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DIOTIONArff-.^;.-;!*
- * ••• • 1 Z ••• • *• • • • • •
^^ OP
MUSIC AND MUSICIANS-
^ ^ (A.D. 1450—1880)
BY EMINENT WRITERS, ENGLISH AND FOREIGN.
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND WOODCUTS.
EBITKD BT
GEORGE GROVE, D.C.L.
IN THREE VOLUMES.
VOL. II.
; TJ In I ' ^ ^- '^^ \^ / UnJverslty of Clifornla
nrtrinff
MACMILLAN AND CO,
1880.
[TV Kighi of Tranflalion and Reproduction it reserted,^
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OXFORD:
E. PIOKARD HALL, M.A., AND J. B. STAOT,
PRINTERS TO THE UNTVBRSTTY.
L^yi/O
^
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^
LIST OF CONTRIBUTOKa
Sir Julius Benedict . . . . . . . . . . . . B. '
Joseph Bennett, Esq. . . . . . . . . , . J. B.
James B. Stbrndale-Bennbtt, Esq. .. .. .. .. J. R. S.-B.
Dattd Baptie, Esq., Gla^ow . . . . . . . . . . D. B.
Mbs. Walter Carr . . . . . . . . . . . . M. C. C.
William Chappbll, Esq., F.S.A. .. .. .. .. W. C.
Alexis CHrrrr, Esq. . . . : A. C.
M. Gustave Chouquet, Keeper of the Museum of the Con-
servatoire de Mufiique, Paris . . . . . . . . G. C.
Arthur Duke Coleridge, Esq., Barrister-at-Law . . . . A. D. C.
Frederick Coeder, Esq., Mendelssohn Scholar, 1875-79 •• E. C.
George Arthur Crawford, Major . . . . . . G. A. C.
William H. Cummings, Esq W. H. C.
W. G. CusiNS, Esq., Conductor of the Philharmonic Society;
Master of the Music to the Queen . . . . . . W. G. C.
Edward Dannreuther, Esq . . . . . . E. D.
Hebr Paul David P. D.
James W. Davison, Esq. J. W. D.
Edward H. Donkin, Esq E. H. D.
H. Sutherland Edwards, Esq. . . . . . . . . H. S. E.
Henry Frederick Frost, Esq., Organist of the Chapel Royal, Savoy H. F. F.
J. A. Fuller-Maitland, Esq. . . . . . . . . . . J. A. F.-M.
Charles Allan Fyppe, Esq., Barrister-at-Law . . . . C. A. F.
Dr. Franz Gehring, Vienna . . . . . . . . . . P. G.
J. C. Grieftth, Esq, . . . , . . J. C. G.
Rev. Thomas Helmore, Master of the Children of the Chapels Royal T. H.
George Herbert, Esq. . . G. H.
Dr. Ferdinand Hiller, Cologne H.
A. J. HiPKiNS, Esq A. J. H.
Edward John Hopkins, Esq., Organist to the Temple .. E. J. H.
o nl ^^ "^"SIC LIBRARY
J^yJ l^ J ^ University of California
T. P. H.
F.H.
J.H.
W. H. H.
F.H.J.
J.L.
H. J. L.
8. L.
O. A. M.
CM.
A.M.
J. M.
F. A. M.
RM.
E. G. M.
VI LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.
Rev. T. Percy Hudson .. ..
Francis Hueffsr, Esq.
John Hullah, Esq., LL.D.
William H. Husk, Esq., librarian to the Sacred Harmonic Society
F. H. Jenks, Esq., Boston, Mass., U. S. A
James Leckt, Esq.
Henby J. Lincoln, Esq.
Stanley Lucas, Esq., Secretary to the Philharmonic Society
George Alexander Macfarren, Mus. Doc, Professor of Music
in the University of Cambridge, &c., &c.
Charles Mackeson, Esq., F.S.S.
Herr a. Magzewski, Concert-director, Kaiserslautem
Julian Marshall, Esq.
Mrs. Julian Marshall
RussEL Martineau, Esq.
Edwin G. Monk, Esq., Mus. Doc., Organist of York Cathedral
Sib Herbert S. Oaeeley, Mus. Doc., Professor of Music at the
University of Edinburgh . . . . . . . . H. S. O.
Rev. Sir Frederick A. Gore Ouselby, Bart., Mus. Doc, Professor
of Music in the University of Oxford .. .. .. F. A.G. O.
C. Hubert H. Pabby, Esq ; C. H. H. P.
Hebb Ebnst Pauer . . . . . . . . . . . . P.
Edward John Payne, Esq., Barrister-at-Law E. J. P.
Rev. Hugh Pearson, Canon of Windsor . . . . . . H. P.
Edward H. Pember, Esq., Q.C. E. H. P.
Miss Phillimore . . . . . . . . . . . . C. M. P.
Herr C. F. Pohl, Librarian to the Gesellschaft der Musik-
freunde, Vienna . . . . . . . . . . . . C. P. P.
William Pole, Esq., F.R.8., Mus. Doc W. P.
Victor db Pontigny, Esq. . . . . . . , . . . V. de P.
Ebbnezeb Pbout, Esq E. P.
Rev. William Pulling . . . . . . . . . . W. Pg.
Chables H. Purday, Esq C. H. P.
Edward F. Rimbault, Esq., LL.D. E. F. R.
LuiGi Ricci, Esq. . . L. R.
W. S. Rockstro, Esq W. S. R.
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LISL OF CONTRIBUTORS. vii
W. Babclat Squire, Esq
H. H. Statham, Esq. . . . .
Sib Robert P. Stewart, Mus. Doc., Profeeeor of Music in Dublin
University
William H. Stone, Esq., M.B.
Abthub Seymour Sullivan, Esq., Mus. Doc, Principal of the
National Training School of Music
Fbanrlin Taylor, Esq.
Alexander W. Thayer, Esq., United States Consul, Trieste,
Author of the Life of Beethoven
Miss Bertha Thomas . .
C. A. W. Troyte, Esq.
Colonel H. "Ware, Public Library, Boston, Mass., U. S. A.
Mrs. Edmond Wodehouse
The Editor . .
Bedford Street, Covent Garden,
Oct. I, 1880.
"W,
, B. S.
H.
H. 8.
K.
P. 8.
W
.H.S.
B.
F.
T.
A.
W. T.
B.
T.
C.A.W.T.
H.W.
A.
H. W.
G.
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DICTIONAR
OP
MUSIC AND MUSICIANS.
IMPROPEBIA, le, 'The Reproaches.' A
tenet of Antiphont and RetpoBset, forming part
of Uie solemn Service, which, on the morning of
Good Friday, it sabttituted lor the usual dcdly
Mast of the R<nnan Ritual.
Hie text of the Improperia, written partly in
Latin, and partly in Gredc, is designed to iUus-
trate the torrowful remonstrance of our Lord with
His people, oonceming their ungrateful return for
ihe Denefits He has bestowed upon them. Hie
touching words in which these remonstrances
are expressed were originally sung to well-known
Plain Chaunt melodies, preserved in the Qraduale
Rtmuxnmm, and still retained in veiy general use,
both in England, and on the Continent : but,
rinoe the Pontificate of Pope Pins IV, they
have been invariably chaunted, in the Sistine
du^, to some simjie, but exquisitely beautiful
Favx bourdon$, to which they were adapted, by
Palestrina, in the year 1560. Li depth of feeling,
true pathos, and perfect adaptation of the music
to the sense of the words, these wond^fiil Im-
properia have never been exceeded, even hv
Palestrina himself . We may well believe, indeea,
that he alone could have succeeded in drawing,
fnaatk the few simple chords which enter into
Uieir construction, the profoundly . impressive
effect they never hB. to produce ; an elSect so
strictly in accordance wiUi that of the solemn
CereDMmy with which they are associated that
we can only hope to render the one intelligible
by describing it in connexion with the other.
A small Gradfix having been laid upon the
Ahar Step, the Cleigy, firet» and afterwards the
people, kneel down to kiss its Feet. While they
are slowly i^proaching the Sanctuary, by two
and two, for this purpose, the Imprcpena are
song; veiy woftty, and witiiont any accompani-
msDt whatever, by two Antiphonal Choirs, which
answer each other, try turns, in Greek, and Latin,
tometfanes in fall Uhorus, and sometimes em-
ployiDg the Yoicee of a f^ leading GhoristerB
▼0L.1i.
only, on eithor side. After the last ' Reproach,'
and the Response which follows it, the two Choirs
unite in singing the first Verse of the Psalm, * Deus
misereatur no^,' preceded, and followed^ by the
Antiphon, ' Cruoem tuam adoramus.* The Hymn
' Pange lingua * is then sung, entire, with the Verse,
*Crux fidebs,* divided into two portions, which are
sung, alternately, between the other Strophes.
It is the dul^ of the Mattre de Ckapdle to take
caro that this musio occupies exacUy the same
time as the ceremony of ' Creeping to the Cross *
(as it was formerly called, in England). Should
there be but few people present, he is at liberty
to omit any portion of it : should there be many,
he may cause as much as he considers necessary
to be sung over again.' In either case, when aU
present Imve kis^ the Crucifix, the Candles on
the Altar are lighted : a new Procession is formed :
the Blessed Sacrament is carried, with great
solemnity, finom the Chapel in which it has been
reserved since the Mass of Hol^ Thursday, to
the High Altar, the Choir singmg the Hymn,
' VexiUa regis,' as they precede it on its way : and
the Servioe called * The Mass of the Presanctified'
then proceeds in accordance with directions con«
tained in the Missal.
No printed copy of the Improperia was issued,
either by Palestrina himself or the assignees of
his son, Igino. They were fifst published in
London, by Dr. Bumey ; who, on the authority
of a MS. presented to him by the Cavaliere
Santarelli, inserted them, in the your 1771, in a
work entitled ' La Musica della Settimana Santa,'
which has now become very scarce. Alfieri also
printed them among his Excerpta, published,
at Rome, in 1840; and, in 1863, Dr. Proske
included them in the fourth volume of his Mudca
I lfendelMohn.i*lio. In the tmtIFSI. tms Bnieh hnpreiMd. bolh bf
the imisle. and the Oeremony. lunenta. In his weD-kDcmn letter to
Zeiter. that, the erowd not being Tery great, be had not an oppo»>
tonlty of hearing the BMpoDMt repeated m often u he oould ha? a
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2 IMPROPERIA.
Ditfina. These three editions differ from each
other very considerably. That of Proske,
copied from the Altamps-Otthoboni MS. pre-
serred in the Vatican Library, may frorly be
assumed to represent the work exactly in the
condition in which Palestrina left it: but the
varied readings of Bumey (1771),
are both valuable and interesting, as records of
the abdlimenti used in the Pontifical Chapel at
the time of their transcription. Bumey's version
was reproduced, by Choron, among his examples
of the Great Masters, in 1836; and again, in
1 840, by Vincent Novello, in * The Music of Holy
Week,* which is still in print. [W. S. R.]
IMPROVISATlON.an equivalent term for Ex-
TEMPOBB Plating or Extemporising. Moscheles
has left a curious account of the way in which
Mendelssohn and he used to amuse themselves
by improvising d quatre mains, a feat already
mentioned in respect to Beethoven and WoM
under Extbmfobb. 'We often,* says he (Life,
i. 274), * improvise together on his magnificent
Erard, each of us trying to dart as quick as
lightninf^ on the suggestions contained in the
other's harmonies and to make fresh ones upon
them. Then, if I bring in a theme out of his
music, he immediately outs in with one out of
mine ; then I retort, and then he, and so on cu2
i^finUam, like two people at blind man's buff
running against each other.'
Nottebohm remarks in his 'Beethoveniana*
(p. 54) that of all Beethoven's string quartets
t^t in Gf minor (op. 131) has most the character
of an Improvisation, but at the same time he
quotes alterations from the sketohbooks (15 of
one passage only) which show that the work was
the very reverse of an impromptu, aijid the result
of more than ordinary labour and vacillation,
thus corroborating the remark made in the article
on Beethoven in this Dictionary (p. 174 a) that
the longer ^e worked at his phrases, the more
apparently spontaneous did they become. [G.]
INCLEDON.
INCLEDON, Chablxs BEKJA]cnr,--the se-
cond of which names he despised and seldom
used, — was the son of a mediod practitioner at
St. Kevem, Cornwall, where he was bom in
1 763. At 8 years of age he was placed in the
choir of Exeter Cathedral, where he received his
early musical education, first frtmi Richard Lang-
don and afterwards fix>m William Jackson. £i
1779 he entered on board the Formidable, man-
of-war, 98 guns, under Ci^t. (afterwards Rear-
Admiral) Cleland. On the West India station
he changed his ship for the Raisonable, 64 guns.
Captain Lord Hervey. His voice had now be-
come a fine tenor, and his singing attracted the
attention of Admiral Pigot, commander of the
fleet, who frequently sent for him to join himself
and Admiral Hughes in the performance of ^eea
and catches. Indedon returned to England in
1783, when Admiral Pigot, Lord Mulgrave, and
Ix)rd Hervey gave him letters of intn^uction to
Sheridan and Colman. Failing to obtain an en-
gagement frv>m either manager he joined Collins's
company and made his first appearance at the
Southampton Theatre in 1784 as Alphonso in
Dr. Amold*s 'Castle of Andalusia.' In the
next year he was engaged at the Bath Theatre,
where he made his first appearance as Belville in
Shield*s 'Rosina.' At Bath he attracted the
attention of Rauzrini, who gave him instruction
and introduced him at his concerts. In 1786 he
made his first appearance in London at Vauxhall
Grardens with great success, and during the next
three years he was engaged there in the summer
and at Bath in the winter. On Sept. 17, 1790,
he made his first i4>pearanoe at Covent (jrarnen
Theatre as Dermot m Shield*s *Poor Soldier,'
and from that time for upwards of 30 years held
a high position in public favour, singing not only
at the theatre and VauxhaU, but al«> at con-
certs, the Lenten oratorios, and the provincial
music meetings. In 181 7 he visited America^
and made a tour through a considerable part of
the United States, where he was received with
great applause During the latter years of his
life he travelled through the provinces under the
style of ' The Wandering MeJodist^* and gave an
entertainment which was received with much
favour. Early in 18 a6 he went to Worcester for
the purpose of giving his entertainment, where
he was attacked by paralysis, which terminated
his existence on Feb. 11. He wai^ buried at
Hampstead, Middlesex. Indedon's voice and
manner of dnging were thus described by a con-
temporary:— 'He had a voice of uncommon
power both in the natural and fiUaette. The
former was from A to G, a compass of about
fourteen notes ; the latter he could use from D
to E or F, or about ten notes. His natural voic^
was full snd open, neither partaking of the reed
nor the string, and sent forth without the smallest
artifice ; and auch was its ductility that when he
sung pianissimo it retained its original quality.
His falsette was rich, sweet and brilliant, but
totally unlike the other. He took it vrithout
preparation, aocorcUng to circumstances either
\ about D, 9, or F, or aetoending an octave, which
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INCLEDON,
was falB moBt frequent eostom ; lie ooald nee it
with facility, and execute omaments of a certain
deas with Tolubility and sweetnese. Hit shake
VM good, and his intonation much more correct
than is common to lingers so imperfectly edu-
ostod. . . . He had a bold and manly manner of
aingingy mixed however with considerable feeUng,
which went to the hearts of his countrymen. He
sang like a true Bngllshnian. . . . His forte was
baOady and ballad not of the modem oast of
whining or wanton aentimentS but the original
manly enngetic strain of an earlier and better
age of Knglinh poesy and English song-writing,
sseh as 'Black-eyed Susan' and 'The Storm/
the bold and cheering hunting song, or the loye
sng of 9iield, breathing the chaste and simple
graoe €d genuine English melody.' All who had
heard Indedon's singing of * The Storm * (which
he sang in chaiacter as a sailor) were unanimous
in proDonncing it unique, bodi as a vocal and an
histrionic exhibition. Of the songs written ex-
pressly for him it may suffice to mention ^iield*s
'Heaving the lead' and * The Arethusa.^
Chablbs Yshanzio Ivolbdon, his eldest son,
origmaDy engaged in agiiouHural pursuits, but
ca Oct. 3» 1 829, appeared at Drury Lane Theatre
aa Toang Meadows in * Love in a Village,' and
shortly afterwards played Tom Tug in Dibdin's
'Waterman.' Meeting however with but very
moderate socoees he returned to his former
avocation, and, it is believed, emigrated to one
oftheocdoniea. [W.H.H.]
INGANNO, t.e. Deception. Any iWse or
deceptive Cadence, in which the Base proceeds,
from the Dominant, to any other note than the
Tonic: —
[W.S.R.]
INGLOTT, William, bom 1554, became or-
gamut of Norwich GathedraL He was disttn-
ganh«d for his skill as a performer on the organ
and virginals. He died in Dec i6ai aged 67,
and was buried Dec. 31 in the cathedral, where
OD the west side of the southern pillar adjoining
the entrance to the choir a painted monument to
his memory was placed June 15, 1623. Nearly
90 yean afterwards the monument, having
beeome dilapidated, was restored at the expense
of Dr. Croft. An engraving of it in its restored
state is given in 'The Posthumoua Works of Sir
ThomaB Browne,' 171a. [W.H.H.]
DTITIAIA ABSOLUTE. Though it is not
neesaaiy that a Plain Chaunt Melody should
begin on the Final, Dominant, <»r even Mediant,
of the Mode in whieh it is written, the choice of
the fint note is not left entirely to ib» Composer*s
dnoition. He can only be^ upon one of a
aeriea of sounds, selected frun the Begular or
> nSi «•• wrfOoB to ISU, dnxtef iMladoD'j ftbMMt te AflMriciL
IN NOMINE, 9
Conceded Modulations of the Scale in which he
writes, and invariably occupying the first place
in all Plain Chaimt Melodies referable to that
Scale. These sounds are called Absolute Initials.
Tl^eir number varies, in different Modes; no
Tonality possessing lees than three, or more than
six : and, among them, there are a few, which,
though fieely permitted, by law, are, in practice,
venr rarely used.
in the following Table, the letters, enclosed in
brackets^ denote the more unusual Initials : while
thoee printed in Italics indicate that the sounds
they represent are to be taken in the lower
Octave, even though they should thus be brought
beyond the normal bounds of the Mode,
Mod* I. C, D. F. O. A.
Mode n. A. C. D. F. [EJ
Mode III, B. [P 1 G. C.
Mode IV. C.D.E.P.£G.irAJ
Mode V. P. A. C.
Mode VI. P.[t\l[D.]
ModeVlL G. [A IB. CD.
Mode Vlir. C7. D. P. G. A. C,
Mode IX. Q, A. C. D. B.
Mode X. E. G. A. C. [B.]
SfodaXn B.CCJD.G.
fade XII.) G. A. B. C. [D J [EJ
ode Xni. C. [D.] E. G.
Mode XIV. [(?.] [A.] C. [D.l
The selection of some of these souncb'may
seem, at first right, a little arbitrary : but, in
truth, it is sometimes very difficult to decide
upon a suitable first note. This is particularly
the case with regard to Antiphons, the first notes
of which exercise a marked effect upon the Tones
to which the oorresponding Psalms are sung. It
will be remembered that the entire Antiphon ia
always repeated, immediately after the Psalm.
It follows, therefore, that, unless care be taken
to bring the last note of the Ending of the Psafan
Tone into true melodic correspondence with the
first note of the Antiphon, forbidden intervals
may arise. By a careful arrangement of the Abso-
lute Initials, the earlier writers on Plain Chaunt
did their best to reduce the danger of introducing^
such intervals to a minimum. [See AirriPHOir ;
MODB8, THE S00LK8IASTI0AL.] [W. S. R.]
INNIO. A word used by Beethoven during
his Grerman fit (op. loi, ist movement; 109,
last do.; lai h), and Schumann (op. la, *Dea
Abends ' ; op. 24, No. 9 ; op. 56, Nos. a and 4,
Manfi^ music, No. a, etc.) to convey an intensely
personal, almost devotional, fhune of mind. [G.]
IN NOMINE. A somewhat vagne name,
bestowed, by old English writers, on a oertain
kind of Motet, or Antiphon, c(»nposed to Latin
words. It seems to have been used, in the first
instance, for compositions the text of which began
with the words in question, or in whioh t]u>se
wOTds were brought prominently forward : suoh
a» the Introit, 'In nomine Jesu'; the Psalm,
' Deus, in nomine tuo' ; and other similar oases*
But its signification certainly became more ex-
tended : for Butler, writing in 1636, commenda
< the In nonUnes of Parsons, Tye, and Tavemer,'
just as we should commend the Madrigals of
Weelkes, or Morley, or Gibbons. The name ia
even employed for instrumental pieces.
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4 IN NOMIOTl
The term, In nomine, is also very reasonablj
M>plied to a Fuguis, in which the solmiistion of
the answer does not correspond with that of the
subject, and which, therefore, is a fugue in name
only. [See Hbzaohobd.] [W.S.B.]
IN QUESTA TOMBA OSCURA. A song of
Beethoven's for contralto, with P. F. accompani-
ment, to words by Carpani, written probably at
tiie invitation of the Countess von Rzewuska, and
forming one of sixty-three oompositions to the
same words by various musicians, professional and
amateur. Among the most eminent of the con-
tributors are Sab'eri, Sterkel, Cherubini, Asioli,
Bighini, Zingarelli, Weigl, Dionis Weber, Toma-
schek, Alois Forster, Paer, Eberl, Czemy. Zinga-
i*elli sent ten versions with quartet accompani-
ment. Ozemy's single setting occupied ii folio
pages. Beethoven's was the last in the volume,
and is the only one which has survived. The
Allgemeine Musik. Zeitung for Oct. 19, 1808,
in announcing the publication, prints two of the
settings, by Salieri and Sterkel, and in Jan. 18 10,
two more by Beichardt. For another joint^tock
volume in which Beethoven took part, see Ya-
TEBLANDISOHE KtJNSTLEBVEREIV. [6.]
INSCRIPTION (Lat. InacripHo, lUlMoUo).
A Motto, or Sign, or combination of both, placed
at the beginning of a Canon, to indicat , more or
less dearly, the manner of its Besolution.
During tJie latter half of the 15th century, the
founders of the Flemish School — ^by whom the
more abstruse forms of Imitation were assidu-
ouslv cultivated — seem chiefly to have aimed at
rendering the solution of their Enimme, or Mnig-
matical Canons, impossible. Some of their most
extravagant conceits are presented in the shape
of Crosses, Circles, Squares, Triangles, Bainbows,
Chess-boards, Sun-dials, and other equally fiEui-
tastic designs, without the addition of any due
whatever to their hidden meanings, (See ex-
amples in Hawkins, Hist. chap. 67.) But, more
firequently, they are written in a single line —
oUled, the Guides— h&sAadi by some old proverb,
or well-known quotation from Holy Scripture,
which, though ostensibly vouchsafed for the pur-
pose of giving the student some Ettle insight into
the secret of their construction, tends rather, as
a general rule/ to increase his perplexity. H^-
ings, such as these, are called Inscriptions: and so
obscure is their occasional meaning, that even
Glareanus calls one of them r^s <T<piyy6s aXpty/M,
Foremost among the composers of these in-
fsnious works, and high above them all, stands
osqiiin des Pr^, the i^finement of whose scholar-
ship is as clearly proved, by the grace of his
MotHf as his quite exceptional genius is by the
smooth flow of the Canons to which they are
prefixed. In the second Agnus Dei of his ' Missa
L'Ami baudichon,' he intimates that the Tenor
is to be silent, by the pretty Inscription, 'Agnus
secundum non est cum grege.' In another place,
he veils the same meaning under the Greek
proverb, fidrpaxot l« "Xfpvpw, in allusion to
.^Hian's statement that the frogs on the Island
of Seriphos do not croak. Other writers have
oonten^ themsdves with ' Vox &udbu0 hssit.'
INSCRIPTION.
To shew that the second Voice is to begin at
the end, and sing backwards, Hobrecht says,
plainly enough, ' Ut prius, sed didtur retrograde.*
Pierre de la Bue more sternly exdsims, 'Yade
retro, Sathanas.' Another quaint old Composer ^
writes, 'Canit more Hebrseorum*; reforing to*
the custom of reading Hebrew from right to left.
Josquin sums up the whole matter in a single
word — 'Cancriza,' ».«. walk like a crab. Equally
terse is the motto prefixed to the third Agntui
Dei in his 'Missa L'Omme arm^'; where the
omission of all rests, in one of the parts, is in-
dicated by the direction 'Clama ne cesses.'
Sometimes he gives us a French motto, as in his
' Missa de Beata Yirgine,' where * Yous jeunerez
les quatre temps ' shews that one part is to wait
four semibreves, before taking up the Subject —
a direction whioh is less poetically expressed by
another writer, in the words ' Fuga in epidii^)a8on«
post duo tempora' — 'aOanon in the Oc^ve above,
after two Semibreves.'
Some of Hobrecht's Inscriptions are very ob-
scure. ' Acddens potest ineese et abesse prseter
subjeoti oorruptionem' implies that the part may
be sung, or omitted, at will, without mjury to
the musia ' Decimas reddo omnia quee possideo'
shews that the (unwritten) Bass must sing »
Tenth bdow the Discant. * Tu tenor cancriza, et
per antifrasin canta' indicates that the Tenor is
to sing backwards, and, with all the intervals
inverted. Not less oracular is Mouton's *Duo
adversi adverse in unum,' which means that two
singers are to stand opposite eadi other, vrith the
Canon between them, each reading it upmde down
from the other's point of view — ^an arrangement
which is also dictated by *Beepice me, ostende
mihi faclem tuam.* More mysterious still is
' Justitia et Pax osculatse sunt' — indicating that
the two performers are to begin at opposite ends,
and meet in the middle.
When black notes are to be sung in the dme
of white ones, we sometimes find 'Nigra sum,
sed formosa*; or, *Noctem in diem vertere'; or,
*Dum habetis lucem credite in luoem.' By
*Crescit in duplum* (or 'triplum') we under-
stand that the notes are to be sung in Double
(or Triple) Augmentation. ^Tres dent aex
voces' means, that each of the three written
parts is to be doubled, in Canon, so as to f<»m a
compodtion for six Yoices.
The list of these hard sayings is interminable ;
and the hardness of many of them is increased
by the Signs of Mode, Time, and Prdation, with
which they are sometimes accompanied. For
instance, a Semicircle, a Semidrde with a Bar
drawn iJirough it, and a Circle with a Point in
the centre, would, if placed one above the other,
at the beginning of a Stave, serve to indicate
that one Yoice was to sing four Crotchets in a
Bar, another, four Minims, and the third, three
Semibreves. In the last Agnus Dd of Pierre de
la Bue's ' Missa Lliomme arm^,' we find a com-
bination of no less than four sudi Signs.
Following the example of Palestrina, the great
Composers of the *Grolden Age' cast all these
pediuitrieB adde, and wrote their really beautiful
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INSCRIPTION^.
dooni m notation which any singer oould readily
midtfrstand. Palestrinahimselfdelighis in making
twoVoioes sing in Canon, while three or four
odierB cany on the Sabject in dose Imitation, or
. eomphcated Free Fngue ; as in the lovely second
Agnus Dei of his 'Missa Brevis/ Imd many
others, equally beautifiiL In all these oases, the
Voices to which the Canon is committed are
expected to sing firom a single part; but, the
Inscriptifm pre&ed to that part is so plain, that
tbey find no difficull^ whatever in doing so.
TboB, 'Symphonizabis (Missa Brevis as above)
indicates a Canon in the Unison. * Canon in
Dispssoo* <ur ' Epidiapason,*^ a Canon in the
Octave above, and so on. The sign, $, or
•ome nmilar figure — called the Pre»a — indi-
eates the nlaoe at which the second Voice is to
bqgin; and a pause, ^, is placed over the note
on wHch it ends. The two Vdces can, therefOTe,
Bug just as easily firom a single part, as from two
Mpsiate copies.
In modem editions, the matter is still farther
simplified, by writing out the Canon in full;
tiio^h, in the best copies^ the Inscription is still
cut&Uy retained. [W.S.IL]
mSTTTUT, PRIX DE L', a prke of ao,ooo
francs founded by Napoleon III. in 1859, in
place of the ' Prix triennal ' instituted by the
decree of April L855. By a second decree, of
Dec aa, i860, it was enacted that from and
after 1861 the prise should be^ biemiial, and
AcM be awarded to such work or discovery, of
the ten yean previous to the award, as should be
deemed most honourable or useful to the nation,
in the department of each of the five Academies
of the Institute anocessively — ^1' Academic Fran-
calae, rAcad^mie des Insoriptiens et Belles
lettres, des Sciences, des Beaux-Arts, des Sdences
monies et poUtiques. The first prize was ad-
judged to M. Thiers, as the representative of
the Academic Fran^aise, in 1861. In 1867 the
torn of the Aoaddmie des Beaux Arts arrived,
and the prise was then awarded to F^icien Da-
vid, the only mumcisn who has obtained it, the
award on the second occasion, 1877, having been
made to a sculptor— M. Chapo. [Gk C]
INSTRUMENT (Lat. Ituirumentmn, Ital.
StronuMto), In general language, a tool, that
bj means of whic^ work is done; hence, in music,
in apparatus for producing musical sounds. Nu-
HMroQs as are the various kinds of instruments
in practical use at the present day, they form
bat a small proportion of the inmiense number
which have been invented and used from time
to time. Out of nearly 340 different kinds
>Mi^bioned in a list in Koch*s Musikalisehes
l^xicM (art. 'Instrument*) only 67 are given
M being in use at present, and some even of
these are merely varieties of the same genus.
Varioos causes have oontributed to the survival
of certain instruments and the extinction of others.
Qoshty of tone would of oourse be a powerfully
opwating cause, and praoticableness in a mecham-
«} sense would be scarcely less so ; but besides
tfn^ the various ways of combining instruments in
pvteuooe which prevailed at <Sfferent periods.
INSTRUMENT. S
had the effect of proving certidn of them to be
unnecessary, and so indirectly tended to abolish
them. Thus before the time of LuUy it was cus-
tomary for the most part to combine instruments
of the same class only, and we read of a ' Con-
cert of Violins,* 'Concert of Flutes,* etc. ; this
fact rendered necessary flutes of deeper compass
than are now used, and accordingly we find
tenor and bass flutee> extending downwards to
F on the fourth line of the bass stave.^ So soon
however as the combination of wind and stringed
instruments was found to be preferable, the fedi>le
bass of the flute would be insufficient and un-
necessary, and the larger kinds of flutes naturally
enough fcdl into disuse.
All musical sounds are the result of atmo-
spheric vibrations ; and sudi vibrations are excited
either directly, by bbwing with suitable force
and difiection into a tu^, or indirectly, by
agitating an elastic body, such as a stretched
string, whereby it is thrown into- a state of
vibration, and communicates its own vibrations
to the surrounding aiiu One ot other of these two
is the acting principle of every musical instru-
ment. On tracing the history of the two it does
not appear that either is of earlier date than the
other; indeed tradition with respect to both
carries us back from history into myth and fable,
the invention of the earliest form of stringed in-
strument, the Lyre, being attributed to the god
Mercury, who nnding the shell of a tortoise cast
upon the bank of the Nile, discovered that the
filaments of dried skin which were stretched across
it produced musical sounds ; while the invention
of the tibia or pipe — the earliest form of which
is said to have oeen made (as its name implies)
from the shank-bone of a crane — ^is variously
ascribed to Pan, Apollo, Orpheus and others.
To attempt to aescribe, however briefly, all
the various kinds of instruments which have
been in use frtMn the earliest ages to the present
day, would extend this article for beyond its due
Umits. It will only be possible to mention those
which are still of practical importance, referring
the reader for a fuller description to the articles
under the headings of their various names, and for
the earlier and now obsolete kinds to Hawkins's
History' of Muric, which contains copious ex-
tracts from the works of Blanchinus, Kircher,
Lnsdnius, and others, iUustrated by wood-cuts.
In all essential respects, instruments may be
divided into three classes ; namely, wind instru-
ments, the descendants of the pipe; stringed
instruments, descended from the lyre ; and instru-
ments of percussion. This classification, which
is of considerable 'antiquity, is not entirely
satisfoctory, as there are certain modem in-
struments which can scarcely be classed under
any one of its heads without confusion — ^for
instance the Harmonium, which although played
by wind, is not strictly a wind-instrument^ sinoe
I Ito LnllT't bdlet * Le trtomidM de rMM»r.* Tlirli. I6BI, tlnn k a
quartet at flutai, the Unntt pftrt of which U oolj poMible oo * btH
flate.
* Beprtnted hjr Norello end Oo. In Svob. Sro. IHB.
s CeakMlonM. writing In the 6th eeotniy, gWes the Mine thfM dl-
TUona, under tlw oemei M;laM<a« («w<UIto« todpfreKwiOMKa.
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6 INSTRUMENT.
its soimdf an produced not from pipes but firam
elastic reeds. Nevertheless the old arrangement
is sufficiently comprehensiye, and appears more
practical than any other.
I. Wind instruments (Ger. Bla$inttrwmenie ;
Ital. Stratnenii da ffento ; Fr. InstrumenU d vent).
These are of two kinds ; namely, those in whicli
a separate pipe or need is provided for each note,
and those in which the various notes are pro-
duced from a single tube» either by varying its
length, or b)r the action of the lip in blowing.
In the first land the wind is provided by means
of bellows, and is admitted to each individual
pipe or reed by the action of a key. The in-
struments of this kind are the Organ, Harmonium,
€kmoertina> and Accordion. The only members
of this class which dijffer from tiie others are the
Syrinx or Pan's-pipes (which although it possesses
« pipe for eadi sound has neither keys nor
beUows, but is blown directly with the breath)
and the Northumbrian and Irish Bagpipes,
which are provided with bellows, but have their
pipes pierced with holes, as in the flute. Wind-
uisbruments which have but a single tube are
made of either wood or metal (generally brass),
and the various sounds of which they are capable
are produced, in the case of two of the metal
instruments — ^the Horn and Trumpet, — by simply
altering the tension of the lips in blowing,
while in the others and in the wood instruments
this alteration is supplemented and assisted by
▼aiying the length of the tube. In brass in-
struments the length of the tube is altered in
three different ways ; first, by means of a slide,
•ne part of the tube being made to slip inside
the other, after the manner of a telescope;
secondly, by valves, which when pressed have
the effect of adding a small piece or tube to the
length of the circuit through which the wind
passes ; and thirdly, by keys, which uncover holes
in the tube, and so shorteoi the amount of tube
which is available for the vibrating column of air.
The brass instruments with slide are the Trom-
bone * and Slide Trumpet ; those with valves are
the Gcmet k pistons. Valve Horn, Valve Trumpet,
Fliigelhoni or Valve Bugle, Saxhorn, Valve
IVombone, Euphonium, Bombardon, Baas Tuba,
and Contrabass Tuba ; while those vrith kejB are
the Key-bugle or Kent Bugle and the Ophideide.
All these are played with a cup-ehaped mouth-
piece. Wood wind-instruments have the tube
pierced with holes, which are covered by the
fingers or by keys, and the uncovering of the holes
shOTtens the amount of tube available (or vibration
and so gives notes of higher pitch. Some of them
receive the breath diroctly through a suitably
shaped opening; these are the ^ute^ Piccolo
(i.e. JlatOo pUxolo, a small flute), Fife, and the
Flageolet and the toy 'tin whistle,* which two
last are survivors of the now obsolete family of
Jlutm d hea. In others the sound is produced
from the vibrations of a split reed, which is
either lingld and fixed in a fnm^ or mouthpiece,
as in the (Sarinet and Basseth<Hii [see Clabimet],
1 Vr. Ford's SlM*-Bora k hlgtdr ipokn «f Om ^ TMa). tmt H hM
INSTRUMENT.
or double, consisting of two reeds bound together
so as to form a tube with the upper end flattened
out, as in the Oboe, Cor Anglais or Oboe di
Caocia, Bassoon, and Contrafiigotto or Double
Bassoon. One wind-instrument of wood remains
to be mentioned, the use of which is beooming
rare, though it is still oocasionally met with
in military bands. This is the Serpent, wbioh
differs from all other wood instruments in having
a cup-sh^>ed mouthpiece, similar to that of tbe
trumpet. It is the only remaining member of a
now extinct ftunily of German wood instruments
called ^nken (Itel. Cometti), which were fior-
merly much used in the Church service, and
were in use as late as 1715 for playing oboraka
at the top of church towers.'
a. Stringed Instruments (G«r. 8aiten4»9trU'
merUe ; Itsl. Stromenti da oorde; Fr. IndrummU
d corde$). In all these the sound is produced from
stretched strings of either catgut, wire, or ooca-
sionally silk, tiie naturally feeble resoaanoe of
which is in all cases strengthened by a sound-
board. As with the wind-instruments, some
of these are provided with a separate string for
each note, wmle in others the various sounds are
obtained by shorteninff the strings, of which there
are now never fewer uian three, by pressure with
the fingers. Stretched strings are thrown into
vibration in three different ways^friction, pluck-
ing, and percussion.
The mode of friction usually employed is that of
a bow of horse-hair, strewn with powdered rosin
(see Bow), and instruments so played are called
'bowed instruments* (Ger. StreichinttrumenU),
They are the Violin, Viola ot Tenor, Violoncelld,
and Contrabasso or Double Bass ; and an humble
though ancient member of the same family is
occasionally met with in the Hurdy-gurdy, in
which the firiotion is produced by the edge of a
wooden wheel strewn with rosin and revolving
underneath the strings. In this instrument the
stopping or shortening of the strings is effected
by means of a series of keys, which are pressed
by the fingers of the left hand, while the right
hand turns the wheel. [See HoRDT-GufiDT.]
The instruments played by plucking are the
Harp, in which each note has a separate string,
and the Guitar, Mandoline, and Banjo, in whidi
the strings are ' stopped* by pressure with the fin-
gers upon a finger-board, provided with slightly-
raised transverse bars, called frets. In the Cither
or Zither, an instrument much used in Switzerland
and the Tyrol, 4 of the 29 strings are capable of
being stopped with the fingers, while the remaining
2$ are plaved ' open,' giving but one sound each.
In most of these instruments the pluiddng takes
place with the tips of the fingers {pizziciUo), but
m the Zither the thumb of the right hand is
armed with a ring bearing a kind of metal claw.
In the now obsolete Harpsichord and Spinet the
strings were also played by plucking, eacn key be-
ing provided with a small piece of quill or stiff
leather. [Jack.] Only two stringed instruments
> In M8S imi paMlahed to Fttrii ft
OoriMts, pftr H. Lft|«aa«.' J. S.Bft«h
ObiiNhOftatalM.
Phftotaile It dnq partlM, poor kt
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INSTRUMENT.
«re played by peroiukion — the Pianoforte and tlie
Dulcimer ; in. the former the strings are struck
by hammers attached to the keys, and in the
latter by two hammers held in the hands.
3. Instrmnents of Percussion (Ger. Seklag*
imairmmenU; Ital. StromenH per la percumcne;
"Ft. Imiruments d perciurion). These are of two
, kindly those whose chief use is to mark the
riiyUun, uid which therefore need not, and in
many eases do not, give a note of any definite
pitch, and those wluch consist of a series of
Tibnting bodies, each giving a definite note, so
thai the whde instrument possesses a scale of
greater or less extent. Of the instruments of
fadflftnite pitch, some are struck with drumsticks
er other suitable implements; these are the Bass
Drum, Side I>rum, Tambour de Provence, Gong
er Tam-tam, and Triangle ; others, such as Cym-
bals and Castagnettes, are used in pabs, and
are plfl^y^ by s&iking them toffether ; and one,
the Tambourine, or Tambour de Basque, is struck
with the open hand. The instruments of per-
cussion wluch give definite notes, and which
are therefore musical rather than rhythmical, are
the Kettle Drums (used in pairs, or more>.
Glockenspiel (bells used in mifitary bands and
oocasionaily with orchestra), and the Harmonica,
eoDsisting of bars of either glass, steel, or wood,
1 Wiling on two cords and struck with a hammer.
4. There are still one or two instruments to be
nentioned which are not easily classed in a^ of
Ihe three categories just described. In the Har-
numiam, Tfhich we have accepted as a wind-
instrument^ the sound is really produced by the
vibrations of metal springs, ctdled reeds, though
tiieae vibrations are certainly excited and main-
tained by the force of wind ; so also stretched
•trings may be acted uwrn by wind, and of this
the .£olian Harp is an illustration. [See .<£oliait
Habp.] Hie instrument or organ of Mr. Baillie
Hamilton, which is said to be a combination of
toDffne and string, is not suffidentiy perfected to
be described' here.
Metal tongues or reeds may also be played
by plucking, and this method is employed in
the so-called Musical Box, in which a s^ies of
■letal tongues are plucked by pins or studs fixed
ba a revolving barrel. — ^Another instrument played
by plucking, bnt possessing only a single reed or
tongue, is the Jews-harp. In respect to the pro-
dmiion of its various notes this instrument differs
from all others. It is played by pressing the iron
frame in wliich the reed is fixed against the teeth,
and while the reed is in a state of vibration altering
the form of the cavity of the mouth, by which
means certain sounds of higher pitch than the
\ fsndamental note may be produced, and simple
melodies played. These higher sounds appear to
be upper 'putial-tones* of the fundamental note
of the leedf which are so strongly reinforced by
the vibratioiis of the volume of air in the mouth
as to overpower the fundamental tone, and leave
ft just audible as a drone bass. — In the Hai^
toooiea proper, another mode of sound-production
ft enqdt^red, the edges of glass bowls being rubbed
fay a wetted finger^ [See HAEMonica.]
iNTBEMEZZO. 7
For ihuch of the information contained in this
article the writer is indebted to Schilling ' Unl-
versallexicon der Tonkunst.' [F.T.]
INSTRUMENTATION, see Obohbstbatioit.
INTERLUDE (CJerm. Zwiaehenapiel), A
short Voluntary, played, by English Organists of
the older School, between tiie verses of a Hymn,
or Metrical Psabn.
Fifty, or even thirty years ago, a good ex-
tempore Interlude was regarded as no un&ir test
of an Organist's ability. The late Mr. Thomas
Adams had a peculiar talent for Ydtntaries of
this kind : anc^ at S. Peter's, Walworth, John
Purkis charmed his |iearers, at about the same
period, with delightful littie efilisions which were
irequentiy fue more interesting than the Hymns
between the verses of which they were inter-
p<^ted. Of late years, however, the Interiude
has fallen so much into disuse that it is doubtful
whether a good one Is now to be heard in any
Church in England.
In French Cathedrals, a long and elaborate
Interlude is usually played, at v espers, between
the verses of the Magmficat, as wedl as those Of
the Hymn : and, at Notre Dame de Paris, S.
Sulpice, and other Churches built on the same
grand scale, where the Organ in the Choir is
supplemented by a larger one at the western end
of the Nave, a fine effect is sometimes produced
by the alternate use of the two instruments;
the smaller one being employed for the accompani-
ment of the voices, while tiie hunger is reserved
for the Interiudes alone.
Interludes are played, in Crermany, not between
the verses of the Chcnral, but between the separate
lines of each verse — an arrangement, which, how-
ever effective it may be in the hands of an
accomplished Organist, is generally very much
the reverse in those of a tyro. ^Good examples
are to be found in Ch. H. Rink's ' XXIV Chorale,'
op. 64, 1 804.) The delicious orchestral Interludes
which embeUish the Choral, 'Cast .thy burthen
upon the Lord,* in Mendelsohn's ' Elijah,' and
those on a more extended scale in 'Nun dajiket *
in the 'Lobgesang,' were evidently suggested by
this c^d German custom ; while the grand craw
of brass instruments, introduced between the lines
of 'Sleepers, wake!' in the same composer's
'S. Paul, illustrates, perhaps, the most striking
effect which it has yet been made to produce.
[See Chobalb.]
For an explanation of the word Interlude, in
its dramatic sense, see Iktebmszzo. [W. S. R.]
INTERMEZZO (Fr. Intermide, Enir* Acte.
Old. Eng. Enterlude), I. A dramatic entertain-
ment, of liffht and pleashig character, introduced
between vie Acts of a Tragedy, Comedy, or
Grand Opera ; either for the purpose of affording
an interval of rest to the performers of the
principal piece ; of allowixig time for the pre-
paration of a grand scenic effect ; or, of relieving
the attention of the audience from the excessive
strain demanded by a long serious performance.
The history of the Intermezzo Dears a very
important relation to that of the Opera ; more
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s
INTERMEZZO.
especially to tbat of the Opera Baffin with the
gntdual development of which it is very inti-
mately connected. The origin of both may be
traced back to a period of very remote antiquity.
It is, indeed, difficult to point out any epoch, m
the chronicles of Dramatic Art, in which the
presence of the Intermezzo may not be detected,
now in one form, and now in another. Its exact
analogue is to be found in the ScUiras of the old
Roman Comedy. In the Mysteries and Miracle
Plays of the Middle Ages — those strange oon-
necting-links between old things and new — it
assumeid the form of a Hynm, or Carol, sung,
either in chorus, or by the Angdo nwmo, to a
sort of Chaunt which seems to haye been tradi-
tionaL In a rare old work, by Macropedias, en-
titled, < Bassarus. Fabulafeetiyissima^ (Utrecht,
1553)* >ome yerses, adapted to a melody by no
means remarkable for its festiye character, are
^yen at the dose of eyery scene. And the
popularity of the Tune is sufficiently proved
by its persistent reiteration in other works of
nearly smiilar date.
:eto.
These rude beginnings contrast strangely
enough with the highly finuhed Intermezzi decen-
nially presented in the course of the Passion-Play
at Obier'Ammergan. But, the Passion-Play is
known to have undergone many important im-
provements, within a comparatively recent pe-
riod ; and its oase is, in every way, so ezoeptiomil,
that it is no easy task to determine its true posi-
tion as a historioil landmark.
Almost all the earlier Italian plays were
relieved by Intermezzi. Many of these were
simply Madrigals, sung by a greats or less
number of voices, as occasion served. Some-
times they were given in the form of a Chorus,
with instrumental accompaniment. The most
favourite style, perhaps, was that of a Song, or
Canzonetta, sung, by a single performer, in the
character of Orpheus. In no case was the sub-
ject of these peiformancee connected, in any way,
with that of the pieces between the Acts of
which they were interpolated. Their construc-
tion was extremely simple, and their importance
relatively small. We first find them assuming
grander proportions, at Florence, in the year
1589, on the occasion of the Marriage of the
Grand Duke Ferdinand, with Christine de
Lorraine. To grace this ceremony, Giovanni
Bardi, Conte di Yemio, produced a new Comedy,
entitled VAmioo fido, yrith Intermezzi, d grand
Bpectacle, prepared expressly for the festival,
and presented with a degree of splendour hitherto
unknown. For the fiiit of these, called 'The
Harmony of the Spheres,* the poetry was written
by Ottavio Rinuccini, and the music composed
by Emilio del Cavaliere, and Cristofano Mal-
vezzi. The second, also written by Rinuccini,
and allied 'The Judgment of the Hamadryads,'
was set to music by Luca Marenzio. For
INTERMEZZO.
the third, called *The Triumph of Apollo,' in*
vented by Bardi, and written by ^^nuooiniy
the music was composed, partly by Xiuca Ma-
renzio, and partly, it is said, by the Conte di
Vemio himself. The fourUi, entitled 'The
Infernal Regions,* was written by Pietro Strozzi,
and accompanied by sombre music, composed,
by Giulio Cacdni, fisr Violins, Viole, Lutes,
Lyres of all forms. Double Harps, Trombones,
and * Organs of » Wood.' The fifth—* The Fable
of Arion' — was written by Rinucdni, and set
to music, by Cavaliere and Malvezzi.
This grand performance naturally gave an
extraordinary impulse to the progress of dramatic
music. Within less than ten years, it was fol-
lowed, in the same city, by the production of
the first Opera Seria, at the Palazzo Corsi.
Meanwhile, the Intermezzo steadily continued to
advance in interest and importance. Guarini
(1537-161 2) wrote Intermezzi to his own Pcutor
Ftdo, in the form of simple Madrigals. In 1623,
UAmorosa Iimoeensa was produced, at Bologna^
accompanied by Intermezzi delta Coronazione di
ApoUot per Dafns eonvertita in Lauro, set to
music by Ottavio Yemizzi. This work intro-
duces us to a new and extremely important
epoch in the history of the branch of Dramatic
Art we are now considering. By d^prees, the
Intermezzi were made to embody a uttle con-
tinuous drama of their own. Their story—
always quite unconnected with that of the
principal piece — ^was more carefully elaborated
than heretofore. Graduidly increasing in co-
herence and interest, their disjointed mem-
bers rapidly united themselves into a consistent
and connected whole. And thus, in process of
time, two distinct dramas were presented to the
audience, in alternate Acts; the character of
the Intermezzi being always a little lighter than
that of the piece between the divisions of which
they were played, and on that very account, per-
haps, better fitted to win their way to public
favour. The merry wit inseparable from the
Neapolitan School undoubtedly did much for
them ; and, before long, they began to enter into
formidable rivalry wiSi the more serious pieces
they were at first only intended to relieve.
Their popularity spread so widely, that, in
1723, a collection of them was printed, in two
volumes, at Amsterdam ; and so lasting was it,
that, to this day, a light Italian Operetta is
frequently called an Intermezzo in Miuica.
The next great change in the form of the
Intermezzo, tiiough really no more than the
natural consequence of those we have already
described, was suflSciently imp<^tant, not only
to mark the culminating point in its career,
but to translate it, at once, to a n»here of Art
little contemplated by those who first called it
into existence. Already complete in itself all
it now needed was independence : an exist-
ence of its own, apart from that of the graver
piece to which it owed its original raison ditre,
ouch an existence was obtained for it, by the
simple process of leaving the graver piece—
lOrgauidtUgno*
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INTERMEZZO.
vliether Tragedy, Comedy, or Serious Opera—
to depend upon its own reBonrceSy whue the
Intermezzo, with its once disconnected links
united in unbroken sequeiioe, was performed as
a leparate work, in one Act. This resolution
was effected chiefly by the genius of a young
composer, whose untimely death, considered in
relation to its influence upon the Lyric Drama,
can never be sufficiently deplored. From be-
ginning to end, the narrative of Pergolesi's Art-
life is identified with the ultimate fate of the
Intermezzo. His first important composition —
a Sacred Drama, called 8an Oaglielmo d'Aqui-
ttmia — was direnofied by Intermezzi, of a play-
fbl character, introduced between its principal
dxrinons. TTis greatest triumph — La Serva Pa-
drtma — ^was, iiseif, an Intermezzo, pur et simple.
This delightful work — ^the whole interest of which
is centred in two characters, whose voices are
aooompanied only by a stringed band — was first
produced, in Italy, between the Acts of another
piece, in the year 1734. Its success was un«
Doonded. It soon found its way to every Capital
in Europe ; and, everywhere but in France, was
received with acclamation. The French, however,
were slow to appreciate it at its true value. Its
first performance in Paris, Oct. 4, 1746, was
little short of a failure : but when, Aug. i, 17^2,
h was played between the Acts of Lulli's Ads
d Oakah^ it originated a feud between the
'LuDistes' and the ' Boufibnnistes,* scarcely less
bitter than that which raged, at a later period,
between the rival followers of Gluck and Piccinni.
National vanity forbade the recognition of the
Italian style : national good taste forbade its
rejection. Bonsseau, with characteristic im-
Mtuodty, threw himself into the thick of the
nay; fought desperately on the Italian side;
dedared French Opera impossible ; and stulti-
fied his own arguments by the immediate pro-
duction of a French Intermide — the well-known
Levin du VUlcbge, Long after this, the con-
troversy raged, with unabated fioy: but, in
npite of the worst its enemies could do, La Serva
Padrona exercised a salutary and lasting effect
upon French dramatic music — indeed, upon
dramatic music everywhere. In 1750 it met
with an enthusiastic reception in England. Its
incoesB was as lasting as it was brilliant : and,
sfanost to our own day, it has kept its place upon
the stage, not between the Acts of a Serious
Opera, but as an independent piece; marking
the critical period at which the history of the
Intermezzo merges, permanently, into that of
the Opera Bufb, ito legitimate heir. [See Ofeba
BOPPA.]
The anomalous character of this sweeping
change becune at once apparent. It was as
neoeasaiy as ever, that, on certain occasions, some
•ort of entertainment should be given between
the Acts of serious pieces. The Intermezzo hav-
ing so far outgrown its original intention as to
be utterly useless for this purpose, Bomething
dse must needs be found to supply its place.
The Dance was unanimously accepted as a sub-
ititQte; and soon became excee^gly popular.
INTEBMEZZO. ^
And &U8 arose a new species of Interlude, which
at no time, perhaps, attained a greater degree
of perfection, than under the ' Lumley Manage-
ment' at Her Majesty*s Theatre, where, night
after night, a BaUet Divertissement^ with Cerito,
or Carlotta Grisi, for its principal attraction, was
given between the Acts of a Grand Opera, sung
by Grisi, Persiani, Rubini, Tamburini, and La-
blache ; the long line of successes culminating in
that memorable Pas de Quatre, which, danced
by Taglioni, Fxumy Elsler, Carlotta Grisi, and
Cerito, is still regarded as one of the greatest
triumphs of Terpsichorean Art on record.
Instrumental music is frequently played, in
Grermanv, after the manner of an Ix&termezzo.
The noble Entr'aotee composed by Beethoven,
for Schiller's 'Bgmont,' by Schubert for *Itosa-
munde,' and by Mendelssohn, for Shakspeare's
''Midsummer Night's Dream,' are familiar to
every one. These, of course, can only be pre-
sented in association with the great works they
were originally designed to illustrate. But, less
appropriate musio, good enough of its kind,
though intended for other purposes, was, at one
time, by no means unoommon. We once heard
Yieuztemps play a Violin Concerto between the
Acts of an Opera^ at Leipzig, in the days when the
Orchestra was under uie masterly direction of
Ferdinand David : and, in the year 1845, Alboni
(then unknown in England) sang several of her
&vourite Songjs, in the same pretty little Theatre,
between the Acts of a play. Such performances
as these may, naturally enough, be repeated,
at any time. But, with our present ideas of
Art, anything like a revival of the Intermezzo,
in its older form, would manifestly be impossible.
We may learn much fix>m its history, which is
both instructive, and entertaining : but, for all
practical purposes, we must be content to leave
it in the obscurity to which, since the production
of La Serva Padrona, it has been not unprofit-
aiblv consigned.
II. The word is also used for a short movement,
serving as a connecting-link between the larger
divisions of a Sonata, Symphony, or other great
work, whether instrumental, or vocal ; as in No.
4 of Schumann's ' Faschiogsschwank aus Wien'
(op. 26). The beautiful Intermezzo which,
under the name of ' Introduzione,' lends so
charming a grace to Beethoven's 'Waldstein
Sonata' (op. 53) is said to be an after- thought,
inserted in place of the well-known * Andante in
F' (op. 35), which, after due consideration, the
great Composer rejected, as too long for the
position he originally intended it to occupy. The
term is however used for larger movements : —
as by Mendelssohn for the 3rd movement in his
F minor Quartet (op. a), or for the 'grand
adagio' which, under the name of 'Nachruf,' he
specially composed in memory of his friend Bitz,
and inserted m his Quintet, op. 18, in lieu of the
previous Minuet (Letter, Feb. 21, 1832) ; or for
the Entracte expressive of Hermia's search for
Lysander in the Midsummer Night's Dream
musio. The 2nd movement of Goetz's Symphony,
virtually a Scherzo, is entitled Intermezzo.
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INTERMEZZO.
Schmnaim and Brahms, again, hare bo& vied
the word to denote independent pieces of small
dimensions, the former in his * Opera 4' — six
pieces usually consisting of a main tiieme and an
Altemativo ; and the latter in his latest publi-
cation (op. 76), eight pieces for the P.F., of which
4 are Capriccios and 4 Intermezzi. [W.S.R.]
INTERRUPTED CADENCE is a progres-
sion which seems to tend towards the final Tonic
chord of a perfect cadence through the usual
Dominant harmony, but is abrupSy deflected;
fto that the promised conclusion is deferred by the
substitution of other harmony than that of the
Tonic, afber the Dominant dhord which seemed
to lead immediately to it.
The form which is frequently quoted as typi-
cal is that in which the chord of Uie tfubmediant
or third below the Tonic is substituted for the
final Tonic chord, as —
instead of
from which the principle will be readily grasped.
In reality the number of different forms is
only limited by the number of chords which can
possibly succeed the Dominant chord, and it is
not even necessary that the chord which follows
it and makes the interruption shall be in the
same key.
Handel frequently used the Interrupted Ca-
dence to make the final cadence of a movement
stand out individually and prominently. The
following example, which is made to serve this
purpose, is from his Fugue in B minor from the
set of Six for the Organ, and is very characteristic
of him :^
^^^ ^ Adoffh
It is interesting to compare this with the con-
clusion of the last movement of Schumann*s
Sonata for Pianoforte in G minor, where a veiy
definite Interrupted Cadence is used for the
same purpose of enforcing the final cadence of
Ihe work by isolation, and the process is carried
but in a thoroughly modem spirit and on an
extended scale. The Interrupted Cadence itself
is as follows : —
INTERRUPTED CADENCSi.
Bach frequently used Interrupted Cadences to
prolong the conclusion of a work, and a form
which seems to have been a great favourite with
him is that in which the Tonic minor seventh
succeeds the Dominant chord, thereby leading to
a continuance and enforcement of the Tonic in
the succession of chords at the conclusion. There
are very remarkable and bteutiful examples of
this in the Prelude in £b minor, No. 8, in the
Wohltemperirte Clavier, the last — ^four bam from
the end— being in the form above mentioned. Hie
efibct of this form of the Interrupted Cadence is
most powerful when the seventh is in the bass,
and of this there is a veiy striking instance in
his Cantata ' Jesu, der du meine S&eXt,* which ^
as follows :-*•
Mozart uses the Interrupted Cadence m a
similar manner to extend the movement or the
section in which it occurs. As an example from,
him, which presents yet another form, the fol-
lowing from his Quartet in A, No. 5, may be
taken: —
Beethoven also uses Interrupted Cadences for
similar purposes to the instances (quoted above ;
but latteriy he employed them m a rnann^
which it is important to take note of as highly
characteristic and conspicuous in modem music
This is the use of them actually in place of a
p^foct cadence, taking them as a fr^ starting
point, by which means greater continuity is ob-
tained. A well-known example is that at the
end of the slow movement of the Appaasionata
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INTEEBUPTED CADENCE.
8o&ftt«) hy meaDB of which the two last moTe*
iBMtB MO made continuous* Two very remark-
able Mid numirtakeable instances occur also in
the first moTsment of the Sonata in E (op. 109),
one ef wlooh has already been quoted in tiie
ar^de Cadbngi. Anotiier instance occurs in
the Qutftet in A (op. 13a), where the 'working
oat' oommenoes; the cadence of F major is
iatflmipted at *, and the 'working out* com-
mences in the next bar, proceeding immediately
with modulation^ as follows >^
INTEBYAL.
11
Wagner hai made great use of this devioe, and
hj it tecures at once the effect of a conclusion
sad an uninterrupted flow of the music; the
▼oice or voices having a form which has all the
i^)pesrance of A taU (»denoe» and the instruments
supplying a forcible Interrupted Cadence which
kau on immediatdy and witiiout break to the
■Qcoeeding action. An example which will prob-
tbly be familiar is that at the conclusion of the
chorus at the beginning of the 4th seene of the
tnd act of Loh^igrin, where Ortruda suddenly
itsfw forward and claims the right to precede
£ltt into the cathedral. Another instance whidi
iUostrates the principle very clearly is the fol-
bwii^ from the 3rd scene of the ist act «f
THrtan and Isolde :—
■dr iMhtdM A-bea • t«aert
Beethoven also made ocdwional use of this
derice in Fidelio. One specially clear instance
b in theFlniae of the Ust act, at the end of Don
Femsndo's sentence to Leonora — 'Euch, edle
^u, allein, euch ziemt es, ganz ihn zu befrei*n.'
By Booh means as this, one scene is welded on
to soother, and the action is relieved of that
constant breach of continuity which resulted
from the old manner of coming to a full dose
»nd beginning again. [C.H.H.P.]
INTEBYAL. The possible gradations of the
pildi of musical sounds are infinite, but for the
pupoees of the art certain relative distances of
hai^t and lowness have to be definitely deter-
niined and maintained. The sounds so chosen
y* the notes of the tvtstem, and the distances
hfltwesn them are the Intervals. With different
objects in view, di^rent intervals between th&
sounds have been determined on, and various
national scales present great diversities in this
respect — for instance the ancient Gaelic and
Chinese scales were constructed so as to avoid
any intervals as small as a semitone ; while some
nations have made use of quarter-tones, as we
have good authority for fo^eving the Muezzins
do in calling the &ithful to prayer, and the
Dervishes in reciting their litanies. The inter-
vals of the ancient Greek scales were calculated
for the development of the resources of melody
without hannony ; the intervals of modem scales
on the other hand are calculated for the develop-
ment of the resources of harmony, to whidi
melody is so far subordinate that many diaracter*
istic intervals of modem melody, and not un£re^
quently whole passages of melody (such as the
whole first melodio phrase of Weber's Sonata in
Ab), are based upon the use of consecutive notes
of a single ohoni; and they are often hardhr
imaginable on any other basis, or in a scale which
has not been expressly modified for the purposes
of harmony. Of the qualities of the different
intervals which the various notes form with one
another, different opinions have been entertained
at different times ; the more important classifica-
tions in^oh have been proposed by theorists im
mediaeval and modem times are given in the
article Habmokt.
Hie modem scale-system is, as Helmholtz hai
remarked, a product of artiitio invention* and
the determinatiom of the intervals which separate
the various notes took many centuries to arrive
at. By the time of Bach it was clearly settled
though not in general use, and Bach himself gave
his most empluktic protest in favour of the equal
temperament upon which it is based in his
Wohltemperirte Clavier, and his judgment has
had great influence on the development of modem
music. According to this system, whioh is
specially calculated for unlimited interdiange of
keys, the semitones are nominally of equal dimen-
sions, and each octave contains twelve of them.
As a consequence the laiger intervals contiuned
in the tempered octave are all to a certain
extent out of tune. The fifth is a little less
than the true fifth, and the fourth a little larger
than the true fourth. The major thirds and
sixths are considerably more than the true major
thirds and sixths, and the minor thirds and
sixths a good deal less than the true minor thirds
and sixths. The minor seventh is a little larger
than the minor seventh of the tme scale^ whioh
is represented by the ratio 9 : 16, and is a mild
dissonance; and this again is larger than the
haimonic sub-minor seventh whioh is represented
by the ratio 4:7; and this is so slight a dis-
sonance that Helmholtz says it is often mere
harmonious than the minor sixth.
The nomenclature of intervals is unibrtunately
in a somewhat confused state. The commonest
system is to describe intervals which have two
forms both alike consonant or diasonant as ' major '
and ' minor' in those two forma. Thus major and
minor thirds and sixths are consonant, and major
and minor sevenths and ninths are dissonant ; and
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INTERVAL.
where they are oapshle ol further redaction ihey
are called ' diminished,* as diminished thirds and
sevenths ; and when of further enlargement as
' augmented,* as augmented sixths. With inter-
vals which have only one normal form the terms
'major' and 'minor' are not used; thus fifths
and fourths lose thebr consonant character on
being eiUier enlarged or reduced bv & semitone,
and in these forms they are called reroectiveiy
' augmented ' and ' diminished * fifths and fourths.
The intennJ of the augmented sixth is indif-
ferently called 'superfluous* or 'extreme sharp'
sixth; and the same terms are applied to the
fifth ; the term 'fidse ' is also used for diminished
in relation to the fifth and for augmented in
relation to the fourth.
The term * Imperfect* is used I& two senses in
relation to Intervals. In the classification of
Consonances it was common to divide them into
perfect and imperfect, or perfect^ middle and
inmerfeot; but as the classification varied at
different times reference must be made for details
to the article Habmoitt (vol. i. pp. 669-685). On
the other hand, when an interval is commonly
known in its normal condition as perfect, such as
a fourth or a fifth, it is natural p» contra to speak
of the interval which goes bv the same name^
but is less by a semitone, as ' imperfect.*
For further details on the subject see Teh-
PEBAMEKT. [C.H.H.P.]
^ INTONATION (Lat. Intonatio). I. The
initial phrase of a Plain Chaunt melody : usually
sung, either by the Officiating Priest, alone, or,
by one, two, or four leading Choristers. Some
of the most important Intonations in general use
are those proper to the Gregorian Tones. Though
differing widely in character and expression,
these venerable Chaunts are all constructed upon
the same general principle, and all exhibit the
same well-marked combmation of four distinct
elements — ^the Intonation, the Reoiting^Note, the
Mediation, and the Cadence. The first of these,
with which alone we are now concerned, consists
of a few simple notes, leading upward»— except
in one peculiar and somewhat abnormal case — ^to
the Dominant of the Psalm about to be sung,
and thus connecting it with its proper Antiphon.
[See Antiphon.] Now, as each Mode has a
fixed Dominant upon wUch the greater part of
every Psalm is recited, it follows, that each Tone
must also have a fixed Intonation, to lead up to
that note: and this principle is so far carried
out that two Tones, having a common Reciting-
Note, have generally, though not always, a
common Intonation — as in the case of Tones I
and VI, III and Vlll. This rule, however, is
broken, in the case of Tone IV ; which, though
its Reciting Note is identical with that of Tone I,
has a peculiar Intonation of its own.^ Almost
all the Tones have one form of Intonation for
the Psalms, and another for the Canticles ; while
Bome few add to these a third variation, which
> Thooffh oonstnietad of slinll«r Interrak, Uw Inton&tlons of IVnim
n and III arc not Identical. Bj no penntoriblo form of timnspotltion.
eoald tha Q, A. 0 of tbe latter be substUoted for the C. D. F of ttie
INTONATION.
is used only for the second part of the Introit.
[See Iktboit.] The subjoined forms are taken
from the editions of the Roman Yesperal, and
Gradual, lately published at Ratisbon; in the
former of whidi, the Intonation assigned to the
Magnificat, in the Sixth Tone, varies widely
from the more usual reading given in the Mechlin
edition. The forms used for the Introit so nearly
resemble those for the Canticles, that we have
thought it necessary to give those of the Fourth
and Sixth Tones oidy.
T^mal.
For the Frnlnis.
Tone n.
Tone in.
Fortbe'HsgnUIost^
Tonet. TonelL
For the Paalm *In Exltu Israd.'
Irregolar or Peregrine Tone.
Tone IV.
FoK the Introit.
ToneYL
The Intonation is usuallv sung to the first
verse, only, of each Psalm, but, to every verse
of the Magnificat and Benedictus. When sung
before the first verse only, whether of Psalm or
Canticle, it is assigned either to the Officiating
Priest, or to the two leading Choristers. Before
the remaining verses of the Magnificat, and
Benedictus, it is sung by the whole Choir.
The opening phrases of the Antiphon, the anti-
phonal portion of the Introit, the Gradual, and
many oUier Plain Chaunt Anthems and Hymns,
are also sung, as Intonations, either by a single
Priesti or by one, two, or four leading Choristers.
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INTONATION",
The Gloria in exeelsi$, and Credo, Iiftve fixed
IntonAtiQiis of their own, which maybe found in
their pr<^>er places, in the Missal.
It IB always interesting to observe the use
made, by modem composers, of antient materials :
and we shall find that some of the Intonations
fpjnau in our examples, have been turned, by the
greatest Masters of the modem School, to veir
profitable nsea indeed. For instance, Handel^
m * The Lord gave the word,' firom * The Messiah,'
uses the Intonation of the First Tone, transposed
a fourth higher, with wonderful eflect —
TiMlKnd gM« tlMwoidi
▼hUe that of the Eighth (as sung to the Mag-
nificat) has been employed, in a very striking
manner, by Mendelssohn, in the 'Lobgesang' —
etc
We have selected these instances firom in-
mmierable others, not only because the chief
intoest of the works mentioned is centred in
those few simple notes; but because, in both
cases, the phrases in question are really used as
Intonations — ^Le. as initial phrasoo, given out in
mnson, to be continued in harmonious chorus.
Whether the composers were conscious of the
Knuoe of the ideas they treated with such masterly
power, is a question open to argument: but,
there can be no doubt that John Sebastian Bach,
when writing his great Mass in B minor, chose
the opening subject of his magnificent Credo,
nmnly because it was the Intonation assigned
to the Credo in the Plain Ghauat Mass —
That the effect with which Bach introduces this
grand old subject was not lost upon Mendelssohn,
is evident, firiom a passage in a letter written
from Rome, by the last-named composer, to his
fi^ends in Germany (April 4, 1831).
II. The art of singing, or playing, correctly
in tmie. Thus, we say that the intonation of
Rich and such a performer is either true, or fiUse,
as the case may be. For a detailed account of
the conditions upon which perfect tune depends,
Bse Tkhpjerambmt. [W. S. B.]
INTONING. The practice of singing the
evening phrase of a Psalm, Canticle, or other
peoe of Ecclesiastical Music, not in full chorus,
m, as a solo, or semi-chorus, asdgned either to
INTRODU(
a single Priest, or to one,
Choristers. Tlie term is
misapplied. For instance,
told that the Litany, or
was 'intoned* by some particular \
the word used shoi^ have been, in \
'sung/ and, in the other, 'monotoned.'
INTRADA or ENTRATA. Ateri
an opening movement, as by Beethoven
introductory peoe of the ' Battle-Symphony * of
his Battle of Vittoria, or for the first movement
of the Serenade, op. 25. 'Intrade' is used by
Mozart for the overture of his ' Bastion ' (K. 50) ;
and 'Intrada o Concerto' by Bach for an in-
dependent movement (Cat. No. 117). [See
Entbbb a.] [G.]
INTRODUCTION. The main purpose of an
Introduction in music is either to summon the
attention of the audience, or to lead their minds
into the earnest and sober mood which is fittest
for the appreciation of great thln^. The manner
in which these purposes are accomplished varies
greatly with the matter which is to follow. If
that be light and gay any noise will answer the
purpose, such as brUliant passages or loud chords ;
out if it be serious it is manifest that the Intro-
duction should either have proportionate inherent
interest or such dignity of simplidty as cannot be
mistaken for trivi^ty. It is interesting to note
the manner in which this has been carried out by
great masters, and the more important relations
which seem to subsist between a movement and
its Introduction in their works.
In the first place there are many examples
of simple signals to attention ; such as the
single independent chord which opens Haydn's
Quartet in Eb (Trautwein No. 33) ; the simple
cadence which introduces liis Quartet in C, op. 73
(Trautwein No. 16), and the group of chords with
cadence which precedes the Quartet in Bb, op. 7a
(Trautwein No. la). These have no other re-
lation to the movement than that of giving notice
that it is about to commence, and are appropriate
enough to the dear and simple form of Uie Haydn
Quartet. Similar examples are to be remarked
in very different kinds of music ; as for instance
at the oommencement of the Eroica Symphony,
where the quiet soberness of the beginning of
the movement seems to call fox some signfJ to
attention, while its supreme interest from the
very first seems to indicate that introductory
elaboration would be out of place. In Chopin's
Nocturne in B major, acain, it is not difficult to
see the reason for the adoption of the two simple
forte chords with which it is introduced ; since
the conmiencement of the Nocturne proper is so
Suiet and delicate that without some such signal
le opening notes might be lost upon the au-
dience ; whilst a more developed Introduction
would clearly be disproportionate to the dimen-
nons of the piece.
In great orchestral works, such as symphonies,
Haydn usually commences with a set and formal
Introduction m a slow tempo, which marks the
importance of the work, and by remaining so
close to the principal key of the movement as
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INTRODUCTION,
liardly ever to pan the limits of the Tonic and
Dominant keys, aaaiits the andienoe to realioe
the tonality. Mozart did not follow the example
of Haydn in this respect, as many of his sym-
phonies are without InteoductionBy— especially
the well-known ones in G (Jupiter) and G minor.
In quintets, quartets, sonatas, and such fonns of
chamber-music he is also sparing of Introductions,
but there is an example of some extent in the
quintet for pianoforte and wind in £b (Kochel,
453), in which the harmonic sucoessionB are
simple, and there is a more celebrated one to the
string quartet in 0, in which the harmonic bases
Taiy more freely than in other examples of that
period which can be adduced,
Beethoven b^gan fiiDm the first to follow up
this point, and it is said that some pedants never
forgave him for opening the Introduction to his
Symphony in 0 (No. i) with chords which appear
not to belong to that key. The Symphony m D
again (No. a) has a very important Introduction,
in which there is free modulation, such as to Bb
and F, and many passages and figures of great
beauty and interest. In the Symphony in Bb
the introductoiy Adagio is in the highest degree
beautiful and unpressive^ and contains modula-
tion even to the degree of an enharmonic change.
In the Symphony in A the idea of the independ-
ent Introduction culminates. It has a decidedly
appreciable form and two definite subjects. It
opens with great dignity and decision in A major,
and passes thence to C, the key of the minor third
above, in which a clear and beautiful second sub-
ject is given ; after this the figures of the opening
are resumed and a short transition is made back
to the original key, passing on fix>m thence to F
major, the key of the third below, in which the
second subject again a|^>ear8. From this key
the transition to £, the Dominant of the original
key, is at the same time easy and natural and
sufficiently interesting; and considerable stress
being laid upon this note both by its continuance
in the harmonies and its reiteration individually,
it thoroughly prepares the definite commence-
of the Vivace.
In the above instances the Introdu^on is
practically an independent movement, both as
regards ihe substance and the dear division
which is made between it and the succeeding
movement by a full or half close. In many of
his later works Beethoven made an important
change in respect of the connection between the
Introiuction and the movement introduced ; by
abolishing the marked break of continuity, by
the use of figures which are closely related in
both, and by carrying the subject matter of the
Introduction into the movement which follows.
One of the clearest and most interesting ex-
amples of his later treatment of the Introduction
is in the first movement of the Sonata in £b,
op. 81 a, in which the introductory Adagio opens
with the text of the movement, which is con-
stantly reiterated in the 'working out* of the
Allegro, and yet more constafitiyand persistently
and witii many transforma/tions in the lone and
beautiful coda. H^instein has adopted the
INTEODUCTION,
same device in his Dramatic Symphony in D
minor; in which also the first subject of the
first movement proper is a transformed versioa.
of the opening subject of the Introduction.
In several of his later Quartets Beeihovea
makes the most important material of the Intro-
duction appear in the movement which follows
it^ in different ways — as in the Quartet In £b»
op. 1 27, and that in Bb, op. 130, and A, op. 152,
in the last two of which the subjects of the
Introduction and the first movement are very
closely intermixed. In the £b Ooncerto also
the Introduction reappears with certain varia-
tions of detail in the latter part of the movement
previous to the 'recapitulation* of the subject.
In its intimate connection with the movement
which follows it, the Introduction to the first move-
ment of the 9th Syn^hony is most remarkaUe.
It commences m^^steriously with the open fifUi of
the Dominant, into which the first rhythms oi
the first subject begin to drop, at first sparsely,
like hints of what is to come, then closer and
closer, and louder and louder, till the complete
subject buxists-in in full grandeur vrith the Tonic
ohoid. In this case the introductory form re-
appears in the course of the movement, and also
l»4efly in the discussion of the previous themea
which immediately precedes the commencement
of the vocal portion of the work.
After Beethoven no composer has grasped the
ideaof intimatelyconnectingthe Introduction with
the work which it introduces more successfully
than Schumann, and many of the examples in his
woriu are highly interesting and beautiful. In
the Symphony in G, for instance, a striking figure
of the opening reappears in the first movement, in
the scherzo, and in the last movement. In the
Symphony In D, in which all the movements are
closely connected, the introductory phrases are
imported into the Romanze. where they occupy
no unimportant position. In his Sonata in D
minor, for violin and pianoforte, op. lai, the
Introduction proposes in broad and clear outUnea
the first subject oi the succeeding allegro, in
which it is stated with greater elaboration. The
Overture to Manfred affords another very inters
esting specimen of Schumann*s treatment of the
Introduction. It opens with three abn4>t chorda
in quick tempo, after which a slow tempo is
assumed, and out of a sad and mysterious com-
mencement the diief subject of the Overture
prcmer is made by degrees to emerge. An earlier
anuogue to this is the Introduction to Bee-
thoven*s £gmont Overture, in which one of the
diief figures of the first subject of the overture
seems to grow out of the latter part of the in-
troduction.
Of all forms of musical composition none are
more frequently preceded by an Introduction
than overtures; the two above mentioned, and
such superb examples as those in tiie Overtures
to Leonora Nos. a and 3, and to Coriolan, and
such well-known ones as those to Weber's Der
Freischtitz and Oberon, Schumann's Genoveva,
and Mendels8ohn*8 Buy Bias, will serve to
illustrate this fact.
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inversion;
•r the Inkerval eoiTiyet the operation, tmchan^ed,
and aaaerts itself^ with eqtuJ force, in the Invendon.
In whaterer positionthej may be taken* Consonant
Intervals remain always ^consonant; Dissonant
Intenrals, dissonant; sAd Perfect Intervals, per-
fect. [See Intebval.]
IV. A Chord is said to be Inverted, when any
Bote, other than its Boot, is taken in the lowest part.
Thus, if the Root of aCommon Chord be trans-
posed £rom the lowest part, to one of the upper
parts, and the Third placed in the Bass, thechange
will produce the Chord of the 6-3. If the Fifth be
nmilariy treated, the result of the transference will
be the Chord of the 6-4. Hence, the Chord of the
^5 is called the First Inversion of the Common
Chord; and ^e Chofd dTthe 6-4, the Second.
GommoB Fbvt Second
Chord. InverdOfU Imranion.
IONIAN MODE;
if
If the same process be applied to the Chord of
the Seventh, we shall, by successively taking the
llurd, fifth, and Seventh, in the Bass, obtain
its three Invasions, the 6-5-3, ^^ 6-4-3, and the
6.4-a.
Second
Inwskm.
Cberdofthe
Serenth
Pint
Invenioii.
Third
Inverdoii.
I I I
Chords, in their normal form, with the Root
in the Bass, are called Fundamental Harmonies :
those in which any other note occupies this
position are called Derivative, or Inverted Chords.
[See Habmokt.]
V. A Pedal Foint (Point Morgue) is described
as Inverted, when the sustained note, instead of
being placed in the Bass, is transferred to an
upper part, as in Mosart^s Pianoforte Fantasia in
C minor (op. 11): —
—or, to a middle one, as in the
from Deh vieni, nan tardar, {Nozze d\ PigarOy)
where the Inverted Pedal ia rastained l^ the
Second Violins ^—
> AMhonSh tha P«rfwt Wmrtb-^tbo InrenloB of the FwfBct Flfth-
b damaL Vf OoBtraputtas. umms DIaeords. It oi4r Conns ui •v
ywat ■mplluii to tbm senecri rtfe; rinet a k admitted to ba a
0— .^^wttawamlmHimthawpwrpartaafaOhori.
VOL. U.
' In theed, and similar cases, the diaraeteristio
note (whether sustained, or reiterated), forms no
part of the Harmony, which remains wholly un-
affected, either by its presence, or removal. [See
Harmoitt.] [W. S. R.]
IONIAN MODE (Lat. Modu$ Imieus, Modtu
lantias). The Thirteenth— or, according to some
writers, the Eleventh — of the Ecclesiastical
Modes. [See Modes, thb Ecclesiastical.]
The Final of the Ionian Mode is C. Its com-
pass, in the Authentic form, extends upwards,
from that note to its octave; and, as its semi-
tones occur between the third and fourth, and the
seventh and eighth degrees, its tonality corre»
spends exactly with that of the major diatonic
scale as used in modem music— a drcumstanoe
which invests it with extraordinary interest, when
considered in connexion with the history of mu-
sical science. Its Dominant is G — another point
of coincidence with the modem scale. Its Me-
diant is E, and its Participant, D. Its Conceded
Modulations are F, A, and B ; and its Absolute
Initials C, E, G, and frequently, in polyphonic
music, D. Its chief characteristioB, therefore,
may be illustrated thus —
Mods Xm (or XI).
Fin. Part Med. Dom.
The compass of the Plaffal, or Hypo-ionian
Mode, lies a fourth lower than that of the Au-
thentic form, ranging from G to G. The Domi-
nant of this Mode is E, its Mediant^ A, and its
Participant^ G. Its Conceded Modulations are
D, F, imd the F below the initial G; and its
Absolute Initials C, G, A^ and, in polyphonic
music, very frequenUy D.
Med.
Mod«XIT(orXII).
Pill. Dom, Part.
It will be seen, that the semitones here fall
betwera the third and fourth, and sixth and
seventh degrees— exactly the position they occupy
in the Authentic Mixolydian Mode : and, as Uie
compass of these Modes is also identical, the one
is often mistaken for the other, though the^ are
as clearly distinguished, by their respective Fmals^
as the modem keys of £b, and Ff minor.
Though not induded in the system set forth by
St. Gregory, the Ionian and Hypo-ionian Modes
are certainly as old as the 8th or 9th century :
for, when the question of the number of Modes to
be retained in use was submitted to the Emperor
Charlemagne, he at first said that eight seemed
to be enough, but afterwards authOTised the em-
ployment of twelve, thus extending his indul-
gence to all except the notoriously impure Locrian
and Hypolocrian. Eight Modes have, indeed,
been always comadered enough for the chaunting
of the Psalms: hence, we find no Psalm Tones in
eithw the Ionian or Hypo-Ionian Modes; though
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Id
IONIAN MODK
other pteoes of Eoclemnstical Mnaio exist, m both.
For instance, the fine Plain Chaont 'Missa in
FestiB SolemnibuB* — ^better known, perhapB, in a
hm pure form, as the ' Missa de Angelis — is in
the Authentic Ionian Mode, throughout : and a
particularly captivating Hypo-i«nian melody hae
Deen preeenred to us, in the Paschal form of the
Benwnsory ' In maniiB tnas, Domine,' as ^ven
in the Mechlin Vesperal.^
A strong prejudice existed against the Ionian
Mode, in mediaeval times, when the softness of
its intervals gave so great ofifenoe, that it was
oonmionly ciUled Modu» losctims. The early
contrapuntists seem also to have regarded it with
mve suspidon. It was only as Art advanced,
tiiat the inexhaustible extent of its capabilities
became gradually apparent. When first em-
ployed in polyphonic music» the Authentic scale
was usuallv transposed (for the greater conveni-
ence of ordmary oombinatioBs of voices) with the
customary Bb at the signature; in which con-
dition it is often mistaken for the modem key of
F. Palestrina delighted in using it, with this
transposition, as the exponent of a certain tender
grace, in the expression of which he has never
been approached ; as in the ' Missa Brevis,* the
Missa * Sterna Christi munera,* the delightful
Motets, *Sicut cervus desiderat,' and 'Pueii
Hebrsorum,* and innumerable other instances.
Giovanni Cioce has also employed it in the Motet
'Virtute magna* — known in England as ' Behold,
I bring you glad tidings*: while in our own
School, we find instances of its use in the im-
perishable litUe Anthem, * Lord, for Thy tender
mercy's sake,' and Gibbons's fine Service in F.
The Hypo-ionian Mode is less firequently trans-
posed, in writing, than the Authentic scale, though
It is sometimesmund desirable to depress it a whole
tone, in performance. This is the Mode sheeted,
by Palestrina, for the Muta Papa MarceUi ; and
1^ Orlando di Lasso, for his Motet, Cot^firma hoc,
JJeu9 — both which compositions are erroneously
described, in the latest German reprints, as in
the Mixolydian Mode.
The melody of the Old Hundredth Psalm, in its
original form, is striody Hypo-ionian ; and is given
in its true Mode, transposed, in the masterly
setting, by John Dowland, printed in Ravens-
croft's 'Book of Psalms' (Lond. i6ai). [See
Htmn ; Old Hundbkdth Psalm.] [W. 8. R.]
IPERMESTRA. An opera of Metastasio's
which has proved very attractive to a long list
of composers. The Dictionnaire Lyrique of
Clement gives no less than i8 settings of it by
Galuppi, Sar^ JommeUi, Hasne, Glock, and
other eminent musicians. [G.]
IPHIGfiNIE EN AIJLIDE, *trag^e-op^"
In 5 acts ; words by the Bailli du Rollet, after
Racine ; music by Gluck. Produced at the Aca-
demic, Thursday, April 19, 1774. The nightly
receipts at first were 5000 livres, a sum then
nnh^tfd of. The sum taken on April 5, 1796,
amounted, owing to the depreciation of the
I In the lUtttboo Vai^ieml. this tuAo&y to ndoced. from the Four-
tMntii. to the Slith Mode: and a liinllar reduction, from Mode XIII,
to Mode V, to by no maauniiooiniaeD, In Plain Cbaaut OfBoe-Boolu.
IRISH MUSIC.
asdgnats^ to 274,900 livres. Up to Dee. 99,
1824, it was played 428 times. [G.]
IPHIGtolE EN TAURIDE, *trag^die
lyrique ' in 4 acts ; words by Guillard, mosic by
Gluck. Produced at the Acaddmie, Thursdsy,
May 18, 1779. On June 6, 1796, the assignat
of 100 livres oeing equal to only 10 centimes, the
receipts were 1,071,350 livres— 1,071 livres 7
sous. Up to June 5, 1829, it was played 408
times. On Jan. 23, 1 781, the tragedy of the same
name by Piccinni, words by Dubreufl, was pro*
duced at the Academic and survived in all 34
representations. On the first night, one of the
actresses beinff obviously intoxicated, a spectat<^
cried out 'Iphig^nie en Tauridet alhms don<v
c*est Iphig^nie en Champagne ! ' [G.]
IRENE. An English version (or rather
transformation) of Ck>unod's 'Reine de Sab%*
by H. Famie ; produced, as a concert^ at the
Crystal Palace, Aug. 12, 1865. [G.]
IRISH MUSIC. Although it is not long since
the opinion was generally entertained that Ireland
had been sunk in barbarism until the English
invasion, historical and antiquarian researches
have established the £ftct that the island was in
early times the seat of Christianized learning and
a remarkable artistic civilization. Her music,
however, and in particular her ancient school of
Harp-playing, have from esjrly times been in high
repute, having been lauded in the writings of
Brompton, Giraldus Cambrensis. and John of
Salisbury (i 2th cent.). The latter writes thus :
* The attention of this people to musical instru-
ments I find worthv of commendation, in which
their skill is beyond comparison superior to that
of any nation I have seen.' Fuller's words are
equally strong: 'Tea, we might well think that
all the concert of Christendom in this war [the
Crusade conducted by Grodfrey of Boulogne] would
have made no music, if the Irish Harp haid been
wanting.' Fordun (13th cent), Clynn (14th
cent.), PoEdore Virgil and Major (15th cent.),
Yincenzo Galilei, Bacon, Spenser, Stanihurst, and
Camden (i6th cent.), speak with equal wannth.
Written music being however comparatively
modem, no remains are existing, like the bean-
tifiil Irish illuminated MSS. and examples of
ornamental Celtic metal-work, which would sub-
stantiate the praises of the above writers.
Three Irish airs, extracted from Queen Elis^
beth*s Virginal Book, are given in vol. ii. p. 793
of Mr. Chappell's ' Popular Music of the Olden
Time* — (i) *The Ho-hoane' (Ochone), (a) an
'Irish Dumpe,* and (3) 'CaUino Casturame.*
They are all in 6-8 measure, and seem defi*
dent in the characteristic features of Irish
melody. To the latter air there is an allusion in
Shakespeare, Henry Y, act iv. so. 4, where Pistol
addresses a French soldier thus: — 'Quality!
Calen o custure me I' — an expression which has
greatly puzzled the critics. It is evidently an
attempt to spell as pronounced the Irish phrase
' Colleen, oge astore 1 ' — ^young drl, my treasure !
The earnest published (Sections of Iridi
moaio are by Burke Thumoth (1720); by Neill
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HUSH MXTSia
of CliTui Church Yard, in the vidnity of the
cathedral of that name in Dublin, a f^w years
later; and by the son of Carolan in 1747. But
these being for flute or yiolin, supply no idea of
the polyphonio style of the music for the Irish
Harp, an instrument with many strings of brass
cr some other metal: the Harp preserved in
IVinity Coll^re, Dublin (commonly but erro-
neously called the Harp of Brian Bom), having
30 strings ; that of Bobin Adair (an Irish chiei-
tflui), preserved at HoUybrooke in 00. Wioklow,
37 Btrmgs; and the Dallway Harp (1621), 53
strings. [SeeHABP,vol.i.p.686a.] During the
incessant wars which devastated the island in
the 16th, 17th, and i8th centuries, the art of
muso languished and decayed: there had indeed
been many fomous performers upon the Harp,
the national instrument had appeared on the
coinage of Henry VUI, and had also been ap-
pended to some Sfcate papers a.d. 1567 ; but the
powera of the law had been brought to bear
iqAm the minstrels who sympathised with the
naUves, strugglii^at this time against the
KngHsh BOwer. When the wars of Elizabeth,
GkooKwd^ and William III ceased, the dis-
traeted country had peace for a while. Soon
afterwards the Hanoverian Succession was set-
tled, and foreign musicians visited Ireland, and
remaining there, introduced the music of other
oountries ; the nobility and gentry too, abandon-
ing their clannish customs, began to conform to
the KngliHh model : and the Insh melodies went
ootofmshion.
Some of the celebrated harpers of the i6th and
17th centuries were Rory Ihdl 0*Cahan (whom
Sir W. Scott makes the teacher of Annot Lyle) ;
Jdm and Harry Scott; Gerald 0*Daly (the
composer of Aileefhii'Boon); Miles Beilly (bom
1635); Thomas and William 0*Conallon (1640);
Cornelius Lyons ; Carolan (1670) ; Denis Hemp-
son (1695), who in 1745, when 50 years old,
went to Scotland and played before Charles
Sdwaid ; Charles B^e (171a) ; Dominic "MLxm-
g*>^ (1715); Daniel Black (1715): Echlin Kane
(1720), a pupil of Lyons, before named — Kane^
who traveUed abroad, also played for the Pre-
tender, and was much caressed by the expatriated
Irish in Spain and France; Thaddeus Elliot
(1735); Owen Keenan (1735); Arthur O'Neill
(1734)9 Charles Fanning (1736); and James
Duncan, who having adopted the profession of
a harper in order to obtain funds to carry on
a law-suit in defence of his patrimony, was suc-
cessful, and died in 1800, in the enjoyment of
• handsome competence.
Among efforts to arrest the decay of the
Irish Harp School may be mentioned the ' Con-
tentions of Bards ' held at Bruree, co. Limerick,
1 730-50, under the presidency of the Rev. Charles
Bunworth, himself a performer of merit ; a meet-
ing of harpers at Granard, eo. Longford, or-
ganized by an Irish gentleman, James Dungan
of Copenhagen, in 1 781 ; and the assemblage of
harpers at Belfast, 1793, when the promoters
engaged the subsequently well-known collector,
£dw. Bunting, to write down the mnsio as per^
tttlSH MUSIO.
1»
formed. From this arose Bunting^s three volumes
of Irish Music, dating 1796, 1809, and 1840:
accurate drawings, biographical notices, and some
hundred airs have been left on record by Bunting,
to whom indeed the subject owes whatever eluci-
dation it has received. Ten performers firom dif-
ferent parts of Ireland attended the meeting of
1 793, and their instruments, tuning, and use of a
oopioos Irish musical vocabulary agreed in a
remarkable manner. The ccmipass of the Harps
was from C below the ban stave to D above the
treble one. llieir scale was sometimes C, but
mostly that of G. Each string, each grace, each
feature had a name peculiar to it. It was proved
that the old harpers had played with their nails,
not the fleshy tip of the fing^. They used other
scales beside uiose above, but agreed that G
major was the most ancient : in this lies * The
Coolin' (temp. Heoiy VIII):—;
One of the most striking of the Irish airs is
that called Colleen dhas, etc., to which Moore's
lines, ' The valley lay smiling,* are adapted : it
lies on a scale from A to A, but with semitones
between 3-3 and 6-7, as follows : —
It was of course to be expected, that nngers,
pipers, whistlers, or violinists, would not always
adhere to the fixed semitones of a harp scale ; hence
this air is sometimes corrupted, and its pathetio
beauty impaired by the introduction of Of.
This scale, it may be remarked, is that used for
the Scottish pipes, where the upper G|| is howevet
[uently false; such Scotch airs aa '«
frequently
Cope* are suitable to it.
An example of the scale
' J(^innie
E to E, senutones between 2-3 and 5-6, is found
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^
IRISH MUSIC;
in the fine Irish air, ' Bemember Uie glories of
Brian the Brave r
fiere again, in carelees performance, Df may
have been used instead of D||, once or twice.
Very plaintive airs are foimd in the 4th scale
D to D, semitones between 5*4 and 6-7.
scale lies the air ' Weep on !'
In this
Moore seems to have noticed the psoulisr wail,
thrice repeated, of the second strain, but to have
been unaware of the true cause, when he says,
'We find some melancholy note intrude — some
minor third or fiat seventh, which throws its shade
as it passes and makes even mirth interesting.'
The bagpipe of Ireland is distinguished from
the Soottisn pipes by being blown with bellows
instead of the ^ mouth : from this cause, and the
delicacy of its reeds, the tone is softer. Dr. Bur-
ney remarked upon the perfection of the intervals
of the Irish chanter (or melody-pipe), which he
had never met with in the pipes of North
Britain. The scale of the Irish bagpipe is
from G below the treble stave to C abDve it,
with all the semitones. The Irish instrument is
also furnished with a sort of tenor hannony of
chords: —
The pipe of Scotland has nothing of this sort,
and, as previously noticed, its scale is only nine
1 Thk It tb« dktliiotlon between the M niette ud the OomemnM^
the Carnier Aiinmliis to tiM Sootob and the tatter to the Iriali Pipe.
IRISH music:
notes and' ik 'not very true in general. There
generally are two drones in the Scottish pipe,
A and its octave ; and three in the Irish instru*
ment, generally middle C, tenor C, and violon-
cello C. The ancient Irish bagpipe, like that
of Scotland, was an instrument of shrill and
warlike tone, by which, as Stanihurst telbi us, the
natives were animated — as other people are by
trumpets. The bagpipe, perhaps the oldest and
most widely known instrument in the world,
still subsists in Ireland ; the harp however is
almost extinct: both have been in a great
degree superseded by the violin and flute, which
are cheaper, more readily repaired, and above
all more portable : most of the ancient minstrels
of Ireland found it necessary to maintain atten«
dants to carry their harps. Of late years, during
the Temperance movement and the various
semi-militaiy organizations which have sprung
up in Ireland, brass and reed bands have be^
come popular, and play through the streets of
the towns ; the music produced by them is how-
ever for the most part execrable. Choral classes
are not popular throughout the country: they
meet witii no £svour among the peasantry of the
South and West. In the Eastern coast towns,
like Dublin, Kingstown, Wicklow, and Wexford*
choral music is not popular, and in the Northern
town of Belfast, the only manufacturing com-
munity in the island, we seek in vain for choral
associations like those of Leeds, Bradford, etc.,
among the artisans, although oratorios are fairly
supported by the middle class.
Dismissing the bagpipe, ancient or improved,
we find among ancient Insh wind-instruments the
following: — (i) the Ben-Buabhill (pronounced
Ben-Bu&l), a real horn, generally that of a wild
ox or buffalo ; (a) the Buinnef a metal trumpet
— the horn and trumpet players were assigned
regular places in the £smous banqueting hiJl of
Tara; (3) the Com, a large curved tube, pro-
ducing sounds of great power ; (4) the Stoc, a
smaller trumpet ; (5) the Sturgan, another small
trumpet. It is singular that iJl these pipes w^e
curved : no straight pipe, like an oboe or clarinet,
having been found m Ireland. (6) Some large
horns were discovered, of which the embouchure^
like that of the Ashantee trumpet, was at the side.
Singular to say, the Irish possessed an instrument
very similar to the Turkish crescent or * Jing^ng
Johnny ' once used in the British army : it was
called the 'Musical Branch,* and was adorned
with numerous bells. There were single bells
called dothra : the so-called erottds are merely
sheep-bells of the 17th and i8th centuries. It
should be remarked that the tympan was not a
drum, as was formerly supposed, but a stringed
instrument, and by the researches of the antiquary
O'Curnr it is proved to have been played with a
bow. Some oUier allusions to music are found in
Irish MSS., viz. the aidtM, an union of all voioesy
a vocal tuUi as it were : this was called eepoc in
Scotland. The eertan was some sort of chirping
sound by female singers : the dordfiansa, a war-
like song accompanied by the clashing of spears
after the Greek manner. An interesting example
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IBISS Htmic.
he Irish Cranan or drone ban, after the
TriMm«¥r of the 'Ground' of Purcell's day, or of
tlie Canon, ' Summer is icumen in.' The Cronan
'vvaa softly sung by a ^Chorus, while the principal
^v^yioe sustained the scdo. The following song (the
siSr called ' Sallinderry ') refers to various rustic
localities on the banks of the Bann and Lagan
xdTers: —
* *na iirelty tobe in Baninderry,
*ns prettj to be at Ma^enaixL
"Tis pretty to be at the Castle of Toome,
'TIS pret^ to be at Aghalee,' etc.
TTo an of which the Cronan softly furnished the
*Och-hone! och-hone!*
ttdsB Mtrsia
»
AI ^ IP^ I I ■ . Ili^ t 1:;===
pp
— , Pt. r—
. rr.j Jifffr cirf.ppij j^'j-if^
iU ' tp|j^
— .ij. J
-r-3:-n=t=if' J. ij. Ti..: 1
... ^., -p .
Noi only have Irish airs been often claimed as
Scottiah, as in the case of ' Limerick's lamenta-
tioor' or 'Lochaber/ but the dose resemblance
between some Irish and Scottish airs has led to
confusion, and an attempt to generalize. Thus
it has been quoted, as an unfailing characteristic of
Irish as of Chinese melody, to omit the fourth and
seyenth of the scale ; this is quite erroneous. In
many Irish airs, like ' Fd mourn the hopes that
leave me/ these Intenrab are wanting; in others
they both exist : in some Irish airs the 4th and 7th
are omitted in the first strain, and present in the
second part of the air. Many canona have been
laid down: Bunting, an excellent authority,,
thought the emphatic presence of the submediant,
or sixth of the scale, a never-fiiiling test of an Irish
air ; bat this note is emphatic in the Scottish air
'Auld lang syne,* and in many others which
might be cited. An anonymous writer in a
Dublin periodical, *The Examiner,* Aug. i8i6y
seems to have remarked an interesting point of
agreement in the structure of Irish melodies:
'They are formed,' says the writer, ' of 4 strains
of equal length : the first soft, pathetic, and sub-
dued; the second ascending in the scale, becomes
more bold, energe^ and impassioned ; the third,
a repetition of the second, is sometimes a little
varied and more florid, and leads, generally by a
g^raoefbl or melancholy passage, to the fourth,
> Tbk tzplalM tht pMsicB AtMot tiie wQd otto Jn tlie Stoiy of
OsDta (Ounpbell't Tate and Lacradt of Uw W. HlgUuMla, LU/7>.
which is always a repetition of the first.^ To this
model may be referred the pathetic ' Qramaohree*
in Moore's lines *The Harp that once through
Tara's Halls.»
(jA" ji[iij[ii;l-^.'jj.lcl
So also the fine marching tune^ ' Byrne of Bally-
It has been noticed that many Irish tunes end
upon the fifth of the key, such as that adapted
to Moore*s song, ' Come, send round the wine I *
Again, to conmience as in the next example, and
reiterate the ending note of the strain, has bee|i
described as the * narrative form * of Irish melody,
e.g. * St. Senanus,' to Moore's lines, *0 haste and
leave this sacred isle * : —
and it has not failed to be remarked that Moore's
fourth line, 'A female form I see,* in obliterating
this peculiarity, does injustice to the melody by
rendering the repetition impossible.
A few words about the danoes of Ireland will
xtot be out of place» These are (i) the Planxty,
or Pleraca,. 6-8 time, with strains of unequal
number of bars, (a) The Jig, or Rinnoe, with an
equal number of bars, l^e Jig was, as its
name implies, an imitation of the giga of Corelli
and Qeminiani, both very popular in Ireland
during the iSth century: of these there were
(a) the Double Jig, (6) Single Jig, (c) Hop
Jig,, and (jd) Moneen, or Green-sod Jig. (3)
The 'Reel, similar to that of Scotland, of which
it is the national dance. (4) The Hornpipe.
(5) Set dances, chiefly by one dancer, and (6) The
Coimtry dance. Many of the dances in 6*8
measure were originally march tunes; for it is
remarkable that the 'slow march,* as used by
other nations, never prevailed among the Irish,
whose battle music was frequently in the 6-8
measure, with two accents in the bar.
£very civil occupation in Ireland had also its
appropriate music; thus milking the cows (an
occupation in which the ancient Irish took pecu-
liar delight), spinning, and ploughing, had each
fits tune.
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M IBISH BfUSIC.
Saoh are h few of the oharaoteriBticB of a native
minstrelsy seoond to none in the annals of abori-
ginal art. But the lines of demarcation by which
national peouliaritiea were preserved are being
daily obliterated : steam has worked many won-
ders, of whioh this is not the least ronarkable.
Ireland at the present day diffars bat little from
England, Wales, or Scotland. The tunes whisUed
in we Irish streets are not the melodies to whioh
Moore in 1808 supplied words, but ' The March
of the Men of Harledi,* * Mandolinata,' and ' Stride
la vampa ' from Verdi's 'Trovatore.* The terrible
£unine of 1847, followed as it was by fever And
a gigando emigration that laid whole districts
waste, could not fiul to produce sweeping artistic
as wdl as social changes. Much of the aatient
music must have periuied with the population.
Petrie*s volume jprobably represents the last
comprehensive effort to collect the aboriginal
strams of Irish music : although given to the
world in 1855, it embraced the labours of many
previous years.
It remains but to notice the various collections
of Irish music These
L Bnrk* ThnmoUi, dr. 1780.
2. IfMU of Ohrtsi^httroh Yud,
ITU.
a Banttof'i, Snt im* Mcond
mot, third 1840.
4. ftmndii Holdcn (alt«d hf Q«o.
P«til«). 1806.
a Moore, with Btweown. uid
cabieqaeDtly Sir B. Bl-
Bbop; ten
a John M nlhollMMl «( BtUui,
1810.
7. 0. ThomMm (Beethorm'c ao
eomptnlmentt), 1814.
a fltitlmom lAd John Sadth.
18M.
f . Hon. Geo. O'CtBaghsn wllh
la ' The OHlnn* BMCuhM. 1840.
U. Hornoutle. London. 1844.
IS. 0*D«ljr. 'Poets and Poetry of
Mnnster.' 18B8.
Jt.4. PkirK IB oonneelloD ^th
the 'Sodetrfor the Pre-
-eerrstlon of Irish Muxic.'
US& orthliT»lnableirork
bat 1 ToL end part of a
eecood appeared.
14.VolIoj.lim.
lA. Jo]roe.l87B.
10. HoflJnMinn, 1877.
Dance tnnee only.
17. R. V. Lercy. 186B-7B.
18. P. Hofhei. 1880.
Of these^ few are reliable as authoritiea, save
those of Petrie and Bunting, both honoured names
in the annab of Irish music. It is to a Mr.
Oeo. Thomson, of the Trustees* Office, Edin-
burgh, who was much interested in national airs
from 1702-1820, especially those of Scotland, and
engaged Pleyel, Kozeluch, Haydn, Beethoven,
Hummel, and Weber, as arrangers of them, that
we owe the Irish music arranged by Beethoven
between the yean 1810 and 1810. Among 16
national airs, with variations, as due^ for violin
(or flute) and piano {op, 105, 107), are 3 Irish
melodies — * The last rose* (a very incorrect ver-
sion of the air), 'While History's Muse,* and
'O had we some bright Uttle isle.* Although
interesting in their way, these little works of
Beethoven are very inferior to his Vocal Collec-
tions. Of these '12 Irish airs with accompani-
ments of piano, vicdin, and cello ' (obbligato), were
published in 1855 by Artaria & Co. of Vienna, as
proprietors of Beethoven's MS. It is likely that
Messrs. Power, owners of Moore's copyright
lines, refused Mr. Thomson permission to pub-
lish them along with Beethoven's arrangements,
for in the new edition of Breitkopf & Hartel,
of which they form No. 258, the melodies are
adapted to verses (some comic, and of extreme
vulgarity) by Joanna Baillie Mid others ; three
ISAAO.
are arranged aa vocal duets ; two have a chorml
refrain. Another collection of 25 Irish airs forma
No. 261 of Breitkopf & Hartel's edition ; they are
arranged in similar form and are equal in ex-
cellence ; some are found in Moore, others are
of doubtful authenticity : of the air called ' Grarry-
one,' Beethoven has different arrangements in
each. That whoever furnished the great inu«
sidan with the text of the airs must have been
careless or incompetent, will be evident by a
comparieea of the air 'Colleen dhas,' as found
in No. 9 of Artaria's edition, with that already
given in this article: not only is the scale
destroyed and the air deprived of its pathetic
peculiarity, but whole stndns are omitted alto-
gether. (The air is here tnui^K)eed for the aako
of comparison.)
Some Irish airs among others arranged 1^
Beethoven, appear in No. 259 of Breitkopf ft
Hartel's edition, and No. 26a consists of 20^ of
them alone. [E.P.S.]
IRON €HEST, THE. An English play with
musio ; the words by G. Colman, jun., the music
by Storaoe. Product «t Dniry Lane March 1 2,
1796. A quintet from it, 'Five times by the
taper^s light,' was a favourite until comparatively
lately, and wiH be found in the * Musical Library.'
The piece is based on Caleb Williams ; and the
Advertisement to the reader contains the author's
announcement that he was 'G. Colman the
younger.* [G.]
ISAAC, Heinbioh. The time and place of
the birth <tf so great a man becomes of more
than usual interest when upon its dedsiou de«
pends his claim to be called Germany's first great
composer. If he was reaUy a Grerman, which all
historians and the evidence of his works lead ua
to believe, it is certain that the beginning of the
1 6th century foimd him the central figure of
the fow musicians bis country could then num*
ber. Neither Paul Hoffhaimer, the oiganist and
composer, who, after a life of nearly ninety years
(1449-1557) found his last resting-place at Salz*
burff, nor Thomas Stoltzer, who, in his short time
of thirty-six years made his name still more fa-
mous, nor even Heinrich Finok with his lovely
lieder and hymns,' — ^none of these were so great
as Isaac They had much in common with him,
and their names may be found side by side with
1 Whldi, nerertheleia. aned to more the heart of hit royal narter
the kliw of Folaod, who langhln«ly replied to the oompoeer's VBqoMl
fof 10 InsniM of Mla>7—
*Jk Uttle finch Crink) within lU oaie
8loc> all the Tear, nor adts foringe,'
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ISAAa
Ilk in many books of Grenoan lied^, bat what-
ever their genius may have been, they have not
iiaiided down suoh monuments of greatness as
exist in the works of Isaac In the higher forms
of diurch composition they scarcely competed
with him at all.
According to one traditdon he was bom at
Ptagae, and Ambros' devotes a charming page
of his history to showing the Bohemian character
of some of tiie subjects used by the composer in
bis masses. He appears to have spent much of
his time in Florencct and here he was sometimes
called by ^e grand title * Airhigo Tedesco ' in
•trange contrast to the modest, quaint * h. yzac/
it.wntli<w variation of his name. His position in
Florence, and one date in his Ufe, is shown by a
MS. said by Dr. J^mbault to have been in the
library <^ Christ Church, Oxford, but of which
we can find no trace there at present. In * The
Musical World' (Aug. 39, 1844) Dr.Bimbault
describes this M3. as containing the music com-
posed in 1 488 by Henry Isaac for the religious
drama, * San Giovanni e San Paolo,' written by
Lorenso de' Medici for performance in his own
fiunily. He also states that Isaac was the
teacher of Loreuco's children, which fsct we
presume he learnt from the same MS. M. F^tis
shows (i) that he was stiU, or again in Florence
many years after 1488, for Aaron speaks of being
intimate with Joequin, Ofarecht and Isaac in
that city, ajid Aaron could not have been twenty
years old (Le. old enough for such friendship)
until tiie year 1509 ; (a) that he was also at one
time in the service of the Emperor Maximilian I,
who reigned from 1486-1519 ; and (3) that he
must have died some years before 1531, according
to a note made upon a MS. of that date in the
Munich Library, containing a work begun by
him and finished by his pupU Senfl.
Of Isaac's works, first in importance come
93 masses, 10 printed, and 13 in MS. (i) The
Librazy of the Lyceum at Bol(^^ has a copy
of the ' Misse Heinrici Izac/ printed by Petrucd
in 1506, containing 5 masses, 'Charge de deal,'
' Miserioordias Domini,' ' Quant jay au cour,' ' La
l^wgna,' 'Comme fenmie.' (2) Khaw's 'Opus
deoem missarum 4 vooum' (Wittenberg, 1541)
contains the a masses 'Canninum' and 'Une
. Musque de Kscay.' (3) ' Liber quindecim mis-
Mrum,' etc (Nuremberg^ Petreius, 1539) coi^
tains the mass, ' O preedara,' one of the most
remarkable of the composer's works. It is com*
posed on a subject of 4 notes reiterated without
cessation throughout the mass. Some of the
mnnbers, such as the '£t in terra pax' and the
' Qui tollis,' have the character of slow move-
mraits by the lengthening of the four notes over
several bars, the simple accompaniments of the
other parts being very beautiful. The subject is
kept in the treble nearly throughout the mass,
which is one of Isaac's peculiarities. It is pre-
sented in various forms in the earlier movements,
first announced in triple time, then in long notes
with accompaniments in triple time, till in the
Credo it bursts out Alia Breve, forming a ma-
ISAAa
2S
jestio dimat. The Mass exists in score in the
Berlin Library amongst the MS. materials col*
lected by Soimleithuer for a history of music.
A copy is also in the F^tis Library at Brussels
(No. 1807). (4) Ott*s collection, 'Missse 13,
vocum' (Nuremberg, 1539), contains two masses,
'Salve nos,* and 'Firohlich Wesen/ One move-
ment, * Plenl sunt,' fr^sm the latter, is scored in
Sonnleithner's MS.
The 13 MS. masses are mentioned by Ambros
in his History of Music (iii. 386'i — in the Boyai
Library at Vienna, eight — 'Missa Solenms,'
Magne Deus, Paschalis, De Confessoribus, Domi-
nicalis, De B. Virgine, and two De Martyribus,
all in 4 parts ; and in the Munich Library, four
6-part ones, — Viigo prudentissima, Solennis, De
Apostolis, and one without name, and a 4-part
one, ' De Apostolis? A MS. volume of Masses
in Uie Burgundy Library at Brussels (No. 6438)
contains the 'Virgo prudentissima' under the title
' Missa de Assumptioije B. Y . M., heric ysac.'
£itner*s Bibliographie der Musik^Sammelwerke
(Berlin, 1877) mentions upwards of forty collec-
tions between ^e years 1501 and 1564, which
contain motets and pialma by Isaac. The Do-
decachordon of Glarean contains five, three of
which Bumey (ii. 531^4), Hawkins (ch. 70) and
Forkel, have printed in their Histories, Bumey
having copied them all in his note-books at the
Britic£ Museum. WyrsuBg'e ' Liber selectarum
cantionum,' etc. (Augsburg, 1530), oontsins five
of the most important of Isaac's works of this
class, amongst them two 6-part motets, ' Optima
pastor* and ' Virgo prudentissima,' dedicated re-
spectively to the Pope Leo X and the Emperor
Maximilian I. An excellent MS. copy of this work
exists in the F^tis Library at Brussels (No. i679)«
Of Isaac's Ueder, Ott's collection of '115 guter
newer liedlein' (Nurembeig, 1544) contains lo.
One of them, ' Es het ein bawer ein tochterlein,'
is given in score by Forkel in his History. This
collection has latdy been reprinted by the G^
sellscbaft fUr Musikforsohung (liepmanssohn,
Berlin). Forster's collectico, ' Ein auszug guter
Teutscher liedlein' (Nuremberg, Petreius, 1539)
contains four, and amongst them * Isbruck [Iims<
bruck] ioh muss dich lassen,' the words said to
have been written by the Emperor Maximilian.
The melody was afterwards sung to the hymns,
' O Wdt ioh muss dich lassen,' and ' Nun ruhen
alle WMder,' and is one of the most beautiful of
Qerman diOTales. It is introduced by Bach in the
Passions-Musik (St. Matthew), in the scene of
the Last Supper. (See 'Innsbruck' in Hymns
Andent and Modem.) Whether Isaac actually
composed the mdody, or only wrote the other parts
to it, is doubtful, but it is remarkable that here,
as in others of his works, the melody appears in
the upper part, which was quite unusual in such
compositions. It is in these Lieder that he
shows his nationality. In them we have the
music which the composer brought with him
from his home, the trace of which is not lost in
bis greater compositions, but blending itsdf with
the new influences of an adopted country, and of
Netherland companions, gives to his music »
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u
ISAAO.
threefold thmcter, * % 008mop>olHaii trait* not to
be found in the works of any other composer of
the time (Ambros, ill. 38a). [J.E.S.-B.]
ISABELLA. [See Girardeau.]
ISHAM, JoHK, Mus. Bac., was for some years
deputy oiganist for Dr. Croft. OnJan32,i7ii»
)ie was elected organist of St. Anne's, Soho, on
Croft's resignation. On July 17, 1713, he grad-
uated as Bachelor of Music at Oxford, and on
April 3, 1 718, was elected organist of St. An-
drow*s, Holbom, with a stipend of £50 per
annum, upon which he resigned his plaoe^at
St. Anne'sy the vestry objecting to his holding
both appointments. Shortly afterwards he was
chosen organist of St. Margaret's, Westminster.
^e composed some anthems, and joined with
William Morley in publishin^^ a joint-collection
of songSy Isham s two-part song in which, 'Bury
delights my roving eye,' was very popular in its
day, and is r^rinted h^ Hawkins in his History
(c^ 168). He died m June 1736, and was
buried on the lath ef that month in St. Mar-
garet's church. [W.H.H.]
ISOUABD, or ISOARD, NicoLO, usually
known as Nicolo, bom !Pec. 6, 1775, at Malti^
where his &ther was a merchant and secretary
of the * Massa Frumentaria,' or government
storehouses. He was taken to Paris as & boy,
and educated at the Institution Berthaud, a
preparatory^ school for the engineers and artilleET.
Much of nis time was tak^i up with the study
of the pianoforte under Fin, but he passed a
good examination for the navy. He was how-
ever recalled before receiving his commission,
and on his return to Malta in 1 790 was placed
in a merchant's office. His pianoforte-playing
made him welcome in society; and encouraged
by this he went through a course of harmony
withVella and Asopa^, and with Amendola
of Palermo — where he passed several years
as clerk to a merohant^and completed his studies
rmder Sala and Guglielmi at Naples, where he
was emfdoyed by a German banking firm. He
BOW determined to become & composer, and aban-
doning commerce, much against his father's wish,
produced his ^t opera, ' L'awiso ai Maritati,*
at Florence in 1795. After this date he called
hims^ simply Nioolo, in order not tooompromise
his fiEunily, and it was under this name that he
made his reputation. From Florence he went
to Leghorn, and composed 'Artaserse,' an
opera seria^ which procured him the cross of
San Donate of Malta. He succeeded Yincenzo
AnfoBsi as organist of St. John of Jerusalem
at Malta, and on the death of San Martino be-
came maltre de chapelle to the Order, retaining
both poets until the occupation of the island by
the French (June 10-13, 1798). During these
early years he acquired that fiicility which was
afterwards one of lus most marked characteristics.
There was not a branch of composition which he
did not attempt, as a list of his works at this
date will show: — 9 Cantatas; masses, psalms,
and motets ; vocal pieces for concerts ; and 8 or 9
operas wiu(^ it is not necessary to enumerate.
'GendriUon' (Ffeb. 22. 181D): 'Ia
VIetlme des Arte' (Feb. ?7), ulth
BoM wad Berton; 'L* FMe da
yniage' (Haich SI); *Le Billet di
lotorle' (Sept U); 'Le Magteien
MUS Hagie' (Nov. 4. 18U): 'LalO
et Quinuilt' (Feb. 27, 1812): 'Le
PrtDoe d« Oatmne' (March 4); 'I«
Frtnc&to * Venlse' (Jane 14, 1813);
'Le 81^ de M^^ree' (Feb. 12),
iHth Cherablai. CUiA. and Botel-
dleu ; ' Jooonde ' (Feb. 28) ; ' Jean-
not et Colin' (Oct. 17.1814): 'Lcs
denx Harts' (Mardi 18); and
'L'oiM pour Tautre' Oi»j U,
ISOtTAKD.
At this time he was strongly urged t6 g^ to
Paris. ^ On his arrival he found a useful friend
in Bodolphe Kreutzer, and the two composed
conjointly *Le petit Pacfe' (Feb. 14, 1800), and
'Flapiinius. k Corinthe^ (Feb. a8, 1801). At
the same time Delrieu re>wrote the librettos of
two of his Italian operas, which were performed
under their original titles, 'L*Impromptu d«
Oampagne ' (June 30, 1800), and ' Le Tonnelier ^
(May 17, 1801). Isouard also made c(msider»J
ble mark in society as a pianist. To his friend-
ship with Hoffmann and Etienne he owed no*
only sound advice, but a series of librettos upon
which he was able to work with a certainty of
success. Thus favoured by drcumstanoes, he
produced in 16 years no less than 33 operas.
The following list is in exact chronological order,
which F^tis has not been careful to observe : —
' La Stataa, ou te femtne aTare'
(April 29) : ' Miohel Aufe ' (Dee. 11.
letO; 'Les Confldenoes' (March
30): 'Le Batoer et la ({alttaooe'
(Jon* 17), iHth M Aral. Krentier.
and Boleldlea : ' Le MMMdn Turo '
(Not. 19. 1806); 'Llntrtgue auz
fBn«trea' (Feb. 94): 'Le Dinner
de Oaroons' (April 24); 'La Buse
inntUe'^dCaraO); 'L6onoe' (Not.
18. 1806): 'U Prise de Fanaa'
(Feb. 8): 'Idala' (Jul; 80, 1806);
* Las Bendei-Toos booivac^ ' (May
») : * Les Crteiolen ' (Dec. 10. 1807) ;
'Un join- A Paris' (Ha? 91): 'd-
marosa' (June 28. 1808); 'L'ln-
trigw an S^raU' (April 25, 1808):
To this long list must be added ' Aladin, on la
Lampe merveilleuse,' which he did not live to
finish, but which was completed by Benincori.
Isouard had the gift of melody, and remark-
able skill in disposing his voices so as to obtain
the utmost effect. Instances of this are — the
quintet in * Michel Ange,' quite Italian in its
form; the ensemble and trio in the 'Rendez-
vous bourgeois ' ; the (luartet in the 2nd act
of 'Jooonde* ; the trio m the same opera, and
that of the three sisters in 'Oendrillon'; thd
finale in the 'Intrigue aux fen^tres'; the trio
and the duet in ' Jeannot et Colin,* and man^
others. To these qualities must be added the ori-
ginality and unadorned simplicity of his music,
which gave it a kind of troubadour character.
His later works, composed when Boieldieu was
running him hard, are manifestly superior to
the earlier ones, when he had no competitor.
' Joconde,' the ^vourite romance in which will
never be forgotten, far surpasses * Cendrillon,*
though inferior to 'Jeannot and Colin,* which
for finish, taste, sentiment, and charm of style
will always be appreciated by musicians.
Another of Isouard's good points is tiiat his
comedy never degenerates into vulgarity. Iii
£oileau*s words, this composer —
' Diitiiigoa le naif dn plat et da bnlTon.*
He strictly observed the proprieties of the stage,
and thoroughly understcxxl the French public.
1 FayoUe. In bis 'DIettonnaIre des Mnskdens.' states that Oaneral
Vaubois took him to Paris as his priTate secretacr. bat a comparisoo
of dates will show this to haTe been an Imposslbllltr. General
VauboU was in command of the French at Malta, and with a par-
rtson of 4.000 men maintained his position against the blocksdiog
forces of the allies without and the Maltese themaelTes wlthhi. tot
two Tears from 1798. Isouard, on the other hand, reached Paris with
his fiuDily In 1790.^ FMs has npvotaoad thia •mm. -
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ISOUABD.
la bit own way he continued Gr^iry*B woirk,
bat being no originator was edipted by Boiel-
dien and afterwards by Auber. The suooesses
of bis riral provoked mm beyond control, and
when Boiddiea was elected by the Institut in
1817 to snooeed M^ul in preference to him-
self bis mortification was extreme. It was, per*
bape, to drown the remembrance of this defeat,
I and of the triumphs of his opponent, that, al-
though a married man, he plunged into a
course of dissipation which ruined his health
and brought on consumption, from which he
died in Paris, March 23, 1818.
There is no biography of Isouard, nor indeed
any sketch at all adequate. Several portraits have
been published, but are of no artistic merit. From
one of diem was executed in 1 853 the marble bust
now in the foyer of the Op^ Comique.
Isouard is little known in England. The only
two of his pieces which appear to have been
brought out on the London stage are ' Les Ren-
dezvous bourgeois' (St. James's, Mav 14, 1849),
and ' Joconde,* English version by Mr. Santley
(Lyceum, Oct. 25, 1876). [G.C.I
ISRAEL IN EGYPT, the fifth of Handel's
19 1B»g^^«^ <Htitorio8. The present second part
was composed first The autograph of it is headed
'Moses Bong. Exodus Chap. 15. Introitus.
Angefiangen Oct. i, 1738,' and at the end 'Fine
Octob'. iij 1738, den i Novemb'. voUig geen-
digt.' The presentfirstpartis headed '15 Octobi'.
1738. Act y* a**.' Three pages were written
and erased ; and on the fourth page begins the
preeent opening recitative, headed ' Part y* 2 of.
Exodus.' At the end of the Chorus ' And be-
Ueved' stands 'Fine della Parte 2^ d'Exodus.
{8^L78}'738* Theautog^phUinBuck.
faglmm PaliM^ and the two parts are bound in
their present order, not in that of composition.
The title 'Israel in I^pt' appears in the an-
nouncements of the first performance, which was
on April 4, 1739. On April 1 1 it was performed
again 'with alterations and additions.' Else-
where it is announced that *the Oratorio will
be shortened and intermixed with songs* — four
in number. It was given a third time April
1, 1740, with the Funeral Anthem as a first
part, under the name of the 'Lamentation of
^ the Israelites for the Death of Joseph.'
Dr. Chrysander suggests that the adaptation
of the Funeral Anthem as an introduction fol-
lowed immediately on the completion of Moses'
Song, and that *Act v* 2^* followed on that
adaptation ; and it is cUfficult to resist the con-
' conclusion that he is right, though beyond the
words * Act y* 3*' and the addition of a short over-
ture to the Funeral Anthem there is no positive
evidence. The use of the word 'Act* prevents
our taking ' Act the 2^ ' as ' second * in relation
to ' Moses Song ' : it was second in order of com-
position, but not in historic order, nor in order of
performance — and 'Moses Sonf' contains the
musical climax to the whole work.
The first subsequent performance in England
of the work ab cotnpoeedi without additions or
ISTESSO TEMK>, L'.
$$
omissions, was given by the Sacred Harmonio
Society, Feb. 23, 1849. In Germany it was first
performed in any shape by the Sing-Akademie
of Berlin, Dec. 8, 1831.
This oratorio is distinguished among those of
Handel as much for its sustained grandeur as
for the .great number of allusions to previoua.
compositions, both of Handel's own and of other.
musicians, that it contains. Those which have at
present been recognised are as follow : —
'Th^ loathed.' Shortened ftom Fogoe in A minor in
hie own Six organ ftiAuee.
* He spake the word.* The voice parts from a ^rmphony
fbr doable oroheetra in Stradella^B Beronata. 1
Hailstone Chorus. From Stradella's Serenata.
'He smote all the firstborn.* From Fngne in A minoi^
in bis own Six organ Aiffnes.
* But as for his people.^ From Stradella*s Serenata. ,
* Egypt was glad.' Almost note for note from an Organ
canzona in D by Kerl.>
* And believM the Lord.' From Stradella*s Serenata.
' He is my God,* almost note for note from the opening
of Erba*s Magnificat
'The Lord is my strength.* From *Et exnltavit' in
theMamificat.
*The liord is a man of war.* From *Te etemnm Pa-
trem * in Urio's Te Demn, and *Quia fecit' in Maimificat.
* The depths have covered them.' From Magnificat.
* Thy right hand.* From ditto, * Quia reepexit*
* Thou sentest forth.* Almost note fbr note from ditto»
* Fecit potentiam.*
•Andwith the blast* From dUto, 'Depoeuit*
*The earth swallow'd them.* Almost note for note
from ' Siout erat* in ditto.
*Thon in Thy mercy.* From ditto, * Esurientes.'
*I will sing unto the Lord.* Bepeated fh>m beginning
of Part n.
Notwithstanding this astonishing numbto of
adaptations great and small, so vast is the fusing
power of Handel's genius, and also perhaps so
full of &ith the attitude in which a great work
6f established reputation is contemplated, that
few bearers suspect the want of unity, and even
Mendelssohn,' keen as -was his critical sense,
while editing the • Israel ' for the Handel Society,
never drops a hint of any anomaly or inconsistency
in the style of any of the pieces. Mendelssohn
wrote organ accompaniments to the songs and
duets, though, strange to say, they have seldom
been used in public in this country.
As to the compiler of the words of ' Israel ' there
is neither evidence nor tradition. It is therefore
possible that they may have been selected by
Handel himself. In the first part some of tbs
words are taken frwn the Prayer-book version
of the Psalms. In other cases the ordinary
Authorised version has been adopted, but not
exactly fbllowed. [G.]
ISTESSO TEMPO, U, 'the same time.' a
caution in cases of change of rhythm or time-
signature. It may mean that the measure re-
mains as before while the value of the note
changes — as in the change from 9-16 to 6-16 in
Beethoven*s Op. iii^ or from 3-4 to 6-8 in
* Bagatelle,* Op. 119, No. 6 ; or that the measure
changes while the note remains — as in Op. 126,
No I ; or that neither note .nor measure change
— as in Op. iii, 6-16 to ia-32, and Op. lao,
Var. 3. Or that a former tempo is resumed,
as in his Sonata, op. no — *L*istesso tempo di
Arioso.' ' L'istetoo tempo della fuga.' [G.]
» S«e U>e Analyse! of Uriot Te Drom and fitr den»'« Perenat*. bf
Mr. Proui. In the MonOilj Mutlcal Beoord foe Nut. ud Oao. 1871.
S Printed by Bawkliii. chai». 121*
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t6 ITALIANA IN ALGIERI, L\
ITALIANA IN AL6IEBI, L*. An Italian
oomic opera in acts ; words by AnelH, muiic by
BoBBini. Prodaced at San Benedetto, Venice, in
1813; at Paris, Feb. i, Y817; and in London,
Jan. a;, 1819; in English, Deo. 30, 1844. [G.]
ITALIAN SIXTH, THE, is the aogmented
■ixth accompanied by tiie miyor third, as
[C.H.H.PO
IVANOFF, or IVANHOFF, Nicholas, bom
in 1809, an Italianized Russian, appeared in
England in the season of 1854. ^ pupil of
E. Bianchi, he had a very beautiful tenor Toioe,
<a chaste and simple style of singing, but little
execution' (Lord Mount-Edgeombe). On the
other hand, Mr. Chorley wrote, — * Nothing could
be more delicious as to tone— more neat as to exe-
oution. No such good Rodrigo in Otello has
been heard since I have known the opera.:* and
Moscheles, in his Diary, says, ' he attracted the
public by his great flexibility of voice, but he
displeased my German ear by osing his head-
voice too frequently, particularly when singing
Schubert's Serenade. His sickly, sentimentiJ
style became so wearisome that some wag cir-
culated a joke about him declaring that his real
name was " Tve enough.*' * Sweet as were his
voice and method of vocalisation, his acting and
appearance on the stage were utterly nttll and
JACK.
Insfgnfficant ; 'In England, he was never teen
to attempt to act ; subsequently, he essayed to
do so in Italy, I have heard ; but, by that time,
the voice had begun to perish ' (Chorley). He
reappeared in London in 1835 and 37, but ho
never fulfilled the promise of his first season, and
soon retired. Wiui others of the Italian troupe
he had taken part, but without effect, in the
Festival at Westminster Abbey in 1 834. Ivanhoff
is still living in retirement at Bdogna. [J. M.]
IVES, Smoir, was a vicar choral of St. Paul's
cathedral. In 1633 he was engaged, together
with Henry and William Lawes, to compose the
music for Shirley's masque, *The Triumph of
Peace,' performed at Court by the gentlemen of
the four Inns of Court on Candlemas day, 1633-4,
for his share in which he received £100. Oa
the suppression of choral service he became a
singing master. His elegy on the death of
WilliMn Lawes, * Lament and mourn,' appeared
in separate parts at the end of H. and W.
Lawes's * Choice Psidmes,' 1648. It is nven in
score in J. S. Smith's ' Musica Antiqua. Many
catches and rounds by Ives are printed in
Hilton's « Catch that Catch can,' 165a, and Play-
ford's * Musical Companion,' 1673 ; * Si Deus
nobiscum,' 3 in i, is given in Hullah's ' Vooal
Scores.' Sones by him are to be found in various
collections. He died in the parish of Christ
Church, Newgate 6treet,in i66a, (.W.H.H.]
J.
ir
JACK (Fr. SavXertan; Ital. SaUardlo; Ger.
Doeke, Springer), la the action of the
harpsichord tribe of in-
•truments the jack repre-
sents the Plectrum. It is
usually made of pear-tree,
rests on the back end of
the key-lever, and has a
moveable tongue of holly
working on a centre, and
kept in its place by a bristle
spring. A thorn or spike
of crowquill projects at
right angles from the tongue.
On the key being depressed
the jack is forced upwards^
and the quill is brought to
the string, which it twangs
in passing. The string is
damped by the piece of
doth above the tongue.
When the key returns to ita
level, the jack follows it
and descends; and the quill
then passes the string with-
out resistance or noise. In
some instruments a piece
of hard leather is used in-
stead of the quill. In cut-
the quill or leather
ting
great attention is
paid to the gradatton of elasticity which
secures equality of tone. A row of jacks is
maintained in perpendicular position by a rack ;
and in harpsichords or clavecins which have
more than one register, the racks are moved to
or away firom the strings by means of stops
adjusted by the hand ; a second rack then en-
closing the lower part of the jack to secure its
position upon the key. We have in the jack
{ a very difi^rent means of producing tone to the
tangent of the clavichord or the hammer of the
pianoforte. The jack, in principle, is the plec-
trum of the psaltery, adjusted to a key, as the
tangent represents the bridge of the monochord
and the pianofi>rte hammer the hammer of the
duloinier. We do not exactly know when jack
or tangent were introduced, but have no reason
to think that the invention of either was earlier
in date than the 14th century. By the middle
of the 1 6th centiu-y the use of the clavecin in*
struments with jacks had • become general in
England, the Netherlands and France; and in
Italy from whence they would seem to have
travelled. They were used also in Germany, but
the clavichord with its tangents asserted at least
equal rights, and endured Sieve until Beethoven.
The first years of the 18th century had witnessed
in Florence the invention of the hammer-davier,
the pianoforte; before the century was quits
out the jack had everywhere ceded to the
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JAOE«
luHnzner. Altihough leather fbr the tongue of
the jack haa been olaiined to have be^ the
inyention of Pascal Taskin of Paris in the
1 8th century (his much-talked-of 'peau de
buffle'), it has been found in instruments of the
l6th and 17th; and it may be that leather
preceded the quill, the introduction of which
Scaliger (i 484-1 550) enables us to nearly date.
He says (Poetices, lib. i. cap. Ldii) that when he
was a boy the names clavicjonbaland harpsichord
had been appellations of tiie instrument vulgarly
known as monochord, but that subsequently
points of crowquiU had been added, from whidi
points the same instrument had become known
as spinet — ^posdUy from the Latin 'spina,' a
thorn, though another and no lees probable
d^vation of the name wiU be found under
Spihzt,
Shakspeare*s reference to the jack in one at
his Sonnets is well-known and often quoted—
JACJKSON.
27
<DoIfi
Tokii
ivT thoie jsoks that nimble leap
the tender izMvaid <rf thy hand* ;
but appears to mean the keys, which as the
* sweet nngera* touoh them make 'dead wood more
blest than living lips.* A nearer reference has
been preserved by Bimbault (The Pianoforte,
London, i860, p. 57) in a MS. note by Isaac
Beed to a volume of old plays. Lord Oxford
•aid to Queen Elizabeth, m covert allusion to
Raleigh's &vour and the execution of Essex,
<When jacks start up, heads go down.* [A. J.H.]
JACKSON, John. One Jackson, who in
1669 held the office of 'Instructor in Musick'
at Ely Cathedral for three months, has been
conjectured to be identical with the John Jack-
son who early in 1676 was appointed nominally
a vicar choial but in tact organist of WelLs
Cathedral.^ His name is not found in the
Chapter books after 1688, so that it is presumed
that he died or resigned in that year. He com-
posed some church music now almost wholly
lost. An antliem, 'The Lord said unto mv
Lord,* included in the Tudway Collection (HarJL
H8. 7338) ; a Service in C, in the choir books
of WeUs, and four chants in a contemporary
MS. organ part in the library of the Sacred
Harmonio Society are all his compositions that
are to be found complete. The last-named MS.
contains the organ parts of the Service in C and
8 anthems, and in the choir books at Wells are
^ some odd parts of an anthem and « single part
of a Burial Service. [W.H.H.]
JACKSON, WiLUAir, known as Jackson of
Exeter, son of a grocer in that dty, was bom in
May 1 730. He received a liberal education, and
having disnlayed a strong partiality for music,
was placed under John ^vester, organist of
Exeter Cathedral, for instruction. In 1748 he
removed to London and became a pupil of John
Travers. On his return to Exeter he established
himself as a teacher. In 17^5 he published a
•et of * Twelve Songs,* 'whum were so simple.
■ do not tpool^ An oriulft u tn
la soeh tha etaftiin It to MRign to one of Ui«
• pvfBCBMiM of the doty of oiBMilit.
elegant, and original, that they inmiediat«Jy be-
came popular uiroughout the kingdom.* He
afterwards produced ' Six Sonatas for the Harpsi-
chord,' * Elegies for three voices,' and a second
set of * Twelve Songs.' These were followed by
* Six Epigrams,' a third set of * Twelve Songs,'
and a -setting of Warton's * Ode to Fancy.' In
1 767 he composed the music for a dramatic piece
called * Lvcioas,* altered from Milton's poem, on
the oocasion of the death of Edward, Duke of
York, brother of George III, and produced at
Covent Grarden on Nov. 4, but never repeated*
He next published 'Twelve Canzonets ror two
voioes/ which were highly successful, and one of
which, 'Time has not thinned my flowing
hair,' enjoyed a long career of popularity. To
these succeeded 'Eight Sonatas for the Harpsi-
chord,* and 'Six Vocal Quartette.' In 1777
Jackson received the appointments of sub-
chanter, ovganist, lay vicar, and master of the
choristers of Exeter Cathedral. In 1780 he
composed the musio for General Burgoyne'a
opera, * The Lord of the Manor,* which was pro-
duced at Brury Lane, Deo 27, with great success*
and kept possession of the stage for more than
half a century, mainly owing to Jackson s musio.
The beautiful song, ' Encompassed in an angel's
frame,' is one of those gems which time can
never affect. In 1782 Jackson published ' Thirty
Letters on various subjects,* — three of them
relating to musio» which were well received and
in 1795 reached a third edition. 'The Meta-
morphosis,* a oomic opera, of which Jackson was
believed to be the author as well as, avowedly,
the composer, was produced at Drury Lane, Deo*
5, 1783, but performed only two or three times*
In 1791 Jac^n published a pamphlet entitled
' Ob8ervati(ms on the present State of Musio in
London.' In 1798 he published 'Four Ages,
together with Essnys on various subjects,' in-
tended as additions to the ' Thirty Letters.' His
other musical publications comprised a second
set of 'Twelve Canzonets for two voices,' 'Twelve
Pastorab,' a fourth set of 'Twelve Songs,*
' Hymns in three parts,' and ' Six Madrigals.*
His cathedral music was oolleoted and published
many years after his death by James Paddon,
organist of Exeter Cathedral. He died of dropsy,
July I a, 1803. Jackson employed much of lus
leisure time in painting landscapes in the style
of his friend Gainsborough, in which he attained
considerable skill. WUlst much of his musio
charms by its simplicity, melodiousness, refine-
ment and grace, tnere is also much that sinks
into tameness and insipidity ; his church musio
especially is exceedingly feeble. Notwithstanding
this, 'Jackson in F' is even now popular in some
quarters. [W.H.H.]
JACKSON, William, known as Jackson of
Masham, bom Jan. 9, 181 6, was son of a miller,
and furnishes a good instance of the power of
perseverance and devotion to an end. His passion
for music developed itself at an early age, and his
struggles in the pursuit of his beloved art read
almost like a romance in humble life. He built
I organs, learned to play almost every instrument
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* JACKSOl^:
wind and string, taught himself harmony and
counterpoint from books, until at length, in 1852,
when he had reached the mature age of 16,
the lord of the manor of Maaham having pre-
sented a finger organ to the church, Jackson was
appointed orgamst with a stipend of £30.
Tlurough the circulating library in Leeds, he
was able to study the scores of Haydn, Mozart,
Spohr and Mendelssohn. In 1839 he went into
business at Masham as a tallow-chandler, and
in the same year published an anthem, *Fot joy
let fertile vidleys ring.' In 1840 the Hudders-
fleld Glee Club awarded him their first prize for
his glee, 'The sisters of the sea'; and in 184 1
he composed for the Huddersfield Choral Society
tiie 103rd Psalm for solo voices, chorus and
orchestra. In 1845 he wrote an oratorio, *The
Deliverance of Israel firom BabylOn,' and soon
afterwards another entitled * Isaiah.* In 185 a
he made music his profession and settled in
Bradford, where, in partnership with William
Winn, the bass singer, he entei^ into business
as a musicseller, and became organist, first, of
St. John's Church, and afterwards (in 1856) of
Horton Lane Chapel. On Winn's quitting
Bradford, Jackson succeeded him as conductor of
the Choral Union (male voices only). He was
ohorus-master at the Bradford festivals in 1853,
56 and 59, and became conductor of the Festiv^
Choral Society on its establishment in 56% For
the festival of 56 he again set the 1031^ PSalm,
and for that of 59 composed 'The Year,' a
cantata, the words selected by himself from
various poets. He compiled and partly oomposed
a set of psalm tunes, and harmonised 'The
Bradford iSme Book,' compiled by Samuel Smith.
Besides the works already mentioned, he com-
posed a mass, a church service, anthems, glees,
part-songs and songs, and wrote a Manual of
Singing, which paraed through many editions.
His last work was a cantata entitled * The Praise
of Music' He died April 15th, 1866. His son,
William, bom 1853, was bred to the profession
of music, became oi^ganist of Momingside
Church, Edinburgh, and died at Ripon, Sept. 10,
1877. [W.H.H.]
JACOB, Benjamin, bom in London in 1778,
was at a very early age taught the rudiments of
music by his fistther, an amateur violinist. When
7 years old he reoeived lessons in singing frx>m
Bobert Willoughby, a well-known chorus-singer,
and became a chorister at Portland Chapel. At
8 years of age he learned to play on tiie harp-
sichord, and afterwards studied tiiat instrument
and the organ under William Shrubsole, organist
of SpaFieldsChapel, and Matthew Cooke, organist
of St. George, ^oomsbury. At 10 years of age
he became organist of Salem Cbc^l, Soho, and
little more than a year afterwards was appointed
organist of Carlisle Chapel, Kennington Lane.
Towards the latter end of 1790 he removed to
Bentinok Chapel, Lisson Green, where he re-
mained imtil Dec. 1794, when the Rev. Rowland
Hill invited him to assume the place of oiganist
at Surrey ChapeL In 1 796 he studied hannony
under Dr. Amiold. In 1 800 he conducted a series
JACQMK.
of oratorios, given under the direction of Bartle-
man in Cross Street, Hatton Garden. As he
advanced in years he became more and more
distinguished as one of the best organists of hie
time, and in 1808 began a series of perform-
ances at Surrey Chi^, of airs, choruses, and
fugues played upon the organ alone, without any
interspersion of vocal pieces. In that and the
following year Samuel Wesley addressed to him«
as to a kindred spirit, a remarkable series of
lettera on the works and genius of John Sebastian
Bach. These letters were published in 1875 by
Miss Eliza Wesley, the writer's daughter; the
originals are now in the library of the Sacred
Hiumonio Society. In 1809 Jacob gave an organ
performance at Surrey Chapel in conjunction with
Wesley, the two playii)g alternately the fugues
of Bach and Handel and other pieces. In 1811,
18 1 2 and 1 8 14 Jacob repeated the perfomianoes
in conjunction with Dr. Crotch. As a conse-
quence of hia high reputation he was frequently
engaged to open new organs and to act as judge
on' trials for vacant organists' seats.
In Nov. 1823 he quitted Surrey Chapel fo^ the
newly-erected diurch of St. John, Waterloo Road.
This led to a dispute between him and the Rev.
Rowland Hill, resulting in a paper war, in which
the musician triumphed over the divine. The
excitement of the controversy, however, proved
too much for Jacob ; he was attacked by dispaae,
which developed into puhnonaiy consumption*
and terminated his existence Aug. 34, 1829.
His compositions were not numerous, ccHosisting
prindpiUly of psalm tunes and a few glees. The
collection of tunes, with appropriate symphonies;
set to a course of psahns, and published under
the title of ' Nationibl Psalmody,' which he edited,
is well known. [W. HJH.]
JACQUARD, LioN Jean, eminent violon-
cellist,, bom at Paris Nov. 3, 1826; studied
at the Conservatoire,, where he obtained the 2nd
prize for cello in 1842, and the ist prize in 1844*
In 1876 he married Mile. Laure Bedel, a pianist
of distinction, and at the end of 1877 sucoeeded
Chevillard as professor of his instrument at the
Conservatoire. Jacquard is eminently a classical
player^ — a pure and noble style, good intonation,
and great correctness : if he has a fault it is that
he is somewhat cold, but his taste is always irre-
proachable, and his sdaneea of chamber music are
well attended by the best class of amateurs. He
has composed some Fantasias for the cello, but it
is as a virtuoso and a professor that he will be
remembered. [G.C.J
JACQUIN, VON. A Viennese family with
which Mozart was on the most intimate and
affectionate terms. The fisher, Johann Frant
Freiherr von Jacquin, was a celebrated botanist^
whose house in the botanical garden was the
great resort of the most intellectual and artistio
society of Vienna ; the son Gk>ttfried, an accom-
plished amateur with a fine bass voice, was a very
intimate friend of Mozart's, and the recipient of
some of his cleverest letters ; and the dau^ter
Franziska was one of his best pupils (lifter,
Jan. 14, 1787). For Gottfided he wrote the air
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.-JACQUIN. *
'Men^ t! lascio' (K5cliel 513X tod'foT the
fMoily more than one channing little Canzonet
for 2 sopranos and a bass, such as '£cco qu^
too ' or ' Due pupille amabili * (K. 436, 439).
An air of Grottfrieasy ' lo ti lascio is to this day
•often sung in concert rooms as Mozart*s. He
took part in the fanny scene whioh gave rise to
Mocart's comic 'Bandl Terzett * — 'Liebes Mandl,
wo ists Bandl.* The lines which Grottfried wrote
in Moeart*s Album — * True genius is impossible
witbout heart; for no amount of intellect. alone
or of imagination, no, nor of both together, can
make genius. Love, love, love is the soul of
genius— characterise him as fiuthftdly as those
of bis &ther, written in the same book, do the
<^ man of tact and science :—
*Tibi,qiupoaBis
Blandus auritas fidibos caooris
Ducere qoercat,
In amidtin teaseram.* [G.]
JADASSOHN, Salomon, bom at Breslau
Sept. 15, 1831. His years of study were passed
partly at home under Hesse, Liistner and Brosig,
partly at the Leipzig Gonservatorium (184$),
partly at Weimar under Liszt, and again in
1853, at Leipzig under Hauptnuum. Since that
iim» he has resided in Leipzig, first as a teacher,
tiien as the conductor of the Euterpe concerts,
and lastly in the Gonservatorium as teacher of
HarmcNiy, Counterpoint, Composition, and the
Pianoforte. His compositions are varied and
numerous (58, to May 1879). Among the most
remarkable are Symphony No. 3, in D (op. 50) ;
3 Serenades for Ordiestra (ops. 4a, 46, 47) ; a
pieces for Chorus and Orchestra (ops. 54, 55) ;
Serenade (op. 35) and Ballet-musio (op. 58),
each for P.F. and each a series of canons ; songs,
duets, etc. His facility in counterpoint is great,
and his canons are boUi ingenious and effective.
As a private teacher Jadassohn is highly
-UwneT [G.]
JADIN, Louts EmcAtniiL, son, nephew, and
brother of musicians, bom Sept. ai, 1768, at
Versaillee, where his father Jban, a violinist and
oomposer, settled at the instigation of his brother
G10BOB8, a performer on the bassoon attached to
the chapeUe of Louis XV. As a child Louis
showed great talent for music ; his father taught
him the violin, and Hfillmandel the piano. After
being ' page de la musique * to Louis XV I, he was
in I ^9 appointed and aocompanyist, and in 1 791
diief maestro al cembalo at the Th^tre de Mon-
sieur, then in the Bue Feydeau. This post gave
him the opportunity of producing 'Jooonde'
(Sept. 14, 1790), a comic opera in 3 acts. Jadin*s
indnstiy was extraordinary. Though fully en-
gaged as composer, conductor, and teacher, he
losi no opx>rtunity of i^pearing before the
pabHo. He composed nuurches imd concerted
pieees for the Garde Nationale ; patriotic songs
and piices de eireonstanee such as ' Le Congris
des Bois,' in oonjunction with others, 'L*Apo-
ih^ose dn jeune Barra,' 'Le Si6ge de ThionviUe'
(1793), 'Agricol Viola on le jeune h^ros de la
Duianoe^* for the various fdtesof the Revolution ;
and 38 operas for the Italiens, the l^^tres
JlHNS.
fi0
Moli^re and Louvois, the Vari^t^s.'theAcad^mie,
and chiefly the Feydeau. Of this mass of music,
however, nothing Burvives but the titles of
'Jooonde* and 'Mahomet II' (1803) familiar
to us firom the operas of Isouard and BossinL
This, does not necessarily imply that Jadin was
without talent, but like many others his librettos
were bad, and his music, though well written;
was wanting in dramatic spirit, and in the style,
life, passion and originality necessary for success.
In fact his one quality was facility.
In 1 80a he Buooeeded his brother as professor
of the pianofnte at the Conservatoire, and was
* Gouvemeur dee pages ' of the royal chapel firom
the Bestoration to the Bevolution of 1830. He
received the Legion of Honour in 1834. To the
dose of his life he continued to produce romances,
nocturnes, trios and quartets, string quintets, and
other chamber-musio. Of Ms orchestral works,
' La Bataille d* Austerlitz ' is the best known. He
was one of the first to compose for two pianosi
and was noted as the best aoccnnpanyist of his
day. In private life he was a good talker, and
fond of a joke. He died in Paris, April 1 1, 1 853.
His brother Htaointhb, bom at VersailleB
1769, a pupH of Hiillmandel*s, and a brilliant
and charming pianist, played at the Concerts
Feydeau in 1 796-97, and was a favourite with
the publio up to his early death in i8oa. On
the foundation of the Conservatoire he was ap-
pointed professor of the pianoforte, but had
barely time to form pupils, and both Louis Adam
and Boieldieu excelled him as teachers. He
composed much both for his instrument and
the chamber ; 4 concertos and sonatas for a and
4 hands for P. F. ; sonatas for P. F. and violin ;
string trios and quartets, etc.; all now old-
fashioned and forgotten. [G.C.]
JAHNS, FfiiZDBiOH WiLHXLM, bom at Berlin
Jan. a, 1809. His talent fbr music showed it-
self early, and strongly ; but the first important
event in his musical life was the first performance
of Freischfltz (June 18, 1821), which not only
aroused his enthusiasm for music, but made him
an adherent of Weber for ever. After some hesi*
tation between the theatre and the concert-room,
he finally chose the latter, and became a singer
and teacher of singing, in which capacity he was
much sought for. In 1845 he founded a singing
society, which he led for 25 years. In 1849 he
was made * Konigliche Musikdirector ' ; in 1871
'Professor '; and has since been decorated with
the orders of Baden, Saxony, Bavaria, and Han-
over. He has composed and arranged much for
the piano, but the work by which he will live
fbr posterity is his Thematic Catalogue of Weber*B
works (*C. M. vonW. in seinen Werken,* 187 1),
founded on Kochers Catalogue of Mozart, but
much extended in limits beyond that excellent
work. It is in fact a repertory of all that concerns
the material part of those compositions, including
elaborate information on the MSS., editions, per-
formances, Weber's handwriting, etc. etc.— a large
vol. of 500 pages. The library whioh he formed
in the oourse oi this work, is one of the sights of
Berlin. [G.]
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JAELt,
JAELU Altrid, piaaofbrte pUyer, bom
Maroh 5, 1833, at Trieste. Began his career at
1 1 yean old as a prodigy, and seems to have ac-
quired his great skill by constant perfcmnanoe in
public. In 1844 he was brought to Moscheles
mi Vienna, who calls him a Wunderknabe. In
l8ii5 and 6 he resided in Brussels, next in Paris,
ana then, after the Bevolution of 1848, went to
America for some years. In 1854 he returned to
Europe. In 1863 he played at the Musical
Union, and on June 35, 186^ at the Philharmonic
Society; and since that date has divided his time
between the Continent and England.
In 1866 Mr. Jaell married Miss Trautmann, a
{^anist of ability. His published works consist of
transcriptions, potpourris, and other salon pieces.
He has always shown himself anxious to bring
finrward new compositions ; and played the con-
certos of Brahms uid of Raff «t the Philharmonic,
At a time when they were unknown to that
audience. [G.]
JAHN, Otto, the biographer of Mozart, a dis-
tinguished philologist, archaeologist) and writer on
art and music, bom June 16, 1 813, at Kiel ; studied
at Eliel, Leipzig, and Berlin, took his degree in
1831, visited Copenhagen, Paris!, SwitzerUmd and
ItiJy, in 39 settled in Kiel, in 4 3 became professor
of archeology and philology at Grei&walde, and in
47 director of the archaeological Museum at Leip-
zig, was dismissed for poetical reasons during
the troubles of 1 848-49, and in 55 settled at Bonn
as professor of classical philology and archseology,
and director of the university art-museum.
Here he remained till 1869, when he retired
during his last illness to Gottingen, and died
on Sept. 9. Jahn wrote important books on
all the subjects of which he was master, but
his musical works alone concern us. Fcffemoet
among these its his *W. A. Mosart' (Leipzig,
Breitkopf & Hartel, 4 vols, 1856-59, 3nd ed.
3 vols, 1867, with portraits Mid iacsimiles). His
Eicture of the great composer is scarcely less
iteresting and valuable than his description of
the state of music during the period immediatdy
preceding Mozurt, whue the new £sots pro-
duced, the new light thrown on old ones, and the
thoroufl;h knowledge of the subject evinced
throughout, all combine to place the work at the
bead of musical biogn^hies.^
Jalm intended to treat Haydn and Beethoven
on the same scale, and had begun to collect
materials, but these projects were stopped by his
death*. Jahn also published an essav on Men*
deU»ohn*s * Paubis ' (Kiel 1843) ; and an accu-
rate comparative edition, with preface, of Beetho-
ven's 'Leonore' (Fidelio) for P.F. (B. & H.
Leipzig 1 851). For the 'Grenzboten* he wrote
two spirited reports of the Lower Khine Musical
1 Vor tiM VnglUh reader thk adnlnble book folllm flpon the tn-
qnent intorpolatton of lone digreMtons on the riie «nd progre* of
Tftriout aactkms of music, which, thoagji most valuable in themaelres.
Interrupt the nairatlTe and would be more eonrenlentlj ^aoed In an
Appendix. It* Index also leaves much to be desired. [G.]
> Tbe materials oollected for Haydn went to Herr 0. F. Fohl. and
those for Beethoven to Mr. Thajrer. and are being emplojwl bj those
writers In their blocraphles of the two eompoears. Mr. Fohl was deaig-
aated bJ Jahn as his successor In the biogtaphy of Haydn. [G.]
JANIEWICZ,
Festivals of 1855-56; an article on the oottwlete
edition of Beethoven's works, full of souikd cri-
ticism and biographical information; and two
controversial articles on Beriioz and Wagner.
These and other contributions of the same kind
were published as 'Gesammelte Auisatze ttber
Musik* (Leipzig 1868). His four o(^ections of
original songs (3 and 4 from Groth's ' Quickbom,*
Breitkopf & Hartel), also evince the possessioa
of that remarkable combination of a highly culti-
vated sense of beautv with scientific attainments,
which places him in the first rank among writers on
music. K5chel*s Catalogue of Mozart is withgreat
appropriateness dedicated to Jahn. [C. F.P.]
JAHRBtJCHER FUR MUSIKALISCME
WISSENCHAFT — ' Year-books of musical
science.* A publication due to the remarkable
energy and interest of Dr. Chrysander, bv whom
it is edited and published, through Breitkopf &
HarteL Two volumes have appeared. For pains
and ability the papers leave nothing to be de-
sired, but the severe polemic spirit which is occa-
sionally manifested is much to be regretted.
L I86S. L Bound, and S. Tem-
perament, both by Hanptmann
OT-M). %, Tlnetor^ 'DUBnl-
torlnm.* bf H. BeUennann (56-
114). 4. TIm LImborg Chronicle,
and German Volksgasai« In Mth
cent. (115-148). &. The Bnins-
vrkk-WdUsnbattel Band and
Opera. 16th-18th cent. a<7-S86).
6. Henry Carey and God save the
EbmCUn-wn. 7. HalMlersOlsna-
partto8aul(406■4K). a Beetho-
ven's oonneetloa frith Blrdhall and
Btumpf(4a»-40B).
n.lM7. 9.'Da8LeebelmerUe-
derbu«h.BebftderArsO«Banisandl.
TOO Conrad Paumann '—a dtaaip-
analysis of a
on of SOI
German MS. ooUeotlOD of songs of
the Uth eent^ and a MS. book of
oigan pieces of the same date, with
fluMlmlles, woodonta, and ynrj nu-
merous examples— In all 04 pages,
by P. W. Arnold and B. Belleiw
Buum. 10. J. a Baob and IHede-
mann Baoh In Halle (285.4tf). 11.
Mendelssohn's Oigan-paxt to Is-
rael In Egypt W»-vn» li. Ba-
▼lews:— Bebi " '^
tory of Mu>le (28M00) ; Wssipaaft
Bhythm and History 9i ' ~
Mn^ (800-810)1 ~
'Scrlptonimder
serlem' and 'L'art barmoolqaa'
(810-S14)( Waekereagel on the
German 'Klrdtenlled' (814-aBS):
Rommel's ' GebtUche VoBuUedec '
(8S8-8M); Rtflgel's LlturHoal Xn-
sio (834-887): LIIlenoron'sHlstorkal
VolksUeder (S27-82S): Thayer's
Ohrottologleal List of BeetboTen*s
Works (S2MS0): Bitter's Life of
J. 8. Bach (880-888): Bndhart'a
History of the Opera at Munich
(SSM85): Koch's Musical Laxtooa.
edited by Dommer <SS6) ; Krdger'a
Bystem of Mnslo (SSS). 18. LM of
Uie Choral Sodetles and Coooart
InstltutloBS ef Germang and Swttn-
erland (887-874). fQ- 1
JAMES, John, an organist in the first half
of the 1 8th century, noted for his skill in extem-
poraneousperformance. After oflBciating for several
years as a deputy he obtained the post of organ-
ist of St. Olave, Southwark, which he resigned in
1738 for that of St. Geoige in the East, Mid-
dlesex. He died in 1745. His published com-
positions consist of a few songs and organ pieces
only. [W.H.H.]
JAMES, W. K., A .flaaiiat; pudU of Charles
Nicholson, was author of a wohl entitled *A
Word or two on the Flute,' published in i8a6, in
which he treats of the various kinds of flutes, an-
cient and modem, their particular qualities, etc.,
and gives critical notices of the style of playing
of the most eminent English and foreign per-
formers on tbe instrument. [W.H.H.]
JANlKWlCZ,' Felix, violinist, a Polish gen^
tleman, bom at Wilna 1762. He went to
Vienna in 1 783 or 4 to see Haydn and Mozart^
and hear their works conducted by themselvee.
t As the latter J In Polish has the sound of I or T. ba altered tba
speU ng of his name to Tanlewks, In ocdar that In England It might
be pronounced oonecUy.
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JANIEWIGZ«
He htA neaify made anangementa to study
eompontion under Haydn, when a PoUsh piin-
eem offered to take him to Italy ; and he availed
jtimif^lf of her protection in onler to hear the
beii violiniatB of the period, such as Nardini,
Pngnani and others, as well as the best singers.
After 5 years in Italy he went to Paris, and
appeared at the Ck>noerts Spiritoels and Oljmn-
piens. Madame de Grenlis procured him a pension
firoDS the Duo d'Orl^ans as a musician on the
estahljshment of Mademoiselle d'Qrl^ans, but
on the reduction of the expenses of the Duke's
court in 1790 he left Paris. In 1792 he came
to London, and made his d^dt in February
at Salomon's Concerts. He also appeared at
Bauzzini*s Bath oonoerts, yidted Ireland several
times, and for many years conducted the sub-
soription concerts at I^verpool and Manchester.
In 1800 he married Miss Breeze, a Liverpool
lady. He was one of the 30 members who
originally formed the London Philharmonic So-
ciety, and was one of the leaders of the orchestra
in its first season. In 1815 he settled in Edin-
bnrgfa, took leave of the public at a fiurewell
coooert in 1829, and died in that city in 1848.
His style was pure, wann, and full of feeling;
with that great execution in octaves which La
Motte first introduced into England. Besides
thisj, he was an excellent conductor. Parke in
Ins Musical Memoirs, and G. F. Graham in his
account of the Edinburgh Musical Festival in
18 1 5, speak of the el^^nt and finished execution
of his Concertos. Some of these were published
in Paris ; but he considered his best work to be
a set of 3 Trios for a Violins and Bass, published
in London. (V . de P.]
JANITSCH AREN, i. e. Janissaries. A term
used by the Gennans for what they also call
Torkish music — the triangle, cymbals, and big
drum (see Nos. 3 and 7 of the Finale of the
Chond Symphony). The Janissaries were abol-
ished in 1825. llieir band is said to have con-
tained 2 large and 3 small oboes and i piccolo
flutei, all of very shrill character ; i large and
3 small kettle-drums, i big and 5 small long
drams, 3 cymbals, and a triui^^es. [G.J
JANNACONI or JANACCONI, Giuseppe,
bcHrn, probably in Rome, 1741, learnt music and
singing from Binaldini, G. Carpani and Pisari,
under whom, and through the special study of
Palestrina, he perfected himself m the methods
and traditions of the Roman school. In 181 1,
on the retirem^it of Zinsarelli, he became Maes-
tro di Oapella at S.Peter^s, a poet which he held
during the rest of his lifo* He died firom the
•fleets of an apo{4ectic stroke, March 16, 1816,
and was buried in the church of S. Simone e
Giuda. A Requiem by his scholar Basili was
sung far him on the a^rd. Baini was his pupil
from 1 802, and the frie^dship thus begun lasted till
the day of his death. Baini closed his eyes, and all
that we know of Janaoconi is from his affectionate
remembrance as embodied in his great work on
Palestrina. — It is strange that one who is said
to have been so highly esteemed at home should
be so little known abroad. His name does not
JANNEQIJIir.
dl
appear in the Cataloffue of the Sacred Harmonic
Society, or the Euing library, Glasgow, and
the only published piece of music by lum which
the writer has been able to find is a motet
in the and part of Mr. Hullah's Part Musicy
'The voice of joy and health,' adapted firom
a * Leeitaniini in Domino^* the autograph of
which, with that of a Kyrie for a choirs, formed
Srt of the excellent Library founded by Mr,
ullak for the use of his claises at St. Martin's
HalL This motet may not be more original than
the words to which it is set, but it is full of
spirit, and vocal to the last degree. Janaoconi
was a voluminous writer; especially was he noted
for his works for 2, 3 and 4 choirs. The catalogue
of the Lamdsbeig Library at Rome does not
exhibit his name, but ^mtini's collection of
MSS. contained a mass and 4 other pieces, for
4 voices ; 14 masses, varying f^m 8 to 2 voioesy
some with instrmnents ; 42 psalms, and a quan-
tity of motets and other pieces for service^
some with accoii^>animent, some without, and for
various numbers of voices. A MS. volume of 6
masses and a psalm forms No. 181 1 in the F^tis
library at Brussels ; the other pieces named at
the foot of F^tis's artide in the Biographic seem
to have disappeared. [G.]
JANNEQUIN, Clement, composer of the
1 6th century, by tradition a Frenchman, and one
of the most distmgmshed followers, if not actually
a pupil, of Josquin Despr^ There is no musician
of the time of whose life we know less. Ko
mention is made of his holding any court ap«
pdntment or of his being connected with any
diurch. We may perhaps guess that, like many
other urtists, he went in early life to Rome, and
was attached to the Papal Chapel ; for some of his
MS. masses are said to be still preserved there^
while thcT are unknown elsewhere. But he
must soon nave abandoned writing for the church,
for amcmg hb published wor^ two masses,
* L'aveogle Dieu * and ' La Bataille,* and a single
motet ^Congregati sunt>' seem almost nothing by
the nde of more than 200 secular compositions.
Later in life, it is true, he writes again with
sacred words, but in a far different style, setting
to music 82 psalms of David, and 'The ProverlM
of Solomon' (ttlon la veriti H^braiqus), leading
us to conjecture that he may have beoome, like
Goudimel, a convert to the reformed church, as
F^tis thinks, or that he had never been a Chris-
tian at all, but was of Jewish origin and had
only written a few msonos as the inevitable trials
of his contrapuntal skill. But apart firom these
vague speculations, it is certain that Jannequin
tr<xl a very different path frt>m his contempora-
ries. Practically confining himself to secular
music, he exhibited oreat originality in the choioe
and treatment of hu subjects. He was the fol-
lower of Gombert in the art of writing descriptive
music, and made it his speciality. Among his
works of this class are * La Bataolle,' written to
commemorate and describe the battle of Marig-
nan, fought between the French and Swiss in
I5i.'>» to which composition Bumey has directed
particular attention in his Histo^, and which he
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t^
jankequin;
has copied in his Musical Extracts '(Bnl Mas.
Add. M8S. 11,588), 'Le chant des Oysoaox/ *Le
caquet des Femmes/ 'La chasse de li^vre, Le
ebant du Roesignol,* and one containing imita-
tions of the street cries of Paris — ' Yonlez ouyr
les cris de Paris.* To those who woold know how
far it may be possible to reproduce these com*
positions at ^e present day, it will be a fact of
interest that the first three of them were sung in
Paris in 1828 under the direction of M. Choron
and * produced a surprising effect.* The Bataille
was simg by pupils of the Conservatoire in a
course of historical lectures by M. Bourgault
Ducoudray, Dec. 26, 1878.
A second edition of some of Jannequin*s works
was published in Paris (according to F^tis) in
the year 1559. and the composer must have been
living at that time, for they were 'reveuz et
oorrigex par lui meme.'
In the same year, according to the same
Authority, Jannequin published his music to
83 psalms, with a dedication to the Queen
of France, in which he speaks of his poverty
and age. Old indeed he must have been, for
the year after, 1560, Bonsard the poet, an
amateur of music and intimately connected with
the musicians of his time, in writing a preface
for a book of chansons published by lie Roy
& Ballard at Paris, speaJcs of Jannequin witi^
reverence enough as one of Josquin's celebrated
disciples, but evidently regards him as a com-
poser of a bygone age. [J. R.S.-B.]
JANOTHA, Nathalie, pianoforte player, bom
at Warsaw, June 8, 1856 ; taught music by her
father, professor at the Conservatorium. there ;
first appeared in public, in her native town, in
the latter part of 1867 ; studied under Professor
Budorff. at the Impcoial Hochschule of Berlin,
and under Madame Schumann. She made her
first appearance at the Gewandhaus, Leipzig,
Jan. I, 1874, and in England at the Saturday
Popular Ck>noert, April 13 of the same year. At
the Crystal Palace Saturday Ccmcerts she ap-
peared Dec. 7, 1878, and at Uie Philharmonic
m March ao, 1879. [Q.]
JANSA, Leopold, violinist and composer,
was bom in 1797 at Wildenschwert in Bohemia.
Although showing great fondness for music, and
playinff the violin from his earliest childhood, he
entered the University of Vienna in 181 7 to
study law according to the wish of his &ther.
He very soon however gave up the law and
devoted himself entirely to music. After a few
years he appeared successfully as a violinist in
public: in 1824 became member of the Im-
perial Band, and in 1834 Conductor of Music at
the University of Vienna. Jansa, though a
good player and sound musician was not a great
virtuoso. In 1849 he lost his appointment in
Vienna for having assisted at a concert in Lon-
don for the benefit of the Hungarian Political
Refugees. Henceforth he remained in London,
and soon gained a good position as a teacher of
the violin. After about ao years he returned to
Vienna, received a pension from the Emperor,
And died in 1875.
.' JEBB.
' The ihost eminent of his pupils is Madame
Korman-Kerada. Jansa publisned a consider-
able number of works for the violin:— 4 con-
certos; a concertante fiir a violins; Violin
Duets; 8 string-Quartets, etc. — all written in
a fluent musici^ike style, but with no daim
to originality. His duets are much valued by
all violin- teachers. [PI>^3
J ARNO WICK— whose real name, as he wrote
it in Clement*s Album, was Giovanni Marie
Giomovichj, though commonly given as abov^^^
was one of the endnent violin pUyers of the last
century; bom at Palermo 1745, and a scholar
of the fiunous LoUi. He made his cUbut in
Paris in 1770 at one of the Concerts Spirituels,
and for some years was all the rage in thai
capitaL Owing to some misbehaviour he left
Paris in 1779 and entered the band of the King
of Prussia, but his disputes with Duport drove
him thence in 1783. He then visited Austria,
Poland, Russia, and Sweden, and in 179 1 arrived
in London, where he gave his first concert on
May 4. He had great success here, both as
player and conductor. His insolence and conceit
seem to have been unbounded, and to have
brought him into disastrous collision with Viotti,
a fax greater artist than himself, and with J. B.
Cramer — who went the length of calling him
out, a chidlenge which Jamowick would not
accept — and even led him to some gross mis-
conduct in the presence of the King and Duke of
York. He died in Petersbuig in 1804 — ^it is said
during a game of billiards. From the testimony
of Kelly, Dittersdorf, and other musicians, it is
not difficult to gather the characteristics of
Jamowick^s playing. His tone was fine, though
not strong ; he played with accuracy and fini^
and alwavs well in tune. His bow-hand was
light, and there was a grace and spirit about
the n^ole performance, and an absence of effort^
which put the hearer quite at ease. These
qualities are not the highest, but they are highly
desirable, and they seem to have been, poss^sed
in large measure by Jamovdck. In mind and
morals he was a true pupil of Lolli. [G.]
JAY, John, Mus. Doc., bora in Essex, Nov.
a7, 1770, after receiving rudimentary instruction
from John Hindmarah, violinist^ and Francis
Phillips, violoncelUst, was sent to the continent
to complete his education. He became an ex-
cellent violinist. He returned to England in
1800, settled in London, and established himself
as a teacher. He graduated as Mus. Bac. at
Oxford in 1809, and Mus. Doc. at Cambridge
in 181 1, and was an honorary member of the
Royal Academy of Music. He published several
compositions for the pianoforte. His eldest
daughter was a harpist and his second a pianist.
His son, John, is a good violinist. Dr. Jay died
in London, Sept. 17, 1849. [W.H.H.]
JEAN DE PARIS. Operacomique in a
acts ; music by Boieldieu. Produced at the
Theatre Feydeau April 4, 181 a. [G.3
JEBB, Rev. John, D, D., formerly Preben-
dary in IrtTneriok Cathedral, now Canon of Here-
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JEBB.
f ford and Rector of Peteratow, Herofordehire,
an able writer on choral service. His works in-
(dade 'Three Lectures on the Cathedral Service
of the United Church of England and Ireland,'
delivered at Leeds in 1841 and published in
that year; 'The Choral Service of the United
Churdi of England and Ireland, being an In-
quiry into the Liturgical System of the Cathe-
dral and Collegiate foundations of the Anglican
Communion/ 8vo. 1843 ; 'The Choral Eesponses
and Litanies of the United Church of England
and Ireland,* a vols. foL 1847-57 (an inter-
esting and valuable collection) ; and * Catalogue
of Ancient Choir Books at St. Peter*s College,
Cambridge.' He edited Thos. Caustun's ' Yenite
eznltemus and Communion Service.' [W.H.H.]
JEFFRIES, GsoBOB, steward to Lord Hatton,
of Kirby, Northamptonshire (where he had lands
of his own), and organist to Charles I. at Oxford
In 1643, composed many anthems and motets,
both "RugliwH and Latin, still extant in MS.
Several are in the Aldrich collection at Christ
Church, Oxford, and nearly <»ie hundred — eighty
of them in the composer's autograph— are in
the library of the Sacred Harmonic Society. His
■on Chbiotophib, student of Christ Church, was
a good organist [W.H.H.]
JEFFRIES, Stephen, bom i66o. was a chor-
ister of Salisbury Cathedral under Michael Wise.
In 1680 he was appointed oi^ganist of Gloucester
CaihedraL He composed a peculiar melody for
the cathedral chimes, printed in Hawkins* His-
tofy, chap. 160. He died in 171 a. [W.H.H.]
JEITTELES, Alois. [See Liedkbkreis.]
JENKINS, John, bom at Maidstone in 1592,
became a musician in early life. He was
patronised by two Norfolk gentlemen, Bering
and Hamon L*£strange, and resided in the
^punily of the latter for a great portion of his life.
He was a performer on the lute and lyra-viol
and other bowed instruments, and one of the
musicians to Charles I and Charles U. He was
a voluminous composer of Fancies, some for
▼iols and others for the organ ; he also produced
pome light pieces which he called 'Rants.* Of
these 'The Mitter Rant,' an especial favourite,
was printed in Playford's 'Mustek's Hand-
maid, 1678, and other publications of the period.
Two others by him, * The Fleece Tavem Rant,'
and 'The Peterborough Rant,' are in Playford's
'Apollo's Banquet,' 1690. Another popular
piece by him was ' The Lady Katherine Audley's
Bells, Of, The Five Bell Consort,' first printed in
PUyford's 'Courtly Masquing Ayres,' 1662.
His vocal compositions comprise an Elegy on the
death of William Lawes, printed at the end of
H,andW.Lawe8"ChoicePsahns,'i648; 'Theo-
phOa, or. Love's Sacrifice; a Divine Poem by
£[dward] B[enlowe] Esq., several parts thereof
•et to fit aires by Mr. J. Jenkins,' 165a; two
rounds, «A boat, a boat>' and 'Come, pretty
maidens,' in Hilton's * Catch that catch can,'
1652 ; some songs etc. in 'Select Ayres and Dia-
logues,* 1659; <^ *'^^^ Musical Companion,'
167a; and some anthemf. He published in 1660
•JEPHTHAH.
S3
' Twelve Sonatas for two Violins and a Base with
a Thorough Base for the Organ or Theorbo'
(reprinted at Amsterdam, 1664), the first of the
kind produced by an Englishman. His numerous
* Fancies ' were never pnnted. Many MS. copies
of them however exist, a large number being at
Christ Church, Oxford. J. S. Smith included
many of Jenkins's compositions (amongst them
'The Mitter Rant* and • Lady Audley's Bells')
in his ' Musica Antiqua.' Jenkins resided during
the latter years of his life in the family of Sir
Philip Wodehouse, Bart., at Kimberley, Norfolk,
where he died Oct. 27, 1678. He was buried
Oct. 29 in Kimberley Church. [W.H.H.]
JENNT BELL, an op^ra comique in 3 acts ;
w<»ds by Scribe, music by Auber. Produced at
the Op^ra Comique June 2, 1855. ^^ scene
is laid in England and the characters are English,
and the airs of God save the King and Rule
Britannia are introduced. [G.]
JENSEN, Adolfh, composer, bom Jan. la,
1837, at Konigsberg, was a pupil of Ehlert and
F. Marpurg. In 1856 he visited Russia, but
returned the next year to Germany, and was for
a short time Capellmeister at Posen. He then
paid a two years visit to Copenhagen, where he
became intimate with Gade. i860 to 66 were
spent in his native place, and to this time a
large proportion of nis works (op. 6-33) are
due. From 1866 to 68 he was attached to
Tausig's school as teacher of the piano, and
finoe that time resided on account of his health
at Gratz and other places in South Germany.
He died at Baden Baden, Jan. a4, 1879.
Jensen was an enthusiast for Schumann, and
for some months before Schumann's death was
in close correspondence with him. He has pub-
lished various pieces«6a opp.in all — 'The Journey
to Emmaus,' for Orchestra ; ' Nonnengesang,' for
Women's Choras, Horn, Haip, and Piano ; two
liederoyclus, 'Dolorosa' and 'Erotikon*; and
many oUier songs ; Sonatas and smaller pieces for
Piano, which take high rank in his own country,
and are much belov^ by those who know them
here. His genius is essentially that of a song-
writer— fiill of delicate tender feeling, but with
no great heights or depths. [G.]
JEPHTHAH. I. Handel's last oratorio. His
blindness came on during its composition and
delayed it. It was begun Jan. 21, and finished
Aug. 30, 1 751. The words were by Dr. Morell.
Produced at Covent Garden Feb. 26, i*j^. It
was revived by the Sacred Harmonic Socielgr
April 7, 1 84 1. 2. * Jefte in Masfa' (Jephtban
at Mizpeh) was the title of a short oratorio by
Semplice, set by Barthelemon at Florence in
1770; pcoformed there, in Rome — ^where a chorus
finom it even penetrated to the Pope's chapel,
and procured the composer two gold medals — and
in London in x 779 and 8a. A copy of it is in the
Sacred Harmonic Society's Library. 3. Jephtha
and his Daughter. An oratorio in a parts ; the
words adapt^ from the Bible, the music by C.
Reinthaler. Produced in England by Mr. HuUah
at St. Mark's HaU April 16, 1856. [G.]
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JEBUSALEM.
JEBUSALEM i. Grand open in 4 acts;
music by Verdi, the words by Boyer and Waez ;
being a French adaptation of I LombardL Pro-
duced at the Academic Nov. 26, 1847. a. A
Sacred Oratorio in 3 parts ; the words selected
from, the Bible by W. ^uicroft Holmes, the music
by H. H. Pierson. Produced at Norwich Festiyal
Sept. 33, 185a. [G.]
JESSONDA. A grand German opera in 3
acts; the plot from 'La Veuve de 'Malabar.*
Words by Edouard Gehe, musio by Spohr. Pro-
duced at Gassel July 38, 1823 ; in London, at
St. James's theatre (^German company), June 18,
1840; in Italian, at Govent Garden, Aug. 6,
1853. [»•]
JEUNE HENRI, LE. Op&»-aimique in 2
acta ; libretto by BouiUy, musio by M^ul. Pro-
duced at the Th^tre Favart May i, 1 797. The
overture has always been a fiAVOurite in France.
The piece was damned, but the overture was re-
demanded on the fall of the curtain, having been
already encored at the commencement. [G.]
JEUX D*ANCHES. The French name for
the Beed Stops of an Organ. [W. S. B.]
JE WSHABP, possibly a corruption of Jaw's-
haip. In French it is called Guimbarde, and
in German Maul-4rommelt Mund-harmaniea, or
Brummdsen (i.e. buzzing-iron). In the High-
lands, where it is much used, it is called Tromp.
This simple instrument consists of an elastic
steel tongue, rivetted at one end to a frame of
brass or iron, similar in form to certain pocket
corkscrews, of which the screw turns up on a
hinge. The free end of the tongue is b^t out-
wards, at a right angle, so as to allow the finger
to strike it when the instrument is placed to Uie
mouth, and firmly supported by the pressure of
the frame against the teeth.
A column of air may vibrate by redprocadon
with a body whose vibrations are isochronous
with its own, or when the number of its vibra-
tions are any multiple of those of the original
sounding body. On this law depends the expla-
nation of the production of sounds by the Jew's-
harp. The vibraticm of the tongue itself cor-
responds with a very low sound ; but the cavity
of the mouth is capable of various alterations ;
and when the number of vibrations of the con-
tained volume of air is any multiple of the origi-
nal vibrations of the tongue, a sound is produoed
corresponding to the modification of the oral
cavity. Thus, if the primitive sound of the
tongue is C, the series of reciprocated sounds
would be C, E, G, Bb, C, D, E, F, G, etc., and
by using two or more instruments in different
keys, a complete scale may be obtained, and
extremely original and beautiful effects produced.
The elucidation of this subject is due to the
ingenious researches of Professor Wheatstone,
which may be found in the ' Quarterly Journal
of Science, Literature, and Art,' for the year
1838, 1st part» of whidi the above is a oondraised
account.
A soldier of Frederick the Great of Prussia^ so
1 Sm SpohTi Selbstblognphle. IL 1«.
JOACHIM.
channed the king by his performance on two jewV
harps that he gave him his dischaige, together
with a present of money, and he subsequently
amassed, a fortune by playing at concerts.
In 1837 and 1838 Charles Eulenstein appeared
in London [Edlbnstein] and by usiiig 16 jew's-
harps produced extraordinary effects. [V. de P.]
JOACHIM, Joseph, the greatest of living
violin-players, was bom at Kittsee, a village
near Pressbuig, June 38, 1831. He began to
play the violin at five years of age, and showing
great ability he was soon placed under Szervao«
sinsky, then leader of the opera-band at Pesth.
When only seven years <dd, he played a duet in
public with his master with great success. In
1838 he became a pupil of Boehm in Vienna,
and in 1843 went to Leipzig, then, under
Mendelssohn's guidance, at the xenith of ita
musical reputation. On his arrival at Leipzig
as a boy of twelve, he proved himself already an
accomplished vioUnist, and very soon made his
first public i^pearance in a Concert of Madame
Viaidot's, Aug. 10, 1843, when he played a
Bondo of de B^ot a; Mendelssohn, who at onoe
recognised and warmly welcomed the boy's ex-
ceptional talent^ himself accompanying at the
piano. On the i6th of the following November
he appeared at the Grewandhaus Concert in
Emst^s fantasia on Otello; and a year later
(Nov. 25, 1844) took part in a performance at
the Gewandhaus of Maurer's Concertante for
four violins with Ernst, Bazzini and David*
all very much his seniors. The wish of hia
parents, and his own earnest disposition, pre-
vented his entering at once on the career of
a virtuoso. For several years Joachim remamed
at Leipzig, continuing his musical studies under
Mendelssohn's poweriul influence, and studying
with David most of those classical works for the
violin — ^the Concertos of Mendelssohn, Beethoven
and Spohr, Bach's Solos, etc. — which still con-
stitute the staple of his r^ipertoire. At the same
time his general education was carefully attended
to, and it may truly be said, that Joachim's
character both as a musician and as a man was
developed and directed for life during the years
which he spent at Leipzig. He already evinced
that thorough uprightness, that firmness of
character and earnestness of purpose, and that
intense dislike of all that is superficial or untrue
in art, which have made him not only an artist
of the first rank, but, in a sense, a great moral
power in the musical life of our days.
Joachim remained at Leipzig till October
1850, for some time side by side with David
as leader of the Grewandhaus orchestra, but also
from time to time travelling and playing with
ever-increasing success in Germany and Eng-
land. On the strong reoommenda^on of Men-
delssohn he visited London for the first time as
early as 1844, and at the 5th Philharmonic Con-
cert (May 27) played Beethoven's Concerto (for
the 4th time only at those concerts) with great suo-
oess. His first actual public appearance in this
country was at a benefit concert of Mr. Bunn's
at Druzy Lane on March 38. After this he
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JOACHIM.
repeated his visiti to England in 184^, 49, 53,
58, 59, 63, and ever since. His annual appear-
ance at the Monday Popular, the Crystal Palaoe,
and other concerts in London and the principal
prorincial towns has become a reg:ular feature
of the musical life in England. His continued
success as a solo- and quartet-player, extending
novr over a period of more than thirW years, is
probably without parallel. Since the foundation
of Uie Monday Popular Concerts he has been
the principal violinist of those excellentconcerts,
which have perhaps done more than any other
musical institution in England towards popu-
larising that highest branch of the art— classical
ohaml^r-music.
In 1849 Joachim accepted th& post of Leader
of the Grand-Duke's band at Weimar, where
liszt) who had already abandoned his career as
a virtuoso, had setded and was conducting
operas and concerts. His stay in Weimar was
not however of long duration. To one who had
grown up under the influence of Mendelssohn,
and in bis feeling for music and art in general
was much in sympathy with Schumann, the
revolutionary tendencies of the Weimar school
could have but a passing attraction* In 1854
he accepted the post of Conductor of Concerts
and S(^yiolinist to the King of Hanover,
which he retained till 1866. During his stay
at Hanover (June 10, 1863) hemarri^ Amalia
WdsSy the celebrated contralto singer. [See
Wbiss.] In 1868 he went to Berlin as head
of a newly established department of the Boyal
Academy of Arts — the- 'Hochschule fiir ausii-
bende Tonkunst' (High School for Musical Exe-
ca&m, — as distinct from composition, for which
there was already a department in existence).
Joachim entered heart and soul into the arduous
task of organising and starting this new in-
stitution, which under his energy and devotion
not <mly soon exhibited its vitality, but in a very
few years rivalled, and in some respects even
exoeUed, similar older institutions. Up to this
period Joachim had been a teacher mainly by
his example, henceforth he is to be surrounded
by a host of actual pupils, to whom, with a
disinterestedness beyond praise, he imparts the
results of his experience, and into whom he
instils that spirit of manly and unselfish devotion
to art which, in conjunction with his great
natural gifts, really contains the secret of his
kog-continued success. In his present sphere
of action Joachim's beneficent influence, en-
couraging what is true and earnest, and dis-
regarding, and, if necessary, opposing what is
emptj, mean, and superficial m music, can
hardfy be too highly estimated. It will readily
be believed that in addition to the universal
admiration of the musical world numerous marks
of distinction, orders of knighthood from Ger-
man and other sovereign princes, and honorary de-
grees have been conferred on Joachim. From
the University of Cambridge he received the
honorary degree of Doctor of Music on the 8th
March, 1877. No artist ever sought less after
such things, no artist better deserved them.
JOCONDB.
85
As to his style of playing, perhaps nothing
more to the point can be said, than that his in-
terpretations of Beethoven*s Concerto and great
Quartets and of Baoh's' Solo Sonatas are uni-
versally recognised as models, and that his style
of playing appears especially adapted to render
compositions of the purest and most elevated
style. A master of technique, surpassed by no
one, he now uses his powers of execution ex-
clusively for the Interpretation of the best
music. If in latter years his strict adherence
to this practice and consequent exclusion of all
virtuoBo-pieoes has resulted lit a certain limita-
tion of repertoire, it must still be granted that
that repertoire is after all richer than that of
almost any other eminent violinist, comprising
as it does the Concertos of Bach, Beel^oven,
Mendelssohn, four or five of Spohr's, Viotti's
22nd, his own Hungarian, Bach's Solos, the a
romances of Beethoven, and in addition the
whole range of classical chamber-music, to which
we may now add the Concerto of Brahms,
played for the first time in England at the
Crystal Palace Feb. 22, 1879, and given by him
at the Philharmonic on Miurch 6 and 20.
Purity of style, without pedantry ; fidelity of
interpretation combined with a powerful indivi-
duality— such are the main characteristics of
Joachim the violinist and the musician.
As a composer Joachim is essentially a follower
of Schumann. Most of his works are of a
grave, melancholic character, — all of them, it
need hardly be said, are earnest in purpose and
aim at the ideal. Undoubtedly his most im-
portant and most successful work is the Hun-
garian Concerto (op. 11), a creation of real
grandeur, built up In noble symphonic propor-
tions, which will hold its place in the first rank
of masterpieces for the violin. The following is
a list of his published compositions :—
Opk 1. Andaotino and AHegro
SebenoM (VloUn
OrohMtn).
9, 8 'Btdcke (Bomanze. Fan-
talslostflok. FrOhllDgs
fiuita^' for VioUn and
Flaoo.
a Oonoerto (O mtnor) * In
einem Satie* for VIoUn
and Orohestra.
4 Orertare to ' Hamlet,* for
OrehMtra.
Bb 8 Stdcke (Llndenransehon,
Abendglooken. Ballade)
for YioUn and Piano.
9. Hebrew Melodies, for Viola
aodPfano.
lA. Variatlona on an original
Theme for Vkda
Pianow
JOAN OF ABC. A grand historical opera
in 3 acts ; the words by Mr. Bunn, the music
by Balfe. Produced at Drury Lane Nov. 30,
1837. [G.]
JOANNA MARIA. [See Galua.]
JOCONDE, ou Lbs Coubeubb d'Aventubi.
Op^ra-comique in 3 acts; libretto by Etienne,
music by Isouard. Produced at the Theatre
Feydeau Feb. 28, 1 814; in English, by Carl
Bose (Santleys translation), Lyceum, Oct. 25,
1876/ ^_ [a.]
QPb 11. Hungarian Concerto tat
VloUn end Ordieftra.
IS: Nottomo in A. for Vtolln
and amaU Orchestra.
18. Orerture, in commemora-
tion of Kleist the poet—
for Orchestra.
14 Soena der Marfo (from
Schiller's unflnlibed play
of Demetrius), for Con-
tralto Solo and Or-
chestra.
Two Marches. In 0 and D.
with Trios.
NJJ. Op. «. 7, 8, Orertures to
Demetrius. Henrj the IVth. and a
Flay of Ooni's reoectirdy, are
stUllaMS.
[P.D.]
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86
JOHN THE BAPTIST, ST.
JOHN THE BAPTIST, ST. An oratario in
a parts ; the text selected from the Bible by Dr.
£. G. Monk; the music by G. A. Maofiurren.
Produced at Bristol Festival Oct. 23, 1873. [G.]
JOHNSON, Edwabd, Mus. Bac., graduated
at Cambridge 1594, and was one of the ten
composers who hiumonised the tunes for Este's
* Whole Booke of Psalms/ 1593. He contributed
the madrigal, *Come, blessed bhrd!' to 'The
Triumphes of Oriana/ 1601. Another madrigal
by him, * Ah, silly John,* is preserved in MS. in
the library of tiie Sacred Harmonic Society.
Nothing is known of his biography. [W. H. H.]
JOHNSON, Robert, an ecclesiastic who
flourished in the middle of the i6th century,
was composer of motets, part-songs and virginal
pieces. Bumey says ' He was one of the first of
our church composers who disposed their parts
with intelligence and design. In writing upon
a plainsong (moving in slow notes of equal
length), wUch was so much practised in those
times, he discovers considerable art and ingenuity,
as also in the manner of treating subjects of fugue
and imitation.' His part-song 'Defiled is my
nanle ' is printed in the Appendix to Hawkins's
History ; and his motet, ' Sabbatum Maria,' and
an Almain from Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book
in Bumey's History. Two of his motets are
contained in Add. MSS. 5059 and 11,586,
British Museum. He was the composer of the
part-song *Tye the mare, Tom boy,' the words
of which are printed in Bitson's ' Ancient Songs,
Another Bobebt Johnson, a lutenist and
composer, possibly a relative of the above-named,
was in January 1573-4 a retainer in the house-
hold of Sir Thomas Kytaon, of Hengrave Hall,
Suffblk. In April 1575, being still in Sir
Thomas's service, he assisted at the grand enter-
tainment given by the Earl of Leicester to Queen
Elizabeth at Kenilworth. He subsequently came
to London, but at what precise date cannot be
ascertained, and became a composer for the
theatres. In 1610 he composed the music for
Middleton's tragi-oomedy, 'The Witch,' printed
in Bimbault's ' Ancient Vocal Music of England.'
In 161 1 he was in the service of Prince Henry,
at an annual salary of JS40. In 161 a he composed
music for Shakspere's 'Tempest,' and in 161 7
songs for Beaumont and Fletcher s * Valentinian'
and 'The Mad Lover.' (See Add. MS. 11,608,
Brit. Mus.) In 162 1 he wrote music for Ben
Jonson's ' Masque of the Gipsies,* some of the
songs of which are contained in a MS. volume
in the Music School, Oxford. He was one of the
contributors to Leighton's 'Teares or Lament-
adons,' 16 14. A l^autiful ballad by him, 'As
I walked forth one summer^s day,' is also printed
in Rimbauh's ' Andent Vocal Mudc of Ei^land.'
His name occurs Dec. ao, 1625, in a privy seal
exempting the Eling's musicians from payment
of subsidies. [W.H.H.]
JOMMELLI, Nioooi:.5, ia the most conspicuous
name in the long list of eminent composers who
^uring the first half of the i8th centory .were
JOMMELLI.
the ontoome and ornament of that Neapolitan
school which had become fiunous under Alesn-
andro Scarlatti. It was a period of transition in
mudcal art all over Italy. It witnessed the
abandonment of the old Gregorian modes in
favour of modem tonality. Counterpoint itself,
while pursued as ardently as ever, and still
recognised as the orthodox form of expression for
musical thought, was assuming to that thought
a new and different relation. Ideas were sub-
jected to its conditions, but it no longer con-
stituted their very essence. The distinctive
tendency of all modem Art towards individual -
isation was everywhere making itself felt, and
each successive composer strove more and more
after dramatic trathfulness as a primary object,
while at the same time there was educated in
the schools of Italy a race of great singers to
whom individual expression was a very condition
of existence. Pure contrapuntal Art — strictly im-
personal in its nature, in that, while each part
is in itself complete, all are equally subordinate
to the whole, was being supplanted by a new
order of things. In the music destined to convey
and to arouse personal emotions one melodious
idea predominates, to which all the rest, however
important, is more or less subservient and ac-
cessory. Nor is harmony, then, the final result
of the superimposition of layer on layer of inde-
pendent parts, but the counterpoint is contrived
by the subdivision and varied time-apportionment
of the harmony, and partakes of the nature of
a decoration rather than a texture — the work is
in fresco and not in mosaic.
To the greatest minds alone it belongs to
unite with intuition that consummate art which
makes scholastic device serve the ends of fiemcy,
and, while imparting form to the inspirations of
genius, receives from them the stamp of origin-
ality. In the long chain connecting Palestrma,
in whose works contrapuntal art found its purest
development, with Mozart, who blended imagin-
ation with sdence as no one had done before him,
one of the last links was Jommelli. Gifted with »
vein of melody tender and elegiac in its character,
with great sensibility, fiistidious taste, and a sense
of effect in advance of any of his Italian contem-
poraries, he started in the new path of dramatic
composition opened up by Scarlatti, Peigolesi,
and Leo, at the point where those masters left
off, and canied the art of expression to the highest
pitch that> in Italy, it attained up to the time of
Mozart.
Bom at A versa, near Naples, Sept. 11, 171 4>
his first musical teaching was given him by
a canon named Mozzillo. At sixteen he en-
tered the Coflservatorio of San Onofrio as the
pupil of Durante, but was transferred to that
of La Pietk de' Turchini, where he learned
vocal music from Prato and Mancini, and com-
position from Feo and Leo. It was the boast
of these schools that young musicians on leaving
them were adepts in all the processes of counter-
point and every kind of scholastic exercise, but
it seems that a spedal training at Rome was
judged necessary to fit Jommelli for writing
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JOMMELLI.
church music, the chief object he ia said at that
time to have had in view. However this may
have been, his first works were ballets, in which
no indication of genius was discernible. He
next tried his hand on cantatas, a style of com-
position &r better suited to his especial gifts,
and with so much success that Leo, on hearing
one of these pieces performed by a lady, a
pupil of Jommelli*s, exclaimed in rapture, 'A
short time, madam, and this young man will be
the wonder and the admiration of Europe 1'
The young composer himself had less fidth in his
own powers. According to the notice of his life
by Picoinni, he so much dreaded the verdict of the
public that his first opera, 'L^£rrore Amoroso,'
was represented (at Naples, in 1737) under the
name of an obscure musician called Valentino ;
the work, however, met with so encouraging
a reception that he ventured to give the next,
'Odoardo,* under his own name.
In 1740 he was summoned to Kome, where he
was protected by the Cardinal Duke of York,
and where his two operas *I1 Ricimero' and
'L'Astianatte' were pix>duced. Thence he pro-
ceeded to Bologna, where he wrote 'Ezio.'
Doling his sojourn there he visited that celebrity
of mnsical learning, the Padre Martini, presenting
himself as a pupil desirous of instruction. To
test his acquirements, a fugue subject was pre-
sented to him, and on his proceeding to treat it
with the greatest hcUMj, * Who are you, then ?*
asked the Padre; 'are you making game of
me? It is I, methinks, who should learn of
you.' 'My name is JommeUi,' returned the
composer, ' and I am the maestro who is to write
the next opera for the theatre of this town.' In
later years JommeUi was wont to affirm that he
had jnofited not a little by his subsequent inter-
ooorse with MartinL
After superintending the production of some
Impoartant works at Bologna and Bome, Jommelli
returned to Naples, where his opera 'Eumene'
was ^ven at the San Carlo with immense success.
A like triumph awaited him at Venice, where
his 'Merope' aroused such enthusiasm that the
Council of Ten i^pointed him director of the
Scuda degl' Incurabili, a circumstance which
led to his beginning at last to write that sacred
mocic which had been the object of his early
ambiticm, and was to become one chief source
of his '£une. Among hb compositions of the
kind at this time was a 'Laudate' for double
dkcir of eight voices, whidi, though once cele-
hiated, appears never to have been printed. In
1745 ^® ^^ ^^^ *^ Vienna, where he wrote
Boocessively 'Achille in Sciro' and *Didone.'
Here he formed with the poet Metastasio an
intimate acquaintance. Metastasio entertained
the highest opinion of his genius, and was also
able to give him much nseful advice on matters
of dramatic expression and effect. Sometimes
the accomplished friends amused themselves by
exchanging rMes ; Jommelli, who wrote his native
language with fluency and elegance, becoming
the poet, and his verses being set to music by
Metastasio.
JOMMELLI.
87
Prom Vienna, in 1748, he went agiun to
Rome, where he produocHl * Artaserse.* He found
an influential admirer and patron in Cardinal
Albani, thanks to whose good offices he was, in
1749, appointed coadjutor of Bencini, chapel-
master of St. Peter's. He quitted this post in 1 754
to become chapel-master to the Duke of Wur-
temberg at Stuttgart, where he remained in the
enjoyment of uninterrupted prosperity for more
than fifteen years. Through the mumficenoe of
his duke he Uved in easy drcumstances, with all
the surroundings most congenial to his cultivated
and refined taste, and with every facility for
hearing his music performed. Here he produced
a number of operas, an oratorio of the Passion, and
a requiem for the Duchess of Wurtemberg. In
these works (rerman influence becomes apparent
in a distinct modification of his style. The
harmony is more fully developed, the use of
modulanon freer and more frequent, while the
orchestral part assumes a greater importance,
and the instrumentation is weightier and more
varied than in his former works. There is no
doubt that this union of styles gave strength to
his music, which, though never lacking sweetness
and refinement, was characterised by dignity
rather than force. It added to the estimation in
which he was held among the Germans, but was
not equally acceptable to Italians when, his fiftme
and fortune being consolidated, he returned to
pass his remaining years among his own country-
men. The fickle Neapolitans had foigotten thdr
former fftvourite, nor did the specimens of his
later style reconquer their suflrages. . ' The opera
here is by Jommelli,' wrote Mozart from Naples
in 1770. <It is beAutlfiil, but the style is too
elevated, as well as too antique, for the theatre.*
The rapid spread of the taste for light opera had
accusUmied the public to seek for gratification
in mere melody and vocal display, wUle richness
of harmony or orchestral colouring were looked
on rather as a blemish by hearers impatient
of the slightest thing calculated to divert their
attention froin the *tune.' 'Armida,' written
for the San Carlo Theatre in 1771, and one of
Jommelli's best operas, was condemned as heavy,
ineffective, and deficient in melody. * H Demo-
foonte' (1772) and 'L'Ifigenia in Aulide' (1773)
were ill executed, and were fEulures.
The composer had retired, with his family, to
Aversa> where he Uved in an opulent semi-
retirement, seldom quitting his home except to
go in spring to I'lnfrascata di Napoli, or in
autumn to Pietra bianca, pleasant country resorts
near Naples. He received at this time a com-
mission from the King of Portugal to compose
two operas and a cantata. But his old sus-
ceptibility to public opinion asserted itself now,
and the failure of his later works so plunged
him in melancholy as to bring on an attack of
apoplexy. On his recovery he wrote a cantata
to celebrate the birth of an heir to the crown
of Naples, and shortly after, the Miserere for
two voices (to the Italian version by Mattel)
which is, perhaps, his most famous work. This
was his * swan's song' ; it was hardly concluded
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88
JOMMELU.
when he died at KapleB, aged 60, Aug. 28,
1774.
JommeUi was of amiable dispodtioii, and had
the polished manners of a man of the world.
Good looking in his youth, he became corpulent
in middle age. Bumey, who saw him at Naples
in 1770, says he was not unlike JSandel, a like-
ness which cannot be traced in any portraits of
him that are extant. The catalogue of his works
contains compositions of all kinds, comprising
nearly fifty operas and four oratoriosi, besides
masses, cantatas, and a great quantity of church
music. As a contrapuntist he was accomplished
rather than profound, and his unaccompanied
choral music will not bear comparison with the
works of some of his predecessors more nearly
allied to the Boman school. His Miserere for
five voices, in G minor (included in BochHtz's
collection), contains great beauties, the long
diminuendo at the dose, espedally, being a
ohanning effect. But the work is unequal, and
the scholarBhip, though elegant and ingenious,
occasionally makes itself too much felt.
His ideas have, for the most part, a tinge of
mild gravity, and it is not surprising that he
£[uled in ballets and other works of a light
nature. Yet he has left an opera huffa, * Don
Jastullo,* which shows that he was not devoid
of a certain sedate humour. This opera is
remarkable (as are others of his) for the free em-
ployment of accompanied recitative. Jonmielli
was one of the earhest cconposers who perceived
the great dramatic capabilities of this mode of
expression, which has, in recent times, received
such wide development. He saw the absurdity,
too, of the conventional Da Capo in airs consist-
ing of two strains or movements, by which the
sympathy of the hearer, worked up to a pitch
during the second (usually Allegro) movement, is
speedily cooled by ^e necessity for recommencing
the Andante and going all through it again.
He would not comply with this custom except
where it happened to suit his purpose, but aimed
at sustaining and heightening the interest from the
outset of a piece till its close^ — anticipating by
this innovation one of Gluck*s greatest reforms.
His invention seems to have required the
stimulus of words, for his purely instrumental
compositions, such as overtures, are singularly
dry and unsugsestive. Yet he had a more keen
appreciation of the orchestra than any contem-
orary Italian writer, as is evinced in his scores
varied combinations of instruments, by oh-
goto accompaniments to several airs, and by
occasional attempts at such tone-painting as the
part written for horns con sordini in the air
'Teneri affetti miei' in 'Attilio Eegolo.' In
his Stuttgart compositions the orchestra becomes
still more prominent, and is dialogued with the
vocal parts in a beautiful manner. The Requiem
contains much pathetic and exquisite music ; but
intensity is wanting where words of subfime or
terrible import have to be conveyed. In this
work and the 'Passion* is to be found a great
deal that is closely allied to composition of a
similar kind by Mozart, and to the earlier master
by V
lliga
JONAS.
is due the credit of much which ofUn passes
as the sole invention of Mozart, because it ia
known only through the medium of his works.
A comparison between the two is most interesting,
showing, as it does, how much of Mozart's musical
phraseology was, so to speak, current coin at the
time when he lived. — The Miserere which was
Jommelli*8 last production seems in some respects
a concession to Italian taste, which possibly
accounts for the comparatively great degree of
subsequent popularity it enjoyed, and suggests
the thought that, had its composer been spared
a few more years, his style might once more
have been insensibly modified by his surroundings.
It possesses, indeed, much of the sympathetic
chitfm that attaches to his other works, but the
vocal parts are so florid as to be sometimes
unsuitable to the character of the words.
He cannot, however, be said to have courted
popularity by writing for the vulgar taste.
Among contemporary composeis of his own
school and counUy, he is pre-eminent for purity
and nobility of thou^t, and for simple, pathetic
expression. His genius was refined and noble,
but limited. He expressed himself truthfully
while he had anythmg to express, but where
his nature fell short there his art fell short
also, and, failing spontaneity, its place had
to be supplied by introspection and analysis.
His sacred music depicts personal sentiment as
much as do his operas, and whereas a mass by
Palestrina is a solemn act of public worship,
a mass by JommeUi is the expression of the
devotion, the r^)entance or the aspiration of an
individual.
The following works of Jommelli*s have been
republished in modem times, and are now ac-
cessible :—
Salmo (Miserere). 4 voices and orchestra
(Breitkopf & Hartel).
Yictimae paschali. 5 voices, score (Schott).
Lux etema. 4 voices (Berlin, Schlesinger).
Hoeanna filio, and In Monte Olivete. 4
voices (Berlin, Schlesinger).
Eequiem, for S.A.T.B. Accompaniment ar-
ranged for P.F. by Clasing (Cranz).
Many other pieces of his are, however, included,
wholly or in part, in miscellaneous cdlections,
such as LatroWs Sacred Music, the FitzwiUiam
Music, Choron's 'Journal de Chant,' Rochlitz*s
'Collection de Morceaux de Chant,' and Geva^t's
'Les Gloires de I'ltaUe,' etc. [F. A.M.]
JONAS, £mils, one of the younger rivals
of Offenbach in opera-bouffe, born of Jewish
parents March 5, 1827, entered the Conserva-
toire Oct. 2^, 41, fcook second prize for harmony
1846, tbnd first ditto 47, and obtained the second
' grand prix' for his 'Antonio' in 49. His d^ut
at the Uieatre was in Oct. 55 with 'Le Duel de
Benjamin' in one act. lliis was followed by
*La Parade' (Aug. 2, 56); *Le Roi boit' (Apr.
57); ' Les petits Prodiges * (Nov. 19, 57); 'Job
et son chien ' (Feb. 6, 63) ; * Le Manoir des La-
renardi^ ' (Sept. 29, 64) ; and ' Avant la noce *
(March 24, 65) — all at Ihe Bouffes Parisiens.
Then, at other theatres, came 'Les deux Alio-
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JONAS.
qmns* (Deo. 29, 65) ; 'Le Canard k trtna bees*
(Feb. 6, 69). Many of bis pieces have been
giveQ in London, snch as 'Terrible Hymen' at
Govont Garden, Dec. 36, 66; *The Two Har-
leqnina' (by A'Beckett) at the Gkdety, Dea ai,
^ ; and ' Le C&nard,' aUo at the Gaiety, July
38, 71. This led to his composing an operetta
in 3 acts to an 'English libretto by Mr. A.
Thampson, called * Cinderella the younger/ pro-
duced at the Gaiety Sept. a5> 71, and reproduced
in Paris as * Javotte* at the Th^tre Lyrique,
Dec 32 foUowuig.
M. Jonas was professor of Solfeggio at the
GoDsaratoire from 1847 to 66, and pro£9SSor of
Hsimony for military bands from 1859 to 70.
He is also director il the music at the Portu-
gnew synagogue, in connection with which he
published in 1854 a collection of Hebrew tunes.
He has also been bandmaster of one of the
legions of the Garde Nationale, and sinoe the
Exposition of 67 has organised the competitions
of militaiy bands at the Palais de Tindustrie,
whereby he has obtained many foreign decora-
tions. Since ' Javotte/ M. Jonas h^ brought
OQt no piece of importance. [G.]
JONES, Edwabd, was bom at a farm house
called Henblas, — ^L«. Old Mansion, — Llanderfel,
Merbnethshire, on Easter Sunday, 1752. His
hfhat taught him and another son to play on
the Welsh harp, and other sons on bowed in-
struments, so that the family formed a complete
stiing band. Edward soon attained to great
profidflDcy on his instrmnent. About 1775 he
came to London, and in 1783 was appointed
hard to the Prince of Wales. In 1786 he pub-
Uahed 'Musical and Poetical Belicks of the
Welsh Bards, with a General History of the
Bards and Druids, and a Dissertation on the
Musical Instruments of the Aboriginal Britons ';
a woik of learning and reeewch. Another
e^tion appeared in 1794, and in 1803 a second
volume cf the work was issued under the title of
'Hie Bardic Museum.' Jones had prepared a
third Tolume, a portion only of which was pub-
lished at his death, the remainder being issued
subsequently. The Uiree volumes together con-
tain 325 Welsh airs. Besides this, he compiled
and edited * Lyric Airs ; consisting of Specimens
of Greek, Albanian, Walachian, Turkish, Ara-
bian, Persian, Chinese, and Moorish National
Songs and Melodies ; with ... a few Ezplana-
tocy Notes on the Figures and Movements
of the Modem Greek Dances, and a short
Dissertation on the Origin of the Ancient Greek
Music,' 1804; 'The Minstrel's Serenades';
"JDarpsichore's Banquet, a Selection of Spanish,
Maltese, Busaian, Armenian, Hindostan, Eng-
Erii, Gorman, French and Swiss Airs*; 'The
Musical Miscellany, chiefly selected from emi-
nent composers' ; ' Musical Bemams of Handel,
Badi, Abel, etc ' ; 'Choice Collection of Italian
Songs'; 'The Mumcal Portfolio, consisting of
Kngtish, Scotch, Irish, and other favourite
Airs'; 'Popular Cheshire Melodies'; 'Mu-
noal Trifles calculated for Beginners on the
Harp* ; and ' The Musical Bouquet, or Popular
JONES.
89
Songs and Ballads.' Besides his professional
pursuits Jones filled a situation in the Office of
Itobee at St. James's Palace. He collected an
extensive library of scarce and curious books,
part of which, to the value of about £300, he sold,
in the latter part of his life, and the remainder
was dispersed by auction after his death, realising
about £800. He died, as he was bom, on Easter
Day, April 18, 1834. [W.H.H.]
JONES, John, organist of the Middle Temple
Nov. 34, 1749; ^^ ^^^ Charterhouse (following
Dr. Pepusch) July 3, 1753 ; and of St. Paul's
Cathedral Dec. 35, 1755. He died, in possession
of these three seats, Feb. 1 7, 1 796. He published
'Sixty Chants Single and Double' (1785) in
the vulgar florid taste of that time. One of
these was sung at George III.'s state visit to
S. Paul's April 33, 1789, and at many of the
annual meetings of the Charity Children. At
that of 1 79 1 i^ydn heard it, and noted it in his
diary as follows (with a material improvement
in the taste of the fourth line) : —
'No music has for a long time affected me so much
as this innocent and reverential strain.' [G.]
JONES, Bev, William, known as 'Jones
of Nayhmd,' bom at Lowick, Northampton-
shire, July 30, 1736, and educated at the
Charter House and at University College, Ox-
ford. He included music in his studies and
became very proficient in it. In 1764 he was
presented to the vicarage of Bethersden, Kent,
and subsequently became Rector of Pluckley in
the same county, which he exchan^[ed for the
Bectory of Paston, Northamptonshire. He is
said to have been presented to the Perpetual
Curacy of Nayland, Suffolk, in 1776, but his
name does not occur in the registers until 1784.
In Jan. 1784 he published 'A Treatise on the
Art of Music,' which gained him considerable
reputation. In March, 1789, he published by
subscription his Op. ii, ' Ten Church Pieces for
the O^an, with Four Anthems in score [a
psalm tune^ and a double chant], composed for
the use of the Church of Nayland in Suffolk,
and published for its benefit.' In 1798 he be-
came Bector of Hollingboume, Kent. He was
the author of many Iheologiod, philosophical,
and miscellaneous works. He died at Nayland,
Jan. 6, 1800, and was buried in the vestiy of
the church on Jan. 14. A second edition of his
Treatise on Music was published at Sudbury
in 1837. [W.H.H.]
JONES, BoBEBT, Mus. Bac., a celebrated
lutenist, published in 1601 'The Rrst Booke of
Ayres,'— one of the pieces in which, ' Farewell
deere love ' (alluded to by Shakspere in ' Twelfth
Night'), is printed in score in J. S. Smith's
'Musica Antiqna,' — and 'The Second Booke of
> Now knownM B. BtophMi'i.
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40
JONES.
Songs and Ayres, set out to tbe Late, the Bas^
VioU the playne way, or the Base by tableture
after the leero &shion*; a Bong from which—
'My love bound me with a kisse,* is likewise
given in 'Musica Antiqua.' He contributed
the madrigal, *Faire Oriana, seeming to wink
at folly,' to 'The Triumphes of Oriana,' pub-
lished in the same year. In 1607 he published
'The First Set of Madrigals of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
parts, for Viols and Voices, or for Voices alone,
or as you please,' and in 1608 'Ultimum Vale,
or the Third Book of Ayres of 1 , 2, and 4 Voyces.*
In 1609 appeared *A Musicall Dreame, or the
Fourth Booke of Ayres; The first part is for
the Lute, two voyoes and the Viole de Gambo :
The second part is for the Lute, the Viole and
four voices to sing : The third part is for one
voyce alone, or to the Lute, the Base Viole, or
to both if you please, whereof two are Italian
Ayres/ In 1611 he published *The Muse's
Gardin for delight, or tne Fift Booke of Ayres
only for the Lute, the basse Violl and the
Voyce.' He contributed three pieces to Leigh-
ton s 'Teares or Lamentacions ' published in
161 4. In 1616 Jones, in conjunction with
Philip Rossetor, Philip Kingman and Ralph
Reeve, obtained a privy seal for a patent author-
ising ihem to erect a dieatre, for the use of the
Children of the Revels to the Queen, within the
precinct of Blackfriars, near Puddle Wharf, on
the site of a house oocupied by Jones. But the
Lord Mayor and Aldermen were opposed to the
scheme, and procured from the Privy Council an
order prohibiting the building being so applied,
and by their influence Jones and his fellows were
compelled to dismantle their house and surrender
their patent. [W. H. H.]
JOSEPH. I. 'Joseph and his Brethren.'
The 8th of Handel's English oratorios; the
words by James Miller, the music composed in
August 1743. Produced at Covent Garden
March 2, 1744* ^* Op^ra-comique in 3 acts;
libretto by Duval, music by M^ul. Produced
at the Th^tre Feydeau Feb. 17, 1807. Chiefly
known by the romance of Joseph, * A peine au
sortir de I'enfance' ('Ere in&ncy's bud') and a
prayer for male voices, 'Dieu d'Israel.' The
romance of Benjamin, 'Ah lorsque la Mort,'
is given in the Alusioal Library, ii. 142. 3. An
oratorio in 2 parts ; the words selected firom the
Bible by Dr. E. G. Monk ; the music by G. A.
Mao&rren. Produced at the Leeds Festival
Sept. 21, 1877. [G.]
JOSHUA. The 14th of Handel's English
oratorios; words by Dr. Morell. The music was
begun on July 19 and finished Aug. 19, 1747,
and the work was produced at Covent Garden
theatre March 9, 1748. The chorus, 'The na-
tions tremble,' is said to have afifected Haydn
extremely when he heard it at the Antient
Concerts.' 'See, the oonquering hero comes' is
originally in Joshua, and was transferred to
Judas. The oratorio was revived by the Sacred
Harmonic Society June 19, 1839. [G.]
1 Ai»peDdlz to Shield's ' iDtrodnctloo to narmooy.'
JOSQUIN.
JOSQUIN, ormorestrictly JOSSE,DESPR&,
-^latinised into JoDOCUS a Pratis, and
Italianised into Giusquino— one of the greatest
masters of the Netherland scliool, the successor
of Ockenheim as its representative, and the
immediate predecessor in musical history of
Lassus and Palestrina, was bom about tbe
middle of the 15th century, pi^obably at or near
St. Quentin in Hainault. In the collegiate church
of that town, according to Claude H^mer^, the
'arte canendl clarissimus in&ntulus' began his
promising career. Here, perhaps, the little
chorister would get his pet name Jossekin,
which clung to him through life, and in its
Latin form Josquinus gives us the title by
which as a composer he always has and always
will be known. His real name, however, 1^
pears in his epitaph and in a legal document
discovered by M. Delzaut at Cond^.
Of the rest of Josquin's early life we know
that he was for some time chapel-master at
St. Quentin, and also that he was received as
a pupil by Ockenheim, who, himself the greatest
living composer, was gathering round him such
disciples as he thought worthy the trust of cairy-
ing on his labours after him. We can scarcely
be wrong in assuming that Josquin stayed witJ^
Ockenheim for some years. Long and patient
labour could alone make him fiuniliar with all
the subtleties of that master's art, and that he
had thoroughly learnt all that Ockenheim could
teach him before he came to Rome is apparent
from his earlier compositions. Had he written
nothing else these works by themselves would
have entitled him to a name as great as Ids
master's.
Exactly 400 years ago we find Josquin at the
Papal court of Sixtus IV (i 471 -1484) already
regarded as the most rising musician of the day,
rapidly gaining the proud position of being the
greatest composer which the modem world had
yet produced, and making that position so secure,
that fot upwards of sixty years his title remained
undisputed. Agricola, Brumel, Gombert, Clemens
non Papa, Genet, Isaac, Goudimel, Morales,
these are only a few of the names of the great
musicians who flourished in this period, and yet
where are they, when Baini thus describes the
state of music in Europe before the advent of
Palestrina? ' Jusquino des Pres Tidolo
dell' Europa Si canta il solo Jusquino in
Italia, il solo Jusquino in Francia, il solo Jus-
quino in Germania, nelle Flandre, in Unffheriay
in Boemia, nelle Spagne, il solo Jusquino.
Though Josquin's stay at Rome was not a
long one, the firuits of his labours there, in the
form of several MS. masses, are still preserved and
jealously guarded from curious eyes in the library
of the Sistine chapel.
It is almost impossible to decide at what times
of his life Josquin paid visits to, or received
appointments at the respective courts of Hercules
or Ferrara, Lorenzo of Florence, Louis XIT of
France or the emperor Maximilian I. It is cer-
tain that all these princes were in their turn
his patrons. For the first he wrote his mass
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JOSQUIN.
'HerctileB dox ^Ferrarue,' and his Miserere.
AaroD tellB us bow Josqoin, Obrecht, Isaac, and
Agricola were his intimate friends in Florence.
Yariona anecdotes are told of his stay at the
French court. How he was anxious to obtain
promotion from the king, but when the courtier
to whom he applied for help always put him off
with the answer 'Lascia fare mi/ weary of
JOSQUIN.
41
by Petmoci. The most beautiM of them are
the ' La sol & re mi,' the ' Ad fugam ' and the
' De Beata Virgine/ The first of these, if we
credit the story of its origin, would be composed
after the year 1498, when Louis XII ascended
the throne. Two other masses, * Pange Lingua '
and * Da pacem,' not included in the above books
are probably of' sk still later date. These 5
waiting Josquin composed a mass on the sul^rmasses are those in which Josquin shows the
i«ct La, Bol, fa« re, mi, repeated over and over
again in mimicry of the oft-repeated answer, and
how the idea pleased the king's fancy so much
tiiat he at once promised Josquin a church bene-
fice. How Louis nevertheless foigot his promise
uid Josqtdn ventured to refiresh the royal memory
with the motets 'Portio mea non est in terra
viventiam ' and ' Memor esto verbi tui.' Lastly,
how Louis XII, admiring music from the respect-
ful distance of complete ignorance, desired the
great compofier to write something expressly for
him, and how Josquin wrote a canon, in aocom*
paniment to which the 'Vox regis' sustained
throughout a single note.' Whether Louis ever
did give the promised benefice to Josquin is un-
certain, though the motet 'Bonitatem fecisti cum
servo tno' is generally supposed to have been a
tiumk-offering for such an appointment. But we
have proof thai the last years o6^he composer's
life were spent in the enjoymen^f church pre-
fennent at Cond^. He had probably passed from
the service of Louis to that of Maximilian, who
became possessed of the Netherlands in 1 5 1 5, and
may have presented Josquin with this poBition
of retirement. Of his death at this place, a MS.
at lille gives the evidence in a copy of his
epitaph, in the choir at Cond^, as follows : —
Ghy gist sire Josm Despres
Prevoet de Cheens fat jadis
FtiflB Dleu poor lee Trepassez qui leur doSe son
paradis
TrepMsa Tan 1521 le 27 d'Aourt
Spes mea semper foisti
Joeqmn's printed compositions consist of 19
masses, about 50 secular pieces, and upwards of
150 motets with sacred words, a complete list
of ihem being given in Eitner's ' Bibliographic
der Musik-Sammelwerke' (Berlin, 1877). Seve-
ral composers of the same period have left more
published works, but Glarean tells us that Jos-
quin was very critical about his own compositions,
and sometimes kept them back for years before
he allowed their performance. Some evidence
of the spread of his music is afforded by the
fact mentioned by Bumey (Hist. ii. 489) that
Henry the VIII/s' music book at Cambridge
contains some of it, and that Anne Bole3m had
collected and learned many of his pieces during
her residence in France.
Of the 19 masses, 17 were printed in 3 books
> la thboMM tht tenor shiK* tht mlieet.
Be ut re at re Cft ml r«.
Om fomU In thCM lylUbles eorreapoixUiiK idth thoM in the words
'Hercoles dtu Ferrarie.'
* Wbetber tbe klag wss &ble to muter this stanple ftchlereinent.
•r wlieiber. Ulw BcoMl-for jibom Hendeteiohii wrote a BiinlUr
ptrt In the 'Son uid Btnu^er '— h« proved * quite unable to catch
the note, thmiffa Mown and whispered to hhn from ererr side,' we
•reaettoM. Tbs cuon Itaalf la given by BawUna, ohaj>. 70.
greatest advance on the school of his master.
Among the finest of the motets we may
mention the settings of the genealogies in the
first chapters of St. Matthew and St. Luke, a
5 -part ' Miserere,' and the 4-part psalms * Planxit
autem David' (the lament for Saul and Jonathan)
and * Absolon fili mi.' Some of the masses and
many of the motets exist in MS. score, with
modem notation, in the F^tis library at Brussels.
In their original form they can be found in all
the great libraries of Europe.
Of the secular works, the most important col-
lection is in the 7th book of Susato's songs pub-
liehed in 1545, which contains '24 pieces by
Josquin. Here we find the beautiful dirge written
on Uie death of Ockenheim, which is alsQ printed
in score by Bumey in his History.
It must however be borne in mind, that in
distinguishing works of these old composers, we
are o^n more attracted by some historical inte-
rest, some quaintness in the choice of the text,
or some peculiarity in the musical notation, than
by the features of the music itself, and when we
do try to separate one piece of music from the
other we are naturally led at first to admire
most whatever comes nearest to our modem
ideas (those pieces for instance written in the
modes most like our own keys), and to be disap-
pointed when a mass or motet, which we know
by tradition to be a masterpiece, fails to move
us, and to lay it aside with the explanation that
it is only a dry contrapuntal work. But it is
not fair to study the music of this period simply
to find out how much our modem schools owe to
it. When Bumey calls Josquin 'The father
of modem harmony' he does not perhaps give
the title of which the composer would himself be
proudest, 'for there are musicians alive now,*
says Doni in his Musical Dialogues, *who, if
Josquin were to return to this world would make
him cross himself.' We must regard these
Netherland masters, not only in their relation-
ship to succeeding venerations, but as the chief
lights of a school of religious music which had
at that time reached so complete a form that
any further »^nx)gress without an entire revolu-
tion seemed unpossible ; a school of church musio
which, were we. to consider alone the enormous
demands it made on the industry and intellect of
its followers, would excite our reverence, but
which, when we consider the wonderful hold it
had on popular feeling throughout Europe for
nearly a centiuy, kindles in us the hope that we
may not be too &r separated by our modem
ideas from the possibility of onoe again being
moved by the fire of its genius. If the absence
of a satisfactory modem school of church music
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42
JOSQUIN.
has already been acknowledged by many, and a
widespread movement exists in Germany to
recall the old music to the service of the Catholic
chorch, then we may indeed hope to gain a more
intimate knowledge of Joequin and his followers,
than by groping about libraries, copying MSS. or
reading theoretical treatises. Fortunately the
study of counterpoint is hardly a more necessary
condition of appreciating the music of Josquin,
than it is ii. the case of Bach. But the ear will
have to accustom itself to many extracHrdinary
combinations of sounds, meagre harmonies, un-
satisfactory cadences, final chords which seem to
have lost aU character, before any of these works
can be thoroughly enjoyed. In the meantime,
and till we may possibly hear them performed
again in the churches for which they are written,
there is much |>lea8ure to be derived from the
private study of them ; and a real love for them,
even with an imperfect understanding, grows
up in us very quicldy.
The reasons which the council of the church
gave for suddenly abandoning the works of Jos-
quin*s school were not founded on any want of
admiration for their musical effect. One obj ection
was the fact of the melodies which the composers
took for their canto fermo being secular, and the
voice to which it was assigned singing the secular
words, while the other voices sang uie words of
the mass. The other objection was that the
excessively florid style in which the parts were
often written made the words of so little import-
ance that it was often impossible to trace their
existence. The first objection was not a strong
one, for the church had sanctioned the use of the
secular melodies as the foundation of masses for
more than a century, and some of the melodies
had become almost hallowed to their purpose.
The singing of the secular words mignt have
been ei^y given up without forsaking the
music.
But the second objection was stronger; for
though Josquin began, and his followers, Gom-
bert especially, tried still more, to give expres-
sion to the general sense of the text, still we
find often a few syllables scattered over a page
to do service for a host of notes, as if the notes
were everything and the words nothing. Still as
the first objection applies entirely to the masses,
BO the second also applies to them much more
than to the motets, and it is Inr these latter
works, we venture to think, that their composers
will be known, if their music is destined to live
again.
Apart however firom all considerations of the
vitality of the school which he represents, of
the reason of its downfall or the chances of
its revival, * Josquin deserves to be dassed as
one of the greatest musical geniuses of any
period.' (Kiesewetter*B Historv of Music.) For*
tune favoured him in appointing the time of his
birth. He was the first composer who came
into the world with the matenals of his work
thoroughly prepared for him. Masses written
with counterpoint had been taken to Home from
the Netherlands towards the end of the 14th
JOTA.
century, and Du&y, who was a singer in the
Papal chapel in 1580 (or exactly 100 years
before Josquin held the same position), was a
contrapuntist of sufiKcient importance to be quoted
as an authority by theoretic^ writers of a much
later date, and whose art though simple was
sufficiently perfect to suggest that he too must
have had predecessors to prepare his way. But
we cannot regard musicians from the time of
Dufay to that of Ookenheim as composers in the
sense that Josquin was one. Their genius was
expended on the invention of counterpoint, which
Josquin was the first to employ as a means to a
higher end. They were but pilgrims to a pro-
mised land, which they may have seen from a&r ;
but Josquin was the first who was to be allowed
to eater it. ' In Josquin,' says Ambros (whose
knowledge of and admiration for the old music
surpasses that of any modem historian), * we have
the first musician who creates a genial impres-
sion.'
(in another sense, a very practical one, Josquin
stands first on the list of composers. He is
the oldest writer whose woriu are preserved to
us, if not entire, at least in such quantities as
adequately to represent his powers. The inven-
tion of printing music by moveable types, which
gave such a wonderful impetus to publication,
dates from 1498, the very time when Josquin was
at the height of his power; and it is a testimony
to the superiority of his music over that of his
predecessors, that though Ockenheim is supposed
to have been still living at the beginning of the
1 6th century, and perhaps as late as 151 2, the
publishers thought fit to print very few of his
compositions, whilst few collections were issued
to which Josquin did not largely contribute.
Gommer, in his * O)llectio Operum Musicorum
Batavorum' (Berlin, Trautwein), has printed
1 2 motets and two chansons.
Bodilitz in his 'Sammlung* (&}hotts) gives
a hymn,(^u pauperum refugium 'J portions of
a mass; and a motet, ' Misericoraias Domini,'
all for A voices. Choron, in his ' Collection
gen^rale, gives his Stabat Mater k 5 ; and
Hawkins (chap. 72) a motet, h\ '0 Jesu fill.'
The 1 1 large volumes of Bumey's Musical Ex-
tracts (Add. MSS. 11,581-91) contain many and
valuable compositions of Josquin's.
In Van der Straeten's * La Musique aux Pays-
Bas' (Brussels, 1867) a portrait of Josquin is
reproduced from a book published by Peter
Opmeere at Antwerp in 1591. It seems to have
been copied from a picture originally existing in
the Brussels cathedral, and thence probably came
the tradition that Josquin was buried there.
Opmeere accompanies the portrait with the fol-
lowing words: 'Conspicitur Josquinus depictus
Bruxellis in D. Gudulae [ecclesift], in tabula arse
dextrse ante chorum honest& sane fade ac blandis
oculis.' [J.R.S.-B.]
♦-irOTA (proitounced Hota, with a strong gut-
tural aspirate). One of the most characteristic of
the North Spanish national dances. It is a kind
of waltz, always in three-time, but with much
more freedom in the dancing than is customary
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JOTA,
m waltzes. ' It is danced,* says % 'traveller, ' in
couples, each pair being quite independent of the
rest. The respectiye partners £Ebce each other;
^ guitar twangs, the spectators accompany, with
a whining, nasal drawling refirain, and 'clapping
of hands. You put your arm round your partner's
waist for a few bars, take a waltz round, stop,
and give her a fling round under your raised arm.
Then the two of yon dance, backward and for-
ward, across and back, whirl round and chassez,
and do some nautch-wallah-ing, accompanying
yourselves with castanets or snapping of fii^^ers
and thumbs. The steps are a matter of your
own particular invention, the more oiUr^ the
better ; and you repeat and go on till one of you
tires ont.' Every province in the North has its
own Jota, the tune and style of which have ex-
isted from time immemorial. Thus there is a
Jota Aragonesa and a Jota Navarra, quite dif-
fSsrent in melody and accompaniment, but always
in three-time. Of the former, a better example
could hardly be given than that which forms the
chief subject of Glinka*s orchestral overture or
piece 'Jota Aragoneee.'
JUBILATE.
43
Of the Jota Navarra, an equally good and
simple specimen is to be found in the second part
of Sarasate's Spanish Dances (op. aa).
rprfpii^^^^^^l^At'ii^
The Jota is much played in the North of Spain,
and wherever it is heiyrd a dance is sure to be
the instant result. [G-.]
> Mfljor Campion. * On Foot In Spain,' 1879. p.lffr.
SIhbb quite OriantaL
JOULE, Benjamin St. John Baptist, bom
at Salford, Nov. 8, 1817, studied the violin
under Richard Cudmore, and the organ, singing,
and theory, under Joseph John Harris. From
May 8, 1846, to March 20, 1853, he was organist
and choir-master at Holy Trinity Church, Hulme,
and from April 28, 1849, ^ Oct. 3, 1852, also
held a similar position at St. Margaret's, Whalley
Bange, Manchester. Since March 27, 1853, he
has been honorary organist of St. Peter's Church,
Manchester. He is also President of the Man-
chester Vocal Society, and author or compiler
of * The Hymns and Canticles pointed for Cliknt-
ing,' 1847 ; • Directorium Chori Anglicanum,*
1 849 ; a very comprehensive ' Collection of Words
of Anthems,' 1859; a pointed Psalter; and other
works connected with choral service, several of
which have reached many editions. He has also
lectured on Church Music, and been a con-
tributor to various periodioUs. He was music
critic to * The Manchester Courier* from 1850 to
1870. [W.H.H.]
JUBILATE— ^e first word of the Vulgate ver-
sion— ^is the Psalm (looth) which is given as an
alternative to the Benedictus, to follow the second
lesson in the morning service of the Anglican
Church. The ancient custom of the church was
to read lessons and psalms alternately, and
psalms so used were called responsories. The
Jubilate was q)ecially used in this manner in the
offices of Salisbury and York, so its adoption in
the reformed service was only a perpetuation of
ancient custom in the churches of England.
Amalarius also (a.d. 820) speaks of it as used
in Lauds apart from its ordinary occurrence in
the order of the Psalms. Nevertheless it did
not appear in Cranmer*s Prayer-book of 1549*
but was added in the revised edition which was
made in the reign of Edward VI, 155a. Con-
sequently there is no chant given for it in Mar-
beck's first adaptation of ancient chants to the
Englii^ service called 'The Book of Common
Praier Noted,' which was published in 1550.
It is curious that the Jubilate is much oftener
used than the Benedictus, which is looked upon
quite as the exception. One of the most dis-
tinguished clerical writers on the choral service of
the church, Mr. Jebb^has observed that the Bene-
dictus is so infinitely preferable in every respect
that it is impossible to attribute the preference
which is given to the Jubilate to any other motive
than its being shorter. In confirmation of this
view it is interesting to note that while the en-
thusiaetm of the Reformation was still hot, the
great musicians of that time, Tallis, Byrd, and
Farrant, diose the incomparably more beautiful
and more appropriate, but longer, Benedictus;
but when that enthusiasm was worn away hardly
anything but the shorter Jubilate is to be met
with. If we take for instance the most famous
collections of the ancient services of the church
in their order, we find three settings of the Jubi-
late in Barnard's collection, eight in Boyce's, and
no less than fifteen in Arnold^.
Handel set the Jubilate for the thanksgiving
service which was held after the Peace of
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JUBILATE.
Utrecht, which was concluded March 31, 1 71 3.
MendelBBohn alBO set the Fsalm, but not for
liturgical use. [C. H. H. P.]
JUBILEE OVERTURE, THE (in E), by C.
M. von Weber ; composed for the festival held at
Dresden in commemoration of the 50th anniver-
sary of the accession of Frederick Augustus I. of
Saxony ; op. 59. The autograph is djkted Dres-
den, Sept. II, 1818, and the first performance
was at the Court Theatre on Sept. 20. The over-
ture winds up with 'God save the King.' Weber
had written a Jubel cantata for the occasion,
but it was put aside, and the overture— an en-
tirely independent work — performed instead. [G.]
JUDAS M ACCABiEUS. The 1 2th of Han-
del's English oratorios, written by command of
the Prince of Wales. Handel himself is said to
have suggested the subject {h propos to the Duke
of Cumberland's victories in Scotland) to Dr.
Morell, who made the libretto. The music was
begun July 9, and completed Aug. 11, 1746, and
it was produced at Covent Garden April i, 1747.
It has always been a favourite. ' See, the con-
quering hero comes' was transferred to Judas
from Joshua. The air * Wise men flattering/ and
the chorus *Sion now' — were introduced several
years after the production of the oratorio, and
the latter is said to have been one of the last
pieces composed by Handel. [G.]
JUDITH. I. An oratorio; words by W. Hug-
gins, music by Defesch. Produced in London
1733. 3. An oratorio by Dr. Ame (his 2nd);
the words selected and adapted by Isaac Bickei^
staff. Produced at the Lock Hospital Chapel
Feb. 29, 1764. 3. A * biblical cantata' in 3
scenes ; words selected from the Bible by Chorley,
music by H. Leslie. Composed for Birmingham
Festival, and first performed Sept. 1858 ; also at
St. Martin's Hall March 8, 59. [G.]
JUrVE, LA. Opera in 5 acts; words by
Scribe, music by Hal^vy. Produced at the
Academic Feb. 23, 1835. In England by the
Brussels troupe at Drury Lane in French July 29,
1846 ; in Italian, 'La Ebrea,' at Covent Garden
July 25. 1850. [G.]
JULLIEN (originaUy JULIEN), Louis An-
TOINE, was bom at Sisteron, Basses Alpes, April
23, 1 81 2. Hia father was a bandmaster, and the
boy was thus familiar with instruments and music
from his cradle. At 21 he went to Paris and
entered the counterpoint class of Le Carpentier
at the Conservatoire, Oct. 26, 1833. Composition,
however, and not counterpoint was his object,
and after a year's trial he quitted Le (Carpentier
for Hal^vy, Dec. 16, 1834, but with no greater
success ; he refused to do the exercises, and in-
sisted on presenting the Professor with dances as
specimens of 'composition' — not perhaps quite to
Hal^vy's annoyance if it be true, as it used to
be said, that the waltz *Rosita,' which became
the rage in Paris as Jullien's, was written by
his master. He did not obtain a single men-
tion at the Conservatoire, and at the beginning
of 1836 finally left it, and soon after appeared
before the public as the conductor of concerts of
JULLIEN.
dance music at the Jardin Turc. The 'Hugue-
nots' was just then in all the flush of its great
success, and one of Jullien's first quadrilles was
made upon the motif 9 of that opera, the announce-
ment of which, as quoted by M. F^tis, is exactly
in the style with which Londoners afterwaids
became familiar. To this enterprise he joined
the establishment of a musical paper. No wonder
that he was unsuccessful. In June 1838 he
became insolvent, and had to leave Paris. His
first appearance in London seems to have been as
conductor, jointly with Eliason, of shilling ' Con-
certs d'£t<^ * at Drury Lane theatre, which opened
June 8, 1 840, with an orchestra of 98, and ohoms
of 26. On the i8th of the following January he
conducted * Concerts d'hiver ' at the same theatre,
with a band of 90 and chorus of 80. These were
followed by * Concerts de Soci^t^ ' at the En^sh
Opera House, Lyceum, Feb. 7 to Mar. 18, 1842,
comprising Bossini's Stabat for the first time
in England. On Dec. 2, 42, began his ' annual
series of concerts' at the English Opera House,
and he thenceforward continued them season after
season, at the close of the year, now at one theatre,
and now at another, till the Farewell series in
1859. ' His aim,' in his own words, ' was always to
popularise music,' and the means he adopted for
so doing were — the largest band ; the very best
performers, both solo and orchestral; and the
most attractive pieces. His programmes con-
tained a certain amount of classical music —
though at the beginning hardly so much as that
given by some of his predecessors, who announced
a whole symphony on each evening. This
was probably too much for a shilling audi-
ence in the then state of musical taste, and
Jullien's single movements and weaker doses just
hit the mark. Later on in his career he gave
whole symphonies, and even two on one evening.
No doubt this judicious moderation did good, and
should always be remembered to his credit, or that
of his advisers. But the characteristic features
of Jullien's concerts were, first, his Monster
Quadrille, and secondly himself. He provided
a firesh quadrille for each season, and it was
usually in close connexion with the event of the
day. The ' Allied Armies Quadrille ' during the
Crimean war, 1854 ; the ' Indian Quadrille, and
Havelock's Mardi,* during the Mutiny, 1857 ;
the 'English Quadrille'; the 'French ditto';
and so on. These were written by himself,
and though then considered noisy were always
rhythmic^, melodious, and effective. In some
of them as many as six military bands were
added to the inmiense permanent orchestra. In
front of this 'mass of executive ability,' *the
Mons' — to adopt the name bestowed on him by
Punch, whose cartoons have preserved his image
with the greatest exactness — with coat thrown
widely open, white waistcoat, elaborately em-
broidered shirtfront, wristbands of extravagant
length turned back over his cuffo, a wealth of
black hair, and a black moustache— itself »
startling novelty — wielded his baton, encouraged
his forces, repressed the turbulence of his audience
with indescribable gravity and magnificence, went
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JULLIEN.
throngli all the pantomime of the British Army
or Navy Qoadrille, seized a violin or piccolo at
Ihe moment of climax, and at l&st sank exhausted
into his gorgeous velvet chair. All pieces of
BeeUioven*8 were conducted with a jewelled
baton, and in a paii of clean kid gloves, handed
him at the moment on a silver salver.
Not only did he obtain the best players for his
band, but his aolo artistee were all of the highest
daa. Ernst, Sivori Bottesini, Wieniawski. Sain-
ton; ArabeUa Groddard, Marie Pleyel, Charles
Hall^, Vivier; Sims Reeves, Pischek, and many
others, have all played or sung, some of them for
the first time in England, under Jullien*s baton.
In &ct he acted on the belief that if you give
Uie public what is good, and give it with judg-
mei^ the public wiU be attracted and will pay.
And there is no doubt that for many years his
income from his Promenade Concerts was very
large. His harvest was not confined to London,
bat after his month at Drury Lane, Covent Gar-
den, or Her Majesty's, he carried off his whole
company of players and singers through the pro-
vinces, incIudii^T Scotland and even Ireland, and
moved about there for several weeks — a task at
tiiat time beset with impediments to locomotion
which it is now difi&cult to realise. If he had but
confined himself to the one enterprise, and exer-
dsed a proper economy and control over that !
But Uus was impossible. He had started a shop
soon after his arrival, first in Maddox Street and
then in Regent Street, for the sale of his music.
In 1S47 he took Drmry Lane theatre on lease,
with the view of playing English operas. Mr. 6ye
was engaged as manager, and M. Berlioz as ^con-
doctor, with a host of other ofBcials, including
Sir Henry Bishop as ' inspector-superintendent at
reheaisals,' and a splendid band and chorus. The
house opened on Dec. 6, with a version of ' Lucia,'
in which Sims Reeves made his d^but, and which
WM followed by Balfe*s < Maid of Honour,' ' Linda,'
and ' Figaro.' ' All departments,' says a contem-
poniy ^ article by one who knew him well, ' were
managed on the most lavish scale; orchestra,
^cms, principal singers, officers before and be-
hind the curtain, vying with each other in effi-
ciency and also in expensiveness. The result
might have been anticipated. The spectdation
was a fiEulure, and though his shop was sold for
£8000 to meet the emergency, M. Jullien was
bankrupt' (April 21, 1848). He left the court
however with honour, and, nothing daunted, soon
afterwards essayed another and st^ more hazard-
cos oiterprise. In May 1849 he announced a
'Oonoert monstre and Congr^ musical,' 'six
gnmd musical fdtes,' with '400 instrumentalists,
S <&Blanct choruses, and 3 distinct military bands.'
The first two took place at Exeter Hall on June
1 and 15, and a third at the Surrey Zoological
Gatdans on July 20. The programme of the first
dflwarvoM quotation. It was in 3 parts :—i. Da-
vid's ode-sinfonie ' Le Desert' — Sims Reeves solo
tenor. 2. Mendelssohn's Scotch Symphony. 3. A
* An ^fa^i«*ng aeeoant of Beriioi's early anthualAim, and Its gndoal
ttapocBttoa. will b« knmA Id hb ^ CMtatpoixUiMM iaedlM' (1S7B),
tattBnzxKTtozlir.
s *Madcal Worid.' MMoh ai. 180a
JULLIEN.
45
miscellaneous concert, with Anna Thillon, Jetty
Treffis, Miss Dolby, Braham, Pischek, Dreyachoeck,
Molique,etc.,etc. This projecttoo,ifwemay judge
from its sudden abandonment, ended disastrously.
In 1852 he wrote the opera of 'Pietro il Grande,'
and brought it out on the most magnificent scale
at the Royal Italian Opera, Covent Garden, on
Aug. 17, at his own cost. The piece was an
entire ^ilure, and after five performances was
withdrawn, leaving Jullien a loser of some thou-
sands of pounds. Shortly after this he visited
America and remained there till June 28, 1854.
On his return he resumed the regular routine of
his metropolitan and provincial concerts. But
misfortunes pursued him. On March 5, 1856,
Covent Garden theatre was burnt to the ground,
and the whole of his music — in other words, his
entire stock in trade — ^was destroyed ; an irrepar-
able loss, since his quadrilles and other original
pieces were in MS. In 1857 he became involved
in the Royal Surrey Gardens Company, and lost
between JS5000 and £6000. This enabled him
to add to his achievements by conducting ora-
torios, but the loss, the protracted worry and
excitement att^ding the winding up of the Com-
pany, and the involved state of .his own afiairs,
which had been notoriously in disorder fi>r some
years and were approaching a crisis, must have
told severely on him. The next season was
his last in this country. He gave a series of
Farewell Concerts at the usual date — this time
at the Lyceum, with a band reduced to 60 —
made a Farewell provincial tour, and then, pro-
bably forced thither by pecuniary reasons, went
to Paris. There on the 2nd of May, 1859, he was
arrested for debt and put in prison at Clichy,
but on the 22nd of the following month was
brought up before the court, heard, and liberated
with temporary protection. Early in March fol-
lowing an advertisement appeared in the papers
headed 'Jullien Fund,' stating that he was in a
lunatic asylum near Paris, and appealing to the
pubHc on his behalf. Scarcely however was the
advertisement in type when the news arrived of
his death on March 14, i860.
No one at all in the same category with Jullien,
at least in our time, has occupied anything like
the same high position in public favour. 'His
name was a household word and his face and
figure household shapes, during a period of nearly
20 years.' Whatever the changes in his fortune his
popularity never waned or varied. * Your house,*
says Lord Beaconsfield in 'Tancred, describing the
most fisbvourable conditions for ball-giving conceiv-
able in 1846, — 'your house might be decorated
like a Russian palace, you might have Jullien pre-
siding over your orchestra, and a banquet worthy
of the Romans.' And similar allusions were made
every day in the periodicals. And why so ? Be-
cause, with much obvious charlatanism, what Jul-
lien aimed at was good, and what he aimed at he
did thoroughly weU. He was a public amuser, but
he was also a public reformer. ' By his firequent
performances of the music of Mozart, Beethoven,
Mendelssohn, and other great masters, and by the
• Book I. obitp 7.
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46
JULLIEN.
ooDBtant engagement of the most eminent per-
formers, be elicited at first the unconscious atten-
tion, and then the enthusiastic appreciation, of the
vast multitudes that besieged nis concerts, and
that not merely in London but all over the pro-
vinces of Great Britain and Ireland. This will
probably tend to preserve his memory among ns
even more than his unrivalled energy and talent,
or his unprecedented zeal and liberality as a public
entertainer. To J ullien moreover is attributable in
a large measure the immense improvement which
our orchestras have made during the last ao years,
he having been the means not only of bringing
over some of the greatest foreign instrumentalists,
but of discovering and nurturing the promise of
many £nglish p^ormers^ who through the pub-
licity he placed at their disposal, no less than
through their own industry and ability, have
since attained acknowledged ' eminence.* [G.]
JULLDEN'S MILITARY JOURNAL, a
periodical repertoire of music arranged for a mili-
tary band, consisting of dances, marches, selections
from operas, oratorios, symphonies, etc. It was
started by Jullien in the year 1847, but in 1857
came into the hands of Messrs. Boosey & Co., by
whom it is published every alternate month as
'Boosts Supplementary Journal,* to distinguish
it firom 'Boosts Military Journal,' a monthly
repertoire of a similar kind started by Charles
EALEBBENNEB.
Boos^ the eminent bandmaster In 1846, and
Sublished by Messrs. Boosey since 1850. [See
IlLITABT JOUBNALS.] [G.]
JtJNGSTE GERICHT DAS, i.e, the Last
Judgment. Spohr*s first oratorio. Written for
and produced at the Festival at Erfurt Aug. 15,
181 a, in honour of Napoleon I. It was not suc-
cessful; but Spohr's naif account of the per-
formance, and of his own predilection for it,' iB
highly amusing. It is an entirely different work
from * Die letzten Dings,* known in England as
The Last Judgment. [G.]
JUPITER. A sobriquet bestowed— whether
by J. B. Cramer or not is uncertain — on Mozart's
49th and last Symphony in C major (K<>chel«
551), and now to some extent classical, since
even the conservative Mendelssohn uses it in
his letter of March 7, 1845. The symphony is
a noted in Mozart's autograph catalogue, with
le date Aug. 10, 1788. The autograph is on
oblong paper, 91 pages of 12 staves each, and
belongs to Julius Andr^, Frankfort. Mendels-
sohn was the first to notice the fact that a
fjAvourite passage near the close of the Andante
was an afterthought. (See the letter above
quoted.) The symphony was published as a
P. F. duet by Breitkopf & Hartel, with the
Finale of the Quintet in C (composed 1787)
substituted for its own last movement. [G.]
K
KALKBRENNER, FRiEDBicfH Wilhblm
Michael, pianist and prolific composer for
his instrument, was bom 1 788 near Berlin.
His fftther, Christian Kalkbrenner, of Hebrew
extraction and a 'musician of great ability, he-
gan his training early. In 1798 he entered the
Conservatoire at Paris, and left it, after four
years of assiduous study, with a prize for piano-
forte playing and composition. In 1 8 1 3 he played
in public at Berlin and Vienna, heard Clementi,
made Hummers acquaintance, and was intro-
duced by Haydn to Albrechtsberger, from whom
he had lessons in counterpoint. fVtnn 1814 to
1823 he resided in London, much sought after as
a player and fashionable teacher. In 1824 ^®
settled in Paris as a member of the pianoforte-
making firm of Pleyel & Co. In Paris too his
success as a performer and teacher was very great ;
he was a shrewd man of business and managed
to amass quite a fortune. Madame Camille
Pleyel was his beet pupil. When Chopin came
to JParis in 1831, Kalkbrenner*s reputation was
at its height: his compositions, mostly written
for the market and now foigotten, were upon the
1 'Tbt Musical World.' Mtrch M. 1860l
* Beethoven indadet' Kalkbrenner (Vat«r)'wlth Sterkd and otiieT*
of the 'old, dead oomposert.of the Emptra' In his denandatlon of
Gottfried Weber's mistakes in regard to Mosart's Beqaiem. 'Be-
quiescat in paee.* says he (letter. Feb. t, 1896>. He ivould hardlj
have been eontent with so mild a sneer If he had known that Kalk-
brenner bad 'arranged' Don Glorannl (that Is, had altered the mosle
and interpolated treth pieces) for its ajipearanoe on tha Paris stage,
6ept.l7.1«»(ieeLaJarte.ii.8R). [See LAflBffiTH.]
desks of all dlUetanti, and his playing was up-
held as a modeL Chopin, who was then only
twenty -two years of age but had already written
his two Concertos, the Etudes, op. 10, the first
Scherzo and Ballade, etc., called on him and
played his Coneerta in E minor, whereupon Elalk-
prenner came forward with the astounding pro-
posal that Chopin should bind himself to be his
pupil for three years and thus imder his guidance
become a good artist 1 Chopin took no lessons,
but soothed Kalkbrenner by dedicating the Con-
certo to him. In a letter dated Dec. 16, 183 1,
Chopin speaks in high terms of Kalkbrenner*!
technique, praises his charming equable touch
and quiet self-possession, and says that Hers waa
a zero comparod with 1dm. Still Chopin se^ns
frt>m the first te have been of Mendelssohn's
opinion, who said to him soon after, ' You had
nothing to leam from Kalkbrenner; you play
better than he does.'
Kalkbrenner was a man of great vanity, and
far from scrupulous as to the means by which
he strove to enhance his reputation. The late
Professor Marx used to tell a story how Kalk-
brenner called on him in 1834 at Berlin, amdons
to make a good impression, as the Professor was
then editor of the new ' Berliner Mnsikzdtung *
and an influential personage. The visitor in
moving terms deplored the decay of the good old
art of improvisation, sayhog that since Hummel
*8eIbstblogi»phie,L10B.
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XALEBBENNEB.
had reiured he wm the only one who still
caltiirated it in the true daiuical spirit. He
opens the piano and improvises for a quarter
of an hour with fluent fancy and great neatness,
interweaving all manner of themes, even a little
fugue, much to the Professor's edification. Next
day a paroel of music just printed at Paris arrives
£ar review. The Professor, greatly interested,
mens the topmost piece — ^iS'usio Musica, par
^ed. Kalkbrenner * : when lo and behold I he has
yesterday's improvisation before him, fugue and
all, note for note !
An instmotion-book with etudes belonging to
it is the beet thing Kalkbrenner left. His
attainments as a musician are shown in four
pianoforte concertos, one for two pianos, a septet,
sextet mmI quintet, and various sonatas ; all cor-
rectly and well written for the instrument, but
dun and trite, spite of the glitter of what was
called A ' brilliant' style.
Kalkbrenner died of cholera at Enghien near
Pttiaon June lo, 1849. [E.D.]
KALIilWOD A, JoH AKN Wknzeslaus, a violin
player and popular composer, was bom at Prague
March ai, 1800. From 1811 to 1817 he was
a pnpil <^ the Conservatorium, and from i8i'7 to
1823 a member of the orchestra of that town.
Dmring » visit to Munich he was introduced to
Prince Fiirstenberg, who took a lively interest
in his talent and appointed him conductor of his
private band at Donaueschingen, which post
Kaltiwoda retained, in spite of various offers from
more important places, f^ the rest of his pro-
fesrionftl Hfe, till he retired on a pension in 1053.
He died at Garlsruhe Deo. 3, 1866.
KalHwoda, as a violinist, is regarded as one of
the best representatives of the Prague sdiool
under F. W. P1XI8. Without possessing veiy
stirtling qualities of execution or style, his per-
fbrmances showed a well-finished teclmique, a
sjmpathetio but not large tone, and were alto-
gether more remarkable for elegance and a certain
pleasantness than for vigour or depth of feeling.
As he travelled but little, his reputation
mainly rests on his compositions. They consiBt
of seven Symphonies — F minor (1826) ; Eb ; D
minor ; C ; B minor (op. 106) ; G minor ; and
F — Overtmree, Concertinos and other Solo-pieces
ibr the violin and other orchestral instruments,
especially the Clarinet, Quartets for stringed
instruments, Yiolin-Duets, Pianoforte-pieoes, and
a number of songs. Many of his works have
alloyed for some time, and chiefly in amateur^
drdes, a considerable pcqralarity, and the Index
of the Leipdg Allg. Mus. Zeitung shows a long
Ibt of performances. The works are certainly
not of umch importance in an artistic sense, and
show little originality; but on the other hand,
they are firee from laboured efforts and ambitious
striving after startling ^ects, are written in
a thoroughly mnsirianly, unpretentious, and un-
affected style, easy to understand, pleasing and
efiecttve. Their d^y is now over, but Schumann
(in his 'Gesamm. Schriften/ iii 278) speaks of
Kalliwoda's 5th Symphony with enthusiasm, and
mentiffM the interesting fiwst that only a few
KAPELLE.
47
years previously Kalliwoda had put himself under
Tomasohek of Prague for improvement in some
branches of counte^int in which he felt himself
weak. Schumann further testified his esteem by
dedicating his Intermezai (op. 4) ' al Sign.*Kalh-
woda.' In the history of the music of the last
50 years, Kalliwoda occupies as an orchestral
composer a position somewhat analogous to On-
slow s as a composer of ofaamber-musio.
His son WiLHXLM, bom at Donaueschingen
July 19, 1827, was thoroughly well brought up
by his father, and was for a short time a pupil of
Mendelssohn's at Leipzig in 1847, and of Haupt-
mann's in 1848. He held various posts at
Garlsruhe with credit to himself, but was com-
pelled by ill health to forsake work. [T. D.]
KANDLER, Fbanz Sales, a musical his-
torian, to whom we owe an admirable condensa-
tion of Baini*s Palestrina ; bom Aug. 23, I79a>
at Kloster-Neuburg in Lower Austria. He
belonged to the War Office^ and went as in-
terpreter with the army to Venice and Naples
in 181 7 and 1821. He died of cholera at Baden
(Beethoven's Baden) Sept. 26, 1831. His two
works are ' Cenni storioo-critici alia vita ed opere
del ... G. Ad. Hasse ' (Venice, 1820; 2nd ed.,
Naples, 1820), and that above mentioned, 'Ueber
das Leben und die Werke des . . . Palestrina,'
etc This was published after Kandler's death
by Kiesewetter (Leipzig, B. & H. 1834). [G.]
KANKA, JoHANir von. Dr. juris, bom at
Prague Nov. 10, 1772, is named here not for his
music, though he published a Pianoforte Concerto,
a Cantata, and compositions to Collin's War
Songs, but for his warm attachment to Beethoven
and for the eminent service he rendered him,
since it was chiefly through his means that the
dispute with the Kinsky lunily was abandoned
ana an advantageous compromise effected. Kan-
ka's &ther was, like himskf^ at once an eminent
lawyer and a Uiorough musician, and his grand-
fath^ had been equidly eminent as an architect.
The family lived in Prague, and Beethoven was
intimate with them in the early days of his
residence in Austria. Kanka the younger wrote
and e<Bted books on Austrian and Bohemian law,
which were much esteemed by his profession
(Thayer, ii. 9 ; iii. 290). He was Dean (181 5)
and Rector (1820) of the University, and died
fiill of years and honours, April 15, 1865. [G.]
KAPELLE, a musical establishment, usually
orchestraL Ilie word was formerly applied to
the private band of a prince or other magnifioo,
but is now used to denote any band. Thus at
Berlin, the Kaiserliohe koniguche ELapelle (97
musicians, called Kammermusiker) forms the
regular orchestra of the Grand Opera, with two
Kapellmeisters (Conductors), a Concertmeister
(Leader or ist Violin), uid a Balletdirigent
(Balletmaster). The orchestra of the Crystal
Palace would in Germany be called the Kapelle,
and Mr. Manns the Kapellmeister.
The smallest Kapelle existing is probably that
of the Duke of Sigmaringen, which consists of a
pianoforte player and a sextet of strings. [G.]
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48
KARAJAN.
KARAJAN, Thbodob Gbobo. Ritteb vow,
Dr. juris, philologist and historiati, bom at Vienna
Jan. 22, 1810 ; clerk (1841) and custoe (1854) in
the court library, appointed vice-president (1851)
and president (1859) ^^ ^^ Akademie der Wis-
eenschaften ; received the order of Leopold in '
1870, and died April 28, 1873. His philological
workB are numerous and important ; but his title
to admission here is his pamphlet, ' J. Haydn in
London, 1791 and 1792' (Vienna, Gerold, 1861).
In addition to matter from the well-known pam-
phlets of Dies and Griednger, it contains a num-
ber of Haydn*s letters, chiefly from London and
Estoras, to his finend Maria Anna von Grenzinger,
the wife of Leopold Peter, Edler von Genzinger,
an esteemed physician, with four ttom the lady
herself. She played the piano well, and even
composed. Haydn wrote several sonatas for her,
and whenever he was in Vienna spent much of
his time at her house, where a pleasant musical
society was generally to be found. Karajan also
furnished his friend Otto Jahn with valuable
material for his book on Mozart. [C. F. P.]
KEEBLE, John, was bom at Chichester in
1 711 and was brought up as a chorister in the
cathedral under Thomas Kelway. He after-
wards became a pupil of Dr. Pepusch, and was
in 1737 appointed successor to Thomas Bosein-
grave as organist of St. George*s, Hanover Square,
allowing I^oseingrave one half of the salary until
his deam in 1 750. Keeble was also oi^ganist at
Kanelagh Gardens. In 1784 he published ' The
Theory of Harmonics^ or, an Illustration of the
Grecian Harmonica,* a work which attracted
attention. He published five books of organ
pieces, and, jointly with Kirkman, ' 40 Interludes
to be played between the verses of the Psalms.'
He was an excellent organist and able teacher.
He died Dec. 24, 1786. [W. H. H.]
KEISER, BsiNHARD, an eminent German
opera-composer, bom 1673 nearWeissenfels, Leip-
zig. He was grounded in music by his father,
a sound church composer, and afterwards at-
tended the Thomas-schule and the University of
Leipzig, at the same time coming frequently be-
fore the public at the many concerts renowned
even then for their excellence. In 1692 he was
commissioned to set a pastoral, ' Ismene,* for the
court of Brunswick, and its success procured him
the libretto of 'Basilius.' In 1694 he removed
to Hamburg, and there remained for 40 years a
favourite with the public. 'Irene* (1697) was
the first of a series of 116 operas composed for
the Hamburg theatre, each containing from 40 to
50 airs, besides operas in collaboration with others,
and sacred music. Keiser was luxurious and
self-indulgent, and led an adventurous life, but
without sacrificing his love of art or his taste
for intellectual enjoyments. In 1 700 he opened
a series of winter-concerts, which formed a re-
markable combination of intellectual and sensual
gratification ; the most accomplished virtuosi, the
finest and b^-looking singers, a good orchestra,
and carefully selected prognunmes, furnishing the
former, and a banquet of choice viands and winee
KEISER.
the latter. In 1 703 he assumed the direction of
the opera in conjunction with Drdsicke, but hiB
partner absconded, and the whole burden fell
upon the shoulders of Keiser. He proved equal
to the emergency, for in one year (1709) he com-
posed 8 opens, married the daughter of a Ham-
burg patrician, and musician to the municipality
'Oldenbui^/ and having completely reinstated
his affairs, plunged into all his former extra-
vagant indulgence. In 1 716 he resumed his con-
certs; in 1722 visited Copenhagen and was
appointed Capellmeister to the King of Denmark ;
in 1728 was made Cantor and Canon of the
cathedral, and again turned his attention to
sacred music. He composed his last c^>era, 'Ciroe,*
in 1 734, and died in 1 7 39. His wife and daughter
are said to have been accomplished singers.
Keiser exercised an important though not »
permanent influence on German opera. The
perfection to which at first he raised the opera
at Hamburg, speedily degenerated into mere
outward show and trivial if not vulgar farce,
but the sensation he produced at first is described
by his contemporaries as extraordinary. Mathe-
son, who was not likely to exaggerate the suc-
cesses of a rival, in his life-like picture of the
musical condition of Hamburg, calls Keiser the
first dramatic composer in the world, and says
that no other music than that of ' dieeer galante
Componist ' was either simg or listened to. Hia
melodies were smooth and graceful, and fell upon
the ear 'like charmed accents after the dull
pedantries of the contrapuntists of the day.'
That his melody was spontaneous his facility
itself proves, imd he was the first who en*
deavoured to convey the sentiment of the cha-
racter in the music This was the secret of hit
success, and it was by this that he enabled
Grerman opera to hold its own against the dft-
damation of the French, and the melody and
fine singing of the Italians. In sacred music he
shines chiefly in oratorio, which he treated dra-
matically, but with an earnestness and dignity
surprising in a man of his character. In judging
Keiser in this department we must not forget
that Baches Passions, and Handel*s Oratoriot
were then not known, scarcely even composed ;
yet notwithstanding his want of models, hia
works compare frkvourably with the insiind sacred
music of the latter half of the i8th century,
produced under far greater advantages than were
open to him. His sacred compositions include
*Der fur die SUnde der Welt eemarterte und
sterbende Jesus' ; ' Der verurtheilte und gekrea-
zigte Jesus' (poem by Brookes of Hamburg) ; »
Passion acooroing to St. Mark, said to be fine ;
and other historical oratorios, motets, cantatas,
and psalms. He published extracts from the two
first named works, viz. 'Auserleeene Soliloquia'
(1 714), and 'Selige Erlosungs-Gredanken' (1715);
airs from various operas, cantatas for a single
voice, and several vocal collections with various
titles, such as 'Divertimenti serenissimi,' 'Kaiser-
liche Friedenspost,* ' Musikalische Landlust,* etc.
Important portions of his operas and sacred
works have been published by Lindner, in his
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KEISEB.
'Ente stehende Deutsche Oper/ H. 3-1 j$ ; Beiss-
maim, in his 'Allg. Geechichte der Mudk/ iii.
54-73 and App. Nob. 7 and 8 ; and von Winter-
ed in his ' Evangelische Kirchengesang/ vol. iii.
Adam Hiller included an unaocompanied motet
— 'Kindlich gross* — ^in his ' Vieretimmige Mo-
tettoi,* etc. Tol. ii, and there is a fugue for 4
Toioes, 'Gott ist offenbaret,' in the 'Auswahl
▼orzuglicher musikwerke.' [A. M.]
KJ^LEB Bl^LA, whose real name is Albert
TOH KI^J.KB, was bom at Bartfeld in Hungary,
Feb. 1 3, 1820. After attempting both the law and
fanning he settled himself to music, and in 1845
began regular study at Vienna under Schlesinger
and Sechter, playing the fiddle in the band of the
Theater-an-der-Wien at the same time. May 7,
1854 he took the command of GungTs band in
Berlin, and began his career as conductor, solo-
player, and composer. After a few months in
Beiiin he returned to Vienna, and succeeded to
Lanner*s position at the head of that celebrated
band. This again he left before long for an in&ntry
regiment. As bandmaster to the latter he was
cidled to Wiesbaden in 1863, and in 70 became
Kapellmeister of the Kur orchestra there, a post
which he resigned firom ill health in 1873. He
■till resides in Wiesbaden, and celebrated his silver
annivenary on May 7, 79. His works, which have
readied op. 130, consist of overtures, dance music,
and pieces for solo violin, all distinguished for
ihowy brilliant style and clever orchestration.
Amcmg the most popular are his Hofiiungssteme
waits, Hurrah-Sturm galop, and Friedrioh-Karl
march. [G.]
KELLOGG, Claba Lodisk, though bom in
Snmterville, South Carolina, in July 1842, is of
northern extraction. Her mother had consider-
able talent as a musician, and Clara was her only
child. In 1856 they removed to New York,
where she received the whole of her musical
education. She made her first appearance there,
at the Academy of Music (Opera), as Gilda in
Bigdetto, in 1861, and sang that season 10 or la
times. In 1867 (Nov. 2) f£e made her d^ut in
London at Her Majesty's as Maigherita, sang
oonstantlj, and was re-engaged for l£e next year.
From 1808 to 1872 she was touring in the United
States. On May 11, 1872, she re-appeared in
London at Drury Lane, Her Majesty's Opera, as
Linda, and sang during that season also as Gilda.
On her return to the United States die continued
to dng m Italian opera till 1874, when she
ofganised an English troupe, herself superintend-
ing the translation of the words, the raise en
BO^ie, the training of the singers, and the re-
hearsals of the chorus. Such was her devotion
to the project, that in the winter of 74-75 she
wmg no fewer than 1 25 ni^^ts. It is satisfs^ctory
to near that the scheme was successful. Miss
Kd]ogg*8 musical gifts are great. She is said to
be fiuniltar with thirty-five operas. She has great
oooadentiousnees as an artist, ardent enthusiasm,
and a voice of great compass and purity. In
ad^Utum to which she has a remarkable talent for
bnsinosB and is never so happy as when she is
doing a good or benevoleot aotioo. [G.]
▼OL.II.
KELLY.
49
KELLY, Michael, was bom in Dublin about
1764, was taught singing by Passerini, Peretti,
and St. Giorgio, and ultimately by Bauzzini, on
whose advice his father sent him to Naples to
study. Before quitting Dublin, however, a
fortuitous circumstance led to his appearance on
the stage as the Count in Piccinni*s 'Buona
Figliuola,* and that asain. to his performing the
hero in Michael Ame s 'Cymon,* and Lionel in
'Lionel and Clarissa.* On May i, 1779, ^®
quitted Dublin, and arrived in Naples May 30.
He placed himself under the tuition of Finaroli,
head of the Conservatorio of La Madonna di
Loreto. He subsequently studied under Aprile,
with whom he visited Palermo, and then went
successively to Leghorn, Florence, Bologna, and
Venice, ultimately reaching Vienna, where he
was engaged at the Court theatre. There he
remained four years, enjoying the intimate
friendship of Mozart, who on the production of
his 'Nozze di Figaro* allotted to Kelly (whose
name he spells * Occhely ' in his MS. catalogue)
the parts of Badlio and Don Curzio. P^ing
anxious to visit England Kelly obtained leave
of absence from the Emperor, and in Feb. 1 787
quitted Vienna in company with Stephen Storace,
his mother and sister--Signora Storace — and
Attwood. He appeared at Drury Lane on April
20, in his old part of Lionel, and continued
there as first tenor until he quitted the stage.
He also sang at the Concert of Ancient Music,
the Handel performances in Westminster Abbey,
and in the provinces. In 1789 he made his
first appearance as a composer by the produo-
tion of the music to two pieces called 'False
Appearances' and 'Fashionable Friends,* and
from that date till 1820 furnished the music
for 62 dramatic pieces, besides writing a con*
siderable number of Englirii, Italian ana French
single songs, etc In 1 793 he was engaged at the
King's Theatre, of which he was for many years
acting manager. On Jan. i, 1802, he opened a
music shop in Pall Mall adjoining the Opera
House, but this promising speculation £Euled
owing to his inattention, and in 181 1 he was
made a bankrupt. He also engaged in the wine
trade, and this circumstance, combined with
the suspicion that some of Kelly*s compositions
were derived from foreign sources, led Sheridan
to propose that he should inscribe over his shop,
^MichiEtel Kelly, Composer of Wines and Im-
porter of Music* On Sept. 5, 181 1, at Dublin,
^elly made his last appearance on the stage.
In 1826 he published his ' Beminiscences ' in
2 vols. 8vo. This entertaining work, which
reached a second edition in the same year, was
written by Theodore Hook from materials fur-
nished by Kelly. Ito personal notices of Mozart
are both interesting and important, and have
been done justice to by Otto Jahn (2nd ed. ii.
242, ete.) Kelly died at Maivate, Oct. 9, 1826.
The following is a list of the pieces for which he
composed the music : —
* VUae AppearanoM' And *Fuh-
lODAble FrieDdt.' ITW; 'A Friend
In need.' ' The Lett of the Tkinaj.'
* Hm CbSmaej Corner,' end 'TIm
Oestle 8peetre.*ng7: 'Btne Beard.*
The Oatlawn.* 'The OepCive of
Splelbefg ' (with DntMlD.end ' An-
reUo tad Mrvi'le.' nW: 'Fendel
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KELLY.
TtnMi' and 'Plarro/ 1799; 'Of try/ 'The Wood Demon (wHh Jf.
•ee to-morrow.' *De Montfort.' P. Klnff). 'The House of Morrllle,'
and 'The Indians.' 1800: 'Deaf /Adelffitha,' and 'Time's a teU-
aad Damb.' ' AdKlmom the Out- tate.' 1807 ; ' The Jew of Mogadore,'
law.' and * The Olpv Prince.' 1801 ; * The Africans,' and * Venonl,' 1808;
* Urania.' ' Alsonah.' and ' A | ' The Foundling of the Forest ' and
House to be soVL' 1802; 'The Hero I 'The Jubilee.' 1809; 'Onstarus
of the North.' 'The Marriage Fro- |Ya8a' and a Ballet. IBIO; ' The
mise.' and 'Lure laughs at lock- 1 Feasant Bar.' 'The Boyal Oak.'
smiths.' 1^03; 'Cinderella.' 'The and 'One o'clock.' 1811; 'The Ab-
Counterfelt,' ' The Hunter of the sent Apothecarr.* ' The Busslans.'
Alps,' 'The Gay Decelrers,' ' The |* Polly.' 'The Uladnn.' and *Har-
Bllnd Bargain,' and 'The land we loquin Huper,' 1813; 'The Be-
live In.' 1801; 'The Honey Hoon,' morM,' 1814; 'The Tnlcnown
*A Prior Claim.' and 'Youth. Guest.' 1810; 'The FaU of Taranto,'
lore, and Follr.' 1805; ' We By by 1817; ' The Bride of Abydos.' 1818 ;
Bight.' 'The Forty Thleres,* and 'Abudah.' 1819; and 'The lAdy
'Adrian and Orllla,' 1806: 'The and the Devil,' IfflOi
Toung Hussar,* ' Town and Good- I [W, H. H.l
KELWAY, Joseph, » pnpil of Geminiani,
was organist of St. Michaers, Comhill, which he
resigned in 1756 on being appointed organist of
St. Martin's-in-the-Flelds vice Weldon deceased.
Upon the arrival of Queen Charlotte in England
Kelway was appointed her instructor on the
harpsichord. As a harpsichord player he was
remarkable for neatness of touch and rapidity of
execution, and for his ability in performing Scar-
latti's pieces. As an organist he excelled in extem-
poraneous performance, of which he was such a
master as to attract the most eminent musicians
in London (amongst them Handel) to the
church in order to hear him. Bumey (iy. 665)
characterises his playing as full of a * masterly
wildnesa . . . bold, rapid, and fanciful.' His pub-
lished harpsichord sonatas are very inferior to
his extemporaneous effusions. He died in 1782.
His elder brother, Thomas, was educated as a
chorister in Chichester Cathedral, and succeeded
John Beading as organist there in 1720. Seven
services and nine anthems by him are contained
in a MS. volume in the library of Chichester
CathedraL His Evening Service in B minor is
printed in Kimbault's 'Cathedral Music,' and
two others in A minor and G minor are published
by Novello. He died May 21, 1749. [W.H.H.]
KEMBLE, Adblaide, younger daughter of
Charles Kemble, the eminent actor, was bom in
1 8 14 and educated for a concert singer. She
appeared first in London and afterwanls at the
York Festival in 1835, but with little success.
She then went to Paris for improvement, and
from thence in 1836 to Germany, and early in
1839 to Italy. In that year she made her ap-
pearance at La Fenice, Venice, as Norma with
decided success. In 1840 she sang at Trieste,
Milan, Padua, Bologna, and Mantua with in-
creasing reputation. In 1841 she returned to
England and appeared in an English version of
'Norma' with marked success. In 1842 she
sang in English versions of ' Le Nozze di Figaro,'
'La Sonnambula,' ' Semiramide,' and ' H Matri-
monio Segreto.' In 1843 she was married to
Mr. Frederick U. Sartoris and retired finom the
profession. In 1867 she published * A Week in
a French Country House.' [W. H. H.]
KEMP, Joseph, Mus. Doc., was bom in
Exeter in 1778, and was placed as a chorister
in the cathedral under William Jackson, with
whom he continued as a pupil after quitting the
choir. In 1802 he removed to Bristol on being
KENT.
appointed organist of the cathedral. In 1809 he
resigned his appointment and settled in London.
In 1808 he took the degree of Mus. Bac. at Cam-
bridge, his exercise being a ' War Anthem, A
sound of battle is in the land.' In 1 809 he was by
special dispensation permitted to proceed Doctor
of Music ; his exercise being an anthem entitled
•The Crucifixion.' On Oct. 25, 1809, 'The
Jubilee,' an occasional piece by him, was pro-
duced at the Haymarket Theatre. In 18 10 a
melodrama called ' The Siege of Isca [Exeterl, or.
The Battles in the West,' written by Dr. Kemp,
with music by himself and Domenico Corri, was
produced at the theatre in Tottenham Street
In the same year he lectured on his 'New
System of Musical Education,' probably the first
method propounded in England for teadiing
music to numbers simultaneously. In 1814 ^®
returned to Exeter, resided there till 181 8, then
went to France, remained until 18 21, and again
returned to Exeter. He died in London, May
22, 1824. Dr. Kemp published an anthem,
'I am Alpha and Omega' ; 'Twelve Psalmodical
Melodies ; 'Twelve Songs'; 'Twenty Double
Chants ' ; ' Musical Illustrations of the Beauties
of Shakspeare ' ; ' Musical Illustrations of The
Lady of the Lake ' ; ' The Vocal Magazine ' ;
' The New System of Musical Education, Part
I.' ; and numerous single glees, songs, duets, and
trios. [W.H.H.]
KENDALL, John, organist of the church of
St. Marylebone, published in 1780 a book of
organ pieces. [W.H.H.]
KENT, James, bora at Winchester, March
13, 1700, became a chorister of the cathedral
there under Vaughan Bichardson, but was
shortly afterwards removed to London and ox-
tered as a chorister of the Chapel Royal under
Dr. Croft. There he attracted the attention of
the sub-dean, Rev. John Dolben, through whose
influence he obtained, on leaving the cnoir, the
post of organist of the parish church of Finedon,
Northamptonshire, the seat of the Dolbms.
He resigned his office at Finedon on obtaining
the organistship of Trinity College, Cambridge^
which he held till 1737, when he succeeded John
Bishop as oiganist of the Cathedral and College
of Winchester. He married Elizabeth, daught^
of John Freeman, a singer at the theatre in the
time of Purcell, afterwards a member of the
choirs of the Chapel Royal, St. Paul's and West-
minster, and who died Dec. 10. 1736. It was
not until the decline of life that Kent could be
induced to publish ; he then printed a volume
containing 12 anthems. In 1774 he resigned
his appointments in favour of Peter Fussell,
and died at Winchester. May 6, 1776. After
his death a volume containing a Morning and
Evening Service and 8 Anthems by him was
published under the editorship of Joseph Corfe.
Kent assisted Dr. Boyce in the compilation of
his ' Cathedral Music. His anthems have been
extravagantly extolled by some, and decried by
others ; in both cases unjustly. They are
smooth and even productions, generally pleai-
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KENT.
log, bat rarely rising above mediocrity. His
'Hear my Prayer* was at one time a great
£ivoarite, but it is a poor composition. He bor-
rowed f^reely firom Italian composers, without
acknowledgment, as is shown by a volmne full of
his notes in the possession of Sir F. A. G. Ouseley.
LSee Bassani.] [W.H. H.]
KENT BUGLE, or Royal Kent bugle, an
improTement of the Key bugle, said to have been
named in consequence of a performance upon it
before H. B. H. the Duke of Kent by Halliday in
Dublin, shortly after its invention. It had a
complete chromatie scale from Bb below the
treUe stave to G above, — ^but is now superseded
by valve instruments. [G.]
KEOLAJjniHE, OB, the unkarthlt bkidb.
Grand opera in a acts ; words by Fitzball, music
by Balfe. Produced at English Opera House
March 9, 1841. [G.]
KEPER, JoHK, of Hart Hall, Oxford, who
graduated as M.A. Feb. 11, 1569, produced in
1574 • Select Psalms in four parts.* [W.H.H.]
KERAULOPHON (from /ctpa^kijs, a horn-
blower, and ^a»^, a voice). An 8-feet Organ
Manual Stop, of a reedy and pleasant quality of
tone. It was invented by Messrs. Gray &
Davison, and used by them for the first time m
1843 in the organ they made for St. Paul's
Church, Wilton Place. An example was intro-
dnoed by the French firm of Ducroquet into
their organ at St. Eustache, Paris, erected in
1854. [E.J.H.]
