  1H57.  The  town  is  well 
and  n'gularly  built,  and  partially  fortifinl.  Con- 
tains a  oathe<lral,  s<'ven  churi'he?s  a  court  of  juris- 
diction for  the  circle,  g\'n)nasium,  phih)s«»phical 
afa<iemv.  and  di(>cesan  seminar^'.  Has  manufac- 
tories of  w(K)lIen  cloth,  muhlui,  damask,  saltpetre, 
and  musical  instruments ;  and  coiisi<lerable  trade 
in  horses  an<l  com. 

HL'ENOS  AYKES  {Good  Air),  a  marit.  city  of 
S.  America,  cap.  of  the  Argentine  confederation,  on 
the  S\V.  shore  of  the  e4»tuar>'  of  the  gn-at  river 
I  At  Plata,  125  m.  W.  bv  N.  MonteWdeo,  and  90  m. 
NW.  Point  Piedras;'  Ut.  34°  3«'  29"  S.,  long. 
r.«o  23'  3-1"  W.  Pop.  estimateil  at  l(MMMM) ;  from 
l.'s<MM>  to  2<MMMJ  of  whom  are  foroigners,  chirtiy 
Knglish  and  FreiK'h.  llie  city  is  built  uiH»n  a 
bank,  fnun  15  t(»  20  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  river. 
Including  its  suburlis,  it  extends  N.  and  id.  fur 


BUENOS  AYRES 


583 


upwards  of  2  m.,  with  a  breadth  in  its  centre  of 
al)out  14  in.    It  is  built  on  a  uniform  plan;  the 
streets,  which  are  all  straight,  intersect  each  other 
at  right  angles  at  every  150  yanLn.  dividin^j^it  into 
a  number  of  squares,  each  having  an  an>a  of  about 
4  Eiig.  acTes.    The  principal  streets,  which  were 
fomierly  all  but  impassable  in  wet  weather,  while 
in  the  dry  season  they  were  oliscured  with  clouds 
of  dust,  are  now  tolerably  well  jiaved,  and  provide<l 
with  footpaths  on  either  si<le.     Tlie  houses  and 
other  buildings  have  also  been  greatly  impntved 
within  the  last  few  yeaiH,  and  their  interior  ren- 
dered much  more  comfortable;  up^ier  stories  are 
now  general!  V  added  to  them ;  chimneys,  that  were 
formerly  all  but  unknown,  are  common ;  they  are 
sup))lied  with  Englisti  grates,  and  with  coals  carried 
out  from  Liyer]M»ol  as  liallast.    Most  sorts  of  Eu- 
roi>ean  furniture  have  found  their  way  into  the 
residences  of  the  upiier  classes.     Almost  everv 
house  in  the  principal  streets  has  a  garden  both 
before  and  bclund  it;  and  many  have  latticed 
balconies  in  which  o<lorifen>us  shmbe  are  rcare<L 
lliough  on  the  edge  of  one  of  the  greatest  rivers 
in  the  world,  water  in  Buenos  Ayres  is  both  scarce 
an<l  <lear.    The  wells,  though  numerous,  afford  no- 
thuig  but  hard,  brackish  water,  unfit  for  culinary 
purposes.    There  are  no  public  cisterns ;  rain-water 
LH,  indeed,  carefully  collected  in  a  few  private 
tanks;  but  the  mass  of  the  |)eople  have  to  |iay 
hiph  for  their  daily  sup|)ly,  which  instead  of  being 
raised  from  the  river  by  machinery,  and  conveywl 
in  conduits  to  public  pumps,  is  carried  about  in 
butts  mounted  on  bullock-carts,    llie  quarter  of 
the  city  inhabited  by  Mestizos  and  negrt>es  is 
^Tetched  and  filthy  ui  app<'arance,  and  strongly 
contrasts  with  the  opulence  and  taste  disp]aye<I  in 
the  other  jwrts.    Tlie  Plaza^  or  great  s({iiare,  con- 
tains the  cathedral,  and  the  town-hall,  a  handsome 
stone  edifice,  built  bv  the  Jesuits;  and  a  whole 
side  of  it  is  iiccupied  by  the  Becova,  a  range  of 
piazzas,  150  yanls  long,  and  alwve  20  in  wi<lth, 
enclosing  a  double  range  of  slic»ps.    In  the  centre 
of  the  s<)uare  is  a  small  obelisk,  erected  to  com- 
memorate the  declaration  of  inde|»endence.    The 
town-hall  is  chiefi^y'  used  as  a  prison,  but  meetings 
of  the  munici]>ahty  are  sometimes  held  in  the 
upper  rooms ;  and  from  the  balcony  the  citizens 
are  harangucHl  on  public  occasions.    The  cathe- 
dralj  a  large  hands4)ine  edifice,  with  a  cupola  and 
)K>rticos,  has  its  interior  jmifusely  decoratetl  iiith 
car\'ing  and  gilding,  and  its  dome  | tainted  in  com- 
|>artmeiits,  representing  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
The  church  (»f  the  Fnin(*iscans,  and  that  of  the 
convent  of  Mercy,  aR»  next  in  rank,  and  have 
Steepler*  and  cupolas  nearly  in  tlic  same  stvle  as 
the  cathedraL    In  the  former  there  is  a  painting 
of  the  l^ast  Supper,  well  execute<l  by  a  native 
Indian  artist.     'Tliere  are  many  other  Cath<ilic 
<"hun;hes,  S4*veral  convents  and  nunneries,  a  Pro- 
tectant churt!h,  I^resbyterian  chapel,  Ac,  a  found- 
ling hospital,  ori)han  a.«<ylum.  and  other  1)cnev<deiit 
institutions.    Tlurse  e<iifices  are  all  Imilt  of  fine 
white  stone,  found  in  the  )>lain  not  far  from  the 
<rity.    The  ftirt,  which  contains  the  nvidence  of 
the  supreme  direct<ir  and  the  govemment  ofiiccs, 
is  a  s({uare  brick  and  st(»ne  building,  near  the  river. 
'Hie  university,  one  of  the  most  celebrate<l  in  S. 
America,  (K!cupi<'s  a  ver\' extensive  building,  which 
has  l>een  recently  fitte<l  up  at  a  gn*at  expense:  a 
suite  of  six  nioms  in  this  building  contains  the 
state  librar>-,  a  gisnl  collection  of  alx>ut  25,(M>0  vols. 
Tlie  estiwrj'  of  the  Pbita  is  very  bn»ad,  but  is 
also  in  most  ^mrts  shaHow,  encumbered  with  sand- 
banks, and  infctsted  with  sudden  gusts  of  wind 
called  /MiN^/rrrM.     Its  navigation  is  constiiuently 
attended  with  a  gtssi  deal  of  diflicultv,  and  ships 
bound  for  Uueuoti  Ayres  generally  take  pilots  on 


684 


BUENOS  AYRES 


iMmrd.  There  is  no  haHM)iir,  and  vetweln  dravrinR 
H)  or  17  ft.  water  anchor  in  the  outer  roadm  calle<i 
the  Amarrudrroj  7  <»r  K  m.  from  the  shore,  loailini^ 
and  unhiailin^  by  means  of  li^htern.  'nii»,  t(M».  Ls 
an  ()|>eration  by  no  means  free  fitim  dan^^er,  boat8 
iK'infjf  sometiiues  swnm|ie(l  in  erofisiiifx  the  bar 
between  tiie  outer  and  inner  ruatis.      From  the  {  exclusively  fur  the  beuolit  of  the  poor,  under  the 


BUFFALO 

Bervant,  intelligent,  and  deMmos  to  improw. 
HUucation  receiveit  a  conndcrable  Bharc  of  atteo- 
tion.  BeMideri  the  univeniity,  m  superior  academv, 
and  a  military'  college,  there  arc  10  public  tichu4, 
for  whoMe  support  the  corporation  contriUiKr^ 
about  7,iKX)  dollais  annually,  and  5  other  echcuk, 


want  of  a  nier,  and  tlu'  shallowness  of  the  water 
on  the  beach,  even  the  boats  are  not  able  to  come 
close  to  the  shore,  but  are  met  at  a  little  distance 
from  it  by  a  rude  st)rt  of  ox-t:arts,  into  which  they 
de|M>sit  their  ^(hmIs,  at  no  little  nsk,  and  sometimes 
much  loss.   These  unfavourable  circumstances  o|)e- 


chaige  of  diJOTcrent  moiuuteries,  and  Mifiplied  with 
books  and  stationer^'  at  the  iMiblic  expen.<«.  It 
is  rare  to  meet  with  a  boy  10  or  12  yeans  of  m^ 
in  the  citv  who  cannot  read  and  write.  Tbiire 
are  several  daily  and  weekly  jouniala. 

Huenos  AjTes  was  founded  by  I>on  Pedro  de 


rate  as  a  drawback  on  the  trade  of  the  city,  and    Mendoza,   in   1534,   but,   in  conisequence  c^  iLe 


tend  proportionally  to  auj^nont  tliat  of  Montevideo, 
which  is  more  easily  a<;cessible.  Hut  notwith- 
Btandin^  the  competition  of  the  latter,  and  the 
great  incn>ase  of  its  tnule  of  late  years,  Hutaios 
Ayres  is  still  the  pTinci{>al  outlet  f<>r  the  produce 
of  the  vast  countries  traversH^l  l)y  the  I^  Plata, 
and  es|)ecially  for  tlie  provinces  situated  on  it« 
ri^ht  luink. 

Within  the  last  few  vears  the  tra<le  in  w(k)1,  in 


opposition  of  the  In<liana  to  the  settlement,  it 
was  obli>;ed  to  be  abandoned  at  two  subsequent 
]>eri(Mis,  and  was  not  permanentlv  colonuaed  rill 
ir>l<0,  after  some  hharf)  actions  with  the  luitiveiii, 
In  1G2U,  the  city  was  erected  into  a  bisho^iric, 
atul  in  17U0  c<»ntained  1 0.000  inhaliitaiits.  lu 
177(1  it  became  the  seat  of  the  vicc-ntyally  of  La 
Plata;  and  in  1778,  when  the  trade  of  the  river 
was  thrown  o(ien  by  Spain,  its  trade  and  otui!^- 


consequenci>  of  the  great  improvement  effecte<l  in  quencc  In-gan  ra|)idly  to  au^nent.  In  June  \>9v>i 
the  linked  of  sheep,  has  Urome  of  considerable  and  .  it  was  taken  by  the  British,  but  retaken  by  the 
ra|>idly  increasing  iuifMirtance,  the  ex|H>rts  amount- ;  Siwnish  in  the  same  year.  In  1810  the  reVulu- 
ing,(»n  the  average,  to  alKtve  a  million  sterling  ]ierj  tiouanr'  movements  began  that  ended  in  the 
annum.  The  tnule  in  hides,  l)oth  dry  and  salte<l,  <  emancipation  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  states  of 
is  of  equal  im|)<»rtance,  the  ex{M>rts  bi'ing  al>ove  a  I-^  Plata,  from  Old  Spain.  Tlie  declaratii>n  ot 
million  hi  value  per  annum.  Subjoined  \»  an  ac-  independence  appeared  on  the  9th  of  July.  iHltl, 
count  of  the  quantities  of  the  principal  articles  of  and  by  the  terms  of  it  a  citnfederate  re)>ublic  was 


produce  exixirted  fnim  the  i>ort  of  Buenos  Ayres 
during  the  year  ended  the  30th  of  June,  18(J2  : — 


Valoed  at 

£ 

4M,-m-)  ffaltcd  ox  hides             'J.'i«.  each 

W;7.878 

1,217.771  dry              „                  2«>ji.     „ 

1,217,771 

2K.'..oin»  salud  honw  hides          H*.    „ 

114,Oi»9 

60,(>4K(lry             .,                     U*.     „ 

l.V>12 

1 1  ,->%\  piix-s  of  tullow            .€•-».')  per  pijx) 

2:n,H«50 

8.7:»7  l)oxo«         „                   .€1«»  |>or  1k)X 

140.012 

4H,7»;6  balw  of  w(m)1               JC'J."i  per  bale 

1.21 9,1. ■>() 

:i,ot«      „    ofhorsi-hnir        £.'•«      „ 

152.H(>0 

K,!».'>1      „    of  Hhct'|B<kini»      X.:M)      „ 

2<iH..'i:jO 

499,788  quintals uf  jerked  boef  IU4.  pcrquiut. 

249.894 

£4,176,446 

Tlie    total    value    of    the    imports    averages 
2,500.000/.,   of  which    those  furnished  by  (Ireat 
Britain   amount   to   near  a   half.     The  *imp(»rtj< 
chiefly  consist  of  cotton,  linen,  woollen  an<l  silk 
manufactures,  hanlwari>,  cutler)',  earthenware  of 
all  sorts,  glass,  leather,  and  haK     France  supplies 
Buenos   Ayres    with   jewellerj-,   i)erfumery,   and 
otlier  articles  of  luxurv;  the*  im)>orts   from  the 
U.  States  consist  chieAy  of  coarse   unbleached 
ch>ths,    spirits,    soa|>,  s])erm   candles,  drietl  and 
salted   pnjvisions,   tobacco,  funuture,   and  deals. 
ITie  M(Hliterraneati  trade  is  ))rinci)>ally  in  Sicilian 
and  S|)anish  prmluce,  purticuhirly  cheap   wines, 
brandies,   olive   oil,   maccaroni,  drie<l  fruits,  and 
paf>er.      Si^nish    goo<ls    are    in    little    demand, 
though  some  serges,   velvet,   sewnig    silk,    and 
snuff,  are  imi)ort(Ml.     The  annual  importation  of 
St>anish   and   Sicilian   wines   is   from    10,000   to 
12,000  pii>es,  l)esides  al>out  1,000  pif»es  of  brandy. 
The  ytrba   uuitr^  or  Paraguay  tea,  formerly  an 
ex|N)rt  article  of  some  consequence,  has  now  been 
nearly  su})erseded,  even  in  Ihienos  Ayres,  by  tea : 
the  other  Chinese  im|K>rts  are  silks, 'cra]K»sI  nan- 
keens, }K)rcelain,  and  numerous   mimtr  articles. 
The  tratie  with  Chili  and  Peru  is  insignificant. 
The  markets  of  the  city  are  well  supplied  with 
butchers'  meat  and  fish.*  Poultrj-  is  dear,  a  couple 
of  ft)wb«  selling  for  as  much  as  an*  ox.     Vegetables 
and  fruit  generally  are  abw)  dear;  milk  in  quality 
and  price  is  much  the  same  as  in  l^ondon,  and  ail 
the  butter  used  is  imistrted. 
The  iiihab.  of  Bueuos  A^tcs  arc  said  to  be  ob- 


estabushed  under  the  name  of  *  the  I'nited  l*r» 
vinces  of  the  Hio  de  la  Plata.'  In  January-  IKil. 
a  constitution  creating  the  *  Aij^iitiuc  C«»nte«ler- 
ation,'  was  ))romulgated,  but  on  various  miMiiti- 
cations  teuduig  to  greater  union,  l)eing  intnxlm'eil 
[  in  it,  the  city  and  pro^'int»e  of  iSuence<  Ayrr.-* 
secedeil  in  1854.  However,  it  a^aiii  joined  the 
Argentine  Confe<lerati<»n  in  1860,  the  opjuments 
of  the  re-incoriM)ration  having  been  defeated  iu 
the  course  uf  a  short  civil  war. 

BUFFALO,  a  citv  of  the  U.  S.  of  America, 
New  Y«>rk  cap.,  co.  l^rie.  at  the  W.  extremity  of 
Lake  Erie,  when*  it  contracts  intti  Niagara  river, 
2U3  m.  N\V.  New  Y<»rk,  and  22  m.  S.  Niagara 
falls.     Pop.  25,011  in  1840,  and  Hl,i;l0  in  Ibi'^K 
The  town  stands  partly  on  a  low  marshy  tract, 
intersected  by    Buffalo  creek,    wliich    form>    its 
harliour.  and  jwirtly  on  on  elevateii  terraoe,  U*a.i- 
ing  to  a  still  higher  plateau.     The  princi[>al  srrevii. 
descend  from  the  high  ground  over  the  terrace 
towanU  the  cjt>ek  and  harlx>ur,  and  are  ercwfrc*!  by 
the  others  generally  at  right  angles.     Acitmiing 
to  Captain   Marrj'at   (Diaiy  in  America,   I8ot0, 
*  Buffalo  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  America.     It  is 
hanlly  to  be  credite<l  that  such  a  beautiful  city 
should  have  risen  up  in  the  wilderness  in  S4»  short 
a  |>erio<l.    In  the  year  1814  it  was  burnt  dowiu 
bemg  then  only  a'  village ;  only  one  house  vrx< 
left  stantling,  and  now  it  is  a  city  with  25,0<h) 
inhab.     It  Ls  remarkably  well  built ;'  all  the  himws 
in  the  princijml  streets  are   lofty  and   sulfe<taii- 
tial,  and  ore  either  of  brick  or  granite.    The  main 
street  is  wider,  and  the  stores  handsomer  tluin  the 
majority  of  those  in  New  York.     It  has  ver\' 
tine  churches  (now  18  or  20),  a  handsome  theatre, 
town-hall,  and  market;  and  3  or  4  hotels,  one  of 
which  is  sujwrior  to  most  others  in  ^Vmerii'a: 
and  to  these  we  must  add  a  fine  atone  |ucr,  with 
a  lighthouse,  and  a  harbour  full  of  stiip|mig.  and 
magnificent  steam  boats.    It  is  almost  incom|)n> 
hensible   tliat  all  this  should  have  been  acci-m- 
plished   since   the  year   1814.     And   what    has 
occasione<l  this  spriiiging  up  of  a  city,  in  so  shitft 
a  time  as  to  remind  you  of  AladdinV  iiiagic  (lalace  ? 
The  opening  of  the*Krie  canal,  firom  l^ke  Krie  to 
the  Hudson  river  and  New  York,  passing  through 


BUF1?'AL0 

the  centre  of  the  most  populous  and  fertile  states.* 
The  city  now  is  not  dependent  for  its  commerce 
on  the  canal,  but  is  connected,  by  several  lines  of 
railway,  with  all  the  more  important  towns  of  the 
United  States.  It  also  contains  a  literary  and 
scientific  academy;  a  lyccum,  having  a  hbrary 
and  chemical  apparatus;  and  the  university  of 
W.  New  York. 

Buffalo  creek,  formed  by  the  confluence  of 
several  small  streams,  is  navigable  for  about  8  m. 
A  bar  at  its  mouth  has  been  dispersed,  so  as  to 
admit  vessels  drawing  8  ft.  water  into  the  har- 
bour ;  and  a  pier,  1,500  ft.  in  length,  with  a  light- 
house upon  it,  has  been  carried  out  into  the  lake, 
Ut  facilitate  their  ingress  and  ^^ress.  Still,  how- 
ever, the  harbour  is  not  accessible  at  all  seasons, 
on  account  of  the  accumulation  of  ice  brought 
down  by  the  W.  winds,  and  a  ship  canal  has 
been  cut  from  it  to  the  lake  W.  of  the  town, 
which  has  done  a  good  deal  to  obviate  this  in- 
convenience. From  its  position  on  the  best 
channel  of  intercourse  between  the  W.  regions 
and  the  Atlantic,  as  well  as  its  being  the  onlpr 
lM>rt  of  entry  for  the  Niagara  district,  Buffalo  is 
a  place  of  great  and  increasing  trade.  Subjoined 
iri  an  account  of  the  number  of  vessels  owned  in 
Buffalo,  aud  their  tonnage,  in  the  year  1860 : — 


Craft 


BULGARIA 


586 


Sti'amers 
Propellers 
Tugs  . 
Barques  . 
Brigs  . 
ijchooncrs 

Total 


Number 

TODIMg* 

13 

10,266 

67 

ai.iw 

3'2 

2.774 

10 

4,834 

18 

6,656 

13.^ 

33,476 

266 


90,159 


I 


The  number  of  vessels  engaged  in  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  western  lakes  dunug  the  year  18C0 
was  as  follows : — 


Cralt 


Number 


St«imerfi 
Propellers 

lUirque^s  .... 
BrigA  .... 
Schooners  and  Sloops 

Total    .      .      . 


138 

197 

68 

90 

974 


Tonnag* 

69.160 
61,660 
23.417 
25,0  »7 
198,661 


1,467 


877,826 


The  chief  trade  of  Buffalo  consists  in  sliipments 
of  wheat  and  tlour. 

Buffalo  was  an  inconsiderable  place  previously 
to  1812,  in  which  year  it  was  made  a  military 
station.  Its  destruction  in  1814  was  effected  by 
a  {Mirty  of  British  and  Indians;  but  in  1817,  it 
again  contained  more  than  100  houses,  many  of 
which  were  large  and  elegant.  In  1882  it  was 
incorporated  as  the  *  City  of  Buffalo,'  divided  into 
live  wards,  and  the  government  vested  in  a 
mayor  and  common  council  chosen  annually  by 
the  citizens. 

BUFFON,  a  small  viL  of  France,  di^p.  Cote 
d'Or,  on  the  Arman9on,  12  m.  N.  Semur.  lliis 
village  belonged  to  the  illustrious  author  of  the 
Uisioire  Naturelle^  Georges  Louis  Le-Clerc, 
created,  by  Louis  XV.,  Count  de  Buffon,  by  which 
name  he  has  since  been  dLntingmshed. 

BU(i  (an.  Hvpanis  or  Bogus),  a  river  of  Euro- 
pean Russia.  It  rises  near  Blosysko,  in  the  S\V. 
corner  of  Volhynia,  and  pursues  a  SE.  course  past 
Itrat/laff,  Olivioix)!,  Vosnesensk,  and  Nicolaeff. 
25  ro.  below  which  it  falls  into  the  sestuarv  of  the 
Dniepr.  It  is  na>'igable  from  Vosnesensk.  The 
entrance  to  the  Bug  is  without  the  bar  of  the 
Dniepr ;  happily,  too,  it  has  no  bar  of  its  own, 
and  has  deep  water  as  far  as  Nicolaeff 


BUGIA  or  BOUJEIAH,  a  sea -port  town  of 
Africa,  reg.  Algiers,  on  the  declivity  of  a  moun- 
Uin,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Aduse,  122  m.  £. 
Algiers.  The  port,  which  is  large,  is  formed  by  a 
projecting  neck  of  land,  great  part  of  which  waa 
anciently  faced  with  stone.  There  is  good  an- 
chorage off  the  town  in  8  or  10  fathoms,  but  NE. 
>vinds  throw  in  a  heavy  sea.  Previously  to  the 
French  occupation,  the  town  was  protected  bv 
half  ruinous  walls,  and  by  a  castle  on  the  summit 
of  a  hill,  which  also  commanded  the  roadstead* 
The  inhabe.  manufocture  ploughshares,  mattocks, 
&c  of  the  iron  obtained  from  the  neighbouring 
mountains,  and  great  quantities  of  oil  and  wax 
are  brought  down  to  this  place  by  the  Kabyles, 
for  shipment.  The  town  is  built  of,  and  stands 
upon,  the  ruins  of  a  more  considerable  ancient 
city.  It  was  bombarded  by  Sir  Edward  Spraggs, 
in  1071. 

BUGUE  (LE),  a  town  of  France,  d<«p.  Dor- 
dogiie,  cap.  cant.,  a  little  above  the  confluence  of 
the  V^z^  with  the  Dordogne,  16  m.  WNW. 
Sarhit  Pop.  2,969  in  1861.  The  town  is  ad- 
vantageously situated,  well  built,  and  carries  on 
different  branches  of  the  woollen  manufacture 
It  is  also  the  entrepot  of  the  wines  and  other 
prrnlucts  of  the  sunrounding  cantons,  which  are 
shi]>pe<l  thence  to  Bordeaux,  and  has  a  consider- 
able trade  in  cattle  and  hogs. 

BUIS  (LE),  a  town  of  France,  dcfp.  Drome, 
cap.  cant.,  on  the  Ouveze,  10  m.  SE.  Nions.  Pop. 
2,870  in  1861.  The  town  is  ill  built,  but  has  some 
tine  promenades  and  a  handsome  square,  sur- 
n)unded  by  a  double  row  of  trees.  It  has  some 
trade  in  wool,  cloth,  hats,  olive  oil,  and  iewellen\ 
BUJA.LANCE,  a  town  of  Spain,  Andalusia, 
prov.  Cordova,  being  22  m.  E.  from  the  city  of 
that  name,  and  7  m.  from  the  Guadalquivir,  on  the 
railway  from  Cordova  to  Madrid.  Pop.  8,917  in 
1857.  The  town  is  well  built,  with  broad  streets, 
has  two  convents  for  either  sex,  two  hospitals,  a 
college,  and  a  foimdling  hospital.  It  has  some 
woollen  fabrics,  and  a  la^  fair  which  commenct^ 
on  the  26th  of  August,  lliough  its  modem  name 
be  of  Arabic  origin,  it  is  l>elieved  that  this  town 
occupies  the  site  of  the  Calpumia  of  the  Komans ; 
and  It  has  various  inscriptions,  and  other  antiqui- 
ties of  Koman  origin. 

BUKHUK,  an  island  and  fort  in  the  Indus,  1(^,5 
m.  N.  Ilydrabad.  The  fort,  which  is  constructed 
of  brick,  is  about  400  yards  from  the  left,  and  350 
fn>m  the  right  bank  of  the  Indus.  But  it  has  no 
strength  in  its  works,  and  is  formidable  only  from 
its  position. 

BUKOWINE,  a  ci-devant  |m>vince  of  the  Au- 
strian empire,  now  included  in  Gallicia,  which  see. 
BULGARIA  (an.  Monia  Inferior)^  a  large  prov. 
of  Turkey  in  Europe,  included  in  the  beglerbeglik 
of  Koumelia ;  Iving  between  lat,  42°  8'  and  ^^W 
X^  and  long.  t29  14'  and  29°  36'  E.;  having  N. 
Wallachia  and  Bessarabia,  W.  Servia,  S.  Houmelia, 
and  E.  the  BUck  Sea.  Length,  NE.  to  SW.,  about 
350  m. ;  breadth  var\'ing  from  40  to  100  m.  Area, 
estimated,  from  30,000  to  34,000  sq.  m.  Po|). 
3,000,000.  The  coimtry  is  for  the  most  part 
mountainous,  and  eminently  so  in  the  S.,  where 
the  principal  chain  of  the  Balkhan  mnts.  forms  ita 
boundary:  the  Danube  constitutes  ita  N.  Umit; 
but  excepting  that  river,  Bulgiuia  possesses  none  of 
any  magnitude,  although  sufficiently  watered  by 
small  stR^ams.  Its  climate  is  temperate,  and  its 
soil  fertile  and  well  adapted  for  the  culture  of  com, 
\4iies,  the  mulberrv',  and  other  fruit  trees,  and 
tobacco.  There  are  but  few  marshes ;  the  pastur- 
ages are  extensive  and  rich,  and  feed  numerous 
herds  of  cattle :  the  higher  lands  are  often  covered 
with  forests  of  pine,  oak,  and  beech.  The  Bulga* 


r,86  Bl^DLEClTNI) 

rians    aro    ilesreiuled    fn>m    a    Slavonic    honlo, 
fonnorly  iiiliabitiiif^  the  banks  of  flic  WolfCJi,  who 
«T<»}NHt'(l  tin*  l>annlK>  an<l  estuMi.^ht**!  tlu'mM*lve«  in 
this  oMintn*  in  the  7th  centun',  iuu\  have  sinco 
^uiually  spread  thcmH'lvo.s  ovor  a  lai^c  |»art  of 
the  n'p«»n  S.  of  tlie  Halkhan.    Tin?  ]>nt*ent  race 
have  laid   aside  the  militan-  character  of  their 
ancestors;   they  are  a  |»astoral  i>eo|>le,  livinff  in 
snnill  hamlets  <»f  alKmt  40  or  /»0  houses  each,  and 
<K'cn|>yinj^  themselves  chiefly  in  ;i^icnlture  and 
cattle-breedinjj:,  with  some  mannfactures,  as  th(»se 
<»f   coarse    woollen    clotli,   ride -barrels,   morocco 
leather,  and  attar  of  roses.     Ijir^e  ^aniens  are  de- 
v<ited  to  the  cullnre  of  nMjes;  and  we  are  indebte<l 
to  the  linl^arians  f(»r  the  linest  and  most  elejjant 
of  ])erfumes.    The  fieople  are  kind,  hospit;dde.  and 
iK'nevolent.   The  women,  who  mix  fret^lv  with  the 
men.  are  handsome,  industrions,  and  dn*ss  neatly : 
all  wear  trinkets;  and  the  prls  have  their  heads 
inicoveretl,  and  their  hair  braide*!  and  «)niamented 
with  dift'erent  coins,  as  amongst  the  Albanians. 
'ITie   male  j>easantr>'  dress  in  brown  shee|>-skiii 
caps,  jackets  of  nndyed  brown  wool,  which  their 
wives  spin  and  weave,  white  cloth  trowsers,  and 
sandals  of  raw  leather,  an<l  carry  no  weii|Mm»  of 
offence.     Thev    live    in    hous(?s    of    wicker>vork 
i»lnstere<l.  the  interior  Ix'in;;  clean  and  comf»»rtable. 
Their  lanj^'a^t?  is  a  dialect  of  the  S<'r\ian.     Kver 
smce  the  Dth  century  their  relipon  has  l)een  that 
of  the  (ireek  church;  but  they  have  few  places  of 
worship,  and  in  those  they  have  the  wrvice  is 
f>erforme<l  in  Greek,  a  tonj:^ic  which  they  do  not 
understand.     ScIhkiIs  an«l  books  are  equally  rare 
with  churches,  and  except  the  shop-kee|K»r  and 
priest  of  a  villajj^e,  scarcely  any  one  C4in  read  <ir 
write;  yet,  n()twitiistanding  this  j;;ross  ig^norance, 
crimes  are  singularly  rare,  and  travellers  in  their 
country'  are  not  secure  only,  but  experience  the 
kindest  treatment.     Ihilgana  is  divided  into  four 
sandjaks,  viz.  those  of  .SilL'*tria,  Kustchuk,  Widin, 
an<l  Sophia ;  its  chief  towns  are  Sophia  the  capital. 
Shunila,  Silistria,  Kustchuk,  Nikopoli,  Widin,  and 
Varna. 

IJL'XDLFX'irND.  a  large  division  of  Ilindo>tan, 
pr(»v.  Allahabad,  Ijetween  lat.  24°  IV  and  *J0O  20' 
N.,  and  long.  7(K>  4«'  and  H\o  ;ia'  K.;  having  N. 
the  .lumna  :  S.  Berar  and  Malwah  ;  E.  Ilogilcund; 
and  W.  Scindia's  dom.:  area  2H,817  sq.  m.  lN>p. 
2,400,000.  The  country  is  mountainous,  and  im- 
j)erfectly  cultivated;  the  mountains  l>elong  to  the 
Vindhyan  chain,  and  nm  in  parallel  ranges  through 
the  distr.,  each  successively  buttressing  a  table- 
land; the  country  is  naturally  ver\'  strtmg,  ever\' 
hill  iK'ing  a  natural  fortress,  and  often  crf)wned  by 
an  artificial  one;  but  the  highest  summit  is  no 
more  than  2.000  ft.  alxne  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
Cane,  Desan,  and  IJetwah,  arc  the  chief  rivers,  bnt 
none  <»f  them  is  of  much  imi)ortance;  there  are 
several  artificial  reserx'oirs  or  lakes,  formed  by 
masonry,  enacted  acn>s8  the  currents  of  various 
streams  for  the  purj>oses  of  irrigation.  The  soil  is  of 
every  variety,  from  the  rich  black  loam  to  the  ste- 
rile conkar;  the  valleys  and  lowlands  are  generally 
of  the  former,  and,  when  projHTly  watered,  yield 
abundant  crops;  the  summits  of  the  hills,  although 
mostly  rocky,  are  covered  witli  small  cop])ice- 
wcmkI:  the  face  of  the  c(»untr\'  often  presents  de- 
tnche<l  pieces  of  jungle,  but  there  are  no  forests, 
and  a  few  scattered  and  stunted  teak-trees  form 
the  oidy  large  tind)er.  IJundlecund  is  celebrated 
for  its  (liimiond  mines  in  the  table-land  of  Pannah, 
where  they  are  said  to  be  found  wherever  the  soil 
is  gravelly.  This  soil  is  from  2  to  8  cubits  deep, 
mostly  verv  red,  but  elsewhere  of  a  dark  brown; 
it  contains  many  small  pebbles,  with  which  the 
diamonds  arc  found  intermixed,  but  never  adher- 
ing to  any  other  stone  or  iiebble.    The  workmen 


BUNKER'S  HILL 

lift  up  the  gravelly  earth ;  thrr»w  it  into  a  sballnw 
pit  fille<l  with  water;  ami,  after  washinir  ooi  the 
earth,  examine  the  pebble**  on  a  boanL  Much  time 
Is  fniitlessly  lost,  but  a  ver>'  few  diamonds  found  in 
the  course  of  the  year  repay  the  workman,  jRincf  he 
receives  h  the  value  of  thoee  above  the  j^ize  of  a 
fillK'rt,  \  the  value  of  those  as  Iar]^«  a.o  a  pea,  &c. 
Ver\'  few  are  n<»w  foun<l  worth  more  than  Km/- 
and  their  pn)fit8  are  comparatively  inRignifkanr. 
The  mines  are  the  exclusive  pn»perty  of  the  rajah 
of  I'annah ;  they  arc  sup[KM»ed  to  be  identical  with 
the  i^anassa  of  Ptolemy. 

Buudlecuiid  is  now  8ulw>tantial]y  British  tern- 
tor}-,  though  partly  under  native  chiefs,  who. 
since  1««H,  have  retained  the  internal  ailniini:^ 
tration  of  their  <lom.,  on  an  acknowlcvjlj^ent  of 
allegiance.  JIind<K>  usages  have  lieen  leKs  affeirted 
here  by  foreign  rule  than  in  most  other  parts  of 
India;  the  |)eople  generally  arc  iiiduittriou.s.  and 
oU'dient  to  the  constituted  authorities  though 
their  chiefs  arc  restless  and  turl>iilent.  Tlieir 
language  is  a  dialect  of  the  Sansicrit.  They  arp 
usually  |V)ssessed  of  but  little  pergonal  prr»perty; 
then'!  is  little  tra<le  or  cajiital  stirring,  and  thcae 
circumstantres,  tt^ether  with  the  liare  and  open 
charact<>r  of  the  country,  are  pmhmbly  the  caa**^ 
of  daanty  or  gang-rt»bbery  beinfc  so  unusual 
AtHKrious  crimas  are  rare;  footpad  roWiery  an<i 
cozzankyy  or  roblx^rj'  on  horsel»ack,  an?  the  only 
serious  offences,  and  these  are  most  common  f»n  the 
skirts  of  Scindia's  prov.,  whence  pmall  fttrties  of 
Piuilarries  occasionally  enter  on  mvaging  excur- 
sions :  burglary  and  theft  are  not  common.  The 
zemindars  consider  it  highly  dij^reimtalde  to  o»n- 
nive  at  such  »)utrages,  and  firequently  expel  firooi 
their  villages  or  estates  persons  of  suspected 
character.  The  punchayet,  or  arbitration  system, 
in  the  settlement  of  disputes,  has  been  always  very 
much  re^)rte<l  to  here. 

At  the  fall  »)f  the  Delhi  empire,  the  l^fahrattas 
untler  Ali  Bahauiler,  possessed  themselves  of  part 
of  this  j>n>v.,  but  were  unable  to  establish  their 
authority  in  the  villages  and  hill  fortresses.  Bun- 
(llecund  was  occupied  by  the  BritUh  tnx>ps  in 
1«04,  and  crecte<l  into  a  magistracy  imder  the 
IkMiares  court  of  circuit.  In  1S17  that  pf»Ttion  <»f 
it  now  iK'longing  to  the  Bengal  pre^id.  wa&  tinally 
ceded  by  the  I'eislnva,  to  whom  Ali  liahauder  hjul 
l)een  nominally  subordinate. 

BIJLSAUH,  a  sea-[»ort.  town  of  Ilindo^taii, 
presid.  llombav,  c»n  the  <iulph  of  Cambov.  45  m. 
SW.  Surat;  lat.  20©  JJfi'  X.,  long  T.t^  5'' K.  Its 
tra<le  is  considerable,  chiefly  in  grain,  Jagherk-. 
and  timl)er;  it.s  manufactures  are  mostly  coarse 
ginghams  and  other  ch»ths.  Kico  and  sugar-cane 
an*  cultivated  in  its  vicinity. 

UrNCiAY,  a  town  of  luigland,  X.  l>order,  c. 
Suffolk,  hund.  Waveney,  on  the  Wangfonl,  98  m. 
NK.  Lonilon  by  rojul,  and  112^  m.  by  Gr.  Eastern 
railway.  Pop,  ,3,80.)  in  IHOl.  The  town  consists 
of  2  par.,  having  together  .in  area  of  2,0iHi  acn^ 
Having  been  almost  wholly  destroye<l  by  tirv  in 
lOHH.  it  is  comparatively  new,  well'  laid  out,  and 
well  built.  The  market-jdace,  said  to  Ite  the  U->t 
in  the  co.,  has  two  tine  cn>sses;  ami  the  town  has 
also  a  neat  theatre,  and  assembly  rooms:  a  fne 
grammar-school,  with  two  exhib.  to  Emanuel 
Ccdlege,  C'ambridge,  and  several  otlier  sch««'ls; 
the  n»mains  of  a  Benetlictine  nunneri*:  s«»nie 
manufactures  of  hemp;  and  a  considerable  tra*le 
in  malt,  com,  coal,  flour,  and  lime.  Here  is  als<>  a 
lai^c  ])rinting  establishment.  The  trade  of  the 
town  is  pronmted  by  the  Waveney,  tH?ing  navi- 
gable thent'c  to  Yarmouth.  Market,  Thursiby; 
fairs,  14th  Wav,  and  2/»th  Sep. 

lU'NKKirS  HILL,  a  steep  hill  110  i\,  in 
height,  Mujisachubetts,  U.  States,  in  iJie  centre  of 


BUNPOOR 

the  peninsula  on  which  the  town  of  (/harleatown 
is  built,  and  about  1  m.  N.  lionton.  Here  on  the 
17th  June,  1775,  was  fought  one  of  the  earliest  and 
nio!*t  remarkable  battles  of  the  American  revolu- 
tionary war.  The  provincial  troops  having  estab- 
lished themselves  on  a  |M)rti(>n  of  this  height, 
during  the  night,  a  iJritish  fori'e  advanced  to  dis- 
lodge them;  but  though  the  latter  idtimately 
elleoted  their  purpose,  the  resistance  made  by  the 
Americana  was  such,  that  the  British  lost  1<>;>4 
men  killed  and  wounded,  while  the  American  loss 
wjis  only  450,  killed  and  wounded.  In  1825  the 
enn'tion  of  a  granite  obelisk,  intended  t-o  be  220  ft, 
high,  was  commenced  on  the  hill,  in  memorj'  of 
the  action;  but  in  1K)0  it  was  only  one  tliinl 
tinished. 

Hl'NPOOIt,  a  town  or  village  of  Ileloochistan, 
cap.  pn)v.  Kohistan;  14m.  N.  the  Bushkunl  mnts.; 
lat.  270  47'  N.,  long.  i\{.P  20'  K.  It  is  small,  and 
ill-built :  at  one  time  it  had  l)een  summnded  by  a 
raud  wall,  but  the  whole  in  pow  g»)ne  to  <lecay. 
The  citadel  of  the  chief,  strong  enough  to  resist 
any  attacks  from  the  Persians,  is  built  on  the 
summit  of  an  extraordinary  niound  of  eart.h,  said 
by  tra<lition  t(»  have  been  artiticially  raised  i)y  an 
mimense  army  of  Ghebers.  who  at  a  remote  |)eriod 
iMissed  this  way.  The  neighbourlMKMl  of  Bunpoor 
IS  desolate  and  impoverished,  destitute  of  agricul- 
ture, and  even  of  date-trees.  Tlie  inliab.  are  the 
liukhshanee  Ik'looches,  the  leading  tribe  amongst 
the  Nhar(MN«;  the  language  s|K>ken  at  Bunpoor  is 
Persian  and  Bfloochwkee  mixed. 

BUKDVVAX  {Varthanmm  productive),  a  distr. 
of  Hindostan,  presid.  and  prov.  Itcngal;  between 
lat.  22<5  and  24°  X.,  and  long.  Hl^  20' and  8«o  25'; 
having  N.  Bcerbhoom,  K.  Nuddea,  S.  HtH)ghly, 
and  W.  the  Jungle  Mehals  distr.;  area,  2,000  sq. 
m.  Pop.  estimated  at  1,5(MMM)0.  It  is  one  of 
the  m(»st  productive  territories  of  India,  and  l>eing 
environed  by  jungles  N.  and  S.,  ap|»ears  like  a 
ganlen  surroun«led  by  a  wilderness.  The  uncid- 
livatcd  are  but  l-8th  part  of  the  extent  of  thecul- 
tivatt^l  lands:  the  chief  articles  of  ftnxluce  are  in- 
digo, sugar,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  mullwny-trees. 
A  pnn<-iiml  iMirt  of  the  wealth  of  Ihinlwan  consists 
in  its  coal  mines :  the  coal-field  appears  to  be  ve.r\' 
extensive;  the  c«)al  is  of  gixnl  quality,  and  pre- 
fem»d  to  any  other  at  Calcutta.  Several  mines, 
:U)out  Klo  m.  from  that  citv.  are  worke<l  bv  an 
Knglish  company,  which  employ  fn»m  2,<HMI  to 
.'J.O(H)  nativ<'s  in  mining,  and  300  or  4(M)  lj<»ats  in 
c<nivcying  the  c<»al  in  (.'alcutta,  the  mines  iM'ing 
on  tlu'banksof  a  river connecte<l  with  the  Ibn^ghly. 
Fine  iron-ore  is  found  in  the  neighb<iurli(Kxl  of  the 
coal,  and  a  gn*at  <leal  »)f  stone.  Commerce  has 
Ik-cu  greatly  fa*:ilitated  by  the  ojiening  of  the  East 
Indian  mil  way,  the  great  iron  lnghroa<l  fn>ni  Cal- 
cutta to  the  Northern  provinces,  which  runs  right 
through  the  district,  lliere  are,  lK*sides,  giKxl 
roads  to  lI(N)ghly,  Cidna,  and  Cutwa;  the  zemin- 
dars are  opulent,  and  many  of  them  reside  in  the 
capital  of  the  presid.  The  proportion  of  Moham- 
medans to  HiiKloos  is  alK>ut  one  to  tive.  Burd- 
wan  U>came  subjiH't  ti»  the  British,  with  the  rest 
of  l!en;;al,  in  1700. 

DuKDWAN,  a  town  of  IIin<Iostan,  prov.  Bengal, 
cap.  <»f  al>f>ve  distri<'t,  and  seat  of  a  /.illah  c«)urt ; 
(W)  m.  NNW.  Calcutta,  on  the  East  Indian  rail- 
wav,  whi»*h  has  a  station  lu-n*.  I^t.  2i{°  15'  X.. 
long.  «70  57'  K.  Pop.  alM.ut  54.000,  2-7ths  of 
\\lioni  are  Mohammedans.  The  Burdwan  nijah 
has  here  a  large  i>alact>,  an  English  sunnucr-house, 
auil  spacious  gardens. 

Ul  UFOBL),  a  i«ir.  and  t<iwn  of  England,  co. 
Oxford,  hun<l.  Itamptori ;  Oo  in.  WXW.  London. 
iNij).  of  town  1,}.S5.  and  t>f  parish  1,01I>  in  ISJII. 
The  town  LsideaMintlv  situated  bv  tlie  small  river 


BURGOS 


687 


Windrush,  but  is  yerv  indifferentlv  built,  Hie 
chun*h  is  partly  hi  the  Xorman,  partly  in  the  later 
(iothic  style,  and  has  a  ver>'  tine  spire,  siunnount- 
inga  tower.  The  Baptists,  Friends,  and  Wesley- 
ans  have  clia{>els.  There  are  almshouses  for  IC 
poor  widows ;  a  free  school,  with  an  endowment 
pnxlucing  84/.  ayear,  held  in  the  towi-hall,  where, 
till  16iJ6,  the  co.  assizes  were  held.  There  is  a 
weeklv  market  on  Saturdav,  and  fairs  held  the 
last  Saturday  in  April,  and  July  5th,  for  live  stock 
and  cheese.  Saddlery  was  once  a  considerable 
branch  of  manufacture:  there  was  also  a  largo 
traltic  in  W(M>1  and  com;  both  have  greatly  dV 
cline<l;  ami  the  proi>erty  of  the  town  has  l)een 
still  further  tiepreciated  by  the  alteration  in  the 
line  of  nmd  from  Oxford  t4)  Cheltenham,  which 
previ»»usly  ]>assed  through  and  now  avoids  it. 
Edgehill,*  where  Fairfax  l>eat  the  rovalists,  is  in 
the  neighlM>urh(MHl.  The  celebrated  Wilmot,  Earl 
of  Rochester,  was  educate<l  in  itsschooL  It  gives 
the  title  of  earl  to  the  Duke  of  St.  Allmns. 

BlIKG,  a  town  of  Prussia,  prov.  Saxony,  reg. 
Magdeburg,  on  the  Ille,  IH  m.  XE.  Magdeburg, 
on  the  railway  to  Berlin.  Pop.  15,120  in  18G1. 
The  town  is  walle<l,  has  three  gates,  four  reformed 
churchi^,  a  grammar  school,  an  hospital,  and  a 
workhouse.  It  is  also  the  seat  of  a  provincial 
council,  a  boanl  of  revenue,  and  a  district  court  of 
justice.  A  very  extensive  wt>ollen  manufacture 
IS  carrie<l  on,  and  it  has  some  dyeing  estabhsh- 
ment.s  and  snuff  facti»ries. 

B  HUGOS,  a  city  of  Spain,  cap.  prov.  same  name, 
on  the  Arlan^on,  at  the  fttot  of  a  mountain,  KVl 
m.  X.  Madrid,  51)  m.  SW.  of  Vittoria,  on  the  rail- 
way from  Madrid,  acn»ss  the  I^^Tenees,  to  Paris. 
P«>j>.  20,080  in  1857.  The  city  is  of  an  irregular 
sha|)e ;  streets  clean,  and  handsome,  particularly 
that  leading  to  the  cathedral.  It  has  a  modem 
sipiare,  summndiMl  with  a  portict>,  siij)ported  by 
large  columns,  with  houses  upon  a  uniform  |)laii, 
but  small.  There  is  a  bronze  statue  of  Charles 
III.  The  i'athetlral,  a  well-preserve<i  chef-<rteu\Te 
of  (Jothic  elegance,  is  alM>ut  300  ft.  in  length,  by 
alnive  250  in  width.  Its  exterior  Ls  inferior  to 
none  in  Sfuiin:  but  the  interior,  though  rcmaric- 
able  for  the  beauty  (»f  its  workmanship,  is  inferior 
to  the  cathe<lrals  of  Tole<lo  and  Sexalle.  llaWng 
been  the  cra<lle  of  the  two  most  renowned  captaiiui 
of  SiKiiii,  Fenlinand  Gonzales,  and  the  Cid  Cam- 
{H'atior,  Burgos  contains  a  triumphal  an>h  in  me- 
mory of  the  former,  and  a  monument  to  the  latter. 
There  niv.  tlmn*  tine  stone  bridges  over  the  Arlan- 
9011,  in  the  space  of  half  a  league.  Two  of  them 
connnunicate  with  the  suburl)  of  the  citv,  on  tho 
op{)osite  bank,  calle<l  Vega,  and  the  thinl,  with 
the  n»yal  hospital,  remarivable  for  \i»  cleanliness 
and  salubrity.  There  an>  some  fme  meadows  o/i 
the  l>anks  of  the  river,  and  then>also  is  the  famous 
convent  of  Las  Iluelgas,  whose  abliess  i>ossessed 
alm(»st  royal  priviU^^es.  Close  to  the  city  is  the 
monastery  of  Miratlores,  where  .lohn  1 1,  and  his 
queen  have  magnitic<>nt  tombs,  and  where  also 
there  are  some  paintings  remarkable  for  their 
c4)]ouring.  There  are  three  military  roads  from 
Burg<»s,  one  t<i  (.)vied<»  and  (iijon,  another  to  Agre- 
da,  and  a  third  to  Santaila.  The  approaches  to, 
and  promenades  of,  the  town  are  well  ornamented 
with  trees.  Formerly  th*;  gn«ter  part  of  the  wool 
ex|M»rted  fnmi  Sitain  us<il  to  pass  through  Burgos, 
and  it  still  luts  some  manufactures  uf  leather, 
w<M)llens,  mid  liats,  and  two  lanuJeraSy  or  washing 

|XK»ls  for  W«K)I, 

It  is  believe<l  that  Burgos  did  not  exist  in  the 
time  of  the  Komans,from  it-s  not  lieing  menti(»nt>d 
by  Ptolemy  nor  any  other  ancient  gcograpluT ;  its 
want  of  any  ancient  monuments,  and  its  l.K'ing 
iiibulated  and  out  of  tlie  line  of  the  ancient  uiili- 


688 


BURGUNDY 


tan'  roatl.  Probably,  its  foundation  cannot  be 
carrit^l  fartlicr  back  tlion  the  reifni  of  Alphonso  I. ; 
it  wjts  AlpbonMj  111.  who  or(l(!rt*d  the  castle  to 
l>e  built.  It  was  formerly  the  residence  of  the 
counts  of  Castile,  and  many  <»f  the  Castilian  kin^s, 
and  was  then  celebrated  for  its  wealth  and  prosi)e- 
rity,  and  for  its  woollen  manufactures  and  fairs. 
More  recently,  the  o|K'nin^  of  the  jpreat  line  of 
railway  from  Madrid  toraris — Januor}',  18C5— on 
whidi  Burgos  in  a  princii>al  station,  has  again 
bniught  a  fair  share  of  pn^iKrity  to  the  city. 

BUIKjI'NDV,  one  of  the  old  French  pn)yinccs, 
now  distributed  among  the  de])ts.  of  Cote-tl'Or, 
Saone  et  Loire,  Yomie,  Nievre,  Aube,  Uaute 
Mame.  and  Ain. 

BriniAMPOKE.    See  BtKmHAMP<K)R. 

Bl' KLINGTOX,  a  town  of  the  U.S.  of  America, 
Vermont  cap.,  cx».  Chittenden,  on  a  bay  of  the  same 
name,  a  short  distance  S.  of  the  entrance  of  the 
Oniiin  riyer  into  Lake  Cbamphiin,  36  m.  WNW. 
Mont])ellier,  an<l  100  m.  S.  Montreal.  Lat.  44^ 
28'  N.;  h)ng.  78°  15' \V.  Pop.  7,200  in  18G0. 
Burlington  is  the  chief  commercial  town  of  the 
State,  and  has  a  considerable  trade  with  N.  York, 
with  which  it  is  ci)unected  by  railway.  It  con- 
tains a  court-house,  jail,  bank,  academy,andyariou8 
l)hices  of  public  worship.  The  Uniyersity  of  Ver- 
mont, established  in  1791,  Ls  situated  on  an  ele- 
vated sfxit  E.  of  the  town,  and  1  m.  fn»m  the  lake. 
It  was  |)artly  destmycil  by  fire  in  1«24;  but  has 
been  rebuilt,  and  consi.sts  of  three  brick  edilices, 
C(»ntauiin^  a  cha])el,  40  nsims  for  the  students,  a 
phil(»sop}ncal  apparatus,  and  a  lil>rary  of  above 
12,000  v<»ls.  Its  funds  are  chiefly  derived  from 
landed  endowments. 

Bl'BXIIAM,  a  jmr.  and  village  of  England,  co. 
Bucks,  Imntl.  Bundiam  ;  30  ni.  W.  London.  Pop. 
of  parish,  2,233  in  1«G1 ;  area,  4,110  acres.  The 
village  is  a  short  distance  from  the  Thames :  its 
church  is  an  ancient  stnicture :  and  there  is  a  na- 
tional school.  Fairs  are  held  Feb.  23,  May  1, 
ami  Oct.  2.  Its  ancient  nuirket  has  been  long 
discontinued.  Bundiam  is  a  place  of  great  anti- 
quity. The  moated  .site  of  a  i>alace  of  the  kings 
ofMerciais  stiH  trac<'able.  A  nunnery,  founded 
llO/i,  exL^twl  till  the  general  8uppny*sion. 

BUKNLEY,  a  munici])al  lx*rough  of  England, 
Lancashire,  himd.  Blackburn,  par.  Whalley,  on 
the  Bum,  180  m.  NW.  by  X.  I>ondon,  30  m.  SE. 
by  S.  I.,ancaster,  and  21  m.  N.  Manchester  on  the 
Midland  railway.  Pop.  6,378  in  1821 ;  10,699  in 
1841  ;  and  28,700  in  1«61.  Its  name  is  derived 
fn)m  the  river  Burn  or  Brun,  on  which  it  Ls  situ- 
ated, which  unites  with  the  Calder  immediately 
l>eIow  the  town.  It  stands  in  the  middle  of  a 
narrow  valley,  and  has  been  greatly  improved  and 
enlarged  within  the  last  forty  years.  It  is  mostly 
built  of  freest (.»ne,  and  is  well  paved,  lighted,  and 
abundantly  sup])lie<i  with  water.  There  arc  four 
churches,  the  olde-st  of  them  St.  Peter's,  a  former 

Cantcliial  chai>el,  built  shortly  after  the  Conquest, 
ut  replaced  by  a  more  recent  structure,  of  dif- 
ferent peri<Kls.  It  has  in  it  the  burial-pjace  of  the 
Towneley  family,  where,  among  other  monuments, 
one  has  bt*n  erected  to  ihe  memory  of  Charles 
Towneley,  Esq.,  whose  collection  of  marbles  is  in 
the  British  Museum,  'llie  Indei)endents,  Ba))tists, 
Weslevan  and  Primitive  Methodists,  and  Kom. 
Catholics  have  places  of  worshij).  A  grammar- 
sch(K)l  was  founded  in  157iS,  to  which  the  sons  of 
tradesmen  and  others  ar?  admitte<l  on  paying  a 
fee  of  2/.  2k.  a  year,  tlie  fee  paid  by  the  sons  of 
the  liigher  classes  being  3/.  3«.  Tliere  are  several 
other  schools,  and  numerous  charitable  endow- 
ments and  institutions.  The  borough  is  a  station 
for  receiving  votes  at  the  election  of  members  for 
the  N.  division  of  the  co.    The  wooUeu  mauu- 


BURSA 

facturc,  which  was  once  carried  on  extoi^Tely, 
and  which  still  exists  here,  has  been  neaiiy  rap^^^r- 
seded  by  that  of  cotton,  which  is  carried  on  upiio 
a  great  scale  in  the  town  and  neifi^bbouiiiood.  The 
articles  prtMluced  are  princiiially  common  pmt^i 
calicoes,  lliere  are  also  extensive  bleachiii^  and 
printing  works,  with  iron  and  brass  ibimdru^ 
machine  manufactories,  breweries,  tanneries.  anJ 
ntpe-walks.  The  town  is  mainly  indebted  fur  its 
rapid  growth  and  pn^ijesB  in  manufactur»  to  the 
abundance  and  cheapness  of  the  coal  found  m  ii» 
immediate  vicinity,  or  rather  directly  bel^w  it; 
for  here,  as  at  Whitehaven  and  some  other  places, 
parts  of  the  town  have  sunk,  from  the  roof  of  the 
coal  mines  not  being  properly  supported.  It  is 
also  well  supplied  with  freestone,  slate,  ^c  It 
has  an  easy  communication  with  the  surrountiing 
districts  by  means  of  several  lines  of  railway,  ta 
well  an  the  Liverpool  and  I^iCeds  canal,  by  whieh 
it  is  nearly  encircled.  Markets  ore  held  on  M«>(i- 
day  for  com,  and  on  Saturday  fur  general  pur- 
|H»ses :  fairs  on  March  (5,  Easter  eve.  May  9  and 
13,  July  10,  and  Oct.  11 ;  also  fur  cattle  on  alter- 
nate Mondays,  for  woollens  on  the  second  Thursibr 
in  July,  and  for  horses  on  the  third  Thursday  iii 
Oct. 

BURNTISLAND,  a  royal  burgh  and  sca-p-rt 
town  of  Scotland,  co.  Fife,  on  the  N.  shore  of  the 
F'rith  of  Forth,  5^  m.  N.  Graiiton  on  the  Edin- 
burgh-Perth railway.  Poj>.  1,859  in  lf<4l.  aal 
3,143  in  1861.  The  town  is  clean  and  well-iwils 
having  a  main  street  running  nearly  at  right 
angles  with  the  harbour,  and  some  subonliiute 
streets.  It  has  a  town-house,  a  parish  church,  a 
Presbyterian  dis^senting  chapel,  and  a  good  school- 
house.  Its  harbour,  though  the  best  on  the  X. 
hide  of  the  Forth,  nearly  dries  at  low  water:  l«ut 
this  serious  defect  has  been  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent obviated  by  the  extension  of  the  piers  into  def^ 
water,  so  that  railway  passengers  and  others  arri\e 
and  de])art  at  any  time  of  the  tide.  The  hori^'or 
revenue  amounted  to  1,127/.  in  1863-4.  Bumtl^ 
land  is  much  resorted  to  in  summer  by  sea-bathers 
It  has  long  formed  one  of  the  princii>al  stati4»Q5 
for  the  lauding  and  emboikation  of  passengers 
crossing  the  Frith  of  Fortli.  Burntisland  unites 
with  Kinghom,  Dysort,  and  Kirkaldy,  in  sending 
a  mem.  to  the  II.  of  C. ;  pari,  constituency'  13^)  in 
1H63.  Annual  value  of  real  ])ro|.ierty  10'o."»f»/.  in 
1863-4.  Corjwration  revenue  578i!.'  in  1M63-4. 
The  burgh  is  governed  by  a  pcuvost  and  twelve 
councillors. 

In  1601,  the  General  Assembly  met  at  Bamt- 
island,  when  James  V.  renewed  his  vowv  as  a 
c(»yenanter.  The  existing  quays  were  built  by 
Cn>mwell. 

BUKSA,  BRUSA,  or  PRUSA  (an.  Prum  ad 
Olympum),  a  city  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  Xatolia,  cap. 
Saniiuck,  62  m.  S.  Constantinople,  lat,  4i^  9'  'M^' 
N.,  long.  29°  4'  45"  E.  Pop.  estimated  at  60,lH.ii>. 
It  is  beautifully  situated,  at  the  extremity  of  a 
fertile,  well-watered  and  weU-wooded  plain,  on 
the  lower  acclivities  of  Mount  Olympus,  Iis- 
cluding  the  suburbs,  which  are  more  exteaMre 
than  the  city  properly  so  called,  it  extends  2  m. 
from  E.  to  W.  and  ^  m.  from  N.  to  S.  It  is  \m^ 
well  built;  the  houses  being  principally  of  wo«k1, 
on  the  model  of  those  of  Constantinople,  and, 
therefore,  very  suliject  to  fires ;  and  the  sir«.*is 
are,  for  the  most  part,  narrow.  However,  it  i* 
one  of  the  cleanest  of  the  cities  of  Turkev: 
for  a  great  number  of  streams  that  have  their 
source  in  the  upj)er  ports  of  the  mountain  ri«»w 
down  several  of  the  street.s,  and  supply  almost 
ever}'  house  with  a  fomitain.  Tlie  castle.  <»n  a 
perpendicular  rock  near  the  centre  of  the  tovit, 
most  probably  occupies  the  tdte  of  the  aaopolis  si 


BURSLEM 

the  ancient  Prusa.  Within  its  vrnlls  is  a  mosque, 
formerly  a  Greek  church,  in  which  arc  the  tombs 
of  Suhon  OrchaUf  his  wife,  and  children.-  The 
chief  oniaraents  of  the  city  are  its  mosques,  which 
are  exccedmgly  numerous.  The  most  magnificent 
are  tlu^se  of  the  sultans  Achmet  and  Osman,  and 
the  Oolah,  or  great  mosque,  in  the  centre  of  the 
city.  The  warm  baths  of  Brusa  are  famous  all 
over  the  East :  the  principal  is  that  of  Kaplutcha 
Hamman,  about  1^  m.  NVV.  from  the  city.  The 
heat  of  the  water,  which  Lm  slightly  impregnated 
with  sulphur,  does  not  exceed  ICMP  Fah.  The 
water  is  received  into  a  line  building,  where  there 
is  every  accommodation  for  bathers  of  both  sexes. 
The  btseatebt,  a  large  building  with  shops  and 
warehouses,  and  the  bazaars,  which  are  extensive, 
are  well  supplied  with  merchandise,  i)articularly 
with  raw  silk  and  silk  stuffs.  Great  quantities  of 
silk  arc  produced  in  the  adjacent  plains ;  and  very 
excellent  sUk  and  silk  and  cotton  stuffs  are  manu- 
factured in  the  city,  and  furnish,  with  raw  silk, 
carpets,  and  velvets,  the  principal  articles  of  ex- 

{ort.  The  khans  and  colleges,  or  medresses,  of 
irusa  are  numerous ;  and  may  vie  with  those  of 
any  other  city  of  the  Ottoman  dominions.  Alto- 
gether, considering  the  fertility  of  the  surrounding 
count r\',  the  beauty  of  the  situation,  and  it»  com- 
parative cleanness,  it  is  one  of  the  most  agreeable 
of  Turkish  cities. 

Prusa  was  founded  by  Prusias,  the  protector  of 
Hannibal,  and  was  long  the  cap.  oi  Bithynia. 
Little  of  it  is  known  tiU  afler  it  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  Romans,  though  it  was  always 
famous  for  it^  baths,  and  admired  for  the  beauty 
of  its  situation.  It  was  one  of  the  most  consider- 
able cities  of  the  Greek  empire.  It  was  taken 
by  Orchan,  son  of  Othman,  the  founder  of  the 
(Jthman  dynasty,  in  1856,  and  l>ecame  the  seat  of 
the  Turkish  power  and  the  ordinair  rcvsidence  of 
tlie  sultans  till  Amurath  removed  the  seat  of 
government  to  Adrianople. 

BURSLEM,  a  market  town  and  par.  of  Eng- 
land, CO.  Staffonl,  N.  division  of  Pirenill  hund,  2^ 
m.  NVV.  Newcastle-under-Line,  19  N.  Stafford, 
and  160f  m.  NW.  London,  by  Tendon  and  North 
"Western  and  Trent  Valley  railway.  Pop.  of  town 
17,«21,  and  of  parish  22,327  in  1861.  Burslem 
stands  on  a  gentle  eminence,  near  the  Trent  and 
Mersey  canal,  and  is  the  principal  town  in  that 
im|K)rtant  district  called  the  Potteries,  the  prin- 
cipal seat  of  the  earthenware  manufacture.  It 
contains  many  well  arranged  manufactories,  nent 
and  convenient  dwelling-houses  for  the  workmen 
and  overlookers  or  superintendants  of  works,  and 
some  lianrbtome  houses  for  the  proprietors.  Its 
princi])al  buildings  arc,  a  neat  maricet-housc  or 
town-hall,  an  edifice  of  modem  erection  nearly  in 
the  centre  of  the  town :  the  old  church,  dedicated 
to  St.  Peter,  built  of  brick,  with  a  stone  tower  of 
much  greater  antiquity  than  the  bo<ly;  and  a 
duttrict  church,  erected  in  1828.  Burslem  was 
originally  a  chapehy  in  the  parish  of  Stoke,  but 
was  formed  into  a  separate  parish  by  act  of  par- 
liaments in  1807.  It  has  a  police  force  under  the 
provisions  of  a  local  act.  There  are  places  of 
worship  for  Baptists,  Independents,  Primitive^ 
Wesleyan,  and  New  Connection  Methodists,  aiul 
Koman  Catholics,  all  of  which,  as  well  as  tlie 
chiurclies,  have  Sundav-schools  attached  to  them. 
There  is  also  a  national  school,  and  a  free  grammar- 
school.  At  a  ver}'  early  period  Burelem  was 
dintinguished  fur  its  clay,  and  for  its  manufacture 
of  earthenware  ami  potterj',  for  which,  in  the 
17th  century,  it  was  the  princij^al  place  m  the 
kingdom.  Tlic  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  are 
engaged  in  the  jxjtterie?*.  and  in  the  eartlienwaro 
manufacture,  which  has  been  brought  to  a  high 


BURTSCHETD 


589 


state  of  beanty  and  excellence.    In  Domesday 
Book  this  town  Ls  mitten  Barcanleslim. 

BUKTON-ON-TKENT,  a  market  town  and 
par.  of  England,  partly  in  the  N.  division  of  OfHow 
hund.,  CO.,  Stafford,  and  i>artly  in  the  hund.  of 
Repton  and  Gresley,  co.  Derbv,*  22  m.  E,  Stafford, 
and  128  m.  NNW.  London  by  the  Midknd  rail- 
way. Pop.  of  town  13,671,  and  of  parish  16,824  in 
1861.  The  town  is  situated  in  a  fertile  vale  on  the 
N.  bank  of  the  Trent,  and  consists  chiefly  of  one 
long  street  running  fn)m  the  place  where  the  abbey 
stood  to  the  bridge,  and  of  another  intersecting  it 
at  right  angles.  The  town-hall,  erected  at  tho 
expense  of  the  Marquis  of  Anglesea  (the  lord  of 
the  manor),  who  owns  the  greater  part  of  the 
property  in  the  neighbourhod,  is  a  handsome 
building,  and  contains,  in  addititm  to  the  usual 
ofHces  for  transacting  public  business,  an  elegant 
suite  of  assembly-rooms.  The  old  church,  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Marv  and  St.  Modwen,  formerly  con- 
nected  by  a  cloister,  with  the  abbey  founded  in 
1004,  was  rebuilt  in  1722.  The  new  church,  erected 
in  1823,  in  the  Gothic  style,  is  a  handsome  edifice. 
But  the  most  celebrated  structure  of  the  town  is 
the  ancient  bridge  over  the  river,  erected  prior  to 
the  conmiest,  and  substantially  repaired  in  tho 
reign  of  Henry  H.  It  has  37  arches,  and  is  1,545 
ft.  in  length  and  was  about  fifty  years  ago  con- 
sidered the  longest  bridge  in  Englan<l.  The 
government  of  the  tx)wn  is  vested  in  a  high  and 
low  steward,  and  a  bailiff,  appointed  by  the  lord  of 
the  manor.  The  bailiff  is  also  justice  of  peace  and 
coroner.  The  inhabitants,  by  virtue  of  the  letters 
patent  granted  in  the  11th  of  Henry  VIII.,  are  ex- 
empt from  8er\dng  the  oftice  of  sheriff,  and  fn>m 
l)eing  summoned  as  jtirors  at  the  assizes  and 
sessions  for  the  oo.  There  are  various  places  of 
worship  for  Independents,  Wesleyan  Methodists, 
and  General  and  Particular  lUipdsts.  There  are 
also  Sunday-schools,  attached  to  the  different 
churches  and  chapels;  a  national  school,  and 
a  free  grammar-school,  founded  and  endowed 
in  1520  by  the  then  abbott,  William  Beane.  In 
the  time  of  Leland,  Burton  was  famous  for  its  ala- 
l>aster  works,  but  how  long  they  were  continued  is 
not  known.  The  principal  manufacture  carried  on 
at  present  is  that  of  its  j  ustly  famous  ale.  Contrary' 
to  general  usage,  the  brewers  prefer  in  its  prqia- 
ration  hard  water  to  soft ;  and  though  the  Trent 
runs  close  by,  they  use  that  water  only  which  they 
obtain  from  their  pumps.  Burton  has  also  fabrics 
of  hats,  cotton,  tammies,  and  light  woollen  stuffs ; 
with  iron  furnaces  and  manufactories  of  tools;  two 
or  three  rope-walks,  tanneries,  and  cotttm  mills, 
The  Trent  and  Mersey  canal  (or  Grand  Tnmk) 
passes  Burton,  and  unites  with  the  Trent  about 
1  m.  lower  down ;  and  the  Trent  itself,  which  falls 
into  the  Huinber,  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  some 
burden  from  Gainsbro'  up  to  the  town.  The  old 
abbey,  a  once  magnificent  pile,  of  which  now 
scarcely  a  vestige  remains,  enjoye<l  many  privi- 
leges :  the  abbots  occasionally  sat  in  {larfiament. 
Burton  suffered  greatly  during  the  civil  commo- 
tions in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  and  was  several 
times  taken  and  retaken  by  the  contending 
parties. 

BUKTSCHEID,  or  BORCETTE.  a  to\ni  of  the 
Pnissdan  states,  prov.  Rhine,  reg.  Aix-la-CliaiwIIe, 
of  which  city  it  is  almost  a  suburb.  Pop.  7,301  in 
1861.  The  town  has  bix)ad  streets,  go(Nl  houses 
and  promenades.  There  are  important  manufac- 
tures of  cloth:  cassimeres,  and  needles,  llie  last, 
which  is  conducted  on  a  laige  scale,  emfiloying, 
with  the  needle  manufacture  in  Aix-la-ChaJ)clle, 
nearly  1,0<M>  workpeople,  is  principally  carriinl  on 
bv  Protestants  driven  from  Aix-la-Cha|.>elle.  The 
place  has  several  hot  springs ;  they,  however,  differ 


iVJi) 


BURY 


(•^M-ntially  (nmi  tlio  sprint::?*  of  t\w  m'i;xhb<nirinj? 
eitv.  ami  n'.-i'iiil>l<»  I  box-  of  \V'u'sl»ail<'ii. 

I'.riJV,  a  par.,  |.arl.  Imr.,  ami  town  of"  Kiijrln"«U 
c"o.    l/im-a^trr,   <liv.    Iloltnn,   humls.    Salt'nnl   ainl 
IWarkhnni.  K  Ml.   NNW.   Mamhrstir,  ami   I'm;  m. 
NNW.  I^Mnliii,  liy   bin«l«>ii   ami   Nortli-\V«M<'ni 
railway.     r««|».   of  |»arl.    lM>rnimh   :i7.'»r»:;.  ami  of 
|iari.<«li.  sii..V»s  in   ls»;i.     lUiry  i«<  }*itual<M|  nii  tUv 
UU  l.aiik  of  iIh'  IrAv<ll,  2  m.alMivc  it«*  mnllurmv 
with  Mm-   lio'h.     Tlio  }r«'m'nil  apix-aramv  «»1'  the 
town  lia**  U'cn  ^^-atly  iiniiri»v(Ml  of  late  years,  liy 
\vi(l<'nin^    iIm-   stn^-ts   ami    appniarlu's   an*!   tli»» 
oHTtioii   of  lian(l>oim>   in  nlcrn    "tnuMims.      Tin* 
IMiri^h  cliun-li  is  a  lar;;«'  liand^mx'  siruclun*.  n*- 
liuilt    in    177;J;  tlicn*   an*    l  other  rhunhcs,  and 
alMiut   20  «li«iM'iitiii;;  placi's  of  \vor*lii^i.     A  frot;- 
hIhhiI.  f..umhMl  in   17;}«;.  hiL«*  *i  oxhihiiions,  nth«r 
to  St.  John  s  Coll.,  ('an>l»ri«l;;o,  or  nra/,<*nnos«'r«»ll.. 
Oxfonl.     .\nothrr  mImmiI.  foumlc><'.  in  17lx.  forxo 
iMiys  an<l  :»*►  prls,  h;t'*  lM*<*n  chan^cdl  to  a  national 
wIhmjI,  ami  a  spuiMons  srluwil-n^un  has  Imhmi  huilt 
for  it.    ll«n'  i>,  aNo,  a  «li>iMn<ar>'.  a  piihlir  libniry. 
u  innrhaniis'  instil ut««,  srvrral  public  ni-\vs-n»oni.>«, 
nml  a  horti<*ultiiral  so»irly.     The  wc-^'kly  market 
is  lu'lil  «»n  Satunlay:  ami  thnv  fairs  on  Man:h  .'». 
May  :{,  S«'pL  IS.     TIh"  niainilmtnrcs  an»  annually 
inrrrasinj;  in  amouut   ami  vain*'.     The  prin<'i|«l 
hranclir's  consist   of  cotton  and  woollen  H]iinnin^ 
an<l  weaviiiij,  both  by   hand   iMiwtT-hMimx;  with 
ealico-prinlin^:,  bb'a<bini:.  an<l   niai'hin^'-niakin^. 
There  an*  alwive  in.ooo  hands  employed  in  these 
ninnufaetorie-*.  indeiK-mh'iitly  of  those  enijdoyedin 
other  «K'enpatu»ns.  and  in  «oal-nunes,  whiih  latter 
jrive  work  to  alwiut.  :i  tlumsaml  nn'n.    The  amount 
ajtsrsMsl  to  projMriy  tax  was  1  i:(.t:tx/.  in  lN.')7,and 
1:11,272/.  ill    iHi'ri.*    llur\'  connnunieati's  lN>th  by 
eaiials  and  railways  with  Mancln'^trr,  liolton.  and 
other  towux  in   the  vicinity.     It  is  the  head  of  a 
lHM»r-law  union.  compri>in^r  12  parislu's  and  town- 
ships.    The  ^ro'ss  sum  assess<»d  to  iMwir  rate  was 
112,xSl/.    in    1m;2,   and    the   net   ratealde   value 
•,H.217/.      Three   et:urts-leet    for   the   manor  an; 
held  annually,  \n  April,  Whitsuntide,  and  Oct.: 
their  jurisdiet ion  is  <o-exti'nsive  with  the  parish. 
'J'he  Kefi»rm  Act  ei.nlVrred  du  llury  tin*  privile:;;** 
of  niurnin;:  1  nien>.  to  the  11.  of  ('.     h  had  l,2i!0 
rej;i^ten'<l  electors  in   IS<»2.  bein^  all  10/.  liouse- 
liolders. 

The  i^irinh  exten«ls  over  22.<;iM)  acn"<.  IWsides 
thai,  of  Ihiry.  it  c«»m]»risf.s  -1  t'»wuships,  and  :5 
chaiH'Irie^  'rhe;;n'ater  part  i"<  a  ^lifVloam,  varyinj^ 
in  fertility;  ii  small  portion  only  is  under  the 
plou^dj.  It  contains  p»od  (juarries  of  buildin;>: 
stone,  and  th«>sc  of  llonnditt'  pnMluc<»  exc<'llent 
Ha^^s  and  slates.  Then*  an*  a  duzen  coal-miiH»-«* 
wrou^^lit,  so  that  the  fact«»rie«*  and  iidiab.  have  an 
Abundant  sup]»ly  «»f  furl  within  tin-  limits  <if  their 
own  iwirish.  Tiie  lirst  distinct  not i«'e  that  <K*curs 
of  the  niannfactun's  nf  IJury  is  in  Leland's  Itine- 
rary, in  the  nij;n  <»f  Henry  Vlll.:  tln-y  wen»  then 
ex«"lu>ivelv  of  wiMdlen.  which  is  still  carrieil  on  to 
some  extent,  in  17;5S.  .lohn  Kay  a  native  of 
Ihirv'  (tliou;;l»  at  the  timi*  residing  in  (Ndche^iter) 
invented  the  tly-shuttle;  and  in  17»'iO.  I  Robert,  a 
.st»n  of  the  fonner,  the  dn>i>-lM)X.  by  which  patterns 
of  vari«>ns  colours  an*  wovimi  nearly  with  the  s;ime 
facility  as  plain  calico:  the  S4'ttinj:  (.f  canLs  by 
niachinerv  also  ori«;inat«'d  in  the  same  family,  and 
in  llury. '  in  17'.M.  lieury  Whitehead,  the  jntst- 
masterof  llury, su^^estnl  the  mode  of  piecin*;  the 
ondsofbniken  yams,  in  spinninir,  w'>'*i"»t  stop])ing 
the  machinery,  as  had  ]tn'viously  been  necessjiry. 
Hut  the  <inumstance  which  chirlly  contributed  to 
brin^  Ihiry  intt»  repute,  a-<  the  M-ai  of  any  peculiar 
branch  of  the  <;<itt<»n  maimfactun'  was  t lie  esta- 
blishment of  lari^e  print-works  by  a  linn,  of  which 
Sir  Hubert  I'cel,  the  lirat  bart.,  wa;*  at  the  head : 


1U:RY  ST.  EDMUND'S 

• 

the  |K*rfc4'tioii  to  which  cilioi-pri n tin;*  wa-*  lh»-r» 
bpHi^ht,  not  only  eiirieheit  ilio  |Mirri(*s.  iNitalk^l 
largely  to  the  wealth  ami  imfH»rtAnco  of  the  tiini. 
'i'his  ostablishment,  wifli  its  niinicDHis  workshipp^. 
wandion>«es.  and  dwelliii*^  is  still  in  full  aetirity: 
as  an*  also  the  lanre  ninniifjurtnric^  «if  th*.*  ^tp*- 
c'timpany  on  «»ther  strratns,  iiotwithxtaiidin;;  th*- 
many  clian;^es  that  have  lnkf>n  plac«'  in  rWir 
ownership.  Sir  IioImtI  INtI,  tlto  r(d**lirat*-<l  siat*^ 
man,  was  bom  at  CbainlKT  ll;ill,  in  the  imme<h:iif 
vicinity  of  the  town  :  a  lan^e  .staruo  to  his  nieni'-ry 
was  4>ro<>ted  in  the  market  place  HMin  aft«'r  his 
tleath. 

IU:i:Y  ST.  i:i>MrNirS,  a  par.  U^.  nndfonTi 
of  Kiiu'land,  co.  Snflolk.  hund,  Thin:r«»*.'.  «"Him.NK. 
I^mdon  bv  nMul,  and  ^*<*l=|  ni.    bv  Vin«af    Kasti'm 
railway.    Top.  12..".;w  in  1X11.  and  l;J.:n«  in  i^h\. 
The  t»»wn  is  s;iiuate<l  on  a;j:entlo  ^'niineni**-.  on  ih<- 
W.  >ide  of  the  l.arke,  amidst  a  richly  <.iilti\.i:'.il. 
diluvial  district.     Stn^'ts  bnvid,  wrll  imve-I.  .iml 
liijhti'd:  hons<>s  mostly  unif4»mi  AJid  well  buili: 
the  wlmle  town  has  a  che4>rful,  neat  ap]i4>ar.tiHe. 
St.  Mar>''s  chnrcli    (linishod    in    1-|:»;5)    i<  a  r!ne 
(lotliic  stnictiin',  with  alow  Nonnan  towvr.     St. 
James's  church,  finislu;*!  .ifler  flu*  Ikerrnn.ition.  i- 
a  handsome  buihlin^.     Its  lK*lfr\-.  at  M»rnr  litrl. 
distance,  was  ori^nally  the  ;^iii(l  entr.ince  iiitu 
tlu'  bnrial-j^Hind  of  the  old  iiionastrr\- :  it  i<  of  a 
quadrani^tdar  sh.i|K\  S<»  ft,  in   hei;:ht.  reniarkabl? 
for  strenirth  and  smiplicity.  and  fomi'*  one  of  Tlif 
liiiest  extant  ndics  of  Saxon  an.*hit(vtun'.     'D-i-rp 
an*  two  IndeiM-ndent  cha]K'U ;  and  th*»  <'atliiilii>. 
Friends  Itaptists,  MethiHlists.  and  rnitariaiiN  liavi* 
<'a«'h  a  j)la<'e  of  worsliip.     Then*   is   an  ancient 
piildhall,  in  which  the  l)or.  <n>urts   arc   held:  i 
^hire•ha11  f«ir  the  SAsize  courts:  a  <*ounly  v:a<d.  t*n 
a  nidiatin;;  plan,  built  in  iHtl.*!:  and  a'})rid<-W'-'.l. 
shajK'il  out  of  an  ancient  N(»nnan  iHiiMin^.     The 
free  j;jjuninar-s*di(M)l  (foumU^l   by   Edwani  VI.i 
Iwf*  six  exhibitions  to  either  of  the  univer>itit>. 
a  sclu»larsliip  in  Coquis  (Miristi.  .•uid   another  in 
.b>us  (.'oUep*.  Cambrid^^e :  it  e«lucAto«*  I<hi  Imy-;. 
It  has  als4>  a  charity  iiclnKd  for  forty  !K»ys;  imo 
otlH-rs  wlu'n>  .')(>  j^rls  are  chtlhe«l  and  in-^tnu-t'^l; 
and    National.    I«ancastrian.    and    other  sclMiok 
'I'liere  anr  W  alnishousejt,  endowinl  by  various  I*'- 
nefactors,  and  under  the  mana^>nient  of  tnisii'^s 
who  have  alKiut  2,no()/.  a  year  in  their  hand.'.  !■* 
various  charitable  ]mqMi!«cs.     Clapton's   Ibvxpir.u 
supiNirts  six  witlowers  and  six   miilows,  dei'.iyn: 
housekee{K^rs;  the  <  ieneral  Hospital  aceomnioilalt  < 
forty  iMitlents,     Here  Ls  also  a  theatn.*,  with  «•««- 
cert,  assembly,  and   billianl  rtMims ;  a  f^fnl  siil>- 
scription  libran',  a  mechanic^   inMitute,  and  U^ 
tanical  jranlens,  sup|H»rte<l  by  snlis(*ription.  Week- 
ly markets  are  held,  one  on  Wedne!*«lay«  for  com, 
the   other  on   Sat  unlays  f»»r  j^eneral    pn»visi«inN 
Annual   fairs  are  hehi  on   Flaster  Tues4lay:  St. 
Matthew's  day,  a  pluisurc  fair  which  use«'l  to  I* 
attemhtd   by   all    the    surrounding    nubility   and 
^jentrv :  a  fair,  Oct.  1.,  fur  horses,  cattle.  imtl*-r, 
an«l  cIh'cm;;  ajn^eat  fair,  e<»mnu'ncin»;  Oct.  1«»,  ami 
hist hij?  alKuit  three  weeks;  and  l>ec.  1.     AUiut  a 
mile  fnmi  the  towni  the  I.jirko  lxH\>me*  navi^jahk- 
to  Lvnn  for  l>arj;es,  whentv  <*«»als  ami  other  n'ni- 
m«Nlities  are  bnui^ht.     Spinning;  yam  was  f.-r- 
merly  a  pvat  sounn?  of  eni|doyn)ent   t<»  the  }»--r 
of  the  town,  but  at  present  it  ha»  no  maimfao- 
tures. 

The  lK»r.  ia  <H>-extensivc  with  the  two  pari-*!!*"* 
(»f  St.  James  and  St.  Mar>',  the  area  lK»inj:  ;i.«H'' 
.teres;  it  is  divided  into  two  wanls,  and  jrov«nitd 
by  a  mayor,  six  aMennen,  and  eijjhtei'n  iN-iin'-il- 
lors.  IVtty  ws^ions  for  the  lx.»r.  ar^»  held,  i  vcrr 
Thursday;  an«l  a)urt«  of  {^"neral  >essions  thrice  s 
year,  in  Fob.,  dune,  and  Nov.  The  quarter  M-^'.toiL-* 
and  a^^izcs  for  the  co.  are  aUo  held  in  the  t4>wn. 


BUSACO 

The  property  of  the  corp.  consist*  of  land*  and 
h(Hl^^'H  hi  the  bor.,  the  hvinp«  and  tithes  of  both 
parixbess  and  the  U>\U  of  the  marketA  and  fain : 
l)orou|^h  income^  8^392/.  in  18(>1.  The  amount 
lUiKi'ssiil  to  pr«)|>erty-tAX  was  02,741/.  in  18G1 ;  and 
thti  ffCiMH  n>ntal  aJ<steftNe<l  to  p(N)r-rate,  49,475/. 
"^riie  lM>r.  ha.s  retiinicd  two  inenilient  to  the  II.  of 
i.\  since  the  J  2th  of  James  1.  I'revioualv  to  the 
Kefonn  Act,  the  right  of  election  was  in  an  aliler- 
roan  and  thirty-six  burgesses ;  the  former  had  a 
casting  vote,  and  was  returning  ollicer;  it  was,  in 
fact,  a  nrunination  l>or.f  in  the  hands  of  two  iteers 
<»f  op|M)site  political  principles.  The  constituency 
consisted  of  719  registered  electors  in  180 1,  mostly 
occupiers  of  10/.  liouses. 

A  monaster)'  was  founded  here  in  033,  to  which, 
in  903,  the  Ixnly  of  St.  Edmund,  the  Saxon  king, 
was  transferred;  hence  the  name.  Canute  ex- 
}K'lIed  the  secular  monks,  and  transferred  thither 
a  iH)nvent  of  lieneiUctines,  from  Norfolk ;  his,  and 
other  subsecfuent  endowments,  made  this  abbey 
inferior  only  to  that  of  Cilastonburv' ;  it  {Missessed 
the  franchises  of  many  sepamte  hunds.,  and  the 
right  of  coinage ;  its  altljot  sat  in  {Mirliament,  and 
had  power  to  intlict  capital  punishment,  and  de- 
termine all  civil  suits  withm  the  li1)crtv.  The 
abl)ey  gateway  and  bridge,  and  p(»rtions  of  the 
walls,  still  rcmaui.  There  were  a  few  other  esta- 
blishments, of  minor  importance,  in  the  town 
previous  to  the  general  suppivssion.  Sir  Nicholas 
JSacon,  bisho))S  Gardiner  and  Pn>ttyman,  and  Dr. 
Iilomtield  (the  late  bishop  (»f  London)  were  bom 
in  the  town.  It  confers  the  title  of  viscount  on 
the  Keppel  family.  Ickworth,  the  magniticent 
scat  of  the  man^uis  of  Bristol,  is  within  3  m.  of 
th(»  town, 

HUSACO,  a  convent  of  Portugal,  prov.  Beira, 
on  the  ridge  called  the  Sierra  Ihisaco,  17  m.  N. 
by  E.  Coimbra.  Here,  on  the  27th  SeptemlK?r 
1810,  a  French  army  of  65,(^^>  men,  under  Mar- 
shal Massena,  were  repulsed  with  great  loss  in  an 
attack  on  the  |)0$ition  occupied  by  the  Anglo- 
I'ortuguese  army,  about  40,000  strong,  under  the 
Duke  of  Wellington.  But,  though  unable  to 
force  thLs  {>o.>itioii,  Massena  succeeded  in  turning 
it,  when  the  allies  retreated  upon  the  lines  at 
T«)nres  Veiiras. 

BUSIUKE  (more  pr«>perlv  ABOUSHEIIB,  or 
ABUSHAIIi:,  Arab,  the  father  o/ ri7i>;«),  a  sea- 
jHirt  town  of  Persia,  prov.  Fan*,  and,  excejrting 
Ihissorah,  the  princi|)al  istrt  of  the  Persian  (lulf, 
on  the  NE.  coast  of  which  it  ia  situated ;  120  m. 
WSW.  Shiraz,  and  255  m.  S.  by  W.  Is|Mihan ;  lat. 
29°  N.,  long.  5(ro  48'  E.  Pop.  variously  estimated 
at  from  8,000  to  15,000.  It  is  built  at  the  N.  ex- 
tremity of  a  low  sandy  peninsula,  about  11  m.  in 
length,  by  4  m.  in  breadth  at  its  widest  |uirt,  on 
its  E.  side  ench^ing  a  deep  bay  or  harbour.  The 
town  is  thus  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  water,  ex- 
cept towanls  the  S.  where  a  mud  wall  alM>ut  ^  m. 
in  length,  has  lK>en  built  acntss  the  isthmus  be- 
tween the  bay  and  the  sea.  Viewed  from  the  sea, 
it  has  rather  a  hands4)me  aptiearance.  It  is,  how- 
<\  er,  a  mean  place,  without  movement  of  any  kind. 
The  houses  are  built  chielly  of  a  friable  stone,  com- 
|M>sed  of  sand  and  shells  imbedded  in  clay,  and 
the  best  of  them  are  constructed  of  burnt  bricks 
brought  from  Bussorah ;  but  excepting  the  Indian 
factory,  the  residence  of  the  governor,  and  a  few 
gcHKl  dwellings  of  the  merchants,  there  is  scarcely 
one  comfortable,  and  certainly  not  one  handsome 
e<litice  in  the  place.  Some  of  the  jmncipal  houses 
have  bautlyeerBj  that  is,  wind-catchers,  or  spires  of 
a  square  form,  o|)en  at  each  side :  and  which,  act- 
ing as  a  funnel,  and  admitting  the  air  from  every 
quarter,  ventilate  and  ccNd  the  houses.  The  streets 
are  so  many  narrow  unpaved  alleys,  without  order 


BUSHIRE 


591 


or  regularity,  or  sufficient  height  of  wall  on  either 
side  to  shelter  the  passenger  from  tlie  sun.  'Hie 
mosques  are  all  ofien  buildhigs,  an<l  inferior  to 
those  seen  in  the  smallest  villages  of  Arabia ;  there 
are  but  few  coffee-houses,  and  the  S4>1itary  l»th  im 
small,  filthy,  and  ba*Uy  attendwU  Water  is  ex- 
cessively bad ;  that  fit  for  drinking  having  t4>  l>e 
bn>uglit  in  goat-skins  a  distance  of  Hi  m.  In  dr>' 
and  windy  weather,  the  dust  and  flies  constitute 
an  almost  intolerable  nuisance.  On  the  SW.  side 
of  the  town,  facing  the  outer  road,  the  beach, 
which  is  level  an<l  sandy,  is  beat  by  an  almost 
constant  surf,  though  not  so  violently  aa  to  pre- 
vent the  landing  of  l)oata  in  mcnlerate  weather. 
The  NE.  side,  fai-ing  the  inner  harbour,  has  a 
wharf  or  two  for  landing  goods,  and  is  better  shcl- 
tere<l.  Owing  to  the  numenHis  sand-banks,  the 
inner  harbour  Ls  not  always  easily  accessible  even 
for  l)oata ;  but  it  is  always  preferreil  as  the  safest 
and  bttit  landing-place.  Ships  of  more  than  .300 
tons  burden  lie  in  the  outer  n»ads  t>  m.  fi^>m  the 
town,  where  there  is  good  anchorage,  subject, 
however,  to  all  the  fury  of  violent  NW.  and  SW. 
winds,  which  are  verj'  prevalent,  often  obliging 
ships  to  part  their  cables.  Ships  of  300  tons  bur- 
den may  anchor  in  the  inner  roails  to  the  N.  of 
the  town,  but  still  0  m.  distant.  Bv  reason  of  a 
bar,  the  inner  hari)our  is  only  accessible  at  high 
water  springs,  to  shi|is  drawing  18  ft.,  and  at  other 
times  to  vessels  drawing  8  or  9  ft.  Tlie  water  im- 
mediately to  the  E.  of  Bushire  is  deep;  and  it  ap- 
pears from  the  older  descriptions  of  the  place,  that 
cndsers  were  formerly  able  to  anchor  close  up  to 
the  NE.  side  of  the  town  ;  but  the  channel  leading 
up  to  this  will  now  scarcely  admit  of  small  dows, 
except  they  be  lightened.  St»me  islands  in  the 
NE.  part  of  the  bay  give  sufficient  shelter  to 
native  boats  and  other  small  craft. 

Bushire  is  the  principal  entreiM>t  for  the  sup]>ly 
of  Pei^iia  with  Indian  goods.  It  has  a  consider- 
able traile  ynt\i  Bombay  and  Calcutta,  es|)ecially 
the  former ;  and  through  them  receives  most  t»f 
the  gooiLs  bn)ught  to  it  from  Eurofie,  China,  and 
the  V,,  Archii)elago.  Few  ships  touch  at  Bushire 
without  also  touching  at  Bussorali,  and  conversely. 
The  imi>orts  from  BiMigal  are  rice,  sugar,  indigo, 
|>ep]K'r,  and  spices,  with  a  small  assortment  of 
nnislin  and  piece-goods.  From  Bombay  arc 
brought  in>n,  steel,  tin,  lead,  woollen  cloths,  and 
cutlery,  with  sugar, sugar-candy, preser\*e<l ginger, 
|Nircelain,  d'C,  the  produce  of  China,  and  cassia, 
cloves,  nutmegs,  and  other  productions  of  the  E. 
Archipelago.  The  demand  for  English  cotton 
]>rints  is  said  to  lie  increasing  in  Persia,  while  that 
for  the  fabrics  of  (iermany  and  Switz<>rland  is 
diminishing.  Coffee  is  supplied  from  Mocha  and 
other  Arabian  ]»orts,  but  to  n<i  great  amount,  as 
it  is  not  in  very  general  use  in  Penia.  The  retunis 
to  India  are  mostly  in  hoT>tes  for  cavaliy  service, 
dates,  and  dried  fruits,  assafietida,  caq)ets,  ('ash- 
mere  anil  Kerman  shawb,  Kerman  wrnd,  tof>acco, 
old  cojtper,  turqu(»ises,  attar  of  roses,  and  rose- 
water,  but  chiefly  in  m<«iey.  The  other  exports 
of  Bushire  are  raw  silk  and  silk  gcHids,  Shiraz  wine, 
grain,  gall-nuts,  pearls,  yellow-dye  berries,  and 
various  drugs.  Tlie  Hussian  provinces  on  the 
Ca>*pian  derive  their  supplies  of  mdigo  from  Persia 
by  way  of  Bushire.  The  trade  of  the  |K>rt  is 
cripple<l  by  the  imposts  laid  on  goods  passing  to 
the  capital,  and  the  unjust  and  injudicious  appn»- 
priation  of  goods  on  the  part  of  the  government. 
Formerly  it  was  much  injured  by  the  pirates: 
but.  owing  to  British  interference,  these  are  now 
all  but  suppressed. 

The  merchants  of  Bushire  arc  about  equally  di- 
xdded  between  Persians  and  Armenians;  the  latter 
arc  tlic  more  active,  inteUigeiit|  and  wealthy. 


f>92 


BrSSOUAH 


Thoro  nrp  no  .Tpwh  of  nny  note,  as  at  nussornh ; 
nor  Haiiians  ii>  'it  Mu'*<'at.  Tiic  jxjp.  j{eiicrully  is 
a  mixture  of  the  IVrsiuii  and  Arab  nuvrt. 

BISSOKAII,  tjille.!  aU>  HALSOUA,  HASUA, 
and  BL'SSIIA  (Aral».  a  mart/in),  a  city  of  Turkey 
in  Asia.  i»ash.  lia^dad.  the  ino!*t  K.  plact*  of  note 
in  the  Turkish  doni.,  and  tlio  prinnpal  |M>rt  «»f  the 
IVrsian  (iulf,  on  the  rij^ht  or  S\V\  iMiiik  of  the 
Kui>hrat<*s,  or.  as  it  is  liere  ciilled,  tho  Shat-ul- 
Arab  (river  of  thf  Anihs),  70  m.  from  its  uiouth, 
and  15  m.  below  its  Junction  with  the  Tij^is,  270 
m.  SK.  lia;,rdad.  and  'JiO  m.  WNNV.  Uusliire :  lat. 
mP  2«)'  HO"  N.,  lonjr.  47*^  ;M'  l.V  K.  Vo\^.  estimated 
at  r»o,000.  The  fomi  <»f  tlie  city  is  an  irregular 
oblonLT,  lyinj^  KNK.  to  WSW..  t»r  at  ri^ht  an.t;le8 
with  the  course  of  the  river,  from  which  it  is  a 
few  hundred  yards  distant.  I^Mi^th  about  Jl  m., 
breatllh  o|)]Misiie  the  river  alxmt  1  m. ;  circuit  esti- 
mated at  from  7  to  9  m.  The  space  actually  ck'cu- 
l»ied  by  buildinpt  docs  not,  however,  comprise 
alM)ve  a  fourth  jmrt  of  this  area,  the  rest  Ixnn^  laid 
out  in  corn-liehb*.  rice-grounds,  date-gn»ves,  and 
gard<?ns,  intersected  by  a  numl»er  of  little  canals, 
Bussorah  is  surrounde<l  by  wall>,  built  of  8un-<lrie<l 
bricks,  with  a  parajx't  at  the  top,  having  hM>pholes 
for  nuisketry,  and  occasional  jMirts  for  cannon,  but 
of  thes<»  very  few  jire  inount^'<l :  it  has  live  gat«s, 
and  is  divided  into  70  maJudle,  or  (|iULrters.  'IVo 
canals,  cut  fnun  the  river,  surround  the  city  on 
either  si<le.  within  a  few  vanis  of  the  walls,  and 
uniting  In-yond  the  \V.  wiill,  form  a  complete  ditch 
to  the  fortitications.  A  thinl  canal  leave>«  the  river 
nearlv  midwav  iH'tween  the  other  two,  an<l  Lj 
carried  through  the  whole  length  of  the  city, 
serving  at  once  to  su])ply  the  inhab.  with  water 
for  domestic  purposes,  to  irrigate  the  fields  and 
gardens  within  the  walls,  and  to  admit  of  the 
trans|M)rtaiion  of  goo<ls.  These  canals  are  filled 
by  the  tl«nMl,  which  usually  rises  y  ft,,  and  left 
nearly  dry  at  cbl^tide.  They  are  mere  channels 
dug  out  of  the  soil,  without  l»eing  Hnetl  by  ma- 
sonry; and  the  few  brick-built  bridges  thnjwn  over 
them  in  different  parts  of  the  city  are  of  the 
meanest  kind.  Ihissorah  is  wretchedly  built ;  the 
strtHrts  are  narrow  and  unpave<l;  ami,  notwith- 
standing the  facilities  afforde^l  by  the  ebb  ami  How 
of  the  tide  in  the  canals  for  the  removal  of  impu-  • 
rities,  it  is  mo^t  disgustingly  lilthy.  No  stone  of  i 
any  kind,  and  scarcely  any  woo<l,  excepting  that : 
of  the  date-tree^  which  is  very  unfit  for  carpentrj',  | 
are  found  within  many  miles  of  the  city,  which  is 
mostly  constructed  of  sun-dried  bricks.  The  Kng- 
lish  factory,  the  Ktrai  of  the  Mutesellim  (resitUmce 
<»f  the  governor),  one  or  two  of  the  principal 
mcK'^tpies,  and  |»erhaps  half  a  d(»zen  mansions  i>f 
the  richest  inhab.,  are  the  only  buildings  of  kiln- 
dried  bricks,  and  in  fact,  the  only  decent  e«lilices 
in  the  i)lace.  There  are  alnnit  forty  mosques,  in- 
numerable khans  and  coffee-houses,  and  a  WTetched 
bath:  the  I  lazaars,  though  stocked  with  therich<«t 
merchandise,  are  not  arched,  as  in  Itagdaii  and 
other  IVrsian  cities ;  but  ore  miserable  »tmctures, 
covered  only  by  mats  Laid  on  rafters  of  date-tn»es. 
liuss«)rali  is  a  pla<:e  of  considerable  traile,  being 
the  grand  emporium  of  the  Turkish  empire  for 
Imlian  and  otlier  eastern  pnxluce.  Its  situati(»n 
is,  in  this  re8]K.'ct.  m>  favouralde,  that  not.witlLstand- 
ing  the  obstacles  ari.Mng  fn»ra  ba«l  government  antl 
imsafe  acce.ss,  both  bv  lan<l  an<l  sea,  it  continues 
to  conmiand  a  considerable  tratHo ;  almost  every 
inhab.  being  in  «)me  way  or  other  conceme«l  in 
trade.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Shat-ul-Arab  there  is 
a  bar  which  has  commonly  "iilv  about  12  ft.  water;  ' 
but  the  channel  within  is  deep,  and  ships  of  50t> 
tons  burden,  provide<l  they  cross  the  bar  at  spring 
titles,  may,  without  ditliculty,  ascend  the  river  as 
far  as  the  city.    At  an  average,  five  or  six  British 


BUSSORAH 

ships  arrive  in  the  counc  of  the  3'ear  fmin  Indb; 
but  the.  ])rinci|>al  fiort  of  the  trndo  iit  carried  vn  in 
Arabian  l>ottoms,  iiarriciilarly  iu  th'^^te  li«li»nciiu; 
t4>  Muscat.  The  im))(»rtA  arc  miisluis  and  pieci- 
goiKls,  pi>pi)er,  and  other  apices,  drugs,  rice,  Ri;;ar. 
indigo,  silk,  cotton  yam,  Surat  manufartuPEs. 
shawls,  (^)bina-ware,  and  paper,  «lve-wo(nK  crolfw. 
lac,  Ik>41(Ls,  sugar-candy,  ami  other  articles,  tke 
produce  of  Inilia ;  with  lead.  inm.  steel,  tin,  qnick- 
silvcr,  cochineaL,  &c.,  exfKRied  to  that  counrry 
fmm  Euro]ie.  Tlic  ret^inis  to  In^lia  are  munlr 
made  in  the  preciou-ri  metals,  Arabian  hon^c^. 
|>earl<.  dattis  (a  staple  product  of  IktsKorah).  copp<»r, 
gall-nuts,  raw  silk,  gold  frin^.  coral,  gums,  n**- 
water,  a.ssaf(etida,  almonds,  dried  fniitA.  ^c  Of 
these,  gold  and  silver  coin  and  faoTy»e»  confttitu:*? 
the  ])rincipal  articles.  The  average  cost  oi  the 
horses  sent  to  Bengal  is,  on  their  arrival  at  Cal- 
cutta, including  all  expenses,  abont  2,WX>  mp«^ 
or  200/. ;  that  of  th(«e  dcnt  to  ]l«imliay  w  a\fynt 
800  rujK'ej*,  or  80/.  each.  Frona  rcr<ial  Bu-^isiTah 
imports  »hawls,  assaftctida,  and  fniit.s  and  a  few 
horses  fnmi  Bushire;  coffee,  dates,  and  gums,fhiin 
Arabia;  pearls  fn>m  Bahrein  ;  coral  frr»m  ihe  M<s 
diterranean,  by  way  of  Aleppo.  Amongst  the  it- 
tunis  to  Persia,  through  Biuihire,  are  a  giMxi  many 
English  cotton  prints,  received  at  Bn.sdorah  firom 
the  Black  Sea,  Smyrna,  and  Constantinople. 

The  trade  with  Alepfx)  and  Bafiirdail  la  c(»ndacted 
by  means  of  caravans.  The  naval  force  of  Biui- 
sorah  was  once  sufficiently  powerful  to  cnmmaofi 
the  whole  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  to  supprcw  cU 
marauding  exj)e4lition8  of  the  pirates  who  have 
mfested  it.  It  has  now,  however,  dwindled  tr* 
almost  nothing. 

'llie  boats  used  upon  the  canala  are  of  many 
different  kinds,  two  of  which  may  bewonh  notir«. 
The  first  is  a  light  can(»e,  long,  narrow,  and  draw- 
ing only  a  few  inches  water,  and  imfudlcd  fjr- 
wards  by  two  boatmen,  who  fitand  at  the  hea! 
and  stem,  and  often  use  short  paddles  altematfk 
from  hide  to  side.  Tlie  second  i»  a  circnLir  kinti 
of  l>oat  of  basket-work  covered  with  bitumen,  -rf" 
shallow  dmiight,  capable  of  containing  six  er 
eight  |)ers4>ns,  and  which  are  padilled  or  ppgd 
along,  making  a  circular  motion.  The  ebb  tui*^ 
occupying  always  twice  a»  long  a  time  «.s  ilw 
fi<MMl.  and  the  chief  canal  being  much  too  small 
for  the  wnvenicnt  passage  of  the  vensebi  empli\vM 
on  it,  great  activity  and  corresp(»n«Ung  confu^4i 
takes  ])laco  for  a  short  period  only,  after  vhidi 
most  of  the  craft  are  gn>undcd  till  next  ti-ic. 
AI)out  half  the  inhabitants  arc  Arabs,  one-fourth 
Persians,  and  the  remainder  a  mixture  of  Turks 
yVmienians,  Jews,  Catholic  Christixuis  and  KivmU 
The  Turks  are  few,  jterhaps  not  nlx»ve  M*) ;  tliey, 
as  well  a^  the  Arabs,  are  of  the  Siuutc  si-ct.  ex- 
cepting a  small  Ixnly  of  Arab  Christians,  who  call 
themselves  Sublwes,  or  disciples  of  ,Iohn  tbr 
Baptist.  The  Persians,  who  are  of  the  sect  -if 
the  SchiiteSf  engn>ss  moat  of  the  interroeiliato 
stations  in  conmieR»e,  as  those  of  clericii,  fh*^*- 
keepers,  mechanics,  and,  while  among  the  Armhs 
a  man  is  either  in  ea«y  circumstances  or  a  men 
lal)ourer.  The  Amienians  do  not  exceed  -Vt 
families;  they  are  chiefly,  merchants  and  hrokers: 
they  have  a  small  church,  with  two  *vr  thr« 
priests.  The  Jews  amount  to  aliout  1(K)  families; 
they  are  similar  to  their  tribe  el.iewhere.  The 
(.'athtdic  Christians  arc  alnnit  20  families:  t^yaic 
arc  natives  of  Bussorah,  others  .<ire  recent  settlent 
from  Bagdad  and  Aleppo.  The  Subliees  are  a 
singidar  sect,  scattered  over  the  plain  o(  tb« 
Euphrates,  verj'  limited  in  numbers  and  t^ti- 
stantly  interraarr>ing.  They  prartis<.>  mt  fa^<. 
but  iMiptism  is  fre(iuently  perfurmc«l  on  the  smt 
individual;  their  ]>lacQ8  of  worship  are  all  urn- 


BUTE 

poTftiy ;  they  are  very  particuliir  an  to  the  purifi- 
cation of  their  food,  and  are  said  to  hold  a  breach 
of  trust  in  abhorrence.  They  are  naostly  me- 
chanics and  handicraftsmen,  C9{)ectaUy  smiths 
and  workers  in  metaK  The  Indians  in'Russorah 
are  chiefly  Banians ;  and  the  sepoys  of  the  British 
factory  ^ard  are  mostly  Hindoos.  Some  few 
have  their  women  with  them;  altogether,  they 
may  amount  to  200.  The  few  Koords  are  mostly 
engaged  under  the  Turks  in  inferior  offices  of 
trust,  and  in  the  army.  Bussorah  formerly  con- 
stituted a  separate  pashalic ;  but  its  governor  has 
for  a  long  period  been  sent  from  Bagdad,  to  the 
)>acha  of  which  he  is  subordinate. 

The  country  around  Bussorah  has  no  beauties 
to  recommend  it.  It  is  for  the  most  part  a  dead 
flat.  Com,  dates,  olives,  pom^ranates,  and  other 
fruit,  vegetables,  and  pot-herlxs,  are  cultivated,  and 
there  are  whole  fields  of  roses  grown  for  the  dis- 
tillation of  the  attar,  and  rose-water.  \Mierever 
portions  of  this  plain  are  enclose<l  near  the  city 
walls,  and  irrigated  for  a  few  years  from  the  canals, 
fine  garden  plots  are  w^m  produced ;  and  under  a 
good  government  the  whole  of  it  would  no  doubt 
l>ecome  of  the  most  exuberant  fertility.  At  pre- 
sent, however,  few  ^'illages  or  people  are  to  lie 
seen  without  the  walls  of  the  city;  a  monotonous 
and  gl(H)my  silence  prevails  ;  and  on  the  W.  and  ■ 
S.  nothing  is  seen  but  a  dreary  desert  extending 
as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  with  no  object  to  break 
the  line  of  the  horizon  but  the  tops  of  the  houses 
of  Zol)eir  just  seen  above  it,  and  the  range  of 
Gel>-el  Senam.  For  six  months  of  the  year  Bus- 
sorah is  (jnite  surrounded  by  water,  like  an  island 
in  the  midst  of  a  sea.  Summer  is  extremely  hot, 
and  in  autumn  the  citv  is  unhealthv.  Winter 
and  spring  are  delightfully  cool,  refreshing,  and 
salubrious;  and  Bussorah  is  at  these  seasons 
resorted  to  by  invaliils  from  India. 

In  the  English  factor>%  c^stablished  in  1040,  there 
is  an  Kuglish  resident  ;  but  with  thL*  exception, 
tliere  are  no  Kuropeans  in  the  |)liice.  The  Firencli 
factor\'  has  merel  v  a  nominal  existence  ;  the  officer 
un<ler  whom  it  is  placed  resides  at  Ilagdad. 

Bussorah  originated  from  a  town  now  calle<l 
Zol>cir,  8  in.  to  the  SW.,  founded  by  the  caliph 
<  )niar  in  OHf)  or  G80,  on  a  canal  suppt^ed  to  be  the 
ancient  Pallacopas.  In  a  few  vears  it  became  one 
of  the  largetst  and  most  flourishing  cities  of  Arabia ; 
but  the  canal  lacing  neglected,  and  becoming  use- 
less, the  ancient  site  of  the  citv  was  abandone<l. 
The  i)resent  city  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1(508, 
by  the  Persians  in  1777,  and  by  the  Montefik 
Aralw  in  1787.  A  few  months  after  the  latter 
conquest  it  was  retaken  by  the  Turks,  to  whom  it 
has  ever  since  belonged. 

HUTE,  a  CO.  of  Scotland,  consisting  of  the 
islands  of  Bute,  Arran,  the  Cumbraes,  and  Inch- 
maniock,  all  in  the  Frith  of  ('lyde.  Its  total  area 
comjirises  171  sq.  m.,  or  109,375  acres,  of  which 
alKJUt  60,000  are  cultivatetl,  40,000  improvable, 
and  the  rest  unimprovable.  It  contained  in  1801 
a  iK)p.  of  16,331,  living  in  2,322  houses.  Tlie  old 
valued  rent  was  1,253/.:  the  new  valuation  for 
18r»4-o,  exclusive  of  the  burgh  of  Kothesay,  was 
40,128/.  The  crounty  retunis  one  mem.  to  the  II. 
off. ;  registen**!  electors,  513  in  1805. 

Bute,  the  island  whence  the  alwve  co.  takes  its 
name,  in  the  Frith  of  Clyde:  it  is  se))arated  from 
the  district  of  Cowall  in  Argyleshire  by  a  narrow  ; 
winding  channel,  calle<l  the  Kyles  of  Bute,  is  I 
nl>out  5  m.  W.  firom  the  nearest  j  joint  of  the  Avr-  | 
shire  coast,  and  is  about  19  m.  in  length  (N^E.  j 
and  SSW.),  by  alxmt  4  in  breadth.     Pop.  0,503  in 
1^<G1,  of  which  5,5.')5  l)elonged  to  thelnir.  of  Rothe- 
Mv.     Its  N.  extremity,  towards  Argyle,  w  bleak 
and  rugged,  but  its  central  and  S.  parts  cuiiaist  for 

Vou  I. 


BUXTON 


598 


the  most  part  of  undulating  ground*,  with  mode- 
rately ^^ood  soil,  fit  either  tor  tillage  or  pasturage. 
The  clnnate  is  remarkable  for  mildness  and  salu- 
brity, but  is  particularly  humid,  which  rendeia  it 
not  so  suitable  for  agriculture  as  for  the  raimiig  of 
cattle.  Agriculture  has,  however,  been  materially 
improved  of  late  years ;  and  a  good  deal  has  been 
d(me  in  the  way  of  consolidating  farms,  building 
improved  houses,  opening  new  roads,  ^c.  The 
town  of  Kothesay,  on  the  E.  coast,  famous  for  its 
old  castle,  once  the  residence  of  the  Scottish  mon- 
archs,  is  now  become,  in  the  summer  seasons,  a 
favourite  resort  of  the  citizens  of  Glasgow.  The 
princii>al  part  of  the  island  belongs  to  the  Marquis 
of  Bute,  whose  seat,  Mountstuart,  on  the  E.  side  of 
the  island,  a  little  to  the  S.  of  Kothesay,  is  its  chief 
ornament.  Most  part  of  the  inhab.  sfieak  Gaelic ; 
but  the  use  of  English  is  daily  becoming  more 
prevalent  Ke^ii,  the  eminent  tragedian,  had  a 
seat,  in  a  secluded  situation,  in  the  int^or  of  tlie 
Island. 

BUXTON,  a  town  and  fashionable  watering- 
place  of  England,  co.  Derbv,  hund.  High  Veak, 
I>ar.  Bakewell,  150  m.  NW.W  N.  London  by  road, 
and  193^  m.  bv  London  and  North  Western  rail- 
way. Pop.  1,211  in  1831,  and  1,877  in  18JJ1. 
The  town  stands  in  a  valley  surrounded  by  hilla 
of  considerable  elevation,  except  at  one  narrow 
opening,  through  which  tlie  Wye  flows.  The  old 
toHii  stands  on  much  higher*  ground  than  the 
mcKlem  one,  and  consists,  of  one  wide  street,  in 
which  are  a  few  resix^ctable  inns  and  lodging- 
houses,  but  the  greater  number  are  low  ancient 
buildings  :  it  has  a  market-place,  with  an  old  cross 
in  the  centre.  The  new  part,  commencing  with 
the  Crescent,  extends  along  the  Bakewell  ruad. 
Tliis  is  an  elegant  range,  in  the  Grecian  styles 
comprising  two  hotels,  a  librar}-,  news  and  assem- 
bly-rooms, baths,  and  some  private  houses;  the 
whole  erected  bv  the  late  Duke  of  Devonshire,  in 
1781,  at  a  cost  of  120,000/.  The  adjoining  s<iuare 
has  an  an'4ide,  continuing  that  of  the  Crescent, 
and  forming,  with  it,  a  w»venHi  pn>menade  of  con- 
siderable extent.  Connected  with  the  range  of 
htabling  at  the  liack.  Is  a  s])actr>us  covered  ride  ; 
altogether,  there  is  accommodation  for  al)out  1.504) 
visitors ;  and  during  it^  season  (fn)m  June  to  Oct.) 
from  12,000  to  15,00()  usually  resort  to  the  town. 
'Die  church  is  an  elegant  moilem  structure,  also 
built  by  the  late  Duke  of  De>'onshire.  There  are 
sev(>ral  <lisscnting  chapels  ;  an  endowed  scIkmiI,  ou 
Bell's  plan  ;  and  a  *  Bath  ( Iharity,'  su[)ported  by 
sul)s<.*ri^>tion,  for  |H)or  invalids  coming  from  any 
part,  with  a  ])ro{>er  testimonial  from  the  minister 
of  their  yiarish  :  they  have  the  gratuitous  use  of  a 
bath,  and  maintenance  lur  a  month.  Fn>m  1,100 
to  1,200  are  thus  annimlly  relieved.  At  the  W. 
end  of  the  Crescent  stands  the  old  hall,  built  by 
the  Earl  of  Sbrewsburj',  in  the  n*ign  of  Elizabeth, 
in  whose  custody  'Slary  Queen  of  Scots  was  place<l ; 
who,  l)eing  occasionally  permitted  to  visit  Buxton, 
occuj)ie<l  apartments  in  it.  It  is  now  an  inn.  The 
public  and  private  baths  arc  uumen>us,  and  fitted 
up  with  every  attention  to  c<»mfort,  St.  Anne's 
Well,  where  the  waters  are  usually  drunk,  is  a 
handsome  Greek  building:  it  supplies  both  hot 
and  cold  water  from  springs  that  rise  at  a  short 
db«taBce  from  each  other  :  the  temperature  of  the 
latter  is  Ca'P  Fabr. ;  that  of  the  Buxton  hot  waters 
is,  in  all  seasons,  invariably  S'29  Fahr.  Besides 
these  (which  arc  properly  the  Bttxtuu  tra/cr*), 
there  is  a  chalybeate  spring,  issuing  from  a  chalk 
stratum  behind  the  Crescent,  wliich  has  a  building 
over  it,  and  is  occasionally  drank  :  when  mixed 
with  that  of  the  other  springs,  it  forms  a  jmr- 
gative.  These  mineral  waters  rise  on  the  wcst«:m 
edge  of  the  limestone  range  which  occuines  tluit 


694 


BUZANCAIS 


I)»)rtion  of  Dertn'shirt*  called  the  Peak  Forest,  ex- 
tending fnim  Costleton  HoiiihwanlH,  ojid  consisting 
of  alteniatx?  beds  of  limestone  and  amygdaloid 
(n»ad-f«tonc).  the  former  aboiuidin^  in  pol>*)iifen>U}* 
nn»l  other  fossilii.  A  lai^e  fault  traverses  the 
whole,  and  in  this  dyke  the  thermal  s|)rinp4,  Ixith 
ofMathM'k  and  Ihixton,  rise  ;  the  latter  iKrinic  at 
the  S.  end  of  tlie  out-rro|>|iinjj  of  the  loweM  linie- 
Htone  lH*d.  Ihixton  waters  have  Uimi  tvlehratoil 
f(»r  their  medicinal  virtue-* fnnn  the  Human  jteriiHl. 
Tlie  wal«*r  is  hard,  in  c»»nr*equen(M:'  «>f  the  c'nhran-nu> 
matter,  hut  ]K'rieeily  elear;  nor  »loes  it  lH*<'(»nie 
turhiil  hy  any  length  of  exj^os^ure.  It  is  n.-'ed  as 
Itaths,  or  topically,  bv  ]>uniiiini;  «»n  jmrticular  |varts 
of  the  IwKly ;  and  is  also  taken  internally,  in  quan- 
tities vaTAii^c  from  ^  )iint  to  1^  pint,  in  the  e»»urse 
of  a  day  :  it  is  considered  U'neticial  in  dyspeptic 
<»s(>s,  and  as  a  hath  in  case^  of  puit  and  rheu- 
matism. The  chalylK-ate  spring  has  ^  prtiin  car- 
bonate i»f  inMi  in  1  gallon  :  it  in  verA-  soft  water. 

llu're  i«*  a  weekly  market  on  Saturday,  and 
animal  fairs  on  Feb.  H,  April  1,  May'2,and  S<^pt.  K: 
this  last  is  f«>r  cattle.  The  sale  of  the  mineral 
pr(Nhicti(»ns  of  the  district,  and  the  manufiu'tun* 
of  onininentnl  vases,  fnun  tiuor  and  alabaster. 
<K':ru])ies  many  of  the  i)e<iple.  Alnait  half  a  mile 
W.  «»f  the  town,  lime  is  (juarried  and  burnt  to  a 
considerable  extent,  and  conveye«l  alon;;  the  Iliy:h 


CACHAO 

Peak  railway  for  some  distance.  There  are  manr 
{addic  walks  laid  out  with  lo^eat  taste,  and  the 
neif^hbourhood  in  all  directioiui  is  most  intenAing 
and  romantic  Near  the  lime  qnaxries  i&  Pcwl's 
Iltde.  an  immense  natural  taivem  coveretl  with 
stalactites,  which  have  a  ver\'  brilliant  appeanmo« 
when  li^httrd  by  the  )^ide:t  who  show  thecav*; 
U'yond  this  is  the  Diannmd  Hill,  m  named  fnun 
the  ])r«)fusion  of  well-<lefinetl  liexapmal  cry-ut. 
dis]H*rsed  through  the  »oiL  Five  miles  in  the 
din-ction  of  Castleton  ia  a  curiitus  intennittH:t 
.spring;.  Huxtoii  was  a  R^tmoii  Htation.  and  two 
j^'at  militarv'  nuuls  inten«oct  near  it :  verti;rt7iif 
a  Koman  l>ath,  and  maiiy  Komnn  coiuM,  have  bnu 
di'«Oi»venHl. 

BrZANCAIS,  A  town  of  France,  dep,  luilrp. 
cap.  cant.,  {tartly  on  the  Imnk?  of  the  Indre,  a»«i 
itartly  on  LslanfU  in  its  channel :  the  conne<:fii>ii 
iietween  its  ditferent  dixHsions  beinjr  maintaini^i 
l>y  means  of  five  bridp's,  14  m.  NW.  ChatoaunKix, 
l*op.  r».Oiri  in  ItSiil.  Tliou^h  the  t«iriiatii»n  boex- 
eeedinj^ly  pMsl.  the  t4»wn  Ls  very  ill  liuilt,  niul 
presents  a  confused  mass?  of.  old  h«iusefi,  iuter- 
s|>ersed  with  nam>w.  <Tooke^l,  and  j^l»K»my  stn-ei.% 
There  an*  in  its  envinmit  wmie  «>nsidenible  ft.un- 
dri<'s.  and  some  trade  in  wool  is  carried  on  by  dic 
inhabitants. 


C 


(^AHKS,  or  (JARKS,  a  sea-port  and  city  of  Ilar- 
bary,  ivu;.  Tunis,  at  tin*  bott^tm  of  the  gulf  of 
the  same  name  [Si/rtis  Minor) ^  near  the  f<K»t  of 
Mount  llancara,on  the  right  bank  of  asmall  river; 
I.at.  \V.V^  r>:J'  fir>"  N.,  long.  7(»o  44'  1"  K.  Pop. 
estimated  at  20.000.  The  city  is  defen«le»l  by  a 
castle,  in  pretty  gixnl  rej»air.  Stn'Cts  regular,  hut 
narrow  and  tilthy.  Owmg  to  the  gradual  lilling 
up  of  the  bay,  its  jM»rt  is  now  only  accessible  to 
vessels  of  small  bunh.'n.  The  chief  article  <»f  ex- 
lM)rt  is  a  i)owder  miule  of  the  odoriferous  leaves  of 
a  pbiut  cjille«l  hvnuah^  raised  in  the  siuTounding 
gardens.  This  jK)W(h*r  is  us<*d  an  a  pigment  by 
the  ladies  of  the  East,  and  is,  c.t»nsequently,  in 
gn;at  cb-mand. 

CalK-s  is  said  to  1k>  the  EpUtun  of  S<«ylax.  and 
the  Tacajte  of  other  an<'ient  geognijdurs.  Kuins 
of  the  ancient  city,  among  which  are  several 
Houare  granite  cohimns,  12  ft.  in  length,  are  met 
with  on  a  rb'ing  gnanul,  alxuit  ^  ni.  fn»m  the  new 
city.  The  little  river  which  nms  thnuigh  the 
city  (the  TriUm  of  the  ancients)  is  divertwl  into 
a  great  nund»er  of  channels,  for  the  puriKjae  of 
watering  the  hennah  ganhrns. 

CAIJINDA,  a  ^ea-|M>rt  town  <»f  Lower  (luinea, 
cap.  Kn-(iovo,  on  the  Atlanti«\  50  m.  N.  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Zaire,  lat.  liP  H.T  S.,  long.  MP  40'  E. 
It  i.s  distinguished  by  its  lieautiful  situation,  and 
the  fertility  of  its  territory,  which  have  oittained 
for  it  the"  title  of  the  piinidise  of  the  ei>ast.  Its 
harlxtur  is  safe  an<l  commodious.  TheexiM»r1s  are 
slaves,  ivor\'.  honey,  and  wax.  The  natives  are 
uncivilised,  and  dillicult  to  deal  with.  The  Por- 
tugmrse  have  fn^<|U<*ntly  attempted,  but  without 
success,  t<»  get  a  footing  in  this  place. 

CABKA  (an.  u^Afahmm),  a  town  of  S|)ain,  ]»rov. 
Conlova,  nwir  the  si^in^e  of  the  river  <»f  the  same 
name,  ]»artly  on  two  hilLs  and  jjartly  in  a  plahi 
plante<l  with  >-ines  and  olives ;  28  in.  SSE.  0»r- 
dova.  P»»]).  ll.OTti  in  1H.07.  »S)me  of  the  stre<tts 
are  wide  and  straight,  with  streams  of  water  nm- 
ning  through  them,  aiul  gofnl  houses  with  magni- 
ficent   fronts.      There   va  a    lar^e,   but   irregular 


square ;  many  public  and  private*  fountains  a*l 
pn>menades:  some  ancient  mosqucA,  and  oiUt 
ruins.  Here  is,  als<i,  a  c<d]<^;c,  with  t^lassos  for  \\* 
study  of  grammar.  philos«i|»hy,  niathematic^N  and 
design.  The  town  ha»  nianufa'ctanef)  of  tiles  l«ictN 
white  Hoap,  ctiarse  linen  and  heni|^n  clothe,  uitfa 
wines,  brandy,  \-inegar,  oil,  and  tlour.  TlKTe  an- 
nearly  4(M)  ganlens  attAohe<l  to  the  town,  wli* 
supply  mast  paru*  of  the  distriot  with  fruit  ai^l 
v<'getabk>s.  The  neigh lM>urh(M»d  prodiuxw  niar':4e 
of  various  kinds,  g\-]»sum,  anti  cl.iy  for  Inicks  ami 
p<)tter>'.  llie  crater  of  an  oxtfnct  volcaiv.'  t» 
situated  in  the  precincts  of  tin*  town.  It  wa.*  a 
place  of  consideration  among  the  liomans.  in  J 
ahio  with  the  Moors. 

CAIJHEKA,  a  small  island  of  the  Me«liti»m- 
nean,  lielonging  to  Spain,  9  m.  K.  Cajw  Saliia.-. 
Majorca. 

C'ACCAMO,  a  town  of  Sicily,  prov.  Pale^l>•^ 
cap.  cant,,  24  m.  SE.  l*alermo.  l»op.  7.244  il 
1802. 

CACEHES,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  EstremaJim'- 
caj).  district;  41  m.  N.  Mcrida ;  on  a  mouni.iia 
ridge,  washe<l  by  three  rivers,  alon^  one  of  wbiit 
then*  art*  neariy  3  miles  of  gardens:  24  miles  W. 
Tnixillo.  Pop,  14,801)  in  li<.'>7.  Tlie  town  Su? 
an  episcopal  palace,  some  fs^nX  public  builtiini.'v 
with  manygooil  privato  houses.  It  has.  al-s",* 
Jesuits'  college,  the  most  sumptuous  in  the  pn»v.: 
a  public  st4uKd;  a  seminary-,  or  c«dlego.  with  jr^ 
fessorships  of  grammar,  and' the  I^tiu  and  <  >Tici»taI 
languages,  pliilosophy,  divinitv,  metlicine.  iix' 
jurispnulence ;  a  hi>spital  for  infirm  ]ier.mx 
widows,  and  orphans.  It  was  formerly  unitoi  to 
Portugal,  and  was  then  of  much  mort**^  wm-qOm- 
tion  than  at  present.  It  has  some  tlcKir-milk 
fulling-mills,  with  tanneries,  lavaderxtu  for  washiu;: 
wool,  dyeing-works,  and  manufactures  of  earthen- 
ware. Cact-res  appears  to  have  hwn  a  P».«uti 
station,  some  magnificent  ruins  having  been  .li*- 
covered  in  and  within  a  short  distance  vi  tirf 
towii. 

CACIIAO,  or  KE-CHO,   often   calkil  by  lU 


CACHAE 

natives  Bak-than,  the  laigcst  dty  of  the  empire  of 
Anam,  cap.  of  its  N.  cliv.  or  Tonquin,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tonquin  river,  about  80  m.  W.  the 
Gulf  of  Tonquin,  and  825  m.  NXW.  Hu^;  lat  21© 
N.,  long.  1050  84'  E.  Pop.  enUmated  at  90,000. 
The  city  is  of  great  extent,  but  defended  only  by 
a  bamboo  stockade.  Chief  streets  wide,  and  mostly 
I)avcd  with  brick  or  small  stones ;  the  others 
narrow  and  unpave<L  Some  houses,  chiefly  those 
l>elonging  to  foreigners,  are  built  of  brick  ;  but 
the  greater  number  are  of  onlv  mud  and  timber. 
Public  edifices  spacious,  especially  one  royal  palace, 
and  the  ruins  of  another ;  the  walls  surrounding 
each  of  which  are  reported  to  be  of  vast  extent. 
It  has  a  considerable  trade,  and  had  formerly  both 
KnglL«(h  and  Dutch  factories,  llie  imports  are 
long  cloths,  chintzes,  and  arms ;  the  exports,  gold, 
fine  silk  fabrics,  and  lacouered  wares,  the  best  of 
the  Kast  The  X.  brancn  of  the  Tonquin  river, 
which  once  admitted  much  larger  ships,  is  said,  in 
consequence  of  the  accumulation  01  sand  at  its 
mouth,  to  be  now  impracticable  for  those  above 
200  tuns  bunlen.  The  city  being  composed  to  so 
great  an  extent  of  inflammable  materials,  is  verv 
subject  to  destructive  tires :  and  a  rigid  police  is 
always  on  the  alert  to  prevent  the  use  of  those  for 
domestic  purpwcs  for  more  than  a  few  hours  in  the 
day.  It  was  nearly  burnt  to  the  ground  by  some 
incendiaries  in  the  course  of  the  17th  centun'. 

CACHAK,  or  HAIRUMBO,  a  territ,  of 'India 
beyond  the  Ganges,  formerly  governed  bv  its  own 
rajah,  but  since  1832  a  British  gov.,  sulxirdinate 
to  the  prcsid.  Bengal  It  lies  between  lat.  24^  and 
270  N.,  and  long.  92°  and  94©  E.;  having  N. 
Assam ;  E.  Cassay ;  S.  Tipperah  :  and  W.  Sylhet 
and  Jynteah ;  length,  N.  to  S.,  about  140  m.  The 
area  embraces  a  territory'  of  0,500  sq.  m.,  with  an 
CKtimateil  pop.  of  70,000.  Cachar  is  summnded 
on  three  sidc^s  by  mountain  chains :  on  the  N.  the 
Naga  mountains  cut  it  off  from  the  Dharmpoor 
district  and  the  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra ;  on 
the  W.  the  boundary  is  formed  by  the  same  chain, 
which,  running  S.,  forms  tlie  E.  frontier  of  Chit- 
tagong  and  Aracan,  and  op|x>site  Svlhet  and  Mune- 
l>oor  is  from  2,000  to  4.000  ft.  high  :  on  the  S.  is 
an  elevated  chain  running  E.  and  W.,  and  inha- 
bited by  the  Kookies.  Another  range  runs  {>arallel 
to  the 'latter,  in  about  lat.  25°  20'  N.,  dividing 
Southern  from  Central  and  Northern  Cachar,  and 
fn>m  4,0(N)  to  0,0<K)  ft.  high  ;  all  these  ranges  are 
covered  from  base  to  summit  with  vast  forests. 
The  plains  are  mostly  in  S.  Cachar,  where  their 
height  al)ove  the  sea  is  about  200  ft.  Tlie  chief 
rivers  are  the  Barak,  Kapilee,  Jumona,  and  Dhun- 
scree.  The  first  rises  amongst  the  mountains  be- 
tween C^assay  and  Assam,  in  lat,  25°  30'  N,,  and 
long.  91°  20'  E.,  and  Hows  with  a  very  tortuous 
course  for  180  m.  thniugh  S.  Cachar,  which  it 
leaves  at  Banga  (Sylhet).  It  variej*  considerably 
in  width,  but  is  sometimes  150  or  200  yds.  across, 
and  is  navigable  for  lv>ats  of  some  burden  to  20  m. 
alH)ve  Bauskairdee :  during  the  rains  it  has  30  or 
40  fu  depth  of  water,  and  the  country  thn)ugh 
which  it  flows  is  inundate<l  frem  June  to  Novem- 
l»er.  The  mountain-streams  afford  readv  access  to 
the  forests,  an<l  are  of  farther  service  in  floating 
down  timl)er,  rattans,  bamboos,  drc^,  frem  wliich 
much  revenue  has  been  realised  by  the  former 
rajahs.  No  lakes  have  t)een  enumerated.  During 
the  SW.  monsoon  there  are  frequent  and  long- 
continued  falls  of  rain,  beginning  in  Febniar}'  or 
March,  from  which  i>erio<l  vegetation  proceeds  with 
great  rapidity.  The  excessive  moi<<ture  renders 
the  climate  unhealthy  ;  and  ague,  dysentery,  and 
diarrluea,  are  frinpient  :  but  it  modities  the  heat 
in  summer,  reducing  it  four  or  five  degrees  below 
the  Uiui\\  of  Calcutta.    In  the  cold  season  fires, 


CACHAB 


595 


morning  and  evening,  are  focmd  essential  to  com- 
fort, llie  fertility  of  the  soil  is  very  great :  rice 
and  other  grain,  sugar-cane,  and  cotton,  the  latter 
especially,  N.  of  the  central  hills,  grow  luxuriantly. 
Timber  is  very  abundant  in  the  mountain  ranges, 
and  has  always  been  an  important  source  of  wealth  : 
in  other  parts  a  dense  and  lofly  reed  and  gra» 
jungle  rapidly  springs  up  after  the  rains,  afTonling 
cover  for  vast  numwrs  of  wild  deer,  buffaloes,  and 
elephants. 

S.  Cachar  is  a  valuable  addirion  to  oar  eastern 
possessions ;  its  fertile  plains,  winch  are  continuous 
on  the  \V.,  with  the  well  watered  ones  of  Sylhet, 
extend  E.  as  far  as  the  Jeree  river,  a  tributaiy  of 
the  Barak.  There  are  1,850  sq.  m.  of  surface  S. 
the  Barak  ;  1,700  of  which  are  a  fertile  plain,  now 
almost  whoUv  unoccupied,  although  the  traces  of 
numerous  villages  abound  on  the  banks  of  the 
rivers.  N.  of  the  Barak  there  are  1,000  sq.  m.  of 
surface,  480  of  which  are  estimated  to  be  arable 
land  of  a  very  fine  quality.  This  tract  is  daily 
becoming  better  inhabited,  and  immediatelv  along 
the  tmnks  of  the  Barak  there  is  a  belt  of  rich  cul- 
tivation not  surpassed  in  any  part  of  Bengal,  and 
the  tracts  contiguous  to  it  are  in  process  of  l)eing 
cleareil :  a  considerable  emigration  appear  to  have 
taken  place  thither  from  Bengal.  The  pop.  of  S. 
Cachar  consists  of  three  or  four  different  classes, 
viz.  1,  Cacharees  ;  2,  Mussulman  Bengalese,  who 
are  the  chief  of  the  petty  landholders;  8,  Hindoo 
Bengalese ;  and  4,  mixed  tribes,  as  Nagas,  Koo- 
kies, *and  Cassayers:  the  firot  two  have  long  in- 
habited the  8.  and  E.  hills,  but  tendered  little 
homage  to  the  Cachar  rajahs  ;  and  the  Cassayeia 
have  been  settled  there  by  the  British  government^ 
and,  by  their  bold  and  military  qualities,  form  a 
valuable  protection  against  the  other  hill  tribes  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  plains. 

From  the  central  ndge,  looking  N.,  is  seen  a 
vast  mass  of  dark  and  dense  forest,  bounded  by  the 
Kopili,  Jumona,  and  Dhunseree  rivers ;  extending 
for  al)Out  70  m.,  and  broken  only  by  a  few  specif 
of  cultivation,  and  the  scattered  huts  of  a  few 
Cacharees  and  Kookies,  who  earn  a  livelihood 
principally  by  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  wliich 
they  barter  for  other  produce  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Assam  and  Dhumimpoor.  AI>out  6,000  of  the 
pop.  in  Central  Cachar  are  probably  aborigines  ; 
the  remainder  are  K<M>kies  and  Loloongs,  most 
likely  from  the  S.  and  SE.  Emigration  from 
Sylhet  into  Cachar  has  been  greatly  encouraged 
by  the  assignment  of  lands  at  tlit  low  rate  of  tliree 
annas  per  b^ra,  to  1)c  held  rent  free  for  1,000  days, 
at  the  end  of  which  time  the  quantity  of  land 
cleared  was  to  l>e  assessed.  Tlie  iieople  (»f  the 
central  hilLs  bring  cotton,  ivorj*,  wax,  uron-ore, 
and  l>aml)oos,  into  Central  Cachar ;  alK)Ut  2,(N)0 
jarool  timbers  are  sentdtmn  the  Barak  into  Sylhet, 
for  building  large  chunam  iKiats.  The  other  exix>rta 
are  salt^  coarse  silk,  and  limestone. 

Three  routes  through  Cachar  into  Cassay  part 
from  Banskandee  near  the  E.  extremitv  of  the 
<*leared  plains :  viz.,  those  of  Acjuee,  Kafa  Naga, 
and  Khongjnee.  By  the  former,  or  most  N.,  the 
di«(tance  from  Banskandee  to  Jaeenagur,  in  the 
Cassay  central  valley,  is  80  m.;  the  first  80  m. 
I  of  which  pass  through  a  dense  forest  abounding 
in  swamps,  and  intersected  with  small  streams, 
which  rapidly  become  imfjassable  after  nuns.  Tlie 
Kala  Naga  route  is  in  all  these  respects  prefer- 
able, and  also  crosses  the  Juree  river  8  m.  from 
its  confluence  with  the  Barak,  up  to  which  fM>int 
the  latter  is  navigable  for  IxMts  of  500  maunds. 
The  third  route  passes  over  the  hilly  countrj'  of 
the  Kookies,  and  is  useless  for  military'  pur]K»ses. 
(See  Cassay.)  S<»veral  roads  toward  the  central 
hiUa  travene  S.  Cachar,  which  all  unite  in  one 

QQ  2 


/iOG 


CADEROUSSE 


vftlloy,  and  tlinicc  niii  tl)n»iif;h  tho  contrnl  and 
N.  di\'iHions  townnl  Amam,  into  whiirli  thc*r«  am 
thrpo  M-parato  routoi^  throii^ti  (.'aclmr  from  Sylhot. 
(.'(R<]MM>r  iH  tlui  ano.  raiiital,  )>iit  SiK'liar,  S.  the 
l^nik,  in  Uh'  prvM'nt  n^sidcnco  of  tlio  rhii-f  au- 
tlioritioH.  The  ('achnn'<«  are  utronjr,  rohiiM, 
fairor  than  the  li<'n^al<'K'.  and  like  the  (MliIle^^.•  in 
fi'atiin'H.  The  ori^iiml  Jlairumhian  diaU;ot  is 
Kaid  to  havo  lM>en  nionoHyllnbic,  hut  is  now  nforly 
extinct,  the  lan^unp'  and  written  o)iarac*ter  of 
Ikqi^al  liavin^  usu^kmI  iti*  pUu'e.  Th<'  KiNtkies 
who  have  1k*oii  for  years  ymdiially  advancinf^  it, 
are  HU]i])08ed  to  l>e  of  Mnlny  origin;  ihe.y  are 
seldom  much  mon^  than  f>  ft.  in  heijjht  ;*  t)ieir 
c^implexionH  nearly  as  dark  as  those  of  tlie 
Iien^aleH(>:  voices  soft,  andhui^ia^e  hannonittus. 
Small  fMirties,  of  from  in  to  .Sn  of  them,  formerly 
made  fre(|uent  st-cret  incursion^  within  our  fron- 
tiers, in  ttearch  of  human  hentU.  which  would 
btH'in  to  Ik*  necessary  articles  at  the  fwrfonnance 
of  certain  of  their  reli^ous  cen*monies. 

Cachar  was  unknown  to  the  Itritish  until  ]7(iS; 
when  Mr.  Verelst  led  a  small  font-  into  it.  In 
1771  it  was  invaded  l>y  the  liinni^se,  and  some 
time  aAer  rendenMl  trih'utary  by  them.  In  IMIO 
they  placiHl  the  Kajali  <»f  MunefMMir  on  the  throne 
of  Cm'har;  and,  fn»m  IHIH  to  IX'i.S,  a  civil  war 
for  suprema<.\v  l)etween  that  chief  and  his  two 
liHithers  devastati><i  the  i»n)V.  By  the  treaty  •>f 
ZandalKK),  in  1K2*I,  Cachar  was  placed  under 
British  pn»tection.  and  the  rajah  re-established; 
but  on  his  death  in  1M.'>0,  without  any  luur,  it 
liecame,  in  1832,  an  intej^rol  part  of  the  British 
territory. 

CADEROrSSK,  a  town  of  France,  dt^p.  Vau- 
cliist*,  on  the  left  l»ank  of  the  Rhone,  which  at 
this  point  encloses  a  considerable  island,  ',i  m. 
SW.  Oranpe.  P<»p.  a.ltii)  in  iHin.  The  town 
has  some  silk  fdatures,  and  its  territ4)r}'  is  produc- 
tive of  com,  silk,  and  madder. 

(!AI)IZ,  a  city  and  sea-|>ort  of  Spain,  in  An- 
dalusia, on  the  Atlantic,  Cui  m.  S.  Seville,  and  tJO 
m.  N\V.  (iibraltar,  on  the  terminus  of  the  S«>uth 
Western  railway  from  Madri«l.  Pop.  70,Kll  in 
iHhl,  'T\w.  city  occu|iies  the  rocky  and  elevate<l 
extremity  of  a  hm^,  hjw.  uanrow  ton;;ue  of  land, 
pnijectin^  alxmt  5  m.  NNW.  from  the  Isle  of 
i^Hin,  and  enclosing  l>etwe(ai  it  and  the  main-land 
a  spacious  bay,  whii'h  has  everywhere  jjckmI  an- 
chorapj.  The  harliour  is  alxnit*  I)  m.  lonjj,  from 
RotA  to  ('orraca,  and  three  miles  bn).id,  fn)m 
Cailiz  to  Port  St.  Mary's,  or  to  Port  Royal.  The 
])ort  of  Cadiz  is  formed  by  a  mt)le  pn^Jei^tinji:  fn»m 
the  city  into  the  bay;  but  it  is  accessiljle  <Mily  to 
vraall  vessels,  shifw  of  larpje  bunleu  anchoiiu^ 
i  m.  offshore.  The  bay  is  divided  into  the  inner 
and  outer  l>ays  by  the  j)nmiont<»rk',  having  at  its 
extremity  the  fort  of  Matai;orda.  The  Uthmus 
joining*:  the  city  to  the  main-land  is  in  ])arl8  not 
more  than  from  200  to  3tH>  yanls  across,  and  is 
very  Htronf^ly  fortified:  the  access  to  the  city 
from  the  sea  is  in  some  ]i]aces  rendered  imprac- 
ticable by  the  Rteepnc^^s  of  the  rocks,  the  cn-cur- 
rence  of  sandbanks  and  of  sunken  ledges;  and 
bein^  ever\'where  defended  by  ramparts  bastions, 
and  detached  forts,  it  would,  were  these  kept  in 
pn>i)er  repair  and  well  pcarrisoncd,  be  all  but  im- 
)>re^nable ;  w»  that,  as  respects  convenience  and 
security,  Cadiz,  with  its  Iwy  and  dependencioj*, 
is  probably  unmatched,  and  certainly  not  siir- 
[»assed,  as  a  naval  <lep6t.  Street.s  straight,  and 
thou<;h  rather  narrow,  arc  remarkably  well  i)aved, 
clean,  and  ]i^hte<l  with  lamjis.  The  houses,  in 
f^eneral  lofty,  have  a  court  m  the  centre;  tliey 
are  mostly  built  of  white  freestone^  an«l  wmie  of 
them  are  ornamented  with  iviinted  iMilconii's. 
lljcre  are  ticvcral  »quan»;  but,  with  the  cxcep- 


CADIZ 

tion  of  that  of  San  Antonio,  in  the  centre  of  the 
luty,  they  are  all  of  very  limiteil  dimen^iMbt. 
The  raraparti*  afford  the  tineHt  marine  promenade, 
the  view  on  the  K.  Mide  extentls  aiixiss  the  faar  t>> 
St.  Mar\'*s  and  the  other  t^jwns  bv  which  u  is 
lined,  and  to  the  mountauis  in  the  di^taIlce:  on 
the  \V.  the  eye  range*  over  the  boundieftt  expand 
of  the  Atlantic. 

With  the  exception  nf  the  fort itlcat ions,  Caiiii 

has  no  public  biiildinpi  of  any  importance.    Th« 

most  cons]ticuous  is  tlie  lightliouM*  of  San  Sebo:^ 

tian,  on  the  luastion  of  that   name,  haviui;  the 

lanteni  elevated  172  ft.  above  the  level  of  iIm? 

sea.    There  are   two  cathe<lralM — an    old   and  s 

new;  but  the  latter  is   untini'uheiL     There  L«  a 

custom-house^    several    hospitaLi.    churt-he^    as.d 

convent**.    The  town  labours  under  a  p^rvat  i\*^ 

Hciencv  of  water,  haxnnjj:  none  that  is  pi/table  but 

what  IS  brought  in  vessels   across  the   liay  fn-in 

St.    Marj-'s,    or    what    is    collect oti    in   cisterns, 

Bein^;  almost  surrounded  by  the  sea,  the  climute 

is  com|»aratively   temj)erate ;  the  summer   ln?ais 

are  less  violent  than  in  Madrid,  thouj^h  it  lie  «<• 

much  farther  south,  while  the  odil  of  winter  i^ 

not  nearly  so  severe.     It  i**  not  unhealthy:  Ini, 

like  most  other  t4)wns  on  the  S.  coast  of'  S]-^!!. 

is  f>ccasionally  vLxiied  by  enitlemics.     Tliere  ij«  a 

I  tolerable  theatre,  where  Italian  ofXTa^  are  !^)Iih- 

j  times  i)erfonned ;  but  those  who   wL*h   lo  enjoy 

!  the   national   divernion  of  bull-lij;Iits  must  cn^^ 

I  the  l»ay  to  St.  Marj-'s.     Morale  here  an*  tj-aid  t.> 

,  be.   if  possible,   even   at  a    lower    ebli    than  in 

other  Spanish  cities. 

The  Otracca.  or  royal  dnokvanL.  is  situated  at 
the  liottom  of  the  inner  bay,  about  <»  m.  fn>ni  the 
city,  on  the  channel  sef>afating  the  isle  of  Jj^m 
i  from  the  main-laiuL  This  used  formerly  u*  \^  • 
.  ver\'  complete  establishment ;  ami  lu  manv  a< 
5,im')0  men  were  kei)t  constantly  at  work  lu  il 
Now,  however,  it  is  all  hut  de^crttsl. 

The    commerce  of  Cadiz   was    formerly  verv 

extensive.     For   a   lengthened   pcrio^l   the  city 

|M>ssesseil  a  monopKidy  of  the  trade  with  the  va*i 

ftossessitms  lielouj^in^  to  S|uiin  in  the  Xcw  WorW 

and  notwithstanding  the  abolition  of  the  mono- 

:  iKdy  in  1778,  she  continued  to  engross  bv  far  the 

;  iarj,'er  portion  of  the  trade  with  these  cnunthi^ 

:  down  to  their  emancipation,     lliis  event  j^ve  a, 

blow  t<»    the  commereial    im|K>rtancc  of  i'aiiix. 

fn)m  which  it  ha«*  not  recovered,     It«  influeiuv 

■  nii^ht.  no  doubt,  have  l>een  in  a  preat  mt-a«u:v 
'  obviated,  had  the  SjMinish  p^ovenmient  adi^iri-d 
'  a  more  lil)eral  policy  m  relation  to  its  interct»ur<r 

■  with  other  countries.     But  oppn>«8ive  duties  anri 
restrictions  went  far  to  destroy  the  foreii^i  tnJe 

1  of  Si)ain.    To  raise  the  ct>mmerce  of  Cadix  fhun 

j  the  depressed  situation  into  which  it  had  falk-n, 

'  povemmcnt  made  it,  in  182J),  a  free  jjort,  that  is 

:  a  port  into  which  pKxls  might  Ije  ini^iorted.  an  J 

frem  which  they  miffht  lie  exported,  free  of  Auir, 

In  consequence  of  thw  priWlej:©,  it  immoiliatelv 

bet^ame  a  pnnci|ial  depot  for  the  foreign  |WKluctii 

desthuHl  for  the  Spanish  market ;  and  the  wnm:- 

gling  carried  on  frt)m  the  towii  -was  so  great,  that. 

.  in  18^J2,  government  not  choo«dng  to  n.*duc«  tfce 

duties   which   occasioned   it,  and   l»eing  wa§b> 

I  otherwise   to  repress  the    abuse,    withdrew   iLe 

j  prinlege,  so  that  the  trade  again  rv^laix^  intu 

I  ita  state pre\-iously  to  1820.     It  ha«  still,  however. 

a  larger  share  than  any  other  Spaiii«4i  town  i<f 

the  trade  with  Cuba,  Puerto  Ric«».  and  Manilla. 

the  only  remaining  colonics  of  Spain ;  and  it,  or 

rather  its  dependency,  SL  Marj'  a.  is  the  centir 

I  of  the  Bherry  trade,  all  the  wines  of  Xeres  being 

I  Hliip])<*d  either  from  the  one  or  the  other. 

I     'llie  princi|ial  articles  of  impc^rt  are  faliric»  d 

J  linen,  wool,  silk,  and  cotton,  of  which,  howcrvr. 


CAEN 
I  infte  proportion  in  dfstincil  for  re-txportatloE ; 
Hipir,  iiicwi  (nf  whifih  there  u  a  very  fcre«l  con- 
siimiitiiiu  in  Spiin),  coffee,  uul  other  colonial 
pnnluce;  limbet,  tulacco,  hiilw,  and  wiled  fieh. 
19  by  r>T  (he  prindiial  aniele  of  export 

Llls,  of  640  E( ,  _. 

mnleil  value  of  l^-16,TiiL     In  IHGS  the  ghipmenU 
were  60^«1  buttn. 
The  Bhippiiip  of  the  port  of  C«diz  ia  shown  in 

Ihe  following  table,  embrMing  the  t ' 

nine  yeiw,  from  l"'" 


CAEHLEON  fi9T 

TW  partly  deinoluiheil  at  the  Rerolulion :  the  por- 
inn  cif  it  thnt  tilillrrinains  i«nawDKduai>riHni. 
There  are  fnur  »qu«rea,  of  which  the  Place  lioyale, 
imnmented  with  a  Matue  ofLoiiii^  XIV^  u  the 
IncHl,  A  nnn,  or  public  walk,  fhailm)  by  mu;ni- 
flrant  elm  treel^  extends  for  nearly  a  mile  alonj' 
the  banlu  of  (lie  riven.  There  are  nome  line  old 
'hiirehet.  of  which  the  muat  inlerestine  ia  the 
Abba^  au  llnmmti,  built  by  William  the  Cuo- 

=  a  IniKe.  plain  building,  with  two  very 

and  couiaini^  arnon);  other  inicrextinR 

,  the  tomb  of  the  Conqueror;  but  the 

latter  wa»  violated  by  the  HuE«eno1»,  in  1  b&i,  and 

imemed.    The  Ahbaut  aia  Fnnma, 

^ieiit,  is  now  the  Trinity  Huspilal,  one 

□anaeed  estibUihnwnts  of  the  kind 

be  met  with.    The  chnich   of  St. 

Peier  baa  Ihe  tincstupire  in  Nortnandy  ;and  seve- 

iher  churchea  dcnerve  notice.    Amon|t 

iblic  bnildiuKABre  the  hotel  of  the  pi«- 

Hotel  de  Villc,  the  I'atacc  of  Justice, 

and  the  Hotel  Dko.  Caen  has  been  lon([  cele- 
brated for  its  univetBilv,  fiiunded  in  UMl,  by 
VI..  kii^  of  England.     It  wasremoilelled 


_&£_ 

c^ 

■^ 

3S» 

S4U 

ioj,4a« 

»,3oa 

Wl.OlB 

H««li»h.ndN 

ISi 

1^1 

SO 

l>grtoK>«<>    . 
IlRteh     . 

SM 

'■t'v'^ 

Italian   .       . 

Ilanoveriuis  '. 

19 

ISJ 

'^■;|',^ 

PtukUiu       . 

im 

BolKian.       . 

i;m3 

Hamburg       . 

IJM 

Orli>ntj.l«  (Turkish)       . 

*<i 

RlisFIUo    '. 

11 

141  1 

Total     . 

l,ftW 

14,151 

!K.41)0  1 

iz  ifl  very  ancienl,  having  been  founded  bv 
the  I'hieniclatis.  In  I5!N!  it  wmtukenand  sackeil 
bv  Ihe  Eniclishp  by  whom  it  was  i|^n  inefTfeln- 
olly  altavked  in  llija  and  17IJ2.  In  imm  it  lic- 
rame  the  asvlum  of  the  CorteH.  and  was  lilockaded 
hv  Ibe  Ftciwh  till  IKlTi.  In  IfrlH  it  mirrendeml 
tn  the  French  umler  llie  lino  d'An^ouI^e. 

CAKMj  a   town  (irFnuite.  di<p.  Calvailnn,  of 
wbirh  it  I*  ibc  ■'a|>ilal,  iu  an  extenw'e  valley  l>e- 
twcen  Iwi)  Ufge  mewiowik  at  the  coiiMuence  of  the 
Odun  with  the  Ome,  about  H  m.  from  the  ei 
bmHrhure  uf  the  latter.  .HO  m.  SW.  Havre,  on  t 
railway  from  Parni  1i>  Cherbouij;.    Pop.  'tll.i'lO 
IWll,    Caen  is  a  well-lwilt,  improving  town.  The 
Btrvclsaiu  ireneTallv  broad,  siraight,  and  c" 
aiHl  the  hniiMis  of  Bcestiine  liavc  a  ^hI  as 
■lice.    It  was  formerly  ■  |ilavc  of  conslik 
r^rrngth.  Iieln(t  defended  by  a  castle,  and 


nu  under  the 
■n  atadtmit  univtrmtairt.  There  are  here, 
royal  eolle^  or  high  school,  with  from 


botanical  cardcn.  with  agood  cullectif 
school  ii  Bichilecture  and  design ; 
imb  school:  museums  of  piclurea  , 


rat  of  a  ruyal^ 

irisdiclion  anil 
he  town  are  in 

lukinKufwli'icl 


t  fort 


id  for  tr 


,  depts. 


unals  of  oi 


'  Calvados, 


Icathc 


The  manufBctniw  of 
iTtant  and  valuable.  They  con- 
aces,  and  of  thread  and  silk,  Ihe 
raplovB  a  vast  immber  of  people ; 
S  table  linen,  a  variety  of  cotton 
fine  earthenware,  cutlery,  hats, 
.     At  high  water,  vessels  of  160 


where  they  lie  alongrtidc  the  quays.  Since  the 
opening  of  the  railway  which  places  Caen  in  direct 
communication  with' Paris,  the  commerce  of  the 
town  bos  much  increased. 

Several  large  fairs  are  held  for  the  sale  of  the 
products  of  the  town,  and  uf  the  hoiree,  cattle, 

oHisequence  of  its  excellent  establishments  fur 
educatii>n,  and  ulhn  advantages,  (.'aen  is  a  lavuar- 
ite  resort  of  English   families.     It  has  produced 

•-  -■  %  the  father  of  French  pifttty;  the  learned 
,  Irishop  of  Avnnehes,  TanncKui,  and  Lef^vre. 


r  the  dukes  of  Nor 

lie.1.     It   h 


lit 


c  of  impoit- 
1-,  by  whom  if 


veral  t 


It  was  taken  by  the  Pro 
when  it  suffenil  seierely. 

CAKIil.EOX.atownofEngbind.co.Monmoulh, 
>-    -- ■    ■'  ■-  par.  Uangallock,  on  the  Usk,  IS  m. 


f  its  wealth 

antiquitiH 

[s  vmmtj-,  and 


though  perliain  exaggerated,  piclun 

and    magniticcnce.     Several    Komi 

have  been  dug  up  in  the 

in  several  part*  the  Koman  walla  are  still  Tiaihle. 


698 


CAETIMARTHEN 


An  elliptical  r<»nravity,  tlio,  lunjjcst  diameter  mea- 
suriii^  71  yards,  and  the  ^linrtest  »)4,  and  <J  yanls 
ill  dcptli.  in  situated  in  a  field  close  by  the  L'sk, 
near  tlie  S\V.  H<le  of  the  town.  The  cnuntry 
IN'tiple  call  it  AnhiirV  Koinid  'I'alilo;  but  nudoubl 
it  is  the  remains  ut'an  amphitheatre.  Within  the 
C"»urse  i»f  la."^t  emtiirv  stone  >i'Hi-*  were  disecivi^nil 
on  o|H.'ninjL;  the  «<iili's  of  the  concavity;  ami,  in 
17(i>i,  an  a]alia'«ter  >iatueor  Hiaiia  was  found  in  it. 
It  \iiL^  a  well-fudnwed  charity  schiHil  for  maintain- 
ing and  eriucatin;;  ">•)  l)ovs  and  I'n  jrirls. 

('Ai:i:MAi:Tiii':\..r(AimAi:TnKXsiiir:E, 

a  niarit.eii.  Ill"  S.Wales,  haviuj^S.Caermarthen  liay, 
vhich  :jniies  with  the  HriMol  ('hannel,  K.  the  cih. 
of  (ilainor^an  and  lirei'ou,  N.  (.'anlij^an,  and  W. 
I'einliroke.  Area,  i •"_':»..•{•  »0  acres ;  |»<>p.  HI.71H>  in 
iKiil.  Surface  various,  in  |uirt  mountainous,  and 
in  part  eonsistin^  <»1"  low  tine  vales:  tlnr  largest, 
and  ino?<t  eeh'brated  of  the  latter  is  the  vale  of 


CAERNARVON 

CO.  gaols;  the  latter  ia  on  part  of  the  «te  of  the 
ohl  caistle  (of  which  f»ome  remain:*  are  nfill  Krfi.i. 
<m  the  brr>w  of  the  hill  riMnff  abruptly  frr.in  ibr* 
river;  alon^  which  the  quay  ».•xtcn<i^  Thenv*r 
is  iTojwed  bv  a  tine  bridge  of  7  archc**.  Maik?;*. 
Wednesdav  and  Satunlay ;  and  cattle  fair^  AfTJl 
i:»,  June  3  an.l  4.  .luly  10,  Aiif,'.  1*2,  Sept.  '.». 
Oct.  1».  N'fiv.  M  and  15.  Thorc  an?  no  nianur'air- 
tures  of  any  imiK»rtani'<'  in  the  town  :  Ihii.  as  i: 
furnishes  the  iMipuhais  district  in  the  vicinity  wiili 
articles  of  jjeneral  ci»n!«umption.  it.s  trade  is  «nri- 
si«lenible,  l*rinciY»al  »?x]H»rt.s  (all  c\»astwis^).  bar'i. 
marble,  slate,  lead  ore,  heather,  com,  Iwilicr  sihI 
c^Tfrs;  imYM^rts,  ^rt-iioral  carp:tK'S  of  liritwli  and  o»- 
lonial  prmluce.  an"!  maniifaet»in?s,  and  timl'^^r  aiul 
ihsiK  At  aii  avera^,  l'>  «ir^i»os  a  year  are 
imiMirt<Hl  from  abroad,  the  vorisels  sailin;^  outwa^^ 
in  ballast.  AUmt  40  veswl^  lielon*^  to  the  j-.-n, 
and  ves?<<ls  of  W  to   150  ions  are  built  h*:n\    It 


Towy,  stn-tchiu;;  for  about  ;>U  m.  aloni;  the  river  ■.  is  a  cre«'k.  comprisecl   in    the   ]n.»rt-   of  Llaneliy 


of  that  name,  by  which  the  co.  is  intersectetl.  with 
an  averai^e  breailth  of  alMMit  2  m.  *  Vstra<lTowy,' 
<»r  lln'  Vab'of  Towv,  w;is  the  ancient  Welsh  name 
of  thr  eountv.  Kxchisive  of  ilu-  Towv,  Caer- 
marthen  is  separal<'d  from  Canlipm  by  theTaafe, 
and  in  |Nirt  from  tilanior^an  and  Pembroke  by  the 
Lon;;hor  juid  the  Taafe.  The  jMinion  of  this  eo., 
S.  au«l  K.  «if  the  'l\)wy,  adjoinmj^  ( ilamorj^an,  is 
ineluded  in  the  j^reat  (;oal-lieltl  of  S.Wales:  at 
iJanelly  there  i^  also  an  abundant  supply  of  iroii- 
Htone,  and  <"onsid<'rable  iron-w<»rks.  Soil  of  the 
arable  land  mosilv  a  samlv  loam,  eaMlv  wron;rht. 
adminddy  ailapted  to  the  tnniip  husl>andry,  and 
in  general  verj'  prtsluetive.  lint  a^iculnm»  here, 
and  indeeil  in  the  ^renter  part  of  Wales,  is  in  an 
extremely  backwanl  state.  The  «H'cupie.rsare,  for 
the  most  part,  uninstrucled.  and  stnm^ly  attached 
to  ancient  praetic;es.     l)raina;[^'.  thou«;h   the  tir>t 


Vi'sseN  of  I'on  tons  may  a^.vnd  to  the  briiUro  a: 
spring  ti<les;  but  many  fdislnirtions  are  ^utTiT-."!". 
It)  accumulate  in  the  river,  ho  that  they  an*  ^^'- 
fpienily  oliliged  to  disi'har^e  2  m.  Itcluw.  Tin- 
salmon  tisherv',  which  wa.s  once  very  ex:cn-ivi', 
has  much  decreaseil.  Races  arc  annually  led-l  i'.i 
S<'pt.,  4  m.  up  the  vale  of  the  T«iwy.  It  is  the  itii- 
tral  to>%-n  ot  a  iK>or  law  union  of  1<>  par*.;  ^.ti^" 
rental  a>>sv««^se<l  to  p«Kir  rat*  i>8,40.j/, ;  net  ratcaiti-.' 
value  4»),77.S/.,  in  1H»>1>. 

C.'M-nnarthen  has  returned  1  mem.  ro  the  H.  -if 
0.  since  the  rei^i  of  Henry  VI II.  The  linii:<  -r 
the  [iresent  pari.  hor.  coincide  wiih  thi»*e  of  :!.■* 
ancient  Imr..  but  Llanelly  is  now  jt>ine«l  with  i:.  £^ 
a  wmlributory  lK>r.  Previously  ti>  the  llefi-rniA-t. 
the  elective  framrhise  in  C-ae.rmart  hen  was  oxt:r- 
cised  by  pen*<»ns  admitted  tlejurr  bur;^es*es.ui'lrr 
(uialifications  of  a  fnH'hold  e?itaro.  witliin  the  '►  r« 


and  most  e-x-ntial  of  imi)rovements,  is  .ilmost  t-x  yrntu'i,  and  wrvitude  of  a{>|irentit:r-ship  fi>r  7 
wholly  net;h'ci«il ;  tenants  arc  not  usual Iv  under  '  years.  Ue;;istcnr«l  elc-otors  in  l»**tli  l>frs..  ^-"i-^  in 
any  resirictions  .'ls  to  imuiapMnent,  and  ti>e  com-  'lKr»5,  The  election  of  a  mem.  for  tlie  ci\  r-i':'- 
nion  practice  is  to  take  com  cro]; IS  in  uniiuerrupted  !  place  here.  The  limits  of  the  miuiicipal  Ix^r.  ari 
succt-ssion  from  the  land  till  it  U*  coniplet<'l\'  ex-  !  now  n?stricte<l  to  the  town  andasra.nll  s|»acc  T'liP-i 
hau>tcd.  Manufactures,  unimportant.  Principal  !  it.  It  is  divided  into  2  Wjirds,  and  pivi-m^.il  I.>n  °. 
towns,  (!aennart hen,  Llan<>lly,  and  Kidwelly.  i  mayor,  ♦>  aldennen,  and  18  counsellors:  a=hiri:T 

Carmanlun^'hin*  is  divided  into  8  hundn-<Is,  72  '  and  n^corder.  (.-ourts  of  i»etty  sessii»nsb  an-  Inli 
whole  parishes,  and  i»ari,s  of  4  others ;  and  5  re-  _  weekly  :  fortnijrht  conns,  fi»r  the  rectiverj"  of  .i<l.t<, 
g-istry  (li.-triets  and  i>oor  law  unions.  The  «^i.  and  courts  of  ;;eneral  sessions  twice  a  year,  for  tlh- 
constitutes  an  arehd<'aconrv'^  in  tlu'  dio.  of  St.  Uir. :  the  assizes  and  three  of  the  ^•n'eral  qu.irkt 
David's.  It  n-tunis  2  menis.  t4»  tlu;  II.  of  C  for  sessions  of  the  co.  are  al'*o  lield  in  the  town, 
the  CO.,  and  1  Ibr  the  Iwir,  of  (.'aennarl hen.  lie-  Its  ancient  castle,  in  tlie  last  i'i%il  war.  wa*  it 
jjistcred  electtjrs  lor  the  ci».,  4..'U7  in  iNfio.  dross  first  prarrisone*!  for  Charles*  I.,  taken  sul.'sctpuiil)' 
n-ntal  assess<'d  t^i  piM)r-rate  ;j;j<J.lhr)/.,  and  net !  by  the  rnrliamentary  forces,  and  cliMnantlC';  •■> 
ratealde  ^alue  2Hll.:j<j3/.  The  irrt'-^s  ainuial  valin'  I  <»Tder  of  Cn»mwell,  in  HJlSc.  Caennarihen  m;t-t. 
of  real  pn»|K'rty  assess<'d  to  income  tax  amuunicd  j  on  the  wh(de,  be  considereil  a  tloiiri-^liinj;  .-ind  in- 
to ;»."il.si.Mj/.  in  1857,  and  to  .S71.721/.  in  IxiM.  I  creasinj;  town.  A  c<dtmin  ha«*  Ikk-u  eri.*cted  a:  '\\< 
CAKKM.vr.Tiiiix.  the  cap.  «if  the.  above  co..  and    W.  end  by  publii:  sul>s^nriptiim  in  memi»T\-  of  ih.- 

pubUc  s<'.r  vices  of  Sir  T.  Pic  ton,  who  fell  at  Wai'T- 
hK»,  and  had  pre^^ously  n^pre-sented  tliis  '.-r. 
More  recently,  there  ha.s  been  another  moiiunnin 
erected  to  the  23nl  Welsh  Fusiliers.  The  btur 
ijtan<ls  in  Lamma*-stn'et. 

CAKIIN  AUVON,  a  marit.  eo.  of  X.  \V,ili-s.  -^  v. 
rated  from  Au^loea  by  the  Menai  Stniit.  ext.-n  ii  u 
from   Conway,   m\  the    X.,    in    a   S\V.    dinvti - 


a  ])arl.  and  municipal  borouifh,  situate;*!  on  an 
irrcf^ular  acclivity  on  the  NW.  Knnk  of  the  navi- 
gable river  Towy,  7  m.  X.  froni  its  end.^ouchun'  in 
Caermarthen  Hay,  15ristol  (.'hannel;  iso  m.  W.  by 
N.  I»ndon  bv  ri»acl,  and  2 15^  !ii.  bv  i\n-x\\  Western 
and  South  Wales  Kail  way.  Pop.  1>.5'J«.»  in  1811, 
a!id  IMM»;>  in  Ixrd.  A  few  of  the  stn-eis  are  tole- 
rably wide,  well  |>aved.  lighted  with  ;ras,  and 
ouitain  many  resiM>ctable  lu-uses;  but  the  rot  are 


ouitam  many  resiM>ctable  lu-uses;  but  the  rot  are  alonpr  the  shore  to  the  extn^niitv  of  the  i»«  iii:i-.:l. 
narrow  and  cnwiked,  and  thi)s<!  Uadiui^  to  the  ■  of  Lleyn  opixisitc  Bardsey  Klund.  Iiavin^:  Iv.  ].irt 
river  sn'ep,  and  the  ])op.  nnu-h  crowded:  the  best    of  Canlisan  Hay,  and  the  cos.   of  McriiMieiTi  jn  : 


houses  are  on  the  Millord  line  of  road.  The  su]iply 
of  water  is  inadequate.  There  are  two  churches, 
Kcveral  dissenting:  i-hapels,  and  a  ^rrannnar  scluMd ; 
a  Pre-sbyterian  collc;r»^  f«»ryouu;:  men  inteuiled  f»ir 
that  ministry  (of  wliioh  tlu;  corporation  nomi- 
nate the  master  and  (I  >«holars) :  a  Lancastrian 
and  a  national  seho.il.  The  ;,Miililliall,  a  handsome 
eililicc  raix'd  on  pillar*.  h;u«.  under  ii.  ihe  market - 
place  for  corn.     U  h.-Ls  aiNo  a  theatre,  imd  lH»r.  and 


Denbi^rh.  An-a,  348,l«'i()  .ncr*\s ;  j>,,p.  iM.i;.'}  ir. 
18«)I.  This  is  the  most  mountainou>o».in  th«'»,r.':- 
cii»ality.  beinjr  traver-^ed  in  ii.s  whole  exti-yii  bv  -v 
Snowd«in  nin;;e;  it  has,  hoAvovi.T,  i^.ni-  iin:it-t 
tracts  of  c«imi)arativcly  low  fc-rtilo  lanil  i'' 
Conway,  which  has  its  sfturre>  in  iheni,.  and  f-rrsi- 
fi»r  a  ci.nsiderable  distance  ibo  lirn.  of  detminari'd 
l.K'iwjcn  it  and  I)enbi;LfIi.  is  rhe  princiud  ri^  ?. 
but  there  arc  several  streams  of  inferior  dinunsi'T--- 


CAERNARVON 

and  some  small  lakes.  Lead  and  copper  ores  have 
been  found  within  the  co.,  and  have  been  wioufi^ht 
to  84)mc  extent.  The  alate  quarries  belonging  to  Lord 
Penryhn,  near  Bangor,  employ  about  1,600  men 
and  U>ys,  and  are  among  the  most  extensive  and 
valuable  in  the  empire ;  and  other  slate  quarries  in 
thui  CO.  employ  altogether  about  1 .7(H)  men  an<l  b<  >vs. 
Soil  of  the  gn>ater  [)art  of  the  arable  land  hazcllv 
loam.  Agriculture,  though  a  cooil  deal  improved, 
is  still  in  a  com|)amtiveIy  Itackward  state ;  leases 
an*  either  not  granted,  or  tliey  contain  no  pro|»er 
regulations  as  to  management ;  a  pro|»er  rotation  j 
of  cro[)8  is  not  generally  ob»er\'ed ;  the  land  is  not 
geneniUy  clean  and  in  good  heart;  and  the  imple- 
ments are  still,  in  many  instances,  defective.  OatA 
is  the  principal  oom-crop.  Breed  of  cattle  small 
and  hardy.  The  older  class  of  farm  buildings  and 
oiittagcis,  especially  the  latter,  are  bad;  but  they 
httvtj  InK'n  in  many  parts  replaced  by  others  of  a 
new  and  impn)ve(l  character.  Munufactures  un- 
in)|M>rtaat,  Principal  towns,  lUuigor,  Caeniar\'r>n, 
and  Conway.  Caeniar\'on  is  divided  into  10  hunds. 
and  CtH  whole  {Mrishcs,  with  narts  of  5  others ;  and 
4  regL<4tr>'  districts  and  |KM)r-iaw  unions.    It  semis 

1  mem.  to  the  H.  of  C.  for  the  co.,  and  1  for  the 
town  of  Carnarvon  and  its  contributor^'  bors. 
Bogbtennl  electors  2,271  in  1H65.  The  gn\ss  ren- 
tal ]L>«se»Me<l  t4>  p<M)r-rate  amounte<l  to  lJS0,(w2/.  in 
1K()2,  and  the  annual  value  of  real  property  assessed 
to  income  tax,  283,076/.  in  1857,  and  369,224/,  in 

Caernarvon,  a  sea-port  and  parL  bor.  of  N. 
WnleA,  cap.  of  the  alwve  co.,  on  the  SE.  side  of  the 
Menai  Strait,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seiont,  7  m. 
SW.  fn.m  the  Menai  Bridge,  and  205  m.  NW. 
London  by  road,  and  240  m.  by  J^ndon  ami  North 
\Ve>teni  railway.  l*o|>.  8,001  in  1841 ;  and  8,512  in 
1'<(>1.  This  town,  with  its  magnificent  cantle,  was 
built  by  Edward  I.,  between  1282  and  128-1,  as  a 
place  of  strength  t4>  secure  his  newly  achieved  con- 
<piest  i)f  Wales.  The  walls  constructed  by  the  l^n- 
queror,  round  the  town,  are  still  nearly  entire.  ITiey 
are  fiankeil  with  round  towers,  and  had  originally 

2  princiiMil  gates,  but  others  liavc  been  since  added. 
W  ithin  the  walls,  the  streets,  though  narrow,  are 
regular;  but  (»f  late  years,  new  streets  and  build- 
ings have  been  erected  without  the  walls,  and  the 
whole  town  has  been  much  improved :  it  is  well 
supplie<l  with  water,  and  lighte<i  with  gas.  Pen- 
nant says  of  it,  that  it  'is  justly  the  boast  of  N. 
Wales,  for  the  l)eauty  of  its  situation,  the  goodness 
of  its  buildings,  the  regularity  of  the  plan,  and, 
above  all,  the  grandeur  of  the  castle,  the  most 
magiiiticent  bai^c^>  of  our  subjection.*  (Tour  in 
Walt's,  ii.  404,  8vo.  ed.)  The  jmr.  church  is  ^  m. 
from  the  town;  but  the  latter  has  a  hands<»mc 
cha|K'l  of  ease,  and  4  dissenting  chapels,  and  a 
Itritish  and  a  national  schooL  The  town-hall  is 
over  one  of  the  ancient  gateways,  and  one  of  the 
old  towers  is  tilted  up  as  a  prison  :  there  is  also  a 
CO.  hall,  a  small  tlu>atre,  and  a  m(Hlem  mar- 
kef -house  for  pro\'isions,  the  old  one  being  now 
uhed  for  com.  Many  opulent  families  reside  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  the  town  is  much  reM)rted 
to  in  the  season  by  sea-ltathers.  There  are  hot  and  ! 
cold  iMiths,  aiiiscmbly  and  billianl-nKims.  Outside 
the  walls  is  a  tine  terrace  walk  along  the  Menai. 

There  are  no  manufactures  of  any  impitrtance. 
The  harlNtur,  which  has  of  late  been  a  good  deal 
iiu))roved,  admits  vessels  «>f  4oo  tons,  but  the  trade 
t»f  the  |>«»rt,  which  is  mostly  with  LiveqsKil,  Bris- 
tol, and  Dublin,  is  princip;iily  bv  small  coasting 
vc*ix*lrt  and  steamers.  The  princi})al  exfiort  is 
slate,  brought  fnun  the  quarries  by  a  railwav.  The 
n-nioval  ot  the  coaHt  duties  on  slate  iH.>casion(Hl  a 
great  increase  of  demand  here  and  in  other  ports 
whence  it  b  ex{K)rteiL. 


CAFFA 


699 


Previously  to  the  Reform  Act,  Caernarvon  re- 
turned 1  mem.  to  the  H.  of  C,  conjomtly  with 
the  contributor^'  bors.  of  Conway,  Criceieth,  Ne^*in, 
and  IVlheli,  the  right  of  voting  being  in  the 
resident  and  non-resident  burgesses.  To  these 
contributor>'  Iwrs.  tlie  Reform  Act  added  Bangor. 
The  limits  of  the  ancient  Uir.,  with  which  the  parL 
bor.  coincides,  are  about  8  m.  in  cinr.  Registered 
electors  in  all  the  bors.  92G  in  18G5.  Gross  annual 
value  of  real  pn»|>erty  as»«esse<l  to  inirome-tax 
56,."»58/.  in  1857  ;  and  t>4,ft7y/.  in  1862.  The  Umita 
of  the  municipal  bor.  extend  about  1^  m.  round 
the  town,  llie  assizes  and  general  quarter  sessions 
for  the  CO.  are  held  here.  Market-<Uv,  Saturday ; 
fairs,  31an-h  12,  Mav  16,  Aug.  12.  Sept.  20. 

Caernarvon  Castle  is  one  of  the  noblest  and 
most  magnificent  ruins  of  its  kind  in  the  empire. 
The  walls,  which  enclose  an  area  (»f  about  3  acres, 
ar©  7  ft.  9  in.  thick,  have  within  them  a  gallery 
with  slips  for  the  discharge  of  missiles,  and  are 
hanked  by  13  strong  pentagonal,  hexagonal,  &c 
towers.  A  narnw  cliamljer  in  the  Eagle  Tower 
was  the  birthplace  of  Edward  II.,  the  tiret  Saxon 
prince  of  Wales.  Xear  the  steep  bank  of  the 
river  Seiont,  at  a  small  distance  from  the  castle,  is 
an  ancient  Roman  fort,  the  walls  of  which  axe 
still  ]>n^tty  entire.  At  a  small  distance  from  this, 
and  1.^  m.*  from  the  Menai,  is  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Roman  staticm  of  SepontiunL,  whence,  it  is  most 
prol)able,  Edward  I.  derived  part  of  the  materials 
for  building  the  castle  and  town  of  Caemar\'on. 

CAERPHILLY,  a  town  and  chapelr>'  of  S. 
Wales,  CO.  (Glamorgan,  hund.  Caerphilly,  par. 
F4;lw\'8-islan,  between  the  Taaf  and  the  Rumnev, 
7  m.  5^.  CanliflF.  Pop.  of  the  par.  3,978  in  1861. 
Tlic  town  is  an  irregular  collection  of  ancient  and 
miMlcm  houses;  but  it  has  a  f^ood  appearance,  and 
l>eing  surrounded  by  moimtam  ranges  that  o|)ca 
oil  the  E.  and  W.,  the  scenery  U  grand  and  ]>ic- 
turesque.  It  has  a  neat  church,  and  three  dii^sent- 
ing  ])laccs  of  worship.  Market,  Thursdav,  and 
fairs  for  cattle,  com,  and  cheese,  April  6,  I'rinity 
Tliursday,  July  19,  Aug.  25,  Oct,  9,  and  Nov.  16. 
Mannfai'tures  of  cheques,  and  linsey-woolsey  shirt- 
ing for  miners,  employ  about  lOO  persons;  the  rest 
are  engaged  in  the  mines  and  quarries  of  the  neigh- 
lHiurh<MMl  or  in  agriculture.  It  was  anciently  a 
bor..  but  lost  its  privileges  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VI II.  Its  ca**tlc  whose  magnificent  ruins  show 
that  it  must  have  been  one  of  the  finest  ui  the 
kingdom,  was  of  Norman  origin,  and  enlarged  at 
successive  i)crio<ls,  but  chiefiy  by  the  favourite 
of  Edward  II.,  Hugh  De  Sjiencer,  for  wliom  it 
was  wTested  from  the  Mortimers,  its  ancient  pos- 
sessors. 

C^KSAREA,  a  mined  and  deserted  coast  town 
of  Palwline ;  \aU  32°  23'  37"  N.,  long.  34©  44'  45" 
E.  L'nder  the  Romans  it  was  the  ca)).  of  the  dis- 
trict in  which  it  stands,  and  the  residence  of  a 
pn>c«n)sul.  An  artificial  harbour,  a  castle,  the 
walls  of  the  city,  and  two  aqueducts,  are  amcmg 
the  m<ist  perfect  remains,  but  a  great  extent  of 
ground  is  cM>vered  with  the  mins  of  public  and 
private  buildings.  It  owed  its  existence,  or  im- 
portance, to  HenKl  the  (ircat,  who  named  it  Ccua- 
rta^  in  compliment  to  Augustus,  n.c.  22.  It  figures 
in  the  early  histor>'  of  Christianity  as  the  ]>lace 
whero  Peter  ct»nverte<l  C<»melius  and  his  hoiute 
(Acts  X.  ].),  and  as  the  scene  of  Paul's  memorable 
speeches  to  Felix  and  Agrippa  (Acts  xxiv.,  xxv., 
and  xxvi.).  Vespa.'«ian  made  Cojsarea  a  Roman 
(*olony.  under  the  name  of  Fbivia  Colonia,  and  it 
continued  to  fiourish  till  A.i>.  635,  when  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens.  In  1101  it  was 
taken  by  the  Cmsaders,  and  in  the  wars  of  tliis 
(teriiKl  it  sank  never  to  rise  again. 

CAFFA.    See  Kaffa. 


600 


CAGLI 


f 


<  'AGLI  (an.  Oi//m),  a  town  of  f 'cntral  Italy, 
niv.  I'rliitui  ami  IVsnro.  at  tint  fiNit  of  Mount 
Vtraro.  at  the  ('(intlucMico  of  tho  (*antiano  an<l 
hnT"MK  14  m.  S.  I'rl.iiwi,  l*o|).  t'^.VlO  in  l«»;i.  It 
lias  a  <'ath('<iral,  and  fnur  ronvHit:*  for  monks  and 
four  for  nun^. 

<'A(1IJAIII  (an.  Calarix).  a  niarif.  city  of  Sar- 
<linia,  of  whirh  it  i>  th(M*ap.,  on  a  l»ay  i»f  tlu*  same 
name  on  the  S.  >horeof  t)u?  inland,  lat.  'MP  12'  l;{'' 
N.,  lon;r.  IP  »;'  1 1"  K.     I*«.|».  .io.'.Miu  in  IK'tH,    The 
city,  in  the  middle  aires,  a]i|K'ars  to  have  In-en  re- 
striored  to  a  triangular  >]>are.  on  the  summit  of  a 
Iiill  a)>«Mit  4IHI  ft.  alnive  the  bt-acli.  now  called  the 
'Cattle.'  which  is  walled  round,  and  hits  a  citadel 
on  its  N.  side.     To  iliis  wen*,  successivelv  add«'<l 
the  Marina,  a  jtortion  extending  down  the  W. 
face  of  the  hill  fri>m  the  castle  to  the  sea,  which 
is  surrounded  by  a  sli^it  wall.  Hanked  by  s»»me 
bastions,  and  farther  defended  by  a  wide  but  shal- 
low ditch;  the  quarter  of  Stam(Mi(;e,  to  tlie  \V.  of 
the  castle:  and  that  of  Villanova,  to  the  K.    The 
m«Mlern  city  consists  of  these  f«)ur  |M»rtions:  there 
is  besidw  a  suUirh,  ne.irly  a  mile  in  lenjrth,  called 
St.  Avandrt^.    Ca^liari  has  an  im{>osin^  apf>ear- 
nnc<^  from  the  sea.     The  Marina  is  tolenibly  well 
built,   }>ut  Villanova  quite   otherwise;    ami   tlie 
streets  frenerally  are  narrow,  irre;:n>lJir,  dirty,  steep, 
and  |»aved  with  round  pointed  stones.     There  an', 
however,  some  excellent  and  even  s])lendid  public 
buildin;rs,  and  many  spacious  private  houses.   The 
cattle  is  the  part  in  which  the  nobility  and  state 
otlicers  resitle.     It  contains  the  vi«;en»jral  palace,  a 
fwK!  editice:  the  cathednd,  built  by  the  Pisans, 
with  a  frotit  in  ^eat  ))art  of  nuirble;  a  handsome 
maus4 ileum  of  Martin,  kinj;  of  Sicily;  a  celebrated 
cryptic   san<'tuary;  the  citadel,  and  three   lar^e 
8(piare  towers,  pmmI  siK'cimens  of  Pisan  art:  the 
university,  with  its  four  faculties  of  theolojry,  law, 
medicine,  and  phihtsophy,  and  }>etween  2W  and 
.S(M>  students:  an<l  other  public  seminaries.     The 
Marina  is  inhabited  chiellv  bv  merchants,  and  bv 
the  foreii^n  consuls ;  it  contaitis  a  psnl   l>on(h-d 
warehouhc,  an  arsenal,  lazaretto,  and  mole.     In 
StamiMnre  an»  the  corn-market   and   storehouses. 
Ca^liari  contains,  U'sides  about  thirty  church<:s, 
twenty-one  convents,  to  one  of  which.  lH?lon;;ini; 
to  tlie  Jesuits,  there  is  a  verv  han<ls4ime  and  richly 
ornamented  church  attaclied;  two  hospitals,  a  fe- 
male orphan  asylum,  a  fMiblic  library,  with  1  ;'),<>()() 
V(dumes.  nmseums  of  antitpiities  and  natural  his- 
tory, a  c(dle^e  of  nobles,  a  stminnrio,  a  small  the- 
atre, and  mint.     At  the  S.  aii^le  of  the  Marina 
wall  there  is  a  very  commo<lious  tlarscna,  or  pier- 
harlsMir,  capai)le  c»f  containing  fourteen  or  sixteen 
vessels  «»f  a  toh-rable  size,    I.H*siile>   small   craft. 
The  fjort  is  one  of  the  best  and  safest  in  the  Me- 
diterranean.    Shi|»s  nsu:dly  lie  alxiut  a  mile  SW. 
by    S.  from   the   mole,    in   six  or  eii^ht   fathoms 
water,  on  an  excellent  lN)ttom  <if  nmd.     The  (iulf 
of  (!a^liari,  which  extends  from  Pulaon  the  \V.  to 
<.'a|K'  Carlsujara  on  the  K.,  *21  m.  across  by  12  m. 
deep,  haspMwl  anchorapi  everywhere,  after  jxettinLf 
into  soumlin^s.     The  <*ity  bein^  place<l  on  a  hill, 
is  healthy,  notwithstaniliujr  the  imme<liate  pn»x- 
imity  on  its  W.  si<le  of  the  stagnant  lajrnne  of 
Cajrliari, «)  or  7  m.  h»n^  by  :l  t>r  4  m.  broa«l.     This 
lake  abounds  with  fish  and  aquatic  birds.     To  the 
K.  <»f  the  city  then^  are   some  fc'^od   salt-works. 
Cafrli.ari  poss<'sses  a  royal  manufact<iry  of  f^ibacco, 
and  has  man u factories  of  ct»tton  fabrics,  cake  saf- 
fron, soap,  chairs,  and  «)ther  funiitun\     Its  trade 
is  chiefly  in  corn,  lej^umes,  salt,  oil,  and  wine. 
From  the  jxirtion  of  ccimmercc  it  enjoys,  ("a^liari 
has,  on  the  whole,  a  busy  ap]K>aranc<'.    J*ri»visions 
of  all  kinds  are  cheaj>  an<l  i>l<Mitifid,  except  water. 
The  itasth*  is  sup]ilie(l  from  cist  ems  and  extremely 
de(»|)  welL*.      Kxlensive  rcmainu  exist  of  a  tine 


CAHORS 

'  ancient  aqueduct,  which  mij^^Iit  l>c  restored  at  % 
comparatively  small  exi>en>v.  There  are  .-^^-eril 
other  Koman  antiquities^,  uicludiii^  a  tomb  m 
tolerably  ^(hhI  prenenAtitm,  and  an  amphithfAtrv; 
excavated  in  the  rock  near  the  city  ^vralls.  Ve>- 
ti^e^s  of  the  ancient  (ireek  city  may  be  »tiil  rnoetl 
bi-yond  Stiun|)ace.  A  good  carria^  njad  of  rocea: 
'  constriK'tion  connects  (^jigliari  with  Sas-sari. 

Cagliari  Is  the  si-at  of  a  royal  autiiencia,  or  h<^i 
tribunal,  and  of  the  cortes,  or  statc^^neial  of  thr 
island,  of  a  tribunal  of  comnierce,  an  intomiant- 
general,  a  genenil-commandant,  and  aji  aruhbi?hi>{i 
with  the  title  of  primate  of  Sanliuia. 

This  city  i^  very  an(-ient,  ii»  foiuidation  beinc 

carried  iMick  to  the  fabulous  af;e>.      it  was  the 

I  re>idence  of  the  kin^  of  Sardinia,   from   17'.^  to 

I  ]'<]4,  during  tlie  occu}iation  of  Ids  c«>ntijiental  'k^- 

i  minion  by  tlic  French.     The  latter  boinbardeil  il 

unsuc«ressfully  in  1 7l).'{. 

CAIIKlt,  an  inland  town  of  Irelaml,  co.  Ti|H 
|)erar}',  prov.  Munster,  on  the  Suir,  ytJ  m.  S\V.  by 
S.  Dt'iblin,  on  the  railway  from  Limerick  to  Wa- 
terfonl  Vo\\  2,U20  in  iKo'l,  a^^ainst  3,-l4j8  iu  18;>u 
and  H,'*HS  in  1821.  The  whole  of  the  iiihabitanis 
are  Homan  Catholics,  with  the  exception,  ui  I'^d. 
of  Uy^  meml)ers  of  the  Kstabli$>hed  Church,  The 
town  is  well  built.  There  Is  a  market -house,  brid'.'- 
well,  fever  hospital,  disjK'niiary,  schools  on  t.-w 
foundation  (»f  Krasmus  Suiith,  and  hirge  cavaln* 
barracks.  The  staff  of  the  Tipjxjrarj'  mililia,  aoii  -a 
party  of  the  constabularv,  are  stationed  here.  Tj-: 
Karl  of  (ilengall's  manMon  is  in  the  t-own.  Hares 
take  place  annually  in  the  neighIx»urho«>d.  A 
manorial  court  is  liebl  everj*  six  weeks;  |>eliy  x-^ 
sions  weekly.  The  linen  and  8tniw--pLat  manufii-- 
tures  are  carried  on  upon  a  small  scale:  much  i> 
done  in  the  com  trade.  Markct^i  are  held  on  Fr- 
davs:  fairs  on  8th  Februarj-,  l*2th  April,  2«;th  aii-l 
27ih  May,  20th  July,  l«th  and  VJth  St^pniuU-r. 
20th  Octolier,  and  7th  December. 

CAIlonS,  a  town  of  France,  de'p.  I^t,  (►f  whih 
it  is  the  ca]).,   on  the  Lot,   GO  in.  X.  TouIi>ilm, 
on  a  branch  <>f  the  railway  from  l^aris  to  Ai^iu 
l*o|>.   1. "1,^44  in   1*<G1.     The  town    RtamLt!  on  ai; 
emmence,  almost  summnded  by  the  Lot,  and  i* 
for  th(i  most  part  ill  built,  with  nam»w,  croiiko! 
streets.    It  was  formerly  defended  on  the  laiui  >Ik 
by  towers  and  ramjMirts,  thai  stretched  ann>ss  the 
isthmus;  but  of  these  only  the  ruins  now  rem;iin. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  gn-at  ri>ad  from  VariT  t«« 
Toulouse,  ami  luw  three  bridges  ovvr  the  rive:. 
c»ne  of  which,  built  in  the  twelfth  ceuturj-.  is  sur- 
mounted by  thnv  enonnous  towers.     The  cathe- 
dral has  l>een  supfnised  to  Iw  jiartly  i»f  K.>man 
construction;   but  it   is  pretty   oertjun    thai   tin- 
most   ancient  part  of  the  building   is  not  oltkr 
than  the  sixth  century.     With  the  exception  uf 
the  hotel  of  the  ]>n*fecture,  the  ancient  epi^  ••pJ 
palace,  few  of  tlu;  other  ]>ublic  buildings  des«'ne 
notice.     It  is  the  s<'at  of  a  bishopric,  aiul  ha;'  tri- 
bunals of  primark'  jurisdiction  and  of  commen.:. 
(.'aliors  ha«l  a  university,   founde^l  in    13o2:  tl.v 
famous  jurist  Cujas  was,  for  a  while,  out-,  of  i:- 
pn.jfcssors,  and  I'enelon  was  of  the  nuniU'r  of  ics 
]»u|iils.      The  university  was  united   to  that  »f 
Toulouse  in  17r)l.     At  prt\sent  it  has  an  tinui-nir 
universitoire  X  a  royal  college,  or  high  sohiHiI,  w:h 
alnnit  20O  pupils  :  a  diwesan  seminar^-,  with  l.'!** 
pupils;  a  pnmary  nonnal  sclmol;  a  i>ubLic  library, 
with   12,t»00  volumes:  a  theatre;  ami  a  S4victy'»t 
agriculture.     The  manufaoturcs,    whicli  are'r"t 
very  considerable,  consist  principally  of  s<iuu-  iN- 
script  ions  of  woollen  gcnwls  and  i)ai>er.     Then-  i-« 
contiguous  to  the  t<»wn  a  departiiient:il  imr^-r>. 
The  excellent  red  wine  c^iIUhI  the  rin  tJe  t/mcrif 
rais(>d  in  its  territory';  ami  it  has  a  gtH^l' de^  •  t' 
trade  m  that  ajid  other  wines  Aiid  in  oil,  heuiiu 


CAIPHA 

flax,  and  nuts,  largely  grown  in  the  neighbour- 
hoo(L 

Cahors  is  supposed  to  be  the  ancient  Divona, 
the  capiul  of  the  QuIurcL  The  Romans  embel- 
lished it  with  several  fine  edifices,  of  some  of 
which  there  still  remain  a  few  vestiges.  The 
principal  of  these  are  a  iwrtico,  supposeti  to  have 
made  a  ])art  of  the  public  baths ;  witn  the  ruins  of 
a  laige  theatre  or  circus,  and  of  an  aqueduct  for 
convev-ing  water  into  the  U>vm,  There  have  also 
lH>en  dug  u])  fragments  of  column^  mosaics,  and 
numerous  medals  of  Tiberius  and  Claudius.  In 
more  modern  times  it  has  undergone  many  vicis- 
situdes. In  16«U  it  was  liesie^^  by  Heiiry  IV., 
and  \mn^  taken,  after  an  obsanate  resistance,  it 
was,  despite  Henry's  efforts  to  the  contrary,  given 
up  to  military'  execution.  Cahors  is  the  birth- 
p]ai*e  of  tliree  famous  men,  widely  <litferent  in 
their  spheres  of  life, — of  Pope  John  XX 11.,  of  the 
poet  Clement  Marot^  and  of  Napole<m'8  dashing 
general  Murat,  king  pro  tern,  of  Naples. 

CAIPHA,  or  KAIFA,  a  small  raarit.  town  of 
Palestine,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Carmel,  on  the  W. 
side  of  the  liay  of  Acre.  The  harbour  is  one  of 
the  best  along  the  coast  (sec  Acre),  and  the  ancient 
river  Kishon  flows  past  the  town.  It  has  a  fortress 
with  a  garrison;  but  the  most  important  and  in- 
teresting buihling  in  the  place  is  a  hospice  main- 
tained by  the  monks  of  Mount  Carmel,  wliere 
strangers  of  all  nations  and  religions  are  hxlged 
and  entertained.  The  Kishon  is  referred  to  in  the 
song  of  Deborah  and  Barak  (Judges  v.  21.).  It  is 
famous  aLs^)  as  tlie  place  where  IClijah  slew  the 
prophets  of  Haal  (1  Kings  xviii.  40.) 

CAIUO,or  KAHlIiA  \El  Cka'hireh,  Amh.,  *  the 
Victorious,'  called  by  the  inhabitants  Musr)^  the 
mo<lcm  cap.  of  Egypt,  and  the  second  city  of  tlie 
^lohammcdan  world ;  chief  residence  of  the  Pucha, 
and  seat  of  his  government,  near  the  right  r»r  K. 
bank  of  the  Nile,  alxiut  1*2  m.  above  the  apex  of 
its  delta,  1 12  m.  SK.  ^Uexandria,  97  m.  SSW.  Da- 
mietta,  and  75  m.  W.  Suez;  on  the  railway  from 
Alexandria  to  Suez.  Pop.,  including  the  port  of 
Ikiuhu^  and  Old  Cairo,  about  240,0tH> ;  of  whom 
alx)ut  1()0,0()0  are  Egjptian  Moslems,  10,(M)U Copts, 
from  JJ,(M)0  to  4,()(M)  Jews,  and  the  rest  strangers 
from  various  countries.  Shape  oblong,  }>eing  nearly 
'6  m.  in  length,  by  1^  to  2  m.  in  breadtli,  on  sloping 
ground,  midway  between  the  Nile  and  the  E. 
niduntain  range  of  Mokattem,  and  occupyhig  an 
area  of  alsMit  '6  sq.  m.  The  distance  of  its  N.  ex- 
tremity frf)m  the  Xile  at  Itoulac  is  upwards  of  a 
mile ;  but  from  its  S.  extremity  to  the  bank  of  the 
river  where  Old  CaircJ  stantls,  is  somewhat  less 
than  ^  m.  The  inter\'ening  tract  is  laid  out  in 
ganlens  or  otherwi«j  cultivated,  and  watered  by  a 
canal.  Viewed  fn>m  a  distance,  Cairo  has  a  mag- 
niricent  and  iniercHting  ap])earance ;  but,  like  most 
other  E.  citios,  its  interior  has  a  vcrv  diflVrent 
a'ifH'ct  from  its  extcrifir.  It  has,  however,  though 
still  siwceptible  of  much  improvement,  been,  within 
tlicse  few  years,  rpiite  changed  fn»m  the  wretched 
j)h«'e  so  often  depicte*!  by  travellers.  Filth,  of 
every  <le-.'*cription,  putrid  ditches,  drains  never 
cleaned,  unbiiried  carrion,  fragments  of  vegetalUe 
matter,  all  in  various  .states  of  decomiMi.sitiun ; 
want  of  free  circulation  of  air,  clouds  of  dust,  and 
multitudes  of  deformeul  U>ingH,  are  amongst  the 
nui.sances  formerly  complained  of;  but,  according 
to  more  recent  ol)ser\-ers,  the  rigi»l  jsdice  estalK 
lishetl  by  the  viceroys  of  Egj'pthas  already  elfectejl 
so  desirable  a  change,  that,  for  cleanliness,  an  well 
a.s  order,  quiet,  and  the  absence  of  crime,  Cairo 
may  now  rank  with  the  best  governed  capitals  of 
Europe. 

Cain)  contxiins  210  principal  streets,  46  public 
plac(.>s  (scpiarcs),  11  bazaars,  140  schools  for  the 


CAIRO 


601 


instruction  of  children.  300  public  cisterns,  1,1 6G 
coffee-houses,  65  public*  batlis,  400  mosques,  and 
several  considerable  hospitals.  The  whole  city  is 
enclosed  by  a  stone  wall,  terminated  on  the  SE. 
by  a  detached  and  scarped  rock  rishig  more  than 
200  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  Nile,  on  which  stands 
the  citadel.  This  fortress,  with  the  city  walls,  was 
built  or  restored  by  Saladin,  alK>ut  1176.  The 
walls  have  battlements,  and  lofty  towers  at  alxmt 
100  yards  apart.  They  are,  however,  of  little 
strength,  and  have  l)een  suffered,  in  many  ports, 
to  fall  to  decay.  There  are  four  gates,  praised  for 
their  grandeur  and  magnificence.  The -streets  are 
partly  uni^ved,  and  mostly  crooked,  narrow,  and 
irregular,  lliough  deprived  of  a  great  deal  of 
light,  they  are  ren<lered  c<k)1,  by  the  upper  stories 
of  the  houses  projecting  over  them,  so  as  not  unfre- 
qnently  to  meet  each  other.  The  Jewish  qiuirter 
is,  as  in  all  other  cities,  the  filthiest ;  the  Copts, 
Franks,  and  other  nations,  generally  speaking,  in- 
habit distinct  quarters,  though  there  is  no  restric- 
tion in  this  respect,  the  whole  city  being  free  to 
all.  In  the  FVank  qiuirter,  where  also  many  of  the 
Armenian  and  Syrian  Christians  reside,  the  streets 
are  rather  wider  than  elsewhere.  The  houses  are 
solidly  constructed  and  lofty,  being  mostly  two 
stories  high,  and  fn^iuently  m(»re;  their  lower 
{>arts  are  built  or  cased  with  the  soft-  calcareous 
stone  of  the  3Iokattem  mountains,  the  layers  of 
which  in  front  are  often  i)ainte<i  alteniately  re<i 
and  white ;  their  upper  parts  are  commonly  of 
brick ;  their  nKjfs,  which  are  flat,  serve  for  many 
domestic  pur|sv«es,  and  are  the  resort  of  the  family 
in  the  cool  of  the  evening.  Most  considerable 
houses  enclose  an  open  uni>aved  amrt,  into  which 
the  doors  and  the  windows  of  the  princifml  a{>art- 
ments  open.  The  windows  of  the  u]>i>er  a|>artmenta 
generally  project  l^  f^,  or  more,  and  are  commonly 
f()rmed  of  w(XMlen  lattice-work  close  enough  to 
shut  out  much  of  the  light  and  sun,  and  to  screen 
the  inmates  from  obser\'ation,  while  they  admit 
the  air ;  occasionally  glass  i^nndows,  which  some  - 
times  are  finely  stained,  are  made  use  of.  The 
fn^nt  doors  of  the  larger  houses  are  handsomely 
car>'ed,  |>ainted,  decorate<l  with  Arabic  inscriptions, 
and  furnished  with  iron  knockers  and  wooden 
locks.  The  court-yartl  and  grrmnd  floors  com- 
monly contain  wells,  fountains,  pK>ls,  stables,  and 
other  domestic  offices,  and  a  hall  sometimes  very 
haiulHomely  fitted  up,  in  which  the  master  of  the 
house  receives  his  visitors ;  the  up{>er  aiiartmentd 
are  those  of  the  women  and  children.  l^Higing- 
houses  or  caravanseras,  calle<l  itekaitrhg,  and  de- 
signed for  the  reception  of  merehants  and  their 
goods,  are  somewhat  differently  laid  out ;  and  such 
persons  as  have  neither  a  wife  nor  a  female  shivo 
are  usually  obhge<l  to  take  up  their  alnxle  in  one 
of  these  buildings.  There  are  several  of)en  spares 
or  squares:  Etbekiah,  the  princi{)al,  is  surrouiuhsd 
by  many  of  the  finest  nalaces  and  other  struct un*s 
in  Cain> ;  its  centre  is  laid  out  as  a  garden.  an<l  is, 
like  some  of  the  other  squares,  aimually  overflowed 
by  the  inundation  of  the  Nile.  The  waU'rs  of  that 
river  are  wmductwl  into  the  citv  bv  a  canal  l)e- 
lieved  to  be  the  Arnnh  rm/aiiM '(TPAIANO^  IIOT- 
AMOS)  of  Ptolemy's  <  Jei^g.  (lib.  i  v.  c.  5),  and  which, 
commencing  at  Ohl  Cairo,  runs  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  m(Mleni  town,  tilling  a  number  of 
public  and  private  ba.sins,  and  irrigating  numentns 
gardens  planted  along  its  luinks.  The  citadel  is, 
in  many  respects,  one  of  the  most  inten»sting  mo- 
numents in  Cairo.  It  Is  lielieved  to  stand  u|mhi 
.  the  s^wt  once  occujued  by  the  Acri>polis  of  th« 
Egyptian  Babylon,  erected  by  Cambyses  u|s)n  the 
tiite  of  the  still  more  ancient  Ijato|)olis,  a  city  almost 
as  old  as  Memphis.  This  much  seems  certain,  that 
a  similAT  structure  existed  here  previously  to  the 


602 


CAIRO 


time  of  Salndiii,  to  whom  the  restoration,  rather 
than  the  ooiistmctioii,  of  the  citadel  Hhould  be 
aKTilHHl.  The  rocky  hill  on  which  it.  id  built  is 
Hc*]>ani(iMl  by  n  chnHin  nlK>ut  400  yunb  wide  from 
the  iMokattein  hills.  Its  walls  an»  iua>sive,  rest 
on  a  foundation  of  scaqM'dnK'k.  and  have  U^eii  put 
int(»  a  resjMctable  f«tate  <»f  repair;  but,  U'lnuj  ct)m- 


conBtruction,  its  Arabesqac  onuunenta,  iiKmie«, 
and  in8cri|)tionf«.  The  m<»Bqiie  of  Taji^iicmm  Lf  tin*. 
m(»8t  ancient  of  all,  liavui^  been  erected  ahi-ut 
887,  by  the  sultan  Acluned  Ebn  Ta^lioam.  tbe 
founder  of  a  new  dynasty  in  E^'pt,  nt-nrly  a 
centurv'  lM*fore  the  citv  of  Cairo  wa«  built.  It 
consults  of  a  vast  oj)en  cciurt   mimtuiided  by  a 


maudrd  l)y  the  Mokuttcm  iiill,  on  which  a  fort  has  colonnade  of  marlde  and  granite  pilhuvi,  9!>n}ip(irt- 

iHi-n  placed,  ami  liein^  o|H;n  Uith  on  the  K.  and  in^  a  double  row  of  archt^  of  the  latosit  SantceDk 

\V.  to  the  tin' orartiller\'»  It  couM  not  hold  out  for  style,  and  l)earinjj   u  j^reat    re;*eniblimce  u»  the 

anv   length   of  time  a^aiuist  a   Kuroi>ean  force.  Patio  de  los  XaranjrM  acljoinin^  the   muisque  at 

Within  its  precinct  are  the  palace  and  harem  of  CWdova.     It  contains  rich  and  delicate  caniiii:. 


the  pa<'}ui,  the  mint,  the  council-chamlier  or  divan, 
a  nio>quo  built  by  Mehemet  Ali,  a  militarv  ar^rnal, 
and  various  other  public  otlices  and  works  of  the 
Mameluke  monarchs.  The  pacha'n  |)alacc  and 
harem  are  plain  white-washed  buildinp*,  prewrnt- 
in^  nothing  remarkable,  and  the  new  niotHjue  has 
home  bah-rciiefs  in  marble  im])ortetl  fn»m  Genoa. 
The  iursenal  contains  foundries  for  bra^s  and  iron 
cannon,  manufactories  of  smidl-arms,  and  work- 
Hliops  for  the  supply  of  all  sort*  of  military  equiin 
meiitii.  Taken  altofxcther,  it  is  the  tinest  estalH 
lishinent  in  E;ry])t.  Ihit  the  ^n*atest  curiosity  in 
the  citadel  is  Joseph's  Well.  Mipi>ose4l  to  have  lx*en 
<lu^  by  Saladin.  It  is  •{,')  ft.  in  circ.  at  its  mouth, 
iM-iii^  tilt  throujrh  H)ft  calcareous  strata  to  the 
depth  <»f  27r»  ft.,  or  to  the  level  of  the  Nile,  from 
which  its  water  is  mt)st  prol)ably  derived.  A  wind- 
ing staircjuse  conductn  to  its  bottom.  Fn»m  the 
ramparts  of  the  citadel  in  dis])layed  a  noble  i>ano- 
nimiu  To  the  E.  an:  seen  the  olielisk  of  lleliopolis 
and  tlie  tonibH  of  the  Mamelukes,  backed  by  im 
arid  desert;  to  the  S.,  the  lofty  quarries  of  Mount 
Mokattoni,  with  ruinetl  ca.'jties,  mouldering  domes, 
anil  the  n'lnains  of  other  edifices,  alnive,  l>elow, 
and  stretching  Lx^neath  the  heights  far  into  the 
plain:  S\V.  and  W.  are  the  ^raud  af^uejluct, 
mos(|ues,  and  minarets,  the  Nile,  the  ruins  of  Old 
Cairo,  and  the  Inland  and  p"oves  of  lihotla;  beyoiul 
the  river,  on  the  SW.,  the  town  of  (ihizeh,  ainiilNt 
groves  of  sycamore,  tig,  and  fialm  trees;  still  more 
remote,  the  pynimids  of  (Jhizeh  and  Saccara;  and 
lH?y<»nd  these  the  great  Libyan  tlesert,  NW.  luid 
N..  may  be  di>covered  the  green  plains  of  the  delta, 
8j)rinkle<l  with  white  edilic<'s:  and  N.  to  NE.,  at 
the  fi'ct  of  the  s|)ectator,  is  the  city  of  Cairo,  sur- 
rounded in  tlie  latter  direction  by  heaps  of  sand, 
in  1811.  this  fortress  w«.s  the  scene  of  the  massacre 
of  the  Mamelukes,  by  ordi-r  of  Mehemet  ^Vli.  In 
1821,  -IjUOO  individuals,  and  a  great  |K)rli«in  of  the 
citadel,  were  destroyed  by  the  exphKsion  of  a 
jKJwder  magazine. 

Much  yet  remains  in  Cain*  to  evince  the  success 
with  which  the  djniasties  of  Mu.ssulman  princes, 
who  governed  Kgypt  previoiLsly  to  the  Ottomans, 
strove  t«»  beautify  this  city  ;  and  we  might  look  in 
vain  throughout  the  nuNlem  Saracenic  world  for 
any  works  at  all  approaching  in  excellence  the 
nu'iroiM)lilan  mo.-que  of  Kl-Azhar,  'with  those  of 
Sultan  Hassan,  the  Muristaii,  Hassan  Ain,  El 
(ihon-e,  and  /itteztmab,  the  gate  called  iJab-el- 
Nasr  {Gate  of  Victory)^  and  one  or  two  of  the 
tither  gales;    the  afiue<luct  on   the   road  t^)  Old 


but  is  now  much  neglected.  The  mti^que  tif 
IliLssan  Ain,  on  the  contrarx',  is*  ^rreatly  thri4ige<L 
being  considered  by  far  tbc  most  holy  in  Egjiit, 
and  ^urpasKHl  in  sanctity  by  few  in  the  Muhiun- 
niedan  states.  OuUride  the  wolLt  of  the  city,  aii-i 
Urtween  them  and  tlie  Mokattem  hill,  arr-  the 
celebrated  tomlis  of  the  Mameluke  SDvere'igiis 
sfmie  of  whi«-h  are  fine  1k»1*1  s|-»eciinen*  uf  tl.c 
Arabic  style  of  architei*ture  of  the  13th  and  14th 
centuries :  they  are  ehielly  of  white  marble,  and 
al»ound  with  tine  aralicMfue  (»man1cnt^  and  car\-iii::. 
There  are  several  other  cciuetefie^  in  dififcn-Lt 
parts  of  the  enviniUA, 

Old  ('airo,  which  i**  l>elievctl  to  have  iiuccitvldl 
to  the  town  an<l  fortre-'js  of  the  Ef^-ptian  llabylnn. 
is  chietly  occupied  by  Copts:  it  contains  tHvlve 
Christian  churches,  t«omc  of  them  large  ukI 
sumptuous  buildings ;  the  ancient  jrranariiv,  l»ear- 
iiig  the  name  of  Joi*e{di ;  a  <^»tto  castle,  ard  & 
machine  for  raising  the  water  of  the  Nile  intu 
the  ancient  aqueduct.  Thisi,  which  is  exclusively 
ap[)ropriated  to  the  supply  c»f  the  citadel  with 
water,  is  raised  on  arches  and  prtK^eecU  fri»ni  <.>M 
Cairo  bv  a  winding  course,  and  a  length  of  alsiut 
2  m.  lioulac,  the  |M>rt  of  Cairo,  (^mtains  lU 
princi|>jd  manufactures,  aiul  is  the  seat  of  m>«?: 
of  the  tratle.  Ah»ng  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  U'- 
tween  Boulac  and  Old  C^airo,  emUtsoroe^l  in 
grov<^s  of  orange,  sycamore,  and  acactjt.  an:  a 
number  of  handsome  fmlaces,  the  must  C'.»n- 
spicuous  of  which  is  that  Ix.donpiiig  to  Ibrahim 
I'asha.  This  palace  is  built  in  the  Turkish 
style,  ami  contains  Mome  han<h(ome  ajwurtmvat-. 
gaudy  furniture,  and  a  large  c»)llection  ot  Egj-i>tiau 
juiiiquities.  Its  exteiusive  f^anlens  and  planta- 
tions <»ccupy  the  jdain  l»ctweeu  it  and  Cai^•; 
towards  the  Nile  the  grounds  are  biid  out  in 
terraces  ornamented  wixh  statuary,  which  give 
tlu^m  quite  a  Eiurt»|K»aii  app<»firancvl  In  the  N:i»', 
immediately  opp«»site  Cairo,  are  the  tw«»  consiiivr- 
able  islands  of  Iloulac  and  Khoda;  the  latter, 
whi(;h  is  nearly  2  m.  in  length,  iai  almost  entirely 
the  projHirty  of  Ibndiim  I'asha,  and  L*  laid  ihji  .t.* 
pleasure-grounds  open  to  the  public  Its  S.  ex- 
t  remit v,  however,  U'tween  Old  Cainj  on  one  liauk 
audOinzeh  on  the  other,  is  ixxnipieti  bv  jM^wdiT 
magazines  and  milU  Here  al.>o  is  the  cclebrat^M 
Nilometer,  a  graduated  pillar  in  a  laige  H|u.in.« 
well,  having  a  subterranean  c^omnmnication  with 
the  river.  From  a  court  leadiii;^  to  ihis  siruiliir^' 
a  liight  of  steixs  desceiuls  to  the  water,  colletl  lb- 
Steps  of  Most»s,  from  a  tradition  of  that  U'iii::  tin 


Cairo,  and  the  tombs  <jf  the  Mamelukes.     The    spot  where  the  deliverer  of  tlie  Jews  was  fouuJ 


principal  mos<iu(^ — that  of  El-Azhar,  or  Lazaru.- 
is  in  the  miildle  of  the  most  popidous  (piarter. 
That  of  Sultan  Hassan,  said  to  l>e  a  work  of  the 
13th  centurA',  Ls  the  larg(?M.  mos(pie;  its  dome  is 
considen'd  the  finest  in  Cjiiro,  and  bene^ith  it,  ui 
its  ii'.terior,  is  the  handsome  tomb  of  the  sultan 
whoS4.'  name  it  bears.  The  ImkIv  of  the  mosque  is 
closed  by  a  bronze  (Uwr  beautifully  inlaid  with 
silver,  and  Ls  surroumled  by  a  large  open  square 
court,  with  shrines  uiuler  tine  liold  an-hes.  This 
nios<iue  is  also  remarkable  for  the  height  of  its 
two  miuaret-«,  the  variety  of  marblea  u;ied  in  its 


amongst  the  bulnishe«. 

Most  of  the  higher  class  of  Turks,  and  indi- 
viduals h«)ldhig  chief  public  emph>yments.  liave 
their  n\<idences  in  Cairo,  where  they*  live  in  min.h 
splendour.  These  are  principally  in  the  M|uaR*  kA 
Kl  hsbckiah;  it  was  in  the  garticn  of  one  of  tlK*:*' 
that  the  French  general  Kleber  wa:*  assa-ssiiiate-L 
Some  of  the  public  baths  are  very  i(}>aciou.s  an.l 
greatly  i)rnamente<l ;  luid  several  public  fountain" 
are  worthy  of  notice.  There  are;  alnjut  iwciiiy 
st«me  bridges  over  the  canals  of  the  city  anil 
plahi,   but  none  worthy  of  special  notice.'   Vm 


CAIRO 

coffce-hooses  are  generally  very  plain,  and  the 
shops  are  merely  small  recesses  capable  of  hold- 
ing two  or  three  persons.  Each  separate  bazar 
is  usually  devoted  to  one  kind  of  commodity. 

Within  the  city  the  late  viceroy,  Mehemet  Ali, 
established  an  extensive  cotton  factory ;  a  gun 
factory,  fumLshing  annually  10,000  muskets;  a 
manufactory  of  saddles,  bridles,  knapsacks,  belts, 
and  every  other  leather  equipment  re<|uired  for 
the  army ;  a  copper-mill,  and  machinery  '  for 
boring  gun-barrels,  both  <lriven  by  steam;  a 
])apor-mill  and  other  factories,  which  have  con- 
tinued to  flourish  under  the  patronage  of  his  suc- 
cessors. There  are  also  large  gunpowder  and  salt- 
petre factories  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  a  large 
tan-yani  on  the  n>ad  to  cHd  Cairo.  These  estab- 
lishments supply  the  clothing  an<i  accoutrements 
required  for  the  army  and  navy  of  Egypt  as  well  as 
most  articles  in  common  use  throughout  tlie  country. 

Cairo  has  always  been,  and  still  is,  the  seat  of 
the  best  schools  for  Arabic  literature  and  Moham- 
me<lan  theologj'.  The  mosque  of  El  Azhar  has 
attached  to  it  a  hbrary  and  college,  where  lectures 
on  the  Koran,  law,  ethics,  mathematics,  and 
medicine  are  delivered  to  students.  There  are  3 
primary  schools  in  Cairo,  whicli  affonl  education 
t4>  GOO  l>oys,  who  are  also  clothed  and  fe<l.  At 
Boulac  there  is  a  school  of  engineers,  with  180 
pupiK  At  Aboosabul,  within  a  mile  of  the  city, 
IS  a  pre|^>aratory  school,  with  1,500  pupils;  a  scho<)l 
of  medicine,  with  2t)0  students;  a  veterinary 
school  at  Shoobra;  a  school  for  accountants;  and 
S(^h(Mils  for  the  artillery  and  cavalry  service  at 
Gliizcli,  and  elsewhere  in  the  vicinity.  The  preju- 
dice against  these  schools  was  at  first  so  strong 
tliat  the  government  was  obliged  to  resort  to  com- 
pulsion to  obtain  scholars,  and  to  give  them  regular 
|)ay.  Tlio  latter  Ls  still  continued ;  but  compulsion 
IS  no  longer  necessary  to  obtain  pupils.  Kegi- 
mental  kc1i<m>1s  are  also  establishe<l,  and  primaiy 
sch(M»Ls  are  attached  to  the  ^i^reater  number  of  the 
m(K<qucs.  There  is  a  printing  press  at  lk>ulac, 
from  .which  a  weekly  pai>er  in  Arabic  issues ;  and 
at  which  many  popular  works  in  history  and 
science  are  printed  for  the  use  of  students.  The 
principal  charitable  institutions  in  and  near  Cuiro 
art^ — a  military  liosintal,  in  the  square  of  El 
Eslx'kiah,  ca]Hible  of  accommodating  1,000  pa- 
tients; another  large  military  hospital,  about  a 
quarter  <»f  u  league  fn)m  the  city,  com]>osed  of 
tmir  ningfs  of  buildings,  enclosing  a  sauare,  and 
ctintaiiiing  (»4  s^iacious  apartments,  with  40  betls 
each  ;  miKseiims  of  ]>hvsic  and  natural  histor}' ;  a 
chemical  lalMiratorj-,  and  all  necessary  offices.*  In 
the  city  is  a  hospilol  for  the  Egvptian  navy,  vrith 
two  j^eneml  hospitals;  and  a  lying-in  hospital, 
uiidijr  the  direction  of  a  French  female  practitioner, 
with  a  numljer  of  pupils. 

Most  Euroi>ean  nations  have  vice-consuls  resi- 
dent at  Cairo ;  it  is  the  scat  of  the  {Mitriarch  of  the 
Coptic  church:  there  are  l>oth  Roman  C-atholic 
anil  (iHM'k  convents,  presided  over  by  dignitaries 
called  patriarchs ;  and  two  English  missionaries 
are  osijibliyhed  in  the  city.  There  are,  however, 
comparatively  few  Eun)iK*an  inhabitants  in  ("airo, 
an<l  thoy  are  for  the  mowt  part  poor  and  without 
influence.  The  city  is  usually  garrisoned  by 
two  regiments  i»f  4,000  men  each,  one  stationcil 
within  the  citadel,  and  the  other  cncami)e<l  outside 
the  walK 

The  ncighlwurhood  of  Cairo  abounds  with  places 
ond  objects  iK>s.sessing  gR'at  interest.  The  pyra- 
m'uy,  and  tlio  rt^mains  of  the  city  of  Helio]M)lis, 
the  On  of  the  Scriptures,  are  treated  of  under  the 
articles  (JiiiZKii  an<l  E<jyit.  About  2  m.  X.fn>m 
the  city,  the  country  palace  of  Shoobra.  lH.'hmging 
to  the  i^achOfis  pleasantly  situated  on  the  bank  of 


CAJAZZO 


603 


the  river,  and  connected  with  Cairo,  for  the  whole 
distance,  by  a  fine  avenue  of  acacias  and  syca- 
mores. A  few  m.  to  the  NE.  of  Shoobra  is  the 
scene  of  the  victorv  obtained  by  Kleber  over 
Yousef  Pacha,  in  1800. 

Cairo  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by 
Jauhar,  an  Arab  general  under  the  first  Fatimito 
caliph,  in  970.  The  caliph  Moez  afterwards  made 
it  the  capital  of  his  dominions,  which  du»tincti<»n 
it  retained  till  the  overthrow  of  the  Mameluke 
sovereignty  by  the  Turks,  in  1517.  It  was  the 
residence  of  the  pacha  of  the  Turicish  province  of 
Eg}"pt  till  1798,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  French, 
who  retained  it  until  its  capture  by  the  English 
and  Turks  in  1 801 .  Not  long  after  the  re-instate- 
ment  of  the  Turkish  rule  in  EgA-pt,  Mehemet  Ali 
became  viceroy ;  and  under  him  Cairo  once  more 
became  the  capital  of  a  \'irtually  independent  and 
extensive  empire. 

CAITHNESS,  a  marit,  co.  of  Scotland,  occupy- 
ing: it<*  NE.  extremity,  having  W.  Sutherland,  and 
NE.  and  S.  the  ocean.  Dunnet  Head,  on  the  N. 
shore  of  this  co.,lat,  58=>  40^'  X.,  long.  3°  22'  W., 
is  the  most  northerly  point  in  G.  Britain:  area 
712  square  miles,  or  455, 7o8  acres,  of  which  above 
90,000  are  cultivated,  6,400  waste,  and  the  re- 
mainder mountains,  moors  and  mosses.  The 
mountains  lie  principally  along  the  confines  of 
Sutherhmd,  terminatuig  to  the  S.  in  the  stu- 
pendous precipice  called  the  Ord  of  Caithness,  lint 
with  this  excej)tion,  the  rest  of  the  couiitn'  is 
mostly  undulatuig  or  fiat-,  consisting  princij»allv  of 
vast  tracts  of  mossy  moors,  covered  vnth  low 
stunted  heath,  and  destitute  of  w(mhL  Priiici{wl 
rivers,  Thurso,  Wick,  and  Dunlx?ath.  Owing  to 
its  being  nearly  surrounded  bv  the  sea,  the  winters 
are  less  severe  than  might  have  been  ex]>ected, 
but  the  summers  are  m  general  cold  and  wet. 
Pn>perty  in  a  few  hands,  and  mostly  entailed. 
Farms  often  small ;  and  the  practice  of  under- 
letting ami  of  stipulating  for  payment  of  a  portion 
of  the  rent  in  services  of  various  kimls  ummI  to  be 
ven'  pre valent*  These  practices  are  now,  h<  > we ver, 
on  the  decline ;  and  notwithstaiuling  its  remote 
situation,  this  oo.  has  astonishingly  improved 
within  the  present  centurv,  by  the  opening  of  new 
n»ads,  consolidating  small  farms,  taking  in  waste 
land,  improving  the  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep.  A 
great  number  of  sui^erior  farm-houses  and  offices 
have  been  constructed  of  late  years ;  but,  generally 
speaking,  the  huts  of  the  peasantry  are  still  |MM>r 
and  miserable.  Oats,  bear  or  bigg,  and^K^tatoes, 
are  the  princii>al  crops.  Wick  and  Thurso,  its  only 
towns,  are,  at  present,  the  princi|)al  seats  of  the 
British  herring  fisher^'.  Limestone  is  abundant, 
and  is  burned  with  turf.  The  inhab.  of  Caithness 
are  of  Scandinavian  or  Gothic  origin ;  and,  excrept 
altmg  the  border  of  Sutherland,  Gaelic  or  llen^e  is 
neither  s{M)ken  nor  untlerstiHxL  All  ranks  and 
orilers  siieak  English.  Caithness  contains  10  pars., 
and  had,  in  lH<il,  a  population  of  41,111,  hving  in 
7,457  inhabited  hou.scH.  It  sends  1  mem.  to  the 
H.  t»f  C'.  for  the  &k,  and  Wick  unites  with  other 
boroughs  in  retumuig  a  representative.  C<>. 
constituency  512  in  1805.  The  old  valuotl  rent 
was  2,970/.;  the  new  valuation  for  1801-5  was 
102,039/.  The  gross  annual  value  of  real  projK?rty 
assessed  to  income  tax  was  Kl,712/.  in  1857,  and 
102,010  in  1KG2. 

CAJ-VZZO,  a  town  of  Southern  Italv,  prov. 
Cascrta.  cap.  cant.,  on  a  hill  neur  the  Voltumo, 
11  m.  NR  by  E.  Capua.  Pop.  0,2(»o  in  18<;2.  The 
town  is  very  ancient,  and  is  defended  by  a  castle 
built  by  the  LombanK  B<>sides  a  fine  cathe<inil, 
it  has  several  other  churches,  with  convents,  a 
college,  a  hospital,  and  a  seminary,  its  territory 
produces  good  wine. 