KERL, JoHAim Caspab^ celebrated organist*
bom in 1628, aa is to be concluded from the Mor-
toarium of the old Augustine church of Munich.
Mattheeon's ' Ehrenpforte ' contains the only de-
tails known of his life. He came early to Vienna*
and learnt the organ from Valentin!, then organist,
afterwards Capdilmeister to the Oourt, on whose
recommendation Ferdinand HI. sent him to Rome
to study under Carissimi. In all probability he
i^so learnt from Fre8C(A)aldi, possibly at the same
time as his countryman Froberger. Having re-
turned to Germany he entered the service of
the Bavarian Elector on Feb. 22, 1656, and in
that capacity was present at the coronation of
JjBOfcld I. at Fnmkfurt (July 22, 1658), where
be is said to have been presented by Schmelzer
vice-Court-CapellmeistOT to the Emperor, and
invited to improvise on a given theme in presence
of the court. Some doubt is thrown on this by
the fact that Schmelzer did not become vice-
04>ellmelster till the 1st of Jan. 1671 ; but
he may well have been in attendance on the
Emperor at Frankfort, and at any rate KerPs
reputation as an orgMiist dates firom the coro-
nation. Kerl remained at Munich for 15 years.
For the Italian singers there he oomposed a
'Missa nigra* entirely written in black notes,
and a duet for two castrati *0 bone Jesu,'
the only accompaniment of which is a groimd
bass paesini? tnrough all the keys. Besides
oiba* church works, sonatas for a violins and
a viol di gamba, and a 'Modulatio organica
> SotTonKer1,Ma]IdIetIoDar*«M7.
KEY.
61
super Magnificat' (Munich, 1686), Mattheson
mentions toccatas, canzonas, ricercars, and ba-
tailles of his composition for the organ. In 1673
he threw up his poet and went to Vienna, where
he subsisted by giving lessons at what was then
a high scale of remuneration. When he re-
turned to Munich is not known, but he died
there on the 13th of Feb. 1693. His tomb,
showing this date, was formerly in the Augustine
church, but that is now the custom-house, and
the tomb is no longer discoverable. His style is
remarkable for the frequent introduction of dis-
cords resolved in a new and unexpected manner,
in which respect he is deservedly considered a
predecessor of Sebastian Bach. He wrote the
music of the operas 'Oronte,' 1657; *Erinto,'
1661 ; and of the serenata in honour of the birth-
day of the wife of the Elector (Nov. 6, 1661),
* II pretensione del Sole.' One of his canzonas
has been preserved to the world in a singular
but most efficient way — owing to its insertion by
Handel in 'Israel in Egypt ' to the words * Egypt
was glad when they departed.' The only chwige
made is that of the key, firom D minor to E minor.
Hawkins gives the canzona inits original form in
his HistOTy, chap. 12^. A toccata in C is riven
in Pauer's « Alte Clavier musik ' vol. 3. [F. G.]
KETTLE-DRUMS aie^copper or brass basins,
with a skin or head that can be tuned to a true
musical note. Used by cavalry and in orchestras.
[Dbum, a, vol. i. p. 4036.] [V. de P.]
KEY. A word of manifold signification. It
means the scale or system in which modem
music is written; the front ends of the lexers by
which the piano, organ or harmonium are
played ; the levers which cover or uncover the
holes in such instruments as the flute and oboe ;
lastly, an instruction book or 'Tutor.' English
is the only language in which the one term has
all these meanings.
I. The systems of music which preceded the
modem system, and were developed by degrees
into it, were characterised by scaJes which not
only differed from one another in pitch but also
in the order of succession of the various inter-
vals of which they were composed. In modem
music the number of notes from which a scale
can commence is increased by the more minute
subdivision of each octave; but each of these
notes is capable of being taken as the starting
point of the same scale, that is to say of either
the major or minor mode, which are the only two
distinct scales recognised in modem music. This
forms a strong point of contrast between the
sjicient and modem styles. The old was a sys-
tem of scales, which differed intrinsically, and
thereby afforded fiatcilities for varying qualities
of melodio expression ; the modem is essentially
a system of keys, or relative transposition of
identical scales, by which a totally distinct order
of effects from the old style is obtained.
The standard scale called the major mode is a
series in which semitones occur between the third
and fourth and between the seventh and eighth
degrees counting from the lowest note, all the,
other intervals being tones. It is obvious from
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52
KEY.
the irregularity of this distribution that it is not
possible for more than one key to be constructed
of the same set of notes. In order to distinguish
practically between one and another, one series is
taken as the normal key and all the others are
severally indicated by expressing the amount of
difference between them and it. The normal key,
which happens more by accident than design to
begin on C, is constructed of what are called
KatunJs, and all such notes in the entire system
as do not occucr in this series are called AccidentaLs.
In order to assimilate a series which starts from
some other note to the series starting from C, it
is necessary to indicate the notes alien to the
scale of C, which will have to be «ubstituted
for such notes in that scale as could not occur
in the new series — ^in other words, to indicate the
accidentals which will serve that purpose ^ and
firom their number the musician at once recog-
nises the note from which his series must start.
This note therefore is called the Key-note, and
the artificial series of notes resulting from the
arrangement is called the Key. Thus to make a
series of notes starting &om G relatively the same
as those starting from G, the F immediately
below 6 will have to be supplemented by an
accidental which will give the necessary semi-
tone between the seventh and eighth degrees of
the scale. Similarly, D being relatively the same
distance from G that G is fi:^m G, the same pro-
cess will have to be gone through again to assimi-
late the scale starting from D to that starting
from G. So that each time a fifth higher is
chosen for a key-note a fresh accidental or sharp
has to be added immediately below that note,
and the number of sharps can always be told by
counting the number of fifths which it is necessary
to go through to arrive at that note, beginning
from the normal G. Thus G— G, G — D, D— A,
A — E is the series of four fifths necessary to be
gone tiirough in passing frxmi G to E, and the
number of sharps in the key of E Ib therefore
four.
Conversely, if notes be chosen in a descending
series of fifths, to present new key-notes it will be
necessary to flatten the fourth note of the new
key to bring the semitone between the third and
fourth degrees ; and by adopting a similar process
to that given above, the number of fiats necessary
to assimilate the series for any new key-note can
be told bv the number of fifths passed through in
a descending series from the normal C.
In the Minor Mode the most important and
universal characteristic is the occurrence of the
semitone between the second and third instead of
between the third and fourth degrees of the scale,
thereby making the interval ^tween the key-
note and the third a minor third instead of a
major one, frt>m which p^uliarity the term
' minor * arises. In former days it was customary
to distinguish the modes from one another by
speaking of the key-note as having a greater or
lesser third, as in Boyce's Collection of Cathedral
Music, where the Services are described as in
* the key of Bb with the greater third ' or in ' the
key of D with the lesser third/ and bo forth.
KEY.
The modifications of the upper part of the scald
which accompany this are so variable that no
rule for the distribution of the intervals can be
given. The opposite requirements of harmony
and melody in relation to voices and instruments
will not admit of any definite form being taken as
the absolute standard of the minor mode ; hence
the Signatures, or representative groups of aoci-
dentab, which are given for the minor modes are
really of the nature of a compromise, and are in
each case the same as that of the major scale of
the note a minor third above the key-note of the
minor scale. Such scales are called relatives^
relative major and relative minor—because they
contain the greatest number of notes in common.
Thus A, the minor third below G, is taken as the
normal key of the minor mode, and has no
signature ; and similarly to the distribution of the
major mode into keys, eacl^ new key-note which
is taken a fifth higher will require a new sharp,
and each new key-note a fifth lower will require
a new flat. Thus E, the fifth above A, will have
the signature of one sharp, corresponding to the
key of the major scale of G ; and D, Qie fifth
below A, will have one flat, corresponding to the
key of tl^ major scale of F, and so on. The new
sharp in the former case falls on the supertonic
of the new key so as to bring the semitone
between the second and third degrees of the
scale, and the new flat in the latter case fidls on
the submediant of the new key so as to bring a
semitone between the. fifth and sixth degrees.
The fact that these signatures for the minor
mode are only approximations ia however ren-
dered obvious by their &iling to provide for the
leading note, which is a necessity in modem
music, and requires to be expressly marked wher-
ever it occurs, in contradiction to the signature.
There is a very common opinion that the tone
and effect of different keys is characteristic, and
Beethoven himself has given some confirmation
to it by several utterances to the point. Thus in
one ^ place he writes * H moll schwarze Tonart,' i,e,
B minor, a black key ; and, in speaking about
^Klopstock, says that he is 'always Maestoso!
Db major!' In a letter to Thomson' of Edin-
burgh (Feb. 19, 181 3), speaking of two national
songs sent him to airange, he says, ' You have
written them in
but as that key
seemed to me unnatural, and so little consistent
with the direction Amoroso that on the contrary it
would change it into Barhare8Co{qvC&\i contraire il
le changerait en Barbaresco), I have set the song
in the suitable key.* This is singular, consider-
ing his own compositions in the key of four flats,
neither of which can justly be entitled barbaresco.
Composersoertainly seem to have had predilections
for particular keys, and to have cast movranents
in particular styles in special keys. If the system
of equal temperament were perfectly carried
out, the difference would be less apparent than
1 In a sketch for Cello SoDAta, op. 108. No. 8, quoted by KottetMhm.
3 In a o»Tenatlon with BocbllU {fUt Freondo der TookunsL
Ir. 856).
saiTenbrThajer.iU.4L
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KEY.
it n; bnt with unequal temperament, or when
the tuner does not distribute the tempering
of the fifUiB with absolute equality in instru-
ments of fixed intonation, there is necessarily
a considerable difference between one key and
another. With stringed instrtunents the sonority
of the key is considerably affected by the number
of open strings which occur in it, and their posi-
tion as important notes of the scale. Berlioz has
given a complete scheme of his views of the
qualities of the keys for violins in his Traits
d'lnstrumentation. With keyed instruments a
good deal of the difference results firom the posi-
tion of the hands and technical consid^utions
resulting therefrom. A real difference also is
obvious in keys which are a good deal removed
from one another in pitch, though inasmuch as
pitch is not constant this cannot apply to keys
which are near.* [C.H.H.P.]
n. KEY (Ft, Touehe; Ital. TaOo ; Ger. Taste)
and KEYBOARD of keyed stringed instruments
(Fr. CUivier; Ital. Tastaiura; Ger. Claviatur,
Tattaiur.) A 'key* of a pianoforte er other
masical instrument with a keyboard, is a lever,
balanced see-saw fashion near its centre, upon
a metal pin. It is usually of lime-tree, because
that wood is little liable to warp. Besides the
metal pin upon the balance rail of the keyframe,
modem instruments have another metal pin for
each key upon the front rail, to prevent too much
lateral motion. A key is long or short according
to its employment a» a 'natural' or 'sharp,'
a2id wiU be referred to heve accordingly, although
in practice a sharp is also a flat, and the written
sharp or flat occasionally occurs upon a long key.
Each natural is covered as far as it is visible
with ivoty : and each sharp or raised key bears a
block of ebony or other hard black wood. In old
instruments the practice in this respect varied,
as we shall show presently. In English alone'
the name ' key' refers to the Latin Clavis, and
possibly to the idea of unlocking sound transferred
to the lever from, the early use of the word to
express the written note. The Romance and
Gmnan names are derived from 'touch.*
A frame or, technically, a 'set ' of keys is a key-
boardy or clavier according to the Fr^ch appel-
lation. In German Klavier usually means the
keyed stringed instrument itself, of any kind.
Ths influence of the keyboard upon the develop-
ment of modem music is as conspicuous as it has
been important. To this day C major is ' natural '
on the keys, as it is in the corresponding notation.
Other scales are formed by substituting accidental
ihanps or flats for naturals both in notation and
CB the keyed instrument, a fact which is evidence
of tlie common origin and early growth together
of the two. But the notation soon outgrew the
fcejhoard. It has been remarked by Professor
"Bxadey that the ingenuity of human inventions
I been paralleled by the tenacity with which
forms have been preserved. Although
KEY.
53
> Bn a paper by Sebnmann. 'Charaktaristik der Tonarten,' In bla
'flwtaiaiiHi BchrlfteD,' L UO.
> IB French, however. Uie keys of a flnta or other wood wind Instro-
■aalaiecalMdc^fc
the number of keys within an octave of the key-
board are quite inadequate to render the written
notation of the four and twenty major and minor
modes, or even of the semitones allied to the one
that it was first mainly contrived for, no attempts
to augment the number of keys in the octave or
to change their familiar disposition have yet suc-
ceeded. 1?he permanence of the width of the
ectave again has been determined by the average
span of the hand, and a Ruckers harpsichord of
1614 measures but a small fraction of an indi
less in the eight keys, than a Broadwood or
Erard concert-grand piano of 1879. ^® ^^®
stated under Clavichobd that we are with-
out definite information as to the origin of the
keyboard. We do not exactly know where it was
introduced or when. What evidence we possess
would place the date in the 14th century, and the
locality^-though much more doubtfully — inornear
Venice. The date nearly eynchronises with the
invention of the clavichord and clavicembalo, and
it is possible that it was introduced nearly simul-
taneously into the organ, although which was
first we cannot discover. There is reason to
believe that the little portable organ or regal
may at first have had a keyboard derived from
the T-shaped keys of the Hurdt Gurdy. The
first keyboard would be Diatonic, with fluctu-
ating or simultaneous use of the Bb and B^ in
the doubtful territory between the A and 0 of
the natural scale. But when the row of sharps
was introduced, and whether at once or by de-
grees, we do not know. They are doubtless
due to the frequent necessity for transposition,
and we find them complete in trustworthy
pictorial representations of the 15th century.
There is a painting by Mending in the Hospital
of St. John at Bruges, from whence it has never
been removed, dated 1479, wherein the keyboard
of a regal is depicted exactly as we have it in
the arrangement of the upper keys in twos and
threes, though the upper keys are of the same
light colour as the lower, and are placed farther
back.
The oldest keyed instrument we have seen
with an undoubtedly original keyboard is a
Spinet' in the museum of the Conservatoire at
Paris, bearing the inscription * Fraiiciaci de
PortalupU Veronen, opus, MDXXIII.' The
compass is 4 octaves and a half tone (from E
io F) and the natural notes are black with the
sharps white. The oldest known in England is
a similar instrument of the same compass in
South Kensington Museum, the work of Anni-
bale Rosso of Milan, dated 1555. As usual in
Italy, the naturals are white and the sharps
bl^k. The Flemings, especially the Ruckers,
osciUated between black and ivory naturals.
(We here correct the statement as to their prac-
tice in CiAViOHORD, 367 a.) The clavichords of
Germany and the clavecins of France which we
have seen have had black naturals, as, according
to Dr. Bumey, had those of Spain. Loosemore and
the Haywards, in England, in the time of Charles
II, used boxwood for naturals ; a clavichord of
> Ko. 21fi of Cheuqaet's Catalogae (1875).
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u
KEY.
4^ ootftvef axistiiig near Hanover in 1875 had
the same — a due perhaps to its date. Keen and
Slade in the time of Qaeen Anne, used ebony.
Dr. Bumej writes that the Bitchoooks also had
ivory naturals in their spinets, and two of Thomas
Hitchcock's still existing have them. But one of
John Hitchoock*s, dated 1630, said to have be-
longed to the Princess Amdia, and now owned
by Mr. W. Dale, has ebony naturals. All three
have a strip of the colour of the naturals inserted
in the ivory sharps, and have 5 octaves compass —
from G to G, 61 keys ! This wide compass for
that time— undoubtedly auth^itic — ^may be com-
pared with the widest Kuckers to be mentioned
further on.
Under Clavichord we have collected what
information is trustworthy of the earliest com-
pass of the keyboards of that instrument. The
Italian spinets of the i6th century were nearly
always of 4 octaves and a -semitone, but divided
into F and G instruments with the semitone £ or
B^ as the lowest note. But this apparent E or B
may from analogy with ■* short octave ' organs —
at that time frequently made— have been tuned
C or G, the fourth below the next lowest note.*
Another question aiises whether the F or C thus
obtained were not actually of the same absolute
pitch (as near as pitch can be practically said to
be absolute). We know from Arnold Schlick
('Spiegel der Orgelmacher,' 1511; reprinted in
'MonatshiftefurMusik-Greschichte,^ Berlin, 1869,
p. 103) that F and O oigans were made on one
measur^nent or pitch for the lowest pipe, and
this may have been earned on in spinets, which
would account for the old tradition of their being
tuned ' in the fifth or the octave,* meaning that
difference in the pitch which would arise from
such a system.
The Antwerp (Ruckers) harpsichords appear
to have varied arbitrarily in the oompass of Uieir
keyboutis. We have observed E— -C 45 aotes,
0— C 49, B— D 62, O— E 53» C— F 54, G— D or
A— E 56, G— E or G — F (without the lowest
Gf) 58, F— F 61, and in two of Hans Ruckers (the
eldest) F — G 63 notes. In some imrtainoftfl however
these keyboards have been extended, even, as has
been proved, by tiie makers themselves.
The English seem to have early preferred a
wide compass, as with the Hitchcocks, already
referred to. Kirkman and Shudi in the next
century, however, in their large harpsichords
never went higher than F (9), although the
latter, towards the end of hiis career, about
1770, increased his scale downwards to the C (q).
Here Kirkman did not follow him. Zumpe
began making square pianos in London, about
1766, with the G — F compass (omitting the
lowest Gf)— nearly 5 octaves — but soon adopted
tho R octaves, F — F (r), in which John Broad-
wood, who reconstructed the square piano, fol-
lowed him. The advances in oompass of Messrs.
Broadwood and Sons* pianofortes are as follows.
In 1793, to 5j octaves, F to C («). In 1796, 6
1 Y«t PmetoHui dtetloetljr dowrlbes the HalberaUdt ongan. bnlH
laSB. re-coMtnieted 1494. m luring the lowest note B!)-the toftle
proceeding by •emltonet upwards, and we know the leotlment for the
lesdfaig note had not thea been trolved.
KEY.
octaves, C to C (0 : this was the oompass of
Beethoven*s Broadwood Grand, 1817. In 1804,
6 octaves F to F (u). In 181 1, 6} octaves, C to
F (v). In 1844 the treble G was attained, and in
1852 the treble A. But before this the A — A
7 -octave compass had been introduced by oth^
makers, and soon after became general. Even
C appears in recent concert grands, and com*
posers have written up to it ; fdso the deepest Cr,
which was, by the way, in Broadwoods* Exhibi*
tion grands of 1851. (See w, a*, y, z). Many
however find a difficulty in distinguishing the
highest notes, and at lea^t as many in dis-
tinguishing the lowest, so that this extreme oom-
pass is beyond accurate perception except to •
very few.
^1
(r)
4^^^jf^^
&^54^t^^
^ 8»i
«:«-
r • i/ 4- «J
8va 8ra*
9va
<«0 ^ (^) f
The invention of a 'symmetrical* keyboard, by
which a uniform fingering for all scales, and a
more perfect tuning, may be attained, is due to
j Mr. Bosanquet,'of St. John's College, Oxford, who
' has had ^ocistructed an enhannonic harmonium
j Mrith one. In 'An Elementary Treatise on Mu-
, sical Intervals and Temperament ' (Macmillan,
1876), he has described this instrument — with
passing reference to other new keyboards inde-
pendently invented by Mr. Poole, and more
recently by Mr. CoKn Brown. The fingering re*
quired for Mr. Bosanquet's keyboard agrees with
tJiat usual for the A major scale, and (lb. p. ao)
' any passage, chorrl, or combination of any kind,
has exactly the same form under the fingers,
in whatever k«y it is played.* Here we have the
simplicity of the Double Action harp and un-
doubtedly a great saving in study. In Mr.
Bosanquet^s harmonium the number of keys in
an octave available for a system proceeding by
perfect fifths is 53. But in the seven tiers of hia
keyboard 'he has 84, for the purpose of facilitating
the playing of a * round ' of keys. It is however
pretty well agreed, even by acousticians, that the
piano had best remain with thirteen keys in the
octave, and with tuning according to ' equal tem-
perament.*
In Grermany a recent theory of the keyboard
has sought not to disturb either the number of
keys or the equal temperament. But an arrange-
ment is proposed, almost identical with the
'sequential keyboard* invented and practically
tried in England by Mr. William A. B. Lunn
under the name of Arthur Wallbridge in 1843,
in which six lower and six upper keys are grouped
instead of the historical and customary seven and
five in the octave. This gives all the major scalei
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KEY.
in two fingermgB, accoiding as a lower ot upper
key may be the keynote. The note C becomes a
black key, and the thumb is more frequently used
on the black keys than has been usually per-
mitted with the old keyboard. The latest school
of pianists, however, regard the black and white
keys as on a level (see Preface to Dr. Hans von
bAow^s Selection from Cramers Studies, 1868)
and this has tended to modify opinions on the point.
In 1876-7 the parttsans of the new German
keyboard formed themselves into a society, with
the view of settling the stUl more difficult and
vexed question of the reconstruction of musical
notation. Thus, discarding all signs for sharps
and flats, the five lines of the stave and one
ledger line below, correspond to six black finger-
keys for C, D. E. Ff, Gf, A|, and the four
spaces, including the two blanks one above and
one below the stave, correspond to six white
fingei^keys, Clf, Df, F, G, A, B. Each octave
requires a repetition of the stave, and the parti-
cular octave is indicated by a number. The
keyboard and the stave consequently correspond
exactly, black for black and white for white,
while the one ledger line shews the break of the
octave. And further the pitch for each note,
and the exact interval between two notes, for
equal temperament, is shewn by the notation as
well as on the keyboard. The name of the
association is ' Chroma-Verein des gleichstufigen
Tonsystems.' It has published a journal, *I)ie
Tonkunst' (Berlin, Stilke), edited by Albert
Hahn, whose pamphlet, *Zur neuen Klaviatur*
(Kunigsberg, 1875), with those of Vincent,
'Die Neuklaviatur • (Malchin, 1875) and of
Otto Quanz, * Zur Geschichte der neuen chroma-
tiichen Klaviatur' (Berlin, 1877), are impor-
tant contributions to the literature of the sub-
ject. The inventor appears to have been K. B.
Schumann, a physician at Bhinow in Branden-
burg, who died in 1865, after great personal
sacrifices ibr the promotion of his idea. The
pianoforte maker of the society is Preuss of
Berlin, who constructs the keyboard with G on a
black key ; width of octave 14 centimetres,' (54
inches nearly), and with radiating keys by which
a tenth becomes as easy to span as an octave
is at present. About sixteen other pianoforte
makers are named, and public demonstrations
have been given all over Germany. In this
system much stress is laid upon C being no longer
the privileged key. It will henceforth be no
more 'natural' than its neighbours. Whether
oar old keyboard be destined to yield to such a
successor or not» there is very much beautiful
piano musie of our own time, naturally contrived
to fit the form of the hand to it, which it might
be very difficult to graft upon another system
even if it were more logically simple.
Hie &ct that the fingering of the right hand
upwards is frequently that of the left hand down-
wards has led to the construction of a ' Piano h
double claviers renvers^,' shown in the Paris
Exhibition of 1878 by MM. Mangeot fr^res of
that city. It is in fact two grand piimos, one
1 Tba wldUi of 6of ttie pressat koyi.
placed upon the ot!
as the name indie
as usual with the
hand ; the higher h
in the same positic
played upon it pro
notes running the
always been the noi
cumbersome contrii
of similar passages
other advantages, in playing extensions and avoid*
ing the crossing of the hands, etc. [A. J.H.]
IIL KEYS (Fr. Clefs; Ger. Klappe; Ital.
Chiave). The name given to the levers on wind-
instruments which serve the purpose of opening
and closing certain of the sound-holes. They are
divided into Open and Closed keys, according to
the function which they perform. In the former
case they stand normally above their respective
holes, and are closed by the piessure of the
finger ; whereas in the latter they close the hole
until lifted by muscular action. The closed keys
are levers of the first, the open keys usually of
the third mechanical order. They serve the
purpose of bringing distant orifices within the
reach of the hand, and of covering apertures
which are too large for the last phalanx of the
finger. They are inferior to the finger in lacking
the delicate sense of touch to which musical
expression is in a great measure due. In the
Bassoon therefore the sound-holes are bored
obliquely in the substance of the wood so as to
diminish the divergence of the fingers. Keys
are applied to instruments of the Flute family,
to Reeds, such as the Oboe and Glarinet, and
to instruments with cupped mouthpieces, such
as the Key Bugle and the Ophicleide, the name
of which is a compound of the Greek words for
Snake and Key. [Ophicleide.] In the original
Serpent the holes themselves were closed by the
pad of the finger, the tube being so curved as
to bring them within reach. [Serpent.1
The artistic arrangement of Keys on all classes
of wind instruments is a recent development.
Flutes, Oboes, Bassoons, and Clarinets, up to the
beginning of the present century or even later,
were almost devoid of them. The Bassoon bow-
ever early possessed several in its bass joint for
the production of the six lowest notes on its
register, which far exceed the reach of the hand.
In some earlier specimens, as stated in the article
referred to, this mechanism was rudely preceded
by plugs, requiring to be drawn out before per-
formance and not easily replaced with the neces-
sary rapidity. [See Bassoon.]
The older Flutes, Clarinets, and Oboes only
possess three or four keys at most, cut out of sheet
metal, and closely resembling mustard-spoons.
The intermediate tones, in this deficiency of
keys, were produced by what are termed * cross-
fingerings,' which consist essentially in closing
one or two lower holes with the fingers, while
leaving one intermediate open. A rude approxi-
mation to a semitone was thus attained, but the
note is usually of a dull and mufiled character.
Boehm, in the flute named after him, entirely
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KEYS.
diicarded the use of these ' cross-fiogered' notes.
[See Flute.]
Keys are now fiishioned in a far more artistic
and convenient form, a distinction in shape being
made between those which are open, and those
normally closed ; so that the player may be
assisted in performance by his instinctive sense
of touch. [See Contbapagotto.] Besides the
Bassoon, the Como di Bassetto affords a good
example of this contrivance, the scale being
carried down through four semitones by inter-
locking keys, worked by the thumb of the right
hand alone. [W.H.S.]
KEY-BUGLE. An improrement of the ori-
ginal bugle, which had no keys, and therefore
could only yield certain restricted notes [see
p. a8o] by the addition of keys. It is said to
have been made by Logier. The Kent buolb
is either a further improvement, or only another
name for the same thing. [G.]
KEY-NOTE. The note by which the key is
named, and from which the scale commences :
the Tonic. [See Key ; Tonic]
KIEL, Fbiedeich, Jx>m Oct. 7, 1821, at
Puderbach on the Lahn ; son of a schoolmaster,
who taught him the pianoforte. At 14 he began
the violin under Schulz, Concertmeister to Prince
Carl von Wittgcnstein-Berleberg, and soon en-
tered the band of the reigning Prince, who sent
him first to Kummer at Coburg, and in 1843 to
Dehn at Berlin. While there he received a
salary from King Frederic William IV. His
first compositions were for the pianoforte, 'Canons
und Fugen ' op. i and 2 ; variations and fugue,
op. 17; and several pieces for P. F. and cello, of
which the ' Reisebilder ' are specially interesting.
In 62 his Kequiem (op. 20), a very remarkable
work, was performed by Stem*s Choral Society —
also by the University Musical Society of Cam-
bridge, May 21, 1878. In 66 he composed a
' Missa Solemnis,' and in 74 an oratorio 'Christus.'
He has been a member of the council of the
Berlin Academic der KUnste since 1869, and is
professor of composition in the Hochschule fiir
Musik, in which capacity he is much esteemed.
Kiel is one of the most distinguished living
masters of counterpoint and fugue, and a.H such
forms one of the race of musicians of whom the
late Moritz Hauptmann may be considered the
chief. His compositions are of the sound classi-
cal school, tempered with a due regard for the
best modem tendencies. [F.G.]
KIESEWETTER, Raphael Georo, Edler
yoN Wiesenbrunn (uncle to Ambros the histo-
rian of music), Imperial councillor, and learned
author on musical subjects, bom at Holleschau
in Moravia, Aug. 29, 1773 ; settled in Vienna in
1794. In 1816 he began to form a collection of
scores of the old masters, and made his house a
rendezvous for the first musicians of Vienna.
There also during Advent, Lent, and Holy Week,
a first-rate amateur choir performed the principal
works of the old Italian composers, and of Bach,
Handel, etc. He died Jan. i, 1850, at Baden
(Beethoven's Baden) near Vienna., but was buried
KIND.
in the cemetery at Vienna, 'vor der Wahringer
Linie.' He was ennobled for his services as an
official in the Kriegsrath, taking his title from
his estate. Innimierable societies elected him
a member in acknowledgement of his services
as a musician. He left his musical MSS. and
his correspondence with musical men of lettei%
to Alois Fuchs, and to the court library his in-
valuable collection of scores, with the oondiUon
that they should be kept together as the ' Fond
Kiesewetter.*
That he was a most prolific writer the follow-
ing list of his printed works will show.
1. *Dle Verdlenste der NIeder- ' touroes Obfd. 1MS>. 7. Teberdw
Under am die Tonkuntt ' (reoeived Leben. uud dIeWerke Palestrim'v'
the sold prlce-medAU Amsterdam a coodcMatlon of Balnl's work left
182K). 2. 'Oescbichte der euro- unpublUlied bj Kandler; ediud
palach-abendHodlicheiMUs 1st; un- with prefkce and remarks Obid.
serer heutlgen Musik' (Breitkopf ISMX. 8. 'Der nenen Artrtoxme*
A H&rtel, l&t, &)d ed. 18461. S.
* Ueberdle Masikder Neugrieohen,'
with remarks on ancient Egyptian
and ancient Greek musie: S trea-
tises Obid. 1828). 4. 'Outdo von
Arezzo.' Ufe and works Obid. 1840).
6. ' Scbickaale and Benchaflbnheit
zemreate AuMtze' Obid. }f<*i\.
9. ' Ueber die Octave des Fytbmgo-
ras,' supplement to the preeeding
(Vienna 1848). 10. 'Catalog oeber
die Sammlong der Partltaren alter
Musik.' etcl (A'lenna 1M7). with
prebce and appendix ' Gallertedcr
des WeltlichenGesanges,' from the alten Contrapanctisten.' a sclec-
earl7 Middle Ages down to the dis- tion from their worlo, chronotc^
corerr of the dramatic style and cally arranged. A]*o aboot £0
rise of opera (ibid. 1841). «. 'Die scattered articles In dllliercnt pe-
Muslk der Anber,' from original ' riodicals. reriewi^ etc
[C.F.P.]
KIND, JoHANN Friedrich, author of the
words of Der Freischiitz ; bom at Leipsic March
4, 1 768 ; brought up to the law, but frequented
the Thomas School of his own accord. He began
to practise literature as early as 1800, and i^er
much success with novels and tales, settled in
1 8 14 at Dresden, became a Hofrath, and defi-
nitely renounced the law for a literary life.
Here Weber met him, at the house of von
Nordstem. About Feb. 15, 181 7, Kind read
to him his ' Vandyck^s Landleben,' which
so pleased the composer that he at once con-
sulted him as to an opera-book. The choice of
a source fell on ApeVs ' Gespensterbuch * (Ghost
Stories). Weber had several years before been
attached to the story of the Freischiitz, and so
entirely did his enUiusiasm communicate itself
to Kind, that by the evening of Feb. 23,
he had completed the first act of the opera.
Freischiitz was the only important joint composi-
tion of the two, but Jahns's catalogue contains
II other pieces the words of which were sup-
plied by Kind. The chief of these is the ' Jubel
Cantata,* another cantata called 'Natur und
Liebe,* 5 songs, a part-songs, and a chorus.
Some of these were taken from operas of Kind's
— ' Der Weinberg an der Elbe,' * Der Abend am
Waldbrunnen,' and ' Das Nachtlager in Granada.*
The last of these was set to music by Con-
radin Kreutzer. Kind seems to have supplied
Spanish materials for Precioea, and Web^ had
two librettos by him — Alcindor, 1 819, and
Der Cid, 182 1 — imder consideration, but Frei-
schiitz is the one which Weber adopted in faU.
Kind's *Holzdieb* (Wood -thief) was composed by
Marschner in 1824. He died at Dresden June
25, 1843, having for many years quite forsaken
literature. He ia described by Weber^s son as
> The scores left to the cotirt library.
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KIND.
ft small perBcm, with a great opinion of himself
and a harsh voice, a vols of his works were
pabUshed, Leipzig, i8ai. [6.]
KING, Charles, Mus. Bac., bom at Bury
St Edmunds in 1687, hecame a chorister of St.
Paul's under Dr. Blow and Jeremiah Clark.
He was next a supernumerary singer in the
choir at the small annual stipend of £14. On
July 1 2, 1 707, he graduated as Mus. Bac. at
Oxford. On the death of Clark, whose sister
he had married, he was appointed almoner and
master of the choristers of St. Paul's. In 1708
he became also organist of St. Benet Fink, Royal
Exchange. On Oct. 31, 1730, he was admitted
a vicar choral of St. Paul's. King composed
several services and anthems, some of which are
printed in Arnold's 'Cathedral Music,* and
otiiers in Page's 'Harmonia Sacra* ; abd there*
ire some in 3ie Tudway Collection (Harl. MSS.
7341 and 7343). Although his compositions
evince no originality they are vocal and not
without spirit, they long continued in &equent
use in choirs, and some of them, particularly his
services in F and C, are still performed. They
have justified the joke of Dr. Greene, that King
was a serviceable man. Six of them in all are
published by Novello, besides five anthems.
Hawkins intimates that his inferiority was the
result rather of indolence than want of ability.
He died March 1 7, 1 748. [ W. H. H.]
KING, Matthew Pkteb, bom in 1773,
studied composition under Charles Frederick
Horn. His first productions were ' Three Sona-
tas for the Pianoforte,' 'Eight Songs and a
Cantata,' and other Pianoforte Sonatas. In
1796 he published 'Thorough Bass made easy
to every capacity,' and in 1800 *A General
Treatise on Music,* etc., a work of repute, with
2nd edition 1809. Between 1804 and 1819 he
composed several dramatic pieces, chiefly for the
English Opera House, Lyceum. In 181 7 his
oaratorio, 'The Intercessinn,' was produced at
Covent Garden. One of the songs in it 'Must
I leave thee. Paradise ? * (known as ' Eve's Lam-
entation') became very popular, and long found
a frequent place in programmes of sacred music.
King was also the composer of several glees and
of numerous pianoforte pieces. His dramatic
pieces were 'Matrimony,* 1804; 'The Invisible
Giii* 1806; 'False Alarms* (with Braham) ;
'One o'clock, or The Wood Demon' (with
Kdly); and 'Ella Rosenberg,* 1807; 'Up all
ni^V 1809; 'Plots* and *0h this Love,'
1810; 'The Americans* (with Braham), and
'Timour the Tartar,' 181 1 ; and 'The Fisher-
man's Hut' (with Davy), 18 19. He died in
Jan. 1833.
His son, C. M. King, published in 1826 some
songs which were favourably received. [W. H. H.]
KING, Robert, Mus. Bao., was one of the
hand of music to William and Mary and Queen
Anne. He graduated at Cambridge in 1696.
He was the composer of many songs pub-
lished in * Choice Ayres, Songs and Dia-
logues,* 1684; 'Comes Amoris,' 1687-93; 'The
KING'S BAND OF MUSIC.
57
Banquet of M;usick,' 1688-92 ; 'The Gentle-
man's Journal,' 1693-94; and 'Thesaurus Mu-
sicus,' 1695-96. He composed the songs in
Crowne*s comedy, 'Sir Courtly Nice,* v^hich
were printed in *The Theater of Music,* Book
ii, 1685. In 1690 he set Shadwell's Ode on
St. Cecilia*B day, '0 Sacred Harmony.* In
1693 he set an Ode 'on the Rt. Hon. John
Cecil, Earl of Exeter, his birthday, being the
21 of Sept.* commencing 'Once more *ti8 bom,
the happy day,' the words by Peter Motteux.
A collection of 24 songs by him entitled * Songs
for One, Two, and Three voices, composed to a
Thorough Basse for y® Organ or Harpsicord,*
engraven on copper, was published by the elder
Walsh. The date of his death has not been
•ascertained. He was living in 17 11. [W.H.H.]
KING, William, bom 1624, son of George
King, organist of Winchester Cathedral, was ad-
mitted a clerk of Magdalen Collie, Oxford,
Oct. 18, 1648. He graduated as B.A. June 5,
1649, and in 1650 was promoted to a chaplaincy
at M^dalen College, which he held until Aug.
25, 1654, when he became a probationer-fellow
of All Souls' College. On Dec. 10, 1664, he was
appointed successor to Pickover as organist of
New College. He composed a service in Bb and
some anthems, and in 1668 published at Oxford
' Poems of Mr. Cowley [The Mistress] and others,
composed into Songs and Ayres, with a Thorough
Basse to the Theorbo, Harpsicon, or Basse Violl.*
He died Nov. 17, 1680. [W.H.H.]
KING CHARLES THE SECOND, a comic
opera in 2 acts ; words adapted by Desmond
Ryan fix>m a comedy of Howard Payne's;
music by G. A. Macfarren. Produced at the
Princess 8 Theatre, Oct. 27, 1849. Payne*s
comedy had before been turned into a ballet-
pantomime, ' Betty,* music by Ambroise Thomas,
and produced at the Grand Op^ra, Paris, July 10,
1846. [GO
KING*S BAND OF MUSIC, THE. The
custom of the kings of England to retain as part
of their household a band of musicians, more or
less numerous, is very ancient. We learn that
Edward IV. had 13 minstrels, 'whereof some be
trompets, some with shalmes and smalle pypes.'
Henry VIII.'s band in 1526 consisted of 15 trum*
pets, 3 lutes, 3 rebecks, 3 taborets, a harp, 2
viols, 10 sackbuts, a fife, and 4 drumslades. In
I53q his band was composed of 16 trumpets, 4
lutes, 3 rebecks, 3 taborets, a harp, 2 viols, 9
sackbuts, 2 drumslades, 3 minstrels, and a player
on the virginals. Edws^ VI. in 1548 retained
8 minstrels, a player on the virginals, 2 lutes, a
harper, a bagpiper, a drumslade, a rebeck, 7 viols,
4 sackbuts, a Welsh minstrel, and a flute player.
Elizabeth's band in 1581 included trumpets,
violins, flutes, and sackbuts, besides musicians
whose instruments are not specified ; and 6 years
later it consisted of 16 trumpets, lutes, harps, a
bagpipe, 9 minstrels, 2 rebecks, 6 sackbuts, 8
viols, and 3 players on the virginals. Charles I.
in 1625 had in his pay 8 performers on the
hautboys and sackbuts, 6 flutes, 6 recorders, 1 1
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KING'S BAND OP MUSIC.
yiolinfl, 6 lutes, 4 vIoIb, i harp, and 1 5 * musiciani
for the lute and voice,* exclusive of trumpeters,
drummers, and lifers, Nicholas Laniere being
mastef of the band; and in 1641 his band in-
cluded 14 violins, 19 wind instruments, and 25
'musicians for the waytes,' besides a Serjeant
trumpeter and 18 trumpeters. Charles II. in
1660 established, in imitation of Louis XIV. a
band of 24 performers on violins, tenors and
basses, popularly known as the ' four and twenty
fiddlers. This band not only played while the
king was at meals, but was even introduced into
the royal chapel, anthems being composed with
symphonies and ritomels between the vocal
movements expressly for them. After the death
of Charles the band was kept up, but somewhat
changed in its composition ; it no longer con-,
sisted exclusively of stringed instruments, but
some of its members performed on wind instru-
ments. It is now constituted so as to meet
the requirements of modem music, and con-
sists of thirty members. Formerly, besides
its ordinary duties it was employed, together
with the gentlemen and children of the Chapel
Koyal, in the performance of the odes annuaJly
comported for the king's birth -day and New
Year s day ; but since the discontinuance of the
production of such odes, its duties have been
reduced to attendance on royal weddings and
baptisms, and other state occasions. Tlie fol-
lowing is the succession of the ' Masters of the
Musick': — Davis Mell and George Hudson, 1660;
Thomas Baltzar, t66i (?) ; John Banister, 1663;
Thomas Purcell, 167a ; Dr. Nicholas Staggins,
1682 ; John Eccles, 1705; Dr. Maurice Greene,
1735 0) ; Dr. William Boyoe, 1755 ; John Stan-
ley, 1779; Sir William Parsons, 1786; William
Shield, 1817; Christian Kramer, 1829; Francois
Crainer, 1834; George Frederick Anderson, 18^8;
William George Cusins, 1870. Bobert Cambert
and Louis Grabut are sometimes said to have
held the office of Master of the Musick, but this
is doubtful [W.H.H.]
KING'S THEATRE, THE. In the early part
ef the 1 8th century. Sir John Yanbrugh, the ar-
chitect and dramatist, proposed to the performers
at Lincoln^s Inn Fields Theatre to build them
a new and splendid theatre in the Haymarket,
and, his offer being accepted, he raised a sub-
scription of £30,000 in sums of £100 each, in
return for which every subscriber was to have
a free admission for life. The undertaking was
greatly promoted by the Kit-Cat Club, and the
first stone of the Duilding, which was wholly
from the designs of Yanbrugh, was laid in 1 704
with great solemnity by the beautiful Countess
of Sunderland (daughter of the great Duke of
Marlborough), known as *The little Whig.'
Congreve, the dramatist, was associated with
Yanbrugh in the management, and the theatre
was opened on April 9, 1 705, under the name of
' The Queen's Theatre," which name was changed
on the accession of George I. in 17 14 to * King's
Theatre,* by which it continued to be called
until the death of William IV. in 1837, since
which it has been styled * Her Majesty's Theatre,*
KINSKY.
the reason for not resuming the name ' Que^i's
Theatre' being that the theatre in Tottenham
Street at the time bore that appellation. Yan-
brugh's erection, alUiough internally a splendid
and imposing structure, was totally unfitted for
its purpose, owing to the reverberations being so
great as to make the spoken dialogue almost on-
intelligible, and to necessitate extensive alterations
in order to prevent them. In the comrse of a few
yeuTB the house became the established home of
Italian opera. In it the greater part of Handel's
operas and nearly all Ms early oratorios wei^a
first performed. On the evening of June 17,
1789, the building was burned to the ground.
It was rebuilt in 1 790 fr>om designs by Michael
Novosielski, the lyre-shaped plan being then first
adopted in England. When completed it was
refused a licence for dramatic representations,
\>ut a magistrates* licence being obtained it was
opened with a concert and ballet on March 26,
1791. [Seep. 710 rt.] A regular licence was how-
ever soon afterwards granted. The interior of the
theatre was the largest in England ; there were
five tiers of boxes, exclusive of slips, and it was
capable of containing nearly 3300 persons. It
was admirably adapted for conveying sound.
On the east side was a large and handsome
concert-room, 95 feet long, 46 feet broad, and 35
feet high, on a level with the principal tier of
boxes. About 181 7 an important alteration
was made in the exterior of the theatre by
the erection of the colonnades on the north,
south, and east sides, and the formation of the
western arcade. The northern colonnade has
since been removed. (There is a good descrip-
tion of the pit, including the famous 'Fops*
alley* in Limiley's * Reminiscences,* chap, vii.)
The theatre was again destroyed by fire on
Friday night» Dec. 6, 1867, It was rebuilt by-
April 1869, but not opened until 1875. and then
not for operatic performances, but for the exhi-
bition of the preaching and singing of Messrs.
Moody and Sankey, who occupied it for about
three months, after which it remained closed
until April 28, 1877, when '* ^^ re-opened as
an opera house. No theatre, perhaps, has been
under the management of so many different
persons — Swiney, CoUier, Aaron Hill, Heidegger,
Handel, the Earl of Middlesex, Signora Yenisei,
Crawford, Yates, Gordon, Hon. J. Hobart,
Brookes, O'Reilly, Le Texier, Sir John Gallini,
Tranchard, Taylor, Goold, Waters, Ebers, Benelli,
Laporte, Monck Mason, Lumley, E. T. Smith,
and Mapleson, have by turns directed its affairs.
To attempt only to name the compositions pro-
duced there, and the eminent artists who have
been their exponents, would extend this notice
to an unreasonable length ; it would be, in fact,
almost to write a history of the Italian opera in
England. [W.H.H.]
KINSKY, Pbincb Fehdinand Johann Ne-
POMCK J08EPH, of Wchinitz and Tettau in
Bohemia, was bom in the palace belonging to
the family at Yienna, December 4, 1781, and
was a boy of eleven when Beethoven came
thither. His fiftther, Prince Jobeph, was one
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KINSKY.
of ihe gtefit nobles who at that date gave
maaifial entertainments in their |)alaoe8 with full
oKhestra, at which the greatest singers and
instrumental performers, as well as rising com-
posezs, displayed their powers. Young Kinsky
had therefore the best possible opportunity to
coltiTate his musical taste, and a few years
later foamed one in the circle of young nobles
who admired and appreciated Beethoven s music.
By the death of his father, August it, 1798, he
■Qoceeded to the estates, and, June 8, 1801,
muried Caroline Maria, Baroness von Kerpen.
His daim to a place in this Dictionary is that
he was the principal subscriber to Beethoven^s
azmuity (see ante, p. 1896). This matter was
hardly settled when he was called to his estates
to pr^»are for the second invasion of Bonaparte.
He raised a battalion of soldiers, officered it
from his own officials and dependente^ and led
it— mider the title of the 'Archduke Charles
Legion* — in the battles of Ratisbon, Aspem,
and Wagram. One of the first checks which
BoQ^arte ever received was at Aspem. Kinsky
and his legion held a very critical positioA there,
sod, by their steadiness and disregard of danger,
ooakibuted materially to the success of the
day. Archduke Charles happened to be witness
of Kinsky *B conduct on that occasion, and gave
him on Uie battle-field the Maria Theresa Cross.
In the spring of 181 1 Kinsky accempanied the
Emperor Francis to Dresden, on a visit to his
daughter Marie Louise and her husband Napo-
leon. The Saxon General von Vieth related,
that on the presentation of Francises suite
Kapoleon stepped up to Kinsky, took hold of
the cross on the breast of his coat, and asked
insultingly : ' £st-ce au Prince Kinsky <j^ ? '
' XoQ, 8be, o^est a la bataille d' Aspem,* was the
reply. Napoleon moved on without a word.
Ou November a, 181 2, Prince Ferdinand, while
riding at Wetrus near Prague, hy the bursting
of his saddle girths was thrown to the ground,
and died on the 3rd,^ not having quite completed
his 3i8t year.
Ilie paragraph in p. 189 a of this work, on
the effect of the Austrian finance-patent of 181 1
upon Beethoven^s annuity, and his suit against
the Kinsky estate, accords perfectly with all
the authorities known at the time it was
written. But these authorities, from Schindler
do«ni, are in error. It is true that from and
axtee March iSii, the bank notes (Banoozettel)
then, in circulation were reduced in value to the
rate of five for one in silvery and notes of
redonption (Einlosungsscheine), -equal to silver,
were issued in their place at that rate ; but the
payment of contracts previoualy made. Bee*
thoven's annuity included, was regulated by the
depredation at the date of the contract. The
date of the document conferring the annuity is
March i, 1809, when the depreciation (decimally)
was 2*48 ior one, and it follows that his income
under the finance patent was reduced — not to one
fifth, or 800 florins, as Schindler and his copyiiits
I Hoc the ISth. M slfon In ToL L pw 189&,
KIRCHEN CANTATEN.
59
unanimously state, but to 1613-90 florins. That
is to say
Kinsky, instead of 1800, paid 725'8ofl.
Rudolph, „ „ 1500, „ 60484
Lobkowitz, „ „ 700, „ 282*26
1612*90
The subscribers however continued to pay the
annuity in fidl, regardless of the patent, and
Budolph gave the necessary instruction to his
agents in writing. Kinsky unfortunately neg-
lected to do this, and thus, upon his untimely
death, unwittingly deprived Beethoven of all
legal claim to more than the above-named 725*80
florins ; for the trustees of the estates had no
power to add to that sum, being responsible to the
Landrecht or high tribunal at Prague for their
action. Beethoven, trusting to the equity of his
claim, seems to have been so foolish as to instruct
his advocate in Prague, Dr. Wolf, to enter a suit
— which could have had no favourable issue.
It was fortunate for him that the legal agent
of the Kinsky estates (Verlassenschaftscurator),
Dr. Johann Kanka, was a musician of consider-
•able attainments, a great admirer of his music
and on intimate terms with him during his first
years in Vienna. On a visit to the capit^, Kanka
discussed the matter with him; the suit was
abandoned, and a compromise at last efi^ected —
confirmed by the Landrecht, January 18, 1815 —
by which 1 200 florins a year were secured to him,
«nd arrears to the amount of 2479 florins, paid
in cash, on March 26th, to his representative,
Baron Joseph von Pasqualati.
Beethoven's letters to Kanka (Life of Bee-
thoven, iii. A pp. viii) and his dedication of op.
94, ' An die Hoflfeung,* to the widowed Princess
Kinsky, prove how well satisfied he was with
the result. [A.W.T.]
KIEBYE, Georob. was one of the ten com-
posers who harmonised the tunes for * The Whole
Booke of Psalmes,' published by Thomas Este in
1592. In 1597 he put forth 'The First Set of
Madrigahj to 4, 5, and 6 Voyces,' dedicated to
the two daughters of Sir Robert Jermin, Knt.,
whom the composer terms his 'very good maister,'
«nd containing 24 madrigals. Several other
madrigals by Kirbye are extant in a nearly con-
temporary MS. coUection, formed bv a W^iUiam
Firmage, and now in the library of the Sacred
Harmonic Society, but unfortunately wanting the
quintus and sextus parts. He contributed to ' The
Triumphes of Oriana,' 1 601, the six -part madrigal
''Bright Phc^busgreetes most cleerely. * [W. H. H.]
KIRCHEN CANTATEN. The Kirchen Can-
taten of the German Lutheran Church corre-
sponded to a great extent with the Anglican
anthems, but they were for the most part on a
larger scale and had a band accompaniment as
well as the organ, which is rardy the case with
anthems. They were used on the great festivals of
the Church and on festal occasions, such as wed-
dings of great people. They flourished especially
in the time immediately before and with Sebastian
Bach, and it is with his name that they are chiefly
associated, both for the prodigious number and
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60
KIRCHEN CANTATEN.
the great beauty of many of the examples of this
form of composition which he produced.
Among his predecessors, his uncles Michael and
Johann Christoph, and the great organist Buxte-
hude, were composers of Cantatas of this kind,
and Bach certainly adopted the fom^ of his own
firom them at first, both as regards the distribution
of the numbers and the words. With them as
with him the words were sometimes complete
religious songs, but they were also frequently
taken from promiscuous sources, passages firom
the Bible and verses from hymns and religious
songs being strung together, with an underlying
fixed idea to keep them bound into a complete
whole. In some cases they are mystical, in others
they are of a prayerful character, and of course
many are hymns of praise. In many there is a
clear dramatic element, and in this form the
dialogue between Christ and the soul is not un-
common, as in the well-known *Ich hatte viel
Bekiimmemiss/ and in 'Gottes Zeit* and 'Selig
ist der Mann,' of J. S. Bach. The treatment of
the subject is often very beautiful apart from the
diction, and expresses a tender touching kind of
poetry of religion which is of the purest and most
affecting character, and found in Bach's hands
the most perfect possible expression in music.
The dramatic element points to the relation-
ship of the Kirchencantaten to the Italian Cantate
di Camera, which formed an important section of
the operatic department of music which had begun
to be cultivated in Italy from the beginning of the
1 7th century. In composing the earlier Cantatas,
Buxtehude and Bach's uncles do not seem to
have had this connection very clearly in view,
neither does it appear obviously in the earlier
examples of John Sebastian. But from the year
171a Bach began writing music to Cantatas by a
theologian and poet named Neumeister, a man of
some importance in relation to church music;
who wrote poems which he called Cantatas for all
the great J^estivals and Sundays of the year,
folloMring avowedly the dramatic manner of the
Italians. Of Bach's contemporaries, Telemann
preceded him slightly in setting these Cantatas,
as a collection with his music was published in
Gotha in 1 71 1. This part of the history of Can-
tatas, which divides them into two periods in
matter of form, is too elaborate to be treated here,
but a very full account will be found in Spitta's
Life of Bach, Part i, chap, iv, and Part iii,
chap. iv.
As regards the music, the form was extremely
variable. In a great number of cases the work
opened with a chorus, which in Bach's hands
assumed gigantic proportions. This was followed
by a series of recitatives, airs, ariosos, duets or
other kinds of solo music, and in the greatest niunber
of instances ended with a simple chorale. In
some cases the work opens with an aria or duet,
and at others there are several choruses inter-
spersed in the work, and occasionally they form
the bulk of the whole. In one somewhat singu-
lar instance (viz. * Ich will den Kreuzstab geme
tragen ') the Cantata consists of two long arias,
and two recitatives, and an adagio, all for a bass
KIBCHEB.
voice, and ends with a chorale. It Is evident that
the works were constructed with reference to tbe
particular resources at the disposal of the composer
for performance; and in this respect the band
varied as much as the musical form of the work.
Sometimes the oi;gan was accompanied by strings
alone, at others by a considerable orchestra of
strings, wood and brass. With developed re-
sources the Cantata occasionally began both in
the older and the later forms with an instrumental
introduction which was called irrespectively a
symphony or a sonata or sonatina, and evidently
had some relationship to the instnmiental Senate
di Chiesa which were common in Italy in the
Roman Catholic Churches. This practice appears
to have been more universal before Bach's time
than appears firom his works, as instrumental in-
troductions to Cantatas with him are the excep-
tion. In such an astonishing number of examples
as Bach produced it is inevitable that there
should be some disparity in value. A considerable
number are of the highest possible beauty and
grandeur, and a few may not be in his happiest
vein. But assuredly the wealth stored up in them
which has yet to become known to the musical
public is incalculable. Their uncompromising
loftiness, and generally austere purity of style
has hindered their universal popularity hitherto ;
but as people learn to feel, as they ultimately must,
how deeply expressive and healthily true that
style is, the greater will be the earnest delight
they will find in music, and the greater will be the
fame of these imperishable monuments of Bach's
genius. [C.H.H.P.]
We take the opportunity to add the contents
of the two volumes of Kirchencantaten pub-
lished by the Bachgesellschaft since the issue of
p. 1 30 of this work.
1978. Twentr^hird jmx.
(Issued Aug. 1876.)
101. Nlmm Ton uns Heir.
102. Herr, deliie Aug«n schen.
103. Ihr werdet welueo und heu-
len.
IM. Du Hirte Israel.
10ft. Herr.gelie ntoht ins Gericht.
106. Gottes Zelt ist die allerbeste
ZeiU
107. Was wlllst dtt dick betrQ-
ben.
lOe. Ks tst ench goL
109. Ich glaube lieber Herr.
110. Vnser Mund set voll Lachens.
U74. Tvfenty-foarUt year.
(Issued Dec le76w>
111. Was inein Gott wIIL
112. DerHerrlfitmeingetreuerBirt.
US. Herr Jesu Christ, do hOcfastor
Gut.
114. Acb. lleben Christen.
115. Mache dich metn Geist bereft
U6. Du Friedefdrst Herr Jen
Christ.
117. Bei Lob und Ebr.
118. 0J«*5U Christ meln's Leben't
Licht.
119. Freiits Jerusalem, dem Herm.
lao. Gott. num lobet dIch.
KIRCH ER, Athanasius, learned Jesuit, bom
May 2, 1602 (Mendel, with less probability, gives
1 601), at Geisa near Fulda; early became a
Jesuit, and taught mathematics and natural
philosophy in the Jesuit College at Wiirzburg.
About 1635 he was driven firom Germany by
the Thirty Years' War, and went first to the
house of his Order at Avignon, and thence to
Rome, where he remained till his death Nov. 28,
1680. He acquired a mass of information in all
departments of knowledge, and wrote books on
every conceivable subject. His great work
* Musurgia universalis sive ars magna consoni et
dissoni,' a vols. (Rome. 1650), translated into
German by Andreas Hirsch (Hall in Swabia,
1662) contains among much rubbish valuable
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KIHGHEB.
matter on tlie nature of sound and the theory
of compoBition, with interesting examples from
the insUiimental music of Frescobaldi, Froberger.
and other composers of the 17th century. The
second voL, on the music of the Greeks, is far
frxnn trustworthy; indeed Meibomius (^Musici
antiqui ') accuses Kiroher of having written it
without consulting a single ancient Greek author-
ity. His •Phonurgia* (Kempten 1673), trans-
lad^d into Gennan by Agathon Cario (apparently
a nom de plume) with the title ' Neue Hall- und
Thon-kunst' (Nordlingen 1684), is an amplifica-
ti<m of part of the * Musuigia,* and deals chiefly
with acoustical instruments. In his ' Ars mag-
neUca* (Rome 1641) he gives all the songs and
airs then in use to cure the bite of the tarantula.
His 'CEkiipus segyptiacus' (Rome 1652-54)
treats of the musio contained in Egyptian
hieroglyphics. t^-C^O
KIRCHGESSNEB, Mabianka, performer on
the glass harmonica, bom 1770 at Waghausel
near Rastatt, Baden. An illness in her fourth
year left her blind for life, but this misfortune
was oQsnpensated by a delicate organisation for
music. She learned the harmonica from Schmitt-
bauer of Carlsruhe, and made numerous success-
ful concert-tours. Mozart heard her in Vienna
(1 79 1), and composed a quintet for her (Kochel
617). In London Froschel made her a new in-
■trument> which in future she always used. Here
also she recovered a glimmering of sight under
iftHiff^T treatment. Much as they admired her
laying, musicians regretted that she £uled to
bring out the true qualities of the harmonica
throng a wrong method of execution. After
living in retirement at Gohlis near Leipzig, she
nnd^took another concert-tour, but fell iU and
died at Schaffhausen, Dec. 9, 1808. [C.F.P.]
KIRCHNEB, Thkodob, one of the most gifted
of the living disciples of Schumann, a composer
of ' genre pieces ' for the pianoforte, was bom
1824 at Neukirchen near Chemnitz in Saxony,
and got his musical training at the Censerva-
torium of Leipsic. Having completed his school-
ing he took the post of organist at Winterthur in
Switzerland, which town in 1862 he left for
Zurich^ where he acted as conductor and teacher.
In 1875 he became director of the 'Musikschule'
at W^nburg, but after a few months' experience
he threw np that appointment and settled at
KIRKMAN.
61
ir^s works extend to op. 42. Except a
string quartet, op. 20, a '€redenkblatt,* a 'Sere-
nade ' for piano, violin and violoncello, and a
number of Lieder, they are aU written for piano-
forte solo or k 4 mains, are mostly of small di-
mensions, and put forth under suggestive titles
such as Siohumann was wont to give to his lesser
Ces. The stamp of Schumann's original mind
maiked Kirchner*s work from the first; yet
though sheltered under Schumann's cloak, many
minor points of style and diction are Eiichner's
own, and decidedly clever. At best, his pieces
axe delicate and tender, frequently vigorous, now
and then humorous and fantastic ; at worst, they
droop under a taint of lachrymoee sentimentality.
They are always carefully finished and well
shapen, never redundant, rarely commonplace.
Among his early publications, ' Albumblatter,'
op. 9, became popular as played by Madame
Schumann ; and among his later, ' Still und be-
wegt,' op. 24, and particularly ' Kachtstlicke,' op.
25, deserve attention. [E. D.]
KIRKMAN. The name borne by a family of
eminent harpsichord, and subsequenuy pianoforte
makers. Jacob Kirdmiann (afterwards Elirkman)
a German, came to England early in the last cen-
tury, and worked for Tabel, a Flemish harpsichord
maker, who had brought to London the traditions
oftheBuckers of Antwerp. [See BucKERS.] An-
other apprentice of Tabel's was Shudi, properly
Tsohudiy who became Eirkman's rival, and
founded the house of Broadwood. Tabel would
have been quite' forgotten, but for these dis-
tinguished pupils, and for the droll anecdote
narrate*! by Dr. Bumey, of Kirkman's rapid
courtship of Tabel's widow and securing with
her the business and stock in trade. He pro-
posed at breakfast-time, and married her (the
marriage act being not then passed) before twelve
o'clock, the same day, just one month after Tabel's
demise. Jacob Kirkman carried on business at
the sign of the King's Arms in Broad Street,
Camaby Market, now No. 19 Broad Street, Soho;
still owned by the present Kirkman firm. Dr.
Bumey places the arrival of Jacob Kirkman in
England in 1740, but that is manifestly too
late, Shudi being then already established in
business in Great Pulteney Street. There is no
reason, however, to doubt the same generally ex-
cellent authoritv that his death took place about
1778, and that ne left nearly £200,000.
Bumey, in Bees's Cyclopaedia, gives Jacob
Kirkman*s harpsichords high praise, regarding
them as more full in tone and durable than
those of Shudi. These instruments retained
certain features of the Antwerp model, as late
as 1768, preserving Andr^ Buckers's key-
board of G^F (nearly 5 octaves) with lowest
G| wanting. This, as well as the retention of
the rosette in the soundboard may be seen in
Mr. Salaman's Kirkman harpsichord of that year,
in which we find King David playing upon the
harp, between the letters I and K. Dr. Bumey
met with no harpsichords on the continent that
could at all compare with those made in England
by Jacob Kirkman, and his almost life-long com-
petitor, Shudi.
Jacob Kirkman having no children by his
marriage, was succeeded by his nephew Abraham,
whose son Joseph, the first Joseph Kirkman,
followed him, and introduced the manufacture of
the pianoforte into his workshop. His son,
the second Joseph, died at the advanced age of
87 in 1877, his second son Henry, to whom the
business owes its present extension, having died
some years before. The ware-rooms have long
been in Soho Square. The business is carried on
(1879) in trust for the present Mr. Joseph Kirk-
man, the third in order of succession so named.
A recent invention of this house is noticed \mder
the head of Mblofiano. [A« J. H.]
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62
KIIIKBBRGSR.
KlftNBERGER, Johahii Philipp, compoeer
and writer on the theory of mtudo, bom April
24, 1 73 1, at Saalfeld in Thuringia; learnt the
rudiments of musio at home, the organ from
Kellner of Grafenrode, and the violin from Meil
of Sondershattsen. Gerber, court-organist there,
taught him to play Bach*s fugues, and recom-
mended him to Bach, whoreceiv^ him as his pupil.
Several years were passed at Leipsic, in Poland,
and at Lemberg. On his return to Germany he
resumed the study of the violin under Zickler of
Dresden, and in 1 751 entered the capelle of
Frederic the Great at Berlin aa violinist. In
1758 he became Capellmeister to Princess
Amalie, and renuoned with her till his death
after a long and painful illness July 27, 1783.
During these 25 years he formed such pupils as
Schulz, Fasch, and Zelter, and devoted his
leisure to researches on the theory of music.
Of his many books on the subject ' Die Kunst
des reinen Satzes,* a vols. (Berlin 1774-76)
alone is of permanent value. He also wrote all
the articles on music in Sulzer's 'Theorie der
schonen Kiinste * in which he warmly criticises
Marpurg*s 'Kriti^che Briefe.* He prided him-
self on the discovery that all music could be
reduced to two fundamental chords, the triad
and the chord of the seventh — which is obviously
wrong ; and invented a new interval bearing the
relation of 4 : 7 to the keynote and which he
called I : — but neither of these have stood the
test of time. Indeed in his own day the theory
of the even temperament steadily gained ground.
As a composer he had more fluency than genius ;
his most interesting works are his fugues, remark-
able for their correctness. In 1773-74 he edited
a large collection of vocal compositions by Graun,
who was a kind friend to him, and 'Psalmen
und Gesange * by Leo (Leonhard) Hassler. The
autograph scores of several motets and cantatas,
and a quantity of fugues, clavier-sonatas, and
similar works, are preserved in the Imperial
library at Berlin. Kimberger was of a quarrel-
some temper, and fond of laying down the law,
which made him no favourite with his fellow
m usicians. [F. G.]
KISTNEB. One of the great music pub-
lishing firms of Leipzig. The business was
founded in 1823 by Pbobst, who was succeeded
in 1 83 1 by Kail Friedrich Kistner, a man of
some gifts for music and great business powers.
The new name was not assumed till 1836.
Kistner greatly improved the business and
secured important works of Mendelssohn, Schu-
mann, Chopin, Moscheles, Stemdale Bennett,
etc. He died greatly esteemed, in 1844, and
was succeeded by his son Julius, who followed in
his father's steps with equal success. He added
the names of Hiller, Taubert, and Kubinstein to
the catalogue of the house, and will long be
remembered by those who had to do with him
for his kindness and liberality. He withdrew
from the business in 1866 in fiekvour of Karl
Friedrich Ludwig Gurckhaus — by whom the
establishment is still carried on in its old style —
and died May 13, 1868. |
KITCHENER.
Among the principal publications of the firm
are found —Mendelssohn, Psalms 95 and 98 ;
the Walpurgisnight ; Antigone; Overture Rviy
Bias: a Sonatas P. F. and Cello, and 8 other
numbers. Schumann, Overture, Scherzo, ^azid
Finale; Rose PilgerfiUirt; Myrthen; Sonata for
P.F. in F|; Bilder aus Osten; Spanisches
Liederspiel and 11 more, including op. i and a.
Chopin, P. F. Concerto £ minor ; Trio G minor ;
I a Grandes Etudes and others. Gade's Erlking^
daughter. Kretschmer's Operas * Die Folkunger *
and 'Henry the Lion.' Groetz*s Symphony.
'Francesca di Rimini,' 'Taming of the ^irew/
and 137th Psalm. [G.3
KIT, a tiny violin, which, before the genenikl
introduction of pianofortes, was carried by danc-
ing masters in their pockets. Hence the Frencli
and German names for it were 'pochette' and
* Taschengeige,* though pochette is also applied
to an instrument of long and narrow form resem-
bling a sourdine. It was usually about 16 inchetf
long over all: the
wo^cut shows
its size relatively
to that of the vio-
lin. Sometimes,
however, as in
Nos. 61A and 66
ofthe Special Ex-
hibition of An-
cient Musical In-
struments, S.K.
MuB. 187a, the
neck was longer
and broader, ibr
convenience of
fingering, which
gave the Kit a
disproportioned
look. The instru-
ment is now prac-
tically obsolete. I
The origin of
the name has
not yet been dis-
covered.* In Florio (1598 and 161 1), Beaumont
and Fletcher, Ben Jonson, and Drayton, it seems
evident that it is used without reference to size,
as a synonym for Crowd, Rebeck, or Pandora.
Cotgrave (1611) defines it as 'a small Gitteme.'
Grew, in 1681, speaks of *a dancing master's
Kit,' and as dancing-master's Kits would natur-
ally be smaller than other Kits, the name gra-
dually adhered to them, as that of viol or violin
did to the larger sizes. [G.]
KITCHENER. William, M.D., the son of a
coal merchant, from whom he inherited an ample
fortune, was an accomplished amateur musician.
He composed an operetta entitled ' Love among
the Roses, or, The Master Key,' and was author
of 'Obs^^ations on Vocal Music,' 1831, and
editor of * The Loyal and National Songs of Eng.
land,' 1833; 'The Sea Songs of England,' 1833;
1 If Po4A«li< wen Ukltaliaairordtbe origin or fa woQld Dotbebtf
toieek.
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EITCHEKEB.
and 'A Collection of the Vocal Mnsio in Shak-
spere^s Plays.' He was also author of some
eccentrically written but useful books, including
'The Cooks Oracle,' 'The Traveller's Oracle/
'The Art of Invigorating and Prolonging Life/
•The Hous^eeper's Ledgar/ and 'The Economy
of the Eyes.' Though an epicure, he was regular
and even abstemious in his habits ; but while
practising the precepts he gave to others, he was
unable to prolong his own life beyond the age of
50, and died suddenly Feb. 26, 1837. [W.H.H.]
KITTEL. JoHAKN Christian, bom at Erfurt.
Feb. 18, 1732, one of the last pupils of J. S.
Bach, who hunself died July 28, 1 750. His first
post was that of organist at lAngelsalza, which he
left in 1756 for tl^t of the Pr^gerkirche at his
native place. His pay was wretched, and had to
be eked out by incessant and laborious giving of
lessons. Even when nearly 70 he was forced to
make a tour to Gottingen, Hanover, Hamburg,
and Altona. In the latter place he staid for
some time, to the delight of the musicians there,
and published a book of tunes for the Schleswig-
Hulstein Church (Neues Choralbuch, Altona
I S03). Thence he crept home to Erfurt, where
he died. May 9, 1809, in great poverty, but
saved firom actual starvation by a soiall pension
allowed him by Prince Primas of Dalberg. The
fame of his playing was very great, but is hardly
maintained by his works, which are not very
important. The best are grand preludes for the
organ in a books (Peters); six sonatas and a
^*"t^»»*>- for the clavecin (Breitkopfs) ; and an
organ school (Der angehende praktische Organist,
in 3 books, 1 801-8 (Erfurt, Beyer; 3rd edition
1 831). His papers were inherited by his great
pupil, C. H. Rinck, one of many £Etmous organists
w1m> perfected themselves under him. F^tis tells
us — ^and we may accept the story as true, since
he was intimate with Rinck — that Kittel had
inherited a full-sized portrait of Bach, and that
when satisfied with his pupils he drew the
curtain, and allowed them a sight of the pic-
ture, as the best reward he could afford them.
It is a story quite in accordance with the devo-
tion which Bach, is known to have inspired in
those who had to do with him. [G.]
KLAVIER-MUSIK. ALTE. The name of
two collections of P. F. music. I. Edited by E.
Pauer, and published by Senff, Leipzig :—
Pk 9k Donaont, AUemande In D
KLEMM.
«8
BendA, BoMita In O minor. 1 Flalntet, Dens If enneta,
J. E. BMh. Fantetla and ' LEgrpUenne. U Poule.
Fogao In F. Ft. 6. Byrd. Pneiodlum and C«r-
Pt 4.J. C. r. BMh, BondMU
Inc.
J.Ch.BMh,8(msUinBb.
B, Bameau, D«uz Glcnw «n
BoDdeau, Le Bappel dea
Olaeaaz, Let tendrea
n'« Whtatla.
Bull. The King's HuDtIi«
JlSff.
O.Gibb<ma,PnBladittmand
Galllard.
Arne. Sonata No. 8, In O.
II. Edited by F. Roitzsch, published by Peters :—
J. Krnst Baob, Fantalsle and Fngoe
InF.
Klrnberger. Praloda and Vofna In
Cfmluor.
ap.i.1
1st eertoa.
PL 1. Frescobaldl and Corramte,
hallj. Sonata fn K nlo
Porpora, S Fagaaik
t. Galoppl. Sonata In D.
Padn Itortlnl, Oftvott*
aadBaneC
Paradle«.8oaaift1nA.
& KerU Toccata In C
Ftobbcrsar. Tooeata In ▲
minor.
Knhnaa. Snito In B minor.
C Hanbeaoa, BoUa In A.
■uflkt, Ooarante and S
Maaetk
naaK. Fonata In D.
1. J. L. KretM. Fngne In F.
MarpoTf, Preladinm and
Caprteelo.
Klnibeiver.OffiM.Oavotte.
(Vjoniite. and ABegro tor
Chambunnt{rei^ll«mand«,
Oouraute, Barabande,
and LaLonreuae.
Gonperin. La Farorite. La
tondra Kanutta^ Lft Ten»>
Pt li A. Srariattl. Fngoe in F
mint If.
D.,8cariattl.»8tndlet.
Duraot«, Study In A.
i, Mnnehhauiier.ArlapaatOfw
allavariata.
W. Fr. Bacb. Oaprledo In
Dndnor.
Xberlln.PreInde and Fngna
In A minor.
8. BIcholraann. L* Gafllarda
et La Tend re (Farabande
and eigne) In 6.
Baob. SolfBggfo In 0 mln.
Do., Sonau In F minor.
Couperin, March In Ab.
Do.. Lo B^veille-Matln in F.
Bameau, Tambourin In B minor.
D^ Soarlatti. AUagroln O minor.
D. Scarlatti, SonaU In A.
Do., The Cat's Fuitue, in G minor.
Clemen tl. Toccata In Bb.
Field. Bondo In B.
Chemblnl, Fugue in 0.
W. F. Bach. Sonau in D.
Bberlln, Prelude and Fngue la
B minor.
Hissler. Fantaale In G minor.
J. B. Crfmer. Toecatina In Ah.
[G.]
KLEIN, Bbbnhard, a German composer,
bom at Cologne, where his father was a bass
pbyer, March 6, 1793. His early life was
passed in the disturbances of the French occupa-
tion of the Rhine, but in 181 3 he found means
to get to Paris, where Cherubini's advice, the
hearing of fine performers, and the study of the
library of the Conservatoire, advanced him
greatly. On his return to the Bhine he con-
ducted the performances in Cologne Cathedral,
and profited by an acquaintance with Thibaut
and his fine library at Heidelberg. His first
important works were a Mass (18 16) and a
Cantata on Schiller's 'Worte des Glaubens'
(1817). In 1819 he was sent oflBcially to Berlin
to make acquaintance with Zelter's system of
teaching and to apply it in Cologne Cathedral.
He however found it more profitable to remain
in Berlin, where he became connected with the
recently established School for Organists, and
was made director of music in the University,
and teacher of singing in the Hochschule.
These occupations in no wise checked bis pro-
ductivity. He composed a mass of sonatas and
songs, an oratorio 'Job* (Leipzig, 1820), and a
grand opera, 'Dido,' to Eellstab's text (1823).
In 1823 he married, and went to Rome, where
he passed a fine time in intercourse with Baini,
and in copying firom the ancient treasures of
music there. On his return to Berlin he com-
posed an oratorio, ' Jephthah/ for the Cologne
Festival, 1828, and another, 'David/ for Halle,
1830.* In 1832, Sept. 9, he suddenly died.
Besides the compositions already mentioned
he left a Mass in D, a Paternoster for
8 voices, a Magnificat and Respousoria for 6 do.,
an opera and an oratorio, both nearly finished,
8 books of psalms, hymns, and motets for men's
voices, and other pieces both sacred and secular.
His vocal music was much used by singing
societies after his death. Mr. Hullah has re-
printed one of the 4-part psalms, ' Like as the
hart,' in his excellent collection called 'Vocal
Scores.' It is sweet, dignified, religious, music,
very vocal in its phrases. [G.]
KLEMM. This well-known Leipzig music-
publishing firm, and circulating library, was
founded in 182 1 by Carl August Klemm in the
1 These two oratorloa are In the Ubratr of the Saored Barmonle
Sodatjr.
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64
KLEMM.
hoQse which it now occupies, known as the ' Hohe
Lilie/ 14 in the Neumarkt. Klemm succeeded
Wieck, the father of Madame Schumann, who
had for some time carried on a musical lending
library on the premises. In 1847 the house
opened a branch at Chenmitz, and in 56 at Dres-
den. The present proprietor is Christian Bern-
hard Klemm. Among the oriffinal publications
of the house are to be found tne names of J. S.
Bach, Dotzauer, F. Abt, Dre^riohock, Mendels-
sohn, Schumann (op. 34, 35). Lachner, F. Schnei-
der, Julius Rietz, Miu'scb^er, etc. etc. [G]
KLENGEL, August Alexander, bom Jan.
39, 1784 at Dresden, son of a well-known
portrait and landscape painter, first studied
music with Milchmeyer, inventor of a piano
which could produce 50 different qualities of
tone (see Cramer*s * Magazin der Musik,* i. 10).
In 1803 Clement! visited Dresden, and on his
departure Klengel went with him as his pupil.
The two separated on dementi's marriage in
Berlin, but the young wife dying shortly after,
they went together to Russia, where Klengel
remained till 181 1. He then spent two years
studying in Paris, returned to Dresden in 18 14,
went to London in 1815, and in the following
year was appointed Court-organist at Dresden,
which remained his home till his death on Nov.
32, 1853. During a visit to Paris in 1828 he
formed a close friendship with Fdtis, who with
other musicians was much interested in his
pianoforte canons. Of these he published only
' Les Avant-coureurs* (Paul, Dresden, 1841).
After his death Hauptmann edited the 'Canons
und Fugen' (Breitkopf & Hartel, 1854), with
a preface, in which he says, ' Klengel was brought
up on Sebastian Bach, and Imew his works
thoroughly. It must not be supposed however
that he was a mere imitator of Bach's manner ; it
is truer to say that he expressed his own thoughts
in the way in which Biach would have done it
had he lived at the present day.' He left several,
concertos, and many other works. His visit to
London was commemorated by the composition
of a Quintet for Piano and Strings for the Phil-
harmonic Society, which was performed Feb. 36,
1 8 16, he himself taking the pianoforte. There
is a pleasant little sketch of him in a letter of
Mendelssohn's to Eckert, Jan. 36, 1843. [F.G.]
KLINDWORTH, Karl, one of the best
of living musicians and pianists, whose reputa-
tion is sure to last though it was slow to rise,
was bom at Hanover on Sept. 35, 1830. In
early youth he was an accomplished performer
on the violin. "From his 17th to his 19^1 year
he acted as conductor to a travelling opera
troupe ; then he settled in Hanover and took to
playing the piano and composing. In 1850 he
went to Weimar to study pianoforte-playing
under Liszt, and had Hans von BUlow, W.
Mason, and Dyonis Pruckner as his fellow pupils.
In 1854 he came to London, where he remained
fourteen years, appearing in public at intervals
as a pianist and conductor of orchestral concerts,
but in the main living the quiet life of a student
and teacher. He organised two series of three
KLINGEMANN.
chamber concerts in the spring of 1861 and 62,
and a series of three orchestral and vocal concerts
in the summer of 1861. The most remaricable
compositions brought forward at the latter were
Rubinstein's 'Ocean' Symphony; Gade's *Erl
King's Daughter' ; Cherubini's Requiem, Na i ;
Schumann's P. F. Concerto. They were well
carried out, but met with the usual fate of such
enterprises in London, and were discontinued for
want of capital. Since 1868 Klindworth has
occupied the post of professor of the pianoforte
at the Conservatorium of Moscow.
Foremost among the mass of good work done
by Klindworth stand his pianoforte scores of
Wagner's 'Der Ring des Nibelungen,' and his
critical edition of Chopin ; the latter beyond all
praise for rare insight into the text and minute
care bestowed on the presentation of it ; the for-
mer quite wonderful for the fidelity with which
the transcript is contrived to reflect Wagner's
complicated orchestration. His arrangement of
Schubert's Symphony in C mi^or for two piano-
fortes, and the four-hand arrangement of Tschal-
kowsky's 'Po^me symphonique Franoesca da
Rimini,' as also, amongst his original composi-
tioDs, a very difficult and effective Polonaise-
fantaisie for pianoforte, should be particularly
mentioned. The manuscripts of a masterly re-
scoring of Chopin's Concerto in F minor, and a
condensation and orchestration of C. V. Alkan*s
Concerto in G| minor (Etudes, op. 39), are well
known to his friends. [E.D.]
KLINGEMANN,' Cabl, bom at Limmer,
Hanover, Dec. 3, 1798, was Secretary to the
Hanoverian Legation in Berlin till 1828, when
he was transferred to a similar position in
London. He married, Aug. 10, 1845, the sister
of Dr. Rosen the eminent Sanscrit scholar and
Professor at University College, and was a man
of great cultivation, considerable literary power,
and a very rare judgment in music. Klingemann
had been intimate with the Mendelssohns during
his residence in Berlin, and when Felix came
to London the friendship was warmly renewed.
The famous- tour in Scotland — the origin of the
Hebrides Overture, the Scotch Symphony, and so
much else— was taken in company with Klinge-
mann, and the journals, letters, and sketches were
joint productions. (See Die Familie Mendels-
sohn, 1. 3 1 4-394). Klingemann wrote the wordis
for the Singspi^ or Operetta so well known in
England as 'The Son and Stranger,' excepting
in the case of the song no. 13, 'Die Blumen-
glocken,' of which Mendelssohn wrote the words
and Klingemann the music. The title '^joi-
phonie-Cantate' for the Lobgesang was his. The
Three Caprices (op. 33) are dedicated to him.
The following of Mendelssohn's songs are set
to Klingemann's words— op. 9, no. 5; op. 34,
nos. 3 and 5 ; op. 47, nos. 5 and 6 ; op. 63, no. 4 ;
op. 71, no. 3 ; op. 84, no. 2 ; op. 86, no. i. He
also supplied a translation of Handel's Solomon
for the occasion of the performance at Diisseldorf
in 1835, when Mendelssohn wrote an organ part
to the Oratorio. Six of his songs were- published
by Breitkopfr. Klingemann s house was at
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KLIN6EMANK.
4t Hobart Place, Eaion Square. Mendelflsolm
oAen staid there, and it was for long the resort
of the German artists and liternrj men. He died
in London, Sept. 25, 1863. For an affectionate
notice of him see Hiller's * Tonleben,' ii. 95. [G.]
KLOTZ, the name of a numerous family of
Tiolin-makers, who lived at the little town of
Mittenwald, in the Bavarian Alps, and founded
a manufacture of stringed instruments which
makes Mittenwald to this day only lees famous
than Marknenkirchen in Saxony, and Mirecourt
in the Voeges. A variety of the pine, locally
known as the 'Hasel-fichte' (Bechstein calls it
ti>e 'harte od^ n>ate Roth-tanne'), of delicate
but strong and highly resonant fibre, flourishes
in the Bavarian Alps. The abundance of this
material, which the ingenious peasants of the
neighbouring Ammer-thal use for wood>carving,
led to the rise of the Mittenwald violin manu-
&cture. For about two centuries there was held
in the town a fiimous fiur, greatly firequented
by Venetian and other traders. In 1679 ^^
fiur vraa removed to Botzen, and the Batten-
walders attribute the rise of the violin industry
to the distress which thereupon ensued. One
Egidius Klotz had already made violins at
Mittenwald. Tradition says that he learned
the craft from Stainer at Absam. He is more
likely to have learned it from seeing Stainer^s '
vi<J&s, which he imitated with success. His
aoQ, Matthias or Matthew Klotz, followed in
the same path. He travelled, however, into
Italy, sojourning both at Florence and Cremona.
Tradition reports him to have returned to Mit-
tenwald about 1683, and to have at once begun
to instruct many of the impoverished Mitten-
walders in the mvstery of fiddle-making. The
instruments found a ready sale. They were
hawked about by the makeiv at the churches,
castles, and monasteries of South Germany ; and
Mittoiwald began to recover its prosperity.
Most of the instruments of Matthias klotz date
from 1670 to 1696. They are well built, on
the model of Stainer, but poorly varnished.
His son, Sebastian, surpassed him as a maker.
His instruments, thouffh Stainer-like in appear-
ance, are larger in size, of flatter model, and
better designed : and his varnish is often of a
good Italian quality. Another son of Matthias,
named Joseph, still has a good reputation among
the oonnoisaeurs of Grerman violins.
Until about the middle of the last century, a
^stinctive Grerman style prevailed in violins, of
irineh the above-mentioned makers are the best
exponents. In several towns of Italy there were
Germana working in their own style side by side
with Italian makers. Tecchler worked thus in
Bome. Mann in Naples, and the three Gofnllers
(Qottfiriedl) in Yenioe. Odd as it se^ns, it is cer-
tain that there was a demand for Gkrman violins in
Gromona itself Two Germans, named Pfretschner
and Fricker, who made violins of their own ugly
pattern, gained a subsistence there in the golden
days of Stradivarius : and the famous Yeracini
always used a German violin. But this compe-
tition could not long endure. The superiority of
VOL. II.
^NECHT«
9ft
the Italian violin was established in the earlier
half of the century : and wherever stringed in-
struments were made, a conscious imitation of
the Italian models began. It penetrated to
Mittenwald, as it did to London and Paris. This
stage of the art is represented by Geobo Klotz «
whose fiddles date from 1750 to 1770. They..
have*lost their distinctive l^rolese cut, without
gaining the true Italian style, and are covered
with a thin brittle spirit varnish, laid upon a
coat of size, which keeps the varnish from pene-
trating the wood, and renders it opaque and
perishable. Besides Geoige, we hear of Michael,
Chables, and a second ^mius. Nine-tenths of
the violins which pass in the world as 'Stainers'
were made by the Klotz family and their fol*
lowers. Dealers soon destroyed their tickets,
and substituted spurious ones bearing the name,
of Stainer: a process which the makers at
length adopted on their own account.
The Klotz violins are not without merit as
regards sonority. Spohr recommends them, and
an extraordinary story is told in Parkers * Musical
Memoirs' of the vajue set upon cme belonging
to Mr. Hay, the leader of the King's band. M.
Miremont, of the Rue du Faubouig Poissonni^re,
one of the best living violin-makers, scandalised
the Parisian connoisseurs a few years ago by
exhibiting several instruments built by him oa
the Klotz modeL Strange to relate, their tone
was of undeniable exoellenoe. [E. J. P.]
KNAPP, William, deserves mention as the
author of a L.M. psalm tune called ' Wareharo,'
which was long a favourite in churches. He
was bom 1698, was parish clerk of Poole, and
died 1 768. He published ' New Church Melody*
and 'A Set 01 New Psalms and Anthema.*
'Wareham' is in both — in the former called
' Blandford,* and in common time, in the latter
in triple time. Another tune by him is given
by Parr, 'Church of England Psalmody,' from
whom and the present derk of Poole the above
U^ctB are derived. [G.]
KNAPTON, Philip, was bom at York in
1788, and received his musical education at
Cambridge from Dr. Hague. He then returned
to York and followed his profession. He com-
posed several overtures, pianoforte concertos, anct
other orchestral works, besides arranging nume^
reus pieces for the pianoforte and harp. His
song, ' There be none of Beauty's daughters,' was
long in favour. He acted as one of the assistant
conductors at the York Festivals of 1823, 1825,
and 1828. He died June ao, 1833. [W. H.H.J
KNECHT, Justin Heinbich, a musician of
the last century, who, though^aow foigotten, was
a oonsiderable person in laa day. He was bom
Sept. 30, 1752, at Biberach in Suabia, received
a good education, both musical and general
(Boackh was one of his masters), and filled for
some time the poet of professor of literature in
his native town. By degrees he gravitated to
music, and in 1807 became director of the opera
and of the court concerts at Stuttgart; but
ambition or ability failed him» and ia a couple of
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KNECHt,
yean he rested the post and returned to Bibe-
rach, where he died Dec. ii, 1817, with a great
reputation as organist, composer, and theoretician.
In the last-named department he was an adherent
of Yogler. The list of his productions as given
by F^tis embraces 27 numbers of compositions,
and 19 theoretical and didactic works. Two of
these only have any interest for us, and that from
an accidental cause. The first (Bossier, Spire) is a
* Musical ^portrait of Nature, a grand symphony
lor 2 violins, viola, and bass, a flutes, 2 oboes,
bassoons, horns, trumpets, and drums ad lib., in
which is expressed : — i. A beautiful country, the
sun shining, gentle airs, and murmuring brooks ;
birds twitter, a waterfall tumbles from the moun-
tain, the shepherd plays his pipe, the shepherdess
sings, and the lambs gambol around. 2. Sud-
denly the sky darkens, an oppressive closeness
pennades the air, black clouds gather, the wind
rises, distant thunder is heard* and the storm
approaches. 3. The tempest bursts in all its
fiiry, the wind howls and the rain beats, the
trees groan, and the streams rush furiously.
4. The storm gradually goes off, the clouds dis*
perse, and the sky clears. 5. Nature raises its
jayfvii voice to heaven in songs of gratitude to
the Creator' (a hymn with variations). The
second (if it be not an arrangement of a portion
of the preceding) is another attempt of the same
kind — 'The Shepherds' pleasure interrupted by
the Storm, a musical picture for the organ.*
These are precisely the subjects which Beethoven
has treated, and F^tis would have us believe
that Knecht actually anticipated not only the
general scheme of the Pastoral Symphony but
some of its figures and passages. But this is not
the case. The writer purchased the score and
parts of Knecht's work at Otto Jahn's sale, and is
able to say that beyond the tities the resemblances
between the two works are obviously casual.
Knecht's being in addition commonplace, entirely
wanting in that * expression of emotions ' which
Beethoven enforces, and endeavouring to depict
the actual sights and sounds, which he depre-
cates. [See Pabtobal Symphony.] * [G.]
KNELL, the Passing Bell (Fr. La Cloche des
Agoniiants ; Germ. Die Todtenglocke). A solemn
cadence, tolled on the great Bdl of a Parish
Church, to announce the death of a parishioner ;
or, in accordance with old custom, to give
warning of his approaching dissolution. To
indicate the decease of a Man, or Boy, the Knell
begins with three triple toUs, followed by a
number of moderately quick single strokes corre-
sponding to the age of the Departed. The Bell
is then tolled, very slowly, for the accustomed
time : and the Knell concludes, as it began, with
three triple tolls, sometimes, but not always,
preceded by a repetition of the single strokes
denoting the age of the deceased person.
1 Tii\» gires Uie Utle fncorrectly. It It ' Le Portnilt nraitoal de 1*
Katura.' etc, not ' TablMo musioal.' He tlso gives Its dat« as * Leip-
zig. 17A4.' It is really published at Bpire by Bossier. wlUi{no year;
bat the date may Tery well be 1784. since the Usi on the back cod-
tains the three early eonatas of Beethoren. which were published by
Bowler In 17)9. But the oolnoklence Is cnrloui. Beethoren most hare
teen fomUiar with Boesler's advertisement pase. on which his own flnt
•Miam wart annottttced, and which comalmfcU the aboraparttoBlaia.
KNELLER HALL.
Tat a Woman, the Knell begins, and ^ds,
with three double, instead of three triple toUa.
In other respects, the formula is the same as
tiiat used for a Man.
Minute tolls denote the death of the Sovereign,
or Heir Apparent to the Crown. [W. S. R.]
KNELLER HALL, near Hounslow, Middle-
sex, the ' Military School of Music,* for the edu-
cation of bandsmen and bandmasters for the
regiments of the British army. Until recently
bandmasters in the British army were mostly
civilians, with no g^uarantee for their competence
for the post, and bandsmen were instructed and
practised in a casual and often imperfect manner
by each regiment for itself . A bandmaster formed
no integral part of the corps, and could not
be compelled to accompany it in case of war or
foreign service ; and the iatus of bandsmen is
even now so £Eur anomalous that in action their
duty is to rescue the wounded under fire and
take charge of them in hospital. Each band was
formed on its own model, and played what kind
of instruments, and at what pitch, it liked. In
the Crimean war the evils of this state of things
Mid the want of united systematic action were
painfully apparent, and shortly afterwards, bj
command of H.R.H. the Duke of Cambridge,
Commander-in-Chief, a plan was drawn up and
submitted to the officers of the army, to which
they readily gave their assent and subscription.
In pursuance of this plan Kneller Hall, a building
on the site of the house of Sir Godfrey Kneller,
the painter (formerly the Government establish-
ment for training schoolmasters), was taken, and
opened as a school on March 3, 1857, and a
systematic course of instruction, with a staff of
professors, begun, under the modest titie of the
'Military Music Class,' Major (now Colonel)
F. L. Whitmore, long known for a philanthropic
interest and zesA in matters of music, being
appointed Commandant, and reporting annually
to the Adjutant Crenend of the Forces. The
advantages of the plan proved so great that in
1875 the institution was adopted by Government.
Bandmasters are now *first-class staff-sergeants
of the regiments to which they belong, and the
musical department in each regiment consists of
a bandmaster, a sergeant, a corporal, and 19 men
(cavalry 14), besides boys as drummers and fifers.
The educational staff at Kneller Hall now
(1879) comprises professors of the following
subjects — Theory, 'Clarinet (3), Oboe, Flute,
Bassoon, Tenor Brass (a), Bass 'ditto, French
Horn — and a schoolmaster from the Grovemment
Normal School for general education. The first-
class students act as assistants to the professors.
The length of term is a years, the hours of
musical instruction are 7 in summer, and 6 in
winter daily. The number of pupils of all ages
varies with circumstances. The average strength
is about 50 non-commissioned officers, training
for bandmasters, and forming the first class;
and no privates, boys and adults, training for
* Mr. lAnuns Is one of these three.
> This post was formerly held by Mr. SnlllTao. ffttlMr of the €oai>
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KNELLEB HALL.
bindimeii, the seoond clii --160 in alL Lftds
are admitted at 15. Adults are either outsiders
orfonnerpapils, who, after having been bandsmen,
dev^pe qualitiee fitting them for farther eda-
cation as bandmasters. Both lads and men are
taken into the school as vacancies occur, on the
reoonmiendation of the commanding ofiBcers of the
regiments. A supply of theformer is obtained from
the Chelsea Hospital, the Royal Hibernian Mili-
tary Sdiool, Dublin, the Metropolitan Poor Law
Schools, etc General instruction is given by
the Normal schoolmaster, and there is a noble
dispel in which service is regularly performed.
RngVTid is as yet the only country which has
adopted a systematic method of educating bands-
men and bandmasters, and the great improvement
both in the mOTal conduct and the emcienoy of
the men which has taken place since the founda*
tkm of Kneller Hall cannot be too warmly wel-
eomed. By Colonel Whitmore's efforts, and the
enlightened sanction of H.K.H. the Commander-
m^Saei, onifinrmity m instrmnents and in ^pitch
has been obtained, and a general consolidation of
the military mode of the country brought about
▼hich is hi^y desirable. A bandmaster hasnow a
recognised position in the army, and a fixed salary
of ;Cioo a year in addition to his regimental pay.
The cost of this salary is still borne by the private
parses of the officers, which is the only important
anomaly remaining to be rectified. [G.]
KNIGHT, Joseph Philip, youngest son of
the Rev. Francis Knight, D.D., was bom at the
Vicarage, Bradford-on-Avon, July 36,. 181 a.
His love for music began early, and at 16 he
itadied humony and worough bass under Mr.
Corfe. then organist of Bristol Cathedral. When
about 20 Mr. Knight composed his first six songs,
under the name of * Phibp Mortimer.' Among
these were * Old Times,* sung by Henry Phillips,
Knd 'Go, forget me,* which was much sung both
here and in Germany. After this he used his
own name, and in company with Haynes Bayly
produced a number of highly popular songs,
sffiong which the most fiamous were ' Of what is
the old man thinking?* 'The Veteran,* *The
Grecian Daughter,* and 'She wore a wreath of
nnes.* He subsequently composed a song and
a doet to words vrritten for him by Thomas
Hoore— <The parting,* and' 'Let*s take this
vorid as some wide scene.' In 1839 Mr. Knight
Tidted the United States, "v^ere he remained
two vesrs. To this time are due among other
popular songs the once well-known 'Rocked in the
cradle of ths deep,* sung with immense success
by Braham, and 'Why onime4ii§ bells so merrilv.'
On his return to England he produced ' Beautiral
Venice,* ' Say what shall my- song be to-night,'
utd ' The Dieam,' words by Uie Hon. MH.2^orton
—all more or lees the rage in their day; Some
yean afterwards Mr. Knight was ordained' by
the late Bp. of Exeter to the charge of St. Agpes
hi the SciUy Isles, where he resided two years.
He then married and lived for some time abroad,
doing very little in the way of composition, but
A ms return to England he again took up his
* A-4BB fSteitloot per Koond.
KNYVETT.
67
others 'Peace, it is It'
pen, and wrote
* The lost Rose,* • The Watchman,' ' The Anchor,'
and ' Queen of the silver bow,* all of which have
enjoyed great popularity. His songs, duets^ andi
trios, number m all not less than two hundi^d.
He is a good organist, with an unusual gift for
extemporising. [G.]
KNYVETT, Chablbs, descended firom an
ancient Norfolk femiily, was one of theprincipal
alto sineers at the Commemoration of Handel in
1784; he was also engaged at the Concert of
Ancient Music. He was appointed a gentleman
of the Chapel Boyal, Nov. 0, 1 786. In 1791 he,
in conjuncUon with Samuel Harrison, established
the VooAL C0NOEBT8, which they carried on
until 1794. On July 25, 1 796, he was ^pointed
an organist of the Chapel Boyal, and a few years
later resiirned his former post. He died in 182a.
His elder son, Charles, was bom 1773. He
was placed for singing under Mr. (afknrwards
Sir) William Parsons, and for the organ and
piano under Samuel Webbe. In 1801 he joined
his younger brother William, Greatorex, and
Bartleman, in reviving the Vocal Concerts. In
1802 he was chosen organist of St. George's,
Hanover Square. Besi£s this he taught the
pianoforte and thorough bass, and pubUiahed a
Selection of Psalm Tunes, 1823. He died, after
many years of retirement, Nov. 2, 1852.
WiLUAM, the younger son of Charles the
elder, was bom April 11, 1779. In 1788 he
sang in the treble chorus at the Concert of
Ancient Music, and in 1795 appeared there as
principal alto. In 1797 he was appointed
gentleman of the Chapel Royal, and soon after-
wards a lay-vicar of Westminster. In 1802 he
succeeded Dr. Arnold as one of the composers of
the Chapel Royal. For upwards of 40 years he
was principal alto at the best London concerts
and all the provincial festivals, being greatly
admired for the beauty of his voice and his
finished style of singing, particularly in part
music. CiJlcott*s glee * With sighs, sweet rose,'
was composed exproesly for him. In 1832 he
became conductor of the Concert of AjQcient
Music, which office he resigned in 1840. He
conducted the Birmingluun Festivals from 1834
to 1 843, and the York Festival of 1 8 35 . He was
the composer of several pleasing glees— one of
which, * When the fair rose,* gained a prize at the
Harmonic Sodety in i8oo---and some songs, and
wrote anthems for the coronations of George IV.
and Queen Victoria. He died Nov. 1 7, 1856.
Dbbobah, second wife of William Knyvett,
and niece of Mrs. Travis, one of the Lancashire
chorus singers engaged at the Concert of Ancient
Music, was bora at Shaw, near Oldham, Lanca-
shire. In 1 813 she was placed in the chorus of
the Concert of Ancient Music, the directors of
which, finding her possessed of superior abilities,
soon withdrew her from that position, took her
as an articled pupil, and placed her under
Greatorex. In 18 15 she appeared at the con-
certs ais a principal singer wiu success. In 18 16
she sang at the Derby Festival, in 1818 at
Worcester, and in 1820 at Birmin^ianu From
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68
KNYVETT.
that time she was constantly in reqaeet, particn-
larly as an oratorio singer, until 1843, when she
retired. She died in Feb. 1876. [W.H. H.]
KOCHEL. Dr. LuDWio, Rittsb von, learned
musician and naturalist, bom Jan. 14, 1800, at
Stein, near Krems on the Danube ; tutor to the
sons of the Aichduke Earl (1828-42). From
1850 to 1863 he lived at Salzburg, and from that
time to his death, on June 3, 1877, at Vienna.
His wgAl as a botanist and mineralogist does not
concern us : as a musician he has immortalised
his name by his 'Chronologisch-thematisches Ver«
zeichniss' of all W. A. Mozart^s works, with an
appendix of lost, doubtful, and spurious composi-
tions (firdtkopf & Hartel, Leipzig 1862). As a
precursor of that precious work a small pamphlet
should be named, ' tjber den Umfang der musik-
alischen Productivitat W. A. Mozarts' (Salzbui^
i862). The complete edition of Mozart*s works
which Brdtkopf & Hartel are now publishing
could scarcely have been made without his gener-
ous cooperation. In 1832 von Kochel was made
an Imperial Councillor, and in 42 he received the
order of Leopold. Among his intimate friends was
Otto Jahn, m whose work on Mozart he took an
active interest. See Jahn's Mozart, md ed., p. xxxi.
His private character was most estimable. [C.F.P.]
KOHLEB. The name of an eminent fiunilycf
military wind-instrument makers,, at present esta-
blished at 35, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden.
The founder of the family was JoBV K(iHL£B, a
native of Volkenrode, a hamlet near Cassel. He
came to England, acted as bandmaster to the
liancashire volunteers, and in 1780 established
himself as a musical instrument inaker at 87, St.
James*8 Street. Having no children, he sent for
his nephew, John KOhlsb, from Giermany, who
succeeded to his business in 1801. The latter
was appointed musical instrument maker to the
Duke of York, then commandei^in-chief, and the
Prince of Wales successively. He was succeeded
by his only son, John Augustus, who removed
the business to Henrietta Street, and died in 1 878.
His inventions in brass instruments were many
and successfiiL He first introduced the comet-h.-
Siston or cornopean into this country, and, with
lacfarlane, added the third valve to that instru-
ment. His improved mute to the cornopean,
with extra bell (1858), enabling the instrument
to be played in a very low tone and perfectly in
tune, IS well known. His triple slide trombones
and patent levers were very remarkable improve-
ments in their day. He obtained prize medals at
the Exhibitions of 1 85 1 and62,andwa8&vourably
mentioned in the Report .of the latter. The busi-
ness is now carried on.by.his eldest son, Augustus
Charles, who entered the firm in 1863. [6.]
KOMPEL, August, a distinguished violinist,
bom in 1831 at Briickenau. He is one of the
best pupils of Spohr, and the quiet elegiac style
of his master suits his talent precisely. His
tone is not large but very pure and sympathetic,
his execution &ultless. He was for a time mem-
ber of the bands at Cassel and Hanover, and has
been since 1867 leader of ^hat at AVeimar. [P*D.]
KONTSKI.
KOLLMANN, August Friedbich Earl, ona
of a musical £Eunily, his &ther an organist and
schoolmaster, his brother, George Chnstoph, an
organist of great renown at Hamburg; was
bom at Engelbostel, Hannover, in 1756, and
thoroughly educated in music. He was selected
to be (^pel-keeper and schoolmaster at the Ger-
man Chapel, St. Jameses, London, and entered on
his duties about 1782. In 1792 George III.
presented a chamber organ to the chapel, which
was played by KoUmann under the title of * derk *
till his death in Nov. 1824. He was a person of
much energy, and in 1809 during a large fire in
the palace is said to have saved the dhapel by
standing in the doorway and preventing the fire-
men from entering it to destroy it. His works
are numerous: — Essay on Practical Harmony,
1796; do. on Practical Musical Composition,
1799 ; Practical Guide to Thorough Base, 1801 ;
Vindication of a passage in ditto, 1802; New
Theoryof Musical Harmony, 1806; Second Prac-
tical Guide to ThcNrough Bass, 1807 ; Quarterly
Musical Register, 181 2— two numbers only; Re-
marks on Logier, 1824 — (some of these went
through two ecUtions); Analyzed Symphony, op. 3 ;
First beginning on the P. F. op. 5, 1 796 ; Concerto
for P.F. and Orchestra, op. 8 ; Melody of the looth
Psalm, with 100 harmonies, op. 9 ; Twelve ana-
lyzed Fugues, op. 10 ; Introduction to Modulation,
op. II ; Rondo on the Chord of the Dim. 7th..
He is also said to have published an orchestral
^mphony *The Shipwreck, or the Loss of the
East Lidiaman Halsewell,' a piece of programme-
music quite in the taste of the time; songs,
sonatas, and an edition of Bach's Well-tempered
Clavier. His son George August was a good
organ-player, and on his fiither*s death succeeded
to his post as organist. On his death, March
19, '1845, his sister Johanna Sophia succeeded
him; and on her death, in May 1849, the post
was bestowed on Mr. F. Weber the present
organist. [G.]
KONTSKI, DE, a family of virtuosi, of which
Chables, the eldest, bom at Warsaw in 1816,
appeared as a pianist in public at the age of
seven, but, like the majority of prodigies, did
not fulfil the promises of childhood. He made
his first studies in Warsaw and continued them •
at Paris, where he settled as a teacher.
Antoine, the second, bom at Cracow Oct. 2^,
181 7, -a clever pianist, with great delicacy of
ionoh and brilUancy of •execution, but a super-
ficial musician, and composer of many ' pieces de
salon,' of which the 'Re veil du Lion' {op, 115)
is universally known. He has travelled a great
deal and is now living in London.
Stanislas, the third •brother, bom in 1820,
pianist and pupil of Antoine, living at Peters-
burg.
Apollinaibe, a violinist, the voungest of the
four brothers, was bom Oct. 23, 1825, at Warsaw.
His first master was his elder brother Charles,
himself a clever violinist and pupil of the Warsaw
Conservatoire. He showed tne same precocity of
talentasibo rest of his family, performing in public
concerts at an age of not much over four years.
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KbNTSKI.
Later on he travelled a great dealy chiefly in
Bossia, but ahio in France and Grermany, and
made a certain lensation by his really excep-
tiooal technical proficien<rjr, not unaccompanied
by a certain amount of charlatanism. In 1857
he is said (see Mendel) to have attracted the
Attention of Paganini, then in Paris on his road
back from England, and to have formed a friend-
ship with the great virtuoso which resulted in
hU receiving some lessons^ from him (an honour
which he shared with Sivori) and ultimately be-
oonuog heir to his violins and violin compositions.
This however requires oonfirmatioii. In 185^ he
WM appointed solo-violinist to the Emperor of
RiiaBia» and in 1861 Director of the Warsaw Con*
wrTatoire, which post he still retains. He played
% solo at one of the Russian concerts ^ven in
ocnmection with the Exhibition at Paris m 1878.
His compositions (fantasias and the like) are
musically unimportant. [P. D.]
KOTZWARA, Franz, bom at Prague, was
m Ireland in 1790, when he was engaged as
tenor player in (rallini's orchestra at the King^s
Theatre. On Sept. a, 1791 he hanged himself
not in jest but in the greatest earnest, in a house
of iUfiune in Vine Street, St. Martin's. He had
been one of the band at the Handel Commemora-
tion in the preceding May. Kotzwara was the
satbor of the Battle of Prague^ a piece foff P. F.
with violin and cello ad libitum, long a fiivourite-in
London. Also of sonatas, serenades, and other
pieces, some of them bearing as high an opus
namber as 36, if F^tis may be believed. He was
s clenrer, vagabond, dissipated creature. [G.]
KO^ELUCH (Oerman Kotzeluoh), Johaivn
A5T0K, Bohemian musician, bom Dec. 13, 1738,
at Wellwam ; was Ch(Mrmaster first at Rakonitz
sad then at Wellwam. Desirous of further in-
ttroctioD he went to Phigue and Vienna, where
be was kindly received by Gluck and Gassmann,
Was appointed Choirmaster of the Kreuzherm
diorch, Prague ; and on March 13, 1784, Capell-
meister to &e Cathedral, which he retained tUl
bis deaUi on March 3, 1 81 4. He composed
chaich-musiCy operas, and oratorios, none of
which have been published. Of much greater
importance is hia cousin and pupil,
Leopold, bom also in Wellwam in 1754, or
According to some 1748. In 1765 he went to
I^Bgue for his education, and tlrare composed
a ballet, performed at the national theatre in
J 77 If with so much success that it was followed
in the course of the next six years by 24 ballets
and 3 pantomimes. In 1778 he went to Vienna,
and became the pianoforte master of the Arch-
<hicheas Elizabeth and favourite teacher of the
aristocracy. When Mozart resigned his post at
Salzbmg (1781) the Ardibishop at once offered
it with a rise of salary to Kozeluch, who declined
it on the ground that he was doing better in
Vieanft. To his friends however he held dif-
ferent language — ' The Archbishop's conduct to-
wards Mozart detenred me more than anything,
far if he could let sudx a man as that leave him,
^ lUa a eongbontad bf HuttBok. Ana dem CoMert^Ml. pw 12^
KRAFT.
69
what tTMtment should I have' been likely to
meet with?* The respect here expressed was
sadly at variance with his subsequent spiteful
behaviour towards Mozart^ the original cause
of which is said to have been Mozart*s reply to
his reoMurk on a passage in a new quartet of
Haydn*s — *I should not have written that so.'
' Neither should I : but do you know why T
because the idea would never have occurred to
either of us.* This reproof Kozeluch never forgot.
He used to say that the overture to 'Don
Giovanni' was no doubt fine, but that it was
full of faults ; and of that to ' Die Zauberflote,*
' Well ! for once our good Mozart has tried to
write like a learned man.' At the coronation of
the Emperor Leopold II. at Prague (1791) even
hia own countrymen the Bohemians were dis-
gusted with hia behaviour to Mozart, who was
in attendance as court composer. He never-
theless succeeded him in his office (1792) with a
salary of 1 500 gulden, and retained the post till
his death on May 7, 181 1 (not 1814). His
numerous compositions include 2 grand operas,
' Judith * and ' Debora und Sisara ' ; an oratorio,
'Moses in jEgypten'; many ballets, cantatas,
about 30 symphonies, and much pianoforte music,
at one time well known in England, but all now
forgotten. His chief interest for us lies in his
association with Mozart and Haydn. [F. G.]
KRAFT, Anton, distinguished cellist, bom
Dec. 30, 1752,' at Rokitzan near Pilsen in Bo-
hemia, soti of a brewer and amateur, who had
his son early taught music, especially the cello.
He studied law at Pktigue, where he had finish-
ing lessons from Werner, and Vienna, where
Haydn secured hun for the chapel of Prince
Esterhazy, which he entered on Jan. i, 1778.
On the Prince's death in 1 790 he became cham-
ber-musician to Prince Grassalkowitsch, and in
1795 to Prince Lobkowitz, in whose service he
died Aug. 28, 1820. Gn one of his concert- tours
he was at Dresden in 1789, and with his son
played before Duke Earl, and before the Elector
the night after the court had been enchanted by
Mozart. Both musicians were staying at the
same hotel, so th^ arranged a quartet, the
fourth part being taken by Teyber the organist.'
Haydn valued Kraft for his power of expression,
and for the purity of his intonation, and in all
probabilitv composed (1781) his cello concerto
(Andi€) n>r him. According to Schindler^ the
celle part in Beethoven's triple concerto was also
intended for Kraft. As he showed a talent for
composition, Haydn offered to iastnict him, but
Kraft taking up the new subject with such ardour
as to neglect his instrament, Haydn would teach
him no more, saying he alr^Kly knew enough for
his purpose. He published 3 sonatas witii ac-
compamment, op. i (Amsterdam, Hummel);
3 sonatas, op. a (Andr^) ; 3 grand duos concerw
tantes for violm and cello, op. 3, and ist oonoerto-
* Thb to the date In the bApttsmal register, hot ITSt or 49. are
nsually (Iven.
s Mozart alM plajed with the KrafU Ms Trio In B (EBohel 512) ; lea
Nuhl'B * Kozart-Brlere.' Mo. 2SI. N.B. No. S4« to wrong.
« VoLL P.I47; Me atoo Thayer's' Beethoven.* ToL 11. p.m.
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JCRAFT.
KBEBS.
in 0, op. 4 (Breitkopf & Hartel) ; grand duos for
3 cellos, op. 5 and 6 (Vienna, Steiner) ; and di-
vertissement for cello with double bass (Peters).
Kraft also played the baritone in Prince Ester-
hazy's chamber musicj^ and composed several
trios for 2 baritones and cello. His son and pupil
NiooLAUS, bom Dec. 14, 1778, at Esterhaz,
early became proficient on the cello, accompanied
his father on his concert-tours (see above), and
settled with him in Vienna in 1790. He played
a concerto of his father^s at a concert of the
Tonkiinstler-Societat in 1792, and was one of
Prince £arl Idchnowsky's famous quartet party,
who executed so many of Beethoven's works for
the first time. The others were Schuppanzigh,
Sina, and Franz Weiss, all young men.^ In 1 796
he became chamber-musician to Prince Lob-
kowitz, who sent him in 1801 to Berlin, for
further study with Louis Duport. There he gave
concerts, as well as at Leipzig, Dresden, Prague,
and Vienna on his return journey. In 1809 he
entered the orchestra of the court-opera, and the
King of Wirtemberg hearing him in 18 14, at
once engaged him for his chapel at Stuttgart.
He undertook several more concert-tours (Hum-
mel accompanied him in 18 18), but an accident
to his hand obliged him to give up playing. He
retired on a pension in 1834, and dded on May 18,
1853. Among his pupils were Count Wilhorsky,
Merk, Bimbach, Wranitzky's sons, and his own
son Fbiedbich, bom in Vienna Feb. 12, 1807,
entered the chapel at Stuttgart 1824. Among
Kicolaus's excellent cello compositions may be
specified — a fimtasia with quartet, op. i (Andrd) ;
concertos, op. 3, 4 (Brdtkopfs), and 5 (Peters) ;
sc^ne pastorale with orchestra, dedicated to the
King of Wirtemberg, op. 9 (Peters) ; 8 diver-
tissements progressives wi^ 2nd cello, op. 14
(Andr^) ; 3 easy duos for 2 cellos, op. 15, and 3
grand duos for ditto, op. 17 (Andr^). [C.F.P.]
KKAKOVIAK, CRAOoyiAK, or Cbacovienne.
A Polish dance, belonging to the district of
Craoow. ' There are usually,' says an eye-witness,
' a great many couples — as many as in an pnglish
country dance. They shout while dancing, and
occasionally the smart man of the party sings an
impromptu couplet suited for the occasion — on
birthdays, weddings, etc. The men also strike
their heels together while dancing, which produces
a metallic sound, as the heels are covered with iron.*
The songs, which also share the name, ^are in-
numerable and, as is natural, deeply tinged with
melancholy. Under the name of Gracovienne
the dance was brought into the theatre about
the year 1840, and was made fkmous by Fanny
ElBsler*s performance. The following is the tune
to which she danced it ; but whether that is a
real Krakoviak, or a mere imitation, the writer
is unable to say :—
V * For an ueedote on tbU \polnt tea 'Josef HaydD,' br 0. F. Pcdil.
TOl. i. p. 282.
' s See Thajrer's 'Beethoreo,' toL U. p. 2TS,
It has been varied by Chopin (op. 14), Hen,
WaUaoe, and others. [G.]
KBEBS. A mubical &mi]y of our own tune.
Karl August, the head, was the son of A. and
Charlotte Miedcke, belonging to the company of
the theatre at Nuremberg, where he was bom
Jan. 16, 1804. The name of Krebs he obtained
from the singer of that name at Stuttgart, who
adopted him. His early studies were made under
Schelble, and in 1825 under Seyfried at Vienna.
In March 1827 he settled in Hamburg as head
of the theatre, and there passed 23 active and
useful years, till called to Dresden in 1850 as
Kapellmeister to the court, a post which he filled
with honour and advantage till 1871. Since
that date he has conducted the orchestra in the
Catholic chapel. His compositions are numerous
and varied in kind — masses, operas ('Silva,*
'Agnes*), a Te Deum, orchestral pieces, songs
and pianoforte works, many of them much
esteemed in Germany. In England, however, his
name is known almost exclusively as the £ftther
of Miss Mart Kbebs, the pianist, bom Dec. 5,
1851, at Dresden. On the side of both father
and mother (Abotsia Michaelsi, an operatic
singer. of eminence, who married Ejrebs July 20,
1850, and is still living) she inherited music,
and like Mme. Schumann was happy in having
a father who directed her studies with great
judgment. Miss Krebs appeared in public at
the early age of ii (Meissen, 1862), and has
since that date been almost continually before
the world. Her tours have embraced not only
the whole of Germany and England, but Italy,
France, Holland, and America. She played at
the Gewandhaus first, Nov. 30, 1865. To this
country she came in the previous year, and made
an engagement with Mr. Gye for four seasom:,
and her first appearance was at the Crystal Palace,
April 30, 1804; at the Philharmonic April 20,
1874; and at the Monday Popular Concerts
Jan. 1 3, 1 875. At all these concerts Miss Krebs
is often heard, though the ' Populars* enjoy more
of her presence than any other. Her repertoire
is large, and embraces all the acknowledged
classi^, orchestral, chamber, and solo pieces,
and others of such exceptional difficulty as Schu-
mann's Toccata (op. 7), of which she has more
than once given a very fine rendering. She is
liked by all who know her, and we trust that she
may long continue her visits to this country. [G. ]
KREBS, JoHANN LuDWio, distinguished or-
ganist, bom at Buttelstadt in Thuringia Oct. 10,
1713. His fi»ther, Johann Tobias, himself an
excellent organist^ for seven years walked every
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KKEBS.
week from Buttelstadt to Weimar, in order to
take leseoDB from Walther, author of the Lexicon,
who was oiganittt there, and from Sebastian Bach,
it that time concertmeister at Weimar. He was
afterwards appointed organist at Buttelstadt,
where he died. He so thoroughly grounded his
8on in music, that when in 1736 he went to the
Thomas-Schule in Leipzig, he was abready suf-
ficiently advanced to be at once admitted by Bach
into the number of his special pupils. He enjoyed
Bach's instruction for nine years (to 1 735), and
rose to so high a place in his esteem, that he was
appointed to play the clavier at the weekly prac-
tices to which Bach gave the name of 'collegium
moiicum.' Punning upon his pupil*s name and
Mi own, the old Cantor was accustomed to say
that *he was the best crab (Krebs) in all the
brook (Bach).' At the dose of his philosophical
studies at Leipzig he was appointed organist
inooessively at Zwickau, Zeitz, and Altenbuig,
where he remained from 1756 till his death in
17S0. He was equally esteemed on the clavier
and the organ, and in the latter capacity espe-
cially deserves to be considered one of BacV s
best pupils. His published compositions include
' Klavier-Uebungen' (4 parts\ containing chorales
with variations, fugues, and suites ; sonatas for
davier, and for flute and clavier ; and trios for
flute. Several of these have been reprinted in the
collections of Komer and others. Among his
unpublished works a Magnificat and 2 Sanc-
tuses with orchestral accompaniments are highly
■poken of He left two sons, both sound musi-
cians and composers, though not of the emin^ice
of their &ther. The eldest, Ehbenfbied Ghris-
HAK Tbauoott, succeeded his &ther as Court-
ocganist and Musik-director at Altenburg, and
on his death was succeeded by his younger bro-
ther. JOHANN Gk>TTFBI£D. [A.M.]
KREISLERIANA, a set of 8 pieces for piano
•olo, dedicated to Chopin and forming op. 16 of
Schumann's works. Kreisler was uie Kapell-
meister in Hoffmann's musical papers so much
admired by Schumann. The pieces were written
in 1838. after the Phantasie stticke (op. la) and
NoveUetten (op. ai), and before the Arasbeske
(op. 18).* They are full of energy, variety and
character, and like the NoveUetten are cast in the
so-called Lied and Rondo forms. Schumann has
added to the title ' Phantasien fur das P. F.' The
Kieisleriana were published by Haslinger of Yi*
enoa shortly after Schumann's visit ( 1 858-9). [G.]
KREISSLE VON HELLBORN, Hkinbioh,
Dr. juris. Imperial finance-Secretary at Vienna,
and Member of the Direction of the Gresellschaft
der Musikfreunde, finds a place here for his Lives
of Schubert, viz. * F. Schubert, eine biografische
Skizze, von Heinrich von Kreissle' (small 8vo.
Vienna, 1861 ), a preliminaiy sketch ; and ' Franz
Schubert* (8vo. Vienna, (Jerold, 1865), a com-
plete and exhaustive biography, with a portrait.
The latter has been translated in full by Mr.
Arthur Duke Coleridge, *The Life of Franz
Schubert . . . with an Appendix by George Grove '
KRJBUTZEIL
n
(giving a thematic catalogue of the nine sym-
ShonieSy and mentioning other works still in
IS.), 3 vols., 8vo., London, Longmans, 1869. It
has alio been condensed by Mr. £. Wilberforoe^
8vo., London, Allen, 1866.
Kreissle died April 6, 1869, aged 66, much be-
loved for his amiability and modesty, and for his
devotion to the subject of his biography. [C.F.P.]
KRENN, MiOHABL. Beethoven's body-ser-
vant while he lived at his brother Johannes at
Gneixendorf in the autumn of 1 8 26. Krenn was
one of the three sons of the vine-dresser on the
fiurm. The old man died in 1861, but the son
survived him, and his story — to all appearance
a natural and credible account — ^was drawn from
him by Dr. Lorenz, who communicated it to the
' Deutsche Musik-Zeitung' of Vienna for March 8,
1863. It is a veiy curious and interesting account
of the great master's habits and disposition a few
months before his death (see voLi. p. 198 6 of this
Dictionary). It has been made the subject of a
lecture to the Schillerverein at Trieste by Mr.
Thayer, 'Ein kritischer Beitrag,' etc. (^Berlin,
W. Veber, 1877). [G.J
KRETSCHMER, Edmund, organist and
dramatic composer, bom Aug. 31, 1830, at
Ostritz in Saxony, where his &ther the Rector
of the school, gave him his early musical edu-
cation; studied composition under Julius Otto,
and the organ under Johann Schneider at Dres-
den, where he became organist of the Catholic
church in 1854 and to the court in 63. He founded
several * (j^esangvereine,' and in 65 his composi-
tion, 'Die Greisterschlacht,' sained the prize at
the first German ' Sangerfest in Dresden. Three
years later he took another prize in Brussels for
a mass. His opera 'Die Folkunger,' in 5 acts,
libretto by Mosenthal, was produ^ at Dresden
June 1875. It was well received and had a
considerable run, but has since disappeared ; nor
does ' Heinrich der Loewe,' to his own libretto, ap-
pear likely to meet with more permanent success,
Themusiciscorrectandshowsboth taste and talent,
but no invention or dramatic power. His vocal
part- writing has little life ; and his duets, terzets,
finales, etc., are too much like part-songs. [F.G.]
KREUTZER, Conbadin, German composer,
son of a miller, bom Nov. 22, 1782, at Moss-
kirch in Baden ; chorister first in his native town,
then at the Abbey of Zwiefalten, and afterwards
at Scheussenried. In 1799 he went to Freiburg
in Breisgau to study medicine, which he soon
abandoned for music. The next 5 years he passed
chiefly in Switzerland, as pianist, singer, and com-
poser ; and in 1 804 arrived in Vienna. And there
he took lessons from Albrechtsberger, and worked
hard at composition, especiallv operas. His first
opera was ' Conradin von Schwaben ' (Stuttgart
181 2), and its success gained him the post of
CapeUmeister to the King of WUrtemburg ;
thence he went to Prince von Furstenberg at
Donaueschingen ; but in 1822 returned to Vienna
and produced ' Libussa.' At the Kiirthnerthor
theatre he was CapeUmeister in 1825, 1829-32,
and 1837-40. From 1833 to 40 he was conductor
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KREUTZEB.
at the Jbsepli8tadt theatre, where he produced
his two beat worka, 'Das Nachilager in Granada '
(1834) and a fairy opera 'Der Verschwender/
which have both kept the boards. At a later
date he was appointed CapeUmeister at Cologne,
and in 1843 condacted the 43rd Festival of the
Lower Rlune. Thence he went to Paris, and in
I846 back to Vienna. He accompanied his
daughter, whom he had trained as a singer, to
"BigAf and there died, Dec 14, 1849.
Kreutzer composed numerous operas; inci-
dental music to several plays and melodramas ;
an oratorio, 'Die Sendung Mosis,* and other
church- works ; chamber and pianoforte music;
Lieder, and part-songs for men^s voices. Of all
these, a list is given by F^tis, who speaks of a
one-act drama ' Cordelia * as the most original of
his works. The two operas already mentioned,
and the part-songs alone have survived. In the
latter, Kreutzer displays a flow of melody and
good construction ; they are still standard works
with all the German Li^ertafeln, and have taken
ihe place of much weak sentimental rubbish.
^ Der Tag des Herm,' ' Die Kapelle/ * Marznacht*
and others are universal favourites, and models
of that style of piece. Some of them are given in
* Orpheus.' As a dramatic composer, his airs are
bettor than his ensemble pieces, graceful but
wanting in passion and force. His Lieder for a
single voice, though vocal and full of melody, have
disappeared before the more lyrical and expressive
songs of Schubert and Schumann. [A. M.]
EltEUTZER,^ BoDOLPHE, violinist and com-
poser, bom at Versailles, Nov. 16, 1766. He
studied first under his &ther, a musician, and
according to F^tis had lessons on the violin from
Stamitz, but he owed more to natural gifts than
to instruction. He began to compose before he
had learnt harmony, and was so good a player
at 16, when his fother died, that through the in-
tervention of Marie Antoinette, he was appointed
first violin in the Chapelle du Roi. Here he had
opportunities of hearing Mestrino and Viotti,
and his execution improved rapidly. The further
appointment of solo-violinist at the Th^tre Italien
gave him the opportunity of producing an opera.
'Jeanne d*Arc, 3 acts (May 10, 1790), was suc-
eessful, and paved the way for ' Paul et Virginie'
(Jan. 15, 1 791), which was still more so.
The melo^es were simple and ft-esh, and the
musical world went into raptures over the new
effects of local colour, poor as they seem to us.
The music of 'Lodoliska,' 3 acts (Aug. i, 1791),
is not sufficiently interesting to counterbalance
its tedious libretto, but the overture and the
Tartar's March were for long favourites. During
the Revolution Kreutzer was often suddenly
called upon to compose opircu de circonstance,
a task he executed with great fitcility. In 1796
he produced ' Imogbne, ou la Gageure indiscrete,'
a 3 -act comedy founded on a story of Boccaccio
little fitted for music. At the same time he was
composing the concertos for the violin, on which
his fame now rests. After the peace of Campo
> la Flruoe the name b Mid to hftTo been tnuiiiiiut«d into Kietaobe.
KBEUTZEB.
Formio (Oct. 17, 1797) he started on a concert-
tour through Italy, Germany, and the Nether-
lands ; the fire and individuality of hia playing,
especially in his own compositions, exciting eveiy-
where the greatest enthusiasm.
In 1798 Kreutzer was in Vienna in the suite
of Bemadotte (Thayer's 'Beethoven.' ii. ai),
and we must presume that ifc was at this time
that he acquired that friendship with Beethoven
which resulted, 8 years later, in the dedication
to him of the Sonata (op. 47) which will now
be always known by his name— though he is
^said never to have played it — and that be
became * first vidin of the Academy of Arts and
of the Imperial chamber-music' — ^titles which
are attributed to him in the same dedication. He
had been professor of the violin at the Conserva-
toire from its foundation, and on his return to
Paris he and Baillot drew up the famous ' M^thode
de Violon* for the use of the students. He fire-
quently plaved at concerts, his dvoa coneertantea
with Bode being a special attraction. On Rode's
departure to Russia in 1801, Kreutzer suc-
ceeded him as first violin solo at the Op^ra,
a post which again opened to him the career of
a dramatic composer. * Astyanax,' 3 acts (April
12, 1801) ; * Aristippe * (May 24, 1 808), the suc-
cess of which was mainly due to Lays ; and * La
Mort d'Abel ' (March 23, 1810), in 3 poor acts,
reduced to two on its revival in 1823, were the
best of a series of operas now forgotten. He also
composed many highly successful ballets, such as
'Paul et Viiginie* (June 24, 1806), revived in
1826; 'Le Camaval de Venise* (Feb. 22, 1816),
with Persuis ; and ' Clari * (June 19, 1820), the
principal part in which was sustained by Bi-
gottini. He was appointed 1st violin in the
chapeUe of the First Consul in 1802, violin-tolo
to the Emperor in 1806, maltre de la chapelle to
Louis XVIII. in 181 5. and Chevalier of the
Legion of Honour in 1824, He became vice-
conductor of the Acaddmie in 18 16, and con-
ductor in chief from 1817 to 1824. A broken
arm compelled him to give up playing, and he
retired from the Conservatoire with the year 1 825.
His last years were embittered by the decline of his
influence and the impossibility of gaining a hear-
ing for his last opera, ' Mathilde.* An apoplectic
seizure affected his mind, but he lingered till
June 6, 183T, when he died at Geneva.
Besides hds 39 operas and ballets, all produced
in Paris, he published 19 violin-concertos ; duos,
and 2 symphonies ooncertantes, for 2 violins;
dtudes and caprices for violin solo ; sonatas for
violin and cdlo; 15 trios, and a sjrmphonie
oonoertante for 2 violins and cello ; 15 string
quartets ; and several airs with variations.
Kreutzer's brother Auguste, bom at VersaiUea
1781, was a member of the Chapelle de TEmpereur,
and of the Chapelle du Boi (1804-30); and
succeeded his brother at the Conservatoire, Jan.
I, 182$, retaining the post till his death, at Paris
Aug. 31, 1832. HisaonLEON,bominPari8i8i7y
3 See Bertloz, ' Vorage/ 1. 964, for this and for an anaslnf afoeoont
of Kreamr't dUBealiles orer Beethoven's Second Sjmpboni.
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KREUTZEK.
died at Vichy Oct. 6, 1868, was mndcal cntic
(0 ' Ia QvK^SkiaDet' feuilUtonitte to the * Union/
and contributed a number of interesting articke
to the 'Revue oontemporaine/ the 'Revue et
Gaiette mnsicale/ and other periodicals. [G.C.]
Bodolphe Kreutzer is the third, in (nrder of de-
yelopment» of the four great representative masters
of the classical Violin-School of Paris ; the other
three being VioTTi, Rode, and Baillot. His style,
such as we know it from his concertos, is on the
whole more brilliant than Rode's, but less modem
than BaiUotV Kreutzer did not require Beetho-
Tas dedication to make his name immortal.
His fame will always rest on his unsurpassed
work of studies — '40 Etudes ou Caprices pour le
Violon'; a work which has an almost unique
pofition in the literature of violin-studies. It
has been recognised and adopted as the basis of
all solid execution on the violin by the masters
of all schooLi— Frraich, German, or any other
nationali^ — and has been publbhed in number-
lea editions. In point of difficulty it ranks just
below Rode's 24 Caprices, and is generally con-
tidered as leading up to this second standard
work of studies. Kreutzer's concertos afford ex-
cellent material for the student, but are less
mtoesting than those of Viotti and Rode, and,
with the exception of the 19th, in D minor, are
BOW hardly ever played in public. £P. D.]
KREUTZER SONATA. The popular title in
England of Beethoven's Sonata for piano and violin
in A, op. 47, dedicated to * his finend R. Kreutzer.'
Hie work was first played by Beethoven and
Bridgetower at the Augarten at 8 a.m. May 17
or 34, 1803. The finale had originally belonged
^ op- 30, no. i^ but the first movement and the
variations were only finished just in time, and
the Utter had to be pUyed firom the autograph
without reheamL In the opening Presto, at the
pause in the 9th bar, Bridgetower introduced a
Cadenza in imitation of that for the Piano in the
iSth bar, fortunately to Beethoven's satisfaction
(aee Thayer, ii. 230). He gives it as follows : —
KROMMER.
78
The sonata was published in 1805, by Simrock
and Traeg. before May 18. Bridgetower averred
(Thayer, ii. 231) that it was origmally dedicated
to him, and that the change was the result of
a quarrel. Why Kreutzer was chosen is as yet
a mystery. He was in Vienna with Bemadotte
in 1 798, but no trace of his relations with Bee-
thoven remains, though we may assume them to
have been good, for Beethoven to designate him as
his ^firiend.' It has been alleged as a reason
that the second theme of the Presto is a phrase
of Kreutzer's ; but this has not been substantiated.
Certainly no such passage appears in Kreutzer's
violin works. The dedication on the ist ed. stands
' Sonata per il Pianoforte ed un Violino obligate,
scritta in uno stilo molto concertante, quasi come
d'un Concerto. Composta e dedicata al suo
amioo R. Kreutzer, Membro del Conservatorio di
Musica in Parigi, Prime Violino dell ' Academia
delle *Arti, e della Camera Imperiale, per L.
van Beethoven. Opera 47. A Bonn chez K. Sim-
rock. 422.' In a notebook of Beethoven^s in the
Imperial Library at Berlin, the second sentence
appears * in uno stilo molto brillante.^
Some idea of its popularity in England may be
formed from the fiict that it was played 44 times
at the Monday Popular Concerts between 1854
and 1878, the next place being held by the Septet
(33 times) and the Bb Trio (24 times). [G.]
KROLL, Franz, bom in 1820 at Bromberg ;
began with medicine, but finally devoted himself
to music under the guidance of liszt, whom he
accompanied on some of his tours. He settled
in Berlin, and was for some years a success-
fid teacher. He edited the < Wohltemperirte
Clavier' far the Bachgesellschaft (14th year,
1864)— with a Preface contahung a list of MSS.
and Editions, and an Appendix of Variations, a
highly creditable work as regards care and ac-
curacy in collation, which Spitta has selected for
honourable mention (J. S. Rach, i. 773, note).
He has also published editions of Bach's chromatic
fantasia, Mozart's pianoforte fantasias, and other
important compositions. He was a thorough mu-
sician, and his style as a pianist was clear and
eminentiy suggestive. He was a great sufferer
for some years before his death, which took place
May 28, 1877. IF.G.]
KROMMER, Franz, violinist and composer,
bom 1759 ^^ Kamenitz in Moravia; learned
music from an imcle. then Choirmaster at Turas.
From 1 7 to 25 he acted as organist, and composed
much church music, still unpublished. He next
entered the band of Count Stymm* at Simonthum
in Hungary as violinist, and in two years waff
promot^ to the Capellmeistership. Here he
became acquainted with the works of Haydn
and Mozart ; and composed his pieces for wind-
instruments, which are of lastmg importance,
and perceptibly influenced modem military music.
After one or two n^ore changes he at length
becaame Capellmeister to Prince Grassalkowitz,
after whose death he lived comfortably in
1 The fbct of Krentier boMlns these two'posU In Vieana Menu to
linplj that be remained there lome time.
* FMs and Mendel call him Ajrram by mlitake.
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74
KBOMMEB.
YiemiAy enjoying a considerable reputation as
a teacher and composer. The sinecure post of
doorkeeper to the Emperor was conferred upon
him, and in 1818 he succeeded Koieluch as
Court GapeUmeister and Composer, in which
capacity he accompanied the Emperor Francis
to France and Italy. He died suddenly Jan. 8,
1851, while composing a f>astoral mass. As a
composer he was remarkable for produotiyeness,
and for a clear and agreeable style, most ob-
servable perhaps in his string-quartets and quin-
tets, published at Vienna, C^enbach, and Paris.
This made him a great favourite in Vienna at
the dose of the century. Schubert however, who
as a boy of eleven had to play his Symphonies
in the band of the ' Convict,' U£ed to laugh at
them, and preferred those of Kozeluch. Both
are alike forgotten. Krommer also composed a
number of quartets and quintets for flutes, be-
sides the pieces for wind-instruments already
mentioned. The only one of his church works
printed is a mass in 4 parts with orchestra and
organ (Andr^, Offenbach). Had he not been the
contemporary of Ebtydu and Mozart he might
have enjoyed more enduring popularity. [F. GL]
KRUMMHORN (t. e. crooked-horn). Cro-
mome, Cremona, Clarionet, Como-di-Bassetto.
The various names given to an Organ Reed Stop
of 8 feet size of tone. Modem English specimens,
which are found under all the foregoing names
except the first, are estimated in proportion as
their sound resembles that of the orchestral Cla-
rinet. The Cremonas in the organs built by
Father Smith (1660) for the 'Whitehall Ban-
queting House,' etc., and those by Harris in his
instruments at St. Sepulchre's, Snow Hill (1670),
etc., were doubtless * voiced ' to imitate the fbrst-
named and now obsolete crooked-horn. They
were never intended to represent the violin, into
the name of which its own had nevertheless been
OOTrupted. The pipes are of metal, cylindrical
in shape, short, and of narrow measure, the CC
pipe being only about 4 ft. 6 in. in length, and
1 1 in. in (Uameter. [E. J. H.]
KRUMPHOLZ, JoHANN Baptist, celebrated
harpist and composer, bom about 1 745 at Zlonitz
near Prague ; son of a bandmaster in a French
regiment, lived in Paris from his childhood,
learning muric from his father. The first public
mention of him is in the * Wiener Diarium ' for
1773 ; he had played At a concert in the Burg-
theater, and advertised for pupils on the pedal-
harp. Firom Oct. 1773 to March 1 776 he was a
member of Prince Esterhazy's chapel at Esterhaz,
taking lessons from Haydn in composition, and
already seeking after improvements m his instm*
ment. He next started on a^concert-tour, play-
ing at Leipzig on an -* organisirten Harfe.' He
then settled in Paris, where he was highly es-
teemed as a teacher and virtuoso. Nadermann
built a harp from his specifications, to which
attention was drawn by an article in the 'Journal
de Paris ' (Feb. 8, 1 786), and which Krampholz
described in a preface to his sonata, op. 14. His
wife played some pieoes on it before the Academic,
Krumpholz accompanying her on the violin, and
KiiCKES.
oft the ^ Pianoforte oontrebasse ' or ' C^vichord k
marteau,' another instrument made by £rard
from his specifications. The Academic expreMied
their approval of the new haip in a letter to
Kmmpholz (Nov. 3i, 1787). He drowned him-
self in the Seine in 1 790 inmi grief at the infidelity
and ingratitude of his wife.
Gerber gives a list of his compositions, which
are still of value. They comprise 6 grand con-
certos, 33 sonatas with violin accompaniment,
preludes, variations, duets for 2 harps, a quartet
for harp and strings, and symphonies for harp and
small orchestra, published in Paris and London.
His wife, n^ Mbtbr, from ' Metz, eloped with
a young man to London. She was even a finer
player than her husband, making the instrument
Boimd almost like an Eolian harp. In London
she gave her first concert at Hanover Square
Rooms, June 3, 1788,' and for many years ap-
peared with great success at her own and Salo-
mon's concerts, at the oratorios in Drury Lane,
and at Haydn's benefit. She frequently played
Dussek*s duos ooncertantes for harp and piano-
forte with the composer. She is mentioi^ in
1803, but after that appears to have retired into
private life.
Wbnzkl Krumpholz, brother of the former,
bom in 1 750, became one of the first violins at
the court-opera in Vienna in 1 796. His name is
immortalised by his intimacy with Beethoven,
who was very fond of him, though he used to call
him in joke 'mein Narr,* my fool. According
to Ries' he gave Beethoven some instmction on
the violin in Vienna. Knunpholz was one of
the first to recognise Beethoven's genius, and he
inspired others with his own enthusiasm. Czemy
mentions this in his Autobi(^^phy,^ and also
that he introduced him to Beethoven, who ofi*ered
of his own accord to give him lessons. Krump-
holz also played the mandoline, and Beethoven
seems to have intended writing a sonata for P. F.
and mandoline for him.^ He died May 3, 181 7,
aged 67, and Beethoven must have felt his death
deeply, bince he composed on the following day
the * Gesang der Monche * (from Schiller*s ' Wil-
helm Tell'), for $ men's voices, *in commemora-
tion of the sudden and unexpected death of our
'Knunpholz.* Only two of his compositions have
been printed — an ' Abendunterhaltung * for a
single violin^ (dances, variations, a short andante,
etc. ; Vienna and Pesth, Kunst & Tndustrie-Oomp^
toir) ; and ' Ein Viertelstunde fUr eine Violine,*
dedicated to Schuppanzigh(Joh.Traeg). [C.F.P.]
KtJCKEN, Friedrioh WiLHiUf, bom at
Bleckede, Hanover, Nov. 16, 1810. His father,
a country gentleman, was averse to the musical
proclivities of his son, and the boy had to thank
his brother-in-law, LUrss, musio-cfirector and or«
1 Or LlAge. aooorrtlng to G«rber and Bdchaidt.
s Not 1790, M oommonly stated.
• 'Bioffraphtoche Nottien,' p. 119.
« He callB Krumpholz 'an old man.* He wu then aboat BO.
• ' Aatographiiche Sklzze,* hj Artaila. On Weiuel Knimpholx see
also Thayer'* ' Beethoven.' toL U. p. 48; the oonfttsloD between the
two brother* b rectlfled vol. UL p. 610.
• Compare Nottebohm'* Thematic Cataloffne, p. 161.
7 Czemjr took Na 1. a oootrBdanae. as the theme of hi* XX eoDeert
variations for P.F. and rteHn. This. hU op. 1 (Btelner, 2editiona). la
dedicated to KnunpboU-AflDa trait of gratltade. .
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fftaist of Schwerin, for being allowed to follow
bis bent^ whicb be did under Lurss and Aron
in Scbwerin, and aa flute, viola, and violin
player in tbe Duke*8 orcbettra tbere. His early
oompoflttlons, * Aob wie wan moglicb dann * and
others, became so popular tbat be was taken
into the palace as tciuiher and player. But this
did not satisfy him, and be made bis way to
Berlin^ wbere, while studying hard at counter-
point under Bimbach, be gradually composed the
toQgs which rendered him so famous, and have
made hia name a household word in his own
and other countries. His opera, 'Die flucht
nadi den Scbweiz' (the Flight to Switzerland)
was produced at Berlin in 1839, and proved very
Booeenful throughout Grermany. In 1 841 be went
to Vienna to study under Secbter. In 1843 be
condticted the great festival of male singers at
St Gall and Appenzel. Thence be went to Paris,
when, with characteristic zeal and desire to
leam, be studied orchestration with Hal^vy, and
wri^ng for the voice with Bordogni. His stay
in P^fu lasted for 3! years ; thence he went to
Stottgart, and brou^t out (April 21, 1847) ^
new opera, *Der I^atendent* (the Pretender),
with the greatest success, which followed it to
Hamburg and elsewhere in Germany. In 1 851
he reoeii^ a call to Stuttgart as joint KapeU-
nteister witb Lindpaintner, filling the place aJone
after Undpaintner's death (Aug. 21, 1856) till
1861, when be resigned. In 1863 be joined
Abt and Berlioz as judges of a competition in
Stnssburg, and bad an extraordinary reception.
He compoaed sonatas for pianoforte and violin,
piaaof<nte and cello, etc., but his immense popu-
larity ^rang from his songs and duets, some of
whid), sucb as * Das Stemelein * and ' O weine
nicfat,' were extraordinarily beloved in their time.
Almost exclusively however by amateurs and the
minnm ; among musicians they foimd no fi»vour,
and are alreEuly almost forgotten. They were also
very popular in England (* Trab, trab,* * The Maid
of Jndab,' ' The Swallows,* duet, etc.. etc.), and
Kiicken bad an arrangement witb Messrs. Weasel
& Co. for the exclusive publication of them. [G.]
KtJHMSTEDT, Fbiedrich, bom at Oldis-
leben, Saxe-Weimar, Deo. ao, 1809. His gift for
nunc appeared very early and asserted itself
against the resistance of his parents, so frequent
in these cases. At length, when 19, he left tbe
nrnveraity of Weimar and walked to Darmstadt
(a dSstflmce of full 150 miles) to ask tbe advice of
C. H. Rinck. The visit resulted in a course of
three years instruction in theoretical and practical
mosic under that great OTganist. At the end of
that time be returned to his family and began to
write. His career however was threatened by
a paralysis of bis riebt band, from which he never
reoorered, and which but for his perseverance
and energy would have wrecked him. During
Bereral years be remained almost without the
means of subsistence, till in 1836 he obtained
the post of musio-director and professor of the
Semmar at Eisenach, with a pittance of £30
per annum. This however was wealth to him :
be manisd^ and the. day of bis wedding his
KUHLAXT.
75
wife was snatched from him by a sudden
stroke as they left the church. After a
period of deep distress music came to bis relief
and he began to compose. As he grew older
and published bis excellent treatises and bis good
music, he became &med as a teacher, and before
bis death was in easier circumstances. He died
in harness at Eisenach, Jan. 10, 1858. His works
extend to op. 40. His oratorios, operas and
symphonies are forgotten, but his fame rests on
bis organ works — bis art of preluding, op. 6
(Schotts); his Gradus ad Pamassum or intro-
duction to the works of J. S. Bach, op. 4 i.ibid) ;
bis Fantasia eroica, op. 29 (Erfurt., Komer) ; and
many preludes, fugues, and other pieces for tbe
organ, which are solid and effective compositions.
He also published a treatise on harmony and
modulation (Eisenach, Bomker, 1838). [G.]
KXJFFEEATH, Hubert Ferdinand, one of
six brothers, all musicians, bom June 10, 1808,
at MtObeim, studied under Hartmann of Cologne,
and Schneider of Dessau. He played a solo for
the violin at the Dfisaddorf Festival of 1839 so
much to the satisfaction of Mendelssohn, who was
conducting, that he invited him to Leipzig. Ther^
he formed one of the brilliant class for conmosition
whicb included Eckert, Verbu!st, and C. JE. Hors-
ley. At Mendelssohn's suggestion be studied the
pianoforte, and he also took lessons on tbe violin
from David. In 1841 he became conductor of
the Mannergesangve^in of Cologne, which has
more than once visited England. In 1844 he
settled in Brussels, and in 1872 became professor
of composition at the Conservatoire, a post be
still retains. He has published a symphony for
full orchestra ; several concertos and other com-
positions for tbe Piano, and some expressive
Lieder. His daughter ANffONTE, a pupil of Stock-
bauson's, was much applauded at the DUsseldorf
Festival of 1878, for her fine soprano voice, and
artistic singing. L^*^*]
KUHLAU, Friedrich, a musician of some
distinction in his day. He was bean of poor
parents at Uelzen in Hanover, March 13, 1786,
and bad the misfortune to lose an eye at an
early age. The loss did not however quench his
ardour for music. During a wandering life be
contrived to leam tbe piano and the flute, and
to acquire a solid foundation of harmony and
composition. Germany was at that time under
French rule, and to avoid tbe conscription be
escaped to Copenhagen, wbere be became tbe
first flute in the king's band. He then settled
in Denmark, acquired a house in Lyngbye, near
Copenhagen, to which be fetched his parents,
composed half-a-dozen operas, was made pro-
fessor of music and court composer, and en-
joyed a very great popularity. In the autumn
of 1825 he was at Vienna, and Seyfried^ has
preserved a capital story of bis e:q)edition to
Beethoven at Baden with a circle of choice
friends, of the way in which the great composer
dragged them at once into tbe open air, and of
the jovial close of the day's proceedings. Kuhlau^
I Beethorens Stadtoo, Aotuog. p. 85. Bee alio Beethoren's Lettea
(Noilly Mo. 866. ■ .
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7^
KUHLAU.
inspired by champagne and the presence of Bee-
thoven, extemporised a canon, to which Beethoven
responded on the spot, but thought it wise to
replace his first attempt next morning by another,
which is one reiterated joke on the name of his
guest —
iMi KOhlau nlcbt Imi
KOhl Dlcbt lau
and was accompanied by the fdUowing note : —
BADKN, 3 September, 1925,
I must confess that the champagne got too much Into
my head last night, and has once more shewn me that
it rather confuses my wits than assists them ; for thoush
it is usuallv tasr eaovgh for me to give an answer on the
spot, I declare I do not in the least recollect what I wrote
last night Think sometimes of your most faithful
BBETHOVSN.
In 1830 Kuhlau suffered two irreparable losses
— the destruction of the greater part of his
manuscripts by fire, and the death of his parents.
This double calamity affected his health, and he
died at Lyngbye March 1 8, 1 83 2, leaving a mass of
compositions, of which none will probably survive
their author more than a very few years. [G.]
KUHNAU, JoHANN, a very remarkable old
musician. Cantor of Ldpzig, and one of the
pillars of the German school of the clavier, bom
at Geysing on the borders of Boheniia in April
1667. As a boy he had a lovely voice and a
strong turn for music. He was put to the
Kreuzschule at Dresden, where he became a
chorister under the quaint title of ' Eathsdiscan-
tist,' and obtained regular instruction in music.
On the breaking of his voice he worked the
harder, and in addition to his music learned
Italian. The plague in 1680 drove him home,
but Geysing was no field for his talent, and he
went to Zittau and woxked in the school, till
the excellence of a motet which he wrote for
the Bathswahl, or election of the town council,
procured him the post of Cantor, with a salary
on which he could study at leisure. He began
by lecturing on French. His next move was to
Leipzig, in 1682, whi^ther his fame had preceded
him, and in that city of music he cast anchor for
the rest of his life. In 1684 he succeeded
Xiihnel as organist at St. Thomas's. At the
same time he was studying law, and qualified
himself for the rank of advocate. In 1 700 he
was made musical director of the University and
of the two principal churches, and then Cantor.
After this no further rise was possible, and he
died June 25, 1722, admired uid honoured as
one of the greatest musicians and most learned
men of his time. He left translations from
Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Italian, and French, and
wrote satirical poetry of no common order. Of
his musical works dke following are named : —
' Jura circa musicos ecclesiasticos^Leipzig, 1 688);
'Der musickalische Quacksalber ... in einer
KULLAK.
kurtzweiligen und angenehmen Historie ', . •
beschrieben* (Dresden, 1700); 'Tractatus de
tetraohordo* ; ' Introductio ad comi^bsitionexn ' ;
and * Disputatio de triade* — the three last in MS.
He wrote motets on chorales, and other sacred
pieces ; but his clavier music is his glory, and he
is the g^reatest figure among German composers
for the clavier l^fore Bach, who obliterated all
hi? predecessors. He was the inventor of the
sonata as a piece in several movements, not
dance-tunes — the first of which, 'Fine SonAta
aus dem B,* in three movements, is found in his
'Sieben Partien' (Leipzig, 1695"). He followed
diis with 13 others — *Frische Clavier-Friichte,
oder deben Sonaten* (Dresden and Leipzig,
1696) ; 'Biblische Historien nebst Auslegung in
sechs Sonaten'— the last a curious offspring of
the musician and the divine, and a very ^iriy
instance of Programme music. In addition to
these he published 'Clavier-Ubung aus 14 Partien
. . . bestehend* (Leipzig, 1689) — ^a oollectian of
Suites, that is of dance-tunes. Becker has repub-
lished two of Kuhnau's pieces in his 'Ausgew^te
Tonstucke' ; and Pauer, who introduced several
of them to the Fnglish public in his chronological •
performances in 1862 and 63, has printed a Suite
in his ' Alte Clavier musik * (Senff ) and a Sonata
in his *Alte meister* (Breitkopf). [G.]
KULLAK, Theodor, bom Sept. la, 1818
(not 1820, as Fetis supposes), at Krotoschin in
the province of Pbsen, where his father held the
post of ' Landgerichts-sekretar.' He was first in-
tended for the law, but preferred to devote him-
self to music. He was a pupil of Hauck*s firom
his nth year, having previously been under the
tuition of Albert Agthe. In 1842 he became a
pupil of Czemy, and in 1 846 was made Ho^ianist
to the King of Prussia. He founded, in conjunc-
tion with Stem an4 Marx, a Conservatorium at
Berlin in 1851; and in 1855, in consequence of
some disagreement with his fellow-workers, he
started a new institution under the name of
'Neue Akademie der Tonkunst' in the same
city, where he himself continues to reside. He
has devoted his attention principally to the
'drawing-room' style of composition, and has
published many transcriptions and arrangements
for the piano, which are very popular. Of his
original works the following are the most re-
markable : — Grand concerto in C minor for piano
and orchestra (op. 55) ; Trio for piano and strings
(op. 77) ; Duos for piano and violin; Ballades,
Boleros, etc., for piano solo; 'Les l^tincelles,'
' Les Danaldes,* ' La Gazelle,' etc. ; also collec-
tions of small pieces, such as 'Deux Portefeuilles
de Musique,* * Kinderleben,* a sets of pieods Cop.
81), 'Les Fleurs animdes.* Amons^ his later
works may be mentioned fOndine (op. iia),
'Concert-^tude' (op. 121). In 1877 he pub-
lished a second edition of his ' Octave-school,*
which is very valuable as an instruction book.
His brother, Adolf Kullak, bom 1823, was
a distinguished musical critic in Berlin, and
wrote * Das Musikalisch-Schone* (Leipzig, 1 858)9
and ' Aesthetik des Clavierspiels * (B^lin, 1861).
He died in 186a at Berlin. [J.A.F.M.]
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KUMMER.
KXJBiMER, Fbiedrioh August, a great
TH^oncelliBt, bom at Meiningen Aug. 5 1797.
Hif father (an oboist) migrated to Dresden,
where the lad learnt the cello under Dotzauer.
It was his ambition to enter the King's band,
but as there was then no vacancy for a cellist,
he took up the oboe, and soon attained suck
proficiency as to obtain the desired appoint-
ment> in Nov. 1814. In 181 7 he again took
up his (niginal instrument, and in time became
known as the most accomplished virtuoso in
Gormany. With the exception of occasional
moaical tours, principally in Germany and Italy,
his career has been confined to Dresden. In
1864 he celdbrated the 50th anniversary of his
appointment as a member of the Dresden
orchestra, after which he retired on a pension,
and was succeeded by F. Griltzmacher. He
died at Dresden, May 32, 1879. Kummer]s
tone was at once sweet and powerful, and his
ooDunand ovor difficulties very great. His play-
ing however was characterised in a remarkable
degree by repose, and he is described as never
having been excited even when playing the
most passionate or difficult passages. Kumme^
has been a voluminous writer for his instrument.
163 of his works have appeared in print, unong
w^^ are Concertos, Fantasias, a good Violon-
oeUo Sdiool, etc. He has also composed some
200 entractes for the Dresden Theatre. Among
his many distinguished pupils, Goltermann of
Statteifft, and Cossmann of Wiesbaden may be
namS. [T.P.H.]
KUNST DER PUGE, DIE. This work of
J. S. Badh's has been already mentioned under
the head Abt of Fuous. It only remains to^
ad^ that since that time a good analysis of it'
was read by Mr. James Higgs to the Musical
Awxnatian, Feb. 5, 1877, and is publidied in
tbdr Proceedings for 1876-77. [G.]
KUNTZSCH, JOHANN GOTTPHIBD, One of
those earnest, old-£Ashioned, somewhat pedantic,
mosidans, to whom Germany owes so much;
who are bom in the poorest ranks, raise them-
selves by miheard-of efforts and self-denial, and
die without leaving any permanent mark except
the pupils whom they help to form. The ' £ac-
calaoreus Kuntzsch was teacher of the orffan
and davier at the Lyceum of Zwickau when
Schmnann was a small boy, and it was by him
tint the great composer was grounded in piano-
&rte Ikying. Kuntzsch celebrated his jubilee
at Zwickau in July 185 a, when Schumann wrote
him a diarming letter^^ which his biographer
Msmuu us was but one of many. Schiunann*8
itedies fior the pedal piano-^6 pieces in canon-
km (op. 56), composed in 1845 and published
iai846-Hure dedicated to his old master, whose
name is thus happily preserved from oblivion.
Kimtzsch died at a great age in 1854. [G.]
KUPSCH, Karl Gustav, demands a few
lines as having been for a short time Schumann*s
instroctor in the theory of musio' — apparently
mthe latter part of 1830, after his accident to
1 WMkleifSk7glr«lt,9.1& > Wusldeivskr. p. 97.
KYRIE.
7^
liis finger. Kupech was an average German il^
Kapellmeister, bom in Berlin, lived and worked
there and in Leipzig and Dresden as teacher /
composer and conductor, till 1838, when he
settled in Rotterdam as Director of the Singing
Academy, and one of the committee of the ' Eru-
ditio musica' Society. In 1845 ^® retumed to
Germany, became Director of the Theatre at
Freiburg im Breisgau, and at Naumburg, where
he died July 30, 1846. [G.]
KYRIE (Gr. KiJptc iKajffoy ; Kyiie eleieon ;
* Lord, have mercy*).
I.' Thai portion of the Ordinary of the Mass
which immediately follows the Introit, and pre-
cedes the Gloria in exceUu : and which, at High
Mass, is sung by the Choir, while the Celebrant,
supp<Mted by the Deacon and Subdeacon, is oc-
cupied in incensing the Altar.
The Kyrie, in common with all other choral
portions of the Mass, was originally sung exclu-
sively to Plain Chaunt melodies, such as those
which are still preserved in the Roman Gradual,
and still sung, with great effect, in many Conti-
nental Cathedrals. One of these, the Kyrie of
the Misia pro D^unctis, exhibited in the sub-
joined example, in peculiarly interesting, not only
from its own inherent b^uty, but, as will be
presently shewn, from the use to which it was
turned by Paleetrina, in the Sixteenth Century.
Ton.VL
When, after the invention of Figured Music,
these venerable melodies were selected as thanes
for the exercise of contrapimtal skill, the Kyrie
'naturally assumed a prominent position in the
polyphonic Mass; and at once took a definite
form, the broad outlines of which passed, un-
altered, through the vicissitudes of many chang-
ing Schools. The oonstroction of the words led, ,
almost of necessity, to their separation into three ,
distinct movements. Some of the earlier contra-
puntists delighted in moulding these into Canons,
of maddening complexity. The great Masters of
the Sixteenth Century preferred rather to treat
them as short, but well-developed Real Fugrues,
on three distinct subjects, the last of which was
usually of a somewhat more animated character
than the other two. Whether from a pious ap-
preciation of the spirit of the words, or a desire
to render the opening movement of the Mass as
impressive as possible, these earnest writers never
failed to treat the Kyrie with peculiar solemnity.
In the hands of Palestrina, it frequently expresses
itself in a wailing cry for mercy, the tender pa-
thos of which transcends all power of description..
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78
KYRIE.
ThiB is pre-eminently the caee, in the KyrU of hig
Missa irevis, a few ban of which have akeady
been given, as an example, under the heading
Hexaohord [vol. i. p. 735]. The same feding
is distinctly perceptible throughout the Kyrie of
the Missa JPapa Marcelli ; but associated, there,
with a spirit of hopeful ccmfidenoe which at once
stamps it as the nearest approach to a perfect
ideal that has ever yet been r^ushed. More simple
in construction, yet, scarcely less beautiful, is the
opening movement of the same composer's Missa
pro Defunetis, in which the Plain Chaunt Canto
fermo given above is invested with a plaintive ten-
derness which entirely conceals the consummate
Art displayed in its contrapuntal treatment —
Cantus Palbstrina.
ifa^
«^
7-«
-'_rj n gg
=^
4^
Attut
T^
4-^
. . . rl
-s.
• - - - e
^•^ 1
K, - . - .
Tmorl.
Mr, 1 1
- rt - e
.—
• - •
1 ^H
- -le-I-
■00
etc
*ni3i2 1
Tenor 2.
M^ — "' — ^ —
■^
«—
Ky -
Ti-f^
'nl w g> —
Kf-rl-
Ba$tuf
- 16
^ 1^1 — 1-
1-
■on
e -
etc
ffitTtl 1-
s^gs^
■ ,^ 1" a. 1
f-^
The effect of these pure vocal harmonies, when
sung, as they are intended to be sung, in imme-
diate contrast to the stem unisonous Plain Chaunt
of the Introit, is one which, once heard, can never
be forgotten. The maniisr of singing them, how-
ever, requires careful consideration. One great
difficulty arises from the^Bsct, that, in the oldpart-
books, no indication whatever is given as to the
way in which the words and music are to be
fitted together: and modem editors differ so
much in their ideas on the subject, that no two
editions are found to correspond. The following
phrase from the Kyrit of the Missa Papce Mar-
eeUi only exhibits one instance of divergence out
of a thousand.
pALESTKIlfA.
<9
Kyrie.
(As edited hj Proskb.)
"^^
, - fp ^ ,
miih I — "• ^
1 — ^^^
-^^ — H
^ <P ■ _ 1 ..^
R
Kjr-rie e-W ------- md.
(As edited by Lafaob.)
Ky-rl-o e----le--I ion.
In this case, La&ge is undoubtedly right in
allotting a distinct note to each syllable of the
KYRIE.
w<»^ Ky-rv-t : but, nothing can justify his divi-
sion of Uie penultimate semibreve into a dotted
minim and crotchet. The second and third syl-
lables of e4e-4rson can be perfectly enunciated,
after the Italian manner, to a single note. In
all such cases, the conductor must use his own
judgment as to the beet mode of procedure.
Without pausing to trace the progress of the
polyphonic Kyrie through the decadence of the
School to which it owed its existence, or the rise
of that which followed — a School in which instra«
mental accompaniment first seriously asserted its
claim to notice — we pass on to a period at
which an entirely new phase of Art hail already
attained its highest degree of perfection. The
Kyrie of Bach's great Mass in B minor differs,
toto ccdo, from its polyphonic predecessors.
Though moulded in the old tri^Mtrtite form, its
two stupendous Fugues, and the melodious and
elaborately developed Duet which separates them,
have nothing but that division in common with
the grave slow movements of the older Masters,
and are such, indeed, as Bach alone could ever
have conceived. Too long for practical use, as
a part of the CSiuidi Service, they unite in
fanning a monument of artistic excellence, re-
presenting a School, which, while it scorned to
imitate anything which had gone before it, was
able to defy the imitation of later composers.
The Kyries of Haydn, and Mozart— legitimate
descendants of those of Pergolesi, and Jomelli —
abound with beauties of a ^oUy different order.
The well-known opening of Haydn*s grand Missa
Imperialis (in D minor) is a fiery Allegro, in
which bright passages of semiquavers, and short
but telling points of fugal imitation, are oon«
trasted together with striking effect, but with
very little trace of the expression which we
should naturally expect in a petition for mercy.
That of the favourite Mass commonly called
' Mozart*s Twelfth' is too well known to need
more than a passing allusion. Neither Beetho-
ven, in his Missa Solemnis, nor Cherubini, in
his great Mass in D minor, can be said to have
struck out a new ideal ; though both infused into
the Kyrie an amount of dramatic power previously
unknown in Church Music. In the Kyries of
Rossini, and Gounod, free use is made of the same
forcible means of expression, notwithstanding the
feigned return to an older style, in the Christe of
the first -named composer's Mesu SolenneUe,
In tracing the history of the Kyrie^ from its
first appearance as a polyphonic composition, to
the lat^ development of modem times, we find,
that, apart from the idiosyncratic peculiarities of
varying Schools, and individual composers, it has
clothed itself in no more than three distinct ideal
forms ; of which the first depends, for its efiect,
upon the expression of devotional feeling, while
the second appeals more strongly to the intelleot,
and the third, to the power of human emotion.
Each of these types may finirly lay claim to its
own peculiar merits : but, if it be conceded that
devotional feeling is the most necessary attribute
of true Church Music, it is certain, tiiat, what-
ever may be in store for the future, that particular
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KYJRIE.
aUnbate has never hitherto been reached, in its
highest perfection, in the presence of instrumental
aooompaniment.
IL The Beeponse, * Lord have mercy npon us,
aod incline our hearts to keep this law '; sung, in
the Service of the Church of England, after the
recitation of the Ten Commandments.
As the custom of reciting the Commandments
daring the Communion Service is of later date
than the first Prayer Book of King Edward the
Sixth, this Kesponse is not found in Merbecke's
'Booke of Common Praier Noted,* which was
first published in 1550 : in Plain Song Services,
therefore, it is usually sung to the simple melody
given- by Merbecke, to the older form of Kyrie
used in the Mass. The manner of its treatment
by the earlier composers of the polyphonic School
was extremely simple, and digmlied: indeed,
lABLACHE.
79
some of these Responses, as set by Tallis, (in the
Dorian Mode,) Bird, Farrant, Gibbons, and other
old English writers, are perfect little gems of
artistic beauty. With such examples — and many
excellent ones* of later date— within their reach,
it is strange that Cathedral Organists should
ever have countenanced the pernicious custom of
'adapting' the words of the Kyrie to music
which — however good in itself— was never in-
tended to be sung to them. Not very long ago,
the opening bars of a Chaconne, by Jomelli,
were heard in almost every Church in which the
Responses were chaunted : while, within the last
few years, no Kyrie has been so popular as one
* adapted * to a passage occurring in * Elijah,' and
generally associated with a distribution of the
voice parts which Mendelssohn would have con-
demned a» utterly barbarous. [W. S. R.]
L
LA, ibe syllable used in solmisatibn for the
sixth note in the scale, possibly derived by
Guido firom the sixtJi line of the well-
known hymn to S.^ John — * Xabii reatum.' It is
oaed by the French and Italians as a synonym
for A (the sixth note of the scale of C) — ' Sinfonie
ea la de Beethoven,' and they speak of the
second string of the violin as 'oorde en la J * La
h^mol' is A flat.
The number of vibrations per second for the
A in the treble stave is — Paris diapason 435,
London Philharmonic pitch 454. The A pro-
posed by ihe Society of Arts, and actually in use
(1879) »t H.M. Opera, 444 (eq. temp.) [G.]
LABITZKY, J08EP, a well-known dance
composer, bom July 4, 1802, at Schdnfeld, Eger,
was grounded in music by Veit of Petschau ; in
1S20 began the world as first violin in the band
at Mazienbad, and in 182 1 removed to a similar
position at Carlsbad. He then formed an orches-
tra of his own, and made toumies in South Ger-
many. FeeHng his deficiencies, he took a course
of composition under Winter, in Munich, and in
1827 published his first dances there. In 1835
he lettled at Carlsbad as director of the band,
making journeys from Petersburg on the one hand>
to LcrkIoii on the other, and beooming every day
m<Be &mous. He resides at CarlsbcMi, and has
aefXKiated his son August with him as director.
Hii second son, Wilhelm, an excellent violin
pUyw, is settled at Toronto, Canada, and his
dai^ter is a favourite singer at Frankfort. La-
bitiiy's dances are full dt rhythm and spirit.
Among his waltzes, the 'Sirenen,' 'Grenzboten,'
*Annira,' ' Carlsbader,' and ' lichtensteiner,' are
good. In galopt' he fiurly rivals Lanner and
Stranss, though he has not the poetry of those
two composers. [F. G.]
LABLACHE, Luioi, was bom at Naples, Dec.
^' ^794* His mother was Irish, and his &ther,
Nicolas Lablache,. a merchant of Marseilles, had
quitted that place in 1791 in consequence of the
Revolution. But another Revolution, in 1799,
overwhelmed him with ruin in his new country,
and he died of chagrin^ His family was, however,
?rotected by Joseph Buonaparte, and the young
iuigi was placed in the ConservatoHo delta Pietit
de" Turehini, afterwards called San Sehasiiano. He
was now twelve years old. Gentilli taught him the
elements of music, and Valesi instructed him in
singing ; while, a.t the same time, he studied the
violm and violoncello under other masters. His
progress was not at first remarkable, for he was
wanting in application and regidarity; but his
aptitude was soon discovered by a singular inci-
dent. One day acontrebaBsist was wanted for the
orchestra of 8. Onoftio. Marcello-Perrino, who
taughi^young Lablache the cello, said to him, * You
play the cello very well : you can easily leam the
double bassl' The boy had a dislike for that
instrument, in spite of which he got the gamut of
the double bass written out for him on a Tuesday,
and on the following Friday executed his part
with perfect accuracy. There is no doubt, in
fact, that, had he not been so splendidly endowed
as a singer, he might have been equally brilliant
as a virtuoso on any other instrument that he
chose (Escudier). At this period his boy's voice
was a beautiful contralto, the last thing that he
did with which was to sing, as it was just
breaking, the solos in the Requiem of Mozart on
the death of Haydn in 1809. He was then 15,
and his efforts to sing to the end of the work left*
him at last without power to produce a sound.
Before many months were passed, however, he
became possessed of a magnificent bass, which
gradually increased in volume until, at the age
of 20, it was the finest of the kind which can be
remembered, with a compass of two octaves, from
Eb below to £b above the bass stave.
Continually dominated by the desire to appear
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80
LABLACHE.
on the stage, the young Lablache made his escape
from the Conservatorio no less than five times,
and was as often brought back in disgrace. He
engaged himself to sing at Salerno at 15 ducats
a month (40 sous a day), and receiyed a month*s
salary in advance ; but, remaining two days longer
at Naples, he spent the money. As he could not,
however, appear decently without luggage, he
filled a portmanteau with sand, and set out.
Two days later he was found at Salerno by the
vice-president of the Conservatorio, while the
Impresario seized the effects of the young truant
in order to recoup himself the salary he had
advanced, but found, to his horror, nothing in
the portmanteau .... but what Lablache had
put there ! (Escudier). To these escapades was
due, however, the institution of a little theatre
within the Conservatorio; and Lablache was
satisfied for a time. A royal edict, meanwhile,
forbade the Impresario of any theatre, under
severe penalties, to engage a student of the Con-
servatorio without special permission.
Having at length completed his musical educa-,
tion, Lablache was engaged at the San Carlino
Theatre at Naples, as buffo Napolitano, in 181 2,
though then only 18. He made his cUbui in
•La Mollnara' of Fioravanti. A few months
later, he married Teresa Pinotti, the daughter
of an actor engaged at the theatre and one
of the best -in I^y. This happy union ex-
ercised a powerful and beneficial influence
over the life of Lablache. Quickly seeing his
genius and capacity for development far beyond
the narrow sphere in which she found him, his
young wife persuaded Lablache, not without
difficulty, to quit the San Carlino, a theatre in
which two performances a day were given,
ruining completely within a year every voice
but tlubt of her robust husband ; to re- commence
serious study of singing, and to give up the
patois in which he had hitherto sung and
spoken. Accordingly, a year later, after a
short engagement at Messina, he went as primo
hasso cantante to the Opera at Palermo. His
first appearance was in the * Ser Marc- Antonio '
of Pavesi, and his success was so great as to
decide him to stay at Palermo for nearly five
years. But it was impossible that he should
remain there unknown ; and the administration
of La Scala at Milan engaged him in 181 7,
where he made his cUhut as Dandini in 'Cene-
rentola/ with great success, due to his splendid
acting and singing, and in spite of the provincial
accent which still marred his pronunciation. Over
the latter defect he soon triumphed, as he had over
hb want of application a few years before. In fact,
perhi4)s the most remarkable things about La-
blache were the extent to which he succeeded in
cultivating himself, and the stores of general know-
ledge which he accumulated by his own unaided
efforts. It is said that at Naples he had enjoyed
the great advantage of the society and counsels of
Madame Mericof&e, a banker's wife, known in
Italy before her marriage as La Coltellini, but then
quite imknown in England, though described as
one of the finest artists belonging to the golden
LABLACHE.
age of Italian singing. To such influence ma
this, and to that of his intelligent wife, Lablache
perhaps owed some of the impulse which prompted
him to continue to study when most singers oeaae
to leam and content themselves with reaping" the
harvest ; but much must have been due to his own
desire for improvement.
The opera 'Elisa e Claudio* was now (1821)
written tor him by M»x»dante ; his position was
made, and his reputation spread throughout Eu-
rope. From Milan he went to Turin ; returned
to Milan in 1833, then appeared at Venice, and
in 1834 at Vienna, and adways with the same
success. At the last city he received from the
enthusiastic inhabitants a gold medal bearings a
most flattering inscription. After twelve years
absence he returned to Naples, with the title of
singer in the chapel of Ferdinand L, and with an
engagement at the San Carlo. Here he created a
great sensation as Assar in ' Semiramide.' Two
yeara later we find him at Parma, singing in fiel-
Iini*s ' Zaira.' Although Ebers had endeavoured,
aa early as 1833, to secure him for London, on
the strength of his reputation as 'perhaps even
excelling Zucchini,' Lablache did not tread the
English boards till the season of 1830, when
he made his d^ut on the 30th March in the
'Matrimonio segreto.' Here, as elsewhere, his
success was assured from the moment when he
sang his first note, almost fr^m the first step
he took upon the stage. It is indeed doubtful
whether he was greater as a singer or as an
actor. His head was noble, his figure very
tall, and so atoning for his bulk, which became
inmiense in later years: yet he never looked
too tall on the stage. One of the boots of .La-
blache would have made a small portmanteau ;
' one oould have clad a child in one of his gloves '
(Chorley). His strength was enormous. As Xe-
poreUo, he sometimes carried off under his ana,
apparently without effort, the troublesome Ma-
skto, represented by Giubilei, a man of the full
height and weight of ordinary men ! Again, in
an interval of tedious rehearsing, he was onoe
seen on the stage to pick up with one hand a
double bass that was standing in the orchestra,
examine it at arm's length, and gently replace it
where he had found it 1 The force of his voioe
exceeded, when he chose, the tone of the instru-
ments that accompanied it and the noise and
clamour of the stage ; nothing drowned his por<
teutons notes, which rang through the house like
the booming of a great bell. On one occasion^
indeed, his wife is said to have been woke up by a
sound, in the middle of the night, which she took
for the tocsin announcing a fire, but which turned
out to be nothing more than Lablache producixig
in his sleep these bell-like sounds. It was during
the great popularity of 'I Puritani,' when Grisi,
accompanied by Lablache, was in the habit of
singing the polacca thrice a week at the Opera*
and frequency also at concerts. After performing
his staccato part in the duet thrice within nine
hours, Lablache was haunted by it even in his
sleep. This power was wisely used by the great
artist on the right occasions, and only the^— as
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LABI.AC5E.
tlie deaf' and angry Oeronimo, or M'Oroveso in
'Norma'; bat at other times his voioe could
'roar as sweetly as any sacking dove,' and he
oould ose its accents for comic, humorous, tender,
or sorrowful effects, with equal ease and mastery.
Like Garrick, and other great artists, Lablache
shone as much in comic as in tragic parts. No-
thing could exceed his LeporeUo ; of that cha-
racter he was doubtless the greatest known ex-
ponent. But he had, at an earlier date, played'Don
Giovanni. As GeronimOt the Podestd in* 1a Gaxza
Ltdra,' again, in ' La Prova d'un' Opera Seria,'
ag DandirU and the Barone di MorU^acone, he
was equally unapproachable; while his Henry
Vni. in ' Anna Bolena,' his Doge in ' Marino
Fsiiero/ and Oroveao in ' Ncnrma,* were splendid
examples of dignity and dramatic force. He
appeared for the fbrst time in Paris, Nov. 4,
1830, as Gtronimo in the ' Matrimonio Segreto,'
and was there also recognised immediately as the
first \Muao cantarUe of the day. He continued to
ang in Paris and London for several years ; and,
it may be mentioned that his terms were in 1828,
for four months, 40,000 fn, (£1,600), with lodging
and one benefit-night clear of all expenses, the
<wn and his part in it to be chosen byhimself on
tnat occasion, as also at his cUbtU. The modest
snm named above, in no degree corresponding with
the value of Lablache in an operatic company,
was a few years later (1839) the price paid by
li^Mrte to Robert, to whom Lablache was then
engaged at Paris, for the mere cession of his
services to the London Opera.
In 1833 Lablache sang again at Naples, re-
newing his triumphs in the ' Elisire d'amore ' and
'DonPa<K{uale.' He returned to Paris in 1834,
after which he continued to appear annually
thoe and in London, singing in our provincial
festivals as well as at the Opera, for many years.
In 1852 he san^ at St. Petersburg with no less
«clat than elsewhere. In London, near the dose
of his career, at a time when most artists are
liable ;to become dull and mechanical, he broke
out into the personification of two beings as
different from each other and from the types
hitherto represented by him as Shakspere's Cali-
ion and Scribe's Calmuck Oritzonko, m 'L'ifctoile
du Kord,' with a vivacity, a profound stage-
knowledge, and a versatility, which were as rare
a§ thcjr were strongly marked (Chorley). But
he had qualities as sterling as others which were
^scinating. Whether in comic opera, in the
chromatic music of Spohr, or in that of Pales-
trina, he seemed equally at home. Let it be
never forgotten that he sang (April 3, 1827) the
hais solo part in Mozart's Requiem* after the
death of Beethoven, as he had, when a child,
rang the contralto part at the funeral of Haydn ;
and let the former ^t be a sufficient answer to
those who say he had no notes lower than A
or 6. Be it recorded, at the same time, that
he paid Barfoaja 200 guldens for the operatic
singers engaged on that occasion. He was also
ene of the 33 torch-bearers who surrounded the
coffin of Beethoven at its interment. To him,
igftin, Schubert dedicated his three Italian songs
LAOHNER.
81
(op. 83), written to Metastado's words and com-
posed in 1827, showing thus his appreciation of
the powers of the great Italian.
In. 1856, however, his health began to fail,
and he was oblig^ in the following spring
to drink the waters of Kissingen, where he was
met and treated with honour by Alexander II.
of Russia. Lablache received the medal and
order given by the Emperor with the prophetic
words, 'These will do to ornament my coffin.'
After this he returned for a few days in August
to his house at Maisons-Laffitte, near Paris ; but
left it on the i8th, to try the effect of his native
elimate at his villa at Posilipo. But the bright,
brisk air was too keen for him, and he had to
take refuge in Naples. The relief, however,
served only to prolong his life a short while, and
he died Jan. 33, 1858. His remains were brought
to Paris, and buried at Maisons-Lafitte.
Lablache had two sisters, the elder of whom
became Marcheea de Bnuda, and the younger
Abbess of Sessa. He had many children, among
whom Frederidc, the eldest son, followed his
father's steps, but not vidth the same suocess.
The youngest is an officer in the French army. Of
his daughters,, one married the great pianist,
Thalberg. A Mithjode de chant, written by La-
blache, was published chez Mme. Y** Canaux, at
Paris; but it rather disappointed expectation.
Lablache died, as he had lived, respected by
every one who knew him for his honourable,
upright probity, as he was admired for his mar-
vellous and cultivated talents. [J. M.]
He was the Queen's singing master, and the
esteem and even affection which that intercourse
engendered are expressed more than once in
warm terms in her Majesty's published Diaries
and Letters.
LAC DES FlfcES, LE. Opera in 5 acts ;
words by Scribe and Mdlesville, music by Auber.
Produced at the Grand Opera April I, 1839.
The overture alone has survived. , [G.]
LACHNER, a prominent musical family of
this century. The father was an organist at
Rain, on the Lech, in Bavaria, very poor and
with a very large family, but not the less a
man of worth and character. He was twice
married. One of the first family, Theodob, born
1798, was a sound musician, but unambitious,
who ended his career as organist at Munich, and
chonu-master at the Court theatre. The second
family were more remarkable. Of the daughters,
Thekla, bom 1803, was recently organist of S.
George's church, Augsburg, and Christians, bom
1805, held the same post in her native place.
Of the brothers, Fbanz was bom April 2, 1804.
He was solidly educated in other things beside
music, but music was his desire, and in 1822 he
prevailed on his parents to let him go to Vienna.
He put himself under Stadler and Sechter, and
was constantly in Schubert's company, with whom
he became very intimate. In 1826 he was made
Vice-Kapellmeister of the Kamthnerthor theatre,
and the next year, on the death of Weigl, prin-
cipal Kapellmeisteor. He retained this post till
1 834, and it was a time of great productivity. In
Digitized by
C^ogk
83
LACUNEB.
34 he went to Mannheim to conduct the opera
tiiere, and in 36 advanced to the top of the
ladder as Hofkapellmeister — ^in 1852 general
muBio director — at Munich, and there remained
till 1865, when he retired on a pennon. Lach-
ner's writings are of prodigioua number and
eKtent. An oratorio^ and a sacred cantata;
4 operas ; requiems ; 3 grand masses ; Tarioua
cantatas, oitr'aotes, and <^er pieces ; many large
oempoeitions for male voices; 8 symphoniee-^
imiong them those in D minor (No. 3), in C minor
{op, 5 a) — which won theprizeoffered by theCtesell-
johaft der Musikfreande-- and in D (No. 6) , which
Schumann finds twice M good as the prise one
•—suites, overtures and serenades for orchestra,
the oidiestration of Schubert's ' Song of Miriam' ;
3 quartets; concertos for harp and bassoon; trios,
duos, pianoforte pieces of all dimensions ; and a
large number of vocal pieces for solo and several
Toioes. All that industry, knowle<%e, tact, and
musicianship can g^ve is here — if there were but
a little more of the sacred fire ! No one can
deny to Tachner the praise of conscientiousness
and artistic character; he is deservedly esteemed
by his countrymen almost as if he were an
old classic, and holds a similar position in the
South to that of Hiller in the North. The
next brother, Ignaz, was bom in 1807, was
brought up to music, and at I3 years okl was
sent to the Gymnasium at Augsburg, where he is
iud to have had no less a person than Napoleon
III. (then C<mnt St. Leu) as a schoolfdlow. In
1814 he joined his brother at Vienna, in 1835
x'/as made Vice-Kapellmeister of the opera ; in
1831 a Court music-director at Stuttgart, and in
184 a rejoined his brother in a similar position at
Munich. In 53 he took the conduct of the
theatre at Hamburg, in 58 was made Court
KapellmeiBter at Stockholm ; and in 61 settled
down for good at Frankfort, where he fills many
musical positions, and celebrated his 50th anni-
versary on Oct. 18, 1875. He also has produced
a long list of works — 3 operas ; several ballets,
melodramas, etc., etc. ; with masses, symphonies,
quartets, pianoforte works, and many songs, one
of which — * tJberall Du ' — was very popular in its
day. The third brother, ViNOEWZ, was bom
July 19, 1811, and also brought up at the
Augsburg Gymnasium. He bc^an by taking
Ignaz/s place as organist in Vienna, and rose by
the same course of goodness and indefatigable
assiduity as his broUiers, to be Court Kapell-
meister at Mannheim from 1836 till 73, when
he retired on a pension. He was in London in 4a,
conducting the German Company. His music to
Turandot, his Prize song * In der Feme,* and other
pieces, are £ftvourites with his countrymen. [G. ]
LACHNITH, LUDWio Wkvzsl, bom July 7,
1 746, at Prague, migrated to the service of the
Duke at ZweibrUcken, and thence to Paris,
where he made his d^ut at the Concert Spi-
rituri as a horn player. He was a clever handy
creature, who wrote not only quantities of all
kinds of instrumental music, but at least four
rM, and several pasUccios «id other pieces,
most notable achievements however, were
LACT.
his adaptations of great operas, by way of making
them pleasant to £e public, such as ' Les mys-
t^res dlsis,* for whidi both libretto and music of
the Magic Flute were ' arranged * into what M.
F^tb aiXIm *a monstrous 'compOation* (Grand
Opera, Aug. 20, 1801). No wonder that the
piece was called 'Les mis^res d*ici,* and that
Lachnith was styled 'le d^rangeur.' He was
<dever also at woridng up ihe music of several
composers into one piece, and torturing it to the
expression of different words and sentiments
frmn those to which it had originally been set — as
' Le Laboureur Chinois, ' in which the music of
'several celebrated composers* was 'arrange
par M. Lachnitoh' (Feb. 5, 181 3). In these
crimes he had an accomplice in the dder Kalk-
brenner, who assisted him to ooncoct two ' Ora-
torios hi action '-—Saul (April 6, 1803) and
'The taking of Jericho* (April 11, 1805). We
were as bad in England several years later, and
many fine operas of Rossini, Auber, and quad-
Weber were first made known to Londoners by
much the same expedients as those of Lachnith, in
the hands of T. P. Cooke, Lacy, and others. [G.]
LACY, John, bass singer, bom in the last
quarter of last centuiy, was a pupil of Rauzzini
at Bath. After singing in London he went to
Italy, where he became complete master of the
Italian language and style of sini^ng. On his
return he sang at concerts ana £e Lenten
oratorios, but although he possessed an excep-
tionally fine voice and sang admirably in various
styles, circumstances prevented him from taking
any prominent position. In 18 18 he accepted an
engagement at Calcutta, and, accompanied by his
wife, left England, to which he never returned.
Had he renuuned here he would most probably
have been appointed successor to Bartleman.
Mas. Lact, his wife, was originally Miss
Jackson, and appeared as a soprano singer at
the Concert of Ancient Music, April 35, 1798.
In 1 800 she became the wife of Francesco Bianchi,
the composer, and in 1810 his widow. In 181 3
she was married to Lacy, and sang as Mrs.
Bianchi Lacy in 181 3, 13, and 14. She ' was the
best representative of the great and simple style as
delivered down by Mrs. Bates and Madame Mara,
whilst her articulate delivery and pure pronuncia-
tion of Italian, rendered her no less generally valu-
able in other departments of the art. [W. H. H.]
HACY, MiCHABL KoPHiNO, son of an EngUsh
merchant, bom at Bilbao, July 19, 1 795 ; learned
music from an early age, and made rapid pro-
gress on the violin ; was at college at Bourdeaux
For 18 months, and in 1803 was sent to Paris
to finish his education, and attained to con*
siderable skill as a linguist. Kreutzer was his
principal instructor in musia About the end
of 1804 he performed before Napoleon at the
Tuileries. He was then known as *Le petit
Espagnd.' He played in the principal Dutch
1 See the tocxnmt bjr O. Jahn (If osut, and «d., IL 8B7). The umtHo
flute and All the oomJc musto were omitted ; FtpMeoo mu turned
Into a iih«pherd aaga ; while manj pieces were left out, other* were put
In— ai for Inatanoe "Fin ch'an dal Tlno,' orranfi«4 lu a dm^ t Tha opera
opened wHh Hoiart's finale, and tho dborder mast have been oem->,
plete. And yet It ran 40 Dtghu 1
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LAOr.
towsi on hk way to Londcm, which he reached
in Oct 1 805. He soon gave concerto at Hanover
Square RaHna* under the lobriquet of 'The
Yoaog Spaniard,' his name not being announced
BBtil May, 1807, when an engraved portrait of
him was publiahed. He next performed at
Gatalanf 8 first concert in Dublin, and was after-
wards SBflaged for Corri*8 concerto at Edinbureh
at ao gumeas per night. A few yean Uter he
quitted the musical for the theatrical profassion,
and performed the principal genteel comedy
parts at the theatres of Dublin, Edinburgh,
Glasgow, etc. In 1 81 8 he was appointed
leader of the Liverpool concerto vice Yaniewicz,
and at the end of 1830 returned to London
and was engaged as leader of the ballet at the
King's Theatre. Lacy adapted to the English
itage both words and music of several popular
oMns; and his adaptations display great skill,
althoagh gross liberties were frequently taken
with the original pieces, which can only be
axcoaed by tl^ taste of the time. Among them
are 'The Maid of Judah' from 'Ivanhoe,* t^e
muic from ' Semiramide,' 1839; 'Cinderella,'
the music from Rossini's 'Cenerentola,' * Armida,'
'Maometto Secondo,' and 'Guillaume Tell,'
1830; *Fra Diavolo/ 1831 ; and 'Robert le
IMable.' under the title of 'The Fiend Father,'
1833. Li 1833 he produced an oratorio entitled
'Tie Israeliteff in Egypt,' a pasticcio from
Hoasini's * Moe^ in Egitto,' and Handel's * Israel
in Egypt,' which was performed with scenery,
dreaees, imd personation. In 1839 he brought
forward a r«ulaptation of Weber's ' Der IVei-
schQtz,' introducing the whole of the mudc for
the firat time. He rendered great assistance to
Mr. Schcelcher in collecting the material for his
' Life of Handel.' He died at Pentonville, Sept.
20, 1867. [W.H.H.]
LADY HENRIETTE. ou la sebvantb db
Greknwioh. a ballet pantomine in 3 acto ; music
by Flotow. BurgmtUler, and Deldevez. Pit)duoed
at the Grand Opera Feb. i, 1844. Saint Georges,
hjT whom the libretto was written, afterwards
ertended it into an opera^ which was set by
Flotow as Mabtba. [G. j
LADY OF THE LAKE, THE. A cmtata
in 3 parto; the text founded on Scott's poem by
^i^toKa Macfarren, the music by Professor G. A.
Mae&nren. Written fbr and produced at GMaogow
Hew Public Hall Nor. 15, 1877. pS.]
LlNDLER, Laitdebsb, or Landlxbisohs
Tavz,' a national dance popular in Austria,
Bavaria, Bohemia, and S^rria. It probably
derives tto name from the Landel, a district in
the vall^ of the "EnB, where the dance Is said
to have had ito origin; but according to some
aathoritiee the word simply means 'country
dance,' i.e. a waltz danced in a country fashion.
In fact the Litndler is a homely wahz, and only
<Effers from the waltz in being danced more slowly.
It is in 3-4 or 3-8 time, and consiBto of two
parto of eight ban, each part being repeated two
or more tnnes. Like most early dances, it oc-
oasionaUy has a vocal acoon^paniment. Both
LA FAGE.
83
Moaart (Eochel, Ko. 606) and Beethoven (Not-
tebohm's Cat. p. 150, 151) have written genuine
Landler, but the compositions under this name
of Jensen, Raff, Reinecke, and other modem
musicians, have little in common with the original
dance. I^e following example is the first part
of a Styrian Landler (Kohler, Volkstanze ; Bruns-
wick, 1854).
The little waits so weU known as 'Le D^sir,*
usually attributed to Beethoven, though ideally
composed by Schubert, is a Landler. To know
what grace and beauty can be infused into this
simple form one must hear Schubert's ' Wiener
Damen -Landler ' or ' Belles Viennoises ' in their
unsophisticated form, before they were treated
byliszt. [W.B.S.]
LA FAGE, Juste Adbien Lenoie de, bonk
in Paris, March 28, 1801, grandson of the cele-
brated architect Lenoir. After trying education
for the church and the army, he settled to music
as a pupil of Feme's for harmony and counter-
point, devoting himself especially to the study of
plain-chant. Peme recommended him to Cho*
ron, who took him first as pupil, and then tfi
r^p^titeur, or assistant-master. In 1828 he was
sent by the government to Rome and studied for
a year under Baini. While in Italy he produced
a comic opera ' I Creditori,' but comic opera was
not to be his road to distinction. On his return
to Paris, in Dec. 1829, he was appointed maitre
de chapelle of St. Etienne du Mont, where he
substituted an organ (built by John Abbey) for
the harsh out-of-tune serpent hitherto used to
accompany the voices — an excellent innovation !
1833 to 36 he spent in Italy, and lost his wife
and son. He returned to Paris, and there
published the 'Manuel complet de Musique'
(1836-38), the first chapters of which had been
prepared by Choron; 'S^^iologie musicale';
'Miscellanies musicales' ; * Histoire g^n^rale de
la musique,' and many biographical and critical
articles collected frt>m pOTiooicals. He again
visited Italy after the Revolution of 1848, and
during this trip took copies of MSS. never before
consulted. He also visited Germany and Spain^
and during the Exhibition of 185 1 made a short
excursion to England. He then settled finally
in Paris, and published the works which have
placed him in the first rank of 'mwdcisto' — to
use a favourite word of his own. Over-work as
an author, and as editor in chief of ' Le Plain-
Chant,' a periodical which he founded in 185Q,
brought on a nervous affection, which ultimately
led to his removal to the asylum for the insane
at Charenton, where he died March 8, 1862.
La Fage composed much music of many kinds,
G2
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^
LA FAGE.
both vocal and instrumental, sacred and secular,
but it is as a historian and didactic writer that
his name will live. His 'Cours complet de
Plain-Chant* (Paris 1855-56, 2 vols 8vo.) is
a book of the first order, and fully justifies its
title. It was succeeded by the ' Kouveau Traits
de Plain- Chant romaiu/ ^th questions, an indis-
pensable supplement to the former. His ' Histoire
f^n^rale de la musique' (Paris 1844, 3 vols,
vo., with an album of plates) is incomplete,
treating only of Chinese, Indian, Egyptian, and
Hebrew music, but it is a careful and con-
scientious work, and has been largely used by
P^tis. His learning and method appear con-
spicuously in his ' Extraits du Catalogue critique
et raisonn^ d^une petite bibliothbque musioale'
(Bennes, undated, 1 20 pp. 8vo., xoo copies only),
and in his ' Essais de Diphth^n^raphie musicale *
(Paris, 1864, 2 vols. 8vo., one containing very
curious musical examples). A perusal of these
two books will amply corroborate every word we
have said in praise of this erudite musician. He
left a valuable library (the catalogue was pub-
lished, Paris 1862, 8vo.), afterwards dispersed by
auction ; but his unpublished works and materials
are in the Biblioth^ue nationale, to which he
bequeathed all his papers, with the MSS. of
Choron and-Baini in his possession. [G.C.]
LAFONT, Charles Philippe, an eminent vio-
linist, was bom at Paris in 1781. F^tis relates
that he got his first instruction on the violin
from his mother, a sister of Bertheaume, a well-
known violinist of that period, whom he also
accompanied on his travels through Germany,
performing successfully, when only eleven years
of age, at Hambuiv, Oldenburg and other towns.
On his return to Paris he continued his studies
under Kreutzer ; and soon appeared at the
Th^tre Feydeau, though not as a violinist, but
as a singer of French ballads. After some time he
again took up the violin, this time under the
tuition of Boae, and soon proved himself a player
of exceptional merit. Fitis credits him with a
perfect intonation, a pure and mellow, though
somewhat feeble tone, great powers of execution,
and a remarkable chimn of expression. From
1 801 to 1808 he travelled and played with great
success in France, Belgium, Holland, Germany
knd Russia. Ini 808 he was appointed Rode's suc-
cessor as solo-violinist to the Emperor of Russia,
a position in which he remained for six years. In
1812 he had a public contest with Paganini at
Milan. In 1815 he returned to Paris, and was
appointed solo-vioUnist to Louis XVIII. In 1851
he made a long tour with Henri Herz, the pianist,
which occupied him till 1839, when his career was
suddenly ended by a carriage accident in the south
of France, through which he lost his life.
Spohr in Ms Autobiography praises his fine
tone, perfect intonation, energy and gracefulness,
but deplores the absence of deep feeling, and
accuses him of mannerism in phrasing. He also
relates diat Lafont's repertoire was confined to a
very few pieces, and that he would practise a
concerto for years before venturing on it in
public, — a method which, although leading to
LAGUERRE.
absolute mechanical perfection, appears absurd
from an artistic or even musical point of view.
Lafont's compositions for the violin are of no
musical value ; they comprise seven Concertos, a
number of Fantasias, Rondos, etc. He wrote
a number of Duos concertants in conjunction
with Kalkbrenner, Herz, etc. ; more than 200
ballads (romances), which for a time were very
popular ; and two operas. [P. D.]
LAGARDE, a French basso, who sang the
part of Farasmane in Handel's * Radamisto,* on
the revival of that opera in Dec. 1720, with
Senesino. It is not known who played Fatfumane
at the former performances; perhaps Lagarde.
He does not appear again in the casts. [J. M.]
LAGUERRE, Jean, commonly called Jack,
was the son of Louis Laguerre, the artist who
painted the greater part of Yerrio's large picture
m St. Bartholomew s Hospital, the ' I^l^urs of
Hercules * in chiar*oscuro at Hampton Court, the
staircase at Wilton, etc., and is immortalized by
Pope in the line
* Where sprawl the aainti of Verrlo and laguerre.*
This painter came to England in 1683, and died
in 1 72 1, his son Jean having, as it is supposed,
been bom about 1700. The lad was instructed
by his &ther for his own profession, and had
already shown some ability ; but, having a talent
for music, he took to the stage, where he met
with fair success. It must be he whom we find,
under the name of Mr. Ltgar, playing the part
oi Melius in Camilla (revived), 1726, which had
formerly (1706 and 8) been sung by Ramondon,
a low tenor. Again, he is advertized {Daily
Journal, March 13, 1731) as sustaining the
added r6le of Corydan in * Acis and Galatea,* * for
the benefit of jif. Rochetti, at Linooln*s Inn
Theatre Royal, on Friday, 26th,' his name being
spelled as in the cast of ' Camilla.* He died in
London in 1748.
Laguerre has been described as * a high fellow,
a great humourist, wit, singer, player, caricatur-
ist, mimic, and a good scene-painter; and, ac-
cording to the notions of that merry age, known
to everybody worth knowing.' He engraved
a set of prints of < Hob in the Well,' which had
a great sale, though indifierently executed ; but
we also owe to his point an exceedingly clever
etching, *The Stage Mutiny* (Br. Mus. Cat.
1929), in which we have caricature-portraits of
Colley aad Theo. abber (as Pistol), Highmore,
Mrs. Wilks, Ellis, Griffin, Johnson, and others.
Hogarth did not disdain to copy this interesting
print, having used it on the show-doth in * South-
wark Fair* (Br. Mus. Cat. i960).
As a painter, Laguerre was the author of the
portrait of Mary Tofts, not the singer but the
pretended rabbit-breeder, engraved by J. Faber
in mezzotint. He also painted the portrait of
SpiUer for the SpilUr*s Bead tavern, as we learn
from that actor*s epitaph, which begins thus : —
' The butchers* wivoB tM in hysteric fits ;
For, sure as they *re alive, poor Spiller 's dead ;
But, thanks to Jack Laguerre, we've got his head.'
[J.AL]
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LAIDLAW.
LAIDLAW, AiTKA RoBBNA/a lady whom
Schmnaim distdngiuBhed by dedkating to her his
Fantasiestticke (op. 13), was a Yorkshirewoman,
bomat Bretton April 30, 1819, educated in Edin-
baigh at the school of her aunt, and in music by
Bobert M tiller, a pianoforte teacher there. Her
&inily went to Konigsberg in 1830, and there her
vocation was decided, she improved in playing
rapidly, and in three or four years appeared in
public at Berlin with great applause. In 34 she
was in London studying under Herz, and played
at Paganini s &rewell concert. In 36 she returned
to Berlin, and after a lengthened tour through
Prussia, Russia and Austria, returned in 1840 to
London. It was during this last stay in G ermany
that the Fautasiestucke were vmtten. [6.]
LAJARTE, Th^dore de, one of the libra-
risns of the Grand Opera, Paris (Acaddmie de
Musique), author of a book for which every
student of musical history must be grateful to
him, viz. a Catalogue, historical, chronological
and anecdotic, of the Musical Library of the
Opera, etc., 2 vols, with 7 portraits — beautifully
etched by Le Rat — and a view. It contains an
Introduction, describing the library; a list, in
order of production, of the 594 pieces which have
been produced at the Opera between ' Pomone,'
March 19, 1671, and 'Sylvia,* June 14, 1876,
wi^ the names of the singers, remarks on the
piece, its success or non- success, and often ex-
tiacts from the libretto ; biographical notices of
oomposers and librettists ; a supplementary list
of 'ceuvres diverses,' comprising 49 operas,
received but not produced, and of which the
MSS. are preserved — and of other music en-
graved and MS. ; and to complete, two indexes
of titles and names. The work is admirably
done, apparently with great accuracy, and is not
only a boon to the reader but a striking evidence
of tiie superior system under which these things
are managed in Paris. [G.]
LAJEUNESSE, the family name of Madlle.
Mabie Emma Albani, who was bom in 185 1 of
French Canadian parents, at Chambly, near
Montreal, and is therefore an English subject.
H^ father was a professor of the harp, and she
began life in a musical atmosphere. At the age
of five the family removed to Montreal, and
MadUe. Lajeuneese entered the school of the
Convent of the Sacre Coeur. Here she remained
several years, with such instruction in singing
aa Hui convent could afford, and she is said to
have abandoned the idea of adopting a religious
li& on the representation of the Superior of the
convent, who discovered the great qualities of
her pupil.
In the year 1864 the family again removed, this
time to Albany, the capital of the State of New
York; and while pursuing her studies there
Madlle. Lajeunesse sang in the choir of the Ca-
tholic cathedra], and ^us attracted the notice
not only of the public but of the Catholic bishop,
who strongly urged M. Lajeunesse to take his
daughter to Europe and place her under proper
niasteiB for the development of so remarkable a
tiklent. A concert was given in Albany to raise
lalande:
86
the necessary funds, after which Madlle. La*
ieunesse proceeded to Paris with her father.
From Paris, after studying with Duprez for eight
months, she went to La^perti at Milui, with
whom dxQ remained for a considerable time. The
relation between the master and his gifted pupil
may be gathered by the &Gt tiiat his treatise on
the Shake is dedicated to her. In 1 8 70 she made
her d^but at Messina in theSonnambula, under the
name of Albani, in memory of the city in which
her resolution to become a singer was carried into
effect. She then sang for a time at the Pergola,
Florence. Her first appearance in London was
at the Boyal Italian Opera, Covent Garden, on
April 2, 1873. The beautiful qualities of her
voice and the charm of her appearance were at
once appreciated, and she grew in &vour during
the whole of the season. Later in the year she
made a very successful appearance at the Italian
Opera of Paris. She then returned to Milan,
and passed several months in hard study under
her former master. 1873 saw her again at
Covent Garden. In the autumn she sang at
St. Petersburg, and between that and her next
London season, re-visited America and sang
once more in Uie cathedral at Albany. Since
then Madlle. Albani has appeared regularly at
Covent Garden, and is now one of the per-
manent ornaments of that theatre. On Aug. 6,
1878, she married Mr. Ernest Gye, who, since
his father's death (Dec. 4, 1878), has been lessae
of the theatre. It is sufficient to name her prin-
ci|)al parts — Amina (Sonnambula), Margherita
(Faust), Mignon, Ophelia, Elsa (Lohengrin),
Lucia, Lin£t, Gilda (Kigoletto), Elisabetta
(Tannhauser), to indicate the wide range of her
vocal talent. Since 1872 she has sung every
autumn at one or more of our great provincial
festivals. Her voice is a light soprano of great
beauty and very sympathetic quality, especially
telling in the higher registers. She is in addition
a fine pianoforte player. [H. S.E.]
LALANDE, HENRIETTE-CLfilCENTINB Mfi-
RIC, the daughter of Lamiraux-Lalande, the
chief of a provincial operatic company, was born
at Dunkerque in 1798. Having been taught
music by her father, she soon developed a fresh
and ringing voice, and was endowed with excel-
lent memory and intelligence; but the only
teaching she really had was in the music of the
parts entrusted to her. She made her cUbut
with success in 1814 at Naples : F^tis heard her,
and admired her as an actress of op^ra comique,
at Douai in the following year. She continued
to sing till 1833, with equal success, in the prin-
cipal towns of France, and was then engaged at
the Gymnase DramoHque. at Paris, Ebers having
made an unsuccessful attempt to engage her for
London. Clever enough to perceive, however,
after hearing the singers at the Italian Opera^
how utterly she was without the knowledge
of the proper manner of producing her voice,
she took lessons of Garcia, and maide her first
appearance, April 3, 1833, in ' Les Folies amou-
reuses,' a pasticcio arranged by Castil-Blaze.
About this time she Isecame the wife of M. Mdrio,
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«6
UOANDE.
a horn-pUyer at tbe Op^ra Comiqae. Bejecting
the offer of an engagement at the latter theatre,
on Garcia's adyioe, she went to Italy, and re-
ceived additional teaching from Bonfichi and
Banderali at Milan. A^er singing with in-
creased ^lat at Venice, Mmiich, Bresda, Cre-
mona, Venice (again), and other Italian cities,
she at length appeared in London during the
season of 1830. *She had been for six years
reported to be one of tiiie best singers of Italy —
much had been expected of her . . . She had been
compared with the best of the best : but she
arrived in England too late, and her place, more-
over, had been filled by women of greater g^iius.
She was a good musician, and sang with taste ;
but her voice, a soprano, ere she came had con-
tracted a hi^it of trembling, in those days a
novdty (would it had always remained so !), to
which E"g^i«»h ears were tii^ averse. She gave
little satis&ctaon ' (Clhorley). Mme. M^rio sang,
kowev«r, again in London in 183 1. In Paris she
pleased no better in these latter years, and at
length retired, in 1833, as it is said, to Spain ;
since tiien no more has been heard of her. A bio-
graphy, with a portrait, of Mme. M^ric-Lalande
was published in the musical journal, Teatro
deUa Fenicty Venice, 1836, i8mo. [J.M.]
LALLA R(X)KH. Moore's poem has been
the parent of several musical compositions.
I. An opera, by G. £. Horn ; produced in
Dublin in or about 1830. 2, A ditto by Felicien
David. [See Lalla Roukh.] 3. A ditto in 3
acts ; words by Rodenberg, music by Rubinstein ;
produced at Dresden in March, 1 863. Hie name
of the piece has since been changed to Feramors.
4. Das Paradies und die Peri, by Schumann; and
t^. Paradise and the Peri, a Fantasie-Ovcorture
i)y Sterndale Bennett. For these two last see
their own headings. [G.]
LALLA ROUKH. Opera in, 3 acts, founded
on Moore^s poem; words by Lucas and Carrd,
music by Felicien David. Produced at the
OpAra Comique May I3, 1862. [G.]
LAMB, Benjamin, oxganist of Eton CoUege
in the first quarter of the 1 8th century, and also
verger of St. George^s C]!hi^>el, Windsor, wais the
oomposer of some church music. An evening
'Cantate' service and four anthems by him are
in the Tudway collection (HarL MSS. 7341-4^).
He was also a oomposer of songs. [W. H. H.]
. LAMBERT, (tXORGe Jackbon, son of George
Lambert, organist of Beverley Minster, was b<^
at Beverly in 1795. He studied under his
fibtiier until he was sixteen, then in London
under Samod Thomas Lyon, and finally became
a pupil of Dr. Orotch. In 181 8 he succeeded
liis &ther at Beverley. His compositions in-
clude overtures, instrumental chamber music,
organ fugues, pianoforte pieces, etc. In 1874
ill health and deafiiess compelled him to relin*
^uish his post and retire from active life.
The two Lamberts suooessively held tiie office
of organist of Beverley Minster for the long
seriod of 96 years, the father for 40 and the son
lor 56 years, and but for the latter's deafiiess
LAMENTATKjNa
would have held it for a century, a drcumstanoe
probably unparalleled. [ W. H. H.]
LAMENTATIONS (Lat. Zamentaliones Eie^
remice). On the Thursday, Friday, and Satur-
day, in Holy Week, the three First Lessons ap-
pomted, in the Roman Breviary, for the Office
called TenebrcBf are taken from the Lamentations
of Jeremiah ; and the extraordinary beauty of the
music to which they are sung, in the Sistine
Chapel, and other large Ghurches, contributes
not a little to the impressive character of the
Service. [See Tenebba.]
It is impossible to ta-ace to its origin the Plain
Chaunt melody to which the Lamentations were
anciently adapted. The most celebrated version —
though not, perhaps, the purest — is that printed
by Guidetti, in his 'Directorium Chori,' in 1582,
The best modem editions are those contained in
the Mechlin 'Graduale,' and the Mechlin, and
Ratisb(>n,'Officium Hebdomads Sanctse^ in which
the Lessons are given, at full length, in Gr^orian
notation, although the mlisic is r^dly no more
than a simple Chaunt, in the Sixth Mode, re-
peated, almost notatim, not only to each separate
verse of the Sacred Text, but even to the prefatory
'Incipit Lamentatio Jeremise Prophetas,' and the
names of the Hebrew letters with whidi the
several paragraphs are introduced.
ri. Modus.
Early in the i6th century, the use of the Plain
Chaunt Lamentations was discontinued, in ^
Pontifical Chapel, to make room for a polyphonic
setting, by Elziario Grenet — more conmionly
known by his Italian cognomen, Carpentrasso—
who held the appointment of Maestro di Capella,
from 1515 to 1536. These compositions remained
in constant use, till the year 1587, when Pope
Sixtus y. ordained, that the First Lamentatioa
for each day should be adapted to some kind of
polyphonic music better fitted to express the
mournful character of the words than that of
Carpentraaso ; and, that the Second and Thixtl
Lessons should be sung, by a single Soprano, to
the old Plain Chaunt melody as revised by
Guidetti. The disuse of Carpentrasso^s time-
honoured harmonies gave great offence to the
Choir : but, the Pope's command being absduie,
Palestrina composed some music to the First
Lamentation for Good Friday, in a manner so
impressive, that all opposition was at once
silenced ; and the Pope, himself, on leaving the
Chapel, said, that he hoped, in the fc^wing
year, to hear the other two First Lessons sui^
in exactly ^e same style. The expression of this
wish was, of course, a command : and, so under*
standing it, Palestrina produced, in January
1588, a volume, oontaiiung a complete set of tiw
nine Lamentations — three, for each of the three
days — which were printed, the same year, by
Alexander Gardanus, under the title of Lammin-
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LAAfENTATIONS.
tkruHmUber primuB, The work wm pre&ced by
ft iormal dedication to ihe Supreme Pontiff, who»
though he still adhered to his resolution of having
the Second and Third Lessons sung always in
Plain Chaunt, expressed great pleasure in accept-
ing it : and, ^ ^i^> i^ was reprinted, at Venice,
in 8vo., by Girolaino Scoto.
More oomnlex in construction than the gzeat
Composer's ' Lnproperiay' though infinitely less so
thsn his Masses and Motets, these matchless
'Lsmentations' are written, throughout^ in the
devout and impressive style which produces so
profound an effect in the first-named work, and
always with marked attention to the mournful
•pirit of the words. They do not, like the Plain
Cfaaunt rendering, embrace the entire text : but,
after a certain number of verses, pause on the
final chord of a pndonged cadence, and then pass
on to the Strophe, JerusaUnit JeruscUem, with
which eabh of the nine Lessons concludes. In
the single Lesson for Good Friday — which, though
not induded in the original printed copy, is, un-
doabtedly, the most beautiful of all — the opening
Terses are sung by two Soprani, an Alto, and a
Tenor; a Baas being added, in the concluding
Strophe, with wonderful effect. A similar ar-
rangement is followed in the third Lamentation
for the same day : but the others are for four
voices mdy, and most of them with a Tenor in the
lowest place ; while in all« without exception, the
introductory sentences, 'Incipit Lamentatio,' or,
'De Lamentatione,' as weU as the names of the
H^irew initial letters, are set to harmonies of
infinite richness and b^uty^ —
Feria FT la Parcueem, L§eth I.
BAMEa^ATIONa
67
Since the death of Palestrina, the manner of
singing the Lamentations in the Pontifical Chapel
has undergone no very serious change. In ac-
cordance with the injunction of Pope Sixtus V,
the Second and Hiird Lessons for each day have
always been sung^ in Plain Chaunt: generally,
by a single Soprano; but, sometimes, by two,
i of eoarae, nHhoot w acoonafnluient.
the perfection of whose unisonous
has constantly caused it to be mistaken for that
of a single Voice. Until the year 1640, the First
Lesson for each day was sung from Palestrina's
printed volume. In that year, the single unpub-
lished Lesson for Good Fridav, composed in 1587,
was restored to its placet, ana the use of the pub-
lished one discontinued : while a new composition,
by Gregorio Allegri, was substituted for Pales-
trina's Lesson for Holy Saturday. The restoration
of the MS. work can only be regarded as an
inestimable gain. Allegri's work will not bear
comparison with that wUch it displaced ; though
it is a composition of the highest order of ment,
abounding in beautiful combinations, and written
with a true appreciation of the spirit of the text.
It opens as follows : —
Sabbato Saneto, Lectio I,
It will be seen that Allegri has here not only
adopted the tonality in wUch nearly all Pales-
trina's Lamentations are written — the Thirteenth
Mode, transposed — but has also insensibly fallen
very much into the Great Master's method of
treatment. Unhappily, the same praise cannot
be awarded to another work, which he produced
in 1 65 1, a few months only before his death, and
which, though it bears but too plain traces of his
falling discernment, was accepted by the College,
as a nubrk of respect to the dying Composer, and
retained in use until the Pontificate of Benedict
XIII. This Pontiff inaugurated a radical change,
by decreeing that the First Lessons should no
longer be sung in this shortened form, but, with
the entire text set to music. To meet his desire,
three Lamentationi^ by modem writers, were
submitted for approval, but unanimously rejected
by the Collc^, who ccnnmissioned Giovanni feordi
to add to the compositions of Palestrina and
Allegri whatever was necessary to complete the
text. Biordi was, perhaps, as well fitted as any
man then living to undertake this difficult task :
but it is to be regretted that he did not more
carefully abstain fiom the use of certain forbidden
intervals, and unlicensed chords. At the word,
UurvmU, in the Lesson for Good Friday, he has
maoe the first Soprano move a chromatic semi-
tone, thereby producing, with the other parte, the
chord of the Augmented Sixth. No doubt, his
object in d<nng this was to intensify the ex-
pression of the word : bit, neither the semitone,
nor the chord, would have been tolerated by
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86
LAMENTATIONa
Palesirina.^ Affam, in the Lesson for Holy Satur-
day, he has used the dimimshed fourth in disjunct
motion, and broken many other time-honoured
rules. Nevertheless, his work — which is, in many
respects, extremely good — was unhesitatingly ac-
cepted, and retained in use till the year 173I1
when Pope Clement XII. restored the Lamenta-
ticms to their original shortened form. In this
form they were suffered to remain, till 181^,
when the indefatigable Baini restored Palestrina s
printed Lamentation for the first day, retaining
the MS. of 1587 for the second, and Allegri*s
really beautiful composition for the third ; while
the last-named oomposer*s inferior work was suf-
fered to fall into disuse — an arrangement which
left little to be desired, and which has not, we
believe, been followed by any farther change.
Besides the printed volume already mentioned,
Palestrina composed two other entire sets x>f
Lamentations, which, though written in his best
and purest style, remuned, for two centuries and
a haLf, impublished. One of them was prepared,
as early as the year 1560, for the use of the
Lateran Basilica, where the original MS. is still
preserved. The other reaches us only through
the medium of a MS. in the Altaemps Otthoboni
collection, now in the Vatican Library. In the
year 1842, Alfieri printed the three sets, entire,
in the 4th volume of his RoLccolta di Mutica Sacra,
together with the single Lajnentation for Good
Fnday, to which he appended Biordi*s additional
verses, without, however, pointing out the place
where Paleetrina's work ends, and Biordi^s begins.
The three single I^amentations, sung in the Pon-
tifical Chapel, are given, with Bioidi^s now use-
less additions, in a volume of the same editor*s
Excerpta, published in 1840; and, without
Biordi's verses, in Choron^s Collection da Pieces
de Mutique Religieate, Botii these editions are
now out of print, and difficult to obtain : but a
fine reprint of the nine pieces contained in the
original Lamentationum liber primus will be
found in Proske's Mudca Divinat vol. iv. Mr.
Capes, in his Selection from the works of Pales-
tarina (Novello), has given the ist Lamentation
in Coenft Domini, and the ist in Sabb. Sancto,
from the 1st book (1588^, and has introduced
between them the single Lesson for GUxkI Friday
(1587) already mentioned.
Though the Lamentations of Carpentrasso, Pa-
lestrina, and Allegri, are the only ones that have
ever been actually used in the Pontifical Chapel,
many others have been produced by Composers
of no small reputation. As early as the year
1 506, Ottaviano dei Petrucd published, at Venice,
two volumes, containing settings by Johannes
Tinctoris, Ycaert, De Orto, Francesco (d*Ana)
da Venezia, Johannes de Quadris, Agricola, Bar-
tolomeo Tiomboncino, and Caspar and £numu8
Lapicida. All these works were given te the
1 Alfleri Y\Mn pabUsbed two edHions of thlt work ; and. In both, he
hu iiuwrted BlonU't additional Terns, without Tonohtalhw any O^a—
berond that affurded by internal evidence— to Indicate that tbejr are
not the Benolne work of Palestrina himseli; We mention thbclrenra-
atanoe, in order to Bhow the danser of tmstli^ in doulnftil eaaes, to
the aathArity of any modem edition whaterer. Alfieri'* rolumee may.
•ome day. lead to the belief that Palestrina permitted the aw of the
ehromatk semltooe la hit Eoelealaitkal Dittlo!
LAMPEBTI.
world before that of Carpentrasso, which, witii
many more of his compositions, was fint printed,
at Avignon, by Johannes Channay, in 1533. But
the richest collection extant is that entitled
Piissimce ae aacratissimoi Lamentatione» Jertmice
Propheta, printed, in Paris, by A. le Boy and
Bobert Ballard, in 1557, and containing, besides
Carpentrasso*s capo d'opera, some extremely fine
examples by De la Bae, Fevin, Arohadelt, Festa^
and Claudin le Jeune.
' Lamentations' by English Composers are ex-
ceedingly rare : hence, quite an exceptional in-
terest is attached to a set of six, for five Voices, by
R. Whyte, discovered by Dean Aldrich, and pre-
served, in MS., in the Library of Christ Church,
Oxford. [See Whttb, Robem.] [W. S. E.]
LAMPE, John Fbedebick, a native of Saxony,
bom 1703, came to England about 1735, and
was engaged as a bassoon-player at the Opera.
In 1733 he composed the music Hot Carey's
'Amelia.* In 1737 he published * A Plain and
Compendious Method of teaching Thorough-Bass,'
-etc., and also furnished the music for Carey's
burlesque opera "* The Dragon of Wantley,' which
met with remarkable success. It is an admirable
example of the true burlesque, and is said to
have been an espedal favourite of Handel's. In
1738 he composed music for the sequel, 'Maigery ;
or, A Worse Plague than the Dragon.^ In 1 740
he published 'The Art of Musick,* and in 1741
composed music for the masque of -'The Sham
Conjuror.' In 1745 he composed * Pyramus and
Thisbe, a mock opera, the words taken from
Shakspeare.' Lampe was the composer of many
single songs, several of which appeared in Col-
lections, as 'Wit musically emb^sh^d, a Col-
lection of Forty -two new English Ballads';
'The Ladies' Amusement* and 'Lyra Britan-
nica.' Many songs by him were included in * The
Vocal Musical Mask,' 'The Musical Miscellany,'
etc. Lampe married Isabella, daughter of Charles
Young, and sister of Mrs. Ame; she was a
favourite singer^ both on the stage and in the
concert -room. In 1748 he went to Dublin, and
in 1750 to E<finburgh, wheae he died, July 35,
1751, leaving behind him the reputation of
an accomplished musician and excellent man.
Charles Wesley often mentions him with great
afiection, and wrote a hymn on bh death — * Tis
done ! the Sovereign Will 's obeyed ! *
Charles John Frbdeeick, his son, succeeded
his grandfather, Charles Young, as organist of
Allhallows, Barking, in 1758, aiid held the
appointment until 1769. [W^.H.]
LAMPERTI, Fbancesoq, teacher x>f singing.
Bom at Savona 181 3. His father was an ad-
vocate, and his mother a prima- donna of con*
siderable repute. As a child he showed great
talent for music, and was placed under Pietra
Rizzi of Lodi. In 1830 he entered the Conaer-
vatorio at Milan, And there studied the piano-
forte and harmony under Sommaruga d'Appiano
and Pietro Ray. Devoting himself afterwards
to the teaching of singing, ne became associated
with Masini in the direction of the Teatro
Filodrammatico at Lodi. Selecting many of the
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LAMPERTL
mratbere of his oompany from ihe natives of the
sttRoandiiig ooimiry, he educated and brought
out at his theatre many famous singers, such as
La Tiberini, whose reputation otherwise would
neTer have extended beyond their native village.
Attracted by their suooess pupils flocked to
him from Bergamo, Milan, and other parts of
Europe, and he there trained many of the most
distinguished <^)eratic vocalists; amongst whom
may be named Jeanne-Sophie Lowe, Cruvelli,
Grua, Brambilla, Hayes, Artdt, Tiberini, La
Grange, and others equally distinguished. Ap-
pointed in 18^0 by the Austrian government
professor of smging to the Conservatorio at
Milan, he brought out amongst others Angelica
Moro, Paganini, Galli, lUsarelli, An^eri,
Peralta^, and as private pupils, Albaai, Stdtz,
Waldmann, Aldighieri, Campanini, Vialletti,
Derevis, Mariani, Palermi, £verardi, and Shake-
speare. After twenty -five years service he retired
from the Conservatorio upon a pensiom in 1875,
and now devotee himself entirely to private pupils.
A friend of Rubini and Pasta, and associated
with the great singers of the past, Lamperti
fiiUows the method of the old Italiim school of
singing, instituted by Farinelli and taught by Cres*
oentini, Velluti, Miut^esi, and Romani. JBasing
his teaching upon the study of respiration, the
taking and retention of the breath by means of
the abdominal muscles alone, and the just emis-
sion of the voice, he thoroughly grounds his pupils
in the production of pure tone. His memory
and his intuition are alike remarkable, and en-
able him to adapt to each of his pupils such
readings of the music and jeadenzas as are war-
ranted by the traditions of the greatest singers
and are best adapted to their powers. Mme.
Albani, writing in L875 of his published treatise
on singing, says : ' To say that I appreciate the
work, it is sufficient for me to state that I am a
pimil of the Maestro Lamperti, and that I owe
to nim and to his method the true art of singing,
00 little known in these days.*
He is Commendatore and Cavaliere of the
order oi the Crown of Italy, and a member of
many academies and foreign orders. He is the
author of several series of vocal studies and of a
treatiM on the art of singing (Ricordi & Co.),
which has been translated into English by one of
hia pupils. [Jr.C.G.]
LANCERS* QUADRILI^, THE, a square
dance, for 8 or 16 couples. It would appear
to have been the invention of Joseph Habt in
1819, according to the title-page of his original
editaco, published in i Sao. * Les Lanciers, a
second set of Quadrilles for the Piano Ferte, with
entirely new figures, as danced by the Nobility
and Gentry at Tenby in the summer of 1819.
Compoeed and most respectfuUy dedicated to
Lady and the Misses Beechy by Joseph Hart.
London, for the Author, Whitaker & Co., 75 St.
Paul's Churchyard.* The dance consisted of 5
figures — La Rose. La Lodoiska, La Dorset, Les
Lanci^s, and L'Etoile, danced to Airs by Spa-
gnotetti, by Kreutzer, from the B^var's Opera
('If the heart of a man'), by Jamewicz, and
LANGf.
Sd
by Horn ('Pretty Maiden,' from ihe Haunted
Tower) respectively. Another version was pub*
lished by Duval of Dublin about the same time.
In this the names of the figures and the music
remain substantially the same, though in the
figures themselves there is considerable alteration.
Hart's figures, with a slight difference or two,
are still danced, L'Etoile being now called Les
Visites, and Les Lanciers danoeid last. Whether
Hart or Duval was the real inventor is un-
certam. [W.B.8.]
LANDOLFI, Carlo Fkrdinando (Lan-
DULPHUS), a reputable violin-maker of Milan,
where he lived in the Street of St. Margaret,
i75o~'7^* He lived in an age when it had be*
come expedient to copy rather than to invent.
He occasionallv copied Joseph Guamerius so
cleverly as to deceive experienced judges : and
many of his works consequently cut a figure in the
world even above their high intrinsic merits. Lan-
dolfi's patterns, in the midst of much excellence,
exhibit that occasional fidtering which too surely
betrays the copyist ; and his varnish is less soli(^
and possesses more of the quality known as
' sugariness,' than the makers of the golden a^e.
Often it is thin and hard, especially when yellow
in colour. Many red instruments nowever exist,
which are covered with a highly transparent
varnish : and these are the favourites. The Lan-
dolfi violoncellos are especially striking in quality
and appearance, and are in greater demand than
the violins. Oood speciiik3iis realise from ^£30 to
£50 : common and undersized ones may be bought
cheaper. [E.J.P]
LANDSBERG, Ludwio, a German musician,
native of Breslau^ who went to Rome and re-
mained there for 24 years, teaching the piano
imd amassing a wonderful collection of music,
both printed and MS. On his death, at Rome
May 6, 1858, his library was taken, part to
Berlin and part to Breslan, and a catologue of
the ancient portion was printed (Berlin, 1859, .
imprim^ chez Ernest Etthn) — whether the whole
or a part, does not appear. It contains composi-
tions by more than 150 musicians of the old
Italian and Flemish schools, down to Casali.
M. F^tis, however, who had received a MS.
catalogue of the collection from Landsberg during
his life, insists upon the fact that many of the
most important works have disappeared. The
catalogue itself does not appear to be any longer in
the F^tis Library, which is now at Brussels. [G.]
LANG. A family of German musicians origin-
ally from Mannheim, but settling at Munich,
and mentioned here for the sake of Josephine
Lang (the second of that name), bom Mar. 14,
1 81 5, a young lady of very remarkable musical
gifcs and personality, who attracted the notice of
Mendelssohn when he passed through Munich in
1830 and 31. There is an enthusiastic account
of 'die kleine Lang' in his letter of Oct. 6, 31 ;
in writing to Barmann (July 7 and Sept. 27, 1834)
he enquires for her, and in a letter seven years
later (Dec. 15, 41) to Professor Kostlin of Tubin-
gen, who had just married her, he shows how
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JJlSCL
deeply lier Image had impressed itself on his
■usoeptible heart. She has published several
books of songs (up to op. 58), which from the
reviews in the AUg. mus. Zeitung, appear to be
full of imagination, and weU worthy of the warm
sraise bestowed on them by Mendelssohn in the .
letters just mentioned. Hiller tells the story of
her life at length in his Tonleben (ii. 116), and
•elects her songs, op. 1 2 Mid 14, as the best. Con-
nected with the same £unily at an earlier date
was Rbgina ItAVQ, a singer whose name was
originally Hitzelberg, bom at Wttnsburg 1786,
educated at Munich by Winter, Cannabich, aad
Vpgel, and became chamber singer at the Bava-
rian Court. When Napoleon I. was at Munich
in 1806 she sang before him in Winter^s ' Inter-
rupted Sacrifioe ' and Mozart^s ' Don Giovanni/
and so pleased him that he is said to have urged
her to come to Paris (Mendel). She however re-
mained in Munich, and married Theobald Lang,
a violinist in the Court band. In i8x 2 or 13 she
was at Vienna, and Beethoven wrote in her album
ft song 'An die Geliebte,* to Stellas words, ' O dass
Ich du* vom stilleAuge.Vhich was published about
1840 in a collection called ' Das singende Deutsch-
landL* It is his second version of the song — the
former one being dated by himself December 1 8 1 1 ,
and having been published in 181 4. See Notte-
bohm's Thematic Cat of Beethoven, p. 1 83. [G .]
LANGDON, RioflABD, Mus. Bao., son of
Rev. Tobias Laugdon, priest vicar of Exeter
'Cathedral, gvadual^ as Mus. Bao. at Oxford in
1 7^1 . About 1 770 he received the appointments
4)i organist and sub-chanter of Exeter Cathedral,
but resigned them in 1777 upcm being choeen
organist of Bristol Cathedral. He quittwl Bristol
in 1 782 to become organist of Armagh Cathedral,
which he resigned in 1 794. In 1 7 74 he published
* Divine Harmony, a Colleotlon, in score, of
Psalms and Anthems.' His published com-
positions include 'Twelve Glees,' two books of
songs, and some canzonets. Two glees and a
catch by him are contained in Warren's ' Vocal
Harmony.* He died Sept. 1805. Langdon in F
is still a &vourite double chant. [W. H. H.]
LANGE. a fiunily intimatd^y connected with
Mozart, inasmuch as his wife's sister, Aloysia
Webor, in 1780 married the famous Joseph
Lange, an actor, who held the same rank in
Germany that Garrick did in England and
Lekain in France. Mozart's marriage to her
younger sister, Constanz, took plaoe Aug. 4,
1 783. Lange w9A bom at WUrzbui^, 1 75i» ^'od
died at Vienna in 1 8 2 7. Aloysia was a very great
singer; her voice wanted power, but was sud to
be * the sweetest ever heard * (Jahn, ii. 18). Its
compass was extraordinary, from B below the
stave to A on the sixth space above it ; as may
be seen from the songs wnich Mozart wrote for
her — the part of ' the Queen of Night ' in the
Zauberflote, and several detached bravura airs.
She died in 1830. Mozart was for a time vio-
lently in love with her. [Webeb.] [G.]
LANGSAM, i. e, slow, the Grerman equivalent
ior Adagio. 'Jiangsam und sehnsuchtsvoU ' 10
IiAKIEEE.
Beethoven^s direction to the tiiird movement of
the Sonata op. loi, equivalent to Adagio etm
moUo di sentimerUo, S^ also the opening eoiig
of the Liederkreis, op. 98. Schumann empk>y8 it
habitually ; see the fint movement of his Synir
phony in E b. [G.]
LANGSHAW, Johk, was employed aboot
1 76 1, under the direction of John Christof^ier
Smith, in setting music upon tiie barrek of an
organ, of much larger size than had been thereto-
fore used for barrels, then being constructed &r
the Earl of Bute, which he did ' in so masterly
a manner that the offset was equal to Uiat
produced by the most finished player.* In 177a
ke became organist of the parish church of
Lancaster, and died in 1 798.
His s(m, John, was born in London in I7^3i
in 1779 became a pupil of Charles Wesley, and
in 1798 succeeded his father as oiganist at
Lancaster. He composed many hymns, diaats,
organ voluntaries, pianoforte ooncertos, songs
and duets, and made numerous arrangements for
the pianoforte. [W.H.H.]
LANIERE, Nicholas, was the son of Jerome
Laniere, an Italian musician, who, together with
Nicholas Laniere, probably his brother, settled
in England, and in 15 71 were musicians to Queen
Elizabeth. The date of his birth is not known,
but it was probably about 1590. His name fint
appears as singer and composer in the masque
performed at court on the marriage of Carr, Eari
of Somerset, and Lady Frances Howard in 1614,
the first song in which, ' Bring away the sacred
tree* (reprinted in Smith's 'Musica Antiqua'),
was composed by him. His skill as a sin^ if
alluded to in some lines addressed by Hemck to
Henry Lawes. He composed the music for Ben
Jonson's masque presented at the house of Lord
Hay for the entertainment of Baron de Tour, the
French Ambassador. 00 Saturday, Feb. 2 a, 1617.
*in stylo recitativo,' being the &Bt introdoctioB
of recitative into an English composition. He
also sang in the pieoe and painted the scenery
for it. He next composed the music for Jonson's
maaque, 'The Vision of Delight,* performed at
court at Christmas, 161 7. Laniere cultivated the
arts of painting and engraving as well as that of
music, and his judgment was so much esteemed,
thai he was sent by Charles I. to Italy to pur-
chase pictures in 1625, and again in 1627 to
negodate for the purchase of the Duke of
Mantua's ocdlection. One of those pictures was
* Mercury instructiBg Cupid,' by Correggio. now
in the National Gallery. He was i^tpointed
* Master of the King's Musick,* at an annual
salary of £200, by patent dated July 11, 1626.
In 1636 Charles I. granted to Laniere and
oUiers a diarter, based upon one of Edward IV.,
inoorporadng them under the style of 'The
Miursnal, Wardens, and Cominality of the Arte
and Science of Musick in Westminster,' and
giving them power to control and regulate ail
matters connected with music, and of thia body
Laniere was appointed the first Marshal. At
the foil of Charles, Laniere lost his court ap-
pointmentsy but was reinstated in them on
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IAKI£!RE.
^ aooenion of duurlee II., and ihe Corpon^
tioo of Moaiciaiis was revived. The date of his
death is tmkiiown; he was living in 1665, but
dead in Jao. 1670, when Capt. Cooke's name
sf^ears as Marshai of the Corporation. He com-
posed a funeral hymn on Charles I., a pastoral
raxm the fairth of Prince Charles, and New
Yearns Songs for 1663 and 1665. Songs and
oiher pieces bj him are contained in 'Select
Mnsicall Ayras and Dialogues,' 1653 and 1659;
'The Musical Companion/ 1667 ; * The Treasury
of HosiGk,* 1669 ; and ' Choice Ayres and Songs,'
hsok ir, 1685. Several songB and dialogues by
him are in the British Museum, Add. MSa
11,608. Vandyc^ painted Laniere*s portrait for
Charles L Another portrait is in the Music
Sdiod at Oxfbed, to whidi it was presented by
Laniere himsftlf. The Laniere fumSly was very
nameroas, and several of its mambsrs were court
mnsknans ib the 1 7th century. [W. H. H.]
LANNER, Joseph, b<»n at Vienna, April
12, 1801 ; son of a glove-maker; earlv showed
s tident for music, taught himself the violin, and
by means of theoretical books learned to com-
pos^ Next came the desire to conduct an
ofdieBtra ; and in the meantime he got together
a quartet party, in which the viola was taken by
Strauss, ms subsequent rival. Th^ played
po^HHuris from £ftvourite operas, marches, etc.,
aoiDged by Lanaer. He next composed waltzes
and IMadler, first for a small, then for a full
achestra, and performed them in public* His
poptdari^ increased rapidly, and important
pboas OK amusement eagerly competed for his
■errioes. He also appeared in moat of the
provincial -capitals> but declined all mvitations
abroad. He conducted the dance music in the
laigt and small Redoutensaal, and also that at
the court balls, alternately with Strauss. As
a mark of distinction he was appointed Capell-
master of the and Biirger-regiment. When thus
at the height of nrosperity he died, April 1 4, 1 84 3 ;
and was buried in the churchyard of Dobling,
near Vienna. A memorial tablet was placed on
the house in which he was bom. May 15, 1879.*
Lanner may be considered the founder of our
present dance-music. His galcms, quadrilles,
pdka^ and marches, but en>eciaily his waltzes
and Liindler, bear traces 01 the frank, genial
diiposition which made him so beloved. All his
"voiles, from op. I. (' Neue Wiener Landler ') to
his swan-song ('Die Schcmbrunner *) are pene-
trated with the warm national life of Vienna.
The titles often contain allusions to contempo-
laoeous events and customs, and thus have an
historical interest. His printed works amount
to aoS, and he left others unpublished. The
Allowing numbers are dedicated to crowned
heads, and distinguished persons— op. 74, 81, 85,
91,101,110-12,115-16, lao, 138, i3i-32> ^38
(* Victoria- Walzer ' dedicated to Queen Victoria),
143.146,155,161-63. The* Troubadour- Walzer/
op. 197, are dedicated to Donizetti, and tiie
*Norwegische Arabesken/ op. 145, to Ole BuH.
* Owtaf to a cnrloq* error In the «Dtif of Ills iMptlsm, hlc jnne
vu for toot overlooked In tbe Vetister.
LAPOETB.
n
Diabelll published op. 1-15 ; HasKnger 16-33,
and 170-308; Mechetti 33-169.
Of LaCnner's three children, August, bom 1834
in Vienna, a young man of great promise, fcd^
lowed his Other's profession, but died Sept. 37,
1855. Kathabina, bora in Vienna 1831, is
a well-known dancer, who since her d^ut at
the court opera in Vienna in 1845, has appeared
at all the important theatres in Europe. She
has also written several admired ballets, and in
1858 formed a children's ballet in Hambiurg,
which gave 46 performances in Paris with great
success. At a later date she was engaged ako at
the Italian Opera in England. [C. F. P.]
LAPOBTE, PiEREE Fban^ois, an eminent
French comedian, came to London as a member
and jdnt manager of a company who, in January
1834, conmienoed performing French plays at
the theatre in Tottenham Street. On Nov. 18,
1836, he appeared on the English stage, as a
member of the Drury Lane company, as Sosia in
Dryden's * Amphitry<m,' and afterwards played a
variety of parts, mostly original, and amongst
them Wormwood in ' llie Lottery Ticket.* He
next joined the Haymarket company, in which
he first appeared June 15, 1837. In 1838 he
became manager of the King's Theatre, and
continued such until 1831. In 1833 he was
lessee of Covent (Wden Theatre, and actor as
well as manager, but was compelled to retire,
mth heavy loss, before the end of tlie season.
In 1833 he resumed the management of the
King's Theatre, and retained it until his death,
which occurred at his chateau near Paris, Sept.
35, 1841. A notable feature of his last season
was the ' Tamburini Bow/ a disturbance of thA
performance oocasi<»ed by the admirers of Tam-
burini, who resented his non- engagement for
that season, and by their tumultuous proceedings
far two or three evenings forced the manager to
yield to their wishes. Another curious feature
of this year was the re-appearance of Laporte in
his original capacity as an actor, with Rachel, on
three nights of her first London season. Laporte
first in^oduced to the English public, amongst
other operas, Bossini's 'ComteOry' and 'Assedio
di Conuto'; Bellini's 'Pirata,' • Sonnambula^*
'Norma' and 'Puritan!'; Doniaetti's 'Anna
Bolena,' and Costa's 'Malek Adel': and amongst
singers, Sontag, Meric Lalande, Persian!, Aa-
sandri, Albertazzi, Pisaroni, Donzelli, David jun^
Ivanoff, Mario; and, above all, the fSunouif
qvartet who so long held supremacy on the opera
stage, Grisi, Bubini, Tamburini^ and Lablache.
Though his dilatory and unbusinesslike habits
ruined his management, Laporte was not with-
out good qualities. Amongst others his tact and
coolness were great, and many of his hon$ moto
were cunent at the time. When Cerito returned
the tieket of a box on the upper tier with the
remark that she was much too young to be
exalted to the skies before her time, Laporte —
having already given a box on the same tier to
Taglioni — repli^ that he * had done his best, but
that perhaps he had been wrong in placing her on
the same levd with MdUe. Taglioni.' [W.H.H.]
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LARGE.
LARGE (Lat. Maxima, Old Eng. MojHm),
The longest note used in measured music In
ancient MSS., the Large appears as an oblong
black note, corresponding with the Double-Long
described in the Jrs Cantua Meneurahilu of
Franco of Cologne. Fcanchinus Grafforins, writing
in 1496, figures it as an oblong white note, with a
tail descending on the right hand side; which form
it has retained, unchan^dd, to the present day.^
Id ancient In printed Perfect Imperfect
MSS. books. Lar^eRest. Large Rest.
In the Great Mode Perfect, the Large is equal
to three Longs : in the Great Mode Imperfect, to
two. [See Mode.] The Rest for the Perfect
Laige stretches, in a double line, across three
spaces ; that for the Imperfect Lazge, across two.
In Polyphonic Music, the final note is always
written as a Large : and, in that position, its
length is sometimes Indefinitely prolonged, in the
Canto fermOf while the other voices are elaborat-
ing a florid cadence. In Plain Chaunt. the Large
— or, rather, in that case, the Double-Long — is
sometimes, but not very frequently, used, to indi-
cate the Redting-Note. [W. S. R.]
LARGHETTO, partaking of the broad style
of Largo, but about the same pace with Andante.
Well-known instances of its use are the slow
movements in Beethoven's and Symphony and
Violin Concerto. [G.]
- LARGO, i.e. broad, an Italian term meaning
a slow, broad, dignified style. Handel employs
it often, as in the Messiah in ' Behold the Lamb
of Gk)d,* * He was despised,' and * Surely.' Haydn
uses it for the Introduction and first Chorus
in the ' Creation,' as well as in the Introduction
to the 3rd Part. Beethoven employs it only in
P. F. works, and it is enough to mention some .of
the instances to show what grandeur and deep
feeling he conveyed by this term, — op. 7 ; op. 10,
no. 3 ; op. 37 ; op. 70, no. i ; op. 106. He often ac-
companies it with pa8i*ionato, or some other term
denoting intense expression. In the works of Men-
delssohn the term probably does not once occur.
The term Largamente has recently come into
use to denote breadth of style without change
of tempo. Largo implies a slow pace, but the
very varying metjronome marks applied to it show
conclusively that style and not pace is its princi-
pal intention. [G.]
LARIGOT (from an old French word, Varigot,
for a small flute or flageolet, now obsolete), the
old name for a rank of small opeu metal pipes,
the longest of which is only i^ ft. speaking-length.
Its pitch is a fifth above that of the fifteenth, an
octave above the twelfth, and a nineteenth above
the unison. It is first met with, in English
oigans, in those made by Harris, who pissed
many years in France, and who placed one in his
> In modem reprinti, th« tall b sometimes made to avcend ; but It
U tndtopenwble that it should be on the right hand side. See In-
numerable examples in Froetce's JTmhto Divmeu
LASSEN.
instrument in St. Sepulchre's, Snow Hill, erected
in 1670. [E.J.H.]
LAROCHE, James, better known as Jemmy
Laroch, or Laroohe, was a popular singer in
London, though probably French by origin or
birth, at the end of the 1 7th and beginning of
the 1 8th centuries. He played, as a boy, the
part of Cupid in Motteux's * Loves of Mars and
Venus,' set to music by Ecdee and Finger, in
which the part of Venus was played by Mrs.
Bracegirdle, in 16^. He was, therefore, bom
probably about io8o-a. His portrait appears
on a very rare print, called * The Raree Show.
Sung by Jemmy Laroch in the Musical Interlude
for Uie Peace, with the Tune Set to Musick for the
Violin. Ingraved Printed Culred and Sold by.
Sutton NichoUs next door to the Jack, etc. Lon-
don,' fol. It was afterwards published by Samuel
Lyne. There are 33 verses beginning * O Raree
Show, O Brave Show' below the engraving,
which represents Laroche with the show on a
stool, exhibiting it to a group of children ; and
at foot is the music. The Peace of Utrecht wa*»
signed in April, 1713, and this interlude was
played in celebration of it, at the Theatre in
Little Lincoln's Inn Fields, the music being
written by John Eocles. The portrait of La-
roche was also engraved by M. Laroon in his
* Cries of London.' [J. M.]
LAROON, J., a foreigner who sang in opera
in the first years of the last century in LondoiU
and was, perhaps, the son of M. Laroon, the
artist (bom at the Hague 1653, died 1705), who
engraved the * Cries of London,' etc. J. Laroon
played, among other parts, that of Sylvander
(tenor) in * The Temple of Love,' by G. F. Sag-
gione (1706), not (as Bumey incorrectly says)
byGreber. [See Gallia.] [J.M.]
LASSEN, Eduard, though a native of Copen-
hagen, where he was born April 13, 1830, is vir-
tu^ly a Belgian musician, since he was taken to
Brussels when only 3, entered the Conservatoire
there at 1 2, in 1844 took the first prize as P. F.
player, in 47 the same for harmony, and soon
afterward the second prize for composition. His
successes, which were many, were crowned by
the great Grovemment prize, which was adjudged
to him in 185 1, after which he started on a length-
ened tour through Grermany and Italy. Dis-
appointed in his hopes of getting his 5 -act opera,
' I^ Roi Edgard ' performed at Brussels, he betook
himself to Weimar, where in 57 it was produced
under the care of Liszt, with great success. A
second, * Frauenlob,' and a third, 'Der Ge&ngene.'
were equally fortunate. When Liszt retired
from Weimar, Lassen took his place, and had
the satisfaction to produce ' Tristan and Isolde '
in 1874, at a time when no other theatre but
Munich had dared to do so. He th«« published
a Symphony in D, a Beethoven overture, and a
Festival ditto, music to Sophocles' (Edipus, to
Hebbers Nibelungen, and Goethe's Faust, Parts
I and a, a Fest-Cantate, a Te Deum, a large
number of songs, and other pieces. His latest
work is a set of 6 songs (op. 67). [G.]
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LASSERRE.
LASSBRRE, Jules, eminent yiolonoellist, was
bom at TVu-bes July 39, 1838, entered the Paris
Oomerratoire in i S5 2, where he gained the second
priae in 1853 and the first prize in 1855. When
the popalar concerts of rasdeloup were first
•tarted, iie was appointed solo violoncellist ; he
has also played with great success in the prin-
cioal towns of France. During 1859 he was solo
cellist at the Ck>uri of Madrid, and travelled
through Spain. In 1869 he came to reside per-
manently in England, since which time he has
played principal violoncello under Sir Michael
Co^ and at the Musical Union. Lasserre has
written various compositions both for his own
instrument and for the violin — Etudes, Fantasies,
Bomanoes, Tarantelles, Transcriptions, a violon-
ceUo ' Method,' etc., etc. [T.P.H.]
LASSIJS, Orlando di, bom at Mons in the first
half of tiie i6th century. His real name was
probably Delattre, but the form de Lassus seems
to have been constantly used in Mons at the
time, and was not his own invention. He had no
fixed mode of writing his name, and in the prefaces
to the first four volumes of the 'Patrocinium
Mosioee,* signs himself difierently each time, —
Oriandus de Lasso, Orlandus di Lasso, Orlandus
di Lassus, and Orlandus Lassus ; and again in the
' Lectiones Hiob,' 1582, Orlando de Lasso. In the
French editions we usually find the name Orlando
de Lassus, and so it appears on the statue in his
native town. Adrian Le Roy, however, in some
of the Paris editions, by way perhaps of Latin-
izing the de, calls him Orlandus Lassusius. ^
lie two works usually referred to for his early
life are Vincliant's 'Annals of ^Hainauh' ; and
a notice by Van Quickelberg in 1565, in the
'Heroum Proeopographia,* a biographical die-
ti<»ary compiled by Pantaloon. Yinohant, under
tiie year 1 520, writes as follows : —
' Oriami dit La$m9 wai bom in the towB of Mons, in
fbe tune year that Charles V was proclaimed Emperor
u Aiz-la-Ctaapelle [1&20) .... He was bom in the Bue
de Ooiilaade near the paseaoe leading from the Block
Heal> He was chorister in the church of S. Nicolas > in
I ■ T%9 orisfnsl MS. b now In th« Mons llbimiy. The author llTed
krtveea ISBO and 163&
> 'A IImm de la natooo porUnl I'enielfne d« k noire teste.'
DdsMlte fin hla Life of Lauot. Valenciennes, 1838) thinks 'the Black
Heal ' was situated In the Roe Grande, No. 92. Conutfnff the number
of boasH batwcen the 'Folds de fer' (town vrHghlnt-house) and the
'Msfaan de la noire t«te ' In the old records of the town, he found It to
cwrsspend with the distance trom the former bulldlnv- Moreover
S«.« bore. In O^motte's thne. the sign of a hefanet. which he thinks
sdght. la oUteo time, hare been painted black to Imitate Iron, and
tftMlwfe been called the' noire t«te.' He goes on to say. but without
ttttbv hk authority, that this house. Mo. 92. had formerij a passage
liiBst Into the Boe de grande Gulr-
kade drfterwards and now Bue de*
OiliilBi) between the hmuf Kos. ff7
Ada. If to. It must haTe been a house
rf liBportanee. wltti ba<* premises
WUchht behhid the whole lentrth nf
tbsBwdesOapoebu. No*. 07 and ce
sit at present 0978) \Tge new houses,
«Hk a pasMge betwaen them leadhik
tgIo.K,a private house behtod the
RTwi. If this paaoage marks the site
•f Ikt origittal 'Issue' spolCMi of by
ThckSBi. tfara the bouse In which
!«■» was bom may have been situated on one side of it, at the
eoTMr of the Bue de Oantlmpr^ Curiously enough. Matthieu. In his
Ufa of TsMui, «ys tiiat an Isabeau de Lassus lived In the Rue de
Chatlaprd. Qnartier Ouirlaode. which adds to the probability that
t hOMs sttuated at the eomer of the two streea may have been
> Tbe churdi of St. Nicolas was burnt down in the 17th century, and
rMaaed by the present boBdlag.
lassus;
9a
the Bue de Havteeq. After his father was condemned for
fining false moner etc the said Orland, who was called
Boland de Lattre, changed his name to Orland de Lassus,
left the country, and went to Italy with Ferdinand do
Gonzague.'
Van Quickelberg* dates his birth ten years
later: —
'Orlandus was bom at Mons in Hainault in the year
1530. At 7 years old he began his education, and a year
and a half later took to music, which he soon understood.
The beauty of his roice attracted so much attention, that
he was thrice stolen fh>m the school where he lived with
the other choristers. Twice his good parents sought and
found him, but the third time he consented to remain
with Ferdinand Oonzague viceroy of Sicily, at that time
commander of the emperor's forces at St Dizier. The
war over, he went with that prince first to SicOy, and
then to Milan. After 6 years his voice broke, and at the
age of 18 Gonstantin Gastriotto took him to Naples, where
he lived for 3 years with the Marguis of Terza. Thence
to Rome, where he was the guest of the archbishop of Flo-
rence for 6 months, at the end of which time he was ap-
pointed director of -the choir in the church of S. Giovanni
m Laterano, by liar the most celebrated in Rome ....
Two yeara afterwards he vMted England and France with
Jolins Geesar Branoaocio, a nobleman and an amateur
musician. Returning to his native land, he resided in
Antwerp for two years, whence he wascalled to Munich
by Albert of Bavaria in 1667.
It is difficult to decide between the two birth-
dates 1520 and 1530. Baini places the Roman
appointment in 154 1, Van Quickelberg in 1551.
lliat Lassus left Rome about 1553. as Van
Quickelberg says, is also to be inferred from the
preface to his first Antwerp publication (May 13,
1555), where he speaks of his removal from the
one city to the other as if recent. Assuming
that his life in Rome lasted either a years or 1 2,
we may ask whether it is likely that one of the
most industrious and prolific composers in the
whole history of music, should obtain so high a
position as early as 1541, without being known
to us as a composer till '1555; or is it, on the
contrary, more likely that a reputation which
seems to have been European by the time he
went to Munich (1557), could have been gained,
without some early and long career as a composer
of works which may yet be Ijring undiscovered in
some Italian church or library.
Vinchant alludes to Lassus' father having been
condemned as a coiner of fiUse money. Matthieu*
has worked hard to refute this, and his examina-
tion of the criminal records of Mons casts great
improbability on the story. At the same time,
and from the same sources, he has brought to
light other namesakes of the composer, who if
* Van Quickelberg. whose own biography appears In Pantaleon't
book, was born at Antwerp In 1009, and practised as a physician at the
oourt of Munich, while Laaeus was chief mutldan there. We must
glre great weight to an account written by a contemporary and com-
patriot, and under the e.ves of the composer hlmselC The date IfiSO Is
no printer^ error, as Delmotte s«isgaits. for the account speaks of
Lassus a* a child at the siege of 8.Dliler. which took place In the year
1544. Therefore Van Quickelberg must have meant to ray 1030. Just
ait certainly as Vinchant emphasises his date lAflO bj a reference to the
coronation of the emperor. Judging simply by the authority of the
statements, we should certainly give the preference to Van Quickel-
berg : but VInchant's date is supported by *o many other considera-
tions that we thbik Delmotte. Fetis. and Ambros are right In preferring
It, though It Is premature to adopt It absolutely. These dates may be
more important than at llrst sight appears. If some one undertakes a
comparison of the Influence of Laanu and Falestrina on the history of
j music
> According to Dehn. an edltkm of motets, dated in46. b In the
library ai Bologna. This statement requires some oonflmiatkm. The
M88. catalogues of the Italian libraries, in Dehn's puveMlon, some of
which are in the F^tls library at Brussels, are not likely to be entirely
free from error.
• Bulaud d« Lattre par Adolphe Matthieu. Qand (no datoX
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LASSUS.
they belonged to his fikmil j, did little credit to it,
and need not be mentioned here. It would be
more interesting to find some tie between Orlando
and two other contemporary composers, Olivier
Belatre, and Claude Petit Jean Delattre, the
second a man of considerable eminence.
Of Lassiis* education,^ alter he left Mons, we
know nothing, bat his first compositions show him
following the steps of his countrymen, Willaert,
Verdelot, Arcadelt, and Rore, in the Venetian
school of madrigal writing ; his first book of ma-
drigals (^5) being published in Venice soon
after he had him^lf left Italy and settled in
Antwerp. This book in its time went through
many editions, but copies of it are scarce now,
and none of its a 2 pieces have been published in
modem notation.
The visit to England mnst have taken place
about 1554. We have been unable to find any
account of the nobleman whom Orlando accom-
panied, but many of his family had been dig-
nitaries of the church of Rome, and by him
Orlando was probably introduced to Cardinal Pole,
in whose honour he wrote music to the words
* Te speotant Begiaalde poll, tibi ndera rideat,
Exultant montes, penonat Ooeanos,
Anglia dum plaudit quod fkustoB oxoutls IgbeS
EUois et laehriaiaa ex adaniante soo.*
This was published in 1556, and the incident*
to which it refers could not have taken place
before 1554, so it gives an additional clue to the
time of the composer*s visit to this country, cor-
roborating the statement of Van Quickelberg.
It is carious that in the year 1554, a Don Pedit)
di Lasso attended the marriage of Philip and
Mary in England as ambassador from Ferdmand,
King of the Romans.
By the end of 1554, Orlando fs probably
settled at Antwerp, for in ' the Italian pre-
face to a book of madrigals and motets' printed
in that city (May 13, 1555), he speaks of their
having been composed there since his return from
Rome. * There, says Van Quickelberg, ' he re-
mained two years, in the society of men of rank
and culture, rousing in them a taste for music, and
in return gaining their love and respect.' The
book referred to contains 18 Italian canzones, 6
French chansons, and 6 motets 'k la nouvelle
composition d'aucuns d^talie.' Of the Italian
ones 5 are published by Van Maldeghem.^ This
is our first introduction to the great composer,
and we get over it with little fonnality. If Ot-
lando ever wrote any masses for his composer*a
diploma; if the old tune ' I'omme arm^/ was tor-
tc^ed by any fresh contrapuntal devices of his
pen, it is plain that he left sach tasks behind him
when he gave up school, and * roused the musical
taste* of his Antweip friends by music which
errs, if at all, on the side of simplicity. We pass
with regret from the graceful 'Madonna ma
pietk' and the almost melodious * La cortesia,' to
the Latin motets — 3 sacred, 2 secular^-in the
same volume. One of the latter is the 'Alma
nemes * which Bumey gives in his History (iii.
317), pointing out the modulation on the words
>Ti«M>rliMeaL 10«»AaD^ BnueBetUT^
LASSUS.
< nbvniftque lAeloe,' as a striking dXMDpId of .Ihe
chromatic passages of the school in which lamM
and Rore were educated. Bumey oouplea tb« two
together, and regards Lassus ohi^y as a secatar
composer. He seems to know but little of the
great sacred works of his later life^ and likens
him to a 'dwarf upon stilts* by the side of
Palestrina. But though th's onfortiraata Com-
parison has brottirht the great "Rugliffh historian
into disgrace with F^tis and Ambros, still Bur*
Aey*8 remarics on Lassus* early works are rerj
interesting and certainly not unfair. It is only
strange that» knowing and thinking so little of
Lassus, he should have compared him to Palea-
trina at aU.
The other woric bdonging to this period (Ant-
werp 1556) is the first bo^ of motets ■ la noe.
^ 5, and 5 nos. k 6. Here the composer recog^
nisee the importance of his first publication of
serious music, by opening it with an ode to the
Muses, 'Delitise Phoebi,' k 5, in which the setting
of the words ' Sustine Lassum,* is the principal
feature. Other interesting numbers are the
* Gustate, videte,* which will be referred to again
when we follow Lassus to Munich, the motet
*Te spectant Reginalde poli/ and 'Heroum so-
boles, in honour of Charles V, the second being
in the strict imitative style, the last in simpler
and more massive harmony (k 6), as if designed
for a large chorus at some public ceremoniaL
The sacred numbers, such as the ' Mirabile mys-
terium * — an anthem, we suppose for Christmas
day — show no signs of any secular tendency or
Venetian influence. They are as hard to our
ears as any music of the Joaquin period, nej
give us our first insight into Orlando*s church
work, and it is interesting to find him drawing so
distinct a line between compositions for the church
and the world, and not, as Bumey implies, too
much petted in society and at oourt, to be grave
and earnest in his religious music. We have a
good example here that the contrary is the case.
The Muses and Cardinal Pole are much too seii-
ous subjects to be in the slightest degree trifled
with, and the Ode to Charles V . alone exhibits any
orighiaHty of treatment.
On the strength of a reputation as a oompOBer
both for the chamber and the church, and of a
popularity amongst men of rank and talent,
gained as much by his character and di^Mwition
and liberal education, as by his musical powen»
he was invited by Albert V., Duke of Bavaria, in
1556 or 1557, to come to Munich as director of
his chamb^ music. Albert was not only the
kind patron of Lassus, but seems to have exercised
considerable influence on the direction of his
genius. He was bom in 1527, was a great
patron of the arts, founded the royal library at !
Munich, acquired oonsideraUe fiune as an athlete,
and was a man of the strictest religious prin-i
ciples, the effect of which was not confined to his j
£Eunily, but extended to his people by severe laws
against immorality of every kind. Of the exact
state of music at Munich when Lassus first
reached it, we cannot speak precisely. The head
of the chapel, Ludovioo d'Asero, or Ludwig
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LASSUa
Jk»BK, was a diatnigaiihed composer in his time,
but a SBgle 'Fusa' is all that has been left to
m} Being an old man, he would probably have
retired in ^vour of LaisnSy as be did a few years
later, but it was thought better for the new comer
to acquire tibe language of the country before
undertaking so reepoDBible a post, and he was
dMiefiare appointed a chamber nrasician. He
86008 to have settled at onoe into his new posi-
tun, for the next year (1558) he married Beirin&
Weckinger, a maid of honour at the court. The
marriage proved a very happy one, and Van
Qniekeibe]^ speaks of the children. Whom he
most have known at a very early age (1565), as
* eiflgantisflimi.' At any rate they (Sd very well
afterwards. The Ibur sons, Fermnand, Ernest,
Rudfdph and Jean, all became musicians, and
the two daughters were married — c»ie of them,
Bagina, to the Seigneur d'Ach, one of the court
paintera.
In his subardinate poskion Lassus did not
puUish nroch, though, as the next paragraph
ftbows, he wrote continually. The next two or
three years produced a second book of ai macU
ligals (k 5), and a book of chansons (k 4, 5, 6),
the latter containing the 5-part chanson ' Su-
Hime on jour,' to which Bumey refers in his
Hiitory (iii. 262), as well as a 6-part setting of
the ' IStyre, tu patulss,' which is quite simple in
eflfeet, and has a very beautiful last movement.
We observe at once the great care which Orlando
fakes of the quantities of the Latin words.
In the year 1562 Daser is allowed to retire
OB his full salary, and
'TliB Dake seeing ttiat Master Oitando had by this time
ksrst fbe Isngaage, and gained the good will and love of
aU, bv the propriety and gentlenees of his beharionr, and
that Ml oompositions (in number infinite) were uni-
▼enaBj Uked, without loss of time elected him master of
the chapeL to the evident pleasure of alL And, indeed,
with all las distinguished colleagues, he lived so quietly
aoA peacefoDy, that aU were forced to love him, to re-
spect him in Ms pceee&oe, and to praise him in bis ab-
LASSU8,
W
Ftom tills time Lassos appears principally as
aoomposer for the church, and it is worth re-
markiiig that in this same year the subject of
moaie waa discussed by the Council of Trent, and
s resohition passed to reform some of the glaring
de&ets in the style of chnrdi composition. Las-
sos' great worlu, being of a subsequent date,
sfe as sBtiraly free from the vagaries of his pre-
doeftofH aa are the later woxka of Palestrma.
Idas JoBQunr.]
Tile new chapel-master, in the June of the
■as year, prints bis first book of entirely sacred
smfe-^'SacnB cantiones, k 5' (25 nos.), of which
* VoiA in hortam' has been pubUshed by * Com-
■sTf 'Angalns ad pastoree* by 'Eochlitz, and
^'BtutHeam Dommum' by ^Proske.
But H was not alone as a church composer
tfMt Laasus was anzioos at once to assert his new
position. He soon showed special qualifications
as sODdoctor of the choir. 'One great quality,*
> Sec the Buae In Bliicr'sBlMfcgniMe (Berlin, 1877). pt. 224.
* Sasica facrm. x. 47 (Trautwelo^
> anaaliiiV QewgBtOcke, t. 1ft (BelKitt).
• Itsilca IMTlna, IL JOO OSattobon. Uiat.
says Massimo Trojano,' 'was the firmness and
genius he evinced when the choir were singing,
giving the time with such steadiness and force,
that, like warriors taking courage at the sound
of the trumpet, the expert singers Deeded no
other orders than the expression of that powerful
and vigorous countenance to animate their
sweetly sounding voices*' The portrait whieh we
here give, and which is now engraved for the
first time, has been photograplMd * from the
magnificent manuscript copy of Lassus^s musio
to the Penitential Psalms, which forms one of
the ornaments of the Royal State Library at Mu-
nich. The inscription round the outside of the
oval is * In ^corde prudentis requiesdt sapientia
et indoctos quoeque erudiet. Pro. xiiii.,' showing
in how favourable and honourable a b'ght a great
musician was regarded in the 1 6th century.
In the autumn Lsssns mnst have gone to
Venice, taking his new 'Cantiones' with him j
for though Gardane does not print them till 1565,
the preface to his edition is signed by the com-
poser, and dated * Venetiis I562 die i. Nov.'
He iJso left behind him a third set of 1 3 mad-
rigals, published there m the following year.
Van Quickelberg also speaks of a visit to Ant-
werp about this time ; and the publications for
the year 1 564 — two books of chansons, one printed
in that dty, the other at Louvain — corroborate
> DiMonI delli triomphl, etc.. nelle nofze dell' tUxOMMlmo daca
aaellelmo. eto., da If ai^rtmo Trojaoo (Hotuieo, Bern, Iflffi).
« The Editor desires to expresn his special th&nks to Profearor
Halm, the Director of the Royal State LIbrai?. for the prompt klnd-
naae with which he granted permlmton and gave everj fiMlUtr fur the
photoffraphing of the portrait. Another portrait from the same MB., on
a smaller scale. taW leiifrth and In a long gown, is lithographed and
given lo Delmotte's Life of Lamns.
7 Thus rendered in the Donor Version— ' In the heart of the pmdent
resteth wisdom, and It shall instruct all the Ignorant.' The artist haa
incorrectlj written * in doctoe.'
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M
lASSUS.
^e statement. The ist book (k 4) contains 27
short pieces of a humorous character, many of
which are given by Van Maldeghem in his
' Tr^sor Musical.' The music is admirably adapted
to the words, notwithstanding the fact that in
later times it was considered equally well suited to
sacred words, or at least published with them, an
ordeal to which many of his earlier secular com-
positions were subjected. The reason and result
of these journeys are thus given by Massimo
Trojano :—
* The Duke eeeing that hia predecessor's ch^[>el was fkr
beneath his ovm ideal, sent messages and letters, with
gifts and promises through all Europe, to select learned
musical artists, and singers with fine voices and experi-
ence. And it came to pass in a short time, that he had
collected as great a company of virtuosi as he could pos-
sibly obtain, chosen flrom aU the musiciuis in Germany
snd other countries by his compoaer, the exoellemt Or-
lando di Lasso.*
. Of these musicians, upwards of 90 in number,
the same author mentions more than 30 by name.
Among them Antonio Morari, the head of the
orchestra, Gioseppe da Lucca and Ivo da Vento,
organists, Francesco da Lucca and Simone Gallo,
both instrumentalists. Giovanne da Lochenburg,
a great flEtvourite and companion of the Duke's,
and Antonio Gosuino, were all composers, some
of whose works still exist.' The singing of the
choir was of the highest order, balanced with the
greatest nicety, and able to keep in tune through
the longest compositions. The Duke treated
them so kindly, and their life was made so
pleasant, that, as Massimo Trojano says, * had
the heavenly choir been suddenly dismissed, they
would straightway have nsade for the court of
Munich, there to find peace and retirement.'
For general puiposes the wind and brass in-
struments seem to have been kept separate fix)m
the strings. The former accompanied the mass
on Sundays and festivals. In the chamber music
all took part in turn. At a banquet, the wind
instruments would play during the earlier courses,
then till dinner was finished the strings, with
Antonio Morari as their conductor, and at
dessert Orlando would direct the choir, some-
times singing quartets and trios with picked
voices, a kind of music of which the Duke was so
fond, that he would leave the table to listen
more attentively to * the much-loved strains.* He
and all his family were intensely fond of music,
and made a point of attending the musical mass
every day. They took a keen interest in Lassus*
work, and the Duke and his son William were
continually sending him materials and suggestions
for new compositions. The manuscript of the
music to the 'Penitential Psalms,' already
noticed, remains to this day a witness of the
reverence with which the Duke treated the
composer's work.
These 7 psalms were composed, at the Duke's
suggestion, before the year 1565, the date of the
first volume of the MS., but were not published
till some years after. The music is in 5 parts,
one, and sometimes two separate movements for
each verse. The last movement, *Sicut erat,'
* S«e thMC Dames In Eltner's BSbliosrapble.
LASSUS.
always in 6 parts. Duets, Trios, and Quartets
appear for various combinations of voices. The
length of the Psalms is considerable, and though
no reliance can be placed on modem ideas of
their tempts the longer ones would probably
occupy nearly an hour in performance.
* When we think,' says Ambros, * of the princi-
pal works of the 1 6th century, these Psalms and
Falestrina's Missa Papse Marcelli always come
first to our * minds.' One reason fw this is,
perhaps, that these works have each a little story
attached to them which has made them easy to
remember and talk about. It is not true that
Lassus composed the 'Penitential Psalms' to
soothe the remorse of Charles IX, after the
massacre of St. Bartholomew, but it is more than
probable, that they were sung before that un-
happy monarch, and his musical sense most
indeed have been dtdl, if he found no consolation,
and hope expressed in them. This is no every-
day music, which may charm at all seasons or in
all moods; but there are times when we find
ourselves forgetting the antique forms of ex-
pression, pawing the strange combinations of
sounds, almost losing ourselves, in a new-found
^rave delight, till the last few movements of the
Fsalm — always of a more vigorous charact^ — gra-
dually recall us as firom a beautifhl dream wMch
* waking we can scarce remember.* Is this in-
definite impression created by the music due to
our imperfect appreciation of a style and com-
position so remote, or is it caused by the actual
nature of the music itself, which thus proves its
inherent fitness for the service of religion I 80
unobtrusive is its character, that we can fancy
the worshippers hearing it by the hour, passive
rather than active listeners, with no thought of
the human mind that fashioned its form. Yet
the art is there, for there is no monotony in the
sequence of the movements. Every variety that
can be naturally obtained by changes of key,
contrasted effects of repose and activity, <xr dis-
tribution of voices, are here; but these ohangee
are so quietly and naturally introduced, and
the startling contrasts, now called * dramatdc,' so
entirely avoided, that the composer's part seems
only to have been, to deliver faithfully a divine
message, without attracting notice to lumselt
The production of such a masterpiece at an
early date in his Munich life, seems to point
clearly, through all the contested dates of birth,
positions or appointments, to some earlier career
of the composen To obtain a style at once great
and solemn, natural and eas}% it seems ^dmoet
indispensable that Lassus had occupied for seve-
ral years the post to which Baini says he was'
first appointed in 1541, had spent these years in
writing the great cumbrous works which had-
been the fasMon of his predecessors, and then,
like Palestrina — whom, if he really lived at Rome
all this time, he must have known — gradually ac- i
quired the less artificial style, by which his Later,
works are characterised.
In the years 1565-66 Lassus adds 3 more
volumes of 'Sacne Cantiones' (several numbers
> Oeschlchte, UL 3
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LASSUS.
of which are scored by Conuner), and the ftrat
•et of • Sacne lectiones, 9 ex^ropheU Job.' The
first editions of these »U hail from Yenice, per-
haps because Jean de Berg of Nuremberg, who
had published the ist volume, had died in the
meanwhile. His successor Gerlach, however,
publishes an edition of them in 1567, as well as
a collection of 24 Magnificats. In the hotter the
alternate veraes only are composed — a contra-
puntal treatment of the appointed church melo-
<ii«« — the other verses being probably sung or
intoned to the same mdodies in their simple form.
The year 1568 is ftill of interest. In February
the I>uke William marries the Prinoeas Renata
of Lorraine ; there is a Uuge gathering of dia-
tinguiahed guests at Munich, and music has a
prominent place in the fortnight's festivities.
Anoqg the works composed specially for the
•ecasion was a *TeDeum' (^6), and three masses
(i 6, 7, and 8 respectively), also two motets
'Gratia sola Dei' and 'Quid trepidas, quid musa
times ? • But here we must stop, for though it
has a real interest to read how ' their Highnesses
and Excellencies and the Duchess Anna attended
by Madame Dorothea returned home greatly
plearad with the sweet and delightful mass they
had heard,' and to follow all the occunences of
14 consecutive days of Orlando's life, still we
ranst refer the curious reader to the pages of
Masdmo Trojano, and can only stop to mention
^lat, towards the end of the time, he was the
life and soul of an impromptu play suggested by
the Duke, in which he not onlv acted one of the
principal parts, but introduced various pieces of
moric on the stage with the aid of a band of
picked singers.
In the same year we have two most important
publicatiooa : (i) ' Seleotissimffi Cantiones h 6
et pluribos' and (3) the same ^ 5 et 4. The
firrt book opens with a massive work in 4 move-
ments, * Jesa nostra redemptio,' in the grand
^oomy style of the old masters, followed by
■hflrter and simpler pieces, such as the prayw in
the garden of Gethsemane, Math a melodious
prdnide on the words *In monte Oliveti oravit ad
patnna.' followed by a nmple strain of devotional
miuio carrying the hearer quietly and expres-
^^ely, but not dramatically, through the Saviour's
agflogr And resignation. The volume is not con-
fiasd to religious music. There are some pieces
witlt ieenlar words, such as an ode to Albert ' Quo
pnp(BBs £acunde nepoe Atlantis,' but there are
ate floooe coital drinking songs, and the 'Jam
huii orto sidere,' with its and part ' Qui ponit
a^iiam inFalemo/ is a fine specimen of a part-song
fior two thcin singing alternately, a kind of music
■Bib in vogue at the time, the introduction of
vUph is said to be due to Adrian WiUaert.
XIm other volume is confined to music ^ 5 and
L ^ 4, «nd is {HToportioQately simple. Gommer has
^iriirtgd 8 or 9 of the sacred numbers in score,
aad th^ are not diffici^t either to understand or
to ^preciate. Amo^g the secular pieces there
n a oomic setting of tiui psalm 'Super flumina
Babn^onis,' each letter and syllable beiqg sung
■eparately as in a spelling Iwigo :—
TOL. n.
LASSUS.
97
Ita per fhi
at which rate it takes two long movements to
get through the first verse. This might well be
a parody on the absurd way in which the older
masters mutilated thear words. But there are
beautiful as well as curious numbers among the
secular part-songs in this book, and the ' Forte
soporifera ad Baias dormivit in umbra, blandus
Ainor etc. ' is one of the quaintest and prettiest
songs that we have come across in the old musio
world. In this book is also a very characteristiG^
though rather complicated and vocally difficult
setting of the well-known song of Walter Mapes
—if ^Walter Mapes* it be— 'Si bene perpendi,
causae sunt quinque bibendi.' Dean AlcUich may
have taken the words from this very book (for he
had a library of Lassus' works) when he made
his well-known translation :
' If an be true that I dothfak,
There are five reasom we should drink :
Good wine, a friend, or being diy,
Or le«t you should b© by and by.
Or any other reason wliy.'
In a subsequent edition of the same ' Cantiones'
appears another portion of the same work,
' Fertur in oonviviis,' k 4, in five movements set
to music full of character and effective contrasts.'
The music was so much liked that other words
were twice set to it, once in a French edition
which aimed at rendering the chansons 'hon-
nestes et chrestiennes ' to the words 'Tristis
ut Euridicen Orpheus ab orco' — though how the
adapter succeeded in his object by the change is
not very apparent ; and again a second time
after his death in the edition of his works by his
son, to the stupid words * Volo nunquam,' which
aimed at turning it into a temperance aonfr by
the insertion of a negative in each sentiment of
the original. The old edition has fortunately
survived, and the words of the last two verses, bo-
ginning ' Mihi est propositimi,' are stUl used for
their original purpose. These spirited words, of
which Orlando vras evidently so fond, and to the
quantities of which he paid such carefiil regard,
seem to have inspired him with a marked rhythm
and sense of accent, which is very exceptional in
works of the time.
In the year 1560, Adam Berg, the court pub-
lisher at Munich, brings out ' Cantiones aliquot
k 5,' containing 14 numbers, and a books of
'Sacrse Cantiones,' partly new, are issued at
Louvain. The year 1570 is more productive, 23
new Cautiones k 6 ; 2 books of chansons con-
taining 18 new ones; and a book of 29 madri-
gals, published in Munich, Louvain and Veuice
respectively; while France is represented by
an important edition of chansons — 'Mellange
1 Boms doobt hM lately been thrcmn on the authonhip of these
words.
3 In what colleotkm this long made Its Jbnt appearanee ta not
known.
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LASSUS.
d8
•d^Orlande de Laasus* — often quoted but contain-
ing little new matter. At the close of the year,
at the diet of Spires, the Emperor grants letters
of nobility to Lassus.^ At the time this honour
was conferred upon 1dm, Lassus was probably on
his way to the court of France, where we find him
during the greater part of the year 1571. Some
circumstances of his stay there may be gathered
from the * Primus liber modulorum a 5/ published
by Adrian Le Roy, in whose house he lodged
during the visit (Paris, August 1571). The pub-
lisher's dedication to Charles IX. states that —
'When Orlando di Iasbub lately entered yonrpreeenoe.
to kias your hand, and modestly and deferentially greet
• -r — _»-j_, . _ ._ ""^^honour
ortoHtT
nothing of the right royal gifta which yon have beatowea
yonr majeety, I ntw, plainly as eyes can see, the honour
you were conferring on music and musicians. For to saT
nothing of the right royal gifts which yon have bestowea
on Orluido— the look, the countenance, the words with
which you greeted him on his arrival (and this I was not
the only one to notice) were such, that he may truly boast
of your having shown to few strangers presented to you
this year, the same honour, courted and kindness you
showed him. And even I, Adrian, your subject and'rpyal
printer, did not fail to share with him some of that cour-
tesy and consideration on your part For inasmuch as I
accompanied him into your presence, (because he was
my guest,) You. seeing me constantly by his side all the
time we were in your court, asked me more than onoe
about music,* etc., etc
Bonsard, the French poet, also speaks of the
special welcome with which the King received
the composer. Delmotte suggests that the visit
to Paris may have had to do with a new Academy
of music, for the erection of which Charles had
issued letters-patent in November 1 5 70. Several
editions of Orlando*s former works were issued at
Paris during his stay there with Le Roy, but the
only new work of the year he does not design for
his newly made French friends. He sends it
home to his kind master Duke Albert, and thus
addresses him (May 1871) : — * When I reached
Paris, the city which I had so long, and so ardently
wished to see, I determined to do nothing, untU
T had first sent to you from this, the capital of
France, some proof of my gratitude.*
This book was the 'Moduli quinis vocibus.*
which however was written at Munich before
his departure, and only published at Paris. His
travels naturally interrupted his composition, and
there is nothing ready to print in the next year
(1572) but another set of 15 German songs.
Once again settled in Munich, Lassus is soon
at work, Adam Berg is busy providing 'specially
large and entirely new type,' the Dukes are fuU
of grand ideas to bring nonour on themselves,
and make the most of their renowned ChapeF
master, and July 1573 sees the result in the issue^
of the ist volume of the ' Patrodnium Musices.*
[See Berg, Adam.] The work was undertaken
on the responsibility of Duke William, and a
portrait of that handsome prince, afterwards
1 A fscslmUe copy of this gnuit b kept In Uie Bru«eU llbranr (BIbL
de Bourvogne. 14.4061. The part tef«rrli« to the co«t of armn U worth
nuntlng : — ' LIneaautem lllacandlda mu argentes. qua medium scutlq.
areata conatitult, ordlne recto contbteat trla signa muslca. aureo
cttlurt) tlocta, quorum primum DIetU vulgo noncupatum. quod^«mo|.
lleiidM vocis ndltium est, dextram. alterum Tero. Q durum iciUcet
ilnlstram inios partem, tertlam autem rldellcet b moUe centrum
dypel occupet' Deknotte, In copylns this in his book, has substituted
the word 'becarre' fbr the sign Q. which Is curious, because the In
terest ol the quotation centres round a symbol which appears in the
compcser's oeat of arms, but seldom appears in his music. He gen-
era.iT contradicted his flaU with sharps, and rt«« perso.
LASSUS.
known as 'William the Pious,' appears as a
frontispiece.
The originators of this publication appear to
have intended to continue the series until it be-
came a selecUon of all the best music necessary
for the services of the church. Orlando, in the
prefiftce to the ist volume, hints at the work
Doing undertaken in emulation of the service
lately rendered to the church by Philip of Spain
in bringing out a new ^edition of the Scriptures,
and sp^iks half apologetically of the ist volume
(which contains only motets'), as if it scarcely
came up to the object of the publication.
The books might almost be called ' scores,' the
separate parts appearing together on the two
opposite pages. Few publications of this kind
had as yet appeared. The music takes up a great
deal more space than it would if printed in sepa-
rate part-books, and on this account, as well as by
reason of the magnificent type, the volumes hold
less than many a smaller and less pretentious
edition. The series stops short in 1576, and of
the second series ( 1 589 - 1 590) Orlando contributes
only the ist volume. With the exception of the
*VigiliaB Mortuorum* in the 4th volume —
whidi had already appeared in 1565 under the
title 'Lectiones ex propheta Job,' — and some of
the Magnificats in vol. 5, all the contents of the
volumes appear for the first time.
The.2nd volume * is dedicated (Jan. i, 1574)
to75regory XIII ; and it is no doubt in return for
this mark of respect that Orlando receives from
the Pope on April 7 the knighthood of the Golden
Spur. The 4th volume contains an interesting
setting of the ' Passion ' according to St. Matthew,
in 41 very short movements, part of the narrative
being recited by the priest, and the character
parts sung as trios or duets.
In the year 1574 Lassus started on another
journey to Paris. Whether the French King had
invited him for a time to his court, or whether
Lassus actually accepted a permanent position
there, we do not know, but whatever the object
of the journey, it was frustrated by the death of
Charles (May 30), and Lassus hearing of this
when he had reached Frankfort, returned at onoe
to Munich.
The year 1576, besides finishing the ist series
of^ie ' Patrocinium Musices,' sees the publica-
)f the 3rd part of the 'Teutsche lieder,'
intaining a 2 nos., and the 'Thresor de musique,*
collection of 103 chansons, most of which had
m. printed in the Mellange (1570), but appear
with new words to satisfy Hie growing
fbr psalm-singing in France. 1577 brings
all work of interest, a set of 24 cantiones
(^'2), 119 being vocal duets, and the other 12 for
indjbruments. The stvle of music is precisely the
same in both cases, the absence of words in the
latter 12 alone making any difference; and this
proves, if there be any doubt on other grounds,
that the notice frequent on title pages of this
> Tlie 80-<aned ' Antwerp Polyglot Bible.' published In Itm-Ti at Um
expense of Philip. I
> In the original ediUen the Beeond mass In roL II. Is printed wttk
Its wrong title. It should be Mlaaa super ' Scaroo di dogUa,' as tL
appears in snbaequeut edUIons.
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LASSUS.
period, '^>t for viols and vojoee,' did not mean
that the ToiceB and inBtnunents were to perform
them together, though this they undoubtedly did
at times, but that the music of the chansons and
motets formed the principal repertoire of the
instromentalists, and that they converted them
into ' songs without words ' with the concurrence
of the composer. What other kinds of music the
instrumentalists at Munich performed, it does
not come within our province to discusi^ since
Lassus took no part in the direction of it. The
duets having apparently found &vour, Orlando
goes on to publish a set of trios for voices or
mstruments, and as if this was a new and special
idea, the first one is set to the words ' Hsbc quse
ter triplici,' and the book dedicated to the three
Bakes, WiUiam, Ferdinand and Ernest.. The most
important publication of the year is *■ MisssB variis
ooDcentibus omatse,* a set of 1 8 masses, of which
13 are new, printed ieit Paris by Le Boy, in: score.
During the years 1578-80 we know of no
important pubUcations. The illness of Duke
Albert,, and his death (Oct. 1579), are probably
sufficicait to account for this. He had done a
last act of kindness to Lassus in the previous
April by gparanteeing his sailary (400 florins)
for life. We like to think that the new set of
•VigiliaB Mortuorum' — to the words of Job as
befOTe — were Lassus* tribute to the memory of
his master. They were published a year or two
after the Duke's death as having been recently
oompoeed. They are more beautiful than the
esriier set, in proportion as they are simpler ;
and BO simple are they, that in them human
skill; seems to have beien thrust aside, as out of
LASSUS.
99
ul.fl.cM • - nm ftot qoldap'po- niter - n e -
XlA A A An A )i9tlll
place for their purpose. Such music as this
might Handel have had in his mind, when he
wrote to the words ' Since by man came death.'
Passing on to the year 1581 we find a 'Liber
Missorum,* printed hj Gerlach, containing 4 new
these Gbmmer has printed one on
the tune ' La, la, Maistre Pierre. To the same
date belongs a < Libro De Yillanelle, Moresche,
et altre Canzoni* (k 4, 5, 8), firam Paris, con-
taining 33 numbers.
There is much new music ready for 158a, and
on the 1st of January Orlando dedicates a book
to the biBhop of Wiirtzburg, containing the 2nd
set of * Lectiones ex libris Hiob,* already referred
to, and 1 1 new ' motets. At the end of the book,
and' without connexion with its other contents, a
short tuneful setting of the curious words
' Oaid fiiciee, fa/Am Veneris onm Teneria ant^
Ke Bedeaa aed eaa, ne pereaa per eaa.*
Then again, on Feb. i, 'jampridem summft
diligenti& compodtum,' 26 Sacres cantiones & 5 ;
of which however we only know the last; a
beautiful setting of the hymn to John the Bap-
tist, 'Ut queant laxis,' Uie tenor singing the
TFtqne-ant la • xls Bo-ton-a . . . rs fib •
AA
8ol-Te pol - la - tis La-bi • Is re - a •
fg ^ — tr-
8 - ^z^z^^^a
r *r 11 "1
ct« Jo • an • - DM 8*0 - • cte Jo - an - - DM.
-fOU—
=^
r. r ^
Mi
* These are all Iring in modern score and ready for puUleation la
tbe FiUs Ubrarj at Brussels.
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100
LAJ3SUS.
notes of the acale with their namei. ftnd the other
parts taking up the remaining words of each line,
the music very interesting as a ^)ecimen of an
old treatment of the sciJe, though scarcely so
old-fashioned as might be expected. The next
month, March, brings a set of Motets {h, 6),
'singulari authoris industrial/ for voices or in-
Btruments. These books which follow so closely
on each other are not collections of old work, but,
as we learn from the title-pages, had all been
recently oovkpoeed. The last set exists also in
modem notation in the Brussels libnuy among
many such scores, prepared by the "* singular in-
dustry* of another native of Mons^ M. F^ds,
who was appointed by the Belgian ffovemment
to bring out a complete edition of his fellow-
townsman's works, but was stopped by death
from canyinff out one more of the many great
tasks be had accomplished and was intending
to accomplish.
The successful adaptation of German words to
some of Orlando^s earlier French chansons leads
him in the following year, 1583, to write 33
original ones to sacred and secular Grerman woi^
* ^ue teutsche Lieder, geistlich und weltlich* —
Bhori pieces of great beauty in 4>part counterpoint.
Several of them have been printed by Cknnmer.
The most important publication of 1584 is the
* Penitential Psalms.' This is the work we have
already spoken of under the year 1565.
A violent st^m occurred at Munich on the
Thursday of the Fdte-Dieu in this year, and the
Duke gave orders that the customary procession
round the town from the church of St. Peter should
be confined to the interior of the building. But
no sooner had the head of the procession reached
the porch of the church, and the choir was heard
singing the first notes of Lassus* motet ' Gustate,
videte,' than a sudden lull occurred in the stenn,
and the ceremony was performed as usual. This
was looked upon as a miracle, uid the peeple ef
Munich ' in their pious enthusiasm looked upon
Lassus as a divine being.' Afterwards, whenever
fine weaUitf was an object, this motet was chosen.
1585 brings a new set of madrigads k 5, and a
book oontaixung besides motets the -'Hieremie
prophetaB Lamentationes.* Besides these we have
a volume of 'Cantica sacra' (34 nos.), and another
of 'Saone cantiones* (33 nos.), both, according
to the title-pages, recently composed. The first
contains a setting of the ' Pater noster/ k 6, and
an ode to Duke Ernest, Archbishop of Ck>logne,
and the latter a 'Stabat mater* for. two 4-part
choirs singing alternate verses.
For some years back, all the editions bear on
the frontispiece some testimony to the wonderful
industry of Uie composer. 1586 seems to bring
the first warning of declining strength. It is
a blank as far as publications are concerned, and
the opening of 1587 brings with it the gift from
Duke William of a country house at Geising on
the Anmier, probably as a place of occasional
retirement. Then he comes back to work, and
in gratitude, no doubt, for better health, on
April 15 dedicates 23 new madrigals to the
court physician. Dr. Meriuann. In August 1^ new
LASSUa
volume of the'PatrooiniumMusioes'appears, con-
taining 13 magnificats. Two masses, a ' Locutui
Sum' an4 'B^tus qui intelligit,* bear the same
date. Towards the dose of the year Orlando it
begging for rest tram his arduous duties ss
chapel-master. Portions of the Duke's decree in
answer to this request are interesting.
'The good and loyal lervioM of our well-beloved snd
foithAiI serrant Orland de Lmsob, .... lead en to
show our favonr and gratitnde to him, by allowing hii
honourable retirement from his duties aa mawter of our
ohMtel, seeinff that such duties are too onerous for him,
and we permit bim to pass some portion of eadi year at
Geising with his &mily In consideration of this his
appointments will be redneed 200 florins annually
But, <m the other hand, we appoint his son Ferdinand ss
a member of our chapel at a salary of 200 florins, and at
the same time to his other son, Buoolph, who has recently
humbly asked our permission to marry, we grant his re-
quest and confer upon him the place of organist with a
salary of 200 florins, on condition that he undertake the
education in singing and composition of the young gen-
tlemen of the oboir.^
The composer does not seem to have been satis-
fied with tlus arrangement, and again returns to
his post. In 1588, in conjunction with his son
Ruddph, he brings out 50 'Teutsche Psalmen.*
Commer prints the 25 nos. contributed by Or-
lando—^md very beautiful and interesting they
ftre — 3 part hymns, the melody occuring, aooording
to his ^cy, in either of the 3 parts.
The volume of the ' Patrodnium Musices* for
1598 contains 6 masses, the last number being
the * Missa pro defrmctis,' which we may consider
the last important publication of his life. Its
lovely opening is an inspiration which finds no
parallel in any other of his compositions that we
have seen. As his end approaches, he has here
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LASsna
ottf iA thow glim)p8e8 into tb» conmig: world of
nosie which Amlm>8 (Gesohidite, fiu 356) traoes
in othen of his works. It is howeTor only in
the first page or two that we find the maeic so
astonishingly near oar own idea of the opening
of a Reqnidm.
And here his lifbTs work seems to end ; in the
nett ydnme of the 'Patrocinimn Musices' we find
ofhfir namee^azkd nothing bears Orlando's but 12
Genmui part-songs. Then an utter blank. The
firaah effort to work had completely prostrated
him, but death did not come at once to his
retiet His wife Begina finds him one day so
in that he £uls to recognise her. The Princess
Mauniliana sends Dr. Mermann, at once, and
tWe is a temporary recovery, but the mind is
fitfll at fikult. 'Cheerful and happy no longer/
says Begina, 'he has become gloomy and sp^tks
oidy of death.' Promises of the Duke*s further
boimty have no effisct upon his spirits. He even
writes to his patron, complaining that he has never
carried out his father Albert's intentions towards
him, and it needs all that Begina and the Prinr
cesB MaxmiHana can do to soften the effeci of
this act. He died at Munich in June 1594.
This date is taken firom a letter written after-
wards bjr his wife. The two publications * La-
grime di S. Pietro,* signed May 34, 1594, and
'Cantiones Saone' (Feast of S. Michael, 1594),
may imply that his death did not take place
tQl 1595, and that he had so far temporarily
recorded as to take an interest in the publication
of some old works, or perhaps even to write new
oxMs ; but it is natural to prefer the date given by
Mi wife, in which case we must suppose these
works to have been edited by other hands. He
was buried in the cemetery of the Franciscans
at Munich. When the monastery was destroyed,
the monument which had been erected over his
grave was removed, and kept in the possession of
a private fiunily. It was set up in the present
century in the garden of the 'Academic des
Beaux Arts,* at Munich. Many more details of
all these things are given by Ddmotte, to whom
we refer the reader.
After Orlando's death his sons edited many of
his works. Thus Budolph the organist edited
'Proi^etse Sibyllarum (k 4) chromatico more ' in
1600, and Ferdinand the chapel-master printed
4 of his own Magnificats with 5 of his mther's
in 1602. In 1 604 th^ together issued ' Magnum
opoi musioum O. de Lasso,' by which work they
Iwve immortalised themselves, preserviufi^ in 6
Toloroes of a moderate size, most clearly and
beautifully printed, no less than 516 sacred and
aecaUr motets. The addition of bars is all that
ii required to give the work a completely modem
form. Dehn is said to have transcribed fche
whole of it. Ferdinand, the elder brother, died
ia 1609 at about 50 years of age, leaving several
children, one of whom, also called Ferdinand,
was sent to Italy for his musical education, and
was afterwards Chapel-master to duke Maxi-
Boiliux I. Budolph, after his brother's death,
vfited *<> MiasB poethonue O. di Lasso' (161 o)
ud 100 MagnifinOi (i6i9}> ^'^'^ ^ ^Imbi
This
hrttiefto uiipublished. Th»4
Budolph were all eminfirft con _
that when the King of Swede^ t
phus, entered Mundoh in 1632, be^v
at hiis house and ordered compositlQn^
We have mentioned the principal work
lished by Lassus in hid lifetima or edited
wards by his sons. Counted in separate nu
Eitner^ brings theii^ total to ovei 1300.
does not include mmy detached pieces published
in collections of muslo by various compoperv.
Again, the unpublished MSS. are very numerond.
When all these are counted, theaaarea and secular
works are said to amount to about 1600 and 800
respectively, the chief items being 51 masses,
about 1200 sacred motets and cantiones, 370
chansons, and over 230 madrigals. Of such
works as haw appeared in modem notation by
the laboura of Oommep, ProskO) Dehn, Van
Maldeghem, etc., we. may say roughly that they
represent about an eighth, pari of the composer's
complete works^
Lassus was the last great If etherland master.
His native land for aoo years had been aa
E 'eminent in. music as Gbnnany has been in
ter times. Italy, a seeond home to every great
Belgian musknan since the time of Dufay, was
at length to receive the Mwaird fbr her hospitality,
and to produce a oomposer to compete with the
proudest of them. Josquin and Orlando were
to find their equal itt the Italian pupil of their
countiyman Gk)udim«L
Paleetrina is often said to have overturned the
whole fabric of existing church music in a few
days by writing some simple masses for Pope
Marcellus. For the truth of this story we refer
the reader to the article on Palestrina. It
serves- well enough as a legend to illustrate
the reformation which music had been under-
going since Josquin's time. The simpler church
music did not indeed take the place of the older
and more elaborate forms of the Josquin period
at a few strokes of Palestrina's pen. Even m the
writings of Josquin himself the art can be seen
gradually clearing itself from meaningless and
grotesque diificulties ; and there were plenty of
good composers, two very great onee,Grombert and
Clement, coming between Josquin and Lassus or
Palestrina. The simplicity of Lassus' church
music as early as 1565 shows that the story of
the causes of Palestrina's revolution must not be
accepted too literally. The Belgian brought up in
Italy, and the Italian pupil of a Belgian, were by no
means so widely separated as their too eager friends
sometimes try to prove them. Bide by side in
art, they laboured alike to carry on the work of
the great Josquin, and Ynake the mighty contra-
puntal means at their disposal more and more
subservient to expressional beauty. It seems
that the simple forms of expression which Lassus
and Palestrina were so often content to use,
owed something to the influence of secular music,
even though the composers may not have been
conscious of drawing curectly from such a source.
> VenafctaniM cl«r gadnuictoii Wtita too O. de Imms (TmnivelD.
ISM^
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102
/iiASSUS,
• I J&^Jl<B( 's^foB^r infl^ienoe; acting on the two
• •*iBi£ei&iA is't* i)e3(»ifiSd;«r« think, in the history
of the religious movements of the time. Palestrina
lived in Rome at a time when zealous Catholics
were engaged in vigorous internal reforms as
a defence against the march of Protestantism;
Lassus too was at a court the first in Europe to
throw in its lot with this counter-reformation.
The music of the two composers breathes a
reality of conviction and an earnestness which is
made necessary by the soul-stirring spirit of the
time. To Lassus, it is said, strong offers were
made by the court of Saxony to induce him to
come over to the work of the Protestant Church.
Fortunately for the -art he remained true to his
convictions, and was spared from being ^)oilt, as
many of his fellow-oountiymen were, by devoting
themselves to those slender forms of composition
which were thought suitable to the reformed
religion.
l4Stfsus himself saw no violent break separating
his music from that of his predecessors, as we
may infer from the list of composers whose works
were performed in ^e Munich chapel. In that
list the name of Josquin appears in capital
letters, for it meant then what the name of Bach
means now ; and Lassus, with his softer and more
modem grace, lookod up with reverence and
imitated, as well as his own individuality would
allow him, the unbending beauty of the glorious
old contrapuntist in the same way as Mendelssohn
in later times looked up to and longed to imitate
the Cantor of the Thomas-schule.
Orlando spent his life in Germany, then by no
means the most musical country or the one most
likely to keep his memory alive. Palestrina,
whose life of suffering and poverty contrasts
stronglv with Orlando's affluence and position,
had at least the good fortune to plant his works
in the very spot where, if they took root at all,
time would make the least ravages on them. The
name and works of Palestrina have never ceased
to live in the Eternal City ; and while the name of
Lassus is little known among musical amateurs,
every one is acquainted wiUi the works of his
contemporary. How much is really known of
Palestrina's music we do not venture to question,
but the more the better for Lassus. As soon as
the world reallv becomes familiar with the
music of the Italian, the next step will lead to
the equally interesting and beautiful works of
the Netherlander. Then by degrees we may
hope for glimpses into that still more remote
period when the art of counterpoint, in the hands
of Josquin, first b^;an to have a living infiuence
_jm the souls of men. [J. B. S.-B.]
LAST JUDGMENT, THE. The English
version, by Prof. Taylor, of Spohr's oratorio
'Die letzten Dinge.* Produced at Norwich Fes-
tival Sept. 24, 1830. Given by the Sacred
Harmonic Society, July 11, 1838, also July 33,
1847, Spohr conducting. [G.]
LATROBE, Rev. Christian Ignatius, eldest
son of Rev. Benjamin Latrobe, superintendent
of the congregations of the United (Moravian)
Brethren in England, was bom at Fulnec, Leeds,
LATROBE.
Yorkshire, Feb. la, 1758. In 1771 he went to
the college of the United Brethren at Niesky,
Upper Lusatia, returned to England in 1784,
took orders in the same church, became secretaiy
to the Society for the Furtherance of the GrospeC
and in 1795 was appointed secretaiy to the
Unity of the Brethren in England. Although
Latrobe never followed music as a profession he
cultivated it assiduously from an eariy age. His
earlier compositions were chiefly instrumental;
three of his sonatas, having met with the ap-
proval of Haydn, were pubfished and dedicated
to him. His other published oompositions in-
clude Lord Roscommon's translation of the 'Dies
I^/ 1^799; 'The Dawn of Gloiry.' 1803; Anthem
for the Jubilee of George III., 1809 ; Anthems,
by various composers, 181 1 ; Original Anthems,
1823; 'Te Deum, performed in York Cathedral';
* Miserere, Ps. .51 * ; and * Six Airs on serious
subjects, words by Cowper and Hannah More.'
He edited the first English edition of the Mora-
vian Hjrmn Tunes. But his most important
publication was his * Selection of Sacred Music
from the works of the most eminent composers
of Germany and Italy,' 6 vols. 1806-25, through
the medium of which many fine modem compo-
sitions were first introduced to the notice of the
British public. He died at Fairfield, near Liver-
pool, May 6, 1836.
Rev. John Antes Latrobe, M.A., his son,
bom ii^ London in 1791, became organist at
Liverpool, and was composer of several anthems.
He took orders in the Church of England, and
was incumbent of St. Thomas's, Kendal, and hon-
orary canon of Carlisle. He was author of * The
Music of the Church xx>nBidered in its various
branches, Congregational and Choral,' London,
1 83 1. He died at Gloucester Nov. 19, 1878.
The following are the contents of Latrobe's
valuable Selection, arranged alphabetically. The
pieces are all in vocal score, with compressed ac-
companiments ; some to the original text, some
to translated words.
Aboc Stabat Kater. >T. from
St&bftt. I
Albertl.D. Salve Bedemptor, 0.—
Salve.
Do. O God, be not far. A.— Do.
Do. O Jesu. Balvator! C— Do.
Astorga. O quam tristia, T.— 8ta-
bat.
Da Quls est homo, D.— Da
Do. Blessed (be the power, CL—
Do.
Da Fae me penit«ntam, D.-
Do.
Da Becordare. A.— Da
Da Cum Mttam. C— Da
Baoh. C. P. E. O come, let as
worahip, 0.— Anthem.
Da O Lord, hide not. A.—' Is-
raelites.'
Da He opened the rook, C— Da
Bananl. Sanctas 0.— Requiem.
Do. Becordare, 0. A 8.~Da
Boocberini. Fac ut portem. A.—
Stabat.
Do. BUbat Mater. A.-Da
Da B«cordare, T.— Do.
Do. Infammatu!^ A.— Do.
Borri, R Laadamus Te. A.— Mass.
Da Domlne.T.— Da
Boril, B. QaoDlam, T. from Mass.
Da ChrUtaC— Da
Brassettl. Praise the Lord, a—
Confitebor.
Cafaro, P. BUbat Mater, D.AC.—
BUbat.
Caldara. Benedlctua, T.— Mass.
Da Et Incamatus, A.— Da
Da Agnus, D.— Da
Da Et Incarnatus. C— Mass.
Do. Cruciflxus, D.— Da
Da Et resurrexlt. C— Da
Do. Agnus, C— Da
Clampl, F. Omj God. A.-Mtae-
rere.
Da Ecca enim. D.— Da
Da Cor muudum. D.— Da
DanzL Salve Bedemptor, C— Ealv«.
Da Agnus Dei, O.—Masa.
Durante. 1 will call, A. — La-
menUtia
Da O remember, 0.— Do.
Da Omnis populua, 0.— Service
for Pawlon Week.
Da Quaerens me. D.— Requiem
Da Agnus, C— Litany.
Fifllcl. Or che b nate. D.— Oratorio.
OaluppL Baero horrore, D.— Ora-
toria
* A.-Aria: D.-Dnet: T.-Tenetto; Q.-^oartet; Qa.-Qalntet i
C.-Coro: Gh.-Cborale; M.-Moiet; Ot-Offertorium: 8.-«Ua
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LATROBK
LAtJDA STON.
103
Qaid nun miser. 0.
Iron Boioieoi.
Cb^ Dv profuiuUs» O.-'Dc Pro*
D.-EO-
Do. Pie Jem. C— Do.
GfMBk TeDeiim,C.^^eDeam.
Da T0 sleriosas C-Do.
Do. T« B«x glorlM, C— Da
Do. To ad Ifberandam, A.'Do.
Dft, To od dexteram. C—Do.
Dok Te ergo qumamus, D.— Do.
Do. ItreccC— Do.
Do. DIrntre Domlue, A.'Do.
Do. OZk}o.nuu-k.C.— TodJesu.
Da Be wms despl««d. O.—Do.
Da Tboa hast brought me, C.-
Do.
Do, eii«toJehonih,a— Do.
Da Aatooish'd Seraphim. R.—
Do.
IK Woep. Israel. Oh.— Da
Da Behold a« here. a-Da
Da BehoM the Lamb of God.
Da Be was desplMd. 0.— Da
Do. God. my stmi«th, D.— Da
Da Bl«« the Lord. A.-Da
Da Let a* run. C— Da
Ito. In wncs of J07. Ch.— Da
Da Bow down. A-— Da
HlMr. Against thee only, C-
Xberere.
Hasae. Inapiro O Dens. C— Au-
gust loa
Da Laodate oqbII Palrem. C-
Da
Da Utl ftirentfbus. A.— Da
Da Jem mc« pax. D.— Magda-
koa.
Da O portenta. A.— Da
Da Jlea tormenta. A.— Do.
Da Adteclamamu9,A.— Salve.
Da 0 ghre thanks. C— Caduta.
Da Floche solvo. A.— Da
Da Blow the sacred trumpet.
CL-Da
Da Laoda.Qii. AC— Pellegrini.
Da Vtra IbntP, A.— Do.
Da D'Aspri legati. A. -Da
Di Benti U nwr. A.-Da
Da Pellegrino e I'uomo.O.— Da
Da Defende populum, C— Olu-
•epperic.
Da Die qiueso, A-— Da
Da Plebes inepie coosUJa, a—
Da
Da Agnus Del. D.—Lltanj.
Da 0 Lord, save thy people, A
-Depositiono.
Da Bex tremendjB. a * A.—
Da Miserere mel Deus. C—
MlKrere.
Hudn. J. Tu dl grazta. C-
Da Padre eelesto. 0 —Da
Da Krrle. C.-Ma»sNaL hi W.
Da Gk>rla.C.— Da
Da Et lucamatus. Oj— Da
Da Baoctus. C— Da
Da Qui tollls. A. A C.-1
Xa n. in C.
Da Gforia. C-Mass Ka HI. In D.
Da It Incamatos. A. A C.— Da
Da Qooniam. A.— If ass Na V.
Da Cum aancta CL— Da
Da It Incamatns. & A D.— Da
Da Agnus. A.— Da
Da Kyrie. C -Mass NaVH. In O.
Da It tneamatus.aAQn.-Da
Da Banettts. C— Da
Da Benedictus, Q.-DQ.
Da Saoetos. C-Masft NaTUI.
Da Benedlctui, A.— Da
Da Agnus Dei. C.— Da
Da Krrie.C.-MaasNaXn.
Da Btabat Mater. C-Stabat.
Da ThUt sttum. A.-Da
Da QdI est homa O.-Da
Da Pro peecatls. A.— Da
Da Flammfai orcl. A.— Da
Da Fac me erucc. A.— Da
Da Quaodo corpus, a— Da
Da BatT«Bc4emptor.a-fialT«.
Da Ptou d'ao lafclkc. a-
TohtaL
Haydn. J. Koo pan&lf A. (hMB
Tobla.
Do. O di to nostre, 0.— Da
Da My soul shall cry. Q,-Mo-
tetta
Hvydn. M. Lord, grant us thy. Ch.-
8enrke for Country Church.
Da O fUU of all, Ch.-Da
Da WhUe conscious, Ch.— Da
Da Blest Jesus, gracious, Ch.—
Da
X>a O Love, all lore excelling.
Ch.-Da
Da While with ber flagrant,
Ch.-Do.
Da Worship, honour, Ch.— Da
Da TenebrsB, G.— Tenebrm,
Da Sanctus, C— Bequiem.
Da Agnus. C— Da
Da Oro supplejc, C— Da
Do. Lauda 8ion. Q.— Litany.
HnmmeL Holy. Holy. 0.-Masa
JomellL Rex tremendw. D.— Be-
qnlem.
Da Kyrie. D.-3la«s.
Da Agnus, D.— Da
Lea Dal nuvoloao monte. A.—
axiena.
Da Dal tuo sogllo. D.— Da
Da Christus fiaotns est. 6w—
Verse.
Da O Jesu, A.— Salre.
LottL Qui tollls. a-Masa.
Da Gloria. C-Da
Da Et in terra. Qu.— Da
Da Miserere mel, C— Miserere.
Marcella Bave, O sate, D. —
Psalms.
MorarL Agnus Del, T.— Mass.
Moriari. Cum sancta C— Da
Mozaru Beoordare. Q.— Requiem.
Da Sanctuv C.-Mass Na L
Da Benedictus, Q.— Da
Do. Agnus. A.— Do.
Do. Gloria. C.-Mass Ka H
Da Benedictus, Q.—lIassNalIL
Do. Agnus. C— Da
Da Agnus. D.— Mass Na VL
Da Bless the Lord (Kyrie), D.
-MassNaX.
Do. Benedictus. A. A GL— Da
Da Agnus. C.— Da
Da Benedictus, Q.— Mass Na XI.
Da O God, when thou i4>pear-
est, C— Motetto I. XL
Da Ne pulrls, C— Da
Do. Kyrie, D.— Litany I.
Da Jesu Domine, A.— Da
Da Jesu Christe.D.— Litany n.
Da Verbum cara C— Da
Da Enter into his gates. A.— Da
Da Kyrie, C— Da
Da Agnus. D.— Da
Da Tho' by threatening storms.
A.-I>aTidda
Kaumann. ChristcT.— MassNaL
Da Kyrie, a— Da
Da Kt incamatus. D.— Da
Da Agnus*. D.— Da
Da Quoolam. D.— Mass Na II.
Da Cum sancto, C— Da
Da Benedictus, D. A C— Da
Da Agnus. C.— Da
Da Qui tollls. GL-Mass Nam.
Da Et Incamatus. A.— Da
Da Baoctus, C— Da
Da Etlncamatus, A.— MaasNa
rv.
Da Agnus.D.AC— Da
Da Lauda Slon, C — Offerto-
rinm.
Da Le porte a noL Q,— Pelle-
grini.
Da O ye kindreds, a— Psalm
xctI.
Negri Qui sedes. A.— Mara.
Neukomm. Bex tremendn, C—
Bequiem.
Da Banctus, D.— Da
P^rgoIesL Kyrie. D.-Grand Mass
Da Gloria. D.— Da
Da Landamus. D.— Da
Da Gratlas, C.-Da
Da Domine. D.— Da
Do. Qui tolUs. C.-Da
Da Qnonlam. A.— Da
Da Cum Bancta C— Da
Da Hear my prayer. D.—BaWe.
Da Ad te susplramus, 0.— Da
Pergoletf. O Jesa Salvator. D. Salratore. RecevItPutor.Cfretti
Besponsoria
Da In monte OllTeta C— Da
Bartl. Miserere. D.-Miserere.
Da Amrllus, T.— Da
BerinL O fsllaces, A.-Motetta
Da Bom In medio. A.— Da
filroli. Praise the Lord. D.-MI»-
erere.
Buldell. Orueiflxns, D.— Mass.
Telemann. Mercy. Judgment, A.
— Orat. Pasalon.
TOrck. Hearenly Branch. D. -
Chrlstm. Oratoria
Vogler. Agnus Del, C— Bequlrm.
Winter. O quam tristls. C. A Q.—
Btabat Mater.
Da Quando corpus, 0.— Da
Da Quid sum miser. A.— Re-
quiem.
Wolf. Balnta and Angels. C. —
Funeral Anthem.
Da The Prince of Life, D.—
fromSftlTe.
Da Aspprges. C— Mberere L
Da Bedde mlhi. D.-Da
Da Domine labia. A.— Da IL
Da Quonlam si voIuIssm. 0.~
Da
Da Baorlllclum Deo. T.— Do.
RIccL Recordare. A.--Dles Irak
Bighinl. Qui tollls, C— Mass.
Da Benedictus. Q.— Do.
Da O Lord, who shall not, Q.
—Gems. lib.
Bolle. In thee, O Lord. 0.— Death'
ofAbd.
Da Out of the deep. A.— Da
Do. Great God. to Thee, C—
Thirza.
Da O Lord, most holy. D.— Do.
Babbatini. God be merclftil, T. A
C— Dixit Dominos.
Da In my distress. D.— Da
Do. Dominus a dextris. A.— Do.
Bala. Qui tollls. A.-Ma<is.
Balratore. Tenebne, a— Teaebraok N. N. Tantum erga D.— Chorale.
[W.H.H.]
LAUB, Ferdinand, one of the most re-
markable violin-players of our day, was bom
Jan. 19, 1832, at Prague, where his £ftther was
a musician. His talent shewed itself very early ;
at six he mastered Variations by De Beriot,
and at nine performed regularly in public. At
eleven he attracted the notice of Berlioz and
Ernst, and shortly after was taken up by the
Grand Duke Stephen, and by him sent to Vienna
in 1847. After this he visited Paris, and, in
1 85 1, London, where he played at the Musical
Union, and, in 1853 succeeded Joachim at Wei-
mar. Two years later wo find him at Berlin as
Kammervirtuos and Concertmeister of the Court
band, and leader of quartet-concerts of his own.
At length, after considerable wandering, he
settled at Moscow in z866 as head Professor
of the Violin in the Conservatorium, and first
violin at the Musikgesellschaft, with great
liberty of action. But Russia did not agree
with him, and the state of his health compelled
him in 1874 ^ ^^^ ^^ baths at Elarlsbad.
The benefit however was but temporary, and on
March 17, 1875, he died of a disordered liver, at
Gries, nea^ Botzen, in the TyroL Laub was cer-
tainly one of the greatest violin- virtuoBos of recent
times. He had a fine and very powerful tone
and a brilliant technique, and played with much
feeling and passion. His repertoire was very
large, comprising all the important dassioal works
and a great many modem compositions. His fre-
quent performances of Joachim's Hungarian Con-
certo deserve special mention. He had also much
success as a quartet-player, but his style, espe-
cially in latter years, has not unjustly been re-
proached with mannerism and a tendency to
exaggeration. [P. D.]
LAUDA SION. The name of a Sequence,
sung, at High Mass, on the Feast of Corpus
Christi, between the Gradual — Oculi omnium —
and the Gospel for the Day. [See Seqdentia.]
The text of the Lauda Sion, written, about
the year 1 261, by S. Thomas Aquinas, has always
been regarded as a masterpiece of mediaeval
scholarship; and differs, in at least one very
important point, fipom the four other Sequences
still retained in use by the Roman Church. Not
only does the rhythmic swing of its rhymed
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104
LAUDA SIOl^.
Trochaic Dimeters — strengthened by the intro-
duction of a lai^ proportion of Spondees — stamp
it, at once, with the character of a glorious
Hymn of Praiae ; but it serves, also, as a vehicle
for the exposition of some of the most abstruse
problems of dogmatic Thec^ogy, which are every'
where defined with an exactness as close as that
shown in the statements of the * Athanasian
Creed.* And, strange to say, some of the verses
which exhibit this lucidity of definition in the
most marked degree, are precisely those in
which ihe swing of the metre seems least en-
cumbered by extianeoQs trammels. [See Mbtbe ;
Pbosb.]
This jubilant swhig is finely brought out by
the Plidn Chaunt to which the Sequence is
adapted — a fiery Melody, in Modes Vll and
VIII combined, exhibiting considerable variety
of treatment and expression, and, In all proba-
bility, ooeeval with the text c^ the Sequence
itself. Several readings of this Melody are ex-
tant, all agreeing in general contour, though
differing in a few unimportant details. ^H^
purest version is probably that revised by the
editors of the new Ratisbon Gradual; though
the Mechlin form contains some passages which
are, at leant, entitled to careful consideration,
more especially those in which the necessity for
the introduction of a B b is avoided by a ligature
extending to C.
pM-io-rem.
In hjiniiU et
OU-tl.CilL iMdk
saf . 11 . diL Qaem In
1 ^ <g f^«< ^1
the-mftspe-cl • a •
- - lis, Fa-nbTl-Tutet Tl-te-li^
• IB, TuiiM9 fratnuDdu>o-de-n«,
- dl - e pio-po - nl - tur.
- turn noQ EBB-bl - gi - tur.
The entire Melody is divided, like the portion
we have selected as our example, into short
strains, consisting of three, or more lines, accord-
ing to the requirements of the metre : and the
whole concludes with an Amen, AUeluia, of un-
usual beauty.
The poetry of the Lauda Sion has been many
times subjected to polyphonic treatment of a very
high order. Palestrina has left us two settings
of the Sequence for eight voices, arranged in a
double Choir, and a shorter one for four. The
first, and best known, was printed, in 1575, by
Alex. Gardanus, in the Third Book of Motets for
5, bf and 8 Voices ; and is one of the earliest
examples of that peculiar combination of two
Choirs, consisting of unequally balanced Voices,
which Palestrina has made so justly famous — the
Voices selected being, in this case, Cantus I Lud
LAtTBA SlON.
n, AltuB, an^ Bassus, in the first Choir, and
AltuB, Tenor I and II, and Bassus, in the second.
Its s^le is, in many respects, analogous to that
of the celebrated Stubat Mater. As in that giest
work, several of the verses— from Bone PatUfr,
to In terra vwenHum, inclusive — are written in
IViple MeasUto. But — as may be seen from the
following example — the Lauda Sion is idso re-
noarkable iot its close adherence, as a general
rule, to the Plain Chaunt Mdody.
A reprint of this beautiful composition will be
found in vol. iii. <»f the complete editicm of
Palestrina's works now in course of publication
by Messrs. Breitkopf 8c Hartel of Leipzig. The
other 8-part setting, in Triple Measure uurough-
out, hitherto known only through the medium
of a MS. in the Library of the CoUegio Romano,
at Rome, has been recently published in voL viL
of the same series.
Mendelssohn has also chosen the text of the
Lauda Sion as the framework of a delightful
Cantata, for four Solo Voices, Chorus, and
Orchestra, composed in 1846, and first performed,
in that year, at Li^re, on the Feast of Corpus
Christi (June 11). lliough less elaborate in
form than the 'Lobgesang* and some of its
fellow cantatas, this fine production is strikingly
characteristic of its author's best style. It would
be difficult to find a happier example of his
treatment of the Arioso than that exhibited in
Caro 6ibu8, In Sit laut plena every phrase
dictated by the Soprano solo is immeoiately
repeated in chorus, in a way whidi forcibly
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LAUDA StON.
reminds ns of ihe well-known moyement, * The
^emy dumieih/ from * Hear my prayer.' In Docti
ioaiSf a fragment of the Plain Chaunt is treated
after the manner of a Chorale, — but changed
from the Eighth into the Tenth Mode, and, there-
fof^ kiTest^ ¥nth a totally new character. In
Swi^ uRitB the dramatic element is introduced,
with almost startling effect : and the whole con-
elodes with a noble Chorus, adapted to the words
Bone Potior, and the concluding yersee of the
Hymn. The student will find it interesting to
compare th» essentially modem adaptation of
the text with the purely ecclesiastical treatment
adopted by Palestrina. [W. S. R.]
LAUM SPIRITUALI. A name given to
certain collections of Devotional Music, compiled
for the use of the ' Laudisti ' — a Religious Con-
fraternity, instituted, at Florence, 'in the year
1310, and afterwards held in great estimation by
S. Charles Borromeo, and S. Philip Neri.
The poetiy of the 'Laudi' — some ancient
specimens of which are attributed, by Crescen-
tmi, to S. Francis of Assisi — was originally
vritt^ entirely in Italian, and bears no trace of
daaaical derivation. The music to which it is
adapted — inclining rather to the character of the
Sacred Caftzonet, than to that of the regular
Hymn — was, at first, unisonous, and extremely
ample ; though, after a time, the Laudisti culti-
vated part singing with extraordinary success.
A highly interesting MS. volume, once be-
Vmgbg to a company of ' Laudisti/ enrolled, in
the year 1336, at the Chiesa d*Ogni Santi, at
Florence, is now preserved in the Magliabeochi
library : and, firom this. Dr. Bumey (Hist. ii. 328)
quotes a very beautiful example — ' Alia Trinitk
beata' — whidi, of late years, has become popular
in Uiis country, though, in all the English edi-
tions we have seen, the melody is sadly muti-
ISpted, and strikingly inferior in character to the
original reading. The earliest printed collection
is dated 1485. This, however, would seem to
have been either unknown to, or unrecognised
by, the disciples of S. PhiHp Neri : for, in 1565,
Oovannl Animaccia, who acted as his Maestro
diCapella, published a volume entitled ' II primo
Hbio delle Laudi,* followed by a ' Secondo libro/
of more advanced character, in 1570. These
Sacred Songs, which formed the germ of the per-
inrnances afterwards called Omtorios, became
so popular among the youths who flocked to
S. Philip for instruction, that, in 1588 — seventeen
yean after the death of the saintly Animuccia
—P. Soto thought it desirable to edit a third
Tolmne, containing unacknowledged works, for
three and four Voices, by some of the greatest
Composers of the age. In 1 589, the same zealous
editor published an amended reprint of the three
rdmnes, consolidated into one; succeeded, in
'59if by a fourth volume, dedicated to the
Duchessad'Aquasparta. Serafino Razzi published
a large collection, in 160S, and many others
followed — ^fur, at this period, almost every largH
^wn, and even many an important parish, had
it« own Company of Laudisti, who sang the
poetry of Lorenzo de* Medici, Poliziano, Puld,
LAUTERBACir.
105
Bembo, Ludovioo Martelli, GiambeUari, Filicaia,
and other celebrated writers, with undiminished
interest, though, as time progressed, the charac-
ter of the music sensibly deteriorated.
In the year 1 770, Dr. Bumey heard theCompany
of Laudisti attached to the Church of S. Maria
Maddalena de* Pazsi, in Florence, sin^ with ex-
cellent effect, in some street Processions, as well
as in some of the Churches, f^m a book then
just published for their use : and, however true
it may be that part-singing in Italy is not what
it was some centuries ago, representatives of
the Confraternity are said to he still in exist-
ence, striving to do their best in a more modem
style. [W.S.R.]
LAUDS (Lat. Latides), The name given to
that division of the Canonical Hours which
immediately follows Matins.
The Office of Lauds opens, according to the
Ritual of tlie Western Church, with the series of
Vendcles and Responses beginning, 'Deus in
adjutorium meum intende,* followed by seven
Psalms and A Canticle, sung, in five (Uvisions,
with five proper Antiphons. These are succeeded
by the 'Capitulum' (or 'Little Chapter'); the
Hymn for the Day, with its proper Yersicle and
Response; and the 'Benedictus, which, with its
Antiphon, is sung while the Officiating Priest
and his Ministers are engaged in incensing the
Altar. The Service then concludes with the
Collect, or Collects, for the Day ; the Commemo-
rations (as at Vespers); and the 'Antiphon of
the Blessed Virgin proper for the Season.
On certain Festivals, the Antiphons, at Lauds,
are doubled, as at Matins : and, like Matins, the
Office is usually sung *by anticipation.' The
Plain Chaunt Music adapted to it will be found
in the ' Antiphonarium Romanum," and the
' Directorium Chori.' [See Matins ; Antiphon.]
In the First Prayer-Book of King Edward VI,
the name of ' Mattins* is given to the combined
Offices of Matins, and Lauds. [W. S. R.]
LAUTERBACH, Johann Chbistoph, dis-
tinguished violinist, was bom July 34, 1832, at
Cuhnbach in Bavaria. His education he re-
ceived at the school and gynmasium of Wiirz-
burg. where he also learnt music from Bratsch
and Prof. Frohlich. In 1850 he entered the
Conservatoire at Brussels as pupil of De Beriot
and F^tis, in 1851 received the gold medal,
and during L^nard's absence took his place as
Professor of the Violin. In 1853 he became
Concertmeister and Professor of the Violin at
the Conservatorium of Munich ;*in i860, on the
death of Lipinski, was appointed second Con-
certmeister of the royal band at Dresden, and in
1873 succeeded to lie first place. Since 1861
he has also held the post of principal teacher of
the violin in the Conservatorium of Dresden,
with great and increasing renown. He has tra-
velled much and always with success. He spent
the seasons of 1864 and 65 in England, appear-
ing at the Philharmonic on May 2 of the
former, and May 15 of the latter year, and
E laying also at the Musical Union. In Paris
e played at the last concert at the Tuileries
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LAUTteEBACH.
before the war ; and received from the Emperor
Napoleon a gold snuff-box set with diamonds.
He is decorated with many orders both of North
and South Germany. In the summer of 1876 he
met with a serious mountain accident in Switzer-
land, by which several of his companions were
killed and he himself severely wounided. He has
however completely recovered. Lauterbach's style
unites the best peculiarities of the Belgian school,
great polish and elegance, with the breadth of
tone and earnestness of the Germans. [B*I^-]
LAVENU, Louis Henrt, aon of a flautist
and music-seller, bom in London in 181 8. He
was a pupil of the Royal Academy of Music,
where he studied composition under Bochsa and
Potter. Before leaving the Academy he was
engaged as a violoncellist at the Opera and the
Westminster Abbey Festival of 1834. He was
also in business as a music-seller in partnership
with his stepfather, Nicholas Mori, the eminent
violinist, after whose death, in 1839, he continued
the business alone for a few years. During this
time he published a few songs and short piano-
forte pieces composed by himself. His opera
* Loretta, a Tale of Seville,* words by Bunn, was
produced at Drury Lane Nov. 9, 1846, with
success. Dissatisfied with his position, Lavenu
emigrated to Australia, obtained the post of
director of the music at the Sydney Theatre,
and died at Sydney, Aug. i, 1859. [W.H.H.]
LAVIGNE, Antoine Joseph, bom at Be-
Ban9on March 23, 18 16, received his early
musical education from his father, a musician in
an infantry regiment. On Jan. 24, 1 830, he was
admitted a pupil of the Conservatoire at Paris,
where he studied the oboe under Vogt, but was
obliged to leave on May 3, 1835, on account of
his father's raiment being ordered from Paris.
He re^iumed his position on Oct. 17, 1836, and
obtained the first prize in 1837. He was for
several years principal oboe at the Theatre
Italien at Paris. In 1841 he came to England,
and appeared as oboe soloist at the Promenade
Concerts at Drury Lane, and has now for some
years been a member of Mr. Charles Halle's
orchestra at Manchester. He addressed himself
with great earnestness to applying to the oboe
the system of keys which Boehm had contrived
for the flute, and devoted several years to per-
fecting the iuMtrument. This admirable player
has great execution and feeling ; biit what be
is most remarkable for is his power and length
of breath, which by some secret known to
himself enables him to give the longest phrases
without breaking them. [W. H. H.]
LAWES, Henry, son of William Lawes, was
bom at Dinton, Wiltshire, probably in Dec.
1595, as he was baptized Jan. i, 1595-6. He
received his musical education from Giovanni
Coperario. On Jan. i, 1625-6 he was sworn
in as epistler of the Chapel Koyal, and on Nov.
3 following, one of the gentlemen, and afterwards
became clerk of the cheque. In 1633 he joined
his brother William and Simon Ives in com-
posing the music for Shirley's masque, 'The
LAWES.
Triumphs of Peace,' and in the same year
furnished music for Thomas Carew's masque,
' Coslum Britannicum,' performed at Court, Feb.
18, 1633-4. In 1634 he composed the songs for
Milton's masque, * Comus,* produced at Ludlow
Castle on Michaelmas night, in that year, Lawes
performing the part of the Attendant Spirit.
(Both Hawkins and Bumey have printed ' Sweet
Echo,' one of the songs in ' Comus.' The whole
of the songs are in the British Museum, Add.
MS. 1 1,5 1 8.) It is probable that the friendship
between Milton and Lawes had its origin in
Comus.
Henry Lawes taught music to Lady Alice
Egerton — *The Lady * of the masque. In 1637
appeared 'A Paraphrase vpon the Psalmes of
David. By G[eorgeJ S[andy8j. Set to new Tunes
for private Devotion. And a thorow Base, for
Voice or Instrument. By Henry Lawes ' ; and in
1648 * Choice Psalmes put into Musick for Three
Voices .... Composed by Henry and William
Lawes, Brothers and Servants to His Majestic.
With divers Elegies set in Musick by several
friends, upon the death of William Lawes. And
at the end of the Thorough Base ' are added nine'
Canons of Three and Four Voices made by William
Lawes.' A copper^plate portrait of Charles I,
believed to be the last published in his life time,
accompanies each part, and amongst the com-
mendatory verses prefixed to the work is the
sonnet, addressed by Milton to Henry Lawes in
Feb. 1645-6, commencing * Harry, whose tuneful
and well measured song. Lawes composed the
songs in the plays and poems of William Cart-
wright, and the Christmas songs in Herrick's
• Hesperides.' In 1653 he published * Ayres and
Dialogues for One, Two and Three Voyces,' with
his portrait, frx>m which the above is taken,
finely engraved by Faithome, on the title.
This was received with such &vour as to in-
duce him to issue two other books with the
1 The work b In Mparato parts.
aBwUyten.
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LAWBS,
mad title in 1655 and 1656. In 1656 he was
ei^paged with Capt. Henry Ckwke, Dr. Charles
Cohittn and Geoige Hadson in providing the
mmio for Davenant*8 'First Day's Entertain-
meat of Mnmok at BuUand House.* On the
Restoration in 1660 Lawes was reinstated in his
Coort appointments. He composed the anthem
' Zadok the Priest,' for the coronation of Charles
n. He died Oct. ai, 1662, and was buried Oct.
35 in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Many
of his songs are to be found in ' Select MusicaU
Ayres and Dialogues,* 1652, 1653 And 1659, and
• the Treasury of Musick,* 1669.
Heniy Lawes was highly esteemed by his con-
temporaries, both as a composer and performer.
Milton praises him in both capacities, and
Herrick in an epigram places him on a level
vith some of the most renowned singers and
players of his time; but later writers have
urmed a lower estimate of his a'biliiies as a com-
poea'. Barney declares his productions to be
'languid and insipid,' and equally devoid of
lesming and genius'; «nd Hawluns speaks of
bis music as deficient in melody and 'neither
Tentative nor air, but in so precise a -medium
between both that a name is wanting for it.*
But both appear to judge from a false point of
^ew. It was not Lawes's object to produce
mdody in the popular sense of -the word, but to
et 'words with just note and aocent,' to make
the prosody of his text his principal cate ; and it
vat doubtless that quality which induced all the
best poetical writers of his day, from Milton and
Waller downwards, to desire that their verses
ihoold be set by him. To effect his object <he
employed a kind of 'aiia parlante,' a style of
c<mposition which, if expressively sung, would
caude as much gratification to the cultivated
bearer as the most ear-catching melody would to
tbe untrained listener. Lawes was careful in the
cboice of words, and the words of his songs
wmld form a very pleasing volume of lyric poetry.
Hawkins says that notwithstanding Lawes * was
a senrant of the church, he contributed nothing
to the increase of its stores*; but, besides the
torooation anthem before mentioned, there are
(<« were) in an old choir book of the Chapel
Hnyal fragments of 8 or 10 anthems by him,
and the words of several of his anthems are given
in CUflford's 'Divine Services and Anthems,*
1664. -A. portrait of Henry Lawes is in the Music
Bcbool, Oxford.
JoHJi Lawes, a brother of Henry, was a lay
Ticar of Westminster Abbey, He died in Jan.
1654-5, and was buried in the Abbey cloisters.
Riv. Thomas Lawes, commonly but errone-
BQsly stated to be the fitther, but probably >the
Bsie, of William and Henry Lawes, was a vicar
ibfical of Salisbury Cathedral. He died Nov. 7,
^^, and was buried in the north transept of
IbcathedraL
WiLLiAK Lawes, elder brother of Henry,
noeived musical instruction from Coperario at
{be expense of the Earl of Hertford. He became
i membra- of the choir of Chichester Cathedral,
rbich he quitted in 1603, on being appointed a
liAYS.
107
gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He was sworn
in Jan. i, 1602-^. In 161 1 he resigned his
place in favour of Ezekiel Waad, a lay vicar of
Westminster Abbey, but on Oct. i following was
re-admitted ' without paie.* He was also one of
the musicians in ordinary to Charles I. In 1633
he composed part of ihe music for Shirley*s
'Triumphs of Peace.* An anthem by him is
printed in Boyce*s Cathedral Music ; songs and
other vocal compositions in 'Select MusicaU
Ayres and Dialogues,' 1653 and 1659, '^Atch
that catch can,* 1052, 'The Treasury of Musick,*
1669, and 'Choice Psalms/ 1648; and some of
his instrumental music in 'Dourtly Masquing
Ayres,' 166a. The autograph MSS. of his
music for several Court masques are preserved
in the Music School, Oxford. 'The Royal Con-
sort' for viols and some 'Airs' for violin and
bass are in the British Museum, Add. MS.
10,445, >and some of his vocal music is in Add.
MS. 11,608. On the breaking out of the Civil
War he joined the Royalist army and was made
a commissary by Lord Gerrard, to exempt him
from danger, but his active spirit disdaining that
security, he was killed by a stray shot during
the siege of Chester, 1645. [W. H.H.]
LAY. A Proven9al word, originally prob-
ably Celtic, meaning at first a sound or noise,
and then a song, especially the ■ tune, as the
quotations from Spenser, Milton and Dryden
in Johnson*s Dictionary prove. Beyond this
general sense the term luts no application to
music. The German ' Lied * is anotiier form of
the word. [G.]
LAY VPCAR OT LAY CLERK, a singer in
Cathedral Choirs. [See Vicar Choral.]
LAYS, FRANyois, « famous French singer,
whose real name was Lay, born Feb. 14, 1758,
at La Barthe de Nest^ in Gasoony. He learned
music in the monastery of Guaraison, but before
he was 20 his fame as a singer had spread, and
in April 1779 ^^ found himself at Paris to be
tried for the Grand Opera. His name first
appears in Lajarte's catalogue of first repre-
sentations, as Pdtrarque, in a ' pastoral h^olque'
by CandeiUe, called * Laure et P^trarque,* July
a, 1 780, and is spelt Lais. His next ^ mention
is in the * Iphig^nie en Tauride * of Piccinni,
Jan. 23, 1781, where he has the rfile of a cory-
phde. After that he appears frequently in com-
pany with MadUe. Saint-Hub^ti, a famous
soprano of that day. He was also attached to
the concerts of Marie Antoinette, and to the
Concert Spirituel. He was a poor actor, unless
in parts specially written for him; but the
i^lendour of his voice made up for everything,
and he preserved it .so well as to remain in the
company of the Grand Opera till October 1822.
Lays was a violent politician on the popular
side,, which did not please his colleagues, and
some quarrels arose in consequence, but with no
further result than to cause him to write a
1 The rMe of the * Seignenr blenfalMuit ' Is said by TH\% to have becD
written for him. but his name does not appear la the company at the
flnt performance of that piece.
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108
LAYS,
pAinphlety and to force him, after the gih Ther-
mid<nr, to appear in parts diBtasteful to him, and
to sing before the Bourbons after the Restoration.
He was professor of singing at the Conservatoire
from 1795 to 1799, when he retired from the
post; and finom 1819 to 1836 held the same
office in the 'tiScol^ royale de ohant et de d^
damation.* He had been principal singer in the
chapel of Napoleon from 1 801 till the fihU of the
Emperor, but was cashiered by Louis XVIII.
After leaving the ficole he retired to Ingrande
near Angers, where he died March 30, 1831.
We have said that he was not a good actor, but
F^tis pronounces him not even a good singer, say-
ing that his taste was poor, and Uiat he had sevend
bad tricks ; but he had warmth and animation,
and the beauty of his voice so flEtr atoned for all,
that for a long time no opera could be successful
in which he had not a part. [G.]
LAZARUS, Henrt, a native of Xx>ndon,
commenced the study of the clarinet when a
boy imder Blizard, bandmaster of the Royal
Military Asylum, Chelsea, and continued it
tmder Charles Godfrey, sen., bandmaster of the
Coldstream Guards. After fulfilling engage-
ments in various theatrical and other orchestras
he was, in 1 8.:i8, appointed as second to Willman
at the Sacred Harmonic Society. On the death
of Willman in 1840 Lazarus succeeded him as
principal darinet at the Opera and all the
principal concerts, festivals, etc. in London and
the provinces, a position he has since retained
with great and ever-increasing reputation. In
both orchestral and solo playing the beauty
and richnoiis of his tone, his exceUent phrasing,
and his neat and expressive execution, are alike
admired. He attributes his present high re-
putation mainly to the excellent advice he has
during his cweer received from Sir Michael
Costa. He has been a professor of his instrument
at the Royal Academy of Music since 1854, and
at the Military School of Music, Kneller Hall,
near Hounslow, since 1858. [W.H.H.]
LAZZARIN I, Gustavo, was bom (as some
biographers say)" at Padua, or (according to
others) at Verona, about 1765. His cUbtit was
made at Lucca in 1 789, in ZingarelU's * Ifigenia
in Aulide,* with great ^clat. In the two follow-
ing years he app^red in London, singing both in
serious and comic operas, such as iiertoni's
* Quinto Fabio ' and the ' Locanda' of Paisiello,
fn the former with Pacchierotti, but taking the
principal r6le in the latter. Lord Mount-Edg-
cumbe thought him ' a very pleasing singer with
a sweet tenor voice.' During the Carnival of
1794 he sang at Milan, with Grassini and Mar-
ches!, in ZingarelU's ' Artaserse ' and the ' Demo-
foonte ' of Portogallo, and bore the comparison
inevitably made between him and those great
singers. He sang there again in 1 795, and once
more in 1 798, appearing on the latter occasion in
Cimarosa's ' Orazzi * and Zingarelli's ' Meleagro,*
with Riccardi and Crescentini. In 1801 he was
one of the Opera Buffa troupe at Paris, where he
was again heard to advantage by Lord Mount-
Edgcumbe (1802), singing in company with La
LEADIKO KOTE.
SfHnasacohi and Getigi Bellec. But hla voioe
had now lost much of its freshness, though the
great style remained. LazArini published two
volumes of Italiui airs, and a Pastoral, both at
Paris (Carli). His portrait was engraved there
by NitAt Dufrdne, an operate singer. [J. M.]
LEACH^ Jambs, bom at Rochdale, Yorkshire,
in 1 763, was a tenor singer and hymn-tune writer.
He published a ' New ^tt of Hymns and Psalm
TimoB etc/ (Preston, London 1789);. and a
*^ Second Sett ' of the same, probably about 1 794.
Hia tunes are found in several of the American
collections, as the Easy Instructor (Albany, Kew
York 1798), the Bridgewater Collection (^Boston
1802). The David Companion or Methodist
Standard (Baltimore, 18 10) contains 48 of his
pieces. For more details see a letter signed
G.A.C. in the Musical Times for April 1878,
p. 226. In the Rev. H. Parr's * Church of Eng-
land Psalmody ' will be found Moimt Pleasant,
Oldham, and Smyrna, by him, which used to be
favourites in certain congregations. Leach died
in 1797. . [G.]
LEAD, TO, in fugues or imitative music is to
go off first with a point or subject, which is
afterwards taken up by the other parts succes-
sively. Thus in the Amen Chorus in the Mes-
siah the bass Meads,* the tenor taking up the
subject at the 6th bar, the alto at the loth, and
so on. In the separate voice parts the fact is
often stated (* Tenors lead,* etc.), that the singers
may be on their guard, and the part is then said
* to have the lead.* [G.]
LEADER. The chief of the first violins is the
leader of the orchestra, the Coneertmmter of the
Germans, and Cfief cfcUtaque of the French. He
is close to the conductor's left hand. The posi-
tion is a most important one, as the animation and
'attack' of the band depend in great measure
on the leader. The great precision and force of
the Gewandhaus orchestra, for instance, is said to
have been mainly due to David being for so long
at the head of them. [G.J
LEADING NOTE (Fr. NoU sensible \ Germ.
Leitton). In modem music it is absolutely in-
dispensable for all harmonic progressions to have
an appreciable connection with a tonic or key-
note, and various lines converge to indicate that
note with clearness ; amcmg these an important
place is occupied by the L^tding Note, which is
the note immediately below the keynote, and
separated from it by the smallest interval in
the system, namely a semitone. Helmh(dtz has
pointed out that in actual relationship to the
tonic it is the most remote of all the notes in the
scale, since the supertonic, which also appears to
be very remote, at least comes nearer in being
the fifth to the dominant, while the leading note
is only the third. For this reason, and lUso from
its not being capable of standing as a root note
to any essential diatonic chord in the key, it
seems to have no status of its own, but to exist
mainly as preparatory to the tonic note, for which,
by reason of its close proximity, it seems to pre-
pacre the mind when it is heard ; and the mdodic
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LEAPING NOTE.
tendency to lead up to the most important note
in Uie scale is the origin of its name.
In many scales, both of dviBsed and barbarons
peoples, it has found no plaoe. In most of the
medieval ecdesiaBtical scales, as in the Greek ^
scales from which they were derived, the note
immediately below the tonic was separated irou
it by the interval of a whde tone, and therefore
had none of the character of a leading note ; but
M the feeling for tonality gained ground in the
middle ages hand in hand with the appreciation
of bsnnonic combinations, the use of the leading
maid, which is so vital to its comprehension,
became more common. Ecclesiastics looked upon
this tampering with the august scales of antiquity
with disfavour, and Pope John XXII passed an
edict against it in 1322 ; oonsequently the acci-
dental which indicated it was omitted in the
writt^i music : but the feeling of musicians was
in many cases too strong to be suppressed, and it
seems that the performers habitually sang it
wherever the sense of the context demanded it,
nor do we learn that the ecclesiastics inter-
fered with the practice as long as the musicians
did not let the world see as well as hear what
they were doing. Notwithstanding this common
practice of poformers, the scales maintained Uieir
integrity in many respects, and there resulted
a curious ambiguity, which is veiy characteristic
of medieval music, in th^ frequent interchange
of the notes a tone and a semitone below the
tonic. Musicians were long beguiled by the
feeling that the true scales should have the note
below the tonic removed from it by the interval
ef a tone, luid that it was taking a fiberty and
pandering to human weakness to sharpen it ;
uid the clear realisation of those principles of
tonicity up(m which modem music is based was
considerably retarded thereby, so that works both
vocal and instrumental are characterised by
& vagueness of key-relationship, which the use
of the leading note alone can remove, till far on
into the seventeenth century; by the time of
Bach and Handel however the ancient scales had
heen fused into the major and minor modes of the
modem system, and the leading note assumed
the office it has ever since occupied. The gradual
realisation of the importance of the leading note
tnd the influence it had upon the development
of modem music is teaced in the article Har-
vorr, and reference may also be made to chap,
xiv of the Third Part of Helmholte's great work
on *The Sensations of Tone,' ete. [C.H.H.P.]
liEBHAFT, i. e. lively, the German equivalent
for Vinace, Beethoven uses it> during his tempo-
iMy preference for Grorman terms, in Sonata
op. ici, where we find the two directions * Etwas
lebhaft ' ete. and ' Ijebhaft, marsckmassig,' which
u exactly equivalent to 'Vivace h la marcia.'
Schmoann uses it constantly ; ' Ausserst lebhaft '
tt VwaeisHmo, [G.]
LEBRUN, FRANCnaoA, the daughter o( Danzi
we ridonoellist, was bom at Mannheim in 1 756.
Endowed by nature with a voice remarkable
we for its purity and extent, ranging as high
* F m alt without difi&oulty, sh^ improved her
LEBRUN.
109
natural advantages by careful study, and became
one of the best singers that Germany has pro-
duced. She made her first appearance ( 1 7 7 1) when
scarcely 16 years old, and charmed the court : in
the next year she was engaged at the Mannheim
0|>era. F^tis says that in 1775 she bec^ftme the
wife of Lebrun the oboist, whom she accom-
panied to Italy, sin^g first at Milan (1778) in
Salieri's *£uropa riconosciuta.* The Milanese
were delighted with her clear and beautiful voice
•and easy vocalisation, in spite of the intrigues of
La Balducoi, the prima donna of La Scala, who
endeavoured to set them against her young rival.
This account must, however, be corrected ; for,
whereas F^tis says that she only came to Eng-
land in J 78 1, there is no doubt that she was
here five years earlier, then unmarried, arriving
>with Boncaglia, with whom she sang in Sac-
chini's * Greso.' ' Though her name was Italian
[called in the cast, Francesea Bami, Virtuosa di
Camera di S.A.S. TElettore Palatine], she was
a German, and had never been in Italy. She was
young, well-looking, had a voice of uncommon
dlearaess and compass, capable of the most aston-
ishing execution, and was an excellent musician.
Yet her performance was considered unsatisfac-
tory, being too much aUa Tedencka, and more like
that of an instrument than of a human voice.
She soon after married M. Lebrun, an eminent
player on the hautbois, which confirmed her in
the bravura style, as she was in the habit of
singing songs with an obbligato accompaniment
for that instrument, in which the difficulties per-
formed by both were quite astonishing, each
seeming to vie with the other which could go
highest and execute the most rapid divisions.
After performing in ' Erifile,* also by Sacchini,
and oUier operas, she left England after one
season, but was re-engaged for the next but one '
(Lord Mount-Edgcmnl^). It is therefore clear
that she did not marry Lebrun until after 1 777.
She reappeared in London as Mme. Lebmn in
1779, b^ing again the prima donna for serious
opera, and continued with Pacchierotti to sing in
London for two or three seasons ; she then went
away, * nor was her place ever well filled during
the remainder of Pacchierotti's stay ' (Idem.).
She sang in 1 785 at Munich, after which she
returned to Italy, achieving the same brilliant
success at Venice and Naples as elsewhere. In
1788 and 1789 she appeared at Munich in Mo-
zart's *Idomeneo,' Pniti's 'Armida,' and the
' Castor and Pollux ' of Vogler. She started for
Berlin in Dec. j 790 to fulfil an engagement, but
on her arrival lest her husband, and herself died
May 14, 1791.
Mme. Lebrun, beside being a great singer,
was an accomplished pianiste, and composed well
for that instrument. She published at Ofien-
bach (1783) some sonatas with violin accom-
paniment, and some trios for piano, violin, and
ceUo, which contain pretty melodies and are
written with fckoility.
Of her two daughters, the elder, Sophie, better
known as Mme. ' Dulcken, was born in London
1 Ka^^baconfiiHip(MwUtitheU^uUgt«oftlttti^]^
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110
LEBRUN.
June ao, 1781, and became celebrated as a
pianiste. She was remarkable for quick and true
feeling, as well as a good style of execution, and
made successful concert tours through France,
Italy, and Grermany. On April 18, 1799, she
married Dulcken, a famous maker of pianos at
Munich. She composed, but never published,
some sonatas and other pieces for the piano.
RosiNE, her younger sister, was- bOTn at Mu-
nich, April 13, 1785. She was at first taught
by Streicher for thepiano, but afterwards studied
singing under h^ unclb, Danzi, the Kapellmeister.
She nutde a successful Mut ; but, haying mar-
ried Stenzsch, an actor of the Court Theatre,
Nov. 30, 1801, gave up the opera to play in
oomedy> in whi(£ she displayed a fair amount
of talent. [J.M.]
UkCLAIR^ Jban-Marib, Tatn^ (so called to
distinguish him from his brother Antoine^Remi),
an eminent violin-player,, and composer for his
instrument, was bom at Lyons in 1697. Al-
though his father was a member of the ro^
band, he began his public life not as a musician
but as a dancer at the Kouen theatre. Later on
he went to Turin, as ballet master, where SoMis
was so much pleased with some ballet-music of
his, that he induced him to take up the vioHn,
which up to this time he had cultivated as a
secondary pursuit only, and to place himself under
his tuition for two years. At the end of tiiat
period Semis declared that he had nothing more
to teach him. Nevertheless L^lair appears to
have continued his studies for a considerable time
before going to Paris in 1 729. In Paris his suc-
cess was never great ; whether from want of
ambition and a retiring disposition, or, as has
been suggested, owing to the jealousy of the vio-
linists of the French school, we have no means
of deciding. As a fact we know that L^lair,
although he can hardly have had a worthy rival
among the players of that time, got nothing
better than the insignificant post of ripieno-
violinist at the Opera. During this period
he studied composition under Charon. In 173 1
he became a member of the royal band^ but
owing to a dispute with Guignon as to the
leadership of the 2nd violins, cave up his post
again, and soon also retired m>m the Opera.
For the rest of his life he appears to have been
excluedvely occupied with the composition and
publication of his works and with teaching. He
was already an old man when he made a journey
to Holland, for the sole purpose of hearing and
meeting Locatelli, of whose powers as a violinist
he, led by the ex^aordinary and novel difficulties
presented in the caprices of that artist, had
probably formed a great idea. On Oct. 2 2, 1 764,
soon after his return from Holland, he was
assassinated late at night close to the door of
his own house. Neither motive nor author of
the crime have ever been discovered.
Owing to the merit of his compositions for the
violin, L^clair occupies a prominent place among
the great classical masters of tiiat instrument. As
to lus powers as a performer we have but the in-
direct evidence of the difficulties presented in his
LECOOQ.
compositions. These are very oonaidemble ; and,
barnng Locatelli's eccentricities, greater than jkh j
that we find in the works of his predecessora or
contemporaries. He very freely employs— in fact
not seldom writes whole movements in— double-
stops ; and altogether, even according to the
modem standard of technique, his music is
exacting both for the left hand and the bow.
As a composer, judging him after his best
works, L^clair must 1^ accorded the first place
among French writers for the violin. It has
been justly remarked, that a great deal of what
he wrote is antiquated ; but much remains that
is truly charming^ He is no mere imitator of
the Italians, but there is a distinct individuality
inr many of his movements ; and also a definite
nations Frendi element. On the whole, grace-
fulness and vivacity are more prominent than
depth ef feeling; his frequent employment of
double-stops, already mentioned, giving much
richness and brilliancy of sound.
The two Sonatas of his, edited by Ferd. David
(Hohe Schule des Vfolinspiels), are good ex-
amples of his- higher powers, especbJIy the
pathetic one, sumamed ' Le tombeau.' On the
other hand a Saraband and- Tambourin, often
played with great success by Joachim and others,
are good specimens of his lively style. This is a
list of his works, as appended to lus op. i a : —
OpiJ. Sonatas for yloHn with a
baM. (1st book.)
2. Sonataa, (Sod book.)
8. Sonatas for 9 vtolins.
4. Sonatas en trio.
b. Sonatas fur rloUn with baas.
CM book.)
8. Trios (eseUoi). S vIoUm aod
7. Concertl grossL
Op. 8. Trios. Oontlnoatlon of
09.&
•.Sonatas. MthbookJ
10. Concertl rrossL.
11. Glauciu et Scylla. Operm.
12. Sonatas for 8 tIoUdu Cind
bookj
IS. Oveaturu and sonataa ea
trios.
U. Sonate posthmne.
As a rule his works were engraved by his
wife, who, up to 1750, was a singer at the
Op^ra. [P. I).]
LECOCQ, Cbarcbs, bora in Paris, June 3,
1832 ; entOTed the Cbnservatoire in 49, and in
50 obtMned the first prize for harmony and ac-
companiment. He took the second prize for
fugue in Hal^vy's class in 1852, and at the
same time greatly distinguished himself in the
organ class. After this however he obtained no
further scholastic distinctions, and either because
he tired of Hal^vy*s want of method, or because
he was anxious to come before the public, left
the Conservatoire towards the dose of i854« He
found the usual difficulty in obtaining access to
the stage, and would probably have haA to wait
a long time, but for a competition for an operetta
opened by Offenbach in 1 856. He was bracketed
with Bizet, and * Le Docteur Miracle * was pro-
duced at the Bouffes Parisiens April 8, 1857. The
operetta was evidently the work of a clever
musician, who understood how to write for the
voice. Notwithstanding this good beginning the
small theatres still closed their doors to him,
and Lecocq was driven to teaching for a
livelihood. He then tried a different line,
publishing in conjunction with Besozzi a collec-
tion of sacred songs for women*s voices called
'La Chapelle au Couvent' (1865) — less incon-
gmous when we remember that he was a good
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LECOCQ.
(ffguiist; but the stage was irresistible, and
« little one-act piece 'Le Baiser k la Porte'
(1864) was followed by 'Les Ondines au Cham-
P«gne' (1865), 'Le Myosotis' (i866>, * Le
Cabaret de Bampooneau' (1867), and 'Fleur de
Th^/ 3 acts (1868). This last piece was a bril-
fiant Bucoees. Lecooq at last found himself
established with the public, and produced in
rapid sooceesion 'L* Amour et son carquois/
2 acts (1868); 'Gandolfo' and 'Le Rajah de
Mysore/ both in one act (1869); *Le beau
Bonois,* I act (1870) ; ' Le Barbier de TVouville'
and 'Le Testament de M. de Crac/ both in
I act (1871); 'SauYons la caisse/ i act, and
*LesCent "Vierges,' 3 acts (1872); *La Fille de
Mme. Angot,' 3 acts (1873) ^ which ran for 500
nights consecutively; 'Les *Pr^ St. Grervais'
and 'Girofl^^Girofla' both in 3 acts (1874);
'Les Jumeaux de fiergame,' i act, and * Le
Pompon/ 3 acts (1875); La petite Mari^/ 3
acts (1876) ; ' Kedki ' and ' La Marjolaine/ both
in 3 acts (1877) ; * I^e petit Due* and * Camargo/
both in 3 acts (1878) ; and finally *La petite
Mademoiselle,' 3 acts (1879). To this long list
most be added detached songs and other trifles
thrown off by his rapid and untiring pen.
Leoocq has profited by the fidse system mo-
mentarily IB the ascendant among French
mosiciaBB. Our learned composers, encouraged
by tome of the managers, overload their operas
with orchestral writing and substitute the lyric
for the dramatic element — to the ruin of French
op^ comique. But Lecocq realizes that what
the pablic really like are light, gay, sparkling
melodies. His aim has been to dethrone Offen-
bach, and as he has the advantage of writing
correctly, he has had little trouble in attaining
a popnlarity even greater than that formerly
possessed by the composer of ' Orph^ aux £n-
fers.' His style is not a very elevated one, and
makes no demand on the poetry or the intellect
of the composer ; but it requires tact, ease, free-
dom, and above all, animation. These qualities
are conspicuous in Lecocq*s operettas, which have
become universally popular, owing to the life, briot
and easy gaiety which pervade them. [G. C]
LEDGER LINES are the short lines drawn
above and below the staff for those notes which
exceed its limits. The origin of the term is not
known. It is {nroposed to derive it from the
French Uger, light, or from the Latin legere, to
read, or as if it were equivalent to layer — ^addi-
tional lines bud on above or below ; but neither
of these is quite satisfiM^ry. The term came
into use about the year 1 700 (see Mr. G. J. Evans
in the Musical Times for June 1879). In French
they are called * lignes postichee/ or ' snppl^men-
taires ' ; and in German • hil&linien/ or * neben-
linien,' A, C. etc. being said to be * durch den
Kop^» and B, D, etc. 'durch den Hals'— 'ein,
*weii drei, gestrichene/ etc. [G.]
LEEVES.
Ill
' In UMdon. kt Si. JaBM't TbMtn (rnnofa). JanB 21. 73.
> Ditto. %t St. JaoMt't TlMfttre (French), Maj 17. 73: At Boj»l
nOhaimonk Tbaitre (EngUA. Bjtod), Oct. 4. 7S.
* Ditto, at Criterhm Thmtn (EoffUsh. Been). Mot. SB. 74.
* Ditto. At Open ComkitM (Frracbj. Jane 6. 74; »t Bojtl FhlllMr
■<«leThcMiv (CogUsh), Oct. S. 74.
LEE, Alexandeb, son of Harry Lee, a pugi-
list and landlord of the Anti-GiJlican tavern.
Shire Lane, Temple Bar, was bom in 1802.
When a boy he entered the service of Lord
Barrymore as ' tiger,* being the first of the class
of servants known by that name ; but on the
discovery that he had a fine voice and a natural
taste for music, he was withdrawn from that
position and placed under a master for instruc-
tion. In 1825 he appeared as a tenor singer at
the Dublin theatre, and in 18 26 in London at
the Haymarket theatre, and soon afterwards
commenced business as a music-seller in the
Quadrant. In 1829, with Melrose, the tenor
singer, and John Kemble Chapman, he entered
upon the management of the Tottenham Street
llieatre, and gave performances of popular Eng-
lish operas. Lee seceded in 1830 and became
lessee of Dniry Lane Theatre. He was soon
afterwards joined by Capt. Polhill, but at the
end of the season he withdrew, leaving Polhill
sole manager. In 1831 he undertook the man-
agement of the Lenten oratorios at both Drury
Lane and Covent Garden. In 1832 he was com-
poser and music director at the Strand Theatre,
and in 1845 the same at the Olympic. Lee
composed the music for several dramatic pieces,
amongst which were 'The Sublime and Beauti-
ful,' and 'The Invincibles/ 1828; 'The Nymph
of the Grotto' and 'The Witness/ 1829 ; 'The
Devil's Brother * (principally from Auber's 'Fra
Diavolo') and "The Legion of Honour,' 1831 ;
'Waverley* (with G. Stansbury), 1832; 'Love
in a Cottage,' *Good Husbands make good
Wives,' 'Sold for a Song,' and *Auld Kobin
Gray,' the last composed about 1838 but not
performed until 1858. He was also composer of
many songs and ballads, highly popular in their
day ('Away, away to the mountain's brow/
'Come where the aspens quiver/ 'The Macgre-
ffors' Gathering,' etc.) and author of a 'Vocal
Tutor.' Lee married Mrs. Waylett, the popular
singer and actress, whose death (April 19, 1851)
so serioudy affected him that he died the 8th of
the following October. [W. H. H.]
LEEDS MUSICAL FESTIVAL. The first
of these meetings took place in 1858, Sept. 7-10,
in the new Town Hall, after the opening of that
building by the Queen— conductor, Sir (then
Professor) Stemdale Bennett, whose May Queen
was performed (Sept. 8) for the first time. They
are now triennial. The second was held in 1874,
Oct 14-17 ; and the third in 1877, Sept. 19-22,
Mac&rren's ' Joseph/ first performed on the
a 1st; conductor, on both occasions. Sir Michael
Costa. The proceeds of the festivals go to the
hospitals of the Town. [G.]
LEEVES, Rev, William, bom 1748, became
in 1779 rector of Wrington, Somerset, the birth-
place of John Locke, the philosopher. He com-
posed much sacred miisic, but will be remembered
only as the author of Uie air of ' Auld Robin
Gray' (words by Lady Anne Barnard, bom
Lindsay of Balcarres) written in 1770. but not
known as his before 1 81 a. He died at Wrington,
May35,i8a8. [W.H.H.]
Digitized by
Google
in
lef]6bubb-w£ly.
LEFftBUREW^LY, Louis James Alfred,
bom in Paris Nov. 13, 181 7, son of Antoine
Jjef^bvre, ox^nist and oompoeer, who took the
name of Lef^ure.W%, and died 1831. He
learned his notes before the alphabet, and as
soon as he could speak showed a marvellous
aptitude for music. At eight he was his father's
deputy at the organ, accompanying the plain-
song and playing Aott pieces. Though only
15 when his father died, he was appointed
his successor at St. Boch Uirough the influence
of Queen Marie Am^ie. Feeling the need of
solid study, he entered the Conservatoire in 1832,
and obtained the second prizes for pianoforte and
Organ in 1834, and the first for both in the fol-
lowing year. He th^i took lessons in counter-
point from Hal^vy, and in composition from
Berton, but, not satisfied with these professors,
studied privately with Adolphe Adam, and with
S^jan, the organist, who initiated him in the art
of improvising and in the management of the
stops. He tokl the author of this article that he
owed much to both these men, widely different
as they were, and he often sought their advice
lifter he had left the Gonservatoire in order to
marry. To support his young family he took
to teaching, and composed a qui^tity of piano-
forte pieces, some of which were popular at
the time. But it is as an (»f^anist that he
will be remembered. His improvisations were
marvellous, and from the piquancy of his har-
monies, the unexpectedness of his combinations,
the fertility of lus imagination, and the chaim
which pervaded all he did, he might justly
be called the Auber of the oigan. The great
popularity in France of the free-reed instruments
of Debain and Mustel is largely owing to him ;
indeed, the efiects he produced on the instru-
ments of the harmonium xdass were really aston-
ishing. Endowed with immense powers of
work, LefiH^ure-W^ly aittempted all branches of
composition—chamber music; symphonies for full
orchestra ; masses ; an op^ra-comique in 3 acts,
'Les Recruteurs' (Dec. 13, 1861); etc. Among
his best works are his 'Cantiaues,' a remarkable
* O Salutaris,' his ' Offertqires, many of his fan-
tasias for harmonium, and his organ-pieces. He
received the Legion of Honour in 1850, being at
the time oi^ganist of the Madeleine, where be
was from 1847 to 1858. After this he had for
some time no r^ular post, but in 1863 accepted
the organ of St. Sulpice, so long hdd with suo-
oess by his friend and master S^jan. Here he
remained till his death, which took place, <^
consumption, in Paris on Dec 31,1 869. [G. C]
LEFFLER, Adam, bom in 1808, son of
James Henry Lefiler. bassoon player and or-
ganist of St. Katherine's Hospital by the Tower,
the German Lutheran Church in the Savoy, and
Streatham Chapel, who died suddenly in the
street in 1819 — was soon after his father*s death
admitted a chorister of Westminster Abbey.
On attaining manhood he was endowed with a
bass voice of exceptionally fine quality and ex-
tensive compass, from B below the stave to G
above it, — and a natural gift for idngin^. He
first attracted noUoe in Ootober 1829 at a Fes-
tival at Exeter, when the casual absence of
another performer gave him the opportunity of
appearing as a principal singer. He acquitted
himself so satisfactorily that be was inmiediatel j
i^pointed a deputy at Westminster Abbey, and
shortly afterwards took and maintained a good
position on the English operatic stage and in the
concert room. But for a constitutional careless-
ness and n^lect of close study he might, with
his natural and acquired qualifications, have oc-
cupied the highest place in his profession. He
died of apoplexy, March 38, 1857. ^W.H.H.]
LEGATO (Ital.. sometimes written ligatoi
Ger. gebunden ; Ft. U^), * connected ' ; the sound
of each note of a phrase being sustained until the
next is heard. In singing, a legato passage is
vocalised upon a single vowel, on stringed instru-
ments it is played by a single stroke <^ the bow,
and on the pianoforte or organ by keeping each
finger upon its key until the exact moment of
striking the next. On wind instruments .with
holes or keys, a legato passage is played in one
breath, the notes being produced by opening or
stop|Hng the hdes : but a wind instrument on
which tiie different sounds are produced by the
action of the lips alone, as the horn, trumpet,
etc., is incapable of making a true legato, except
in the rare cases in which one of tiie notes of the
phrase is produced by stopping ^e bell of the
instrument with the hand, as in the following
example from the Sdierzo oi Beethoven's 7th
Symphony—
Horn,
The sign of legato is a curved line drawn above
or beneath the notes. Li music for wind or
stringed instruments the curve covers as many-
notes as are to be played with a single breath, or
a sin^e stroke of the bow ; thus —
BsBTHovnr. Symphony No. 6.
Flute. ,
BsKTHovsir. Symphony No. 9.
CeUi ^ Baui.
In vocal music the same sign is often used, as in
^ande^s chorus, *And he shall purify,* but it is
not necessary, since the oranposer can always en-
sure a legato by giving a single syllable to the
whole passage, and it is in &ct frequently omitted,
as in the air ' Every valley.*
In pianoforte music, sJl passages which are
without any mark are played legato, inasmuch
as the notes are not detached ; the curved line is
therefore used more for the sake of giving a
finished appearance to the passage than firom any
practical necessity. KeveithelesB, passages are
Digitized by
Google
liBGATO.
MiMtimec met with in which it appears to have
ft special feignificance, and to indicate a particu-
krij smooth manner of pUying, the keys being
struck lets sharply than usual, and with slightly
incressed pressure* Such a passage oocurs in the
Allegro of Beethoven^s Sonata in Ab, op. 26, in
whidi the quavers alone are marked legato, the
seauquavers being left without any marl^ thus —
f1.^]gJ^lJ?^^J3T3|J^W
The same plan is followed on each recurrence of
tbe phrase throughout the movement, and since
this regularity can scarcely have been accidental,
it appears to indicate a corresponding variety of
touch.
lastead of the sign, the word legato is scnne-
tines written under the passage, as in Bee-
thoven's Bagatelle, Op. 119, No. 8, or Variation
No. 30 of Op. I ao. When the word is employed
it g^enecaUy refers to the character of the whole
moremait rather than to a single passage.
In playing legato passages wholly or partly
foQDded upon broken chords, some masters have
taught that the principal notes of the harmony
diould be sustained a little longer than their
vrittoD length. Thus Hummel, in his Piano-
forte School, gives the following passages (and
many others) with the intimation that the notes
marked with an asterisk are to be sustained some*
vfaat longer than written, ' on account of the better
oonnexion*—
J,EORBN«fL Ul
Chopio, TalM, Op. 64, No. S, Original Edition,
m
- ete.
"n^ method of playing parages, which is some-
times called UgattMimOt would doubtless add to
the richness of the effect, especially upon the light-
toned pianofortes of Hummel's day, but it is not
neoeasuy on modem instrumento, the tone of
whidi is so much fuller. Nevertheless it is some-
^imes of service, particularly in certain passages
bf Oumin, which without it are apt to sound
^uin. In Klindworth*s new edition of Chopin
the editor has added a second stem, indioatii^: a
greater value, to such notes as require sustain-
ing, and a comparison of his version with the
<*^[iiial edition will at once show the intended
^ect; for example^
▼OL. li I
An example of legatissimo touch, in which tha
notes are written of their full value, may be
found in No. 5, Bk. ii. of Cramer's Studies.
The opposite of legato is stoccoto— detached
[see Staccato], but there is an intermediate touch
Detween legato and staccato, in which the notes^
though not connected, are separated by a barely
perceptible break. When this effect is intended
the passage is marked non legato. An example
occurs in the first movement of Beethoven's
Sonata in C minor. Op. iii, in the passage im-
mediately following the first appearance of the
short Adagio phrase. [F, T.]
LEGGIEIlO(Ital., also Leggieramente), lightly.
The word is usually applied to a rapid passage,
and in pianoforte playing indicates an absence of
pressure, the keys being struck with only suffi-
cient force to produce the sound. Leggiero pass-
ages are usuijly, though not invariably, piano,
and they may be either legato or staccato; if
the former the fingers must move vet^ freely
and strike the keys with a considerable amount
of percussion to ensure distinctness, but with the
slightest possible amount of force. Examples of
le^to passages marked leggieramenie are found
in the 25th variation of Beethoven's Op. 1 20, and
in the finale of Mendelssohn's Concerto in O
minor (which also contains the unusual como
bination of foiie with leggiero); and of staccato
single notes and chords in the finale of Mendels-
sohn's Concerto in D minor.
On stringed instruments leggiero passages are
as a rule played by diminishing the pressure of
the bow upon the strings, but the word generally
refers rather to the character of the movement
than to any particular manner of bowing. The
Scherzo of Beethoven's Quartet in E b, Op. 74, is
marked leggiermente, although it begins Jforte,
and the same indication is given fer the 2nd
variation of the Andante in the Kreutser Sonata^
which is piano throughout. [F. T.J
LEGRENZI, GiovANNT, composer and con-
ductor, bom about 1625 at Clusone near Ber-
gamo; in which town he learned music, and
received his first appointment, that of organ-
ist to the church of St. Maria Maggiore. He
next became maestro di oapella of the church of
the Spirito Santo at Ferrara, where he sdll was
in i6iS4. When Krieger, Capellmeister to the
Duke of Weissenfels, visited Venice in 1672, he
found Legrenzi settled there as director of the
Conservatorio dei Mendicanti. In 1 685 he also
became maestro di capella of St. Mark's, and
exercised both functions till his death in July
1690. He entirely reorguiised the (nnchestrib ii
Digitized by
Google
114
i;£GKEKZL
8t. Miuk\ aagmentiiig it to 34 performen, thus
disposed — 8 violins, ii violette, a viole da brae-
do, a ylole da gamba, i violone, 4 theorbos,
a comets, i baMoon, and 3 trombones. He
composed industriously, and left specimens of
his skill in most departments of music* motets,
masses, psalms, instrumental music of various
kinds, and 17 operas, of which the most re-
markable are 'Achille in Scyro,' his first
(1664); *La Divisione del Mondo' (1675); *I
due Gesari* (1683) mentioned in the Paris
<Meroure Galant' (March 1683); and 'Perti-
nace' (1684), his last. They were nearly all
produced in Venice. like Scarlatti, and other
composers of his time, he did not attempt to
bamish the comic element from his serious
operas. One of his orchestral compositions is in
7 real parts, and all are important. His best
pupils were Lotti and Gasparini.
LegTenzi*8 name will be handed down to pos-
terity by Bach and Handel, both of whom have
treated subjects from his works, the former in
an organ fugue in G minor on a 'Hiema Le-
grenzianum elaboratum cum subjecto pedaliter'
(Griepenkerl & Boitsch,^ iv. No. 6); and the
latter in the phrase ' To thy dark servant light
and life afford,* in the Chorus 'O first-created
beam' from Samson. This is taken firom a motet
of Legrenzi, ' Del Intret in conspectu,' of which
a copy in Handel's handwriting is to be found
among the MSS. at Buckinghun Palace (Chry-
Sander, ' Hilndel ' i. 1 79). [F. G.]
LEIDESDORF, Max Josef, a musician and
music -seller of Vienna^ who appears to have
lived there from about 1804 to 1837, and then
to have left it for Florence, where he died
Sept. a6, 1839. He will go down to posterity
embalmed in a little note ' of Beethoven s, appar-
ently written at the earlier of the two dates just
given above, sending Bies for some easy 4-hand
pieces — ' and better still let him have them for
nothing' — bennining with a pun on his name
— ' Dorf des Leides ! ' and ending ' Beethoven
minimus.' Leidesdorf was one of those who
signed the address to Beethoven in 1834, pray-
ing him to produce the Ninth Symphony and the
Mass in D, and to write a second opera. [See
p. 1966.] [G.]
LEIGHTON, Sib William, Knight, one of
the band of Grentlemen Pensioners of Elizabeth
and James I, published in 1614 * The Teares or
Lamentacions of a SorrowfvU Soule; Gompibsed
with Musicall Ayres and Songs both for Voyces
and Divers Instruments.' The work consists of
54 metrical psalms and hymns, 17 of which are
for 4 voices, with accompaniments, in tableture,
for the lute, bandora and cittern; and 13 for 4
voices and 2a for 5 voices without accompani-
ment. The nrst 8 pieces are of Leighton's own
composition, and the rest were contributed by the
following composers: — Dr. John Bull, William
Byide, John Ooperario, John Dowland, Alfonso
1 Thh In the ftifM aboqt th« autograph of which MendelMohn
trrltM. Jane is, UBk MaSoftheMUMToLltafiitueooaiuhtootby
toralil.
« Kohl, litefi BMtborw'i. No. 89^
LEIPZIG.
Ferrabosco, Thomas Ford, Orlando Gibbons^
Nathaniel Giles, Edmond Hooper, Robert John-
son, Robert Jones, Robert Kindersley, Thomas
Lupo, John Milton, Martin Pearson, Frsnda
Pilkington, Timolphus Thopul (a pseudonym),
John Ward, Thomas Weelkes and John Wilbye.
From the dedication to Prince Charles we learn
that the collection was compiled while tb»
worthy knight was — unjustly, as he alleges —
incarcerated for debt. He had in the preceding
year published the poetry alone in a duodecimo
volume. [W.H.H.]
LEIPZIG (i.e, the place of Lime-trees), in
Saxony, on the junction of the Pleisse and the
Elster, 1 35,000 inhabitants, has for a long time
been the most musical place in North Germany.
When RochlitE visited Beethoven ' at Vienna in
1 8a a, the first thing which the great oompoeer
did was to praise Leipzig and its music — * If I
had nothing to read but the mere dry lists of
what they do, I should read them with pleasure.
Such intelligence! such liberality!' Tlie main
ostensible causes of this pre-eminence have been
(i) the long existence of the St. Thomas school
as a musical institution with a first-class musician
as its Cantor; (a) the Gewandhaus concerts;
(3) the presence of the great music-publishing
house of Breitkopfs, almost equal in importance
to a public institution; (4) the existence for
fifty years of the principal musical periodical
of the country — the 'Allgemeine musikalische
Zeitung' ; (5) in our own times, the long
residence there of Mendelssohn, and the found-
ation by him c^ the Conservatorium, with its
solid and brilliant staff of professors—a centre,
for many years, of the musical life not only of
Grermany, but of other countries ; and lastly (6)
several very remarkable private musical insti-
tutions.
I. The piomas-tehule, or School of St. Thomas,
is an ancient public school of the same nature as
our cathedral and foundation grammar-sdiools,
but with the special feature that about 60 of the
boys are taught music, who are called A lumni,
and are under the charge of a Cantor, forming
the ' Thomaner-Chor.' This body is divided into
4 choirs, with a Prefect at the head of each, and
serve the Churches of St. Thomas, St. Nicholas,
St Peter, and the Neukirohe or New-Chuix^h.
On Sundays the first choir joins the town orchestra
for the morning service at St. Thomas or St.
Nicholas ; and on Saturday afternoons at 1.30
the whole four choirs unite in a performance
under the direction of the Cantor. The boys are
remarkable for the readiness and correctness with
which they sing the most diificult music at sight.
The Caktob, in German towns and villages,
corresponds to the Precentor oi leader of the
choir in English cathedrals and churches,
and the Cantor of the St. Thomas School at
Leipzig has for long been acknowledged as the
head and representative of them all. For more
than two centuries the ofllce has been filled by
very distinguished musicians, as will be seen
\
'FQr nvonda der TMdnmit,' iv. M.
Digitized by
Google
LEIPZIG.
from tlw IbUowing list, tiken from Mendel's
CooTenKtiona-Lexicon der Tonkunet : —
£EIT-MOTiF.
n5
rrtan ... 1489 ,8efautkn Kn&pflBr . .
■tfttanottdt . . . mo Johum Schelte . . .
I«t«t(Oatm. » . . 'JobannKuhoM . . .
GeoiSalQiMr .... 1519-90 Joh. SebMtlui Buh .
*■ "" . lfl51-86 CottlobBuMr . . .
. ]fi3e-lO Job. Vtiedrich DolM .
U^B .... 1540--tt Job. Adam Hlllar . .
FLUIDS . . 1S«»-S1 A. Eberbanl MUler .
flager . . . IfiSl-M Job. Gottfried Sehlebt
Otto . . . IfiM-ei Cbristoph Tbeodor
isOilrWai . . . U»4-iei5 Welnlig
Hamoaim Scbefaa 161&-W Xorltz Hauptnutim . .
~~ ' ' EnutFrtedrlebBlcfater
IWT— 78
W7»— ITOl
1701—92
1728-«0
1780-06
1789-1800
18no-10
181&-S9
}
2. The GiWAHDHAUS OoNCEBTS liave been
alreaffy described under their own head. [See vol.
i. p. 5926.3 Mendelssohn conducted them from Oct.
4, 1835, ^ ^^ ®^ ^^ ^^ series 1843-43, when he
wu compelled to leave Leipzig for Berlin, and
they were then transferred to Ferdinand Hiller.
3. For the grcAt publishing establi^ment of
BBKXTK0P7 ft Habtbl, wo refer the reader to
the former volume of this work [p. 272], merely
addiof here, that since that article was written
the emtion ci Mendelssohn has been o(»npleted ;
that of Mozart (a trul^ immense undertaking) is
progressing satisfactonly ; a complete edition of
€3io|iin (in 14 vols.) is nearly finished ; and that
sa entire edition of the works of Palestrina, both
printed and MS., in continuation of that begun
hy Witt, Banch, and Espagne, extending in aU
to 39 folio vidumes, was announced by these in-
defstigable publishers on January 37, 1879. ^
additian to these they began in 1878 a cheap
edition of claasksal music, a collection of Libretti,
and a publication of music paper and music MS.
books.
4. The 'Alloemuve xusiKAUsoHEZjEiruNO,"
or 'General Musical 'Hmes,' was begun by the
firm just mentioned in 1798, on October 3 of
which year the first number was published. It
VBs in 4to; 8 pages weekly, numbered in 16
OQlamns, to which were added occasionally pieces
of music in type (and admirable type too), oopper-
l^tes, and advertisement sheets. Each volume
had a portrait as . frontispieoe. With 18 10 the
v^dmnes began with the beginning of the year.
13ie Zeitong contained artidee on musical subjects
of a& kinds, biographical notices, reviews of new
piooes, reports m>m foreign to^nis, etc. etc., and
thoo^ seriously defective in many points, was an
koest and good attempt at a musical poriodicaL
Amaog the editors were Bochlitz (i 798-1818),
fbk (1837-41), Hauptmann (1843), Lobe
(1846-^). With the 5oih voL (for 1848) the
intseriea came to an end. There is an excellent
lodsK in 3 parts. Since that date the 2^itung
&SS been continued by Bieter-Biedermann under
I fttloas editors, of whom the most considerable is
Dr.dirysander.
! 5. The idea and the foundation of the Conbeb-
I Tatobium were entirely due to Mendelssohn, by
I vhom the King of Saxony was induced to allow
I a sum of 30,000 thalers, bequeathed by a certain
: HbfkriegBrath Bltimner ' for the purposes of art
and sdeoce,' to be devoted to the establishment
of a 'sdid musical academy at Leipzig.' The
pcrmisBigp was obtained in Nov. 1843, the ne-
cessary accommodation was granted by the cor-
poration of the town in t£e Gewandhaus — a
large block of buildings containing two Halls,
a library, and many oUier rooms — and the Con-
servatorium was opened on April i, 1843.
Mendelssohn was the first chief, and the
teachers were : — harmony and counterpoint^
Hauptmann ; composition and pianoforte, Men-
delasohn and Schumann; violin, Ferdinand
David ; singing, Pohlenz ; organ, Becker. There
were ten scholarships, and the fees for the
ordinary pupils were 75 thalers per annum. In
1846, at Mendelssohn's urgent entreaty, Mos-
cheles left his London practice, and became
professor of the pianoforte at the modest salary
of £1 30 ; and at that date the staff also embraced
Grade, Phudy, Brendel, Richter (afterwards
Gantor), and others whose names have become
insepansbly attached to the Conservatorium.
The management of the institution is in the
hands of a board of directors chosen from the
principal inhabitants of the town, and not nro-'
fessional musicians. The first name inscribed
in the list of pupils is Theodor Eirchner, and it
is followed by those of Otto Goldschmidt, Bargiel»
Grimm, Norman, etc. Amongst Englishmen are
found J. F. Bamett^ Sullivan, Walter Baohe,
Franklin Taylor, etc., and the American names
include Dannreuther, Willis, Mills, Paine, and
others.
6. Of the private institutions we may men-
tion:— (i) the 'Biedelsche Verein,* a choral
society founded in 1854 by Carl Biedel, its con-
ductor, and renowned throughout Qermany for its
performances of sacred music of aU periods, firom
Palestrina and Schtttz down to Brahms and
Lisst. (2) The * Euterpe/ an orchestral concert
society, which, though its performances cannot
come into competition with those of the Gewand-
haus, is yet of importance as representing a more
progressive element in music than prevails in
the exclusively dasrical programmes of the older
institution. The names of Berlioz, Liszt, Bafi^
Bubinstein and others, appear prominently in the
concerts of the Euterpe, v erhulst, Bronsart, and
other eminent musicians, have been its conductors.
(3) The 'PauluB,'an academical ch^al society
of male voices, deserves mention as one of the
best of its kind in Germany. [G.]
LEIT-MOTIF, i,e. 'ffmding theme.' The
principle of 'Leit-motive is so simple and ob*
vious that it would seem strange that they
have so lately found recognition in music,
were it not remembered that music in general
has progressed but slowly towards a sufficiently
logical condition to admit of their employment.
They consist of fisnires or short passages of
melody of marked <maracter which illustrate, or
as it were label, certain personages, situations, or
abstract ideas which occur prmninently in the
course of a story or drama of which the music is
the counterpart ; and when these situations recur,
or the personages come forward in the course of
the action, or even when the personage or idea is
implied or referred to, the figure which consti-
tutes the leit-motif is heard*
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ur
liErr-MOTiF,
Their employment obviously presupposes unity
sod oontinuity in the wcnrks in which they occur.
!For as long as it is necessary to condescend to
the indolence or low standard of artistic percep-
tion of audiences by cutting up large musical
works into short incongruous sections of tunes,
qongs. rondos, and so rorth, figures illustraticg
inherent peculiarities of situation and character
which play a part throughout the continuous
action of the piece are hanuy available. Musical
dramatic works of the old order are indeed for
the most part of the nature of an ' entertain-
ment^* and do not admit of analysis as complete
and logical works of art in which music and
action are co-ordinate. But when it becomes ap*
parent that music can express most perfectly the
emotional condition resulting from the action of
impressive outward circumstanoes on the mind,
the true basis of dramatic music is reached ; and
by restricting it purely to the representation of
that invsard sense which belongs to the highest
realisation of the dramatic situations, the princi-
ple of oontinuity becomes as inevitable in the
music as in the action itself, and by the very
same law of artistic congruity the ' leit-motive *
raring into prominence. For it stands to reason
that where the music really expresses and illus-
trates the action as it progresses, the salient
features of the stoiv must have siedient points
of music, more marked in melody and rhythm
than thc^ portions which accompany subordi-
liate passages in the play ; and moreover when
these salient points are connected with ideas
which have a common origin, as in the same
personage or the same situation or idea, these
salient points of music will probably acquire a
recognisable similarity of melody and rhythm,
and thus become ' leit-motive«'
. Thus, judging from a purely theoretical point
of view, they seem to be inevitable wherever
there is perfect adsfptation of music to dramatic
action. But there is another important con-
pideration on the practical side, which is the
powerful assistance which they give to the
Itttention of the audience, by drawing them on
from point to point where they might otherwise
lose their way. Moreover they act in some
ways as a musical commentary and index to
situations in the story, and sometimes enable a
ptr greater depth of pregnant meaning to be con-
veyed, by suggesting associations with other
jpoints of the story which might otherwise slip
the notice of the audience. And lastly, judged
from the purely musical point of view, they
occupy the position in the dramatic forms of
music which ' subjects* do in pure instrumental
forms of composition, and their recurrence helps
greatly towards tiiat tmity of impression which it
is most necessary to attain in works of high art.
As a matter of fact 'leit-motive* are not
always identical in statement and restatement ;
but as the characters and situations to which
they are appropriate vary in their surrounding
drcurostances in the progress of the action, bo
will the 'leit-motive* themselves be analogously
modified. From this springs the application of
LEIT-MOTIF.
▼ariatiosi and ' transfonnation of themes' t<»
dramatic music; but it is necessaiy that ihm
treatment of the figures and melodies should be
generally more easily recognisable than they need
to be in abstract instrumental music.
Leit-motive are perfectly adapted to instra^
mental music in the form known as ' programme
music,* which implies a story, or some definite
series of ideas; and it is probable that the
earliest distinct recognition of the principle in
question is in the Symphonic Fantastique of
Berlioz (written before 1830), where what he
calls an ' id^ fixe * is used in the manner of a
leit-motif. The * id^ fixe * itself is as follows : —
It seems hardly necessary to point to Wagner's
works as containing the most remarkable ex-
amples of 'leit-motive,* as it is with his name
that they are chiefly associated. In his earlier
works there are but suggestions of the principle,
but in the later works, as in Tristan and the
Niblung series, they are worked upinto a most
elaborate and consistent system. The following
examples will serve to illustrate some of the
most characteristic of his * leit-motive * and hia
use of them.
The curse which is sttacheft to the Rheingold
ring is a very important feature in the develop*
ment of the story of the Trilogy, and its ' leiU
motif,* which consequently is of frequent oc-
currence, is terribly gloomy and impressive. Its
first appearance is singularly apt, as it is the
form in which Alberich the Niblung first de-
claims the curse when the ring is reft firom him
by Wotan, as follows :—
Among Uie frequent reappearances of this
motif, two may be taken as highly charac-
teristic. One is towards the end of the Rhein-
gold, where Fafher kills his brother giant Fasolt
for the possession of the rin^, and the leit-motif
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IJETT-MOTOT.
}iflbig httad, mnindB the hearers of th6 d<Mm
proDoanoed on the poaeessors of the ring by
Alberich.
A yet more pregnant instance is in the Gotter-
dimmemng, the Uist of the series. When Sieg-
fried comes to the Hall of the Gibichungs on the
Rhine, with the ring in his possession, having
obtained it by slaying Fafher, who had taken
the form of a dragon to preserve it, the first per-
son to greet him is Hagen, the son of Alberich^
who looks to compass Si^fned^s death, and re-
gain the ring for the KiUmigs by that means.
As Hagen says 'Heil Siegfried, theurer Heidi'
the greeting is belied by the ominous sound of
the kit-motif of the corse,, which thos foretells
the catastrophe in the sequel of which Hagen is
the instrument and Sieg&ied the victim, and
lends a deep and weird interest to the situation.
Si^firied himself has * motive * assigned to him
in different circumstances and relations. For in-
itance, the following figure^ which he blows on
(he silver horn made for him by Mime, is the
one which most frequently announces his coming.
It impliee his youthful and light-hearted state
before he had developed into the mature and
experienced hero»
This figure is frequently subjected to oonsider-
sble development, and to one important trans-
fixmation, which appears, for instance, in the
death march as follows : —
JLEPTMOTm
iir
, Q ti . —
. — !&
fcfc
, fe>.
SB
9
mH-'ii
3
^
ffiNJ^JJ.J-l
F 4"--'nj#
m-
hti
i^:
te
r^-J — ■
uT^IBIJ
\mm
V '
"4-
•J-- H
7^J.
TTJ--
^
^•t^
t-j-
i
•J-r
iJ^i
Tn his character as mature hero he is notified by
the following noble figure.
vhieh occurs as above in the last act of the
WalkOre, when Wotan has laid Brttnnhilde to
aleep on the ' Felsenhohe,' with a wall of fire
sround her; and the sounding of the motif
impliM that Siegfried is the hero who shall pass
through the fire and waken Briinnhilde to be his
bride. A happy instance of its recurrence is
when, in the first act of Siegfried, the youthful
hero tells how he had looked into the brook and
saw his own image reflected there.
In the above examples the marked character
of the figure lies chiefly in their melody. There
are othm which are marked chiefly by rhythm,
as the persistent motif of Mime imitating the
riiyUumo succession of blows on an anvil*-
which points to his occupation as a smith. This
motif occurs in connection with the rattling
blows of the hammers of the Niblung smiths
underground, at the end of the second scene of
the Rbeingold, and thus shows its derivation*
Other 'motive' again are chiefly conspicuous
by reason of impressive and original progressions
of harmony. Of this kind ihf,t of the Tamhelm
is a good example. It occurs as follows, where
Alberich first tests the power of the helm at the
beginning of the third scene of the Rheingold :—
Another instance where a strongly marked
melodic figure is conjoined with an equally strik-
ing progression of harmony, is the ' death motif
in Tristan and Isolde, which first appears in the
second scene, where Isolde sings as fellows : —
/ .^ P
A figure which it is difficult to characterise,
but which has a marvellous fascination, is the
motif of the love-potion in Tristan and Isolde.
The love-potion is the key to the whole story,
and tEerefere the musical portion of the wo k
appropriately commences with its leit-motif.
Among the numerous examples of its recurrenci
one is particularly interesting. When King
Marke has discovered the passionate love which
existed between Tristan and Isolde he is smitten
with bitter sorrow that Tristan, whom he had so
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118
LEIT-MOTIF.
loved and trosted, should have so betrayed lilm,
and appeak to Tristan himself. Then as Tristan
slowly answers him themotif is heard, and, without
its being so expressed (for Tristan does not excuse
himself), conyeys the impression that Tristan
and Isolde are not to blame, but are the victims
of the love-potion they had unwittingly shured.
Among more important contemporary com-
poeers, Professor Mac&rren has made use of the
device in his cantata 'The Lady of the Lake/
and to a certain extent in his oratorio 'Joseph.*
The following characteristic examples from tiie
cantata will illustrate his mode of employing the
device. In a soliloquy in the earlier part of the
work Fitz-James reran to Dooglas, and sings
the following figure : —
DonflM b tlM thema
This recurs appropriatdy when Douglas refers to
himself and his daughter as all that remained of
his clan, under the type of the Bleeding Heart,
which was their badge.
Boderick Dhu*s motif is as follows i^-
This is hanpily used in the accompaniment to
the vocal phrase in which he appeals to Douglas
to grant him Ellen for his wife, as follows : —
The prophecy of Brian the Seer is enunciated
as follows : —
and this is reintroduced when the Chorus describes
how Red Murdoch is slain by Fitz-James, and
dearly implies that he is the first foeman whose
life is taken, and that the victory in the strife
between Roderick and Fitz- James will rest with
the latter in fulfilment of the prophecy. It also
recurs when Fitz-James warns Roderick that
Murdoch is dead and that therefore the prophecy
is against him.
I^or to contemporary composers, though sub-
sequent to the idde fixt of Berlioz, a few hints
of the spirit of leit-motive may be found in
various quarters: for instance, in Meyerbeer^s
' Prophfete,' when the prophet in the early part of
the work speaks of the dream of future splendour
in store for him, the first strain of the processional
march is heard. Again, the system of giving a
LB JEUNE.
particular instrumental tone to the aooompani-
ment of particular characters which is clearly
analogous, is notable in the string accompani-
ment of Christ's words in Bach*s 'Passion, and
in the sounding of the trombones when the Com-
mendatore appears in * Don Giovanni,' and the
adoption of a similar quality of tone or definite
phrase as the aocompamment to special utterances
of Elijah in Mendelssohn's oratorio, and to the
appearance of Don Quixote in his opera of
Camacho's Hochzeit (1825). [C.H.H.P.]
LE JEUNE, Claude, or Claudin, bom at
Valenciennes probably about 1530, for we first
find his name as a composer in 1554. The only
part of his life of which we have any record
was spent in Paris. Thus in 158 1 he attended
the marriage of Henry Ill's favourite the Due de
Joyeuse, and noted the magical effect of his own
music,^ About this time also, Leroy printed
5 vols.' of chansons (2k 4), 39 of them by Le Jeune,
and the publisher, himself a first-rate musician,
seems to have valued them highly, placing the
author bv the side of Lassus, and filling the last
a vols, with their works alone. Still the Hugue-
not composer met with slender encouragement
for many years, and there is a pathetic story of
his attempted flight at the siege of Paris in 1 588,
when bowed down by the weight of his un-
published MSS., he was caught by the Catholic
soldiers, and would have seen his treasures c<Hn-
mitted to the flames, but for the timely aid of
Mauduit, a Catholic musician, who saved the
books and aided the escape of his brother artist.
Better times came late in life. In Henty IV a
reign, Leroy printed ' Recueil de plusieurs chan-
s<ms et airs nouveaux,' par CI. le J. (Paris 1 594),
and in 1508 Haultin, at La Rochelle, the 'Do-
decacorde, i a psalms written according to Qla-
rean's i a Churdi modes. On the title-page of the
latter we see for ihefird time * compositeur de la
musique de la chamlnre du roy,' so perhaps the per-
mission to print such a work, and the possibuity
of holding the appointment, was a result of the
Edict of Nantes in the same year. In any case
the appointment was quite a recent one, and
Le Jeune did not long enjov it, for the next pub-
lication, ' Le Printemps ' (aedicated to our lung
James I *), was posthumous, and on the 4th page
an ode M>pears * Sur la musique du defunct Sieor
CL le J., the second stanza of which begins thus,
' Le Jeune a fidot en ea TieUene,
Ge qn^un bien fptye jeoneeae,
ITatueroit avoir enterpria.'
The 6th page contains a general essay on
music, claiming for Le Jeune the honour of uniting
ancient rhythm to modem harmony. * Le Pfin-
temps' contains 33 chansons with ' vers mesures,*
1 The tXorj goat that an oflloer was k> excited by an air <tf the com-
poaer's that he cried out, with oath^ that he must attack some one.
and was only padfled when the character of the strain was altered.
Whatever truth there may be In the story, the effect was mora
probably produced by some martial rhythm In the music than by any
superior Intelllgenoe which Claude possessed In the use of the modes,
to which it is attributed by the narrator.
> The lasts of 85 ?oIs. of chansons published between the years 1S69
andiner.
* See Hawkins's History (Chap. 110). The copy we hare «een had
the first page torn out, on wbldi this dedication probably appcarvd,
and the words ' roy ' and 'majesty* exmsed oo the second.
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LEJEUNB.
figilowwl by longer settmgB of 'veri rimez.'
Amcmgit the latter is Jannequin*B 'Chant de
TAloaette' (k 4) with a 5th par^ added by
Le Jeime, ' Le chant du Bosaignol in 6 nos./
'Ma mignonne in 8 nos./ and a Sestine {k 5)
'DutrktHyver.'
The prefacee give no full explanation of ' vers
mesures.' On p. 6 we read that * the wonderful
eflReota [nrodaoed by ancient music, as described in
the fables of Orpheus and Amphion, had been
lost by the modem Masters of Harmony, that
Le Jeune was the first to see that the absence of
Rhythm accounted for this loss; that he had
unearthed this poor Rhythm, and by uniting it
to Harmony, had given the soul to the body;
that * Le Piintemps* was to be an example of
this new kind of music, but on account of its
novelty, might fiul to please at first.
The editor next tells us (p. 7) that M. Baif ^
and M. Le Jeune had meant to print the words
with Boitable iq)elling and without superfluous
letters, and to make tiie scanning as dear in the
French poetry as it would be in Latin. But that
he (the editor) had been advised to abandon this
as too great a novelty. We are therefore left un-
certain aa to the method which the authors meant
to employ, and have little to guide us as to the
mtar{n«tation of such a passage as this (the bars
dnum and quavers joined as m original) : —
Vokar 1« rerd * bewi mfty ooD*Ti-Tant i tout souUs
We have, however, above the ode 'Sur la
musiqne mesur^ de CL le J.* on p. 3 of this same
book a scheme of the quantities of the 4 lines in
each stanza. The first line of this scheme being
-w — v»v — —WW —WW-; the corresponding line
of the ode would then be accented
I Ibints mfkzl | c\Bdm dfi 06 1 temps cl I pAr Ite & | cOn
grtrCldoQa.
and any music set to this would take the same
accents. And so we might suppose that by some
suitable directions as to the scanning of the words
he might intend the above passage to be sung
thus—
LE JEUNE.
119
using the bars in the original as a mere division
of the lines in the poem, where there should
always be a pause and the measure completed.
I9 any case this is only an adaptation to French
nrasic of what had been already done by Lassus
and others in using the metres of Latin verses,
though their efforts at Rhythm may have been
aeeidental, while Le Jeune had a set purpose.
It is interesting, at least, to see the importance
of Rhythm being recognised, and some attempt
at a notation to express it. It also seems dear
ham what is said in the prefiuse, of making the
French lines like the Latin, that the authors saw
the impetus which the Latin odes had given to
music in this direction.
The music (k 5) to the Psalms (Paris 1 607) was
apparently not reprinted, being doubtless cast in
the shade by the more important setting (^4and 5 )
of Marot and Beza's Psalms, printed at La Ito-
cheUd by Haultin, and dedicated by Cecile Le
Jeune,* m pursuance of the composer's expressed
wishes, to the Duke of Bouillon, a great Protestant
champion. This work, on which Le Jeune*s great
reputation entirdy rests, went through many
editions in France, found its way into Germany
with the translation of Lobwasser, and except in
Switzerland, was soon used universally in all
Calvinistio churches. 'It went through more
editions, perhaps, than any musical work since
the invention of ^ printing.' The mdodies in the
Tenor are the same as £ose used bv Goudimel,
ai^d earlier still by Guillaume Franc.^ The other
parts are written in simple counterpoint, note
against note. The simplicity of the style, and
its consequent fitness for congregational use, was
not the onlvcauso of its supplanting earlier works
of the kind. There is real beauty in the music,
which modem critics do not cease to recognise*
'Claude LeJeune,'saysBumey, speaking spedally
of this work, ' was doubtless a great master of
harmony.* Ambroe finds 'the discant so me-
lodious that it might be mistaken for the prindpal
« part.' ' These psidms,* thinks F^tis, ' are better
written than Goudimd*s.' *
Other posthumous publications are the 'Airs h
3, 4, 5, 6 (Paris, Ballard, 1608), and a collection
of 36 chansons, 3 on each of the 1 2 modes, under
the title * Octonaires de la vanity et inconstanoe
du monde' (id. 16 10).
Lastly, in 161 2, Louis Mardo, Le Jeune's
nephew, published a 2nd book of Meslanges, in
which, judging from the miscellaneous contents,
he must have collected all that he could still find
of his undoes works, French chansons h 4, 5, 8,
canons, psalms, a magnificat, a fimtaisie, Latin
motets, and Italian maidrigals.
In the higher branches of composition Le Jeune
never met with great success. The Belgian and
Italian masters would not look at his writings.''
Bumey regarded him as a man of study and
labour, rather than of genius and &cility, but this
judgment was only passed on some of his very
earliest works." F^tis, on the other hand, con-
sidered him naturally gifted, but without the
education of a great master; and this opinion
seems to be borne out by the success of his simpler,
and the failure of his more daborate works.
s All doabtM to La JeaDe being ft Ikmily name Mems to ba dispelled
Ij the aister*! algnature u ftbore.
• Barney's HiMorr. lit 40.
« The belief which at one time existed in Xn^and that Le Jeune was
the author of the melody of the 'Old lOOth Fsalm.' and which gains
some support fhmi the ?agne terms In wh cb Bumey <liL 47) speaks of
it. has no foundation in fact It is now well known that that melody
flnt appeared In Ben's Genevan Psalter of 1S64. [Bee Old Huk-
DBCDTH.]
A Geschlohte der Musflc. UL 844.
• Biographle, v. 2fll.
1 Hersenne, Harm. UniT. It. 197. and Barney ill. 97S.
• Kzoept a canon, tbe piitoes of Le Jeune's in Dr. Bumey*s MB. note-
books are aoMHig the oomposw's first publications in U64.
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120
LB JEIJKE.
Le Jeune is generaUy regarded m aFrenchmgn,
though his b&thpUoe did not become part of
France till 1677. It would however be no great
honour to be called the chief musician of an
ungrateful country, which suflfered Jannequin In
his old age to bewail his poverty, which had
killed poor Goudimel, and could now only boast of
a decaying and firivolous school. It is more to his
honour to remember him as the composer of one
little book which was destined, after his death,
to carry God^s music to tiie hearts of thousands
in many lands. [J.R.S.-B.]
LEMMENS, Nicolas Jacqttss, was bom Jan.
3, 1823, at Zoerie-Parwys, Westerloo, Belgium,
where his fkther was echervin and organist. His
career was attached to the organ from the first.
At 1 1 years of age he was put under Van der
Broeck, organist at Dieste. In 1839 he entered
the Ck)nservatoire at Brussels, but soon left it
owing to the illness of his &ther, and was absent
for a couple of years. In the interval he suc-
ceeded his former master at Dieste, but fortu-
nately gave this up and returned to the Conser-
vatoire at the end of 41. There he became the
pupil of F^tis and was noted for the ardour and
devotion with which he worked. He took the 2nd
prize for composition in 44 and the first in 45, as
well as the first for organ playing. In 46 he
went at the government expense to Breslau, and
remained there a year studying the organ under
A. Hesse, who sent him back at the end of that
time, with a testimonial to the effect that ' he
played Bach as well as he himself did.' In 1 849
ne became professor of his instrument at the
Conservatoire, and M. F^tis, as the head of the
establirimient, bears strong testimony to the vast
improvement which followed this appointment,
and the new spirit which it inftised through the
country ; and gives a list of his pupils too long
to be quoted here. Though distinguished as
a pianist^ it is with the organ that his name
will remain connected. In 1857 M. Lemmens
married Miss Sherrington, and since that time
has resided much in England. His great work
is his Ecole d'oz^ue, which has been adopted bv
the Conservatoires at Paris, Brussels, Madrid,
etc. He has also published Sonatas, Offertoires
etc. for the organ, and has been engaged for
■twenty years on a Method for accompanying
Gregorian Chants, which is now on the eve
of publication. On Jan. i, 1879, he opened a
college at Malines, under the patronage of the
Belgian clergy, for training Catholic organists
and choirmasters, which is already largely at-
tended. Madame Lemmens, n^ Sherrington, was
bom at Preston, where her family had resided
for several generations, Oct. 4, 1 834. Her mother
was a musician. In 1838 they migrated to
Botterdam, and there Miss Sherrington studied
under Verhulst. In 52 she entered the Brussels
Conservatoire, and took first prizes for singing
and declamation. On April 7, 1856, she made
htr first appearance in Ix)ndon, and soon rose
to the position of leading English soprano, both
in sacred and secular music, a position which
she has maintained ever since. In 1865 she
LENZ.
i^peared on the Engtisb and in 1867 on tii^
Italian operatic stage, and her operas embrace
Bobin Hood, AmW Witch, Helvellyn, Afri-
oaine, Korma, Huguenots, Roberto, Don Gio-
vanni, Domino Noir, Fra Diavolo, Marta, etc..
etc. [See Sherrington.] [G.J
LENTO, i,e. 'slow,* implies a pace and style
similar to a slow Andante. Beethoven rai^y
uses it. One example is in his last Quartet
op* 155* LoQto assai. Mendelssohn employs it
for the introduction to his Buy Bias overture,
but he chiefly uses it, like ' con moto,' as a quali-
fication for other tempos — as Andante lento
(Elijah No. i, and Op. 35, No. 5), Adagio non
lento (Op. 31, No. 3), Adagio e lento (Op. 87,
No. 3). [G.3
LENTON, John, one of the band of music of
William and Mary and of Queen Anne, in 1693
published 'The Gentleman's Diversion, or the
Violin explained,* with some airs composed by
himself and others at the end. A second edition*
with an appendix, and the airs omitted, appeared
in 1 70a, umler the title of ' The Useful Ins^ctor
on the Violin.' It is ivmarkable that in neither
edition is there any mention of ' shifting,' and the
scale given reaches but to C on the second ledger
line above the stave. About 1694, in conjunc-
tion with Thomas Toilet, he publi^ed 'A OmBork
of Musick in three parts.' Lenton composed the
overtures and act tunes to the following plays : —
• Venice preserved,' 1685 ; ' The Ambitious Step-
mother,' 1700; * Tamburlain,* 170a ; *The Fair
Penitent,' 1703; 'Liberty asserted' and *Abra
Muley,' 1704. Songs by him are in several of i
the collections of the period, and other vocal !
fieces in 'The Pleasant Musical Companion.*
le contributed to D'Urfey's 'Third Collection
of New Songs,' and revised the tunes for the
earlier editions of his ' PlUs to purge Melancholy.'
The date of his death has not been ascertained.
He was living in 171 1. [W.H.H.]
LENZ, WiLHELM YON, Kusnau councillor at
St. Petersburg, and author of * Beethoven et ses
trois styles' (a vols. Petersburg, 1852), in which
the idea originally suggested by F(^tis, that
Beethoven's works may be divided into three
separate epochs, has been carried out to ita
utmost limits. This was followed bv * Beethoven.
Eine Kunststudie,' in 6 vols., 1. — iiL Cassel
1855, 6 ; iv. — vi. Hamburg i860. This is an
entirely different work from the foregoing, and
though often extravagant in expression, has a
certain value from the enthusiasm of the writer
and the unwearied manner in which he has col*
lected facts of all kinds about Beethoven's works.
It contains a Life, an Essay on Beethoven's style,
a detailed analysis of every one of his works in
order, with various Lists and Catalogues not
without use to the student, though in regard te
the chronology of Beethoven's works, the minute
investigations of Thayer and Nottebohm have
superseded many of Lenz's conclusions. He also
published* DiegrossenPianofortevirtuosenunserer
Zeit' (Berlin, 1872), a collection of articles on
liszt^ Chopin, Tausig, Henselt, and many other
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ptat ftrtists, from peraonal knowledge, well
tnuulAted in the Monthly Mosioal Rwoid for
1878. [F.G.]
UtoOADIE. Alyrical dx'ama in 3 acts^founded
on a story of Cervantes ; words by Scribe and M^-
lesville, music by Aubcir. Produced at the Op^ra
Gomique Nov. 4, 1834. It is the subject of a
curions invective by Mendelssohn in hu boyish
letters from Paris (see Groethe and Mendelssohn,
pp. 44, 45). It had however a great popularity,
and by Apr. 1825 had had 5a representations. [G.]
LEO, Lbonabdo, one of the most celebrated of
NeapolitAn composers, was bom in 1694 at Sui
Vito degli Schiavi, in the kingdom of Naples.
His muscal studies were pursu^l at the Conser-
vatorioof la Pieti^ de' Tunshini, in Naples, under
Alessandro Scarlatti and Fago (H Tarentino);
besides which it is said (in a notice of his life by
Girdamo Chlgi, ohi^master of St. John La-
teran) that he learned oounterpoint of Pitoni, at
Kome. After his return to Naples he was ap-
pointed second master in the Conservatorio of la
Pietk ; in 1716 was named oif^anist of the royal
diapel, and the following year was elected to the
Est ot chapel-master m the church of Santa
aria della Solitaria. His first serious opera,
'Sofonisbe,' was produced in 1719, and met
with great success. Not many years after this
he qdtted the Conservatorio of la Pietk for that
of Ssn Onofrio, to which he remained attached
tin the end of his life. He was perhaps the most
eminent professor of his time, and the list of his
pupils includes many distinguished composers,
anKing whom may especially be named Jommelli
and Piodnni. But he was not satisfied, as was
Durante his contempcmtry, with the rdle of a
pedagogue. 'Sofonisbe* was succeeded by
neariy fifty other operas and dramatic cantatas,
ooupicuous among which is ' Demofoonte,* in
which the great singer Caffiu-elli made Ids first
appearance, and which contains an air, Misero
PargoleUo, quoted hrf Piccinni, in a short bio-
gr^hioal sketch of his master, as pre-eminent
ftmoDg all Leo's compositions for beauty and
dramatic expression. Mention should aLao be
made of *L*01impiade,' two pieoes in which
acquired a lasting popularity — ^the duet 'Ne*
giomi tuoi felici,' and the air 'Non so donde
^ene,* both remarkable for melodious charm.
His compositions for the church are very
nmnerous, amounting to nearly a hundred. The
chief of these are, the oratorio 'Santa Elena al
Odivario' ; the * Ave maris stella,' for a soprano
voice, two violins, vida, and oigan ; the Mass in
D for five voices, written for tiie church of San
Omoomo degli Span! at Rome ; and the <Mise-
tere' for a double choir of eight voices. This
oeM)rated Miserere was comp(Med in 1743, uod
was the work of a few days. It was written for
tiie^ Duke of Savoy, who on hearing it» was so
delighted as to heap presents upon the composer,
grantinff him at the same time a pension of a
hundred ounces of silver. Leo was overpowered
W this munificence, and regarded his acceptance
<n H m tantamount to a renunciation of all pso-
'LEO.
i2i
perfcy tn his own work, so that when, on his
return to Naples from Turin, his pupils petitioned
for a copy of the score, he thought himself bound
in honour to refuse them. One of them however,
having found out where the manuscript was kept,
contrived to possess himself of it ; he divided it
among his companions, and, between them all,
it was so speedily copied as to be restored to its
place before Leo had had time to perceive its
absence. It was rehearsed in secret, and in a
few days the students invited the unsuspecting
maestro to hear the performance of a new work^
when to his astonishment his own ' Miserere ' was
executed in his presence. His first impulse wad
one of resentment, but this feeling quickly gave
way to emotion aroused by the enthusiasm of
the young students, and the end of it was that
he caused them to repeat the entire piece, so
that he might himself add the finishing touches
to their pedbrmance.
He (Ud not long enjoy his pension. The
Marquis de Yillarosa, to whose remiiusoenoes of
the Neapolitan composers subsequent biographers
are indeoted for many interesting details, says
that he was engaged in writing the opera 'La
finta Frascatana ' when he was struck down by
apoplexy. He was found with his head resting
on his davichord, the score before him open at
the bvffo air ' Voi par che gite.' He was appa-
rently asleep, but he was dead. This was in
1746.
In the bright constellation of Nei^politan com-
posers Leo shines as a brilliant star. To a com*
plete command of science and of the art of vocal
writing he united freshness and originality of
thought, and perhaps in no ccnnposer are the
germs of modem fancy so happily blent with the
purity and dignity of the old Boman writers.
His ideas, if not sublime, are noble; always
sound and healthy ; occasionally tender, but with
no tinge of sentimentality. They did not tran-
scend the limits of contemporary form ; his art
was therefore adequate to give them that perfect
expression which is in itself beautifuL It is
impossible not to feel in all his music themaster^s
joy in his power over his materials; and the
satisfaction afforded by a study of his works ii
mainly based on a perception of this even
balance between thought and expression, showing
as. it does, the extent, while it defines the limits,
of his sphere as a composer. He was not tor-
mented, like his pupil Jommelli, by the unequal
conflict between prophetic glimpses of new phases
of art» far beyond the power of his own limited
genius to grasp or realise, and a science too
superficial to do justice to ancient forms. What
Leo thought) he could express.
By his tonality he belongs essentially to the
modems. His harmonies are for the most part
lucid and simple, yet there is a certain unoon*
ventionalxty in their treatment, while occasionally
(as may be seen in the ' Miserere ') chromatic pro-
gressions occur, quite startling in their effect. That
his simplicity was the result of consummate art
is shown by the purity of his part-writing. The
Chorua of Pilgrimst ' Di quantapena h frutta»' firora
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122
LEO.
the oratorio of 'Santa Elena alCalvario* it a good '
instance of a pleasing idea absolutely inseparable
from contrapuntal farm ; shapely and coherent as
a whole, it most be unravelled before the close-
ness and complexity of its texture can be appre* .
dated. His fugues are compact and massive, and |
full of contrivance which is always subordinated i
to unity of effect. It is only necessary to compare !
the contrapuntal movement which fnms a Coda
to the double-fugued 'Amen* chorus in Leo*8
'Sicut erat,' from the 'Dixit* in D (see 'Fitz-
william Music'), with the fugue on the 'Osanna*
in Jommelli^s Requiem, the subjects in which
are very similar —to see how the science which
to one man was lui implement or a weapon. In the
hand of the other was no more than a crutch.
Besides his lai^ger works, Leo left a great
number of instrumental compositions ; concertos,
fugues, toccatas ; several isolated vocal airs with
orchestral accompaniment; vocal duets and trios;
finally, six books o[ solfeggi and two of partimenti
or figured basses, for the use of the students of
San Onofrio.
Li person he was of middle height, with a
bronzed complexion, keen eye andurdent temper-
ament. His activity and industry were indefatig-
able ; he was wont to pass great part of the night
in work, and his energies never seemed to flag.
Although uniformly genial and urbane, the pre-
vailing tone of his mind was serious. He appre-
ciated his own music, and loved it^ but he was
ever ready to perceive merit in others, and to do
full justice to the compositions of his rivals. An
enthusiast in every branch of his art, he was not
only a great composer and a great teacher, but
an excellent organist and a virtuoso on the
violoncello, being indeed one of the first musicians
to introduce this instrument into Italy. His
powers of mind remained undiminished to the
end, and he died in harness, universally re-
gretted and long remembered.
The following compositions of Leo are published,
and accessible.
I loth Psahn (Dixit Dominus), for SS. A T. B.,
with solos. Halle (Kilmmel).
Do. for S., T., B., with Orchestra. Berlin
(Trautwein &, Co.).
50th Psahn (Miserere), SS., AA., TT., BB.
Berlin (B. Bock). The same, edited by Choron
(Paris, Leduc).
Others, and portions of others, are included in
' Cecilia,* a monthly periodical of church music,
ancient and modem, by E. and R. van Malde-
ffhem (Brussels, Heusner), in Latrobe*s Sacred
Music, and Eochlitz's 'Collection.* A Dixit
Dominus for 8 voices and orchestra has been
edited (1879) by Mr. C. V. Stanford from the
autograph in the Fitzwilliam Library (Novello).
Copious extracts from this and others are printed
in Novello's * Fitzwilliam Music* [see vol. i.
pp. 530, 531]. [P.A.M.]
LEOLINE. The English name of 'L*Ame en
Peine,* a ballet fuitasUque in a acts ; words by
Sfunt Georges, music by Flotow. j^oduced at
the Grand Opera May 29, 1846. The English
version was by Maddox and G. linleyi and the
LEONORE PBOHASKJL
piece was produced at the Prinoeai's theatre
Oxford Street, Oct. 16. 1848. [G.]
LfiONORE, OU L'AMOUR CONJUGAL,
an op^ra-oomique in 2 acts; words by Bouilly^
music by Gaveaux. Produced at Uie Op&tk
Comique Feb. 19, 1798. The book was trans-
lated into Italian, composed by Paer, and
produced at Dresden Oct. 3, 1804. It was also
translated into German bv Jos. Sonnleithner
(late in 1 804), and composed by Beethoven. The
story of the transformations and performanoea
of Uie opera in its three shapes is given under
FiDELio (vol. i. p. 519a) ; and it only remains
to add that it was proposed to bring it out at
Prague in May 1807, and that Beethoven, with
that view, wrote the overture known as * Leonore
No. I* (op. 138). The proposal however was
not carried out, and the overture remained,
probably unperformed, till after his death.^ It
was Beethoven*s wish from first to last that
the opera should be called 'Leonore* ; and his
edition of the pianoforte score, published by
Breitkopfr in Oct. 1810, is entitled 'Leonore. oper
in zwey Au(zugen von L. van Beethoven.' On all
other occasions he was overruled by the Manage-
ment of the theatre, and the opera has always
been announced as Fidelio, probably to avoid
oonfiudon with Paer*s opera. For the whole
evidence see 'Leonore oder Fidelio?* in Otto
Jahn*s Geeamm. Schriften, p. 236, and Thayer*8
Chron. Verzeichniss, p. 61.
It may be well here to give a list of the
overtures to the opera in the order of their
composition.
ntla.
Date and OooMfcm.
Date or DobUea-
tionofScors.
Leonore No. 2,
Inc.
open, Nov. 80, 1806.
Breitlcopr 1842
and 1864.
Leonore No. 8,
inc.
For production of
S9, 18U6.
Breitkopfl828.
Leonore No. 1,
inC(op.l88).
For a perfonnsnoe of
in May 1807. wliidi
never came off.
UaiUnger 1832.
Fidelio, In E.
For Uie second and
final revision of tlie
opera: first plajed
Slay 26. 1814.
BTeikkopfl864.
[G.]
LEONORE 'PROHASKA, a romantic tra-
gedy by Friedrich Duncker, for which Beethoven
in the autumn of 181 4 composed a soldiers* chorus
for men*s voices unaccompanied; a romanoe with
harp accompaniment; and a melodram with har-
monica, besides scoring the march in his Sonata
op. a6. The melodram has been already printed in
this Dictionary. [Vol. i. p. 663.] The opening
bars of the two others are given by Thayer^
Chron. Verzeichniss, No. 187. llie march is trans-
posed into B minor,* and scored for a flutes,
2 clarinets, 4 horns, and either strings or brass
instruments — it seems uncertain which. (See the
account in Thayer, iii. 317.) The autograph
1 Nottebohm, 'Beethorenlana.*
s Mr. Nottebohm glret H * Eleonore.*
SA'bladiker'aoooniliiftoBeethoTsn. [esev«Ll.fwMla4
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LEONORE PBOHASKA.
II in poatessioii of Mr. Adolpb Miiller of Vieniut.
Dr. Soimleithner — no mean anthority — ^believed
that Beethoven had also written an oyertore
and entr*acte for the piece. For some reason
or other the play was not performed. [G.]
LEEOY, OP LE ROY, Adbikw, was a singer,
lateolayer, and composer, but will be remem-
bflred as one of the most celebrated musio printers
of the 1 6th century, when printers were also
pablishers. Of the reasons of his taking to
printing we have no account. He worked wiUi
the types of Le B^ (out in 1540), as Attaignant
had done before him with those of Hautin.
F^ states that he worked by himself for some
time, but cites no evidence. In 1551 Le Boy
maoied the dster of R. Ballard, who was abneady
occupying himself with music printing, and was
attached to the court ; they joined partnership
and obtained a patent, dated Feb. 16, 1552, as
sole printers of music to Henri II. In 1571
he received Orlando Lasso as his gpiest, and
published a volume of ' moduli* for him, with
a dedication to Charles IX, which has already
been t|uoted in this volume. [Seep. 98a]. Leroys
name disappears from the publications of the firm
in 1589, and it may thus far be inferred that he
died then. His Instruction book for the Lute,
1557, was translated into English in two (Af-
ferent versions, one by Alford, London 1568,
and one by 'F. K. Gentleman* (lb. 1574). A
second work of his was a short and easy instruc-
tion-book for the 'Guiteme,' or guitar (1578) ;
and a third is a book of ' airs de cour* for the
late 1 57 1, in the dedication of which he says
that such airs were formerly known as ' voix' de
^e.' Besides these the firm published, between
LES8EL.
12s
1551 and 1568, ao books of 'Chansons* for
[G
voices.
1
LE8CHETITZKT, Theodob, a distinguished
pfMiisty bom of Polish parents in 1831. He
attracted notice in Vienna by his pianoforte
playing in 1845. He was for some time a pro-
«or at the Conservatorium of St. Petersburg,
from which appointment he has retired, and now
lives in Vienna. His compositions chiefly con-
nst of morceauz de salon for the piano. He
made his d^ut in England at the Musical
Umoo concerts in 1864, playing in the Schumann
Quintet, and solos of his own composition, and
has frequently since then appeared at the same
concerts. Madame Annette Eusipoff was for some
time his pupU. [J. A. F. M.]
LESLIE, Heitbt David, bom in London,
June 18, 1822, commenced his musical education
nnder Chariee Lucas in 1838. For several years
he played the violoncello at the Sacred Harmonic
Society and elsewhere. In 1847, on the formation
of the Amateur Musical Society, he was appointed
iti honorary secretary, and continued so until
1855, when he became its conductor, which post
he retained until the dissolution of the Society
^1861.^ In 1855 he foraaed the well-known
^^hoir which bears his name, which numbers aoo
▼woes, is noted for its refined performance of
JJI«r thb not be ttM odgin of FoMbrOb, a pleoe OMda up of eoiw
motets, madrigals, and other unaccompanied part
music, and in 1878 gained the first prize in the
International competition of choirs at Paris. In
1863 he was appointed conductor of the Hereford-
shire Philharmonic Society, an amateur body at
Hereford. In 1864 he became principal of the
National College of Music, an institution formed
on the principle of the foreign conservatoires,
which, however, not receiving adequate support,
was dissolved in a few years. In 1874 ^^ becamo
the director and oonductor of the Guild of
Amateur Musicians. Henry Leslie's first pub-
lished composition— a Te Deum and Jubilate in
D — appeared in 1846. He has since (nroduced
a Symphony in F, 1847 ; a festival anthem,
'Let God arise,* for solo voices, chorus and
orchestra, 1849; overture, 'The Templar,* 1853 ;
Immanuel,' oratorio, 1853 ; ' Romance, or, Bold
Dick Turpin,* operetta, 1857 ; ' Judith,* oratorio,
produced at Birmingham Festival, 1858 ; * Holy-
rood,' cantata, i860 ; * The Daughter of the Isles,*
cantata, 1861; 'Ida,' opera, 1864; besides
instrumental chamber music, antheins, songs,
duets, trios, pianoforte pieces, and a large num«
ber of part songs and madrigals composed for his
choir. In addition to a wide range of madri-
gals, motets, and unaccompanied music of all
ages and countries, the following are among the
larger works which have been performed by this
excellent choir: — Bach's motets for 8 voices;
Samuel Weidey's ditto for ditto ; Mendelssohn's
Psalms and motets, and his Antigone and (Edi-
pus; Gounod's motets and Messe Solennelle;
Carissimi's Jonah; Tallis*8 Forty -part song;
Bouigault Ducoudray's Symphonic religieuse (un-
aocompanied). [W.H.H.]
LESSEL, Fbanz, one of Haydn's three
favourite pupils, bom about 1 780, at Pulawy on
the VistiUa, in Poland ; his father, a pupU of
Adam Hiller and Dittersdorf, being Musik-
director at the neighbouring castle of Prince
Czartoryski. In 1797 he came to Vienna to
study medicine, but the love of music proved
a great distraction. Haydn eventually took
him as a pupil, a service he repaid by tending
him till his death with the care and devotion of
a son. In 18 10 he returned to Poland, and lived
with the Czartoryski frmily, occupied entirely
with music. After the Revolution of 1830 had
driven his patrons into exile, Lessel led a life of
great viciBsitude, but being a man of varied culti-
vation fdways managed to maintain himself,
though often reduced to great straits. In 1837
he was superseded in his post as principal of the
gymnasium at Petrikan on the borders of Silesia,
and feeling a presentiment of approaching death,
he compcMod his requiem, and shortly after
(March 1839) expired of the disease commonly
called a broken heart. He left songs, chamber
music, and symphonies ; also church music, spe-
cially indicating gifts of no common order. Among
his effects were some autographs of Haydn pre-
sented by himself. Some of his works were
published by Artaria, Weigl, and Breitkopf 8c
Hartel, among them beinff, 3 sonatas for P. F.
(op. a) dedicated to Hayoti ; fantasia for P. F.
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121
IiESSEL.
<op. 8), dedicated to dementi ; anotW &ntadA
<«>i;. 13) dedicated to Cecily Beidale, etc. Lea-
flel's life was a romantic one. He was believed
to be the love-child of a lady of rank. Mystery
albo enveloped the birth of his first love, Cecily
Beidale, and he discovered that she was his
sister only just in time to prevent his marrying
her. One of his masses — 'Zum Cacilientag' —
was composed in all the fervour of this first
passion. [C.F.P.]
LESSON* or LEQON, a name which was
used from the beginning of the 17th century
to the close of the i8th, to denote pieces fbr
the harpsichord and other keyed instruments.
It was applied to the separate pieces which
in their collected form made up a Suite. The
origin of the name seems to be that these pieces
served an educational purpose, illustrating dif-
ferent styles of playing, and being often arranged
in order of difficulty.. This is borne out by
the fiict tiiat Domenioo Scarlatti*s ' 42 Lessons
for the Harpsichordf edited by Mr. Roseingrave *
are in the original edition called 'Essercizi —
XXX. Sonatas per Gravioembalo/ though they
have little of the educational elioment Sn
them, and by the following extract from Sir
John Hawkinses History of Music (chap. 148 ;
he uses the word 'lessons' for 'suites of lessons') :
* In lessons for the harpsichord and virginal
the airs were made to follow in a certain order,
that is to say, the slowest or most grave first,
and the rest in succession, according as they
deviated frx>m that character, by which rule the
Jig generally stood hut. In general the Gal-
Hfutl followed the Pa van, the fint being a grave,
the other a sprightly air ; but this rule was not
without exoeptioD: In a manuscript collection
of lessons composed by Bird, formerly belonging
to a lad^ Neville, who it is supposed was a
scholar of his, is a lesson of a very extraordinary
kind, as it seems intended to give the history of
a military engagement. The following are- the
names of the several airs in order as th^ occur :
*• The Marche before the battell. The Souldiers
Spmmons, The Marche of foote^men. The Marche
of horse-men : Now folowethe the Trumpets, the
Bagpipe and the Drone, the Flute and the
Drome, the Marche to the Fighte, Here the
battells be joyned^ The Retreate, Now folowethe
a Galliarde for the victory.'* There is also in
the same collection a lesson called the Carman's
Whistle.* Kameau's Lessons for the Harpsichord,
op. 2 and 3, are not arranged in order of
difficulty, but are connected by the relation of
, their keys. In the case of Handel's 3 Lemons,
the first consists of a Prelude and air with varia-
tions in Bb, the second of a Minuet in G
minor, and the third of a Chaconne in G
major ; so they may be presumed to be intended
for consecutive performance. The 'Suites de
Pi^s pour le Clavedn,* in 2 Books, were called
'Lessons* in the first edition, but in the later
editions this name was discarded for that which
they now bear.
An analogous word to this is ' Etude,' which
.from origiiuJly meaning a special form o£ ex-
LESUEXTB.
erdse, lias in many casgs come to be applied to
pieces in which the educational purpose is com-
pletely lost sight of. [See Etudes.] Althocwrh
in general the name was applied to pieces mr
the harpsichord alone, yet it was sometimes used
for concerted chamber music, as in the ' Firste
Booke of consort lessons, made by divers ex-
quisite authors, for six Instruments to play
together, viz. the Treble Lute, the Pandora, the
Citterme, the Base VioU, the Flute and the
Treble -VioU, collected by Thomas Morley, and
now newly corrected and enlaiged' (London
161 1 ), and in Mathias Vento's ' Lessons fbr the
Harpsichord with accompaniment of Flute and
\r,olin.' [J.A.F.M.]
LESTOOQ. Opera in 4 acts ; words by Scribe^
music by Auber. Produced at the Op^ra Comique
May 24, 1834. It was produced in English al
Covent Garden Feb. ai, 1835, as 'Lestocq, or the
Fete of the Hennitage.* [6.]
LESUEUR, Jean FBAN9018, grandnephew of
the celebrated painter Eustache Lesueur, bom
Jan. 15,1 763, in the village of Drucat-Pleasiel. near
Abbeville. He became a chorister at Abbeville
at 7. At 14 he vrent to the college at Amiens,
but two years later broke ofiF his studies to
become, first, maltre de musique at the cathedral
of S^z, and then sous-maitre at the church
of the Innocents in Paris. Here he obtained
some instruction in harmony from the Abbj
Boze, but it was not any systematic course of
study, so much as his diorough knowledge of
plain-song, and deep study, that made him the
profound and original musician he afterwards
became. His imagination was too active, and
his desire of distinction too keen, to allow him
to remain long in a subordinate position; he
l^erefore accepted in 178 1 the appointment of
mattre de musique at the cathedral of Dijon,
whence after two years he removed to Le Mans,
and then to Tours. In 1 784 he came to Paris
to superintend the performance of some of his
motets at the Concert Spirituel, and was re-
appointed to the Holy Innocents as head-master
of the choristers.. He now mixed with the fore-
most musicians of the fVench school, and with
Saochini, who gave him good advice on the art
ef composition, and urgdi him to write for the
stage. In 1786 he competed for the musical
directorship of Notre Dame, which he obtained,
and immediately entered upon his duties. He
was allowed by the chapter to engage a fnll
orchestra, and tiius was able to give magnificent
performances of motets and 'messes solennelles.*
His idea was to excite the imagination and pro-
duce devotional feeling by means of dramatic
efiects and a picturesque and imitative style,
and he even went so fiur as to precede one of his
masses by a regular overture, exactly as if it had
been an opera. Crowds were attracted by this
novel kind of sacred music, and his masses were
nicknamed the 'Beggars* Opera* ('L'Opte des
Gueux *). This success soon aroused opposition,
and a violent anonymous attack was made upon
him, under pretext of a reply to his pamphlet
'Essai de musique sacr^e, ou musique motive
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LRSUEUB.
•t m^odiqne dout 1* f6te de Noel' (17S7).
LeBoeur's rejoinder wm another pamphlet, ' Ex-
pos^ d*ane moaiqae une, imitative et particuli^re
k chaqne aolemut^* (Paris, H^riBsant, 1787), in
which he gives a detailed Bketch of an appro-
priate mu^ad service for Christmas, and states
expressly that his aim was to make sacred music
' dramatic and descriptive.* Meantime the chapter,
finding that his* projects had involved them in
heavy expense, cnrtailed the orchestra, while at
the same time strong pressure was put upon him
by the Archbishop to take orders. He willingly
ssBomed the title of Abb^, but declined the
priesthood, especially as he was composing an
opera, * T^^maque, which he was anxious to
produce. Finding his reduced orchestra inade-
quate for his mames he resigned, upon which an
infieauous libel was issued, accusing him, the
most upright of men, of having been dismissed
for fraud. Completely worn out, he retired in
the autumn of 1788 to the country house of a
friend, and here he passed nearly four years of
repose and happiness. On the death of his friend
in 1793 he returned to Paris invigorated and
refreshed in mind, and composed a series of 3-act
operas-r'lA Caverne* (Feb. 15, 1793). 'Paul et
Viiginie' (Jan. 13, 1794), and 'T^^maque'
(May IT, 1796), aJl produced at the Feydeau.
The brilliant success of ' La Caveme ' procured
his appointment as professor in the ' ]^le de la
Gaide Nationale* (Nov^ 21, 1793), and he was
also nominated one of the inspectors of instruction
at the Conservatoire frx>m its foundation in 1795.
In Uus capacity he took part with M^hul, Grossec,
Catel, and Langl^, in drawing up the ' Principes
^^mentaires de musique * and the * Solf^ges du
CoDservatoire.* He was then looking forward
to the production of two ajperw which had been
aooq[»ted by the Academic ; and when these were
set aside in favour of Catel*s 'Semiramis' 'Jiis
indignation knew ao bounds, and he vehemently
attacked not only his colleague, but the diisector
of tiie Conservatoire, Catel s avowed patron. His
pamphlet, ' Projet d*un plan g^^ral de Tinstruc*
tion musicala en -France * (Paris, an IX, anony-
mous), raised a storm, and Lesueur received his
diimiisal from the Conservatoire on Sept. 23,
1803. Having a fiunily to support, the loss of
Us salary crippled him seventy, and he was
only saved frcnn utter indigence by his appoint-
ment in March 1804 jw maltre ae chapelle to
the First Consul, «n the recommendation of
Paisiello, who retired on account of his health.
As the occupant of the post most coveted by
mnsicians in France, Lesueur had no difficulty
in securing the representation of * Ossian, ou les
Bardes' (5 acts, July jo, 1804). The piece
inaugurated the new title of the theatre as
'Acad^mie Imperiale.' Its success was extra-
ordinary, and the Emperor, an ardent admirer
of Celtic poems, rewarded the composer with the
Legion of Honour, and presented him with a gold
sni^-box inscribod ' L'Smpereur des Fran^ais k
Tauteur dee Bardee,* intended also as an acknow-
ledgement for a Te Deum and a masrperformed
at Noke Dame on the occasion of his coronation
LESUEUR.
125
(Dec. a, 1804). During the next five yearrf
Lesueur undertook no work of greater import*
anoe than a share in Persuis^s interm^e * L'ln-
auguration du Temple de la Victoire* (Jan. a,
1807), and in the same composer's 3-act opera
'Le Triomphe de Trajan' (Oct. 33, 1807), oon^
taining the well-known * marche solennelle* ; but
en March 21, 1809, he produced 'La Mort
d*Adam et son Apoth^ose in 3 acts — the ori«
ginal cause of his quarrel with the manage*
ment of the Acad^ie and the Conservatoire.
The scenery and decorations of the new opera
excited the greatest admiration ; when compli-
mented on his work, Degotti the scene-painter
replied quite seriously, < Yes, it certainly is the
most beautiful paradise you ever saw in your
life, or ever will see.'
In 1 81 3 Lesueur succeeded Gr^try at the
Lastitut; and after the Bestoration became, in
spite of his long veneration for Napoleon, sur*
intendant and composer of the chapel of Louis
XVin. On Januajry i, 18 18, he was appointed
professor of com^position at the Conservatoire,
a post which he retained till his death. His
lectures were largely Attended, and very inter*
esting from the brilliant remarks with which
he interspersed them. Of his pupils no less
than 13 gained the <prix de Rome' — namely.
Bourgeois, Ermel, Paris, Guiraud, Hector Ber-
lioz, Eugene Provost, Ambroise Thomas (whom
he called his ' note sensible,* or leading note, on
account of his extreme nervousness), Elwart,
Ernest Boulanger, Besezzi, Xavier Boisselot
(who married one of his three daughters), and,
last but not least, Gounod. Lesueur also wrote
'Notice sur la M^op^, la Rhythmop^ et les
grands caract^res de la musique andenne,' pub*
lished with Gail's French translation of Anacreon
(Paris, 1793). Ancient Greek music was a
favourite subject with him, and he would with
perfect seriousness expound how one mode tended
to licence, and another to virtue ; unfortunately
however some wag in the class would occasionally
mislead his ear by inverting the order of succes-
sion in the chords, and uiub betray him intp
taking the licentious for the virtuous mode, and
vice versa.*
Lesueur died in Paris on Oct. 6, 1837,
at a patriarchal age, and in universal respect;
even Berlioz loved and honoured him to the last
(see cbi^ters vi. and xx. of his M6moires), He
left 3 operas which had never becm performed.
*Tyrt^' 3 acts, composed in 1794 ; * Artaxeroe/
3 acts, accepted by the Op^ra in i8oi ; and
'Alexandre 2b Babylone,' of which the score has
been engraved, and considerable portions per*
formed at the Conservatoire concerts. Of his
numerous oratorios, masses, motets, etc., the fol*
lowing have been published :--'L'Oratorio ou
Messe de Noel*; 3 messes solennelles ; a low mass
with 'Domine Salvum'; 3 'Oratorios pour le
couronnement des princes souverains'; 3 Te
Deums ; 3 * Oratorios de la Passion* ; 3 ' Domine
Salvum'; i Stabat; the oratorios 'Debora/
t This Is MJd to have been a fitvourite i
ntwtUi Ooanod M
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129
LESUEUB..
<RaoheV 'Rath et No^mi/ 'Rath et Booz*; a
cantata for the marriage of the Emperor Napo-
leon; a motet for the baptism of Uie King of
Home; a Pri^re for the Emperor on airs of
Languedoc; an 'O Salutaris'; several ptudms
and motets, among which must be specified a
' Super flumina Babylonis.*
The 5 operas previously mentioned, and all
this sacred music, furnish ample materials for
forming an estimate of Lesueur^s genius. His
most marked characteristic is a grand simplicity.
No musician ever contrived to extract more firom
common chords, or to impart greater solemnity
to his choruses and ensembles ; but in his boldest
flights, and most original effects of colour, the
ear is struck by antiquated passages which stamp
the composer as belonging to a pass^ school.
'His biblical characters are set before us with
traits and colours so natural as to make one
forget the poverty of the conception, the antique
Ita^an phrases, the childish simplicity of the
^orchestration.* By another critic he was said
to have taken the theatre into the church and
the church into the theatre. Thus, looking at
the matter from a purely musical point of view,
it is impossible to consider Lesueur the equal ojf
his contemporaries M^hul and Cherubim ; though
the novelties he introduced derive a special in-
terest from the fihct that he was the master of
Hector BerUoz. [G.C.]
LETZTEN DINGE, DIE, Le, 'the Last
Things/ an oratorio in 2 parts ; text by Roohlitz,
music by Spohr. Composed in the autumn of
1825, and produced in the Lutheran church,
Cassel, on 'Good Friday 1826. In England it
is known as The Last Judgment. This oratorio
must not be confounded with *Das jtingste
Gericht,' an earlier and less successful work. [G.]
LEUTGEB, or LEITGEB, Josef, a horn
player to whom Mozart was much attached.
?rhey became acquainted in Salzburg, where
Leutgeb was one of the band, and on Mozart^s
arrival in Vienna he found him settled there, in
the Altlerchenfeld no. 32, keeping a cheese-
monger's shop and playing the horn. Mozart
wrote 4 Concertos for him (Kochel 412, 417,
447' 495)* ^ Quintet (407), which he calls ' das
Leitgebische,* and probably a Hondo (371).
This shows that he must have been a good
player. There must also have been something
attractive about him, for with no one does Mozart
appear to have played so many tricks. When
Leutgeb called to aak how his pieces were getting
on Mozart would cover the floor with loose leaves
of scores and parts of symphonies and concertos,
which Leutgeb must pick up and arrange in
exact order, while the composer was writing at
his desk as fast as his pen could travel. On one
occasion he was made to crouch down behind the
Btove till Mozart had finished. The margins of
the Concertos are covered with droll remarks —
* W. A. Mozart has taken pity on Leutgeb, ass,
ox, and fool, at Vienna, Mar. 2 7, 1 783, etc.' The
liom part is full of jokes — *■ Go it. Signer Aaino '
1 Berlloc ' Mimolxw.' ohapw ii.
> 8m ilie Moount in Spohr's Belbftblognphk, tt. lU
L*HOMME ABM£.
— < take alittle breath*— 'wretched pig*— * thank
God here 's the end ' — and much more of the like.
One of the pieces is written in coloured inks,
black, red, green, and blue, alternately. Such,
were Mozart's boyish romping ways! Leutgeb
throve on his cheese and his horn, and died
richer than his great friend, Feb. 27,1811.' [G.]
LEVEBIDGE, Biohard, a singer noted for
his deep and powerful bass voice, was bom in
1670. BUs name appears as one of the singera
in Dr. Blow's Te Deum and Jubilate for St.
Cecilia's day 1695. He sang in the Anglo-Italiaii
operas, 'Arsinoe,* *CamilUi,* 'Bosamond,' and
*Thomyris,* at Drury Lane theatre from 1705
to 1 707. In 1 708 he was engaged at the Queen's
Theatre and sang in * The Temple of Love,' etc,
and in Handel's ' Faithful Shepherd' (* II PastOT
Fido') on its production in 1712. He subse-
quently transferred his services to Bich, and
sang in the masques and pantomimes at Lincoln's
Inn Fields and Covent Grarden for nearly 30
years. His voice remained imimpaired so long,
that in 1 730, when 60 years old, he ofiered, for
a wager of 100 guineas, to sing a bass song with
any man in En^and. About 1726 he opened »
coffee-house in Tavistock Street, Covent Garden.
In 1609 he composed part of the music for ' The
Island Princen, or, The Generous Portuguese,*
and in 1 716 the music for * Pyramus and Thiabe,*
a comic masque, compiled by him from * A Mid-
summer Night's Dream.' Li 1727 he published
his songs, vnth the music, in two small 8vo. vols.
Many others were published singly. In his old
age he was maintained by an annual snbecriptioQ
among his friends, promoted by a city physician.
He died Mardi sa, 1758. lliere is a good en-
graved portrait of liim by Pether, from a painting
by Fryer. [W.H.HO
L'HOMME ABM£, Love Abm^, or Lomxb
ABici. I. Hie name of an old French Chamon,
the melody of which was adopted, Iw some of the
Great Masters of the 15th and loth centuries,
as the Canto fbrmo of a certain kind of Mass —
called the ' Missa L'Homme arm^ ' — ^which they
embellished with the most learned and elaborate
devices their ingenuity could suggest.
The origin of the song has given rise to much
q>eculation. P. Martini calls it a ' Canzone Pro-
venzale.' Bumey (who, however, did not know
the words) Is incUned to believe it identical with
the famous < Cantilena Bolandi,' andently sungv
by an armed Champion, at the head of the Fremm
army, when it advanced to battle. Baini con-
fesses his inability to decide the question : but
points out, that the only relique of this poetry
which remains to us — a fragment preserved in
the * Proportionale Musices ' of Tinctor — makes
no mention of Boland, and is not written in the
Provenfal dialect.*
'Lome, lome, lome arm^
Et Bobinet tu in*M
La mori donn^,
Qiiand tu fen vas.*
> 8m Jahn't Vonrt. ted ed.. 11. 28.
4 No toon InfonnatloD Is i^rea by Lo<io1b. 'Mdodlai pcpaltlm,*
Paris, urn
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L^OMME ARMfi.
The Melody — an inteiestiiig example of the nm
of the Seventh Mode— usually appears, either in
Perfect Time, or the Greater Prolation. Though
simple, it lacks neither grace, nor spirit. As
might have been predicted, slight differences are
observed in the Cantifermi of tiie various Masses
£nmded upon it ; but, they so fetr correspond, that
the reading adopted by Palestrina may be safely
accepted as the normal form. We therefore sub-
join its several clauses, reduced to modem notation,
and tnmsposed into the treble det
L'HOMMB ABMlg.
127
^
Upon this unpretending theme, or on frag-
ments of it, Masses were written, by Guglielmo
da Fay, Antonio Busnoys, Begis, Francois Caron,
Joannes Tmctor, Philippon di Bruges, La Fage,
(or Faugues,) De Orto, Yaoqueras, Monsieur mon
Compare, at least three anonymous composers
who flourished between the years 1484 and 151 3,
Antonio Brumel, Josquin des Pr^s, Pierre de la
Roe, (Petrus Platensis,) Pipelare, Mathurin
Fofestyn, Cristofano Morales, Palestrina, and
even Carissimi — a host of talented Composers,
who aU seem to have considered it a point of
hfxiour to exceed, as &r as in them lay, the
fertility of invention displayed by their most
learned predecessors, and whose works, therefore,
not only embody greater marvels of contrapuntal
skill than any o3ier series preserved to us, but
also serve as a most useful record of the gradual
advancement of Art.
The Masses of Du Fay, and Busnoys, and
their successors, K^gis, and Caron, are written
m tlM hard and laU>iured style peculiar to the
earlier Polyphonic Schools, with no attempt at
ex:gremoji^ but, with an amount of earnest so-
briety which was not imitated by some of their
followers, who launched into every extravagance
that could possibly be substituted for the prompt-
ing of natural genius. Josquin, however, while
infinitely surpassing his predecessors in in-
genuity, brought true genius also into the field ;
and, in his two Masses on the &vourite subject
—one for four Voices, and the other for five —
has shewn that freedom of style is not altogether
inconsistent with science. The Fugues, Canons,
Proportions, and other clever devices with which
these works are filled, exceed in complexity any
thing previously attempted; and many of them are
strikingly effective and beautiful — ^none more so,
perhaps, than the third Agnus Dei of the Mass
in four parts ; a very celebrated movement known
as * Clama ne cesses,* from the * Inscription * ap-
pended to the Superius, (or upper part), for the
purpose of indicating that the notes are to be
sung continuously, without any rests between
them. In this movement, the Superius sings the
Canto fermo entirely in Longs and Breves, while
the other three Voices are woven together, in
Canon, and Close Fugue, with inexhaustible
contrivance, and excellent effect. In the second
movement of the Sanctus — the 'Pleni sunt' — for
three voices, the subject is equally distributed
between the several parts, and treated with a
melodious freedom more characteristic of the
Master than of the age in which he lived. It
was printed by Bumey in his History, ii. 495.
It might well have been supposed that these
triumphs of ingenuity would have terrified the
successors of Josquin into silence : but this was
by no means the case. Even his contemporaries,
I^erre de la Bue, Brumel, Pipelare, and Fdrestyn,
ventured to enter the lists with him ; and, at a
later period, two very fine Masses, for four And
five Voices, were founded on the old Tune by
Morales, who laudably made ingenuity give
place to euphony, whenever the interest of his
composition seemed to demand the sacrifice. It
was, however, reserved for Palestrina to prove
the possibility, not of sacrificing the one quality
for the sake of the other, but of using lus im-
mense learning solely as a means of producing
the purest and most beautiful effects. iJis Miwa
*L* Homme Arm^,* for five voices, first printed in
1570, abounds in such abstruse combinations of
Mode, Time, and Prolation, and other rhythmic
and constructional complexities, that Zacconi —
writing in 1592, two years before the great
C!ompo86r's death — devotes many pages of his
Prattica di Mutiea to an elaborate analvbis of
its most difficult ' Proportions,' accompamed by
a reprint of the Kyrie, the Chrwte, the second
KyHe^ the first movement of the Gloria, the
Osanna, and the Agnus Dni, with minute di-
rections for scoring these, and other movements,
from the separate parts. The necessity for
some such directions will be understood, when
we explain, that, apart frx>m its more easily intel-
ligible complications, the Mass is so constructed
that it may be sung either in triple or in common
time; and, that the original edition of 1570 is
actually printed in the former, and that pub-
lished at Venice, in 1599, in the latter. Dr,
Bumey scored all the movements we have men-
tioned, -in accordance with Zaoconi*s precepts;
and his MS. copy (Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. 11,581)
bears ample traces of the trouble the process cost
him : for Zaoooni's reprint is not free ih>m clerical
errors, which oiur learned historian has always
carefully corrected. The first Kyrie, in which
the opening clause of the Canto fermo is given
to the Tenor in notes three times as long as
those employed in the other parts, is a oonception
of infinite beauty, and shows traces of the Ck>m-
poser of the ' Missa Papae Marcelli* in every bar.
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138 Ii*HOMMB ABM&
In the edition of 1570 it Btaads in triple time;
und, in order to make it correspond with that of
1599, it is necessary to transcribe^ and re-bar it,
pladng foor minims in a measure, instead of
six: when it will be found, not only that the
number of bars comes right in the end, but, that
every important cadence falls as exactly into the
place demanded for it by the riiythm of the piece
as it does in the orig^iiuU copy. It is said that
Palestrina himself confided this curious secret to
one of his disdples, who, five years after his
death, superintended the publication of the Vene-
tian edition. If it be asked, why, after having
crushed the vain pedants of his day by the
< Missa Papae Maroelli,* the * Priocepe Musicae *
should, himself, have condescended to invent
conceits as quaint as theirs, we can only state
our conviction, that he felt bound, in honour,
not only to shew how easily he coidd beat them
with their own weapons, but to compel those
very weapons to minister to his own intense
religious fervour, and passionate love of artistic
))eauty. For examples of the music our space
compels us to refer the student to Dr. Bumey's
M9. ab^eady mentioned.
The last ' Missa L^Homme Arm6 * of any im-
portance is that written, for twelve Voices, by
Carissinu : this, however, can scarcely be con-
sidered as a fiur example of the style ; for, long
before its production, the laws of Counterpoint
had ceased to command either the obedience, or
the respect, indispensable to success in the Poly-
phonic Schools of Art.
The original and excenively rare editions of
Jo8quin*s two Masses, and that by Pierre de la
Bue, are preserved in the Library of the British
Museum, together with Zaoconi*s excerpts from
Palestrina, and Dr. Bumey*s MS. score, which
will be found among his 'Musical Extracts.*
Kone of these works, we believe, have ever been
published in a modem form.
II. The title is also attached to another melody,
quite distinct from the foregoing — a French
Dance Tune, said to date from the 15th century,
and printed, with sacred words, by Jan Fruytiers,
in his * EccUeicuAicuit published, at Antwerp,
1565. The Tune, as there given, is as follows : —
It will be seen, that, though strictly Dorian in
its tonality, this interesting melody exceeds the
compass of the First Mode by two degrees. The
regularity of its phrasing savours rather of the
1 6th than the 15th century. Possibly Fruytiers
may have modified it, to suit his own purposes.
InstanoeSy however, are not wanting, of very
UBRETTO.
regular phrases, in veiy antient mdodies : as, for
instance, in the delightful little Romance, *Vau*
trier par la maiinie,' by Thibaut, King of Navarre
(ob. 1354), quoted by Dr. Bumey, ii. p. 300, the
rhythm of which is scarcely less distinctly marked
than that of Fruytiers* adaptation. [W. a R.]
LIBRETTO is the diminutive form of the
Italian word Itbro, and therefore literally means
'little book.' But this original significance it
has lost, and the term is used in Italian, as w^
as in other languages, in the technical sense of
book of an opera. Its form and essential difiTer-
ence from spoken comedy or tntgedy will best
be explained by a short historic survey of its
origin and development. In the most primi-
tive form of opera, as it arose in Florence in
the 16th century, that difierence was compara*
tively trifling, the libretto in those dm oomdsting
maimy of spoken dialogue with a few interspersed
songs and choral pieces. But the rapid rise of
music and the simultaneous decline of poetry in
Italy soon changed matters. Certain muacai
forms, such as the aria and the various species oC
concertied music, were bodily transferred to the
opera, and the poet had to adapt his plot to the
exigencies of the superior art. Thus ne was ob>
liged not only to provide primo uomo and prima
d^ma with a befitting duet in a o(mvenient place,
but other characters had also to be introduced to
complete the quartet or the sestet, as the case
might be, and, in addition to this, the chorus
had to come in at the end of the act to do duty
in the inevitable finale. However legitimate
these demands may appear to the musician, it is
obvious that they are fatal to dramatic oon-
sistencT, and thus the poet, and unfortunatdy
the public also, had to submit to the inevitable,
the former by penning and the latter by serenely
accepting the specimens of operatic poetry with
which we are a^ but too well acquainted. The
most perfect indifierenoe to the dramatic part of
the entertainment can alone explain the favour
with which such profoundly inane productions
as 'Emani,* or *Un Ballo in Maschera' as
transmogrified by the Italian censorship, are
received by En^^h audiences. That this con-
dition of things should in its turn detrimentally
react on music is not a matter for surprise;
for singers naturally would take little trouble
to pronounce words which nobody cared to Ustea
to, and with the proper declamation of the wocds
intelligent musical phrasing is inseparably con*
nected. In the Italian school, where vocalisation
was carried to the highest pitch of perfection,
the libretto accordine^ly sank to the lowest leveL
In France, on the other hand, where the declam-
atory principle prevailed, and where dramatic
instinct is part of the character of the nation, a
certain regard for story and dialogue was never
lost, and the libretti of Lully's and RameauX
and after them of Gluck's operas, share the dassic
dignity, although not the genius, of Comeille and
Racine. In the same sense the marvellous skill
and tavoir faire of the contemporary French
stage is equally represented in the lyrical drama,
in more than one instance supplied by the 1
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I
LIBRETTO.
hutig, Th6 same cannot be said of Gem' any,
where few dramatistB of repute have condeeoended
to ooH>perate with the masioian, and where, till
quite lately, even the finest dramatic subjects
(e.^. Beethoven's Fidelio) were defiiboed by the
execrable doggrel believed to be particularly
suitable for Operatic purposes. In all these
reepeots a deep ehange has been wrought by
Wagner's reform. In that great poet and greater
musician the two faculties are inseparably
blraded, and in his work therefore the reci-
procity between music and poetry may be
studied in its most perfect form. His own words
on the subject will be of interest. ' In Bienzi,*
he says, 'my only purpose was to write an opera»
and thinking only of this opera, I took my sub-
ject as I found it ready made in another man's
finished production. . . . With the Flying Duiek-
MOR, I entered upon a new course, by becoming
the artistic interpreter of a subject which was
given to me only in the simple, crude form of
a popular tale. From this time I became^ with
regard to all my dramatic works, first of all a
fod ; and only in the ultimate completion of the
poem was my fiACulty as a munaon restored to
me. But as a poet I was again from the be-
ginning conscious of my power of eamreesing
musuadly the import of my subjects. This power
I had exsTcised to sudi a degree, that I was
perfectly certain of my ability of applyii^ it
to the realiaation of my poetical purpose, and
therefbre was at much greater liberty to form
my dramatic schemes according to their poeti-
cs! necessities, than if I had conoeiyed them
fitna the beginning with a view to musical
treatment.'
Hie result of this freedom of workmanship is
easOy discoverable in Wagner's later musio-
drunas, such as 'Tristan' or *The Valkyrie.*
They are to i^ intents and purposes dramatic
poems foil of beauty and interest^ quite apart
from the aid of musical composition. For the
latter, indeed, they appear at first sight un-
sd^>ted, and he must be a bold man who would
think of resetting the ' Niblunff' Trilogy, as Bos-
nni reset the ' Barber of SeviUe' after Paisiello.
The ordinary characteristics of the libretto, such
as the aria^ or the duet, as distinguished firom
the dialogue, have enUrely disappeared, and
slongwith these have gone tiiose curious reitera-
tions by various persona of the same sentence,
with a corresponding change only of thepersonal
prcMMHin. In this and other respects Wagner's
musio'dramaB must be considered by them-
wlves, and the strict imitation of their form in
oidinary libretti, written for ordinary musicians,
would be simply &tal. At the same time his
w<sk has been of great influence on the struc-
ture of tLe dramatic poem in modem op^a.
Musiciang nave become more critical in their
<^ioe of subjects, and tiie lilnrettists accordingly
'i^^''^ careful in providing th^n, especially as the
nsinral aense of the public also seems to be
awakening from its \oDig slumber. It is indeed
a significant fact that the three most successful
operas of recent years, Gounod's 'Faust,* Biset's
LEBBETTO'
129
'Carmen,* and GoeU's 'The Tambg of the
Shrew,' are all founded on stories of intense
human interest, more or less deverlj adapted to
operatic purposes. It is true that in France and
Qermany the dramatic interest was never at so
low an ebb as in Italy or in this eountry.
Numerous operas might be named which owe
their permanent suocess to a bright and sparkling
libretto, and others in which uie genius of the
musician has been weighed down 1^ the dulness
of the operatic bard; 'Martha,' 'Fra Diavolo,'
and 'Le PostiUon de Longjumeau,' belong to
the former class; 'Cosi fan Tutte,' 'La de-
menza di Tito,' and 'Euryanthe,' nicknamed
' Ennuyaate' by the despairing 'composer, to the
latter. It is also a significant fact that by far
the finest music Bossini ever wrote occurs in
the 'Barber,' and in 'William Tell,' and that
'Faust' remains Gounod's unsurpassed master-
piece, the inspiration of the composers being in
each case distinctly traceable to the dramatie
basis of thefr musia Instances of a similar
kind from the works even of the most ' absolute*
muucians night be multiplied ad Wntvm, The
lesson thus taught has indeed been fully fecog-
nised by the best ^somposers. Beethoven was
unable to fix upon a, second subject after Fidelio ;
and Mendelssohn, in spite of incessant attempts,
found only one to satisfy his demands; and that,
alas! too late for completion. The libretto of
his unfinished opera 'Loreley,' by Emanuel
Geibel the well-known poet, was afterwards set
by Max Bruch, and perrormed with considerable
success. The importance of the libretto for the
artistic as well as the popular success of an opera
is therefore beyond dispute, and modem con^
posers cannot be too careful in their choice. To
assist them in that choice, or to lay down the law
with regard to the construction of a model libretto,
the present writer does not feel qualified. A few
distinctive features may however be pointed out.
In addition to the human interest and the truth
of passion which a libretto must share with every
dramatie poem, there ought to be a strong infusion
of the lyrKal element, not to be mistaken for the
tendency towards ' singing a song' too rampant
anrangst tenors and soprani. The dramatic and
the lyrical motives ought on the contrary to be
perfectly blended, and even in ordinary dialogue
a certain elevation of sentiment sufiident to ac-
count fox the sung instead of the spoken word
should be maintained. This again implies
certain restrictions with regard to the choice of
subject. One need not shiure Wagner's absolute
preference for mythical subject-matter to perceive
that the scene of an opera ought to be as £u* as
possible removed firom the platitudes of oommon
life, barring, of course, tiie comic opera, in
which the contrast between the idealism of
music and the realities of every-day existence
may be turned to excellent account. With re-
gard to the observance of musical form opinions
of course will differ widely ; but that the poet
ought to some extent to ooinorm to the musidan's
demands no reasonable person will deny. The
% Wtbar^ Life, bar lilB ton* H sis.
K
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180
lilBBETTO.
CMe ofWagner, as we have Already said, k tmiqae
in history, and in ordinary drcumBtanees muaic
and poetry in the opera co-exist by means of a
compromise ; but this compromise ought to pro-
ceed from mutual love, not from mere t<deration.
In other wordv the poet should undoubtedly
supply opportunities for musical display^ both of
a vocal and an orchestral kind, but no finale, or
march, or wedding chorus, ought to interfere
with the economy of the drama. Ta state such
a problem is of course eaner than to solve it, but
even the mere statement of the difficulty may
not be entirely without use.
Before concluding this notice, it is desirable
to mention the names of a few of the more oele-
brated librettists. The most fiehmous amongst
them is Metastasio (1698-1782), the author of
'La Semiramide reoonnosciuta,' 'II BePastore,*
and ' U Trionfo di delia^* amongst whose musical
collaborators were the most celebrated masters of
the 1 8th century. [Metastasio.] Calzabigi de-
serves mention as the author of * Orfeo,' and other
works of G^uck*s Viennese period, the French
collaborator of the master being Le Bailli du
BoUet. Amongst more modem Italian libret-
tists it must suffice to name Felice Bomano, the
friend and artistic companion of Bellini. The
&ther of French librettists was the Abb^ Perrin,
who broke the supreme rule of the hexameter by
writing what he terms 'paroles de musique ou
des vers k chanter,' and who in conjunction with
Cambert produced the first French (^>era properly^
so called ('La Pastorale,* first performed in
1659). Quinault was the poetic assistant of
Limy. In modem France the name of Scribe
towers above his rivals; Barbier, Meilhac and
Hal^vy supply the contemporary market. Sar-
dou also has tried his hand at lyrical drama,
but without much success. The fieuliure of the
English version of * Piccolino ' at Her Majesty's
Theatre in 1879 was due at least as much to
Sardou*s libretto as to Guiraud's music. In
Germany, Goethe and Wieland appear amongst
aspirants to lyrical honours, but vrithout success.
Of the professional librettists in that country
none deserves mention. In connection with so-
called * English openk' the names of Gay, the
author of me 'Beggar's Opera,* and, in modem
times, of Alfred Bunn and of Edward Fitzball,
both fertile librettists, ought to be mentioned
To the latter belongs the merit of having by one
of his pieces supphed Heine, and through him
Wagner, with the idea of a dramatised ' Flying
Dutchman.* Mr. PlAnch^, the author of Weber's
' Obertm,' also must not be forcotten. Mr. W. S.
Gilbert's witty comediettas, ^v^ch Mr. Sullivan
has fitted to such charming and graceful tunes,
can be called libretti only bi a modified sense.
A few words should be added with regard to the
libretto of the Oratorio and theOantata. ^£sthetic
philosophers have called the oratorio a musical
epic, and, in spite of its dramatic form, there is
a good deal of tmth in this definition ; for, not
onl^ does the nanration take the plaoe of the
action on the stsge, but the descriptive parts,
generally assigned Uy the chorus, allow of greater
LICENSE.
breadth and variety of treatment than is possible In
the opera. A reference to the chortises in ' Israel
in Egypt' and other works by Handel will be
sufficient to illustrate the point. In accordance
with this principle, what has been urged above
with regard to uie operatic libretto w^ have to
be somewhat modified. But here also terse dic-
tion and a rapid development of events should in
all cases be msLsted upon. The matter is con-
siderably simplified where the words have been
selected from Scripture, fer here sublimity of
subject and of dictien is at once secured. Handel's
'Messiah* and 'Ltrael* — which also contain his
finest music— Mendelssohn*^ 'St Paul,* 'Elijah,'
and 'Hymn of Praise,* owe their libretti to this
source. Haydn*s 'Creation * is based on the Bible
and Milton, though the source is difficult to
recognise under the double translation which it
has undergone. Gray's 'Acis and Galatea,' Mil-
ton's 'Allegro* and * Penseroso,* Dryden's 'Alex-
ander's Feast.* and Pope's 'St. Cecilia]s Ode'
have a literary value of their own ; but in other
cases Handd has been lees happy ; and some ter-
rible couplets might be quoted fitmi the works of
his collaborators Morell and Humphreys. The
transition from the oratorio proper to the cantata,
or 'Worldly Oratorio' as the Germans quaintly
call it, is made by LisEt*s ' St. Elizabetii.* The
libretto by Otto Boquette, although not without
good points, is upon the whole tedious, and can-
not be reo(Hnmended as a modeL Better is
Schumann*s * Paradise and the Peri,* which may
stand as a specimen of the cantata proper. Its
libretto is essentially founded on Moore's tale,
the ensemble of Peris moddng the heavoily
aspirations of their sister was inserted by the
composer himself. The story has been skilfully,
arranged, but there is the drawback that the
dramatic battle-scene occurs in the first part,
while the quieter, though psychologically more
elevated motives, are assigned to ^e later por-
tions. The impression of ap. anti-dimax is Uiua
inevitable. [E.H.]
LICENSE. (It. JAeenzia; Germ. Licenz;
Ft. Lieenee), As long as any art has the capa-
city fer development and expansion, trae genius
and dogmatism are constantly at war. The in-
herent disposition of the mind to stereotype
into formmas conclusions drawn from, the od-
servation of an insufficient number of isolttted
instances, is probably the result of much bitter
experience of the finiits of human carelessnees
and stupidity ; against which the instincts <^ the
race impel them to guard for the future by
preparing temporary leading-strings for the
unwise, to keep them frt>m frSling and dragging
others wil^ them into the mire of error. Vp to
a certain point even genius must have leadings
strings, and these must needs be made of the
best materials at hand till better be found.
Hie laws cannot be made on principles whose
bases are out of the ken of the wisest law-makers ;
and genius, like ordinary intellect, must needs be
amenable at first to such laws as preceding
masters have been able to formulate from the
sum: total of their experience. The trouble begins
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LICENSE.
^rbea loineihiiig ib found whidi Is l>ey6nd the
range of the observation vrhioh served as the
hMisfor a law, and seems therefore to contravene
H; for many men so readily mistake their habits
tat absolnte truth that when they are shown a
novelty which pnnoos their point of realisation
and is out of the beaten track, they condemn it
at onoe as heresy, and use the utmost of their
power to prevent its disseminatioQ ;. and where
they find themselves unable to stem^ the tide
through the acknowledged greatness of the genius
who haM originated it, or t&ou^ the aoceptanoe
of its principle becoming general, they excuse
themselves and stigmatize what they mistrust by
calling it a license.
A license, then, is the breaking of a. more or
less arbitrary law in such respects as it is de-
fective and its basis unsound and insufficient;
and it is by such means that the greater part of
expansion in musical art has been made. An
iinsbtible impulse drives genius forth into the
paths of i^>eoulation ; and when a discovery is
made it frequently h^ypens that a law is broken,
and the pedants proclaim a license. But the
license, being an accurate generalisation, holds its
place in the art, and the laws have to be modified
to meet ii, and ultimately men either forget that
it was ever called a license or stand in amaze-
ment at the stupidity of their predecessors ; while
it must be confessed that tbey assuredlv would
not have been any wiser if they had been in
their places.
The history of music is- fiill from end to* end
with examples — ^from De Muris in the fourteenth
century bewailing in bitter terms the experiments
in new oonoord% to the purists of Monteverde*s
time condemning his use of the dominant seventh
without preparation, on to the vexation of the
cootemporaneB of Mozart at the extravagant
opening of the G major Quartet, and the amaze-
ment of many at Beethoven's beginning his
first Symi^ony (in G) with a chord ostensibly in
F major. Ev^en at the present day Bach's compli-
cated use of accidentius is a stumblinffblock to
many, who fianoy he breaks laws against fidse
rdations; while in reality this law, like that
against ooDseoutive fifths, is only the particular
fonnnla covering a deeper law which Bach had
the power to &thom without waiting for its ex-
pression. So again with the tesolution of dis-
eotds ; the old formulas were mere statements of
the oommoneet practices of the older composers,
and did not attempt to strike at the root of the
matter : so we find even Haydn taking, license in
this direction in relation to the li^ts of his
time; while Bitch's resolutions are ofben inex-
plioahle even at the present day as fiir as the
accepted- principles of resolution will go, because
theorists nave hardly got fiur enough yet to see
dearly what he saw and expressed so long a^.
At the present day, however, the increase of uie
McumqJated results of observation' and analvsis,
joined with a. more philosophical spirit, tends to
produce a more and more accurate determination
of the real.lawB of art, and by the systematisationi
<^ these into » more oongruouB and connected
UCHNOWSKY.
181
theory, a nearer approach is made to what is
universally true, and so less room is left for
those speculative experiments of genius which
the denseness of mere pedants has been content
to brand as licenses.
This progress explains the fliot that the term
' license Is not so srequently heard in- relation to
music as it formerly was: but there is still pJenty of
room for theorists to invent &lse hypotheses ; and
the apparently growing deshre of many scientists
to f<»oe upon artLsts as final the results of the
most elementary disooveries in* relation to the
material of the art^ will still afford genius the
opportunity of asserting the strength of its con-
victions by taking, so-called licenses,, and will
likewise afford dogmatists further opportunity of
making themselves ridiculous to posterity by
eondenming the truths thus discovered.
There is just one last consideration. Liber-
tines are unfortunatdy to be met with in the aH
world as well as elsewhere, and the licenses they
take too frequently deserve the bitter language
of the enraged pedant. There is no need to stay
to consider their experiments, for they will not
take long to die of inanition. It onlv remains to
remind the too hasty enthusiast that to take
licenses with safety for the art is not the part of
every ready believer in himself; but only of
those in whom the h^hest talents are conjoined
with unflagging pati^ice and earnest labour;
who pass £ough the perfect realisation of the
laws they find in force at first, and by learning to
feel thoroughly the basis on which they rest^ and
the principles of their application by other great
masters, finally arrive at that point where they
can see ^e truths which lie beyond the formal
expression of the law, and wluch ^e rest of
humanity only caU licenses for the nonce because
their eyes are not dear enough nor their spirits
bright enough to leap to the point which the in-
spiration- of genius has achieved.
Beethoven appears to have used the tenn
* Hcenze' in relation to construction with reference
to the fugue in Bb in opus io6. It is difficult
to indicate predseW in what particular the
licenses consist. Ae case is similar to the
sonatas which he called ' quasi Fantasia,' merely
indicating that in them he had not restricted
himself dosdy to the laws of form as accepted in
his time, but had enlarged the bounds according
to hi» own feelings. [G.H.H.P.]
LIGHFILD, HsNBT, was the composer of
'The first Set of Madr^^als of 5 parts, apt both
for Yiols and Yoyoes,' printed in 161 3 and re-
printed in 1 614, and oontaining ao madrigals.
Nothing is known of his biography. [W. H. H.]
LIGHNOWSKY, Ca&l, Fttrst (Prince), by
Russian patent issued January 30, 1773; bom
1758, died April 15, 1814; was desoended from
an old Polisa family whose estatea were so
situated thaty after the partition of Poland, it
owed allegiance to all three of the plunderers.
The prindpal seat of Prince Garl was Sohloes
Griits, near Troppau in Silesia; but Yienna
was his usual place of reeidenoe. He daima
K2-
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1S2
uchnowsky;
a place !ii this work m the pupil and tiend of
Mourt and the Msoenae of Beethoven.
Headers of Barney's 'Masioal Toar* will
remember his eulogies of the Coxmt&n Thmi-
Klosterle, so celebrated for her beaaty, intellect
and culture, whose disregard for mere form gave
her the reputation of eooentricitj, but whose
house and fiunily had charms that attracted even
the Empever Jos^h and his brothers thither on
the fooUng of fri^dly visitora. Of her taste in
music it is sufficient to say that she was a pro-
found admirer of the compositions of both the
young Mozart «nd the yoimg Beethoven, at a
time when such appreciation was by no means
universaL Her aaughters — Georg Forster's
* Three Graces* — ^were worthy of their mother.
Elisabeth married Rasoumow^ ; Christine, born
July a6, 1765, married, November 21, 1788, Lioh-
nowsky ; and the third the English Lord Gi:dlford.
Schonirald, a Viennese, writes in 1796, of Ladv
'Gilfort' as a guitar player of very high rank
«nd a singer of uncommon ezoellenee ; and of
Princess l^chnowsky as ' a ttrong musician who
plays the pianoforte with feeling and expression.'
lichnowsky, without pretending to rival the
great magnates Esterhazy, Lobkowitx, and their
peers, in maintaining a complete ' chapel ' of vocal
and instrumental music, had within five years
after his marriage his regular Friday quartet of
youthful virtuosos, Sohig[>panzigh, Sina, Weiss,
and Krafts all of whom beeame famous, and
also gave musical entertainments on a scale
Tequiring a full on^estra.
His relations to the Prussian court compelled
him occasionally to i^pear there; and he thus
found opportunity to give Mosart— only two years
his semor — a practioJ and substantial proof of
his affection, by inviting him, in those days of
tedious and expensive travelling, to join him on
one of these oceasions free of expense. Thb was
the journey in the spring of 1 789, during which
the King ef IVussia offered lifozart the then
noblest musical position in Germany, but which
a kind word from the Emperor, after his return,
led him to reject without securing an eouivalent.
There seems to be no doubt that Idchnowsky,
deeply moved by the distressing condition of
liis teacher and friend, had taken him to
Berlin in the hepe of improving his circum*
stances, and that the King's offer was partly due
to his influence. Two and. a half years later
poor Mozart was dead, leaving a void in the
Lichnowsky-Thun circle which Siere was no one
to fill. Another two years and youii^ Beethoven
had come from Bonn.
The relations between him and the Lichnow-
cikyB are sufficiently indicated in the article
BEErHovEN ; but a euirent error must be ixxr-
rected ; namely, that the breach caused by the
quarrel at Gratz in 1806 was finaL Lichnowsky
lived in a large house over the Schotten gate-
both house and gate disappeared long since — and
in the storey below mm- dwelt Beethoven*s
friends, the Erdodys. The Sdiotten and Molker
bastions were contiguous, and the Pasqualati
Jiottse, on the latter, was io the same row with
LIEBUCH GEDACT.
that' of lichnowsky, though a few dcort away
firam it. This then was the reason whj
Beethoven was content to live in rooms in the
fourth storey, looking to the cold north, and
without a durect ray of the sun. He remained
there from 1804 to 1807, and then removed into
rooms provided him by the Countess Erdody.
An outbreak with the Countess led hhn to
remove to the other side of the city, where he
passed the years 1809 and 1810. Meantime, so
complete a reconciliation had taken place be-
tween him and both Lichnowsky and the
Countess Erdody, that in 181 1 he went again
to Griitz, and on his return once more to<^ his
old lodg^g in the Pasqualati house, where he
remain^ until the death of lichnowslnr. ^ It
was during these last j^ears that Schindler re-
cords the fluent visits of the prinoe to the
composer.
ElowABD Mabia, son and successor of Prinoe
Cari (bom Sept. 19, 1789, died Jan. i, 1845, at
Munich), di^gmshed himself as an agrioul*
turist, but more as a man of letters. He stands
high in Austrian literature as a national anti-
quarian, especially for his great 'History of
tbe House of Habsburg.*
L10HNOW8KT, Count Mobttz, a younger brother
of Prince Carl, was one of that smaU circle of
most intimate friends of Beethoven, frUthful to
the last. He was probably that Count lich-
nowiricy who published (1708) ' VH Yariatioiis
for P.F. on Nel cor jtit/ After the death
of his first wife he beoune deeply attached to
the opera-singer. Mile. Stammer ; but not until
after the death of Prince Carl, when their
daughter had already passed the stage of im-
fanoy, were they able to marn^. It is in rda-
tion to this attadmient that Beethoven is said
to have written the Sonata in E minor, op' 90.
[See voL i. p. «o6 h.] [A. W. T.]
LIEBUCH GEDACT (<.«. gedeckt), literallj
'sweet-toned covered or closed* pipe, l^iis
class of orpan stop is a variety of the old quite-
stopped Diapason or Gedact. It was invented
by the elder Schulze, of Paulinzelle near Erfurt,
and was first brought imder notice in England
in his ocgan in the Great Exhibition of 1851.
It is made either of i6-feet tone (Ideblich
Bourdon), 8-feet (lieblich Gedact), or 4-feet
(lieblich Flote). The pipes are made 5 or 6
mzes narrower than the Gedact, but are more
copiously winded, and the mouths cut up higher.
The tone therefore is nearly or quite as strong as
that of the Gedact, though not so friU, yet
1 R«lolMidl, imdM' data Kov. Sa I808» ivtHm: 'BmUmtoi lodgM
with a Hangarten Coaatam ErMdj, who oecnplw the troai part of
the huge home, hut he bai bnkm completely with Prinoe Llaluiow»
■ky, who liret In the npper part of the hooee. and with wbom ha tor
tome yean radded. Daring the ten yean 180(-14. then, Beetbotett
moeed from the Faeqoalatt hooee onoe only, bat then for thneyvan;
at the end of that period he departed ftnallj. When thenfora Itiea
(writing avowedly from heanay) ttatet ' be ramoved from U i«reral
timaa. and FaMioalail lald "lite lodging than not be let. Beethoven
wmeomewaln.'"bewae6rldentlymlitafonned.a«leaMlBpart; but
hto error bai been adopted and made the moet of In all btographlet and
biographical tketebea of Beethoven ibioe IfflS. The new lodging In 1814
wae In the lower itonr of the BartcMteln hooM. on the aaiM baetkm.
He retained It but one year: for. on the departure of the KrdOdyifkom
Vienna In 181B. there wai no hidnoemont to rematai, and BeKbonn
mofad awiv from tte MUkar Baitel nerer to retpia.
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JJE^UCE GEDACT.
Mgliier aiul sfredtor. When the thretf storii,
16, S, and 4 feet are grouped together on the
fame numual their effect is very h^utifuL The
late Edmund Scholse oombined them in this
inanner in the ohoir organ at the Ten^e Church
b i860, also in his fine organ at I>onca8ter(i 86a).
Lewis adopted the same pUn at Bipon Catiiedral,
and it has been still more recently followed by
Willis at Salisbury Cathedral [E. J.H/|
LIED, a German poem intended for singing ;
by no means identical with the French ckans<m,
crthe Italian camone. All three terms are in
&ct untranslateaUe, from the essentially na-
tional oharaotOT of the ideas embodied in each
fiirm ; the German Lied being perhaps ^e most
fiuthfol reflection of the national sentiment. A
Gennan looking at nature in her infinite variety
of moods is almost irresistibly impelled to utter
his thoughts in song. Certain aspects of nature
appeal with peculiar fbroe to the German mind —
•ach, for instance, as the forest, the waste, the
fiJl of rain, the murmur of the brook, the raging
of the tempest ; and connected with these certain
ether objeotiye idesj^ such as the hunter in the
fofeet, the lonely bird, or the clouds stretching
over the landsci^, the house shelterinff from
wind and rain, the mill-wheels turned by the
farook, etc Sudi are the topica of the secular
lied, which hare been embodied by Goethe,
SduUer, Heine, and a hundred smaller poets,
in in^)erishable lyrics, perfectly suited for music.
Those of the sacred laed are, trust in God, the
hope of fntore blessedness and union, and other
nl%knis sentiments, etc. There are Volkslieder,^
that is to say, Lieder whose origin is lost in ob-
senrity, of both kinds. The development of in*
stnmiental music during the earlier half of the
Ust oentuzy having provided other means of
expression for such feelings besides song, the
Volkslied has graduailv disappeared, giving place
to the Kunstlied, of wnich uie accompaniment is
sa important feature. This new form, naturalised
by Haydn, Mozart, Reichardt,. Schultz, Himmel,
Beethoven, Oonradin Ereutzer, and C. M. von
Weber, attained in the hands of Franz Schubert to
that extension and perfection of expression which
makes it so dear to the German nation. Since his
time the accompaniment haa constantly assiuned
greater prominence, so that the original fbim has
nearly <usappeared, the musical treatment being
sveiything, and the poetry comparatively of less
tnoment. Schumann may b» considco^d the
moneer in this direcdcm, and after him follow
£rahms and Kobert Franz. With the two last
composers the accompaniment, as rich in melody
AS it is in harmony and modulation, more than
divides attention with the words.
The best works on the subject are Dr. Schnei-
dw's 'Geschichte des Liedee,* 3 vds. (Leipzig,
'^^3-^5)y foil of detail; Lindner's 'Geschichte
desBeotsohen Liedes im XVIII Jahrhundert'
LIED-FOESC
138
Ji tef* ufttrtmiatelj no equivalent word for VoUuUed.
We hmm Um tlilnc. ttaoagh of • very dlOlBreDt kind from that of
Oenaur. twt haw no term to wpraee the whole kind. Mr. Obsp-
ptlfg gnat work on KngUah Volkxlleder Is entitled ' The Ballad
Litefatota and Topolar Unite of the OMen Time.' 'Popular.' how
trer.taMaoirafeqiiiredadiKlafBt meaning of Itt own.
(Leipaigl 1871); and Sohnr^a ^Hlstoiie du
lied/ [See Soto.] [^-O.]
LIED-FORM. The term LTedfbnn has un-
fortunately been used by difibrent writers with
different sigmfieations ; and th» vagueness which
results, conjoined with the fact tiiat the term is
not happily chosen, renders it doubtful whether
it had not better be entirely abandoned.
Some people use it merely to define any slight
pleoe wmch consists mainly of a simple melody
simply accompanied, in which sense it would
be perfectly Shdapted to many of Mendelssohn's
Lieder olme Worte, and mnumerable other
pieces of that eiass of small compositions for the
pianoforte by various authors, as well as to songs.
On the other hand, some writers have en-
deavoured to indicate by the term a form of
construction, in the same sense as they would
speak of the forms of the movements of Sonatas.
For the diffusion of this view Herr Bemhard
Biarx appears to be responsible^ and his definition
will be best given in his own terms.
In the fourth section of the fifth dividon of
his ' Allgemeine Musiklehre* he writes as follows :
'Under this name of lied-fbrm we group all such
pieces of music as have ene single main idea,
which is presented either in-one developed section,
or as a period (with first and second phrase), or
even as a period divided into first and second
similar parts,, or into first, second, and third
parts (in wUch case the last is generallv a
repetition of the first). It is possible in lied-^m
to have even two such- complete forms aggregated
into one piece ;^ but then they occur without
close oonneotion or interweaving with one an-
other, perhaps with the two- parts twice or three
times repeated ; in which case the seoond group
will be called a Trio, and the third the second
Trio, and be treated as a second independent
piece. For the sake of contrast, such Trios will
often be in another key, or in other key relation-
ship, such as minor corresponding to major, and
major to minor, of the same key, etc., return
being afterwards made to the fint portion and
the original key to make the piece complete.
* In this Lied' form are cast most of the Lieder
which are intended to be sung, dances, marches,
many Etudes, introductions,' etc.
In the third section of the fourth division of
his ' Lehre von des Musikalisdien Komposition,*
Marx further gives formulas, or types, of the
harmonic distribution of this kind of composi"
tion; and in the earlier part of the second
voliune (Bk. 3) of the same work he discusses
the details of tiie structure at length.
To this classification there appear te be twe
main objections. The first is- the choice of the
distinctive name ' Lied * for a form which com-
prises dances, marches, and other alien forms
of music. Were there nothing else to say against
it, it would certainly jar against our sense of
fitness to have to speak of the funeral march in
the Eroica Symphony, or the Scherzo of the oth
Symphony, or even of fiir less conspicuously auen
examples, such as the Waltz in the Freyschiitz, or
a Minuet of Haydn oar Mozart, as in ' lied-form.'
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IH
LIED-FOKM.
The ather objectimi to ihe diunifioatloii ia its
Taguenees when fennolated in 4iach an empirical
way; but in order to understand fully botn this
objection and itbe former it will be neceeaary to
go lomewhat'deeper into the matter.
In every artistic whole there must be balance
and propoxtion. In musical works this is chiefly
obtamed by the grouping of hazmonies. An
artistic whole may be obtained in one hey by
throwing stress first upon one harmonic centre^
passing firam that to one which represents an
opposite phase, and then passing back to the
original again. In the article Harmont it
has been pointed out that the hannonies of the
Tonic and the Dominant represent the most com-
plete opposition of phase in the diatonic soriee of
any key; the jnost perfect simple balance is
therefore to be found in their Alternation. For
example, the first fifteen bars of the Trio in the
Scherzo of Beethoyen*8 Symphony in A form
a complete artistic whole of themselyes. There
are six bars of Tonio harmony and one of
Dominant forming the first group, and then
six of Dominant harmony followed by one of
Tonic harmony iorming the second group. The
balance is perfect, and the form the simplest in
all music ; and it might reasonably be caUed the
' simple primary fc«m.* It is tQ be found in the
most diverse quarters, such as single chuits of
the Anglican Church, sailor^s hom^pee, German
popular waltzes and liindler, and the trivial
snatches of tunes in a French opera^bouffe. The
manner of obtaining the balance is however not
necessarily restricted to the above orders for it
is quite equally common to find each of the two
groups containing a balance in themselves of
Tonic and Dominant harmony. In that case
the balance is obtained thus— CGC t G 6,
instead of G G GO as in the former instai^e ;
but the principle which underlies them is the
same, ana justifies their being classed together.
The subsidiary harmonies which are associated
with these main groups are independent, but
are most effective when they converge so as
to direct attention to them. When greater
extension is required, tiie balance is found
between key and key; each key being s»rerally
distinguished by analtemation of harmonic roota^
so as to be severally complete when they are to
be a prominent part of the form. Subsidiary
transitions occur jnuoh as the subsidiary har-
monies in the preceding class, and must be
re^^arded in the same light. The identity of
prmciple in these two classes is obvious, since in
both alike it consists of taking a definite point to
start from, and marking it dearly.; then passing
to another point, whidi will afford the needed
contrast, and returning to the original to con-
clude. But as in the Utter class the process b
complicated by the changes of key, it may best
be distinguished from the former as * complex
primary form.*
It is not necessary to enter into details on the
subject of the extent, treatment and distribution
UED-FOBM.
of the keys ; neither is it possible, nnoe the prin-
ciple when put upon this broad basis admits ci
very great variefy, as indeed it is desurable that
it snould. But to guard against misapprehension,
it may be as well to point out afew of the broadest
facts.
In the first place, the several^ sections which
serve to mark the elements of form need not be
distinct and independent pieces, though they most
fr^uently Are so in the dd^ opera and oratorio
songs, and in the minuets and trios, or marchss
and trios, of instrumental music. In many ex-
amples, especially such as are on a small scale^
tibere is no marked break in the continuity of the
whole, the division at most amounting to nothiiig
more 4Jban a cadence or haJf-dose and * double
bar, and often to not even so much as that. With
regard to the distribution of ideas, it may be said
that the several sections are often characterised
by totally independent subjects, espedally when
the piece is on a large scale; but there are many
exftm|)les, espedally in the form of themes for
variations, when, notwithstanding a certain free-
dom of modulation, the predominance oi one main
idea is unl^oken.
Professor Marx has called attenticm to the &et
that this form is sometimes amplified by repe-
tition 4 that is to say, when the return to the
original key has been made to follow the oon-
trasting.section or Trio, a treah d<^>arture is made,
and another contrasting section or Trio is ^ven,
after which follows the final return to the original
key and idea. Examples of this occur in the
Symphonies of Beethoven and Schumann, as well
as in less important works ; and it is well to take
note of the &ct that in this case the form under
consideration shows its dose relationship to the
Rondo form; for that form in the hands of eariy
instrumental composers such as Kameau and
Couperin was little else than the frequent repe-
tition of a main idea in a prindpal key, inter-
spersed with contrasting episodes, which in the
present case answer to the Trios.
The occurrence of Codas with this form is very
common, but for the discussion of that pdnt
reference must be made to the article under that
head and to the artide Fobm.
Finally, it will be well to return shortly to the
consideration of the distinctive name of 'Lied*
which has been given to this form. In the choice
of it, its author was probably guided by a well-
grounded opinion of the superior antiquity of song
to other kmds of music, which led him to In-
fer that the instrumental forms which he put
under the same category were imitated firom the
* Lieder.* But this is not by any means inevit-
able. It will have been seen nom the above
discussion that in this form the simplest means
of arriving at artistic balance and proportion are
made use of; and these would have been chosen
by the instinct of the earliest composers of instru-
mental music without any necessary knowledge
that vocal music was cast in the same mould.
And there is more than this. In son^ and other
vocal music the hearer is so fiur guided by the
sense of the words that a total impression of
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UEIXFORM.
oompbteoMs mmj be obtained even with very
▼Bgoe Btractore in the mode; whereas in in-
itrameDtel munc, unlets the fonn is dear and
appreoiably defined, it ia impoesible for the moat
intdligent hearer to realise the work as a
whole, do that, in point of fiust» vocal music
can do withoat a great deal of that which is
rital to instrumental music; and therefore the
Lied is just the member of the group which it is
least satisfactory to take as the type : but as this
form has been classified under that head, it has
been necessary so to review it tnUy, in order that
1 just estimation may be formed of its nature,
and the reason for taking exception to the title.
The hna itself is a very important one, but inas-
much as it admits of great latitude in treatment,
it appears that the only satisfactory means of
dawfying it, or making it explicable, is by
putting it on as broad a basis as possible, and giving
It a distinctive title which shall have reference
to its intrinsio constitution, and not to one of
the many kinds of music which may, but need not
necessarily, come within its scope. [C.H.H J*.]
LEED OHNE WORTB, i.e. Song without
words (Fr. Romance ecms paroles), Mendelssohn^s
title for the pianoforte pieces which are more
dosdy associated with lus name than any other
of his ocunpodtions. The title exactly describes
them. Ihey are just scmgs. lliev have no words,
bat the meaning is none &e lees definite — ' I wish
I were with you,* says he to his sister Fanny in
wnding her from Munich' the earliest of these
compositions which we possess — ' but as that is
impossible, I have written a sons for you expres-
live of my wishes and .thoughts . . . ^ and then
follows a little pieoe of i6 Imuts lonff, which is as
true a lied obne Worte as any m the whole
collection. We know firom ^ letter of later * date
than the above that he thought music much more
definite than words, and there is no reason to
doubt that theee 'lieder,* as he himself con-
stantly calls them, have as exact and special
an intention as those which were oomposed to
poetiy, and that it is almost impossible to draw
a Ime between the two.* He had two kinds of
loogs, one with words, the other without. Tho
jgeoes are not Nocturnes, or Transcripts, or Etudes.
They contain no bravura ; everything is sdbordin-
ited to the 'wish' or the * thought^ which filled
the heart of the composer at the moment.
The title first i^pears in a letter of Fanny
Mendelssohn's, Dec. 8, i8a8, which implies that
Felix had but recently b^gun to write such
pieces. But the English equivalent was not
■etded without difficulty. The day after his
arrival in London, on April 34, 183s, he played
the first six to Moscheles, and they are then
^spoken of as 'Instrumental Lieder ftir Cla-
vier.* On the autoeraph of the first -book, in
Mr. Felix Moscheles possession, they are named
* Six songs for the Pianoforte alone,* and this again
* LMtm from Itely and Swttnrtaad. JoM li. 188&
' lb SoMhv. Oot lA. UiL
' The a«trtlM (0|k 6S) VM orlgtmny a LM ohM Wort* (lOL Oat
< S« tlM TraaditloD of MoMhdM' Ufli. L «r. Cdt thto UMl tiM M-
^odies^ ,
fe AstbopkAj
Mr. $&ve% V
tnuihMV ^
LIEDEREBI
was afterwards changed to
the Pianoforte,' under whid
was published (for the authi
(then in Dean Street), on
registered at Stationers* HalL
is given on the English copy, thoi
no doubt that Mendelssohn arrauj^
every particular. The book appefured cohcdM^«£(ftr
in Berlin, at Simrock*-s, as *Sechs Lied^<£Ai
Worte, etc 'Op. 19.' Hie Oerman name after-
wards became current in England, and was added
to the English title-page.
The last of the six sonn contained in the
Tst book — 'In a Oondola, or * Venetianischea
Gkmdellied' — is said to be the earliest of the six
in point of date. Jjk Mendelssofan*s MS. catalogue
it IS marked ' Venedig, i6th Oct., 1830, far Del-
phine Sohauroth' — a distinguished musician of
Munich, whom he had left only a few weeks
before, and to whom he afterwards dedicated his
first P.F, Concerto. An earlier one still is No. 2
of Book 2, which was sent fVom Munich to his
sister Fanny in a letter dated June a6, 1830.
Strange as it may seem, the success of the
Lieder ohne Worte was but slow in England.
The books of Messrs. Novello 8c Co., for 1836,
show that only 114 copies of Book i were sold in
the first lour yearsl* Six books, each containing
six songs, were published 4uring Mendelssohn's
lifetime, numbered as op. 19, 30, 38, 53, 6a, and
67, respectively; and a 7th and 8th (op. 85 and
1 03) since his death. A few of them have titles,
viz. the Gondola song alreadv mentioned ; another
'VenetianisdhesGondellied, op. 30, no. 6 ; 'Duett,'
op. 38, no. 6 ; • Volkslied,' op. 53, no. 5 ; a third
'VenetianischesGrondellied,'and a 'FrfihlingsUed,'
op. 6a, nos. 5 and 6. These titles are his own.
Names have been given to some of the other songs.
Thus op. 19, no. a, is called 'Jagerlied' or
Hunting song; op. 6a, no. 3, 'Trauermarsch' or
Funeral march ; op. 67, no. 3, < Spinnerlied ' or
Spinning song: but these, appropriate or not,
are unau^orised. [G.]
LIEDEBKBEIS, LIEDERCYCLUS, or
LIEDERREIHE. A oirole or series of songs,
relating to the same object and fuming one piece
of mu^ The first instance of the thing and the
first use of the word Appears to be in Beethoven's
op. 98, * An die feme Geliebte. Ein Liederkreis
von Al Jeitteles.^ Fiir Gesang und Pianoforte
. . . von L. van Beethoven.' This consists of six
songs, was composed April <i8i6, and published
in the following December. The word Lieder^
kreis appears first on the printed copy. Bee-
thoven's title on the autograph is 'An die
enfemte Geliebte, Seohs IJeder van Aloys
Jeitteles,' etc. It was followed by Schubert's
' Die schone MtQlerin, ein C)yolus von Liedem,'
so songs, oomposed 1633, 4md published March
i8a4. Schubert's two other series, the ' Winter-
• Then $n two opus la, a let of six loags wltli wonk, uid a let of
dz wlUiont M*i*n>i
• ror thU fkoC I UB 4nd«bC«d to tha kladnen of Mr. Heniy
LttUetoQ. the prwant head of the Ann.
f Or the poet of these «hannli« ▼•»•■ llttte Infonaatloo can b«
gleaaed. He waa born at Br&nn June M, 1794. to that when be wroto
the Liederkreis he was barely SL Like many amateors of nuislc hit
prtotlsad madMne. and he dlad at Us iMUre place AprU Uk USa
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186
UEDEBELBEIS.
veise' and the ' Sohwanen-G^sang/ hav^ not got
the special title. Schumann luhB left several
liederkreifl — ^by Heine (op. 24) ; by Eichendorff
(op. 59) ; * Dichteiiiebe, Liederoyklus* (op. 48) ;
liederreihe yon J. Kemer (op, 3s); ' Frauenliebe
nnd Leben* (op. 42). Of all tibiese Beethoven**
most faithfully answers to the name. The songs
change their tempo, but there is 00 break, and the
motif of the first reappears m the last, and doses
the circle. Thayer's conjecture (iii. 401) that in
writing it Beethoven was inspired by Amalie von
iBebald, whom he had met at Linz in 181 1, is
not improbably correct. He was then 45 years
old, an age at which love is apt to be dangerously
permanent. [G.j
UEDERSPIEL, a play with songs introduced
into it, such songs being either weU known and
favourite airs — Lieder — or, if original, oast in
that form. It is the German equivalent of the
French Vaudeville, and of such KngliBh pieces as
the 'Beggar's Opera,' the *Wateraum,' etc. The
thing and the name are both due to J. F. Reich-
ardt, whose 'Lieb' und Treue* was the 'first
liederspieL It was an attempt to bring back
the musical stage of (Germany firom art&oe to
natural sentiment. Rexohardt^s interesting ac-
count of his experiment and the reasons which
led to it, will be found in the Allg. mus. Zdt-
ung, 1 801 (709-717). Strange and anomalous
as such a thrusting of musio into the midst
pf declamation may seem, the atteinpt was sue*
cessful inQermany,asit had been in England fifty
years before. The tunes could be reoo^iised and
enjoyed without effixrt, and the Idederspiel had
a long popularity. After Belchardt» Himmel,
Lortzing, Eberwein, and a number of other
oecond-dass writers composed Liederspiel which
were very popular, and they even still are to be
heard. — Mendelssohn often speaks of his * Heim-
kehr' (* Son and Stranger*) as a Liederspiel, but
that can only be by an extension of the phrase
beyond its original meaning. [G.]
LIEDERTAFEL, originally a society ef men,
who met together on fix^ evenings for the prac-
tice of vocal music in four parts, drinking forming
part of the entertainment They arose during
the political depression caused by Napoleon's
rule m Germany ; and the first, consisting of 24
members only, was founded by Zelter in Berlin,
Dec. 28, 1808. Others soon followed at Frankfort
and Leipzig, gradually relaxing the rules as to
numbers. Bemhard EHein fbun<kd the * Jiinfferen
Berliner liedertafel/ which aimed at a higher
standard of art. lliese societies gave an im-
mense in^)etu8 to men*s part-singing throughout
Germany. Since the estaUishment of the M&nner-
gesangvereine prowse (male singing sodetiee),
the word liedertafel has come to mean a sodal
gathering of the ' Verein,* i. e. a gathering of in-
vited ladiea and gentlemen, at ^mnch. the mem-
bers perform pieces previous^ learned. They
are in £Ebct informal concerts, where the goeets
move about, eat, drink, and talk as they please,
provided they keep silenoe during the singing.
The LiedertoiFdn of the large male singing so-
deties of Vienna^ Munich^ and Cdogneiy are
UGATURK
pleasant and refined entertainments, not without
a musical significance of their own. [F. G.]
LIGATOSTIL (Ttal. 8tiU ligato), also called
gebundener Stil, is the German term for what is
called the strict style, as distinguished firom the
firee style of musicad composition. Its chi^
characteristic lies not so much in the fact that
the notes are seldom or never detached, as that
all dissonances are strictly prepared by means of
tied notes. [F. T.]
LIGATURE (Lat. Ligatura ; Ital. LegcUura ;
Fr. Liaiion), A passage of two or more notes,
gung to a single syllable. [See Notatioit.]
In antient music-books, Ligatures are not in-
dicated, as now, by slurs : but the form of the
notes themsdves is changed — sometimes^ in »
very puzzling manner.
Three kinds of Ligatures are used in Plain
Chaunt. In the first, and simplest, the notes are
merely placed very dose to each other, so as
almost to touch, thus —
Ex. I4 Writtm. Sut^,
In the second, used only for two notes, ascend-
ing, they are 'bonded* — that is to say, written
one over the other; the lowest being always
sung first-^
Ex.S. WriUm,
In the third, used for two notes desoendingy
they are joined together, so as to form an oblique
figure, descending towards the right ; the upper
end resting on the line or spaoe denoting the &rst
and highest of the two notes, and the lower, on
that denoting the seoond, and lowest, thus —
EX.S. WriUm. Bung.
In early times, the notes of Plain Chaunt were
all of equal l^igth. When, after the invention
of Measured Music (fiarUus menturMlU), the
Large, Long, Breve^ and Semibreve, were
brought into general use, a considerable modi-
fication of the form and scope of the Ligature
became necessary. Hence, we find Franco of
Cologne, in the iith century, calling Ligatures
beginning with a Breve, LigoUura eum proprU^
tcUe; those b^^inning with a Long, tine pro-
pridcUe; those beginning with a Semibreve,
eum oppogUa proprietcUe; those in which the
last note is a I^ng, Ligatura per/edcB ; those in
which the last note is a Breve, itnpeffeeta.
In the Polyphonic Music of the 15th and 1 6th
centuries, the form of the Ligatures varies
greatly ; and is, neoessarilv, very complex, since
it concerns the relative duration of the notes,
as well as their difference in pitch. A cata-
logue of the strange figures found in antient
l&S. woukl be interesting only to the anti-
quary: but, as an intimate acquaintance with
toe more usual forms is absdutely indispensable
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LIGATURE*
to an who would learn how to More the* great
oompositionB of the i6th oentury from the oii-
ginad Part-books, we subjoin a few examples of
those which the stadent is likely to find most
generally useful.
Two square white notes, in ligature, without
tails, are generally sung as Breves: the rule
holding good, whether the notes are separately
formed, or joined together in an oblique figure ;
ihua—
Ex.4. WrU/oi,
UGATURR
187
Sometimes, however, (but not always,) if the
passage be a descending one, the notes are to be
auDg as Longs ; or, the first mav be a Long, and
the second, a Breve. But, this exoeption is a
rare one ; and it is safer to assume that the strict
rule is in force, unless the fitting together of the
parts should prove the contrary.
Bx.fiu WriOtn, Ami? (in » few mre omm)»
Two square white notes, in ligature, with a
tail dpsoending on the right side, are Longs,
whether they ascend, or descend, and whether
they are separately formed, or joined into a
■ingle oblique figure.
£x.«. WriUen,
Two similar notes, with a tail desoendiog on
the left side, are &«ves.
Ex.7. Written, Bung.
Two such notes, with a tail ascending on the
left side, are Senubreves.
Ex. 8. WriUtn,
Bunff,
Ligatures of two notes, with a tail ascending
on the left side, and. another descending on the
right, are to be sung — ^by a combination of Ex. 6
anid 8 — as a Semibreve, followed by a Long (Ex. 9).
WrUten. Omff. Ex. 10. WriUen, Bung.
Ex.9.
In Ligatures of more than two notes, all ex-
cept the first two are most frequently treated as
if they were not in ligature. Hius^ in Pales-
trina*s Hymn, Ave Maris Stella, we find a Liga*
ture of three square white notes, with a Wl
aacending on the left, sung as two Semibreves,
and aBreve : that is to say, the first two notes are
treated aa in Ex. 8, while the third note retains
its true length (Ex. 10).
On this point, however, some early authorities
differ considerably. For instance, Omithoparcus,
writing in 151 7, tells us that (i) Every middle
note, however shaped, or placed, is a Breve:
(2) A Long may begin, or end, a Ligature, but
can never be used in the middle of it ; (3) A
Breve may be used either in the beginning,
middle, or end of a Li^ture ; (4) A S^ibreve
mav also be used in the beginning, middle, or
end of a Ligature, if it have a tail ascending on
the left. [See Micboloous, II.]
Black square and lozenge-shaped notes, with-
out tails, lose, when intermixed with white notes,
one fourth of their value, whether they occur in
ligature, or not. Thus, a black Semibreve is equal
to three Crotchets only, or a dotted Minim — ^in
which case it is always followed by a Crotchet ;
as in Ex. 1 1 —
Ex.11. WriUm,
Ex.12. Written.
But, a black Semibreve, following a black Breve,
is shortened into a Minim, though the strict rule
holds good with regard to the Breve (Ex. 1 3).
There is often, indeed, a little uncertainty with
regard to the degree in which a black note is to
be shortened; more especially, when the same
Ligature contains both black and white notes —
as in the following examples from Palestrina.
Ex.13. WrUten.
Bung.
'^ ^ ^^ '^ ^^ — ^
A very little experience will enable the student
to discover the intention of such forms as these,
at a glance. Though the three we have selected
seem, at first sight, to offer unexpected complica-
tions, it will be foimd, on closer examination, that
the laws laid down with regard to Ex. 8, 10, 11,
and 12, leave no doubt as to the correct solution
of any one of them. Even when an oblique note is
half white, and half black, it is only necessary to
remember that each colour is subject to its own
peculiar laws.
Ex.14* WriiJUn, Bung,
Cases, however, frequently occur, in which
black notes are to be treated precisely as white
ones. It is true, these passages are more oftcua
found in single notes, than in Ligatures ; but it
is difficult, sometimes, to understand why they
should have been introduced at all.
Sometimes, a Ligature is acoompanied by ona
or more Points of Augmentation, the position of
which clearly indicates the notes to which they
are to be applied.
Ex.16. Written.
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188
LIGATUTwE.
ULUBUKLERO.
In some old printed books, the last note of a
Ligature is placed obliquely, in which case it is
always to be sung as a Breve.
The student -mil meet with innumerable other
forms, more or less difficult to decypher : but^
those 'we have illustrated will be sufficient to
guide him on his way, in all ordinary cases; and, in
exceptional ones, he will find that long experience
alone will be of service to him. [W.S. R.]
LIGHT OF THE WORLD, THE. An ora-
torio in two parts ; the words compiled from the
Scriptures, the music by Arthur S. SuUivan.
Written for the Birmingham FestiviJ, and first
performed there Aug. 37, 1873. [G.]
LILLIBURLERO. * The following rhymes,'
says Dr. Percy, ' slight and insignificant as they
may now seem, had once a more powerful effect
than either the Philippics of Demosthenes or
Cicero ; and contributcKi not a little towards the
great revolution of 1688.' Bishop Burnet says :
' A foolish ballad was made at that time, treat-
ing the papists, and chiefly the Irish, in a very
ri^culous manner, which had a burden said to
be Irish words, 'Lero, lero, lilibuzlerQ,* that
made an impression on the [king's] army, that
cannot be imagined by those tb&t saw it not.
The whole army, and at last the people both in
city and country, were singing it perpetually.
And perhaps never had so i£ght a thing so
great an effect.*
Henry Purcell, the composer of the tune,
here receives no share of the credit, of which
nine tenths, at least, belong to him. The song
was first taken up by the army, because the tune
was already familiar as a quick step to which
the soldiers had been in the habit of marching.
Then the catching air was repeated by others,
and it has retained its popularity down to the
present time. As the miurch and quick step
have not been reprinted since 1686, although by
Henry Puroell, it is well that, at last, they uiould
reappear. The only extant copy of both is in
The Delightful Companion: or^ Choice New
Lessons for the Recorder or Flute, 2nd edition,
1686, oblong quarto. As this Utile book is
engraved upon plates, and not set up in types,
as then more usual, and this march and quick
step are on sheet F, in the middle of the book,
we may reasonably assume that they were in*
eluded in the first edition also, which cannot be
less than a year or two earlier in date.
March,
The words are the merest doggrel. They refer
to King James's having nominated to the lieu-
tenancy of Ireland, in 1686, General Talbot,
newly created Earl of Tyrconnel, who had recom-
mended himself to his bigoted master by his
arbitrary treatment of the I^testants in the pre-
ceding year, when he was only lieutenant-general.
One stanza assung to the tune may suffice. After
that, the two lines of new words only are given.
Hoi broder Teagoe, doet h^ar ds decree?
LilUburhro butten a la.
Sat we shall have a new depatie.
lABSmrUro buHen a la.
Lero Itroj liUi burUro, Uro Uro^ hvSen a 2a,
Jsero hrOf UOi durlsM), Uro lero, huUtn a ku
Ho ! by shaint Tybnm, it is de Talbote,
And he will cut all de English troate.
Don^ bj mv thool de En^sh do piaat,
De law^ on dajre side, and Greiah knows what
Bat if dispence do come from de pope,
We'll hang Jfagna Oharta, and dem in a rope :
For de good Talbot it made a lord.
And with Inrave lads it coming aboard :
Who all in France have takidn a gwaro
Dat dey will have no protestant heir.
Aral but whvdoee he stay behind?
Hoi by my ahonl 'tis a protestant wind.
But see, de Tyrconnel is now come ashore.
And we shall have commissions gillore.
And he dat will not go to mass
^hall be torn oat, and look like an ass.
Bat now de hereticks all go down.
By Greish And shaint Patrick, de nation's oar own.
Dare was an old prophesy found in a t
'Ireland shall be rul'd by an ass, and ad
And now dis prophesy is crane to pass.
For Talbot's de dog, and Ja.. s is de ass.
Such stuff as this would not have been toler-
able without a good tune to carry it down.
And yet Lord Wharton has had the entire
credit : ' A late viceroy, who has so often boasted
himself upon his talent for mischief, invention,
lying, and for making a certain Lilliburlero
song ; with which, if you will believe himself, he
sung a deluded prince out of three kingdoms.* ^
^om this political beginning lilliburlero
> A tnie rrlAtkm of tlM wTersl Facts and drcnmatsnoei of Um
lnteiid«d Blot and Tunralt oa Queen lUzabetii's Mrtbdaj. Snl
•dltlTlS.
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LTLLIBURLERO.
became a party tune in Ireland, eepecially afler
'Dublin's Deliverance; or the Surrender of
Drogheda/ beginning
Froteitaiit boys, good tidinga I brings
and ' Undaunted Londonderry/ oommencfng
Protestant boys, both Taliant and stoat,
bad been written to it.
It baa long ago lost any party signification in
England, but it was discontinued as a march in
the second half of the last oentury, in order to
avoid offence to our Irish soldiers of the Roman
Catholic faith.
The tune has been often referred to by drama-
tists and by other writers, as by Shadwell and
Vanbrugh in plajs, and by Sterne in Tristram
Shandy. Pui^dl claims it as 'A new Irish
tune* by 'Mr. Purcell* in the second part of
Mu9ic*8 Handmaid, 1689, and in 1691 he used
it as a ground-bass to tiie fifth piece in The
Gordian Knot untyd. The first strain has been
oommonly sung as a chorus in convivial parties :
A veiy good song, and very well song,
JoUy companions every one.
And it is the tune to the nursery rhyme :
There was an old woman toes'd np on a blanket
Nine^-nine times as hi^ as the moon.
A large number of other songs have been written
to the air at various times. [W.O.]
LILT (Verb and Noun), to sing, pip^ or play
cheerfully, or, according to one authority, even
sadly ; also, a gay tune. The term, which is of
Scottish origin, but is used in Ireland, would
seem to be ^rived firom the bagpipe, one variety
of which is described in the ' Houlate * (an an-
cient allegorical Scottish poem dating 1450), as
the * liltpype.* Whenever, in the absence of a
musical instrument to play for dancing, the Irish
. peasant girls sing lively airs to the customary
) syllables la-la-la, it is called ' lilting.' The classi-
cal occurrence of the word is in the Scottish song,
' The Flowers of the Forest,* a lament for the
disastrous field of Hodden, where it is contrasted
with a mournful tone : —
!*▼• heard them liltin* at the ewe milkin%
Tisssen a liltin* before dawn of day;
Kow there's a moanin* on ilka green loanin*,
The Flowers of the Forest are a* wede away.
The Skene MS., ascribed (though not 'con-
dusively) to the reign of James VI. of Scotland,
contains mn Lilts : ' Ladie Rothemayeis ' (the air
to the ballad of the Burning of Castle Frin-
draught), ' Lady Laudians * (Lothian*s>, ' Ladie
Casoillee* (the air of the ballad of Johnny Faa),
Lesleis, Ademeis, and 6iloreich*8 lilts. We
quote ' Ladie Oassilles' : —
LINCJKE.
189
Mr. Dauney, editor of the Skene MS., supposes
the Liltpipe to have been a shepherd^s pipe, not
a bagpipe, and the Lilts to have sprung fix>m the
pastoral districts of the LowUnds. [R. P. S.]
LILY OF KILLARNEY. A grand opera in
3 acts, founded on Boudcault's ' Colleen Bawn* ;
the words by John Oxenford, the music by Jules
Benedict. Produced at the Royal English Opera,
Covent Garden, Feb. 8, i86a. [6.]
LIMPUS, RiCHABD, organist, bom Sept. 10,
1824, was a pupil of the Royal Academy of Music,
and organist successively of Brentford; of St.
Andrew's, Undershaft ; and St. Michael's, Corn-
hill. He oompoeed a good deal of minor music,
but his claim to remembrance is as founder of
the College of Organists, which owing to his seal
and devotion was established in 1864. He was
secretary to the College till his death, March 15,
1875. [See Oboanists, Collbgb of.] [G.]
UNCKE,' Joseph, eminent cellist and com-
poser, bom June 8, 1783, at Trachenberg in
Prus^an Silesia; learnt the violin from his
&ther, a violinist in the chapel of Prince Hatz-
feld, and the cello from Oswald. A mismanaged
sprain of the right ancle left him lame for life.'
At 10 he lost his parents, and was obliged to
support himself by copying music, until in 1800
he procured a place as violinist in the Domi-
nican convent at Breslau. There he studied the
organ and harmony under Hanisch, and also
pursued the cello under Lose, after whose depar-
ture he became first cellist at the theatre, of
which C. M. von Weber was then Capellmeister.
In 1808 he went to Vienna, and was engaged by
Prince Rasoumowsky* for his private quartet-
party, at the suggestion of Schuppanzigh. In
that house, where Beethoven was supreme, he
had the opportunity of playing the great com-
poser's woncs under his own supervision.' Bee-
thoven was much attached to Lincke, and
continually caUs him 'Zunftmeister violoncello,*
or some other droll name, in his letters. The
Imperial library at Berlin* contains a comic
canon in Beethoven*s writing on the names
Brauohle and Lincke.
> Sse MrCbsppelt^ otltklnia. *Ftopator MiMie.' p.tl4.
-I- H- + LI • • ndke,Iinok«.
The two Sonatas for P. F. and Cello (op. loa)
were composed by Beethoven while he and
Lincke were together at the Erdodys in 1815.''
Lincke played in SchuppanzigVs public quar^
tets, and Schuppanzigh in turn assisted Lincke
at his farewell concert, when the programme
consisted entirely of Beethoven's music, and the
s Ha alwKji wrote hit nsnis thas. though It Is maaBj ipelled Link*.
* Itis p«rhsp» In ftUadoD to this that Bernard writes. ' lincke hu
only one fitult— that he Is crooked ' (kmmm).
« Wetas plajed the viola, and the Prtnoe the second vloUn.
s CkMnpare Thayer's Beethoven. lU. 49.
• See Nohl's BeetboTen's Brtefe. 1667. p. 92, note.
TEeeThajer.ULSe.
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140
LINCKB.
|[reat composiar himself was present. His pTay-
ing appears to have been remarkable for its
humour, and he is said to have been peculiarly
happy in expressing Beethoven^s characterisUo
style, whence no doubt the master^s fondness
for him.^ He then went to Gratz, and from
thence to Pancovecz near Agram, the residence
of Countess Erdody, as her chamber-virtuoso*
where he remained a year and a half. In
1818 he was engaged by Fi:eiherr von Braun
as first cellist in the theatre ' an der Wien/ and
in 183 1 played with Merk, the distinguished
cellist, in the orchestra of the court-opera. He
died on March 26, 1837. His compositions
consist of concertos, variations, capriccios, etc.,
his first 3 works only ^variations) having been
published. [C.F.P.]
LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS THEATRE
stood nearly in the centre of the south side of
Lincoln's Inn fields, the principal entrance being
in Portugal Street. It was erected by Christo-
pher Ridi, and opened (after his death) in 17T4
DV his son, John Kich, with Farquhar's comedy,
'The Recruiting Officer.' Here Rich first in-
troduced his pantomimes, a curious mixture of
masque and harlequinade, in which he himself,
under the name of Lun, performed the part of
Harlequin. Galliard was his composer, and
Pepusch his music director. [Galliard; Ps-
PUSOH.] Here 'The Beggar's Opera' was first
produced in 1727. [Beqoab's Opeba.] Rich
removing in 1732 to the new theatre in Covent
Garden, the house in Lincoln's Inn Fields was
let for a variety of purposes. Here in 1734
Italian operas were given, in opposition to Han-
del's at the King's Theatre, with Porpora as
composer and Senesino as principal singer ; and
here, when Handel was compelled to quit the
King's Theatre, he, in his turn, gave Italian
operas, and also, occasionally, oratorio perform-
ances. His ' Diyden's Ode on St. Cecilia's day'
was first performed here in 1739, and in 1740
his ' L' Allegro, H Pensieroeo, ed II Moderato,'
his serenata ' Pamasso in Festa,' and his oper-
etta 'Hymen.' Plays were occasionally per-
formed here until 1756, when the building was
converted into a bairack. It was afterwards
occupied as Spode and Copeland's ' Salopian
China Warehouse,' until it was taken down in
1848 for the enlai^ment of the College of Sur-
geons. This theatre must not be confounded
with two others which previously stood near the
same spot, viz. the Duke's Theatre, erected by
Sir William Davenant in 1662, and occupied
nntU 1671, when the companv removed to
Dorset Cfarden Theatre, and the Theatre in
Little Lincoln's Inn Fields, built upon the same
site and opened in 1695 with Congreve's 'Love
for Love,' and occupied until the company re-
moved to the Queen's Theatre in 1 705, when it
was abandoned. [Kino's Thxatbe.] [W.H.H].
LIND, Jbnnt, was bom at Stockholm Oct. 6,
if^20 (not, as F^tis says, on Feb. 8). Count
Puke, director of the Court Theatre, admitted
lBeeUM'2?eMZeltKhrtfimrXiuIk.'in7.No.32, . I
LIND.
het to the school of singinff which is attached to
that establishment, ai^ me received there her
first lessons from a master named Beig. She
made her dAut st the Opera in her native dty,
in March 1838, as Agatha in Weber's «Frei-
schtltz,' and played afterwards the principal r6le
in 'Euryanthe,' Alice in * Robert le Diable,' and
finally 'La Vestale,' all with brilliant success.
In fact, 'she uphdd the Royal Theatre until
June 1 841, when she went to Paris in hope of
improvinig her st^le of singing.* There Manuel
Gama gave her lessons, during a period of nine
months, but 'she herself mainly contributed to
the development of her naturally harsh and un-
bending voice, by ever holding before herself the
ideal which she had formed from a very early
a^. She had been wont to sing to her mother ■
friends from her third year ; imd, even at that
period, the intense feeling of melancholy, almost
natural to all Swedes, which filled her young
soul, gave to her voice an expression which drew
tears from the listeners.' Meyerbeer, who hap-
pened to be at Paris at the time, hearid her, was
delighted, and foretold a brilliant future for the
young singer. She obtained a hearing at the
Opera in 1842, but no engagement mllowed.
Naturally hurt at this, she is said to have deter*
mined never to accept an engagement in Paris ;
and, whether this be true or not. it is certain
that, as late as March 1847, she declined an
engagement at the Acad^nie Royale, for no other
reason than that of ' affairei penonelles;' nor did
she ever appear in Paris a^gain.
Jenny Lmd now went to Berlin, in August i844«
and for a time studied German. In September
she returned to Stockholm, and took part in the
fgtee at the crowning of King Oscar ; but re-
turned to Berlin in October, and obtained an
engagement at the Opera through the influence
of Meyerbeer, who had written for her the
principal r6U in his 'Feldlager in Schlesi^i,'
afterwards remodelled as 'L'Etoile du Nwd.'
She appeared first, December 15, as Norma, and
was welcomed with enthusiasm ; and afterwards
played, with equal success, her part in Meyerbeer's
new opera. In the following April she sang at
Hamburg, Cologne, and Coblentz. Aft^r this tour
she returned again to Stockholm by way of Copen-
hagen, and once more enjoyed a triumphant suc-
cess. At the Gewandhaus, Leipzig, she made her
first appearance Dec. 6, 1845. Engaged soon after
for Vienna, she appeared there AprU 18, 1846.
On May 4, 1847, Jenny Lind made her first
appearance in London, at Her Majesty's Theatre,
in ' Robert.' Moschelee had already met her in
Berlin, and wrote thus (Jan. 10, 18J.5) of her
performance in ' The Camp of Silesia, — ' Jenny
Lind has &irly enchanted me ; she is unique in
her way, ana her song with two concertante
flutes is perhaps the most incredible feat in the
way of bravura singing that can jpoasibly be
heard . . . How lucky I was to find her at
homet What a glorious singer she is, and so
unpretentious withal 1 ' This character, though
true to life, was, however, shamefully belied bv
the management of the London Theatre, both
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UND. '
befora and after her arrival. It Is cunous now
to look back upon the artifices employed, the
Btoriee of broken contracts (this not without
soBie ibundaUon), of long dipIoinatio/Mmrparier^,
special messengers, persuasion, hesitation, and
vacillations, kept up during many months,— all
in Older to excite the interest of the operatic
pubUc. Not a stone was left untamed, not a
trsit of the young singer's character, public or
private, un-explotttf, by which sympathy, admira-
tioQ, or even curiosity, might be aroused (see
Lumley*s ' Beminiscences,* 1847). After appear-
ing as the heroine of a novel (' The Home,' by
luss Bremer), and the darling of the Opera at
Stockholm, she was next described as entrancing
the opera-goers of Berlin, — ^where indeed she was
doubuess a welcome contrast to their ordinary
pnsie datme ; and her praises had been sunff by
the two great German composers, and haa not
lost by translation. But, not content with
lulsome praise founded on these ciroumstanoes,
the paragraphists, inspired of course by those for
whose interest the paragraphs were manufitctured,
and assuredly without her knowledge or sanction,
did not hesitate to speak in the most open way, —
and as if in commendation of her as a singer, and
above other singers, — of BiUe. Lind*s private
virtues, and even of her charities. Singers have
ever been charitable, generous, open-himded and
open-hearted ; to their credit be it recorded :
the exceptions have been few. With iheir private
virtues critics have nought to do ; these should
be sopposed to exist, unless the contrary be
glaring^ apparent. The public was, however,
persistdntly fed with these advertisements and
inrasBed with further rumours of doubts and
even disappointment in the early part of 1847, it
being actually stated that the negodations had
broken down, — all after the engagement had
been signed and sealed !
The interest and excitement of ihe public at
her first appearance was, therefore, extraordinary ;
and no wonder that it was so. Yet her g^reat sing-
ing in the part of ' Alice* disappointed none but
a very few, and those were silenced by a tumul-
tuous majoritv of idolaters. She oerUdnly sang
the music qplendidly, and acted the part irre-
proachably. The scene at the cross in Uie second
act was in itself a complete study, so strongly
ooBtrasted were the emotions she portrayed, —
first .tenor, then childlike faith and confidence, —
while die preserved, throughout* the innocent
manner of Uie peasant girL 'From that first
nionient till the end of tlu^t season, nothing else
was tiiought about, nothing else talked about,
but the new J (ice-— the new Sonnambula — ^the
new Maria in Donizetti*s charming comic opera,
—his best. Pages could be filled by describing
the excesses of m public Since the days when
the worid fought for hours at the pit-door to see
the seventh fvewellof Siddous, nothing had been
seen in the least approaching the scenes at the
entrance of the tiieatre when MUe. Lind sang.
Prices rose to a fabulous height. In shcvi, the
town, sacred and prdfane, went mad about "the
Swedidi nightin^pOe'* ' (Ghodey). Ladies oon-
LIND,
141
stantly sat on the sturs at the Opera, unable to
penetrate further into the house. Her voice,
which then at its very best showed some signs of
early wear, was a soprano of bright, thrilling,
and remarkably sympathetic quality, from D to
D, with another note or two occasionally avail*
able above the high D. The upper part of her
register was rich and brilliant, and superior
both in strength and purity to the lower.
These two portions she managed, however,
to unite in the most skilful way, moderating
the power of her upper notes so as not to out-
shine the lower. She had also a wonderfully
developed 'lengUi of breath,* which enabled her
to perform long and difficult passages with ease,
and to fine down her tones to the softest pianis-
simo, while still maintaining the quality un-
varied. Her execution was very great, her shake
trueand brilliant, her taste in ornament altogether
original, and she usually invented her own ca-
denze. In a song from ' Beatrice di Tenda,* she
had a diromatic cadence ascending to E in alt,
and descending to the note whence it had risen*
which could scarcely be equalled for difficulty
and perfection of execution. The following, sung
by her at the end of * Ah ! non giunge,' was given
to the present writer by an ear-witness : —
In this comparatively simple eadema, the high
D, G, £, though rapidly struck, were not given
in the manner of a shake, but were positively
marteUes, and produced an extraordinary effect.
Another cadence, which, according to Moscheles,
' electrified' them at the C^wandhaus, occurred
three times in one of Chopin's Mazurkas ; —
* What shall I say of Jenny Lind !* he writes
again (1847) : ' I can find no words adequate to
give you any real idea of the impression she has
made. . . . This is no short4ived fit of pubUo
enthusiasm. I wanted to know her off the stage
as well as on; but, as she lives some distance
from me, I asked her in a letter to fix upon
an hour for me to calL Simple and uncere-
monious as she is, she came the next day herself
bringing her answer verbally. So mudi modesty
and so much greatness united are seldom if ever
to be met with; and, althou^^ her intiinate
friend Mendelssohn had given me an insight
into the noble qualities of her character, I was
surprised to find them so apparent.' Again and
again he speaks in the warmest terms of her, and
subsequently of her and her husband together.
Meanwhile MUe. lind maintained the mark
which she had made in * Bobert,' by her import
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142
LIND.
Bonation of the SonnanibuUi, A most effective
character, — 'Lucia/ AdiiM, in <L*£liair/ * La
Figlia del Begimento/ and, perhaps, altogether
her best part> GitUia in Spontini^s 'Yestale.*
In 1848 she returned to Her Majesty's Theatre,
and added to these 'Lucia di Lammermoor* and
<L*£lisir d'Amore/ In 1849 she announced
her intention not to appear again on the stage,
but so far modified this resolution as to sing at
Her Majesty's Theatre in Mozart's 'flauto
Magioo' arnuiged as a oonoerty without acting
(Apidl 15); and still further by re-appearing in
' La Sonnambula' (April 26) and 3 other operas.
Her last appearance 'on any stage' took place
in ' Roberto/ May 18, 1849. Henceforward she
betook herself to the more congenial platform of
the concert-room. How she sang there, many of
the present generation can still remember, — ' the
wild, queer, northern tunes brought here by
her — her careful expression of some of Mozart s
great airs — her mastery over sudi a piece of
execution as the Bird song in Haydn s Crea-
tion— and lastly, the grandeur of inspiration
with which Uie '* Sanctus** of angels in Mendels-
sohn's ** Elijah*' was led by her (the culminating
point in that Oratorio). These are the triumphs
which will stamp her name in the Golden Book
of singers' (Chorley). On the other hand, the
wondrous effect with which she sang a simple
ballad, in the simplest possible manner, can never
be forgotten by wose who ever heard it. After
another season in London, and a visit to Ireland
in 1848, Mile. Lind was engaged by Bamum,
the American speculator, to make a tour of the
United States. She arrived there in 1850, and
remained for nearly two years, during part of
the time unfettered by an engagement with any
impre$ario, but accompanied by Mr., now Sir
Julius, B^edict. The Americans, with their
genius for appreciation and hospitality, welcomed
her everywhere with firantio enthusiasm, and she
made £20,000 in this progress. Here it was, in
Boston, on Feb. 5, 185 a, that she married Mr.
Otto Croldschmidt. [Goldsohmidt.]
Returned to Europe, Mme. Gk>ld8ohmidt now
travelled through Holland, and again visited
Germany. In 1856 she came once more to
England, and, until recent years, appeared fipe-
quently in oratorios and concerts.
It must be recorded that the whole of her
American earnings was devoted to founding and
endowing art-scholarships and other charities in
her native Sweden; while, in England, the
country of her adoption, among other charitiest
she has given a whole hospital to liverpool and
a wing of another to London. The scholarship
founded in memory of her Mend Felix Mendels-
Bohn also benefited laigely by her help and
countenance ; and it may be said with truui that
her generosity and her sympathy are never ap-
pealed to in vain by those who have any just claims
upon them. [MsNDELSseBir Sgholabship.]
Madame Lind-Gk)ldschmidt now lives in Lon-
don, respected imd admired by all who know
her, the mother of a fiunily,. mixing in sodetv,
but in no degree losing her vivid intenst m
LINDLEY.
muno. The Bach Choir, conducted by Mr.
Goldschmidt, which has lately given the Eng-
lish public the first opportunity of hearing in
its entirety the B minor Mass or that composer*
has profited in no small degree by the earefiil
training bestowed on the female portion of the
chorus by this great singer, and the enthusiasm
inspired by her presence among them. [J.M.3
LINDA DI CHAMOUNL Opera in 3 acts ;
words by Rossi, music by Donizetti. Produced
at the Kamthnerthor theatre, Vienna, May 19,
184a; in Paris, Nov. 17, 184a; in London, at
Her Majesty's, June 1843. [G.]
LINDBLAD, Adolf Fbedbiok, bom near
Stockholm in 1804. This Swedish composer
passed several years of his early life in Berlin,
and studied music there under Zelter. In 1835
he returned to Stockholm and there resided,
giving singing lessons and composing until his
death in August 1878.
lindblad has composed but little instrumental
music ; a symphony in C which was given under
Mendelssohn's direction at one of the Gewand-
haus Concerts at Leipzig in November 1839, and
a duo for pianoforte and violin (op. 9) are con-
sidered the best, but they aim so little at effect
and are so fiiU of the peculiar personality of their
author that they can never be popular, and even
his own coundimen are not familiar with them.
It is his vocal compositions which have made
him famous. He is eminently a national com-
poser. He has published a laige^llection of
songs for voice and piano to Swedish words,
which are full of melody, grace, and originality.
Written for the most part in the minor key, they
are tinged with the melancholy which is charao-
teristio of Swedish music. In such short songs
as *The Song of the Daleoarlian maiden^'
* Lament,' ' The wood by the Aaren lake,' etc.,
whose extreme simplicity is of the very essence
of their charm, his success has been most con-
spicuous. In longer and more elaborate songs,
where the simplicity at which he aimed in his
accompaniment has limited the variety of har-
mony and figures, the effect is often marred by
repetition and consequent monotony. Yet even
in this class of work there are many beautiful
exceptions, and ' A day in Spring,' ' A Summer's
day/ and 'Autumn evening,' are specially worthy
of mention.
Jenny Und, who was Lindblad*s pupH, intro-
duced his songs into Germany, and their rapidly
acquired popularity earned for the author the
title of * ^e Schubert of the North.' His only
opera, 'Frondorome,' is scarcely known anywhere
but several of his vocal duets, trios, and quartets
have a considerable reputation in Sweden.
An analysis of lindblad's Symphony will be
found in the Allg. Mus. Zeitung for Oct. 33, 1839
(comp. coL 937 of the same volume). There is a
pleasant reference to him, honourable to both
parties alike, in Mendelssohn's letter of Deo. aS,
1833. [A.H.W.]
LINDLEY, RoBSBTi, bom at Rotherham
March 4, 1776^ showed so- early a predilectioii
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UNDLEY.
lor mneic that when he was about 5 yean of
ago, his father, an amateur performer, commenced
teaching him the violin, amd at 9 years of age,
the violoncello also. He continued to practise
the latter until he was 16, when Cervetto, hear-
ing him play, encouraged him and undertook his
gratuitoos instruction. He quitted Yorkshire
and obtained an engagement at the Brighton
theatre. In 1 794 he succeeded Sperati as prin-
cipal violoncello at the Opera and all the princi-
pal concerts, and retained undisputed possession
of that podtion until his retirement in 1851.
Iindley*8 tone was remarkable for its purity,
richness^ mellowness and volume, and in tms
Tesped he has probably never been equalled.
His technique, for that date, was remarkable,
and his accompaniment of recitative was perfec-
tion. He composed several concertos and other
I works for his instrument, but his composition was
by no means equal to his execution. He died
Jane 13, 1855. His daughter married John
Bsraett the composer.
His son, WiLLiAH, bora 1802, was also a
violonoellist. He was a pupil of his father and
I firat appeared in public in 1817 and soon took a
position in all tne best orchestras. He gave
great promise of future excellenoe, but was un-
able to achieve any^prominence owing to extreme
nervousness. He cUed at Manchester, Aug. la,
1869. [W.H.H.]
MNDPAINTNEE, Pkpbb Joseph vow, bom
at Coblenz Deo. 8, 1 791, studied the violin, piano^
I and counterpoint at Augsburg, and subsequently
appears to have received some instruodon at
Munich £rom Winter. In 181 3 he accepted the
post of Musik-directar at the Isarthor theatre in
If onidi, and whilst so engaged completed his
musical studies under Jos. Gratz, an excellent
oontn^untist. In 1819 he was appointed Kapell-
} meister to the Boyal Band at Stuttgart, and held
that post until his death, which took place Aug.
91, 1856, during a summer holiday at Nonnen-
horn, on the Lake of Constance.. He was buried
at Wasserburg. He died full of honours, a
member of aihuost every nrasical institution of
ihe Continent, and the. recipient of gifts from
mai^ crowned heads — amongst others a medal
from Queen Victoria^ in 184S, for the dedication
of his oratorio of Abraham.
By quiet and persistent labour he raised his
band to the lev^ of the best in Grermany, and
acquired a very high reputation. ' lindpaintner,*
says Mendelssohn, describing a visit to Stuttgart
in 1831, 'is in my belief the best conductor in
Gennany ; it is as if he played the whole orches-
tra with his baton alone ; and he is very Indus*
triooB.' Of the many professional engagements
offered him in other towns and foreign oountries,
' he accepted but one, and that, in 1853, three
ysuB before his death, was to conduct the New
Philhannonic Concerts in London, at which his
cantata The \^dow of Nain, his overtures to
Faurt and the Vampyre, and others of his oom-
positiocis were given with success, including the
■ong of The Standard-bearer, at that time so
popular, sung by Pisohdc He wrote a8 operat,
LINLEY.
143
3 ballets, 5 melodramas and oratorios, several
cantatas, 6 masses, a Stabat lidater, and above 50
songs with pianoforte accompaniment. To these
were added symphonies, overtures, concertos, fan-
tasias, trios and quartets for different instruments.
He rescored Judas Maccabseus, no doubt cleverly,
and at the time it was said, well. Some of his
symphonies, his operas 'DerVampyr* and 'Lich-
tenstein,* his ballet ' Joko,* the overture to which
is still heard at concerts, his music to Goethe's
' Faust * and Sdiiller 's * Song of the Bell,' have been
pronounced to be among the best of his works.
And two of his songs^ 'The Standard-bearer* and
'Boland,' created at the time a veritable furore.
Though wanting in depth and originality Lind-
paintner's compositions please by their clearness
and brilliancy, melody and well-developed form ;
and the hand of a clever and practised musician
is everywhero visible in them. [A. H.W.]
LINLEY, Fbakois, bom 1774 at Doncaster,
blind from- his birth, studied music under Dr.
Miller, and became an able organist. He wfts
chosen organist of St. James's Chapel, Ponton-
ville, and soon afterwards married a blind lady
of considerable fortune. He purohased the
business of Bland, the musicseller in Holbom,
but his affairs becoming embarrassed, his wife
parted from him and he went to America, where
his playing and compositions were much admired.
He returned to Englemd in 1 799 and died in Oct.
1800. His works consist of songs, pianoforte
and organ pieces, flute solos and duets, and an
* Oigan Tutor.* His greatest amusement was to
explore diurchyards and read the inscriptions on
the tombstones by the sense of touch. [W.H. H.]
LINLEY, Thomas, bom about 1735 at Wells,
Somerset, commenced the study of music under
Thomas Chilcot, organist of Bath Abbey church,
and completed his education under Paradies. He
established himself as a singing master at Bath,
and for many years carried on the concerts there
with great success. On the retirement of John
Christopher Smith in 177^. Linley joined Stanley
in the management of the oratorios at Drury
Lane, and on the death of Stanley in 1 786 con-
tinued them in partnership with ur, Arnold, to.
1775, in conjunction wi^ his eldest son, Thomas,
he composed and compiled the music for 'The
Duenna,' by his son-in-law, Sheridan, which had
tixe then unparalleled run of 75 nights in its first
season. In 1 776 he purchased part of Garrick's
share in Drury Lane, removed to London and un-
diertook the management of the music of the
theatre, for which he composed several pieces of
merit. Linley died at his house in Soutnampton
Street, Covent Garden, Nov. 19, 1795, and was
buried in Wells CathedraL His dramatic pieces
were 'The Duenna,* 1775; 'Selima and Azor*
(chiefly from Gr^try, but containing the charming
original melody, 'No flower that blows*), 1776 ;
'The Camp,' 1778; 'The Carnival of Venice,'
'The Gentle Shepherd,* and 'Ebbinson Crusoe,'
1781; 'The Triumph of Mirth,' 1783; 'The
Spanish Rivals,' 1784 ; 'The Strangers at home,'
and 'Bichard Coeur do Uon' (fromGr^try), 1 786 ;
and ^Love in the East/ 1788; besides the song
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144
LINLET.
in 'The School for Scandal/ 1777, and aocom-
panimenti to the songs in * The Beggar's Opera.*
He also set such portions of Sheridan's Monody
on the Death of Garrick, 1 779, as were intended to
be sung. ' Six Elegies' for 3 voices, composed at
Bath (much commended by Bumey), and * Twelve
Ballads' were published in his lifetime. The
posthumous worts of himself and his son, Thomas,
which appeared a few years after his death, in a
vols., consist of songs, cantatas, madrigals, and
elegies, including the lovely 5-part madrigal by
him, ' Let me, careless,' one of ike most graceful
productions of its kind. As an English composer
Lonley takes high rank.
Eliza Ann, his eldest daughter, * The Maid of
Bath,' bom 1754, received her musical education
from her fiither, and appeared at an eariy age at
the Bath oonoerts as a soprano singer with great
success. In 1770 she simg at the oratorios in
London and at Worcester Festival, and rose high
in public favour. Li 1771 she sang at Hereford
Festival, and in 1773 at Gloucester. In Mardi,
1773, she became, under somewhat n>mantic cir-
cumstances, the wife of Richard Brinsley Sheridan,
and, after fulfilling engagements at Woroestw
Festival and at Oxford, contracted before her
marriage, she retired at the zenith of her popu-
larity. Her voice was of extensive compass, and
she sang with equal excellence in both the sus-
tidned and florid styles. She died of consumpti<m
at Bristol in 179a.
Maby, his second daughter and pupil, also a
favourite singer, sang with her sister at the
oratorios, festivals, etc., and for a few years after-
wards, untU her marriage with Richard Tiokell,
commissioner of stamps. She died in July 1 787.
Maria, his third daughter, was also a concert
and oratorio singer. Shedied at Bath Sept. 5, 1 784,
at an early age. Shortly before her death she
raised herself in bed, and with momentary anima-
tion sang part of Handel's air ' I know that my
Redeemer liveth,' and then, exhausted with the
effort, sank down and soon afterwards expired.
Thomas, his eldest son, bom at Bath m 1756,
displayed at an early age extraordinary skill on
the violin, and at 8 years old perfcumed a ccm-
certo in public. After studying with his father
he was placed under Dr. Bcyoe. He then went
to Florence and took lessons on the violin from
Kardini, and whilst there became acquainted
with Mozart, then about his own age, and a
warm attachment sprang up between them ; when
they parted they were each bathed in tears, and
Mozart often afterwards spoke of linley wiUi the
greatest affection. On returning to Eogland he
became leader and solo -player at his father's
concerts at Bath, and subsequentlv at the oratorios
eta at Drury Lane. In 1773 be composed an
anthem with orchestra ('Let God arise') for
Worcester Festival. In 1775 he assisted his
father in * The Duenna,' by writing the overture,
three or four airs, a duet and a trio. He subse-
quently composed a chorus and two songs for in-
t^uction into ' The Tempest.' In 1 776 he pro-
duced 'An Ode on the Witches and Fairies of
Shakspere.' He also composed a short oratorio.
LIPINSKL
*The Song of Moses,' performed at Drufy Laae,
and added accompaniments for wind instruments
to the music in ' Macbeth.' He was unfortunately
drowned, through the upsetting of a boat, whilst
on a visit at the Duke of Ancaster's, Grimsthorpe,
Lincolnshire, Aug. 7, 1778. The greater part of
his miscellaneous compositions are contained in
the a vols, of posthumous works above mentioned.
Another son. Osias Thurstow, bom 1765, was
also instmcted in music by the father. He en-
tered the Church and obtained a living, which
he resigned on being appointed. May 5, 18 16,
a junior fellow and cHrganist of Dulwich CoU^ge,
where he died March, 1831.
William, his youngest son, bom about 1767
and educated at St. Paul's and Harrow, learned
music firom his father and Abel. Mr. Fox pro-
cured for him a writership at Madras, and hm
was subsequently paymastw at Yellore and sub-
treasurer at Fort St. Greoige. He returned from
India with a competence, and devoted his atten-
tion to literature aAi music, composed many
glees, published a set of songs, two sets of canzo-
nets, and many detached pieces, edited *Shak-
spore's Dramatic Songs/ a vols. fol. 1815-16, and
wrote two comic operas, two novels, and several
pieces of poetry. He died in 1835. [W.H.H.]
LIPINSKI^ Kabl Joskph, eminent violinist
of the modem school, bom Oct. 30 (or ac-
cording to a family tradition Nov. 4), 1790, at
Radzyn in Poland, son of a land-agent and
amateur violinist, who taught him the elementi
of fingering. Having outgrown this instmction
he for a time took up the cello, on which he ad*
vanced sufficiently to play Romberg's concertos.
He soon however returned to the violin, and
in 1810 became first Concertmeister, and then
Gf4>ellmeister, of the theatre at heKnbesrg, Not
being able to play the piano, he used to lead the
rehearsals with his vioUn, and thus acquired
that skill in part playing which was one of hia
great characteristics as a virtuoso. In 1814 he
resigned his poet, and gave himself up to private
study. In 181 7 he went to Italy, chiefly in the
hope of hearing Paganini. They met in Milan, and
Paganini took a great fimcy to him, played with him
daily, and even performed in public with him at
two concerts (April 17 and 30, 181 8), a oiroum-
stanoe which greatly increased Lipinski's reputa-
tion. Towards the dose of the year Lipinski re-
turned to Germany, but soon went back to Italy,
attracted by the £une of an aged pupil of Tartini s.
Dr. Mazzurana. Dissatisfied with Lipinski ■
rendering of one of Tartini's sonatas, but unable
on account of his great age (90) to correct him
by playing it hinuel^ A^kzzurana gave him a
poem, which he had written to explain tiie
master's intentions. With this aid Lipinski
mastered the sonata, and in consequence endea-
voured for the future to embody some poetical
idea in his playing-^-the secret of his own suc-
cess, and of tliat of many others who imitated
him in this respect. In i8a9 Paganini and li-
pinski met again in Warsaw, but unfortunately
a rivalry was excited between them which de-
■tioyed the old friendflhip. In 1835 and 36, in
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UHKSKI.
the coane of th lengthened muucal townUt, he
viiited Leipric, then becoming the scene of much
moskal actiyity owing to Mendelnohn*! settle-
ment there ; and there he made the acquaint-
ttce of Schumann, which resulted in the dedi-
cfttion to him of tiie 'Gameval* (op. 9) which
was composed in. 1834. In 1836 he visited
England and played his military concerto at the
Philhirmonic Ckmcert of April 35. In 1839 Lipin-
ski became Conoertmeister at Ih^sden, where he
entirelj reorganised the royal chapel, thus doing
very much the same service to Dresden that
HeUmesberger subsequently did to Vienna. He
retired wi£ a pension in 1861, and died on
December 16, of sudden paralysis of the lungs.
At Urlow, his country house near Lemberg.
His compositions (now forgotten) are numerous,
ind his oonoertoe, fiuatasias, and variations, are
valuable contributions to violin music. One of the
best known was the ' Military Concerto, * which for
yean was muoh played and was the object of the
amlxtion of many a student of the vioUn. It is
eren now occasionally heard in public. In con-
jtmctioD with Zalewski, the Polish poet, he edited
so interesting collection of Galidan ' Volkslieder '
with pianoforte accompaniments. [P*^*]
The most promment qualities of lipuski's
playing were a remarkably broad and powerful
tone^ which he ascribed to his early studies on
the oeQo; perfect intonation in double stops,
octaves, etc.; and a warm enthusiastic indivi-
duality. Bui the action of his right arm and
wrist were somewhat heavy. He was an enthu-
niBtie musician, and especially in his later years
played Beethoven*s great quartets and Bach*s
■doB in preference to everything else. [P. D.]
IISBETH. The title of the French version
of Mendel8Bohn*8 'Heimkehr ans der Fremde* ; <
tnuulated hj J. Barbier, and produced at the
Theatre Lyrique June 9, 1865. [G.]
LISCHEN ET FRITZCHEN. Am operetta
in I act ; words by Paul Dubois, music by Offen- 1
badL Produced at Ems ; and reproduced at the
Bcaffes-Parisiena, Paris, Jan. 5, 1B64 ; in London
(French), at St. James's, June a, 1868. [G.]
LISLET', JoHV, oontributeA a six-part mad-
rigal—<Faire Citharea presents hir doves* — to
'TheTriumphes of OriMia,* 1601, but no other
composition by him has survived, nor is anything
known of his biography. [W. H. H.]
USZT, Fbanz, is one of the favourites of
fertme^ and his success is perhaps unequalled,
eotainly unsurpassed in the history of Art. At
his first public appearance at Tienni^ Jan. i^
1823, liui geoioB was aeknowledged with an
e&thusiaBm in which the whole musical republic,
fiom Beethoven down to the obscurest dilettante,
joined unanimously. His concert tours were so
many triumphal progresses through a country
wfaieh extended from Madrid to St. Petersburg,
asd in whidi he was acknowledged as the king
of pianists ; and the same sudbess accompanied all
he undertook in life. When, tired of the shaliow
^une of the virtuoso, he devoted himself to com-
positien, he had, it is trae» at lint to eaoeuntet
VOL.II.
tiszr:
lU
the usual obstacles of popular in^fferenee and
professional ill-wiU. But these were soon over«
come by his energy, and Lisst is at present
living to see his works admired by many and
ignorad by none. As an orcheetcal conductor
idso he added laurels te his wreath.
Franz Liszt was V>m Oct. S3, 181 1, at
Raiding, in Hungary, the son of Adam liszt, an
official in the imperial service, and a musical
amateur of sufficient attainment to instruct hii
son in the rudiments of pianoforte-playing. At
the age of ^ young liszt made his first appear-
ance in public at Oedenburg with such success
that several Hungarian noblemen guaranteed
him sufficient means to continue his studies fut
six years. For that purpose he went to Vienna,
and took lessons from Czemy on the pianoforte
and from Salieri and Randhartinger in com-
position. The latter introduced the lad to his
friend Fcanz Schubert His first appearance in
print was probably in a -variation (the a4th) on
a waltz of Diabelli's, one of co contributed bv
the most eminent artists of the day, for which
Beethoven, when asked for a single variation,
wrote thirty-three (op. lao). The collection,
entitled Vaterl&ndiBche Kttnstler-Verein, was
published in June 1813. In tiie same year he
proceeded to Paris, where it was hoped that
his rapidly growing reputaition would gain him
admission at the Conservatoire in spite of his
foreign origin. ButOherubini refused to make
an exception in his favour, and he continued his
studies under ReScha and Paer. Shortly after-
wards be also made his first serious attempt at
composition, and an operetta in one act, called
'Don Saaobe,* was produced at the AoMl^mie
Royale, Get. 17, 1 8 25, and well received. Artistic
tours to Switzerland and England, accompanied
by brilliant success, occupy the period till the
veaB. 1827, when liszt lost hia father and wal
L
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JilSZT.
thrown on hUs own resouroes to provide for him*
«elf and his mother. During his stav in Paris,
where he settled for some years, he became ao-
qoainted with the leaders of French literature,
Victor Hugo, Lamartine and Georse Sand, the
influence of whose works may be discovered in
his compositions. For a time also he became
an adherent of Saint-Simon, but soon reverted
to the Catholic religion, to which, as an artiBt
imd as a man, he has since adhered devoutly.
In 1834 he beoune acquainted with the Countess
J)*Agoult, better known by her literary name
of Danid Stem, who for a long time remained
attached to him and by whom he had three chil-
dren. Two of these, a son and a daughter, the
wife of M. Ollivier the French statesman, are
dead. The third, Cosima, is the wife of Richard
Wagner. The public ooncerts which Liszt gave
during ihe latter part of his stay in Paris placed
his dum to the first rank amongst pianists on
A firm basis, and at last he was induced, much
against his will, to adopt the career of a virtuoso
proper. The interval from 1839 to 1847 Liszt
spent in travelling almost incessantly firom one
country to another, being everywhere received
with an enthusiasm unequalled in the annals of
Art. In Endand he played at the Philharmonic
Concerts of May 21, 1837 (Concerto, Hummel),
May II, 1840 (Conoertsttlck, Weber), and June
8, 1840 (Kreutzer-sonata). Here alone his recep-
tion seems to have been less wann than was ex-
pected, and Liszt, with his usual generosity, at
once undertook to bear the loss that might have
fallen on his agent. Of this generosity numerous
instances might be cited. The charitable pur-
poses to which laszt^B genius has been made
subservient are legion, and in this respect as
well as in that of technical perfection he is
unrivalled amongst virtuosL The disaster
caused at Pesth by the inundation of the
Danube (1837) was considerably alleviated by
the princely sum — ^the result of several ooncerts
—contributed by this artist; and when two
Tears later a considerable sum had been col-
lected for a statue to be erected to him at Pesth,
he insisted upon the money being g^ven to a
struggling youi^^ sculptor, whom he moreover
assisted from his private means. The poor of
KaidiDg also had cause to remember the visit
paid b^ Lidzt to his native village about the
same tmie. It is well known that Beethoven's
monument at Bonn owed its existence, or at
least its speedy completion, to Lisst*s liberality.
When the subscriptions for the purpose began
to fail, Liszt offerni to pay the biUanoe required
from his own pocket, provided only that the
choice of the sculptor should be left to him.
From the beginning of the forties dates Liszt's
more intimate connection with Weimar, where
in 1849 he settled for the space of i a years.
This staywas to be fruitful in more than one
sense. When he dosed his career as a virtuoso,
and accepted a permanent engagement as con-
ductor of the Court Theatre at Weimar, he did
•o with the distinct purpose of becoming the
ndvocate of the rising musical generation^ bj
LISZT.
the perfonnanoe of such works as were written,
regsjrdless of immediate suooess, and thereforo
hi^ little chance of seeing the light of the stage.
At short intervals eleven opema of living com-
posers were either performed for the first time
or revived on the Weimar stage. Amongst
these may be counted such works as ZohenffHn,
Tannh&uaer, and The FlyinglhUehman of Wag*
ner, Beiwenuto Cellini by Berlioz, Schumann's
GenovevOt and music to Byron's ^Manfred.'
Schubert's Alfonso and EslreUa was also res-
cued from oblivion by Liszt's exerticos. For
a time it seemed as if this small provincial
city were once more to be the artistic centre
of Grennany, as it had been in the daja of
Goethe, Sdiiller and Herder. From all sides
musicians and amateurs flocked to Weimar, to
witness the astonishing feats to which a nnall
but excellent community of singers and instara-
mentalists were inspired by the genius of th^
leader. In this vray was mrmed the nuoleos of
a group of young and enthusiastic musicians,
who, whatever may be thought of thefr aims and
achievements, were and are at any rate insfured
b^ perfect devotion to music and its poetical
amis. It was, indeed, at these Weimar gatho^
inffs that the musicians who now form the so-
called School of the Future, till then unknown
to each other and divided locally and mentally,
came first to a dear understuiding of their
powers and aspirations. How much the personal
fosdnation of Liszt contributed to this desired
eflSBct need not be said. Amongst the numerous
pupils on the pianoforte, to whom he at the same
period opened the invaluable treasure of his
teohnical experience, may be mentioned Hans
yon Bnlow, the worthy disdple of such a maato*.
But, in a still higher sense, the soil of
Weimar, with its great traditions, was to prove
a fidd of richest harvest. When, as earij as
1842, Liszt undertook the direction of a oertun
number of ooncerts every year at Weimar, his
friend Duveiger wrote 'Cette place, qui oblige
Liszt k sojourner trois mob de I'ann^e 2k Weimar,
ddt marquer peut-6tre pour lui la transitioii de
sa carri^ de virtuose 2k oelle de oomponteor.*
This presage has been verified by a number of
oompodtions which, whatever may be the final 1
verdict on thefr merits, have at any rate done
much to duddate some of the most important
questions in Art. From these works of his
mature years his eariy oompodtions, mostly for
the pianoforte, ought to be distinguished. In
the latter Liszt the virtuoso predominates over
Liszt the composer. Not, for instance^ that his
* transcriptions' of operatic mudo are without
superior merits^ Every one of them shows the
refined muddan, and for the development of
pianoforte technique, eqiedally in rendering or-
chestral effects, they are of the greatest injpQct-
anoe. They also tend to prove liszt's cathoUd^
of taste; for all sdiools are equally represented in
the list, and a selection from Wagner's 'Lohen-
grin ' is found dde by dde with U^ Dead March
from Donizetti's ' Don Sebastian.' To point out
even tiie mos^ important vnong these sdections
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LISZT.
tad amngements would far ezoeed the limits of
this notice. More important are the original
pieces for the pianoforte also belonging to this
eariier epoch and collected nnder siidi nafnes as
'Consolations* and <Ann^ de p^erinage,' but
even in these, charming and interesting Si nuuDiy
req>eot8 as they are, it would be difficult to
discover the geims of Liszt's latw productiveness.
The stage of preparation and imitation through
idiich i3l young composers have to go, Liszt
passed at uie piano and not at the desk. This
is well pointed out in Wagner's pamphlet on the
Symphonic Poems : —
'He who has had frequent opportunities^'
writes Wagner, ' particularly in a friendly oirde^
of hearing Idszt play — ^for instance, Beethoven —
most have understood that this was not mere/
reproduction, but real production. The actual
pomt of division between these two things is not
so easQy determined as most people believe, but
80 much I have ascertained beyond a doubty
that» in order to reproduce Beethoven, one must
be able to produce with him. It would be im-
posnble to make this understood by those who
have, in all their life, heard nothing but the
ordinaiy pefformances and renderings by vir-
tuosi cif Beethoven's works. Into the growtii
and essence of such renderings I have, in the
coarse of time, gained so sad an insight, that I
prefer not to offend anvbody by expressiag
Jielf more clearly. I ask, on the other band,
who have heard, for instance, Beethoven's
op. io6 or op. Ill (the two great sonatas in
Bb and C) played by Liszt in a friendly circle,
what they previously knew of those creations,
and what they learned of them on those occa-
sions! If this was reproduction, tiien surely it
was worth a great deal more than all the sonatas
rqsodudng Beethoven which are ^ produced ** by
i. oor pianoforte composers in imitation of those
imperfectly comprehended works. It was simplyf
the peculiar mode of Liszt's development to do
at the piano what others achieve with pen and
ink ; aiul who can deny that even the greatest
and most original master, in his first period, does
nothing but reproduce t It ought to be added
that during this reproductive epoch, the work
even of the greatest genius never has the value
and importance of the master works which it
leproduces, its own value and importance being
attained only by the manifestatiOB of distinct
originality. It fculows that Liszt's activity during
his first and reproductive period surpasses eivery-
thing done by others under parallel circumstances.
For he placed the value and importance of the
works of his predecessors in the fullest light* and
thus raised himself almost to the same height
with the composers he reproduced.'
These remarks at the same time will to a
Isige extent account for the unique place which
liszt holds amongst modem representatives of
his instrument, and it will be unnecessary to say
anything of the phenomenal teohaoque whid^
enabled him to oonoentrate his whole mincl on
the intentions of the composer.
Ttt weeks of Liait's mature periocl may be
ZISZT.
147
most conveniently dassed under four lieadings.
First : works for the pianoforte with and without
orchestral accompaniments. The two Conoertos
in £b and A, and the fifteen Hungarian Rhapeo*
dies are the most important works of this group,
the latter especially illustrating ihe strongly
pronounced national element in liSzt. The repre-
sentative works of the second or orchestral section
of Liszt's works are the Faust Symphony in
three tableaux, the Dante Symphony, and the
twelve ' Symphonic Poems.' Of the latter a full
list is given on p. 149 b. It is in these Symphonic
Poems that Liszt's mastery over the orchestra as
well as his daims to oiiginaUWarediiefly shown*
It is true that the idea of 'Programme-Music,'
such as we find it illustrated here, had been anti-
cipated by Berlioz. Another important feature,
the so-called ' leading-motive' (i. e. a theme repre-
sentative of a character or idea, and therefore
recurring- whenever that character or that idea
comes into jnoininent action), liszt has adopted
from Wagner. [Leit-motif.] At tiie same time
these id^ appear in his music in a consider-
ably modified form. Speaking, for instance, of
Programme-Music, it is at once apparent that
the significance of that term is understood in ft
very different sense by Berlioz and by IAbzL
Beriios, like a true Frenchman, is thinkmor of a
distinct story or dramatio situation, of which he
takes care to inform the reader by means of a
commentary ; Liszt, on theodntcacy, emphasizes
chiefly the pictorial and symbolic bearings of
his theme, and in the first-nasMied respect espe-
cially is perhaps unsurpassed bv modern sjin-
phonists. Even where an event has become the
motive of his symphonic poem, it is always from
a single feature of a more or less musically -realis-
able nature that he takes his suggestion, and
from this he proceeds to the deeper significance
of hia subject, without much regiurd for the inci-
dents of the story. It is for this reason tihat, for
example, in his Mazeppa he has chosen Victor
Hugos somewhat pompous production as the
groundwork of his music, in preference to Biron's
more celebrated and more beautiful poem. Byron
simply tells the story of Mazeppa s danger and
rescue. In Victor Hugo the Polish youth,
tied to
* A Tartar of the Ukraine breed
Who looked m thoufl^ the speed of thought
Was in hlB limbs,'
has become the representative of man ' Ud vivant
$ur to eroup^fataUj G^ie, ardent cowriier' This
symbolic meaning, for-fetohed though it may ap-
pear in the poem, isof incalculable advantage to the
musician. It gives sssthetic dignity to £e wild,
rattling triplets which imitate we horse's gallop,
and imparts a higher significance to the triumphal
march which doses the piece. For as Mazeppa
became Hetman of the Cossacks, even so is
man gifted with genius destined for ultimate
triumph:
* Ghaqae pat que ta ikis semble oreuser ta tombe,
Xhifln le temps arrive • . . U court, il tombe,
£t se relive loL'
A more elevated subject than the struggle and
L2
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USZT.
final viotory of gmixm an artist oaimot well deeiie,
and no famt can be found wHh Liazt, pixrcided
always that the introduction of uctorial and
peetic elements into music is thought to be peiv
missible. Neither can the melodic means em-
]dojed by him In rendering this subject be
objected ta In the opening allegro agitato
desoriptiye of Mazeppa'j ride, etrtrng accents and
rapid rhythms naturally pveTail ; but, together
wkh this merely external matter, there occurs an
impressive theme (first announced by the basses
and trombones), evidently representative o£ the
hero himself, and for that reason repeated again
and again throughout the piece. The second
section, OMdante, which brings welcome rest after
the breathless huny of the ailegm, is in its turn
l«dieved by a brilhant march, with an original
Cossack tune by way of trio, tiie abstract idea of
triumphant genius being thus ingeniously iden-
tified with Maseppa's success among 'Us tribus
def Ukraine.* From these remarics Liszt's method,
Applied with slight modification in all his sym*
pnonic poems, is sufficiently clear ; but the difficult
problem remains to be solved. How can these
philosophic and pictorial idejus beccune the nucleus
4>f a new musical form to supply the place of the
old symphonic movement? Wagner asks the
question * whether it is not more noble and more
liberating for music to adopt its fimn from the
conception of the Orpheus or Prometheus motive
than from the dance or march ?* but he forgets
that dance and march have a distinct and tangible
relation to musical form, which neither Prome-
theus and Orpheus, nor indeed any other character
or abstract idetk, possess. The solution of this
problem must be left to a futuro time, when it
will also be possible to determine the permanent
position of lisst's symphonic works in Uie hisUay
of Art.