601 


CALABO/0 


CALABRIA 


('Ar.A7)()Zn,  an  inl.  town  of  Vrtir/iicla.  jirov.  I  th«' lii;j]»  l.inds  near  the  son;  llic  Inttpr  isrnltivat?il 
Cararar.  in  the  llnnns.  near  ilu*  (iuarii-iiriv«'r.  1 1  hi.  j  also  at  ('a>*ano.  Troths  are  wanting  on  tlie  IatIc* 
X.  h\  K.  ('a|»an  :  lat.  «°  .')o  n».  N..  lon^.  «*i7°  -VI'  |  «»f  thn  Neto,  ami  the  country  nlxmt  t.'otrnne  L«  in-.' 
W.  Top. . '>.<>«>(».  It  IjasaLjoiMlcliunh,  an<l  srvj-ral  of  the  most  uninU^n-^tin;;  in  I'alnuria.  \'pn\ 
villam■^  sjirroniiiliii^  it:  many  of  its  iiihah.  art' '  Cantanzaro  to  Squillacc  the  pniund  is  lev^l;  rh 


j)ro«*lMToiiv,-alil<*-rarnicrs.     Thr  jmkiIs  in  its  nvij^b- 
i)onr)MMHl  Hwarm  with  cloi'trii;  vA>. 


soil  full  of  broken  shelly   iU']»<>Mit,   and  fertili'  in 
com,  niaiz4>,  and  inullHTrv-tre*--.     At  Chuiravallp 


CAF.AIJKIA,  a  fomuT  i»n»v.  of  th<r  N<aiM»litan  the  iicM  are  cjiltivatCMl  witli  ll.ix  ;  the  vini-!  lp* 
(loiiiinitin^.  the  nio>t  S.  )Mirtioii  «if  the  kinpl«ini  of '  ffw,  eherrv'  orclianl:^  imrneroiis.  and  he^lirns  uf 
Italy.  ln'?wi'vn  .iT^H'i'an*!  I0'^7' N.  lat.,  and  l.'i^.*II)' i  holly,  wiMxihiup,  and  >weet-l»riar.  and  IkhiK*  i-f 
aiiil  W^  \'X  v..  Ion;;.:  having  N.  the  prov.  Basili-  hearis-ea«<',  an<l  wild  8tra\vlK?iTy.  S.  (.'alabrij  tus 
eai:i,  NK.  the  (inlf  of  Taranto,  SW.  tlu-  Strait  of,  nuuiy  towns  anil  villa^-H.  various  culture,  an-.l  lin-? 
]^Ies«-ina.  ami  in  thr  n-.^r  of  its  extent  the  M<'(lit«-r-  I  wcxiib!:  its  seener\'  is*  <lecidc*dly  ^u^H'rirtr  ti»  that  of 
ranean  :  it  i-onjpri>r.s  ilie  I'hief  of  the  two  penin-  I  Sicily.  Tin*  environs  «»f  Ko^;rin  are  ct-h-hnitf-tl  f»r 
hulas  at  the  e\in>niitv  of  Iialv,  and  fonns  what  i.-*  i  their  lK>aufv.  and  itM  nei;;hlii>urh4ri.Mi  is  well  sti>cki->J 
called  the  foot  of  the  Italian  iMMit.  |  with   cattle:    from     Tn>|)ii>a    to    MMnti'It.irue    ti*- 

In  most  |ioints,  Calahria  af!bnls  a  striking  con- I  country  is  like  a  park,  but  quite  unenfl«j**.^l, 
tni^t  t«)  the  peninsula  of  (.)t  ran  to,  on  the  other  side  :  adonuHl  with  hu-^e  clumps  of  olivi^r-tr-.-e^.  Tlita-r 
of  theTarantine  (Inlf;  its  shores  are  extremely  ir-  ■  tii  the  Apennines  is  a  wiKMled  vale,  ihnm^h  whi-.h 
n>;;ular,  and  present  many  capes  or  headlands  ;  the  the  An,:^tohi  winds;  l>oy«in<l  this  i'^  a  mar»"iy 
prinei|al  are  ihoM;  of  ('(donne  and  Ki//.uto,  on  the 
E. :  >|»artivento,  on  the  S. ;  an<l  Vaticano,  on  the 
W.  eoasts:  the  principal  j^ulfs  an*  tlmse  of  Taranto 
(whirh  it  iu-si-t>  in  fonnin^)  and  S(inillace,  on  the 
K. ;  (iioja  and  S.  Knfemia,  on  the  \V.  shores.  I5y 
far  the  ;;ri'ater  part   of  (.'alahria  is  mountainous; 


country;  and  on  the  l^nks  of  tlio  Amato  is  tin: 
field  of  Maida.  wlehratiHl  f*)r  tlie  action  fouu'ii 
there  in  IHtMi.  N.  of  Nicastm  the  main  r»ad  p.i<^  * 
tlinmgh  a  fine  plain  enibmccd  hy  the  mounioinN 
and  on  the  hi^h  ^rrmndA  hence  tu  C«>i^enz:i  thi. 
hreaks  in  the  w<mmIs  jlisplay  on  either  side  \itw- 


the  jiriiM-ijial  A|K'!uune  chain  enters  it  at  Mount    of  wiwHlrd  vales,  sprinkled  with  towns  and  vilbiijf'*. 
I'olhno,  ami  runs  at  tirsi  S.  near  the  shon*.  as  in    and  the  sea  In'Vond.     Some  tlat   irrnunds  i 


N.  Italv,  then  K.,  and  lastlv  in  a  SW  dirfctitm  to 
its  extremity.     It  drives  ofl'  a  loftv  and  nMiiarkable 


JI^Tiiunas  |«-vaL 
N.  of  ( 'or.rnz;i,  as  on  the  1i;inks  of  the  Craii.  wlii-h 
are   fertile   in    com,   vines,   and    mull»err\-trf:«^.N 


Calabria   is  subject    to    earthquakes :    a  mi»-t 
rrific  visitation  of  this  sort    oircurnM  in   17>s5, 


hraneh   to   the   K.,    the  Silese  mountains,  which  !  but     subject,    to  malaria:     towanh*    the   <fulf  '4 

oc<'u|)V  mo>t  of  the  centnd  and  wider  n'jn<»H  of  |  Polieastro  there  is  a  tract  of  i'>aMture  land,  fettling 

Calabria.     'l'\\v.  A|K>nnines  here  attain  a  jjreatcr    many  thn^ks  of  sheep. 

bright  than  in   the  central  prov.  of  the  kin;r.  of 

Naples,  and  the  sunnnits  of  many  of  them  ar<> 

»'overed  with  snow  from  I)e<*.  till  Man-h.     Mont*; 

Sila  is -l.U.l-J  ft..  iMont«'  Alto  (Aspromonte),  1,110 

ft.,  and  the  p.-u^.s  of  Xicastro,  Jl,21<»  ft.  above  the 

level  of  till"  sea. 

The  ]ilains  are  few,  and  <if  no  ;;reat  extent ;  the 
largest  are  in  the  NK..  on  the  banks  of  the  Crati 
and  t'osoih',  and  on  the  K.  c<»asl ;  in  the  \V.  the 
lowlands  C(»nsi>t  of  onlv  a  snecession  of  narrow 
valleys.  The  mountain  streams  arc  numerous, 
<lisehari;in}X  thrniselves  into  both  si-as ;  the  hiTj;er 
river.',  wldeh.  however,  require  n»»  particular  notiee, 
are  luostly  in  the  <;entral  parts  of  Cjdabriii.  There 
are  many  small  lakes  around  the  K.  shore,  but 
none  worthy  of  especial  notii-e.  Cahibri^i  pHxhu'es 
corn,  rice,  oil,  vine,  a^rumi,  an<l  fruits  of  every 
kind;  silk,  ^'n;^a^,  mainni,  wild  ho!u>v,  tobacco, 
s'liVron,  resins,  liqunrice,  many  medicmal  plant.s, 
and  dyt's;  forests  of  ouk,  <'lm.  and  che?»nut :  it  li;is 
als<»  veins  of  j^<dd  and  silver,  iron,  marble,  and 
alabaster;  and  vields  b«*sides  crvstal.  rock  salt  of 


terrifi 

which  swallowed  up  a  ^nrat  many  Ij»wiis  aJ^•. 
villaj^es.  Near  S.  Uasilc  there  are  traces  of  fr- 
mer  volcan<»es.  and  the  S4dl  is  one  rajiss  of  b\». 
Several  sjiots  are  renowned  fur  the  cvent«  4" 
ancient  hi^torA';  numerous  are  the  sites  of  .iiicii-ui 
(4reck  cities,  as  Sybaris,  Crotona,  Av. :  ncart.'a;** 
Vaticano  Sextus  Pom]H.*ius  defeated  at  SH*a  tin- 
navy  of  A  uj^ust  us.  Alaric  the  Ciotli,  then.imjui-rK- 
of  Italy,  was  buried  under  one  of  the  trihiit;:r.- 
stR'ams  of  the  Crati.  Xo  Italian  prov.  of  tiji.il 
extent  possesses  so  many  (rothir  rc>in:iins. 

The  artti  and  manufacturet*  of  (.'alabria  an-  !■. .: 
very  depn'ssed  and  backwanl  state.  .•<ilkwi.mts 
are  cultivated  lar^^ely  in  fH^nie  places,  and  ?ilk  i- 
imnhiccd  in  tolerable  quantity,  an«l  of  f-d 
(piaHty.  It  has  a  darker  coli*ur  than  in  othvr 
Neaixditan  pmvinces,  in  con.>e<]nc'nre  of  fwiii?:: 
the  worms  on  the  leaf  of  the  r^d  mun>errk\  wliiij 
pn*vails  in  every  part  of  this  territorv.  'i\^^^  r...i- 
(lition  of  the  |K'asantrv  Wiis  formerly  vcrv'  l>ad.  h:: 
the  ])un'st  kind,  and  suh>hur.     (Jreat  nmnUTS  of  ■  Ikh  been  fm*atly  ameliorated  since*  the  nic'^n»«'ra- 


tish  surround  the  coasts,  and  game  alMiunds  in 
its  forests.  N(»  pan  of  Kuropc  pn'^ents  more 
nnmnilieent  scenery  than  Calabria.     On  eiiterin;: 


tioimf  the  Neap<ditan  donnnii»ii<>  with  the  kinj^il-ci 
i»f  Italy.  Nevertheliss,  numerous  l>and>  *»f  r»hlitr« 
continue  to  show  that  the  old  law-le»iiess  of  lU- 


i:  from  the  N.,  at  Monte  (iiordano.  the  undulatin;^  ])otism  h.is  n(»t  yet  l)een  ovoroonie;  while  >niiii;- 
hills  are  lost;  the  A|K"nnines  assume  a  btdd  and  ■  gliui:  is  ver>- pn'valent,  andoutlawsnmi  mendii-ai.': 
steep  character,  and  are  !>roken  by  deep  ludlows    irinrs  are  lM)tli  abundant. 

and  ravines,  and  <'lothed  with  forests  of  massive  !  The  peasjints  an*,  neither  so  tall  nor  s«o  p^d- 
timber.  The  jinittian  forest  of  Sila.  wliii;h  o«rcu-  j  hioking  a'*  those  of  the  rist  of  Italv.  The  ouih:i«? 
pies  to  a  jrreai  exti-nt  all  the  S.  pjirt  of  C.  (.'itra,  of  their  faces  in  African;  th«*ir  coinjdi-xion  a  \is\v 
and  the  N.  of  (!.  I'ltra  II.,  consists  of  oak,  elm,  <dive,  or  cop|K*r-colour :  their  hair  coarse,  biicK, 
sweet chesnnt.  beech:  ami  ]iine  and  fir  toward  the  and  frizzled;  but  they  have  be^miiful  teelh.  ani 
summits  of  the  nuumtains:  in  other  parts  the  i  their  countenances  an*  e.xitresw«!«ive,  ,iiui  mixeil  i»itb 
Apennines  are  covered  almost  to  their  tojis  with  |  a  l(M»k  of  meUmcholy  and  wildiu'ss.  Thrv  .iiv 
wo«m1s  of  fine  cypress,  laurel,  hazel,  olive,  oranp^o,  j  vij;on»us,  aj^ile.  active,  and  nervous;  quicli!  gai. 
and  ce<lar  tree>;  near  Cariati  the  maiuia  ash  pre-  j  couraij:eous,  faithful,  and  hoMpitable;  but  irriij'^e. 
vails.  TluTc  an;  many  pastures,  however,  in  the  an«l  prone  to  passion.  In  the  N.  a  soliditv.  lik*' 
region  of  La  Sihi;  but  habitations  an*  very  thndy  that  «)f  the  (iemians,  is  ruauifest  in  tlitir  di*j:-.«i- 
scatterod  through  it,  and  t<iwns  or  hamlets  aretion;  while,  in  the  S.,  their  manners  :ippn*.h 
verv  few.     Around   th*^  coast   of  Calabria  Citra  !  more  to  tlu»<e  i»f  the  <in»eks.     Alanv  (ireeks  roi:-' 


there  are  sttnie  cultivated  tracts:  that  near  Kose.to 
yields  olives,  capers,  saffron,  com,  and  cotton,  on 


in  S.  Calabria,  who  are  much  handximer  in  ihi-.r 
persons  and  «lnu*s  than  tlie  Calabrcsic.     The  iln^v- 


CALAHORRA 

of  the  latter  varies ;  in  the  S.  it  b*  like  tbat  of  the 
Sicilians,  antl  bonnettt  are  worn ;  in  the  N.  they 
wear  hat^i ;  the  men  <lrcs.M  in  a  sliort  cIohc  jacket, 
and  cloRC  hose,  iMith  of  black  cloth ;  leathern 
gaiters,  and  shoes  of  nndrcst  nkin,  tied  with  thongs 
of  tbe  Hume;  or  else  in  a  coarse  lon^  jacket, 
c<»min<<  down  far  below  the  waiat ;  wide  nose  full 
of  ))lnits;  and  ill-out  gaiters  of  coarse  cloth, 
fastened  across  with  cords:  the  females  wear  a 
large  full-])laiteil  petticoat  of  dingj'  scarlet.  The 
Clulubrcse  Hi)eak  a  peculiar  Italian  dialect,  pro- 
nouncing the  d  and  ^  the  p  and  &,  alike.  They 
are  generally  poor;  the  marriage  portion  of  a  girl 
is  frequently  only  a  small  piece  of  vineyanl,  or 
even  a  single  fruit-tree,  (iipsies  are  numeroiu*, 
occupying  themselves  in  making  small  iron 
articles. 

Before  the  dominion  of  the  Koihans,  Calabria 
was  suUlivided  into  many  republics,  forming  part 
of  Magna  (ineciu,  a  n.>gion  that  comi>ri:»ed  all  Italy 
S.  of  Naples.  After  the  fall  of  the  \\  estem  empire, 
it  fell  successively  under  the  rule  of  Odoacer,  Theo- 
doric.  and  sjibsequently  of  the  (ireek  emiHirors, 
who  i>ossessed  it  till  the*  year  1>*29,  when  the  Arabs, 
fnim  Sicily,  established  themselves  in  a  few  forts, 
whence  they  extended  their  rule  over  the  rest  of 
the  proWnce.  A  centurv  and  a  holf  afterwanls  it 
wjis  conquered  by  the  Normans,  when  it  formed  a 
]>art  of  the  dominions  of  Kol)ert  (luiscard,  duke  of 
Apuglia,  with  the  history  of  which  ]in>vince  itJi 
own  is  8ubse(iuently  connected.  At  the  reorga- 
nization of  the  old  provinces,  under  the  govern- 
ment of  the  king  of  Italy,  in  IWOl,  Calabria  was 
<iivided  into  the  three  new  provinces  of  Cosenza, 
lieggio,  and  Cutanzaro. 

CALAIIOKHA  (an.  CuJagumi*  Nasica)^  a  city 
of  Spain,  prov.  Soria,  on  the  Cidacos,  near  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Kbn>;  24  m.  JSE.  LogroHo,  43  m. 
SSW.  ranifHluna.  Pop.  7,106  in  1K57.  The  city 
lias  a  cathedral  and  an  episcofuil  palace.  The 
ueighlN)urh(M>d  produces  grain,  pulse,  hemp,  flax, 
fruit,  wine,  and  oil.  This  was  a  Roman  town  of 
some  note,  the  reputed  birthplace  of  ( juintilian. 

CALAIS,  a  8ea-|)ort  town  of  France,  dcp.  I'as- 
du-Calais,  cup.  C4int.,  on  the  Strait^}  of  Dover,  20 
ni.  NNK.  Boulogne,  on  the  Northern  Uailwav  of 
France.  P<»p.  12,034  in  1H61.  The  town  is  of  a 
M4uare  form,  and  is  well  fortitit**!;  being  surromideil 
by  walls  and  bastions,  and  pn>tecled  on  the  W. 
side  by  a  strong  citadel,  ct>mmanding  the  town  and 
harbour,  an<l  towards  the  sea  by  several  forts;  the 
i'ountry  round  may  iiistu  in  case  i)f  necessity,  be 
laid  under  water  by  means  of  sluices.  It  is  gene- 
rally pretty  well  built,  the  hoiu*es  Ix'ing  of  brick, 
and  the  streets  broad  and  straight.  It  labours 
under  a  deticiency  of  spring-water,  the  want  of 
which  is  but  indifferently  supplied  b^'  the  rain- 
water collected!  in  cistenis.  In  the  middle  of  the 
town  is  the  place  (Varme»j  having  round  it  several 
good  houses,  and  a  handsome  Hotel  de  Ville.  The 
gate  on  the  road  to  Paris,  constructeti  in  1G8.'),  is 
a  tine  piece  of  aR'hitecture.  The  parish  chun^h, 
erccte<l  by  the  English,  is  a  large,  fine  building, 
with  a  lofty  spire.  A  tower,  near  the  Hotel  de 
Ville,  ficnes  as  a  light-lumse ;  the  light,  which  Ls 
revolving,  being  elevated  118  ft.  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  A  pillar  has  lM»en  erected  on  the  sp<it 
where  Louis  XVI H.  landeil  on  his  return  to  France 
in  1814.  The  Hotel  Dessin,  compri«*ing,  besides 
an  excellent  inn,  a  theatre,  ]mblic  baths,  and  a 
])osting  establishment,  is  the  finest  building  in  the 
town.  The  ramparts,  which  are  planted  with  trees, 
form  an  agreeable  ])romcnade.    Calais  derives  it« 

1>rincipal  im[iortauce  from  its  being  the  nearest 
•'rench  port  to  lOngland :  it  Ls  only  20J  m.  from 
the  South  Foreland,  and  22^  m.  from  Dover,  with 
which,  and  London,  and  other  KnglUdi  {)ortA,  it 


CAIJ^TAFIMI 


605 


has  daily  steam  communication.  The  mail  steamers 
from  Dover,  which  arrive  twice  a  day,  makes  the 
passage  in  about  one  hour  and  a  half.  The  total 
numl)er  of  passengers  embarking  and  dLserabark- 
ing  at  Calais  amounted  to  12.-1,053  in  the  year 
1HH3.  (Report  of  Mr.  Consul  Ilotham  on  the 
Tnule  of  Calais.)  The  entrance  to  the  harbour  \a 
between  two  piers,  nearly  J  m.  in  length.  Excel- 
lent anchorage  ground  exists  in  the  outer  road, 
fn>m  2  to  3  m.  N\V.  from  the  harl)our.  There  are, 
a  tribunal  of  commerce,  schools  of  hydrography 
and  design,  and  a  public  library,  with  12,000  volii. 
Manufactures  of  lace  employ  some  8,000  hands, 
chiefly  in  the  suburb  of  St.  Pierre-les-Calais. 
Vessels  are  titled  out  for  the  C(kI,  herring,  and 
mackerel  fisheries,  and  a  considerable  trade  is  car- 
ried on  in  Milt  and  spiritji ;  while  the  town  derives 
much  benefit  from  the  resort  of  travellers  to  and 
from  EnglamL  It  communicates  with  the  Aa,  and 
consequently  with  St.  Omer,  by  means  of  a  canal 
about  21  m.  in  length. 

Edward  III.  took  Calais,  afYer  a  lengthened  and 
memorable  siege,  in  1347.  The  obstinate  re- 
sistance made  by  the  besieged  so  much  incensed 
the  conqueror,  that  he  determined  to  put  to  death 
six  principal  burgesses  of  the  town,  who,  to  save 
their  fellow-citizens,  had  magnanimously  placed 
themselves  at  his  disposal  But  he  was  driven 
fn)m  it  by  the  tears  and  entreaties  of  Queen 
Philippa  'llie  English  retained  ptkssession  of  Calais 
for  more  than  two  centuries,  or  till  1558,  when  it 
was  taken  by  surprise  by  the  Due  de  (luise.  In 
15%  it  was  taken  by  the  Archduke  Albert;  but  in 
1598  was  restored  to  France  by  the  treaty  of 
Verx'ins.  It  desen-es  to  be  mentionetl,  to'  the 
honour  of  Calais,  that  it  is  one  of  the  verv  few 
towns  of  France  ui  which  no  individual  lost 
his  life  on  account  of  politics  during  the  Revo- 
lution. 

Calais  (St.),  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Sarthe, 
cap.  arrond.,  on  the  Anille,  20  m.  ESE.  Mans. 
Pop.  3,730  in  18G1.  The  t4>wn  has  a  line  (Gothic 
church,  a  large  square  or  place,  and  two  prome- 
nades ;  and  is  the  seat  of  a  tribunal  of  primary 
jurisdiction,  and  of  a  communal  college.  There 
are  manufactures  of  serges,  linen,  and  cott<m  stuffs, 
with  tanneries  and  glass-works.  The  country 
round  is  Imrren,  being  principally  occupied  with 
heat  Its  and  forests. 

CAL-VSCIBETTA,  a  town  of  Sicily,  val.  Cala- 
tanisetta,  cap.  cant.,  15  m.  NE.  Calatanisetta. 
Pop.  5,000  in  1862.  There  are  in  the  environs 
numerous  caverns. 

CALATABELLOTA,  or  CALTABELLOTA,  a 
town  of  Sicily,  val  di  Girgenti,  on  the  summit  of 
a  lofty  mountain  near  to,  and  overlooking,  the 
course  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  10  m.  NE. 
Sciacca  Pop.  5,624  in  1862.  The  Xoynx  is  very 
difficult  of  access.  Triocala,  a  strong  city  of  an- 
cient Sicily,  was  situate<l  within  a  short  <ii.stance 
of  the  modern  town.  This  city  is  famous  in  his- 
t4)r}',  from  its  having  been  the  stronghold  of  the 
revolted  slaves  during  the  dangerous  ser\'ilc  in- 
surrection that  broke  out  iii  Sicily,  104  or  105 
yean*  B.C.  Owing  to  the  strength  of  the  city, 
and  the  talent^s  of  their  leader  Athenio,  the  in- 
surgents were  able  to  defend  themselves  for  four 
years;  and  were  not  subdued  till  a  amsidcrablo 
army,  headed  by  Aquilius,  the  colleague  of  Marius, 
was  sent  against  them.  (Ancient  Univenial  His:., 
xiil  20,  8vo.  ed.)  In  more  modem  times,  R(^er 
I.  defeated  the  Saracens,  with  great  slaugliter,  in 
the  vicinity  of  this  to^n. 

CALATAFIMI,  a  town  of  Sicily,  val  di  Trt- 
pani,  cap.  cant.,  7  m.  SW.  Alcamo.  Pop.  9,603 
in  1862.  The  town  is  ugly  and  ill  built.  Its 
castle,  now  in  ruins,  stands  on  the  summit  of  a 


606 


CALATAGIRONE 


hill,  in  a  commanding  situation.    The  environs 
an'  well  ciiUivat<*tl. 

(:ALATA(;n:ONK,  or  CAT.TACJIKOXK,  a 
t(»wn  of  Sicily,  val  di  Catania,  cap.  distr.,  on  the 
dc<'livitv  (if  a  nuunituin,  .'Jii  m.  S\V.  Catania.  Top. 
2.S.ii72  m  \Xi\2.  The  town  ntantls  in  a  saliibrii'iiM 
nit  nation,  and  is  naid  to  l)e  the  richest  and  lM>st 
pjvenicd  city  of  Sicily.  Stn^ets  clean,  s])acious, 
well  paved,  and  toliTuhlv  li^jliteil ;  many  of  the 
jMilaccs  and  r»ther  publico  huildin^T"*  are  handsome, 
and  the  market  is  well  sii]i])lied  with  provisions  at 
nnnlerate  nites.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  hi.Mhopric  ;  has 
w^veral  churches  and  convents,  a  royal  c<»lh'jje,  a 
hospital,  and  an  oqihan  hospital.  The  inhahitant.s 
are  industrious,  and  have  maile  the  preatest  i)ro- 
licii'ucv  of  .anv  in  the  island  in  the  useful  arts.  A 
kind  of  soft  argillaceous  e.'irth  is  found  here,  and 
manufactured  into  t(derable  imitations  of  the 
Saxon  iM»n.'elain  ;  prouiw  of  tipures,  in  the  various 
exist unies  of  Sicily,  are  ab*o  funned  fn»m  it  with 
infinite  ta.>te.  The  nei^hl>ourh<MNl  affonLs  salTn")n 
and  yellow  indire,  bistre,  fnxhu  and  other  jrolonrinj^ 
materials.  A  jo'and  festival  and  fair  is  held  for 
firteen  days  in  (October,  during  which  fn^at  sales  : 
an:  made  of  cattle,  cloth,  honey,  wax,  poultrj', 
and  ajnicultural  produce.  It  is  supp^rscd,  from 
the  existence  of  sepulchres  and  other  remains  of 
anti(pnty,  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  llybla  Hctrva 
of  the  ancients. 

CALATANISirrTA,  a  towi  of  Sicily,  c^p. 
prov.  of  the   same  name,  in  a  lar^^e  and  fertile 

idain.  near  the  ri;^ht  bank  of  the  Salso,  02  m.  SE. 
•alcnno.  Poj..  l«,r)ll  in  18(12.  The  town  is  well 
built ;  has  broad  an<l  straight  streets  a  fine  square ; 
is  (h'fended  bv  a  castle,  and  has  a  civil  and  crimi-  I 
nal  court.  In  its  environs,  at  a  place  named  Terra 
rilnta,  are  two  salses  that  emit  hvdroj^en  gas. 

CALATAYUI)  (an.  Bilhilis).  a  city  of  Simin, 
Ara^^on.  cap.  distri<'t,  on  the  Jalon,  at  its  con- 
Hucnce  with  theJil<K'a,  at  tlie  foot  of  a  hill,  4;*)  m. 
SW.  Saragossa,  1 1  r>  m.  N  E.  Madrid,  cm  the  railway 
from  Sarajrossa  to  Matlrid.  I*(»p.  J),8.'>()  in  1857.  The 
town  has  a  large  square,  full  (»f  shops :  pleasant 
and  shady  pn»menades,  a  fountain  with  eleven  j<7* 
ffeau,  and  a  mapiificent    lnvndt'ro\  an  episcojml 

fialace;  a  hall  for  the  meeth>jj:s  of  the  Junta;  a 
louse  of  indu>tr\',  two  hospitals,  and  barracks  for 
4,000  troo]v*.  Streets  and  houses  n^ularly  built ; 
there  are  three  bri<lges  (»ver  the  river.  It  has 
Hevcral  elementary'  sch<M)ls,  and  two  j^ammar- 
fM",ho(ds,  with  manufactures  of  comm(jn  cb»ths, 
brown  iwi|)or,  and  leather.  The  soil  alsninjls  in 
cathartic  salti*.  and  there  are  several  chalyl.>eate 
Hpriuf^s,  and  extensive  caverns,  Irorn  whose  rt>ofs 
banj^  concretions,  said  to  Ik*  sulphate  of  lead. 
This  was  a  Koman  town,  and  is  celebrated  as 
lieinj;  ihe  birtlqdace  of  Martial,  who  has  euloj;ise<l 
its  inanufactiirv  of  arms. 

(  ALATI:AVA  la  VIKJA.  in  Si>ain,  the  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  city  of  Calatrava,  the  Orrtum 
or  Ona  «»f  the  llomans.  on  the  Guadiana,  ]>r(»v. 
La  Mancha,  12  NK.  Cuidad  Heal,  15  in.  N.  Alma- 
jrro.  The  order  of  the  Knights  of  (.'alatrava  had 
its  origin  Iktc.  The  citv  being  menac(-<l  bv  the 
Moors,  in  1158,  was  alwndoned  by  the  Templars, 
who  h.id  held  it  for  ten  years,  and  Sanchti  HI. 
promisfd  it  to  any  one  who  would  undertake  its 
defence.  IJayinond,  abbot  of  Fitero,  and  Diego 
Velasquez,  offered  themselves  for  the  task,  and 
were  furuLihed  with  money,  arms,  and  mu- 
nitions. A  cnisade  was  ])n»claimed,  an<l  plenary 
indulgences  were  granted  to  all  who  shouhl  Ihb 
found  at  the  defence  of  Calatrava,  The  Mo(»r*, 
alanned  at  the  rejiort  of  these  preparations,  abnn- 
done<l  their  enteq>n«'e.  and  Velas(iue/.  in  his  tuni, 
made  st»veral  incursions  into  their  territories.  On 
this,   the    king  contimied   the  grant,   with   new 


CALCLTTA 

donatioHJi.  The  order  was  then  rcgrnlaiiy  oi?s- 
niacd,  in  two  claHses,  one  for  the  serx-ice  of  tl»e 
choir,  an<l  the  other  fur  the  field  ;  but  the  kni;Hit«. 
on  the  death  of  Kaymond,  scpArated  them^rhret 
from  the  monks,  and  chooe  a  ^anrl  muMeT  tlisriiht 
fn)in  the  abbot,  who  retununl  with  Iiim  monL-  lo 
Fiten>.  The  knighta  Hul»scK|ueDtly  acjuiit-d  gnat 
fame  and  riches  in  their  contests  with  the  Motors: 
but  having  sustained  serious  reversets  and  quarre- 
ling among  themselves,  the  pope  adjndge-i  the 
grand-mastership  in  i>urpctuity  to  the  crvwn  of 
Sfiain. 

CALCUTTA,  a  celebrated  city  of  Hindoi»tan, 
]irov.  liengal.  cap.  of  the  liritbh  dom.  in  tht-  East, 
and  s<»at  of  the  supreme  gi>venim.,  in  a  level  tract 
on  the  E.  side  of  the  Hooghly  river,  an  .irm  ot  tht 
(langes,  alnnit  100  m.  X.  of  the   liav  of  IVngal; 
lat.  220  2,S'  N.,  long.  8«o  28'  E.     Pop.  41,^l?<2  in 
18«;i,  of  whom  274,335  Hhid(K«,  and  llo.iH'*  Ma- 
hometans. Tliis  pop.  is  exclusive  of  al»nut  l«fi.'"»ii 
<lwellers  in  the  envinms  who  come  daily  into  tlh* 
city.     On  appn^chinij  Calcutta  fin»m  the  sea,  the 
stnniger  is  struck  with   the  ma^j^nilioentv  of  its 
appi'arantH; ;  the  elt^ant  villas  tm  each  »i«le  «>f  the 
river;    the  government  Ix>taiiical   f^cardens:    lb* 
spires  of  the  churches  and  tempU-s,  and  the  sirnn:: 
and  n'gular  citadel  of  Fort  William,     Includini; 
Fort  William,  the  Esplanade,  Ac,  Calcutta  ex- 
temls  along  the  Iwmk  <»f  the  river,  fnttra  Kiil«U-r[wn- 
to  Cos8ii>ore,  a  distance  of  G  m.,  with  a  vari^ible 
breadth,  but  averaging  alx>ut  li  m.     A  haiid^.itne 
quay,  called  the  Strand,  Ls  continued  for  2  or  ;i  m. 
along  the  bank,  from  the  point  at  which  the  espla- 
na<le  meets  the  city :  it  is  raised  40  ft.  above  1"W 
water  mark,  and  furnisheti  with  about  thiriv  prin- 
cipal yhoMts,  or  tiights  of  8t4^fi8,  for  landing^    The 
HiKighly  is  here  about  a  mile  in  width  at  hiirh 
water,  or  at  least  twice  bh  broad  as  the  Thiarac3 
l>elow  Ix)ndon   Bridge,   and   is,    like   that  rivi-r. 
cn)wded  with  shipping ;  vessels  of  all  <lcscriptii*i* 
being  able  to  lie  almost  close  to  the  quay.    Tb^ 
nsidences  of  Euroi>cans  are  mostly  detached  fni.Tc 
each  other,  built  in  the  Grecian  8t>ie  of  an-hi- 
tecture,  and    situatetl  in    Cho\^Tinj(rhee    (tup  S. 
portion  of  the  city,  lying  at  the  e%\^  of  a  inTtiia 
of  the  esplanade),  or  in  the  suburbs  in  that  quarter, 
as  Garden  Keach,  where  the  villas  exhibit  minh 
beauty,  and  are    surrounded   by   pIantatioii>  A 
mjingo,  jack,  and  other  fruit  trevs.     The  citsckL 
or  Fort  William,  which  stands  near  Kiddcrf^fp. 
about  \  m.  SW.  the  city,  is  not  onlv  the  stn»iigv4 
an<l  most  complete  fortress  in  India,  but  in  ilio 
Ilritish  dominions ;  it  Is,  however,  larj^e,  and  Wf -cl  1 
n-quirt'  for  its  j)n)per  defence,  l(i,000  men.     It  i< 
an  octagon;  the  tive  faces  on  the  land  side  are 
regular,  the  throe  others,  toward  the  river,  v.in* 
according  to  circiuustances.     The  bastions  lia\-e 
very  salient  orillons,  and  every  curtain  L«  c«»vtreil 
with   a   large    half-moon,   mounting   twentv-!-ix 
pieces  of  cannon :  the  outworks  arc  very  exteii^iw. 
i)ut  not  much  raise<l  above  the  level' of  the  M:r- 
rounding  countr\%  and   Fort  William  docs  r.ct. 
therefore,  make  an   imixwing    appearance    fp.»m 
without.    It  contains  an  excellent  arsenal,  anil  a 
caniKm-foundrj';  its  iut<»rior   is    l>eautiful1v  lii-l 
out  in  walks  and  grass-jdots,  shailed  with  n-w^  iff 
trees,  intemiixed  with  piles  of  shells  an<l  canm-n 
balls.     It  is  usually  garrisoned    by   one   str')n^ 
Euro|>ean  regiment,  two  native  re^ientji,  and  a 
stn»ng  detachment  of  artillery  ;  w.ns  built  by  1.(t>1 
Clive  soon  after  the  battle  of  Pbissev ;  and  hj« 
cost  from  lirst  to  last  2,000,000/!.     Calcutta  lias  no 
defence  other  than  this  fortress;    the  ditch  and 
mound,  constnicte<l  by  the  early  settlen<.  as  a  liarrirr 
against  the  Mahrattas.  were  "destroycti  bv  Man]. 
Wellesley,  and  their  place  is  now  occupied  by  the 
'  circular  road,'  which  marks  the  buwiilan-  uf  ili^ 


CALCUTTA 


607 


liberties  of  Calcutta,  and  of  the  administration  of 
English  law.  Between  the  fort  and  the  city  there 
18  an  extensive  open  pUiin  called  the  Esplanade, 
Ijein^  a  continuation  of  the  glacis,  the  fashionable 
reiv>rt  for  driving  and  riding.  On  it  is  the  govern- 
ment-house, in  a  line  with  which  there  is  a  range 
of  very  handsome  <lwelling-hou«e8.  Chowringhee, 
fonnerly  a  collection  of  huts,  is  now  a  village  of 
|)alaces,  and  extends  for  a  considerable  distance 
into  the  country.  Behind  Cho^Tinghce,  the  native 
or  '  Itlnck  Town '  stretches  along  the  river  to  the 
N.,  and  exhibits  a  remarkable  contrast  to  the  part 
iiiltabited  by  Eunjpeiins.  Its  streets  are  dingy, 
narrow,  and  criM)ked,  and  consist  of  huts  of  earth 
bakoil  in  the  sun,  or  of  twisted  Iwmboos,  inter- 
s])ersed  here  and  there  with  ruinous  brick  Itazaan, 
p<K>Ls  of  dirty  water,  c<»coa-trees,  and  little  ganlens, 
and  a  few  large  and  fine,  but  generally  very  dirty 
houses,  of  (irecian  architecture,  the  residences  of 
Wfalthy  natives.  There  are  some  small  mosques 
of  pretty  architecture,  and  very  neatly  kept,  and 
some  ]jago<las,  but  mostly  ruinous  and  decayed : 
the  religion  of  the  people  of  Bengal  lx."ing  chiefly 
conspicuous  iu  their  worship  of  the  Ganges,  and 
in  some  ugly  |)ainte<i  wooden  or  ]»laster  idols, 
with  all  manner  of  hea<ls  and  arms,  which  arc  set 
up  in  different  parts  of  the  city.  Under  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Marquis  of  Hastings,  large 
sums  were  spent  in  the  improvement  and  ventila- 
tion of  (Calcutta ;  a  street  GU  ft.  ^nde  was  carried 
through  its  centre  iii  its  longest  diameter,  and 
st^vcral  squares  were  laid  open,  each  having  a 
tank  or  n»servoir  in  the  middle,  surrounded  by 
Itlnntftl  walks.  The  largest  square,  which  w  near 
the  S.  extrt*mity,  is  500  yanls  on  each  side,  an<l 
contains  a  tank  GO  ft.  deep.  There  are  no  covered 
ways,  as  iu  the  cities  of  Persia  and  Turkey, 
th(»ugh,  from  the  violent  heats  and  rains,  such 
would  Ije  ver>'  desirable.  The  bazaars  in  the 
luit  ive  town  are  very  inferior,  and  the  sho{)8  and 
warehoiisi^  have  all  a  mean  appearance :  the 
public  buildings  there  are  few  and  small,  and  there 
is  not  a  single  minaret  in  the  whole  place.  The 
mc)st  remarkable  pubWc  edifice  is  the  goveniment- 
house,  which  was  built  by  the  Marquis  Wellesley, 
and  consi.sts  of  a  centre  and  four  wings,  connected 
together  by  circular  passages,  so  constructe<l  as  to 
obtain  the  l)enefit  of  the  air  from  whichever  quarter 
the  wind  blows.  The  ^nngs  contain  the  private 
a|>artments,  and  that  on  the  NE.  the  council- 
TiH}m ;  the  centre  has  two  ver>'  fine  rooms,  the 
upi»er  one  of  which  is  the.  ball-room,  and  both  are 
lighted  by  a  profiLsion  of  lustres,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  exliibit  much  good  taste:  the 
architecture  of  most  of  the  building  Is  of  th/i  Ionic 
onler.  The  other  chief  edifices  are  the  town  and 
custom-houses,  the  mint,  St.  John's  cathedral, 
and  another  English  church,  all  of  which  are  con- 
tiguous to  the  govemment-housts  the  Scotch 
Pri'sbyterian  church,  a  very  handsome  structure ; 
the  Portuguese,  Greek,  and  Armenian  churches; 
the  courts  of  justice,  barracks,  gaol,  and  hospitaK 
Then*  are  many  public  colleges  and  benevolent 
institutions;  as  the  Hindoo,  Mohammedan,  and 
Anglo-Indian  colleges,  and  the  college  at  Fort 
William ;  the  Calcutta  grammar,  fn»e,  and  other 
charity  schools;  the  militar}-  and  female  orf)han 
asylums :  and  |)oor-funds ;  besides  many  bible, 
inissionar}',  and  other  religious  associations.  On 
the  NW.  side  of  the  river  are  the  extensive  suburb 
of  llowrah,  <»pposite  the  'Black  Town,'  and  the 
lM>tanic  ganlen,  op|x>site  the  citadeL  Near  the 
latter  is  the  bb«hop*s  college,  a  handsome  building 
in  the  Elizabethan  Gothic  style,  occupying  three 
sides  of  a  quadrangle  loO  ft.  sijuare,  erecte<l  in 
1H20.  for  the  e<lucation  of  a  clencal  bo<ly,  by  the 
StM'iety  (or  the  l*ro|)agatiou  of  the  Gos|>el,  at  the 


suggestion  of  Bishop  Middleton.  The  botanic 
ganlen  is  beautifully  laid  out,  and  covers  300 
acres  of  ground :  between  it  and  the  bishop's  col- 
lege there  is  an  extensive  plantation  of  teak, 
which,  although  not  in  its  native  soil,  thrives  ex- 
ceetlingly  welL  There  are  several  dry  and  other 
docks  on  both  sides  the  river,  in  which  vessels  of 
any  size  mav  be  built  and  repaired ;  but  the  ships 
constructed  There  are  of  inferior  dunibilitv  to  those 
built  at  Bombay,  in  consequence  of  the  framework 
being  of  inferior  wood,  and  the  visible  |H)rtion8 
and  upper  works  alone  of  teak ;  all  the  timber  in 
Calcutta  also,  without  the  fact  being  outwardly 
obvious,  suffers  greatly  from  the  devastations  of 
the  white  ant.  In  everj'  |>art,  this  city  is  covered 
by  an  amazing  multitude  of  little  pools,  or  reser- 
voirs, yet  the  soil  on  which  it  stands  Ls  remarkably 
deficient  in  springs,  none  having  been  met  with 
even  after  boring  down  140  ft,  till  1828,  and  sub- 
sequently, when  Dr.  Strong  found  some  in  isolated 
spots,  at  a  depth  of  70  ft  The  drainings  of  the 
place,  with  such  portions  of  the  refuse  as  arc  not 
devoure<l  by  crows,  kites,  vultures,  adjutants,  ami 
pariah-d(^,  which  abound  in  the  streets,  and  at 
night  by  foxes  and  jackals  from  the  surrounding 
countrj',  are  conveyed  away,  by  a  canal,  to  a 
large  shallow  salt  lagune  about  4^  m.  distant,  to- 
wards the  E.  Itetween  the  city  and  this  loguno 
the  country  Ls  filletl  with  gardens,  orchani»,  and 
A-illages,  biit  is  little  inhabited  by  Europeans.  The 
tract  to  the  N.  is  drier,  healthier,  and  more  open ; 
and  the  two  great  roads  to  Dumdum,  the  artiller>' 
cantonment,  and  liarrackpore,  the  countrj'  seat  of 
the  governor-general,  lie  over  a  vast  extent  of 
fertile  countrj*,  divided  into  rice-fieldn,  orchanls, 
and  ganlens,  and  swarming  with  po]>ulatioii.  The 
\Hcinity  of  Calcutta  Ls  very  pleasing ;  as  soon  as 
its  boundar\'  is  passed,  the  roads  wind  through 
l)eautiful  villages,  overhung  with  the  finest  and 
most  picturesque  foliage  the  world  can  show,  of 
the  Itanyan,  the  palm,  the  tamarind,  and  the 
bamboo.  Sometimes  the  glade  opens  to  ])lains 
covered  with  the  rice-harvest,  or  t«)  a  sight  of  the 
broad,  bright  river,  with  its  ships  and  woo<1ed 
shores ;  sometimes  it  contracts  into  little  winding 
tracks,  through  fruit>-trees,  gardens,  and  cottages ; 
the  gardens  fenced  in  with  heilges  of  aloe  and  pine- 
apple ;  the  cottages  neater  than  those  of  Calcutta, 
and  mantly  of  mats  and  white  wicker-work,  with 
thatched  roofs  and  cane  verandahs,  with  gounla 
trailing  over  them,  and  the  broad,  tall  phmtains 
clustering  round  them.  The  rainy  season  at  Cal- 
cutta generally  begins  about  June  12,  and  termi- 
nates Oct,  14.  The  average  fall  of  rain  for  three 
recent  vears  was  69'83  inches;  the  annual 
mean  of  the  barometer  is  2l»*7G4 ;  of  the  ther- 
mometer, 78°  13'.  The  most  pleasant  and  tcmi>e- 
rate  [KrriiHl  of  the  ^-ear  is  fn)m  Oct.  to  March  ;  by 
the  middle  of  Apnl,  the  weather  becomes  oppres- 
sively hot,  often  rising  to  100°  Fahr. 

Calcutta  enjoys  a  very  extensive  internal  navi- 
gation, by  means  of  the  Ganges,  and  its  numentua 
arms  and  tributaries ;  and  it  monopollHes  the 
whole  of  the  external  trade  of  Bengal.  The  UAtd 
value  of  the  importa  into  Calcutta,  including 
treasure,  amounted  to  20,24o,!)43/.  in  18t'»0;  to 
ir),024,07.U  in  18G1 ;  and  to  14,294,*W7/.  in  18G2. 
The  total  value  of  the  exports  was  12,125,807/.  in 
18G0;  12,677,7G0/.  in  1861;  and  12,704,931/.  in 
1H62.  During  the  same  three  years,  the  shij)ping 
of  Calcutta  was  as  follows.  In  18G0,  there  entere«l 
262  vessels,  of  117,861  tons,  and  cleared  342,  of 
157,306  tons;  1861,  there  entered  226  vessels,  of 
101/225  tons,  and  there  cleare<l  358,  of  161,823 
t<»ns.  Finally,  in  1862,  there  entered  428  vessel**, 
of  198,234  tons,  and  there  cleareil  718  vessels,  of 
259,281   tons.     The  statistics  of  shipping  here 


008 


CALCUTTA 


given  are  exclusive  of  the  coastinff  trade,  wliii'h  is 
vcn'  considenible.     Innumerable  small  eraft  daily 
arrive  from  the  interior,  laden  with  the  pnuluee  : 
and  nmnufactures  of  the  different  i)n>vs. ;  and  the  ' 
daUutta  market  is  well  suppliexl  with  an  almn- 
danee  of  excellent  provisions  :  pune.  snifKw,  wild 
ducks  teal,  and  ortoLins,  are  comparatively  cheap ; 
htall-fetl  venison  is  a*^  fat  as  in  Kn^dand.  but  with- 
out flavour :  an  immense  variety  of  fruits  of  tine 
quality  appear  on  Kurojxan  tables;  and  an  cx- 
(piiMte   luxury   is   met   with   in    the   tup<i8tvi  or  ^ 
manjxo-tish  (so  called  because  it  Is  in  season  with 
the  manp)  fniit),  and  which  has  Wen  liithertoi 
found  only  in  the  rivers  of  Beuj;al»  the  Birman  ' 
empire,  and  the  I'andjoja  riv«'rs.  | 

The  commercial    prosp<;rity   of   Calcutta    ha<i 
greatly  iiurreased  since   the  establishment  of  a 
railway  system  in  India.   The  Calcutta  and  South 
Kastern  riiilway  was  oiKMied  thnuighout  Jan.  '2*2iid,  | 
1803;    the  '  EaMeni    Bengal,'  fn)m   Calcutta   to  = 
Dacca,  was  t)]>ened  Nov.    loth,  18«»2;   and   the 
*  East    Indian,'   from   Calcutta   to   the   Northern 
Provinces,  was   oiK-Mied   as   far  as  lk»nares,  Dec.  ; 
2*2nd,  1802.     Hy  means  of  these  lines,  the  city  has 
l>ect)me  one  of  the  central  points  of  railway  com- 
munication in  India. 

The  ]M)pulation  of  the  city  is  unequallv  distri- 
butetl :  its  N.  and  central  ]K>rtiona,  especially  the 
ft)rnier,are  very  densely  inhabited;  the  S.part  much 
le>s  so,  owing  to  the  dwellings  of  Kurojwans  being 
so  much  more  widely  dis|)e.rsed.  Calcutta  Ls  the 
seat  of  the  chief  Prt>te8tant  bishop  of  India  of  the 
Kstablished  Church  of  England;  (»f  the  supreme 
courts  of  justice ;  of  one  of  the  courts  of  circuit 
and  api>ejil  for  the  presidency  of  Bengal ;  of  a 
vic^r-apostolic  of  the  Koinish  church,  with  autho- 
ritv  over  M  priests  and  10  churches,  one  of  which 
is  in  that  city. 

lOuroiK'an  society  in  Calcutta  is  gay  and  con^^- 
vial ;  and  fetes  and  dinner-parties,  both  numerous 
and  splentlid,  are  given  by  the  govenmient  officers 
and  wealthy  private  individuals.  A  certain  degree 
<»f  formality  and  stiffness  is,  however,  ver>'  preva- 
lent :  and  the  IJrahminical  institution  of  castes 
wouhl  ai>|K'ar  to  have  communicate<l  itself  to  all 
ranks  and  classes  of  Europeans. 

Bishop  Ileber  obsen'csin  his  *  Journal '  that  the 
large  dinner-parties,  in  addition  to  the  geographical 
situation,  and  other  local  peculiarities  ;  the  aspect 
and  architecture  of  the  place;  the  multitu<le  of 
servants,  and  want  of  funiiture  in  the  houses, 
tend,  except  in  res|iect  of  climate,  to  cive  Calcutta  a 
striking  resemblance  to  l*etersburg.  Besides  private 
j»arties,  there  art^  public  subscription  assemblies, 
with  conrersazionij  concerts,  and  a  theatre,  though 
the  latter  is  but  little  frequente<l.  It  is  usual  with 
Europeans  to  rise  early,  the  pleasante^t  part  of  the 
day  Ix'ing  the  lirst  of  the  morning;  after  tijfin 
(lunch),  which  is  taken  between  2  and  3  o'clock, 
.many  persons,  during  the  summer  heats,  retire  to 
sleei)for  two  or  thn^e  hours  ;  at  sunset  the  fashion- 
able drives  of  the  Esplanade  are  crowded  with 
Eiuropean  vehicles  of  all  sorts,  and  the  dinner-hour 
soon  after  succeeds.  The  equipages  of  Calcutta 
embrace  barouchej^,  chariots,  tilburies,  gigs,  &c..  as 
in  England,  drawn  by  a  breed  of  horses  which 
have  been  greatly  improve<l  through  the  govern- 
ment stud  and  importations  from  Europe  and 
Arabia :  but  a  grotesque  and  f>eculiar  ai)pearance 
strikes  the  eye  of  the  European  ui  the  intermixture 
of  Asiatic  costumes,  and  black  coachmen,  in  the 
hcene.  Most  visits  at  a  short  distance  are  ]iaid  in 
l«alanquins,the  Iwarers  of  which  are  from  Baiasore, 
Behar,  or  the  northern  Circars,  and  run  silently, 
bure-headcd,  and  almost  naked.  Tiie  Anglo-Indian, 
or  half-caste  population,  the  pnnluct  of  an  inter- 
course between  EurojKjans  and  natives,  are  more 


CAIDER 

numerous  in  CalcuttA  than  anywhere  else  in  Indis ; 
thev  are  intelligent,  indiLstrious,  and  genenlly 
wert  educated,  and  possess  a  degree  of  conj«ideniti«>Q 
in  the  eyes  of  the  native  poptilaiit>n,  though  they 
are  without  any  political  influence.  All  of  them 
speak  English,  as  well  as  the  native  dialect. 
Many  of  the  half-caste  females,  dauffhters  of  mo- 
thers of  high  caste,  are  educated  in  the  f«eminari» 
in  and  near  Calcutta,  and  often  marr\'  Eun»peaas 
when  they  are  said  to  make  moat  unexcef»tionable 
wives  and  mothers :  their  children,  in  this  case, 
lose  in  one  or  two  generations  all  dis*tinctive  mark 
of  their  Indian  origin.  A  considerable  number  of 
the  new  zemindars,  and  the  retired  tmders  wlw 
have  l>ecome  wealthy,  reside  in  Calcutta ;  where 
thev  have  houses  handsomi»lv  furnished  in  the 
Euro|)ean  style ;  drive  the  hest  horses  and  equi- 
pages; have  adopted  English  habitat  and  taste*; 
s|>eak  the  English  language  ;  enter  into  the  politic* 
of  the  British  empire,  and  are  not  ignorant  of 
Englisih  literature.  With  all  this,  the  cnlucatioa 
of  their  sons  is  often  miserably  neglected,  and 
they  tuni  out  mere  s|>endthrifls ;  but  the  fact 
is  sufficiently  and  generally  manifest,  that  the  na- 
tive inhabitants  of  all  ranks  show  a  vrilling- 
ni'ss  to  leam  and  s|ieak  English,  an  increas-ing 
anxietv  to  send  their  children  to  schotd,  and  a 
gnmnng  neglect  of  caste  and  other  national  pre^ 
judices. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  natives  have  a  very  had 
character,  being  proficients  in  intriirue,  falseho«¥i 
and  chicaner}' ;  pnme  to  peijurj-,  theft,  gambling, 
and  all  kinds  of  tlishonesty ;  and  of  a  cowardly 
dis|K)sition  :  but  it  is  generallv  admitted  that  the 
morality  of  the  native  inhabitants  of  Calcutta  i< 
at  a  lower  ebb  than  that  of  those  in  the  previncial 
districts.  A  perceptible  amendment  in  the  moral? 
and  pursnit.s  of  the  people  is,  h«>wever,  said  to  be 
faking  jdace.  The  Bengalee  dialect,  which  liail 
long  been  hK)ked  on  with  much  prejudice  by  the 
natives  of  India,  is  now  reviving-,  and  various 
works  are  published  in  it  everj'  year.  Numert'os 
periodical  works,  and  newspapers,  i.<«ue  fn»m  the 
j>ress.  There  arc  several  distinguished  scieiitinc. 
literar\',  and  other  associations  in  Calcutta;  astlws 
Asiatic  Society,  which  owes  its  ori^n  t<»  Sir  W. 
Jones;  the  Medical  and  Physical,  Agricultural 
and  Horticultural  Societies;  the  Chamber  of  C^^m- 
meree,  and  the  Trade  Asswiation. 

In  1G98  the  British  factor}-  wasremo\-ed  thither 
fn»m  Hooghly;  but  in  the  early  part  of  tlie  last 
centur}'  Calcutta  was  but  a  i>altn'  village,  ljelon;r- 
ing  to  the  Nuddea  district-,  and  inhnbitetl  chiefly 
by  husbandmen.  Cho^vringhee  was  also  but  a  >tnig- 
gling  village,  and  a  forest  jungle,  intersperse*!  hc-re 
and  there  with  jwitches  of  cultivated  land,  oivered 
what  is  now  the  Esplanatle,  so  late  as  1756.  In 
that  year  Suraja-ul-Dowlah,  the  soubahdar  of 
Ik'iigal,  dispossessed  the  English  of  theirsettleroent; 
on  which  occasion  140  Englishmen,  who  had  been 
left  to  defend  the  factor}',  were  shut  up  at  night  in 
the  black  hole  (a  part  of  the  old  fort,  taken  down 
in  1818).  of  which  numlwr  only  23  were  found 
alive  next  morning.  Col.  Clive,  with  some  Madras 
troops,  retook  Calcutta  Jan.  1,  1757 ;  since  which 
it  has  lx»en  quietly  retaineii  by  the  British,  and 
risen  to  its  present  degree  of  imf)ortance. 

CALDEK  a  river  of  England,  in  Yorkshire, 
rises  on  the  SE.  side  of  Boles  wort  h-h  til,  in  the  grantl 
central  range  of  English  mountains,  and  flooring 
in  an  E.  direction,  at  a  little  distance  from  Halifax 
and  Dewsbur}-,  and  past  Wakefield,  luiites  with 
the  Aire  at  Castleford.  This  river  is  of  great  im- 
])Ortance  in  the  canal  system  of  Yorkshire  and 
Lancashire,  and  has  been  rendered  navigable  fort 
gnsat  |>art  of  its  course.  Another  river  of  the 
same  name  rises  on  the  W.  side  of  the  same  hill. 


CALICUT 

an<l  flowing  W.,  faDs  into  tlic  Kibble.  It  is  of  very 
inferior  importance.     (See  Humueh.) 

CALICT.T,  a  marit,  difitr.  of  Iliiidostan,  prov. 
Malabar,  which  see. 

(.'aijcut,  a  roarit,  town  of  Hindostan,  cap.  of 
the  above  district,  and  of  the  prov.  Malabar,  85  m. 
SW.  Seringapatam,  and  380  ni.  WSW.  Madras; 
lat.  1 1°  18'  X.,  long.  75°  60'  E.  Pop.  estimated  at 
i'4,000.  The  principal  exports  arc  pepper,  teak, 
f  andal-wood,  canlamoms,  coir,  cordage,  and  wax  ; 
but  (!aliciit  is  destitute  of  any  good  harlxnir. 
This  was  the  first  place  in  India  made  by  the 
I'ortiigiiese  under  Vai«co  <le  (lama.  who  arrived  here 
18th  May,  1108.  In  1500  the  Portuguese  were  re- 
pulsed, with  grcAt  slaughter,  in  an  attack  on  the 
place,  and  their  commander  killed.  In  170C  it  was 
taken  by  Hvder  Ali,  and  TipjKK)  aftcrwanls  de- 
stroyed the  fort  and  town,  obliging  the  inhabitants 
to  migrate  to  Nelluni ;  but  on  the  conquest  of  the 
jiHJV.  by  the  British  in  1700,  most  of  them  returned 
to  it,  and  in  1800  Calicut  again  numbered  5,000 
houses. 

CALIFORNIA,  a  state  of  the  North  American 
Union,  34th  in  number  of  the  United  Slates^  ex- 
tending along  the  W.  coast  of  North  America,  fn»m 
the  3240  to  42°  N.  lat.,  having  S.  the  pwiinsula 
<»f  I^ower  Califitniia  and  the  river  Gila,  by  which 
it  is  divided  from  Mexico;  K.  the  Kio  (irande  or 
Dd  Norte;  and  N.  the  state  of  Oregon,  from 
%\hioh  it  is  divi<lcd  bv  the  42nd  parallel  of  lat. 
Area  1H8,082  s^iuare  m*. :  i>op.  370,004  in  18C0,  of 
whom  ,'i4,010  were  Chinese,  23G  Mexican  half- 
breeds,  and  17,5(12  Indians.  The  state,  throughout 
its  arra,  is  mountainous,  and  the  Sierra  Nevada 
extends,  under  different  names,  and  with  different 
altitudes,  in  a  nearly  continuous  chain,  from  the 
S.  extremity  of  the  peninsula  to  Kiu^sian  America. 
It  is  remarkable  for  its  parallelism  and  i>rt>ximity 
to  the  sea,  its  great  elevation,  and  its  numerous 
volcanic  peaks,  stretching  far  alK)ve  the  line  of 
jierpetual  snow.  Its  distance  from  the  coast  varies 
from  150  to  200  m.,  so  that  the  area  of  this  portion 
of  the  country  exceeds  100,000  8(\.  m.  The  great 
mountain-wail  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  intercepts  the 
warm  win<ls  charged  with  vapour,  which  sweep 
across  the  Pacific  Ocean,  precipitates  their  accumu- 
lated moisture  in  fertilismg  rains  and  snows  upon 
its  western  tlank,  and  leaves  cold  and  drv'  winds  to 
l>ass  on  to  the  E.  Hence  the  characteristic  differ- 
<iice  of  the  two  regions — mildness,  fertility,  and  a 
sui>erb  vegetable  king(U»m  on  the  one  side,  com- 
iwirative  barrc*nness  and  cold  on  the  other. 

Ik'tween  the  latitude  of  34°  and  41°,  a  range  of 
low  mountains  or  hilbt  runs  cla«e  along  the  shore, 
tlie  culminating  p<»int  of  which,  the  Monte  del 
Diarofo,  close  to  the  bay  of  San  Francisco,  attains 
to  the  iieight  of  3,074  ft.  The  vallev  between 
this  coast  chain  and  the  gnm<l  barrier  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  comprises  the  valleys  of  the  Sacramento 
and  San  Joaquin,  500  m.  in  length,  and  by  far  the 
most  valuable  [wrtion  of  ('alifi»nua.  The  western 
Hank  of  the  Sierra  lielongs  to  the  latter.  It  is  a 
l(»ng,  wide  slope,  timbered  and  grassy,  yriih  inter- 
vals of  arable  lan<l,  copiously  watered  with  nu- 
merous and  lH)1d  streams,  and  without  the  cold 
which  its  name  and  altitude  might  iniplv.  It  lh 
from  40  to  70  m.  in  width  from  the  summit  of  the 
mountain  to  the  termination  of  the  f(M>t  hills  on 
the  edge  «>f  the  valleys  IkjIow.  Tini})er  holds  ihe 
lirst  place  among  the  pnMlucts  of  thisj  8loi>e,  the 
whole  iK-ing  heavily  w<M)ded,  first  with  oaks, 
which  predominate  to  about  half  the  elevation  of 
the  mountain,  and  then  with  ])ines,  cypress,  and 
cedars,  the  jdnes  predominating;  and  hence  called 
the  pine  regi<»n.  as  that  below  is  called  the  oak 
region,  tlu)ugh  mixed  with  other  trees.  'Jlie 
Iiighest  summits  of  the  Sierra  are  naked,  maseive 

Vou  I. 


CALIFORNIA 


609 


granite  rocks,  covered  with  snow,  in  sheltered 
places,  all  tlie  year  round.  Acorns  of  uncommon 
size,  and  njt  bad  taste,  used  for  food  by  the  In- 
dians, abound  on  some  of  the  oaks.  The  c^-press, 
{>ines.  and  cedar  are  between  100  and  *ib()  ft.  in 
leight,  and  from  5  to  12  ft.  in  diameter,  with  clean 
solid  stems.  Grass  abounds  on  almost  all  parts  of 
the  slope,  except  towards  the  highest  summits, 
and  is  fresh  and  green  all  the  year  round,  being 
neither  killed  by  cold  in  winter,  nor  dried  by  want 
of  rain  in  summer.  Ttie  foot  hills  of  the  slope  are 
sufficiently  fertile  and  gentle  to  admit  of  good 
settlements,  while  valleys,  coves,  beaches,  and 
meadows  of  arable  land  are  found  throughout. 
Many  of  the  numerous  strexuns,  some  of  them 
amounting  to  considerable  rivers,  which  flow  down 
the  mountain  side,  make  handsome,  fertile  valleys, 
and  funiLsh  good  water  power.  The  climate,*  in 
the  lower  part  of  tlie  slo]>e.  is  that  of  constant 
spring. 

The  principal  feature  in  the  country  l)etween 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  ocean  is  the  great  bay 
or  inlet  of  the  sea  called  San  Francisco.  It  has  a 
narn>w  entrance  al)out  1  m.  in  width,  in  about  37^ 
48'  N.  lat.  Within  it  expands  into  a  noble  basin 
stretchuig  NNW.  and  SSE.  CO  or  70  m.,  and  E. 
alK)Ut  .^)  m.,  being  diA'ided  into  the  three  great 
com{>artments  of  San  Pablo  on  the  N.,  SantA 
(Uara  on  the  S.,  and  Suisoon  llay  on  the  E.,  and 
affording  accommtnlation  to  all  the  navies  of  all 
the  countries  in  the  world.  Its  coast  line,  which 
extends  to  about  275  m.,  is  highly  diversified, 
displaying  a  singularly  rich  and  varied  outline. 
The  great  rivers,  the  Sacramento  from  the  N.,  and 
the  San  Joaquin  from  the  S.,  fall  into  this  bay. 
The  lower  parts  of  the  valleys  through  which  these 
rivers  flow  unite  at  the  bottom  of  the  Imy,  and 
form  an  immense  plain,  stretching  N.  and  S.above 
200  m.  This  great  vallev  has  at  some  former 
period  been  evidently  a  laice ;  and  were  it  not  for 
the  streams  which  flow  into  them  from  the  moun- 
tains, the  rivers  by  which  it  is  watered  would  be 
quite  dr>'  in  the  summer  months,  llic  soil  is  a 
deep,  black,  alluvial  mould,  [smms  and  extremely 
fertile.  It  was  formerly  overflowed  by  the  rivere 
in  the  rainy  season;  and  the  embankment  has 
been  one  of  the  first  objci'ts  to  which  the  attention 
of  the  settlers  was  directed.  Hoth  rivers,  but 
esi>ecially  the  Sacramento,  afford  evory  facility 
for  steam  naA^gation.  In  the  upper  |)art  of  the 
valley  of  the  San  Joaquin.  Ixitween  3,5°  and  30^® 
lat.  L«  the  Tulare  (Bulnish)  I^ke,  surrounded  by 
extensive  swamps  oveip^>wu  with  luxuriant  bul- 
nishes,  and  receiving  all  the  streams  in  the  S. 
end  of  the  valley.  In  the  wet  season  it  attains  to 
a  great  size,  its  surplus  waters  being  discharged 
into  the  San  Joaquin.  In  the  dry  season  it  is 
reduceil  ^nthin  comfjaratively  narrow  boundaries, 
and  is  in  some  ])laces  fonlable. 

Tlie  ap)>earance  of  the  N.  and  S.  portions  of 
C*alifomia  differs  considerably,  the  former  l)eing 
mui^h  better  wooded  than  the  latter.  B«'low  the 
,'iOth  deg.  lat.  the  forests  arc  limited  to  some  scat- 
tered groves  of  oak  in  the  valleys  and  along  the 
lK>rders  of  the  streams;  and  <if  red  wood  on  the 
ridges  and  in  the  goiges  of  the  hills,  the  latter 
iK'inc:  sometimes,  als<»,  covered  vnth  dwartish 
shruiis.  With  these  exceptions  the  country  is 
clothed  in  the  wet  season  with  the  finest  herbifige, 
consisting  either  of  <iifferent  grasses,  or  of  wild 
oats,  which,  in  the  valleys  especially,  grow  most 
luxuriantly.  But  in  tlie  latter  jiart  of  the  dry 
season  it  has  a  bumt-up,  scorched  appearance,  and 
is  often  subjected  to  devastating  fires.  N.  of  the 
30th  deg.  lat.  the  forests  arc  extensive  and  valu- 
able :  and  are  fitted  to  afford  all  bat  inexhaustible 
supplies  of  timber. 

K  R 


610 


CALIFORNIA 


Tlie  tomfioratiirp  is  a  trrxMl  deal  hi;rlior  than  ■  to  ^irliin  about  S."*  m.  of  the  cdfrc  of  the  plain-x 
ill  llu'  (!uiTfx{MiiMliii;r  lutit ii<l«'>i  (HI  the  K.  coast  of  In  IH.V.j  this  (list ri(*t  was  sii]i|»«»'''«I  to  imisa***  »'•■  it 
Ann'rica.  'J"h«i  ymr  is  diviiktl  into  iwi»  M'OMtiis, —  j  l.<MMi  h|.  m.  of  available  luinui^  territory.  iiM^ir.J- 
ihi?  wet,  extviuliiifj  fn>in  Afnil  to  X«ivi»nilM'r.  and  injr  both  plooers  aiid  veiii-s  of  fr«>l«l-lK-arin|:  quartz, 
the  i\ry.  In  the  Innuer  the  rains  th«»nj:h  not  .  2niL  The  Middle  Placers,  ^^ituated  at  abi»<ii  a 
by  any  means  (*<intinuoiis.  an*  fntinent  and  heavy,  I  avernjxc  distance  of  2<»  m.  from  the  line  *■!  tL? 
In  the  S.  |Mirts  of  ilie  oonntrj-  the  dr\'  seas<in  j  higher  foot-hiUs,  and  havinjf  it.s  ^restem  N«nJ.r 
eoinnuMHM'S  earlier  an<l  continues  h»n^r  tlian  in  !  within  attout  4  m.  of  the  e*\}^  of  the  plains  Tb-- 
tlu"  \.  l)uriii^  the  prevalence  of  the  latter  the  j  <lii»trict  c<»vers  an  area  of  alM>ut  »».<kK»  j«q.  nL,a>i 
di^-trict  immediately  i-onti^rimus  to  the  shore  is  [  the  mininjj  is  mainly  pt»M-wasbin^.  ;*t«L  Thr 
infested  with  f<»p*  and  i-ohl  winds  fn»m  the  sea,  ■  Valley  mines,  which  are  situated  ainon^  the  I«»«i-t 
Hut  within  then >a>t  ran^ri',  the  climate  is  delight- !  fo4it«hills  of  the  mountains,  anil  extend  ihtiK- 
ful  :  the  heat  in  the  middle  of  the  day  not  U-in^  |  westwanl  on  to  the  eastern  e«l;^e  of  the  i»lain>«f 
HO  ^reat  as  to  hindtT  laU^m*,  while  the  ni(j:hts  are  the  San  Joaquin  an<l  Sacramento  ti>  an  extt-m  <:' 
Cool  and  ph-asani.  from  3  lo.>  ni.    The:*e  minus  extend  from  lutrtli  t.» 

The  country,  ])articularly  in  the  N„  is  well  south  a  linear  <iL<<tance  nf  alhiut  2.'iO  m.  n.*' 
wiiteil  to  the  ^owth  of  wlieat.  barley.  rk'<',  and  amount  <»f  territ«iry  f»ocnpied  hy  tbesi*  mint:-^  i^ 
<»als.  Wild  oJits.  indcH-d.  as  alreaily  n<itic(^l,  gnjw  ,  |>n>l»ably  not  less  than  O.otit)  jiq,  ni.  The  pn'r-taii.i: 
in  vast  quantities  all  alon^  the  eoa^t.  and  as  far  mutiny  of  the  de]M>sits  in  thcrse,  a.«  in  the  mit!  i.t: 
inland  as  the  sea-breeze  has  any  materiid  intluemx*.  i  placers,  has  re<iuire<l  ilie  constrwction-  of  exremlr-; 


I'otatiK^s  tun»ii»s,  c^rnits,  and  all  the  eiliblc  r<M>ts 
of  the  Atlantic  coa'*t  of  America,  with  apples, 
pears,  {K-acht^s,  vines,  and  other  fruits,  attain  to 
the  ;^<«test  perflation.  In  the  wiuthem  valleys 
betwwn  the  coast-hills  and  the  Sierra  the  climate 
iM  sutficiently  hot  to  mature  maize,  rice,  and 
tobacco.  The  heat  and  drought  of  summer  make 
irrigation  a  most  im;K)rtant  auxiliary  in  farming 
o}  enitions ;  but  it  is  not  iiidi>|ionsablc.  Van- 
oouvt-r  found,  in  17i*2,  at  the  mission  of  San 
Iiuonaventura,  lat.  H4°  MV,  ap))les  f>ears,  plums, 
lijjs,  oran;xes.  jrraiM's,  |M>aclies,  and  i>ome^ranatea 


watercourses  for  the  wa2*bin^  of  the  gidd  fn^n  tl,c 
sand  and  j^avel.  ITie  tioo«l  of  l«61-4'»2  Uiil  Ujt 
many  new  deposits  in  thi£k  re|rii»ii.  The  varir-iit> 
r>f  mining  are — Placer  minmg,  which  bear*  dfl- 
siderable  analogy  to  coal  mininjj:  in  Penneylvanii 
aditu  lieing  driven  into  the  hills,  and  often  tbp«::i 
solid  nwk,  to  the  locality  where  the  pi>ld  d«^i4: 
exisU.  Hydrauiie  mining^  where  a  Ivoail,  i'p*:ii 
ditch  is  earned  tliniu^h  the  liill.s,  and  the  ^hir!> 
washcil  down  l>y  diroetinj;  a  iK»werful  stream  "f 
water  on  them.  River  mininff,  in  whit'h.  w>u 
the  rivers  are  low.  the  stn.>amA  are  divtH'**.!  fnti 


gri>wing  togetlx'r  with  the  plantain,  l>anana.CfM!oa-  i  their  courses  hy  means  of  tiume^L,  tail-ran"!*,  i-'- 
luit,  sugar-cane,  and  indigo,  and  all  yiehling  fruit '  and  the  IkhIs  of  the  rivers  thus  expo^-ie^i  and  tJ.tr 
in  abundanL^<>,  and  of  excellent  quality.   Ilumlxddt    samis  washnl  for  gohl.     This  can  unlv  Ije  r.im.'J 


hays  that  the  <dive  oil  of  (California  in  equal  to  that 
of  Andalu.sia,  and  the  wine  like  that  of  the  ranar^' 
Islantis.  The  valleys  are  overgrown  with  >iild 
mustard,   the   vinevards  and   olive   orcharrls  are 


on  for  al)out  six  months  of  the  year.  G*drk  nix- 
ing, in  which  a  large  tlurae  i.*»  formcnl  litli»w  \\^ 
surface  of  the  earth  in  such  a  manner  as  toTi-.^i-.r 
all  the  a<ljact»nt  streams  after  beni;r  ua*^!  bv  rl 


<lecayed  and  neglect etl ;  and  in  a  few  i)laces  only    miners.    Anil  lastly,  Qi/certz  Mtninc;.  which  re(]iL'^ 

' ^^         ''  ^ -y-  ^  .1-       -'     a  conside.nd^le  investment  of  capital,  but  i*  |«n«:- 

able.  In  this  <lescription  of  mining  the  goM-U^n&r 
quartz  is  <Tushed  by  |towerful  stamps,  in  itilK 
driven  by  steam,  water,  or  mule  |K>wer,  ti»  tl-: 
lineness  of  ttour,  and  then  the  ^obl  take n  up  :-7 
excellence  of  its  olives,  which  are  liner  and  larger  j  means  of  quicksilver   by   the  uFual  wa*hinj;  jf- 


<!o  we  see  the  evid<'nces  of  what  the  country'  is 
cai>abl«'.  At  San  Iiuonaventura  the  (dive  trees 
are  often  f<|und  in  January',  bending  under  the 
wei;;ht  (»f  neglected  fruit  :  and  the  mission  of 
San  Luis  (Mummi  (lat.  iMP)  is  diMinguished  f«ir  the 


than  those  of  the  Me»literranean. 

Among  the  wild  animals  arc  bisons,  bears, 
wolves,  foxes,  wild  cats,  |Mde<ats.  ott<'rs,  lK»avers, 
han^s,  rabbits,  and  a  urofusion  of  other  kinds  «»f 
game.  Large  herds  tif  a  peculiar  variety  of  deer, 
of  a  gigantic  size,  with  bonis  of  a  corn's|M)iuling 
magnitude,  and  great  swiftness,  are  found  in  the 
forests  and  grassy  ])]aiiis.  They  used  to  Ix*  taken 
by  the  Iuamk  and  sometimes  by  the  artifice,  de- 
s<rilM'd  by  Ilunilxddt,  of  the  Inc 
themselves  with  the  skins  and 


cess.  In  Janiuirj',  180i»,  there  were  nearly  :>•■' 
milhj  in  op(>ration,  with  an  a^j^fgate  of  iv:'" 
stanqis  and  oli>  arastra.««.  The  cN*t  of  machiwr- 
w;is  e.stiniate<l  at  3,270,00l>  tItdlarH.  Tlic  etnr 
receijjUs  of  gold  fn>m  California  at  the  miiil  ari 
its  branches  u|»  to  June  JJO,  lSt»2,  wa«i  .'i2-^,14-V'^i 
dollars.  The  e^timates  of  we.ll-infomn;-«i  >iaJi- 
ticians  give  alwut  20  per  cent,  additional  a*  i^^ 
amount  *«hipi»cd  direct  to  England,  Ti>taine<l  in  :l ;; 
idiaiis  disguising  ■  state  as  gold  dust,  or  manufactured,  previous  ;■■ 
bonis  of  captured    18.")7.     Since   that   time,   the  direct  shipmou:  i 


animals  till  the  herd  came  within  reach  of  th<'ir    foreign  porta  has  l)een  iioniewhat  larg»»r:  aiil  »■ 
arrows!    (Nouvelle  Kspat^nc,  ii.  2So.)    The  bison  ,  would  probably  vary  verv  little  frc»m  the  fait. ^ 


we  estimated  the  entire  yicW  of  the  Calif. -niia 
gold-mines  to  July  1,  1862^  at  6oO,OOii,0<Hj  d«>liirs 
(The  National  AlmanjM^,  iStU.) 

(it)ld  is  not  the  tmly  valuable  minerul  vickfi 
by  California.     Silver  is  known  to  exist,  and  hi' 


is  hunted  for  its  skin,  which  is  used  in  many  parts 
of  Spanish  America  as  a  iK'd  or  cariK't.  (itters 
and  beavers  are  found  in  all  the  rivers,  lakes,  and 
bays :  but  their  numlM.-rs  have  gre^itly  decreased 
since  the  countr>'  iK'gan  to  l>e  settled.     The  sea 

contains  exhaustiass  stores  of  fish.  j  been  protitably  miiic<l   in   KI    Dorailo,  Marip.'*^ 

1  tut  the  vegetable  and  animal  products  of  this  I  Santa  Barbara,  and  Santa  Clara  ci^iinties:  auiim-" 
region,  however  important,  are   reck<ined  of  but    of  the  gold  contains  a  coiKsidemble  pro|Kirti'-ii* 
little  acttount,  c<»mpan«.d  with  its  mineral  pro<hice,    silvej.     Alnnit  3,U0(MM»0  dollars  Wf>rth  lia\e  !Lil« 
particularly  with  the  gold   found  in  the  IkhIs  of   l.>een  obtJiine<l  since  the  dimxiverv  of  gohi  va  C'ali- 
sonie  of  its  rivers  an<l  ravines.     The  discovery  of   foniia.     Copper,  strongly  imprf;>gnate<i  with  ml 
thise  aurifenuis  de|K)sits  has  rendered  California  an    and  silver,  is  found  in  I'laoer,  El  I>oraiio,  ShaMi 
(►bjcct  of  universal  interest,  and  has  directed  to  i  and  other  counties.     Quicksilver  in   the  f'.-nn  • 
her  sln)res  an  unparallekvl  amount  of  emigration,  !  cinnalwir  is  largely  produced  at  tlie  New  Alnuil'^i- 
Ther<'  are  three  distinct  g(dd-regions  in  the  state,  i  Guadaloupe.  Aurora,  and  other  mines;  and  in  1>*- 
thou^h  the  first  two  are  c(»nnerted  by  outlying    aside  from  the  home  consumption,  the  exfu'r*.  -^ 
]»la(vrs  and  leads.     1st.  Thf  Kiishrrt  'l{tinp<\  vx-    that  metal  reached  the  sum  of  Ijll^ji'A  *h>]Ur\ 
tending  from  the  8umiuit--ridge  of  the  niouiiuuiis    Iron  is  found   in   large   quantities  and  vaih-^ 


CALIFORNIA 


611 


fornifl  all  alonfi;  the  coast  range ;  in  Placer 
county  in  a  aimlition  appn>aching  to  native  Iron 
in  ]mntj',  and  in  Mariposa  county  in  Uie  form  of 
hydrate.  Sulphate  of  iron  in  larj^e  quantitie8 
occurs  near  Santa  Cruz,  and  mo^etic  iron  in  the 
Mune  r^on.  Platinum  is  almost  as  widely  dis> 
periled  through  the  state  as  gold,  though  in 
smaller  quantities;  cwmium  and  iridium  fure 
Uf^ually  associated  with  it.  Tin  is  also  found  in 
several  parts  of  the  state,  and  will  pnUiably  ere 
long  be  mined  with  advantage.  Chromium, 
g\-|)sum,  nickel,  antimony,  bismuth,  sulphur,  leail, 
salt,  nitrate  of  potassa  (saltpetre),  borax,  coal  in 
large  quantities  and  of  goixl  ({uolity,  marble  of 
extraoniinan'  beauty,  alabaster,  granite,  buhr- 
stonr,  lime,  d'C.  are  the  other  princii>al  mineral 
pnnlucts  of  the  state.    Mineral  springs  abound. 

It  was  known  from  the  statements  of  the  earlier 
visitors  of  the  countn',  that  gold  liad  lx»en  founil, 
or  was  believed  to  exist,  in  California;  but  those 
statements  had  been  either  forgotten,  or  maile  no 
impression,  and  it  was  not  till  late  in  May,  (»r 
early  in  June,  1848,  that  the  auriferous  deposits 
were  discovered  that  attracted  so  much  attention, 
and  had  such  wonderful  results.  They  were  found 
on  the  S.  fork  of  the  American  river,  a  tributary 
of  the  Sacramento,  at  a  place  now  called  Coloma. 
Tlie  news  of  the  discover}'  and  of  the  unfja- 
ralU'led  richness  of  the  depJjsits  spread  with  ex- 
traonlinary  rapidity;  and  l>efore  the  end  of  the 
season  ahimt  5,000  men  liad  been  attractcil  to 
the  si)0t,  and  their  ent<'q)rise  had  been  rewardeil 
by  the  acqirisition  of  gold  worth  1,000,<KM)^ 
sterling.  During  the  following  winter  informa- 
tion of  the  diijcovery  spread  on  all  sides,  and  to  a 
great  distance;  and  in  the  season  of  1841),  immi- 
grants of  all  descriptions,  and  from  the  remotest 
countries,  including  ^\jnericans,  Mexicans,  Peru- 
vians, Chilinos,  Europeans,  South-sea  islanders, 
and  Chinese  crowde<l  in  swarms  to  the  Sacra- 
mento and  its  alHuents.  A  camp  of  at  least 
1(^000  Mexicans  is  said  to  have  been  f(»rmciL 
*  Tliey  had,'  says  an  eye-witness, '  quite  a  city  of 
tents,"  b<K»ths,  and  log  cabins ;  hotels,  restaurants 
stores,  and  shoj^s  of  all  descriptions,  furnishing 
wliatever  money  could  [jrocure.  Ice  was  brought 
fn»m  the  Sierra,  and  ice-creamf  added  to  other 
luxuries.  An  iBclosnro  niaiic  of  the  trunks  and 
branches  of  tre«t,  and  Uned  with  cotton  cloth, 
ser^•ed  as  a  sort  of  amphitheatre  for  bull-lights ; 
otlicr  amusements,  cliaracteristic  of  the  Mexicans, 
were  to  Ih»  seen  in  all  directions.'  The  foreigners 
res(»rtetl  princii>ally  to  the  S.  mines,  which  gave 
them  a  great  su])eriority  in  numerical  force  over 
the  Anirricans,  and  enabled  them  to  take  i>os- 
s<>ssion  of  some  of  the  richest  in  that  part  of  the 
country. 

Govvmment. — California  was  ce«le<l  by  Mexico 
to  tlie  I'nited  States  in  184«.  On  their  Jirrival 
in  California  the  immiynints  from  tlie  Unitetl 
StatoN  and  other  distant  countries,  found  them- 
selves in  a  singular  ])o^ition.  ITiere  were  very 
few  inhabitants,  and  no  govenmient  or  police  in 
the  countrA';  and  the  immigrants  were  t<4ally 
unac(|uainted  witli  the  Sj>anish  laws,  by  whiih 
tlie  proiHirty  and  affairs  of  the  settlers  had 
hitherto  been  regulatetU  In  consequence,  tlie 
greatest  confusion  and  dL*order  t<K)k  j>lace.  The 
e(»ngrefvs  of  the  United  States  sjmui  became  aware 
of  this  untoward  state  of  things,  and  of  the  ini- 
portance  of  the  vaj*t  addition  matle  to  its  terri- 
tory. Hut  the  efforts^  of  the  government  to 
or^'anu»e  the  country  into  a  new  state,  or  to 
subject  it  to  a  constitutional  regimen,  were  ob- 
stnic;ted  at  the  outset  by  the  formidable  ditticulty 
<if  diciiling  whether  slaver>'  should  or  sliould  not 
be  allowed  iu  the  new  state ;  and  the  disinclina- 


tion or  inability  of  Congress  to  decide  this  ques- 
tion j)revented'  the  admutiiion  of  California  into 
the  Lni(m  either  as  a  state  or  a  territory'. 

In  this  dilemma  the  Ameriains  in  the  country 
displayed  their  singular  capacity  for  self-govern- 
ment, by  promptly  and  unanimously  adopting  tho 
manly  and  safe  course  of  forming  themselves  into 
a  state.  In  June,  1849,  representatives  were  chosen 
in  all  parts  of  the  territory  to  meet  for  the  pur- 
pose of  forming  a  constitution.  The  new  state 
was  admitu>d  into  the  Union  hi  18o0,  and  Sacra- 
mento declaretl  to  be  its  capital.  By  the  terms 
of  the  state  constitution,  the  legislature  of  Cali- 
fornia consists  of  the  senate  and  assembly,  and 
convenes  annually  at  Sacramento  on  the  first 
Monday  hi  January*,  llie  senate  Is  comi><»se<l  of 
forty  nieml)ers,  chosen  from  twenty-eight  sena- 
torial <Ustricts,  and  the  term  of  office  is  two 
years.  The  lieutenant-governor  is  ex-officio  pre- 
sident of  tile  senate.  The  assembly  is  compttsed 
of  eighty  memlK>rs,  elected  annually,  and  the  pre- 
siding officer  is  ch«»sen  from  tlieir  own  Isxly. 
The  pay  <»f  the  members  fif  the  legislature  is,  Ua 
the  first  ninety  days  of  the  session,  ten  dollars  |>er 
dav,  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  session  tivo 
di>llars  i>er  day,  and  mileage  at  the  rate  of  four 
dollars  tor  ever>'  twenty  miles  of  travel  from  their 
residence  by  the  neareitt  mail-route  to  the  capitaL 

The  constitutional  amendments  provide  for 
biennial  sessiioiis,  to  commence  on  the  first  Mon- 
day in  December,  MeralMsrs  of  the  asK'inbly  are 
to  be  chosen  for  two  years,  and  senators  for  four 
years. 

Rfventte  and  ETpenditure, — Tlie  subjoinwl  table 
shows  the  receipts  and  ex)ienditureM  of  Calif(»mi^ 
for  thirteen  years,  fn>m  l8oU  to  18G2,  to  the  3O1I4 
of  June,  each  year: — 


TMn 


I       Kec«lpti       I  F.xpi>n«lUum 


IftM 
ISAl 
1H.V2 

lsr.3 

1S.U 

is.-»« 

lK.->7 
lKr.8 

IWIO 


Totals 


DolUn 

3,15fi 

33<»,79jJ 

3«6.S-ir> 

4/i4,y8« 

1  ,iy*'2M7 

1,1W,.W7 

7W,l»90 

79».:9.'i 

^,2\r,,\'29 

1,1  ft  1. 222 

1.11>K,.V2 

1,21W,719 

l,o:U,Ji29 

10,77»,2ia 


Ex(x««»  of  Expenditures  over  Receipts  \ 
for  13  Years        ,        .        .       .        i 


Dollar* 
aril  ,li'2-2 
742.272 
1,020.23S» 
l,4.Vi,Slft 
l,4f«».2(;5 
1,471,9;J7 
l.(«2.7G.'> 
l,(»18.20:t 

1,109,14:1 
l,liW,71H 
l,4«2,«9l 
1,14(;,746 

ir..ft<JO,4«8 
10,779,21a 


4,281,2Wi 


C)bjects  of  expenditure  for  thirtwMi  years,  from 
isr>0  to  18r>*2  inclusiive,  hhowing  ai^^pegates  ft>r 
that  i)eriod  for  each  cla^s  :— 


Exccwtive 

Logi-'lttture     . 

Jiulii'iary 

rriniing 

Schools  .... 

Hospitals 

Indi^Miit  Sick 

Int>ane  Asylum 

State  PriK>n  . 

Indian  Wars  . 

Inten-i't  Stote  Debt 

BondH  i)aid 

■Reliff  purpr>scs 

Miscellant-ous 

Total  for  13  Years 


Dollan 
1.22:J,42.'» 
;{.2;J7.lo;'. 

l:y>:i,r.'2ti 

1 .27(».7::i» 

.'>4li,<HM) 

b'MiM>'2 
s:.,iio 

82.>.2»;i> 
1,-'>4(MI4 

lCM,:.9o 
J,79:{.«29 

97s. SI.') 

344.tii4S 
1.0JS,M»7 

irsO«;4).4(;8 
B  k2 


612 


CALIFORNIA 


Tlic  total  debt  of  the  stntc,  funded  and  iin- 
fuinU'il,  nmoiintpil  to  .'>,.'»<>J».2H.")  dollars  on  the  1st 
of  January,  [XiVX  The  greater  lart  of  this  doht 
ron>i}»ted  of  oM italic  108  kn(»wn  as  *  Dondsof  1H57.' 
to  the  amount  of  .'i.7*27,on()  dollarn,  the  whole*  of 
>vhiih  sum  wuk  Hix-nt  ii)x>n  luirbourH,  canahi,  and 
other  M'orkM  (if  puulic  utility. 

VahntiuH  and  Tar»tion'—\n  1H<»2  the  aswsMHl 
vahu"  of  th«*  n-al  and  jwrsonal  j»r«»|M'rty  of  (.'ali- 
foriiia  f«»r  |»uqM»?*o.«<  of  taxation  was  1(n»,:)09.071 
(lollnrs.  On  tliLs  ihc-re  was  asMVssfd  ftir  state  us<'S 
a  tax  of  ()'2  <-<>nts  on  the  hundn'd  dollars,  amount- 
in«r  t«»  iUM.'Jl''^  dollars:  of  which  there  had  lioen 
rolltH'ted  to  he<inilKTof  that  year  11 '2,:»H'.» dollars. 
F(»r  the  ])uriNN<e  of  raising  (in  {lart)  the  slate 
<|Uota  of  the  I'nitefl  States  dinrt  tax.  a  pr«»- 
|»erty  tax  of  l.'»  n-nts  on  the  hundnnl  dollars  w.is 
a-soM^l,  amounting  to  24n..V»i{  dollars:  also  for 
the  same  punxise  a  )N)ll-tax  of  two  didlars  t»n  eaeh 
taxable  )M>li  (estimated  to  numlxT  i:i(),OOU), 
making'  l><;o,<HKl  dollars. 

The  stale  ownetl,  in  l«r.2,  in  all  K.K07,G80  acres 
of  lands  under  the  following  grants: — 

Aerot 

Crant  of  fV'ho^il  Lnnds  .        .       fi.T.'i.'i.'jno 

.,         swniiip  Lanils  .        l..Vx».«»oO 

Inti'mfll  ImpruvcnK'nt       Wm».ihK) 

K-nilnnrv         .  4«,OhO 

Tublio  Uuiiaint»     .  C.40t) 


Total 


7,fi07,6H0 


A  portion  of  this  lamU  |K>sH<»ssed  by  the  state, 
has  iM'irrime  extremely  valuable  by  the  dis«>ver>' 
«»f  new  mines. 

linilway*  and  Canah. — The  state  has  thn'e  rail- 
r»)a«is.  viz.  1.  The  Ctilifomia  Central,  4.S.8  m.  in 
lenf^Lh  :  the  cost  of  this  road  ami  etpiipment  is 
state<l  at  l.iMio.UiM)  dollars.  2.  The  Saeromento 
Valley,  22..^  m.  in  length.  3.  The  L.is  Marii^osas 
a  railway  JJ.7m.  in  length,  eonstrueted  bvtieneral 
Fninont  on  his  mining  ]»ro|KTty  at  Manposa.and 
is  remarkable  for  the  skill  with  which  it  has  over- 
come serious  engineering  ditliculties.  There  an* 
no  state  canals:  but  the  canals  constructed  by 
private  e<»m}ianit»»  for  jmqKJses  <»f  mining  and 
navigation  an*  of  extraonlinary  extent.  In  IHjJ) 
X\\vx\'  were  0,72(1  miles  of  artificial  water-courses 
<'onstruoted  for  mining-purposes,  at  a  cost  of 
];{,o7-l,100  dollars.  A  single  county  (Kl  Dorado) 
had  l,iO()  miles  of  these  canals.  These  are  inde- 
]>endent  of  iuju«Hlucts  for  the  Hup})ly  of  water  to 
four  or  five  of  the  larger  towns.  They  have  nearly 
or  quite  double<l  Kin<*e  that  tinie. 

Steamers  make  the  pashage  from  New  York 
and  New  Orleans  to  (.'hagn-s,  resi)ectively.  in 
ulM)ut  seven  and  four  days;  and  alh>wing  three 
davs  for  the  conveyance  of  freight  across  the 
I.-thnuis,  and  ti-n  <laVs  for  the  voyage  from  Pa- 
nama to  San  Francis<-o,  the  passage  fn»m  New 
Yt)rk  to  the  latter  is  maile  in  twentv,  ami  fnmi 
New  <)rleans  in  s4*venteen  days.  'Hi is  facility  of 
romnmnicati(»n  is  of  no  less  imjiortance  to  the 
Atlantic  states  of  the  I'nion  than  to  California. 

Jlistorti. — Califomia  was  discovered  by  (.'abrillo, 
a  SivanianU  iu  loi-'.  At  a  later  \wn(H\,  or  in 
ir»7«,  Sir  Francis  Drake  saiknl  along  its  shores, 
.rolonging  his  voyage  to  the  -l^th  deg.  <»f  lat. 
_''n»m  this  <irciimsian<*e,  the  name  (»f  Niw  Albion 
1i:ls  sometimes  Ikm-ii  given  t«>  the  country  N.  of 
San  Francis»'o:  tluuigh.  as  Ilumlxddt  states,  this 
designation,  if  empl«>ye<I  at  all,  shoulil  Ik*  restricted 
to  the  c(umtrv  extending  from  the  -J.'Jnl  (the  N. 
limit  of  CabriUo's  voyage)  to  the  IHth  A^f:.  of  lat. 
(N.  Ks|»agiie,  ii.  27:1.)  It  was  not  colonised  by 
the  Sjianiarils  till  17«»8.  The  latter  founded  esta- 
blishments in  various  parts  of  the  countrj-  under 
the  names  of  Pnmliot  and  Miatkma ;  the  former 


1 


CALLEXDER 

1)eing  militark'  po8tM,  aiid  the  latter  n  s<«rt  of  Miiii- 
religious  foundations  under  the  giiiilancc  of  tb^ 
Francisi'-an  friars  Like  the  Je^uitis  lhe:M:  failKiv 
exerted  themselves  to  instruct  the  Indians  in  Ibe 
art  of  husliandry,  and  ap])arently  their  efforts  vrt^ 
crowned  with  sncceK!*.  Bnt  here,  na  in  other  |4urtv 
the  ci\ilisation  of  the  Indinns  apfKrara  to  Lave 
been  wholly  forced  and  factitiou!«;  aud  when  ili« 
missions  were  desert e*l  bv  the  friar>i  the  oativest 
rela|ised  into  their  original  burl»ari«>ni.  Their 
nundK>nt  bave  since  rapidly  ilei*lineii :  and  it  \a 
pr(»liable  that  at  no  distant  {lerifKl  the  race  will  l« 
entirely  extirpated.  The  ^Viiu-ricnnrt  seem  gcne- 
ndly  to  reganl  them  aa  a  i«»rt  of  ffrit  M/iiura. 
or  at  best  as  irre.c.aiinable  Uorbariaiis  w*ithout  tbt 
IMile  <»f  humanilv. 

In  18;u»,  Caliiitrnia  l>egan  t^  lie  resorted  to  by 
American  and  Knglish  hunters  and  other  a'i\-en- 
turer>%:  who  S4»«n  Uv^"  to  thuik  of  emanoipiitiD}; 
themselves  from  the  feeble  dominion  of  Mexii-o. 
The  latter  was  overthrown  in  IKJO.  Sul»:^^neutly 
the  countr>' bei'-ame a  pn*y  toaIls4jrt.s  of  dis-mler'': 
adventuren)  fnmi  the  Tiiitcd  State*  and  Mexir»» 
alteniately  getting  the  ascendancy.  At  length  a 
war  bn>ke  out  in  lJS4t'i  betwciMi  the  L'niicil  .*^idt** 
and  Mexico ;  and  the  latter,  havinj;^  U*en  defeated 
at  all  piiinta,  tiuallv  ceded  Califomia  to  the  IToiiia 
in  IMH. 

('ALLAH  (EL),  a  town  of  Barifar\',  reg.  Algiers, 
on  a  mountain,  and  surrounded  by  r.tniiiieatii.id 
of  the  Atlas,  15  m.  NK.  Mosoara.*  It  Is  a  dirty 
ami  ill-4rontrive<l  town,  having?  neither  druus. 
pavement  nor  causeways.  It  has  a  citadel,  ami 
a  large  manufactory  of'  earfiets  ami  ituruvisis.  ic 
wtNillen  cloaks.  Several  villag<eh  in  the  neigh- 
iKiurlHHKl  an*  engagc^l  in  the  same  empbiyuHat. 
Dr.  Shaw  thinks  that  it  may  luive  been  the  Uitini 
or  J-/ w/Jic  of  Ptolemy. 

(\U*LAN,  an  inl.'  town  of  Irel.ind,  ct>.  Kilkirniiy. 
pn»v.  U>iuster,  on  the  King's  Kivcr,  an  afHutnriif 
the  Nore,  72  m.  SW.  by  S.  Dublin.     Pop.  S-ivJl 
in  lt«t;i,  the  great  majority  of  whom  are  K.  Caih«»- 
lics.     Tlie  town  was  anciently  walli'<i  anil  a  plai-e 
of  considerable  stnmgth :  but  was  stormed  ami  di^ 
mantle<l  by  Cn»mwell  in  Itl.^H).     The  streets  fiinn 
a  cross,  with  lanes  branching  from  them,  and  tth? 
])ons(>s  are,  in  general,  ver\'  indifferent.  The  parish 
chun'h  was  anciently  a  monastic   bulMiri;:  the 
Ikoman  Catholic  cha|)el  is  modern.     There  L*  al^> 
an  Augustine  friary-,  with  a  lar;ge  cha]iel,  a  r.a- 
tii»nal  M'h(K)l,  a  dis|)ensary,  and  a  loan  fnuiL    A 
IMiny  of  the  eonstabular>* ia  stationed  here.    The 
cor]»oration,  which  consists  of  a   aover^'ign,  Imr- 
gesses.  ami  freejnen,  n>tunied  two  mem.  to  the 
Irish  1 1,  of  C.  till  the  Union,  when  it  wa«  dii^- 
franchisetL     The  lilierties  extend  to  a  ^.smsider- 
able  distance  rrmnd  the  tovnu    The  onlv  trade  is 
in  grain.    Markets  are  hehl  in  a  amall  market- 
house,  on  Tues<lay8  and  Saturdays;  and  for  piu.% 
on  evcrj*  Monday  fmm  .lanuary  to  Ma>-.     Fair* 
are  held  on  4th'May,  l.'kh  Juiie.  D)th  .fuly,  "JJ-t 
August,  10th  October,  'Jtli  November,  and  14ih 
l)ecemlK'r, 

CALLiCNDEK,  a  village  of  Scotland,  co.  Pcrtlu 
valley  of  Menteith,l>eautifnlly  situated  «>n  thelifi 
l»ank  of  the  Teith,  1(5  m.  N  W.'Stirling,  on  a  branch 
tif  the  Scottish  Central  niihvay.  Pojj.  HH\  in  IjhW. 
The  village  mav  Ik>  n'gardeil'as  the  threshold  of 
the  Highlands  m  thin  quarter,  and  is  surroundod 
on  all  sides  except  the  S.  by  stui^endous'  mimn- 
tains,  forming  i>art  of  the  (rraninions;  Itenlrii 
the  highest  and  most  striking,  being,  l^.^nyj  ft. 
alM)ve  the  level  of  the  si'a.  Pop.  1.200.  (•.-itlif 
and  Knglish  arc  both  s{)oken,  and  the  Highlauii 
dress  is  partially  worn.  A  classical  intcivst  \\as 
t>een  imparted  to  thia  town,  and  to  the  dii*tri'-t 
with  which  it  ia  connected,  by  Sir  Walter  Scut'^ 


CALL.^0 

poem  of  *  The  Ij&dy  of  the  Lake'  r..och  Katherine 
ami  the  TmsachR  ('  bris'.led  country'),  8o  celebrated 
ill  that  poem,  lie  10  m.  W.  from  Callander.  The 
actiWty  and  prosperity  which  mark  this  neat  little 
village  are  chiefly  ascribable  to  the  advanta^j^A  it 
dcrivt-s  from  lying  in  the  line  of  the  great  thoniugh- 
fan>  leading  to  these  romantic  scenes.  The  \'illage 
Lh  built  on  feus^  or  building  leases,  holding  of  the 
noble  family  of  Perth,  to  each  of  which  is  attached 
an  acre  or  more  of  ground,  so  that  each  family 
ha.-*  a  source  of  em)>loyment  within  itself,  almost 
peculiar  to  ('allander.*  The  only  public  build- 
ing in  the  town  is  the  parish  church,  a  modem 
oditice,  with  a  satire.    It  has  also  an  efficient  parish 

8Ch(M)l. 

C'ALLAO,  a  aea-jvort  town  of  Peru,  about  6  m. 
W.  fnjm  Lima,  of  which  it  is  the  port,  on  the  N. 
side  of  a  projecting  tongue  of  land,  opposite  to  the 
burren  island  of  San  I^)renzo,  which  protects  the 
W.  si(!e  of  its  bay;  lat.  12°  3'  45"  S.,  long.  77°  4' 
10"  W.  The  houses  in  the  town  are  mean  and 
poor,  M-ith  mud  walls  and  flat  roofs.  It  is  well 
fortified.  The  roadstead  is  by  far  the  best  on  the 
Peruvian  coast,  with  gmnl  anchorage  in  from  7  to 
10  fathoms.  There  \»  a  rudely  constructed  pier, 
within  which  vessels  of  large  bunien  may  load  and 
unload.  There  is  a  verj'  good  carriage  road  from 
Callno  to  Lima.  The  present  town  is  of  com- 
paratively modem  origin;  the  former  town  having 
oeen  wholly  destroyed  and  submerged  in  a  dread- 
ful earthquake  that  occurred  in  1 740,  wliich  also 
destroyed  great  part  of  Lima.  In  calm  weather 
the  ruins  of  the  old  town  are  still  visible  under 
the  water  at  a  short  distance  fn)m  the  [>resent 
town.  In  November,  1«20,  Lord  Coclirane  cut 
out  tlic  Ksmeralda,  a  large  Spanish  ship  of  war, 
from  under  the  ginis  of  the  castles  of  Callao. 
These  surrendered  to  the  Independents  in  the 
course  c»f  the  following  vear. 

(WLLK  (LA),  or  KL  CALLAH,  a  town  of  Al- 
geria, prov.  Constantine.  Pop.  1,200  in  1861.  The 
town  contains  a  factorj'  founded  by  the  French  Afri- 
can (umjiany.  It  stands  on  a  peniusulated  rock 
nearly  surrounded  by  the  sea.  This  was  formerly 
the  principal  seat  of  the  coral  tisherv  carrie<l  on 
along  the  liarbary  coast.  It  was  nearfy  destroyed 
by  the  vVlgerines  in  1827. 

CALLIANEE,  an  inl.  town  of  Ilindostan.  prov. 
Aurungabad,  presid.  Bomlmv,  24  m.  NE.  that  citv; 
lat.  190  15'  X.,  long.  730  15'  E.  It  is  the  cap.  of 
a  di^tr.  of  the  same  name,  and  stands  on  the  S. 
bank  of  the  Cailas  river,  surrounded  by  mins :  it 
is,  however,  populous,  and  carries  on  some  tra<le  in 
cocoa-nuts,  oil,  coarse  cloths,  brass,  and  earthen- 
ware. It  sustained  many  sieges  during  the  wars 
between  the  Moguls  and  Mahrattas.  Thedi^trict 
of  Callianee  is  a  strong  hilly  country  extending 
along  the  sea-coast,  opposite  the  islands  of  Ik)mbay, 
Salsette,  A'c  Inmnded  E.  by  the  W.  (ihauts.  and 
containing  the  towns  of  liassein,  Panwell,  Chowl, 
Kajai>oor,  &c. :  its  towns  are  large  and  tolerably 
well  ]>eopled;  but  its  villages  small,  meanly  built, 
and  thinly  scattered. 

CALLIXGTON,  a  town  and  par.  of  England, 
CO.  Com  wall,  middle  div.,  E.  hund.  Area  of  par. 
2,000  acres.  Po|).  of  do.,  2,202  in  IHOl.  The  town, 
in  a  low  and  unpleas;int  situation,  Ls  7  m.  SSW. 
Tavi.stock.  It  was  made  a  l>or.  in  the  27th  of 
Elizabeth,  and  n'tume<l  two  mem.  to  the  II.  of 
C.  fn»m  that  peri«Hl  down  to  the  juissin^  of  the 
IJcform  Act,  when  it  was  di^f ranch  Lied.  1  he  right 
of  election  was  in  the  owners  of  burgage  tenures 
p]iving  scot  and  lot. 

I'ALLOSA  I)E  EXSAKUIA,  a  town  of  S[»ain, 
pn>v.  Alicante,  18  m.  SSW.  Denia.  Pop.  3,900  in 
1«57.  The  town  stands  near  the  confluence  of 
the    Gaudalest  and    Algar,  in    a    mountainous 


CALNE 


613 


country  that  prodnces  fine  raisins,  and  excellent 
wine,  almonds,  and  fmit, 

CALLOSA  DE  SE(iURA,  a  town  of  Sjvain, 
prov.  Alicante,  four  m.  E.  Orihuela,  on  the  river 
Segura.  Pop.  8,876  in  1857.  Charcoal,  known 
by  the  name  of  granizoy  is  here  manufactured 
from  the  stalks  of  hemp ;  it  is  Mud  to  be  superior 
to  any  other  for  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder, 
and  L*  chiefly  used  in  the  preparation  of  that  made 
for  the  Spanish  artillery. 

CALMAR,  or  KAL^IAK,  a  se-a-port  town  of 
Sweden,  cap.  prefecture  of  same  name,  on  the  W. 
side  of  the  narrow  strait  of  the  Tkiltic,  scfmrating 
the  \s\and  of  (Eland  from  the  continent,  90  m. 
NEE.  of  CarLscrona;  lat.  6OO  40'  30"  N.,  long.  lO^ 
20*  15"  E.  Pop.  15,951  in  1800.  The  town  stands 
on  the  small  island  of  Quamholm,  which  commu- 
nicates with  the  mainland,  where  there  is  a  sub- 
urb, by  a  bridge  of  boats.  It  is  built  of  wood,  and 
is  strongly  fortified.  The  castle,  in  the  subnri), 
formerly  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  keys  of  the 
kingdom,  is  now  occupied  as  a  house  of  correction. 
Calmar  is  the  seat  of  a  bisho[)ric,  and  has  an  aca- 
demy and  a  dockyard.  The  cathedral  is  a  fine 
stone  building ;  and  the  mansion  of  the  prefect,  the 
trmii-hall,  and  some  other  public  edifices,  are  of 
the  same  enduring  material.  Its  port  is  small,  but 
safe  and  commodious.  Tliere  are  manufactures  of 
woollen  stuffs,  tobacco,  and  potash.  Previously 
to  the  annexation  of  the  provinces  of  Schonen  and 
Blekingen  to  Sweden,  this  town  was  of  much 
greater  consequence  than  at  present.  Its  impor- 
tance as  a  fortress  has  declined  ;  and  its  commerce^ 
which  was  formerly  very  considerable,  has  been 
mostly  transferred ' to  Stockholm;  but  timber^ 
alum,  tar,  and  hemp,  are  still  exported. 

This  is  a  very  old  town.  Having  been  burnt 
down  in  1047,  it  was  rebuilt  on  the  island  of  Quam- 
holm, being  previously  situated  on  the  mainland^ 
where  it«  suburb  now  stands.  It  has  been  the 
scene  of  some  very  important  events  in  Swedish 
history.  Here,  in  1397,  was  concluded  the  famous 
treaty  which  united  the  kingdoms  of  Sweden, 
Denmark,  and  Norway,  under  the  vigorous  sceptre 
of  (jueen  l^Iargarct,  sumamed  the  Northern  Semi- 
ramis.  But  in  it^  consequences  this  treaty  waa 
very  niinous  to  Swe<len.  ilere  also,  in  1520,  Gua- 
tavus  Vasa  diseml>arkeil  to  deliver  his  country 
from  the  domination  of  foreigners  and  of  a  san- 
^uinar>'  tyrant,  Louis  XVIII.  resided  at  Calmar 
m  1804,  and  erected  at  Stensa;  a  tablet  in  honour 
of  (lustavus.  In  1800  a  fire  destroyed  a  great 
numl>er  of  the  houses,  with  the  buildings  of  the 
academv. 

CALS'E,  a  pari,  bor.,  market  town,  and  par.  of 
England,  co.  \Viltj«,  hund.  Calne,  89  m.  W.  from 
I^nidon  by  road,  and  99  m.  by  Great  Westem  rail- 
way. Pop.  of  parliament,  bor.  5,179,  and  munic. 
bor.  2,494  in  1801.     The  Iwrough  formerly  com- 

firised  885  acres ;  but  the  Hountlar^-  Act  made  the 
imits  of  the  pari.  bor.  coincident  with  those  of  the 
[>ar.  The  town,  which  amsists  chiefly  of  one  htng 
street,  is  well  built,  with  stone  houses,  and  is  well 
paved  and  lighted  with  gas.  The  church,  a  largo 
ancient  structure,  has  a  tower  by  Inigo  Jones; 
and  there  are  variotu)  dissenting  chapels.  The 
town-hall  was  erected  at  the  expense  of  the  Mar- 
quis of  Lansdowne.  The  gramuuir-school,  foundcl 
in  1000,  has  two  exhibitions  to  Queen's  C-4>llege, 
<  )xfonl ;  aufl  there  are  Hritish  and  national  schools, 
Sunday  schools,  lliere  arc  flax  and  water  mills. 
A  branch  of  the  Wilts  and  Berks  canal  communi- 
cates with  the  town,  and,  ti^ther  with  the  rail- 
way, much  facilitates  it^  trade. 

Calne  is  a  bor.  by  prescription :  it  began  to  send 
mem.  to  the  II.  of  C.  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  ; 
and  regularly  sent  2  mem.  from  tlie  reign  of 


614 


CALVADOS 


Kichard  IT.  down  to  tho  pas-^iri;^  of  the  Roform  Aof, 
w!ii<'li  (loi«rivcil  it  of  one  of  iis  mem.,  ami  at  tlio 
Kinu'  tiiin*  I'Xtt'iideil  tlio  limits  of  the  intr.  as  Htated 
nlK»vo.  l*ri'vioii>ly  to  tlio  Kt'fomi  Act  the  riirlitof 
votitii;  wrts  in  tlie  l>ur^esM*s,  wlio  mi!L?ht  he  indo- 
Iniitrly  iiuTensod.  lIe;^i.stenHhdectors  181  in  I«G1. 
JJow<»od,  tho  ina.i^niticrnt  fK.'at  of  the  Mjir(|iiis  of 
Lans<lown<%  lies  ahout  IJ  m.  W.  from  tlie  town. 

CAIA- ADOS,  a  di'p.  of  Frame,  so  called  from  n 
chain  of  r«H.'k.s  of  that  name  that  stretx'hes  alonj? 
]iart  of  its  coiu'^t,  houmled  X.  hy  the  Knj^li.sli 
(hainieU  10.  hy  the  <lei>.  Kure,  S.  hy  Orne.  an<l  \V. 
hy  that  of  I^a  Manelie.  Area  .0.'»i'»,();»;i  hectares. 
I'op.  1HU.!H>2  in  lMJ;i.  Surface  mostly  Hat,  the 
only  hills  of  any  const^juenoe  Immuj^  in  the  arrond. 
of  Vire.  in  the  S\V.  corner  of  the  <le'|».  Soil  <if  the 
j»lain.«*  »'om|H)sed  prin«*ipally  of  calcareous  clay:  the 
}<oil  of  tin?  valleys,  of  which  there  are  several  »»f 
hir^e  extent,  is  principally  alluvial,  and  that  of 
the  hilly  pans  sandy.  Minerals  unimportant,  with 
the  exception  <»f  coal,  of  whi<'h  alxait  JMO  (piint. 
(met.)  are  ainnially  produced  at  LittPk'.  (.'liniatc 
nit  her  c<»ld  and  moist.  There  an*  sevenil  rivers, 
hut  none  of  them  is  navi^ahle  for  any  considerahle 
extent  inland,  (.-oasts  inmost  parts  inaccessible; 
and  the  dep.  has  no  pMwl  harltour.  l*astura;;e  is 
more  attended  to  than  tilla«;e;  hnt  the  latter  is  in 
a  more  wlvanced  state  than  in  most  other  depart- 
nitiiis.  The  average  produce  of  wheat  is  estimated 
at  ahout  1.1()0,(M)()  hect. ;  and  that  of  iMirley,  (»ats, 
r\e.  and  buckwheat  may  he  taken  at  alxait  as 
nnich  more.  Apples  are  lar^rely  cultivated,  and 
I'ider  is  the  common  lM'vera;;e  of  the  country.  The 
(K»tato  culture  has  re(.'ently  iK'en  much  exten<led. 
Dxen  hut  little  used  in  lield  labour.  Meadows 
very  extensive,  extending  over  alwjut  123,(MM)  het'- 
lan's,  and  their  luaiuif^emenl  well  understo«Kl.  In 
Mie  valleys,  larp.'  henls  of  cattle  are  fattened  for 
».h('  markets  of  I'aris,  I{onen,  and  (,'aen.  They  arc 
'M»u;xht  h-an  in  the  departments  of  Finisterre, 
(.V)te.--du-Nonl,  Sarthe,  and  Mavenne.  The  ihiirv 
is  also  an  object  of  much  attention;  and  hir^e 
plant ities  of  suiwrior  butter  and  che<'s<>  are  pro- 
duced. Total  stock  of  cattle  estimated  at  100,000 
head.  The  hordes  of  this  part  of  Nonnanily  are 
reckoned  th<^  linest  in  France:  stock  estimat'Cd  at 
Ht),ooo,  exclusive  of  1*2,000  mules  and  asses.  Sheep 
have  been  vastly  improvetl  (hiring  the  pri\se.nt 
century.  Annual  produce  of  w<Md  ijlO,000  kiloj^. 
(ireat  numlnTs  of  ho^s  are  fattened.  The  fon*sts 
i'over  nearly  4(»,OliO  hectares.  The  lace  manufac- 
tory is  widely  diftu.se<l,  particularly  alMnit  <!aen  ; 
and  the  spinning  and  weavin<;  of  cotton  and  wool 
occupy  a  ^n?at  number  of  hands  ;  there  are,  also, 
paiH^r-milb',  oil-mills,  tanneries,  rellneries  of  beet- 
root and  foreif^n  su^ar  with  distilleries.  The 
mackerel  and  herring  tisherj'  is  successfully  carried 
on  along  the  coasts  Th<;  <le'p.  is  <livided  into  7 
arrond.  rrinc^ipal  towns,  Caen,  Lisieux,  IJayeux, 
Falaise,  Ilontieur,  and  Vire. 

CALVl.  a  sea-port  town  of  Corsica,  XW.  coast 
of  tlu'  island,  on  an  elevatitd  |K'nin^ula  in  the 
p:ulf  «»f  the  same  name;  lat.  ['2P  IVV  7"  X..  lou;^. 
hO  l.V  HI"  K.  iN.p.  2.(m;1)  in  18«;i.  The  town  has 
a  j^ood  harboirr  and  n).Hil;  but  derives  its  principal 
ronseipience  from  its  strong  citadel.  Hanked  with 
live  bastions,  it  was  takttn  by  the  Knglish  in 
17i'l.  but  not  till  after  a  siege  of  ol  days. 