The legend of St. Elizabeth^ a kind of oratorio,
fiill of great beauty, but sadly weighed down by
a tedious librotto, leads the way to the third
flection — the Sacred compositions. Here the ^an
Mcu8, the Misaa Chwralii, the Mass for small
Toioes, and the oratorio Chridu$ are the chief
works. The 15th Psalm, for tenor, chorus, and
OTchestr%* may alro be mentioned. The accent-
uation of the subjective or personal element^
combined as far as possible with a deep roverence
for the old forms of church musii;, is the key-
note of Liszt s sacred compositions.
yWe finally come to a fourth division not
KmtuBrU} sufficiently ^prooiated by Liszt*s critics
jlh^\m Songs. It is hero perhaps that his in-
tensity of foeHpg, embodied in melody pure and
simple, finds its most perfect expression. Such
nettings as those of Heine's *Du hist wie eine
Blume,* OF Bedwitz^s ' £s muss ein wunderbares
aein' aro conceiired in the true spirit of the
Yolkslied. At other tim^s a greater liberty in
ithe rhythmical phrasing of the music is warranted
by the metro of the poem itself, a^ for instance,
in Goethe's wonderful night song, 'Ueber alien
\ Gipfeln ist BuhV the heavenly calm of which
liszt has rendered by his wonderful haimonies
* PwioniMd «IMi; BmIm's Miuul eoooNt In urn.
JJ8ZT.
In a nUmnw which alone would securo him a
place amongst the great masters of German sonff.
Particularly, the modulation from 6 major back
into the original £ major at the dose of the
piece is of surprising beauty. Less happy is the
dramatic way in wUch such ballads as Heine's
<Loreley' and Goethe's 'Konig in Thule' are
treated. Hero the melody is sacrificed to the
declamatory element, and tiiat declamation, espe^
dally in the last-named song, is not always
faultless. Victor Hugo's ' Comment disaient-ils *
is one of the most graceful songs amongst Liszt's
worics, and in musical Uteraturo senertJly.
The remaining foots of lasz^s lifo may be
summed up in a few words. In 1859 he left his
official position at the Opera in Weimar owing
to the captious opposition piade to the productioD.
of Cornelius's ' Barber of Bagdad,' at the Weimar
theatre. Since that time 1^ has been living at
intervals at Bome, Pesth, and Weimar, always
surrounded by a cirde of pupiU and admirers,
and always working for music and musicians in
the iinftelfish and truly catholic spirit char^kcter-
istic of Ms whole lifo. How much Liszt can be
to a i^an and an artist is shown by what per-
haps is the most important episode even in his
interesting career — ^ms friendship with Wagn^.
The latter's doquent words will give a better
idea of Liszt's personal charactw than any less
intimate friend could attempt to do.
'I met liazt,* writes Wagner, 'for the first
time during my earliest stay in Paris, at a
period when I had renounced the hope, nay,
even the wish, of a Paris reputation, and, in-
deed, was in. a state of internal revdt against
the artistic life which I found there. At our
meeting he struck me as the most perfect contrast
to my own bdng and situation. In this world,
into which it had been my desire to fly from my
narrow ciroumstanoes, Liszt had grown up, frtnoa
his earliest age, so as to be the object of general
love and acUniration, at a time when I was
repuked l^ general coldness and want of sym-
pathy. . . . Li consequence I looked upon him with
suspidon. I had no opportunity of disclosing
my being and working to him, and, therefore, the
reception I met with on his part was altogether
of a superficial kind, as was indeed natural
in a man to whom every day the most divergent
impressions claimed access. But I was not in
a mood to look with unprejudioed eyes for the
natural cause of his behaviour, which, though
friendly and obliging in itsd^ could not but
wound me in the Uien state of my mind. I never
repeated my first call on Liszt, and without
knowing or even wishing to know him, I vraa
prone to look upon him as strange and adverse
to my nature. My repeated expression of this
feding was afterwards told to lum, just at the
time when my 'Bienzi' at Dresden attracted
general attention. He was surprised to find
himself luiBunderstood with such vidence by
a man whom he had soarcdy known, and whose
acquaintance now seemed not without value to
him. I am still moved when I rranember th^
repeated and eager attempts he made to chagage
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LISZT.
ihy opinion of him, even before he knew any |
of my works. He acted not ^m any artistic
sympathy, but led by the purely human wish of
discontinuing a casual disharmony between him-
self and another being ; perhaps he also felt an
infinitely tender misgiving of having really hurt
me unconsciously. He who knows the selfish-
ness and terrible insensibility of our social life,
and especially of the relations of modem
artists to each other, cannot but be struck
with wonder, nay, delight, by the treatment I
experienced firom this extraordinazy man. ... At
Weimar I saw him for the last time, when I was
resting for a few days in Thuringia, uncertain
whether the threatening prosecution would com-
pel me to continue my flight firom C^ermany.
llie very day when my personal danger became
a certainty, I saw Liszt conducting a rehearsal
of my ' Xannhauser,* and was astonished at
recognising my second self in his achievement.
What I had felt in inventing this music he felt
in performing it : what I wanted to express in
writing it down, he expressed in making it sound.
Strange to say, through the love of Uiis rarest
firiend, I gained, at the moment of becoming
homelees, a real home for my art, which I had
hitherto longed for and sought for always in the
wrong place. ... At the end of my last stay at
Paris, when ill, miserable, and despairing, I sat
broo<Ung over my £ftte, my eye fell on the score of
my " Lohengrin/* which I had totally forgotten.
Suddenly I felt something like compassion that
this music should never sound firom oJBT the death-
pale paper. Two words I wrote to Liszt : his
answer was, the news that preparations for the
performance were being made on the largest scale
that the limited means of Weimar would permit..
Eveiythinff that men and droumstances could do,
was done, m order to make the work understood.
. . . Errors and misconceptions impeded the de-
tired success. What was to be done to supply
what was wanted, so as to further the true un-
derstanding on all sides, and with it the ultimate
success of the work ? Liszt saw it at once, and
did it. He gave to the public his own im-
pression of the work in a manner the convincing
eloquence and overpowering efficacy of which
lemain unequalled. Success was his reward, and
with this success he now approaches me, saying :
** Bdidd we have come so far, now create us a
new work, that we may go still further.** *
In addition to the commentaries on Wagner^s
works just referred to, Liszt has also written
numerous detached articles and pamphlets, those
on Bobert Franz, Chopin, and tne music of the
Gipsies, being the most important. It ought to
be added that the appreciation of Liszt's music
in tins country is almost entirely due to the un-
ceasmg efforts of his pupil, Mr. Walter Bache,
at wlu)ee annual concerts many of his most
important works have been produced. Others,
ludi as *Mazeppa' and the 'Battle of the
Huns,' were first heard in England at the Crystal
Palace.
The following is a catalogue of Liszt*s works,
as eomplete as it has been possible to make it.
MSZT.
149
It is compiled firom the recent edition of the
thematic catalogue (Breitkopf & Hartel, No.
'4>373)> published lists, and other available
sources.
L OBCEESTBAL W0BK8.
L Oeioimai. iia 'GMdesmoiIgKiir': Bumo-
1. Snnpbonto ga Dante's DlTinft rmka for oreh. *oU. and ehoruk
ComiiMdU. oreh. and foMte Seoreuulpvta: alio forP.F.fi
ehonu: dedrto WagMT. Lin- •nd4hand«. Schubertlu
femo; 9L Purgmtorto; a Maignl-
float. Soore and parta. BrAB.1
Arr.forSPJi.
a Bine Vaust-STupbonle to dni
CharakterbndMn(naeh OoaCbeX
•reh. and malecboraa: ded. to
BerUot. LFauM; Sr QreCchen
(also for P.F. 9 hands); & Me-
phlstopbeles. Score snd parta;
also for 8P.FS. Sehuberth.
&• Zwd Bytooden aus Lenaa's
Faust. 1. Dtt- nlehtlkbe Zog.
S. Der Itex In der DorfMheoke
(Mephisto-Walzer). Score and
parta; also for P.F. 8 and 4
hands. Sotmberth.
^ Sjmphonlsdw Dtohtiii«en. L
Oe qa'on enteod sur la mon-
t^pie; 8. TasBO. Lamento e
Trionfo: S. Les PnSludea; 4.
Orpheos (also for organ) : S.Pro-
■(etbeus; «. Maieppa: T. Fest-
ftlSnge: & H^rolde huAbn; 9,
Hungarla: K). Hamlet ; 11. Hon-
nenschlaoht: 12. Me Ideale.
Score and parta. also for 8P. Fs.
and P.F. 4 hands. B.AH.
B. Fest-Vonptei. for Schiller and
Goethe FestlTal. Wdanr U07.
Score. Rallbeiger.
& Fest-Maraoh. for Goethe'v birth-
day. Score and ports, i
P.F.8and4hMMi& Sehuberth.
7. Hnldiffunge-Msorsch. for acces-
sion of Duke Carl of Saxe-
Welmar Iffia Scorr; and for
P.F. 2 bands. B.ftH.
a. ' Vom-Fels zum Meer *: Patrio-
tic mardi. Score and parta;
also for P.F. 8 hands.
singer,
a Kdnstler Feti-Zuf ; for Schiller
Festival 18B0. Score: and for
P.F. 2 and 4 hands; Xahnt.
a AaaANosMBirrs.
11. Bchuberta' ICarchea. L op. 40
No. S; & Trauer-: 3. Belter-; 4.
Ungarlscher-Marsch. Soore and
parts. FOrstner.
B. Schubert's Smws for voloe and
small oreh. LDleJungeMoone;
a Oretohsn am ^nnrade; %
Ued der Mgnon ; 4. BrlkOnl^
Score and parts. Forberg.
la 'Die Allmacht,' hj Schubert.
for tmor. men's chorus, and
orchestra. Score and parta; and
▼ocal soore. Sehuberth.
14. H. ▼. Billow's Xasvrka-Fan-
tasie (op. IS). Score and parts.
Leuckart.
15. Festmardi on themes by B. H.
xn 8, Score : also for P Jf . 8 and
4handB. Sehuberth.
1& ITngariscfae Bhapsodlen, arr.
bj Llsst and F. Doppler; 1. in
F; 2. in D; a in D; 4. in D
minor and O major ; a In E ;
a Pester GamevaL— Score and
parta: and for P.F. 4 hands.
Sehuberth.
17. Vngartscher Marach. for Coro-
nation at Buda-Pesth, 1W7.
Score: also for P.F. 2 and 4
hands. Sehuberth.
18. R&koczy-Marsch ; sjrmpbonlsch ■
bearbeltet. Soore and parta;
also for P.F. 2, 4, and 8 hands.
Sehuberth.
la Ungarlscher Sturm - Marech.
5ew arr. vm. Score and parta ;
also for P.F. 2 and 4 hands.
Schlesinger.
k 'Ss^zat' und 'HTmnns' by
Bfoi and KrkeL Soore and
parta; also for P.F. B^oa-
TOlgjfi. Pesth.
TL FOB PIAXOFOBTB USD ORCHESTRA.
I's 'Ruins of
1. OaieisiAU
H. (Concerto Vet hi B Sat. BeoM
and parta ; also for t P* Fst
Schlttilnger.
S. Concerto No. 2, to A. SaofO
and parta; alsa far f P. Fs.
Sehott.
Sa 'Todten-Tant;' Paru»hra8re»
'Dies IrsB.' Score; also for I
aad2P.Fs. BlegeL
a AEkAJI«IMMT8. P.F.PBIM-
CtPAUC.
91 Fantada on themeefrom Bee*
Athens.'
Score : also for P. F. 2 and 4
hands, and 2 P. Fs. SiegeL
faFantade dber ungartsche Volks-
melodlen. Soore and parts.
Sa Sehubert's Fantasia in 0 (op.
10), sjmphonlsch bearbeltet.
Score and parta ; alsofor2P,Fi.
Sehrelber.
7t. Weber's Polonaise (op. 72).
Score and parts. Schlesinger.
m. FOR PIANOFORTB SOLO,
1. OawiNAL.
9S. Xtudes d'4xteution transocn-
dante. 1. Preludio ; % a Pay-
sage; 4. Maxeppa; 6. Feuz Fol-
leta; a Vision; 7. Broica; &
Wilde Jagd; a Blcordanza;
10. U. Harmonies do solr; U.
(niasse-nelge. B.ftH.
2a TroU Grandes Etudes de Con-
oert. 1. Oapriodo ; a 0i4n1ccfo,
a Allegro aSMuoso. Klstn^.
30. Ab-lrato. Etude da perfeo-
fertlon. Schlesinger.
SI. Zwd Ooncertetuden. for Le-
bert and Stark's Klavlerschule.
1. Waklesrauflchen ; a Qnomen-
Sa Ave Maria for ditto. Traal-
wein.
sa Harmonies po^tiques at rtfU-
gieuses. L Xnvocatfon ; 2. Ave
Maria; a BtoMicHon de Dlea
dans la solitude ; 4. Penste des
Morta ) a Pater Noster ; a
Hymne de I'enffant 4 son r^vdl ;
7. Fun^rallles; 9. Mlaerere
d'aprbs Palestrina ; 9. Andante
lagrimoso; la Cantique d'A-
mour. Kahnt.
94. Ann^ de PAerlnage. Pre-
miere Ann4e. Suisse. 1. Chapelle
de GulUanme Tell : a Au lac <fo
Wallenstadt; a Pastorale; 4.
Aubordd'une source; aOrage;
a Vall^ d'Obermann; 7. Eg-
logue ; a Le Mai du Pays ; a
Les Cloches de Gen«>Te (Noc-
tumeX aKonde Ann^. Italic.
1. I18pa«^do:ailPeoMroM>:
a CansonetU di SelTator Ro«a ;
44. Tre SonetU del Petrarca;
7. Aprte une leetore de Dante.
1 B. a H. =Bititiu>pf A BlrteL
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150
LtSZT.
USZT.
YenedAflHspoH. 1. (3<MidoHar»:|7S. EMcied*«prteBoRlaiio. I^foo-
tC»imme;8.Tar»ntoUe.8ch«itt. pfloaa.
85. App«itloM. t Stf. »cbte-74.BuirfKherO«IoppTooBttlha-
•Inger Paris. ko«r< Bchlodnger.
as. Two Ballade*. Kistosr. 75. Zlgeoner-Polka de CcnradL
87. Grand 0oocert-8cdo : alio ftwf Beiiloalngar.
P. Ft. (OoDoerto iMthMfttn). 76. La Boman^toU Sdueiliiger.
as. Oonaolatloiia,eKoa. B.AH.
89. Beroauia. Hdnxe.
40. Wdnen. KUgen. Sorgan. Zar
gea : Prtludlam naoh J. 8. Bach.
8ohlailns«r.
41. l^atlon.
Brfh't B minor MaM; also for
Oi«an. Schteslngar.
M. Fantaite «nd Page.
B.A.O.H. Blegd. AlsoforOt^
can. Bchubertta.
4Sr8ohenomMlllanch. Utolft
44. Sonata In B minor. Dedicated
CoBohumann. &*H.
40. 8 Polonaises. SenC
46. Manirka briUante. Senft
47. Bhapsodle Kapagnole. FoDea
d'Bspagne, and Jota Aiagonesa.
77. Laier «nd Schwert (WeberX
Sdileslnger.
TB. Kl«gie.Iliemea by Prince Louis
of Prussia. Bcbleslocer.
70. God Save tbeQueen. Concert-
'pufhTUie. Sdiuberth.
80. Hasalten-LIed. Hofrndster.
.LaManenialse. Sehnberth.
S. Pasaprbasm. TlAKBCaiP-
TIOMS. STC rSOH 0PIKA8.
8S. La Flanotfe (Auber): Masanl-
ello: La Juire; Boimambula;
Honna ; Putttant (8) ; Benrenuto
48. Trols Oaprioe-Yalses. L Valse
de braroore ; S. T. mAancollque
& V. de Ooncert. Icblaslnger.
48. FeuIUes d' Album. Schott.
0a Deux Fenllles d' Album. Schu-
berth.
ia. Grand Galop chromatlque.
Also for 4 hands. Hofmeister.
02. Valae Impromptu. Schuberth.
03. 'MowMUl's Orab-Geldt.' Ta-
bomky A Farsch. Pesth.
D4. KMgie. Also for P. F.. Oello,
Harp, and Harmonium. Kahnt.
B6. and Higgle. Also for P.F.. V..
and Odlo. ILahnt.
06. Ugendes. 1. St. Frmnfols
d'Asslse : 2. St. Franfois de PauL
BdzsavOIgyi.
97. L'Hjmne du Pape ; also for 4
hands. Bote A Bock.
68. Via Cruds.
88. Impromptu— Th^mea de Roa-
- alnl et ^lonlinl. In I. 'Op. 8.'
60. Oapriedo k la Turea sur des
motib de Beethoren's Bulnes
d'Athtaes. MeebettL
6L Liebestraume— 8 Nottumoa.
Klstner.
62. Lld^e flxe-Andante amoroso
d'apres une Mtflodle de Berliot.
MeehettL
63. Impromptu. tnF sharp. B.*H.
64. Variation on a Waltz by Dla-
betlL No. 24 In Vaterllndlscber
KOnstlenrereln. I>iabeni(lS23).|
65. * The Pianoforte '—SntesJahr-
gang ; Paru I-Xn— 84 pieces by
modem composers. Out of print.
2. ABRAKOBMBirra.
66. Orandes Btudes de Pagantnl. ^ .. „
6 Hos. (No. 3, U OampanellaX 9i._Vha.jmodiM Bongrolses.
dl Lammermoor (1); Lucreti*
Borgia (2); Faust (Gounod);
Beine de Saba; Borneo et Ju-
liette: Bobert le Dfable; Les
HugnenoU; Le PropMte (8);
L'Afifcaine (2): Step Jlonka
(Mosonyi) : Don Otoranal : KOnig
Alfml (Ball) (2); L Lembardl ;
Trovatore; Kroaal; Mgolecto;
Don Carlos; Riend: Der flle-
gende HolUnder (2); TaniAiu-
ser (8); Lehengria (4): TMstan
und Isolde ; Melsteninear ; Btng
des Nlebelungeo.
88. Fantaisie de Braroura sur la
OlocbMte dePagaaial. Sokral-
84. Trols Moroeanx de Salon. 1.
Fantaisie romantlque sur deux
m^lodiM BUisies; 2. Bondeaa
fantastique sur nn tb*me Bspaff-
nol ; 8. Dlrertlasement sur una
caratlne de Padnl. also for 4
hands. Schleslnger.
86. Paraphrase de la Marehe da
DonlKtti (Abdul MedJld Khan);
also Easier ed. Scblwinger.
86. 'Jagdchor und Steyrer.' fh>m
'Tony' (Dulu Kruest of Sax*.
Oobuig'-Oocha). Klstner.
87. Tsoherkesien - Marsch f^om
OUnka's 'Busslan und Lud-
miUa.' Also for 4 hands. Schu-
88. 'Horhxelt-Marsch und Elfen-
reigen ' from Mendeluohn's Mid-
summer Night's Dream. B.ftH.
89. Fest-Manch for Schiller cen-
tenary (Meyvrbeer). Schkelnger.
80. Fantatsles (2) sur des motifo
des SoIki^ Busicales de Boaslnl.
Schott.
91. Trols Morfeaux Suissck. 1.
Banz de Vadies : 2. Un Soir dans
1ft Montague ; 8. Banz de Chdv-
ns. Kahnt.
4. Bbapsodibs, bto.
lln
KkU.
67. Sedu (oTBan) Priludlen und
Fugen Ton J. 8. Baeh, 2 parts.
Peters.
69. Bach's Orgelfantasie und Fuge
in O minor : for Lebert t Stark's
Klavlerachule. Trautwein.
69. Dlrertissement k la hongrolse
d'aprta F. Schubert. 3 parU;
also Easier ed. Bchrelber.
70. MIrsehe von F. Schubert. 1.
Trauer-Marsoh; 2. 8. Belter-
Marsch. Schrelber. |
71. Soirees de Vienna. Yalses-oa-
B ; 8 in Fsharp(also for4 hands,
and easier ed.); 8tn B flat : 4 in
E flat; 6 In E minor; 6 in D
flat : 7 in D minor ; 8 (Taprlodo ;
9 in £ flat; lOPreludlo; 11 in A
minor ; 12 hi C sharp minor (also
for P.P. and violin by Liszt and
Joachim) ; 18 in A minor ; 14 in
F minor; IS lUkoe^ March.
Benirand Schleslnger.
93. Marehe de BAkociy. Edttfon
populalre. Klstner.
94. Do. Symphonisch. Sdioberth.
95. Heroischer- Marsch in unga-
rtsdten Styl. Schlesinger.
SlfSS!!^**'** Schubert. 9 parts.; 9g.ung»rigcherGcschwindmar8ch.
wf^mti^hi, ««. vm^ TW^H ' f^^^^^^' Pressburg.
72. Bunte Beihe TOT Ferd.DaTid. ^ EtoleHung und Ungarfacher
1. Scherzo ; %_ Brinnerung ; 8. n^nch Ton Graf B. Sz^ch^nyl.
Mazurka; 4. Tanz; 5. Kinder-
lied; 6. Oapriedo; 7. Bolero
8. El^e; 9. Marsch; lOw Toc-
cata; 11. Gondellied; 12. Im
Murm. ; 18. Romanae ; 14. Alle-
gro; 15w Meouett; 16. Etude;
17. Intermezzo; 18. Serenade
19. Ungarlsch (2) ; 20. Tarantdle ;
21. Impromptu ; 22. In russlcher
Wd««: 83. Lied; 94. Capricdo.
Klstner.
BdzsarOlgyl.
6. PABTmOMB Dl PUNO.
98. Beethoven's Septet. Schuberth.
98. Ntae Symphonies. B. A H.
UO. Hummd's Septet. Schubert.
101. Beritoz's 'Symphonic Fantas-
tique.' Leuekart. Marehe des
Pdlerins, from ' Harold In Italy.'
Bieter-Biedermann. 'Danse des
flylphes.' from 'La Damnation
da Taost.' lUd. Orartures to
'LesFranos^uffes.' Schott. 'Le
Bel Lear.'
108. BosrinPs Orertora to Gcdl-
laume Tdl.
KB. Weber's Jubdourerture and
Overtures to Der FrdsehftUand
Oberon. Schlednger.
104. Wagner's Overture to Tanu-
e. TBAmoBTPTioira or Tooal
106. Bossfairs •CvSn» AniBMim
and 'La Charit4.' Schott.
106. Beethoven's Lleder. 6 ; Gelst-
liche Lleder. 6; Ad41alde{ Llo-
derkreis. B.ftH.
Vn. Von BlUow's 'Tanto gantne.*
Schlednger.
108. Cfaophi's 'Six (Tbants Folo-
nais.'op.74. Schlednger.
109. Lleder. Dsssaaer.S; Franz.
18; Lassen. 8; Menddssohn. 9;
Schubert, 87 ; Bd>umann. B. and
Clara. 14 ; Weber, Schlummer-
lied. and ' Elnsam bin ich.'
110. Meyerbeer's ' Le
'Aotrafels.*
111. Wtdborsky^
Fdistner.
112. Allduja ek Are Maria d'Arc**
delt ; No. 2 also fbr organ.
Peters.
118. A la cniapdie Slxtfaie. Mise-
rere d'Allegri et Ave Verum d«
Mozart ; also for 4 hands and for
organ. Peters.
114. Zwd Transeriptenem. 'Coih*
fiitatis et Lacrymosa' aus Mck
zart's Requiem. Slegd.
115. Solr^ Italieones, sur des
motlCi de Meroadante 6 Koa.
Schott.
116. NuUs A'M k Pausllippe, sur
des motib de I'Album de Doni-
zetti. 8 Nos. Schott.
117. Canzone Napolitana. Meser.
118. Faribolo Pastour. and Chan>
sonduB^am. Schott.
119. Olanes de Woroninoe. 8 Noa*
Klstner.
12a Deux Melodies Busses. Ar**
besqoes. Oranz.
121. UngarischeVolkslieder.SKoa.
Tabonzky ft Parsch.
128. Soirees muskales de Bosdnt.
12 Nos.; also for 4 hands aod
foraF.F.s. Schott.
TV. 6. ABRANOBMEMTS FOB 9 PIANOFOBTES.
ISS. Variations de (kmcert on IM. Beethoren's Ninth Symi^ionf,
March In I Puritani (Hexam4-, Schott.
ron). Schuberth. I
V. PIANOFORTE AND VIOLIN.
196. Epitbalam.; also for P.P., 1,128. Grand duo ooneertant nir
hands. T4borszky*Parsch. i 'LeMarin.* Schott.
■VI. FOR ORGAN
12r. Andante rdigloso. Schuberth.
128. Einldtung, Fuge und Mav
niflcat. from Symphony ' Zu
Dante's Divlna Commedla.'
Schuberth.
120. Ora pro noMs. Litand. K6mer.
180. Fantasia und Fuge on the
chorale In * Le FrophMe.' B. t H.
181. Oriando dl Lasso's Beglna
codU. Schubertb.
OB HABM0N1T7M.
182. Bach's Einldtung und Fuge.
fh>m motet 'Ich hatte vid.
BekOmmemiss.' Schuberth.
183. Chopin's Praeludien. op. 98,
Nos. 4 and 9. Schuberth.
184. Ktrchliche Feet - Ouverture
on 'Eln' teste Burg.' Ho&nds-
ter.
185. 'Der Guade Hell* (TBnnhaO-
L MA88B8. PSALMR, AND OTBBB
Sacbbd MCSIO.
laS. Mlssasoleaob(Oraner). Fest-
messe in D. Score and paru ;
also vocal score, and for P.F. 4
hands. Schuberth.
1S7. Ungarische KrOoungs-Messe
in B flat: Score and partk, and
vocal score ; Offertorium and
Benedictus, for P.F. 8 and 4
hands. P.F. and vfoUn, organ,
<»van and dolln. Schuberth.
188. Mass In C minor, vrlth organ.
198.'Mlssa (^oralis hi A minor,
with organ. Kahnt.
140. Bequlem. men's voices and
organ. Kahnt.
141. Neun Klrchen-Chor.Oeange,
iflth organ. 1. Paler Noster ; 2.
Ave Maria (also for P. F.) : 3. 0
Salutaris; 4. Tantum ergo; 5.
Ave Verum ; 6. Mihi autem ; 7.
Ave Maris Stella, also for P. F. ;
8. O Salutaris: 9. Libera me.
Kahnt.
142. Die Sdlgkdten. •Kahnt.
143. Pater noster, for mixed chorus
and organ. Kahnt.
144. Pater Noster et Ave Maria, k
4 and organ. B.AH.
145. Psalms. 18th.l)*th(E.V.19thX
2Srd. and larth. Kahnt.
146. Christus 1st geboren; chorus
and organ. Arr.forP.F. Bote
A Bock.
147. An den hdligen Franzlskus.
men's voices, organ, trumpets
and drums. T4borszkyAParsch.
148. Hymne de I'Enfant k son
r^veU, female chorus, organ and
l^rp. TAborszky A Parsch.
2. 0BAT0BI03.
148. (Tbrtstus. Score, vocal score,
and parts. Schuberth.
rale,' No. 4. and 'Marsdi der
bdligen drei KOnige.' No. S^ for
instruments only ; also for P. F.
8 and 4 hands. 'Tu es Petrns.*
No. 8, for organ and for P.F.
2 and 4 hands, as ' Hymne da
Pape.'
ISO. Die Legends von der beHlgen
Elisabeth. Score, vocal soor^
and parts. Kahnt. ' Einldtung ';
'Marsch der Kreuzritter' aod
' Interludlum,' for P.F. 2 and 4
hands ; ' Der Sturm,' In- P. F. i
8. Cantatas and othkb
Cbobal Mobio.
151. Zur BSculsr-Feler Beethoveni,
for chorus, soil, and orch. Score,
vocal score, and parts. Kahnt.
152. Choruses (6) to Hwder's ' Ent*
fesMsltem Prometheus.' Score^
vocal score, and parts. Kahnt.
Pastorale (Schnttterchor) for
P.F. 2 and 4 hands.
163. Fest-Albnm for Goethe cen-
tenary (IMO). Fest-Maraoh; 1.
Licht ! mehr Llcht ; % Wdmar's
Todten ; 3. Ueber alien Glpfeln
1st Bub; 4. Chor der Engel.
Vocal score and parts. Schu-
berth.
154. Wartburg- Lleder. Einldt-
ung and 6 Lleder. Vocal score.
Kahnt.
165. Die Glocken des Strassbnrger.
MQnsters. Baritone solo, eboms
and orch. Score, vocal score,
and parts. Schuberth. 'Ezc^l-
dor' (Prdude) for Organ, and
P.F. 2 and 4 hands.
156. Die heillge CAdlia. Mezzo-
soprano, chorus, and orch.. or
P. F., harp, and harmonium.
Seore. vocal score, and parts.
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-LITANY.
fird variance, derived. There are, in troth, grave
di£Beultie8 in the way of forming any decided
opinion upon the lubject. Were the weaknem
of an unpractised hand anywhere diflcemible in
the counterpoint of the later oomposition, one
mig)it well reject it at an ' arrangement*: but it
would be absurd to luppoee that any Musician
capable of deducing the five-part Response, * Good
Lord, deliver us,* ^m that in four parts, would
have condescended to build his work upon an-
other nian*B foundation.
From fhe i-part Litany. From the 6-part Litany.
1
The next Response, ' We beseech Thee to hear
us, Good Lord,* presents a still more serious erax.
The Camto fermo of this differs so widely from
any known version of the Plain Chaunt melody
that we are compelled to regard the entire
Betponse as an original compo^tion. Now, so
&r as the Cantut, and Baasut, are concerned, the
two Litanies ccnrrespond, at this point, exactly :
but, setting all prejudices aside, and admitting
the third chord in the 'Clifford MS.' to be a
manifest lapsus calami, we have no choice but to
confess, that» with respect to the mean voices, the
advantage lies entirely on the side of the five-part
harmony. Surely, the writer of this could — and
would — ^have composed a Treble and Bass for
himself!
Fromtbe'CliiroTdMS.'
The di£Sculties we have pointed out with re-
gard to these two Responses apply, with scarcely
diminished farce, to all the rest : and, the more
closely we investigate the internal evidence
afforded by the double text, the more certainly
■hall we be driven to the ox^ conclusion de^
ducible from it ; namely, that l!klli» has left us
two Litanies, one for four voices, and the other
for five^ both founded on the same Plain Chaunt,
; sod hodi harmonised on the same Basses, though
developed, in other respects, in accordance with
the promptings of two totally distinct ideas.
UVEBPOOL MUSICAL FESTIVALS. 158
The four-part Litany has never, we believe,
been published in a separate form. The best
edition of that in five parts is, undoubtedly.
Dr. Boyce*s ; though Messrs. Oliphant, and John
Bishop, have done good service, in their respective
reprints, by adapting, to the music of the Preces,
those * latter Suffirages,' which, having no place
in the First Prayei^Book of King Edward YI,
were not set by any of the old Composers. Some
later editions, in which an attempt has been
made at 'restoration,' have, it is to be feared,
only resulted in depraving the original text to a
degree previously unknown. [W. 8. R.}
LITOLFF, Henbt Charlbs, was bom in Lon-
don Feb. 6, i8i8. His father, a French Alsttbian
soldier taken prisoner by the English in the
Peninsular War, had settled in I^ndon as a
violinist after the declaration of peace, and had
married an English woman. In the beginning of
the year 183 1 Heniy Litolff was brought by his
&ther to Moscheles, who on hearing the boy play
was so much struck by his unusual talent, that
he offered to take him gratis as a pupil; and
under his generous care Litolff studied for several
years. He made his first appearance (or one of
his first) at Covent Garden Theatre July 34,
183 a, as 'a pupil of Moscheles, I a years of age.*
In his 1 7th year a marriage of whi(^ the parents
disapproved obliged him to leave England and
settle for a time in France. For several years
after this event Litolff led a wandering Ufe, and
during this period he visited Paris, Brussels,
Leipzig, Prague, Dresden, Berlin.and Amsterdam,
giving in these towns a series of very successful
concerts. In 1851 he went to Brunswick, and
undertook there the business of the late music-
publisher Meyer. In i860 he transferred this
business to his adopted son, Theodor Litolff, and
he, in 1861, started the well-known 'Collection
Litolff,* as a cheap and accurate edition of clas-
sical music, which was among the earliest of the -
many series of similar size and aim now existing.
It opened with the sonatas of Beethoven, Mozart,
and Haydn (vols. 1-4). Henry Litolff himself
went to Paris, where he has since resided.
As a pianist Litolff*s rank is high ; fire, passion,
and brilliancy of execution were combined with
thought and taste in his playing. Had it been
also correct, it would have reached the highest
excellence. In his works, however, there is great
inequality ; beautiful and poetic ideas are often
maired by repetition and a want of order, and
knowing what the author*s true capacity is, the
result is a feeling of disappointment. About 115
of his works, including several operas, have been
published. Among ue best of them may be
reckoned some of his pianoforte pieces, such as
the well-known ' Spinnlied,* a few of his overtures
and his mophony-concertos, especially nos. 3,^ 4,
and 5 ; the latter are remarkable for Uieir wealth
of original ideas in harmony, melody, and rhythm,
and for their beautiful instrumentation. [A.H.W.]
LIVERPOOL MUSICAL FESTIVALS.
These have not taken place with regularity. The
1 rU7«d at Um Crrital r»lM«. hj Hr. Onm Barlager. Much S8. 1874.
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154 LIVERPOOL MUSICAL MSTIVALS.
first was held in 1784, the next in 1790, and the
next in 1799. They were then suspended till
1823, 1830, and 1836 (Oct. 4-7, Sir G. Smart
condactor), when Mendelssohn's 'St. Paul' was
performed for the second time, and for the first
time in England. Up to this date the concerts
had been held in churches, but the St. Greoige's
Hall (Town Hall), having been erected in the
meantime, and opened Sept. 1854, the next
festival took place there in 1874, Sept 39-Oct. i
^-conductor, Sir Julius Benedict.
Liverpool has a Philharmonic Society, which
was founded Jan. 10, 1840, and opened its hall
Aug. a 7, 49. There are twelve concerts eveiy
year, six before and six after Christmas. Sir
Julius Benedict succeeded Mr. Alfred Mellon as
conductor April 9, 67^ and has been conductor
ever since. — ^The Liverpool Musical Society,
which formerly gave oratorio concerts in St.
Greoige^s Hall, has been extinct since 1877. — ^The
St. George's Hall has a veiy fine organ by
Willis, on which performances are given by Mr.
W. T. Beet on Thursday evenings and Saturday
afternoons and evenings.— Orchestral concerts
are given by Mr. Charles Halle during the
winter season in the Philharmonic Hall. [G.]
LLOYD, Edward — son of Richard Lloyd,
chorister, and afterwards assbtant lay vicar of
Westminster Abbey, and assistant vicar choral of
St. Paul's (bom March la, 181 3, died June 28,
1853), and Louisa, sister of Dr. John Larkin
Hopkins — was bom March 7, 1845, and received
his early musical education in the choir of West-
minster Abbey under James Turle. In 1 866 he
obtained the appointment of tenor singer in the
chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge, which he
resigned in 1867 on being appointed a Gentleman
of the Chapel Royal, a post which he held about
two years. He has since devoted himself en-
tirely to concert singing. He made his first great
success at Gloucester Festival, in 1871, in BimJi's
St. Matthew Passion-music, and in 1874 won
universal admiration by hb sinking of ' Love in
her eyes sits pUying * at the Handel Festival at the
Crystal Palace. He has since gained increased
reputation as an oratorio and concert singer.
His voice is a pure tenor of excellent quality, and
his style musician-like and finished. [W.H.H.]
LOBE, JoHANN Chbistian, musician, and
writer on music of some eminence, was bom May
30, 1 797, at Weimar, and owed his musical in-
struction to the Grand Duchess Maria Paulowna.
The flute was his instrament, and after perform-
ing a solo at the Gewandhaus, Leipzig, in 1 8 1 1 , he
settled at his native place as second flute in the
Duke's band. He has written five operas, be-
sides overtures for the orchestra, P.F. quartets,
and other compositions. But it is as a littera'
tear that he is most interesting to us. He
resigned his place at Weimar in 184a, and* in
46 undertook the editing of the Allgem. mus.
Zeitung of Leipzig, which he retained until the
termination of that periodical in 48. In 1853 he
began a publication called * Fliegende Blatter fUr
Musik, of which about ao numbers were pub-
lished ; he then edited the musical department of
LOBKOWITZ.
the Leipdg lUustrirter Zeitung, and made end«
less contributions to other periodicals. His prin-
dpal books, some of which have I4>peared fint in
the periodicals, are ' Musikalische Briefe . . . von
einer Wohlbekannten,' a vob, Leipzig, 185a;
' Aus dem Leben eines Musiker' (lb. 59) ; a
Catechism of Composition, and another of Musio
(both have been translated) ; ' Consonanzen und
Dissonanzen' (lb. 1870) ; Lehrbuch der mumk-
alisohen Composition (4 vols. lb. 1851 to 67).
To the amateur student these works are all
valuable, because they treat of the science of
music in a plain and untechnical way, and are
full of intell%ence and good sense. The Musik-
alische Briefe, a series of short sketches of the
progress of music and of the characteristics of
musicians, will be read with interest by many.
Some conversations with Mendelssohn appear
to be fiuthfully reported, and bring out some of
his traits in a very amnsing manner. [G.^
LOBGESANG,kinbStmphonie-Caktatb. A
well-known work of Mendelssohn's (op. 5 a),
composed for the Gutenberg festival, and first
performed at the church of S. Thomas, Leipzig,
in the afternoon of June 35, 1840. The foroi of
the work is no doubt due to Beethoven's 9th
Symphony, and in Germany it is taken as the
third of his published symphonies. It was
performed the second time at Birmingham,
Sept. 33, 1840 (Mendelssohn conducting) ; and
after this performance was considerably altered
throughout — including the addition of the
entire scene of the Watchman — and published
by BreitkopfiB early in 1 84 1 . First performances,
as published — Leipzig, Dec. 3, 1840 ; London*
Sacred Harmonic Society, March 10, 1843. The
selection of the words was doubtless in great
measure Mendelssohn's own. though the title
' Symphonie-Cantate' was Klingemann's.* The
English adaptation was made with his concur-^
rence by Mr. J. A. Novello, to whom, more of
the English texts of Mendelssohn's works are
due than is generally known. The phrase (a
fibvourite one with Mendelssohn) with which the •
symphony opens, and which forms the coda to
ti^e entire work, is the Intonation to the and
Tone for the Magnificat. [G.]
LOBKOWITZ. A noble and distinguished
Austrian familv, founded early in the 15th
century, by Nicholas Chuzy von Ujezd, and
deriving its name firom a place in Bohemia. The
country seat of the family is at Raudnitz, near
Theresienstadt, and its town residence is the well-
known palace on the Lobkowitz-Platz, Vienna.
Two princes of this race have been closely and
honourably connected with music, i . Ferdinand
Philip was bom at Prague April 17, 1734. By
the death of his father and two elder brothers he
became the head of the house before he was 15.
Gluck was in his service, and was much aided
in his early success by the assistance of the
Prince. The two were present together at the
coronation of Francis I. (Sept. a8. 1745) ; after
which they went to London in company with the
1 See XendelMolm't Letter, Nov. 18. IMO.
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LOBKOWITZ.
Duke ol Newcastle, who had represeniect the
'R«gliB>i Oourt at the oorcmatioiu There * Lobko-
witz 18 said to have lived in a house of the
Ihike^B for two years, and it was daring this time
that Glnck produced his operas at the King's
Theatre, and appeared in public in the strange
character of a*performer on the musical glasses.
[See Gluck, vol. i. 6oi a ; Uabmonica, 66a a.]
A story is told by Bumey of his having com-
posed a symphony bar by bar alternately
with Emanuel Bach. The feat was an absurd
one, but it at least shows that he had oon-
■idflrable practical knowledge of music. He
died at Vienna, Jan. ii, 1784, and was suc-
ceeded by his son Josbf Frakk Maximilian,
bom Deo. 7, 177a. This is the prince whose
name is so familiar to us in connection with
Beethoven. He seems, notwithstanding the
temptations of his immense early wealth, to have
been an exemplary character, with no vices, and
with no fault but an inconsiderate eenerodty
rising to prodigality, which ultimately provea
hia ruin. He married Princess Marie Caroline
Sohwarzenberg, Aug. a, 1792. His taste for
music was an absorbing passion. He played
both violin and cello, and had a splendid bass
voice, which he cultivated thoroughly and with
success. He maintained a complete establish-
ment of orchestra, solo and chorus singers, with
Wranitzky and Gartellieri at their head, for the
performances of masses, oratorios, operas, sym-
phonies, etc When Beethoven arrived at Vienna
in Nov. 179a, Lobkowitz was twenty, and the
two young men soon became extremely intimate.
True, bevond the frequent mention of his name
in Riess Becollections, there is not much
definite proof of this*; but it is conclusively
shown by the works dedicated to him by Bee-
thoven ; for we must remember that the dedication
of a work by this most independent of composers,
was, in nineteen cases out of twenty, a proof of
esteem and affection. The works are these — and
excepting those inscribed with the name of the
Archduke Rudolph they form the longest and
most splendid liist of all his dedications : — 6
Quartets, ot>. 18 (1801); Sinfonia Etoica, op. 55
(1806) ; IMple Concerto, op. 56 (1807) ; the
5th and 6th Symphonies — in C minor and Pas-
torale (1809) — shared by Lobkowitz with
Rasumowsky ; Quartet in £b, op. 74 (18 10) ; and
the liederkreis, op. 98 (181 6). We must not sup-
pose that the course of such a fneDdship as this be-
tokens was always smooth ; the anecdote told on
L167 of vol. i. of this work, shows that Prince
bkowitz, like all the intimates of Beethoven,
and other men of-genius, had occasionally a good
deal to put up with. No doubt the Prince was a
kind and generous friend to the composer. It
was he who advised him to apply for the position
of composer to the opera, and promoted two pro-
fitable concerts for him in his own palace and
with his own band in 1807. Two years later
he joined Kinsky and the .Ajrohduke in subscrib-
1 Oomp. Bmner. Bht. It. 4in.
* BvetiMven nicluiMMs him 'Trtnot Fltzl Potxll*— Imt thon h»
• •very one.
LOCATELLL
155
!ng to Beethoven's annuity, contributing 700
florins (paper) per annum. On Jan. i, 1807, an
association of noblemen, with Lobkowitz at its
head, took charge of the Court theatres, and
during 1810, II, and I a, the Prince ha4 the sole
directum of the opera. The anecdotes by eye-
witnesses of his tact and generosity in this posi-
tion are many, but we have no room for them
here. Nor are others wanting to testify to his
enlightened zeal in reference to other musicians
beside Beethoven. He was one of the promoters
and founders of the great * Gesellschaft der
Musikfreunde ' in Vienna, and sang the bass
solos at the second performance of Alexander's
Feast, Dec. 3, 1813 [See Vol. I p. 591]. He
had Haydn's 'Creation' translated into Bohe-
mian, and performed it at Raudnitz. In addi-
tion to his great expenditure on music, he, like
Kinsky, raised, equipped, and maintained a body
of riflemen durii^^r the campaign of 1809. At
length came the depreciation in the Austrian
currency, the bankruptcy of the Government, and
the finance-patent of 181 1. Lobkowitz was
unable to change his habits or reduce his ex-
penditure, and in 181 3 his afiairs were put into
the hands of trustees, and he left Vienna for the
smaller spheres of Prague and Raudnitz. By
the Finanoe-patent Beethoven's 700 florins were
reduced to 380 flor. a6 kr. in Einlosungescheine
— all that the trustees had power to pay. Bee-
thoven was clamorous, and hb letters are full
of complaints against the Prince — ^most unjust as
it turned out, for early in 1815, through the
Prince's own exertions the original amount was
restored with arrears. Beethoven acknowledged
this by the dedication of the Liederkreis. On
Jan. 34, 181 6, the Princess Lobkowitz died, and
in less than a year, on Dec. 16, 1816, was followed
by her husband.' [A. W. T.]
LOCATELLI, Pietro, a celebrated violinist,
was bom — like Lolli and Piatti — at Bergamo
in 1693, and was still very young when he
became a pupil of Corelli at Rome. Very little
is known of his life, but he appears to have
travelled a good deal, and finally to have settled
at Amsterdam, where he established regular
public concerts, and died in 1 764.
There can be no doubt that Locatelli was a
great and original virtuoso. As a composer we
must distinguish between a number of caprices
and Etudes — which he evidently wrote merely
for practice, to suit his exceptional powers of
execution, and which have no musical value — and
the sonatas and concertos, which contain very
graceful and pHthetio movements, and certainly
prove him to have been an excellent musician.
In these serious works he certainly shows him-
self as a worthy disciple of his great master.
All the more striking is the contrast when we
look at his caprices and Etudes. Here his sole
aim appears to have been to endeavour to
enlarge the powers of execution on the violin at
any price, and no doubt in this respect he has
succeeded only too well; for, not content with
> For taller details of the Lobkowttt fiunny the reader !• referred to S
paper br Ur. Thayer ia tbo Musical World of May 17. 2i ai. Itnsi
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156
LOCATELLL
legitimately developing the natural reeomota of
the instrument, he oversteps all reasonable limits,
and aims at effects which, being advene to the
very nature of the violin, are neither beautiful
nor musical, but ludicrous and absurd. A
striking example of this tendency of his is to
be found in a caprice entitled, * he Labyrinth,'
where the following arpeggio passages occur: —
n^i:Alii-jA
Opwi. Twelve coDoerUrroML An>
•tenUm, I7!tl.
S. SotuitM for flute. Amster-
dwn, 17. 2.
S. L'ftrte del vlollno. contain*
ing 12 eonoerti vroHi and
IMcaprioeflL ITSil.
4. Bli oonoertOH. 1738.
& Six ■onatM en trio. 1787.
This savours strongly of charlatanism, and it
is astonishing to find a direct pupil of Corelli
one of the first to introduce such senseless feats
of execution into the art of violin-pla3ring.
Wasielewsky not unjustly speaks of him as the
great-grandukther of our modem ' Finger-heroes *
(Fingerhelden).
Locatelli published ten different * works :-^
Opb e. six •ooatu fbr TloUn aolo.
17S7.
7. Sliconcertlaqoattro. 1741.
& TrlOR. 2 Tlolloe and baM.
1741.
(I. L'arte dl nuora modulazi-
one. Caprices eolgnia-
tlquci.
lOi Oontrasto armonlco: con-
cetto* a qnattra.
Modem editions of some of his Sonatas and
Caprices have been issued by Witting, Alard, and
David. His Sonata di Camera in G minor has
lately been played at the Monday Popular Con-
certs by Mme. Norman Neruda. [P. D.]
LOCH ABER NO MORE, an air daimed both
for Scotland and Ireland, of which some two or
three versions are extant. The source of these
is in S;x>tti8h minstrelsy called 'Lord Ronald
(or, according to Sir W. Scott, Randal) my son.'
The air in Ireland is known as ' Limerick's
lamentation,' horn a tradition associating its
plaintive melody with the events that followed
the second capitulation of Limerick, in 1690, when
at the embarkation of the Irish soldiery at Cork
for France, their wives and children were forc-
ibly separated from them under circumstanoes
of unusual barbarity. The Scottish and Irish
airs ar^ here compared.
' Lord RonaM mj son* (tme ftnin only).
1 From F^tls, 'BIobt. Unhrenella.'
LOCHABEB NO MORE.
* Limerick's LamMitation.*
I — •■ ^m
m
jrc^'ireJlT'grirrd'rjrsi
The verses 'Farewell to Loohaber/ ending
'And then 1*11 leave thee and Lochaber no
more,' were written by Allan Ramsay. Bums
recovered in Ayrshire two verses of the old
ballad ' Lord Ronald,' in conjunction with this
tune: he is recorded to have exclaimed, on
hearinff Lochaber played on the harpsichord,
' Oh, that *s a fine tune for a broken heart ! '
The Irish air lies in the fourth and last of the
scales given in the article on Irish Music [vol.
ii. p. 30 a], having its semitones between 3 and 4,
6 and 7; it is also marked by traces of the
narrative form characteristic of ancient Iri&h
melody. In the Leyden MS., a Scottish relic of
1690 or thereabouts, in tablature for the Lyra-
Viol, a tune doeely allied to the above airs
is given as 'King James' March to Jrland,^
James is known to have landed at Kinsale,
March la, 1689. On comparison of the ver-
sions, in bar 6 of the ist and bar 5 of the 2nd
strain the Irish air appears to most advantage :
the skip of a majcar ninth in Lochaber is most
likely a cormption : it is certainly characteristic
of neither Iridi nor Scottbh melody : Mr. Mooro
(who is supported both bv Bunting and Holden
in. claiming for Ireland this beautiful air) is in
his prefiuses to the Irish Melodies rather severe
upon the Scots for stealing not only Irieh airs,
but Irish saints.
An interesting example of the effect of
' Lochaber no more ' is given by Robert NichoU.
' During the expedition to Buenos Ayres, a High-
land soldier while a prisoner in the hands of the
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LOCHABSB NO MORE.
SpanJardB, baling formed an attaclunent to
a woman of the ooontry, and charmed by the
easy Hfe which the tropical fertility of the soil
enabled them to lead, had resolved to remain
and settle in South America. When he im-
parted this resolution to his comrade, the latter
did not aigue with him, but, leading him to his
tent, he placed him by his side, and sang him
*' Lochaber no more/' The spell was on him, the
tears came into his eyes, and wrapping his plaid
around him, he murmured "Lochaber nae mair —
I maun gai^ back — Na!** The songs of his
childhood were ringing in his ears, and he left
that land of ease and plenty for the naked rocks
and sterile valleys of Badenoch, where, at the
close of a life of toil and hardship, he might lay
hia head in his mother's grave.* [R.P.S.J
LOCK, Mattebw, bom at Exeter, was a
^orister of the cathedral there under Edward
Gibbons, and afterwards studied under Wake.
He and Christopher Gibbons composed the music
for Shirley's mMquei, ' Cupid and Death,' * repr&-
aented at the Military Ground in Leicester Fields'
before the Portuguese Ambassador, March 26,
1653. In 1656 he published his ' little Consort
of Three Parts' for viols or violins, composed, as
he tells us, at the request of his old master and
firiend, William Wake, for his scholars. He
oomposed the music, ' for y* king's sagbutts and
comets,' performed during the progress of Charles
n from the Tower through the citv to Whitehall
<m April aa, 1661, the day before his coronation,
for which he received the appointment of Com-
poser in Ordinary to the Eong. He composed
sevoal anthems for the Chap^ Royal, and on
April 1, 1666, produced there a Kyrie and Credo,
in which he departed from the ordinary usage
by composing different music to each response.
Thid occasioned some opposition on the part of
the choir, in consequence of which he puolished
his composition, with an angry prefitce, on a
folio sheet, under the title of * Modern CSiurch
Music ; Pre- Accused, Censur'd, and Obstructed
in its Performanoe before His Majesty, April i,
1666. Vindicated by the Author, Matt. Look,
Composer in Ordinary to His Miy'esty.' (Of this
publication, now excessively rare, there is a cc^y
ID the library of the Sacred Hannonic Society).
To this period may probably be assigned the pro-
duction of 13 anthems for 3 and 4 voices, all
contained in the same autograph MS., which
Roger North describes as 'Pudmee to musick in
parts for the use of some vertuoso ladyes in the
city.' Soon afterwards, having, it is supposed,
become a convert to the Romish fitith, be was
i4>pointed organist to the queen. He had in
1664 compowd *the instrumental, vocal, and
recitative music* for Sir Robert Stapvlton's tragi-
comedy, ' The Stepmother,'* aad in 1670 renevi^
his connection with the theatre by ftumishing the
instrumental music for Bryden and Davenanfs
alteration of 'The Tempest,' the vwul music
being supplied by Humfrey and Banister. In
1673 Davenant's alteraticm of ' Macbeth,' with
the songs and choruses from Middleton's* Witch'
introdtroed, waa produced at the theatre in Dorset
LOCK.
15f
€rarden ; and Downee, the promoter, in his ' Ros«
oius Anglicanus,' 1706, expressly states that the
vocal music was composed by Look. The very
remarkable music then performed remained un-
published until about the middle of the last
century, when it appeared under the editorial
care of Dr. Boyce, with Lock's name as composer,
and as his it was long undisputedly accepted.
But Downes's proved inaccuracy in some other
things at length occasioned doubts of the correct-
ness of his statement as to the authorship of the
Macbeth music, and eventually Lock's right to it
was denied and its composition claimed by some
for Purcell, by others for Ecclee, and by others
again for Leveridge. No positive proof however
has been adduced in support of any one of these
claims, and until such is forthcoming it would
be premature to set aside the long standing tra-
ditional attribution of the music to Lock. [See
Macbeth Mdsio.] In 1673 Lock oomposed
the music (with the exception of the act tunes,
by Draghi) for Shad wells * Psyche,' which he
published in 1675, under the title of 'The Ei^
lish Opera^' togeti^er with his 'Tempest' music,
prefaced by some observations, written with his
usual asperity, but curious as an exposition of
his views of the proper form for opera. Tha
work itself is constructed upon the model of
Lully's operas. In 1673 an extraordinary con-
troversy commenced between Lock and Thomas
Salmon, who had published 'An Essay to the
Advancement of Musick by casting away the
perplexity of different cliffs and writing all sorts
of musick in one universal character.' Lock at>
tacked the work in 'Observations upon a late
book entitled An Essay etc.,' written in a mo^
acrimonious and abusive tone, to which Salmon
replied in ' A Vindication ' of his essay, bristling
with scurrility, and Lock in 1673 retorted in
'The Present Practice of Music vindicated &c.
To which is added Duellum Musicum, by John
Phillips [Milton's nephew]. Together with a
Letter from John Playford to Mr. T. Salmon in
confutation of his Essay,' which closed the dis-
pute. Of its merits it is sufficient to observe
that the old practice has continued in use to this
day, whilst Salmon's proposed innovation was
never accepted, and probaoly, but for the notice
taken of it by Lock, would have long ago passed
into oblivion. In 1673 Iiock publiihed a small
treatise entitled ' Melothesia, or Certain General
Rules for playing up<m a Continued Bass, with a
choice Collection of Lessons for the Harpsichord or
Organ of all sorts,* said to be the first of the kind
published in England.^ His compoeitioiis were
numerous and various. His anthem, * Lord, let
me know mine end,' was printed by Boyce, and
several other anthems exist in MS. in the Tudway
collectien, the Fitzwilliam Museum, at West-
minster Abbey, Ely, and ebewhere. Some an-
thems and Latin hymns are in 'Cantica Sacr%
and set,' 1674 ; some hymns in ' Harmonia Sacra,'
1688 and 1 714; songs in *The Treasury of
1 wmkm Penny's * Art of OomptMltlon. or. DIreettons to ptay ft
TliorowBui'ls mentioned in OlATel't'OAtalogoe of Books printed I9
Bnglmd since the Dreedftil Fire,* 1670, and In ft wtologiM of Bguf
Flajford'% bnt no 0019 has been flrand.
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16$
IX)CK.
Masick,* 1669 ; 'Choice Ayres, Songs and Dia-
logues/ 1676-84; and 'The Theater of Musio,*
1687; and eight three-part vocal oompoflitionB
by him (including ' Ne'er trouble thyself at the
times or their turning/ reprinted in some modem
collections) in 'The Musical Ck>mpanion/ 1667.
Instrumental compositions by him are printed in
'Courtly Masquing Ayres/ i66a; *Mugick*s
Delight on the CiUiem/ 1666; 'Apollo's Ban-
quet/ 1669; 'Musick*8 Handmaid/ 1678 (re-
printed in J. S. Smith's 'Musioa Antiqua*);
and Greeting's ' Pleasant Companion,* 1680. In
several of ^ese is 'A Dance in the Play of
Macbeth/ evidently written for an earlier version
than Davenant's.^ The library of the Sacred
Harmonic Society contains the autograph MS. of
A ' Consort of ffoure Parts * for viob, containing
six suites, each consisting of a £Euitasia, courante,
ayre and saraband, which Roger North (1728)
tells us was ' the last of the kind that hath been
made.* Lock died in Aueust 1677. He is said
to have been buried in the Savoy, but the fact
cannot be verified, the ezistiiu^ registers extend-
ing no further back than 1680. Purcell com-
posed an elegy on his death, printed in ' Choice
Ayres* etc., Book II, 1689. A portrait of him
is in the Music School, Oxford. [W. H. H.]
LOCKEY, Chables, son of Angel Lockey of
Oxford, was admitted a chorister of Magdalen
College, April i, 1828, and remained so until
1836, when he went to Bath to study under
Edward Harris. In 184 a he became a pupil of
Sir George Smart and lay derk of St. 6eorge*8
Chapel, Windsor. In 1843 he was appointed
vicar choral of St. Paul's Cathedral. In 1846 he
was engaged for the Birmingham Festival and
allotted the tenor song 'Then shall the righteous,'
in the first performance of ' Elijah.' On hearing
him rehearse the song, Mendelssohn immediately
requested him also to sing 'If with all your
hearts,' which had before been assinied to another
singer. ' A young EngUsh tenor/ says the com-
poser,* 'sang the last air so very beautifully that
I was oblig^ to collect mvself to prevent my
being overcome, and to enable me to beat time
steadily.' — In April 1848 Lockey was appointed
a gentlemen of the Chapel Royal. He married
May 24, 1853, Miss Martha Williams, contralto
singer. In 1859 "^ affection of the throat
deprived him of his voice and compelled his
retirement. [ W. H. H.]
LOCRIAN MODE (Lat. Modu$ LocHm,
Modus BypercBoliua), The Eleventh Ecclesias-
tical Mode: a tonality which can scarcely be
said to have any real existence — as it is uni-
versally discarded; in practice, on account of its
false relation of Mi contra Fa — though, in theory,
it necessarily takes its regular place in the series.
[See Mi contra FA.]
Theoretically, the Final of the Loorian Mode
is B. Its compass, in the Authentic form, ranges
between that note, and its octave above; and
1 Pepn. who from Not. ^ 1664. to Dec S. 1088, mw 'Micbetli' per*
formed seven timet, mentloni (April 1^ 1067; the ' nrietf of daadug
•ud miulok ' in It. .^
SLett«rofA««.2Shl8tfL
I/)DEB.
its semitones lie between the first and second,
and third and fourth degrees. Ite Dominant i>
G, (F being inadmissible, by reason of its for-
bidden relation with the FinaX) and its Mediant,
D. Its Participants are E, and F ; its Conceded
Modulations, C, and the A below the Final ; and
its Absolute Initials, B, C, D, and G.
Pin.
Mode XL
Med. Part. Pert. Dom.
In its Plagal, or Hypolocrian form, (Mode XII,)
its compass lies between F and the F above ; and
its semitones fall between the fourth and fifth
and the seventh and eighth degrees. Its Final
is B; its Dominant^ E; and its Mediimt, D.
Its Participants are G, and C; its Conceded
Modulations, A, and the upper F ; and its Abso-
lute Initials, G, A, B, C, D, and E.
Put.
ModeXU.
Fin. Part. Med. Dom.
It will be observed that the actual notes of
Modes XI and XII correspond, exactly, with
those of Modes IV and V. The reason why the
two former are discarded, and the two latter held
in good repute, is this. Mode lY, beinf Plagal,
is subject to the 'Arithmetical Division ; i. e. it
consists of a Perfect Fourth, placed below a
Perfect Fifth. But, Mode XI is Anthentic ; and,
by virtue of the ' Harmonic Division,' consists of
a QuintafaUa^ placed below a Tntonu«— both <^
wUch intervals are forbidden, in Plain Chaunt.
Again, Mode V, being Authentic, and therefore
subject to the ' Harmonic Division,* resolves its^
into a Perfect Fifth, below a Perfect Fourth.
But, Mode XII is Plagal ; and, under the 'Arith-
metical Division,' exhibits a Tritonm^ below a
QuintafaUa, [See Modes, the ecclesiastical.]
A very few Plain Chaunt Melodies, and Poly-
phonic Compositions, are sometimes referred to
these rejected Modes: but, such cases are ex-
ceedingly rare; and it wiU generally be found
that l^ey are really derived, by transposition,
from some other tonality. [W. S. R.]
LODER, Edward James, son of John David
Loder, bom at Bath, 1813, was in 1B26 sent
to Fnmkfort to study music under Ferdinand
Ries. He returned to England in 1828, and
went back to Germany with the view of qualify-
ing himself for the medical profession, but soon
changed his mind and again placed himself
under Ries. When he again came back to
England he was commissioned by. Arnold to
compose the music for ' Kouriahad,' an old drama
of his to which he had added songs, ete., to con-
vert it into an opera, for the opening of the new
English Opera House, then building. The opera
was produced in Jul^, 1834, and, notwithstand-
ing very speneral adnuration of the music, proved
unattractive owing to the poverty of the libretto.
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LODER.
In 1835 I'oder Bet Oxenfoid's 'IXee «f Death.*
^e next entered into an engiigement with Dal-
raaine & Co., the muiio publuhen, to furnish
them with a new composition every week, in
part performance of which he produced' his
'Twalv^ Sacred Songs,* dedicated to Stemdale
Bennett. As it became necessary that some of
the pieces produced under this arrangement
should be heard in public, an opera entitled
' Francis I,* was written to incorporate them and
produced at Drury Lane in 1838. As might
have been expected, so heterogeneous a com-
pound met wiUi little success, aldiough one song,
*The old house at home,' obtained a widespread
popularity. His opera 'The Night Dancers,'
ids finest work, was produced at the Princess's
Theatre in 1846, revived there in 1850, and again
at Corent Garden in i860. 'Puck,* a ballad
opera» additions to 'The Sultan,* and 'The
Young Guard,* were brought out at the Princess's
in 1848. His cantata ' The Island of Calypso,*
was written for the National Concerts at Her
Majesty's Theatre in 1850, but, owing to their
cessation, remained miperformed until given at
the New Philharmonic Concerts in 185 1. * Ray-
mond and Agnes,* an opera» was produced at
Manchester in 1855. Besides these works Loder
has written some string quartets and numerous
iongs, of which ' The brave old oak,* and ' In-
vocation to the deep' are well known. His
compositions are distinguished by the melodious-
nte of the parts and their skilful instnmienta-
tion. He was for several years conductor at the
Princess's Theatre, and aft^wards at Manchester,
but although musically well qualified for the
office his want of regular, business-like habits
miiitated greatly against his success. About
1856 he was attacked by cerebral disease, which
long afflicted him, and prevented his resuming
his old avocations. He died April 5, 1865.
John Fawoett Lodeb, bom 181 a, an excellent
viidinist and able orchestral leader, for many
years resided at Bath and managed the concerts
there. When Bath ceased to be a place of
fiMhionable resort Loder removed to London, and
on the retirement of Francis Cramer in 1845
suooeeded him as leader at most of the best con-
certs and festivals. He died April 16, 1853. Two
other LoDEBS, John, a violinist, and William,
a vidonoellist, both died several yean ago, as
did the wife of the latter, formerly Emilt Wood-
jATf, a good second sc^rano singer. [W. H. H.]
LODEB, Eatb Fannt, only daughter of
George Loder, bom at Bath, Aug. 31, i8a6,
commenced playing the pianoforte when a mere
child. In her lath year she became a pupil of
Henry Field, and a year afterwards entmd the
Boyil Academy of Music, where she studied the
pianoforte under Mrs. AJiderson, and harmony
and composition under CAiarles Lucas. At the
sod of the first year of her studentship she ob-
taiftad a king*s Scholarship. Early in 1840 she
aoMred in public at her uncle's concerts at
mmf And in March at ti^ Royal Academy con-
o«||. In 1 84 1 she was re-elected king's sdiolar.
^j||mtted the Academy in 1844, in which year
XOEWB,
159
she played the Adagio and Rondo from Mendels-
sohn's G minor Concerto in presence and to the
satis&ction of the composer at Mrs. Anderson's
concert at Her Majesty's Theatre. She was
then appointed professor of harmony at the
Academy^ She first appeared at the Philhar-
monic Society March 15, 1847, when she played
Weber's Concerto in £b, and in 1848 (May 29)
her performance there of Mendelssohn's G minor
Concerto received the unprecedented distinction
of an encore. Her reputation was now confirmed,
and her public performances frequent. In 185 1
she was maniea to Mr. (now Sir) Henry Thomp*
son, the eminent surgeon. On March 6, 1854,
at the Philharmonic Concert, she made her last
public appearance. She has composed an opera,
an overture, two string quartets, two sonatas
and some studies for the pianoforte, a sonata for
pianoforte and violin, and several minor piano-
forte pieces. [W.H.H.]
LODOISKA. Comedy in 3 acts. i. Words
by Fillette-Loreaux, music by Cherubini. Pro-
duced at the Feydeau July 18, 1791. The
overture is still occasionally played, a. Words
by Dejaure (same story), music by R. Kreutzer.
Produced at the Italiens Aug. i, 1791. L^.]
LOEWE, J(«ANN Carl Gottfried, bom
Not. 30, 1796, at Loebejuen, between Kothen
and Halle, twelfth and youngest child of a Cantor
and schoolmaster. Near his home were collieries
employing 300 miners, and this underground
world, so near in his boyish fimcy to the world
of spirits, took powerful hold on his imagin-
ation, to reappear later when he was composing
'DerBergmann' (The Miner). His fother taught
him music early, and his singing, especially his
power of hitting the right note, havixiff attracted
attention, he was offered in 1807 a place in the
choir of Kothen. There he remained two years,
hearing Pergolese's *Stabat Mater,' and other
good music, and went thence to the Gynmasium
of the Franke Institution at Halle. TOrk, the
head of this, was director of the town choral
society, and at the twelve annual concerts pro-
duced much good music, although he had some
curious notions, lor Loewe tells that he always
omitted the introduction to the Finale of Bee-
thoven's 1st Symphony {Hh&a. well known) as
' ludicrous,' and for fear of making the audience
laugh. Niemeyer, chancellor of the Gymnasium,
was proud of tiie chcnr, and made them sizig to
distinguished visitors, among others to Mme.
de Stoel, who made Loewe a present^ and to
King Jerome, who at Tttrk's instigation gave
him an annuity of 300 thalers. This enabled
him to devote himself entirely to music. He
had already become a pianist by studying Bach's
' Wohltemperirte Clavier,' «nd he now took
daily lessons from Tttrk, and worked hard at
Kimbeiger, Marpurg, and Forkel. He also
learned French and Italian. Two of his songs
of this date, *Clothar' and *Die Einsetzungs-
worte des Abendmahls* (op. a)^ have survived.
Meantime the war of 1812-13 broke out^ and
> H« tAennida prlottd thiM MM* bj Btrdtr ind Ooethe u
op.1.
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160
IiOEWB.
Loewe haa left a graphic aooonnt of itt horron
in his 'Selbfttbiographie' (edited by Bitter,
Berlin 1870). TUrk died in 1814, and the
flight of Kinff Jerome (Oct. 36, 181 3) deprived
Loewe of hia income, but by the aid of Niemeyer
he entered the university of Halle as a theo-
logical student under Michaelis. Naae, Tilrk*s
successor, (bunded a Singakademie like that of
Zelter at Berlin. Loewe joined this, and thus
became acquainted with his future wife, Julie
von Jacob, a very gifted person, whom he
married Sept. 7, 1821. In 1818 he composed
his linst badlads, 'Edwaid,* and the *Erlking,*
followed in 1834 (after his wife*s death) by
•Der Wirthin TSchterlein,* which, by Marx's
assistance, were printed. In 18 19 and ao he
paid visits to Dresden, Weimar, and Jena,
making the acquaintance of Weber, Hummel,
and Goethe. In 1830 he was invited to Stettin,
jmd having passed with credit through various
tests, such as a musical ezehnse submitted to
Zelter, and a trial sermon, was duly installed
professor at the Gymnasium and Sendnary, and
Cantor. In 1831 he became Musikdirector to
the municipality, and organist of St. Jacobus.
He made a considerable mark both as a con-
ductor and professor ^ in Stettin and throughout
Pomerania. In 1837 ^^ ^^ elected member of
the Akademie of Berlin. He was a favourite
with both Frederic William III. and IV., the
latter being especially fond of his baUads. He
travelled much, and was present at the Musical
Festivab of Dusseldorf (1837) and Mayence (the
Guttenbeig Ck>mmemoration), visiting Hamburg,
LUbeck, and Bremen on the way. In 1844 he
went to Vienna, and in 1847 ^ London. The
Duchess of Cobuig had specially recommended
him to the Prince Consort and Queen Adelaide ;
he sang and played at Court, the Prince turning
over his music ; and here he heard Jenny Lina
for the first time ; but he left not the least trace
of his presence behind him. In 1851 he went to
Sweden and Norway, and in 57 to France. In
1864 he had a singialar illness — a trance of six
weeks* duration, and in 1866 the authorities of
Stettin asked him to resign. After tfajs mortifi-
cation— somewhat atoned for by the Kind's
opportune bestowal of a higher grade of &e
Oraer of the Red Eag^e than he had before
enjoyed — he left Stettin for Kiel, where he
quietly expired April 30, 1869, after another
trance. His heart was buried near his oigan in
St. Jacobus at Stettin.
Carl Loewe was an industrious composer, as
will be seen from the list of his music : — 5 operas,
of which one only was performed — ' Die drei
Wfinsche* (Theatre Royti, Berlin, 1834). Man-
tins was the tenor; Spontini took unusual pains;
the opera was a great success, and the Crown
Prince presented £e composer with a gold medal.
Oratorios — 'Die Feetseiten'; <Die Zerstorune
Jeruiialems* (1839); 'Die sieben Schlafer'^
> Some nperhMBta in aeooitlei, «ondiieCei with Ms eellaacae
OnasfMon. produced resnlu of real ralne.
^ > Room of tbMe tbiM An In Um libmy of the SMni HMBonle
flooietjr.
LOEWB.
('833); 'Die eheme Schlange* (1834); *Di«
Apostel von Philippi (1835, for voices only);
•Guttenberg' (1836) ; 'Palestrina* (1841); 'Huss*
(1843); 'Hiob,* 'Der Meister von Avis,' 'Dtm
StQinopfer des neuen Bundes,* ' Das hohe Lied
Salomonis,' and 'Pdus Atella * (all between
1848 and 60) ; 'Die Heilung des Blindgebomen'
(1861); 'Johannes der Taufer' (63); and 'Die
Auferweckung des Lazarus* (63). The three
last, like < Die Apostel von Philippi,' were for
voices onl^, without accompaniment, a species
of composition peculiar to himself. His second
wife and pupil, Auguste Lange of Konigsbeig;
sang in his oratorios with himself. He published
145 works with opus-numbers — symphonies, con- -
certos, duets, and other pieces for P.F., but above
all, ballads, in which he specially excelled, and
in which he may be considered as the successor
of Zumsteeg. His poetic feeling and power of
musical expression give him a high rank among
composers, although his music, like Beichardt's,
has gone by for ever. He was the author of
a 'C^esanglehre' (Stettin, 1836; 3id ed., 1834),
and of ' Musikalischer Gottesdienst, Anwebung
sum Kirchengesang und Orgelspiel' (1851, 4
editions). The University <^ Greifswald con-
ferred on him a Doctor's degree. Two of his
songs are included in the ist volume of 'The
Musical libraiy.' [F.G.]
LOEWE, Johanna Sophis, dramatic singer,
granddaughter of Friedrioh August Leopold
Loewe (who died 1816 as director of the Ltlbeck
theatre) and daughter of Ferdinand Loewe, all
actor, was bom at Oldenburg in 1 815, and ac-
companied her fibther to Mannheim, Frankfort,
and Vienna, where he was engaged at the Bui^
Theater, through the influence of his sister, Julie
Loewe, a celebrated actress. Here Soptde studied
singing under Ciccimara and other good masters.
Her d^ut as a concert-singer was so successful
that she was at once engaged for the court opera,
and first appeared on the stage in 1833 in a
German version of Donizetti's * Otto mese in dua
ore.' A contemporaiy report speaks of 'her
voice as not powerful, but cultivated and svm-
pathetic, her personal appearance prepossessing,
and her acting as evincing dramatic ability mu^
above the common.' Towards the close of 1836
she went to Berlin, where she created a faime
as Isabella in ' Robert le Diable,' and was at
once engaged at a high salarv, appearing at
AmIvtA. in t\\tk * finnnantKnlA ' #vn A vvwil «8
1837. In 1838 she was i^pointed chamber-
singer to the king, but soon resigned, and tra-
velled to London, Paris, and Italy. In London
riie appeared at Covent Garden, May 13, 1841,
in Bellini's ' Straniera,' but her success was only
temporary. According to Chorley she had been
pufibd as a new Grid, there being an idea that
Grisi had lost her voice, and he says that the
public were nievously disappointed ; but he
allows that i^ was the bMt Elvira he had
ever seen, and that her manner was sprightly^
graceful, and intelligent, her 'd^neanour unina-
peaohable, and her costume superb ' as the Do>
gareoain 'Maripo Fallen* (Mod. Gennaa MttRM»
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." LOEWE. *
1 210-213). She never retmrnecl to 'England!
She &iled to obtain an engagement in Pans,
and in 1845 sang again in B^lin, but coming
just after Jenny Lind, was only moderately
received. In 1848 she married Prince Lichten-
Btein and retired. She died at Peeth, Nov. 29,
1866. Her special characteristic was the sin-
gular harmony between her bodily and mental
gifts. In conversation she was witty and in-
tellectual,' and as a singer had a great diversity
of rdles, playing both Elvira and Donna Anna,
Jessonda and Madeleine ('Postilion'), Lucrezia
and Adine ('Elisir*). An admirable portrait
of her was painted by Krttger, and engraved by
Sachse of Berlin.
Her niece and namesake, SoPHis Uwn, a
soprano, daughter of the regisseur of the Ck>urt
Theatre at Stuttgart, and pupil of Stockhausen,
made her first appearance in London in 1871,
and sang at the concerts for several seasons with
success, till her marriage in 1877. [F. G.]
LOGIER, JoHANK Bebnard, a descendant of
a fimiily of French refugees, was bom in 17S0
at Kuserslautem in the Palatinate, where his
&ther and grandfather were organists. He re-
ceived his early musical education from his
&ther. After tiie death of his parents, and
when about 10 years old, he came to England
in the company of an English gentleman, with
whom he redded for two years, and studied the
flute and pianoforte. He then joined the band
of a regiment commanded by the Marquis of
Abercom, of which WiUman, fi^ther of the cele-
brated clarinet player, was master, and with which
he wait to IreJand. In 1796 he married Will-
man's daughter, and engaged in composing for
and instructing military bands and teaching the
pianoforte. At the close of the war, his r^ment
being disbanded, he became organist atWestport,
Ireland. Whilst there he invented his machine
for guiding the hands of learners on the piano-
fbrte, and devised the system of instruction known
by Ids name. [For an account of this machine
tad system, and the controversy which raged on
their introduction, see Chiboplast.] In 182 i
the Prussian government sent Franz Stoepel to
London to inquire into the merits of the system,
tad the result was that Logier was invited to
Bolin to superintend the promulgation of it in
I^niflsia. He remained in Berlin three years,
h&ng allowed an annual vacation of three months
to visit England. In 1826, having acquired
a competency by the sale of his chiroplast and
elementary works, his very numerous classes, and
the fees received for permission to use his in-
vention and teaoh on his system, — it was asserted
that he had received 100 fees of 100 guineas each
forthatpurpose, — heretiredand settled in Ireland,
ttear Dublin, where he died July 27, 1846. He
<»mp08ed some sonatas and other pieces, besides
iiisknig numerous arrangements finr the piano-
fwte. He also composed an ode on the com-
ntenoement of the 50th year of the reign of
Geoige III., Oct. 1809, performed in Dublin.
Bendes the publications connected with his chiro-
plast, he was author of * A Complete Introduction
10, HE comes:
161
to the Keyed Bugle,' of which instrument he is
said to have been ^e inventor. [W.H.H.]
LO, HE COMES WITH CLOUDS DE-
SCENDINa, the first line of the hymn which is
usually sung to the tune called Helmslet, or
Olivebs. This tune claims a notice on ac-
tx)unt of the various opinions that have been
expressed respecting its origin. The story runs
that Thomas Olivers, the friend of John Wesley,
was attracted by a tune which he heard
whistled in the street, and that from it he formed
the melody to which were adapted the words of
Cennick and Wesley's Advent hynm. The tune
heard by Olivers is commonly said to have been
a Hornpipe danced by Miss Oatley in the 'Crolden
Pippin,' a burlesque by Kane O'Hara, but this
seems inconsistent with chronology. The hymn-
tune appeared first, as a melody only, in the
second edition of Wesley's ' Select Hynms with
Tunes annexed,* 1765, under the name of
' Olivers,' and in the feUowing form :
In 1769 an improved version, in three parts,
was published by the Rev. Martin Madan in the
Lock * Collection of Hymn and Psalm Tunes.*
It is there called 'Hdmsley,' and under thai
name became widely popular.
f^jfjj'ji'jin.^gji^ij.j'j-'^i
Pia
But at this time the * Golden Pippin* was not
even in existence. O'Keeffe, who possessed the
original MS., tells in his ' Recollections * that it
was dated 1771. The burlesque, in three acts,
was produced at Covent Garden in 1773: it
failed at first, but obtained some success when
altered and abridged. The source from whence
* Olivers' was derived seems to have been a con-
cert-room soAig commencing * Guardian * angels,
now protect me/ the music of which probably
originated in Dublin, where it was sung by a Mr.
M^one, and no doubt also by Miss CkHey, who
, under the title of 'The Formlten Jtymvh; hf4
aome Teui befora, to a totally dUtoeut ftlr.
* The Mme words
been Ml bu Baodel.
M
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LO.HBCOMESI
re^ed in the Irish Oftpital from 1763 to 1770.
The melody of ' Guardian Angels* is aa fbUowa ;
This melody was not in the 'Golden Pippin* as
ongim^y written* bat (adapted to the words of
the burlesque) was intz^od^ced into it in 1776 in
the place of & song by Giordani, and was sung
by Miss Gatley in the character of Juno. The
published score of the * Gk>lden Pippin* does not
contain anv hornpipe, but such a dance may
have been mterpolated in the action of the piece.
It will be noticed that the resemblance between
* Olivers* and * Guardian angels* extends only to
the first part of the tune, the second part being
wholly different. On the other hand, the horn-
pipe corresponds with the hymn-tune throughout,
and with 'Helmsley* more doeely than with
' Olivers.* In 1 765, when the Utter was pubb'shed.
Miss Catley was in Ireland, and did not return to
London until five years afterwards, and if the
hornpipe was not of earlier date than the ' Golden
Pippm,* it seems to follow that instead of the
hymn-tune having been derived from the horn-
pipe, the latter was actually constructed frt>m
the hymn-tune, which by that time had become a
gieat iavouritew [G.A.G.]
LOHENGRIN. A romantic drama in 3 acts ;
words and music by Richard Wagner. Composed
in 1847, ^^^ produced at Weimar, under the
direction of Liszt, Sept. 1850 ; in London, in
Italian, at Govent Garden, May 8, 1875. [G.]
LOLLI, Antonio, a celebrated violinist,
bom at Beigamo about 1730. If it cannot be
doubted that he was a most extraordinary per^
former, he appears certainly also to have been
the type of an unmueical, empty-headed virtuoso,
and in addition a complete fcK>l.
Hardly anything is known of the earlier part
of his life and career. It is however generally
t f sumed that he was almost entirely self-taught.
We know for certain that he was at Stutl^art
in 1762 with Nardini. There he remained, at-
tached to the court of the Duke of Wiirtemberg,
till 1 773, ifvhen he went to St. Peterfiburg, whero
LOMBARDI.
he is iidd to have eajc^red the special favour of
the Empress Katherine II. He remained in her
service till 1 778. In 1 779 he came to Paris and
played with great success at the Concert spiritueL
After this he went to Spain, and in 1785 we find
him in London, where however, according to
Bumey, he appeared but seldom in public. He
continued to travel, and we read of his aM>earanoe
now at Palermo, now at Copenhagen ; then again
at Vienua or Naples. He died in Siciljrin 1 802.
According to all contemporaneous testimony
Lolli was an extraordinary performer, but an
indifferent musician. Schubart, the well-known
Grerman poet and musician, who had many
opportunities of hearing both him and Nardini,
speaks with unmeasured praise of LoUi's feats
of execution, the wondeiful ease and absolute
certainty with which he plaved the most difficult
double stops, octaves^ tenths, double-shakes in
thirds and sixths, hannonics, etc. As to his
having been a bad musician, or rather no musi-
cian at all, the testimonies are equally unanim-
ous. The Abb^ Bertini plainly states that Lolli
could not keep time, could not read even easy
music, and was unable to play an Adagio pro-
perly. On one occasion, when asked to play an
Adagio, he said : ' I am a native of Bergamo ; we
are all bom fools at ^ Bergamo, — ^how shoiild I
play a serious piece?' When in England, he
almost broke down in a Quartet of Haydn which
the Prince of Wales had asked him to play.
If, with all these drawbacks as a musician,
he nevertheless created wherever he played an
immense sensation, we are all the mcnre com-
pelled to believe that his powers of execution
were of the most exceptional kind.
He 18 described as a nandsome man. but a great
dandy and charlatan, very extravagant, and a gam-
bler. The Emperor Joseph II, himself a very fair
musician, habitually called him 'muddle-headed
Lolli' (der Faselhans). Bumey (Hist. iv. 680)
writes that 'owing to the eccentricity of his
style of composition and execution, he was re-
garded as a madman by most of the audience.
In his freaks nothing can be imagined so wild,
difficult, grotesque, and even ridiculous as his
compositions and performance.' True, Bumey
adds, 'I am convinced' that in his lucid intervals
he was in a serious style a very great, expressive,
and admirable performer,' but it appears doubtful
whether Bumev ever heard him in a 'lucid inter-
val,' and there&re his 'conviction* is gratuitous.
' His oompositions (Concertos and Sonatas for
the violin), poor and insipid as they are, yet
are said to have been his own producticms in
a limited sense only. We are assured that he
wrote a violin part only, and that this was
corrected, funushed with accompaniments, and
brought into shape, by another hand. [P. D.]
LOMBARDI, I, ALLA PBIMA CBOOIATA. Italian
opera in 4 acts; libretto by Solera, music by
Verdi. Produced at the Scala, Milan, Feb. 11,
1843; in London, at Her Majesty's, March 3,
1846; and in Paris, Th^tre Italien, Jan. 10,
1 In SIcDor AlfHdo Ptatti, BetsMM hM prodQoe4 a ripMl eon-
tndlotloB to tbis ttateuaut.
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LOMBABBL
^863. A great part of the muslo was after-
wards employed by Verdi in the opera of
JZBUSALEIC [G.]
LOMBABDY, School ow Music ow. [See
MiLAir.]
LONDON. The University of Londbn has
* recently detennined to mnt the degrees of Mns,
Bac. and Mas. Doc. under the fbllowihg regula-
tions. Candidates for the Mus. Bao. degree must
have passed the Matriculation Examination ten
months before. For the degree itself there are
two examinations. Tlie first, which is held in
December, comprises the following subjects: —
the relation between vftnrations and the pilch of
sounds ; the nature of harmonics^ and* the simpler
phenomena of stretched strmgs and compound
sounds ; the theory of musi^ intervals, of the
scales, and of consonance and dissonance ; the-
history of music so for as it rebates to the growth
of musical forms and rules. The second Mus. Bao.
examination, held later in the same month, com-
prises the fbUowmg subjects : — practical harmony;,
counterpoint in five parts with canom and fuffue ;
farm in musical composition; instrumentation;
ananging for the piiuio firom an instrumental
so(»e; a critical knowledge of the scores of certain
standard works. Before admittance to this ex-
amination the candidate must have submitted to
the exam&ieiB a vocal composition by himself^
containing real five-part vocal countlBrpoint, with
scoompaniment for a quintet strmg band. Tech-
nical skill m performance is not part of the
qoalificatibn for this degree : but a mark of merit
is offered to candidates for play&g at sight from
a five-part vocal score, or playing an* aoconq>ani*
ment from a figured bass.
For the Mus» Doc. there are a^ two examina-
tions, both in December. Tlie subjects of the
first are the foUowmg : — the phenomena of sound
and sound-waves, and generally the h%her
hranches of aoonstics ; temperament ; tiie scales
of an natfons ; Greek and Church Modes ; history
of measured music ; consonance and dissonance ;
^leoiy of progressions; history and theory of
hannony and counterpoint. The subjects of the
Second Mus. Doc. examination comprise practf-
csl hannony of the more advanced character;
counterpoint in eight real parts, with canon,
fugue, etc; treatment of voices in composition;
hutrumentation &r full orchestra; general ac-
quaintance with the works and character of the
greatest composers, and a critical acquaintance
with certain specified works. Before being ad*
mitted to this examination the candidate must
send in a vocal composition such as would occupy
shout 40 minutes in performance, oontaihing
eight-part vocal harmony and fugal counterpoint,.
* portion for one or noore solo voices, and an
overture in the form of the first movement of a
<dasBical symphony. The above list of subjects
is abbreviated fix>m the much longer oflicial list,
to which reference fiw more exact details is
recommended. The fee for each examination is
^5— i.e. jeio in aU for each degree. [C.A.F.]
J^ ngntettoniirvn dBtenBtocd on In Dec ISH. and fliit toted
0900 In Dec ina.
LONDON VIOUN-MAKERS. 168
TiONDON SACRED HARMONIC SO-
CIETY. THE. was formed on March 6, 1848,
after the disiaissal of Mr. Surman from the post
of conductor to tke Sacred Harmonic Society,
The Rev. George Roberts was president, Mr.
Surman conductor, and the affiurs of the society
were managed by a oonmiittee. Six concerts were
given in Exeter Hall during the year 1848,
re8ultiittinialosBof£^94. The so-called society
lingered en for some years, and gave its last
ooncert on Dec^ aa, 1856 (Messiah). After this
it seems to have ceased to exist. [G.]
LONDON VIOUN-MAKERS. London hai
probably been for centuries the seat of a manu«
racture of stimged instruments. The popn-
krity of the viol dhring the 16th and 17th
centuries produced many makers of the instru-
ment, among whom are found Jay, Smith,
BoUes,. Ross, Addison, Shaw, Aldred, etc. Its
design achnitted of littie variety, and the speci-
mens whidi hme been poeserved have only an
archseolegical interest. Of slight oonstruction^
and usually made of thin and £7 wood, most of
the old viols have perished. Tha violin type,
marked ( i) by a back curved lile the belly, instead
of a fiat back ; by an increased vibration, pro*
duoed (a) by sennd-holes laver in proportion,
and with contrary flexures (y% and (3) by four
strings instead of six, with a fixed tunmg by
fifths, and greater thicknesses of wood, reached
England finnn the continent in the middle of the
seventeenth century.. Its marked superiority in
aU respects soon drove the treble viol from the
field : and a native school of violin-makers forth*
with arose, who imitated the general character*
istics of the new foreign model, though preserving
to some extent the character of the vioL Hie
new pattern, at fivst adopted for the smaller
instruments, gradually extended itself to the
larger ones. But viol-shaped tonors continued
te«be made Ibng after this form had been aban-
doned for the 'treble* viol, and the violin had
taken its place : bass-viob were made still later ;
and the viol double-bass, with its flat back and
tuning by fourths, is even yet in use.
1. Eablt Ekgsish School (1650 -1700).
An independent school of violin-makers naturally
arose in London by the application of the tra-
ditions of viol-maldng to the construction of
instruments ef the violin type. Connoisseurs
have traced certain resemblances between these
eariy fiddles and contemporary mstruments made
on the continent. But tiie total result of an ex-
amination of these works entities them to rank
as a distinct school. Jacob Rannan, who dates
from Blackman Street and the Bell Yard, South-
wark (1641-1648), Christopher Wise (1656),
Edwasd Pemberton (1660),. and Thomas Urqu-
hart (1660), are fiimous names among these
eariy makers. Their instruments, though of rude
ungeometrical pattern, are usually covered with
a fine varnish, and have a tone of good quality.
Edward Pamphilon (1680-1690), who lived on
London Bridge, became more famous. His in-
struments still preserve a high reputation : and
their resemblance to the Brescian school has givea
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a« XONDON yrOLESr-MAKEBS:
4186 among Parisian dealers to the practice, viSich
4uui of late years made its way to England, of
Jabelling them ' Caspar di Salo.' Few PamphUon
Jabelsexist ; and nothing w^ persuade the Parisian
oonnoisseur that these instruments are not verit-
able relics of some pre-Oremonese Italian school.
iN'otfaing, however, is more certain than that
.they were made when the last of the Amatis
-was an ancient man, and when the geometrical
Extern was going out of fiishion in Italy itself,
ike those of Joseph Guamerius, the works of
Pamphilon are fashioned directly by hand,
without the intervention of a model or mould.
Often they are of stiff and graceless outline;
jBometimes they show curves of bold and free
.design, and are wrought out with scrupulous
jcare and delicacy. In his more artistic moments,
Pamphilon was fond of finishing the sound holes
with a drawn-out curl, resembling the volute of
.a scroll ; and the bottom curve of the sound-hole
.runs out at something like a right angle to the
axis of the fiddle, llie heads are too, small, a
'fault which is shared by all the old English makers
from Rayman to Banks: they are, however,
•artistically shaped, and often de^ly scooped in
.the volute. The works of Pamphilon are covered
with fine yellow oil varnish, which presents a
most attractive appearance. They are not diffi-
cult to be met with: the writer has casually
entered the shop of a country dealer, and found
three excellent ones for sale at low prices. The
tenors are small, but of a good tenor tone. No
Pamphilon violoncello is known to exist. The
.bass-viol, with flat back, was still in fashion.
.Barak Norman (1688-1740), a maker of emi-
nence only inferior to Pamphilon, followed the
Italians in extending the violin type to the bass
instrument, and producing the violoncello. It is
evident from his works that he had seen foreign
instruments. His earlv years were chiefly em-
ployed in the construction of viols ; and his first
productions of the violin kind show a resemblance
to Urquhart. Gradually he produced tenors and
violoncellos of the new model, on most of which
his monoffram, elaborately wrought, is to be
found. Norman became about 171 5 a partner
with Nathaniel Cross at the 'Bass Yior in St.
.Paul's Churchyard. His works are always in
request among connoisseurs. That the Early
English school had its offshoots in the country is
proved by the works of Thomas Duke, of Oxford
(1720). None of these makers were influenced
by the pattern of Stainer, which ultimately dis-
placed the old English type of violin, as com-
pletely as the violin had displaced the vioL
a. School op Stainkb-Coptists (i 700-1750).
The bright and easily-produced tones yielded by
the Stainer model, soon made it popular in Eng-
land, and the London makers vied with each
other in reproducing it. The first and best of
the Stainer-copyists is Peter Wamsley, of the
Golden Harp in Piccadilly (17 10-1734). The
workmanship of Wamsley varies : like most of
his successors, he made instruments of three or
four qualities, probably at prices to correspond.
JChe finer specimens of hia work, well finished.
LONDON VIOLIN-HAKEES.
and covered With a certain thick and brilliant r^
varnish, which he could make when he pleased,
do high credit to the London schodi. He did
not despise viol-making ; nor, on the other hand,
did he confine himself to the imitation of Stainer.
Both he and Thonuis Barrett, of the Harp and
Crown in Piocadillv (i 710-1 730), tried their
hands at free imitations of Stradivarius. Joseph
Hare (i 720-1 736) did the same. Barrett was
a more mechanical workman than Wamsley,
and used a thin yellow varnish. Between 1 730
and 1770 the majority of the violins produced
in England were imitations of Stainer, some-
what larger, and covered with a thin g^yish
yellow varnish: one or two makers only used
better varnish, of a brown or dullish red colour.
Among the makers were Thomas Cross (1720),
the partner of Barak Norman, who used a -h
as a device : John Johnson of Cheapside (i 750^
1 760) : Thomas Smith, a capital maker of large
solid instruments on the Stainer model, who suc-
ceeded to the business of Wamsley at the ' Golden
Harp* in Piccadilly (i 740-1 790), and Bobert
Thompson, at the 'Bass Violin* in St. Paul's
Churchyard (1749), where he was succeeded by
his sons Charles and Samuel (i 770-1 780). To
these may be added Edward Heeeom (1748);
Edward Dickenson, at the Harp and Crown
in the Strand; and John Norris and Kob^
Barnes (1760- 1800), who worked together in
Great Windmill Street, and in Coventry Street,
Piccadilly. William Forster also began with
the Stainer pattern. [See Fobstbb, William].
3. School of Amati-Coftists. Foremost
among these stands Benjamin Banks (1750-
1795). He learnt the trade in the workshop
of Wamsley ; and though he eariy migrated to
Salisbury, where he spent the greater part of
his life, belongs in all respects to the London
school. He followed Danid Parker (i 740-1 785)
in breaking the spell of Stainer, and seriously
imitating the style of Nicholas Amati. Banks
copied that maker with great fidelity. Though
his violins are less in request, his tenors and
basses, of which he made large numbers, are ex-*
ceUent instruments, and produce good prices.
He used a fine rich varnish, in several tints,
yellow, red, and brown. His son Benjamin
returned to London : two other sons, James and
Henry, carried on his business at Salisbuiy, but
at length migrated to Liverpool. Joseph Hill
(1 760-1 780), at the 'Harp and Flute* in the Hay-
market, and a fellow-apprentice with Banks in
the shop of Wamsley, made solid instruments
which are still in request, but adhered less
strictly to the Amati model. Edward Aireton,
another alumnus of Wamsley's, worked on this
model. But the chief of the older Amati-oopy-
ists is the celebrated Richard Duke of Holbom
( 1 760-1 780). Duke's high reputation amongst
English fiddlers is amply justified by his works,
which must be carefidiy distinguished frxnn
the myriad nondescripts to which his name
has been nefariously affixed. 'When a really
fine specimen of Duke,* says Mr. Hart, 'is
once seen, it is not likely to be forgotten. As
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LONDON. VlOLIN-ilAKEEa
topita of Amati such ingtrtunentd ard scaroely
surpassed, varnish, work and material being of
the best descsription.' Duke, in obedience to
a &Bhion« though a declining ' one, also copied
Stainer, but, in Mr. Hart's opinion, less success-
fully. His pupils, John and Edward Betts,
fc^owed him in imitating Amati. The latter
was the better workman. 'Each part,' says
Bfr. Hart, *is faultless in finish ; but when riewed
as a whole the result is too mechanicaL Never*
theless, this maker takes rank with the foremost
of the English copyists.' John Betts occupied a
shop in the Royal Exchange, where his business
was still carried on a few years since. The For-
sters (see that article) fc^owed the prevailing
fuhion, and copied not only Nicholas Amati, but
Antonios and Hieronymus.
4. Latcb imitators of thb Crimona School.
We now reach a group of makers dating from
about 1790 to 1840, and fosming the last and
in some respects the best section of the London
School. These makers forsook altogether the
imitation of Stainer, occupied themselves less
with that of Amati, and bddly passed on to
Stndivarios and Joseph Guamerius. Lupot and
others were doing the same in Paris. Kichard
Tobin, John Furber, Charles Harris, Henrjr
Lockey Hill, Samuel Gilkes, Bernard Fendt
the elder (known as 'Old Barney*), and John
Career, are among the best London makers of
this period : and Vlncenzo Panormo, though of
Italian extraction, really belongs to the same
school Stradivarius was the chief model of
^ese makers, and in reproducing his style they
gave to the worid a host of valuable instruments.
The elder Feudt is commonly accounted the best
maker of violins since the golden age of Cre-
mona, though the vote of the French connoisseur
#oald be in favour of Lupot. Bernard Fendt the
^onnger, and his brother Jacob, together with
Joseph and George Panormo, sons of Vincenzo,
continued this school in another generation,
though with unequal success. The Kennedy
fiunily (Alexander 1700-1786, John 1730-1816,
Thomas 17S4-1870) were second-rate makers
of the same school, The abolition of the import
duty on foreign instruments, together with the
accumulation of old instruments available for
use and more sought for than new ones, ruined
the Knglitih violin manufacture. During the
present century, Italian violins have poured
mto England from all parts of Europe. Paris,
to say nothing of Mirecourt and Neukirchen,
affords an 'ample supply of new violins of every
quality, at rates wmch drive from the field
English labour, whether more or less skilled. A
few makers only weathered the storm. Gilkes's
son William Gilkes, and pupil John Hart, of
Princes Street, as well as Simon Forster, miade
instruments up to the time of their deaths : and
ihere are still living two representatives of the
old English school in the persons of William
Ebsworth Hill of Wardour Street, best known
as a dealer in Italian instruments, but in fact
a violin-maker of no ordinary merit, and John
Furber of Grafton Street, who still pursues the
COl^GHIfRST;
US
old craft. Both are descended from violih-making
fitniilies dating back to the b^inning of the last
century. G^ige Hart, of Princes Street, son
of John Hart, and author of a most useful work
called ' The Violin, its famous makers and their
imitators* (1875), is chiefly known as a dealer.
A few French vi(^in-makers who have settled
in London, among whom are Chanot and Boul-
langier, bdong to the Parisian school.
This list does not profess to exhaust the Lon-
don makers of stringed instruments. But it
includes the most famous and prolific among
them : and it may be safely added that, taken in
the mass, the instruments which have been pro-'
duced in London are equal in general quality to
those of any city nortii of the Alps, not excepting
Paris itself. Until the time of Lupot, the English
makers were unquestionably superior as a school
to the French, though they were rivalled by the
Dutch : and Lupot himsmf might have shrunk
from a comparison with the beet works of Fendt
and Panormo. Whether the art of violin-making
ki England will ever recover tiie blow which it
has received from Free Trade, remains to be
seen. [E.J.P.]
LONG (Lat. Lwiga, Ifotuia caudata), A note>
intermediate in value between the Laige and the
Breve. In Plain Chaunt, the Long appears as a
square black note, with a tail which may eithei^
ascend, or descend, on either side. In Polyphonic
Music, it is figured as a square white note, with
a tail descending on the right. In this case, the
position of the tail is important : for« though it is
sometimes, in modem music, made to ascend, it
can only be transferred to the left hand side in'
ligatures, when it materially afiects the duration
of the note. [See Ligature.]
In Plain Clumnt.
In Polyphonic Music.
The Lonff represents one third of the Perfect
Large, and half of the Imperfect. [See Laboe.1
Its duration, in the Lesser Moda Perfect, is equal
to that of three Breves: in the Lesser Mode.
Imperfect, to that of tw«>. [See Mode.] Its cor-
responding Rest is drawn, when Perfect, acroea
throe spaces ; when Imperiect, across two only.
Perfect Long Rest.
Imperfect Long Rett.
In Plain Chaunt, it is longer than the Breve,
but not in any definite proportion, except iri
Ligatures, where it represents a Breve and a
half, or three Semibreves. Merbecke, in hia
'Booke of Common Praier Noted* (1550) calls
it a 'Close,' and uses it only at the end of a
verse : but this restriction is not usual in Plain
Chaunt Office-Books. [W. S.B.]
LONGHITRST, John Albxandeb, bom in
1809, studied under John Watson, musical
director at Covent Garden, and on April 22,
1820, came out at Covent Garden as the Page
in Bishop's 'Henri Quatre,' and gained great
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IM
LONGHUBOT.
popularity by bif nnging in tbe duet ' My pretty
page/ with Miss Stemiens. During tnat and
the next four yean Bishop oompoMd original
parts for him in ' Montroie,* ' The Two Gentlemen
of Veiona/ ' Maid Marian,' * Clari/ * The Beacon
of Liberty/ and *Am You Like It,* besides ^ving
him the boy's parts in 'The Miller and his Men/
' The Slave/ etc., which he had formerly written
for Gladstanee and Bamett. Early in 1826 he
was allotted the part of Puck in Weber's * Oberon,*
then in preparation, butahortly afterwavd^, whilst
in the middle of a popular biOlad, ' The Bobin's
Petition/ his voioe suddenly broke, and he was
compelled to relinquish singing. Weber men-
tions the event in a letter to his wife, March 9,
i8a6 : — ' The young fellow who was to have sung
Puck has lost his voice, hxxt I have a charming
girl, ^ who is very clever and ^sings capitally/
After a short time he became known as a teacher
of singing and the pianoforte and excellent ao-
oompanyist. He died in I £^5 aged 46.
His younger broiber, William Hbnrt, Mus.
Doc., bom in the parish of Lambeth, Oct. 6,
1 8 19, was admitted a chorister of Canterbury
Cathedral, Jan. 6, 1828, under Highmore Skeats,
sen., having afterwards Stephen Elvey and
Thomas Evance Jones as his masters. In 1836
he was appointed lay clerk and asfdstant organist
of the oathedraL On Jan. 26, 1873, he was
chosen to succeed Jones as organist and master
of the choristers. His doctor's degree was con-
ferred on him by the Archbishop of ^Canterbury
(Tait), Jan. 6, 1875. His compositions consist
of anthems, services, songs, etc., and a MS.
oratorio, * David and Absalom/ [W. H. H.]
LOOSEMORE, Hefrx, Mus. Bao., was a
chorister in one of the Cambridge colleges, after-
wards lay clerk therc^ and organist of King's
College. He graduated at Cambridge in 1640.
In 1660 he was appointed organist of Exeter
Cathedral. A service and anthems by him .-are
in the Tudway collection (Harl. MSS, 7337, 7338)
and at Ely, and two Latin litanies (in D sninor
and G minor) are printed in Jebb's 'Choral
Besponses and Litanies/ He died in 1667.
His son, Gborob, Mus. Doc., was a chorister
of King's College, Cambridge, imder his father,
and in 1660 became organist ef Trinity College.
He took his Doctor's decree at Cambridge in 1665.
Anthems by him are in the Tudway collection
(Harl. MS. 7339) and at Ely Cathedral.
Another son, John, built the organ of Exeter
Cathedral in 1665, <^cl died i68i« Parts of his
work still remain in that organ. [W.H.H.]
LORD OF THE ISLES, THE. A Dranmtic
Cantata founded on Scott's poem ; the music by
Henry Gadsby. Produced at Brighton Feb. 13,
1879. [G.]
LORELEY, DIE. An opera by'Geibel, upon
the composition of which Mendelssohn was en-
engaged at the time of his death (Nov. 4, 47).
He had completed — as far as anything of his
> Mia Harriet Came. afUrwaMs Mn. John Tlddaa.
s ' D«in Andenken Felix MgadebiohD-Baitholdf ' (Hannorer.BOiD-
18MX
LOKTZING.
' oould be said to be complete until it was pub-
lished— the finale to the act in which the
heroine, standing on the Loreley cliff, invokes the
spirits of the Rhine. This number was first
performed at Leiprig, and at the Birmingham
Festival, Sept. 8, 185 a, to an English adaptation
by Mr. Barthdomew, and was published as * Op.
98, No. a 7 of the posthumous works.' In Oct.
J 868 an Ave 'Maria (scene 3) for soprano solo
and chorus, and late in 1 871 a Yintagen' Chorua
(scene 4) were published, and portions of the 2nd
and 7th scenes are more or less advanced towards
completion. The Finale is frequently put on the
stage in Germany. The opera has been since
composed by Mml Bruch (produced at Ck)log]M
in August 1864).
a. The Loreley is the subject of an opera by
F. Lachner, words by Molitor, produced at the
Oovrt Theatre, Munich, in 1846. [G.]
LORENZ, Fbakz, physician and writer, bom
at Stein, Lower Austria, April 4, 1805 ; took
his doctor's degree 1831, and is now residing in
Wiener-Neust&dt. Like many other physicians,
he has done much for music, and his publications
are of special interest and value : — * In Sachen
Mozart's ' (Vienna, 1 85 1 ), much praised by Kochel
in his Mozart-Catologue (Preface, xvii.) ; ' Haydn,
Mozart, and Beethoven's Kirobenmusik,' etc.;
• W. A. Mosart alsClavier-Componist' (Breslau,
1866); various accurate and inteseeting contri-
butions on Mozart, Beethoven, and Haydn, to the
Deutsche MusikZeitung, ^ 1861, 62 ; the Wiener
Zeitung. * Aug. 5, 1850, Aug. 16, 1863.* It it
to Dr. Lorenz tiblat we owe Krenn'a important
account of Beethoven's last Autumn, and the
other aneodotes and traits there ^ven. [See
Krenn.] [C.F.P.]
LORTZING, GusTAV AiiBEKT. cpera-coraposer,
bom at Berlin, Oct. 23. 1803, .son of an actor.
He studied for a time under Rungenhagen, but
the wandering life entailed by his father s pro-
fession made steady instruction an impossibility,
and at 9 he was thrown i)pon his own resources,
played the pianoforte, violin, and cello, studied
the woiks of Albrechtsberger and others, and
soon began to compose. At the same time, he
habitui^y sung and acted on the stage, and thus
secured a famUiarity with the practical require-
ments of the boards which was of great advantage
to him. In 1822 he went with his parents to
Cologne, where he married before he was 20, and
produced his first operetta 'Ali Pascha von
Janina.' The company to which he belbnged
served the theatres of Detmdd, Munster, and
Osnabruck, in addition to that of Ck>logne, and
at all these his opera was repeated. In 1833
he was engaged as first tenor at the Stadttheater
at Leipzig, and here he passed a happy and suc-
cessful ID years. In 1837 he wrote and composed
two comic operas, 'Die beiden Schtitzen' and
> Thh wu perforaMd b LoDdoa Mrij In U8O onAer tlM out <ir Mr.
< Mozart's Requiem OWl, No. SS. 48); Motarfs KlaTicNSooattn
(do. 41. 42) : Monrt't Maanea (Itm Vo. 94. 9ft) : BeeUMxten at GnalxeiK
dorf (do. 10) ; Baydn and his prinoelT patrona (do. 46. 47. 48).
B Mozart's death.
•Hajdna
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LORTZING.
*OaaT und Zimmermaim.' Both were snooeaBfuI,
and the latter waa at once performed all over
Germany. His next few works however fell flat,
and it waa not till 1842 that his 'WUdichats,'
arranged from Kotzebue's comedy, again aronaed
the public. He then gave up acting, and in 1844
was appointed GapeUmeiater of the tiieatre, a poet
for which he was unfitted both by his easy dis-
position and his defective education, and which
he resigned in the following year. He next pro-
duced ' Undine * (1845) with success at Hambuig
and Leipzig, and 'Der Waffenschmidt * (1846)
at Vienna, where he was for a short time Capell-
meietor at the theatre ' an der Wien.' In 1849
ihe suocesB of his ' Rdandsknappen ' at Leipzig,
agun procured him the offer of the Gapellmeister-
ship, but to his disappointment the negotiations
fdl through, and Rietz was appointed. His life
was now a hard one ; he travelled from place to
place with his numerous family, earning a pre-
carious existence now as an actor, now by con-
ducting his own operas ; enduring at the same
time the mortification of having his later operas
rejected by all the more important theatres. In
1850 he obtained the conductorship at the Fried-
rich-Wilhdmstadt theatre in Berlin, where he
had only farces and vaudevilles to direct ; but he
was completely worn out, and died on the 21st of
Jan. 1852. The public discovered its neglect
too late, honoured his remains with a solemn
funeral procession, and raised a subscription
which placed his fiunily above want. He left an
opern, 'Regina,' several overtures, incidental
muaio for various plays, Lieder, and part songs,
an unpublished. His operas are still stock-pieces
at Uie comic theatres in Germany, and * Undine'
18 frequently performed, although romantic sub-
jects were not his forte. * Czaar und Zimmermann *
was produced as ' Peter the Shipwright,' at the
Gaiety theatre, London, as lately as April 17,
As a composer Lortzing is remarkable for
natundnesa. Instead of atraining after a deptli
and subtlety beyond his powera, he wisely aima
at expresaing natural and healthy aentimenta by
^ooKDB of graceful and pleaaing music, and his
keen sense of humour enables him to give an
interest to commonplace situations. He was
never able to free himself entirely from a alight
Jfflaateurishness in the technical part of his work,
but his ctHnpoeitions, though not belonging to the
jughest branch of art, are good of their kind, and
in spite of an occasional tendency to farcical ex-
aggeration, are sound and artistic music [A. M.]
I/)Tn, Aktonio, eminent compoeer, son of
Matteo Lotti, a Venetian, CapeUmeiater to the
then Catholic Court of ' Hanover ; bom probably
m 1667, and posaiblv in Venice, ainoe he atylea
himself • Veneto' on the title-page of hia book of
'^*»<irigal» (1705)* and hia brother Pranoeaco
tllt^'7*'* *»w k!ndne« of Dr. Kntner af Haoorer I Am able to m
^l**, *J™"*«»t» •• to music or masieiuu at the Court of Uanover
i^S!^H ^w**""*''^ n» DOW to be found there. The Be^tetor of the
™«« Church u HMover eontalni. under Nor. 6, 187S. an entrj of
li«i 7°l?' HIcronynma Domlnlou*. ton of Matthlu de Lottl* and
Kt^if r^****^"*^ and under Nor. 9. 1873. of that of a daughter of
Sitt c^^**- '^^ Kegtoier was befuu in May 1671, lo that It does
'^••»r back tnoo^ for our Furpowj. [U.J
Lom.
i«r*
was lawyer to tha Proeuratoti, a poet tenable
only by a native. At any rate, hia early years
were passed in Venice, and before he was i6 he
produced an opera, * II Giustino,* to words by a
nobleman, Nicolo Beregani. His maater was Le-
grenzi, then Maestro dioapella to the Doge. Lotti
entered the Doge's chi^l as a boy ; in 1687 jouied
the 'Confraternity musicale di Santa Oedlia';
waa appointed. May 30, 1689, 'cantore di contra
alto,' with a aalary of 100 ducata ; and Aug. 6,
1690, became depu^ oiganiat, with an addition
of 30 ducata. On May 3 1 , 1 69a, tha Proouratori
of St. Markka unanimously elected him organist
in place of PoUarolo, appointed vice maestro di
oi^lla. As second organist he composed a book
of Masses, for which he received 100 ducats July
3 3, 1 698. On Aug. 1 7, 1 704, he suooeeded Spada
as first organist, and retained the post forty years,
receiving i>ermiasion in 1733 to employ as substi-
tute his pupil Saratelli, who eventually suooeeded
him. In 1 733 the Maeatro di capella, Antonio
Biffi, died, and an eager competition for the vacant
post enaued. Lotti'a chief rivala were Pollarolo.
and Porpora, and at the firat election, March 8,
1 733 (the dates throughout are frt)m State docu-
mente), he obtained 6 votea out of 1 3. A majority
being necesaary, the matter remained in auspense,
and meantime Lotti waa authoriaed to call him-
aelf Maeatro di oapeUa. Porpora retired before
the aeoond election (April 3, 1736), but hia place
was taken by a aoaroely lesa formidable compe-
titor, Giovanni Porta. Lotti however reoeived 9
votes, and thus obtained the post, with its salary
of 400 ducats and an official residence. In the
interim he composed his celebrated 'Miserere,'
which supoaeded that of his master Legrenzi, and
has been performed in St. Mark's on Maundy
Thursday ever since. This was followed by a
number of masses, hynms, and psalms, with organ
accompaniment only, although his predeoessora
had employed the orchestra. He also composed 1 7
operas (for list see Fdtis), produced with success
between the years 1693 and 1 71 7, at the theatres
of S. Angelo, S. Cassiano, S. Giovann' Oriaoatomo,
and SS. Giovanni e Paolo. Some of theae having
attracted the attention of the Grown Prince of
Saxony during hia stay in Venice (1713), he
engaged Lotti to viait Dreaden, with a company
of aingera, including Boachi and Peraonelli, both
members of the chapel, and hia own wife, a
Bologneae ainger named Santa Stella. The joint
aahury of husband and wife was fixed at 3,100
'doppii' (about £1600). The party set out
on September 5, 17 17, having obtained special
leave of absence from the Procuratori of St.
Mark's — ' per fitrvi un opera.* In Dresden Lotti
composed * Giove ed Argo,' ' Ascanio. owero gl'
odi deluai del Sangue,' and *Teofane' with Pal-
lavicini; intermezzi, and various other pieces^
including church works, among which may be
specified the 8^>art 'Crucifixus* occurring in a
' Gredo ' for 5 voices and instruments. The Pro-
curatori ffave him one extension of leave, but
in 1719 he was compelled to return or vacate
his post; and accordingly le^ Dresden in Octo-
ber in a travelling-caniage, which he ever after
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TBS-
LOTTL^
retuned tm a memorial of hit viBfi, and finally
bequeathed to his wife. After his return he com-
posed entirely for the church and chamber.
Loiti died of a long and painful dropsy on Jan.
Sf 1740, and was buried in the church of S.
Geminiano, where his widow (who .died 1759 and
was buried with him) erected a monument to his
memory. It was destroyed with the church in
1815.
Besides the compositions already mentioned
he wrote for Vienna an opera, 'Constantino/
overture by Fux (1716), and two oratorios, *I1
Voto crudde ' ( 1 7 1 a), and * L* Umiltii ooronata *
(17 1 4); for Venice, the oratorios 'Gioa, R^ di
Giuda,' * Giuditta ' (printed by Poletti), and the
celebrated madrigal *Spirto di 'Dio* for the
Doge's espousal of the Adriatic, performed on
the Buoent<»ro in 1736— a very effective com-
position. His book of Madrigals (1705) dedi-
cated to the Emperor Joseph I., contains the one
in 5 parts, ' In una siepe ombrosa,' which Bonon-
cim claimed in London as his own composition,
and which led to his disgrace (see p. 650 a, note).
Another is given as a model by Padre Martini in
his 'Esemplare di contrappunto.* Nevertheless
they were severely handled at the time in a
' Lettera famigliare d'un aocademico filarmonico/
circulated in MS. anonymously, but attributed on
!Fontana*s authority to Marcello, who had been
a pupil of Lotti's. Many of his compositions are
still m the King of Saxony's musical library, and
Breitkopf & Hartel once possessed several of his
MSS., as did also Dr. Bumey.
Lotti*s rank among musicians is a high one,
^m the fact that though the last representative
of the old severe school, he used modern har-
monies with freedom and grace. The expression
and variety of his music struck even his con-
temporaries, especially Hasse, when he was at
Vexdce in 1727. Bumev, who heard his church
music sung in Venice m 1770 (Tour, ii. 152)
credits him with * grace and pathos,' and cha»o-
terisee his choral music as both solenm and
touching, and so capable of expression, though
written in the old contrapuntal style, as to have
affected him even to tears. Of his cantatas he
says that they contain recitatives full of feeling
(Hist. iv. 534). As a specimen of his writing for a
single voice we may cite the fiEtvourite song ' Pur
dioesti.* He was so afraid of overloading the
voices that he never used orchestral accompani-
ments in church music. There are wind instru-
ments as well as the four strings in his Dresden
operas, but not in those produo«i in Venice.
Besides Saratelli and Maroello, Alberti, Baa-
lani, Gasparini, and Galuppi were among his
pupils. A motet of Lotti's, 'Blessed be Uiou,' and
a madrigal, *A11 hail Britannia.' both for 4 voices,
are given in Mr. Hullah's Part Music (ist ed.),
and a fine Credo in C, also for 4 voices, in his
Vocal Scores and Part Music (2nd ed.). Proske
has a Mass of his (& 4) in Musica Divina, vol. i.,
and Bochlitc a Cruoitixus, k 6, and another k 8,
and a Qui tdlis, It 4, in his Saromlung. There is
1 A If 8. of thb ^ In th« Ubnjj of the Stcrod
»o.l»W. "
Sodetr.
LOUIS^ FERDINAND.
als6 a Eyrie in theAuswahl vorz. Musikwerto
(Trautwein). Four Masses and a Requiem are in,
Ltlck's Sammlupg, and various other pieces in ^e
collections of SohleBinger, Moskowa, etc. [F.G.]
LOTTINI, Antonio, the principal Italian
basso in London in 1737 and 8. He sustained
that part in Handel's ' Faramondo' in 1737, in
his 'Serse,' and in the 'Conquista del V^o
d'oro'ini738. [J.M.]
LOUIS FERDINAND, Princb.— accurately
Friedrich Christian Ludwig, — bom Nov. 18,
1772, killed at the battle of Saalfeld, Oct. 13,
1806, was the son of Prince August Ferdinand
of Prussia, and therefore nephew of Frederick
the Great and of Prince Henry (the patron of
J. P. Salomon, and cousin of Firederick William
II), the cello-player for whom Beethoven wrote
his op. 5. His sister I»uise married Prince
Radziwill, who composed the Faust music and to
whom Beethoven dedicated the Overture op. 115.
Louis Ferdinand thus belonged to a musical as
well as a royal family, and he appears to haver
been its brightest ornament on the score of natural
gifts — his uncle the Great Frederick excepted—
even down to our own time ; in music undoubtedly
BO. He was kindly and generous in the highest
degree, and free from all pride of rank ; energetic
and enterprising, and as a soldier bold to teme-
rity. In conversation he was brilliant^ in social
intercourse delightful. On the point of morals
his reputation was not good ; but one who knew
him well, while admitting that, being prevented
by his rank from making a marriage of affection,
' he chose female friends with whom he lived in
the most intimate relations,' asserts positively
that 'he never seduced an innocent girl, or de-
stroyed the peace of a happy marriage.' This,
in tiie time of Frederick William II, was high
praise. He was passionately fond of his two
illegitimate children, and left them to the care
of his sister. Princess Radziwill. That he very
early entered the army was a matter of course,
for no other career was open to a Prussian
prince ; but that, amid all tiie distractions of a
military life, no small part of which (i 792-1806)
was spent in hard service, he shoidd have be-
come a sound practical musician and composer
proves his energy and perseverance no less than
his talent ; but music was his passion, and in gar*
risen or camp he had musicians with him and
kept up his practice. He preferred English
pianofortes, of which he is said to have purchased
no less than thirteen.
We find no account of his masters and early
studies, nor any but vague notices of his rapid
progress, until 1793. He was then with his
regiment at Frankfort, and is reported to have
aided a poor musician not only with his pone, but
by a very fine performance of a sonata in a
concert. Three years later, in 1796, Beethoven,
then in Berlin, formed that opinion of his playing
which he afterwards expressed to Ries (Biog,
Not. p. 1 10), that> though the playing of Himmel —
then among the most renowned of pianists— was
elegant and pleasing, it was not to be compared
to that of the Prinee. Ries alio (lb.) recordi
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LOUIS ^PERDINAND,
Saethoven's oomplimeni to him — ihat he' did not
play at all like a king or a prince, but like a
thorough wdid pianist. [See the article on Ddssbk
£or an account of his relations with that great
musician.] In 1804 he made a journey to Italy.
In Bohemia he visited Prince Lobkowitz at his seat,
Eaudnitz. We see no sufSdent reason to doubt
the truth of an anecdote the scene of which lay
then and there. Lobkowitz had purchased from
Beethoven the recently composed Heroic Sym-
phony, and had had it performed in his palace
at Vienna. He consulted with Wranitzky, his
Kapellmeister, as to a programme for the enter-
taimnent of his guest. Wranitzky proposed the
new symphony. Louis Ferdinand listened with
the utmost interest, and at the close of the per-
formance requested a repetition, which was of
toorse granted. After supper, having to depart
early the next morning, he besought the favour
of a third performance, which was also granted.
It was nnder the fresh impression of this
music that Louis Ferdinand renewed his ac-
quaintanoe with Beethoven. We have no par-
ticnlars of the meeting. Ries (Biog. Not. p. 1 1 ) only
relates, that an old ^ Countess, at the supper afW
a musical entertainment, excluded Beethoven
from the table set for the Prince and the nobility,
at which the composer left the house in a rage.
Some days later Louis Ferdinand gave a dinner,
and the .Countess and Beethoven being among
the guests, had their places next the Prince on
either hand, a mark of distinction of which the
composer always spoke with pleasure. A plea-
sant token of their intercourse survives in the
dedication to the Prince of the P. F. Concerto in
C minor, which was first played in July 1804,
and published in November.
In the autumn of the next year (1805), the
Prince being at Magdeburg on occasion of the
militaiy manoeuvres, Spohr was invited to join
them. 'I led,' says Spohr (Selbstbiog.), 'a
strange, wild, stirring life, which for a short time
thoroug^y suited my youthful tastes. Dussek
and I were often dragged from our beds at six
in the morning and cmled in dressing-gown and
filippors to the Prinoe*s reception room, where he,
often in shirt and drawers (owing to the extreme
heat), was already at the pianoforte. The study
and rehearsal of the music selected for thie
evening often continued so long, that the hall
was filled with ofiicers in stars and orders,
with which the costume of the musicians con-
trasted strangely enough. The Prince however
never left off until eveiything had been studied to
his satisfootion.' Louis Fer£nand's compositions,
like his playing, were distinguished for boldness,
splendour, and deep feeling; several of those
which are in print were composed before the
intercourse with Dussek had ripened his taste,
and made him more fully master of his ideas.
These he would ^adly have suppressed. The
tHanoforte Quartet in F minor is considered to
be his most perfect wcark.
Ledebor's Hst of the published compositions
(made 1861) is as follows : —
«< JM «» OsaateH Tlun. M bu M«ulM«d--«tM dtod lose betira*
LOUKB.
l«t
Op. 1. ^Intet for P.F. ud
Btriogf , 0 minor.
2. Trio for P.F.. YioIIn. ud
Cello. A b.
& Do., do.. Eb.
4. Andante, do^ Bb.
0. Quartet for P. F.. Violin,
Viola, and Oello.Eb.
(L Do., do.. F minor.
7. Fugue, 4 folx. for P.F.
aolo.
8. Moctumo for P.F., Flute,
Viollu.OeUoobli8atl, and
8 Horns ad Ub.. F.
Opk 9. Hondo for P.F.. 2 Violins.
Flute. S Clarinets, 2
Boms, Viola, and Cellar
B.
» 10. Trio for P.F.. VloUn. and
CeUo. Sb..
n IL LarKhett(lLvarlaUon^P.F..
with Violio. Viola, and
Oello. obllff.
M 12. Octet for P.F„ Clarinet. 8
Horns. 2 Violins. 2 Cello*.
., IS. Hondo for P.F.
Also a 2nd Quintet for P.F. and
Strliaffs.
[A.W.T.]
LOUUfi, Etiknitb, prot^g^ of Mile, de Guise,
and music -master, in the second half of the 17 th
century, is only known as the author of * Ele-
ments ou Principes de Musique' (Paris 1696),
at the close of which is an engraving and de*
scription of his * Chronometre.* Louli^ was the
first to attempt to indicate the exact tempo of
a piece of music by means of an instrument
beating the time. The one he invented took the
minute as the unit, and went up to 7 a degree^
of rapidity ; but being six feet in height was too
cumbrous for general use. Nevertheless tp
LouUe belongs the merit of the idea which mor^
than a century later was carried into practice by
Ma£LZEL. [G.C]
LOURE. This word, whether derived from
the Latin lura, a bag or purse, or the Danish
luur, a shepherd's flute, or merely an alteration
of the Old ifVench word outre with the article
prefixed, Coutre — signified originally a kind of
Dagpipe, conunon in many parts of France, but
especially in Normandy. The peasants of Lower
Normandy still call the stomach ' la loure,* just
as those of Normandy and Poitou call an ' outre *
or leathern wine-bottie, ' une v^ze.' Again, the
Old French words * chfevre,* *ohevrie,* •chevrette,'
were derived from cabreta in dog-latin, and
' gogue* meant an inflated bag or bladder. Those
circumstances seem to point to the conclusion
that the names of all these instruments, 'ch^vre,'
' chevrette,* * gogue,' * loure,* * vfeze,' 'saocomuse,*
etc., refer to the wind-bag, ordinarily made of
goat-skin; an argument strengthened by the
English 'bagpipe ' and the Grerman 'Sackpfeife/
' Balgpfeife, ' Dudelsack,' etc.
From its primary signification — a kind of bag*
pipe inflated from the mouth — the word ' loure *
came to mean an old dance, in slower rhythm
than the gigue, generally in 6-4 time. As this
was danced to the nasal tones of the * loure,*
the term 'lour^* was gradually applied to any
passage meant to be played in the style of the
old bagpipe airs. Thus * lourer ' is to play legato
with a slight emphasis on the first note of each
group. The ' lour^ * style is chiefly met with in
pastoral, rustic, and mountaineer music.
As an' example we give the first strain of a
Loure from Schubert's Die Tanzmusik.
Digitized by'
170
LOVATTIKI.
LOVATTINI, GiovANJO, an Italian singer,
celebrated for the most beautiful of tenor yoioes
and for hia excellent acting. He sang in London
(1767) in Piccinni'g ' Buona Figliuola,* very
strongly cast with La Guadagni and Morigi
Lo^attini continued to sing here fur ■evenJ
veara, until the end of 1 774, according to Lord
Mount-Edgcumbe ; but the present writer has
only traced him as late as 1773, when he was
singing in * La Schiava* of Picoinni and Gug-
lielmi 8 * Virtuosa.' We have no record of his
later career ; but in 1834 Lord Mount-Edgcumbe
saw, ' in the pavement of a church at Bologna, a
small square, inscribed with the three words,
Qui giace Lovattini,* [J.M.]
LOVE'S TRIUMPH. An opm» in 3 acts;
words by J. R. Planch^, after * Le Portrait vivant,*
music by W. Vincent Wallace. Produced at the
Royal English Opera, Covent Garden, C^yne and
Harrison) Nov. 3, 1862. [G.]
LOWE, Edward, was a native of Salisbury and
a chorister in the cathedral there under John
Holmes, the organist. In 1630 he succeeded
Dr. William Stonard as organist of Christ Church
Cathedral, Oxford. In 1660 he was appointed
one of the oiganists of the Chapel RoyaL In
1661 he published at Oxford * A Short Direction
for the performance of Cathedrall Service, pub-
lished for the information of such as are ignorant
of it and shall be called upon to officiate in
Cathedral or Collegiate Churches where it hath
formerly been in use, 'containing the notation of the
Preces, Responses, Litany, etc., for ordinary days,
and, under the title of ' Extraordinary Rehouses
upon Feeti vails/ a version of Tallis's Responses and
Litany, and also * Veni Creator,* harmonised for 4
voices. In 1 663, on the resignation of Dr. Wilson,
he was appointed Professor of Music at Oxford,
having been deputy for some time before. In 166^
he published 'A Review' of his * Short Direction,*
adapted to the then newly-revised Lituigy, and
including also several chants and John Parsons*s
Burial Service. This edition was eprinted by Dr.
Rimbault in 1843, and by Dr. Jebb in his 'Choral
Responses* in 1857. Low composed several an-
thems, some of which are in the Tud way collection
and at Ely Cathedral. He died at Oxford, July 1 1,
1682, and was buried in the Divinity Chapel on
the north side of the cathedral. [W. H. H.]
LOWE, Thomas, favourite tenor singer, made
his first appearance on any stage at Drury Lane,
Sept. II, 1740, as Sir John Loverule in *The
Devil to pay ' ; Oct. 1 7 he performed Macheath,
and Dec. 30 had the distinction of being the
original singer of Ame*6 beautiful songs, * Under
the greenwood tree * and * Blow, blow, Uiou winter
wind * in * As You Like It.' He was the original
singer of the following parts in Handel's ora-
torios ; — Priest of Dagon and Israelitish Man in
* Samson,* 1 743 ; First Elder in * Susanna,* 1 743 ;
Joshua, 1746; Zadok in 'Solomon,' 1749; ^^^
Septimius in 'Theodora,* 1750. In 1745 <^^
several subsequent years he sang at Vauxhall
Gardens, and in 1 763 beeame lessee and manager
of Mfjylebone Gardens, and continued so untU
LUCCA.
1 768, when an unsuoceOTfuI seasoii compelled him
in Feb. 1769 to assign his interest in the place
to trustees for the benefit of his creditors. His
powers beginning to fiul he was compelled to
accept engagements at f1nch*8 Grotto Garden,
South wark, and similar places. In 1784 he was
engaged at Sadlers* Wells. Lowe is said to have
possessed a finer voice than Beard, but to have
been inferior as musician and singer. [ W. H. H.]
LUCAS, Charles, bom at Salisbury, July 38,
1808, was a chorister in the cathedral under
Arthur Thomas Corfe from 181 5 to 1823, when
he became a pupil of the Royal Academy of
Music, and studied the violoncello under Lindley,
and harmony and composition under Lord and
Dr. Crotch. He remained there for 7 years. In
1830 he became a member of Queen Adelaide*s
private band, and composer and arranger of music
ibr it, and soon afterwards music preceptor to
Prince George (now Duke) of Cambridge and the
Princes of Saxe Weimar. In 1832 he succeeded
Cipriani Potter as conductor at the Royal Academy
of Music. He also became a member of the
opera and other orchestras as a violoncellist. In
1839 ^^ '^^ appointed organist of Hanover
Chapel, Regent Street. He was for some time
conductor of the Choral Harmonists' Society.
On the retirement of Lindley he succeeded him.
as principal violoncello at the opera, the pro-
vincial festivals, etc. From 1850 to June 30,
1865, he was a member of the music- publishing
firm of Addison^ Hollier, & Lucas. In 1859
he was appointed successor to Potter as Principai
of the Royal Academy of Music, which office he
held until July 1866, when ill health compelled
him to relinquish it. His compositions include
'The Regicide,' opera, 3 symphonies, strinff'
quartets, anthems, songs, etc. He edited ' Esther^
for the Handel Society. He died March 30,
1869. His son, Stanlbt Lucas, bom 1834, was
Secretary to Leslie's Choir from its formatioQ to
Oct. 1855 ; has been Secretary to the Royal
Society of Musicians since 1861, and to the Phil-
harmonic Society since 1866, and is otherwise
much connected with music in London. [W.H.H.]
LUCCA. In 1640 an Academy, that of the
*Aoceei,' was founded at Lucca entirely for
dramatic musical representation. [CM. P.]
LUCCA, Pauliks, one of the most brilliant
operatic artists of a brilliant epoch, is a native of
Vienna. Her high musical gifts showed them-
selves early, when, a mere child, she sang in the
choir of the Karlskirche, in 1856. .One Sunday
the principal singer was missing, and the yoong
chorister put forward to supply her place in the
solo of a mass of Mozart's, revealed a beauty of
voice and charm of style that startled all present.
She studied under Uschmann and Lewy, and
her parents being in straitened circumstances,
entered the chorus of the Opera at Vienna,
which she quitted in 1 859 to come out at OlmQts.
Just before leaving, it fell to her to lead the
Bridesmaids' Chorus in the Freischtttx, her per-
formance creatine a sensation that made Vienna
oager to retain her ; but it was too late. Oa
Digitized by VjOOQIC
LUCCA.
Sept. 4, 1859, she made her d^but at Olmiitz as
Elvira in * Ernani/ and there became a &vourite
at once. lo March 1 860 she appeared at Prague
as Valentine in ' The Huguenots,' and as Norma.
The fame of a young singer of rare gifts, includ-
ing the rarest of all, original genius, reached
Meyerbeer in Berlin, then vainly seeking an
artist to whom he could entrust the unconven*
tional rdle of Selika in his yet unpublished
*Africaine.' At his instigation Mile. Lucca was
engaged for Berlin, where she first appeared in
April 1 86 1, and soon roused an enthusiasm rarely
equalled by any former singer. She studied the
r6le of Selika and others under' Meyerbeer's per-
sonal supervision. At Berlin she was engaged
as Court singer for life ; and on July 18, 1863,
made her first appearance in this country, at
Covent Garden, in the part of Valentine, creating
an extraordinary impression, which was further
enhanced by her performance of Margherita, in
'Faast>' during her second fleeting visit to our
shores the following year. Li July 1865 the
Africaine was produced at Covent Garden, and
MUe. Lucca*8 impersonation of Selika must be
ranked among the very highest achievements
in the lyrical drama. She reappeared in London
every season (excepting 69) up to 1873 ; and
sang throiighout Germany with triumphant
BUGoees, and at St. Petersburg, where she was
received with the wildest enthusiasm. Her voice,
a full soprano, with « compass of 2} octaves
extending easily to C in alt, and sympathetic
throughout, seemed capable of taking every gcade
of expression ; and to her rare lyrical endowments
she united one still rarer — a genius for represen-
tation. In London, besides the parts specified
above, she was heard mostly in Zerlina (Fca
DiavoJo), Leonora (Favorita), and Cherubino; but
Berim knew better the extent of a repertoire said
to include over 56 rdles. Auber was so delighted
with her singing of his music, that he presented
her with the pen with which ' Fra Biavolo ' was
written, in token of his admiration. Meyerbeer
pronounced her a very David Garrick, and no
wonder. To each impersonation she imparted a
specifio individuality, presenting characters as
directly opposed as Cherubino and Selika,
Hal^vy*8 Juive and Nicolai's Merry Wife of
Windsor, Wagner's £lsa, and Angela in the
'Domino Noir,* with the same truth, natural ease,
sod vivid originality ; whilst to colourless rdles,
such as Agata in the FreischUts, she gave a
distinct personality and charm. In 1873 she
levered her connection with Berlin, and went to
America, where she remained two years, on an
operatic tour through the States. She returned
to Europe in 1874, ^^ ^ang at all the chief cities
of Germany, except Berlin. At Vienna, where
she now resides, she has remained one of the
chief attractions of each season. Besides starring
c'&gAgements in Germany, she appeared in Brus-
•bIs 1876. St. Petersburg and Moscow 1877, and
Madrid 1878. At Vienna she has recently added
^onna Anna, Carmen, and Madeleine in *Le
Postilion,* to her list of successful parts. In
1865 ^ married Baron Rahder. [B. T.]
L©BECK.
LUCCHESINA, Maria A:
siNi, DBTTA LA, an Italian m<
sang in London, 1737-39. In
she played y^ofimonda in Handel'
in the following year, beside other
Arsamene, a male character, in * Serse'
sang the music of David in 'Saul' on its HTsT/
production, Jan. 16, 1 7 39 . [J. M!j ** '
LUCIA DI LAMMERMOOR. Opera in 3
acts; libretto by Cammarano, music by Doni-
sBetti. Produced at Naples in 1835; in Paris, in
4 acts (words by A. Royer and Waez't, at the
Theatre de la Renaissance, Aug. 10, 1839, ^^^
the Acad^mie-royale Feb. 20, 1846; in London,
at Her Majesty's, April 5, 1 838 ; in English, at
Princess's theatre, Jan. 19, 1843. [G.]
LUCID SILLA. A Dramma per musica, in
3 acts; libretto by G. da Camera, music by
Mozart. Produced at Milan Dec. 26, 1772— the
last which he wrote for Italy, [G.]
LUCREZIA BORGIA. Opera in 3 acts;
libretto adapted by Roman! firom Victor Hugo's
drama, music by Donizetti. Produced at La S(»tla,
Milan, Spring, 1834; given at Th^tre Italien,
Paris, Oct. 37, 1840. Victor Hpgo then stopped
the performance, and the words were re* written
under the title of ' La Rinegata.' In England it
was produced (in 2 acts) at Her Majesty's theatre
June 6, 1 839, for the d^ut of Mario ; in English,
at Princess's theatre, Dec. 30, 1843. [G.]
LtJBECK, Charles H., conductor and vio-
linist, bom Feb. 11, 1799, at Alssen, near Dus-
seldorf ; held the post of Kapellmeister at the
Hague until his death, Feb. 11,1 866. His eldest
son, Ebnst Heuwioh, a very distinguished pianist,
was bom 1829, and first appeared in public at
1 2 years of age, when he played Beethoven's ,
Eb Concerto. He made a tour to the United
States, Mexico and Peru, which lasted from 1S49
to 1 85 2. On his retum he was made Court pianist
at the Hague. In 1855 he moved to Paris,
where he principally resided untU driven from
the city by the disturbances of the Conuuune,
which gave a shock to his brain from which it
never recovered. He became at length hopelessly
insane, and died Sept. 17, 1876. He wrote only
for piano. Among his compositions are the fol-
lowing:— Berceuse in Ab, op. 13; Tarentelle;
Polonaise, op. 14; 'Trilby the l^rite, IWv^rie
caracteristique.' The two former wore chosen,
by him for performance at the Philharmonic
Concert May 7, i860, when he also played'
Mendelssohns Concerto in G minor. In the
same year he first appeared at the Musical Union.
His playing was distinguished for brilliancy and
technique. Berlioz says of him : ' Son talent est
tout k fait extraordinaire, non seukment par nn
m^canisme prodig^eux, mais par on style musical
exoellent et irreprochable. Cost la verve unie k la
raison, la force unie k la souplesse ; c'est brillant,
p^ndtrant, et dlastique conome une lame d'^p^e.'
His brother, Louis, bom 1832 at the Hague,
was for some years teacher of the violoncello
at the Leipzig Conservatorium, until about 1872,
when h^ moved to Frankfort. [J . A. F. M.j
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
m
LUISA MILtEB.
LUtSA MILLER. Opera in 4 acts ; libretto
(from Schiller's ' Cabale und Liebe*) by Camar-
rano, muBic by Verdi. Produced at Naples
December, 1849. Given in French at the Grand
Opera, Paris, as * Louise Miller,' Feb. a, 1853 ;
in English, at Sadlers* WeUs, June 3, and in
Italian, at Her Majesty's, June 8, 1858 — both as
•Luisa Miller.' [G.]
LULLI, or LULLY, Jean Baptiste, the first
French composer of a series of operas, son of Lo-
renzo de' Lulli, a gentleman of Florence, and Gata-
rina del Serta, was bom at or very near Florence
in 1633, though the precise date is unknown, the
certificate of his baptism not having been dis-
covered. An old Franciscan monk gave the gifted
but mischievous child some elementary instruc-
tion, and taught him the guitar and the rudiments
of music. The Chevalier de Guise took him to
France, and having entered the service of Mile, de
Montpensier — *Ia Grande Mademoiselle' — in
the kitchen, Lully employed his leisure in learn-
ing the songs of the day and playing them upon
his violin. As his talent becsmae known he was
promoted from the kitchen to the Princess's
band, where hereon distanced the other violin*
ists. Mademoiselle, having discovered that he
had composed the air of a satirical song at her
expense, promptly dismissed him ; but his name
was sufficient to procure him a place in the
King's band. Here some airs of his composition
80 pleased Louis XIV that he established on
purpose for him a new band, called 'les petits
violons,* to distinguish it from the large band of
24 violins. His new post enabled him to perfect
himself as a solo-player, and gave him valuable
practice as a conductor and composer far the
orchestra. Baptiste, as he was then called, had
common sense as well as ambition, and soon
perceived that without deeper study he oould
not make full use of his talents. To remedy his
defective education he took lessons on the cla*
^jrecin and in composition from the orgamists
M^tru, Gigault, and Boberdel ; and at the same
time lost no opportunity of ingratiating himself
with men of rank, a useful process for which he
had a special gift. He was soon chosen to com-
pose the music for the court ballets, in which
Louis XIV himself danced, and after the success
of * Alcidiane' (1658), words by Benscrade, was
commissioned to write the divertissements for
* Sersfe,' an Italian opera by Cavalli, performed
at the Louvre (Nov. 22, 1660) in honour of the
King's recent marriage with Marie Th^r^se of
Austria (June 9 previous), and, a year and a
half later, the ballets for 'Ercole amante,' an-
other opera by Cavalli, performed at the opening
of the magnificent 'Salle de spectacles' at the
Tuilleries (Feb. 7, 1662). It was by studying
the works of this Venetian composer, and ob-
serving his method, that Lully laid the founda-
tion of his own individual style. In composing
the divertissements for ' Le Manage forc^,' * Pour-
oeaugnac,' and * Le Bourgeois G«ntilhomme,' he
made good use of the feeling for rhythm which
he had imbibed from CavaUi, and also endea-
f oured to make his music express the life and
LtJLLL
variety of Molibre's situations uid characters.
The exquisitely comic scene of the polygamy
in 'M. de Pourceaugnac ' is in itself sufficient
evidence of the point to which he had attained,
and of the glorious friture which awaited him.
From 1658 to 1671 — the year in which Moli^re
produced his tragedy-ballet * Psyche * — Lully com^
posed no less than 30 ballets, all unpublished.^
These slight compositions, in which Lully took
part with considerable success as dancer and
comic actor, confirmed him in the favour of Louis
XIV, who successively appointed him composer
of his instrumental music, 'surintendant' of his
chamber music, and in 1662 'maltre de musique'
to the royal family. But neither these lucrative
posts nor his constantly increasing reputation
were sufficient to appease his insatiable ambition.
With all his genius he posseg&ed neither honour
nor morals, and would resort to any base ex-
pedient to rid himself of a troublesome rival.
His envy had been roused by the privilege con-
ceded to the Abb^ Perrin (June 28, 1669) of
creating an 'Academic de Musique,' and was
still further excited by the success of Cambert'a
operas 'Pomone,' and 'Les Peines et les Plaisirs
de r Amour* (1671). With the astuteness of a
courtier Lully took advantage of the squabbled
of the numerous associ^-directeurs of the opera,
and with the aid of Mme. de Montespan, pro-
cured the transference of Perrin's patent to him-
self (March 1671). Once master of a theatre,
the man whom honest Boileau branded as a
' coeur bas,' a * coquin t^ndbreux,' and a ' bouffon
odieux,' proved his right to a phice in the first
rank among artists, though as a man he could
claim neither sympathy nor respect. In Hie
poet QuinauH he was fortunate enough to dis-
cover a coUdborateur of extraordinary merits and
in conjunction witii him Lully in the space of 14
years composed 20 operas or divertissements, of
which the following is a list : —
U Le Triomphe de rAmoor.
BaUeW April 19. 1681.
18. 7er*^ 6 acts. April 17. 16fi8.
IS. Fha^n. 6actk April 27. 168S.
14. Atnadk de Gaule. 6 acta. Jan.
in. BoUnd. 5 acts. Feb. 8. 168&
!«. It^lle tur la Pab. DlTeitlsBe-
ment, 16%.
17. L'Egloffue de Venainei. DI>
vertlssement. 16BBw
18. Le Temple de la Faiz. BaUef.
Sept. 12. 1<8&
19. Annlde et Renand. S acts.
Feb. 15. 16M.
20. Ads et Galat^. 8 acta. Sept.
n.iwa.
The variety of subjects in this list is sur-
prising, but Lully was perfectly at home with all,
passing easily firom lively and humorous divei^
tissements to scenes of heroism and pathos, firom
picturesque and dramatic music to downright
comedy, and treating all styles with equal power.
He revolutionised the ballets de la oour, re-
placing the slow and stately airs by lively alle-
gros, as rapid as the pirouettes of the danseusee
1 Fhnidor's predoos MS. coUecttoo in the library of the Paris Coa>
serratolre de Mudque oonUliis the music of sereral of these dWcr>
tlsMments. Oeller published that of *Le Mariage foni.' for P.F..
in 18B7; and that of 'Le Bourgeoa GeatUhomme ' bas reoeDtly bee^
, arranged fcr F.F. Qm)»
1. Les FMes de I'Amour et de
Baocbufr(pa9tloclo). 8 acta.
NOV.1M67S.
2. Cadmus et Hermlone. 6 acta.
Feb, 1673.
3. Alceste. 0 acta. Jan. 2. 1674.
4. Th^e. 6 acta. Jan. 11, 1675.
6. Le CamavaL Masquerade
(pasticcio). Oct. 17, 1675.
6. Aiju 6 acts. Jan. 10. 1676.
7. M*. 5 acts. Jan. 6, VfTI.
8. Piych^. 5 acts. April9,lffn.
t. Betl^rophon. S acts. Jan. 31,
1679.
10. Proserpine. 6 acta. Not. 19,
1090.
Digitized by
Google
JCULLn
\rbMk he introdneed on the stage; to thd grdat
delight of the spectaton. For the 'recitativo
aeooo* of the Italians he substituted accompanied
recitative, and in this veiy important part of
French opera scrupulously oonfonued to the rules
of prosody, and left modeU of correct and striking
declamation. On the other hand, he made no
attempt to vary the form of his airs, but slavishly
cat them all after the fftshion set by Cavalli in his
opeana, aod by Rossi, and Carissimi in their can-
tatas. But although the * chanson h couplets/ the
' sir-complain te* (or 'arioso' as we call it), and the
'air dedam^* — afterwards brought to such per-
fection by Gluck — unduly predominate in his
works, that monotony of form is redeemed by a
neatness of execution and a sweetness of expres-
non worthy of all praise. He thoroughly under-
stood the stage — witness the skill wi^ which he
mtroduces his choruses ; had a true sense of pro-
portion, and a strong feeling for the picturesque.
The fact that his works are not forgotten, but
are still republished, in spite of the progress of
the lyric drama during the last aoo years, is suffi-
cient proof of his genius. Not but that he has
serious faults. His iustramentation, though often
laboured, is poor, and his harmony not always
correct : a great sameness of treatment disfigures
his operas, and the same rhythm and the same
eounterpolnt serve to illustrate the rage of Bo-
land and the rocking of Charon's boat. Such
fanlts are obvious to us; but they were easily
passed over at such a period of musical revolution.
It is a good maxim that in criticising works of
art of a bygone age we should put them back in
Iheir original frames ; and according to this rule
we have no right to demand from the composer
of 'Th^s^* 'Atys,' 'Isis,' 'Phaeton,' and 'Ar-
mide* outbursts of passion or agitation which
would have disturbed the solenm majesty of his
royal master, and have outraged both stage pro-
priety and the strict rules of court etiquette.
The cliief business of the King's Surintcndant de
la musique undoubtedly was to please his master,
who detested brilliant passages and lively melo-
dies; and making due allowance for these cir-
cumstanoes we affirm that Lully*s operas exhibit
the grace and charm of Italian melody and a
constant adherence to that good taste which is
the ruling spirit of French declamation. Such
qualities as these will always be appreciated by
impartial critics.
Lolly was also successful in sacred music.
Ballard published his motets for double choir in
1684, and a certain number of his sacred pieces,
copied by Philidor, exist in the libraries of Ver-
lailles and of the Conservatoire. Mme. de Se-
rign^*s admiration of his 'Miserere' and 'Li-
bera' (Letter, May 6, 1672) is familiar to all.
Equally well known^ the manner of his death.
While conducting a Te Deum (Jan. 8, 1687) in
honour of the King's recovery from a severe ill-
ness, he accidentally struck his foot with the
h&ton ; an abscess followed ; the quack in whose
hands he placed himself proved incompetent, and
lie died in his own house in the Rue de la Ville-
VE?6que on Saturday, March 23.
IIULIX
U3
As both'Surintendant d6 la fnuaique a&d secre-
tary to Louis XIV, Lully was in high favour at
court, and being extremely avaricious, used his
opportunities to amass a huge fortune. At his
death he left 4 houses, all in the best quarters of
Paris, besides securities and appointments valued
at 342,000 livres (about £14,000). His wife
Madeleine, daughter of Lambert the singer, whom
he married July 24, 1662, and by whom he had
three sons and three daughters, shared his econo-
mical tastes. For once laying aside their parsi-
monious habits, his family erected to his memory
a splendid monument surmounted by his bust,
which still exists in the lefb-hand chapel of the
church of the 'Petits P^ree,' near the Place
des Yictoires. Cotton > was the sculptor, and
the well-known Latin epitaph was composed by
Santeul : —
Perfida Inors, inimioa, audax, temeraria et excora,
Crudeliaque, e cceca probris te absolvimus irtia,
Kon de te querimur tua sint haec mnnia magna.
Bed qoando per te po]>ali regiaque voluptaa,
Kon ante auditis lapuit qui cantibos orbem
LtJLLlCS eripitur, querimur modo surda fuistL
'Lulli musicien,' a pamphlet to which both
F^tis and the author of this article are greatly
indebted, was chiefly compiled by the Provost
d'Exmes from various articles written by S^nec^,
de Fresneuse, and Titon du Tillet. There are
many portraits of Lully, of which the best-known
are those engraved by Edelinck, Thomas, St.
Aubin (from the bust by Colignon), and Desro-
chers. Mignard's portrait of him hiis been lost,
and the full-length engraving by Bonnard, which
forms the frontispiece to the score of * Psyche,'
published by Fourcault, is now extremely scarce.
Our engraving is copied fri>m Edelinck.
LuUy's eldest son, Louis, bom in Paris Aug.
4, 1664, died about 1715, composed with his bro-
ther Jean Louis ' Z^phire et Flore,' 5 acts (168 8),
1 Not Coatoo, u F^tU lutf called him. ^
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174
LULU.
revived in 1 71 5; by himself, 'Orpli^' (1690), a
fikilure ; and with Marais, * Alcide/ 5 acts, buc-
oeBflfullv produced in 1693, and revived as * La
Mort dHercule* in 1705. as 'La Mort d'Alcide*
in 1716, and again under its original title in
1744. He also composed with Oolasse a 4-aot
ballet, * Les Saiaons,' the memory of which has
been preserved by one of J. B. Rousseau's satires ;
and a cantata, ' Le Triomphe de la Baison,* per-
formed at Fontainebleau in 1703.
His brother, Jean Louis, third son of the
great composer, and a musician of considerable
promise, med in 1688, aged ai. His father a
court appointments devolved on him, and on his
death his brother became 'Surintendant* and
'Compositeur de la chambre du roi/ to which
posts he owed the slender reputation he suc-
ceeded in acquiring. [G.C.]
LUMBYE, Hans GHBisnAN, Danish com-
poser of marches and dance-music, bom 1808 in
Copenhagen. Like Strauss and Lanner he had
an orchestra, which, when not travelling pro-
fessionally, has been engaged since 1848 at the
iHvoli near Copenhagen. Besides his many
marches and dances ('Krolls Ballklange*; 'Bine
Sonmieniacht in Banemark ' ; ' Der Traum des
Savoyarden,* etc.), still popular, he composed an
opera 'Die Hexenflote. On his retirement in
1865, he was created a Kriegsrath. He died
March 20, 1874. His sod Georo now enjoys
nearly as great a popularity in Copenhagen as his
father onoe did. [F. G.]
LUMLEY, Benjamin, bom in i 8t a, was bred
to the law, and in Nov. 1832 admitted a solicitor.
Being concerned for Laporte he became mixed up
with the affairs of the Opera, and on Li^rte s
death in 1 841 was induced to become its manager.
Pursuing a policy initiated by his predecessor, he
gave prominence to the ballet to the neglect of
the opera, and in a few years had so alienated
his performers that at the end of the season of
1840 nearly the whole of his principal singers,
band, and chorus, seceded and joined the newly
formed establishment at Covent Garden. The
popuUrity of Jenny Lind sustained -him during
the next three seasons; and after her retirement
from the stage in 1849, ^^ return of Sontag to
public life enabled hiim to maintain his position
for a time, but afterwards the fortune of the
house waned, until, at the end of the season of
1852, the manager was compelled to dose the
theatre imtil 1856, when the burning of Covent
Garden induced him again to try his fortune.
He struggled on for tiuree seasons, but at the
end of 1858 was forced to submit. He produced
during his period of management the following
operas for the first time in England — Donizetti's
'Figlia del Reffgimento,' *Don Pasquale,* 'Linda
di Chamounix,^iid 'Favorita'; Verdi's 'Emani,'
* Attila,* • Nabucco,' 'Traviata,' * Trovatore,' and
* Magnadieri'; Costa's 'Don Carlos,' and Halevy's
* Tempeeta' : and introduced, among others, the
following singers — Jenny Lind, Tadolini, Frezzo-
lini, Cruvelli, Parodi, Castellan, Johanna Wagner,
Piccolomini, Tietjens, Gardoni, Calzolari, Fras-
chiniy GiugUni, Fomasari, Bouconi, and Belletti. ,
LTJPOT.
After his retirement he returned to fna original
profession. In 1864 he published an account of
his managerial oan»er, under the title of ' Remi-
nisoenoet of the Opera* (Hurst and Blackett,
1864). He died March 17. 1875. [W.H.H.] -
LUPO, Thomas, violinist, was one of the
musicians of James I. and afterwards entered the
service of Prince Henry at a salary of ^£40 per
annum. Li 1607 he assisted Dr. Campion in the
composition of the music for his masque on the
marriage of Lord Hayes. [See Campion.] On
the death of Prince Henry he was retained by
his brother Charies. In 1614 be contributed
two piece* to Leighton's 'Teares or Lamenta-
cions. In 1622, having ' by casual means fallen
into decay,' he petition^ Prince Charles for an
advance of £30 ' to satisfy his creditors,' which
he obtained, as well as a further advance of £20
on May 17 of the same year. He continued in
Charlea's service aft^ his accession, and held his
poet for many years. His name occurs in two
warrants dated Dec. 20, 1625, and April 17, 1641,
exempting the King's musicians fix>m payment
of Bubsidiee. He composed anthems, madrigals,
songs and fancies, some of which are preserved
in the MSS. in the library of Christ Church,
Oxford. Joseph Lupo^ probably a relative, was
a composer of fancies, and author of commenda-
tory verses prefixed to John Mimdy's ' Songs and
Psalmes/ 1594. [W.H.H.]
LUPOT, Nicolas^ the most famous of French
violin-makers. The fieunily came from the village
of Mireoourt in the Yoeges mountains, which has
for three centuries or more been the seat of a
violin manufacture. Jean Lupot, the great«
grandfather of Nicolas, was a violin-maker
here. His son Laubent, bom 1696, eetablidied
himself in the trade at Lun^ville (i 751-1756)
and Orleans (1756-1762). FRAN9013, son of
Laurent, first worked with his father at Lun^
ville, and in 1 758 migrated to Stuttgart, where
he remained for twelve years as fiddle-maker in
ordinary to the Grand Duke of Wirtemboi^g. In
1770 he returned, and settled at Orleans. He
was the father of two sons, Nicolas, the 'French
Stradivarius,' bom at Stuttgart in 1758, and
FRAN901S, in his time a reputable bow-maker,
bom at Orleans in 1774. Nicolas began his
career early. We have good instruments made
by him at Orleans (Rue d'HUers), before he had
completed his twentieth year. These juvenile
instruments are cheap in Paris at 500 francs.
in 1 794 Nicolas Lupot removed to Paris and
set up a shop in the Kue de Grammont (1798-
1803). He afterwards removed to the Hue
Croix des Petits Champs, where he made those
famous copies of the great Italian makers on
which his reputation'rests. Lupot wisely dropped
all pretensiona to originality, and became the
first of copyists. His &vourite pattern was
the Stradivarius : his few copies of Guamerius
violins are less successful. Many instnnnents are
signed with his autograph. He made several
quintets of two violins, two tenors, and bass, to
which he sought to give a perfect unity of tone
and appearance. These quinteta fetch fancy
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LTTPOT.
firioet : tmt Any Lapot violin dated ftom 1805 to
1824 18 worth from 1000 to laoo francs. The
violoneelloa are rarer : a handsome one is worth
3000 francs, Nicolas Lopot ranked in his time
M the first of lus trade in Europe. Spohr, who
long played on one of his violms, reoommends
him as a maker. His weakest point is his yar-
nish. He employed several kinds : the. usual one
is a thick and not very transparent oil varnish,
which is sometimes badly dried, and presents
a rough and lumpy appearance. Lupot died in
1834. His business descended to his son-in-law,
Charles FrancisGand: and the present well-known
makers. Gand uid Bemardel, ai Rue Croix dee
Petits Champs, correctly describe themselves as
the 'Ancienne Maison Lupot, 1798.' Francois
Lnpot, the bow-maker, and brother of Nicolas,
mvented the ' coulisse,* or metal groove attached
to the ' nut,' and carefully fitted to the stick, on
which it works. He died in 1837, leaving as
his successor Dominique Peccate, who ranks as
the best bow-maker after Tourte. [E.J. P.]
LURLINE. Grand legendary opera in 3 acts ;
words by E. Fitzball, music by W. Vincent
WsBace. Produced at the Boyal English Opera,
Covent Garden, Feb. 33. i860. [G.]
LUSINGANDO. or LUSINGHIERO. Uter-
slly 'flattering' or 'coaxing,* whence its musical
mA^nmy cooiee to be ' iu a soft tender manner,'
rKembling Amoroso in character, except that the
Utter is generally used at the beginning of move-
ments, and the former as applying only to a short
pssisge. Beethoven uses it m the Quartet, op.
1 5 1 , in the slow movement (no. 4), where the entry
of the second subject is marked 'Andante mode-
nto e lusinghiero.* Lusingando is a very favour*
ite directioQ of Weber'% occurring in the Piano
Sonata op. 4, first movement, *tranquillo e lu-
singando,' in L'invitation k la Yalse, where the
coquettish second subject reappears pianissimo
in C major, and in several other places. Chopin
QMS it in the Rcmdo in F (in 3-4 time). [J.A.F.M.]
LUSTIGEN WEIBER VON WINDSOR,
DIE. An opera in 3 acts ; words from Shakspeare,
by Moeenthal, music by Otto NicolaL Produced
at Berlin in May 1849; in London, at Her
Hsjesty*s (in Italian), as ' Falstaff,* May 3,
i8^; and in Paris at the Th^tre Lyrique as
'Les Joyeuses Commutes de Windsor,* May 35,
^. The overture is the strongest part of the
work. [G.]
LUTE (Ft. Luth ; Ital. Iduto ; Germ. Laute ;
Spuuah Laud; Port. Alaude), A lai^ge and
beautiful stringed instrum^it with a long neck
and fretted fingerboard; at one time much in
nee, but now obsolete. In mediaeval Latin the
lute is called TeUudo and the guitar Cithara,
haOk inaccurate identifications of ancient Greek
instruments of very different construction. [See
Ltbe.] The lute is of Oriental origin, and its
Arabic name AVud — from which its European
names are derived by the omission of the initial
vowel of the definite 'artkde Al, The Portu-
> Inttw Mme mj XT-art. tbe oedar, twoasM In Enslbh Lart^
JiUTE.
175
guese Alaude alone retains it The lute became
known throughout the West in the time of the I
Crusades. We class the Russian Kobsa as a
lute : while the Balalaika of the same country is
of the guitar kind. As in the viol di gamba and
violoncello, the formal difference between a lute
and a guitar is to be found in the back, which in \
the lute is pear-shaped and in the guitar is flat. [
The lute is without ribs, which are essential to the
framing of the guitar. [See Guitar.]
The invention of stnnged instruments with
fingerboards, or the neck serving as a finger-
board, precedes the earliest histori^ monuments.
The long-necked Egyptian Nefer was certainly
depicted in the 4th dynasty; and wall-painting
of the time of Moses, preserved in the British
Museum, shows that it then had freta. We
observe a similar instrument in Assyrian monu-
ments, and the Hebrew Nebel has been supposed
to be one. Strangely enough the Greeks had it
not. The Arabs derived the lute from Persia, and
with the instrument a finesse in the division of
the octave into smaller parts than our semitones,
rendered possible by the use of fr-ets, and still an
Asiatic peculiarity ; the best authorities assuring
us that the modem Arabian ud and tambura
are thus adjusted. It is usual to speak of these
fractions as ^ of a tone. Kiesewetter however
('Musique des Arabes,* Leipzig, 184a, pp. 32, 33)
gives the Persian-Arab scale as a dividnn of 1 7
in the octave; 13 of the intervals being the Py-
thagorean limma (not quite our equal semitone),
and 5 of the dimension of the comma, an inter-
val, tiiough small, quite recognisable by a trained
ear. [See Comma.] Mr. Engel ('Musical Instru-
ments,* 1874, p. 60) states that the Arabs became
acquainted with the Persian lute before their
conquest of the country, and names an Arab
musician who, sent to the Persian king to learn
singing and performance on the lute, brought it
to M&ka in the 6th c^itury of our era. The
strings of the Arab lute are of twisted silk, an
Asiatic, especially Chinese, material for strhigs.
The same, bound round the neck, has served for
the frets. [See Frets.] The modem Egyptian
lute, named ^oud or e*oud, of which there is a
spedmen at South Kensington, and an excellent
woodcut in Lane's ' Modem Egyptians,* chap, v.,
has seven pairs of gut strings, and is moreover
pUiyed with a plectrum of eaglets or vulture*s
quill.
The Western lute was a Medieval and a Renais-
sance instmment. It flourished during the crea-
tive period of Grothic architecture and later, its
star beginning to pale as the violin quartet arose,
and setting ^together when the pianoforte be-
came in general use. There were publications
for the lute as late as 1740—6 Sonatas by Falken-
hagen, Nuremberg; and, 1760, Gdlert's Odes
by Beyer. The great J. S. Bach himself wrote
three sets of pieces for the lute. Carl F. Becker
has described them in 'Die Hausmusik in
Deutschland,' Leipsig 1840. He gives (p. 54)
their titles— 'Partita al Liuto, composta del Sign.
J. S. Bach ' (in C minor), ' Pieces pour le Lut^
J sobMrretbe elision of the eoMoDMit.
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M
tUTE'.
/
bar J. S. Bach ' ; lastly. ' Foga del ignore J. S.
Bach ' (in G minor), of which the subject —
is to be found in a violin sonata by the same
composer. These lute pieces were in MS. May
we think with Becker that it was not improbable
that Bach played the lute ?
To proceed to the description of the instrument.
The pear-shaped or vaulted body of the lute is
built up of staves of pine or cedar. The belly, of
pine, has a sound-post beneath the bridge, like a
violin, and one or more sound-bars for support
and to assist the resonance. It is graduated in
thickness towards the edges and is pierced with
from one to three sound-holes in decorative knots
or rose patterns. Great pains were evidently taken
in choosing and making this very essential part
of the instrument. Attached to the body ia a
•lilTTE.
neck of moderate length covered by a finger-boanf
divided by frets of brass or catgut into a measured
scale. The strings were entirely of catgut until
towards the end of the 17th century, when silver
spun bass strings were introduced. /There would
appear by comparison of old lutesr to have been
much diversity in the stringing and tuning, and
there is a broad division in the large latee between
those notes, generally in pairs of unisons, which
lie over the finger-board and frets, and the
diapason notes that are not stopped, and serve
only to determine the key or modulation. When
off the finger-board these deeper strings were at«
tached to pegs elevated by a second and higher
neck. These extended instruments became known
as theorboes, and in time virtually banished the
older single necked lutes. [See Chitarrone,
Theorbo, and Archlute, the bass theorbo.]
The fingers of the right hand, without a plectrum^
touched the strings piesicato in melody or chorda.
The tender charm and colouring of the lute-
player*s tone can, in these days of exaggerated
sonorousness, be scarcely imagined. — The frets
of the finger-board followed a division by half-
tones, and in the old lutes were eight to each
pair of strings. Later, as will be presently
shewn, they were carried £u*ther in the higher
strings. Mace (Musick's Monument; London,
1676, p. 50) said nine was the best number, but
there was a limitation to this stopping nearer
the bridge, by the proportions of the strings in
length, thickness, and weight being unduly dis-
turbed to the detriment of the tone. According
to Baron (' Untersuchung des Instruments der
Lauten,* Nurembeig, 1727) and an older authority,
Praetorius, the lute had originally four open
notes (a) ; in course of time two G's were added
(&). Melchior Neusiedler of Augsburg, who was
living A.D. 1574, added the F below the bass G,
making thirteen strings in all, the highest, or
Chanterelle, being a single string. This compass
Baron calls Gamaut, and the deeper bass stnngs
}^e calls Brummer or Bombarte, the finer ones
Bombartlein. Brummer was usually applied,
and the appellations in Crerman, Italian, and
English were as follows : —
G. Quintsaite. — Canto. — ^Treble.
D. Kleinsangsaite. — Sottana. — Small Mean* .
A. GroBsangsaite. — Mezzana. — Great Mean.
F. Kleinbrummer. — Tenore. — Counter Tenor*
C, Mittelbrummer. — ^Bordone. — Tenor,
G. Grossbrummer. — Basso. — ^Baes.
At page 1 2 2 of his work. Baron gives the com*
pass of an ' eleven course* lute thus,
the two highest (the melody strings) being single,
the remainder pairs. His division of the finger-
board has ten frets for the F ; eleven for the G ;
and twelve for each of the highest six. TherQ ia
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LUTE.
-thus a ocHnpaas of 5I octaveB from C below the
bus stave to the F on the fifth line of the treble
stave. We gather further from him that this
tuning would represent *cammer,* or theatre
pitch ; for the * chor/ or church pitch, the chan-
terelle would be tuned to the treble G, to the
(greater peril of the strings. Praetorius (* Oigano-
graphia,* WolfenbiitteU 161 9, p. 49) has 6 for
the chanterelle. There were, at last, thirteen
pairs of strings in large lutes, descending at the
tuner^s pleasure to the deep A or G. Mace (p. 41)
explains a large compass of strings as bringing
the stopping * to a natural form and aptitude for
the hand.' There were other tunings besides
the above D minor. Mace gives a new French
timing in £ minor, and a * flat * tuning which he
prefSoned ; referring to that we quote from Baron
<6) as the old lute, theorbo, or viol-way : but he
-wisely remarks (p. 191) * that tuning upon any
instrument which allows the artist most scope,
freedom and variety, with most ease and fami-
liarity, to express his conceptions most fully
and completely, without limitation or restraint
throughout all Uie keys, must needs be accounted
the best.'
It must have been veiy troublesome to keep a
lute in order. Mace, in his often-quoted work,
recommends that a lute should be kept in a
bed which is in constant use, and goes on to
say that once in a year or two, if you have not
very good luck, you will be constrained to have
the l^lly taken c^ as it will have sunk from the
stretch of the strings, ' which is a great strength.'
Matheson said a lutenist of eightv y^urs old had
certainly spent sixty in tuning his instrument,
and tha^ the cost in Paris of keeping a horse or
a lute was about the same. Baron replied that
tlie horse would soon be like one of Pharaoh's
lean kine.
In Italian lutes of early date the tuning pegs
were disposed diagonally across the h^ in
two rows, the projections for tuning being at the
back, lliey were afterwards inserted at the side
of the head as in a violin, the head being bent
back at an obtuse or even a right angle to the neck.
Ultimatdy metal screws replaced the pegs, but
only when large single strings were put on instead
of double strings. The lute is now esteemed
solely for the great beauty of its form and design.
Inlays of various hard woods, tortoiseshell, ivory,
and mother of pearl, and sometimes painting on
the soimd-board, have been employed to decorate
them.yThrough their decorative value many lutes
have ^een preserved : the violin makers have
however destroyed more for the sake of the wood,
which is prized for repairing old fiddles. Lutes
Mid viols having been made by the same artists,
the word luthur in French still designates a
maker of violins (compare German LutJur),
13ie lute-player had not our musical notation ;
mtems special to the instrument, and known as
Tablatubb, being long in vogue. Many instruo*
iion books were written for the lute, with ex-
amples in tablature ; the oldest known to exist
in this country is the * Lauttenbuch ' of Wolf
Heckel (Strasburg, 156a) preserved in the Library
VOL. n.
LUTENIST.
177
of the Sacred Harmonic Sodeiy. The next in
order of date is in the British Museum, being an
English translation by F. K. (London, 1574), of
the famous Tutor of Adrien Le Boy, whidi had
appeared in Paris in 155 1. There is another in
the same library by Thomas Robinson, written in
the form of a dialogue (London, 1603). We must
not omit the treatise by Thomas Mace (London,
1676) to which we have so frequently referred.
Praetorius, in his Oi^nographia, was careful to
describe the then (1610) fimiiliar lute. He giv^
(p. 51) a graduated uunily of lutes with their
quints or chanterelles wluch show how much
variety in size and scale was permitted. They
are— (i) Klein Octav (a) ; (a) Klem Discant {b) ;
(3) Discant (c) ; (4) Recht Chorist oder Alt (d) ;
(5) Tenor (e) ; (6) Bass (/) ; (7) Gross Gctav
(a) (6) (c) (d) (e) i/)^ (g)_
Thus it will be seen that the lute generally knowil
and described here, the ' French' lute of Mace, is
the Alto lute. Yincentio Galilei, the &ther of
the astronomer, was the author of a dialogue on
the lute (Venice, 1583). Other noteworthy con-
tinental publications were by Judenkunig, Vienna,
1523; Getle, l^uremberg, 1 545 ; Hans Neudedler,
Nuremberg, 1556; Melchior Neusiedler, 1574;
Ochsenkhuns, Heidelberg, 1558 ; Kargel, Strass-
burg, 1586; Besardus, (>)logne, 1603 ; Campion,
Paris, 1 710; and Baron, Nurembei^ (already
quoted from), 1727.
Much valuable information collected about lute
makers and the literature of the lute is communi-
cated by Mr. Engelinhis admirable catalogue of the
South Kensington Museum referred to. The finest
lutes were miuie in Italy ; and Bologna, Venice,
Padua, and Rome were especially fiunous for them.
There would appear to have been a fusion of Ger-
man and Italian skill in northern Italy when the
Bolognese lutes were reputed to excel over all
others. Evelyn in his Diary (May 21, 1645)
remarks their high price and that they were
chiefly made by Germans. One of the earliest of
these was Lucas (or Laux, as he inscribed his
name on his instruments) Maler, who was living
in Bologna about 1415. There is one of his make
at South Kensington, represented in the drawing,
a remarkable specimen, notwithstanding that the
head is modernised, the stringing altered, and
the belly later adorned with painting. According
to Thomas Mace, ' pittifull old, batter'd, cracked
things' of Laux Maler would fetch a hundred
pounds each, which, considering the altered value
of money, rivals the prices paid now-adays for
fine Cremona volins. He (p. 48) quotes the King
(Charles II) as having bought one through the
famous lutenist Gootiere ; and one of the same
master's pupils bought another, at that very high
price! [A.J.H.]
LUTENIST, a lute-player. In the i6th and
1 7th centuries lutenists, or, as they were some-
times called, •lewters' or 'luters,* invariably
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178
LXJTENIST.
formed part of the mnBicAl retintie of kings and
princes, and one at least was commonly attached
to the households of nobles and landed gentry.
On Aug. 8, 1 715, a lutenists place was created
in the Chapel Boyal of St. James's, and John
Shore was appointed to it, who held it until
his death in 1753, when it was c^iven to John
Immyns, who filled it until his <^th in 1764.
The oflBce afterwards became a sinecure, and
was eventually annexed to the Mastership of the
Children as a means of increasing the stipend.
It continued until the death of William Hawes
in 1846, when it was abolished. [W.H.H.]
LUTHER, Martin, bom at Eisleben, on St.
Martin's Eve, Nov. 10, 1483. For the main
facts of the life of the great Reformer, the reader
must consult some other work, as our space com-
pels us to confine ourselves to his relation to
music, and especially to the hynms and services
of the Church. It was after his departure from
the Wartburg, March 33, ,1522, that he began to
occupy himself with projects for the reform of the
services of the Church, among which his altera-
tions in the musical parts of the Mass led to such
great results. There is ample evidence that Ger-
man hymns were sung during the service before
Luther s alterations ; but if not the actual founder,
there is no doubt that he was the establisher of
congregational singing. The musical part of the
Mass had poMm to an inordinate length ; accord-
ingly, in his first 'Formula Missae' (1533), Lu-
ther objects to the singing of long graduals, and
recommends that the choice of Certain hymns
should be left to the priest. The Reformer had
long cherished the idea of a German Mass. and
during the latter part of the year 1534 he was
occupied with arranging that service. In order
to help him in the musical part of his work, he
simimoned to Wittenberg two able musicians,
/Conrad Rupf, Kapellmeister to the Elector of
Saxony, and Johann Walther, Cantor at the
Court of Frederick the Wise at Torgau. To the
latter we are indebted for much information
about Luther as a musician. He says that at
this time he stayed with Luther at Wittenberg
for three weeks, and that thn Reformer himseU
set to music several Gospels and Epistles and the
words of consecration, inventing the tunes on his
flute, while Walther noted them down. Luther
used also to discuss the eight Church Tones ;
giving the Epistle to the 8th Tone, and the Gospel
to the 6th. * For,* said he, ' Christ is a gentle
Lord, and His words are lovely ; therefore let us
take the 6th Tone for the Gospel ; and since St.
Paul is a grave apostle, we will set the-Epistle to
the 8th Tone.' The result of these labours was
the publication of the 'Order of the German
Msss,' which contained the following alterations.
Instead of the introit there was ordered to be
Fung a h3man or German psalm (' Ich will den
Heim loben,' or * Meine Seele soil sich riihmen').
Then followed the Kyrie Eleison, sung three
times (instead of nine). After the Collect and
Kpistle a German hymn ('Nun bitten wir den
heil'gen Geist,' or another) was sung, and after
the Gospel, instead of the Latin Patrem, the
LTTTHBR.
Creed fai German (Wir glauben aU'). The seiw
mon then followed, and after this a paraphrase
of the Lord's Prayer, and the Elxhortatioo to
Communicants. After the Consecration, was sung
'Jesaia dem Propheten,' Huss's hymn 'Jesus
Christus, uq^er Heiland,' or ' Christe, du Lamm
Gottes.' This form of service was first used on
Christmas Day, 1534, in the parish church of
Wittenberg, but it was not published until the
following year. It is evident that while intro-
ducing a more popular element into the mtuic
of the Mass, Luther did not despise the singing
of a trained choir. In the ' Vermahnung zum
Gebet wider den Turken' (1541) he says: *I
rejoice to let the 79th Psalm, "O (jrod, the heathen
are come," be sung as usual, one choir after an-
other. Accordingly, let one sweet- voiced boy
step before the desk in 1^ choir and sing alone
the antiphon or sentence "Domine, ne secun-
dum," and after him let another boy sing the
other sentence, " Domine, ne memineris ** ; and
then let the whole choir sing on their knees,
" Adjuva nos, Deus," just as it was in the Popish
Fasts, for it sounds and looks very devotionaL'
At the same time that he was engaged in anang^
ing the German Mass, Luther was turning his
attention to writing and adapting hymns to be
sung during the service. In 1 5 24 he wrote to his
friend, George Spalatin, ' I wish, after the ex-
ample of the Prophets and ancient Fathers of ths
Church, to make Grerman psalms for the people,
that is to say, sacred hymns, so that the word of
God may dwell among tiie people by means of
song also.' In the same year (1524) the first
Protestant hymn-book appeared : ' Etlich christ-
liche Lyeder Lobgesang und Psalm dem reinen
Wort (j<>ttes gemess auss der h. gschrifilt durch
manoherlay Hochgeleiler gemacht, in der Kirchen
zu singen, wie es den zum tail bereyt eu Witten-
burg in yebunff ist. Witenburg, 1524.' It
is not certain whether Luther actually arranged
this book ; it contains only eight hymns cfour of
which are by him), and five tunes. Daring the
same year several other collections appeared, and
their number increased so rapidly that space for^
bids the insertion of a list of even those that
were published during Luther's lifetime. Scat-
tered through these difierent collections, there
is great difficulty in deciding what hymns are
really Luther's, uid what are merely adaptations ;
the lists given at the end of this article have been
compiled from the latest authorities, especially
from Herr Koch, in his great work, ' Geschichts
des Kirchenlieds, etc.' (Stuttgart, 1866-77).
The immediate popularity which these eariy
Protestant hymns attained was immense; they
were taught in the schools, and carried through
the country by wandering scholars, until his
enemies declared that Luther had destroyed more
souls by his hymns than by his writings and
speeches. Noble words, closely wedded to noble
music, severely simple, yet never trivial, these '
hymns seem an echo of the Reformer's own great
spirit, and sound* even now as true and grand as
when they first stirred Germany to its very soul.
On June 11, 1535, Luther was maniad to
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.^'
LUTHER,
Gktlieriiie von Bora, fonnerlj a nun at NImptacIi
in SazoQj. This marriage proved a most happy
ooDnection, and the letters of his friends abound
with descriptions of the domestio felicity to
which it gave rise. We are told that after
supper he used to sing motets and hymns with
his children and friends, his favourite composers
being Senfl and Josquin des Pr^, the works of
the latter of whom he particularly admired.
Luther possessed a fine deep voice, and played
boUi the flute and lute, the latter so well as to
attract the attention of passers-by as he journeyed
to Worms. It has been said that he wrote motets
himself but there is no proof of this, and it is
probably a mistake arising from the existence, in
Uie Munich library, of a collection of motets
with a prefiice by the Refonner. In 1 538 Luther
wrote a short treatise in praise of music ; a poem
by him on the same subject (entitled 'fVau
Koaika') also exists, and may be found in the
Leipziger Allgemeine Musikah'sche Zeitung for
181 1. The latter years of Luther's life were
principally spent at Wittenburg, but he died at
Edebsn, on the i8th February, 1546. He was
buried in the Schloss-Kirche at Wittenberg ; his
greatest hymn, « Ein feste Burg,' being sung over
his grave.
IHie following is a list of Hymns, the words
of which were written or arranged by Luther,
together with their dates, so far as it has been
posdble to ascertain them.
LUTHER'S HYMN.
17^
L TkiadatloDi sod Arraagcaiento
of Latin Hjmiu.
1. 'Jesot Cbrlstus unser Hd-
an*.' im. From John Hu»'s
Ivna *Jeni Chrlstm noitn
ItlOfc'
J. 'Tertefh mn Frleden
«W».' ia». F*oia 'Da , —
I*(»nloe,' an antlphon of the 6th
wTthceottny.
a. Chrtsinm w!r loUen lobsn.'
*^^ rrom a Christmaa bjmu l^
CaUm SednHus (8th cent.). "A
IMI. From the 12th-centiu7
hymn ' OhrlA itt n^mtanden.'
14. 'Gott der Vater. wohn mu
I bel.' Mat From a Ifith-oentuir
, Litany.
US. '€k>ttse!gek>betnndKebeDe-
. delet.' UM. From a lacnunental
I hymn of the IMh century.
1 1«. 'Nun bitten wir den hdU-
ffen Oeist.' ISM. From a ISth-cea-
' tory Whitsuntide hymn.
IV. Hymns baaed upon Latin
Psalms.
.1-Derdabl.tdrel.-1MS. From "; 'i?L,.^Z.T ™S.°?*'
•OLaxbetta.'anKplphanyhymn "^ \^'"* SalTtun me Ike'
<rftfce3th^ttttT »"*'"~'"'""i Ma.'Aus tiefer Noth.' ^3m.
^ "Herr Gott. dlch lobemrtr.' r'"' rerilon, containing four
«- 'Koam. Oott. SchOpler.' IBM. ' " »>• ^^o-- "»*■ 8«»nd verdon,
J. • lomm. hefUger Gelst/ 15M. .^ / *»° ««*• ^'J^: ^
^wa the ■ Venl saneta Splrttos' ^J}- .S*"" °?**!f "T*^"™!. .
«tr8««| to Kins Bobert of ,22* ? ^^.l^J VnwfAm,'
rn«M.«7. ^^ !«*• Ps. Jdy. • DWt Inslplens,"
rntK»,m.
& Sm komm der Hdden Heft-
*Bi.' vm. From » Ofarlstmas
yppby St. Ambrose. ' Veal Be-
•*aipter.*
^ ' Wu fOrefaf stdn Frtnd,' Dee.
11 IML From 'Hoetls Herodes
■>i>f4e.' an Bpti^wny hymn by Co»-
UwaednKos.
1& 'WIr glaaben aiT an Xhien
6«tt.'i5Bi. From the creed 'Par
tnaa eredimas.'
U* AmpHflcatkms of early German
translations of Latin Hymns.
xlv. ' Dixit Inslplens.'
21. 'Ks wollt uns Oott.' ISOL
Fs. IzTtt. ' Dens mlsereatur.'
32. 'WIr Oott nicht mit uns.'
10M. Ps. cxHt. 'Rlsl qui Doorf-
nus.'.
28. 'Wohl dem, der In Gottec-
fllrchte.' ICOi. Ps. cxzrllL 'Beat!
V. Hymns based upon passages
of the Bible.
M» 'Christ unser Herr.' 1011.
The Baptism of Christ.
76. ' Diets sind die heillgen zdm
ll.'Odobetieystdu,'10M. g^x i^^^'' ^^^^ The Decalogue.
»en«s added to a Wth -century L*" 'i?***; . <>«", Propheten,'
tniulatloo of the Christmas 8e- "25* .P*^^°!lJ?f ^i**^. .
^wsrnse of Gregory the Great.! ^' "«««»». wfllst du leben,'
' Grates irane omnes.* I ^^'^ Abbreviated Terrion of the
H. -imten wlr ira Leben «lnd,'P!?'?S!^,.._. ^ ^ « ^ .
ViL Two Terse* added to a IMh-'^-.J"'*^ ""«»'«««».' 1684.
oartury Funeral hymn on Notker's , ^^ ^"°* Dimlttla.'
A«lphon 'Media tU* In morte •' **« *■* "»•'" "«^' ''^ T*»
Christian Church (Ber. xii.).
SO. 'Vater unser.' IfiOB. The
Lord's Prayer.
Si. 'Vom Himmd hocb.' USB.
The Natlrlty Ca children's hymn).
HL Corrections or Arrangements
of early German Hymns.
IS. 'Christ lac hi Todeabanden,'
VL Original Hymns.
82. 'Kin neues Lied,' lfl2S. A
hymn to the memory of two Lu-
theran martyrs, H. Voea and J.
Bsch, who were burnt at Brussels
July 1. U2S.
as. • Srhalt uns. Herr,' 1641. A
chUdren's hymn against the two
•rcfa-enemles of Oluist. tlie Fopa
and the Turk.
S4. 'Jesus Ohrlstus, nuer Hd-
Iand.'lBM. An Easter hymn.
96. 'Nun f^eut euch,' lOtS. A
hymnofthankBgirlng. i
96. 'Vom Hlmmel kam.' 164S.
A Christmas hymn«
:nie following are the hynm-tunes whidi were
probably composed by Luther.
1. 'Jesaia dem Propheten da*
gesehah.' Appeared in the place
of the Sanotus In Lather's *Elne
Weiss, ChristUoh ~
2. * Kin' feste Burg 1st m
Gott.' First appeared in 'Getst-
llche Lleder, auflli new gebessert
lu Wittenberg. Dr. Mart. Luther.
U28.' This book was printed by
Joseph Klug.
The following arrangemenU of
this hymn appeared during Lu-
ther's Ufe:—
<a) For S voices, with Uie melody
In the Tenor, in 'News 6e-
tang, mlt dreyen stlmmaa
6mx Klrchen und Schnlen zn
nuts, neuUch In Preussen
durch Joannem Kugelmann
tesetrt' (Augsbuig. 1«0).
Hans Kugelmann was Ka-
pellmeister to Duke Albert
of Brandenburg;
(b) For 4 voices, with the melody
In the Bass. In O. Bhaw's
'Newe deulscbe gelstllche
Oesenge oxUl' (Wlttenbeig
1844).
(e) For 0 voices, with the melody
In the Tenor, by Stephen
Mahu, In G. Bhaw's Hymn-
book,
(d) For 4 voices, with the mdody
In the Bass, by M. Agricola,
In G. Bhaw's Hymn-book.
(«} For 4 voices, with the melody
In Uie Bass, by L. Hellinck,
In G. Bhaw's Hymn-book.
a 'Atts tiefer Noth mf ioh m
dlr.' First appeared in the' <^ls«-
liche Oesangbdchleyn. TenQr.'
(WHteDbeigUM.)
4. *Ehi neott Lied wlr hebeo
an.' First appeared In 'Bnchiri-
dion. Oder eyn Handtbftehleln ey^
nem yetcUchen Christen fast nutx-
lich bey sich zu haben znr stetter
vbung unnd traohtung GeystUcher
fen vnd kunstllch vettheutscht.
16B1.* Printed at Erfurt.
0. 'Es sprlcht der Unweisen
Mund wohl.' Appeared In the
'Oesangbachleyn.' IflM.
6. 'Mensch. wnist du leben aeMr
Ilch.' From the 'Gesangbachl^n.'
1024.
7. 'Hit Fried und Freud Ioh
fahr dahln.' From the 'Oeaang-
bQchleyn.' 1024.
81 'VomHlmmelhocl).dakomm
ich her.' Appeared in Lotther's
Magdeburg Qeaangbuoh. 1040.
9. 'Jeaus Ohrlstus unser Hol-
land.' From the ' Snchlrldlan.*
1024.
10. ' Nun frent euch, Hebe Chris-
ten g'mefai.' From the stxalled
'AchtUederbueh.'10O4. In Adam
Dyson's Hymn-book (Breslan US0)
it Is set to the tune of ' b 1st daa
Hdl,' which was probably com-
posed by BperatuB.
11. ' Nun freutench. Uebe Chrie-
ten g'meln.' From Klug's ' Gelst-
llche Lleder ' (Wittenberg 102B}.
12: 'Vater unser Im Hlmmd-
relch.' In KOphyl's Strasborg
Gesangbuch (1837) and in Lotther's
Magdeburg Hymn-book (1540).
19. 'Wohl dem. der in Gottea-
rorchte steht.' In the '
Gesangbflchkyn,' 10M»
Of the above tunes, Nos. i and a are almost
without doubt by LuUier ; Nos, 3 to 8 are very
probably by him ; and Nos. 9 to 13 are ascribed
to him with less certainty. The following works
contain much information as to Luther as a
musician, and have been carefully consulted in
the compilation of this article.
gelstllche Lleder. etc.' t. THnter-
fekKLeipilslMO).
'Luther's geistllcho Lleder.'
Wackernagel (Stuttgart 1848).
•Oeschlchte der Mblisch-klroh-
Uchen Dtoht- und Tonkunst und
IhrerWerke.' Bchauer (Jena 1860).
' Choralkunde.' O. DOrlng (Dant*
sig.l86S).
'Qetichlchte des KlrchenUeds,
etc.' Koch (Stuttgart. 18eM7).
'Luther muslclen'; Bevue et
(Sazette muslcale. July IS, 1879.
[W.B.S.]
LUTHER'S HYMN, a popular name among
the last generation for a hymn beginning 'Great
God, what do I see and hear?* set to an old
German tune 'Es ist gewisslich an der Zeit,'
and formerly much in Yogue at musical festivals
and sacred concerts. It was sung by Braham,
and Harper used to accompany it with very
effective fanfares on the trumpet between the
lines. The author of neither words (German nor
English) nor tune is exactly known. There is a
tradition that Luther made the words to the tune
Forkel's MosHcallscher Alma-
nach for 1784.
'The Leiptlger Allgemeine mu-
sik. Zeitung for 1804 and 1810u
'Ueber Luther's Verdienst um
den Kircbengesang.' Bambach
(Hamburg 1813).
' Luther's gefstUche Lleder nebst
dessen Gedanken fiber die Musica.'
Groll (Beriin 1817).
'Luther's Gedanken flber die
Muslk.' Beck (Berlin 1829).
'Dr. Marttai Luther's deutsche
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180
LtTTHER'S HYMN."
as he heard it sung by a travelfer. It was 6rst
printed in 1535, but it is certain that the melody
had already served as 2nd melody to the older
hymn ' Nun ireut euch, lieben Christen g*mein.* ^
It will be found in the ordinary collections as
« Luther's Hymn/ [G.]
LUTHERAN (German) CHAPEL, of St.
Jambs's Palace. The building now used as
the German Chapel is said to have been erected
about 1626 by Inigo Jones, for Queen Henrietta
Maria, who had been permitted the free use in
England of her religion. In 1 662 it was assigned
for the like purpose to Queen Catherine of Bra-
ganza, the first mass being celebrated on Sept.
21 in that year. The choir was composed of
Italians, and the soprani were eunuchs. At the
Kevolution the friars were expelled, and the
chapel was in Dec. 1688 appropriated to the use
of French Proteetants. Shortly afterwards a
service in Dutch was also established in it for the
benefit of the followers of William HI. About
1703, Queen Anne and Prince George of Den-
mark established a Grerman Lutheran service in
a small chapel in the Middle Court of St. James's
Palace, which was in 1781 transferred to the
present chapel, the French and Dutch services
being removed at the same time to the chapel
vacated by the Germans, where they were per-
formed until their discontinuance in 1839. Upon
the removal, a new oigan was erected in the
chapel. The present organ, by Snetzler, was
built for Buckingham House, and removed here
prior to the demolition of that edifice in 1825.
The organists since 1781 have been Augustus
Friedrich Christopher KoUmann, died Aug. 23,
1829 ; Geoige Augustus Kallmann, died March
19, 1845 ; Miss Joanna Sophia Kollman, died in
May, 1849; <^^ Frederic Weber, the present
organist. [W. H. H.]
LUTZ, WiLHELM Mbtsb, was bom in 1829 at
Mannerstadt, Kiesingen, where his father was
organist and teacher of harmony to the School-
master's Institute. He showed a gift for the
piano at a very early age, and when 1 2 played
in public with the orchestra. His father re-
moving to Wiirzburg, he entered the Gymnasium
and University there, and at the same time
studied music under Eisenhofer and Keller.
Since 1 848 Mr. Lutz has been settled in England,
first as organist to St. Chad's, Birmingham, and
St. Ann's, Leeds, and then organist and choir-
master to St. Greoige*s Catholic Cathedral, Lon-
don, a post he still holds, and for which he has
composed several grand masses and mi^ch other
music. Mr. Lutz has also had a long and wide
e cperience of the stage as cKtf cTorckestre, first
at the Surrey Theatre (1851-5$), and since 1869
at the Gaiety Theatre; and has also had the
management of the operatic tours of Grisi and
Mario, Pyne and Harrison, and other eminent
artists. Many of his operas and operettas are
uell and favourably known in England, amongst
them 'Faust and Marguerite* (Surrey Theatre,
J855), 'Blonde and Brunette' (1862), *Zaida'
1 S«e Poring. ' OhonlkundA ' (188B), pp. 31, 407.
LYCEUM THEATRE.
(1868). 'Miner of Milburg' (1872), 'Legend of
the Lys' (1873), a cantata entitled * Heme the
Hunter,' etc., etc. A string quartet which he
wrote for M. Sainton's chamber concerts was
very well spoken of, and he has much music,
orchestral and chamber, in MS. [G.]
LWOFF, Alexis, violinist, composer, and
writer on musical subjects, was bom at Reval in
1 799. His fiftther, a high Russian government
official, made him enter a military career, but
not without having previously given him an
excellent musical and general education. Owing
to his many brilliant qualities he quickly ad-
vanced to high military rank, and in 1836 we
find him at the same time a general, personal
adjutant to the Emperor, and chief-director of
the music at the Imperial Court and of the
singers in the Imperial chapel, to which last
post he succeeded on the death of his brother
Theodorin 1S36.
His merits as a violinist, especially as «
quartet-player, were fully recognised at Berlin,
Leipzig, Paris, and other places. Schumann is
loud in pnuse of his thoroughly musical style of
playing (Ges. Schriften, iii. 216). It is however
as the composer of the Russian National Hymn
that his name will be perpetuated. This hymn,
a simple but noble strain, well known in Eng-
land through the version of the late Mr. Chorley,
included in Hullah's 'Part Music,' and oft^
used as a hymn tune, met in Russia with a
most enthusiastic reception, and is now the
universally adopted National Anthem of that
country. Lwofi" has published a violin-concerto,
2 fantasias for violin, 4 operas, and a number
of sacred choruses for the services of the Imperial
Chi^>el. He also harmonised the traditional
chants and tunes of the Russian Church, and
edited them in eleven volumes.
Lwoff died on his property in the province of
Kowno, Dec. 28, 1870, having suffered for 20
years from a very distressing affliction of his
organs of hearing. Berlioz and he were much
allied. They first met in St. Petersburg in 1847,
and the volume of the correspondence of the
former, recently published, contains two letters
addressed to him. [P. D.]
LYCEUM THEATRE. The original theatre
bearing this name occupied the site of a building
erected in 1765 (on ground formerly belonging
to Exeter House) for the exhibitions of the
* Society of Artists' (subsequently * Royal
Academy of Arts),' but afterwards used for a
great variety of entertainments. It was con-
stmcted about 1798 under the direction of Dr.
Arnold, who contemplated performing in it
operas and other musical pieces, but being
unable to obtain a license was compelled to
abandon his intention, and the house was
occupied, occasionally only, for pictorial exhibi-
tions, table entertainments, etc., until 1809,
when Samuel James Arnold, the Doctor's son«
succeeded in getting a license for English
operatic performances during four months in
each year, June 3, to Oct. 3. Druiy Lane
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LYCEUM THEATRE.
Theatre having been burnt down, Feb. 34, 1&09,
the oompany performed at the Lyceum from
April II fouowing during the rebuilding of
their own house. Arnold opened the theatre
June 26, under the title of * The English Opera
House,* for the performance of operas, melo-
dramas and musical farces, la 1815, having
obtained a 99 years* lease of the ground, he
employed Samud Beazley to rebuild Uie theatre
on the same site, behind the houses on the
north side of the Strand, a narrow avenue from
which fonned the approach to the box entrance,
the pit and gallery doors being in Exeter Court
to the westward. On April a, 1818, the elder
Charles Mathews gave here his 'Mail Coach
Adventures,' the first of that remarkable series
of entertainments known as his * At Home.'
The most noticeable operatic event in the histonr
of the house was the production on the English
BtageofWebers 'Der Freischiitz,* July 22, 1824.
The house being burnt doMrn, Feb. 16, 1830, the
present theatre (also designed by Beazley) was
erected. It does not occupy the exact site of its
predecessor, advantage having been taken of the
opportunity to form the continuation of Welling-
toQ Street on the north side of the Strand, by
building the stage of the new house at the west
instead of the east end. During the rebuilding
the company performed at the Adelphi and
Olympic Theatres. The new house opened July
Mj 1834, the first new opera performed in it
being Loder 'a * Nourjahad,* and Bamett's ' Moun-
tain Sylph,* produceid later in the year, achieving
a great success. Early in 1839 'Promenade
Concerts k la Musard* (the first of the kind given
in England) took place here under the conduc-
torship of Signor Negri. In 1 841 the manage-
ment passed into the hands of Balfe, who
produced his opera • Keolanthe,* but his career
was brief. The house then ceased to be an
English opera*hou8e and became, under its old
Jiamo of * Lyceum,* a theatre for the performance
of the general drama, Keeley, Madame Veetris,
Madame Celeste, Falconer, and others by turns
holding the reins of management. The present
manager (1879) ^ Henry Irving. For three
ieasons, 1837, 38, and 71, Italian opera buffa was
given here in the winter, and the house has
frequently been occupied by French comedians.
During Uie rebuilding of Covent Garden Theatre
after the fir© in 1856 the performances of the
Royal Italian Opera were given at the Lyceum,
and in the same year the Pyne and Harrison
English Opera Company performed there. It
was last occupied for the performance of operas
in English by the Carl Rosa Company in 1876
Mid 1877. [W.H.H.]
LYDIAN MODE. (Lai. Modus Lydius,
Modat F, Tonus F.) The Fifth of the Eccle-
siastical Modes; called, by mediaeval writers,
Uodiu IcBtuSf (The Joyfid Mode,) from its gener-
ally jubilant character.
The Final of the Lydian Mode is F : and its
compass, in the Authentic form, lies between that
note, and the octave above. Its semitones fall
between the fourth and fifth, and seventh and
eyre;
181
eighth degrees. lis Dominant is C ; its Mediant,
A ; and its Participant G. Its Conceded Modu-
lations are, B, D. and E; and its Absolute
Initials, F, A, and C.
Mode V.
Fin. Part. Med. Dom. ^ .^T^jo.
In the Placal, or Hypolydian form, (Mode VI,)
its compass lies between the C below the Finid,
and the C above it : and its semitones fall between
the third and fourtii, and seventh and eighth
degrees. The Final of the Hypolydian Mode is
F ; its Dominant is A ; its Mediant is D ; its
Participant, the lower C. Its Conceded Modu-
lations are B (the 7th), B (the inverted 7th), and
G: the two B*s being frequently made flat, to
avoid the Tritonus. [See Modes.] Its Absolute
Initials are C, D, and F.
Part. Med.
Mode YI.
Fin. Dom.
The Fifth Mass in Palestrina's Tenth Book—
Missa^ Quinti Toni — is written, as its name im-
plies, in the Lydian Mode. A beautiful example
of the use of the Hypolydian, and one which
fully justifies the epithet antiently applied to it —
Modm^ devotw (The Devout Mode) — is to be
found in the first movement of the Plain Chaunt
Missa pro JDefunctU, printed, at length, in the
article, Ktbie.
The Lydian Mode of the Middle Ages has
nothing, but its name, in common with the older
Greek scale, which is said, on the authority of
Apuleius, and other antient authors, to have
been characterised by a tone of soft complaint-^
a peculiarity which modem poets have not for-
gotten, in their allusions to it. [W. S. R.]
LYRE (A.vpa), an ancient musical instrument,
in use among the Greeks, and undoubtedly de-
rived by them from Asia. It consisted of a
hollow body or sound-chest, fr^un which were
raised two arms, sometimes also hollow, which
were curved both outward and forward. These
arms were connected near the top by a crossbar
or yoke. Another crossbar was on the sound-
chest, and formed a bridge to convey the vibra-
tions of the strings to it. The strings — at dif-
ferent times four, seven, or ten in number— ;were
made of gut, and were stretched between the
yoke and the bridge, or carried on to a tail-
piece below the bridge. The lyre differs frt)m
the harp in having fewer strings, and from the
lute or guitar in having no fingerboard. It was
played by being struck with the plectrum, which
was held in the riffht hand, but uie fingers of the
left hand were also used to touch the strings.
The larger lyres {CHthara) were supported by a
ribbon slung across the player^s shoulders, or
held as shewn in the illustration, but the treble
lyre (or Chdys) was held by the left arm or be-
tween the knees. The illustration is taken firom
a drawing upon an amphora (B.o. 440-330) in
Digitized by VjOOQIC
183
liTRE,
the first TSfle room British Maseum, Case 53,
No. 744. The portion engraved represents Apollo
holding ft Cithkra or laige lyre as rarely shown
in detail in Greek art. With his left hand he at
once supports the instrument and stops the strings.
The plectrum would be held in the right hand and
be guided by the thumb, the fingers closing over it.
The modem Greek *lyra' is a kind of rebec,
a bowed instru-
ment with three
strings, having no
connection with
the ancient lyre
or cithara, the
link between the
' latter and mo-
dem stringed in-
straments being
supplied by the
PsALTEBT, m use
in the Byzantine
epoch, firom which
was developed the
clavecin, and ulti-
mately the piano-
forte. But in the
1 4th century there
were several 6oic-
ed instruments
known in Europe
as lyres, and also
the Hdrdt Gur-
DT, the lyra mendi-
conim. In Italy,
in the last century,
there was a bowed
lyra bearing a
s'milar relation
to the viol that the well-known theorix) did
to the lttt«^namedy, that from a seooiid and
LYKia
higher neck, bass strings were hang that were
not in contact with t^e fingerbouiL Three
varieties have been distinguished — Lyra di
braccio, Lyra di gamba, and Archiviole di lyra.
It would be for one of these, a favourite instru-
ment with Ferdinand IV. King of Naples, that
Haydn wrote twelve pieces. [See v<d. i. 709,
730.] The museums, at home or abroad, known
to the writer, have no specimens of this bijuga
viol ; the cut is taken hom the Archiviole di lyra
in * Recueil de Planches de TEncyclop^die,' tome
iii. (Paris, 1 784). [A.J. H.]
LYKIC; LYRICAL. The term Lyric is
obviously derived firom the lyre, which served aa
an accompaniment or support to the voice in
singing the smaller forms of poetry among the
ancient Greeks. The poems thus accompanied
were distinguished by the name of Odes, and all
Odes were in those times essentially made to be
sung. Among the Romans this style of poetry .
was not much cultivated, and the poems which
fidl under the same category, such as those of
Horace and Catullus, were not expressly in-
tended to be sung ; but inasmuch as they were
cast after the same manner as the Greek poema
which had been made to be suug, they also were
called Odes or Lyrics. On the same principle,
the name has been retained for a speciflJ class of
poems in modem times which have some intrinsic
relationship in form to the Odes of the ancients ;
though, on the one hand, the term Ode has con-
siderably changed its signification, and become
more restricted in its application ; and, on the
other, the term Lyric is not generally associated
either in the minds of the poets or their publio
with music of any sort. It is tme that a great
proportion are not only admirably fitted to be
sung, but actually are set to most exquisite
music ; but this fact has little or no influence upon
the classification. Thus the able and intelligent
editor of the beautiful collection of modem lyrics
called the Golden Treasury explains in his preface
that he has held the term * Lyrical ' * to imply
that each poem shall turn upon a single thought,
feeling, or situation,' and though he afterwards
uses the term * Song * as practi^y synonymous,
he does not seem to imply that it should neces-
sarily be sung. In another part of his preface he
suggests an opinion which is no doubt very com-
monly held, that the lyrical and dramatic are
distinct branches of poetry; and Mendelssohn
has used the word in this sense even in relation
to music, in a letter, where he speaks of his
Lobgesang as follows : 'The composition is not
a little Oratorio, its plan being not dramatic but
lyrical.* But it is in respect of this sense of the
term that its use in modem times is so singularly
contradictory. It is true that the class of poems
which modem critics have agreed to distinguish
as Lyrics are quite difierent in spirit from the
dramatic kind — Mr. Robert Browning's 'Dra-
matic Lyrics ' notwithstanding — but the principle
of classification has really been erroneous all along,
as though a man were called a sailor because he
chose to wear a sailor's hat Consequently the ap-
parent anomaly of callii^dramatic works lyric^
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
LYEia
when, they are asBociated with music is not the
fault of muriciaiiB, bat of the long- continued
liabit ni mankind of classifying things according
to outward resemblance, instead of regarding the
true basis of the terms of classification. The
term Lyiic, then, originally implied music, and
the Lyre stood as the type of accompaniment, of
whatever kind ; and it is strictly in conformity
with this derivation to give the name ' Lyrical *
to dramatic works which are associated with
music ; and we have a forcible and substantial
reminder of this use of the term in the name of
the celebrated ' Th^tre L3rrique' in Paris.
It has been necessary to enter into some detail
MACBBTH MT7SI0.
188
cm this subject in order to explain the confusion
which exists in the use of the word. It must be
confessed that nothing can now be gained by
trying to go back to its original meaning ; for the
modem sense, as expressed by the editor of the
Gulden Treasury, has a prescriptive title of such
great antiquity as would suffice to bar the most
unquestionable prior claim. It would be well to
bear in mind, however, that the term can have
two significations, and that in relation to poetry
pure and simple it does not necessarily imply
music, in our language at least; and that in
relation to the stage it should imply nothing
eL». [C.H. H.P.J
M.
MACBETH. I. Tragedy in 3 acts; words
by Bouget de Tlsle and Hix, music by
Chelard. Produced at the Acad^mie,
June 39, 1827, without suocess. In London,
King's Theatre, July 4, 1833.
3. Opera in 4 acts ; libretto by Piave, music by
Verdi. Produced at the Pergola, Florence, March
1847 ; at Paris, with alterations, at the Th^tre
Lyrique, April 21, 1865.
3. An overture for orchestra in B minor, by
Spohr (op. 75).
4. The first act of an opera, Macbeth, was
Eublished by von Collin in 1809; and sketches
y Beethoven for the overture (D minor, 6-8) and
ftrat chorus therein, are given lay Mr. Nottebohm
in Mus. WochenbUtt, 1879, No. 10. [G.]
MACBETH MUSIC. Three musicians, of
▼aried eminence, have sucdiesBively composed
music for Sir William Davenant's additions to —
zather than alterations of— -Shakespeare's tragedy
of Macbeth. Sir William designed to increase
its attractions for the public by combining with
H music, improved scenery, and stage-machinery.
He died before he could bring his experiment
into practice ; but it was carried out by his widow
and son, at the new theatre in Dorset Garden
in 1673. Downes, who was then, and for manv
yean after, the prompter of the theatre, took
advantage of the information he acquired through
his position, to write a book, called 'Boecius
Anglicanus, or an Historical Review of the Stage *
(lamo. 1708). In this he says : 'The tragedy
of McLcbetk, altered b^ Sir William Davenant,
being dressed in all its finery, as new clothes,
new scenes, machines, as flying for the witches,
with all the singing and dancing in it, the first
composed by Mr. Lock, the other by Mr. Chan-
nell and Mr. Priest, it being all excellently per-
formed, being in the nature of an Opera, it
recompensed double the expenses ; it proves still
a lasting play.'
Downes is the only contemporary authority
who refers to the authorship; but the Hon.
Boger North, an accomplished musician, remarks
generally, 'in music, Matthew Lock had a
robust vein,* a criticism peculiarly applicable
to the music in 'Macbeth.* Immediately a^'tet
' Macbeth,' Matthew Lock composed the instru*
mental music for Shakespeare's 'Tempest,' pro-
duced in 1673; &^ ^^3 vocal music for Shad-
well's 'Psyche' in Feb. 1673-4. These were
published by him in 1675 ; but music for witches
was not well suited for private use, and the
Macbeth music remained in manuscript until
after his death in 1677. These three are Lock's
only known productions for the theatre, and they
were all parodied by a contemporary, one Thomas
Duffett. The parody upon 'Macbeth' is 'An
Epilogue spoken by Heccate and the three witches,
according to the famous Mode of Macbeth,' printed
with a farce caJled * The Empress of Morocco,*
4to. 1674. Th** ^V^^ * '^^® Tempest' is entitled
' The Mock Tempest,' 4to. 1675 ; and that uoon
' Psyche' is called * Psyche Debauch'd,' 4to. 1078.
Stage parodies are only written and accepted upon
works that have been successful, and although
the music in 'Macbeth' was 111 adapted for
private use, owing to its subject, that of ' Psyche'
had a long- continued and widely spread poou-
larity. Two of the vocal pieces, 'ITie delights
of the bottle' and ' All joy to fair Psyche,' were
lengthened into penny ballads, to be sung in the
streets, and several other ballads which were
written to the tune of the first are still extant —
such as 'The Prodigal Son,' 'The Wine Cooper's
Deb'ght,' etc. Matthew Lock's robust vein is
equs^y characterised in these airs. (See ' Popu-
lar Music of the Olden Time,' ii. 498-501.)
The only reason that can be assigned why
modem musicians should have doubted Matthew
Lock's authorship of the music in 'Macbeth' is
that a manuscript score of it exists in the band-
writing of Henry Purcell. His autograph leema
to have been tolerably well ascertained. l<'irsc,
Dr. Philip Hayes recorded his judgment by
writing on the manuscript 'Purcell's score of
y* music in Macbeth, also the score from whence
it was printed under Mat. Lock's name.' It may
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MACBETH MUSIC;
be conoeded that the score is in Poicell's hand-
writing, and that it is the one from which Dr.
Boyce had then printed the music for the first
time, but assigned its composition to Mat. Lock.
The present possessor of this MS. is Mr. W. H.
Cummings, one of the most careful and reliable
of antiquaries, as well as one intimately ac-
quainted with Purcell's style, and with his nu-
merous works. The means of judging equally
well of Lock's music for the theatre, are not to
be had, for want of examples, espedally if * Mac-
beth * is to be deducted m>m them. But there
remains the inexorable logic of dates to prove
that, although the manuscript be in Purcell's
handwriting, he could not have been the com-
poser of a work which was produced on the stage
when he was only in his fourteenth year. Henry
Purcell was bom in 1658, and died in November
1695, aged 37. A sufficient reason for Purcell*8
having made a transcript of it is to be found in
the fact that he was called upon to write music
of a somewhat similar character to that in * Mac-
beth,* for the sorceress in * Dido and jEneas,' with
'choral responses and wild laughter of the infernal
spirits * ; and this was to be his own preliminary
essay for the stage. There was a certain amount
of conventionality, but not amounting to plagi-
arism, in the treatment of demoniacal music.
This has been remarked in the music to Middle-
ton's play of *The Witch,* in Eccles's music
to * Macbeth,' and in Purcell's own music to
•Dido and -^Eneas.* Of the last, Mr. Hogarth
says : ' The little duet in tiiis scene, between
two of the witches, "But ere we this perform,'*
is remarkable for its ingenuity of contrivance,
and easy flow of melody ; and the full chorus
which follows, and concludes the scene, has the
broad simplicity of Matthew Lock.* (' Memoirs
of the Musical Drama,* i. 151.) Sir John Haw-
kins states that Purcell wrote the music to ' Dido
and ^neas* 'at the age of nineteen,* and that
he composed it for the Mr. Josias Priest, who
was concerned in the production of 'Macbeth*
with Lock. But Sir John was mistaken as to
Purcell's age, and as to ' Dido and -Eneas' having
been performed at Priest's house in Leicester
Fields. In 1680 Priest removed from Leicester
Fields (now Leicester Square), to Chelsea, and
announced it in the London Gazette, No. 1567,
dated Nov. 25, 1680: 'Josias Priest, Dancing
Master, who kept a Boarding School of Gentle-
women in Leicester Fields, is removed to the Great
School House at Chelsev, that was Mr. Port-
man's,* etc., and it was there ' Dido and iSneas*
was produced. By happy chance, one of the
books of words, distributed among the audience
on that occasion, is preserved in the library of
the Sacred Harmonic Society. It is of six folio
pages, without title or imprint, and is headed:
*An Opera performed at Mr. Josias Priest's
hoarding School at Chelsey, by young gentle-
women. The words made by Mr. Nat. Tate. The
n.usick composed by Mr. Henry Purcell.' * Nat*
is probably a misprint for ' Nah.* — Nahum Tate,
Other corroborative evidence of its production
has been discovered by Mr. \V. H. Cummings.
MACBETH MUSIC.
Hiis is promised in a new and more complete
edition of the opera. All proves Purcell to have
been at least in his 22nd year when he produced
his first opera. The year then ended in March.
The study of sacred and of chamber music had
so predominated in Purcell's musical education^
that with all his genius, when first writing for
the stage, he wquld naturally desire a dramatic
model to improve upon. This was easily to be
obtained through Mr. Priest, whose connection
with the theatre would enable him to borrow
Look's score to be copied. Mr. W. H. Cummings
submitted the * Macbeth* MS. to Mr. Netherclin,
the well-known expert, 'who came to the con-
elusion that it had a certain boyish resemblance
to fac-similes of Purcell's afber- writings, but not
sufficient of itself for him to form a decided
judgment as to the identity of authorship.* This
' boyish resemblance * is precisely what might
have been expected under the circumstances
above detailed. Every young composer requires
some model to start upon, just as the early works
of Beethoven remind us of his model, Mozart.
Matthew Lock died in 1677, three years
before Purcell made his preliminair essay for the
stage, an essay which led to his being engaged
to write the music for Nat Lee's ' Theodosius,*
which appeared at the Duke's Theatre in 1680.
This was the commencement of Purcell's dramatic
career.^ Matthew Lock had been appointed to
compose music for the public entry of Charles 11.
at the Restoration, and he was soon after ap-
pointed Composer in Ordinary to the King, and
organist to the Queen. His abilities had often
been called upon in a minor degree for the
Duke's Theatre, as in composing the original
music for Davenant's song, ' My lodging it is on
the cold Aground,* sung by Mary Davies in ' The
Rivals* (4to, 1668) — and 'I prithee, love, turn to
me,* in 'Apollo's Banquet,* 1669— also for 'the
antique round ' to be danced by the witches in
1 In the Preteoe to Poroeira ' Dtdo and Aieas.' Iv the late Rdwmrd
Taylor, Gmham Professor of Muslo. and In the Introduction to
Purcell's 'Bonduca,' bjr the late Dr. E. F. Rimbault, the date of the
flnt production of 'Dido and iEneas' has been stlentljr thrown back
to ' lerfi.' In antiquarian matters. Dr. Rimbault was at that time the
guide of Profpssor Taylor, but when Dr. Rimbault wrote the preface to-
his own edition of ' Dido and jEneas,' he had discovered his early error.
It is easy to see how he made the mistalce. In his Introduction to ' Bon-
duca,' Dr. Rimbault giTes a list of Purcell's compositions for the stage,
with dates derlTed. not from Puroell or from any musical authority, but
from the 'Biographia Dramatica,' as to when these works were;fra<
produced upon the stage. Therein he found three plays in 1879—
Shadwell's ' Epsom Wells,' his 'The Libe^tin^' and Dryden's 'Aureng
Zebe.' In 1677 he found Mrs. Behn's ' Abdelazor,' and In 1078 Shad-
well's alteration of 'Tlmon of Athens.' Not one of these plays is
attributed to Puroell Inr Downes's contemporary account, and it is in
direct contravention to Downes's statement that in 16H0 ' Theodosins,'
• compos'd by the famous master, Mr. Henry Purcell i^teing (A« firU h«
e'er fomfKtidJw the ttage) made it a living and gainfhl play to the
Company.' He adds that 'The Court, espedally the Ladles, by their
daily charming presence, gave it great encouragement.' TSie very
name of Dryden ou^t to have convinced Dr. RImbauH that his
inference as to Purcell having written music for ' Aureng Zebe ' in
1676, when Purcell was In his eighteenth year, was unsound ; but
possibly he relied upon Novello's Index to Hawkins's 'History of
Music' and did not see page 707, wliere the important notice of
Dryden wntu Purcell occurs. In it Monsieur Grabu Is complimented
at the expense of Puroell and other Englishmen In l«8^ It was only
some five years after Grabu had Called that Dryden gave his 'King
Arthur' to Purcell to set. Again, it might be urged that Purcell did
not compose thq music for those five plays, but only for some parts of
than— as In ' Ilmon of Athens ' he rewrote the masque music in
Act 8. Much more might be said were Purcell's music the sul^ject,
but here it is ' Macbeth Music'
2 Not the present air. but one styled ' On the cold grotuid,' in ' Tb»
Dancing Mast«r ' of KM6.
Digitized by
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MACBETH music:
Aet IV. 80. 2, of the original ' Macbeth/ before
Bavenaot made his additions. This dance is
included in 'Musick's Delight on the Cithren/
i666< * Witches' Dances ' in manuscripts of that
age are not neoessarily by Matthew Lock. There
are two such in Add. MSS. No. 10,444, ^ ^^^
British Museum, taken from some masque.
Eodes's music for ' Macbeth' is to be found in
score in the British Museum (Add. MSS. No.
12,219). ^^ '^^ brought out at Drury Lane
Theatre in 1696. As this was the year after Pur-
oell> death, the date disposes of the myth of
Piircell*8 having had any hand in after-improving
it. As Eodes's music is not t?ie music of ' Mac-
beth,' it must stand or fall upon its own merits.
It was much admired by W. Linley, who edited
' Dramatic Songs ' in, or for, Shakespeare's plays ;
but in the more trustworthy judgment of Mr.
Cummings, ' it abounds in wearisome and unin-
teresting imitative phrases' ; and again, Mr. Cum-
mings says, 'Eccles could not have been the
author of the music accredited to Lock ; the former
is so extremely laboured and diffuse, the latter so
mnch more dramatic and effective in its con-
ciseneas and simplicity.' ('Concordia,' Nov. 27,
1875.)
' The music in Macbeth,' says Mr. Cummings,
* IB not equal to Purcell at his best period : yet, if
he composed it, as I believe, at the age of four-
teen or sixteen, it adds another leaf to the laurel
crown of England's greatest musical genius.'
On the other hand, it may be said, that Purcell
requires no borrowed plumes, and that the sole
ground for attributing the music to him rests
upon this manuscript. If we are to accept it as
evidence that Purcell composed the music for
* Macbeth,' we must re-write the history of Pur-
eell. It must henceforth be that, at the age of
fourteen (sixteen is inadmissible) he appeared as
a juvenile prodigy, having composed the music for
* Macbeth, which met with an enthusiastic re-
ception, but this meteor at once disappeared;
PureeU preferred retirement for eight years, and
during that period did nothing more than favour
Mr. Priest with music for young ladies and
gentlemen to perform, until he chose once more
to shine upon the stage in 1680. The inferences
drawn by Mr. Cummings in his able article
ahow his enthusiasm for PurceU, and perhaps
he had then in his mind the founding of the
Purcell Society which he has since suc^eded in
establishing. No writer could have stated the
evidence more £urly, whether the inferences to
be drawn from it were for or against his opinion.
Of Richard Leveridge's claim, it is sufficient to
say that he composed new music for the 2nd act of
' Macbeth ' in or about 1 708. It has since passed
completely into oblivion, and there is no need to
say anything more about it. [W. C]
MACCHERINI. Giuseppina, the wife of a
good tenor [Ansani], was bom at Bologna in
1745. In 1 78 1 she arrived in London, whither
a great repntaticm had preceded her, but never
was expectation more completely disappointed.
Her voice was a mere thread, scarcely audible in
the orohestra. She was soon put aside, and a
macfarren:
18((
fine opera, called 'Giunio Bruto,* in which het
hu&band and Pacchierotti played, necessarily
abandoned. She retired to ner native town in
1788, and died there Sept. 19, 1825. [J.M,]
MACE. Thomas, one of the clerks of Trinity
College, Cambrid^, was author of a remarkable
book published (in small folio, 272 pp., beside
18 pp. of prefatory matter) in 1676, entitled
* Musick's Monument ; or, A Remembrancer of
the best Practical Musick, both Divine and
Civil, that has ever been known to have been
in the world,' the first part of which treats of
the then condition of parochial psalmody and
cathedral music and the means of improving
their performance; the second of the lute, in-
cluding directions for choodng, tuning, repair-
ing, performing on and composing for the instru-
ment, with a full explanation of the tableture
and numerous lessons ; and the third of the viol
and of music generally, with other curious mat-
ter. The book is written in a quaint, familiar
style, intermingled with a profusion of strangely
compounded terms, and produces a striking im-
pression of the author's love of his art and his
devout and amiable disposition. It was pub-
lished by subscription at 12s. per copy in sheets.
A lengthy epitome of it is given in Hawkins's
History, pp. 727-733, Novello's edition. A few
scanty biographical particulars are culled from
it, viz. that Mace mairied in or shortly after
1636 ; that before the marriage his wife resided
in Yorkshire, he in Cambridge; that in 1644
he was in York during the siege of the city by
the Parliamentary army; that in consequence
of having broken both arms he was compelled to
make a diake upon the lute in an irregular man-
ner ; that he invented a 'table organ' (described
in his book, with an engraving) to accompany a
* consort of viols ' ; that in consequence of par-
tial deafness renderin£r the soft tones of the lute
inaudible to him, he m 1672 invented a lute of
50 strings, which he termed the Dyphone, or
Double Lute; that he had a family, <and that his
youngest son, John, learned in 1672 to play well
upon the lute almost solely by the perusal of the
MS. of his book [see Immyms, tToHN') ; that the
writing of the work was not commenced until
after Christmas, 167 1, and it was licensed for
publication May 5, 1675 ; and lastly that owing
to his increased deafness, which we may pre-
sume prevented him pursuing his profession,
he was in somewhat straitened circiunstances.
Hawkins asserts that Mace was bom in 161 3,
evidently arriving at that conclusion from the
inscription beneath the portrait (engraved by
Faitbome after Cooke) prefixed to his book,
'.^tat. Bute. 63.' But it is probable that the
portrait was painted at an earlier date than the
year of publication. The date of his death is
not known. [W. H. H.]
MACFARREN, George Alexander, Mus.
Doc., son of Geoige Macfarren, dramatist, was
bom in London, March 2, 181 3. In early life
he displayed partiality for music, but did not
regularly commence its study until 1827, when
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186
haofabben:
he became a' pupil of Charles Lucas. In 1829
he entered the Boyal Academy of Music, and
made composition his principal study, learning
also the pianofOTte and trombone; and in 1834
he was appointed one of its professors. On Oct.
17, 1834, he produced at the Society of British
Musicians his first important work, a Symphony
in F minor, And in 1836 hb fine Overture * Chevy
Chase.' In August 1838 his * Devil's Opera.*
produced at the English Opera House, Lyceum,
at once drew public attention to him. In 1840
he produced at Drury Lane an * EmbleraaticiEj.
Tribute on the Queen's Marriage/ and also
edited, for the Musical Antiquarian Society, Pur-
cell's opera *Dido and JBneas.* In 1843 he
became secretary of the Handel Society, for
which he edited * Belsbazzar,* 'Judas Macca-
beus,' and * Jephthah.' In Jan. 1845 he directed
the successful production of Mendelssohn's 'An-
tigone ' at Covent Garden Theatre. In 1846 his
opera, * Don Quixote,' was successfully produced
at Drury Lane, and in 1849 his opera, * Charles
II.' was given at the Princess's. His serenata,
' The Sleeper Awakened,' was brought out at the
National Concerts at Her Majesty's theatre in
1 85 1, and in the same year he composed his fine
Cantata, * Lenora.' His beautiful cantata, * May
Day,' was written for Bradford Festival, 1856,
and his cantata, 'Christmas,' was composed in
1859. He then resumed the composition of
opera, and brought out 'Robin Hood* at Her
Majesty's Theatre in i860, with great success.
This was followed by 'Freya's Gift,' masque,
and 'Jessy Lea,' opera, 1863; 'She stoops to
conquer,' 'The Soldier's Legacy,' and *Hel-
vellyn,' operas, 1864. Dr. Macfarren's vision
had at a comparatively early age become im-
paired ; ihe malady increased year by year,
until it terminated in total blindness. But this
calamity did not diminish his exertions; and
with extraordinary energy he continued to per-
form his duties as a professor at the Royal
Academy of Music, and to compose, dictating
his compositions to an amanuensis. On Oct. 23,
1873, his oratorio, 'St. John the Baptist,* was
produced at the Bristol Festival with marked
success. On March 16, 1875, he was elected
Professor of Music at Cambridge on the death
of Stemdale Bennett, and has greatly distin-
guished himself by the manner in which he
has performed the duties of the office. In April
following he accumulated the degrees of Bachelor
and Doctor of Music. About the same time he
was appointed Principal of the Royal Academy
of Music. * The Resurrection,* oratorio, was pro-
duced at Birmingham Festival in 1876, 'Joseph,*
Oratorio, at Leeds Festival in 1877; and 'The
Lady of the Lake,' a cantata, at Glasgow, on
Nov. 15, 1877. Besides the before-mentioned
works Dr. Macfarren's compositions are very
numerous; they include a cathedral service,
anthems, chants and psalm tunes, and * Tntroits
for the Holy Days and Seasons of the English
Church,' 1866; 'Songs in a Cornfield,' 1868;
'Shakspere Songs for 4 voices,' 1860-4; Songs
from Lane's 'Arabian Nights,' and Kingsley's
MACICOTATICUM.
I and Tennyson's poems ; Tery many mmgB, diiets,
etc., overtures to 'The Merchant of Venice,*
'Romeo and Juliet,* 'Hamlet,' 'Chevy Ciume'
(already mentioned), and ' Don Carlos ' ; -sym-
phonies, string quartets and a quintet; a con-
certo for violin and orchestra; and sonatas for
pianoforte alone and in combination with other
instruments. He harmonised the airs in Chap-
pell's 'Popular Music of tlie Olden Time,* and
arranged * Moore's Irish Melodies,* 1859, and
Scotch Songs. He has also appeared aa a writer
on music and music critic, having produced
' Rudiments of Harmony,' i860, and * Six Lec-
tures on Harmony,* 1867 ; Analyses of oratorios
etc., for the Sacred Harmonic Society, 1853-7;
and of orchestral works for the prograomie
books of the Philharmonic Society, 1869-71 ;
also many articles in ' The Musical World,* and
lives of musicians for the ' Imperial DictioDary
of Universal Biography.* He has leotored at
the Royal and Ix>ndon Institutions. As Pro-
fessor at Cambridge and. Principal of the Royal
Academy of Music, Dr Macfarren stands at the
head of English musicians. He shares with
Stemdale Bennett and Sullivan the rare dis-
tinction, for an Englishman, of having had his
works performed at the Gewandhaus Gonoerts
of Leipzig and elsewhere in Germany. His
industry and fei'tility under the greatest draw-
backs are iparvellous. His great kindness, and
his readiness to communicate his vast knowledge
and the stores of his capacious and retentive
memory to all who require them, are well known,
and have endeared him to a lai^ge circle of firiendf
and admirers.
Natalia Macfabben, his wife, oontnlto
singer and able teacher, is also well known by
her translations of opera libretti and other
works.
Walter Cecil Macfabrbn, his brother, bora
Aug. 28, 1836, chorister of Westminster Abbey
under James Turle from 1836 to 184 1, and pupil
of the Royal Academy of Music from 1843 to
1846, studied the pianoforte under W. H. Hi^mes,
and composition under his brother, G. A. Mac-
£arren, and Cipriani Potter. He was appointed
a professor at the Academy in 1846 and con-
ductor of its concerts in 1873. He was elected
a director of the Philharmonic Society in 1868
and its treasurer in 1876. He has composed 2
Church Services and a number of chants and
hymn tunes; overtures, 'Beppo,' *A Winter's
Tale,' *Hero and Leander,' and * Pastoral*; »
pianoforte concerto ; sonatas for pianoforte alone
and in combination with other instruments;
songs both sacred and secular ; many madrigsk
and part-songs ; and numerous pieces of all
kinds for pianoforte. He has edited Moaart't
pianoforte works, Beethoven*s sonatas, and the
extensive series of pianoforte pieces known as
' Popukr CUssics.* [W.H. H.]
MACICOTATICUM or MACHICOTAGf
A species of ornamentation, applied to Plain
Chaun t melodies, by means of extraneous notes in-
serted between those of the true Canto fermo, alter
the manner of what, in modem musio, would be
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MACICOTATICXTM.
cftHed Jloriiura, To the onoe prevalent cuitotti
o( Maekicotage in France are tobe attribated many
of the oormptiona obeervable in Gallioan Office
Books before Uie late oarefol reyimcms. The
Procemumale Parimetue (Paris 1 787) directs that
the melodies shall be maehicoUe by the Cleigy,
sad continued by the Choir * sine macicotatico ' :
and. In former times, the Ecclesiastics entrasted
with the duty of so singing them, were called
Maeeeonicif or Maokicott, [W.S.R.]
MACKENZIE, Alexaitdeb Campbell, son
of a favourite Edinbuigh musician, was bom in
Edinburgh, 1847, was sent to Grermany at the age
of 10 to study music at SchwarzburgSonders-
hausen under Ulrich Eduard Stein. He entered
the ducal orchestra as violinist at the age of 14,
and remained in Germany until 1862, when he
came to London in order to study the violin under
M. Sainton, and was elected King's Scholar of
the Royal Academy of Music in 1S62,
In 1865 he returned to Edinburgh, established
a position as pianoforte teacher, and has since
remained in Scotland, with the view of devoting
himsdf entirely to composition. His principal
works are * Cervantes, an overture for orchestra * ;
a Scherzo for ditto ; Overtiure to a Comedy ; a
String Quintet, and many other pieces in MS. ;
Pianolbrte Quartet in Bb (Leipzig, Kahnt),
op. 1 1 ; Trois Morceaux pour Piano, op. 1 5 ; two
•Songs, op. 1 3 ; besides Bongs, part-songs, anthems,
and pieces for the piano. [G.]
MACKINTOSH, John, bom 1767, an emi-
nent performer on the bassoon, who from 1 821 to
1835 held the first place in all the principal
IxnidoD and provincial orchestras. He produced
a full, rich, and powerful, but somewhat coarse,
tone. He is believed to have died in 1840. His
son Alphonso was a violinist. [W. H. H.]
M^^MURDIE, Joseph, Mus. Bac., bom in
1792 in the parish of St. Bride, London, gradu-
ated at Gxfoid in 1 8 1 4. He composed many glees
(principally for the Concentores Sodales) and
songs, and made numerous arrangements for the
pianoforte. He was for some time a director of
the Phnharmonic Society. He died at Merton,
Surrey, Dec 23, 1 878. [W. H. H.]
MAQON, LE. Op^ra-comique in 3 acts ; words
by Scribe and Delavigne, music by Auber. Pro-
duced at the C)pera Comique, May 3, 1825 ; in
Kngland at St. tJames's, March 13, 1850. [G.]
MADRIGAL (Ital. MadHgaU, Madiialt,
MoMdrialc), The derivation of the word, Madri-
gal, has so hopelessly perplexed all who have
attempted to trace it to its source, that, until
some new light shall be thrown upon the subject,
further discussion would seem to be useless. We
must, therefore, leave our readers to form their
own judgment upon the four theories which have
been naoet generally accepted: namely, (i) that
the word is derived from the Italian, madre,
(mother), and signifies a Poem, addressed — as is
said to have been the case with the first Madri-
gals—to. Gur Lady; (2) that it comes f^m the
Greek word, lu&Mhpa^ (Lat. and Ital. m<mdra, a
MADRIGAL.
isr
sheep-fold), and was suggested by the generally
pastoral character of the composition ; (3) that
it is a corruption of the Spanish word, madni'
gada, (the dawn), and is used, in Italian
as the equivalent of Mattinata, (a Morning
Song) ; (4) that it owes its origin to the name of
a town situated in a deligh^ul valley in Old
CJastile. On one point, however, all authorities
are agreed : viz. that the name was first given to
a certain kind of Poem, and afterwards trans-
ferred to the music to which it was sung — which
music was always, during the best periods of
Art, written for three or more •Voices, in the
antient Ecclesiastical Modes, and without in-
strumental accompaniment. ^
Our actual knowledge of the condition of the
Madrigal, before the invention of printing, is
sadly imperfect : but, in the absence of positive
evidence, analogy leaves us little cause to doubt
that its earlier phases must have corresponded,
as closely as we know its later ones to have done,
with those of the Motet — for, the application of
Discant to Siecular Melody must have suggested
the one no less surely than its association with
Plain Cilhaunt gave birth to the other. The
originators of this process were, in all probability,
the Troubadours, and Minnesingers, who so
strongly influenced the progress of popular music
in the Middle Ages : and there is reason to be-
lieve that the rarity of early MS. records is due
to the fact that they were accustomed to sing
their Discant extempore— or, as it was formerly
called, aJUa mente* But, long before this first
glimmering of Science resulted in the invention
of Counterpoint, the Age of Cavalry had passed
away, and the Minstrels, as a corporate body,
had ceased to exist. Henoe, the farther develop-
ment of the Madrigal devolved upon the Eccle*
siastical Musicians, who cherished it tenderly,
and brought all the resources of their Art to
bear upon it ; treating it, technically, exactly as
they treated their compositions for the Church,
though, in the aesthetic character of the two
styles— founded on an instinctive perception of
the contrast between Sacred and Profane Poetry
— they observed a marked difference. This we
may readily understand, from the description left
us by Thomas Morley, who, writing in 1597,
tells us, that, 'As for the Musicke, it is next
unto the Motet, the most artifidall and to men
of Vnderstanding the most delightful!. If there-
fore you will compose in this Kind you must
poesesse your selfe with an amorus humor (for in
no cdposition shall you proQe admirable except
you put on, and possesse your selfe wholy with
that vaine wherein you compose) so that you
must in your Musicke be waQering like the wind,
sometime wanton, sometime drooping, sometime
graSe and staide, otherwhile effeminat, you may
maintaine points and reQert them, vse triplaes,
and shew the uttermost of your varietie, and the
more varietie you show the better shall you
please.* In the i6th century, these directions
were observed to the letter— so closely, that it
would be difficult to give a more grapMc sketch
of Polyphonic Music, in its ssaoular dresSy than
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Ka
MADRIGAL*
that conveyed by Master Morley^s quaint ex-
pressions.
The most antient specimen of ssecular Poly-
phonic Music now known to exist is the famous
Canon, * Sumer is i cumen in/ preserved, amons^
the Harleian MSS.« in the British Museum. Ko
clue can be obtained as to the authorship of this
ingenious composition; nor has its exact date
ever been satisfactorily demonstrated, though Dr.
Bumey — who, in the second volume of his Mu-
sical History, has printed it, not only in its ori-
ginal notation, but, also, in the form of a detailed
solution, scored for six voices — ventures to say
that he ' can hardly imagine it to be much more
modem' than the 13th or 14th century. Its
extreme antiquity is, indeed, indisputable : but
it can scarcely be called a Madrigal, not^h-
'. standing the rustic character of its words. /Fhe
i true Madrigal is unquestionably the offspring of
the groat Flemish School. We hear of it, in the
Low Countries, as early, at least, as the middle
of the 15th century, when it was ahready well
known to the Netherlanders, in the form of a
Polyphonic Song, often of very elaborate con-
struction, and always written in strict conformity
with the laws of the old Church Modes. These
characteristics — which it retained, to the last, in
all countries, and through all scholastic changes —
are unmistakeable ^igns of its close relationship
to the Motet, of which we have also ample proof,
in the certainty that it oitginated in Counter-
point on a CatUo fermo. As a general rule, this
Canto fermo was naturally supplied by the melody
of some popular Chanson : but, just as we some-
times find a popular melody intruding itself into
the Mass, so, in these early Madrigals, we are
occasionally startled by the apparition of some
well-known fragment of severe Eoclesiastical
Plain Chaunt ; as in Agricola's Belle iur toutest
in which the lighter theme is almost profeoiely
contrasted with that of Tola pvlckra «, Maria —
a combination which Ambros naively compares
to the Song of a pair of Lovers, who quietly
carry on their discourse, in the Iwo upper parts,
while a holy Monk lectures them in the Bass.
For the earliest published copies of these in-
teresting works, we are indebted to Ottaviano
dei Petrucci — ^the inventor of the process by
which music was first printed from movable
types— whose three collections, entitled ^ Hdr-
monice Musices Odhecaton. A.^ (Venice 1501),
*Canti B numcro Cinquanta B^ (ib. 1501), and
• Canti C no. cento cinquanta C (ib. 1503), were
long supposed to be lost, and now only exist in
the form of unique copies of the first, and second,
preserved in the Library of the Liceo Filarmonico,
at Bologna, and a splendidly bound exemplar of
the third, in the Hofbibliothek at Vienna. In
these precious volumes we find a copious selec-
tion fi*om the ssecular works of Busnois, Oken-
heim, Johannes Tinctor, Hobrecht, Regis, Caron,
Josquin des Pr^s, Alexander Agricola, Brumel,
Pierre de la Rue, and twenty-nine other writers,
whose Chansons illustrate the First Period in the
histoty of the Flemish Madrigal — a period no
less interesting than instructive to the critical
. MADRIGAL. '
student, for it is here that we first find ^enoe,
and Popular Melody, working together for a
common end.
/ The Second Period, though its printed records
vdate only thirty-five years later, shews an im-
mense advance in Art. Its leading spirits,
Jacques Archadelt, Philipp Verdelot, Giaches
de Wert, Huberto Waelntnt, and some other
writers of their School, were not only accom-
plished contrapuntists, but had all learned the
difficult art of restraining their ingenuity within
due bounds, when simplicity of treatment was
demanded by the character of the words they
-selected for their theme. Hence, they have left
us works, which, for purity of style, and graceful
flow of melody, can scarcely be exceeded. Archa-
delt, though a true Fleming by taste and educa-
tion, as well as by birth, spent much of his time
in Italy ; and published his First Book of Madri-
gals at Venice, in 1538, with such success, that,
within eighty years it ran through no lees than
sixteen editions. Five other books followed,
containing, besides his own works, a number by
other celebrated writers, among whom, however,
he stands his ground nobly. From a copy of the
fourth edition of the First Book, preserved in the'
British Museum^ we transcribe a few bars of one
of the loveliest Madrigals he ever wrote — II
bianco e ddlct cigno — which, we should imagine,
needs only publication in an attainable form, in
order to become a favourite with every Madrigal
Society in England.^
,g -^tlZ^fe ^N>it^ ^^;:===
do glim -■.•lln 4el Tl-Tarml- -X cic
h_ - ^ TM ^
r 1 ' 1 «^
t The onlj modern edition irith which we ftre ftoqnalnted to tnn^
poMd a third, and adapted to En^lsh words In which no translstlM
of the original Italian is attempted ; oonsoquently. the Mute, and UK
Foetf7. M« M CTOM puipoaet. firam beginning to end*
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The fevf concluding ban of this contain somd
imitations the smoo^iness of which is perfectly
delicious : —
Dl mn-le
MADRIGAL.
189
«d> ■ rrrrf^j-
LnM -'^^^4=^44^
'^/j.i^jQjjiS'^^^
Though a fiur less prolific writer than Archa-
delt, Waelrant was a true genius, and a true
disciple of the good old Flemish School. His
*^Sympltonia Angelica,^ printed, at Antwerp, in
1 594, contains compositions by some of the best
of his contemporaries ; but, none more beautiful
than his own Vorrei morire — well-known, in
England, and firequently sung, as 'Hard by a
fountain,* though the English words make no
attempt to convey the meaning of the original
Italian* Of Verdelot's numerous works, yery
few, unhappily, have been handed down to us
with all l^e parts complete: we possess, how-
ever, quite enough of his writings to prove, that,
like his great contemporary, Giaches de Wert,
he was de^ly imbued with the national style ;
which, from first to last, was clear in its con-
struction, smooth in its flow of melody, euphoni-
ous in its harmonic combinations, and, though
less rich in contrapuntal embroidery than the
later Italian Schools, never wanting either in
interest, or in animation. The last great Com-
poser by whom this peculiar style was cultivated,
in Northern Europe, was Orlando di Lasso,
who, though his &me rests chiefly upon his
EodesiastiaU Music, has left us many books of
splendid Madrigals, which may almost be said
to form, of themselves, a Third Period. With
htm, the School of the Netherlands came to an
end. But, long before his death, the Madrigal
had been transplanted to other countries : and,
in Italy, especially, it took firm root, and bore
abundant firuit.
The first really great Italian Madrigal-writer
was Costanzo Festa, whose delicious Quando ri^
Proro la mia poMtarella, printed in Archadelt*s
Third Book, has enjoyed a greater degree of
popularity, in England, under its famili^ title,
' Down in a flowery vale,* than any other work
of the kind that ever was imported hither.*
This fine composition bears evident traces of* the
Flemish manner; as do, more or less, all the
1 In tlw KwHih «dlttOD — admirablj truulttod bj Thonus 011-
plttnt - the time of the movement bu been rerj upJustlflAbly
cb't^jwl. fmm four mlnlmn fr ftmr rmtrhrti In ■ mffinirn.
works belonging to what may be called the First
Roman Period. In the Second Period, this
foreign influence was entirely destroyed, and the
true Roman style inaugurated, by the appearance
of Palestrina's Primo libro di Madrigali a qaat'
Ux> voei, in 1555, followed by a Libro secondo,
in 1586, and two books of Madrigali spiriiuali,
in 1 58 1, and 1594— the year of the great Com-
posers death. It may be well said, that, in
these four volumes, Palestrina has i^ewn his
command over all styles. The character of the -
Madrigali jpt rifiia/»— more serious than that of
the Chanson^ but less so than that of the Motet-—
shews a deep appreciation of the difference which
should always subsist between ordinary Sacred
Music, and Music intended to be actually used
in the Services of the Church. The spirit of the
ssecular Madrigals changes, every moment, with
the sense of the words. The second volume,
(that of 1586,) contains a more than usually
beautiful example— i4 lla riva del Tebro — ^in which
the grief of a despairing Lover is described in
discords as harsh as any that we are accustomed
to hear in the works of the most modem Com-
posers for the Lyric Stage. Yet, every one of
these discords is prepared, and resolved, in aoi
cordance with the strictest laws of Counterpoint :
and these very laws are used as vehicles for the
expression of all that music can ever be made to
express. For instance, the lovely Cadence at the
word, morte, when sung with the necessary ritard*
ando, tells, more plainly than any verbcd expla-
nation could possibly have done, how all such
woes as those alluded to are healed, for ever, by
death ; —
dd - la mU troer - bft e n ---------
Such works as these naturally excited the
emulation of contemporary Composers ; and led
each one to do his best for the advancement of a
style, so new and captivating. Palestrina^s ex-
ample was worthily imitated by his successor in
oflice, Felice Anerio, whose three volumes of
Madrigali s^iritualif printed at Rome, in 1585,
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,^tts»f^
190
MADRIGAL.
were Buoceeded by two books of isecular Madri-
gals of exquisite beauty, and a charming set of
Camonette, for three and four Voices, issued in
1603. Francesco Anerio, and the brothers, Gio-
vanni Maria, and Bernardino Nanini, contributed
a large store of yolumes of equal merit. Rug-
gero Giovanelli turned his genius to good account :
and the Roman School, now in its highest state
of perfection, boasted many other Madrigalists
of superlative excellence. Foremost among these
stood Luca Marenzio, who devoted his best ener-
gies to the advancement of sescular Art; pro-
ducing nine books of Madrigals for five Voices,
between the years 1580 and 1589, six, for six
Voices, within a very few years afterwards, and
many later ones, all of which were so well ap-
Eredated, that, even during his lifetime, he was
onoured with the well-earned title of II piii
dolce Cigno (TltcUia. The style of this * Sweetest
Swan' was, by nature, a little less grave than
that of Palestrina : but, like that great Master,
he possessed the happy faculty of accommodating
it to all possible circumstances, and did so with
such unvarying success, that he may be justly
regarded as the most satisfactory representative
of the Third Roman Period. His little Madri-
gal, Vezzoti augellit scored, by P. Martini, in the
second volimie of his Saggio di CorUrappmUo,
is a miracle of prettiness, and contrasts strangely
enough with the deep sadness displayed in the
opening bars of his Ahi I diipietata morte I
l'J"^//^I^Jir/?'Nr^
Ten ----oi* an.......
{g^H-5
1 v^- Ht
1
•> " - ip. *»» r-^^ r-^ib' P —
-ir- — -r^^ „ ^^\7.
\" -V\,\' H^^— ^^
-f"—
But it was not in Rome alone that the Madri-
gal was cultivated with success. It found an
equally congenial home in Venice, where it was
first introduced by Adrian Willawt, who, though
MADRIGAL.
by birth and education a Fleming, did so much
for the City of his adoption that he is universftUy
represented as the Founder of the great Venetian
School. His influence, and that of hla country-
man, and faithful disciple, Cipriano di Rore, may
be traced throu^out its entire course, from be-
ginning to end. Even in the works of Giovanni
Groce it is cleariy perceptible, notwithstanding
the marked individuality which places the stamp
of independent genius on everything he wrote.
Andrea Gabriel!, and his nephew, Giovanni, Fra
Costanzo Porta, and Orazio Vecchi, were all
deeply imbued with the same spirit; Hans Leo
Hasler carried it to Nuremberg, where it wrought
a good and lasting work; and Gastoldi— >be-
lieved, by Morley, to have been the inventor of
the * Fa la * — ^was, really, no more than the ex-
ponent of an idea which had already been freely
used by Willaert, and more than one of his
immediate followers. It may, in truth, be said,
that Flemish Art £uled to attain its full matu-
rity, until it was transplanted from the Nether*
lands to Venice. All honour to the great Re-
public for developing its rich resources. It was
a glorious trust committed to her ; and she ful-
filled it nobly.
In Florence, the Madrigal attained a high
d^ree of popularity — at fint, in the form of the
Frottola, which, C«x>ne tells us, is to be distin-
guished from the true Madrigal by the poverty
of its contrapuntal artifices — afterwards, in the
more fully developed productions of Franceso
Oorteocia, Matteo KampoUini, Pietro Masaoooni,
and Baccio Moechini. But its course, here, was
brought to an untimely close, by a growing
passion for instrumental albcompaniment which
entirely destroyed the old Florentine love for
pure vocal music. In Naples, it flourished bril-
liantly ; though rather in the shape of the Villan-
ella — the Neapolitan equivalent of Gastoldi's
Fa la — than in a more serious guise. In France,
it was but slightly prized, notwithstanding the
number of Chansons adapted, by the early
Netherlanders, to weU- known specimens of
French popular poetry: and, in Germany, it
failed to supplant the national taste for the
Volkdied, with which it had very little in com-
mon, and which, before the middle of the i6th
century, was itself prised into the service ctf the
all-absorbing ChondeA But, in Fngland, it took
root as firmJy-aa-efCT it had done, either in
Rome, or in Venice, and gave rise to a national
School which is well able to hold it own against
any rival. The old Canon, 'Sumer is i cumen
in, has been cited as a proof that Polyphonic
Music originated in England. This position can-
not be maintained. T^e beginnings of Counter-
point have, hitherto, eluded idl enquiry. But, we
have already shewn that the Ms^gal was in-
vented in ti^e Netherlands ; and, that the first
published fruits of its discovery were issued, at
Venice, in 150 1. The first Polvphonic S<nigs
that appeared in England were printed, by Wyn-
kyn de Worde, in 1530, in a volume of the
existence of which neither Bumey nor Hawkins
seem to have been aware, though it contains a
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MADRIGAL.
Ughl J iiiterestiiig ooUectioii of works, both Mcred,
aad aeectilar, by Taverner, and other English
Composers. No second coUection appeared, till
1 5 71, when a volume, of much infericnr merit, was
printed^ for Thomas Whythome, by John Daye.
In 1588, William Byrd issued his first book of
'PaiUines, Sonets, and Songs of sadnes and pietie':
and, in the same year, Nicholas Yonge — a mer-
chant, who obtained a rich store of Madrigab
from his Italian correspondents — published, under
the title of Musica transalpina, a volume con-
tj^^i^iwg more than fifby pieces, selected from the
works of Noe Faigneant, Binaldo del Mel, Gia-
ches de Wert, Ckirnelius Verdcmck, Palestrina,
Laca Maremdo, and several more of the best
Flemish and Italian Composers of the day. In
the preCftce to this volume, the word, * MadrigaW
is used, (to the best of our belief), for the first
time, in England. The compositions selected bv
the w<vihy merchant are all adapted to Englieh
verses, in which, though the diction is some-
times sufficiently uncouUi, the rhythm and sense
of the original Italian are often carefully imitated :
and, to Uie zeal of their enthusiastic collector,
who had them constantly sung at his house, we
are mainly indebted for the favour with which,
from that time forth, the Madrigal was universally
reoelved in this country. Nine years later,
Tonge ventured upon a second collection. Mean-
while, Byrd had already published another volume
of original compositions, under the title of * Songs
of snndrie natures,' in 1589; in 1590, Thomas
Watson had edited a ' Sett of Italian Madrigalls
Enj^iahed, not to the sense of the original! dittie,
but after the affection of the Noate* ; and, between
1593» and 1595, Thomas Morley had produced
two books of Canzonets, one, of 'Madrigals to
foure Voyces,' and one of Ballets. The number
gf pahUcations, therefore, was increasing rapidly.
By this time, the Madrigal had fieorly esta-
blished itself as a national institution : and Eng-
lish Composers did alKthat in them lay, to bring
it to perfection. ^ Ibe^most noted among them
seemed joever tired of 'producing new works.
Simoltaneoudy with Yonge's second collection-^
that is, in I597~appeared two original sets of
great importance, one, by Thomas Weelkes, the
other, by George Kirbye. In the same year,
Morley issued a third and fourth volume of Can-
Koets ; and John Dowland delighted all Europe
with his ' First Booke of Songes or Ayres of foure
parts.' Wilbye^s first book appeared in 1598,
and Benet's in 1599. In 1601, Morley edited a
£un(Hi8 volume, entitled, 'The Triumphes of
Oriana,' containing Madrigals, for five and six
Yoioes, by Idichael Este. Weelkes, Benet, HUton,
Wilbye, and sixteen other Composers, besides
himsdf. Michael Este published a volume of
his own, in 1604, another in 1606, and a third,
in 1 6 10. Bateson's two books were issued in
1604, and 1618. Dowland's second book ap-
peared in 1600, his third, in 1603, and his 'Pil-
grim's Solace,' in 161 2. Thomas Ford printed
two books of ' Musicke of sundrie Elinds,' in 1607,
Mid Wilbye his second book in 1609 ; Orlando
Gibbons produced his first (and only) volume of
MADRIGAL.
191
'Madrigals and Motets,' in 161 2 ; and, even as
late as 1630— exactly a century after the publi*
cation of Wynkyn de Worde^s curious volume— a
book of * Mottects * (all, really, Madrigals, though
with instrumental accompaniments ad libitum)
was given to the world by Martin Pierson.
Rich collections of these rare old editions-—
including many volumes which we have not space
to particularise — are preserved in the Libraries
of the British Museum, the Sacred Harmonic
Society, and the Universities of Oxford and Cam-
bridge : and many of the most popular Madrigals
have been reprinted, in a modem form, over and
over again.^ It is difficult to decide upon the
comparative merits of particular works, where
the general standard of excellence is so high, and
the number so great. An endless variety of
styles is observabk, even to the most superficial
enouirer : but careful analysis proves this to be
rather the result of individual feeling, than an
index to the prevailing taste at any g^ven, epoch.
Hie histonr of the School, therefore, must be
comprised, like our notice of the Venetian Madri-
gal, within the limits of a single Period : and we
shall best illustrate it by selecting a few typical
works for separate criticism.
Byrd*s Madrigals are sometimes constructed
upon a very elaborate plan, and abound in points
of ingenious and delightful imitation, as do those
of Weelkes, Cobbold, and Wilbye, and their con-
temporaries, Kirbye, and Bateson — witness the
following beautiful passage firom the last-named
Composer's contribution to 'The Triumphes of
Oriana '—
-/>
InHearenUvM 0 - rt • • - na, «to.
g^r;-^-^'J'Lj.j-J ^U J jj
•7
"o •\es 0
In Heaven Uree O-ri -» ----•
J - J J J J. J^J J J
—^ L ^ ■ a>
In HeftTen Uvee, etc
1 It Is mach to be regretted that lo few modern editors think U
worth while to mention the source whence their reprints are derived ;
or even to give the original name* of Flemish or Italian Madrigals.
BtiU more deeply to be deplored Is the mischievous a*stem of trans-
pcMlthm, now so common, which fkvquentljr destroys all trace of the
composer's Intention, and alwajs prevents the tjro from ascertaining
the Mode \n which a given Madrigal Is written. As MadrigaU must
always be sung without accompaniment, traosposltlon. In tbo book.
U wholly unmwmlng. and helps no one.
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192
MADRIGAL.
Morley, Hilton, and Micliael Este, preferred ft
lighter vein, and produced some of the moat
delicious Fa las which remain to ub. Among
those who affected ' Ayres* and Canzonets, John
Dowland incontestibly holds the first place. His
' Awake, sweet Love,* and * Now, Oh ! now, I
needs must part,' are gems of Art — perfect in
their simplicity, yet no less masterly in design
than tender in expression. Orlando Gibbons, and
a charming Composer of earlier date — Richard
Edwardes — wrote like bom Netherlanders. A
more interesting comparison than that between
the two following examples, and the extracts
already given from Archadelt's 'Bianco e dolce
Cigno*cuii scarcely be imagined.
* Hie Silver Swan.*
Orlaicdo Gibbons.
Leaning her breut
- gainst tho reed • j
* In going to my lonely bed.'
Richard Edwardbs (1560).
newlng
After the second decade of the 1 7th century,
no work of any lasting reputation was produced,
and the style soon fell into neglect. Under the
Stuart Dynasty, Polyphonic Song lost much of
its popularity ; and the Great Rebellion crushed
out all artistic feeling : but Art lived on ; and,
in due time, the Madngal, forgotten in Flanders,
MADRIGAL SOCIETY.
and replaced in Italy by a new kind of Chamber
Music with instrumental accompaniment, merged
gradually, in England, into the Glee — a kind of
composition cultivated in no other country, and
of far higher sesthetic value than its German re-
presentative, the Part Song. The writer who^
no doubt, unconsciously — helped, more than any
other, to prepare the way for this great change,
was Thomas Ford, whose lovely Canzonet^
'Since first I saw your face,* and 'There is a
Ladie, sweete, and kind,* hold a position as nearly
as possible midway between the Madrigal and
the Glee, breathing all the spirit of ihe one^
while introducing progressions only permisaable
in the other. It is, however, worthy of remark —
though the fact seems, hitherto, to have escaped
notice — that intervals, forbidden by the strict
laws of Counterpoint, were tolerated, in England,
at an earlier period than on the Continent. Wil-
bye used the Diminished Triad with a boldness
which would have made Anerio*s hair stand on
end. Such licenses as these once permitted, the
substitution of modem tonalities for the Eoclesi*
astical Modes followed, as a matter of course-^
and, this accomplished, the change from the
Madrigal to the Glee was complete.
Having traced the history of the Madrigal
thus far, it remains only to say a few words as to
the manner of its performance. ^
m It is absolutely indispensable that it ahould be
sung without any instrumental accompaniment
whatever : and, unlike the Glee, (which is always
performed by solo Voices,) it is most effective
when entrusted to a moderately full, but not jtoo
numerous Chorus. Changes of tone, embracing
every shade of difference between ff and ppp,
and introduced, sometimes by the most delicats
possible gradations, and sometimes, in strongly*
marked contrast, will be continually demanded,
both by the character of the music, and the sense
of the words : and, remembering how earnestly
Morley insists upon * varietie,' the student will
be prepared to learn that litardandi and accder-
andi will be scarcely less frequently brought into
requisition. Nevertheless, strict mechanical pre-
cision must be secured, at any oost. The slight-
est uncertainty, either of intonation, or of rhyUmu
will suffice to ruin everything ; and, to dntw the
line fairly, between intensity of expreadom, and
technical perfection, is not always an easy matter.
There is, indeed, only one way of overcoming
the difficulty. To imagine Damon r^ru];^ng
his love-lorn ditty by the tick of a metronome
would be absurd. The place of the metronome,
therefore, must be supplied by a Condootor,
capable of fully sympathising, either with Dam<m's
woes, or Daphne's fond de%ht8, but wholly in-
capable of shewing the least indulgence to his
Singers, who must learn to obey the rise and ftJl
of his hdton^ though it move but a hair's breadth
in either direction. [W. 8. R]
MADRIGAL S(X:!IETY. Founded in 1741
by John Immyns, a member of the Academy of
Ancient Music, the Madrigal Society enjoys the
distinction of being the oldest musical assoGsatioo
in Europe. Its fint meetings were held at the
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MADRIGAL SOCIETY.
Twelve Bells in Bride Lane, whence it removed
to the Anchor and Crown, Whitefiriars, as proved
by the earliest minute-book in the Society's
library, dated 1744. In 1745 the Society re-
moved to the Founders* Arms, Lothbury, where
rules were adopted limiting the number of mem-
bers to sixteen, with an admission fee of 8s. and
a subscription of 38. per quarter. Having re-
turned for a time to the Twelve Bells, its original
heme, the Society afterwards migrated to the
Queen^s Arms, ifewgate Street, in 1748, when
the rules were revised. One rule enacted * That
all musical performances shall cease at half an
hour after ten o'clock, unless some of the mem-
bers shall be cheerfully incited to sing catches,
in which case they shall be indulged half an
hour, and no longer.' Numerous fines were im-
posed for such offences as the retention of books
firam the Society's library ; and any member eat-
ing his supper, or a part tiiiereof, during practice
time was to forfeit sixpence, to be applied to
buying ruled paper. The performance on each
night was to be divided into two * acts,' with an
interval of half an hour, and in each act four
madrigals were to be sung. Between 1 750 and
1757 additional rules were adopted, by one of
whidi each member to whose turn it came to
serve as President was bound to present a score
and parts of a nuulrigal ready for performance,
or * to forfeit a penny extraordinary to the plate '
every night until he did so. By another rule
any gentleman who had been educated in, or ht
the time belonged to, any cathedral or choir was
to be admitted to visit the Society at his pleasure ;
and a similar privilege was accorded to any of
'the gentlemen of the Academy of Ancient
Music.' Membership was confined to persons
belonging to cathedral choirs, or those ' vouched
for by two or more members of the Society as
being capable of singing their part in concert
both in time and in tune ' ; and others proposed
for election were required, by way of probation,
to sing between the acts their proper parts in an
ancient madrigal for three or four voices, or some
two-part song to be sung with double voices.
The Society at this time (1749-50) nlet every
Wednesday evening, and consisted of twenty
members, who subsoibed 4s. 6d. a quarter. Ac-
cording to Sir John Hawkins (who was himself
a member) ' most of them were mechanics, some
weavers from Spitalfields, others of various trades
and occupations, who were well versed in the
practice of Psalmody, and who, wiUi a little
pains and the help of the ordinary solmisatiun,
whidi many of them were very expert in, be-
came soon able to sing almost at sight a part in
an English or even an Italian madrigal. They
also sang catches, rounds, and canons, though
not elegantly, yet with a degree of correctness
that did justice to the harmony ; and, to vary
the entertainment, Immyns would sometimes
read, by way of lecture, a chapter from Zarlino,
translated by himself. They were men not less
distinguished by ^eir love of vocal harmony
than by the harmless simplicity of their tempers
and by their friendly disposition towards eaoh
TOL. n.
MADRIGAL SOCIETT.
19S
other.' At times they took county excursions,
and the minutes record that on Whit-Monday,
1 75 1, 'the party proceeded up the river, break-
fasting at Wandsor (Wandsworth), dining at
Richmond, besides stopping to whet their whis-
tles at Mortlack (Mortlake).' In 1764 Mr.
Immyns died. In 1768 the subscription was
raised to 8s. a quarter, the number of members
being about thirty, and it was agreed to hold an
entertainment for their friends once at least
every year. In 1769 the Society removed to
the Feathers Tavern, Cheapdde; in 1775 to ^^
King's Arms, Comhill ; in 1 778 they were at
the Half Moon, Cheapside, and the London
Tavern; in April, 1792, at the King's Head
in the Poultry; in May, 1793, at the Globe,
Fleet Street; and in 1705 removed to the
Crown and Anchor, when the charge for supper,
' on account of the advance in wine,' was raised
to 28. 6d. for members, 4s. for visitors, and
3s. for professors. Festival dmners were held
in 1798, 1802, 1803, and 1800, and were con-
tinued at intervals, and in 1876 ladies dined at
the festival for the first time. In 18 14 the sub-
scription was raised to £3, and in 18 16 the
charge for supper, including a pint of wine, was
fixed at 6s. On September 27, 1821, the
supper meeting, after being held for eighty years,
gave place to a monthly <Unner, still held at the
Freemasons' Tavern during the season> which
then lasted frt>m October to July, but now num*
bers five meetings, commencing in November.
In 1811 was offered for the first time a prize of a
silver cup, value ten guineas, 'for the best madri-
gal in not less than four nor more than six parts,
the upper part or parts to be for one or two
treble voices. The character of the composition
to be after the manner of the madrigals by Ben-
net, Wilb3re, Morley, Weelkes, Ward, Marenzio,
and others, and each part to contain a certain
melody either in figure or imitation ; therefore,
a melody harmonized will be inadmissible.' W.
Beale's 'Awake, sweet muse,' and W. Hawes's
' Philomela ' were selected for a' final ballot from
fourteen compositions sent in, which included
S. Wesley's 'O sing unto my roundelay,' and
W. Linley's * Ah me, quoth Venus.' The prize
was given to Beale. The earlier members in-
cluded Immyns, the founder, by profession an
attorney, afterwards appointed lutist to the
Chapel Royal and amanuensis to Dr. Pepusch ;
Dr. John Worgan, organist and composer; Sir
John Hawkins, the musical historian (1741-
1 751) ; Rev. 0. Torriano and Jonathan Battishill,
the composer (elected 1752); E. T. Warren, editor
of the Glee Collection (1762) ; Dr. Ame and his
son Michael, and Luffinan Atterbury, composer of
the glee * Come, let us all a-Maying go ' (i 765) ;
Theodore Aylward. one of the assistant directors
at the Handel Commemoration of 1784 (1769) ;
Joah Bates, the conductor of the Handel Com-
memoration (1774) ; ^^' ^' Cooke, organist of
Westminster Abbl^ (1778); James Bartleman
(1793); J* P- Street, Librarian and many years
Father of the Society ; R. J. S. Stevens, the
Gresham Professor, and W. Horsley, the glee-
0
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IH
MADBIDAL BDCIEm:
writor (1798); Reg. SpofiEt^th, ther gltewriidr,
and Robert Ck)oke, master of the Westminster
choristers (i8oa) ; W. Beale (1805) ? Dr.
Calloott (1806) ; W, H*w«s and W. Linley
(1809) ; G. K WiHiamSy organist of Westminster
Abbey (1814) ; Sir J. L. Rogers, bart., and T.
Oreatorez,orgaiUitofWestn]insterAbbey(i8i9) ;
J. T. Cooper (1825) ; Jonathan Nield, Rer. W.
J. Hall (1818); P. J. Salomons (1820); Vi«-
eent Novello and Thomas Oliphant, aftarwardi
sec!retai7(i83o); J. W.Hobbs, J.Calkin(i83i);
6. Cooper, deputy organist of St. Paul*s, James
Turle, ozgaoist of Westminster Abbey (1832).
The present members indade Br. Stainer, organist
of St. Paul's Cathedral; J. Turle; Dr. Bridge;
E. J. Hopkins; W. ChappeU, F.S.A.; I>r. W.
Pole ; Otto Qoldsohmidt ; Dr. John Hullah,
and Rer. T. Helmore. Up to 1820 the mem-
hen presided in rotation, but in that year it
was resolved to appoint Sir J. L. Rogers as
permanent president. The office has since been
filled by Lord Saltoun, 1842-53; Sir Georve
Clerk, Bt., 1855-66; Prince Dhuleep Singh,
1867-71 ; Thomas Oliphant, 1871-73 ; Hon. and
Rev. H. Legge, 1 874-7 7 • ^^ ^ ^^ vacant. The
Librarians have been :---J. P. Street, 1 792-1 848 ;
John Bishop, 1849-70; C. D. Budd, 1871-78 ;
J. C. Meek, 1879. ^^^ conductors or musical
directors permanently appointed since W. Hawes,
1809-46, hav« been :--James Turle^ 1846-49;
James King, 1849-54 ; Cipriani Potter, 1855-
70; Otto Goldschmidt, 1871-77; Dr. John
Stainer, 1878. Dr. John Hullah and Dr. J. F.
Bridge have been assistant condnetors since
1878. Under tiie present rules the Society con-
sists of forty joembers, elected by ballot, the
subscription (including dinner fees) being five
guineas, and for professional members three
guineas. The following was the programme at
the Society's last Festiv^, June 1 9, 1879 : — looth
Psalm, arranged by Dr. W. Pole (8 parts) ;
* Come, Bhepherds, follow me ' (Benaet) ^ * Sister,
awake ' (Bateson) ; * Cynthia, thy song* (Crooe) ;
*Die not, fond man* (Ward); 'Fair Oriana'
(Hilton) ; * O say, ye saints ' (Sir J. Rogers) ;
* Stay one moment, gentle river * (Oliphant) ;
'Shsll I, wasting in despair' (G. A. Osborne) ;
*-Take heed, ye shephmd swains ' (PearsaU) ;
* Lady, your eye ' (Weelkes) ; * Lady, see on
every side ' (Marenzio) ; * Nymphs are sporting *
(PearsaU); 'Fa-hk-U.* Mr. J. Edward Street
IS the present secretary ; and Mr. Kellow J. Pye
the treasurer, [CM.]
MAELZEL, JOHANK Nepoicuk, bom Aug.
15, 1772, at Ratisbon, son of an organ builder.
In 1 792 he settled in Vienna, and devoted him-
self to teaching music, and to constructing an
automaton instrument of flutes, trumpets, drums,
cymbals, triangle, and strings struck by ham-
mers, which played music by Haydn, Mosart.
and Crescentini, and was sold for 3000 florins.
His next machine was the Panharmonicon, like
the former, but with clarinets, violins, and cellos
added. It was worked by weights acting on
cylinders, and was exhibited in Vienna in 1804.
Maelzel then bought Kempelen's Chessplayer;
MAELZEL,
and took li with the Pxmharmomcon to Paris.
The Chessplayer he afterwards sold to Eugene
Beauhamais. He next constructed a Trumpeter,
which played the Austrian and French cavalry
marches and signals, with marches and allegros
by Weigl, Dussek, and Pleyel. In 1808 he was
appointed ooort mechanician, and about that time
Boade some ear trumpets, one of which Beethoven
used for years. In 1812 he (^>ened the 'Art
Cabinet,* among the attractions of which were
the Trumpeter and a new and enlaiged Panhar-
monicon; and soon afterwards made public %
musical chronometer, an improvement of a ma-
chine by Stockel, for which he obtained certificates
firom Beethoven and other leading musicians.
Maelzri and Beethoven were at Uiis time on
very firiendly terms. They had arranged to visit
London together, and Maebsel had meantime aided
the great master in his impeoimiosity by urging
on mm a loan of 50 ducats in gold. In order to
add to the attractions of the Panharmonicon,
which they proposed to take with them, Maelzel
conceived and sketched in detail the design ^ of
a piece to commemorate the Battle of Vittoria
(June 21, 18 1 3), which Beethoven composed f<»r
the instrument. While it was being arranged
on the barrel, Maelzel further induced him to
score it for the orchestral, with the view to obtain
funds for the journey ; and it was accordingly
scored, and performed at a concert on Dec. 8, 181 3,
the programme of which consisted of the Sym-
phony No. 7 ; the marches of Dussek and
Pleyel, by the automaton, and the Battle-piece.
The oonoert was repeated on the 13th, and the
two yielded a net profit of over 4000 florins. At
this point Beethoven took offence at Maebsel^s
having announced the Battle-piece as his property,
broke completely with him, rejected the Trum-
peter and nis marches, and held a third concert
(Jan. 2, 1814) for his own sole benefit. After
several weeks of endeavour to arrange mattersy
Maelzel departed to Munich with lus Panhar-
meniooB, iiMsluding the Battle-piece, and also
with a full orchestral soore of the same, which he
had obtained without Beethoven's ooncurrenoe and
caused to> be performed at Munich. Beethoven
on this altered an action against him in the
Vienna oourts,^ and it is his memorandum of the
grounds of the action, as prepared for his advocate,
which is usually entitled 'his 'deposition.' He
further addressed a 'statement to the musicians
of London, entreating them not to countenance
or support MaelzeL The action came to nothing* |
and Maelzel does not appear to have gone to
London. He stopped at Amsterdam, ai^ there
got firom Winked a Dutch mechanic, the idea
of employing a new form of pendulum aa a me-
tronome. He soon perfected the instrument,
obtained a patent for it, and in 1816 we find ^
him in Paris established as a manufacturer of
this metronome, under the style of 'Malzl et
Cie.* Winkel claimed it as his invention, and
the claim was confirmed, after examination, by ^
the Dutch Academy of Sciences. A wish to
1 XoMbetos. note to hb ScUndkr, I. Ui,
xSohliMUer. Tltt7orlii.48Sw .
>TlHj«rm.4fl7.
i
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reptorcfiAse Kempeleii*s GheasplAyer and to pnth '
hit Metronome took him back to Munich and
Vienna in 1817. BeethoTen*s good word was of
more consequence than any one eWs, and
knowing Maelzers deremeaSy Beethoren's
tmenability to a good companion, and the fact
that the perfonnance an which the lawsuit was
gromided having taken place out of Avstria, the
action could hot lie, it need not lurprise us to
find that the suit was given up, and the costs
divided equally. After this Maelzel travelled
much, and even reached the United States, where
he paraed the rest of his life, ezoept a voyage or
two to the West Indiec^ eidiibituig the Qiess-
player, the Ck>nflagration of Moscow, and his
other curious inventions'. He was found dead in
his berth on board the American brig Otis, July
21,1 838. Maelzel was- evidently a sharp, shrewd,
dever man of business, with a strong propensity
to use the ideas of others for his own benefit.
For the details of his Metronome see the
tttide under thai head. It was entirely different
from the Stockel-Malzel 'Chronometer,* and it
vss upon the latter, and not upon the Metro-
nome, that Beethoven wrote the catch which is
connected with, the Allegretto of his Symphony
No. 8. [A,W.T.]
MlSSIG. <ln moderate time'; the German
eqidvalentof Moderate, used much by Schumann,
as in the sixth of the fiigues on the name Badi,
and oonstaiitly throughout the Album. 'Im
masngen Tempo' occurs in the fourth fugue of
op. 73, * Sehr massig' in the Lager-scene, ao. 3 of
op. 76. He uses 'Massig durohaus eneigisch ' as
the translation of ' Moderiito con eneigia * in the
seoond movement of the Fantasia in C, op. 1 7.
Hie * Marsch-massig ' of Beethoven's op, loi has
no rdation to the above, but means m March-
style. [J.A.F.M.]
MAESTOSO. 'With maieety,*or in a dignified
way. It is used either alone, as a direction of
time, in which case it indicates a pace rather
slower than andante, or, oombined with other
hulications of tempo, as a guide to the expression.
Beethoven uses it fii^uently in both these ways.
It ocouis alone in the Pianoforte Sonata, op. 1 1 1,
fiist movement, in the Namensfeier overture,
op. 115, Quartet in £b, op. 127, etc.; also in
Pixarro's song at the end of Act I of Fidelio,
' Anf euch, auf euch, nur will ich bauen.' In the
final diorus of that opera, ' Wer ein holdes Weib
I ennngen,' the direction originally stood Maestoso
I viraoe, bnt was afterwards chuiged to Allegro
nia ncn troppo. The first movement of the
Choral Symphony is marked Allegro ma non
troppo, un poce maestoso; the passage in the
last movement to the words ' Seid umschlungen
MiOioDen* is Andante maestoso ; and the four
ban of 3-4 time inunediately before the final
Prestissimo are marked Maestoso simply; Men-
dalsaohn uses Allegro maestoso firequently, as in
' Elijah, • I am he that oomfiorteth,' and * Be not
afraid,' and in St. Paul very often. He uses
Moderate maestoso in* *Tlen did Elijah the
1 1« ProC G. Afleo. of PhDaddpllla, UJJL, In the Book of the lint
HAGNIPICAr.
195
prophet.' Maestoso con brio occurs as the equi-
valent of the German ' Rauschend und festlich'
in Schumann's Novelette, No. 5. [J. A.F.M.]
MAESTRO, master. This word is almost
exclusively applied to the great classical com-
posers, but occasionally it is used of the very
highest dass of executive musicians, though even
in this case it ma^ be taken as implying an ap-
preciation of their compositions rather than of
their performances. It is seldom applied to
teachere as such, but refers almost always to
oosaposers of note.
Maestro dicapella & theexact Italian equivalent
to the G^ermonf teim Kapellmeister, or conductor.
Maestro dei putti (master of the boys) is an
office w4iich was founded in 1538 (not, as is
genendly Biq>posed, & the Papacy of Julius 11.
which was much earlier), and which was first
held by-Arcadelt. Its duties are to teach sing-
ing to the boys of St. Peter's, in Home, and more
or less to superintend the choir arrangements.
It thus represents our ' Choirmaster.' [S^Aboa-
DEL9; vol. i. p. 81.1
Maestro al cembalo is an officer at the Opens
next in importtooe to the conductor, and occa-
sionally taking his place. His duties consist of
superintending the rehearsids of the music, and
accompanying at them. This post was held by
Handel at ^unburg, when he was quite young
[see Haitdel, vol. i. p. 648], and afterwards by
Matheson. [J.A.F.M.]
MAGNIFICAT. The *Song of the Blessed
'VirginrMary ' has been used as the Vesper Can-
ticle of the Church, from time inmiemonal ; and
the Evening Office has always been so constructed
as to lead up to it as its chief point of interest
In Plain Chaunt Services, it is sung to the
same Tones as the Psalms; but, with certain
differences of detail. For instance, the Intona-
tion— except on Ferias, and a few Festivals of
minor importance— is prefixed to every Verse.
The Mediation is distinguished from the ordinary
form by the presence of certain ornamental notes,
introduced, per ligcUwram, for the purpose of
adding to its solemnity: but it will be observed,
that,, in the Roman vespeial, the Mediation of
the first Verse is altogether omitted, in conse-
quence of the small number of syllables, the
melody passing* on, at once, from the Reciting-
Note* to the lading, which, in all cases, cor-
responds exactly wi£ the formula prescribed for
the Psahn-Tones. Finally, the Tempo is infi-
nitely slower than that used in any other part of
the Service. This last peculiarity is a very im-
portant one : fbr, accor^ng to the Ritual of the
Western CSiurch, the Officiant and Sacred Minis-
tera are occupied, during the singingof Magnificat^
in incensing the Altar — a process, which, when f\ill
Ceremonial is used, occupies a oonsiderable time.
After the invention of Discant, a custom arose,
of singing Magnificat in alienate Verses of Plain
Chaunt, and Faux Bourdon, Sometimes, the
Faux Bourdon was simply a harmonised Psalm-
Tone, with the melody in the Tenor, as in the
following example of a very beautiful * Use' which
has long heea traditional in French CathedraU,
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aAGNIFICAr.
Magnifleat, Primt Ton!*
Sometimea, the Plain Chaunt was contrasted
with an original Faux Bourdon, written in the
required Mode, but not, like the former example,
on the actual melody of the Psalm-Tone. Dr.
Bumey, during his visit to Bome, met with an
exceedingly interesting MS. collection of Patix
BourdonM, of this description, by some of the
greatest Masters of the i6th century. From his
autograph transcription of this volume — now pre-
served, under the name of Studij di PaUttrtna,
in the Library of the British Museum — we ex-
tract the following beautiful example by Giovanni
Maria Nanini K
Ton.rv.
MAGNIFICAT.
treat the alternate Verses, only, in complex imi-
tation, and doselv-interwoven fugal points ; leav-
ing, sometimes Uie even, and sometmies the odd
Verses, to be sung in unisonous Plain Chaunt. in
the manner already described. The following
extract from one of the finest compositions in the
series will serve to exemplify his usual mode of
treatment.
MagntJIoat, OeUvi TonL
<«) . 1 ^
A--iil-iiuime-«.«to. 'M*
A-nl-BBA UM-a, etc
ni - ma ma - a, nc. • I ■ ■
This method was also adopted by Francesco
Suriano, Orlando di Lasso, and many other
writers ; but Felice Anerio, Luca Marenzio, Gio-
vanni Gabrieli, and some of the most noted of
their contemporaries, treated the Canticle in
Polyphone, throiurhout, frequently disposing their
Voices in two or mora antiphonal Choirs. A fine
example of this later style is preserved in Grabri-
eli's eight-part Magnificat in the First Mode.
MagnifictA Primi TorU,
These two methods of singing Magnificat aro
so wonderfully effective, that it is difficult to
choose between them : and, happily, they are
both so easy, that no Choir need fear to attempt
them. But, the development of the idea did not
rest hero. It is scaroely possible to name any
great Church Composer who has not illustrated
the text of the Canticle with original music, over
and over again. Josquin des Pr^, Morales,
Gondimel, Animuccia, Vittoria, Orlando di Lasso,
and a host of authors, ropresenting every School,
and every well-marked Period, have left us .in-
numerable examples. Palestrina published a
volume, in 1^91, containing two settings in each ,
of the first eight Modes ; and has left nearly as
many more in MS. His favorite plan was, to
I It will be ae«n tTmt Vanlnl has ended hk Chaunt with the har-
mony of the Dominant. Instead of that proper to the Final of the
Mode. A Bimilar peculiarity Is observable In many other Faux
JtomHoHM adapted, by the Old Masters, to alternate Verses of Can-
ticleit and P»alms. The reason of this Is self-evident. One or other
of thp 8absi<liary Cadences of the Mode U employed, in order thai its
true Final Cadence may be reserved for the conclusion of the Antiphon i
wh!th is to follow. The SIstine Miserere may be cited as the eiception
'Which proves the rule. It ends with the proper Final Cadence, beonuse, |
in th«) Office uf Tenvbra, it Is always sung without an Antiphon. ,
(H^e AMTIPBOK.] 1
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MAGNIFICAT. :
' *rbe fathers of English Cathedral Music treated
MagnififXLt in a manner peculiarly their own —
clear in design, pure, solemn, and richly harmo-
nious, but differing in no wise from their render-
ing of the other Canticles, and demanding no
slower Tempo than the rest. The finest of these,
which may well bear comparison with the works
of the great Flemish and Italian Schools, are to
be found in the * Services ' of Tallis, Byrd, Far-
ranty Tomkins, Bevin, Batten, and Orlando Gib-
bons. Their number is comparatively small :
but it is to be feared that many invaluable
compositions of the Elizabethan JSitk have been
lost to us, through the spoliation of Cathedral
Libraries, during the great Rebellion. After the
Restoration, the style rapidly deteriorated : and,
notwithstanding the efforts of a few talented
Composers — especially, Drs. Creyghton, and Croft
— who conscientiously followed the precepts of
Uie earlier School, it sank, eventuaUy, so low,
tiiat even the platitudes of Kent, and Jadcson,
fail to represent its latest stages of degradation.
ELappily, the number of fine examples still re-
maming is quite sufficient for all practical pur-
poses ; and all are now published m cheap, and
easily accessible forms.
The text of Magnificat has also been grandly
illustrated, by Bach, Mendelssohn, and other Com-
posers of the modem School, in the Oratorio style,
with full orchestral accompaniments. For some
parHculars respecting the tiistory of a Magnificat
of this description, which has lately given rise to
discussions of more than ordinary interest, see
Ebba, dok DioNiGi; and Handel (vol. i. p. 491 h,
and 654, note). [W. S. R.]
MAGYAR (Hungarian) MUSIC. The most
important part of the national music of Hungary
is so called because it proceeds from the Magyar
portion of the inhabitants. ' The so-called Hun-
garian style of music,* says the writer of two
excellent articles on tlUs subject in the Montiily
Musical Record for February and March, 1877,
' as it has come to be recognised, cannot by any
tneans be regarded as indi^nous, but may most
properly be briefly defined as the product of a
Conmiixture of several races. More than one-
fourth' of the population of Hungary proper (t.e.
Transleiihan Hungary, as it luw come to be
called since its union with the Austrian empire
in 1869) consists of Mi^gyars, the descendants of
the ancient Scythians of the Tartar-Mongolian
stock, who, after wandering from the Ural
mountains to the Caspian S^ and thence to
Kiov, established themselves in Hungary in the
ninth century. The remainder of the population
is made up of Slavs, Germans, Wallachians,
Jews, and Gipsies. Of this mixed population,
the Magyars, as the dominant lords of the soil,
and the Gipsies, as the privileged musicians of
the country, are in the main to be regarded as
thejoint originators of the national style.*
Tne union of these two latter races resulted
In the combination of their musical characteristics.
That of the Magyar music is the peculiarity of
its rfaytlmis, and that of the Gipsy music is the
1 Ibe pnportioo ft|>peus to be more like one half tbu s qotfter.
MAGYAR music;
W
presence of turns,' embellishments, and 'grace-
notes' added to and built upon the melody, and
eventually becoming a most important feature
in it.
This latter peculiarity, together with the scale
which is characteristic of Hungarian music — a
scale with two superfluous seconds, or the har-
monic minor with a sharp fourth —
seem to indicate an Asiatic origin. (The or-
dinary European scales are also in use.) These
two chief characteristics will be examined in order.
I. l%e rhythms, of Magyar origin. The great
distinctive feature of the bar-rhythms is «^coi>a-
tiou^ generally consisting of the accentuation of the
second quaver in the bar of 3-4 time (the rhythm
known as alia zoppa, 'in a limping way*), but some-r
times extending over lareer spaces, as in No. 2 of
the Ungarische Tanxe of BnUmis, bars 1-2, 5-6,
etc., where the syncopation extends over two bars.
Even where the melody is without sjmcopation,
the accompaniment almost always has it. The
phrase-rhythms are not confined to strains of 4
and 8 bars, but phrases of 5, 5, 6, and 7 bars
are not unfrequently to be met with. There is
no more beautiful example of 7*bar rhythm (al-
though not professedly Hungarian in character)
than the second of Schumann's StUcke im Yolks-
ton for piano and violcmcello, in F major. As ex-
amples of 5- and 6-bar rhythms may be cited the
third and first of Brahms^s Ungarisdie Tanze,
and of 5-bar rhythm, the second part of the
following melody (' Bessegodtem Tam<5cz2kra '),
the first part being a phrase of 6 bars.
3-4 time, and consequently 6-8, is unknown in
genuine Magyar music, although some modem
Hungarian composers have introduced it in slow
movements. A very beautiful rhythm of seven
in a bar (written, for greater clearness, as a bar
of 3-4 followed by a bar of common tiine)
occurs in the 'Hungarian Song' on which
Brahms has written variations, Op. 21,, No. 2.
II. The turns and embdliehments added to the
melody, of Gipsy, and hence Oriental, origin.
This peculiarity has been observed by travel-
lers in India, who say that in the performance
of the natives any emoellishments and * fioriture *
are permitted to be introduced at the will of
the performer, provided only that the time of
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198
HAGYAB MTTSICr.
the meloclj remaiiiB intact. The foUowing Is ft
liBt of the moet characteristic turns and ' grace-
notes* used in Hungarian musio, given by the
writer above mentioned :
f ^r ' n? t^j^^
The charm which these ' agr^mens* give is well
illustrated by the first two bars ef Sehubert^s
' Moment musical/ in F minor, where the phrase
^ seen to be compounded of the comparatively
uninteresting phrase
together with No. 13 and- part of No. 4 of the
alx>ve embdlishments.
But the importance 'of Hungarian music lies not
so much in its intrinsic beauty or interest, as in the
use ftiade of it by the great classical masters, and
the influence which it exercises on their works,
^e first composer of note whp embodies the Hun-
garian peculiarities is Haydn. The moet obvious
mstance of course is the well-knoWn •* Rondo all*
Ongarede/ or * Gipsy Rondo/ in the Trio No. i in
G major ; but besides this avowedly Hungarian
composition there are many passages in his works
which show that the years during which he held
the poet of conductor of Prince Esterhazy^s private
(and almost entirely Hungarian) band, were not
without their effect. Instances of this may be
found in many of the * Salomon 83rmphonies' (the
Symphony in Bb, No. 9), etc. We next come
^ Beethoven, in whom the Hungarian element
appears but rarely. In the music to *King
Stephen/ however, it is prominent, as we might
expect, in many parts, and the chorus ' Wo die
Uuschuld Blumen streute * is marked ' Andante
con moto all* Ongarese.* The composer however
wbo has made the ereat&$t use of Hungarian
obfracteristics is Schubert. Constantly through-
out his works we come upon a peculiarity which
MAGYAR MTTSIC.
&t once tells us of its nationality. Th6 C nii|or
Symphony (No. 9) for instance, or the Fantasi*
in 0 major, op. 15, are full of Hungarian feeling
and character, while almost all the peculiarities
of the Hungarian style are present m the little
'Moment musical* before alluded to, and still
more in the splendid Divertissement k la hon*
groise (op. 54^.
Never, probably, has Hungarian music had
such an imfluenoe over compositions as at the
pesent time, and among living composers. It
IS enough to cite such names as lisEt^ Brahms,
Mid Joachim, to bring to the mind of every
reader the use made by each of them of Hun-
garian forms and themes. We may think it
only natural that the first and the last of these
should, being natives of Hni^gary, have a natural
love -for their national music, as we s6e in the
* Legend of St. Elizabeth,* the symphonic poem
* Hungaria,' ^e fourteen * Rhapsodies Hon-
groises,* by Liszt, and the noble Hungarian
violin concerto of Joadiim, which is a splendid
instance of the combination of national character-
istics with the olassical forms. In the case c^
Brahms, however, there is no national pre-
judice to which the partiality for the Hungarian
element might be aSsoribed, and yet here we
meet with many Magyar characteristics, not only
m. the Ungarisohe Tanze, which are nothing more
than transcriptions for the piano of the wud per-
formance of the Hungarian bands (according to
the best authorities on this subject), but also in the
Sextets for strings, the pianoforte variations, etc.
The following are some of the moet important
Ma^^rar compositions.
Danobs.— The Clsdtd^, derived from Gs4rdd,
an inn on the Puszta (plain), where this danoe
was first performed. Every Gedrdits consists of
two movements,^«/Lassu,' or slow movement^
andante maestoso, and a * Fiiss,' or ' quickstep,*
allegro vivace. These two alternate at the will
of the dancers, a sign being given to the musicians
when a change is wished. [See CsABDis.]
The ' Kop-tincz,* or Society-Dance, of which a
part consists of a Toborzo, or Recruitingdance.
The ' Kan4sz4&ncz,' or Swineherd's Danoe, !«
danced by the lower classes only.
Operas. — Among national Magyar operas — {.e.
operas of which the libretti are founded oil
national historic events, and the music is char-
acterised by Magyar rhythms, etc. — ^may be
mentioned ' Hunyadi Ldszld,* ' B4thory Maria,*
' Blhik Ban,* and ' Br^nkovios,* byJPrancis ErkeU
and the comic opera ' Bka,* by Doppler. Besides
these two composers, the names of Mocsonyi^
Cs^az&r, F4y» And Bartha^ may' be given aa
examples of operatic vrriters.
Songs. — B^my collections of Nepdal, or popu-
lar songs, have been published. One of these,
< RepUli Fecske,* has been made widely known
by M. Remenyi*s adaptation of it for the violin.
The great National March— The 'lUkooey
Indulo,* made famous by HecUMr Berlioz, who
introduced it in Paris with an immense orchestra.
The National Hymn of Hungary is called
♦Szdzat/or'Appe^'
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mjlCyab music.
' That the Magyani know how to vtlue their
Mm natioiuJ made may be shown by the ex-
litenoe at Budapest of a Nfttional Conseryatorium,
•f which lisst is Director, and two national
Ibeatresy one (the older, which has existed for
nearly half a centniy) for opesa and drama, and
the other, opened three years ago^ for vaudevilles,
epoettasy etc. A new grand opera-house is in
eoane of construction, and will be opened in a
few months. Musical journalism is represented by
two weekly publications, one of which, the * Zen^
■eti Sapok, edited by Abr&nyi, is often referred
to as an authority on Magyar music [J. A. E.M.]
MAID OF ABTOIS, THE. A grand opera
in 3 acts ; words by Bunn, music by ^dfai
Produced at Druiy Lane May ay, 1836. [G.]
MAID OF HONOUR, THB. A comic opera
in 3 acts ; words by fitzball, music by Balfe.
Produced at Drury Lane Dec. 20, 1847. [G.]
MAINZEB, Joseph, was bom in i8pz at
Treves, where his father was a butcher. He
was eduokted in the Maltrise of Treves Cathe-
dnd, learnt to play several instruments, and
developed considerable musical gifts, then spent
mne time in the coal mines near Saarbruck, with
the view of being an engineer, and at length em-
braced the eode^astical profession, was onlained
priest in 1826, and afterwards became Abb^
His fiist practical introduction to music was as
noging-roaster te the seminary at TVdves, for which
he published a ' Singschule' or Method (Trdvea,
1831). His politicfd tendencies obliged him to
leave Gennany, and we find him in 1833 at
Braasels writing an opera ('Triomphe de la
Pdogne *) and editing the musical portion of
'UAztiste.* His next . destination was Paris,
where he opened workmen's classes for music and
sinffing, jomed the staff of the ' Gazette Musicale'
and wrote the musical feuHletons for the
'National.' Between 1835 and 1841 he pub-
lished several educational works on music, chiefly
for very young beginners, as well as other works,
and an opera. * La Jaquerie,' which was damned
00 Oct. 10, 1839. He then came to England,
competed against Sir H. R. Bishep for the
musical professorship at Edinbuxgh in 1841, and
finally established himself at Af anchester. In
Fehroary of that year Mr. Hullah had started
his Hnmno on Wilhem's system, and Maimer
attempted to follow smt in the north, and with
ooQsiderable suooess. Hjs 'Singing for the
1 million' was at that time well known and went
throoffh many editions. He over- worked Mmself
in this cause, and died, much esteemed and
regretted, at Manchester, Kov. 10, 185 1. A
Sriodical started by him and entitled ' Midnzer^s
urical Times* was the predecessor and basis of
the present ' Musical Times.' [G.3
MAtTBISE, a term formerly applied in
France both to the quarters assigned in cathe-
drals and ooll^^te churches to the choristers
and their master, and to the institution itselT.
whidi originally included a complete education,
1 H. TMi uraainslr i^kn from tills tide ttatt Mdassr i^pMtea
t9 ^
MAiTBtSE;
m
iKy and eodlesiaaticaL These schoolil tumed out
many great men, several rising to be bishops
and popes { among the latter Pope Urban lY, a
cobblers son, whose eariy years were passed
in the *Psallette' at Troyes. Some centuries
later, when the Maltriaes had undergone great
changes, they were still the only establishmenta
in which. even secular musicians could obtain
their training. From the Maltrises the Church
obtained choristers, organists, and maltres de
chapelle, and the worid its fovourite composers.
Here also, although instrumental music wag
neglected, and dramatic .music positively forbid-
den, the regimental bands found their bassocm-
players, and the lyric theatres their 'clavecinistes*
aooompagnateurs,' cellists, and singers.
A complete account of the Maltrises would
involve a re^ew of the whole history of musio
anterior to the French Revolution, so we must
be content with specifying a few of the masters,
composers, choristers, and oiganists who have
reflected honour on these ancient institutions.
They were real schools of music, the pupils being
maintained at the cost of the <^pters. Indeed
they much resembled the Conseivatorios of Italy>
both in their mode of administration, and in the
course of instruction given. They were not how*
ever all organised alike, but varied with local
circumstances. Hius in seme the boys, the
master, and the priests, lived in common, in
others separately; in some the maintenance oC
the children was in the hands of the master, in
others there was a regular purveyor. But in all
the main end' was the study of music Before
the Revolution there were in France 400 Mai*
trises and choirs, with as many maltres de
chapelle^ maintained either by the chapters of
cathedrals and collegiate churches, the curds^
or the monasteries. Each Maltrise contained
on an average ttou^ 25 to 30 persons, and the
musicians thus difflised throughout the ooun?
try numbered in all about 10,000, of whom
4,000 were pupils or choristers. There wa^
naturally much rivalry among the different
establishments, which was of great benefit to
musia To show how great and widely spread
was their. influence we may name a few of the
principal musicians and composers who owed
their education and their very varied styles to
this one capacious source, before the estab-;
lishment of opera in France: — Eustache du Caur**
roy, Intermet, and daudin (Claude de Sermisy),
who flourished under Henri IV ; Yeillot, maitre
of Notre Dame; Hautcousteau, maitre of the
Sainte Chapelle; P^ohon, maitre of St. Germain ;
Fr^mart, Cosset, Gobert, Boesset, Moulinier, and
Michel Lambert, all contemporaries of Chanoine
Annibal Gantez, whose *£ntretien des musi*
ciens* (Auxeme, 1643, small iimo. very scarce)
contains curious, and not very edifying details of
the lives of the maitres de chapelle of his day^
Then, with the use of opera» camei Cambert,'
Campra, and GiUes, a pupil of Poitevin, an<4
composer of a celebrated * messe des morts ' per-
formed at the funeral of Rameau, Bemier, a
learned contrapuntist^ Rameau himaelfi Ghsku-
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ioo
haItrise;
saigues, and otiien of less note. Among or-
ganista — Marchand, the Couperins, Daquin, who
threatened to be a formidable rival to Handel
and Rameau, BalbAtre, Gharpentier, S^jan, and
Boely. Among composers — Lalande, Mont^lair,
Blanchard, Mondonville, Floquet, Philidor, Gkw-
sec, GrdtiT, Champein, M^nol, Lesueur, Gra-
Teaaz, Boieldien, and Feliden David. Among
sing^v, J^yotte, Legros, Larriv^e, Lavs, and
Rousseau, whose voices were first heard in the
service of the Church, afterwards delighted the
habitu^ of the opera.
The Maltrises, though suppressed in 1791,
were afterwards reconstituteid, on a different
footing. The Ck>nservatoire national de musique
is now the great nursery of French musicians,
but many a church has still its Maltrise, where
the choristers — boys and men — are trained by
a maitre de chapelle in everything necessary
to insure a good execution of plainnsong and
sacred musia We have already spoken of
Ohoron*s school of music (Ohobom), still in ex-
istence as the 'Ecole Niedermeyer.' Nieder-
m^er and D'Ortague also founded a periodical
called * La Maltrise ' specially devoted to sacred
music. It survived only four years, but to it we
refer the reader for further details. Besides
Gantez's' work already mentioned, another book,
also published in 1643 by Jean de Bordenave,
a Canon of B^am, *L*EBtat des ^glises coll^ales
et cath^drales/ contains much information, though
impaired by its want of method and arrange-
ment. [G.C.]
MAJESTlTISCH. •Majestic'j in a digni-
fied manner. This is used as the equivalent of
Maestoso by Beethoven in No. 5 of the 6 Laeder
von Oellert, 'Die Ehre Gottes in der Natur.'
l^e whole direction is ' Majestatisch und eihaben*
(majestic and sublime). The word also occurs
as a direction to a song of Schubert's called
'Liedesend.* [J.A.F.M.]
MAJOR. When intervals have two forms
which are alike consonant or alike dissonant,
these are distinguished as major and minor, the
former being always a semitone greater than the
latter. Thus thirds and sixths have two forms,
which are both consonant, and are respectively
6nlled major and minor. Seconds, sevenths, and
ninths have each two forms, which are dissonant,
and are similarly distinguished as major and
minor. The major however is not always the
greatest form of an interval, for, under certain cir-
cumstances, some intervals are capable of further
extension, and are then described as * augmented'
or * supei^uous,' as augmented seconds or aug^
mented or superfluous sixths. The major forms
of concords are such as contain a major third
from the root note, and these are both more har-
monious and better defined than the minor con*
cords; for, in the first place, the major third
Agrees with the fourth harmonic of the funda-
mental tone, and, in the second, the combinational
tmes of the chord for the most part only double
notes already existing in the chord. Whereas
in the minor concords the minor third does not
correspond with any of the really perceptible [
liALBROUGH.
hannonloB of the root note, and the triad cannot
in any position be free from false combinational
tones. It is mainly for these reasons that the
major chord is so often found at the conclusion
of a piece of music in a minor mode in the works
of the earlier masters, from Josquin des Pr^ up
to Mozart. [See Habmont, vol. i. pp. 671, 2.]
The most important and best defined scale of
modem music is called 'major,' because it has
a major third from the tonic in the ascending
series ; whence in former times it was common
to distinffuish the scale or mode by the terms
'greater or 'lesser' third, as, *in the key of Gr
with the greater third,' where one would now say
' G major.* This major scale is the natural dia-
tonic series of modem music, represented by the
series starting from C. It is fundamentally the
most perfect for harmonic purposes, as it presents
the greatest number of concords, and the larger
proportion of these in their most harmonious
form; and it also provides most perfectly and
simply the means of making the tonal relationship
intel%ible ; since, as Helmhdltz points out, ' the <
tones (of the scale) are constituents of the com-
pound tone of the tonic, or the fifth above or the
fifth below it. By which means all the relations
of tones are reduced to the simplest and closest
relationship existing in anv musical 83r8tem —
that of the fifth.' This scale corresponds to the
Greek Lydian and the Ecclesiastical Ionic.
The term ' major ' is also used in a theoretical
sense of tones, to distinguish the interval of a tone
which has the ratio 9 : 8 frt)m that which has the
ratio 10:9, which is called a minor tone. For
example, in the key of C, C-D is a major tone
and D-E a minor tone, and the difference be^
tween them is a comma. [C.H.H.P.]
MAJORANO, [See Cafpabelli.]
M ALBROUGH, or M ALBROOK. The date
of this celebrated French song, and the names of
the authors of both words and music, are doubt-
ful ; but there is reason to believe that the
couplets called 'Mort et convoi de I'invindble
Malbrough ' were improvised on the night after
the battle of Malplaquet (Sept. 11, 1709), in the
bivouack of Man$chal de Villars, at Quesnoy,
three miles from the field of battle. The name
of the soldier, who perhaps satirised the English
general as a relief to his hunger, has not been
preserved, but in all probability he was well ac-
quainted with the lament on the death of the
Duke of Guise, published in 1566. In fact, the
idea, the constmction, and many details in the
two son^ are v&ry similar, though the rhythm
and position of the rhymes are different, and
they cannot be sung to the same music* The
following is the air, admirably adapted to the
words : —
lUl-l»oiigh i'«n-TtFi-«n gnarrs, Ml-n»-ton, miitrntini, mlron-
tai-oe; ]Ulbroughs'«iHra4-«igiur-n^ Ne aattqiuiidn-Tlcn-
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MALBROUGH.
MALTBRAN.
201
Phte.
D,C,
dn, Ne salt qaaodr»-Tlen- dim. Neialtquaiulre-vlai-dnu
Chateftubriand* heftiing the tune sung by Arabs
in Palestine, suggested that it had been carried
there by the Crusaders, either in the time of
Godfrey de Bouillon, or in that of Louis IX. and
Joinville; but no musician can entertain this
idea for a moment. The breadth of the phrasing,
the major mode, and the close on the dominant,
are as characteristic of the popular tunes of the
time of Louis XIV. as they are unlike the un-
rhythmical melodies of the middle ages.
It is not surprising that neither words nor
music are to be found in the many collections of
both : nowadays the merest trifles appear in print,
then all songs were sung from memory. It would
probably have died out had not Madame Poi-
trine used it as a lullaby folr the infant dauphin
in 1781. Marie Antoinette took a fancy to her
baby's cradle-song, and sang it herself, and
*Malbrough 8*en va-t-en guerre ' was soon heard
in VersailleSy Paris, and at length throughout
France. B^umarc^iais introduced it into his
' Manage de Figaro* (1784), which still further
contributed to its popularity. It then became a
&vourite air for couplets in French vaudevilles ;
and Beethoven brings it into his 'Battle Sym-
phony * (18 1 3) as the symbol of the French urmy.
The air is now equally pc^ular on both sides of
the ChanneL Many an Englishman who would
be puzzled to recognise Marlborough under the
goise of Malbrook is familiar with the tune to
the convivial words, 'We wonH go home ^
morning * and * For he*s a jolly good fellow.'
The piece was made the subject of an opera-
boaffe in 4 acts, words by Siraudin and Bus-
nach, music by Bizet, Jonas, Legouix, and
Belibee, brought out at the Ath^n^ Dec. 15,
1867. [G. C]
MALCOLM, Albxardxr, was author of ' A
Treatise on Music, Speculative, Practical and
Historical,' 8vo. Edinburgh, 1721 ; 2nd edition,
8vo. London, 1730; a well-executed work* An
Hi-made abridgement appeared in London, 1776.
In 1 73 1 one Mitdhell published * An Ode on the
Power of Music,' dedicated to Malcolm, the
greater part of which is prefixed to the 2nd edi-
tion of the Treatise. [W. H. H.]
MALEK ABEL. An opera seria in 3 acts ;
words by Count Pepoli, music by Costa. Produced
at the Th^tre Italien, Paris, «fan. 14, 1837, and
in London at Her Majesty's, May 18, 1837. [G.]
MALIBRAN, Mabia FblioitI, one of the
most distinguished singers the world has ever
seen, was bom March 24, 1808, at Paris, where
her father, Manoel Gaboia, had arrived only
two months before. When 3 years old she was
taken to Italy, and at the age of 5 played a
child's part in Paer's ' Agnese,' at the Fiorentini,
Naples. So precocious was she that, after a
few nights ot this opera, she actually began
to sing the part of Aanese in the duet of the
-second Act, a piece of audacity which was ap-
plauded by the public. Two years later, she
studied solfeggi with Pftnseron, at Naples ; and
Harold, happening to arrive about the same
time, gave her her first instruction on the piano.
In 1816 Garcia took her to Paris with the rest of
his family, and thence to London in the autumn
of 181 7. Already speaking fluently Spanish^
Italian, and French, Maria picked up a tolerable
knowledge of English in the 2} years she spent
in London. Not long after, she learned Grerman
with the same facility. Here, too, she had good
teaching on the piano, and made such rapid
progress that, on her return to Paris in 18 19,
she was able to play J. S. Bach's clavier-works,
which were great fikvouritee with her fiather. In
th» way she acquired sound taste in music.
At the early age of 15 she was made by her
father to learn singing under his own direction ;
and, in spite of the fear which his violent temper
inspired, she soon showed the individuality and
originality of her genius. Two years had barely
elapsed when (1824) Garcia allowed her to ap-
pear for the first time before a musical dub which
he had just established. There she produced a
great sensation, and her future success was con-
fidently predicted. Two months later, Gama
returned to London where he was engaged as
principal tenor ; and here he set on foot a
singing-class, in which the education of Maria
was continued, if not completed. F^tis savs
that it was in consequence of a sudden indi»>
position of Mme. Pasta, that the first public
appearance of Maria was unexpectedly made;
but this account is not the same as that given by
Ebers or by Lord Mount-Edgcumbe. The latter
relates that, shortly after the repair of the King*s
Theatre, ' the great favourite Pasta arrived for a
limited number of nights. About the same time
Bonzi fell ill, and toUdly lost her voice, so that
she was obliged to throw up her engagement and
return to Itidy . Madame Vestris having seceded,
and Caradori being unable for some time to per-
form, it became necessary to engage a young
singer, the daughter of tiie tenor Garcia, who
had sung here for several seasons. She was as
yet a mere girl, and had never appeared on any
public stage ; but from the first moment of her
appearance she showed evident talents for it both
as singer and actress. Her extreme youth, her
prettinessy her pleasing voice, and sprightly easy
action, as Bosina in 'II Barbiere di SevigUa,' in
which part she made her d^ut, gained her
general favour ; but she was too highly extolled,
and injudiciously put forward as a prima donna,
when she was only a very promising d^utante,
who in time, by studv and practice, would in all
probability, under the tuition of her fiather, a
good musician, but (to my ears at least) a most
disagreeable singer, rise to eminence in her pro-
fession. But in tiie following year she went
with her whole £amily (all of whom, did and
young, are singers Umt bans que mauvait) to
establish an Itsdian opera in America, where, it
is said, she is married, so that she will probably
never return to this country, if to Europe.*
Ebers says, 'her voice was a contralto, and
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IdLAUBEAK.
mftnaged with great taste.* Her d^at took
place June 7, 1825. She was immediately after-
wards engaged for the remainder of the season
(about six weeks) at £500. On July 23, she
flang Felicia in the first performance of Meyer-
beer's *Crociato.* At the end of the season,
Garcia went, with his daughter, to the provincial
festivals, and then embarked for New York. In
this new sphere Maria rapidly improved, and
acquired confidence, exporienoe. and the habit of
the stage. She appeared in ' Otello,' ' Romeo/
' Don Giovanni,' * Tancredi,' * Cenerentola,' and in
two operas written for her by her father, 'L'amante
astuto,' and 'La Figlia dell* aria.' She had
scarcely made her d^but when the enthusiasm of
the public knew no bounds ; and, in the midst of
her popularity, Garcia gave her in marriage to
M. Malibran, an elderly and seemingly wealthy
French merchant, in spite of her repugnance to
the union. This marriage, celebrated March
25, 1826, was as unhappy as it was ill-assorted ;
a year had hardly elapsed before the young wife
found herself, on Malibran*s bankruptcy, free
to leave him, and she at once seized the oppor-
tunity. In September 1827 she had returned
to France. Preceded by a bright reputation,
die began by reaping a harvest of iq>plause in
private concerts, followed in January 1828 by a
^freat and genuine success, at Galli s benefit, in
* Semiramide.* Her genius for dramatic sino^
Ing was at once recognised, though her style
was marred by a questionable taste in her choice
of ornament. This Ae had, in Paris, the best
opportunity of correcting, both by the advice
of kindly critics and the example of accom-
plished singers. Engaged for the season at
the Italian opera, she nutde her d^ut April 8.
The public, at first doubting, soon welcomed
her as a really great singer, and were parti-
cularly struck with wonder and delight at the
novelty and originality of her style. In the
leason of 1829 Malibran made her re-appearance
In London, where she shared the applause of the
Sublic with Sontag, and the same result followed
er singing with that artist at Paris in the
autumn. Engaged again at the Italian Opera in
the same capital in January 1830, she was paid
ftB. 1075 for each representation. This was less
than she had received firom Laporte in London,
for he had given her frs. 13,333*33 a month, an
odd sum, unless it meant frs. 40,cxx> for three
months ; and she stipulated only to appear twice
A week, making eacn of those appearances cost
frs. 1666*66, or about £66. Though she certainly
continued to draw no higher saliuy at the Paris
Opera in 1830 and 31, and her chaige for singing
«t private concerts in London, 1829, was only 25
guineas, yet Mr. Ali^«d Sunn engaged her, soon
after, for nineteen nights at £125 per night,
payable in advance,
■ Sontag, marrying and retiring from the stage
eariy in 1830, left Malibran mistress of the fieM,
and henceforth she had no rival, bnt continued
to sing each season in London and Paris with
ever-increased eclat. In 1630 an attachment
sprang up between her And de B^riol; and this.
.^A LIBRA N-/
ended only with her life. They built in 1 831 a
handsome villa in a suburb of Brussels, to which
they returned after every operatic campaign. In
the summer of 1832, a sudden inspiration took
this impulsive artist to Italy in the company of
Lablache, who happened to pass through Brussels ;
and an Italian tour was improvised, which was a
sort of triumphal progress. Milan, Rome, Nicies,
and Bologna were visited with equal success.
On her return to Brussels in November,
Mme. Malibran gave birth to a daughter, who
did not live ; she had abeady a son. In the
following spring she came to London, and sang
at Drury Lane, in English Opera, .receiving
frs. 80,000 for 40 representations, with two
benefits which produced not less than frs. 50,000.
The prices offered to her increased each year to
an unprecedented extent. She received at the
Opera in London, during May and June 1835,
£2,775 for 24 appearances. Sums, the like of
which had not been heard of befbre in such
cases, were paid to her at the provincial festivals
in England, and her last engagement at Naples
was for frs. 80,000 for 40 nights, with 2^ benefits,
while that which she had accepted at Milan
from the Duke Visconti, the director of La Scalar
was, exclusively of some other profitable con-
ditions, firs. 450,000 for 185 performances, vis.
75 in > 835-0, 75 in 1836-7, and 35 in the
autumn of 38.
Having played here in English versions of
' Sormambula* and * Fidelio,* Malibran returned
to Naples, where she remained until May, 1834*
proceeding then to B6logna, and thence to
Milan. She soon came back, however, to London
for a flying visit; and was singing at Sini*
gaglia in July. On the nth of the next month
^e went to Lucca, where her horses were taken
from her carriage, which was drawn to her
hotel by enthusiastic admirers after her last ap*
pearance. She next went to Milan, where she
signed the above-oientioaed seWtturo, and tiienoe
to Naples, where she sang during the Gamivat
Here she met with an accident, her carriage being
upset at the comer of a street ; and she suffered
injuries which prevented her firom appearing in
public for a fortnight. Even then, she made
her first appeacance with her arm in a- sling,
which added to the interest of the occasion.
From Naples she went, in the same triumphant
manner, to Venice, her arrival being announced
by fanfares of trumpets. There she was besieged
with fresh' enthusiasm, which followed her in her
retuin to Paris and London. She returned in
August to Lucca, where she played in *Ine&
di Oastro,' written for her by Persian!, and in
' Maria Stuarda.'
At this juncture, her marriage was annulled
by the Gourts at Paris, and on March 26, 1836,
she married de B^ot, with whom she returned
immediately to Brussels.
In the following April, once more in London,
Mme. Malibran de B^riot had a fall from her
horse. She was dragged some distance along the
road, and received serious injuries to her head,
from which she never entirely reoovered;- bat her
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.1£ALIBRA1T.
iraiderftil energy enabled her for a time to dis*
regud the oonaequenoes of this accident. She re-
turned io BroMelfl, from whence she went to Aix-
la^hapelle, and gave two concerts there with de
B^ot. ■ In September she had come to England
again, tofr the Manchester Fe8tival,-^at which
her short, brilliant life came to an end. She had
arrived, with her husband, afber a rapid jouroey
from Paris, on Sunday, September 1 1, 1 836. On
the flawing evening she sang in no^less than 14
pieces. On the Tuesday, though weak and ill, she
insisted on singing both morning and evening.
On Wednesday, the 14th, her state was still- more
critical, but she contrivcwl to sing the last sacred
music in which she ever took part, ' Sing ye to
the Lord,* with Iduilling effect ; but that same
evening her last notes in public were heard, in
the Duet» with Mme. Caradori Allan, ' Vanne se
albeighi in petto,* from ' Andronico.' This was
received with immense enthusiasm, the last
tnovetnent was encored, and Malibran actually
accomplished the task of repeating it. It was
her last effort. While the coiicert-room still
rang with applause, she was fainting in the arms
of her friends ; and, a few moments later,
ahe was conveyed to her hoteL Here she died,
after nine days of nervous feverj in the prostra-
tion which naturally followed upon the the serious
injuries her brain had received from the aoddent
which had befallen her in the nudst of a life of
perpetual excitement. She died on Friday,
Sept. 33, 1836, about ao minutes before mid-
night, under the care of her own doctor, a
hcnuBopath, Belluomini, who had declined to act
with the two regular physiciailis who had at
first attended her. Two hours after her death,
de BMot was, with Belluomini, in a carriage
on his way to Brussels, to secure the property of
hU late wife. She was buried on Oct. I, in the
louth aisle of the collegiate church, Manchester.
She was but 28 years of age when she died. Her
remains were, soon afWwards, removed to
Brussels, where they were re-interred in the
cemetery of Lacken where a mausoleum was
erected by de B^riot, containing a bust of the
.great singer by the celebrated sculptor Geefs.
It is difficult to appreciate the charm of a
imffer whom-one has never heard. In the case
of Maria Malibran, it is exceptionally difficult,
for the charm seems to have consisted chiefly in
the peculiarity of timbre and unusual' extent of
.her voice, in her excitable temperament which
prompted her to improvise passages of strange
audacity upon the stage, and on her stroi^
musical feeling which kept those improvisations
neariy, but not quite, ^ways within the bounds
of good taste. That her voice was not fitultless,
either ia qualitv or- uniformity, seems certain.
It was a contralto, having much of the soprano
I'^gister super-added, and with an interval of
dttd notes intervening, to conceal which she
used great ingenuity, with almost perfect success.
It was, after all, her mind that helped to enslave
Iter audience; without that mental originality,
her defective vocal organ would have fitiled to
^dease where, in fact^ it provoked ra£ture8. She .
.MANCANDO.
fioa
was a phenomenal singer ; and it is one mis-
fortune of the present generation that she died
too young for them to hear her.
Many portraits of Malibran have appeared,
none very good. A large one, after Hayter, re*
presenting her with a harp, as * Desdemona,' is
usually accoimted the best ; but it is only indif-
ferent. Another, by B. J. Lane, A.R.A., diowing
her made up as ' Fidalma,Vand then, afterwards,
in a stage-box, in her usual dress, is nmch better.
It ia this latter portrait which we have engraved.
Several biographiee have appeared of this ex-
traordinary person, with anecdotes of whom it
would be easy to fill a volime ; that which was
written by the Comtesse Merlin is little better
than a romance. Malibran composed and pub*
lished many noctwrnea, songs, and ^hamonnettes ;
some of the unpublished pieces were collected
and published by Troupenas at Paris under the
name of ' Demi^res Peos^ musicales de Marie-
F^idt^ Garcia de B^riot,' in 4to. [J.M.]
MALIKGOKIA, LA. The name attached by
Beethoven to a very romantic intermezzo or in-
troduction, of 44 bars length, between the Scherzo
and the Finale of his Quartet in Bb, No. 6, op.
18. The time is Adagio, and the direction giveA
is ' Questo pezzo si deve trattare colla piii gran
delicatezza. The Uieme of the Malinconia
appears twice in the Finale, much in the same
way that the Andante does in that of the
Quintet, op. 39. [G.]
MANCANDO, 'failing.' or 'weak,' is used to
denote a decresoendo, or lessening of tone, in an
already soft passage. It occurs in the Scherzo
of Beethoveirs Pianoforte Sonata in Eb, op. 7, in
the last variation of the Sonata in Ab, op. 36, and
in the slow movement of the Quartet, op. 59,
No. 3. It is also much used by Schumann Mid
Chopin, and is almost always found in slow
movements, although the first instance cited firom
Beethoven is an exception. ^ £J.A,FJi#]
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MANCHESTER.
MANCHESTER. The oldest mnridal amod-
stion in this city is The Gsntlemsn^s Concbbts,
which can be traced back to 1 749, and probably
existed some time previously to that date. The
orchestra was formerly composed of amateurs
and professional members, but is now entirely
professional. Ten monthly orchestral concerts
are given each year at the Concert Hall. Mr.
Charles Halle has been the Conductor sinoe
May 1850.
. The Manohesteb Chohal Sooiett was formed
about the year 1840, for the purpose of per-
forming the leading oratorios and choral works
of Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Mendelssohn, etc.
Its members were professional and amateur in-
discriminately ; the accompaniment was limited
to the orffan; and the concerts, which became
very popular, were held in the Royal Institution.
TheHargbbaves Choral Socibtt was founded
In 1841, on the bequest of a large sum of money,
and an extensive library of choral music, by Mr.
Hamer Hargreaves, for the formation of a society
for the practice of sacred choral music, with an
instrumental band. The concerts were supported
by 150 performers, under the direction of Mr.
John Waddington, through whose care and skill
the performances attained a degree of complete-
ness never before reached in the North of England.
The Society had the honour of introducing
Elijah to Manchester on April ao, 1 84 7, under
the direction of the composer. It was dissolved
in 1849, mainly in consequence of » difficulty in
obtaining suitable accommodation.
Mr. Charles Halle's Grand Cohcbrts were
begun in 1857, and still continue weekly at the
Free Trade Hall, from the last week in October
to the first week in March. 20 ooncerts are
given each season, 1 2 miscellaneous, and 8 choral.
The programmes embrace the newest and most
•interesting orchestral works, concertos and solo
compositions played by the best artists, and solo
vocal works by eminent singers. The concerts
are conducted by Mr. Halle, and Uie chorus,
which is 250 strong and remarkably efficient^
is under the control of Mr. Edward Hecht. The
reputation of the band is great, and they are
frequently engaged at Liverpool, Leeds, Bradford,
'Edinburgh, and other towns in the North.
Classical Chamber Concerts were started
about 1840 by Mr. C. A. Seymour and Herr
Rudersdor^ but though much appreciated by the
cultivated amateurs of Manchester, they were
not adequately supported, and have for many
years ceaised to exist. [G.]
, MANDOLINE (Ital. MandoUno) is a smaU
and very beautifully formed stringed instrument
of the lute kind, with deeper convexity of back
than the lute. It is, as its name implies, less in
size than the Mand6la or Mandora, a much
scarcer instrument. Mindola, or MlCndorla, sig-
nifies 'almond,* and it has been supposed that
the shape of the instrument has given it the
name. But this cannot be accepted, since the
almost universal use of the syUable • Man* un-
changed, or chang^ by phonetic variation to
.'Ban,' 'Pan,* 'Tan,* etc., for the first syllable
MANDOLINE.
of names of lute instruments from East to West^
removes it to a wider etymological field.
There are two varieties of Mandoline, the
Neapolitan and the Milanese; the former having
four pairs of strings, the latter usually five. The
Mihmese ' Mandurina* is tuned
There is one at South Kensington with six pairs,
tuned
The Milanese variety, however, is rare in com-
parison with the Neapolitan, the tuning of which
IS like that of the violin, in fifths. The lowest
pair of strings
IS of gut, spun
over with silver
or copper, like
a guitar first
string ; the next
of steel also
spun over; the
second and first
pairs are of steel
only. The Man-
doline is played
with a plectrum
of tortoiseehell,
whalebolie,hom,
or ostrich-quill,
more or less
flexible, which
is held in the
right hand, the
left being employed to stop the strings, for
which purpose there are seventeen frets across
the fingerboard. The scale of the instrument
IB three octaves and one note, frt)m the G below
the treble stave to the octave of A above it. The
Serenade in Mozart's Don Giovanni, ' Deh vieni,*
was written to be accompanied by the Mando*
line:—
The pizzicato of the violins is of a different colomr
of tone, and offers but a poor substitute.
The Mandoline is not however the correct in-
strument. Don Juan would have played a Ban-
durria, a kind of half guitar and truly national
Spanish instrument, sometimes incorrectly called
a Mandoline. The back of the bandurria is flat ;
it has only in common with the Mandoline that
it is played with a plectrum of tortoiseshell^
Digitized by VjOOQIC
cftlled in Spaniflh 'pua,* and that it \a the practice
to insert a plate of the same substance in the
belly below the Houndhole to prevent the plectrum
scratching. The banduiria has twelve strings
tuned in pairs, the higher three notes of catgut
the lower of silk overspun with metal. It is
tuned much more deeply than the Mandoline.
The compass is in all three octaves.
The Spanish ' Estudiantina,* in London 1879,
had eleven bandurrias in their band and six
guitars.
The most recent instruction-book for the Nea-
politan Mandoline is by Signor Carmine de
MANDOLINB.-
205:
Laurentiis, and is published by Ricordi, Iii|[ilan.
Our illustration is from an instrument in the.
possession of Mr. Carl Engel.
Beethoven^s friend Krumpholz was a virtuoso
on the Mandoline, and this probably explains
the fact of Beethoven's having written a piece
for the instrument (Thayer, ii. 49). The auto-
graph is to be found in the volume of MS.
sketches and fragments preserved in the British
Museum, Add. MSS. 29,801. Though entitled
* Sonatina per il Mandolina. Composta da L. v^
Beethoven,' it is only in one movement, and is
here printed probably for the first time. It will
be observed that the phrase with which thef
Trio (C major) begins is the same which Bee-
thoven afterwards used in the Allegretto ot
op. 14, No. I.
Adagio.
MAirDOUiro.
CSMBALa
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fe'f ^ir e rarlr ■^' Mr ^^;lr ^^ eif fj^h"^^
MANEBIA (Ttal. 3fan{er«). A woi^ trans-
ferred from the terminology of antient musio to
that of Plain Channt, in wluch it ii applied to those
combinations of Authentic and Plagal Modes,
having a common Fina), which are more familiarly
caUed < Mixed Modes.* [W.&R.]
MANIEB (6er.), Ut. 'manner'; derived, like
onr word ' manner/ through the Frendi mcmiire,
a manner, and manier, to handle, from the
Latin manu8, a hand. It has two entirely dis-
tinct meanings, one dealing with the aesUietics
of music, the other with its technicalities. In
the first of these connections the word signifies
'mannerism,' or the &ulty adherence to some
peculiarity in style, bringing such peculiarity
into undue prominence. It is the abuse of indi-
viduality, without whioh .quality no composer
can be truly great. The Crerman word is always
used in this sense of reproach ; it never has the
meaning of * individuality.*
The second meaning of the word is the same as
the French ogrSmenB, ornaments introduced into,
and built upon, the melody, whether indicated
by email notes, or marks, or added at the will
of the performer. [See Aob^ems, vol. i. p. 4a,
where the subject is fully treated.] [J. A. F. M.]
MlNNEK6ESANGVEBEIN,an association
of men formed for the cultivation of singing in 4
parts — 2 tenors and a basses. They sprang from
the Liedertafeln, and the most important were
founded by Dr. A. Schmid, in Vienna (1845),
and by Franz Weber in Cologne. The latter
visited England in the spring of i860, and sang
before the Queen at Windsor. (See Liedeb-
TAPBL). [F.G.]
MANNS, August, an eminent conductor, bom
of poor parents at Stolzenburg, near Stettin, in
North Germany, March 12, 1825. His first
teacher was the Village-musician at the neigh-
bouring village of Torgelow, from whom he learnt
the violin, clannet, and flute. His next in-
[A.J,H.]
stmction was received from Urban, the Towit-
musidan of Elbing, near whidi his parents had
removed, and to whom he was apprenticed. Here
he had regular practice in an orchestrak especially
that of ^ Dantzig epera company during its
annual visits to fabing; and this led to his
entering one of the regimental bands of Dantzig
as 1st clarinet, while he played among the ist
violins at the theatre. He now began to arrange
and compose for the band, and generally to take
a prominent part in the music of the place. In
1848 the R^rimtnt was transferred to Posen,
and here Mr., Manns was noticed by Wieprecht,
and through his assistance transferrea himself from
the military band to Gungl's orchestra in Beriin,
and was at length advanced to the post of con-
ductor and solo- violin player at Eroll s Garden —
the Crystal Palace of Berlin. Here, under Gyer,
he worked hard at harmony and composition, and
produced much dance music and o^r pieces
which were very popular. AJfter the destruction ot
Kroll*s establishment by fire in 185 1, Mr. Manns
was chosen by Herr vqn Boon (&e well-known
war-minister), then in conmiand of a crack in-
fantry regiipent at Konigsbeig, to be his band-
master. Colonel von B(xm, though not himself
a musician, was very anxious that the band of
his regiment should shins in the service. He
accordingly gave his bandmaster eveiy opportunity
of display. At his instance Beethoven's Sym-
phonies (not at that time so universally known
as they are now) were arranged for the band,
and in other ways the mumc of the regiment was
made very prominent. It was soon afterwards
moved firom Konigsberg to Cologne, and there
enjoyed a still greater reputation. Mr. Manns,
however, longed for a wider field, and wisdy
leaving to others the department of ccMnposition,
in which his abilities were quite su£Sdent to have
insured him considerable success, he fortunately
accepted, in the spring of 1854, an engagement
as sub-conductor an the band of the Crystal
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MAKKS;
Palaoe, tlieii a wind band only, onder Hear
SohaUehn. This position he gave up in October,
and after following his profession at Leamington,
and Edinburgh (in Mr. Wood's opera band) he
became conductor of the sumoier concerts at
Amsterdam in 1855, and finally, in the autumn
of that year, was engaged as conductor of the
Crystal Palace ^band, a post which he entered
upon on October 14, 1855. The music at the
Orystal Palace was at that time in a very in-
choate condition, the band was still a wind band,
and the open Centre Transept was the only place
for its pt^omiances. Under the efforts of the
new conductor things soon began to mend. He
conducted a 'Satunlay Concert' in the 'Bohe-
ndan Glass Court ' the week after his arriral —
through the enlightened liberality of the Direc-
tors the band was changed to a full orchestra, a
better spot was found for the nnisio, adjoining
the Queen's rooms (since burnt) at the north-
east end, and at lexig^ through the exertions
of the late Mr. Robert Bowley, then Greneral
Manager, the Concert Boom was enclosed and
roofed in, uid the present funed Saturday Con-
certs began, and have progressed, both m the
▼alue and variety of the selections and the deli-
cacy and apirit of the performances, ever since.
Mr. Manns*s duties as conductor, both of the
daily music and of the Saturday Concerts, as well
as of the numerous /lies and extra performances,
where music has to be arranged for large com-
bined masses of wind and s^ng, are natwally
very arduous. Mendelssohn (in a letter from
Leipng dated Feb. 27, X84J) says, 'I have con-
ducted fifteen public performances since Jan. i ;
enough to knock \xp any man.' What would he
have said if he had had to do this with all the
added difficulties caused by the calls of the
London season on his musicians, and with two
band-performances to arrange and conduct every
day as well ? Mr. Manns has therefore hitherto
only rarely taken engagements outside the
Costal Palace. In 1859 ^® conducted the Pro-
menade Concerts at Drury Lane, and he is
announced to conduct the approadiing Winter
Series at Glasgow (Dec. 1879 '^^ ^'^- i88o>.
Mr. Manns often appears in the Crystal Palace
programmes as a composer, but it is as the
director of his orchestra that he has won his
laurels. Li a remarkable article in The Times
of April 28, 1847, it is said that * the German
conductor makes the orchestra express all the
modifications of feeling that an imaginative
scdoist would give voice to on a single instru-
ment.* It is to this power of wielding his band
that Mr. Manns has accustomed his audience
during the 24 years of his conductorship. In
addition to tiie many qualitiea necessary to
produce this result he is gifted with an industry
which finds no pains too great, and with a
devotion, which not only makes him strictly loyal
to tiie indications of Uie composer, but has en-
abled him to transcend the limits of a mere
conductor, and to urge on his audience music
which, though at first received with enthusiasm
only by a few, has in time amply justified his
JIANTUAj
807
foredght by becoming a public necessity. Xt ia
not too much to say Uiat ms persistent perform-
ance of the . works of Schumann — tb name but
one composer out of several— ^inlbhe eariy part of
his career at Sydenham, has m«de the London
public acquainted with them years before they
would otherwise have become so. [G.]
MANTIUS, Eduard, a Crerman tenor singer
of great reputation in Northern Germany, was
bom at Schwerin in 1806. He studied law, first
in 1825, at the university of Bostock, and after*
wards at Leipzig. It was at the latter place that
his fine voice attracted general attention and
that he began to study dnging under Pohlenz.
After having sung with great success at a festival
at Halle, conducted by Spontini, he went to Bw-
lin,. and by his interpretation of the tenor partq
in HandeFs oratorios (Samson, Judas, etc.), soon
became the declared &vourite of the Berlin pub-
lic. How much his talent was appreciated in the
house of the Mendelssohn fiunily may be gathered
from many passages in the published letters and
ether books relating to Menddssohn. It was
Mantius who sang the principal tenor part in
the liederspiel ' Die Heimkehr aus der fV<nnde'
('Son and Stranger'), at the celebration of the
silver wedding of the elder Mendelssohns (Dev*
rient, p. 89). In 1830 he made his first appear-
ance on the stage at Berlin as Tamino in the
Zauberflbte. In 1857 he gave his fikrewell per*
formanoe as Florestan in Fidelio. During 27
years he had appeared in no less than 152
characters. After quitting the stage he devoted
himself with much success to teaching, and he
died at Ilmenau, in Thuringia, in 1874. Man-
tius had not only an exceptionally fine voice,
which he knew how to use in a truly artistic
and musical manner, but was also a remarkably
good actor. His representations of the tenor
parts in Mozart s and Gluck's operas were justly
regarded as mod^ of their kind. [P. D.J
MANTUA. The earliest Academy in Mantua
for poetry and music was that of the ' Invaghiti,*
founded in 1560 by Cesare Gronzaga, Duke of
Mantua, and Signore di Guastalla. It always
remained under royal patronage, and was one of
the largest and most flourishing in Italy. In
1494, previous to the founding of this Academy,
th^ was a magnificent theatre in Mantua, in
which was represented one of the earliest Italian
dramas — the * Grfeo ' of Angelo Poliziano. This
pastorale was composed in two days at the instance
of Francesco Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua. In the
seventeenth century, says Muratori, music, and
more especially theatrical music, was held in
high esteem; the attention of every one was
dirocted to gorgeous musical entertainments, and
more especially the courts of Modena and Man-
tua triea to outshine each other in magnificence.
Their respective Dukes, Ferdinando Gronzaga
and Francesco d'Este, vied in obtaining the
best musicians and most highly prized singers
for their court. It was the custom to pay a
sum of not less than 300 scudi to the best
actors, and there was no stint of expenditure on
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208
MAin^A.
orchestra, costumee, or scenery and lighting.
(Annali d'ltalia, 1690.) [C.M.P.]
MANUAL (from mafiiu, a hand), a clavier,
or set of keys, to be played by the hands. The
term is used chiefly in reference to the Organ,
where the keyboards for the hands and the key-
board for the feet have, for convenience, to be
distinguished Inr some brief and suggestive name.
Clavier (from elavi$, a key) simply means a key-
board, without reference to the members of the
body with which it is to be played. [E. J. H.]
MANZOLETTO, a veiy tolerable 'second
man.* who appeared in London with Pacchierotti
and Mme. Lebnm, in 1 779 ; and remained there
with success for two or three seasons, singing in
such operas as 'Alessandro,* 'Zemira,' 'Riciinero,*
•Giumo Bruto,' and 'I Viaggiatori Felici,' in
1 78 a. He was heard again three years later by
Liord Mount-Edgcumbe, in Naples and Mantua ;
but never revisited iBngland. [J. M.]
MANZUOLI, Giovanni, was bom at Florence
about 1725. Having acquired a reputation in
Italy, he repaired, in 1753, to Madrid, where he
was engaged at a high salary by Farinelli. In
1764 and 1765 he came to London, and, by his
performance, ' the serious opera acquired a de-
gree of fibvour to which it had seldom mounted
since its first establishment in this country'
(Bumey). His voice was the most powerful
soprano that had been heard on our stage since
the time of Farinelli, and his style was fiill of taste
and dignity. The applause he earned was hearty
and unequivocal ; ' it was a universal thunder.*
Other singers had more art and feeling ; none
possessed a sweeter or fuller organ. As to exe-
cution, he had none ; but he was a good actor,
though unwieldy in figure, and ill-made. Nor
was he young ; but Sie sensation he excited
seems to have been irresistible. All the com-
posers struggled to have the honour of writing
tor him ; even Dr. Ame composed his unsuccess-
ful * Olimpiade ' for the popular singer. Man-
2Uoli, however, left England at the end of the
season, and did not return. In the same year he
was at Vienna, and he shortly afterwards retired
to his native place, with the title of * Singer to
the Court of the Grand Duke of Tuscany.*
In a letter ^ of Mosart's, his first after starting
on his Italian tour, Jan. 7, 1770, he says of a
singer whom he heard, *canta un poco Manzuolisch
ed a una bellissima voce forte- eid 4 gik vecchio,*
etc. Bumey heard him again, in September of
that year, taking part in a service in a convent
near Florence, and was delighted, though the voice
seemed less powerful, even in a small church,
than when he was in England. His name occurs
once more, in one of the elder Mozart's letters,
written in the following August, ' Manzuoli often
visits us ; * and he is included among ' the singers,
not only celebrated in their profession, but goofl-
hearted and sensible people.' He took part in
the ' Serenata ' composed by the young Mozart in
honour of the nuptials of the Archduke Ferdinand,
at Milan, Oct. 17, 1771, and was encored in one
1 In the collection of the praMDtwrit«K; j
MABA«
of his songs. Mozart writes again, Nov. 24,
1771 : — 'Herr Manzuoli, the tnutico, who has
always been oonsidered and esteemed as the best
of his class, has in his old age given a proof of
his folly and arrogance. He was engaged at the
Opera for the sum of 500 gigliati (ducats), but
as no mention was made of the Serenata in the
contract, he demanded 500 ducats more for sing-
ing in it, making 1000. The court only sent him
700 and a gold box (and enough too, I think),
but he returned the 700 ducats and the box, and
went away without anything. I don't know what
the result of this history will be,~a bad one,
I fear!' A good por^^it of Manzuoli was
engraved by G. B. Betti, after a design by L.
Betti. Among his pupils was the celebrated
Coltellini. [J.M.]
M AOMETTO SECONDO. Opera by Rossini.
Produced at San Carlo, Naples, during the Car-
naval of 1 820 ; adapted and extended as Lb Si^e
DE CoBiNTHB. The aria ' Sorgete/ for a bass
voice, is often sung at concerts. • [G.]
MAPLESON, Jambs Henbt, a well-known
London impresario. He was a student at the
Royal Academy, appeared in public as a singer,
and for some time played among the violas in the
orchestra. Later he was assistant to Mr. £. T.
Smith at Her Majesty*s Theatre, and when
Mr. Smith announced, in 1861, his intention
of abandoning Italian Opera, Mr. Mapleson took
the Lyceum, and commenced his career as a
manager. He opened there on June 5, 1861 ;
and on the 15th produced Verdi*s 'Ballo in
Maschera* for the first time in England. His
first season at Her Majesty's was 1862, when
Trebelli made her d^but in England ; the burn-
ing of Her Majesty's drove him to Drury Lane
in 1868. He joined Mr. Gye in 18^; the
coalition lasted two seasons, and in 1871 he
returned to Druiy Lane. On April 28, 1877,
he reopened Her Majesty's Theatre, of which he
is still manager. Mr. Mapleson has lately taken
his company to the United States in the in-
tervals of the Lond<m season. [G.]
MARA, Gebtrudb Elisabeth, one of the
greatest singers of the last century, was bom at
Cassel, Feb. 23, 1749. ^^ mother died soon
after the birth of this child, and her father, a
poor musician, named Schmeling, is said to have
adopted the plan of securing his little daughter
in an armchair, while he attended to his a&irs.
From this cause, it appears, she fell into a rickety
state, from which it was long ere she recovered,
if indeed she ever recovered entirely. Schmeling
contrived to increase his income by mending
musical instruments, and the little Gertrude one
day got hold of a violin, and began to draw musi-
cal sounds from it, being then only four years old.
For this she was ptmished by her father ; but the
temptation was too strong to be resisted, and she
seized every opportunity of practising on such
instruments as she could find, whenever Schme-
ling's back was turned. He found her, however,
before long, to his astonishment, playing on a
violin, of which she had mastered the scale.
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MARA.
Sirack with her genius, he gave her a few les-
sons, and found her so apt a pupil that, not
long afterwards, he was able to play duets with
her before a few amateurs. But even now,
in her fifth year, the poor child oould not stand
without support, and her ft^ther was obliged to
cany her to the place where she was to play. By
&vonr of an amateur, Schmeling and his child
were enabled to visit the fidr at ]^«nkfort, where
the little girl's performance excited great wonder.
A subscription was set on foot, a better education
was given to her, and when she had reached the
age of nine her health had improved, and she was
able to proceed to Vienna with her £ftther, and
there give some concerts. The English ambas-
sador advised Schmeling to take the child to
England, advice on which the poor musician,
furnished with letters of introduction by the am-
bassador, gladly acted. He soon obtained the
patronage of many noble and influential persons,
indudii^ the Queen, for his wonderful child.
The little girl, petted and admired by all the great
ladies, was, however, persuaded by them to give
up the violin, which they thought an unfeminine
instrument, and was encouraged to sing. Her
voice was already resonant and clear, but she had,
of course, had no instruction. Schmeling, by the
help of her protectresses, placed the young Ger-
trude under the tuition of the muHco Paradisi.
She made rapid progress, but it soon became
necessary to remove her from the power of her
profligate instructor.
Returning to Cassd, Sohmding fonnd it im-
possible to get an engagement for his daughter,
as he had hoped, at me Court; for the King
would not hear of any but Italian singers. Hiller
now received her into his musio-school, at Leipzig,
where she remained for five years. In 1 771 she
came out from this academy, with a voice re-
markable for its extent and beauty, a great know-
ledge of music, and a brilliant style of singing.
She was the first great singer that Grermany had
produced. Her education had been formed on
the music of Hasse, Graun, Benda^ Jommelli,
Pergolese, Porpora, and Sacchini; but Hasse,
with his vocal passages and facile style, was her
favourite master. Her voice extended from the
middle G to E in alt. She made her dSiU in
an opeank of Hasse's at Dresden, and was success-
fuL With difficulty, the King, Frederick II,
was persuaded to hear her ; and, though strongly
prejudiced against her on account of her na
tionality, he was immediately converted by her
singing an air of Gzaun's at sight, and finally
en^iged her for life to sing at Court, with a
saUry of fr. 11.250. Here she 'profited by the
hints of Concialini and Porporino, and perfected
her singing of slow and legato airs.
It was at this juncture that, in spite of all
advice, and although the King twice refused his
consent, she married the violoncellist, Mara.
She soon discovered her folly, and regretted it
when too late. This part of tier life was ex-
tremely unhappy; she was made miserable on
the one hand by the excesses of a debauched and
dissipated husband, and on the other by the
TOL. II.
MARA«
209'
tyranny of a king who allowed her no liberty 07
indulgence. On one occasion, she was actually
brought from her bed, by his orders, transmitted
tlurough an officer and guard of soldiers, and
forced to sing at the Opera, though oomphuning,
truly or untruly, of indisposition. She at length
succeeded in escaping to Dresden, where she was
detained by the Prussian ambassador. Frederick,
however, who had lost some front teeth, an4
oould no longer play the flute, cared now but
little for music, and gave her a tardy permission
to annul her engagement. Mme. Mara, free at
last, arrived in 1 780 at Vienna, where Storace
was playing in opera ht^a, for which the Em-
peror had a great liking. This was not Mara*8
line, and she was coldly reodved. Provided, how-
ever, with a letter to Marie-Antoinette from the
Empress, she passed through Germany, Holland,
and Belgium, sinrag at various places on her
way. At Munich Mozart heard her, but was not
fiftvourably impressed. He wrote, Nov. 13, 1780,
' Mara has not the good fortune to please me.
She does too little to be compared to a Bastar-
della (yet this is her peculiar style), and too
much to touch the heart like a Weber [Aloysia],
or any judicious singer.' He tells a stoiy of her
and her husband a few days later (letter of Nov.
24), which shows both of them ifl a very unpleas-
ant light, as behaving with foolish effrontery and
pretendon. She was again at Vienna in March
1 781, and Mozart mentions her as giving a con-
cert there. She reached Paris in 1782. Here
she found the celebrated Todi, and a rivalry im-
mediately sprung up between these two singers,
which divided society into &ctioBS, as when
Handel and Buononcini, or Gluck and Piccinni,
were opposed to each other by amateurs incapable
of admiring both. Many anecdotes ax& told of
the Mara and Todi dispute, among which one
has become famous. At a concert where both
singers appeared, an amateur asked his neigh-
bour, 'Quelle etait la meilleure:* to which the
other replied, •Cest Mara.* 'Cost bien Todi'
(bientdt dit) was the punning answer.
Two years later, in the spring of 1 784, Mara
made her first appearance in London, where her
greatest successes awaited her. She was engaged
to sing six nights at the Pantheon. Owing to
the general election, she sang to small audiences,
and her merits were not reoognised until she
sang at Westminster Abbey, in the Handel
Conmiemoration, when she was heard w4th de-
light by nearly 3000 people. She sang in the
repeated Commemoration in 1 785, and in 1786
made her first appearance on the London
stage in a serious pasticcio, 'Didone Abban-
donata,* the suooess of which was due entirely
to her singing. In March 1787 HandeFs opem
of 'Giulio Cesare* was revived for a benefit^
and Mara played in it the part of 'Cleopatra,*
which Cuzzoni had sung in 1724. It was so
successful that it was constantly repeated during
the season. Mara again took a leading part in
the Festival in Westminster Abbey in 1787,
and she remained connected with the opera in
London till 179I; after which, ihou|^ she sang
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C^oogk
SIO
MABA«
oooMkmally on the stage, and eren In Etaglith
ballad operas, she was more frequently heard in
oonoerts and oratorios. For these she was better
floited, as her figure was not sood Mioogh for
the theatre, nor was she a good actress. It is,
Indeed, not impossible that her stage-preeenoe
wa» still to some extent spoiled by the dirwvaflo
which orippled her as a onild ; and there is a
caricature m which she is shown, singing at a
* Wapping Concert' seated (Feb. 28, 1766), with
the mllowing apology below : —
Madam Mart begi her Polite Andienoe
will ezonse her eitting during the Ferformanoe, as the
oontmoted in her inltoor a DisordeT called Le Genooe
Inflexible, or (Stiff Knee) which prevents her standing,
eren in the most Sacred Pieoes of Mnsio-her Bnemies
call it Pride, but must appear onlj malice, when she
oould not rise before their Mi^ties; or at the Saorod
Name of Jehovah.
There is, again, a letter of Mara's extant,' in
which ^e apologises for not being able even to
sit on a platform throughout a concert, a thing
she had never been able to do, owing to the heat
and fiktigue, which she oould not bear. Her
health was, in fact, never strong. She had, how-
ever, the advantage of knowing our language,
vrWob. die had learnt in childhood, during her
first visit to England ; and she is said to have
gained large sums here by her oratorio-singing.
In 1788 she was singing in the Carnival at
Turin, and the following year at Venice. She
returned to London in 1790, and went to Venice
Main in 1 791. Coming once more to London in
the next season, she remained here for ten years.
After this time, she found her voice losing
strength, and she quitted England in 1802, after
enjoying a splendid benefit of over £1000 at her
fikrewell concert. She sang without effect at
Paris, where she had the misfortune to come
after Graasini ; and then, after passing through
Germany, Mara retired to Moscow, where iSie
bought a house.
Her worthless husband, and her numerous
lovers, — among whom the last was a flute*plaver
named Flwio, — ^had helped her to spend the mi-
mense sums which she had earned, until she
found herself without means, And compelled to
support herself by teaching. By following this oc-
cupation, she acquired a small competence, which
was again lost to her (1813) in the fire of Mos-
cow, which destroyed the merchant's house in
which she had placed it. Forced to begin once
more to seek a means of subsistence, when almost
64 years old, Mara travelled in Livonia, where
■he was kindly received, and settled in Bevel.
She now supported herself again for about four
years by teaching, and then formed the strange
desire to revisit London, the scene of her former
;lory. Here she arrived in 1819 (according to
f^tis), though Lord Mount-Edffcumbe puts her
visit before the burning of Moscow. ^ Li any
case, the poor old woman, announced in a mys-
teiious manner by Messrs. Knyvett as ' a most
celebrated singer whom they were not at liberty
to name,* appeared at the King's theatre, when
it was discovered that not a shred of her voice
I In the eoUectloo of tht pnieot wrttsr.
1^
HARCELLO.
remained, — and never appeared again. She re»
turned to Livonia, and died at i^vel, Jan. fo,
183.^, at the advanced age of 84, soon afto* re-
ceiving fix>m Gothe a poem finr her birthday,
' Sangreich war dein Ehrenweg* (Weimar, 183 1 ).
A life of Mara, by G. C. Groeheim, was pub-
lished at Cassel in 1823, and a more interesting
one by Bochlits in his 'Fiir Freunde der Ton-
kunst,' vd. i. The best portrait of her was
engraved (oval) by J. Collyer, after P. Jean,
1794- [J.M.]
MARCATO. ' Li a marked, decisive manner.'
The principal use of this direction is to draw the
attention to the melody or subject when it is in
such a position that it might be overlooked, as for
instance, *H basso ben marcato,' in Chopin's
Krakowiak, op. 1 1 ; or when there are two sub-
jects both of whidi are to be brought promi-
nently forward, as in the 9th Symphony of
Beethoven (last movement) where the two sub-
jects come together in 6-4 time, the words being
' Freude, sch5ner C^tter^nken,' and ' Seid um-
schlungen,' etc. ; and in the ifetudes Symphoniques
of Schumann, No. a, 'Marcato il canto' and
' Marcato il tema.' Beethoven also uses ' Queste
note ben marcato' in the string quartet, op. 18,
No. 6, slow movement, and * Melodia marcata,'
in the Trio. op. 9, No. a.
' Marcatissuno ' is used by Chopin, £tude, op.
35, No. 1 1, at the end, and by Schumann in the
last movement of the Sonat|b in F| minor,
op. II, and in No. 8 of the Etudes Symphon-
iques. The latter composer is the only one of
note who uses this direction at the beginning d^
a movement, to denote the character of the whole.
This he does frequently, as 'Allegro marcato,'
in the. third of the Litermezzi, op. 4 ; and ' Ben
marcato,' in Nos. i and 3 of the Romances, op.
a8. As a rule Marcato is coupled with a certam
degree of foroe, as in Schumann's first Novelette,
' Marcato con forza (Markirt und kraftig) ' ;
but in the grand Sonata, op. 14 (last movemenf),
we find ' Leggiero marcato/ and near the end,
' Leggierissimo marcando.' The si^n which is
equivalent to Marcato is -< over ue separatdi
notes, but this refers to the notes themselves,
and Marcato to the whole passage. [J. AF.M.]
MARCELLO, Bbnbdbtto, eminent composeri
a Venetian of noble birth, son of Agostino Mar-
cello and Paola Capello, bom July 31, or
August I, 1686. He was highly educated, and
had great natural gifts for music, and was a
pupil of Lotti and Gasparini. The vicdin was
his first instrument, but he soon gave his whole
attention to singing and composition. His fathei^
objecting to the time thus occupied, sent him
firom home to study law, but on his death Bene-
detto returned to Venice, and contrived to com-
bine the practice of muidc with his professional
avocations. He held important government
poets, was a member of the Council of Forty, and
afterwards Proveditore of Pola (1730). Her^
he remained 8 years, when his h^Ui having
been ruined by the climate he became Camerieng«
at Brescia, and there died July 24, 1739. BM
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MABCELLO.
jnonument in the church of S. GiuBeppe states
hii age to have been 53 yean, 1 1 months, and 23
days. He was elected Cavaliero of the Filar-
monioi of Bologna in 1 8 1 a, and was also a member
of the Pastori Arcadi of Home. In his vonth he
was wild, but sobered down in middle life. His
great work, in 8 yolumes, folio, ' Estro poetico-
armonioo, Parafrasi sopra i primi 50 PsalmtPoesia
di Girolamo Ginstiniani,* appeared in two parts
of 25 Psalms each (Venice, 1724-27). They are
composed for i, 2, 3, and 4 vdces, with figured
basses, and occasionally with 2 yiolins and ceUo
obligati ; and for expression &r surpass any
other work of the kind. Dr. Bumey, in his notice
of Maroello (Hist. iv. 543), considers that they
have been overpraised, and that even in the com-
poser's day his airs and themes were neither new
nor originaL In spite however of this judgment
it is not to much to say that, as a whole, they
constitute one of the finest productions of musicals
literature. An English edition, edited by Avison
and Garth, was published in London in 1757 in
8 vols. ; a second in Italian soon after (Venice) ;
and a third by Valle (1803-8). The latest, with
P.F. accompaniment by Mireoki, was printed by
Caili of Paris. Maroello also composed instru-
mental ooncertos (1701), and 'Ganzoni madii-
C3hi* (Bdogna, 171 7); besides 'Calista in
' pastoral (libretto printed in 1735, music
nnpub.) ; ' La Fede riconosduta,* opera ( Vlcenza,
1702) ; 'Arianna,' cantata; and 'Giuditta,' ora-
torio, all to his own words. As a poet he was
above the average, and furnished the libretto for
Buggieri*s ' Arato in Sparta' (Venice, 1 709). In
1 720 he Dublished a satirical pamphlet ' II Teatro
alia Moda,' reprinted in 1727, 33, 38 (Venice),
and 1 741 (Florence). The Idbnuy of 8t. Mark
in Venice contaiDs a MS. ' Teoria Musicale * ; the
Boyal Library of Dresden ancient copies of two
cantatas, * Tunotheus,' to his own Italian trans-
lation of Diyden's Doem, and 'Gassandra*; the
Court library of Vienna many autographs and
other works, including the cantatas ' Addio di
Ettone,' ' Clori e Daliso,' and ' La Stravaganza ' ;
and the Royal Library of Brussels ' II Trionfo della
musica nel celebrarsi la morte di Maria Vergine,*
an oratorio for 6 voices and chorus. This score
was once in the possession of F^tis, who speaks
highly of its expression, pathos, and effective in-
strumentation. Bossini has borrowed one of the
most prominent themes in his overture to the
'Siege of Corinth ' note for note firom Maitsello's
3 1 St Psalm. For Marcello's ' Lettera Famigliare,'
•ee Lorn. L^G.]
MABCH (Ger. Marsch; Fr. Ma/rche; Ital.
Marda), a fSorm originally associated with mili-
tary movements, and afterwards imported into
the music of the stage, the orchestra, the cham-
ber, and the oratorio. In ancient times the
sound of instruments was used as a means of
atimnlating the action of large numbers of
people, whether in processes of labour requir-
ing consentaneous effort, or as a means of ex-
cdting ardour in armies advancing to battle by
the tones of 'the shrill trump, the spirit-stirring
dnuDy the ear-piercing fife '^-equally faTnniA.if
MABCH».
211
being Milton's referenoe to the effect of the
som^ ' of trumpets loud and. clarions,* and the
influence on a mighty host of ' Sonorous metal
blowing martial sounds.' like most forms how-
ever in instrumental music, the development of
the March followed that of vocal music. We find
Marches in the early operas, in the stage works
of Lully, and later In those of Handd and
Bameau. In clavecin music, too, it appears at a
comparatively early date, the 'Suites des Pieces' of
the French composer Couperin offering examples.
Of the Milituy March as now understood, as a
strictly rhythmical and harmonised composition,
written for a band of wind instruments, and
intended not only to stimulate courage but also
to ensure the orderly advance of troops, it does
not appear that any examples are extant earlier
than about the middle of the i^th centurv, and
these seem to have originated during the Thirty
Years' War, and are t<hbe traced to the form of
the Volktlied ; war-song^ in which patriotic and
military ardour was expressed lyrically, having
long preceded the exclusive use of instruments
for that purpose. A good specimen of the old
German militanr march is that which Meyerbeer
introduced in his 'Ein Feldlager in Schleden'
('Camp of Silesia'), and afterwards, with other
portions of that week, in his * L'Etoile du Nord,'
m the camp scene of which the fine old ' Dessauer
March' stands prominently out firom the elabora-
tions with which tha composer has surrounded it.
The earliest instjmne of the march form in
regular rhythmical phrasing seems to be the well-
known and beautiiul Welsh tune, the national
Cambrian war-song, 'The March of the Men of
Harlech.' This melody, which has only become
generally popular within recent years, is stated by
liwyd, the * Bard of Snowdon,' to have oricpnated
during the siege of Harlech Castle in 1468. If
this he so. Dr. Crotch was justified in saying (m
his ' Specimens of Different Kinds of Music*) ' the
military music of the Welsh is superior to that
of any other nation'— 1.€. reading the remark
with reference to the war-songs of Sie period.
In England the Military March would seem to
have been lof later development. Sir John Haw-
kins, however, in his History of Music, says : —
' It seems that the old English march of the foot
was formerly inthigh estimation, as well abroad
as with us ; ita^ diaracteristic is dignity and
gravity, in which respect it differs greatly firom
the F^nch, which, as it is given by Mersennus,
is brisk and alert.' On t^ subject Sir John
quotes a honmot of Sir Boger Williams, a soldier
of Queen Elizabeth's time, in answer to the
French Marshal Biron's remark that * the Eng-
lish inarch being beaten by the drum was slow,
heavy, and slu^riah'; the reply being, 'That
may be true, but, slow as it is, it-has traversed
S)ur master's country from one end to the other.'
awkins (writing in 1776) speaks of 'the many
late alterations in the disciphne and exercise of
our troops, and the introduction of fifes and other
instruments into our martial music'; and, in
reference to an earlier condition thereof, quotes,
firom Walpole's Catalogue of Boyal and Noble
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MA£CH«
Authors, a wanrant of Charles I. to the Mowing
effect: — 'Whereas the ancient cnstome of nations
hath ever bene to use one certaine and constant
forme of March in the warres, whereby to be
distinguished one horn another. And the March
of this our nation, so &mous in all the honour-
able atchievements and glorious warres of this
our kingdom in forraigne parts (being by the
approbati<xi of strangers themselres oonfest and
acknowledged the best of all marches) was through
the neglignice and carelessness of drummers, and
by long discontinuanoe so altered and changed
fhun the ancient graWW and majesGe thereof, as
it was in danger utterly to have bene lost and
forgotten. It pleased our late deare brother
prince Heniy to rerive and rectifie the same by
ordayning an establishment of one oeftaine
measure, which was beaten in his {xresence at
Greenwich, anno 1610. In confirmation where-
of wee are graciously pleased, at the instance
and humble sute of our right ttuBky and right
weU-beloved cousin and counsellor Edward Vis-
count Wimbledon, to set down and ordaine this
present establishment hereunder expressed. Will-
ing and conmianding all drummers within our
Idngdome of Englimd and prindpalitie of Wales
exactly and precisely to observe tne same, as well
in this our kingdome, as abroad in the service
of any forraiene prince or state, without any
addition or alteration whatsoever. To the end
that so ancient, fiunous, and oonmiendable a
custome may be preserved as a patteme and
precedent to all posteritie,' etc. etc. — ^This docu-
ment also contains the following ' notation —
Yolimtsiy bsfore the March.
IHI J J J J ,J J ,J J J J J J J "
P<m loa poa toa poa B pMtoapoapoauwpoaB poonc
TheMardi.
■1 .1 .1 J
. POtt too POQ
-.1 J J J
J rJ J 4-
poa toa 3 pounf
J J .i .i
rl JJ J J J J ihf-7^7^-7f
B B pou too B poa tou puu u luu puu a puung
.) J .J .J
.1 jjj jjj jjjj J jr^ijj.
H B B poo B B pou UiupwuBtou pou B poung puuoc
subflcribed 'Arundell and Surrey. This is a true
copy of the original, signed by his Majestic. Ed.
Noigate, Windsor.'
' l£e primary (indeed absolute) importance of
the drum in the early form of the March is very
evident. Bousseau, in his ' Dictionnaire de Mu-
sique,' in his artide on that subject, thus defines
iTIwnotwralo— nt<ilnpwHnthdorttto«U
MARCH.
it : — * Marche : Air militaire qui se joue par des
instrumens de guerre, et marque le m^tre et la
cadence des Tambours, laqueUe est proprement
la Marche.* The same author, writing towards
the dose of the last century, speaks of the su-
periority of the Grerman military music, and says
that the French troops had few militajy instru-
ments for the infantry excepting fifes ana drums ;
and very few marches, most of which were ' tr^
malfaites.' Bousseau givee^as follows— the first
part of the March of the Musketeers of the King
of France, as illustncting ' L*accord de I'air et de
la Marche.^
HauM. tr
•.♦ •-
ififliirr-
r r C^£f 1' - uj:r
y — " — '
gfl ^\ir^
^is=i=
JiJHJ J
Tambours
In its earlier instrumental form the German
March had two reprises, each of eight, twelve, or
even sixteen bars, and its melodic origin would
seem to have been influenced by the national
dance called the 'Allemande,* in a-4 time.
The :modeni March is now usually in oommon
time — ^four crotchets in a bar^consisting of re*
prises of four, eighty or even sixteen bars, with a
subsidiary movement eiititled a * Trio * (generally
in the dominant or subdominant key), which occu-
pies a similar place to that of the jMo associated
with the Minuet or Scherzo of a sjonphony ; that
is, following the March, which is repeated after
it. With the ordinary (Parade) March, about
75 steps go to the minute; with the ^uick
March (Germ. Oetchwind Afarseh; Tr. Pas re-
doubU) about 108 ; while the Storming March
(Germ. Sturm Marteh; Ft. Pas de charge) implies
about 1 30 steps per minute, these being measured
by rapid beats of the drum.
MilitaiT Marches, intended of course to stimu-
late hopeuil enthusiasm, are generally written in
a bright major key, trumpets, drums, and other
instruments of percussion being prominently
used ; and Funeral Marches in a solemn minor
one — a remarkable exception to the latter rule
being offered by the Dead March in ' Saul,' the
key of which is C major, a mode usuallv associ-
ated with cheerful sentiments. This is mdeed a
notable instance of * The long majestic march,
and energy divine,' and most readers must have
experienced the sublimely pathetic effect of its
'muffled drums beating funeral inarches to the
grave.' 'The stormy music of the drum' (of
course unmuffled) is still an important element
in an the pieces used at the parade or on the
battle-field; as it exercises a commanding influ-
ence on rhythmical precision, as abeady indi-
cated. Formerly, as above indicated, that instru-
ment was the aU-enential feature in the Match,
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MAECH.
instead of being, as afterwards, subsidiary in a
musical sense. The impressive effect attained by
Handel — by simple means — in the piece just re-
ferred to, has been paralleled in more recent
times by Beethoven^s employment of larger or-
chestral resources, in the sublime ' Marda Fune-
bre ' in his * Sinfonia Eroica.'
The March usually b^^ with a crotchet
before the commencing phrase, as in Handel's
Marches in 'Rinaldo (1711), in 'Sdpio,' the
Occasional Overture, etc. There are however
numerous instances to the contrary, as in 61uck*s
March in * Alceste,* that in Mozart's ' Die Zau-
berflote,' and Mendelssohn's Wedding March,
which latter presents the unusual example of
beginning on a chord remote from the key of the
piece. A March of almost equal beauty is that
in Spohr's Symphony ' Die Weihe der Tone,' and
here (as also in the March just referred to) we
have an example of a feature found in some of
the older Marches — the preliminary flourish of
trumpets, or Fanfabb [see vol. 1. p. 50a 6].
There b also, as already said, a description of
mardi in half time^~2-4 (two crotchets in a
bar), called with us the Quick March — Paa r&-
doubU, Oesehmnd Manch, Good specimens of
this rhythm are the two Marches (Pianoforte
duets) by Schubert, No, 3, op. 40, and No. i,
op. 51, in the latter of which we have also the
preliminaiy fanfieure. The march form in piano-
forte music has indeed been used by several
modem composers: by Beethoven in his three
Marches for two performers (op. 45) ; and the
Funeral Mardi in his Sonata, op. 3&; and, to a
much greater extent^ bv Franz Schubert in his
many exquisite pieces of the kin<} for four hands,
among them being two (op. 1 2 1 ) in a tempo (6-8),
sometimes, but not often, employed in the march
style : another such specimen being the ' Rogues'
March,' associated for more thim a century
(probably much longer) with army desertion.
This is iJso in the style of the Quick March, the
tune being identical with that of a song once
popular, entitled 'The tight little IsUnd'— it
having, indeed, been similarly employed in other
insiances. The following is the first part of this
March, whose name is better known than its
melody: —
Quick March,
MABGHESt
m
Besides the March forms already referred to,
there is the Torch-dance [see Fackeltanz, vol. i.
p. 501 a], which, however, is only associated with
pageants and festivities. These and military
marches being intended for use in the open air,
are of course written entirely for wind instru-
ments, and those of percussion ; and in the per^
formance of these pieces many regimental bands,
British and foreign, have arrived at a high degree
of excellence. [H.J. L.]
MABCHAND, Louis, a personage whose
chief daim to our notice is his encounter with
Bach, and, as miffht be imagined, his si^^ de-
feat. He was bom at Lyons Feb. 2, 1669.^
He went to Paiis at an early age, became re-
nowned there for his organ-playing, and ulti-
mately became court organist at Versailles. By
his recklessness and dissipated habits he got into
trouble, a^d was exiled in 1 717. The stcny goes,
that the king, taking pi^ on Mnrohand's un-
fortunate wife, caused half his salary to be with-
heM from him, and devoted to her sustenance.
Soon after this arrangement, Maichand oooUy
got up and went away in the middle of a mass
which he was playing, and when remonstrated
with by the king, replied, * Sire^ if my wife sets
half my salair, she may play half the service.'
On acQOunt of tins he was exiled, on which he
went to Dresden, and there managed to get
again into royal fibvour. The King of Pohmd
offered him the ^aoe of court organist, and
thereby enraged Volumier, his Kapellmeister,
who was also at Dresden, and who, in order
to crush his rival, secretly invited Btuih. to come
over from Weimar. At a royal concert. Bach
being incognito among the- audience, Marchand
played a French air witb brilliant variations of
his own, and with muefa i^plause, after which
Volumier imdted Baeh to take his seat at the
clavecin. Bach repeated all Marchand's showy
variations^ and improvised twelve new ones of
great beauty and difficulty. He then, having
written a theme in pencil, handed it to Marchand,
challenging him to an organ competition on the
ffiven subject. Marchand accepted the challenge,
but when the day came it was found that he
had precipitately fled frxnn Dresden, and, the
order of hn banishment having been withdrawn,
had retiumed to Paris, where his talents met
with more appreciation. He now set up as a
teacher of music, and soon became the nishion,
charging the then unheard-of sum of a louis
d'or a lesson. In spite of this, however, his
expensive habits brought him at last to extreme
poverty, and he died in great misery, Feb. 17,
173a. His- works comprise a vols, of pieces for
the clavecin, and one for the organ, and an opera,
* Pyramus et Thisbe,' which was never performed.
His ideas, says F^tis, are trivial, and his har-
monies poor and incorrect. There is a curious
criticism of him by Kameau, quoted in La Borde,
'Essai sur la musique' (voL iii.), in which he
says that 'no one could compare to Marchand
in his manner of handling a fugue*; but, as
Fdtis shows, this may be explained by the fact
that Rameau had never heard any great German
or Italian organist. [J A.F.M.]
MABCHESI, Luioi, sometimes called Mar-
OBBSiNi, was bOTn at Milan, 1755. His &ther,
who played the horn in the orchestra at Modena,
was his first teacher ; but his wonderful aptitude
for music and his beieiutiful voice soon attracted
1 SpttU. whoM McnrMj and Judgment «n nnimpeachablQi tn hU
Life of Bech ghre* the date 1671. u an intereooe from an old engraving.
Bot see F^tU (ur.\ who quotes an article In the Megazln Bncycio-
pMiqne. UlS, torn. Iv. p. Ml, where this point U tboroughlj invciU-
gated, and a register of Marchand's birth glvea.
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214
MABCHESL
the attention of lome taxuAexan, who penuoded
^h^ elder Marched to have the boy prepared for
the career of a sopranist. This was done at
Bergamo, and young Marched was placed under
the evircUo^ Cuzoni, and Albujo, the tenor, for
dnging; while his mudcal education was com-
pleted by the Maestro di Cappella, Fioroni, at
Marched made his d^ut on the stage at Rome
in 1 774, in a female character, the usual introduc-
tion of a young and promising singer, with a
•oprano voice and beautiful person. Towards
the dose of 1775 the Elector of Bavaria en-
ffaged Marched ^ his chapel, but his sudden
aeath, two years after, put an end to this engage-
ment, and the young dnger went to Milan, where
he performed the part of ' second man,* with
Faochierotti as first, and to Venice, where he
played second to Millioo. He was Mlvanced in
that same year to first honours at Treviso. In
the next and following years he sang as *£ist
man ' at Munich, Padua, and Florence, where he
created a furore by his exqoidte dnging of'' Mia
speranza, io pur voirei,' a rondo in Stfti's ' Achille
in Scire.' In 1778 he had worked his way to the
great theatre of San Carlo, and continued there
during two seasons. He was now looked upon
as the first singer in Italy, and was fought for
by rival impretarj. Once more in Milan ( 1 780),
he sang in Misliwioeck*s ' Annido,* in which he
introduoed the famous rondo of Sarti, which all
^taly had been humming and whistling since he
sang it at Florence, and also an air by Bianchi,
obnost as successful, 'Se piangi e peni.* His
p<nrtrait was engraved at Pisa, and the im-
presdons were quickly bought up. He now
sang in turn at Turin, Rome, Lucca, Vienna,
^d Berlin, always with renewed ^lat ; and he
went in 1785 to St. Petersburg with Sarti and
Mme. Todi. The rigorous climate of Russia,
however, filled him with alarm for his voice, and
he fled rapidly back to Vienna, where he sang
in Sarti's 'Qiulio Sabino.*
We next find him (1788) in London, dnging
in the same opera by Sarti, having just com-
pleted an engagement at Turin. His stvle of
dnffing now seemed (to Bumey) 'not only elegant
and refined to an uncommon degree, but often
grand and full of dignity, particularly in the
redtatives and oocadonal low notes. Many of
his graces were new, elegant, and of his own
invention ; and he must have studied with in-
tense application to enable himself to execute
the divisions and running shakes firom the bottom
of his compass to the top, even in a rapid series
of half-notes. But beside his vocal powers, his
performance on the stage was extremely embel-
lished by the beauty of his person and the grace
and propriety of his gestures. From this time
till 1790 he continued to delight the English,
appearing meanwhile at short intervals in the
various capitals and chief dties of Europe. In
1794 he sang at Milan in the 'Demofoonte' of
PoriogaUo, and was described in the cast as ' all
attual servido di S. M. il Re di Sardegna.' This
memorable oocadon was that of the d^but of Mme.
MARCHESL
Grasdni. He continued to sing at Milan down to
the spring of 1806, when he left the stage, and
passed the remdnder of his life in his native
place, honoured and loved. He composed some
songs, published in London (Clementi), at
Vienna (Oappi), and at Bonn (Simrock). An
air, written l^ him, ' In seno quest' alma,* was
also printed.
A beautiftil portrait of Marched was engraved
(June, 1790) by L. Schiavonetti, after R. 0)S-
way ; and a curious caricature (now rare) was
published under the name of * A Bravura at the
Hanover Square CJonoert,* by J. Npion], 1789,
in which he is represented as a conceited cox-
comb, bedizened with jewels, singing to the
King, Prince of Wales, and courtiers.
Marched died at Milan, his native place,
December 15, 1829. [J.M.]
MARCHESI, Mathildb db Oastronb, nee
Gbaumann, bom March 36, 1826, at Frankfort-
on-the-Main. The daughter of a wealthy mer-
chant, she was very highly educated, but in 1843,
her father having lost his fortune, she adopted
the mudcal profesdon. She studied dnging at
Vienna with Nicolai ; but in 1845 went to Paris
to learn firom Garcia. Here she took lessons in
declamation from Samson, Rachel's master, and
had the advantage of hearing all the first dngers
of the age^Persiani, Grisi, Alboni, Duprez,
Tamburini, Lablache. Her own aptitude for
teaching was already so remarkable that Garda,
whilst prevented by the effects of an acddent
from giving his lessons, handed over his whole
clientele for the time to his young pupil. In
1849 Mdlle. Graumann removed to Ix>ndon,
where she obtained a high standing as a concert
dnger. Her voice was a mezzo soprano, and her
excellent style never failed to please. She has
sung successfully in (Germany, Belgium, Holland,
Switzerland, France, and the United ELingdom.
She married Signer Marched, also a vocalist,
in 1852, and in 1854 accepted the post of pro-
fessor of dnging at the Vienna Conservatoire,
the vocal department of which was then in its
infancy. But she soon won high distinction for
it and herself. Among her pupils at this period
were Mdlles. Uma de Miurska, Fried, Kraus, and
others who have dnce become famous. She re-
signed her appointment in 1 86 1 , and removed with
her husband to Paris, where pupilscame to her from
far and wide. At this time appeared her ' Ecole de
Chant.' Rosdni, in acknowledging the dedication
of a volume of ' Vocalizd,* extols her method as an
expodtion of the true art of the Italian school of
singing, indudve of the dramatic element ; and
spedally valuable when, he complains, the ten-
dency is to treat the vocal art as though it were
a question of the capture of barricades I In 1 865
die accepted a professorship at the Cologne Con-
servatoire, but resigned it in 1868 to return to
Vienna to resume her post as teacher of singing
at the Conservatoire, which she hdd for ten
years. Among her famous recent scholars were
Mdlles. d'Angeri and Smeroschi, Mme. Schuch-
Proska, and, greatest of all, Etelka Gerster. She
redgned her appointm^it>at the ponservatoire
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MABCHESL
in 1878, but oontmaes to reside and teach in
Tiemia, where her serrices to art have met with
fyi recognition. A pupil of hers having created
%fnrort at a concert, the public, after applaud-
ing the singer, raised a call for Mme. Marchesi,
who had to appear and share the honours. From
the Emperor of Austria she has received the
Cross of Merit of the ist class, a distinction
nrdy accorded to ladies ; and she holds decora-
tions and medals from the King of Saxony, the
Grand Duke of Saxe Weimar, the Emperor of
Germany, and the King of Italy. She is a
member of the St. Cecilia Society in Rome, and
of the Academy of Florence. She has published
s grand practical Method of singing; and 34 books
of vocal exercises. L^-'I^-]
MABCHESI, Saltatobe, Cavalibius de
Casteoxe, M arohssb della Rajata, husband of
the foregoing, a barytone singer and vocal teacher,
bom at Palermo, iSaa. Hui family belonged to
the nobility, and his father was four years €ro-
vemor-General of Sicily. In 1838 he entered the
Neapolitan Guard, but, for political reasons, re-
signed his commission in 1840. Whilst studying
law and philosophy at Palermo, he took lessons
in lii^ng and composition from Baimondi ; and
he continued his musical studies at Milan, under
Lamperti and Fontana. Having participated in
the revolutionary movement of 1848, he was
forced to seek shdter in America, where he made
his debute as an operatic singer, in * Emani.' He
reknmed to Europe to taSce instruction from
Gaida, and settled in London, where, for seve-
ral seasons, he was Savonrably known as a con-
cert-singer. He married Mdlle. Graumann in
185a, jmd, with her, made numerous concert
toan in England, Grermany, and Belgium, ap-
pearing also in opera with success, both in Eng-
land imd on the continent. He has held posts as
teacher of singing at the Conservatoires of Vienna
snd Cologne, and was appointed chamber singer
to the court of Saxe Weimar, i86a. From the
King of Italy he has received the orders of the
Knights of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus. Signer
Maichesi is known also as the composer of seve-
ral German and Italian songs, and as the Italian
translator of many French and Grerman libretti
—'Medea,' 'La Vestale.' *Iphigenia, *Tann-
hauser,* * Lohengrin,* etc. He has published
virioas writings on music, and some books of
TDcal exercises. [B.T.]
MABCHESIKL [See Litoohbsina and Mab-
CHB8I, LUIGI.]
MABENZIO, LuoA. The oldest account we
can find of this great Italian composer is given
by 0. Boaei,^ in i6ao. It tells us of Marenzio's
birth at Coccaglia, a small town on the road be-
tween Brescia and Bergamo, of the pastoral beauty
of his early surroundings, and the effect tiiey may
have had in forming the taste of the future mad-
rigal composer, of the patronage accorded him by
geat princes, of his valuable poet at the court of
roUnd, worth 1000 scudi a year, of the delicate
no«l rostarid dlBraMUal Olmtfl di Ottorlo BomI. (Brawta.
MABENZIO^
ai5
^.
health which made his return to a more genial
climate necessary, of the kind treatment he re-
ceived from Cudinal Cintio Aldobrandino at
Borne, of his early death in that city, and burial
at S. Lorenzo in Lucina. The same author gives
an account of Giovanni Contini, organist* of the
cathedral at Brescia, and later in Uie service of
the Duke of Mantua, under whose direction Ma*
renzio completed his studies, having for his feUow-
>upil Lelio Bertani,' who afterwards served the
uke of Ferrara for 1500 scudi a year, and waa
even asked to become theEmperor*sdiapel-master.
Donate Oalvi,* writing in 1664,' anxious to
claim Marenzio as a native of Bergamo, traces
his descent from the noble family of Marenzi, and
finds in their pedigree a Luca Marenzo. He
adds further detaik to Rossi's account, how the
King of Poland knighted the composer on his
departure, how warmly he was welcomed by the
court of Bome on his return, how Cardinal G.
Aldobrandino behaved like a servant rather than
a patron to hinL We also learn that he died
Aug. a a, 1599, being then a singer in the Papal
chapel, and that there was a grand musical
service at his fimeraL
In the next account Brescia again puts in a
daim, and Leonardo Cozzando* asserts that
Marenzio was bom at Gocaglio, that his parents
were poor, and that the whole expense of his
living and education was defrayed by Andrea
Masetto, the village priest. To Cozzandowe are
also indebted ' for a special article on Marenzio's
great merits as a singer, and after reading of
him under the head of Brescian composers, we
find him further mentioned under ' Gantori.*
A fourth account, quite independent of these,
and one of the earliest of all, is that given by
Henry Peacham, published in 1 6a a.* Of the
composers of his time, Byrd is his favourite,
Victoria and Lassus coming next. Then of
Marenzio he says : —
' For Holioions AirA and sweete Inventioii in Mad-
rigals, Luct, Marenzio ezceUeth aU other whofoerer,
having published more Seta than any Authonr else who<
soeTer: and to say trutht hath not an ill Song, thoofi^
tometirae an over-tight (which might be the Printer's
foult) of two tighu or n/U escape him; as betweene the
T«nor and Bam in the last dose, of, i vmai depart all hap-
Uue : ending aocoxding to the nature of the Dittie most
artificiall7,withaMinhnre8t His first, second, and third
parts of Thjfr»i»^ Veggo dcloe mio hen ehe Jcb hoggi mio
aoU Caulava^ or eweeie tinging Amar^Uif, are Songs,
the Muses themselves might not have beene ashamed
to have had composed. Of stature and complexion,
hee was a little and blaoke man : he was Organist in th^
Popes Ghappell at Rome a good while, afterward hee went
into Poland, being in displeasure with the Pope for over*
much fiuniliaritie with a kinswoman of his (whom the
Oueene of Poland, sent for by Luca MnrenKto afterward,
she being one of the rarest women in Europe^ for hex
voyce and the Lute :) but returning, he found the affec-
tion of the Pope so estranged l^m him, that hereupon
hee tooke a oonoeipt and died.'
s For lift of works tee Iltner.
> Soenft Uttorarls d« gU Mrlttori Bergsmswbi. Donato Oslrl.
(BergtJXM, 1664.)
« LlbrarteBnsdsna. Leonardo Cozauido. (BrMcla.BiaanU.16n.)
» 'Vago e eurioM) rlstretto, etCn dell' mstorla Bresdaoa.' Leo-
nardo Goxzando. (BreKla. Blzzardl. 16M.)
• "The Compleat Oeotleaian.' by Henrr Peacbam, IT. of Arts.
(London, 1622.)
T The proper titles of thsM. which are given In the abore oo >fuw 1
manner In Peacham's book are— 'Tlrsi morir volea (^ B)': ' Ve^i
doloe mlo bene (1^4)';' Oha £a bogg' 11 mto M>le (k 6)' ; and ' Canta\-a
la pin Taga (4 5).' the BngUsh words 'Bweete BlnKbtf AmaiyUU' being
adapted to the made of the last.
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Sltf
MARENZIO.
HABIO.
The above ftoconnts agree in all important
points, and even the desoent from a noble Berga-
mese fiunily is not inconsifltent with the parents*
poverty and their reaidenoe at Coccaglia. Maren-
sio certainly died at a comparatively early age, in
1599, '^^ we may therefore place his birdi about
1560, though not later, for he began to publish in
1581. On the loth of April in that year he was
in Venicey dedicating his first book of madrigals
(k 6) to Alphonse d'Este, Duke of Fexrara. He
was in Rome, Dec. i, 1582/ on April 24,' and
Dec. 15,' 1584, was chapel-master to the Cardinal
d'Este in the same year/ and was still in the
same city on July 15, 1585.*
We do not think he went to Poland just yet,
but we have no more puUioations for some years.
Marenzio probably received his appointment soon
after the accession of Siffismund III. (1587), and
is said to have kept it £r several years.
He was back in Rom» in 1595, writing to
Dowland, July 13,* «id to Don Diego de
Campo, Oct. 20J and in t&e same year is sud
to have been appointed to the Papal chapel.* It
was now that he lived on such &miliar teims
with Cardinal Aldobrandino, the Pope*s nephew,
and taking this into account Peacham's tale may
have some truth in it, and Marenzio may have
fiidlen in love wiUi a lady belonging to his
£Atron*s &mily. If, however, he died of a broken
eart, as is suggested, it must have been caused
simply by the Pope^s refusal to allow a mar-
riage. That Marenzio did nothing to forfeit his
go<xl name* is proved by the certain fact that
he retained his office in Uie Papal chapel till his
death.
Marenzio*s principal works are: — 9 books of
xiu^^higals (k 5), 6 books (k 6), each book con-
taining f^m 13 t3 20 noB., and i book (k 4) con-
taining 21 nos. ; 5 looks of ' Villanelle e Arie
alia Napolitana,' conlaining 113 nos. (k 3) and i
(k 4) ; 2 books of four-part motets, many of which
have been printed in modem notation by Proeke ;'*
I mass (k 8), and many other pieces for church
nse. llie fint five books of madrigals k 5 were
printed *in uno corpo ridotto,* in 1593, and a
similar edition of those k 6 in 1 594. These books,
containing 78 and 76 pieces respectively, are both
in the BntiBh Museum. Marenzio's works were
introduced into England in 1588, in the collection
entitled 'Musica Transalpina' (1588); and two
years afterwards a similar book was printed, to
which he contributed 23 out of 28 numbers. " His
I Bee dedication to the Phflhvmonlo Aeademlctons of Verona of
SrdBookoflUdrigaUae). (Venloe, Gudane, IMS.)
• Bee * MadilgaU spiritual! it 6 dl L. M.' (Borne. Oardano. 1984.)
s Dedication of 'U quinto lib. de Madrigall k V (Vlnflgla. Sootto,
1M6.)
«Title-pa««of'PrimolIb.d«lfadr.4«.* (Veoloe. Oardano. U84.)
• Dedication of 'Madr. k 4dl L. M.' Ub. primo. (Venetla, Gar-
dano.lfi02.)
• ' 1st booke of Bonges or Ayrei of 4 parts bj John Dowland.'
(Short. Bred St. hOl, isn.)
7'DiL.M.ll7moUb.dl]Iadr.kS.* (VeneUa. Oardano, Ifles.)
t We cannot find any old authority for the date of appointment, but
It Is tco probable to doubt It.
• The uuljr thing worth setting right in the story. As to the rest of
it, ttM stquenoe of events cannot be fitted into his life : Barney con-
rldert the vsj.cle aocount saTourt of hearsay erldence and absurdity,
and glTo^ no credit to it.
M'lfitsIcaDlTlna.'eto. CarlProske.ToI.il. (BatUbon, UBS.)
II '1st part of Italian Madrigals Engllshwi.' eto. Published by
Sbonae Watson QWO).
reputation here was soon established, for in 1595
John Dowland, the lutenist, ' not being able to
dissemble the great content he had found in the
profered amity of the most famous Luca Maren>
zio,' thought uie mere adwiisement of their cor-
respondence would add. to the chance of his own
works being well received. Bumey does not
hesitate to say that the madrigal style was
brought to the highest degree of perfection by
Marenzio*s superior genius, and that the publica-
tion of the ' Musica Transalpina * gave birth to
that passion for madrigals which b^»une so pre-
valent amonff us when our own composers so
happily contributed to gratify it."
Tnus it came to pass that Luca Marenzio be-
came bound up in our own musical history, and
few foreign musicians of the i6th century have
been kept so constantly before the English public.
The Madrigal Society became a home for his
works nearly 150 years ago, and they are con-
tinually sung by much younger societies. 'To
guard utithftiUy and lovingly the beautiful things,
and to reverence the great masters, of olden times,
is quite a part of the English character, and one
of its most beautiful traits.* " [J. R. S.-B.]
MABGARITA. [See Epine.]
MARIA DI ROHAN. Opera in | acts; music
by Donizetti. Produced at Vienna, June 5, 1 843 ;
attheTh^fttre Italieu, Paris, Nov. 20, 1843, and
in London, Covent Garden, May 8, 1847. [G.]
MARINO FALIERO. Opera seria, in 2 acts ;
music by Donizetti. Produced at the Th^tre
Italien in 1835; in London, King*s Theatre, May
14. 1835. [G.]
MARIO, CONTB DI CANDIA, the greatest
operatic tenor that the present generadon has
heard, was bom in 181 2 at Genoa, of an old
and noble family. His father had been a
general in the Piedmontese army ; and he himself
was an officer in the Piedmontese Guard, when
he first came to Paris in 1836, and immediately
became a great favourite in society. Never
was youth more richly gifted for the operatic
stage ; beauty of voice, face, and figure, with the
most winning grace of Italian manner, were all
his. But he was then only an amateur, and as
yet all unfitted for public singing, which his
friends constantly suggested to him, even if he
could reconcile his pnae with the taking of such
a step. Tempted as he was by the offers made
to him by Duponchel, the director of the Opera,
— which are said to have reached the sum of
frs. 1500 a month, a large sum for a beginning,
— and pressed by the embarrassments created
by expensive tastes, he still hesitated to sign
his father's name to such a contract; but was
finally persuaded to do so at the house of the
Comteese de Merlin, where he was dining one
evening with Prince Belgiojoso and other well-
known amateurs ; and he compromised the
matter with his fitmily pride by signing only
the Christian name, under which he became
afterwards so famous, — Mario.
» Gen. Hist, of Musle. vol. ill. pp. »1. lit.
u Ambros. Qeschkhte der Muslk. lU. 400.
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MARIO.
He IB said to have spent aome time In study,
directed by the advice of Miohelet, Ponchard,
and the great singing-master, Bordogni ; but it
cannot have been very long nor the study very
deep, for there is no doubt that he was a very
incomplete singer when h&made his first appear-
ance. This was on Nov. 30, 1838, in the r6U
of ' Robert le Dtable.* Notwithstanding his laxk
of preparation and want of habit of the stage, his
snooess was assured firom the first moment when
his delicious voice and graceful figure were first
presented to the French public. Mario remained
at the Academic during that year, but in 1840
he passed to the Italitoi Opera, for which his
native tongue and manner better fitted him.
In the meantime, he had made his first appear-
ance in London, where he continued to sing
through many years of a long and brilliant career.
His dUbut here was in Lucrezia Boigia, June 6,
1839 ; but, as a critic of the time observed, ' the
rocal command which he afterwards gained was
nnthought of; his acting did not then get beyond
that of a southern man with a strong feeling for
the stage. But physical beauty and geniality,
such as have been bestowed on few, a certain
artistic taste, a certain distinction,— not exclu-
sively belonging to gentle birth, but sometimes
associated with it, — made it clear, from Signor
Marions first hour of stage-life, that a course of
no common order of fascination was begun.'
Mario sung, after this, in each season at Paris
and in London, improving steadily both in acting
and singing, though it fell to his lot to 'create'
but few new characters, — scarcely another beside
that of the ' walking lover ' in ' Don Pasquale,'
a part which consisted of little more than the
singinff of the serenade ' Com* h gentU.' In other
parts he only followed his predecessors, though
with a grace and charm which were peculiar to
him, and which may possibly remain for ever un-
equalled. 'It was not,* says the same critic
quoted above (Mr. Chorley), ' till the season of
1846 that he took the place of which no wear
and tear of time had been able to deprive him.*
He had then played 'Almavivay' 'Gennaro,*
' Baoul/ and had shown himself undoubtedly the
most perfect stage lover ever seen, whatever may
have been his other qualities or defeats. His
singing in the duet of the 4th Act of the
* Ugonotti,' raised him again above this ; and in
' La Favorita * he achieved, perhaps, his highest
point of attainment as a dramatic singer.
like Garcia and Nourrit, Mario attempted
' Don Giovanni,' and with similarly small success.
The violence done to Mozart's music partly
accounts for the failure of tenors to appropriate
this great character ; Mario was unfitted for it
by nature. The reckless profligate found no
counterpart in the easy grace of his love-
making; he was too amiable in the eyes of the
public to realise for them the idea of tiie ' Disso-
luto Punito.'
As a singer of 'romances' Mario has never
been surpaaeed. The native elegance of his
demeanour contributed not a little to his vocal
success in the drawing-room; for refinements
MARIONETTE-THEATRE.
217
of accent and pronunciation create effects there
which would be inappreciable in the larger space
of a Theatre. Mano was not often heard in
oratorio, but he sang *Then shall the righteous,*
in Elijah, at the Binningham Festival of 1849,
and ' If with all your hearts,' in the same oratorio,
at Hereford, in 1855. For the stage he was horn,
and to the stage he remained faithful during his
artistic life. To the brilliance of his success in
opera he brought one great helping quality, the
eye for colour and all the important details of cos-
tume. His figure on the stafife looked as if it had
stepped out of the canvas of Titian, VeronesOi or
Tintoretto. Never was an actor more harmoniously
and beautifully dressed for the characters he im-
personated,— ^no mean advantage, and no slight
mdication of the complete artistic temperament.
For five and twenty years Mario remained
before the public of Paris, London, and St.
Petersburg, constantly associated with Mme.
Grisi. In the earlier years (1843-6) of that
brilliant quarter of a century, he took the plane
of Rubini in the famous quartet, with Tam-
burini and Lablache; this, however, did not
last long ; and he soon remained alone with the
sole remaining star of the original constellation,
Mme. Grisi. To this gifted prima donna Mario
was united, after the dissolution of her former
marriage; and by her he had three daughters.
He left the stage in 1867, and retired to Paris,
and then to Rome, where he is still living. Two
years ago it became known that he was in reduced
circumstances, and his friends got up a concert in
London for his benefit. [J.M.]
MARIONETTE-THEATRE, a small stage
on which puppets, moved by wires and strings,
act operas, plays, and ballets, the sones or dia-
logue being sung or spoken behind the scenes.
The repertoires included both serious and comic
pieces, but mock-heroic and satiric dramas were
the most effective. Puppet-plays \ in England
and Italy called ' fentoccini,' once popular with
all classes, go back as fer as the 15th century.
From that period to the end of the 17th cen-
tury Punch was so popular as to inspire Addison
wiUi a Latin poem, 'MachiiUB gesticulantes.*
In 1713a certain Powell erected a Punch theatre
under ^e arcade of CJovent Garden, where pieces
founded on nursery rhymes, such as the ' Babes
in the Wood,' 'Robin Hood,' and 'Mother
Groose,' were performed; later on they even
reached Shakspere and opera. About the same
period MarionettO'theatres were erected in the
open spaces at Vienna, and these have reappeared
from time to time ever since *. Prince Esterhazy,
at his summer residence, Esterhiz, had a fantas-
tically decorated grotto for his puppet-plays, with
a staff of skilled nuichinists, scene-painters, play-
wrights, andaboveallacomposer, hisCapelbneister
Haydn, whose love of humour found ample scope
in these performances. His opera 'Philemon
und Baucis' so delighted the Empress Maria
1 Bee Stnitt's 'BpoiU and PastlnMi of Um People of InfUnd.' Loo
don, ueo.
a in 1877 lUapach's 'MQller and idn Kind.' sad Uie 'Bti« dm
Klbdungea' wtre perfonned Uiera ud eUewtifsre bj puppets.
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218
MARIONETTE-THEATRE.
TeresA) that by her desire Prmoe Esteriiszy had
the whole apparatus sent to Vienna for the
amusement of the Court. In London, fantoocini
were pUying between the years 1770 and 80 at
Hickford s Urge Rooms in Panton Street, Hay-
market, Marylebone Gardens, and in Pio(»dilly.
In Not. 1791 Haydn was present at one of these
performanoes * in the ele«uit little theatre called
Variety Amusantes, bdfonging to Lord Barry-
more, in Savile Row. He was much interested,
and wrote in his diary, ' The puppets were well-
managed, the singers bad, but the orchestra toler-
ably good.' The playbill may be quoted as a
specimen.
FANTOCCIKI
Dandng snd miuio.
Spanish Fandanga
Goncertante, PleyeL
A comedy in one act,
'LetPetttsRiens,'
tiie musio by Saochini and
Paiaiella
Overture, Haydn.
A comedy in one act,
*ArIequin valet*
Overture, Piocinl.
The fkvonrlte opera (5th time)
* La bnona Pigliuola,' To oondnde with a Pas de
the mosicbyPiodni.aiordani deux a-la-mode
and Sarti. j de Yeetria and Hilliabeig.
Leader of the band : Bfr. Mountain.
Firet hautboy: Sgr. Patria.
To begin at 8 ; the doors open at 7 o'clock.
The theatre is well aired and illuminated with wax.
Befreshments to be liad at the Booms
of the theatre. Boxes 5/. Pit 3/.
A critic in 'The Oasetteer' says:— 'So well did the
moUon of the puppets agree with the voice and tone of
the prompters, that, after the eye had been accustomed
to them for a few minutes, it was diflctdt to remember
that they were puppets.*
Fantoccini are by no means to be despised even
in these days. They give opportunity for ' many
a true word to be spoken in jest* ; they show up
the^ bad habits of actors, and form a mirror in
which adults may see a picture of life none the
less true for a little distortion. [C. F. P.]
MARITANA. Opera in 3 acts, founded on
Don Cesar de Bazan ; words by Fitzball, music
by W. V. Wallace. Produced at Druiy Lane by
Mr.Bunn, Nov. 15, 1845. [G.]
MARKULL, Fbixdrich Wilhblm, bom
Feb. 1 7, 1 81 6, near Elbing, Prussia. He studied
composition and oi^gan playing under Friedrich
Schneider, at Dessau; became in 1 8^6 principal
orguiist at Dantzig and conductor of the 'Gresang-
verein * there. MarkuU also enjoys reputation
as a pianist, and has given excellent concerts
of chamber music. He has composed operas,
oratorios, and two symphonies, and many works
for the organ, and contributes musical articles
for Dantzig journals. [H. 8. 0.]
MARPURG, Friedbtch Wilhelm, eminent
writer on music, bom 1 718 at Marpui^shof, near
Seehausen, in Brandenbui^. Little is known of
his musical education, as Gerber gives no details,
although Marourg furnished him with the history
of his life. Spazier ('Leipzig musik. Zeitung,*
> flee Fold't 'Haydn In Loodon.* p. 1«L
MARSCHNEB.
u. 553) flays that in 1746 he was aecretarj to
Grenend Rdthenburg in Paris, and there asso-
ciated with Voltaire, Maupertuis, D*Alemberty
and Rameau; and Eberhard remarks that his
acquaintance with good society would account for
his refined manners and his tact in criticism. The
absence in his works of personality and of fine
writing, then so common with mu8i(»d authors, is
the more striking as he had great command of
language and thoroughly enjoyed discussion. His
active pen was exerosed in almost all branches
of music — composition, theory, criticism, and hia-
tory. Of his tlieoretica] works the most cele-
brated are— the 'Handbuch beim G^eralbasse,
und der Composition,' founded on Rameau's
system (3 parts, 1757-8, Berlin) ; 'Der kritische
Musicus an der' Spree ' (Berlin, 1750), contain-
ing on p. 139 a ludd explanation of the old
Ghuich Modes ; the ' Anleitung zur Singeoom-
position* (Berlin, 1 758^ and the 'Anleitung zur
Musik' (Berlin, 1763), both still popular; the
'Kunst das Clavier zu spielen* (1750); the
'Versuch Uber die musikalische Temperatur'
(Breslau, 1776), a controversial pamphlet in-
tended to prove that Kimbeiger*s so-called funda-
mental bass was merely an interpdated bass;
and the ' Abhandlung von der Fuge,* 62 plates
(Berlin 1753-54; ^^^^ edition 1806; French,
Berlin 1756), a masterly summary of the whole
science of counterpoint at that period, with the
solitary defect that it is illustrated by a few short
examples, instead of being treated in connection
with composition. This Marpuig intended to
remedy by publishing a collection of fugues by
well-known authors, with analyses, but he only
issued the first part (Berlin, 1758). Of his cri-
tical works the most important is the ' Historisch-
kritische Beitrage,* 5 vols. (Berlin, 1744-62).
Among the historical may be specified a MS.
' Entwurf einer Creschichte der Orgel,* of which
Gerber gives the table of contents ; and the 'Kri*
tische Einleitung in die (^eschichte der Ton-
kunst ' (Berlin, 1751). A jeu cTetprit, * Legende
einiger Musikheiligen von Simon Metaphrastes
dem Jttngeren' (Gciogne, 1786), appeared under
his pseu&nym. Of compositions he published,
besides collections of contemporary music, *6
Sonaten fUr das C!embalo' (Nuremberg, 1756);
• Fughe e capricd ' (Berlin, 1777) : and ' Versudi
in figurirten ChoriUen,* vols, i and 2 ; ' Musikal-
isches Archiv,* an elucidation of the ' Historisch;
kritischen Beitrage,* was announced, but did not
appear.
Marpurg died May 22, 1795, in Berlin, where
he had been director of the government lottery
fifom 1763. [F.G.J
MARSCHNER, Hbinbioh, celebrated Ger-
man opera-composer, bom Aug. 16, 1796, at
Zittau in Saxony. He began to compose sonatas,
Lieder, dances, and even orchestral music, with
no further help than a few hints firom various
musicians with whom his beautiful soprano voice
and his pianoforte playing brought him into
contact. As he grew up he obtained more
s The flproe b the ilver whidi florc (or nther encfM) ttkroi^h
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MARSOHNBR.
Byatemaiic instrnction from Schicht of Leipzig,
whither he went in 1816 to study law. Here
also he made the acquaintance of Hochlitz, who
indoced him to adopt music as a profession. In
181 7 he travelled with Count Thaddaus von
Amad^ a Hungarian, to Pressbui^ and Vienna,
where he made the acquaintance of Kozeluch
and of Beethoven, who is said to have advised him
to compose sonatas, symphonies, etc , for practice.
In Pressburg he composed 'Der Kyffhauser
Beig,* and ' Heinrich IV.* Weber produced the
latter at Dresden, and Marschner was in con-
sequence appointed in 1823 joint-Capellmeister
with Weber and Morlacchi of the German and
Italian Opera there. Weber had hoped to obtain
the post for his friend Gansbacher, but he soon
recovered the disappointment, and the friend-
ship which ensued between them was of great
service to Marschner. He redgned on Weber's
death in i8a6, and after travelling f<H> some
time, settled in 1827 at Leipzig as Capell-
moister of the theatre. Here he produced 'Der
Vampyr* (March 29, 1828), his first romantic
opera, to a libretto by his brother-in-law Wohl-
OTUck, the success of which was enormous in
spite of its repulsive subject. In London it was
produced, At^. 25, 1829, in English, at the
Lyceum, and ran for 60 nights, and Marschner
had accepted an invitation to compose an English
opera, wnen Oovent Grarden Theatre was burnt
down. His success here doubtless led to his
dedicating his opera 'Des Falkner's Braut* to
King Waiiam iV, in return for which he re-
ceived a gracious letter and a golden box in 1833.
His attention having been turned to English
literature, his next opera, / Der Templer una die
Judin," was composed to a libretto constructed
by himself and Wohlbriick fix)m * Ivanhoe.* The
frsshnesB and melody of the music ensured its
BQccefls at the time, but the libretto, disjointed
uul overloaded with purely epic passages which
merely serve to hinder the action, lulled the
music. In 1831 Marschner was appointed Court
CspeUmeister at Hanover, where he produced
'Hans Heiling' (May 24, 1833) to a libretto by
Eduatd Devrient, which had been urged upon
Mendelssohn in 1827 (Devrient's * Recollections.'
"!• ^o). This opera is Marschner's masterpiece.
t« success was instantaneous and universal, and
It retains to this day an honourable place at all
the principal theatres of Germany. In 1836 it
was performed under his own direction at Copen-
Itsgen with marked success, and he was offered
the post of General Musik -director in Denmark,
an honour which the warmth of his reception on
his return to Hanover induced him to decline.
After 'Hans Heiling*— owing chiefly to differ-
^jces with the management of the theatre —
Marschner composed little for the stage, and
that little has not survived. He died at Han-
over, Dec. 14, 1861. Besides the operas already
mentioned he composed 'Lucretia* and *Sch6n'
laien' (182a); 'Des Falkner's Braut' (Leipzig,
]1^\} Berlin, 1838); *Das Schloss am Aetna*
(BerUn, 1838); *Adolph von Nassau ' (Hanover.
^^3)5 'Austin* (1851); and an operetta *Der
MABSEILLAISE.
219
£
Holzdieb.* He also composed incidental music
for von Kleist's play * Die Hermannsschlacht,'
and published over 180 works of all kinds and
descriptions ; but principally lieder for one and
more voices, still popular ; and choruses for men's
voices, many of which are excellent and great
favourites. An overture, embodying * God save
the king,' is mentioned as being performed in
London at a concert on the occasion of the
baptism of the Prince of Wales (Jan. 25, 1842).
As a dramatic composer of the Romantic
school, Marschner ranks next to Weber and
Spohr, but it is with the former that his name
is most intimately connected, though he was
never a pupil of Weber's. The strong similarity
between their dispositions and g^fts, the harmo-
nious way in which they workeid together, and
the cordial affection they felt for each other,
are interesting facts in the history of music.
Marschner's favourite subjects were ghosts and
demons, whose uncanny revels he delineated
with extraordinary power, but this gloomy side
of his character was relieved by a real love of
nature and out-door life, especifJly in its lighter
and more humorous characteristics. He worked
with extreme rapidity, which is the more remark-
able as his scores abound in enharmonic modula-
tions, and his orchestration is unusually brilliant
and elaborate. Such facility argues an inex-
haustible store of melody, and a perfect mastery
of the technical part of composition. [A. M.]
MARSEILLAISE, LA. The words and music
of this popular French hymn are the composition
of Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, a captain of
engineers, who was quartered at Strasburg when
the volunteers of the Bas Rhin received orders to
join Luckner's army. Dietrich, the Mayor of
Strasburg, having, in the course of a discussion
on the war, regretted that the young soldiers had
no patriotic song to sing as they marched out,
Rouget de Lisle, who was of the party, returned
to h& lodgings \ and in a fit of enthusiasm com-
posed, during the night of April 24. 1792, the
words and music of the song which has immor-
talised his name. With his violin he picked
out the first strains of this inspiriting and truly
martial melody ; but being only an amateur, he
unfortunately added a symphony which jars
strangely with the vigorous character of the
hymn itself. The following copy of the original
edition, printed by DannbMh of Strasboig under
the title ' Chant de guerre pour I'arm^e du Rhin,
d^i4 au Mar^chal Lukner * (sic), will be inter-
esting from its containing the symphony, which
has been since suppressed, and from an obvious
typographical error, a crotchet being evidently
intended for a quaver.
-Tempt <f « ntarelte animi.
gloire Mt w - rt •- t4. Coa-tre aooi de 1* tr-nn-nl-e
1 In ttM VAlaon BOckel. No.U Qruide Bus.
ViUO"
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220
MARSEILLAISE.
dut MD-glantflSt to > • t4, I'^ten - dart Moglant cit M •
bru E-gor-gerTOtflls,TOtoom
«r • - m« ol ' to - yenil
brau • re wm dl • loni.
^ The * Chant de Gaerre * was sun^ in Diet-
rioh's house on April ac, copied and arranged
for a military band on the roUowiug day, and
performed by the band of the Garde Nationale
at a review on Sunday, the 29th. On June
35 a singer named Mireur sang it at a civic
banquet at Marseilles with so much effect that it
was immediately printed, and distributed to the
volunteers of the battalion just starting for
Paris. They entered Paris on July 30, sing-
ing their new hymn; and with it on their
Ups they marched to the attack on the Tuileries
on August 10, 179a. From that day the
'Chant de guerre pour I'arm^ du Rhin' was
called ' Chanson * or ' Chant des Marseillais,* and,
finally, * La Marseillaise.' The people, shouting
it in the streets, probably altered a note or two ;
the musicians, Edelmann, Gr^try, and most of all
Gossec, in their accompaniments for pianoforte
and orchestra, greatly enriched the harmonies,
and soon the ' Marseillaise/ in the form we have
it now (and which need hardly be quoted), was
known from one end of France to the other.
The original edition contained only six coup-
lets ; the seventh was added when it was drama-
tised for the Fdte of the F^d^ration. in order to
complete the characters—an old man, a soldier,
a wife, and a child — among whom the verses
were distributed. Bouget de Lisle had been
cashiered for expressing disapproval of the events
of the loth of August, and was then in prison,
from which he was only releaserl after the &11 of
Bobespierre, on the 9th Thermidor (July aS),
MARSEILLAISE.
1794. The following fine stanza for the child
was accordingly supplied by Dubois, editor of the
' Journal de Litt^ture ' : —
Nooa «ntTeront dans la carriers,
Qoaud nos atn^ n'j sexont plus ;
Kons y trouTerom lear poaMi6re
Bien moins jaloux de lenr sarrivTe
One de partaoer leur oerooeil,
Kotis auTons le tublime orj^eil
De lee venger on de les stdTre.*
Dubois also proposed to alter the concluding lines
of the sixth stanza : —
' Que tes ennemis explnnts
V<^nt ton truHupbe et noire glolre'
* Dans tee ennemis ezpirants
Vols ton triomi^e et notre gloire.*
These are minute details, but no fact connected
with this most celebrated of French national airs
is uninteresting.
That Rouget de Lisle was the author of the
words of the 'Marseillaise' has never beeu
doubted — ^indeed Louis Philippe conferred a pen-
sion upon him ; but it has be^ denied over and
over again that he composed the music. Strange to
say, Cutil-Blaze (see 'Moli^ musicien,* vol. ii. pp.
453-454), who should have recognised the vigour
and dash so characteristic of the French, declared
it to have been taken from a German hymn.
In F. K. Meyer's Versailler Briefe (Berlin,
187a) there is an article upon the origin of the
Marseillaise, in which it is stated that the tune
is the same as that to which the Volkslied
* Stand ich auf hohen Beigen* is sung in Upper
Bavaria. The author of the article heanl it
sung in 184a by an old woman of 70, who
informed him that it was a very old tune, and
that she had leamt it from her mother and
grandmother. The tune is also said to exist in
the Credo of a MS. Mass composed by Holtz-
mann in 1776, which is preserved in the parish
church of Meersburg. (See the Gartenlaube for
1 86 1, p. 356.) Re(^t enquiry (August, 1879)
on the spot from the curate of Meersburg has
proved that there is no truth in this story.
F^tis, in 1863, asserted that the music was
the work of a composer named NavoigiUe, and
reinforces his statement in the and edition of
his 'Biographic Universelle.' Georges Eastner
(' Revue et Gazette Musicale,' Paris, 1848) and
several other writers, including the author of this
article (see Chouquet*s ' L'Art Musical,' Sept. 8,
1864-March 9, 65), have clearly disproved these
allegations ; and the point was finally settled by
a pamphlet, *La Y^rit^ sur la paternity de la
Marseillaise ' (Paris, 1865), written by A. Rouget
de Lisle, nephew of the composer, which contains
precise infonuation and documentary evidence,
establishing Rouget de Lisle's claim beyond a
doubt. The controversy is examined at length
by Loquin in *Les mllodies populaires de la
France,' Paris. 1879. The * Marseillaise ' has
been often made use of by composers. Of these,
two may be cited — Salieri, in the opening chorus
of his opera, 'Palmira' (1795), and Grison, in
the introduction to the oratorio 'Esther' (sUll
in MS.), both evidently intentional. Schumann
uses it in his song of the Two Grenadiers with
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MARSEILLAISE.
magnificent effect ; and also introduces it in his
Overture to Hermann und Dorothea.
A picture by Piis* representing Kouget de Lisle
singing the 'Marseillaise/ is well-known from
the engraving. [G.C.]
MARSH, Alphonso, son of Robert Marsh,
one of the musicians in ordinair to Charles I.,
was baptized at St. Margaret^ Westminster,
Jan. a8, 1627. He was appointed a Grentleman
of the Chapel Royal in 1660. Songs composed by
him appear in *The Treasury of Musick,' .1669,
'Choice Ayres and Dialogues,* 1676, and other
publications of the time. He died April 9, 1681.
His son Alphonso was admitted a Gentleman
of the Chapel Royal April 25, 1676. Songs by
him are contained in *The Theater of Music/
1685-7, 'The Banquet of Musick,' 1688-92,
and other publications. He died April 5, 1692,
and was buried April 9, in the west cloister of
Westminster Abbey. [W. H. H.]
MARSH, John, bom at Dorking, 1750, a
distinguished amateur composer and performer,
resident at Salisbury (1776-81), Canterbury
(1 781-6), and Chichester (i 787-1828), in each
of which places he led the band at the subscrip-
tion concerts and occasionally officiated for the
cathedral and church oigamsts. He composed
two Services, many anthems, chants, and psalm
tunes, glees, songs, symphonies, overtures, quar-
tets, etc., and organ and pianoforte music, be-
sides treatises on harmony, thorough bass, etc.
He died in 1828. A fully detailed account of
his career is given in the ' Dictionary of Musi-
cians,* 1824, but it does not possess sufficient
interest to be repeated here. [ W. H. H.]
MARSHALL, William, Mus. Doc., son of
William Marshall of Oxford, music-seller, bom
1806, was a chorister of the Chapel Royal under
John Stafford Smith and William Hawes. He
was appointed oivanist of Christ Church Cathe-
dral Mid St. John s Coll^, Oxford, ini823, and
was also organist of AU Saints' Church. He
graduated as Mus. Bac. Dec. 7, 1836, and Mus.
Doc Jan. 14, 1840. He resigned his Oxford
appointments in 1846, and afterwards became
organist of St. Mary's Church, Kidderminster.
He was author of ' The Art of Reading Church
Mosio,' 1842, and editor (jointly wi& Alfred
Bennett) of a oollecti€m of chants, 1829, and
also editor of a book of words of anthems, 1840,
4th edit. 1862. He died at Handsworth, Aug.
17. 1875.
His younger brother, Charles Ward Mar-
shall, bom 1808, about 1835 appeared, under
the assumed name of Mahvers, on the London
stage as a tenor singer, with success. In 1842
he quitted the theatre for concert and oratorio
singmg, in which he met with greater success.
AfWr 1847 he withdrew from public life. He
died at Islington Feb. 22, 1874. L'^, H. H.]
MARSON, Geoegb, Mus. Bac., contributed
to 'The Triumphes of Oriana,' 1601, the five-
part madrigal *The nimphee and shepheards.'
He oompoMd services and anthems, some of
which are still extant in MS. [W. H. H.]
MARTELfi
from martder si
of notes struck <
left before the en
Notes dashed, do
are Martel^ or
term Martellem<
acdaccatura.
MARTHA. C
Produced at Viei
extension of Ladt Henribtte, in which Flotow
had only a third share. The alterations in the
book are said to have been made by St. Oeorges,
and translated into German by Friedrich. It
was produced in Italian at Covent Garden, as
Maria, July i, 1858 ; in English at Drury Lane,
Oct. II, 1858, and in French at the Th^tre
Lyrique, Dec. 1 6, 1865. The air of ' The last
rose of summer' is a prominent motif in this
opera. [G.]
MARTIN, George Wiluam, bom March 8,
1825, received his early musical education in the
choir of St. Paul's cathedral under William Hawes.
He has composed many glees, madrigals, and
part-songs, for some of which he has been awarded
prizes, and has edited and published cheap ar-
rangements of the popular oratorios and other
works of Handel, Haydn, and others. For some
years he directed performances given under the
name of the National Choral Society. He has
an aptitude for training choirs of school children,
and has conducted many public performances by
them. [W.H.H.]
MARTIN, Jonathan, bom 1715, was a cho-
rister of the Chapel Royal under Dr. Croft. On
quitting the choir he was placed under Thomas
Roeeingrave for instmction on the organ, and
soon attained such proficiency as to be able to
deputise for his master at St. George's, Hanover
Square, and for Weldon at tiie Chapel Royal.
On June 21, 1736 he was admitted organist of
the Chapel Royfd on the death of Weldon, and
promised *to compose anthems or services for
the use of His Majesty's Chapel, whenever re-
quired by the Subdean for the time being.'
Probably he was never caUed upon to fulfil his
promise, as his only known composition is a song
m Rowe's tragedy, V Tamerlane,' 'To thee, O
gentle sleep.' He died of consumption, April 4,
1 737, and was buried April 9, in the west clois-
ter of Westminster Abbey. [W. H. H.]
MARTINES, or MARTINEZ, Marianne,
daughter of the master of the ceremonies to the
Pope's Nuncio, bom May 4, 1744, at Vienna.
Metastasio, a great friend of her fiither's, lived
for nearly half a century with the fiimily, and
undertook her education. Haydn, then young,
poor, and unknown, occupied a wretched garre4
m the same house, and taught her the harpsi-
chord, while Porpora gave her lessons in singing
and composition, her general cultivation heiag
under Metastasio's own care. Of these advan-
tages she made good use. Bumey, who knew her
in 1772 ^ speaks of her in the highest tesms,
1 8m ' Frtwnt State of Haste In Oennaar.' L SU-IS. SCfi; 851. 308.
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222
MARTINSa
n>6cbUy pnuring her singing ; and she Also won
the admiration of both Hasse and Gerbert.
After the death of the parents, and of Metas-
tasio, who left them well off, she and her sister
gave evening parties, which were frequented by
all the principal artists. On one of these oc-
casions Kelly' heard Marianne play a 4-hand
sonata of Mozart's with the composer. Latterly
Marianne devoted herself to teaohinff talented
pupils. In 1773 she was made a member of the
Musical Academy of Bologna. In 1 78a, the ' Ton-
kiinstler Societat* performed her oratorio ' Isaoco,*
to Metastasio*8 words. She also composed two
more oratorios, a mass, and other sacred music ;
Psalms, to Metastasio*s Italian translation, for 4
and 8 voices ; solo-motets, arias, and cantatas,
concertos, and sonatas for davier, overtures and
symphonies. The GeseUschaft der Musikfr^unde
possesses the autographs of many of these works.
Marianne expired on the 13th of Dec. 181 2, a
few days aft^ the death of her younger sister
Antonie. [C.F.P.]
MARTINI, Giovanni Battista, or Giau-
BATTiflTA, commonly called Padre Martini, one
of the most important scientific musicians of
the 1 8th century, bom at Bologna, April 15,
1706; was first taught music by his father
Antonio Maria, member of fk musical society
called 'I Fratelli.* Having become an expert
-violinist, he learned to sing and play the hai^si-
chord from Padre Predi^ and counterpoint
from Antonio Riccieri, a castrate of Vincenzo,
and oomposer of merit. At the same time he
studied philosophy and theology with the monks
of San Filippo Neri. Having passed his novi-
ciate at the Franciscan convent at Lago, he was
ordained on Sept. 11, 1722, and returning to
Bologna in 1725 became maestro di capella of
the diurch of San Francesco. Giaoomo Perti
held a sindlar post at San Petronio, and from
him Martini received valuable advice on com-
posing church-music, at the same time laying
a scientific foundation for the whole theory of
music by a conscientious study of mathematics
with Zanotti, a well-known physician and mathe-
matician. He thus gradually acquired an ex-
traordinary and oomprdiensive mass of knowledge,
with an amount of literary information fiur in
advance of his contemporaries. His library
was unusually complete for the time', partly
because scientific men of all countries took a
pleasure in sending him books. Bumey, whose
own library was very extensive, expressed his
astonishment at that of Martini, which he esti-
mates to contain 17,000 vols. ('Present State of
Music in France and Italy,' p. 202). After his
death a portion found its way to the court library
at Vienna : the rest remained at Bologna in the
liceo Filannonioo. His reputation as a teacher
was European, and scholars flocked to him from
1 Kelly's m1»f«>c« of detail are ImmiMnlila^ He cl^cs tiM Mune
'lUitlni.' ftod Imagining lUilaaiM to be the rister d her Caber—* a
Terr old man ' and * nearly his own age'— speaks of her as ' hk the rale
of years.' tbon^ sUU 'possessing the gatoty and vlTadty of » glii.'
Sbe was barely 40u
a Be had 10 copies of Ooldo d'Arato's Microlflgoi,
MARTINL
all parts, among the most oelebrated being
Paolucci, Ruttini, Sarti, Ottani, and Stanislas
Mattel, afterwards joint founder of the Idceo
Filarmonico. These he educated in the traditions
of the old Roman school, the main characteristic
of which was the melodious movement , of iike
separate parts. Martini was also frequently
called upon to recommend a new maestro <u
capella or to act as umpire in disputed questions.
He was himself occasionally involved in musical
controversy ; the best-known instance being his
dispute with Redi about the solution of a puzzle-
canon by Giovanni Animucda, which he solved
by employing two k^ in the third part. This,
though approved by Pitoni, was declared by Redi
to be unjustifiable. To prove his point Martini
therefore wrote a treatise mainfaLming that puzzle-
canons had not unfrequently been solved in that
manner, and quoting examples. Another im-
portant controversy was that held with Eximeno
[see ExiinuffO]. In spite of these differences of
opinion his contemporaries describe him as a
man of great mildness, modesty, and good nature,
always ready to answer questions, and give ex-
pUinations. It is difficult to think without
emotion of the warm welcome which he, the most
learned and one of the oldest musicians of his
country, bestowed on Mozart when he visited
Bologna in i77oasaboyof 14, or to resist viewing
it as a symbol of the readiness of Italy to open to
Germany that vast domain of music aiid tradition
which had hitherto been exclusively her own.
His courtesy and affability brought the Bolognese
monk into friendly relations with many exalted
personages, Frederic the Great and Frederic
William II of Prussia, Princess Maria Antonie
of Saxony, and Pope Clement XTV among the
number. He sufferod muc^ towards the dose of
his life from asthma, a disease of the bladder,
and a painful wound in the leg ; but his cheer-
fulness never deserted him, and he worked at
the fourth volume of his History of Music up
to his death, which took pla^ In 1784— on
October 3, according to Moreschi, Gandini, and
Delia Valle ; on August 4 according to Fan-
tuzzi. His favourite pupil Mattel stayed with
him to the last. Zanotd's requiem was sung
at his funeral, and on December 2 the Acca-
demia Filarmonica held a grand function, at
which a funeral mass, the joint composition of
13 maestri di capella, was performed, and an
'Elogio* pronounced by Lionardo Vdpi. All
Italy mourned for him, and a medallion to hia
memory was struck by Tadolini. He was a
membor of two * Accademie,' the * Filarmonid *
of Bologna, and the 'Arcadid' of Rome, hia
assumed name in the latter being Aristoxenua
Amphion.
Martini's two great works are the 'Storiik
della Musica' (3 vols., Bologna, 1757, 70, 81),
and the 'Esemplare ossia Saggio . . . di otm-
trapunto* (2 vols., Bologna, 1774, 75). The
first is a most learned work ; each cfaapt^ begins
and ends with a puzzle-canon, the whole (4
which were salved and published by Cherubini.
The three volumes all treat of andent music;
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HABTINL
ibe mnsio of the middle ages down to the nth
eenttiry waa to have been the subject of the
4th ToL, which he did not live to finish. A
rep<Mrt having sprung up that the completed MS.
was in the Minorite convent at BcJogna, F^tis
obtained access to the library through Bossini,
but found only materials, of which no use has
yet been made. The 'Saggio* is a most im-
portant collection of examples from the best
masters of the ancient Italian and Spanish schools*
and a model of its kind. Besides a number of
small treatiBes and controversial writings {(or list
see F^tis) Martini left masses and other church
music in the style of the time. The following
were printed: — 'litanin' op. I (1754); 'XII
Senate d'intavolatora,^ op. 2 (Amsterdam, Le
C^ne, I74i)» excellent and full of originality;
'VI Senate per argajio e cembalo' (Bologna
1747); 'Duetti da Camera* (Bologna, 1763).
The Lioeo of Bologna possesses the MSS. of two
oiatorios, 'San Pietro (two separate composi-
tions), and ' L* Assunzione di Salomone al trono
d'Israele'; a farsetta 'La Dirindina*; and 3
Intermem, 'L*Impreeario delle Canarie,' *Don
Chisciotto,' and '11 Maestro di Musica.* A
requiem (103 sheets), and other church com-
podtions are in Vienna. Fauer, in his *Alte
Klaviermusik,* gives a gavotte and ballet of
Martini's. Farrenc has published la sonatas in
his ' Tr^sor musical,* and other works are given
by Ltick, Komer, Bicordi, etc. The b^ of
many books on his life and works is the ' Elogio*
of Pietro Delia VaUe (Bologna, 1 784). [F. 6.]
MABTYBS,LES. Opera in 4aots; words by
Scribe, music by Donixetti. Fioduced at the
Acad^e, April 10, 1840 ; at the Royal Italian
Opera, as 'I Martiri,* April 20, 1852. The
work was an adaptation of Poliuto, a former
Italian opeok of Donizetti's. [6.]
MARX, Adolph Bbenhabd, learned mu-
lician and author, bom May 15, 1799, *^ Halle,
son of a physician, learned harmony from TUrk,
studied law, and held a legal post at Naumburg.
His love of music led him to Berlin, where he
soon gave up the law, and in 1824 he founded
with Schlesinger the publisher the ' Allffemeine
Berliner MuiSczeitung.' This periodica^ whidi
only existed seven years, did important s^rice in
creating a juster appreciation of Beethoven's
works in North Grermany, a service which Bee-
thoven characteristically refers to in a letter^ to
Schlesinger, Sept. 25, 1825. His book on the
same subject, however, ' Beethoven s Leben und
Schaffon'^ (Berlin. 1859, 2nd ed. 1865, 3rd 1875^,
is a flEkntastio critique, too full of mere conjecture
and misty sstheticism. In 1827 he received his
doctor's diploma from the university of Mar-
burg, and was made 'Docent,' or tutor, in the
histofy and theory of music at the university
of Berlin. He became Professor in 1830, and
in 1832 Musikdirector of the university choir.
In 1850 he founded with Kullak and Stem
the ' Berliner Musikschule,' afterwards the
' Berliner Conservatorium,' but withdrew in 1856
aiolil.IMiie.5o.J8a>
MARTLEBONE GARDENS. 228
(Kullak having resigned in '55), and hence-
forth devoted himself to his private pupils and to
his work at the University. He died in Berlin,
May 17, 1866. His numerous works are of
unequal merit, the most important being the
' Lehre von der musikalischen Composition, ' 4 vols.
(Breitkopf & Hartel, 1837, 38, 45). His'Gluok
und die Oper' (Berlin, 2 vols. 1862) contains
many ingenious observations, but is of no his-
toric»d vuue. Besides what he did for Beethoven's
music, Marx deserves credit for bringing to light
many little-known works of Bach and Handel.
His oompositions are not remarkable; neither
his oratorios ' Johannes der Taufer,' ' Moses,' and
' Nahid und Omar,' nor his instrumental music,
obtaining more than a 'succ^ d'estime.* Never-
theless some particulars given in his *£rinnerun-
gen ' (Berlin, 1865) as to his manner of composing
are well worth reading, as indeed is the whole
book for its interesting picture of the state Of
music in Berlin between 1 830 and 60. With Men-
delssohn he was at one time extremely intimate,
and no doubt was in many respects useful to him ;
but his influence diminished as Mendelssohn grew
older and more independent. L' '^O
MARXSEN, Eddasd, bom July 23, 1806, ^t
Nienstadten near Altona, where ms father was
oif^anist. He was intended for the church, but
devoted himself to music, which he studied at
home and with Clasing of Hamburg. He then
assisted his father till the death of the latter in
1830, when he went to Vienna, and took lessons
in counterpoint from Seyfried, and the pianoforte
tram Bocklet. He also composed industriously,
and on his return to Hamburg gave a concc^
(Oct. 15, 1834) at which he played 18 pieces of
his own composition. He has since lived at
Hamburg in great request as a teacher. Brahms
is the most remarkable of his pupils. Of his 60
or 70 compositions, one for full orchestra called
'Beethoven's Schatten' Vas performed in 1844
and 45 at concerts in Hamburg. [F. G.j
MARYLEBONE GARDENS. This onoe
celebrated place of entertainment was situate at
the back of and appurtenant to a tavern called
'The Rose of Normandy' (or briefly 'The
Rose'), which stood on the east side of High
Street, Marylebone, and was erected about the
middle of the 17th century. The earliest notice
of it is in ' Memoirs by Samuel Sainthill, 1659,'
printed in 'The G^tleman's Magazine,' vol. 83,
p. 524, where the garden is thus described:
' The outside a square brick wall, set with fruit
trees, gravel walks, 204 paces long, seven broad ;
the circular walk 485 paces, six broad, the centre
square, a Bowling Green, 1 12 paces one way, 88
another; all except the first double set with
quickset hedges, full grown and kept in excel-
lent order, and indented like town walls.' It
is next mentioned by Pepys, May 7, 1668 :
'Then we abroad to Marrowbone and there
walked in the garden, the first time I ever was
there, and a pretty place it is.' Long's bowling
green at the Rose at Marylebone, half a mile
distant from London, is mentioned in the London
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224 MARYLEBONE GARDENS.
Gazette, Jan ii, 1691-2. Count de Tallard, the
French ambasBador, gave a splendid entertain-
ment before leaving England to the Marquis of
Normanby (afterwards Duke of Buckingham-
shire) and other persons of note * at the great
Bowling Green at Marylebone,' in June, 1699.
About that time the house became noted as a
gaming house much frequented by persons of
rank ; Sheffield, Duke of Buckinghamshire, was
a constant attendant, and, as Quin told Pen-
nant, gave every tpring a dinner to the chief ;
frequenters of the pla<^ at which his parting
toast was ' May as many of us as remain un-
hanged next spring meet here again.' It was
he who was aUud^ to in Lady Mary Wortley
Montague's oft -quoted line, *Some dukes at
Marybone bowl time away.' Gay, in his ' Beg-
gar's Opera,' 1727, makes Marylebone one of
Mac^eath's haunts, and mentions the 'deep play'
there. Prior to 1737 admission to the gardens
was gratuitous, but in that year Daniel Gough,
the proprietor, charged is. each for admission,
giving in return a ticket which was taken back
in payment for refreshments to that amount.
In 1738 Gough erected an orchestra and en-
gaged a band of music ' from the opera and both
theatres,' which performed from 6 to 10 o'clock,
during which time they played 18 pieces. In
August * two Grand or IXouble Bassoons, made
by Mr. Stanesby, junior, the greatness of whose
sound surpass that of any other bass instrument
whatsoever ; never performed with before,* were
introduced. In 1740 an organ was erected by
Bridge. In 1746 robberies had become so fre-
quent and the robbers so daring that the pro-
prietor was compelled to have a guard of sol-
diers to protect the visitors from and to town.
In 1747 Miss Falkner appeared as principal
singer (a post she retained for some years), and
the admiraion to the concert was rused to 2s.
In 1 748 an addition was made to the number of
lamps, and Defesoh was engaged as first violin,
and about the same time Reworks were intro-
duced. In 1 75 1 John Tnisler became pro-
prietor; 'Master (Michael) Ame' appeared as
a singer, balls and masquerades were occasion-
ally given, the doors were opened at 7, the fire-
works were discharged at 11, and 'a guard was
appointed to be in the house and gardens, and to
oblige all persons misbehaving to quit the place.'
In 1752 the price of admission was reduced to
6d., although the expense was said to be £8 per
night more than the preceding year. In 1753
the bowling green was added to tiie garden, and
the fireworks were on a larger scale than before.
In 1 758 the first burletta performed in the gar-
dens was given ; it was an adaptation by Trusler
jun. and the elder Storace of Pergolesi's 'La
tServa Padrona,' and for years was a great fa-
vourite. The gardens were opened in the morn-
ing for breakfasting, and Miss Trusler made
cakes which long enjoyed a great vogue. In
1762 the gardens were opened in the morning
fktis and an organ performance given from 5 to
o'clock. In 1763 the phtce passed into the
hands of Thomas (famiUarly called Tommy)
MASNADIEfiL
Lowe, the popular tenor singer, the admissiOB
was raised to is. and Miss Catley was among
the singers engaged. In the next year the open-
ing of the gardens on Sunday evenings tor tea
drinking was prohibited ; and in October a
morning performance, under the name of a re-
hearsal, was given, when a coUection was made
in aid of the sufferers by destructive fires at
Montreal, Canada, and Honiton, Devonshire.
Lowe's management continued unUl 1768, when
he retired, having met with heavy losses. In
1769 Mr. (afterwards Dr.) Arnold became pro-
mietor, and engaged Mrs. Pinto (formerly Miss
^rent). Master Brown, and others as vocalistsi,
Pinto as leader, Hook as organist and music di-
rectOT, and Dr. Ame to compose an ode. In
1770 Barthelemon became leader, and Mrs. Bar-
thelemon. Bannister and Reinhold were amonff
the singers. A burletta by Barthelemon, called
'The Noble Pedlar,' was very successful. In
1 771 Miss Harper (afterwards Mrs. John Ban-
nister) appeared. Miss Catley reappeared, and
several new burlettas were produced. In 1772
Torr^, an eminent Italian pyrotechnist, was en-
gaged, and the fireworks became a more promi-
nent feature in the entertainments, to the great
alarm of the neighbouring inhabitants, who ap-
plied to the magistrates to prohibit their exhiM-
tion, fearing dMiger to their houses from them.
Torr^ however continued to exhibit during that
and the next two seasons. But the gardens
were losing their popularity : in 1 775 there ap-
pear to have been no entertainments of the usual
kind, but occasional performances of Baddeley's
entertainment, *The Modem Magic Lantern,*
deliveries of George Saville Carey's 'Lecture
upon Mimicry,* or exhibitions of fireworks bv a
Signor Caillot. In 1776 entertainments of a
similar description were given, amongst which
was a representation of the Boulevards of Paris.
The gardens closed on Sept. 23, and were not
afterwards regularly opened. In or about 1 778
the site was let to builders, and is now occupied
by Beaumont Street, Devonshire Street, and part
of Devonshire Place. The tavern, with a piece
of ground at the back, used as a skittle aUey,
continued to exist in nearly its pristine state
until 1855, when it was taken down, and rebuilt
on its own site and that of an adjoining house,
and on the ground behind it was eroded the
Mar>lebone Music HalL [W. H. H.]
MASANIELLO. The name in England of
Auber's opera. La Muette db Portici. fioduced
in English as ' Masaniello, or the Dimib Girl of
Portici,' at Drury Lane, May 4, 1829 ; in Italian
(in 3 acts) at Royal Italian Opera, Covent Garden,
March 15, 1849. [G.]
MASNADIERI, I— i.f. The Brigands— an
opera in 4 acts ; libretto by Maffei, from Schiller's
' Robbers,' music by Verdi. Produced at Her
Majesty's 'Theatre, London, July 22, 1847,
Yenli conducting and Jenny Lind acting. An
experiment had been made by Mercadante eleven
years before on a libretto adapted from the Hn-
guenots, under the title of * I Briganti,' produced
at the ItaUens, Paris, March as, 1836. [G.]
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MASON.
MASON, John, Mub. Bac., was admitted clerk
of Magdalen Ck>liege, Oxford, in 1508, graduated
Feb. 12, 1509, and was in the same year ap-
pointed instructor of the choristezB and chaplain
of Magdalen College. Wood says he was in
much esteem in his profession. He was collated
prebendary of Fratum minusy July 3i, and of
Putson minor, July 22, 1535, and treasurer of
Hereford Catiiedral, May 23, 1545. He is men-
tioned by Morley in his 'Introduction' as one
of those whose works he had eonsulted. He
died in 1547. [W.H.H,]
MASON, LowxLL, Mus. Doc., bom at Med-
field, Massachusetts, Jan. 8, 1 792, died at Orange,
New Jersey, Aug. 11,1872. He was self-taught,
and in his own words ' spent twenty years of his
life in doing nothing save playing on all manner
of musical instruments that came within his
reach.' At 16 he was leader of the dioir in the
village church, and a teacher of singing classes.
At 20 he went to Savannah in G^rgia, as clerk
in a bank, and there continued to practise, lead,
and teach. In the course of these labours he
formed, with the help of F. L. Abel, a collection
of psalm tunes based on Gardiner's 'Sacred
Melodies' — ^itself adapted to tunes extracted from
ihe works of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.
[See GrABDiHEB, vol. i. 582 6.] This collection was
published by the Handel and Haydn Society of
Boston in 1822 under the title of 'the Handel
and Haydn Society's collection of Church Music,'
Mason's name b^ng almost entirely suppressed.
The book sold well: it enabled the Society to
tide over the period of its youth, and establish
itsdf as one d the characteristic institutions of
Boston, it initiated a purer and healthier taste
ibr music in New England, and it led to Mason's
removal to Boston a»l to his taking 'a general
charge of music in the churches there,' in 1827.
He tiien became president of the society ; but
as his object was not so much the cultivation of
'. high class music as the introduction of music as
«n essential element of education m the common
schools, he soon left it and established the Boston
Academy of Music in 1832. He founded trasses
on the system of Pestalozd, and «t length in
1838 obtained power to teach in all the schools
of JBoston. At the same time he founded period-
ical conventions of music teachers, which have
been found veiy useful, and are now «stab-
^liflhed in many parts of the States. He also
pnblished a large number of manuals imd col-
Lsotions which have sold enonnously and produced
him a handsome fortune. He visited Europe
first hi 1837 with the view of examining the
inethods of teaching in G^ermany, and embodied
the results in a volume entitled 'Musical Letters
from Abroad' (New York, 1853). He was for
long closely connected with the Public Board of
Education of Massachusetts, his kindness and
generosity wa« notorious, and he was universally
admired and esteemed. His ^degree of Doctor in
Mosic, the first of the kind conferred by an
American college^ was granted by the New York
University in 1835. ^^ ^^^ ye<^ of ^ ^^^
were spent at Onuige in New Jersey, the resi-
▼OL.n.
MASQUE.
225
dence of two of his sons. He formed a very fine
libraiy which he collected hr and wide, regard-
less of expense.
Of his sons, William, bom 1828, recdved a
liberal education in music, and was long recog-
nised as a leading pianist in New York ; while
Lowell and Hbnrt are respectively president
and treasurer of the Mason and Hamlin Or^n
Company at Boston. [A. W,T.]
MASON, Bev. William, son of a clergyman,
bom at Hull 1725, graduated at Cambridge,
BA.. 1745, M.A. 1749; took orders 1755, be-
came chaplain to the king said rector of Aston,
Yorkshire, and afterwards prebendary (1756),
canon residentiaiy and precentor (1763) of York
Cathedral. In 1782 he published a book of
words of anthems, to which he prefixed a ' Criti-
cal and Historical Essay on Cathedral Music'
(another edition, 1794). ^^ *^ wvote essays
'On Instrumental Chtiroh Music/ ' On Parochial
Psalmody,* and ' On the causss of the present
imperfect alliance between Music and PoetryJ*
He composed some church music, the best known
of which is the short anthem ' Lord of all power
and might.' He was author of several poems, and
of two tragedies, * Elfrida' and ' Caractacus/ and
was the friend and biographer of the poet Gray.
He died at Aston, April 5, 1 797. [W. H. M.]
MASQUE. The precursor of the opera; a
dramatic entertainment, usually upon an alle-
gorical or mythological subject, and combining
poetry, vocal and instrumental music, scenery,
dancing, elaborate machinery, and splendid cos-
tumes and decorations — ^which was performed at
Court or at noblemen's houses on festive oc-
casions, the performers being usually persons of
rank. Masques were firequently «xMbited at
the courts of James I. and Charles L, and vast
sums were lavished upon their production. The
Masque of tiie Inner Temple and Gray's Inn,
presented in Feb. 161 3, on the marriage of the
Mncess Elizabeth to the Elector Palatine of the
Bhine, cost £1086 St, iid} The principal
author of those masques was Ben Jonson, whose
genius was peculiarly fitted to « style of com-
position which afforded him ample opportunity
of displaying his erudition. BeiEramont, Chap-
man, Samuel Daniel, Campion, Shirley, Hey-
wood, and Carew, also employed their talents
upon masques, as did a greater than they, Mil-
t^ whose 'Comus* was represented at Ludlow
Castle in 1634. Ii^go Jones devised the
machinery and designed the oostumes for the
Court masques;' I^mi^ and others painted
the scenery ; and Ferrabosoo, Campion, H. and
W. Lawes, Ives, Lani^ Lock, C. Gibbons and
others composed the music. Two of Ben Jon-
son's masques— 'The Masque of Queens,* 16 10,
and "She Twelfth Night's Revels,' 1606, were
Sri&ted from his autograph MSS. in the British
luseum by the Shakspere Society at the end of
Cunningham's * life of Inigo Jones.' After the
1 In Nitrdlng these flgorei the dUbnnoe In the Tilae of money
flMQ and now must be borne In mind.
a Many of his sketcbee for tkb purpon we tn the pQiMstfon of Uw
DukeofDorauhtre.
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MASQUS.
^26
Bestontion what wore called maiqiieB
oocaaonally given at Courti bui they appear to
have been rather masked or £Euioy dren balls
than dramatic entertainments. An exception
wasOrowne's masque, 'Calisto; or, the Chaste
Nymph,' performed at court by the princesses
and coortien Deo. i^ and 2a« 1675. In the i8th
century masques were not unfrequently to be
seen on the public stage. The ' pantomimes *
produced bv Rich (for most of wmch Galliard
composed the music) were really masques with
harlequinade scenes interroersed. More recently
masques have been performed on occasion of
royal weddings; thus 'Peleus and Thetis/ a
masque, formed the second act of the opera
' Wmdsor CSastle/ by William Pearce, music by
J. F. Salomon, performed at Govent Garden cm
the marriage of the Prince of Wales, 1795. and
' Freya*s Gift^' masque by John Oxenf<»d, music
by G. A. Maoiarren, was produced at the same
house on the marriage of the present Prince of
Wales, 1863. Soon after the death of Sir
Walter Scott in 1832, 'The Vision of the Bard,*
masque by James Sheridan Knowles. was pro-
duoed at Covent Garden. [W.H.H.]
MASS (Lat. MUta; from the words, 'Tie,
mista ett ' — ' Depart ! the assembly is dismissed ' —
sirng, l^ the Deacon, immediatdy before the con-
elusion of the Service. Ital. Meua ; Fr. Me$9e ;
Germ. DU Mesit). The custom of singing cer-
tain parts of the Mass to music of a peculiarly
Bolenm and impressive character has prevaUec^
in the Roman Church, from time immemorial.
Concerning the source whence this music was
originally derived, we know but very little. AU
that can be said, with any degree of certainty, is,
that, after having long been consecrated, by tra-
ditional use, to the service of Religion, the oldest
forms of it with which we are acquainted were
collected together, revised, and systematically
arranged, fiivt, by Saint Ambrose, and, afterwards,
more completely, l^ Saint Gregory Uie Great, to
>^hose labours we are mainly indebted for their
transmiasicMito our own day in the pages of the Ro-
man GraduaL Under the name of Plain Chaunt,
the venerable melodies thus preserved to usarestill
sung, constantly, in the Pontifical Chapel, and the
Cathedrals of most Continental Dioceses. The
specimen we have printed, in the article, Ktbib,
will give a frdr general id^k of their style ; and it
is worthy of remark, that the special character-
istics of that style are more or less plainly dis-
cernible in all music written for the Church, during
a thousand years, at least, after the compilation
of Saint Gregory's great work.
£)ach separate portion of the Mass was an-
Uently sung to its own proper Tune; different
Tunes being appointed for d^erent Seasons, and
Festivals. Alter the invention of Counterpoint,
Composers delighted in weaving these and other
old Plain Cluunt melodies into polyphonic
Masses, for two, four, six, eight, twelve, or even
forty Voices : and thus arose those marvellous
Schools of Eodeeiastical Music, which, gradually
advancing in excellence, exhibited, during the
latter half of the i6th century, a development
MASS.
of Art, the esthetic perfootion of whidi has
never since been equalled. The portions of the
Service selected for this method of treatment
wore, the Kyriit the Gloria^ the Credo, the San-
cttUf the BmedictuSy and the Agnus Dei ; which
six movements constituted— find still constitute —
the musical composition usually called the * Mass.'
A single Plain Chaunt melody — in technical lan-
guage^ a Canto /enao— served, for the most part,
as a common theme for the whole : and, from.
this, the entire work generally derived its name
—as MitBa * Vent $pon$a Chnsti ' ; Missa * Tu es
POnu' \ Mi$9a * iHe confessor, ' The Canto
fermo, however, was not always a sacred one.
Sometimes—though not very often during the
best periods of Art — it was taken from the re-
frain of some popular song; as in the case of
the fomous Missce * L* Homme armd,* founded
upon an old French love-song — a subject which
Josquin des Pr^ Palestrina, and many other
great Composers have treated with wonder-
ml ingenuity. More rarely, an original theme
was selected : and the work was then called Missa
sine nomine, or Mis8a brevis, or Missa ad Fugam,
or ad Canones, as the case might be ; or named,
after the Mode in which it was composed, Missa
Primi Toni, Missa Quarti Toni, Missa Oetavi
Toni ; or even from the number of Voices em-
ployed, as Missa Quatuor Vocwn. In some few
instances — generaUy, very fine ones — an entire
Mass was based upon the six sounds of tl^e Hexa-
chord, and entitled Missa ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, or
Missa super Voces Musicales,
AmoiDs the earliest Masses of this description,
of whida perfect and intelligible copies have
been preserved to us, are those by Du Fay, Dun-
stable, Binchoys, and certain contemporaneous
writers, whose works characterise theFkpt^^joch
of really practical importance in thb nisto^ of
Figured Music — an epoch intensdy interesting
to the critic, as already exhibiting the firm estab-
lishment of an entirely new style, confessedly
founded upon novel principles, yet depending;
for its materials, upon the oldest subjects in
existence, and itself destined to pass through
two centuries and a half of gradual, but perfectly
le^timate development. J^u" Fay, who may
furly be regarded as the typical composer of this
primitive Sdiool, was a Tenor Singer in the Pon-
tifical Chapel, between the years 1386, and 1433.
His Masses, and those of the best of (ms contem-
poraries, though hard, and unmelodious, are foU
of earnest purpose; and exhibit much contra-
puntal skill, combined, sometimes, with in-
genious fiigal treatment. Written exclusively in
the antient Ecclesiastical Modes, th^ manifest a
nuoked preference for Dorian, Phrygian, Ly-
dian, and Mixolydian forms, with a very glar-
ing use of their .^k>lian and Ionian congeners.
These Modea are used, sometimeB, at thcdr true
pitch; sometimes, trani^xMed a fourth higher — or
fifth lower — ^by means of a Bb at the signature :
but, never, under any other form of tran^xmtion,
or, with anv other signatures than those corre-
sponding with the modem keys of C, or F— a re-
striction which remained in fidl force as Ute as the
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MASS.
fintbalf of the 1 7th century, and wab evenrespected
by Hftndel, when he wrote, as he sometimeB did with
m^m^ring power, in the older soales. So far as
the treatment of the Canto fermo waa concerned,
no departure from the strict rule of the Mode was
held to be, under any circumstances, admissible :
but, a little less rigour was exacted, with re-
gard to the counterpoint. Composers had long
since learned to recognise the demand for what
we should now call a Leading-note, in the forma-
tion of the Clausula vera^ or True Cadence — a
wpedea of Close, invested with functions analo-
gous to those of the Perfect Cadence in modem
music To meet this requirement, th^ freely
admitted the use of an accidental semitone, in
all Modes (except th^ Phrygian) in which the
seventh was naturally Minor. But, in order
tibat, to the eye, at least, their coimterpoint might
appear no lees strict than the Canto fermo, they
regained, as £yr as possible, from indicating the
presence of such semitones in their written music,
and, except when they occurred in very unex-
pected places, left the singers to introduce them,
wherever they might be required, at the moment
of performance. Music so treated was called
Cambujictu* : and the education of no Chorister
was considered complete, until he was able, while
sii^^ing it, to supply the necessary semitones, ccov
teSXy, in accordance vnth oertain fixed laws, a
summary of which will be Ibund in the article,
MusiOA FiGTA. For the reet,.we are able to de-
tect but little attempt at expression ; and very
slight regard for the distinction between long
and short syllables. The verbal text, indeed,
was given in a very incomplete form ; the word,
Kyrie, or Sanctus, written at the beginning of a
movement, being generally regarded as a sufficient
indication of the Composer's meaning. In this,
and other kindred matters, the confidence reposed
in the Singer's intelligence was unbounded — a not
unnatural circumstance, perhaps, in an age in
which the Composer, himself, was almost always
a Singer in the Choir for which he wrote.
£ven at this remote period, the several move-
ments of the Mass began gradually to mould
themselves into certain definite forms, which were
hmg in reaching perfection, but, ha^dng once ob-
tained general acceptance, remained, for more than
a century and a half, substantially unchanged.
The usual plan of the Kj^ has already been
fully described. [See Ktbie.1 The Oloriai dis-
tinguished by a more modest displiMr of fiigal in-
genuity, and a more cursive renaering of the
words, was generally divided into two parts, the
Qui toUia bdng treated as a separate movement..
The Credo, written in a similyr style, was also
subjected to the same method of subdivinon, a
aeoond movement being usually introduced at ihe
words, 'Et incamatut tMt, or *Crucifixut^ and,,
frequently, a third, 9X*Eixn Spiritum Sanctum.^
The design of the Sanctut, though more highly
developed, was not unlike that of the Kyrie;
the ' Pleni $unt coeli,^ being sometimes, and the
Osanna^ almost always, treated separately. The
Ben^icttu was allotted, in most cases,, to two,,
three, or four Solo Voices; and frequently as-
KIASS.
227
sumed the form of a Canon, followed by a choral
Osanna, In the Agnus Dei — generally divided
into two distinct movements — the Composer loved
to exhibit the utmost resources of his skill : hence,
in the great majority of instances, the second move-
ment was written, either in Canon, or in very
complex Fugue, and, not unfrequently, for agreater
number of voices than the rest of the Mass.
The best-known composers of the Second Epoch
were Okenheim, Hobiocht, Caron, 'Gaspar,- the
brothers De Fevin, and some- oUiers of their
School, most of whom flourished between the
years 1430, and 1480. As a general rule, these
writers laboured less zealously for the cultivation
of a pure and melodious style, than for the ad-
vancement of contrapuntal ingenuity. For the
sober fugal periods of their puredecessors, they
substituted Uie less elastic kind of imitation,
which was then called Strict or Perpetual Fugue,
but afterwards obtained the name of Canon;
carrying their passion for this sbrle of composition
to such extravagant lengths, that too many of
their works descended to the level of mere learned
eenigmas. Okenheim, especially, was devoted
to ^is particular phase of Art, for the sake of
which he was ready to sacrifice much excellence
of a £u> more substantial kind. Provided he
could succeed in inventing a Canon, sufficiently
complex to puzzle has brethren, and admit of an
Indefinito number of solutions, he cared little
whether it was melodious, or the reverse. To
such (^n<ms he did not scruple to set the moat
solemn words of the Mass. x et, his senius was,
certainly, of a verv high order; and, when he
cared to lay aside these extravagances, he proved
himself cstpable of producing works &r superior
to those of any contemporary writer.
The ^^rd Epoch was rendered remarkable by
the appearance of a Master, whose fiune was des-
tined to eclipse that of all Mb predecessors, and
even to cast the r^utation of his teacher, Oken-
heim, into the shade. Josquin des Pr^, a Singer
in the Pontifical Chapel, from 147 1 to 1484, and,
afterwards, MaUre de ChapeUe to Louis XII, was,
undoubtedly, for very many years, the most
popular Composer, as well as the greatest and
most learned Musician, in Christendom. And,
his honours were hirly earned. The wealth of
ingenuity and contrivance di8pla3red in some of
his Masses is truly wonderful ,* and is rendered
none the less so by its association with a vivacity
peculiarly his own, and an intelligence and free-
dom of manner far in advance of the age in which
he lived. Unhappily, these high qualities are
marred by a want of reverence which would seem
to have been the witty genius's besetting sin.
When free from this defect, his style is admir-
able. On examining his Masses, one is alternately
surprised by passages fuU of unexpected dignity,
and conceits of alim)st inconceivable quaintness —
flashes of humour, the presence of which, in a
volume of Church Music, cannot be too deeply
regretted, though they are really no more than
passing indications of the genial temper of a man
whose greatness was far too real to be affected,
either one way or the other, by a natural
A
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228
MASS.
light-heartednees which would not always sub-
mit to control. As tb specimen of his beet, and
most devotional style, we can scarcely do better
than quote a few bars from the Osanna of his
Mass, Fayscm* regri$^ —
J Jj rjpj J ^
._,_^
=?=^
^
f9=
F^#=
— ?-
t.i^
.•JJ
-tr
■^ ^^
' — vr
C^
The religious character of this movement is
apparent, from the very first bar; and the in-
genuity with which the strict Canon is carried
on, between the Bass and Alto, simultaneously
with the Fugue between the Tenor and Treble,
is quite forgotten in the unexpected beauty of the
resulting harmonies. Perhaps some portion of
the beauty of our nexi example — the Benedietua
from the MU$a 'JJ Homme amW* — maybe for-
gotten in its ingenuity. It is a strict Canon, in
the Unison, by Diminution; and, though in-
tended to be sung by two Voices, is printed in
one part only, the singer being left to find out
the secret of its construction as best he can —
A hint at the solution of this senigma is given,
to the initiated, by the double Tune-signature
at the beginning. [See Inscription.] The
> The accidenUls in this, and the foDtmlng etsmplei. are all wap-
plied iu Moordaace with the laws of Cantiuficiiu,
MASS.
intention is, that it should be sung by two Baas
Voices, in unison, both beginning at the same
time, but one singing the notes twice as quickly
as the other : thus —
BmAmUo.
,
^ ■
^^
^^^to^5^
Btff^=
1 fCr '^ "^
rl
9
This diversity of Rhythm is, however, a very
simple matter, compared with many other com-
plications in the same Mass, and still more, in
the Mu$a * Didadi,* which abounds in strange
proportions of Time, Mode, and Prolation, the
clue whereto is afibrdedby the numbers shewn
on the faces of a pair of dice ! Copious extracts
from these curious Masses, as well as from others
by Grombert, Clemens non Papa, Mouton, Brumel,
and other celebrated Composers, both of this,
and the preceding Epoch, will be found in the
* Dodecackordon* of Glareanus (Basle, 1547), a
work which throws more light than almost any
other on the mysteries of antient counterpoint.
Of the numerous Composers who flourished
during the FouithEyoch — ^that is to say, during
the fiirst halTorSeiSth century — a lai^ge pro-
portion aimed at nothing higher than a servile
mutation of the still idolised Josquin; and, as is
usual under such circumstances, succeeded in re-
producing his faults much more fr^uently than
his virtues. There were, however, many honour-
able exceptions. The Masses of Carpentrasso,
Morales, Cipriano di Bore, Vincenzo' Ruffb,
Claude Goudimel, Adriano Willaert, and, nota-
bly, Costanzo Festa, are unquestionablv written
in a far purer and more flowing style than l^oae
of their predecessors : and even Uie great army
of Madngal writers, beaded by Archadelt, and
Verdelot, helped on the good cause bravely, in
the face of a host of charlatans whose caprices
tended only to bring their Art into disrepute.
Not content with inventing snigmas *Ad omnem
tonum,* or ' Ung demilon plus bat '—with colour-
ing their notes green, when they sang of grass,
or red, when allusion was made to blood — Uiese
corrupters of taste prided themselves upon adapt-
ing, to the Severn voice-parts for which they
wrote, different sets of words, totally unconnected
with each other ; and this evil custom spread bo
widely, that Morales himself did not scruple to
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MASS.
mix together the text of the liturgy, and that
of the *Ave Maria*; while a Mass is still extant
in which the Tenor is made to sing ' Alleluia*
incessantly, from beginning to end. When the
text was left intact, the rhythm was involved in
complications ^hich rendered the sense of the
words utterly unintelligible. Profane melodies,
and even the verses belongmg to them, were
shamelessly introduced into the most solemn
compositions for the Church. All the vain con-
ceits affected by the earlier writers were revived,
with tenfold extravagance. Canons were tor-
tured into forms of ineffable absurdity, and
esteemed only in proportion to the difficulty of
their solution. By a miserable &tality, the
Mass came to be regarded as the most fitting
possible vehicle for the display of these strange
monstrosities, which are &r less frequently met
with in the Motet, or the MadrigaJ. Men of
real genius fostered the wildest abuses. Even
Pierre de la Rue — who seems to have made it
a point of conscience to eclipse, if possible, the
&me of Josquin^s ingenuity — wrote his Missa,
*0 salutaris Hostia,* in one Kne, throughout;
leaving three out of the four Voices to follow the
single part in strict Canon. In the Kyrie of this
Mass — which we reprint, in modem notation,
from the version preserved by Glareanus ^ — ^the
solution of the senigma is indicated by the letters
placed above and below the notes. C shows the
place at which the Contra-tenor is to begin, in the
interval of a Fifth below the Superius. T indi-
cates the entrance of the Tenor, an Octave below
the Superius : B, that of the Bass, a Fifth below
the Tenor. The same letters, with pauses over
them, mark the notes on which the several parts
are to end. The reader who will take the trouble
to Boore the movement, in. accordance with these
directions, will find the harmony perfectly cor-
rect, in spite of some harshly dissonant passing-
notes: but it is doubtful whether the most
indulgent critic would venture to praise it for its
devotional character.
PkTRVS PLATBIfSIS.
MASS.
229
It is easy to imagine the depths of inanity
accessible to an ambitious composer, in his at-
tempts to construct such a Canon as this, without
a sptirk of Pierre de la Rue's genius to guide him
on his way. Such attempts were made, every
day: and, had it not been that good men and
trae were at work, beneath the surSiMM, conscien-
1 DodecMhordoQ. p.44S» ed. 1517.
tiotisly preparing the way for a better state of
things, Art would soon have been in a sorry
plight. As it was, notwithstanding all these ex-
tvavagances, it was making real progress. The
dawn of a brighter day was very near at hand ;
and the excesses oi the unwise only served to
hasten its appeaoance.
The Fifth Epoch, extending fitnn the year
1565 to tue second! decad of 3ie following cen-
tury, and' justly called *The Golden Age of
Ecclesiastical Mjisic,' owes its celebrity entirely
to the influence of one grave earnest-minded
man, whose transcendant genius, always devoted
to the noblest purposes, and always guided by
sound and reasonable principles, has won for him
a place, not only on the highest pinnacle of
Fame, but, also, in the inmost hearts of all true
lovers of the truest Art.
The abuses to which we have just alluded be-
came, in process of time, so intolerable, that the
Council of Trent found it necessary to condemn
them, in no measured terms. In uie year 1564,
Pope Pius IV commissioned eight Cardinals to
see that certain decrees of the (>)unoil were duly
carried out. After much careful deliberation,
the members of this Commiteion had almost de-
termined to forbid the use of any polyphonic
music whatever, in the Services of the Church :
but, chiefly through the influence of Card. Vitel-
lozzo Vitellozzi, and S. -Carlo Borromeo, they
were induced to suspend, their judgment, until
Palestrina, then Maestro di Capella of S. Maria
Maggiore, should have proved, if he could, the
possibility of producing music of a more devo-
tional character, and better adapted to the words
of the Mass, and the true purposes- of Religion,
than that then in general use. In answer to this
challenge, the great Composer submitted to the
Commissioners three Masses, upon one of which
— first sung in the Sist^ne Chapel, on the Nine-
teenth of June, 1565, and since known as the
Missa Papa MarceUi* — ^the Cardinals immedi-
ately fixed, as embodyii^g the style in which all
future Church music should be composed. It
would be difficult to conceive a more perfect
model. In depth of thought, intensity of expres-
sion, and all the higher qualities which distin-
guish the work oi the Master from that of the
pedant, the Missa Papa Marcelli is universally
admitted, to be unapproachable; while, even
when regarded as amonumentof mere mechani-
cal skill, it stands absolute^ unrivalled. Yet,
except in. the employment of the Hvpoionian
Mode' — a. tonality generally anroided by the
older composers'it depends for its effect, upon
the introduction of no new element whatever,
either of construction, or of form. Avoiding all
show of empty pedantry, and carefully concealing
the consummate art with which the involutions
s It b dlAouH to undentand why Ptlettrlm should have gtvni ft
thiB name, ten jmn after the death of Pope MarceUos IL The read r
will find the urtiole snl^ect exhaustively discussed. In the p««es of
BMid (torn. 1. set. t. cap. 1 «t $«q.)
* The preflace to a recent German edition of the Mtua Papa Mar-
edit erroneously descdbes the work as w ten in the Mlzolydtan
Mode. The rrvWffarM, and BM^citV/M, are urdoobtedly MIxolydivi ;
iKit, the Mass Itself U. beyond all q lestlon, written bk the Fourteenth,
or Hypolontan Mode, to the ton^ty, eompass, and eadoices cS
wUch it oonfomu. throngbout.
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MASS.
of its periods are conducted, it fireely usee all the
old contriyances of Fugue, and, in the second
Agnua Veit of closely interwoven Canon : but,
always, as means towards the attainment of a
certain end — never, in place of the end itself.
And, this entire subjugation of artistic power to
the demands of expression is, perhaps, its most
prominent characteristic. It pervades it, through-
out, from the first note to the last. Take, for
instance, the Ckrisie eldson, in which each Voioe,
as it enters, seems to plead more earnestly than
its predecessor for mercy—
(ft <$) d)
It is impossible, while listening to these touch-
ingly beautiful hannonies, to be^w even a pass-
ing thought upon the texture of the parts by
which they are produced : yet, the quiet grace of
the theme, at (a), and the closeness of the imita-
tion to which it IB subjected, evince a command
of technical resources which Handel alone could
have hidden, with equal success, beneath the
appearance of «uch «xt3«nM simplicity. Handel
has, indeed, submitted a similar subject to closdiy
analagous treatment — ^though, in quick time, and
with A very different expression — in the opening
Tutti of his Organ Concerto in G : and it is in-
teresting to note, that the exquisitely moulded
close, at (6), so expressive, when sung with the
nee essary rUardando, of the confidence of Hope,
has been used, by Mendelssohn, interval for in-
terval, in the Chorale, 'Sleepers wakel* from
MASS.
'Saint Paul,* to express the confidence of Ex-
pectation.
We have selected this particular passage for
our illustration, principally for the sake of call-
ing attention to these instructive coincidencee :
but, in truth, eveiy bar of the Mass conceals a
miiade of Art. Its subjects, all original, and
all of extreme simplicity, are treated with an in-
exhaustible variety of feeling which shews them,
every moment, in some new and beautiful light.
Its six voices — Soprano, Alto, two Tenon of
exactly equal compass, and two Basses matched
with similar nicety — are so artfully grouped as
constantly to produce the effect of two or more
antiphonal Choirs. Its style is solemn, and devo-
tional, throughout ; but, by no ineans deficient
in fire, when the sense of the words demands it.
Baini truly calls the Kyrie, devout; the Qloria^
animated; the Credo, majestic; the Sanctv$, an-
gelic; and, the Agnua Dei, prayerful. Palestrina
wrote many more Masses, of the highest degree
of excellence ; but, none — not even Assumpta ttt
Jtfarto— so nearly approaching perfection, in eveiy
respect, as this. He is known to have produced^
at the least, ninety-five ; of which forty-three
were printed during his life-time; and thirty-
nine more, within seven years after his death ;
while thirteen are preserved, in manuscript,^
among the Archives of the Pontifical Chapel,
and in the Vatican Library. The effect pro-
duced by these great works upon the prevailing
style was all that could.be desured. Vittoria> and
Ajierio, in the great Roman School, Gabrieli, and
Croce, in the Venetian, Orlando di Lasso, in the
Flemish, and innumerable other Masters, brought
forward compositions of unfading interest and
beauty. Not the least interesting of these is a
Mass, for five voices^ in the transposed .^k>lian
Mode, composed by our own great William Byrd,
at the time when he was singing, as a Chorister,
at Old Saint Paul's. This valuable work was
edited, in 1841, for the Musical Antiquarian
Society, by Dr. Rimbault, from a copy, believed
to be unique, and now skfely lodged in the Li-
brary of the British Museuih. Though composed
(if Dr. Rimbault*s theory may be accepted, in the
absence of a printed date^ some years before the
Missa Papce Marcelli, it may fairly lay claim to
be classed as a production of the ' Golden Age* ;
for, it was certainly not printed until after the
appearance of Palestrina's Second Book of Masses ;
moreover, it is entirely free from the vices of the
Fourth Epoch, and, notwithstanding a certain
irregularity in the formation of some of the
Cadences, exhibits unmistakeable traces of the
I One of theia. Tm m Pelru$, ivas printed, for th« flnt time. In 1889.
In Sduems't cooUnuftttoo of Proake't ' Moaica Dlrln* ' (Battobon.
rr.FostatX
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MASS.
RomiuL style : a style, the beauties of which were
qieedily recognised from one end of Europe to
the other, exercising more or less influence over
the productions of iJl other Schools, and thereby
bringing the music of the Mass, during the latter
half of the Sixteenth Century, to a degree of per-
fection beyond which it has never since advatnced.
The ^ixth Epoch was one of universal deoa>
dence. In obedi^ce to the exigencies of a law
with the operation of which the Art-histdtian is
only too familiar, the glories of the 'Grolden Age *
had no sooner reached their full maturity, thaa
they b^an to show signs of incipient decay. The
bold unprepared discords of Monteverde, and the
rapid rise of Instrumental Music, were, alike,
talaX to the progress of the Polyphox^ Schools.
Monteverde, it is true, onlyemployed his newly-
invented harmonies in ssecular music : but, what
revolutionist ever yet succeeded in controlling
the course of the stone he had once set in motion !
Other Composers soon dragged the unwoiAed dis-
Bonanoee into the Service of the Church : and,
beyond all doubt, the unprepared seventh sounded
the death-knell of the Polyphonic Mass. The
barrier between the tried, and the untried, onoe
broken down, the laws of counterpoint were no
longer held sacred. The old paths were for-
saken ; and those who essayed to walk in the new
wandered vaguely, hither and thither, in search
of an ideal, as yet but very imperfectly conceived,
in pursuit of which they laboured on, through
many weary jpears, cheered by very inadequate
results, and littie dreaming of the efiect their
work was fitted to exercise upon generations of
musicians then unborn. A long and dreary
period succeeded, during whicli no work of any
lasting reputation w«s produced : for, the Masses
of Carissimi, Colonaa, and the b^t of their coir-
temporaries, though written^^ solenm earnest,
and interesting enough when regarded as attempts
at a new style, hwe no comparison with the
compositicAS of the preceding epoch; while those
arranged by Benevgli (1602-1072) and the ad-
mirers of his Schod, for combinations «f four,
six, eight, and even twelve distinct Choirs, were
forgotten, with the occasions for which they were
cal^ into existence. Art was passing through a
transitional phase, which must needs be left to
work out its own destiny in its own way. The
few faithful souls who still dung to the traditions
of the Past were unable to uj^old its honours :
and, with Gregorio Allegri, in 1652, the 'School
of Palestrina' died out. Yet, not without hope
of revival. The laws which regulated the compo-
sition of the Polyphonic Mass are as intelligible,
to-day, as they were three hundred years ago;
and it needs but the fire of living Grenius to bring
them, onoe more, into active operation, reinforced
by all the additional authority with which iAiQ
advancement of Modem Science has, from time
to time, invested them.
Before quitting this part of our subject, for the
consideration of the later Schools, it is necessary
that we should offer a few remarks upon the trae
manner of singing Masses, such as those of which
we have briefly sketched the histoiy : and, thanks
MASS.
231
to the traditions handed down, from generation
to generation, by the Pontifical Choir, we are
able to do so with as little danger of misiiAer-
preting the ideas of Palestrina, or Ajderio, as we
should incur in dealing with those of Mendelff-
sohn, or Stemdale Benneit.
In the first place, it is a itiistake to suppose
that a very large body of Voices is absolutely in-
dispensable to the successful rendering, even of
very great works. On ordinary occasions, no
more tham thirty-two singers are present in the
Sistine Chapel — ei^t Sopranos, and an equal
number of Altos, Tenors, and Basses : though,
on veiy high Festivals, their number is some-
times nearly doubled. The vocal str^igth must,
of course, be proportioned to the size of the
building in which it is to be exercised: but,
whether it be great, or small, it must, on no
account, be tupfSemented by any kind of instru-
mental accompaniment whatever. Every pos-
sible gradation of tone, from the softest imagin-
able whisper, to the loudest forte attainable
without straining the Voice, will be brought into
constant requisition. Though written, always,
either with a plain signature, or with a single
flat after the de^ the music may be sung at any
pitch most convenient to the Choir, ^e time ,
should be beaten in minims ; except in the case
of 3-1 , in whidi three semibreves must be counted
in eadi bar. The Tempo — of whioh no indica- ,
tion is ever given, in Uie old part-books — ^will
vary, in different movements, from about p*^50
to pa 110. On this point, as well as on the
subject of pianos and fortes, and the assignment
<^oertain passages to Solo Voices, or Semi-chorus,
the leader must trust entirely to the dictates of
!his own judgment. He will, however, find the
few simple rules to which we are about to direct,
his attention capable of almost universal applica-
tion; based, as they are, upon the important
relation borne by the music of the Mass to the
respective offices of the Priest, the Choir, and the
Congregation. To the uninitiated, tliis relation is
not always very clearly intelligible. In order to
make it so, and to illLustrate, «t the same time,
^e princi{>les by which the Old Masters were,
guided, we shall accompany otir promised liints
by a few words explanatory of the functions per-
formed by the Celebrant, and his Ministers,
during the time oocupied by ihe Choir in singing
the principal movements of the Mass — functions,
the right understanding of which is indispens*^
able to the correct interpretation of the music.
High Mass — preceded, on Sundays, by the
Plain Chaunt Asperges me — ^begins, on the part
of the Celebrant and Ministers^ by ike recitation,
in a low voice, of the Psahn, Judica me Deus,
and the Cor^fiteor ; on that of the Choir, by the
chaunting, from the Gradual, of the tntroit, ap-
pointed for the day. [See In1*boit.]
From the Plain Chaunt Introit, the Choir pro-
qeed, a* once, to the Kffrie ; and this transition
from the severity of the Gregorian melody to the
pure harmonic combinations of Polyphonic Music
IS one of the most beautiful that oan be imagined.
TWio KyrU is idways sung slowly, and devoutly
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MASS.
(pa 56-66), with the tendereet possibld grada-
tions of light and diade. The Chrigte — also a
glow movement — may often be entnisted, with
good effect, to Solo Voices. The second Kyrie is
generally a little more animated than the first,
and should be taken in a quicker time (p « p6-
112). The KyrU of Palestrina^s Mitta hrev%s is
one of the most beautiful in existence, and by no
means difficult to sing, since the true positions of
tiie ere»cendi and diminuendi can scarcely be mis-
taken. [See Ktbte.]
While the Choir are singing these three move-
ments, the Celebrant, attended by the Deacon,
and Subdeacon, ascends to the Altar, and, having
incensed it, repeats the words of the Introit, and
Kyrie, in a voice audible to himself and his
Ministers alone. On the cessation of the music,
he intones, in a loud voice, the words, Gloria in
exceUie J)eo^ to a short Plain Chaunt melody,
varying with the nature of the different Festivals,
and gfiven, in full, both in the Missal, and the
Gradual. [See Intonation.] This Intonation,
which may be taken at any pitch conformable to
that of the Mass, is not repeated by the Choir,
which takes up the strain, at Et in terra pax.
The first movement of the Gloria is, in most
cases, a very jubilant one (p=ioo-no): but,
the words adoramus te, and Jesu Chrittt, must
always be sung slowly, and softly (p^* 50-60) ;
and, sometimes, the Gratia* agimus, as far as
gloriam tuam, is taken a shade slower than the
general time,^ in accordance with the spirit of the
Bubric which directs, that, at these several
points, the Celebrant and Ministers shall uncover
their heads, in token of adoration. After the
word, Patris, a pause is made. The Qui tolli»
is then sung, Adagio (p=. 56-66); with ritar-
damli at miserere nobis, ajid: suscipe deprecationem
no*tram. At the Quoniam tu solus, the original
quick time is resumed, and carried on, with ever
increasing- spirit, to the end of the movement ;
except that the words, Jesu Christe, are again
delivered slowly, and softly, as before. The pro-
vision made, in the Missa Papa Marcellif for
the introduction of these characteristic changes
of Tempo, is very striking, and points clearly to
ihe antiquity of the custom.
The Celebrant now recites thr Collects for the
day ; the Subdeacon sings the Epistle, in a kind
of Monotone, with certain fixed Inflexions ; the
Choir sings the Plain Chaunt Gradual, followed
by the Tract, or Sequence, according to the nature
of the Festival ; and the Deacon sings the Gospel,
to its own peculiar Tone. [See Gradual ; Tbact ;
Sequence ; Accents.] If there be a Sermon, it
follows next in order : if not, the Gospel is im-
mediately followed by the Creed.
The words. Credo in unum Detun, are intoned,
by the Celebrant, to a few simple notes of .Plain
Chaunt, which never vary— except in pitch^ — and
which are to be- found both in the Gradual, and
the Missal. [See Intonation.] The Choir
continue, Patrem omnipotentem^ m a moderate
Allegro, more stately tbifn that of the Gloria
{jp s 96-1 1 2), and marked by the closest possible
attention to the spirit of the text. A ritardando
MASS.
takes place at Et in unum Dominum; and the
words, Jesum Christum, are sung as slowly, and
as softly, as in the Gloria, (p = 50-60). The
quicker time is resumed at Piliam Dei ; and a
grand forte may generally be introduced, with
advantage, at Deum de Deo, and continued as &r
as facta sunt — as in Palestrina*s Missa * A ssumpta
est Maria,* and many others. After the words,
de coelis, a long pause takes place, while the
Congregation kneel. The £t incamcUus est then
follows, in the form of a soft and solemn Adagio
(p= 54-63), interrupted, after f actus est, by
another pause, long enough to enable the people
to rise from their ^ees in silence. The Cruc^fixue
is also a slow movement; the return to the
original Allegro being deferred until the Et
resurrexit. Ijo. the Mis^a Papa: Marcelli, and
many other very fine ones, this part of the
Credo is written for four solo voices ; but, the
necessity for an acceleration of the time at the Et
resurrexit is very strongly marked. In the beau-
tiful Missa brevis already mentioned, the Bassee
lead off the El resurrexit, in quick time,, while
the Soprano, and Alto, are still engaged in finish-
ing a ritardando — a very difficult, tikough by no
means uncommon point, which can only be over-
come by very careful practice.
- pul - - - ttu
• re - - zH tar -
Another change of time is sometimes demanded,
at EtinSpiritum Sanctum : but, moregenerally, the
Allegro continues to the end of the movement ; in-
terrupted only at the words simul adoratur, which
are always sung Adagio, asid pianissimo, while the
Celebrant and Ministers uncover their heads.
The Credo is immediately followed by the
Plain €jha,unt Offertoiium for the dfey. But, as
this is too short to lill up the time occupied by
the Celebrant in incensing the Oblations, and
saying, seereto, certain appointed Prayers, it is
usual^ supplemented, eitker by a Motet, or a
grand Voluntary on the Organ. [See Motet;
Ofpertorium.] This is followed by the Versicle
and Response called ilie- Sursum corda, and the
Proper Preface, at the end of which a Bell is
rung, and the Sanctus is taken up by the Choir.
'Hie Sanctus is invariably a Largo, of peculiar
solemnity (p— 56-72). Sometimes, as in Pales-
trina^s very early Mass, Virtute magna, the
Pleni sunt codi is set for Solo Voices. Sometimes,
it is sung in chorus, but in a quicker movement,
as in the same Composer*s Missa Papa Marcelli,
and Sterna Christi munera — involving, in the
last-named Mass, a difficulty of the same kind as
that which we have already pointed out in the
Et resurrexit of the Missa Brevis. The Osanna,
though frequently spirited, must never be a noiiy
movement. In the Missa brevis, so often quoted,
it id continuous with the rest of the Sanctus, aad
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MASS.
cleaaAy intended to be sung pianissimo — ^an ex-
tremdy beautiful idea, in pwrect accordance with
the character of this part of the Service, during
i^hich the Celebrant is proceeding, aecreto, with
the Prayers which immediately precede the Con-
secration of the Host. After the Elevation —
vrhich takes place in silence — the Choir begin
the JBenedictuSy in soft low tones, ahnost always
entrusted to Solo Voices. The Otanna, which
concludes the movement, is, in the great majority
of cases, identical with that which follows the
Sanctta, The Pater nosier is sung,, by the Cele-
brant, to a Plain Chaunt melody, contained in
the MissaL After its conclusion, the Choir sings
the last movement of the Mas» — the Agnus Dei
— ^while the Celebrant is receiving the Host.
The first division of the Agnus Dei may be
very effectively sung by Solo Voices, and the
second, in subdued chorus (^-50-72), with
grentle gradations of piano, ana pianissimo , as in
the Kyrie, When there is only one movement,
it must be sung twice; the words dona nobis
pacem being substituted, the second time, for
fnifierere na'ns. The Agnus Dei of Josquin's Missa]
*Jj Homme curmd* is in three distinct movements.
The Choir next sings the Plain Chaunt Com'
muniot as given in the Gradual. The Celebrant
recites the Prayer called the Post Communion.
The Deacon sings the words, ' Ite, missa est,^ from
which the Service derives its name. And the.
Rite concludes with the Domine sativum fojc, and j
Prayer for the reigning Sovereign. C
llie Ceremonies we have described are those
peculiar to High or Solemn Mass. When the
Service is sung by the Celebrant and Choir, with-
out the assistance of a Deacon and Subdeacon, and
without the use of Incense, it is called a Missa
cantata, or Sung Ma^i. Lpw Mass is said by
the Celebrant, alone, attended by a single Server.
, According to strict usage, no music whatever is
admissible, at Low Mass : but, in French and
German village Churches, and, even in those
of Italy, it is not unusual to hear the Congrega-
tions sing Hymns, or Litanies, appropriate to the
ooeasion, though not forming part of the Service.
Under no circumstances can the duties proper to
the Choir, at High Mass, be transferred to the
greneral Congregation.
It is scarcely necessary to say, that the musnc
of every Mass worth singing will naturally de-
mand a style of treatment peculiar to itself; es-
pecially with regard to the Tempi of its different
movements. A modem editor tells us that more
tiian four bars of P^estrina should never be
sung, continuously, in the same time.^ This is, of
course, an exaggeration. Nevertheless, immense
variety of expression is indispensable. Every-
thing depends upon it : and, though the leader
will not always find it easy to decide upon the
best method, a little careful attention to the points
we have mentioned will, in most cases, enable
him to produce results very different firom any
1 The 00I7 ocber Oompowr. antlcnt. or modern, with regard to
nboae works sueh » remark oould hsve been hazarded, is Chopin —
the unfrttersd eaqionent of the wildest dreams of modem romanticism.
So straagdj does estperieoce prove that ' there Is nothing new under
theaaa'l
MASS.
238
that are attainable by the hard dry manner which
is too often supposed to be inseparable from the
performance of antient figured music.
Our narrative was interrupted, at a transitional
period, when the grand old mediaeval style was
gradually dying out, and a newer one courageously
struggling in to existence, in the face of difficulties
which, sometimes, seemed insurmountable. We re-
sume it, after the death of the last representative of
the old rSgime, Gregorio Allegri, in the year 1 65 2 .
The most remarkable Composers of the period
which we shall designate as the Seventh Epoch
in the history of the vocal Mass — comprising the
latter part of the Seventeenth Century, and the
earlier years of the Eighteenth — ^were, Alessandro
Scarlatti, Leo, and Durante : men whose position
in the chronicles of Art is rendered somewhat
anomalous, though none the less honourable, by
the indisputable fact^ that they all entertained a
sincere affection for the older School, while labour-
ing, with all their might, for the advancement of
the newer. It was, undoubtedly, to, their love
for the Masters of the Sixteenth Century that
they owed the dignity of style which constitutes
the chief merit of their compositions for the
Church : but, their real work lay in the direc-
tion of instrumental accompaniment, for which
Durante, espedally, did more than any other
writer of the period. His genius was, indeed, a
very exceptional one. While others were con-
tent with cautiously feeling their way, in some
new and untried direction, he boldly started off,
with a style of his owb, which gave an extraordi-
nary impulse to the progress of Art, and impressed
its character so stroi^ly upon the productions of
his followers, that he has been not unfrequently
regarded as the founder of the modem Italian
School. Whatever opinion may be entertained
on that point, it is certain that the simplicity of
his melodies tended, in no small degree, to the
encouragement of those gfraces wluch now seem
inseparable from Italian Art ; while it is equally
undeniable that the style of the Cantata, which
he, no less than Alessandro Scarlatti, held in the
highest estimation, exercised an irresistible in-
fluenee over the friture of the Mass.
Thtk ftfghfch "Piyifh is represented by one single
work, of such gigantic proportions, and so ex-
ceptional a character, that it is impossible, either
to class it with anv other, or to trace its pedigree
through any of the Schools of which we hkve
hitherto spoken. The artistic status of John
Sebastian Baches Mass in B minor, — produced in
the year 1733 — only becomes intelligible, when
we consider it as the natural result of prin-
ciples> inherited through a long line of masters,
who bequeathed their musical acquirements, from
father to son, as other men bequeath their riches :
principles, upon which rest the very foundations
of the later German Schools. Bearing this in
mind, we are not surprised at finding it fr«e from
all trace of the older Eodesiastictd traditions. To
compare it with Palestrina's Missa Papce Mar-
celli — even were such a perversion of criticism
possible — would be as unfair, to either side, as an
attempt to judge the master-pieces of Bembrandt
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by the standard of Fra Angelloo. The two works
are not even coincident in intention — for, it is
ahnoet impossible to believe that the one we are
now considering can ever have been seriously
intended for use as a Church Service, Unfitted
for that purpose, as much by its excessive length,
as by the exuberant elabonttion of its style, and
the overwhelming difficulty of its execution, it
can only be consistently regarded as an Oratorio
— so regarded, it may be safely trusted to hold
its own, side by side with the greatest works of
the kind that have ever been produced, in any
country, or in any age. [See Obatobio.] Its
masterly and exhaustively developed Fugues ; its
dignified Choruses, relieved by Airs, and Duets,
of infinite grace and beauty ; the richness of its
instrumentation, achieved by means which most
modem composers would reject as utterly inade-
quate to the least ambitious of their requirements ;
above all, the colossal proportions of its design —
these, and a hundred other characteristics into
which we have not space to enter, entitle it to
rank as one of the finest works, if not the very
finest, that the great Cantor of the Thomas-Schule
has left, as memorials of a genius as vast -as it was
original. Whether we criticise it as a work of Art,
of Learning, or of Imagination, we find it equally
worthy of our respect. It is, moreover, extremely
interesting, as an historical monument, Irom the>
fact, that, in the opening of its Gredo^ it exhibits
one of the most remarkable examples on record
of the treatment of an antient Caiiio fermo with
modem harmonies, and an elaborate orchestral
accompaniment. [See Intonation.] Bach often
shewed but little sympathy with the traditions
of the Past. I But, in this, as in innumerable
other instance!, he proved his power of compelling
everything he touched to obey the dictates of his
indomitable wilL
While the great German composer was thus
patiently worlung out his hereditary trust, the
disciples of the Italian School were entering upon
a Ninth Epoch — the last which it will be our duty
to consider, since its creative energy is, probably,
not yet exhausted — ^under very different condi-
tions, and influenced by principles which led to
very different results. If we have found it neces-
sary to criticise Bach*s wonderful production as an
Oratorio, still more necessary is it, that we should
describe the Masses of this later period as Sacred
Cantatas. Originating', beyond all doubt, with
Durante; treated with infinite tenderness bv
Pergolesi and Jomelli ; endowed with a wealth
of graces by the genius of Haydn and Mozart ^
and still farther intensified by the imaginative
power of Beethoven and Cherabini ; their style
has steadily kept pace, step by step, with the
progress of modem music ; borrowing elasticity
from the fireedom of its melodies, and richness
from the variety of its instnmientation ; clothing
itself in new and unexpected forms of beauty, at
every turn ; yet, never aiming at the expression
of a higher kind of beauty than that pertaining
to earthly things, or venturing to utter the lan-
guage of devotion in preference to that of passion.
In Uie Masses of this sera we first find the indi-
MASS.
viduality of the Composer entirely dominating
over that of the School — ^if, indeed, a School can
be said to exist, at all, in an age in which every
Composer is left free to follow the dictates of his
own unfettered taste. It is impossible to avoid
recognising, in Haydn*s Masses, the well-known
features of ' The Creation * and * The Seasons ' ;
or, in those of Mozart, the characteristic features
of his most delightful Operas. Who, but the
Composer of ' Dove Bono % bei momenUf* or, the
Finales to Don Giovanni, and the Flauto Magico,
could ever have imagined the Agnui Dei of the
First Mass, or the Gloria of the Second? Still
more striking is the identity of thought which
assimilates Beethoven's Miua tolemnie to some
of the greatest of his ssecular works ; notwith-
standing their singular freedom from all trace of
mannerism. Mozait makes himself knovm by
the refinement of his delicious phrases : Bee-
thoven, by the depth of his dramatic instinct — a
talent which he ncrver turned to such good account
«s when woi^ng in the absence of stage acces-
sories. We are all familiar with that touching
episode in the ' Battle Symphony,' wherein the
one solitary Fifer strivte to rally his scattered
comrades by playing Mallrodk s^en vort-en guerre
— a feat, which, by reason of the thirst and ex-
haustion consequent upon his wound, he can only
accomplish in a ninor key. No less touching,
though infinitely more terrible, is that wonderM
passage of Drums and Trumpets, in the Dona nohie
paoem of the Mass in D, intended to bring the
blessings of Peace into the strongest possible reli^,
by contrasting them with the horrors of War.
Beeit, tlmidamante. ingttlkh.
Alto •©lO. /q^^.
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goprano mAo. ^^ -
f Whether, or not, the peace to which our fttten-
tion is thus forcibly directed be really that aUaded
to in the text» in no wise affects the power of the
paasage. All that Beethoven intended to express
was Ins own interpretation of the words ; and it
i is in his own strong language, and not in that of
t the Schools, that he expresses it. Cherubini
makes equal use of the dramatic element ; more
( especially in his magnificent Jtequiem Mom in D
minor [see Kbquibm], his grand Mass, in the
same key, and his famous Mass in A, written for
I the COTonation of Charles X : but, always in a
P way so peculiarly his own, that the touch of his
^ master hand stands everywhere confessed. In all
r these great works, and innumerable others, by
Weber, Schubert, Hummel, Niedermeyer, Rossini
and Gk>unod, we find the dramatic form of ex*
pression entirely superseding the devotional ; un-
compromising realism triumphing over the ideal-
ism of the older Schools; the personal feelings
, and experiences of the Masters over-riding the
abstract sense of the text. This circumstance
makes it extremely difficult to assign to these
creations of genius a true lesihetic position in the
k world of Art. Church Services m name, they
have certainly fidled, notwithstanding their uni-
^ versaUy-aoknowledged beauties, in securing for
ihemsdves a lasting home in the Church. That
their use has been tolerated, rather than en-
couraged, in Rome itself, is proved, by the signi-
^ ficant &ct, that not one single note of any one of
them has ever once been heard within the walls
'of the Sistine Chapel. And the reason is obvious.
They oast Ecdesiastioal tradition to the winds ;
and, substituting for it the ever-varying senti-
ment of individual minds, present no firm basis
for the elaboration of a definite Church style,
which, like that of the Sixteenth Century, shall
prove its excellence by its inability. Yet, in the
midst of the diversity which naturally ensues
from this want of a common ideal, it is instruc-
tive to notice one bond of union between the older
Masters and the new, so strongly marked that it
cannot possibly be the result of an accidental
coincidence. Their agreement in the general dis-
tribution of their movements is most remarkable.
We still constantly find the KyrU presented to
us in three separate divisions, llie Qoi tdUiSy and
Bt incamatus est, are constantly introduoed in
the form of solemn Adagios. The same Osanna is
almost always made to serve, as in the Mitta Papa
MareeUi, as a conclusion both to the SanctuM^ and
*'he Benidietm. And, in this vitality of typical
ibrm, we find a convincing proof— if one be ne* i
ceesary—that the broad sesthetic principles of Art
are immutable, and calculated to survive, through
an indefinite period, the vicissitudes of techniosd
treatment in widely differing Schools. [W. S. R.]
MASSART, Lam BKRT-JosEPH, professor of the
violin at the Paris Conservatoire, was bom in i8i I
at Li^ge. He came early imder Kreutcer*s tui-
tion, and afterwards entered the Conservatoire to
study composition. Acccmling to F^tis (Biogr.
d. MuB.) his playing is distinguished by perfect
intonation, facility in bowing, and gracefulness of
style. In 1 843 he was appointed professor of the
violin at the Conservatoire, and in this position
has been eminently successful. Among his nu-
merous pupils the most eminent is £[£NBI Wiz-
JOAWsia. [P.I>.]
MASS1&, Felix MabuViotob, bom at Lorient
March 7, 1822 ; entered the Conservatoire at 12,
obtained the first prizes for piano, harmony, and
fugue, and in 1844, after some years study with
Hal^vy, the 'Grazid prix de Rome* for composi-
tion. His cantata 'Le R^n^t* was given 3
times at the Op^ra (Feb. 1845), a rare event.
During his stay in Rome he composed a ' Messe
Solennelle,* performed at the chureh of St. Louis
des Fran^ais (May i, 1846), a careful and clever
wOTk, though wanting in religious sentiment—
never Mass^'s strong point. The unpublished score
is in the library of the Conservatoire. After
his two years in Rome he travelled through
Italy and Germany, and returned to Paris, where
he was much appreciated in society. Pub-
lishers readily accepted his 'M^odies' and
' Romances,* and he gained access to the stage
with little delay. 'La Chanteuse voil^' i act
(Op^ra Comique, Nov. 26, 1850), was followed by
'Galath^,* 2 acts (April 14, 1852), and *Les
Nooes de Jeannette ' (Feb. 4, 1853), a charming
lyric comedy in i act. These early successes
justified the hope that in Mass^ the French stage
had found a composer as fruitful and melodious,
if not as original, as Auber ; but his later efforts
have been less fortunate. *La Reine Topaze*
(Dec 27, 1856) indeed succeeded completely,
and has kept the boards, but *La Fianc^ da
Diable' (June 3, 54) ; 'Miss Fauvette' (Feb.
I3» 65); *Les Saisons* (Deo. 22, 55); 'Lee
Chaises ^ porteurs' (April 28, 58); «La F^
Carabosse ' (March 7, 59) ; * La Mule de Pedre '
(March 6, 63); 'Fior d'Aliza* (Feb. 5, 66);
and *Le Fik du Brigadier' (Feb. 25, 67),
though fidrly received, soon disappeared. Some
however contain good music, especially *Le8
Saisons ' and ' Fior d'Aliza.' In i860 he became
chorus-master to the Academic de Musique, and
in 66 succeeded Lebome as professor of composi-
tion at the Conservatoire — gratifying appoint-
ments as showing the esteem of his brother artists,
although the work they entailed left him little
time for composition. On June 20, 1872, he was
elected to the Institut as successor to Auber.
After a long period of silence Mass^ produced
'Paul et Virginie,* 3 acts (Nov. 15, 1876;
given in Italian at Covent Ganien Opeora-house,
June I, 1878). In spite of its success and its
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MASS£.
evident ambition, tliis opera seems less original
and less homogeneous in style than 'Galatiiee*
or ' Les Noces de Jeannette,* and its best parts,
as in all his operas, are the short pieces and the
simple romances.
To complete the list of his operas we may
mention *La Favorita e la Schiava' (Venice,
1855), and 'Le Cousin Marivaux' (Baden, 1857) ;
also two drawing-room operettas 'Le Prix de
Famille* and 'Une loi Somptuaire.' He has
published 3 'Recueils* of 20 songs each, selected
from his numerous romances. Many of these
are charming little pieces.
In 1877 he was made an officer of the Legion
of Honour. For the last two years he has been
Buffering from a malady which compelled him
to resign his post at the Academic in 1S76, and
has since caused his complete withdrawal from
the world. He is engaged on an opera, ' Cl^-
pfttre/ from which he expects much ; and it is to
be hoped he may recover sufficiently to superin-
tend its production. We also wish he ooiUd be
persuaded to give to the world other specimens of
musical criticism besides his 'Notice sur la vie et
I'oeuvre d'Auber/ a valuable contribution to
musical literature. [G.C.]
MASSENET, Jules Emils FBiD^Rio, bom
at Montaud, near St. Etienne, May 1 7, 1843, was
educated at the Paris Conservatoire, where he won
the first piano prize in 1859 ; the second prize
for fugue in i8oa ; the first prize for fugue, and
the ' Prix de Rome' in 1863. On his return from
Italy, through theinflnenceof Ambroise Thomas^
his * LaGrand'tante' was produced at the Op^ra
Comique (April 3, 1867); Even in this first
attempt Massenet showed himself a skilled and
graceful musician. Some 'Suites d*orchestre*
performed at the ' Concerts populaires * attracted
attention for their new and ingenious effects. It
was only, however, after the Franco-Crerman
war that he rose to the first rank among young
French composers by the production of 'Don
C^sar de Bazan,' op^-comique in 3 acts and 4
tableaux (Nov. 30, 1872) ; incidental music to
the tragedy *Les Erynnies* (Jan. 6, 1873) ; and
an oratorio 'Marie Magdeleine* (April 11, 1873);
He has since composed ' Eve* (March 18, 1875),
an oratorio something in the style of Gounod's
' Gallia * ; more * Suites d orchestre * ; an 'Ouver'
ture de Concert,* and the overture to ' Ph^dre * ;
a number of mdodies for i and a voices ; piano-
forte music for 2 and 4 hands ; choruses for 4
equal voices; 'Le Roi de Lahore* (April 27,
1877), opera in 4 acts and 6 tableaux; and
'Narcisse,* a cantata with orchestral accompani-
ment. In July 1879 he completed another
oratorio, * La Vierge,* and is at woric upon two
new operas. From this enumeration it will be
seen that his published compositions are numerous
and varied. His best and most individual work
is 'Marie Magdeleine.* The 'Roi de Lahore*
can scarcely be considered an advance upon ' Don
C^sar de Bazan.* The ' Suites d*orohestre ' may
be blemished here and there by mannerism and
affectation, but if M. Massenet will refrain from
all mere clevemesSy and draw his inspiration
MATERNA
solely from within, he will prove an honour to
the French school, and to his art. [G. C]
MATASSINS,MATACINS,orMATAC;HINS
— also called Bouffona — a dance of men in annour,
popular in France during the i6th and 1 7th cen-
turies. It was probably derived from the ancient
Pyrrhic dance, although the name has been traced
to an Arabic root. Jehan Tabourot in his 'Or-
ch^eographie* (Langres, 1588) gives a long and
interesting account of this dance, with six illus-
trations of the different positions of the dancers,
' qui sont vestus de petits corcelets, anec fimbries
6a espaules, et soubs la oeinture, une pente de
taffetats soubz icelles, le morion de papier dor^,
les bras nuds, lee sonnettes aux iambes, fespee au
poing droit, le bouclier au poing gaulche. 'Die
Matassins were four in num^r, generally all
men, but sometimes two men and two women.
They danced several distinct figures, between
which they performed mimic %hts with one
another. Moli^re has introduced Matassins into
his oom^e-ballet of M. de Pourceaugnac, and
the dance is said to have been common at Bor-
deaux, Marseilles, and Strasbui^ as late as 1735.
The following, according to Tabourot, is the air
which usually accompanied the dance.
[W.B.S.]
M ATELOTTE, a Dutch sailors* dance, some-
what similar to the English hornpipe. The
dancers wore wooden shoes, and their arms we^e
interlaced behind their backs. The music of the
Matelotte consists of two parts in 3-4 time, and
is remarkable for its short decided rhythm. There
is a sabot dance in Lortzing*s 'Czar und Zim-
mermann,* but it is not a true Matelotte, being
written in waltz time. The following example
is quoted by Schubert, Die Tanzmusik (Leipzig,
1867) : it is there attributed to the 17th century,
but no information is given as to whether it is
a genuine dance tune or merely an adi4>tation.
We quote the first strain only : —
AJlegrtUot
lti!\^^\r-i
[W.B.S.]
MATERNA, Aualik (Fbau Fbiedrich), a
distinguished prima donna in Grerman opera^ was
bom at St. Georgen, Styria, where her &ther was
a schoolmaster. Her first stage - appearances
were made at the Thalia-Theater, Gratz, about
1864. She married soon afterwards Karl
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MATERNA.
Friedrich, a popular German actor, and together
with him was engaged at the euburban Karis
theater, Vienna, where she sang for some thne
in operetta. But her qualifications for the higher
lyrical walks conld not long remain undisoovered,
and in 1869 she made her d^ut at the Imperial
Opera House as Selika in the ' Africaine/ with
signal success, at once winning for herself the
high position she has since maintained among
opera-singers of the German sohooL With a
soprano voice of unusual volume, compass, and
sustaining power, a fine stage presence, and much
musical and dramatic intelSgence, Fran Matema
leaves nothing to be desired in certain rdles. At
the Wagner Festival at Baireuth, 1876, she
may be said to have earned a world-wide reputa-
tion by her really magnificent impersonation of
Brunnhilde in Uie Ntebelungen Trilogy, an
exceptional part for which she was exceptionally
qualified, and in which she is unlikely to meet
with a rival. She sang in England with ffreat
success at the Wagner concerts at the Albert
Hall in 1877. [BT.]
MATHER, Sahubl, son of William Mather
(bom 1756, organist of St. Paul's church,
Sheffield, from 1788 to his death in 1808), was
bom in 1 783. In 1 799 he was appointed organist
of St. James's church, Sheffield, and in 180S suc-
ceeded his father at St. Paul's. In 1805 he was
chosen bandmaster of the Sheffield Volunteers.
In 1806 he was engaged in establishing the York-
shire Amateur Concerts, which were for many
years given triennially at that town, Leeds and
York alternately, ana in 18 14 established the
Yorkshire Choral Concert. He composed both sa-
cred and secular music, and edited a book of psalm
and hymn tunes. He died in 1 8 24. [W. H. H.]
MATHESON, Johann, G^erman musician
and writer, bom Sept. 38, 1681, at Hamburg,
son of a derk of excise ; as a child showed striking
symptoms of versatility, which his parents care-
fully cultivated. Besides the ordinary education
he studied music, and at nine years could play the
harpsichord and organ, sing and compose. His
ability and versatility were truly extraordinary,
and recal those of the ' admirable Crichton.' A
good classical scholar and a proficient in modem
languages, a student of law and political science,
a foie player both on harpsichord and organ,
and thoroughly skilled in theory, an elegant
dancer, a master of fence, and -a cultivated man
of ^e world. The first step in his changeful
career was his appearance in 1697 as a singer in
the Hamburg opera, then in its most flouruhing
condition. In 1699 he produced his first opera,
' Die Pleyaden,' ranging his part on the stage, and
then sitting down at the harpsichord to conduct
the orchestra. To this period belongs his ac-
quaintance with Handel, who came to Hamburg
in 1 703. Matheson tells us that he recognised
Handel's genius immediately, that they became
at once attached, and that their firiendship con-
tinued, with occasional breaks caused by Mathe-
son^s vanity, during the whole time of Handel's
stay in Hamburg ( 1 709). He claims to have done
Hiuiidel an impOTtant service by introducing him
MATHESON.
287
to the musical world of Hamburg, at that time
veiy celebrated ; but he acknowledges that he
picked up from him many a 'contrapuntal de-
vice.' Handel's 'Nero' (1705) was the last
opera in which Matheson appeared; he then re-
tured from the stage, and declined more than one
organist's post whidi was offered to him. He
became tutor to the son of the English envoy, and
in 1706 was made secretary of legation. His
post was one of labour and responsibility, but he
still continued to teach, conduct, compose, and
write on musical subjects. In 1715 he was
appointed Cantor and Canon of the cathedral;
and took an active part in the development of
the Church-cantata, so soon after carried to its
highest pitch by J.S. Bach. [See Kibchenoanta-
TBV.] This was the result of an attempt, made
more particularly by the Hamburg composers, to
vary the monotony of congregational dnging by
the introduction of airs, duets, choruses, etc., and
was considered by the orthodox an impious and
sacrilegious innovation*. Matheson supported this
* adapted dramatic' style, as it was called, both
as a composer and as a pamphleteer ; and even
ventured on a further innovation, by introducing
female singers into church.
In 1 7 19 he received from the Duke of Holstein
the title of Court-Capellmeister. In 1728 he
was attacked with deafi[iess, which obliged him
to resign his post at the cathedral. Thencefor-
ward he occupied himself chiefly with writing, and
died at an advanced age in 1 764. He is said to
have resolved to publish a work for every year
of his life, and this aim he more than accom-
plished, for when he died at 83, his printed
works amounted to 88, besides a still laiger
number of completed MSS.
None of his compositions have survived. With
all his cleverness and knowledge he had no real
genius ; his vocal music was overburdened with
declamatory passages — a fault easily explained by
his own experience on the stage, but one which
is often detrimental and must have been very
inoongraous in church music. He composed 24
x>ratorios and cantatas; 8 operas ; sonatas for flute
and violin ; suites for olavier ; arias ; piioes de
circondanee for weddings, funerals, etc. A 'Pas-
sions-Cantate' to words by Brookes deserves at-
tention, not for its intrinsic value, but because
the poem was set by nearly all the great com-
posers of the day, including Keiser and Matheson,
Telemann and HandeL
His books are of far greater value than his
oompoutions. In these, notwithstanding a pecu-
liar self-satisfied loquacity, he shows himself
a ready and skilful champion for earnestness
and dignity in art, for progress, and for solidity
of attainment in the practical part of music
In both branches, theoretical and practical, he
attacked and demolished much that was anti-
quated, furnishing at the same time a great
deal that was new and instructive, and be-
queathing to posterity a mine of historical
material. He also found time for much other
literary work, especially translations (ohiefly from
Engliah works on poUtics and jurispmdenoe).
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MATHBSOK.
Mid even tnnslfttod a small treatlfle on tob»ooo»
This extraordinaiy versatility, and his untiTing
industry, go fiu* to redeem tfie vanity which
animated his character and actions, and con-
tinually shows itself in his writings. His
autobiography in the ' Ehrenpforte ' contains an
amusingly egotistical description of his manifold
labours. His more important books are scarce,
and much valued, especially the historical ones,
which are the standard souixses of information
on the state of music at that period, especially
in Hamburg. These are '^I^ neu erofihete
Orohester* (1713), followed by ' Das beeohiitzte'
and 'Das forschendeOrohester^Ciyiyand 1721) ;
'Der musikalische Patriot '^ (1728); and the
'Grundlage einer Ehrenpforte *^ (1740), a colleo-
tion of biographies of contemporary musicians.
The two last are the most important. His theo>
retical works are the ' Exemplarische Organisten
Probe' (i 719), republished in 1751 as the 'Groese
Generalbassschule ; the 'KleineG^eralbassschule*
<i755)f ^e 'Kern melodischer Wissenschaft*
(1737); and finally the ' Volllconunene Capell-
meister* (1739). Perhaps his most valuable work.
As a contooversial writer he was wanting in tem*
per; his 'Ephorus Gottingensis ' (1727), directed
against Professw Joachim Meyer of Qottingen on
the Church-cantata question, is the only work of
that class we need specify. [A. M.]
MATHILDE DI SHABRAN. Opera buffa,
in three acts ; the music by Bossini. Produced
at the Apollo Theatre, Rome, in the Oamival
of 1 82 1, and at the Th<^tre Italien, Paris, Oct.
1 5> 1 829 ; in London at the Royal Italian Opera,
Covent Garden, Apr. 18, 1854. [G.]
MATILDA OF HUNGARY. A dramatic
opera in 3 acts ; libretto by Mr. Bunn, music
by W. Vincent Wallace. Produced at Drury
iJane Feb. 22, 1847.
MATINS (Lat. MahOimae; Oficium matu-
tmum). The first division of the Canonical Hours.
The Office of Matins, as set forth in the Roman
Breviary, opens with the series of Versides and
Responses beginning with the 'Domine, labia
mea aperies,* followed by the Psalm 'Venite,
ezultemus,' with its proper Invitatorium, and the
Hymn appointed for the Day. The remainder
of the Service is divided into portions called
Noctums, of which three are generally sung, on
Sundays and Festivals, and gne only, on Ferial
Days.
The First Noctum consistB either of three, or
twelve Psalms, sung with three proper Anti-
phons, which, on certain Festrvals, are doubled —
that is to say, sung, entire, both before and after
the Psalm. On Ferial Days, and Festivals of
minor solemnity, each Antiphon is sung, entire,
aftec the Psalm, but the first few words of it,
only, at the beginning. The Psalms are followed
by the Pater noster. Absolution, and Benedic-
tion; and these, by the First, Second, and Third
Lessons for the Day, each succeeded by its proper
Responsorium.
Three Psalms, with their proper Antiphons,
are sung, in like manner, in the Second Noctum ;
HATTEI.
which concludes with the Fourth, fifth, and
Sixth Proper Lessonsi, and Responsories.
In the Third Noctum, three more Psalms are
followed by the Seventh. Eighth, and Ninth Lea-
sons and Re^Kinsories ; the place of the Ninth
Responsory being generally, but not always, sup-
plied by the Hymn, ' Te Deum Laudamus.'
The Third Noctum is immediately followed
by the Office of Lauds ; which, indeed, may be
regarded as the natural COToUaiy of the Service.
In antient times, the First Noctum was sung
soon after midnight : but the whole Office is now
generally sung ' by anticipation ' — that is to say,
on the afternoon or evening of the day bef<»«
that for which it is appointed. The Plain
Chaunt Music used, both at Matins, and Lauds,
will be found in the ' Antiphonarium Romanum,*
and the ' Directorium Chori' [See Lauds ; Akii-
PHOir ; Invitatobium.]
In the First PrayerBook of King Edward VI,
the name of ' Mattins ' is given to the Service
now called 'The Order for Morning Prayer,'
which is derived, in about equal degrees, from the
Latin Offices of Matins and Lauds. [W. S. R.]
MATRIMONIO SEGRETO, IL. An opera
bufia in a acts ; libretto by Bertatti, music by
Cimarosa. Produced at Vienna in 1793; in
Paris, May 10, 1801 ; in London, King's llieatre,
Jan. 25, 1803. In English at Covent Garden,
Nov. 1, 1 842, and with new translation by W. Grist,
at the Crystal Palace, Dec. 13, 1877. [G.j
MATTEI, COLOHBA, a anger who appeared
in London as ' seconda donna, in t 754, was not
only a charming sinser, but a spirited and intel-
ligent actress, and beoune, soon after, a great
&vourite as * prima donna.' She sang in ' Iper-
mestra,* and (1755) in Jommelli's 'Andromaca ;'
and continued to sing till 1 760 with similar suc-
cess. Bumey tells us that she was a pupil of
Perez and Bertoni, and sang many songs of their
composition, taught her by themselves, in an
exquisite style. * Her manner, though not quite
in the grand gutt^t was extremely amiable and
pleasing; her figure was unexceptionable; and
ner actmg acquued her as much applause as her
sing^.' [J.M.]
MATTEI, Stantslao, Abbatb, pupil of Mar-
tini, and master of Rossini, bom at Bologna
Feb. 10,. 1750. Though of humble parentage
(his &ther was a locknnith) he was sent to the
Latin school. Having been present accidentally i
at a service in the S^orite Convent, he was so
enchanted' with the music that he became a
constant attendant, and thus attracted the notice
of Padre Martini, by whose advice he entered
upon his noviciate. Master and pupil became
tenderly attached, and as soon as Mattel had
been ordiuned he became the Padre's oonfeesw,
and remained with him till his death. He acted
as Martini's deputy from 1770, and succeeded
him as maestro di capella. Fh>m 1 776 his com-
positions were produced in the service. On the
suppression of the monasteries in 1 798, he went to
live with his aged mother, and began an active
career as a teacher. From this time he was
Digitized by
Google
MATTEL
known as the Abbate Matte!. Later lie became
nuieniro di capella of San Petronio, and professor
<^ conntetpoint at the Lioeo firom its foundation
in 1804. Among his pupils were Rossini, Mor-
Iftcchi, Donizetti, Perotti, Robuschi, Palinerini,
BertolotU, Tadolini, Teeei, and Pilotti, who suc-
ceeded him at San Petronio. He lived in com-
plete retirement, accessible only to his pupils, and
died May 17, 1825. He was president of the
* fllarmonici * in 1 790 and 94, and was a member
of the Subalpine Academic, and of the * Inatitut
de France * (Jan. 34, 1824). He had- a thorough
practical acquaintance with the old traditions,
-as may be seen by his ' Prattica d'accompagna-
mento sqpra basi numerati,' 3 yols. (Bologna,
1829, 30), which consists mainly of weU-choeen>
examines, with a few rules. Li his explanations
to hia pupils he does not seem to have been very
^ear; at least Rossini complained to F^tis in
.1841 that he had one stereotyped answer when
asked to explain a rule in hannony or counter-
point, ' it is always written thus.' Of his music
3 masses only are generally known. Hie libraries
of San Gioigio and the Minorite convent in
Bologna, contain most of his compositions, but
the scores of an intermezzo ' II Linrago ' and of
) a * Pasadon ' performed in 1 792, seem to have been
lost. Full particulars of Ub life are given in
the ' Vita di Stanislao Mattel ' by Filippo Canuti
(Bologna, 1829, with portrait). [F-G.]
MATTEIS, Nicola, an eminent Italian vio-
linigt, came to England about 1672. Nothing
whatever is known of his antecedents. The
earliest notice of him is found in Evetyn^s Diaiy
nnder date of Nov. 19, 1674: 'I heard that
Btapinidous violin, Signer Nidiolao (with other
rare muaicians), whom I never heard mortal man
exceed on tiiat instrument. He had a stroke so
sweety and made it speak like the voice of a man,
and, when he pleased, like a concert of several
inBtrnments. He did wonders upon a note, and
was an excellent composer. Here was also that
.raze Intaniat, Dr. Wallgrave, but nothing ap-
proached the violin in Niohdao's hand. He
played such ravishing things as astonished us
alL' Roger North fUso (Memoirs of Musick),
npeaks very highly of his abilities. When he
£nt oame here he exhibited many sing^nlarities
<^ conduct which he afterwards abandoned. He
I published here, without date, 'Arie, Preludij,
' AJemande, Sarabande, etc., per il Violino. Libro
I Primo. Altre Arie, etc., piu difficile e studiose
I per il Violino. Libro Seoondo' ; also ' Ayres for
Xhe YioLm, to wit, Preludes, Fuges, Alemands,
Sarabands, Courants, Gigues, Fancies, Divisions,
I and likewise other Passages, Introductions, and
•Fugues for Single and Double stops with divisions
somewhat more artificial for the Emproving of
the Himd upon the Basse- Viol or Harpsichord.
[ TIm Third and Fourth Books.' He was likewise
I author of ' The False Consonances of Musick, or,
I Instructions for playing a true Base upon the
Gnittarre, with C!noice Examples and dear Direc-
tions to enable any man in a short time to play
aU Musiodl Ayree. A great help likewise to
those that would play exaistly upon the Haipsl-
MAXWELL.
239
chord, Lnte, or Base-Viol shewing the delicacy
of all Accords^ and how to apply them in their
proper places. In four parts' — which even in
North's time had become scarce, and is now
excessively rare. In 1696 Matteis composed an
Ode on St. Cecilia's day for the then annual
celebration in London, and was also one of
the stewards of a Cecilian celebration at Oxford.
A song by him is included in a collection of
'Twelve New Songs,* published in 1699. Ac-
cording to North 'he fell into such credit and
imployment that he took a great hous, and after
the manner of his oounti^ lived luxuriously,
which brought diseases upon him of which he
dyed.* The date of his death is unknown. He
is said to have been the inventor of the half-shift,
but it is claimed also for others.
Hin son, Nicholas, was taught the violin b^
his &ther, and became an excellent player. He
went to Grermany and resided for some time at
Vienna, but returned to England and settled at
Shrewsbury as a teacher of languages, as well
as of the violin, where Bumey learned Frencli
and the violin of him. He died there about
1749. [W.H.H.]
MATJRER, LuDWTO Wilhelm, distinguiehed
violinist, bom Aug. 8, 1789, in Potsdam, pupil
of Haak, Ck>noeTtmei8ter to Frederic the Great.
At 1 3 he appeared with great success at a concert
given in Berlin by Mara, and was in consequence
admitted to the royal chapel as a probationer.
After the battle of Jena (1806) the chapel was
dismissed, and Maurer travelled, first to Konigs-
berg and Riga, where he made the acquaintance
of Bode and BaiUot, and then to Mittau and
St. Petersburg, his pla3ring being eveiywhere
appreciated. At Moscow he again met Baillot,
through whose good officee he became Capell-
meister to the Chancellor Wsowologsky, who had
a private orchestra. Here he remained till 181 7,
when he made another successful tour, being
particularly well received in Berlin and Paris.
In 1832 he returned to Wsowologsky, and stayed
till 45, when after another tour he settled finally in
Dresden. The best known of his compositions are a
Symphonic concertante for 4 violins and orchestra,
first played in Paris by himself, Spohr, Miiller,
and Wioh in 1838 ; and three Bussian airs with
variations (op. 14). Of his operas ' Alonzo,' * Der
entdidckte Diebstahl,' and 'Der neue Paris.* the
overtures only have been printed. He also pub-
lished several concertos-— one of which was at one
time veiy often played at the Philharmonic Con-
certs in London — and two collections of quartets
(op. 17 and 26). He died at St. Petersburg,
Oct. 25, 1878. His two sons Wsevolod, a
violinist, and Alexis, a cellist, are good musi-
cians. They are now settled in Russia. [F.G.]
MAXWELL, Frakois Ksllt (sometimes
called John), D.D., chi^)lain of the Asylum,
Edinburgh, published anonymously 'An Essay
upon Time, being an attempt to &ee the scale
of music and the tune of instruments from im-
perfection* (Edinburgh. 1781 ; London, 1794) ; —
an able work. He died in 1 782. [W.H.H.]
Digitized by VjOOQIC
240
MAY.
MAY, Edwabd Collbtt, bom October 29,
1806, at Greenwich, where his &ther was a ship-
builder. His first teacher was his brother Henry,
an amateur musician and composer of considerable
ability. When about fifteen years of age, Thomas
Adams, then organist of St. Paul's, Deptford, and
an intimate friend of the May fiunily, struck by
the promise and intelligence of Edward, offered
to take him as a pupil. This offer was, of course,
willingly accepted, and for several years he re-
ceived regular instruction in composition and
organ-playing from that admirable musician and
then peerless executant. Subsequently he became
a pupil of Cipriani Potter for the pianoforte, and
of Gn velli for sin^ng. In 1 83 7 he was appointed
organist of Greenwich Hospital, an office he
h^d till the abolition of the institution in 1869.
May's entry on the particular work to which his
talents have now for so many years been so suc-
cessfully devoted, grew out of his accidental
attenduice at one of many lectures on popular
instruction in vocal music, given W the writer of
this notice about the year 1841 . From that time
to the present (1879) ^® ^^^ devoted himself en-
thusiastically and exclusively to such teaching ;
and it may be safely asserted, that to no individual,
of any age or country, have so many persons of
all ages and of both sexes been indebted for their
musical skill. At one institution alone, the
National Society's Central School, more than a
thousand teachers and many more children have
been instructed by him. At Exeter Hall, the
Apdlonicon Rooms, and subsequently St. Martin's
Hall, several thousand adults passed through his
classes ; while, for many years past, he has be^ the
sole musical instructor at the Training Schools,
Battersea, St. Mark's, Whitelands, Home and
Colonial, and Hockerill ; institutions from which
upwards of 250 teachers are antnuUly sent forth
to elementary schools. After many years connec-
tion with the Institution, Mr. May has recently —
wholly without solicitation on his part — ^been
appointed Professor of Vocal Music in Queen's
Ckmese, London. Hie words of B^ranger, applied
to Wilhem, may with equal propriety be applied
to May, — not merely has he devoted the best
years of his Efe and all his energies to public
musical instruction, but sacrificed every other
aim or object to it — 'mdme sa gloire.'
His daughter, Florence May, is known in
London as a pianoforte player of considerable
cultivation and power. [J. H.]
MAY-QUEEN, THE, a Pabtoral ; words
by Mr, Chorley, music by W. Stemdale Bennett,
written for a festival at Leeds, and produced
there Sept. 8, 1858. Hie overture was composed
before the year 1844, and was originally entitled
' Marie duBois.' [G.]
MAYER, Chables, celebrated pianist, bom
March ai, 1799, at Konigsberg. His fitter, a
good clarinet player, went soon after his birth to
St. Petersburg, and four years after to Moscow,
where he settled with his fanaly. He first learned
from his mother, a good pianoforte teacher, and
later became a pupil of Field. A fter the burning
of Moscow in 1812 the iamily fled U> St. Peters-
mayeb:
burg, where the mother became pianoforte teadier,
and where the lessons with Field were resumed.
The pupil played so exactly like his master that
connoisseurs were unable to tell which was at the
]»ano if a screen was interposed. In 1814 Mayer
accompanied his &tfaer to Paris, where he was welT
received. He first played his concert-variations
on *Grod save the king' in Amsterdam. In 1819
he returned to St. Petersburg, where he worked
hard and successfully at teaching, and formed
as many as 800 pupils. In 1845 he travelled to
Stockholm, Copenhagen, Hamburg, Leipzig, and
Vienna, but this was his last tour. In 1850 he
settled in Dresden, where he taught, gave con-
certs, and composed up to his deatii, which took
place on July a, i86a. His pieces reach the
astonishing number of 900. Mayer's playing
was distinguished by great purity of style, and
expressioii, and his ccmpositions are eminoitly
suited to the instrument. They include a con-
certo with orchestra in D, op. 70; a concerto
symphonique, op. 89; and variations and £ui-
tasias on opera airs. His 'Polka Bohdmienne'
in A, was at one time immensely popular. [F.G.]
MAYER, or M AYR, Johann Sncoir, esteemed
opera composer in the beginning of this century,
bom June 14, 1 763, at Mendorf in Bavaria ; early
showed talent for music, which he first learned
frx)m his father the village schoolmaster and
■organist. When about 10 ne entered the Jesuit
seminary at Ingolstadt, but did not neglect his
music, either then or when after the ba^bshment
of the Jesuits he studied law in Ingolstadt.
Having made the acquaintance of a noUeman,
Thomas de Bessus of Graubtindten, he lived in
the house as musto master, and was afterwards
sent by his patron to Beigamo, to study with
Lenzi, maestro di capella there. Mayr found
however that his master knew little more than
himself, and was on ^e point of returning
to Germany, when Count Pesenti, a canon of
Bergamo, provided him with the means of going
to F. Bertoni in Venice. Here again his expect-
ations were deceived, but he picked up some
practical hints and a few rules from Bertoid, and
hard work and the study of good books did the
rest. He had already published some songs in
Ratisbon ; and in Bergamo and Venice he com-
posed fnsnnon and vespers. After the suoceas of
Lis oratorio 'Jacob a Labaao fugiens,* composed
in 1 791 for the Conservatorio dei Mendicanti,
-and performed before a distinguished audience,
he was commissioned to compose three more
oratorios for Venice ('David, *Tobiae matri-
monium' and *Sisara'). For Forli he wrote
*Jephte* and a Passion. Thrown on his own
resources by the sudden dea^ of his patron, he
was urged by Piccinni to try the sta^ and his
first opera ' Saffo, ossia i riti d* Apollo Leucadio '
was so well received at the Fesice in Venice
(1794) that he was immediately overwhelmed
with connnissions, and between that date and
1 8 14 composed no less than 70 operas. Indeed
it was not till Rossini's success that his fiune
declined. Many of his melodies were sung about
the streets, such as the pretty cavatina ' 0 quanto
Digitized by VjOOQIC
MAYER.
rsnima' from 'Lauso e lidia.' In i86a lie
became maestro di capella of Santa Maria Mag-
giore in Beigamo, and was so much attached to
his work tWe, that he declined not only in-
vitations to London, Paris, Lisbon, and Dresden,
but also the poet of Censor to the Ckmservatorio
of Milan, his appointment to which had been
signed by the Viceroy of Italy in 1807. As pro-
fessor of composition in the musical Institute of
Bergamo, — founded in 1805, reorganised in 181 1
— he exercised great and good influence, Doni*
zetti was one of his pupils there. He was the
founder of two institutions for decayed musicians
and their widows, the *Scuola caritatevole di
Musioa,* and the 'Pio Instituto di Bergamo.*
He had been blind for some years before his
death, which took place on Deo. 3, 1845. The
city of Bergamo erected a monument to him
in 1853, and in 1875 his remains and those of
Donizetti were removed with much ceremonyto
^6 church of Santa Maria Maggiore. The
most celebrated of his operas are 'Lodolska*
(1795), *Ginevra di Soona* (1801), 'Medea'
(1812), and 'Rosa bianca e Rosa rosea' (1814),
He also set the libretto of Cherubini's 'Deux
Joom^es.' He is said to have been the first to
introduce the crescendo of the orchestra to which
Rossini owes so much of his fame. He wrote a
small book on Haydn (1809), a biographv of
Capuzzi the violinist, and poems on his death in
]8i8 ; also 'La Dottrina d^^li elementi musicali'
stiU in MS. in Bergamo. [F.G.]
MATNARD, John, a lutenist, published in
161 1 'The XII Wonders of the World, Set and
composed for the Violl de Gamba, the Lute, and
the Voyce to sing the Verse, all three jointly
and none severall: also Lessons for the Lute
and Base VioU to play alone ; with some Lessons
to play Lyra-waye alone, or if you will to fill up
the pfurts with another Violl set Lute-way.* The
work contains 1 3 songs severally describing the
characters of a CJourtier, Divine, Soldier, Lawyer,
Phyfidan, Merchant, Country Gentleman,
Bachelor, Married Man, Wife, Widow and
Maid ; and 1 3 pavans and galliards for the lute.
A carious canon. ' Eight parts in one upon the
Plaine Song,' is on the title page. The composer
described himself as 'Lutenist at the most
famous Schoole of St. Julian's in Hartfordshire,'
and dedicated his work 'To his ever-honoured
Lady and Mistris the Lady Joane Thynne, of
Cause Cafvtle in Shropshire. Some oigan pieces
by one Maynard (presumably the same) are
contained in a MS. in the library of the Sacred
Harmonic Society. [W. H. H.]
MAYSEDER, Joseph, violinist and composer,
son of a poor painter, bom in Vienna, Oct. 26,
1789. Beginning at 8, he learnt the violin from
Suche and Wranitzky. Schuppanz^gh took a
great interest in the lad, and entrusted him with
the second violin in his quartets. In 1800 he
save his first concert in the Augarten with bril-
liant success. He n^idly made his way with
the court and nobility, and among musicians.
In 1816 he entered the court chapel, in 1830 be-
came solo-violin at the court theatre, and in 1835
TOL. u.
MAZtTRKA»
241
was appointed chamber-violinist to the Emperor.
The municipality awarded him the large gold
*Salvator Medal' in 18 11, and presented him*
with the freedom of the city in 1S17. In 1863
the Emperor bestowed on lum the order of Franz*
Joseph. In 181 5 he gave, with Hummel (after-
wards replaced by Moscheles) and Giuliani, the
so-called * Dukaten-concerte.' He also gave con-
certs with Merk the cellist, but after 1837 he
never appeared in public. He never played
abroad ; even on his visit to Paris in 1830, he
would onlyplay before a select circle of artists,
including Kreutzer, Baudiot, Cherubini, Habe-
neck, Lafont, and Viotti. He took a great in-
terest in the strinff-quartet party which met at
Baron Zmeskall's house (where Beethoven was
often present), and afterwards in that at Prince
g>nstantine Czartoryski's (from 1843 to 56).
is many pupils spread his name far and wide.
His tone was peculiarly fascinating, and his exe-
cution had great breadth and elevation of style.
With the exception of a grand mass he composed
only chamber music of a style similar to his play-
ing. He published 63 works, including concertos,
polonaises, variations, 5 quintets and 8 quartets
for strings, ^udes and duets for violin, 4 trios,
sonatas, etc. for P.F., trio for violin, harp, and
horn, etc. Mayseder died universally respected
Nov. 31, 1863. [C.F.P.]
MAZAS, Jacqubs-F6b6ol, French violinist
and oomooser, was bom in 1 783 at Beziers. He
entered tne Paris Conservatoire in 1 8o3, and after
having studied for three years under Baillot, ob-
tained the first prize for violin-playing. He had
great success at Paris, especially with his per-
formance of a violin-concerto by Auber at the
Conservatoire. He travelled through a very lar^e
part of Europe, and returned in 1839 to Pans,
without however gaining his former success. In
1837 he left Psris again, and accepted the direc-
torship of a music-sdiool at Cambrai. He died
in 1849.
Mazas wrote a large number of brilliant violin
pieces, quartets, trios, and duets for stringed
instruments (the latter still much valued for
teaching purposes), an instruction-book for the
violin, and one for the viola. F^tis mentions
also two operas, two violin-concertos, and an
overture. [P. D.J
MAZURKA, Mazourka, Masubek, or Ma>
SURE, a national Polish dance, deriving its nanie
from the ancient Palatinate of Masovia. Ma-
zurkas were known as early as the i6th century ;
they originated in national songs ^ accompanied
with dancing. They were intn^uced into Ger-
many by Augustus III, Elector of Saxony and
King of Poland (1 733~i 763), and after becoming
fashionable in Paris, reached England towards
1845. The Mazurka was naturalised in Russia
afber the subjugation of Poland, but the Russian
dance differs from the Polish in being performed
by an indefinite number, while the latter is
usually danced by four or eight couples. The
1 This feature It hM retained. Chopin, in a letter of Aoff. S6. 18».
Mfs, ' the thought fortuiiatelj itnick Mad^wiU to write four stantas
for a Mazurka, and I M tb«m to musie.' (lan^owiki, k ay
Digitized by Vj®OQIC
242
MAZURKA.
Mazurka is remarkable for the variety and liberty
allowed in its figures, and for the peculiar steps
necessary to its performance. Indeed, the whole
dance partakes of the character of an impro-
visation, even the invention of new steps and
figures being allowable. The music (in 3-4 or
3 -8 time) consists usually of two or four parts
of eight bars, each part being repeated. In the
earliest Mazurkas the bass was invariably on
one note, usually the tonic. There is often a
strong accent on the second beat of the bar,
which was emphasised in the bass by the break-
ing off of the regular accompaniment. The tune
should also end on the second beat of the bar, but
in old Mazurkas there is often no definite con-
clusion, and the repeats are made ad libitum.
The Tempo is much slower than that of the
ordmaiy waltz. Chopin, who wrote eleven sets
of Mazurkas, treated the dance in a new and
characteristic manner. He extended its original
forms, eliminated all vulgarity, introduced all
sorts of Polish airs, and thus retained little more
than the intensely national character of the
original simple dance tune. (See Karasowski^s Life
of Chopin, chap, vii ; and also the somewhat rhap-
sodical but still interesting remarks of Liszt in
his essay on Chopin.) No Jess than 1 4 sets of his
Mazurkas have been published, containing '52 in
aU (op. 6, 7, 17, 24, 30, 33, 41. 50, 56, 59, 63,
67, 68 and one without opus number). Weber
gives the title *Masurik* to the 4th of his six
pieces for the P. F. h quatre mains (op. 10).
The following example is a simple Mazurka
popular in the neig ibourhood of War*aw. The
first part of the melody has a vocal accompani-
ment : —
[W.B.S.]
MAZZINGHI, Joseph, son of Tommaso, of an
ancient Corsican fiunily, bom in London in 1 765,
was a pupil of John Christian Bach, under whom
he made such progress that, on the death of his
father in 1775* he was, althoosrh but 10 years of
a^e, appointed oi^ganist of the Portuguese Chapel.
He then studied under Bertolini, Sacchini and
Anfossi. In 1 784 he became musical director and
composer at the King's Theatre, and produced the
operas of ' U Tesoro ' and ' La Bel'e Ars^ne,'
besides many songs, duets, etc., for introduction
into other operas, and the music for several bal-
lets. The score of Paisiello's opera ' La Locanda '
having been cousuuied in the fire of the Opera
House in June, 1789, Mazzinghi rescored the
work so fiedthfully as to admit of its continued
performance. For the English theatre he tet the
MEAN.
following pieces ; — • A Day in Turkey,' 1 791 ;
'The Magician no Conjuror,* 1792;* Karaah
"Droog' 1 793 ; ' The Turnpike Gate,* 1 799 ; * Paul
and Virginia,' 1800; 'The Blind Girl,' 1801 ;
'Chains of the Heart,' i8oa (the last five in
collaboration with Reeve); 'The Wife of two
Husbands,' 1803 ; 'The Exile,' 1808 ; and ' The
Free Knights,' 18 10. The last piece contained
the duet 'When a little farm we keep,' which
for nearly half a centurv was highly popular and
constantly introduced into other pieces, and is
even now occasionally heard. The manner of
its original performance was strikingly character-
istic of the utter want of regard for congrruity
which prevailed among the stage managers of
that day. Although the piece was represented as
taking place in Westphalia in the 14th century,
the duet was accompanied vpon the pianoforte/
Mazzinghi was music master to the Princess
of Wales, afterwards Queen Caroline, and had
an extea<iive practice as a teacher of the piano-
forte, for which instrument he composed neady
70 sonatas and arranged a multitude of pieces,
besides writing an 'Introduction' to it. His
glees, trios, harmonised airs, songs and other
vocal pieces, were legion. His pastoral glee,
'The Wreath* ('Tell me, shepherds.') was long
in favour. He likewise composed a mass for 3
voices, and 6 hymns. Having about 1830 at-
tained the rank of Count he retired to Bath,
where he died, Jan. 15, 1844. [W.H.H.]
MEAN (Old Eng. Meane, Mene; Lat. Me-
diu8.) I. An old name for a middle Yoice-
part> whether Alto, or Tenor.
a. A name given to the second instrument
in a (Concert of Viols, as in Orlando Gibbons's
'Fantasies in three parts, for Viols,* reprinted
by the Musical Antiquarian Society.
3. Hie name of the Second and Third Strings
of the Viol— the former being called the SmaU,
and the latter, the Great Meane.
4. The title of an ingenious Fugue, for, the
Organ, composed by William Blitheman,' and
printed, by Hawkins, in the Appendix to Vol. V.
of his History.
The piece may probably owe its singular title to
the ohligaio character of the middle part. [W.S.R.]
) WlUlam Blithemm wu a noted Organist, and Gentleman of the
Chapel Kojal. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth ; and U, moreover,
celebrated as having been the Ha«ter of Dr. John BulL He died. In
London, on Whltaunday IGOl ; and was buried In the Church of
8. Nicholas Cole-Abbej. where his talents were set forth In a poetical
Kpltaph, which was destroyed. In the Great Fire, but has been pre-
served bji Blow, and reprinted by HawkL^
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MEASUBE.
MEASURE, in relation to mnsio pure and
simple, apart from the dance, means the group of
beats or main rhythms which are contained
between two bar-lines. This is the measure of
time, and defines the number of pulsations, such
u 3, 3, 4, 6, 9, or other aggregate which is to be
taken as the determinate standard or unit by
which the multifarious complications of rhythms
in an extended piece of music are to be ultimately
regulated. [C.H.H.P.]
MEASURE originally denoted any dance
remarkable for its well-defined rhythm, but in
time the name was applied to a solemn and
stately dance, of the nature of a Pavan or a
Minuet. The dignified character of the dance
is proved by the use of the expression ' to tread
a measure*; a phrase of firequent CMCcurrenoe in
the works of the Elizabethan dramatists. In
the reigns of Elizabeth and James I, Measures
were danced at court, and at the public enter-
tainments periodically given by the Societies of
Law and Equity. On these occasions the great
l^al and state dignitaries took part in them«
bot the custom seems rapidly to have died out
imder Charles I. It is somewhat remarkable
that no trace can be found of any special music
to which Measures were danced; this circum-
stance seems to prove that there was no definite
f(»rm of dance time for them, but that any
stalely and rhythmical air was used for the
porpose. [W.B.S.]
Ml^Dl^E. Opera in 3 acts ; words by Hoffinann,
mnsic by Cherubini. Produced at the Th^itre
Feydeau, March 13, 1797; in London, at Her
Majesty^s Theatre, in Italian, with recitatives by
Arditi, June 6, 1865. [G.]
MEDESIMO TEMPO, 'in the same time,' is
occasionally used in the same way as L'Isteeso
Tempo, and has the same meaning. [J A.F.M.]
MEDIAL CADENCE (ClaustUa in medio
modi). I. Among the numerous Cadences
formed upon the Regular and Conceded Modu-
lations of the Ecclesiastical Modes, that proper
to the Mediant holds a place inferior in im-
portance only to those occupied by the Final and
Dominant.
In Plain Chaunt Melodies, the Medial Cadence
Eomethnes leads to a dose so satisfactory that it
aknost sounds final ; as in the First Ending of
the First Tone—
In Polyphonic Music, it is susceptible of in-
finite variety of treatment, as may be seen from
the following examph
MEDIAL CADENCE.
2iZ
Mods T.
Kirch BR.
MoDB n.
^ ^•^ J-. 1^ J
i^u^i^A^
2ii
MEDIAL CADENCE.
MODB XTII.
GlOVANlfl CROCt.
In the selection of these examples, we have
confined ourselves exclusively to True Cadences,
for the sake of illustrating our subject with the
greater clearness: but, Uie Old Masters con-
stantly employed Cadenoes of other kinds, in
this part of the Mode, for the purpose of avoid-
ing the numotony consequent upon the too fre-
quent repetition of similar forms. It is only bv
careful study of the best works of the best period,
that the invigorating effeet of Uiis expedient
can be fully appreciated. [See Mediant;
Modes, the EcciiEsiastical ; Modulations;
Clausula Vera, Appendix.]
II. This term is abo appdied, by Dr. Callcott,
and some other writers on Modem Music, to
closes in which the Leading Chord is represented
by an Inverted instead of a Fundamental Har-
mony,
Though Cadences of this kind are in constant
use, we rarely meet with them, now, under their
old name. Most writers of the present day
prefer to describe them as Inverted Cadences,
Bpecifyihg particular instances, when necessary,
as the First or Second Inversion of the Perfect,
Imperfect, or Plas^al Cadence, as tihe case may
be : the opposite term, ' Radical Cadence,* being
ret erved for closes in which the Root appears in
the Bass of both CJhords. [ W. S. R.]
MEDIANT (from the Lat. M^ius, middle^
I. One of the three most significant Regular Mod-
ulations of the Ecclesiastic^ Modes, nmkingnext
in importance to the Dominant, or Reciting Note.
[See Modes, the Ecclesiastioal ; Modula-
tions, Requlab and Conoeded.I
The normal position of the Mediant, in the
Authentic Modes, lies as nearly as possible mid-
way between the Final and the Dominant. It
makes its nearest approach to the fulfilment of
this condition, in Modes I, V, IX, and XIII, in
which the Dominant is represented by the Fifth
of the Scale, and the Mediant, by the Third. In
Mode III, the substitution of C for B, in the
cose of the Dominant, leads to an irregularity :
the Mediant is still the Third of the Scale ; but,
it lies a Third above the Final, and a Fourth
MEDIATION.
below the Redting-Note. A similar incongruity
would arise in the proscribed Mode XI, were it
in practical use : for, theoretically, its Final is B,
its Dominant 6, and its Mediant D. In Mode
VII, C is taken for the Mediant, instead of B,
in order to avoid forbidden relations with F : the
position, therefore, in this case, is, a Fourth
above the Final, and a Second below the Do-
minant.
In the Pkgal Modes, the position of the
Mediant is governed rather by the necessity for
securing a convenient note for the Modulation,
than by any fixed law. In Modes II, IV, and
X, it is the note immediately below the Domi-
nant : and the same arrangement would take place
in the discarded Mode XII, werejt in use. In
Modes VI, and XIV, it is a Third below the
Final. In Mode VIII, it is a Second below the
Final ; the Second above the Final being some-
times— though not very frequently — substituted
for it, in order to avoid forbidden relations
with B.
The following Table exhibits, at one view,
the Mediants of all the Modes in general use,
both Authentic, and Plagal : —
Model. F. ModeV. A. Mode TX, C.
Mode II. E. ModeV I, D. Mode X, B.
Mode in, O. Mode VII, C. Mode Xin, E.
Mode IV, a* Mode VUI, F. Mode XIV, A.
The functions of the Mediant are important,
and well defined.
In the Authentic Modes it is constantly used
as an Absolute Initial : and, in cases of emer-
gency, it may be so used in the Plagal Modes,
also ; especially in the Vlllth, in which it fre-
quently occupies that prominent position. By
virtue of this privilege, it may appear as the first
note of a Plain Chaunt Melody of any kind.
In common with the other Regular Modulations,
it may begin, or end, any of the intermediate
phrases of a Plain Chaunt Melody ; and may
even begin the last phrase. But, it can never
tenninate the last phrase. This rule admits of
no exception ; and is not even broken in those
Endings of the Gregorian Tones for the Psalms
which close upon the Mediant : for, in these
cases, the real close must be sought for in the
Antiphon, which immediately follows the Psalm ;
and this invariably ends upon the Final of the
Mode. [See Antiphon; Tones, the Gbeqo-
BIAN.]
II. In Modem Music, the term. Mediant, is
always applied to the Third of the Scale, by
reason of its intermediate position, between the
Tonic and the Dominant.
The office of this note is extremely important,
inasmuch as it determines whether the Tonality
of the Scale is Major or Minor. [W.S.R.]
MEDIATION (Lat. Medintw). That divi-
sion of a Gregorian Tone which lies between the
Intonation, and the Ending, forming, as it were,
the main body of the Chaunt.
The Mediation begins, like the Ending, with
a Reciting-Note — the Dominant of the Mode —
whence it passes on to a short melodious phrase,
the character of which dififers, considerably, in
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MEDIATION.
different Tofnes. Each Tone has, in reality, only
one Mediation ; though that one exhibits itself,
in moet cases, in at least three different forms
—one, used for the Psalms, one, forthe Introits,and
a third — commonly called the 'Festal Form *— for
the Canticles. Moreover, Tones II, IV, V. VI,
I and VIII have each a special form of Mediation,
used only when the first half of the Verse to
which it is sung ends with a monosyllable, or
Hebrew proper name. For examples of tiieee
different forms, see Tones, the Greqobiak;
under which heading will also be found a detailed
account of the connexion of the Mediation with
the other members of the Chaunt.
In addition to these recognised forms of the
Mediation, certain others hi^ve attained, from
time to time, a considerable amount of local
popularity, in consequence of the claim put forth,
by parfciculan Dioceses ■ especially in france— to
a peculiar • Use * of their own. The utter abolition
of such Diocesan Uses^— almost all of which can
be proved to have originated in »corrupi method
of chaunting — is one of the objects contemplated
by the compilers of the Ratisbon Office-Books,
as revised by the Sacred Congregalaon of Rites,
' and formally sanctioned bv the authority of the
) Holy See. Should this object be attained, and a
fixed standard adopted, free from modem in-
novations, and conformable, in every respect, to
the antient purity of the Plain Chaunt, it will
have the effect of silencing a few GkUlican Me-
diations, which have long been* established
fiavouritee, and the absence of which will, at
first, perhaps be regretted : but it cannot fail to
result in a vast improvement of the general style
of chaunting the Psalms, and Cantides. [See
Macicotaticum.] [W. S. R.]
MfeDECIN MALGR6 LUI, LE. Adapted
from Moli^re by Barbier and Carr^, music by
M. Gounod. Produced at the Th^Atre- Lyrique,
Jan. IS, 1858. In English, as 'The Mock
Doctor,* at Covent Garden, Feb. 27, 1865. [G.]
MEERESSTILLE UND GLOcKLICHE
PAHRT, i.e. Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage,
I a poem by Goethe, which has been set to music
by two great masters.
1. By Beethoven, for chorus and- orchestra.
Composed in 181 5, first performed at the Great
Redoutensaal in Vienna on Christmas day of
that year, and published Feb. a 8, 1833, by Stei-
ner. It is dedicated ' to the immortal Goethe.*
Hie reverse of the title-page contains 3 lines
horn Vo88*s translation of the Odyssey (viii.
479), thus rendered by Lang and Butdierr—
* For from all raen on earth minstrels get their meed
of honoor and worship ; inasmuch as the muse teacheth
them the paths of eong, and loveth the trihe of minstr^s.'
A letter ^com Beethoven to the publisher,
dated June i a, and apparently belonging to the
year 1824, calls it a cantata, and asks for the
loan of the score, that he ' might write a kind of
overture to it.' This intention does not appear
to have been carried out.
2. By Mendelssohn, for orchestra only. Writ-
ten in the summer of 1828, first performed at
Berlin Dec. i, 1832, remodelled and 'made thirty
Ml&HUL.
245
I times as good as before,* and published as op. 27
! and No. 3 of his Concert Overtures in 1834. We
learn firom a passage in bis sisters diary ^ that
Mendelssohn wished to avoid the form of an in-
troduction and orerture, and to throw his work
into two companion pictures. [G.]
MEHUG, Anita, a distinguished pianist,
was bom at Stuttgart, June 11, 1846. She re-
ceived her musical education at the Conserva-
torium of her native town, and afterwards spent
a year at Weimar studying under Liszt. In 1866
she made her first appearance in England, play-
ing Hummers Concerto in B minor at the Pbil-
harmonio on April 30. She revisited England
each year till 1869 inclusive, playing n^ularly at
the Philharmonic and Crystal Pali^, and other
concerts. She tiien took a long tour in America,
where she met with great success. In 1875 ^^®
reappeared in England, playing Chopin's E minor
Cbncerto at the Crystal Palace on Oct. 9, and hks
been here every season since that time. Her
repertoire is large, her power of execution re-
markable, and her style is full of refinement and
poetry. [G.]
M£hUL, Etiennb Henri, bom June 24,
1 763, at Givet in the Ardennes, son of a cook,
who was too poor to give him much education.
Even in childhood he showed a passion for music,
and a remarkable perseverance in overcoming
obstacles,, and at 10 was appointed organist to
the convent of the R^coUets at Givet. Having
Teamed all that his master, a poor blind oigamst,
could teach him, he was thrown on his own re-
sources, until the arrival, at the neighbouring
convent of Lavaldieu, of a new organist, Wilhelm
Hauser, whose playing had attracted the attention
of the Abbot Lissoir, when visiting the Abbey of
Scheussenried in Swabia. The monks of Laval-
dieu, wishing to make music a special feature in
their services, had a good organ, and the playing
of Hauser, who was a sound and good musician,
caused quite an excitement in that secluded
comer of the Ardennes. LavalcHeu was several
leagues from Givet, but M^ul often walked over
to hear him ; and at length, with the consent of
his father, was admitted into the convent, and
became the most diligent, as he was the most
gifted, of the eight pupils under Hauser^s training.
At 14 he became deputy organist; and a dis-
tinguished amateur who hearcl him play was so
strack by his evident power of imagination, that
he determined to take him to Paris, and in 1 778
M^ul bade fitfeweU to the flowers he loved to
cultivate, and the instructor who had put him in
the way to become a great musician. On his
arrival in Paris he at once went to Edelmann for
instruction in pianoforte playing and composition.
To earn his bread he gave lessons, and composed
two sonatas (1781) which bear no traces of a
master mind ; but this was not the line in which
he was destined to distinction. In 1779 he was
present at the first performance of * Iphig^nie en
Tauride,' and the effect produced on one with
his cultivated intellect, his love of the beautiful.
iBeoMl'i'INeFamUle
Digitized
MeiMkbSQ^'LlM...
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246
m£hul.
and passionate bhough reserved nature, was im-
mense. He expressed his admiration to Gluck
himself, who received the yomig enthusiast
graciously, gave him valuable advice, and under-
took his instruction in the philosophical and
poetical parts of music. Encouraged by the
success of a cantata with orchestra composed to
one of Rousseau's sacred odes, and produced at
the Concert Spirituel in March 1782, he might
have gone on writing church music, had not
Gluck shown him his true vocation, and directed
his attention to the stage. Solely for practice he
composed one after another three operas, ' Psychd
et I'Amour,' a pastoral by Yoisenon previously
set by Saint A mans ; ' Anacr^n,' the third act
of a ballet by Bernard and Razneau, produced
in 1757 as 'Les Surprises de TAmour'; and
'Lausus et Lydie,* 3 acts, to a libretto adiapted
by Valadier fix)m Marmontel. These unpublished
scores are lost, no trace of them being discover-
able in any of the public libraries of Paris.
M^hul now felt himself in a position to appear
before the public, and Valadier having furnished
him with toe libretto of ' Cora et Alonzo,* 4 acts,
also taken from Marmontel, the score was soon
ready, and accepted by the Academic, but there
the matter ended. Tired of waiting, he re-
solved to try his fortune at another theatre, and
having made the acquaintance of Hoffinann he
obtained from him the libretto of ' Euphrosine et
Coradin, ou le Tyran corrip^,' 3 acts (Sept. 4,
1790). In this op^ra-comique the public re-
cognised at once a force, a sincerity of accent,
a dramatic truth, and a gift of accurately ex-
pressing the meaning of the words, which were
throughout the main characteristics of Maul's
mature genius. Its success was instantaneous ;
and the duet *Gardez-vous de la jalousie,* the
close of which contains a modulation as unex-
pected as it is effective, speedily became a
favourite throughout France. Henceforth M^
hul had ample opportunities of satisfying his
productive instinct, and he brought out suc-
cessively :—
' Cora ' 0791) ; ' Stratonlee ' (May i * L'lmto, ou I'EmporM ' (Feb. 17
3. 1792) ; ' Le Jeun« Sage et le vleux lf\n) ; ' Une FoUe ' (April 4). ' Le
Fou' (1793); 'Horattus Cocl^ ' > Ti^sor suppoi^,' 'JoanoA,' and
aad ' Phrotine et Kinidore ' 0794) ; ' L'Henreux malgi^ lui ' 0^02) ;
'La Carerae' 079&), not w sao-''H^lvDa' and 'Le Balser et la
oeuful as Leiueur's on the lame Quittance.' with Kreutzer, Boiel-
But^ect : ' Doria ' and ' Le Jeune dieu. and Kicolo Cl^OS) ; ' Les deux
Henri' 0797); ' Adrien ' (June 4) ! Aveugles de TolOde' (Jan. »).
and 'Ariodant' (Oct. 11. 1790) ; I ' Uthal ' (May V). and 'Oabrielle
' Epicure.' with Cherublnl (March d'Kstrto' (June 25^ 1806); 'Jo-
14). and 'Blon ' (I>ec 87, IBOO) ; aepb ' (Feb. 17, 1M7).
Astonishing as it may seem, these 24 operas
were not the only works Mehul produced within
17 years. He composed and published in ad-
dition many patriotic songs and cantatas, among
others the 'Chant national du 14 Juillet,' the
'Chant du Depart,' the 'Chant du Retour,* the
'Chanson de Roland,* and choruses to 'Timo-
It on ' a tragedy by Joseph Ch^nier ; two ballets,
• Le Jugement de Paris (1793) and 'La Danso-
maLie' (1800); several operettas, and other
'oirrceaux de circonstance,* such as 'Le Pont
de Lodi,* etc., all unpublished except the 'Chant
lyrique * for the inauguration of tLe statue voted
to l«iapoIeon by the Institut. I
MfiHUL.
The epoch at which he composed ' Uthal * and
'Joseph' was the culminating point of M^uFs
career. He was already a member of the Institut
(1795) and a chevalier of the Legion of Honour
(1802), and had been inspector of instruction at
the Conservatoire from its foundation. His
pupils looked up to him and he was a &vourite
in the best society, but such homage did not
blind him to the &ct that in science his col-
leagues Cherubini and Catel were his superiors,
owing to his want of early systematic training.
This accounts for his laborious efforts to change
his style, and excel in more than one department
of music. His symphonies, though performed
at the Conservatoire, cannot rank with those
of Haydn and Mozart; indeed none of his
other orchestral works rise to the level of his
overtures. Of his ballets ' Le Retour d'Ulysse *
(1807), and 'Pers^e et Andromfede* (1810) in
which he introduced many pieces from 'Ario-
dant,* were well received, but ' Les Amazones, ou
la fondation de Thebes * disappeared after nine
performances. An op^ra-comique in i act, 'Le
Prince Troubadour* {1813% was not more suc-
cessful, but his last work, 'La Joum^ aux
Aventures,* 3 acts (Nov. 16, 1816), kept the
boards for some time. Its success was partly
due to its being known at the time that M^iil
was dying of consumption. Two months after
its production he was sent to Provence, but the
change came too late ; he returned to Paris, and
died there Oct. 18, 1817, aged 54. Besides six
unpublished operas compost between 1787-
97, he left the unfinished score of ' Valentine de
Milan,' a 3-act op^ra-comique, completed by his
nephew and pupil Daussoigne-M^ul (bom at
Givet, June 10, 1790, died at Liege, March 10,
1875), and produced Nov. 28, 1822.
l^e most conspicuous quality of Maul's work
as a whole is its absolute passion. This is ex-
emplified teost strikingly in 'Stratonice' and
' Ariodant.' Not less obvious are the traces o^
the various influences under which he passed.
Between 'Ariodant' and 'Joseph* must be
placed all those repeated attempts to vary his
style, and convince his detractors that he could
compose light and graceful airs as well as grand,
pathetic, and sustained melodies, which cannot be
considered as anything but failures, although the
ignorantamateurs of <£eday pronounced ' L'Irato'
to be true Italian music. ' Joseph,' which dates
from the midst of the Revolution, before the
Empire, belongs to a different epoch, and to a
different class of ideas. Mehul's noble character,
his refined sentiment, and religious tendencies,
the traces of his early education, in his perfect
acquaintance with the church modes and plain-
song, and his power of writing excellent church
music, are all apparent in this powerful work, the
simplicity, grandeur, and dramatic truth of which
will always command the admiration of impartial
musicians.
M^hul was not so fortunate as Gr^ry in
finding a poet whose creative faculties harmon-
ised thoroughly with his own; and he was
fascinated by any subject — antique,chevalereBqae,
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• MfiHUL.
Ossianic, Spanish, patriarchal, or biblical — so
long aa it afforded him opportunities for local
colouring, the importance of which he often
exaggerated. His overtures to ' Le Jeune Henri'
'Horatius Cecils,' 'Timol^n/ and 'Les deux
Aveugles de Tolbde ' are however incomparably
superior to anything of the kind which preceded
r them; and most striking are such passages as
the introduction to * Ariodant.* where three cellos
and a trombone hold a kind of dialogue, and
that in ' M^lidore et Phrosine/ where four horns
which have a complete part throughout the score*
aocom(>any the voice of a dying man with a kind
of smothered rattle. In 'Uthal' the violins
are entirely absent, their places being taken by
the violas, in order to produce a soft and misty
effect. Gr^try was shocked at this innovation,
and so wearied by its monotony, that he cried
on leaving the theatre after the first perform-
ance, * Six francs for an £-string (chanterelle) 1'
Though Maul's new and ingenious conibin-
atious were not always successful, and though
his melodies were often wanting in that life and
dash which rouse an audience, it must be acknow-
ledged that with all his faults h's work bears the
stamp of a very individual mind and character,
k and the impress of that mighty race of 1 789, with
^ whom to will was to do, but amongst whose many
gifts that of grace was too often wanting. Had
he but po6se»ed this fiEtscinating quality, M^ul
might have been the Mozart of France. As it
is, we cannot withhold our admiration from the
man who carried on Gluck's work with even
more than Gluck's musical skill, regenerated
op^ra-oomique, and placed himself at the head of
the comp<iBers of his own time and nation.
The portrait of M^ul which we engrave is
taken from a remarkable print b^ Quenedey, 1808.
Quatre-m^re de Quincy pronounced his eulogium
St the Institut in Oct. 18 18, and Yieillard, one of
his intimate friends, published an interesting
'Notice' of him (Paris, 1859). The library of
MEISTERSINGER VON nCtRNBERG. 247
the Conservatoire contains many of his auto-
graphs, several being fragments of unpublished
operas. The writer of this article discovered
among them 'La Naiseance d' Oscar Leclerc,'
not elsewhere mentioned, an op^ra-comique ' La
Taupe,' and an * Ouverture burlesque ' for Piano,
violin and reeds, interesting merely as musical
curiosities. [G.C.]
MEIBOM (in Latin MEIBOMIUS), Marcus,
learned historian of music, bom early in the 1 7th
century atToenningen in Schleswig Holstein. No-
thing is known of his studies, but his great work,
'Antiquse musicte auctores septem grsece et
latine ^Amsterdam, Elzevir>, was published in
1652, and as in those days eminence was rarely
attained in early youth, the date of his birth can
hardly have been either 1 626 or 1 630 as commonly
stated. The work was dedicated to Queen Chris-
tina of Sweden, at whose court he resided for
some time. On one occasion however, while
sing'ng at the Queen's request his version of an
ancient Greek melody, the whole court burst
out laughing, and Meibom imagining that the
Queen's physician Bourdelot was the instigator
of this unseemly mirth gave him a box on the
ear, and was in consequence dismissed. He took
refuge with Frederic III. of Denmark, who gave
him a professorship at Upsala, but he i>oon
returned to Holland. Haviig endeavoured in
vain to find a capitalist who would carry into
execution his scheme of restoring the ancient
triremes, be came to England in 1674 with the
view of making arrangements for a new edition of
the Old Testament. This project also failed, ani ■
returning to Holland, he died at Utrecht in 171 1.
The book already mentioned is one of the most
valuable sources of information on ancient music,
and may be considered a precursor of Gerber and
Coussemaker. For his numerous works on music
and geometa7 the reader is referred to F^tis. [F.G.]
MEISTER, ALTE. A collection of 40 P. F.
pieces of the 1 7th and 1 8th centuries, ediited by
£. Pauer, published by Bieitkopf & Hartel :-^
Rameau, Gavotte and Varlatlou>
In A miuor.
Klrnbcnrer, Fogue (8 parts) in t>
minor.
Do., Do.. (2parU)lnD.
Marpurg. Caprlccio in F.
M^iil, Sonata in A.
J. Ch. Bach, Sonata In C minor.
C. P. E. Eacii. Allegro In A.
W. Fr. Bach. I'ugue lu C minor.
Kuhiiau. Sonata in D.
Fad. Martini. Prelude. Fugue, and
Allegro in E minor.
J. L.Kreb«. Partita luBb.
Do., Da Eb.
MatheaoD, 4 GIgua*.
Couperin. La Bandoline. Le« Agrd-
mens.
Paradiet. SonaU in D.
Zlpoll, Preludio, Corrente. Bara-
banda, and Giga in G minor.
Cberublni. 8<inata In Bb.
Hftssler. Sonata In A minor.
Wagenneil SonaU in F.
Benda, Largo and Presto In F.
Fruhberger. ToccaU in D m!nor.
Sacehini. B«itiaU in F.
Bane, Allegro in Bb.
W. Fr. Bacti. hoiiaU iu 0.
Rolie, SonaU in Eb.
Handel. Caprlccio in G.
Uameau. La Livri, L'Agafante, L«
Timide.
Loeilir. Suite In 6 minor.
BoMi. Andantino and Allegro in G.
F. Turin!. Pre»tu iu 6 minor and
SonaU In Db.
C. P. F.. Bach. lA Xenophone. Si-
bjlle. La Complaiaante, Les
Langueurs tendres.
Graun. Gigue In Bb minor.
Matielll. Gigue. Adagio, and Alla-
gro.
Sartl. Allegro In n,
Grazloll. FonaU in Q.
V. Scarlatti. 2 Btudlen.
Matthexm. Suite In C minor.
Couperin. I.a Ber^n. L'Aunoni-
enne. Les Charmes, Le Barolet
fluttanu
Sdiobert. Minuet and Allegro
moito in B b.
Muff at. Olgue in Bband ^"^ro
•piritimo In D. TQ. 1
MEISTERSINGER VON NtlRNBERG,
DIE. An opeia ; words and music by Richard
Wagner, completed in Oct. 1867, and first per-
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248 MEISTERSINGER VON NURNBEBG.
formed at Hunicb, Jtme 21, 1868, under the
direction of von Billow. [G.]
MEL^ RiNALDO DBL, ' Geotilliaomo Fiftmen-
go/ and distingtUBhed oumpoeer of the i6th cen-
tury. The date and town of his birth are not
kno\¥n, but his nationality is assured, not only
by the above title, which appears on more than
one of his works, but by his own words, 'la
natione nostra Fiammeneo.' He is not to be
confused with G audio Mell, a name which
Adami,* Idberati^' and Martini' give to Pales-
trina*s master Goudimel. Having served Sebas-
tian, King of Portugal^ and his successor, Car-
dinal don HenriquezasChapelmaster, he arrived
in Rome in 1580. This change in his career may
be accounted for by the annexation of Portugid
to Spain in that year. If Philip II. was unwill-
ing to keep up a useless retinue in Lisbon, he
would certainly make no exception in favour of
' Flemish gentlemen/ who indeed were never to
his liking. Why Mel turned his steps to Rome
WQ know not. Once there, however, he presented
himself without loss of time to Palestrina, but
soon found himself out of his depth on musical
subjects, and confessed that Binaldo*s questions
could not keep pace with Pierluigi's answers.
So the ex-Chapelmaster set himself down U>
school tasks again> ambitious to become a worthy
disciple of that Roman school which h» declared
was the greatest in Eiux»pew* His diploma was
soon obtained, for his publications began in 1582,
and between that year and 1595 he published
5 books of motets and 15 books of madriffals,
besidoR contributing to various collections which
carried his name fi^m Rome to Venice, Nurem-
berg, Antwerp, and Munich..
Up to 1590 he probably lived chiefly in Rome,
though we find idm at Li^^ in 1587,' where
some of his family were in the service of I^est,
Duke of Bavaria. Part of the time he is said
to have been chamber musician to Gabriel Pa-
leotto, archbishop of Boloffna, who had himself
some knowle(%e of music* When the diocese
of Sabina was placed under Paleotto's eharge in
1 59 1 he founded a college, improved the cathedral
at Magliano, and made mAny changes in thfi
internal government. The appointment of a
n»w Chapelmaster agrees weH enough with these
I»ct8, and it is in the year 1591 that we hear of
Mel's appoi^itment to the cathedral and the new
college. He dates from Cal^vi, a little town near
Magliano, March 20^ 1595, and from Magliano^
itself, 1595. From this timo his publications
oease^ and w« have no further record of him..
He is said to have been already well advanced
in life when he left Portugal, and by this time
was probably an old man. So we may assume
that the end of his life wa^ near, and that he
did not long survive Palestrina.
i'Otienouloniperb«oreQolMtOM>rtl«f«ntir.(BQauiI7U). (Brtt.
]fus.C.20e.)
s Letter* in rlipoBU ad un* del SIff. Peru (BrH. Mot. 6M o. 80
• '(jlodldo dl Apollo,' bound up wUh ard vol. of Xutinil 'Storii
delltt Mtuloft.' (Bilt. Mas. 607 eq.)