CAMAIKUJIC  (LA),  a  river  island  of  France, 
dep.  l><mches-(Ui-Khone,  being,  in  fact,  the  delta 
of  the  Khone.  It  is  of  a  triangular  form,  and  ex- 
tends from  Aries  to  the  sea ;  having  IC.  tin;  Great 
iChoue.  (»r  main  branch  (»f  the  river,  N.and  W.  the 
Little  IJhone,  and  S.  the  sea.  It  is  (piite  tlat,  and 
is  >u]ipoM'd  t(»  contain  about  .^)').00o  hectares,  of 
whi<h  about  12,ooo,  lying  principally  along  the 
river,  aru  oultivatcd ;  the  rest  cuiusi^ta  of  lagoons, 


CAMBAY 

marshe*«,  and  wa.««tcj*.     The  la^jjoon**,  particularly 
that   of  Vulcaris,  arc  verv  cxtcn>iv-e:    thev  are 
mostly  situatctl  in  the  centre  «»f  the  L^IajiiI  and 
along  the  sea  coast,  where  the  grounti  L-*  lovrv'sq;. 
Except  in  certain  districts,  where  ^an<l  predi^iui- 
nate.s,  the  soil  is,  in  general,  very  ffrtile.     The 
cultivateii  [M>rtiou  j)nHhice8    excellent   cmps  *4 
wheat  and  barley;  and  the  marsho?(  and  «ithtr 
grounds  feeil  large  tlo<'ks  of  sheep  during  winter, 
with  great  numbers  of  cattle  ainl  hors^a.     The 
latter  have  many  j)roperties  of  the  Arab  ht»rs^, 
and  are  hanly,  and  highly  e.-^teemed  for  the  saiMlc, 
The  oxen  are  a  NUiall  breciU  but  strt»nj^  and  active; 
and  Ijcing  bred  up  in  a  state  of  the  ino$>t  [icrfeot 
fn»edom,  are  ver\'  wild.     C<>nsiderahli*  tract'*  are 
covtin^d  with  a  salt  ciHortt*cence,  a  c*^»n !!*e«|U€nce  of 
the  sul»M>il  consisting  of  sea  sand.     The  inr-rmci'ii'^ 
intluence  of  thLs  salt  impregnation  is  in  tximo  parts 
counteractetl  by  inundatiu^^  the  country'  with  the 
wat«'rs  «»f  the  Khone.     A  gcKxI  de^l  of  salt  i>  }ir>- 
duced.     It  is  pr»»iHisiHl  to  attempt  the  draiuagi-  of 
the  lag(K)n  an<l  marshes,  by  cutfin*^  a  canal  for 
that  ]>ur|K>se.   In  summer  the  air  ij»  very  unhealthy. 
CAMHAY,  a  marit.  to^-n  of  Uindf>t%tan,  pn>v. 
Gujerat,  in  the  (iuicowar's  dom.,  formerly  a  <>J<^ 
bnited  and  nourishing  sea-|K»rt,  but   nJw  nnicb 
decayed,  through  the  tilling  up  of  the  l»ay,  at  the 
head  i>f  which  it  stands,  by  the  «lciM«(sit"s  bnuight 
down  by  the  rivers.    It  is  t'i  m.  NN  W.  Sui^it.  '*"*i 
m.  X.  li<»mbay.    P«)p.  alx>ut  10,l)f>«»,  almost  equally 
divide<l  Iwtween  ]lin(hN)s and  Midiammeilans.   Va- 
rious Hindoo  and  Mohammedan  cditices  an":  >>till 
t<>  be  rte<'n,  amongst  which  w  a  very  beautiful 
mosque,  cl(»sc  to  the  nawaub's  residence  :  its  main 
court  contains  3G0  pillars  of  a  hai]«b4«^me  red  sand- 
stone, the  material  tor  which  was  bn>nght,  it  i.-* 
said,  from  Cutch.    There  arc  also  the  reinaiis-'*^ 
a  subterranean  t«'mple,  saiil  hy  some  tft  l>e  of  Jaiiu 
but  believed  by  others  to  l>e  of  Buddhic  origin  :  it 
consists  of  two  chamlK?rs  one  over  the  other,  an-l 
about  20  ft.  sq.     In  the  lower  ohamlK*r  three  >hlfi 
are  occupied  by  empty  niohea;  in  the  fuunh  thert 
is  a  double  row  of  white  marble  idoK  havhi^  in 
their  centre  a  gigimtic  id(d  7  or  «  ft.  high:  tticv 
an>  all  aUke,  with  a  mild  asjKMJt,  the  legs  4.ti«s.m?»1 
ami  a  httos  tlower  on  the  sole  of  the  fo«»t.     In  tl;e 
upiKT  room  the  ligures  are  similar,  and  in  <»i.c 
comer  there  is  a  black  marble  idol  of  the  san.e 
size  and  ap|>e,aranco  as  the  one  beneath  ;  none  *•( 
the  other  ligures  here  are  more  than  '2  f\.  hi^'h. 
Many  emigrants  from  Persia  formerly  settli-tl  hirx-, 
after  the  civil  wars  in  that  country  and  couqm-"»t5 
of  Xadir  Shah;  and  it  has  still*  thirty  or  forty 
Par>ee  families.     The  silversmiths  here   emLy*^-* 
very  neatly,  by  tilling  the  articles  to  be  oiR-ratr-l 
on  with  gum  lac,  and  then  punching  the  tignn^ 
with  a  small  chisel;  but  the  chief  industry- c»msL-t:« 
in  the  manufacture  of  Ci»mcUan,  bbKnistoiie, aga:^, 
A'c.  <»niament,s.     These  stones,  when  intemledf'f 
beads,  are  chipped  into  a  numdish   tigure,  ainl 
afterwards  rolled    together  in    l>ags   f«>r    sev«nil 
weeks,  till  they  become  jH*rfectly  spherical:  wbtii 
a  llat  surtace  is  required,  the  stones  an^  sawn  by 
means  <»f  a  mixture  of  gum  lac  and  quart zoe«e  miIh 
stant'es,  which  readily  fuse  togetlier,  and  hanl-i! 
as  they  c(m»1,  when  they  are  fomietl  into  cuttir^: 
instruments.      Cambay  formerly  ex|K>rte<l  silk^ 
chintzes,  gold,  stutVs,  6ic;  but  these  niauufacrurvs 
have  dwindled  away:  the  town  was  given  up  a.- a 
trading  station.     Heavy  goods  have  almost  ixs^vd 
iKihig  shipped  at  Cambay,  and  most  of  the  Gujerat 
cotton  is  now  sent  to  Gftgo.     The   sum»uii4lir.:: 
country  is  pleasant  and  rich,  but  not  generally  tuil 
ctiltivated;  it  yields  ample  returns  of  wheat  aiii 
Hin(h>stanee  grains,  indigo,  cotton.  oil-M.'e<i>,  aii  i 
excellent  tolmcco:  some  grain  ami  indig<»  an  va- 
])orlcd  to  Bombay,  and  tobacco,  from  which  niauy 


CAMBERWELL 

imitations  of  Manilla  cheroots  are  made.  ThiA 
t'ity  and  territorj'  pn>8ijcred  under  the  Mo^l<t ;  in 
17M0  it  was  tribiitan'  to  the  Mahratta  peishwa, 
biiwe.  whoj»e  fall  his  rightji  liavc  devolved  on  the 
liritish  gov.,  to  whom  the  nabob  yields  alle- 
giance. 

CAMnEinVELL.  a  par.  of  England,  co.  Surrey, 
E.  div.  Brixton,  hun(L  a  nuburb  of  tlie  metropolis, 
on  it«  S.  side.  Area  4,570  acres.  Pop.  2H,231  in 
IH;M,and  71,488  in  ISi'A,  The  more  ancient  part  of 
what  was  formerly  designated  the  village  of  Cam- 
In^rwell,  including  the  Green,  is  mostly  <KX*upied 
by  sho|>s,  and  is  supjdied  with  water  from  the 
works  of  the  S.  London  ComjMiny.  The  more 
iniKlcni  mansions  are  mostlv  detached  handsome 
hduse.s  occup^'ing  the  rising  ground  to  the  S. 
and  SE.  of  the  fonner;  known  as  the  (irove, 
Ciianipion,  Denmark,  and  Heme  hills.  Within  the 
l.iHt  few  vearsj,  the  whole  of  Caml>erwell  has  been 

*  ■__ 

gn'atly  inter8ecte<l  by  railways.  The  parish  chureh, 
8upp(K«cd  to  have  l>een  builtin  15*20,  and  enlaiged  and 
imjiroved  in  1 786,  is  in  the  later  (iothic«tyle,  liav- 
iug  a  low  embattled  t<»wer,  with  many  interesting 
monuments.  There  are  numerous  other  churehes, 
among  them  Camden  Church,  and  one  beside  the 
Surrey  Canal,  built  by  the  chureh  commissioners 
in  the  (ireinan  style,  and  forming  the  district 
church  of  St.  (leorge.  There  are  also  a  great 
nnnihcr  of  (Ussenting  chajKils;  a  free  grammar- 
s<>h(H)l,  f(»unded  in  1018  for  12  boys,  is  endowed 
with  an  estate  valued  at  200/.  a  year.  There  is  a 
green-coat  strhool,  on  the  national  ])lan,  on  Cam- 
licrwcll  (irecai,  and  a  similar  one,  attached  to 
Camden  church,  foun<led  in  1810;  8  or  4  other 
i-fhools  have  small  endowments;  aiul  there  are 
inmw  minor  charities.  The  gromids  of  the  S. 
]M(>tro]Hditan  Cemetery',  in  this  parish,  form  an 
extciihive  enclosure,  tastefully  laid  out,  with  a 
(haiH-l  and  other  ottices  and  catacombs.  The 
ii^^ricultural  {Portion  of  the  parish  is  fertile;  and 
market-gardens  aiul  nurseries  employ  part  of 
the  )M)]>ulation.  The  majority,  however,  are  more 
or  less  engaged  in  the  general  business  of  the 
iiietn){M>lL>4.  The  Sunt>y  ('anal  terminates  in  it. 
On  Ladhuui  Hill,  S.  of  Camberwell,  was  a  quadri- 
lateral Roman  camp,  with  a  double  entrenchmcjit. 
In  digging  the  canal,  in  1801).  a  Koman  way  was 
di.'»cover(>4l,  fonned  of  square  bhn^ks  of  chalk, 
K'cured  with  i>ak  piles,  which  has  made  some 
sup{)ose  that  tluN  was  the  place  wliere  the  Homan 
legions  tirst  crosseil  the  Thames :  3  ancient  welb*, 
on  Well  Hill,  in  the  jmrish,  are  supixised  to  have 
originated  the  name. 

CAMHOJA,  or  CAMBODIA,  a  countrv  of 
ludia  ln-yond  the  (Ganges,  ftHmierly  one  of  the 
most  flourishing  in  that  i)enin8ula;  but  at  present 
diviiled  between  the  empire  of  Anam  and  the 
kingdom  of  Siam.  It  lies  between  lat.  8°  30'  and 
15'^30'X.,  and  long.  103°  and  107°  E.;  having 
>•'.  Laos,  E.  Cwhin  Ctiina,  W.  Siam,  and  S.  the 
<KM'an.  It  is  em'lose<l  E.  and  W.  by  two  of  the 
great  mountain  chains,  which,  i>assing  8.  from 
Yunnan,  traven^e  the  Ultra-Gangetic  ))eninsula; 
on  the  si'a-shore,  it  presents  a  vast  alluvial  tiat, 
stretching  for  a  con;<4derable  distance  inland.  It 
has  .several  rivers,  one  of  which,  the  Mekon,  ranks 
amongst  the  largcht  in  Asia;  and  another,  the 
river  of  Saigon,  is  jK-rhaps,  in  all  resj>ectis  the 
tincst  river  in  that  conthient  for  navigation.  The 
interior  of  Camboja  is  scarcely  at  all  known  by 
Kuroi)cans:  it  contains  large  forests,  proiiucing 
home  teak,  and  many  mo  trees,  a  hard  black 
timber,  called  //i/o,  eagle  and  nwewotxl,  and 
various  other  wcmhIs  lit  for  cabinet-work,  dve- 
woo«ls,  areca,  stick  lac,  sugar-cane,  and  iK'piK;r. 
The  cel«-bnite<l  gamlK)ge  gum  is  j»aid  to  be  ob- 
tained from  a  sIK.'cie^  of  Garcinia,  by  making 


CAMBRAY 


615 


incisions  in  the  bark,  frem  which  the  gum  exuded, 
and  is  collected  in  vefwels,  in  which  it  soon  be- 
comes concTete,  and  fit  for  the  market  without 
farther  ))reparation.  Besides  the  articles  already 
named,  Camboja  exports  cardamoms,  ivorv,  hides, 
horns,  bones,  dried  tish,  &c.  in  considerable  quan- 
tities, and  imports  silks,  China  and  lacquered 
ware,  tea,  sweetmeats,  tin,  and  tutenague.  (See 
Saigon.)  In  peiMon,  manners,  laws,  and  state  of 
ci\'ili8ation,  the  inhabitants  more  closely  resemble 
the  Siamese  than  any  other  people :  most  of 
them  are  Buddhists ;  but  there  are  a  few  Christians. 
Hie  latter  faith  was  first  introduced  by  the  Portu- 
guese Jesuits  in  1024. 

In  1809,  in  consequence  of  dissensions  in  the 
countr>*,  it  was  invaded  bv  both  the  Siamese 
and  Anamcsts  when  the  latter  made  themselves 
masters  of  Penomlwng,  the  mtxlem  capital,  to- 
gether with  the  penxm  of  the  king,  and  took 
IM>sse!ssion  of  a  largo  tract  of  comitry  on  the  sea- 
coast,  frem  communication  with  which,  the  £m- 
perer  of  Anam,  in  1819,  interdicted  all  foreigners, 
declaring  Saigon  the  emporium  of  his  S.  provinces. 
In  1820,  the  final  partition  of  this  oomitry  took 
place. 

Camboja,  an  inL  town  of  India  beyond  the 
(ianges,  the  ancient  cap.  of  the  aliove  territ4)ry, 
on  both  sides  the  Mekon,  nearlv  200  m.  from  the 
M«a;  lat,  13°  N.,  long.  104^  35^  E.  The  Chinese 
writers  of  tlie  13th  century  give  a  very  florid  de- 
script  ion  of  its  magnificence  at  that  period,  but  it 
is  now  in  a  state  of  dei*av. 

CAMBOUKNE,  orCJVMBOKNE,  a  town  and 
par.  of  England,  co.  Cornwall,  hund.  Pen  with. 
Area  of  par.  t;,9(Mj  acres.  Pop.  of  par.  14.056,  and 
of  town,  7,208  in  1801.  This  is  a  neatly-built 
an<l,  for  the  most  part>  moilem  town,  on  an  elo- 
vate<l  site,  12  m.  \VNW.  Falmouth,  near  the  SVV. 
limits  of  the  chief  mining  district  of  the  co.,  many 
of  tlie  oldest  and  most  productive  mines  of  tin 
and  copper  being  in  its  immediate  neighbourhood, 
and  furnishing  emplovmeut.  not  onlv  to  the  inhab. 
of  the  to^^m,  but  to  tlie  3  or  4  considerable  ham- 
lets, and  the  cottages  every  where  dispersed  over 
the  parish.  The  chureh  is  a  handsome  stnicture, 
in  the  latter  (rot hie  style :  there  is  also  a  cha[)el 
of  ease,  and  several  large  dissenting  chapt'ls, 
chielly  for  the  various  sections  of  tlie  Wesleyan 
Methixlists;  a  free  school,  founde<l  in  1703,  for 
12  Iniys  and  8  girls,  has  a  revenue  of  21/. ;  there 
are  also  several  large  Simday  s<.>hools.  Market, 
Saturday ;  fairs,  cliiefiy  for  cattle,  March  7,  Whit- 
Tues«lay,  June  29,  and  Nov.  11.  Petty  sessions 
for  the  hund.  are  held  weekly  in  the  town. 

CAMBKAY,  a  well-forti^ed  town  of  France, 
dop.  du  Xord,  cap.  arrend.,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Scheldt,  82  m.  S.  Lille;  on  the  Northern 
railway.  Pop.  22,557  in  1801.  Its  fortifications 
were  impreved  by  Vauban,  and  it  is  further  dc- 
feiuled  by  a  strong  citadeL  It  is  pretty  well 
built,  and  has  a  magnificent  j}lace  d  annea.     Its 

f>rincii)al  public  builiiings  are  the  cathedral,  the 
lotel  de  ville,  and  the  theatre.  It  has  a  tribunal 
of  original  jurisdiction,  a  communal  college,  a 
dio<^esan  seminar}',  with  330  scholars ;  a  secondary 
school,  a  society  of  emulation ;  with  schools  of 
design,  sculpture,  })amting,  and  anatomy ;  and  a 
public  library,  containing  50,000  volumes. 

Cambray  was  formerly  an  archbishopric;  and 
has  to  boast  of  having  had  Fenelon,  who  died 
here  in  1715,.  among  its  prelates.  In  1793,  during 
the  revolutionary  phrenzy,  the  b<Nly  of  Fenelon 
was  torn  frem  the  grave,  and  the  leaii  of  his  coffin 
cast  into  bullets.  The  old  cathe<1ral  was,  at  the 
same  time,  totally  destroy(>4l.  A  handsome  monu- 
ment, the  work  of  David  the  sculptor,  was  erected 
to  the  memory  of  Fenelon,  in  the  present- cat  he- 


CAMBRIDGE 

C-AMBumoK,  a  pari.  bor.  and  town  of  Eiij?!iiiil 
CO.  Caml)ritlj;e,  huinl.  Ileiidi.sh,  the  seat  <.f  nm  >4 
the  ;ijL'at  Kn;;lb4h  univcTsitiei»,  on  the  Cam, :  48 

rnu 
'op.  2t>JWl  ill  181)'!.  nier-.trn 
lar  falirics  an;  calU'd  in  Kii;;laiul  cambrics.  It  w  situated  in  an  extensive  level  tract,  that  Marcrir 
als< 


616  CAMBRIDGESHIRE 

dral,  in  If^i'y,  under  which  hisi  remains  have  been 
dep<>site(L  In  1802,  thoarchhishopricof  L'ambray 
was  chan^^cil  into  a  liu^hupric. 


This  town  ha**  been  loiij;  famous  for  its  manu-  ;  m.  N.  by  E.  London  byroad,  and  /iT^  m.  bvfrre 
facture  of  line  linens  and  hiwns,  whence  all  simi-    EiUitem  railway.    Pop.  2t>.3*jl  in  18t)l.    The  h^t 


.so  pRMluces  threa<l;  curries  on  .M?veral  hranches  prcbcnts  any  inequality,  with  the  exception  of  thf 
:'  the  cotton  manufacture;  and  ha.-*  soai>-works,  j.Goj^  MajLC«>K  hi^^*)  -t  m.  SW,  of  the  town  ;  aiiil  tbf 

greater  i«irt  of  its  public  stnictureis  '«'ith  thrj 
walks  and  pfardeus,  are  emlxi&cHnetl  iu  wiji-d 
(hving  to  the.^e  circumstance^  the  approach  to 
Camhridj^e  is  unimpressive;  but  the  noble  chaivJ 
of  Kin^^'s  OUejre,  the  UtwvT  of  St.  Mar^-s,  in-.l 
thesi)ire  of  Trimty  Church,  rise  alKivc  the  trp*T. 
and  hreak  the  general  uniformity-  of  the  outlint. 
The  greater  ]>ortiun  of  the  town  ManiL^  on  the  SL 
lMUik(»f  the  river.  The  streets  are  ini>«tly  namur 
ami  irregular.  There  arc  two  principal  liiK^s. 
which  unite  on  the  NE.  side,  near  the  in^n  hril^'r 

for  a  treaty  of  peace  negotiated  in  l.Vi'J  hetween  [over  the  Cam;  fn»m  the^e  smaller  street:*  iliver^"; 

Fnuici?<  I.  and  Charles  V.  It  was  taken  from  tlie  on  either  side^  all  of  which  are  j-iaved,  sewerel 
s  bv  I^inis  XIV.  in  1(»(»7,  and  was  con-  j  and  lighted  bv  gas.     The  cliief  sunnlv  of  wattTLs 


of 

tanneries,  and  salt-retineries.  A  greater  number 
of  hands  are  occupied  iu  the  adjoining  communes 
in  the  linen  manufactun>.  It  ha**  a  considenible 
trade  in  wool,  tlax,  butter  and  hops.  The  naviga- 
tiiiu  of  the  Scheldt  begins  iiere,  aiul  it  communi- 
cates with  St.  (^>uentiu  by  a  canal. 

This  is  a  very  ancient  city,  having  l)een  a  place 
of  eonsideniblt;  imi>ortance  under  the  Uomans. 
It  is  celebrate<l  in  diplomatic  liistorj'  for  tlie 
famous  le.-igue,  known  by  its  name,  conclude*! 
hen'  in  ir><)7,  iigaiu^t  the  republic  of  Venice;  and 


SiKiniard.* 

firmed  to  France  bv  the  treat  v  of  Nimeguen.  The 
British  t«M)k  it  by  escalade  iu  1«16,  after  the 
battle  of  WaterUMj. 

CAMIiHIl)(;KSUIUE,  an  inland  eo.  of  Eng- 
land, having  N.  co.  Liiicohi,  K.  Norfidk  and 
Suffolk,  S.  Essex  and  Hertford,  and  W.  Bedford, 
Buckingham,  and  Northampton.  Area  ol^.-IWli 
acres,  of  which  al>out  50U.(M>(>  are  su[)posed  to  Ik? 
arable,  meadow,  and  pasture.  Top.  181, oS;'}  in 
18(51.  Surface,  except  m  the  S.  parts,  whert*  it 
is  diversitied,  for  the  most  part  flat  and  naked. 
Soil  clavev  and  stublKim.  It  is  dividetl  into  two 
portions  by  the  river  Ouse,  and  is  watered  l>e- 
siiles  by  the  Cam  and  tlu»  Nene,  or  Nen.  The 
most  northerly  |>ortii»n  of  the  co.  consists  princi- 
pallv  of  the  district  called  the  Isle  of  Elv,  which 
has  sejmrate  jurisiliction  within  itself.  This  dis- 
trict, which  is  naturally  a  roarsli,  is  included 
within  the  great  level  of  the  fens;  and  is  rendered 
habitable  onlv  bv  a  m«)st  expensive  svstem  of 
drainage,  by  whicli  the  water  is  nu>ed  and  con- 
veyed away  in  channels  kept  at  a  higher  level 
than  the  surrounding  country.  Agriculture  is  in 
rather  a  bat^kward  state,  tlie  laud  under  tillage 
l)eing  freciucntly  foul  and  out  (»f  (»rder.  Wheat, 
oats,  iK'ans,  and  |K)tatoes  are  the  principal  crops 
in  t  he  fens ;  and  i>arley  in  the  elevatetl  grounds. 
Flax  and  hemp  are  also  raised  in  the  f<Mis;  and 
cole  is  exten.sively  cultivated  as  AmkI  for  sheep. 
'The  rich  meadows  in  the  valley  watcrwl  by  the 
Cam  are  principally  a]>propriate<l  to  the  dairy 
husbandr}',  and  Ombridge  butter  has  long  en- 
joyed a  high  reinitation.  The  large,  thin,  cream 
cheese,  made  at  Cottenham,  is  admitted  to  be  the 
first  of  its  class.  Heavy  cart  horse.s  are  exten- 
sively briMl.     The  rich   grass   lands  are  mostly 


<lerive<l  from  a  spring  8  ni.  dL«tant«  and  convevml 
by  an  aqueduct,   under    some    of    the   principil 
strwts,  to  a  public  conduit  in  the  market-pLtt^e. 
For  this  the  town  is  indebted  to  llobson,  the  h^iwe 
hirer,  whose  detennination  t«>    let   his  hiirT^s  in 
strict  n>tation  gave  rise   to  the  well-known  prc*- 
verb  of  M{i>l>son's  choice.'      Tliere   are   founeen 
distinct  jMirishes,  and  a  cone«'|H>nilmg  nmnlier  i^f 
churches.      St.  Mary's,  a  stately  Gothic  &tnu-tur»-. 
forms  one  side  of  a  qu.i(lraiigle,'in  which  the  r*il^ 
lie  library  and  senate-house  are  also  placed ;  it  w 
occupietl  lM)th  by  the  parish  and  the  nniveivitv: 
St.  Sepulchre's,  built  iu  the  reif^i  of  llenrv  r..'ia 
imitation  of  that  of  the  Uuly  Sepulchre  at  Jerusa- 
lem ;  and  Trinity  Church,  an  ancient  cnioifona 
structun»,  are   the  only   churches   worth   n-itico. 
The  Baptists,   IndeiM'ndents,    Friends,  I*rimitiTc 
MetluMlists,  and  Wesley ans  have  chapels.     TLitc 
is  a  free  grammar  school,  founded  by  l>r.  Pers*:;  in 
U]\'>,  originally  f<»r  100  scholans  but  now  e-lu- 
cating  sixteen;  they  have  jireference  of  the  l\r>* 
fellowships  and  schidarsliips  in  Caius  Coll. :  a  na- 
tional school,  fomided  iu   1808,  and  extendcti  iii 
1810,  educates  Cut)  boys  and  girls :  in  this  the  oLL 
or  VVhisttn  charity  sch<K>ls,  have  mei>;ed.  In  iiiD-.- 
distinct  sets  of  alm.shouscs,  lifty-sLx  jKior  jier^'n^ 
are  wholly  or  partially  sup]K)rt  ed ;  there  are  ibo 
iHMiefactions  for  various  other  charitable  purp«tMN 
held  in  trust  by  the  coriwration ;  and  a  geneni 
intinnarA',  calle<l,  from  iti»  founder,  Addenhn^^kc'^ 
llosi)ital,  in  which  aU>ut   l.oao  (vitients  are  an- 
nually relieve<L    The  market-place  occupie:^  two 
obl(»ng  squares  in  the  centre  of  the  to\%-n,  at  th* 
head  of  which  staniis  the  shire-hall,  and  behind  it 
tlie  town-hall.    The  gaol,  built  on  Ilowani's  pba 
in   ISIO,  Ls  in  the  yanl  of  the  ancient  cvtle  («f 


depastured  by  short-horned  cattle  and  long- '  which  little  more  tlian  the  gateway  reinaiii<)  at 
woidled  pheep.  Candiridge,  as  well  as  Hunting-  |  the  NW.  end  t»f  the  town — the  only  comp;uati%ely 
don,  is  overrun  with  pigeon-houses.  Estates  of  [  elevated  {Kirtion;  near  it  is  an  artificial  m«.>iui>L 
all  sizes:  some  large,  but  many  small,  some  being  whence  an  extensive  view  Ls  commandetl  The 
worth  only  from  'JO/,  to  oo/.,  and  UM)/.  a  year.  I  various  stnictures  connected  with  the  univers-iry 
Size  of  farms  equally  various,  and  held  mostly  at  \  form,^  essentially,  a  iMirt  of  the  town,  raostlv  >a\ 
will.     Fjinn-lujuses    inferior,    and    cottages    de-    its  W.  side.    There  is  a  music:^il  society  on  a  brv 


cide<ily  *  bad.'  Manufactunss  and  minerals  of  no 
im|K)rtan(r.  The  co.  contJiins  18  hunds.,  exclu- 
sive of  the  Isle  of  Ely,  au<l  li>7  pju-ishes.  l^riiuri- 
pal  towns,  (.'ambridge,  Ely,  Wi^bcach.  In  iJStJl 
It  had  37,t»3l  inhab.  houses,  it  sends  7  mcms. 
to  the  II.  of  C,  viz.  .*>  for  the  co..  2  for  the  I'ni- 
ver>ity,  and  2  for  the  bor.  of  Cambridge.     iJegis- 


scale,  and  great  mtL^jical  festiv.ils  are  held,  at  ui- 
ten'als,  in  St,  Mary's  Church.  The  (.:am,  fi.rme«l 
by  the  junction  of  several  small  streams  aU^ut  4 
m.  from  the  town,  is  made  navigable  for  Iwrjw 
up  to  the  town :  it  joins  the  Ouse  not  far  fiT.ni 
Kly,  by  which  a  water  communication  is  o'n- 
tinucd  to  Lynn  Kegis.     There   is  a  tl;iilv  m.iriitt 


ten-.d  tkrtors  for  the  c«).  7.17«l  in  iHiWi.  I'he  j  forgemral  ]>rovi>ioiis;  but  the  chief  supplv  i"  v.i 
gross  cstiniated  rental  assessed  to  poor  nite  was  Saturday.  Two  annual  fairs  arc  held — the  firs*. 
yoo,,jot»/.  in  I8tjl,  and  the  amount-  assessed  to  commencing  June  2:3,  la-'ts  three  days:  it  L*  hcM 
property  tax  wai  l,0J0,o7U/  in  l8o7,  ami  '  «mi  a  common  near  Jesus  C<dL,  and  called  Pi4 
1,110,020/.  in  1802.  I  Fair,  from  the  quantity  of  earthenware  brought  tv 


CAMBRIDGE 

it:  there  is  a  large  horse-fair  on  the  first  day. 
The  other  Ls  Stourbridge  fair,  anciently  the  hirgeut 
in  the  kingdom,  and  Htill  of  considerable  resort, 
though  much  curtailed  both  in  duration  and  im- 
portance: it  in  held  in  a  field  near  liamwell,  a 
village  adjoining  Cambridge,  and  lasts  fourteen 
days ;  on  two  of  these  horses  are  sold,  and  on  the 
others  the  cliief  trafiic  is  in  wool,  hoi>s,  leather, 
cheese,  and  iron.  There  are  no  manufactures  car- 
ried on ;  but  its  situation,  at  the  head  of  the  in- 
land ua\'igation  from  Lynn,  and  as  a  principal 
station  on  the  Great  Eastern  railway,  occasions 
a  considerable  trade  in  com,  coal,  timber,  oil,  and 
iron.  Since  the  more  perfect  drainage  of  the  fens, 
mid  the  formation  of  good  roads  towards  and 
along  the  K.  and  SE.  coasts,  over  tracts  pre- 
viously impassable,  it  has  become  a  considerable 
thoroughfare,  and  derives  some  business  from  that 
source:  its  chief  traflic,  however,  is  directly  or 
indirectly,  connected  with  the  university,  and  the 
supply  of  its  various  wants.  The  amount  assessed 
to  property  tax  for  the  borough  was  122,872/.  in 
1857,  and  12U,760/.  in  18ti2 ;  the  amount  assessed 
to  pnipcrtv  tax  for  the  university  was  3(^082/. 
in  1867,  and  31,380/.  in  1802.  The  borough 
income  averages  17,IH)0/.  per  anniun,  of  which 
nearly  one-half  \»  from  rates.  The  limits  of  the 
ancient  bor.  have  been  adopted  both  in  the  ParL 
anil  Municii>al  Reform  acts,  and  comprise  an  area 
of  3,PJG  acres.  It  is  divided  into  five  wards,  and 
gi)vemetl  by  a  mayor,  ten  aldermen,  and  tliirty 
councillors.'  Courts  of  petty  and  quarter  sessions, 
and  a  court  of  pleas,  are  held  for  the  borough, 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  which  the  members  of  the 
university  may  claim  personal  exemption.  The 
heails  of  it  are  united  with  those  of  the  corpo- 
ration in  the  commissions  of  peace  that  are  issued 
for  the  borough.  The  police  is  also  under  their 
joint  control.  The  improvements  in  the  naviga- 
tion (which  of  late  years  have  l)eeu  very  con- 
siderable) are  under  the  direction  of  conservators, 
three  of  whom  are  api^inted  by  the  university, 
three  by  the  ctjqwration,  and  three  by  the  county 
magistrates.  Tart  of  the  Corp.  rev.  of  the  town  is 
derived  from  rents  of  lands  and  tenements,  and 
tolls  of  the  fairs  and  markets,  which  the  Corp.  re- 
ceive, though  the  entire  control  of  these,  as  well 
as  the  licensing  of  public-houses,  is  vested  in  the 
univerbity;  there  are  also  310  acres  of  common 
Lmd  under  the  management  of  the  coq)oration, 
but  on  which  the  inhabitants  generally  have  a 
right  of  iKisturage.  Cambridge  has  returned  two 
nieui.  to  the  H.  of  C.  from  the  earliest  records  of 
porliumeut.  Previously  to  the  Reform  Act  the 
right  t)f  election  was  limited  to  the  freemen  of  the 
lM»r.  not  receiving  alms.  Registered  electors  for 
the  \>OT.  1,787  in  18G1.  The  quarter  sessions  and 
assizes  for  the  county  are  held  in  this  town.  The 
first  historic  mention  that  occurs  of  Cambriilge  is 
in  871,  when  it  was  ravaged  by  the  Danes.  I'he 
cixntle  was  built  by  \Vm.  the  Conqueror.  In  124H 
the  first  notice  of  dissensions  between  townsmen 
and  students  occurs.  In  1381  ^the  period  of  Wat 
Tylers  riot*^)  the  university  charters  were  seized 
and  destroyed  by  the  to\nismen,  for  which  Richd. 
11.  deprivetl  them  of  their  own,  and  vested  the 
university  with  their  privili^^es.  Henry  Vlll.  re- 
stored their  charter,  but  with  modifications  which 
nii'ule  them,  in  many  res|»ects,  still  subordhiate  to 
the  university.  lu*H>43  the  town  was  garrisoned 
by  Cn)mwell,  who  had,  previously,  twice  repre- 
st-iiied  it  in  the  H.  of  C.  So  subsc-quent  event  of 
pubiic  iMj]s»rtance  is  conuecteil  with  its  history. 
iJishop  Jiremy  Taylor  an«l  Riehanl  Cunil>erland 
(the  dnunutic  writer)  were  natives  of  Cambridge. 

CAMllRIDGE    (UNIVERSITY    OF).      This 
celebrated  seat  of  learning  and  education  derives 


CAMBRIDGE  (UNIVERSITY  OF)    617 

its  origin  from  certain  public  schools,  establbhed 
in  the  town  at  a  ver^'  remote  but  uncertain  jjcriod, 
perhaps  in  the  7th  century.  The  students  who 
resorted  to  those  seminaries  lived  in  lodgings  in 
the  town;  nor  «Iid  they,  till  the  13th  eenturj', 
assume  the  regular  form  of  a  university,  as 
that  term  was  understood  in  the  middle  ages. 
In  general,  four  branches  of  education,  or  facul- 
ties, were  recognised :  that  of  arts,  initiatory  to 
the  others,  and  embracing  the  three  suix^rior'and 
four  subordinate  sciences,  or,  as  they  were  called  in 
the  language  of  the  time,  the  trivium  and  quad- 
rivium — the  first  comprising  the  study  of  grammar, 
rhetoric,  and  logic;  and  the  sei.*tmd,  tliat  of 
arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  and  astnmomy ;  and 
the  faculties  of  theolog}%  law,  and  medicine.  In 
each  of  these,  there  were  usually  two  d^rees,  that 
of  bachelor  and  master;  and  the  functions  of  a 
miiversity,  as  at  present,  was  to  impart  the  neces- 
sary instruction  in  each,  and  to  confer  degrees, 
or    certificates    of     proficiency.       Except     the 

Eublic  schools,  there  were,  at  first,  no  other 
uildings  appropriated  to  academical  purposes; 
but  subsequently,  public  halls  or  hostelries  camo 
to  be  established  for  the  convenience  of  tho 
students,  and  the  introduction  of  some  better 
system  of  discipline.  The  students,  resorting  to 
each  of  these  chose  a  princii>al,  or  rector,  from 
amongst  tliemselves,  whose  appointment  was 
sanctioned  by  the  governing  body  <»t  the  uni- 
versity: residence  in  those  halLs  was,  however, 
never  insisted  on  as  an  essential  requisite.  The 
collegas  are  of  still  later  origin,  and  derive  their 
existence  from  private  munificence ;  the  object ' 
being  to  provide  hnlging  and  subsistence  to  a 
limited  number  of  the  poorer  cla.ss  of  students. 
Originally  the  masters  of  arts  were  the  public 
instnictors,  and  were  bound  to  teach  otliers  some 
of  the  subjects  pertainuig  to  their  respective  facul- 
ties :  convenience  ultimately  came  to  limit  this 
function  to  a  certain  number  of  masters,  who  also 
came  to  form  chiefiy,  or  wholly,  the  governing 
body;  and  hence  the  distinction  of  re^fent  and 
non-regent  masters.  T)ie  appointment  of  pro- 
fessors in  the  diflferent  faculties,  paid  by  salaries, 
instead  of  fees  (as  was  the  case  with  the  regent 
masters),  completed  the  university  system  on  tho 
recognisetl  plan  of  the  peritnl.  The  general  right 
of  lecturing  was,  however,  retained  down  to  a 
n*cent  date.  Such,  probably,  was  the  system 
pursued  through  the  Mth  and  loth  centuries, 
riie  greatest  number  of  students  frequenting  tho 
university  during  the  pi'ritMi  when  the  public 
halb  formeil  the  residences  of  the  majority, 
was  in  the  13th  century.  From  the  earlier  part 
of  the  14th,  downwanl,  the  numbers  diminisheil 
considerably;  partly  from  civil  war,  partly  from 
the  declining  reputation  of  scholastic  philo.sophy, 
and  subsequently,  from  religious  difiercnces;  so 
that,  at  the  Reformation,  the  halb  had  liecn 
mostly  deserted,  and  the  greater  ]>art  of  tho 
students  were  those  on  the  foundation  of  the  dif- 
ferent colleges,  which  had  become  numerous, 
and  were  nearly  the  only  institutions  that  sur- 
vived the  religious  confusiim  of  the  age.  It  was 
in  1534  that  the  university  i>ublicly  renounced  tho 
supremacy  of  the  po()e,  and  in  the  following  year 
the  whole  of  its  charters  were  resigne<l  to  the  king, 
who,  however,  restonxl  them  so<«i  after.  Some  of 
the  colleges,  in  the  ItJth  century,  admitte<l  inde- 
IKiulent  members  in  residence ;  others  came  to  bo 
establishetl,  and  the  remaining  halls  were  con- 
verte<l  into  colleges.  The  ascendancy  of  tin* 
college  system,  however,  was  elfectcil  gradually, 
through  a  considerable  perioiL  The  following  an» 
the  collegiate  establishments  of  Cambridge,  in  the 
order  of  their  foundation : — 


618 


Nainci 

St.  rctcr'nColl.,  | 
or  Prtcrhoiwe  / 

Cnaru  Ilall    . 

I'c'inbroko  Hall    . 

Gonville   and      \ 
(.'aius  Coll.        j 

Trinity  Knll 

Con"»»'    Chrirti  \ 
Coll.  ,        I 

KingVColl. 

Queen's  Coll.       \ 

Catliarine  Hall     . 
JfMJS  Coll.    . 

Christ's  CV>11.       i 
I 

St.  .I(.hn'e  Coll.    . 
Magtlaleii  Coll.    . 

Trinity  Coll. 


I'mniannol  C^)ll.  . 

Sitlnoy   Susm^x     [ 

Coll.  .        ) 

I>owning  Coll.     . 


1>kU  of 
Uoii 


lir,7 

1326 
1343 

1349 

13.'>0 

13oI 

1441 

141^ 
14(>5 

147.1 

14m; 

14ol 

MO.) 

1511 
ISl'J 

ir>46 

1.1K4 
l.VJrt 
180<) 


Foundrr* 


IIupli  de  Balsam,  Bp. 
■(      ol  Kly 

I  Dr.   Iiiulow  :   but   re- 
conntituted  by  Eliz. 
(     di-  lUir^li 

Cotinutwof  Pembroke 
/  Edw.  (lonville:  John 
'  Cains,  in  l.'..'.S,  in- 
;  creib<ed  and  obtained 
[  a  new  cliartt-r 
I  W.  liatenian,  Bp.  of 
'(  Norwich 
t  Tlie  Brethren  of  2 
i      Cambridge  guilds 

Henry  VI. 

Marjf.  of  Anjou  :  re- 
founded  by  Consort 
of  E<lw.  VI. 

Robt.  WiXKllark 

.Ino.  Alcock,  Bp.  of  Ely 
■  Hon.  VI.,  CoimteHs  of 
\  Richmond  &  Derby 
j  Counter  of  Riclunond 
t     and  Derby 

Ixird  Au<lley 

Hen.  VIII..  aupment«l 
by  Mary  ;  it  ocx.'upi<'s 
the  ground  of  wveral 
Kuppnssed  Coll.  and 
l^     hostel  •* 

Sir  W.  Mildmay 
I  Ijiiily  F.  Sidney, 
(     Countess  Bua^ex 

Sir  G.  Downing 


ga:vibrii>ge  (university  of) 

apart  for  general  ])urpo«c8,  ami  derived  partly  fran 
taxation  of  the  follow»»hii*s,  partly  frum  nom-rau, 
and  minor  sources  of  income. 

The  foundation  scholarships  are  sulgect  tn 
ditlcrent  n'^latiomi  and  condition's  {leculiar  to 
each  colh^c ;  but  they  are  always  elected  fro 
anumg  tlie  under  fi^aduate^  and  in  the  lai>^ 
(x»lk'f;es,  where  these  are  uuinenxis,  they  fonn  & 
.•«irt  «»f  minor  prizes,  to  be  contended  ft»r  Uke  tbuse 
of  the  fellowH.  The  emoluments  attacheil  to  the* 
Hcholar»lii|>8  are  very  various  in  amount;  in  re- 
gard to  dtociplinc  and  e4lucation,  they  are  pns- 
cisely  on  the  same  footing  as  the  iu<lepeiK^t 
Htudents. 

The  exhibitions  are  annual  pension?,  given  in 
Bome  instaiux'H  by  the  colleges,  but  ^HJ^tly  by  free 
■  enilowed  HclnKds*  el^ewhcre,  to  a.ssijit  Huoh  youibs 
a8,  ha\nng  l»een  e<luoated  at  them,  arc  *?ent  to  tij** 
uiiiversitv :  e,rfiibitioners  are  not  usually  aocounreJ 
on  the  foundation.  Besides  these,  therv  are  ?t»- 
dents  of  an  inferior  cla;^  termed  sizars^  who  are 


Karh  of  UicrHC  colleges  is  governed  by  laws  and 
usages  of  its  own  (ft)r  the  most  part  estal>U?»hcd  by 
tlie  ri'spoctive  founders),  and  is  sul)ject  to  the 
in>iKU"tion  of  its  own  visitor  or  visitt>rs,  api>ointcd 
by  the  foun(huion  charier.  Except  at  King's  and 
Trinity,  the  heads  (masters)  of  these  colleges  are 
fleeted  by  the  fellows,  for  life,  from  among  them- 
.^H^lven;  in  general,  they  must  be  in  onlers,  and 
are  allowe<l  to  marry  ;  their  incomes  (which  vary 
eonhiderably)  arise  fnmi  the  proceetis  of  a  double 
fellowship,  livings  attache*!  U>  the  otHce,  &c.  They 
«»x<'rei>e  supn-mc  authority  in  the  discipline  of 
their  collegi'  in  resi>ect  to  education,  and  the  con- 
duct of  those  in  statu  piipiliori^  and  are  associated 
with  tlie  general  g«)venmu'nt  of  the  university,  as 
will  subf*e(iuently  be  n(»ticed  ;  but.  as  res|)ectj*  the 
goverimient  of  their  college,  they  form  part  of  the 
general  legislative  council,  and  are  a.s.sisted  by 'the 
foimdation  fellows,  who  fonn  the  governing  IkkH' 
in  each  cidlege.  In  regard  to  these  last,  the  ordi- 
luiry  practice  is  to  elect  to  vacancies,  each  from 
tlu'  respective  students  of  its  own  establishment, 
and,  for  the  most  j»art,  from  amongst  those  study- 
ing with  the  view  to  taking  holy  orders;  time, 
however,  is  allowed  by  the  statutes  for  graduates 
to  make  choice  tif  a  profession,  and,  consequently, 
tliose  who  decline  after  the  limitwl  jK'riod  taking 
orders  have  to  vacate  any  fellowshii)S  they  have 
been  appointed  to ;  vacations  also  occur  by  ac- 
ceptance of  college  livings,  (which,  as  they  fall  in, 
are  otlered  by  seniority  to  the  res|)ective  fellows,) 
or  by  other  livings  or  situati(Uis,  statutably  in- 
compatible, or  by  marriage,  wliich  is  against  the 
htatute^'<  in  sonic  of  the  college^*;  so  that,  from  these 
and  other  circumstances,  the  suircssion  of  fellows, 
in  most  of  the  C(dleges,  Is  tolerably  rapid :  when 
in  residence,  a  consitlerable  part  of  their  board  is 
])rovided.  The  inc«»mes  are  verj-  various,  and  in 
each  college  varj-  from  year  to  year,  being  con- 
tingent on  the  (college  revcnue-s,  much  of  which  is 
derived  from  rents,  varying  with  the  prices  of  com 
and  from  the  tailing  in  of  leases.  The  college  ex- 
penses also  var}',  and  arc  paid  from  a  fund  set 


provided  for  wholly  or  in  jMurt  by  the  foundaii-ci. 
The  ofhcers  of  the  establishment,  such  as  dr:iz:. 
bursar,  Jtc,  are  8electe<l  by  the  fellows  of  eaci) 
resj)ective  college  from  among  their  own  IxKiy:  *s 
aLs<»  the  ci>llege  tutors,  to  wb«>«e  charge  all  the 
students,  whether  on  the  foundation  or  mA^  are 
entrusted.  The  wh<de  of  these  must  necessarily  l# 
in  residijnce;  but  in  resyject  to  the  other  fellow>, 
it  is  not  in  gimeral  retpiin»d,  though  a  num^'Y 
usually  do  reside,  some  as  private  tutuis.  oiIkts 
for  the  imqK>8C  of  studj'.  In  some  colleges,  jm."- 
bationers  have  to  i>assaii  examuiatiim  previou>Iyu> 
Ixung  admitted  as  fellows  on  the  foundation.  The 
instruction  given  at  each  of  those  collets  i<  jtf*- 
Hminary  to  taking  the  lirst  university  degn-e  if 
I  J.  A.,  and  is  exdusivelv  adapted  and  directed  to 
that  »)bject.  Tliia  is  chiefly  attained,  not  thn»aidi 
the  ])ublic  lectures  of  the  university  pnifesi^irs  lijl 
through  the  private  lalN)uis  of  the  re5*peirtivc  ciA- 
lege  tutors.  The  character  and  extent  of  tliis 
instruction  is  detenniiietl  by  the  univcrsir>%  I'v 
which  the  degree  is  grautetl;'  but  no  one  i*  ailml^ 
bible  unless  he  have  been  entered  at,  and  A>ii!t^l 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  one  of  the  collegps-  '"r 
licensed  halls,  and  has  [yecn  under  tlie  collt^'iiv 
instruction  of  his  house.  Thus  the  univerfliy  is 
formed  by  the  union  of  17  colleges,  devoUnt  t* 
acadennc  pursuits  and  the  study  of  all  the  liU-ral 
arts  and  sciences:  it  is  incorporutetl  (i;i  Kliz.  c  TXi 
by  the  name  of  'The  Chancellor,  Masteis,  au*! 
{Scholars,  of  the  University  of  Cambritige;"  auJ 
though  each  college  is  a  bodv  i*oriH>r!ite,  b<rtUKl  by 
its  own  statutes,  it  is  likewise  cuiitrolle^l  by  thf 
paramount  laws  of  the  university.  The  statutes 
of  the  12th  of  Eliz.,  Mhich  were  saiictiomvl  liv 
imrliamcnt^  and  continned  some  f«>rmeT  privil«s:es. 
are  the  foundation  of  the  existing  govemraenr, 
and  form  the  basis  of  all  the  suLisequent  It^U- 
tion;  in  fact,  no  grace  of  the  senate  is  oki- 
sidered  valid  which  is  inconsistent  with  the 
statutes  of  Kliz,,  and  certain  nearly  ciktempkranr 
ijiterpretations  of  them ;  or  with  king's  lelti.Ts, 
that  have  been  accepted  and  acted  on  by  tbc 
miiversity. 

Kach  college  furnishes  meml»ers  b»)th  t«)  tW 
executive  ami  legislative  branchcss  cuUei-tively 
termed  the  senate.  It  is  dividctl  into  i  litHLH-N 
called  the  regents'  and  non-regent»'  house.  He 
fi»rmer,  or  upiteJ  house,  is  comixised  of  in&^ei><>t' 
arts  of  less  than  o  years'  standing,  and  doctois  ef 
less  than  2  years ;  its  members  wear  hoods  liiwi 
with  white  silk ;  all  the  re.st,  who  retain  rtKir 
names  on  their  res|X'ctive  collmje  boanls  Uorwlii'i 
a  small  annual  fee  is  charged).  eoiL<Mitute  tin 
lower  liouse,  and  wear  hfKHls  of  black  silk:  h<>t 
the  distinction  of  white  and  black-hiKid  boUM:^ 


CAMBRIDGE  (UNIVERSITY  OF) 

Doctors  of  more  than  2  vearH'  8tanding,  and  the 
public  orator  of  the  university  (who  may  l)e  con- 
uiderwl  as  the  secretarj'),  may  vote  in  cither  house, 
at  pleai^ure.  Itendcs  these,  there  i»  a  council  called 
the  ctiput^  choHen  annually  on  the  12th  Oct.  It 
cuusistM  of  the  Wee-chancellor ;  a  d<xjtor  in  each  of 
the  three  faculties,  of  divinity,  civ-il  law,  anil 
physic ;  and  2  masters  of  artM,  as  the  representa- 
tivcH  of  tlie  regent  and  non-regent  houses.  In 
practice,  these  arc  mere  nominees  of  the  vice- 
chancellor;  and  as  the  approval  of  the  caput  is 
essential  previously  to  any  '  grace,'  or  legislative 
]>n>]>osition,  Iteing  voted  on  in  either  house,  the 
substantive  government  of  the  universsity  vests  in 
him.  lie  also  tixes  the  days  when  congregations, 
or  meetings  of  the  senate,  are  to  be  held  for  trans- 
acting university  business;  these,  in  term  time, 
are  usually  once  a  fortnight;  but  there  are  also 
certain  tixed  times  by  statute  for  congregations  to 
Ik!  held,  for  conferring  degrees  and  electing  oHicers. 
Graces  which  pass  both  houses,  under  the  sancti(»n 
of  the  caput,  become  acts  of  the  senate,  and,  if  of 
a  public  nature,  become  statutes  of  the  university. 
An  assembly  of  the  senate  held  out  of  term  time 
Ls  calle<l  a  convocation;  but,  by  a  grace  i)assed 
proforma^  it  is  converted  to  a  congregation,  and 
the  business  proceetls  in  the  usual  way.  Tlie  chief 
ofliters  of  the  university  are,  a  chancellor,  in  wln)m 
the  executive  authority  vests,  except  in  matters 
of  mayhem  and  felony,  within  the  limits  of  the 
jurisdiction,  which  is  a  mile  round,  reckfmed  in 

any  direction  from  any  part  of  the  suburbs;  the 

otlice  is  bieiuiial,  or  for  such  longer  perio<l  as  the 

tiicit  consent  of  the  university  mav  choose  U)  allow. 

A  high  steward,  who  has  sikh:ui1   |)ower  to  try 

scholars  imiK>ached  of  felony  within  the  limits, 

and  to  hohl  courts  leet,  which  w  ilone  by  deputy. 

His  election  is  by  a  grace  of  the  senate.    A  vice- 
chancellor,  electetl  ammally  by  the  s<>nate  (on  the 

4th  of  Soy.)  from  the  heads  of  colleges.    In  the 

abfH'uce  of  the  chancellor,  the  iwwers  of  that  otticer 

vest  in  him,  by  the  statutes,  and  he  is  also,  ex 

qlficio,  a  magwtrate  for  the  university,  t<>wn,  and 

county.  A  c^>mmLssar\',  ap|)ointed  bv  tlie  chancel- 

li>r.  to  hold  a  court  of  recortl  for  all  caiL*»e8  to  be 

tri<Ml  and  determined  by  the  civil  and  statute  law 

and  university  cust<»m,  in  respect  to  all  privileged 

jM-rsons  under  the  degree  of  M.  A.  A  pul>lic  orator, 

who  may  be  said  to  be  the  si)eaker  of  the  senate. 

The  assessor,  an  ofticer  to  assi<«t  the  vice-chancellor 

in   his  court.      Two  proctors,   or  peace  oflicers, 

elected  annually,  to  enforce  proper  discipline  and 

behaviour  in  all  who  are  in  statu  pupillari^  &h  well 

as  various  other  duties.    They  must  be  M.  A.  of  2 

years'  standing,  at  le.ist,  and  arc  nominateil  in  turn 

i»y  the  (lilTerent  colleges,  in  a  prescribed  and  jiecu- 

liar  cycle  of  51   years.      There  are  many  other 

otlicesof minorimjKirtance; amongthem  twomotle- 

rators.   who  are  nominated  by  the  proct«irs,  and 

appointed  bv  a  grace  of  tlie  senate,  to  act  as  the 

-'    ♦    ...1*..*:*... :_    *i.^   .vu:i i.:^ i i i.. 


619 

The  puHlic  professorships  in  the  university  arc 
Laily  Margaret's,  of  divinity,  founded  15<V2;  the 
regiiis  protessorshii^s  of  divinity,  ciWl  law,  phvsic, 
Hebrew,  and  (ircek,  founded  by  Henrj'  VII  I.  in 
1540;  those  of  Arabic,  one  founde<l   bv  Sir  F. 
Adams  in  1632,  the  other,  the  I^rd  Afmoncr's ; 
the  Lucasian   professorship  of   mathematics,  in 
1663;  that  of  music,  in  1684;  that  of  casuistry, 
fi.unded  in  1683 ;  of  chemistry,  I7t>2 ;   the  Plu- 
mian  professorship  of  astmnomy  and  experimental 
philosophy,  in  1704;  that  of  anatomy,  in  1707 
(there  IS  a  gooii  anatomical  museum  connei'ted 
with  this) ;  those  of  mo<lem  history  and  of  Ixitany, 
1724 ;  that  of  geolc^-,  in  1727,  by  Dr.  W<KKlwanl, 
who  left  his  collection  of  minerals  in  connection 
with  it;  that  of  astnmomy  and  geometry',  founded 
in  1740;  the  Norrisian  professorship  of  divinity, 
in  17()0 ;  of  natural  and  experimental  philosophy, 
in  1783;  the  Downing  professorsliijw  of  English 
law  and  of  medicine,  founde<l  in  1800;  that  of 
mineralogy,  in  1808 ;  and,  lastly,  of  political  eco- 
nomy, in  1828.    These  professors  are  jmid  from 
various  sources.    Some  of  the  foundations  have 
estates  appn>priatcd  to  the  pur{)ose;  others  arc 
I)aid  by  ancient  stipends,  in  i)art  ^  and  some  fnjm 
the  privy  purse,  or  by  government.    One  has  4(M)/., 
another  200^,  the  rest  100/.  annually.    The  ap- 
pointment of  some  of  them  rests  in  the  senate^  of 
others,  in  the  crown,  and  of  others,  again,  in  si)c- 
cial  Ixxlies  of  electors.     None  of  them  can  be  said 
to  be  <lirectly  concerned  in  the  education  of  the 
students,  as  the  attendance  on  the  courses  of  lec- 
tures given  by  them  i-*  not  made  essential  to  any 
of  the  students  (with  the  exception  of  those  pn>- 
cceding  to  the  bachelor's  degree  in  ci\'il  law  and 
medicine,  who  are  required  t«>  bring  testimonials 
of  attendance  on  the  courses  connected  with  those 
subjects).    The  public  income  of  the  university 
arises  chietly  from  the  procee<ls  of  the  rectory  of 
Bumell,  fn)m  matriculation,  and  other  fees  (ar)out 
3,000/.  a  year  fn>m  all  these  sources),  and  from 
the  traiUng  profits  of  the  Pitt  or  universitv  press. 
The  funds  are  managed  by  the  vice-chancellor  an<l 
specific  trustees,  and  three  annual  auditors  arc 
ap|jointe<l  by  the  senate  to  pass  the  ac(*ounts.     Its 
library  claims  (under  the  ct)pvright  act)  a  copy  of 
every  volume,  map,  and  print  i>ublished  in  the 
Uniteil  Kingdom ;  it  is  also  endowed  with  a  iM)r- 
tion  of  the  procectLs  of  two  esUites :  besides  this 
and  occasional  d<  mat  ions,  a  quarterly  sultscription 
of  la.  6f/.  is  jiaiil  by  all  the  meml)ers,  except  sizara, 
towards  its  support.    A  new  building,  from  deigns 
by  Mr.  C'«)ckerell,  was  opened  in  1854.    The  Fitz- 
william  museum,  eonsLsting  of  a  s[dendid  collec- 
tion of  books,  (Miintings,  draTtings,  and  sculpture, 
was  left  by  Viscount  Fitzwilliam  to  the  university, 
in  1X1(5,  together  with  funds  for  the  erection  of'a 
building  to  receive  it,  which  was  cominenc(»l  in 
1837.     It  is  an  imiM>sing  stnicture,  in  the  (in*i>ian 
style;  the  iMirtico,  an  imitation  of  the  Pantheon 


I'nK'ion*'  substitutes  in  the  philosophical  schools,  o(  Home,  is  oniamenteil  by  a  gnmp  of  sculpture, 
and  alteniately  suiKjrintend  the  exercises  and  dis-  j  representing  Pegasus  and  the  nine  muses.  The 
putatiiiiis  in  philosophy,  and  the  examinations  for  universitv  also  }>ossesses  a  colle<rtion  of  pictures, 
the  degree  of  IJ.  ^V.  There  are,  linally,  eight  leftby  Afr.  Mesman;  an  obser^'ato^y^  built  in  1«24, 
classic4il  examiners,  nominated  by  the  several  at  an  exi)ense  of  18.(i00/. ;  and  a  lN>tanic  pinleii 
colleges,  in  term  (acconling  to  the  same  cycle  as  |  of  three  or  four  acres.  The  Cambriilge  Philo- 
the  proct«»rs),  and  elected  by  a  grace  of  the  senate:  '  soph ical  StK'iety  wjw  establi^he<l  in  iHUKforthc 
f«mr  of  these  are  exammers  of  inceptorj' bachelors,  pnunotion  of  scientific  inquiry,  an<l  the  advancc- 
and  four  of  the  juni<»r  s<iphs.  in  I^int  term.  ment  of  philos«)phy  and  natural  historj';  in  18.32, 

The  University  is  represented  in  the  H.  of  C.  it  was  incori>orated  by  charter,  and  all,  exce[>t 
by  two  memlH'rs,  chosen  by  the  collective  IxMly  of  h<»norary  meml)ers,  are  requiretl  to  be  graduates 
the  senate,  the  vice-chancellor  U'lng  retiiniing    of  the  university. 

otlii'cr.  The  privilege  was  granted  by  charter,  in  The  <legn?es  conferretl  by  the  university  arc 
1  .Klines  1..  and  at  pre-^-nt  is  veste»l  in  the  Doc-  those  of  Doi'tors  in  the  three  faculties  of  divinity, 
ti»r>,  .Ma><ters  of  Arts,  and  Mastt-rs  of  Law  of  the  civil  law,  and  medicine,  and  also  in  the  M'icnceof 
uni\ersity.  who«*e  names  are  *on  the  l)o«)ks.'  Tiie  music:  that  of  Master  of  Arts;  and  the  <h*gree  <if 
u'lisiituency  thus  formed  numbered  4,1)40  in  1865.    Uachclor  in  each  of  the  foregoing.    Excc]»t  in  the 


620 


initintory  de^ec  Inflt  nnmn<l,  all  examination  in 
rt'^anl  to  proticiency  h  in  reality  tiiscontiniieil, 
ami  the  lii^luT  (loj^rocH  art*  oonfcrrcd  aj<  of  right 
on  llio>o  who  liavo  obtaincfl  a  jtarticiilar  Htanding, 
without  rftfrrcnce  to  qualification,  or  (with  tritiin^; 
exceptions)  to  nyidi-nce.  Tho  academical  ywir 
consists  of  tUrw.  tcnns,  viz.  Michaclmaji,  Lent, 
and  Master;  and  the  foHowin;:^  are  the  chief  re^i- 
latinn.H  neccH^ary  for  jiroceetlinj;  to  decrees :  pre- 
mbting  lirvt,  that  the  uhkIc  of  arhniM<ion  on  the 
iMiard^  of  a  college  i.s  either  hy  (>erHonal  examina- 
tion of  it.s  tutons  and  otiicen«,  or  (the  more  iLsual 
])lan),  through  a  recominendatory  certificate.  »\)g- 
rifying  the  af;e  and  qualiticationH  of  the  candidate, 
M^ietl  by  an-M.A.  who  has  iL^nuhiateil  at  the  uni- 
versity, and  ac(^onipanied  hy  a  de|)OHit  calh^d  cau- 
tion money.  This  is  usually  done  l>efore  the  end 
of  Easter  Term  ;  and,  if  deemed  satiMfactoiy,  the 
name  is  at  once  entere»l  on  the  boanls  6f  the  col- 
le^^e,  and  the  student  usually  comes  into  residence 
the  October  following,  when  the  academical  year 
bcgiiiM. 
Bachelor  of  Arts. — Twelve  terms  on  the  boarda  of 

some  ctdlege,  ten  of  which  in  residence. 
Master  of  Arts. — B.A.  of  three  years'  standin;?. 
Bachelor  of  Divfnitt/. — M.A.  of  seven  years'  t:tand- 

inf(:  under  the  Uth  statute  of  KHz.,  those  who 

have  been  admitted  en  the  boards  of  a  college 

afl(>r  21  vears  old,  and  have  remaine<l  so  ten 

years  (the  two  last  of  which  must  l>e  in  res.), 

ore  admissible  without  having    taken  any 

other — these  arc  called  ten  years*  men. 
Doctor  of  Divinity. — B.l).  of  tive,  and  MA.  of 

twelve  years'  standing. 
Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. — Of  six  years'  standing 

complete,  nine  terms  of  which  in  res.,  or  1J.A. 

of  four  years'  standing. 
Doctor  of  Civil  Law. — IJ.C.L.  of  five  years',  or 

M.A.  of  seven  years'  standing. 
Bachelor  in  Medicine. — Of  five  years'  standing, 

nine  terms  of  which  in  res. 
Doctor  in  Medicine. — Similar  to   that  degree  in 

civil  law. 
Licentiate  in  Medicine. — M.A.  or  B.A.  (»f  two  years' 

standing. 
Bacht.lir  of  Music, — The  name  must  be  entered 

on  the  boards  of  some  college,  and  an  exercise 

perfonned. 
Doctor  of  Music. — Usually  B.M. 

Persons  having  the  rank  of  privy  counsellors, 
bishops,  noblemen,  and  eldest  sons  of  noblemen, 
are  entitled  to  have  any  of  those  degree*  c^>nferre<i 
on  them  without  complying  with  the  regulations; 
and  knights  and  baronets  from  that  of  M.A.  down- 
ward. By  a  grace  passed  in  18*25,  these  are  to  be 
examined  and  a[)pn>ved  in  the  same  way  as  withers, 
but  tliey  are  admL<siblc  after  keeping  nine  terms ; 
but  though  none  can  claim  a  degree  in  right  of 
nobility,  &c.,  yet  honorary  ones  are  often  con- 
ferre<l,  without  examination  or  residence,  on  emi- 
nent individuals. 

The  respective  orders  in  the  different  colleges 
rank  as  ft»llows : — 

1.  The  H earls  of  QflleyeSy  who  are  generally  of 

the  degree  of  D.D. 

2.  The   Felloirs.   who  are  doctors,    masters,  or 

bachelors  of  the  ditfercut  faculties. 

8.  Noblemeny  who  arc  graduates,  doctors^  and 
Ms. A.,  not  on  the  foundation  (the  name 
must  be  kept  on  the  college  boardfi,  the  cost 
of  which  varies  from  2/.  to  4/.  a  year.) 

4.  /?«./>.,  who  arc  ten  vears'  men. 

6.  Bachelors  of  Civil  Law  and  of  Physic :  these 
wciur  the  habits,  and  enjoy  all  the  various 
privileges  of  M.^V.,  except  that  of  voting  in 
the  senate. 

6.  BitcJielors  of  Arts,  who  arc  considered  in  statu 
pupiUari, 


4. 


8. 
9. 


10. 


CAMBRIDGE  (UNIVERSITY  OF) 

Felhtr  Commoners^   iimally    yoiin^rr  mm  f/ 

the  nobility,  or  snns^  of  men  of  fortmie,  &c 

who  have  the  privilog:eot*cliiiiiif7  At  the^alae 

table  as  the  fellow t^ 
The  ScholarSj  who  are  on  the  foun<lAUon. 
Fensionersj  who  pay  for  tlicir  chambers  ivim- 

mons,  &c..  aiid  cr^mprue  the  chief  [>art  </ 

the  studentj^ 
The  Sizars^  atudeiit-s  of  limited  nican«.  wl» 

usually  have  free  comznoiis  and  utheremok- 

ments. 
As  all  sul)stantlal  examination  for  detrre^s  t* 
limited  to  the  initiatory  one  <)f  bavhehr  {(^  whit-h 
that  of  B.A.  is  the  finit,  and  only  really  impiortam 
step),  the  necessary  cthication  of  the  clifferrtit  o»»l- 
leges  is  of  course  directc*!  t«»  tliat  object,  and  con- 
tingent, in  its  nature  and  soif^e,  on  the  qualiDc:!- 
tions  which  the  imiversity  deem  fit  to  exortat 
tlieir  public  examinationfi,   and    the  c]a;«s>-bi>.4^ 
they  onler  to  be  a<lopted  for  the  (Hirposie.    The 
onhnary  course  of  study  for  B.-\.  may  I*  c»)!ii- 
prised  under  three  lieadsi : — natural   plijlo9(if>h,r, 
theology  and   moral  philoi«of>hy,    and  the  bril^ 
lettres^  and  for  the  attainment  of  the.«e,  the  stu- 
dents attend  the  lectures  <»f  the  c^^lleg«  tutnr^ 
which  are  not  formal  harangues,  but  rather  of  a 
catechetical  natiue,  intermixcHl  ^ith  reading  aixl 
discussion;  at  each  of  which  a  limited  number  of 
the  students  go  through  a  certain  portion  of  wtriK 
mathematical  or  classical  work  i%'ith  the  tuton. 
Half-yearly  or  yearly  coll«^e  cxamiiiation:s  usu- 
ally take  place,  in  aildition  to  thef«e  let^tureA.  wlwa 
the  names  of  the  students  arc  arranged  in  the 
onler  of  their  respective  merits.     The  fir>t  public 
examinatii>n  of  a  stuflent  takes  pUu^e  in  the  I.«fit 
and  Octolwr  terms  of  the  j«eof»nd  year  from  tl» 
commencement  of  hix  academical  residence.   After 
the  examhiation,  the  candi<lates  are  arranged  in 
two  classes — those  who  have  pa^kieil  with  credit, 
and  thorte  to  whom  the  exauiinen*  have  only  n  < 
refused  their  certificate  of  apprttral,      A  .«<rCijiKJ 
examination  takes  place,  in  Michaelmas  term.  •/ 
those  who  have  l>een  alment  fn>in  the  fi.irmer  by 
]x*rmis>ion,  or  were  not  then  appn>ved  of:  thi?  b 
termed,  in  university  phrase,  the  *  little  go.'   nKi>e 
anxious  to  take  honours  usually  engage  .1  private 
tutor  (who  is  not  necessarily  of  their  own  c»>lln:»") 
after  this,  hi  order  to  secure'  more  excluMve  atten- 
tion and  assistance.    The  usual  fee  of  a  (irivire 
tutor  L*  50/.  a  year.    After  this  preparator\-  *t«-.v 
those  who  are  candidates  for  honours  f>erfonn  tie 
college  exercises  umfer  the  su|>crintrndem*c  of  the 
miMlerators;  these  arc  usually   Latin  thesei«,  pp>- 
|)ounded  and  opposed  in  a  syilojjistic  form.    Ttie 
senate-house  examination,  for  the  degree  of  RA- 
commencea  on  the   Monday  preceding  the  tiI^t 
Monday  in  Lent  term,  ami  continue:*  six  tiays. 
The  previous  division  of  the  candiiiatefi  fur  honimrs 
into  fjuir  classes  has  recently  lioen  disconrinuol, 
and  the  same  questions  are  now  profxiscd  thn»a:;h- 
out  the  examination  to  all  whom  the  m<^HJerati«r4 
judge,  fn>m  the  previous  public  exercised  in  the 
scho4»K  to  be  qualified  for  examination  as  caniii- 
date^i  for  mathematical  honours ;  and  of  tlie  >lk 
examiners,  two  confine  themselves  to  niathem:;- 
tical  subject*,  two  to  Homer  and  A'irgil,  A-c  and 
two  to  l^aley'a  Evidences  and  Moral  PhiUk?>»»]  hy. 
and  to  Lo(.*ke\s  Kssay  <m  the  Human  ITuden^taud- 
ing,  A'c,    The  whole  is  conducted  by  writing.  ai«i 
the  various  subjectij  and  pnddems  may  W  st^.-n  in 
the  annual  regwters  of  the  university.  '  l'lii«se  wh-* 
are  not  candidateit  for  honour?,  woaao*,  are  cLfc*od 
and  examined  se[iarately,  the  subjects  being — tlK 
Acts  of  the  A|X)stles  in  (ireek,  one  (Jreek  antl  i>iie 
I^atin  classic,  Paley's  Moral  Philosophy,  and  cer- 
tain questions  in  mathematical   and  mechaimtl 
science,  spccilicd  in  a  printed  schedule.    The  de- 


CAMBRIDGE  (UNIVERSITY  OF) 

groes  are  conferred  on  sucli  of  the  qiiestionista  as 
]mM  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  examinexit,  hy  a 
fiuhsequeut  ^race  of  the  senate,  when  the  oaths  of 
alle^ance  anil  supremacy  are  taken,  and  a  decla- 
ration of  adherence  to  the  doctrines  of  the  (Jliurch 
of  England  is  required  to  be  signed ;  but  pre- 
viously to  tlib,  on  the  last  examination  day,  the 
mathematical  trijM»  or  list  of  those  who  succeed  in 
obtaining  an  honour,  is  exhibite<I,  fonne<I  into 
three  divisions,  tliat  of  wranglerg^  and  of  tenior 
a.n(\  junior  opthnes^  arranged  atxionling  to  merit,  or 
*  bnickettc'flt  where  two  individuals  are  considered 
on  an  equality.  The  senior  wranglership  is  the 
highest  academical  honour  obtainable  in  the  king- 
dom. On  the  fourth  Monday  after  the  general 
achnKsion  ad  respondendum  questionif  an  examina- 
tion commences  of  all  such  as  have  obtainc<l  an 
honour  at  the  mathematical  examination  of  the 
•  previous  January,  and  who  voluntarily  offer  them- 
frelves  for  the  pun>osc  in  classical  learning  at  this 
examination  (which  continues  live  days),  trans- 
lations are  riK^uired  of  passages  from  the  best 
Greek  and  Latni  authors,  and  written  answers  to 
cpiestions  arising  immediately  out  of  such  pas- 
sages. The  names  of  those  who  obtain  honours 
are  arranged  in  ttiree  divisions  (like  those  in  the 
mathematical  tripos),  in  a  lii*t  which  forms  the 
classical  tripos  of  the  year.  Tliere  are  two  tripos 
days,  one  for  wranglers  and  senior  optimes^  the 
other  for  junior  optimesj  when  these  arc  publicly 
announceiU 

The  annua!  prizes  of  the  university  form  another 
subject  of  com|)etition  :  the  cla.Svsical  ones  art^ — the 
chancellor's  gold  medals,  given  to  2  commencing 
Us.  A.,  who,  haWng  attained  senior  optimes  at 
leA.<t,  sliow  themselves  most  proficient  in  classical 
learning:  these  prizes  were  first  instituted  in  1751. 
A  thinl,  first  given  by  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  ond 
continued  by  the  present  chancellor,  is  for  the  best 
Knglish  ode,  or  Knglish  poem  in  heroic  verse. 
I^Iany  of  these  have  l)een  pubhshe<l,  under  the 
title  of '  Cambriiige  Prize  Poems :'  the  com[»etition 
is  limited  to  resident  under  graduates.  Tlie  mem- 
bers representing  the  university  also  give  4  prizes, 
of  lo  guineas  each,  wliich  are  bestowed  on  2  B.  A.8 
and  2  under  graduates,  who  comfmse  the  best  dis- 
S4>rtations  in  Latin  prose.  Brown's  3  gold  medals, 
of  6  guineas  each,  to  under  graduates,  are  given  [ 
for  the  U'st  (ireek  (mIc,  the  l)est  Latin  (Kle,  and  j 
the  l>est  (ircek  or  Latin  epigram.  Porson's  prize 
coiiMsts  of  one  or  more  (ireek  books,  given  for  the 
Wst  translation  of  some  |»assage  in  Shakspeare,  B. 
Jfinxtn,  Massinger,or  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  into 
(jJreek  verse.  The  mathematical  consist  of  2  an- 
nual prizes,  of  2.')/.  each,  leftbv  the  Bev.  R.  Smith, 
and  given  to  2  commencing  \i,\j»  who  prove  the 
best  ))roticieuts  in  mathematics  and  natural  philo- 
sophy. The  examination  takes  place  soon  after 
the  admission  of  quei^tionists :  the  competition  is 
open,  and  the  adjudicators  are  the  vice-chancellor, 
the  master  of  Tnnity,  and  the  Lucasian,  Plumian, 
and  Lowndean  pr«»fes>ors.  The  second  or  even  lower 
wranglers  occasionally  l)ecome  first  prizemen ; 
lience  it  forms,  in  some  sort,  a  court  of  apiteal  from 
the  decisions  of  the  examiners.  Caieris  jxiribuSy 
j»refcrence  is  given  to  candi<lates  of  Trin.  Coll.  In 
theology, thert^ are  the  NorrlMan  andliales's  prizes. 
The  Sratonian  is  a  p<K'tical  one ;  the  subject  is  pro- 

iK)s<Ml  in  January,  and  the  poem  is  to  be  sent  in  by 
dichaelmas:  that  which  obtains  the  premium  is 
printcMl  from  the  produce  oft  he  estate  left  forthepur- 
iM>se,  the  n-mainder  of  which  is  given  to  the  author. 
The  university  scholarsitips  are  also  publicly  con- 
tended for,  and  are  given  to  the  most  successful  can- 
didates in  classical  reading  and  com|K>sition :  in  this 
re8])0ct  they  rank  first  in  the  classical  competitions 
of  the  university,  and  are  usually  extended  beyond 


CAMMIN 


621 


the  ordinary  range  of  text-books.  The  examina- 
tion is  the  same  for  all,  but  most  importance  is 
usually  attached  to  the  Pitt  scholarship,  it  being 
less  frec^uent  as  well  as  of  greater  pecuniary'  value. 

Lodging  within  the  walls  of  a  college  is'not  en- 
forced on  under  graduates,  provided  there  be  no 
vacant  rooms ;  which  may  probably  account  for  the 
greater  increase  of  students  matriculated  in  this 
than  in  the  sister  university  of  Oxford,  where 
residence  within  the  waUs  is  enforced.  The  col- 
legiate buildings  of  many  of  the  establisliments 
have  been  greatly  improved  and  augmented  of 
late  years.  'J'hose  of  Trinity  are  the  hugest  of 
any  single  college  in  either  univenitv ;  those  of 
St,  John  have  also  been  increased  \)y  a  large 
quadrangle  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cam,  forming 
one  of  the  finest  collegiate  edifices  in  the  kingdom. 

Cambridor,  a  town  of  the  U.  S.  of  N.  America, 
Massachusetts,  co.  Middlesex,  on  the  Charles 
river,  3  m.  WNW.  Boston,  with  whicli,  and  the 
adjacent  town  of  Charleston,  it  is  connected  bv 
bndges.  Pop.  26,400  in  1860.  It  is,  in  conjunc- 
tion \nth  Concord,  the  co.  town,  and  the  courts 
are  held  alternately  in  each.  ITiere  is  a  court- 
house, county  gaol,  arsenal,  and  several  places  of 
public  worship.  It  is  the  seat  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, formerly  Harvard  College,  the  oldest  and 
l>est  endowed  institution  of  the  kind  in  the  Union  : 
it  was  founded  in  1638.  The  medical  school  con- 
nected with  the  univer>«ity  is  at  Boston.  The 
university  librarv',  the  second  in  America,  con- 
tains upwanls  of '80,000  vols.,  besides  a  students' 
librap',  with  upwards  of  10,000  vols.  The  philo- 
sophical apparatus  and  cabinet  of  minerals  are 
valuable  and  complete.  Here  are  a  chemical 
lal>orator}',  an  anatomical  museum,  and  a  botani- 
cal garden,  occui>ying  seven  acres  of  land.  Since 
it^  establishment,  this  university  has  received 
laige  benefactions  both  from  the  state  and  private 
individuals.  A  greater  number  of  students  liavc 
been  educated  here  than  in  any  other  college  in 
the  Union. 

CAMKLFORD,  a  town  and  par.  of  Enghmd,  co. 
Coniwall,  hund.  Lesnewth,  on  the  Camel,  205  m. 
WSW.  London.  Area  of  par.  3^50  acres ;  pop. 
1,470  in  1861.  The  town  is  meanly  built,  but  the 
streets  are  wide  and  well  juved.  '  It  has  a  com- 
modious town-hall,  built  in  1806;  a  free  school, 
founded  in  1679,  and  a  few  minor  charities. 
Market,  Friday ;  fairs  for  cattle,  Fridav  after  Mait^li 
10,  May  26,  June  17  and  18,  and  Sept.  6.  Inhab. 
mostly  engaged  in  agriculture.  Camelford  re- 
turned 2  mems.  to  the  H.  of  C.  from  Ist  Edw.  VI. 
down  to  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Act,  by  which 
it  was  disfranchised. 

CAMERINO,  a  town  of  central  Italy,  prov. 
Macerata,  on  a  liill  5  m.  SSW.  Ancona,  iiear  the 
railway  fri»m  Ancona  to  Home.  I*op.  11,854  in 
1862.  The  town  is  pretty  well  built.  Among  the 
[»ublic  buildings  are  the  cathe<lral,  which  contains 
some  pictures  of  the  great  masters,  as  docs  the 
church  of  Omanzia ;  and  the  archie) ^iscopal  ]>alace, 
a  fine  building  surrounded  with  columns.  In  the 
principal  sauarc  is  a  bronze  statue  of  Pope, 
Sixtus  V.  It  has  12  monasteries,  and  7  convents* 
for  women;  and  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric,  of 
a  tribunal  of  primary'  juris<ltction,  and  of  a  uni- 
versity founded  in  1727.  A  good  deal  of  silk  Is 
spun  and  manufactured  here ;  Lut  the  business  is 
rather  declining. 

CAMMIN,  or  KAMMIX,  a  town  of  Prussia, 
pn)v.  Pomerania,  cap.  circ.,  on  the  Dievenow,  about 
5  m.  above  M-here  it  falls  into  the  Baltic,  38  m.  N. 
Stettin.  Pop.  1,458  in  1861.  The  town  was  for- 
merly the  seat  of  a  bL«*hopric,  suppn*ssed  in  1648. 
The  line  cathedral  still  remains,  and  the  chapter 
continued  down  to  1812.    There  is  an  asylum  fur 


622 


CAMPAGNA 


nf4)Io  ladicii.  and  an  h(is[titnl.  Distillation  \» 
<>rtmt-(l  (111  t<i  a  oinsiilcmlili'  cxtt'iit.  and  the  lislien' 
ii*  \t'n'  ju-tivr. 

('AM1'.V<;NA,  a  town  of  SnutJicni  Italy,  ]>n»v. 
SaltTiiii.  ca|).  tli>tr„Mirr«iun<l(il  l>y  liij^h  numntnins, 
\x  \u.  K.  SahriH).  I'oj».  ;»,I.V.»  in  lM'i2.  The  town 
i!«  till'  soat  fit'  a  bi.sliopric;  h:u*  a  supcrli  eatliedral, 
Jt  |)ari>Ii  fluirolu*:*,  K-vfral  convent?*,  imd  a  collo^jo. 

TAMPAN,  a  town  of  Franco,  do'p.  Ilautcs  I'y- 
n-nci-s,  caj).  rant..  (»n  tho  Adour,  10  m.  SSE.  Tar!M»H. 
Po|>.  :{,().>5  in  l><til.  T[w  Iiou.HCH  an;  nH»stly  built 
(if  niarl)k>.  'Vh'v^  town  pves  its  name  to  a  iK'autiiul 
valley,  t'ertiU*,  and  full  of  life  and  ijidustn*.  The 
cottai^i's  are  clean  and  conifortal»lc:  and  the  neat, 
well  laitl-out  j^ardcns.  ami  Te^|leclahle  dress  of  the 
|»easjnitr\',  evince  their  couifortahle  condition. 

CAMJ*'HKLT(JN.  a  wa-i^Tt  and  n)yal  Uir.  of 
Si'otland,  CO.  Ar^^vle,  Uunp,  though  not  the  cajiital, 
by  far  the  m«it4t  nn]Kfrtant  town  in  the  co.,  on  the 
K.  <'oast  of  the  long  namiw  j^'uinsula  of  C'antire. 
l*o|>.  0,o:w  in  1H«)1.  The  bonnigh  <:onsists  of  two 
lea<iing  stn*ets  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles, 
with  adjoining  stn»et«  of  an  inferior  description.  It 
18  built  on  the  SW.  side  of  a  large  salt-water  loch, 
ur  inlet  of  the  M'a.  about  2  m.  in  length  by  1  in 
bn>aflth,  fomiing  an  excxdlunt  liarlKiur,  having 
fnmi  0  to  I'A  fathoms  water.  Two  conical  insular 
hills  lying  in  the  mouth  of  the  hay,  and  inter- 
<'«'l)iingtlie  view  of  the  sea,  make  the  harlKuir  l(Kik 
]aiid-)ock(-d.  ( 'nniplM-lton  was  at  one  time  a  small 
lisliing  \  illage  under  the  nanu;  o(  Dahinum;  but 
liaving  iH'gtni  to  rise  into  im]M>rtance,  it  was  made 
a  royal  burgh  in  17(m»,  when  its  prewMit  name  was 
conferred  on  it  in  htmour  of  the  noble  family  of 
Argyle,  on  whose  projHTly  it  is  built.  The  jjari. 
Ixiundaries  of  the  Imrgh  are  very  extensive,  in- 
cluding the  entin>  parish.  The  annual  value  of 
ri'al  pro|H-r1y  in  the  burgh  amounttnl  to  l4.'tH7I.  in 
JHi; !-,'>;  coqMiration  reveinie,  inel.  harlKiur.  2,121/. 
(.'ampbelton  li.'is  numerous  clisrilleries  and  malt 
kilns.  Thi*  inhab.  also  engage  extensively  in  the 
lierring  f1sher\-.  ('oal  is  got  within  4  m,  of  the 
bui^h.  and  Is  bmught  thither  by  means  of  a  canal. 
Then»  is  a  giHMl  quay  jtrojecting  into  the  bay,  but 
accessible  only  at  high  water.  Uegular  steam 
connnunication  exists  with  (Jlasgitw  and  various 
parts  of  th«;  mninlnnd.  as  als«).  though  less  fre- 
cpKMitly,  with  Ireland.  The  climate  oi  (amplK'lton, 
though  moist  iu  the  extreme,  is  mild;  and  re- 
garde<l  as  ]»arricularly  sahibrious.  The  burgh  unite^t 
with  Oban.  InvenirA',  Irvine,  and  Ayr,  in  si'udinga 
mem.  to  the  II.  of  C.     liegistercd  electi»rs  22U  in 

CAMrEAdlY,  a  sea-port  town  of  Mexico,  \y. 
coast  of  the  {K'uinsula  of  Yucatan,  on  the  Kio 
Francis<.!o,  y.'>  m.  S.  by  W.  Meriila,  lat.  IIP  itV  10'' 
K.,  long.  01)0  2.S'  l.V'  W.  IVp.  Iluctuatcs  from 
about  7.000  to  about  M,(»(mi.  It  is  wnlled  and  «le- 
fen<led  bv  8om<»  fort i filiations,  wliit^h.  howcvt;r.  are 
of  little  imj^ortance.  It  has  a  pier  alKiur  oO  yds. 
in  length:  but  the  water  is  m  shallow  that  only 
Hmall  boats  can  come  up  to  it,  vessels  (if  conside- 
rable bunlen  anchoring  at  certain  distance8  off 
shoH",  according  ti>  their  draught  of  water.  It  is, 
in  conmion  with  the  whole  of  this  coiu-t,  ill-suj>- 
plied  with  fri-sh  water,  that  which  is  obtained  from 
wells  being  bnickish.  It  derives  its  entire  im- 
|)ortance  from  its  being  the  great  seat  {»f  the  U)g- 
wood  trade;  that  valuable  dye-w<.HMl,  sometimes 
chilled  C'ampcJichy  wo(»d  {Ilwinatoxylun  Cam- 
jMuchiaNiini),  being  found  in  greater  |K»rfe<!ti<m 
and  abundance  in  the  adjoining  district  than 
ajjv  where  else.  The  imjKirtrt  of  logwiHKl  into 
tins  countr>'  in  lH'M,  mostly  from  (.'ampeachy, 
amounted  to  it^iVAT  tons.  The  other  exports  are 
wax,  the  prixhice  of  wihl,  stingless  bees,  with  some 
Hmall  ijuantitic^^  of  cut  tun,  &c.    Cam[x:achy  WU8 


CANADA 

founded  in  1540,  and  PufTcretl  much  at  difRprnf 
times  fn)m  hostile  attacks,  having  Ikvh  sarkt^jl-v 
the  Knglish.  in  lt>5*J;  by  S*»<>tt,  u  inrate.  in  \iu*: 
and  by  the  buccanoew  in  ir»X;>. 

CAMrLT,  a  town  of  .SuitlK-ni  Italy,  pmv,  Ti- 
ramo,  can.  cant,  .'>  m.  N.  Teramo.  yo]K  O.-Vvi  it 
1  *<tI2.  1  he  t« »wn  has  a  cat h w  I r:i  1,  t h n-c  f  ■«  -Ile^nai 
chunrhes,  an  abU'v  of  (Vde«tiiie  monks,  scvrra. 
convents,  an  hosyiital,  anil  a  mttnt  t/r  pif.u. 

CAMTOIJASSO,  a  town  ofS^Mitheni  Italv.fti:- 
of  jirovince  of  same  nani«\  on  the  dix-li^iry  "t 
mountain,  .W  m.  NI\.  Xai»loii.  l*oi>.  12..*i'4  ii 
lw;->.  The  town  i«  fortitioti:  is  the  s*.'at  tf  a-.iii 
and  criminal  court :  and  hai<  a  ctdiegiate  an-l  i'"<i 
])arish  j'hurcheis  sevenil  convents,  a  n»y al  o»llt-j^ 
an  hospital,  .indan  almshouse.  Tlic  boyt  (.iii>r 
is  pn^ducetl  hero  ;  and  l>eing  travrrso«l  by  th«.  rx 
cellent  road  forming  a  C(»mminiirati<iii  U;tw{fi 
tiie  capital  and  the  townA  on  the  Adri;itic,  i:  n.i 
an  extensive  commerce. 

CA^IP<>FOKMI(),  a  town  of  Aib<trian  Itah 
i»n>v.  Friuli,  four  mihrs  SW.  I'lline.  Po]\.  1.'j> 
m  1«57.  The  town  is  famous  iu  hL<tor\-  for  tin 
treaty  of  peace  concludcti  here  on  the  17tL  i* 
October,  1797,  Ijctween  Austria  and  France. 

(AMPO-MAYOR,  a  foitifie*!  and  fn.ntier  luwi 
of  Portugal,  pn»v,  AlenttMt),  12  m.  NNK.  Eha.- 
and  15  m.  NW.  Kadajos.  Pop.  4,4C1  in  lx.>s.  Tiv 
town  is  ill-built,  with  narrti'w  dirty  strerts.  .iu 
old  low  houses;  lias  a  collegiate  church,  tw<i  i^o- 
vents,  an  hospital,  and  a  w'orkhoti!<e.  It  v« 
nearly  destroyeil  in  1712  by  the  exi>l»»siou  nf  i 
powder  magazine. 

C'AMPOS,  a  t4»wn  of  the  island  of  Majonra.  it 
an  extensive  plain,  22  ra.  SE.  I'tilma,  a«i':  T 
m.  from  the  sea.  Pop.  4,120  in  IKtT.  It  li.rs  L 
its  vicinity  a  hot  well  of  reynitatinn  :  and  con.-M»:- 
able  quantities  of  salt  are  made  al«in<j^  the  oixa 
Tl>e  surrounding  plain  is  very-  f<Ttile. 

CANADA,  a  vast  territory  of  N.  Amr-Hea.  l^^ 
longing  to  (in>at  Hritaui,  lying  princiimlly  in  » 
NK.  and  SW.  direction,  alon^  the  N.  sider.f  ihf 
St.  Laurence^  and  the  N.  and  E.  siil»*s  of  Likt» 
Ontario,  Krie,  Hurrm,  and  Superior,  bt»twcrn  y7' 
f)W  and  \)iP  W.  long.,  and  42^  and  52^  X.  lat.  Ir 
is  divided  into  l'p]>er  and  I^wor  Canada,  tlie  ani 
of  each,  and  ])opulation  accortlin^  tu  the  (.in?u:'  ••:' 
1W51,  being  aa  follows: — 


Upper  Canada 
Lower  Canada 


Arva 
Enir-  rq.  m. 

i4i.«"Nm 


ia  isot 

1, »•>;.• -n 
i.ni.w 


Total        .        34r,.S»iij  2..'>«.»7,«K.: 

Canada  is  Iwnnded  X.  by  the  Hudson  Ilay  terri- 
tory; E,  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  S.  by  likii 
Huron.  Ivrie,  Ontario,  the  St.  Lanrencc'and  tW 
Uniieil  States,  and  W.  by  Lake  Superior.  Tl? 
length  <»f  Canada  from  Amherstbur^,  nn  Dein-it 
river,  the  extreme  SW.  limit  of  the  pTi»v.,  t«i  Sai»- 
lon  Ilarlxnir,  on  the  strait  of  Belle  Isli*.  itsextn-iiK' 
XK.  limits  is  about  l..")20  m. :  its  brvadth  van*'* 
from  20t)  to  100  ni.  The  Ottawa  or  (inuid  Kivt-, 
which  has  it»  sources  in  about  48^  ^Y  X.  hit.,  spt  I 
80°  W.hmg.,  ami  tlows  in  an  ESE.  direction  ::ll 
it  imites  with  the  St.  Laurcmce,  near  Mi>nin-1.. 
forms  ne.irly  hi  it^  whole  extent,  the  line  I'l  lii'- 
marcation  lictween  the  t^vopmvs* ;  l^wer  Ciiti.U 
com|)rLsing  the  whole  te.mton'  Iving  XK.  of  tlh; 
Ottawa,  on  both  sides  of  the  St.  l^urcnce:  wlr.r 
rpp<T  Canada  comprifiies  all  the  tenitnrk-  hii:*:  N 
and  W.  of  that  river.  The  latter  is  entirely  an  iii- 
I  land  prov. ;  but  from  itn  havmg  the  gn.'Lt  L-di^ 
and  a  part  of  the  St.  Laurence  for  its  iMumdan'.  ii 
h.ts  a  vast  command  of  internal  uavij^ation.  afiili 
ready  access  to  the  ocean. 
The  origin  of  the  iiopulatiun  of  Upper  and  Lvvtr 


CANADA 


623 


Canada  is  thus  8tato<l  in  the  census  returns  of 


Origin 

England  and  Wales  . 

IM.'ijm 

13,179 

.Scotland    .... 

98,792 

13,204 

In'lftud       .... 

191,W1 

fiO,337 

Natives*  of  Cannula    . 

Not  of  French  origin  . 

869,S92 

167.949 

Of  French  origin 

83.-.'H7 

847,615 

Unittxl  States    . 

(K>,7M 

13,648 

Nova  Scotia  and  Prince) 
E^Iward  Inland       .        ) 

4,383 

977 

New  IJmnswick 

3,214 

8.'J2 

Newfoundland  . 

4H7 

232 

West  Indies 

f>32 

137 

Ka0t  Indies 

203 

49 

France       .... 

2,389 

949 

I'nm^ia,  Cfennan  States, ) 
and  Holland  .        .        ) 

22,90C 

672 

Italy  and  Gro<!Oo 

104 

114 

Kpuin  and  rortiipral  . 

96 

M 

fiwi-den  and  Non^-ay 

2C1 

229 

Ruii'iia  and  Poland    . 

U\ 

ri6 

Switzerland       .    •    . 

617 

81 

Guernsey.    Jersey ,    and) 
other  British  Islands     j* 

C29 

628 

All  other  places 

Ml 

128 

At  i*<4% 

323 

61 

Not  known 

1,39A 

414 

Total      . 

1,396,091 

1,111,C66 

The  X.  iMirtion  of  lK>th  U|)jxt  and  I<,owcr  Canada 
eonsisls  or  a  tuMu  land,  little  of  which  has  Ik^cu 
liithcrto  explored.  In  Cpjier  Canada,  E.  of  Huron, 
it  ]ia«  an  avera^^c  elevation  of  iicrliai)8  from  1.200 
to  1,.')00  ft.  It  is  covered  with  forests,  inttrspiTsetl 
witli  ravines,  sw^amits,  and  torrents;  and  alMuinds 
witli  lakes,  w^hith.  anx-Avhcre  but  in  the  neif^hlxmr- 
InkmI  of  the  immense  Likes  of  this  continent,  would 
\to  deemed  of  conj*idcrahle  size.  The  coast  of 
TiOwerCana<ia,  NE.  of  the  Sa^uenay,  is  less  lofty 
than  S\V.  of  that  river;  but  of  a  very  uninviting 
desi^ilition.  The  interior  of  this  i>art  of  the 
<>oimtry  is  described  by  the  Indians  and  Esqui- 
maux, by  whom  alone  it  is  traverse<l.  as  com|K)sed 
of  n»cky  cliffs  and  low  hills,  scattered  over  barren 
]>Iains,  diversilied  with  thick  fon*sts  of  stunted 
pines,  and  checquer(Hl  with  small  lakes.  There 
K*ems  reason  to  susjMM't  that  the  exi)ectati(ins 
once  entt-rtainw!  of  finding  here  tracts  of  culti- 
vable lan<l  will  never  be  realise<l ;  but  ho|>es  are 
still  eherij*hed  that  the  district  may  cijntain  valu- 
able minerals.  Fn»m  tlie  mouth  of  the  Saguenay 
tt»  Cai)e  Tounne.nt,  near  Quebec,  the  shore  of  the' 
St.  I^urence  is  Ijohl  and  desolate;  but  W.  of  this 
point  a  plain  country  begins  to  extend  inland, 
with  a  variable  breadth  of  from  15  to  40  m.,  rising 
int«>  the  table-land  iKrhind  it  bv  successive  terraces. 
The  cultivated  country*  N.  ofQuelxJC  df»es  not  ex- 
tend far,  lieing  hemmed  in  by  hill  ranges.  But 
as  these  ranges  gradually  receile  from  the  St.  Lau- 
rence, ami  the  countrv,  at  lirst  diversilied  bv 
varied  eminences,  sinks  into  a  level  ^ilain,  the 
surface  of  settled  and  cultivate<l  land  nicrea.^es; 
and  this  is  especially  the  ca>e  as  we  approach  and 
]>en«trate  rpjK'r  Canada.  The  peninsula  or  great 
plain  of  this  prov.,  l)etween  lakes  lliuron,  Flrie,  and 
<  )ntario,  c<jmprising  alK)ut  20,i)00  scj.  m.,  consL^ts, 
for  the  nu^t  ])art.  of  alluvial  soil,  on  a  calcareous 
substratum.  It  is  <»f  var\'mg  fertility ;  but,  on  the 
wh{»le,  in  l)elieved  to  l)e  the  l>est  grain  country  of 
any  of  the  more  N.  portions  of  tlie  American  con- 
tinent. A  hirge  {lart  of  tliL*  fine  plain  is  still  co- 
vered with  lofty  forests :  it  has,  however,  Si)me 
]iniiries,  or  natural  meadows ;  but  these  are  nttt 
extensive.  At  s<ime  remote  peri<»d  it  hail  evi- 
<lently  fonn(>4l  [»art  of  the  bed  of  a  vast  inland  sea, 
of  which  the  live  gn.*at   lakes  having  been  the 


deepest,  are  now  the  principal  remaining  portions 
\.  of  lake  Ontario,  two  terraces  iuter\*ene  between 
the  plain  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  and  the  table- 
land in  the  X.,  decreasing  somewhat  in  fertility  as 
they  increase  in  height,  and  8e]Nirated  fn)m  each 
other  and  from  the  plain  by  two  ranges  of  hills  of 
mixlerate  clevatioru  Tlie  most  S.  of  these  two 
ranges  imites  near  long.  80°  with  a  third,  which 
passes  N.  and  S.  from  Natawasanga  Bay,  in  Lake 
Huron,  to  the  \V.  extremity  of  Lake  Ontario. 
The  combined  range,  after  encircling  the  heatl  t>f 
the  latter  lake,  crosses  the  beil  of  the  Xiagara 
river,  forming  the  ledge  over  which  are  the  cele- 
brated falUt,  an<l  is  finally  lost  in  the  territory  of 
the  Unitetl  States. 

That  j)art  of  Lower  Canada  S.  of  the  St,  T^u- 
rcuce,  extending  l»etween  long.  72^  BO'  and  74^30', 
and  entering  into  the  distr.  of  Montreal,  consists, 
for  the  most  f>art,  of  an  extended  plain  alnu>st 
Completely  fiat,  except  that  some  detached  hilla 
diversify  tlie  surface,  one  of  which,  that  of  Kou- 
ville,  is  1,000  ft.  in  height.  It  is  less  extensive 
tlian  the  plain  on  the  opposite  shore  of  the  river, 
and  contains  no  large  towns,  but  it  is  in  many 
districts  equally  fertile  and  well  watered,  and  the 
cities  are  de})endeut  on  it  for  a  large  proportion  of 
their  su]^lies.  To  the  S.  and  E.  it  ascends  by  de- 
grees into  the  mountainous  region,  forming  the 
Isiundarv  between  the  British  and  Unitwl  States 
territories.  The  aspect  of  tlie  S.  8h6re  of  the  awtu- 
ar\'  of  the  St.  Laurence,  between  long.  f»0°  30'  and 
72°,  though  bold  and  hilly,  is  Ufit  mountahious,  as 
on  the  opposite  shore;  and  the  hill  ranges  are  in- 
ter»|>ersed  with  vallevs  and  even  plains  of  some 
extent,  many  of  whicli,  fn»m  the  encouragement 
afforded  by  the  contiguous  markets  of  tlie  cap., 
have  been  brought  into  very  tolerable  cultivation. 
E.  of  Karoouniska,  the  country  is  diversitieil  by 
more  abrupt  eminences,  while  pop.  and  culture 
liecome  more  limited :  and  in  the  district  of  (ia^pd 
the  mountains  rise  into  two  chains  of  c<msiderablc 
elevation,  enclosing  between  them  a  lofty  table- 
land or  central  valley.  The  most  southerly  of 
these  chains  bounds  on  its  S.  side  the  valley  of 
the  Bistigouche  and  St,  John  rivers. 

Besides  the  great  lakes  indenting  the  W.  outline 
of  the  countPk',  Canada  contains  numerouH  minor, 
yet  still  considerable,  btslies  of  water.  In  I^>wcr 
(.'anada,  the  lakes  and  rivers  have  been  estimated 
U)  cover  3,200  sq.  m.  of  surface ;  the  principal  of 
the  former  hitherto  discovered  arc  Lake  St.  Jolin, 
with  an  area  of  540  m).  m. ;  tlutae  of  Manii'ouagan, 
Piretibbe,  and  others  X.  of  the  Su  I-^auivnce^  and 
Mephramagog,  S.  <if  that  river.  In  Upper  ( 'anada, 
the  chief  are  Xipissing  Ijike,  Temisc*aniing  aiul 
St.  Aim's,  in  the  high  table-hind;  and  the  Simcoe 
Lake  in  tlie  up[>er  terrace  couutr>'  of  the  Homo 
district. 

Amongst  the  rivers  falling  into  the  St.  Laiurencc, 
or  into  the  lakes  which  form  a  [Mirt  of  its  svstem, 
there  are  some  deserving  of  esiiecial  mention  for 
their  utility  as  regards  navigation,  or  their  agency 
in  fertilising  the  soil.  In  the  peninsula  of  IJpiier 
('ainubi,  the  'Iliames  originates  in  the  district  of 
London,  by  the  union  of  several  stn^ams,  near  lat. 
43°  and  h)ng.  Hl°,  and  after  a  course  of  abtmt  150 
m.  chiefiy  S\V.,  falls  into  Lake  St.  Clair,  situate<l 
l>etween  lakes  Hun>ii  and  Erie.  Tlie  'Fliames  is 
navigable  for  large  vessels  to  Chatham,  1 5  in.  uj), 
and  for  boats  nearly  to  its  source.  It  intersects 
and  waters  a  fine  and  fertile  country.  Besides 
Chatham,  small  towns,  with  the  pompous  names 
of  London  and  Oxford,  are  situated  ufion  its  banks. 
Xext  m  magnitude  to  the  Thames  is  the  Ouse. 
This  river  rises  in  the  Home  district,  alxiut  lat. 
44°,  long.  80°  10',  runs  generally  SE.,  and  falls 
into  Lake  Eric  near  its  XE.  cxticmity.    Parallel 


(.21  r.VNADA 

l>i  ll.i>  liiir  <!>r  nlH.m  .'ii  iii..  mix  Hf  n'l-llniiil  <>r'  fumHT  (iimIit  K>riiiuii 

r"l!'-1  iiMiirli" 'i»-  '■ni'C!'  <a  «iii<'li  ilii-  f:ilN  ,f' im.l  Uiimi^  I'm  f 
SuKHin  nn-  o\.i\.-l.  'I  In'  Tntii.  iii  ilii'  •liMii.i  '  ii;.'ri<iilliinil  iii>Tati" 
■  r  NiHiii-lli'.  iiiiiii^l-  llii'  -mull  IjiLi"-  IbiUini,  i-  m.l  kfi  in  tlic  n 
SiiirL:iiiii,  mill  >i-ii-rii1  ■■iIii'P'  in  ll ]i>rr  Irinuv    |.rr]ianitii>ii  ••(  (Itr  |f 

<!.i,i'-.''il'i.i'liiiri:i"ii'-,'irii'iii.  ili.'  Itiiv  i.r  ■.hiiiil-' in  i-Ti>  l.nmiin'n)-n.ii.i 
l.il.i'  I  ii.inriii.  Il  i-  •aul  I"  ■•'  iiii\  i.-iiM-  riTln-nK  KTiliiirkiiii:  .iii<lT< 
ill  ilir  wL.li'  kI  il-  O'lir-'.     I  I.I'  IJiki'  Ibil-Riii  i-    Iht-  h-Hiun-..  (4'  rlii 


i,(;i.iu.iv^ 


nitli  till' 


1.-1 


ii.'.iii.<n    In  iIk'  liitiT  rill'  H' 


',1  v'lnlill'i-  ii'.«'' 

iniiiiliil  iiilv  l»-  till'  iiiii-ni'iiiiiiii  kT  tlii-  hliiifi  i<  uiiii'riillt- MIit; 

l«rliikiMiiiit'l'v'tlii-  raiiiili.  i>f  ll.i-  Slim,  n  Ili- ll  iniiirxM- lininirln  t 

iii.-r  I".  \,i.m\\  r.  ii.>  tih'M'  llimi  ::>i  m.  in  Im^illi.  Mi-t  >.|  tlir  iiiu-i 

'll.i'  •.lli-r  ni'liiriil-  i>l'  llii-  M.  Ijiimiiii-  jiml  iW   I'lima r  (hi-  inT 

l:i  M  I-,'  St.,  ii'.i    mi.'l:i-ii^.'      '       '' "  '  ' '  '  "    ' 


r.rilv  I 


,1  !»[]> 


«'lii.'li  I-.1II 
..  rlinli 

ill  I'm ui 


r   flirvi 


..t'llli-x'l. 


, .  Dii'lni^     .,     __ 

(11411  i-xin-ini'i- lit  tu HI  Bii.li'i'UI:  ilK'Hii-niixnutiT' iii^Mittaln  ilip  Mini 
niii!;iii^'  Ix'tHtiTi  li'^''a1-iv,  miil  :il/^  li'lmr.  tli>'  Sinli'i..  iu>r  tlmirihli 
yi-ri'ii'l  Kiilir.     In  -ii-'li  nii  iMi'iiflvi- nviim  tlii-ri'    tnlilv:   (liP   )rtiii'  h 

i^,i.fi'i>ur4'.M4 lirnniii'i'  in  llii>.n'p|«i'1  ■.  n"  wi'    iTiruniiK  nic  tin- 1 

o«^iiil  llii'  M.  l.iiiiMiii'.  iiM  inily  :i  iiuiri'  S.  \i\   '  iiiiit.     Aiiii'nK-t  v«i 
nilli'l  i>  n-ni'lii'il.  I'll!  Ilii'  i-oiinirv  i>  Uw  hiM  i.iul    il..'  rilvi'i 
i-xi'.™.!  Dm. 


ll   lliiiii   ll.ut    iiriir   11-  itiimiiiv:   f  il.iil.  nniliiin  iiinii^  wliiii 

(.iiii.|>i'i'  hill.  Ui.ii  M'iii  ti<  linvi'  till'  Mil r  tiiii|.|i',  fdn-h.  AtniTi 

ri>.  r.>:.l  il,.'  hiiui  r  .f  IVKT-Inn;,  tin-  i:nM  iv...  nr  tlini'  -Ihtu-i 

rijiU.'i:ri.'l.i:~ilii'.liiii:.t<-..r|-1.ilii'l<'li'lii  


nil  ill 


.1  U' 


t.i  iiii'i\i'ni;;i'il<l'ilii'r.'ii'riti1. 1'ViiH'w.  liTfiuir  iiri'  ii.iniinin  tn  I'ai 
«rliv.'  iii.>iiil>'  nr  I'vi  r\  i.:ir.    Ir..-!^  iiniiiUv  ii.iii-  '  riirtliiT  i>.  tlir  .'^.  Hi 

iiii'iHi'iii(iil..«liil-;'i]ii'Hi':illiT.l.fil:iy.i' riill    ili..   hid mm-r 

ii.iM  nihl  M-nnr,  llnl  uiili  N.>i.  N-uiiir  ii  "iii'iv;.-  ,  Kiiiiir-ii-WixlTiTln 
Fi.>ii>.f-ii..iv-1>inii-iiii<ltiiu[.>.-t'.fr<'inll'-N.iiiiil  tl.i'  nv<it't  mnia.i 
i:..  i»-.'..iii|4iiiiril  Iv  11  cn'iil  ii:i'i.».i'  ..r  i'.>l.l:  ilirl  -l.rilK  «lii.'li  liii.l  I 
lliij>-'r>'rH>iiili"rii>iiallvi'<'n[imi<''>t<.l1i<-rii'<'ii.l  iik'-i  |.iit  ti.  n.itn' 
iTil.ir.l«i'-ki.n)<i'..v>].iiilli<  :iiiiiiL-|.:iTi'ii:.Min    (II  ill.' Miiallit  i.lni 

111-. <  riTiHi,  Imt  Ilii-iiiM  MilliiiiT.'iiitiiiM'.i.ii.U'  iiiili.nl  m.  |»'ul 

lliui  llii'riv(i^lii'.'iiii'.|i.lil.'nlvJ'r./.'[i..itT.  Ti-  in  iii.'.'t  i.f  IW;!!!)!!!! 
wanL>  111.'  tntliT  i.;irt  i4  .Vi.ril,  .T.  in  l:iii.  ..<  n^iw.  MnXwn  fi-.l  1..  I 
■111'  Ih  ^iiiiiiii;.'  .f^lnv.  ili-Vv  l<'Kiiis  ll.  I'niiL  uii; '  liulimi  iriU~).  iin  ~ 


iIh. 


Ml    llllll 


111  t)H' 


iin'.i'i'iM'.ruillvn.'i.li.tli.-liiiulniiii'i'iit'llri'liiniiiT, '  tni'-ri'iilii^ilinTr 
«liiwi'  »'.nl.|iin,'  llii.  i.  ll..  I'.'  ii,ll..««l  I'V  liiin-t'.'-t  Miiw  FEiil  I'.WiT-  tin 
imHTili  ill..  I'iiil  .irAiu.i:  1.1)1  ii-uiiUy  ilii'  hiiiij-    liii.'iitlyiiiiliin^l:  tti 

iin.l  viiiil:  ■.r'tlii'i'n'iiiillii^»iii>lH.lli.u''i'rr.niil.i''hli.>ii  ilinmcli  lurii 
SW,  :in'  ii-ii»1ly  i  '^-"iiiijiiiii-il  liy  .'Irnr  nml .-  n  ly  _  >.i|i  U'iii):  ri'ivii-nl  il 

il.  iiiiiiiur.nn'l  ni..«  in  ninuV;  nliil.-i  n  N'\V..iiili>  n  linnl  xili.l  T 
I'll.*"  i-  iwiillv   ilry.  Hitli   -n-m-   I'.'l.l.      l-u;,'.  ^  wlii.li  i-  nnmliliil 

•a.  i'lrn'iK-i' ;  il'i.n'.  li.>Hi'iir."tI.iT  nn- vmVnva-  iLl')ff.>li'i«'.l  ft.in 
Init.  mill  -■riini-'ly  xl-.-lni.-l  tin-  iiav'.;.'.i<i'o'i  i.r  lIu' ,  r<ik  (ir.iuiii.i.'iii  tlic 

iin-  ^.TiMliiiiiiv  I—    i-iin-i.*-  I-  iini.f'n<- 


i.  iiilnili.  Il'iit 


1.  Ilii-  .l"nR.ii.'i'  (.^l^i'i:.^' 
M.'iili.f<'nliiv.ii.-.l  Hirl'...'.- 
t  I'lininli-  (.'.jKiiiilli-  ..f  liui 
Viiiiiioi,llnit.  inliini,  r.'a.'t 


CANADA 


625 


hoar«  wolf,  fox,  wild  cat,  racoon,  martin,  otter,  and 
various  sjHJciesof  Vicerra  and  JluatrUt ;  the  beaver, 
liare,  )^y  and  rod  squirrel ;  and,  in  the  more  south- 
em  iiartjs  the  buffalo  and  roebuck :  the  twars 
usually  hybemate,  if  the  season  haa  enabled  tliem 
to  pet  sufficiently  fat  for  the  purpose ;  if  n<»t,  they 
mif^rate  to  a  more  southerly  climate.  (Kichard- 
son's  Fauna  Boreal  is,  p.  16.)  Amonj^t  the  birds, 
may  be  notice<l  the  wild  pi/7eon,  quail,  partridge, 
aiul  different  kinds  of  gnmse ;  of  the  water  birds, 
the  specries  are  very  numerous,  as  mip^ht  I>e  inferred 
fmm  the  general  character  of  the  region,  where, 
in  the  basin  of  the  St  Laurence,  and  the  nume- 
rous lakes  occupying  the  elevate<l  table-lands 
around  it.  half  the  fresh  water  on  the  surface  of 
the  globe  is  collected ;  ahummingbird  (the  smallest 
of  its  genus)  is  also  indigenous,  and  may  he  seen 
in  the  Queliec  gardens,  flitting  round  the  tiowers, 
and  constantly  on  the  wuig.  Amongst  the  rep- 
tiles, the  rattlesnake  is  occasionally  met  witti. 
Fish,  in  great  variety  and  abundance,  are  found  in 
the  lakes  and  rivers ;  in  which  respect  few  streams 
can  rival  the  St  I^urence :  the  sturgeon  is  common, 
and  the  salmon  and  herring  fisheries  are  consider- 
able :  seals  are  also  met  with  occasionally,  in  large 
shoalM,  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  river.  Forests 
can  only  exist  where  the  prevailing  winds  bring 
with  them  sufficient  moisture,  but  they  may 
usually  be  taken  as  a  measure  of  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  no  less  than  of  the  humidity  of  the  cli- 
mate :  in  this  respect  therefore,  taken  generally, 
('anada  must  be  considered  a  fertile  region;  the 
upper  province  much  more  so  than  the  lower. 
ToiMicco,  hemp,  Hax,  and  the  different  kinds  of 
grain  and  of  pulse,  are  successfully  cultivated ;  as 
are  all  the  commoner  fruita  and  vegetables  of 
England ;  melons  of  different  species  alNiund,  and 
are  i)rol>ably  indigenous ;  as  are  also  the  straw- 
liorr>'  and  ras|>berry:  these  last  flourish  luxuri- 
antlv  in  the  wotxls;  and  on  the  plains  behind 
(jueW  are  gatliere<l  in  great  quantities,  and  taken 
to  that  market  Pears  and  apples  succee<l  well, 
iMilh  there  and  at  Montreal;  and  on  the  shon'S  of 
Lake  Erie,  the  grai^e.  peach,  and  nectarine,  as  well 
am  all  the  hanlier  kuids  of  fruit,  arrive  at  the 
gn»atest  i)erfection. 

Canada  is  supposed  to  be  rich  in  minerals;  iron 
and  coi>i)er  ore  almund  in  some  districts;  veins pf 
silver-leatl  have  l)een  met  with  in  St.  Paul's  llay 
(50  m.  t>elow  Quel )ec).  and  coals,  salt,  and  sulphur, 
are  known  to  exist  in  the  colony.  Xo  volcanos 
have  been  discovered,  but  authentic  accounts  are 
pn'servetl  of  several  violent  earth()uakes;  amongst 
others,  one  in  1GG3,  when  tremendous  convulsions, 
lasting  for  six  months,  extended  fn>ro  (^eliec  to 
Tadeausac  (130  m.  below  it),  which  broke  up  the 
id.'  (»r  the  rivers,  and  caused  many  great  land-slips 
and  dish K.*at ions.  In  1791,  earthquakes  were  also 
freciiient  and  violent  in  the  same  n^ion ;  and  the 
shores,  tK>th  of  the  (]ulf  and  Kiver  St.  I^aurencc 
(like  those  of  the  great  lakes,  oa  previously  notianl), 

{iresent  many  pnMtfs  of  fonner  convulsions  in  the 
lorizontal  banks  of  recent  shingle  and  shelK  and 
in  elevated  limestone  strata,  with  wave-sc<M>])ed 
marks,  and  lithodomous  perforations,  that  oirur 
on  various  laata  of  the  shores.  (Lyell's  Geologj', 
vol.  ii.) 

Pevpie, — The  majority  of  the  population  of 
Lower  Canada  are  of  French  origin,  a»  will  be  seen 
fn>m  the  ]H)i>idation  tables  given  alcove.  These 
Fn>nch-siK>aking  nihabitantn  are  for  the  most  {Mut 
descendautis  of  settlers  from  Normandv,  established 
in  the  colony  previously  to  IT.VJ.  'fheir  number 
at  that  peritld  was  about  70,0<M»,  and  in  IWil  they 
had  increase<l  (according  to  the  census)  t4)  M47,G1.5. 
M either  the  conquest,  nor  the  long  {K'riod  which 
has  since  clapeed,  has  wrought  any  great  change 

Vou  L 


in  their  character  and  habits ;  nor  has  their  in- 
creasing numbers  induce<l  them  to  make  any 
considerable  encroachments  on  tlic  wildemeaa 
an>und :  on  tlie  contrark*,  they  have  continued 
within  their  original  limits,  subdividing  the  land 
more  and  more,  and  sulimitting  to  a  constantly 
decreasing  ratio  of  comfort  Tliey  are  irug^, 
honesty  industrious,  and  hospitable,  but  cling  i^ith 
unreasoning  tenacity  to  ancient  prejudices  and 
customs;  bv  t«m{)mroent  cheerful,  social,  en- 
gaging, and  (from  the  highest  to  the  lowest) 
distinguished  for  courtesy  and  real  politeness, 
they  retain  all  the  essential  characteristics  of  the 
French  provinces  previously  to  the  revolution, 
and  present  the  spectacle  of  an  old  stationary 
society,  in  a  new  and  progressive  world.  A  few 
seignioral  families  possess  large,  but  not  very  valu- 
able, |)roi)erties :  the  class  wholly  dependent  on 
wages  is  a  very  small  one ;  and  the  gR'at  majority 
consists  of  a  lianl- working  yeomanry  (usually 
calleil  habHaH*)t  amongst  whom  there  is  almost  a 
universal  equality  of  condition  and  property,  and 
of  ignorance  too;  for  few  of  them  can  read  or 
write.  From  the  public  colleges  and  seminaries 
established  in  the  cities  and  other  central  points 
by  the  early  i)ossess<irs  of  the  countr>',  chieny  by 
the  Jesuits  (where  the  education  resembles  that  of 
our  public  grammar-schools,  and  is  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  Catholic  clerg>')«  between  200  and 
3(K)  annually  finish  their  education,  and  are  dift- 
[)er8ed  thnmgh  the  community  :  nearly  the  whole 
of  these  are  of  the  class  ofhabitantt  and  return  to  re- 
side amongst  them,  mostly  as  notaries  or  surgeons; 
and  thus,  living  on  t<*rms  of  complete  social  equal- 
ity, though  with  greatly  sufierior  knowledge,  in 
communities}  which  possess  nothing  in  the  shajw  of 
municipal  institutions,  they  possess  almost  despotic 
influence  over  popular  opinion  and  c<mduct  in  all 
public  matters.  1  he  halntamt  under  the  old  feudal 
tenures  have  cleared  two  or  thnH)*  belt8  of  land 
along  the  St.  I^urence,  and  cultivate  them  on  the 
worst  system  of  small  farming ;  their  farms  and 
residences  Wing  all  so  connected,  that  the  country 
of  the  seigniories  apix>aTs  like  a  continuous  tillage. 
Tliey  spin  and  weave  their  own  wool  and  flax,  and 
make  their  own  soaji,  candlef^  and  sugar.  What 
energ>'  and  enteqtrise  there  exist  in  the  commu- 
nity (l)eyond  the  portion  requireil  by  this  sort  of 
routine)  is  exerted  in  the  fur  trade  and  in  hunting, 
which,  it  a[ii)ean«,  they  still  monopolise  through 
the  whole  valley  (»f  the  MississippL  (I^ord  Dur- 
ham's Report,  pp.  11 — 13.)  The  Anglo-Saxon 
portion  of  the  population  of  Lowct  Canada  consists 
almost  whi>lly  of  |M.'rson8  who  have  emigrated 
fh>m  the  United  Kingdom,  or  the  descendants  of 
such,  sul)se<iuent  to  17.')9.  A  considerable  addition 
was  made  to  their  numbers  by  U.  S.  loyalists  in 
1 7H7 :  at  a  sutiseiiuent  })eriod  many  families  from 
Vermont  have  settled  m  the  townships  adjoining 
that  state,  and  since  the  formation  of  tne  American 
Land  Comitany  many  have  emigrated  through 
their  exertions.  A  maj<irity  of  the  lalwuring 
class  in  this  portion  of  the  population  are  Irish 
Catholics ;  the  rest  are  English  or  Scotch  Protes- 
tants, by  whom  the  resources  of  the  countr\',  so 
far  as  they  have  been  called  forth,  have  been 
mainly  deyeloi)e<L  It  is  also  by  these  that  the 
internal  and  foreign  commerce  has  lK^en  crealetl, 
which  is  wholly  in  their  haufls,  aa  well  as  a  largo 
portion  of  the  retail  trade  of  the  province ;  besides 
this,  they  po«s(>ss  the  I)est  cultivated  farms  in  the 
prrmnce,  and  are  owners  of  fully  half  the  more 
valuable  seigniories.  (Lord  Durham's  Report  p.  14.) 
Tlie  inhabitants  of  the  upper  province  ctmsist 
principally  of  emigrants  fmm  the  U.  Kingdom, 
and  from  (iermany  and  Holland.  A  large  pru])«ir- 
tion  of  the  emigration  uf  IreUnd  has  of  late  been 

S  S 


G26  CANADA 

dirortoil  to  tho  shoms  of  rnnada,  a«  will  bo  won  |  ami  scrviops,  the  omipiore  wen?  iMnuid,  «5  it  w<»r?. 
by  a  jrlam-o  ar  tin*  tablo  ubovi-  ^'iv<Mi,  Nhnwini;  rhe    to  a  miitiiH'  systnn.    Hein'o  the  Fri'iicli  Can^luiiit 

exhibit  a. <!>in^iil:ir want i>f activity  iinil  enteqtri^; 


ciripn  of  ]Mi)iuIation.  Many  <if  I  he  i-ini^rantH  who 
land  at  QuoIkm'  ultimately  KOt tic  in  tho  T.  Staros, 
whili'  a  r(ini]Mirativi'ly  small  numlM'r  of  thox'  who 
land  at  Now  York  inwl  their  way  to  Canada. 
< 'i)n-idorablo  numlM'rs  of  half-|Miy  «>tKoor!»  of  tho 
anny  antl  navy  havo  l»oon,  at  ditVon*nt  timo.s 
cstablishoil  in  l'.  <'anada.  If  wo  l(Mik  to  tho  woll- 
iK'in;:  of  tho  omi;4Tants.  whioh  is  tho  iirinoi]ial 
oonsidcnition,  it  is  not  niuoh  \o  lio  ri';^otlod  that 


and  the  iM>rtion  of  tho  pmv.  which  tlioy  oroipr 
ha*  a  donsjo  and  a  |KM>r  |M>p..  Mrcm^ly  nttaoLfl 
an  alnvidy  twcn,  to  anciont  haliits  and  modM  •.•f 
oxistonoo. 

Sinoo  tho  prov.  came  under  the  Bntiiih  ^veni- 
mont,  tho  planfl  under  which  land  has  l>een  p^u)l«tl 
and  sold  havo  diffort'd  very  wiiWly  at  diff.-n-Ll 
IktjikU.    Tho  LnmK  when  'sur\'cy€^il.  have  \tf*h 


HO  many  pn'fiT  tho  l'.  StatJ***.  Thon:  oan  Ik*  no  :  divid«'d  into  township.-^,  cnnslstin;;  each  of  al-mt 
doubt  that  tl>o  vjillcy  of  tho  M i.>«sirt.<ippi  otfors*  j  7o.o«m»  ;urrfs,  ox  6  ikt  cent,  fur  hiirh-wavs.  TIk 
preaiiT  advania^ros  to  industriouA  immi^rantN  townships  havo  l>oon  ^n^ntoil  in  many  nioiU'>.  dil- 
whothor  with  or  with(»ut  capital,  than  ran  l>o  «•»-  ferinf;  lM)th  in  thoir  clmraf*tor  and  object  :  Jt  iir>t. 
jovo<|  in  any  iwirt  of  Canada.  It  has  a  niihh'r  :  thoy  wore  frrant(.><l  to  sottlcry  in  fn.'e  and  c-onniiiHt 
ohmato,  a  Ix-ttor  and  a  ohoa|K»r  Miil.  and  in  fn'^' ■  S4iocafro.  with  a  n'*iorvation  to  n*suriie  alL  or  anv 
from  tho  j^n-aliT  numlKT  of  those  HfK*ial  ^criovani-^-s  part,  if  roquirr-d  for  military  piir|H»scs,  butMib}*vr 
that  disturb  ami  ondiittor  s4H-icty  in  CamuUi.  Tho  ,  to  no  other  conditions:  the  (inantity.  fut  ^n^Mt<->l 
wonder,  in  faet.  is  not  that  so  manv  of  tho  onii-  ;  iti  oaeh  indiviilual.  lK?in;;  limited  ti»*l(Ni  ai«n.-'if>r 
frrants  to  Canada  havo  left  it  for  tho  V.  States,  but    himsflf,  and  .'>0  aorot*  adilitiunal  for  each  nuiul<^r 


that  any  considerable  fKtrtiou  of  thorn  itluiuld  havo 
rt:mainod  U'liind. 


of  his  family;  tho  f;c»vomor  having  aiitliority  to 
in<TP«'a-*o  this  amount  l>y   l,iKM>  acroji^     Tlies*  fi- 


The  native  Indian  triU'w  still  occupy  ]K»rt ions  of  vourablo  terms  were  meant  tn  attrar^t  settlor*  fT"m 
this  ctilony  on  lakes  Su|»orior  and  Ilunm.  and  j  the c«>lonios.  which  now  furm  the  V.  States.  In  177j 
alon^  the  whole  extent  t<»wanls  tho  N.  iKiunilaries;  i  thi.o  arr:in/:r(.i]K>nt  was  t^upeniedeil,  and  tho  Qmrffx 
but  their  nundKTs  an>  rapidly  diminishing;,  ami  !  Act  of  th<;  preceding  year  having  rej!it4ired  tlitf 
they   an*   f;i.*t   <lep'noratin;;  fn»ni  their  original    Fn'uoh  ctNle  and  lanKuaire.  correHiHrndini;  iii>rn:i'- 


spirit  and  oharsirter,  so  thiit  tho  uttor- extinction    tions  wore  pvon,  that  future  ^runt8  i*hould  Ai,'ain 
of  the  race  soonis  iiu>vitablo.  as  civilisation  ad-    U' made  in  lief  and  heiKuii>r>'.  and  tkn>c  .teiiniiorlo^ 

"~ **      ■ "" '     —1:1-      -1-  -1—    ^.,.p^,  jj„jjj  (.rf.,|tt.d.     In    ifjil    the    n'^dalii*:i«  if 

17tUi  wore  rovivwl,  though  with  <*«.*rtain  conditi"U» 
anuoxoil  to  thorn,  which  in  pracrii.-e  wen»  avoiiKi;: 
and  this  mode  continued  till  iS'2*)  :  but  the  uti- 


vances  on  I  ho  wildonu'ss,  to  i%-hif:li  only  thoy 
a])iK.'ar  to  Ix*  .ndnptoil.  It  has  lM*<>n  said,  that 
without  aohanixo  in  their  nuMle  of  tn'atment.  *  tho 
fate  of  the  Inilijins  is  sealed.'  Ihit  the  truth  Ls 
that,  however  it   may   lie  chan^nl,  thoir  fato  is 


stitutional  act  f»f  17U1  alsu  enacted  that  a  itso.ne 


sealed.'     l^xju'rienee  has  sulliciently  pn»v«l  that    fi»r  tho  support  of  a  Pn>tostant  c1ot;;v  sliould  I* 
tho  n-il  men  an*  inca|>ablo  of  any  n*al  civilisation ;    ni.vlo,  in  n's|>ect  of  every  f^rant,  eqiLilin  value,  s* 
and  not  bin;;  can  prevent  their  oxtennination  other  j  near  as  could  \w  estimatotl,  to   l-7rh  jiart  of  ti.e 
than  tho  abiding;  by  a  dotonnination  luit  to  enter    land  f;rante<l.  Thecnmii  reservei*.  tna  likoextei.t, 
thoir  territi»rios,  or  t(»  intertero  in  any  dojrroe  with  j  originated  in  the  view  <if  supfdyinir.  tir-*!  bv  ^a^-3i 
thoirgrounds.  habits,  or  ]>ursuits.  Ihit  such  a  deter-  '  and  ultimately  by  rents,  an  indefiondent  miutcv  i^ 
niination  could  si-arcoly  lie  carried  out.     America    n*vonuo,  and  obviating  tlie  ncx-esjiitv  uf  taxes,  jnii 
has  Ik'ou   si'ttlod,  civilised,  and   iinprovo<l   only    couK^qnontly  of  such  <lLsputes  as  had  led  to  cb-j 
thniugh  ]H>riK'tual  encroachments  on  the  natives;    iudo])endonco.  of  the   U,  States.     These  n*si^n-i.s 
and  to  say  that  tlu-so  should  cease,  would  lie  to  '  however,  have  pn>vtrd  most    M^rioiLi*  olrktacks  t-i 
say  that  vast    trac'ts  of  tino  countr\'  Ahould  Ihj    the  welfare  of  iho  colony,  which  the  zni:^*on»:n]i'- 
doomotl  to  contimiod  luirl»arism.  tion,  or  violation,  of  the  act.  ha.'«  afr^Tsivalnl.  >iv 

Tenure  and  JJhtrihiifioH  of  lAind*. — The  land  inoro.'Lsing  thoir  extent  bevond  wlint  apjteai^  I'-.i 
comprisoil  in  tho  soignionil  di>tricts  of  Lower  havo  Ix'on  contemplated.  (Lord  Duriian]  s  Kof^-n. 
Canada  ami>unts  to  alniut  l),(H)0,iHNl  acri's;  of  thin  ApitemL  R,  pp.  0,  7.)  From  18(lti  di>wuwanJ.  »" 
last,  the!  whole  has  been  grantoil  by  tho  cn>wn,  now  toii-nshii^  werp  grantetl ;  and  the  grantji. »«! 
Hubjoct  to  an  obligation  to  cimcodo  to  actual  sot-  to  1H14,  were  in  h»t8  of  "ifK)  VicrcK,  toactnalsettlirr. 
tiers.  Tho  grants  made  by  the  FnMK'hgovonimont  and  few  in  numlKsr.  From  the  laj^t  date,  gnni^ 
previously  t«»  tho  irompiost  •  wore  on  one  uniform  '  wore  made  on  *  hK»ition  ticket*,'  ref|mring  xb? 
system.  Se'ujniorit*  (or  manors  containing  fnun  0  1  erection  of  a  house,  and  the  clearing-  and  oullivit- 
to  .30  j»q.  leagues)  won*  cn-atwl  in  favoiur  of  certain  ;  ing  four  acres,  before  the  title  was  jwrfectnL  In 
loading  individuals,  .who  wore  Ixnmd  to  grant ;  iH'iO  the  new  mfNle  of  selling  land  hy  auction,  at  s 
or  'ooMfrr/f '  a  s|K'citied  {Nirtion  to  any  applicant; ;  minimum  \i\)^t  prici*.  was  adopteil,'the  ]Hirclia.«^ 
tho  pnitlt,   to  the  seignior,  !>eing    derived  fn»m  .  money  being  ])ayablo  by  four  ainiual  ]nstalm^ti::<. 

without   inton»st.     In  'l«31   the  ]iun*ha4e-ntonfV 
was  to  lie  repaid  by  half-yearly  insitalinents:  Ai-l 
in  1837,  t<»  obviate  the  bad  effects  of  giving  cthIji 
on  such  sales,  the  imrchase-nioney  was  nia«lc  ]<av> 
able  at  the  time  or  sale.     Besides'the  grautji  nia'it 
under  these  different  regulations,  other  exreptii>nii 
ones  have  l)een  made— mostly  bi  rewarxl  of  jhiI.Ik 
ser\icos  :  such  as  those  to  the  militia  of  ihi-  n-w- 
lutionarj'  war,  and  of  that  of  1«12 — there  ha?  al-' 
lioen  an  exceptional  sale  of  nearly  8(H.t.('Mji)  junt^t'' 
the  British  N.  American  Land*  Coiupan%'.    Tl# 
crown  n»ser\'os  must  l»e  considered  as  %-irtu4llv 
abandoneil  when   the    auction  sale.4  were  ii:tr- 
dui^od  :  and  an  act  of  the  imjierial  legislature  ii.i* 
authoriseil  the  sale  <»f  l-4th  part    of  the  clrr*.T 
reser^'os,  at  a  rate  otit  exceeding    lHO^iMi  acrt- 
annually.    Lotterly,  however,  the  .Nvntem  for  tip- 


imymont  of  a  small  n-nt,  from  sor\'icea  which 
tho  cenxitnirr  (or  tenant)  was  lx>und  to  i»erform  ; 
fnmi  l-12lh  of  tho  com  ground  (by  compulsion) 
at  the  soigniond  mill;  and  from  a  fmc  on  the 
tmnsfon-nco  of  the  property  (other  than  by  in- 
heritance). 

This  sort  of  tenure,  copied  in  great  part  from 
tho  feudal  sy>tom  existing  in  Franco  previously  to 
tho  ikOVidution,  was  maintained  after  the  British 
acquired  |M)sse«*!*ion  of  tho  count r>'.  Tho  coii- 
M'rjuence  has  I>een  that  tho  French  |M>p.  has  lK?en 
contin<'d  to  a  comj wirat  ively  limited  extent  of  ter- 
ritory, and  has  n«>vor  am.algamatod  with  the  Brit- 
ish ;  f«»r.  by  oiuibling  every  individual  to  obtain  a 
ixirtion  of  land,  which,  as  tho  {Hip.  incroiisiMl, 
lie(\'ime  gnidually  loss,  with«iut  any  immediate 
outLiy,  young  men  were  Icmpteil  to  remain  at 
homo  ;  and  being  subject  to  feudal  r^datiuns   dispotwl  of  the  crowa  laiuLi  by  auctiun,  at  a  unl 


■ninimiim  prirp.  haii  txxn  enforced  in  Cuuula  u 
w«ll  u  in  the  oUitr  cDloniea. 

Of  Uw  yean  ■  revenue  hu  been  derived  from 
timher  property  in  both  proviDoa.  Originally  the 
ri|;ht  of  cutting  timber  vm  s  monopoly  in  the 
handa  oT  contrtctora,  for  nipplying  that  article 
for  the  n«n-,  irho  iuu«lly  aold  licenses  to  mcr- 
chanta  and  lumber-men,  bv  whom  all  the  1(««1 
tnule  iras  in  conaequeure  cufiTuaaed.  In  ]»H 
licen»e«  lo  cut  were  finit  offered  by  ((ovenimenl  by 
auction :  the  value  of  an  acre  of  timlier,  at  the 
|irice  chaijted  for  these,  i«  ofler  ven-  much  greater 
than  that  required  for  land,  andtheflrei  injtalment 
has  been  paid  frequently  for  land  solely  in  the 
view  of  cutting  down  the  timber.  The  Ottawa  is 
le  chief  scat  of  the  trade,  which  is  in  great 


CANADA 

lams  of  the  Colmial 
are  for  the  year  IHO'I : 


of 


ire.  fun 


land  fa 


dous  ;  and  which,  while  it  ia 


real  advanla^p!  to  Canada,  entails  a  heavy 
burden  on  Gnat  lintain. 

Lands  in  ihe  upper  prev.  have  been  ({lantcil  in 
Ihe  ume  way  as  in  the  lower ;  and  the  prefuse 
manner  in  which  these  grants  have  been  made, 

pemins  who  had  no  intention  of  settUng  upon 
them,  cuupled  with  llie  great  extent  of  Ihe  clergy 
anil  ntale  reserves,  has  had  a  moat  iigurious  inHu- 
enee  over  the  colony,  and  has  mateoally  retarded 
iX^  pRigren.  llie  lands  thus  given  away  to  indi- 
viduals not  settling  upon  them,  and  reiwrved,  by 
interposing  uncultivated  deitert  tracts  between  (he 


n  roads  and  other 


the  establishment  of  schools  and  chureheii,  and 
the  undertaking  of  public  worka  that  require  co- 
o|Ktatinn. 
The  extent  of  land  for  sale  at  the  end  of  1862 

h  Vpprr  Canaiia—CTom  lands,  after  deduct- 
ing Hies  and  free  grants,  and  adding  extent  sur- 
veyed, i,K3»,3£M  at'ieiv  clergy  lands  94,MW  acres, 
grammar  school  lands  51,714  acres,  and  cummuo 
wliiiil  lenda  a,7l<;  acres. 

Jn  Ijoirtr  ('(fwu^i — Crown  lands,  »n»r  deduct- 
ing xales  and  free  grants,  and  adding  extent  sur- 
veyed S,!Hlti^T  acres,  clergy  lands  il55,!KW  acres, 
miking  a  total  of  i,'iiM,'£Xi  acres  for  sale  in  Upper 
and  I.ower  Canada. 

The  number  of  acres  of  land  sold,  in  the  three 


,>_~-„ 

JT.. 

Z'Z 

Cnwn  1  Upper  Csnadn  . 
Lands   1  Lower  Canada. 

'^S. 

m?^  \  ^1,'iRs 

Total   .       .       . 

*\tMt 

B3I,7M    *M,S97 

ClirgT  J  rimer  Canada  . 
Lands  11^^  Canada  . 

'^Z 

T4.MS      »,77l 

Total  ..       . 

10T.«17J11S.B«5       M.KS| 

Couimon  School  Lands  . 

a.Wl|       VM          *.M9l 

Oremmar  9ch«l  Lands  . 

«.900  1      f.,7W  .      i.WM 

Total  .        . 

M3.««  1  Ki7,SeO    <0-5.1»* 

^ss 

.121 

No  of  Holding. — 

lOAcTMandundB' 

10     „            „           *IA 

*,8W 

ao    „           „         M 

•KX-.i 

«:md 

W.R91 

ino    .'.'         "      »o 

iH,M« 

3DD».dn]>»uds  . 

J^ 

1^ 

IO.Wi!Il8 

ll,w33lW 

s.osi.ait 

..     Crop.    .       . 

«,Kn,»M 

„     FolaliMS       . 

13*1.«« 

1,»6<1^ 

„     OanleniandOndiards. 

m»M 

Woods  and  Wild  Landi 

tfilUia 

7,MHJM 

Valoe  of  Farms  In  pound*  iter 

K.nixa 

tMM.lM 

l,tW,7t» 

(.UO.DM 

„     o(  Osrden  and  Orchard  1 
ITodow    .               i 

271.S97 

bji 

ni.m 

1KI,U1 

J 

lind  nndET  Crops  :— 

yall  Whr.1  .       . 

«1,7» 

Spring  Wb«c      . 

aw,w» 

Ilstley  . 

iu.ua 

Rye       ... 

TO,*?* 

0.1.    ■.     '.     ■. 

»u|lU3 

mjui 

Bm](whMil  . 

7I»,60II 

7iMt 

IndUoCon 

78J11S 

Polatoo.       .       . 

TuralpK 

MeniielWunrl    . 

l.WJ 

i/» 

No.  ol  Lire  Slock  :— 

Dull..  Oim.  and  ei«ri 

*ra.wi 

mfioi 

UUch  (Dowi . 

S97;6U 

MllnHS 

llonn  over  Ihrs.'  yesn 

old! 

jw,nflT 

MT.BM 

Colu  and  nilla  . 

OT.4IJI 

pi^  .'   .'   : 

'*«IJw? 

5v'™nV[irr.'(='ir-.'™u 

Canada,  as  already  staled,  is  Buppo«d  to 


TBl9, 


hlieloi 


gr..ui 


been  partially  explored.  Copper  ai 
at  present  the  cluef  produce  of  the  mincA.  The 
quantity  of  cimper  ore  exported  in  the  year  1868 
amounted  to  5,»G3  lo^^  while  of  pig  and  scnp 
iron  there  were  exported  !,4nH  tona.  About  two- 
ihirtls  of  the  opper  ore  and  the  whole  of  the 
ex|Kirts  of  iron  went  to  the  United  States,  the  re- 
maining cop[*r  bcingukenhyGrei'  "  *"  '  "  ■ 
the  produce  of  tli 


^grinltural  Slallilii:$.—T}it  actual  stale  of 
agriculture  in  both  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  is 
■boim  in  Ihe  antjoiued  table,  eoopUed  bom  ic- 


lalof 

of  agricultural  twoduceeiportedinlBfiU 

waa  above  li),OI>V,<)IMduUar^  and  that  of  Ihe  forest 
HJ  milliiiiui  1  while  the  i-alue  of  the  produce  of 
mines  waa  but  lUSMM  dollars,  and  that  of  manu- 
bcturing  induMiy  leiw  than  half  a  million. 

Cirmmtrtt  ana  Skij^itg^ — The  imports  of  Ca^ 
nada  on  the  average  exceed  the  cxjiurts  in  ralue. 

iThe  impons,  in    ItMW.  amounted  to  7,17B,C5iU. ; 

'  the  export*  lo  7,-Jli,97fi.  In  IWl,  the  imporla 
were  ol  Ihe  dndarol  value  of  )i,>K>l,7ulU:,  and  tba 
export*  of  7,6i7,9.>7{.  L*>lly,  in  W62,  the  im- 
ports amounted  to  10,12.'>,1.1:>/:,  and  the  exports  to 
liJjW.iail.  'llie  principal  imports  are  cotton  and 
woollen  manufactures  and  cotunial  goods,  while 
timber  and  agricultural  produce  comtitute  the 
chief  ex]iarts.  The  sulijoined  table  shows  the 
value  of  the  chief  articles  of  exports  during  tlie 
two  vean  1H61  aitd  1002  :— 


628 


F.«|'>rti 


11 


Aniiimls: 


(Viin  nnil  niillluii 
('f)p|Mr  On» 
Fii-h.  Drliil 

A<«hLi<,  I*ut 

IViirl 
TiiiiUT  :  Kim    . 
„         Oak    . 

Whiti'  riiM- 
„  \U-l  I'iui'  . 
„  Htaii'liinl  Stavii* 

UtluTMavi*^ 

riank-i^  Itiianlrt 
Ma-«t<4 
IIor!4>4 

IIoniiiK'uttlo. 

Slli-cl* 

PriMltirv  of  Aiiliiiuli' : 
Jfiitti-r    .        .        .        . 
K^trs       .... 

lIMfM  AlHl  IVltM        . 

I'firk       .        .        .        . 

WiMll         .... 

Furs        .        .        .        . 
Afrri<*iilturnl  Pnnliict"* : 
Itarli'V  aiKl  liyf 
Imliaii  Omi  . 
Ontrt        .        .        .        . 

I'tllS  .  .  .  . 

Whfut    .        .        .        . 
Klotir      .        .        .        . 
ManiifmniirM : 
lii«lia-rul>ber  . 


ti 


Iw  1 

|>i.nan 

44't.i:n» 
4-.*ii.<i.n 
•Jii:{,4.'il 
7n:i,'j-jK 

i:;4.77i» 
.V_is.!W7 

t!  I  K.I ;,'>:) 

y,is!>,7!»-.' 

l,.'.7o.:wi 

:w,li)I 

:wi. :.••!» 
Hi  I. -2711 
1  ll»  .-»:.•<» 

sll.niii 
}»:l,:(41 
1(i«;,l*.M 
4H7,.'pHH 
4:it,l!M) 

:nu,(;:l7 

1,4JJ7,:MK» 
7.4;:tt.H4H) 

f;.(ii4,tit^r> 


Dollan 

1TH.!«i7 

:;!»!».ii««rt 
;.7o.:{1»<» 

:.»».-'4i 

ai»-j.:.73 
.W7.:il7 

4.V-M1H 
•i.VI.Wl 

l,:l7.*i.:wm 

•-»,:J:i'i,7'.»tl 

74.17.-. 

(:«;t. :(.(:{ 

•.'S»!».!n»l 

:.lM--'7 

IM  7,724 

l.l:<i.77-.'  I 

.%:t.!»|o  I 

1.S4.748  1 

17o.-_M8 

7-il,s:J'>  ' 

I 

1/.W,».17 
4i».<i:>K 
(;4*i.t;>M 

7:J'..!»--»7 
r>.K4:{,K84 
34,781)     I 


Subjoined  w  a  statrmont  jjivinjr  the  niimU>raiid 
t4iiinn^e  of  vextiels  of  each  nation  whieh  entore<l 
and  cleared  at  the  outiM»rt8  of  Canada  in  the  year 
18«;J :— 


^^ 

Eiiifrtxl 

Vltund           1 

HatlontlltT  of 

_    .  - 



VmwU 

VltM-U 

1.5».V. 

Tom 

V«>M«-lt 
1,907 

Tont 

HrltNh      . 

K*.>.'i.  |0.'i 

812..V»t> 

Aim-ricon  (U.S.) 

4.'. 

1K,121» 

41 

17.92(; 

IdisKiaii     . 

.', 

'j.i:s'.» 

r> 

2.«S2 

Ni>ru-(>priaQ 

i:n 

/)7, :}!»:{ 

lift 

Wi,a22 

S\viili-li     . 

n 

l.:W«! 

.'{ 

l.:»2G 

HiiiiHP  Towns    . 

in 

♦;,--'2K 

]*\ 

fi,228  i 

Pniii'iHii    . 

20 

8.>«>7 

19 

SfitiH 

Fn-ncli 

2 

:{9 

:i 

04 

AiMtrian   . 

— 

- 

-  - 

— 

l*ortujrii<He 

."> 

Ho  4 

4 

e46 

Otlier  Porel(?n  \ 

c 

1,W0 

fi 

1.M!} 

Cuuutrius      > 
Total  . 

922,4:19 

*  f"* ' 

2,1H7 

2,128 

•  9«Hi,K47 

CANADA 

I  have  rwloimrte^l  mort.  in  the  end,  tn  the  advanLv 

of  the  ciiloiiy ;  inaAinncti  an  it  wrnild  have  ^Rklit^riy 

I  Mibvertetl  the  in<4titiititiii!i  aiid  lan^o^ 'if  Franiv. 

I  and  e^ta1llishl*d  in  their  ste.id  the  iiifHitiuitiCfai^! 

;  hni^na)^^  of  Enf;laii(L  But  the  <iueljec  Art  *i 
1774  intniiluired  a  new  anil  miTC  lilMTal.  hut  atlh;- 
Mime  time  a  s)uiit-fti^hte<l  policy.  If  (Vinada  irs* 
t«»  lie  pntfen'ed  nn  an  Kn^li^h  rnUmv.  it  *htiuld- 1« 
far  aM  {Mtssible,  have  licen  mailo  )-lii;;lL«h  in  i- 
I  law!«.  iti»  lan;^ia^>,  and  in  the  feelin}:>t  c-f  i)** 
i  I  fie<i|ile:  and  no  institution  tfhoiihl  have  lieen  t<>V- 
ratetl  tlint  nii^ht  have  iireventetl  the  joadiial  an! 
c«»m]dete  amal;;aDiati(>ii  of  the  French  uith  i^- 
Kn^'li^h  net  I  lew.  Tlie  J^iiehec  Act  unfonuDat«-iy 
priK'eeiled  on  totally  iiiflercnt  firincijdes.  Inorlt^ 
t4i  conciliate  the  colt»niMts,  it  siilistitutf«1  the  (I^l 
nvttem  of  civil  law.  or  that  cAlleil  the  Owfvmrt/^ 
Airijj,  for  the  civil  law  of  Kiifzlaml.  and  it  •linMt'.'! 
the  UfH-  «>f  the  French  lanj^a^e  to  Ite  re?^;mi.fi  ii- 
the  law  cuiirtii.  It  m  firolMihly  true  tliat  tb-.^* 
cont^t-ssionx,  Itvp^tifyin^;  the  Canadian;*,  had  «<«>■■- 
etr»H-t  in  himierin^  thcin  from  joinin;^  tlie  Aait- 
ricnn  coloni»ti«  of  Kn^linh  ori^n  in  thvir  ;;rrat  a.-!': 
snc<'«>s8fnl  revolt;  and  contteqiieiitly  contri(«itril 
to  |»n*x*r\'e  the  ]»n>v.  tor  the  Hritii«li  cn»wii.  With- 
out fttoppin^  to  enquire  whether  thi:*  ha#  htf-u  •  f 
any  aiivanta^  to  tin*at  liritain,  it  M*enis  p^ll::l^4;; 
that  the  difference  of  lan^i^a^*.  and  the  |«cuiiar 
cinMunKtancH'H  under  whicli  the  French  fanailkir* 
were  plaiH^l,  would  have  effectually  |irevfnt*il 
them,  though  the  (jiiel»oc  Act  had  nev«*r  U^tj 
heanl  of,  from  making  comnitm  caii!«e  with  r.-ir 
colonists  of  New  Kn^lund  and  the  other  Amrrii^jui 
(r<donie}4.  Rut,  Vvliatever  o|>ini«in  may  lie  ountt-  b> 
ai«t4»thi8.  there  can  l>e  no  doiiht  tliat  thee»taKi>b- 
ment  of  French  hiws  and  lan^ia^e  in  the  \^''f. 
has  tende<i  to  iniinlate  the  French  I)m|i..  to  roainLiis 
tliem  a»  a  distinct  rai*e,  and  to  restrain,  and  in  a 
^n>at  dej^rec  prevent,  all  intercouR«e  between  thfin 
and  the  cidonistit  fnim  Kn^land:  i"  ]Hiint  ofiat.t. 
the  French  in  Canada  are  now  alin«iKt  att  niuobi 
distinct  ]M'<iple  as  in  ITtiM.  The  \aiiim  Caam- 
fileMHr  hatf  no  syniiHithy,  nn«l  hut  little  ctimmooi- 
cation,  with  Kn^1i>hmen  :  on  the  ciintFary.a  bn«: 
line  of  demarcation  and  a  deep  rooted  antifiailiy 
Milwd^ts  between  them. 

The  ImsLn  of  the  pn'nent  jKditical  c«wrtituti«in  'X 
Canada  is  the  act  of  81  (Jeo.  III.  cap.  J*l..  pa>*i 
by  the  Parliament  c»f  (.ircat  liritain  m  171^1.  By 
the  terms  of  it.  the  td*!  ]>rovinoe  of  (Quebec — whh.h 
then  embraced  the  whole  of  i'Anaiia — wa^i  liiviti^ 
into  the  two  ^ovenmientA  of  Upfier  and  L»iwi.f 
Canada,  with  representative  in#titutiou:*fur  eai-tt 
The  legislative  authority  wa«  vested  in  a  l«n>- 
lalivc  cotmcil  ap])ointed  by  the  crx^wn.  and  in  1 
house  of    assembly  elccte<l  hv  the  inhabitant: 


Shipbuilding  is  carriwl  on  to  a  considerable  ex-  !  the  Lower  province  wai«  under  a  p<ivenior,  wjiil*t 
lit  in  Canada.    Tlie  number  of  sailing;  vessels  ,  the  rpi*r  was  under  a  lieutenant-jrovemor.    This 

HUSjK'nded  in  ooni»equence  of  thr 
er  Canada  in  18:tX,  and  a  vperUl 


tent 

built  in  the  tlm'e  year«  1>«)0,  lKi;i,  ami  iw;i>, 
anionnt(>fl  to  *lxC^.  and  of  steament  to  :)n.  Diirhi^ 
the  same  {KTifMl ;')(!()  sailing  vessels  and  00  steamers 
wen*  n'j^istered  at  Canadian  ports. 

Form  of  Govemmvnt. — Canada  wa*»  ce<led  liy 
France  to  Kngland  in  17<;.'J :  it  had  pn^viously  !>een 
piverne*!  by  Fn-ncli  military'  authority :  fnmi 
thence.  tc»  1771,  it  was  under  the  nde  of  an  Eng- 
lish governor  and  council,  with  KtittU»h  law,  ad- 
ministered in  the  F.nglisb  language  only.     From 


constitution  was 

reUdlion  in  Ujipei 

council  ajipohitetL      In   1840  the  twt>  pn>vini.v 

were  reunited — by  an  act  3rd  d:  4th  Vic.  caiuS.'*— 

and  the  legislative  councils   of   the  uniteil  \it^^ 

vinccs  were  consolidat<Hl.       Tlie  new  legisUtiri" 

council  consist  e<i  of  twenty  mem  ben*  a]i{Mantcii  Iv 

the  gtjvemor  ft»r  life;  while  the  people  were  rrj-iv- 

senteil  in  a  house  of  aatH^mblv,  comprising  eighty- 

ftiur  memlters,  returiieil  in  'equal  pit>portiiin!>  by 

1774  10  1701  it  was  governed  l>y  an  English  go-    the  inhabitants  of  Cpf^cr  and  Ixiwer  i^anada.    \ 

yenior  and  a  legislative  council,  ainsunted  bv  the    final  mo4iitication  of  the  constitution,  bv  aii*^:t 
•  .    V-,    |P  i.**i       1^*       i.**ri  If        i4iu.~i>  •  1^7  I 


crown,  with  i^w(///jiA criminal  and  French  civil  law; 
and  fnini  1701  downwanl,  by  the  constitution, 
pr<*vi<»usly  ex])1aine<i,  the  colony  Wing  then  di- 
viiled  into  two  provinces,  each  with  an  indeiiendent 


|»asse<l  June  14,  IHo^i,  comprises  the  f11ndaroent.1l 
laws  now  in  force.  The  charter  thus  cstaitlL'iht'J 
ve.':tri  the  legislative  autliority  in  a  i^arliamrot  *i 
two  houses,  the  legislative  council  and  the  hiiu* 


l<^i*ilature.     l)own   to    1774,   the   line  of  policy*    of  assembly.    The  former  corudsta  of  twenty-li<ur 
fMirsue<l  was  that  which,  had  it  lM>en  \'igon>usly 
and  pyHtcmatically  followed  up,  would  certainly 


memlH*rs  nominated  for  life  bv  the  |>;overa<jr.  »xA 


of  titice  the  number  elected  by  the  pcciple.   The 


V 


CANADA 


629 


house  of  assembly  comprises  130  members,  chosen 
in  125  electoral  (ustricts  and  boroughs.  Members 
of  the  house  of  assembly  must  be  powessed  of 
freehold  property  of  the  value  of  S(H)L  Electors  in 
counties,  bv  a  law  which  took  efTei't  in  lt<oa,  arc 
required  toXte  possessed  of,  or  to  occupy,  property  of 
the  assessed  actual  value  of  50/L,  or  the  yearly 
value  of  5/. ;  while  electors  in  towns  must  be  pos- 
8C»f»ed  of,  or  occupy,  property  of  the  yearly  value 
of  71,  10«.  Members  of  the  house  of  assembly, 
during  session,  have  an  allowance  from  the  pubhc 
funds.  Clcrg>inen  of  all  denominations  are  inca- 
{vablc  of  becoming  members.  The  house  i^  elected 
for  four  years ;  but  may  be  previously  dissolved  by 
the  governor,  in  which  case  a  new  election  must 
take  place  immediately.  At  least  one  session  must 
be  held  annually,  so  that  a  peritMl  of  twelve  mouths 
mav  never  elapse  between  each  nK>etiug  of  the 
legislature.  All  proceedings  and  reconls  of  the 
legislative  assembly  are  ordered  to  be  kept,  by 
the  act  of  1810,  in  the  English  language  only. 
I'he  speaker  of  the  house  of  assembly  is  elected 
by  the  meml)ers ;  while  the  president  of  the  legis- 
lative council  b  appointed  by  the  crown  for  life. 

The  executive  is  vested  in  a  govenior-general, 
stvled  '  Govenior-General  of  British  North  Anie- 
ricji,*  and  apix>iiited  by  the  crown.  He  has  a 
salary  of  7,(K)0/.  \)qt  annum,  and  holds  authority 
in  the  name  of  the  sovereign  of  Great  Britain. 
The  govcnior-general  has  tlie  power  to  give  or 
withhold  the  royal  a<<sent  to  bills  |)assed  by  the 
h'gislative  council  and  assembly,  or  to  reserve 
the  same  till  the  n>yal  pleasure  be  expressed. 
Such  bills  as  are  assented  to  by  the  governor  in 
the  name  of  the  cn>wn  are,  nevertheless,  subject 
to  disallowance  by  the  sovereign,  within  two  years 
after  the  rei'eipt  of  authentic  copies  bv  one  of  the 
priuci}Mil  seiTretaries  of  state  in  Great  j^ritaiu  ;  and 
no  bills,  reser\'c<l  for  the  consideration  of  the 
crown,  can  have  any  f<>rce,  unless  the  royal  assent 
be  signifie<i  within  two  years  after  they  liave  been 
presentfHl  to  the  governor-general.  All  proceed- 
ings and  reconls  of  tlie  legu<iature  are  directed  to 
be  kept  in  the  Englisli  language  only. 

Attminintnttion  of  Jtutice, — The  criminal  law  of 
England  is  applicable  to  the  whole  of  Canada: 
Init,  as  regards  the  province  of  Quebec,  the  ancient 
law  of  Canada,  that  is,  tlie  French  laws,  are,  by 
the  14th  of  (tco.  III.  c  83.  reser>'ed  as  ap])licable 
t»>  all  matters  of  contn)verfty  relative  to  property 
and  civil  rights.  This  reser\'ation,  however,  does 
not  hold  where  lands  are  held  in  free  and  common 
S4>ccage :  and  wills,  involving  the  destination  of 
property,  may  be  executed  m  conformity  either 
with  the  laws  of  Canada  or  those  of  England,  as 
the  testator  may  deem  expe<lieiit.  In  Western 
Onada  the  law  of  England  is  universally  appli- 
cable. The  judges  enunierate<l  in  Schedule  A  at- 
tncho<l  t4>  the  Act  of  Union,  are  the  following : — 
Eur  l'p|)er,  or  Western,  Canada,  one  chief  justice 
anil  four  puisne  judges  of  C^ueen's  liench  at  To- 
n>nto,  l)esides  a  vice-chancellor;  and  for  I^ower, 
or  F^anteni,  Canada,  one  chief  justice  and  three 
puisne  judges  of  Qiiei>n's  lie.nch  at  Quebec,  and 
one  chief  justice  and  three  puisne  judges  at  Mon- 
tn»al ;  one  resident  judge  at  Three  Hi  vers ;  ami 
one  judge  each  for  the  inferior  districts  of  St.  Fran- 
cis aud  (ias{K'.  The  judgments  of  these  courts  of 
l^ueen  s  Bench  are  subject  to  review  in  a  suiK>ri(»r 
court,  or  court  of  apiieal,  coiwisting  of  the  gover- 
nor, lieutenant-govcnior,  or  person  adminiMtering 
the  government,  certain  roendiers  of  the  executive 
council,  au<l  the  chief  justice  or  justices  of  the 
]>r«ivince,  or  any  live  ol  these  functionaries,  ex- 
cluding always  the  judge  or  juilges  whose  de<rision 
is  af)|>caleti  against.  Tliere  are  also  various  cinmit 
commissioucis  of  bankruptcy,  aud  there  is  a  Vicc- 


Admindty  Court  established  at  Quebec,  the  go- 
vernor bcini^i  er  officio,  vice-admiral  of  Canada. 
Much  litigation  goes  on  both  in  Upper  and  I^wer 
Canada,  and  lawyers  are  of  course  numerous  in 
the  chief  towns.  Though  the  criminal  returns  for 
Canada  are  far  from  being  complete,  the  extent  of 
crime  seems,  on  the  whole,  to  be  small,  and  on  the 
decrease,  when  compared  with  the  amount  and 
ra])id  progress  of  population  in  the  colony. 

ReUyion  and  Educatiomal  EstabliAmentM, — Pro- 
vision was  made  by  the  31st  Geo.  III.  c.  31.  for  the 
support  of  the  Protestant  clergy  in  Canada.  By 
this  act,  there  is  allotted  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  cleigy  of  the  Church  of  England  in  the  colony, 
ab«)ut  a  seventh  part  of  all  the  waste  lands  to  be 
granted  to  settlers;  and  the  tithes  of  such  Pro- 
tt>stants  as  live  within  Catholic  benefices  are  to 
be  reserved  by  the  receiver-general  of  the  pro- 
vince, and  appropriated  to  the  support  of  a  resident 
Protestant  clergy  therein.  These  are  designated 
the  clergy  reserves.  The  governor  is  empowered 
to  present  to  any  parsonages  or  rectories  to  be 
constituted  in  the  colony.  There  are  five  Canadian 
bishops  belonging  to  the  Church  of  England, 
while  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  goveme<i  by 
one  archbishop  and  eight  bishops ;  and  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  of  Canada,  in  connection  with 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  by  annual  synods,  pre- 
sided over  by  moderators.  The  number  of  membeia 
of  each  religious  denomination,  according  to  the 
census  of  1861,  was  as  follows : — 


Upptr  CaiMdA 

LowtrCanftdA 

Church  of  England  . 

811,665 

63,487 

„         Rome 

268,141 

943,263 

Presbjtrrians— 

Church  of  Scotland 

108,963 

23,730 

Free  Church  of  Scotland 

143,043 

14,866 

UnlUd    .... 

61,378 

6,149 

MothodistA— 

Wcrfcyan 

218,427 

26,957 

EpLicopal 

71.616 

2,578 

New  Connexion     . 

28,200 

1,292 

Other      .... 

23,330 

874 

Baptists     .... 

61,6.^9 

7,751 

Lutherans. 

24,299 

867 

CongrogationalLsts    . 

9,.V>7 

4,927 

QuakcTM     .... 

7.383 

121 

Biblp  Christiana 

8,801 

184 

'Chrirtian*'       . 

6,018 

298 

*  >$ecund  Adventists ' . 

1,060 

2,305 

Protestants 

7,614 

2,684 

1  •  Dl-ciplcs' 

4,147 

5 

!  Jevru 

614 

672 

Menoniflts  and  *  Tunkers* 

8,966 

— 

;  *  UniversaUsts' 

2.234 

2,289 

.  Unitarians 

634 

662 

,  Mnnnonjt  .... 

74 

3 

» No  religion'    . 

17,373 

1,477 

j  Denomination  not  stated  . 

8,121 

628 

Other  Creeds  not  clasaod  . 

14,286 
1    1,396,091 

678 

Total 

1,111,666 

Upper  and  Lower  Canaila  have  separate  school 
laws  ada|>ted  to  the  religious  elements  prevailing 
in  either.  Each  township  in  Upper  Canada  ia 
divided  into  several  school  sections,  according  to 
the  requirements  <»f  its  inhabitants.  The  common 
sch(M>ls  are  supiMirted  partly  by  government,  and 
|Mirtly  by  local  self-imposed  taxation,  and  occa- 
sionally by  tlie  payment  of  a  small  monthly  fee 
for  each  scholar,  llie  total  amount  expended  on 
common  schools  in  Upfier  Canada  during  1858 
exceeded  208,62 7iL  In  settled  rural  districts  each 
school  section  has  a  good  school-house,  furnished 
with  maps,  authorised  school  books,  and  ele- 
mentary' philosophical  apparatus.  The  salaries  of 
teacherii  yar>'  from  130/.  to  40/.  in  countr\'  |>arts, 
and  iiom  tML  U»  7dL  in  dtiea  and  tuwiia.    All 


630 


CANADxV 


common  school  tcachen  munt  paiw  an  examination 
iN'roit*  a  county  boartl  of  education,  or  receive  a 
li(*«.MU'<i  from  tlie  pn>vincinl  normal  Bch<x>l,  em- 
Iiowerin>;  them  to  tearhf  iH'fore  they  can  claim 
the  f^ivemmont  alluwaiicc.  There  are  fJCVKxl  gram- 
mar iiclifM>Irt  at  Montreal  and  (jue)>ec  in  connection 
with  the  i'hureh  of  England,  which  are  partly 
HU|)iN>rtcd  by  fumla  <lerived  from  the  entates  of 
tlie  Jefluitff,  and  [tartly  hy  fcc^  ]>aid  by  the  scho- 
lan«.  Tlu-re  arc  aUo  Jxcollent  (,'atholic  ttclumb  in 
the  Rame  citicK,  which  were  cntlowed  with  con- 
Hiderable  e8tatcM  by  the  French  government,  prior 
to  the  close  of  the  17th  contur\'.  These  esrtates 
they  Htill  enjoy.  There  are  alio  l)otween  l,fi(K) 
and  1,700  common  schools,  and  various  colleges 
and  other  superior  educational  establishmenta  dis- 
tributed over  the  various  counties  of  Lower,  or 
I'IaMt«ni,  Canada.  To  support  the  common  schools 
large  sums  arc  annually  voted,  in  addition  to  the 
pniduce  of  certain  estates  <if  the  Jesuits  (generally 
exceeding  4.5<N(/.  a  year),  which  arc  devoted  to 
the  same  ])ur]MHte. 

In  V\ipcT  Canada,  still  more  liberal  provinon 
and  more  strenuous  exertions  are  made  for  the 
eihication  of  the  people,  licsidea  the  sums  ex- 
{lended  in  l>uilding  and  n>pairing  schoolhouses, 
about  1(H),000(.  are  annually  paid  to  teachen  of 
the  ordinary  schoohi  thn>ughout  the  province, 
which  are  managed  by  committees  of  householders, 
elected  in  each  district  or  section.  The  schools 
are  supported  partly  by  grants  and  [tartly  by 
8(^h(Kd  rates  ami  fees.  The  course  of  education 
pn'valent  in  these  schools  is  mucli  the  same  as 
that  pursued  in  similar  cstablishmenta  in  Great 
Britain. 

Revenue  and  Expenditure. — Tlie  total  revenue 
and  expenditure  of  Canada  during  the  three  years 
18()0,  1861,  and  1862  is  shown  in  the  8ubjoine<l 
table.  The  com^taratively  large  amount  of  both 
income  and  exi>euditurc  in  1H(>0  arose  from  tinan- 
cial  operations  on  a  large  scale,  shown  in  tlic  sub- 
Joined  dctailc<l  budget : — 


Yean 


1800 
1S61 


N«t  RvTVDIM 


Eipcnditura 


Drtllftn 
JW,07rt,4t»5 
l-i.GV.,.181 


M 


Ditllftn 
3.'>,5W).'».748 
14,74*i,K:)4 


M 
7,4»}*,114 
3,071,424 
2,489,185 


llic  public  expenditure  in  1863  was  8*86  dollars 
per  head,  and  the  fundeil  debt  21*69  <lollars. 

The  amount  of  the  various  descriptions  of  the 
public  debt,  the  rate  of  interest,  ancl  the  amount 
of  interest  paid  thereon,  arc  shown  in  the  subjoined 
table : — 


Dw^riptlon  of  Deirt 


Imporiol  Loan  . 
Debentures 


Now  Loan 

Total 
Loss  Indis  Bonds — 
A.t  4  percent.  84«J.000  \ 
5 


» 


>i 


(5,403,200  i 
Total 


Amount 


Interett 


RatM 


Amonnt 


DolUn      ,  Tcr  cent. 


7,;M)0,(KK> 

!»22,82l! 

80,«77,«M)7: 

28,(»0 

27,204.011 


6£,592,460 
7,300,000 


fi8,2J»2.469 
12,144,264 


4 
6 
6 
8 
6 


Uollan 

292,<M)0 

46,141 

1,804.620 

2,290 

1,363,200 


3,.>08,251 
3';6,532 


3,151,719 
£656,608 


Tlie  greater  portion  of  this  debt  was  ex|)cnded 
in  loans  to  inci>qx)rated  com{>anies,  and  for  the 
building  of  roads,  canals,  railways,  light-houses, 
and  other  works  of  public  utility',  which  arc  held 
as  a.<«iets. 


Railirajfa. — Considering  the  vast  extent  of  ia 
territon'  and  the  tldnnesa  of  tlie  population,  Canada 
has  shown  immense  enter[>riae  ui  the  consinicticio 
of  railways.  Besides  a  large  uumlier  of  local  tinei. 
such  as  the  Erie  and  Ontario,  length  17  m^  the 
I'rescott  and  Ottawa,  54  m.,  and  the  Mootnal 
and  Champlain,  81  m.,  and  a  number  of  othcn  of 
equal  imiiortance,  Canada  is  traveived  by  two 
great  iron  hig1iwa\'s,  known  a«  the  *  Grand  'J'mnk' 
and  the  *  (ireat  W'estem.'  The  Grand  Trunk  rail- 
way, which  was  formed,  in  1852,  by  the  amalga- 
mation of  seven  incoqtoratcd  linc^  viz.  theQu^iec 
and  Kichmimd,  the  St.  Laurence  and  Atlantic, 
the  Old  Grand  Tnmk,  the  Grand  «l unction,  the 
Tonnito  and  (vuelph,  the  Toronto  and  Samia,  and 
the  Main  Trunk,  travezsca  tJie  whole  of  Canada, 
fn>m  east  to  west,  commencing  at  Quebec,  and 
ending  at  Port  Huron,  at  the  southern  bonier  of 
lake  Huron.  Engineering  difficulties  of  the  most 
Btu|iendous  kind  had  to  be  overoonie  in  the  for- 
mation of  this  great  railway,  some  of  the  works  of 
which,  such  as  the  great  Victoria  Bridi;^  over  the 
St.  Laurence,  are  among  the  wonders  of  the  ige. 
The  total  lengUi  of  the  Grand  Trunk  railway  is 
1,174  m.  'Vhe  second  great  railway  of  Canaila, 
the  Great  Western,  300  in.  long,  runs  through  the 
interior,  or  western  districts  of  Canada,  <wm- 
mencing  at  Niagara  Falls,  and  terminating  at 
Windsor,  opposite  I>etn>it,  on  the  straifs  connect- 
ing the  lakes  Eric  and  Huron.  This  line  brings 
Canada  into  direct  connection  with  the  vast  rail- 
way system  of  the  United  Stateti. 

Armed  Force, — In  addition  to  the  troops  main- 
taine<i  bv  the  imperial  government — the  strv^ngth 
of  which    varies  aocoiding    to    circnmstances — 
('anada  has  a  laige  volunteer  force,  and  an  eo- 
n)Iled    militia,  numbering    abo^'e    21K).(H)0  men. 
rank  and  tile.    The  militia  is  di\ided  into  tbi«e 
classes,  namely, — ^tiret-claas    service    men.  cwn- 
prising  unmarried   men   and   widowers  witboat 
children,  between  18  and  45 ;  second-class  service, 
married  men  and  widovrers  with  children,  between 
same  ages;    and  third-class  reserve  men,  tht^ 
between  45  and  60.    Assessora  each  year  prepare 
the  militia  rolls,  distinguishing  the  thi«e  claiwes 
and  on  the  governor  calling  for  a  number  of  men. 
the  wanlen,  sheriff,  and  county  judge  meet  and 
ballot  for  the  number  required  from,  their  res})ectire 
counties.    In  Lower  Canada,  in  cases  where  the 
assessment  system  is  not  in  operation,  the  militia 
census  is  made  by  militia  omcen  appointed  for 
the  purpose.    The  ballot  takes  place  for  three 
years,  and  in  the  balloting,  the  number  of  bat- 
talions required  from  counties   and  ti>wnship4  i^ 
furnished  according  to  population.     In  appoint- 
ing ofHct>rs   for  the  service  battalions,  the  go- 
vernor, as  a  nile,  selects  those  who  have  qualided 
themselves  by  volunteer  service  or  by  means  of 
drill  associations,  or  who  have  shown'themselv^i 
qualified  by  examination  before  boards  of  exa- 
miners appointed  for  each  county  or  union  (tf 
adjacent  counties.    If  a  sufficient  number  of  com- 
petent officers  cannot  from  the  outset  be  obtained, 
the  gf)vcmor  may  grant  personal  commission^  to 
Ije  withdrawn  within  a  certain  time  if  those  to 
whom  they  are  issued  do  not  qualifv  themselve:^ 
Sums  arc  granted  towards  the  education  of  officers 
A  school  of  military  instruction  is  («tablisheii  in 
each  sectifvn  of  the  province  in  connection  with 
some  regiment  of  the  British  forces,  a  ceitau 
number  of  whose  officera  and  non-commLwioocl 
officers  assist  in  the  work  of  instruction,  and  are 
paid  an  allowance  for  the  extra  duties  they  have 
to  iierform.     The  government  defrays  the  ex- 
penses of  travelling  and  maintenance  of  thnw  wbn 
receive  instruction,  and  the  governor-general  nur 
at  his  discretion  call  out  service  battalious  fur 


CANANDAIGUA 

drill,  for  a  period  not  exceeding  six  days  in  one 
year.  The  volunteer  force  of  Canada  in  *1862  con- 
sisted of  10,615  infantry,  1,G»7  artillery,  1,616 
cavalry,  and  202  engine^.  In  the  seAstion  of  the 
legislative  assembly  of  1863,  laws  for  the  re- 
organisation of  the  militia  were  passed,  providing 
that  the  government  shall  have  power  to  accept, 
equip,  and  clothe  10,000  more  volunteers.  Fines 
are  imposed  on  volunteers  for  non-attendance  at 
drillf  in  order  to  insure  a  thorough  military  pro- 
ficiency. 

Hisitry, — Canada  is  said  to  have  been  first  dis- 
covered by  Sebastian  Cabot,  in  1497.  It  was  then 
comprised  with  the  rest  of  the  extensive  line  of 
coast,  under  Uie  general  name  of  Newfoundland, 
subsequently  limited  to  the  island  so  called  I'he 
French  first  attempted  to  make  these  discoveries 
available,  and  framed  a  map  of  the  gulf  as  ejirly  as 
loOS,  In  1525  the  country  was  taken  possession 
of  in  the  name  of  the  king  of  France,  and  in  1535 
(^artier  explored  the  river,  naming  it  St,  Laurence, 
from  ha\dng  entered  it  on  that  saint's  day.  Quebec 
however,  the  first  settlement,  was  not  founded  till 
1608.  For  a  considerable  period  subsequent  to 
this,  the  colonists  engaged  in  a  series  of  san- 
guinary conriicts  with  the  native  Indian  tribes, 
and  were  often  on  the  brink  of  being  extirpated : 
tlie  strife,  however,  ultimately  terminated  in  a 
friendly  compact,  which  converted  the  Indians 
'  into  available  auxiliaries  against  the  English. 
Quebec  was  taken  by  the  British  forces  under 
(k*neral  Wolf  in  1759,  and  the  whole  territory 
was  formally  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  in  1763.  The  seiginoml  rights, 
the  various  holdings  and  tenures  under  them,  and 
tlie  endowments  of  the  Catholic  Cliurch,  were  left 
undisturbed;  and  all  the  estates,  including  all 
the  unappropriated  lands  in  the  province,  held  at 
the  ]>ejiod  by  the  French  king,  became  vested  in 
the  British  crown.  In  the  years  1812-13-14, 
during  the  war  with  the  United  States,  the  lakes, 
and  especially  the  sliores  of  Niagara,  were  the 
scene  of  a  succession  of  severe  contests ;  tlie  war 
-was  wholly  a  frontier  one,  and  the  militia  on 
either  side  being  engaged  in  it,  near  relatives 
were  found  often  contending  in  opposite  ranks; 
Indians  also  were  employed,  and  increased  its 
hurroni.  The  subsequent  history  of  Canada  was 
com])aratively  uneventful,  except  as  regards  the 
constant  endeavours  of  certain  parties  to  detach 
the  colony  from  the  crown  of  Great  Britain.  To 
counteract  these  endeavours,  an  attempt  was 
mode^  in  1864,  to  unite  Canada  with  the  other 
Ikitisli  possessions  into  a  great  *  Confederation  of 
British  North  America.'  Though  begun  under 
gmxl  auspices,  the  realisation  of  this  plan  was 
foimd  to  f)c  impossible. 

CANANDAlCiUA,  a  town  of  the  U.  S.  of  Ame- 
rica, New  York,  cap.  co.  Ontario,  beautifully  situ- 
ated on  an  acclivity  at  the  outlet  of  the  consider- 
able lake  of  the  same  name,  88  m.  £.  Buffalo,  and 
95  m.  NN  W.  New  Y'ork.  Pop.  6,550  in  1860.  The 
town  consists  chiefiy  of  two  parallel  streets,  nin- 
ning  N.  and  S.,  intersected  at  right  angles  by 
several  others.  It  contains  a  laige  square,  in 
which  are  the  court-house,  prison,  and  town-house, 
and  it  has  a  state-arsenal,  various  places  for  public 
worship,  male  and  female  academies,  several  large 
mills  and  manufactories  of  diffeient  kinds.  The 
inhab.  are  intelligent,  liberal  and  hospitable. 
Within  three  m.  of  the  town,  on  both  sides  of  the 
lake,  ore  several  sulphuretted  hydrr^n  springs. 
Canondaigua  was  foimded  in  1788,  and  from  its 
XM>sition  on  its  lake,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Krie 
Canal,  ia  a  place  of  con^derable  commercial  im- 
portance. 

CANANOKE  {CanHra),  a  marit.  town  of  Ilin- 


CANARA 


631 


dostan,  prov.  Malabar,  at  the  bottom  of  a  Rmall 
bav,  45  m.  NW.  Calicut,  and  66  m.  SSE.  Manga- 
lore;  lat.  11°  42'  N.,  long.  75°  27'  E.    It  tradea 
with  Bengal,  Arabia,  Sumatra,  and  Surat,  from 
which    it  imports  horses,  piece  goods,  almonds, 
sugar,  opium,  silk,  benzoin,  and  camphor;  its  ex- 
ports are  chiefiy  pepper,  cardamoms,  sandal  wood, 
coir,  and  shark-fins.    It  is  the  cap.  of  the  talook  of 
Chericul,  a  lofty  and  uneven  track,  extending  for 
two  m.  inland  from  the  fort,  and  some  years  since 
containing  together  with  the  town  about  11,000 
houses.     Its  territory  is  now  subordinate  to  the 
British,  but  has  long  been  governed  by  a  succes- 
sion of  female  sovereigns,  wh4iAe  authonty  has  ex- 
tender! over  most  of  the  Laccadive  islands.    Cana- 
nore  is  the  head  military  station  of  the  British 
dominions  in  Malal)ar  prov. 

CAN ARA,  a  marit.  i)rov.  of  Hindostan,  presid. 
Madras,  comprising  the  ancient  countnes  of 
Tulava  and  Haiga,  with  small  portions  of  Malabar 
and  the  Hindoo  Kaukana.  It  lies  chiefiv  between 
lat,  120  and  15©  N.,  and  long.  74°  and  HP  E.; 
having  N.  Goa  and  Dharwar  (Bejapoor),  E.  the 
latter  pro\'ince  and  Mysore,  S.  Coorg  and  Malabar, 
and  \V.  the  ocean ;  length,  N.  to  8.,  230  m. ;  ave- 
rage breadth,  about  35  m. ;  area,  7,477  sq.  m.  The 
province  is  bounded  by  the  W.  Ghauts,  but  in- 
cludes a  portion  of  the  country  above  tliem,  called 
Camata,  of  which  the  name  of  this  distr.  is  a  cor- 
ruption, most  improperly  applied.  Surface  gene- 
rally rugged  and  uneven.  It  has  no  considerable 
river,  but  a  number  of  minor  ones,  of  which  Man- 
galore  is  the  chief.  The  coast  in  the  S.  is  occu- 
pied by  a  chain  of  salt  lakes.  Soil  and  climate 
very  similar  to  those  of  Malabar.  Granite  and 
laterite  are  amongst  the  prevailing  rocks,  and  near 
the  sea-shore  there  is  much  sandy  soil,  on  which 
cocoa-j>alms  are  grown  in  great  number.  The 
pc*rio(hcal  rains  are  extremely  hea\'y,  and  set  in 
from  the  middle  of  May  till  the  end  of  Sept.,  dur- 
ing which  ships  leave  the  coast,  and  a  stop  is  pat 
to  all  trafiic.  The  country  abounds  in  forests; 
those  in  the  N.  producing  teak,  and  other  large 
timber,  sissoo,  basna  lati/oliaj  prickly  bamboo,  the 
varnish-tree  of  Bimiah,  ntu*  vomica^  mimoaa  cate- 
chu, cassia,  sandal  wood,  wild  pcpi)er,  and  a  spe- 
cies of  nutmeg ;  those  in  the  S.  containing  teak, 
mango,  can'ota  palm,  and  much  jungle,  greatly 
infested  with  tigers.  Canara  is  the  granary  of  rice 
for  Arabia,  Goa,  Bombay,  and  Malabar ;  and  both 
the  climate  and  soil,  especially  in  the  valleys,  are 
highly  adapted  for  its  culture.  Sometimes  50 
bushels  a  year  are  obtained  from  an  acre ;  and  in 
the  S.  the  land  frequently  yields  two  or  three 
crops  during  the  same  [leriod.  Besides  rice,  sugar- 
canes,  itcpiMir,  betel-nut,  and  cucurbitaceous  plants, 
arc  grown.  Husbandrv  is  better  here  tlum  in 
Malat>ar ;  the  plough  is  a  neater  implement,  and 
manure  of  both  leaves  and  dung  is  made  use  of: 
some  cultivaton  employ  25  ploughs,  although  full 
half  of  them  use  no  more  than  one.  Kice  is  thrashed 
by  beating  handfuls  in  the  straw  against  a  bam- 
boo grating.  There  are  no  bams,  and  the  grain  is 
kept  in  straw  bags  hung  up  in  the  houses:  carts 
are  not  used,  the  roads  arc  bad,  and  goo<is  have 
to  be  conveyed  on  the  heads  of  the  peasantry. 
There  are  neither  horses,  asses,  nor  goats.  All  the 
lands  in  the  S.  are  private  property,  but  generallv 
nnich  encumbered  with  mortgages:  in  tlie  N. 
mortgages  are  much  less  frequent,  and  the  culti- 
vated lands  only  are  the  proi^erty  of  individuals : 
S'  >vomment  clamis  all  the  hill,  forest,  and  waste 
nd.  In  S.  Canara  inheritance  in  land,  giKxls, 
honorary'  dignities,  and  whatever  els^  is  callable 
of  being  conveyed,  descends  in  the  female  line ; 
and  instead  of  a  man's  own  cluldren,  those  of  his 
sister,  or  maternal  aunt  (as  is  the  case  in  all  the 


CANARY  ISLANDS 


ovpr  them,ti>  the  extent  or  wiling  tt 
In  K»rii«W  Pmper,  alxn-c  the  (Jhauu,  these  li 
«re  reverecd,  and  s  man'H  ehildren  in" 
perly.    The  lands  i 


IB  thoM  piMinc  thmiRli  the 

nwkh  and  Paria.    The  m.»l 

.,_ ,  ..  Fcmi.  La  I>«l«>wa.  ix  |t|0  H' 

i"  W.  of  Che  meridian  of  (ireenwidi,  and  aO^  30' 

,    i'.  of  that  of  Paria.    The  ielands  aie  all  i>f  vul- 

>  indi^iJiialHf    canie  origin,  very  mountainoufl,  their  niatt*  pn- 


cnltiva 


wtlv  bclune 

venfreqaently  mi|rt|i:agelhctD  I  ,         ,  . 

;  the  land  BMeiVimcnt  in  modertite,  decji.     'llie  i;rcateBt  height  oF  Mime  of  tliem  above 

in .  ,.  .V 1 but  tlic  ibelcvel  oftheaeais  aBfciUoira:— 


1  the  prodi 
cultivaton  generally  ue  aa  much  depnsKd  as 
Fliwwhere,  Bince  they  hare  about  20  per  cent,  to 
pay  to  their  landlord:!,  and  not  of  the  remaining  MJ  . 
per  cent,  to  provide  live  and  de»d  Miick,  and  mb-  |  Fnenu' 
nM  the  BUvea.     Laiiil,  when  wjld.  uBually  fetches    feneri 

rent    Many  diflereiiCtribw  inhabit  Oanara.    Tli 

Jaini  (see  {[imdostak)  are  more  numerous  her 

than  in  any  otbo-  i«rt  of  India,  and  many  anrieiit    j;;~  Oofcillli'ri'M 

Jun  temples  eJtut  in  tolerable  perfection.    Baini    |„n,t  f^nh  in  IW6 

inhabit  the    inbuid  parts,  where,  brother  vritli    Tlicba.»altic  cliffs' in 


TeniTlffe (Pisk)    .    11,100    Laiu*rote(Montana 

turti(Indla)ai<!iol  AUegiaou    .       .       ei» 
and  ila  peak,  a  half  extinrt  rolrano. 


id  parts, 


called,  b 


. .  jt  of  the  Inni.. 

descendants  of  the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  French, 
■nil  llauiidi  colonists.  Canam  b  not  celebrated 
for  manutactiirm ;  the  chief  are  tliose  of  aii^ar 
fmm  the  palms,  and  salt  on  the  coast.  The  cx- 
]>on»  consist  ]iriiici[ially  of  rice,  bcleUnul,  black 
pe]>per,  ginger,  cocoa-nuts,  and  oil  and  raw  Hilk ; 
the  impiirta  are  cloths,  cotton,  thread,  blankets, 
toliacco,  black  cattle,  and  Bnndal-vood,  foreximrl 
to  Iturabay.  AI!  the  chief  .tovma,  viz.  Mant^iore, 
Barcelore,  and  Calliam  pore,  are  in  the  S. 

Tulava  was  governed  iiy  its  own  princes  till 
A.n.  7III2  ;  from  that  year  till  830  it  was  subject  to 
the  rajahs  of  llijna^r:  and  afUrwardn  to  the 
pnnces  of  IkcrL  It  escaped  the  Mohammedan 
conqueMf  till  1765-fi,  when  llyder  invaiied  and 
confjucred  it,  after  which  it  suffered  all  the  horrors 
of  auarchv,  till  the  death  of  TippiH)  in  1799,  when 
it  iMssul  into  the  hands  of  the  Iliitish,  and  under 
them  has  become  a  tranttuil  and  orderly  district. 

CANAKY   ISIASDS   (Span.   «m  OmaHa,; 
believed  M  be  the  FarttauUa  Inmla  of  the  an- 
cients), a  group  in  the  N.  Atlantic  ocean,  belong- 
ing to  l^nsm,  between  27°  W  and  2»°  ti  N.  lat., 
and   130  ai  and  18°  W  W.  long.,  135  m.  NIV. 
Cape  Bojador,  in  Africa,  and  630  m.  SW.Cadii. 
This  group  consists  of  seven   princi[)al  istaniK 
namely,  Arrcdfe,  Uuia,  La  Idguna,  Orotava,  I*b 
Palmns,  Mania  (Mix  de  la  Palma,  and  Santa  Ouz 
de  Tenerinp.    The  total  area  of  the  seven  islanils 
embraces  3,'i56  sq.  m.,  and  llie  pop.,  according  la 
the  census  of  18^7,  omounleil  to  ^i<S,7H4,  divided 
aa  follows :—Arrcdfe,  20,038;  Ruia,  18,116;  U 
J.,agiina,   22,64M ;  OroUva,  46,497 ;   Lai  Palmas, 
40,050 ;  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Palma,  31,451 ;  and  Santa 
Cruz  de  Tencriffe,  also  eallsl  (lomera  y  Iliorro, 
SH,184.    These  are  the  Spanish  names  of  the  seven 
ialanils;  but  English  and  other  gazetlceis  often 
deficribe  Arrecife  under  the  name  of  LaniaroCe, 
Guin  under  the  name  of  Canara.  and  tiomcra  y 
llierro  as  Kerro.    Adjoining  these  chief  isles,  and 
included  in  the  Canaries,  are  several  small  islands, 
viz.  lirncioso.  Clara,  and  AUegranuL    They  are 
called  the  LitlleCanaries.are  situated  to  IhcNW.  'islam 
of  Laiu!arotc,  and  coiineeteil  with  that  island  by  a    the  u 
bank,  on  which  there  is,  for  the  most  part,  40    Kuro] 
fathoms  water.    Laniarote  is  the  most  easterly,    wine 
Allegranzn  the  must   northerly,  and  llierro,  or    when 
Ferro,   the  most  southerly  and  westerly  of  the    scoris 
group.    This  last-menlioiied  island  lias  acquired  |  Ar 


island  rise  almusl  pet- 
height  of  1,!>00  fL:  Allegranu 

vtioliy  composed  of  ■  moss  of  lava  and 
The  Canariai  have  no  rivers,  pro|«rly  mi 

It  they  are  watered  by  numerous  brooks, 
wnicn  nse  in  the  higher  mountain  ^e£ion^  and, 
during  rains,  suddenly  swell  tn  torrents.  There 
nrr  few  safe  roadstead^  and  no  close  harbours :  ibe 
(■real  Canary  island  hiiii,  gieiliaps,  more  safe  an- 
chorages than  any  of  the  others,  and  the  Itav  of 
Los  l*almas  at  its  XE.  extremity  offers  a  spacious 
haven  for  ships,  secure  from  all  uinds  except  ihose 
from  the  SILm  which  seldom  blow  with  any  vio- 
lence. The  climate,  though  hot,  is  generally 
healthv;  the  heol  bring  attempered  bv  the  eleva- 
tion ol^tlie  land,  ami  the  prevalence  of  N.  and  M'. 
breezes.  The  temperature  is  in  most  |iarts  very 
equable:  the  average  in  [>ec.  and  Jon.  has  be«i 
foimd  to  t>e  670,  in  Aug.  'If  Fah.  The  range  of 
temt>emtuie  is  seldom  more  than  four  or  five  de- 
grees in  the  twenty-four  hours.  The  S.  anil  Sh; 
winils  occasionally  cause  pestilential  maladies  in 
the  E.  Canaries,  and  bringing  intolerable  hcots, 
and  clouds  of  locusts,  scorch  up  and  desolate  (he 
country.  The  f^ility  of  the  lands  Li  in  pni|Kir- 
tiim  to  their  humiility.  In  some  pans  they  |>n>- 
ducc  abundance  of  wheat,  maiie,  and  other 'kmdi 
of  com,  ilflics,  figs,  guavas,  lemons,  oliveo,  and 
numerous  otlier  fruits,  of  both  the  torrid  and  tem- 
perate zones ;  the  sugar-cane,  lubacco.  cotton,  nr- 
cliill,  and  tnanv  perfumes  and  medicinal  plants. 
They  contain,  ofco,  woods  of  pine  trees,  laurel,  ami 
arbutus,  and  cxcdicni  pasturage.  The  average 
annual  [|uantities  of  the  prinripil  articles  of  pm- 
duce  in  the  entire  group  are; — 


Whia   .    .    M,3iyi|ripiH    jRya      .    .    41  .nnn boibeU 

HDlet  .'    .21^.400      „        Poutoei  '  Tn:.'|lhHI  cwi! 
Darky.    .  Si4,<M0      „      |  Bsrills     .  S3l>,mw   „ 

Guia,  or  Canary,  is,  perhaps,  the  bent  wateml 
and  most  fertile  island ;  and  it  and  Teneriffe  are 
the  two  best  cultii,-ated.  Teneriffc  is  the  prindjial 
seat  of  the  vine  culture ;  the  Vidueno  and  Ual- 
vasia  wines  are  exclusively  the  piuducc  of  that 
island :  the  vine  is,  however,  largely  grown  in 
the  others,  and  the  w^ * 


...         le  eelcbrily,  from 

leeled  bv  the  early  moilcm  geograpliera  as  the 

Knni  which  thev  began  to  reckon  the  lungilnde. 
In  some  amnlnes  this  methoil  of  reckoning  la 
itill  ke[)t  up ;  hut  the  English  and  French  adopt 


Teneriife.  Tlie  h.  . 
in  the  E.  Canaries  is  that  of  Lanairute. 
:  the  grapeii  grow  on  a  soil  of  decomposed 
■-    Much  brandy  is  distilled  and  eiimneiL 

igst  the  other  chief  products  are  silk,  honey, 

wax,  and  cochineal.  Game  is  vcrv  plentiful ;  aiid 
'  ey  are  s^d  to  be  without  cdtWr  femdous  or 
niimouB  animals.  Cattle  and  piMiItry  have  Iveu 
troduceit  from  Europe.  The  canarj'-bird  (/na- 
la  Cmmria.  Linn.)  is  sdll  found  in  tliese  islands : 
t  in  its  wild  state  its  colour  is  grey  o   linnet- 


CANARY  ISLANDS 

brown :  tho  pluma^  of  those  wo  are  accofltomcd 
to  see,  has  derived  its  hue  from  repeated  crossings. 
Ilie  fishery,  which  is  principally  carried  on  along 
the  opposite  African  coast,  occupies  a  great  num- 
l>er  of  hands ;  and  it  is  said  that  Spain  might,  in 
case  of  emergency,  procure  2,000  able  young  sea- 
men from  the  Islands  without  distressing  the 
liHhcry.  Sugar,  with  coarse  woollens,  silks,  and 
linens,  arc  amongst  the  manufactures. 

The  exports  of  the  Canary  Islands  to  the  United 
Kingdom  consist  chiefly  of  wine  and  cochineal. 
There  were  exported  16,191  gallons  of  wine  in 
1800;  16,826  gallons  in  1861;  19,482  in  1862; 
and  10,069  in  1863.  The  value  of  these  quantities 
fluctuated  from  4,109A  in  1860  to  2,512/.  in  18r»3. 
Of  cochineal  there  were  exported  from  the  Canary 
Islands  to  the  United  Kingdom  5,802  cwU,  valued 
at  107,324/.  in  1860;  10,142  cwt.,  valued  at 
155,618/.  in  1861 ;  9,852  cwt.,  valued  at  147,046/. 
in  1862 ;  and  7,769  cwt,  valued  at  134,822/.  hi 
1863.  The  imports  from  the  United  Kingdom  con- 
sist chiefly  of  cotton  and  woollen  manufactures  and 
colonial  produce,  and  were  of  the  value  of  141,670/. 
in  I860 :  132,460/.  in  1861 ;  152,766/.  in  1862 ;  and 
141,333/.  in  1863. 

Santa  Cruz  in  TenerifTe,  and  Las  Palmas  in 
Canary,  arc  the  principal  commercial  ports.  The 
present  inhabitants  are  probably  almost  wholly  of 
Spanish  origin.  The  islands  are  govcmetl  by  the 
Spanish  laws,  the  administration  of  which  is 
cbrected  by  an  audieneia  in  Great  Canary.  The 
governor  of  the  Canaries,  who  is  president  of  the 
audiencioj  resides  at  Santa  Cruz.  The  three  east- 
erly islands  form  one  bishopric,  and  the  four 
westerly  another.  There  are  41  monasteries  and  1 5 
convents,  with  423  re^lar  clergy ;  and  the  people 
arc  said  to  be  equally  ignorant  and  bigoted.  They 
are  not,  however,  deficient  either  in  industry  or  en- 
terprise. On  the  contrary,  many  of  them  emigrate 
to  America,  the  Philippine  Islands,  d:c,  where  they 
arc  distinguished  bv  their  adventurous  s[)irit.  But, 
at  home,  such  of  them  as  are  not  engaged  in  the 
fisher}',  are  sunk  in  comparative  apathy,  produced 
by  vicious  laws  and  institutions.  The  lands  are 
parcelle<l  out  in  immense  estates,  held  under  strict 
entail,  and  the  plan  followed  in  letting  them  to 
the  actual  occupiers  being  as  bad  as  possible,  in- 
dustry is  at  the  lowest  ebb,  and  few  or  rather  no 
improvements  are  ever  attempted,  or  even  so  much 
as  thought  of.  The  military  force  is  composed  of 
25,000  men.  (For  descriptions  of  Santa  Cruz, 
Lagunas,  and  Orotava,  see  Tkxeriffe.)  Las 
Palmas,  in  the  island  of  the  same  name,  near  its 
NE.  extremity,  laU  28©  ^  N.,  long.  2(P  23'  30" 
W.,  has  a  handsome  sea-port  town  >i-ith  18,000 
inhab.,  a  cathedral,  hospital,  college,  a  mole^  many 
public  fountaijis,  and  a  well-supplied  market.  In 
good  weather  ships  anchor  witiiin  half  a  mile  of 
the  town,  but  the  roadstead  is  but  indifferent. 
The  other  chief  towns  are,  Arecife,  or  Port  Naos, 
in  the  island  of  the  same  name,  a  well-built  toira, 
with  2,500  inhab. ;  Cabras,  1 ,000  inliab. ;  and  Santa 
Cruz,  in  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Palma. 

>Vhen  these  inlands  fint  became  known  to  Euro- 
peans of  modem  times,  they  were  inhabited  by 
a  race  of  people  called  Guanches,  of  a  tall  and 
vigorous  frame,  and  who  made  a  determined  re- 
sistance to  the  invadere.  Though  unacquainted 
with  the  use  of  iron,  they  appear  to  have  arrived 
at  a  considerable  degree  of  civilisation  ;  they  cul- 
tivated music  and  poetry  with  success,  ha<i  a  kin<i 
of  hierogh'])hic  writing,  believed  in  a  supreme 
being,  in  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments, and  embalmed  their  dead.  Many  of  their 
mummios  have  been  found  in  mrMiem  times  in 
caves  in  various  parts  of  the  islands.  They  are 
placed  erect  upon  their  feet,  and  are  in  so  remaik- 


CANDAHAR 


633 


able  a  state  of  desiccation,  that  some  of  them  do 
not  weigh  above  from  6  to  8  lbs.  Their  government 
was  oligarchical.  Humboldt  (Personal  Narra- 
tive, vol.  i.)  and  Dr.  Prichard  (Kesearches,  iL 
34.)  think  that  the  Guanches  were  either  inti- 
mately connected  with,  or  descended  fn>m,  the 
lierbers  of  X.  Africa.  Many  of  the  (iuaiiches 
were  reduced  to  a  state  of  slavery  by  the  S|>anish 
and  otlier  European  traders,  by  whom  the  islands 
were  first  visited;  and  those  who  escaped  the 
scouige  of  slaver>',  war,  and  famine,  were  mostly 
carried  off  by  a  pestilence  in  1494,  The  Canaries 
were  first  discovered  b^'  accident  about  1330  by 
the  crew  of  a  French  ship  driven  thither  in  a  storm. 
After  several  unsuccessful  Spanish  exi>editions, 
John  de  Bethencourt,  a  French  gentleman,  sailed 
with  a  rieet  from  Kochelle  in  1400,  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  chief  islands.  Bethencourt*s  heir 
subsequently  disposed  of  these  to  a  Spanish  noble- 
man, and  they  afterwards  became  the  propertv  of 
the  Soanish  crown :  the  conquest  of  the  whole  of 
the  islands  was  effected  by  Spain  before  the  ter- 
mination of  the  15th  century. 

CANCALE,  a  sea-port  town  of  France,  d^p. 
Ille-et-Vilaine,  cap.  cant.,  9  m.  E.  St,  Malo,  and 
45  m.  N.  Rennes.  Pop.  6,352  in  1861.  The  town 
is  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  on  the  W.  side  of 
St.  Michael's  Bay.  At  a  short  distance  from  tho 
town  there  are  some  large  rocks,  within  which  there 
Ls  good  anchorage  in  5  or  6  fathoms.  Excellent 
ovsters  are  found  in  the  l>ay,  and  make  a  consider- 
able article  of  traffic  The  Engluth  inade,  in  1758, 
an  nnsuccessful  descent  on  the  coast  here. 

CANDAHAR,  a  fortified  city  of  Caubul,  in  a 
plain  near  the  Urgundaub  river;  200  m.  SW. 
Caubul,  260  m.  SE.  Herat;  lat.  320  20'  N.,  long. 
66°  15'  E.  Pop.  50,000,  the  greater  proportion  of 
whom  are  Afghans.  Tlie  city  is  of  an  oblong  form, 
enclosed  by  a  bastioned  mud  wall,  on  the  ramparta 
of  which  three  men  may  walk  abreast,  and  a 
ditch,  9  fl.  deep,  surrounds  the  whole.  Candahar 
is  regularly  built,  most  of  the  streets  meeting  at 
right  angles :  its  houses  are  generally  of  brick,  and 
often  with  no  other  cement  than  mud.  Four  long 
and  broad  bazaars  meet  in  the  centre  of  the  city, 
in  a  small  circular  space  about  45  yards  in  dia- 
meter, and  covered  with  a  dome,  where  procla- 
mations are  ma<le,  and  the  bodies  of  criminals 
exposed.  The  principal  bazaars  are  each  about  50 
yards  broad;  their  sides  are  lined  with  well- 
supplie<l  shops  one  story  high  ;  and  there  is  a  gate 
at  the  end  of  each  opening  into  the  surrounding 
country,  except  the  N.  ba^ar,  haWng  the  palace 
at  its  end,  a  structure  in  no  respect  remarkable  ex- 
ternally, but  containing  many  courts  and  buildings, 
and  a  private  garden.  There  are  many  caravaii- 
seras  and  most^ues :  the  principal  building  of  the 
latter  kind  is  the  tomb  of  Ahmed  Shah,  an  elegant, 
but  not  a  lai]^e,  structure,  with  a  handsome  aipola, 
formerly  an  inviolable  sanctuai>'.  A  groat  variety 
of  trades  are  carrier  1  on,  and  the  streets  are  filled 
with  a  noisy  and  bustling  crowd  from  morning  till 
night ;  but,  unlike  most  other  Afghan  citie^  tnere 
are  here  no  water  sellers,  the  city  being  well  su]}- 
plicd  by  canals  from  the  Urgundaub,  whence 
subterranean  or  open  water-courses  are  carried  to 
the  dificrent  streets ;  and  there  are,  also,  immerous 
weUs.  Three  of  the  principal  bazaars  were  at  one 
time  planted  with  trees,  and  had  a  narrow  canal 
running  dovra  the  middle  of  each ;  but  many  of 
the  trees  have  withered,  and  if  the  canals  ever 
existe<l,  they  are  no  longer  visible.  The  vicinity 
of  Candahar  is  fertile,  and  abounds  with  gaideiis 
and  orchards,  producing  the  fniest  fruits  and  ve- 
getables, e!«i)ccially  iK»megmnateM ;  with  com, 
tobacco,  madder,  assaftctida,  and  artificial  grasses. 
The  climate  is  mild  and  healthy.    Persian  tradi- 


C34 


CANDEISH 


tions,  and  the  conjectures  of  Euroixian  jjooprapher*, 
nffree.  in  asai^iin^  the  foundation  of  Candahar  to 
Alexander  the  Great.  The  present  city  was  Iniilt 
by  Ahmed  Shah  in  1753  or  1754,  who  made  it  the 
capital  of  his  dominions,  an  honour  which  his 
8ucce88nr  Timoftr  transferred  to  CauhuL 

CANDEISII,  a  souUah  or  prov.  of  the  Deccan, 
Ilindostan,  betn^-een  lat  20°  and  229  X..  and  long. 
73^  and  77°  E. :  liavinfic  N.  Malwah,  E.  Gundwana, 
S.  Berar  and  Aurungabad,  andW.  Gnjerat :  length, 
£.  to  W.,  aljout  210  m. ;  average  breadth,  80  m. 
It  contains  parts  of  three  mountain  ranges,  viz. 
the  Sautixtora  mountains  in  itD  X. :  the  Chandorc 
or  Adjuntah  range,  8.;  and  the  Sydaree  moun- 
tains, or  W.  Ghauts,  in  its  SW.  parts:  its  prin- 
cipal plain  is  between  these  ranges,  and  ojiens  E. 
into  the  pl^s  of  Berar,  and  W.  is  continuous 
with  those  of  Surat,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
a  thick  and  extensive  jungle.  The  Tuptee  river 
flows  through  this  plain.  The  Xerbudda  forms 
the  X^.  boundar\'.  Candeish,  though  interspersed 
with  low  Imrren  hills  ^a^")  a  l^iK®  extent  of  very 
fertile  tcrritor}%  watered  by  copious  streams  and 
limfMHl  rivulets  from  the  table-lands,  which  greatly 
enhance  its  natural  beauties.  For  thirty  years, 
liowever,  before  the  British  became  possessed  of 
it  (IHIU),  it  had  been  the  scene  of  continual 
anarchy,  and  much  of  the  best  land,  e^ecially  N. 
the  Tui)tee,  had  become  over^urcad  with  an  unin- 
habited forest,  abounding  with  the  ruins  of  former 
villages,  and  swarming  with  tigers.  This  prov. 
is  comprised  within  the  several  territories  of  the 
(xuicowar,  Sindia,  the  Nizam,  and  the  British 
government;  the  land  in  those  parts  belonging 
to  the  latter  is  granted  on  the  most  easy  terms 
to  the  cultivators,  but  some  length  of  time  must 
elapse  before  the  country  recovers  its  former  pros- 
penty.  The  existing  \'illagcs  are  mostly  built  of 
mud,'  and  protected  by  a  mud  wall  and  fort,  with- 
out ditch  or  outwork.  Tlie  hill  ranges,  and  the 
whole  country  along  the  courses  of  the  Xerbud<la 
and  Tuptee  nvers,  are  inhabited  by  Bheels,  who 
liave  l»een  here  less  disturbed  than  in  any  other 
part  of  India.  They  are  of  small  stature,  dark 
complexion,  prone  to  rapine  and  thieving,  go 
armed  with  a  bow  and  arrow,  and  in  many  re- 
m)ects  resemble  the  hill-people  of  Bhauguittore. 
They  eat  beef  an<i  pork,  drink  spirits,  and  bury 
their  dead ;  yet  they  pretend  to  be  Hindoos  of  the 
Brahmin  and  Kaj{>oot  castes.  They  have  contri- 
buted greatly  to  tlie  devastation  of  the  province. 

C'aniieish  formerly  contained  a  laige  number  of 
3Iahratta  fortresses :  its  princi[ia1  towns  are  Biwr- 
hanpoor,  Aseerghur,  Hmdia,  Xundoori)oor,  and 
(fauhio.  Numerous  Arab  colonists  settled  here, 
and  early  in  the  loth  century  Candeish  was  an 
independent  kingdom,  governed  by  sovereigns 
claim  iug  descent  from  the  caliph  Omar,  who  had 
their  capital  at  Aseerghur:  towards  the  end  of 
that  century,  it  was  completly  subdued  and  an- 
nexed to  the  Mogul  empire.  The  decline  of 
Candeish  may  be  dated  frc^m  1802,  when  Jcswunt 
Itow-Holkar' ravaged  it;  next  year  it  was  de- 
IiopuUited  by  famine,  and  subsequently  ruined  by 
the  exactions  of  tlie  peishwa's  officers,  and  the 
]>redatory  incursions  of  the  Bheels,  Pindarrics, 
and  insurgent  bands  of  the  Aralis,  who  had  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  strongholds.  In  1818, 
when  Holkar's  possessions  in  Candeish  fell  under 
British  dominion,  these  refractory  tribes  were 
either  brought  into  subjection  or  pacified ;  or.  as 
the  Aral)s,  obliged  to  emigrate  from  India,  after 
hanrig  been  paid  what  they  were  legitimately 
entitle<i  to  by  tlie  British  government. 

Candklsh*,  an  inl.  zillah  or  distr.  of  Hindostan, 
prov.  Ciuidcihh,  presid.  lk»ml)av;  between  laU  20° 
and  21©  42'  N.,  and  long.  73°  37'  and  76°  22'  K ; 


CANDIA 

ha\'ing  X.  the  collectorate  of  Snrat  and  Sindis's 
tlr>m. ;  E.  the  latter,  and  those  of  the  Xizam :  S.  the 
Xizani's  dom.  and  the  collect,  of  Ahraednuggur; 
and  W.  a  portion  of  the  Guicowar's  territorj- ;  sha]>e 
somewhat  rhomboidal ;  length,  E.  to  W.,  about  \>^) 
m. ;  greatest  breadth  115  m. ;  area  12,527  sq.  m. 
Po|>.  478,500.  Til  is  district  is  for  the  most  part  over- 
grown with  jungle :  very  complete  embankraenis 
on  the  various  streams,  and  many  dilapidated, 
though  substantially-built  dams  and  aqueducts 
for  irrigation,  are  met  with,  which  might  be  again 
rendered  available  at  a  small  expense.  An  or- 
ganised bantl  of  marauders,  the  Bheels  were  formerly 
in  the  habit  of  levying  a  kind  of  UacA  mail  upon 
the  \nllagers,  consisting  of  a  ])ortiou  of  the  pniduce 
of  the  land ;  but,  by  conciliatory  treatment,  most 
of  them  returned  to  their  original  occupations  as 
village  watchmen  and  guardians.  The  agricul- 
tural classes  are  peaceable  and  inoffensive,  but 
timid  and  destitute  of  energy.  Tliere  are  no 
large  or  wealthy  landholders,  excepting  the  pn^- 
prietors  of  certain  jaghires  grante<l  for  militar>' 
ser\'ices  by  the  British  government.  The  village 
constitution  exbts,  but  the  ryotwarr>'  system  has 
been  intnxiuced  into  this  dlstr.,  to  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  gentlemen  who  have  held  civU  offices 
in  it  for  a  considerable  time,  it  is,  from  various 
causes,  extremely  ill  adapted.  Grain,  cotton,  and 
indigo  are  the  chief  articles  of  culture ;  but  there 
is  much  waste  land,  and  the  cultivation  and 
revenue  have  both  diminished  of  late  yean* 

CiWl  justice  is  administered  by  the  pumeha^, 
or  native  arbitration ;  and,  in  criminal  leases,  trial 
by  jur}'  has  been  established.  Si'hools  are  com- 
mon in  Candeish  distr. ;  every  Brahmin,  and  all 
who  have  anything  to  do  with  mercantile  busi- 
ness, are  instructed  in  rea<ling,  writing,  and 
accounts.  The  Moluimmedans  are  tlie  most 
ignorant  of  the  populatioiu 

CAXDIA,  or  MEGALO-KASTROX.  a  forti- 
fied marit,  city,  cap.  of  Crete,  on  the  X.  shore  of 
that  island,  near  its  centre,  34  m.  W.  Spinalonga, 
and  64  m.  ESE.  Canea;  Ut.  35^  21'  X..  long. 
240  8^  15"  E.  Pop.  estimated  at  10,000,  about 
one-half  of  whom  are  Mohammedans.  The  city, 
and  hence  Crete  itself,-  derived  its  name  of  Candia 
from  the  word  khandah,  signifying  an  entrench- 
ment in  the  language  of  the  Saracens,  by  whom 
it  was  built.  Its  present  fortifications  are  of 
Venetian  construction;  they  are  massive,  bsia- 
tioned,  and  fumislied  with  outworivs:  the  scarp 
wall,  a  beautiful  specimen  of  art,  is  in  most  places 
50  ft.  in  perpendicular  height ;  the  sea  wall  k^  not 
al)ove  20  ft.  in  height,  irregular,  and  Ijut  badly 
fianked.  The  port  is  formed  by  two  moles, 
which,  bending  towards  each  other,  pn^ject  about 
250  yards  into  the  sea,  and  are  defended  at  their 
extreme  points  by  forts.  It  is  at  {^resent  so 
choked  up  by  sand  and  the  ruins  of  the  old  Vene- 
tian docks  and  arsenal,  that  a  vesisel  drawing 
more  than  8  ft,  water  cann<»t  enter.  The  city 
has  four  gates,  three  on  the  land  side  and  one 
towards  the  sea.  Princiiial  streets  wide,  roughly 
paved,  but  clean,  well  furnished  with  fountains 
and  adorned  with  clumps  of  trees.  Houses  gene- 
rally well  built,  but  have  seldom  more  than  i»ne 
story  al>ove  the  ground  door.  The  bazaars,  which 
are  gooiU  have  a  Turkish  a|)pearauce.  In  the  ¥^ 
part  of  the  city,  the  houses  arc  mostly  inter- 
spersed with  gardens.  Candia  is  the  residence  of 
the  Pasha  and  seat  of  the  provincial  counciL  and 
of  a  Greek  archbishop.  Chief  buildings — j?»- 
vemor's  palace,  the  Greek  cathedral  and  ixhef 
churches,  many  mosques,  a  synagogue,  the  n>- 
mains  of  two  Koman  Catholic  churches,  a  light' 
house  on  the  \V.  mole,  and  some  good  bathd. 
The  arched  vaults  built  for  the  Venetian  galMf 


CANDIA 

8til1  exist,  and  several  other  n^lics  of  Venetian 
8way  are  found.  Tlie  country  imme^liately  round 
Candia  is  not  particularly  fertile.  Its  pruv.  com- 
prises all  the  E.  part  of  the  island,  and  produces 
chiefly  wheat,  barley,  raisins,  and  a  little  cotton. 

Candia.    See  Cretb. 

CANDT,  an  inl.  town  of  Ceylon,  at  the  head 
of  an  extensive  vallev,  in  lat.  7^  17'  N.,  and  long. 
«0o  36'  K,  about  1,400  ft.  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  80  m.  ENE.  Colombo,  and  95  m.  SW.  Trin- 
comalee.  Pop.  about  8,000.  It  is  surrounded  by 
woody  hills  and  mountains,  varying  from  200  to 
2,000  feet  in  height,  and  stands  on  tlie  bonier  of 
an  artificial  lake ;  but  its  ntuation,  though  beauti- 
ful and  romantic,  is  insecure.  At  a  distance  of 
3  m.  it  is  nearly  surrounded  by  the  Mahavilly 
Gan^  here  navigable  only  for  small  boats.  Ex- 
ccptmg  those  inhabited  by  tlic  chiefs,  which  are 
tiled,  the  native  houses  are  built  entirely  of  clay, 
and  thatched.  Temples  very  numerous,  and  con- 
sidered almost  indispensable  appendages  to  the 
houses  of  the  opulent;  in  the  greater  number 
lights  are  constantly  kept  burning;  and  in  one 
of  them  the  celebrated  tooth,  said  to  have  be- 
longed to  Boodh,  is  still  preserved!  Since  the 
capture  of  Candy,  residences  for  the  governor  and 
commandant,  and  a  gaol,  have  been  built  by  the 
British,  and  several  missionary  and  other  schools 
established.  There  is  no  church,  but  the  district 
court-house  and  missionary  school-room  are  made 
use  of  for  divine  service.  Candy  was  anciently 
the  cap.  of  an  indep.  kingdom  of  the  same  name, 
which  comprised  the  central  mountainous  country 
of  Ceylon.     It  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1815. 

CA*NEA,or  KlIANIA  (an.  C^donta),  a  sea-port 
and  the  principal  commercial  town  of  Crete,  cap. 
pn)v.  of  same  name,  on  the  X.  shore  of  the  island, 
25  m.  from  its  W.  extremity,  W  m.  WXW.  Can- 
dia, and  about  140  m.  S.  the  island  of  Syra.  Esti- 
mated pop.  8,000,  about  5,000  of  whom  are  Mo- 
hammedans, an<i  1,000  foreigners,  chieflv  Hellenes 
and  lonians,  who  engross  most  of  the  import 
trade.  The  town,  inclusive  of  the  port,  forms  an 
irregular  square,  enclosed  by  walls,  with  bastions 
and  a  ditcli  on  the  land  side.  The  present  fortiii- 
cations  were  constructed  by  the  Venetians,  but 
are  inferior,  both  in  magnitude  and  disiH)sition,  to 
tlia^c  of  Candia.  The  port  is  formed  by  a  mole 
alxmt  1,200  feet  in  length,  prolonged  from  the 
NE.  extremity  of  the  town  to  the  NW.,  where  it  is 
terminated  by  a  light-house  opposite  to  a  fortress 
defending  the  hart)our's  mouth.  The  port  is  the 
best  in  Crete,  and  capable  of  containing  vessels  of 
300  tons  burden.  Streets  wide  and  well  paved, 
but  not  clean ;  houses  lofty,  oUl,  and  rickety,  but 
shops  good.  At  the  N.  part  of  the  town  is  a  kind 
of  citadel,  formerly  containing  the  arsenal  and 
docks.  The  Venetian  galley  vaults  are  still  in 
gmnl  preservation.  Thexc  is  a  small  but  excellent 
lazaretto,  and  si*veral  soap  manufactories.  Canea 
is  the  residence  of  the  pro\'iucial  governor  and  of 
several  European  consuls,  and  the  seat  of  tlie  pro- 
vincial council,  and  of  a  Greek  bishopric.  Strabo 
and  Scylax  <lescribe  the  site  and  ]x>rt  of  Cydimia, 
so  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  Khauia  stands  ujion 
the  identical  spot.  No  vestiges  of  the  ancient 
city  are  now  to.  be  seen,  though  some  existed  at 
the  end  of  the  17th  century.  The  plain  around 
Canea  is  celebratetl  for  its  beauty;  its  pro\'ince 
compriiies  all  the  W.  portion  of  the  islaniL 

CAXICATTI,  a  town  of  SicUy,  prov.  Girgenti, 
cap.  (ymt,,  16  m.  S\V.  Caltaniaetta.  Pop.  18,713 
in  1862.  The  town  is  well  built.  The  greater 
Ijart  of  the  population  consists  of  agriculturists. 

CAXN^E,  a  village  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
C«>son/.a,  near  the  Ofanto  (the  anc  Aujidut),  8  m. 
WSW.  Barletta.    Pop.  4,272  in  1862.    The  vU- 


CANTAL 


635 


lage  is  adjacent  to  Uie  site  of  the  ancient  city  of 
Caiinie,  famous  for  the  decisive  victory  gained  in 
its  m'inity  by  Hannibal,  over  the  Romans,  in  the 
year  217  b.c.  Never  were  the  talents  of  a  great 
general  more  conspicuouslv  displayed  than  on  this 
occasion.  The  army  of  llanuibal  was  very  in- 
ferior in  numbers,  and  perhaiis,  ahto,  in  the  quality 
of  the  troops,  to  that  of  his  enemies;  but  the 
ability  of  the  commander  made  up  for  every 
other  deficiency,  and  with  a  loss  of  only  4,0(H)  of 
his  own  men,  he  put  50,000  Romans  to  the  sword, 
and  took  10,(K)0  prisoners.  (The  English  reader 
will  find  a  good  account  of  this  great  battle  in 
Ferguson's  Roman  History,  cap.  5;  the  classical 
reader  may  resort  to  Polybius  and  Livy.)  The 
scene  of  action  is  marked  out  to  posterity  bv  the 
name  of  Campo  di  Scmgue^  *  field  of  blood ;  and 
spears,  he^ids  of  lances,  and  other  pieces  of  armour, 
still  continue  to  be  turned  up  by  the  plough. 

The  dty  of  Cann»  was  destroyed  the  year 
before  the  battle;  but  it  was  afterwards  rebuilt, 
and  was  a  bishop's  see  in  the  infancy  of  Chris- 
tianity. It  seems  to  have  been  abandoned  in  the 
middle  ages  for  the  cities  along  the  coast. 

CANNES,  a  sea-port  town  of  France,  on  the 
Mediterranean,  d^).  Var,  cap.  canU,  25  m.  E. 
Draguignan,  on  tlie  railway  from  Marseilles  to 
Nice.  Pop.  7,,357  in  1861.  The  town  is  situated 
on  the  declivity  of  a  hill  projecting  into  the  sea ; 
has  a  fine  quay,  an  old  Gotliic  casQe,  and  an  old 
church.  Its  port  b  neither  deep  nor  commodious, 
and  can  only  be  used  by  fishing  boats  and  small 
coasting  vessels.  Napoleon  I.  landed  in  the 
vicinity  of  Cannes  on  the  1st  of  March,  1815,  on 
his  return  from  Elba. 

C  ANUS  A  (an.  Canumum)^  a  town  of  Southern 
Italv,  prov.  Bari,  cap.  cant.,  near  the  Ofanto,  15 
m.  S\V.  Barletta.  Pop.  13,274  in  1862.  The  old 
city,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Diomed,  or  in 
a  period  antecedent  to  the  records  of  Roman  his- 
tory, was  in  ancient  times  one  of  the  most  con- 
siderable cities  in  this  part  of  Italy  for  extent, 
population,  and  magnificence.  Its  widls  are  said 
to  have  embraced  a  circuit  of  16m.;  and  various 
ruins  still  remain  to  attest  its  former  grandeur. 
Among  these  arc  the  remains  of  an  aqueduct  and 
of  a  vast  amphitheatre,  with  tomb»,  columns,  and 
triumphal  arches,  (ircat  numben  of  fictile  vases 
of  the  best  period  have  been  found  here,  surpassing 
in  size  and  beauty  those  found  in  the  toml>s  of 
any  other  ancient  city.  Tlicf  modem  toMm  occu- 
pies the  site  of  the  ancient  citadel.  The  old  cathe- 
dral, built  in  the  6th  century,  still  remains.  Its 
altars  and  pavements  are  rich  in  marbles;  and 
the  verde  antico  columns  that  support  its  roof  are 
splendid  even  in  their  decay.  Here  is  also  the 
mausoleum  of  Bohemimd,  so  celebrated  in  the 
Genualemme  Liberata, 

Canusium  was  the  place  to  which  the  wreck  of 
the  Roman  army  fied  after  the  battle  of  Canna*. 
It  seems  to  have  l)een  at  the  acme  of  its  ]>rosi)erity 
under  Trajan.  It  was  reduced  to  its  pri'seiit  con- 
dition by  a  series  of  disasters  inilicted  on  it  by  the 
Goths.  Saracens,  and  Normans. 

CANOURGE  (LA),  a  town  of  France,  den. 
Lozcre,  cap.  cant.,  in  an  agreeable  and  fertile  val- 
ley, on  the  Urugne,  9  m.  SSW.  Marvejols.  Pop. 
1,912  in  1861.  There  are  some  branches  of  the 
cotton  and  woollen  manufactures,  and  some  trade 
in  cattle  and  grain.  Excavations  made  in  the 
vicinity  in  1829  have  been  the  means  of  di!*oover- 
ing  a  number  of  v&ses  and  other  remains  of  Roman 
pottery,  which  appear  to  have  been  manufactured 
on  the  spot. 

CANTAL,  an  inland  dep.  of  France,  formed  of 
parts  of  the  ancient  districts  of  Haute  Auvergnc 
and  Velay,  between  44°  37'  and  45°  26'  N.  lai., 


636 


CANTELEU 


aiid  20  5'  and  3°  14'  E.  long.,  bounded  by  the  fol- 
lowing dept.««.,  \\z,  X.  Puy-de-I)6me,  E.  Haute 
Loin',  SE.  LoziTO,  S.  Aveyron,  and  AV.  Lot  aiui 
Correzo.    Area,  574,147  hectares.      Poj).  240,0*23 
in    1861 .    This  i«  one  of  tlie  least   profhictive, 
poorest  districts  of  France.    Surface  much  encuin- 
t>ered  with  mountains.    The  highest  summit,  that 
of  the  Plomb-<le-Cantal,  in  the  centre  of  the  dep., 
and  whence  it  takes  its  name,  is  elevated  1,H5C 
metres  (0,040  ft.)  aljovethe  level  of  the  sea.  There 
are  every  where  indications  of  the  action  of  sub- 
terranean fires  and  volcanos;  and  though  steep, 
the  mountains  furnish,  in  summer,  excellent  pas- 
ture.     Valleys  not  very    extensive.      Between 
Murat  and  St.  Flcurs  there  is  a  level  plateau, 
which  may  be  said  to  be  the  granary  of  the  dent. 
Climate  severe,  the  snow  generally  lying  on  the 
summits  of   the   mountains  for  seven   or  eight 
months  together.    Several  rivers,  flowing  in  dif- 
ferent directions,  have  their  sources  hejre ;  among 
which  may  be  specified  the  C«rc,  Alagiion,  Rue, 
and  Arceiul:  the  Dordogne  runs  along  its  NW. 
frontier.   Agriculture  in  the  most  backward  state ; 
the  (Krcupiers  being  generally  poor,  and  wedded  to 
old  practices.    The  produce  of  wheat  and  oats  is 
insufiicient  for  the  consumption ;  but  the  inhab. 
live  princi|vally  on  buckwheat,  rj-e,  potatoe-s,  and 
chesnuts.    The  last^  indeed,  is  the  staple  article  of 
foo4l  in  an  extensive  district,  thence  called  Cha- 
taiifneray.    Hemp  and  fine  flax  arc  also  raised, 
with  various  descriptions  of  fruits,  and  a  little 
very  bad  wine.    ITie  principal  wealth  of  the  dep. 
consists  in  its  mountain  pastures  and  meadows ; 
partly  occupied,  in  summer,  in  dairy  farming,  and 
partly  in  the  fattening  of  c«ttle  and  slieep.    Lai^e 
quantities  of  cheese  and  butter  are  annually  ])ro- 
diicetl.    The  ordinary  yield  of  a  cow  is  estimated 
at  75  kilogs.  of  cheese  and  15  ditto  of  butter.   The 
bei^t  cheeses  are  made  in  the  environs  of  Salers; 
they  weigh  from  70  to  80  lbs.;  great  numbers  of 
pigs  are  fed  on  the  refuse  of  the  dairies.    Large 
herds  of  cattle  are  also  fattened  on  the  mountains. 
The  native  breed  of  sheep  is  small,  and  have  fine 
fleeces.    Large  flocks  arc  brought  from  the  more 
S.  de{)artments,  to  be  fattened  during  the  summer, 
the  fattening  and  pasturage  grounds  being  often 
let  to  the  nroprietors  of  herds  and  flocks  from  the 
neighbounng  dents.    Horses  small  and  hardy,  and 
use3  for  the  light  cavalry.     Numbers  of  mules, 
asses,  and  goats  are  also  raised ;  the  skins  of  the 
latter  are  sent  to  Milhaud  to  be  made  into  parch- 
ments   Honey  is  an  important  product.    Manu- 
facturing industry  is  at  a  very  low  ebb  in  tliis 
dept.    There  arc  a  few  fabrics  of  coarse  woollens 
and  linens;  and  these,  witli  coarse  lace,  copper 
and  brazier's  work,  wooden  articles,  paper,  and 
tanneries,  include  almost  all  that  is  worth  notice. 
Numbers    of  the    people  annually  emigrate  in 
searcli  of  employment  to  Paris,  and  other  parts  of 
France    The  inhabit^ints  of  the  mountains  and 
plateaux  suffer  severely  from  the  scarcity  of  fuel 
a^d  cold  in  winter.    To  obWate  the  intfuence  of 
the  latter,  tliey  lie  m  bed  as  long  as  possible,  and 
have  their  cottages  so  planned  that  the  family 
occupies  the  middle  space  between  the  cattle  and 
the  bam.    Cantal  is  <lividcd  into  four  arrond.,  23 
cantons,  and  259  communes.     The  chief  towns, 
which  give  their  name  to  the  arrondissements,  are 
Aurillac,  St,  Fleurs,  Murat,  and  Mauriac. 

("ANTELEU,  a  town  of  France,  d^p.  Seine  Tn- 
fe'rieure,  on  the  summit  of  hills  which  command 
the  right  bank  of  the  Seine,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
forest  of  Koumaris,  4  m.  \V.  Rouen.  Pop.  3,430 
in  1801.  The  town  commands  a  fine  view  of 
liouen  and  the  hills  by  which  it  is  surrounded,  the 
course  of  the  Seine  as  far  as  Elbcuf,  the  valley  of 
Ddville,  and  vast  meadows. 