* 4 Btlul Is lespoiwtble for thta story. See ' If emorie dl FUestrbM.'
s MedrlgAll 4 6 (Anren ifiUB), See also F^Us.. Btogimphte. under
•MeMe.Renwitde.'-
t Bee Fuituzxl, 'Notltledelll 8crlttorl|Bo1ognesi' (BoloffnalTBB)*
1 See dedkaUon of ' Uber 0^ iDot«c(orum'^( Venice ises).
MELODISTS CLUB.
Mel*s works are at present difficult to obtain.
The British Museum does little more than record
his name," and in the F^tis Library at Brussels,
such a rich treasure-house, he is quite unknown.
The only work in modem notation is a Litany
in the * Musica Divina,* AnxL II, vol. 3 (Ratisbon,
1869). [J.R.S.-B.]
MELISMA (Gr. M^At(r/ia. a SongV Any kind
of Air, or Melody, as opposed to Recitative, or
other music of a purely declamatory character.
Thus, Mendelssohn employs the term* in order
to distinguish the Mediation and Ending of a
Gregorian Tone from the Dominant, or Reciting
Note. Other vrriters sometimes use it (less cor-
rectly) in the sense of Fioritura, or even Cadenza.
A work by Thomas Ravenscmft, entitled
' Melismata ; Musical Phansies fitting the Court,
citie, and country humours' (London, 161 1), is
much prized by collectors. [W.S.R.]
MELL, DAVIS; familiarly called Davie
Mell. An eminent Yiolinifit and Clockmaker,
resident in London, about the middle of the
17th century, and honourably mentioned by
Aubrey and Anthony k Wood. In the year
1657, he visited Oxford, where, as we learn
from Wood's Diary. 'Peter Pett, Will. Bull,
Ken. Digby, and others of Allsoules, as also
A. W. £d give him a very handsome enter-
tainment in the Taveme cal'd " The Salutation**
in S. Marions Parish .... The Company did
look upon Mr. Mell to have a prodigious hand
on the Violin, & they thought that no person,, as
all in London did, could goe beyond hun. But,
when Tho. Baltzar^ an Outlander, came to Oxon.
in the next yeare, they had other thoughts of
Mr. Mell, who, tho he played fBurr sweeter than
Baltzar, yet Baltzar*s hand was more quick, &
could run it insensibly to the end of the Finger-
board.' [See Baltzar, Thomas.]
Aubrey *® tells i^ curious story of a child of
Mell's^ who was cured of a crooked back by the
touch of a dead hand. [W. S. R.]
MELLON, Alfred, bom in Birmingham^
1820, became a violinist in the opera and other
orchestras, and afterwards kader of the ballet at
the Royal Italian Opera, Covent Garden. He
was next director of the music at the Haymarket
and Adelphi theatres, and subsequently conductor
of the Pyne and Harrison English Opera Com-
1 pany, who in 1859 produced his opera, ' Vio-
torine/ at Covent Giurden ; he was conductor of
the Musical Society, and of the Promenade Con-
certs which for several seasons were given under
his nam« at Covent Garden. In Sept. 1865 h«
was chosen conductor of the Liverpool Philhar-
monic Society. He married Miss Woolgar,
the well-known actress. He died March 27,
1867. [W.H.H.]
MELODISTS* CLUB. THE. A society at one
time of much promise, founded in 1825, by ad-
• A'qnint«'pMCerUte2id book of IbdrlfaU (k 6), the only book
of If el's in the llhrciy. sivas the title ' Oentilhuomo F.,' and contains
the dedication- to Cardinal Kinmxd. which speaks of ' ia natione
nostra FiMnmengo,' and bears the date ' Calvi. March 9), UBS.'
» See his letter to Zelter. dated Rome. June 16. U8L
» • MiscellaniBs; under the article ' Mtranda.'
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MELODISTS' CLUB.
mirers of CSiarles Dibdin, ' for the promotion of
ballad compoeition and melody.* In 1827 and a8
a library was formed, and prises offered for songs ;
and the prise songs were afterwards published in
a Yolume. In 1833 two priies of 10 guineas were
offered for songs in the style of Ame. Shield, or
Dibdin, and gained by Blewitt and Hobbs. In
f 1837 pn»s of 5 guineas for words and 10 guineas
for musio of a song ; which were gained by Wilson
and Hobbs for the song ' Send round the wine.*
The object of the Club is well described in the
following words of Sir H. Bishop in presenting
some music to the Library in 1840 : 'It is from
my perfect oonviction that good and appropriate
melody is the chief attribute of exoeilenoe in
mnsic of every style, firom the simple ballad to
the most elaborate composition, that I hail the
estaUishment of the Melodists* Club, from its
patronage of native genius, and its encourage-
I ment of melodv, as essentially calculated to aid
the cause of the musical art in this country.'
The entrance to the Club Was 5 guineas, and the
annual subscription 8 guineas. Many noblemen
and gentlemen supported it, and its professional
niOTEibers embraced Sir George Smart, Braham,
Balfe, T. Cooke, Hawes, Stemdale Bennett, and
k other eminent English musicians. Among the
artists who took part in the music in its earlier
day were J. B. Cramer, Moscheles, Hummel,
Field, Benedict, lipinski, and many more
players of the highest distinction. Mr. T. Cooke
was musical director, and Mr. John Parry hon.
secretary. [CM.]
MELODRAMA (Pr. Melodrame), L A Play
— generally, of the Romantic School — in which
the dialogue is frequently relieved by Music,
sometimes of an incidentaJ, and sometimes of a
purely dramatic character.
Such a Play was the Pygmalion of Jean Jacques
Bousseaa, who has been credited, on the strength
uf it, with having invented the style. The so-
called English Operas, of the older Sdiod-— The
Beggar's Opera, The Iron Chest, The Castle of
Andalusia, The Quaker, The English Fleet, No
Song no Supper, Guy Mannering, and a hundred
othm — are all really Melodramas. It is difficult,
indeed, in the case of English and German pieces
with spoken Dialogue, to say exactly where Melo-
drama ends, and Opera bc^ns. The line must
be drawn, somewhere : but, unless we adopt the
substitution of Recitative for Dialogue as a final
test, its exact position must always remain more
or less doubtful. On the other hand, were we
to accept this distinction, we should be com-
pelled to class at least half of the best German
Operas as Melodramas— an indignity which was
onee actually inflicted upon • Der Freischtttz.*
One rarely-failing characteristic of the popular
Melodrama of the present day we must not omit
to mention. Both in England, and on the Con-
tineiit, its Music, as a general nile, is so miserably
poor, that the piece would be infinitely more
entertaining without it. Perhaps, therefore, we
may be justified in giving the name of Opera to
thoee pieces in which &e Music is the chief
attraction, and that of Melodrama^ to thoee in
MELODRAMA.
249
which the predominating interest is centred in
the Dialogue.
IL A peculiar kind of dramatic compoeition,
in which the Actor recites his part, in an ordinary
speaking voice, while the orchestra plays a more
ot* less elaborate aooompaniment, appropriate to
the situation, and oalculateii to bring its salient
points into the highest possible reliel
That the true Melodrama originated in Ger-
many is certain : and there can be equally little
doubt that the merit of its invention rests — notr
withstanding all the arguments that can be
adduced in favour of rival claimants — with Georg
Benda, who first used it, with striking effect, in
his * Ariadne auf Naxos,' produced, at Gtotha, in
the year 1774. Since that time it has been em-
ployed to &r greater advantage in the German
Schools of Compoeition than in any others ; and
found more £etvour with German composers than
with those of any other country. The finest
examples produced since the beginning of the
present century are, the Grave digging Scene, in
'Fidelio'; the Dream, in 'Egmont'; the In-
cantation Scene, in * Der Freisohtitz' ; and some
Scenes in Mendelssohn's 'Midsummer Night's
Dream.* Unhappily, the performance of Uieee
finely-conceived movements is not often very
satisfiictory. The difficulty of modulating the
voice judiciously, in music of this description, is,
indeed, almost insupei«ble. The general tempt-
ation is, to let it glide, insensibly, into some
note sounded by the Orchestra ; in which case,
the effect produced resembles that of a Recitative,
sung hideously out of tune — a perversion of the
Composer's meaning, which, in passages like the
following is simply intolerable.
MRNDKLSSORif.
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250
MELODBAMA.
Few Artists seem to think this frightM diffi-
culty worth the troable of special study. More
than one great Grerman singer has, however, suc-
ceeded in overcoming it perfectly, and in winning
rich laurels by his perseverance ; notably, Herr
Staudigl, whose rendeiing of the great Scene in
* Der Freischtitz' was a triumph of Melodramatic
Art. I.W.S.R.]
MELODY is the general term which is vaguely
used to denote successions of single notes which
are musically effective. It is sometimes used as
if s3nionymous with Tune or Air, but in point of
fact many several portions of rather Tunes or
Airs may be accurately characterised as ' melody *
which could not reasonably be made to carry
the name of the whole of which they form only a
part. Tunes and airs are for the most part con-
structively and definitely complete, and by
fiUowiog certain laws in the distribution of the
phrases and the balance of the groups of rhythms,
convey a total impression to the hearer ; but
melody has a more indefinite signification, and
need not be a distinct artistic whole according to
the accepted laws of art, though it is obvious
that to be artistic it must conform to such laws
as lie within its range. For example, the term
' melody ' is often with justice applied to the inne^
parts of fine contrapuntal writing, and examples
will occur to every one in numerous choruses and
symphony movements and other instrumental
works where it is so perfectly woven into the sub-
stance of the work tnafc it cannot be singled out
as a complete tune or air, though it nevertheless
stands out from the rest by reason of its greater
beauty.
^Mdody probably originated in dqplamation
through recitative, to which it has the closest
relationship. In early stages of musical art
vocal music must have been almost exclusively
in the form of recitative, which in some cases
was evidently brought to a very high pitch of
expressive p^ection, and no doubt merged into
melody at times, much as prose in passages
of strong feeling occasionally merges into poetry.
The lowest forms of recitative are merely ap-
proximations to musical sounds and intervals
imitating the inflexions of the voice in speaking :
from tliis there is a gradual rise to the accom-
panied recitative, of which we have an example
of the highest melodious and artistic beauty in
the 'Am Abend da es kiihle war,* near the end
of Bach's Matthaus Passion. In some cases an
intermediate form between recitative and tunes
or airs is distinguished as an Arioso, of which
we have very beautiful examples in Bach's
' Johannes Passion,' and in several of his Can-
tatas, and in Mendelssohn's * Elijah.* Moreover
we have opportunities of comparing mere de-
clamatory recitative and melody in juxtaposition,
as both Bach and Mendelssohn adopted the
device of breaking into melody in especially
solenm parts of recitative ; as in No. 17 of the
Matthaus Passion to the words 'Nehmet, esset,'
etc., and in Nos. 41 and 44 in ' St. Paid,' near
the end of each.
It appears then that recitative and melody
MELODY.
overlap. The former, in proportion as it approxi-
mates to speech in simple narration or descrip*
tion, tends to be di^ointed and unsystematised ;
and in proportion as it tends, on the other hand,
towards being musically expressive in relation
to things which are fit to be musically embodied,
it becomes melody. In fact the growth of
melody out of recitative is by assuming greater
regularity and contin'uity and more appreciable
systematisation of groups of rhythms and mtervals. .
The elements of effect in melody are extremely
various and complicated. In the present case it
will only be possible to indicate in the slightest
manner some of the outlines. In the matter of
rhythm there are two things which play a part —
the rhythmic qunlities of language, and danoe
rhythms. For example, a language which pre-
sents marked contrasts of empbuis in syllables
which lie close together will infallibly produce
corresponding rhythms in the national music;
and though these may often be considerably
smoothed out by civilisation and contact with
other peoples, no small quantity pass into and
are absorbed in the mass of general music, as
characteristic Hungarian rhythms have done
through the intervention of Haydn, Sdiubert,
Beethoven, and other distinguished composers.
[See Magyar Music, p. 19 7. J
Dance -rhythms play an equijly important
part, and those rhythms and motions of sound
which represent or are the musical counterpart
of the more dignified gestures and motions of the
body which accompany certain states of feeling,
which, with the ancients and some mediseval
peoples, formed a beautiful element in dancing,
and are still travestied in modern ballets.
In the distribution of the intervals which
sq>arate the successive sounds, harmony and
harmonic devices appear to have very powerful
influence. Even in the times before harmony
was a recognised power in music we are often
surprised to meet with devices which appear to
show a perception of the elements of tonal
reUtionship, which may indicate that a sense of
harmony was developing for a great length of
time in the human mind before it was defhiitely
recognised by musicians. However, in tunes
of barbaric people who have no notion of har-
mony whatever, passages of melody also occur
which to a modem eye look exceedingly like
arpeggios or analyses of familiar harmonies : and
as it is next to impossible for those who are
saturated with the simpler harmonic successions
to realise the feelings of people who knew of
nothing beyond homophonic or single-toned
music, we must conclude that the authors of
these tunes had a feeling for the relations of
notes to one another, pure and simple, which
produced intervals similar to those which we
derive from ^ftmiliar harmonic combinations.
Thus we are driven to express their melody in
terms of harmony, and to analyse it on that
basis : and we are moreover oft^ unavoidably
deceived in this, for transcribers of national and
ancient tunes, being so habituated to harmonic
music and to the sc^es which have been adopted
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MELODY.
for the purpofiefl of harmony, give garbled ver-
flioiiB of the originalB without being fully aware
of it, or possibly thinking that the tunes were
wrong and that they were setting them right.
And in some cases the tunes are unmercifully
twisted into forms of melody to which an har-
monio accompaniment may be adjusted, and
thereby their value and interest both to the
philosopher and to every musician who hears
with understanding ears is oonsiderabiy impaired.
[See Jrish Music]
Modem melody is almost invariably either ao-.
toally derived from, or representative of, harmony,
and is dependent for a great deal of its effect
thereupon. In the first place it is immediately
representative in one of two ways ; either as the
upper outline of a series of different chords, and
therefore representing changing harmonies; or
else by being constructed of different notes taken
from the same chord, and therefore representing
different phases of permanent harmony. Ex-
amples of either of these forms being kept up for
any length of time are not very common ; of the
first the lai^est number will be found among
hymn tunes and other forms of simple note-
against-note harmony ; — the first phrase of ' Batti
i t^tti ' approaches it very nearly, and the second
subject of the first movement in Beethoven*s
WaJdstein Sonata, or the first four bars of * Selig
sind die Todten' in Spohr*s 'Die letzten Dinge'
are an exact illustration. Of the second form
the first subject of Weber's Sonata in A b is a
remarkable example :— >
MELODY.
251
since in this no notes foreign to the chord of A b are
interposed till the penultimate of all. The first
subject of the Eroica Symphony in like manner
represents the chord of Eb, and its perfectly un-
adorned simplicity adds force to the unexpected
Cf, when it appears, and to its yet more un-
expected resolu^on ; the first subject of Brahms*s
'Violin Concerto is a yet further example to the
point: —
The simplest variation of these forms is arrived
at by the interposition of passing notes between
notes which are part of the essential chord or
chords, as in the following from 'Get asile
aimaWe,' in Gluck's * Orph^7
- -u&
The notes with asterisks may all be r^arded as
passing notes between the notes which represent
the harmonies.
This often produces successions of notes which
are next to each other in the scale; in other
words, progression by single degrees, of which
we have magnificent examples in some of the
versions of the great subject of the latter part of
Beethoven*s 9th Symphony, in the first subject of
h's Violin Concerto, and m the last chorus of
Baches Matthaus Passion. When these passing
notes fall on the strong beats of the bar they lead
to a new element of melodic efiect, both by
deferring the essential note of the chord and by
lessening the obviousness of its appearance, and
by afibrding one of the many means, with sus-
pensions, appoggiaturas, and the like, of obtaining
the slurred group of two notes which is alike
characteristic of Bach, Gluck, Mozart, and
other great inventors of melody, as in the follow-
ing example from Mozart*s Quartet in D major : —
The use of chromatic preparatory passing notes
pushes the harmonic substratum still further out
of sight, and gives more zest and interest to the
melodic outline ; as an example may be taken the
following from the 2nd Act of Tristan und Isolde.
r~r^ r-e..
Along with these elements of variety there
are devices of turns and such embellishments,
such as in the beginning of the celebrated tune
in Der Freischiitz, which Agatha sings in the
2nd scene of the 2nd Act : —
BOm «Qt - • cadet wt - - ge - - goD
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252
MELODY.
Sequences also, and imitations and anticipationiB,
and all the most elaborate devices of resolution,
come into play, such as interpolation of notes
between the discordant note, and its resolution.
Further, there are endless re6nements of group-
ing of phrases, and repetition of rhythms and
groups of intervals in condensed forms and in
different parts of the scale, which introduce an
intellectual element even into the department of
pure melody.
Lastly, it may be pointed out that the order
and character of the successions of harmony
which any special form of melody represents ^
a great deal to do with its importance. Common-
place tunes represent commonplace and tpte
successions of harmony in a commonplace way,
while melody of a higher order usually repre-
sents successions which are in themselves more
significant and more fireely distributed. The
giants of art have produced tunes the melody of
which may represent the simplest harmonic suc-
cessions, but they do it in their own way, and the
result is pr(^rtionate to their powers and judg-
ment, unfortunately, the material of the simpler
order of melody tends to be exhausted, and a
large proportion of new melody has to be con-
structed on a more complicated banis. To take
simple forms is often only to mak^ use of what
the great masters rejected ; and indeed the old
forms by which tunes are constructively defined
are growing so hackneyed that their introduction
in many cases is a matter for great tact and
consideration More subtle means of defining
the outlines of these forms are possU>le, as well as
more subtle construction in the periods them-
selves. The result in both cases wiU be to give
melody an appearance of greater expansion and
continuity, which it may perfectly have without
being either diffuse or chaotic, except to those
who have not sufficient musical gift or cultivation
to realise it. In instrumental music there is
more need for dbtinctness in the outline of the
subjects than in the music of the drama ; but
even in that case it may be suggested that a
thing may stand out by reason of its own proper
individuality quite as well and more artistically
than if it is only to be distinguished from its
surroundings by having a heavy blank line round
it. Melodv will always be one of the most
important factors in the musical art, but it has
gone through different phases, and will go
through more. Some insight into its direction
may be gained by examination of existing ex-
amples, -and comparison of average characters at
difierent periods of the history of music, but
every fresh great composer who comes is sure to
be ahead of our calculations, and if he rings true
will tell us things that are not dreamed of in our
philosophy. [C.H.H.P.]
MELOPHONIC SOCIETY, THE. Esta-
blished 1837, 'for the practice of the most
classical specimens of choral and other music,'
by band and choir, under the management of
J. H. Griesbach, H. Weetrop, J. Surman,
and H. J. Banister. The first performance, on
Nov. 23, 1837, at Womum's Music Hall, Store
MENDEL.
Street, was the Creation, followed during the
season by Beethoven^s Mass in C, Romberg's
Ode *The Transient and the Eternal,* Judaa
Maccabeus, and St. Paul. In subsequent yearsi
the programmes comraised works of sinaller
dimensions, including Beethoven's Choral Fan-^
tasia. [CM.]-
MELOPIANO. A grand piano with a so^tn-
ente attachment, the invention of Signer Caldera,*
applied in England by Messrs. Kii^man & Son,
who have secured the sole right to use it here,
and have made several instruments with it.
The principle is original, the apparently sus-^
tained sounds being produced by reiterated blows
of small hammers placed nearer the wrestplank <
bridge than the striking-place of the ordinary
hammers, and suspended by a bar above and
crossing the strings. The bar is kept in tremulous
motion by means of a fly-wheel and pedal which
the pUyer has to keep going. These additional
hammers would cause a continuous sound were it 1
not for the dampers of the ordinary action which
govern by simple string communication the checks
that keep them still. Pressing down the keys
the dampers rise and the checks are withdrawn.
A crescendo to the sostinente is obtained by a
knee movement which raises the transverse bar, i
directs the little hammers into closer proximity
witli the strings, and strengthens their blow. The
Quick repetition deceives and at the same time
natters the ear by a peculiar charm of timbre
inherent in steel wire when the sounds can be
prolonged. The ordinary hammers are controlled
by the performer as usual, and may be accom- '
panied by the attachment, or the damper pedal
may be used, for which due provision is made.
It will be observed that the Melopiano has &
special expression for which special music will
no doubt be written or improvued. The cost of
the application of this ingenious invention is
about 30 guineas. [ A . J. H .]
MELUSINE. 'To the legend of the lovely
Melusine* is the title of an overture of Mendels-
sohn's for orchestra, completed at Diisseldorf,
November 14, 1833, first performed there in the
following July, and published as op. 3 a, the
4th of the Concert Overtures. In the autograph
Mendelssohn spells the name with an a — ' Melu>
sino.* [G.]
MENDEL, Hericann, editor of the largest
and most comprehensive dictionary of music that
has yet appeared, bom at Halle, Aug. 6, 1834.
He studied music with eneigy in Leipzig and
Berlin. From 1862 to 68 he carried on a music
business in the latter city, and at the same time
wrote in various musical periodicals and took aa
active part in music generally. His lives of
Meyerbeer and Otto Nicolai have been published
separately. In 1870 Mendel started the work
already mentioned — * Musikalisches Conver8&«
tions-Lexikon,' and completed in 1 1 vols. — with
the help of a large and distinguished staff of
writers. He died on Oct. 26, 1876, and the
Lexicon has been since completed in 8 vola.
under the editorship of Dr. Reissmann. [G.3
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MENDELSSOHN.
MENDELSSOHN.* Jakob Ludwio Fhlix
Mkndblssohm-Bartholdt was bom at Ham-
buig, in the Groflse Michaelisstrasse No. 14,^
Friday, Feb. 3» 1809. That was at all events
a lucky Friday. The family was already well
known from Moses Mendelssohn, the grandfather
of Felix, ' The Modem Plato,' whose * Phadon,* a
dialogue upon the immortality of the soul, based
on the Phsedo of Plato, was translated, long
before the birth of his illustrious grandson, into
almost every European' (and at least one Asiatic)
langtiage. Moses was the son of Mendel, a poor
Jewish schoolmaster of Dessau, on the Elbe, and
was bom there Sept. 6, 1 7 29. The name Mendels-
sohn, i.e. * son of Mendel,* is the ordinary Jewish,
oriental, way of forming a name. Moses migrated
at 14 years old to Berlin, settled there in 1762,
married Fromot, daughter of Abraham Gugen-
heim, of Hamburg, had 6 children, 3 sons and 3
daughters, published his Phadon at Berlin in-
1767, fijid died there Jan. 4, 1786. He was
MENDELSSOHN.
253
a small humpbacked man with a keen eager face,
bright, eyes, and a humorous mouth. The first
[peculiarity was traceable in his grandchild Fanny,
and the bright eyes were one of Felix's most
noticeable characteristics. After the death of
Moses his widow left Berlin with Joseph, the
eldest SOD, and returned to her native city.
Abraham, the second son, bom Dec. 11, 17^6,
went to JParis, and in 1803 was cashier to
Fould's bank there. In 1804 he resigned this
pofit and went into partnership with bis elder
brother Joseph ; married Dec. 26, 1804, Lea
Salomon (bom March 15, 1777), of a Jewish
fiunily in Berlin, and settled in Hamburg, carry-
ing on his business at the house above mentioned,
and having also a house out of town called
'Marten's MUhle.' He remained in Hamburg
till 1 81 1, and there were bom to him Fanny
Cacilie (Nov. 14, 1805), Jakob Ludwig Felix
(Feb. 3, 1809), and Rebecka (April 11, 181 1).
During the French occupation of Hamburg, life
Mandel of Douaa
Moms ]lend«l*4tohii«FTomet Ouftabeln
Vait«I>orothaft»F. Ton echlccd Joseph -HeaiieCte Merer
k 1 1 — ' 1 1 ' 1
r Boiei Johana Abnham Pbllipp BefQamln Alexander
LeftSttlomoD- Heniiette Bech* Nathan^Henrlette
Butboldy ('TuteJeUe') I lulg
Arnold OttUle Wilhelm
i 1
Fwrny-
CAcUtel
Jakob Cedla
Li'H'-la— Jean-
Felix I renaad
Bebeoka-Dlrichlet
ILeJeuua
Paul-Albertlna
Carl Marie
WoUicans Pauline
Paul Htflvne
I I I
iFelfx Bltoabeth
August Fanny
Htflvne Abraham Bduard Henrlette
(LIU>
became intolerable, and shortly after Rebecka's
birth the whole ^mily escaped in disguise to
Berlin, where they started the eminent banking-
house, and lived in a large house on the Neue
Promenade, in the N.E. quarter of the town,
a broad open street or place between the Spree
and the Haacksche Markt, with houses on one
Mide only, the other side lying open to a canal
with trees, a sufficiently retired spot as late as
1820 for Felix and his friends to play in front of
H* There, ten days after the battle of Leip-
zig, Abrahiun's second son and youngest child
Paul was bom (Oct. 30, 1813). The daughters
of Moses Mendelssohn, DoroUiea and Henriette,
became Catholics. Dorothea married Friedrich
y<m Schl^l, and Henriette was governess to
the only daughter of General Sebastian!, after-
I > M.B. Tbe foltowfaig abbrertatknu are used for the reference* hi
Uib artlele:-FJf.-'Dle Famllie Mendelssohn.' Berlin 1979; Der.-
' Oerrleat's Beoollectlons.' London M9 ; L. L— Letters from Italy and
i^vtaaertand— 'Beiiebriefe': L. U.-Letten from I8SS to 47. When
Um orlffloal b referred to the title ' Briefe,' L or IL !■ used ; H.-HIl .
l<r's Meodelaeohn. London li^4 ; O. * M.-Ooethe and MendeUsohn.
Sad ed.. London U74 : B.«Benedict'B Sketch. London 1869 : Moe.-
i M.Mchelei's Life. London 1H7S : C.-Cborley's Life. London Wn : P.—
fnlko's Beminiscencec. London 1W9 ; 8ch.» Schubring'* Eniner-
I o«««n. In 'Dahelm.' vm. No. 9S; C.B.H.-C. E. Honley't Reminls*
' tntca. In "The Choir* for Jan. and Feb. 1873: Dora-BecollectlonA of
M*nidelmohn and his friends by Dr. Heinrlch Dom. In * Temple Bar ' for
V^ im-, A Jf.Z. - ' Allgemelne musikalUche Zeitung' (Leipzig);
'■M.Z. ' Keua mttsikallsche Zeitung,' Schamann's paper (Leipzig).
^ Ferdinand Darld. deatlned to become lo great a friend of Mendelt-
x^kn'A. «a» bom In the lame houM the year after. The house b at
wards (1847) so mifortunate as the Duchesse
de Praslin. The sons remained Jews, but at
length Abraham saw that the change was inevit*
able, and decided' to have his children baptised
and brought up as Protestant Christians. This
decision was taken on the advice and example of
his wife*s brother, Salomon Bartholdy, to whom
also is due the adoption of the name Bartholdy.
He himself had taken it, and he urged it
on his brother-in-law as a means of distinction
from the rest of the fttmily. Salomon was a man
of mark. He resided in Rome for some time as
Prussian Consul-General ; had his villa (Casa Bar-
tholdy) decorated with fr«Bcoes,*by Veit, Sohadow,
Oomelius, Overbeck, and Schnorr, collected objects
of art, and died there in 1827, leaving his fortune
to his sister Lea. He was cast off by his mother
the comer of the BrannenxtrasM. and te now. through the aflbctkmata
care of Mr. and Madame Otto Ooldschmldt, decorated with a memorial
tablet orer the front door.
> Dutch (Hague 1769); French. 2 rerskms (Paris 1773. Beriin 1772) t
Italian. 2 do. (Chur 1773. Parma IWO) ; Danish (Oopeinhagen 1779) :
Hebrew (BerUn 17W): EnglUh (London lim); alw> Ruulan. Polloh.
and Hungarian. It Is a curious erldence of the slowness with which
music penetrates Into literary circles in England, that the excellent
article on Muees Mendelssohn In the Penny CyclopaMlla. from which
the words In the text are quoted, though published in irao, makes no
mention of Felix, though he had then been four times In this country.
The I'hfldon attracted the notice of no less a person than MIrabeau—
' Sur M. Mendelssohn.' etc, London 1787.
4 DeT.2.
B F.M. I. ffl.
t Felix's letter. Feb. 1. 18S1 : Fauiy's do., VM. IL 127.
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254
MENDELSSOHN.
for his oonvendon, and was only reconciled long
after at the entreaty of *Fanny. At a later date
Abraham and Lea were received into the Chris-
tian Church at Frankfort, and Lea took the
additional names of Felicia Paulina, fix>m her
sons.
Abraham Mendelssohn was accustomed to de-
scribe his position in life by s^ing * formerly' I
was the son of my father, now I am the fiftther of
my ' son/ But though not so promin^it as either,
he was a man of strong character, wise judgment,
and very remarkable ability. These qualities are
strikingly obvious in the success of his method
for the education of his children, and in the
few of his letters^ which are published; and
they are testified to in a very remarkable man-
ner by his son in many passages of his letters,
and in the thorough deference which he always
pays to the judgment of his father, not only on
matters relating to the conduct of life, but on
points of art. Though not, like Leopold Mozart,
a technical musician, and apparently having no
acquaintance with the art, he had yet an insight
into it which many musicians might envy. ' I
am often,* says his son, ' quite unable to under*
stand how it is possible to have so accurate a
judgment about music without being a technical
musician, and if I could only say what I feel in
the same clear and intelligent manner that you
always do, I would certainly never make another
confused speech as long as I live.' ' Or again,
this time after his death, 'not only my father,
but ... my teacher both in art ^and in life.' *
Though apparently cold in his manners, and
somewhat stem in his tone, and towards the end
perhaps unduly irritable, Abraham Mendelssohn
was greatly beloved by his wife and children.
Felix, in particular, is described by the latest
biographer^ as * enthusiastically, almost fanati-
cally, fond of him,' and the letters show how
dose was the conHdenoe which existed between
tbem. Hardly less remarkable was the mother.
She was one' of thone rare persons whose in-
fluence seems to be almost in proportion to the
absence of any attempt to exert it. Hiller,
when a boy, saw her once, and the impression
made upon him by the power of her quiet kind-
ness and gentleness remained * fresh in his mind
after more than half a oentuiy. When her house
wa? thronged with the intellect and wit of Berlin,
she was the centre of the circle and the leader of
the conversation.* Her letters, of which large
numbers exist in manuscript, are full of clever-
ness and character. The education of her chil-
dren was her great object in life. She was strict —
we may now think ^ over strict ; but no one who
looks at the result in the character of her chil-
1 VM. I. w.
s 'FrOher wat ich der Sohn mtfnes Vaters. J«tat bin Ich der Vater
meines Bohnen' (F.M. L 77). Bald Talleyrand :-' Lon dUalt 11 y a
douze aiis qua M. de St. Aulalra etolt beau p6re de M. de Cazes ; Ton
dit inahit«Dai)t que M. de Cazet est gendre de H. de St. Aulalre.'—
Vacaulay> Life. 1. 232.
> EUewhere he dencribes himaelf as a mere daah, a fftdankendrU^
(— ) between fkther and son. (¥M. 1. 387.)
4 Letten. U. M. » ; F.1I. L M, ». 01 ; 947-S80.
s Letter. March 23. IffiSw • Briefe. U.106: Dee. 9. 1P3B.
T F.M. t. 4S4. Compare fM. • HUler. p. 3. • Der. 88.
u D«Trtent glret ao Instaooe or two of it ; Me p. 0. and S7 Dot«.
MENDELSSOHN.
dren can say that her method was not a wise one.
They loved her dearly to the end, and the last
letters which Felix wrote to her are full of an
overflowing tenderness and a natural oonfldential
intimacnr which nothing can surpass. Calm and
reserved like her huslxmd, she was full of feeline,
and had on occasion bursts of passion. Felix s
intention to leave Berlin affected her to a ' terri-
ble' degree — a degree which surprised him. He
confesses that his yielding to the wishes of the
King, after having made up his mind to retire,
was due solely to her. ' You think that in my
official position I coidd do nothing else. It was
not that. It was mv mother.' "
How far she was herself a pianoforte-player we
are not told, but the remark which she noade after
Fanny's birth, *that the child had got Bach-
fug^e fingers.' shows that she knew a good deal
about the matter. We learn also ^ that she her-
self for some time taught the two eldest children
music, beginning with lessons five minutes, long,
and gradually mcreasing the time until they
went through a regular course of instruction.
For many years Felix and Fanny never prac-
tised or played without the mother sittii^f by
them, kmtting in hand.
Felix was scarcely three when his family
escaped to Berlin. The first definite event of
which we hear after this is a visit to Paris by
Joseph and Abraham in 1816, for the liquidation
of the indemnity to be paid by France to Prussia
on account of the war. Abraham took his &mily
with him, and Felix and Fanny, then 7 and 1 1
respectively, were taught the piano by Madame
Bigot, a remarkable musician, and apparently an
excellent teacher. She was the daughter of a
Madame Ki^n^, and in 1 816 was 30 years old.
Miniatures of the four children were taken
during this visit, which are still in existence.
Soon after theur return from Paris to the grand-
mother's house at the Neue Promenade, where
the family still lived, the children's education
seems to have begun systematically. Heyse*^
was their tutor for general subjects, Ludwig
Bei^r for the piano, Zelter for thorough bass and
composition, Henning for the violin, and Bosel
for landscape. Greek Felix learned with Re-
becka, two years his junior, and advanced as far
as .^schylus.'* On Oct. 24, 1818, he made his
first appearance in public at a concert given by
a certain Herr Gugel, in which he played the
pianoforte part of a Trio for P. F. and 2 Horns
by Woelfl, and was much ** applauded. The
children were kept very closely to their lessons,
and Felix is remembered in after-life to have
said how much they enjoyed the Sundays, be-
cause then they were not forced to get up at
5 o'clock to work. Early in his nth year, on
April II, 1819, he enter^ the singing class of
the Singakademie as an alto, for the Fridar
practisings. There and elsewhere *he took
his place,' says Devrient,'* * amongst the ^rown
people in his cluld's suit, a tight- fitting jacket
11 Letter, Jan. 18. IMS. See too Nor. 4. 18Si. u Benedict, p. 6.
IS Father of Paul Heyae the uuvelist. i* Scbubring, 974 a.
U A.1I.Z. 1818^ p. 7U. UDer.p.2.
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MENDELSSOHN.
cat very low at the neok, and with full trowsen
battoned over it. Into the Blantiiig pockets of
theee he liked to thrust his hands, rocking his
curiy head (he had long brown curls) from side
to mde, and shifting restlessly from one foot to
the other.*
With 1820, that is to say with his 12th year,
Felix seems to have begun systematically .to
compose; at least with that year begins the
invaluable smes of 44 volumes, in which Men-
delssohn's methodical habits have preserved a
collection of autographs or copies of a great part
of his works, published and unpublished, down
to the time of his death, the majority carefully
inscribed with both date and place — which are
now deposited in the Imperial Library at Berlin.
To the year 1820 are attributable between $&
and 60 movements, including amongst them a
Trio for PJ*. and strings (3 movements) ; a
Sonata for P.F. and Violin in F (3 do.) ; 2
movements for the same in D minor; 2 full
Sonatas for P.F. solo ; the beginning of a 3rd
in G minor, finished the next year, and pub-
lished in 1868 (as op. 105) ; 6 pieces for P.F.
solo ; 3 do. for do., 4 hands ; 4 pieces for Or^an ;
3 songs for single voice ; 2 do. for 4 men*B voices ;
a Cantata, 'In ruhrend feierlichen Tonen'; and
a Lnstspiel, or little comedy, for Voices and
P.F. in 3 scenes, beginning ' Ich J. Mendels-
sohn.' The earliest date is that to the cantata —
Jan. 13, 1820. The extraordinary neatness and
finish, which characterise Mendelssohn's MSS. to
the end, are observable in the earliest of these
childish productions, and the niysterious letters
L. e g. O. or H. d. m., so fiimiliar to those who
know his latest scores, are usuidly at the head of
MENDELSSOHN.
255
Among the pieces for i82i^are 5 sinfonies
for string quartet, each in 3 movements ; 9 fugues
for ditto ; the oorapletion of the G minor P.F.
Sonata (op. 105) ; motets for 4 voices ; a couple
of songs ; a oouple of Etudes for P.F. solo ; 2
one-act operas, 'Sddatenliebeehaft' and *Die
beiden 'Padagogen' ; and half a third, ' Die
wandemde Gombdianten.' This was the year of
his acquaintance with Weber, then in Berlin for
the production of FreiBchtttz, and of an enthu-
siasm on the part of the boy for that romantic
composer which he never 'lost This too was
the year of bis first visit to Goethe. Zelter
took his pupil to Weimar in November, and they
passed sixteen days under the old poet's roof.*
The same inoesnant and varied production
marks 1822 and 1823. In the summer of 1822
the whole fiunily made a tour in Switzerland.
Starting on July 6, they went by Cassel (for Spohr),
FrankfoK Dannstadt, Schaffhausen, Amsteg, In-
teriaohen, Vevey, and Chamounix ; a large and
merry party of ten. besides servants. The tour
was taken at great leisure, and on the return
two important halts were made— first at Frank-
&rt> to make the acquaintance of Schelble, the
conductor of the fiunous Cacilien-Verein, whom
1 Words hj Dr. Cupar (Der. p. 5). S H. SSL
s Bee dettfb In 'Oo«tbe and MendeliMlm.' See also Rellstab, 'aut
jDelaaiI«beD.'U.U6; and Lobe, Id 'Once a Week' SarlMT.
Felix astonished by extemporising on Bach's
motets ; and at Weimar, for a second visit to
Goethe.^
At Secheron, near Geneva. 2 songs were
written (Sept. i8) ; and the Pianoforte Quartet
in C minor, afterwards published as q), i, was
begun to be put on paper (the autograph being
murked 'Begtm at Secheron 20 Sept, 1822'),
and was finished after the return home. Be-
sides this, the records of these two years (182a
and 23) contain 6 more maphonies, rios. 7, 8, g,
10,1 1, 1 2 ; 5 detached pieces for strings ; 5 con-
certos for solo instruments with quartet accom-
paniment, viz. I for Violin solo, i for P.F. solo,
1 for P.F. and Violin, and 2 for two P.F.S ; 2
quartets for P.F. and strings, viz. in C minor
(op. i^ and in F minor (op. 2) ; sonatas for P.F.
and Violin (op. 4) and for P.F. and Viola (MS.) ;
a fantasia and 3 other pieces for the Organ ; a
fugue and fantasia for P.F. ; a Kyrie for two choirs ;
a psalm, 3 songs, a piece for contralto solo and
strings in 3 movements to Italian text (No. 167),
2 songs for men's voices, and the completion of the
fourth opera, ' Die beiden Neffen,' or ' Der Onkel
aus Boston,' which was a full-grown piece in three
acts. The svmphonies show a sinular advance.
They are in four movements instead of three, as
before, and the length of the movements in-
creases. No. 8, in D, written Nov. 6 — Nov. 27,
after the return from Switzerland, has an
A dagio e grave before the opening Allegro. The
slow movement is for 3 violas and bass, and
the finale has a prominent part for the cello.
This symphony must have pleased the com-
poser or some of his audience in whose judg-
ment he believed, since within a month he
began to rescore it for full orchestra. He
wrote a new trio for the minuet, and in this
form it became Symphony No. 9. The three
la&t of the six are for quintet, and the scherzos
of Nos. 10 and 12 are founded on Swiss tunes,
in No. 1 2 with the addition of triangles, cym-
bals, and drums. The independentiseUo part
is conspicuous throughout Thb advance in his
music is in keeping with the change going on in
Felix himself. He was now neany 15, was
growing £EMit,^ his features and his expression
were idterinff and maturing, his hair was cut
short,* and he was put into jackets and trow-
sers. His extemporising — which he had begun
to practise early in 1821^ — was already remark-
able,^ and there was a dash of audacity in it
hardly characteristic of the mature man. Thus
Goethe wished to hear a certain fugue of Bach's,
and as Felix could not remember it all, he deve-
loped it himself at great length, which he would
hardly have done later'.
In 1822 he made a second appearance in
public of a more serious nature than before, viz.
on March 31, at a concert of Aloys Sohmitt's,
in which he played with Schniitt a duet of Dus-
sek's for 2 pianos; and on Dec. 5 he again
appeared at a concert of Anna Milder's, in a
4 o. A M. 33.
TFJLIOO.
> Zetter. In G. * M. 30.
sper.U.
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• FM. 1. 129.
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256
MENDELSSOHN.
P.F. oonoerto of his own, probably that in A minor
with quintet accompaniment.^
It must not be supposed that the symnhonies,
operas, quartets, concertos, and other woncs men-
tioned were written for exercise only. It had been
the custom in the Mendelssohn house for some time
past to have musical parties on alternate Sunday
mornings, with a small orchestra, in the large
dininff-room of the house, and the programmes
induded one or more of Felix's compositions.
As a rule the pianoforte part was taken by him-
self or Fanny, or both, while Bebeoka sang, and
Paul played ' the cello. But Felix always con-
ducted, even when so small as to have to stand
on a stool to be seen; and thus enjoyed the
benefit not only of hearing his compositions
played (a benefit for which lees fortunate com-
posers— ^hubert, for example — ^have sighed in
vain) but of the practice in conducting and in
playing before an audience.' The size of the
room was not sufficient for a large audience, but
on these occasions it was alwavs full, and few
musicians of note passed through Berlin without
being present.^ In performing the operettas and
operas, no attempt was made to act them. The
characters were distributed as far as the music
went, but the dialogue was read out from the
piano, and the chorus sat round the dining-table.
Zelter, in strong contrast to his usual habit of
impartial ' neglect of bis pupils, was not only
regularly there, but would criticise the piece at
the close of the perfonnance, and if he often
prai&ed would sometimes blame. The oonmients
of his hearers however were received by Felix
with perfect simplicity. Devrient has well
described how entirely the music itself was his
aim, and how completely subordinated wer«
self-consciousness and vanity to the desire of
learning, testing, and progressing in his art.
These Sunday p^ormanoee, however, were only
one feature of the artistic and intellectual life of
the house. Music went on every evening more
or less, theatricals, impromptu or studied, were
often got up, and there was a constant flux and
reflux of young, clever, distinguished people, who
made the suppers delightfuUy gay ana noisy,
and among whom Felix was the &vourite.
The full rehearsal of his fourth opera» 'Die
beiden Neffen,' on his birthday, Feb. 3, 1824,
was an event in the boy's life. At supper, aft^
the conclusion of the work, Zelter, adopting free-
mason phraseology, raised him firom the grade of
' apprentice,' and pronounced him an * assistant,'
*in the name of Mozart, and of Haydn, and of
old Bach.' * A great incentive to his progress
had been given shortly before this in the score of
Bach's Passion, copied by Zelter's express per-
mission from the MS. in the Singakademie, and
1 A.IIJ;. 1822, 773* 1«2S, 6& S FJL IL 4fi.
s It seems that he accompanied the quartet Brmphonles on the
piano. Dora, in his Recollections, express! j .says so. and the slow
movement of the Symphony No. 10 oontalas a note In Mendelssohn's
own writing. * Das KJavler mlt dem Basse.' which seems to prove K.
The practice therefore did not end with lait oentary, as has been
•uppoied (On the growth of the Nodera Orchestra. If us. Association
U7»^. p. 97). Indeed, as we shall see. Mendelssohn conducted from
thf IMaoo at the Philharmonic hi 1*^
<rj|.l.l57. »Dot.4. iFJL 1.140; Dora. 809t
MENDELSSOHN.
given him by his grandmother at Christmas,
1823. The copv was made by Eduard Rietz,^
who had succeeded Henning as his violin teacher,
and to whom he was deeply attached. His con-
firmation took place about this date, under
Wilmsen, a well-known clergyman of Berlin.
Preparation for confirmation in Germany is oftdh
a long and severe process, and though it may
not" in Felix's case have led to any increase in
church-going, as it probably would in that of an
English lad similarly situated, yet we may be
sure that it deepened that natural religious feel-
ing which was so strong an element in the
foundation of his character.
In the compositions of 1824 there is a great
advance. The Symphony in C minor (op. 1 1.) —
which we know as * No. I,' but which on the
autograph in the library of the Philharmonic
Society is marked * No. XIII ' — was composed
between March 3 and 31 . The Sestet for P.F. and
strings (op. 1 10), the Quartet in B minor • (op. 3),
a fantasia for 4 hands on the P.F., and a motet
in 5 nos., are all amongst the works of this year.
An important event in the summer of 1824 was
a visit of the fether, FeUx, and Rebecka, to
Dobberan, a bathing place on the shores of the
Baltic near Rostock. For the wind-band at the
bath-establishment Felix wrote an overture,
which he afterwards scored for a full military
band and published as Op. 24. But the chief
result of the visit was that he there for the first
time saw the sea, and received those impressions
and images which afterwards found their tangible
shape in the Meeresstille Overture.
Among the great artists who came into contact
with Felix at this time was Moscheles, then on his
way from Vienna to Paris and London. He was
already famous as a player, and Madame Men-
delssohn calls him ' the prince of pianists.' He
remained in Berlin for six weeks in November
and December, 1824, and was idmost daily i^t
the Mendelssohns' ; and after a time, at the
urgent request of the parents, and with great
hesitation on his own part, gave Felix regular
lessons on the pianoforte every other day. Mos-
cheles was now just turned thirty. It is pleasant
to read of his imfeigned love and admiration for
Felix and his home—* a family such as I have
never known before ; Felix a mature artist, and yet
but fifteen ; Fanny extraordinarily gifted, play-
ing Bach's fujgues by heart and with astonishing
correctness — in &ct, a thorough musician. The
parents give me the impression of people of the
hitrhest cultivation. They are very fiw frtmi
being over-proud of their children ; indeed, they
are in anxiety about Felix's future, whether his
gifts are lasting, and will lead to a solid, perma-
nent future, or whether he may not suddenly
collapse, like so many other gifted children.'
'He has no need of lessons; if he wishes to
take a hint from me as to anything new to him,
he can easilv do so.' Such remarks as Uiese do
honour to all concerned, and it is delightful to
T Or BItz. as Mendelssohn always spells U. He aeems to bave beea
on the whole Frilx's aiost Intimate early friend.
• Scb. 37& • Flnlshwl Jan. 18. V9&,
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MENDELSSOHN.
find MendeIflK>hn yean afterwardfl, in the fdU
glory of his great fame, referring to these very
lessons as having fumed the sacred fire within
him and urged Imn on to ^enthusiasm.
Moscheles has preserved two of the Sunday
morning programmes :— *
*Noy. 38. Morning music at the Mendels-
sohn's : — Felix's C minor Quartet ; D major Sym-
pbcmy ; Concerto by Bach (Fanny) ; Duet for a
pianos in D minor, Arnold.'
' Dec I a. Sunday music at Mendelssohn's : —
Felix's F minor Quartet. I played my Duet for
a Pianos in G. Little Schilling played Hum-
mel's Trio in G.'
Moscheles was followed by Spohr, who came
to superintend the production of his ' Jeesonda'
(Feb. 14, 1835). He was often at the house,
and on very intimate 'terms, though he does not
mention the &ct in his Autobiography.
One or two accounts by competent Judges of
Felix's style of playiujg at this time have sur-
vived. Hiller was with him in Frankfort in
the spring of 1835, and 'speaks both of his ex-
temporising, and of his playing the music of
others. With the latter he delighted both Hiller
and Andr^ (who relished neither his faoe, his
ideas, nor his manners) by playing the Allegretto
of Beethoven's 7th Symphony in such a ' power-
ful orchestral style' as fairly to stojp Andre's
mouth. With tl^ former he carried mller away
by extemporising on Handel's choruses in 'Judas,'
as he had done Schelble, in the same room,
three years before, on subjects firom Bach's
motets. This time his playing was quite in the
vein of his subject, * the figures thoroughly Han-
delian, the fbroe and deumees of the passages
in thirds and sixths and octaves really grand,
snd yet all belonging to the subject-matter,
thoroughly true, genuine, living music, with no
trace of display. Dom is more explicit as to
Ids accompanying — ^the duet in Fidelio. 'He
astonished me in the passage, Du wieder nun in
meinen Armen, Gott 1 by the way in which he
represented the cello and the basso parts on
tiie piano, playing them two octaves apart I
asked him why he chose that striking way of
rendering the passage, and he explained it all to
me in the kindest manner. How many times
since, says Dom. has that duet been sunff, but
how seldom has it been so ^accompanied I He
rarely played from book, either at this or any
other time of his life. Even works like Bee-
thoven's 9th Symphony, and the Sonata in Bb
(op. 106), he knew ^ by heart. One of the grounds
of Spontini's enmity to him is said to have
been a performance of the 9th Symphony by
Felix, without book, before Spontini himself
had OTeii heard it, and it is known on the best
authority that he played the Symphony through
b¥ heart only a few months before his deatii.
Here we may say that he had a passion for
Beethoven's latest works, his acquaintance with
which dated from their publication, Beethoven's
» MoMhriM Ubw. UmitLm. SFJL 1.144.
*HIII«r.pr.O.«. 4Doni.p.9n.
» Man. 'ErrlDeninsra.* tt. in. eonflrmed to bm by Uia Dnk* of
~'~lD9Bo, Tuabwt, SchldnUs, Klongol, Dftf kon, and otiMn.
VOL. 11.
MENDEI^SOHN.
257
last yean (1820-37) exactly corresponding with
his own growth to maturity. It was almost the
only subject on which he disagreed with his
* father. On the other hand, the devotion of such
very conservative artists as David, flietz, and
Bennett, to those works, is most probably due to
Mendelssohn's influence. Marx 'challenges his
reading of Beethoven ; but this is to fly in the
&oe of the judgment of all other critics.
The elder Mendelssohn made at this time a
journey to Paris, for the purpose of fetching
his sister Henriette back to Germany, and took
Felix with him. They arrived on March a a.
One of the first thinss he mentions is the
astonishment of his r^atives at finding him
no longer a * child. He plunged at onoe into
murical society. Hummel, Onslow, Boucher,
Hen, Hal^vy, Kalkbrenner, Moscheles (on his
way back from Hamburg to London, with his
bride), Pixis, Rode, Baillot, Ereutser, Rossini,
Paer, Meyerbeer, Plantade, and many more, were
there, and all glad to make acquaintance with
the wonderfdl boy. At Madame Ki^n^s —
Madame Bigot's m;)ther— he played bis new
Quartet (in B minor) with Baillot and others,
and with the greatest success.
The French musicians, however, made but a
bad impression on him. Partly, no doubt, this is
exaggerated in his letters, as in his criticism on
Auber's*Leocadie; but the ignorance of German
music — even '^Onslow, for example, had never
heard a note of fidelio — and the insults to some
of its masterpieoes (such as the transformation
of Freiechfltz into 'Robin des "Bois,' and the
comparison of a passage in Bach to a duet of
Monsigny), and the general devotion to eflect
and outside ^litter^^Uiese were just the thin^rs
to enrase the lad at that enthusiastic age. With
Cherubini their intercourse was very satiB&ctory.
The old Florentine was more than dvil to Felix,
and his expressions of satisfaction (so very rare
in his mouth) must have given the &ther the
encouragement which he was so "slow to take
in the great future of his boy. Felix ^.escribes
him in a few words as 'an extinct volcano, now
and then blazing up, but all covered with
ashes and stones.' He wrote a Kyrie * a 5 yoci
and granditsimo orchestra' at ''.Oherubini's
instance, which he describes as 'bigger than
anything he had yet **doiie.' It seems to have
been lost. Through all this the letters home
are as many as ever, full of music, descriptions,
and jokes — often veiy bad ones. Here, for in-
stance, is a good professional query, * Ask Ritz if
he knows what Pet moll is.'
On May 19, 1835, the &ther and son left Paris
with Henriette ('Tante Jette'), wfio had retired
firom her post at G^eral Sebastiani's with an
ample peuBion, and thenceforward resided at
Berlin. On the road home they paid a short
• Letter. Hot. a. 1830k t Errln. II. 1SS. •rJLI.146.
• G.*lLp.48. 10 FJr.l.l4». and MS. letter. uu.tH.48.
n lUn (Errtn. U. US. 114) njt that tbe father^ heiltMloo •* to
his soo's fatore waa so gieat, that. eren to a late date. he oon^taitlr
mved him to go Into bwiiMM. He beHered that his non had no peiilai
for miulc, and that it waa aU the happier for him that ha had noC
U Zelter's Letters, hr. 95 ; O. « M . «.
M 'An Dieklfkelt a»«s Ohartrtflt.'
S
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268
MENDELSSOHN.
visit (the third) to Goethe, at Weimar* Felix
played the B minor Quartet, and delighted the poet
by dedicating it to ^him. It is a marvellous worle
for a boy of sixteen^ and an enormous advance
on either of its two predeoessors ; but probably
no one->not even the composer — suspected that
the Scherzo (in Ff minor, 3-8) was to be tb«
first of a *£funily of scherzi which, if he had
produced nothingr else, would stamp him as an
inventor in the most emphatic signification of
the word.' It must be admitted that Goethe
made him a very poon return for his charming
music Anything more stiff and. ungraceful than
the verses whichj he wrote for him, and which
are given in 'Goethe and Mendelssohn/ it
would be difficult to find, unless it be another
stanza, alsoT addressed to Felix, and printed in
vol. vi. p. 144- of the poet's works : —
Wsan dM T»l«at ▼entlndiff.wil-
WirluuM Tugend nie TemHet.
War MaiuehMi grOndlkh koont'
Der dArf iloh ror der Zdt nleht
■oheun
Und mOehtet ih^hm ]9elfiill ffsben.
If Tftlaot r«isiu ulth Wisdom.
Virtue b nerer oat of date.
He who cui glre as pleuuretnae
Neednerer fev what Time caado;
And wUl yoa Talent joar apprgTa]
glTe?
80 gebt Ihn unt. dta wir Urn frlscb Then give It at who make harnewly
They were at home before the end of May. The
fiery Gapriceio for P.F. in F| minor (afterwards
published as op. 5), so full of the spirit of Bach,
IB dated July 23 of this year, and the score of
Oamacho's wedding — an opera in two acts by
Klingemann> founded* on an episode in Don
Quixote — Aug. 10. The Capriodo was a^ great
favourite with him, and he called it un abrurdiU.
The Mendelssohn-Bartholdy famify was be-
ginning to outgrow the accommodation afforded^
by the grandmother's roof, and at the end of
this summer they removed fh)m No. 7 Neue P*o-
* menade to a large house and grounds which had
formerly belonged to the noUe family of Beck,
namely to No. 3 of the Leipziger Strasse, the
address so familiar to all' readers of Felix'a sub-
sequent letters. If we were writing the life of
an ancient prophet op poet( we should take the
name of the 'Leipzig Koad' as a prediction of
his ultimate estabtismnent in that town ;'but no
token of such an event was visible at the time.
The new residence lay in a part of Berlin which
was then very remote, dose to the Potsdam
Gate, on the edge of the old Thiergarten, or
deer-park, of Frederick the Great, so Uae from
all the accustomed- haunts of their firiends, that
at first the laments were loud; The house was of
a dignified, old-fashioned kind, with spacious and
lofW rooms ; behind it a large court with offices,
and behind that again a beautiful stretch of
ground, half park, luilf garden, with noble trees,
ulacs, and other flowering shrubs, turf, alleys,
walks, banks, summer-houses, and seats — the
whole running far back, covering about ten
acres, and» being virtually in the country. Its
advantages for i^usic were great. The house
itself contained, a room preciMly fitted for large
music parties or private theatricals; and at
the back of the oourt, and dividing it firom the
* ror the detana anG..* X. SOl
HENDEI^SOHN.
garden, there was a separate building called the
* Gartenhaus,* the middle of which formed a hall
capable of containing several hundred persons,
with glass doors opening right on to the lawns
and fdleys-^in short a pcKrfeot place for the
Sunday music. Though not without its draw-
backs in winter — ^reminding one in Mr. Hensel's
almost pathetic 'description of the normal con-
dition of too many an English house — it was an
ideal summer home, and '31 Leipziger Strasse'
is in Mendelssohn's mouth a personality, to
which he always turned with longing, and which
he loved as much as he hated the rest of Berlin.
It was identified with the Mendelssohn -Bar-
tholdys till his death, after which it was sold to
the state; and the Herrenhaus, or House of
Lords of Uie German government, now stands on
the site of the foj^mer court and Gartenhaus.*
Devrient ^ takes the completion of Camacho
and the leaving the grandmother's house as the
last acts of FeUx's musical minority ; and he is
hardly wrong, for the next composition was a
wonderful leap into maturity. It was no othei
than the Octet for strings (afterwards published
as op. 20), which was finished towards the end
of October 1825, and was dedicated as a burth>
day gift to Edward Ritz. It is the first of his
works which can be said to have fully maintained
its ground on its-own 'merits, and is a truly astonv
ishing composition &r a boy half-way through
his 17th vear. There ia a radiance, a.fireedom^
and an mdividuality in the style which are
far ahead of the 13& Symphony, or any other
of the previous instrumental works, and it is
steeped throughout in. that- inexpressible cap*
tivating charm which is so remarkable in idl
Mendelssohn's best compositions. The Scherzo
especially (G minor, 2-4) is a movement of ex-
traordinary lightness and grace, and the Finale^
besides being a masterly piece of counterpoint
(it is a fugue), contains in uie introduction of the
subject of the scherzo a very early instamoe of
the 'transformation of themes,' of which we
have lately heard* so much. Felbc had confided
to * Fanny that his motto for the scher«> was the
following stanza- in the Intermezzo of Faust : —
Orchettra.— pidnitWmo.
Floating elond and tralllnc mM
Brlfht'nlng o'er us borer ;
Ain stir the brake, tbe nuhm
•bake-
And aU tbeir pomp to orer.
and never was a motto more perfectly carried
out in execution. The whole of the last part, so
light and airy — ^and the end, in partieular, where
the fiddles run sofUy up to the high G, accom-
panied only with staccato diords— is a perfect
illustration of 'allesistzerstoben.' He afterwards
instrumented it for- the full orchestra, but it is
hard to say if it is impvovediby the proeess. — Tbe
t Tbe laife rew-tree whtdk itoed dote ontddQ tbe Gactenhaoa and
«aa endan^red bj tbe extension of tbe new buttdlnc. was pceeurred
hj tbe spedal order of tbe Xmperor. and to stlU (UN) Tlforooa. and
as gloomy as ayew sboald be.
i Dvr.iD.
• It was played 14 ttmai at th^Monday Fopolar Oonoerta betweai
1999 and 1978.
Wolkening and Hebdflor
Xibellen sleb ron oben ;
Loft Im Lanb. and Wind In Bohr.
-UndaUestot
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MENDELSSOHN.
■o-c&Hed Trumpet Oy«rtiire, in C (op. loi), was
almost certainly composed this autumn, and was
first beard at a concert given by Maurer, in
Berlin, on *Not. 2, at wl^ch Felix played the
P.F. imrt of Beethoven's Choral Fantasia. This
overture was a special favourite of Abraham Men-
delssohn's, who said that he should like to hear
it while he died. It was for long in MS. in the
hands of the Philhannonic Society, and was not
published till many yean after the death of the
composer. i8a6 opens with the String 'Quintet
in A (op. 18), which if not perhaps so great as
the Octet, is certainly on the same side of the
line, and the scherzo of which, in fugue-form, is
a worthy companion to its predecessors. The
Sonata in E (op. 6) is of this date (March 22,
1826). So is an interesting looking Andante
and Allegro (June 27), written for the wind*
band of a Beer-garden which he. used to pass on
the way to bathe ; the MS. is safe in the hands
of Dr. Paul Mendelssohn-Bartholdy.
But all these were surpassed by thto Overture
to ' A Midsummer Night's Dream,' which was
composed during the peculiarly fine summer of
1820, under the charming conditions of life in
the new 'garden, and the score of which is signed
' Berlin, Aug. 6, 1826.' It appears to have been
the immediate result of a closer acquaintance
with Shakapeare, through the medium of Schlegelr
and Tiecks version, which he and his sisters
read this year for the first time. Marx claims
to have been much ^consulted during its proffress,
and even to have suggested essential mocQfica-
tlons. Fanny also no doubt was in this, as in
other instances, her brother's confidante, but
the result must have astonished even the fondest
wishes of those who knew him best. It is
asserted by ^one who has the best right to
judge, and is not prone to exaggeration, 'that
no (me piece of music contains so many points
of harmony and orchestration that had never
been written before ; and yet nono of them have
the air of experiment^ but seem all to have
been written with certainty of their success.^
In this wonderful overture, as in -the Octet and
Quintet, the airy fiiiry lightness, and the peculiar
youthful grace, are not less remarkable thui
the strength of oonstruction and solidity of
workmansnip which underlie and support them.
Not the least singular thing about it is the ex-
act manner in wMch it is found • to fit into the
musks for the whole play when that music was
composed 1 7 years later. The motives of the over-
ture all turn out to have theur native places in
the 'drama. After many a performance as a
duet on the piano, the overture was played by an
orohestra in the Mendehsohns' garden'house, to a
I AJLZ. zzTfl. p. 688. The Mitosr^ib WM ODM to poiMMkm of
Mr. Sehldniti. Tnm him It irant Into the onmlToroui vaaiw of Jallui
BMz, and wm probftblf loM by his execoton ; but to whom? Tho
m. bi oar FbUhannooto Ubruy I« * copf with corracUooi hj Mao-
MENDHI^SOHN.
259
t Zdter. letter of June 6. Thli US. too nemi to hare dlMppeared.
• The flnt letter that 1 hare foond dated from the Lelpilter
Bumm. 'am 7 J11I7 UM. Im Oarten.' mja. 'to-day or to-nornm I
■hall begin to dream the lOdevmmer nl^f a dream.'
4 Dm, 9B, Man. Into. tt. 8S1-8.
» ProCllaeStfren. FhUhankonlc book, April ao^ U17.
crowded audience, and ito first production in
public seems to have been at Stettin, in Feb.
1827, whither Felix went in very severe weather
to conduct ^it. With the composition of this
work he may be said to have taken his final
musical degree, and his lessons with Zelter were
disoontinuML
Camaoho had been submitted to Spontini as
General-Mufdc-Director in the preceding year by
Felix himself. Spontini was then, by an odd
fireak of fortune, living in a house whidi had for
some time been occupied by the Mendelssohns in
the* early part of their residence in Berlin, viz.
28 Markgrafen Strasse, opposite the CaUiolio
^urch. Taking the young composer by the arm,
Spontini led him to the window, and pointing to
the dome across the street^ said, * Mon ami, il
voutf &ut des id^es grandes comme cette *ooupole.*
This firom a man of 52, in the highest position,
to a boy of 17; could hardly have been meant for
anything but kindly, though pompous, advice.
But it was not so taken. The Mendelssohns
and Spontini were not only of radicallv different
natures, but they belonged to opposite parties .
in music, and there was considerable friction in
their intercourse. At -length, eariy in 1827,
after various obstructions on Spontini's part, the
opera was given out* for reh^tfsal and study,
and on AprS 29 was produced. The house — not
the Opera, but the snudler theatre— was crowded
with Mends, and the applause vehement ; at the
end the composer was loudly called for, but he
had left the theatre, and Devrient had to appear
in his stead. Owing to the illness of Blum, the
tenor, the second performance was postponed,
and tile piece was never again brought forward.
Partly from the many curious obstructions which
arose in the course of the rehearsals, and the
personal criticisms which followed it, partly
perhaps from a just feeling that the libretto was
poor and his music somewhat exaggerated, but
mainly no- doubt from the fact that during two
such progressive years as- had passed since he
wrote the pieoe-he had * outgrown his work,
Felix seems to have so for lost interest in it as
not to press for another performance. The music
was published complete in Hanoforte score by
Laue, of Berlin, and one of the songs was included
in op. 19, as No. 8. It should not be overlooked
that the part of Don Quixote affords an instance
of the use of 'Leit-metif' — a term which has
very lately come into prominenoe, but which
was here Mendelssohn*s own invention.
A nature so keenly sensitive as his could hardly
be expected to pass with impunity through such
worries as attended the production of the <^>era.
He was se sincere and honest that the sneers
of the press irritated him-unduly. A year before
TFM.L158. Fellx*e MS. letter from Stettlii. Fab. rr. UBT. It tb»
flnt to which hl» tether U addreMed aa ' Herr Btadtrath.'
• 'My Meod, your Ideas moat be grand-grand aa that dome.*
]farx.Brrto.i.M7.
• 'For God's Mke^*mj* he to 1848 to Mr. Bartholomew. 'do not let
my old Ito of Oamaoho'i Wedding be stirred np agatol* (Folko, by
LadyWaltooe. puZn.) In the same manner to lOfi he protests to
]Crs.Volgt agatast the performanoe of his 0 minor 8ymphony-at least
without the explanation that tt nat wrtttan bf a boy of barely IBb
(AchtBrlefib«le..Pw»L>
P 2
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260 MENDELSSOHN.
he had vented his feelings In some lines whioh
will be new to most leaders : —
BehMlbt d«r Konponlste ernst,
SohlAfot er uni etn :
SchrelbC dar Komponltte froh.
1st ar za (emeln.
Sehrdbt der Komponlite tang.
Ut er xum Erb«nn«n :
Sohretbt eJn Kompoatote Iran.
Sehralbt etn Komponlite kUb
Ut'i ein wmen Tropf ;
SehrellH eln Komponiate tief
Bappeltl Urn am KopL
Schreib' er also wie «r wUl.
Keinem steht es an ;
Danim sehrelb eln Kompontet
Wle er wU und kann.>
If the artbt graralr writai,
To sleep H will becnlle.
If the artist gatly writes.
It Is a vulgar style.
If the artist writes at length.
How sad his hearers' lot 1
If the artist briefly wrttes.
No man will care one Joi.
If an artist simply writes.
A fool he's said to be.
If an artist deeidy writes.
He's mad; tls plain to see.-
In whatsoerar way he writes
He can't please every man ;
Therefore let an artist wrtta
How he likes and can.
But on the present occasion the annoyance was too
deep to be thrown off by a joke. It did in fact
for a time seriously affect lus health and spirits,
and probably laid the foundation for that dislike
of the officialism and pretension, the artists and
institutions, the very soil and situation of Berlin,
which so curiously pervades his letters whenever
he touches on that ^city. His depression was in-
creased by the death of an old friend, named
Hanstein, who was carried off this spring, and
by the side of whose deathbed Felix composed the
well-known Fugue in E minor (op. 35, no. i).
The chorale in the major, which forms the climax
of the fugue, is intended, as we are told on good
authority, to express his friend's 'release. But
Felix was too young and healthy, and his nature
too eager, to allow him to remain in despondency.
A sonata in Bb, for P.F. solo (afterwards pub-
lished as op. 106) is signed May 31, 1827, and on
Whit-Sunday, June 3, we find him at Sakrow,
near Potsdam, the property of his friend Magnus,
composing thecharming lied, * 1st ee wahr f which
within a few months he employed to advantage
in his Quartet in A minor (op. 1 3). Meantime —
probably ^in 1826— he had entered the university
of Berlin, where his tutor Heyse was now a pro-
fesaor. "For his matriculation essay he sent in a
translation in • verse of the Andria of Terence,
whioh primarily served as a birthday present to
his 'mother (March 15). This translation was
published in a 'volume, with a preface and essay,
and a version of the 9th Satire of Horace, by
Ueyse. Mendelssohn's translation has been re-
cently examined by an eminent English scholar,
who reports that as a version it is precise and faith-
ful, exceedingly literal, and corresponding closely
with the on^^nal both in rhythm and metre,
while its language^ as far as an E^lishman may
judge of Grenman, is quite worthy of representing
the limpid Latin of Terence. Professor Munro
also points out that as this was the first attempt
in Germany to render Terence in his own metres,
it may be presumed to have set the example to
the sdiolars who have since that date, as a rule,
1 Written for hb mother's birthday. March 18^ lOS. Bee 'Ueber
Land and Meer.' 18711. No. m.
I BeethetwoletterstoVerkenlos. Aug. 14 and 28.1841: also one to
Httler. Mareh SflC 1MS(H. p^ Vn>, and Car more strongly hi many an
unpublished letter. • Bchubrlng. 876 a.
4 1 oannot obtain the exact date. » 8ohubrlng.8746.
• ' Das Mldchen von Andros, elne KomMUe des Terentlns, In deo
Versmaowndes Originals Qbersetxt von V"". MU KlnMtung und
Atimerku gen herauigegeben von K. W. L. Heyaa. Aagehingt 1st die
M<» S«tir« dfla Horatlus, obersetxt Ton dem HeraugabM*. BariiD 1898.
Bel FenUnand DOmmler.' The jmteceU dated 'July UM.'
MENDELSSOHN.
tvaaslated Plautns and Terence and other kindred
Oreek and Latin classics in the original metres.
It was by no means his first attempt at verse ; for
a long mock-heroic of the year i8ao has been pre-
served, called the PaphlelCs, in 3 cantos, occupied
with the adventures of his In^ther Paul (Paphlos),
full of slang and humour, and in hexameters.
Whether Felix went through the regular uni-
versity course or not, does not appear, but no
doubt the proceeding was a systematic one, and he
certainly attended several classes, amongst them
those of ^ Hegel, and took especial pleasure in the
lectures of the great Carl Bitter on geography.
Of his notes of these, two folio volumes, closely
written in a hand like copper-plate, and dated
1827 and 28, still exist. Italian he was probably
familiar with before he went to Italy ; and in later
years he knew it so thoroughly as to be able to
translate into Qerman verse the very crabbed son-
nets of Dante, Boccaccio, Cecco Angiolieri, and
Gino, for his uncle Joseph *in 1840. Landscape
drawing, in which he was ultimately to excel so
greatly, he had already worked at for several
years. For mathematics he had neither taste
nor capacity, and Schubring pathetically describes
the impossibility of making him comprehend how
thepolestar coidd be a guide in travelling.
The change into the new house was a great
event in the family life. Felix began gvmnastic^
and became a very great proficient in them. He
also learned to ride, and to swim, and with him
learning a thing meant practising it to the utmost^
and setting all the enjoyment and advantage that
oould be extracted firom it. He was a ^reat
dancer, now and for many years after. Billiards
he played brilliantly. Skating was the one out-
door exercise which he did not succeed in — hecould
not stand the cold. The garden was a vast attrac-
tion to their friends, and Boocia (a kind of bowls)
was the favourite game under Uie old chestnut^
trees whioh still overshadow the central alley.
The laige rooms also gave a great impetus to th#
music, and to the mixed society which now flocked
to tiie house more than ever. We hear of Bahel
and Yamhagen, Bettina, Heine, Holtei, lindblad,
Steffens, Gans, Marx, Kugler, Broysen ; of Hum-
boldt, W.* Miiller, Hegel (for whom alone a card-
table was provided), and other intellectual and
artistic persons, funous, or to be fieunous after-
wards. Young people too there were in troops ;
the life wi^ free, and it must have been a delight*
All, wholesome, and thoroughly enjoyable time.
Among the features of the garden life was a
newspaper, whioh in summer was called 'Qarten-
zeitung,' 'The Garden Times' ; in winter ' Schnee-
undThee-zeitung,' 'The SnowandTea Times.*
It appears to have been edited by Felix and
Marx, but all comers were free to contribute, for
whioh purpose pens, ink, and paper lay in one of
the summer-houses. Nor was it confined to the
younger part of the society, but grave personages,
Uke Humboldt and Zelter even, did not disdain
to add their morsel of fun or satire. In all this
T0n« course of these was on Moslo. Zelter. In O. A M. M.
. s They an given hi their plaes hi the later edmooa of the Letten.
TOt U.
t Father of Mas M Altar, and author of Sehubecfs 'SehOne MOlkrte.*
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MENDELSSOHN.
IniDmt interoliange of art, science, and literatnn,
Felix, even at this early date, was the prominent
Sfpsre, It was now as it was all through his life.
When he entered the room every one was anxious
to q>eak to him. Women of double his age made
love to him, and men, years afterwards, recol-
lected the evenings they had spent with him,
and treasured every word that fell from his ^ lips.
One who knew him well at this time, but after-
wards broke with him, speaks of the separation
as 'a draught of wormwood, the bitter taste of
which remained for years.* '
The Utter half of August and the whole of Sep-
tember were passed in a tour with Magnus and
Heydemann' through the Harz mountains to
Baden-Baden (where his amusing adventures must
be read in his letters), and thence by Heidelberg,
where he made the acquaintance of ^Thibaut
and his old Italian music, to Frankfort. At
Frankfort he saw Schelble and Hiller, and de-
lighted them with his new A minor Quartet
(op. 13) — not yet fully written down; and. with
the 'Midsummer Night*s Dream 'overture, which
although a year old was still new to the world.
The annoyance about Camacho had vanished
with the tour, and Felix could now* treat 'the
story as a joke, and take off the principal persons
concerned. The A minor Quartet was completed
directly after his return home, and is dated ' Ber-
lin, Oct. 37, 1827.' Of further compositions this
year we know only of the beautiful fugue in £b
for strings (on lus fiivourite old ecclesiastical
snbjet^), which since his death has been pub-
lished as the 4th movement of op. 8 1 . It is dated
Berlin, Nov. i . Also a ' Tu es Petrus * for choir
and orchestra, written for Fanny's birthday (Nov.
14), and published as op. 11 1. A very comic
'Kinder- symphonic' for the Christmas home
party, for the same orchestra as Haydn's, and
a motet for 4 voices and small orchestra on the
chorale ' Christe du Lamm Gottes,* are named by
Fann^ in a ^letter. Soon after this their circle
sustained a loss in the departure of Klinge-
mann, one of the cleverest and most genial of
the eet^ to London as Secretary to £e Hans
Legation. During this winter FeUx — incited
thereto by a complaint of Schubring's, that Badi
always seemed to him like an arithmetical ex-
ercise— formed a select choir *bf 16 voices, who
met at his house on Saturday evenings, and
at once began to practise the Passion. This
was the seed which blossomed in the public per-
formance of that great work a year later, and
that again in the formation of the Bachgesell-
Bchaft, and the publication of the Grand Mass,
and all the Church Cantatas and other works,
which have proved such mines of wealth. Long
and complicated as the Passion is, he must have
known it by heart even at that early date ; for
among other anecdotes proving as much, Schu-
I rorIiiiteiMMortlilgteeDoni.MidalioOfttbrliiN.lLZ.18l8.
a Man. Krrln. 11. IX.
• Lools Bcydemaan was a very ecoentrio penoo. He poweaied
aatqr MBS. of Mandelaeohn's— amonfit others the Sonata In B (op. 7)
and tbe Orilo variations (op. 17X Thaso-lO in number, dating from
18M to 2»-an now aU In the pouesston of ]>r. Paal Mendabsohn-
Bartboidy.
*9,1LLm-m. •F.M.LISO^ISL « Sehnbrtaic. 878a.
MENDELSSOHN.
261
bring, who may be implicitly believed, relates
that one evening after accompanying one of the
choruses at the jnano without book, he said, 'at
the 2 3rd bar the sopranos have C and not C sharp.*
March i8a8 was occupied by the composition
of a long cantata to words by Levezow, for the
Tercentenary Festival of Albert Diirer, at the
Singakademie at ^Berlin, on April i8. It was
undertaken at the request of the Akademie der
Kiinste, and is written for solo voices, chorus, and
orchestra, and contains 15 numbers. The * IVum-
pet Overture' preceded it in performance. Felix
was not in love with his task, but as the work
grew into shape and the rehearsals progressed, he
became reconciled to it; the perf(»:mance was good,
and Fanny's sisterly verdict is that 'she never
remembers to have mpent a pleasanter ®hour.' The
work remains in MS. at the Singakademie and
the Berlin Bibliothek, and has probably the &ultB
of almost all mich compositions. Even Beethoven
failed when he had to write to order. Fate
however had a second task of the same kind in
store for Felix, with some curious variations.
This time the cantata was for a meeting (or, as
we should now call it, a ' congress ') of physicians
and investigators of natural science, to whom a
festival was given by A. von Humboldt as presi-
dent. Rellstab wrote the words, and Felix was
invited to compose the music. It contains 7
numbers for solo and chcms. Owing to a whim
of Humboldt's the chorus was confined to men's
voices, and the orchestra to clarinets, horns,
trumpets, cellps, and basses. The thing came off
in September ; but no ladies — not even Fanny —
were admitted, no report is given in the musical
paper ; and as there is no mention of it in the MS.
Catalogue the autograph has probably vanished.
Chopin was * present at the sitting of the congress,
and saw Mendelssohn with Spontini and Zdter ;
but his modesty kept him from mtrodudnghimself,
and their acquaintance was put off to a later date.
Felix had however during the summer been
occupied in a more congenial task Uian such
pUcea d'oeeasion as these, viz in the composition of
the Overture to Goethe's ' Calm sea and Prosperous
voyage,' on which we find him employed in June.
Fanny gives us the interesting '^^information that
he especially avoided the form of an Overture with
Introduction, and wished his work to stand as two
companion pictures. She mentions also his having
written pianoforte pieces at this time, including
some 'Lieder ohne Worte' (a title not destined
to come before the world for some years) and a
great Antiphona and Besponsorium for 4 choirs^
* Hora est, etc., which still remains in MS.
For Christmas he wrote a second Kinder-
symphonie, which delighted everv one so much
that it had to be repeated on the "spot. He also
re-scored Handel's Aois and Gralatea, and the
Dettingen Te Deum, at Zelter's desire, for the use
of the '^Singakademie. They have since been
published, but are not satisfactoir specimens of
such work. He also wrote the variations in D
VAJf.Z.lffiB.p.884. •r.H.Lin.
• Kanuowskl. chap. It. i* F.M. 1. IM. u fjL I. IS*.
u r.lL I vn. compared wllb Derrfeot, 181.
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262
MENDELSSOHN.
for P.F. and Cello (op. 17), dated Jan. 30, 1839,
and dedicated to hia brother Paul, who was more
than a fair Cello player. The 'Calm sea and
Prosperous yoyage was finished, or finished as
nearly as any score of Mendelssohn's can be
said to have been finished before it was pub-
licly performed, and had received those in-
numerable corrections and alterations and after-
thoughts, which he always gave his works, and
whi<m in some instances caused the delay of
their appearance for years — ^whidi m iB/ct pre-
vented the appearance of the Italian Symphony
till his removal made any further revision im-
possible. We have already seen that the basis of
the work was furnished by the visit to Dobberan.
A MS. letter from that place to Fanny (July 27,
1834) gives her an account of the sea in the two
conditions in which it is 'depictedin the overture.
Felix's little choir had steadilv continued their
practice of the Passion, -and the oetter they knew
the mighty work the more urgent became their
desire for a public performance by the Sing-
akademle (300 to 400 voices) imder Felix's own
care. Apart from the difficulties of the music,
with its double choruses and double orchestra,
two main obstacles appeared to lie in the way —
the opposition of Zelter as head of the Akademie,
and the apathy of the public. FeUx, for one,
* utterly ' disbelieved * in the possibility of over-
coming either, and with him were hu parents
and Marx, whose influence m the house was
great. Against him were Devrient, Schubring,
Bauer, and one or two other enthusiasts. At
length Devrient and Felix determined to go
and beard Zelter in his den. They encountered
a few rough words, but their enthusiasm gained
the day. Zelfcer yielded, and allowed Felix to
conduct the 'rehearsals of the Akademie. The
principal solo singers of the Opera at once gave
in their adhesion ; the rehearsals began ; Felix's
tact, skill, and intimate knowledge of the music
carried everything before them, the public flocked
to the rehearsals ; and on Wednesday, March
II, 1829, the first performance of the Passion
took place since the death of Bach ; every ticket
was taken, and a thousand people turned away
frx)m the doors. Thus in Felix's own words (for
once and once only alluding to his descent) ' it
was an actor and a Jew who restored this great
Christian work to the * people.' There was a
second performance under Felix on Bach's birth-
day, March 21. It is probable that these suc-
cesses did not add to Felix's popularity with
the musicians of Berlin. Whether it was his
ace, his manner, his birth, the position held by
his fiunily, or what, certain it is that he was
at this time in some wav under a cloud. He
had so £ftr quarrelled with the Royal Orchestra
that they refused to be conducted by him, and
concerts at which his works were given were
badty attended.*
Paganini made his first appearance in Berlin
1 ' SometinM* tt Itos u unooth u ft mirror, without wftTOt. breakers,
or nobe . . . sometiiiMS It U lo wUd tod forloiu that I dare not go in.'
3DeT.4S.
STh«]rbe«an about the end of January. P.X.L204
ADvf.BJ. s See hit letter to aani. In O. AIL 186.
MENDELSSOHN.
this month, gave four concerts, and * bewitched
the Beriiners as he did every one else. He veaej
soon found his way to the Leipziger 'Strasse. It
would be interesting to know if he heard the
Passion, and if, like Rossini, some years later, he
l^ofessed himself a convert to Bach.
Whistling's Handbuch shows that by the end
of this year Felix had published his 3 P.F. Quar-
tets ; the Sonata for P.F. and V. ; the Caprice,
op. 5 ; the Sonata for P.F. solo ; the Wedding of
OEunacho ; and the first two books of Songs. The
dedications of these throw a light on some things.
The quartets are inscribed re^>ectively to Prinoo
A. Radzivil (a friend of the fEunily, who was present
at the first performance of the * Beiden Fadagogen*
at the Neue Promenade), Zelter, and Goethe;
the Violin Sonata to E. Ritz, Felix's fictvourite
violin player ; the 7 Characteristic P.F. pieces to
Ludwig Berger, his P.F. teacher. The rest have
no dedications.
The engagement of Fanny Mendelssohn to
William Hensel the painter of Berlin took place
on January 22, 1829, in the middle of the excite-
ment about the Passion ; and on April 10 Felix
took leave for England. He was now 20. His age,
the termination of his liabilitv to military * service,
the friction just alluded to between himself and
the musical world of Berlin — aU things invited
him to travel, and * Zelter was not wrong in
saying that it was good for him to leave home for a
time. Hitherto &iao he had worked without fee or
reward. He was now to prove that he could make
his living by ^music But more than this was in-
volved. His visit to England was the first section
of a long "journey, planned by the care and sagacity
of his father, and destined to occupy the next three
years of his life. In this journey he was ' closely
to examine the various countries, and to fix on
one in which to live and work ; to make his name
and abilities known, so that where he settled
he should not be received as a stranger; and
lastly to employ his good fortune in life, and the
libenJity of his father, in preparing the ground
for future *^ efforts.' The journey was thus to be
to him what the artistic tour of other musicians
had been to them ; but with the important dif-
ference, resulting from his fortunate position in
life, that the establishment of his musical re-
putation was not the exclusive object, but that
his journey was to give him a knowledge of the
world, and form his character and manners.
The answer attributed to a young Scotch student
who was afterwards to become a great English
archbishop, when asked why he had come to
Oxford — * to improve myself and to make friends *
— exactly expresses the special object of Mendels-
sohn's tour, and is the mark which happily dis-
tinguished it from those of so many of his prede-
cessors in the art. Music had not been adopted
as a profession for Felix without much hesitation^
and resistance on the part of some of his relations,
and his &ther was wiselv resolved that in so doing
nothing should be sacrificed in the general culture
• A.]LZ.18»,90«. TlUnuEn1n.ll.75. ■FJf.UlOl
■ Corr. with Goethe, lettersa. lo L. April. 16,1830^
u •MjrgreatJoamey'hecaUitt.O.AM.lOO.lOT.
isLett«.Feh.81,18&
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MENDEU3S0HN.
taxd devatioA of his aim, * To improve himfelf,
and to make finends' was MendelsBohn'B motto,
not only during his grand toor bat throughoat
his career.
It was their first serious parting. His lather
and Rebecka tcoompanied him to Hamburg. The
boat (the ' Attwood ) left on the Saturday evening
before Easter Sunday, April i8, and it was not
till noon on Tuesday, the 21st, that he reached
the Custom House, London. The passage was
a very bad one, the engines broke down, and
Mendelssohn lay insensible for the whole of
Sunday and Monday. He was welcomed -on
landing by Klingemann and Moscheles, and had
a lodging at 103, Great Portland * Street, where
his landlord was Heincke, a German ironmonger.
It was the middle of the musical season, and
Malibran made her first reappearance at the
Opera, as Deedemona, on the night of his ar-
rival. His account of her, with other letters
describing this period, will be found in Hensel's
'Familie Mendeksohn* (i. 115-394), and in
Devrient's * Recollections.* O^er singers in
London at that time were Sontag, Pisaroni,
Mad. Stockhausen, and Donzelli ; also Velluti,
the castrato, a strange survival of the ancient
world, whom it is difficult to think of in connex-
ion with Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. De
Beriot and Madame Dulcken were among the
players. F^tis-too was in London delivering his
lectures on ' La musique k la port^e de toiit le
monde,' in French, to English audiences.
Felix was much with the Mosoheleses, and
there met Keukomm, With whom, in everything
but his music, he sympathised warmly.
His first appearance before an English audience
was at the Philharmonic Ck>ncert (then held in
the Argyll Rooms, at the upper end of Regent
Street) on Monday evening. May 25, when he
conducted his Symphony in G minor. Old John
Graiuer 'led him to the piano,' at which in those
days the conductor sat or stood, 'as if he were a
young 'lady.* The applause was immense, and
the Scherzo (scored by him from his Ottet for
this occasion, in place of the original Minuet and
Trio) was obstinately encored against his 'wish.
How deeply he felt the warmth of his reception
may be seen from his letter to the ^Society. He
published the Symphony with a dedication to the
•Philharmonio, a&d they on their part elected
him an honorary member on Nov. 29, 1829. It
was thus an English body which gave him his
first recognitioniMi a * composer. T^e simple ap-
plause of London had wiped out the sneers and
misunderstandings of Berlm. This he never for-
got ; it recurs throughout lus correspondence, and
animates his account of his latest visits to us.
Near the close of his life he spoke of it as
'having lifted a stone from his ^ heart.* The
English had much to learn, and he could laugh
1 The eeriMr of BldlnshonM street, now, and dnoe ISBBk iMimb«ved 79l
* P JU. 08. • Ibid.
« Bogmrtli. n. The letter U In Fteneh.
s The aotoffimph of the Snnphonj— In the green cloth boardi so
•uBlliar to tboee who know his MS. seores— b now in the SooMt's
• See the etntement to this eeRset tai the AJLZ. for 189S, 9. SS7.
rtoK
MENDEI^SOHN.
263
heartily 'at them ; but at least they loved him
and his music, and were quite in earnest in their
appreciation. Five days afterwards, on the 30th,
at 2 p.m., he M>peared again in the same room at
what is vaguely called in the Times of June i,
'the fourth grand concert.* He played the
Ooncertstiick of Weber— as the same journal
informs us — 'with no music before him.* A
charming 'letter, equal to any in the whole col-
lection for its gaiety and bright humour, describes
his coming to the rooms early to try the piano —
a new Glementi — and his losing himself in ex-
temporising till he was recalled by finding that
the audience were taking their seats. Two
other concerts must be mentioned : — one by
Brouet, the flute-player, on Midsummer Night,
at whidi, most appropriately, the Overture to the
Midsummer Night's Dream was given, for the
first time in England, and be himself played the
Eb Ck>noerto 0^ Beethoven, then an absohite
novelty in this ^eountry. After the concert the
score of the overture was left in the hackney
t;oach by Mr. Attwood, and "lost. On Men*
-idelssohn^ hearing of it, he said, ' Never mind, I
will make another.* He did, and on comparing
it with the parts no ^variations were found. The
x>ther concert was on July 1 3, for the benefit of the
sufferers from the floods in "Silesia. At this the
Overture was repeated, and Felix and Moscheles
'played (for the first and only time in England)
a Conoerto by the former for two Pianofortes and
Orchestra, ^m E. All this was a brilliant begin-
ning, as fkr as compositions went ; it placed him
•in the beet possible position before the musical
society of London, but it did not do much to
solve the question of livelihood, since the only
-commission which we hear of his receiving, and
which delighted him hugely, he was compelled
for obvious reasons to decUne, viz. a festival hymn
for Ceylon for the anniversary of the emancipation
of the natives !~an idea so comical that he says
it had kept him laughing inwardly for two ^^days.
A MS. letter of this time (dated June 7) is signed
• Composer to the Island of Ceylon.'
But he found time for other things besides
music ; for the House of Commons, and picture
galleries, and balls at 'Devonshire House and
Lansdowne House, and so many other parties, that
the good people at home took fright and thought
he was giving up music for society, and would
^become a drawing-room ornament The charm
of his manner and his entire simplicity took
people captive, and he laid a good foundation
this year fot the time to come.
An amutfing little picture of "himself and his
friends Rosen and Muhlenfeld, coming home late
from a state dinner at the Prussian Ambassador's,
buying three German sausages, and then finding
a quiet street in which to devour them, with a
• 8eeFJC.1.8ffi,andI)eT.ffl.fll • F.X. L 297. dated Jane 7.
M Fifit plajred at the Fhllhumbnte hj Un. Anderson four jrears
later. June 16. 189i. u On the authority of Mr. W. H. Husk.
u tbl» was inggeited hj MendeUsohn'i nncle Nathan, who Ured hi
Sneida, to hie broGber Abraham, And by hhn oonunonleated to FelU.
(F.ltLast)
» Bee Fellz*! letters deK^rfMnc thli. July 10. 16. and T7 (F.X. L 2S3.
MO) : also M ocehdes' LUb, L 931. The autograph of the Conoerto is
dated Oct. n, 182a
MFJLLSXk UDeT.78. MF.M.L83&
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2e4
MENDEIJSSOHN.
three-part song and peak of laughter between
the mouthfiils, showB how gaily life went on
outride the concert-room.
At length the musical season was over. Felix
and Kli^^mann left London about July 21,
and, stopping at York and 'Durham, were in
'Edinburgh by the aSth. On the 29th they
were 'present at the annual competition of
Highland Pipers in the Theatre Royal. On
the 30th, before leaving ' the gray metropolis of
the north/ they went over Holyrood Palace, saw
the traditional scene of the murder of Bizzio,
and the chiu>el, with the altar at which Maty
was crowned standing 'open to the sky, and
surrounded with grass and ivy, and everything
ruined and decayed* ; * and I think,* he continues,
' that I found there the beginning of my Scotch
* Symphony.' The passage which he then wrote
down was the first 16 bM's of the Introduction,
which recurs at the end of the first movement, and
thus forms, as it were, the motto of the work.
From Edinburgh th^ went to Abbotsford, and
thence by Stirling, Perth, and Dunkeld, to
Blair-Athd; then on foot by Fort-William to
Tobermory, sketching and writing enormous let-
ters at every step. On the way they virited
Fingal*s Cave, and Felix, writing *auf einer
Hebride' — 'on one of the Hebrides* — Aug. 7,
gives twenty bars of muric, ' to show how ex-
traordinarily the place affected me.* These 20
bars, an actual inspiration, are virtually * iden-
tical with the opening of the wonderful Overture
which bears the name of ' Hebrides* or * Fingal*s
Cave.* Then came Glasgow, and then Liverpool.
At Liverpool they went over a new American
liner called the Napoleon, and Felix, finding a
Broadwood piano in the saloon, sat down to it
and played for himself and his friend the first
movement of Fanny's 'Easter-Sonata' — what-
ever that may have been. Home was always in
his thouffhts. Then to Holyhead for Ireland, but
the weauer was dreadful (apparently as bad as
In 1879) — ' yesterday was a good day, for I was
onlv wet through three times.* So he turned
back to Liverpool, there said goodbye to Klinge-
mann, and went on by Chester to the house of
Mr. John Taylor, the mining engineer, at Coed-
du near Holywell. Here he remained for some
days, seeing a very pleasant ride of English country
life, and making an indelible impresrion on his
hosts ; and here he composed the three pieces
which form op. x6, the first of which, in key,
tempo, and melody, closely resembles the in-
troduction to the Scotch * Symphony. The
following letter, written after his death by a
member of the Taylor fiimily, gives a good idea
of the clever, genial, gay, and yet serious, nature
of the man at this happy time of life : —
It w»B in the Tear V3B that we first became aoqaalnted
with Mr. MencfeluohxL Be wae introduced to as by
mjr aunt, "bLn. Austin, who had well known his oousin
iTtxy cube traced IvnUx^ dutches. SFJLL94a
s r.]L L 9»i HoKsrth,77. I owe the date to the kindneM of Mr.
Glen of Edinburgh. 4 F.X. L 944.
* 10 of the pceeent eeore^ t* he sftenmrdi dlsalnMied the noUtioo
byonehiaL A bcetmlle b fWen In P JL L WT.
• Both Allegroe aie in »«, sad the Andante is rapetted St the eod of
each. The piece is dated Ooed-du. Sept. 4.
fE
MENDEUSSOHN.
Profeeior Mandelseohn, at Bonn. He plaited us earlj
in the season in Bedfoid Bow, but our real friendship
beoan at Coed-do, which was a house near Mold in
Flintshire, rented for manj jrean by my fiUber, Mr.
John Taylor.
Mr. Mendelssohn came down there to spend a little
time with us, in the coarse of a tour in Bnsland and
Scotland. My father and mother received him kindly,
as they did everybody, but his arrival created no par-
ticular sensation, as many stransers came to our house
to see the mines nnder my father*s management, and
foreigners were often welcomed there. Soon however
we began to find that a most accomplished mind had
oome among ns, anick to observe, delicate todistinguisb.
There was a little shyness about him, great modesty.
We knew little about his music, but the wonder of It
grew upon us; and I remember one night when my
two sisters and I went to our rooms how we began saying
to each other *Surely this must be a man of oenius ....
we can't be mistaken about the music ; never dud we hear
any one play so before. Tet we know the best London
musicians. Surely by and bye we shall hear that Felix
Mendelssohn-Bartholdv is a great name in the world.*
My father's birthday happ^Md while Mr. Mendelssohn
was with ns. There was a grand expedition to adistant
mine, np among the hills ; a tent carried up there, a
dinner to the miners. We had speeches, and health-
drinkings, and Mendelssohn thrcrw himself into the
whole thing, as if he had been one of ns. He interested
himself in hearing about the condition and wav of life
of the Welsh miners. Nothing was lost unon nim. A
letter that he wrote to my brother John just after he
left Goed-du, charmingly describes the impressions he
carried away of that country. Sometimes he would oo
out sketchixqf with ns girls, sitting down very seriously
to draw, but making the greatest fun of attempts which
he considered to be unsuccessful. One figure of a Welsh
Irl he imagined to be like a camel, and she was called
Ae camel accordingly. Though he scorned his own
drawings, he had the genuine artist-feeling, and great
love for pictures. I need not say how deeply he entered
into the Deauty of the hills and the woods. His waj
of representing them was not with the penoU ; but in
the evenings his improvised music would show what he
bad observed or felt in the past day. The piece called
TlM Rivulet, which he wrote at that time, for my sister
Susan, will show what I mean ; it was a recollection
of a real actual 'rivulet.
We observed how natural objects seemed to ■ngoeet
music to him. There was in my sister Honora*s gsHen,
a pretty creeping ^ plant, new at that time, covered with
little trumpet-like flowers. He was struck with it, and
played for her the music whichjhe said) the fairies
might play on those trumpets. When he wrote out the
piece (called a Giqnriccio in B minor) he drew a little
branch of that fiower all up the marsin of the paper.
The piece (an Andante and Allegro) which Mr.
Mendelssohn wrote for me, was suggested by the sight
of a buneh of carnations and > roses. The carnations
that year were very fine with us. He liked them beet of
all 'the fiowers, would have one often in his button-hole.
We found he intended the aneggio passages in that
composition as a reminder of the sweet scent of the
flower rising up.
Mr. Mendelssofan was not a bit 'sentimental.* though
he lud so much sentiment. Nobody enjoyed fun more
than he, and his laughing was the most joyous that
could be. One evening in hot summer we staid in the
wood above our house later than usual. We had been
building a house of fir branches in Susan's garden np in
the wo(^ Wemade afire, a little way off it. in a thicket
amonff the trees, Mendelssohn helping with the utmost
leal, dragging up more and more wood : we tired our-
selves with our marry work ; we sat down round our
fire, the smoke went off, the ashes were glowing, it
began to get dark, but we could not like to leave our
bonfire. * If we had but some music,* Mendelssohn said ;
* Gould any one get something to play on?* Then my
brother recollected that we were near the sardener^s
cottage, and that thejtrardener had a fiddle. Off rushed
our boys to get the fiddle. When it came, it was the
wretchedest thing in the world, and it had but one
string. Mendelssohn took the instrument into his
hands, and fell into fits of laughter over it when he
heard the sounds it made. His laughter was vety catch-
• This piece wae long a IkTourlte of his. A trater«oloiir dnwtaff by
Sohlrmer. Inspired bj Felix's plajinc of It, is still In the poesession of
the fkmflr (Dev. 176). ▼ gertwtoearpmM.
s The account flren above of the orlffta and intention of theee three
pleoes (op. 16) Is oonflrmed by a tetter of his own printed in F JL i. STSw
The autocn^ of Ko. 1 is headed 'SeUcen und Bosen in menfe'—
Caruatlons and Botes in plenty. • Compare Moa. 1. 9B7.
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MEKDEI^SOHK.
ing; h« pot US all iato peals of merriment But he,
somehow, afterwards brought beaatifiil music out of the
poor old fiddle, and we sat listesing to one strain alter
another till the fiarkness sent us home.
Mj cousin 1 John Edward Taylor was staying with us
at that time. He had oompoeed an imitation Welsh air.
and he was, before breakfast, playing over this, all
unconscious that Mr. Mendelssohn (whose bed-room n^as
next the drawing-room) was hearing erery note. That
night, when we had music as usual, Mr. Mendelssohn
sat down to play. After an eleoant prelude, and with
all possible advantage, John Edwam heard his poor
little air introduced as the sul^ect of the evening. And
having dwelt upon it, and adorned it in every graoefhl
manner, Mendelssohn in his pretty, playful way,howing
to the eompoter^ gave all the praise to mm.
I suppose scMne of the charm of his speech might lie in
the unusual choice of words which he as a German
made in speaking English. He lisped a little. He used
an action of nodding his head quickly till the long
locks of hair would fall over his high forehead with the
vdtemenoe of his assent to "* *
Sometimes he used
mother. Seeing that _
loving together and with our parents, he spoke about
this to my mother, told her how ne had known fsmilies
whcire it was not so : and used the words * Yon know not
how happy you are.'
He was so fur from any sort of pretension, or firom
making a favour of giving his music to us, that one
evening when the family firom a nei^bouring house
came to dinner, and we had dancing afterwards, he took
his turn in playing quadrilles and waltses with the
otiiers. Be was the first person who taught us gallop-
ades, and he first played us Weber's last waits. He
MENDELSSOHN.
265
II over nu oign loraneaa wiui uie
at to anything he liked,
to talk very seriously with my
we brothers and sisters lived
ei\joyed dancing like any other young man of his age.
" then & years old. He had written his Mid-
Night's Xhream [Overture] before that time.
He was then !
I old. He had written his Mh
- -^ m (Overture] before that tim_.
I well remember his playing it. He left Goed-du eai'ly
in September 1829.
We saw Mr. Mendelssohn whenever he came to
"England, but the visits he made to us in London have
not left so much impression upon me as that one at
Coed-du did. I can however call to mind a party at mv
father's in Bedford Bow where he was present Sir
George Smart was there also: when the latter was asked
to play he said to mv mother, *Ko, no, don't call upon
the old post-horse, when you have a high-mettled young
racer at hand.* The end of it was a duet jplayed by Sir
George and Mr. Mendelssohn together. Our dear old
master, Mr. Attwood, often met him at our house. Once
he went with us to a ball at Mr. Attwood*s at Norwood.
Betuming by daylioht I remember how Mr. Mendels-
uAm admired the view of St PauVs in the eariy dawn
which we got from Blackfriars bridge. But the happiest
visit to us was that one when he first brought his sweet
young wife to see my mother. Madame Felix Mendels-
sohn was a bride then, and we all of us said he could
not have found one more worthy of himself. And with
the delightfhl remembrance of his happiness then, I
will end these fragments.
His head was at this time fall of music — the
£b Violin ' Quartet (op. la); an organ pieoe for
Faimy^s ' wedding ; the Reformation Symphony,
the Scotch Symphony, the Hebrides Overture, as
wdl as TooSd music, ' of which he will '^y
nothing.* Other subjects however occupied eten
more of his letters than music. Such were a
private plan for a journey to Italy in company
with the parents and Rebecka, for which he
enters into a little conspiracy with his sister;
and a scheme for the celebration of his parents'
silver wedding (Dec. 26, 1829) by the perform<
anoe of three operettas (Liederspiel), his own
* Soldatenliebschaft/ a second to be written by
Hensel and composed by Fannv, and the third
an 'Idyll' by Klingemann and himself which
when ooDe it entered his head rapidly took shape,
SFJLSnwS7».«X TbeaatognphorthsQasrtstlntbepoMflHkm
onir.BttdarC t* dat^d 'London. Sepi. 14. lffl».' Thoogh published u
l(o.I.tttothiMr«all7liisMOondstrincqaart«t. 8eesboTe.p.290a.
> rsaii7 h«neir wrot« the piece whkh waa sctuslly plsyed st the
iwJdhif. Oct. 9L IflSS (F Jf . 2M). FelU^ piece, boverer, was flnlabed
soat(L.J«l7as.l»H).
and by the end of October appears to have been
virtuidly ^complete.
By Sept. 10 he was again in London, this
time 'at 35, Bury Street, St. Jamee*s< on the
14th he finidied and signed the £b Quartet, and
on the 1 7th was thrown from a gig and hurt his
knee, which forced him to keep his bed for
nearly two months, and thus to miss not only a
tour throuffh Holland and Belgium with his father,
but Fanny s wedding. Confinement to bed how-
ever does not prevent his writing home with the
greatest regularity. On Sept. 22 he ends his
letter with the first phrase of the Hebrides
Overture— 'aber zum Wiedersehen,
On Oct. 23 he informs them that he is beginning
again to compose — ^and bo on. He was nursed
by Klingemann, and well cared for by Sir Lewis
and Lady MoUer, by Attwood, and Hawes, the
musicians, the GK>6chens, and others. His first
drive was on Nov. 6, when he found London
'indescribably beautiful.* A week later he
went to •Norwood to the Attwoods, then back
to town for ' the fourteen happiest days he had
ever known,* and on Nov. 29 was at Hotel
Quillacq, Cidais, on his road home. He reached
B^lin to find the Hensds and the Devrients
inhabiting rooms in the garden-house. His
lameness still obliged him to walk with a stick ;
but this did not impede the mounting of his
Apiece for the silver wedding, which came off
with the greatest success on Dec. 26, and dis-
played an amount of dramatic ability which,
excited the desire of his friends that he should
again write for the * stage. The Liederspiel how-
ever was not enough to occupy him, and during
this winter he composed a * Symphony for the
tercentenary festival of the Augsburg Confes-
sion, which was in preparation for June 25,
1830. This work, in tiie key of D, is that
which we shall often again refer to as the
'Reformation Symphony.' He also wrote the
fine Fantasia in Ff minor (op. 28), which he
called his ' Scotch '^ Sonata* — a piece too little
played. A Chair of Music was founded in the
Berlin university this winter expressly with a
view to its being filled by Mendelssohn. But
on the offer being made he declined it, and at
his instance Marx was appointed in his ° stead.
There can be no doubt that he was right.
Nothing probably could have entirely kept down
Mendelissohn*s ardour for composition; but it
is certain that to have exchsjiged the career
of a composer for that of a university teacher
would have added a serious burden to the many
4F.]LL90»«M:I>er.88. i P.M. L SOL
• Op. 16. Mo. 2, b dated 'Korwood. Sarrey. Mot. 18.' There la a XB.
letter from the same addreaa, Mor.lS. The houae waa on Biggin BUI.
7 ' Helmkehr aos der Fremde ' (the Retorn from abroad) waa
translated hj Ohorley as 'The Son and Stranger.' and produced at th«
Barmarket Theatre July 7. ItfL • Der. M.
• For some ourioos detaOa regardhig this see Der. 98.. Schubring
(9746) tells the same story of the Trumpet Orertnre.
10 The H&. In Mr. Schlelnltx't posaeulon. Is entitled 'Sonate to»-
salsa.' and dated 'Berlin. Jan. 20, 188S'; but he played It at GoetheX
IIaya«.U90(L.L7). UDer.M.
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266
MENDEI^SOHN.
oooupationB which already beset him, besides
forcing him to exchange a pursuit which he
loved and succeeded in, for one for which he had
no turn — for teaching was ^not his forte.
The winter was over, his leg was well, and he
was on the point of resuming his * great journey* in
its southern portion, when, at the end of March,
1830, both I^becka and he were taken with the
measles. This involved a delay of a month, and
it was not till 'May 13 that he was able to start.
His father accompanied him as far as Dessau,
the original seat of the family, where he remained
for a few days with his Mend Schubring.
He travelled through Leipzig, Weissenfels,
and Naumburg; and reached Weimar on the
30th. There he remained a fortnight in the en-
joyment of the doeest intercourse with Groethe
and his family, playing and leading what he calls
a mad life— 'Heidenleben. There Us portrait was
taken, which, though like, ' made him look very
sulky/ and a copy of the score of the Reformation
Symphony was made and sent to Fanny. On
June 3 he took leave 'of Goethe for the last
time, and went by Nuremberg to Muuich, which
he reached on 'June 6. At Munich he made
a long halt, remaining till the end of the
month; made the acquaintance of Josephine
Lang, Delphine Schauroth, and other interest-
ing persons, and was fSted to an extraordinary
* extent — 'several parties «very evening, and
more pianoforte playing than I ever recollect'
»-all which must be read in the letter of Marx,
and in his own delightful ^ pages. On the
14th, her birthday, he sends Fanny a little
Song without Words (Lied) in A, and on the
26th a much longer one in Bb minor, which he
afterwards alter^ and * published as Op. 30,
No. 2. Both here and at Vienna he is disgusted at
the ignorance on the part of the best players —
Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven utterly ignored.
Hummel, Field, Kalkbrenner, accepted as clas-
sics. He himself played the best music, and
with the best effect, and his visit must have
been an epoch in the taste of both * places.
From Munich he went through the Salzkam-
mergut, by Sakburg, Ischl,-«nd the Traunsee, to
Linz, and thence to Vienna, Aug. 13. Here he
passed more than a month of Uie gayest ^ life
with Hauser the "singer, Merk the cellist, the
Pereiras, the Eskeles, and Others, but not so gay
as to interfere with serious composition — witness
a cantata or anthem on 'O Haupt voll Blut und
"Wunden' (MS.), and an 'Ave Maria* for
Tenor solo and 8 voices (op. 23, no. 2\ both of
this date. On Sept. 28 we "find him at Preabuig,
witnessing the coronation of the Orown Prince
Ferdinand as King of Hungary ; then at Lilien-
feld; andbyOratz, Udine, etc., he reached Venice
on Oct. 9.
1 Saa ft limlltr rsmark In Hftopftnuum'i Lattan to Hmmt (1. 107) la
rsference to a dmlUr Mt«inpt in 1890.
> FJL L ns (inaoeurftteW August).
• Letter. May 8ft. Bee letters In O. * K. 4a.*M.m
• L. June 6. 18SL • L. Oct. 1«. t F.M. L SlS-SffT.
• In thto. aa in aereral other caMt. he has altered the notation bom
quavers to semiquaTers.
• Letters to Zelter (June 82 and Oct. 18. 1880). M L. Feh. 18. 1898.
n Afterwards Director of the Munich ronserratorium. and Spohr**
correspondent. u Dev. LOft. U L. L SL
MENDELSSOHN.
His stay in Italy, and his journey through
Switzerlaini back to Munich, are so fully depicted
in the first volume of his Letters, that it is only
necessary to allude to the chief points. He went
from Venice by Bologna to Florence, reachingit
on Oct. 22, and remaining there for a week. He
arrived in Rome on Nov. i — the same day bb
Goethe had done, as he is careful to remark —
and he lived there till April lo, at No. 5 Piazza
di Spagna. The latter half of April and the whole
of May were devoted to Naples (Sti. Combi, Sta,
Lucia, No. 13, on the 3rd floor) and the Bay —
Sorrento, Ischia, Amalfi, etc. Here he met
Benedict and renewed the aoquaintanoe which
they had begun as boys in Berlin in 182 1, when
Benedict ^^was Web^*s pupil. By June 5 he
was back in Rome, and after a fortnight*s interval
set out on his homeward journey by FlOTence
(June 24), Oenoa, Milan (July 7-15), Lago
Maggiore and the Islands, the Simplon, Mfuv
tigny, and the Col de Balme, to Ohamouni and
Geneva. Thence on foot across the mountains
to Interlaken ; and thence by C^rindelwald and
the Furka to Lucerne, Aue. 27, 28. At Inter-
laken, besides sketching, and writing both letters
and songs, he composed the only ** waltzes of
which — strange as it seems in one so madly fond
of dancing— any trace survives. At Lucerne he
wrote his last letter te **Groethe, and no doubt
mentioned his being engaged in the oomposition
of the Walpurgisnacht, wMch must have brought
out from the poet the explanation of the aim of
his poem which is printed at the beginning of
Mendelssohn's music, with the date Sept. 9, 1831.
Then, still on foot, he went by Wallenstadt and
St. Gall te Augsburg, and returned to Munich
early in September.
Into both the Nature and the Art of this
extended and varied tract he entered with
enthusiasm. The engravings with which his
&ther*s house was richly funushed, and Hensel^s
jcopies of the Italian masters, had prepared him
for many of the great pictures ; but to see them
on the spot was to give them new life, and it is
delightful to read his rapturous comments on the
Titians of Venice and Rome, the gems in the
Tribune of Florence, Guido's Aurora, and other
masterpieces. His remarks are instructive and
to the point ; no vague generalities or raptures,
but real criticism into the effect or meaning or
treatment of the work ; and yet rather from the
point of view of an intelligent amateur than with
any assumption of technical knowledge, and
always wiu sympathy and ^^ kindness. Nor is
his eye for nature less keen, or his enthusiasm
less abimdant. His descriptions of the scenery
of Switzerland during the extraordinarily stormy
season of his journey there, are worthy of the
greatest painters or letter-writers. Some of his
expressions rise to grandeur.
' It was a day,* says he, describing his walk
over the Wengem Alp, * as if made on purpose.
The sky was flecked with white clouds floating
£ur above the highest snow-peaks, no mists below
MB. 7. UL.Aaff.l1. MO. AM. 801.
tr Lettert. Get. SB, 1890, June 25, 18S1, Sept. 14. 188».
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MENDELSSOHN.
on any of the motmtaixiB, and all their Bummito
gUttering brightly in the morning air, every un-
dalation and the face of every hill clear and
diiitinct. ... I remembered the mountains
before only as huge peaks. It was their height
that formerly took such possession of me. Now
it was their boundless extent that I particularly
felt, their huge broad masses, the dose connex-
ion of all these enormous fortresses, which seemed
to be crowding together and stretching out their
hands to each other. Then too recollect that
every glacier, every snowy plateau, every rocky
summit was dazzling with light and gloiy, and
thai the more distant summits of the further
ranges seemed to stretch over and peer in upon
us. I do believe that such are the thoughts of
God Himself. Those who do not know Him
may here find Him and the nature which He has
created, brought strongly before their ^eyes.'
Other expressions are very happy : — ' The moun-
tains are acknowledged to be finest after rain, and
to-day looked as hwb. as if they had just burst
the 'shell.* Again, in approaching Naples —
' To me the finest object in nature is and idways
will be the sea. I love it almost more than the
•ky. I always feel happy when I see before me
the wide expanse of watOTS.'
In Borne he devoted all the timelhat he could
•pare from work to the methodical examination
cf the place and the people. But his music stood
first, and surely no one before er since was ever
so self-denying on a first visit to the Eternal
City. Not even for the sirocco would he give
up woric in the 'prescribed hours. His plan
was to compose or practise till noon, and then
spend the whole of the ^est of the daylight
in the open air. He enters into everything
with enthusiasm — it is 'a delightful existence.'
' Rome in all its vast dimensions Ues before him
Hke an interesting problem, and he goes deli-
berately to work, daily selecting some different
object — the ruins of the ancient city, the Borghese
Gallery, the Capitol, St. Peter's, or the Vatican.'
'Each day is thus made memorable, and, as I
take my time, each object becomes indelibly im-
pressed upon me. .... When I have fairly
unprinted an object on my mind, and each day a
fresh one, twilight has usually arrived, and the
day is over.' Into society he enters with keen
zest, giving and receiving pleasure wherever he
goes, and 'amusing himself thoroughly and
* divinely.* 'His looking-glass is stuck full of
visiting-cards, and he spends every evening with
a frwh acquaintance.' His visits to Horace
Veraet and Thorwaldsen, Santini's visits to
him ; the ball at Torlonia's, where he first saw
the young English beauty, and that at the
Palazzo Albani, where he danced with her ; the
mad frolics of the Carnival, the monks in the
street (on whom he ' will one day write a special
treatise '), the peasants in the rain, the very air
and sunshine — all delight him in the most simple,
healthy, and natural manner. ' Oh I if I could
but send yon in this letter one quarter of an hour
1 L. Aug. M. s L. Ang. M. » Berlloi, V07. mat. 1.78.
« L. Deo. 10; 1837.
MENDELSSOHN.
267
of all this pleasure, or tell you how life actually
flies in Rome, every minute bringing its own me-
morable 'delights.' On the other hand, he has
no mercy on anything like affectation or conceit.
He lashes the German painters for their hats,
their beards, their dogs, their discontent, and
their incompetence, just as he does one or two
German musicians for their empty pretension.
The few words which he devotes to Berlioz (who
although always his good friend is antagonistic
to him on every point) and his companion Montfort,
are strongly tinged with the same ' feeling. On
the other hand, nothing can be more genuinely
and good-naturedly comic than his account of
the attempt to sing MaroeUo's psalms by a com-
pany of dilettanti assisted by a Papal singer.^
This sound and healthy habit of mind it is,
perhaps, which excludes the sentimental — we
might almost say the devotional — feeling which is
so markedly absent from his letters. Strange that
an artist who so enjoyed the remains of ancient
Italy should have had no love of antiquity as
such. At sight of Nidda he recalls the fact
that it was the refuge of Brutus, and that Cicero
visited him there. * The sea lay between the
islands, and the rocks, covered with vegetation,
bent over it then just as they do now. These are
the 4mtiquities that interest me, and are much
more suggestive than crumbling mason -work.'
'The outlines of the Alban Mils remain un-
changed. There they can scribble no names and
compose no inscriptions. . . . and to these I din^.'
In reference to music the same spirit shows it-
self still more strongly in his indignation at the
ancient Gregorian music to the Passion in the
H<Hy Week services. 'It does irritate me to
hear such sacred and touching words sung to
such insignificant dull music. They say it is
canto fermo, Gregorian, etc. No matter. If at
that period there was neither the feeling nor the
capacity to write in a different style, at all events
we have now the power to do so' ; and he goes on
to suggest two alternative plans for altering and
reforming the service, suggestions almost remind-
ing one of the proposition in which the Empress
Eug^e endeavoured to enlist the other Em-
presses and Queens of Europe, to pull down the
church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem and
rebuild it in conformity with modem taste and re-
quirements. Religious he is, deeply and strongly
i^gious; every letter shows it. It is the un-
conscious, healthy, happy confidence of a sound
mind in a sound body, of a man to whom the
sense of God and Duty are as natural as the air
he breathes or the tunes which oome into his
head, and to whom a wrong action is an im-
possibility. But of devotional sentiment, of that
yearning dependence, which dictated the 130th
Psalm, or the feeling which animates Beethoven's
passionate prayers and 'confessions, we find
hardly a trace, in his letters or his music.
He was very fortunate in the time of his visit to
• L.lfftrch29. It to enrlotu to oompare BerUoi*t Mcoont (Vojage
miM. 1. 73) of Mondduohn irlth the aboT«.
7 L. March 1. • See vol. L 194 a.
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268
MENDEI^SOHN.
Rome. Pope Pins YIII. died while be wm there,
ftnd he came in for all the ceremonies of Gregory
XVL's installAtion, in addition to the lervicefl of
Holy Week, etc These latter he has described in
the fullest manner, not only as to their picturesque
and general effect, but down to the smallest de-
tails of Uie music, in regard to which he rivalled
Mozart's fitmous feat. [See Misebsbb.] They
form the subject of two long letters to Zelter,
dated 'Dec. i, 1850, and June 16, 1831 ; and as
all the particulars had to be caught while he
Hstened, they testify in the strongest manner to
the sharpness of his ear and the retentiveness of
his memory. Indeed it is impossible not to feel
that in such letters as these he is on his own
ground, and that intense as was his enjoyment
of nature, painting, society, and life, he belonged
really to none of these things — was 'neither a
politician nor a dancer, nor an actor, nor a bd
aprii, but a 'musician.' And so it proved in
fiiict. For with all these distractions his Italian
journey was fruitful in work. The * Walpurgis-
night,' the result of his last visit to Weimar, was
finished, in its first form, at Milan (the MS. is
dated ' Mailand, July 1 5, 1 83 T) ; the * Hebrides,'
also in its first form, is signed 'Rome, Dec. 16,
1830.' The Italian and Scotch Symphonies were
begun and far advanced before he left Italy.
Several smaller works belong to this period — the
Psalm <Non Nobis' (Nov. 16, 1830); the three
church pieces which form op. 23 ; a Christ-
mas Cantata, still in MS. (Jan. 38, 1831) ; the
Hymn ' Verleih' uns Frieden' (Feb. 10) ; the 3
Motets for the nuns of the French Chapel : and
although few, if any, of these minor pieces can be
really said to live, yet they embody much labour
and devotion, and were admirable stepping-stones
to the great vocal works of his later bfe. In fiust
then, as always, he was what Berlioz 'calls him,
'un producteur iniatigable,' and thus obtained
that ucility which few composers have possessed
in greater degree than Mozart and himself. He
sought the society of musicians. Besides Berlioz,
Moutfort, and Benedict, we find frequent mention
of Baini, Donizetti, Coocia, and Madame Fodor.
At Milan his encounter with Madame Ertmann,
the intimate firiend of Beethoven, was a happy
accident, and turned to the happiest account.
There too he met the son of Mozart, and de-
lighted him with his Other's Overtures to Don
Juan and the Magic Flute, played in his own
'splendid orchestr^ style' on the piano. Not
the least pleasant portions of his letters from
Switzerland are those describing his organ-playing
at the little remote Swiss churches at Engelberg,
Wallenstadt, Sargans, and Landau — from whidi
we would gladly quote if space allowed.
Nor was his drawing-book idle. Between May
16 and August 34, 1831, 35 sketches are in the
hands of one of his daughters alone, implying a
corresponding number for the other portions of the
tour. How characteristic of his enormous en-
joyment of life is the foUowing passage (Saigans,
ITIlkWMtddcdtOtiM
not included in th« Engllsb
« L. Dm. 9S, USL
In ft maUbmqvmxt •dltkm. and it
I.
s Vq7. fluut. L 76.
MENDELSSOHN.
Sept. 3): 'Besides oigan ikying I have much
to finish in my new drawing-book (I filled another
completely at Engelberg); then I must dine,
and eat like a whole regiment ; then after dinner
the organ again, and so forget my rainy di^.*
The great event of his second visit to Munich
was the production (and no doubt the compo-
sition) of his G minor Concerto, ' a thing rapidly
thrown *off,' which he played on Oct. 17, 1831,
at a concert which also comprised his Symphony
in C minor, his Overture to the Midsummer
Night's Dream, and an extempore performance.
Before leaving he received a commission ^to
oompose an opera for the Munich Theatre. From
Munich he travelled by Stuttgart (Nov. 7) and
Heidelberg to Frankfort, and thence to DUssel-
dorf (Nov. 37), to consult Immermann as to the
libretto for the Munich opera, and arranged with
him for one founded on *The Tempest. The
artistic life of Diisseldorf pleased him extremely,
and no doubt this visit laid the foundation for
his future connection with that town.
He arrived in Paris about the middle of
December, and found, of his German friends,
Hiller and Franck settled there. He renewed hia
acquaintance with the Parisian musicians who
had known him as a boy in 1835, especially with
Baillot ; and made many new friends, Habeneck,
Franchonune, Cuvillon, and others. CHiopiny
Meyerbeer, Herz, Liszt, Kalkbrenner, Ole Bull,
were all there, and Mendelssohn seems to have
been very much with them. He went a great
deal into society and played firequently, was con-
stantly at the theatre, and as constantly at the
Louvre, eigoyed life thoroughly, saw everything,
aocordinff to his wont, including the political
scenes which were then more than ever mteieet-
ing in Paris ; knew everybody ; and in fact, as
he expresses it, 'cast himself thoroughly into
the ^vortex.' His Overture to The Midsummer
Night's Dream was performed at the Soci^t^ des
Concerts (Conservatoire) on Feb. 19, 1833, and
he himself played the Concerto of Beethoven in
G at the concert of March 18. His Reformation
Symphony was rehearsed, but the orchestra
thought it too * learned, and it never reached
performance. His Octet was played in church
at a mass commemorative of Beethoven, and
several times in private: so was his Quintet
(with a new ^Adagio) and his Quartets, both for
strings and for piano. The pupils of the Con-
servatoire, he writes, are working their fingers
off to play *Ist es **wahr?' His playing was
applauded as much as heart could wish, and his
reception in all circles was of the very best.
On the other hand, there were drawbacks.
Edward Ritz, his great friend, died (Jan. 33)
while he was there ; the news reached him on
his birthday. Groethe too died (March 33). The
rejection of his Reformation Symphony, the
centre of so many *^ hopes, was a disappointment
n-n. •l.dm.u.usl «L.i>M.i9.iai: Jftn.n.uBi
TL.Jan.ll.ua: Dee. 98. IfflL •H.9L
• Wrltt«n In ■Mmory of ■. Bits, and r«|ilMlikf ft MtaiMt la F ttaM*
minor. vriUi Trio In doable Canon.
MTheUadaibodlcdkktlMAnitaMrQaMUt, 8aetlMfT^p.3eiL
niLSL
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MENDELSSOHN.
which mixst have thrown a deep shadow ovor
ererything. andnodoubt after lomuch gaietythere
was a reaction, and his old dislike to the French
character — traces of which are not wanting in
a letter to Immennann dated Jan. 1 1 — ^retumed.
In addition to this his health had not latterly
been good, and in March he had an attack of
'oholora. Though he alludes to it in joke, he pro-
bably fcdt the trath of a remark in the Figaro
that 'Paris is the tomb of all 'reputations.'
BrilUantly and cordially as he was received, he
left no lasting mark there ; his name does not
reappear in tl^ programmes of the Conservatoire
for 1 1 yean, and it was not till the establish-
ment c^ the Concerts populaires in 1861 that his
music beoame at all familiar to ' the Parisians.
He himself never again set foot in Paris.
On April aj, 183a, he was once more in his
beloved London, and at his old quarters, 103
Great Portland Street. 'That smoky nest,' he
exclaims, amid the sunshine of the Naples sum-
mer, 'is £ftted to be now and ever my favourite
residence; my heart swells when I think of 'it.'
And here he was back in it again I It was warm,
the lilacs were in bloom, his old friends were as
cordial as if they had never parted, he was warmly
welcomed everywhere, and felt his health re-
turn in full measure. His letters 01 this date
are full of a genuine heartfelt satisfiiction. He
plunged at once into musical life. The Hebrides
was played in MS. by the Philharmonic on May 1 4,
and he performed his G minor Concerto, on an
Erard piano, attheooncertsof May aSand June 18.
He gave a MS. score of his overture to the society,
and they presented him with a piece of plate.
During his stay in London he wrote his Capriccio
brillant in B (op. a a), and played it at a ^concert
of Mori's. On Sunday, June 10, he played the
organ *at St. Paul's. He also published a four-
hand ^ arrangement of the M.N.1>. Overture with
Cramer, and the i st Book of Songs without ' Words,
with Novello, and played at many concerts. A
more important thing still was the revision of the
Hebrides Overture, to which he appears to have
put the final touches on June ao (five weeks
after its performance at the Philharmonic), that
being the date on the autograph score in posses-
sion of the fiunily of Stemdale Bennett, which
agrees in all essentials with the printed copy.
Chi May i§ Zelter died, and he received the
news of the loss of his old friend at Mr. Attwood's
house, Biggin Hill, Norwood. The vision of a
possible offer of Zelter's post at the Singakademie
crossed his mind, and is discussed with his father ;
but it was not destined to be fulfilled. Among
the friends whom he made during thni visit, never
to lose till death, were the Horsleys, a fiiunily
IB.& LettartoBiniiaiui.taiI.eCtcnorDist.MiMlctem.Aprfll&
s FM> b Inaeeanae in dthic thlt u MondalMohn't own expreukn.
8a8Uitar,liarahSl.lRtt.
> lUs waat of tjmfaAhj, eomblnad with an Mtontohlnff amottnt
«f IgBormaoe. b amathnly dlspUTed In tha following daieripUon
from the aatalofoa of a well-known French autograph colleetor:—
* ■oMleiaWhn Barth^dj (Fellz) remarquable intelllgenoe, mala ooBur
•gobte et froM : qui n'ayant pa gravlr d'un paa rar lei tommets de
Ian, a'eit r^'ugW dani la mudqua de ebambra.' Can Ignorance and
cooSdeoce go farther? 4 L. Maj 29, 1881.
• Bleta'tLlst. AlK>]foi.l.Sn. •lfas.1.873. T ibhL
I name of Orlgioal Mtilodlee for the P.F. (Hovdlo).
MENDELSSOHN. 369
living in the oountry at Kensington. Mr. W.
Horsley was one of our most eminent glee-
writers, his daughters were unusually musical, one
of the sons is now an B.A., and another was for
many years a bright ornament to English music.
The drcle was not altogether unlike his Beriin
home, and in his own ' words he seldom spent a
day without meeting one or other of the £&mily.
In July 183a he returned to Berlin, to find the
charm of the summer life in the garden as great
as before. His darling sister Rebecka had been
manied to Professor Inrichlet in May. Another
change was that the Devrients had migrated to
another place, and Hensel's studios now oocupied
all the spare space in the garden-house. Lnmer-
mann*6 promised libretto was waiting for him on his
return, but from the terms in which he asks for
Devrient's opinion on it, it is evident that it disap-
pointed him, and we hear no more of the ^® sub-
ject. St. Paul was beginning to occupy his mind
(of which more anon), and he had not long been
back when the election of the conductor for the
Singakademie in Zelter's place came on the tapis.
The details may be read ^^elsewhere ; it is enough
to say here that chiefly through the extra tetX
and want of tact of his frietid Devrient, though
with the best intentions, Mendelssohn, for no
fSitult of his own, was draffired before the publio
as an opponent of Rungeimagen ; and at length,
on Jan. a a, 1833, was defeated by 60 votes out of
a 36. The defeat was aggravated by a sad want
of judgment on the part of the faznily, who not
only were annoyed, but showed their annoyance
by withdrawing from the Akademie, and thus
making an open hostility. Felix himself said
little, but he felt it deeply. He ^describes it as
a time of uncertainty, anxiety, and suspense,
which was as bad as a serious illness ; and no
doubt it widened the breach in his liking for
Berlin, which had been begun by the rejection
of Camacho. He doubtless found some consola-
tion in a Grand Piano which was forwarded to
him in August by Mr. Pierre Erard of London.
His musical activity was at all events not
impaired. Besides occupying himself with the
Sunday music at home, Feux, during this winter,
gave threepnblicconoertsat the room of the ^Sing-
akademie in Nov. and Dec. 183a, and Jan. 1833,
at which he brought forward his Walpurgisnighf^
his Reformation Symphony, his Overtures to
the Midsummer Night's Dr^m, Meeresstille, and
Hebrides, his G minor Concerto and his Gi^riocio
in B minor ; besides playing two sonatas and
the G major Concerto of Beethoven, and a Con-
certo of Bach in D minor — all, be it remem-
bered, novelties at that time even to many
experienced musicians. In addition to this he
waif working seriously at the Italian Symphony.
The Philharmonic Society of London had passed
a resolution on Nov. 5, 183a, asking him to
compose * a symphony, an overture, and a vocal
piece,* and offering him a hundred guineas
for the exclusive right of performance during
0 O. * M . 97. U Der. 141
u L. March 4. USS.
u A.1LZ. 1«83^ laSb ThadatWMtnotglTeii.
See etpedaUy Der. 14&-198.
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270
MENDELSSOHN.
two 'yean. Of these the Italian Symphony
was to be one, and the MS. Boore of the work
aooordingly bean the date of March 13, 1833.
On April 27 he wrote to the Society offering
them the symphony with 'two new over-
tures, finished since last year' (donbUess the
Meereestille and the Trmnpet Overture), the
extra one being intended ' as a sign of his grati-
tude for the pleasure and honour they had ag^in
conferred upon him.* Graceful and apparently
spontaneous as it is, the symphony had not been
an easy task. Mendelssohn was not exempt from
the lot of most artists who attempt a great poem
or a great composition; on the contrary, 'the
bitterest moments he ever endured or could
have imagined,' were those which he experienced
during the autumn when the work was in pro-
gress, and up to the last he had his doubts and
misgivings as to the result. Now, however, when
it was finished, he found that it 'pleased him
and showed * progress ' — a very modest expression
for a work so full of original thought, masterly
expression, consummate execution, and sunny
beauty, as the Italian Symphony, and moreover
such a prodigious 'advance on 1^ last work of
the same kind 1
On Feb. 6, 1833, a son was bom to the Mo-
sdheleses, and one of the first letters written. was
to Mendelssohn, asking him to be godfather to
the child. He sent a capital letter in reply, with
an elaborate * sketch, and he transmitted later a
cradle song — published as Op. 47, No. 6 — for his
godchild, Felix Idpscheles. li^arly in A^ril he left
Berlin for Btisseldorf, to arrange for conducting
the Lower Rhine Festival at the end of May. As
soon as the arrangements were completed, he went
on to London for the christening of his godchild^
and also to conduct the Philharmonic Concert of
May 13, when his Italian Symphony vtaa per-
formed for the first time, and he himself played
Mozart's D minor Concerto. This was his third
visit. He was there by April 26 — again at his
old lodfirings in Great Fortland Street — and on
May I he played at Mosoheles's annual concert
a brilliant set of 4-hand variations on the Gipsy
March in Preciosa, which the two had com-
posed 'together. He left shortly after the 13th
and returned to Dilsseldorf, in ample time foe
the rehearsal of the Festival, which began
on Whit Sunday, Mav a6, and was an immense
success. Israel in *^ Egypt was the pQee de re-
sistance, and among the other works were Bee-
thoven's Pastoral Symphony and Overture to
Leonora, and his own Trumpet Overture. Abra-
ham Mendelssohn had come from Berlin for
the Festival, and an excellent account of it will
be found in his letters, printed by ^Hensel,
admirable letters, full of point and wisdom,
and showing better than anything else could the
1 See tl)aS«M>liitk» and btoumrar In BoftrUi. 9.001
s L«tt«r to Bauer, April 6. ISSSl
» It haa been M<d that the leap from MeiAdelaaohnl Omlnortohls
A major Symphony b as great as that from Beethoren't No. 2 to the
Krolca : and relatively this Is probably not exaggerated.
4 WhlchwnibefDundIn]Iosehelei'aLlfe,l.aB. •iros.L9Ml
« It had been performed by the Slngakademle of Berlin. Dee. 8, 1831,
bat probably whh re^nstnunentatton. It was now done as Bandd
MENDEU3SQHN.
deep affection and perfect understanding which
existed between father and son. The brilliant
success of the Festival and the personal £KcinA-
tion of Mendelssohn led to an offer from the
authorities of Bttsseldorf that he should under-
take the charge of the entire musical arrange-
ments of the town, embracing the direction of
the church music and of two associations, for
three years, from Oct. i, 1833, at a yearly
salary of 600 * thalers (£90). He had been mucSi
attracted by the active artistic life of the placse
when he visited Immermann at the dose of
his Italian journey, and there appears to have
been no hesitation in his acceptance of the o£br.
This important agreement concluded, Felix re-
turned to London for the fourth time, taking his
father with him. They arrived about the 5th«
and went into the lodgings in Great PorUand
Street. It is the father*s first visit, and his let-
ters are full of little hits at the fog, the absence
of the sun, the Sundays, and other English pecu-
liarities, and at his son*s enthusiasm for it all.
Ab far as the elder Mendelssohn was concerned,
the first month was perfectly successful, but in
the course of Julv he was laid up with some
complaint in his shin, which confined him tp his
room, for three weeks, and although it gave him
an excellent idea of English hospitality, it
naturally threw a damp over the latter put of
the visit. His blindness, too, seems to "have
begun to show itself.
His son however experienced no such draw-
backs. To his fiither he was everything. 'I
cannot express^' says the grateful old man, * what
he has been to me, what a treasure of love, pa-
tience, endurance, thoughtfulness, and tender care
he has lavished on me ; and much as I owe him
indirectly for a thousand kindnesses and atten-
tions from others, I owe him fiur more for what
he has done for me ^himself.' No letten by
Felix of this date have been printed, but enough
information can be picked up to show that he
fiiUy enjoyed himself. His Trumpet Overture
was played at the Philharmonic on June 10.
He played the organ at St. Paulas (June 23),
Klingemann and other friends at the bellows,
and Uie church empty — Introduction and fiigue ;
extempore; Attwood's Coronation Anthem, 4
hands, with Attwood ; and three *^ pieces of Badi's.
He ajso evidently played a great deal in society,
and his father*s account of a mad evening with
Malibran will stand as a type of many "such.
The Moscheleses, Attwoods, Horaleys, and Alex-
anders are amonff the most prominent English
names in the dianes and ''letters. Besides Mali-
bran, Schroder-Devrient, Herz, and Hummel
were among the foreign artists in London. On
** Aug. 4 the two left for Berlin, Abraham having
announced that he was bringing home ' a young
painter named Alphonse Lovie, who, of course,
• I cannot dlsoorer hk exact datm or title at INlMddorf. In bli
own aketoh of bis Ufa (tee next page) he stylet himself UvaHo-Hnctot
of the AssoeiaUcm for the Promotion of Hosto In DOsMldorf.
• F.M.i.8gTiiI.ffi. Compare IL 9a
uFJIf.l.9M. nibid.27S. nibid.S7T.
u Moa. L SW ; Abraham M. in VJL L 980^ 8801 aa^ «ta
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MENDEMSOHN.
wa8 no other than ^ Felix himself. They reached
Berlm in due course, and by Sept. 37, 1853,
Felix was at his new post.
Dtisseldorf was the beginning of a new period
in his career — of settled life away from the influ-
ences of home, which had hitherto formed so im-
portant an element in his existence. At Berlin
both success and non-success were largely biassed
by personal considerations ; here he was to start
afresh, and to be entirely dependent on him-
self. He began his new career with vigour. He
first attack^ the church music, and as 'not
one tolerable mass' was to be found, scoured the
country as far as Elberfeld, Cologne, and Bonn,
and returned with a carriage-load of Palestrina,
Lasso, and Lotti. Israel in Egypt, the Messiah,
Alexander's Feast^ and Egmont are among the
music which we hear of at the concerts. At the
theatre, after a temporary distiirbanoe, owing ta
a rise in prices, and a Uttle over-eagerness, he
was well received and successful ; and at first all.
was eouleur de rose — ' a more agreeable position
I cannot wish 'for.' But he soon found that the
theatre did not suit him ; he had too little sym-
pathy with theatrical life, and the recmonsibility
was too irksome. He therefore, arter a few.
months' trial, *in March 1854, relinquished his
salary as fieur as the theatre was concerned, and
held himself free, as. a sort of 'Honorary
^Intendant.* His influence however made it^
self felt. Don Juan, Figaro, Cherubini's Deux
Joum^es, were amongst the operas given in the
first four months ; and in the church we hear
of masses by Beethoven and Cherubini, motets of
Palestrina's, and cantatas of Bach's, the Dettin-
gen Te Deum, ' and. on the whole as much good
music as could be expected during my first
• winter.' He lived on the ground floor of Scha-
dow's * house, and was very much, in the artistic
circle, and always ready to make an excursion,,
to have a swim, to> eat, to ride (for he kept ^a
horse), to dance, or to sleep ; was working hard at
watez^«olour drawing, under ^Sohirmer's tuition,
and was the life and soul of every company he
entered. In May was the Lower Rhine Festi-
val at Aix-la-Chapelle, conducted by Ferdinand
Bies; there ha- met Hiller, and also * Chopin^
whose acquaintance he had already made ^*in.
Paris» and who returned with him to Dtisseldorf.
Daring the spring of 1834 ^® ^^ made a mem-
ber of the Berlin Academy of tha "Fine Arts.
Meantime, through all these labours and disr
tractions, of^ pleasure or business alike, he was
colI^x)8iDg busily and welL The overture tos
iFJLLn& SL. July 90. 1884. •Jj.mu.n.
4L.Aa«.«. •L.MM.ta •H.aSL
T The aequWtton of thli bone glres » gpod Idw of hli dntlAd.
atUtndetoimnlihtolSUher. (L. Much 88^ UM.)
• Dot. 174. • I-MajaS; B.K w KatuowsU. efaftpi xJr.
u L. u. U^ 84. Od this oeoMlon bo lent In. Uio following ' Metno-
riadom of mj Mognphy and wt-edac«tlon,' *I wu born Feb. S,
UOt, at Hamburg: in my Mb year began to learn moiio. and waa
taqglit thoron^HMM and compodtlcm h7 Profeuor Zelter, and the
Planofoite. flnt by my mother and then by Mr. Ludwlg Berger. In
the year im 1 left Berlin. traToIled throo^ Bn^and and Scotland.
Sooth Germany. Italy. Switzerland, and Franee; Tlslted England
twice more In the tprlng of 1898 and 83, was there made Honorary
Member of the Fhllbarmonie Society, and dnce October uas. hare
been Maal»41reelor of the Anodatlon fbr the Promotion of Music In
PBweidnrt' This H presenred in the arehlves of the Academy, and
I am Indebled for tt to the Undnem of Mr. Joachim.
MENDELSSOHN.
271
Melusina was finished Nov. 14, 1833, and tried ;
the Eb Bondo for P.F. and orchestra (op. ap) on
Jan. 39, 1834 ; ' Infelice,' for soprano and orches-
tra, for the Philharmonic ^ScK^iety (in its first
shape), is dated April 3, 34 ; the fine Capriocio
in A minor (op. 33, no. i), April 9, 34. He
had also rewntten and greatly improved the
Meeresstille "Overture for its publication by
Breitkopfs with the M. N. D. and Hebrides.
A symphony which he mentions as on the road
appears to have been superseded by a still more
important work. In one of his letters firom Paris
(Dec. 19, 1 8 31), complaining of the low morale of
the opera librettos, he says that if that style is
indispensaUe he 'will forsake opera and vfrite
oraiwioi* The words had hardly left his pen
when he was invited by the Caoilien-Verein
of Frankfort to compose an oratorio on '^St.
Paul. The general plan of the work, and such
details as the exclusive use of the Bible and
Choral-book, and the introduction of chorales^
are stated by him at the very outset. On his
return to Berlin ke and Marx made a compact
by which each was to write an oratorio-book for
the other; Mendelssohn was i» write 'Moses'
fior Marx, and Marx 'St. Paul* for ^Mendels-
sohn. Mendelssohn executed his task at onoe,
and the full libretto, entitled ' Moses, an Orato-
rio, composed by A. B. M.,' and signed ' F. M. B.,
21 Aug. 183a,' is iM>w in th» possession of the
'^-family. Marx, on the other hand, not only
rejected Mendelssohn's booh for 'Moses,' but
threw up that of ' St. Paul' on the ground that
chorales were an anachronism. In fact, this
singular man's function in life seems to have
been to difler with everybody. For the text of
St. Paul, Mendelssohn was indebted to his own
selectiou/and to the aid of his firiends Fttrst and
" Schubring. like Handel, he knew his Bible
well ; in- Ii^ oratorios he followed it implicitly,
and the thxee books of St. Paul,^ Elijah, and the
Lobgesang are> a. proof (if anv proef were needed
after the Messiah and Israel in Egypt) that, in
his own words, ' the Bible is always the best of
^all.' He began upon the music in March 1834,
not anticipating that it would occupy him
^*long ; but it dragged on, and was not oompleted
till the beginning of 1836.
Though only Honorary Intendant at the Dtis-
seldorf theatre, he busied himself with the ap-
proaching winter season, and before leaving for
his holiihiy oorrespondeid much with Devrient
as to the engagement of Angers. September
1834 he roent in ^Berlin, and was back at Dus-
seldorf ^foi> the first concert on Oct. 23. calling
on his way at Cassel, and making the acquaintance
of ^Hauptmann, with whom he was destined
u First rang at thoFhOharmonlc by Mme. Oaradori, May 19^ ISi
U L. Aug. 6. 1834.
M Letter to Derrlent, D. 187. &
UMarz.ll.iaB.eto.
w It shows how fiiUy Mendelssohn realised the oonnezlon of the Old
and New Testaments that his ooncludlng choms. aftw the glTlng of
the Law. is ' This is the love of God. that we ^eep His oommandmenU '
— fh>m St. John.
17 See Bch. : and L. 11.6.8^88^0(0. is L. Jaly IB. 1884.
W L. Sept. fll 1838. etc » Dor. rn-lf&
B Dot. US. 184. SN
a Banptmazm's letters to Banter. L 188.
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279
MENDELSSOHN.
in later life to be cloeelj oonneoted. The new
theatre opened on Nov. i. He and Immermann
quarrelled as to precedence, or as to the dis-
tribution of the duties. The selection of singers
and musicians, the bargaining with them, and
all the countless worries which beset a manager,
and which, by a new agreement, he had to under-
take, proved a most uncongenial and moreover a
most wasteful task ; so uncongenial that at last,
the day after the opening of uie theatre, he sud-
denly ' made a $aUo moHdU * and threw up all
^connection with it» not without considerable
irritability and 'inconsistency. After this he
continued to do his other duties, and to conduct
occasional operas, Julius Rietz being his assistant.
With the spring of 1835 he received an invita-
tion from Leipzig through Mr. Schleinitz, which
resulted in his taking &e post of Conductor of
the Gewandhaus Concerts there. His ' answers
to the invitation show not only how very careful
he was not to infringe on the rights of otners, but
also how clearly ai^ practically he looked at all
the bearings of a question before he made up his
mind upon it. Before the change, however, seve-
ral things happened. He conducted the Lower
Rhine Festival for 1835 at Colore (June 7-^9).
The principal works were Handel s Solomon — for
wMoa he had written an organ part in Italy ; Bee-
thoven's Symphony No. 8, and Overture Op. 134,
» * religious march' and hymn of Cherubini's,
and the Morning Hymn of his favourite J. F.
Reichardt. The Festival was made more than
ordinarily delightful to him by a present of
Arnold's edition of Handel in 52 vols, from the
committee. His father, mother, and sisters were
all thwe. The parents then went back with him
to Dttsseldorf ; there his mother had a severe
attack of illness, which prevented his taking
them home to Berlin till the latter part of ^ July.
At Cassel the father too fell ill, and Felix's energies
were fully taxed on the 'road. He remained
with them at Berlin till the end of August, and
then left for Leipzig to make the necessary pre-
parations for beginning the subscription concerts
m the Gewandhaus on Oct. 4. His house at Leip-
3dg was in Reichel's garden, off the Promenade.
Chopin visited him during the interval, and
Felix had the pleasure of introducing him to
Clara Wieck, then a giri of 16. Later came his
old Berlin friend David from Russia to lead the
'orchestra, and Moscheles from London for a
lengthened visit. Mendelssohn's new engage-
ment began with the ^est auspices. The relief
from the worries and responsibilities of D&ssel-
dorf was ^immense, and years 'afterwards he re-
fers to it as * when I first came to Leipzig and
thought I was in Paradise.' He was warmly
welcomed on taking his seat, and the first con-
cert led off with his Meeresstille Overture.
1L.N0T.4.SS.
s This ii brought out In htiflttber't latter. ILBK. 8MaIsoNoT.4.
■ L. Jul. as and April 16^ 183\
4 Letter to Mrs. Voigt. DOmeldorf. Jaly 17. 183&
• Letter to Schadow. In Polko 193.
• Be Joined definitely FeK 99^ UM^ alter HatthaTl death (A.M.Z.
1888.188)1
t Letter to midebraadt In F. 191 ; also Hlller «7.
8L.JuieU.188S.
ICENDEI^SOmr.
Rebebka passed through Leipzig on Oct. 14, on
her way from Belgium, and Felix and Moscheles
accompanied her to Berlin for a visit of two days,
returning to Leipzig for the next concert. Short
as the visit was, it was more than usually gay.
The house was fhll every evening, and by fuay-
ing alternately, by playing four hands, and by
the comical extempore tricks of which the two
friends were so fond, and which they canied on
to such perfection, the parents, especiaUy the
^iher, now quite blind, were greauy mystified
and 'amused. And well that it was so, for it was
Felix's last opportunity of gratifying the fitther
he so tenderly loved and so deeply reverenced.
At half-past 10 a.m. on Nov. 19, 1835, Abraham
Mendelssohn was dead. He died the death of the
just, passing away, as his Neither had done, with-
out warning, but also without pun. He turned
over in his bed, saying that he would sleep a
little ; and in half an hour he was gone. Hensel
started at once for Leipzig, and by Sunday morn-
ing, the 2 2nd, Felix was in ^e arms of his mother.
How deeply he felt under this peculiarly heavy
blow the reader must gather from his own letters.
It fell on him with special force, because he was
not only away from the family circle, but had no
home of his own, as Fanny and Bebecka had, to
mitigate the loss. He went back to Leipzig
stunned, but determined to do his duty with all
his might, finish St. Paul, and thus most per-
fectly fulfil his fiither's wishes. He had com-
pleted the revision of his Melusina Overture on
Nov. 1 7, only three days before the &tal news
reached him, and there was nothing to hinder
him ftom finishing the oratorio.
The business of the day, however, had to go
on. One of the chief events in this series of con-
certs was a performance of the 9th Symphony
of **> Beethoven, Feb. 11, 1836. Anofiier was
Mendelssohn's performance of Mozart's D minor
Concerto 'as written' (for it seems to have been
always hitherto played^fter some "adaptation^,
on Jan. 29, with cadences which electnfied his
audience. Leipzig was particularly congenial to
Mendelssohn. He was the idol of the town, had
an orchestra fiill of enthusiasm and devotion, a
first-rate coadjutor in David, who took much of
the mechanical work of the orchestra off his
shoulders ; and moreover he was relieved of all
business arrangements, which were transacted
by the committee, especially by H err Schleinitz.
Another point in which he could not but con-
trast his present position favourably with that
at DUsseldorf was the absence of all rivalry
or jealousy. The labour of the season however
was severe, and he " confesses that the first two
months had taken more out of him than two
years composing would do. The University of
Leipzig showed its appreciation of his presence
by conferring on him the degree of Phil. Doc in
"March.
Meantime Schelble's illness had cancelled the
arrangement for producing St. Paul at Frank-
fort, and it had been secured for the Lower
• FJf.l.4& i*A.]LZ.U8B»»a "n>kL10&
iXTeHmar.L.Deo.l(M88r. u A JC2. isa^ aS.
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MENDELSSOHK.
Bhme Festival of 1836 at DiisBeldorf. The Fes-
tival lasted firom May 22 to May 24 inclusive,
and the programmes included, besides the new
oratorio, the two overtures to Leonore, both in G,
'No. i' (then unknown) and * No. 3' ; one of Han-
del's ChiEmdos anthems, the Davidde penitente of
MoQut, and the Ninth Symphony. The oratorio
was executed with the greatest enthusiasm, and
produced a deep sensation. It was performed on
the 22nd, not in the present large music hall, but
in the long low room which lies outside of that and
below it, and is known as the Rittersaal, a too
confined space for the purpose. For the details of
the performance, including an escapade of one of
the raise witnesses, in whi^ the coolness and skill
of Fanny alone prevented a break-down, we must
refer to the contemporary accounts of Klingemann,
Hiller, and ^Polko. To Fnglish readers the in-
terest of the occasion is incraetsed by the fact that
Stemdale Bennett, then 20 years old, and fresh
from the Royal Academy of Music, was present.
Schelble*s illness also induced Mendelssohn to
take the direction of the fiunous Cftcilien^Verein
at Frankfort. Leipzig had no claims on him
after the concerts were over, and he was thus
able to spend six weeks at Frankfort practising
the choir in Bach's ' Gottes Zeit,' Handers 'Sam-
son,' and other works, and improved and inspired
th^ greatly. He resided in Schelble's house at
the comer of the ' Schone Aussicht,' with a view
up and down the Main. Hiller was then living
.in Frankfort ; Lindblad was there for a time ; and
Rossini remained for a few days on his passage
through, in constant ^ intercourse with Felix.
Mendelssohn's visit, to Frankfort was however
fraught with deeper results than these. It was
indeed quite providential, since here he met his
future wife, C^ile Charlotte Sophie Jeanrenaud,
a young lady of great beauty,, nearly ten years
younger tiian himself, the second daughter of a
clergyman of the French Reformed Church, who
had died many years before, leaving his wife (a
Souchay by family) and children amongst the
aristocracv of the town. The house was dose to
the Fahrthor, on the quay of the ' Main. Madame
Jeanrenaud was stiU young and good-looking,
and it was a joke in the family lliat she her-
self was at first supposed to be the object of
Mendelssohn's frequent visits. But though so
reserved, he was not the less furiously in love,
and ihose who were in the secret have told us
how entirely absorbed he was by his passion,
though without any sentimentality. He had
already had many a passing attachment. In-
deed, being at once so warm-hearted and so
peculiarly attractive to women — and also, it
should be said, so much sought by them — it is
a strong tribute to his self-control that he was
never before seriously or permanently involved.
On no former occa&don, however, is there a trace
of any feeling that was not due entirely, or
1 Bm The Mmlc^ World. June 17. 1«B (and Benedict'! 'Bkeloh.'
SI, SB) ; HfUflrt • Mendel woho.' fil ; and Folko. 43. a B. 86, ete.
* A peDdl-dmwlnff of Uie Main and the Fahrthor. wHhthe ' Bohtae
Aawlcht ' in the dtetance, taken from the Jeanrenaods' windows, has
the ibllowlnc inicripilon :— ' Vendu k Xendeluohn an prlz de I'execu-
Uoo d'un Bombre Indelermhi^ de 7ugues de J. S.Baeh. et de la C^ia
- HoadodamtaMHaiiro. LacuxB. k MontpelUer.'
▼OL. U.
MENDELSSOHK.
273
mainly, to some quality or accomplishment of the
lady, and not to her actual personality. In the
present case there could be no doubt either of ^
the seriousness of his love or of the fact that it *
centred in Miss Jeanrenaud herself, and not in
any of her tastes or pursuits. And yet, in order
to test the reality of his feelings, he left Frank-
fort, at the very height of Ms passion, for a
month's bathing at 'Scheveningen near the
Hague. His friend F. W. Schadow, the painter,
acoompazded him, and the restless state of his
mind may be gathered from his letters to * Hiller.
His love stood the test of absence triumphantly.
Very shortly after his return, on Sept. 9, the
engagement took * place, at Kronberg, near
Fraxikfort ; three weeks of bliss followed, and on
Oct. 2 he was in his seat in the Gewandhaus, at the
first concert of the season. The day after, Oct. 3,
in the distant town of Liverpool, * St. Paul' was
performed for the first time in England, under the
direction of Sir G. Smart. The season at Leipzig
was a good one; Stemdale*Bennett, who had come
over at Mendelssohn's invitation, made his first
public appearance in his own Concerto in C minor,
and the series closed with the Choral Symphony.
His engagement soon became known fax and
wide, and it is characteristic of Grermany, and
of Mendelssohn's intimate relation to all con-
cerned in the Gewandhaus, that at one of the
concerts, the Finale to Fidelio, ' Wer ein holdes
Weib errungen,' should have been put into the
progranune by the directors with speoal reference
to him, and tiiat he should have been forced into
extemporising on that sngffestive theme, amid the
shouts and enthusiasm ofnis audience. The re-
hearsals for the concerts, the concerts themselves,
his pupils, firiends passing through, visits to his
fianc^, an increasing correspondence, kept him
more than busy. Bennett was living in Leipzig,
and the two friends were much together. In ad-
dition to the subscription series and to the regular
chamber concerts, there were performances of Israel
in Egypt, with new oigan part by him, on Nov. 7,
and St. Paul, March 16, 1837. The compositions
of this winter are few, and all of one kind, namely
preludes and fugues for ^pianoforte. The wedding
took place on March 28, 1837, at the Walloon
French Reformed Church, FrankfcHrt. Fch' the
wedding tour they went to Freiburg, and into
the Palatinate, and by the '15th of May returned
to Frankfort. A journal which they kept to-
gether during the honeymoon is full of sketches
and droll things of aU kinds. In July they
were at Bingen, Horchheim, Coblenz, and Diissel-
dorf for some weeks. At Bingen, while swimming
across to Aamannshausen, he had an attack of
oramp which nearly cost him his life, and from
which he was only saved by the boatman. The
musical results of these few months were very
important, and include the 42nd Psalm, the
String Quartet in E minor, an Andante and
Allegro for P.F. in E ^still in MS.), the second
P.F. Concerto, in D minor, and the 3 Preludea
4 H. ch. ir ; F.H. II. 80; Der. 198.
• Letter to hU mother. F.H. iLtl; F.tg.
T FublUhed as Op. 96w Bee the Catalogue at e
• n«T.20a
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574
MENDELSSOHN.
And Fugues for the Orgui (op. 37). He wm
also in earnest correspondence with ^ Schubring
as to a second oratorio, on St. Peter.
It must have been hard to tear himself away
so soon from his lovely young wife^and indeed
he grumbles about it * lustily — but he had been,
en^iged to conduct St. Paul, andi to play the
organ and his new Pianoforte Concerto, a( the
Birmingham Festival Accordingly,. on Aug. 24,.
he left Diisseldorf for Rotterdam, crosswl to
Margate in the 'Attwood,* the same boat which
had taken him over in 1829, and on the 27th
is in London, on his fifth visit,, at Klingemann's
house, as cross as a man 'can well be. But this
did not prevent his setting to work with- Klinge-
mann at the plan of an oratonp on, * Elijah, over
which they had two mornings' consultation.
Before leaving London for Birmingham, he played
the organ at St. Paul's— ^on Sunday afternoon,.
Sept. 10— and at Christ Church,^Newgato Street,
on Tuesday morning, the 1 2th. It. was on the
former of these two occasions that the vergers,
finding that the congr^ration would not leave
the Cathedral, withdrew the organ-blower, and
let the wind out of the organ during Bach's
Prelude and Fugue in 'A minor — 'near the end
of the *fugue, before the subject comes in on the
Pedals.' At Christ Church he was evidently in
a good vein. He played ' six extempore fitntasias,'
one on a subject given at the moment, and the Bach
Fugue just mentioned. Samuel Wesley — our own
ancient hero, though 71 years old — was present
and played. It was liierally his Nunc dunittis :
he died in a mpnth from that ^dato. Mendels-
sohn's organ -playinff on these occasions was
eagerly watched. 1^ was the greatest of the
few great German organ-players who had visited
this country, and the English orgapists, some of
them no mean, proficients, learned, more than one
lesson from him, 'It was not,' wrote Dr. Gaunt-,
lett, ' that he played Bach for the fii^st, time
here, — several of us had done that. But he
taught us how to play the How fugue, for Adams
and others had. plaveid them too fiut. Hiawords
were, Youic organists think that Bach did not
write a flow fugue for the organ. Also he
brought ou^ a number of pedal-fugues which
were not known here. We had played a few,
but he icas the first to play ^the D major, the
G minpr, the E major,, the C minpi;, the short
£ minor,'* ete. Even in those that were known
he thr^w out points unsuspected before, as in
tiie A nvnor Fugue, wh^r^ he took the episode
on thQ. «Rell,. returning to the Gneat Organ
when, th^ pedal re-enters, but transferring the
E in, th« treble to the Greali Organ a bar
before the other parts, with very fine. * effect.
This shows that with aU his strictuMS he knew
how to break % rulp. One things which par-
ticularly struck our organists was the contrast
1 L. July IS. IfST. i F.X. IL 51. • H. .«».
* HU privAte JouriM]. Ha mentioned It to Mr. John C. Sorrier
^w the B. A.) during this visit.
A For a rtrj Intemtlog Account of thcM t«ro parfonMnov ^, Dr.
GaunUett tee The Musical World for appL 15. 1«07.
• Uls prirate Journal. t Oct. 11, IfflTT.
a m had learned these tlnoe h\» fMu Joamey. See Letter, Sept.
9, Its. » Mr. S. J. Hopkins's reouUecUon.
HENDELSSOHK.
between his massive effects and the lightnen of
his touch in rapid passages. The touch of the
Christ Church organ was both deep and heavy,
yet he threw off arpeggios as if he were at a
piano. His command of the pedal clavier was
also a subject of much ^remark. But we must
hasten on.. On the evening of the Tuesday he
attended a performance of his oratorio by the
Sacred Harmonic Society at Exeter Hall. Ho
had conducted, three rehearsals, but coidd not
oonduct. the performance itself, owing to the
l^ohibition. of the Birmingham committee. It
was the first, time he had heard St. Paul as a
mere listener, and his private journal says that
he found it ' very intwesting. His opiruon of
English, amateurs may be gathered from his
"letter to the Society, with which his journal
fully agrees. ' X can hardly express the gratiiica-
t9on I felt in hearing my work performed in bo
beautiful a manner, — indeed, I shall never wish
to hear some parte of it better executed than
they were on that night. The power of the
choruses — ^this large body of good and musical
voices — and. the style in whidi they sang the
whole of my music, gave me the highest and
most heartfelt treat; while I thought on the
immense improvement which such a number of
real amatewt must necessarily produce in the
country whichtmay boast of it. On the Wednes-
day he went to Birmingham, and remained there,
rehearsing and arranging, till the Festival began,
Tuesday, 19th. At the evening concert of that,
dav he extemporised on the organ, taking the
subjecto of his fugue from 'Your harps and
cymbals' (Solomon), and the first movement of
Mozart's Symphony in D, both of which had been
performed earlier in the day ; he also conducted
his Midsumtner Night's Dr^un Overture. On
Wednesday he conducted St. Paul, on Thursday
evening played his new Concerto in D minor,
and on. Friday moming,.the 23nd, Bach's Prelude
andj Fugue ('St. Anne's') in "Eb on the organ.
The applause throughout was prodigious, but it
did not turn his head; or prevent indigiumt
reflections on th^ treatment to which Neukomm
had been subjected,, reflectiona which do him
honour. Moreover, the applapse was not empty.
Mori and Novello were keen ooinpetitors for his
Concerto, and it became the prise of the former,
at what we should now consiaer a. very moderate
figure, before ite composer left Birmingham.
He travelled up by coach, reaching Lpndon at
midnight^ and was intercepted at thecoach<«ffice
by the eonmiittee of the Sacred Hannonic Society,
who presented him with a lai*ge silver ''^nuff-^
box, adorned with an inscription. He then went
straight.tbrough,.arrived in Frankfort on the ) 7th,
and, was at Leipzig at 2 pan. of the day of the
first concert^ Sunday, Oct. i . His house was in
Lurgenstein's (harden, off the Promenade the
first house on the left, on '*the second floor.
W'Mr.I^ncfQlD's raootleetian.
11 I have to thank Mr. HaBl(.aiid th« Cqninilttee.of tbe 9lH.S. fai
this and <Mher TalnaMe Inforastkm.
» For tfiese decafls see Musical World. ^evtiAtSmvp. 9Ma He had r*>
SQlred on thf Prelude and Fugue two months before. See Letter. JuljIS.
IS L. Oct. 4. IfflT. The box U with Dr. Paul Meodelssohn-Bartholdy.
u H. 140.
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The next few years were giTon chiefly to
Leipeig. He devoted all hie heart and M)ul1 to
the Grewandhaus Concerts, and was well repaid
by the increasing excellence of the perform-
ance and the enthusiasm of the audiences. The
principal feature of the series 1837-8 was the
appearance of Clara Novello for the first time in
Gennany — a fruit of his English experiences.
She sang first. at the concert of Not. 2, and re-
mained till the middle of. January, .creating an
extraordinary exdtemenl: But the programmes
had other features to recommend them. In Feb.
and March, 1838^ there were four historical con-
certs (I. Bach,.Handel, Gluck^ViOtti ; 2. Haydn,
Cimarosa, Naumaon, Righini ; 3. Mozart, Salieri,
MAul, Romberg; 4. Vogler, Beethoven, Weber),
which excited great interest. Mendelssohn and
David played Sie solo pieces, and it is easy to
imagine what* a. treat they must have been. In
the programmes of other concerts we find Beetho-
ven s* GlorreichaAugenblick,* andMendelssohn^s
own 4 2nd Psalm. His Serenade and Allegro gio-
joeo (op. 43) — like his Ruy Bias Overture, a
veritahle 'impromptu — was raoduced on April 2,
and his String Quartet in Jsb (op. 44, no. 3) on
the following day. ,
His domestic life ddring the spring of 1838
was not without anxiety. On Feb. 7 his first
ton was bom, afterwards named Carl Wolfgang
Paul, and his wife had a very dangerous 'illness.
This year he conducted the Festival ai Cologna
(June 3-6). He had induced the committee to
mclude a 'Cantata of<(Bach*B, then an entire
novelty, in the programme, which also contained
a selection from Haaders Joshua. . A silver cup
(Pokal) was presented to him at the ^close.
The summer was spent at Berlin, in the lovely
garden of the Leipziger Strasse, and was his
wife's first introduction to her husband's ^fiunily.
To Fdix it was a time of great enjoyment and
much productiveness. Even in, the early part
of the year ha had not allowed the work of the
concerts to keep him. from composition. The
String Qaartetin Eb, just^mentioned, the Cello
Sonata in Bb (op« 45), .the 95th Psalm, and
the Serenade and. Allegro giojoso are all dated,
during the hard work of the first four months
of 1838. The actual result of the summer
was another String Quartet (in D ; . opw 44,
no. I), dated *■ July 24, 38, and the Andante
Cantabile and Psseto Agitato in B (Berlin, June
23, 1838). The intended result ia a symphony
in Bb, which occupied him much,, which he
mentions more than ^once as complete in his
head, but of which, no trace on paper has yet
been found. He allndesjU) it in a latter to the
Philharmonic Society (Jan. 19, 1839) — answer?
ing their request for a symphony — as * begun 1
last year,* though it is doubtful if hift-oceupations
will aUow him to finish it in time for the 1839
nason. So -near were we to the possession of an
, > CoonlTad and compomA In two dAjs for Mme. Botgoncbek'f
eoM«rt. See Letter, April tlfflS. aH.ll&
* Lttter to J. A. NoreUo, in O. A H. 10S.* For AMeniloii Daj.
« A.1L2. IfflS. «». 6 P.M. 'L 57. »
* Atttocrmph tn powtfcm of the Btemdato-Bennetti.
f L. Jnlr 8QL 18»; Jane U. UBBi H. 128.
»tENDELSSOHN;
m
additional companion to the Italian and Scotch
Symphonies ! The Violin Concerto was also begun
in this ^ holiday, and he speaks of a * Psalm (pro-
bably the noble one for 8 voices, ' When Israel'),
a Sonata for P.F. and Violin (in '^'F, still in
MS.), and other things. He was now, too, in
l^e midst of the tiresome ^* correspondence with
Mr. Planch^, on tho subject of the opera which
that gentleman had agreed .to write, but which,
like MendelBSohn*s other negotiations on the
subject of operas, cune to nothing ; and there
is the usual large number of long and care-
fully written letters. He returned to Leipzig
in September, but was . again attacked with
"measles, on the eve, of a performance of St.
Paul, on Sept* 15. The attack was sufficient
to prevent liis conducting the first of the Ge-
wandhaus Concerts (Sept. 30) at which David
was his substitute. On Oct. 7 he was again at his
^post. The star of this series was Mrs. Alfred
Shaw, whose (Singing had pleased him very much
when last in England ; its one remarkable
novelty was Schul^rt's great Symphony in C,
which' hiwi been brought fit)m Vienna by Schu-
mann, and was first played in MS. on March
23| 1839, at the last oonoert of the series. It
was during thia autumn that he received from
Erard the Grand piano which became so well
known to his friends and pupils, and the prospect
of which he celebrates in a. remarkable letter
now in possession of that Firm.
Elijah is now fairly under way. After dis-
cussing, with his friends Bauer and Schubring
the subject of '* St. Peter, in terms which show
how completely the requirements of an oratorio
book were within his^grasp^ and anotiier subject
not very clearly indicated, but apparenUy ap-
proaching that which he afterwards began to treat
as ^Christus — he was led to. the contemplation
of that most picturesque and startling of the pro-
phets of ^he Old TestauMnt,. who, strange to say,
does not appear to Jiave been previously treated
by any known composer. Hifler tells **us that
the subject was suggested'. by the ^passage (i'
Kings xix. 11), * Behold, the Lord passed by.'
We- may accept the ficMSt more certainly than tiie
date (184a) at which Hiller places it. Such a
thing oeuld not but fix itself in the memory,
though the date might easily be confused. We
have already seen uiat he was at work on the
subject in the summer o£ 1S37, ^^^ * letter to
Schubring, dated Nov. 2, 38, diows that much
consultation had alreadjr taken place upon it
between Mendelssohn and himself, and that
considerable progress had been made in the con-
struction of ^the, book of r the oratorio. Mendels-
sohn had drawn up ai number of passages and
scenes il^ order, and had given them to Schu-
bring fori- consideration, ^s ideas are dramatic
enough for the stage ! A month later '* the matter
• L. Jal7 90. im. •&!«. M'Beriln.JiinelX18S8.*
n For the whole of thlf lee Mr. PUuich^'t ' BeoolleetioDfl and Refleo-
tloDS.' 1872. ehap. zzL Mr. Plendi^'i eaustle dedaoUoD» may well be
pardoned him even by those who moct dearly eee their want of foroe.
M A.M.Z. U3S. 648. » IMd. 086.
i* L. July 14. 1837. U L. Jan. IS, UBS. M H. 17L
n He liked a eentral potait for bis work. In St Peter It would have
ibe«i'tbe61ftofToosiMa;teeL.Jalyl4.U87. ^u L. Deo. 6» UW.
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'276
MENDELSSOHN.
has made farther progress, and hie judicious -dra-
luatio ideas are even'noFe confirmed; but the
mudc does not seem to be yet touched. Daring
the spring of 1839 he finished the 114th Psahn,
and wrote the Overture to Ruy Bias. This,
though one of the most brilliantly effective of his
works, was, with a -chorus for female voices,
literally conceived and executed d Vimprcviate
between a Tuesday evening and a Friday morn-
ing—a great part of Iwth Wednesday and
Thursday being otherwise occupied— and in
the teeth of an absolute aversion to the ^ play.
The perfonnance took ^ace at the theatre on
March 11, A letter to Miller, written a ' month
after this, gives a pleasant picture of his care
for bis friends. A great part of it is occupied
with the arrangements for doing Hiller's oratorio
in the next series of Grewandhaus Concerts, and
with his pleasure at the appearance of a favour-
able article on him in Schumann's 'Zeitung/
from which he passes to lament over the news of
the suicide of Nourrit, who had been one of his
circle in Paris in 183 1.
In May he is at Dtisseldorf, conducting the
Festival (May 19-21) — the Messiah, Beethoven's
Mass in C, his own 42nd Psalm, the Eroica, etc.
From this he went to Frankfort, to the wedding
of his wife's sister Julie to Mr. Schunck of Leip-
zig, and there he wrote the D* minor 'Trio;
then to Horchheim, and then back to Frank-
fort. On *Aug. 21 they were at home again in
Leipzig, and were visited by the Hensels, who
remained with them till Sept. 4, and then de-
parted for Italy. Felix followed them with a
long ^letter of hints and instructions for their
guidance on the journey, not the least charac-
teristic part of which is the closing injunction to
be sure to eat a salad of brocoli and ham at Naples,
and to write to tell him if it was not good.
The summer of 1839 had been an unusually fine
one ; the visit to Frankfort and the Rhine had
been perfectly successful ; he had enjoyed it with
that peculiar capacity for enjoyment which he
possessed, and he felt 'thoroughly * refreshed.'
He went a great deal into society, but found none
so charming as that of his wife. A delightful
picture of part of his life at Frankfort is given in
a letter to Klingemann of Aug. i, and still more
so in one to his ''mother. Nor was it only
delightful. It urged him to the composition of
part songs for the open air, a kind of piece which
he made his own, and wrote to absolute perfection.
The impulse lasted till the end of the winter, and
many of his best part-songs — including ' Love and
Wine,' 'The Hunter's Farewell,' 'The Lark'—
date from this time. In addition to these the sum-
mer produced the D minor Trio already men-
tioned, the completion of the 114th Psahn, and
f>ome fugues for the oiean, one of which was worked
into a sonata, while uie others remain in MS.
1 Letter. Mudi 18, ^sm. In bet U was only written at all beeaaie
the proeeeds of the oonoert were to go to the Widowi' ftind of the
orchetum. He Intiited on calling It 'The Overture to the Dramatie
rand.' a Lelpdv. April 15 ; H. p. 13S.
> The antocraph It dated-ln Morement. Frankfort. Junee ; Finale,
Frankfort. Jolj 1& 4 F.H. U. 8&
• Sept. U. ISn. •L.Aug.L 7L.Julj^Aiig.l.
MENDELSSOHN.
On Oct. a his second child, Marie, was bonu
Then came the christening, with a •visit ho/sa his
mother and Paul, and then Hiller arrived. He
had very recently lost his mother, and nothing
would satisfy Mendelssohn but that his friend
should oome and pay him a long 'vint, partly to
dissipate his thoughts, and partly to superintend
the rehearsals of his oratorio of Jeremiah the
Prophet, which had been bespc^en for the next
series of Gewandhaus * Concerts. Hiller arrived
early in December, and we recommend his de-
Bcription of Mendelssohn's home life to any one
who wishes to know how simply and happily a
great and busy man can Uve. Leipzig was proud
of him, his wife was very popular, and this was
perhaps the happiest period of his life. His love
of amusement was as great as ever, and his friends
still recollect his childish delight in the Cirque
Laiarre and Paul Cousin the clown.
The concert season of 1839-40 was a brilliant
one. For novelties there were symphonies by
Kalliwoda, Kittl, Schneider, and Vogler. Sdiu-
bert's 9th was played no less than three ^^times,
and one ^* concert was rendered memorable by
a performance of Beethoven's four Overtures
to Leonora-Fidelio. Mendelssohn's own 114th
Psalm was first performed 'sehr "glorios* on
New Year's Day, and the new Trio on Feb. 10.
The Quartet Concerts were also unusuaUy bril-
liant. At one of them Mendelssohn's Octet was
given, he and Kalliwoda playing the two violas ;
at another he "accompanied David in Bach's
Chaconne. then quite unknown. Hiller's oratorio
was produced on April 2 with great success.
Ernst, and, above all, Liszt, were among the. vir-
tuosos of this season; and for the latter of these
two great players Mendelssohn arranged a soirto
at tl^ Gewandhaus, which he thus epitomises —
'350 people, orchestra, chorus, punch, pastry,
Meeresstille, Psalm, Bach's Triple Concerto,
choruses from ^t. Paul, Fantada on Lucia, the
Erl King, the devil and his ^* grandmother' ; and
which luid the effect of somewhat allaying the
annoyance which had been caused by the extra
prices tmarged-at Liszt's concerts.
How, in the middle of all this exciting and
fatiguing work (of which we have given but a
poor idea), he found time for composition, and
for his large correspondence, it is impossible to
tell, but he neglected nothing. On the contrary,
it is precisely during this winter that he trans-
lates for his uncle Joseph, his father's elder
brother — a man not only of remarkable business
power but with considerable literary ability —
a number of difficult early Italian poems into
German verse. They consist of three sonnets
by Boccaccio, one by Dante, one by Cino, one
by Cecco Angioleri, an epigram of Dante's,
and another of Alfani's. They are printed in
the recent editions of the letters, and are ac<
companied by a letter dated Feb. ao, 1840,
• H. IfT. • H. 1S4.
w Dee.l3.18».1Iardil3and April8,10Mi The lecond perfiormaM*
was Interfnred with by a flr»ln the town,
u Letter, Jan. 4. IMa » Jan. «. 1840.
la Probably extempore : the pabllahod one Is dated boom jreara later.
M Letter. Karoh 80,1940.
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MENDEUSSOHN.
^eflcribing haif-hnmorously, halfpathetically, tlie
difficulty which the obecurities of the originalB
had giyen him amid all his profefidoiial labours.
With irrepressible energy he embraced the first
moment of an approach to leisure, after what he
describes as a-'reiUly overpowering^^ turmoil,* to
write a IcHig and oarefull^^studied^ official- com-
munication to the E^is-Director, or Home Mi-
nister of SuLony, urging that, a legacy recently
left by a certain-Herr Bltimner should be applied
to the formation of a solid music academy at
' Leipzig. This was business ; but, in addition,
daring all these months there are long letters
to fiiller, Chorley, his mother, Fanny, Paul,
and Fiirst (and remember tiiat only a small part
of thoee which he> wrote has been brought within
our reach) ; and yet he managed to compose
both the Lobgesang and the Festgesang for the
Festival in commemoration of the invention of
Printing, which was held in Leipzig on June 35,
the former of which is as characteristio-and im-
portant a work as any in the whole series of his
eompodtions. The music for both these was
written at the express request of the Town
Council, acting throagh a committee whose chair-
man was Dr. Raymond Hftrtel, and- the first
communication with Mendelssohn on the subject
was made abou^ the end of the previous July.
We know frodi Mendelssohn 'himself that the
title~*Symphonie Cantata' is due to Klingemanui
but the words are probably Mendelssolm's own
s^ection, no trace of any communication with
Schnbring, Bauer, or Fiirst being preserved in the
published letters or recollections, and the draft
of the words having vanished.
The Festival extended over two days, Wednes-
day and Thursday, June 34 and 35. On Tuesday
evening tliere was ar* Vorfeier* in the shape of
an opera by Lortzing, ' Hans Sachs,* composed
for the occasion. At 8 a.m. on- Wednesday was
a service in the church with a cantata by Rich-
ter (of Zittau), followed by the unveiling of the
printing press and statue of Gutenberg, and by
a performance in the open market-place of
Mendelssohn^ ^Festgesang for two choirs and
brass instruments* he conducting the one chorus
and David the-other. OnThuraday afternoon a
caacert w|m held ' in St. Thomas's- Church, com-
nsting of Weber's Jubilee Overture, Handers Det-
tingen Te Deum, and Mendelssohn's Lobgesang.
Hardly was this over when he went to
Schwerin with his wife, to conduct St. Paul
and other IbiW works, at a Festival there
(July 8-10). On the way back they stopped in
Berlin for ' three very pleasant ^days.' Another
matter into which at niis time he threw all his
devotion was the erection of a monument to
Sebastian Bach in front ef his old habitat at the
'Thomas School.' The- scheme was his *own|
and he urged it with characteristio heartiness.
iL.lbTdiaO.1Ma S L. April 8, IMft t'L.'Kar.U.lMO.
« The words of this ware bj Prof. FrOlss of FrelberB (N.ILZ. 1840. it.
7X Hm 'tUXtM' which it mentioned in tlie socounts was probably
•oaelhfaiff nereljteoiponrr. The ■eeond namberoftbeFestgettog.
alaptad to the words ' Hark, the herald angels sing/ is a nrj bToarite
hynn'tirae hi Knglaad.
»c.Laaa •XM.z.uo.i.iM.
MENDEI^SOHl^.
577
But dear as the name and fame of Bach were
to him, he would not consent to move till he
had obtained (from the town council) an in-
crease to the pay of the orchestra of the
Gewandhaus Concerts. For this latter object
he obtained 500 ^thalers, and on Aug. 10 gave
an organ performance Bolitsimo in St. Thomas's
church, by which he realised 300 'thalers. Even
^is he would not do without doing his very best,
and he describes to his mother how he had prac-
tised so hard for a week before 'that he could
hardly stand on his feet, and the mere walking
down tiie street was like playing 'a pedal pas-
sage.' After such a six months no wonder that
his health was not good, and that his ' physician
wanted to send hira to some Brunnen instead of
a Musical ^Festival.* To a Festival, however, he
went. The Lobgesang had not escaped the at-
tention of the -energetic Mr. Moore, wno managed
the music in Birmingham, and some time before
its first performance he had written to Mendels-
sohn with the view of securing it for the autumn
meeting. On July 31 Mendelssohn writes in
answer, agreeing to come, and making his stipu-
lations as to the other works to be "peorformed.
It was his sixth visit toEngland.
There was a preliminary rehearsal of the work
in London 'Under Moscheles's care. Mebdelssohn
arrived on "Sept. 8, visited all his London friends,
including the Al^anders, Hnrsleys, Moscheles,
and Klingemann (with whom he stayed, at 4
Hobart Place, Pimlico), went down to Birming-
ham with Moscheles, and stayed with Mr. Moore.
On Tuesday he played a fugue on the organ ; on
Wednesday) the asrd, conducted the Lobgesang,
and after it was over, and the public had left
the hall, played for three-quarters of an hour on
the^^organt The same day he played his G minor
Concerto at'the evening concert. On Thursday,
after a 'selection from Handel's Jephthah, he
again extemporised on the organ, this time in
public. The selection had dosed with a chorus,
the subjects of which be took for his ** improvisa-
tion, combining 'Theme sublime* with. 'Ever
futhful ' in a masterly manner. On his return
to town-*on- Sept. 30 — he played the organ at
St. Peter's, Gomhill— Bach's noble Prelude and
Fugue in E minor, his own in C minor (<^. 3 7, no. 1)
and F ^ minor, the latter not yet published —
* ji. ^A.
and other pieces, concluding with Bach's Passa-
caglia. Of this last he wrote a few bars as a
memento, which still ornament the vestry of the
»L.Feb.Trl84gi
• 13.000 thalers in aU were raised (N.M.Z. 18M. ii. U4).
• L. Aug. 10, IMa 10 LetterinaLS14: PoI]co.SSl.
11 P. ai. M Xofc IL W. » Mos. ILm
M From the reooOeetlons of Mr. Turle and the late Mr. Bowley.
19 I owe this to Miss Mounsey. the organist of the church. The
Fugue is among the M88. in the Berlin Bibliothek.
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278
MENDEI^SOHN.
church. He had intended to give a ^ Charity
Concert during his stay in London, after the
Festival, but it was too late in the season for
this, and he travelled from London with * Chorley
and Moscheles in the mail coach to Dover ; then
an 8 -hours* passage to Ostend.and^hy Li^ge and
Aix-la-Chapelle to Leipcig. It was Moscheles^
first introduction to C^ile.
The concerts had already -begun, on Oct. 4,
but he took his place at the second. The Lob-
gesang played a great part in the mosical life of
Leipsdg this winter. It was performed at the
special command of the King of Saxony at an
extra 'concert in October. Then Mendelssohn set
to work to make the alterations and additions
which the previous performances had suggested
to him, including tne scene of the watchman,
preparatory to a benefit performance on Dec. 3 ;
and lastly it was performed at the 9^ Gewand-
haus Concert, on Dec. 1 7, when both it and the
Kreutzer Sonata were commanded by the King
and the Crown Prince of Saxony. The altera-
tions were so serious and so universal as to
compel the sacrifice of the whole of the plates
engraved for the performance at Birmingham.
Now, however, they were final, and the woj^l was
published by Breitkopf & Hartel early in the
following year. Before leaving this we may say
that the scene of the watchman was suggested to
him during a sleepless night, -|i which the words
' Will the night soon pass ?* incessantly recurred
to his mind. Next morning he told Mr. Schleinite
that he had got a new idea for the liobgesang.
With 1 84 1 we arrive at a' period of Mendels-
sohn's life when, for the first time, a disturbing
anta^jTonistio element beyond his own control was
introduced into it, depriving him of that freedom
of acti(m on which he laid such great stress, re-
ducing him to do much that he was disinclined
to, and to leave undone much that he loved,
and producing by degrees a decidedly unhappy
effect on his life and peace. From 1I841 b^;an
the worries and troubles which, when added
to the prodigious amount of his legitimate work,
gradually robbed him of the serene happiness
and satisfiiotion which he had for long enjoyed,
and in the end, there can be little doubt, con-
tributed to his premature death. Freilerick
William IV, to whom, as Crown Prince, Men-
delssohn dedicated his three Concert- overtures in
1834, had succeeded to the throne of Prussia
on June 7, 1840; and being a man of much
taste and cultivation, one of his first desires was
to found an Academy of Arts in his capital^ to
be divided into the four classes of Pa'nting,
Sculpture, Architecture, and Music, each class to
have its Director, who should in turn be Super-
intendent of the whole Academy. In music it
was proposed to connect the class with the ex- '
isting establishments for musical education, and
with others to be formed in the future, all under
the control of the Director, who was also to carry
out a certain number of concerts every year, at
which large vocal and instrumental works were
I Bee hli Letter of July 21 in C t SUL
a Uus. IL 74 a Lotter. Oct t7. IMa
MENDELSSOHN.
to be performed by the Royal orchestra and the
Opera company. Such was the scheme which was
communicated to Mendelssohn by Herr von Mas-
sow, on Dec. 1 1, 1840, with an offer of the post of
Director of the musical class, at a salary of 3000
thalers (£450). Though much gratified by ihe
offer, Mendelssohn declined to accept it without
detailed 'information as to the duties ii^volved.
That information, however, oould only be afforded
by the Government Departments of Science, In-
struction, and Idedicine, within whose regulation
the Academy'lay, and on account of the necessary
changes and adjustments woiUd obviously re-
quire much consideration. Many 'letters on the
subject passed between Mendelssohn, his brother
Paul. Herr von Massow, Herr J^chhom the Min-
ister, Klingemann, the President ^Verkenius, firom
which it is not difficult to see that his hesitation
arose firom his distrust of Berlin and of the official
world which predominated there, and with whom
he would in his directorship be thrown into oon-
tact at every turn. He contrasts, somewhat
captiously perhaps, his freedom at Leipzig with
the trammels at Berlin ; the devoted, exc^ent,
vigorous orchestra of the one with the careless
perfunctory execution of the other. His radical*
roturier spirit revolted against the officialism
and etiquette of a great «ud formal Court, and
he denounces in £stinct terms 'the mongrel
doings of the capital — vast projects and poor per-
formances; the keen criticism anQ the slovenly
playing ; the liberal idea^mnd the shoals of sab-
servient courtiers; the Museum Mid Academy,
and the sand.'
To leave a place where his sphere of action was
so definite, and the results«o unmistakeably good,
as they were at Leipzig, for one in which the
programme was va^ue and the results at best pro-
islematical, was to him more ihan difficult. His
fixed belief was that Leipzig was one of the most
influential and Berlin one of the least influential
places in Germany in the matter of music ; and this
being hisconviction (rightly orwrongly) we cannot
wonder at his hesitation to forsake the one fcur the
other. However, the commands of a king are not
easily set aside, and the result was that by the
end of May 1841 he was living in Berlin, in the
old home of his family — to his great delight.^
His life at Leipzig during the winter of 1 840-41
had been unusually laborious. The interest of
the Conceit was fully maintained ; four very in-
teresting programmes, occupied entirely by Bach,
Handel, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, and
involving a world of consideration and minute
trouble, were given. He himself played fre-
quently; -several very important new works by
contemporaries — ^including symphonies by Spohr,
Maurer, and Kalliwoda, and the Choral Sym-
phony, then nearly as good as new — were pro-
duced, after extra ^careful rehearsals; and the
season wound up with Bach's Passion. In a
letter to ^Choriey of March 15 he calls his spring
4F.M.IU.e.
A It wu 4t this perfonnanos of the Chonl STmphonf that Scfan*
muin for the first tinnQ he&rd th« D in the Bus Trombone which
gfm so much life to the begUuilny of the Trio. Bee hit words la
N.M.Z. 1841. 1. 89. • C. L 834.
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MENDELSSOHN.
eampttgn 'the moit troublesome and Texatioiu'
he had eveac known; 'nineteen ooneerts nnoe
Jan. 1, and seven more to come, with at least
three rehearsals a week all through.* The amount
of general business and correspondence, due to
the constant rise in his £une and position, was
also alarmingly on the increase. In a letter to
his mother, Jan. 25, he tells of 35 letters written
in two days, and of other severe demands on his
time, temper, and judgment. And when we re-
member what his letters often are — the large
quarto sheet of ' Bath papery* covered at least on
three sides, often over the flaps of the fourth, the
dose straight lines, the regular, extraordinarily
neat writing, the air of accuracy and precision that
pervades the whole down to the careful signature
and the tiny seal — we shall not wonder that with
all this, added to the Berlin worries, he composed
little or nothing. *1 have neither read nor
written in the course of this music-mad winter,* '
says ^he, and accordingly, with one exception,
we find no composition with a date earlier than
the latter part of April 1841. . The exception
was a pianoforte duet in A, which he wrote
expressly to play with his frigid Madame Schu-
mann, at her concert on March 51. It is dated
Leipzig, March 33, 1841, and was published after
his death aa op. 93. As the pressure lessens,
however, and the summer advances, he breaks
out with some songs, with and withoult words,
and then with the '17 Serious Variations ' (June
4), going on, as his way was, in the same rut,
with the variations in Eb (June 25) and in *Bb.
It was known before he left Leipzig that it was
his intention to accept the Berlin poet for a
year only, and therefore H seemed "natural that
the * Auf Wiedersehen ' in his VolksUed, < Es ist
bestimmt,* should be rapturoudy cheered when
'sung by Schroder-Devrient to his own accom-
paniment, and that when serenaded at his de-
parture with the same song he should himself
jda heartily in its dosing * words. He took his
forewell, as we have said, with a performance of
Bach*s Passion, in St. Thomas's church, on Palm
Sunday, April 4, and the appointment of Kapell-
meister to the King of Saxony followed him to
Beriin.*
For some time aft^r his arrival there matters
did not look promising. But he had bound him-
self for a year. Many conferences were held,
at which little was done but to irritate him.
He handed in his plan for the Musical '*Aca-
demy, received the title of ''Kapellmeister to the
King of Prussia, the l^e in the lovely garden
at the Leipziger Strasse reasserted its old power
over him, and his hope and spirits gradually
returned. He was back in Leipzig for a few
weeks in July, as we find from his letters, and
from an Organ prelude in C minor, a perfectly
strict composition of 38 bars, written * this morn-
ing* (July q), on purpose for the album of Mr.
Dib^ of 'Edinburgh. He then began work in
Berlin. The King*s desire was to revive some
iCL»;alioL.fl.M. s Letter. July 18, IMl. aod 1I& Cat.
S8dKunaanin)f.lLZ.lS<l.LU8. « Der.flg.
•AJLZ.U41.fi6a aL-ILZaB; dfttedBerllD.Mii7ira&
1,806. •8MC«taiogiM at end or this article.
MENDELSSOHN.
27&
of the ancient Greek tragedies. He communicated
his idea to Tieck, the poet, one of the new
Directors; the choice feU on the Antigone of
Sophocles, in Donner*s new translation ; and
by * Sept. 9 Mendelssohn was in consultation
with Tieck on the subject. He was greatly
interested ^th the plan, and with the novd
task of setting a Greek dmma, and worked at it
with the greatest enthusiasm. By the 38th of
the same month he had made up his mind on
the questions of unison, melodrama, etc. The
first full stage rehearsal tooic place on the a 2nd,
and the .performance itself at the Neue Palais at
Potsdam on the 28th Oct., with a repetition on
Nov. 6. Meantime he had taken a house of his
own opposite the family residence. A temporary
arrangement had been made for the Gewandhaus
Concerts of this winter to be conducted by David,
and they began for the season on that footing.
Mendelssohn however ran over for a short time,
after ihe second performance of Antigone, and
conducted two of the series, and the concert for
the benefit of the orchestra, returning to Berlin
for Christmas.
On Jan. 10, 1 843, he began a series of concerts
by command of the king, with a performance of
St. Paul in the concert-room of the theatre ; but,
if we may believe Devrient, there was no cordial
understanding between him and the band; the
Berlin audiences were cold, and he was un-
comfortable. 'A prophet hath no honour in
his own country.* It must, however, have been
satisfactory to see the hold which his Antigone
was taking both in '* Leipzig and Berlin, in each
of which it was played over and over again to
crowded houses. During the winter he com-
pleted the Scotch Symphony, which is dated
Jan. 20, 1842. His sister*s Sunday concerts
were extraordinarily brilliant this season, on
account not only of the music performed, but of
the very distinguished persons who frequented
them ; Cornelius, Thorwaldsen, Ernst (a constant
visitor), Pasta, Madame Ungher-Sabatier, Liszt,
Bockh, Lepsius, Mrs. Austin, are spedmens of
the various kinds of people who were attracted,
partly no doubt by the music and the pleasant
r^unt'on^partly by the fact that Mendelssohn was
there. He made his escape to his bdoved Leipzig
for the production of the Scotch Symphony, on
^' March 3, but though it was repeated a week
later, he appears to have returned to Berlin.
He once more, and for the last time, directed the
DUsseldorfi Festival, on May 15-17 ; and passing
on to London, for his seventh visit, with his
wife, conducted his Scotch Symphony at the
Philharmonic amid extraordinary applause and
enthusiasm, on June 13, and played his D minor
Concerto tbere on the 27th, and conducted the
Hebrides, which was encored. The Philharmonic
season wound up with a fish dinner at Green-
wich, given him by the directors. On the 1 2th
he revisited St. Peter's, ComhiU. It was Sunday,
and as he came in the congregation were singing
• DeT.22aL
to First performanoe in Leipilff. March 5; In Berlin. April IS.
11 N.M.Z. 1842. i. 108.
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280 MENDELSSOHN.
a hymn to Haydn*B well-known tune. This he
took for the subject of his voluntary, and varied
and treated it for some time extempore in the
happiest and most scientific manner. On the
1 6th he paid a third visit to Christ Church,
Newgate Street, and it was possibly on that
occasion that he played an extempore fontasia on
Israel in Egypt which positively electrified those
who beard it. He also again treated Haydn's
Hymn, but this time as a fantasia and fugue, en-
tirely distinct from his performance of four days
*■ previous. On the 1 7th, at a concert of the Sacred
Harmonic Society at Exeter Hall, mostly con-
sisting of English Anthems, he played the organ
twice; first, Bach's so-called 'St. Anne's' Fugue,
with the great Prelude in Eb, and, secondly, an
extempore introduction and variations on the
Harmonious Blacksmith, ending with a fugue on
the same 'theme. After this he and his wife
paid a visit to their cousins in Manchester, with
the intention of going on to Dublin, but were
deterred by the prosp^ of the crossing* During
the London portion of this visit they resided with
his wife's relations, the Beneckes, on Denmark
Hill. He was very much in society, where he
always enjoyed himself extremely, and where his
wife was much admired ; and amongst other in-
cidents described in his letters to his 'mother are
two visits to Buckingham Palace, the first in the
evening of June ao, and the second on the after-
noon of July 9, which show how thoroughly the
Queen and Prince Consort appreciated him. On
the latter occasion he obtained Her Majesty's
permission to dedicate the Scotch Symphony
to *her. They left on July 10, and by the
middle of the month were safe at Frankfort, in
the midst of their relatives, ' well and bappv,*
and looking back on the past month as a *ae-
lightful ^journey.' August was devoted to a
tour in Switzerland, he and Paul, with their
wives. Montreux, Interlaken, the Oberland, the
Furka, Meiringen, the Grinisel, are all men-
tioned. He walked, composed, and 'sketched
furiously*; visited the old scenes, found the old
landladies and old guides, always glad to see
him ; his health was perfect, his mood gay, and
all was bright and happy, save when the spectre
of a possible prolonged residence in * Berlin in-
truded its unwelcome form. On Sept. 3 they were
at ^Zurich, on the 5th, 6th, and 7th at the Rigi
and 'Lucerne. While at Zurich he visited the
Blind Institution, spent two hours in examining
the compositions of the pupils, prais^ and en-
couraged them, and finished by extemporising on
the piano at great * length. On his return, he
stayed for a gay fortnight at Frankfort. HiUer,
Charles Halle, and their wives were there, and
there was much music made, and a great open-
1 On the authority of Mm Monntej. Mr. K. J. HopUns, ud the
AthouBum. June IS, 1842,
3 AUm Newspaper, June 18 ; Musical World. June 29L
SL. June 21. IMS; Q.aM.141.
«G. AM. 14ft •Ibld.l4L
> L. Ang. U. ina, 7 L. Sept. 8. ISIS.
• Diary of Mr. Ella. The above dates preclude the pomnjllHy of
hU baring attended the Mosart PeMlval at Salsburf on Sept 4 and &
There is no traoe of his haTing bean inrlted. and the taU report In the
A Jf.Z. (1843, 788. 806). while fflrtng the names of sereral musiclaos
present, does not allude to him. • A.M»Z. 1843, 8(17.
MENDELSSOHN.
air ^^fdie at the Sftndhof, with part-songs, tableaux
vivantit etc., etc. A very characteristic and beau-
tiful letter to Simrock, the publisher, xxrgimg
him to accept some of Hiller^s compositions (an
appeal promptly responded to by that excellent
personage), dates from this "time. So well was
the secret kept that Hiller never knew of it till
the publication of the letter in 1863.
An anecdote of this period may be new to some
of our readers. During the summer the King of
Prussia had conferred on Mendelssohn, in com-
pany with Liszt, Meyerbeer, and Rossini, the great
honour of the * Ordre pour le " M4rite,* and the
order itself reached him at Frankfort. He set
no store by such distinctions, nor perhaps was its
Berlin origin likely to increase the value of this
particular one. Shortly after it arrived he was
taking a walk with a party of friends across the
bridge at Offenbach, One of them (Mr. Speyer)
stayed behind to pay the toll for the rest. ' Is
not that,' said the toUkeeper, ' the Mr. Mendels-
sohn whose music we sing at our society ?* 'It
is.' * Then, if you please, I should like to pay
the toll for him myself.* On rejoining the party,
Mr. Speyer told Mendelssohn what had hap-
pened. He was enormously pleased. ' Hm, said
he, I like that better than the Order.* »»
He took Leipzig on his way to Berlin, and
conducted the opening concert of the Gewand-
haus series on Oct. a, amid the greatest enthusiasm
of his old friends. A week later and he was in
Berlin, and if anything could show how uncon-
genial the place and the prospect were, it is to
be found in his letter to HiUer, and even in the
Italian jeu d^esprit ^* to Hiller*s wife. It is as
if his very teeth were set on edge by everything
he sees and hears there. Nor were matters
more promising when he came to close quarters.
A proposition was made to him by the minister
immediately after his arrival that he should act
as superintendent of the music of the Protestant
Church of Prussia, a post at once vague and vast,
and unsuited to him. At the same time it was
now evident that the plans for the organisation of
the Academy had failed, and that l^ere was no
present hope of any building being erected for
the music school. Under these circumstances,
anxious more on his mother*s account than on
his own not to leave Berlin in disgrace, in fact
ready to do anything which should keep him in
connection with the place '^ where she was, he
asked and obtained a long private interview with
the King, in which His Majesty expressed his in-
tention of forming a« choir of about 30 first-rate
singers, with a small picked orchestra, to be avail-
able for church music on Sundays and Festivals,
and to form the nucleus of a lai^ body for the
execution of grand musical works. Of Uiis, when
formed, he desired Mendelssohn to take the com-
mand, and to write the music for it ; meantime he
was to be at liberty to live where he chose, and —
his own stipulation — to receive half the salary
previously granted. The King evidently had the
IPH.187. " 8ept2I.18<S:H.18B. » A.M.Z. 164S^ SBi.
» Told to the writer bjr the son of Mr. Speyer.
M Oct. 8; H. IM. u L. Not. 28, 184S.
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MENDELSSOHN.
mttter very doeely at heart. He was, says Men-
delflK^in, quite fliulied with pleasure, oould hardly
contain lumael^ and kept repeating *You can
scarcelythinkmno of going away.* When kings ask
in this style it is not for subjects to refuse them.
Moreover Mendelssohn was as much attracted
by the King as he was repelled by the official
etiquette of his ministers, and it is not surprising
that he acceded to the request. The interyiew
was followed up by a letter from His Majesty
dated 'Nov. 2 a, containing an order constituting
the Domchor or Cathedral choir, conferring on
Mendelssohn the title of Generalr Music JMrector,
with a salary of 1500 thalers, and giving him the
superintendence and direction of the church and
lacred music as his special province.
This involved his giving up acting as Gapell-
meirter to the King of Saxony, and for that pur-
pose he had an interview with that ^monarch at
Dresden, in which he obtained the King's consent
to the application of the Bliimner legacy to his
dailing scheme of a Conservatorium at I^ipzig.
Thus then * this long, tedious, Berlin businesa*
was at length apparently brought to an end, and
MendelsBohn was back in his beloved Leipzig,
snd with a definite sphere of duty before him in
Berlin, for he had learnt in the meantime that
he was at once to supply the King with music
to Racine^s Athalie, toe Midsummer Night's
Bream, The Tempest, and (Edipus 'Colon^us.
This, with the proofs of the Scotch Symphony
and Antigone to correct, with the Walpurgis-
night to complete for performance, the new Con-
servatorium to ocganise, the concerts, regular
and irregular, to rehearse and conduct, and a
vast and increasing correspondence to be kept
up, was enough for even his deft and untiring
pair of hands. He is cheerful, enough under it, and
although he complains, in one letter that com-
position is impossible, yet in the next letter
Athalie, CEdipus,. the Midsummer NightU
Dream, the Walpurgisnight, and the new Cello
Sonata are beginning again, to fill his brain, and
he finds time to be pleasant, over old Madame
SchrSder, and to urge the claims of his old
Meiringen guide to a^ place in Murray^s * Hand-
book. In the midst of all this whirl he lost
his mother, who died in the same rapid and
peaceful manner that his father had, done. She
was taken ill on the Sunday evening — her hus-
band's birthday — and died before noonon Monday
Dec. 13 — so quickly that her son's ^letter of the
I ith cannot have reached her. The loss affected
him less violently than that of his father had
done, perhaps because he was now older and too
hard-worked, and also because of the home-life
and ties by which he was surrounded. But it
caused him keen suffering, from which he did not
soon recover. It brings into strong relief his
love of the family bond, and his fear lest the
disappearance of the point of union should at all
separate the brothers and sisters ; and he pro-
poses, a touching offer for one whose pen was
already so incessantly occupied, that he should
1 "L Dec. 6. IMS. 9 Letter to KUnvemann. Nor. 23.
UbkL 4L.K0T.9BMidaS; comp.SepC.38. » L. Dee. U.
MENDELSSOHl^.
281
write to one of the three every week, and the
communication be thus maintained with oer-
tainty.*
The house now became his, but the hesitation
with which he accepts his brother's proposal to
that effect, lest it should not be acceptable to his
sisters or l^eir husbands, is eminently character^
istio of his delicate and unselfish generosity.^
He admits that his mother's death has been a
severe trial, and then he drops an expression
which shows how heavily the turmoil of so busy
a life was beginning to press upon him: — 'in
fact everything that I do and carry on is a
burden to me, unless it be mere passive exist-
ence.' This may have been the mere complaint
of the moment, but it is unlike the former
buoyant Mendelssohn^ He was suffering too
from. what appears to have been a serious cough.
But work came to his relief ; he bad some scoring
and copying to do which, though of the nature of
' The sad meehaiiio exercise,
Like duU narootios numbing pain,' 8
yet had- its own charm — ' the pleasant intercourse
with the old familiar oboes and violas and the
pest, who live so muoh longer than we do, and
are such fiuthful ^friendS}* and thus kept him
from dwelling on his sorrow. And there was
always so much in the concerts to interest and
absorb him. The book of Elijah too was pro-
gressing fftst, and his remarks on it show how
anxious he was to make it as ^^^dramatic as pos-
sible. And he stiU clung, though as fastidiously
as ever, to the hope of getting an opera-book. A
long ^^ letter in fS*ench to- M. Charles Duveyrier,
dated Jan. 4, 1843, discusses the merits of the
story of Jeanne d' Arc for the purpose, and decides
that Schiller's play has preoccupied the ground.
At the concert of Feb. 2, 1843, ^^^ Walpurgis-
night was produced, in a very different condition
frran that in which it was performed at Berlin
just 10 years before, in Jan. 1833. He had re-
written the score *from A to Z,' amongst other
alterations had added two fresh airs, and had at
length brought it into- the condition in which it
is now so well known and so much liked. On
Jan% 13 a Symphony in C minor, by Gade, of
Copenhagen, was rehearsed. It interested Men-
delssohn extremely, and gave- bim an opportunity
to write a ^letter full of sympathy and encourage-
ment to. the distant and unknown composer, one
of those letters which were native to him, but
which are too seldom written, and for more of
which the world would be all the better. The
work was produced on March a, amid extra-
ordinary applause. Berlioz visited Leipzig at
this time, and gave a concert of his compositions.
Mendelssohn and he had not met since they
were both at Bome, and Berlioz was foolish
enough to suppose that some raillery of his might
be lurking in Mendelssohn's memory, and prevent
his being cordially welcomed. But he was soon
undeceived. Mendelssohn wrote at *'once offering
• L. Dec. 22. t IbkL • 'In Memoiiam.' t.
• Letter. Jan. IS. 184S. >• To Schubiing. L. ii. 29&
n lamindebtedforthUtoMr.J.BoMentbal. u L. Jan. IS. ]§4S.
IS Jan. 2S. Letter now In the poesewion of A. O. Kurtz. E«q.. of
Liverpool. In printing It Berlioz has shortened It by a half, and sadly
garbled it by correcting the French 1
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882 MENDELSSOHN.
him ihe room and ihe orchestra of the Gewand-
haus, on the moet favourable terms, and asking
him to allow one of his works to be played at
the approaching oonoert (Feb. a a) for the Benefit
of the Orchestra. An aooount of the whole>
with copious souvenirs of their Roman acquaint-
ance (not wholly uncoloured), will be found in
Berlioz's 'Voyage musical,' in the letter to
^ Heller. It is enough here to say that the two
oomposer<KX>nduotors exchanged b&tons, and that
if Berlioz did not convert L^pzig« it was not for
want of an amiable reception by Mendelssohn
and David. On March 9 an interesting extra
concert was 'given under Mendelssohn's diireotlon,
to commemorate the first subscription concert, in
1 743. The first part of the programme contained
compositions by former Cantors, or Directors of
the Concerts — Doles, Bach, J. A. Hill», and
Schicht, and by David, Hauptmann, and Men-
delssohn (114th Psalm). The second part con-
sisted of the Choral Symphony.
Under the modest ^tle Of the Music School
the prospectus of the Conservatorium was issued
otf Jan. 16, 1843, with the names of Mendels-
sohn, Hauptmann, David, Schumann, Pohlens,
and C. F. Becker as the teachers ; the first trial
was held on March 27, and on 'April 3 it was
opened in the buildings of the Gewandhaus.
^us one of Mendelssohn's most cherished wishes
was at last accomplished. A letter on the subject
to Moscheles, dated April 30, is worth notice
as showing how practical his ideas were on
business matters, and how sounA his judgment.
On Sunday, ^ April 33, he had the satisfaction
of conducting the concert at the unveiHng of the
monument to Sebastian Bach, which he had
originated, and for which he had worked so
earnestly. The programme consisted entirely of
Bach's music, in whidx Mendelsscdm hinuelf
played a concerto. Then the monument was
unveiled, and the proceedings •ended with Bach's
8*part motet ' Singet dem Herm ein neues Lied.*
Such good services were appropriately acknow-
ledged by the Town Council with the honorary
freedom of the city (£hrenburgerrecht)i*
About this time he nubde ^e acquaintance 'of
Joseph Joachim, who came to Leipzig from
Vienna as a boy of 12, attracted by the fame
of the new music school, and there began a
friendship which grew day by day, and only
ended with Mendelssohn's death.
On May i his fourth child, Felix, was bom.
On account no doubt partly of his life's health,
partly also of his own — for it is mentioned that
he was seriously unwell at the dedication of the
Bach monument — but cluefiy perhaps for the
sake of the Conservatorium, he took no journey
this year, and, excepting a visit to Drenden to
conduct St. Paul, remained in Leipzig for the
whole sunmier. How much his holiday was
interfered with by the tedious, everlasting affair
of Berlin— orders and counter-orders, and counter-
• And fn Berltox'i M(hno1rM. a N.ILZ. U43. i. 9&
> M.1LZ. 184S. i. 102. Hauptmum. letter to Spohr. Feb. 6, 4S. mjv,
■Our muBle-Khool is to beglQ in April, but not oo the 1st. Mendeb-
■ohn thought tha* unludcy.'
« Bee LampMUtts, 127 iXJLZ. IMS. 1.144. • A JLZ. 1849^ SS4.
MEKDEIiBSOHK.
oounter-orders — ^may be seen from his 'letten,
though it is not necessary to do more than allude
to them. By the ^ middle of July he had completed
the Midsummer Niffht's Dream music, had written
the choruses to Auialie, and made more than a
start with the music to CEdipus, and some pro-
gress with a 'new Sjrmphony ; had at the last
moment, under a pressing order from Court,
arranged the ch(MtJe * Herr Gott, dich loben wir'
(Te I^um) for the celebration of the loooth anni-
versary of the empire, ' the longest chorale and
the most tedious job he had ever had,* and had
also, a still harder task, answered a long official
letter on the matter of his post, whidi appeared
to contradict all that had gone before, and cost
him (in his own words) * four thoroughly nasty,
wasted, disagreeable days.'
He therefore went to Beiiin early in August,
and OB the 6th conducted the music of the anni-
versary; returned to Leipzig in time to join
his friend Madame Schumann in her husbuid*s
lovely Andante and Variations for a Pianofortes
at Madame Viardot's concert on ' Aug. 19, and
on Aug. 45 was pursued thither by oilers for a
performance of Antigone, and the production of
the Midsummer Night's Dream and Alhalie in
the latter half of September. At that time none
of the scores df these. works had received his
final touches ; Athalie indeed was not yet scored
at all, nor was a note of the overture written.
Then the performances are postponed, and then
immediately resumed at the former dates ; and
in the end Antigone was g^en on *®Sept. 19, in
ihe Neue Palais at Potsdam, and the Midsummer
Night's Dream at the same place — after 1 1 "re-
hefursals^n ^Oot. 14, and on the i8th, 19th,
20th, and 21st at the King's Theatre in Berlin.
The music met with enthusiastic applause each
time-; but the play was for long a subject
of wonder to the Berliners. Some disputed
whether Tieck or Shakspeare were the author ;
others believed that ShaJcspeare had translated
it from German into English. Some, in that
refined atmosphere, were shocked by the scenes
with the clowns, and annoyed that the King
should have patronised so low a piece; and a
very distinguished personage "^ expressed to Men-
delssohn hunself his regret that such lovely music
should have been wasted on so poor a play — a
little scene which he was very *'fond of mimicking.
— Antigone procured him the honour of member-
ship of the Philologen-versammlung of '' Cassel.
Mendelssohn's position at Berlin had now ap-
parently become so permanent that it was neces-
sary to make proper provision for filling his place
at the Leipzig concerts, and accordingly Ferdi-
nand Hiller was ^engaged to conduct them during
• L. July n. 98. Auf. ». Sept. 16. 18ST.
7 L. Jul J «L • F.M. ili. »-• oiArsehlrt Ungnm.*
• N.M.Z. 1848. ii. 06; Lampftdlu*. Joftchim made hU first appear-
ance at this concert. lo Dev. 245.
II H. 213. Tltfl band was small— only 6 first and 6 second fiddles ; but
' the very pick ofthe orchestra ' (Joachim).
u On the 14th M endelMohn was called for. but did not appear :
FJL liL SI.
11 F.M. ilL TS. These oourt-people were only repeating what the
Italian rniagers had said to him In iSSL See Letter. July 4. 18S1.
u llr. Bartoris's recollection. U AJLZ. 1843, £DL
U1L212; N.1LZ. 1843. IL U&
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JiEKDEi;3S0HN.
his abienoe. The fizst of the series Was on Oct.' i.
Hiller conducted, and Felix supported bis friend
by playing his G minor Gonccorto. Two days
afterwards, on Oct. 3, he writes a long oommuni-
oation to the town council of Leipzig, praying for
an increase in the salaries of the town-orchestra
for their services at the theatre. On Oct. 30 he
joined Mad. Schumann and Hiller in the triple
concerto of Bach ; on Nov. 18 there was a special
£stfewell concert at which he played his new
Cello Sonata (op. 58), and which closed with bis
Octet, he and Gade taking the two viola parts ;
and by Nov. 35 be had 'left Leipzig * with wife
and (jiildren, and chairs and tables, and piano
and 'everything,* and. was in Berlin, settled in
the <^d £uuily house, now his own. On the
30th he conducted the first of the weekly sub-
scription concerts, which he and Taubert directed
alternately, and at which he often played. With
all his aversion to the Berlin musicians he was
obliged to acknowledge that, in some respects at
least, the orchestra was good. *What pleases
me most,* he says to his old friend and confidant
David, ' are the Basses, because they are what
I am not so much accustomed to. The 8 cellos
ftnd 4 good double-basses give me sometimes
great satisfaction with their 'big tone.* Then
came performances of the Midsummer Night*8
Dream music, of Isradin Egypt, entertainments
sind dinners — which amused him notwithstand-
ing all his dislike to aristocrats — and Fanny*s
Sunday performances. Once immersed in life
and music, and freed from official oorrespondenoe
and worries, he was quite himself. ''He is,*
says his sister, ' indescribably dear, in the best of
tempers, and quite splendid, as you 'know he can
be in his best times. Every day he astonishes
me, because such quiet -intercourse as we are
having is a novelty to me now, and he is so
versatile, and so original and interesting on every '
subject, that one can never cease to wonder at 'it.*
His favourite resort during his later Berlin life
was the houseof Professor Wichmann thesculptor,
in the Hasenjager (now Feilner) Strasse. Wich-
mann*8 wife was a peculiarly pleasant artistic
person, and their circle included Magnus the
painter, Taubert, Werder, Count Redem, and
other distinguished pec^le, many of them old
friends of Mendel8solm*s. There, in 1 8*44, he first
met Jenny Lind. The freedom of the life in this
truly artistic set, the many excursions and other
pleasures, delighted and soothed him greatly.
Christmas was kept royally at his house ; he
was lavish with presents, of which he gives Re-
becka (then in Italy) a *list. A very character-
istic Christmas gift to a distant 'friend was the
testimom'al, dated Berlin, Dee. 17, 1843, which
he sent to Stemdale Bennett for use in his contest
for the professorship at Edinburgh, and which, as
it does credit to both these great urtists, and has
never been published in any permanent fonn, we
take leave to print entire, m his *own English.
1 To XaeftuTBO. O. * M. IWi > MS. letter. Dee. 19. IMS.
>r.lLIIUi». 4ItiM.91. sitrMcbedblmontheSSrd.
> I ua tDfdflbtod to Mr. J. R. & Bennett for aa ezmct oopj of this
HENDELSSOmr.
!28S
My deab Friend,
BBBLDf, Dee. 17, 1813.
I hear that you proclaimed yourself a Candidate for the
madcal Profesaonihip at Edinburgh, and that a testimo-
nial which I might send could possibly be of use to you
with the Authorities at the University. Now while I
think of writing such a testimoniaJ for you I feel
Srond and ashamed at the same time—proud, because I
iiink of all the honour you have done to your art, 'your
country, and vourself, and because it is on such a
brother-artist that I am to give an opinion— and ashamed,
because I hare always followed your career, your com-
positions, Tour successes, with so true an interest, that
I feel as if it was my own cause, and as if I was myself
the Candidate for such a place. But there is one point of
view from which I might be excused in venturing to give
still an opinion, while all good and true musicians are
unanimous about the subject : perhaps the Council of the
University might like to know what tre (irrman people
think of you. how we consider you. And then, I may tell
them, that if the prejudice which formerly prevailed in
this country a^nst the musical talent of your Country
has now subsided, it is chiefly owing to you, to your
compositions, to your jpersonal residence in Germany.
Your Overtures, ^onr Concertos, your vocal as well a«
instrumental Compositions, are reckoned by our best and
severast authorities amongsf the first standard works of
the present musical period. The public feel never tired
in listening tt>, while the musicians feel never tired in
Krformlng, yourConiposltions; and tince they took root
the minds of the true amateurs, my countrymen be-
came aware that music is the same in Knglaud as in
Germany, as everywhere ; and so by your successes here
you destroyed that prejudice which nobody could ever
have destroyed but* true Genius. This is a service you
have done to English as well as German municians. and
I am stDre thai^your oonntrymen will not aoknowleage it
less readily than nline have already done.
Shall I still add, that the Science in your works Is aa
great as their thoughts are elegant and nmciful— that we
consider your performance on the Piano as masterly as
your Conducting of an Orchestra ? that all this is the
geneAJ judgment of the best musicians here, as well as
my own personal sincere opinion ? Let me only add that
I wish you success from my whole heart, and that I shall
be truly happy to hear that you have met with it.
Always yours, sincerely and truly,
Felix Mendelssohn Babtholdt.
2b "W.^TSRNDALB -Bennett, Esq.
His exertions for his friend did not stop at this
testimonial, but led him to write several long
letters pressing his-claims in the strongest terms,
the drute of which will be found in the ' green
books' at Leipziff. The professorship, however,
was not bestowed on Mr. Bennett.
The compositions of the winter were chiefly
for the Cathedral, and include the fine setting
of the 98th Psalm (op. 91) for 8-part choir and
orchestra, for New Yearns Day, 1844 ; the and
Psalm, for Christmas, with chorales and 'Sprtiche,'
and pieces 'before the Alleluja*; also the looUi
Psalm, -the 43rd ditto, and the 34nd, for Good
Friday, for 8 'Voices, each with its 'Spruch* or
anthem— and 7 psalm-tunes or chorales with
trombones. At these great functions the church
was BO full ^that not even Fanny Hensel could
get a place. The -lovely solo and chorus, * Hear
my prayer,' for voices and orgau, belongs to this
time. It is dated Jtfn. 25, 1844, and was written
for Mr. Bartholomew, the careful and laborious
translator of his works into English, and sent to
him in a "letter dated Jan. 31. Also the duets
^ F.M. iU. 99.
8 Polko. ffiQ. It wu ori^nsll7 irrltten with sn organ aocompsnl-
ment, but Mendeliuohn afterwsrds scorfd It at the iustano« of Mr.
JoMph Robinson of Dublin. How It ouna to be dedicated to Taubert
ii not discoverable.
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284
MENDELSSOHN.
'Maiglbckchen,' 'Volkslied/ and 'Herbstlied*
(op. 63, nos. 6, 5, and 4), and many songs, with
and without words. The concerts finished with
a magnificent performance of Beethoven's 9th
Symphony on March 37, and on Pabn Sunday
(March 31) Israel in Egypt was sung in St.
Peter's church. The rehearsals for these two
difficult works, new to Berlin, had been extremely
troublesome and fatiguing.
At the end' of February he veceived a letter
from the Philharmonic Society of London, offer-
ing him an engagement as Conductor of the last
six concerts of the season. He looked forward
with delight to an artistic position 'of such tre-
mendous ^distinction," and which promised him
the opportunity of doing a service to a ' Society
to which he felt perscmally indebted; and on
March 4 he writes ' with a feeling of true grati-
tude ' accepting for Ave ' concerts. Meantime
the old annoyances ancl heartburnings at Berlin
had returned. Felix had been requested by the
King to compose music to the Eumenides of
.^Eschylus, and had replied that the difficulties
were immense, and perhaps insuperable, but that
he would try; and in conversation with Tieck
he had arranged that as the work could only
be given in the large new opera-house, which
woidd not be opened till Dec* 15, it would be
time enough for him to write his music and
decide whether it was worthy of performance,
after his return from England. Notwithstand-
ing this, he received, as a parting gift,, on April
28, a long, solemn, ahnosft scolding, letter from
*Bunsen, based on the assumption that he had
refused to undertake the task, and expressing
the great disappointment and annoyanoe of the
King. No wonder that Mendelssohn's reply,
though dignified, was more than warm. It
appeared to him that some person or persons
about the Ck>urt di&believed in the. possibility of
his writing the music, and had pressed their own
views on the King as his, and he was naturally
and justifiably angry. A dispute with the sub-
scribers to the Symphony Concerts, where he had
made an innovation on ancient custom by intro-
ducing ^ solos, did. not tend to increase his affec-
tion for Berlin.
His presence was necessary on Easter Day
(April 7) in the Cathedral, but by the end of the
month he had left Berlin with his family. On
May 4 they were all at Frankfort^ and by the
loth or iith he himself was settled in London
at Klingemann's house, 4 Hobart Place. This
was his eighth visit. He conducted the Phil-
harmonic Concert of May 13, and each of the
others to the end of the series, introducihg, be-
sides works already known, his own Midsummer
Night's Dream music, and the Walpurgisnight,
as well as Beethoven's Overture to Leonora,. No. i,
the Ruins of Athens, Bach's Suite in D, Schubert's
Overture to Fierrabras, and playing Beethoven's
Concerto in G (June 24), then almost a novelty to
an English audience. He had brought with him
Schubert's Symphony in C, and Gade's in C
ir.lf.llL 92. s L. July 19. 1844. •Hoguth,82.
« L. April S8. 1S44. * Umiwdliu. ISS.
MENDELSSOHN.
minor, and his own Overture to Buy Bhis. Bui
the reception of the two first at the trial by the
band was so cold, not to say * insulting, as to
incense him beyond measure. With a magnan-
imity in which he stands alone among composers,
he declined to produce his own Overture, and it
was not publicly played in y^gUnd till after his
death.^
With the directors of the Philharmonic his in-
tercourse was most harmonious. ' He attended
their meetings, gave them advice and assistance,
and showed the warmest interest in the success of
the concerts and the wel&re of the 'Society.' By
the band he was received with * rapture and * en-
thusiasm.' And if duriog the earlier concerts
one or two> of the players acted in exception to
this, the occurrence only gave Mendelssohn the
opportunity of showing how completely free he
was from ranoour or penonal ^^ feeling. No wonder
that the band liked him. The band always likes
a conductor who knows what he is about. His
beat, though very quiet^ was certain, and his
face was always full of feeling, and as expressive
as his baton. There are some of the players still
remaining who recollect it well. No one perhaps
ever possessed so completely as he the nameless
magic art of inspiring the band with his own
feeling; and this power was only equalled by
his tact and good-nature. It is still remembered
that he always touched his hat on entering the
orchestra fov rehearsal. He waa sometimes huaty,
but he always made up for it afterwards. He
would run up and down ta a distant desk over
and over again till he had made the meaning of
a difficult passage clear to a player. If this good
nature failed, or he had to deal with obsUmM^,
as a last resource he would try irony— some-
times veiy severe. Such pains and tact as this
is never thrown away, llie band played as if
under a new influence. The season was most
successful in> a pecuniary sense ; Hanover Squai«
Rooms had never been so orammed ; as much as
1 20 guineas were taken on single nights in excess
of the usual receipts; and whereas in 184a the
loss had. been ^£300, in 1844 nearly jC4CX> were
added to the reserve "fund. Among the events
which combined to render this series of concerts
historical were the first appearances of Ernst
(April 15), ** Joachim (May 27), and Piatti (June
24). His playing of the Beethoven G major
Concerto on June 24 was memorable, not only
for the magnificence of the performance, but for
some circumstances attending the rehearsal on
the previous Saturday. He had not seen the
music of the concerto for two or three years,
and ' did not think it respectful to the Philhar-
monic Society to play it without first looking
through it' — those were his words. He accord-
ingly called at Stemdale Bennett's on the Friday
night ta obtain a copy, but not succeeding, got
• Few things are more cuiioas than the tenuB In which Sdiobert^
■plendld works were critlclaed at this date in London, compared with
the enthttsiaun which they now exdte.
7 At Mrs. Andenon's Concert, 1849. > Hogarth. 8&
• Mos. ii. 118. >o See letter to Hoscbelea: June a6bUM.
u Musical World. Aug. 1, 1844.
IS The bearer of a letter of introduction from ]
Stemdale Bennett, for which see Polko, 187.
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MENDELSSOHN.
one from Miss Honley after the reheanal on Uie
Saturday. At the rehearsal itself, owing to some
difficulty in the band coming in at the end of
his cadence in the first moTement, he played it
three times over, each time quite extempore, and
each time new, and at the performance on the
Monday it was again 'different.
In addition to the Philharmonic, Mendelssohn
took part in many other public concerts — con-
ducted St. Paul for the Sacred Harmonic Society
on June aS and July 5, extemporised at the
British Musicians, played his own D minor Trio,
and his Duet Variations (op. 83), and took part
twice in Bach's Triple Concerto — once (June i)
with Moecheles and Thalberg, when he elec-
trified the room with his sudden *improyisation
in the cadence, and again (July 5) with Mo-
icheles and Dbhler. He also fimdhed a soena for
bass voice and orchestra, to words from Ossian—
' On Lena's gloomy heath,' which he undertook
at the request of Mr. H. Phillips in 1843, and
which that gentleman saaig at the Philharmonic,
March 15, 1847. On June la he and Dickens
met for the first time. On June 18 he is at
Manchester, writing to Mr. Hawes, M.P. to secure
a ticket for the ' Ht^use of Commons. Piatti he met
for the first time during this visit, at Moscheles's
bouse, and played with him his new Duo in D.
No one had a quicker eye for a great artist, and
he at once became attached to the noble i^yer
who has now made London his winter home, and
is so much admired by all frequenters of the
Monday Popular Concerts. One of his latest
words on leaving England for the last time was,
'I must write a concerto for Piatti.* In tact,
be had already composed the first movement.
The .enthusiasm for him in London was greater
than ever, and all the more welcome after the
irritations of Berlin. He was more widely known
at each visit, and every acquaintance became a
friend. He never enjoyed himself more than
when in the midst of society, music, fun, and ex-
citement. ' We have the best news from Felix,*
lays Faimy during this * visit, *and when I tell
you that he has ordered a laige Baum-KucJien [a
peculiar Berlin cake, looking like a piece of the
trunk of a tree] to be sent to London for him, yon
will know that that is the best possible sign.^
* A. mad, most extraordinarily mad time,* says
be, ' I never had so severe a time before — never
in bed till half past one ; for three weeks together
not a single hour to myself in any one ^day,* etc
'My visit was glorious. I was never received
anywhere with such universal kindness, and have
made nwre music in these two months than I do
ebewhere in two 'years.' But even by all this he
was not to be kept from work. He laboured at
his edition of Israel in Egypt for the Handel
Society; and on official pressure from Beriin —
which turned out to be mere vexation, as the
work was not performed for more than a year —
actually, in the midst of all the turmoil, wrote
1 loiiiethlstotheTeooIleettonofMr.KenowPyeftDd Mr. Darlion.
s 8ae an account of Uds (mumwIuU exaggent«d) tv 0. S. Bonlej in
the Choir, UTTS, p. a.
s tetter In posMHloa of A. G. Knrti, Baa.
«rj|.ULiak tlUlLlTS. 6L.Jlll7tt.18M.
MENDELSSOHN.
285
the Overture to Athalie, the autograph of which
is dated Jime 13, 1844. Very trying ! and very
imprudent, as we now see ! but also very difficult
to avoid. And his power of recovery after fatigue
was as great as his power of enjoyment, so great
as often no doubt to tempt him to tiy himself.
Three things were in his favour — his splendid
constitution; an extraordinary power of sleep,
which he possessed in common with many other
great men, and of being lazy when there was
nothing to do ; and most of all that, though ex-
citable to any amount, he was never dissipated.
The only stimulants he indulged in were those
ef music, society, and boundless good spirits;
On July 10 he left London, and on the 13th
was in the arms of his wife and children at Soden,
near Frankfort. During his absence they had
been seriously ill, but his wife had kept the news
from him, and when he returned he found them
all well, brown, and hearty. For the life of happy
idleness which he passed there in the next two
months — 'eating and sleeping, without dress coat,
vithout piano, toUhout visiting cards, without
carriage and horses, but with donkeys, with wild
flowers, with music-paper and sketdi-book, with
C^cile and the 'childi^* — interrupted only by
the Festival which he conducted at Zweibrticken
on July 31 and Aug. i, the reader must be re-
ferred to his own charming " letters. ' Idleness *
does not mean ceasing to compose, so much as
composing only when he had a mind to it. And
that was often ; he had no piano, but he com*
Dieted the Violin Concerto on Sept. 16, after a
long and minute correspondence with David,
and many of the movements of the six organ
sonatas appear in the MS. Catalogue, with dates
ranging nom July a a to Sept. 10. Doubtless,
too, he was working at the book of 'Christus,'
a new oratorio, the first draft of which he had
received frt>m Bunsen on Easter Monday of this
year. At this time also he arranged a collection
of organ pieces by Bach for the firai of 'Coventry
& Hollier, by whom they werepublished in Lon*
don in Uie summer of 1845. The pleasure in his
simple home life which crops out now and then
in these Frankfort letters, is very genuine and
delightful. Now, Marie is learning the scale of C,
and he has actually forgotten how to play it, and
has taught her to pass her thumb under the
wrong finger ! Now, Paul tumbles about so as to
crack their skuUs as well as his own. Another
time he is dragged off from his letter to see a
great tower which the children have built, and
on which they have ranged all their slices of
bread and jam — 'a good idea for an architect.'
At ten Carl comes to him for reading and sums,
and at five for spelling and geography — and so on.
*And,' to sum up, * the best part of every pleasure
is gone *® if Cecile is not there.' His wife is al-
ways somewhere in the picture.
But the time arrived for resuming his duties
at Berlin, and, leaving his family behind him at
Frankfort, he arrived there on Sept. 30, alone,
and took up his quarters with the Hensels. We
T F.11. UL m.
• Sm tlio WitefS, p. MB^ tlo.
• Li July 17.19, 96. Aug. 16.
Mo. wFJf.ULin.
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d8tf
mbkbelssohk;
are told that before leaving in tiie spring he had
iirmly resolved not to return for a permanence ;
and the extraordinary warmth and brilliancy
of his subsequent reception in England, both in
public and in social circles, and the delights of
freedom in Frankfort, when compared with the
oonstraint and petty annoyances of Berlin — the
difficulty of steering throuffh those troubled official
waters, the constant collisions with the Sing-
akademie, with the managers of the theatre, the
clergy, the King, and the ministers ; the want of
independence, the coldness of the press, the way
in which his best efforts appeared to be mis-
understood and misrepresented, and above all
the consciousness that he was at the head of
a public musical institution of which he did
. not ^ approve— all these things combined to bring
about the crisis. His dislike to the place and
the way in which it haunts him beforehand,
is really quite plaintive in its persistence — 'If
I could only go on living for half a year as I
have lived the last fortnight (Sodeu, Aug* 15)
what might I not get tlm>ugh.? But the con--
stant arrangement and direction of the concerts,
and the exertion of it all, is no pleasure to me,
and comes to nothing after 'all.* So he once more
Hx>mmunicated with the King, praying to be
freed from all definite duties, and from all such
commissions as would, oblige him to reside in
Berlin. To this the King good-naturedly assented;
his salary was fixed at 1000 thalers, and he was
free to live where be liked. It is easv to under-
stand what a blow this was to * his sister, but it
was evidently the only possible arrangement for
the comfort of the chief person concerned. ' The
first step out of Berlin was to him 'the first
step to ^happiness.* He remained, till the end
of November, at the special wish of the King, to
conduct a few concerts and a performance of St.
Paul (Nov. 35), and the time was taken advantage
of by Lvoff to commission Hensel to paint a por-
trait of him, which has been engraved by Caspar,,
but can hardly be called a favourable likeness.
On the 30th he left Berlin amid regret and good
wishes, but the coldness of the onUnanr musical
cdrcles towards him. was but too evident.*
. Very early in December he was in Frankfort^
where he found his youngest boy Felice danger-
ously ill : the child. recoYwed, but only uSter
-being in great danger for many weeks. It
was probably a relief in the verm midst of his
trouUe to write a long ^letter to Mr. Mac&rren
(Dec. 8), giving him minute directions as to the
performance of Antigone at Covent Garden. His
own health began to give him anxiety, and his
resolution was to remain in Frankfort for the
whole year and have a thorough rest. He had
always good spirits at command, and looked well,
and would rarely confess to any uneasiness. But
when hard pressed by those with whom he was
really intimate, he confessed that his head had
for some months past been in constant pain and
confusion. ' I myself am what you know me to
1V.M.ULSO& s L. Ant. 1M844. «8e|»t.«>:FJLIll.]tL
«F.1L11LI«2. *!>«▼. an. HIsown words.
• BeoolleotiDD of 81c. Ftatti. vbo wu tbrn at tbe tiiM.
Ta.*|Ll80b
MENDEUSSOHN.'
be; but what you do not know is that I have
for some time felt the necessity for complete rest
— not travelling, not conducting^ not performing—
so keenly that I am compelled to yield to it, and
hope to be able to order my life accordingly for
the whole year. It is therefore my wish to stay
here quietly through winter, spring, and summer,
snna journeys, 9ans festivals, »an$ * everything.'
This resolve he was able to carry out for some
months of *i845, even to resisting a visit to
Leipzig when his Violin Concerto was first played
by David, on March 13; and his letters to his
sisters show how thoroughly he enjoyed the rest.
Antigone was brought out at Covent Garden
on Jan. 2, 1845, under the management of M.
Laurent, the orchestra conducted by Mr. (now
Professor) Mac&rren. Musically its success was
not at first great> owing to the ixiadequate way in
which the chorus was put on the stage. Writing
to his sister at "Rome on March 25, Mendelssohn
says, *See if you cannot find Punch for Jan. 18.
It contains an account of Antigone at Covent
Garden, with illustrations, eepedally a view of
the chorua which has made me laugh for three
days. The Chorus-master, with his plaid trovrsers
shewing underneath, is a masterpiece, and so is
the whole thing, and most amusing. I hear won-
derful things of the performance, particularly of
the chorus.. Only fancy, that during the Bacchus
chorus there is a regular ballet with all the ballet-
girls!' A woodcut which made Mendelssohn laugh
for three days has ipso facto become classical, and
needs no apology for its ** reproduction.
The play improved afber a short time, and the
fact that it ran for 45 nights (Jan. a -Feb. i,
Feb. 8-31,),. and that the management applied
to him for his ''Oedipus, proves that it was ap-
preciated. His letters show how much work
he was doing at this time. By April ao the six
Organ Sonatas (op. 65) were in the hands of the
copyist, the C minor Trio was finished — * a trifle
nasty {eklig) to- play, but not really difficult —
seek and ye shall "fold '; and the splendid String*
Quintet in Bb (dated July 8). The sixth book
of Songs without Words was shortly to be pub-
lished, and dedicated to Klingemann's fianc^; a
symphony was well in hand (oh that we had got
it J), and the book of Elijah progressing steadily,
no doubt urged by the invitation (dat^ Sept. i,
1844) which he had received to conduct the Bir-
mingham Festival Jn 1 846. Conduct the whole he
could not, the labour would be too great, but he
replied that, he would conduct his own music
as " before. Nor had the desire to write an opera
by any means left him, ' if only the right mate-
rial could be "found.* He had not forgotten
his promise to consider the possibility of setting
the choruses of the Eumenides of /Eschylus with
effect* and a correspondence had taken place be-
tween him and the C^heimcabinetarath Miiller,
in which, in reply to something very like an
offensive innuendo, Mendelssohn stated that in
• F-ILULSH. •IbkLSl».9M.9& MIb{d.Sl.
u I owe tlrii to the klndiMM of Mr. Tom Tftjlor. M Idltor of Pimcb.
UFJLUI.S2I. unild.227.
M Letten to Moore; P. SB4S&
U FJL UL Sn } DfV. 808. 809. 981^
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MBNDELS80HN;
■piie of gtrenuoiis effi>rtg he had uUeriy fuM to
see any way of carrying out the commiMion to
his own ' satisfaction. The (Edipui Coloneus,
the CEdipus Bex, and the Athalie, were however
MENDELSSOmr.
i87
finished, and at His Majesty's disposal. The edit-
ing of Israel in Egypt had given him considerable
trouble, owing apparently to the wish of the coun-
cil of the Handel Society to print Mendelssohn*!
marks of expression as if they were Hander^, and'
also to the incorrect way in which the engraving
was executed. These ^letters are worth looking at,
as evidence how strictly accurate anfl conscien-
tious he was in these matters, and also, how gra-
tuitously his precious time was often taken, up.
Gade had conducted the Gewandhaus Concerts
for 1844-5 ; but having got rid of the necessity of
residing in Berlin, md having enjoyed the long
rest which he had proposed, it was natural that
Mendelssohn should return to his beloved Leipzig.
But in addition, to this he had received an, intima-
tion from Von Falkenstein as early as June 5,
1845, that the King of Saxony wished him to re-
turn to his former position. He accordingly once
more took up his residence there early in Sep-
tember (this time at No. 3 Konigsstrasse, 'on the
first floor) and his reappearance in the conductor's
place at the opening concert in, the Gewandhaus
on Oct. 5 was the signal for the old applause, and
for hearty recognition from the audience and the
press. The season: was rendered peculiarly brilr
liant by the presence of Madame Schumann, and
of Jenny Lind, who made her first appearance in
Leipzig at the subscription concert of Dec. 4.. Miss
Dolby also made her first appearance Oct. 25,
sang frequently, and became a. great fairourite.
Among the moi^ important orchestral items of
the season 1845-46 were Schumann's Symphony
in Bb, and MendelqiBohn's Violin Concerto (Ihbvid),
brought forward together on Oct. ^,. 1845.
After the^ firs^ concert he left for Berlin to
produce his C^ipus Coloneus,. which was first
performed at Potsdamaoq. Nov. i, and. his Athalie
atCharlottenburg,.boUi being repeated at Berlin.
He returned to I^ipaag^by SDec. u» and. remained
there till the close of th^-seasoiH takiog an active
part in all that went on,, including Miss Lind's
farewell concert on April i a, 1846 — the last ooca-
I L. lUreh U. 184ft.
s There are eeren of them, tad they are given In the Appendix to
a*lL.ed.2.p.l<n.
a The hutiae luu since been rennmbered. and la now SL A bronie
UUflt on the front states that be died there.
4 Letter to Moore: P.SSSl
sion of his playing in public in Leipzig. At the
end of 1845 a formal offer was made to Mqscheles,
at that time the fashionable pianoforte teacher
in London, to settle in Leipzig as Professor of the,
Pianoforte in the Conservatorium. He took time
to consider so important an offer, and on Jan. 35,
1 846, with a sacrifice of income and position vrhidx
does his artistic feeling the highest honour, decided
in its favour. Mendels8ohn*s connection with tha
school was no sinecure. He ^had at this time
two- classes^— Pianoforte and Composition. The
former numbered, about half-a-dozen pupils, and
had two lessons a week of a hours each. The
lessons w»re given collecti\(ely, and among the
works studied during the term were Hummel's
Septuor; 3 of Beethoven^s Sonatas ; Preludes and
Fugues of Bach ; Weber'a.Concertstuck and Sonata
in C ; Chopin's Studies. The Composition class
had one lesson. a week of the same length. The
pupils wrote compositions of all kinds, which he
looked over. Mid. heard and criticised in their,
presence. He would sometimes play a whole
movement on the same subjects, to show how
they might have "been better developed. Occa-
sionally he would make them modulate from one
key to. another at the piano, or extemporise on
given themes, and then. w>uldt himself treat the
same themes. He was often extremely irri-
table:— 'Toiler Kerli so spielen die KatzenI'-
or ^in English, to an English pupil) 'Very
ungentlemanlike modulations!* etc. But he
was always perfectly naturaL A favourite
exercise, of his was to write a theme on the
black-board,, and then make each pupil add a
counterpoint; the task of course increasing in
difficulty with each addition. On one occasion
the last of the pupils found it impossible to add
a single note, and after long consideration shook
his head and gave in. * You can't tell where to
place the next note ? * said Mendelssohn. ' No.*
'I am glad of that,' was the reply, *for neither
s ThU Information I oire to Mr. Otto Goldiebmldt and Mr. Bockstrow
who belonged to both of his classes.
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288
MENDEI^SOHN.
can I.' Bat in addition to the work of his danee,
a great deal of miscellaneous work fell upon him
as virtual head of the School. Minute lists of
the attendance and conduct of the pupils, drawn
up by him, still remain to attest the thorough
way in which he did his duty, and we have
Moscheles's express * testimony that during the
overwhelming work of this summer he never
neglected his pupils.' But it was another ounce
added to his load. The fixed labour, the stated
hours, when combined with his composition, his
correspondence, his hospitality, and all his other
pursuits, was too much, and to his intimate
firiends he complained bitterly of the strain, and
expressed his earnest wish to give up all work
and worry, and devote himself entirely to kis
Art — in his own words, to shut himself into his
room and write music till he was tired, and then
walk out in the fresh air.'
Meantime Elijah was fast becoming a realised
fact : by *May 3$, 1846, the first Part was quite
finished, and six or eight numbers of the second
Part written, and a large portion despatched to
London to be translated by Mr. Bartholomew and
*Klingemann. 'I am jumping about my room
for joy,' he writes to a very dear * firiend on the
completion of Part I. ' If it only turns out half as
good as I fancy it is, how pleased I shall bel * And
yet, much as the oratorio engrossed him, he was
corresponding with Mad. Birch-Pfeiffer about an
opera, and writes to the same friend «« if the long-
desired libretto were virtually within his grasp.
At this date he interrupted his wotrk for three
. weeks to conduct a succession of performances
on the Bhine — at Aix-la-Chapelle, the Festival,
May 31 to June a; at Dttsseldorr, a soiree; at
li^, on Corpus Christi day, June il, his hymn
' Lauda Bion, composed expressly for that occa-
sion, and dated Feb. 10, 1846; and at Cologne
the first festival of the German-Flemish assod*
ation, for which he had composed a Festgesang
on Schiller's poem 'an die Kiinstler' (op. 68).
His reception throughout this tour was raptur-
ous, and delighted him. The three weeks were
one continued scene of excitement. Every mo-
ment not taken up in rehearsing or performing
made some demand on his strength. He was in
the highest spirits all the time, but the strain
must have been great, and was sure to be felt
sooner or later. It Will all bo found in a
delightful letter to Fanny of ^June 37, 1846.
On June 36 he is again at Leipzig, writing to
Moscheles to protest against the exclusSon from
the band at Birmingham of some musicians who
had been iim)ertinent to him at the 'Philharmonic
in 1844. The summer was unusually hot, and
his friends well remember how exhausted be
often became over his close work. But he kept
bis time. The remainder of the Oratorio was
1 Hot. IL 102.
« The Enffitih pupils for 1M4 ud 45 embnoe the nunc* of Elite.
Well*. HMker. Ascher, and Rockstro. The Xnglbh popils up to \$9i
number 106. headlne the list of all countrtee lave Saxony and Pruuia.
Kezt comes Bussla. and next North America.
• Letter to Miss Lind. < Letter to Sehnbrinc. May SS. U40L
• Letter to Moore: P. 9<1. > Miss Lind.
T F.M. lU. 9»-24S. Sm also Ohorler's ' Modem German Mialo,'
U.»»"80a •L.JuneS.Utf.
MENDELSSOHN.
in Mr. Bartholomew's hands by the latter part
of July ; the instrumental parts were oopied in
Leipzig and rehearsed by Mendelssohn there on
Aug. 5. One of the last things he did before
leaving was to give his consent to the publication
of some of Fanny's compositions, wluch, owing
to his ' tremendous reverence for print,' he had
' always opposed, and now only agreed to '^ reluc-
tantly. He arrived in London, for the ninth
time, on the evening of Aug. i8, had a trial
rehearsal with piano at Moscheles's house, two
band-rehearsals at Hanover Square, went down
to Birmingham on Sunday the 33rd, had full
rehearsals on Monday morning and Tuesday
evening, and the Oratorio was [Mrformed on th^
morning of Wednesday the 36th. The Town
Hall was densely crowded, and it was observed
" that the sua burst forth and lit up the scene as
Mendelssohn took his place, amia a deafening
roar of applause from band, chorus, and audi-
ence. Staudigl was the Elijah, and Mr. Lockey
sang the air 'Then shall the righteous' in
a manner which called forth Mendelssohn's
warmest Upraise. * No work of mine' — says he
in the long letter which he wrote his brother the
same evening — ^ no work of mine ever went so
admirably at the first performanoe, or was received
with such enthusiasm both by musicians and the
public, as this.' * 1 never in my life heard a
better performance — no nor so good, and almost
doubt if I can ever hear one like it ^'again.' No
less than four choruses and ^* four airs were en-
cored. The applause at the conclusion of both
first and second parts was enormotis — almost
grotesquely so ; and an old '^member of the band
well remembers the eagerness with which Men-
delssoln shook hands with all who could get near
him in the artistes rocnn, thanking them warmly
for the performance. He returned to London
with Mr. and Mrs. Moschdes, * on purpose for
« fish dinner at Lovegrove's,* spent four days
at '"KamRgate with the Beneckes ' to eat crabs,'
and on Sept. 6 reorossed the Channel with StaudigL
His visit this time had been one of intense htad
work, as any one who knows what it is to achieve
the first performance of a great work for solos,
chorus, and orohestra, will readily understand.
And the strain was unremitting, for, owing partly
to Moscheles's illness, he had no relaxation, or
next to none. In consequence he was so tired
as to be compelled to rest ''three times between
Ostend and Leipzig. It is a sad contrast to the
buoyancy of the similaf "journey ten years before.
But notwithstanding the success of the Ora-
torio the reader will hanily believe that he himself
was satisfied with his work. Quite the contrary.
His letter to Rlingemann of Dec. 6 shows the
eagerness with whidi he went about his correc-
tions ; and the alterations were so serious as to
justify our "enumerating the chief of them : — The
• L. Junes. ISSr. tfrJLilI.8M. uasL
UL.Aug.2B. ML.iL Anff.Si,1831.
MMrs.MoM:heless»7tUpl«ees:MosiLU7. » Mr. J. T. WlOr.
MFJLiU.244. n Ibid. M L. Oct 4. 1837.
t* For a detailed examination of Nos. 1—8, bj Mr. Jos. Bennett, see
'Gonoordia.' pp.497,aa. A MB. copy of the orlfloal score Is in the
ofMr.B.LIttletoo(MoreUos>.
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MENDELSSOHN.
chonis 'Help, Lord!' (No. i), much changed;
the end of the double quartet (No. 7), rewritten ;
the scene with the widow (No. 8) entirely recast
and much extended ; the chorus ' Blessed are the
men ' (No. 9), reeoored ; the words of the quartet
'Cast thy burden' (No. 15), new ; the soprano air
' Hear ye' (No. 21), added to and reconstructed :
in the Jexebel s6ene a new chorus, 'Woe to him
(No. 24), in place of a suppressed one, ' Do unto
him as he haUi done/ and the recitative ' Man of
God' added; the trio 'Lift thine eyee' (No. a8)
was originally a duet, quite different ; Obadiah*s
recitative and air (No. 25) are new ; the chorus
'Cio return,* and EUjah's answer (No. 36) are
also new. The last chorus (No. 42) is entirely
rewritten to fresh words, the text having formerly
been ' Unto Him that is able,' etc. The omis-
doas are chiefly a movement of 95 bars, alia
hreve, to the words * He shall open the eyes of
the blind,' which formed the second part of the
chorus *Thus saith the Lord' (No. 41), and a
recitative for tenor ' EHjah is come already and
they knew him not, but have done unto him
whatsoever they listed,' with which Part a of the
oratorio originally opened. In addition to these
more promment alterations there is hardly a
movement throughout the work which has not
been more or less worked upon.
The oratorio was then engraved, and published
by Simroek of Berlin in July 1847. Meantime
Mendelssohn had been agam reminded of his
duties at Berlin by an urgent command from the
King to set the Grerman Liturgy to music. This
(still in MS.), and an anthem or motet (published
as op. 79, no. 5), both for double choir, are
re^>ectively dated Oct. 28 and Oct. 5, 1846. A
song for the Germans in ^ Lyons — dear to him as
the birthplace of his wife — and a Psalm-tune for
the French Reformed Church in Frankfort, are
dated the 8th and 9th of the same month. On
Oct. a I the Moscheleses arrive at Leipzig, and
Moflcheles begins his duties as Professor of Piano-
forte-playing and Composition. — Grade again con-
ducted the Gewandhaus Concerts for this season.
A trace of Mendelssohn's interest in them remains
in a P.F. accompaniment to the E major Violin
' Prelude of Bach, which he evidently wrote for
David's performance at the Concert of Nov. i a,
1846. "Ihe MS. is dated the day before, and is
'amongst David's papers. During October and
November he was veiy much occupied with the
illness of his faithful servant Johann Krebs, to
whom he was deeply attached — 'mein braver
guter Diener' as he calls him — and whose death,
on Nov. 23, distressed him much. It was another
link in the chain of losses which was ultimately
to drag him down. Fortunately he had again, as
at the time of his mother's death, some mechanical
work to which he could turn. This time it was
^the comparison of the original autograph parts
of Bach's grand mass with his score of the same
I Op. 76, no. 8.
3 IMrfBd's Cat. <tS4. So wen known In London throogli Jooddm't
Plajlif.
> ' An F. Darid znr nnd aus der Brtnnerung niedeigeschrleben,
r.lLB. Lelpdg d. llto Not. 184A.' This (which with manj other
thlngi In this article I ow« to my friend Mr.Faul David) looks m if
ibe aeoo—paniment bad been orlglnaUy eztamporlsed. * L. Dec. 6.
VOL. U,
MENDELSSOHN.
289
work. As time went on, however, he was able to
apply himself to more independent tasks, and by
Dec. 6 was again hard at work on the 'alterations
of Elijah. Since the middle of October he had
been in communication *with Mr. Lumley, then
lessee of Her Majesty's Theatre, London, as to
an opera to be founded by Scribe on 'The
Tempest,' already tried by Immermann (see
p. ao8&); and a long correspondence between
himself. Scribe, and Lumley appears to have
taken place, no doubt exhaustive on his part.
It came to nothing, from his dissatisfaction
with the ^libretto, but it was accompanied by
extreme and long-continued annoyance, owing
to his belief that the opera was announced in
London as if he were under a contract to com-
plete it, and that for the season of ' 1 84 7. He was
at this moment more or less committed to the
subject of Loreley, on which he had communi-
cated with Greibel the poet as early as the pre-
ceding *April. Geibel, a Mend of Mendelssohn's
and a warm admirer of his wife's, was at work
on the book, and completed it at the beginning of
1847. Mendelssohn occasionally conducted the
later Grewandhaus concerts of this season, and
some of the progranmies were of fecial interest,
such as two historical concerts on Feb. 1 8 and 35,
1847. One of these gave him the opportunity to
write a charming ^*> letter to the daughter of
Beichardt, a composer for whom he always had
a special fondness, and whose Morning Hymn
(from Milton) had been performed at the Fes-
tival at Cologne in 1835 ^^ ^ instance.
This was not on the whole a satis&ctory autumn.
After the extra hard work of the spring and sum-
mer, especially the tremendous struggle against
time in finishing Elijah, he ought to have had
a long and complete rest, like that which so re-
vived him in 1 844 ; whereas the autumn was spent
at Leipzig, a less congenial spot than Frankfort,
and, as we have shown, in the midst of grave
anxiety and perpetual business, involving a cor-
respondence which those only can appreciate
who have seen its extent, and the length of the
letters, and the care and neatness with which
the whole is registered and arranged by his own
hands. Knowing what ultimately happened,
it is obvious that this want of rest, coming after
so much stress, must have told seriously upon him.
He himself appears to have felt the necessity of
lessening his labours, for we are told that he had
plans for giving up all stated and uncongenial
duty, and doing only what he felt disposed to
do, for building a ^ house in Frankfort, so as to
pass the summer there, and the winter in Berlin
with his sisters, and thus in some measure re-
vive the old family life to which, ''he so strongly
urges his brother-in-law in a remarkable letter
of this time. Nothing however could stop the
current of his musical power. He was at work
on 'Christus,' the new "oratorio. As Capell-
meister to the King of Saxony he had to arrange
s Letter, Dec 6, • Lamley's Bemlnlscencea. 167. ^ Ibid. 188.
B Long letters to influeutlal London friends are in ezlitence full of
bitter complaints— most Justly founded if his information was correct.
9 Der. 276. lo L. IL 388. >i Der. 291.
ULett«rtoDlrlchkt.Jan.4,UM7. uDev.aoa
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MENDELSS(^N.
and conduct the Court Concerts at Dresden ; and
he took a large part in the management of the
Gewandhaus Concerts this season, though suffer-
ing much from his head, and being all the time-
under the care of his ' doctor. How minutely
too he did his duty at this time as chief of the
Conservatorium is shown by a MS. memorandum,
dated Jan. lo, 1B47, containing a long list of
students, with full notes of their ftralts, and of
the recommendations to be made to their pro-
fessors. Hfo enjoyment of life is still very keen,
and his birthday was celebrated with an immense
amount of fun. His wife, and her sister, Mrs.
Schunck— a special favourite of Mendel88ohn*s —
gave a comic scene in the Frankfort dialeet ; and
Joachim (as Paganini), Moechelee (as a cook), and
Mrs. Moscheles, acted an impromptu oharade on
the word ' Gewandhaus.* Happily no presentiment
disturbed them; and the master of the house
was as uproarious as if he had fiftv birthdays
before him. On Qood Friday (April a) he con-
ducted St. Paul at Leipzig, and shortly afterwards
— for the tenth, and alas! the last time— was
once more in England, where he had an 'en-
gagement with the Sacred Harmonic Society to
conduct three performances of Elijah in its re-
vised form. One of those kindnesses which en-
deared him so peculiarly to his friends belongs to
this time. Madame Ftige had a son dangerously
111, and was unable to hear the performanoe of
St. Paul. 'Na nun,' said he, 'don*t distress
yourself; when he gets out of danger 1*11 come with
C^ile and play to you all night.* And he^went,
began with Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata, and
played on for three hours, ending with his own
■ Variations s^rieuses. A day or two afterwards,
he left, travelled over with 'Joachim, and
reached the Klingemanns* house on Monday
evening, April i a. The performances took place
at Exeter Hall on the i6th, 23rd, aSth, with a
fourth on the 30th. The Queen and Prince^
Consort were present on the 23rd, and it was on
that occasion that the Prince wrote the note in
his programme book, addressing Mendelssohn as
a second Elijah, faiths to the worship of true
Art though encompassed by the idolaters of Baal,
which has often l^en printed.^ In the intervfd
Mendelssohn paid a visit to Manchester for a
performanoe or 'Elijah on the aoth, and another
to Birmingham, where he rehearsed and con-
ducted the oratorio at the Town Hall on the
2 7th ; and also conducted his Midsmnmer Night's
Dream music and Scotch Symphony at the Phil-
harmonic on the a6th, and played Beethoven's
G major Concerto with even more than his usual
brilliancy and delicaoy. He probably never
played that beautiful concerto— 'my old cheval
de OatniUe,' as he called it years before— more
splendidly than he did on this occasion. To a
> Lunpadlna.
t Tbo engagement for otm performance had been toodfred as early
a« Sept 14 ; Me MendeUsohu'i replj of Oct. 7 to the letter of Mr.
Brewer, the Meretarr to the locletj. of that date. In P. 227. The
•Mier two we»e propofed Jan. M, and arranged for between thai date
I ud March la 1M7 ; Me the letter of that date to Bartholomew, ibid.
SSr. The fourth waa an afterthought. a Mui. World. April 17.
< I^ter. Aug. 88. IKM. Martin'i Life of Prince Coiuort, L 489.
»LeMertoJ(oore.MMche8t«r, April21; r.S44.
MENDEI^SOHN.
*fii«nd who told him so after the perfonnaaoe
he replied, *I was desirous to play well, for
there were two ladies present whom I particulaily
wished to please, and they were the Queen and
Jenny lind.' A little trait remembered by more
than one who heani the performance, is that
during the cadence to the first movement — a
long and elaborate one, and, as before (see p.
2850), entirely extempore, Mr. Costa, the con-
ductor, raised his baton, thinking that it was
coming to an end, on which Mendelssohn looked
up, and held up one of his hands, as much as to
say * Not yet.'
On May i he lunched at the Prussian embassy
and played, and also played for more than two
hours at Buckingham Palace in the presence of
the Queen and Prince Albert only. On the 4tli,
at the Beethoven Quartet Society, he played
Beethoven's 3 a Variations, without beok, his own
C minor Trio, and a Sonff without Words ; and the
same evening was at the opera at Jenny Land's
debut. On the evening of the 5th he played a pre-
lude and fugue on the name of Bach on the orgaji
at the Antient Concert. The morning of the
6th he spent at Lord Ellesmere*s picture gallery,
and in the afternoon played to his friends the
Bunsens and a distinguished company at the
Prussian embassy. He left the ^room in great
emotion, and wiUiout the power of saying fere-
well. The same day he wrote a Song without
words in the album of Lady Caroline cSlvendish,
and another in that of the Hon. Miss Cavendish,
since published as Op. 101, No. a, and Op. 85,
No. 5, respectively. On the 8th he took leave
of the Queen and Prince Consort at Bucking-
ham Palace, and left London the same evening,
muoh exhausted, with the Klingemanns. He had
indeed, to use his own 'words, 'staid too long
there already.' It was observed at this time by one
• who evidentiv knew him well, that though in the
evening and when excited by playing, he looked as
he had done on former visits, yet that by daylight
his face showed sad traces of wear and a look of
premature old age. He crossed on the oth, Sunday,
to Calais, drove to Ostend, and on the nth was
at ^<> Cologne. At Herbeethal, through the eattra
seal of a police official, who mistook luxn for a Dr.
Mendelssohn of whom the police were in search,
he was stopped on his road, seriously anncn^ed,
and compelled to write a long statement whic^
must have cost him as much time and labour as
to compose an ov^ture. He had been only a day
or two in Frankfort when he received the news
of the sudden death of his sister Fanny at Berlin
on the 14th. It was broken to him too abruptly,
and acting on his enfeebled frame completely
overcame him. With a shriek he fell to the
ground, and remained insensible fbr some time.
It was the third blow of the kind that he had
received, a blow perhaps harder to bear than
either of the others, inasmuch as Fanny was his
sister, more of his own age, and he himself was
older, more worn, and less able in the then weak
state of his nerves to sustain the shock. In his
• The late Mr. Bartholomew. f Lite of Bunaen. U. 199. 190.
• B.0& •Fraaer'a]Ug,DecUC7. m Mrs. KUugtmaim.
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MENDELSSOHN.
own words, '% great obapter waa ended, and neither
title nor beginning of the next were written.* ^
Early in Jane, as soon as he had sufficiently
recovered to move, the whole family (with Miss
Jang as governess, and Dr. Ellengel as tutor) went
to iS^en-Baden, where they were joined by Paul
and Hensel ; thence by Schaffhaosen to Lucerne,
Than and Interlaken, in and about which they
made some stay. To Eelix the relief was long
in coming. On July 7, though well, and often
eren cheerful, he was still imable to do any
musicaJ work, write a proper letter, or recover
a consistent frame of mind. He worked at his
drawing with more than usual assiduity at this
time. Thirteen large* water-colour pictures il-
lostrate the journey, beginnings with two views
of ^e Falls of Schaffhausen (June 27 and 29),
and ending with one of Interlaken (Sept. 4).
Many of them are very highly finished; and all
are works which no artist need hesitate to sign.
They are on a greater scale than* any of his
previous sketches, and there is a certainty about
the drawing, and a solidity in' the perspective,
which show how well he understood what he
was about. The same love of form that shines
so conspicuously in his great symphonies is there,
and the details are put in, like the oboe and
clarinet phrases in his scores, as if he loved every
stroke. They are really beautiful works. In
addition to &ese finished drawings, he sketched
a good deal in Indian ink.'
In the middle of the month Paul and Hensel
returned home, but Felix and his fkmily remained
till ' September. Meantime the world was ^ng
on, regi^dless of private troubles^ Mends visited
him, and plans for music began to crowd round
him. Among the former were Professor * Graves
and his wife, Mr. Grote the historian — old friends,
the last of whom had taken a long ^journey on pur-
pose to see him — and Ghorley ^e musical cntic.
He had received a request from the Philhar-
monic Society for a Symphony for 18^8 ; an ap-
plication to write a piece for the opemng of the
St. George^s * Hall in Liverpool ; had a new Can-
tata in view for Frankfort, and something for
the inauguration of Cologne Cathedral. Elijah
was to he g^ven under his baton both at Ber-
lin (Nov. 3) and Vienna — at the latter with
Jenny Lind — and the long-cherished opera ex-
ercised its old chanU' over him> But his nerves
were still too weak to bean any noise, and he
suffered much from headache and weariness ; his
piano was ' not for playing, but for trying a chord,"
' it was the very worst he had ever touched in his
^life/ and he shrank ^ from>the organ at Fribourg
when proposed to him. The organ in the village
church of Ringgenberg, on the lake of Brienz,
was his only resource, and it was there that for
the last time in his life he touched the organ keys.
He put aside the music for Liverpool, * for the pre-
sent.' and declined the request of the * Philhar^
monic, on the ground that a work for the Society
1 L. July 7. 1847. * L. Ang.S. > Mod. 0«nnan Music. IL 884
• Sow BMiop of Ltmorick. * Penoual Life of O. Grote. p. 176.
e Letter to Chorley. July 19. i Penooal Life of G. Grote, p. 177.
• Mod. a«rm. Made. II. 89*.
• L«ner to rhinarmonte Society, ' Intcrltken. Avg. 27, 1847.'
mend:
ought not to bear the le
and bustle inwhioh he v
the rest of the year. At\b^r;8iune {im^e ^^-
much agitated at the- state ^ home^^i^tics, ^ v
which were very threatening, a(^*l6^e(r ,^|^h S: \
apprehension on the future of 6q6^
himself he returned strongly to the pU.
alluded to at the end of 1846, of ._
playing and concert-giving, and other <
and exacting ^® business, and taking life more
easily, and more entirely as he liked.
At length the power of application came, and
he began to write music. We shall not be far
wrong in> taking the intensely mournful and
agitated String Quartet in P minor (op. 80) as
the first distinct utterance of his distress. This
over, he airived by degrees at a happier and
more even mental condition, though with parox-
vsms of intense grief and distress. The contrast
between the gaie^ and spirit of his former letters,
and the sombre, apathetic tone of those which are
preserved from this time, is most remarkable, and
impossible to be overlooked. It is as if the man
were ^ broken, and accepted his lot without an idea
of resistance. He continually recurred to the idea
of retirement from all active life but composition.
Of the music which is due to this time we find,
besides the Quartet just mentioned, an Andante
and Scherao in £ major and A minor, which form
the first movements of op. 81 -; the fragments of
Loreley and of Christus ; a Jubilate, Magnificat,
and Nunc dimittis for 4 voices (op. 69), which
he began before going to London, and mushed in
B&den-Baden on June 12 ; and a few songs, such
as ' Ich wandre fort' (op. 71, no. 5).
With the close of the summer the party re-
turned "homewards, and on Sept. 17 were again
in ^Leipzig. He found there a new Broadwood
grand piano which had been forwarded by the
London house during his absence in Switzerland,
and is said to have played upon it for several
hours. Those who knew him best found him
' unaltered in mind, and when at the piano or
talking about music still all ^^life and fire.*
During these days he played to Dr. ScMeinitz
a new string quartet, complete except the slow
movement^ wMcH was to be a set of Variations —
but not yet put on papen He took leave of
Mr. Buxton, <me of his English publishers, with
the words ' You shall have plenty of music from
me ; I will give vou no cause to complain.* But
such moments of vivacity would be followed by
great depression, in which he could not bear to
speak or to be spoken to even- by old friends.
He was much changed in look, and he who
before was never at rest, and whose bands were
always in motion, now often sat dull and listless,
without moving a finger. 'He had aged, looked
pale and weary, walked less quickly than before,
and was more intensely affected by every passing
thing than he used to be.* Also he complained
10 Mod. Germ. Mnsle. U. Sttt: Der. 272.
11 This expression wu used to the writer by Dr. Klengel. the tutor of
his boy». who wm constantly with him during the last two or three
yean of hb life, and knew him intimately. Dr. Klengel has now gone
to Join the master he so dearly lored. He died In Nov. 1979.
i2Hos.U.178^9. UR>id.l77. i« Ibid. 177, 182.
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MENDELSSOHN.
of the oppresfdve * air of the town. And yet,
though more than one person la etill alive who
remembers this, not even those most near him
appear to have realised the radical and alarming
change for the worse whidi had taken place in
his strength.
The Gewandhaus concerts began on Oct. 3, but
he took no part in them, and left the conducting
to his old coUeagne Rietz. A friend recollects
his saying how happy he was — ' as cheerful as a
set of organ-passages* — that he hadn*t to make
out the programmes. He dreaded all public music,
and complained much* though Maming him-
self as not deserving the happiness he liad in
his 'dear C^cile* and in the recovery of his boy
Felix. He had been to Berlin for a week, veiy
shortly after his rettim, and the sight of his
sister^s rooms, exactly as she 'left them, had
'agitated him extremely, ' and almost neutralized
the 'effects of his Swiss retirement.* He had
definitely given up the performance of Elijah at
Berlin, but was bent on undertaking that at
* Vienna on Nov. 14, where he was to hear his
friend Jenny Lind in the music which he had
written for her voice. On the morning of Oct. p
he called on the Moscheleses and wiJked witn
them to the Rosenthal. He was at first much
depressed, but it went off*, and he became fer
the moment almost gay. After this he went to
Madame Frege*s house, and here his depression
returned, and worse than before. His object was
to consult her as to the selection and order of
the songs in 'op. 71, which he was about to
publish— one of the minute matters in which he
was so fastidious and difficult to satisfy. She sang
them to him several times, they settled the order,
and then he said he must hear them once more,
and after that they would study Elijah ; she left
the room for lights, and on her return found him
on the 80& shivering, his hands cold and. stiff,
his head in violent pain. He then went home,
and the attack continued ; leeches were applied,
and by the 15th he had recovered so fiw as to
listen with interest to the details of the recep-
tion of Hiller's new opera at Dresden, and
actually to make plans for his Vienna journey.
On the 25th he writes to his brother in the
old affectionate vein. He is taking tonics, but
Paul's fiice would do him more good than the
bitterest medicine. He was not, however, des-
tined to speak to him again. On the aSth he
was so much better as to take a walk with his
wife, but it was too much, and shortly after-
wards he had a second attack, and on Nov. 3
another, which last deprived him of conscious-
ness. He lingered through the next day, fortu-
nately without pain, and expired at 9.24 p.m.
on Thursday, Nov. 4, 1847, in the presence of
1 LAinp. ISL s Mme. Frege ; Mo*. iL ISL > B. ST.
i Tbe last letter stock into the last (the 29tb) of hit green Tolumes
U firom Fiirhhoff of Vienna on this suhjeet. dated Oct. 29. It must
have been too late to hare been read bjr him.
» Of the wren songs which he brought, the ' Altdeutaehes Frflh-
Hu4f?lled.' tbougli put on paper on Oct. 7, was composed in the
summer. The ' Nachtlled' was compwied and written for Bchlelnitz's
binhdajr, Oct. 1, and Is therefore Tirtually Mendelssohn's last com-
position. An odd birthday present.' said he to Mad. rroge, * but 1
like it much, for I feel so dreai?.'
MENDELSSOHN.
his wife, his brother, Schleinitz, David, and
Moecheles. During the illness, the public feeling
was intense. BuUetins were issued, and the
house was besieged by enquirers. After his
death it was as if every one in the town had
received a blow and sustained a personal loss.
'It is lovely weather here,' writes a young
English * student to the York Courant, * but an
awful stillness prevails ; we feel as if the king
were dead. Clusters of people are seen speaking
together in the streets. Those who remember
what happened in London when Sir Robert Peel
died can miagine how a similar loss would affect
so small, simple, and concentrated a town as
Leipzig. The streets were placarded at the
comers with official announcements of his death,
as if he had been a great officer of state.
On the Friday and Saturday the public were
allowed to see Uie -dead body. On Sunday the
7tb it was taken to the Pauliner Church at Leip-
ag. A band preceded the hearse, playing tbe
Song without Words in E minor (Book 5, no. 3),
instrumented by Moscheles ; and aft«r this
came a ^ student of the Conservatorium with a
cushion, on which lay a silver crown formeriy
presented to Mendelssohn by his pupils, and his
Order * pour le merite.' The pall was borne by
Moscheles, David, Hauptmann, and Gade; the
professors and pupils of the Conservatorium, the
members of the Gewandhaus orchestra, the chief
frmctionaries of the Corporation and tbe Uni-
versity, and several guilds and societies accom-
panied the coffin, and Paul Mendelssohn was
chief mourner. In the church the chorale 'To
thee, O Lord,* and the chorus ' Happy and blest,*
frt)m St. Paul, were sung, a sermon or oration
was delivered by Herr Howard, the pastor of
the Reformed Congregation, and the service closed
with the concluding chorus of Bach*s Passion
music. At 10 pjn. the coffin was conveyed to
the Leipzig station and transported by rail to
Berlin. On the road, during the night, it was
met at Cothen by the choir of the place, under
Thile their director, and at Dessau, by fViedrich
Schneider, who wiped away the recollection of
early antagonisms by a fitrewell part-sonff, com-
posed for the occasion, and sung by his dioir at
the station. It arrived at Berlm at 7 a.m., and
after more funeral ceremonies was. deposited in
the enclosed burial-place of the family in the
Alte Dreifaltigkeits Kirohhof, dose outside the
Halle-thor.
His tombstone is a cross. He rests between
his boy Felix and his sister Fanny. His father
and mother are a short distance behind.
The 5th Gewandhaus concert, which it was
piously observed would naturally have ended at
the very moment of his death, was postponed till
the nth, when, excepting the Eroica Symphony,
which formed the second part of the programme,
it was entirely made up of the compositions of tbe
departed master. Among them were the Nachtlied
of Eichendorf (op. 71, no. 6), sung by Madame
Frege.
• Mr. Camldffe. son of Dr. Camldfe of York.
7 Mr. de BmtiM.
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MENDELSSOHK.
MENDEI^OHN.
29i
JAKOB LUDWIO
FELEL
MSNDEL880HN-BABTHOLDT
(eboren
Bamborg
8 Feb.
1800.
0«ttorben
ZD
4 Not.
1847.
In London the feeling, though naturally not so
deep or so universal ae in his native place, was
yet both deep and wide. His visits IumI of late
been so frequent, and the last one was so recent,
and there was such a vivid personality about him,
such force and fire, and such a general tone of
health and spirits, that no wonder we were startled
by the news of his death. The tone of the press
was more that of regret for a dear relation, than
of eulogy for a public character. Each writer spoke
as if he intimately knew and loved the departed.
This is especially conspicuous in the long notices
of the Times and Athenaun\j which are full not
only of keen appreciation, but of deep personal
sorrow. Of his private friends I shall only per-
mit myself two quotations. Mrs. Grote, writing
nearly thirty years afterwards, names four friends
whose deaths had occasioned her the most poign-
ant sorrow of her life; and among these are
Felix Mendelssohn, Alexis de Tocqueville,- and
John Stoart Mill. Mrs^ Austin, the aunt of his
early friends the Taylors, and herself one of his
most intimate allies, in a tribute to his memory
as beautiful 'as it is short, says —
* Hit Ib one of the rare characters that cannot be known
too intimatelv. Of him there is nothing to tell that iiv
not honoarable to his memory, consoling to his firiends,
profitable to all men. . . . Much as I admired him as an
artist, I was no less struck by his childlike simplicity
and sportiveness, his deference to age, his readiness to*
bend his genius to give pleasure to the humble and
ignorant ; the vivacity and fervour of his admiration for
eveiything good and great, his cultivated intellect,
r^ned tastes and noble senttments.'
Nor was the public regret out of proportion
to that of his intimate friends. We are not per-
haps prone to be very demonstrative over artists,
especiaUy over musidans ; but this was a man
who had wound himself into our feelings as no
other musician had done since Handel. What
Handel*B songs, Harmonious Blacksmith, and other
harpsichord pieces had done for the English public
in 1740, that Mendelssohn's Songs without
Words, and Part-songs, had done in 1840, and
they had already made his name a beloved house-
insMi'illsff.AprillMS.
hold word in manv a family circle both in town
and country. He had been for long looked upon
as half an Englishman. He spoke English well^
he wrote letters and familiar notes in our tongue
freely ; he showed himself in the provinces ; his
first important work was founded on Bhakspeare,
his last was brought out in England, at so pecu-
liarly English a town as Birmingham ; and his
'Scotch Symphony* and 'Hebrides Overture*
showed how deeply the scenery of Britain had
influenced him. And, perhaps more than this,
there were in the singular purity of his life, in
his known devotion to his wife and family, and
his general high and unselfish character, the
things most essential to procure him both the
esteem and affection of the English people.
The Sacred Harmonic Society, the only Society
in London having concerts at that period of the
war, performed Elijah on Nov. 1 7, preceded by the
Ibead March in Saul> and with the band and
chorus all dressed in black. At Manchester and
Birmingham similar honours were paid to the
departed composer. In Germany commemora-
tion concerts {Todter^eier) were given at Berlin,
Vienna, Frankfort, Hamburg, and many other
places. His bust was set up in the Theatre at
Berlin, and his profile in Uie Gewandhaos at
Leipzig. The first Concert of the Conservatoire
at Paris, on- Jan. p, 1848, was entitled 'k la
m^moire de F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,' and com-
prised the Scotch Symphony, Hebrides Overture,
Violin Concerto, and fragments from St. Paul.
Among the very numerous letters of condolence
addressed to his widow we will only mention
those from the Queen of England, the ELing of
Plrussia, and the King of Saxony.
Two works were in the printers' hands at the
time of Mendelssohn^s death — the Six Songs
(op. 71) and the Six Children's pieces (op. 73).
The^ were-quickly published. Then there was
a pause, and at lei^^ros ^^ l^&d left no will,
Madame Mendelssohn confided to a kind of com-
mittee, composed of her husband's most intimate
musical friends, the -task of deciding which pieces
out of the immense mass of MS. music should be
published} and of supervising the publication.
These gentlemen were Dr. Schleinitz, the acting
member of the council of the Conservatorium,
David, Moscheles, and Hauptmann, all resident
in Leipzig, with Pfeul Mendelssohn in Berlin, and
Julius Rietz in Dresden. The instrumental works
still in MS. embraced the Trumpet Overture
(1835) and Reformation Symphony (1.830), the
Italian Symphony (1833), the Overture to Buy
Bias (1839), 3 sets of P.F. variations (1841),
the Quintet in Bb (1845), the Quartet in F minor
(1847), and fragments of another Quartet in E,
Songs without Words, and other P. F. pieces. The
Vocal works comprised the Liederspiel 'Heim-
kehr aus der Fr^de* (1839), the Concert-aria
'Infelice' (1843), the Music to Athalie and to
(Edipus Coloneus (both 1845), Lauda Sion (1846),
fragments of the opera Lordev, and of the ora-
torio Christus, on which he had been at work not
long before his death, Psalms and Sprtiche for
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294
MEKDEI^SOHK
voices with and without aooompaxument, Songs
and Paii-songB.
The work of publication began with Lauda
Sion, which appeared as op. 73, Feb. 15, 1848.
This was followed by Atludie, and 'by other
works down to the four Part-songs which form
op. 100 and no. 29 of the poBthamous works,
which came out in Jan. 1852. Here a pause toek
place. In the meantime, borne down by -^er
great loss/and also by the death of her third boy,
Felix, in 1851, Maidame Mendelssohn herself
died on Sept. 25, 1853. The manuscripts 'then
came into the hands of Dr. Carl Mendelssohn,
the eldest son, and after some years publication
re-commenced with the Trumpet Overture, which
appeared in 1867, and continued at intervals
down to the 'Perpetuum mobile* (op. 119).
Many of the pieces referred to in the above
enumeration ore included in the series of MS.
volumes already mentioned. -Forty -four of
these volumes are now deposited in the Imperial
Library at Berlin, in pursuance of an arrange-
ment dated Deo. 23, 1877, by which, in ex-
change for the I possession of them, the German
government agreed with -the Mendelssohn-Bar-
tholdy family to found two perpetu^ scholar-
ships of 1500 marks (£75) per annum each,
tenable for four years, for the education of
- students of music elected by competition from
the music schools of Grennany. The Trustees of
the Fund are three — the Director of the High
School of Music at Berlin, a seccmd nominated by
the government, and a third by the family. The
first election took place on Oct. i, 1879, '^^ ^^®
successful candidates were Engelbert Humper-
dink of Siegburg, and Josef Rotek of Podolia.
In addition, Ernst SeyfTardt of Grefeld, and Johann
Secundus Cruse of Melbourne, Australia, will re-
ceive allowMioes of 750 marics each out of the
arrears of the Fund.
Long before the foundation of the Berlin
Scholarships, however, practical steps in the
same direction had been taken in England. In
Nov. 1847 a resolution was passed by the Sacred
Harmonic Society of London for the erection
of a public memorial in honour of Mendelssohn.
£50 was subscribed thereto by {he Queen and
Prince Consort, and like sums by the Sacred
Harmonic and Philharmonic Societies. Other
subscriptions were raised amounting in the
whole to over £600. In April 1859, afber many
negotiations, a model of a statue by Mr. C.
Bacon was approved by the subscribers ; tt was
cast in bronze in the following November, and
on May 4, i860, was set up on Ihe Terraee of the
Crystal Palace atfivdenham.
A more appropriate memorial was the Men-
delssohn Scholarship; which originated in Ma-
dame Lind-GtoldBchmidt in the year iSs(f, and
will be found described under its own heading.
[See MSNDELSSOHN SCHOLABSHQ?.]
In person Mendelssohn was short, 'not so
much as 5 ft. 6 ins. high, and slight of build ;
1 He was shorter tlun 8t«nid«Ie Bennett, vtbo was 5 ft 6.
MENDELSSOHN.
in figure Uthe, and very light and mercurial. His
look was dark and very Jewish ; the £eu»^ unusu-
ally mobile, and ever varying in expression, full
of brightness and animation, and witn a most un-
mistakeable look of geniiisr His complexion vraa
fresh, and shewed <a good deal of colour. His hair
was black, thick, and abundant, but veiy fine,
with a natural wave in it, and was kept back from
his forehead, which was high and much developed.
By the end of his life, however, it showed a good
deal'Of gray and he began to be bald. His moutli
was unusually delicate and expressive, and bad
generally a pleasant smile at the comers. His
whiskers were very dark, and his t;losely-shaven
chin And upper lip were blue frt>m the strength
of his beard. His teeth were beautifully white
and regular ; but the most etriking part of his
fieu:e were the large dark brown eyes. When
at rest he often lowered the eyelids as if he were
slightly short-sighted — ^which indeed he was ; but
when animated they gave an extraordinary bright-
ness and fire to his face, and ' were as es^pressive
a pair of eyes as were ever set in a human
bemg*s head.' When he was playitig extempore,
or was otherwise much excited, £hey would
dilate and become nearly twice th^ ordinary
size, the brown pupil changing to-a vivid black.
His laugh was hearty, and • frequent ; and
when especially amused he would quite double
up with laughter and shake his lumd frx)m the
wrist to emphasize his merriment. He would
nod his head violently when thoroughly agreeing,
so that the hair came down over his face. In
fact his body was almost as expressive as hia
face. His hands were 'small, with taper fin^prs.
On the keys they behaved almost like 'living'
and intelligent creatures, full of life and sym-
pathy.* His action at the piano was as free from.
affectation as everything else that he did, and very
interesting. At times, especially at the organ, he
leant very much -over the keys, as if watching for
the strains which came out ofhis finger tips. He
sometimes swayed from side to side, but usually
his whole performance was quiet and absorbed.*
He refused more than *once, from motives of
modesty, to have his likeness taken. But a great
number of portraits were painted and drawn at
different times of his life. The best of these, in
the opinion of these most capable of judging, is
that painted by his friend Professor Edward
Magnus at Berlin in the year 1 844. The original
of this is in the possession of Madame land-
Goldschmidt, to whom it was presented by Mag-
nus himself, and although deficient in that.lively
speaking expression which all admit to have been
so chanu^teristic of him, it may be accepted as a
good representation. It is very superior to the
various replicas and copies in existence, which
are distinguished by a hopeless meek solemnity of
look, absolutely impossible in the original, and
which therefore convey an entirely wrong idea of
a A cut of Ms hand can be bought.
• The Bishop of Limerldc
4 I owe the abore description of Mendelssohn's looks chiefly to
Mr. John 0. Honlej. B^ Few knew him better, or tn awre
qualiflfd to describe him.
0 L. Dec. 90. 1831 ; April a; Mk7 18. 183&
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MENDELSSOHN.
the fjAce. Madame Goldaoliinidt with great kind-
I neas allowed the portrait to be photographed, and
it was the desire of the writer to give a wood en-
i graving of it ; but after two attempts to obtain
j satisfactory repreaentation8> he has been relaot^
I antly compelled to abandon the intention.
I Other portraits worth notice are (i) a pencil
! sketch taken in 1 8 20, in possession of Blrs. Victor
Benecke, lithographed in ' Groethe and Mendels-
sohn.' ( a) A half-length taken by Begas in 1 8 a i ,
in the possession of the Paal Mendelssohn-Bar-
tholdy &mily at Beriin. This is veiy pooriy
engraved, both as to resemUanoe and execution,
in * Goethe and Mendelssohn.* The original is
probably much idealised, but it is a strikhig pic-
tare. (3> A three-quarter-length, in a cloak,
painted by Hildebrand, and engraved as the
frontispiece to Elijah; in possession of Herr
Killmann of Bonn. (4) A whole length, sitting,
and looking to the side, taken by Hensel in 1844,
and now in the possession of the Paul M.-B.
family. This, though clever as a picture, can
hardly convey the man. The hand is perhaps
the most remarkable thing in it, and must be a
portrait. (5) A profile taken after death by
Hensel, and now in possession of Mrs. V . Benecke.
This, which is said by many to be the best repre-
sentation of him, is fairly engraved as the frontis-
piece to Lady Wallace's translation of the letters.
A portrait of him in crayons was taken at
Weimar for * Goethe, ^idiich he describes as * very
like, bnt rather sulky' ; another was painted at
Rome by * Horace v emet, and another ' by a
painter named Schramm. But none of these
have been ^traced by the writer. The sketch
by his brothei^in-law, taken in 1840, and g^ven
as frontispiece to vol. a of the * Familie Mendels-
sohn,' must surely be too young-looking for that
date. Miniatures of the four children were taken
in Paris in 1816, and are now in the hands of
the Paul M.-B. family.
The bust by Rietsohel (engraved as frontis-
piece to Devrient) and the profiles by Knauer
and Kietz are aH said to be good.
Not less remarkable than his fnce was his
way and manner. It is desdibed by those who
knew him as peculiarly winning and engaging ;
to those whom he loved, coaxing. The sl^ht lisp
or drawl which remained with him to the end
made the endearing words and pet expressions,
which he was fond of applying to his own imme-
diate circle, all the more affectionate. But outside
this immediate circle also he was very fiEUcinating,
and it is probable that, devotedly as he was loved
at home, few men had fewer enemies abroad.
The strong admiration expressed towards him
by men of such veir different natures as 'Schu-
mann and * Berlioz, both of whom knew him well,
shows what a depth of solid goodness there was
in his attractiveness. ^ His gentleness and soft-
iL.1laj 90,1890, SL.Ju.17uidlbrchl5.1881.
a PotsIMy Uk«n lolMO: ilnoe In Ernst Mendelsaohn-Bartholdr'g
poaeukm U the autogrmph of tUto 8on«t InsortiMd. 'Dem MaSer
Sdirmmm xa freimdHchem Andenken and mit beitom Dank. F. M. B.
Leipclg.d.4lfofT.UIO.'
4 1 hav« to thank M. Bdonard DetaOta, the painter, lor hit eflbrts
to dtocovvr the plctora by Vemet. » Waaslelewsky. IBI,
• *Oofz«ipoiMlanee'(U7»),8B{ 'Yojagemiuioal,' Letter 4.
MENDELSSOHN.
295
ness,' says one of his English friends, 'had none
of the bad side so .often found with those quali-
ties ; nothing effeminate or morbid. There was
a great deal ^f manlinesB f>acked into his little
body,' as all readers of the early part of this
sketch must be aware. Indeed he had a great
capacity for being angry^ Anything like meanness
-or deceit, or unworthy conduct of any kind, roused
his wrath at once. * He had a way,' says a very
old friend, * of suddenly firing up on such occasions,
and turning on his heel, in a style which was
quite unmistakeable,' and astonishing to those
who osly knew his smoother side. Towards
thoughtlessness, negligence, or obstinate stu-
pidity he was very intolerant, and under SHoh
E revocation said things the sting of which must
ave remained for long after, and which he
himself deeply ^regretted. But Uiese were rare
instances, and as a rule his personal fascina-
tion secured him friends and kept them firm to
him. And to those to whom he was really
attached — outside his own funily, of which wa
are not speaking — there could har^y be a better
friend. The published letters te G<eneral von
Webem, to Yerkenius, Klingemann, Schubring,
Hiller, Moschdes, are chaiged with an amount
of real affection rarely met with, but which
never leads kim te sink his own individual
opinion on any point which he thought material,
as may be seen in many oases. Talent and per-
severance he was always ready to encourage,
and the cases of Taubert, Eckert, Gade, Joachim,
Rietz, Naumann, Stemdale Bennett, Hiller,
and the anonymous student whose cause he
pleads so 'earnestly to the king, show how
eager he always was to promote the best in-
terests -of those whom he believed to be worthy.
The present head of the Frankfort Gonserva-
torium owes bU advancement in no small degree
to the good offices of Mendelssohn. His warm
reception of Berliez, Liszt, and Thalberg, has
been already mentioned, but must be again re-
ferred to as an instance of the absence of jealousv
or rivalry in his nature, and of his simple wish
to give everybody fiur play.
The relations of MendehHohn and Schumann
were thoroughly good on both sides. There is
a remarkable absence of Schumann's name in
MendelBSohn's published letters; but this may
have arisen from considerations whioh influenced
the editors, and would possibly be reversed if the
letters had been fully given, and if others which
remain in MS. were printed. The two men
were always good Mends. They differed much on
some matters of music. Mendelssohn had his
strong settled principles, which nothing could in-
duce him to give up. He thought that everything
should be made as dear as a composer could make
it, and that rou^ or awkward passages were
blemishes, which should be modified and made
to sound w<ell. On the other hand, Schumann
was equally fixed in the necessity of retaining
what he had written down as representing his
T He comidalned bltterij to the BUhop of Llmeriek In 1817 of bit
short temper at rehearaab or with his pupils.
AilLa
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290
MENDELSSOHN.
intention. But Buch differenoes of opinion never
afiected their intercourse ; they were always
friendly, and even affectionate, and loved to be
together. More than one person living remem-
bers the strong interest which Mendelssohn
took in 'Paradise and the Peri' on its first
appearance, and how anxious he was that his
firiends should hear it. Of Schumann's string
quartets he records that they ' pleased him ex-
tremely' ; and it is surely allowable to infer that
it was the expression of his pleasure that made
Schumaim dedicate them to him. He had a
particular love for some of Schumann's songs,
and as this feeling was not shared by all the
members of his &mily he would sometimes ask
for the ' forbidden fruit/ as a kind of synonym
for something peculiarly pleasant. The fact that
he placed Schumann among his colleagues at the
starting of the Leipzig Conservatorium of itself
shows how much he valued him.
On the other hand, Schumann is never warmer
or more in earnest than when he is praising Men-
delssohn's compositions, as may be seen by many
an article in his Gemmmelte Schriften.'Re dedicated
his string quartets to him, as we have said.
He defended him with ardour when attacked ;
during his last sad years Mendelssohn's name
was constantly in his mouth as that of his best
friend, and his last clearly expressed wish was
that his youngest boy shoi^d be called after him.
A proof of his affectionate feeling is to be found
in the no. 28 of his * Album ^ die Jugend '
(op, 68), which is inscribed 'Erinnerung (Nov.
4, 1847),' Ancl therefore expresses his feelings at
the death of his friend. It is not necessary to
discover that definite direct meaning in this
touching little piece which Mendelssohn found
in all music, in order to recognise sadness tem-
pered by a deep sense of grace and sweetness ;
the result showing how beautiful was the image
which Mendelssohn left in the mind of one so
completely able to appreciate him as Schumann.
Nowhere is Mendelssohn's naturalness and
naXvet^ more evident than in his constant refer-
ence to his own foibles. The hearty way in which
he enjoys idleness, and 'boasts of it, the constant
references to eating and drinking, are delightful
in a man who got through so mu<m work, who was
singularly temperate, and whose only weakness for
the products of the kitchen was for rice milk and
cherry pie. In this, as in everything else, he
was perfectly simple and natural. ' 1 do not in
the least concern myself as to what people wish
or praise or pay for; but solely as to what I
myself consider ' good.' No doubt he was very
fortunate in being able to disregard * what people
paid for'; but Uiat he did so is a part of his
character.
His fun and drollery were more the result of
his high spirits than of any real turn for wit.
Unlike Beethoven, he rarely indulges in plays on
words, and his best efforts in that direction are
the elaborately illustrated programmes and jeux
<Cuprit which are preserved in the albums of
some of his friends, and in which caricatures,
1 L. July 14, isae, aud in many oVben. 9 L. Oct. 4, 1887.
MENDELSSOHN.
versei, puns, and jokes, are mixed up in a very
droll feishion. There is much humour in some of
his scherzos, but especially in the funeral march
for Pyramus and lliisbe in the M.N.D. pieces,
one of the most comical things in all music It
is much to be regretted that he has left no other
specimen of his remarkable power in this direction.
Probably he indulged in a good deal of such fun
which has not been preserved, since both he
'and his sister refer to that march as a specimen
of a style in which he often extemporised. In
mimicry he was great, not only in music but
in takhig off speech and manner. The most
humorous passage that I have met with in his
letters is stul in MS. — ' Dass jenseits auch Musik
gemacht werden konne, das glauben Sie ja, und
haben mirs oft gesagt. Dann wirds wohl kein
Bchlechtes Instrument geben, wie bei Greyer, und
keine dumme Flote pustet da, und keine Posaune
schleppt nach, und nir^ends fehlt es, und wankt
es, una eilt es, das glaube ich wohl.'^
No musician — unless perhaps it were Lionardo
da Vinci, and he was only a musician in a limited
sense — certainly no great composer, ever had so
many pursuits as Mendelssohn. Mozart drew,
and wrote capital letters, Berlioz and Weber also
both wrote good letters, Beethoven was a great
walker and intense lover of nature, Cherubini was
a botanist and a passionate card-player, but none
of them approach Mendelssohn in the number and
variety of his occupations. Both billiards and
chess he plaved with ardour to the end of his
life, and in both he excelled. When a lad he
was devoted to gymnastics; later on he rode
much, swam more, and danced whenever he had
the opportunity. Cards and skating were almost
the only diversions he did not care for. But
then these were diversions. There were two pur-
suits which almost deserve to rank as work —
drawing and letter-writing. Drawing with him
was more like a professioiL'd avocation than an
amusement. The quantity of his sketches and
drawings preserved is very large. They begin
with the Swiss journey in 183a, on which he
took 27 large ones, all very careftdly finished,
and all dated, sometimes two in one day. The
Scotch and Italian tours are both fully illustrated,
and so they go on year by year till his last
journey into Switzerland in 1847, of which, as
already said, 1 4 large highly finished water-colour
drawings remain, besides slighter sketches. At
first they are rude and childish, though with each
successive set the improvement is perceptible. But
even with the earliest ones there is no mistaking
that the drawing was a serious business. The
subjects are not what are CfkUed 'bits,' but are
usually large comprehensive views, and it is im-
possible to doubt that the child threw his whole
mind into it, did his very best, and shirked
nothing. He already felt the force of the motto
which fronted his conductor's chair in the
*FJf.UI.6i.BL
4 ' That there may be mnslo fn the next world 1 know yon believe
for you have often told me k> ; but there wDl certainly be no bad
pianos there like Geyer's, no stupid puffing flutes, no draegit«
trombones, no stopping, or wavering, or hurrying— of that I am quUe
sure.' MS. letter.
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MENDELSSOHN.
GewandhAiiB — 'Bes severa est Yeram gandiom.'
Every Ihtle cottage or. gate b put in with as
much care as the main featufee. Every tree has
its character. Everything stands well on its legs,
and the whole has that archkectonio style which
is 80 characteristic of his music
Next to his drawing should be placed his
correepondenoe, and this is even more remarkable.
During the last years of his life there can have
been but few eminent men in Europe who wrote
more letters than he did. Many even whe take
no interest m music are fkmiliar with the nature
of his letters — the happy mixture of seriousnessi
fun, and affection, the life-like descriptions, the
happy hitSy the naivete which no baldness of
tranfUation can extinguish, the wise counsels,
the practical views, the delight in the successes
of his friei)ds, the self-abnegation, the bncsts of
wrath at anything mean or nasty. We all remember,
too, the length to which they run. Taking the
printed volumes, and comparing the letters with
those of Scott or Arnold, they are on the average
very considerably longer than either. But the
published letters bear only a small proportion to
those still in ^MS. In fact the abundance of
material for the biographer of Mendelssohn ui
quite bewildering. That however is not the
point. The remarkable fact is that so many let-
ters of such length and such intrinsic excellence
should have been written by a man who was all
the time engaged in an engrossing occupation,
producing great quantities of music, conducting,
arranging, and'otlierwise occupied in a profession
which more than any demands the surrender of
the entire man. For these letters are no hurried
productions, but are distinguished, like the draw-
ings, for the neatness and finish which pervade
them. An autograph letter of Mendelssohn's is
a work of art ; the lines are all straight and
close, the letters perfectly and elegantly formed,
with a peculiar luxuriance of tails, and an
illegible word can hardly be found* To the fold-
ing and the sealing everything is perfect. It
seems impossible that this can have been done
quickly. It must have absorbed an enormous
deal of time. While speaking of his correspond-
ence, we may mention the neatness and order
with which he registered and kept everything.
The 44 volumes of MS. music, in which he did
for hiniself what Mozart's father so- carefully did
for his son, have been mentioned. But it is not
generally known that he preserved all letters that
he received, and stuck them with his own hands
into books. 37 large ^ thick green volumes exist,
containing apparently all the letters and memor-
andums, business and private, which he received
from Oct. 29, 1831, to Oct. 39, 1847, together
with the drafts of his Oratorio books, and of the
long official communications which, during his
latter life, cost him so many unprofitable hours.
He seems to have found time for everything.
Hiller * tells as how during a very busy season he
I In the iMDdt of hb HaOj, of Sohletnltz. Kn. MoMhelw, Schii-
bciov, P. DftTfd. Mme. OoldMhiiiidt. Mme. Prausser. Mr. Xuler of
DQmUorl, the StOTndale BeniMtts. Mr. Sutoris. Mid others.
3 lo the hAodi of Mrs. Waeb (LIU M.-B.>. Two others seem to be
SB. 107.
MENDELSSOHN.
207
revised and copied out the libretto of his oratorio
for him. One of his dearest Leipzig Mends has
a complete copy of the full score of Antigone,
including the whole of the words of the melodrama,
written for her wiUi his own hand ; a perfect
piece of caligraphy, without spot or erasure 1
and the funily archives contain a lonff minute
list of the contents of all the cupboards in the
house, filling several pages of foolscap, in his usual
neat writing, and made about the year 1843.
We read of Mr. Dickens ^ that * no matter was
considered too trivial to claim his care and
attention. He would take as much pains about
the hanging of a picture, the choosing of furniture,
the superintending of any little improvement in
the house, as he would about the more serious
business of his life ; thus carrying out to the very
letter his favourite motto that What is worUt
doing at "all is worth doing well.'' No words
could better describe the side of Mendelssohn^s
character to which we are alluding, nor could any
motto more emphatically express tilie principle on
which he acted throughout life in all his work.
His taste and efficiency in such minor matters are
well shown in the albums which he made for his
wife,, beautiful specimens of arrangement, the most
charming things in which are the drawings and
pieces of music from his own hands. His private
account-books and diaries are kept with the same
quaint neatness. If he had a word to alter in a
letter, it was done with a grace which turned the
blemish into a beauty. The same care came out
in everything — in making out the programmes for
the Gewandhaus concerts, where he wouldarrange
and re-arrange the pieces to suit some inner idea
of symmetry or order ; or in settling his sets of
songs for publication as to the succession of kevs,
connection or contrast of words, etc. In factne
had a passion for neatness, and a repugnance to
anything clumsy. Possibly this may have been
one reason why he appears so rarely to have
sketched his music. He made it in his head,
and had settled the minutest points there
befose he put it on paper, thus avoiding the litter
and disorder of a sketch. Ck>nnected with this
neatness is a certain quaintness in his proceed-
ings which perhaps stnkes an Englishman more
forcibly than it would a German. He used the
old-fashioned C clef for the treble voices in
his scores to the last; the long flourish with
which he ornaments the double bar at the end of
a piece never varied. A score of Haydn's Military
Symphoi^ which he wrote for his wife bears the
words 'Possessor C^dle.' In writing to. Mrs.
Moscheles of her little girls, whose singing had
pleased him, he begs to be remember^ to the
*drei kleine Diskantisten.' A note to David,
sent by a child, is inscribed ' Kinderpost,' and
so on. Certain French words occur over and
over again, and are evidently favourites. Such
are plaisir and trovble, A propoa^ en gros, and
others. The word htibach, answering to our
'nice,' was a special ^favourite, and nett was one
of his highest commendations.
But to return for a moment to his engrossing
«FrefiwetoblsLetten,in9. ftMos.U.16B.
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MENDELSSOHN
pursuits. Add to those just mentioned the many
concerts, to be arranged, rehearsed, conducted ;
the firequent negotiations attending on Berlin;
the long ofBoial protocols; the hospitality and
genial intercourse, where he was equally excellent
as host or as guest ; the claims of his ^mily ; the
long holidays, real holidays, spent in travelling,
and not, like Beethoven*s, devoted to composi-
tion— and we may almost be pardoned for won-
dering how he can have found time to write aioy
music at all. But on the contrary, with kim all
this business does not appear to have militated
against composition in Uie slightest degree. It
often drove him almost to distraction ; it prob-
ably shortened his life ; but it never seems to have
prevented his doing whatever music came before
Lim, either spontaneously or at the call of hb two
posts at Berlin and Dresden. He composed
Antigone in a fortnight, he resisted writing
the music to Ruy Bias, he grumbled over the
long chorale fqr the thousandth anniversary of
the German Empire, and over the overture to
Athalie, in the midst of his London pleasures ;
but still he did them, and in the cases oi Antigone
and the two overtures it is difficult to see how
he could have done them -better. He was never
driven into a comer.
The power by which he got through all this
labour, so much of it self- imposed, was the
power of order and concentration, the practical
business habit of doing one thing -at •a time,
and doing it well. This no doubt was the
talent which his father recognised in him so
strongly -as to make him doubt whether business
was not his real vocation. It was this which
made him ^ sympathise with Schiller in his power
of 'supplying' great tragedies as they were
wanted. In one way his will was weak, for he
always found it hard to say No ; but having ac-
cepted the task it became a duty, and towards duty
his will was the iron will of a man of business.
Such a gift is vouchsafed to very few artists. Han-
del possessed it in some degree ; but with that one
exception Mendelssohn seems to stand alone.
Of his method of composing, little or nothing is
known. He appears to have made few sketches,
and to have arranged his music in his head at
first, much as Mozart did. Probably this arose
from his early training under Zeltec, for the vol-
umes for 1 8a I, a, 3, of the MS. series now in the
Berlin Library appear to contain his first drafts,
and rarely show any corrections, and what there
are are not so much sketches as erasures and sub-
stitutions. Devrient and Schubring tell of their
having seen him composing a score bar by bar
from top to bottom ; but this was probably only
an experiment or tour de force. The fragment of
the first movement of a symphony which is given
on p. 305, is a good average example of the shape
in which his ideas first came on to the paper.
Alterations in a work' after it was completed
are quite another thing, and in these he was
lavish. He complains of his not discovering the
necessity for them till ^post festum. We have
seen instances of this in the Walpuigisnight, St.
tL.Aug.S9 im.
sL.D«e.flbUI0.
MENDELSSOHN.
Paul, the Lobgesang, Elijah, and some of the
Concert-overtures. Another instance is the
Italian Symphony, which he retained in MS. for
14 years, till his death, with the intention of
altering and improving the Finale. Another,
equally to the point, is the D minor Trio, of
which there are two editions in actual drcola-
tion, containing several important and extensive
* differences. This is carrying fiistidiousness even
further than Beethoven, whose alterations were
endless, but ceased with publication. The auto-
graphs of many of Mendel8S(dm*s pieces are dated
years before Uiey were printed, and in most, if
not all, cases, they received material alterations
before being issued.
Of his pianoforte playing in his earlier days
we have already spoken. What it was in his
great time, at such displays as his performances
in London at the Philharmonic in 184a, 44, and
47; at Ernst's Concert in 1844, in the Bach
Concerto with Moscheles and llialberg ; at the
British Musicians* mating in 1644; and the
British Quartet Society in 1847 ; at the Leipzig
Concerts on the occasion already mentioned in
1836; at Miss Lind*s Concert Dec. 5, 1845,
or at many a private reunion at V. Novello^s
or the Hersle^w*, or the Moscheles* in London, or
the houses of his favourite friends in Leipzig,
Berlin, or Frankfort — there are still many re-
maining well -able to judge, and in whose minds
the impression survives as dear as ever. Of the
various recollections with which I have been fia-
<voured, I cannot do better than give entire those
of Madame Schumann, and Dr. Hiller. In reading
them it should be remembered that Mendelssohn
was fond of speaking of himself as a player en
gro8, who did not claim (however great his right)
to be a virtuoso, and that there are iostanoes of
his having refused to play to great virtuosi.
I . * My recollections of Mendebsohn's playing,'
says Madame Schumann, *are among ihe most
delightful things in my artistic life. It was to
me a shining ideal, full of genius and life,
united with technical perfection. He would some-
times take the tempi very quick, but never to
the prejudice of the music. It never oocnrred
to me to compare him with virtuosi. Of mere
effects of performance he knew nothing — ^he was
always the great musician, and m hearing him
one forgot the player, and only revelled in the full
enjoyment of the music. He could cany one with
him in the most incredible manner, and his play-
ing was always -stamped with beauty and nobility.
In hlB early days he had acquired perfection of
technique ; but latterly, as he often told me, he
hardly ever practised, and yet he surpassed every
one. I have heard him in Bach, and Beethoven,
and in his own compositions, and shall never
forgot the impression he made upon me.*
a. * Mendelssohn's playing,* says Dr. Hiller,
' was to him what flying is to a bird. No one
wonders why a lark flies, it is inoonoeivable
• Th« puis of the 'HeMden' Owrtara are not In exact aooordaaee
with the score of 'FlngaU HOhle.' The P.F. emngement of the
M.N.D. Orertare imblith«d In London U given In notes c«f half the
value of those lu the score. pubUsbed after H In Lelpils.
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MENDELSSOHN.
without that power. In the same way MendelB-
sohn played the piano because it was his
nature. He possessed great skill, oertainty,
power, and rapidity of execution, a lovely full
tone — ^aU in fact that a virtuoso could desire,
but these qualities were forgotten while he was
playing, and one almeet overlooked even those
more spiritual gifts which we call five, 'invention,
soul, apprehension, etc. When he sat down to
the instrument music streamed from him with
all the fullness of his inborn genius, — ^he was a
centaur, and his horse was the piane. What he
played, how he played it, and that he was the
player — all were equally rivetting, and it was
impossible to separate the execution, the music,
and the executant. This was absolutely the case
in his improvisations, so poetical, artistic, and
finished ; and almost as much so in his execution
of the music of Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, or
himself. Into those three masters he had grown,
and they had become his spiritual property. The
music of other composers ne knew, but could not
produce it as he did theirs. I do not think, for
instance, that his execution of Chopin was at.all
to be oon)pared to his execution of the masters
just mentioned; he did nut care particularly for
it, thoi^h when alone he. played everything. good
wiUi interest. In playing at sight his skUl and
rapidity of comprehension were astonishing, and
that not with P. F. music only, but with the most
complicated compositions. He never practised,
though he once told me that in his Leipzig time
he lutd played a shake (I thmk with the 2nd
and s^d fingers) several minutes every day for
some months, till he was perfect in It.*
' His staccato,' says Mr. Joachim, ' was the most
extraordinaiT thing possible for life and crispness.
In the FrtthUngslied (Songs without Words, Bk.
V, No. 6) for instance, it was quite electric, and
though I have heard that song played by many
of the greatest pilfers, I never experienced the
same e&ot. His playing was extraordinarily full
of fire, which could hardly be controlled, and yet
was controlled, and oombined with the greatest
delicacy.' ' Though lightness of touch, and a de-
licious liquid pearliness of tone,' says 'another of
his pupils, ' were prominoDt characteristics, yet his
power in, fortes was immense. In the passage in
his G nunor Concerto where the whole orchestra
makes a crescendo .the climax of which is a 6-4
chord on D, j>layed by the P.F. alone, it seemed
as if the bimd had quite enough to do to work
up to the chord hej)layed.' As an instance of the
fulness of his -tone, the same gentleman mentions
the 5 bars of piano which begin Beethoven's
G major Concerto, and which, though he played
them perfectly sofUv, filled the whole room.
' His mechanism, says ^another of his Leipzig
pupils, ' was extremely subtle, and developed with
the lightest of wrists (never from the arm) ; he
therefore never strained the instrument or ham-
mered. His chord-playing was beautiful, and
based on a special uieory of his own. His use
of the pedal was very sparing, clearly defined,
and tlurefore effective ; his phrasing beautifully
illr.W.8.Bociutro.
a Mr. Otto Goldaohmldt.
MENDELSSOHN. 299
clear. The performances in which I derived the
most lasting impressions from hun were the 33
Variations and last Sonata (Op. 11 1) of Bee-
thoven, in which latter the Variations of the final
movement came out more clearly in their struc-
ture and beauty than I have ever heard before
or since.' Of his playing of the 33 Variations,
Professor Macfarren remarks that ' to each one,
or each pair, where they go in pairs, he gave a
character different from all the others. In play-
ing at sight from a MS. score he characterised
every incident by the peculiar tone by which he
represented the instrument for which it was
' written.' In describing his playing of the 9th
Symphony, Mr. Sohleinits testified to the same
singular power of representing the difi*erent in-
struments. A still stronger testimony is that of
Berlioz, who, speaking of the colour of the
Hebrides Overture, says that Mendelssohn * suc-
ceeded in giving him .an accurate idea of it, such
is his extraordinary power of rendering the most
complicated scores * on the Piano.'
His adherence to his author's meaning, and
to the indications given in the music, was ab-
solute. Strict time was one of his hobbies. He
alludes io it, with an eye to the sins of Hiller
and Chopin, in a letter of May 23, 1834, and
somewhere else speaks of 'nice strict tempo*
as something peculiarly pleasant. After intro-
ducing some ritardandos in conducting the In-
troduction to Beethoven's 2nd Symphony, he
excused himself by saying ' that * one could not
always be -good,' and 'that he had felt the in-
clination too strongly to resist it. In playing,
however, he never himself interpolated a ritar"
dando, or 'suffered it 4n any one else. It espe-
cially enraged him when done at the end of a
song or other piece. 'Es stdit nicht dal' he
would say; *if it were intended it would be
written in — they think it expression, but it is
sheer ^affectation.' But though in playing he
never varied the tempo when once taken, he did
not always take a movement at the same pace,
but changed it as his mood was at the time.
We have seen in the case of Bach's A minor
Fugue (p. ^74) that he tcould on occasion intro-
duce an individual reading ; -and his treatment
of the aipeggios in the Chromatic 'Fantasia
shows that, Uiere at least, he allowed himself
great latitude. Still, in imitating this it should
be remembered how thoroughly he knew these
great masters, and how perfect his sympathy
with them was. In conducting, as we have
just seen, he was more elastic, though even
there his variations would now be condemned as
moderate by some conductors. Before he con-
ducted at the Philharmonic it had been the
tradition in the Coda of the Overture to Egmont
to return to a piano after the crescendo ; but this
he would not suffer, and maintained the fortis-
simo to the end — a practice now always foUowed.
He very rarely played from book, and his
prodigious memory was also often shown in his
S8eel>orn.p.aoa.
» Mr. KeWow Pye.
1 Mn. Mosobel68 and Mr. Bodcstro.
• Letter to Faony. Not. 14. VdtOk
* ' Voj«ge musical.* Letter 4.
• Mr. ?0D Bdlow.
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MENDELSSOHN.
sadden recollection of out-of-the-way pieces.
Hiller has given two instances (pp. 28, 39). His
power of retaining things casually heard was also
shown in his extempore playing, where he would
recollect the themes of compositions which he
heard then and there for the first time, and
would combine them in the happiest manner.
An instance of this is mentioned by his ^ father,
in which, after Malibran had sung five songs
of different nations,, he was dragged to the piano,
and improvised upon them all. He himself
describes another occasion, a 'field day' at
BaiUot's, when he took three themes from the
Bach sonatas and worked them up to the delight
and astonishment of an audience ' worth delight-
ing. At the matinee of the Society of British
Musicians in 1844, he took his themes firom two
compositions bv C. E. Horsley and Macfarren
which he had just heard, probably for the first-
time— and other instances could be given.
His extemporising was however marked by
other traits than that of memory. '^It was,' says
Prof. Macfarren, *as fluent and as well planned
as a written work,*^ and the themes, whether
borrowed or invented, were not merely brought
together but oontrapuntally worked. Instances
of this have been mentioned at Birmingham and
elsewhere. His tact in these things was pro-
digious. At the concert given by Jenny Lind
and himself on Dec, 5, 1845, he played two
Songs without words — Bk. vi. No. i, in Eb,
and Bk. v, No. 6v in A major, and he modulated
from, the one key to the other by means of a
regularly constructed intermezzo, in which the
semiquavers of the first song merged into the
arpeggios of the second with the most consum-
mate arty and with magical 'effect. But great
as were his public dispUys, it would seem that,
like Mozart, it was in the small circle of intimate
firiends that his improvisation was most splendid
and happy. Those only who had the good for-
tune to find themselves (as rarely happened)
alone 'with him at one of his Sunday afternoons
are perhaps aware of what he could really do in
this direction^ and he ' never improvised better' or
pleased himself more than when tiU d UU with the
Queen and Prince Albert. A singular fafii is men-
tioned by ^Hiller, which is confirmed by another
friend of his : — that in playing his own music he
did it with a certain reticence, as if not desiring
that the work would derive any advantage from
his execution. The explanation is very much in
consonance with his modesty, but whether correct
or not there is no reason to doubt the fact.
His immense early practice in counterpoint
under Zelter — like Mozart's under hisfiftther —
had griven him so complete a command over all
the resources of counterpoint, and such a habit
of looking at themes contn^untally, that the
combinations just spoken of came more or less
naturally to him. In some of his youthful
compositions he brings his science into promi-
iF.ll.tSn7. aL.L806.
« BeooUecUons of Joaehlm and Boekitro.
4 Dr. Klengd and SCerndale Bennett once had this good fortnne,aad
It nai a thing nerer to be forgotten. • B. 1&
MENDEI^OHN.
nence, as in the Fugue in A (op. 7, no. 5) ; the
Finale of the Eb stringed Quartet (1823) ; the
original Minuet and Trio of the stringed Qi^atet
in A (op. 18), a double canon of great ingenuity ;
the Chorus in St. Paul, * But our God,' constructed
on the chorale *Wir glauben all'; but with his
maturity he mostly drops such displays, and
Elijah, as is well known, * contains no fugues.'
In extemporising, however, it was at his fingers*
ends to the last. He was also fond of throwing
•ff ingenious canons, of which the following,
written on the moment for Joachim, March 1 1,
1844, is a good example.
Etude for one VioUiit or Canon /or Ueo VioUtu.
Of his organ-playing we have already spoken.
It should be added that he settled his combinations
of stops before starting, and did not change them
in the course of the piece. He likewise steadily
* adhered to the plan on which he set out ; if he
started in 3 parts he continued in 3, and the same
with 4 or 5. He took extraordinary delight in the
organ ; some describe him as even more at home
there than on the P. F.^ though this must be taken
with caution. But it is certain that he loved it,
and was always greatly excited when playing it.
He was fond of playing the Viola, ami on
more than one occasion took the first Viola part
of his own Octet in public. The Violin he
learned when young, but neglected it in later
life. He however played occasionally, and it was
amusing to see him bending over the deek, and
struggling with his part just as if he were a boy.
His practical knowledge of the instnmient is
evident firom his violin music, in which there are
few difficulties which an ordinarily good player
cannot surmount. But this is characteristic of
the care and thoughtfulness of the man. As a
rule, in his scores he gives each instrument the
passages which suit it. A few instances of the
reverse are quoted under Clarinet (vol. i . p. 363 b),
but they are quite the exception. He appears
to have felt somewhat of the same natural dislike
to bsass instruments that Mozart did. At any
rate in his early scores he uses thiem with great
^moderation, and somewhere makes the just
remark that the: trombone is 'too sacred an
instrument' to be used freely.
The list of Mendelssohn's works published up
to the present time (Jan. 1880) comprises —
5 Symphonies, including the Lobgesang.
6 Concert overtures ; an Overture for military
band.
• Mns. World, TllL 102.
T Neither of his three Oonoert orertam. nor the Italian and Seotafa
sjmphonlM.haTetroffiboDei. As to St. Paul, tee letter to Mr. Hontor.
Q.AM.UA.
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MENDEI^OHN.
I Concerto for Violin and OrchoBtra ; a do. for
Pianoforte, and 3 shorter works for P. F. and
Orchestra.
1 Octet for Strings, 2 Qnintets and 7 Qnartets
for do., with fragments of an 8th ; 3 Quartets for
P.F. and strings, 1 Trios for the same, a Sonata
for the Violin and P. F. ; 2 Sonatas and a set of
Variations for CeUo and P. F.
2 pieces for Piano, four hands ; 3 Sonatas for
Piano solo, i Fantasia for do. (^ Scotch Sonata *),
16 Scherzos, Capriooios, etc. ; 8 books of Songs
without Words, 6 in each, and 2 separate similar
pieces ; 7 Characteristic pieces ; 6 pieces for
children ; 7 Preludes and Fugues ; ana 3 sets of
Variations.
For the organ, 6 Sonatas, and 3 Preludes and
Fugues.
2 Oratorios and firagments of a third.
I Hjrmn (Lauda Sion), 2 ditto for Solo, Chorus,
and Orchestra.
3 Motets for Female voices and Organ; 3
Church pieces for Solos, Chorus, and Organ.
5 Motets, Jubilate, Nunc Dimittis, Magnificat,
and 1 Kyries for voices onlj; 2 ditto Men^s
vcMoes only ; 2 ditto Chcnrus and Orchestra.
8 Psalms for Solos, Chorus and Orchestra ; 6
' Spruche ' for 8 voices.
1 Opera, and portions of a second ; i Operetta ;
the Walpurgisnight.
Music to Midsummer Night^s Dream, Athalie,
Antigone, and (Edipus.
2 Festival Cantatas ; i Conoert-aria ; 10 Duets
and 8 2 Songs for solo voice, with P.F. ; 28 Part
Songs for mixed voices, and 1 7 for men's voices.
Of these a complete collected edition, edited by
JuliuB Rietz, has been published by Messrs.
Breitkopf & HarteL The prospectus was issued
in July 1876, and the publication began with
1877. The various separate .editions -are too nu-
merous to be given here, but we may mention
that while these sheets are passing through the
press, a complete collection of the P.F. works
( S(do and with orchestra) has been issued by
Messn. Novello in one voL of 518 pages.
Two editions of the Thematic Catalogue have
been published by Messrs. Breitkopf^ the ist in
two parta, 1846 and 1853, the 2nd in 1873. A
third edition is very desirable, on the moded of the
admirable catalogues of Beethoven and Schubert,
edited by Mr. Nottebohm . The English publishers,
and the dates, should in every case be given, since
their editions were often published simultane-
ously with those of the Crerman publishers, and
indeed in some cases are the original issues.
The few of Mendelssohn's very early works
which he published himself, or which have been
issued since his death, show in certain points the
traces of his predecessors — of Bach, Mozart, Bee-
thoven, and Weber. But this is only saying what
can be said of the early works of all composers,
including Beethoven himself. Mendelssohn is
not more but less amenable to this law of nature
than most of his compeers. The traces of Bach
are the most permanent, and they linger on in the
vocal works even as late as St. Paul. Indeed,
Bach may be tracked still later in the BoUd oon-
MENDELSSOHN.
801
struction and architectonic arrangement of the
choruses, even of the Lobgesang, the grand
Psalms, the Walpurgisnight, and Elijah, works
in all respects emphatic^ly Mendelssohn's own,
not less than in tne religious feeling, the vadon
of noble «entiment with tender expression, and
the utter absence of commonness or vulgarity
which pervade all his music alike.
In the instrumental works, however, the year
1826 broke the spell of all external influence,
and the Octet, the Quintet in A, and above all
the M.N.D. Overture, launched him upon the
world at 17 as a thoroughly original composer.
The Conoert-overtures, the 2 great Symphonies,
the two P.F. Concertos, and the Violm Con-
certo, fully maintain this orginality, and in
thought, style, phrase, and clearness of expression,
no less than in their symmetrical structure and
exquisite orchestration, are eminently independent
and individual works. The advance between
the Symphony in C minor (1824), which we
call * No. I,' though it is really * No XIII,' and
the Italian Symphony (Rome, 1 831) is immense.
The former is laid out quite on the Mozart plan,
and the working throughout recalls the old
world. But the latter has no model. The
melodies .and the treatment are Mendelssohn's
alone, and while in gaiety and freshness it is
Suite unrivalled, it is not too much to say that
le slow movement is as great a novelty as that
of Beethoven's Concerto in G major. The Scotch
Symphony is as original as the Italian, and on
a much larger and gnuider scale. The opening
Andante, the Scherzo, and the Finale are es-
pecially splendid and individual. The Concert-
overtures are in all essential respects as original as
if Beethoven had not preceded them by writing
Coriolan — as true a representative of ms genius
as the Hebrides is of Mendelssohn's, l^t to
the Midsummer Night^s Dream, which brought
the fairies into the orchestra and fixed them there,
and which will always remain a monument of
the fresh feeling of youth ; the Hebrides with its
intensely sombre and melancholy sentiment, and
the Melusina with its passionate pathos, have no
predecessors in sentiment, treatment, or orches-
tration. Ruv Bias is as brilliant and as full of
fire as the owers are of sentiment, and does not
fall a step behind them for individuality.
In these works there is little attempt at any
modification of the established forms. Innova-
tion was not Mendelssohn's habit of mind, and
he rarely attempts it. The Scotch Symphony is
directed to be played through without pause,
and it has an extra movement in form of a long
Coda, which appears to be a novelty in pieces in
this class. There are unimportant variations in
the form of the concertos, chiefly in the direc-
tion of compression. But with Mendelssohn, no
more than with Schubert, do these things force
themselves on the attention. He has so much
to say, and says it so well, the music is so good
and BO agreeable, that it never occurs to the
hearer to enquire if he has altered the external
proportions of his discourse.
His Scherzos are still more peculiarly his own
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MENDELSSOHN.
offiqpring; and really have no prototypes. That in
a movement bearing the same name as one of
Beethoven's most individual creations, and oc-
cupying the same place in the piece, he should
have been able to strike out so entirely different
a path as he did, is a wonderful tribute to his
originality. Not less remarkable is the variety
of the many Scherzos he has left. They are
written for orchestra and chamber, concerted
and solo alike, in double and triple time indiffer-
ently ; they have no fixed rhythm, and notwith-
standhig a strong family likeness*— the impress of
the gay and delicate mind of their composer — are
all independent of each other. In his orchestral
works Mendelssohn's scoring is remarkable not
more for its grace and beautiful effect than for
its clearness and practical efficiency. It gives
the Conductor no difficulty. What the composer
wishes to express comes out naturally, and, as
already remarked, each instrument has with rare
exceptions the passages most suitable to it.
Mendelssohn s love of * Programme* is obvious
throughout the foregoing works. The exquisite
imitation of Goethe's picture in the Scherzo of the
Octet (p. 358 &) is. the earliest instance of it ; the
Overture founded on his Calm sea and Prosper-
x>us voyage- Ib another ; and as we advance each
Overture and each Symphony has its title. He
once said, in ^conversation with F. Schneider
on the subject, that since Beethoven had taken
the st^ he did in the Pastoral Symphony,
every one was at liberty to follow. But the
way in which ha resent^ Bdnmuam's attempt
to discover 'red coral, sea monsters, magic cas-
tles and ocean caves* in his Melusina 'Overture
shows that his view of Programme was a broad
one, that he did not intend to depict scenes or
events, but held fast by Beethoven's canon,
that such music should be 'more expression
of emotion than painting' — mehr Afiadruck der
Empfindang ah McUerei, Thus he quotes the
first few baEB of the Hebrides Overture (see
p. 264a) not as his recollection of the sound of
the winds and the waves^ but *to show how extra-
ordinarily Fingal's cave had affected him ' — wie
uUsam mir a\^ den Hebriden zu Muthe geuforden
itt. True, in the M. N.D.Overture we are said to
hear the bray of Bottom in* the low G of the
Ophicleide; and in the three North Wales
caprices (op. 16) we are t<^d of even more minute
touches of imitation (see p. 2646); but these, if
not imaginary, are at. best but ^aux d^esprit.
Connected with this tendency to programme is
a curious point, namely, his belief in the absolute
and obvious ' meaning of music. * Notes,' 'says
he, ' have as de6nite a meaning as words, perhaps
even a more definite one,' and he devotes a whole
letter to reiterating th^t music is not too indefi-
nite to be put into words, but too definite ; that
words are susceptible of a variety of meanings,
while music has only ^one. This is not the place
1 SchnbrlDg, 974 h. note.
s L. Jan. 90, 188S. The referaDce if to an article in the N. M.Z.
When esked what be meant bj this oTerture be once replied 'Hm,
nnemeaalllanoe.'
s L. Genoa. July Iffll.
4 L. Oct. IS, 1842, to Soochaj; and compare that to Fran von
Ferelra. Genoa, July ISBL
MENDEI^SOHN.
to discuss so strange a doctrine, which, though
true to him, is certainly not true to the majority
of men, and which obviously rests on the precise
force of the word 'to mean* (Jieissm); but it is
necessary to call attention to it en passant^
His great works in chamber music are on a par
with tibose for the orchestra. The Octet, the
Quintets, and the 6 Quartets are thoroughly indi-
vidual and interesting, nothing far-fetched, no
striving after effect, no emptiness, no padding,
but plenty of matter given in a manner at once
fresh ami varied. Every bar is his own, and
every bar is well said. The accusation which is
sometimes brought against them, that they are
more fitted for the orchestra than the chamber is
probably to some extent well-founded. Indeed
Mendelssohn virtually anticipates the charge in his
preface to the parts of the Octet, which he desires
may be played in a symphonic style ; and in that
noble piece, as well as in parts of the Quintet in
Bb^ and of the Quartets in D and F nmunr, many
players have felt that the composer has placed
ms work in too small a firame, that the proper
balance cannot always be maintained between
the leading violin and the other instruments, and
that to produce all the effect of the composer's
ideas they should be heard in an orchestra of
strings rather than in a quartet of solo instm-
ments. On the other hand, the P.F. Quartet in
B minor and the two P.F. Trios in D minor and
C minor have been criticised, probably with some
justice, as not sufficiently concertante, that is as
giving too prominent a part to the Piano. Such
criticism' may detract from the pieces in a teohni>
cal respect, but it Ibaves the ideas and sentiments
of the music, the nobility of the style, and the
clearness of the structure, untouched.
His additions to the technique of the Pianoforie
are not important. Hiller * tells a story which
shows that Mendelssohn cared little for the rich
passages of the modem school; his own were
quite sufficient for him. But this is consistent
with what we have just said. It was the music
of which he thought, and as long as that expressed
his feelings it satisfied him, and he was incUfferent
to the special form into which it was thrown.
Of his Pianoforte works the most remarkable is
the set of 1 7 Serious Variations ; but the Fantasia
in Ff minor (op. 28), the 3 great Capriccios (op.
33), the Prehides and Fugues, and several of the
smiEtller pieces, are splendid works too well known
to need further mention. The Songs without
Words stand by themselves, and are especially
interesting to Englishmen on account of their
very great popularity in this country. Men-
delssohn's- orchestral and chamber works are
ffveatiy played and much enjoyed here, but it
IS to his Oratorios, Songs, Songs without Words,
and Part-songs, that he owes his firm hold on
the mass of ihe English people. It was some
time (see 135 a) before the Songs without Words
reached the public ; but when once they became
• Vn. Austin (Traier'i Kac April 1848) relates that he mid to her
on one occasion ' I am going to play something of Beethoron's.'tmt yoa
must tell them what It is about; whatlstheuseof music if people do,
not know what It means ? ' She might sorely have replied. ' What
theu.UtbeuMoftheimaghiatlon7' •H.1HU6.
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MENDELSSOHN.
known* the taste for them quickly tpread, and
probaUy no pieoee ever were so much and so per^
manently beloved in the country. The piece, like
the name, is virtually his own invention. Not
a few of Beethoven*s movements— such as the
Adagio to the Senate pa^^tique, or the Minuet
to op. lo, no. 3 — might be classed as songs with-
out words, and so might Field's Nocturnes ; but
the fcwmer of these are portions of larger works,
not easQy separable,, and the latter were little
known ; and neither of them possess that grace
and finish, that intimate charm, and above all
that domesUe character, which have ensured the
success of Mendelssohn's Songs without Words
in many an English family. They soon became
identified with his name as it gssw more and
more familiar in England ; some of them were
composed here, others had names or stories at-
tached to their ^origin: there was a piquancy
about the very title — and all helped their popu-
larity. His own feeling towards them was by
no means so indulgent. It is perhaps impossible
fer a composer to be quite impartial towards
pieces which make hin^ so- very popi^ar,. but he
distinctly says, after the issue of Book. 3, 'that he
'does not meai^ to wiite any more at that time,
and that if such animaXcuUz are multiplied too
much no one will care for them,' etc It is
difficult to believe that so stem a critic of his
own productions should not have felt the weak-
ness of some of them, and the strong mannerism
which, with a few remarkable exceptions, per-
vades the whole collection. We should not
fnget, too, that he is not answerable for the last
two books, which were published after his death,
without the great alterations which he habitually
made before publication. One drawback to the
excesnve popularity of the Songs without Words
is, not that they exist — for we might as well
quarrel with €k>ethe for the ' Wandrers Nacht-
lied' or the 'Heidenroslein' — nor yet the num-
ber of imitations they produced, but that in the
minds of tiiousandft these graceful trifles, many
of which were thrown off at. a single sitting, are
indiacriniinately acc^ted as the most character-
istic repsesentatives of the genius of the com-
poser of the Violin Concerto and the Hebrides
Overture.
L ' His Songs may be said to have introduced
' the German LUd to England, and to have led
the way for the deeper strains of Schumann, Schu-
bert, aad Brahms, in English houses and concert-
rooms. No doubt the songs of those composers
do touch lower depths of the heart than Mendels-
sohn's do, but the clearness and directness of his
mnsie,. the spontaneity^ of his melody,, and %
certain pure charm pervading the whole, have
given a place with the great public to some of
his songs, sudi as 'On song's bright pinions,'
which they vrill probably retain for a long time
to come. Others, such as the Nachtlied, the
1 Sadi M tha w«n*knoim om In A. uhleb. though In QvnoMx^
knomi M FrfthUngBlM. was In Ensland for a long time oalM
' OaabenveO Oreen,' from the Cut ef lu havlnff been composed on
DoBBttk mn. The Dnet (Bk. Ul. no. «> wm for long beliered to re-
preaont a conversation betTreen the oomposer and his wlfs.
tLeUer.atfdi«.U3».
MENDELSSOHN.
808
Volkslied ('Es ist beetimmt'), and the Schilflied
are deeply pathetic ; others, as the Lieblings-
platzchen, are at the same time extremely original ;
others, as ' O Jugend,' the Jagdgesang, and the
* Diese Rosen,* the soul of gaiety. He was very
fastidious in his choice of words, and often marks
his sense of the climax by varying the last stanza
in accompaniment or otherwise, a practice which
he was perhaps the first to adopt. One of his
last commissions to his finend Professor Graves,
before leaving Intedaken in 1847, was to select
words from the English poets for him to set.
His Part-songs gave the majority of English
amateurs a sudden and delightful introduction to
a class- of music which had long existed for Ger-
mans, but which till about 1840 was as much
unknown here as our glees still are in Germany.
Many can still recollect the utterly new and
strange feeling which was then awakened in
their minds by the new spirit, the delicacy, the
pure stvle, the delicious harmonies, of these
enchanting little compositions !
Ever since Handel s tune, Oratorios have been
the favourite public music here. Mendelssohn s
works of this ctass, St. Paul, Elijah, the Lobgesang,
soon became well known. They did not come as
strangers, but as the younger brothers of the Mes-
siah and Judas Maccabeeus, and we liked them at
once. Nor only liked them ; we were proud of
them, as having' been produced or very early per-
formed in England; they appealed to our national
love for the Bible, and there is no doubt that to
them is largely owing the position next to Handel
which Mendeissohn occupies in England. Elijah
at once took its place, and it is now almost, if
not quite, on a level with the Messiah in public
fibvour. Apart f^m the intrinsic qualities of tiie
music of his large vocal works, the melody, clear-
ness, spirit, and symmetry which they exhibit,
in common^'with lus instrumental compositions;
there is one thing which remarkably distinguishes
them, and in which they are far in advance of
their predecessors — a simple and direct attempt
to set the subject forth as it was, to think firat
of the story and next of the music which depicted
it. It is the same thing that we formerly at-
tempted to bring out in Beethoven's case, ' Ihe
thoughts and emotions are the first thing,
and the forms of expression are second and
subordinate ' (vol. i. 203 b). We may call this
* dramatic,' inasmuch as the books of oratorios
are more or less dramas; and Mendelssohn's
letters to Schubring in reference to Elijah, his
demand for more ' questions and answers, replies
and rejoinders, sudden interruptions,' eis., i^ow
how thm was the line which in his opinion divided
the platform &om the stage, and how keenly he
wished the personages of his oratorios to be alive
and acting, 'not mere musical images, but inhabit-
ants of a definite active ' world.' But yet it was
not so much dramatic in any conscious sense as a
desire to set things forth as they were. Haupt-
maim has 'stated this well with regard to the
three noble Psalms (op. 78), * Judge me, O God,'
' Why rage fiercely the heathen?' and • My God,
S L. Not. 9^ Dec «l 1888. « Banpt. 11. 108.
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804
MENDELSSOHN.
why hast th<m foitaken me?' He says that it if
not 8o much anj musical or technical ability
that places them so fiur above other similar com-
positions of our tune, as the fact that Mendelssohn
has ' just put the Psalm itself before him ; not
Bach, or Handel, or Palestrina, or any other style
or composer, but ike words of the Psalmist ; and
the result is not anything that can be classed as
new or old, but the Psalm itself in thoroughly
fine musical effect ; the music not pretending to
be scientific, or anything on its own account,
but just throwing Ufe and feeling into the dry
words.* Any one who knows these psalms will
recognise the truth of this description. It is
almost more true in reference to the 1 14th Psalm,
' When Israel out of Egypt came.' The Jewish
blood of Mendelssohn must surely for once have
beat fiercely over this picture of the great triumph
of his fore&thers, and it is only the plain truth
to say that in directness and force his music
is a perfect match for the splendid words of the
unknown Psalmist. It is true of his oratorios also,
but they have other great qualities as well. St.
Paul with all its great beauties is an early work,
the book of which, or rather perhaps the nature
of the subject, does not wholly lend itself to forci-
ble treatment, and it is an open question whether
it can fully vie with either the Lobgesang or
Athalie, or still more Elijah. These splendid
compositions have that air of distinction which
stamps a great work in every art, and which
a great master alone can confer. As instances
of this, take the scene of the Watchman and
the concluding Chorus in the Lobgesang — 'Ye
nations ' ; or in Elijah the two double Quartets;
the Arioso, *Woe unto them,' which might be
the wail of a pitying archangel ; the Choruses,
'Thanks be to God,' * Be not afraid,' 'He watch-
ing over,' ' The Lord passed by ' ; the great piece
of declamation for soprano which opens the
second part ; the unaccompanied trio 'Lift thine
eves,' tne tenor air *Then shall the righteous.*
These are not only fine as music, but are ani-
mated by that lofky and truly dramatic charac-
ter which makes one forget the vehicle, and
live only in the noble sentiment of the scene as
it passes.
' Lauda Sion,' though owing to circumstances
less known, has the same great qualities, and is a
worthy setting of the truly inspired hymn in which
St. Thomas Aquinas was enabled to rise so high
above the metaphysical subtleties of his day.
This piece of Roman Catholic music— Mendels-
sohn's only important one— shows what he might
have done had he written a Mass, as he ' once
threatened to do. It would have been 'written
with a constant recollection of its sacred purpose' ;
and remembering how solemn a thing religion
was to him, and how much he was affected by fine
words, we may well regret that he did not accom-
plish the suggestion.
Antigone and (Edipus, owing to the renoote-
ness of the dramas, both in subject and treatment,
necessarily address themselves to a limited audi-
ence, though to that audience they will always be
lL.Jtn. 28, 1896b
MENDELSOHN.
profoundly interesting, not only for the lofty cha-
racter of the music, but for the able and thoroughly
natural manner in which Mendelssohn carried out
a task full of difi&culties and of temptations to ab-
surdity, by simply ^creating music for the choruses
in the good and scientific style of the present day,
to express and animate their 'meeiiing.'
The Midsummer Night's Dream music is a per-
fect iUustration of Shakspeare's romantic {Jay,
and will be loved as long as beauty, sentiment,
humour, and exquisite workmanship are honoured
in the world.
How far Mendelssohn would have snoceeded
with an opera, had he met with a libretto entirely
to his mind — which that of Loreley was not —
it is difficult to say. Fastidious he certainly was,
though hardly more so than Beethov^en (see vol. i.
p. 196 6), and probably for much the same reasons.
Times had changed since the lively intrigues and
thinly*veiled immoralities of Da Ponte were suf-
ficient to animate the pen of the divine Mozart ;
and the secret of the fiutidiousness of Beethoven
and Mendelssohn was that they wanted librettists
of their own lofty level in genius and morality,
a want in which they were many generations too
early. Opera will not take its proper place in
the world till subjects shall be found of modem
times, with which every one can sympathise,
treated by the poet, before they come into the
hands of the composer, in a thoroughly pure, lofty,
and inspiriting maimer.
Camacho is too juvenile a composition, on too
poor a libretto, to enable any inference to be
drawn from it as to Mendelssohn's competence
for the stage. But, judging from the dramatic
power present in his other works, from the stage-
instinct displayed in the M.N.D. music, and
still more from the very successful treatment of
the Finale to the first Act of Lordey — ^the only
part of the book which he is said really to have
cared for — ^we may anticipate that his opera,
when he had found the book he liked, would have
been a very fine work. At any rate we may be
certain that of all its critics he would have been
the most severe, and that he would not have suf-
fered it to be put on the stage till he was quite
satisfied with his treatment.
We must now close this long and yet imperfect
attempt to set Mendelssohn forth as he was.
Few instances can be found in history of a man
so amply gifted with every good quality of mind
and heart ; so carefully brought up amongst good
influences ; endowed with every droumstance
that would make him happy ; and so thoroughly
fulfilling his mission. Never perhaps could any
man be found in whose life there were so few
things to conceal and to regret.
Is there any drawback to this? or, in other
words, does lus music suffer at all from what
he calls his 'habitual cheerfulness*? It seems
as if there was a drawback, and that arising
more or less directly from those very points
which we have named as hb best characteristics
— his happy healthy heart, his single mind, hb
SLettar.lUrehl2.lMB.
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MENDELSSOHN.
un&iling good spirits, his 8imp!e trust in God,
hU unatfected directness of purpose* It is not
that he had not gienins. The great works
enumerated prove that he had it in large mea-
sure. No man could have called up the new
emotions of the 31.N.D. Overture, the won-
derful pictures of the Hebrides, or the pathetic
distress of the lovely Melusina, without genius
of the highest order. But his genius had not
been subjected to those fiery triab which seem
necessary to ensure its abiding possoooioD of the
depths of the human heart. ' My music/ says
Schubert, * is the product of my genius and my
misery; and that which I have written in my
greatest distress is that which the world seems to
like best.' Now Mendelssohn was never more than
temporarily unhappy. He did not know distress
IS he knew happiness. Perhaps there was even
■nmething in the constitution of his mind which
forbad his harbouring it. or being permanently
affected by it. He was so practical, that as a
matter of duty he would have thrown it off.
In this as in most other things he was always
MENDELSSOHN.
805
under control. At any rate he was never tried
by poverty, ot disappointment, or ill health, or
a morbid temper, or neglect, or the perfidy of
friends, or any of the other great ills which
crowded so thickly around Beethoven, Schubert,
or Schumann. Who can wish that he had been ?
that that bright, pure, aspiring spirit should
have been dulled by distress or torn with agony ?
It might have lent a deeper undertone to his
Songs, or have enabled his Adagios to draw
tears where now they only give a saddened
Pleasure. But let us take the man as we have
im. Surely there is enough of conflict and
violence in life and in art. When we want
to be made unhappy we can turn to others.
It is well in these agitated modem days to be
able to point to one perfectly balanced nature,
in whose life, whose letters, ami whose music
alike, all is at once manly and refined, clever
and pure, brilliant and solid. For the enjoy-
ment of such shining heights of goodness we
may well forego for once 3ie depths of misery
and sorrow.
The fcdlowing opening of the first movement of a B3rmphoBy was found among the loose papers of
MendelBHohn belonging to his daughter, Mrs. Victor Beneoke, and is here printed by her kind permis-
sion. The MS. is in full score, and has been compressed for this occasion by Mr. Franklin Taylor,
so as acouiately to represent the scoring of the originaL No clue to its date has yet been discovered.
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MENDELSSOHN.
MENDELSSOHN.
List of Mendelfcsohn's publiBhed works, from
the Thematic Catalogue (B. k H. 1873), ^^ ^^^
addition of the dates of oomposition, when dis-
coverable, and the names of the Dedicatees.
The dates have been obtained in most cases from
the autographs, and occasionally frt>m letters or
other sources. The autographs are distinguished
from the author's own copies by having the initials
H.D.nL or L.y.g.G. at the top.
L WITH OPyS-NUMBIB.
Noth: 8. Ave XarU (k, 8): 8.
Mitten wir (4 8).
Op. L Quartet. T.T. uid String*.
No. 1 (0 min.) I Begun, Seche-
ron. Sept. 20. 1821 ; tmdsd, Berlin.
Oct. IB. US. I !>«<. Anton. Count
BmUwUI.
S. Do., do. No. « (F mln.). I Nor. M
NoY. SO : Deo. 9. US8. I Dmi.
Prof. Zelter.
8. Do., do.. No. S (B mIn.). I Oct. 7.
Dqi: Jan. S. l«aft; «< «i^ Jan.
18, U8M !)«<<. Uoettie.
4. Sonata. P.F. and V. (F mln.). I
X>«4. E. Rite
B. Oapricdo. P. F. (F| minor). I
Berlin. July S3. 1825.
«. Sonata. PJ.(K). I BerUn. March
22.1826.
7. Seren Obaraeterlitle p
Pjr. I D9d. Ludwig Berger.
8. IS SoDgs (No. 13 Duet). Voice
and P.F. Parts 1 and 8.— N3.
Noe.2.S.lSbTFann7M.-B.
9. IS Songs. Voice and P. F.
(Fart 1. The Youth ; Part 2. The
M\lden). I No. S. Berlin, April a
l'«9(?).— Not. 7, 10. 12. by Fanny
M.-B.
10. The Wedding of Oi
(Comic Opera In 3 acts). | At
tnd. Aug. 10. U2ft.
11. Symphony. Oreh, No. 1 (C
minor). I ' SInlbnIa Xin in c'
March 3. 18M ; March 9. 1834 :
March 31. IWi. I Ded. Philhar-
monic Society of London.
12. Quartet, Strings. No. 1 (Kb). I
London. Sept. 14. 18S».
IS. Quartet. Strings. No. 8 (A).
' Quartetto per 8 VIollnl. VIole. e
Violoncello, sopra U tema
34. Overture. Wind band (C).
85. Concerto, P.F.and Orch. No.l
(6 mhior). I Dtd, Frftuleln D.
▼on Schaoroth.
36. (^neertMnrerture. Orch. No. 8
(B mln.), 'The Hebrides,' or
FIngal'fl cave.' I I>*d. Franz
Beriln,37 0ct..m7.*
14. Rondo oapriockwo. P.F. (X).|
Finale dated 36 Oct.
15. Fantasle. P. F. (E). On the
Irish air "Tb the last rose.'
10. 8 Fantasies, or Caprices. P.F.
(A mln^ S mln.. S). I No. 1 . Coed-
do. Sept. 4. 1NS9. 'Rosen und
Nelken In Menge.' No. 2. Nor-
wood. Surrey. Nor. 18;
No. 3. Sept. 6. 1829.
17. Variations ooncertaates. P.F.
and Cello (D). I Beriin. Jan. 80.
1829. 1 Jhd, Paul M.-B.
18. Quintet. Strings. No. 1 (A). 2
Violas I Andante. 'Nachruf.'
Paris. Sept. S3. 1831.
19. 6 Songs. Voice and VS. I No. 6.
Venice. Oct. 16. 1H80.
19. 6 Souffn without words. Bookl.
No. 6. ' In a gondola.' I No. 6.
Venice. Oct. 16. 1>W.
30. Octet. Strings (EbK (4 Violins.
2 Violas, 3 Cellos.) | Dtd. R.
Rltz.
31. Goncert<OTertnre. No. 1 (1), to
A Mktsuroroer Night's Dream. I
Berlhi. Aug. 6. 1X36..
32. Oapriorlo brDUnt, P.F. and
Orch. (B mln.).
33. S Pieces Chnreh-musle. Solo.
Choras, and Org. L Aa
27. Do., do. No. 8 (DX 'Calm sea
and Prosperous voyage.'
«. Fantasle, P. F. (Fff minor).
CSonate ecossaise.*) | BeHln.
Jan. a. 1833. 1 Ded. ProL Ignai
Moschelfls.
K Roodo brfflant. P J", and Orch.
(Kb). I DOsseldorf. Jan. 89. llSi.
I D»d, Prof. Ignai Moscheles.
30. 6 Songs without words, P. F.
Book 2. No. 6. ' In a gondola:' |
No. 4. Jan. 30. 1837 (? 34) : No. 5.
Dec IS. 1833; [No. 6. March 15.
1835). I Ded. Erlulein Kllsavon
Woringen.
31. llBth Psalm. Solo. Clioms, and
Orch. I Rome. Nor. 16. 1880.
82. Concert-overture. Orch. No. 4
(F). (To the story of the lovely
Meluslna.) I DOsseldorf; Nov. 14.
ixss.
33. 8 Caprices. P.F. (A minor. B.
Bbmin.). I No. I. April 9. 1834.
No. 8. London. July 3^ 1888. I
Dtd. C. Kllngemann.
84. 6 Songs. Voice and P J. I No. 1.
DOsseldorf; May HI. 1884. 'Mai-
lied.' No. 6. Dec 28. 1834. 1 DW.
Frluleln JUlle Jeanreiiaud.
35. 6 Preludes and Fugues. P.F. I
No. 3. PreL. Lelpric. Dec 6-8.
1886. No. 8. Fuffue. Bn>Ihi. Sept.
81.1882. No.4. Fugue. DOsseldorf,
Jan. 5. 1K35. No. 6. PreL, Leip-
zig. Nov. 19, lf» : Fugue, DOiuel-
dorf. Dec 8. 1H84. No. g.*Prel..
Leipzig. Jan. 8. 1837; Fugue.
Nov. 27. 1886.
86. St. Paul. Oratorio. Part 1.
Leipzig. April 8, 1896; Part %
Do.. April 18, do.
37. 8 Preludes and Fugues. Or-
gan. I No. I. PreU Spires. April
2.1887. No.8.Prel., Spina. April
4. 1887: Fugue. Leipzig. D«^ 1.
1887. No. 8. Prel.. Spires. April
6. 1887. 1 D^ Tbos. Attwood.
38. 6 Bongs without words. P.F.
(Bocks.) No.6.'I>uet.' | No. ft.
Spires. April 6. 1837. No. 6.
Franlifort. June87. Ii'36. I Dtd.
Frluleln Rosa -von Woringen.
39. 3 Motets. Female voices * Or-
gan or P.F. Nos.land-3.2 8op.
and Alto ; No. 3. 2 Sop.. 3 Altos
with Solo. I Rome, Dec 31. 1830.
'FOr die Stimmen der Nonnen
auf Sta. TrioIU de' Monti.'
40. Concerto. P. F. and Orch.
No. 2 (D minor). I Horchhelm.
Aug. 6, 1P87.
41. 6 Part-eongs. for open air (1st
set). 8.A.T.B. | No.4. DOsseldorf,
Jan. 23. 1894.
42. 43nd Psalm, for Chorus and
Orch.
43. Serenade and Allegro glojoso
for P. F. and Orch. (B mhior). I
April 11. 1838.
41. 3 Quartets. Strlngf. Noe.8^4.
and 5 CD. E minor. Eb). I No. 3.
Beri.ii. July 21 1888. No.4. June
18.1^«7. No.5.Feb.6.1838.|i)Mf.
The Prince of Sweden.
4S. Sonata. P.F. and Cello. No. 1
(Bb). I Leipzig. Oct. 18. 1888.
40. 96th Psalm. Solo. Chorus, and
Orch. I April 6. 188^
47. 6 Songs. Voice and P J. | No. 8.
Leipzig. April 17. 1889. No. 4.
Aprn 18, U89. I Dtd. Frau C.
Schlelnltz.
48. 6 Part-song% for open air
(2nd set). 8Ji.T£. I No. I. July
6.(1890]. No. 3. Leipzig. Dec. »,
1839. No.4. June lMlh39}. No. 5.
Nov. 18, 1839. No. 6. Leipzig,
Dec. 36. 1830. I Dtd. Dr. Martbi
and Dr.Bpiess.
49. Trio, P.F., v.. and 0. No. 1
<D mln.). I Allegro. Frankfort,
June 6. 1839. Finale. Frankfort,
July 18. 1889; Leipzig, Sept. 83.
1880.
80. 6 Part-songs, tor male voices.
(No. 2. Der Jiger Abschied. with
Wind accompaniments.) I No. 2.
Leipzig. Jan. 6. 1840; 'Der
deutsehe Wald.* No. 5. Dec 7.
1839 : • Vin fc tout prii.' No. 6.
Jan. 6. 1840. 1 D«(i.totheLleder-
tafel In Leipzig.
5L 114th Psalm. Chor.. 8 pts.. and
Otch. I Did. J. W. Schlrmer.
52. Lobgesang. Symphony-canta-
te. I Ulpzlg. Nov. 27, 1840. I
Pfd. Frederic Augustus, King
of Saxony.
63. 6 Songs vrlthoot words, P J.
(Bk.4.) No.6.Volkslled.|No.3.
April SO 1841. No. 6. May 1, 1841.
I Ded. Miss Sophie Horsley.
84. 17 Variations serleuses, P.F.
(D minor). I June 4, 184L
SB. Music to Antigone of Sopho-
cles. Male votcea and Orch. I
I)ed. Frederick William IV.
King of Pnuila. I Borlln. Oct.
10, 184L
66. Symphony. Or6h. No. 8 (A
minor). (Called The Scotch
Symphony.) I Berlin. Jan. 20.
1848. I Ded. Queen Vlctoita.
87. 6 Songs, Voice and P.F. (For
No. 2 compare Op. 88. No. 8.) I
No. 2. April 20. 1839. No. 5. Ber-
lin. Oct. 17. 1842 ; 'Rendezvous.'
No. 6. April 29. 1841 ; 'Frische
Fahrt.' I Ded. Fran LIvIa Frege.
68. Sonata, P.F. and Cello No. 2
(D). I D*d. Count Mathlas Wlel-
horsky.
89. 6 Part-eongs, for open air (Srd
set). 8^T.B. I No. 1. Leipzig.
Nov. 28. 1887. No.3.Jaa.l7.18tt.
No. 8. Leipzig. March 4. li<4S.
No. 4. Leipzig, June 19. lt>4S.
No. 0. March 4. 1843. No. 6.
March 6. 1848 : ' Voriiber.* I Ded.
Frau Henriette Beneoke.
60. Music to Goethe's Firet Wal-
purgis night. ' Ballad for ChiTus
and Orch.' I 1st version. Milmit.
July 15, 1881. and Paris. Fob. 18.
1882.
61. Music to A Midsummer Night's
Dream. Solo. Chorus, and Orch.
I Ded. Uelnrioh Conrad Schlei-
nltz.
6?. 6 Songs without words. P. F.
(Bk. 5.) No. 5. 'In a gondola.' I
No.l. Jan. 6 and 12. 1M44. No. 3.
July 39. 1843. No. 6. London.
June 1. 1843. I Ded. Frau Clara
Schumann.
63. 6 Duets. Voices and P. F. I
No. 1. Frankfort. Dec 1886. No. 5.
Berlin. Oct. 17. 184t. No. 6. Jan.
23.1844.
L Concerto. Yfelln and Ordi.
(B minor). I Sept. 14;, ttH.
65. 6 Organ Sonatas, t 800*1. No. 1.
Frankfort. Dec. 88. 1844. Bon. II.
No. 1. Frankfort. Dec. tl. 1844.
No. 4. Dec 19. 1844. i»h. HI.
No. I.Aug. 9. 1844. " ^
17.1844. Son. IV. r
Ibrt. Jan. 2. 1845J
Jan. 2. 1845. Son.V
6. 1846. No. 4. Jan. 87. 1846. I
Ded. Dr. F. Schlemmer.
66. Trio. P.P., Vlolhi. and CWlo.
No. 2 (C mln.) I Ded. L. Spohr.
67. 6 Songs without words, P.F.
(Bk. 6.) I No. 1. June 29. l^HS.
No. 2. Frankfort. May 3. 1845.
No. 8. Nov. 33 (?). No. 6. Ju.
S. 1844. I Ded. Frluleln Sophie
Rosen.
68. Festgesang. 8chnier*B poem.
An die KOnstler. Male vo*e«
and Brass. I For Opening of fiivt
Oerman-Flemlsh Vocal FeMlval
at (^logne.
69. 8 MoteU for Solo and Chonu. I
No. L Baden Baden. June IZ
1847. No. 8. Leipzig. April 5.
1847. No. 8. Baden Baden. June
111847.
70. ElUah. Oratorio.
71. 6 Songs, for Voice and P.F. I
No. 1. Leiprig. Dec 81 ll^.^
No. 3. Frankfort April 8. l84^
No. 8. Leipzig. Sept. 21 larr.
No.4. Berlin. Nov. 11848. No.^
Interlaken. July 87, 1847. No. 6.
Oct. 1. 1847.
71 6 ChUdrenls pleoek. PJT.
1844. Wfa. ni.
«44. No.fllAug.
v-n^Js^Mt
>n. ■WWoTl. Jan.
POBTHUMOUS WORKS.
78 a). Lauda81on.fbr Chorus ahdTn (9). Andante (K). Scherzo (A
Orch. I Feb. 10. 1846. I For St. • ~ -
Martin's church, LMgc
74 (8). Music to Racine's Athalle.
Solos. Chor.. and Orch. I Cho-
ruses. Leiprig. July 4. 1843. Over-
ture. London. June U, 1844.
Berlin. Nov. U 1846.
75 rs). 4 Part-songs. MaleToloes. I
No. 1. Feb. 1 1844. No. 1 Nov.
14.1»W.
76 (4). 4 Part-songs. Male voices. I
No. 1 Feb. 9, 1844. No. 8. Leip-
zig. Oct. 8. 1846.
77 (5). 3 Duets. Voices and P.F. I
No. 1. Leiprig. Dec. 11836. No.l
Leipzig. Jan. 18. 1847. No. 1
Leiprig. Feb. 14. 1P89.
78(6). 3 Psalms-the 3nd. 4Srd.
Snd. Solo and (Thorns. I No. 1
Berlin, Jan. 17. 1B44. | For the
Domchor. Berlin.
79 (7). 6 Anthems for 8.pC. (Thorns.
I No. 1 Berlin. Dec. a^ 1848.
A
No. 4. Feb. 14. 1844. No. 6. Leip-
zig. Oct. 5. 1846. 1 For the Dom-
chor. Berlin.
80 (8). Quartet. Strings (FmlnorX I
Interlakod. Sept. 1847. {
mln.), Caprlcclo <K mhi.). and
Fugue (Eb). lor Strings.
88 00). Variations. P.F. (Kb). I
Leiprig, July 3M841.
83 (11). Variations, PJf. (Bb).
8aa aS). Do., fbr 4 hands (Bb).
84 (U). 8 Songs, for a low vok«
and P. F. I No. 1. DOsseldori.
Dec. 6. 1831. No.lFM>.36.1^9.
No. 8. May 36, 1884. 'Jagdlled.'
86 04). 6 Songs wlthont words.
PJ. (Bk.7.) I No. 4. Frankfort,.
May 8 and 6. 1845. No. ^ lb..
May 7. 1846; In Hon. Miss Ca-
vendish's album. London. May 6.
1847. No. 6. May L 1841.
86 nay. 6 songs, voice and P.F. I
No. 1 Untoveen. Aii«. 10, 18SL
No. 6. Oct. 7. 1847.
87 (16). <)ulntet. Strings (8 Violas)
(Bb). I Soden. July 8, 1841
88 07). 6 Part-tongs. (4th set.) I
No. 1. Aug. 1 1844. No. 1 Leip-
zig. June 80. 1841 No.l June 14.
[1Q9]. No.4. Leiprig. Jone 19.
1841 No. 6. Lelpiic. March VK
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MENDELSSOHN.
» ns). Hefankehr aus der Fremde 101 (90). Overture, Orchestra (0).
(Son aud ^ruiBor), Stogiplel iu, (' Trumpet overture.')
l««t- KB (SI). 6 Bongs without word*,
P.F. (BIc 8.) il No. 2. Frankfort.
May 11, 1845, Pflngsten ; in Lady
Caroline Caveudish'a album.
London, May 6, 1847. No. 3. Dec.
12.1945. (Klndentadi.) No. 6.
Dec 12,1845. (Kinderstack.)
106 (32). Trauei^Manch, Orch. (A
min.). I For Funeral of Nurbert
Burgm Oiler.
MENDELSSOHN.
809
90 09). Symphony, Orch. No. 4
(A). (Called the Italian 8ym-l
pbooy.) I Berlin. March 13,
»1 (20). 9eth Fsalm, 8-pt. (Hionu.
and Orch. I I>ec. 27. 1843. I For
the Festival Bervlce in Berlin
i:atbedral on New Year's Day
1H44. I
92 .21). Allegro hrfllant. P. F.. 4 101 (S3). 3 Preludes and 8 Studies,
hands (A). I Ldpdg. March 23., F-F- (2PU.)
IMl. 105 (34). Sonata, PJ'.(0 min.) 1R?1.
98 <2S). Music to Oedipus to Colo-, 106 (35). Sonata, PJ. (Bb). I Ber-
nos. Sophocles. Male Voices and; lin. May 31. Ife27.
Orch. I Frankfort, Feb. 25, 1845. 107 (36). Symphony, Orch. No. 6
WO). Concert-air. Sopr. Solo, (I»- (The Beformation Symph.)
and Orch. (Bb). (Infellce!) l' 108 (37). March. Oroh. (D). I For
Ut version. April 3, 1*34. &id the F«te given to the patoter
version. Leipzig, Jan. 16, 1848.
90 <a4>. Overture, Buy Bias, Orch,
1 Leipzig. March 8. 1838.
96 1 25). Hymn for Alto Solo, Chor.,
and Orch^ for Mr. C. Broadley. I
l>lprig. Dec. 12. 1840; Jan. 6,
1^443. Gomp. ' 3 Hymns,' etc
97 (38). Beritathres and Choruses'
(X>melius at Dresden.
109 (3S). Song without words, Olio
and P J". (D).
110 (30). Sextet. PJ.. Viol, 2 Violas.
Cello, and Bass (D). I April 30,
1H24: May 10.1824.
111 (40). Tu es Petrus. 5-pt. Chor.
and Orch. I Nov. 1887.
trom ChilMos, unfluished Onr 112 (41). 2 Sacred Songs, Voice and
tork). I PJ".
98i(27a). Ftoale to Ist act of 113 a 114(42 li48).2 (Concerted pieces
Loreley. unfinished Opera. Solo,
Chorus, and Orch.
9ii2<27b). Ave Maria. Solo and
(Thon», Female Voices, Orch.,
from Loreley.
»-<s(27c). Vtotage Chorus, Malej
Voices, Orch., from Loreley.
for Clar. and Basset-horn, with
TJF. accompt. (F and D min.). I
No. 1. Bertin, Jan. 19. 1833. I
Ded. Heinrlch Bftrmann, sen.,
and Carl Btrmaon.Jun.
115(44). 2 Sacred Choruses, for
Male Voices.
99(28). 6 Songs, Voice and P.F. 1 11«(«). Funeral Bong, for Mixed
Xp. I.Berlin. Aug. 9. 1841. No. 4. Voices.
Jane 6. 1841. No. 6. Leiptig. Dec, 117 (4«). Album-Blatt, Song wlth-
22, 184&. No. A. out words, PJ^. (£ min.).
100 (29). 4 Part-songs. I No.l. Ang. 118 (47). Capricdo. TJf. (E).
8. 1844. No. 2. June 20. 1843., 119 (48). Perpetuum mobile, P.F.
Mo. 4. Frankfort, June 14. 1839. I (0.)
n. "WITHOUT OPUS-NUMBKR.
Etode. P.F. (F min.). I For the
liahode des Mt-thodes.
Bch«rto, P.F.I Bmto.).
Scherzo and Capriocio, P.F. (P$
mhi.). I For The Pianists' Al-
bum.
2 Romances of Lord Byron's, Voice
■4^ P.F. I No. 2. DOsMldorf.
Berlin. March 24, 1833. 1 In the
Album fOr Oesang.
Prelude and Fugue, P J. (E min.).
I Prel., Leipzig. July 13. 1841.
Fugue, June 16. 1827. I For the
Album Notre temps.
3 Hymns for Alto Solo. Chorus,
and Organ. Comp. op. 96.
l>ec. 3L U94. 1 For the Album of Hymn for Sop. Solo. Chorus, and
li^A. Organ. (Hear my prayer.) ! Jan.
Prayer, Chorus and Orch. (Ver- ?• .if*!' ^'^^ST?^' orches-
Ifilh' uns Frieden. I Rome, Feb. *^«*- 1 ^*'- W. Taubert.
lo. Wfl. I Ved. President Ver- W»mung vor dem Rheln. poem
keniua. | by SImrock, Voice and PJ.
Andante cantabfle and Presto ^ S«"K^ yoJ<» "d P^- I No. L
agitato, P.F. cB>. I Berlin. June **"«»• Aug. 17. 1835.
22. 1@4. 1 For the Album of 1?«>. * *>n8«. Voice and PJT. | No. 1.
The Garland, a poem by Moore. | April 20. 1841.
for Voice and PJ. I London, * Clavlerstacke(B band O min.).
May 94. 1829. ISeemann's Scheldelied. poem by
Ersate fOr Unb«tand. poem by Hofhnann v. FaUersleben. Voice
BOclcert. for 4 Male Voices. l| andPJ.
Nov. 22, I'm. I For TauchniU'slNachtgesang. 4 Male Voices.
Musen-almanach. Die Stiftungsfeier, 4 Male Voices.
Vestgesang. Male Chor. and Orch. Des Midchens Klage, Romance
I For Fotival at Leipzig in cele- 1 for Voice and P J.
bratlon of invention of Printing. 'Kyrfe elelson. Mixed Voices. Dble.
Ooodenied. PJ. (A). I Leipzig.
Feb. &. 1197, 'Lied aof etoer
GoodeL'
S Volkslieder, 2 Voices and F J.
• Lord have meroy upon us,' Chorus
for Eventog Bervlee. Voices only
(A minor). I For Mr. Aitwood.
Chorus. (Deutsche Llturgle).
Oct. 88. 1846.
Dao conoertant. Variations upon
the March in Prectoaa, by Men-
delssohn and Mosoheles.
m. HOT DrCLUDSD IN THE THEMATIC CATALOGUE.
HandeTs Dettlngen Te Deum. vrith
addl. aoets. Score and pts.
Kistner.
Handel's Acts and Oatatea, with
ditto. Oborus and stilng pts.
only. Novello.
Prspludinm for the Organ (C'
. minor). I Leipzig. July 9. 1841.
bcsimlle, Patersons, Edin-
burgh).
Bach's cniaeonne, with PJ. acct.
Ewer, Novello, A Co.
Additional Chorus to the 9tth
Psalm (op. 46). Norello.
String Quartet In Eb (March ft-30.
1823). Erier. Berlin. Autograph
JTor Henry E. Dlbdln. Esq. (la In British Museum.
The latest publication was the Quartet in Eb
(1823), which appeared in December 1879, and
was first played in England at the Monday
Popular Concert of Jan. 5, 1880. The green
volumes in the Library at Berlin (1820-1847),
already mentioned, contain a great many pieces
not published either in the first or second series
of the posthumous works, or elsewhere. The
unpublished pieces are mostly in autograph, and
principally before 1830. They comprise 11 Sym-
phonies for Strings, and one for fiiU orchestra;
many Fugues for Strings; Concertos for P. K,
for Violin, for P. F. and Violin, with Quartet ; "
and 2 ditto for 2 Pianos and Orchestra ; a Trio
for P. F., Violin, and Viola ; 2 Sonatas for P.F.
and Violin (one of them 1838); one ditto P.F.
and Viola ; one ditto P. F. and Clarinet ; 2 ditto
for P.F. solo; many Studies, Fantasias (one for
4 hands), Fugues, etc., for P.F. solo; many
Fugues r(»r Organ; an organ part to Handel s
* Solomon'; 5 Operas, and music to Calderon*8
'Steadfast Prince' ; i secular and 3 sacred Can-
tatas ; various Motets, and many Songs and vocal
pieces.
The Mendelssohn literature is not yet very
extensive.
I. His own letters.
Two volumes have been ptiblished by authority.
Tlie first by his brother Paul—* Reisebriefe . . . aus den
Jahren IftiO bis 18:!i2 ' (Leipzia lS(fl) ; the second by his
brother and hi«« eldest son— 'Brieve aus den Jahren 18;i:i
bis lf47' vLeipzig isffi}), with an Appendix purporting to
b<> a List of all Mendelssohn s compositions, oy Julius
Bietz, which is however both vag(ue and incomplete.
These were translated (not adequately) by Lady Wallace
— ' Letters from Italy and Switzerlana/etc., and 'Letters,'
etc. (Longmans lH&i and 186;j). At a later date some
important letters were added to the German edition of
vol. ii., amongst others one containing Mendelssohn's
translations of Dante, Boccaccio, etc , and Indexes were
appended ; but no change has been made in the contenta
of the English translation. There is reason to believe
that the letters of vol. i. were in many w<iys altered
by the Editor: and it is very desirable that a new
edition should be published in which these changes
should be rectified, and the letters given as Mendelssohn
wrote them.
(2) Eight letters publisheA for the benefit of the
Deutachen Invaliden-Stiftung— * Acht Briefe . . .' (Leip-
7ig l»71). The name of the lady to whom they are written
is suipressed, but it is understood that she was Mrs.
Yoigt, a musical amateur of Leipzig. The last of the
eight contains a facsimile of a sketch by Mendelssohn.
(3) *Mn8iker Briefe,' by Nohl (Leipzig 1867), contains
30 letters by Mendelssohn, from 1^26 to Aug. 26. 1B47.
They are included by Lady Wallace in her translation
of the entire work— 'Letters of distinguished masidane-*
(Longmans 1867).
(4) Other letters are contained in Devrient's Rooolleo-
tions; Hiller's Mendelssohn ; Goethe and Mendelssohn ;
Polko's Beminlscences ; Hensel's Die Familie Mendels-
sohn; Moschelet' Life ; Cborley's Life ; and other works
nam^ below.
n. Biographical works.
m Lampadins. • F. M. B. ein Denkmal,' etc (^jeipri?
184S\ translated into English by W. L. Gage, with eupplo-
meutary sketches, etc. (Kew Tork laen ; London 1878).
(2) Benedict. * A Sketch o^ the Life and Works of the
late Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy,' by Jules Benedict
liondon 1850; 2nd ed., with addition^, 1S5.')). A sketch
by one who knew him well; attractive and, as far as it
goes, complete.
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ZIO
MENDELSSOHN.
(3) Devrienl. *Meine Erinnerungen an P. M. B. . .
Ton Eduard Derricnt' «Leip7lfir IWh. Translated into
KngliKh by Mrs. Macfarren (London 186:>». Containing
:ii letters and portions of letters. The work of an ftld and
intimate i^iend, but written with all the impartiality of
a stranger.
(4) Carl Mendelfflohn Barfholdy. • Goethe und Pelix
Mendelssohn B»rtholdy» (Leiprfg ISH). Bv the com-
poser's eldest son ; an aooonnt of tlie three visits paid to
Goethe, f^m jonmals, letters, etc., with a poor engraving
from Begas's portrait. In English by Mins M. E. von
Olehn— M^oethe and Mendelssohn, with additions and
with letters of later date ' (Tx)ndon 1872) ; 2nd ed. * with
additional letters,' 37 in ill (18M).
(5) Feidinand Hiller. * Mendelssohn. Letters and
BeooUections,' eta, first published in Macmillan's Maga-
zine (Jan.— May 1874) in English by Mi«s M. E. von
Glehn. Then in a volome (London 1874^ ; and then in
German (Cologne 1874). Contains 80 letters not before
printed. A thoroughly good book, genial, discrimin-
ating, and accurate ; by one well able to judge.
(6) Folko. ' Erinnerungen an P. M. B. von Ellse
Poiko* (Leiprig 18R8). Oontaini 12 letters. English
translation by Lady Wallace— * BeminisoencesL^ etc.
(London 1869), with Appendix of 33 additional letters
and fragments of letters. A poor gushing book, from
which however some traits may be picked up. Chiefly
▼aluable for the letters.
(7) HenseL *Die FamiHe Mendelssohn a721-1847) . . .
Ton a Henael. mit 8 Portraits ' (3 vols., Berlin 1879).
By the son of Fanny Hensel— the Sebastian of the
Letters : compiled fh>m journals and family papers, and
containing 73 letters or portions of letters hitherto nn-
published. The title of the book would perhaps be more
appropriately 'Fanny Hensel and her family]^ but it is
a most valuable addition to our knowled^ of Felix, and
a good specimen of the copious information still remain-
ing in the hands of his family : the notices and letters
of Abraham Mendelssohn are especially new and valu-
able. Some of Felix's letters are first-rate. The portraits
would be useful if one knew how far the likenesses could
be trusted.
(8) Hogarth. *The Philharmonic Society of London
... by George Hogarth ' (London 1H62>. Ck>ntains notices
of Mendelssohn's connection with the Pliilharmonio,
with 3 letters in the body of the work and 7 others in
the appendix.
(9) Moscheles. 'Ana Moscheles Leben . . . von seiner
Fran (2 vols., Lelpsig 1872 and 1873). English transla-
tion bv A. D. Coleridie (2 voU, Hurst & Blaokett, 1873).
Contains many raluable notices, and one or two letters.
(10) Schubring. *Erinnerungen an P. M B.* In the
Magazine 'Daheim ' (Leipzig) for 1866, No. 26. English
tranaUtion in 'Musical World.' May 12 and 19, 1866.
One of the most detailed, valuable, and interesting of all
the notices. Every word that Schubring writes carries
conviction with it.
(11> Horsley. * Beminlscenoes of Mendelssohn, by
Charles Edward Horsley.' First published in ' Dwight's
Journal of Music ' (Boston, U.S JL)^nd reprinted in ^The
Choir' (London) for Jan. 11, 25. Feb. 8, 16, 1873. By a
gifted pupil and friend. PuU of information, now and
then a trme exaggerated.
(12) Dom. * BeooUections of P. M. and his Mends.*
An article in 'Temple Bar* for Feb. 1872; probably
translated from a German originaL Slight, but interest-
ing, and apparently trustworthy.
(13) Chorley. L ' Modem German Music,* by Henry P.
Chorley (2 vcHs., London 1854). Contains scattered notices
of Mendelssohn. 2. * Memoirs of H. P. Chorley, by H.
G. Uewhitt' (2 vols., Bentley 1873). Contains some in-
formation, and 6 letters beicre unpublished. 3w Notice
prefixed to Lady Wallace's tranalation of the 'Beise-
briefe.*
(14) Marx. * Erinnerungen ana meinem Leben, Ton
Adolf Bemhaid Marx' (2 vols., Berlin 1866). Contains
many recollections of the Mendelssohn house from 1824-
1832, and personal anecdotes of Felix, with whom Marx
was at one time extremely intimate. He was a person
of strange temper and overweening opinion of himself:
but he appears to be strictlv honest, and in matters of
fact may probably be trusted implicitly.
(16) Bellstab. ' Aus meinem Leben ' (2 vols., Berlin
1861). This autobiography of the well-known Berlin
critic conUins (vol. ii. chap. II) an account of Mendela-
•ohn 8 pU^ing at Goethe's house at Weimar in IS^L
MENDEII^OHN SCHOLARSHIP.
(16) Lobe has reported some conversations with Men-
delssohn in his 'Flieffpnde Blatter flir muaik' CL&ivmig
l!>^^^. He has also described the evening at Goethe's
mentioned just above, in the 'Gartenlaube' for ld67»
No. L ^^_____^
I take the opportunity of expresang my deep
obligations for assistance received in the compila-
tion of the foregoing article from the various
members of the Mendelssohn family, Miss Jun^
and Dr. Klengel ; Mme. Schumann, Dr. Hiller,
Mrs. Moscheles, Mme. Frege, Dr. Hartel, Dr.
Schleinitz, Mr. Joachim, Mrs. Klingemann,
Herr Taubert, Mr. Otto G<>ld8chmidt and Mme.
Goldschmidt, Mr. Paul David, the Bishop of
Limerick, the Duke of Meiningen, Lord Frede-
rick Cavendish, the Dean of Westminster, Pro-
fessor Munro, Mr. J. G. Horsley, R.A., and
Miss Sophy Horsley, Mr. Chas. Halle, Signer
Piatti. Mr. W. S. Rookstro, Mr. Kellow Pye,
Prof. G. A. Macfarren, Mr. Sartoris, Mr. W. J.
Freemantle, Mr. A. G. Kurtz, Mrs. Bartholo-
mew and Miss Mounsey, Mr. Wiener, Mr.
Kosenthal, Mr. Franklin Taylor. Also from
the Stemdale Bennett family, Mr. Bruzaud (of
Erard*s), Mr. J. W. Davison, Mr. James C.
Dibdin, Messrs. Glen, Mr. A. J. Hipkins (of
Broadwood's) Mr. E. J. Hopkins, Mr. W. H.
Holmes, Mr. W. H. Husk, Mr. E. J. Lincoln,
Mr. H. Littleton (Novello's), Mr. Stanley Lucas,
Mr. Julinn Marshall, Mr. John Newman, Mr.
Joseph Robinson, Mme. Sainton- Dolby, Mr.
Speyer, Mr. Tom Taylor, Mr. J. T. Willy, and
Mr.Turle. [G.]
MENDELSSOHN SCHOLARSHIP. This is
the most valuable musical prize in the United
Kingdom. It originated in a movement amon^
the friends of Mendelssohn at Leipzig, who,
shortly after his death, resolved to found scholar-
ships in his memory, to be competed for and held
in that Onservatorium in the foundation of
which, not long before, he had greatly assisted.
They appealed for help in this undertaking to
English admirers of the departed composer, and
were met with ready sjrmpathy and ooK)peration.
A committee was formed in London, with Sir G.
Smart as Chairman, Mr. Carl Klingemann, Men-
delssohn's intimate friend, as Secretary, and Mr.
E. Buxton, Treasurer.
The first effort towards raising money was made
in the shape of a performance of the 'Elijah' on
a large scale, to which Mile. Jenny Lind gave
her willing and inestimable services. This took
place Dec. 15, 1848, under the direction of Sir
Julius (then Mr.) Benedict, with a full band and
chorus, the Sacred Harmonic Society and Mr.
Hullah's Upper Schools contributing to the ef-
ficiency of the latter force. A large profit was
derived from the performance ; and this, with a
few donations, was invested in the purchase of
£1050, Bank 3 per cent annuities — ^the nudeas
of the present Scholarship Fund.
The original plan of amalgamating the London
and Leipzig projects fell through, and the money
was allowed to accumulate tiU 1856, when the
first scholar was elected — Arthur S. SulUvaa,
now Dr. SulUvaOy head of the 'National Train*
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MENDELSSOHN SCHOLARSHIP.
ing School for Music* He was then one of the
' Children of Her Majesty's Chapel Royal/ and
he held the Scholarsiiip for about four years,
studying at the Royal Academy of Music, Lon-
don« and afterwards at the Conservatorium at
Leipzig.
In 1865, the funds having again accumulated,
Mr. (now Dr.) C. Swinnerton Heap, of Birming-
ham, was elected to the Scholarship, which he
held for rather more than two years. He was
succeeded in the early part of 1871 by Mr. W.
Shakespeare, a pupil of the Royal Academy of
Music, who pursued his studies at Leipzig and
subsequently in Italy. At the time of his elec-
tion, a two years' Scholarship of £30 per annum
was offered, out of the accumulated interest ; and
this was held for a year by Miss Crawford, and
again (1873) by Mr. Eaton Faning. The So-
ciety*s capital then tsonsisted of £1350 in 5 per
cent India Stock, now (1879) increased to nearly
jCaooo by fresh subscriptions and donations,
enabling the Society to give their Scholar a
stipend of about £90 per annum.
In June, 1875, Mr, F. Corder was elected
Mendelssohn Scholar ; and he held the Scholar-
ship for four years, studying at Cologne under
Dr. Hiller. Miss Maude V. White, the present
scholar, was elected in February, 1879.
The Committee has consisted, since the in-
Btiiution of the Scholarship, of the following
names: — ♦Sir G. Smart, *Mr. C. Klingemann,
*Mr. E. Buxton, Sir Julius Benedict, *Sir W.
Stemdale Bennett, Mr. W. J. Beale, Mr C. V.
Benecke {Trustee), Mr. A. D. Coleridge, Mr. W.
G. Cosins. Mr. J. W. Davison, Mr. Otto Gold-
scbinidt, Sir John Gets, Mr. G. Grove, Mr. C.
Halle, Mr. John Hullah, Mr. A.G. Kurtz, Mr. H.
Leslie, Prot G. A. Macfarren, Rev. Sir F. A.
G. Otiseley, Bt., Mr. Kellow J. Pye, Mr. L. Sloper
(resigned), Dr. J. Stainer, Mr. Arthur S. Snllivan,
Mr. R. R. Pym (Trustee and ffon. Treasurer),
and Mr. Juliaa Marshall {Hon, Secretary). Mr.
Vf. Grodden is the Hon. Solicitor. Death has
removed some of the above names (marked with
asterisks) from the list, others having been put
in their places from time to time. [J. M.]
Ml^NESTREL. LE. This weekly musical
periodical, t>f which the first number was issued
Dec. I, 1833, originally consisted of a romance
occupying 3 pages, wiUi printed matter at the
back ; increased in 1840 to 4 pages of musical
information and criticism ; and since Dec. 1858
has contained 8 folio pages on fine paper, besides
music. Its great success is due to the editor,
M. Jacques Heugel, who during the last twenty
years has inserted contributions from almost
every musician of note in France, including
MM. Barbedette, Blaze de Bury, Paul Ber-
nard, Gustavo Chouquet, F^lix Clement, Oscar
Commettaat, Ernest David, Octave Fouque»
Edouard Foumier, A. de Gasperini, Eugbne Gau-
tier, Gevaert, L^n Hal^vy, G. H^uet, B. Jou-
▼in, Adolphe Jullien, Laoome, Th. de Lajarte,
A. de Lauzi^res, Marmontel, Am^^e M^reaux,
A. Morel, H. Moreno, Ch. Nuitter, A. de Pont-
martin. Prosper Pascal, Ch. Poisol, Arthur
MENO MOSSO.
^11
Pougin, Alphonse Royer, J. B. Weckerlin. and
Victor Wilder. The M^estrel has also pub-
lished, among others, the foUowing works after-
wards printed separately: — articles on Schubert,
Mendelssohn, Haydn, Chopin, and Weber,
by Barbedette ; Blaze de Bury's * Meyerbeer * ;
B. Jouvin^s * Auber ' and * Harold ' ; de Gas-
peruu*s * R. Wagner et la nouvelle Allemagne * ;
M^reaux^s * Les Clavecinistoj* et leurs oeuvres * ;
Bertrand*s *Le8 Nationality musicales dans
le drame Ivriquo'; H^uet's *A. Boieldieu*;
Marmontel s ' Les Pianistes c^l^bres ' ; and
Wilder^s 'Vie de Mozart* and 'Jeunesse dS
Beethoven.' [G.C.]
MENGOZZI, Bernabdo, distinguished both
as a singer and a composer, was born in 1758 at
Florence, where he first studied music. He
afterwards had insimction at Venice from Pas-
quale Potenza, cantor of St. Mark's. In Lent of
1 785, Lord Mount-Edgcumbe found him singing
in oratorio at Naples, with Signora Benin),
whom he soon afterwards married. After singing
together at several Italian theatres, the two came
to London in 1 786, but our climate was very ill-
suited to Mengozzi, whose voice, a good tenor,
but wanting in power, suffered much and perma-
nently from its rigour. He was too ill, indeed,
to appear with Benini in the first opera in which
she sang here, the * Giannina e Bemardone ' of
Cimarosa, with new songs by Cherubini. He
played, however, the principal part in ' II Tutor
Burlato' of Paisiello, and showed himself 'a
good musician, with a good style of singing, but
still too feeble to excite any other sensation in
the audience than pitv for the state of his health'
(Bumey). In March, Handel's * Giulio Cesare '
was revived, with additions from others of his
works; and in this nasticcio (1787) Mengozzi
took part. But he did not do himself justice,
and was soon superseded by Morelli, as his wife
was by la Storace.
From London Mengozzi went to Paris, where
he was heard to advantage in the concerts given
by Marie Antoinette, and among the Italian
company of the Th^dtre de Monsieur, with
Mandiid and Viganoni. He remained at Paris
after the Revolution, and supported himself by
giving lessons and writing operettas for the Fey
deau and Montansier Theatres. When the Con-
servatoire was established, he was named ' Profes'
seur de Chant,' and is remembered as having
formed several distinguished pupils.
Mengozzi had, during many years, compiled
the materials for a ' M Abode de Chant ' for the
Conservatoire ; but he died, before he had com-
pleted it, in March, 1800. The work'Was edited
by LangU. F^tis gives a Ust of his operas, now
aU long forgotten. [J.M.]
MENO MOSSO, lit. « with less motion'; hence,
rather slower. A direction, which, like Pih
lento, generally occurs in the middle of a move-
ment, the latter term properly being used where
the whole movement is already a slow one, and
the former in a quick movement. These terms,
however, are constantly used for one another.
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U2
MENO MOSSO.
Beethoven uses * Meno moeeo e moderaio * in the
Fugue for strings in Bb, op. i,\2, and 'Assai
meno presto' — 'very much less quick* — in the
Trio of Symphony No. 7. It occurs frequently
in Chopin s Polonaises, etc., and the Scherzo, op.
39. Schumann uses 'Poco meno mosso/ with its
German equivalent ' Etwas langsamer/ in Kreis*
leriana, Nos. a and 3. When the former time is
resumed, the direction is Tempo prime. [J.A.F.M.]
MENTER, Joseph, a celebrated violoncellist,
bom at Teysbach, in Bavaria, January 18, 1808.
His first instrument was the violin, but before
long he transferred his attention to the violon-
cello, which he studied under P. Moralt at
Munich. In 1829 he took an engagement in
the orchestra of the Prince of Uohenzollem-
Heckingen, but in 1833 became a member of the
Royal Opera band at Munich. With the exception
of various artistic tours in Germany, Austria,
Holland, Belgium and England, he remained at
Munich till his death, in April 1856. [T.P.H.]
MERBECKE, John, lay clerk and afterwards
organist of St. George's Chapel, Windsor, was
alx>ut 1544 arrested, together with three other
inhabitants of the town, on a charge of heresy,
i. e. favouring the principles of the Reformation.
Their papers were seized, and notes on the Bible
and an English Concordance in the handwriting
of Merbecke were found, and he was moreover
charged with having copied an epistle of Calvin
against the Mass. He and his three fellows
were tried and condemned to the stake, but,
whilst the sentence was immediately carried into
execution against the others, Merbecke, owing
to the favour of Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester,
and the interposition of Sir Humphrey Foster,
one of the Commissioners, obtained a pardon.
He indulged his opinions in secret until the
death of Henry YIII, but afterwards avowed
them,' and in 1550 published his Concordance,
and also the work by which he is best known,
' The Booke of Conmion praier noted,' being an
adaptation of the plain chant of the earlier
rituals to the first liturgy of Edward VI. Mer-
becke escaped the Marian persecution and after-
wards published 'The Lives of Holy Saincts,' etc.,
1574 ; * -^ Book of Notes nnd Common Places,'
etc., and ' The Ripping up of the Pope's Fardel,'
1581 ; 'A Dialogue between Youth and Age,'
and other works. He died about 1585. His
' Booke of Common praier noted,' was beautifully
reprinted in facsimile by Whittingham for
Pickering in 1844 ; an edition by Riuibault was
issued in 1845, auid a reprint was included in
vol. ii. of Dr. Jebb's 'Choral Responses and
Litanies,' 1 857. A hymn for 3 voices by Merbecke
is given in Hawkins's History, and portions of
a mass for 5 voices by him, ' Per arma justitiae,'
are contained in voL vi. of Bumey's Musical Ex-
tracte (Add. MS. 11,586. Brit. Mus.) [W.H.H.]
MERCADANTE, Saverio, bom in 1707 at
Altamura near Bari, entered at i a the Coflegio
di San Sebastiano at Naples, of which Zingarelli
was chief, and where he learnt the flute and
violin, and became leadtr in the orchestra. For
MERCURE DE FRANCE.
. some unknown reason (the account given by F«tas
is absurd) he was suddenly dismissed, and to
gain a living attempted composing for the stage.
His first work, a cantata for Uie Teatro del Fondo
(1818) was followed by another, 'L'Apoteoid
I d'Ercole,' produced at San Carlo (18 19) with
I extraordlnjury success. In the same year he
produced his first opera buffa, ' Violenza e cob-
I tanza,' and after this came several * opere serie,'
of which ' Elisa e Claudio' (Milan 1S22) was the
most successful. From this period Mercadante
steadily maintained his reputation, and the ver-
dict of Italy in his favour was endorsed by Vienna
in 1824. He passed the years 1827 and 38 in
Madrid, 39 in Cadiz, and in 31 returned to
Naplei). In 1833 he became Generali's successor
as maestro di capella at the cathedral of Novara.
In 1 836 he composed and superintended the pro-
duction of * I Briganti ' in Paris. His next
fine opera was ' II Giuramento ' (Milan 1 837). In
the opera buffa * I due illustri rivali ' he changed
his style, marking the accents strongly with the
brass instruments. In this respect he Eet an
example which has unfortunately been widely
followed, for the FlCigel - horn seems to be the
fovourite instrument of Italian composers of the
present day. In 1 840 he became director of the
Conservatorio of Naples. He was a member of
the Institut de France. Though he lost an eye
at Novara, he continued to compose by dicta-
tion ; but he became totally blind in 1863, and
died at Naples on Dec. 13, 1870. [F.G.]
MERCURE DE FRANCE. This title em-
braces a series of periodical publications diflScult
to verify completely, but of so much interest to
the history of the arts, that we will endeavour
with the aid of the catalogue of the Biblioth^ue
nationale, to give a list of them. The first news-
paper published in France was called the ^ Mer-
cure fVan^ais.' Originally started in 1605, it
was continued in 1635 by Th^ophraste Renau-
dot, a physician and founder of the * Gazette de
France' (1631); it dropped in 1644, but wa«
revived in 1672 as the ' Mercure Galant,' by a
prolific but mediocre writer named Donneau de
Viz^. After the first 6 volumes (1672 to 74) it
ceased for two years, but in 1677 was resumed
by de Viz^, and published in 10 volumes with
the title ' Nouveau Mercure Galant.' It first be-
came of real importance in 1678, when it wa«
issued in monthly volumes i2mo at 3 francs,
with a kind of quarterly supplement, called fronri
1678 to 85 * Extmordinaires du Mercure,' and
from 1688 to 92 'Affaires du Temps.' From
May 1 714 to Oct. 1716, 33 volumes of the * Nou-
veau Mercure Galant ' came out^ including threo
of • Relations.* The 54 volumes from 1 7 1 7 to
May 1 731 are called 'Le Nouveau Mercure/
and the 36 volumes from June 1 721 to December
1 723, simply ' Le Mercure.' In 1 724 the monthly
review founded by de Viz^ became ' Le Mercure
de France, dedi^ au Roi,' and 977 volumes ap-
peared with this celebrated title. On Dec 17,
1 791, it resumed its original title of * Le Mercure
Franrais,' and 51 volumes came out between
that date and the, year YU of the Republic^ but
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MERCURE DE FRANCE.
.with many changes in the manner of publicfttion. [
On the 15th of Dec. 1792 the fonn was changed
to 8vo and it was issued daily up to March 25,
1 793, then weekly up to the 30th Pluviose of 1
the year VII ^Feb 19, 1799). The 84 volumes ,
(eight i2mo and twelve 8vo) from the year
VH to 1820 are again called the 'Mercure de ,
"France/ To this collection of 1772 volumes may
be added * Le Mercure au XIX si^e* 1823 to I
27 (18 volumes) ; 'Le Mercure de France au •
XIX si^le' 1827 to 32 (18 volumes numbered :
19 to 36); *Le Mercure' 1832 (one volume
numbered 37) ; and finally * Le Mercure de
France' Nov. 1851 to Feb. 1853, consisting of I
one folio and two quarto volumes.
A few words more are necessary to show the ;
importance of the Mercure in Uie history of I
music. In founding his periodical, de \']z6 gave I
particular attention to court news, anecdote?, and
. poetry, reserving only a small space for the an- ;
nouncement and criticism of new works. His {
chief aim was to flatter Louis XIV, and obtain
the post of ' historiographe de France'; but as I
we approach the Revolution the interest and
importance of the information contained in the
' Mercure ' increases with every step. Analyses of
new operas, programmes and reports of the * Con-
certs Spirituels, biographical notices of artists,
articles on the 'Guerre des Bouffons' — the strug-
gle between French and Italian music — lines ad-
dressed to singers or musicians, reviews of trea-
tises on music, announcements of new music, or
newly invented instruments — all these and more
are to be foimd in these monthly volumes, which
are moreover particularly easy to consult from
their well-arranged indexes. A ' CJhoix des an-
ciens Mercures, avec un extrait du Mercure
Pran^ais ' (Paris 1757 to 64, 108 volumes'i2mo,
generally bound in 54, with an additional volume
of index), was drawn up by La Place, Bastide,
Ma^montel, and de la Porte, but there is still
room for a collection of the matter most interest-
ing to musicians. The writer of this article has
long wished to undertake such a work, but ladl-
ing the requisite leisure hopes to see it accom-
plished by some one else. [G,C.]
MERCY", or MERCI, Lours, an Englishman
of French extraction, bom in the early part of
the 1 8th century, was an eminent performer on
the flute-a-bec, or English flute, for which he
composed several sets of solos. But he lived at a
time when his favourite instrument was gradu-
ally becoming superseded by the Traverse, or
German flute, and in the hope of averting the
change he, about 1755, allied himself with
Stanesby the instrument maker, in an endeavour
to promote the use of a modified form of the
flute-a-bec manufactured by the latter, and pub-
lished 12 solos, six of which were said to be
adapted to the Traverse flute, Violin, or Stanesby's
Kew English Flute, with a pre&ce strongly in-
sisting on the merits of Stanesby's invention.
But Uieir efforts failed, and the flute-a-bec be-
came a thing of the past. Mercy's solos were
much esteemed in their day. [W. H. H.]
Ml^RIC, Madame, [Qee L^Am>R.]
MEKK.
813
MERIC, Madame de, an accomplished singer,
who appeared in London in 1832, and was very
successful in an unsuccessful season. She was
the first singer of a moderate company, and
though not a great, was far from an unpleasing,
performer. She was a clever actress, with a
good voice and considerable versatility of talent,
rendering her very useful, as she sang in serious
or comic operas, first parts or second, and in any
language. While in this country, she performed
in Italian, German, French, and Engli»h, and
could have done ^ equally well in Spanish, had
it been required.
She appeared in ' Der Freischiltz ' on its first
production here with the original German words,
when German opera, for a time at least, drove
Italian from the London boards. Madame de
Meric played also Donna Elvira to the Donna
Anna of Schr5der-Devrient, who rather eclipsed
her; but in Chelard's 'Macbeth' she distin-
guished herself by singing a most cramped and
difficult song with astonishing truth and precision,
a feat which added much to the estimatl6n in
which she was held. She did not, however,
appear again in England. . [J. M.]
MERIGHI, Anton I A, a fine operatic con-
tralto profoudo, who was first engaged for the
London stage by Handel, as announced in the
' Daily Courant ' of July 2, 1 729. The first part
she undertook was that of Matilda in ' Lotario '
(Handel), Dec. 2, 1729, in which she created a
favourable impression ; but her songs, when
printed in the published opera, were transposed
mto much h'gher keys. This opera was followed
by a revival of *Tolomeo,' in which she sang
soprano music transposed for her, and next by
' Partenope,* in which Merighi appeared as Ros-
mira with equal success in 1730 and 31. In
the latter year she sang the part of Armida in
the revival of * Rinaldo.'
After the close of that season however her
name was not found again in the bills, until
1 7 36. The * Daily Post ' of November 1 8 in that
year informs us that 'Signora Meiir/hi, Signora
Chimenti, and the Francesina, had the honour
to sing before her Majesty, the duke, and prin-
cesses, at Kensiugton, on Monday night last, and
met with a most gracious reception.'
In January, 1738, Merighi appeared in the new
opera, ' Faramondo,' just finished by Handel after
his return from Aixla-Chapelle, and again in 'La
Conqufeta del Velio d'Oro (Pescetti). In April
of the same season she took the part of Amastre
in ' Serse,' — the last she sang in England. [J.M.]
MERK, Joseph, a distinguished Austrian
violoncellist, bom at Vienna in 1795. His first
musical studies were directed to singing, the
guitar, and especially to the violin, which last
instrument he was obliged to abandon (accord-
ing to F^tis) in consequence of an accid^it to
his arm. He then took to the cello, and
under the tuition of an excellent master, named
Schindlockers, speedily acquired great facility on
the instrument. After a few years of desultory
engagements he settled at Vienna as principtJ
cellist {vt the Opera (1818), professor at the newly
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814
JiIERK.
founded Oonservatorium (1823), and Kammer-
virtues to the Emperor (1834). He died at
Vienna in June 1852. He waa much associated
with Mayseder, and was often called the Mayseder
of the violoncello.
His compositions for his instrument are numerous
and of merit : — Concertos, Variations, Fantasias,
Polonaises, etc., and especially 20 Exercises (op.
II), and 6 grand Studies (op. 20), which are
valuable contributions to the repertoire of the
instrument. [T.P.H.]
MERKEL, GusTAV, bom in 1827 at Obep-
oderwitz in Saxony, studied music under Julius
Otto, and the eminent organist, Dr. Johann
Schneider of Dresden, and also received some
instruction from the composers Reissiger and
Schumann ; was appointed organist of the Wais-
enkirche, Dresden, in 1858, of the Kreuzkirche,
in i860, and court organist in 1864. From
1867 to 1873 he was director of the Dresden
Singakademie, and since 1861 has been a pro-
fessor at the Conservatorium there. MerkeFs
printed compositions have reached the number
of 130. Of these, a large proportion is for hb
instrument, for which he has composed Preludes,
Fugues, Fantasias, Variations, Sonatas, etc., and
pieces for violin (or cello) and organ. He has
also published many solos and duets for piano-
forte, motets (op. 106) and songs with pianoforte
accompaniment. As organist and organ com-
poser, Merkel deservedly ranks very high. His
oigan music is of great excellence, and is not sur-
passed by any living composer for that instrument^
being written by a true disciple of the lofty
and imperishable school of which his great com-
patriot, Sebastian Bach, was founder and con-
summate master. Many of Merkel's fugues are
' alia capella,* and in five parts, and aU are well
constructed. Promise of dignity and grandeur
of style in fugue writing, which has been sub-
sequently reaUsedv was first manifested in an
early woric (op. 5), the Fantasie, etc., dedi-
cated to Schneider. His later oigan sonatas
(op. 80, 115, and 118), are noble specimens of
that great form of writing, and would alone
entitle him to the highest position as a oompoeer
for his noble iastrument. [H.S.O.]
MERSENNXJS, Mabtn, LB PfiBB Mersenni,
bom in the village of Oiz^, in Maine, Sept. 8,
1588, educated at Le Mans and La Fl^he ;
became « Minorite, entering upon his noviciate
July 17, 161 1, and receiving full orders (after «
course of theology and Hebrew in Paris) from
Monsignor de Gondi in 161 3. For a time he
taught philosophy at Nevers, but soon returned
to Paris, where with other kindred spirits, such
as Descartes, Pascal (pfere), Roberval, and Peiresc,
he studied deeply both mathematics and musio.
He corresponded with Doni, Huyghens, and
other learned men in Italy, England, and Hol-
land; and visited Italy three times (1640. 41^
and 45). He died Sept. i, 1648, after a painful
operation. His most important work is his
•Traits de Tharmonie universelle' (1627), of
which he published an epitome in Latin ; * Har«
MERULO.
monioomm libri XII ' etc. (1648, with the namei
of three publishers, Baudry, oinoisy, and Robert
Ballard). These are more important even than
Cerone's great work as sources of information on
music in the 17th century, especially French
music and musicians. [F. G.]
MERCTLO, Claudio, or Claudio da Oorbeg-
010, organist and distinguished teacher, bom at
Correggio, im 1533.* At the age of 24, after
•competition with nine other cancUdates, he took
his place at the 2nd organ of S. Mark's, Venice.
This early success points to a first-rate education,
1 received probably at Venice itself, but possibly
at Brescia, where he had been appointed oi^ganist
in the previous year (Sept. 17, 1566). Venice
was rich in great musicians at the time, and
Claudio's duties would bring him into daily
intercourse with Willaert, Cipriano di Rore, Zar-
lino, A. Gabrieli, Annibale Padovano, and Co-
stanzo Porta. It is delightful to be carried back ' '
to a May evening more than 300 years ago, to
find Zarlino waiting on the Piazza of S. Mark
till vespers «re over, that he may present • M.
Claudio Merulo soavissimo organista del detto
tempio ' to Francesqo Viola,* who was visiting
Venice, and then to follow them all to the house
of old Adrian Willaert, kept at home by the
gout, yet holding a grand reception, and ready
to discuss with them the subjects of Zarlino's
famous book. Claudio satisfied his employers as
well as his ooUeagues, and while they increased
his salary from time to time,^ they repei^iedly
expressea their appreciation of his services, and
their anxiety to retain them.' But his income
was never a large one, and it was probably for
this reason that he set up as a publisher in
1566,* and 4 2 years later (in his 46th year) as
a composer of motets «nd madrigals,'' neither
attempt succeeding very well, or lasting more
than 3 years.
After 27 years service Claudio left Venice,
went first to Mantua, and thence to Panna,^ in
May 1586. as oiganist of the Steccata, or, ducal
chapeL Here he lived 16 years, was knighted
by the Duke, and died at the age of 71, '^hky 4,
1604. The following letter was written at the
time by one of his pupils to Sig. FerranteCarli.'
According to yotir wish I send you some jpartionlars
of SiR. Glaudio't death. On Sunday, the 25th of April,
S. Mark a Day, after playing the organ at.Veapen in the
1 Entered In teptlsmal register «r & Qnlrlno on April 8 as ton of
Antonio and Giovanni Merlottl, which was the true form of his namtt.
1 DImotutrationi Hanneniche (Zarlino, Venice Un). See Intro-
duction.
s Chapelmaster to the Dtfte of Ferrara, and an old papll of WIl-
laert's.
i C&telanI, ' Memorie della Vite . . . dt 0. Merulo' (Milan. BIoordi>.
s Thejr had learnt a lesson from Jachet de Buns, who, baring ap-
pealed in Tain for an increase of salary, ran off fh>in & Mark's cm
pretence of a holiday, and found the Emperor glad enough to tak«
him on his own terms.
• Editing madrigals by Verdelot, and. as a partner with iManlo,
a set of the same by Perta. Betanlo only Joined him for a short thn«.
perhaps owing to an unexpected pressure of work at St. Mark's by the
resignation of the other organist and delay in appointing another*
Claudio published one set of madrigals (k 0) of his own.
7 Between 1678 and 81. Gardane printed 2 books of SaersB CantioDea
(i «) and S books of Madrigals (4 4 and 4 S). The 1st and 8nd books
of Motets (a 6) were not printed tlU 1583 and 98 respectively. To tb«
various collections Claudio did not contribute much till late In life.
2 Masses (4 8 and a 12) and Lltanif* (4 8X pubUshed some yean after
hb death, complete the list of hb vocal works.
• a. TlrabCMchi. 'BlbliotecaMod«Msei'tom.TL ptL(lfod»aXTB8X
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MERULO.
Stecoats, he enjoyed an eyening walk before goina home.
Iir the niffht he was aroused bV a pain in hi* riant ride,
tttoceeded br great fever and yfolent sicknesa. The fever
continued from day to day. Riving him no reet even for
a few minutes. Tlie doctors, Sig. Cemidore and Cerati,
hiv son-in-law, after uRing many remedies with little or
no success, determined at last to give him a medicine
with strong ingredients— rhubarb, etc. This was on
Sunday, May 2nd. When the poor old man had taken
the dratight be cried out,' Alas 1 how cruelly the««* doctors
have treated me ' ; for they had given him to understand
it was merely a syrup. The effect was so severe that he
died Just as the clock struck 12 on the 4th of May. The
Duke arranged the funeral, and had him crowned with
laurel and ivy, thew marks of respect giving great con-
solation to all He was dressed as a Capuchin monk,
ronido books were placed on his coffin, at each comer of
which one of his scholars, clothed in black, held a lighted
candle. They were D. Chris. Bora, M. Ant Bertaoelli,
M. And. Salati. the fourth scarcely venturing to add his
name, for he had only been under the good old man*s
care for a month, thanks first to his own gentleness and
kindness, and next to that of our Sig. Christophero, who
introduced me and entered me at S. Claudio*s great
school. . . . The Monday following. May 10th, the service
took p^aoe in the Cathedral, when he was buried next to
Cipriano [Rore], near the altar of S. Agatha. .... We
lang the mass with double choir, one placed near the
' OKgan, the other on the opposite side
Tour afEectionate servant,
ALX88ANDBO YOLFnTB*
Panna,Maj 14,1604.
Ab for Claadio*8 Organ ^Toooatas and Rioer-
cari, given to the world late in life, all indeed
hot one book poethumons, we do not think the
composer's greatness is to be gauged by them at
alL They cannot bring back to us the wonderftil
power of his playing, which could fiiscinate the
most orthodox musicians, and attract students
firom all parts of Italy, Germany, and the North
of Europe. As a faint resemblance of the living
man (perhaps the little organ at Parma on which
he played cotild recall him to us as strongly)
these organ piekses are very welcome. They com-
pare favourably with other works of the period.
As historical examples they are also valuable.
In them we have classical instrumental music
quite distinct firom vocal, we have again chord-
as distinct from part-writing, the greatest result
the organists had achieved and the ultimate
death-blow to the modal system. Claudio lived
close on the borders of the new tonality. In his
compositions he does not abandon himself to it,
but he no doubt went much further in his playing
than on paper, and had he lived a few years
longer, Frescobaldi's bold and apparently sudden
adoption of the tonal system would not perhaps
have come upon him unawares. [J.B.S.-B.]
MESSIAH. Oratorio by Handel; libretto
from Holy Scriptures by Charles Jennens. Com-
position commenced Aug. a a, 1741 ; first part
completed Aug. a8 ; second part, Sept. 6 ; third
part Sept. la; instrumentation, etc., filled in
Sept. 14 ; — in all 34 days only. First performed
(during HandeVs sojourn in Ireland) in the
Music Hall, Fishamble Street, Dublin, for the
benefit of the Society for relieving Prisoners, the
Charitable Infirmary, and Mercer*s Hospital,
April 13, 1742. The principal singers were
Signora Avolio, Mrs. Gibber, Church, 1^ Rosein-
1 'Toeosto d*Intavolstiu« d'Organo dl 0. dl X.' eto., lib. I*. (Bome
UW). An early example of copper>pbtt« eDgimTinf< Another tNwk of
Toccate sod 8 iMNdts of Weeroad were pottbomous.
METASTASIO.
915
grave; principal violin, Dubouig; orpranist, Mac-
laine. First performed in England at Covent
Garden Theatre, March 93, 1743. Performed
annually by Handel fh>m 1750 to 1758 in the
Chapel of the Foundling Hospital for the benefit
of the charity. It was the last oratorio given by
Handel, viz. on April 6, 1759, eight days only
before his death. After the original performance
Handel revised and rewrote many portions of the
oratorio with great care. In 1 789 Mozart com-
posed his admtional aooompaniments to it, so
admirably executed as to have received almost
universal acceptance and to be regarded as nearly
an integral part of the composition. No musicid
work has had such long, dbntinuous, and enduring
popularity as the Messiah, nor has any other so
materially aided the cause of charity. Much of
the veneration with which it is regarded is, doubt-
less, owing to the subject, but much also must
be attributed to the splendid music, some of which
—the stirring 'Glory to God,* the stupendous
'Hallelujah,* and the magnificent 'Amen* — is
-•not for an age, but for all time.' The pub-
lished editions of the oratorio, in various forms,
are exceedingly numerous ; the most interesting
being the facsimile ot the original holograph
score (now in the music library at Buckingham
Palace) in photo-lithography, published by the
Sacred Harmonic Society in 1868. Many his-
torical and descriptive pamphlets, analyses of
the work, etc., have been issued at various
times. [W.H.H.]
MESTO, 'sadly*; a term used three times by
Beethoven, in the pianoforte sonatas, op. 10,
BO. 3, and op. 59, and in the slow movement of
Quartet op. 18, no. 7. The slow movement of
the first of these is called Largo e mesto, and of
the second and third Adagio molto e mesto. It
is also used by Chopin in the Mazurkas, op. 3.?,
no8. 1 and 4. [J.A.F.M.]
METASTASIO, Pietro AmroNio Domenico
Bon A VENTURA, a celebrated Italian poet, son of
Trapasd, of Assisi, a papal soldier, was bom in
Rome Jan. 3, 1698. As a child he showed an
astonishing power of improvisation, which so
struck Gravina, that, with his parents' consent,
he took him into his family, had him educated,
and changed his 'name. He was studying the
classics, and engaged in translating the Jliad
into Italian verse, when his benefactor died
suddenly — • loss he felt deeply, although he
was eventuallv consoled by the attachment of
Maria Bulgarmi the singer. In the meantime
his fame had reached Vienna, and, at the in-
stigation of Apostolo Zeno, the late court poet,
the Emperor Charles VI. offered him that post.
He arrived in Vienna in 1730, and remained
there till his death, April la, 1782, living with
his friend MarUnee in the * Michaeler Haus.*
Henceforth he furnished the principal attraction
at the private festivals of the Court, composing
verses to be recited or sung by the young Arch-
duchesses, set to music in the latter case by the
Court composers, Keutter, Predieri, Caldara, or
s ' MeUsteaio.'-trapswsmento, or trsoiltlOn. U a play on Trapawl.'
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816
METASTASIO.
HETBE.
Bonno. Metaeiaaio was also musical ; he played Sacred Dramas or Oratorios, performed in tLe
the harpsichord, sang (* come un sen^o, as he Imperial Chapel, Vienna, in Passion week.
used to say) and composed.^ He may be oon- - -
sidered as the originator of a real improvement
in the musical drama, though long since super-
seded. His popularity as a dramatic poet was
great ; the charm, grace, melody, and sweetness
of his verse induced the composers to overlook
the absence of contrast and ntrong passion ; and
in consequence some of his libretti have been set
as many as thirty or forty times.
Mozart's 'Clemenza di Tito' is the solitary
example of Metastasio's dramas to be seen on the
boards at the present day. His poems include 29
dramas, 8 oratorios, 39 pieces de circonstance,
nearly 50 cantatas and sceoas ; elegies, idyls, son-
nets, canzonas, sestines, terzines, etc., published in
nearly 50 different editions.' His portrait has often
been engraved ; that by Mansfield and Heath
after Steiner is the best. Bumey describes his
appearance in 1773 in enthusiastic terms.' There
are also busts and medallions of him. He was
buried in a vault in the Michaeler church, and
in 1855 an amateur named Galvagni placed a
marble monument to his memory (by Luocardi)
in the church of the Minorites, bearing the fol-
lowing lines by the Abb^ Guido Ferrari : —
*Dat patriam Aartsium, nomeB Eoma, Austria famam,
plaosum orbis, tamulom haeo nrua Metastaaia*
Chronological List of Metastasio's Secular Dra-
mas, with the chief composers, and dates of
production.
DtdotM abbuMlonata. 6arro,17S4:
Haase. 1748; JomeUi, 174B; Bod-
iio. 1788.
Bifaoe. Porporm. 1796; Leo. 1737.
Sinte. Vlnd. 172S: Handel. 1728
Ua«*r.l79B.
CatoiM In Utlca. Vlnd, 1737 ; Jo-
rodll. 1740.
Eda Auletta,179R:Porpora,17S9;
Jomelli. 1749; Haa»e.l7»; Uraun.
17A6: Gludi. n«S.
Senilramlde. Vind. 1720 : Forpora,
1739; Haase. 1747; tiludi. 1748;
M eyerb«er, 1819.
AleMaudroneir Indie. Vlnd. 17V
Haiidoi (w'Poro'). 1731; Hassi
(at -Cleoflde'). 1731.
Aitaserae. Vind. 1780 ; HasM. 1740;
Uluclc 1741 ; (jaluppi. 1748 : G.
RcarlattI, 1763: 40 lettings in all.
Drmetrlo. Caldara. 1731; Gluck
(ai'Cleonlce'), 17^
Adriano In Slrla. Caldara. 1732;
HftMe. 176S ; 26 wttings in all.
I*^lplle. P. Contl. 1732.
UHmpiade. Oaldara. 173S : Wagen-
seil. 1749; Ha«M. 17fi6; GaM-
mann. I7A4.
Dcmofoonto. Caldara, 173S; Glad^
1742; HaaM,1748.
La Olenoenza dl Tito. (^dara.
1734: HaMe. 1737; WageiiitHl. ,
1746; Oludt. 17M; 0. Scarlatti,
naO; Moiart. 1791. I
AchlUe In Bdro. Caldara. 1738;
Jomdli. 1748; HasM. 17fi0.
Giro riconotduto. Caldara. 1736;
I HasM, mi.
Temlntode. Caldara. 179B.
, Zenobla. Fredleri. 174a
Antigono. Basse. 1748.
Ipermnrtra. Haste. 1744.
AUIlio B«golo. Basse. 1790.
U Bd PastoN. Bonno. 1751 ; Sartl.
I7fa: Haaso. 1766; ©ludc, 1736;
Mosart. 1775.
L'EroeOtnese. Bonno^ 17%: Hasse,
17a8: Oluck. 1754 ; Baechlnl. 1771 ;
Clmarma. 1783.
L'IsoIa disablMta. Bonno. 17M;
JomelH. 1762 : 0. Bcariattt. 17«3;
Haydn. 1779; Spontinl. 1798.
MIttetl. Jomelli. I7r« ; HaMe. lim ;
Eartl. 176A: Saochlni. 1774.
Aldde al Bivto. Haase, 1760; Pal>
sidlo. 1779.
n Trioafo dl Cletta. 61ack.l7flO;
HasM.17(n.
Tetlde. Oluck. 17«t.
Egeria. Hasae. 1704.
BomoloedEraUia. Hasae. 1769.
II Pamasso eonfuio. Gluck. 1765.
U Trtonfa d'Aaaora. Gaasmann.
1763.
Partennpe. Basse. 17W.
II Rugglero. orvero L'eroiea geut-
" - rm.
1 CappI of Vienna published his ' XXIVl Canzonl a Bole tre rod.'
s Vol. i. of *Op«re del SIgnor Abbate Pletro Metastasio.' 17 small
vols. ISmo. (Nice 1785). contains a life bjr Cristinl.' A selection of
bU poenu was published In Paris {V(H) with the tlUe 'Penslerl dl
Metastasio.' Bnmejr wrote his ' Memoira ' (London 1796).
• For that time of life [be was about 74] he U the handsomest
man I erer beheld. There are painted on his countenance all tlie
cenios. goodness, propriety, benevolence, and reditude which oon>
stantlj characteriw Ms writings. 1 could not keep my eyes otT his face.
It was so pleasing and worthy of contemplation. — Present State of
Muik in Germany, L SSfi.
La Pasdone etc. Caldara. 1730. La Betulia Uberata.
Bant' Elena. Caldara. 173L 1734.
La Morte d'Abd. Caldara. 1732. Gioas. Bi dl Qiuda. Bcutter,
Guiseppe rioouoaduto. Ponlle. 17SS.
17». Isacco. Predleri.l74a
One drama, ' Per la Fest. di S. Natale,' com-
posed by G. Costanza, was performed at Home, 17^7,
I in a theatre with scenery and action. [C.F.P.]
I METRE, the rhythmic element of Song : as
I exemplified, in Music,in the structure of melodious
' phrases— in Poetry, in that of regular Verses.
I As the rhythm of Poetry is measured by
syllables and feet, so is that of Music by beats
and bars. The two systems, notwithstanding
, their apparent difference, may almost be de-
scribed as interchangeable: since it would be
I quite possible to express the swing of a Melody
in Dactyls and Spondees, or the scansion of a
Verse in Crotchets and Quavers. Upon this coin-
cidence, Music and Poetry are almost entirely
dependent for the intimacy of their mutual re-
lations : and, as we shall presently shew, these
relations influence pure Instrumental Compositioa
no less forcibly than Vocal Music ; the themes of
a Sonata being as easily reducible to metrical feet
as those of an Opera. Themes which are not so
reducible — in other words, Melodies which exhibit
no rhythmic correspondence with any. imaginable
kind of poetical Verse — mfiy, indeed, be safely
assumed to be bad ones. We shall most readily
make this position intelligible, by considering the
syllables and feet which form the basis of Poetical
Metre ; and then shewing their application to the
phrases of a regularly-constructed Melody.
• Syllables are of three kinds ; long (-), short (w>,
and common (-^/). One long syllable is reckoned
as the equivalent of two short ones. A common
syllable may be treated either as long, or short, at
pleasure. In Classical Prosody, the length or
shortness of syllables is determined by the bbws of
quantity. In modem Poetry, it is dependent upon
accent alone ; all accented syllables being considered
long, and all unaccented ones short, whatever may
be the quantity of their respective vowels. Th's
distinction is of great importance to the Com-
poser ; for Poetry regulated by quantity has very
little affinity with the Sister Art. The a!<80cia-
tion of what we now call Tune, with Sapphics
or Elegiacs, would probably be impracticable. But
the regular cadence of English or Italian verses,
in which the claims of quantity are utterly ig-
nored, seems almost to demand it as a necessity.*
The union of two, three, or four syllables, con-
stitutes a foot. Four forms only of the dissyl-
labic foot are possible —
Pyrriiic K^ v.^lTanibus ^-^
Sponde« — JTrochee, (or Choriua) . -%^
Of trisyllabic feet there are eight varieties —
Tribrach
Moloasua . . . . ■
Dactyl •
Anapant
Baccliiua . . . . <
4 Not very long ago. a celebrated Poet, experimenting upon the
poMibllity of produdug good Rnglloh Hexaniet(*r*. wrote tome
curious examples in accordance with the 1aw« of quanUty— a pro-
oeedlug which left the real point at issue untouched.
Antibac. Iiius (or Palim-
bacchiua). . . . -
Amphibrachya . . . v«
Amphimacer (or Cre-
tic) -
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METRE.
Tetraayllaltic feet — alwa3r8 divisible into two
dissyllAbic members — are sixteen in number —
METRE.
817
Proceleusinaticut . v^ w
Dispondtfut . . —
DiUunbus . . . «^ -
Ditrocbvtu ... - v.
CboriambiM ,,,-%.
Antis|«stiis . . . w/ -
lonicu^ a mnjore . - -
lonkiu a minore . ws
Fron primus . .
Pron aeciindus . .
Peon tertiuB . .
Pflpon quartiu . .
Rpitritus primus .
Epitridu aecundus
Epitritus tertlus .
Epitritus quartus .
TwofeetasuallyconstituteaMetreCorPtpoffta).
Bat, in Dactylic Verse, each foot is regarded as a
complete Metre in itself, even when the charac-
teristic Dactyl is intermixed with feet of some
other kind. Each tetrasyllable foot is also
treated, by reason of its composite character, as
an entire Metre.
Verses ^ are classed according to the number of
Metres they contain : thus, the Monumeter,
Dimeter, Trimeter, Tetrameter, Pentameter, and
Hexameter, contain one, two, three, four, five,
and six Metres, respectively.
When all the Metres are perfect, the Verse
is called Acatalectie. When the last syllable of
the last foot is wanting, it is Catalectic. When
two syllables are wanting, or an entire foot, it is
Brachycatalectic. When a superfluous long syl-
lable is added on, at the end of the Verse, it is
called Hypercatalectic.
Most Verses are marked, in or near the middle,
by a slight pause, called a Cassura, which muMt
necessarily &11, either on a monosyllable, or on
the last syllable of a word ; as in the well-known
Alexandrine-^
'Whioh, like a woonded snake, drags its skm length
along*:
and a similar peculiarity is observable in innumer-
able well-constructed Melodies ; as in the Giga of
Coielli's Sonata in A —
The five species of Verse most frequently used
are, the Iambic, the Trochaic, the Spondaic, the
Anapawtic, and the Dactylic, each of which may
be used in the form of a Dimeter, Trimeter, or
Tetrameter,either Catalectic, or Acatalectie. But
no kind of Verse is strictly limited to feet of one
particular order. We constantly find an Iambus
substituted for a Trochee ; or, a Trochee for a
Spondee. In Dactylic Verse, especially, the
Spondee is of very frequent occurrence, and the
Trochee by no means uncommon. In like manner,
the phrasinff of a Melody may, at any moment,
be relieved oy the introduction of a subordinate
figure, though, if the Mdody be good, the new
feature will be no less reducible to rule than the
original one.
The variety of Metre permissible in modem
Poetry is unlimited ; and as an equal amount of
freedom is claimed in the rhythm of modem
t THroochovt this artlete. fhe word V«rMk U OMd la Its strict MfiM,
•« indlcfttlDC a clnf le line of PDotrr. lo commoo parlance, the word
li frequently treated as the sTnoiiym of Stsus: but ft Stana ts nally
a comblMtkm of Mrnul VenM.
Music, it would manifestly be impos'sible to enu-
merate even a tenth part of the different forms
now in common use. Nevertheless, as all are
constructed upon the same general principle, the
Student will find no difi&culty in making an
analysis of any that may fall under his notice.
This analysis cannot be too carefully conducted.
Its importance is obvious enough, where words
have to be set to music : but, as we have already
intimated, it is equally important in other cases ;
for, without a sound practical acquaintance with
the laws of Poetical Metre, it is not easy to invest
even the subject of a Fugue with the freshness
and individuality which so plainly distinguish the
works of the Great Masters from writings of in-
ferior merit. An instmmental Theme, devoid of
marked rhythmic character, is never really effec-
tive. Great CTomposers seem to have felt this, as
if by instinct ; hence, their Subjects are always
reducible to metrical feet. All the Metres most
common in Poetry, and innumerable others, have
been used by them, over and over again : some-
times, in their strictest form ; but, generally, with
greater variety of treatment than that allowable
in Verse, and with a more frequent employment
of the various tetrasyllabic feet, every one of
which falls into its proper place in the economy of
Instrumental Music. We do not, indeed, always
find the foot and the bar beginning together.
This can only be the case when the foot b^ns
with a long syllable, and the musical phrase with
a strong accent. But, in all cases, the corre-
spondence between the two modes of measurement
is uniform, and exact; and to its all-powerful
influence many a fiunous melody owes half its
charm. We cannot carefully examine any
really fine composition, without convincing our-
selves of the tmth of this great law, which we
will endeavour to illustrate by the aid of a few
examples, selected from works of universally
acknowledged merit.
The theme of the Scherzo in Beethoven^s ^ono^a
quasi una Fantasia in C| minor (op. 37) is in
Iambic Dimeter Acatalectie — the ' Long Metre *
of English Hymnologists : —
The Rondo of Mendelssohn^s Pianoforte Con-
certo in G minor (op. 25) also begins in Iambic
Dimeter ; with the peculiarly happy use of a Pson
quartus, in the fourth, and several subsequent
places —
-II v^
I v> \^ s^
- d
Mozart*8 Sonata for Pianoforte and Violin, in
Bbf starts in Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic —
I - (-) II
The weU-known Subject of the Slow Movement^
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SIS^
METRE;
in Haydn*8 ' SurpTise Symphony ' is in Spondaic
Dimeter Catalectic —
■I- - n - - I - (-) II
The Theme of Weber's Bondo hriUante in Eb
(op. 63), is in Anapsestic Tetrameter Brachycata-
lectio, very rigidly maintained —
■ i^v^ -Ik
#"f#^^
rnpT jfe^
^-&Jg-:
— 1 v^. «^
-II
\>r p- —
-)ii
«tc;
The Slow Movement of BeethovenV Symphony
in A, is in alternate verses of Acatalectic and
Catalectic Dactylic Tetrameter, with a Spondee
in each of the even places —
- w w II -
I^F^N=
(-) II
A no less captivating alternation of Amphi-
macers and Trochees is found in the Tema of
Mozart*8 Pianoforte Sonata in A —
v^ II - v^ -I- v^ II
It would be easy^ to multiply ezamptes, ad
infinitum ; but these will be sufficient to shew, on
no mean authority, the importance of a subject,
which, though too often neglected as a branch of
musical education, will well repay a Uttle diligent
study. [W.S.R.]
METRONOME (Germ, l^etronom, and Takt-
me»8er; Fr. Mitronome, From the Gr. tiirftovy
a measure, and v<$a^;, a law). An instrument,
constructed for the purpose of enabling com-
posers to indicate the exact pace at which they
wish their works to be performed.
The Great Masters of the earlier Sdiools loft
the Tempi of their compositions entirely to the
discretion, ef the* executant.. In doing this,
they incurred no- risk whatever of misconcep^
tion: for, until the close of the i6th century,
and even later, the Composer was almost always
a Singer in the Choir for which he wrote ; and
his relations with his fellow Choristers were in-^
finitely closer than those existing between a
modern Composer and the Orchestra under his
controL But, the change of style introduced by
Claudio Monteverde, added to the imputee given
to Instrumental Music and Vocal Music with
Instrumental Accompaniments, after the be-
ginning of the 17th century, changed these rela-
tions very materially. The invention of the
Opera brought new ideas into the field* The
METRONOME.
individuality of the Composer b^^ gradually to
throw the characteristics of the * School ' into the
background: and Musicians, no longer guided
by traditional laws, soon became alive to the
necessity for giving some sort of direction as to
the manner in which their pieces were to be
sung or played. Hence arose the employment
of such words as Orate, Allegro, Adagio, and
other terms of like import, which have remained
in common use to the present day. As the re-
sources of modem Art became more fully de-
veloped, even these directions were found to be
insufficient for their intended purpose. A hun-
dred diffevent varieties of Allegro vreite possible.
How was it possible to indicate to the performer
which of these the Composer intended him to
adopt ? The number of technical terms was
multiplied indefinitely; but« it was dear that
none were sufficiently explicit to remove the
difficulty ; and, at a very easly period, the use
of the Pendulum was suggested aa the only
rational means of solving it.
To Etienne Louli^ — not Fraafois, aa has been
sometimes supposed — ^belongs the credit of having
first turned this idea to practical account. In a
work, entitled iUnunM ou principee de Musique,
mU dant un nouvel ordre, (Paris,. 1696, Amster-
dam, 1698), he describes an instrument, called
a ChronomUre, formed of a bullet. su^)ended to
a cord,, and provided with means for lengthen-
ing or shortening the latter at pleasure, in such
a manner as to indicate seventy-two difierent
degrees of velocity. This was a good beginning.
Nevertheless, the machine does not seem to have
become generally known; A)r, in many curious
treatises of later date, we find vag^e glimmer-
ings of similar ideas, put forth in apparent
ignorance of Louli^s discovery. Joseph Sauveur
— the inventor of the word ' Aeoustics,' and the
author of a. series of valuable papers on Music
contributed to the Mimoires de I'Academie, be-
tween the years 1700 and 1711 — ia said to have
proposed a ChrononUtre of his own. In 1733,
an article on a. ^>ecies of Miisicid Time-keeper
was contributed to the M&moire$ dee Sciences by
Enbrayg. Gabory recommended the use of the
Pendulum, in his Manuel utile et curieux §ur
la meeure du terns^ (Paris, 1771). John Harri-
son's * Description concerning such a machine as
will afford a nice and true mensuration of time ;
as also an account of the Scale ef Music/ (Lon-
don, 1775), servea to shew that the connection
between Music and Chronometry was not un-
noticed in England. Davaux wrote an article
on the subject for the Journal Encydopidique,
in 1784. Not long afterwards, PeUetier made
use of the Pendulum im a way sufficiently in-
genious to call forth a treatise on his invention
from Abel Burja, of Berlin, in 1790. In the
same year, Breitkopf & Hartel printed, at
Leipzig, Zvo6lf geietliche prosaische Oesdnge, mit
Betschreibung einea Taktmettere, by J. G. Weiske.
And enough was done, both in France, and in
Germany, to shew, that, even before the doee <^
the 1 8th oentury, the matter had attracted no
jmall amount of serious attentitnu
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METRONOME;
In 1813, Gottfiried Weber advocated the use
of a Pendulum, formed of a gmali bullet at-
tached to the end of a string, upon which the
necessary divisions were marked by knots ; the
whole being so contrived that it could be car-
ried in th6 pocket — a far more simple and
convenient arrangement than that of Loulid.*
New plans were proposed by G. £. Stockel,
Zmeskall, and other Musicians of veputation;
and Beethoven is known to have discussed them
with interest. The subject excited an equal
amount of attention in England, where many
attempts were made to produce a perfect instru^
ment. Dr. Crotch, diRcarding Louli^s cord, used,
in place of it, a stiff Pendulum, formed of a long
thin strip of box- wood, graduated in inches, and
hong upon a suitable fhune. Another Musical
Time-keeper, invented by Mr. Henry Smart
(brother to the late Sir George), is described in
the Quarterly Musical Review (vel. iii., London,
I Sax). Bow are now obsolete : but the writer
remembers seeing instruments of the kind re-
commended by Dr. Crotch, exposed for sale, not
very many years ago, at Messrs. £rat*8 Harp
Manufactory, in Bemers St.
All these inventions &iled, however, more or
leas completely, through the inconvenience caused
by the length of the Pendulum necessary to-
produoe beats of even moderate slowness. In
order to perfonn sixty oscillations in a minute, a
Pendulum must, in our latitude, be 39' finches long.
One long enough to execute forty would be diffi*
cult to manage. This difficulty, which had long
been recognised as a bar to farther improvement,
was eventually removed, through the ingenuity of
a celebrated Mechanist, named Winkel,. an in-
habitant of Amsterdam, who first entertained the
idea of constructing a Metronome upon a system
before nntried, involving the use of a certain
kind of DouUe-Pendulum, the motions of which
are governed by mathematical laws of extreme
complexity, though, practically considered, the
principle is so simple that we trust a very few
words may suffice to explain it..
If a rod be suspended tit>m its centre, and
equally weighted at both ends, its centres oi mo-
tion and gravity wiU coincide, and its position,
when at rest, will be perfectly horizontal. But, if
the wdght at one end be diminished, or moved
a little nearer to the central pivot than the
other, the centre of gravity will be dtsplaced, and
the mialtered end will giadually descend, until
the rod hangs perpendicularly ; ibe rapidity with
which the change of position takes place depeml-
ing npoo the amount, of diminution to which
the upper weight is subjected,, or its nearness to
ihe pivot. In either case, the upper weight will
exerdse so strong a retarding influence en the
lower one, that by carefully adjusting the pro-
portion between weights and distances, it will be
found possible to make a Double Pendulum, of
the kind we have described, oscillate as slowly
• as an ordinary one five or six times its length*
I A pocket VMronoiM was ragtoteml hf Onxfm In I860, and
■MAber. 'Mala Maid, lyttam DwiMr.' hu Just be«a paUoted bj
METRONOME.
81»
The posdbility of constructing a Metronome
upon this principle is said to have first sug-
gested itself to Winkel about the year 181 a;
but it is difficult, in the face of conflicting state-
ments, to arrive at a just conclusion as to the
circumstances under which his invention was
first given to the world. It is, indeed, known to
have been warmly commended by the Dutch
Academy of Sciences, in a report dated Aug. 14,
1815 ; and, judging firom this, we may surmise
that it had, by that time, assumed a complete,
if not a perfect form. We have^ however, no
definite proof of its then condition. It may
have been finished, or it may not i but, finished
or unfinished, it is certain that Winkel derived
very little benefit firom his discovery. Johann
Nepomuk Maelzel, an accomplished Musician,
and a Mechanist of European reputation, had
long meditated an improvement upon Stockers
machine for beating time; and succeeded, about
this time, in producing a species of so-oedled
'Chronometer,* which &arly satisfied Salieri,
Weigl, and even Beethoven himsell. Fortified
by the approval of these high authorities, he de-
termined to bring out his invention in London.
Meanwhile, he exhibited it, in company with
other mechanical curiosities, in a travelling mu-
seum, which he earned about with him, firom city
to city, through some of the principal countries
of Europe. Among other places, he visited Am-
sterdam, wheie he saw Winkel's instnmient.
Struck with the superiority of the Double*
Pendulum to the principle adopted in bis own
timekeeper, he at once offered to purchase the
invention. Winkel declined to oede his rights ;
but Maelzel, having now learned all he wanted
to know, proceeded to Paris, patented the
Double-Pendulum in his own name, and in
1 8 16 set up the first Metronome Manufikctory on
recordb Winkel afterwards obtained possession
of one of the Paris instruments ; established its
identity with his own ; and (as Wurzbach states)
took advantage of Maelzers return to Holland
to submit his case to the ' Niederlilndische Aka*
deinie* for decision. A Commission was ap-
pointed, to investigate its merits : and,, as it was
proved that the g^raduated scale was the only
part of the instrument really originated by Mael-
zel, a formal judgment was reconled in Winkel's
favour— too late, however, to do him full justice,
for,, to this day,, his share in the work is, by
common consent, suppressed, and Maelzel is uni-
versally regarded as the inventor of the instrument
which bears his name'
The first Metronomes made at the new Manu-
factory differed so little, in any point of vital
consequence, from those now in daily use, that a
description of the one will include all that need
be said concerning the other. The most import-
ant part of the business is a flat steel rod,
* We are Indebted, for most of these particulars, to Mr. A. W. Thajer.
whose oareAil researches hare placed him in posMsslon of mach ralu-
able informaiion on this subject. Bemsdorf tells a different story, to
the efltet, that Maelzel. unable to orercome some dlfBcuIty connected
with his ImproTement of StOckel's Time-keeper, took Winkel into con-
sultation ; that Winkel solved the problem for him ; and that he then
proceeded to Farls, and there patented Winkel's luTeutlou In his own
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820
METRONOME.
about f-even and a half incbes long, and an eigTith
of an inch in breadth, pierced, at a distance of
about five and a half inches from its upper end,
by a hole, through which is passed the pivot
upon which it is made to oscillate. This rod —
answering to the Double-Pendulum already de-
scribed— is suspended, by means of the pivot, in
front of a woo<len case, and kept in a perpen-
dicular position by a stout leaden bullet, fixed to
its shorter end, which, thus weighted, sinks, of
course, when at rest, to the lowest place. On its
upper and longer end is placed a smaller weight,
of br^, made to slide up and down at will, and
so proportioned to the lower weight, that, by
changing its position, the Pendulum may be
made to execute any number of oscillations,
between 40 and 208, in a minute. As a guide
to the position of the upper weight, the rod is
backed by a graduated scale — really the in-
vention of Maelzel — affixed to the wooden case :
and, by means of this, the instrument may be so
adjusted as to beat, silently, for a few minutes,
at any required pace. To render it still more
effective— capable of beating for a longer time,
and, with a distinctly audible sound — it is pro-
vided with a strong spiral spring, adapted to an
escapement exactly similar to that of an ordinary
loud- ticking dock.^ In this form, it is complete
enough to answer its intended purpose, perfectly :
nevertheless, an attempt is sometimes made to
increase its efficiency still farther, by the ad-
dition of a little Bell, which can be made to
strike at every second, third, fourth, or sixth
oscillation of the Pendulum, and thus to indi-
cate the various accents, as well as the simple
beats of the bar. The scale does not include all
the units between 40 and 108 — ^which^ indeed,
would be a mere useless encumbrance-— but pro-
ceeds, from 40, to 60, by twos ; from 60, to 7 a, by
threes; from 72, to 120, by fours; from lao, to
144, by sixes; and, from 144, to 208, by eights.
In order to indicate the exact Tempo in which he
wishes his piece to be performed, the Composer
uses a formula, beginning with the letters M. M.
followed by a Musical Note, connected, by the
sign «:, with a number. The letters signify
MaelzeFs Metronome. The Note implies that the
beats of the Pendulum are to be understood as
representing Minims, Crotchets,, or Quavers, as
the case may be. The number indicates the
place on the graduated scale to the level of which
the top of the upper weight must be raised, or
lowered. Thus, 'M. M. p« 60,' would shew that
the Metronome was to be so arranged as to beat
Minims, at the rate of sixty in a minute :
' M. M. p«B 100,* that it was to beat Crotchets, at
the rate of a hundred in a minute. Some Me-
tronomes are marked with the words Andante,
Allegretto, Allegro, etc., in addition to the num-
1 In th« first TIme-ke«per nauit by Mtelsel. In hi* Attempt to Im-
proTB upon SlOckoI's Chronomotor, the sound WM produoed hj a
L-rer. ( /fcM). striking upon a IltUe Anrll. (Ambon). This explains a
eorloos ezpretslon contained In a letter written, bj Beethoven, to
ZmB§kai:t-'MnUSdnnmgmtmmdfrWMt.mudaU$olm4H«b€L' (First
Strlngman of the world, and that without a lever.') For a description
of the instrument— known as the * StOckeMIa^lsel Chronometer' ,
>MetheAUgeiDeliMliusikalladMZettuuKlorlH9Cl,Da& i
KEYERBEEB.
bcrs. This is a new, and utterly iTsel^ con-
trivance: for it is evident, that, if p»ioo be
held to indicate Moderato, ^=100 will stand
for Allegro^ and [«ioo for Largo. The word
3fo(/era^o, therefore, without the Minim, Crotchet,
or Quaver, to qualify it, means nothing at all ;
and it is absurd to encumber the scale with it,
or with any other technical terms whatever.
By far the best Metronomes now attainal>le
are those manufactured in England for Messrs.
Cocks, Chappell, Ashdown & Parry, and other
well-known Music Publishers. French Metro-
nomes are far less durable than these; and, as
a general rule, far less accurate time-keepers;
though it is sometiflies possible to meet with one
which will beat evenly enough, as long as it
lasts. A very large and loud Metronome is
made by Messrs. Budall & Carte, of London,
for Military Bands ; and an instrument of this
kind may oflen be used, wit4i great advantage,
when a number of vocal or instrumental per-
formers practise together: for, apart from its
primary intention, the Metronome is invaluable
as a means of teaching beginners to sing or play
in time, aad will, indeed, make * good tiniists *
of many who would be a long while learning
to count accurately without its aid. [W.S. R.J
MEVES, Augustus Aktoine Cornelius,
son of Augustus Anthony William (known as
William) Moves, a miniature painter, was bom
in London Feb. 16, 1785. He was early taught
the pianoforte by his mother, a pupil of Linley
and Saochini, imd appeared in Edinbui^h in
1805 as Mr. Augustus, with considerable suc-
cess. He followed his profession in London until
the death of his father, Aug. i, 181 8, when he
gave up teaching for speciUation on the Stock
Exchange, continuing however to compose and
arrange for his instrument. He died suddenly
in a cab. May 9, 1859. In the latter part of his
life he assumed to be the Dauphin of IVanoe, son
of Louis XVI., and alleged that he had been
rescued from captivity in Uie Temple through the
instrumentality of William Moves. His story
may be read in detail in 'Authentic Historical
Memoirs of Louis Charles, Prince Royal, Dauphin
of France,* etc., by his sons Augustus and William
Moves (London, Ridgway, 1868). [W.H.H.]
MEYERBEER, Giacoho, &mous dramatic
composer, was bom at Berlin, of Jewish parents,
Sept. 5, 1 791 or '94. His father, Herz Beer,
a native of Frankfort, was a wealthy banker in
Beriin ; his mother (n^ Amalie Wulf) was a
woman of rare mental and intellectual gifts,
and high cultivation. He was their eldest son,
and was called Jacob Meyer, a name he after-
wards contracted and Italianized into Giaoomo
Meyerbeer. He seems to have been the sole
member of his fiEkmily remarkable for musical
gifts, but two of his brothers achieved distinc-
tion in other lines ; Wilhelm as an astronomer,
and Michael (who died young) as a poet.
His genius showed itself early. When hardly
more than an in&nt he was able to retain in
I Both dates are glT«D.
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memory the popular tunes he heard, and to play
them on the piano, accompanying them with
their appropriate harmony. His first instructor
was Lauska, an eminent pianoforte player, and
pupil of Clementi ; and old Clementi himself,
although he had long given up teaching, was
80 much struck, during a visit to Berlin, with
the promise displayed in the boy's performance
as to consent to give him lessons. As early as
seven years old he played in public the D minor
Concerto of Mozart, and two years later was reck-
oned one of the best pianists in Berlin. The
&ct that, owing to the example and patronage of
royalty, music was * the fashion' in Uie Prussian
capital did not prevent its being regarded by
the wealthier classes in the light of a mere
pastime, and it is to the credit of the Beers
that they not only recognised their son's especial
bent/but did their b^t to give him a sound
profosional training. It was as a pianist that he
was expected to win his laurels, but as he had
also, from an early age, shown much talent for
composition, he was placed under Zelter for in-
struction in theory, and subsequently (for Zelter's
rigid severity was insupportable to the young
prodigy) under Bernard Anselm Weber, director
of the Berb'n Opera, and a pupU of the then
celebrated Abbd Yogler. An amiable, accom-
plished man, full of enthusiasm for art, Weber
was an inspiring companion, but not a cpm-
petent theoretical teacher for such a pupil. The
boy, whose industry was equal to his talent,
brought one day to his master a fugue on which
he had expended an unusual amount of time and
pains, as he thought, with success. So thought
Weber, who, proud and joyful, sent oflf the
fugue as a specimen of his pupil's work to his
old master, the Abb^ Yogler, at Darmstadt. The
answer was eagerly looked for, but months
elapsed and nothing came. At last there ap-
pes[red — not a letter, but a huge packet. This
proved to contain a long and exhaustive treatise
on Fugue, in three sections. The first of these
was theoretical, setting forth in rule and maxim
the 'whole duty' of the fugue- writer. The
second, entitled 'Scholar's Fugue,' contained
Meyerbeer's unlucky exercise, dissected and
criticised, bar by bar, and pronounced bad. The
third, headed ' Master's Fugue,' consisted of a
fugue by Vogler, on Meyerbetr's subject, analysed
like the preceding one, to show that it was good.*
WelxT was astonished and distressed, but
Keyerbeer set to work and wrote another fugue,
in eight parts, in accordance with his new lights.
This, with a modest letter, he sent to "Vogler.
The answer soon came. ' Young man I Art
opens to yon a glorious future ! Come to me at
Darmstadt. You shall be to me as a son, and
you shall slake your thirst at the sources of
musical knowledge.' Such a prospect was not
to be resisted, and in 1810 Meyerbeer became
an inmate of Vogler's house.
This notorious Ahh6, regarded by some people
1 TMs traatlsewM published Afler Vogler^ d««th. It is onfoilnnato
tbmx his erlttdsm Is oftoo onsoand. Mtd that his own fncue will not
bear doM ezaminAtloD.
▼OL.n.
MEYERBEER,
82t
as the most profound theoretician of Germany,
by others (including Mozart) as an impudent
charlatan, was possessed of >3ome originality,
much eccentricity, and unbounded conceit, not so
much a learned man as an enthusiast for learning
in the abstract, and vnth a mania for instructing
others. His imperturbable self-confidence ('he
gives out that he will make a composer in three
weeks and a*singer in six months,' says Mozart
in one of his Jetters) certainly had an attraction
for young ardent minds, for among his pupils
were several men of genius. After many years
of a wandering, adventurous life, he had settled
at Darmstadt, where he was pensioned and
protected by the Grand Duke. In his house
Meyerbeer had for companions Gansbacher
(afterwards an organist of repute at Vienna) and
Carl Maria von Weber, who had studied with
Yogler some years before, and was now attracted
to Darmstadt by his presence there, and between
whom and Meyerbeer, eight years his junior^
there sprang up a warm and lasting friendship.
Each morning after early mass, when the young
men took it in turns to preside at the organ,
they assembled for a lesson in counterpoint firom
the Abb^. Themes were distributed, and a fugue
or sacred cantata had to be written every day.
In the evening the work was examined, when
each man had to defend his own composition
against the critical attacks of Yogler and the
rest. Organ fugues were improvised in the
Cathedral, on subjects contributed by all in turn.
In this way Meyerbeer's education was carried
on for two years. His diligence was such, that
often, when interested in some new branch of
study, he would not leave his room nor put
off his dressing-gown for days together. His
great powers of execution on the pianoforte en-
abled him to play at sight the most intricate
orchestral scores, with a full command of every
part. His four-part * Sacred Songs of Klopstock'
were published at this time, and an oratorio of
his, entitled 'God and Nature,' was performed
in presence of the Grand Duke, who appointed
him Composer to the Court. His first opera,
' Jephthah's Yow,' was also written during this
Yogler period. Biblical in subjept, dry and
scholastic in treatment, it resembled an oratorio
rather than an opera, and although connoisseurs
thought it promising, it failed to please the
public. A comic opera, * Alimelek» or the Two
CaHphs,' met with a similar fate at Munich.
It was, however, bespoken and put in rehearsal
by the manager of the Kamthnerthor theatre in
Vienna. To Vienna, in consequence, Meyerbeer
now repaired, with the intention of making his
appearance there as a pianist. But on the very
evening of his arrival he chanced to hear Hum-
mel, and was so much impressed by the grace,
finish, and exquisite 2e^a/o-playii^ of this artist
that he became dissatisfied with all he had
hitherto aimed at or accomplished, and went into
a kind of voluntary retirement for several months,
during which time he subjected his techniqve to
a complete reform, besides writing a quantity
of pianoforte music, which however was never
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Si1£Y£aS££R«
publiahed. He made a great sensation on his first
appearance, and Moecheles, who heard him at
this time was wont to say that, had he chosen a
piamst*s career, few virtuoH could have rivalled
him. But to be a composer was the only goal
worthy of his ambition, although at this moment
it seemed to recede as he pursued it. The 'Two
Caliphs,' performed in 1814, had again been an
utter failure. Dejected — disheartened to such a
degree as almost to doubt whether he had not
frcHm the first deceived himself as to his vocation,
he was somewhat consoled by the veteran Salieri,
who reassured him, affirming that he wanted
nothing in order to succeed but freedom from
scholastic trammels and, above all, knowledge
of the human voice and how to write for it, a
knowledge, Salieri added, only to be acquired in
Italy. Accordingly, in 18 15, Meyerbeer went
to Venice. It was Carnival time. Rossini's fas-
cinating * Tancredi ' was then at the height of
its pristine popularity; its new and irresistible
melodiousness had created a universal delirium ;
all Venice resounded with 'Di tanti palpiti.'
To Meyerbeer, accustomed to associate Italian
opera with the dreary works of Nicolini,
Farinelli, Pavesi, and others, this was a re-
velation, and he surrendered spell-bound to the
genial charm. Hope awoke, emulation was re-
kindled. He had no style of his own to abandon,
but he abandoned Vogler's without regret, and
set to work to write Italian operas. His success
was easy and complete. * Eomilda e Costanza'
(produced at Padua in 181 5, Pisaroni in the
leading part), ' Semiramide riconosciuta' (Turin,
1819), •Eduardo e Oistina' and 'lEmma di
Besbiirgo' (Venice, 1820), were all received with
enthusiasm by the Italian people, and this at
a time when it was difficult for any one but
Bossini to obtain a hearing. The last-named
opera was played in (rermany under the title of
' Emma von Ldoester,* and not unsuccessfully.
*Margherita d' Anjou,' the best of these operas,
was written for the ,Scala at Milan. ' L^ule
di Granata' made but little impression. 'Al-
mansor' was commenced at Rome, but not com-
pleted. In 1823, while engaged in writing the
' Crociato/ the composer went to Berlin, where
he tried, but fiuled, to get a performance of a
three-act German opera — 'Das Brandenburger
Thor.' This was a time of transition in his life.
He was wearying of the Italian manner, and
he could not be insensible to the murmurs of
diseatis&ction which everywhere in Germany
made themselves heard at the degradation of
his talent by his change of style. Foremost
among the malcontents was C. M. von Weber,
who had looked on his friend as the hope of that
German opera in which were centred his own
ardent aspirations, and who in 1 81 5 at Prague, and
subsequently at Dresden, had mounted 'The
Two Caliphs' with extraordinary care and labour,
hoping perhi^ to induce him to retium to his old
path. 'My heart bleeds,' he wrote, 'to see a
Gem. an composer of creative power stoop to
become sn imitator in order to win favour with
the cro\i d.' In spite of all this the friendship of
M£<x£RB££lw
the two men remained unshaken. Gn his way
back to Italy Meyerbeer spent a day with Weber,
who wrote of it, ' Last f^day I had the happi-
ness of having Meyerbeer with me. It was a
red-letter day — a reminiscence of dear old Mann-
heim We did not separate till late at
night. He is going to bring out his ' Crociato'
at Trieste, and in less than a year is to come
back to Berlin, where perhaps he will write a
German opera. Please God he may ! I made
many appeals to his conscience.' Weber did not
live to see his wish fulfilled, but the desire which
he expressed before his death that an opera he
left unfinished should be completed by Meyer-
beer, showed that his frdth in him was retained
to the last.
The 'Crociato' was produced at Venice in
1824, and created a furore, the composer being
called for and crowned on the stage. In this
opera, written in Germany, old associations seem
to have asserted themselves. More ambitious in
scope than its predecessors, it shows an attempt,
timid indeed, at dramatic combination which
constitutes it a kind of link between his ' wild
oats' (as in after years he designated these
Italian works) and his later operas.^ In 1826
he was invited to witness its first performance in
Paris, and this proved to be the turning-point
of his career. He eventually took up his residence
in Paris, and lived most of his subsequent life
there. From 1824 till 183 1 no opera appeared
from his pen. A sojourn in Berlin, during
which his ntther died, his marriage, and the loss
of two children, were among the causes which
kept him trom public life. But in these years
he undertook that profound study of French
character, French history, and French art, which
resulted in the final brilliant metamorphosis of
his dramatic and musical style, and in the great
works by which his name is remembered.
Paris was the head-quarters of the unsettled,
restless, tentative spirit which at that epoch per-
vaded Europe,— the partial subsidence of the
ferment caused by a century of great thoughts,
ending in a revolution that had s^ken society to
its foundations. Men had broken away from the
past, without as yet finding any firm standpoint
for the future. The most opposite opinions
flourished side by side. Art was a conglomeration
of styles of every time and nation, all equally
acceptable if treated with devemess. Originality
was at an ebb ; illustration supplied the place cf
idea. Reminiscence, association, t}ie picturesque,
the quaint, ' local colour,* — these were sought for
rather than beauty; excitement for the senses,
but through the medium of the intellect. Men
turned to history and legend for material, seeking
in the past a torch which, kindled at the fire of
modem thought, nught throw light on present
problems. This spirit of eclecticism found iis
perfect musical counterpart in the works of
Meyerbeer. The assimilative power that, guided
by tenacity of purpose, enabled hun to identify
1 It is ilgnllleant that, ivtthths exception of tbe'Crodato.* not CM
of tbeM early works. M>«Dthi»IuttaUl7 raoetred, held the state After
their oompoMT had left Italj.
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himRelf with any style he ohose, found in this
intellectaal ferment, as yet unrepresented in
music, a wellnigh inexhaustible field, while
these influences in return proved the key to
unlock all that was original and forcible in his
nature. And he found a fresh stimulus in the
works of French <^»eratic composers, abounding,
as they do, in quaint, suggestive ideas, only
waiting the hand of a master to turn them to
full account.
'He did not shrink, as a man, from the un-
remitting, insatiable industry he had shown as
a boy, and he buried himself in the literature
of Eranch opera, from the days of Lull! (mwards.
.... It was interesting to see in his library
hundreds of opera-scores great and small, many
of which were hardly known by name even
to the most initiated. ... In his later works
we see that to the flowing melody of the Italians
and the solid harmony of the Germans he
nnited the pathetic declamation and the varied,
piquant, rhythm of the French.' (Mendel.)
Laist, but not least, in his librettist, Eugene
Scribe, he found a worthy and invaluable
collaborator.
Many vicissitudes preceded the first per-
formance, in 1831, of 'Kobert le Diable,' the
opera in which the new Meyerbeer first revealed
himself, and of which the unparalleled success
extended in a very few years over the whole
civilized world. It made the fortune of the
Paris Opera. Scenic efiect, striking contrast,
novel and brilliant instrumentation, vigorous
declamatory recitative, melody which plea-sed
none the less for the strong admixture of Italian-
opera conventionalities, yet here and there (as in
the beautiful scena 'Robert! toi que faime*)
attaining a dramatic force unlocked for and till
then un^down, a story part heroic, part legendary,
part allegorical, — with this straji^ picturesque
medley fdl were pleased, for in it each foimd
something to suit his taste.
The popularitv ef the opera was so great that
the 'Huguenots, produced in 1836, suffered at
first by contrast. The public, looking for a
repetition, with a difference, of ' Robert,* was
disappointed at finding the new opera quite
unlike its predecessor, but was soon forced to
acknowledge the incontrovertible truth, that it
was immeasurably the superior of the two. As
a drama it depends for none of its interest on the
supernatural. It is, as treated by Meyerbeer,
the most vivid chapter of French history that
ever was written. The splendours and the terrors
of the sixteenth century, — its chivalry and
frmatidsm, its ferocity and romance, the brUliance
of courts and the * chameleon colours of artificial
society,' the sombre fervour of Protestantism —
are all here depicted and endued with life and
reality, while the whole is conceived and carried
ont on a scale of magnificence hitherto unknown
in opera.
In 1838 the book of the 'Afiricaine' was given
to Meyerbeer by Scribe. He became deeply
interested in it, and the composition and re-
oomposition, casting and recasting of this work,
'MEYERBEER.
828
oo6upidd him at intervahi to the end of his life.
His excessive anxiety about his operas extended
to the libretti, with which he was never satisfied,
but would have modified to suit his successive
fancies over and over again, until the final form
retained little likeness to the original. This was
especially the case with the 'Africaine,' sub-
sequently called ' Vasco de Gama* (who, although
the hero, was an afterthought 1), and many were
his altercations with Scribe, who got tired of the
endless changes demanded by the composer, and
withdrew his book altogether ; but was finally
pacified by Meyerbeer's taking another libretto
of his, ' I^ Proph^te,' which so forcibly excited
the composer's imagination that he at once set to
work on it and finished it within a year (1843).
A good deal of his time was now passed in
Berlin, where the King had appointed him ELapell-
meister. Here he wrote sevend occasional pieces,
cantatas, marches, and dance-music, besides the
three-act German opera, ' Ein Feldlanger in Schle-
sien.' The success of this work was magically
increased, a few weeks after its first performance,
bv the appearance in the part of the heroine
of a young Swedish singer, introduced to the
Berlin public by Meyerbeer, who had heard her
in Paris, — Jenny Lind. -
He at this time discharged some of the debt
he owed his dead friend, C. M. von Weber, by
producing ' Euryanthe ' at Berlin. His duties at
tide opera were heavy, and he had neither the
personal presence nor the requisite nerve and
decision to make a good conductor. From 1845
he only conducted — possibly not to their advan-
tage— ^his own operas, and those in which Jenny
Lmdsang.
The year 1846 was marked by the production
of the overture and incidental music to his
brother Michael's drama of ' Struens^.' This
very striking work is its composer's only one in
that style, and shows him in some of his beet as-
pects. The overtiire is his -most successful
achievement in sustained instrumental composi-
tion. A visit to Vienna (where Jenny Lind
achieved a brilliant success in the part of
Vielka in the 'Feldlager in Schlesien'), and
a subsequent sojourn in London occurred in
1847. In the autumn he was back in Berlin,
where, on the occasion of the King's birthday,
he produced, after long and careful preparation,
'Rienzi,' the earliest opera of his future rival
and bitter enemy, Richard Wagner. The two
composers had seen something of one another in
Paris. Wagner was then in necessitous circum-
stances, and Meverbeer exerted himself to get
employment for him, and to make him known to
influential people in the musical wwld. Subse-
quently, Wagner, while still in France, composed
tiie ' fliegende Hollander,' to his own libretto.
The score, rejected by the theatres of Leipsic
and Munich, was sent by its composer to Mever-
beer, who brought about its acceptance at Ber-
lin. Without claiming any extraordinary merit
for these good ofSces of one brother-artist to
another, we may, however, say that Meyerbeer's
conduct was ill-requited by Wagner.
¥2
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324
MEYEBBEEB.
* Le Proph^fce/ produced at Paris In 1840,
after long and careful preparation, materially
added to its compoeer*B fame. Thirteen yean
had elapsed since tne production of its predecessor.
Once again the public, looking for something
like the 'Huguenots/ was disappointed. Once
again it was forced, after a time, to do justice to
Meyerbeer^s power of tnmif erring kiftuelf, as it
were, according to the dramatic requirements of
his theme. But there are fewer elements of popu-
larity in the ' Proph^te' than in the * Huguenots.'
The conventional operatic forms are subordinated
to declamation and the coherent action of the plot.
It containssome of Meyerbeer*s grandest thoughts,
but the gloomy political and r^igious fanaticism
which constitutes the interest of the drama, and
the unimportance of the love-story (the mother
being the female character in whom the interest
is centred), are features which appeal to the few
rather than the many. The work depends for its
popularity on colouring and chiaroscuro ; the airy
verve of Uie ballet-music, and the splendid com-
binations of scenic and dramatic effects in the
fourth act being thrown into strong relief by
the prevailing sombre hue.
Meyerbeer s health was beginning to fail, and
after this time he spent a part of every autumn
at Spa, where he found a temporary refuge from
his toils and cares. Probably no great composer
ever suffered such a degree of nervous anxiety
about his own works as he did. During their
composition, and for long after their first com-
pletion, he altered and retouched continually,
never satisfied and never sure of himself. During
the correcting of the parte, the casting of the
characters, the 'coaching' of the actors, he never
knew, nor allowed any one concerned to know,
a moment's peace of mind. Then came endless
rehearsals, when he would give the orchestra
passages scored in two ways, written in different
coloured inks, and try their alternate effect;
then the final performance, the ordeal of public
opinion and of possible adverse criticism, to
which, probably owing to his having been fed
with applause and encouragement from his earliest
years, he was so painfully susceptible that, as
Heine says of him, he fulfilled the true Christian
ideal, for he could not rest while there remained
one unconverted soul, * and when that lost sheep
was brought back to the fold he rejoiced more
over him than over all the rest of the fiock that
had never gone astray.* This peculiar tempera-
ment was probably the cause also of what Chorley
calls his 'fidgettiness' in notation, leading him
to express the exact amount of a raUerUando or
other inflection of tempo by elaborate alterations
of time signature, insertions or divisions of bars,
giving to many of his pages a patchwork ap-
pearance most bewildering to the eye.
Faithful to change, he now challenged his
adop^^ countiTmen on their own especial ground
by ihe production at the Op^ra Comique in 1854
of < L'Etoile du Nord.' To this book he had in-
tended to adi^t the music of the * Feldlager in
Sohlesien,' but his own ideas transforming them-
selves gradually while he worked on them, there
HEYERBEEB.
remained at last only six numbers of the earllor
work. 'L'Etoile' achieved considerable popu-
larity, although it aroused much animosity among
French musicians, jealous of this invasion of
their own domain, which they also thought un-
suited to the melodramatic style of Meyerbeer.
The same may be said of ' Le Pardon de Plow-
mel' (Dinorah), founded on a Breton idyl, and
produced at the Op^ra Comique in 1850.
Meyerbeer's special powers found no scope m
this comparatively ciroumscribed field. The de-
velopment of his genius since 1824 was too great
not to be apparent in any style of composition,
but these French operas, although containing
much that is charming, were, like his Italian
' wild oats,' the result of an effort of will — ^the
will to be whomsoever he chose.
After 1859 he wrote, at Berlin, two cantatas,
and a grand maroh for the Schiller Centenary
Festival, and began a musical drama — never
finished — called 'Gothe's Jugendzeit,' introducing
several of Goethe's lyrical poems, set to music.
His life was overshadowed by the death of many
friends and contemporaries, among them his old
coadjutor, Scribe, to whom he owed so much.
In 1 86 1 he represented German music at the
opening of the London International Exhibition
by his ' Overture in the form of a March.' The
next winter he was again in Berlin, still working
at the 'Africaine,' to which the public looked
forward with impatience and curiosity. For years
the difficulty of getting a satisfactory cast had
stood in the way of the production of this opera.
His excessive anxiety and fastidiousness resulted
in ite being never performed at all during his
lifetime. In October, 1863, he returned, for the
last time, to Paris. The opera was now finished,
and in rehearsal. StiU he corrected, polished,
touched, and retouched : it occupied his thonghts
night and day. But he had delayed too long.
On April 23 he was attacked by illness, and on
May 2 he died.
The ' Africaine* was performed after his death
at the Academic in Pans, April 28, 1865. When
it appeared in London (in Italian) on the 32nd
July following, the creation by Mdlle. Lucca of
the part of 'Selika* will not soon be forgotten by
those who had the good fortune to see it.
The work iteelf has suffered somewhat finom
the incessant change of intention of ite com-
poser. The original conception of the musie be-
longs to the same period as the ' Huguenots ' —
Meyerbeer's golden age — ^having occupied him
trom 1838 till 1843. Laid aside at that time for
many years, and the book then undergoing a
complete alteration, a second story being en-
grafted on to the first, the composition, whea
resumed, was carried on intermittently to the
end of his life. The chorus of Bishops, and
Nelusko's two airs, for instance, were written in
1858 ; the first duet between Yasco and S^ka
in 1857; while the second great duet took its
final form as late as the end of 1862. The ex-
cessive length of the opera on its first production
(when the performance occupied more than six
hours) necessitated considerable curtailments
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MEYERBEER.
detrimental to coherence of plot. But in spite of
all this, the music has a special charm, a kind
of exotic fragrance of its own, which will always
make it to some minds the most sympathetic of
Meyerbeer's works. It is, in fact, the most
purely musical of them all. None is so melo>
dious or so pathetic, or so firee from blenushee
of conventionality ; in none is the orchestration
so tender : it may contain less that is surprising,
but it is more imaginative; it approaches the
domain of poetry more nearly than any of his
other operas.
It is conmion to speak of Meyerbeer as the
founder of a new school. Fdtis affirms that
whatever faults or fsiilings have been laid to his
charge by his opponents, one thing — his origin-
ality— has never been called in question. ' All
that his works contain, — character, ideas, scenes,
rhythm, modulation, instrumentation, — ^all are
his and his only.*
Between this view and that of Wacner, who
calls him a 'miserable music-maker, *a Jew
banker to whom it occurred to compose operas,*
there seems an immeasurable gulf. The truth
probably may be expressed by saying that he was
unique rather than original. No artist exists
that is not partly made what he is by the ' acci-
dent* of preceding and surrounding circomstanoee.
But on strong creative genius Uieee modifying
influences, especially those of contemporary Art,
have but a superficial effect, whoUy secondary to
the individuality which asserts itself through-
out, and finally moulds its environment to its own
likeness. Meyerbeer*s &culty was so determined
in its manifestations by surrounding conditions,
that, apart from them, it may almost be said to
have had no active existence at all. He changed
music as often as he changed climate, though a
little of each of his successive styles dung to him
till the last. A bom musician, of extraordinary
ability, devoted to Art, and keenly appreciative
of the beautiful in all types, with an unlimited
capacity for work, helped by the circumstance of
wealth which in many another man would have
been an excuse for idleness, he seized on the ten-
dencies of his time and became its representa-
tive. He left no disciples, for he had no doctrine
to bequeath : but he filled a gap which no one
else could fill. As a great actor endows the cha-
racters he represents with life — since to the union
of his personality with the outlines suggested by
the dramatist, they do in fact owe to him thefr
objective existence, and are said to be created by
him — so Meyerbeer, by blending his intellect
with the oulJines and suggestions of a certain
epoch, gave to it a distinct art-existence which it
has in his works and in his only. His characters
stand out from the canvas with — his contempo-
rary eulogists say — the vividness of Shake-
speare's characters; we should say rather of
Scott's. The literary analogue to his operas is
to be found, not in Tragedy, they are too realistic
for that, but in the Historical Novel. Here the
men and women of past times live again before
our eyes, not as they appear to the Poet, who
* sees into the life of things,' but as they appeared
MEYERBEER.
325
to each other when they walked this earth. This
is most compatible with the conditions of the
modem stage, and Meyerbeer responds to its
every need.
It is consistent with all this that he should have
been singularly dependent for the quality of his
ideas on the character of his subject. His own
original vein of melpdy was limited, and his con-
structive skill not such as to supplement the
deficiency in sustained idea. This defect may
have been partly owing to the shallow pedantry
of his instructor, at the time when his youthful
talent was developing itself. Wagner (whose
antipathy to Meyerbeer*s music ^^^aa rather in-
tensified than otherwise by the fact that some of
the operatic reforms on which his own heart was
set were first introduced, or at least attempted,
by that composer) compares him to a man who,
catching the first syllable of another man's
speech, thereupon screams out the whole sen-
tence in a breath, without waiting to hear what
it really should have been ! However this may
be, Meyerbeer's own ideas rarely go beyond the
first syllable ; the rest is built up by a wholly
different process, and too often — as U^ough his
self-reliance failed him at the crucial point — a
melody with a superbly suggestive opening will
close with some conventional phrase or vulgar
cadema, aU the more irritating for this juxtapo-
sition. As a striking case in point it is enough
to adduce the baritone song in ' Dinorah.' The
first phrase is beautiful. The second, already
inferior, seems dri^fged in by the hair of its head.
The third is a masterly augmentation — a cres-
cendo on the first. The fourth is a tawdry
platitude. Something of the same sort is the
case with his harmonies. He often arrests the
attention by some chord or modulation quite
startling in its force and effect, immediately
after which he is apt to collapse, as if frightened
by the sudden stroke of his own genius. The
modulation will be carried on through a se-
quence of wearisome sameness, stopping short
in some remote key, whence, as if embarrassed
how to escape, he will return to where he began
by some trite device or awkward makeshift.
His orchestral colouring, however, is so full of
character, so varied and iaisitsarU as to hide
many shortcomings in form. His grand com-
binations of effects can hardly be surpassed, and
are so dazzling in their result that tne onlooker
may well be blinded to* the frict that what he
gazes on is a consummate piece of mosaic rather
than an orgahic structure.
But in some moments of intense dramatic ex-
citement he rises to the height of the situation
as perhaps no one else has done. His very de-
fects stand him here in good stead, for these
situations do not lend themselves to evenness of
beauty. Such a moment is the last scene in
the fourth act of the * Huguenots,' culminating
in the famous duet. Here the situation is
supreme, and the music is inseparable from it.
Beyond description, beyond criticism, nothing
is wanting. The might, the futility, the eter-
nity of Love and Fate — he has caught up th*'
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326
MEYEBBEEB.
whole of emotion and uttered it. WhateTer wm
the source of such an inspiration (and the entires,
scene is said to have been an afterthought) it
bears that stamp of truth -which makes it a pos-
session for all time. If Meyerbeer lives, it will
be in virtue of such moments as these. And if
the ' Prcmh^te ' may be said to embody his in-
tellectual side, and the ' Africaine ' his emotional
side, the ' Huguenots * is perhaps the work which
best blends the two, and which, most completely
typifying its composer, must be considered his
masterpiece.
Presenting, as they do, splendid opportunities
to singers of dramatic ability, his operas hold the
stage, in spite of the exacting character which
renders their perfect performance difficult and
very rare. They will live long, although many
of the ideas and associations which first made
them popular belong already to the past.
Subjoined is a list of his principal works : —
0FIBA8 AND DBAMATIO mOSS.
t Jephtlui*! G«iabds. Perform- Brandenburger Thor. UBS: la II
ed 1811; 8. Lei Amoun deTeve- CrocUitohiKgltto.ua4: ll.Bobert
llode. (In German. Monodnuna le Diable. I8S1 ; 18. Les Huguenoti.
for Soprano, Oborut. and Clart- 1898; la EIn Feidlager In Behle-
net obbligato. In which the Instru- sten, 1840 ; 14. StnienM>e (orerture
menulist flffared as a dramatic and entr*actei). 1846 : IK. Le Pro-
pcrwmaffe): 8. Allmdek. or The ohMe. 1849 : 1& L'Etotle du Nord.
Two Caliphs (German. Wlrth mid IBM; 17. Le Pardon de Ploermd
_ _._ _ ... - ... _. .. ig. L'AIH-
Oaft).181S; 4. RomlldaeCoetana,
IxlS; ft. flemlrimlde rloonosdata.
1819; fl. EmmadlBesburgo.ms;
7. Marghertta d'AnJou. 1820 : &
L'Brale dl Oranata. 1822; f. Dai
(ItaL DInorah), 1809;
calne^USi.
An Omtorlo— Gott rod die Nft-
tur. Performed 1811.
OAItTATAS AND VOCAL XUBIO,
7 sacred oantatai of Klopetock.
tot 4 TolcM, onaocompanM.
An Gott. Hfmn.b7GnbItz. For
ivoloei.
Le G^nle de kt Ifiiilqae k la
Tombe de Beethoven. ITcr Solos
andCHionu.
(3antata, ftor 4 Tolcei. Written
for the tnaagnratlon of Guten-
berg's statue at Mayence.
Oantata, ' Xarta und 1^ Oentas.'
Oompued for the sihrer wedding
of Prince and Prlnceas (Tharles of
Prussia. For Solos and Chorus.
Serenade, 'Braut geleltc aus der
Heimath.' (Composed for the wed-
ding of Princess Louise of Pmiila.
For 8 yokes, unaccompanied.
La Festa nella Corte dl Ferrara.
Grand Cantata, with tableaux.
Xaroh of the Bavarlaa Arohen.
Cantata for 4 Toloei and Male
Chonu, with accompaniment of
bras Instruments.
Ode to Bauch the sculptor.
Solos, (Hiorus, and Orchestra.
Festal Hjrmn. Composed for the
silTer wedding of the King of
Prussia. 4 Tolces and Chorus.
Freundschafk. Quartet for men's
The gist Psalm, for 8 Tolees.
(Composed for the Choir of Berlin
Chithedral. Published. In score,
b7 Brandus, at Parts.
Pater Noster. for 4 Tolcei, with
organ accompaniment.
13 Psalms, for Double Cbonu.
unaccompanied. (MS.)
Subat Mater. (US.)
Miserere. (MS.)
T^Deum. (M&)
80NG8.
AJarge number of Songs with |
accompaniment, — ~~—
P. F.
which the best known are .
haps 'Le Molne' (for Bass) and
'DaiFlschermKdehen.' Thewhule
of them hare been published, to-
gether with ' Le Otole de la Mus-
Ique k la tombe de Beetboren,' in
one Tolnme. entitled '(^uarante
' Des Jlger^ Lied.' for Baw rolee,
wUh Horns obbligatl.
'Dichterl Wahlspraeh.^'^anoo
for 8 voices.
' A Veneda.* Barcarole.
'Des BchOfer's L^L^v Tenor
▼oke wHh Clarlillf^mi^to.
Melodies k line et plnsleurs toIz.' i And many others of leM Import^
b7 Brandus. at Paris. ance.
DIr.' Song, fbr Tenor
Tokse^ with Vfolonoello obbllgata
IN8TBUMENTAL MUSIC.
Centenary FestirallBfll.
Overture, in the form of a March,
for the opening of the Inter-
nattonal Sxhlbltlon in ~
First Dance, with Torches (Fack-
ettanz), for brass orchestra, (com-
posed for the King of Bavaria's
weddtaig.lSM.
Second ditto, for the wedding of
Princess Charlotte of Prussia, 189a Cknronatton March, 1889;
Third ditto, fbr the weddbig of A quantity of P.F. music, written
Princess Anne of Prussia, IseSL in youth. aU unpublished.
Grand March, for the SchlUer [F. A. M.l
MEZZO, MEZZA (Ital.), ' half' or 'medium' ;
whence Mbzza Voob, * with restrained force/ and
Mkzzo Soprano, the female voice intermediate
to the Soprano and Contralto. [J JI.]
MICROLOGUS.
MICHELI, an extremely useful basso, who
sang second parts, serious and comic, on the
London stage in most of the ^P^ona which were
performed, from the ' Buona Figliuola ' in 1767
to the *Viaggiatori Felice' in 1783. He was
one of the company engaged by Mr. Gordon,
in the autumn of 1766, and seems to haye re-
mained a faithful servant of the establishment
for 18 years. [J.M.]
MI CONTRA FA. In pure Ecclesiastical
Music, the use of the Tritonua, or Augmented
Fourth, is strictly forbidden ; as is a^ that
of its inversion, the Qmnta falta, or Diminished
Fifth. It is scarcely necessary to say that the
presence of these intervals is felt, whenever F
and B are brought either into direct or indirect
correspondence with each other, whatever may
be the Mode in whidi the contact takes place.
Now, according to the system of Solmisation
adopted by Guido d'Arezzo, B, the third sound
of the Hexaekordon durum, was called MI ; and
F, the fourth sound of the Hexaekordon naiurnle,
was called FA. Medieeval writers, therefore,
expressed their abhorrence of the false relation
existing between these two sounds, in the
proverb —
Mi contra fa e$t dioMui in wnuiea.
When the use of the Hexachords was super-
seded by a more modem system of immutable
Solmisation (see SoLMiSATiof ; Hbxachobd), F
still retained its name of FA, while B took that
of the newly-added syllable, SI : and the old
saw then ran thus^
£S( contra fa ett dioMnt in wnuica.
In this form it became more readily intelli
to musicians unacquainted with the machine
the Hexachords ; while its signification remaini
unchanged, and its teaching was as s^§mly en<
forced as ever. That that teaching contiShee in
full force still is proved by the fact, that neither
Pietro Aron, nor any ol^er early writer, ever
censured the * False relation of the Tritpie ' more
severely than Cherubini, who condemns it, with
equal rigour, whether it be used as an element
of Harmony, or of Melody. [ W. S. R.]
MICROLOGUS (from the Gr. adj. fut^po-
X6yos, having regard to smaU things — from
fu/cp6s, little, and k6yof, a word; Lat. Sermo
brevis, an Epitome, or Compendium). A name,
given, by two celebrated authors, to watVB
containing an epitome of all that was known
of music at the time they were written.
I. The Micrdogus of Guido d*Arezso is
believed to have been compiled about the year
1024. Valuable MS. copies of this curious
work are preserved in the Vatican Library, as
well as in the * King's Library' at Paris, and in
other European coSections. The tre^ise was
printed, in 1784, by Crerbert, Prince Abbat of
S. Blasien, in his great work entitled Seriptore*
eeeleaicuHcidemtmca ; and, in 1876, Hermeedorff
published a copy of the original text, at Treves,
side by side with a (j^erman translation. Con-
siderable variations oooor in the antient MSS. ;
lainel^r
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MICROLOGUS.
but full dependence may be placed upon the
readings given in the two printed editions we
have mentioned. The work is divided into
twenty Chapters, some of which throw great
light, both upon the state of musical science at
the time of its production, and upon its sub-
sequent progress. The first Chapter is merely
introductory; the second treats of the different
kinds of Notes ; and the third, of ' the Disposition
of the Monochoiid,' which ihe author strongly
reconmiends as a means of teaching Choristers to
sing in ttme [see Monoohobd] : and it is worthy
of notice, as a chronological * land-mark,' that
Guido here usee the long-since universally re-
jected division of Pythagoras, which resolves the
Perfect Fourth {DicUessaron) into two Greater
Tones and a Limma, instead of the truer section
of Ptolemy, who divides it into a Greater and
Lesser Tone, and a Semitone. Chapter V treats
of the Octave, (Diapadon), and of the seven
letters by which its sounds are represented.
Chapters XVIII, and XIX, entitled, De Dia-
pkonia, id est Organi precepta, and IHctce Dia-
phonics per exempla pi^obcUiOf are filled with still
more interesting matter, and contain a detailed
description of the method pursued in accom-
panying a Plain Chaunt Melody with Discant—
here <»lled Diaphonia, or Organum, Earlier
authorities had decreed, that, with the exception
of the Octave, no intervals were admissible in
Diacant, but the Perfect Fourth, and its inver-
sion, the Perfect Fifth, used as in the following
example — quoted in the Micrologus — in which
the Plain Cliaunt occupies the middle part : —
-etc
MICROLOGUa
827
But Guido, though he speaks of the Fourth as
themoBt important interval, permits, also, the use
o£iihe Major Secondi^and the Major and Minor
Third ; and gives the following example of the
manner in which they may be introduced :~^
Neither in the chapters we have selected for
our illustration, nor m any other part of the
work, do we find any mention whatever of the
Harmonic Hand, the Solmisation of the Hexa-
ehord, or the use of the Lines and Spaces of the
Stave; nor do Guidons other writings contain
any allusion to these aids to Science sufficiently
explicit to identify him as their inventor. His
claim to this honour rests entirely on the au-
thOTityof Franohinus Gafurius, Yicentino, Glarea-
nos, Vincenzo Galilei, Zarlino, and other early
writers, whose verdict in his favour is, however,
so unammous, that it would be dangerous to
reject the traditions handed down to us through
10 many consentient records.
n. A less celebrated, but scarcely less valu-
able treatise, entitled Musioe active Micrologus,
was printed, at Leipzig, — in 151 7, by Andreas
OmithoparcuB (or Oinitoparchus) — a German
Musician, of acknowledged eminence, whose true
patronymic, in its mother tongue, was Y ogelaang,
or Yogelgesang. This work, written in the quaint
Latin peculiar to the i6th century, contains
the substance of a series of Lectures, delivered
by the author at the Universities of Heidelberg,
Mainz, and Tubingen; and is divided into
four separate boolu. The First Book, com-
prising twelve Chapters, treats of the different
kiods of Music, of the Clefis, the Ecclesiastical
Modes, the Hexachords, the rules of Solmisation
and Mutation, the various Intervals, the Division
and Use of the Monochord, the laws of Musica
fidfif Transposition, and the Church Tones. [See
Modes, the Eodlesiastical ; Hexachord;
Solmisation ; Mutation ; Musica fiota ; Tones,
THE Ecclesiastical.]
. The Second Book, divided into thirteen Chap^
ters, treats of Measured Music, [see Musica
mensubata], and contains an amount of infor-
mation even more valuable than that conveyed
in Morley's 'Plaine and Easie Introduction,' in-
asmuch as it is expressed in more intelligible
language, and freed from, the involutions of a
cumbrous and frequently vague and meaningless
dialogue. In the Second Chapter of this Book, the
author describes eight kinds of notes — the Large,
Long, Breve, Semibreve, Minim, Crotchet, Qua-
ver, and Seiniquaver. The Third Chapter is
devoted to Ligatures: and, as the Ligatures
in common use at the beginning of the i6th
century differed, in some particulars, from those
employed in the time of Palestrina, the rules
here given are of inestimable value in decypber*
ing early compositions. [See Ligatube.]
In the Fourth and Fifth Chapters of the
Second Book, the author defines the various
species of Mode, Time, and Prolation ; and, com-
plaining, as bitterly as Morley does, of the
diversity of the signs by which they are repre-
sented, [see Mode; Time; Pbolation], pro-
ceeds to give his readers directions, which will
be found exceedingly useful to those who wish
to score the worlu of Josquin des Pr^, and
other writers who flourished before the middle
of the 1 6th century. The remaining Chapters
treat of Augmentation, Diminution, B^ts, Points,
Proportion, and other matters of .deep interest to
the student of Antient Music.
The Third Book, disposed in seven Chapters,
is devoted to the consideration of Ecclesiastical
Music ; and, chiefly, to the Accents used in re-
citing the Divine Office. [See Accents.]
The Fourth Book, in eight Chapters, contains an
epitome of the Laws of Counterpoint ; and treats,
in detail, of the difference between Consonances
and Dissonances, the ' General Precepts of Coun-
terpoint,* the nature of different Voices, the
formation of Cadences, the * Special Precepts of
Counterpoint,' the use of Bests in Counterpoint,
and the different Styles of Singing. On this
last point, the author s remarki are cruelly
caustic. He tells us that the English carol, the
French sing, the Spanish weep, Uie Italians of
Genoa caper, other Italians bark ; but ' the Ger-
mans, I am ashamed to say, howl like wolves.*
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MICROLOGUS.
It 18 impossible to over-estimate the valae of
the information contained in this most instructive
treatise. The first edition — of which a copy is
happily preserved in the Library of the British
Museum — is so excessively rare, that, until M.
F^tis fortunately discovered an example in the
Boyal Library at Paris, a reprint, of 15 19, was
very commonly regarded as the editio princeps.
The edition described by Bumey, and Hawkins,
is a much later one, printed, at (Cologne, in
1535. In 1609, our own John Dowland printed
a correct though deliciously quaint English trans-
lation, in London ; and it is through the medium
of this that the work is best known in this
country. Hawkins, indeed, though he mentions
the Latin original, gives all his quotations from
Dowland*s version. [W. S. R.]
MIDSUMMER NIGHTS DREAM MUSIC,
by Mendelssohn, consists of two parts, i. The
Pverture was written between July 7 and Aug. 6,
1826, with the latter of which dates the score (in
the Berlin Bibliothek) is signed. It appears from
Mane's statement (Erinn. ii. 231-3) that the work,
as we possess it, is a second attempt. The former
one, of which the first half was completed, began
with the four chords and the fairy figure. On these
followed a regular overture, in which the theme
represented the proceedings of the lovers. No-
thing else has survived. The Beigomask dance and
other most characteristic features are all new, and
appear to have been the result of the representa-
tions of Marx, who urged that the overture
should not only be formed on the subject of the
play but should adopt it as a Programme. It was
first performed in public at Stettin in Feb. 1827.
Mendelssohn brought it with him to London in
1829, and it was played under his direction at a
concert given by Drouet at the Argyll Rooms, on
June 24, Midsummer night. On returning from
the concert the score was left in a hackney coach
and irrecoverably lost.
The coincidence between the melody at the
dose of the overture and that in the * Mermaid's
song' in the Finale to the 2nd act of Weber*s
'Oberon' is no doubt a mere coincidence. Weber's
sketch of the Finale was finished in Dresden on
'Jan. 7, 1826, immediately after which he started
for London ; and it is very improbable that any of
the motifs of the opera should have become known
before its performance, April 1 2, 1826. But apart
from this, it is so extremely unlike Mendelssohn
to adopt a theme from another composer, that we
may be perfectly sure that the idea was his own.
He introduces it in the beginning of the work,
at the first fortissimo; it then twice recurs in
the course of the working, and appears in an
extended form as a cantil^ne in the coda. Men-
delssohn appear to have felt some difficulty as to
the notation of the overture. He first wrote it
with the faiiy subject in quavers, and two minims
in a bar. He then published an arrangement
1 Weber's Life, by hU son. U. 630. MS.
MILAN.
for the P. F. with Cramer & Co., which has the
fiiiry subject in semiquavers ; and lastly returned
to the original notation, in which the score is
printed. The score was published with those of
the Hebrides and MeeresstiUe, as ' 3 concert over-
tures,* by Breitkopfs, in March or April 1835.
2. The music for the Play was composed in
1843 in obedience to the desire of the King uf
Prussia, and was produced on the stage at Che
New Palace at Potsdam, on Oct. 14 of Uiat year,
after ii rehearsals. It contains 12 numb^—
Scherzo ; Fairy march ; * You spotted snakes* for
2 sopranos and chorus ; Melodrama ; Intermezzo;
Melodrama ; Nottumo ; Andante ; Wedding
march; Allegro commodo; Bergomask dance;
Finale. Its first perfohnance at the Philhar-
monic was under the composer's direction. May
27, 1844. [G.]
MILAN. A school of music was founded at
Milan in 1483 by Lodovico Sforaa, Duke of
Milan. Some writers affirm that thia was the
first public school of music in Italy, but Uiat of
Bologna, founded in 1482 by Pope Nicholas V,
prec«ied it by one year. Franchino Gafurio of
Lodi was the first public professor of music in
Milan. He was bom at Lodi in 145 1, and studied
music at Mantua, Verona, G«noa and Naples.
Driven from Naples by the inroads of the Turku,
he returned to Ixxli, where he gave instruction
in music till summoned to Milan by Roberto
Bami, canon of Lodi. In 1482 he was madechapel-
master of the cathedral, and public professor of
music in that city. He continued there many years
teaching and translating into Latin the ancient
Greek writers on music. Among his works are: —
I. Theoricum Opus harmonics ^soiplinse. (Milan,
1492, in fol.) 2. Practica Musicse utriusque can*
tus. (Milan, 1496.) 3. De harmonica musioorum
instrumentorum. (Milan, 1498.)
This last treatise gave rise to a fierce dispute,
embraced by all the musicians of the day, be-
tween Gafurio and Spataro, the professor of the
rival school at Bologna. To Spataro*s attack,
entitled 'Errori di Franchino Gafurio,* etc.,
Grafurio replied in his 'Apologia Franchini Ga-
furii Musid adversus Joannem Spatarium et
complices Bononiensis.* The school of music was
for the time overthrown in Milan by the fall
of Lodovico Sforza, and Franchino Gafurio re-
tired to Padua, where he became a professor of
astrology. He died at the age of 71.
Bumey, in his History of Music (vol. iii. p. 1 53),
speaks in the highest terms of Gafurio : ' It was
at Milan,' he says, ' that Gafurio composed and
polished most of his works ; that he was carewed
by the first persons of his time for rank and
learning; and that he read Lectures by public
authority to crowded audiences, for which he
had a faculty granted him by the Archbishop
and chief magistrates of the city in 1483, which
exalted him far above all his cot«mporary bre-
thren : and how much he improved the science
by his instructions, his lectures and his writings,
was testified by the approbation of the whole
city ; to which may be added the many disciples he
formedi and the almost infinite number of volumes
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MILAN.
)ie wrote, among which several will live as
long as music and the Latin tongue are under-
stood.'
Costanzo Porta, the pupil of Willaert, Zarlino,
Caimo, Gastoldi Biffi, and others, were also emi-
nent compiisers in the old Lombard school of
music, but Claude Monteverde vbom at Cremona
1570) was the first to found a new epoch in this
school, and to make it one of the richest and
most powerful in Italy. He first attracted the
notice of the Duke of Mantua by his performance
on the Tenor Viola; and by his direction, and ap-
plying himself to the study of composition under
Ingegnere, the Maestro di Capella of that Court,
he became a considerable composer for the Church.
The result of his studies appears in some valu-
able innovations in the old rules of counterpoint,
which, although they excited much cavil and dis-
cussion at the time, were soon adopted not only
by dilettanti but professors.
Besides making these important discoveries,
he is considered to be one of the first inventors
of recitative in the Musical Drama. Orazio
Vecchi, bom about 1550, was another writer
of operatic music of the Lombard school. His
opera of ' L' Amfi Pamaso,' was one of the earliest
operatic representations. These and many other
writers of dramatic music were formed in the
Lombard school, which was also illustrated by
composers for the Chureh, such as Yiadana,
Noscimbeni, Simpliciano Olivo, Giuseppe Vignati,
Antonio Bosetti, Gio. Andrea Fioroni, etc., etc.
In the first part of the i8th century the
ikmous school of singing of Giusep|>e Ferdinando
Brivio flourished at Milan, but there does not
seem to have been any special ' Accademia* or
Conaervatorio for public musical instruction till
the year 1807, when, by a decree of Napoleon
Buonaparte, ihe present Royal Conservatorio of
Milan was estabUshed.
By order of the viceroy, Eugene Beauhamais,
the building annexed to the church of Santa
31aria della Passione, formerly a convent, was
set apart for the new musical mstitute. It was
opened on September 8, 1808, and formally in-
augurated by the Marquis de Br^me, minister
of the interior ; and it was to be modelled on the
pattern of the old Conservatories of Naples.
The first president of the Conservatorio was
Bonifazio Asioli, chosen by the celebrated Gian
Simone Mayr, who traced out the rules for the
new institution ; and the first professors of the
Tsrious branches of musical instruction were
F^derigi, Secchi, Ray, Piantanida, Negri, Rolla,
Stoiioni, Andredi, Adami, Belloli, Buccinelli.
In 1 814, on account of the large increase of
pupils, two extra professors were nominated.
During the years 1848 and 1849, when the
Austriaos were in Milan, the Conservatorio was
also occupied by their troops, but the musical
instruction of the pupils was carried on in the
private houses of the professors. In 1850 the
Conservatorio was reopened under the presidency
of Lauro Rossi on a larger scale, with a con-
siderable change in its form of government, and
fresh provision was made for instruction in the
MILANOLLO.
829
organ, the harp, the history and philosophy of
music. In 1 858 a school of instruction in singing
for the performers at the royal theatres was Uke-
wise added.
An Academical Council was instituted in 1864,
to determine what prizes should be distributed
to the pupils, and every year those who dis-
tinguish themselves most at the yearly examina*
tions receive a monthly pension arising out of
the endowment of the Institution. In this same
year the ' Societk del Quartette * was formed, of
which many of the most notable musicians of the
present day are honorary members. Every year
this society causes six or eight concerts of clas-
sical music to be performed, and offers a prize
for the best musical composition on a given sub-
ject. The * Scuole popoliuri * for the lower classes
of the people, at the cost of the State, are also off-
shoots of the great Milanese Conservatorio.
The programme of musical instruction in the
Royal Conservatorio, as translated from the
report of January 1873, of the president. Signer
Lodovico Mel^, comprehends two kinds of in-
struction in music, artistic and literary, and these
may again be subdivided into a preliminary
and a superior course of instruction in either of
these two branches.
The Conservatorio professes to give a complete
musical and a fair literary education. The musical
instruction is directed by 39 J^rofessors, and by
about 30 Teachers selected ^m the best pupils
of both sexes. For the literary branch there are
7 Professors. There are two other Professors, one
for deportment, pantomine, and ballet, the other
for drilL
Each pupil previous to admission must pass
through a prehminary examination to see ii he
has any capacity for the branch of musical in-
struction he intends to pursue. This examina-
tion when passed only gives the pupil a right to
enter the Conservatorio probationally for a year,
and not till he has passed the second examination
at the end of the probationary year is he admitted
as a pupil. On admission he pays an entrance
fee of 20 lire, and every year, until his studies
are completed, he pays to the Institute 5 lire
monthly, with the exception of the months of Sep-
tember and October.
Nine years are allowed to each pupil for study
in composition, and for attaining proficiency in
stringed instruments, ten years for wind instru*
ments, eleven years for instruction in singing.
Since its foundation, to the date above nimied«
the Conservatorio had instructed 1627 pupils, of
whom 1 24 finished their course in 1872. \C. M. P.]
MILANOLLO, the sisters, celebrated violin
ists, were both bom at Sevigliano near Turin,
where their father lived as a poor silk-spinner ;
Tbbksa in 1827, Mabia in 1832. Teresa was
but four years of age when she heard a violin
solo in a mass, and was so much impressed by
the sound of the instrument that from that
moment she could think and talk of nothing
else, and would not rest till she got a fiddle of
her own. Her first teacher was Giovanni Ferrero, a
local musician, and afterwards Gebbaio and Mora
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MILANOLLO.
at Turin. She was not yet seven years old
when she made her first public appearance at
Turin and other towns of Piedmont. But
the pecuniary results of these concerts being
quite insufficient to extract the family firom the
state of absolute poverty they were living iu»
the father was advised to emigrate to France.
Accordingly he set out with his wife and two
children, Teresa, then seven years old, and
Maria, an infant in arms, and after' having
crossed the Alps on foot, the little caravan
made its first halt at Marseilles. Here Teresa
played three or foiur times with much suc-
cess, and then went to Paris, furnished with
an introductfon to Lafont, who took much
interest in her talent and instructed her for
some time. After having appeared with much
success at Paris, she travelled for some time
with Lafont in Bel«^um and Holland. She
next came to Englitnd, appeared in London
and the provinces and on a tour through Wales,
played within less than a month in forty con-
certs with Bochsa, the harpist, who however,
according to F^tis, absconded with the whole of
the proceeds. Meanwhile Teresa had begun for
some time to instruct her younger sister Maria,
who shewed a talent hardly inferior to her own,
and who began to play in public at the age of
six. Henceforth the two sbters invariably ap-
peared together, and on their journeys through
France, Germany, and Italy were received every-
where with the greatest enthusiasm. Their per-
formances shewed all the best peculiarities of
the Franco-Belgian school of violin-playing —
great neatness of execution of the left hsmd,
facility of bowing, gracefulness and piquancy of
style. Teresa's playing appears to have been
distinguished by much warmth of feeling, while
Maria, the younger, had remarkable vigour and
boldness of execution. These qualities, com-
bined with the charm of their personal appear-
ance, never fiskiled to enlist the sympathies of the
public. At Vienna especially, where the sisters
gave within a few months not less than 25
concerts, their success was almost unprecedented.
They visited England once more in 1845, and
played at the Philharmonic on June 9. Their
reception in England appears hardly to have
been in accordance with their enormous conti-
nental reputation, and the critics of the day
severely condemn the exaggerated style and in-
complete technique of the sisters — with what
right it is difficult t(» say. In 1848 Maria, the
younger, died suddenly of rapid consumption at
Paris, and was buried at P^re la Chaise. Teresa
after some time resumed her Ufe of travel, but
since her marriage with M. Parmentier, an emi-
nent French military engineer, has retired into
private life. [I*..I>.]
MILDER-HAUPTMANN. Paulinb Anna,
a celebrated Grerman singer and tragic actress, the
daughter of Milder, a courier in the Austrian
service, was bom at Ck>nstantinople in 1785.
She lived afterwards at Vienna, where, having
lost her f&iher, she was compelled to enter the
vervice of a lady of rank as lady'a-maid. Her
MILDER-HAUPTMANN.
fine voice and handsome person attracted the
notice of Schikaneder, the well-known Viennese
manager, who urged her to enter the profession,
offering to be responsible for her musical educa-
tion and to superintend her d€but on the stage.
The offer was accepted, and she became the pupil
of an Italian singing-master named Tomasoelli,
and subsequently of Salieri. She made her first
public appearance on April 9, 1803, as Juno, in
SUssmayer*s opera ' Der Spiegel von Arkadien.'
As an artist, she seems to have profited but little
by instruction. With the kind of Oriental indo-
lence that always distinguished her, she was
content to rely for success on her splendid natu-
ral gifts, which were such as to procure f^ her,
almost at once, an engagement at the Imperial
Court theatre. That the part of ' Fidelio ' should
have been written ior her is sufficient testimony
to the capabilities of the organ which caused
old Haydn to say to her ' Dear child, you have
a voice like a house !*
Her £ftme spread rapidly, and in 1808 she
made a brilliantly successful professional tour,
obtaining, on her return to Vienna, a fresh en-
gagement at Court as prima donna assoluta. In
1 8 10 Anna Milder married a rich jeweller named
Hauptmann. Her greatest series of triumphs
was achieved at Benin, where she appeared in
Gluck*s 'Iphigenia in Tauris," in 1813. After
singing with equal ^clat in other great German
towns, she contracted, in 1 816, a permanent en-
gagement with the royal theatre of Berlin, where
for twelve years she reigned supreme. She played
in all the principal rCles in the repertoire, but her
great parts were those of the classical heroines
of Gluck -^ Iphigenia, Alcestis, Armida — for
which she was pre-eminently fitted, both by
her imposing presence, and by her magnificent
soprano voice, full, rich, and flawless, which both
in amoimt and quality seems to have left nothing
to desire. It was, however, unwieldy, and this
natural inflexibility so little overcome by art as
to be incapable of the simplest trill or other florid
embellishment. At times, especially in her later
vears, she attempted some lighter parts, such as
Mozad:t*s Donna Elvira, and Susanna, but her
lack of execution prevented her £rom suc-
ceeding in these as she did in Weigl's opera * Die
schweizer Familie * (made celebrated by h^ im-
personation of Emmeline), or in the broad deda-
matory style of Gluck. Although 'Fidelio*
became one of her principal rdUs, her perform-
ance in this opera was never either vocally or
dramatically irreproachable. Thayer (Life of Bee-
thoven, ii. 290) relates a conversation with her, in
1836, when she told him what 'hard fights* she
used to have with the master about some pass-
ages in the Adagio of the great scena in £
major, described by her as ' ugly,* * unvocal,* and
• inimical (tpiderstrebend) to her organ.* All was
in vain, however, until in 18 14 she declared
herself resolved never ag^n to appear in the
part, if she had to sing this ungrateful air as it
stood — a threat which proved effective.
Her manner in society is described as cold and
apathetic, and her degree of musical culture so
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MILDERHAUPTMANN.
small that she could only learn her parts by
having them played to her over and over again.
In spite of this ^in which indeed she is not
singular), she was as much admired by oom-
poners and critics as by the court and the public.
Zelter describee her golden voice as * positively
belonging to the class of rarities,* and herself as
'the only singer who gives you complete satis-
faction.' There is no doubt that her success and
steady hold on the public favour had a most
important influence in upholding German opera
and the classical style, and in counteracting the
frivolous fiishion for foreign talent of every kind
which reigned at Berlin.
Chorley tells an amusing story, on the author-
ity of an eye-witness, of an occasion when Mme.
Milder*s stately calm was for a moment over-
come during one of her magnificent imperson-
ations of Gluck's heroines. 'At the moment
where Blum, the bass singer, who used to
strengthen himself for the part of Hercules upon
champagne, was carrying otf the colossal Aloestis
from the shades below. Queen Milder, aware of
the risk she ran in arms so unsteady, and over-
powered with sudden terror, exclaimed, "Herr
Jesu ! Ich fidle I ** This exclamation elicited a
simultaneous roar from all parts of the theatre.
And from that day forward. Milder was led^ not
curied, from the stage by the God of Strength.*
(Modern German Music, vol. i. p. i86.)
In 1829 she abdicated h^ sceptre in Berlin,
owing to misunderstandings and differences with
the opera-director, Spontini. She then visited
Rosria. Sweden, and Denmark, but her voice
was &iling £Mt. Her last public appearance
was at Vienna in 1836, two years before her
death, which happened at Berlin on May 29,
1838. [F.A.M.]
MILITARY DRUM is another term for the
tide drum. [Dbum, 3.] [V. de P.]
MILLER, EowABO, Mus. Doo., bom at
Norwich in 1731, studied music under Dr.
Barney, and was elected organist of Donoaster
July 25, 1756, upon the recommendation of
Kares. He graduated as Mus. Doo. at Gam-
hridge in 1 786. He died at Doncaster, Sept. 1 2,
1807. ^^ compositions comprise elegies, songs,
harpsichord sonatas, flute solos, psalm tunes, etc.,
and he was the author of 'The Elements of
Thorough-bass and Composition * and a ' History
ot Doncaster/ 1 804. [W. H. H.J
MILLICO, GiDsiFFi; a good composer and
better singer, was bom in 1739 at Terlizzi
( t^oviglio), Modena. Gluok, who heard him in
Italy, thought him one of the greatest soprani of
his day, and, when Millico visited Vienna in
1772, and was attached to the Court Theatre,
Gluck showed his estimation of him by choosing
him as singing-master for his own niece. In the
spring of ^t year, Millico had already come to
IxRkdon, where however he found the public but
Uttle disposed in his fkvour. Though a judicious
Artist and a most worthy man, he was not an
Adonis, and his voice had received its greatest
beauties from art (Bumey) ; * Of a aii^pilarly
MINGOm.
831
dark complexion, ill-made, and uncommonly plain
in features* (Lord Mount- Edgcumbe), By the
end of the season, Millico had reversed the first
un&vourable impression, and his benefit was a
bumper. He bad then appeared in ' Artaserse '
and ' Sofonisba,* and he took part in ' D Cid' and
'Tamerlano' in the following year. In 1774 he
appeared here in * Perseo,* after which he went
to Berlin. In 1780 he was in Italy again,
attached to the Neapolitan Court, where he is
said to have profited by his own influence to
oppress other artists. Futis gives a list of his
compositions, including 3 operas, 3 cantatas, a
collection of canzonette, published in London
(1777), and other pieces. [ J.M.]
MILTON, John, father of the poet, was of
an ancient Roman Catholic family seated at
Milton, Oxfordshire. He was educated at Christ
Church, Oxford, but being dibinherited for em-
bracing Protestantism, commenced business as
a scrivener in Bread Street, Cheapside, at the
sign of the Spread Eagle, the family arms. He
was a skilled musician, and admitted into fel-
lowship with the best composers of his time.
To * The Triumphes of Oriana,* 1601, he contri-
buted the six-part madrigal 'Fayre Oriana in the
mome,' and to Leighton*s 'Teares or Lament-
acions,' 1614, four motets. Ravenscroft^s ' Whole
Booke of Psalmes,' 1621, contains some tunes by
him, among them the well-known * York * and
'Norwich.* He is said to have composed an
'In Nomine* in 40 parts, and presented it to
a Polish prince, who rewarded hun with a gold
chain and medaL His musical abilities are
celebrated by his son in a Latin poem, 'Ad
Patrem.* He died at an advanced age in March
1646-7, and was buried at St. Giles*, Cripple^te.
Specimens of his compositions are given by both
Hawkins and Bumey. . [W.H.H.]
MINACCIANDO, 'threateningly*; a term
used once by Beethoven, in a letter to Schott,
dated Jan. 28, 1826 (Nohl, Neue Briefe Bee-
thoyen*s, p. 282), in which, after some playful
abuse, the foUowing postscript occurs : —
tr.
^ =triUo
PoNtun j^
16 fuisig 1 ^. minacciando
& [J.A.F.M.]
MINGOTTI, Rboina, a very celebrated singer,
whose fiamily name was Valkntiki, was bom at
Naples, of German parents, in 1728. Her father,
an officer in the Austrian service, being ordered
to Gratz in Silesia in the same year, took his
daughter with him. Here he died, leaving her
to tiie care of an nncle, who placed her in
the UrsuUne Convent, where she received her
first instruction in music. At the age of 14,
however, she lost her nncle by death, and the
pension which ensured her an asylum with the
nuns ceased with his life. Compelled to return
to her funily, she spent some time very unhappily,
1 Tranbone. 16 ft.
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882
MJNGOTTI.
In order to escape from this miserable life,
though still a mere child, she married Mingotti,
an old Venetian musician, impresario of the
Dresden opera. Perceiving all the advantage
that might be derived from the great gifts of his
young wife, Mingotti placed her at once under
the tuition of Porpora, where she made rapid
progress in her art. From a slender salary, she
soon rose to receiving more considerable pay,
while her growing popularity aroused the jealousy
of a powerful and established rival, the celebrated
Faustina, who actually vacated the field and left
Dresden for Italy. Soon afterwards the younger
singer went also to Italy, and obtained a lucra-
tive engagement at Naples. There she appeared
with great eclat ( 1 748 ) in Galuppi's ' L'Olimpiade, *
astonishing the Italians no less by the purity of
her pronunciation than by the beauty of her
voice and style. Engagements were inmiediately
offered her for many of the great Italian operas,
but she refused all in order to return to Dresden,
where she was already engaged. Here she
played again in 'L'Olimpiade with enormous
success. Faustina and her husband, Hasse the
composer, were also now again in Dresden ; and
Burney tells an anecdote which, if true, shows
that their jealous feeling towards Mingotti had
not ceased. According to this story, which he
had from the lips of Mingotti herself, Hasse
composed a new air specially for the young
singer, which she was to sing in his ' Demofoonte'
(1748). In spite of her success in brilliant
music, it was still supposed that she was in-
capable of singing a slow and pathetic air.
Accordingly, Hasse had written for her an inter-
esting Adagio, with which she was much taken,
till she noticed that the accompaniment was for
violins, pizzicatif probably with the intention of
leading her to sing out of tune for want of proper
support. By dint of study, however, she mas-
tered the difficulty, and sang the song in such a
way as to convert her detractors to admiration.
From Dresden she went to Spain (1751), where
she sang with Gizziello in the operas directed by
Farinelli, who was so strict a disciplinarian that
he would not allow her to sing anywhere but at
the Opera, nor even to practise in a room that
looked on the street! Burney illustrates this
with another anecdote, too long to quote here.
After spending two years in Spain, Mingotti
went to Paris, and thence to London for the first
time. Her arrival here retrieved the fortunes of
the opera in England, which were in a languishing
condition. In November, 1755, Jommelli*s 'An-
dronuhca * was performed, but ' a damp was thrown
on its success by the indisposition of Mingotti *
(Burney). She told that writer, indeed, in 1772,
* that she was frequently hissed by the English
for having a tooth-ache, a cold, or a fever, to
which the good people of Enghmd will readily
allow every human being is liable, except an
actor or a singer.' She seems to have b^en a
very accomplished singer and actress ; her only
fault, if she had one, being a little want of femi-
nine grace and softness.
Her contentions with Yaneschi, the manager,
MINIM.
occasioned as many private quarrels and feuds ai
the disputes about Handel and Buononcini,
Gluck and Piccinni, or Mara and Todi. Mingotti
addressed a letter ' to the town,' but in such
cases 'not a word which either party says is
believed' (Burney). As the story goes, on one
occasion, Mrs. Fox Lane, afterwands Lady Bing-
ley, a zealous friend and protectress of Mingotti,
having asked the Hon. Gisneral Carey his decided
opinion as to the disputes between her vrotegie
and Vaneschi ; the General, after listening
patiently to her long statement of the ea^u
belli, at length retort^ ' And pray, ma'aA, who
is Madam Mingotti V * Get out of my houae/
answered the incensed lady, 'you shall never
hear her sing another note at my concerts, as long
as you live.' Vaneschi gave way, and Miugotd
(with Giardini) carried the same company
through the next winter with great dclat,—
but little profit, in spite of appearances; and,
after this season, the new managers gave up the
undertaking.
At the close of the season of 1763, Signora
Mattel left England, and Giardini and Mingotti
again resumed the reins of opera-government,
and Mingotti sang in ' Cleonice (' in the decline
of her fivour' — Burney), 'Siroe,' 'Enea e La-
vinia,' and 'Leudppe e Zenocrita.* And here
the reign of Giardini and Mingotti seems to have
ended, after an inauspicious season (Burney).
She afterwards sang with considerable success in
the principal cities of Italy, but she always re-
garded Dresden as her home, during the life of
the Elector Augustus. In 1 772 she was settled
at Munich, living comfortably, well received at
court, and esteemed by all such as were able to
appreciate her understanding and conversation.
It gave Dr. Burney ' great pleasure to hear her
speak concerning practical music, which she did
with as much intelligence as any maestro di
Capella with whom he ever conversed. Her
knowledge in singing, and powers of expression,
in different styles, were still amazing. She spoke
three languages, German, French, and Italian, so
well that it was difficult to say which of them
was her own. ' English she likewise spoke, and
Spanish, well enough to converse in them, and
understood Latin; but, in the three languages
first mentioned, she was truly eloquent. She
afterwards played and sang to him ' for near four
hours,' when he thought her voice better than
when she was in Englsmd.
In 1787 Mingotti retired to Neuboig on ihp
Danube, where she died in 1807, at the age bf
79. Her portrait in crayons, by Mengs, is in
the Dresden Gallery. It represents her, when
young, with a piece of music in her hand ; and,
if fctithful, it makes her more nearlv beautiful
than it was easy for those who knew her later in
life to believe her ever to have been. * She is
painted in youth, plumpness, and with a very
expressive countenance.' The dog in Hogarth'0
' Lady's last stake * is said to be a portrait of
Mingotti's dog. [J 31.]
MINIM (Lat. and Ital. Minima ; Fr. JBlaHcke;
Germ. I£€Ube Note), A uote^ equal in duration
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MINIM.
to ihe half of a Semibreve ; and div'sible into
two Orotchets (Semiminimae majorf«)» or four
Quavers (^Semiminimse minores).
The Minim derive^ its name from the fact,
that, until the invention of the Crotchet* it was
the shortest note in use. We first find it men-
tioned, early in the 14th century, by Joannes de
Muris; though Morley says it was employed
by Philippus de Yitriaoo, who flourished dur-
ing the latter half of the 13th. Its form has
undergone but little change, in modem times.
It was always an open note, with a tail. Formerly
its head was lozenge-shaped, and its tail turned
always upwards: now, the head is round, in-
clining to oval, and the tail may turn either
upwards, or downwards.
In antient music, the Minim was always im*
perfect : that is to say, it was divisible into two
Crotchets only, and not into three. As time pro-
gressed, a quasi-exception to this rule was affonled
by the Hemiolia minor : but it was never used
in ligature. [See Hemiolia ; Liqaturb.]
The Minim Best resembles that of the Semi-
breve, except that it is placed above the line,
instead of below it — a peculiarity which is ob-
served in the oldest MSS. in which Minims
occur. [W.S.R.]
MINOR. When intervals have two forms
which are alike consonant or alike dissonant, these
are distinguished as major and minor. The minor
form 18 always a semitone less than the major.
The consonances which have minor forms are
thirds and sixths; the dissonances are seconds,
sevenths and ninths ; of these the minor thirds
and sixths are the roughest of consonances, and
the minor second is the roughest and the minor
seventh the smoothest of dissonan^.
Minor scales are so called because their chief
characteristic is their third being minor. Minor
tones are less than major by a comma. [See
Majob.] [C.H.H.P.]
MINOR CANONS, priests in cathedrals
and collegiate churches whose duty it is to
superintend the performance of daily service.
They are not of the chapter, but rank after the
canons and prebendaries. They were formerly
called vicars choral, and were originally ap-
pointed as deputies of the canons for cniux:h
purposes, their number being regulated by the
number of the capitular members. Laymen
were frequently appointed as vicars choral, but
it is necessary that minor canons should be in
holy orders. According to the statutes, they
should also be skilled in church music. (Hook's
Church Dictionary.) [W. B. S.)
MINTJET (Ft. Mewuet ; Ger. Mennett ; Ital.
MinueUo), A piece of music in dance rhythm,
and of French origin. The name is derived from
the French menu (small), and refers to the short
steps of the dance. The exact date of its first in-
vention is uncertain. According to some au-
thorities it came originally from the province
of Poitou, while others say that the first was
composed by LuUy. In its earliest form the
minuet consisted of two eight-bar phrases, in 5-4
MINUET.
888
time, each of which was repeated ; sometimes com-
mencing on the third, but more irequently upon
the first, beat of the bar, and of a very moderate
d^ree of movement. The well-known minuet in
the first finale of * Don Giovanni ' is a very faithful
reproduction of this original form of the dance.
As a complement to the short movement, a second
minuet was soon added, similar in form to the
first, but contrasted in feeling. This was mostly
written in three-part harmony, whence it received
its name Trio, a name retained down to the pre-
sent time, long after the restriction as to the
number of parts has been abandoned. A further
enlargement in the form of the minuet conristed
in the extension of the number of bars, especially
in the second half of the dance, which fr^uently
contained sixteen, or even more, bars, instead of
the original eight. It is in this form that it is
mostly found in the Suite.
In the works of the composers of the i8th
century, especially Handel and Bach, the minuet
is by no means an indispensable part of the
Suite. As compared witji some other move-
ments, such as the Allemande, Courante, or
Sarabande, it may be said to be of somewhat in-
frequent occurrence. Its usual position in the
Suite is among the miscellaneous dances, which
are to be found between the Swrabande and the
Gigue, though we exceptionally meet with it in
the 3rd Suite of Handers second set as a final
movement, and with three variations. In Han-
deU moreover, it is very rare to find the second
minuet (or Trio) foUovdng the first. On the
other hand, this composer frequently gives con-
siderable development to each section of the
movement, as in the 8th Suite of the second set,
where the minuet (written, by the way, as is fre-
quently the case with Hand^ in 3-8 instead of
3.4 time), contains 34 bars in the first part, and
71 in the second. This piece has little of the
character of the ordinary minuet excepting the
rhythm. Handel also firequently finishes the
overtures of his operas and oratorios with a
minuet ; one of the best-known instanoes will be
found in the overture to 'Samson.*
The minuets of Bach are remarkable for their
variety of form and character. In the Partita in
Bb (No. i) the first minuet contains 16 bars in
the first section and 22 in the second ; while the
second minuet is quite in the old form, consisting
of two parts of eight bars each. The minuet of
the fourth Partita (in D) has no Trio, and its
sections contain the first eight, and the 8ec<md
twenty bars. In a Suite for Clavier in Eb (Book
3, No. 7, of the Peters edition of Baches works),
we find an early example of a frequent modem
practice. The first minuet is in Eb major, and
the second in the tonic minor. It may be re-
marked in passing Uiat Bach never uses the term
* Trio ' for the second minuet, unless it is actually
written in three parts. In the 4th of the six
Sonatas for flute and clavier we meet with another
variation from the custom of the day which or-
dained that all movements of a suite must be in
the same key. We here see the first minuet in
C miy'or, and the second in A minor — ^a precedent
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884
MINUET.
often followed in more modem works. Another
example of the same relation of keys will be found
in the fourth of the so-called * English Suites ' —
the only one which contains a minuet. Here the
first minuet is in F and the second in D minor.
Of the six French Suites four have minuets, two
of which are worth noticing. In the second
minuet of the ist Suite the latter ludf is not re-
peated— a very rare thing ; and in the 3rd Suite
we meet with a genuine Trio in three parts
throughout, and at the end the indication * Me-
nuet da Capo.' Though it was al wa3rs understood
that the first minuet was to be repeated after the
second, it is very rare at this date to find the
direction expressly given. One more interesting
innovation of JBach*s remains to be mentioned.
In his great Concerto in F for solo violin, two
horns, three oboes, bassoon, and strings, will be
found a minuet with three trios, aft^ each of
which the minuet is repeated. (Bach Ges. xix.
p. 27). We shall presently see that Mozart, half
a century later, did the same thing.
The historic importance of the minuet arises
from the fact that, unlike the other ancient
dances, it has not become obsolete, but con-
tinues to hold a place in the symphony (the de-
scendant of the old Suite), and in other large in-
strumental works written in the same form.
The first composer to introduce the minuet into
the symphony appears to have been Haydn ; for
in the works of this class which preened his
(those of C. P. E. Bach, Sammartini, and others')
we find only three movements. And even with
Haydn (as also in many of the earlier works of
Mozart) we find the minuet at first by no means
of invariable occurrence. On the other hand, we
sometimes see in the same work two minuets, each
with a trio, one before and one after the slow move-
ment. Examples will be met with in Haydn's
first twelve quartets (ops. i and 2) and also in
some of Mozart's serenatas, divertimenti, etc.
(Kochers Catalogue, Noe. 63, 99, 204, 247, and
others.) The detailed examination of the numer-
ous minuets which Haydn has left us in his quar-
tets and symphonies would be deeply interesting,
but would lead us too £Eur. Only a few of the pro-
minent characteristics can be mentioned. While
in general retaining the old form of the minuet,
Haydn greatly changes its spirit. The original
dance was stately in character,and somewhat slow.
With Haydn its prevailing tone was light-hearted
humour, sometimes even developing into down-
right fun. The time becomes quicker. While in
the earlier works the most firequent indications
are Allegr^to, or Allegro ma non troppo, we find
in the later quartets more than once a Presto
(ops. 76 and 77). These minuets thus become an
anticipation of the Beethoven scherzo. Curiously
enough, in one set of quartets, and in only one
(op. 33), Haydn designates this movement ' Scher-
zando,* in Nos. i and 2, and ' Scherzo' in Nos. 3
to 6. As the tempo here is not more rapid than
in the other minuets, it is evident that the term
only refers to the character of the music, and is
not used in the modem sense. As we learn from
Pohl's 'Haydn' (p. 332) that the composer care-
MINUET.
fully preserved the chronological order of the
quartets in numbering them, we are in a position
to trace the gradual development of the minuet
through the entire series. We find one of Haydn's
innovations in some of the later works, in patting
the trio into a key mca« remote from that of th«
minuet, instead of into one of those more nearly
related (Quartet in F, op. 72, Nq. 2 — minuet in
F, trio in Db ; Quartet in C, op. 74, No. i—
minuet in C, trio in A major). This relation of
the tonics was a finvourite one with Beethoven.
In only one of Haydn's quartets (op. 9, No. 4).
do we find a trio in three parts, though the name
is always given to the second minuet. A curious
variation from the ordinary form is to be seen in
the quartet in Eb, op. 2, No. 3. Here the trio
of the second minuet has three variations, one of
which is played, instead of the original trio, aft«r
each repetition of the minuet.
It is no unconmion thing in the works of Haydn
to meet with another variety of the minuet. The
finales of his smaller works are often written in a
' Tempo di Minuetto.' Here the regular subdi-
visions of minuet and trio, sometimes also the
double bars and repeats, are abandoned. In the
piano sonatas and trios many examples will be
met with. A well-known instance of a similar
movement by Mozart is furnished in the finale of
his sonata in F for piano and violin. Haydn's
predilection for the minuet is further shown by
the fact that in several of his sonatas in three
movements the minuet and trio replace the slow
movement, which is altogether wanting.
With Mozart the form of the minuet is iden-
tical with that of Haydn's ; it is the spirit that
is different. Suavity, tenderness, and grace, rather
than overflowing animal spirits, are now the pre-
vailing characteristics. It is in Mozart's con-
certed instrumental works (serenatas, etc.) that
his minuets' must be chiefly studied; curiously
enough, they are singularly rare in his pianoforte
compositions. Of seventeen solo sonatas, only two
(those in Eb and A major) contain minuets ; while
out of 42 sonatas for piano and violin, minuets
are only found in four as intermediate movements,
though in the earlier works a ' Tempo di Mmu-
etto ' often forms the finale. In many of the
earlier symphonies also we find only three move-
ments, and even in several of the later and finer
symphonies {e.g. Kochel, Nos. 297, 338, 444, 504)
the minuet is wanting. On the other hand, in the
serenades and divertimenti, especial prominence
is given to this movement. Frequently two
minuets are to be found, and in some cases (Ko-
chel, Nos. 100, 203, 250) three are to be met
with. The variety of character and colouring in
these minuets is theinore striking as the form Ib
approximately the same in alL One example
will suffice in illustration. In the Divertimento
in D (Kochel, 131), for strings, flute, oboe, bas-
soon, and four horns, there are two minuets, the
first of which has three trios and the second two.
The first minuet in D major is given to strings
alone ; the first trio (also in D major) is a quar
tet for the four horns ; the second (in G ) is a trio
for flute, oboe, and bassoon ; while the third (in J>
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MINXJET,
umor) is for the seven wind instruments in com-
bination. After the last repetition of the minuet,
a codft for a11 the instruments concludes the move-
itnent. The three trios are as strongly contrasted
vn musical character as in orchestral colour.
Many similar instances might easily be given
from the works of Mozart.
To Beethoven we owe the transformation of
the minuet into the Scherzo. Even in his first
-works this alteration is made. Of the three
piano trios, op. i, the first and second have a
scherzo, and only the third a minuet. The exa-
mination of the diflerent varieties of the scherzo
-will be treated elsewhere (Schsbzo) ; it will be
snfBcient here to explain that the difference be-
tween the minuet and the scherzo is one of cha-
Tscter rather than of form. The time is frequently
quicker; the rhythm is more varied (see, for
instance, the scherzi in Beethoven's 4th Sym-
phony, in the Sonata, op. 28, and in the Baga*
telle, op. 33, No. 2) ; and sometimes, as in the
Tih and 9th Symphonies, the form itself is
enlarged. Still Beethoven does not entirely aban-
don Uie older minuet. Out of 63 examples of the
ininaet or scherzo (not counting those in common
time) to be found in his works, 17 are entitled
' Minuet,* or ' Ten^x) di Minuetto.' Besides this,
in two works (the Piano and Violin Sonata in G,
op. 50, No. 3, and the Piano Solo Sonata in Eb,
op. 31, No. 3), the Tempo di Minuetto takes the
place of the slow noovement ; in the Sonata, op.
49, No. 2, it serves as finale (as with Haydn and
11 osEart) ; and in the Sonata, op. 54, the first
movement is a Tempo di Minuetto. In these
minuets we sometimes find a grace akin to that
of Mozart (Sonata, op. 10, No. 3 ; Septet), some-
times, as it were, a reflexion of the humour of
Haydn (Sonata, op. 22) ; but more often the
purest individuality of Beethoven himself. In
some cases a movement is entitled 'Minuet,*
though its character is decidedly that of the
flcherzo (e^, in the ist S3maphony). The only
one of the nine symphonies in which a minuet
of the old style is to be seen is No. 8. Occa-
flionally we meet in Beethoven with minuets
simply entitled 'Allegretto* {e.g. Sonatk quasi
Pantasia^ op. 27, No. 2 ; Trio in Eb, op. 70, No.
3); in other cases the same term is used for
what is in reality a veritable scherzo (Sonatas,
op. 14, no. 1, op. 27, no. i). It may be said
that with Beetnoven the minuet reached its
highest development.
The transformation of the minuet into the
scherzo, just adverted to, has had an important
influence on modem composers. In the large
majority of works produced since the time of
Beethoven, the scherzo has replaced its predeces-
•or. Occasionally the older form still appears, as
in Mendelssohn's ' Italian Symphony,' the tldrd
movement of which. is a genuine minuet, and in
the second movement of Schumann's Eb Sym-
phony ; but with Beethoven the history of the
minuet practically closes. One of the best speci-
mens of a modem minuet will be seen in Stemdale
Bennett's Symphony in G minor. [E.P.]
MIBEILLE. Opera in 5 acts ; words by M.
MISEEERE.
885
Carr^ (from Mirbio, a Provenyal poem by Mistral),
music by Gounod. Produced at the Theatre
Lyrique March 19, 1864. Reduced to 3 acts,
with the addition of the waltz, and reproduced
Dec. 15. 1864 at the same theatre. In London,
in Italian and 5 acts, as Mirella, at Her Majesty's
Theatre, July 5, 1864. [G.]
MISERERE. The Psahn, Miserere mevDeus,
as sung in the Sistine Chapel, has excited more
admiration, and attained a more lasting celebrity,
than any other musical performance on record.
Its effect has been described, over and over again,
in sober Histories, Guide-books, and Journals
without end ; but, never very satisBactorily. In
truth, it is difficult to convey, in intelligible
language, any idea of the profound impression
it never fails to produce upon the minds of all
who hear it ; since it owes its irresistible charm,
less to the presence of any easily definable charac-
teristic, than to a combination of circumstances,
each of which influences the feelings of the listener
in its own peculiar way. Chief among these are,
the extraordinary solemnity of the Service into
which it is introduced ; the richness of its simple
harmonies ; and, the consummate art with which
it is sung : on each of which points a few words
of explanation will be necessary.
The Miserere forms part of the Service called
Tenebrce ; which is sung, late in the afternoon, on
three days, only, in the year — the Wednesday in
Holy Week, Maundy Thursday, and Grood Friday.
[See Tensbb£.] The Office is an exceedingly
long one : consisting, besides the Miserere itself,
of sixteen Psalms and a Canticle from the Old
Testament, (sung, with their proper Antiphons,
in fourteen divisions); nine Lessons; as man^
Responsories ; and the Canticle, Benedictus Domi-
nus Deus Israel. The whole of this, with the
exception of the First Lesson, [see Lamenta-
tions], and the Responsories, is sung in unisonous
Plain Chaunt : and the sternness of this antient
music forms the most striking possible preparation
for the plaintive tones which are to follow, while
the Ceremonial with which it is accompanied adds
immeasurably to the intended effect.
At the beginning of the Service, the Chapel is
lighted by six tall Candles, on tlie Altar ; and
fifteen others, placed on a laz*ge triangular Candle-
stick, in front. Of these last, one is extinguished
at the end of each division of the Psalms. The
six Altar-Candles are put out, one by one,
during the singing of Benedictus. The only light
then remaining is the uppermost one on the tri-
angular Candlestick. This is removed, and carried
behind the Altar, where it is completely hidden
from view, though not extinguished. The Chapel
is, by this time, so dark, that it is only just pos-
sible to discern the red Vestments of the Pope,
as he kneels at his G^nuflexorium, in front of the
Altar. Meanwhile, a single Soprano voice sings,
with exquisite expression, the Antiphon, 'Christus
factus est pro nobis obediens usque ad mortem.'
An awful silence follows, during which the Pater-
noster is said in secret— and the first sad wail of
the Miserere then swells, from the softest possible
fianUaimOf into a bitter cry for mercy, so thrilling
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388
MISERERK
in its effect, that MendelBsohn — the last man in
the world to give way to unnatural excitement —
describes this part of the Service as ' the most
sublime moment of the whole.'
There is reason to believe that the idea of
adapting the Miserere to music of a more solenm
character than that generally used for the Psalms,
and thus making it the culminating point ^ in-
terest in the Service of Tenebne, originated with
Pope Leo X, whose Master of Ceremonies, Paride
Grassi, tells us that it was first sung to a Faux-
bourdon in 1 5 1 4. Unhappily, no trace of the music
used on that particular occasion can now be dis-
covered. The oldest example we possess was com-
posed, in 1 5 1 7, by Costanzo Festa, who distributed
the words of the Psalm between two Falsi-bordoni,
one for four Voices, and the other for five, relieved
by alternate Verses of Plain Chaunt — a mode of
treatment which has survived to the present day,
and upon which no later Composer has attempted
to improve. Festa's Miserere is the first of a
collection of twelve, contained in two celebrated
MS. volumes preserved among the Archives of
the Pontifical Chapel. The other contributors
to the series were, Luigi Dentice, Francesco Guer-
rero, Palestrina, Teofilo Gai^gano, Francesco
Anerio, FeUce Anerio, an anonymous Composer
of very inferior ability, Giovanni Maria Nanini S
Sante^^aldini, Rugciero GiovanelU, and, lastly,
Gregorio Allegri — wLose work is the only one of
the twelve now remaining in use. So great was
the jealousy with which these famous compositions
were formerly guarded, that it was all but im-
possible to obtain a transcript of any one of them.
It is said, that, up to the year 1 770, only three
copies of the Miserere of Allegri were ever law-
f uUy made — one, for the Emperor Leopold I ; one,
for the King of Portugal ; and, a tlurd, for the
Padre Martini. Upon the authority of the last-
named MS. rests that of nearly all the printed
editions we now possess. P. Martini lent it
to Dr. Bumey, who, after comparing it with
another transcription given to him by the Cava-
liere Santarelli, published it, in 1 790, in a work
(now exceedingly scarce), called *La Musica
della Settimana Santa,* from which it has been
since reproduced, in Novello's * Music of Holy
Week.* The authenticity of this version is un-
doubted : but it gives only a very faint idea of
the real Miserere, the beauty of which depends
almost entirely on the manner in which it is sung.
A curious proof of this well-known fact is afford^
by an anecdote related by Santarelli. When the
Choristers of the Imperial Chapel at Vienna
attempted to sing £rom the MS. supplied to the
Emperor Leopold the effect produced was so dis-
appointing, that the Pope*s Maestro di Capella was
suspected of having purposely sent a spurious
copy, in order that the power of rendering the
original music might still rest with the Pontifical
Choir alone. The Emperor was furious, and de-
spatched a courier to the Vatican, chai^ged with a
formal complaint of the insult to which he believed
himself to have been subjected. The Maestro di
t Nanlnl't work Is little mora than «o adapftlon of FakitrinA'i,
with fto addltloiukl Verse for nine Voices.
MISERERE.
Capella was dismissed finom his office : and it was
only after long and patient investigation that his
explanation was accepted, and he himself again
received into &vour. There is no reason to doubt
the correctness of thi^ story. The circumstance
was well known in Rome : and the remembrance
of it added greatly to the wonderment produced,
nearly a century later, by a feat performed by
the little Mozart. On the Fourth Day of Holy
Week, 1770, that gifted Boy — then just fourteen
years old — wrr te down the entire Miserere, after
having heard it sung, once only, in the Sistine
Chap^. On Good Friday, he put the MS. into
his cooked hat, and corrected it, with a pencil, as
the Service proceeded. And, not long afterwards,
he sang, and played it, with such exact attention
to the traditional abellimenti, that Cristofbro,
the principal Soprano, who had himself sung it
in the Chapel, declared his performanoe perfect.
Since the time of Mozart, the manner of sing-
ing the Miserere has undergone so little radical
change, that his copy, were it still in existence,
would probably serve as a very useful guide to
the present practice. Three settings are now
used, alternately — the very beautiful one, by
Allegri, already mentioned; a vastly inferior
composition, by Tommaso Bai, produced in 171 4,
and printed both by Bumey and Novello; and
another, contributed by Giuseppe Baini, in 1821,
and still remaining in MS. These are aJl written
in the Second Mode, transposed ; and so closely
resemble each other in outward form, that, not
only is the same method of treatment applied to
all, but a Verse of one is frequently interpolated,
in performance, between two Verses of another.
We shall, therefore, confine our examples to
the Miserere of Allegri, which will serve as an
exact type o^ the rest, both with respect to its
general style, and to the manner in which the
fsur-famed Abellimenti are interwoven with the
phrases of the original melody. These Abellimenti
are, in reality, nothing more than exceedingly
elaborate four-part Cadenze, introduced in place
of the simple closes of the text, for the purpose of
addinff to the interest of the performance. Men-
delssonn paid close attention to one which he
heard in 1831, and minutely described it in his
well-known letter to Zelter : and, in 1840, Ales-
sandro Geminiani published, at Lugano, a new
edition (now long since exhausted) of the music,
with examples of all the Abellimenti at that time
in use. Most other writers seem to have done
their best rather to increase than to dispel the
mystery with which the subject is, even to this day,
surrounded. Yet, the traditional usage is not so
very difficult to understand ; and we can scarcely
wonder at the effect it produces, when we re-
member the infinite care with which even the
choral portions of the Psalm are annually re-
hearsed by a picked Choir, every member of
which is capable of singing a Solo.
The first Verse is sung, quite plainly, to a
Faux -bourdon, for five Voices, exactly as it is
printed by Bumey, and Novello ; beginning pian-
issimot swelling out to a thrilling forte, and again
taking up the point of imitation $o(to voce.
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MISEREBB.
31ISEREBE.
337
riJrirLjJr-^^ijA
The second Verse is sung, in unisonous Plain
Chaant, to the Second Tone, transposed.
/ Et Mcnndum mnltltudt- )
(nemniaerstlonaBitif J*
mm: dele 4niqiiltarC«miiM-am
We first meet with the Abellimenti in the
third Verse, which is sung in the form of a Con-
certino— that is to say, by -a Choir of four choice
Solo Voices. In the following example, the text
of the Faux bourdon is printed in laige notes,
and the two Abellimenti— one at the end of each
clause— in small ones.^
W¥
^^
^^
ia,<h."v f^ r n^'-' ^ ^ f-
^ Tb« McMenuto tak bmckets tn imaeobtedly dM to the o^rloo of
dhtdoalSofsn.
TOL. U.
a Xt apce-ea--to
^itJliw dAA:A:A
,. ..pp^-AJ^} (^
^
^•f^A^'f'^t*. P "1
1
me - o mun - - - d»
■'r:\ >*— 1-^
In describing this beautiful passage, Mendels-
sohn says, 'The AheUimenH are certainly not of
antientdate; but they are composed with infinite
talent, and taste, ana their effect is admirable.
This one, in particular,' is often repeated, and
makes so deep an impression, that, when it
begins, an evident excitement prevades all pre-
sent. . . . The Soprano intones the high C, in a pure
soft voice, allowing it to vibrate for a time, and
slowly gliding down, while the Alto holds its
C stMdily ; so that, at first, I was under the
delunon that the high C was still held by the
Soprano. The skill, too, with which the harmony
is mdually developed, is truly marvellous.*
The unisonous melody of the fourth Verse
serves only to bring this striking effect into stiU
bolder rehef.
4=1 -^ ^ . k=L.
The fifth Verse is sung like the first; the sixth,
like the second ; the seventh, like the third ; and
the eighth, like the fourth : and this order is
continued — though with endless variations of
TempOt and expression — ^as fax as the concluding
Strophe, the latter half of which is adapted to
a Double Chorus, written in nine parts, and sung
very slowly, with a constant ritardando, 'the
singers diminishing or rather extinguishing the
hannony to a perfect point.' '
dim {fi.
s That is. the last shewn In our example.
a These words are Barney's. Adaml's direction Is. L'mUtmo *•
M Balmto Urmima a dm0 Cori, * ptrd aarA la Battmtm Admfto, j
Jinirio Fia»o, tmonamio jMce a peoo VArmomla,
z
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MISEREftB.
. ft
m. : *
- «• - -
^
J.^..
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fl - -
• - -- - ttt-lOI.
h5=
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When the lastBoundft have died away, a short
Ptayer is sung by the Pope : at a signal given*
by the Master of Oeremonies the last Gaadie h
brought ifss^ ttom. its hidiog-plaoe behind the
Altar : and the congregatios disperses. Itwould
be impossible, in an article like the present, to
enter into the symb(dioal meaning attached, either
to the hiding of the Gandlo, or to any other part
of the Ceremony. Suffioe i^ to. eay that every-
thing has a symboUoal meaning, which is ex^
plained, to some extent, in a IHtle- paau>hlet,*
annually sold^Sn Rome, during the Holy Week.
That this elaborate system of eymbolism tends to.
predispose the mind of the hearer towards a
fuller appreciation of tiie beauty of the music is
undenkiiile. On tiM oih«r hand, it will foe readily
understood that maoh < of the effdcft produced
depends upon the quality ef the Voices «mploy«d^
especially, that of the Sopranos. Fifty yiata%
ago, a veiy celebrated Sopraniet, named Mariano,
•ang the higher passages with wonderful delicacy
and pathos : but, ev^ with Voices, of ordinary
oi^MMsity, the habit of oonstaatly practising
together, without instrumental aooowpaniment
of any kind, leads to a perfeotioB of style quite
unattainable by those who are aoMistomed to
lean on the Organ for eupport. [W.S. R.]
MISSA BREVIS. A Mass of moderate
length, intended rather for use on ordinary occa-
sions, duui on Festivals of very great solemnity.
1%e cnibjects of the Missa Ek«vis are almost
always original; as fai tiie charming example,
by Andrea Gabrieli, printed, on the authority 'of
a valuable MS. oopy, i& the first volume of
Proske'e *Mn8ica Divhia.' This rule, however,
is not utdversal. Palestrina's Missa Brevia^-a
work of unapproachable beauty, and perfectly
complete in all its patts, notwithstanding the
oompairatively short time ft occupies in perform-
ftnee-^is founded upon Oanti fermi derived from,
tfie melody of 'Avdi filia,* a Plain Chaunt Trojctva^
which has also been very finely treated, in a Mass
or earlier ^bte, by Claude Ooudimel.. [W. S.R.]
MISSA PAP.® MARCELLI. A very oele-
brated Mass, combed ilt. the year 1565 by
Palestrina ; and printed iui 1*567 in his Second
Book of Masses, d^cated to Philip II. King of
Spain. ' The origin of its title has been hotly
disputed ; though all that is really known upoB»
the aubjeot is, thati the onfy name by which it
has ever been distinguished was given to it by
the Composer himself, fully ten years after Pope
Maroellus II. had breathed his last. It was
written at the Instance of aComnnssion^ appointedi
by Pope Pius IV. to suppress certain vicious
Schools of Ecclesiastical Music condemned by
(BoiM. iBpriiBgri* do SAla»-]li«lMLj
MIXED MODES.
the CouBoa of Trent; and g*ave su^ unqualified
satisfiu^on, that it was at onoe accepted as a
model of the style to be thenceforth generally
adi^yted. For a m<»e detafled analysb of its
characteristics, and a fuller account of the ciiv
cumstances which led to its production, see Mass,
and ^MMsmmt^ {W.& R.]
MISSA SINE NOMINE. A Mass, composed
upon original subjects, in place of a Plain Chaunt
Clanto imio. £hcamples will be found among the
works of Joequin.desrr^, Palestrina, and other
oomposers of the 15th and 1 6 th centuries. [W.S.R.]
MISSA SUPER Vi)CES MUSICALES
( JfiMft, X)o, Rt, Ui, Fn, 661, La). A Mass in
whidi the six sounds of the Hezachord are used
asaCantofenno. [See Hbzachobd.] Splendid
iraecimens of the style are extant, by Josquin des
Pr^s, Palestrina, and Frahcesco Suriano. [W.S.R.']
MITCHELL, JoaN, deserves a place in these
columns on account of his close connection with
musical enterprise in London for many years. He
was bonii there April 21, 1806, and died Decem-
ber II, 1874.. For a large part of his life he
was one of the most prominent musical managers
and agents in the metropolis. In 1837 he intro-
duced opera bafia at the Lyceum Theatre ; in-
cluding Bedy, L'ltaliana. in Algieri, Sisa e
Claudio, and others, for the first time in England.
In 1849 and 1850 he opened tiie Stu Jameses
Theatre with an excellent fVenoh company fat
oomic opeia, with Le Domino Noir, L'Amhansa
drice, La Dame Uaoche, Zanetta, Richard CoBur
de lion, Le Chalet, and many other first-rate
works. Of the Frendh plays which he produced
at the same theatre,, ^th Rachel, Regnier, and
many other great acton, through a long series of
years,, this is not the- place to speak. In 184a
RoBsini^s-'Stabat Mater* was brought out under
his direction for the first time in England^ In
i8^3<he first brought over the Cologne Choir to
England* Few men were better known than Jdm
' Mitchell in all musical circles. W hatever he did
was done as well as he could possibly do it, and
he was esteemed and beloved as an honourable
man of business and generous firiend. [6.]
MIXED CADENCE. The two most distinct
and obvious forms of cadence are such as are
formedi either by the succeenon of dominant or
of subdominant and tonic harmony, and these
are respectively called Authentic and Plagal
cadences. The term * Mixed * has been applied
to a cadence whioh is in some senses a eombina-
tion* of these two forms, by having both sob*
• dominant and dominant harmony in dose juzta*
position immediately before the final tonic chord,
by which means the tonality is onforced both by
the succession of the three most important roots
in the key, and also by givdi^ all the distonin
notes whioh it contains. [C.H.H.P.]
MIXED MOl^IS. Writers on Plain Chaunt
apply this term to tonalities whieih embrace the
. entine compass of an AuthenUc Mode^ in oombiaa-
tion. with that of its Plagal derivative : thus,
the Mixed Dorian Mode, extends from A, to the
next D hut one above it ; the Mlxsd PhtygiaD»
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MIXED MODES.
froiB B, to the next £ but <ma ; the Mixed LtcUjui,
from C, to the next F but one ; and the Mixed
Mixoljdian, from D, to the next G bat <me.
[See Mancbia.]
A very fine example of Mixed Mixolydian,
<Modei Vn and YIII, combined), ia to be found
in the Melody of * Laada Sion.' [See Lauda Sign.]
Polyphonic Music for unequid Yoioee ii always,
of neoeeiity, written in Mixed Modee : nnce, ii
the TreUe and Tenor sing in the Authentic
Mode, the Alto and Bais will naturally fall within
the compatB of iU Plagal convener ; and, vice
ventu The Compositioa is, howerer, always
said to be in the Mode indicated by its Toior
I*rt. [WAR.]
MIXED VOICES. The English term for a
oombination of female and male voioee, as opposed
to ' Equal voices,' which denotes male or female
voices alone. Thus Mendelssohn's part-songs for
BJL.TJB, are for mixed voices, and those for
A.T.T.B. for equal voices. [G.]
MIXOLYDIANMODE. (Ut. Modus Mixo-
lydiuB ; Modus Angelieus,) The Seventh of the
Eodeeiastical Modes. [See Modes, the Eoclesi-
▲snoAL.]
The Final of the Mixolydian Mode is G. Its
compass, in the Authentic form, extends upwards
from that note to its octave ; and its semitones
occur between the third and fourth, and the sixth
and seventh degrees. Its Dominant is D, its
Mediant, 0 (B being rejected, on account of its
forbidden relations with F), and its Participant,
A. Its Conceded Modulations are B, and E;
and its Absolute Initials, G, B, C, D, and some-
timea, though not very frequency, A. The sub-
joined example will give a clear idea of its most
ptominent diaracteristics : —
Mods Vn.
Fin. VktL Med. Dom.
In its Plagal, or Hypomixolydian form, (Mode
Vin, Modus Hypombsolydius, Modus perfectus),
its compaM lies a Fourth lower — ^from D to D ;
uid the semitones fall between the second and
third, and the sixth and seventh degrees. The
DomLmnt of this Mode is C ; B being inadmis-
sible, by reason of its Q^inta falsa with F. Its
Mediant is F — for which note A is sometimes,
though not very frequently, substituted, in order
to avoid the ialse relation of Mi contra Fa, with
B. [See Ml oosttba Fa.] Its Participant is the
lower D. Its Conceded Modulations are, the
upper D, and B ; and its Absolute Initials, the
lower C, (below the nonnal compass of the mode),
D, F, G, A, and C.
M oas vm.
Pare ir«d. Fin. Doa.
In performance. Mode VII is almost always
transposed, in order to escape the high range of
He upper notes. Mode VIII, on the contnuy,
lies well within the compass of ordinary Voices.
Hie Antiphon, 'Asperges me,' as given hi the
MOCK DOCTOR.
S3P
Boman Gradual, and the Sarum Melody of ' Sanc-
torum meritis,' printed in the Eev. T. Helmore*B
' Hymnal Noted,' may be cited as highly chuac«
teristic examples of the use of Mo(& vll ; and
an equally perfect illustration of that of Mode
VIII will be found in the Melody of ' Iste oonfes
sor,* as given in the Boman Vesperal.^
In Polvphonic Music, the Mixolydian Mode is
used, with great effect, both in its Authentic and
Pla^ form. We can scarcely <»11 attention to
a finer instance of the use of the VUth mode than
Palestrina^s Missa^ * Dies sanctificatus* ; or, oC
that of the VlUth, than his Missa ' Iste con-
fessor.' [WAR.]
MIXTURE. A*n organ stop ordinarily fbi^
nished with from two to five comparatively small
pipes to each key. It is compounded of the
higher-sounding and therefcMpe Sorter members
of the ' foundaticm^' and * mutation ' dasses of
stops, combined or * mixed,' and arranged to draw
together, as they, practically, are seldmn required
to be used separately. The Mixture represents
or corroborates the higher consonant haimonio
sounds suggested bv nature, and in the bass pro-
duces tones to the tnird or fourth octave above the
unison or chief foundation tone. As the musical
scale ascends, the hi^er harmonics become weak
and inaudible to the ear ; hence in a Mixture
stop it is customarv to discontinue the higher
vanks as they ascend, one or more at a time^ and
insert in lieu a rank of lower tone than was
previously in the stop, but appearing as a sepuate
stop. This alteration is called a ' break.' These
return-ranks serve the best of purposes. In »
Pianoforte itt is well known that the strings in-
crease in number from one in the bass to two
higher up, and afterwards to three, to preserve an
evenness in the tone. In a dmilar manner the
return-ranks, when well managed, considerably
reinforce the strength of the treble part of the
organ. [Mutation.] [E. J. H.]
MIZLER ^tsler). Lorsnz Chribtoph, bom
at Heidenheim, WUrtemberg, July 15, 171 1,
died at Warsaw March 1778 ; was educated at
the Gymnasium of AnqM>nh and the University
of Leipzig. He was one of Bach's scholarB. In
1 734 he became a magistrate, and was generally
a cultivated^and prominent person* His claim to
perpetuity is his connexion with the ' Association
for Musical Science,' which he founded at Leipzig
in 1 758 and kept together. Amongst its members
were Handel, Bach, and Graun. Bach composed
a 6-part Canon and the Canonical Variations on
*yomHimmelhoch,' as his diploma pieces. Miz-
ler wrote a treatise on Thorough Bass (General-
basslehre), in which he seems to have p>ushed
Uie connexion of music and mathematics to
absurdity. (See Spitta, Bach, ti. 502-506.) [G.]
MOCK DOCTOR, THE. The English version,
by Chas. Kenny, of Barbier and Carry's adi^ta-
tion of Gounod^ * M^edn malgr^ Ini'; produced
at Covent Garden, Feb. 27, 1 805. [G.]
I OM»BiMtlMt«kentodlittegiiUitlMMlM<>AlMflmitlMBeaMa
zt
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846
MODE.
MODE (Ut. Modut; I«l. Mo(fo; Ord Eng.
Moode). A term employed in mediseval music,
to indicate the relative duration of the Large,
the Long, and the Breve.
Mode ia of two kinds— the Greater, and the
Iiesser. The former regulates the proportions of
the Large (maxima)^ the Long: the latter,
that of the Long to/the Breve. 'Both kinds may
be either Perfect, ot Imperf^.
In the Great Mode Perfect, the Large is equal
to three Longs. In the Great Mode Imperfect,
it is equal to two only.
In the Lesser Mode Perfect, the Long is equal
to three Breves. In the Lesser Mode Imperfect,
it is equal to two.
The Modal Sign is usually plaeed after the
Clef, like the Time Signature in modern music.
Innumerable varieties are found in music of dif-
ferent periods. Even as early as 1597, we find
Morley bitterly lamenting the absence of a rule
of universal application: and a little attention
to the subjoinwi examples will show that his
complaint was not an unreasonable one. The
following forma are given by Zaeooni : —
GreAt Mode Perfect. Great Mode Imperfect.
Other writers sometimes describe them thus —
Great Mode Perfect. Great Mode Imperfect.
Lener Mode Perfect.
Lower Mode Imperfect.
Combinations of the Greater and Lesser Modes
are frequently indicated, thus —
Ti«*K M^^ n»*«^ <**^* ^^^ Perfect, with
Both Modee perfect. Lewer Imperfect.
«"^ Y^ pSrf^'^"' B^ ^"^ Imperfect.
In these examples, the Circle is used as the,
sign of Perfection, and the Semicircle, as that of
Imperfection. The rests denote the proportion'
between the two note8-*not always accurately,,
but, in a vague way whicluaccorded well enough
with the conventional aignifioation of the figures,
when they were in general use, though it fails
to explain -their real . meaning. In ZaoM>ni's for-
muhe, the groups of rests are doubled — probably
for the sake of symmetry. Allowing for this,
we shall find that the sign for the Great Mode
Perfect exhibits, in every case, the exact numbed'
of rests required : viz. three Perfect Long Resta,
as the equivalent of a Perfect Large. The same
accuracy is observable in the signs for the com-
bined Model orbited in the last four examplea.
MODES, ECCLESIASTICAL.
But, in the other cas^ so great a discrepancy
exists between the number of rests indicated,
and the true proportion of the notes to which
they refer, that the figurea can only be regarded
as arbitrary signs, sufficiently intelligible to the
initiated, but formed upon no fixed or self-explan»-
tonr principle.
it will be observed, that, in all the above ex-
amplea, the reata are placed before the Circle, or
Semicircle ; in which case it ia always understood
ihat they are not to be counted. Sometimes, in-
ileed, they are altogether omitted, and a figure onl^
given, in conjtinctum with the Circle, or Semi-
circle. Thua, Morley, following the example of
Omithoparcus, gives O .^ aa the sign of the Great
Mode Perfect ; C 3* ae that of the Great Mode
Imperfect; Q laa that of the Ijesser Mode Perfect ;
ana C 3 as that of the Lesser Mode Imperfect.
During the latter half of the 15th Century^
and the first of the i6th. Composers delighted in
combining Mode, Time, and Prolation, in pro-
portions of frightful complexity ; but, after the
time of Paleetrina, the practice fell into disuse.
[See Time ; Prolatioit ; Pbopobtion.] [W. S. R.j
MODERATO. *In moderate time,' or • mode-
rately.' This direction is used either singly as a
mark of time, or as qualifying some other mark
of time, as Allegro moderate, or Andante mode-
rato, when it has the result of lessening the force
of the simple direction. Thus Allegro moderate
will be slightly slower than Allegro alone, and
Andante moderato slightly faster than Andante.
Moderato alone is never used by Beethoven,
except in the doubtful Pianoforte Sonata in G
called no. 37. He «ses Molto moderato however
in the Sonata for Pianoforte and Violin, op. 30,
no. 3, and Moderato e graadoso in the Menuetto
of the Pianoforte Sonata in £b, op. 31, no. 3.
Assai moderato is used in the march from the
' Ruins of Athens,' and Moderato cantabile molto
espreesivo in the beginning of op. 110. Molto
moderato is used by Schubert in the Pianoforte
Sonata in Bb, no. 10. Instances of Allegro
moderato in Beethoven's works will occur to
every one. Allegretto moderato is also very
common. Vivace moderato occurs in Bagatelle,
no. 9, (op. 119). Mendelssohn is very mnd of
the direction Allegro moderato, using it no less
than eight times in the ' Elijah ' alone. Schumann
very constantly used Moderato alone, translating
it into German sometimes by Massig, and some-
times by Nicht sohnelL See the Album, noe. 3,
5, /3, 16, 19, etc. [J.A.F.M.]
VMODES, THE ECCLESIASTICAL. One of
tn^ most prominent features in Greek music vraa
the division of the Diatonic Scale into certain re-
gions called Modes. The musicians of the Middle
Ages, who confessedly derived their idea of the
scale tram Hellenic sources, adopted an analogous
peculiarity into their own system, in which it at
i^nce took root, though its development was very
gradual. At first, foui^ forms only were recognised,
in the newer method — the Authentic Modes of
Saint Ambrose. To these — if tradition may be
trusted— Saint Gregory added four Plagal soUes.
Later theorists taught the existence <u fourteen
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*^
MODES, ECX^LESIASTICAL.
Tarieties ; twelve of which remained, for many
centturiee, in constant use, distinguished by the
names of their Greek prototypes, though not
really identical with them ; wlule Iwo were re-
jected, as impure, and practically useless.
Into the laborious process by which these scales
were evolved from the complicated mysteries of
the Greek Canon we need not enter. To us, their
construction is simple enough, when regarded firom
our own point of view. We have only to imagine
a series of the natural notes of the modem Dia-
tonic Scale, extending, upwards, firom A, the first
space in the bass, to C, the third space in the
treble. By dividing this grand scale into sec-
tions, each c(Hisisting of eight notes, and each
beginning with a different sound, we shall obtain
the entire set of fourteen Modes, in the most
complete form possible.
MODES, ECCLESIASTICAL. 841
The Modes are separated into two daases:
Authentic, (&om ait$tvr4ca, to govern) and Plagal,
(firom vkdyios, oblique). The ccnnpass of the
former extends firom the Final (equivalent to the
Tonic, or Key-note, of modern theory,) to the
Octave above. That of the latter, from the Fourth
below the Final, to the Fifth above it.. Conse-
quently, the Final is the lowest noie of the
Authentic Modes ; and (very nearly) the middle
note of Plagal onesl Every Plagal Mode is derived
from an Authentic original, firom which it is
distinguished, in name,, by the prefix, Hypo- :
the same Final being common to both formss^
and the compass of the derived Mode lying a
Fourth below that of the original scale. In the
following table, tb& Final of each Mode is indi-
cated by the letter F ; and, the position of the
semitones, by a slur. ^
AUTHENTIC MODES.
The Dorian Mode,
Mode IX.
Mode XL
The JBolian Mode,
The Locrian Mode (ntjeoted).
PLAGAL MODES.
Mode IT. The Hysodorjan Mode.
Mode VIIT.
ModeX.
Mode XII.
The Hppomixolfdian Mode.
The HrpoaMan Mode.
^ ^ -«■ -<=- ^
The Bjfpolocrian Mode (rqlected).
Each of these Modes is divisible into two mem-
bers, a Pentachord, and a Tetrachord. .The notes
which compose th^ Pentachord are contained
within the compass of a Perfect fifth, {Diapente) :
those of the Tetrachord, within that of a Perfect
Fourth, {DicUessaron). In the Authentic Modes,
the Ftfth is placed below the Fourth : in thfi
Plagal, the Fourth lies below the fmh. Tfi&t
former is called the ' Harmonic,* and the latter,
the 'Arithmetical Division.'* In both cases,
1 Vidt 1Iot1«7'i 'FlalM * «Mt« Introdaction to Fnctlcal HmiclM.
ilSOT.)
the highest note of the lower member oonesponds
with the lowest of the upper : thus—
BABMOiaO DIVISION.
Pentachord, Tetra^ord.
W
ABITHMBnOAL DIVIBION.
* Tetrachord, Pentachord,
i
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Zit MODES, ECCLESIASTICAL.
It will be seen, that, in the Loori*n and Hypo-
locrian Modes, this divinon is impossible ; since
in both oases it would substitate, for the perfect
interrals, a Diminished Fifth, (Quinta falsa),
and an Augmented Fourth, {TrUomt$), On this
account these Modes are condemned as impure.
Some authorities expunge even their names and
numbers from the catalogue ; calling the Ionian the
EleTanth, and the Hypoiooian the Twelfth Mode.
Othets — among whom are the editors of the
Ratisbon, Meddin, and Rheims4:;ambrai Office-
Boofci — ^retain the names and numbers, but, none
the less, reject the scales themselyes. The true
number of the Modes has, indeed, been many
times disputed : once, so hoUy, that the question
was refecred to the decision of Chariemagne ; who
at first said that eight seemed to be sufficient, but
afterwards allowed the use of twelve. More than
one later theorist, while nominally recognising the
existence of eight forms only, has described Modes
IX,X,XL Xn, Xin. andXIV ,asmetamorphoeed
rendering of I, II, III, IV, V, and VL respec-
tively. Hence, we constantly find, in the Mechlin
Office-Books, such expressions as ' / Modut^ anii-
qwUuB IX* or ' X Modus ; alU reduxsrunt adJI*:
a distinctioQ sufficiently puzzling to the tyro, from
the confusion it creates with r^gfard, both to the
nature and the true Final of the disputed scale.
Besides its ilnal, eveiy Mode is distinguished
by three other highly characteristic notes — its
Dominant, Mediant, and Participant — the rela-
tive importance of which is shewn by the order
i& which we have mentioned them.
The Dominant of the Authentic Mode lies a
Fifth above the Final ; imless that note should
happen to be B, in which case C is substituted for
it. That of the Plagal Modes lies a Third below
the Authentic Dominant ; unless that third note
should happen to be B, in which case C is sub-
stituted, as before. In both eases, B is prevented
fix»n serving as a Dominant by its dissonant rela-
tion with F. The only exception to the general
rule is found In the Loorian Modci the Dominant
MODES, ECCLESIASTICAL.
of which is G, the sixth from the Final. The
Hypolocrian Mode fdlows the strict law. In the
Gregorian Psalm Tones, the Dominant is the note
upon which the recitation of the greater part
of every verse takes place.
The Mediant — so called firam its position
between the Final and Dominant— is always the
third of the scale, in the Authentic Modes ; unless
that note should happen to be B, in which case
C is substituted for it. In the Plagal Modes, ite
position is less uniform.
The Participant is an auxiUair note, generally
in the immediate neighbourhood of the Mediant,
in Authentic Modes ; and, }n the Plagal forms,
coincident with the Dominant of the correspond-
ing Authentic scale. Some Modes have a second
Participant ; and one has a second Mediant, which,
however, is not very frequentiy used.
Each Mode is also influenced by certain notes,
called its Modulations, or Cadences, which are
of two kinds. The Regular Modulations are, the
Final, Dominant, Mediant, and Participant, al-
ready mentioned. To these are added two or more
subsidiary notes, called Conceded Modulations,
{Modulationes concesste,) among which we often
find the inverted Seventh—^, e. tiie Seventh, taken
an Octave lower than its true pitch, and, couse-
auentiy, one degree below the natural compass of
descale.
Upon one or other of these Modulations, either
Reeular, or Conceded, every phrase of every
melody must begin, and end : subject only to two
farther restrictions — (i) The first phrase must
begin on one of a somewhat less ample series of
notes, called the Absolute Initials ; (a) The last
phrase can only end on the Final of the Mode.
The following Table shews the Compass, Final«
Dominant, Mediant, Participant, Regular and
Conceded Modulations, and Absolute Initials, of
•every Mode in the series, including the Locrian,
and Hypolocrian, which, in spite of their manifest
imperfection, have sometimes been used in ssecular
music.
ModvUUUms,
JUgular.
Conceded.
Nmmbtn,
Nam4$<^th»Modm.
Banot,
Tin.
Dim.
jr«L
Pari.
Mod. Com.
AbtotmU InitUU.
L
■Dofton.
1>-D
D
A
F
0
CUB
OI.D.F.O.A
ILI
HTPodortao.
A-A
D
F
1^
A. A*
0.0
A.0.D.B4.F
m.
FhnilM.
E-B
t
•^
0
A.B
DUF
B.F.G10
IV.t
HypopluTiiu.
B-B
■
A
0
C.F
D.B»
aD.X.F.04.A«
V.
Ijdlu.
V-V
r
0
A
4}
^RD,E
F.A.0
VW
0-0
9
A'^
If
ۥ
Bi.O.B[b)
aD«.F
vn.
MUoljiltaii.
0-0
0
D
o\
A
&B
o.A4.aaD.
vntt
IX.
MoUn.
D-D
A-A
0
0
-M-
J2.
B.D« ^
01.D.F.0.A.0
Ol.A.aD.B
-T"
0^
D«
CUB
Z.1
E-B
A
0
B
B.Ka
G.D
B.O.A.B10
r XI.
i XILt
Loeriam.
B-B
B
a
D
X.T
AhO
B.OKD.a ^
O.A.B.aDKX**
F-f
B
M
D
0.0
A.F*
ZnKorXIX
Kwkn.
0-0
0
a
B
D
r.A.B
O.DCB.a
XIV(orXIL)S
Hypolonlmn.
G-Q
0
M
A
G«
FI.D.F
aD».O.A
1 Th« Inrvrtai TUi. * > Fftf«l Modes.
• TfwethftbowtheFliuL 4 Bftrely u««d In u Abtoluto laltlid.