CANTERBURY 

CANTERBURY,  a  city.  co..  and  T)or.,  and  the 
metro)N>litan  see  of  England,  c«.  Kent,  in  a  fertile, 
well-cultivated  valley,  intersected  by  varii>u3 
branches  of  the  Stour,  ne>ar  the  base  of  the  X. 
Downs,  53  m.  SE.  by  E.  London  by  ruad,  and  i<i 
m.  by  South-Eastem  Railway.  f*op.  21.324  in 
1801.  The  town  was  originally  enclosed  by  tur- 
ret ted  walls  (the  remains  of  which  still  exL<t),and 
had  4  main  streets  branching  from  the  centre,  each 
terminating  by  a  gateway,  of  which  the  W.  only 
remains.  The  modem  town  consists  of  the^  and 
of  4  suburbs,  continued  in  the  direi-tion  of  each, 
that  on  the  E.  side  being  much  the  largest.  The 
High  Street,  along  which  the  old  njad  fn>m  Lon- 
don to  Dover  passes,  is  of  considerable  width,  with 
well-built  houses  on  either  side,  and  a  hand^sorac 
guildhall  neair  the  centre.  The  whole  is  well 
paved,  lighted  by  gas,  and  supplied  with  water; 
the  Stour,  which  tlows  through  it,  di^ddes  and 
makei«  an  island  of  its  W.  part.  There  are  11 
parish  churches,  but^  except  that  of  All  Saints,  they 
are  generally  small  and  msignificant  in  external 
appearance.  The  cathedral  is  a  noble  pile,  and 
forms  a  conspicuous  object  fn>m  whatever  part  nf 
the  city  it  may  be  Wewe<L  It  stamLs  on  the  site  of 
the  cathedral  anciently  founded  by  St,  Augustine, 
in  connection  vdth  tlie  monastery  of  Christ  Church, 
established  by  Ethelt>ert,  king  of  Kent,  on  hL9 
conversion  to  Christianity,  by  St.  Augustine,  in 
597.  The  oldest  part  of  the  present  stmcture  dates 
from  1184:  the  nave,  cloister,  and  chapter-hou^^e 
are  two  centuries  later,  during  the  best  period  of 
the  pointed  ecclesiastical  style ;  the  interior  is  very 
fine,  and  the  styles  of  different  ages  skilfully 
adapted  to  each  other;  tlie  choir  is  the  most  spa- 
cious in  the  kingdom,  and  the  great  stained 
window  accounted  one  of  the  finest.  The  structure 
is  of  the  usual  cmciform  shape,  with  a  semi-circu- 
lar E.  end,  and  is  513  ft.  m  length  inside,  the 
central  tower  being  235  ft.  in  height :  under  the 
whole  is  an  old  cry]>t  or  under-croft.  The  ancient 
celebrity  of  this  cathedral  is  partly  attributable  to 
its  being  associated  with  the  first  establishment  tif 
Christianity  in  England,  but  more  especially  to 
the  murder  of  its  famous  archbishop,  Tbomas-a- 
Becket,  at  the  foot  of  one  of  its  altars,  in  1171. 
Becket  having  been  canonised,  his  bones  were,  in 
1220,  removed,  with  great  pomp  and  ex]>ense,  fin^ra 
the  under-croflt,  where  they  had  previously  been 
deposited,  to  the  Trinity  Chapel,  built  for  the  luir- 
pose.  The  annivcrsarv  of  the  day  on  which  they 
were  removed  was  celebrated  as  a  great  festival 
down  to  the  Reformation;  and  devi>tces,  not  only 
from  every  part  of  England,  but  of  Europe,  made 
pilgrimages  to  tlie  shrine  of  the  saint^  to  the 
enrichment  both  of  the  establishment  and  of  the 
city  generally.  A  supposed  pilgrima^ice  of  this 
sort,  such  as  was  then  usual,  was  made  the  medium 
of  a  lively  description  of  the  characters  and  cu>tom» 
of  his  day  by  the  earliest  of  our  great  poets,  and 
has  been  rendered  familiar  by  the  engra>ing  nf 
Stothard's  'Canterbury  Pilgrimage,*  in  which  the 
characters  describe<l  by  CJiaucer  are  admirably 
represented.  Erasmus,  who  saw  the  fane  in  un- 
diminished splendour  a  short  time  previously  to 
its  annihilation,  gives  a  ^'ivid  account  of  it^  wealth 
and  magnificence.  In  1536,  however,  all  hl^h 
festivals  occurring  between  July  and  Scptemlicr 
(which  included  the  chief  festival  at  (l^anterbur)) 
were  forbidden,  on  the  ground  of  their  taking 
people  from  the  necessary  labours  of  harvest,  Ihit 
this  was  merelv  a  prelude  to  more  energetic 
measures ;  and,  in  the  following  year,  Becket  y^vi 
thrust  out  of  his  place  in  the  catalogue  of  saints, 
declared  to  have  been  a  rc^liel,  his  Ixmes  lieing.  at 
the  same  time,  burnt  and  scattered,  and  the 
treasury  of  his  shrine  approi>riatcd  to  secular  pur- 


CANTERBURY 

poBCfl.  Subsequently  to  this  vifjopoua  exercise  of 
tlie  prcri^ative-f  the  present  coUe^Ute  establish- 
ment  was  onlaiucdt  consutuig  of  a  dean,  12  canons, 
6  preachers,  6  minor  canons,  and  other  subordi- 
nates ;  8  of  the  prebendaries  bein^  in  the  gift  of 
the  archbishop,  tne  rest  in  that  of  the  crown.  In 
1(>43,  considerable  injury  was  done  to  the  catliedral 
in  consequence  of  a  parliamentary  order  to  purify 
it,  and  8ubse<piently  the  nave  was  converted  into 
temporarj' barracks*  for  Cromwell's  troo|)s.  On  the 
Restoration,  the  choir  was  refitted  for  divine  ser- 
vice ;  and  now,  for  many  years  jiast,  considerable 
funds  have  been  annually  <levoted  by  the  chapter 
to  the  restoration  and  improvement  of  this  mag- 
nifK.'ent  old  structure,  which  contains  many  in- 
teresting monumental  remains ;  amongst  others, 
tlmt  of  the  Hlack  Prince.  The  diocese  of  Canter- 
bury consists  of  the  co.  of  Kent  (with  the  exception 
of  the  citv  and  deaner}'  of  Rochester,  and  of  8 
other  i)anshe8,  which  last  are  in  the  London 
dii)ocse),  and  the  parishes  of  Croydon  and  Adding- 
ton,  and  district  of  Lambeth  Palace,  in  the  co.  of 
Surrey. 

The  province  comprlHes  20  other  diocese^  and 
about  1(H)  scattered  parishes,  called  *  peculiars;*  its 
archbishop  is  primate  and  metropolitan  of  all 
England,  and  takes  ])recedence  of  all  great  officers 
of  state,  and  of  all  peere  of  the  realm,  except  those 
of  the  royal  blood ;  he  formerly  ha<l  the  privilege  of 
conferring  degrees  in  divinity,  law,  and  physic 
The  revenues  of  the  see  amount  at  an  average  to 
lo,U0()2.  a  year.  The  succession  is  traced  with 
tolerable  reifularity  from  SU  Augustine,  a.  d.  597. 
Canlinal  Pole  was  the  70th  and  the  last  archbishop 
under  the  Catholic  system.  The  site  of  the  ancient 
palace,  near  the  cathedral  precincts,  is  occufued  by 
modem  buildings,  leased  to  private  individuals; 
the  present  archiepiscopal  residence  being  at  Lam- 
beth. There  are  several  dissenting  cha|)els  in  the 
town,  and  a  Jewish  svnagogue.  A  grammar  school 
founded  by  Henry  Vlll.,  is  in  the  patronage  of  the 
dean  and  chapter:  there  are  2  masters,  and  50 
king's  scholars.  The  other  public  structures  are 
a  sessions-house,  theatre,  assembly-rooms,  philo- 
sophic institution  (with  library,  museum,  and 
lecture  room),  and  the  subscription  wells,  whose 
mineral  waters  were  discovered  in  the  latter  part 
of  tlie  17th  centurv',  and  were  for  some  time  in 
great  repute,  but  have  since  been  comparatively 
neglected;  one  sjmng  is  a  pure  chalybeate,  the 
other  impregnated  with  sulphur,  llie  citv  gene- 
rally has  of  late  vears  undergone  considerable 
improvement ;  the  Donjon-field,  and  a  large  arti- 
ficial mound  in  it,  is  laid  out  in  public  walks,  and 
forms  a  pleasant  promenade.  There  is  little  or  no 
tnule  carried  on  except  what  is  ref{uired  for  the 
supply  of  the  town  and  its  immediate  vicinity. 
The  silk  trade,  originally  established  bv  Flemish 
and  French  refugees  (to  whom  Elizabeth  granted 
the  under-croft  of  the  cathedral  for  public  worship), 
and  that  of  silk  and  cotton,  subsequently  intro- 
duced, have  ceased:  but  there  is  a  considerable 
traffic  in  hops  and  agricultural  produce,  laige 
quantities  of  which  are  sent  from  it  to  London  by 
railway,  either  direct  or  through  AVIiitstable,  and 
fnim  thence  up  the  river  Thames,  by  boats.  Whit- 
stable,  the  iH)rt  of  Canterbury,  is  6  m.  distant 
from  the  city,  and  a  railway  to  it,  one  of  the 
earliest  in  England,  was  opened  in  IKiO.  There 
are  four  market-places  for  the  sale  of  meat,  and 
poultry,  tish,  cattle,  com,  and  ho)w:  there  is  a  daily 
supply  of  provisions,  but  the  chief  markets  are 
held,  one  on  Saturday,  and  another,  for  fat  stock, 
ever}'  alternate  Tuesday :  there  is  also  an  annual 
statute  fair,  which  begins  October  10,  and  lasts  10 
or  12  days,  but  little  business  of  imfwrtance  is 
transacted  at  it.    Canterbury  has  long  been  noted 


CANTON 


637 


for  brawn,  which  forms  an  article  of  some  impor- 
tance in  the  trade  of  the  place,  and  is  sent  to 
various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  ho|>-ground8 
of  the  vicinity  aflford  employment  to  a  la^  jjro- 
portion  of  the  labouring  population  of  both  sexes. 

The  pari,  and  municipal  limits  of  Canterbury 
arc  identical.  The  city,  which  is  a  county  of  itself, 
contains  within  the  walls  14  parishes,  besides 
ancient  monastic  precincts.  Defore  the  passing  of 
the  Municipal  Act  the  city  magistrates  had  no 
jurisdiction  over  these  precinct«,  but  they  are  all 
now  under  the  authority  of  the  civic  powers,  with 
the  exception  of  the  ville  of  Christchurch,  in  which 
the  city  and  county  magistrates  have  concurrent 
jurisdiction. 

Canterbury  has  sent  2  m.  to  the  H.  of  C.  from 
the  23  Eilward  L ;  the  right  of  voting  being,  pre- 
viously to  the  Kefonn  Act,  in  the  resident  and 
non-resident  freemen;  the  freedom  of  the  town 
l)eing  acquired  In'  birth,  marriage,  apprenticeship, 
purchase,  and  gift.  The  present  parL  bor.  includes, 
besides  the  fU>ove  par.,  parts  of  those  of  three 
others,  and  the  bor.  of  I^ngport :  area  3,658  acres ; 
regLsteretl  constituency  1,758  in  1865,  of  whom  749 
freemen.  It  is  di\ided  into  3  wards,  and  is 
governed  by  a  recorder,  mayor,  6  aldermen,  and 
18  counsellors. 

This  city  is  of  great  antiquity',  as  is  proved  by 
the  notice  of  it  in  the  itinerary  of  Antoninus,  and 
by  many  Roman  remains.  A  staple  of  wool  was 
granted  by  Edward  III.;  but  its  chief  importance 
previously  to  the  Reformation  was  derived  from  its 
numerous  religious  establishments,  and  the  influx 
of  pilgrims  of  all  ranks  and  conditions.  It  was 
also  the  most  frequented  thoroughfare  to  the  Con- 
tinent, and  is  noticed  as  such  in  the  charter  granted 
by  Henrj'  IV.,  where  it  is  called,  *  a  city  near  the 
sea,  and  as  it  were  a  port  and  entrance'  by  which 
foreigners  come  to  the  kingdom.'  During  the  last 
war,  a  large  body  of  military  were  usually  stationed 
here,  for  whose  reception  there  are  three  sets  of 
cavalrv  and  infantry  barracks.  The  outer  walls  of 
a  castle  of  the  Norman  period  still  exist.  For 
some  time  at  the  l>eginning  of  the  present  century, 
the  city  was  decaying,  but  the  estal>lishment  of 
railwav  communication  has  raised  it  to  a  more 
flourishing  state.  Canterburv  is  now  nmnected 
with  the  metropolis  by  two  lines  of  railway,  the 
South-Eastem,  opened  in  1846,  and  the  London, 
Chatham,  and  Dover  line,  opened  in  1864. 

CANTON  (caUed  by  the  Chinese  Sang-Oting, 
the  provincial  city),  a  marit.  dty  of  China  on  its 
S.  coast,  cap.  prov.  Quang-tong,  and  residence  of 
the  provincial  authorities;  the  principal  empo- 
rium of  the  East,  and  the  first  port  in  China  at 
which  any  Europeans  were  establishe<L  It  stands 
on  the  N.  bank  of  the  Ctuxh-kiang,  or  Pearl  River, 
and  the  £.  bank  of  its  affluent,  the  Pe-kiang, 
60  m.  NNW.  the  Chuiese  Sea,  an<l  1,200  m.  8.  by 
W.  Pekin.  Lat.  23©  T  10"  N.,  long.  llS®  14'  30" 
E.  It  is  nearly  stiuare,  about  6  m.  in  circ,  built 
generally  up<m  level  ground,  except  on  its  N. 
side,  and  is  divided  into  two  unequal  parts,  the 
outer,  or  Chinese,  and  the  inner,  or  Mantchou 
(Tartar)  city,  which  arc  surrounded  by  one  wall, 
and  separated  by  another.  I'he  walls  are  partly 
of  sandstone  and  partly  of  brick,  about  20  or  25 
U^  thick,  and  from  25  to  40  fl«  high.  A  line  of 
battlements,  with  embrasures  at  inter\'als  of  a  few 
feet,  raised  on  the  top  of  the  walls  all  round,  are 
in  some  places  mounted  with  cannon.  The  city 
is  farther  defende<l  by  three  forts  on  the  land 
side,  and  two  on  Pearl  River ;  but  as  a  place  of 
stren^h  Canton  is  insignificant.  I'he  outer  walls 
are  pierced  with  twelve  gates,  and  four  others  lead 
through  the  inner  wall  from  the  old  to  the  new 
city :  all  of  these  are  daily  opened  at  dawn,  and 


ess 


CANTON 


8]iiit  at  an  early  hoar  of  the  evening,  and  strictly 
guanlctl  to  prevent  the  exit  or  entrance  of  any 
one,  except  upon  H]>ecial  occasions.  The  suburbs 
are,  ]>erhai«,  as  extensive  and  populous  as  the 
city  itself.  They  fill  up  the  siwce  between  the 
walls  and  the  water's  etlce  on  both  rivers ;  those 
on  the  \V.  side  are  much  the  lai^i^t.  The  city 
and  suburbs  are  laid  out  in  a  precisely  similar 
manner.  Streets  numerous,  and  generally  short 
and  crooked,  thouf^h  sometimes  of  consideral)le 
length.  They  var>'  in  width  from  about  2  to  16  fU, 
but  arc  commonly  fntm  C  to  H  A.  wide,  ]>ayed  with 
little  round  st(»nes,  and  flagged,  close  to  the 
houses,  with  larger  ones,  chiefly  (»f  granite.  Each 
is  closed  by  stnmg  gates,  secured  and  guarde<l  at 
night ;  and  streets  (»f  business  are  each  devoted 
to  one  distinct  branch  of  trade.  Several  canals, 
used  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  and  goods, 
intersect  the  city  and  suburbs.  Tuo  of  the  largest 
run  alon^  the  outside  of  the  £.  and  W.  walls,  and 
communicate  by  a  third,  which  passes  through 
the  new  city.  Several  smaller  ones  branch  off 
from  these  on  either  side :  they  are  crossed  in 
many  places  by  stone  bridges.  Houses  built 
chieHy  of  brick;  but  mud.  stone,  and  wood  are 
also  used  in  their  construction,  and  many  of  the 
habitations  in  the  old  city  are  said  to  be  composed 
entirely  of  the  former  materiaL  Near  the  river 
they  arc  ndsed  on  wooden  ])iles,  and  elsewhere  are 
generally  erected  on  solid  foundations.  Scarcely 
any  are  more  than  one  story  in  height ;  the  roofs 
of  many  arc  flat,  and  l)eing  surrounded  with  a 
breast -work^  they  form  terraces  frequented  by 
the  family  in  the  cool  of  the  evening.  The  floors 
are  usually  composed  of  in«lurated  mud,  marble, 
or  other  flagstones,  or  tiles  Joined  by  cement. 
"Windows  small,  the  place  of  glass  l)eing  sup- 
plied by  paper,  mica,  and  thin  shelL  Ver\'  little 
iron  is  used.  The  better  sort  of  residences  are 
built  within  a  court,  surrounded  by  a  wall,  12 
or  14  flu  high,  and  the  interior  of  those  of  the 
opulent  Chu»ese  are  in  general  ver\'  richly  fur- 
nished. The  houses  of  the  middle  orders,  in 
which  about  one-third  part  of  the  pomlation 
reside,  have  no  court,  nor  any  supcrabunilant 
nK)m ;  those  of  the  lower  (irders,  which  are  very 
numerous  along  the  banks  of  the  canals,  in  the 
N.  part  of  the  old  city,  and  in  the  extreme  parts 
of  the  suburbs,  are  wretched  mud  hovels,  in  which 
six,  eight,  ten,  or  sometimes  eyen  double  that 
number  of  individuals,  are  crowded  into  one  low, 
dark,  and  dirty  apartment.  The  foreign  factories, 
or  hongs^  as  the  Chinese  call  them,  are  situated  in 
the  SW.  suburb,  where  they  extend  from  E.  to  W. 
for  al)out  1^  furlong.  They  occupy  a  muddy  flat, 
which  has  been  gained  from  the  Choo-kiang  river, 
which  they  face,  Iwing  st^parated  from  it  by  a  quay 
alHiut  100  y<ls.  wide,  lliis  space,  which  is  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  the  European  merchants,  is 
raile<l  in,  and  forms  a  promenade,  called  Respon- 
dentia Walk.  Near  it  is  another  small  open  space, 
about  50  or  GO  yds.  square,  walled  in,  and  laid 
out  as  a  garden,  with  gravel  walks  and  flower- 
be<ls.  Tliesc  narrow  limits  bound  all  the  terri- 
tory assigned  to  foreigners  within  the  Celestial 
empire :  even  the  quay  and  enclosure  were  not 
obtained  without  considerable  difficulty,  and  the 
European  merchants  cannot  erect  a  few  steps  on 
the  waters  edge  without  express  permission  from 
the  authorities.  There  are  thirteen  hongs,  or  fac- 
tories, including  the  British,  Dutch,  American, 
French,  Austrian,  Swedish,  Danish,  and  Parsee 
e<^tablishments.  They  are  amongst  the  hand- 
somest buildings  in  the  city,  and  usually  con- 
sist of  three,  four,  or  more  brick  or  granite  build- 
ings surrounding  a  kind  of  close  or  court:  two 
tolerable  European  hotels  occupy  portions  of  two 


of  them.  The  English  hong  far  snrpaaRes  the 
rest  for  elcq^^ce  and  extent;  this,  the  Dutch, 
and  the  American  hongs  are  the  only  ones  which 
haye  their  national  flags  flying:  the' British  flag, 
which  had  been  hauled  down  at  the  expiration  uf 
the  E.  I.  Company's  charter,  was  again  raised  in 
April,  1837.  (Fanqui  in  China,  L  240.)  Con- 
tiguous to  the  hongs  are  three  noted  thorough- 
fares. Old  and  New  China  Streets,  and  Hog  Laoe 
The  flrst  two  are  amongst  the  best  streets  in  the 
suburbs,  rather  wider  than  the  generality  of  the 
public  ways,  pretty  regularly  pave<l,  and  lined 
\%-ith  shops,  in  which  a  considerable  amount  of 
liusiness  Is  sometimes  transacted.  The  tilthy 
street,  or  alley,  appropriately  named  H<^  I^ne, 
has  an  infamous  notoriety  as  l)eing  the  place 
where  foreign  seamen  are  intoxicated,  robbed,  and 
maltreated,  and  where,  owing  in  a  great  measure 
to  their  imprudence,  most  of  the  disturbances  have 
arisen  which  have  led  to  serious  dutputes  between 
the  Chinese  government  and  the  foreign  traders. 
Except  in  those  devoted  to  the  European  trade, 
most  of  the  shops  open  to  the  streets,  and  the 
most  valuable  kinds  of  wares  are  exp<»ed,  appa- 
rently without  any  protection  from  theft ;  but  the 
sharp  eye  kept  by  the  dealers,  the  gates  at  the 
end  of  the  streets,  which  may  be  shut  in -an 
instant,  and  a  most  vigilant  police,  commonly 
prevent  any  frauds.  Burglaries  are  rare,  but  loss 
by  Are  is  frequent ;  to  ayert  which,  in  the  winter 
m<»nths,  an  additional  body  of  watchmen  occupy 
watch-towers  erected  on  bamboo  poles  high  above 
the  roofs  of  the  houses,  and  an  alarm,  given  by 
beUs  or  other  means,  quickly  spreads  through  the 
city.  The  Chinese  have  very  generally  adopted 
the  use  of  our  engines,  which  they  occasionally 
manufacture  sufficiently  well  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose ;  but  the  fatalism  which  prevails  among  the 
people  makes  them  singularly  careless  as  ri^;anis 
Are.  In  1822  a  fire  broke  out,  which  destroyed 
the  BritUh  factory  and  above  10.000  other  huiL<es. 
The  loss  of  the  *E.  I.  Company  on  this  occa:fdon 
was  estimated  at  500,000/.  sterling.  Canton  is 
subject  to  inundations,  which  carry  away  many 
mud  hovels,  and  frequently  fill  the  lower  apart- 
ments in  the  hongs  to  the  height  of  several  feet. 
The  city  is  tolerably  well  supplied  with  water 
by  several  reservoirs,  many  wells,  and  canals,  and 
some  fine  springs  on  its  K.  side,  both  within  and 
without  the  waUs. 

A  large  part  of  the  population  of  Canton  resides 
on  the  water.  For  4  or  5  m.  opposite  the  city,  and 
both  above  and  below  it,  the  nyer  is  crowdi>d  with 
vessels  and  rafts  of  all  descriptions  and  sizes. 
Every  one  is  roistered,  and  the  whole  number  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  city  is  reported  to 
amount  to  84,000.  Many  of  these,  called  egg- 
boats,  which  are  no  more  than  12  or  15  ft.  long, 
about  6  ft.  broad,  and  covered  with  a  low  liam- 
boo  shed,  not  only  accommodate  whole  families, 
but  contain  coops  in  which  large  broods  of  durki 
and  chickens  are  reared.  Othem  are  immenw 
rafts  of  timber  on  which  many  individuaLs  live. 
Some  of  the  floating-houses  are,  howeyer.  hand- 
some residences;  their  hull  is  large  and  bniad, 
and  the  building  in  the  centre  is  surroonded  by  a 
spacious  wooden  terrace,  and  supports  another  «m 
its  roof,  both  of  which  are  ornamented  i%ith 
flowers  and  everj^^reens.  The  narrow  channel  left 
between  the  stationary  shipping  and  the  ftum  is 
so  incessantly  thronged  with  barges  and  craft  of 
all  kinds,  as  to  render  landing  or  emhaikaticHi 
usually  a  difficult  undertaking.  Upwards  of  It) 
different  temples  are  enumerated  in  and  adjacent 
to  the  city,  and  this  does  not  include  the  wbuk 
number.  The  principal  is  the  Buddhist  tempk  on 
the  island  of  Uoiuuiy  in  the  river  opposite  Cantm. 


CANTON 


639 


Its  buildings  are  namtrotis,  and  chiefly  of  brick ; 
it  coverSf  with  its  courts  and  gardens,  6  or  8  acres, 
which  are  surrounded  by  a  lofty  walL  The  still- 
ness wliich  reigns  within  this  barrier  forms  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  turmoil  which  prevails 
without.  The  pathway  to  the  great  central  temple 
leads  through  two  wide  court-yards  laid  out  witli 
gravel  walks,  and  planted  with  rows  of  trees ;  in 
the  gat«way  separating  these  courts  are  two  ficrce<> 
looking  colossal  Hgurcs,  seated  on  huge  peticstals 
of  granite.  The  principal  hall  is  about  MO  ft.  sq. ; 
its  waUs  arc  hung  with  crimson  tapestr>'  and 
tablets,  and  its  roof  is  ornamented  with  grotesque 
paintings  and  figii^  in  relief;  in  the  centre  of 
the  hall  arc  three  enormous,  heavy,  gilded  figures 
representing  the  *  Past,  Present,  and  Future,'  be- 
fore which  incense  is  continually  burning.  In 
various  other  halls  there  are  shrines  of  inferior 
deities,  and  the  remainder  of  the  building  is  occu- 
pii*d  chiefly  by  tlic  dwellings  and  ofHces  of  the 
])riests,  of  whom  there  are  nearly  200.  There  arc 
two  other  considerable  Buddhist  temples  in  the 
M  W.  jMirt  of  the  oUl  city,  one  of  which,  founded 
at)out  A.D.  250,  has  about  200  inmates,  and  3,500 
acres  of  landed  property.  In  the  old  city  there 
is  also  a  Mohammedan  mosque,  with  a  dome  and 
minaret  IGO  ft.  in  height;  there  arc  a))out  3,(X)0 
Mohammedans  in  Canton.  Without  the  walls,  on 
the  N.  side,  there  is  a  lof^y  |>agoda  five  stories 
high.  There  arc  several  charitable  institutions, 
but  they  are  mostly  of  recent  foundation.  Vaga- 
bonds and  l)eggars  arc  very  numerous  in  Canton, 
but  not  more  so  than  in  many  large  cities  of 
Eun»[)e.  A  foundling  hospital  established  in  ItiO^, 
with  accommodations  for  200  or  300  children,  and 
supported  with  about  840/.  a  year ;  a  retreat  for 
the  aged,  infinn,  and  blind,  supported  by  imposts 
on  fureign  shi{)s  bringing  rice  to  the  ])ort,  and 
a  hospital  for  lepers,  all  on  the  £.  side,  without 
the  (uty  walls,  are  amongst  the  chief  native 
charities.  A  general  hospital  in  the  S\V.  suburb, 
established  by  an  Amori(»u  missionary  society  in 
1835,  has  lieen  productive  of  much  benefit.  But 
the  best  maintenance  for  the  poor  consists  in  the 
manner  in  which  both  law  and  custom  enforce 
the  claims  of  kindred.  In  the  old  city  arc  the 
resideni'cs  of  the  lieutenant-governor,  Tartar- 
general,  treasurer  of  the  provin(!ial  revenue,  lite- 
rary chancellor,  and  criminal  judge :  and  in  the 
new  city,  those  of  the  prov.  governor,  and  the 
grand  hojipo  or  commissioner  of  the  customs  on 
foreign  trade.  These  residences,  and  others  of  the 
hong-merchants,  and  some  wealthy  citizens,  are 
little  inferior,  except  as  respects  size,  to  the  im- 
perial palaces.  In  the  old  city  is  the  grand  hall 
for  the  examination  of  candidates  for  literary 
honours.  There  arc  14  liigh  schools,  and  alM>ut 
80  colleges,  in  C'anton ;  three  of  the  latter  have 
each  200  students.  It  is  estimated  that  about 
half  the  inhabitants  are  able  to  read. 

'lliere  exists  no  information  on  which  it  would  be 
safe  to  place  any  reliance  as  to  the  pop.  of  Canton. 
It  is  estimate<l  in  the  Chinese  Ke{)ositfjry  (voL  ii. 
307)  at  1,2;}C.OOO;  but  the  data  on  which  this 
estimate  \»  made  arc  far  too  lo<»se  to  entitle  it  to 
any  weight.  It  is  proltable  that  the  pop.  of  the 
city  does  not  exceeii  half  a  million,  or  about  7(K),000 
including  the  tiuctuating  cntwils  on  the  river. 

The  manufactures  of  Canton  are  numerous  and 
important.  It  is  said  that  there  are  about  17,000 
persons  employed  in  the  weaving  of  silk,  and  that 
50,000  arc  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds 
of  cloth.  There  are  said  to  be  4,200  shoemakers; 
besides  great  numbers  of  persons  who  work  in 
wood,  brass,  iron,  and  stone.  The  book  trade  is 
considerable.  The  persons  engaged  in  these  trades 
are  all  formed  into  distinct  communities,  and  have 


each  their  own  laws  for  the  reflation  of  their 
business.  But  a  large  portion  of  the  manufactures 
required  for  the  consumption  ami  trade  of  Canton 
are  carrieil  on  at  Fu-shan,  a  large  city  a  few  miles 
W.  from  Canton. 

Tradt, — A  great  part  of  the  trade  of  China  with 
European  nations  passes  through  Canton.  Tlie 
Kussians  are  the  only  nation  not  having  a  resident 
or  factory  here:  the  commerce  between  the  two 
empires,  which  is  very  extensive,  centres  at 
Kiatrhta,  on  the  border  of  the  empire,  in  Mongolia. 
The  policy  which  determined  thb  repilation,  as 
well  as  that  which  fixed  the  only  foreign  mercan- 
tile )K>rt  at  almost  the  greatest  possible  distance 
from  the  capital,  was  proi>ably  dictated  not  only 
by  a  jealous  fear  of  strangers  |)assing  the  lK>un- 
daries  of  the  empire,  but  aJso  from  a  desire  on  the 
part  of  the  government,  to  obtain  the  greatest 
amount  of  transit  duties.  The  European  trade, 
now  so  immense,  originated  in  a  commercial  treaty 
between  Emmanuel,  King  of  I*ortugaI,  and  the 
Emperor  of  China,  in  1517.  In  1G34,  some  British 
shi|)s  first  touched  at  Canton.  In  1G80,  the  direct 
trade  of  the  E.  I.  Company  with  China  commencetL 
In  consequence  of  the  extraordinary  increase  in 
the  demand  for  tea,  which,  from  being  a  luxury 
seldom  seen,  so  late  as  the  rei^  of  (^ueen  Anne, 
even  in  tlie  houses  of  the  nobility,  has  become  a 
necessary  of  life,  used  by  the  poorest  classes,  the 
British  trade  with  Canton  has  progressively  and 
rapidly  increased  since  1700 ;  and  ^e  great  mass 
of  the  foreign  commerce  is  carried  on  by  the  Kng- 
lish  and  Americans.  Until  the  expiration  of  their 
charter,  in  1834,  the  British  trade  was  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  the  E.  I.  C^imjiany  ;  and  during* the 
last  three  or  four  years  of  their  monopoly,  that 
IxMly  imported  tea  (which  has  always  been  the 
priii'cif>al  export  from  (?hina)  into  England  to  the 
amount  of  31,500,(M)0  lbs.  annually.  After  the  ex- 
piration of  their  charter,  the  quantity  imfwrted, 
was  still  greater.  In  1834,  150  British  vessels 
with  a  united  tonnage  of  82,470  tons,  resorteil  to 
WliamfMta,  near  Canton,  and  brought  awav 
43,«41,20<>  Iba.  of  tea.  The  ex|)ort  of  that  articfe 
subsequently  diminished ;  but  not  to  any  great 
extent.  In  18G0,  the  ex|)ort  of  tea  from* (Canton 
amounted  to  35,101,811  1Im«.;  in  18G1,  to 
31),474,H59  lbs. ;  in  18G2,  to  31,894,034  lbs.:  jmd 
in  18C3,  to  24,477,411  lbs. 

Besides  tea,  the  chief  article  exported  from 
Canton  is  silk.  The  exports  of  silk  amounted  to 
1,142,984  lbs.  in  1861;  1,G18,010  in  18G2;  and 
1.371,762  in  1863.  In  1862,  the  exports  also  in- 
cluded 38,775  piculs  of  cotton;  but  in  1863  no 
cotton  was  exported. 

The  shipping  of  the  port  of  C«nton  amounted  to 
783  vessels,  of  238,456  tons,  which  entered  in  1861 ; 
to  723  vessels,  of  253.146  tons,  in  1862 ;  and  to 
867  vessels,  of  300,520  tons,  in  1863.  The  total 
value  of  the  imports  of  Canton  was  2,919,90«/.  in 
1861 ;  2,412,515/.  in  1862;  and  2,281,354/.  in  1863. 
The  total  value  of  the  ex)  torts  of  C'anton  amounted 
to  3,557/>90/.  in  1860;  4,060,746/.  in  1862;  and 
3,862,039  m  1863. 

A  fleet  of  50  or  60  vessels,  of  about  400  tons 
burden,  is  annually  despatched  to  Clinton  fmm  the 
Uniteil  States,  the  whole  of  the  American  trade 
l)c>ing  valued  at  about  10,000,000  dolian.  About 
15,0<K),000  11m.  of  tea  are  annually  im|N>rted  into 
America.  The  Dutch  usually  send' 10  or  15  vessels 
during  the  season ;  but  many  come  from  Batavia  • 
and  the  import  direct  of  tea  fntm  C^mton  into 
Holland  is  not  more  than  3,000,000  lbs.  a  year. 
From  2  to  3  or  4  French  ships  have  appeared  of 
late  years  at  Wliamiioa.  The  trade  of  Spain, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Austria,  with  Canton,  is 
very  smalL 


640 


CANTON 


The  Choo-kinng,  oppiwitc  Canton,  is  <lcep  enough 
ftirvefehelsof  800  or  1,000  tons  burden;  but  foreign 
8hi]M*  only  come  up  the  river  an  fax  as  >\1iamf)oa, 
about  lo'ni.  below  Uie  city,  loading  and  unloading 
by  raeanit  of  native  boatA.  All  the  dealings  of 
foreigners  with  the  Chinese  used  to  be  carried  on 
by  the  inter\'ention  of  a  few  leading  merchants, 
calle<l  Iltmg  or  security  merchants,  from  their  be- 
coniing  security  for  the  payment  of  the  duties  on 
ships,  on  the  goods  imported  and  exported,  and  for 
the  iicaceablc  beha\*iour  of  the  crews.  liut  this 
rest  notion  is  now  abolished,  and  foreigners  may 
here,  as  anj'where  else,  deal  with  any  merchant  or 
other  party  they  think  fit  t4)  emplov.  The  lingui»t» 
or  government  interpreters  usually  procure  per- 
mits for  delivering  and  taking  in  cargoes,  and 
transact  the  custom-house  business.  I'he  state- 
oHicers  of  the  city,  receiving  liitle  or  no  8alar>' 
fn)m  government,  but  fretpently  purchasing  their 
appointments,  derive  their  profits  chiefly  by  ex- 
tortion ;  and  Canton  has  the  character  of  being 
not  only  the  m(»st  licentious,  but  the  most  cor- 
rujitly -governed  city  of  the  empire. 

Canton  is  peculiarly  the  emporium  of  Chinese 
manufactures,  and  the  shops  are  crowded  with 
articles  of  tlie  neatest  and  most  minute  workman- 
ship. The  markets  devoted  to  eatables  arc  less 
attractive  to  £uro|)ean  tastes :  puppies,  cats,  owls, 
horsc-fiesh,  worms,  slu|^,  and  even  snakes  and 
other  reptiles,  are  exhibited  as  tempting  delicacies. 
All  arc  sold  by  weight,  and  a  cat  and  a  pheasant 
frequently  fetch  the  same  price.  The  arts  of 
puffing  arc  not  forgotten  in  Canton ;  in  the  suburbs, 
staring  labels  and  boards  are  common  enough 
over  the  shop  doors,  inviting  tlie  custom  of  the 
passengers,  by  means  of  laudatory  mottoes,  written 
m  English  and  other  languages ;  and  many  of  the 
Chinese  shopkeepers  have  acquired  sufiident  Eng- 
lish, and  the  free  and  easy  style  so  well  adapted  to 
captivate  the  British  seamen,  and  make  them  part 
with  their  money.  The  streets  are  generally  clean, 
but  abound  with  cri]iples  and  miserable  objects, 
beggars,  and  viigaI)onds  of  all  descriptions.  No 
wlieeled  carriages  are  seen  in  them ;  the  onlv 
vehicles  used  are  sedan  cliairs  slung  on  poles,  which 
some  of  the  government  functionaries  and  more 
opulent  natives  are  privileged  to  use. 

As  soon  as  the  season  for  business  has  termi- 
nated, an  edict  from  the  eini)eror  comes  to  Canton, 
ordering  the  removal  of  the  f(»reign  merchants  to 
Macao,  where  they  remain  for  several  months. 
During  the  summer,  excursions  are  made  by  both 
Chinese  and  Europeans  to  Faliteen,  a  village  about 
2  m.  higher  up  the  river,  above  Canton,  where 
there  are  some  gardens  laid  out  in  the  English 
style.  The  scenery  in  this  direction  is  delightfuL 
*  jSeyond  the  city,  and  when  clear  of  the  buildings, 
and  the  crowds  of  boats  which  throng  the  passage, 
the  river  winds  about  in  a  beautifully  serpentine 
manner.  The  country'  opens  gradually,  and  dis- 
plays both  hill  and  dale  cov^ed  with  luxuriant 
vegetauon.  On  every  remarkable  eminence,  pa- 
godas are  erected,  and  joss-houses  adorn  the  banks 
in  ever>'  direction.  In  the  midst  of  the  stream, 
often  dividing  it  into  two  or  three  separate  chan- 
nels, are  romantic  islands,  either  under  the  hand 
of  tlie  agriculturist,  or  covered  with  trees  to  the 
water's  (3ge.'  (Fanqui  in  China,  iii  203.)  Canton, 
although  extremely  hot  in  summer,  is  much  colder 
in  winter  than  miglit  be  expected  fh>m  its  laU,  and 
tires  are  often  agreeable. 

According  to  native  historians.  Canton  was 
founded  by  one  of  the  last  sovereigns  of  the  Chow 
dynasty,  who  reigned  about  2,000  years  ago.  About 
the  year  700,  it  became  a  regular  mart  for  forei^ 
trade,  and  the  residence  of  an  imperial  commis- 
sioner of  customs.    The  former  city  was  utterly 


CAPE  BRETON 

destroyed  in  lfi50  by  the  Tartar  dynasty  now  on 
the  tlnroue,  after  a  si^e  of  eleven  months,  during 
and  subsequent  to  which  vast  numbers  of  persons 
perished. 

CAPACCIO,  orCAPPACCIO  NUOVO,  a  town 
of  Southern  Italy,  prov.  Salerno,  cap.  cant.,  25  m. 
SE.  Salenio,  and  4  m.  from  the  sea.  Pop.  2.095 
in  18G2.  It  has  two  fine  parish  churches,  and  a 
convent.  The  cathedral  is  at  Cappai-cio  Vecchio, 
a  small  place  in  the  vicinity,  destroyed  in  the  13th 
century  bv  the  emperor  Frederic  if.  The  inhabi- 
tants ha^'lng  tied  to  S.  Pietro,  gave  it  the  name  of 
Capaccio  Nuovo. 

CAPE  BRETON,  a  large  and  most  irregularly 
shaped  bland  of  Briti^h  America,  separated  from 
the  N.  extremity  of  Nova  Scotia,  of  which  prov. 
it  is  a  part,  by  a  narrow,  navigable  channel.  It 
forms  the  SE.  boundar\'  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Laurence, 
and  lies  between  45^  27'  and  47°  4'  N.  Ut.,  and 
6if>  45'  and  61°  38'  W.  long.  Area  estimated  at 
near  4,000  sq.  m.  The  coast  is,  for  the  most  port, 
rocky  and  elevated ;  and  it  is  ever^nw^here  indented 
by  deep  gulfs  and  arms  of  the  sea,'by  one  of  which, 
the  Bras  d'Or,  it  is  very  nearly  separate<i  into  two 
great  divisions.  This  inland  sea  has  deep  water 
throughout,  and  affords  the  greatest  &ciliries  to 
navigation.  The  island  has  many  fine  harbours: 
that  of  Sydney,  the  cap,,  on  the*E.  coas^t,  being 
one  of  the  best  In  the  prov.  IxmLsbourg,  so  famous 
in  the  history  of  America  in  the  reign  of  (ieorge 
II.,  lies  on  the  SE.  coast  of  the  island.  It  was  a 
strongly  fortified  settlement  established  by  the 
French  in  1720,  and  reckoned  the  key  of  thev  po«i- 
sessions  in  this  part  of  the  world;  but  having 
been  taken  by  the  English  in  1745,  was  fint  dis- 
mantled, and  afterwards  entirely  abandoned. 

The  climate  of  Cape  Breton  is  subject  to  consider- 
able extremes.  The  mean  summer  heat  is  saitl 
to  be  80°  Fahr.,  whilst  in  winter  20°  below  zeroii 
not  a  ver>'  uncommon  degree  of  cold.  The  tem- 
perature, however,  is  subject  to.  more  variatitai, 
and  is  less  uniformlv  severe  than  the  cr^ntinent  in 
the  same  paralleL  llie  fn»st  usually  sets  in  about 
Dec,  and  between  that  and  tlie  end'  of  April  theie 
are  sometimes  inter\*als  of  a  week  or  two  of  mild 
weather.  The  spring  is  short,  and  vegetal  ii»n  very 
rapid :  May  is  the  sowing  season,  and  the  har\'«»t 
is  gathered  in  Aug.  and  Sept. :  on  the  E.  C(»a.4, 
the  summers  arc  usually  dry ;  on  the  W.  they  are 
usually  more  moist. 

This  island  terminates  a  low  mountain  range, 
which  traverses  the  whole  province  of  Nova  Scotia 
(from  SW.  to  NE.),  and  consists  of  granite^  trap, 
and  slate,  in  alternating  strata;  the  slate  being 
in  nam>w,  and  the  trap  in  brood  belts:  beyond 
these,  are  grauwacke,  sandstone,  limestone,  g}'p- 
sum,  and  several  other  formations,  which  for  the 
most  port  rest  on  on  amygdaloid  base.  In  this 
more  recent  portion  are  extensive  beds  of  coal,  said 
to  resemble  that  of  Newcastle,  and  well  adapted 
for  steam  and  other  general  purposes ;  it  also  yields 
on  abundance  of  excellent  gas.  Cape  Breton  is 
supposed  to  contain  a  sufficiency  of  tliis,  to  su])ply 
the  world  for  centuries.  The  mines  at  present  iii 
work  are  near  Sidney :  they  were  leased  by  the 
crown  in  1827  for  sixty  years  to  the  Genend 
Mining  Association,  on  pa^-ment  of  3.00l»iL  sterling 
a  year  for  20,000  chaldrons,  and  2».  currency  for 
every  chaldron  beyond  that  quantity ;  which  tcnna 
embrace  the  other  mines  of  the  prov.,  wrought  by 
the  same  company, who  have  several  steam-engines, 
and  employ  regularly  about  500  men.  Since  the 
commencement  of  tLeir  opcurations,  the  demand 
has  steadily  increased,  and  is  supposed  likely  to 
proceed  in  on  increasing  ratio,  from  the  circum- 
stance of  the  only  available  mines  of  the  U.  Stoteiif 
at  present,  being  those  of  anthracite,  in  Peunsyl- 


CAPE  CLEAR 

vania,  to  which,  for  general  purposes,  the  Cape 
lireton  coal  is  much  superior.  These  mines  were 
first  opened  about  fifty  years  since,  and  have  con- 
tinued from  that  period  to  be  vrrought;  but,  pre- 
viously to  1827,  on  a  very  imperfect  system,  and 
to  a  very  limited  extent.  Iron  and  copper  have 
also  been  met  with,  but  neither  has  yet  been 
attended  to.  Lime  (gypsum),  well  adapted  for 
agricultural  purposes,  is  abunilant,  and  at  places 
perfectly  accessible  to  shipping:  there  are  also 
brine  springs  of  great  strength,  which  it  is  sup- 
posed maybe  in  time  made  available,  by  means  of 
the  refuse  coal,  in  the  manufacture  of  salt  for  the 
fisheries :  excellent  freestone  for  building  purposes 
is  also  met  with. 

The  v(^table  products  resemble  those  of  the 
neighbouring  continent;  the  woods  being  a>m- 
posod  of  hemlock,  black  and  white  spruces,  the 
white  and  red  pines,  oak,  beech,  birch,  and  maple : 
the  timber  trade  has  been  ^dually  diminishmg. 
The  greater  part  of  the  shipments  at  present  are 
from  the  W.  basin,  opening  from  the  little  Bras 
d*Or ;  on  the  Atlantic  side,  the  spruce  firs,  &c.  arc 
mostly  of  stunted  growth,  but  supplv  fuel  to  the 
diflfercnt  fishing  settlements:  these,  )iowever,  are 
conducted  with  little  energy,  and  to  a  much  more 
limited  extent  than  the  great  capabilities  of  the 
stations  would  seem  to  adniit  of.  The  fish  most 
commonly  taken  are  cod,  halibut,  haddock,  mack- 
erel, shad,  smelts,  and  alewives;  stuigeon  and 
salmon  are  also  caught  in  the  streams,  and  these 
and  the  lakes  abound  with  trout  and  perch.  The 
inhabitants  engaged  in  the  fisheries  arc  chicfiy 
French  Acadians,  and  Scotch,  from  the  Western 
Islands.  Those  engaged  in  tlie  timber  trade  and 
agriculture  arc  chiefiy  Scotch  and  Irish  emigrants, 
and  a  few  are  the  descendants  of  U.  S.  loyalists. 
Those  engaged  in  the  coal-mines  are  mostlv  skilled 
labuurers  from  Scotland.  There  arc  also  alwut  300 
Indians,  for  whom  some  tracts  arc  reserved,  on 
which  they  cultivate  maize  and  potatoeff :  they  are 
an  inoffensive  tribe,  and  support  themselves  chiefiy 
by  fishing ;  wandering  along  the  shore  in  summer, 
and  returning  to  a  fixed  winter  station.  The 
common  kinds  of  grain,  maize,  and  |x>tatoes  are 
cultivate<l ;  but  the  island  does  not  produce  suffi- 
cient for  its  own  consumption.  The  exports  consist 
of  timber  to  the  U.  Kingdom,  fish  to  the  AV.  Indies, 
and  coals  to  the  U.  States,  and  com.  The  inii>orts 
consist  of  British  manafacturcd  goods ;  com  and 
meal  from  ttie  U.  States,  and  colonial  products. 
Between  300  and  400  vessels,  van'ing  from  20  to 
200  tons,  are  registered  in  the  bland,  and  some 
shipbuilding  is  carried  on,  which  is  included  in  the 
provincial  returns. 

Sydney,  which  is  the  chief  settlement,  contains 
eighty  or  ninety  houses,  all  with  pmiens  attached, 
and  rc^larly  disposed,  so  that  iLs  ap|iearance  is 
ver>'  neat  and  res[)ectable ;  the  courts  of  justice  fur 
the  island  and  the  residences  of  the  gov.  oflicers 
are  in  this  little  town,  which  was  founded  in  1823. 
The  rest  are  all  small  fishing  settlements,  on  dif- 
ferent i>arts  of  the  sea  coast,  or  round  the  borders 
of  the  Bras  d'Or.  Cape  Breton  is  a  co.  of  the 
province  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  returns  2  m.  to  the 
H.  of  Assembly  in  Halifax.  It  is  comprised  within 
the  dioce<Mi  of  the  Bp.  of  Nova  Scotia ;  but  the  great 
majority  of  the  inhab.  are  Roman  Catholics.  Legal 
provision  is  made  fur  the  p(K)r,  and  there  are  also 
other  l(»cal  assessments  to  defray  co.  charges.  The 
French  fonne<l  the  first  settlement  on  it,  in  1712; 
a  detachment  of  British  troops,  from  New  England, 
t<K»k  is)Sse»sion  of  it  in  174o,  and  from  that  {leriod 
it  has  remained  imder  British  government. 

CAPE  CLEAK,  a  bold  promontory',  rising  400 
ft.  alxjve  the  level  of  the  sea,  on  the  S.  side  of  Clare 
Island,  near  the  W.  extremity  of  St.  George's 

VouL 


CAPE  DE  VERB  ISLANDS      641 

Channel,  and  about  7  m.  SE.  from  Baltimore,  co. 
Cork,  Ireland.  Adjoining  the  cape  i»  a  lighthouse 
of  the  firvt  class,  with  revoh-ing  lights,  having  the 
lantern  elevated  455  ft.  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  lighthouse  is  in  lat.  SP  26'  3"  N.,  long. 
90  29'  20"  W.  ITiis  is  the  point  from  which  ships 
leaving  St.  George's  Channel  for  the  W.  usually 
take  tneir  departure,  and  those  arriving  prefer 
making  it  their  landfalL 

CAPE  DE  VERD  ISLANDS  (Port  llJuu 
Verdes)f  a  group  in  the  N.  Atlantic  Ocean,  be- 
longing to  Portugal,  t)etween  lat,  14°  20'  and  17® 
20'.  N.,  and  long.  22°  20'  and  25°  30'  W.,  about 
820  m.  W.  Cape  de  Verd,  on  the  W.  coast  of  Africa, 
which,  as  well  as  the  islands,  derives  its  name 
from  the  greenish  tinge  given  to  the  adjoining  sea 
by  the  abundance  of  sea-weed.  The  group  consists 
of  fourteen  islands,  of  wliich  seven  are  inhabited, 
besides  islets  and  rocks,  having  a  united  area  of 
about  1,790  sq.  nu,  and  a  pop.  of  85,393,  according 
to  the  census  of  I808.  Tliey  arc,  in  general, 
mountainous,  rocky,  and  very  ill  supplied  with 
water  ;  are  all  evidently  of  volcanic  origin  ;  and 
in  Fogo,  the  most  elevated  of  the  group,  an  active 
volcano  still  exists.  The  heat  is  extreme  from 
Novemt)er  to  July,  and  for  the  rest  of  the  year 
storms  and  fogs  are  prevalent,  and  the  climate  is 
exceedingly  unhealthy.  Droughts  are  of  frequent 
occurrence  ;  and  sometimes,  as  was  the  case  pre- 
Wously  to  1833,  no  rain  falls  for  three  or  four 
years  together.  The  soil,  where  not  composed  of 
volcanic  matters,  is  chieiiy  calcareous  or  sandy, 
dr^',  stony,  and  in  many  parts  barren.  Vegetation 
is  consequently  partial ;  but,  in  various  places,  it 
is  very  vigorous,  and  rice,  maize,  bananas,  oranges, 
melons,  pomegranates,  and  other  fruits,  both  of 
Euro|)e  and  the  tropics,  grow  abundantlv.  Tlie 
first  two  products  constitute  the  chief  fruit  of  tho 
inhabitants  ;  but  agriculture  is  neglectetl,  and  the 
wheat  that  is  consumed  is  brought  from  America. 
This,  however,  is  not  so  much  a  consequence  of  tho 
poverty  of  the  soil,  or  the  indolence  of  the  in- 
habitants, as  of  the  rapacity  and  short-sightedness 
of  the  govemment.  Oranges,  lemons,  melons,  &c, 
come  to  great  perfection,  and  the  guavas,  figs, 
s\»'eet  potatoes,  and  gounls  ore  excellent.  Vines 
and  sugar-canes  are  cultivated  to  some  extent ; 
but  the  making  of  wine  is  prohibited.  Indigo  and 
cotton  are  indigenous.  One  of  the  princi|)fd  pro- 
ducts is  orchilU  wee<l,  which  here  attains  to  great 
perfection  ;  it  is  monopolised  by  the  government, 
and  is  supposed  to  yield  a  revenue  of  a^ut  50,000/. 
a  year.  Some  parts  are  well  wooded,  chiefiy  vrilh 
the  tamarind  tree,  Adonsonia,  and  palms,  (loats, 
asses,  and  poultry,  are  the  mttst  numerous  domestic 
animals ;  monkeys,  wild  cats,  wood  pigeons,  and 
other  birds,  and  turtles  are  plentifuL  'There  is  no 
dangerous  animal ;  but  clouds  of  locusts  often  do 
much  damage  to  the  crops.  Chief  manufactures 
those  of  leather  and  salt.  Notwithstanding  the 
severe  droughts,  the  actulfl  produce  of  these  inlands 
in  cotton,  indigo,  fmits  uuilt,  goat-skins,  and  turtle- 
oil,  mi^ht  give  them  a  considerable  value  under  a 
more  intelligent  government.  The  other  chief 
articles  of  export  arc  cotton,  indigo,  some  cattle, 
ox  hides,  cotton  cloths,  and  mm.  St.  Jago,  the 
princi|>al  island  and  most  southerly  of  the  gn»up, 
contains  the  town  of  Ribiera  (irande,  fonnerly  the 
cap. ;  but  during  the  dry  season,  the  govemor- 
general  now  usually  resides  at  Port  Playa,  which 
has  a  good  harbour,  and  is  occasionally  t<i»chcd 
at  by  vessels  bound  for  India.  Porto  Grande,  in 
the  island  of  St.  Vincent,  is  however  decidedly  tlic 
best  harix>ur  in  the  group.  Ships  in  it  are  com- 
pletely sheltered  from  wind  and  sea.  In  St.  Nicolo, 
the  island  second  in  importance,  very  good  cotton 
stufls,  stockings,  &C.,  arc  made.    The  pop.  arc  a 


cri 


CAPE  IIAYTIEN 


inixcHi  raco  of  Portu^U'Hc*  and  ni'groe« ;  but  all 
hav«'  an  *'Xceo<linj;:ly  dark  ooldur. 

Tl»pj<e  iftlandri  were  first  dwt*<»vor»Hl  in  modem 
timors  in  1450,  by  Antonio  de  Noli,  a  Genoese 
navigator,  in  the  sen-ice  of  Prinw  Henn'  of  Por- 
tutral.  I>y  which  nation  th<>v  wercmxm  afler  taken 
]>oss4>HMion  of.  and  (Hilouiscil. 

('AI»K  IIAYTIEN,  a  wa-iM)rt  town  of  Ilayti, 
ori;a»ally  called  by  the  SfmnianlM  Guarico,  and 
afterwanlrt  by  the  fronch  (.'a]>e  Fran^oit*,  or  1^ 
Cap,  on  the  N'.  shore  (»f  the  island,  90  ni.  N.  Port- 
an-Prince:  lat.  ID©  4fi'  20"  N..  lon^.  7-29  14'  W. 
Pop.  probably  from  12,0(M)  to  HI.OOO.  Tliis  town, 
formerly  the  cap.  of  the  island,  was,  pn'viou«ly  to 
the  rcvdlution.  *  rtMnarkably  iH'autiful,  and  mtist 
have  l»eeu,  during  it**  ^lor>*,  the  nmst  a^^reeable 
residcni'e  in  the  \V.  An"hiiH>lny:o.'  {Streets  bn>ad 
and  well-fKived  :  houses  chi<'tly  of  stone,  with 
handsome  S4|uares,  lar^  markets,  and  a  copioiu* 
Mipply  of  water.  *  Hut  now  little  more  is  to  lie 
Hcen  than  the  trai^es  of  its  fonner  p^amleur ;  even 
in  the  Plac(>  d*Armes,  the  handsomest  square  in  it, 
Mtme  of  the  tinest  houses  are  unn>ofe<l,  and  plan- 
tain trees  are  jinr«^win«^  in  the  middle  of  the  niinfi. 
'riie  (rhurch,  which  was  handsome,  is  in  ruins,  &» 
are  the  theatre,  ^oveniment  house,  and  Jesuit's 
college.'  (Mackenzie.)  It  is  built  on  the  vei^ 
<if  a  verj'  extensive,  well-watewHl,  and  fruitful 
plain  ;  !>ut  l)einj;  screened  (»n  the  N.  an<i  W.  by  a 
mountain  (Monie  C4ip),  it  U  ex})osed  to  all  the 
vitdence  of  the  suu*8  rays,  and  is,  in  consequence^ 
not  very  healthy.  The  harlMiur  and  n»a<l,  to  the 
K.  and  iS.  of  the  town,  are  pnitecttnl  on  the  N.  bv 
a  projecting;  tonjrue  of  land.  The  entrance  is 
rather  diihcult ;  but  the  anchorage  is  ^^(khI,  and 
the  quays  handsome.  'Hie  defences  towards  the 
»ea  are  res|)ectable.  The  arsenal  was  ccmstructed 
in  the  reipi  of  Louis  XV.  Under  the  French, 
CajK'  llavtien  was,  as  well  an  P<»rt-au-Prince, 
occasionally  the  seat  of  government ;  and  it  con- 
tinu(Hl  to  enioy  this  distinction  under  Toussaint 
and  Christ4>phe.  ItM  trade,  thou^^h  f^eatly  fallen 
off,  is  still  very  considerable.  It  is  principally 
carrieil  on  with  the  U.  States.  (Mackenzie's 
Notes  on  llaytu) 

CAPK  IIOKN,  a  famous  promontory  of  S. 
America,  commonly  rcf^arded  as  the  S.  extremity 
of  that  continent.  In  i>oint  of  fact,  htiwever,  CaiJc 
J  lorn  does  not  Ixdon^  to  the  continent,  but  to  a 
small  island  of  the  same  name,  the  most  S.  of  the 
Tierra  del  Fuego  group,  se|)aratetl  fn>m  the  con- 
thient  by  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  or  Ma^lhaena. 
('ai>e  Horn  is  the  mttst  S.  ]joint  of  the  island;  and 
is  high,  black,  precipitous,  destitute  of  all  ve- 
getation, and  having  a  most  desolate  api)earance. 
According  to  Wethloll,  it  is  in  lat.  oo°  d'J'  21"  S., 
and  long.  tiT®  14'  W. ;  Malespina  places  it  in  lat. 
650  5H'  30"  S.,  and  €>7^'2\'  Xo"  AV.  ITie  dangers 
attending  the  doubling  of  Cai»e  Iloni  have,  incon- 
sequenire  of  the  improvements  in  navigation,  l)een 
very  greatly  <liminished.  The  coast  may  be  ap- 
proacluHi  with  comparatively  little  danger :  the 
water  being  dwp,  and  free  fn>m  either  rocks  or 
shoals.  Different  ophiions  are  entertained  as  to 
the  projH'r  season  for  passing  the  cape.  Captain 
Hall  prefers  the  summer  (that  is,  the  winter  of  the 
N.  hemisph<?re)  on  account  of  the  great  length  of 
the  «hiy,  and  the  comjmrative  fewnej«s  of  icebergs 
and  floating  masses  <»  ice,  which  are  always  daii- 
genms.     (Hall's  S.  America,  ii.  Ap|)en<L  IH.) 

CAPE  OF  (iOOI)  HOPE,  a  celebratetl  pro- 
nl«^ntor^'  near  the  S\V.  extremity  of  the  African 
<-ontinent :  lat.  :i'>9  28'  40"  S.,  long.  1*^  32'  25"  E. 
It  wiu*  first  seen  by  EurojK'ans  (in  mcKlem  times) 
in  14«<*i,  Itartholomew  de  Diaz,  a  Portuguese  com- 
mander, having  l>een  its  tliscoverer.  I>iaz,  how- 
ever, merely  saw  it ;  the  violence  of  the  winds,  the 


CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE 

shattered  condition  of  his  shi|is,  and  tlie  turbu 
lence  of  his  crews,  prevented  him  from  douliling 
it ;  and  these  circumstances  doubtless  induced  him 
to  name  it  Qibo  Tifrmento$o,  or  *  Stormy  C<j»e ; ' 
but  his  s<»yereign,  John  H.  of  Portugal,  believuig 
it  to  Ik;  at  or  near  that  remote  extremity  of  Africa 
which  the  Portuguese  had  l>een  so  hmg  endea- 
vouring to  n'ach,  designated  it  Cabtt  di  Buema 
Espentnza^  of  which  the  name  we  give  it  is  a 
translation.  Vasi'o  de  Gama  d(»ublcd  it  in  MM7, 
after  which  it  continued  for  more  than  a  century 
and  a  half  to  be  indiscriminately  rew»rted  to  by 
European  navigators.  (For  the  rest  of  its  liL*tory, 
see  succeeiling  article.) 

Cape  of  (i<K)i)  Hope  (Coi^st  ok),  an  exten- 
sive wdony,  or  rather  territor>'.  so  calle<l  fr»>m  the 
al>ove  cajK',  lielonging  t«>  (ireat  Hritain,  in  S. 
.Vfrica,  comprising  the  gri»ater  ixmitm  t»f  the  ex- 
tremity of  that  cohtinent  S.  of  lat.  2J»Q  :^»'.  an.l 
between  h»ng.  I"*' and  27°  30'  E.  It  is  boundiHl 
on  the  N.  by  the  (iariep  or  Orange  river  ;  on  the 
NE.  bv  the'territor\'  tif  the  lJasut<»s:  on  the  E.  by 
Kafiirland,  and  the  newly  erecte<l  colony  of  Uriti>h 
Kaffraria.  Total  area  estimatcnl  at  18;i.2Hii  s<|.  m. 
(Ofhcial  tables.)  The  colony  has  a  c«.>&'«t  line  of 
about  MoO  m.,  broken  by  numen>us  l>ays,  the 
principal  of  which  are  St.  I'lelena,  Saiclaiiha,  and 
Table  Jlays  on  the  W..  and  FaUc  Bav.  St.  Si!»as- 
tian's,  M(')ssel,  Plettenbuig,  St.  Francis,  andAlgoa 
liavs  on  the  S.  coast. 

I'ho  whole  ctiuntry  consists  of  three  sucreivivc 
plateaux  increasing  in  elevation  acct>nling  to  their 
distance  fn)m  the  sea,  and  scpanitcNl  fn»ra  ea«rh 
other  bv  as  many  chains  of  numn tains.  The  tii>t 
great  chain  running  E.  and  W.,  the  Lange  KltNif, 
or  I«ong  Pass,  *  encl<»ses  between  it  and  the  S. 
coast  an  im^ilar  \re\i-  of  land  fntm  20  to  TiO  m.  in 
width,  indent^vl  bv  several  bavs,  coyeretl  with  a 
deep  an<l  fertile  soil,  intersectc<l  by  numeruuit 
streamlets,  well  clothed  with  grass  and  siudl 
arlK>reous  or  fnitescent  plants,  weJi  woiNlcd  iu 
many  jiarta  with  forest  trees,  supplied  with  fre- 
quent rains,  and  enjoying,  on  acciMint  of  \x* 
proximity  to  the  sea,  a  more  mild  and  equable 
temperature,  than  the  more  remote  and  interii^ 
jwrts  of  the  ctdony.'  (Barrow.)  The  next  gn«i 
chain,  the  Gro(»te  Zwarte  Ik'igen  (Great  BLick 
Mountain),  is  considerably  more  rugged  and  lofty 
than  the  firet,  reaching  sometimes  to  4,<Mn)  ft.  io 
height,  and  consisting  in  m.inv  idaces  of  doubk 
and  even  treble  ranges.  The  tielt  of  terrace  en- 
close<l  between  it  and  the  first  chain  v^  aKmt  the 
mean  wi<lth  of  that  between  the  first  and  the  seai 
\\»  surface  is  very  varieil ;  it  is  c«>m[K>se<l  in  s«>nie 
fiarts  of  Iwrren  hills,  in  others  of  nakeii  and  plain!> 
of  clay,  called  karroo,  and  again  in  others  of  fertile 
and  well-watered  patches  of  land.  The  tempera- 
ture is  here  less  uniform  than  in  tlie  groumls  tkm- 
ing  the  sea.  Tlie  thinl  great  mountain  chain,  the 
Niewvehlt  Gebirgte,  between  lat.  32^  and  :s:>o,  j* 
<H>ntinuous  towanls  the  E.  with  the  Sclnxfiiw- 
Iiergen  (Snow  Mountains),  the  highest  ranij>>  iu 
S.  Africa,  the  loftiest  summit  of  which  is  eaitimat«d 
at  not  less  than  10,(^^0  ft.  in  height,  and  is  cuvenHl 
with  snow  for  nearly  half  the  year.  Ikrtween  thi<> 
and  the  second  chain  is  the  Grtat  Kamto,  an  an«i 
desert  plain  nearly  300  m.  in  length  by  frnm  m)  \o 
UK)  m.  in  breadth.  *  This  is  not  a  sandy  pbin. 
and  bears  no  resemblance  to  the  Sahara  or  Aralibn 
deserts.  It  consists  of  a  sort  of  table-land,  or  ele- 
vated basin,  thinly  covered  with  an  aigillacenu'* 
soil,  largely  impn^^nated  with  iron,  u|Hin  a  sub- 
stratum of  nx-k  or  graveL  Some  large  iiortion>(>f 
it  are  perfectly  level,  but  in  othen*  the  surl'atv  i-* 
diversijncil  by  slaty  hills  and  eminenccis  M»me  <.if 
which  wmild' apijear  couMderable  save  for  the  lolb* 
mountoias  which  bound  the  Karroo  <mi  all  side* 


except  towards  the  £.,  wlicro  it  extends  into  Cam- 
dcboo.  Its  medium  height  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  is  estimated  at  about  3,000  ft  It  is  crossed  by 
many  beds  of  rivers,  or  rather  torrents,  most  of 
whicJi  run  from  N.  to  S.,and  find  an  exit  for  their 
iraters  to  the  coast  through  a  few  breaks  in  the  S. 
chain  of  mountains.  These  rivers,  however,  arc 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  either  entirely 
dried  up,  or  furnish  only  a  few  scanty  pools  barely 
sufficient  for  the  wild  animals,  zebras,  quaggos, 
ostriches,  Ac,  which  frequent  this  inhospitable 
rcgiun.  Not  unfrequentlv  even  those  brackish 
p(K>ls  and  fountains  also  fail,  as  was  the  case  at  the 
time  of  our  journey ;  and  then  the  Karroo  becomes 
almost  impassable  by  man,  and  a  large  portion  of 
it  uninhabitable  even  by  the  wild  beasts. 

*  In  such  a  region,  where  rain  is  rare,  and  dews 
almost  unknown,  the  vegetation  must  of  necessity 
1)0  at  all  times  extremely  scanty ;  and  in  summer, 
when  tlie  sun  has  dried  the  soil  to  the  liardness 
of  brick,  it  ceases  almost  entirely.  Except  along 
the  courses  of  the  temporarv  rivers,  which  for  the 
most  part  are  marked  by  a  fringe  of  mimosas,  not 
a  tree  nor  a  bush,  nor  a  blade  of  grass,  decks  the 
wide  exiianse  of  the  waste.  Low  stunted  shrubs 
resembling  heath  ;  numerous  species  of  tig  mari- 
golds, and  ice-plants  {mesembryaiUhemum)^  ghan- 
na-bu!«ch  {taimAu)^  |^>rteria,  asters,  d^c ;  some  sorts 
of  prickly  euphorbia,  and  other  succulent  plants ; 
and  bulbs,  whose  roots  nature  has  fortified  with  a 
tenfold  net  of  tibrcs  under  the  up|)er  rind,  to  nro- 
tect  them  during  the  long  droughts,  are  aione 
able  to  subsist  in  the  arid  Karroo.  During  the 
dry  season  even  these  appear  to  be  for  the  most 
jiart  parched  into  a  brown  stubble,  thinly  8cattere<l 
over  the  indurated  or  slaty  soil;  but  in  the  early 
spring,  when  the  ground  becomes  moistened  with 
the  fall  of  rain,  these  plants  rush  into  vegetation 
with  a  rapidity  that  looks  like  enchantment ;  and 
in  a  few  days  millions  of  flowers  of  the  most  bril- 
liant hues  enamel  the  earth.  It  is  chiefly  at  this 
season,  when  the  whole  dreary  waste  may  l)e  said 
to  l>c  transformed  into  a  vast  tlower-gan'len,  that 
the  colonists  of  the  Schiieeuwberg.  the  Nieuwvehlt, 
the  I{okkeveldt,and  the  Koggevcldt,  whose  alpine 
farms  ore  then  chilled  with  keen  frosts  and  the 
])iercing  mountain  winds,  descend  into  the  Karroo 
to  [msture  their  henls  and  flocks  on  the  short-lived 
vegetation.'     (Pringle's  Sketches,  p.  297.) 

From  the  \V.  coast  the  count  r%'  ascends  in  a 
similar  manner  towards  the  interior  by  successive 
plateaux,  si^i>aratod  by  mountain  chains,  the  loftiest 
of  which,  the  Koggevcldt  (Kye-lield)  Mountains, 
reach  to  upwards  of  5.(M)0  ft,  alM>ve  the  level  of 
the  sea,  and  unite  aliout  long.  21^  with  the  Nieuw- 
veldt  chain.  To  the  N.  of  all,  and  near  the  boun- 
dary' line  of  the  territory',  there  is  a  chain  of 
mountains,  the  height  of  which  is  estimated  at 
9,0()0  ft.  Tlie  whole  tract  of  countrj'  to  tlie  N.  is 
much  more  sandy,  barren,  and  thinly  inhabited, 
tlum  that  to  the  K.,  whicli  seems  to  increase  in 
beauty  and  fertility  in  pn>{)ortion  as  it  is  distant 
from  the  Cape.  The  third  great  chain  of  moun- 
tains forms  the  water-shed,  or  divLtiion  betwe<*n 
tlie  streams  which  flow  X.  into  the  coiuitr}'  of  the 
lt4)sje:imans,  and  those  which  have  a  S.  or  W. 
course  through  the  colonial  territory',  (hi  its  N. 
side  rise  tlie  (treat  Kiet,  Broak,  and  other  aflluents 
of  the  Orange  Kiver;  on  its  S.  side,  the  <ireat 
Doom  (Thoni),  the  (iamba  or  Great  Lion,  (.am- 
toos.  Sunday,  (ireut  Fish,  and  other  rivers.  Tlie 
princi|>al  streams  on  the  W.  coast  arc  the  (vreat 
ik'rg  (or  Mountain)  and  Olifant  or  Klephant 
Kiver.  lioth  are  navigable  by  small  craft  for  about 
20  m.  inland,  but  the  mouth  of  the  former  is 
clioked  up  with  a  l)e<l  of  sand,  and  that  of  the 
latter  lias  a  reef  of  rocks  across  it.    The  chief  of 


CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE  (COLONY  OF)  648 

those  which  discharge  themselves  on  the  8.  coast 
are  the  Brccde  or  Kroad  Kiver,  the  Gauritz,  Oim- 
tooA,  Sunday,  and  Great  Fish  Kivers.  Nearly  all 
of  them,  unfortunately,  have  bars  or  other  ob- 
structions at  their  mouths,  rendering  them  in 
great  part  useless  for  navijgation.  The  Broad 
Kiver,  however,  may  be  na\'igated  by  small  craft 
for  about  30  m.,  and  its  moiith,  wluch  is  called 
Port  Beaufort,  allows  vessels  of  200  tons  to  enter 
in  safety.  The  (lauritz,  formed  by  the  union  of 
several  other  streams,  is  in  the  rainy  season  a 
large  and  rapid  river ;  but  in  the  summer  months 
has  only  a  very  weak  current,  while  the  bar  at  its 
mouth  is  then  generally  dry.  The  Camtoos  has 
within  its  bar  a  wide  basin  deep  enough  to  float  a 
ship  of  the  line,  but  the  bar  itself  is  fordable  at 
full,  and  frequently  dr>'  at  ebb,  tide.  Besides  the 
above  there  are  a  number  of  smaller  rivers ;  but, 
for  the  most  part,  they  are  either  dried  up  during 
a  part  of  the  year,  or  run  in  such  deep  chasms  as 
to )«  nearlv  unsendceable. 

Considering  the  great  extent  of  coast,  good  har- 
bours are  few.  Saldanha  Bay,  65  m.  NN\V.  Caiie 
Town,  is  bv  far  the  most  commodious.  Ships  lie 
safely  in  I'able  Bay  at  Cape  Town  during  the 
prevalence  of  the  SE.  monsoons  from  Sept.  to 
May ;  but  after  this,  when  the  NW.  winds  set  in, 
they  are  obliged  to  resort  to  Simon*s  Bav,  in  False 
Bay.  This  harbour  b  protected  on  the  W.  br 
the'  peninsula  of  the  Cai)e,  and  affords  shelter  all 
the  year  round;  it  is  consequently  much  fre- 
quented by  our  shiiis  of  war,  transports,  and 
store  ships'  in  their  voyages  to  and  from  the  £. 
Indies,  and  is  the  station  of  the  (^a[ie  squadron. 
Plettenbuig's  Bay  is  open  to  the  SE. ;  but  affords 
safe  anchorage  in  eight  or  ten  fathoms  water,  and 
desirable  shelter,  during  strong  NE.or  NW.  gales, 
to  vessels  intending  to  make  Table  Bay.  Algoa 
Itoy,  the  most  K.  but  one,  is  exposed  to  the  pre- 
vailing winds;  but  it  contains  good  anchorage; 
Port  Elizabeth,  the  principal  port  next  to  Cai)e 
Town  is  seated  on  it. 

Climate, — Though  in  ^neral  temperate  and 
healthv,  the  climate  is  neither  steady,  agreeable, 
iKir  suitable  for  agricultural  purposes.  In  the  SW. 
distri('ts  rains,  in  the  cold  season,  are  profiise ;  but 
in  summer  they  are  of  rare  occurrence,  and  during 
the  greater  port  of  that  season  tlie  |]pnmnd  is 
parche<l  up  ii'ith  drought.  The  deficiency  and 
irregularity  of  the  rains  are,  in  fact,  the  great 
drawl mcks  on  the  colony.  In  some  of  the  more 
northerly  tracts  bordering  on  the  (ireat  Karroo, 
there  has  occasionallv  been  no  rain  for  three  vears 
together;  and  even  in  the  more  favoured  districts 
of  Albany  and  Uitenhage,  and  generally  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  colony,  the  rain,  when 
it  does  come,  descends  in  torrents  that  swell  the 
smallest  streams  to  an  extraordinarv  magnitude, 
and  occasion  great  damage.  S(»metimes  the  SK. 
wind  is  reallv  a  species  of  simoom,  and  is  not  only 
excessively  liot,  but  is  loaded  with  impalpable 
sand,  which  it  is  all  but  im))ossible  to  shut  out ; 
but  as  the  breeze  continues,  it  gradually  cools, 
and  usually,  in  about  twenty-four  hours,  becomes 
supiMtrtable.  The  mean  tem]).  of  the  year,  at  the 
cap.,  is  al)out  07^^  Fahr.,  that  of  the  coldest  month 
being  57^,  and  of  the  hott<.>st  79°.  Cape  Town  is 
a  customary  place  of  resort  for  invalids  from  India, 
who  certainly  benefit  by  the  change;  though  j)er- 
ha|ts  they  have  been  led  to  vUit  it  as  much  nom 
its  being' within  the  limits  of  the  E.  I.  Company's 
charter,  which  entitles  ser\*ants  of  the  Company 
resident  there  to  full  i>ay,  as  fn>m  its  salubrity. 

The  beautiful  white  cloud  frcquentlv  seen  during 
the  SE.  monsoon  rp>tiiig  on  Table  Mountain,  and 
thence  called  the  '  Table  Cloth,'  is  occasioned  by 
the  condensation  of  the  moisture  in  the  air,  cooled 

XT  2 


644 


CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE  (COLONY  OF) 


by  contact  with  the  mountAin.  During  the  pre- 
valence of  thiB  phenomenon,  the  cold  air  often 
ruKhcH  down  the  sides  of  the  mountain  with  such 
impetuonty  at*  to  be  fatal  to  nhipping  in  the  bay. 
Hail  Htormn  are  occai»ionally  vcr>'  violent  and  de- 
f«tructive.  Cht'ing  prolxahly  to  its  elevation,  the 
cold  of  winter  in  the  Great  Karroo  is  much  m(»re 
severe  than  could  have  been  anticipated  from  its 
latitude. 

GatUtgy,  MinerdU,  6rc. — Tlie  general  geological 
character  of  the  Cape  is  that  of  a  region  of  sand- 
stone resting  upon  a  base  of  granite.  In  propor- 
tion as  the  latter  rock  Ls  near  the  surface,  as  occurs 
on  and  round  Table  Mountain,  springs  are  al)un- 
dant ;  but  wherever  the  granite  lies  at  a  consider- 
able depth,  as  is  the  case  throughout  a  great 
portion  of  the  country,  the  contrarj'  obtains.  The 
territory  generally  suffers  from  a  deficiency  of 
water.  Limestone  is  found  in  the  £. ;  clays  and 
sand  of  various  kinds  compose  most  of  tlie  surface 
of  the  plains ;  an  alluWai  loam  and  black  peat 
mould  are  very  abundant  in  some  of  the  lands 
skirting  the  seal  yer\'  pure  and  white  alum ;  salt^ 
]>etre  and  salt,  with  which  the  ground  in  some  of 
the  N.  parts  of  Graaf  Keinet  and  in  the  (treat 
Karroo  are  impregnated,  coal,  iron,  galena,  argen- 
tiferous lead,  a  little  copper,  cornelians,  bloodstone, 
&C.,  are  amongst  the  cluef  mineral  products.  Sul- 
phurous, nitrous,  and  other  mineral  springs  are 
not  rare,  and  several  natural  salt-pans  exist  at  a 
considerable  dbtance  from  the  coast.  In  13eaufort 
district  fossil  remains  of  the  mammoth  have  been 
met  with. 

Vegetable  Products^—The  Flitra  of  the  Cape  is 
very  remarkable ;  \Xs  si)ecie8  are  extremely  nume- 
rous, varied,  and  elegant ;  but  they  want  the 
aroma,  whose  sweetness  fills  the  flower-gardens  of 
Kun>pe.  Hulbous  plants  are  i»articularly  plentiful ; 
and  the  tribes  of  ixia^  iris^  antholiza,  piadiolut, 
amaryUis^  and  geranium  are  both  abundant  and 
beautiful ;  and  some  of  the  most  magnificent 
plants  that  adorn  our  ganlens  and  greenhouses 
are  brought  fn>m  this  \tBXt  of  the  world.  Still, 
however,  as  Malte-Bnin  has  judiciously  remarked, 
•  the  v(^etati<»n  of  the  Cape  Colony  doe^  not  sa- 
tisfy either  the  eye  or  the  ideas  <»f  a  Kuropean. 
l{ocks  and  sands  everj'where  prevail.  The  fields 
are  separated  by  deserts;  the  green  turf,  scattered 
and  thin,  nowhere  presents  a  close  swani ;  the 
forestjt,  filled  with  jwintecl  trees,  have  neither  a 
delicious  coolness  nor  a  solemn  darkness.'  (Book 
70.)  The  Cape  olive  tree  and  the  ao^thora  (a  tree 
like  the  ash)  funiish  some  wood  for  joinerj';  but, 
except  on  the  E.fnmtier,  in  the  district  of  George, 
and  in  some  spots  near  False  Bay,  there  is  gene- 
rally a  great  deficiency  of  timber  and  fire-wood. 
The  only  si>ontaneou8  vegetable  product  that  is 
turned  to  much  account  is  the  aloe,  which  gn>ws 
over  a  large  surface  in  the  district  of  /wellendam, 
and  for  which  the  fanners  sometimes  get  as  much 
as  20/.  a  load  at  Ca\ye  Town. 

AnimaU. — llie  elephant,  rhinocen»8,  hip|>opo- 
tamus,  lion,  leopard,  hycena,  jackal,  zebra,  qiiagga, 
masked  boar,  antelopes  of  various  kinds,  monkeys, 
racoons,  squirrels,  ic,  are  natives  of  the  Cape ; 
but  many  of  these  have  now  become  comparatively 
rare,  at  least  within  the  old  limits  and  acccssibfe 
districts  of  the  colony.  The  rhinoceros  is  nearly 
extirpated;  the  hip[H>potamus  is  foimd  onlv  in 
the  Great  Fish  and  Kci  rivers ;  and  the  elephant 
and  lion  have  retired  fmm  all  the  old  settled  dis- 
tricts. I..eopards  and  hyaenas  arc  still,  however, 
bv  no  means  uncommon,  particularly  in  the  eastern 
districts,  and  are  exceetlingly  voracious  and  de- 
structive. ITie  Cape  Buffalo  (Bos  Coffer)  is  a 
powerful  and  a  formidable  animal,  which  has  not 
hitherto  been  tamed,  and  ia  probably  untameable. 


Antelopes  of  all  kinds  are  exceedingly  nnmeroufl; 
and  it  is  said  that  as  many  as  5,(HM),'lO,fKM),  and 
even  40,000  springboks  have  sometimes  t»een  seen 
bounding  along  in  a  single  herd !  Eagles,  vultures, 
and  other  large  birds  are  met  with.  In  the  Gntat 
Karroo,  and  along  the  skirts  of  the  N.  deserts,  the 
ostrich  is  alMindant :  it  is  occasionally  seen  in  large 
flocks,  and  is  eagerly  hunted  for  the  sake  of  its 
plumage,  which  meets  with  a  ready  and  advan- 
tageous sale.  It  is  ver}'  wary  and  difficult  to  come 
near.  Small  birds  are  numentus  and  beautiful, 
but  deficient  in  song.  Lizards  and  other  species 
of  amphibia  are  met  ^-itli ;  and  the  serpent  trilie 
is  bi>th  numerous  and  dangerous.  Some  rivers  are 
well  stocked  with  fish :  but  in  general  thi^  is  not 
the  case,  a  consequence  pn>bably  of  the  greater 
number  of  the  rivers  being  nearly  dried  up  in  the 
hot  season.  A  imrticular  variety  of  locust  ( Gr^- 
iuM  detaatatoTy  Lich.)  occasionally  commits  dread- 
ful ravages.  They  always  come* from  the  N.,  and 
are  no  doul)t  bred  in  the  interminable  deserts  of 
the  interior.  Their  inrrmds  appear  to  be  periodical 
They  are  dc\'oured  by  the  Bushmen  and  Ui>t- 
tentots. 

Peojde, — The  total  population  of  the  colony, 
according  to  the  census  of  ]H56,  amounted  to 
267,096;  of  whom  H)2,I5(>  whites.  Tlie  increa^ 
of  pop.  is  very  rapid :  the  births,  in  the  year  I«5t>, 
were  11,217,  an<l  the  deaths  3,821.  Tbe'Eun»pean 
inhabitants  consist  in  part  of  the  English  author- 
ities and  English  settlers;  but  the  majority  are  of 
Dutch,  German,  or  French  origin,  beingthe  de- 
scendants of  the  original  settlers.  The  blacks  are 
Hottentots  and  Kaffers ;  the  remaining  ftortiun  of 
the  po[v  consists  of  Malays  and  Africanders  (the 
offspring  of  a  black  woman  and  a  Dutch  father). 
The  Dutch,  in  the  more  ci\'ilij*d  districts,  are 
disHnguished  for  sobriety,  prudence,  and  economy, 
and  by  their  hospitality  and  benevolem^e  towards 
whites.  Uke  other  savage  and  uiiciWlLietl  irilx^. 
the  Hottentots  have  sufiered  severely  from  the 
settlement  of  whites  among  them,  by  whom  ihey 
have  been  despoiled  of  their  lands :  and  those  that 
were  not  exterminated  or  driven  into  the  desert, 
were  reduced  to  a  state  of  substantial  slaverj-.  At 
length,  however,  the  British  government  inter- 
posed in  favour  of  all  classes  of  natives:  and  br 
an  order  in  council,  dated  the  15th  of  Jan.  182?, 
placed  them  on  the  same  footing,  in  respect  <if 
c\\iX  rights,  as  the  other  free  subjects  of  the  cohmy. 
This  ^^-ise  and  lil)eral  measure  made  less  immediate 
change  than  was  anticipated  in  the  condititm  rf 
the  natives.  They  can  no  longer,  indeed,  l>e  fli>j:jre«i 
at  the  pleasure  of  their  masters,  nor  their  children 
forcibly  taken  from  them,  nor  be  sold  along  with 
the  estates  on  which  they  livetl ;  but  in  other 
respects  their  condition  b  nearly  the  same.  They 
continue  to  be  without  (x>nsideration  in  srKaery, 
and  are  now,  as  formerly,  the  ser\'ants  of  the  oV 
lonists,  who  employ  them  partly  as  cultivators 
but  mastly  as  shepherds  and  herdsmen,  occupa- 
tions for  which  they  are  extremely  well  fitted. 

The  Kaffers  on  the  E.  border  are  h(*i\\  phvsically 
and  mentally  a  far  superior  people  to  the  hotten- 
tots.  They  are  tall,  robust,  and  muscular.  Their 
complexion  varies  from  a  dark  bn)nze  to  a  jet 
black.  Tliey  practise  agriculture  to  some  extent, 
raising  maize,  millet,  kidnev  beans,  and  water 
melons.  But  they  are,  notwitiistandijig,  a  pastoral 
rather  than  an  agricultural  people ;  jiave  lai?je 
herds  of  cattle,  and  are,  in  fact,  semi-nomatU*!. 
Tliey  have  the  art  of  wording  iwn,  and  manufac- 
ture a  rude  sort  of  earthenware.  They  f»nu.*ti>< 
polygamy  and  circumcision  ;  and  have  some  nf 
the  worst  vices  of  savages,  being  treaclieruu.4. 
cruel,  and  vindictive.  They  aii|>ear  to  cooAder 
the  cattle  of  their  neighbouis  aa  a  sort  of  /em 


natunef  which  it  is  mcritorioiLS  to  attack  and  carry 
away.  Tlic  greater  number  of  the  contests)  in 
which  wc  have  been  engaged  with  them  have 
originated  in  this  thievish  propensity,  or  in  their 
attempts  upon  the  cattle  of  the  colonists.  The 
eastern  parts  of  the  colony  have  suffered  very 
severely  from  these  contests ;  and  it  was  only  with 
difficulty,  and  by  the  employment  of  a  strong 
military  force,  that  some  of  their  late  irruptions 
were  repelled.  It  is,  we  are  afraid,  in  vain  to  ex- 
pect that  the  contlicUng  interests  of  the  colonists 
and  the  alwrigines  should  ever  be  reconciled,  or 
that  Eluropean  ci\nlisation  should  ever  take  any 
firm  root  amongst  the  latter.  Very  little  commu- 
nication takes  place  between  the  negroes,  African- 
ders, and  Malays,  each  race  holding  the  otliers  in 
contempt. 

Agriculture, — But  a  small  portion  of  the  lands 
of  the  colony  is  as  yet  under  cultivation.  As  may 
be  expecteil,  the  jmsture  lands  are  the  most  nume- 
rous. Tlic  crop  lands  are  principally  situated  in 
the  districts  of  Worcester,  Stellenbosch,  and  the 
Cttfw  in  the  W.,  and  in  Albany  in  the  E.  Agri- 
culture is  in  a  backward  state,  though  perhaps  not 
so  much  HO  as  is  usually  stated.  The  l)OorH  arc 
industrious,  sober,  and  parsimonious ;  but  they 
are,  at  the  same  time,  strongly  attachetl  to  ancient 
habits  and  routine  practices.  Better  implements 
have,  however,  been  introduced,  and  various  im- 
provements effected  of  late  years.  A^culture  is 
uijured  by  the  Dutch  law  of  succession,  which, 
by  diWding  a  man*s  property  equally  among  his 
children,  hinders  the  accumulation  of  capital  in 
masses,  and  the  formation  of  proper  farming  esta- 
blishments. (Thompson's  Travels,  p.  321,  4  to  e<l.) 
In  some  limited  districts  the  soil  is  very  fertile, 
and  the  crops  and  quality  of  the  grain  excellent; 
but  the  greater  jtart  of  the  arable  land  is  but  of 
indifferent  quality,  and  the  crops  are  very  liable 
to  l)c  iimired  by  droughts,  hail-storms,  and  rust. 

The  farms  occupie<i  by  graziers  are  often  of  very 
great  extent,  comprising  from  3,000  to  10,(K)0 
acn*s  and  npwanls :  those  in  tillage  are  comfMura- 
tively  small.  The  boors  are,  for  the  m«»st  part, 
proprietors  of  the  farms  which  they  occupy,  i>aying 
a  quit  rent  to  government  as  the  original  owner 
of  the  soiL  Such  a  thing  as  land  on  rent,  from 
one  owner  to  another,  is  almost  unknown.  Tlie 
transfer  of  land  fn)m  one  individual  to  another 
is  effected  with  the  utmost  facility,  and  'with- 
out the  possibility  of  fraud.'  Pn)i>eTty  seldom 
remains  lung  in  one  family.  Owing  to  the  law 
of  equal  succession,  farms  ore  frc<{uently  sold  on 
the  <leath  of  the  owner;  sometimes  the  whole  Is 
purchascHl  by  one  son,  but  it  is  fre<iuent]y  split 
into  parts. 

The  vineyards  are  mostly  in  the  vicinitv  of  the 
Cai)€,  where  the  vine-growers  occupy  freehold 
farms  of  about  120  acres  each.  The  vine  {Viti» 
viniftrti)  has  been  long  intro<lucc<i  to  the  Cape, 
an(i  has  for  a  lengthened  pericMi  been  cultivate<l 
with  more  or  less  attention.  The  culture,  however, 
made  no  great  progress  till  1813,  when  the  duty 
on  (!ape  wines  imiM>rted  int4)  this  country  was  re- 
duced to  a  thinl  part  of  the  duty  levied  on  the 
wines  of  Portugal  and  Spain.  But,  ex(*epting 
Constant ia.  Cape  wine,  whether  fnmi  the  vines 
l)eing  planted  in  an  unsuitable  soil,  or  fn)m  a  want 
of  care  in  the  preparation  of  the  wine,  or  both,  has 
an  earthy  taste,  and  \»  generally  ven'  inferior:  and 
the  consequence  of  this  refluction  of  the  duty  has 
merely  been  to  increase  the  quantity  ^)wn  and  im- 
ported, without  in  any  degree  improving  itsqiuility, 
and  t4>  make  it  be  employed  as  a  cheap  and  conve- 
nient menstruum  for  adulterating  mon>  exix-nsivc 
wines.  It  was,  therefore,  scarcely  a  loss  to  the 
colony  when,  in  18C4,  the  wine  duties  were  again 


CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE  (COLOKY  OF)  645 

equalised,  leaving  the  growers  at  the  Cape  to  the 
fair  laws  of  com{)etition. 

Constantia  is  produced  on  a  farm  of  that  name 
at  the  E.  base  of  Table  Mountain,  8  or  9  m.  from 
Cape  Town.  Its  soil  consists  of  decomposed  sand- 
stone, and  is  consequently  more  analogous  to  the 
soils  which  produce  fine  wine  in  Europe  than  the 
richer  clayey  soils  where  the  ordinary  vineyanls  are 
plantetL  Greater  care  is  also  taken  in  the*  produc- 
tion of  the  wine^  and  in  consequence  of  these,  and 
probably  other  causes,  it  is  very  superior.  It  is 
luscious,  sweet,  has  a  strong  flavour,  and  being 
produced  in  limited  quantities  only,  fetches  a 
pretty  high  price.  It  is  probable,  however,  that 
Constantia,  or  a  wine  closely  approaching  to  it, 
might  be  produced  in  other  parts  of  the  colony, 
were  sufficient  i>ains  taken.  (Henderson  on  Wines, 

p.  2r>r>.) 

Potatoes  yield  two  crops  a  year.  The  fruits  of 
N.  Europe,  as  cherries  an<l  apples,  have  somewhat 
degenerated,  but  figs,  apncots,  almonds,  and 
oranges  arc  as  good  as  in  France.  Grapes  are 
]>articularly  good  on  the  W.  coast.  Tobacco  suc- 
ceeds well  "except  in  clayey  soils,  or  in  situations 
exposed  Ui  the  >E,  winds ;  but  its  culture  is,  not- 
withstanding, confincil  within  very  narrow  limits. 
Tea  was  introduced  by  the  Dutch,  and  some  was 
raised  of  a  tolerably  good  quality ;  but,  how 
favourable  soever  in  other  res|)ects,  labour  is  too 
dear  in  the  (*ape  colony  to  allow  of  tea  being  made 
a  profitable  article  of  culture.  Dried  fnut  and 
aloes  are  important  articles  of  export.  There  are 
laige  henls  of  horses  and  cattle. 

'fhe  climate  is  suitable  for  sheep,  and  great  en- 
deavours have  been  made  to  improve  the  breed  by 
the  introduction  of  merinos  from  England  and 
Australia;  and  we  are  glad  to  have  to  state  that 
these  efforts  have  proved  successful,  and  that  the 
numbers  of  sheep  and  the  export  of  wool  have 
been  largely  increase<L  The  native  breed  of  sheep 
is  very  inferior;  it  is  remarkable  only  for  the  size 
of  the  tail,  which  sometimes  weighs  20  lbs. :  ita 
wool  is  gtxHl  for  nothing.  Goats,  which  are  very 
numerous,  ser\'e  for  the  food  of  the  Hottentot 
farm-ser\'ants ;  oxen  arc  used  for  draught  in  large 
teams.  Herds  of  all  these  animals  wander  during 
the  d^y  over  large  grazing  farms  of  from  3,000  to 
G.OOO  acres,  and  at  night  are  shut  up  in  kraal$f  or 
inclosurcs.  Hogs  attract  only  a  small  share  of 
attention,  but  turkeys,  geese^  ducks,  and  other 
p<mltr>',  arc  reared  in  great  numbers. 

Trade  and  Commerce, — The  fisheries  are  not 
without  im|)ortance,  but  produce  no  more  than  is 
required  for  home  consumptioiu  Mining  industry 
has  made  little  pn^iprcss;  but  slate,  lime,  and 
building  stone  are  quarried.  Almost  every  farmer 
in  the  mtcrior  makes  his  own  candles  and  soap, 
the  alkali  necessan'  for  the  latter  being  funushcd 
by  the  consumption  of  a  kind  of  muaola,  which 
grows  plentifully  on  such  parts  of  the  waste  tracta 
as  are  at  all  watered,  llie  other  manufactures  are 
mostly  confined  to  those  of  leather,  hat«,  snuff, 
saddles,  tiles,  rope,  and  a  few  other  articles  of  a 
necc!»ary'  kind ;  a  few  wind,  water,  and  saw-milla 
now  exist  in  most  of  the  districts,  and  in  Capo 
Town  there  is  a  steam  flour-mill.  There  are  se- 
veral breweries  and  spirit  <listilleric'8,  which,  as 
well  as  other  manufacturing  establishments,  are 
most  numerous  in  the  \V.  part  of  the  territory. 

The  cultivators  of  the  interior  send  their  surplus 
agricultural  pn)duee,  wool,  butter,  soap,  candles, 
ostrich  feathers,  and  skins,  to  the  principal  towns 
at  stated  inter^-als,  and  take  back  in  return  Euro- 
|)ean  manufactures,  tobacco,  brandy,  coffee,  drc 
The  chief  foreign  imix>rts  of  the  colony  consist  of 
woollens,  cottons,  hardware,  earthenware,  tire- 
arms,  furniture,  paper,  books,  habefdasheiy,  soap. 


and  rnnimu  of  mmt  ntha  ulidi 
I'.  KiTij;<Loin,  ]iiccv-qnnili>;  t-agti,  i 
from  Imlik;  (ei  rnim  (Jliiiijii  uirl 
Uiurilinii.    Tbe  |iiiiiri]wl  utiflu 

Kill  juiFiio,  hi 


CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE  (COLONY  OF) 

SOG.nijtS   in   IKQl:  in  61te!M   in    tM!:   mil  m 

&01.H6S  in  18G3.    Of  thnw.  ibe  lunnK^  -if  UriiL'b 

M7,799  in  IMl :  410^76 lit  IHiii;  ind 


■    354.91 


D  1H63. 


.  hoinis  ulied  provinionit 
iumiBS  riuiitn  J^'ufv.  wiraJe  nil,  aLip«s  mnci  u^uL 
The  hiil»s  skill*,  uul  hiinMcome  clusrty  fWm  the 
>1  pnivince.  TIifhII  l«(i  anri  other  cuicd  mt»lf 
Mtv  vt-ry  guod,  and  are  lu^y  expait«il  la  the 
3tauii[iiu.  Thp  expnit  iif  wiiol,  sipecioUy  from 
the  eBfltem  dintiicttk,  h&is  fur  Nnne  yean  pa»t;,  btm 
greatly  un  Ihr  increase,  and  it  has  now  beoumtr 
tbe  gntten  and  aimI  pruliuhle  or  Ibe  c»lnnial 
BlatilvH.  Suljjuiunl  in  an  amjunt  u{  the  quan- 
''~'nianilTalueHurihepiind|ui]aniclejiafcitlcfAi  ^ 


a»fiiUow«:— Poond  {JSi^J -^X  ""^■■ 
muid  (4  KbcpelK)>3iDip.buriieli  neaHyi  lea^rr 
3-rir>-4i  imik  esllniu :  pipe— 9I'S  do.;  auni  =  :tlf 
do.;  ankvT-'T'^do,:  IU»li^0-4M6  do.:  12>t|)  <Hi 
-  lUO  tjiglUh  yardii ;  49^  mmsBt  =  ItW  EnplL-h 

ivelr  British. 
TheptpCTfi 


piiited  frum  [he  ( 


I  cimilation  'a  txAim 
.   .  -di'llai  it  svnh  1*.  (nf. 

Pub&c  Rrvmyr  in  derireil  fmni  coMoou  dutin 
M"h  imjioited  ami  esponol 


.   lie 


j  OaK       iMM> 


M.m 


ITudKUT,  CntleiT,  li  I  J 
,    llBi,   Bolt,    rCwln. 


id  nmt^  pmrta^,  a^f^v^ 
I  iiuei<,  tilhe^  and  duties  on  ntiick  and  pmdiUT. 
interest  oT  monev  in  i)ie  t^vemmcnt  ImdIu,  dl<- 
enunta,  4c.,  Iiilla  and  ierriea.  The  irvniK 
nmountnl  to  T53.32r>/.  in  IMi^,  and  to  7.>7.r.'i3'. 
I  in  1X03 :  the  public  expenditure  was  &U,Oi^  in 
\Vf,2.  and  W2/^l  in  1W3. 


pal  IL  otlier  Artti; 


—The 
■  pivero 


of  Rove 


Bui  a 


new  cnnittilutina  were  embodied  ici  a  re^-oR 
by  tbe  Bnaid  nf  Tnde,  approved  hy  her  MaJMty 
in  ciiuncil  un  the  itOlh  Janoarv  IHaft.  Ai-ciTilin;; 
In  letter!  patent  daieil  May  it,  I8.W,  the  l«gi(- 
lative  authority  ia  vented  in.  let,  a  ^vemoc  ap- 
pointed bv  the  Ronm ;  2nil,  in  a  hoa.ie  of  as- 
sembly. oC  46  membrfs,  elected  fur  5  yean  by 
ptrraonii  vhuae  |>r<ipvrty  haa  been  aiM«we<l  fuc  the 
expenn  of  the  jHiblic  roada ;  and  3rd.  in  a  Icfn'- 
Utive  counril  of  I^  members  ehnsea  fiit  10  ymn 
and  repreaenting  the  country  dialricta  and  iowdi 
of  the  coluny.  Each  pror.  ia  admininlered  bv  1 
lieulenant-govemor.  and  each  diatriot  by  a  nvil 
commimioner,  subordinate  to  whrim  are'lhe  fitlii 
comet«,  majn^traKs  luperinlenditic  tracts  vi 
.=  ...  .^  _    :_  ..: :.  ^(.h,  ^o,  imi.. 

cy  armed.  The* 
magintrales,  unless  on  the  KaAtr  fninliei.  renivF 
no  salary,  but  are  exempted  from  all  diipcl  tax». 
Jiutirt  ig  administered  by  a  sapreme  court  at 
judicature,  presided  over  by  ■  ciiief  jualice,  wiih  ■ 
salary  of  2,(>0<K,  and  three  puijine  judgeA.  vhAV 


diction  i 


!  i.aixi;.  ■ 


hi^    ahtrilT.  u 
aonial  c 


deputy  sherifTa  for 
ailminlty,  and  police,  and  ti 
Civil  and  criTninal  circuit  courts  «rB  held.  The 
lawH  in  opcTHtiun  are  a  moditicaljun  of  the  Di^Trh 
civil  and  criminal  code,  and  *  Statutes  of  luilia.' 
pupfjliedffben  found  deficient  by  the  Corp— J"i' 
Canlit.  Trial  by  jury  iu  crimiiuU  caw*  lias  btrn 
established.  Tlie  Dutch  langua^re,  formerly  uvl 
in  courts  of  law,  has  been  supcrsBled  bv  the 
English. 

Hrligion  and  Ediiratiim.—Thr  Dutch  and  Ens- 
lish  Kcronne<l  LuUieran,  Roman  Calholic.  aiKl 
I  Prrnbylerian  churches  in  the  Cape  are  ,  ' 
!or  in  part  supported  by  the  govemmc 

free  schools  ii 


TIMC 


The  sum  expended  bv  gui 

ISnS,  for  ecdesiikitical  ]mr\ 


year  Imi,  for  ecdesutntical  j^wrpoacs,  amnu 
to  15,37(1/.,  wbilo  for  educational  purpo^ei 
expendilura  was  17.510/.  A  joint-titiA  insl 
tinn,  entitled  the  '  South  African  Cullcge.' 
live  pnrfcsaors,  nras  eatnbliabed  aL  Cape  Tov 


CAPE  TOWN 

The  Military  Forat  in  the  colony  numbcn 
about  6,000  men,  including  from  500  to  600 
natives.  The  troops  arc  usually  ntationed  at 
(.'ape  ToMm  and  Graham's  Town.  They  intilude 
a  detachment  of  Koyal  Artillm-,  a  party  of  the 
Koyal  Engineers,  and  a  regiment  of  mounted 
riflemen,  termed  the  C^pe  cavalr>',  the  privates 
and  non-commi8idoned  officeni  of  which  are  princi- 
pally Hottentots.  The  naval  force  in  under  the 
command  of  a  rear-admiral,  with  authority  along 
the  E.  and  W.  coasts  of  Africa,  and  the  Mauritius 
and  St«  Helena. 

The  possession  of  the  colony  is  important  from 
itA  being  the  key  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  form- 
ing a  depot  whence  ships  and  troo{)s  may  be  des- 
patched with  facility  and  expedition  to  most 
parts  in  S.  In<Ua,  the  E.  Ari'hipelago,  and  Aus- 
tralia. It  is  pn>lial)le,  too,  that  in  time  it  may 
lH.'come,  intrinsically,  a  valuable  colony ;  though, 
fn)m  the  limited  extent  of  its  fertile  land,  and 
the  other  disadvantages  attending  it,  a  rapid  pro- 
gress netHl  not  be  looked  for.  The  number  of 
emigrants  who  left  the  U.  Kingdom  for  the  Cape 
of  (iood  Ho|)e,  during  the  year  1H64,  amounted 
to  873,  which  was  more  than  the  average. 

i/wtofy.— In  1620,  two  English  E.  India  com- 
man<U'rs,  by  a  proclamation  dated  from  Saldanha 
Kay,  took  possession  of  the  Cape  in  the  name  of 
(ireat  Britain;  but  no  settlement  was  sulise- 
qucntly  established  by  the  English,  and  in  1650, 
the  Ca|)e  pri>montoi^'  was  colonised  by  the  Dutch, 
who  afterwanls  made  settlements  in  Saldanha 
Bay  and  elsewhere;  and  disregarding,  like  other 
colimising  adventurers,  the  rights  of  the  original 
inhabitants,  gradually  extending  their  encn>ach- 
raents,  till  their  territory'  reached  nearly  to  the 
iKumdarics  of  that  of  the  British  territory'  at 
pn«cnt.  In  ITHo,  the  English  Untk  pos^(•ssion  of 
the  CajK? ;  but  at  the  peace  of  Amiens,  in  1800, 
restore<l  it  to  its  former  masters.  In  1806  it  was 
again  taken  by  the  English,  to  whom  it  was 
tinallv  ceded  in  1815. 

CA'PE  town,  a  sea-port  town  of  S.  Africa, 
the  cap.  of  a  small  distr.  and  of  the  al>ovc  descril>e(i 
British  territory,  on  its  S\V.  coast,  S.  shore  of 
'J'uble  liay,  at  the  foot  of  Table  Mountjiin,  about 
32  m.  X.'fn)m  the  Cape  of  Goo<l  Uoyte;  hit.  'iiS9 
65'  56"  S.,  long.  l«o  1'  E.  Pop.  26,420,  in  IHolu 
of  whom  alMtut  two-thirds  were  wliitcs.  It  is 
regularly  laid  out,  and  contains  several  good 
squares ;  its  streets,  which  are  straight  and  wide, 
cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  many  of  them  being 
w^atere<l  by  canals,  and  plante<l  on  either  side  with 
trees,  in  the  Dutch  fashion.  Houses,  mostlv  of 
brick  or  red  granite,  are  tlat-roofed,  and  chietly 
white,  with  green  windows:  they  are  spacious 
and  convenient,  having  an  elevated  terrace,  here 
culieil  a  sttK^k,  in  front,  and  small  ganlens  behind, 
usually  with  a  treillage^  clothed  wit  h  vines.  Upon 
the  shore,  at  the  E.  extremity  of  the  town,  is  the 
castle,  a  ]>entagonal  fortress  of  considerable 
strength,  containing  some  public  offices  and 
barracks,  and  having  outworks  which  command 
iKith  the  bay  and  the  roads  to  the  country.  On 
the  W.  side  of  the  town.  Table  Bay  is  defended 
by  four  liatteries,  placetl  round  and  on  the  hill 
called  the  I  Jon's  Bump ;  <m  its  E.  side^  the  town 
IS  pr(.»tecte<l  by  fortified  lines  of  defence. 

The  princii>al  public  buildings  are  the  govern- 
ment hou>e,  with  extensive  gardens,  the  burgher 
si'.nnte  hoiLse,  I)arracks,  commercial  exchange, 
cu.stom-house,  town  and  distr.  gaol,  militant' 
deiMit,  tax  otiice,  Englu<h,  Dutch,  Lutheran,  and 
Pre.-^byterian  churches,  B.  Cath.,  Indo|)endent, 
>N'esloyaii,  and  nii^sionarj'  cha|Xils,  SimiiTset 
Hospital,  and  two  others,  the  theatre.  Freemasons' 
Lo<lge,  and  8outh  African  College.    C«|>e  Town 


CAPPOQUIN 


647 


is  the  scat  of  the  supreme  court  of  justice  for  the 
colony,  of  the  vice-atlmiralty  court,  and  a  court 
for  the  recovery  of  small  debts.  It  has  several 
joint  stock  associations  for  Imnking,  insurance, 
and  other  purposes;  a  savings'  bank,  a  public 
library,  four  public  free  sc1un)1s,  and  many 
literary,  scientific,  religious,  and  benevolent  asso- 
ciations. The  town  and  distr.  contain  several 
water  milU,  tanneries,  hat,  candle,  snufT,  and 
soap  factories,  an  iron  foundry,  breweries,  dia- 
tilleries,  and  sawing  and  steam  mills.  It  is 
plentifullv  supplied  with  good  water. 

Table  jiay  is  capable  ot  containing  any  number 
of  ships,  and  forms  a  safe  and,  on  the  whole,  gixxl 
harbour,  except  during  the  montlis  of  June,  July, 
and  August,  when  it  is  exposed  to  a  hea\'y  swell 
from  the  AV.  A  woo<len  jetty  projects  for*  half  a 
furlong  into  the  1>ay  from  the  E.  end  of  the 
town,  ncAr  the  castle,  alongsi<le  of  which  shipa 
discharge  or  take  in  cargoes.  Ships  that  only 
take  in  water  or  refreshments  lie  in  the  otlier 
anchorage.  A  hghthouse,  furnished  with  double 
lights,  stands  on  the  shore,  near  the  W.  extremity 
of  the  bay,  about  2  m.  N\V.  the  town.  The 
greater  }Murt  of  the  commerce  of  the  colony  centres 
at  Cape  Town,  and  the  n>tuni8  of  trade  given  in 
the  preceding  article  apply  as  well  to  the  town  as 
to  the  colony, 

British  residents  in  India  frequently  resort  to  the 
Cape  for  their  health ;  and  the  town  has  generally 
the  appearance  of  bustle  and  gaiety ;  balls  and  the 
theatre  are  the  favourite  amusements.  The  envi- 
rons of  the  Cape  are  ver\*  nicturemiue,  and  between 
it  and  the  mountains  which  surround  it,  many 
handsome  private  ganlens  have  lieen  laid  out. 
The  people  of  Cafte  Town,  in  common  with  those 
of  the  other  parts  of  the  colony,  distin^ished 
themselves  in  1849,  by  their  uncompromising  and 
successful  opposition  to  the  ill-advise<i  attempt  of 
the  government  to  send  convicts  to  the  colony. 

Cape  Town  was  founde<l  by  the  Dutch  in  I6o0, 
and  remaine<l  subject  to  them  until  taken  by  the 
British  in  1795.  It  was  restored  by  the  treaty  of 
Amiens,  but  being  again  captured  by  the  British 
in  1806,  was  finally  ceded  to  us  with  the  rest  of 
the  colon V  in  1815. 

CAPo'DTSTBIA  (an.  y35^iV*i),a  sea-port  town 
of  Illyria,  gov.  Trieste,  circ  Istna,  on  a  small 
island  in  the  Gulf  of  Trieste,  connected  with  the 
main  land  by  a  causewav  ^  m.  in  length,  8  m.  S. 
Trieste.  Pop.  9,186  in  1857.  The  town  is  forti- 
fied and  defended  by  a  citadel,  and  contains  a 
cathe<lral,  with  al>out  30  other  churches,  and  seve- 
ral handsome  buildings ;  but  the  streets  are  narrow, 
and  have  a  gloomy  appearance.  It  is  the  seat  of 
a  bishopric,  and  has  some  superior  schools,  and  a 
prison.  Its  inhab.  manufacture  salt,  leather,  and 
soa|s  and  trade  besides  in  wine,  oil,  and  lisb.  The 
t4>wn  Ih  ill  sui>plie<l  with  water,  and  not  remarkably 
healthy.  Its  harl>our  is  large,  but  lit  tie  fre<{uented 
except  by  fishing  boats.  Cajs*  d'Istria  U>longe<i, 
in  the  middle  ages,  alternately'  to  the  Venetians 
and  the  (ienoese. 

CAPPtJC^UIN,  an  inl.  town  of  Ireland,  co. 
Waterford,  prov.  Munster,  on  the  Black  water,  105 
m.  SW.  bv  S.  Dublin.  Pop.  in  1821,  1,826;  iu 
1831,  2,289;  and  1,774  in  1«61.  It  will  be  seen 
from  these  figures  tliat  the  po]).  is  declining.  The 
town,  which  was  a  place  of  some  celebrity  in  the 
wars  of  1641,  is  finely  situate^l  on  the  N.liank  of 
the  river,  over  which  it  has  a  wwKlen  bridge.  The 
public  build'uigs  an*,  a  church,  a  Koman  Catholic 
chapel,  and  a  scho«)l-house.  Petty  sessions  arc 
held  ever>'  alternate  week,  and  a  party  «»f  the  con- 
stabulary is  stationed  here.  At  Mount  Melleray, 
near  the  town,  is  an  abl)ey  of  Trappists,  who  n.*- 
moved  thither  from  France.    Fairs  are  held  ou 


648 


CAPRI 


X7th  March,  31 8t  Mav,  5th  July,  20th  September, 
aiul  29th  Oirtohcr.  I'he  tide  ilow8  up  the  lilnck- 
water  to  thiit  place ;  but  the  navi^tion  to  Lismore 
is  chif  tly  by  a  cnnal  four  miles  long. 

CAP  HI  (an.  Cnprttt)^  a  small  iiiland  belonging 
to  Italy,  on  the  S.  aide  of  the  entrance  t4>  the 
(lulf  of  Naples,  al>out  4  m.  W.  Cape  Campanella 
(an.  Promantorium  MinertHe),  Pop.  8,204)  in 
1K62.  The  Inland  w  about  10  m.  in  circ.,  and  is 
m(x8tlv  Kurrouude<i  by  lofty  perpendicular  clifft). 
It  principally  consists  of  two  great  masses  of 
ni;j9^  caloATcous  n>cks ;  but  though  the  largest 
portion  of  its  surface  be  wild  and  impracticable,  it 
IS  in  i>arts  very  fertile ;  and  these  being  cultivated 
with  great  assiduity  yield  the  finest  crops,  with 
the  choicest  grapes,  olives,  and  other  fruits.  But 
the  most  valuable  product  of  Clapri  is  its  stock 
doves  and  quails,  pulicularly  the  latter,  which  at 
certain  seastms  or  the  year  are  caught  in  vast 
numl)eT8.  Rows  of  nets  are  placed  across  every 
break  in  the  woods,  or  chasm  in  the  rocks,  to  in- 
tercept these  birds  in  their  annual  flights ;  and  the 
quantitv  taken  is  almost  incredible. 

Capri  is  famous  in  history  from  having  been  for 
about  10  years  the  retreat  of  Tibmua,  who  here 
abandoned  himself  to  debaucheries,  while  his  pro- 
scriptions tilled  Rome  with  blood.  The  tyrant 
was  most  probably  led  to  select  this  spot  for  his 
favoured  residence,  as  well  from  the  difficulty  of 
its  access  as  from  the  mildness  and  salubrity  of  the 
climate,  and  the  unrivalled  magnificence  of  the 
pro8i)ects  which  it  affords.  He  is  said  to  have 
Duilt*no  fewer  than  12  villas  in  different  parts  of 
the  island,  some  close  by  the  sea,  and  others  in 
more  elevated  situations.  (Tacit.  AnnaL,  iv.  1 67.) 
AAer  his  death,  these  were  destroye<l  by  order  of 
the  senate ;  but  the  ruins  of  some  of  them  still  re- 
main ;  and  the  sculptures  found  in  these,  and  the 
medals  that  have  been  dug  up,  go  far  to  establish 
the  accuracy  of  what  wouhi  otherwise  appear  to  be 
the  singularly  exaggerated  statements  of  Tacitus 
and  Suetonius,  as. to  the  private  life  of  the  em- 
peror. 

There  are  two  towns  on  the  island,  Anacapri, 
near  its  W.  (see  Amacapki),  and  Opri,  the  cap., 
on  its  SK.  shore.  The  latter,  situated  on  the  ac- 
cliWty  of  a  ridge,  has  about  1,200  inhab.,  and  a 
cathedral  and  some  other  churches. 

CAPUA  (an.  Capoa  or  Qmua),  a  city  of 
Southern  Italy,  prov.  C-ascrta,  Terra  di  Lavoro, 
cap.  cant.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Voltomo,  in  a 
fine  plaui.  IK  m.  N.  Naples,  on  the  railway  from 
Rome  to  Naples.  Pop.  10,743  in  1862.  Th*e  town 
was  fortified  by  VautMin ;  has  a  strong  citadel,  and 
is  reckoned  one  of  the  keys  of  the  kingdom.  It 
has  3  principal  streets,  2  magnificent  gates,  2  fine 
squares,  an<i  3  public  fountains.  The  principal 
public  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  the  cupola  of 
which  is  supporte<l  by  18  antique  columns,  the 
church  of  the  Annunciation,  tlie  palace  of  the 
governor,  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  the  barracks,  and  the 
theatre.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishoiiric ;  has 
no  fewer  than  18  parish  churches,  several  convents 
for  both  sexes,  a  royal  college,  a  seminary,  a  mili- 
Xnxy  school,  and  4  hospitals.  A  great  fair  is 
annually  held  on  the  26tn  N(»vember. 

The  ancient  Capua  was  situated  about  2^  m. 
from  the  miHlcm  city,  which  has  nothing  in  com- 
mon ynih  the  former,  except  that  it  was  parti v 
built  out  of  its  ruins.  The  remains  of  its  amphi- 
theatre, said  to  have  been  callable  of  containing 
100,000  spectators,  and  of  some  of  its  tombs  attest 
its  ancient  splendour  and  magnificence.  The  con- 
sidcralile  town  of  Santa  Maria  di  Capua  occupies 
part  of  the  spacious  enclosure  of  the  old  city.  The 
amazing  fertility  of  its  territon',  and  the  com- 
mercial spirit  o^  its  inhabitants^  rendered  Capua 


CARAVACA 

one  of  the  largest  and  richest  citiea  of  ancient 
Italy.  Its  citizens  warmly  espoused  the  side  of 
Hannibal,  and  that  gr^t  general  took  up  his 
winter  quarters  here  aner  the  campaign  of  Cann«. 
It  has  been  said  that  this  was  a  false  step;  that  he 
ought  to  have  marched  direct  from  Cannie  to 
Rome ;  and  that  his  soldiers,  enfeebled  by  their 
residence  in  this  luxurious  city,  henceforth  lust 
their  former  superiority.  But  there  seems  to  be 
little  or  no  foundation  for  these  statements^  Han- 
nibal, though  victorious  at  Canna*,  was  so  far 
from  being  able  to  attack  Rome,  that  he  was  re- 
pulsed in  an  attempt  upon  Naples ;  and  the  fact 
that  he  maintained  himself,  without  assistance 
from  home,  for  a  dozen  years  in  Italy  afler  he  hail 
wintered  in  C-apua,  and  defeated,  during  that  periitd, 
several  Roman  armies,  completely  negatives  the 
idea  of  hLt  troops  haWng  been  enervated.  It  was 
hardly,  perhaps,  necessary  to  say  so  much  on  such 
a  point,  the  authority  of  Hannibal  being  of  in- 
comparably greater  weight  than  that  of  those  who 
have  presumed  to  find  fault  with  his  proceedings. 
The  old  city  was  destroyed  by  the  barbarians . 

CARACAS,  an  inland  city  of  Colombia,  cap.  of 
the  rc])ub.  of  Venezuela,  prov.  Caracas,  in  a  moun- 
tain valley  neariv  2,900  ft.  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  12  m.  SSE.  La  Guav-ra ;  lat.  Hfi  30'  N.,  long. 
660  65'  W.  Pop.  estimated  at  50,000.  The  city 
is  finely  situated,  and  in  the  enjo\Tnent  of  a  tem- 
perate and  healthy  though  variabfe  climate ;  but  it 
IS  exposed  to  the  atta(^  of  earthquakes :  it  has 
the  advantage  of  being  neariy  surrounded  by  the 
Guayra  and  several  other  rivulets,  which  supply 
many  public  and  private  fountains,  and  wash  the 
streets.  It  is  well  and  r^ularly  built ;  the  streets 
are  sufficiently  wide,  paved,  and  croes  each  other 
at  ri^ht  angles;  there  are  several  squares,  the 
princiiMil  of  which,  the  Plaza  Mayor,  has  the  ca- 
thedral on  the  K.,  the  university  on  the  S.,  and 
the  prison  on  the  W.  side ;  but  is  disfigured  by 
ranges  of  low  shops  collected  in  its  centre,  where 
the  fruit,  vegetable^  and  fish  markets  are  held. 
Most  of  the  public  buildings  are  of  a  religious  cha- 
racter ;  the  cathedral  is  spacious  but  heavily  built, 
and  it  is  probably  to  this  circumstance  that  its 
preservation  was  owing  during  the  great  earth- 
quake of  1812.  Previously  to  that  year  there 
were  8  other  churches,  the  handsomest  of  which, 
Alta  (iracia,  was  built  by  people  of  colour:  bat 
this  and  the  other  churches,  nine-tenths  of  the 
houses  in  the  city,  and  between  9,000  and  IO/mK) 
inhab.,  were  totally  destroyed  by  the  terrible  ca- 
tastrophe that  then  happened.  There  are  3  con- 
vents, 2  nunneries,  and  3  hospitals;  b»ides  a 
theatre  capable  of  holding  perhaps  1,800  perwibs 
the  pit  of  which  is  not  roof<»dL  The  houses  in  Caracas 
are  at  present  inferior  to  what  they  were  bcftire 
the  earthquake  of  1812,  at  which  period  thiise  of 
the  upper  classes  were  also  ver>'well  furnished: 
they  are  now  chiefly  of  sun-dried  cUy  or  mud,  the 
roofs  tiled,  and  the  walls  whitewashed.  La  Gua^-n, 
which  is  the  port  of  Caracas,  is  the  chief  trading 
town  in  Colombia ;  but  its  merchants  are  for  the 
most  part  the  agents  of  others  in  Caracas,  and  all 
negotiations  are  conducted  in  the  capital.  This 
city  was  founded  by  Diego  Loseda  in  1567,  and. 
under  the  Spanish  government,  waa  the  scat  of 
the  captain-general  of  Venezuela. 

CARAVACA,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  Mnrria, 
42  m.  WNW.  MuTcia,  and  54  m.  NE.  Granada, 
on  a  river,  and  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain  ridge, 
both  of  the  same  name.  Pop.  6,840  in  l^oT. 
The  town  has  four  convents  three  hospitals,  and  a 
Jesiuts'  coU^^  The  remains  of  the  ancient 
castle  of  Santa  Cruz  are  on  a  height  commandini; 
the  town.  In  a  mountain  on  the  AV.  is  the  cavern 
of  Barquilla  and  its  beautiful  stalactites.     The 


CABCAJENTE 

vicinity  contains  marbles  of  various  colours,  and 
produces  grain,  pulse,  wine,  oil,  hemp,  flax, 
eaparto  or  Spanish  rush,  and  pasture  for  sheep  and 
goats. 

CARCAJEXTE,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov,  Va- 
lencia, 7  m.  NNE.  San  Felipe.  Pop.  8,850  m 
1857.    The  town  is  in  the  centre  of  a  large  plain, 

C hinted  with  white  mulberry  trees,  and  intersected 
y  canals.  Its  streets  are  spacious,  and  the  com- 
fortable appearance  of  the  houses  announces  the 
prosperity  of  the  place.  Many  Roman  remains 
are  found  here.  Its  vicinity  produces  silk,  wheat, 
maijce,  pulse,  rice,  abundance  of  oranges,  pome- 
granates, and  garden  stuffs. 

CAJiCASSONNE,  a  city  of  France,  d^p.  Aude, 
of  which  it  is  the  cap.,  on  the  Aude  by  which  it  is 
intersected ;  84  m.  W.  Narbonne,  on  the  rallwav 
from  Toulouse  to  Narbonne.  Pop.  20,015  in  1861. 
The  town  consists  of  two  part»— the  city,  situated 
on  a  hill  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  and  the 
new  town,  on  a  plain  on  its  left  bank,  the  com- 
munication between  them  being  maintained  by  a 
bridge  of  ten  arches.  The  city,  which  is  very 
ancient,  is  surrounded  by  double  walls,  and  has  aJii 
old  castle.  The  new  town  is  well  built ;  has  broad 
streets  intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles,  a 
s<iuare  shaded  by  majniificent  plane  trees,  and 
numerous  fountams.  There  is  a  fine  promenade 
along  the  canaL  The  fortifications  by  which  the 
new  town  was  formerly  surrounded  have  been  de- 
molished to  make  room  for  gardens  and  boule- 
vards. IMncipol  public  buildings — cathedral,  with 
a  tine  spire,  the  church  of  St.  Lazarus  in  the  city, 
formerly  the  cathedral,  the  episcopal  palace,  the 
hotel  of  the  prefecture,  the  hotel  de  ^ville,  the  bar- 
racks, and  the  theatre.  The  haUes  or  covered 
markets  are  worth  notice.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric ;  has  tribunals  of  primar>'  jurisdiction 
and  commerce^  a  departmental  college,  a  primary 
normal  school,  a  di<ice8an  semmary  with  110 
pupils,  a  secondary  ecclesiastical  school,  a  royal 
H<K'iety  of  agriculture,  and  a  public  library  with 
G.OOU  vols.:  it  has  also  a  hospital  and  a  work- 
house. Carcassonne  has  long  been  famous  for  its 
manufacture  of  fine  woollen  cloth,  patronised  by 
CoUx'rt:  this,  however^  has  much  fallen  oit, 
though,  exclusive  of  minor  articles,  it  still  fur- 
nishes annually  about  30,000  pieces  of  cloth,  of 
which  about  24,000  are  sold  in  France,  and  6,000 
in  the  Levant.  There  are  also  fabrics  of  stock- 
ings, linens,  and  soap;  with  paper-works,  dbtil- 
lerics,  tanneries,  and  nail-works.  Its  commerce, 
which  is  very  considerable,  is  greatly  facilitated 
by  the  railway,  as  well  as  by  the  canal  du  Midi, 
a  branch  fn>m  which  comes  to  the  town,  and 
serves  it  as  a  ix>rt. 

Carcassonne  is  very  ancient,  ha\'ing  been  of 
consi<lerable  importance  in  the  days  of  Caisar.  It 
foil  successively  into  the  hands  of  the  Visigoths 
and  Saracens,  and  suffered  much  during  the  wars 
of  the  Albigenses.  Its  last  count  c^ed  it  to 
France  in  1247. 

CARDIFF,  or  CAERDIFF,  a  porL  bor.  ami 
sea-port  of  S.  Wales,  cap.  co.  Glamorgan,  on  the 
E.  bank  of  the  Taafe,  about  1^  m.  above  its  em- 
bouchure in  the  estuarj*  of  the  Severn,  25  m.  W. 
Rristol,  and  170^  m.  W.*  London  bv  Great  Western 
raUway.  Pop.  1870  in  1801;  i0,O77  in  1841; 
and  32,954  in  1861.    The  town  consists  of  two 

Crincipal  streets,  at  right  angles  to  each  other; 
china  these  there  are  scversu  courts,  alleys,  and 
lanes  of  very  inferior  houses;  and  s»>me  new 
stn«ts,  mostly  occupied  by  Irish  labourers.  The 
castle,  on  the  N.  side  of  the  town,  is  of  great  an- 
tiquitv ;  it  is  in  excellent  repair,  ami  is  partlv  oc- 
cupied by  its  pn>priet<ir,  the  Marquis  of  Ijute. 
B&iidcs  t^e  church  of  St.  John,  which  has  a  lofty 


CARDIGAN 


649 


tower,  there  arc  places  of  worship  for  Baptista, 
Methodists,  Independents,  &c  There  is  here,  also, 
a  CO.  gaol,  a  guildhall,  where  the  assizes  are  held, 
a  theatre,  a  bridge  over  the  Taafe,  of  five  arches, 
and  numerous  schools  and  charities.  Cardiff  has 
become  a  place  of  verv  considerable  trade,  being, 
in  fact,  the  port  of  Merthyr  Tydvil,  and  of  the 
principal  mining  district  of  S.  Wales.  The  ex- 
ports of  iron  amount  to  about  500,000  tons  a  year, 
and  those  of  coal  to  nearly  a  million  tons.  In  the 
year  1863,  there  cleared  at  the  port  1,619  British 
vessels,  of  404,221  tons,  and  2,873  foreign  vessels, 
of  657,530  tons.  The  products  of  Merthyr  and 
Aberdare  are  brought  to  Cardiff  by  railway,  and 
by  the  Glamorganshire  canal,  which  unites  with 
t-he  sea  about  1  m.  below  the  town,  and  by  the 
Taafe  Vale  railway.  But  as  the  cojial  was'con> 
structed  about  fifty  years  ago,  its  basin  did  not 
affonl  sufficient  accommodation  for  the  vastly  in- 
creased traffic  of  the  place.  To  obviate  this  in- 
convenience, the  late  Marquis  of  Bute  con- 
structed, at  his  own  expense,  a  ship  canal  and 
docks  a  little  below  the  town.  These  works  are 
on  the  most  magnificent  scale.  The  inner  basin 
occupies  a  space  of  not  less  than  eighteen  acres ; 
and  there  is  an  outer  basin  occup^Hng  a  space  of 
about  14  acre,  for  the  accommodation  of  ships  and 
steamers  of  large  burden.  These  great  woiks 
have  done  much  to  increase  the  trade  and  im- 
portance of  Cardiff.  And  also  the  fortune  of  their 
proprietor.  The  limits  of  the  parL  and  municipal 
tx>undaries  coincide,  and  comprise  an  extent  of 
1,191  acres.  It  is  joined  with  the  bors.  of  C^w- 
bridge  and  Llantrissent,  in  sending  one  member 
to  the  H.  of  C.  Previously  to  the  Reform  Act, 
the  franchise  was  veste<l  m  the  burgesses.  Re- 
gistered electors  2,195  in  1865.  Mairkets,  Wed- 
nesdav  and  Saturday;  fairs,  June  29,  Sept.  19, 
Nov.  *30. 

CARDIGAN,  a  marit.  co.  of  S.  Wales,  stretch- 
ing in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  along  the  SE.  shore 
of  Cardigan  Bay,  having  N.  the  cos.  of  Merioneth 
and  Montgomery;  E.,  Radnor  and  Brecon;  and 
S.,  Caermarthen  and  Pembroke.  Area  432,000 
acres;  pop.  97,401  in  1861.  Surface  mountainous 
and  hilly,  inten4i)ersed,  however,  with  several  fine 
valleys,  of  which  the  principal  are  those  of  the 
Teify,  or  Teivy,  Rheidiol,  and  Ystwith,  so  called 
froin  the  rivers,  the  largest  in  the  co.,  by  which 
they  are  intersected,  llie  soil  along  the  shore  of 
this  CO.,  particuUrly  between  Llan  Rhystyd  and 
Llan  Non,  is  a  light  sandy  loam,  and  is,  perhaps, 
the  finest  turnip  and  barleV  soil  in  the  empire ;  it 
is,  in  fact,  in  some  places  alleged  to  have  pro- 
duced, with  httle  or  no  manure,  an  uninterrupted 
succession  of  good,  or  at  least  tolerable  barley 
cro|)s,  for  a  period  reaching  bevond  the  memory 
of  man.  (l>avies!s  S.  Wales,  'i.  li;3.)  But  thu 
continued  succession  of  com  crops  has  unhappily 
been  tried  in  places  where  the  soil  b  less  capable 
of  sup|)oning  such  abusive  treatment ;  and,  alto- 
gether, agriculture  is  here  at  a  very  low  ebb, 
being  quite  as  far  behind,  if  not  more  so,  than  in 
Caermarthen,  which  see.  Estates  of  all  sizes, 
from  the  smallest  patches,  which  in  some  districts 
are  very  numerous,  up  to  several  thousands  a  year. 
Farms  similarlv  dixdaed.  Silver,  lead,  and  copper 
have  all  been  found  in  Cardiganshire ;  and  at  one 
time  the  silver  mines  were  an  object  of  great  at- 
tention, and  yielded  a  considerable  produce ;  but 
for  a  lengthened  period  they  have  been  wholly 
abandoned,  and  Uttle  or  no  attention  is  now  paid 
to  those  of  copper  and  lead.  Slates  are  quarried 
in  different  parts  of  the  co.,  and  are  largely  ex- 
ported from  Canligan  and  Aber>'stwith.  Alanu- 
factures  unimportant.  Princiital  towns,  Canligan, 
Aberystwith,  Tregaron,  and  Lampeter.    At  the 


650 


CARDIGAN 


laMt  mentioned  place  in  a  colle^^c,  estaltliflhed  in 
1X22,  for  the  education  of  the  Welsh  cleijf^Tneu. 
Caniif^n.slure  contains  five  hunds.  and  8ixty-tive 
{larH.,  and  liad  15,724  inhab.  houses  in  IHGt.  It 
returns  one  rnem.  to  the  II.  of  C.  for  the  co.,  and 
one  for  the  bors.  of  Caniigan,  Al»er>'8twith,  Lam- 
peter, and  Adpar.  Kegistered  electors  for  the  co., 
8.1H0  in  1801.  Amount  assessed  to  property  tax, 
108,177/.  in  1801;  gross  rental  ass^uied  to  poor 
rate,  160,218/. 

Cakdioan,  a  sea-port  and  pari.  Iwr.  of  S.  Wales, 
cap.  cf>.  Cardigan,  on  the  X.  Iwmk  of  the  Teiv\', 
5  m.  from  its  cralx)uchurein  St.  (leorge's  Channel, 
198  m.  WNW.  Lond(.n.  Pop.  8,543  in  1861.  The 
princiiml  street  is  spacious,  but  the  others  are  nar- 
row and  irregular,  and  the  town  contains  a  large 
proiK>rtion  of  small,  mean  tenements.  liecently, 
however,  not  only  the  number  of  houses  has  been 
a  good  deal  increased,  but  their  quality  has  also 
.  been  materially  improved.  A  stone  britLce  cnHtses 
the  river,  and  connects  the  town  with  Hridgen<l, 
in  Pembrokeshire;  and  there  is  another  bridge 
across  a  deep  inlet  of  the  river  on  the  W.  side 
of  the  town.  It  has  an  ancient  church,  a  free 
grammar-school  for  thirty  Imx's,  a  national  and 
anotlier  charity  school  (in  which  130  children  are 
educated),  a  handsome  co.  hall  and  a  co.  gaoL 
Two  towers,  the  remains  of  its  ancient  castle,  still 
exist  on  a  commanding  site  above  the  river. 
Market,  Saturday;  annual  fairs,  Feb.  ISth,  April 
8th,  Sept.  0th,  and  Dec  19th.  The  town  has  no 
manufacture  of  any  consequence.  A  bar  at  the 
river's  mouth  is  a  great  impediment  to  navigation, 
and  makes  the  entrance  to  the  harbour  very  dan- 
gerous in  rough  weather.  In  moderate  weather, 
and  at  spring  tides,  vessels  of  from  300  to  400  tons 
may  come  up  to  the  town ;  but  the  general  trade 
is  confinc<l  to  vessels  of  from  15  to  100  tons. 
There  l>elongcd  to  the  port,  on  the  1st  of  January, 
1804,  118  sailing  vessels  under,  and  69  sailing 
vessels  above  50  tons.  Total  tonnage,  10,193. 
There  were  no  steamers.  Exports,  slate,  com, 
and  butter ;  imports,  coal,  culm,  timber,  and  deals, 
limestone,  and  articles  of  general  consumption. 

(*ardigan,  conjointly  with  Aberystwith,  Lam- 
peter, and  Adpar,  returns  1  mem.  to  the  H.  of  C. 
Pre\'iously  to  the  Reform  Act,  the  franchise  (in 
Cardi^n)  was  vested  in  the  burgesses,  who  were 
created  by  being  presented  by  a  jury  of  burgesses 
at  the  court  of  the  corporation.  Registered  electors 
1(>7  in  1802.  The  town  is  divided  into  2  wards, 
and  governed  by  a  mayor,  aldermen,  and  coun- 
cillors. 

CAKDONA,  a  fortified  town  of  Spain,  Cata- 
lonia, in  a  rugged  country  on  the  Cardanet,  55  m. 
NW.  Barcelona.  Pt>p.  3,000  in  1857.  Near  the 
town  on  the  SW.,  is  a  mountain  of  solid  rock-salt, 
which  neither  the  err>si(m  caused  by  the  rains,  nor 
the  mining  operations  that  have  been  continued 
for  ages,  seem  tx>  have  ix)wer  materially  to  dimin- 
ish. (See  Catau)MA.)  Being  exceedingly  hard, 
the  rock  is  first  blasted  with  gunpowder,  and  after- 
wanls  dug  out  with  pickaxes :  it  is  then  ground, 
and  laid  up  in  the  government  storehouses.  Vases, 
crucifixes,  and  other  articles  are  made  out  of  it, 
which  stand  ver\'  well  in  the  atmosphere  of  Si)ain, 
but  soon  liquefy  in  a  moist  climate. 

CARENTAN,  a  town  of  France,  dep.  LaManche, 
cap.  cant.,  on  the  Tante,  near  its  embouchure,  15 
m.  NNW.  St,  Lo.  Pop.  H.llOin  1801.  Tlietown 
is  situated  in  the  middle  of  a  marsh,  and  is  indif- 
ferentlv  fortified,  and  unhealthy.  Small  vessels 
come  up  to  the  town,  which  luis  some  manufac- 
tures of  lace  and  cotton. 

CARIACO,  a  marit.  town  of  Venezuela,  prov. 
Cumana,  in  a  large  plain  near  the  head  of  the  gulf 
of  the  same  name,  38  m.  ENE.  Cumana;  lat.  10^  ^ 


CARINTHIA 

30'  y.,  lon^.  63°  4(y  W.  Pop.  estimated  at  7JiiW. 
The  town  is  small  and  its  climate  is  unhealthy ; 
but  it  has  some  trade,  and  its  Wciuity  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  with  cotton. 

CARIATI,  a  sea-port  town  of  Southern  Italy, 
prov.  Ci^senza,  cap.  cant.,  on  a  high  promouton* 
washed  bv  the  Ionian  Sea.  18  m.  SE.  lJf»fiHu»u. 
Pop.  8,133  in  1802.  Though  the  seat  ofa  bL^hop- 
ric,  it  IS  a  desolate.  wretchetl-lo»>king  place,  sur- 
rounded by  dilapidated  walls,  and  having  a  cattle 
in  niins.  It  has  suffered  much  from  the  attack.<t 
of  the  Turks  and  Algerines,  and  more  recently 
from  the  depredations  of  brigands,  who,  in  18(.^;. 
and  again  in  1804-5,  made  the  cau<4e  of  lejritiraacy 
subservient  to  their  own  pre«iator>'  pur]>oses.  ft 
is  now,  however,  beginning  to  im| trove.  The  hot 
manna  of  Calabria  is  found  in  iU<  environs,  and 
the  rivers  furnish  fish  in  abundance. 

CARIGNANO,  an  inL  town  of  X.  Italy,  pn>v. 
Turin,  cap.  distr.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Po, 
which  is  here  crossed  bv  a  woiKlen  bridge,  1 1  m. 
S.  Turin.  Pop.  7,912  in'l8G2.  The  tt»wn  Lh  sur- 
rounded by  old  walls,  has  a  handsome  square,  a 
fine  church,  several  convents,  two  h<isiutals.  and  a 
college,  and  some  remains  of  its  ancient  cattle.  A 
good  deal  of  silk  is  produced  in  the  neighlNHirhood. 
and  there  are  several  filatures  in  the  to^-n.  (.'arig- 
nano  is  also  celel)rated  for  its  confei^tioner\\  It 
has  been  several  times  taken ;  the  French  sacked 
it  in  1544. 

CAKINI,  a  town  of  Sicily,  prov.  Palermo,  cap. 
cant.,  on  the  rivulet  of  the  same  name,  near  where 
it  falls  into  the  sea,  12  nu  WNW.  Palemio.  Vo\i. 
10,827  in  1862.  [fhe  town  stands  on  a  ri<ing 
ground  in  a  beautiful  situation ;  is  a  respei*table 
and  clean  town ;  and  has  a  Gothic  castle,  yniii 
several  churches,  convents,  and  public  buildiujir^ 
Near  Carini  arc  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Hjfonra, 
a  small  but  rich  city,  sacketl  by  Nicias,  who.  on 
that  occasion,  captured  Lais,  the  famous  courte- 
zan. 

CARINTHIA  and  CARNIOLA  (Germ.  Kan- 
then  and  Krain)  Duchies  (»p,  two  contiguous  in- 
land provinces  of  the  Austrian  empire;  the  fomu-r 
being  included  in  the  ancient  NuricuiiL.  and  tin' 
latter  in  lUyricum :  they  now  respectively  form  ilii* 
northern  and  central  portions  of  the  kingdom  <»t 
Illyria  as  established  in  1815,  chief! v  between  lat, 
450  30'  and  470  10'  N.,  and  long.  12°  40'  and  l.*»*' 
40^  E. ;  having  X.  Salzburg  and  Stjiia,  E.  Stvria, 
S.  Croatia  and  Istria,  and  W.  a  part  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Trieste,  the  Lombardo-Venetian  kingdom, 
and  the  Tyrol.  Area,  6,930  sq.  m.  (32r.-oy  Germ.;. 
Pop.  of  Carinthia  332,450,  and  of  Camiola  4ol,H41 
in  1857.    The  pop.  is  more  dense  in   the  Lntirr 
than  in  the  former  province ;  there  being  1,^44  in- 
habitants to  the  Germ.  sq.  m.  in  Carinthia,  anil 
2,004  in  Camiola.    These   provs.  ct»m)M)se  tliai 
\^sxt  of  Illyria  forming  the  government  i4  Lay- 
bach,  and  are  divided  into  5  circles,  viz.  Cariutliis 
into  Klagcnfurt  and  Villach,  or  I^wcr  and  Tpfw 
Carinthia;  and  Camiola  into  those  of  Layhach, 
AdeUiberg,  and  NeustadtL    The  whole  couiltr}-  l> 
mountainous :  the  great  Alpine  chain  which  |^s.m?> 
from  the  Tyrol  through  St>-ria  into  llungir}-. 
bounds  Carinthia  on  the  N.,  and  its  aoutherii  ]»- 
rallel  chain,  with  its  second  ramidcation,  or  the 
Julian  and  Camic  Alps,  nm  tlirough  the  W.  and 
S.  parts  of  Camiola.  and  on  it«  N.  separate  it  frnin 
Carinthia.    The  great  Alpine  chain  consists  iu  its 
whole  extent  of  granite,  gneiss,  quartz,  mica,  ami 
clay-slate,  and  otiier  primary  rocks,  and  ctm tains 
many  metallic  ores ;  the  Camic  and  Julian  Al{«« 
have  chiefly  a  calcareous  fonnation,  and  the  latter 
abound  with  ravines,  cavems,  and  grr>ttos.    They 
are    com|wratively    |KK>r    in    metallic    products. 
There  arc  fertile  valleys  between  the  mountain 


CARINTHIA 

raiif^s ;  but  the  countiy  generally  is  sterile  and 
bare,  and  does  not  yield  corn  enouf^h  for  the  con- 
sumption of  its  inhabitants,  the  deficiency  bein^ 
made  up  by  imports-  from  Hunj^ary.  Carinthia  is 
more  abundantly  watered  than  Camiola:  the 
Drave  intersects  the  former  prov.  in  its  whole 
length ;  the  Save  rises  in  the  latter,  and  runs  with 
a  S£.  course  through  its  N.  and  £.  diviaons :  both 
greatly  assist  the  traffic  of  these  proxdnces.  There 
are  several  moderate-sized  lakes^  as  the  Worthsee, 
Oaoiacher-see,  Muhlstadter-see,  m  the  central  part 
of  Carinthia,  and  the  Czirknitzer-see  and  others  in 
the  W.  and  NW.  parts  of  Camiola,  besides  many 
small  ones.  The  temperature  depends  chiefly 
upon  the  elevation ;  but,  except  in  S.  Camiola,  the 
climate  is  generally  cold,  and  unfavourable  to 
ainiculture.  The  surface  of  the  conjoined  provs. 
is  thus  divided : — Arable  land,  678,998  £ng.  acres; 
vineyards,  23,909  do.;  meadows  and  gardens, 
792,015  do.;  commons,  1,085,089  do.;  forests, 
2,174,177  do. :  total  4,755,286  do. 

The  respective  quantities  of  the  chief  agricul- 
tural products  are  stato<l  to  be — Wheat,  88,184 
Eng.  quarters ;  r>'e,  187,261  do. ;  barley,  126,862  do.; 
oats,  851,674  do.;  wine,  3.350,601  Eng.  imp. gall. 

Wheat,  barley,  and  wine  are  prinoipally  pro- 
duced in  Camiola;  rve  and  oats  in  Carinthia. 
Buckwheat,  millet,  demp,  and  flax,  are  also 
grown,  and  the  flax  of  Cvniola  is  said  to  be  the 
best  in  the  empire.  The  extent  of  surface  devoted 
to  gardens  and  vineyards  in  Carintlua  is  very  in- 
ferior to  that  so  appropriated  in  Camiola,  in  the 
S.  of  which  duchy  the  finest  apricots,  peaches, 
apples,  pears,  and  plums  arc  produced,  besides  a 
considerable  quantity  of  good  wine.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  Carinthia,  the  pasture  lands  are  exten- 
sive, and  cattle  are  reared  in  much  larger  numbers 
than  in  Camiola.  The  horses,  which  are  large  and 
strong,  are  bred  mostly  in  the  valley  of  the  Gail,  and 
elscwlicre  in  UpiMjr  Carinthia.  The  nheep  yield  only 
inferior  wool.  Hogs  and  goats  are  plentiful.  The 
AlfMare  inhabited  by  l>ears,  which  make  great  havoc 
amongst  smaller  aiiimals.  Chamois,  deer,  hares, 
and  foxes  are,  however,  found,  as  well  as  a  great 
variety  of  feathered  game.  The  rivers  and  lakes, 
and  especially  the  Ihave  and  the  Ossiacher-see, 
abound  with  salmon,  trout,  and  other  su|)eriorfish. 
Bees  are  numerous,  especially  in  S.  Camiola ;  of 
late  years  the  rearing  of  silk-worms  has  increased. 
The  principal  wealth  of  Carinthia  is  in  the  produce 
of  its  mines.  Iron  is  found  throughout  the  whole 
extent  of  the  primary  Alpine  chain,  and  b  also 
procured  in  the  C-amic  Alps.  Copper  is  mined  in 
several  places,  but  although  the  quantity  of  ore  be 
inexhaustible,  the  hanlness  of  the  stone  in  wluch 
it  is  found  and  other  difficulties  oppose  serious  ob- 
stacles to  the  attmnment  of  any  great  supply  of 
metal  The  lead  mine  of  the  ore^mountain  near 
Villach  is  the  largest  and  most  pnxluctive  of  that 
metal  in  the  empire:  it  yields  annually  38,<N)0 
centner  of  pure  metal :  other  mines  in  the  duchy 
afford  yearly  about  20,000  centner.  Zinc,  silver, 
and  qui<?ksiiver  are  likewise  met  with,  and  near 
IlUttenI>erg  antimony  isftiundin  conjunction  with 
iron.  There  arc  some  iron  and  lead  mines  in  Car- 
niola,but  those  of  the  greatest  importance  in  that 
prov.  are  the  celebratetl  quicksilver  mines  of  Idria, 
the  richest  in  Europe.  Coal  peat,  marble,  build- 
ing stone,  various  clays,  talc,  asbestos,  jasper, 
l)cr}'l,  opal,  emerald,  garnets,  are  found  in  various 
I)arts  of  the  country.  The  following  shows  the 
average  annual  pro<iuce  of  some  of  the  mines  in 
lioth  provinces: — Bar  iron,  271,02.)  cwt,;  cast  iron, 
9,942  cwt. ;  lead  and  lead  ore,  60,893  cwt. ;  copper, 
78  cwt. :  coals,  49,614  cwt. 

Manufacturing  industry  in  Carinthia  is  mostly 
confined  to  working  up  its  raw  produce,  and  es^ic- 


CAKIPE 


651 


daily  its  metallic  ores.  There  are  a  great  number 
of  furnaces  and  forges,  iron-plate  and  steel-works. 
Besides  these,  there  are  a  few  woollen,  silk,  and 
cotton  factories,  situated  chiefly  at  Klagenfurt^ 
the  capital  of  the  province.  In  Camiola  tho 
manufactures  are  more  important,  although  still 
inferior  in  amount  to  those  in  many  other  Aus- 
trian pro\*incca.  Most  of  the  raral  male  popula- 
tion roUow  linen  weaving,  in  addition  to  their 
agricultural  occupations;  while  their  wives  spin 
thread.  Both  these  articles  are  generally  coarse ; 
but  there  are  some  fine  linen  and  lace  manufac- 
tures, and  many  of  woollen  cloth,  flannel,  woretCMi 
stockings,  and  leather.  Iron  manufactures,  and 
others  of  wooden  articles,  also  occupy  many  hands ; 
and  in  Laybach,  the  capital  of  Camiola,' there  ia 
a  very  extensive  porcelain  and  earthenware  fac- 
tory. '  The  principal  exports  from  Camiola  are 
steel  wares,  timber,  and  wooden  articles,  glasa 
wares,  linens,  felt  hats,  wax,  wine,  to  Carinthia ; 
flour  to  Trieste :  and  quicksilver  to  I^)wer  Austria. 
Its  imports  are  Hungarian  and  Italian  wines,  salt, 
oil,  fruit,  colonial  pnxiuce,  with  coffee,  sugar, 
various  manufactured  fabrics,  tobacco,  and  a  large 
supply  of  homed  cattle.  The  exports  of  home 
produce  are  not  iirobably  much  below  the  value  of 
Its  imports ;  but  considerable  wealth  is  derived  to 
the  prov.  from  the  traffic  through  it,  and  convey- 
ance of  goods  from  Austria,  Carinthia,  Croatia,  to 
Trieste,  and  the  other  ports  on  the  Adriatic  The 
town  of  Gottscheer,  where  a  (German  colony  is 
situated,  has  a  remarkable  commercial  activity, 
and  its  piods  are  widely  diffused  over  Hungary 
and  the  NW.  pro\'inces  of  the  empire,  as  well  as 
in  many  other  parts  of  Europe :  Laybach,  the  cap., 
is  the  other  chief  place  of  trade.  The  exports  of 
Carinthia  are  almost  confined  to  its  raw  and  manu- 
factured mineral  pnMlucts,  and  cattle.  Klagcn- 
furt,  the  cap.,  and  Villach,  are  its  principal  com- 
mercial towns.  The  inhab.  of  these  ])rovs.  are 
mostly  of  the  Slavonian  race, denominated  Wendes 
or  Vandals ;  in  Carinthia,  however,  those  of  (t er- 
man  are  to  those  of  Slavonian  stock  as  1 72  to  95. 
The  Drave  formerly  separated  the  two  races. 
Carinthia  and  Camiola  have  each  their  own  pn»- 
vincial  diet,  formed  in  the  same  manner  as  that 
of  the  other  pn)vinces  of  the  empire.  (See  Aus- 
tria.) Tlic  high  cnminal  and  other  judicial  courts 
of  Carinthia  arc  at  Klagenfurt^  Tlie  Lutheran 
religion  made  considerable  pn^n^ress  in  this  prov. 
in  the  16th  centur\',  until  checked  by  the  govern- 
ment :  there  are  now  scarcely  20,000  l*rotestants, 
mostly  in  Upfwr  Carinthia.  llie  whole  pop.  of 
Camiola  is  Roman  Catholic — a  robust,  contented, 
and  fmgal  people.  The  Carinthians  have,  to  a 
great  extent,  the  character  and  disposition  of 
Italians.  They  are  said  to  be  m<ire  inclhied  to  in- 
dolence than  their  southern  neighbours.  an<l  are 
often  ignorant  and  su{)erKtitious.  l^»th  provs. 
formed  (Mirts  of  the  empire  of  (Charlemagne,  and 
afterwards  Itelonged  to  the  dukes  of  Friull  After 
passing  thn>ugh  various  hands,  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria I  K^rame  possessed  of  Camiola  in  1245,  and  of 
Carinthia  in  1321.  In  IHOi)  these  countries  were 
annexed  to  the  empire  of  Napoleon,  and  remained 
crjunoined  with  it  till  1814,  when  they  were  re- 
stored to  Austria. 

CARIPE,a  town  and  \-alley  in  Venezuela,  prov. 
Cumana,  40  m.  SK.  that  city.  The  town  is  tho 
chief  seat  of  the  Chayma  Indian  missions.  Tlie 
valley  Ls  celel>rate<l  for  a  n*markabU*  cavem  in  a 
lime<tone  fonnation,  at  least  2,K(M)  ft.  in  depth, 
an<l  for  some  distance  60  or  70  ft.  high.  It  L*  in- 
habited by  multitudes  of  birds,  callcKl  gtiachams, 
a  species  of  Caprimulpiui,  the  young  of  which  arc 
annually  destrovetl  in  great  numbers  by  tho  In- 
dians, for  the  sake  of  the  fat  with  which  the  lining 


652 


CARISBROOKE 


membrane  of  their  abdomen  U  laden,  and  of  which 
excellent  oil  is  made.  Humboldt  viiitite<l  this  ca- 
vern.   (See  his  Personal  Narrative,  voL  ii.) 

C  AKISBROOKE,  a  pur.  and  \Tllage  of  England, 
Isle  of  Wi^rht,  liberty  W.  Medina,  situated  by  a 
ri\ndet,  at  the  base  of  a  conical  hill,  surmounted 
bv  its  castle  or  fortress,  78  m.  SAV.  lA)ndon.  Area 
of  i»ar.  8,800  acres :  jwp.  of  do.  7,502  in  1861 ,  Some 
portions  of  the  fortress  are  very  old;  but  it  was 
rejiaired  and  f^reatlv  aufnneuted  in  the  reign  of 
EUzabeth.  The  walls  of  the  old  fortress  (a  paral- 
leb^^ram  enclosing  an  area  of  1^  acre,  with  its 
keep  in  the  centre)  are  comfvised  within  the  more 
moilem  fortifications,  which  enclose  an  area  of 
about  twenty  acres.  The  latter  have  five  bastions 
and  a  deep  moat,  and  are  connected  with  a  fine 
terrace,  nearly  1  m.  in  length.  The  par.  church 
stands  on  an  acclivity  opposite  the  castle :  it  is  a 
Norman  structure,  originally  attached  to  a  Cis- 
tercian monaster^',  founded  in  the  reign  of  the 
Conqueror ;  some  remains  of  which  exist  at  a  farm- 
house on  its  site.  The  most  celebrated  event  in 
the  annals  of  CarLsbrooke  Castle  is  the  confinement 
of  Charles  I.  for  thirteen  months  within  its  walls, 
immediately  previous  to  his  being  delivered  up  to 
the  parliamentary-  forces.  Subsequently,  his  chil- 
dren were  also  imprisoned  in  this  castle ;  and  his 
eldest  daughter  died  in  it,  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  It 
continues  to  be  the  residence  and  head-quarters  of 
the  governor  of  the  Isle  of  Wight ;  and  a  consider- 
able boily  of  troops  are  usually  stationed  in  it. 
There  are  many  pleasant  villas  scattered  over  the 

Karish ;  within  which,  also,  is  the  general  woriL- 
ouse  of  the  island. 

CAKLKH,  a  small  village  of  Hindostan,  prov. 
Aurungabad,  34  m.  NW.  Poonah,  near  which  are 
some  remarkable  cave-temples,  excavated  in  a 
spur  fn>m  a  chain  of  hills  running  E.  and  W. ;  the 
cnief  cavern  is  said  to  be  6,000  ft,  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  faces  due  W.  A  little  to  the  led, 
before  the  entrance,  stands  a  large  pillar,  sur- 
mounted by  three  sculptured  lions  back  to  back. 
The  temple  is  entered  under  a  noble  horse-shoe 
arch,  through  a  small  square  doorway  in  a  kind  of 
portico  screen,  which  in  great  part  fills  up  the 
arch,  and  abounds  with  laboured  workmanship. 
To  one  thir<i  of  it^i  height,  it  is  covered  with  va- 
rious figures  in  bas-relief;  and  one  of  these  in  a 
dancing  attitude  is  exceetlingly  graceful :  the  ends 
of  this  screen  are  occupied  to  the  same  height  with 
the  figures  of  gigantic  elephants,  projecting  in  alto- 
rdicvo,  and  well  carved.  After  entering  the  cave, 
which  is  40  paces  long  by  14  broad,  Mn.  Graham 
observes,  *  when  we  looked  round,  we  almost  fan- 
cied ourselves  in  a  Gothic  cathedral.'  Unlike  the 
Buddhic  cave-temples  of  Bang,  Ellora,  drc.,  the 
roof  is  arched,  rising  to  an  astonishing  height,  sup- 
ported by  twenty-one  pillars  along  each  side,  and 
above  these  by  ribs  or  teak,  which  are  fitted  by 
teeth  into  corresfranding  holes  in  the  rock  above. 
The  pillars  are  mostly  hexagonal,  each  ^dth  a  bell- 
Bhaj>eil  capital,  surmounted  by  two  elephants  with 
their  trunks  entwined,  and  each  carr^'ing  one 
female,  and  two  male,  figures.  On  several  of  the 
columns  there  are  inscriptions,  which  have  recently 
been  translated  (see  Journal  of  the  Asiat.  Soc.  of 
Bengal,  voL  iii.),  and  from  one  of  them  it  would 
appear  that  this  temple  was  constructed  a.d.  176. 
The  cave  is  semicircular  at  its  termination :  oppo- 
site the  entrance  is  a  structure  with  a  dome,  on 
which  is  fixed  a  huge  teak  umbrella,  an  ornament 
common  in  the  temples  of  Buddha ;  but  no  sepa- 
rate cells,  oi)cning  from  the  main  temple,  have 
been  noticed,  though  such  have  been  supposed  cha- 
racteristic of  Buddhic  stnictun»s.  (Graham,  Journal 
of  a  Hesid.  in  India,  pp.63-6r>.) 
CAKLENTINI,  a  town  of  hicily,  prov.  Syracuse, 


CARLISLE 

19  m.  NW.  Syracuse.  Pop.  4.954  in  1862.  The 
town  was  built  by  Charles  V.  for  the  head-quartern 
of  the  Sicilian  army;  but  the  design  was  never 
completed,  and  since  the  earthquake  of  1693.  by 
which  it  was  partially  destroyed,  it  has  become  a 
miserable  place. 

CAKLINGFORD,  a  seaport  town  of  Ireland, 
CO.  Louth,  on  the  S.  side  of  Carlingfonl  lough,  1(» 
m.  E.  Dundalk.  Pop.  of  town  777,  and  of  {>ari£>h 
7,039  in  1861.  Carlingfurd  lough  is  8  m.  in  depth, 
by  from  1  to  1^  m.  wide,  with  deep  water  and 
secure  anchorage,  but  being  situated  between  lofty 
momitains,  is  liable  to  sudden  squAlK  The  hit 
at  the  entranc"e  has  8  ft.  water  at  low-water  springs, 
17  ft.  at  ordinary  high  water,  and  26  ft.  at  S|rings. 
This  bay  is  well  stocked  vrith  excellent  o\-steis, 
the  fishing  of  which  employs  miwt  part  of  the  poju 
of  Carlingford.  The  town  returned  2  mems.  tv 
the  Irish  parliament,  but  was  disfinanchised  at  the 
Union. 

CARLISLE^  a  city  of  England,  co.  Cumberland, 
on  a  gentle  eminence,  in  an  extensive  plain  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Eden,  Caldew.  and  Peteril,  which 
nearly  surround  it ;  250  m.  NN  W.  London  by  n»ail, 
and  300^  m.  by  London  and  North-Wcsteru  rail- 
way. The  pop.  of  the  citv  was  10.221  in  IWl ; 
23,012  in  1841 ;  and  29,417  in  1861.  The  grwt 
increase  of  pop.  is  attributed  to  the  increase  of  ma- 
nufactures, and  the  influx  of  Irishmen  and  Scotch- 
men to  the  mills  and  railroails. 

The  Eden  Ls  crossed  by  an  elegant  briilge,  finished 
in  1817,  consisting  of  five  laige  and  five  smaller 
arches ;  the  Caldew  has  two  bridges,  and  the  smaller 
stream  of  the  Peteril  one.  The  princi^ial  streets 
diverge  from  the  market-place,  an  irregular  area 
in  the  middle  of  the  town :  though  not  rc^larly 
arranged,  several  of  them  are  well  built,  and  thev 
are  generally  well  paved  and  lighted,  and  plenti- 
fully supplied  with  water. 

Carlisle  is  the  scat  of  a  bishopric,  founded  by 
Ileniy  I.,  and  remodelled  by  Henr>'  VIII.  afte'r 
the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  with  whoxe 
lands  he  largely  endowed  it.  The  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  extends  over  93  pars.,  containing  the 
whole  of  Westmoreland  and  great  part  of  trumber- 
laniL  The  revenues  of  the  sec  amount  at  an  ave- 
rage to  4,500/.  per  annum.  The  cathe<lral.  having 
been  repaired  at  different  periods,  exhibits  various 
kinds  of  architecture ;  the  E.  window  u  said  to  lie 
the  finest  specimen  of  the  kind  in  England.  The 
dignitaries,  besides  the  bishop,  are  a  dean.  4  pre- 
bendaries, and  8  minor  canons.  The  nave  of  the 
cathedral  forms  the  parochial  church  of  St.  Maiy : 
that  of  St  Cuthbert  is  a  plain  building,  erected  in 
1778.  There  are  three  other  churches,  and  places 
of  worship  for  I'resbyterians,  Independents,  two 
denominations  of  Methodists,  Baptists,  R.  Catho- 
lics, and  the  Society  of  Friends.  The  grammar- 
school  was  fotmded'  by  Henry  VIII.  There  are 
also  I^ncastrian  and  national  schools  St.  Patrick*^ 
school  for  educating  400  children  of  all  denomina- 
tions, and  a  school  of  iudustr}'  for  femal^i.  The 
ouuty  infirmary  is  in  the  town,  and  it  has  a  fe\*er 
hospital  and  a  dispensary.  An  academy  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  fine  arts  was  formed  in  1822, 
a  mechanics'  institute  in  1824,  and  a  litenur>-  and 

Ehilosophical  institution  in  1835:  a  handsome 
uilding,  erected  in  1839,  for  the  accommodatifio 
of  these  societies,  contains  a  museum  and  a  theatre 
for  lectures.  There  are  two  subscription  libraries 
and  news-rooms — one  of  the  latter,  a  chaste  new 
building,  opened  in  1831 — and  several  weekly 
newspa|)ers.  The  environs  afford  many  delightful 
rides  and  walks.  Races  take  place  in  autumn  at 
the  Swifts,  a  fine  course  on  the  S.  bank  <if  the 
Eden.  The  ancient  castle,  which  stands  on  an 
eminence  over  the  liTer,  conaiata  of  an  outwanl 


CARLISLE 

and  inner  waO,  each  of  fi^reat  tblckneits,  and  of  a 
great  square  tower,  constructed  according  to  the 
ancient  mode  of  defence.  The  ramparts  commiuid 
a  ver>'  tine  view.  It  ift  now  used  only  as  an  in- 
fantry barrack  and  armoury. 

Carlisle  is  a  coijioration  hy  prescription;  and 
obtained  confirmations  and  extensions  of  its  privi- 
leges by  a  series  of  18  charters,  terminating  with 
18  Charles  I.,  which  was  the  governing  charter. 
Under  the  new  municipal  act,  the  government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  10  aldermen,  and  30  common- 
councilmen,  chosen  annually  by  the  rate-payers. 
There  are  eight  guilds  or  frateniities  of  trades, 
admission  into  any  of  which  is  by  birth  or  ap- 
prenticeship only ;  and  admission  into  one  of  the 
guilds  is  a  preliminary  requisite  to  the  freedom  of 
the  city.  Carlisle  has  sent  2  mem.  to  the  H.  of  C. 
since  the  reign  of  Kdward  I. :  the  right  of  election, 
previously  to  the  Reform  Act,  beuig  in  resident 
and  non-resident  freemen,  llie  boundaries  of  the 
parL  bor.  were  extended  by  the  Boundary  Act,  so 
as  to  embrace,  not  merely  the  city,  Imt  also 
the  suburiw  and  a  considerable  contiguous  circle. 
Registered  electors  1,418  in  18(*>5,  of  whom  331 
freemen.  The  election  of  memlwn  for  the  £. 
di\'iMion  of  the  co.  is  also  held  here. 

The  court  of  the  mayor  and  bailiffs  sits  weekly, 
and  holds  personal  pleas  to  any  amount  Petty 
sessions  are  held  on  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays. 
A  county  court  is  also  established  here,  lliere  is 
no  city  gaoU  prisonen  being  confine<l  in  the  county 
gaol,  an  extensive  and  well-constructed  building 
at  the  S.  entrance  to  the  city,  or  in  the  house  of 
correction :  a  subterranean  passage,  tlirough  which 
the  prisoners  are  brought  to  trial,  connects  Iwth 
these  places  of  oonfincment  with  the  county  court- 
house. The  county  assizes,  and  the  quarter  ses- 
sions, at  Easter  and  Midsummer,  afe  held  in  this 
building,  which  was  erected  in  1810  on  the  site  of 
the  ancient  citadel :  it  has  two  magnificent  towers. 
The  revenues  of  the  corporation  amounting  in 
1801  to  3.309^— exclusive  of  the  profits  of  the  gas 
works,  which  belong  to  the  corporation — arise  from 
tolK  rents,  and  shares  in  public  comiMwies. 

The  buildings  for  corp<irate  and  otiier  puldic 
puqNises  connected  with  the  government  of  the 
place,  are  the  to^m-hall,  guildhall,  ami  council- 
chaml)er.  Cotton  is  the  staple  mnnufiicturc  of  the 
town,  employing  about  2,000  hands.  Tlie  hatting 
trade  is  also  extensive;  and  there  are  several 
(lye-works,  ])rint-works,  inm-fimndries,  tan-yanU, 
and  breweries.  Coal  for  manufacturing  and  diH 
mestic  purposes  is  brought  fmm  Gilsland,  12  m. 
distant;  and  fr«>m  other  collieries,  about  20  m. 
distant.  A  considerable  part  of  the  manufacturing 
pop.  of  Carlisle  used  to  he  in  a  very  depressed  con- 
dition; but,  on  the  whole,  the  dty  is  thriving,  and 
itit  general  aspect  is  giMKl.  Its  situation,  on  the 
great  N.  W.  line  of  railway  from  I^)n(lon  and 
Manchester  to  (xlasgow  and  Edinburgh,  gives 
great  facilities  to  its  trade,  which  is  still  further 
promoted  by  the  railways  connecting  it  with  New- 
castle, on  the  one  hand,  and  with  Man-port  and 
Whiteliaven,  on  the  other.  The  navigation  of  the 
E<len  being  greatly  im|)e<led  by  shoals,  a  canal, 
suitable  for  vessels' of  100  tons'*  burden,  has  been 
cut  to  Bowness,  on  the  Silway  Frith,  1  m.  distant 
The  trade  with  Livennxd  and*  Indand  is  carried  on 
by  steamers.  It  has  been  made  a  sea-imrt  and 
there  Iwlonged  to  it,  on  the  Ist  of  Januan*,  18G4, 
12  sailing  vessels  of  under,  and  14  vessels  of  alN)vc 
20  tons.  Total  tonnage  2.204.  dross  customs' 
revenue  32,104/.  in  1802,  and  28,303/.  in  18(>,-J. 

The  rate  of  mortality  in  the  city  of  Carlisle  has 
been  supposed  to  corres|Miiid  pretty  ch)sely  witli 
the  average  rate  of  mortality  hi  England  and 
Walea ;  and  Mr.  Milne,  proceeding  on  this  hy|K>- 


CARLOW 


653 


thesis,  constructed  a  table  of  mortality  from  ob- 
servations made  by  Dr.  Ilevsham  in  this  city. 
This  table  has  been  adopted  by  various  insurance 
othces.  It  gives  a  decidedly  lower  rate  of  mortality 
than  the  Northampton  table,  which,  prcWously  to 
its  appearance,  was  the  only  one  in  use. 

Markets  on  Wednesdavs  and  Saturdays;  fairs 
on  the  Saturdays  before  Whitsuntide  and*  Martin- 
mas ;  also  a  statute-fair  on  20th  Aug.  and  14  days 
after,  during  the  continuance  of  which  no  attach- 
ment from  the  city  civil  courts  can  be  executed ; 
and  another  on  19th  Sept  The  banks  are,  the 
Carlisle  CHtv  and  District  liank,  the  Carlisle  and 
Cumberland  Ranking  Co.,  a  branch  of  the  Cumber- 
land Union  Ranking  Co.,  the  House  of  Monkhouse, 
Head,  and  Co.,  and  a  savings*  bank.  The  village  of 
Stanwix,  N.  of  the  Eden,  mav  be  considered  as  asub- 
urb  of  Carlisle,  though  not  inchuled  within  its  cor- 
|)orate  or  parliamentar\'  Umits.  Its  ancient  church, 
dedicated  to  St  Michael,  is  built  on  the  site  and  out 
of  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  station  of  Congavata, 
which  stiMxl  along  the  rampart  of  the  wall  of  Severus. 

Carlisle  was  a  Roman  station,  under  the  name 
of  Luguvallum,  as  is  attested  by  vestiges  of  the 
Roman  wall,  and  by  manv  Roman  relics  discovered 
here  at  various  times,  the  Saxons  allied  it  Caer 
Luil,  whence  its  present  name  is  derived.  William 
the  Conqueror  built  the  castle;  and  during  the 
wars  between  Enghmd  and  Scotland,  Carlisle  was 
a  frequent  object  of  attack.  It  surrendered,  with- 
out making  any  op|Kisition,  to  the  I^retenderCliaiies 
Edwani,  ui  1745;  but,  on  his  being  com|)elIed  to 
evacuate  it  on  the  approach  of  the  British  forces, 
he  left  behind  him  a  small  garrison,  which  sur- 
rendered at  discretion :  the  officers  of  this  garrison 
were  subsequently  executetl  at  London  as  traitors, 
and  their  heads  exposed  on  the  gates  and  walls  of 
Carlisle. 

CARLOFORTE,  a  sea-port  town  of  Northern 


surrounded  by  a  wall,  and  has  some  fortiticationa. 
It  is  moderately  healthy.  The  hihabitants  aio 
engaged  in  the  anchovy  and  coral  fisheries,  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  salt 

CARLOTA,  l-^\,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  Cordova, 
cap.  dep.  of  its  own  name,  17  m.  SW.  Conlova. 
Pop.  2,350  in  1857.  Tlie  town  Is  one  of  the  chief 
seats  of  the  foreign  colonists — the  majoritv  of  them 
Germans— i)lante<l  in  Andalusia,  in  1708.  in  the 
view  of  i)eopling  and  fertilising  the  Sierra  Morena. 
It  is  a  pretty  town,  and  the  inhab.,  who  are  clean 
and  thri\Tng,  have  some  manufactures  of  hempen 
and  linen  cloths. 

CARIX)W,  or  CATIIERLOUGH,  an  inL  co.  of 
Irebind,iirov.Leinster,  lying  mostlvon  the  E.8iile 
of  the  liarrow,  luiving  S.  and  E*.  Wexford  and 
Wicklow,  N.  the  latter  and  KiUUre,  and  W. 
Queen  s  co.  and  Kilkenny.  Area  219,803  acres,  of 
which  23,030  are  unimproved  mountain  and  bog. 
Surface  on  the  S.  iNinler  mountainous,  but  else- 
where gently  undulating,  liesides  the  Barrow,  by 
which  It  is  partly  intersecte*!  and  partlv  bounded, 
it  is  watered  by  the  Slaney.  Soil  in  the  uplands 
a  light  gravel;  m  the  lowhmds  a  fertile  loam. 
This  is  one  of  the  principal  eUiry  cos.  in  Ireland ; 
and  the  stock  of  cows  has  latteriy  been  a  good 
deal  ameliorated  by  the  intr«Mluction  of  Avr>»hire, 
and  other  improved  breeds  from  (Jreat  hritaiii. 
Estates  middle-size<l ;  and  that  minute  division  of 
land  among  the  (x^cupicrs,  so  destructive  of  the 
best  interests  of  tlie  country,  has  prevailed  lew 
here  than  in  most  other  parts  of  IreUnd.  Agri- 
culture is,  hi  conse<iuence,  in  a  much  moro 
advanced  state  here  than  in  nianv  other  Irish  cos.; 
there  ia  a  considerable  breadUi  of  land  under  greeo 


651 


CARLOW 


cn)\> ;  and  imjlrovcd  fanning  implements  are  pretty 
l^ciiorally  intrwluced.  Manufactures  and  minerals 
of  no  in'i|X)rtance.  Carlow  is  divided  into  6  ba- 
ronies and  50  itarishcs,  and  sends  8  mems.  to  the 
H.  of  C,  viz.  2  for  the  co.,  and  1  for  the  bor.  of 
('arluw.  Registered  electors  for  the  co.  2,475  in 
1«64.  P(»p.  «C,228  in  1H4I,  and  67,137  in  1861. 
Gross  annual  value  of  real  property  assessed  to  in- 
come tax,  137,989/.  in  1857.  and  154,JK)7/.  in  1862. 

C'Aitix)W,  a  pari  bor.,  the  pnnci])al  town  of  the 
alK>ve  (•«>..  and  tlic  place  where  the  assizes  are  held, 
on  the  Ikirrow.  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Burren, 
46  m.  SSAV.  Dublin,  on  the  Isouth  Eastern  railway. 
Pop.  of  pari.  bor.  ll>,409  m  IH-ll,  and  8,973  m 
1861.  The  town,  properly  so  called,  lies  wholly 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Barrow,  but  it  is  connected 
by  a  bridge  with  the  suburb  of  (iraigiie,  on  the 
<ipiK>Hite  side  of  the  river  in  Queen's  co. :  this  sub- 
urb has  been  included  in  the  parL  bor.,  which 
extends  over  a  space  of  572  acres.  It  is  a  well- 
ijuilt,  an<l,  to  some  extent,  a  thriving  to^-n.  It 
has  an  old  castle  now  in  ruins,  but  once  a  place  of 
considerable  strength  and  im|)ortance;  a  parish 
chureh  with  a  spire ;  a  handsome  K.  Cath.  cathe- 
dral church,  oi)ene<l  in  1834 ;  a  R.  Cath.  college 
and> convent ;  barracks  ;  a  lunatic  district  asylum 
for  the  COS.  of  Carlow,  WicKlow,  Wexford,  and 
Kilkenny,  erected  in  1830  at  a  cost  of  nearlv 
26,000/. ;  an  elegant  new  court-house,  a  co.  gaol, 
and  CO.  intirmary.  }k»ides  the  K.  Cath.  college, 
fitted  for  the  accommodation  of  200  students,  there 
is  a  di(K!esan  school,  and,  numerous  charity-sch(M>ls 
both  for  Protestants  and  Catholics.  There  are  also 
several  charitable  institutions. 

Being  situated  on  a  main  line  of  railway,  as 
well  as  on  a  navigable  river,  communicating  with 
Watcrfurd  on  the  one  haml,  and  with  Dublin,  by 
means  of  the  (irond  Canal,  on  the  other,  Carlow 
has  a  very  considerable  trade.  It  is  a  great  mart 
for  the  agricultural  produce^  particularly  the  com 
and  butter,  of  the  surrounding  country,  great  quan- 
tities of  which  are  sent  down  the  river  to  Waterford 
for  exportation.  It  has  also  some  large  flour  mills, 
and  an  extensive  malting  business;  and  furnishes 
coniiiderable  supplies  both  <»f  flour  and  malt  to 
Dublin.    The  Bank  of  Ireland  has  a  liranch  here. 

Carlow  is  a  plac«  of  great  antiquity,  and  has 
various  charters ;  by  the  last  of  these  in  1671,  the 
bor.  consists  of  a  sovereign,  elected  annually,  and 
twelve  self-elected  free  burgiyises.  From  1613 
down  to  the  union  with  Great  Britain  it  sent  two 
mems.  to  the  Irish  H.  of  C,  and  since  the  union  it 
has  sent  one  mem.  to  the  Imperial  H.  of  C,  who, 
till  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Act,  was  returned 
bv  the  sovereign  and  burgesses.  Registered  elec- 
tors 236  in  1862. 

CARLOWITZ,  a  town  of  the  Austrian  states, 
Slavonia,  within  the  military  frontier,  circ  Peter- 
wardein,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  4  m. 
SE.  Peterwardein.  Pop.  4,350  in  1857,  mostly  of 
Servian  descent.  Many  of  the  dwellings  are  mere 
huts,  and  it  is  only  in  port  paved.  It  contains  a 
(ireek  cathedral,  two  other  Greek  churehes,  a  li, 
Cath.  chureh,  a  hospital,  seminaries  fur  the  Greek 
and  i-ath.  clergy,  a  Cireck  lyceum,  and  a  Oth. 
high-school.  The  subordinate  jurisdiction  of  the 
town  Is  in  the  hands  of  on  equal  number  of  R. 
Cath.  and  Greek  magistrates.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
(ireek  arehbishop,  the  only  one  belonging  to  that 
church  in  the  Austrian  empire,  to  whom  all  the 
Austro-Greek  cleig>'  ore  subunlinate. 

CARLSBAD,  a  town  of  liohemia,  famous  for  its 
hot  8j)rings,  on  the  Te|)el,  near  the  Eger,  72  m. 
WNW.  Prague,  Stationary  pop.  4,384  in  1857. 
The  to\%'n  lies  ui  a  low  nam>w  valley,  surrounded 
by  hilL*,  covered  with  every  variety  of  foliage,  and 
affording  the  most  extendi vc  and  varied  prospects. 


CARLSCRONA 

The  town  consists  principally  of  lodging-houses 
and  hotels,  for  the  ocomimod&tion  of  \'isitor8  to 
the  waters ;  but  it  has  some  good  shofMi  and  private 
houses,  with  a  theatre,  assembly  and  reading- 
rooms.  The  Sprudel,  the  princii)al  spring,  i»  the 
hottest  in  £urr)pe:  its  temperature  being  about 
i)9°  Reau.,  or  165  Fahr.  The  exftansive  force  of 
the  steam  below  forces  up  the  water  in  iets  to  a 
considerable  height ;  and  to  guard  agamst  the 
danger  that  has  sometimes  arisen  from  the  ob- 
struction of  the  apertures  by  which  the  water  and 
vapour  escape,  it  lias  been  covered  over  by  a  soUd 
bed  of  masonr>'.  There  are  several  other  springs ; 
that  of  Muhlbrunnen,  wldch  is  the  most  commonly 
drank,  has  a  temiierature  of  138°  Fah.  Baths  of 
all  sorts  are  fitter!  up  with  every  accommiidatioD. 
'Vhe  waters  are  efficacious  in  a  great  variety  of 
complaints,  but  chiefly  in  those  of  the  liver  and 
kidneys.  The  walks  and  premenades  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  town  have  a  great  deal  of  roman- 
tic beauty  and  intcre'St.  The  number  of  vi^dtors 
in  the  season  varies  from  10,000  to  15,000  ever>' 
vear,  including  nearly  always  some  of  the  crowned 
heads  of  Eurepe. 

Carlsbad,  now  the  most  fashionable  and  aris- 
tocratic watering-place  in  Eun>pe,  is  of  cttm[4- 
ratively  recent  origin.  The  springs  are  said  to 
have  been  discovered  in  1376,  by  the  emperor 
Charles  IV.,  who,  when  hunting  m  the  vicinity, 
was  attracted  to  the  spot  by  the  cries  of  a  hound 
that  had  fallen  into  one  of  tiie  springs.  Tlie  town 
belongs  to  the  emperor.  A  celebrated  congress 
was  held  here  in  1819. 

CARLSBURG,  or  KARLSBURG,  a  royal  town 
of  l>ansvlvania,  co.  Unter- Alliens,  on  theN.  bank 
of  the  Maros,  32  m.  NW.  Hermanstadt ;  bu  40^ 
5'  21"  N.,  lon^.  230  25'  10"  E.  l»op.  6,o:M  in 
1857.  It  consists  of  the  upper  town  or  citoilel 
built -on  a  hill,  and  the  lower  town,  situated 
beneath  it.  The  citadel  is  surroundetl  by  walls 
with  seven  bastions,  and  its  principal  gate  is 
adorned  with  some  fine  sculptures.  The  town 
has  a  handsome  R.  Cath.  chureh,  containing  the 
tomlis  and  monuments  of  John  Huniodcs,  and  se- 
veral royal  and  other  personages;  the  fine  residence 
of  the  bishops  of  Transvlvania,  a  canons*  coU^^e, 
containing  the  preWncial  archives,  royal  mint, 
observatory  with  a  fine  collection  of  apparatus, 
several  libraries  and  scientific  collections,  an  ar- 
senal and  barracks.  There  are  also  a  hospital, 
an  ecclesiastical  Ivceum,  college,  and  primary 
schooL  From  the  lower  town  a  bridge,  210  pac^ 
in  length,  passes  over  the  Maros. 

CARLSCRON A,  or  CARLSCROOX,  a  sea-port 


greater  part 

built  on  the  small  rocky  island  of  Tros-oe,  and 
the  rest  on  some  adjoining  islets ;  the  commu- 
nication with  the  mainland  being  nuuiitained 
partly  bv  a  mound,  and  partly  by  a  wooden  bridge. 
The  han)our  is  large  and  safe,  with  water  sufficient 
to  float  the  largest  ships.  It  has  three  entrances, 
but  tlie  only  one  practicable  for  large  vessels  is  on 
the  8.  side  of  the  town,  and  is  defended  by  two 
strong  forts.  The  dry  docks  constructed  hoe,  fur 
the  building  and  n\iair  of  men-of-war,  have  been 
formed  at  a  vast  expense ;  they  are  of  great  ex- 
tent, and  have  been  cut  out  of  the  solid  granite 
rock.  The  town  is  well  built,  consisting  juunly 
of  brick,  but  principally  of  wooden  houses.  Tli'e 
arsenal,  and  other  Duililings  connected  with  the 
(locks  and  shipping,  are  on  a  large  scale ;  and  there 
are  also  two  handsome  churehes,  an  hotel  for  the 
prefect,  a  hospital,  and  a  lazaretto.  There  is  a 
great  deficiency  of  good  water ;  that  which  is  ob- 
tained from  the  welJb  sunk  in  the  town  is  brackish, 


CARLSHAMN 

Ro  that  when  rain-water  failH,  recourse  has  to  be 
hatl  to8prin^  distant  about  3  m.  There  are  oume 
manufacturefi  of  canvas  and  linen,  witli  anchor 
fd^jreA  and  tanneries.  The  trade  of  the  town  is 
but  inconsiderable ;  the  ex  ports  con8Lftprinci[>ally 
of  irt>n,  copper,  steel,  potash,  tar,  aiul  pitch. 

(.'urlNcnma  derives  its  name  and  origin  from 
Charles  XL,  who,  in  1G80,  c<mferred  on  it  con- 
siderable i>rivilegcs,  and  removed  the  i\ixi  thither 
from  Stockholm.  It  has  since  omtinuod  to  be  the 
principal  station  of  the  Swedish  tieet  ;  but  the 
ndmiralty,  which  had  been  lon^  seated  liere^  was, 
in  177G,  transferred  to  Stockholm,  In  17*J0,  it  suf- 
lered  severelv  fnim  a  tire. 

CAKLSHAMN,  or  lerVRLSIIAFEN,  a  sea-port 
town  of  Sweden,  prov.  Blekin};,  cap.  ha*nuL,  on 
tlic  lialtic,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nie,  65  m.  W. 
rarlscnma;  lat.  oG©  12'  40"  N.,  long.  14°  ol' E. 
pop.  0,7:10  in  1H58.  The  town  has  two  churches, 
a  hospital,  with  considerable  manufactun>a  of  can- 
vas, wifoilens,  and  t4^»bacco,  and  buildinf^-yards. 
The  liarliour  is  small,  but  safe.  The  ex}>ortA  con- 
sist of  in)n,  timber,  potash,  iiitch,  and  tar.  licin^ 
i>uilt  princii>allv  of  wood,  it  has  sometimes  sufTered 
w*v«'.relv  from  tires. 

CAKLSUUHE  {Charleii's  Rest),  a  city  of  Ger- 
many, cap.  of  the  fj^nd  duchy  of  Biuien,  circ. 
M  if  idle  idiine,  residence  of  the  grand  duke,  and 
seat  of  the  administration  and  nrincipal  state 
authorities,  in  the  fine  plain  of  the  Ilaardwald, 
which  surrounds  it  on  the  N.  and  W. ;  4  m.  E.  the 
Rhine,  37  m.  WNW.  Stuttganlt,  o7  m.  S.  by  W. 
Darmstadt,  and  42  ra.  NE.  Strasbuxf;,  on  the  rail- 
way from  Frankftjrt  to  Basel.  Pop.  27,103  in  1»61. 
The  town  is  quite  unique  in  construction,  being 
built  in  the  form  of  an  outspread  fan,  or  rather 
wheel,  round  the  grand-ducal  iialace,  from  which, 
as  a  centre,  thirty-two  public  routes  radiate. 
Several  of  the  streets  stretch  into  the  forest.  The 
high,  or  long,  street  runs  from  E.  to  AV.,  diWding 
the  city  into  a  N.  and  8.  portion.  Carlsruhe  is  in 
{lart  walled,  and  has  seven  gates.  It  is  a  hand- 
some, but  rather  dull  town.  Streets  broad,  well 
jmivchJ,  funiishe<I  with  foot-fiaths,  and  well  lighted 
at  night.  Ihmses  built  in  a  great  variety  of  styles, 
chictly  of  brick.  There  are  nine  public  squares, 
and  facing  the  iialace,  at  the  pomt  of  union  of  the 
iirinci]>al  streets,  is  a  semicircular  range  of  elegant 
iMiihiings,  comprising  the  government  otlices,  ami 
others  attacbeil  to  the  palace.  The  grand-ducal 
r<*sidfnce,  a  plain  buildmg,  C(imi)oscd  of  a  C(*ntre 
and  two  wings,  contains  tlie  Blevthurm  (lead- 
tower),  from  the  summit  of  wliich  there  is  an 
extensive  prosiiect ;  a  cabinet  of  coins  and  na- 
tural objects ;  a  library  of  80,000  vols. ;  ami  the 
church  attended  by  the  court.  Towanls  the  E. 
extend  the  lai^  gardens  and  ])ark  belonging  to 
the  |>alac*e,  which  are  thrown  open  to  the  public 
Thert>  are  several  other  i>alaces  belonging  to  the 
nobility  deserving  of  notice,  and  ninety  public 
tuuldings,  including  fiiur  I^»testant  and  <  'atholic 
churches,  a  synagi^ie,  town-hall,  in  which  both 
chamUrrs  of  the  senate  meet ;  a  museum,  the 
grand-dtical  and  another  theatns  a  new  mint,  the 
)M>>«t-otHce,  infantry  and  cavalr>'  liarracks,  arsenal, 
cannon-foimdrA',  and  several  hospitab*.  Ilerr 
Stultz,  the  once  fashionable  London  tailor,  was 
the  founder  of  one  of  these  hospitals,  which  he 
endowed  with  100,000  florins.  In  return  for  his 
genen»sity  the  tailor  was  created  a  ban»n.  The 
<rity  is  supplied  with  water  by  an  aqueduct  from 
Durlach,  distant  2^  m.  E.  by  S. ;  it  lh  adomeil  by 
si'veral  public  fountains,  and  in  the  centre  of  the 
princiiml  square  is  a  stone  pyramid,  en>cteil  t(» 
tlie  memory  of  the  founder  of  the  city.  Its  chief 
eHtablishments  for  e<lucation  are  a  lyceum,  p<dv- 
technic,  military-,  medical,  and  vetcrinar>'  schools, 


CARMONA 


656 


and  academies  of  architecture  and  painting.  It 
possesses  an  excellent  botanic  garden,  a  gallery  of 
IMiintings,  and  a  society  of  arts,  under  the  patnm- 
age  of  the  grand-duke.  Carlsruhe  is  not  a  place 
of  considerable  trade.  It  has  some  manufactures 
of  silks,  carpets,  woollens,  snuff,  chemical  pro- 
ducts, furniture,  carriages,  clocks,  jewellery,  and 
articles  of  luxury,  but  the  pro6])enty  of  its  inha- 
bitanta  mainly  depends  on  its  being  the  seat  of 
the  court,  and  the  residence  of  the  priiici|)al  ofliceis 
of  state.  It  is  ({uite  a  modem  citv,  and  has  risen 
around  a  hunting-seat  built  by  Cliarles  William, 
Margrave  of  Baden,  in  1715. 

CAltLSTAD,  a  town  of  Sweden,  cap.  prefecture 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  island  of  Tingvalla,  at 
the  mouth  of  tlie  Klar,  on  the  lake  Wenem,  and 
on  the  projected  railwav  fMm  Christiania  to  Stock- 
holm. Pop.  4,t«28  in*lK.>8.  The  t4)wn  is  built 
of  wood  on  a  regular  i>laii ;  has  a  handsome  ca- 
thedra], a  gymnasium,  an  obser>'atory,  an  agricul- 
tural society,  a  cabinet  of  natural  historv,  and  a 
tobacco  manufacture ;  and  in  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
and  the  residence  of  the  prefect.  The  opening  of 
the  Gotha  canal  has  added  considerably  to  its  com- 
merce. It  exports  copper  and  iron,  com,  salt,  and 
timber. 

CAHLSTADT,  a  town  of  Austrian  Croatia,  co. 
Agram,  cap.  circ  of  same  name,  at  the  contiuence 
of  the  Korana  and  Dobra  with  the  Kulpa,  imme- 
diately bevond  the  limit  of  the  military'  frontier, 
32  m.  S\\-.  iVgram.  Pop.  6,720  in  1857.  Tlie 
town  is  well  built,  though  mostly  of  Wixxl :  has  a 
small  fortress,  originally  intended  to  resbt  the  in- 
cursions of  the  Turks,  and  which  is  surrounded  by 
ram{>artjs  trenches,  and  palisades ;  and  contains  a 
hamlsome  parade,  barracks,  and  anenaL  It  has 
five  Catholic  churches,  a  Greek  church,  a  g>'mna- 
sium,  superior  and  girls*  schools,  a  ci\'ic  and  mili- 
taiT  hospital,  and  is  the  residence  of  a  Greek 
bishop.  Considerable  quantities  of  the  liqueur 
called  roaofflio  are  produced  here.  Its  trade  is  un- 
important, but  its  inhabitants  derive  considerable 
profit  from  the  conveyance  of  goods  to  the  ports 
of  the  Adriatic.  It  was  founded  l)y  the  late  Arch- 
duke Charles,  whose  name  it  bears. 

CAliMAGNOLA,  an  inhmd  town  of  N.  Italy, 
prov.  Turin,  cap.  <lLst.,  near  the  Po,  15  m.  S.  bv  E. 
Turin.  ¥o\\  3,8G0  in  18G1.  The  town  is  weU 
biult  and  laid  out ;  many  of  its  streets,  as  well  as 
its  princii>al  square,  arc  i>mamented  with  porticoa. 
It  contains  several  church&n  and  convents,  and  a 
liospital.  and  has  two  suburbs.  It  has  consider- 
able trade  in  silk,  fiax,  hemp,  com,  and  cattle,  for 
which  two  lai^  markets  are  held  weekly.  Tliis 
town  formerly  U'longed  to  the  marquisate  of  Saluz- 
zo:  it  was  taken  bv  the  French  in  1691  and  17%. 

CAUMEL  (M()i:XT),  a  famous  mountain  of 
Svria,  extending  fn»m  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  in  a 
NW.  direction  till  it  terminates  in  the  steep  pro- 
montory forming  the  S\V.  extremity  of  the  IJay 
of  AiTv.  The  name.  Mount  CarraeX  is  usually 
contine<l  to  this  promontor\',  the  height  of  which 
L*  varioa«»ly  estimated  at  from  1,500  to  1800  ft, 
This  mountain  l*  famous  in  Scripture  histor>',  more 
especially  in  that  of  Elijah,  being  the  place  where 
he  destroy «l  the  pn>pheta  of  Baal  (1  Kings, 
x'viii)  In  more  modem  times,  the  mountain  has 
been  occupieil  by  monks,  who  have  resided  in 
grottos  cut  out  of  the  rock,  and  in  a  monastery 
built  near  the  summit.  Hie  latter  was  destroy^ 
in  1821.  but  has  since  been  rebuilt. 

CARMOXA  (an.  Qtmui)^  a  city  of  Simin,  prov. 
Seville,  cap.  dei».  of  same  name,* 20  m.  EXE.  Se- 
ville^ 5(;  m.  WS\V.  Conlova.  Pop.  15,6G7  in  1857^ 
Tlie  town  stands  in  a  picturescpie  situation  on  an 
kddated  hill,  hM)king  down  u|)on  the  plains  of 
Andalusia;  it  is  well  built,  and  luu  seven  churches, 


656 


CARNAC 


nine  convents,  and  two  hosriitalis  some  Roman 
antiquities,  and  a  beautiful  Moorinh  gate.  It  has 
some  manufactures  of  coarse  woollen  and  hempen 
cloth,  hats,  glue,  soap,  delflt,  shoe  leather,  and  wax 
candles ;  but  most  of  them  are  in  a  decaying  state. 
Its  environs  are  verj'  fertile,  particularly  in  vines 
and  olives.  It  was  a  place  of  importance  under 
the  Romans,  and  Ciesar  conferred  on  it  the  privi- 
leges of  a  Koman  city.  Under  the  Moors  it  was 
celebrated  for  its  castles,  pakices,  and  fountains, 
of  which  hardly  anv  remains  now  exist. 

CAKNAC,  a  vilfage  of  {"^ance,  d<^.  Morbihan, 
on  a  height  at  a  little  distance  from  the  sea,  20  m. 
SE.  L'Orient.  It  is  remarkable  for  very  extensive 
remains  of  what  is  believed  to  have  been  a  dniid- 
ical  monument.  These  consist  of  eleven  ranges 
of  granite  stones,  standing  in  lines  nearly  perpen- 
dicular to  tlie  coast.  These  stones  are  of  great 
thickness,  and  from  9  to  10,  perhaps  20,  u,  in 
height.  The  French  writers  say  that  they  are 
generally  about  20  ft.,  and  that  the  highest  are 
22  ^French)  ft  above  ground.  Rut  Mrs.  Stothard 
distmctly  affirms  that  this  is  an  exaggeration; 
that  thehighest  <Io  not  rise  more  than  15  ft.  above 
ground,  and  that  the  medium  height  is  from  9  to 
12  ft  (Letters  from  Normandy,  p.  256.)  Their 
number  is  said  to  exceed  4,000 :  the  smallest  end 
is  fixed  in  the  ground,  and  in  some  instances  Hat 
stones,  supported  by  two  of  those  that  are  upright, 
form  vast  gateways.  The  object,  and  the  epoch 
of  the  construction  of  this  extraordinary  monu- 
ment, arc  alike  unknown.  It  has  exercised  the 
ingenuity  of  the  antiquaries  of  Rretagne;  but 
their  researches  have  not  been  more  successful 
than  tliose  of  our  oMrn  antiquaries  on  tlie  subject 
of  Stonehenge. 

CAKXATIC,  a  very  extensive  marit  prov.  of 
S.  Hindostan,  comprising  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  territory  under  the  Madras  presidency.  It 
extends  along'  the  Coromandel  coast^  from  Cape 
Comorin  to  the  river  (wondegam,  or  between  lat 
«o  and  lip  N..  and  long.  77°  15'  and  80°  30'  E., 
having  N.  the  Northern  Circais,  W.  the  Ualaghaut 
ce<led  districts,  the  provs.  Salem  and  Coimbatoor, 
and  the  Cochin  and  Travancore  dominions,  and 
8.  and  £.  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Gulf  of  Manar, 
and  tlie  liay  of  BengaL  Length  NE.  to  SW. 
500  m.,  average  breadth  about  90  m.  Total  area 
62,023  8<|.  m. ;  estimatetl  pop.  7,000,000.  The  E. 
<ihauts  mtersect  this  prov.  in  a  NE.  or  N.  direc- 
tion, throughout  its  whole  extent  N.  of  lat  1 1°  20', 
dividing  it  into  the  Upper  and  I^werCamatic,  or 
the  countries  above  and  below  the  Ghauts,  differing 
of  cour:»e  greatly  in  elevation  and  pn>portioually 
in  climate.  The  ])rincipal  rivers,  the  Pennar,  Pa^ 
laur,  Cav-erj*,  and  Vagali  or  Vaygaroo,  all  rise  in 
the  table-laud  above  the  Ghauts,  and  fall  into  the 
ocean  on  the  (.■oromandel  or  K,  coast  of  India. 
The  climate  of  the  Lower  Camatic  is  one  of  the 
liottcKt  in  the  peninsula,  though  in  the  immediate 
neighbourho<Ml  of  the  coast  it  is  sometimes  miti- 
gated by  sea  breezes;  that  of  the  Upi>er  Caniatic 
IS  similar  to  that  of  Mvsore.  The  primitive  rocks 
of  this  rt^on  are  chietly  sienite^  with  a  small 
proportion  of  felspar,  and  all  tlie  soil  of  the 
province  appears  to  consist  of  the  d/^briB  of  tlis- 
lutegrated  sienite  mountains.  Near  the  sea,  sand 
and  loam  prevail  ufion  the  surface,  sparingly 
intermixed  with  the  remains  of  marine  animals. 
Elsewhere,  according  to  cin^umstance^  loam  is 
more  or  less  prevalent,  niixe<l  with  various  pwpor- 
tions  of  gravel  and  sand,  stnmgly  impregnated 
with  iron,  and  containhig  frequently  large  quan- 
tities of  soila  and  common  salt,  which  elflorescc 
ui>ou  the  surface  in  dr>'  weather.  Near  Madras 
the  soil  is  heavv,  and  abounds  with  salt :  thence 
to  Vcllore,  and,  In  many  other  parts,  it  is  so  sterile 


CAROLINA  (LA) 

as  to  nourish  only  the  common  bread  tree  {Mdia 
azadirachta)j  the  Robinia  mitia,  &c  Kice  is  the 
principal  crop  in  the  low  country;  in  the  highlands 
all  kinds  of  small  grains  are  ciiltivated.  Sugar  is 
grown  only  in  small  quantities,  the  soil  not  lieing 
rich  enough  for  the  canes.  Tobacco  and  a  little 
indigo  are  cultivated ;  but  the  latter  not  for  ex- 
portation. The  cotton  nlfied  is  chietly  of  the 
dwarf  kind  {Goasmnum  herbaceum).  Irrigation 
being  here  generally  of  extreme  importance  ti>  the 
success  of  the  crops,  numerous  and  extensive  tanks 
have  been  constructed  in  such  districts  as  are  not 
traversed  by  considerable  rivers.  Famines  and 
scarcities  are  not  unfrequent  in  this  part  of  India. 
The  farms  are  mostly  tilled  by  SudraH.  During 
the  first  few  years  after  our  acquisition  of  the  Car- 
natic,  the  land  revenue  of  extensive  tracts  was 
rented  out  to  a  set  of  middle-men  or  temporary' 
zemindars,  who  under-let  certain  parts  to  the 
heads  of  villages.  Tliat  this  system  was  not  v^-ith- 
out  its  defects,  is  certain ;  and  partly  with  the  view 
of  obviating  tlicse,  and  partly  in  order  to  secure  a 
greater  amount  of  revenue,  the  ryutwar  sv>tem 
has  been  generally  intriHluccd.  The  principle  of 
this  system  is  to  supersede  all  middlcKmen  and 
head  farmers,  and  to  bring  the  collectors  into  im- 
mediate contact  with  the  lyoU,  or  cultivators,  who 
are  directly  assessed  with  such  a  rent  as  it  is  sup- 
posed the  land  will  bear;  the  more  pros{)en>us 
persons  in  a  village  being  at  the  same  time  ct>m- 
pelled  to  make  up  for  the  deficiencies  of  their  les4 
fortimate  neighbours,  and  the  asse^^sment  is  p^- 
petnally  varying.  Notwithstanding  our  rpspcit 
for  the  able  men  by  whom  this  system  has  Ixt-n 
recommended,  it  is  not  going  too  far  to  say,  that 
it  Ls  a  curse  upon  the  country*,  and  that  till  it  be 
abolished,  or  very  materially  modified,  nothing 
but  impoverishment  need  lie  looked  for.  Most  d 
the  pop.  are  Hindoos  of  the  Hrahminical  sect; 
there  arc  compaiatively  few  Mohammedans,  and 
Hindoo  customs  are  retained  in  wonderful  purity 
throughout  the  prov.  Madras,  Pondicherrj',  Tran- 
quebar,  Tanjore,  Arcot.  Dindigul,  Ac,  are  the 
chief  cities  and  towns.  Formerly  there  were  a  vast 
number  of  strong  hill  forts ;  but  most  of  them  are 
now  crumbling  into  ruin.  Few  provs.  exhibit  so 
many  large  temples  and  other  public  monuments 
of  former  civilisation  and  wealth :  the  temples  are 
all  built  on  a  uniform  plan,  and  incloeed  within  a 
four-sided  wall,  15  or  20  ft.  high. 

Tlie  Moguls  first  invaded  the  Camatic  in  1310, 
but  it  was  not  finally  in  their  possession  till  the 
reign  of  Aurungzebe.  In  1717  it  was  severed, 
yrith  the  Mogul  territories  in  the  Ileccan,  from  the 
throne  of  Dellii.  Afler  the  wars,  which  lasted 
with  little  intermission  throughout  a  great  port  of 
the  18thcenturv',  the  Camatic  was  conquered  by  the 
British  in  1783  ;'but  it  was  not  finally  celled  till  it<<Jl. 

CAKNIOLA.  (See  Carinthia  and  CAiiNioui.) 

CAKNWAIH,  a  village  of  Scotland,  F^  part 
of  Lanarkshire,  25  m.  SW.  Edinburgh,  on  the 
Edinburgh  line  of  tlie  Caledonian  railway.  Pop. 
805  in  1861.  The  place  has  of  late  been  greatly 
improved;  the  numerous  new  houses  that  ha\'e 
been  erected  are  handsome,  and  built  aocorxliug  to 
a  definite  plan ;  and  manufacturing  industr\'  tias 
been  introduced.  The  great  body  of  the  Inha- 
bitants are  employed  in  weaving,  and  dependent 
on  Glasgow  for  emploj-ment. 

CAROLINA  (LA)J  a  town  of  Spain,  prov. 
Jean,  35  m.  NNE.  Jaen ;  near  the  railway  fn^m 
Madrid  to  Cadiz.  This  is  the  cap.  of  the  foreign 
colonies  settled  in  the  Sierra  Morena  in  the  reijrn 
of  Charles  III.  The  district  where  they  are  estab- 
lished was  previouslv  a  desert  and  alMindoned  to 
banditti;  but  Don  l^ablo  de  Olavido,  who  then 
held  a  high  office  in  the  government  of  SeviUe, 


CAROLINA  (NORTH) 


crmcoived  the  design  of  colonising  the  Sierra  with 
foreigners,  who  should  support  themselves  by  their 
own  labour.  Most  of  the  settlers  were  Germans, 
and  each  received  500,000  sq.  ft.  of  land,  free  from 
rent  for  ten  years,  and  after  that  to  be  subject  to 
tithes  only.  With  each  allotment  the  govern- 
ment gave,  also,  10  cows,  1  ass,  2  pigs,  2  fowls, 
and  seed  for  the  land,  with  a  house,  and  a  bake- 
house. The  settler  was  restrained  from  disposing 
of  the  land  to  any  one  in  possession  of  another 
lot ;  but  was  to  be  entitled  to  another  equal  grant 
on  bringing  the  fiist  into  cultivation.  But  not- 
withstanding these  and  other  advantages,  the 
scheme  has  not  been  very  successfuL  The  funds 
assigned  to  carry  it  into  oi)eration  were  not  regu- 
larly supplied,  and  the  government  was  in  too 
much  haste  to  draw  a  revenue  from  the  new  pop. 
to  reimburse  itself  for  the  first  advances.  StUl 
the  {jcople  present  a  striking  contrast  to  the  vil- 
lagers in  most  other  parts  of  Spain,  being  compa- 
ratively industrious  and  active.  Com,  pasture, 
potatoefs  and  cabbages  are  raised  in  the  spots 
t)est  suited  to  them.  The  cottages  are  of  better 
construction  than  the  cabins  of  the  Spanish  pea- 
santry, and  have  most  necessary  article  of  house- 
hold furniture ;  and  their  inhab.,  instead  of  sitting 
wrapped  up  in  cloaks  in  a  state  of  stupid  apathy, 
are  all  busy  with  something  or  other.  They  have 
assimilated  themselves  in  language  and  religion 
with  their  neighbours.  There  arc  fifty-eight  of 
these  townships  in  Spain. 

CAROLINA  (NORTH),  a  marit,  state  of  the 
N.  American  Union,  between  3:)°  50'  and  36°  36' 
N.  lat,,  and  75°  80'  and  H49  20'  W.  long. ;  having 
N.  Virginia,  W.  Tennessee,  SW.  and  S.  Georgia 
and  S.  Carolina,  and  S£.  and  £.  the  Atlantic 
Length.  £.  toW.,  430  m.,  average  breadth  118  m. 
Area  51,000  sq.  m.  Pop.  992,622  in  1860,  of 
whom  331,059  slaves,  1,158  Indians,  and  30,463 
free-coloured  people.  'The  greater  part  of  the 
coast  is  fenced  by  a  line  of  long,  low,  narrow, 
sandy  isls.,  separated  from  the  mainland  in  some 
places  by  narrow  sounds,  in  others  by  broad  gulfs 
or  lagoons.  The  passages  between  them  are  mostly 
shallow  and  dangerous,  and  Ocracoke  Inlet  is  the 
only  one  N.  of  Cape  Fear,  through  which  even 
small  vessels  can  pass.  The  shores  of  the  isl.  are 
generally  regular  and  unbroken,  while  that  of  the 
mainland  is  dt^ply  indented  by  numerous  in- 
lets, the  principal  of  which  are  Albemarle  and 
I'amlico  sounds.  The  only  harbour  of  any  im- 
portance is  formed  by  the  estuary  of  Cape  Fear 
river,  near  the  S.  extremity  of  the  state,  and  has 
18ft,  water. 

The  surface  may  be  classed  under  three  di\nsions 
—the  low  level,  hilly,  and  mountainous  country'. 
The  low  country  comprises  nearly  all  the  E.  half  of 
the  state,  and  for  60  or  80  m.  inland  consbts  of  a 
dead  tlat,  intersected  with  swamps  and  marshes,  the 
most  extensive  of  which,  Alligator  Swamp,  more 
than  50  m.  long,  by  30  broad,  occupies  the  penin- 
sula formed  by  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  sounds. 
The  swamps  are  mostly  covered  with  a  luxuriant 
vegetation,  and  have  extensive  forests,  chiefly  of 
pine,  cedar,  and  cypress  trees.  Beyond  this  region, 
tlic  surface  swells  into  hills,  and  in  the  most  \V. 
]>art  rises  into  mountains.  These  belong  to  the 
Apalachian  chain,  which  here  rises  to  an  elevation 
of  3,000  ft.  They  form  two  principal  ranges,  the 
most  W.  called  the  Iron  Mountains,  and  the  more 
£.  the  Blue  Uidge ;  the  intermediate  valleys  are 
estimated  at  about  1,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the 
Atlantic. 

Most  of  the  rivers  in  this  state  have  more  or 
less  a  SE.  course,  and  flow  directly  into  the  At- 
lantic. The  principal  are  the  Roanoke,  Neuse^ 
and  Cape  Fear  riven.    The  latter  is  the  only  one 

VOL.L 


657 

whoUy  within  the  state ;  it  is  navigable  for  small 
vesseb  to  Favetteville,  130  m.  from  its  mouth. 
The  Neuse,  which  opens  by  a  wide  estuary  into 
Pamlico  Sound,  traverses  the  centre  of  the  state, 
and  is  navigable  for  boats  in  most  parts  of  its 
course.  The  Roanoke  enters  the  state  from  the  N., 
and  flows  into  Albemarle  Sound,  after  a  course  of 
about  370  m.  It  can  be  ascende<l  by  vessels  of 
considerable  tonnac^e  for  about  30  m.  from  its 
mouth,  and  by  small  craft  to  70  m.  higher.  ^ 

The  climate  varies  according  to  elevation ;  a 
difference  of  more  than  5^  Fuir.  exists  in  the 
annual  mean  temp,  of  the  E.  and  W.  extremities 
of  the  state.  In  the  low  country,  the  summer  is 
sultry,  and  pestilential  diseases  prevail ;  elsewhero 
it  is  very  healthy,  and  the  winters  often  severe. 

Soil  in  the  plains  for  the  most  part  sandy  and 
sterile.  In  the  hillv  country  also  there  are  som^ 
pine  burrens ;  but  these  are  less  extensive  than  in 
Virginia,  die  Along  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  and 
W.  of  the  mountains,  there  are  lands  of  a  rich 
black  mould  and  of  great  fertility.  The  forests  of 
the  interior  contain  oak,  hickory,  maple,  ash, 
cypress,  cedar,  and  black  walnut.  Apples,  pears, 
strawberries,  the  fip  tree,  vine  {VitU  vinifera), 
wild  vine,  4rc,  attam  perfection ;  the  cherry-trees 
grow  to  an  immense  size,  and  peaches  thrive 
every  where.  Snake-root,  sarsaparilla,  and  other 
valuable  dnigs  are  foundl  Cotton  and  rice  are 
staples.  Lar|^  quantities  of  the  former  are  grown 
on  the  sandy  isls.,  and  in  the  low  country ;  rice  is 
cultivated  principally  on  the  more  solid  tracts, 
interspersed  amongst  the  swampe.  All  kinds  of 
European  grain,  pulse,  and  flax  are  produced  in 
the  interior;  and  a  great  deal  of  pitch,  tar,  tur- 
pentine, and  lumber  are  obtained  from  the  pine 
forests.  Maize  thrives  well;  but  the  wheat  is 
generally  of  inferior  quality.  The  leaves  of  the 
canes,  with  which  many  of  the  lower  lands  are 
overgrown,  aflbrd  good  fodder  for  the  cattle  during 
the  winter.  Hogs  are  the  most  numerous  of  the 
domestic  animab.  The  wolf  and  wild  cat  are 
almost  the  onlv  formidable  wild  quadrupeds.  Wild 
turkeys  are  plentiful.  The  Roanoke  and  other 
rivers  abound  with  large  fish.  Alligatocs  of  an 
enormous  size  infest  the  swamps  and  lower  courses 
of  the  rivers;  and  snakes,  including  the  rattle- 
snake, arc  numerous. 

Ill  consequence  of  its  want  of  harbours,  N.  Caro- 
lina has  little  direct  foreign  trade,  and  nearly  all 
its  commerce  is  with  the  neighbouring  states.  Its 
principal  exports  are  cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  lumber, 
m  vast  quantities,  tar,  pitch,  turpentine,  wheat, 
and  Indian  com.  There  are  several  canals,  but 
none  of  any  great  extent.  Only  two  nulroads 
lie  wholly  within  this  state;  the  Raleigh  and 
Gaston,  and  the  Wilmington  and  Italeigh.  Both 
were  completed  in  1838;  their  united  length  is 
nearly  260  m.,  and  the  cost  of  their  construction 
was  estimated  at  about  2,500,000  doL  Others 
intersect  the  N.  portion  of  the  state,  and  several 
lines  of  railway  have  either  been  commenced, 
or  pn)jccted,  but  their  construction  was  prevented 
by  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  the  United 
States,  in  which  North  Carolina  took  a  leading 
part.  The  state  is  divided  into  sixty-two  counties. 
Raleigh  is  the  cap. :  the  other  chief  towns  being 
Favetteville,  Wilmington,  and  Newbum.  The 
Iqpslative  power  is  vested  in  a  senate  and  a  house 
of  representatives.  Both  are  elected  annually  by 
the  people,  each  co.  sending  1  mem.  to  the  senate, 
and  2  to  the  H.  of  R.  Electors  of  senators  must 
possess  fifty  acres  of  freehold  property;  but  the 
right  to  elect  mems.  of  the  H.  or  R.  belongs  to 
all  citizens  above  the  age  of  twenty-one.  The 
executive  power  is  in  the  hands  of  a  governor, 
assisted  by  a  council  of  7  mems.,  chosen  by  a 

UU 


Go8 


CAROLINA  (SOUTH) 


joint  vote  of  the  two  hooBes.    The  state  sends  13 
representatives  to  Congress. 

N.  Can>lina  is  dividml  into  six  circuits,  in  each 
of  which  a  circuit  court  is  held  half  yearly.  The 
judges  are  appointed  by  a  joint  vote  of  the  two 
huuiies,  and  hold  office  during  pleasure.  Education 
is  rather  backward^  but  advancing.  There  is  a 
university,  and  academies  are  established  at  various 

{places.  The  earliest  attempts  made  by  the  Eng- 
ish  to  colonise  America  took  place  in  this  state ; 
but  the  first  colony,  planted  on  the  Koanoke  river, 
in  1 587,  is  supposed  to  have  been  cut  off  by  the 
natives.  In  1650  fresh  settlements  b^an  to  be 
made,  and  in  1667,  the  colony  obtained  a  repre- 
sentative government.  In  1717  Carolina  was 
brought  under  the  direct  control  of  the  crown,  and 
in  1 720  divided  into  N.  and  S.  This  state  zealously 
joined  in  the  revolutionarv  struggle.  North  Caro- 
lina sepamted  from  the  Cnited  States  by  an  Act 
of  Secession  passed  May  20, 1861.  The  seaboard 
counties  were  reconquered  in  1862,  and  the  state 
again  joined  the  Union  in  1865,  when  slavery  was 
finally  abolished. 

CAROLINA  (SOUTH),  one  of  the  U.  States 
of  America,  in  the  S.  part  of  the  Union ;  chiefly 
between  Lit.  320  and35o  jj.,  and  long.  78^  40'  and 
830  \v.,  having  N.  andNE.  N.Carolina;  E.  and 
SE.  the  Atlantic ;  and  SW.  Georgia ;  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  Savannah.  Shape  some- 
what triangular.  Length,  N W.  to  SE.,  240  m. ; 
average  breadth,  130  m.  Area  about  81,000 
sq.  m.  Pop.  703,708  in  1860,  of  whom  402,406 
slaves,  88  Indians,  and  9,914  coloured  free  people. 
Surface  very  different  in  different  parts;  but  its 
changes  are,  for  the  most  part,  gradual  The 
whole  coast  S.  of  Winyaw  Point  is  broken  into  a 
number  of  low  islands,  and  is  flat,  sandy,  and 
alluvial  It  continues  so  for  nearl}r  100  m.  in- 
land, where  a  range  of  small  and  sterile  sand  hills 
stretches  across  the  state  NE.  to  SW.  This  tract 
is  succeeded  by  a  picturesque  country  of  hills  and 
valleys,  clothed  with  extensive  forests;  and 
farther  W.  the  country  continues  to  rise  till,  at 
the  border  of  the  state,  it  terminates  in  a  table- 
land, sonie  peaks  of  which  are  estimated  to  rise  to 
more  than  4,300  f^,  above  the  level  of  the  Atlantic 
This  region  forms  put  of  the  Apalachian,  or 
Alleghany  chain.  The  coast  has  several  excel- 
lent hfurfoours  of  the  second  class;  but  few  of  the 
first  order.  Those  of  Charleston  and  Port  Royal 
are  the  best,  and  the  only  ones  accessible  for  large 
ships.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Savannah,  Santee, 
and  Pedee ;  but  all  of  them  are  shallow  at  their 
mouths:  further  inland,  the  river  navigation  is 
much  better  than  on  the  coast.  The  Savannah  may 
be  ascended  by  small  river  craft  and  steam-boats, 
as  far  as  Augusta,  130  m.  from  its  mouth.  Much 
of  the  soil  consists  of  a  swampy  land,  applied  to 
the  culture  of  cotton  and  rice ;  more  of  the  latter 
being  produced  in  S.  Carolina  than  in  any  of  the 
other  states.  The  low  sandy  islands  along  the 
coast,  though  apparently  of  very  little  value, 
furnish  what  is  called  the  *  Sea-island'  cotton, 
being  the  very  best  description  of  cotton  that  is 
any  where  produced.  It  is  longer  in  the  staple 
than  any  other  variety,  and  is  strong  and  even, 
of  a  silky  texture,  and  a  yellowish  tinge.  It  de- 
generates if  it  be  attempted  to  be  raised  at  any 
considerable  distance  from  the  shore.  It  brings 
a  much  higher  price  than  any  other  sort  of  cotton ; 
but  as  it  can  be  raised  only  in  certain  localities, 
its  quantity  is  limited,  and,  apparently,  unsus- 
ceptible of  increase.  Short-stapled  cotton  is 
raised  in  the  more  inland  parts  of  the  country ; 
and  wheat,  maize,  and  other  grain,  as  well  as 
tobacco  and  indigo,  are  grown  upon  the  high 
lands.    There  are  many  pine  bazrens,  and  some 


unproductive  Kandy  wastes ;  but  the  soil  Lh  geno- 
raUy  extrcmelv  fertile,  especially  in  those  tract  i« 
lying  along  tlie  courses  of  the  rivers.  In  tlie 
lower  parts  of  the  country  the  winters  are  very 
mild,  and  snow  does  not  lie  lon^  on  the  gnnind. 
Hurricanes  and  heavy  periodical  rains  occur 
there:  the  summer  is  extremely  hot,  and  pc»- 
tilential  fevers  and  other  diseases  are  then 
generated.  The  N.  and  W.  part  of  the  states 
are,  on  the  ccnatrary,  reckoned  very  healthy ;  fro:«t 
and  snow  occur  annually,  from  Nov.  to  Jan.  The 
changes  of  temperature  are,  however,  every  where 
very  sudden ;  and  at  Charleston  the  thermometer 
has  been  known  to  varr  46^  in  a  day!  The 
forests  yield  large  quantities  of  oak,  beech,  hickory, 
ash,  cypress,  and  other  fine  timber.  Cotton,  rice, 
and  maize  are  the  only  considerable  articles  of 
export.  The  swamps  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers 
are  well  adapted  for  hemp,  com,  and  indigo.  The 
culture  of  wheat,  barlev,  oats,  and  Indian  corn 
was,  until  lately,  much  n^lected;  and  large 
quantities  were  annually  imported.  Tobacoi)  is 
now  more  generally  cultivated  than  indigo,  which 
was  formerly  next  in  importance  to  cotton  and 
rice;  the  sugar-cane  is  chiefly  confined  to  the 
district  of  £^ufort  in  the  S.'  Field  labour  is 
performed  entirely  by  the  black  population,  whci. 
previously  to  1865,  were  slaves,  and  who  then 
comprised  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  populs- 
tion.  Planters  were  wealthy  before  the  civil  war, 
which  desolated  this  state  more  than  any  other. 
Most  of  the  farmers  are  of  frugal  and  industriuns 
habits.  WUd  animals,  such  as  bears,  wolves, 
foxes,  wild  cats,  are  much  scarcer  than  formerly. 
The  rattle-snake  has  become  rare.  Alligators  of 
large  size  infest  the  marshes  and  mouths  of  the 
rivers.  Iron,  of  good  quality  is  found ;  and  some 
gold  has  been  fomid  in  the  sands  of  some  of  the 
rivers. 

The  state  is  divided  into  30  counties.  Columbia, 
situated  near  the  centre,  is  the  cap.  and  seat  of gi>- 
vemment ;  but  Charleston  is  the  largest  town,  and 
the  principal  emporium.  The  other  chief  towns 
are  Savannah,  Augusta,  Camden,  and  Beaufort. 
The  total  value  of  real  estate  and  personal  pro- 
perty was  returned  at  548,138,754  dollars  in  l^J, 
but  as  this  included  the  value  of  the  slaves,  libe- 
rated b^  the  civil  war  and  the  events  of  18$d, 
the  estimated  wealth  of  the  state  must  hare 
greatly  decreased  since  that  time.  The  state 
government  consists  of  a  senate  and  house  of 
representatives;  the  executive  power  is  vest^nl 
in  a  governor  and  lieut.-govemor,  who  are  both 
elected  for  2  years,  and  are  again  eligible  for  c^Sxt 
after  a  lapse  of  4  yeara«  The  senate  consbts  uf 
45  members ;  half  of  whom  are  chosen  for  4,  and 
the  other  half  for  2  years.  The  house  of  repce- 
sentatives  is  composed  of  124  members,  chosen 
every  2  years.  The  legislative  assembly  meet 
annually  at  Columbia.  The  chancellors  and 
iudges  are  chosen  by  ballot  of  the  senate  and 
house  of  representatives ;  and  hold  office  so  lon^ 
as  their  omiduct  is  approved.  This  state  sends  9 
mems.  to  the  house  of  representatives,  and  2  to  the 
senate  in  congress. 

South  Cardina  was  fiist  colonised  about  1670: 
but  no  permanent  settlement  was  formed  till 
the  foundation  of  Charieston,  in  1680.  In  1693, 
the  cultivation  of  rice,  and  subseqaentlv  of  cot* 
ton,  was  introduced  by  Giovemor  Smtth.  The 
two  Carolinas  were  separated,  and  a  royal  go- 
vernment established  in  1719 ;  and  the  state  con- 
tinued prosperous  until  the  beginning  of  the  dis- 
turbances, caused  first  by  Indian  warfare,  and 
afterwards  by  the  revolution,  in  which  it  took  a 
prominent  part,  and  suffered  severely.  Its  con- 
stitution was  (bfined  in  1790 ;  hut  baa  undaqpnt 


CARORA 

fieveral  amendments  in  1801, 1816,  and,  as  regards 
Judicial  matters,  again  in  1835.  iSouth  Carolina 
was  the  first  state  which  separated  from  the 
American  Union,  and  thus  originatnl  the  great 
and  sanguinary  ci\'il  war  of  1860-65.  The  Act 
of  Secession  was  dated  Dec.  20.  1860.  Tlie  state 
was  admitted  again  into  the  Union  in  1865,  when 
slavery  was  abolished  for  ever. 

CAKORA,  an  inland  town  of  Venezuela,  prov. 
Coro,  in  a  dry  and  sterile  plain,  94  m.  SSW. 
Coro;  lat.  109  13'  N.,  long.  70O  26'  W.  Pop. 
estimated  at  6,000.  The  town  is  well  built  and 
contains  three  handsome  churches  and  a  convent : 
its  climate,  though  hot,  is  salubrious ;  it  is  sup- 
plied with  water  oy  a  smaU  rivulet.  Its  vicinity 
abounds  with  the'  Indian  fig,  aromatic  balsams, 
gums,  and  excellent  cochineal;  but  these  re- 
sources are  neglected  for  the  breeding  of  cattle, 
which  occupies  maiw  of  the  inhab.  The  town 
has  manufactures  of  leather,  and  of  hammocks 
.  from  the  fibre  of  the  agave-fatida ;  the  inhab.  are 
industrious,  and  have  a  brisk  trade  in  the  pro- 
ducts of  their  industr}'  with  Coro,  Maracaybo, 
and  Carthagena.  MoMt  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Mestizoes,  Mulattoes,  and  Indians. 

CARPATHIAN,  or  KARPATHIAN,  MOUN- 
TAINS,  a   very   conKiderable   range,    enclosing 
Hungary  on  the  N.  and  E.,  covering  the  princi- 
pality  of  Transylvania,    and  forming  the  NE. 
portion  of  the  great  mountain  svstem  of  S.  Europe. 
Including  a  lower  range,  called  Kleine  Karpathen 
(Little  Carpathians),  these  mountains  commence  on 
the  left  bank  of  tlie  Danube,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Presburg ;  Ut.  48©  H'  N.,  long.  17°  6'  E. ;  thence 
they  run  NE.  to  the  borders  of  Silesia,  where,  in 
lat  490  SO'  N.,  long.  l«o  35'  E.,  they  meet  the 
mountains  of  Mo^a^'ia,  through  which  they  are 
connected  with  the  Sudetes  and  other  Bohemian 
ranges.    After  this  they  bend  round  to  the  E. 
and  SE.,  separating  Hungary  from  Galicia  and 
the  Buckowme,  and  Transylvania  from  Molda\'ia : 
they  continue  the  last  course  as  far  as  Ut  45^ 
30'  N.,  long.  260  80'  E.,  where  the  main  ridge 
turns  due  W.,  and  forms  the  boundanr  between 
Transylvania    and    Wallachia.      FinaUy,    about 
the  long,  of  23'  E.,  it  turns  SW.,  and  again  meets 
the  Danube  at  the  town  of  New  Orsova,  lat.  44^ 
44;  N.,  long.  220  30'  E.    Between  its  extreme 
points,  therefore,  the  Carpathian  system  describes 
a  curve  of  about  8(X)  m.,  and,  except  at  its  SE. 
comer,  one  of  a  very  regular  and  gradual  kind. 
Its  width  is  various,  but  generally  considerable ; 
the  longest  line  that  can  be  drawn  acrosH  it,  in  a 
direction  perpendicular  to  its  course,  is  from  Bok- 
san,  in  the  Banat,  NE.,  through  Transylvania, 
to  Puttna  in  the  Buckowine,  about  240  m.    From 
the  great  S.  bend  of  the  Danube  at  Waitzen,  or 
from    Mount    Matra   (about  35    m.  E.  of  the 
bend)   to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Vistula,  the 
mountains  measure  140  m.  from  S.  to  N.;    but 
towards  the  NE.,  between    the  Upper   Theiss 
and  the  sources  of  the  Dniester,  in  (jalicia,  they 
are  not  more  than  70  m. ;  and  on  the  \V.,  be- 
tween the  rivers  Waag  and  Moreva,  they  are 
less  than  30  m.  across.    At  a  rough  calculation, 
they  may  be  said  to  cover  90,000  sq.  m.    With 
regard  to  elevation,  the  Carpathians  do  not  attain 
the  height  of  other  great  ranges,  as  the  Caucasus, 
or  the  Alps;  the  highest  measured  peaks  being 
under  9,000  ft.    For  a  long  time,  the  culminating 
point  of  the  range  was  held  to  be  Mount  Buts- 
chetze,  in  Transylvania ;  but  recent  measurements 
have  shown  that  another  peak,  known  as  the 
Lomnitzer  Spitze,  or  Lomnitz  Peak,  claims  pre- 
cedence.   The  highest  ascertained  eminences  are 
in  the  county  of  Zips,  the  most  N.  part  of  the 
chain,  between  the  meridiaos  of  19^  and  21^ ; 


CARPATHIAN  MOUNTAINS      659 

and,  among  these,  the  following  are  the  moat 
noted: — 

Ft 

Lomnitz  Peak 8,779 

Great  Kcsmark  ditto  ....  8,647 
Qremt  Krivan  Rldfre  ....  8,483 
Gold  Mine  on  ditto     ....        7,093 

White  Sea  Peak 7,075 

Limestone  Rocks,  above  the  FleiBch  Bank  6,5'i9 

I         FleischBank 6,807 

Kohlback 6,307 

Gmn  See  (Green  .Lake)  .  .  .  A,191 
Brook  at  foot  of  the  Fleiach  Bank     .       4,999 

The  lower  peaks,  and  subordinate  ranges,  vary 
from  2,000  or  3,000  to  a  few  hundred  feet  in  elevation. 
But  if  height  be  not,  ruggedness  is  a  very  striking 
feature  of  the  Cantathians :  the  roads  among  them 
are  generally  difficult,  sometimes  impracticable 
for  horses;  and  the  whole  effect  of  their  appear- 
ance is  one  of  great  mi^esty.  The  descent  towards 
Galicia  is  much  more  abrupt  than  that  towards 
Hungary,  and  in  the  SE.  and  S.  the  steepest  sidea 
of  the  mountains  are  towards  Moldavia  and  Wal- 
lachia. The  rivers,  which  mark  the  limits  of  the 
Carpathian  system,  are,  on  the  N.,  the  Vistula,  as 
far  as  its  junction  with  its  most  important  affluent 
the  San,  and  the  Dniester;  on  the  E.  the  Sereth; 
on  the  S.  the  Danube,  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Sereth  to  that  of  the  Morava,  which  marks  the 
extrenae  limit  of  the  mountains  towards  the  W. 
Within  these  bounds,  however,  are  contained  a 
large  quantity  of  flat  Und  in  Galicia  and  Wal- 
lachia, together  with  the  greater  part  of  the  Hun- 
garian plain ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  bed  of  the 
Danube  at  Orsova  is  nothing  but  a  cleft  between 
the  Carpathians  and  the  N.  branches  of  the 
Balkhan,  and  at  Waitzen,  in  like  manner,  it  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  break  the  continuitv  of  the 
former  with  the  offshoots  of  the  Styrian  Alps. 

Geologtf, — The  most  ancient  rocks  are  found  only 
on  the  highest  parts  of  the  Carpathians,  and  not 
always  there ;  one  of  the  highest  ridges  in  the 
Alpine  country  of  Zips  consisting  of  calcareous 
limestone.  Granite,  however,  forms  the  substratum, 
or  rather  the  main  bulk  and  nucleus  of  the  whole 
mass,  and  sometimes,  even  at  slight  devatious, 
lies  at  no  ^tetX  depth.  Hornblende  in  small  quan- 
tities, gneiss  in  much  laiger,  and  trap  ver^'  con- 
siderably distributed,  form  the  mass  of  the  other 
older  rocks;  but  the  formation  most  worthy  of 
notice  »  a  kind  of  conglomerate,  formed  of  har- 
dened clay,  quartz,  sharl^  spar,  and  lithomaiga, 
which,  from  its  richness  m  ore,  has  obtained  in 
Hungary  the  title  of  Metallic  Bocky  and  which  is 
met  with  most  abundantly  throughout  the  whole 
range,  from  Presburg  to  Orsova.  Limestone,  old 
and  recent,  occurs  in  immense  quantities,  and  in 
the  Alpine  regions,  Townson  found  stratified  rocks 
of  the  tirst  kind,  of  the  amazing  thickness  of  2,100 
ft  Basalt,  porphyr^r.  porphyritic  basalt,  jasper, 
petrosilex,  lava,  obsidian,  and  a  whole  host  of 
substances,  volcanic,  and  the  result  of  aqueous  de- 
position, are  scattered  in  the  wildest  confusion 
among  the  lower  ranges,  giving  imqnestionablo 
eviilence  of  the  extensive  agency  of  both  fire 
and  water,  but  so  little  defined,  that  the  best  ob- 
ser\'en  decline  to  offer  an  opinion  as  to  the  origin 
of  many  of  the  appearances..  It  is  worthy  of 
observation  that  the  more  recent  formations,  as 
sandstone,  Ac,  oltservable  in  other  countries,  are 
singularly  scarce  in  the  Carpathians. 

Hjfdrt^nmhy. — These  mountains  form  the  di- 
viding line  between  important  river  systems.  The 
N.  fiices  give  birth  to  the  Vistula  and  Dniester ; 
but  with  these  exceptions,  no  river  that  reaches 
the  sea  has  its  source  withui  them.  The  affluents 
of  these  two,  firom  the  N.  slope,  are,  however,  ex- 
tremely DumemiSy  though  not  oomparable  to  those 

u  u  S 


«C0       CARPATHIAN  MOUNTAINS 

that  pour  from  the  S.  and  E.  faces,  to  swell  the 
stn^am  of  the  Danube,  to  which  river,  also,  the 
drainage  of  the  N\V.  face  is  conveye*!,  with  the 
exception  of  an  insignificant  portion,  which  finds 
its  way  to  the  Oder.  The  running  water  of  the 
i'aqyathians  belongs,  then,  to  two  systems,  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  lialtic ;  and  there  are  no  lands 
better  irrigated  than  those  over  which  it  flows; 
the  Theiss,  Manw,  Ahita,  and  many  others,  would 
be  called  important  rivers  in  most  part^  of  the 
world,  and  the  sraaller  streams  and  sub-tributaries 
are  absolutely  innumerable.  (See  Da:<ube,  Vis- 
tula, Dniester,  Hungary,  4rc.) 

Mineral  Prudurfiofu.— The  sides  of  the  Car- 
pathians arc  rich  in  the  productions  of  the  vq^ 
table  kingdom,  and  abound  in  animals  of  the  most 
uiteful  kind.  The  decomposed  volcanic  matter, 
which  forms  so  large  a  portion  of  the  soil,  ac- 
counts for  the  first,  and  consequently  for  the 
second  of  these  results.  The  particulars  of  both 
will  be,  however,  better  treated  of  under  the 
heads  of  the  different  countries  through  which 
the  mouuUins  run.  (See  Hungary,  Transyl- 
vania, and  Galicia.)  It  is  intended  here  to 
restrict  the  description  to  a  brief  account  of  their 
mineral  wealth,  m  which  respect  they  stand  pre- 
eminent among  the  various  ranges  of  £un)pe. 
Nearly  every  metal,  and  all  in  abundincc,  are 
produced  in  the  Carpathians.  The  richer  mines 
of  Transylvania  and  the  Banat  yield  for  1  cwt. 
of  ore  125  oz.  of  gold,  and  6H  os.  of  silver,  and  all 
the  mountains  of  these  beauUful  countries  are 
full  of  signs  of  undiscovered  metals.  It  appears, 
however,  that  native  gold  and  silver  is  scarce,  ex- 
cept in  the  SE.  districts,  but  all  the  other  ores  are 
mixed  with  these  precious  metals  throughout  the 
whole  range.  The  stamping- works  at  Schemnitz 
employ  1,(M)0  hammers,  each  hammer  stamping 
three  quintals  of  ore  per  day ;  the  return  averaging 
r2,(KH)  florins  per  month,  clear  profit  to  the  go- 
vernment It  would  be  endless  to  go  through  a 
detail  of  all  the  wealth  of  these  mountains ;  suifice 
it  t4»  say,  that  copper,  iron,  lead,  cobalt,  antimony, 
sulphur,  and  saltpetre,  are  found  in  large  quan- 
tities ;  cinnabar  also  appears,  bnt  not  in  suflicient 
abundance  to  tempt  tne  miner;  and  in  many 
places  there  are  large  fields  of  coaL  Kock-sait 
IS  also  one  of  the  treasures  of  these  mountains. 
The  Polish  mines  of  Galicia  have  long  been 
famous,  and  from  all  appearances,  their  treasures 
are  actually  inexhaustible.  In  a  word,  the  Car- 
])athians  appear  to  be  one  extensive  mine,  where 
nearly  aU  the  varieties  of  metallic  wealth  are  pro- 
duced ;  in  addition  to  which,  their  recesses  yield 
the  opal,  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  valuable  of 
gems. 

Name. — The  Carpathians  were  known  to  the 
ancients,  and  by  their  present  name,  K«piran|f 
(Ptolemy,  iiu  5);  and  they  applied  the  same 
name  to*  that  ])art  of  the  Mediterranean  which 
lies  about  the  iriand  of  Khodes.  (Ptolemy,  v.  2 ; 
Strabo,  x.  41*8.)  Its  etymology  is  not  very  clear; 
but  Strabo,  in  speaking  of  the  sea,  calls  it  also 
Crapathian  (Kpavatfof) ;  and  though  it  be  not 
very  easy  to  connect  the  ideas  of  tliese  mountains 
with  that  of  the  remote  shore  of  Asia  Minor,  it  is 
something  remarkable  that  the  German  term  for 
the  former  is  Krapadi,  of  which  the  Greek  of 
Strabo  seems  only  a  softened  form.  The  Hun- 
garian name  for  these  mountains  is  Tatra. 

CARPENTAKIA  (Gulf  i»F),  an  extensive 
arm  of  the  sea,  deeply  indenting  the  N.  coast  of 
New  HoUand,  between  \(P  40'  and  IT®  80'  S.  lat., 
and  137^  and  142^  E.  long.  No  settlements  have, 
as  yet,  l)een  founded  on  its  coasts. 

CARPENTRAS,  a  city  of  France,  ddp.  Vau- 
duse,  cap.  anrond.,  in  an  agreeable  situationi  at 


CARRIBEE  ISLANDS 

the  foot  of  Mont  Ventoux,  and  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Auzon,  15  m.  NE.  A\ngnon,  on  a  branch  of 
the  Paris-Mediterranean  railway.  Pop.  10,918  in 
1861.  The  town  is  surroundecf  by  high  walls  in 
good  repair,  flanked  by  several  towers,  of  which 
the  most  remarkable  is  that  surmounting  the  port 
dOramge.  It  is  well  built,  but  the  streets  are 
narrow,  winding,  and  dirty.  There  are  some  gotnl 
houses  without  the  walls,  in  the  suburtis.  It  is 
well  supplied  with  fountains,  and  water  \a  con- 
veyed into  the  city  by  two  aqueducts,  one  con- 
stnicted  by  Clement  VI,  and  one  by  the  town,  in 
the  early  part  of  last  century.  The  principal 
public  buildings  arc  the  hospital,  erected  in  17'>7, 
wiUiout  the  walls ;  the  cathedral,  a  large  Gothic 
pile,  with  a  spire  of  the  age  of  Charlemagne :  the 
ancient  episcopal  palace,  now  the  palace  of  justice : 
contiguous  to  the  latter  is  an  ancient  triumnhal 
arch.  Carpentras  b  the  seat  of  a  tribunal  of 
primary  jurisdiction,  and  has  a  departmental  col- 
lege, a  Jewish  synagogue,  a  society  of  rural 
economy,  a  public  library,  with  22,000  vols.,  and 
some  valuable  manuscripts.  It  has  distiUerief, 
dye-works,  tanneries,  and  madder-mills,  with 
fabrics  of  soap  and  aauafortis;  and  has  a  oun- 
siderable  trade  in  silk,  madder,  and  excellent 
fruits. 

Carpentras  is  very  ancient,  having  been,  nnder 
the  Romans,  a  principal  town  of  Gallia  Narho- 
nensis.  It  was  successfully  attacked  and  jMllaged 
by  the  Vandals,  Lombards,  Saracens,  and  other 
barbarians.  Dwring  the  residence  of  the  popes  tt 
Avignon,  it  began  to  revive ;  and  was.  for  a  short 
period,  under  Clement  V.,  the  seat  of  the  holy  see. 
The  bishopric  of  Carpentras,  said  to  have*  been 
founded  in  the  third,  was  suppressed  in  the  present 
century. 

CARRARA,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  pmv. 
Massa-Carrara,  on  the  Lavenza,  about  3^'m.  from 
the  Mediterranean,  and  60  m.  AVNW.  Fhirence. 
Pop.  18,985,  in  1862.  The  town  has  an  unfinished 
cathedral,  several  churches,  a  convent,  and  an 
academy  of  sculpture.  Several  artists  have  fixed 
their  residence  here,  attracted  by  the  convenience 
of  obtaining  marble  almost  cost  free ;  and  the  sale 
of  rude  marble  and  of  articles  of  sculpture  fi^msan 
important  branch  of  trafiSc 

'The  marble  quarries  from  which  this  town  de- 
rives its  entire  celebrity  and  importance  have  beni 
wrought  from  the  age  of  Augustus,  and  (ir(4>ably 
from  a  still  more  remote  e^>och.  'They  are  found 
in  the  lower  ridges  of  the  hills  which  unite  in  the 
Monte  Sagro.    The  beds  of   the    dove-cokMUvd 

ibardigho)  marble  are  the  nearest  to  the  town, 
ligher  up  the  valley  arc  the  beds  of  white  marble. 
Only  a  few  of  these  beds  produce  marble  of  such 
a  grain  and  transparency  as  to  be  highly  prized 
bv  the  statuary ;  and  if  the  quarrymen  succeed  in 
obtaining  one  block  in  ten  that  pre0er\*es  through- 
out a  good  colour,  they  are  satisfied.  Still  higher 
up,  the  marble  becomes  of  a  dull,  dead,  colour ; 
but  of  this  much  larger  blocks  may  be  obtained. 
The  principal  quarries  of  veined  marble  are  in  a 
{Mirallel  valley.  Notwithstanding  the  vast  quan- 
tities that  have  been  dug  up  since  these  quarries 
Ix^an  to  be  wrought,  the  supply  of  marble  in  tlib 
district  seems  to  be  now  as  mexhaustible  as  e\-er. 
About  1,200  men  are  always  employed  in  the 
quarries. 

CARRIBEAN  SEA  is  the  name  given  to  that 
arm  of  the  AUantac  Ocean  included  between  the 
Carribee  Islands  on  the  £.,  Hayti  and  Jamaica  un 
the  N.,  Guatemala  on  the  W.,  and  the  N.  coast  d 
S.  America  on  the  S. 

CARRIBEE  ISLANDS,  or  LESSER  AN- 
TILLES, the  name  sometimes  given  to  that  por- 
tion of  the  W.  Indies  that  inclvdes  the  vast  chaia 


CARRICKFERGUS 

of  islands  which  extends,  in  a  circular  8wce]>,  from 
Anfpiila  on  the  N.  to  Trini<lad  on  the  S.  They 
coropiise  the  whole  of  the  Windward  and  the  more 
S.  portion  of  the  Leeward  islands.  The  principal 
inlands,  reckoning  froni  the  N.,  are  St.  Christo- 
phers, Antigua,  Guadaloupe,  Dominica,  Marti- 
niaue,  St  Lucia,  Bartnidoes,  St.  Vincent,  Grenada, 
TotMigo,  and  Trinidad.  They  derived  their  name 
from  having  heen  mostly  occupied,  at  the  period 
of  their  diiKovery,  by  a  tribe  of  Indians,  called 
Carribs  or  Carriheen,  now  nearly  extinct. 

CAKKICKF£KGUS,  a  parL  bor.  and  sea-port 
of  Ireland,  co.  Antrim,  prov.  Ulster,  on  Camck- 
fergus  Bay,  or  Belfast  Lough,  95  m.  N.  Dublin, 
!)  m.  XN£.  Belfast,  on  the  railwav  from  Belfast  to 
BaUymena.  Pop.  8,023  in  1821*;  9,379  in  1841 ; 
and  9,422  in  1861.  The  castle,  on  a  rock  pro- 
jecting into  the  sea,  was  built  or  much  strengUiened 
by  the  English  shortly  after  their  first  landing  in 
Ireland  under  Stirougbow.  It  b  still  kept  up  as  an 
arsenal,  and  is  mounted  with  heavy  guns.  King 
AVilliam  landed  here  on  the  14th  of  June,  1690, 
16  days  pre\nously  to  the  battle  of  the  Bovne. 
In  1760,  It  surrendered  to  a  French  naval  K)i\» 
under  lliurot,  who  soon  after  evacuated  it  on 
the  appearance  of  the  English  squadron  under 
(.'ommodore  Eliot,  by  which  Thurot's  souadron 
was  captured,  after  an  engagement  in  which  he 
l<»st  his  life.  On  the  24th  of  April,  1778,  Paul 
Jones  captured  the  Drake  sloop  of  war  in  the 
1»ay ;  but  sailed  off  without  maidng  any  hostile 
attempt  on  the  town. 

('arriokfeigus  consists  of  the  town  within  the 
walls,  i>arts  of  which  still  remain ;  and  of  suburbs 
on  the  E.  and  W.  sides,  called  the  Scotch  and 
Irish  quarters.  It  is  pretty  well  built,  and  has  a 
rospetrtable,  thoujgh  antiquated  appearance ;  it  is 
nor  lighted,  and  is  but  indifferently  supplied  with 
water.  The  church,  a  large  cru<^orm  building, 
with  a  fine  modem  spire,  has,  in  one  of  the  tran- 
septs, a  large  mural  monument  of  the  Donegal 
family ;  there  is  also  a  Koman  ('«tholic  chapel,  and 

S laces  of  worship  for  Presbyterians,  Independents, 
tethodists,  Covenanters,  and  Unitarians,  The 
castle,  kei)t  up  as  a  fortress  and  magazine,  has  a 
number  of  heavy  guns  mounted  on  the  walls,  and  is 
gnrriiioned  bv  a  company  (»f  foot.  The  town  and  the 
adjoinuig  district,  containing  16,700  acres,  forms 
a  (*(>.  independent  of  that  of  Antrim,  within  which 
it  is  enclosed  on  every  side,  except  towards  the  sea. 
By  its  ruling  charter,  granted  by  James  I.  in  1612, 
the  cfirporation  consisted  of  a  mayor,  sheriffs,  16 
nUlermen,  22  buigesses,  and  an  indefinite  number 
of  freemen ;  but  this  IxMly  is  now  extinct,  and  the 
government  of  the  town  and  the  corn,  projwrty  is 
vested  in  a  board  of  commissioners.  The  borough 
returned  2  mem.  to  the  Irish  H.  of  (\,  and  sends  1 
mom.  to  the  imperial  H.  of  ( \  Registered  electors, 
1,243  in  18<i5.  Tlie  assizes  for  co.  Antrim  are  helil 
h(>rc  in  the  court-house  in  the  county  prison,  a 
laige  and  expensive,  but  ill-arranged  building. 
There  is  a  small  local  |M)lice.  The  rural  district 
is  watered  by  numerous  streams,  and  in  it  is  Lough 
Moume,  covering  90  acres,  at  an  elevation  of  h,'>6 
ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Tanning  is  carrieil 
an  to  a  (*onNiderable  extent.  There  are  in  the  town 
also  several  cotton  an<l  flax-mills.  The  inhab.  de- 
rive their  principal  support  from  the  concourse  of 
strangers  at  the  assizes,  and  during  the  bathing 
season ;  and  from  the  fisheries.  Excepting  haii- 
dock,  all  kinds  of  fish  that  fn^quent  the  Irish  coast 
an^  abundant ;  as  are  ovsters  celebrated  for  si/.e  and 
flavour,  scolloi)s,  and  lolwters.  A  pier  has  been 
built  for  the  use  of  the  fishermen ;  but  it  is  defective 
in  not  l>eing  acceanihlc  at  low  water.  The  greater 
part  of  the  fish  is  sent  by  land  to  Belfast  for  sale. 
ilarketsare  held  on  Satiirdavs:  fairs  on  12th  May 


CARRICK-ON^UIR 


661 


and  1st  November.  The  port  was  loi^  the  chief 
mart  on  this  part  of  the  coast ;  but  in  1637,  the 
corporation  having  sold  its  exclusive  privileges  to 
the  crown,  the  business  has  since  been  almost 
wholly  transferred  to  Belfast ;  its  trade  being,  at 
present,  confined  to  the  import  of  coal,  and  the 
export  of  cattle  and  grain.  There  were,  in  1863, 
365  registered  vessels  belonging  to  the  port,  most 
of  them  under  50  tons  burthen.  The  largest  vessels 
may  enter  the  bay  at  k>w  water,  but  are  prevented 
from  discharging  at  the  town,  through  the  want  of 
a  landing-pier  with  sufficient  depth  of  water.  The 
appearance  and  Rianners  of  tne  inhab.  exhibit 
striking  indications  of  their  Scotch  descent.  The 
lower  dasses  are  industrious,  frugal,  and  honest. 
Though  wealthy  residents  are  not  numerous,  many 
are  in  a  state  of  respectable  independence ;  most 
industrious  persons  attain  the  means  of  comfortable 
subsistence,  and  very  few  are  in  a  state  of  desti- 
tution. 

CARRICKMACROSS,  an  inL  town  of  IreUnd, 
CO.  Monagban,  pn»v,  Ulster,  46  m.  NW.  by  N. 
Dublin.  Pop.  2,979  in  1831,  and  2,063  in  1861. 
The  town  consists  of  one  long  street,  in  which  is 
the  church,  a  R.  Cath.  chapel,  which  8ei;>'es  as  the 
cathedral  for  the  R.  Cath.  bishop  of  Clogher,  and 
a  Presbyterian  meeting-house.  A  grammar-school, 
endowed  bv  Lord  Weymouth,  was  rebuilt  in  1838. 
There  is  abo  a  dispensary,  a  mendicity  society,  a 
savings*  bank,  and  a  InidewelL  Petty  sessions  are 
held  every  fortnight :  a  party  of  the  constabulary 
is  stationed  here.  Markets*  are  held  on  Thurs- 
days, and  on  com  on  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays : 
fain  on  27  May,  10  July,  27  Sept^  9  Nov.,  and 

10  Dec 
CARRICK-ON-SHANNOX,  an  inl  town  of 

Ireland,  prov.  Connaught,  cos.  Leitrim  and  Ros- 
common, on  the  Shannon,  85  m.  WNW.  Dublin, 
on  the  Midland  Great  Western  railway.  Pop. 
1,673  in  1821,  and  1,587  in  1861.  llie  town  lies 
principally  on  the  Leitrim  bank  of  the  river,  being 
connected  with  a  small  suburb  on  the  Roscommon 
side  bv  a  bridge ;  and  has  a  church,  a  R.  Cath. 
chapel,  2  Methodist  meeting-houses,  and  a  co.  in- 
firmary and  dispensary.  It  was  incorporated  by 
James  I.  in  1618,  under  a  provost,  12  buigesses, 
and  an  unlimited  number  of  freemen,  and  re- 
turned 2  mem.  to  the  Irish  11.  of  C ;  but  was  dis- 
franchised at  the  Union.  The  assixes  for  the  oo. 
Leitrim,  of  which  it  is  the  co.  town,  are  held  here, 
as  are  general  sessions,  in  Jan.  and  July,  and  petty 
sessions  on  alternate  Mondays.  The  co.  court- 
house, gaol,  and  Imdewell  are  in  the  town.  A 
party  of  the  constabulary  is  stationed  here;  and  it 
has  an  infantry*  barrack.  A  trade  in  butter,  grain, 
and  provisions  is  carried  on  by  the  Shannon,  now 
rendered  navigable  to  Lough  Allen,  as  well  as  by 
railway.  Yam  is  also  manufactured.  Markets 
are  held  on  Thursdays, in  an  enclosed  marketplace; 
and  fairs  on  18  Jan.,  20  Mar.,  12  Mav,  6  June, 

11  Aug.,  14  Sept.,  22  Oct.,  21  Nov.,  and  16  Dec. 
CARRICK-ON-SUIR,  an  inL  town  of  IreUnd, 

pn>v.  Munster,  cos.  Tipfterary  and  Waterford,  on 
the  Suir,  85  m.  SW.  by  S.  Dublin,  on  the  railway 
fn»m  Waterford  to  Limerick.  Pop.  9,626  in  1831, 
I  and  6..'>:{6  in  1861.  The  town,  situate  at  the  S£. 
,  extremity  of  the  (ri»lden  Vale,  and  near  the  iunc- 
j  tion  of  the  cos.  Tip|>erary,  Kilkenny,  and  Water- 
fonl,  consists  of  an  open  area  surrounded  with 
houses,  and  a  long  street  leading  to  a  bridge  acroes 
the  river,  ctmnecting  it  with  the  suburb  of  Carrick- 
l)eg,  formerly  C.-magriffin,  in  co.  Waterford.  It 
has  a  par.  church,  a  IC  Cath.  chapel,  an  abbey,  a 
nunnery,  a  fever  hospital  and  dispensary,  an  alms- 
house, and  the  mins  of  the  castle  built  by  an  an- 
cestor of  the  Earl  of  Ormonde.  Some  traces  of  the 
town  walls  are  still  visible.    The  woollen  manu- 


662 


CAKRON 


fftcture  was  cairied  on  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Onnonde  family  till  the  close  of  la«t  centun' ;  but 
all  traceH  of  it  have  now  diiuipiteared,  and  the  la- 
bouring pop.  are  ver}'  pcK>r  and  miserable.    Tan- 
ning and  brewing  are  still  carried  on ;  and  there 
is  a  considerable  trade  in  grain  and  proN-isions. 
Laige  vessels  come  up  the  Suir  to  Piltown,  about 
4  m.  lower  down,  whence  their  caigf>e8  are  con- 
veyed to  the  town  by  lighters.    A  local  act  autho- 
lises  river  improvements,  which,  if  effected,  will . 
enable  vessels  of  laij^r  tonnage  to  discharge  at  i 
the  town.    Petty  sessions  are  held  evor\'  fortnight, : 
A  party  of  the  constabulary  is  stationed  here.  \ 
Markets  are  held  on  Satunlays ;  fain  on  the  tirst  j 
Thursday  of  every  month.    By  a  grant  of  William 
III.  the  par.  is  exempted  from  co.  rates.  I 

CAKRON,  or  CARKONSHORE,  a  village  of 
Scotland,  celebrated  for  its  iron-works,  co.  Stirling, ! 
2  m.  NE.  Falkiric,  on  the  Canon,  a  stream  which  . 
falls  into  the  Frith  of  Forth,  at  Grangemouth. ; 
Vo\K  1,035  in  1861.  The  iron-works  were  first  set ' 
on  foot  in  1760.  The  Canon  comftany,  which  is 
chartered,  had  an  original  capital  of  50,000^  sterL, 
divided  into  600  shares ;  but  which  has  been  greatly 
augmeutc;^  since  its  formati(»n.  The  Canon  iron- 
works were  long  the  most  extensive  in  Scotland, 
and  were  for  a  while,  perhaps,  the  most  extensive 
in  Britain ;  but  they  are  now  far  surpassed  by 
similar  establishments  in  Scotland,  and  by  vast  j 
numbers  in  England.  The  works  are  employed 
in  the  smelting  of  iron  ore.  and  the  manufacture 
of  all  kinds  (»f  cast-iron  gtXKis,  whether  for  cixil  or 
warlike  purposes.  But  they  were  chiefly  celebrated, 
during  the  late  French  war,  for  the  manufacture 
of  cannon,  mortars,  howitzers,  carronades  (so  called 
after  Carron,  where  they  were  tirst  made),  bombs, 
and  such  like  warlike  instruments.  Since  the 
peace,  this  branch  of  business  has  been  well  nigh 
annihilated,  except  for  the  supply  of  a  limited 
foreign  demand.  The  company  convev  their  goods 
to  Liverpool  and  London  (at  both  of  which  they 
have  warehouses),  and  other  places,  in  their  own 
vessels,  which  vary  ftom  15  to  20  in  number.  The 
Forth  and  Clyde  canal  runs  within  a  ^  m.  of  the 
works,  so  that*  the  acceas  to  both  seas  is  most  con- 
venient. The  company  have  cut  a  canal  from  the 
interior  of  the  works  down  to  the  Carron  Wliarf  at 
(^raugemouth,  3  m.  dist,  on  which  lighten  ply 
and  carrv  their  goods  for  shipment  at  the  latter 
place,  ihe  supplv  of  water  is  abundant,  derived 
partly  fn>m  the  nver,  and  partly  from  artificial 
reser^'oirs,  which  cover  about  250  acres  of  ground. 

CAR  FAdENA,  or  CARTHAGENA,  a  marit. 
city  of  New  Granada,  and  the  chief  naval  arsenal 
of  that  repub.,  cap.  prov.  of  same  name,  on  a  sandv 
peninsula  in  the  Carribean  Sea,  connected  witn 
the  continent  bv  a  narrow  neck  of  land,  410  m.  N. 
Bogota;   lat,  lOO  26' N.,  long.  75° 34' W.     Esti- 
mated pop.  25,000.    The  city  has,  on  its.  E.  side,  j 
a  suburb  called  Ximaui,  standing  on  an  island,  and  • 
almost  as  large  as  the  city  itself,  with  which  it  ■ 
0(»mmunicates  by  a  wooden  bridge,    hitth  the  city 
and  its  suburb  axe  surrounded  by  stn)ng  fortifica- 
tions, and  at  a  shon  distance  from  them  on  the 
mainland  they  are  overlooked  by  a  strong  fort 
]>Iaced  on  an  eminence  about  150  ft.  high.    These 
works  arc,  however,  commanded  by  a  contiguous 
hilt  rising  to  the  height  of  550  f^  above  the  sea, 
and  which,  instead  ^  a  fortification,  has  on  its 
summit  an  Augustine  monaster^'.    The  |>o«session  i 
of  this  hill  has  several  times  led  to  the  capture  of ; 
the  city.  j 

Cartagena  is  famous  for  its  port,  one  of  tlie 
largest  and  best  on  the  N.  coast  of  S.  America.    It  j 
lies  to  the  S.  of  the  town,  between  the  peninsula  ' 
on  which  it  is  built  and  the  island  of  Tierra-.^ 
Bomba,  and  the  mainland.    The  anchoring  ground  : 


CARTHAGE 

IB  excellent :  and  being  completely  land-locked, 
vessels  lie  in  it  as  if  in  dock.  It  )iad  originally 
two  entrance*, — the  Boca  Gramie,  close  to  tlie 
dtv.and  the  Boca  Chica  (narrow  {lassage).  several 
miles  farther  S.  The  former,  however,  was  blocked 
up  by  the  Spanianls,  subsequently  to  Adm.  Ver- 
non's attempt  upon  the  place  in  1741,  by  sinking 
several  ships  in  tlie  channeL  The  Boca  Chica  is 
defended  by  two  strong  castles.  Cartagena  con- 
tains a  handsome  cathedral,  several  other  churches, 
convents,  &c.,  and  some  fine  public  cisterns.  The 
city  and  its  suburbs  are  well  laid  out;  streetA 
regular,  and  well  paved ;  houses  mostly  of[  stone, 
and  of  one  story  above  the  ground  floor,  with  bal- 
conies in  front,  and  lattices  instead  of  windows. 
A  recent  French  traveller,  qieaking  of  the  town, 
obsen'es  that  it  presents  a  melancholy  aspect  with 
its  long  galleries,  short  and  clumsy  columns,  and 
streets  £irkened  by  projecting  tenaoes,  &c. ;  but 
he  admits  that,  how  singular  soever  the  construc- 
tion of  the  houses,  they  appear  to  be  well  c(»ntrived 
for  supphdng  the  indispensable  luxury  of  fresh  air. 
The  great  drawback  uf:on  the  place  is  its  climate, 
which  is  intensely  hot.  It  is  not  unfrequently 
visited  by  the  yellow  fever,  and  is  infested  with 
tormenting  and  destructive  insects.  The  impi»rt- 
ancc  of  Cartagena  has  greatly  declined  of  late 
yean;  but  it  is  still  the  principal  depot  for  the 
goods  of  Bog(»ta,  Popayan,  and  Quito,  and  has  a 
considerable  forei^  trade.  Its  artisans  are  inge- 
nious, and  excel  m  the  manufacture  of  shell  ani- 
cles.  There  is  regular  communication,  by  stearo- 
en,  with  the  chief  ports  of  the  United  States  and 
Europe.  Cartagena  was  founded  in  1533,  and  was 
long  considered  as  the  great  bulwark  of  the  Spa- 
nish possessions  in  S.  America.  It  was  taken  by 
a  Corsican  pirate  in  1544,  by  Sir  F.  Drake  in  1583. 
and  by  the  French  in  1697.  Under  the  Spaniardii 
it  was  a  bishopric  and  the  seat  of  a  captaw-gene- 
ral,  and  of  one  of  the  three  tribunals  c»i  the  Inqui- 
sition in  America.  It  b  still  the  reMdcnce  of  a 
bishop. 

CARTAGO,  or  CARTHAGO,  an  inL  town  of 
New  Granada,  pniv.  Popayan,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Yieja,  a  little  before  its  iunction  with  the 
Cauca,  165  m.  NNE.  Popavan ;  lat.  4^  45'  N.,  long. 
7«o  8'  \V.  Fjiiimated  pop.  3,(H)0  m  1860 ;  but  above 
10,000  previous  to  1841,  when  the  town  was  almost 
entirely  destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  The  town, 
though  still  in  ruins,  has  a  good  trade  in  cattle, 
<lried  beef,  fruits,  cacao,  and  tobacco.  Its  whole 
district  is  rich  in  mineral  products ;  its  climate  is 
hot  and  dry,  but  healthy. 

CARTrfAGE  (Lat.  Carthago,  Gr.  Kopjn&ir),  a 
famous  marit.  city,  long  the  rival  of  Rome,  with 
which  she  waged  a  lengthened,  doubtful,  and  des- 
(Krrate  c<»ntest  for  the  empire  of  the  world,  situated 
on  the  N.  shore  of  Africa,  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  Tunis.  But  such  is  the  mutability  v( 
human  affairs,  and  so  complete  the  destructi<tn 
that  has  overtaken  this  celebrated  city,  dirca  opmm, 
thidimpte  atperrima  belli,  that  even  her  ^Hisition 
has  been  matter  of  dispute  among  the  learned ! 

Giaoe  1'  alu  Carthago,  e  a  pena  i  segni 
Dell'  alte  sue  mine  il  lido  serba ! 

But  the  plans  of  M.  Falbe  seem  to  have  put  to 
rest  all  doubts  as  to  the  situation  of  Canhage; 
and,  combined  with  the  learned  and  elaborate  dL^ 
sertation  of  Dureau  de  la  Malle,  give  not  only  a 
satisfactory  explanation  of  the  form  and  situatiou 
of  the  city,  but  of  all  that  can  be  ascertained  re- 
specting it  from  the  most  careful  examinatiiMi  and 
comparison  of  ancient  authors.  Referring  such  of 
our  readers  as  may  wish  for  full  informatitm  as  to 
this  interesting  subject  to  the  sources  now  men- 
tioned, we  flhall  content  ourselves  with  stating 


CARTHAGE 


663 


that  Carthage  was  principally  built  along  the  coast 
of  the  peninsula  to  the  NK.  of  Tunis,  fniin  a  little 
N.  of  the  goletta  or  entrance  to  the  lagoon  of 
Tunis  to  Cape  Carthage  (lat.  369  51'  30"  N.,  hing. 
10<'  26'  45"  £.),  and  then  round  to  Cape  Quamart. 
It  was  defended  on  the  land  side^  where  it  was 
most  open  to  attack,  by  a  triple  hne  of  walh«  of 
great  height  and  thickness,  flanked  by  towers,  that 
stretched  across  the  peninsula  from  the  lagoon  of 
Tunis  to  the  sea  on  the  N.  The  harbour  lav  to 
the  S.  of  Cape  Carthage,  and  was  entered  nom 
what  is  now  the  Gulf  of  Tunis.  Having  less  to 
fear  from  attacks  by  sea  than  by  land,  the  dty  had 
on  that  side  only  a  single  walL 

At  the  period'of  its  greatest  splendour  Carthage 
must  have  been  one  or  the  richest  and  finest  cities 
of  the  ancient  world.  It  consisted  of  three  prin- 
cipal divisions,  viz.  the  Byraeu,  or  citadel,  built  on 
an  eminence,  the  summit  of  which  was  occupied 
by  a  magnificent  temple  in  honour  of  iKsculapins ; 
and  it  also  contained  the  famous  temple  of  the 
Phcenician  Astarte,  the  Juno  of  Virgil.  The  Me- 
gara,  or  town  so  called,  lay  to  the  W.  of  the  Byrsa, 
along  the  triple  wall,  and  was  of  great  extent, 
comprising  extensive  squares  and  gardens.  The 
third  division  was  called  the  (hthoHj  or  port ;  this, 
as  its  name  implies,  was  artificially  excavated,  and 
consisted  of  two  great  basins,  an  outer  and  an 
inner;  the  first  for  merchantmen,  and  the  latter 
fi»r  ships  of  war.  The  access  to  both  basins  was 
by  a  common  entrance,  which  was  shut  up  by  a 
chain ;  and  each  was  supplied  with  c^uays,  ware- 
houses, and  stores,  suitable  to  its  destmation.  It 
was  in  this  quarter  that  the  seamen,  shipwrights, 
merchants,  and  others  connected  with  the  warlike 
and  mercantile  marine  of  the  republic  princi|)ally 
rct(i(led. 

Besides  the  public  buildings  already  alluded  to, 
Carthage  had  a  famous  temple  in  honour  of  its 
tutelar  dcit^,  Melcarthus,  or  Saturn,  whose  altars 
were  sometimes  stained  with  the  blood  of  human 
victims :  with  temples  to  Ceres,  Jupiter,  ^c  It 
had  also  all  the  usual  places  of  public  resort  and 
amusement,  including  a  magnificent  furum,  a 
circus,  and  a  theatre.  Tlie  water  within  the 
precincts  of  the  dty  seems  to  have  been  at 
once  scarce  and  bad  ;  and  to  olnHate  the  inconve- 
nience thence  arising,  vast  cisterns,  of  which  the 
ruins  still  exist,  were  constructed  for  the  saving 
and  preservation  of  rain-water.  The  streets  were 
ail  paved  ;  and  this  essential  improvement  in  the 
cfuistruction  of  streets  is  said  to  have  been  ori- 
ginally introduced  by  the  Carthaginians.  Strabo 
srates'  that  the  pop.  of  Carthage  amounted  to 
7<K),000 ;  but  M.  Dureau  de  la  Malle  has  shown 
that  no  reliance  can  be  placed  on  this  statement, 
and  that  the  pop.,  previou.'dy  to  the  destruction  of 
Carthage  bv  the  Romans,  cannot  safely  be  esti- 
mated at  above  250,000  persons,  slaves  included. 
(Kei'herches  sur  la  Topo^phie  de  Carthage,  pp. 
1-100.) 

The  early  history  of  Carthage  is  involved  in  the 
greatest  obscurity.  All  that  is  certainly  known 
with  respect  to  it*  is  that  it  was  founded  by  a  IxKly 
of  emigrants  from  Tyre  ;  but  of  the  occasion  and 
e|ioch  of  their  emigration  we  have  no  certain 
knowle<lffe.  The  common  opinion  is  that  Utica, 
AI^«o  a  Tvrian  colonv,  was  founded  before  Car- 
thage  ;  and  tliat  the  foundation  of  the  latter  took 
|)lace  anno  1259  B.C.  It  is  (trobable  that  the  colony' 
subsequently  recdved  fresh  accessions  of  immi- 
grants from*  the  mother  countr>';  and  it  is  sup- 
iMised  that  one  of  thc}«  was  headed  by  Kliza  or 
)id4i,  to  whom  Virgil  has  ascribed  the  foiuidation 
of  the  city.  (L*Art  de  Verifier  les  Dates,  iii.  414, 
8vi».  ed.) ' 

The  Cartliaginians  appear  to  have  inherited,  in 


its  fullest  extent,  the  enterprising  character  of  their 
ancestors ;  and,  like  them,  were  principally  ad- 
dicted to  navigation  and  commerce.  After  ex- 
tending their  sway  over  a  considerable  part  of 
Africa,  they  began  to  make  settlements  in,  and  to 
endeavour  to  subjn^te,  more  distant  countries. 
The  fine  and  fertile  island  of  Sicily  seems  to  have 
early  excited  the  ambitious  views  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians; but,  though  they  had  several  valuable 
settlements  in  it,  they  were  uniformly  thwarted 
in  their  efforts  to  effect  its  complete  subjugation. 
After  the  destruction  of  Tyre,  ciutha^  mherited 
the  possessions  of  the  former  in  Spain,  to  which 
she  afterwards  made  large  additions ;  and  she  also 
subjugated  the  Island  of  Sardinia. 

Of  the  long-continued  struggle  between  Car- 
tha^  and  Rome,  it  would  be  useless,  even  if  our 
limits  permitted,  to  say  any  thing.  It  is  a  fa- 
vourite subject  of  every  classical  reader,  and  has 
been  ablv  treated  in  many  modem  works;  but 
it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  we  have  no  Cartha- 
ginian history  of  this  memorable  contest,  and  that 
we  are  constrained  to  depend  wholly  on  the  one- 
sided prejudiced  accounts  of  the  Latin  historians, 
and  the  Sicilian  Greeks.  The  reader  will  do  well 
to  bear  this  in  mind,  and  to  modify  most  of  the 
statements  unfuvourable  to  the  Carthaginians. 

Govtmmemt — As  far  as  can  be  gathere<l  from 
Aristotle,  and  the  inddental  allusions  of  other 
writers,  the  government  of  Carthage  seems  to  have 
been  one  of  the  wisest  and  best  constituted  of  an- 
dent  times.  Like  that  of  the  mother  country,  it 
is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  origiirally 
monarchical ;  though  on  its  first  emerging  into 
authentic  history  we  find  it  an  aristocracy  of  birth 
and  wealth,  with  a  slight  mixture  of  democracy. 
At  the  head  of  this  aristocracy  was  a  senate  ana- 
logous to  the  senates  of  Sparta  and  Rome,  and 
composed  of  the  most  illustrious  citizens.  Its 
members  appear  to  have  been  very  numerous; 
but  all  statements  with  regard  to  the  mode  of 
their  election,  or  the  duration  of  their  authority, 
must  be  purely  conjectural.  The  senate  had  the 
management  of  all  affain  of  peace  and  war,  the 
arrangement  of  treaties  and  n^ociations,  and,  in 
short,  the  power  of  deliberating,  and  to  a  certain 
extent,  of  dedding  upon  all  public  affairs.  Within 
itself,  the  senate  contained  a  committee  of  104, 
called,  by  a  round  number,  centumviri,  originally 
instituted  as  a  check  upon  the  encroachments  of 
the  aristocracy.  It  afterwards  became  a  high 
court  of  judicature,  vested  with  such  authority  aa 
rendered  it  in  eficct  the  depositor)'  of  all  the  sove- 
reignty which  lay  in  the  senate  itself.  Aristotle 
compues  this  committee,  or  coundl,  to  the  ephori 
of  Sparta,  but  it  shi.old  seem  that  the  pentarchies, 
or  ^ucn^Mfiirt'ri,  had  a  better  title  to  the  com- 
parison. These  were  cc»nposed  of  several  bodies, 
each  consisting,  as  the  name  implies,  of  five  per- 
sons selected  from  the  geroutioj  or  committee,  and 
possessed  of  almost  de^potic  authority.  They  had 
ci^isance  of  all  affairs  both  |  ublic  and  pnvate^ 
and  appear  to  have  constituted  a  iH>urt  of^  api»eal 
in  the  last  resort  for  all  causes.  They  continued 
in  office  a  long  time,  and  had  not  only  the  power 
of  tilline  up  vacancies  in  their  own  body,  but  the 
right  of  choosing  those  who  c(»mposed  the  tribunal 
of  the  centum viri.  This,  no  dtMibt,  was  a  highly 
aristixTatical  institution ;  and  Livv  says  of  it, 
that  *  vis.  Jama,  ritaqtte  ommivm  in  iUarum  poUtlaU 
trat^  At  the  head  of  the  senate  were  two  majns- 
trates,  or  tttjff'etet,  answering  to  the  Siuirtan  kings 
or  the  Roman  coiutuls.  Originallv  the  right  of 
electing  the  sufTetes  was  vested  in  the  senate  ;  but 
in  the  decline  of  Carthage  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  people.  In  their  nomination,  acconling  to 
Ariatotic,  regard  was  had  chiefly  to  birth,  riches, 


664 


CARTHAGE 


and  popularity  ;  and  a  pasMtge  in  the  recently  dis- 
covered work  of  Cicero  (I)e  Kepublica),  in  which 
he  compares  them  with  the  Spaitan  kings,  and  con- 
trasta  tliem  wiili  the  Roman  conHul»,  would  lead 
U8  to  infer  that  they  were  elected  for  life.  Their 
province  was  to  convene  the  senate,  in  which  they 
presided,  to  propose  subjects  for  delil)eTation  and 
to  collect  the  suffingcs.  In  time  of  war,  one  of 
the  suffetes  was  usually  appointed  general  of  the 
forces  of  the  state,  while  his  colleaprue  remained 
at  home.  But  besides  the  sufFctcs  there  were  other 
Bubonlinatc  magistrates,  with  the  nature  of  whose 
duties  we  have  become  acquainted  only  tlirough 
the  Koman  writers.  We  hear,  for  instance,  of  a 
pnrfectus  morum^  prator,  qtuutor^  §T,,_with  powers 
analogous  to  those  of  the  Koman  magistrates  so 
called;  but  these  statements  must  be  received 
with  great  caution,  considering  the  tendency  of 
the  Koman,  as  indeed  of  all  authors,  to  represent 
the  institutions  of  other  people  as  corresponding 
with  or  analogous  to  their  own,  though,  in  reality, 
there  might  bo  very  little  in  common  between 
them.  The  people  were  divided  into  guilds  or 
cor}^M>rations ;  and  though  in  the  infancy  of  the 
Htate  they  did  not  direc^y  participate  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  affairs,  they  p(M»eased,  from  the 
lirst,  the  important  privile^  of  deciding  upon 
those  questions  about  which  there  was  a  difference 
of  opinion  in  the  senate.  They  had  also,  like  the 
Si>artans,  their  public  or  political  festivals,  at 
wliich  questions  of  policy  were  discussed ;  and 
thus  puulic  opinion  was  enabled  to  exercise  a 
salutary  influence  over  the  deliberations  of  the 
senate.  Ui>on  the  whole  it  should  seem,  that 
altliough,  as  indeed  might  have  been  expected  in 
a  commercial  state,  the  influence  of  wealth  pre- 
ponderated in  the  administration  of  affairs,  stiU 
80  well  had  the  constitution  of  Carthage  been 
balanced,  that  while,  on  the  one  hand,  the  nobles 
did  not  engross  the  whole  power,  as  was  the  case 
in  Sparta,  Corinth,  and  Home,  the  people  seldom 
or  never  exhibited  the  factious  spirit  of  the  *  fierce 
Athenian  democracy,'  or  the  ferocity  of  the  Koman 
rabble.  *  The  excellence,'  says  Aristotle,  *  of  the 
Carthaginian  goveniment  isevince*!  by  a  single 
reflection :  though  its  origin  mounts  to  a  very  an- 
cient date,  and  though,  for  many  centuries,  it  has 
contained  within  its  bosom  a  numerous  and  a  free 
people,  yet  Carthage  has  never,  to  the  present  day, 
experienced  any  one  sedition  worthy  of  record, 
nor  has  it  ever  endured,  for  a  moment^  the  cruel 
yoke  of  a  tyrant.'  (Gillies'  Aristotle,  book  it  §  D.) 
Possessions  and  Omtmerce, — At  this  distance  of 
time,  and  with  our  scanty  means  of  information, 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  trace  the  various  stages 
of  Carthaginian  encroachment  on  the  neigliboiuring 
territory  ;  but  we  are  enabled  to  stat*  pretty  accu- 
rately the  extent  of  country  in  Africa  subject  ix> 
Carthage  at  its  most  flourishing  epoch.  E.  it 
stretched  to  the  S\Ttes  and  the  confines  of  Cyrene : 
S.  to  Lake  Triton  and  Mount  Atlas;  and  W. 
(though  this  point  has  l>een  less  accurately  ascer- 
tained) to  the  territories  of  the  Numidian  princes ; 
while  in  the  same  direction  the  whole  African 
coast  was  studded  with  Carthaginian  colonie-s. 
Hence  its  subjects  were  divided  into  three  <iif- 
ferent  classes  :  the  first  were  the  cities  on  the 
coast,  such  as  Utica,  Hippo,  Zar}'ta,  and  others, 
which,  like  itself,  were  colonies  from  Phrenicia. 
These  were  at  iQrst  not  so  much  its  subjects  as  its 
allies  ;  though  at  a  later  pcri<xl  a  supremacv  was 
conce<led  to  it  which  soon  passed  into  sovereignty. 
The  next  class  con^^i9tcd  of  its  own  colonies— the 
maritime  colonies  on  the  coast  and  the  agricul- 
tunil  settlements  in  the  interior  of  the  c«)untry. 
'J'Ijc  third  class  were  the  native  Libyans,  to'  wluim 
Cartluigc  had  originally  been  tributary,  but  who 


now  submitted  to  her  authority.     These  wctt 
partly  a  tixcd  agricultural  people,  who,  from  a 
gradual  amalgamation  with  the  Carthaginians, 
were  called  Liby-Phoenidans,  and  were  kept  in  re- 
straint by  the  agricultural  colonies  planted  among 
them ;  and  partly  qomadic  tribes,  whose  alle- 
giance was  partial  and  precarious.    The  agricul- 
tural population  only,  which  the  Carthaginians  had 
trained  and  accustomed  to  that  mode  ik  life,  could 
be  treated  as  subjects,  properly  so  called  ;  for  the 
nomadic  tribes  were  subject  to  Carthage  only  im> 
far  that  thev  paid  her  tribute ;  and  their  hatr»i  of 
those  who  duturbed  their  aboriginal  mode  of  lift\ 
fomented  as  it  was  by  the  oppressions  of  the  Car- 
thaginian government,  frequently  broke  out  in 
revolt  when  the  approach  of  an  enemy  gave  the 
signaL    But  the  Carthaginians  appear  to  liaye 
attached  less  importance  to  their  posseKtions  in 
Africa  than  in  other  parts.    At  an  early  {H-riod 
they  became  masters  of  Sardinia,    the  Balearic 
Islands  and  Malta.  We  have  already  noticed  their 
vigonnis  and  long-continued  efforts  to  make  them- 
selves masters  of  Sicily ;  and  had  they  sui'jceeded 
in  this,  the  foundations  of  their  power  would  pr«>- 
ba))ly,  as  Heeren  supposes,  have  been  establishc-d 
on  a*  solid  basis.    The  failure  of  their  efforts  to 
effect  the  conquest  of  Sicily,  and  the  loss  of  Sar- 
dinia, that  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Koraans, 
seem  to  have  imp^ed  them  to  attempt  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  entire  Spanish  peninsula.    They 
had  also  several  settlements  along  the  W.  coast  of 
Africa;  and  it  is  proliable,  though  not  certain, 
that  Madeira  and  the  Canary  Islimds  {FartiataUe 
Insula!)  were  included  in  their  dominions. 

The  commercial  operations  of  C-artliage  em- 
braced the  whole  ancient  world,  and  have  only 
been  surpassed  by  those  of  Europe  since  the  dis- 
covery 01  America  and  the  passage  to  the  East  In- 
6ie»  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  But  the  greatesit 
difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  Carthaginians  carried  their  maritime 
cxpcdirions ;  and  while  some  geographers  restrict 
their  limiU  between  the  S.  coast  of  Britain  on  the 
N.  and  Cape  Bojador  on  the  S..  others  c<Hitend 
that  they  reached  the  coasts  of  the  Scandi]ia\'isn 
peninsula,  circumnavigated  Africa,  and  even 
\'isited  the  shores  of  the  New  World,  a  thousand 
years  before  (?olumbus.  It  is  probable,  from  the 
statement  of  Herodotus,  that  the  circumnan- 
gation  of  Africa  was  really  performed  by  Phoe- 
nician mariners ;  but  there  is  no  ground  whatever 
for  supposing  that  it  was  ever  performed  by  the 
Carthaginians,  or  that  thev  ever  approached  the 
shores  of  America.  The  only  really  authentic  in- 
formation, as  to  their  navigation,  is  embodied  in 
the  account  of  the  voyage  of  Hanno  along  the  W. 
coast  of  Africa;  and  it  is  so  ver>'  difficult  to  iden- 
tify the  localities  mentioned  in  it,  that  some  critics 
assign  to  it  a  length  of  3,0(X),  and  others  of  not 
more  than  700  miles. 

The  merit  of  l>eiug  the  first  who,  in  modem 
timcj*.  drcw  attention  to  the  land  trade  of  the  Car- 
tlioginians  belongs  to  Heeren,  whose  researches 
have  placed  the  connection  of  Carthage  with  the 
centnil  nations  of  Africa  in  a  clear  and  striking 
light.  We  have  already,  however,  advertcti  m 
this  interesting  subject,  and  must  refer  those  ini^h- 
ing  for  more  comprehensive  details  to  Heereirs 
work.  It  is  suihcient  here  to  remark  that  the  in- 
ternal trade  of  Africa  seems  to  be  alike  unchang^l 
and  unchangeable.  The  countries  to  the  S.  of  the 
^reat  desert  of  Sahara  are  destitute  of  two  moi't 
miportant  articles,  salt  and  dates,  which  abound 
in  tlie  countries  N.  of  the  Sahara ;  while.,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  S.  countriw  have  ample  supplies 
of  gold  dust,  ivory,  drugs,  gums  and  slaves  all 
articles  in  great  demand  along  the  Mediterranean. 


CARTHAGE 


665 


1 


Ilerearo  the  wants  and  materials  that  f^o  to  fonn 
ail  extensive  and  mutuallv  bencHcial  intercourse ; 
and  the  oases  found  in  the  desert  and  the  camel 
furnish  the  means  of  carrying  it  on.  It  is,  in 
fact,  carried  on  at  this  moment  by  caravans,  nearly 
in  the  same  manner  that  it  was  carried  on  by  the 
Carthafcinians  and  negroes  2,500  years  ago ;  and 
the  probabilitv  is  that  it  will  contmue  in  time  to 
come  to  flow  in  the  same  channels. 

It  is  impossible  to  enumerate  the  various  arti- 
cles of  Carthaginian  traffic,  seeing  that  they  most 
pn»bably  included  the  commodities  of  everv  known 
country  and  climate.  The  ex|K>rts  from  Carthage 
C4>usisted  chiefly  of  artickw  of  native  produce,  and 
of  those  procurod  by  its  land  trade  from  the  inte- 
rior of  the  continent.  She  freighted  her  shijis 
with  the  wines  of  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia,  and 
carried  these  articles  to  C^reiie,  the  Balearic  Is- 
lands, and  W.  Africa.  She  carried  on  a  laige  trade 
in  oils  and  other  articles,  whicli  she  sent  to  Ceme, 
the  *  ultima  thule'  of  her  African  colonic  and 
niceivc<l  skins,  gold,  and  ivory  in  exchange.    Slie 

1>rocured  iron  from  Ellta,  alum  from  the  Lipari 
elands,  and  tin  from  the  N.  of  Spain,  the  Scilly 
islands,  and  Cornwall.  The  lialtic  supplied  her 
with  amber ;  but  whether  it  was  procured  by  sea, 
or  conveyed  overland  to  the  head  of  the  Adriatic, 
and  thence  imported  into  Africa,  has  not  been 
ascertained.  From  T}Tc,  with  which  she  always 
maintained  the  most  friendly  relations,  she  re- 
ceived not  only  trinkets,  glass, '  pearls,  and  other 
ornaments,  and  Sidonian  cloths,  the  chief  branches 
of  the  industry  of  Tjtc  itself,  but  cassia  and  cinna- 
mon, and  the  other  precious  spices,  which  were  im- 
)ortcd  intoT>Te  fn>m  India.  Malta,  too,  supplied 
lor  with  articles  of  w(H>IIen  manufacture  equal  if 
not  superior  to  those  of  Tyre.  Her  traffic  in  Hlaves, 
which  she  procured  from  the  interior  of  Africa  and 
from  Corsica,  was  most  important,  and  formed  a 
large  source  of  revenue.  So  abimdant  were  «laves, 
tliat^  during  the  second  Punic  war,  Asdrul»al  is  naid 
to  liave  purcha.Hed  5,000  at  a  time.  The  commer- 
cial )H>licy  of  tlie  Carthaginians  has  been  said  to 
l>c  of  a  peculiarly  grasping,  jealous,  and  seltiMh 
character;  but  it  is  not  entitled  to  any  such  dis- 
tinction, and  really  differed  in  very  few  resi>ccts 
from  that  of  most  other  commercialnationH.  Her 
object  wo-s  in  as  far  as  ])ossible,  to  moiio|K>liiie  the 
trade  of  the  world;  and  in  this  view  she  practi*«cd 
ino8t  of  the  favourite  schemes  and  devices  of  the 
mercantile  system.  Tlie  privilege  of  trading  wom 
vej4te<i  exclusively  in  the  citizens  (in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  slaves  or  tributaries  of  (^rthoge)  ; 
no  commodities  were  suffered  to  be  ex}N>rted  or 
imported  except  in  Carthaginian  vessels;  the  trade 
of  her  colonies  wa«  restricted  to  the  mother  city, 
and  the  ships  of  the  foreign  nations  with  whoin 
she  had  enteretl  into  commercial  treaticis  were  ab- 
solutely excluded  from  her  harboun ;  but  this  re- 
gulation appears  to  have  been  dictated  more  by 
political  than  commen;ial  jealousy. 

iiut  though  Carthage  was  from  the  first  a  trad- 
ing city,  it  would  In?  wrong  to  regard  the  Cartha- 
ginians'as  a  mere  nation  of  merchants.  On  the 
contrary,  it  is  sufficiently  pn>ved  that  they  found 
leisure  to  engage  in  other  pursuits,  among  which 
ugriailture  held  a  prominent  place.  Thitt  science, 
in  its  widest  range,  wan  so  well  (Umcuk^hmI  by  them 
in  their  writings  that  the  Homans  con<ddered  them 
worthy  of  translation.  Nowhere,  indeetl,  was 
agriculture  better  understood,  or  practi.Hc>d  \iiith  < 
more  zeal,  than  in  (.'arthage:  and  nio<«t  families 
were  in  the  habit  of  applying  the  pnNluce  of  their 
commence  to  the  cultivation  and  improvement  of 
the  soil.  All  accotintA  concur  in  av<igniiig  a  high  : 
f<tate  of  cultivation  tA  the  neighU>urli<MNl  of  Car- 
thage.   *  The  territory,'  says  Diodorus  Siculiu)  (ii.  ■ 


411.),  *  through  which  Agathocles  led  his  army, 
was  covered  with  ganlens  and  large  plantations, 
everywhere  intersected  with  canals,  by  which  they 
were  plentifully  watered.  A  ccmtinual  succession 
of  landed  estates  was  there  seen  adorned  with 
elegant  buildings,  which  evinced  the  opulence  of 
their  owners.  Vineyards,  olive-grounds,  and 
meadows  spread  on  every  side  ;  and  the  whole  re- 
gion was  thickly  studded  with  the  country  seats 
of  the  wealthy  citizens  of  Carthage  and  the  other 
towns  in  its  vicinity.' 

Revenue, — Our  information  on  this  subject  is, 
unfortunately,  extremely  meagre;  but  there  is 
little  doubt  that  the  revenues  of  Carthage  were 
more  comdderable  than  those  of  any  state  of  anti- 
quity. They  were  derived  from  three  sources; 
the  tribute^  lened  on  the  subject  and  confederate 
states ;  the  ctutoms,  and  the  mines.  To  what  ex- 
tent tribute  was  levied  in  time  of  iteace  is  un- 
known ;  but  examples  are  not  wanting  to  prove 
that,  in  cases  of  urgency,  the  tributary  nations 
were  very  heavily  taxed.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that 
the  contributions  paid  by  the  allied  states  and  the 
cities  along  the  Airican  coast  were  in  money,  and 
by  all  tlie  other  tributaries  in  kind.  The  custonu 
were  levied  with  great  rigour  both  in  Carthage 
and  in  all  her  colonial  ports ;  and  in  later  times 
they  became  so  important  that  they  are  said  to 
have  supplied  all  the  wants  of  the  state  without 
the  imi>osition  of  any  other  tax.  llie  mines 
formed  an  important  source  of  revenue :  in  worth- 
ing these  all  the  inventions  which  ingenuitv  and 
industry  could  suggest  were  rendered  available. 
The  most  c<msiderable  mines  were  situated  in  the 
neighlxmrhood  of  Carthago  Nova  in  Spain ;  they 
gave  employment  to  60,000  slaves,  and  yielded 
about  50,000'  drachms  daily.  At  first  they  be- 
longed enrirel}'  to  the  state;  but  we  aflerwanls 
find  them  hi  possession  of  some  of  the  great  fami- 
lies, who  w<»rked  them  on  their  own  account 
What  use  the  Carthaginians  made  of  the  great 
quantity  of  precious  metals  which  thev  prfwunxl 
from  the  mines,  cannot  be  ascertained  with  cer- 
tainty. Tlie  circumstance  that  no  Carthaginian 
coin  has  been  handed  down  to  us  H-ill  ncarcely 
warrant  the  Iwlief  that  no  coineil  money  was  em- 
ployed in  Carthage;  and  though  it  be  true  that 
many,  and  indeed  the  most  im{K>rtaiit,  expenses 
of  the  Htate  were  not  paid  in  monev,  it  b  highly 
improbable  that  a  city,  whose  colonies  confessedly 
coined  money,  shouhl  herself  be  without  a  coin- 
age. A  singular  circumstance  connected  with  tliis 
branch  of  the  hLntory  of  Carthage  Im  the  amtriv- 
ance  which  they  made  use  of  in  their  colonieH, 
nearly  answering  the  purpose  of  our  pa|)cr-money, 
or  bank  notes.  It  consitited  of  a  small  piece  of 
leather,  stampe<l  by  the  state,  u|K)n  which  a  ficti- 
tious value  was  lK'st4)wed.  and  which  could  be  ex- 
changed at  pleasure  for  the  precious  metal». 

These  were  the  ordinary' revenues  of  the  state; 
but  in  cases  of  emergency,  the  Carthaginians  re- 
sorte«l  to  other  means  of  recruiting  their  exhausted 
treasuries,  either  by  pntcuring  fi>n>igii  loans,  by 
legalising  piracv,  or  by  the  imposition  of  a  pnK- 
{terty  tax,  whicli  should  press  more  heavily  on  the 
rich*  than  the  p«M)r.  I>ut  with  reganl  to*all  that 
concenis  the  administration  of  the  revenue,  we  are 
still  in  the  dark ;  though  it  has  been  said  that  one 
c»f  the  i)entarcliies  above  mentioned,  with  a  magis- 
trate at  its  head,  formed  a  board  for  its  manage- 
ment. 

XamI  ami  Military  Forces. — To  maintain  the 
sovereignty  of  the  sea,  the  chief  soun*e  of  her 
pros|>erity,  and  to  prot4H.'t  her  commercial  marine, 
as  well  as  ti>  extend  her  i^mqiu'sts  and  presen'e 
thi*m,  rcndcnMl  the  fi>rmation  and  sui)|iort  of  vast 
tlcetto  and  armies  indispensable.    The  onIinar>' 


666 


CAKTHAGE 


number  of  ships  or  galleys  of  war  possessed  by 
Carthage,  at  the  period  immediately  preceding  the 
l*unic  wars,  was  from  160  to  200.  It  was  increased 
in  the  first  Punic  war,  when  their  naval  power 
appears  to  have  attained  its  highest  pitch ;  and  in 
the  fatal  naval  engagement  by  which  liomc  opened 
its  way  to  Africa,  the  Carthaginian  fleet  consisted 
of  350  galleys  with  (but  this  is  no  doubt  exagge- 
rated) 150,000  men,  exclusive  of  transports.  Their 
war-ships  were  manned  partly  by  fighting  men 
and  partly  by  rowers ;  the  latter  of  whom  consis- 
ted entirely  of  slaves  bought  by  the  state  for  this 
particular  purpose,  and  amounting,  even  in  time 
of  peace,  to  60,000.  But,  though  the  genius  and 
position  of  Carthage  natural! vied  the  citizens  to 
r^ard  the  navy  as  their  main  bulwaric,  the  wars 
of  conquest  in  which  the  republic  was  perpetually 
engaged,  and  the  maintenance  of  its  forei^  pos- 
sessions, obliged  it  to  keep  laige  armies  continually 
in  the  field.  These  were  comi)osed  almost  entirely 
of  mercenaries,  collected  from  every  part  of  the 
world,  and  exhibiting  every  diversity  of  blood, 
complexion,  tongue,  garb,  and  weapon.  *  Extrci- 
tus  mirtut  ex  couuvione  omnium  gentium  quibuii  non 
leXf  non  mo$y  non  lingua  communis ;  alius  hahiius, 
alia  rettiSj  alia  amuiy  alii  ritus,  alia  aacra.''  (Livy, 
28.  12.)  Hordes  of  half-naked  Gauls  stood  side 
by  side  with  bands  of  white-robed  Iberians ;  wild 
Ligurians  were  arrayed  with  far-travelled  Naza- 
mones  and  Lotophagi ;  Carthaginians  and  Phoeni- 
cian Africans  formed  the  centre  or  main  army; 
lUdearic  slingers  formed  the  advanced  guard ;  and 
lines  of  coIoMal  elephants,  with  their  Ethiopian 
drivers,  preceded  their  march  like  a  fn)nt  of  move- 
able fortresses;  but  the  main  strength  of  their 
army  consisted  in  its  light  cavalry,  which  was 
provided  in  abundance  by  the  nomadic  tribes 
which  fianked  their  dominions.  All  these  tribes, 
including  the  Massyles  and  the  l^Iaurisii,  the  Nu- 
midians,  the  nomadic  races  of  tlie  Syrtes,  the 
Nazamones  and  Lotophagi,  were  acccustomed  to 
8er\'e  in  the  Carthaginian  armies,  and  receive  their 
pay.  Tlie  heav>'  cavalry  were  formed  from  Car- 
thaginian, Libyan,  Spanish,  and  in  later  times 
Gallic,  levii>s.  In  cases  of  emergency  the  (Cartha- 
ginians could  raise  an  army  of  40,000  from  the 
citizens  alone,  besides  the  battalion  called  'the 
sacred  legion,'  which  consisted  entirely  of  the  elite 
of  the  Carthaginian  nobles,  and  amounted,  even 
in  time  of  peace,  to  2,500  men. 

Language^  Literature^  and  Religion, — The  de- 
struction of  the  Carthaginian  records,  which  would 
othcrniite  have  thrown  a  fiood  of  light,  not  only 
on  the  history  of  Cartha^,  but  on  that  of  the 
numerous  nations  with  which  she  came  in  contact, 
must  l)e  considered  as  one  of  the  greatest  loss«) 
the  civilised  world  has  sustained.  It  has,  no  doubt, 
been  usual  to  regard  the  Carthaginians  as  wholly 
iromersed  m  commercial  pursuits,  and  thence  to 
infer  that  their  attainments  in  literature  and  tlie 
arts  must  have  been  ver>'  inconsiderable.     But 


knowledge  of  many  of  the  most  useful  and  orna- 
mental arts  and  sciences,  and  placed  at  once  within 
their  reach  all  those  means  and  contrivances  which 
botli  facilitate  the  prosecution  of  commercial  un- 
dertakings, and  extend  the  boundaries  of  civili- 
sation. Surely  then  it  mav  be  reasonably  inferred, 
even  in  the  absence  of  all  monuments  of  genius, 
that  the  rich  legacy  of  their  ancestors,  increased 
as  it  must  have  been  bv  the  intercourse  they  car- 
ried on  for  seven  centuries  with  the  most  renowned 
nations  of  antiquitv,  and  by  the  reseairhes  and 
inquiries  which  their  wealth  afforded  the  means  of 
prosecuting,  must  have  produced,  in  the  end,  a 
vast  accumulation  of  science  and  literature.  But, 
like  the  city  itself,  nothing  remains  of  all  this^ 
The  only  traces  of  the  language  of  Carthage  are 
to  be  found  in  a  comedy  of  Plautus,  from  which  it 
is  clear  that,  like  the  Phtenician,  it  formed  a  branch 
of  the  original  Asiatic  languages,  bearing  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  Hebrew,  Syrian,  and  Chaldaic, 
with  a  slight  admixture  of  purely  Libyan  idioms 
and  phraseology.  The  voyage  of  Hanno,  and  a 
few  othtf  fragments,  are  known  to  us  only  through 
the  medium  of  translations. 

Like  aU  colonies,  they  brought  with  them  the 
religion  of  their  fathen;  but  the  authentic  infor- 
mation respecting  it  is  very  limited  indeed :  and 
the  learned,  disquisitions  of*Bochart,  Yosaius,  and 
Munter,  on  this  subject,  have  little  other  founda- 
tion than  the  inanity  of  their  authors.  It  appears, 
however,  that,  like  the  religion  of  most  other  Asia- 
tic nations,  it  was  chiefiy  directed  to  the  worship 
of  the  supposed  intelligences  of  the  bestial  lumi- 
naries, and  those  of  the  elementa.    The  chief  of 
these  were  Melcarthus  or  Baal,  the  Clironoe  of  the 
Greeks,  the  Saturn  of  the  Romans,  and  proljablv, 
from  the  sanguinary  rites  offered  to  him,  the  Mi>- 
loch  of  Scripture,  and  Ashtaroth  or  A&tarte,  the 
go<ldess  of  the  moon,  whom  the  Greeks  identified 
with  their  Hera  or  Juno.    The  Carthaginians  en- 
deavoured, in  periods  of  extreme  public  calamitv, 
to  avert  the  wrath  of  the  offended   deities  by 
offering  up  some  of  the  noblest  children  of  the 
state  in  sacrifice  to  Saturn ;  hut  in   less  urgent 
circumstances    children  of  the  alaves  were  the 
usual  \nctim8,  and  even  their  immolation  was  of 
rare  occurrence.  It  does  credit  to  Gelon,  tvnmt  <» 
king  of  Syracuse,  that  having  defeated  the  Car- 
thaginians in  a  great  batUe  (anno  4«0  b.  c).  be 
made  it  a  condition  of  the  peace  which  he  grranted 
to  them,  that  they  should  abolish  these  saoifices. 
But  we  are  not  to  iutlge  of  the  civilisation  of  the 
Carthaginians  by  these  horrid  rites,  distinct  trace» 
of  which  may  be  found  in  the  religious  worship  of 
mast  nations  of  antiquity.     It  is  rather  to  be  re- 
garded as  one  of  those  deplorable  exhibitions  of 
superstition  and  fanaticism   which   have,   under 
other  circumstances,  %hted  the  autos  da  fe  <d 
Madrid,  and  the  fires  of  Smithfield.     C)f  the  other 
Phoenician  deities  worshipped  at  Carthage  little 
can  be  collected.    We  know,  howei'er,  thai  they 


there  is  not  so  much  as  the  shadow  of  a  foundation  '  were  by  no  means  bigoted  in  their  attachment  to 


for  this  opinion.  So  far  from  commercial  pursuits 
lieing  unfavourable  to  literature  and  the  fine  arts, 
their  effwt  is  distinctly  and  completely  the  reverse. 
'Jhc  exi)erience  of  Athens  and  Corinth  in  anti(|uity, 
of  the  Italian  republics  in  the  middle  ages,  and  of 
Knglaixl  in  modem  times,  is  conclusive  as  to  their 
humanising  infiuence.  Had  the  literature  of  the 
(.arthaginians  survived  the  wreck  of  their  empire, 
we  believe  ic  would  have  been  found  to  be  at  least 
as  valuable  intrinsically  as  that  of  Home,  and  less 
exotic.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  they  began 
their  career  under  the  most  favourable  circum- 
stanccf*.    Their  descent   fn»m  the  Tj-rians,  ccn- 

fesHo<lly  one  of  the   most  civilised*  nations    of  

antiqurty,gavcLhem,asitwere,analmostu)tuitive  J  diistr}'  of  which  their  rivals  were  the  auccoeful 


their  Phoenician  deities :  but  as  their  intercitur^ 
with  other  nations  extended,  frequently  introduced 
the  worship  of  foreign  gods. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  again  observe,  that  the 
Koman  writers,  who,  while  they  admit  the  skill, 
address,  and  industry  of  the  Carthaginians,  have 
depre<  iated  all  their  moral  qualities,  are  authorities 
on  which  no  reliance  can  be  placed.  The  length- 
ened prosperity  and  great  power  of  Carthage  are. 
in  fact,  a  sufficient  refutation  of  their  calumnies 

ijncraliuf 
the  un- 
oniana,  it  should 
be  remembered,  despised  that  commerce  and  in- 


CAKTHAGENA 

cnltivaton,  holding  them  to  be  enaployiiients  nn- 
worthv  of  freemen,  and  fit  only  for  slaves  and  the 
▼erv  aiegs  of  the  populace :  and  in  extenuation  of 
their  misrepresentationA  and  anti-Punic  prejudices, 
it  may  be  observed,  that  they  knew  only  the  worst 
part  of  Carthage,  that  is,  her  seamen  and  soldiers. 
These,  as  alrnidy  seen,  consisted  of  slaves  and 
riHTuits  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  allured  to  her 
standards  by  the  prospect  of  pay  and  plunder,  and 
held  together  only  by  a  severe  S3r8tem  ofdiacipKne. 
The  fact  of  their  peiiforming  so  man^  great  actions 
with  such  materials  sets  the  abilities  of  the  C?ar- 
thoginian  admirals  and  generals  in  a  very  striking 
point  of  view.  The  campaigns  of  Hannibal,  even 
iiad  his  troops  consisted  wholly  of  native  citizens, 
and  each  had  felt  that  the  fate  of  his  country  de- 
pended on  his  exertions,  would  have  placed  him 
on  a  level  with  the  most  renowned  generals  of  his 
age.  But  when  we  take  into  account  the  quality 
of  his  troops,  and  the  difficulties  he  had  to  contend 
with  in  a  foreign  country,  depending  mainly  on 
his  own  resources,  and  thwarte<l  by  faction  and 
jcaltmsv  at  home,  his  achievements  appear  almost 
miraculous,  and  place  him  above  all  the  com- 
manders of  antiquity,  and  perhaps  also  of  modem 
times. 

The  last  struggle  of  Carthage  was  not  unworthy 
of  her  ancient  reputation,  and  of  the  great  men 
she  had  produced.  The  conduct  of  the  Romans 
on  this  occasion  was  most  treacherous  and  base. 
They  now  practised  that  bad  faith  {Punicajide*) 
andcoutempt  of  engagements,  of  which  they  had 
gratuitously  accused  the  Carthaginians,  to  an  ex- 
tent and  with  a  shamelessness  of  which  history 
lias  happily  but  few  examples.  But  though  be- 
trayed on  all  hands,  deceived,  without  allies, 
and  all  but  defenceless,  Carthage  made  a  bravo 
dcfonce ;  and  all  that  she  had  that  was  brave  and 
really  illustrious  fell  Mrith  her  falL 

The  Romans  having  glutted  their  vengeance 
and  quieted  tlieir  fears  by  the  total  destruction  of 
(.'arthage  (b.  c.  146),  it  'remained  for  a  while  in 
ruins.  But  about  <M)  years  after  its  fall,  Caius 
(iracohuA,  by  order  of  the  senate,  carried  a  colony 
to  Carthage,  the  firet  that  was  founded  beyond  the 
limits  of  Italy.  Julius  C«isar,  on  his  return  from 
Africa,  settled  in  it  some  of  his  troops  and  a 
number  of  colonists  collected  from  the  a<ljoining 
countr}'.  During  the  early  ages  of  the  (liristian 
a'ra  it  was  n^arded  as  the  capital  of  Africa.  It 
fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  Vandals  a.  d.  419 ; 
and  under  that  of  the  Saracens  in  1(»08.  Under 
the  latter  its  destruction  was  again  effected ;  and 
s<»  completely  that  it  is  now  propriis  non  affttoa- 
Cf/ida  ruinit, 

CARTIIAGEXA,  or  CARTAGENA  (an.  Car- 
thwfo  Nota)y  a  fortitied  city  an<l  celelimtcd  sea- 
port of  Spain,  pn)v.  Murcia,  on  the  Mediterranean, 
17  m.  W.  Cape  Paloe,  and  32  m.  SSK.  Murcia, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  Pop. 
27,10(1  in  1857.  The  town  occupies  the  declivity 
of  a  hill  and  a  small  plain  extending  to  the  har- 
Ixtur.  It  has  several  good  streets  and  houses, 
with  numerous  churches,  convents,  an  arsenal  and 
park  of  artillenr,  and  a  n>val  hospital  of  great 
extent.  The  W.  divii*ion  of  the  city  is  occu{)ied 
by  the  naval  arsenal,  with  docks  for  building  men- 
of-war,  and  a  fine  rectangular  basin,  in  which  the 
nhips  are  moored  during  the  time  they  are  being 
rigged.  Adjoining  to  the  arsenal  is  the  bagne^  or 
prison  for  lodging  criminals  employed  on  the  public 
works.  It  has  also  a  foundling  hospital,  a  whool 
of  mathematics  and  navigation,  an  observatory, 
theatre,  and  circus.  The  harbtmr,  which  is  one  of 
tlie  best  in  the  Mediterranean,  consists  of  a  circu- 
lar bashi,  opening  to  the  S.,  and  ha\'iiig  the  city 
at  its  N.  extremity.    It  haA  deep  water  through- 


CASERTA 


667 


out;  is  protected  ftom  every  wind  by  the  sur- 
rounding heights,  and  by  an  islet  at  its  entrance ; 
and  is,  as  well  as  the  dty,  strongly  fortified.  The 
excellence  of  the  harbour  gave  nse  to  the  com- 
mon sayinff  among  the  Mediterranean  sailors,  that 
there  are  but  three  good  ports — the  months  of 
June  and  July,  and  the  harbour  of  Carthagena. 
This  has  always  been  the  grand  rendezvous  of  the 
Spanish  fleets  in  the  M^terranean,  and  huge 
sums  have  been  expended  on  ita  naval  establish- 
menta;  but  theae  are  now  in  a  atate  of  decay; 
many  housea  in  the  dty  are  also  unoccupied ;  and 
it  has  an  impoverished,  deserted  appearance.  The 
pip.  is  stated  by  Mr.  Townsend  to  have  amounted, 
m  1787,  to  60,000;  whereas,  according  to  the 
census  of  1857,jBriveD  above,  it  is  now  under  half 
that  amount.  Cables  and  cordage  of  the  etparto 
rush,  and  canvass,  uaed  to  be  largely  manufac- 
tured here,  and  large  quantities  of  barilla,  with 
com,  wine,  and  oil,  were  formerly  exported.  Ita 
trade,  however,  has  declined  quite  as  much  as  ita 
naval  establishments.  A  valuable  fishery  is  car- 
ried on  in  the  port  and  the  ac^oining  sea. 

The  dty  was  founded  or  occupi^  by  the  Car- 
thaginians, who  made  it  the  capital  of 'their  pos- 
sessions on  the  E.  coast  of  Spain.  It  was  tiuien 
by  the  Romans,  anno  208  B.C.,  at  which  period  it 
is  said  by  Livy  to  have  been,  next  to  Rome,  one 
of  the  richest  dties  in  the  world.  Its  importance 
in  modem  times  dates  from  the  reign  of  Philip  II. 

CARUPANO,  a  town  of  Venezuela,  very  plea- 
santly situated  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  Cariaco ;  prov.  Cumana.  Pop.  8,600  in  1860. 
It  haA  some  trade,  esfiodally  in  hones  and  mules. 

CASALE,  an  inL  town  of  N.  Italy,  prov.  Ales- 
sandria, cap.  dist.  of  tlie  same  name,  in  a  fertile  plain, 
on  the  Po,  37  m.  E.  by  N.  Turin,  on  the  railway 
from  Turin  to  MiUn.    Pop.  25,463  in  1862.    The 

J»lace  was  formerly  considered  one  of  the  strongest 
ortresscs  in  Europe,  but  its  ramparts  have  been 
converted  into  public  walks,  and  it  is  at  present 
defended  only  by  an  old  castle,  once  the  residence 
of  the  marauiases  of  Montfeirat.  It  has  a  cathe- 
dral, several  churches  with  fine  paintings,  nume- 
rous palaces,  and  handsome  {mvate  residences, 
several  convents,  hospitals,  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions, a  college,  pubUc  library,  theatre,  com 
magazine,  and  many  silk  filatures.  It  is  the  resi- 
dence of  the  provincial  governor,  and  is  the  seat 
of  a  bishop,  and  of  the  prov.  court  of  justice.  It 
originated  in  the  4th  century. 

CASAL-MAGGIORE,  a  town  of  Northern 
Italy,  prov.  Cremona,  cap.  distr.,  on  the  Po,  22  m. 
SE.'  by  E.  Cremona,  and  21  m.  SW.  Mantua. 
Pop.  15,122  in  1862.  The  town  has  manufac- 
tures of  glass,  earthenware,  and  cream  of  tarur ; 
with  distilleries,  tanneries,  and  numerous  milK 
It  contains  a  superior  and  other  schools,  an  hos- 
pital, orphan  asylum,  almshouse,  mtmie-di-jntta, 
and  other  charitable  establishments,  and  a  theatre. 
Its  origin  is  um^ertain,  but  it  existed  in  the  6th 
century.  It  is  ver>'  liable  to  suffer  fnim  inunda- 
tions of  the  I'o,  by  one  of  wliich,  in  1705,  it  was 
laid  under  water. 

CASALf-NOVO,  the  name  c^  several  small 
towns  in  Southem  Italy.  The  largest  of  these 
towns  is  situated  in  the  province  of  Naples,  and 
had  a  pop.  of  3,816  in  1862.  This  town,  in  com- 
mon with  most  others  in  the  same  district,  waa 
almost  totally  destroyed  by  the  dreadful  earth- 
quake c^  1773;  and  to  ^aid  against  the  effects 
of  a  similar  catastrophe  m  future,  the  houses  are 
now  all  low,  and  of  wotxl. 

CASERTA,  a  town  of  Southem  Italy,  cap.  of 
prov.  of  the  same  name,  in  an  agreeable  plain,  16 
m.  NNE.  Naples,  on  the  railwav  from  Rome  to 
Naples.    Pop.  dO;)ll  in  1862.  'The  town  is  ir- 


ens 


CASHAN 


re^jularly  built,  but  has  several  churches,  a  con- 
vent of  noble  ladies,  a  monte  di  pieta,  an  hosi)ital, 
a  militarv  school,  and  superb  barracks.  But  the 
iiridc  of  C'aserta  conasta  in  its  royal  palace,  begun 
m  1724,  from  the  design  of  the  architect  Vauvi- 
telli.  It  is  of  vast  extent;  the  two  principal 
fronts  Wing  each  787  ft  in  length,  and  containing 
live  stories  of  thirty-seven  windows  each.  The 
portico,  which  divides  the  internal  space  into  four 
courts,  is  truly  magniiiccnt,  as  is  the  staircase 
leading  to  the  apartments.  The  vast  dimensions 
of  the  latter ;  the  bold  ^an  of  their  ceilings ;  the 
excellence  and  beauty  of  the  materials  employed 
in  building;  and  the  strength  of  the  masonry, 
claim  the  admiration  of  all  beholders.  The  park 
is  of  vast  extent,  as  are  the  gardens,  supplied 
with  water,  brought  from  a  great  distance  by  a 
noble  a(]ucduct.  A  silk  manufacture  has  been 
e.stablished  in  buildings  attached  to  the  palace, 
which  produces  very  rich  and  fine  stuffs. 

CASIIAN,  a  city  of  Persia,  prov.  Irak,  in  a 
stonv  plain,  ill  supplied  with  water,  95  m.  N.  bv 
W.  Ispahan;  lat  83°  66'  N.,  long.  61o  17'  iL 
Kstimated  pop.  30,000.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
thriving  towns  in  Persia,  and  is  indebted  for  its 
]iros])erity  to  its  extensive  manufactures  of  silk, 
carpets,  and  copper  wares.  The  king  has  a  hunt- 
ing-seat and  ganien  about  8  m.  firom  the  town,  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountains. 

CASH  EL,  an  inl.  city  and  pari.  bor.  of  Ireland, 
prov.  Munster,  co.  Tipperary,  86  m.  SW.  Dublin, 
and  96^  bv  Great  Soutnem  and  Western  railwav. 
Pop.  6,974  in  1821,  and  6,468  in  1861.  The  city 
formerly  was  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Munster, 
and  in  il42  was  made  an  arcbbisliopiic  liutby 
the  act  for  reducing  the  number  of  bishoprics  in 
Ireland,  Casliel,  on  the  demise  of  the  late  prelate, 
ceased  to  be  an  archbishopric,  and  was  united  with 
the  bishopric  of  WaterfonL  The  town  is  irregu- 
larly built,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  main 
street,  and  of  one  or  two  othen,  the  houses  are 
mean,  and  exhibit  ever}-  appearance  of  poverty. 
Its  supply  of  water  is  very  scanty.  The  cathe- 
<lral  and  the  K.  Cath.  chapel  are  modem  and 
spacious  edifices.  Here  is  also  a  convent  of  nuns 
and  a  Methodist  meeting-house.  The  archbishop's 
jmlace,  a  large  and  well-built  mansion,  has  at- 
tached to  it  a  small  library-,  and  is  surrounded  by 
an  extensive  pleasure-ground.  There  is  also  an 
infirmary,  market  and  court  houses,  a  well-ar- 
ranged bridewell,  and  infantry  barracks.  The 
jilace  contains  many  vcrv'  interesting  relics  of  an- 
tiquity. On  the  rock  of  Cashel,  which  rises  pre- 
cipitously over  the  city,  are  the  ruins  of  ('ormac 
]^I*Culinan's  chapel,  built  in  the  9th  century',  and 
presenting  a  fine  specimen  of  ancient  Saxon  archi- 
tecture ;  also  the  ancient  cathedral,  in  the  pointed 
(vothic  style,  the  castle,  and  a  pillar  tower,  all 
within  an'enclosed  area,  commanding  an  exten- 
sive pros|>ect  of  the  surrounding  fertile  district. 
There  are  some  other  monastic  ruins  in  the  citv 
and  its  vicinitv.  Tlic  corporation,  under  a  charter 
of  Charles  I.,  in  1639,  consists  of  a  mayor,  seven- 
teen aldermen,  two  bailiffs,  and  an  unlimited 
number  of  freemen.  It  returned  two  mem.  to 
the  Irish  II.  of  C,  and  sends  one  mem.  to  the  im- 
perial II.  of  C.  IhreWously  to  the  Reform  Act, 
the  right  of  election  was  vestetl  in  the  mayor, 
Itailiffs,  aldermen,  and  six  freemen.  The  l)oun- 
darics  of  the  present  pari.  bor.  extend  over  3,974 
acres.  Registered  electors  147  in  1805.  The  cor- 
])orntion  estates  comprise  3,278  acres.  There  are 
no  manufactures  of  any  consequence.  Markets  on 
Wednesdays  and  Saturdays ;  fairs  on  26th  March, 
7th  August,  and  the  third  Tuesday  in  every 
month. 

CASHGAR,  or  KX^ttOllXU,  a  considerable 


CASHMERE 

city  of  Chinese  Turkestan  or  Tartary,  of  which  it 
was  formerly  the  capital,  and  the  farthest  W. 
place  of  note  in  the  Chinese  empire ;  on  the  W. 
side  of  a  mountain,  in  which  several  streams  have 
their  sources,  on  one  of  which  the  citv  is  placed ; 
140  m.  NW.  Yarkund,  and  2,250  ml  W.  bv  S. 
Pekin ;  lat.  39°  28'  N.,  long.  73°  65'  E.    Pop.'said 
to  be  about  16,000,  excliudve  of  a  garrison  of 
8,000  Chinese  troops.    It  is  surrounded  bv  a  wall 
oif  earth,  entered  by  four  gates,  and  is  diWded  into 
two  portions — the  Mohammedan  and  Chinese  city. 
Tlie  Chinese  governor  and  troops  occupy  a  citadel 
Cashgar  was  much  more  flourishing  and  populous 
before  a  rebellion  which  broke  out  here  in  182t>. 
(Humes's  Ik)khara,  iil.  192.)     Most  of  the  inhah. 
are  Mohammedans,  and  speak  a  dialect  probably 
of  Turkish  origin ;  but  there  are  some  Nestorians. 
(Kitter.)    The  upper  classes  are  opulent,  luxu- 
rious, and  extravagant ;  the  artisans  ingenious  in 
working  gold  and  jasper,  in  dvdng,  and  in  pp»- 
ducing  cotton  manufactures.    I'hcre  is  a  weekly 
market,  especially  celebrated  for  horses.     Cashgar 
has  a  laige  trade  with  Bokhara,  to  which  it  sends 
a  great  deal  of  inferior  tea,  (>orcelain.  Chines 
silks,  raw  silk,  rhubarb,  d'c,  and  from  which  it 
receives  Russian  and  other  merchandise,  includinfr 
woollen  cloths,  coral,  pearls,  cocliineal,  cloth  of 
gold,  velvets,  gold  and  silver  wire,  ploughshares, 
mirrors,  needles,    Russian    nankeen,    ^c.      The 
whole  of  this  trade  amounted  before  the  rebelUon 
to  700  or  800  camel  loads  yearly.  The  intercourwt 
with  Kokan  is  conducted  by  means  of  horses ;  but 
it  is  very  small,  owin^  to  hostile  feelingn  betwtvn 
the  Chinese  and  the  inhab.  of  that  khanat.    The 
trade  with  the  country  to  the  NE.  and  the  Kuftoan 
town  of  Semipolatinak  is  brisk,  as  well  as  that 
with  Yarkund.    Cashgar  was  a  celebrated  com- 
mercial city  before  the  Christian  era.     Under  the 
names  of  Sule,  Chaje,   drc,  it  is  spoken   c^  by 
Ptolemy,  £bn    IlauRal,  and    many    siibsequeiii 
authors.    Its  territory  is  extensive,  well  watered, 
fertile  in  com,  rich  fruits,  the  vine,  ci>tton,  flax, 
and  hemp,  and  contains  numerous  considerat>le 
towns.     LFnder  several  dynasties  it  forraet!  an  in- 
dependent kingdom,  llie  Chinese  pOAsessed  them- 
selves of  it  about  eightv  venra  since.     (Kitter, 
Asien  Erdkunde,  vii  422,' 490;  KUproth,   Mc^ 
moires;   Calcutta  Journal,  iv.  655;   Bumes;  El- 
phinstone.) 

CASHMERE  (an.  Ourpira),  a  prov.  of  N.  Hin- 
dostan,  dom.  of  the  maharaiah  of  the  Punjaub: 
consisting  of  the  up|ier  vallev  of  the  Jhvlum, 
chiefly  between  lat.  33®  80'  and  84^  30'  N\,  and 
lon^.*75*^  and  76°  E.,  ha\ing  NE.  the  central 
chain  of  the  Himalaya  or  IIind<x>  K<»osh,  whii'h 
separates  it  from  Thibet,  and  on  all  other  sides 
secondary  ranges  belonging  to  that  chain,  bv 
which  it  IS  diWdcd  from  the  rest  of  Kunjeet  Singh's 
territories.  Shape,  somewhat  oval ;  Icngt  h,  WN  W. 
to  ESE.,  about  80  m. ;  breadth  of  its  central  plain, 
varjang  to  30  m.,  or,  from  summit  to  summit  of 
the  opposite  mountain  chains.  50  to  60  m.  Voik 
estimated  in  1882  at  800,000,  but  reduced  bv  war. 
famine,  and  disease  to  less  than  400,000  in  18*i<). 
In  1828,  an  earthquake  destroyed  12,000  people, 
and,  in  two  months  after,  cliolera  followed,  b>' 
which  100,000  perished  in  the  course  of  forty  davi. 
The  Ilimalava  has  here  an  elevation  of  fc^im 
18,000  to  19,0<K)ft.;  the  Pir  Panjahl,  belonging 
to  tlie  opiK>site  chain,  is  15,000  ft.  abcive  the  level 
of  the  sea.  There  are  twelve  {lasees  into  the 
neighbouring  countries,  viz.  eight  to  the  Pun- 
jab, one  to  the  W.,  and  three  to  Tliibet :  some  of 
these  are  open  the  whole  year,  and  two  are  13,«hn) 
ft.  above  the  sea.  Cashmere  is  copiimsly  watered ; 
a  great  number  of  rivulets  and  mountain  tormits 
from  either  side  unite  in  the  central  vallev  to  Utnn 


CASHM£RE 


669 


the  Jhylum,  which  intersects  it  in  nearly  its  whole 
length :  many  lakes  are  spread  over  its  surface, 
the  lai^^t  of  which  is  nearly  13  m.  across.  Gra- 
nite, schist,  limestone,  gypHnm,  and  slate,  are  the 
predominant  primitive  rocks;  some  fossil  shells 
have  been  found  in  the  limestone;  good  iron  is 
met  with  in  the  mountains,  and  copper  and  lead 
are  said  to  exist  in  Cashmere :  the  upper  soil  of 
the  central  plain  is  a  rich  clay.  In  some  places 
inflammable  gas,  which  spontaneously  ignites, 
escapes  from  the  ground ;  and  the^te  being  reck- 
oned peculiarly  holy,  temples  are  built  over  them. 
The  climate  is  healthy,  except  in  the  rice-grounds 
in  hot  weather,  and  appears  to  have  become  milder 
within  a  few  years,  smce  there  are  now  usually 
but  two  or  three  yards'  dci)th  of  snow  in  plac<» 
where  the  depth  was  formerly  ten  yards.  Towanls 
the  end  of  July  the  thermometer  stands  at  95^  F.: 
the  periodical  rains  fall  only  in  light  showera,  but 
the  soil  never  suffers  from  drought.  The  chinar 
{Planiatuu  orientalit)  grows  to  a  great  size;  lir 
and  deodar  forests,  walnut-trees,  and  much  jungle, 
abound  on  the  S.  side  of  the  valley ;  the  N.  de- 
clivities are  comparatively  bare  of  trees,  but  are 
plentifully  covered  with  grass.  European  plants 
in  a  wild  state  are  common,  and  fruit-trees  nume- 
roua,  but  neither  palm,  mango,  nor  orange-trees 
are  found :  roses,  irides,  lotuA-flowers,  and  others 
arc  met  with  in  profusion.  The  elk,  and  bears  of 
large  size,  the  musk  deer,  no  hares,  but  plenty  of 
other  game,  various  kindk  of  serpen t8,  six  or  seven 
kinds  of  tish,  and  a  great  variety  of  insects,  are 
natives  of  this  region.  *  Nature  has  done  much 
for  Cashmere — art  more ;  *  the  whole  valley  is  like 
a  nobleman's  park;  the  villages,  which  are  pleasant 
looking,  being  surrounded  with  immense  plane, 
poplar,  and  fruit-trees,  and  having  between  them 
one  sheet  of  cultivation, '  through  which  the  noble 
river  winds  itself  in  elegant  sweeps.'  Different 
kinds  of  rice  are  ^Trown,  but  they  do  not  arrive  at 
any  perfection ;  wheat,  barley,  and  the  other  dry 
grains,  are  more  cultivated,  anil  arc  said  to  yield 
a  large  return;  saffron  of  excellent  quality  is 
planted  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  some  of  it 
sent  even  to  Yarkund.  In  the  gardens  many 
kitchen  herbs  of  cold  countries  are  grown ;  turnips 
are  the  only  produce  yielding  two  crops  a  year ; 
the  apple,  pear,  plum,  apricot,  nuts,  and  an  abun- 
dance of  vines  are  raised.  The  wuie  of  Ca^thmere 
resembles  Madein,  and  acquires  with  age  a  hu- 
|)erior  (quality ;  a  spirit  is  distilled  fn>m  the  grape, 
which  is  used  freely  by  all  classes.  The  farm  im- 
plements in  use  arc  very  inferior ;  the  harrow  is 
unknown,  and  the  clods  are  broken  with  a  kind 
of  mallet  Neither  indigo  nor  opium  \»  cultivated; 
the  poppy  is  grown  for  the  sake  of  itA  seeds,  which 
are  used*  as  food ;  eight^tenths  of  the  ])eopIe  eat 
rape-oil,  linseed,  or  sesamum,  instead  of  ghee  or 
butter.  Sheep,  which  are  numerous,  arc  used  to 
carr>'  burdens;  the  other  domestic  animals  are 
horses,  small,  but  hanly  and  sure-footed;  and 
cows,  which,  though  ill-shaped,  peld  excellent 
l>utter  and  plenty  of  milk :  bees  are  kept  on  every 
form.  The  priiici{>al  commercial  wealth  of  (.'a^h- 
mcre  is  derived  from  its  shawl  manufacture,  which 
branch  of  industry  is  thought  to  have  originated 
in  this  valley.  The  Cashmere  shawls  are  the  verj' 
I>est  that  arc'made,  possessing  unequalled  fineness, 
delicacy,  and  warmth ;  they  are  formed  of  the 
inner  hair  of  a  variety  of  goat  {Cnura  hircus) 
reared  on  the  cold,  dr}',  table-land  of  Thibet,  from 
14,000  to  10,000  fU  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
which  dc^nerates  in  any  country  at  a  lower  ele- 
vation. The  great  mart  for  the  shawl  wool  is 
Kilghet,  about  twenty  days'  journey  N£.  Cash- 
mere, whither  it  is  couveye<l  on  the  backs  of  moun- 
tain slicep :  ita  colour  varies  from  white  to  ashy 


grey:  about  2  lbs.  are  obtained  from  a  single  goat 
yearly.  At  Kilghet  the  best  wool  fetches  about 
1  rupee  per  lb.  In  Cashmere,  after  the  down  has 
been  carefully  separated  lirom  the  hairs,  it  is  re- 
peatedly washed  with  rice-starch,  lliis  process  is 
reckoned  important;  and  it  is  to  the  quality  of 
the  water  or  their  valley  that  the  Cashmerians 
attribute  the  peculiar  and  inimitable  fineness  of 
the  fabrics  produced  there ;  the  thread  is  always 
dyed  in  rice-water.  After  the  shawls  are  woven, 
thev  are  softened  at  a  particular  f^t  near  Uic 
capital,  where  most  of  them  are  washed  with  kritZf 
the  root  of  a  parasitical  plant :  soap  is  used  for 
white  shawls  only;  the  border  is  attached  last. 
The  manufacture  of  a  large  and  rich  pair  of  shawls, 
worth  250/L,  will  occupy  fifteen  men  for  eight 
months.  The  value  of  Cashmere  shawls  sold  at 
the  annual  auction  in  London  is  reported  to  have 
risen  from  108,000/.  in  1850  to  264,58C/L  in  1860. 
(Published  proceedings  of  a  meeting  of  shawl 
merchants,  held  at  Amritsur,  24th  August,  1861.) 
Nevertheless,  the  number  of  shawls  manufacturetl 
in  Cashmere  is  steadily  declining.  Under  the  rule 
of  the  Moguls  there  is  said  to  have  been  40,00() 
shawl  looms ;  in  the  time  of  the  Afghan  dynasty, 
when  Forster  visited  Cashmere,  this  number  hail 
been  reduced  to  16,000;  in  1860,  there  were  no 
more  than  3,000  looms,  and  two  or  three  men  em- 
ployed at  each.  The  manufacture  has  not,  how- 
evejr,  degenerated  in  excellence.  Kunjeet  Singh 
took  a  number  of  shawls  in  part  payment  of  his 
revenue  from  this  province ;  the  amount  of  which 
varies  considerably,  accordin^g  to  the  caprice  of 
the  maharajah.  Little  siUc  is  woven;  the  chief 
manufactures,  next  to  shawls,  are  writing  paper, 
lackered  ware,  cutlery,  and  sugar,  formerly  in  much 
greater  quantities  than  at  present. 

Cashmere  is  di\ided  into  36  peigunnahs,  and 
contains  10  towns  and  2,200  villages;  the  chief 
towns  are  Cashmere,  the  capital ;  Chupinian,  3,000 
inhab.;  Islamabad  and  Pampur,  2,000  inliab.  each. 
Famine,  cholera,  and  emigration  have  greatly 
thinned  the  population,  and  rendered  many  of  the 
villages  desert.  There  are  here  about  25,000  Brah- 
mins, who  are  the  only  liindoos;  they  are  of  a 
darker  colour  than  the  rest  of  the  natives,  being 
descended  from  a  body  of  colonists  fitom  the  Dec- 
can.  The  C-ashmerians  are  a  stout,  well-formetl 
people,  of  Hindoo  stock,  although  Mohammedans. 
Their  complexions  arc  what  would  in  Franco  be 
termed  bnmette ;  the  women  are  handsome,  pro- 
lific, and  much  sought  after  by  the  Mogul  nobility 
of  DelhL  The  people  arc  brave,  active,  mdustrious, 
lively,  and  fond  ot  music,  literature,  and  art;  but 
said  to  be  avaricious,  cunning,  and  proverbially 
faW.  Their  language  is  a  diiUect  of  Sanscrit,  but 
their  songs  are  m  Persian.  Independent  of  ita 
celebrity  for  romantic  beauty.  Cashmere  has  been 
always  regarded  as  a  holy  land  thoughout  India, 
and  as  such  has  been  continually  resorted  to  by 
pilgrims.  The  source  of  almost  every  brook  is 
adorned  with  some  Hindoo  monument;  but  neariy 
all  the  remaining  temples  api)ear  to  be  of  Buddhio 
origin,  and  by  their  peculiar  shape  remind  the  Un- 
veiler  of  those  of  Ellora.  Koran-Pandah,  near 
I.Hlamabad,  formerly  built  of  black  marble,  is  one 
of  the  finest  ruins  in  India.  Abul  Fazcl  enume- 
rates 150  Hindoo  kings  who  reigned  in  Cashmere 
previously  to  the  year  742  of  tne  Ilcgira,  subse- 
quently to  which  the  Mohammedans  and  Tartars 
successively  had  possession  of  it.  In  1586  it  waa 
conquered  by  Acbar,  and  Ahmed  Shah  afterwanla 
annexed  it  to  CaubuL  In  1809  the  governor 
asserted  his  independence:  since  1819  Cashmere 
has  belonged  to  Kunjeet  Singh.  (Elphinstone*8 
Caubul,  il  237-242 ;  Mr.  Davics's  Report  on  the 
Trade  of  Central  Asia,  1864.) 


670 


CASHMERE 


CASHMKRRf  or  Serinaour,  the  cap.  of  the 
above  prov.,  on  the  Jhvlum,  6,300  fk.  above  the 
sea ;  hit.  830  23'  N.,  long.  740  47'  E.     Eatimated  . 
pop.  55,000.    The  town  extends  for  about  3  m.  I 
on  either  side  the  river,  over  which  there  are  four  , 
or  five  wooden  bridges :  in  some  parts  the  city  is  ; 
2  m.  in  width;  streets  narrow  and  exceedingly 
filthy;  houses  sometimes  three  and  four  stories 
high,  the  better  sort  having  fire-places  and  chim- 
neys, with  sloping  roofs  of  wooden  frame-work, 
over  which  there  is  a  layer  of  earth,  which  is  found 
very  warm  during  winter,  and  in  summer  is  co- 
vered with  fiowers.    Exo^pt  a  fortress  at  its  S El. 
2uarter,  formeriy  the  residence  of  its  govemor, 
lashmere  contains  no  building  worthy  of  remark. 
Covered  floating  baths  are  ranged  along  the  bank 
of  the  river ;  on  the  latter  many  different  kinds  of 
fiiatrbottomed  boats  are  continuially  plying,  bring- 
ingrioe  to  the  city. 

^The  lake  of  Dal  or  Cashmere  stretches  NR  the 
city  in  an  oval  circuit  of  5  or  6  m.,  and  joins  the 
Jhylum  by  a  narrow  channeL  It  has  been  much 
oelebrated  for  its  beauties,  and  contains  many 
small  Islands,  one  of  which  derives  its  name  from 
the  plane-trees  which  cover  it,  besides  many  floats 
ing  gardens,  in  which  water-melons  and  other 
fruits  are  cultivated :  its  banks  are  adorned  with 
the  blue  lotus  and  other  floweis  in  large  number. 


CASPE 

In  the  plun  near  the  lake  <me  of  the  Delhi 
emperors,  probably  Shah  Jehan,  constructed  a 
i^)acious  guden. 

CA2S0LI,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  pror.  Chieti, 
cap.  cant.,  on  a  mountain,  12  m.  SW.  Lanciam*. 
Pop.  6,215  in  1862.  It  has  several  churches,  and 
two  normal  schools. 

CASOKIA,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  prov. 
Naples,  cap.  distr.,  8  m.  NNE.  Naples.  Pop.  ti,\fM) 
in  1862.  It  has  four  fine  churches ;  is  the  resi- 
dence of  tLJuge  tfitutrmctiomy  and  the  birthplace  of 
Pietro  Martino,  the  celebrated  painter. 

CASPE,  a  town  of  Spain,  prov.  Aragon,  in  the 
angle  between  and  near  the  confluence  of  the 
Guadakmpe  with  the  Ebro ;  58  m.  SEL  Saiagosnia. 
Pop.  9,410  in  1857.    The  town  has  a  castle,  a  pur. 
church,  five  convents,  and  four  hospitals;  i^nth 
manufactures  of  coarse  hats,  soap,  brandy,  and 
cloth.  There  are  in  the  vicini^  extensive  planta- 
tions of  olives  and  mulberry  trees,  which  yit:lil 
abundance  of  oil  and  silk :  and  pastures  which  foitl 
80,000  sheep.    The  town  is  noted  for  tlie  congreiu 
of  the  Aragonese,  Catalonians,  and  Valeucian'S 
held  in  it  in  1412,  t6  settle  the  succession  to  the 
crown,  after  the  death  of  Don  Martin,  king  cf 
Aragon,  without  sons;  when  Ferdinand,  son  tif 
John  I.  king  of  Castile,  was  chosen  to  succ«red 
him  on  the  Uirone. 


END  OF  THE  FIRST   VOLUME. 


LOVDOB 

rxixTSO    sr   sroTTinwoooa   aso   co. 
xKii-tTaan  hQVARS 


N£W  EDITION  OF  BRANDE'S  DICTIONARY  OF  SCIENCE,  LITERATURE, 

AND  ART,  RECONSTRUCTED  AND  GREATLY  EXTENDED  TO 

ADAPT  IT  TO  THE  PRESENT  STATE  OF  SCIENCE. 


In  course  of  publication  periodically,  to  be  completed  in  12  Parts,  each  containing 
240  pages,  price  5«.  forming  Three  Yolukes,  medium  8to.  price  21s, 

each  (YoLs.  I.  and  II.  now  ready), 

A   DICTIONARY 

or 

SCIENCE,  LITERATURE,  AND  AST 

COMPRISING 

THB  DSriNITIONS  AND  DRRITATIONS  OF  THR  8CIRNTIPIC  TRRM8  IN  ORNRRAL  UtR, 

TOOBTHBR  WITH   THR   HISTORY  AND  DBSCRIPriONS  OP  THR 

tCIRNTiriC  PRINCIPLR8  OF  NRARLY  RTRRY  BRANCH  OP  HUMAN   RNOWLRDOR. 


EDITED   BT  THB  LATE 

W.  T.   BRANDE,   D.C.L.    F.R.S.L.  &  E. 

Cf  Htr  Mait9t9'$  Mint,  Honorary  Pruftuor  of  Ckemittrp  in  Ot  Mogal  InstUuiion  qf  Grmt  Briiain  ; 

AND  THR 

REV.  GEORGE  W.    COX,  M.A. 

LaU  Scholar  of  Trinitif  ColUffe,  Oxford  ; 
▲88I8TRD  BT  ORNTLRMRN  OF  BMINRNT  8CIKNTIPIC  AND  LITRRARY  ACQUIRRMRMTt. 

rpHE  j>rogre88  of  science  and  general  knowledge  during  the  twenty-four  yean  which 
X  have  elapsed  since  the  publication  of  the  first  edition  jof  The  Dictionary  of  Science, 
Literature,  and  Art,  has  made  it  impracticable  any  longer  to  render  that  work  a  fit 
representatife  of  existing  knowledge,  by  mere  corrections  and  supplements.  It  has, 
therefore,  been  considered  adfisable  to  re-write  or  re-edit  it  throughout,  and  thus 
to  make  it  an  entirely  new  work.  It  was  the  original  plan  of  the  Editor  to  associate 
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work,  and  the  same  system  has  been  followed  in  the  new  edition  now  in  course  of 
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may  therefore  be  consulted  with  confidence  by  all  who  wish  to  make  themselves 
acquainted  with  the  principles  of  each  particular  science,  with  the  details  and  hiatory 
of  many,  and  with  the  main  facts  of  the  multifarious  subjects  with  which  it  is  neces- 
sary, at  the  present  day,  for  all  intelligent  persons  to  have  some  acquaintance. 

The  plan  of  the  fourth  edition  differs  slightly  from  that  of  the  former  ones,  but  it 
is  more  in  accordance  with  the  idea  on  which  the  dictionary  was  originally  planned, 
and  which  was  expressed  in  the  name  at  first  designed  for  the  work.  The  intention 
of  the  Editor  was  to  call  it  a  *  Dictionary  of  Scientific  Terms,'  and  to  limit  its  con- 
tents to  a  brief  explanation  of  an  exhaustiYc  list  of  Scientific  words ;  but  after  mature 
consideration  it  was  thought  desirable,  in  carrying  the  design  into  execution,  lo  limit 
the  number  of  words  included  in  the  Dictionary,  and  by  extending  the  length  of  par- 
ticular articles  to  make  it  a  readable  book,  rather  than  a  mere  work  of  reference.  In 
the  present  edition  it  has  been  the  object  of  the  Editors,  while  retaining  the  readable 
character  of  the  work,  to  diminish  the  extreme  length  of  some  of  the  articles,  and  to 
increase  their  number ;  but  the  total  quantity  of  matter  contained  in  the  New  Edition 

London:  LONGMANS,  GBEfiN,  and  CO.  Paternoster  Bow. 


New  Edition  of  Brande's  Dictionary, — continued. 


^^^•^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 


is  considerablj  increaeed.  It  has  been  found  that,  in  many  branches  of  Science,  and 
especially  in  Mathematics,  Physics,  Geology,  Mineralogy,  and  Botany,  the  omission 
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what lessened  the  utility  of  the  work.  A  large  number  of  new  articles  have  therefore 
been  added  in  the  present  edition,  and  the  whole  has  been  brought,  as  closely  as 
possible,  up  to  the  present  time.  It  is  not  pretended,  and  indeed  it  would  he  im- 
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A  larger  and  more  legible  type  has  been  adopted  than  that  of  the  previous  editions ; 
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LIST   OF    CONTRIBUTORS. 

General  Editor W.  T.  Brands,  F.R.S.  &c.  late  of  Her  Majesty's  Mint,  and 

Honorary  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  Royal  Institution 

of  Great  Britain. 
Joint  Editor The  Rev.  Gborqb  W.  Cox,  M.A.  late  Scholar  of  Trinity  CoU 

leice,  Onford. 
Aj^colture John  Chalmbrs  Morton,   Editor  of  the  'Agricaltural 

Gazette,'  &c. 
Architecture,  Lanfroare,  Mytho-    The  Rev.  Gborqb  W.  Cox,  M.A. 

lo^,  and  General  Literature 
Astronomy,  Observational   and     E.  Frankland,  Ph.D.  F.R.S.  Prof,  of  Chem.  in  the  R.  Inst. 

UescriptivA,  snd  Meteorolo^nr        of  Great  Britain  ;  and  J.  N.  Lockyer,  Esq. 
Bioloffical  Sciences,  comprising:     Professor  Richard  (>wbn,  F.R.8.  LL.D.  D.G.L.  Snperin- 
Anatoroy,    Physloloi^,    Zoo-        tendentof  the  Nat.  Hist.  Deptv.  Brit.  Mus. ;  and  C.  Partrr 
lofpy,  and  Palaeontology  Blakb,  Ph.D.  F.G.S.  For.  Assoc,  of  the  Anthrupol.  Soc. 

of  Paris. 
Botany  and  Gardening  John  Lindlby,  F.R.S.  F.L.S.  late  Emeritns  Prof,  of  Bot. 

in  Univ.  Coll.  London;   and    Thomas    Moorb,   F.L.S. 

Curator  of  the  Botanic  Garden,  Chelsea. 
Building:  and  Bngineerinjp G.  R.  Burnbll,  Architect  and  Civil  Engineer,  F.R.I.B.A. 

F.G.S.  F.S.A. 
General  Chemistry  and  Physics    W.  T.  Brandr,  D.C.L.  F.R.S.L. &  E.  :  E.  Frankland, Ph.D. 

F.R.S. ;  and  John  Attfikld,  Ph.D.  F.C.S.  Director  of  the 

Laboratories  of  the  Pharmaceutical  Sec.  of  Great  Britain. 
Geology,   Physical    Geography,     D.  T.  Anstbo,  M.A.  F.R.S.  F.G.S.  &c.  Hon.  Fellow  of  Kiujr^s 

and  Hydrology  Coll.  London. 

Law,  History,  and  General  Li  tera>     Hbrman  Mbrivalb,  M.A.   CD.    late  Fellow   of  Balliol 

ture  Colle}^,  Oxford. 

Law  Arthur  P.  Whatblt.  M.A.  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  Barritter-at- 

Law;  late  Student  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
Mathematics,  Pure  and  Applied .     T.  A.  Hi  rst.  Ph.D.  F.R.S.  Prof,  of  Mathematical  Physics  in 

Univ.  Coll.  London. 
Military  Subjects Lieut.  H.  Brackbnbury,  R.A.  F.S.A.  Assistant- Instructor 

in  Artillery,  R.  M.  Academy,  Woolwich. 
Mineralogy Hrnry  William  Bbistow,  F.R.S.    F.G.S.  Hon.  Fell,  of 

Kinff's  Coll.  Lond.  of  the  Geol.  Survey  of  Great  Britain. 

Music    Prof.  W.  PoLB,  F.R.S.  Mus.  Bac.  Oxon. 

Naval  Subjects  Dunham  Robinson. 

Naviiation H.  W.  Jrans,  F.R.A.9.  R.N.  Coll.  Portsmouth. 

Painting^  and  the  Fine  Arts  ....      Ralph  N.  Woknum,  Keeper  and  Secretary  of  the  National 

Gallery. 
Political  Economy    Jambs  E.Thorold  Rogbrs,  M.  A. ^  Prof,  of  Political  Econ. 

Tooke  Professor  of  Economic  Scfence  and  Statistics  in 

King's  Coll.  tendon. 
Printing,  Bibliogrsphy,  &c R.  J.  Courtnky,  Superintendent  at  Messrs.  Spottiswoode 

and  Co.'s  Printing  Office. 
Theolof^     and     Ecclesiastical    C.  Mbrivalb,  B.D.  Chaplain  to  the  Spesker  of  the  House  of 
Literature  Commons. 

London:  LONGMANS,  GREEN,  and  CO.  Paternoster  Row.