• UMd M M Abwlote Inlttal chlaflj ^ pol/phooie nuiie.
• nw lomrt DOM of Um Mod*.
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' MODES, £(X;UBSIASnCAL.
In vindication of the use of the Inverted
Seventh, it 10 neoe0MU7 to eipUin, that, under
certain oooditions, the normal oompast of all the
Modes may be slightly extended. Every Authentic
Mode may, by license, descend one degree below
lU final : the Phrygian Mode may descend two.
Every Plagal Mode may ascend to the sixth
degree above the Final : the Hypolydian, and
Hypomixolydian Modes, may, in addition, de-
scend to the fifth below it.
Melodies confined strietbr within the natural
range of the Mode are called Perfect ; those which
fall short of it. Imperfect ; those . which exceed
It, Superfluous. A melody which combines the
entire compass of a Plagal with ifchat of an
Authentic scale, is said to be in • Mixed Mode.
Both in Plain dhannt and Polyphonic Music,
the Modes are used, sometimes, at their true
mtoh ; sometimes, transposed a Fourth higher, (or
Fiftii lower), by means of a B flat at the Signa-
ture. No accidentals are permitted, in Plain
Chaunt, except an occasional B flat, introduced
for the purpose of oorrecting a Tritonus, or a False
Fifth — the use of both these intervals being
strictly forbidden, whether in disjunct or conjunct
movement. [See Plain Chaunt.] The Canto
fermo, in Polyphonic Music, is as strictly subject
to the laws of the Mode as a Plain Chaunt
melody — which, in fact, it generally is : but, in
the Counteipoint, the use ef certain sharps, flats,
and naturals, is sometimes' directly enjoined, in
conformity with precepts which will be found
fully described elsewhere. [See MusiOA Ficta.]
In order to ascert«n the Mode in which a
Plain Chaunt Melody is written, observe the last
note, which will, of course, shew the reouired
FlnaL Should the compass ef the Melody lie
between that Final and its Octave, the Mode will
be Authentic. Should it lie between the fifth
above and the Fourth below, it wiU be Plagal.
Should it extend throughout the entire range,
from the Fourth below the Final to the Octave
above it, it will be Mixed. Should there be a
B flat at ihe Signature, it will indicate that the
Mode has been transposed ; and the true Final will
then lie a Fourth below the written one. For
example, the Plain Chaunt Melody, *Angelus
autem Domini * (.for which see the article, Anti-
PHON), has no B flat at the Signature. Its last
note is G, the Mixolydian Final. Its compass
lies between the Fifth above that note, and the
Second below it. It is, therefore, in the Eighth,
or Hvpomixolydian Mode ; and, as its range falls
two degrees snort of the full downward range of
the sc^e^ it belongs to the dast of Imperfect
Melodies.
To ascertain the Mode of a polyphonic com*
position, examine the last note in the Bass. This
will be the Final. Then, should the range of
the Canto fermo — which will almost alwavs be
ibund in the Tenor — >lie between the Final and
Hs Octave, the Mode will be Authentic. Should
it lie between the Fifth above and the Fourth
below, it will be PkgaL Should there be a B
flat at the Signature, it will shew that the Mode
has been tra^iposed ; and the true Final will then
MODULATION.
848
lie a Fourth below the Ikst bass note. Thus,
Palestrina*s Motet, 'Dies sanctificatus,* has no
B flat at the Signature. The last note in the Baas
is G. The compass of the Canto fermo, as ex-
hibited in the Tenor, lies, almost entirely, between
that note and its Octave. The Motet, therefore,
is in the Seventh, or Mixolydian Mode. The same
oomposer^s Missa 'Sterna Christi munera' has a
B flat at the Signature, and is, therefore, trans-
posed. The last note in the Bass is F, the
Fourth below which is C — the Ionian Final.
The compass of the Ccmto fermo, in the Tenor, Um
between the transposed Final, and its Octave.
Consequently, the Mass is in the ThirteenUi, or
Ionian Mode, transposed.
According to strict law, it is as neoessanr for the
Canto fermo to end on the Final of the Mode an
the Bass : but, when the last Cadence is a very
elaborate one, it frequently contents itself with
just touching that note, and then glanoinff off to
others, after the manner of what we should now
caU a eocta. The neophyte will always, there-
fore, find the last Bass note his safest guide, in
this particular. [See Poltphonio Musia]
In order to accommodate the range of 'un-
equal' voices, it constantly happens, that the
Treble said Tenor, are made to sing. in an Au-
thentic Mode, while the Alto and Bass sing in a
Plagal one ; and vice vena. In these cases, the
true character of the Mode is always decided by
Uie compass of the Canto fermo. [W.S.R. ]
VmODULATION is the process of passing out
of one key into another.
In modem harmonic music, especially in its
Instnmiental branches, it is essential that the
harmonies should be grouped according to their
keys; that is, thai they should be connected
togeUier for periods of appreciable length by a
common relation to a definite tonic or keynote.
If harmonies Monging essentially to one key
are iiregularly mix&d. up with harmonies which
are equally characteristic of another, an im-
pression of <ebscurity arises ; but when a chord
which evidently belongs to a foreign key follows
naturally upon a aeries which was consistently
characteristic of another, and is itself followed
consistently by harmonies belonnng to a key to
which it can be referred, modulation has tiJcen
place, and a new tonic has supplanted the former
one as the centre of a new circle of harmonies.
The various forms of process by whu^ a new
key is gained are generally distributed into three
classes — Diatonic^ Chroaatic and Enhannonic.
The first two are occasionally applied to the ends
of modulation as well as to the means. That is
to say, Diatonic would be defined as modulation
to relative keys, and Chromatic to others than
relative. This appears to strain unnecessarily
the meaning of the terms, since Diatonic and Chro-
matic apply properly to the contents of established
keys, and not to the relations of different shifting
ones, except by implication.
Moreover, if a cUssifioation is to be consistent,
the principles upon which it is founded must be .
aniformly applied. Henoo if a class is distin- '
guished as ^iihannonie in relation to the means
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MODULATION.
U4
(as it must be), other classes cannot safely be
classed as Diatonic and Chromatic in relation to
ends, without liability to confusion. And lastly,
the term Modulation itself clearly implies the
process and not the result. Therefore in this
place the classification will be taken to apply to
the means and not to the end, — to the process by
which the modulation is accomplished and not
the keys which are thereby arrived at.
The Diatonic forms, then^ are such as are
effected by means of notes or chords which are
exclusively diatonic in the keys concerned. Thus
in the following example (Bach, Well-tempered
Clavier, Bk. 2, no. 12) : —
the chord at ** indicates that F has ceased to be
the tonic, as it is not referable to the group of
harmonies characteristic of that key. However,
it is not possible to tell irom that chord alone
to what key it is to be referred, as it is equally
a diatonic harmony in either Bb, £b, or Ab ;
but as the chords which follow all belong con-
sistently to Ab, that note is obviously the tonic
of the new key, and as the series is Diatonic
throughout it belongs to the Diatonic class of
modulations.
The Chromatic is a mest ill-defined dass of modu-
lations ; and it is hardly to be hoped that people
will ever be sufficiently careful in small matters
to use the term with anything approaching to
clear and strict uniformity of meaning. Some
use it to denote any modulation in the course of
which there appear to be a number of acci-
dentals— which is perhaps natural but obviously
superficial. Others again apply the term to
modulations from one main peint to another
through several subordinate transitions which
touch remote keys. The objection to this defi-
nition is that each step in the subordinate
transitions is a modulation in Itself, and as the
cUssification is to refer to the means, it is not
consistent to apply the term to the end in this
case, even though subordinate. There are further
objections based upon the strict meaning of the
word Chromatic itself, which must be omitted for
lack of space. This reduces the limits of chro-
matic modulation to such as is effected through
notes or chords which are chromatic in relation
to the keys in question. Genuine examples of
this kind are not so common as might be sup-
posed ; the following example (Beethoven, op. 31,
no. 3), where passage is made from £b to C is
consistent enough for illustration.: —
The third class, called Enharmonic, which tends
to be more and more conspicuous in modem
music, is such as turns mainly upon the transla-
tion of intervals which, according to the fixed
distribution of notes in the modem system, are
identical, into terms which represent different
harmonic relations. Thus the minor seventh,
G-F, appears to be the same interval as the
augmented sixth G-£# ; but the former belongs
to the key of C, and the latter either to B or Fi;
according to the context. Again, the chord whidii
is known as the diminished seventh is frequently
quoted as affording such great opportunities for
modulation, and this it does chiefly enharmoni-
cally ; for the notes of which it is composed being
at equal distances £rom each other can severally be
taken as third, fifth, seventh or ninth of the root
of the chord, and ihe chord can be approached
as. if belonging to any one of these roots, and
quitted as if derived from any other. The pas-
sage quoted from the Leonore Overture in the
article Chanob (voL i. p. 333 a) may be taken
as an example of an enharmonic modulation
which turns on this particular chord.
Enharmonic treatment really implies a differ-
ence between the intervals represented, and this
is actually perceived by the mind in many cases.
In some especially marked instances it is pro-
bable that most people with a tolerable mosical
gift will feel the difference with no more help
than a mere indication of the relations of the
intervals. Thus in the succeeding example the
true major sixth represented by the Ab-F in (a)
would have the ratio 5 : 3 (>- 125 : 75), whereas
the diminished seventh represented by G#-F|| in
(6) would have the ratio 128 : 75 ; the former is
a consonance and the latter, theoretically, a rough
dissonance, and though they are both represented
by the same notes in our system, the impression
produced by them is to a c?rtain extent pro-
portionate to their theoretical rather than to their
actual constitution.
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MODULATION.
MODULATION.
S45
Hence it appears to follow that in enharmonic
modulation we attempt to get at least some of
the effects of intervals smaller than semitones:
but the indiscriminate and ill-considered use of
the device will certainly tend to deaden the
musical sense, which helps us to distinguish the
true relations of harmonies through their external
apparent uniformity.
A considerable portion of the actual processes
of modulation is effected by means of notes
which are used as pivots. A note or notes which
are common to a chord in the original key and to
a chord in the key to which the modulation is
jnade, are taken advantage of to strengthen the
connection of the harmonies while the modulation
proceeds; as in the following modulation from
G% major to B major in Schubert's Fantasie-
Sonata Op. 78.
This device is found particularly in transitory
modulation, and affords peculiar opportunities for
subtle transitions. Examples also occur where
the pivot notes are treated enharmonically, as in
the following example from the chorus 'Sein
Odem iet schwach ' in Graun's ' Tod Jesu ' :
etc
1^608 pivot-notes are however by no means
izfcdii^yenBable. Modulationa are really governed
by the same laws which apply to any succession
of harmonies whatsoever, and the possibilities of
modulatory device are in the end chiefly de-
pendent upon intelligible order in the progression
of the parts. It is obvious that a large pro-
portion of chords which can succeed each other
naturally — that is, without any of the parts
having melodic intervals which it is next to im-
possible to follow — will have a note or notes in
common ; and such notes are as useful to connect
two chordB in the same key as they are to keep
togeUier a series which constitute a modidation.
Bat it has never been held indispensable that
successive chords should be so connected, though
in earlier stages of harmonic music it may have
been found helpful ; and in the same way, while
there were any doubts as to the means and order
of modulation, pivot-notes may have been useful
as leading strings, but when a broader and freer
conception of the nature of the modem system
has been arrived at, it will be found that though
pivot-notes may be valuable for i>articular pur-
poses, the range of modulatory device is not limited
to such successions as can contain them, but only
to such as do not contain inconceivable progres-
sion of parts. As an instance we may take the pro-
gression from the dominant seventh of any key,
to the tonic chord of the key which is represented
by the flat submediant of the original key : as
from the chord of the seventh on G to the common
chord of Ab; of which we have an excellent
example near the beginning of the Leonore Over
ture No. 3. Another remarkable instance to the
point occurs in the trio of the third movement
of a quartet of Mozart's in B b, as follows : —
Key Db. I I ^ Key C.
Other examples of modulation without pivot*
notes may be noticed at the beginning of Bee-
thoven's Egmont Overture, and of his Sonata in
K minor, op. 90 (bars 2 and 3), and of Wagner's
Gotterdkmmerung (bars 9 and 10). An impres-
sion appears to have been prevalent with some
theorists that modulation ought to proceed through
a chord which was common to both the keys be-
tween which the modulation takes place. The
principle is logical and easy of application, and
it is true that a great number of modulations are
explicable on that basis ; but inasmuch as there
are a great number of examples which are not,
even with much latitude of explanation, it will
be best not to enter into a discussion of so com-
plicated a point in this place. It will be enough
to point out that the two principles of pivot-notes
and of ambiguous pivot-chords between them
cover so much ground that it is not easy to And
progressions in which either one or the other does
not occur— and even though in a very great
majority of instances one or the other may really
form the bond of connection in modulatory pass-
ages, the frequency of their occurrence is not
a proof of their being indispensablo. The follow-
ing passage from the first act of Wagner's Meis-
tersinger is an example of a modulation in which
they are both absent : —
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840
MODULATION.
Tbe real point of diffioultj in modnUiian is
not the manner in which the harmonies belong-
ing to different keys can be made to suooeed
one another, but the eetabliahment of the new
key, especially in caaee where it is to be per-
manent. This is effected in various ways. ^ Fre-
quently some undoubted form of the dominant
harmony of the new key is made use of to
oonfinn the impression of the tonality, and
modulation is often made through some phase
of that chord to make its direction dear, since
no progression has such definite tonal force aa
that from dominant to tonic. Mozart again,
when he felt it necessary to define the new key
Tery clearly, as representing a definite essential
feature in the form of a movement, often goes at
first beyond his point, and appears to take it
from the rear. For instance, if his first section is
in C, and he wishes to cast the second section
and produce what is called his seoond subject in
the dominant key G, instead of going straight te
G and staying there, he passes rapidly by it to
its dominant key D, and having settled well down
on the tonic harmony of that key, uses it at last
as a dominant point of vantage from which te
take G in form. The first movement of the
Quartet in G, from bar a a to 34 of the Allegro,
will serve as an illustration. Another mode m
that of using a series of transitory modulations
between one permanent key and another. This
serves chiefly to obliterate the sense of the old
key, and to make the mind open to the impression
of the new one directly its permanency becomes
apparent. The plan of resting on dominant
harmony for a long while before passing definitely
to the subjects or figures which are meant te
characterise the new key is an obvious means of
enforcing it; of which the return to the first
subject in the first movement of Beethoven's
'Waldstein Sonata is a strong example. In fact
insistance on any characteristic harmony or on
any definite group of harmonies which clearly
represent a key is a sure means of indicating the
object of a modulation, even between keys which
are remote from one another.
In transitory modulations H is leas imperative to
mark the new key strongly, sinoe subordinate keys
are rightly kept in the background, and though
they may be used so 4ui to oroduce a powerufl
effect, yet if they are too mucn insisted upon, the
balance between the more essential and the unes-
sential keys may be upset. But even in transitoiy
modulations, in instrumental music espedallv, it
is decidedly important that each group which
represents a key, however short, should be dis-
tinct in itself. In recitative, obscnnty of tonality
is not so objectionable, -as appeavs both in Bach
and Handel ; and the modem form of melodious
recitative, which often takes the form of sustained
melody of an emotional oast, is similarly often
associated with subtle and dosely woven •modu-
lations, especially when allied with wor<ls. Of
redtative forms which show analogous freedom
of modulation in purdy instrumental works,
there are examples both by Bach and Beethoven,
aa in an Adagio in a Toooata in D minor and the
MODULATION.
Fantada Cromatica by the farmer, and in the
Introduction to the last movement of the Ab
Sonata (opus. 1 10) of the latter.
When trandtoiy modiUations sueceed one an-
other somewhat rapidly they may well be di£Soult
to follow if they are not B3rstematised into some
sort of appreciable order. This b frequently
effected by making them progress by reignlar
steps. In Mozart and Haydn especially we
meet with the simplest forms of sucoesdon, which
generally amount to some such order as the
roots of the chord fedling fifths or rising fourths,
or rising fourths and fidling thirds suooeenvdy.
The following example frxmi Mozart*8 0 major
Quartet ia dmrly to the point.
Bach affords some remarkably forcible examples,
as In the chorus ' Mit Blitaen und Donner * in the
Matthans Pasdon, and in the latter part of the
Fantada for Organ in G (D5rffel 855), in which
the bass progresses dowly by semitones downwards
from C| to D. A passage quoted by Marx at
the end of the second volume of his Kompodtions-
lehre from the ' Christe Eleison * in Bach's A
major ' Mass is very fine and characteristic ; the
succesdon of transitions is founded on a basi
which progresses as fdlowsi —
r
— i^
at
r=Tf
T
«
5H
i
— 1
1
k=^
I etc.
=^^
-•
±=s=
h^
In modem music a common form is that in which
the suoceiidon of key-notes is by ridng or fiJling
semitones, as in the following passage from the
first movement of the Eroica Symphony : —
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MODULATION.
Of iliis form there are nmnerotu examples in
Chopin, as in the latter part of the Ballade in Ab,
and in the Prelude in the same key (No. 17).
Beethoven makes use of successions of thinls in
the same way; of which the most remarkable ex-
ample is the^ Largo which precedes the fugue in the
Sonato in Bb, op. 106. In this there are fully
eighteen successive steps of thirds downwards,
most of them minor. This instance also points
to a feature which is important to note. The
successions are not perfectly symmetrical, but are
purposely distributed with a certain amount of
irregularity so as to relieve them from the obviods-
ness which is often ruinous to the effect of earlier
examples. The divisions represented by each
step are severally variable in length, but the
sum total is a complete impression based upon
an appreciable system ; and this result is far
more artistic than the examples where the foran
is so obvious that it might almost have been
measured out with a pair of compasses. This
point leads to the consideration of another strik-
ing device of Beethoven's, namely, the use of a
cs^snra in modulation, which serves a similar
puipose to the irregular distributioo of successive
modulations. A most striking •example is that in
the Prestissimo of the Sonata in £ major, op.
109, in bars 104 and 105, where he lei^js from
the major chord of the supertonic to the miner of
the tonic, evidently cutting short the ordinary
process of supertonic, dominant and tonic; and
the effect of this sudden irruption of the origin si
key and subject before the ordinary and expected
progressions are concluded is most remarkable.
In the slow movement of Schnmann*s sonata in G
minor there is a passage which has a similar happy
effect, where the leap is made from the dominant
seventh of the key of Db to the tonic chords C
to resume the first subject, as follows :—
In tba study of the art of music it is important
MODUI.ATI
to have a clear idea of the
function and resources of modu
gradually realised* It will be L
the risk of going occasionally
ground twice, to give a short c
of the aspect it presents along i
stent production.
To a modem ear of any musical capacity i«^,,=„»^
lation sppears a very simple and easy matter,
but when harmoLis music was only beginning to
be felt, the force even of a single key was but
doubtfully realised, and the relation of different
keys to one another was ahnost out of the range
of human conception. Musicians of those da>'s
no^ doubt had some glimmering sense of a field
being open before them, but they did not know
what the problems were which they had to solve.
It is true that even some time befoi-e the be*
ginning of the seventeenth century they must
have had a tolerably good idea of the distribution
of notes which we call a key, but they probably
did not regard it as an important matter, and
looked rather to the laws and devices of counter-
point, after the old polyphonic manner, as the
chief means by which music was to go on as
it had done before. Hence in those great poly,
phonic times of Palestrina and Lasso, and even
later in some quarters, there was no such thing
as modulation in our sense of the word. They
were^ gradually absorbing into their material
certain accidentals which the greater masters
found out how to use with eflect; and these
being incorporated with the intervals which the
old church modes afforded them, gave rise to
:successions and passages in which they appear to
us to wander withtuncertain steps from one nearly
J«lated key to another; whereas in reality they
were only using the actual notes which appeared
to them to be available for artistic purposes,
without considering whether their combinations
were related to a common tonic in the sense
which we recognise, or net Nevertheless this
process of intarodudng accidentals irregularly
was the ultimate means through which the art
of modulation was develeped. For the musical
sense of^heee composers, being very «cute, would
lead them to consider the relations ef the new
chords which contained notes thus modified, and
to surround them with larger and laiger groups
of chorfls which in our sense would be considered
to be tonally related; and the very smeothness
and softness of the combinations te which they
were accustomed would ensure a gradual approada
to consistent tonality, though the direction into
which tiiieir accidentals turned them was rather
uncertain and irregular, and not so much governed
by any feeling of the effects of modulation as by
the constitution of the ecdesiastiual scales. Ex-
amples of this are given in the article Harmomt ;
and reference may also be made to a Pavin
and a Fantasia by our great master, Orlando
Gibbons, in the Parthenia, which has lately been
republished by Mr. Pauer. In these there are
remarkably fine and strong effects produced by
means of aocidentals; but the transitions are
to modem ideas singularly iireg^ular. Gibbons
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848
MODULATIOl^.
appears to slip from one tonality to another mord
dan six times in as many bars, and to slide back
into his orig^inal key as if he had never been
away. In some of his vocal works he presents
broader expanses of distinct tonality, but of the
power of the effect of modulation on an extended
scale he can have had but the very slightest
possible idea. About his time and a little later
in Italy, among such musicians as Garissimi and
Gesti, the outlines of the modem art were grow-
ing stronger. They appreciated the sense of pure
himnonic combinations, though they lost much
of the force and dignity of the polyphonic school ;
and they began to use simple modulations, and i»
define uiem much as a modem would do, but
with the simplest devices possible. Throughout
the seventeenth centuxy the system of keys was
being gradually matured^ but their range was
extraordinarily limited, and the interchange of
keys was still occasionally irregular. CoreUi, in
the latter part of it, dearly felt the relative
importance of different notes in a key and the
harmonies which they represent, and balanced
many instrumental movements on principles an^
alogous to our own, though simpler; and the
same may be said of Couperin,^ who was his j unior
by a few years; but it is apparent that they
moved among accidentals with cautnon, and re-
garded what we call extreme keys as dangerous
and almost inexplorable territory.
In the works of the many sterling and solid
composers of the earlv part of the i8th cen-
tury, the most noticeable feature is the extra-
ordinary expanse of the main keys. Music
had arrived at the opposite extreme from its
state of a hundred years before ; and composers,
having realised the effect of pure tonality, were
content to remain in one key for periods which
to us, with our different ways of expressing our-
selves, would be almost impossible. This is in
fact the average period of least modulation.
Handel is a fairer representative of the time
than Bach, for reasons which will be touched
upon presently, and his style is much more in
conformity with most of his contemporaries who
are best known* in the musical art. We may
take him therefore as a type ; and in his works
it will be noticed that the extent and number of
modulations is extremely limited.^ In a large
troportion of his finest choruses he passes into
is dominant key near the beginning — partly
to express the balanoe of keys and partly driven
thereto by fiigal habits ; and then returns to his
original key, from which in many oases he
harclly stirs again; Thus the whole modulatory
range of the 'Hallelujah' Chorus is not more
than fr^uent transitions from the Tonic key to
the key of its Dominant and back, and one ex"
cursion as far as th» relative minor in the
middle ctf the chorus, — and that is alL There are
choruses with a larger range, and choruses with
even less, but the Hallelujah is a fair example
to take, and if it is carefully compared with any
average modem example, such as Mendelssohn's
'The night is departing,' in the Hymn of
Praise, or ' O great is the depth,' in St. Paul, or
Si
MODULATIOlT.
the first chorus i Brahms's Hequiem, a very
strong impression of the progressive tendency of
modem music in the matter of modulation will
be obtained. In choruses and movements in
the minor mode, modulations are on an average
more frequent and various, but still infinitely
less free than in modem examples. Even in
such a fine example as ' The people shall hear,*
in Israel, the apparent latitude of modulation is
deceptive, for many of the changes of key in the
early part are mere repetitions ; since the ton-
alities range up and down between £ minor,
B and F$ only, each key returning irregularly.
In the latter part it is true the modulations are
finely conceived, and represent a degree of ap-
preciation in the matter of relations of various
keys, such as Handel does not often manifest.
Allusion has been made above to the practice
of going out to a foreign key and returning
to the original again in a short space of time.
This happens to be a very valuable gauge to tejt
the degrees of appreciation of a composer in
the matter of modulation. In modem music
keys are felt so strongly as an element of form,
that when any one has been brought promi*
nently forward,, succeeding modulations for some
time after must, except m a few special cases,
take another direction. The tonic key, for
instance, must inevitably come forward clearly
in the early part of a movement, and when its
importance has been made sufficiently clear by
insistance, and modulations have begun in other
directions, if it were to be quickly resumed and
insisted on afresh, the impression would be that
there was unnecessary tautology ; and this must
appear obvious on the merest external grounds
of logic. The eld masters however must, on
this point, be judged to have had but little
sense of the actual force of different keys as a
matter of form; for in a large proportion of
examples they were content to waver up and
down between nearly-related keys, and con-
stantly to resume one and another without order
or design. In the ' Te gloriosus ' in Graun*s Te
Deum, for instance, he goes out to a nearly-
selated key, and returns to his tonic key no less
than five several times, and in the matter of
modulation does practically nothing else. Even
Bach occasionally presents similar examples, and
Mozart's distribution of the modulations in
*Splendente te Deus' (in which he probably
followed the standing dawsioal models of vocal
music) are on a similar plan, for he digreeaeB and
returns again to his principal key at least twelve
times in Uie course of the work.
Bach was in some respects like hia contempo-
raries, and in some so fiur in advance of them that
he cannot fairly be taken as a representative of the
average standard of the day. In fitct, his more
wonderful modulatory devices must have frdlen
upon utterly deaf ears, not only in his time but
fi)r generations after ; and, unlike most great *
men, he appears to have made less impression
upon the productive musicians who immediately
succeeded him than upon those of a hundred
years and more later. In many oases he cast
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MODULATION.
movements in the forms prevalent in his time,
and occasionally used vain repetitions of keys
like his contemporaries ; but when he chose his
own lines he produced movements which are
perfectly in consonance with modem views. As
examples of this the '£t resurrexit' in the B
minor Mass and the last chorus of the Mat-
thew Passion may be taken. In these there is
no tautology in the distribution of the modu-
lation, though the extraordinary expanse over
which a single key is made to spread, still marks
their relationship with other contemporary
works. In some of his instrumental works he
gives himself more rein, as in fantasias, and
preludes^ and toccatas, for organ or clavier. In
these he not only makes use of the most compli-
cated and elaborate devices in the actual passage
from one key to another, but also of closely
interwoven transitions in a thoroughly modem
fashion. Some of the most wonderful examples
are in the Fantasia in G minor for organ (Dorffel
798), and others have been already alluded to.
It is probable that his views on the subject of
the relation of keys had considerable influence
on the evolution of the specially modem type of
instrumental music; as it was chiefly his sons
and pupils who worked out and traced in clear
and definite outlines the system of key-distribu-
tion upon which Haydn and Mozart developed
their representative examples of such works.
in the works of these two great composers we
find at once the simplest and surest distribution
of keys. They are in fact the expositors of the
elementary principles which had been arrived at
through Uie speculations and experiments of
more that a century and a half of musicians.
The vital principle of their art-work is clear and
simple tonality; each successive key which is
important in the structure of the work is marked
by forms both of melody and harmony, which,
by the use of the most obvious indicators, state
as clearly as possible the tonic to which the par-
ticular group of harmonies is to be referred.
This is their summary, so to speak, of existinjg
knowledge. But what is most important to this
question is that the art did not stop at this
pointy but composers having arrived at that
degree of realisation of the simpler relations of
keys, went on at once to build something new
upon the foundation. Both Haydn and Mozart
— as if perceiving that directly the meaqs of
clearly indicating a key were realised, the ease
with which it could be grasped would be propor-
ti(mately increased — ^began to distribute their
modulations more freely and liberally. For
certain purposes they both made use of tran-
sitions 80 rapid that the modulations appear to
overlap, so that before one key is definitely in-
dicated an ingenious modification of the chord
which should have confirmed it leads on to
another. The occasions for the use of this device
are principally either to obtain a strong contrast
to long periods during which single keys have
been or are to be maintained; or, where ac-
cording to ihe system of form it so happens that
a key which has already been employed has soon
MODULATIOir.
849
to be resumed — as, for instance, in the recapi-
tulation of the subjects — to lead the mind so
thoroughly away that the sense of the more per*
manent key is almost obliterated. Occasionally,
when the working-out section is very short, the
rapid transitions alluded to are also met with in
that position, as in the slow movement of Mozart*8
E!7 Quartet. The exaiople quoted above from the
last movement of his Quartet in G will serve as
an example on this point as well as on that for
which it was quoted.
A yet more important point in relation^to the
present question is the use of short breaths of
subordinate modulation in the midst of the
broader -expanses of the principal keys. This is
very characteristic of Mozart, and serves happily
to indicate the direction in which art was moving
ttt the time. Thus, in the very beginning of his
Quartet inG (Kochel 387), hegUdes outof his prin-
cipal key into the key of the supertonic, A, and back
again in the first four bars. A similar digression,
from F to D and back again, may be observed
near the beginning of the slow movement of the
Jupiter Symphony. But it requires to be care-
fully noted that the sense of the principal keys is
not impaired by these digressions. They are not
to be confounded either with the irregular wander*
xng of the composers who immediately succeeded
the polyphonic school, nor with the frequent going
out and back again of the composers of the early
part of the i8th century. This device is really
an artificial enlargement of the capacity of a key,
and the transitions are generally used to en-
force certain notes which are representative and
important roots in the original key. A striking ex-
ample occurs in the first movement of Mozart's
symphonv in G minor ( i st section), where after the
key of B*b has been strongly and clearly pointed
out in the first statement of the second subject,
he makes a modulatory digression as follows : —
This is in fiwrt a very bold way of enforcing the
subdominant note; for though the modulation
appears to be to the key of the minor seventh from
the tonic, the impression of that key ia ingeni«
ously reduced to a minimum, at the same time
that the slight flavour that remains of it forms
an important element in the effect of the tran-
sition.
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MODULATION.
The great use which Beethoven made of sndi
traxuntory subordinate modulations has been
already treated of at some length in the article
Hxbmont; it wHL therefore be best here to
refer 6nlv to a few tyincal examples. The force
with which he employed the device above illus-
trated from Mozart is shown in the wonderful
transition from £b to G minor at the beginning of
the Eroica (bam 7-10), and the transition from F to
Db at Uie beginning of the Sonata Appassionata.
These are, as in most of Mozart's examples, only
single steps; in many oases Beethoven makes
use of several in succession. Thus in the begin-
ning of the £ minor Sonata, op. 90, the lirst
section slM>uld be theoretically in £ minor, but
in this case a quick modulation to G begins
in the 3rd bar, in the 7th a modulation to B
minor follows, and in the 9tli, G is taken up
agiUn, and through it passage is made back to
£ minor, the original key, again. Thus the
main oentre of the principal key is supplemented
by subordinate centres; the different notes of
the key being used as points of vantage from
which a glance can be taken into foreign tonali-
ties, to whidi they happen also to belong, with-
out losing the sense of the principal key which
lies in the background.
These transitions often occur in the early part
of movements before the principal key has been
much insisted on, as if to enhance its effect by
postponement. Thus we find remarkable ex-
amples in Beethoven's Introductions, as for in-
stance in the Leonore Overture No. 3, and in the
Introduction to the Quartet in C, Op. 59, No. $.
In composers of note since Beethoven, we find m
determination to take full advantage of the
efSdct of such transitions. Brahms for instance
makes constant use of them in his instrumental
works from the earliest to the latest. The first
two pages of the G minor Quartet for pianoforte
and strings, shows at once how various are the
subordinate centres of which he makes use. Int
a much later work — the Pianoforte Quartet in.
'C minor, op. 60 — ^he presents a short version of
his principal subject in the prindpaL key, and
then passes to Bb minor, Db major,. Eb^minor^
A b, Gb minor, and Bb mi^or in ri^iid sucoeasioa
before he resumes his original key in order to
propound his first subject more fully. Schumann,
was equally free in his use of subordinate modu-
lations. In the fine intermezzo of the * Fasch-
ingsschwank,' which has tiie signature of £b
minor^ the first diord is in that k^, but the
second leads to Db major, and a few chords
further on we are in Bb minor, from whioii an
Abrupt return is made to Eb minor only to
digress afresh. Such are the elaborate transitions
which are developed by an extension of the de-
viee of aingle transitioos used so frequently by
Moaart; rad it may be noted that a closely-
connected series of transitory modulations after
ibis manner, occupies in modem music an
Analogous position to that occupied by a con-
nected series of harmonies, based on quickly-
ahifting root-notes, in the muaic of a century or a
century and a half earlier. Similarly, in the
MODULATION.
closely-connected steps of modulation, like those
used by Haydn and Mozart between one strongly
marked expanse of key and another, more modem
composers have packed their successions of keys
so closely that it is often a matter of some diffi-
culty to disentangle them with certainty. For
instance, the passage in the slow movement of
Beethoven's Bb Sonata, op. 106, just before
the resumption of the principal key and the first
subject (in variation), is as follows —
Ih this, besides the number of the transi-
tions (exceeding the number of bars in the ex-
ample), the steps by which they proceed are
noticeable with reference to what was touched
upon above in that respect. Manv similar ex-
amples occur in Schumann's wcnrks. For in-
stance, in the last movement of his sonata in G
minor, where he wishes to pass firom Bb to 6
major, to resume his subject, he goes all the war
round W Bb minor, Gb major, £b major, D^
minor, F|, B, A, D, G minor, Bb, Ab, and
thence at last to G ; there is a similar example
in the middle of the first movement of his Piano-
forte Quartet in £b ; examples are also common
in Chopin*s works, as £ar instance ban 29 to
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MODULATION.
JIB of tiie Prdlade ia Eb, Ko. 19, in wliioh the
tmiudtioDs overlap in Buoh a way as to recall the
devioea of Haydn and Moiart^ thoagh the mate-
rial and mode of exprenion are ao markedly
HOLIQUB.
851
From this short rarvey it will i^ypear that the
direotioa of modem music in respect of modula-
tion has been constant and uniform. The
modem scales had first to be developed out of
the chaos of ecclesiastical modes, and then they
had to be sjrstematised into keys, a process
equivalent to discovering the prinot(^e of modu-
lation. This dearly took a long time to
achieve, since composers moved cautiously over
new ground, as if afiraid to go far firom their
starting-pointy lest they shouM not be able to
find a way back. Still, the invention of the
principle of passing from one key to another*
led to the disoovery of ihe relations which
exist between one key and another; in other
word% of the different degrees of musical
eifiect produced by their juxtaposition. The
bearings of the more simple of these rela-
tions were first established, and then those of
the more remote and subtle ones, till the way
through every note of the scale to its allied keys
was found. In the meanwhile groups of chords
belonging to foreign keys were subtly inter-
woven in the broader expanses of permanent
keys, and the principle was rscognised that
different individual notes of a key can be taken
to represent subordinate circles of chords in
other Joeys of which they foxm important integers,
without destroying the sense of the principal
tonality. Then as the chords belonging to the
varioos groups called keys are better aiMl better
knows, it becomes easier to recognise them with
letB SMid lessindioatioo of their relations ; so that
greaps of diords representing any given tonality
can be constantly rendereioL shorter, until at
length sucoessioiis of transitory modulations make
tMr appearance, in which the group of chords
wpreacnting a tonality is reduced to two,, and
ifa«se sometimes not representing it by any
ineam dbviously.
It may appear from this that we are gravi-
tating back to the chaotic condition which
harmeny represented in. the days before the
invention of tonality. But this is not the case.
We have gone through all the experiences of the
key-sjrstem, and by means of it innumerable
ooiabinations of notes have been made intelligible
«i4iiok ooold not otherwise have been> so. The
key««y8tem is therefore the ultimate test of
lumsonio oombtnationa, and the ultimate basis
•f thoir dassification, however closely chords
I apiesontingdifierent tonalities may be brought
together. There will probably always be groups
of same oKtent whidi are referable to one given
oentre or tonic, and effects of modulation between
permanent keys ; but concerning the rapidity with
which transitions may suooeed one another, and
the possibilities of overlapping tonalities, it is
not safe to speculate ; for theory and analysis ave
always more safe and helpful to guide us to the
undsr^taikding of what a great artist shows us
when it is done, than to iell him beforehand what
he may or may not do. [C. H.H.P.]
MODULATIONS, EEGULAB and CON-
CEDED. (Lat. Modulalionea Ivd Clawulce]
regvlaret et coneascg). The Composer of a Plain
Chaunt Melody is not permitted to begin or end,
eveji his intermediate phrases, upon any note he
pleases. The last plirase of every Melody must, of
necessity, end with thellnal of the Mode in wUoh
it is written. The first phrase must begin with
one or other of a certain set of notes called the
Absolute Initials of the Mode. The intermediate
phrases can only begin, or end, on one of another
set of notes, called its Modulations. Of these
Modulations, four — the Final, Dominant^ Me-
diant, and Partidpant — are of more importance
than the rest, and are therefore called Regular.
But, as the constant reiteration of these four notes
would prove intolerably monotonous, in a Mdody
consisting of very numerous phrases, other notes,
called Conceded Modulations, are added to them ;
and, upon any one of these, any phrase, except
the first, or last, may either begin, or end.
A xx>inplete Table of the Regular uid Conceded
Modulations of all the Modes will be found in the
Article, Modes, the Eoolbsiastical. [W.S.il.]
MOLINARA, LA {Ger.DieachdneMiUlenn).
Opera by Paidello^roduced at Naples in 1788.
In London at the Iung*s Theatre Mar. 2 a, 1803.
Its name is preserved by a duet, * Nel cor piii
non mi sento, which has served as the theme of
many Variations, amongst others of six by Bee-
thoven. The autograph of the six was headed*
* Variadoni . . . perdute par la . . . retrovate par
L. V. B.' Beethoven also wrote nine variations on
' Qnant* e piii bello,' an air from the same opera.
A third air from La Molinara^ viz. La Bachdina,
is given in the Mudcal Library, i. 98. [G.j
MOLIQUE, Bebmhard, cdebrated violinist
and oonmoeer, was bom Oct. 7, 1803, at Nurem-
berg. HLb fatiier, a member of the town buid,
at first taught him seveml instruments, but
Molique soon made the violin his special study.
Spohr,in his Autobiography (i. 228), relates that,
wnile staying at Nuremberg, in 1815, he gave
some lessons to the boy, who already possMsed
remarkable profidency on tbe instrument. Mo-
lique afterwards went to Munich, and studied
for two years under Rovdli. After having
lived for some time at Vienna^ as member dt
the orchestra of the Theater-an-der-Wien, he
returned in 1820 to Munich, and succeeded his
master Bovdli as leader of the band. From
Munich he made several tours through Germany,
and soon established his reputation as an eminent
virtuoso and a solid mumdan. In 1826 he ac-
cepted the post of leader of the Royal band at
Stuttgardt, and remained there till 1849. In
that year he came to 'England, where he spent
the remaining part of hb profesdonal life. The
sterling qualities of Molique as a player, and
' his sound musicianship, soon procured him an
honourable position in the musical world of
London. Hia first appearance at the Philhar-
monio was on May 14, 1849^ when he played
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MOLTQUE.
his own A minor Concerto. With the general
public he was equally successful as a soloist,
quartet-player and teacher, while the serious
character and the fine workmanship of his com-
pesitions raised him high in the estimation of
connoisseurs and musicians.
As an executant he showed a rare perfection
of left-hand technique, but his bowing appears
to have been somewhat wanting in br^th and
freedom. His style of playing was usually very
quiet, perhaps deficient in animation. As a
composer he holds a prominent place among
modem writers for the violin. The influence
of Spohr is evident, not only in the character of
most of his subjects, but also in his manner of
treating and working them out, yet some of his
works — especially the first two movements of
his third Concerto in D minor, and of the fifth
in A minor — are fine compositions. The main
subjects are noble and pathetic, the form is
masterly, the working-out and the scoring fuU
of interest. On the other hand they suffer in
effect by being too much spun out, and by being
overladen with somewhat old-fashioned and ex-
tremely difiicult passages. His other compositionfl,
though evincing the same technical mastery, are
very inferior in interest to these concertos — they
bear hardly any traces of inspiration and had no
great or lasting success.
Molique retired in 1866 to Canstadt near
Stuttgardt, where he died in 1869. His daugh-
ter Anna is a good pianist. His principal
published works are:— 5 Violin- Concertos ; 6
Quartets for stringed instruments ; a Pianoforte
Trio ; a Symphony ; 2 Masses, and an Oratorio,
* Abraham,* performed at the Norwich Fes-
tival in i860. To these must be added Duos
for two violins, and for flute and violin, with
a number of tmaUer vocal and instrumentad
pieces. [P.D.]
MOLL and DUB are the Germaa terms for
Minor and Major.
MONDAY POPULAR CONCERTS, THE,
were commenced on Monday, Jan. 3, 1859, and
have now been carried on for more than twenty
years during the winter season of each year. They
were projected by Chappell & Co. primarily with
the view of benefitting the shareholders of St.
James's Hall, among whom they themselves, Cra-
mer, Beale, & Co., and other friends, were hugely
interested ; and secondly, to provide concerts for
London during the winter. When the experi-
ment was first made, the usual price of concert
tickets was half a guinea, and for reserved
seats fifteen shillings. The larger area of
St. James*s Hall allowed Chappell & Co. to
try whether a sufficient audience might not be
permanently collected to enable them to give the
half-guinea accommodation for a shilling, and
the reserved seats for five shillings. The first
concerts were of a miscellaneous character, con-
sisting largelv of old ballads and well-known in-
strumental pieces. Success was then fluctuating,
depending m a measure upon fine nights and
. new comers to make them productive. At this
stage it was suggested to Mr. Arthur Chappell
MONDONVILLE.
by an eminent musical critic, to try ooncertt
of classical chambei^music, which could rarely
be heard, and thus to collect a permanent
audience from the lovers of music resident in
London and the suburbs. Mr. J. W. Davison.
suggested the first six performances, which
were announced as a Mendelssc^ night, %
Mozart night, a Haydn and Weber night, a Bee-
thoven night, a second Mozart night, and »
second Beethoven night. This series produced
a small profit^ but the following evenings re-
sulted in loss. It was then proposed to give
up the experiment, but this was strenuously
opposed both by Mr. Arthur Chappell, and by
his friend and adviser, who has continuously
annotated the programmes, and has thereby
contributed largely to the success. Two more
concerts were tried, which fortunatdy yielded a
fair profit, and from that time the system haa
been continued, and the circle of music-loveni
has been gradually expanding. As to the title
of 'Menday Popular Concerts,* which is still
continued, the following extract from one of the
daily papers is amusing, and has much truth in
it: 'The 4tppellation Popular Concerts was
originallv, in uot, an impudent misnomer. The
music given was of the most consistently «f>-
popular character. Most speculators would have
either altered the name of the entertainment or
modified the selection •of the compositions per-
formed : Mr. Chappell took a bolder course — he
changed the public taste.*
During the twenty years, the unprecedented
number of 674 performances have been given.
As seen as the imdertaking was fairly estab-
lished, it became necessary to secure the services
of the most celebrated performers continuously,
and thus a considerable risk had to be incurred.
For instance, in 1866 Piatti received an offer of
•a large sum per annun for a permanent en-
gagement abroad, and the like was assured to
him here. The valuable services of Joachim,
of Madiune Schumann, and other great execu*
tants who reside abroad, had to be secured by
considerable sums guaranteed, to ensure yearly
visits. Mr. Arthur Chappell has been greatly
assisted by the goodwill of all the artists who
have appeared at the concerts, who have always
been ready to sink their own individuality to
perfect the performance of the music. The
artists feel that they have a thoroughly sympa-
thetic audience, and therefore take pleasure in
performing to them. Mr. Arthur Chappell has,
on his part, tried to include in the programmes
music of the highest standard, and has engaged
the greatest living artists to perform it. In
order to avoid frequent repetitions a pamphlet
has been printed, giving the date of every per^
formance of each work. Among these, very many
have been heard in England for the first time at
these concerts. [W. C]
MONDONVILLE, Jkan Joseph Cassakea.
DB, bom at Narbonne Dec. 24, 1711. died at
Belleville near Paris Oct. 8, 1773, son of well-
bom but poor parents. His taste for music showed
itself early, and he acquired considerable powen
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MONDONVILLE.
of execution as a yioliniflt. After ttavelling for
some time he settled in lille, where he was well
received, and still more so at the Concerts ^irit-
uels in 1 737. Having achieved success in Paris
«8 a violinist and composer of popular chamber-
music and organ pieces (for Balb&tre), Mondon-
viUe attempted the stage, but his first operai
'Isbe' (Academic* April 10, I743)» fsdled. In
1 744 he succeeded Grervais as Surintendant de la
Chapelle du Roi, and under court patronage he
produced, at the Acad^mie 'Le Camaval de
Pamasse' (Sept. 23, 1749), an op^ra-ballet in
3 acts, containing some graceful music. When
• the contest between the partisans of Italian and
French music, known as the Guerre des Bouffons,
arose in 1752 in consequence of the success of
' La Serva padrona/ Mondonville, a prot^g^ of
Mme. de Pompadour, was chosen champion of
the national school; and his opera 'Titon et
TAurore* (Jan. g, 1753) owed its success largely
to this circumstance. 'Daphnis et Alcimadura*
(Dec. 29, 1754), a pastoral in the Langue d'Oc,
in which he introduced many Provencal airs,
completed his popularity ; and of this he made
use to procure his appointment as director of the
Ckmoerts Spirituels. That post he occupied for
seven years (1755-62), showing great ability
both as an administrator and oonductor, and
producing at the Concerts with much success
three short oratorios, 'Les Israelites au Mont
Oreb,* * Les Fureurs de SatO,* and ' Les Titans.*
' Les Fdtes de Paphos ' (May 9, 1 758), originally
written for Mme. de Pompadour^s private theatre,
was the only opera performed at the Acad&nie
during the same period. His last operas, 'Th^s^*
(1767) and 'Psyche* (1769, a mere adaptation
of the 3rd act of * Les F^tei de Paphos*), were
unsuco^sfiil.
There is a good portrait of Mondonville in
pastel by Latour, now in the possession of M.
Ambroise Thomas. The physiognony is that of
a man, cunning, patient, and fond of money ; the
arch of the eyebrows indicating a musician gifted
with melody, and a good memory. He holds a
violin in his hand; possibly a hint from the
artist that posterity would rank the virtuoso and
conductor higher than the composer. However
tills may be, his music has long been forgotten.
His son (bom in Paris, 1748, died there 1808),
had some reputation as a violinistand oboist. [G.G.]
MONFKRRINA, a dance of the Monferrate
of Piedmont. It is a kind of country dance.
One of the few specimens which we have suc-
ceeded in finding is the composition of Signer
Piatti, and begins as follows : —
MONK.
S5S
MONIXJSZKO, Stanislaus, bom May 5, 1819,
in Lithuania, received his first musical instruction
from Aug. Freyer in Warsaw, and in 1837 ^^'oi
to Berlin, where he became a pupil of Rungen-
hagen for three yean. He first came into notice
VOL. II.
as a composer through his opera ' Halka,* given
in Warsaw 1858, by means of which he obtained
the post of Kap^lmeister. He afterwards wrote
two other operas, * Die Grafin * and ' Der Paria,'
and several masses ; also a fantasia ' Das Winter-
marchen,* and several books of songs. He died
in 1872. [JA.F.M.]
MONK, Edwin Georob, Mus. Doc., bom at
Frome, Somerset, Dec. 13, 18 19, was initiated in
music by his father, an amateur. He studied piano-
forte playing at Bath under Heniy Field, and organ
playing under George Field. He then went to
London and learned choral singing in Hullah*s
classes, and solo Binding from Henry Phillips.
After holding sevend appointments as organ'st
in his native county he went to Ireland in 1844,
and became organist and music master of the
newly-formed (k»llege of St. Columba, imd at the
same date commenced the study of harmony and
composition under Mr. G. A. Macfarren, whose
inviduable teaching he enjoyed for several years.
In 1847 he settled in Oxford, and was concerned
in the formation of ' The University Motett and
Madrigal Society.* In 1848 he obtained the
appointments of lay precentor, organist and music
master at the new (College of St. Peter, Radley,
and graduated as Mus. Bac. at Oxford. In 1856
he proceeded Mus. Doc., his exercise being a
selection from Gray*s ode, ' The Bard/ whidi he
published in the same year in vocal score. In
1859 he was appointed successor to Dr. Camidge
as organist and choirmaster of York Cathedral.
He has published a service, several anthems, a
*yeni Creator Spiritus,' and other pieces, and
various secular compositions, and has edited ' The
Anglican Chant Book* and 'The Anglican
Choral Service Book*; also, with the R^. R.
Corbet Singleton, ' The Anglican Hymn Book,*
and, with Sir F. A. G. Ouseley, 'The Psalter and
Canticles pointed for chanting' (two series), and
* Anglican Psalter Chants.* He is the compiler
of the libretti of Professor Mac&rren's oratorios,
' St. John the Baptist,* ' The Resurrection,* and
•Joseph.' [W.H.H.]
MONK, WiLLiAH Henbt (no relation to the
preceding), was bom in London in 1823. 'He
considers that his first musical impressions of any
value were derived firom the performances of the
Sacred Harmonic Society, at which, for many
years, he was a constant attendant.* He studied
under Thomas Adams, J. A. Hamilton, and G.
A. Griesbach. After filling the office of organiftt
at Eaton Chapel, Pimlioo ; St. George's Chapel,
Albemarle Street ; and Portman Chapel, St.
Marylebone, he was appointed in 1847 director of
the choir in Eling's College, London, and in 1849
organist. In 1874, upon the resignation of
Mr. John Hullah, he became Professor of Vocal
Music in the College. He was early associated
vrith Mr. Hullah in his great work of popular
musical education. In 1851 he became I^ofessor
of Music at the School for the Indigent Blind.
In 1852 he was appointed organist of St. Matthias,
Stoke Newington, where a voluntary choir, under
his direction, has ever since sustained a daily
Digitized by VjOOQIC
^i
MONK.
ehorti leryioe. He has deliyered lectures on
masio at the London Institution (1^50 to 1854),
the Philosophical Institution, Edinburgh, and
the Boyal Institution, Manchester. He was ap-
pointed a professor in the Naticmal Training
School for Music, 1876, and in Bedford College,
London, 1878. He was musical editor of ''Ae
Parish Choir * after the tenth number, and one
of the musical editors of * Hymns Ancient and
Modem.' He has edited many other works of a
similar character, including some for the Church
of Scotland, and has made various contributions
to many of the modem Hymnals. [WJE.H.]
MONOCHOBD (jt^ot mn^le, and x^P^ «
string), an instrument oonsistmg of a long box
of tlun wood with a bridge fixed at each end,
over which is stretched a wire or catgut string.
A moveable bridge is placed on the box and
serves to stop off different lengths of string, in
order to compare the relative pitch of the sounds
th^ produce.
The monodiord is said to have been invented
by Pythafforas, in the 6th century B.C., but he
more probably learnt the use of it in Egypt.
The principle of dividing a string to obtain
different sounds was apjmed in the Eg3rptiaa
lute earlier than 3000 B.C. according to Lepsins.
Euclid, writing in the 4th century B.C., and
Claudius Ptolemy in the and century A.D., make
use of the monochord to define the intervals of
the ancient Greek scale ; and the later musical
ftystem of the Persians and Arabs is described
by Abdul Eadir in the 14th century by means
of a similar instrument,^ The Helikon was like
the monochord, but had several strings. It
was much used in the middle ages for teaching
just intonation in singing.
For measuring relative or actual pitch to any
high degree of accuracy the monochord is now
superseded by Scheibier*s tuning-fork ToNO-
METBB, and by the Sibbk as miproved by
M. Cavull^^}oU. Those who wish to constract
a monochord will find the best directions in
Perronet Thompson's 'Just Intonation,* p. 71.
' MONODIA. (From the Or. /aSpos, single, and
^^, a Song.) A term applied, by modem
critics, to music written in what is sometimes
called the Homophonic Style : that is to say,
music, in which the Melody is confined to a
single part, instead of being equally distributed
between all the Voices employed, as in the Poly-
phonic Schools.
The rise of the Homophonic School was extra-
ordinarily rapid. Soon after the death of Pales-
trina» in the year 159^ it sprang suddenly into
notice; and, without having previously passed
through any of the usual stages of gradual de-
velopment, at once began to exercise an irresistible
influence upon the progress of Art.
Giov. Battista Doni tells us, that, at the cele-
brated riunions which took place in Florence,
about the close of the Sixteenth Century, at the
house of Sig. Giov. fiardi de* Conti di Vemio,
* Yincenxo Gralilei was the first who composed
1 Bee BelahoUx. ' B«D«uioiu of Toot.* pp. tfO^
MONODI^.
songs for a single voice ' : and, that Giulio Cacoini,
(detto Romano), ' in imitation of Galilei, but in a
more beautiful and pleasing style, set manw
canzonets and sonnets written by eicellent poets ;
and sang them 'to a single instrument, which
was generally the theorbo^ or large lute, played by
'Baj^illa.* [See Cacxshi, Giulio.] ThesucoeBs
of these eany efforts was so encouraging, that
the inventors of the Opera 'and the O^tocio
were content to write the whole of their Recita-
tives, and even the rudimentary Arias with which
they were interspersed, with no richer accompani-
ment than that of an exceedingly simple figured
bass, in which we soon find indications of the
imprepared discords first introduced bv Mcmte-
verde. The use of these discords inevitably led
to the repudiation of the Antient Ecclesiastical
Modes, in favour of the modem Major and Minor
Scales; and, these scales once established, the
new system was complete. No doubt^ uniscmoas
vocal music, with little or no accompaniment,
had been heard, in the Canzonetta, Villanella,
and other forms of national melody, ages and
ages before the birth of Galilei ; and that the
recognition of what we now call the ' Leading
Note * as an essential element of Melody was no
new thing, may be gathered firasu the words of
Zarlino, who, writmg in 1558, says 'even
Nature herself has provided for these things ;
for, not only^ those skilled in music, but also Sie
Contadini, who sing without any Art at all »
proceed by the interval of the semitone * — i. e.
m forming their doses. Nevertheless, whatever
may have been the popular practice, it is certain
that the Polyphonic Style alone had hitherto been
taught in the Schools. We must understand,
therefore, that those who met at the house of
Baidi, though undoubtedlv the first to introduce
this simple music to real lovers of Art, were not
its actual inventors. The latent germs of the
Monodio Style must have been present wherever
National Melody existed.
The following example, from Caooini*s ' Nuove
Musiohe ' (Venezia, 1002), will shew the kind of
effidct contemplated by the Count of yemio*8
enthusiastio disciples. We need scarcely say,
that the figure 14, under the last D, in the last
bar but one, indicates a Dominant Seventh : but,
before this Canzonetta was published, Monte-
verde had already printed lus Fifth Book of
Madrigals; he would not^ therefore, be robbed
of any portion of the credit universally accorded
to him, even if it could be proved — which it
cannot — that the Discord, in this instance, was
not intended to appear as a Passing-note. The
Seventh on the £, in the third bar, is, of course,
a Suspension, written in strict acoordanoe with
the laws of antient counterpoint. [See MoHTS-
YEBDB, CLAUOIO.]
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MONODIA.
MONSIGNT.
855
11 |io 14 :&
Poor as this seeniBy when compared with the
delightfol Madrigals it was intended to supplant,
it nevertheless already shews traces of a new
elfflnent. destined to work one of the most sweep-
ing revolations known in the history of Art. In
exchange for the contrapuntal glories of the Six-
teenth Oentury, the Composers of the Seventeenth
offered the gnoes of symmetrical form, till then
tmknown. The idea was not thrown away upon
their successors. Before very long, symmetrical
form was cultivated in association with a new
system, not of counterpoint, as it is sometimes
fRoneously called, but of part-writing, based
upon the principles of modem harmony, and
eminently adapted to the requirements of instru-
mental music : and, thus, to such slight indications
of regular phrasing, reiterated figure^ and pre-
arranged plan, as are shewn in (^Mxini*s unpre-
tending little Aria, we are indebted for the genn
ef mu3i that delights us in the giAndest creatiolis
of modem (Genius. (Bee FoBM, Hashont,
Ofbba, Oratorio.] [WAR.]
MONOTOKE {horn ptS^ot, single, and t6i^w,
m note, or tone). Prayers, Psalms, Lessons, and
other portions of the Divine Office, when de-
claimed on a sioffle note, are said to be mono-
toned, or redted m Monotone. It is only when
ornamented with the traditional inflections proper
to certain parts of the Service, that they can be
consistently described as sung. [See Aooxnts.]
The use of Monotonio Recitation is of extreme
antiquity; and was probably suggested, in the
first instance, as an expedient for throwing the
▼oioe to greater distances than it could be made
to reach by ordinary means. [W. S. R.]
MONPOU, FRAN9018 Loins Hippolttb, bom
in Paris, Jan. 13, 1804; at 5 became a chorister
at St. Germain l*Auxerrois, and at 9 was trans-
ferred to Notre Bame. In 181 7 he entered as a
I in the school founded by Choron, which he
i in 1819 to be the organist at the Cathedral
»t Tours. For this post he proved unfit, and
soon returned to Choron, who was extremely fond
of him, and made him, although a bad roader,
and a poor pianist, his accompagnateur (or assist-
ant) at his Institution de Musique religieuse.
Here he had the opportunity of studying the
works of andent and modem composers of all
schools, while taking lessons in hannony at the
same time from Porta, Chelard, and F^s ; but
notwithstanding all these advantages he showed
little real aptitude for music, and seemed des-
tined to remain in obscurity. He was organist
successively at St. Nicolas des Champs, St.
Thomas d Aquin, and the Sorbonne, and sacred
music appeared to be his special vocation until
i8a8, when he published a pretW nocturne for
3 voices to B^nmger*s song, <Si j*^tai8 petit
oiseau.* He was now taken up by the poets of
the romantic school, and became their musical
interpreter, publishing in rapid succession ro-
mances and oallads to words chiefly by Alfred
de Musset and Victor Hugo. The hannony of
these songs is incorrect^ the rhythm rude and
halting, and the arrangement wretched, but the
general effect is bold and striking, and they
contain much original melody. Backed as the
composer was by h^uential friends, these qualities
were sufficient to attract public attention, and
ensure success. But though he was the oracle of
the romanticists, Moi^>ou found himself after the
dose of Choron's school without regular employ*
ment, and being a married man found it neces>
sary to have some certain means of support. The
stage seemed to offer the best chance of fi^une,
and though entirely unpractised in instrumen-
tation, he unhesitatingly came forward as a
composer of operas. Within a few years he pro-
duced 'Les deux Reines' (Aug. 6, 1835) ; 'Le
Luthier de Vienne ' (June 30, 1836) ; * Piquillo*
3 acts (Oct. 31, 1837); 'tfn Conte d' Autrefois '
(Feb. 30. i8a8); *Perugina' (Dec 30^1838);
'Le Planteur,* a acts (March i, 1839); 'La
chaste Suzanne,* 4 acts (Dec 37, 1839) ; and
'La Reine Jeanne,' 3 acts (Oct. I3, 1840).
These operas bear evident traces of the self-
sufficient and ignorant composer of romances,
the slovenly and incorrect musician, and the poor
instrumentalist which we know Monpou to have
heea ; but quite as i^parent are melody, dramatic
fire and instinct^ and a certain hi^py knack.
His progress was undeniable, but he never be-
came a really good musknan. Unfortunately he
overwOTked himselC and the effort to produce
with greater rapidity than his powers would
justify, resulted in his premature death. Being
seriously ill he was ordered to leave Paris, but
he became worse, and died at Orleans Aug. io>
1 841. He left unfinished 'Lambert Simnel'
(Sept. 16, 1843), completed bv Adolphe Adam,
and a short op^«H)oinique, 'L*Orf^vre,^ which has
never been performed, [G.C.]
MONRO, Henbt, bom at Lincoln in 1774,
was a chorister in the cathedral there, and after-
wards a pupil of John James Ashley, Dussek,
Dittenhofor and Domenico CorrL In 1796 he
was app<nnted organist of St. Andrew's, New-
ouitle-upon-Tyne. He composed a sonata^ for
pianoforte and violin, and a few pianoforte pieces
and songs. [W. H. H.]
MONSIGNY, PiEBBS Alexandrb, whom
Choron used to. call the French Sacohiiri, bom
Digitized by
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B56
MONSIGNT.
at Fanqaembeif^e near Si Omer, Oct. 17, 1739,
showed a taste for musio in childhooid, azid
studied the violin with success, though not in*
tended for the profession of music. His father
died just as he had completed his classical educa-
tion, and wishing to h^p his family, Monsiffny
went to Paris in 1749. and obtained a deriuhip
in tiie Bureaux des Oomptes du derg^. Having
good patronsy for his fiunily was a noble one,
and being well-educated, re6ned in manners,
and a dcuful violinist, he was soon attached to
the household of the Duke of Orieans as maitre
d'hotel, with a salaiy which placed him above
want, and enabled him to provide for his younger
brothers. He then resumed his musical studies,
and Pergolese's ' Serva Padrona ' having inspired
him wi£ a vehement desire to compose a comic
cpera, he took lessons from Gianotti, who played
the double-bass at the 0p6a and taught har-
mony on Bameau's system. He was a good
teacher, and his pupil made so much progress
that it is said Gianotti would not have been
avOTse to putting his own name on the score of
*Les Aveux indiscrets* which Monsigny sub-
mitted to him after («ly five months* tuition, and
which at once established his £une when pro-
duced at the Th^tre de la Foire (Feb. 7, 1759).
Encouraged by this first success he composed for
the same theatre, 'Le Maitre en droit* (Feb. 13,
1 760), and * Le Oadi dnp^ ' (Feb. 4. 1 761), which
contains an animated and truly comic duet. His
next opera, 'On ne s'avise jamais de tout* (Sept.
14, 1761), was the first in which he had tne
advantage of a libretto by Sedaine, and the last
perfbrmMl at the Th^tre de la Foire, before it
was dosed at the request of the artists of the
Com^e Italienne, in fear of the new com-
poser's increasing reputation. After the fusion
of the two companies Monsigny composed sue-
cessivdy • Le Roi et le Fennier, 3 acts (Nov. 3 2,
1762) ; 'Rose et Colas,' i act (March 8, 1764) ;
'Aline, Heine de Golconde' 3 acts, (April. 15,
1766) ; 'L'He sonnante,' 3 acts (Jan. 4. 1768) ;
'Le Ddserteur/ 3 acts (March 6, 1769); 'Le
Fauoon,' i act (March 19, 1772); 'La belle
Ars^ne,' 3 acts (Aug. 14, 1775); 'Le rendez-
vous bien employ^,' i act (Feb. 10^ 1774) ; *°<^
•F^lir ou Tenfant trouv^,' 3 acts (Nov. 24,
1 777). After the immense success of this last
work he never composed again. He had acquired
a considerable fortune as steward to the Diike of
Orleans, and Inspector-general of canals, but the
Revolution deprived lum of his employment,
and of nearly all his resources. However in
1798 the sodltaires of the Op^ra-Oomique came
to lus assistance, and in recognition of his services
to the theatre, allowed him an annuity of 2,400
francs (nearly £100). On the death of Picdnni
two years later, he was appointed Inspector of
Instruction at the Conservatoire de Musique,
but he resigned in 1802, being aware that he
could not adequately perform the duties of the
office, from his own msuffident training. In
1 81 3 he succeeded Gh^try at the Institut ; but it
was not tUl 1816 that he recdved the Legion of
Honour. He died Jan. 14, 1817, aged 88, his
MONTE.
last years being soothed by constant testimonies'
of sympathy and respect.
As an artist Moosigny's greatest gift was
mdody. His desultory training accounts for the
poverty of his instrumentation, and for the ab-
sence of that ease, plasticity, and rapidity of
treatment^ which are the most charming attri-
butes of genius. He was not prolific ; and dther
from fatigue, or from a dread of an encounter
with Gr^toy, he ceased to compose immediatdy
after his greatest triumph; his exquidte sensi-
bility, and his instinct for dramatic truth, have
however secured him a place among original and
creative musicians. [G.C.]
MONTAGNANA, Aktonio, is the name of
a celebrated basso, who appeared in England in
the autumn of 1 73 1. He made his cf^ii/ on thai
London boards in *Poro* (revived); and in
January, 1732, he created the bass rAle in
'Eado,' Handel having written q>edaDy for
him ihe fiunous song ' Nasce al bosoo,* which is
composed on a different plan from most of hia
other bass songs, and was dearly intended to
exhibit the pecu^ar powers of the singer. This
opera was followed by 'Sosarme,* in which
Montagnana had again an air 'Fra Tombre e
TOTrori,' in which the depth, power, and md*
low qualitv of his voice, and his rare accuracy
of intonation in hitting distant and difficult
intervals, were displayed to lull advantage. In
the same year he sang in Handd*s 'Ads,* 1^
revival of ' Alessandro,* 'Flavio,' •Coriolano,*
and in 'Esther.* In 1733 Montagnana took
part in 'Deborah,* 'Tdomeo,* 'Ottone,' •Or-
lando,' and 'Athaliah* (at Oxford). In 'Or.
lando * he had another very difficult song com-
Cid expressly for him, ' Sorge infausta,* whidi
remained a trial of compass and execution,,
since his day, for the most accomplished bassL
In the following year, however, Montagnana
seceded, with Senedno and Cuzzoni, to the Thea-
tre in Lincoln*s-Inn-Fidds, under the direction
of Porpora ; and here he appeared in 'Onorio' by
that master, and other pieces. In 1735 and 36
he was still with Porpora, singing in his 'Polifemo,*
and the *Adriano* of Veradni. In Januaiy, 1738,
he returned to his alliance to Handel, singing
in 'Faramondo* then first produced, *La Con-
quista dd Velio d'Oro,' and * Serse.* After this
we hear no more of Montagnana. [J.M.]
MONTE, Philippe or Fujppo ds, and some-
times Philippe de Mons, bom probably in 152 1
or 22,^ traditionally at Mons, but according to
Dlabacz at MechUn.' As to his history we
gain -little by consulting old authorities, as Bois-
sart,'! Bullart,* Freher,^ Sweertius* etc., and are
told as much by the title-pages of Philippe's own
1 todeler^ portrait, the dngto Mithortty for tlilt dato^ sfT« Phi-
Upiw'BageMTSInUM.
a 'Allfem. hlstor. KOnsMer Lex. tat BOhmeD^* «o.<(rrts. 18U).
DUbtei round* hb statement on a lUt of tbe Imperial chapel dated
vm. For a faUdlwusdoo of the suldeoi tee FMs* Biographic widw
• FhiUppe de Mooa.'
a Botsaardnt. ' Ioodob VIror. nivstr..' pan & pw aS (15B8).
4 Bullari, * Aoademle des Bdeooea.' eto^ toL IL bk. 4. pb IW (Bna-
•Uaiieffl).
• Frdterl. 'Theatmm Tlr. claroram* (Vnrembars !<*»•
• SvraertliM. * AtbMUi BelgVw.' pw 6«B (ADtirafp lOV.
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MONTB.
pabHoations. Ballart» however, gives a portrait
of the composer, after Sadeler, which is well
worth seeing, and much superior to the smaller
copies of it hi Boissart and Hawkins. Elisabeth
Weston's poem,* often referred to in bi()graphies
of Philippe, gives no information at all.
De Monte published his ist book of Masses
at Antwerp in 1557,^ just at the end of Lassus^s
residence in that city, and we may safdy credit
the common tradition of a friendship existing
between the two composers. It was probably on
Orlando's recommendation that Philippe was
called to Vienna, May i, 1568, to become Maxi-
milian's Chapelmaster. Budolph II, the next
emperor, moved his court to Prag^ue, and thither
Philippe followed him. Thus we find him
dating from Vienna April 15, 1569,* and from
Prague Sept. ao, 1580,^ and Oct. 10, 1587.*
M. F^tis gives interesting details c^de Monte's
i^pointment as treasurer snd canon of the cathe-
diral at Cambrai, a benefice which he apparently
held without residence. He resigned these ap-
pointments early in 1603, and died on July 4th
of the same year *
De Monte published over 30 books of madri-
gala — 19 books k 5, 8 li 6, and 4^4.^ 8 books
of these in the British Museum contain 163 nos.,
so we may assume that 630 madrigals were
printed, not to speak of many others contributed
to ooUections. His sacred pubUoations (a books
of masses, and 6 of motets) seem comparatively
few, but he would scarcely find at the imperial
ooort the same encouragement to write, or assist-
ance to publish such works, as fell to the lot of
his contemporaries at Bome and Munich. Of
modem reprints, Hawkins contributes a madri-
gal k 4, Dehn and Gommer a motet each, and
van Maldeghem some nos. in his Tr^r Musi-
caL [J.B.S..B.]
MONTEVEBDE. Glaudio, the originator of
the Modem style of Oompositicm, was bom at
Cremona in the year 1568 ; and, at a very eariy
period, entered the service of the Duke of Man-
tua as a Violist; shewing, from the first, un-
mistakeable signs of a talent which gave good
promise of future excellence^ and which, b^ore
Long, met with cordial recognition, not only at
Ihe Ducal Court, but from end to end of Europe.
The youthful Violist was instructed in counter-
point by the Duke's MaetAro cU capdla. Marc
Antonio Ingegneri ; a learned Musician, and a
Composer of some eminence, who, if we may
judge l^ the result of his teaching, does not
seem to have been blessed, in this instance, with
a very attentive pupil. It is, indeed, difficult to
bdieve that Monteverde can ever have taken
1 rrom thft 'Fwthaoloon.' by B. J. Watton, 'ex hndlte Wflrtonlo-
rnm Ancb' (Fr»c&. Anc. 16^ ISIO). The poea In Fhnippe'i bonoor
OOiHisU ofiS LettD Unet.
1 lOuanun 4 fi, C. 8l Ub. L (Antwerp 11167). ThU on the Mttbority
offVMIe.
a See Alto eopj of and book of «-pMrt Ibdrlgalt (Venlee 1M»X in BrK.
Mm.
4 9lb book of Ibdrigab (4 6) (Ventoe laeo). In Brtt Xu.
» tecrer. Cutlonum. MU IL (Veolee IfiOT). In Brtt. Mas.
• For tbb d^e. and thet of the Vienna appointment, lea Eltner.
' VeraelehniM nener Ansgeben' (BerUn. Trantwein, 1K71).
7 r^tktpeaki oftbelBthbook. The BrMih Husenm hai the 1Mb.
F^iif mentions no 4-part Madrigals; but the Oatalogue of the
BibttoCb4qui mis oootalDi * IM n. dL M. fl 4». UU di Mad. 4 4.'
MONTEVEBDE.
S57
any real interest In the study of Scholastio Music
Contrapuntal excellence was not one of bis strong
points; and he never shines to advantage in
Music in which it is demanded. His first pub-
lished woric— a Book of ' Canionette a tre vooi,'
printed, at Venice, in 1 584 — though clever enough
for a youth of sixteen, abounds in irregularities
which no teacher of that period could have con-
scientiously endorsed. And the eariier books of
Madrigals, by which theCanzonette were followed,
shew no progressive improvement in this respect,
but rather uie reverse. The beauty of some of
these Compositions is of a very high order;
yet it is constantly marred by unpleasant pro-
gressions which can only have been the result
of pure carelessness ; for it would be absurd to
suppose that such evil-sounding combinations
could have been introduced delilx^rately, and
equally absurd to assume that Ingegneri neg-
lected to enforce the rules by the observance
of which they might have been avoided. We
must, however, draw a careful distinction be-
tween these &ulty passages and others of a very
different character, which, though they must
have been thought startling enough, at the time
they were written, can only be regarded, now, as
unlearned attempts to reach, per mltum, liiat
new and as yet unheard-of style of beauty, for
which the young Composer was incessantly long-
ing, and to which alone he owes his undoubted
claim to be revered, not only as the greatest
Musician of his own age, but, as the inventor of
a System of Harmony which has remained in
uninterrupted use to the present day. Among
progressions of this latter class we may instance the
numerous Suspensions of the Dominant Seventh,
and its Inversions, introduced into the Cadences
of Straooiami pur il core — an extremely beautiful
Madrigal, published in the Thfrd Book (1594).
Also, an extraordinary chain of suspended
Sevenths and Ninths, in the same interesting
work ; which, notwithBtanding the harshness of
its effect, is really free from anything approach-
ing to an infraction of the theoreti^ laws of
Counterpoint, except, indeed, that one which
forbids the resolution of a IMsoord to be heard
in one part, while the Discord itself is heard in
another — and exceptions to that law may be
found in works of much earlier date.
T^f^r^F
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HONTEVERDE.
In liiB fifth Book of M&drigals, printed in
1599, Monteverde grew bolder; and, thrusting
the time-honoured laws of Counterpoint aside,
struck out for himself that new path which he
ever afterwlotls unhesitatingly followed. With
the publication of this volume began that deadly
war with the Polyphonic Schooui which ended
in their utter defeat, and the firm establish-
ment of what we now call Modem Music. In
'Omda Amarilli* — ^the best-known Madrigal in
this most interesting series, we find exemplifica-
tions of nearly all me most important pomts of
divergence between the two opposite systems,
not excepting the crucial distinctions involved
in the use of the Diminished Triad, and the
unprepared Dissonances of the Seventh and
Ninth:—
Some modem writers, including Oulibicheff,
and Pierre Joseph Zimmermann, have denied
that these passages exhibit any novelty of style —
but they are in error. Up to this time. Sevenths
had been heard only in the form of Suspensions,
or Passing-Notes, as in ' Straodami pur il core.'
The Unprepared Seventh — the never-failing test
by which the Antient School may be dis-
tinguished from the Modem, the Strict Style
from the Free — was absolutely new; and was
regarded, by coniempoi;aiy Musicians, as so great
an outrage upon artistic propriety, that one of
^e most learned of them — Giovanni Maria
Artusi, of Bologna — ^published, in the year 1600,
a work, entitled ' Delle imperfettioni della modema
musioa,* in which he condemned the unwonted
progressions found in ' Cnida Amarilli/ on the
ground that they were altogether opposed to the
nature of legitimate Harmony.' To this severe
critique Monteverde replied, by a letter, ad-
dressed * Agli studiosl lettori,* wldch he prefixed
to a later volume of Madri^;als. A bitter war
now raced between the adheiaents of the two
contending Schools. Monteverde endeavoured to
maintdn his credit by a visit to Bome, where
he presented some of his Ecclesiastical Compo-
sitions to Pope Clement VIII. But, much as
his Church Music has been praised by the learned
Padre Martini, and other well-known writers,
1 *Oft« $laMO earn UfarnA daita natnra at proprUlA deW haraonto
MONl'EVEttDE.
it (s altogether wanting in the freshness whidl'
distinguishes the works of tiie Grreat Masters
who brought the Koman and Venetian Schools
to perfection. Laboured and hard where it shonld
have been ingenious, and weak where it should
have been devotional, it adds nothing to itr
author^s fame, and <mly serves to shew how
surely his genius was leading him in another,
and a very difierent direction.
Monteverde succeeded Ingegneri as Maestro
di Capella at the Ducal Court, in the year 1603.
In 1607, the Duke's son, Francesco di Cronzaga,
contracted an alliance with Margherita, Infanta
of Savoy ; and, to grace the Marriage Festival,
the new Maestro produced, hi emulation of
Peri*s 'Euridice,* a ffrand serious Opera, called
'Arianna,' the text of which was supplied by the
Poet, Rinuccini. The success of this great work
was unprecedented. It could scarcely have been
otherwise ; for, all the Composer's past experienco-
was brought to bear upon it. The passionate
Dissonances, which had cormpted the Madrigal,
and were destined, ere long, to prove the de«
structionof the Polyphonic Mass, were here turned '
to such good account, that, in the scene in which
the forsaken Ariadne laments the desertion of
her faithless lover, they drew tears from
every eye. No possible objection could be raised
against them, now. The censures of Artusi and
his colleagues, just though they were, would
have lost aJl their force, had they been directed'
— which, happily, they were not — against Vocal
Music with Insbmmental Aocomnaniment. The
contrapuntal skill necessary for the succeasfal de-
velopment of true Church Music would have been
quite out of place, on the Staffe. Monteverde's
bitterest enemies could scaro^y fail to see that
he had found his true vocation, at last. Well
would it have been for Polyphonic Art, and for
his own reputation, also, had he recognised it
sooner. Had he given his attention to Dramatia
Music, from the first, the Mass and the Mad-
rigal might, perhaps, have still been preserved
in the purit^ bequeathed to them bv Falestrina
and Luca Marenzio. As it was, the utter de-
molition of the older School was effected, before
the newer one was built upon its xuins : and
Monteverde was as surely tne destroyer of the
first, as he was the founder of the second.
'Arianna ' was succeeded, in 1608, by *Orfeo,'
a work of still grander proportions, in which the
Composer employs an Orchestra consisting of no
less than thirty-six Instruments — an almost in- ^
credible number, for that early age. As no
perfect copy of 'Arianna ' has been preserved to
us, we know little or nothing of the instrumental
effects by which its beautie^ were enhanced.
But, happily, 'Orfeo' was published, in a complete
form, in 1609, and again re-issued, in 1615 ; and,
from directions given in the printed copy, we.
learn that the several Instruments employed in
the Orchestra were so combined as to produce
the greatest possible variety of effect, and to aid
the dramatic power of the work by the introduc-
tion of those contrasts which are generally re-
garded ai the exclusive product of modem g^us.
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MOl^TEVERDK
' Orfeo/ indeed, exhibits many very remarkable
affinities with Dramatic Music in its latest form
of development — affinities which may not un-
reasonably lead us to enquire whether some of
our newest conceptions are really so original as
we suppose them to be. The employment of
certain characteristic Instruments to support the
Voices of certain members of the Dramatis per-
9once is one of them. The constant use of a
specias of Mezzo recitativo — so to speak — in pre-
ference either to true Recitative, or true Melody,
is another. But, what shall we say of the Instru-
mental Prelude, formed, from beginning to end,
upon one single chord, with one single bass note
sustained throughout? No two compositions
could be less alike, in feeling, than this, and
the Introduction to* Das Rheingold' — ^yet, in
construction, the two pieces are absolutely iden-
tical.'
Monteverde produced only one more work of
smy importance, during his residence at Mantua
— a Mythological Spectacle, called 'U hallo delle
Ingrate,' which was performed at the same time
as * Orfeo.* Five years later, he was invited to
Venice, by the Procurator! of 8. Mark, who, on
the death of Giulio Gesare Martinengo, in 1613,
elected him their Maestro di Capell^ promising
him ft salary of three hundred ducats per annum
— ^ludf as much again as any previous Maestro
had ever received — together with a sum of fifty
ducats for the expenses of his journey, and a house
in the Canons' Close. In 161 6, his salary was
raised to five hundred ducats : and, from that
time forward, he gave himself up entirely to the
service of the Republic, and siffued his name
* daudio Monteverde, Veneziano?
The new Maestro's time was now fully occupied
in the composition of Church Music for the
Cathedral, in training the Singers who were to
perform it, and in directing the splended Choir
placed under his command. His effi>rt8 to
please his generous patrons were crowned with
ofimplete success ; and his Ume spread far and
wide. On May 35, 1621, some Florentines, resi-
dent in Venice, c^ebrated a grand Requiem, in
the Church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo, in memory
of Duke Cosmo IL Monteverde composed the
music, which produced a profound impression :
but, judging firom Strozzi*s extravagant descrip-
iion, it would seem to have been more fitted for
performance in the Theatre, than in the Church.
A happier opportunity for the exercise of his own
peouUar talent presented itself, in 1624, in con-
nection with some festivities which took place at
the Palace of Girolamo Mocenigo. On this oc-
casion he composed the Music to a grand Dra-
matic Interlude, called II CombatUmento di Tan-
eredi e Clorinda, in the course of which he
introduced, among other novel efiects, an in-
BtrumentaT tremolo, used exactly as we use it
at the present day — ^a passage which so aston-
ished the performers, that, at first, they refused
to play it.
I We deeply nsret that want of tpeoe fSorbldi m to give this Xove-
ment te txumo. We teve. bowerer, food hope tbaX U mU not long
MONTEVERDE.
^d
But Monteverde's will was now too powerful to
be resisted. He was the most popular Composer in
Europe. In 1627, he composed five Intermezzi
for the Court of Parma. In 1629, he wrote a
Cantatar-* H Rosajo fiorito '—for the Birth-day
Festival of the Son of Vito Morofdni, governor
of Rovigo. In 1630, he won new laurels by the
production of 'Proserpina rapita,* a mnd Opera,
written for him by Giulio Strozzi, and represented
at the Marriage Festival of Lorenzo Giustiniani
and Giustiniana Mocenigo. Soon after this event,
Italy was devastated by a pestilence, which,
within the space of sixteen months, destroyed
fifty thousand lives. On the cessation of the
plaij^e, in November, 1631, a grand Thanks-
givmg Service was hdd, in the Cathedral of
S. Mark, and, for this, Monteverde wrote a Mass,
in the Gloria and Credo of which he introduced
an accompaniment of Trombones. Two years
later, in 1633, he was admitted to the Priest-
hood ; and, i^er this, we hear nothing more of
him, for some considerable time.
In the year 1637, ^^^ ^"^ Venetian Opera
House, II Teatro di San Cassiano, was opened
to the public by Benedetto Ferrari and Francesco
Manelli. In 1639, the suQoess of the house was
assured; and Monteverde wrote for it a new
Opera, called * L' Adone.* In 1 64 1 , ' Arianna ' was
revived, with triumphant success, at another new
Theatre — ^that of S. Mark. In the same year,
the veteran Composer produced two new works —
' Le Nozze di Enea con Lavinia,* and * H Ritomo
d'Ulisse in patria.* Finally, in 1643, appeared
'L'Inooronazione di Poppea* — the last great effort '
of a genius, which, in lees than half a century,
prov^ itself strong enough to overthrow a
system which had been at work for affes, and to
establish in its place another, which has served
as the basis of aQ the great works produced be-
tween the year in whi^ the Dominant Seventh
was invented, and that in which we are now
living.
Monteverde died, in 1643, and was buried in
the Chiesa dei Frari, where his remains still
rest, in a Chapel, on the Gospel side of the Choir.
Of his printed works, we possess eight Books of
Madrigals, published between the years 1587,
and X038 ; the volume of Canzonette, publi^ed
in 1584; a volume of Scherzi; the complete
edition of ^Orfeo'; and three volumes of Church
Music A MS. copy of ' II Ritomo d'Ulisse ' is
preserved in the Imperial Library, at Vienna;
but it is much to be regretted that the greater
number of the Composer's MSS. i^pear to be
hopelessly lost. We shall never be able to say
ihe same of his influence t^n Art — tluvt pan
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MONTEVEBDE.
never periflh. To him we owe the discovery
of a new path, in which no later genius has
ever disdained to walk; and, as long as that
path leads to new heauUes, he will maintain
a continual claim upon our gratitude, notwith-
standing the innumerable beauties of another
kind which he trod under foot in laying it open
to us. tW5.R.]
MONnCELLI, AvQBLO Mabia, was bom at
Milan about 1710. He first appeared in opera
at Borne in 1730, and, having a beautiful &ce
and figure, began in that city, where no women
were then allowed upon the stage, by represent-
ing female characters. His voice was clear and
sweet, and singularly firee from defocts. 'He was,*
says Bumey, ' a chaste performer, and ... a good
actor.* Jjk 1 731 and 3a he appeared at Venice with
Carestini, Bemacchi, and Faustina. He came
to London in the autumn of 1741, and made his
dibut here in the pasticcio ' Alessandro in Persia.*
In the beginning of 1742, after other attempts,
another opera was brought out by Peigolese,
called * Meraspe, o L'Olimplade,' the first air of
which, * Tremende, oscuri, atrod,' in MonticeIli*s
part, was sung for ten years after the end of the
run of this opera ; and ' the whole scene, in which
'* Se oeroa se dice *' occurs, was rendered so in-
teresting by the manner in which it was acted as
well as sung by Monticelli that the union of
poetry and music, expression and gesture, have
seldom had a more powerful effect on an Ihiglish
audience* (Bumey).
He continued to perform In London through
1743; and in 1744 he sang, in 'Alfonso,* sonffs
of more bravura execution than he had previoumy
attempted. During ^745 and 1746 MonticelU
still belonged to our Opera; and in the latter
year he sang inGluck's 'Caduta de* Giganti,* and
described one of his songs as an 'aria Tedeeca*
^m the richness of the accompaniment. The
'Antigono* of GkJuppi (produced May 13) was the
last opera in which Monticelli appeared on our
stage. He sang at Naples with la Mingotti in
the same year, and afterwards at Vienna. In 1 756
Hasse engaged him for the Dresden Theatre ; and
in that dty he died in 1764.
A capital mezzotint portrait of Monticelli was
scraped by Faber after Gasali. [J.M.]
MONTIGNYBAMAUBY, Cabolinb, bom
at Pamiers (Ari^ge) Jan. ai, 1843. Her elder
sister and godmother, Elvire B^maury, now Mme.
Ambroise Thomas, an excellent pianist, first
taught her music, but anxious to secure her
every advantage, entered her in 1854 at the
Conservatoire, in the pianoforte class of Pro-
fesseur Le Couppey. In 58 she gained the first
prize for piano ; in 50 a prize for solfeggio : and
m 63 the first prize ror harmony. Shortly after
this Mme. 0. B^maury plaved Mendelssohn's
Concerto in G minor at one 01 the concerts of the
Conservatoire, and her animated and vigorous
interpretation of this fi^vourite work, at once
f laced her in the first rank of French pianists,
n 1866 she married L^n Montigny, a political
writer on the staff of the ' Temps,' but was left a
widow in 72. She has constantly mixed in
MOOBE.
society of the best kind, and is as much appre-
ciated for her ready wit and attractive originality
asforher musical talent. She has not yet pubb'shed
any composition, declining to print the 'tran-
scriptions* which she occasionally plays to her
intimate firiends. She is now at the head of the
pianoforte virtuosi of France, and her recent
visits to England and tours on the Continent are
extending her reputation over Europe. Her
rcnpertoire is large; her playing is free firom
affectation; her tone powerful, her style at
once vigorous, tasteful and refined ; and she in-
terprets with fidelity the spirit of each master
whose works she produces. The impression she
leaves is that of a trae musician, gifted with
an extraordinary memory and with intelleotnal
powers above the average. [G.C.]
MOONLIGHT SONATA. An absurd Utle
which for years has been attached both in Ger-
many and England to the Sonata quasi una
fimtasia in Cf minor, the second of the two
which form together Beethoven*s op. 27. It is
dedicated to the ' Damigella Contessa Giulietta
Guicciardi.' The title is said to have been de-
rived from an expression of Bellstab the critic
^comparing the firet movement to a boat wander-
ing by moonlight on the Lake of Lucerne. In
Vienna it is sometimes known as the 'Lauben-
sonate, from a tradition that the first movement
was composed in the leafy- aUey (Laubengang) of
a garden. ^
Op. 27 was published — 'for the harpsichord or
pianoforte* — in March 1802. Its dedication,
on which so much gratuitous romance has been
built, appears firom the statement of the countess
herself to have been a mere accident. [See vol. i.
181 flu] Beethoven, perhaps in joke, laughed at
its popularity, and professed to prefer the Sonata
in Ff minor (op. 78). [See voL L 188 a.]
MOOBE, Thomas. There have been many
biographies of this *poet of all circles'; but it is as
a composer and singer, and thus as ' the idol of
his own,* that our pages must exhibit him.
Moore, who was bom of Catholic parents, in
Dublin, May 28, 1779, m^i^ to have been from
early youth susceptible of musical impressions,
and has recorded his childish delight at being
permitted to astonish the companv at the house
of a certain Miss Dodd, by grinding out music
from a little barrel-organ, whilst concealed under
a table. We next find him brought forward as a
show-reciter of his own rhymes at the school of
Samuel Whyte of Dublin, who also educated
Bichard Brinsley Sheridan. The Dublin Uni-
versity in 1 793 having opened its portals to the
once proscribed Catholics, Moore entered as a
student in 1795 : being on a visit to the fomily
of a fellow-student, he tells us of his pleasure at
hearing Haydn*s Sonata : —
j ^ 6* tr
I
1 Lenz. Beethoran et mb troto stjles. 1. SSB.
S Leni. B. dne KuutUtodle, Pi. ^ 79.
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MOOBB.
ted a lesson of Nicolai^s performed on the harpsi-
ohord by the sistera of his friend. Among his
mosical aoqnainlanoes were one Wesley Doyle, a
mosiGiaQ's son, who published some songs at
Chappell's in x8aa, and Joe, the brother of
Michael KeUy, the author of the ' Reminiscenoes.'
Moore sang efPeotively upon these occasions some
of the songs of Dibdm, then immensely popular.
He now reoeived lessons from Warren, subse-
sequently organist of the Dublin cathedrals, and
a pupil of Dr. Philip Gogan, a noted extemporiser
npon Irish melodies: but neither Doyle nor
Warren's example or precept produced any effect
until the future bard began to feel personal in-
terest in music Subsequently he says, * Billy
Wairen soon became an mmate of the fiunily : —
I never received from him any regular lessons ;
jet by standing often to listen while he was in-
structing my sister, and endeavouring constantly
to pick out tunes, or make them when I was
alone, I became a pianoforte player (at least suf-
ficiently so to accompany my own singing) before
almost any one was aware of it.' He produced a
sort of masque at this time, and sang in it an
ad^^tation of Haydn*s * Spirit-song/ to some lines
of his own. On occasion of some mock coronation
held at the rocky islet of Dalkey, near Dublin,
Moore met Indedon, who was then and there
knighted as Sir Charles Melody, the poet con-
tributing an ode for the sportive occasion. It
was the metrical translation or paraphrase of
Anaoreon, subsequently dedicated to the Prince
Begent, tbatfirst brought Moore intopublic notice;
about this time he aUudes to the * bursting out
of his latent talent for music': further quickened
by the publication of Bunting's first collection of
Irish melodies in the year 1 796. From this col-
lection Moore (greaUy to Bunting's chagrin)
selected eleven of the sixteen airs in the first
number of his Irish melodies ; Bunting averred
that not only was this done without acknowledge-
ment, but that Moore and his coadjutor Stevenson
had mutilated the airs. That Bunting's censures
were not without foundation will appear from Oaro-
lan's air *Planxty Kelly,' one strain of which—
MOOBE.
861
was altered by Moore to the following : —
Even this ending (on a minim) is incorrect, the
portion of the original air here used being
In ' 60 where glory waits thee,' the ending as
fiven by Moore destroys what in the article
BISH Musio we have called the narratweform ;
it should end as follows : —
The air was however altered thus to suit Moore's
lines: —
o itm n-
The song 'Bich and rare' ends thus in the
original : —
The version of Moore is perhaps an improve-
ment, but it is an alteration : —
Moore took to himself whatever blame these
changes involved, and even defended the often
rambling and inappropriate preludes of Stevenson,
which he fancifully oompajed to the elaborate
initial letters of mediaeval MSS. Moore wrote
1 35 of these beautiful and now famous poems.
His singing of them to his own accompaniment
has been firequently described as indeed deficient
in physical power, but incomparable as musical
recitation: not unfrequently were the hearers
moved to tears, which the bard himself could
with difficulty restrain; indeed it is on record
that one of his lady listeners was known to £unt
away with emotion. Mr. N. P. Willis says, ' I
have no time to describe his (Moore's) singing ;
its effect is only equalled by his own words. I
for one could have taken him to my heart with
delight 1 ' Leigh Hunt describes him as playii^r
with great taste on the piano, and compares his
voice as he sang, to a flute softened down to mere
breathing. Jel&ey, Sydney Smith, and Christo-
pher North are equally eloquent ; nay, even the ut-
terly ^^nm^i'^W^ Sir W. Soott calls him the ' pret-
tiest warbler he had ever known ' ; while Byron,
almost equally defident in musical apfHredation,
was moved to tears by his singing. Moore felt what
he expressed, for as an illustration of the saying,
' Si vis me flere, dolendum est primum ipsi tibi/ it
is recorded that on attempting 'There's a song of
the olden time,' a fiftvourite ditty of his father, forthe
first time after the old man's death, he broke down,
and had to quit the room, sobbing convulsively.
Although as an educated musician Moore had
no repute, yet> like Goldfonith, he now and then
undertook to discuss such topics as harmony and
counterpoint, of which he knew little or nothing.
Thus we find him gravely defending consecutive
fifths, and asking naively whether there might
not be some pedantry in ad^iering to the rultf
which forbids them ? That he was largely gifted
with the power of creating melody, is apparent
from his airs to various lines of his own ; amongst
them 'Love thee, dearest,' 'When midst the
gay,' 'One dear smile'; and 'The Canadian boat-
song,' long deemed a native air, but latterly
claimed by Moore. Many of his little concerted
pieces attained great popularity. The terzetto
* O, lady fair' was at one time sung everywhere ; a
little three-part glee, * The Watchman '—describ-
ing two lovers, unwilling to part, yet constantly
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MOORE.
interrupted by the warning voice of the passing
guardian of the night calling out the hours
as they flew too quickly — ^was almost equally
popular. Among his poems may be briefly cited
'Anacreon*; the matchless 'Iri^ Melodies/ and
their sequel the 'National Airs*; 'Lalla Rookh'
(including four poems), and numerous songs and
ballads. With his satirical and political writings
we do not oonoem ourselves. Probably no poet
or man of letters has ever attained such popu-
larity, or such loving celebrity amongst his very
rivals. Some of his works have been translated
into the French, Bussian, Polish, and other lan-
guages of Europe, and his oriental verse has been
rendered into Persian, and absolutely sung in the
streets of Ispahan. It will be sufficient for our
purpose to allude to the one misfortune of his
public life, which arose from the defalcation of
Ids deputy in a small official post at Bermuda,
S'ven Mm in 1804 through the influence of Earl
'oira. The claims which thus arose he however
honourablv discharged by his literary labours.
The evenmg of Moore^s life was saddened by
the successive deaths of his children. His wife,*
an admirable woman, was his mainstay under
these trials ; and in 1 835 the government of the
day, through Lord John Bussell, almost forced
upon him a pension of £300 per annum. He
died, enfeebled, but in the possession of his
£Eiculties, Feb. 25, 185 a, at ^operton Cottage,
near Devizes. [R. P. S.]
MOOREHEAD, John, was bom in IreUnd,
where he received his first musical instruction.
He came to England when yoxmg, and was for
several years engaged in the orchestras of various
coxmtry theatres. In 1798 he was engaged in
the orchestra at Covent Garden, and soon after
employed to compose for that theatre. During
his engagement he composed music for 'The
Volcano' and 'The Navii Pillar,' 1799 ; 'Har-
lequin*s Tour' and 'The Dominion of Fancy'
(both with Attwood), i8ooj 'II Bondocani'
(with Attwood) and 'Perouse* (with Davv),
1801 ; 'Harlequin's Habeas,* 'The Cabinet' (with
Braham, Davy, etc.), and 'Family Quarrels'
(with Braham and Reeve), i8oa. He died in
1804. [W.H.H.]
MOOSER, Alots, a famous Swiss organ-
builder, whose greatest instruments are those at
Fribouig and in the New Temple at Berne. He
was bom at Fribourg in 1770, and died there
Dec. 19, 1829. Mooser also made pianos. [G.]
MORALES, Cristofebo, bom at Seville in
the early part of the i6th century, and appointed
a memlier of the papal chapel about 1540' by
Paul III. His published works, dating between
the years 1539 <^<^ '5^' consist of 16 Masses
(in 2 .books). Magnificats, and several Motets
published in various collections. Morales' 'de-
spised all worldly, to say nothing of light, music,
1 Mn Bente DylM. % mag ud baaotlAil Irish Mtnn. whom he
■iarri«d In 18U.
a Adaml't ' Onanrazloni par ben ragoUre tl ooro delto Otiv?. Fontll*
(Roma. RoMi 17U). The diUe oftheSnd book of Mum Is here quoted
M10M. In the dedication to the Pope. Monies write*' quod dUD me
JMn pridem Inter Oborl tnl rouslcoa coUocftTetls.*
I Aom prefiaoe to tod book of.Mus«fc
MORDENT.
and had nothing to do with it, regarding with
anger those who applied that noble gift of God,
the power of makmg music, to irivolous, and
even to objectionable uses.' Ambitious that his
works should be worthy of Crod and the papal
chapel, he surelv gained his end, and for neariy
350 years tbey nave been annually sung* in the
place for which he designed them. In modem
score Eslava gives six pieces; Rochlits* some
extracts firom a mass; Schlesinger* the cele-
brated motet ' Lamentabatur Jacob,' which
Adami describes as a ' marvel of art' ; Martini '^
three movements from the Magnificats. Two
motets (k 3) 'Domine Deus' and *Puer est natus*
and a Magnificat are in scoto in the British
Museum in Bumey's Musical Extracts, voL iv.
(Add. MSS. 11,584).
An interesting portrait is given hy Adami^
and copied in Hawkins' History. [«f JK.S.*B.3
MORALT. Four brothers of great celebrity
in Munich, celebrated for their rendering of
Haydn's quartets.
The first, JosKPH, bom 1775, entered the
court band in 1797, and became Kapellmeister
in 1 800, which poet he held tiU his death in 1828.
The next brother. Johakn Baptist, bom 1 777,
entered the same band in 1792, was the second
violin in the quartet, and aLso composed two
symphonies for orchestra, some ' Symphonic con-
certantes,* and 'Le9ons m^thodiques' for tbe
violin, two string quartets, besides a MS. Mass,
etc. He died in 1825.
Philipp, the violoncello of the quartet, bom
1780, was in the band from 1795 ^ ^ death
Mar. 18, 1847. He had a twin-brother, Jacques,
who played in the orchestra, but not in the cele-
brated quartet.
Geobo, the tenoi^player, was bom ini78i and
died 1 81 8.
A Moralt, probably one of the same fiunily,
was well known in England in the early part of
the present century. He was first-viola player
at the Philharmonic till 1842, when his name
disappears, possibly on account of his death,
and is succeeded by that of Hill. He took a
prominent part in the provincial festivals and
music genendly. [J.A.F.M.3
MORDENT (ItaL MordenU ; Ger. Mordent,
also Beisaer; Fr. Pinc4), One of the most im-
portant of the agrSmens or graces of instrumental
music. It consiBts of the rapid alternation of a
written note with the note immediately below it.
Mordents are of two kinds, the Simple or Short
Mordent, indicated by the sign Ally, and consisting
of threenotes, the lower or auxiliary note occurring
but once, and the Double or Long Mordent, the
sign for which is A^, in which the auxiliary
note appears twice or oftener. Both kinds begin
« ' Xottectl etc ebe si oantuio neHft OapeUa SUttaM e nelte BMiUeft
Vatleana'— e M& in the British Museum (Bgwton Oolleetton MSXl)
containing a Magnlflcat sung on tbe rlgll of Epiphany, and the motet
' Lamentabatur Jacob.' sung on the 4th Sunday in Lent.
B Sammlung GeaangstOoka. toI. 1. nos. 97. SB.
• In 'Xuslca Sacra.' Berlin U6& Each motet can be bad an^
raiely.
7 ' Bsemplare . . . di contrappanto ' (Bologna 1774). The three mow
ments are used as theoretical eiamples, and numeroas notes added
on aoMtloDt whloh th^i lUostrata.
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MORDENT-
and end with the principal note, and are played
with great rapidity, and, like all graces, occupy
a part of the value of the written note, and are
never introduced before it.
z. Single Mordent, Double Mordent,
WriUen,
Played.
The appropriateness of the term Mordent (firom
mordertt to bite) is found in the suddenness with
which the principal note is, as it were, attacked
W the dissonant note and immediately released.
Walther says its effect is * like cracking a nut
with the teeth/ and the same idea is expressed
by the old German term Beuter,
The Mordent may be applied to anv note of a
chord, as well as to a single note. When this is
the case its rendering is as follows —
a. BiicH, Sazabande ^m Suite Francftise No. 4.
3. Bach, OTerture from Partita No. 4.
A.
Sometimes an accidental is added to the sign of
the Mordent, thus ^, or ^ ; the effect of this
is to raise the lower or auxiliary note a semitone.
This raising takes place in accordance with the
rule that a lower auxiliary note should be only a
semitone distant firom its principal note, and the
alteration must be made by the player even when
thcore is no indication of it in the sign (Ex. 4),
except in certain imderstood cases. The excep-
tions are as follows, — when the note bearing the
Mordent is either preceded or followed by a note
a whole tone lower (Ex. 5 and 6) and, generally,
when the Mordent is applied to either the third
or seventh degree of the scale (Ex. 7). In these
cases the auxiliary note is played a whole tone
distant from its prindpaL
4. Bach, Oigan Fugue in E mlncn'.
/^ /^
^ - 0 p fL^ , •
MORDENT.
Air from Suite Frao^aiae No. i.
6. 'WeH-tempered ClaTler, No. i, vol. a.
7. San^MUide from Suite FranQaise No. 5.
Bar X. Bar 5.
I Ml rr rTr^MJ ■
• r H B — L^af -
The Long Mordent (pinc^ double) usually con-
sists of five notes, though if applied to a note of
great length it may, according to Emanuel Bach,
contain more ; it must however never fill up the,
entire value of the note, as the trill does, but
must leave time for a sustained principal note at
the end (Ex. 8). Its sign is >vfv, not to be con-
founded with AW, or A/vMr, the signs for a trill
with or without turn.
8. Bach, Sarobande trom Partita No. 1.
j,i ,, ^ / ^ ,mt|f i^
1 r
Besides the above, Emanuel Bach gave the
name of Mordent to two other graces, now nearly
or quite obsolete. One, called the Abbreviated
Mordent (pinc^ eeou/^) was rendered by striking
the auxiliary note together with its principal, and
instantly releasing it (Ex. 9). This grace, which
is identical with theAociACCATUBA (see the word)»
was said by Marpurg to be of great service in
playing fuU chords on the organ, but its employ-
ment is condenmed by the best modem organists.'
The other kind, called the Slow Mordent, had
no distinctive sign, but was introduced in vocal
music at the discretion of the singer, usually at
the dose of the phrase or before a pause (Ex. 10).
Abbreviated
9' Mordent.
zo. Slow Mordent,
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864
MORDENT.
Closely allied to the Mordent is another kind
of ornament, called in German the PraUtriUer
{vraUeny to reboond, ot boance), for which term
there is no exact equivalent in English, the or-
nament in question b«ing variously named Passing
Shake, Beat,and Inverted Mordent {jpinc^renvtfni),
none of which designations are very appropriate.
The sign for this grace is a/^, the short vertical
line being omitted ; and it consists, like the Mor-
dent, of three notes, rapidly executed, the auxili-
ary note beinjz one degree above the principal
note instead of below it.
The Pftdltriller is characterised by Emanuel
Bach as the most agreeable and at the same time
the most indispensable of all graces, but also the
most difficult. He says that it ought to be made
with such extreme rapidity that even when in-
troduced on a very short note, the listener must
not be aware of any loss of value.
The proper, and according to some writers
the only place for the introduction of the Prall-
triller is on the first of two notes which descend
diat(Hiically, a position which the Mordent cannot
properly occupy. This being the case, there can
be no doubt that in such instances as the follow-
ing, where the Mordent is indicated in a false
position, the Pralltriller is in reality intended, and
the sign is an error either of the pen or of the
press.
Z3. Mozart, Rondo in D.
Nevertheless, the Mordent is occasionally,
though very rarely, met with on a note followed
by a note one degree lower, as in the fugue already
quoted (Ex. 6). This is however the only instance
in BacVs works with which the writer is ac-
quainted.
When the Pralltriller is preceded by an appog-
g^tura, or a slurred note one degree above tiie
principal note, its entrance is sUghtly delayed
(Ex. 13), and the same is the case if the Mor-
dent is preceded by a note one degree below
(Ex. 14).
W. F. Bacb, Sonata In D.
SuJl
MORDENT.
14. J. 8. Baca, Sarafaande from Snitt Anglafiie No. 3.
^^
^^m
¥ 1' ^ ii^lll I J
Emanuel Bach says that if this occurs before &
pause the appoggiatura is to be held very long*
and the remaining three notes to be 'snapped
up ' very quickly, thus —
15. VTHfCm. ^ * Ptaped,
The earlier writers drew a distinction between
the Pralltriller and the so-called SchneUer (jBchnd-
Un, to filip). This grace was in all respects
identical with the Pralltriller, but it was held
that the latter could only occur on a descending
diatonic progression (as in Ex. 11), while the
SchneUer might appear on detached notes. It
was also laid down that the SchneUer was always
to be written In smaU notes, thus^-
^
while the sign AV only indicated the PraUtriUer.
Ttirk observes nevertheless that the best composers
have often made use of the sign in cases where
the indispensable diatonic raogression is absent,
and have thus indicated the PnJltriUer where the
SchneUer was reaUy intended. This is however
of no consequence, since the two ornaments are
essentiaUy the same, and Tiirk himself ends by
saying ' tne enormity of this crime may be left
for the critics to determine.*
Both Mordent and PraUtriUer occur very fre-
quently in the works of Bach and his immediate
successors ; perhaps the most striking instance of
the lavish use of both occurs in the first move-
ment of Bach*8 'Capricoio on the departure of a
beloved brother,* which though only 17 bars in
length contains no fewer than 1 7 Mordents and
30 PraUtriUers. In modem music the Mcndent
does not occur, but the PraUtriUer and SchneUer is
frequently employed, as for instance by Beethoven
in the first movement of the Senate Path^tique.
Although the Mordent and PraUtriUer are in
a sense the opposites of each other, some little
confusion has of late arisen in the use of both
terms and foms. Certain modem writers have
even appUed the name of Mordent to the or-
dinary Turn, as for example Czemy, in his Study
op. 740, no. 39 ; and Hummel, in his Pianoforte
School, has given both the name and the siffn of
the Mordent to the SchneUer. This may periiaps
be accounted for by the supposition that he re-
ferred to the Italian morderUe, which, according
to Dr. CaUcott (Gnunmar of Music), was the op-
posite of the German Mordent, and was in fact
identical with the SchneUer. It is nevertheless
strange that Hummel should have neglected to
give any description of the Mordent proper. [F.T.]
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MOEELLT.
MOR£LLI» GiovANKi, a basso wiiE a voice
of much power, compass, sweetness, and flexi-
bility. He first appeared in London in Paisiello's
' Schiavi per Amore/ with Storace and Sestini,
and Morig^, who had long been the first buffo
cariccUo^ but now became second to MoreUi.
The latter was a Tery good actor, but, having
been ruTming-footman to Lord Cowper at Flo-
rence, he was probably not much of a musician.
He continued for many years in great &Tour,
and sang at the Opera m>m time to time till he
had scarcely a note left; but he was always
received kindly as an old and deser?ing fiftvourite.
He sang the bass part in the * Serva Padrona,*
with Banti, so successfully that the performance
was repeated by Boyal command ; and he was
actually singing with Catalani and Miss Stephens
(her first appearance) at the Pantheon, when
that house was rebuilt. He sang in the Ck>m-
memoration of Handel in 1787, with Mara and
BubinelU. [J.M.]
MOBENDO, ' dying,' is used to indicate the
gradual * decrescendo ' at the end of a cadence.
Its meaning is well given by Shakspeare in
the words, 'That strain again! it had a dying
fall* It is used by Beethoven in the Trio, op. i,
no. 3, at the end of the fourth variation in the
slow movement, and in the Quartet, op. 74, also at
the end of the slow movement. As a ride, it is
only used for the end of the movement or in a
cadence, but in the Quartet, op. 18, no. 7, slow
movement, and in the oth Symphony, slow move-
ment, it is not confinea to the end, but occurs in
imperfect cadences, to give the effect of a full
close. It thus differs from tmorzcmdo, as the
latter can be used at any time in the movement.
Chopin generally used tmorzando. Both these
words are almost exdusivdy used in slow
movements. [J.A.F.M.]
MOBI, Nicolas, an Italian by £eunily, bom
in London in 1793, was a pupil of Viotti, and
not only became an excellent solo violinist, but
•from his enthusiasm, industry, and judgment,
occupied a very prominent position in the music
of London and England generally from about
181 a till his death. He played in the second
<xmoert of the Philharmonic Society in 18 14, and
firom 1816 was for many years one of the leaders
of the Philharmonic band and first violin at the
Lenten oratorios, the provincial festivals, and
the majority of concerts of any importance. ' His
bow-arm was bold, free, and commanding, his
tone full and firm, and his execution remarkable.'
In addition to his profession he started a musio
business in Bond Street, in conjunction with
Lavenu, and amongst other music published the
second book of Mendelssohn's Songs without
"Words, and his P. F. Concerto in G minor. He
died June 18, i839,leavingason,PBANK (died Aug.
2, 1 873), who was well known in London for many
yearsasapromisingmusician. His cantata Fridolin
was performed several times with success ; and an
operetta, the 'River-sprite,' to words by G. linley,
was produced at Covent Garden, Feb. 9, 1865. [G.]
MORIANI, Napolboke, was bom at Florenoe
about 1806. He came of a good tamly, received
MORICHELLL
865
a liberal education, and studied the law for some
time, intending to embrace it as his profession.
Seduced, however, by the applause which his
beautiful tenor voice obtained for him in society,
he changed his intentions, and attempted the
operatic career at Pavia in 1833, with success.
After singiiu? in the principal Italian cities, he
returned to Florence in 1830, and in the follow-
ing year was recognised both there and at Milan,
and Trieste, as the first living tenor of Italy.
In 1 841 he visited Vienna, where he was ap-
pointed ' Virtuoso di Camera ' by the Emperor.
In 1844 and 1845 he sang in London. He came
with a real Italian reputation, but he came too
late in his own career, and too early for a public
that had not yet f(»gotten what Italian tenors
had been. Besides, Mario was alreadv there,
firmly established, and not easily to be cUsplaced
from his position. * Moriani's must have been a
superb and richly-strong voice, with tones full of
expression as well as force* (Chorley). But
eiuier he was led away by bad taste or fruihion
into drawling and bawling, or he had never been
thoroughly trained. Any way, he pleased little
here. Still he sang with success at Usbon,
Madrid, and Barcelona, in 1846, and was decor-
ated by the Queen of Spain with the Order of
Isabella. He sang at MHan, in the autumn of
1847, but his voice was gone, and he soon after-
wards retired from the stage, and died March
1878. Mendelssohn more than once speaks of
him as * my favourite tenor, Moriani.' [J.M.]
MORICHELLI, Ahna BOSELLO, was bora
at Reggio in 1760. Being endowed by nature
with a pure and flexible voice, she was instracted
by Guadagni, one of the best sopranists of the
day. She made her d^ul at Parma in 1 770 with
great dclat. After singing at Venice and Milan,
she appeared at Vienna in 1 781-2, and with
difficulty obtained leave frrom the Emperor to
return and fulfil an engagement at Turm. She
continued to sing at the chief theatres of Italy,
until Viotti engaged her for the TfUdtre de Mon^
Heur, at Paris, in 1790, where she remained
during the years 1791-a. Here she was very
highly appreciated, even by such good judges as
Garat, and with this reputation she came to
London in 1 792, with Banti. Lorenzo d'Aponte,
the poet of the London Opera-House, gives a
severe description of these two singers in his
Memoirs : he calls them 'equals in vice, passions,
and dishonesty,' though differing in the methods
by which they sought to accomplish their designs.
To musical amateurs, such as Lord Mount-^ie-
cumbe, the Morichelli seemed far below her rival ;
* She was, they said, a much better musician. So
she might be, but never could have been half so
delightful a singer, and she was now past her prime ;
her voice was not trae, her taste spoiled by a long
residence at Paris, . . . and her manner and acting
were affected. In short, she did not please gener-
ally, though there was a strong party for her ; and
after her second season she went away, leaving
behind her, in every print-shop, her portrait,
with the flattering but frdse inscription, '* Parti,
mk vide che adorata parti va.'"
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?66
MOBICHELU,
Mme. Morichelli returned to Italy in i704»
and soon after retired from the stage. [J.M.]
M0RI6I, Andrea, an excellent basso, who
made his first appearance in London on December
9, 1766, in the character of Tagli<nferro, the
German soldier in the * Buona Figliuola,' a part
which he performed most admirably. He must
then have been a rather young man, for he held
]the position of first buffo carieato for many years,
to the delight of London audiences. He had,
however, been a member of the original caste of
the ' Buona flgliuola,' with Lovattini, Savoi, and la
Guadagni, in 1 760, at Rome, which was probably
his ddiu. He was brought to London by Gk>rdon,
with the singers just mentioned, in the au-
tumn of 1 766. After that, he continued to appear
in all the comic operas, such as * I Viaggiatori
ridicoli,* ' Vicende della sorte,* 'Pazzied'Orlando,'
«La Schiava,' *I1 Camoyale,* * Viaggiatorl Felici.'
and *I1 Convito,' down to the 'B^ Teodoro,*
* Schiayi per amore,' and ' Cameriera astuta,* in
1787 and 1788, — a long career, followed, indeed,
as Lord Mount -Edgcumbe says, until Morigi
had lost eveiy note of his voice.
In the autumn of 1783 an unsuccessful dihul
was made by Morigi^s daughter in the part of
prima donna in ' Medonte.* She tried her luck
again in 'L'Olimpiade,' but was no more success-
fid than before.
Andrea Morigi must not he confiised, as he
has been by F^tis, with the following. [J.M.]
MOBIGI, PiiTBO, bom in the Bomagna about
1705, studied singing in the school of Hstoochi
at Bologna, and bectune one of the best sopran-
ists of his time. His voice is said to have had
some higher notes in its register than any other
of that kind in the b^ginnrng of the eighteenth
century. Having appeared \dth success in most
of the Italian cities, and particularlv at Bome,
he was engaged in 1734 at St. Petersbuig, where
he made a great impression. [J.M.]
MOBLACCHI, Fbanoesoo, composer; bom
at Perugia, June 14, 1784. He learnt the violin
at seven years old from his father. At twelve
was placed under Caruso, Maestro of the cathe-
dral of Peruffia, who taught him singing, the
clavier, and tiborou^h-bass, while he leamcKi the
organ from Mazetti, his maternal great-uncle.
At thirteen he had already composed much,
and during his years of boyhood wrote several
pieces for the church, among which a short
oratorio, 'Gil angeli al sepolcro,' attracted the
attention of many amateurs, and among them, of
his godfather, Count Pietro Baglioni, who sent
him to study counterpoint with Zingarelli, at
Loreto. But the severe conventional teaching
of Zingarelli dashed with the aspirations of his
young, impatient mind, and after a year and a
half he returned to Perugia. Conscious, however,
that he had still a great deal to leam, he went
to Bologna, to complete his studies under Padre
MatteL [See Mattei.] Here he devoted much
attention to ecclesiastical music, besides making a
special study of the orchestra^ and acquiring a
practical knowledge o all the chief instruments.
MOBLACCHI.
During this time of studentship he was oommis-
sioned to write a cantata fw the coronation of
Napoleon as King of Italy, at Milan, in 1805.
In February, 1807, a musical farce called 'B
Poeta in Campagna,' was perfomied at the Pergola
theatre in Florence, and, later in this year, a
Miserere for 16 vcnces having won golden opinions,
the composer was invited to visit Verona, where
he produced his first buffo opera, 'II Bitratto.*
He achieved his first popular success with the
melodrama, 'B Corradmo,* at Parma, in 1808.
This was followed by 'Enone e Paride,* * Oreste,'
' Binaldo d* Asti,' * La Principessa per ripiego,* ' B
Simondno,* and ' Le Awenture d una Giornata,*
besides a grand Mass. But all these were sur-
passed by * Le Danaide,' written for the Argentino
theatre at Bome, in 1810. This work was im-
mensely successful, and once for all establiahed
its composer's fame. Through the influence of
Count Maroolini, Minister to 5ie Court of Saxony.
Morlacchi was now appointed chapel-master of
the Italian opera at Di^sden, at first for a year,
subsequently for life, with a laige salary, besides
a considerable honorarium fw every new cetera
he might compose, and leave of absoioe for some
mont^ of eaon year, with liberty to write what
he pleased, where he pleased. This appointment
he held till his death. The Italian style had Ions
reiffned supreme in the Dresden fiMhionable worl4
and Morlacchi at once became * the rage.* His
music partook of the styles of Paer and Mayer ; it
was melodious and pleasing, but very slight in
character. He now acquainted himself to some
extent with the works of the great German
masters, a study which had a happy effect on him,
as it led him insensibly to add a Uttle more solidity
to his somewhat threadbare harmonies. His ear-
liest compositions at Dresden were, a Grand Masi
for the royal chapel, the operas * Baoul de Cr^ui,'
and ' La Cappriciosa pentita,' and an Oratorio of
die 'Passion' (book by Metastasio), extravagantly
admired by contemporary enthusiasts.
In 1813, Dresden be(»me the military centra
of operations of the allied armies, and the King,
fViedrich August, Napoleon's futhful ally, was
a prisoner. During tms time, Morlacchi kept at
a wise distance from public afibirs, and bewailed
the feite of his patron in retirement. He was,
however, roughly aroused by a sudden order from
Baron Bozen, Bussian Minister of Police, to write
a cantata for the Emperor of Bussia's birthday.
The task was, of course, uncongenial to the com-
poser, and as only two days were available fixr it,
he declined to comply, alleging in excuse that
the time allowed was insufficient By way of
answer it was notified to him that his dioioe lay
between obeying and being sent to Siberia. ThuB
pressed he set to work, and in forty-eight hours
the cantata was ready. Not long after this the
Bussian government having deo^Md the abolition
of the Dresden chapel, Morlacchi obtained an
audience of the Czar, at Frankfort, when, in con-
sequence of his representations and entreaties, the
decree was reversed.
To celebrate the return of die Saxon king to
his capital in 1814, Morlacchi wrote another
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MORLACCm;
Grand Mass and a sparkling huffo opei«> 'B
Barbiere di Siviglia.' His political principles
xanst liave been conveniently elastic, for the year
1 814 also saw the production of a Triamphal
Cantata for the taking of Paris by the allied
armies, and a mass for voices alone, according to
the Greek ritual, in Slavonic, for the private
chapel of Prince Repuin, who had been the
Bnssian Governor of Dresden.
In June 181 6, he was elected member of the
Academy of Fine Arts at Florence, and shortly
after paid a visit of some months to his native
oount^, where he was received with every kind
of honour, gala performances of ' Le Danaide,*
and the oratorio of the * Passion,' being given at
Perogia. For the dedication of this la^ work.
Pope Pius VII rewarded him with the decoration
of the 'Golden Spur,* and the title of Count
Palatine. An oratorio, ' II sacrifizio dAbramo,
o risaaco,* although a feeble work, was remark-
able for the employment in it of a novel kind of
rhythmical declamation, in place of the ordinary
recitative.
In 1 81 7, CM. von Weber was appointed Capell-
meister of the German opera at Dresden. iJiar*
laochi behaved to him with a studied show of
obsequious politeness, while doing his utmost in
an underhand way to cripple his activity and bar
his pruffress. Yet he did not disdain to beg for
Weber s good word as acritic in the matter of his
own compositions, and indeed was too much of an
artist not to recognise the genius of his young
colleague, to whom, although already overworked,
he would frequently delegate the whole of Mb own
duties, while on the plea of Ul-health, he absented
himsdf in Italy for months together. Between
181 7 and 1 841 he produced a number of operas
and dramatic pieces, among which ihe principal
were 'Gianni di Parigi' (1818), 'Tebaldo ed
Isolina* (1812), 'LaGioventhdi Enrico V (1823),
'Ilda d'Avenello ' (1824), 'I Saraoeni in Sicilia'
(x8a7), *n Cobmbo' (i8a8), 'II Disperato per
eccesso di buon cuore* (1829), and 'II Rinegato*
(1833), this last opera being a second setting of
the book of * I Saraceni,' ' in a style calculated
to suit German taste.' He wrote ten Grand
Masses for the Dresden chapel, besides a great
number of other pieces for the church. The best
of these was the Bequiem, composed on the occa-
sion of the King of Saxony's death, in 1827. He
said of himself that, during the composition of the
'Tuba Mirum ' in this mass, he had thought un-
ceasingly of the ' Last Judgment ' in the Sistine
chapel, and his recent biographer. Count Boasi-
Sootti, does not hesitate to affirm, that by his
harmony he emulates Buonarotti in the depiction
of the tremendous moment. We must refer those
of our readers who mav wish for a detailed
account of Morlacchi to this memoir, ' Delia vita
e delle opere del Cav. Francesco Morlacchi di
Parngiay' or to the notice in F^tis's ' Biographic
des Musiciens' (ed. of 1870), which alw) con-
tains a list of his compositions. A 'scena* or
' episode ' for baritone voice with pianoforte ac-
companiment (the narration of Ugolino, from
Canto xzxiii of the ' Inf(umo *), writteii in his last
MOBLEY.
867
yeare, deserves special mention here, as it became
very fiunous.
In 1 841 he once more set off for Italy, but was
forced by illness to stop at Innspruck, where he
died, October 28. He left an unfinished opera^
' Francesca da Bimini,'for the possession of which
Florence, Dresden, and Vienna had disputed with
each other. Profuse honours were paid to his
memory in Dresden and in Perugia.
Morlaochi's music, forty years after his death,
is an absolutely dead letter to the world. Yet
during his lifetime he was reckoned by numbers
of contemporaries one of the foremost composers
of the golden age of music. Weber's good-
natured criticism (in one of his letters) on his
* Barbiere di Siviglia,' aptly describes much of his
dramatic work. ' There is much that is pretty
and praiseworthy in this music; the fellow has
little musical knowledge, but he has talent, a flow
of ideas, and especially a fund of good comic stuff
in him.' For an exact verification of this de-
scription we refer the English student to the MS.
score of * La Gioventti di Enrico V,' in the libnury
of the National Training School for Music, at
South Kensington. He was a clever executant in
composition c^ this ephemeral kind, which sup-
plied a passing need, but could not survive it.
The best monument he left to his memory was a
benevolent institution at Dresden for the widows
and orphans of the musicians of the Boyal Chapel,
which he was instrumental in founding.
The names of such published compositions of
Morlacchi as are still to be had, may be found
in HofineiBter's 'Handbuch der musikalischen
Literatur.* [F.A.M.]
MORLEY, Thomas, Mus. Bac., was bom
probably towards the middle of the i6th century.
It has been coiyeotured that he was educated in
the choir of St. Paul's cathedral ; it is certain that
he was a pupil of Byrd. He took his degree at
Oxford July 8, 1588. In 1591 he appears to
have been organist of St. Paul's, but soon after-
wards resigned it, as he never describes himself
in any of his publications as other than Gentle-
man of the Chapel Boyal, to which office he was
admitted July 24, 1592. He was also Epistler,
and on Nov. 18, 1592, advanced to Gospeller.
His first publication was 'Canzonets, or Little
Short Songs to three voyoes,* 1593 (other editions
1606 and 165 1), which was followed by • Madri-
gallsto fours Voyoes,' 1594; 2nd edition, 1600.
In 1595 he published 'The First Booke of Ballets
to five voycee,* an edition of which with Italian
words appeared in the same year ; and another
edition with the English words in 1600. The
work was reprinted in score by the Musical An-
tiquarian Society. In 1595 aJso appeared 'The
First Book of CJanzonets to Two Voyces,' con-
taining also 7 Fantasies (with Italian titles) for
instruments. In 1597 he issued 'Canzonets, or
Little Short Aers to five and sixe voices.' and in
1600 * The First Booke of Aires or Little Short
Songes to sing and play to the Lute with the
Base -Viol.' The latter work contains the Pages*
song in As You Like It (' It was a lover and
his lass'), one of the few pieces of original
Digitized by VjOOQIC
868
MORLEY.
ShAksperean music which has come down to as ;
a charmingly fresh and flowing melody, which has
been reprinted in Knight*s ' Shakspere^* and
Chappell's ' Popular Music of the Olden Time.'
Morley*s compositions were more melodious than
those of most of his predecessors, and many of
his madrigals and ballets have enjoyed a lasting
popularity. He was editor of the following
works: — 'Canzonets or Little Short Songs to
Foure Yoyces, selected out of the best approTed
Italian authors/ 1598 ; ' Madrigals to five voyces
selected out of the best approved Italian authors/
1598 ; and 'The Triumphes of Oriana, to five
and size voyces, composed by divers several
authors,* 1601 ; reprinted in score by William
Hawes. [See Obiaka, Tbiumphbs OF.J To each
of the first and third of these he contributed
two original madrigals. He also edited 'The
First Bw>ke of Consort Lessons, made by divers
exquisite Authors for sixe Instruments to play
togetiier, viz. The Treble Lute, the Pandora, the
Citteme, the Base VioU, the Flute, and the
Treble Violl,' 1599 ; another edition, 'newly cor-
l^cted and inlarged/ appeared in 161 1. In 1597
he published ' A Plaine and Easie Introduction
to Practicall Musicke. Set downe in forme of
a dialogue : Devided into three Partes : The first
teaoheUi to sing with all things necessary for the
knowledge of a prickt song. The second teacheth
of deecante and to sing two parts in one upon
a plain song or ground, with other things neces-
sary for a des(»nter. The third and last part
entreateth of composition of three, foure, five or
more parts, with many profitable rules to that
effect. With new songs of 2, 5, 4 and 5 parts.'
This excellent work, the first regular treatise on
music published in England, continued in favour
for upwards of two centuries, and may even now
be perused with profit to the student. To the
musical antiquary it is indispensable. A re-issue,
with a new title-page, appeared in 1608, and
a second edition with an appendix, in which the
several compositions printed in separate parts in
the body of the work are given in score, was
published in 1771. The 'Introduction* was
translated into German by Johann Caspar Trost,
organist of St. Martin's, Halberstadt, in the
17th century, and published under the title of
'Musica Practica.' None of Morley's church
music was printed in his lifetime. A Service
in D minor, an Evening Service in G minor, and
an anthem were printed by Barnard, and a
Burial Service by Boyce. A Preces, Psalmes
and Besponsesy and tln-ee Anthems, are in Bar-
nard's MS. collections, and a Motet, 'De pro-
fundis/ 6 voices, also exists in MS. The words
of several anthems by him are contained in
Clifford's ' Divine Harmony.' He composed five
sets of lessons for Queen Elizabeth's Viiginal
Book. In 1598 he obtained a patent for the ex-
clusive printing of music books, under which the
works printed by William Barley, Thomas Este,
Peter Short, John Windet, and others, during its
existence were issued. On Oct. 7, 1603, George
Woodson was sworn into Morley's place at the
Chapel Boyal, but whether the vacancy had 00-
MORNINGTON.
ourred by his resignation or his death, does not
appear. It may have been the foim&c, as in his
' Introduction ' he frequently alludes to his im-
paired health, and both Hawkins and Bumey
state him to have died in 1604. Moriey's onn-
positions entitle him to much higher rank than
the musical historians were disposed to assign
to him, and very much better examples of his
compositions might have been found than those
they selected. Li proof of this it is only neces-
etay to dte 'Now is the month of Maying,'
* My bonnv lass she smileth,' ' Daintv fine sweet
nymph,' ' Fire, fire,' 'April is in my mistress fiMse,'
' Lo, where with fiow'ry head,' and ' I follow, lo,
the footing/ His Canzonets and Madrigals for
5 and 4 voices were published in score by W.W.
Holland and W. Cooke, and six of his Canamets
lor a vdoes in score by Welcker. [W. H. H.]
MORLEY, William, Mus. Bac., graduated
at Oxford, July 17, 1713. On Aug. 8, 1715, he
was admitted a Gentleman of the Chapel Boyal.
He composed some songs published in a col-
lection together with others by John Isham,
and a chuit in D minor, printed by Boyce, iL
306, by some believed to be the oldest double
chant m existence. [See FLnrrovr.] He died
Oct. 39, 1731. [W.H.H.]
MORNINGTON, Gabbbtt Collit Wkl-
LB8LST, Earl o^ Mus. Doc., bom July 19, 1735,
at Dangan, Ireland, dirolayed ci^pacity for mosic
at a very early age. Several interesting anec-
dotes of his early career are related by Daines
Barrington (Miscellanies, 1781). With litOe or
no assistance from masters he learned to play
on the violin and oigan and to compose, and
when, with the view of improving himself in
composition, he consulted Boseingrave and Ge-
miniani, they informed him that he already
knew all they could teach him. The Univer-
sity of Dublin conferred on him the degree . of
Mus. Doc., and elected him professor of that
frboulty. In 1758 he succeeded his father, who
in 1746 had been created Baron Momington,
and in 1 760 he was created Viscount Wdlesley
and Earl of Momington. His compositions are
chiefly vocal; some are for the church, copies
of which are said to exist in the choir books
of St. Patrick's cathedral, Dublin. His ^lant
in E is universally known. But it was as a
glee composer that he excelled. He gained
prizes from the Catch Club in 1776 and 1777
for two catches, and in 1779 ^^ ^ popular
glee 'Here in cool grot.' He published a
collection of 'Six Glees,' and John Sale in-
cluded three others in a ooUection witii three
of his own. Nine g^ees, three madrigals, an
ode, and ten catches by him are contained
in Warren's collections, and several glees in
Horsley's 'Vocal Harmony.' A complete col-
lection of his glees and madrigals, edited by Sir
H. B. Bishop, waspublished in 1846. He died
May 23, 1781. Three of his sons attained re-
markable distinction, viz. Richard, Marquis Wei-
leslev; Arthur, Duke of Wellington ; and Henry,
Lord Cowley. [W.H.H.]
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MORRIS DANCE.
MORRIS, or MORRICE, DANCE. A sort
of pageant, acoompanied with dancing, probably
derived frran the Moriaco, a Moorisn dance
focmerly popular in Spain and France. Al-
thoogh the name points to this derivation, there
is some doubt whether the Morris Danoe does
not owe its origin to the Matacins. In ac-
counts of the Morisco, no mention is made of
any sword-dance, which was a distinguishing
feature of the Matacins, and survived in the
English Morris Dance (in a somewhat different
form) so late as the present century. Jehan
Tabourot, in the Orch^sographie (Langros, 1 588),
says that when he was young the Morisco used to
be frequently danced by boys who had their
faces blacked, and wore bells on their legs. The
dance contained much stamping and knocking
of heels, and on this account Tabourot says that
it was discontinued, as it was found to give the
dancers gout. The following is the tune to which
it was danced: —
The English Morris Dance is said to have been
introdu^ from Spain by John of Graunt in the
reign of Edwaord III., but this is extremely
doubtful, as there are scarcely any traces of it
before the time of Henry VII., when it first
began to be popular. Its performance was not
ccmfined to any particular time of the year,
although it generally formed part of the May
games. When this was the case, the characters
who took part in it consisted of a Lftdy of the
May, a Fool, a Piper, and two or more dancers.
From its association with tho May gunes, the
Morris Dance became incorporated with some
pageant c(Hnmemorating Robin Hood, and charac-
ters representing that renowned outlaw. Friar
Tuck, Liittle Jo^, and Maid Marian (performed
by a boy), are often found taking part in it. A
hobby-horse, 4 whif9ers, or marshals, a dragon,
and other characters were also frequently added
to the above. The dresses of the dancers were
ornamented round the ankles, knees, and wrists
with different-sizedbells, which were distinguished
as the fore bells, second bells, treble, mean, tenor,
bass, and double bells. In a note to Sir Walter
Scott's 'Fair Maid of Perth* there is an in-
teresting account of one of these dresses, which
was preserved by the Glover Incorporation of
Perth. This dress was ornamented with 250
bells, £Mtened on pieces of leather in ai sets of
13, and tuned in regular musical intervals.
The Morris Dance attained its greatest popularity
in the reign of Hemy VIII. ; thenceforward it
degenerate into a msorderly revel, until, to-
gether with the May games and other ' entice-
ments unto naughtiness,' it was suppressed by
the Puritans. It was revived at the Kestoration,
but the pageant seems never to have attained its
former popularity, although the dance continued
to be an ordinary feature of village entertain-
ments until within the memory of persons now
living. In Torkshire the dancers wore peculiar
headdresses made of laths covered with ribbons,
VOL. II.
MOSCHELES.
869
and were remarkable for their skill in dancing
the sword dance,* over two swords placed cross-
wise on the ground. A country dance which
goes by the name of the Morris Dance is still
frequently danced in the north of England. It
is danced by an indefinite number of couples,
standing opposite to one another, as in 'Sir
Roger de (>overley.* Each couple holds a ribbon
between them, under which the dancers pass
in the course of the dance. In (Cheshire the
following tune is played to the Morris dance, —
tr I ifoald. Thlslttt.MidtlMiis it,AxulthIsb Morrlf
dABclng.lIr poor iither broke his l«g. and fo It was » chancing.
but in Torkshire the tune of an old oomio song,
' The Literary Dustman,* is generally used.
[W.B.S.]
MORTIER DE FONTAINE. A pianist of
celelrity, bom in Warsaw 181 8. He was pos-
sessed of unusual technical ability, and is said to
have been the first person to play the great sonata
of Beethoven cp. 106 in public. Fiom 1853 to
i860 he resided in St. Petersburg, since then
in Munich. Paris, and many other towns, and is
now living in London. [J.A.F.M.]
MOS'CHELES, Iqnaz, the foremost pianist
after Hummel and before Chopin, was bom at
Prague on May 30, 1794. His precocious apti-
tude for music aroused the interest of Dyonis
Weber, the director of the Prague Conservatorium.
Weber brought him up on Mozart and dementi.
At fourteen years of age he played a concerto of
his own in public ; and soon after, on the death
of his fikther, was sent to Vienna to shift for
himself as a pianoforte teacher and player, and
to pursue his studies in counterpoint under Al-
brechtsberger, and in composition under Salieri.
The first volume of ' Aus Moscheles ^Leben,*
extracts from his diary, edited by Mme. Moscheles
(Leipzig, 1872), offers bright glimpses of musical
life in Vienna during ^e first decade of the
century, and diows how quickly young Moscheles
became a &vourite in the best musical circles.
1 'Do the nvord-dane* with any Morrl^^laneer In OhrUtandom.'
(Manton. * Matoontooi,' Act 1. Scen« S.)
aTiaDda««lb7A.D.Golerl(i8e. Hurt ft Blaekett. 1873.
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870
MOSCHELES.
In 1814 ArUris & Co., the poblisben, honoared
him with a oommission to make the pianoforte
arrangement of Beethoven*8 Fidelio under the
master's supervision. [See vol. i. 191 a, 169 &.]
MoBcheles*s career as a virtuoso can be dated
from the production of his * Variationen iiber den
Alexandermarsoh/ op. 32, 181 5. These 'bril-
liant* variations met with an unprecedented
success, and soon became a popular display
piece for professional pianists ; later in life he
frequently found himself compelled to play
^em, though he had outgrown them both
as a musician and as a player. During the
ten years following Moscheies led the life of a
travelling virtuoso. In the winter of 1821 he
was heanl and admired in Holland, and wrote
his Concerto in G minor ; earlv in 18 a 2 he played
in Paris, and subsequently m London. Here
John Cramer, and the veteran Clementi, hailed
him as an equal and friend; his capital Duo
for two pianofortes, 'Hommage k Handel,* was
written for Cramer*s concert, and played by the
composer and ' glorious John.* In the season of
1825 he reappeared in London, and in 1824 he
gave pianoforte lessons to F^ix Mendelssohn,
then a youth of 15, at Berlin. In 1816, soon
after his marriage, at Hamburg, with Charlotte
Embden, he chose London for a permanent resi-
dence ; and for a further ten years he led the busy
life of a prominent metropolitaa musician. His
first performance at the Philharmonic was on
May 29, 1826. After that he often played there,
appeared at the concerts of friends and rivals,
gave his own concert annually, paid flying visits
to Bath, Brighton, Edinburgh, etc., played much
in society, did all manner of work to the order of
publishers, gave innumerable lessons, and withal
composed assiduously. In 1832 he was elected
one of the directors of the Philharmonic Society;
and in 1837 and 38 he conducted Beethoven's 9th
Symphony with signal success at the society's
concerts. In 1845, after Sir Henry Bishop's
resignation, he acted as regular conductor.
When Mendelssohn, who during his repeated
visits to England had become Mo8chelee*s inti-
mate friend, started the Conservatorium of Music
at Leipzig, Moscheles was invited to take the
post of first professor of the pianoforte. He began
his duties in 1846 ; and it is but fair to add that
the continued success of the institution, both
during the few remaining months of Mendels-
sohn's life, and for full twenty years after, was in a
great manner owing to Moscheles's wide and solid
reputation, and to his inde&tigable zeal and ex-
emplary conscientiousness as a teacher. Moscheles
took quite a paternal interest in his pupils. If
the school hours proved insufficient, which was
frequently the case, he would invite them to his
private residence, and there continue his instruc-
tions; and when they left school he endea
voured to find suitable professional openings for
them, and remained their friend, ever ready with
kindly advice and assistance.
As a pianoforte player Moscheles was dis-
tinguished by a crisp and incisive touch, dear
and precise phrasing, and a pronounced preference
MOSEL. *
for minute aooentuation. He played octaves with
stiff wrists, and was chary in the use of the pedals.
Mendelssohn and, with some reservations,
Schumann, were the only younger masters whose
pianoforte works were congeni^ to him. Those
of Chopin and Liszt he regarded with mingled
feelings of aversion and adimration. Indeed, bis
method of touch and fingering did not p^mit
him to play either Chopin's or Liszt's pieces wiA
ease. * My thoughts, and consequently my flagers,'
he wrote in 1833, k propos of Chopiin Etudes,
etc., * ever stumble and sprawl at certain crude
modulations, and I find Chopim's productions on
the whole too sugared, too Utile worthy of a man
and an educated musidaa, though there is much
charm and originality in the national odour of
his motive.* It is true he somewhat modified this
opinion when he heard Chopin play. Still it
remains a fiKt that to the end of his days^ both
the matter and the manner of Chopin and other
modem {Manists appeared to him questionable.
Moscheles was renowned for the variety and
brilliancy of his extempore performances, the
character of which can be guessed at by his
Preludes, op. 73. His last improvisation in public
on themes furnished by the audience formed part
of the programme of a concert at St. James's
Hall in 1865, given by Madame Jenny Lind-
Groldschmidt ' in aid of the sufferers by the war
between Austria and Prussia,' where he impro-
vised for some twenty minutes on ' See the con-
quering hero comes,' and on a theme from the
Andante of Beethoven's C minor Symphony, in
a highly interesting and astonishing manner.
l^e list of his numbered compositions given in
a Thematic Catalogue (Leipzig, Elistner) and in
' Aus Moscheles Leben/ vol. ii., extends to op. 142,
and there is besides a long list of ephemera,
written for the market, to please publishers and
fiwhionable pupils. The latter, and many of the
former, have hsA their day ; but his best works,
such as the Concerto in Q minor, op. 60 (1820-
21) ; the Concerto path^tique, op. 93 ; the Senate
melancolique, op. 49; the Duo for pianoforte,
* Hommage k Hknded,' op. 92 ; the throe Allegri
di Bravura, op. 51 ; and above all, the 24
Etudes, op. 70 (1 825 and 26), and the 'Cha*
racteristische Studien,' op. 95, occupy a place
in the classical literature of the instrument
from which no subsequent development can oust
them. Moscheles died at Leipzig March 10,
1870. tE.D.]
MOSEL, Iqnaz Fb4KZ, Edlkr von, composer
and writer on musical subjects, bom at Vienna,
April I, 1772, conducted the first musical fes-
tivals of the Gesellschaf t der Musikfreunde in the
Imperial Riding-school (i8i2toi8i6). He was
ennobled, and made a Hofirath. From 1820 to
29 he was vice-director of the two Court
theatres, and from 1829 till his death principal
custos of the Imperial library. In his earlier
years he arranged Haydn's * Creation * (MoUo),
Cherubini's * M?d^,' and *Deux joum^*(Cappi),
and 'Cod fan tutte' (Steiner), for string-quartet;
and the * Creation ' and * Coel fan tutte ' for two
pianofortes, for the blind pianist Paradles. For
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MOSEL.
Uie Greeellflohaft der Musikfireunde he put
additional ibstrumentB to several of Handel's
^ oratorioe, and translated the text. He also com-
posed three operas (court-theatre), one Singspiel,
sereral overtures and entr'actes for plays, a Missa
solenniSy etc. He published three collectionB of
songs, dedicating one to Vogl, the celebrated
singer of Schubert's songs, and another to Roch-
litz (Steiner). Among his writings the following
are of value: — 'Versuch einer Aesthetik des
dramatischen Tonsatzes' (Vienna, Strauss, 1 8i 3) ;
* Ueber das Leben und die Werke des Antonio
8alieri'(ibid.,Wallishauser, 1837); 'Gteschichte
der Hofbibliothek ' (ibid., Beck, 1835) ; and arti-
cles in various periodicals on the histcny of music,
including ' Die Tonkunst in Wien wahrend der
letzten 5 Dezennien' (1808, revised and repub-
lished 1840). Yon Mosel <^ed in Vienna, April
8, 1844. [C.F.P.]
MOSE IN EGITTO. Ap 'oratorio' ; libretto
by Tottola, music bv Rossini. Produceid at the
San Carlo Theatre, Naples, in Lent 181 8, and at
the Th^tre Italien, Paris, in 1 8 2 a . The libretto
was adapted by Balocchi and De Jouj, and
the music much modified by the composer ; and
it was re-produced, under the title of MoXse,
at the Academie Royal, Paris, March 26, 1827.
On the bills it was entitled 'Oratorio,' and on
the book 'Molse et Pharaon, ou le Passage
de la Mer Roug^.' The opera was produced at
the King's Theatre, Haymarket, London, as
Pietro TEremita, April 23, 1822. On Feb. 22,
1833, it was brought out at the Covent (warden
oratorios as 'The Israelites in Egypt; or. The
Passage of the Red Sea,' with scenery and
dresses, and additions from Israel in Egypt. On
April 20 it was again brought out at the Royal
Italian Opera, Covent Outlen, as Zora. In
1845 it was performed by the Handel and Haydn
Society of Boston, U.S.A., m an English version
of the original ^Ubretto, and on May 24, 1878,
was also performed with great success by the
Sacred Ha^onio Society, at Exeter Hall, in an
English version by Arthur Matthison. [G.]
MOSES. An oratorio, the words and music
of which were composed by A. B. Marx, and
which was first performed at Breslau in Deo.
1 84 1, and a few tmies subsequently in Grermany.
The book was originally compiled, at Marx's
request^ by MendeUsohn, though afterwards re-
jected; and the autograph is preserved by the
Mendeksohn family in Berlin, with the date
Aug. 21, 1832. [G.]
MOSEWIUS, JOHANN Theodob, bom Sept.
25, 1788, at Konigsberg in Prussia; like so
many others, forsook the law for music and the
theatre. After a regular musical education he
became in 1814 director of the opera in his
native town. He married, and in 1 816 went to
Breslau, and for 8 years he and his wife were
the pillars of the opera. His wife dying in
1825 he forsook the stage, and founded the Bres-
lau Singakademie. He had before this started the
1 Basllnger publlahed the Korea of ' Bdshazzftr ' and ' Jepbttuw'
s Tbcor b%Te performed It ii times down to 1078.
MOTET.
871
Liedertafel of the town. In 1827 he followed
Bemer as Professor at the University, and in
1829 became Director of the music Uiere. In
1 831 he succeeded Schnabel as head of the Royal
Institution for Church Music, which he appears
to have conducted most efficiently, bringing for-
ward a large number of pieces by the greatest
of the old Italian masters, as well as the vocal
works of Mendelssohn, Lowe, Spohr, Marx, etc. .
His activity was further shown in the foundation
of an elementary dass as a preparative for the
Singakademie, and a society called the Musikal-
ische Cirkel (1834) for the practice of secular
music. He also initiated the musical section of
the Vaterlandische Geselischaft of Silesia, and
became its secretary. In England this active
and useful man is probably only known through
two pamphlets — ^reprints from we Allg. Musikal-
ische Zeitung — 'J. S. ]^h in seinen Kirchen
cantaten und Choralgesiingen' (Berlin, 1845),
and < J. S. Bach's Matthaus Passion' (Berlin,
1852). These valuable treatises are now su>
perseded by the publication of the works of
which they treat, but in the copious examples
which they contain, some Englishmen made
their first acquaintance with Bach's finest com>
positions. [G.]
MOSEOWA. See Pbinob dx la Moseowa.
MOSZKOWSKI, MoBiTZ, pianist and com>
poser in Berlin, bom there in 1854, studied
first at Dresden and afterwards at Berlin. He
has published several pianoforte solos and duets
(among the latter, some charming 'Spanish
Dances' in two books), also two concert pieceu
for violin and piano. A pianoforte concerto, and
two symphonies, remain m MS. [J.A.F.M.]
^CDT^(Barb. Lat. Motdwn, Moteetum, Mu-
taus, Woieuus, Motulw ; Ital. MoUeUo), A term,
which for the last three hundred years has been
almost exclusively applied to certun pieces of
Church Music, of moderate length, adapted to
Latin words (selected, for the most part, either
from Holy Scripture, or the Roman Office-Books),
and intended to be suns, at High Mass, either in
place of, OT immediat^y afteV, IhU Plain Chaunt
Ofiertorium for the Day. [See Mass ; Offebtob-
lUM.] This definition, nowever, extends no farther
than the conventionid meaning of the word. Its
origin involves aome very grave etymological
difficulties, immeasurably increased by the varied
mode of spelling adopted by early writers. For
instance, the form Motuln9, can scarcely fail to
suggest a corruption of Modulus — a Cantilena, or
Melody ; and, in support of this derivation, we
may remind our reiuierB, that in the 13th and
14th Centuries, and even earlier, the terms Mo-
tetiis and Motellus, were constantly applied to
the Voice-part afterwards called Medius or Alius.
On the other hand, the idea that the true etymon
is supplied by the Italian word, MoUetto, diminu-
tive of MoUo, and equivalent to the French mot,
orJboiLJSiot^ jest, derives some colour from the
fact that it was imquesUonably applied, in the
first instance, to a certain kind of prgCuie music,
which, in the 1 3th Century, was severely censured
Bb2
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372
MOTET.
by the Church, in common with the Rondelluf,
another kind of popular melody, and the Con-
ductus, a roecies of Secular Song, in which
the subject m the Tenor was original, and sug-
gested the other parts, after the manner of the
Ouida of a Canon. Again, it is just possible
that the varying orthography to which we have
alluded may, originally, have involved some real
distinction no longer recognisable. But, in op-
position to this view it may be urged Uiat the
charge^ licentiousness was brought against the
Motet under all its synonyms, though Eccle-
siastical Composers continued to use its themes as
Cantiferm, as long as the Polyphonic Schools
remained in existence— to which circumstance
the word most probably owes its present conven-
tionid dgni6cation.
The earliest purely Ecdesiastical Motets of
which any certain record remains to us are those
of Philippua^e Vitriaoo, whose Ara composi-
Hants de Motetis, preserved in the Paris Library,
is believed to have been written between the
years 1290 and 13 10. Morley tells us that the
Motets of this author ' were for some time of all
others best esteemed and most used in the
Church,' Some others, scarcely less antient, are
printed in Gerbert*s great work De Cantu et
muiica sacra — rude attempts at two-part har-
mony, intensely interesting, as historical records,
but intolerable to cultivated ears.
Very different from these early efforts are the
productions of the period, which, in our article.
Mass, we have designated as the ELrst Epoch of
practical importance in the history or 'jTolyphonic
Music — a period embracing the dosing years of
the uth Century, and the first half of the 14th,
and represented by the works of Gugliolmo Du
Fayi Egydius Bianchoys, Eloy, Dunstable, Vin-
cefizo Faugues, and some other Masters, whoue
compositions are chiefly knovm through the richly
illuminated volumes which adorn the Library of
the Sistine Chapel, in which they are written, in
accordance with the custom of the Pontifical
Choir, in characters large enough to be read by
the entire body of Singers, at one view. These
worka are full of interest ; and, like the earliest
Masses, invaluable, as studies of the polyphonic
treatment of the Modes.
Equally interesting are the productions of the
SeggQ^i Epoch, extending from the year 1430 to
about 1480. The typical Composers of this period
were Giovanni Okenheim (or Ockegem), Caron,
Caspar, Antonius de Fevin, Hobrecht, and
Giovanni Basiron, in whose works we first begin
to notice a remarkable diveigence between the
music adapted to the Motet and that set apart
for the Mass. From the time of Okenheim, the
leader of the School, till the middle of the i6th
Century, Composers seem to have regarded the
invention of coqtoipuntal miracles as a duty
which no one could avoid without dishonour.
For some imexplained reason, they learned to
look upon the Music of the Mass as the natural
and orthodox vehicle for the exhibition of this
peculiar kind of ingenuity : while, in the Motet,
they were less oardful to display their learning.
MOTET.
and more ready to encourage a certain gravity of
manner, far more valuable, from an ssthetic
point of view, than the extravagant complications
which too often disfigure the more ambitious
compositions they were intended to adorn. Hence
it frequently happens, that, in the Motets of this
period, we find a consistency of design, combined
with a massive breadth of style, for which we
search in vain in contemporaiy Masses.
The compositions of tiie T^jn) Epoch exhibit
all th0 merits noticeable in those of the First and
Second, enriched by more extended harmonic re-
sources, and a far greater amount of technical
«kill. It was during this per^od^cpmorising the
two last decads of the 15th CentuiyT aSia the two
first of the i6th, that the Great Masters of the
Flemish School, excited to enthusiasm by the
matchless genius of Josquin dee Pr^, made those
rapid advances towards perfection, which, for a
time, placed them far above the Musicians of any
other country in Europe, and gained for them an
influence which was everywhere acknowledged
with respect, and everywhere used for pure and
noble ends. The Motets bequeathed to us by these
earnest-minded men are, with scarcely any excep-
tion, constructed upon a Canfofermo, supplied by
some fragment of grave Plain Chaunt, or suggested
by the strains of some well-knownSeecular Melody.
Sometimes, this simple theme is sung, by the
Tenor, or some other principal Voice, entirely in
Longs, and Breves, while other Voices accompany
it, in florid Counterpoint, with every imaginable
variety of imitation and device. Sometimes, it
is taken up by the several Voices, in turn, after
the manner of a Fugue, or Canon, without the
support of the continuous part, which is only in-
troduced in broken phrases, \y^^ ^^t^S rests
between them. When, as is frequently the case,
the Motet consists of two movements— a Pars
prima, and Pars secunda — ^the Canto fermo is
sometimes sung, by the Tenor, first, in the or-
dinary way, and then backw^^ds, in Retrograde
Imitation, caitadams. In this, and other cases,
it is frequently prefixed to the composition, on
a small detached Stave, and thus forms a true
Motto to the work, to the imitations of which
it supplies a veritable key, and in the course of
which it is always treated in the same general
way. [See Iwsobiption.] But, side by side with
this homogeneity of mechanical construction, we
find an infinite variety of individual expression.
Freed from the pedantic trammels, which at one
period exercised so unhealthy an influence upon
the Mass, the Composer of tiie Motet felt bound
to give his whole attention to a careful rendering
of the words, instead of wasting it, as he would
certainly have done under other ciroumtances,
upon the concoction of some astounding Inversion,
or inscrutable Canon. Hence, the character of
the text frequently offers a tolerably safe criterion
as to the style of work ; and we are thus en-
abled to divide the Motets, not of this Epoch
only, but of the preceding and following periods
also, into several distinct classes, each marked by
some peculiarity of more or less importance.
Nowhere, perhaps, do we find more real j
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re*l&el-
MOTET.
hig than in the numerous Motets founded on
passages selected firom the Gospels, such as
Jacobus Vaet's ' Egressus Jesus,' Jahn€}ero*s ren-
derings of the Parable of the Pharisee and the
Publican, and others of similar intention. The
treatment of these subjects, though exhibiting no
trace of the dramatic element, is highly charac-
teristic, and shews a deep appreciation of the
sense of the Sacred Text, embracing every variety
of expression, from the triumphant praises of the
Magnificat, to the deep sadness of the Passion of
our Lord. The oldest known example of the for-
mer subject, treated in the Motet style, is a
Magnificat, for three Voices, by Du F^. One of
the earliest renderings of the latter is Hobreoht's
*Pas8io D.NJ^.C. secundum Mattheum,' a work
full of the deepest pathos, combined with some
very ingenious part-writing. Scarcely less beauti-
ful is the later 'Passio secundum Marcum,' by
Johannes Galliculus; and Loyset Oomp^ has
left us a collection of Passion Motets of extraor-
dinary beauty.
The Book of Canticles was also a fruitful source
of inspiration. Among the finest specimens ex-
tant are three by Johannes de Lynbuigia (John
of lamburg) — ' Surge propera,' 'Pulcra es anima
mea,' and ' Desoende in hortum meum ' ; Du Fay's
'Anima mea liquefaota est*; a fine setting of tiie
same words, by. Enrico Isaac; Antonius de Fevin's
' Descende in hortum meum ' ; and, among others,
by Graen, Gaspar, Josqnin des P^, and the
best of their compatriots, a remarkably beau-
tiful rendering of ' Quam pulcra es anima mea,'
^r Grave Equal Voices, by Mouton, from which
we extract the opening bars, as a fair example of
the style : —
MOTET.
S73
A host of beautiful Motets were written in
honour of Our Lady, and all in a style of
peculiarly delicate beauty; such as Du Fay's
'Salve Virgo/ * Akna Bedemptoris,'* Ave;Regina,'
and 'Flos florum, fons amonmi' ; Brasart's 'Ave
Maria' ; Bianohoys' 'Beata Dei genitrix ' ; Aroha-
delt's * Ave Maria'; several by Brumel^and Loyset
Compare ; and a large number by Josquin des
Pr^s, including the following biBautiful little
'Ave vera virginitas' in Perfect Time, with its re-
markable progression of Consecutive Fifths arising
from the necessity of maintaining the strictness
of a Canon, in the Fifth below, led by the Supe-
rius, and resolved by the Tenor.
Canon
Jug par -l-fl-eft---U -- o
The Lamentations of Jeremiah have furnished
the text of innumerable beautiful movraaents, in
the Motet style, by Joannes Tinctor, Hykaert.
Gaspar, Pierre de la Rue, Agrioola, and, above
all, Carpentrasso, whose Lamentations were an-
nually sung in the Sistine Chapel, imtil, in the
year 1587, they were displaced to make room for
the superb compositions of Palestrina. [See
LamentationsJ
The greater Festivals of the Church, as well as
those of individual Saints, gave occasion for the
composition of oountlees Motets, among which
must be reckoned certain Sequences, set, in the
Motet style, by some of the Great Composers of
the 15th and i6th Centuries; notably a 'Victimse
paschali,' by Josquin des Flr^s, founded on frag-
ments of the old Plain Chaunt Melody, inter-
woven with the popular Rondelli, 'D'ung aultre
amer,' and ' De tous biens pleine,' and a 'Stabat
Mater,' by the same writer, the Canto fermo of
which is furnished by the then weU-known Seecular
Air, 'Comme femme.' This last composition, too
long and complicated to admit of quotation, was
reprinted, by Choron, in i8ao, Mid will well
Ty serious study.
ess generally interesting than the classes wo
have described, yet, not without a special historical
value of their own, are the laudatory Motets,
dedicated to Princes, and Nobles of high degree,
by the Maestri attached to thdr r^ipective
Courts. Among these may be cited Clemens
non Papa's 'Oesar habet naves,' and *Quis te
victorem dicat,' inscribed to Charles V ; Adrian
Willaert's 'Argentum et aurum'; and many
others of like character.
Finally, we are indebtecUir A^Sj^at Master
874
MOTET.
of the 15 th and i6th Centuries for a large collec-
tion of Ncenia, or Funeral Moteta, which are
Bcarcely exceeded in beauty by those of any other
class. The Service for the Dead has been treated,
by Composers of all ages, with more than or-
dinary reverence. In the in&ncy of Discant, the
so-called Organizers who were its recognized ex*
ponents did all they could to make the 'Officium
Defunctorum' as impressive as possible : and,
acting up to their light, endeavoured to add to its
solenmity by the introduction of discords which
were utterly forbidden in Organum of the ordin-
ary kind. Hence arose the doleful strain, an-
tiently called * Litanies mortuorum discordantes.'
J: J I J 4 J-
It is interesting to compare these excruciating
harmonies with the Dirge of Josquin des Pr^ in
memory of his departed friend and tutor, Oken-
heim. This fine Motet is founded on the Plain
Chaunt Melody of * Requiem setemam,* which is
Himg in Breves and Semibreves by the Tenor, to
the original Latin words, while the four other
Voices sing a florid Counterpoint, to some French
verses, beginning, *Nymphes des boir. Dresses
des fontaines/ It was printed, at Antwerp, in
1544; and presents so many difficulties to the
would-be interpreter, that Bumey declares him-
self 'ashamed to confess how much time and
meditation' it cost him. The simple harmonies
of the peroration, ' Requiescat in pace,' are so
touchingly beautiful, that we transcribe them in
preference to the more complicated passages by
which they are preceded.
The earliest printed copies of the Motets we
have described were given to the world by Otta-
viano dei Petruoci, who published a volume, at
Venice, in 1502, called 'Motette, A. nimiero tren-
tatre*; another, in 1503, called 'Motetti de pas-
sioni, B.' ; a third, in 1 504, called 'Motetti, c. C. ' ;
a fourth, in 1505 — 'Motetti libro quarto'; and, in
the same year, a book, for five Voices — * Motetti a
cinque libro prime* — which, notwithstanding the
promise implied in its title, was not follow^ by
the appearance of a companion voluBMr^n 151 1,
the inventor of printed music removed to Foesom-
MOTET.
bronei where, between the years 15 14, and
1 5 19, he published four more volumes of Motets,
known, fiK>m a figure engraved on the title-page,
as the 'Motetti della Corona.* In 1538, Ant-onio
Gardano published, at Venice, a collection, called
— also from a figure on its title-page — * Motetti del
Frutto*. These were pirated, at Ferrara, imder
the name of ' Motetti della Scimia,' with the figure
of an Ape devouring a Fruit : whereupon, Gar-
dano issued a new volume, with the figure of »
Lion, and Bear, devouring an Ape. Between the
years 1527, and 1536, nineteen similar volumee
were issued, in Paris, by Pierre Attaignant ; and
many more were printed, in the same dty, by
Adrian le Roy, and Robert Ballard. These
collections, containing innumerable works by all
the great Composers of the earlier periods, are of
priceless worth. Of some of Petrucci's only one
copy is known to exist, and that, unhappily, in-
complete. The Library of the British Museum
possesses his Second, Third, and Fourth Books of
* Motetti della Corona^' besides his First and Third
Books of Josquin's Masses> and the First of Gar-
dano's 'Motetti del Frutto*; and this, taking into
consideration the splendid condition of the copies,
must be regarded as a very rich collection indeed.
During Qie Fourth Enoch — embracing the in-
terval between the death of Josquin des Pr^s, in
1 5 21, and the production of the 'Missa Papee
Maroelli', in 1565 — the development of the Motet
coincided so closely with that of the Mass, that
it seems necessary to add but very little to the
article already written upon that subject. The
contemporaneous progress of the Madrigal did,
indeed, exercise a healthier influence upon the
former than it could possibly have done in pre«
senoeof themore recondite intricacies, common to
the latter : but, certain abuses crept into both.
The evil habit of mixing together irrelevant
words increased to such an extent, that, among
the curiosities preserved in the Library of the
Sistine Chapel, we find Motets in which every
one of the five Voices is made to illustrate a
different text, throughout. In this respect, if not
in others, an equal amount of deterioration was
observable in both styles.
The Fifth Epoch — extending from the year
1565, toTRTbeginning of the following Century
— witnessed the sudden advance of both branches
of Art to absolute perfection : for Palestrina, the
brightest genius of the age, was equally great in
both, and has left us Motets as unapproachable
in their beauty as the 'Missa Pi^ms Maicelli.*
The prolific power of this delightful Composer
was no less remarkable than l£e purity of his
style. The seven Books of Motets printed during
his life-time contain two hundred and two com*
positions, for four, five, six, seven, and eight
Voices, among which may be found numerous ex-
amples of all the different classes we have de-
scribed. About a hundred others, including
thirteen for twelve Voices, are preserved, in MS.,
in the Vatican Library, and among the Archives
of the Pontifical Chapel, the Laiteran Basilica,
S. Maria in Vallicella, and the Collegium Ro-
mannm ; and there is good reason to balieve that
Digitized by LjOOQIC
MOTET.
Inanj were lost through the carelessnesB of the
Maestro's son, Igino. The entire contents ofthe
seven printed volumes, together with sevens-
two of the Motets hitherto existing only in MS.,
have already been issued as a first instalment of
the complete edition of Palestrina's works now in
course of publication by Messrs. Breitkopf &
Hartel of Leipzig ; and this, probably, is as
many as we can now hope for, as it is well known
that some of the MS. copies we have mentioned
are incomplete. Among so many gems, it is diffi-
cult to select any number for special notice.
Perhaps the finest of all are those printed in the
Fourth Book of Motets for five Voices, the words
of which are taken firom the Book of Canticles :
but, the two Books of simpler compositions for
four Voices are full of treasures. Some are mar-
vels of contrapuntal clevemoss ; others — where
the character of the words is more than usually
solemn — as unpretending as the plainest Faux
bourdon. As an example of the more elaborate
style, we transcribe a few bars of ' Sicut cervus
desiderat,' contrasting them with a lovely passage
from 'Fratres ego enim accepi,' a Motet for
eight Voices, in which the Institution of the
Last Supper is illustrated by simple harmonies
of indescribable beauty.
Sieut curwui'-
MOTET.
87S
Palestrina^s greatest contemporaries, in the
Roman School, were, Vittoria, whose Motets
are second only in importance to his own, Mo-
rales, Felice and Francesco Anerio, Bemadino
and Giovanni Maria Nanini, Luca Marenzio, and
Francesco Suriano. The honour of the Flemish
School was supported, to the last, by Orlando di
Lasso, a host in himself. The Venetian School
boasted, after Willaert, Cipriano di Bore, An-
drea and Giovanni Gabrieli, and, especially, Gio-
vanni Groce, the originality of whose style was
only exceeded by its wonderful delicacy and
sweetness, which are well shewn In the following
example.
O M • - eram oon - vt - t1 -
^^
1— n-
Chonull, , , I ! f .
Mm, Boo te • d-t* Id me • am oom-
In England, the Motet was cultivated, with
great success, by some of the best Composers of
the best period. The 'Cantiones sacrse' of Tallis
and Byrd, will bear comparison with the finest
productions of the Roman or any other School,
those of Palestrina alone excepted. And, besides
these, we possess a number of beautiful Motets
by Dr. Tye, John Tavemer, John Shepherd, Dr.
Fayrfax, Robert Johnson, John Digon, John
Thome, and several other writers not unknown to
fieune. Though the Latin Motet was, as a matter
of course, banished from the Services of t^e
Church after the change of Religion, its style
still lived on, in the Full Anthem, of which so
many glorious examples have been handed down
to us, in our Cathedral Choir-books ; for, the
Full Anthem is a true Motet, notwithstanding
the language in which it is sung ; and it is cer-
tain that some of the purest specimens of the
style were originally written in Latin, and
adapted to English words, afterwards — as in the
case of Byrd's 'Civitas sancti tui,* now always
sung as 'Bow thine ear, O Lord.' Orlando
Gibbons*s First (and only) Set of 'Madrigals and
Mottets,' printed in 1612, furnishes a singular
return to the old use of the word. They are all
Ssecular Songs; as are, also, Martin Pierson*s
' Mottects,* published eighteen years later.
The Sixth Epoch, beginning with the early
years cftBITiyth Century, was one of sad deoa-
Digitized by VjOOQIC
/ MOTET.
^nce. The Unprepared Dinonanoes introduced
iy Monteverde sapped the very foundations of the
Polyphonic Schools, and involved the Motet, the
Mass and the Madrigal in a common ruin.
Men like Claudio Casciolini and Gregorio Al-
legri, did their best to save the grand old man-
ner; but, after the middle of the Century, no
Composer did it full justice.
The Seventh Epoch inaugurated a new style.
During thelatter half of the 17th century, In-
strumental Music made a rapid advance; and
Motets with Instrumental Accompaniments,
were substituted for those sung by Voices alone.
In these, the old Ecclesiastical Modes were
naturally abandoned, in fiivour of the modem
Tonality ; and, as time progressed, Alessandro
Scarlatti, Leo, Durante, Peigoled, and other
men of nearljr equal reputation, produced really
great works m the new manner, and thus pre-
pared the way for still greater ones.
The chief glories of the fjj^th Epoch were
confined to Germany, where Keinhard Reiser,
the Bach Family — ^with Johann Christoph, and
Johann Sebastian, at its head — Graun, and
Basse, clothed the Motet in new and beautiful
forms whidi were turned to excellent account
by Homilius, and RoUe, Wolf, Hiller, Fasch, and
Schicht. The Motets of Sebastian Bach are too
well Imown to need a word of description —
known well enough to be universally recognised
as artistic creations of the highest order, quite
unapproachable in their own peculiar style. With
Hanaers Motets few Musicians are equally
familiar ; for it is only within the last few years
that the Grerman Handel Society has rescued
them from oblivion. Nevertheless, they are ex-
traordinarily beautiful ; filled with the youthful
freshness of the Composer^s early manner. Be-
sides a ' Salve Regina,' the MS. of which is pre-
served in the Royal Library at Buckingham
Palace, we possess a ' Laudato pueri,* in D, used
as an Introduction to the Utrecht Jubilate;
another in F, a ' Dixit Dominus,* a ' Nisi Domi-
nus,* and, best of all, a lovely * Silete venti,* for
Soprano Solo, with Accompaniments for a Stringed
Band, two Oboes, and two Bassoons, the last
movement of which, *Dulcis amor, Jesu care,'
was introduced in Icorael in iEgypt, on its second
revival, in 1756, adapted to the words, 'Hope,
a pure and lastbig treasure.* It is to be hoped,
that, now these treasures are really given to the
world, they will not long be suffered to remain
a dead letter.
Of the Ninth, or Modem Epoch, we have but
little to sayTTThe so-called Motets of the present
Century have no real claim to any other title
than that of Sacred Cantatas. They were, it is
true, originally intended to be Bvaae at High
Mass : but, the ' Insane et vanie oursB^of Haydn,
the ' Splendente te Deus ' of Mozart, and the * O
salutaris * of Cherubini, exquisitely beautiful as
they are, when regarded simply as Music, have
so little in common with the Motet in its typical
form, that one can scarcely understand how the
name ever came to be bestowed upon them. The
Motets of Mendelssohn, again, have but little
MOTETUS.
affinity with these — indeed, they can scarcdy be
said to have any ; for, in spite of the dates at
which they were produced, Uiey may more £uriy
be classed with the great works of the Eighti^
Epoch, to which their style very closely aasi-
milates them. We need scarcely refer to his
three Motets for Treble Voices, written for the
Convent of Trinitk de* Monti, at Rome, as gems
of modem Art.
All that we have said in a former article, on
the traditional manner of singing the Polyphonic
Mass, applies, with equal force, to the Motet. It
will need an equal amount of expression, and an
equal variety of colouring; and, as its position in
the Service is anterior to the Elevation of the
Host, a vigorous forte will not be out of place,
when the sense of the words demands it. It would
scarcely be possible to find more profitable studies
for the practice of Polyphonic singing than the
best Motets of the best period. [W. S. R.]
MOTETT SOCIETY, THE, was established
in 1847, its chief promoter being the late William
Dyce, R.A. The object was to print «A Col-
lection of Ancient Oiuroh Music,* adapted to
English words, with a compressed score, for the
purpose of accompaniment. The subscription
was a guinea a year. The musical portion was
under the charge of the late Dr. Rimbault, who
acknowledges in his pre&ce that * the greater part
of the Motetts of Palestrina were adapted by
Mr. William Dyce.'
The works wero published in large folio, and
in parts, forminv^ three divisions : — No. l. An-
thems for Festivals; No. a, Services; No. 3,
Miscellaneous Anthems: in all 193 pages of
music, and a few moro of introductory matter.
Dmsiox 1. I DiTiBiov 8.
Bedford. B^oloe In the Lord. flVhtorto, Oommanlon Serrtee. 4 t.
Colonna, Macnif. and N. Dim. 8 V.
Toloei.
Lnpl. Now It to bifti time. 6 r.
Vittoria. Behold I bring yon. 6 v.
PalestrinA, If thou shatt oonfess,
4v.
Do. Alml^y and Xretteatlng.
4T.
Do. O Jernsalem. 4 T.
Do. These Uiings have 1. 4 T.
Do. These are thef, 4 t.
Do. Thli shall be. fi T.
Do. Break forth. S r.
F. delU Porta. I hare appeared.
4t.
La«D. Behold I will send. 4 r.
Vittoria, Ck)me unto me. 4 t.
Lasso. And the AngeU 4 ▼.
Do. If ye keep my. 4 T.
Masera, Blessed to the man. 4t.
Laiso. For he was a good. 4 y.
Do. TheToloeofhlm.4T.
Do. He salth unto them, 4 ▼.
Do. Are ye able to drink. 4 t.
Oroce. And they went forth. 4 r.
Do. Ohaige them that ar^ 4 r
Byrd. Bless the Lord ye, 5 t.
Lasso. But watch thou, 4 ▼.
Crooe. Now unto Blm, 4 t.
G. M. Nannlno. All thy wofki. 6 t.
Lasso. Miserere, A
Palestrina. Behold the Lamb of Do. Unto Thee. O Ood, 4 r.
God.5T.
Do. How beautiful. 4 T.
Tatlto, If ye love me. 4 r.
Palestrina. Holy. Holy, S ▼.
Oabrlelll. Do. Do.. » ▼.
Barcroft, Te Denm and Ben., 4 y.
Btonard. Magnlt and N. Dim. 5 y.
PiUestrina, Do. Do. 4t.
Blow, Sanctos and Gloria, 4 ▼.
Dnnnov 8.
Barcroft. O Almighty God. 4 ▼.
O. Gibbons. Why art thou so heavy.
4T.
Lasso. O praise the Lord. 6 v.
Do. Not unto us, 6 T.
P. Oerton. I will alway give. S t.
Byrd. Prevent us. O Lord, 4 x.
TaUto. Hear the voice. 4 v.
Palestrina. O God, Thou art. 4 v.
Ty Us. All people that on earth. 4 V.
Farrant, Unto Thee. O Lord. 4 v.
Palestrina. I will magnify Tbee.
6v.
F. deUa Porta. Be merdftil. 4 v.
Do. Righteous art Thou. 4 V.
Palestrina. O Lord my God. 4 v.
O. Gibbons, O Lord. Increase. 4 v.
Vittoria, I wHl gSve thanks, 4 v.
Do. It to a good thing, 4 V.
Do. Teach me, O Lord. 4 V.
Da How long wilt Thou. 4 v.
Do. Ky Ood. my God, 4 v.
Do. Behold, now pcatoe. 4 V.
Palestrina. O Lord Ood of oar
salvation, 6 v.
Tallto, Great and marveHons, 5 v.
LW.c]
MOTETUS. A name given, in the in£uicy
of Polyphonic Music, to a middle part, written
for the Voice which was afterwards called Mediu$,
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MOTETUS.
or AUut, The tenn wu oonBtanUy used, in this
sense, in the 13th and 14th centuries, and pro*
Ubly, BtiU earlier. [ W. S. R.]
MOTIF (Germ. Mofiv), a word which is in
process of naturalization into English, and which
has no less than three distinct meanings, accord-
ing to which it wUl be found under separate
h^uls : 1st, the German word originally means
what we oUl 'figure,' that is, a i£ort group of
notes, 'which produce a single, distinct, and
complete impression ' [see Fiodbb] ; and, it is
used as a synonym fat Subject, which see ; 5rd«
as equivalent to, and an abbreviation o^ Lbit-
Monv, which has been fully treated. [J«A..F.M.]
MOTION is change of pitch in successive
sounds, when they are allotted to a single part
or voice, or to groups ofparts or voices which
sound simultaneously. The motions of a single
part are classified according as the successive
steps do or do not exceed the limits of a degree
of the scale at a time, the former being cidled
* disjunct,* and the latter ' conjunct * motion. The
following examples illustrate the two forms : —
fiRCTHOVJiN.
MOUNTIER.
877
The independent motions of different parts
sounding together constitute counterpoint^ and
are clanified according to their relations, as
' contrary,' ' similar,* and ' oblique * motions. In
the first the parts either distinctly conveige or
diverge, one nsing when the other fidls. In the
second the parts either rise or fiJl together,
though not necessarily at equal distances. The
third refers to one part only, which moves up or
down while another stands stilL
Further explanations and examples will be
found under the respective headings. [C.n.H.P.]
MOUNSEY. The name of two English lady
organists and musicians. The elder of the two,
Akn Shbppabd, was bom in London April 17,
1811, and studied under Logier. She is alluded
to by Spohr in his 'account of his visit to Logier^s
academy in 1820. In i8a8 she was elected
organist to a church at Clapton; in 1829 to
St. Michael's, Wood Street, E.C., and in 1837
to St. Vedast's, Foster Lane, where she still
plays. In 1834 ^^ Mounsey became a member
of the Philharmonic Society. In 1845 she gave
the first of six series of Classical Concerts, at
Crosby Hall, London, for one of which (that of
1844) Mendelssohn 'composed 'Hear my Prayer,'
for voices and organ. In 1853 she married Mr.
W. Bartholomew, and in 1855 composed the
oratorio of * The Nativity,* which was performed
in the same year under the direction of Mr.
I Aotoblofraphy. H. W. 100.
> See hb letter. In Folko's B«niIiilsc«Doei, p. S20i The fttttogrtph it
Mm Id the Sooth Kaulngtcn "
HuUah at St. Martin's Hall. Mrs. Bartholomew
is well known in London as a teacher ; she has
published upwards of loo songs, 40 part-songs,
and a large number of works for piano and for
organ.
The second sister, Euzabeth, was bom in
London Oct. 1 81 9, and developed considerable
musical ability at a very early age. She was
appointed organist of St. Peter*s, Comhill, in
1^34* when only 14 years old, a post she still
holds. The organ of St. Peter's, a fine instru-
ment by Hill, was one of those on which Men-
delssohn frequently played during his visits to
Jiondon. (See pp. 2776, 2796.) In 1842 Miss
Elizabeth Mounsey was elected member of the
Philharmonic Society. Besides the organ and
piano, she at one time devoted much study to
the guitar, and in 1835 and 34 appeared in
public as a performer thereon. She has published
many works for all three instruments. [G.]
MOUNTAIN SYLPH, THE. A romantic
ballet opera in 2 acts ; words by J. T. Thackeray,
music by John Bamett. Produoed at the English
Opera House (Lyceum) Aug. 35, 1834. [^O
MOXJNT-EDGCUMBE, Riohabd Edoodmbe,
second Earl o^ bom Sept. 1 3, 1 764, an amateur
musician and composer, whose Italian opera
*Zenobia* was performed at the King's Theatre
in 1800 for the benefit of Banti. He is best
known as author of 'Musical Reminiscences,
containing an Account of the Italian Opera in
England from 1^73,* London, 1825 ; an amusing,
gossiping book, containing much useful infor-
mation. Two other editions, with a continua-
tion, appeared, and in 1834 & fourth, including
the Musical Festival in Westminster Abbey in
that year. He died Sept. 26, 1839. [W.H.H.]
MOUNTIER, who is called by Bumey ' the
Chichester boy,' was probably of French origin,
and educated musically in the choir of Chichester
Cathedral. He made his first appearance 'in
Character on any stage ' as Acis, to the Galatea
of Miss Ame (afterwards Mrs. Cibber), May 1 7,
1 732, at the Havmarket Theatre, — the perform-
ance got up by tne elder Ame. Mountier sang,
in the same year, the part of Neptune (though
advertised for that of Phoebus, which was given
afterwards to Barret) in Lediard*s .'Britannia,
an Enfflish Opera,* with music by Lampe,
'after the Italian manner,* a work not mentioned
by the biographers of that composer. It may be,
therefore, interesting to record that the caste
included Cecilia Young (Britannia)9«afierwards
Mrs. Arne, Susanna Mason (Publick Virtue),
Comano, or Coumiano (Discord), a basso who
had sung the year before on the Italian stage,
Waltz (Honour), the well-known singer who,
from being 'Handers cook,* became afterwards
the performer of many of that master's principal
bass parts in opera and oratorio, — and other
performers. In the following year we find Moun-
tier promoted to the Italian stage, and singing
the part of Adelberto in Handel*s * Ottone
(revived), after which his name does not appear
again in the bills. [J.M.]
Digitized by VjOOQIC
378
MOUNT OF OLIVES.
MOUNT OF OLIVES. The English name of
Baethoven^B oratorio, ' Christus am Oelbeig.* It
waa first produced in this country on Feb. 25,
18 1 4, by Sir Greorge Smart, in the Lenten ora-
torios at Drury Lane ; and the English version
\vas probably made by Arnold, at that time
manager of the King^s Theatre and a prominent
person in all theatrical matters. Another version
was made by the late Thos. Oliphant, and a
third, more recently, by Mr. Bartholomew. The
strong feeling prevailing in England against the
appearance of our Saviour as a personage in the
oratorio, which led to the modifications in the
versions already mentioned, led to one by Dr.
Hudson of Dublin in 1843, in which the story
was changed to that of David, and the title to
Engedi. This however is now given up ; and
indeed in the latest version of the book, by the
Rev. J. Troutbeck for the Leeds Festival, the
Saviour reappears among the characters. [G.]
MOUSQUETAIRES DE LA REINE, LES.
An opera -comique in 3 acts ; words by St. Georges,
music by Hal^vy. Produced at the Opera
ComiqueFeb. 3, 1846. [G.]
MOUTHPIECE (Fr. Bee, Boeal Embouchure ;
Ger. Mand»tUck), That portion of a wind-in-
strument which, as the name implies, is inserted
into the player s mouth, or applied to his lips.
Mouthpieces may be divided into those of tne
Flute and Flageolet, Cupped mouthpieces as in
brass instruments, and Reed mouthpieces single
or double.
The simplest of all forms is that adopted in
the Nay or Egyptian flute, in which the stream
of air is directed against the thinned edge of the
tube itself. [See Flute.] This edge in the
ordinary flute is modified into a lateral orifice,
the instrument being held transversely. In the
Flageolet, the column of air is directed by a
channel against a transverse edge similar to that
of a flue-pipe in the Organ. From the beak-
shaped termination thus given to the mouthpiece,
the instrument derives its name of ' Flute k bee.*
Cupped mouthpieces are applied to the outer
surface of the lipn, not inserted between them.
The lips thus stretched across the calibre of the
cup form a kind of double reed, closely resem-
bling the Vocal Chords of the Larynx. Each in-
strument of this class has a somewhat different
form of cup, which is described under their
respective headings. In the older examples,
however, and in those used by uncivilised tribes,
the cup consists of a simple hole, at the end of a
cow's horn for instance, or in the side of an ivory
tusk, communicating with the medullary cavity.
The transition from this to the shaped cup can
be well seen in the Swiss Alpenhom, in which a
small globular cavity, like the mouthpiece of the
Trumpet, is rudely carved out of the wooden
•trips of which the long tube is built up. In
more finished instruments of this class, tftie
mouthpiece is turned out of Brass, Ivory, Alu-
minium, or Silver, with a rounded cushion-shaped
edge for the accurate and painless pressure of
the lips. Glass has also been qged, and of late
the cushion has been made of vulcanized India
MOUTON.
Rubber. The weight and elasticity of the mate-
rial employed, like the shape of the cup, exert
a certain influence over the pitch and quality
of the notes produced.
The single-reed mouthpiece is used in the
Clarinet and in the Saxophone. It is described
at length under the former heading. It may be
noted here that it can be applied, though rather
ineffectually, to the Bassoon and its disdnutivea.
The Dolcino or small bassoon, in the Bb of the
four-foot octave, was actually played in military
bands by means of a single reed as late as the
early years of the present century.
The double-reed, consisting of two parallel
vibrators, constitutes the mouthpiece of the Oboe
and Bassoon family. It is probably the oldesit
mode of producing sound in existence. Such
reeds are found in the sepulchral chambers of
Egypt, lying beside the pipes to which they have
evidently been fitted. Mr. William Chappell has
succeeded in replacing a similar sound-producer
in facsimiles of the original pipes, and has obtained
from them a scale fairly agreeing with that prob-
ably employed by the Egyptians, and borrowed
from them by the Greeks. In the Bagpipe both
the single and double reed have been employed
since ancient times. These are described in detaQ
in the article on that instrument. [W. H. S.]
MOUTON, Jean, French composer, bom
about the year 1475 ^ in the department of the
* Somme, pupil of Josquin, teacher of Willaert,
musician to Louis XII and Francis I of France,
canon of ' Therounne, and afterwards, like Jos- \
quin, canon of the coU^iate church of S. Queutin,
in which place he died and was buried in 1522,
the following words being inscribed on his
♦ tomb : —
Ge gist maistre Jean de Hollingnd dit Monton, en son
▼irant chantre du Roy, chanoine de Therooaime et de
cet eglise, qiii trepaaaa le penultiema Jonr d'Octobre
MDXXii. Priez Diea poor son &me.
When Petruoci began to print music, Mouton
was in his prime, and the edition of 5 masses
(k 4) in 1508 is an early example of a whole
book devoted to one composer. This book, which
'Glarean found 'in manibus omnium' is now
scarce, and Fdtis thinks the copy of the * 2nd
edition in the British Museum the only com-
plete one. Bumey carefully examined the
4th ^mass, and scored several movements, dis-
covering no variety of measure or subject, no
I Date proposed by F^ts. llouton's flrtt paUIcatlon appeared in 1906.
s See ' JoannU Mouton Sanwraoensis . . . aliquot moduli '; Parte. L«
B07 * Ballard. ISW (Brit. Mub. A. 132)— an edition apparently un-
knoim abroad, or the word 'Sameraoenite' would not have escaped
attention. Olarean merely calls Mouton 'Gallus.' F^th]nlB.ftt>m
the inscription on the tomb, that Uolling. a little town near Mets,
may hare been his birthplace. In that case ' Sameraoensis ' may refer
simply to Mouton's residence at S. Quentln.
s Whence he removed, probably, when the English took the town fo
1513.
* See 'Ktudei St Quentlnolses' (& Quentln 1851-ffl. eta), torn. I.
p. 808. Oh. Gomart. the author, took the inscription from a MS. of
Qwnlin Del<\foiu, but does not state where It Is to be found. It b the
only authority for the date of Mouton's death, and for hte two diarch
prefiBrments. » * A4u6«icaxop6or * (BasUece 15I8X P^ «»*.
< 'MlsssB J. Mouton* (Foesombrone, Petnitios. Aug. 11. 1515). con-
talning ' Mlssa sine nomine.' ' Alleluia.* ' Alma Bcdemptorls.' another
• Bine nomine,' ' Refflna meanim ' (Brit. Mas. & Ifi).
? For Bumey*s examples from Mout<m. and critical notes, aee * Ma-
sical Kxtracts* (toL IL pp. lOi. 134. 187. 169) In Brit. Mus. (Add. MBS.
ll.'«2). Moat of the notes are Ineorpoiatad In his History (toL IL
p. 388).
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MOUTOK.
inelcMly, no ingenuity of oontiiTanoe, no learning
of modulation. Yet the masses were highly
valued in their day, reprinted by other pub-
lisherB ^ and much admired, according to Glarean
and Le * Boy, by Pope Leo X, Giov. di * Medici.
As for motets, Mouton saw ai printed in the
best collection of his time, Petrucci's Motetti de
la * Corona. Posthumous publications continued
for nearly 40 years, and the list of known printed
works includes 9 'masses, about 75 motets and
psalms, and a few French chansons.
The British Museum has a single voice-part
(superius) of Mouton*s a a • motets printed by
Le Boy in 1555, and happily a oomplete MS. score
of the same colleGti(m. This gives many inter-
esting pieces, the 'Nesciens Mater* (8 &) with
4 oi the parts derived canonically from the others,
the •Quia dabit oculis' composed in 1514 on the
death of Anne of Bretagne, Queen of France,
some £aster pieces, ' Alleluia,' and * In illo tem-
pore/ and one for Christmas, ' Noe, noe, peallite,*
on which Arcadelt afterwmds wrote a mass.
Bumey has scored, besides the mass move-
ments, 3 ^motets, and in this style of com-
position finds Mouton more smooth and polished
than his contemporaries. 'Life in a court ' can
■caroely account for it. Most great musicians of
the time had the same surroundings. Glarean,
more reasonably, attributes to zeal and industry
the rare facility which separated Mouton from
his fellows. The numerous examples drawn from
J his ^orkfl for the • Dodecaohordon,' and the evi-
* dent pride with which Glarean " recalls the meet-
ing in Paris, are evidence of the high value set
upon the French composer. Had Mouton left no
compositionB of his own, he would still be re-
membered as belonging to a remarkable line of
great ieachen, Ockei^eim, Josquin, Mouton,
Willaert, Zarbno. [J.B.S.-B.]
MOVEMENT. A definite and complete item
in a musical composition, sometimes forming
part of ft large work, and sometimes single and
indeoendent. So called because each portion as
a rule maintains the same rate of ' movement.'
On the other hand, a 'number' in an opera or
oratorio will often contain several movements.
This latter expression is sometimes used instead
of it, as in Schumann's ' Faschingsschwank,'
which is to all intents and purposes a sonata in
five movements, though numbered as if it were
a aeries of separate pieces. [J.A.F.M.]
1 The 'Aim* redemptorU* vas reprinted, and a new one. 'dittee
B>of tootes Tot pensfes,* added In AnUqnU' fiunous ' Liber qulndeclm
MI«arum* (Bom. 15W).
' Sea prsfMe to work qnoted In note 2 of prerloiu page.
* ' A pawlonate lover of mosic ... the aoundt of which were dally
beard floatlnf through the palace, Leo hlnuelf humming the airs that
vera performed.' (Banke** History of the Fopes.)
* 8 In book 1. (in4) ; 10 In book U. (1619) ; 8 In book UL (IS19X
* Besides the six mentioned bi note 6 of previous page and note 1
above, the '|Dssa d'AUemagne.' *Tna est potentla,' and 'Quem
dkamt' were printed. THti mentions a MS. 'Missa sans cadence' at
CambraL 2arllno speaks of a Mass 'Benedkam Domlnum.' k 6
(Istltutkinl Harm. pC iv. p. 414).
' See note S on pravlous page.
7 'QdIs dabn oonUs.' 'N<m nobis Domlne.' composed In WM at the
Mrth of Ren6e. daughter of Louis xn. Also ' Quam pulcra es,' which
BiuiMf likes 80 much that he gives the first movement In hb History.
TUs notet had in tu own time been ascribed to Josquto.
■ Speaking of It oontinoaUy fai the ' Dodeoaidiordon.' See ppi. S96^
^464. They convened by means of an interpreter.
MOZART.
870
MOZART, Lbopold, father rf the great com-
poser, and son of JohMin Georg, a bookbinder,
of Augsburg, was bom Nov. 14, I7i9> Intelli-
gent, sagacious, and persevering, he determined
to push his way beyond the narrow circle of liis
parental home. From the first he was addicted to
music ; on leaving school he went for two yean
(1737-39) to the University of Salzburg, after
which he devoted himself to tiie etudy of music
as a profession, and hftviag become an excellent
violinist, was appointed Hofmusikus by Arch«
Jbidkop Leopold (Firmian) in 1743* afterwards
Hofcompodtor, and in 1762 vice-Capellmeister
by Archbishop Sigismund (Schrattenbach). On
Nov. 21, 1747, he married Anna Maria Pertlin,
daughter of an oflQcial of St. Gilgen. They
were described as the handsomest couple in
Salzburg. Of seven children, only two survived—
a daughter, Maria Anna, bom July 30, 1 751,
and a son, the immortal Wolfgang. "HSb travels
with his children are detailed in the succeeding
article. He discerned at once their immense gifts,
and, with pious trust in Providence, devoted his
whole energies to their education in music- He
died at Salsburg May 28, 1787, bearing to the
grave the honourable distinction of having trained
one of the greatest musicians the world ever saw.
He composed much — oratorios, dramatic music,
including the operas * Semiramis * and * Die ver*
stellte Gartnerin * ; but especially church and in-
strumental works, several of which were circu«
lated either in print or MS. He engraved six
of his own sonatas in 1740. His great work,
however, was his 'Versuch einer grilndlichen
Yiolinschule * (Augsburg, 1756), which passed
through many editions in various languages, and
was for long the only Method for the vioUn. From
this work alone we should judge him to have
been a man of culture far above the average, and
of solid worth, as indeed he was. Marpurg,
Schubart, Zelter, and others, have all mention^
the book in the highest terms. A steel en-
graving of him firom the family portrait in the
Mozarteum at Salzburg, is given in voL I of
Otto Jahn's 'Mozart' (and ed.). His daughter
Mabia Anna, whom he early taught the
* piano, and who shared her brother's successes
as a pianist on their joint tours, married in 1 784
Baron von Berchthold zu Sonnenberg, Hofiath
of Salzburg, and Warden of St. Gilgen. On his
death she retumed to Salzburg, and occupied
herself with teaching. She became blind in 1 8 20,
and died Oct. 29th, 1829. [0. F. P.]
• MOZART. Wolfgang Amadeus'®, bwn at
Salzburg, Jan. 27, 1756, even as a child of three
showed his love for music in a remarkable manner.
He listened eagerly to his sister Marianne's
music- lessons, amused himself for hours with
picking out thirds, and showed a good memory
for the pieces he heard. Encoura^^ by these
• Her lewont flnt brought out Wolffang'i extraordinary musical
gifts.
w He was ehrtitened In fkiU Joannes ChtTtoetoma* WolHrangna
Theophilus: Instead of Theophllui hia father wrote Gottlleb-tn Latin
Amadeiu. In hi* earlier letters Moaut added his confirmation-name
Slgtanundus. On his first works, and those engrared in Paris in 17M.
be signs himself J. O. Wolfgang, afterwards Wolfgang Amade; la
private life be was always Wolfgang.
Digitized by
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880
MOZART.
indications his father began, ahnost in play, to
teach him little minuets on the harpsichord;
but the boy showed such aptitude that the play
soon became real work. Marianne's MS. music-
book' was called into requisition, the father
writing down in it pieces of progressive difficulty.
The impulse to compose similar pieces for him-
self was soon roused in the boy ; these, which
already betray his feeling for beauty both of
sound and form, he play^ to his father, who
wrote them down in the book. Before long he
was able to enter his own compositions. He even
ventured on a concerto, but it was so difficult that
no one could play it ; he stood his ground how-
ever, maintaimng to his &ther that ' that is just
why it is called a concerto ; people must practise
till they can play it perfectly.* Sohaohtner the
court trumpeter, and a friend of the family,
relates* many touching instances of his lively
and essentially child-like disposition; of his eager-
ness in learning anything, especially arithmetic ;
of his warm love for his futher ('next after Grod
comes papa ' he used to say) ; of his docility,
which was such that even in' those days of severity
he never was whipped ; of his ear, which was so
delicate that he could detect and remember to
the next day a difference of half a quarter of a
tone, and so susceptible that he fainted away at
the sound of a trumpet ; of his disinclination to
ordinary childish amusements, and his earnest-
ness over his music-lessons. His &ther wrote
to him in 1778, 'as a child and a boy you were
too serious even to be childish : and when sitting
at the harpsichord, or doing anything in the
shape of music, you would not stand a joke from
any one. Indeed, from the precocity of your
talent, and the extremely thoughtful expression of
your countenance, many people feared you would
not live to grow up.' It has but lately been
discovered' that when a little over 5i, Mozart
took part in a comedy, * Sigisinundus Hungaris
Bex,* set to music by Eberlin the court organist,
and performed in the hall of the University of
^ Salzburg, Sept. i and 3, 1 761. There were about
1 50 performers, including young counts, students,
and choristers of the chapeL
This was Mozart's ^r^ appearance in public.
The father, struck by the rapid progress of
his children, determined to travel with them.
\ Their first excursion was in Jan. 1 762, to Munich,
where the Elector received them kindly, and
expressed great admiration ; and encouraged by
this success the family next went to Vienna,
giving a concert at Linz by the way.
The reputation of the little prodigies had
preceded them to Vienna, but the r^dity far
exceeded the expectations formed by the court
and nobility. The Emperor was especially taken
with the * kleinen Hexenmeister ' (little magician),
and in joke made him play first with one finger
only, and then with the keyboard covered.
I Now In the Moartenm at Salzbnir.
3 liOtter to Mozart'a sister, dated BaUbnrg 1792; given entire by
Jahu L 19. The references througbont are to Jahn's Sad edition.
s Neue BeltrSge fttr Salzburglsche Geschicht^e(o. An extract from
the MS. ' Chronik dee Gesanges imd der Mualk im Salzburglsohen.' Iv
A. J. Hammerle (Salzburg Uf77).
MOZABT.
Wolfgang asked expressly for Wagenseil, the
court composer, that he might be sure of having
a real connoisseui; among his hearers. ' I am
playing a concerto of yours,' he said, ' you must
turn over for me.* He treated the Empress with
all the frankness of an unspoilt child, jumping
up into her lap, throwing his arms round her
neck and kissing her. Of course the upper
classes went wild about the children, and 'all
the ladies lost their hearts to the little fellow.*
But a change soon came, for Wolfgang took the
scarlet-fever, and even after his recovery people
held aloof from fear of infection. After a tiiotrt
excursion to Pressbuig they returned to Salzburg
in the beginning of 1763.
s The father now considered himself justified in
attempting a longer journey, his main aim being
Paris. They left Salzburg on the 9th of June, and
travelled by Munich, Augsburg, Schwetzingen,
Mayenoe, Frankfort,* Ooblenz, Aix-la-Ohapelle,
and Brussels, giving public concerts, or playing
at the various courts. Wolfgang played the vio-
lin, and also the organ at the various churches.
They arrived in Paris on Nov. 18. and stayed
five months. The children played before the
court at Versailles, gave two concerts, and
exdted the greatest enthusiasm. Grimm, the
cultivated man of letters, took them up warmly,
and was of great use in procuring them in-
troductions, and rendering services of various
kinds. To show Wolfgang*s talent in composi-
tion, the father had 4 sonatas for pianoforte and
violin engraved, two (6, 7) 'being dedicated to
the Princess Victoire, the King's second daughter,
and two (8, 9) to the witty Comtesse de Tess^.
The whole family was painted by Carmontelle,'
and the picture is now in the possession of Mrs.
Baring of London.
They left Paris April 10, 1764, and went by
Calais to London, where they took lodgings in
Cecil Court, St. Martin's Lane.* Here i^so they
met with a gracious reception at court, and the
children, especially Wol^ang, made an extra-
ordinary impression. The King put before the
* invincible* Wolfgang pieces by Bach, Abel,
Wagenseil, and Handel, which he played at
sight, and also made him play on his organ, to
the still greater admiration of everybody. He
then accompanied the Queen in a song, and a
flute-player in his solo, and improvised a charm-
ing melody to the bass-part of one of Handel's
airs. He became very intimate with the Queen's
music-master, J. Christian Bach, and with the
singers Tenducd and Manzuoli, the latter of
whom gave him singing lessons of his own accord.
He also made the acquaintance of the Hon.
Daines B(pTington, a man of very versatile attain-
ments, who s^ter putting him to the severest
tests, wrote a paper for the Boyal Society,^ in
4 Here the bther annonnoed In the programme. Aug. 9Qi that 'be
would plaj with the keyboard coTered.' thiu turning the Emperor^ ,
Joke to account Here also Ooethe heard him—* I was about M, and
I itiU distinctly remember the little man with his frlnled wig. iM
sword.' Eckermann's 'Gespriche mit Ooethe,' 11. 18a
ft The numbers throughout refer to KOchel's Kozart-Oatalogua.
« For the details of Mozart's stay, and the ooodltlon of music at tbt I
time, see Pohl's ' Moxari In London ' (Vienna IMT).
[ T FhUosophlcal Trauadtons, xoklx, far the sear 1T70. p. 6L
Digitized by VjOOQIC
MOZART.
which he detailed the facts and his own ad-
miration and astonishment. After a second
perfonnance at court, the children gave their
first concert on Tuesday June 5, at the Great
Room in Spring Gardens. In the advertise-
ment the iiftther called his children 'prodigies
of nature/ and directed special attention to
Wol^^ang ; ' his father had lnx>ught him to Eng-
land, not doubting but that he will meet with
success in a kingdom where his countryman
Handel, the late famous virtuoso, received during
his lifetime such particular protection.* Town
was very full for the King*s birthday (June 4),
and the receipts were as much as 100 guineas ;
moreover many of the professors engaged de-
clined receiving any renimieration for their ser-
vices. The sensation was immense; even the
father was astonished, and wrote home describing
their progress. 'To play the British patriot*
he next allowed Wol%amg to play the harpsichord
and organ at. a ooncert at Ranelagh on June 29,
'for the benefit of a useful public 'charity.*
Af^ this the family went to Ttmbridge Wells,
then at the height of its fashion, returning at the
end of July; Portly after the &ther took cold
in returning firom a concert at Lord Thanet*s,
and had a severe illness. During his convales-
cence they went to Chelsea, then a detached
village, and lived at the house of a Dr. Randal
in Five-fields (now Lower Ebury Street). Not
being able to play any instrument, on their
fath^s account, Wolfgang composed his first
Symphony (15), followed by three others in
1765 (17-19). On their return to town they
lodged at Williamson's in Thrift Street (now
Frith St., Soho) ; and on October 29 were again
invited to court. In acknowledgement of so
much gracious kindness, the father had six of
W<^%aiig*s sonatas for harpsichord and violin
(10-15) engraved at his own cost, and dedicated
to the Queen, who sent him 50 guineas. The
last two concerts, in which 'all the overtures
were of the little boy*s own composition,* took
place respectively on Feb. 12, 1765, at the Little
Theatre, Haymarket, and May 13, in Hickford*s
Great Boom, Brewer Street, the latter at reduced
prices, as the charm of novelty had worn off.
Here the children played a piece of Wol^^ang^s
for 4 hands on the same harpsichord, a thing
then quite new. He also played on a pianoforte
with 2 manuals and pedals, made by Burkhard
Shudy for the King of Prussia.
From this time the father put forth repeated
invitations to the public to hear and test the
youthful int)digiee m private, 'every day firom
12 to 3, admittance 2/6 each person,* first at
their lodgings, and afterwards at the Swan and
Hoop Tavern, ComhilL Playing with the key-
board covered is mentioned as a special attrac-
tion. Visitors however became constantly fewer,
in spite of the increasing urgency with which
they were invited (the • Advertiser * of July 1 1
contains the last advertisement), and some popu-
^ lar disturbances, together with Uie appearance of
1 Probably tb« L7lnff-In-HMplt«l (Somy), tho ftrandattonitoDa of
wblcb WM UM in lTt&
MOZART.
881
the first symptoms of G^rge the Third*s malady,
made the elder Mozart determine to leave the
country. The family however first visited the
British Museum (opened Jan. 15, 1759), to which
the fisbther presented all Wolfgang's printed com-
positions, and a copy of the engraving from
Carmontelle*s picture. In memory of his visit
Wolfgang composed; by request, a 4-part motet,*
his only vocal piece to English words, and pre'
sented the autograph to the Museum, receiving
a note of thanks from the secretaiy, Mr. Maty
(July 19, 1765). They started July 24, stopped
at Canterbury, and at Bourne with Horace
Mann, and on August i left England for the
Hague in consequence of an invitation to the
court of Holland. *
They were detained a month at Lille by Wolf*
gang*s falling ill, but on their arrival at the Hague
in Si^tember were most graciouslv received by
the Prince of Orange and his sister Princess
Caroline of Nassau- Weilbmg. First however
the little girl fell ill, and then Wolfgang took a
violent fever which lasted many weeks. It was
not till Jan. 1766 that he was able to give two
concerts at Amsterdam, at which aU the instru-
mental music was his own composition, including
a symphony (22). In March ^ey were again at
the Hague for the fdtes on the installation of the
Prince of Orange as Stadtholder, for which Wolf-
gang composed harpsichord variations on an
allegretto, and on ihe old Yolkdied 'Willem
van Nassau* (24, 25), which were immediately
printed. He also composed for the Festival a
kind of concerto grosso which he called ' Grali-
mathias musicum* (32); it concludes with a
fugue on the Volkslied. Six sonatas for P. F.
and violin (26-31), dedicated to the Princess, were
also engraved. At Ghent and Haarlem he played
the organ in public.
They next travelled by Mechlin to Paris,
where they arrived on May 10. The children
played repeatedly at court, and Uieir improve-
ment was appreciated, but here too there was a
fcdling ofiT in interest. On July 9 they left Paris,
and passing through Lyons to Switzerland, spent
many pleasant days at Lausanne, Berne, Zurich,
and Sdiaffhausen. They were f§ted evervwhere,
but most of all at Zurich by the poet Gessner,
frx)m whom they parted vridi great regret. It
has lately been discovered ' that the fiftUier took
his children over from Geneva to Femey, having
a letter of introduction from Damilaville of Paris.
But Voltaire had been in bed for six weeks, and
Mme. Denis, Rameau*s pupil, was ill too ; ' Com-
ment pourrais-je recevoir vdtre jeune joueur de
clavecin ? Ah ! nous sommes bien loin de donner
des f&tes !* he wrote to his friend in Paris ; and
so this strange encounter between Leopold Mo-
zart the sincere believer, and Voltaire, did not
take place. That the former should have desired
it is a proof of his readiness to sacrifice even his
scruples to the interests of his children.^ At
a'OodbonrBflftigeandStranffth.* For&eslmUeofUieMitOKMph
tee Pohl'i 'Mozart in London.'
> ' VoUalre Miulclen.' by Edmond ran der Straetan.
4 The abore Intereattng fiu;t throws light on the paingo OB Vol-
taire's death In Moxart'a Lettets (Faris, JUI7 3, 1719).
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882
MOZART.
Donaaesohingen they spent twelve pleasant dayg
with the Prince of Fttrstenbeig, who had music
nearly every evening, and after remunerating them
very handsomely, took leave of them with tears in
his eyes. At Biberach Count Fugger of Baben-
hausen made Wol^ang compete on the organ
with Sixtus Bachmann, a gifted boy two years
older than himself ; neither Vaa able to obtain a
decided advantage over the other. Passing
through Munich, where the Elector was much
pleased with Wol^ang's progress, they arrived
in Salzburg in Novem^ 1760.
The fifcther's first care was to carry on Wolf-
gang's interrupted studies ; and as a solid founda-
tion took him through Fux's 'Gradus ad Par-
iHtssum.' The Archbishop, not believing in the
boy's powers, gave him the first part of a sacred
cantata 'Die Schuldigkeit des ersten Grebotes*
(35)* to compose under strict surveillance. Quite
within our own time it has been ascertained^
that this work was performed on March 1 2, and
April 2, 1767, by the students in the University
hidl. To tins period also belong a Passions-
cantate or Grabmusik (43), his first P. F. con-
certos (37, 39-41), and a Latin comedy * Apollo
et Hyacinthus,' performed May 13, at the Aula,
at which (according to Hammerle) he also played
the harpsichord. In the beginning of September
the family, attracted by the approad^ng be-
trothal of the Archduchess Josepha, went to
Vienna ; but they came in for a series of mis-
fortunes. The I^rincess died of small-pox, the
upper classes took flight for fear of infection, and
the Mozarts also fled to Olmfitz, where however
both children took the disease, and Wol%ang
was blind for nine days. Ck>unt Podstatzky
generously gave them free quarters in the Dean-
ery, and every care was lavished upon them.
After their recovery they made a short stay at
Briinn, where they were kindly welcomed by
Count Schrattenbach, and other nobles.
They arrived in Vienna in January 1768, and
were very kindly received at court; but the
Bmpress was living in retirement after the death
of her husband, the Emperor set an example of
parsimony which was scrupulously followed by
the aristocracy, and the general public had no
feeling for art. But worse than all was the
envy and jealousy shown by their professional
brethren. In the midst of these various dif-
ficulties and trials the Emperor invited Wol%ang
to compose an opera, and conduct it at the harp-
sichord. Coltellmi's 'La finta Semplice ' (51) was
chosen, but a series of intrigues prevented its
being produced. Wolfgang had however the satis-
faction of producing his little German operetta
'Bastion und Bastienne' (50)^ in the private
theatre of their firiends the Messmers.' He had
also an opportunity of appearing in public as a
composer, being conmiissioned to furnish a mass
(49), an offertorium (47), and a trumpet-concerto,
1 H&niinerle quotea th« notice In Uie UnlTersHy minutes :—' 1707.
13 Hartii. JotU: Vacatio (Post prandium). Horn media 7 In Aula
Oratorium fuit decantatum a D. Wolfgango Mozart adulesoentolo 10
annonim in modulos muaicoe egregie redactiun.'
* Translatlou of a parody on Bouneau'f ' D«vln da VOlago.*
* A medical mao, not the celebrated niaipietiter.
MOZABT.
for the consecration of the new church at the
Waisenhaus. The ceremony took place Dec.7,
and Wolfgang conducted in presence of the lisi'
peror and the court.
A great pleasure awaited Wolfgang on his
return to Salzburg; the Archbishop had his
rejected opera performed in the palace, fie also
made him his Conoertmeister, though without
salary. Wolfgang again devoted himself to
study, composing two masses (65, 66), and the
charming Johannes Offertorium (72) for a priest
in the monastery of Seeon.' His father now
resolved to take him to Italy for further culti-
vation, and also as a means of making his name
known. The father and son left Sakburg in the
beginning of December 1769, and travelling by
Innspruok, where Wol%ang was greaUy admired
at a private concert ^ven by Cotmt Kfinigl, they
visited Roveredo, Verona, Mantua, Milan, Lodi,
where Wol%ang composed his first quartet (80),
Bologna, Rome, Florence, Nicies, and on their
return, Bologna, Milan, and Venice. At Rov^^o
Wolfgang played at Baron Todeschi*s, and the
day after played the organ in the parish churdi to
an immense crowd. At Verona one of his sym-
phonies was performed, and his playing at sight,
and oomposing and singing an air to given words,
caused great astonishment. Pietro Lugiati had
a picture taken of him, and poets celebrated his
raaises. In Mantua, at a concert of the Society
Filarmonica, nine out of twelve pieces wert
by Wolfgang. In Milan they were lodged in
S. Marco, and Count Firmian, the Governor-
General, who was a great connoisseur, introduced
them to aU the principal families. 'It is the
same here as everywhere,* writes the father,
' so there is no need to describe it.* The fore-
most musician in the city, the aged Giambattista
Sammartini subjected Wolfgang to severe tests.
After a brilliant soir^ at Count Firmian's, for
which he composed three airs to words by Me-
tastasio (77-79), he waa commissioned to write
an opera for the next 'stagione.' At Parma
ihey admired the celebrated singer Agujari. At
Bologna they were most hospitably received by
Count Pallavicini, who gave a brilliant academy,
at which even Padre Martini was present, al-
though he had then given up attending concerts.
The father writes that Wol%ang was more ad-
mired there than anywhere, and anticipates that
from Bologna, the residence of so many artists
and scientific musicians, his fame will soon
spread over Italy. And he was right ; for the
recommendation of Padre Martini, the great
church composer, and referee in all musical dis-
putes, at once gave him a position in the eyes of
the world. After each visit to the Padre, Wolf-
gang carried away a fiigue to work out at home,
and in every case acquitted himself to the satis-
fiiction of the great contrapuntist. His acquaint-
ance too with the great sin^r Farinelli was of
service to him from an artistic point of view.
In Florence, where they arrived March 30, the
Mozarts were graciously received by the Arch-
duke Leopold, who had known them in Vienna.
Wolfgang played at court, accompanied Nardiol
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MOZART.
th« gtmt violinist, and solved * as easily as if he
were eating a bit of bread,* the hardest problems
set him by the Marquis de ligniville, director of
the court-mosio, and a thorough contrapuntist.
Wol%ang copied for his own use 9 pieces firom
the Marquis's Stabat Mater with 30 canons, and
composed in imitation of it a Kyrie a cinque con
divend canoni (89). Here to his great delight
he again met Manzuoli, who had taught him
to sing in Ix>ndon. He also stnick up a great
friendship with Thomas Linley, the young com-
poser of 14, who was a pupil of Nardini, and
already gave remarkable promise. The two
youxig artists were inseparable for the few days
of Mozart's stay, and competed 'not like boys,
but like men.' They parted with many tears,
and never met again, Linley being drowned in
1778. Long afterwards in Vienna Mozart spoke
of him,^ and lamented his early death. Bumey
says that the talk throughout Italy was of the
two genuises, little Mozart and 'Tomasino,' from
both of whom much was expected.
The travellers reached Borne on Wednesday
in Holy Week, and went straight to the Sistine
Chapel to hear Allegri's oeldtnrated Miserere,
when Wolfgang gave the well-known proof of his
ear and memory, by writing down^the entire
work, after one hearing, morely oorrecting one
or two passages during the repetition on Good
Friday. [See Miserxue.] This feat made a
great sensation. The principal people received
him with open arms, and Wolfgang played every-
where. For these concerts he composed a sym-
phony (81) and two soprano airs (8a, 83), and
sent a contredanse to his sister in return for
Haydn's minuets.
On May 8 they went direct to Naples.
Wolfgang was not invited to play before the
court, but the nobility treated both father and
son with great respect; they also met many
previous acquaintances, who were of use to them
in various ways. On the 28th Wolfgang gave a
concert, which was brilliantly attended, and
brought in a good smn. When he played at
the 'Conservatorio alia Pietk,' his hearers were
superstitious enough to attribute his marvellous
execution to the charm of a ring on his finger, and
when he laid it aside their astonishment knew
no bounds. They had made acquaintance with
Piccini in Milan, and did the same here with
JomellL On June 25 they went back to Rome,
and the Pope in a private audience bestowed on
Wolfgang the order of the 'Golden Spur' — 'the
same that Gluck has,' as the father wrote home
with pardonable pride. He also told as a good
joke, how the guards let them pass, taking Wolf-
gang for a young prince, and himself for his
tutor. Now he was Signer Cavaliere Amadeo,
and his father insisted on his thus signing his
compositions. Wolfgang however was lens pre-
tentious, and soon let die title drop. He was
painted again in Kome by Battoni.
Leaving Bome on July 10, they arrived on
the 20th in Bologna, where a great distinction
awaited Wolfgang. The Accademia Filarmonica,
1 Kdirs ' Beminlscenoes.' L 82S.
MOZART.
583
after testing his powers,' admitted him to their
ranks as ' compositore,' although the statutes, be-
sides other qualifications, required that members
should be at least 20. His election as 'maestro
di 'capella' followed on June 5, 1771. Again
they saw much of Padre Martini, and under his
influence Wolfgang wrote for practice a series of
sketches in the forms of strict counterpoint.^ A
Miserere (85) shows the influence of the one
heard in Rome.' Finally Martini gave him a
formal testimonial.
By Oct. 10 they were in MHan, and Wol%ang
set seriously to work on his opera, before the
completion of which the usual battles with the
singers, and in this case with jealous rivals, had
to be gone through. On Dec. 26, however,
' Mitridate R^ di Ponto ' was produced for the
first time, Wolfgang conducting; and it was
repeated to full houses twenty times, amid cries
of * Ewiva il Maestro ! Ewiva il Maestrinol '
After an excursion to Turin, they again passed
through Milan on their way to Venice, entered
into all the amusements of the Carnival, were
fdted by the nobility, and gave a brilliant con-
cert. On March 12 tiiey went to Padua, where
Wol%ang played the organ in S. Giustina, and
was commissioned to compose an oratorio, which
Jahn conjecttures to have been 'Betulia liberata'
(118), pwformed in all probability during Leift,
1772. After some days detention m Vicenza and
Verona, they arrived at Salzburg, March 28,
1 77 1. His success in Italy procured him two
commissions,— one from Milan for an opera for the
Carnival of 1 773, and the other from the Empress
Maria Theresa for a dramatic serenata for the
marriage of the Archduke Ferdinand, to take
place in Milan in October. During their short
stay at Salzburg, Wolfgang composed a Litany
(109), a Regina cceli (108), and a symphony
(no). They started again Aug. 13, 1771, and
arrived in Milan on the 21st; but the libretto
was not ready till the end of the month. The
score was completed in a fortnight, a remarkable
instance of rapidity, considering that he had a
violinist overhead, an oboe-player beneath, and
a pianoforte-teacher next door, all hard at work
the whole day long — a Babel of sounds which he,
however, pronounced to be ' delightful (Itutig) for
composing, as it gave ideas ' I He was now so
firmly established in the favour both of the court
and the public, that he had no intrigues to en-
counter. He was on the best terms, too, with
Hasse, who was composing * Ruggiero,' and who
with commendable generosity, prophetically re-
marked, 'This boy will cause us all to be for-
gotten' (Questo ragazzo ci farik dimenticar tutti).
The marriage of the Archduke and the Princess
Beatrice of Modena took place Oct. 15 ; Hasse's
opera was performed on the 16th, and Wolf-
gang's Serenata * Ascanio in Alba' (in) on the
17th, with a success which enabled the father
to write home 'I am sorry to say Wolfgangs
s An Antlphon was giren him to set in 4 ports ^).
s Jfthn glres-Mtnuteii, IL 61S; T«tter from the father. L 1% ; Teat-
oomporition. ii. Notenbeilage tIU. p. 2D; Diploma W. <>14.
4 Jahn li. NotenbrllBffe t. ^ Ibid. tL
• Jahu IL 610.
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MOZAKT.
Serenata has cut out Hasse^s Opera to an extent
1 cannot describe.* Besides nis fee, the Em-
press sent him a gold watch set with diamonds,
with her portrait at the back. After the opera
he composed another symphony (112), and a
divertimento (113).
They returned home in the middle of Decem-
ber, 1 771. In the last days of the year Wolfgang
composed another symphony (114), and was then
laid up by serious illness. Meantime the Arch-
bishop died, and Wolfgang was oonmiissioned to
compose an opera for the allegiance festival of
his successor Hieronymus, Coimt von Colloredo,
whose election caused univenuJ astonishment
and dismay. The piece chosen was Metastasio^s
' n Sogno di Scipione,* very inappropriate, and
apparently wanting in inspiration, as the music
is superficial and entirely *de oirconstance.' It
was performed probably in May, 1772. About
the same period he composed 4 symphonies (124,
128-130); a grand divertimento (131); 3 quar-
tets (136-138); a very important Litany 'do
venerabili ' (125) ; and a Regina coeli (127).
The travellers again set out for Milan on Oct.
a4, 1^72, and arrived on Nov. 4. Here Wolf-
gang completed his new opera, 'Ludo Silla'
(I35)> produced on Dec. 26. and repeated more
than twenty times to crowded and enthusiastic
audiences. Kauzzini was one of the singers, and
Wol%ang composed for him a motet, * Exul-
tate ' (165), which he sang in the church of the
Theatines.'
They returned in the beginning of March
1773 to Salzburg, where Wol%ang composed 4
symphonies (i 81-184), 3 diverdmenti for wind-
band (186-188), a grand concerto for two
violins (190), and a mass (167). In the summer
the father and son took the opportunity of the
Archbishop's a'bsence in Vienna, to go there
themselves. Their immediate object is not
known, but probably the father was trying to
obtain some court appointment. He had made
a similar attempt in Florence, but without suc-
cess. He wrote to his wife and daughter,
'Things will and must alter; take comfort, Grod
will help us.* They returned home however with
their object unattained. In Vienna Wolfgang
composed a grand serenata for Salzbuig (185),
and six quartets (168-173), and was 'bold
enough,' as his father wrote, to play a violin-
concerto at a festival in the Theatine monastery,
the oi^gan not be&g worth playing on. One of
his masses (66) was performed by the Jesuits.
In 1773 Wol%ang also* composed at Salzbuig
a string quintet (174), and a P.F. concerto
(175), Uie first since those of 1767. The family
were together at Salzbuig nearly the whole of
1774, Wolfgang being very busy with his studies,
and with com^wition. To this period belong —
2 masoofl (192, 194); a grand Htany (195); 2
vesper-psalms (193) ; an offertorium for soprano
and tenor soli (198) ; a bassoon-concerto (191) ;
4 symphonies (199- 202) ; 2 serenatas ( 203, 204) ;
an interesting fuvertimento (205), and P.F. va-
riations on Fischer's favourite minuet (179),
which he frequently played on his tour.
MOZART.
On Dec. 6 the ftkth-sr and son started for
Munich, where Wol^ng was engaged, through
the influence of his patron. Count Ferdinand von
Zeil, Prince Archbishop of Chiemsee, to compose
an opera for the Carnival of 1775. Stimulated
doubtless by the rich resources at his disposal,
Wol%ang exerted himself to the utmost, and
'Lafinta Giardiniera' (196), produced Jan. 13,
1775, was a great success. Schubart, who had
heard it, speaks of the 'wonderful genius' of
the composer, and adds, ' unless Mozart should
prove to be a mere overgrown product of the
forcing-house, he will be the greatest composer
that ever lived.' Court and public vied with each
other in paying him attentions, and the oourt-
chapel performed one of his grand litanies ( 1 25),
his two latest masses, and an offertorium, ' Miseri-
cordias Domini' (222), written in haste at the
request of the Electa, and an admirable speci-
men of strict counterpoint.
Soon after their return to Salzbuig in March
1775, a series of fStes were given at court in
honour of the Archduke Maximilian, afterwards
Archbishop of Cologne, and Wolfgang's dramatic
cantata to Metastasio's much-u^ 'II R^ pas-
tore' (208) was performed on April 23. To the
remainder of Uiis year belong, another mass
(220) ; 2 airs for tenor (209, 210) ; an air for
soprano (217); a divertimento (213); 9 canons'
for 2, 3, and 4 voices (226-234) I ^^^ 5 violin-
concertos (207, 211, 216, 218, 219), to which
a 6th (268) was added in 1776. The concert4«
show that he was working at the violin, which
he did to please his father, as he disliked play-
ing at court, though it was one of his duties.
His father writes to him in 1777, * You have no
idea how well you play the violin ; if you would
only do yourself justice, and play with boldness,
spirit, and fire, you would be the first violinist in
Europe.' Again, * I suspect you have scarcely
touched the \dolin since you were in Munich ; I
should be very sony if that were the case ' ; and
later, 'The violin is hanging up on its nail, I
suppose' — and the conjecture was right. The
remark about Munich refers to his Cassation
(287), 'Everybody was staring away; and I
played as if I had been the greatest violinist in
Europe.' Later, in Vienna, he preferred taking
the viola in quartets.
The whole of 1776, and as far as Sept. 1777.
passed quietly in the old routine, numerous com-
positions testifying to Wol%ang's industry. To
this period belong 5 masses (257-259, 262,
275) ; a litany ' de venerabili ' (243) ; an offer-
torium for 2 choirs 'Venite popuH' (260); a
graduale 'Sancta MMa' (273); a ser^iade for
the wedding of Buigermeister Haffiier's daughter
(249, 250); a serenade for 2 violins principali
with accompaniments (239) ; a divertimento for
various instruments (251) ; a nottumo for ditto
(286) ; 2 divertimenti or Cass«donen for string
quartet and 2 horns (247, 287) for the name-day
of Countess Antonie Lodron ; 5 divertimenti fi
2 oboi, 2 bassoons, and 2 horns (240, 252, 253,
270, 289) ; a sonata for bassoon and cello (293) ;
an oboe-concerto (293) for Ferlendi, frequently
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MOZART.
played by Ramm of Mannheim, who used to call
it his 'cheval de bataille.' The P.F. also re-
appears—variations (264, 365) ; 6 sonatas (279-
2S4), ordered by Biuron Diimitz, who forgot to
pay for them ; a trio (254) ; 2 concertos (238,
246) ; and a concerto for 3 P.F.'s (242) for the
three Countesses Lodrow, a fibvourite piece, often
played on his next tour by Mozart himself. Of
17 sonatas for organ, generally with violin and
baas, intended as gittduales, 6 (241, 244, 245,
263, 274, 278) belong to this period.
Besides all this mass of music, Wolfgang
studied the works of other masters, and even —
an example well worth following — put into score
from the parts a number of church-pieces in the
strict style by Michael Haydn and Eberlin. He
sent from Vienna for a note-book of this kind for
van Swieten's benefit. ^ ^
We have now before us a youth of 21, a
skilled performer on three instruments, and at
home in the most varied branches of composition.
His fftther had given him a conscientious and
systematic education, protected him from all
injurious influences, and made him concentrate
his whole powers on his ardstio cultivation. All
that teaching could do for him had been done in
Salzbuig ; the time had now come for him to go
out into the world, and let the discipline of life
complete the work. His existence at Salzburg
bad long been intolerable to him ; beyond a few
intimate friends he had no socie^; he was dis-
gusted at the want of appreciation for art, and
his position with regard to Archbishop Hierony-
mus became daily more criticaL On this point
both he and his &ther became anxious. Some-
thing must be done. Not daring as yet to send
his son alone into the worid, me &ther asked
leave to take ai. professional tour with him. It
was refused, the Archbi8hop*8 reason being, as
he said afterwards, that ' he could not bear
people going about hegging in that fashion.'
The cup was now full, and Wolfgang applied for
his discharge.^ Irritated that any one should
dare to leave him so abruptly, and quite aware
of what he was losing,, the Archbishop granted
the request on Aug. 28, adding that, ' after the
Gospel both father and son were free to seek their
fortune wherever they pleased.' He relented,
however, with regard to the £&ther, who came to
the painful resolve of sending his son away with
his mother. It was true that she had little
eneigy, and less intellectual power ; but she was
an experienced traveller, and could be usefrd to
her sgn in many practical ways. The necessary
preparations were accordingly made, even to the
purchase of a carriage, that they might present
a suitable appearance. On Sept. 23, 1777,
mother and son left home. The uther bore up
bravely till they were really off, and then going
to his room saiik exhausted on a chair. Sud-
denly he remembered that in his distress he had
forgotten to give his son his blessing. He rushed
1 TbiB Intarettliig doeomsnt hu laielj bean ftmnd In the ardiJ-
epbeojwl arohl?es Iqr Plrckmejer Um coftodten, and publbhed with
QthM- matter under the title of 'Znr Lebensgeschiohte Moxarta,*
Salzbofv iflTt: alM copied in tlM FnbM to MottTft MottrtbiMk
lDded..l877. i
voL.n. FT. 10.
MOZART.
SS5;
to the window with outstretched hand, but the
carriage was already out of sight. His son, how-
ever, breathed freely when once fairly off; the
deliverance from a position which he had long
groaned under was delightful enough to mitigate
even the pain of separation from his &ther and
sister. Fortunately for him he oould not foresee
the life which lay before him, — a life full to its
dose of crosses and disappointments* and with
so few joys !
Their first halting place was Munich, but here
they met with nothing but discouragement, and
had to leave without aooompUshing anything. At
Augsburg Mozart visited G. Andreas Stehi, the
celebrated maker of organs and pianofortes, and
both at his house and in the monastery of St.
Ulrich charmed all hearers by his playing. A
-concert, however, produced but a small sum. On
Oct. 30 they reached Mannheim, where they
stayed much longer than they anticipated. The<
good prospects which at first seemed to open
before them were not indeed realised; but the
visit formed a decisive epoch in Mozart's life.
Under the Elector Karl Theodor, Mannheim pos-
sessed a good opera, with an orchestra contain-
ing virtuosi of the first rank, and at that time
considered the first in Europe for instrumental
music' Mozart made great friends with Ganna-
bioh, an excellent conductor and good teacher,
and gave pianoforte lessons to his daughter
Rose, who attracted him in' spite of her youth.
He aJso became intimate with the poets Wieland
and Freiherr von Gremmingen, the composers
Holzbauer and Schweitzer, Raaff the great tenor,
Wendling, Ramm, and Ritter, excellent per-
formers on the flute, oboe, and bassoon. Here
also his playing, both on the pianoforte and the
organ, was much admired, and he had oppor-
tunities of measuring himself with Sterkel and
Vogler, neither of whom impressed him much.
The latter, indeed, he positively disliked. While
vainly endeavourhig to gain admittance to the
Elector's Chi^, Wendling, Ramm, and Ritter
tried to persuade him to accompany them to Paris
and give concerts there. He was inclined to the
plan, and his fother agreed, though with reluct-
ance; but when it came to the point he allowed his
friends to start without him. The truth was he
had fallen in love. Aloysia, the second daughter
of Fridolin Weber, prompter and copyist, was a
gifted singer, with a fine voice and considerable
beauty, and Uiese qualities made a due impression
upon Wolfgang, during an excursion to Kirch-
heim, in Poland, where the Princess of Orange
kept a private orchestra* and had daily concerts.
Aloysia returned bis attachment, and allowed
him to teach her singing; and he, touched by the
poverty of the family, resolved to take her to
Italy, and there write a new opera for her first
appearance. So romantic a proposition drove
his father nearly out of his senses. In such a
case quick action was everything. Urging upon
him the doubtful character of vie plan, he used
all his endeavours to tear him away from these
t n UM b«ra that Xoart flnt teanit ttM faloe of the etarlMt M an
Co
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MOZABT.
dangeroiiB imiomidiiigs. ' Off with yoa to Pflrli»
and that immediately 1 Take up your position
amonfi^ thoie who are really great.'-^nc^ CcEtor
aui nikil 1 From Paris the name and &me of a
man of talent spreads throughout the world.' Aa
for his Abyiiay he adviaed him to oommend her
to Baaff, who would not only be able to teach
her, but whose good word would have great
weiffht with' impresarios. It waa a hard struggle
for Wollgang, but his love for his &ther enabled
him to &fet to his authority, and the time for
departure was fixed. Before leaving, howeyer,
be gave some oonoerts, at which he played, and
pxodueed both hia compositions and his pupils ;
and now iar the first time Mannheim became
aware of what it was losing. Parting with the
Webers was hard work; they all w^ft» and
tiianked him as their * greatest benefi^stor.' In
Mannheim he composed — asopranoairforAloysia
(394); a tenor air for Baaff (295): aLieder(307,
308) ; a fluteHxmcertos (513-314) ; Bomanze for
flute (315) ; quartet for flute and strings (285) ;
7 sonatas for P.F. and -violin, partly composed in
Paris (396, 301-306) ; 3 P.F. sonatas (309-311),
including the beautiful one in A minor.
Leaving Mannheim on. March 14, 1778, they
reached Paris on the 23rd. The father's antici-
pations did not in this instance prove cerreot;
their old firiend Grimm was still there, but by no
means so devoted to their interests as he had
been; the youth was not the same attraoticm as the
marvellous boy had been ; and the musical world
was absorbed in the Qluck and Picoini contro-
versy. Nor had they succeeded in obtaining from
Vienna a recommendation to Marie Antoinette*
They were thus thrown upon their Marniheim
firiends, and upon Count von Sickingen, to whom
von G^enmiingen had given them an intooduction.
Wolfgang renewed his acquaintance with Pio-
dni, whom he had met in Italy, but they never
got beyond the terms of ordinary courtesy ; * I
know mybusiness^ and he his, — ^that is enou^*
writes Wol%ang. Gossec he caUs, 'my very
good friend, and an imoommonly dry man.'
There is no trace of any acquaintance with
Grtftry. Grimm procured him admittance to
the Duo de Guisnes, who played the flute
■uperbly, as Mozart says, and his daughter the
harp. Accordingly he had to compose a concerto
(299) for these two instruments, for which he
oared less than any other. To the dau^ter he
gave daily lessons in composition^ and he had a
few other lady-pupils. But he was not allowed
ta write an opera. Noverre^ ballet-master at the
Op6nk, promised to use his influence, which was
great, in his favour; but all he did was to
employ him to compose twelve pieces for his
ballet, ' Les petits ^ nens/ He composed a sym-
phony for flute^ oboe, bassoon, and iVenoh hran,
at the request of Le Gros, director of the Concerts
Spirituels, but it was never perfcMined. Some
airs in a Miserere by Holzbauer, produced at the
Concerts Spirituelswithout Mooart's name, passed
unnoticed, except by Gossec, who expressed great
admiration. Le Gros afterwards ordered another
1 DtMOToed And printed a C»w Ttan AgOb
MOZABT.
■vmphoBy, whidi pleased greatly— the Paris or
Imnoh symphony in three movements (297);
and at hiiB request Mozart wrote a second An-
dante in place of the original one.
In the meantime^ his mother, who had never
been well in Paris^ became seriously ill, and died
in Wol^ang's arms on July 3. With great
thoughtfulness he wrote to their Mend Bullmger
to prepare his fother for the sad news, and then,
sent a letter direct^ which gives b/ high idea of
the love which bound the fimiily together, and of
the manliness of his own conduct in so distress-
ing a position.' Bemain longer in Paris he felt
he could not, and his fother even urged his de-
parture, especially as there was now some prospect
for him in Salzburg, owing to the deaths of
Adlgasser the court organist, and LoUi the old
Capdlmeister. Moreover the Archbishop had
promised to allow him to go anywhere to super-
intend the production of an o|>era, should he be
commissioned to write one. His last few days ia
Paris were cheered by his old London Mend
Christiaa Bach, who had come over for the per^
fbrmance of his ' Amadis.' 'His joy, and mine
to(v at meeting again, you can wcdl imagine^'
he wrote to his fisher. With Bach came Ten-
ducoi, and the three spent a few pleasant days
at the Mar^chal de Noailles's ch&teau at Saint
Grennain. Mozart wrote a scena' for Tenducd,
with accompaniment for pianoforte, oboe, hcoi,
and bassoon, and thia was played by the Maci^
chalks servants, who were all Germans. To the
compositions already mentioned in Paris must be
added a gavotte (300), and a quartet for flute and
strings (298).
On Sept. 26, 1 778, Mozart left Paris with a still
heavier heart than he had entered it six months-
before. He went by Nancy and Strassburg,
which he reached in the middle of October.
Here he gave* three concerts, which produced
much applause but little money, and played on
Silbermann's two best organs in the iNeukircha
and St. Thomas. On Nov. 3 he started for
Mannheim, although it was, as his fother said, a
fbolish notion to go there when the Courts the
Webers, and his best Mends were all absent a4
Munich, and there was nothing for him to do.
But it d^d him good to recall the old memoriesiy
and, as he said, ' I love Mannheim, and Mann-
heim loves me.' Besides, he had some prospect
of an engagement for an opera. Seyler's troupe
was still at the theatre ; tney were indeed only
an operettsrcompany, but there was some talk of
founding a G^erman national opera. Here too
Mozart saw two of Benda*s melodramas, * Medea '
and ' Ariadne auf Naxos,' and was so delighted
with them that he willingly undertook voek
Gemmingen's 'Semiramis.'* vonDalberg,direo«
tor of the theatre, also had his eye upoik-
> Jtkn #VM both lettan. U. fln-^ with a ftoimlla of thi* tm
BuUlagar In an appaadiz to toL L
s Tondood appears to hare taken this eomposfUoo with him to
SoDdoo. BiinM7(sea Barrlngton'B ' Uscellaatos.' 280) speaks of tta«
a matlerpleoe of invention and teehniqiie (Fohl's 'Moart In Londosk.*
« Ee took the libretto home with him to eompoM 'giatnttovsly.*
*Ton see.' he writes to his father, 'how strong my lUdnf forthle kfa»4
of composition is.' Jahn (1. 614) has not been able to dtsoom wbather
be erar compoMd It, or whether the poem was lost
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idOZABT.
Mosaii fcnr Ids opera 'Cora,' alAougli he was
already in negotiadon with Gluok and Schweitzer.
However, ail come to nothing ; and his fkther,
who had run into debt on his aodoanty and had
moreover great hopes of seeing him well placed in
Salzburg, put fbrdi Ms authority to make him
Mtum^*' You will start immediately on receipt of
this.' The son obeyed, and by Deo. 35 was at
Hunich ; but his' &ther; anxious- lest he should
be detained for good, and fearing the proximity
of his beloved, did not let him rest there. Canna-
bich and Baaff were indeed 'working fbr him
hand and foot/ but there was' no need for
anxiety on AloyMa account. Her fitmily wel-
comed him waimly, but she who ' had w^t for
him ' seemed now scarcely to remember him, and
was even displeased that he had altered the
fiuhion of his dothes. Yet he again offered her
his musical homage, composing- a grand aria
(316) suited to her present -capabilities, to words'
taken, vrith a trace of self-complacency, tnm
Gluck*8 ' Alceste/ and with an obligate accompa-
nhnent intended for Bamm and Bitter. This air '
was his &reweU to Aloysia Weber, about whom
he wrote to his &ther in M^ 1781, 'I did bve
her truly, and feel still that I am not indifferent
to her; but luckily for me her husband is a
jealous fool, and never lets her go anywhere, so
that I rarely see her.'^
In mourning for his nlother; disaj^inted in
his first love, and with all his h^>es falsiiied,
Mozart returned in the middle of June 1779 to
the home of his- childhood. In sndi circum-
stances the warmth with which he^ was received
i was doubly gratefiiL A good many of his old
fMeoiids were still there to rally round him, but
nothing could overcome his dislike of Salzburg.
Even the duties entailed by his position as
Concert-meister and organist to the Court and
Cathedral,' were fulfilled as an irksome task.
His desire to write for the stage was re-kindled
by the presence of a dramatfo company under
iEidhm and Schikaneder (1779-80). l^iis was
the beginning of his intimacy with the latter, to
whom he furnished entr'actes and choruses for
^ IfVeiherr von G^bler's Dramma eroica * Thames,
Konig -von Egypten* (545). To this period also
bdongs a German opera, libretto by Schachtner,
to which Andr^ afterwards gave the title pf
'^Zalde ' (34^)— perfbrmed in 1866 at Frankfort.
During his stay at Salzbuig in 1779-80 he
produoed the following works :— a masses (317,
'Coronation mass,* and 337); a Kyrie (323); 2
-vespers (321, 339), among his best compositions ;
* a trio for 3 voices with 3 comi di basseto (346) ;
a Lieder (349, 351); 2 canons (347, 348); 2
^mphonies (319, 338) ; movement of a symphony*
1 She wu engicad ar prim* donn* In Vlenoft In 1780^ and m«Rl«d
JftMpti Lance, the court actor. She aeknowledged afterwards that as
» 70ung girl she had not appreciated Uoart aa highly aa the ought to
bare dsne. hot «be beeame a great admirer of his mosle. and a true
fMend. She did not ttve happDy with her husband, but their Inter-
oeone wHh Mocaii was quite nnoonstratned. He composed for her
In Vienna Are more airs, and thejr gave motual assistance at eadi
1 othersr conoerta. Kelly ('Reminiscences,* L 298) admired her aa a
' sliicBr of the lint rank. Her Toloe was exceptionally high.
s His liuher sooceeded In getting him appointed successor to Adl-
tasser, wHh a salary of 400 florins (about 401.).
s tisnerallj quoted aaovetton eompoted tu Bla&ofam 'Vmaudlft
HOZABT.
S8T
(318) ; duo concertante for yiolin and viola (364) ;
2 serenades (320, 361) ; divertiknettto for string-
quartet and 2 homb^ (334) ; 4 sonatas for P.F.
(33<>-333) ; viariatioils for PJ". and violin (359,
360) ; sonatas for 4 hands (357, 358) ; variations
for PJ". (352-354) ; aooncerto for 2 P.F.*8 (365);
and the last organ sonatas (328, 329, 336). At
Munich he composed :-^Kyrie of an un&iidied
mass (341) ; concert-aria for Countess Baumgarten
(369) ; and quartet for oboe, violin, viol^ and
cello, for' Bamm (370).
His next employment was most congenial.
Through the exortions of his friends at Munich*
the grand opera for the Carnival of m'ji was put
into his huids; The libretto was |by AbbEite
Yaresco, court chaplain at Salzbuig', who con-
sulted Mozart at every step, as he b^gan the
work at home. He went to Munich in the
beginning of November, and at the very first'
rehearsals the music was highly approved by the'
Elector and the performers. Iba father even
wrote to him from Salzbuig, 'the universal sub-
ject of conversation here is your opera.' The'
Archbishop being in Vienna at the time, his
father and sister were able to go to Munich for
tiie first performance on Jan. 29, 1781. 'Ido-
meneo, I& di Creta,' opera seria (366, ballet-
music 367), was enthusiastically received, and
decided once for all Mozart's position as a
dramatic composer.
While in the full enjoyment of the pleasures of
the Carnival, into which he plunged as soon ar
his labours were over, he received a summons
fit)m the Archbishop to join him in Vienna^ and
started immediately.
On March 16, 1 781, after a journey of four
days, Mozart arrived ' alt by himself in a post
chaise ' in Vienna, where his destiny was to be
accomplished. He was made to live with the
Archbishop's household, and dine at the servants'
table — treatment in striking contrast to that he
received from the aristocracy in generaL The
Countess Thun, 'the most charming and at-
tractive woman I have ever seen in my life,'
invited him to dinner, and so did vice-chancellor
Count Cobenzl, and others. The Archbishop
liked the prestige of appearhig in society with
Mozart, CeccareUi, and Brunetti, as his domesdo
virtuosi, but did not allow Mozart either to play
alone in any house but Ms own, or to give a
concert. He was obliged however to yidd to
the entreaties of the nobility, and allow him to
appear at the concert of the TonkQnstler-Societ&t.
* I am so happy,' Mozart exclaimed beforehand^
and wrote to his &ther afterwards of his great
success. At the Archbishop's private concert too
he excited the greatest enthusiasm, thoi^h he
was often addreraed in that very house as ' €ras-
senbube' (low fellow of the streets). In vain
did his father varge him to forbearance, he was
determined not to remain in a position where he
had such indignities to endure. The opportunity
came only too soon. The Archbishop, detested
by the nobility, and above all by the Emperor
Joseph, did not receive an invitation to Laxen-
burg, the summer residence of the court, and in
Cc2
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MOZART.-
his diflgast determined to leave Yienzia. The
household was to start first, but Mozart» 'the
-villain, the low fellow,' was turned out of the
house before the others. He took lodgings with
the Webersy who were living in the Petersplatz
at a house called * zum Auge Gottes,' reduced in
number by the death of the father and the
mairiage of Aloysia. At his next audience he
was ipreeted with 'Lump/ 'Lausbube,' and
* Fex (untranslateable terms of abuse). ' None
of his servants treated him so badly/ continued
the Archbishop. ' Your Grace is dissatisfied with
me then?' said Mozart. 'Whatl you dare to
use threats T (using all the time the contemptuous
'£r') Fex! there is the door; I will have
nothing more to do with such a vile wretch*
(* elenden Buben '). * Nor I with you,* retorted
Mozart, and turned on his heel. Not having
received an answer to his application for his
discharge, Mozart drew up a fresh memorial,
with which he presented himself in the ante-
chamber of this Prince of the Church ; but as if
to culminate all the brutal treatment he had
ahready received. Count Arco the high-steward,
addressed him as 'Flegel' (down), *Bur8ch'
(fellow) etc., and kicked him out of the room. This
took place on the 8th of June. Mozart was
now free, though he had not received his formal
dismissal ; ' I will never have anything more to
do vTith Salzburg,' he wrote to his father, ' I hate
the Archbishop almost to fury.' It was summer,
the nobility were all going into the country, and
there was no demand for either concerts or lessons.
The Coimtess Kumbeck was his only pupil. Com-
position was of course his resource, and while
thus employing his leisure, he fulfilled his
long-cherished desire of writing an opera for
the National Singspiel (German opera), founded
by the Emperor in 1778. The Emperor in-
terested himself in his favour, and he soon
received a libretto to his taste. He was hurt
however at finding himself passed over at the
fStes in honour of the Grand-duke Paul and his
wife ; even his ' Idomeneo* had to give way to
two operas of Gluck's. His contest with Clementi,
in the presence of the Emperor and the Grand-
duchess on Dec 24,' afforded him some slight
compensation. He had previously (Nov. 16)
played at the house of .Ajrchduke Maximilian,
who was very fond of him, though under the
droumstancee unable to do anything for him.
In spite of unremitting intrigues his ' EntfUhrung
aus dem Serail ' (384), libretto by Bretzner, was
produced by the Emperor's express command,
with great success on July 16,' 178a. Mo-
zart was arranging it for a wind band when
he received through his father a request for a
1 The date In Xonrfs letter-4be 14th. In Jehn L «B7. It a mle-
PTlnt. In Kohl's ' Hoartbrtelan.' both editions. Deo. 96 thould be
tubatltated for 28. u wmj be seen from the letter Itselt, It if well
known that the theme of the lonata played by Clementi ((Kurrei
▼L 1} on thli oooaslon WW adopted hj Mozart In the overture to the
'Zaubertlflte.'
* July 12. In Jahn L 848. to wronff. The Emperor to reported to
have said. ' Too line for uur ears, Iteber Monrt. and much too many
notes.' nwaolng that the accompaniments OTerpowered the Toleea.
Kocart answered banUy, ' KiaoUy as maoy notes as are necessary,
y9«ir tfsjesty. *
MOZAET.
serenade to be composed in all haste, for tfae-^
Hafihers of Balzbuig. This is the well-known
Symphony in D (385), at which, when looking
over it long afterwards, he vras 'quite surprised/
and thou^t 'it must have had a very good
effect.' To this was added the fine Nachtmusik
in C minor, for a wind-band, better known as a
string-quintet (388).
On the Grand-ddte's second visit to Vienna in
October, he attended Mozart's opera, which was
still attracting *swanns of people'; the com-
poser conduced in person, 'to show himself
the fiither of his own childn,* Prague soon pro-
duced it with great success; a foretaste of the
many honours Mozart was to receive in that
city.
He found his new abode with the Webers very
comfortable; but the world soon began to en-
quire whether he were not intending to marry
one of the daughters. The report reached his
father, who admonished him seriously; but Wolf-
gang solemnly declared that he was thinking
of nothing of the kind, and to prove his statement
took another lodging, in the ' Graben.* Here how-
ever the want of the attentions to which he had
been accustomed drove him to a new step, for which
we soon find him preparing his father. ' To my
mind a bachelor lives only half a life ' he writes,
and hesitatingly names the object of his love.
' But surely not a Weber ? Yes, a Weber, Con-
stanze, the third daughter.' All attempts at
dissuasion were vain; his resolution was fixed,
and on Aug. 16, scarcely a month after the pro-
duction of his opera, he led Constanze to the
altar, at St. Stephen's. Bringing home his bride
was his ' EntfUhrung aus dem Auge Gottes ' as
he told his friends. ' As soon as we were married,
my wife and I both began to weep ; all present^
even the priest, were touched at seeing us so
moved, and wept too.'
His marriage involved Mozart in innumerable
troubles. With many good qualities his wife
was a thoroughly bad manager, and this was
the worst defect possible, since Mozart was
naturally careless in money matters, and of course
his life as a busy artist was an un&vourable one
for economy. They began housekeeping with
next to nothing, and their resources were un-
certain at the best. No wonder then that in six
months they were in serious difficulties; and so.
it went on to the end. His friends, the worthy
Puchberg especially, were always ready to come
to his assistance, but they could not prevent his
often being put to embarrassing and humiliating
straits. Without even a prospect of a fixed
appointment he was thrown back upon lessons
and concerts. Pupils were scarce, but he was
more fortunate as a virtuoso ; and for the next few
years he was constantlv employed with concerts,
his own and those of other artists, and still more
in playing at the houses of the nobility. Lent
and Advent were the regular concert seasons in
Vienna. The Emperor was frequently pre-
sent, and always hsA a loud 'bravo' for Mozart,
speaking of him too at his own table ' in the
highest terms' ai 'un talent decide.* This
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iiOZART.
makes it all the more diffictilt to exonerate
Ilia majesty from the charge of yielding to
the efforts of those immediately about him, to
prevent his bestowing some suitable post on
Mozart. The latter writes on this subject to
his father, ' Countess Thun, Count Ziohy, Baron
Tan Swieten, even Prince Kaunitz, are all much
▼exed at the little value that the Emperor puts
on men of talent. Kaunitz said lately, when
talking to the Archduke Maximilian about me,
that men of that stamp only came into the ioorld
once in a hwndred yean, and that they ought not
to he driven out of Germany, eepedaUy vlten, as
good luck would have it, they were already in the
capital,^ After the success of his first concert
in Lent 1782, Mozart entered into an engage-
ment with Martin, who had instituted a series of
concerts held in the winter at the ' ' Mehlgrube,'
and removed in May to the 'Augarten, where
Mozart played for the first time on May 26.
fie afterwards joined the pianist Kichter, who
gave subscription concerts. Among the artists
at whose concerts he appeared, were the singers
Laschi, Teyber, and Storaoe, and his sister-
in-law, Mme. Lange.
His own subscription concerts, generally three
or four, were held in the theatre, at the Mehlgrube,
or in tiie Trattnerhof, and being attended by the
cream of the nobility,' produced both honour and
I^ofit. The programme consisted chiefly, some-
times entirely, of his own compositions — a
symphony, two P. F. concertos, an orchestral
piece with an instrument ooncertante, three or
four airs, and an improvised fantasia. The
latter, in which he showed incomparable skill,
always roused a perfect storm of applause. For
each concert he composed a new P. F. concerto,
the greatest number and the best belonging to
this time. With so much on his hands he might
well say, when excusing himself to his sister for
writing so seldom, 'Has not a man without a
kreutzer of fixed income enough to do and to
think of day and night in a place like this T
A list he sent to his &ther of &e concerts for
1784 will best show the request he was in.
During six weeks (Feb. 26 to April 3) he played
five times at Prince Gallitzin s, nine times at
Count John £sterhazy*s, at three of Bichter's
concerts, and five of his own.
Tired of waiting for an appointment, which
must have been most tiying to one of his ex-
citable nature, Mozart serioi^y thought of going
to London and Paris, and began to practise
himself in English and French. He had even
1 ATer7o1d1nindlDK,wiaiiooinflnirhlChbaIlsaiide(m«ertswere
ImUL a flonr-wMehonse In the ttMmnant |»re Iti nama to the
booM. It li now the Hotel Mooach.
3 See AUSABTBK. ToL ). p. 104 a.
• In the Ust of his rohKriben forlTMne Snd. bedte bto racnlar
petrona. CoanteM Than. Beronen WeldstAdten. Connt Zlchy. tod
Swleten. elo.. the Duke of Wlrtemberg, Frincai Llehtenstein, Anen-
pers. Kaimltz, Lkhiiowsky. LobkowUx, Faar, Palm, end SehtniRen-
tMTg : the dlstinffoUbed buntUea of BethTeny. Dletrlohsteln. ErdOdy,
Eeterhaiy. Hameh. Herbenteliw Keglewlcx. Nortlt, PiaUy. Seheff-
goCach. Stehrenberg. end Wtldstetn ; the Bossian. Spanish, Bardinlan.
Dutch, end Danish ambasaadoiti the eminent flnanelen Fries.
Benlckstdn, AnmEeld. Blenenfeld, Florer. and WetzUr; gorenuneDt
offldals of poritlon. and sotobtifio men. snch as Isdeoczy. Bedekovkh.
Kerery, Braan, Grdner, Keaas, Pulfendor^ Bon, Martini, Sonnen-
Ms, etc
MOZART.
889
written to Le Gros in Paris about engagements
for the CJoncerts Spirituels, and the Ck>ncert8 des
Amateurs, but his fiither, horrified at the idea of
a newly married man without resources thus
wandering about the world, succeeded in putting
a stop to the scheme. As a compensation for the
postjponement of one desire, he was able to
fiilfil another, that of presenting his young wife
to his father. Starting after her recovery from
her first confinement (June 17) they reached
Salzbui^ at the end of July 1783.
Before his marriage Mozart had made a vow
that if ever Constanze became his wife, he would
have a new mass of his own composition per-
formed in Salzburg. The work was nearly ready,
and the missing numbers having been supplied
from one of his older masses, this fine and broadly
designed composition (427) was given at the end
of August in the Peterslurche, Constanze herself
ringing the soprano. Opera bufia having been
reintr^uced in Yienna he began a new opera,
*L*Oca del Cairo' (422), but after some pro-
gress found the libretto (by V aresco) so vnretched
that he let it drop.* A second opera, 'Lo
Sposo deluso' (430), only reached the fifth
number, partly perhaps because he despaired of
being able to produce it, as Sarti and Paisiello
were then in Vienna, absorbing public attention
with the triumph of the latter*s 'H B^ Teo-
doro.' In the meantime Mozart rendered a
service of love to his friend Michael Haydn, who
was incapacitated by illness from completing two
duets for violin and viola for the Archbuhop.
The Archbishop characteristically threatened to
stop his ConcertmeiBter's salary, but Mozart
came to the rescue, and undertook to write
the two pieces ' with unmistakable pleasure.'
His friend retained his salary, and the Arch-
bishop received the duets (423, 424) as Haydn's.
Mozart also took an active interest in his father's
pupils — Marchand l^e violinist of 12 (then play-
ing in Vienna), his sister Margarethe, then 14,
afterwards Mme. Danzi, the wdl-known singer,
and a child of 9, the daughter of Brochard
the celebrated actOT. He also became intimate
with Marie Ther^ Paradies the blind pianist,
who was then in Salzburg, and for whom he
afterwards composed a concerto (456). The main
object of his visit however was not fulfilled. It
was only after long opposition that his fiiither
had unwillingly given his consent to his m^
riage, but Wol^uig hoped that his prejudice
against Constanze would disappear on acquaint-
ance ; neither his fetther nor lus sister however
took to her.
Leaving Salzburg on the 30th of October, and
stopping at Lambach for Mozart to play the
oi^gan in the monastery, th^ found Cotmt Thun
on the look-out for them at Linz, and made some
stay with him, being treated with every con-
sideration. For a concert which Mozart gave in
* It was completed t)y Andrt, with a Bondean. qnartetto fh>m 'lo
Sposo deluso.' finale from ' La ViUanella rapita.' h7 Motart : was
adapted to new words by Victor Wilder, and performed In Farts.
Th^tre des tsntalsles-Farlslennes, Jnne 6. 1H7; at Vienna in the
Carl Theatre. U68i at Dnu7 Lane. May \2, 1870.
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MOZART.
the iheftire, he oompoeed in haite a new lyin-
phony (435).*
In 1785 the &ther retnmed hiB Km*a yhat,
staying ^th him in the Groese SchulesstrMie
(now No. 8) from Feb. iz to April 25. He
was lejoioed to find their domestlo arrangements
and money matters for the time being in good
onler. He fomid a g^^andson too — ' litUe Karl is
very like yonr brother.' Though not yet on
thocoughlv good terms with his son or his
danghter-in-Uw, he derived all the old pleasure
from his suocessee as an artist, and listened with
delight to his productions. He had come just at
the right time, when concerts were sucoeedii^f
each other as fast as possible^ and his son taking
part in all; and at the fint he attended hu
eyes filled with tears of happiness at Wolfgang's
plaving and compositions. The day aft^ his
amval Wolfgang invited his friend Haydn and
the two Barcms Todi ; and his fivther wrote home
a foil account of this memosable evening;
memOTable indeed ! for setting aside other con*
siderations, it was not often that two men of
such remarkable solidity of character as Leopold
Mozart and Haydn could be found togetner.
'Three new quartets were played/ writes the
happy father, * the three (458, 4i54, 465) he has
added to those we already have (587, 4a ij 438);
they are perhaps a trifle easier, but excellently
composed. Hear Haydn said to me, I declare to
you before God as a man of honour^ ihtU yowr
§on ie the greatett compoter that J know, either
ptrmmaUy or by.wepsdcUion; he has taste, and
"beyond that the most eonsummate knowledge of the
art of oomposition,' In return for this avowal
Mozart dedicated 4o Haydn, with a laudatory
prefiaoe, these six quartets, 'the fruits of Icmg and
arduous toil.' ' It is but his due,' he said, ' for
from Hi^ydn I fiat learnt how to compose la
quartet.* The success of his pupil Maichand,
and the great progrew of Aloysia Lange, both as
a singer and actress, also afforded pleasure to
Leopold Mosart. It is a wjgnjficant £Ekct that a
man of his way of thinking should have joined
the Freemasons, avowedly through his s(m*s in-
fluence. This however was their last meeting,
for soon after his return from Vienna his health
began to fail, and on May a8, 1787, he ended a
life which had been wholly oonseorated to his
children.
Mozart the son belonged to the eighth and
oldest Freemasons' lodge ('zur gekronten Hoff-
nung') in Vienna. His interest in the order was
great, indeed he at oob time thought of founding
a society of his own to be called 'Die Grotte/
and had drawn up the rules. A letter to his
frther, during his iUoess, in which he enlarges
upon ihjo true significance of death to a. Mason,
is a i»oof of the serious light in which he con-
siderod his()bligations. His connection with the
order also inspired many of hvi compositionB.
For it he wrote— ' Gesellenlied ' (468) ; «Maa-
rerfireude' (471}, a short cantata^ at the per-
iDtdtetCadtoCoantThnii. Aadr<liMflMiVo.444tolMv»bMa
tba OM compoMd for this oocMloo. bom MtMirt teTing ooptod aoiM
MOZABT.
formaaoe of which his &tber was present
shortly before his death; ' Maureriache Trauer-
musik' (477), for strings and wind; 'Iied«'
with chorus, and a chorus in 3 parts, both with
oiigan (483, 484), for the oeremony at the (^ton-
ing of the 'Neugekronten Hoffiiung' (by a
decree of the Emperor Joseph) in 1785; and
a short cantata for tenor, with dosing dioma
(623), composed Nov. 15, 1791, the last of his
Moorded works which he conducted himself. A
short adagio lor 9 comi di bassetto and bassoon
(410) ; an adi^[io for 2 clarinets and 3 oomi di
baasetto (41 1) ; and an unfinished cantata (4^9)
were probably intended for the same.
In March 1 785 Mosart produced at the concert
of the Tonkiinstler Sodetat, a cantata» ' Pavidde
penitente' (469), the materials for which he
drew from his last unfinished mass (427), writing
the Italian words below the Latin, and addin^g
two new airs. There was an object for this
work; his name was down at the time for ad-
mittiMice into the *Sodety, but in accordance with
the statutes he was rejected, on the ground that he
could not pi^v^ce the certificate of his baptism !
After a long delay he was again graUfied by
an opportunity of writing for the stege. An
opera-bufla had been organised as for back 1^
April 1783, and the Emperor had secured an
excellent 'company; and aflor a foilure the Na-
tional'Singspiel had been revived in October
1785. A libretto, 'Budolf v<m Habsburg.* sent
to Mozart from Mannheim jemained unused, but
at length he and Salieri were requested to supply
German and Italian ' piboes de circonstance ' for
smneiStes^n honour of distii^uished visitors at
Schonbmnn. To Mozart's lot fell 'Der Scban-
spieldirector ' (486), a disjointed comedy by
Stephanie junior, produced at Schonbrunn Feb. 7,
1786^ and afterwards «t the Kamthnerthor
Theatre.'
In thenext month a gratifying performance of
'Idomeneo' took place at the piJaoe of Prince
Auerspeig, .by a troupe of titled and eifident
performers, under Mozart's"* own supervision.
!piis mark of the favourable disposition of the
aristocracy towards him bore fruit, attracting the
attention of Lorenzo da Ponte, Uie well-knowii
dramatist. His proposal to adapt Beaumac-
chais's ' Manage de Figaro ' for Mozart reoeived
the Emperor's consent,^ — reluctantly given on ac-
count of the offensive nature of the plot in the
original, — and the first performance of 'Le
Nozze di Figaro ' (49^) took place after violent
intrigue^, on May i, 1786. The theatre waa
crowded, and the audience enthusiastic ; several
numbers were repeated twice, and the litile duet
three .times, jmd this went on at succeeding re-
presentations till the Emperor prohibited en-
cores.' Kelly, who took the parts of Basilio and
s indodins Xtnej Stonet, hir bcottMr Stapbeu. and the Unor
XaUj. «U KogUsh.
• Thit Sloctpiel WM dren MTtiml tlnai with « new libretto, tad
mfenl latMrpolatlons. A recent «tteini>t bj SduMlder (IMU lotro>
duoed both Jlo»rt .tpd SdiUuneder. and vna puHcularlr unfor-
4 Be eompoMd tor It * n«w dMt fbr two topaoi (488). And a rondo
far MpiBno with TloUn aok> (460).
• KeUjr rdAt«s CBemlnlMeooM,* 1. 982). * When the dotan wa« OM
daj niMtnlBg. tho Xmpecor Mid. "I due IV Jo« an aU pleuod tiittl
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MOZABT.
Don Curzio, wiifees with great spiiit: 'Kever
was anything more complete than the triumph
of Mozart, and his Nozze di Pigaro, to which
numerous overflowing audienoes bote witness.
Even at the first fvSi band zeheanal, all pre-
sent were roused to enthusiasm, Mid when
Benucci came to the fine passage "Chembino,
alia yittoria, alia gloria militar/* which he gave
with stentorian lungs, the effect was electric,
for the whole of the performers on the stage,
and those in the orchestra, as if actuated by one
feeling of delight, vociferated *' Bravo ! Bravo,
Maestro! Viva, viva, grande Mozart!" Those
in the orchestra I thought would never have
ceased applauding, by beating the bows of their
violins against the music desks.' And Mozart t
* I never shall forget his little animated counten-
Aooe, when light^ up with the glowing rays of
genius ;— it is as impossible to describe it, as it
would be to paint sunbeams.' '
And yet, after all this sucoess, nothing was done
for him. Earning a living by giving lessons
and playing in public was m every respect un-
0atis£iotory. ' You lucky man,' he said to young
Gyrowetz as he was starting to Italy, ' and I am
still obliged to give lessons to earn a trifle.'
Moreover he soon found himself eclipsed on the
stage by two new pieces, which for a time ab-
sorbed the public entirely; these were Ditters-
dorf s Singspiel ' Der Apotheker und der Doctor *
(Jul^ II), and Martini 'Coea rara* (Nov. 17).
Again he resolved to go to England, and was
again dissuaded by his lather. A gleam of light
oame however from Prague, whither he was
invited to see for himself Sie immense sucoess of
his ' Figaro,' produced there first after Vienna,
as had been the case with the ' Entfuhrung.'
Count Johann Jos. Thun, one of the greatest
amateurs in Prague, placed his house at Mozart's
disposal, and he joyfully accepted the invita-
tion. His first letter' states the condition in
which he found Prague, ' the one subject of con-
yarsation here is — ^Figaro ; nothing is played, sung,
or whistled but — Figaro; nobody goes to any
opera but — Figaro ; everlastingly Figaro ! '
He was literally overwhelmed with attentions,
and felt himself at the summit of bliss ; at the
opera, given quite to his satii^^tion, he received
a perfect ovation. Furthermore two concerts
were brilliantly successful ; at the first, his new
symphony (504) having been loudly applauded,
he sat down to the piano, and improvised for
full half an hour, rousing the audience to the
highest pitch of enthusiasm. Again, and yet once
again he had to resume, till, obeying the general
acclamation, he finished by extemporising vari-
ations on * Non piu andrai, which completed his
triumph. The receipts also were thoroughly
satisfiEKjtory. Having made the remark, that he
should like to compose an opera for ao intelligent
Bind appreciative a public, the impresario Bondini
took him at his word, and concluded a contract
I hair* dednd ihtn •hall be do more enoorat." To wbJdt thegr sD
bowed Hteot, but Kelly Mid iMidly. " Do not beUere tiMm, 8tn. tbej
all like to be encored, at least 1 am sure I almvji do." '
s To his fHeod (iottWed TOO Jaflqataa. Jan. IS, 1787.
HOZABT.
with him ibr an opera for the
for which he was to receive the
100 ducats, and the librettist 50.
tions of society in Prague took up all
and his only conqiositions while th<
contredanses for orchestra (510) written for Couiit -
Paohta, who locked him in for an hour before
dinner for the purpose, and six Teutsohe for foil
orchestra (509).
On his return to Tleima after this ma^ifioent
reception, he felt his position more galling than
ever ; and his desire to visit Engumd was re-
kindled by the departure of his friends Kancy
Storace, imd her brother, Kelly, with his own
pupil Attwood. They promised to endeavour to
secure him some position there, so that he would
be able to go without undue risk.
The libretto of 'Figaro' having proved so
satisfactory, he sppHed again to Da Ponte, and
this time their choice foil upon ' Don Giovanni.'
In September 1787 he and his wife went to
Prague, and took lodgings ' Bei den drei Lowen '
No. 420 in the KdUmarkt. But his favourite
resort was the vineyard of his friend Duschek
at Koschirz near the city, where are still shown
his room, and the stone table at which he used
to sit working at his scare, often in the midst of
conversation or skittle playing.' Before the
production of his new opera, Mozart conducted
a festival performance of * Figaro' on Oct. 14
in honour of the Archduchess Maria Thereeia,
bride of Prinoe Anton of Saxony. He was very
anxious about the success of his opera, al-
though, as he assured Kucharz the conductor of
the orchestra, he had spared neither pains nor
labour in order to produce something rrally good
for Prague. On the evening before the repre-
sentation the overture was still wanting, and he
worked at it for into the night, while his wife
kept him supplied with punioh, and told him
foiry-stories to keep him awake. Sleep however
overcame him, and he was obliged to rest for a
few hoars, but at 7 in the morning the copyist
received the score, and it was playeid at sight in
the evening. Tl^ first performance of 'Don
Giovanni' (527) took place on Oct. 29, 1787.
On Mozart's appearance in the orchestra he
was greeted with enthusiastic applause, and
a triple flourish of trumpets, and the op^
was accompanied from beginning to end with
rapturous marks of approval. He had of course
no time for other compositions, but his friend
Mme. Duschek locked him into her summer-
house to ensure his writing an aria he had pro-
mised her. He revenged himself by making it
difficult, and would only give it her on condition
that she should sing it at sight. It is one of his
finest airs (528).
About the time of his return to ^enna Gluck
died (Nov. 15, 178^), and Mozart had reason to
hope that some smtable position would now be
open to him. But the Em^peror was in no
* Th« vnia b now called ' Bertmnika.' A bust of Mosart. bf
Seldan. was placed on a slight eminence in the gronnds. and wdemnly
unveiled on Jnne3, IflTV, bgr the then possessor. Herr Lambert Popelkft.
who died June 9. Wn. A hitherto unpublished letter of Moait'a.
dated Prastie. Oct. 1M387. was printed at the same ttma.
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MOZAET.
hurry. By way however of recognising his re-
cent triumph at Prague, and in order to retain
him in Vienna (hia hankering after Enghmd being
well known) he appointed him Ks^nmer-com-
podtor with a salary of 800 gulden^ (about £80)
Mozart looked upon this appointment as a mere
beggar's dole, and when, according to custom, he
had to send in a sealed letter stating his income,
he wrote bitterly 'Too much for what I 'pro-
duce; too little for what I could produce.* • Don
Giovanni * was not given in Vienna till May 7,
1788, and then did not please* Mozart added
a new air for Donna Elvira, No. 25 (K. 537), an
air for Masetto, No. 26, a short air for Don
Ottavio, No. 27, and a duet far Zerlina and
LeporeUo, No. 28.
In spite of the success of his last opera, Mo-
zart*s pecuniary condition continued desperate.
This is shown convincingly by a letter (June 27)
to his friend Puchberg, in which the poor fellow
begs piteously for a loan, and speaks of ' gloomy
thoughts whidi he must repel with all his might.*
And yet at the very height of his distress he
manifests extraordinary power. Besides other
compositions, he wrote within six weeks (June 26
to Aug. 10) his three last and finest symphonies,
in Eb, G minor, and C (Jupiter) (543. 550, 551).
But other very congenial work awaited him.
From the beginnins^ of his life in Vienna he had
been acquainted with van Swieten, director of
the Hofbibliothek, who was a great amateur of
classical music, and who with a small band of
friends devoted every Sunday morning to study-
ing the works of the old masters. He himsdf
sang the * treble, Mozart (who sat at the piano)
the alto, and Starzer and Teyber tenor and bass.
It was for these practices that Mozart sent for
his MS. book of pieces by Michael Haydn and
Eberlin, and afterwards for the fugues of Bach
and Handel. They also served as an incentive
to him to compose pianoforte pieces of a solid
description; several remained fragments, but
among those completed are — Prelude and Fugue,
It 3, in C (394) ; Fugue in G minor (401) ; Cla-
viersuite in the style of Bach and Handel (399) ;
an arrangement of the fugue in C minor (origin-
ally for 2 P.F.s) for string-quartet, with a short
adagio (546). He also arranged 5 fugles from
Bach's Wohltemperirte Clavier for string-quartet
(405).
By 1788, however, van Swieten's practices had
assumed larger proportions. At his instigation
a number of gentlemen united to provide the ne-
cessary funds for performances of oratorios with
chorus and orchestra. The fine large hall of
the Hofbibliothek served as their concert-room,
Mozart conducted, and young Weigl took the
pianoforte. It was for these performances that
he added wind parts to Handel s ' Acis and Gala-
1 H!b fiither did not Ure to see thb partia] rallMtloo of his bopn;
he had died, m already ttated. od Maj 3B.
t VIi. the daooei for the Imperial Bedoateo-balls. which It was hli
doty to tapply.
s Aocordinc to Da Ponte the Emperor said. * The opera Is dirlne.
flner perhaps than Figaro, bat it is not the meat for my Viennese.*
When the saying was reported to Momrt he replied. ' We must give
them time to chew It.'
4'DIskant.' Mozart's letter. March 2^ 17S3.
MOZART.
tea'* (Nov. 1788), 'Messiah' (March 1789),
*Ode to St. Cecilia's l>ay,' and 'Alexander's
Feast' (July, 1790).
Such work as this, however, did nothing to im-
prove his pecuniary condition ; and in the hope
that the journey might bring to light some means
of extricating hims^ he gratefully accepted an
invitation from his pupil and patron Prince Karl
Lichnowsky, to accompany him to Berlin.
Leaving Vienna on April 8, 1 789, their first
halting-place worth noting was Dr^en, where
Mozart played at court, exciting great admiration
and receiving 100 ducats. He was well received
also in private circles, and the general interest
was increased by a competition with J. W.
Hassler of Erfurt, then distinguished as pianist
and organist.* Without considering him a
formidable opponent, Mozart acknowledged his
talent. Here also he made the acquaintance of
the poet Komer, and his sister-in-law Dora
Stock, who drew a charming portrait of Mozart
with a silver pencil. He produced a still greater
effect in Leipzig, where he made the acquaint*
ance of Koohlitz, who has preserved innumerable
interesting traits both of the man and the artist.
On April 32 he played the oigan in the St.
Thomas Church, Doles the Cantor and Gomer
the oiganist pulling out the stops for him. All
present were enchanted, especially Doles, who
could almost have believed in the restoration to
life of his teacher, the great Bach himself. In
return he made the choir of the Thomas-school
sing Bach's 8-part motet ' Singet dem Herm,' at
which Mozart exclaimed with delight, 'Here is
something from which one may still learn,' and
having secured the parts of the other motets (no
score being at hand), he spread them out before
him, and becamie absorbed in study.
On their arrival in Beriin the travellers went
straight to Potsdam, and Prince Lichnowsky
presented Mozart to the King, who had been
anxiously expecting him. Frederic William II.
was musical, played the cello well, (he was a
pupil of the elder Duport,) and had a well-
selected orchestra. The opera was conducted by
Reichardt, and the concerts by Duport. The
King's favourable anticipations were fully realised
in Mozart, but Beichardt and Duport were set
against him by his candidly replying to the
King's question, what he thought of &e band,
' it contains great virtuosi, but if the gentlemen
would play together, they would make a better
effect.' The King apparently laid this remark
to heart, for he ofiered Mozart the post of Capell-
meister, with a salary of 3000 thalers (about
£600). After a moment's hesitation, he replied
with emotion, 'How could I abandon my good
Emperor V
In the meantime, preparations having been
made for a concert, Mozart went again to Leipzig.
The programme consisted entirely of his own un-
publijshed compodticms, and at the dose he
s Also performed at Moiart's heneflt-conoert In the Jahn'scb«K
Concertsaal In the same month.
• UAssIer played a concerto of Mozart's at his concert In London.
May 90^ 1792. See Fohl's ' Haydn In London.' 20O.
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liiOZABT.
improvised by general request ; but tbe audience
was a scanty one. For Engel, the Court-organist,
be composed a cbarming little Gigue for piano-
forte (574). Ketuming to Berlin on May 19, be
rusbed to tbe tbeatre, wbere bis 'Entfubrung'
was being performed, and taking a seat near tbe
orcbestra, made observations in a balf-audible
tone ; tbe 2nd violins, however, playing D sbarp
instead of D, be called out, ' Ck)nfound it, do take
D ! ' and was recognised immediately. He was
mucb pleased to meet bis pupil Hummel, wbo
only became aware wbile playing of bis master^s
presence at bis concert. TMs time Mozart
played before tbe Queen, but gave no public
performance. Tbe King sent bim 100 Friedricbs
d'or, and asked bim to compose some quartets
for bim. As to tbe pecuniary results of the tour,
Mozart wrote laconically to his wife, * On my
return you must be glad to have me, and not
think about money.* He started on bis home-
ward journey on May 28, and passing through
Dresden and Prague, reached Vienna on June 4,
1789. He set to work immediately on tbe first
quintet (575) for the King of Prussia, and re-
ceived a kind letter of thanks, with a gold snuff-
box and a second 100 Friedricbs d'or. Tbe two
others (589, 590) followed in May and June, 1 790.
His position still continued a most melancholy
one, his wife's constant illnesses adding to bis
expenses. Again he applies to his friend and
brother freemason ' for immediate assistance. I
am still most unfortunate ! Always hovering be-
tween hope and anxiety ! ' In this state of things
he yielded to tbe pressure put upon bim by bis
friends, and informing the Emperor of the offer
of tbe King of Prussia, tendered bis resignation.
Surprised and disconcerted, the Emperor ex-
claimed, • What, Mozart, are you going to leave
me?* and he answered with emotion, *Tour
Majesty, I throw myself upon your kindness — I
remain 1* This drcimistance, and tbe success
of 'Figaro,'* revived after a long pause, probably
induced the Emperor to order a new opera, for
which Da Ponte again fumished the libretto
(said to have been founded on recent occurrences
in Vienna). This was the opera buffa ' God fan
tutte' (588), produced Jan. 26, 1790, but soon
interrupted by the Emperor's serious illness,
terminating in death on Feb. 20. Musicians had
little to expect firom his successor, Leopold II,
and there was no break in the clouds which over-
shadowed poor Mozart. Tbe rough draft is still
preserved of an application for tbe post of second
Gapellmeister, but he did not obtain it. Tbe
magistrate did indeed grant (May 9, 1791) bis
request to be appointed assistant, * without pay for
the present,* to the cathedral Gapellmeister, which
gave him tbe right to succeed to this lucrative
post on tbe death of Hoffinann the Gapellmeister,
but Hofimann outlived him.
The coronation of the Emperor Leopold at
Frankfurt on Get. 9, was the occasion of bis last
artistic tour. Having pawned his plate to pro-
cure funds, he started on Sept. 26, and after a
journey of six days arrived in the ancient Reich-
1 Konrt oompoMd a nor tlr (977) for HUe. FBrnme del BeoA.
MOZART.
893
Btadt. He gave a concert on Oct. 14 in the
Stadttheater, the programme consisting entirely
of his own compositions. During a short stay
made in Mayence, Tischbein took a life-size half-
length portrait. On the return journey he visited
Mimnheim and Munich, where, at the Elector's
request, be played at a court concert given in
honour of tbe King of Naples. He had not been
invited to play b^ore the latter in Vienna, and
he wrote to lus wife with some bitterness, 'It
sounds well for the court of Vienna, that mem-
bers of their own family should hear me for tbe
first time at a foreign court ! * Soon after his
arrival in Vienna, Mozart had to take leave of
his best friend, for Salomon, the impresario, bad
come in person to carry 'Haydn off to London.
With a heavy heart he said good-bye to tbe
only artist wbo understood him thoroughly and
honestly wished to see him prosper. They were
never to meet again.
His affairs were now worse than ever; the
Berlin journey had produced nothing, and a spe-
culation on which he bad set bis hopes failed.
And yet be went on working his hardest. A
series of his best and most varied compositions,
including tbe beautiful motet 'Ave Verum* (618)
— ^written at Baden, near Vienna, afterwards
Beethoven's favourite resort — were but the fore-
runners of the ' Requiem ' and the ' Zauberflote.'
His last appearance as a virtuoso (he had not
played the piano in public since 1 788) was in all
probability at a concert given by Babr, tbe clarinet-
player, on March 4, 1 79 1 . Perhaps he played his
last Goncerto in Bb (595) composed in January.
In this very month of March, Schikaneder,
tbe Salzburg acquaintance of 1780, and now
manager of the little theatre, scarcely more than
a bootii, in the grounds of Prince Starhemberg's
house in the suburb of Wieden, began to urge
Mozart to compose a magic opera to a libretto he
bad in hand, which he hoped would extricate
bim from his embarrassments. Ever ready to
help anybody, Mozart agreed, and set to work on
the score, the greater part of which was written
in a little pavilion' near the theatre, and in a
summer-house in the little village of Josefsdorf,
on the Kahlenbei^, close to Vienna. To keep
him in good humour, Scbikai|eder provided him
with wine, and amusing society, — his enjoyment
of which good things, grossly exaggerated, has
tended more than anything to throw discredit
upon his character.
In July, while hard at work, he received
a visit from a stranger, wbo, enjoining secrecy,
commissioned bim to write a Requiem for an un-
known individual.* The price (50, or according
to some, 100 ducats) was fixed, and Mozart set to
work with the more ardour for having composed
no church-music since the mass of 1783. Again
he was interrupted by an urgent invitation from
tbe Estates of IBobemia to compose an opera for
s He made praHminary oflbrs of a ttmnar kind to Mozart.
> Now OD the Capudnerberg, In Balxburg. a gift from the pretent
Prlnoe Starliemberg.
4 Proved after bto death to hare been Cotmt WalMgg. an amateor
anxlouii to be thought a great eomposer. and who really had the
Requiem performed under his own name. The messeuger was hit
kteward LeutgeU
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894
MOZART.
the appzoaching ooronatiQn of Leopodd H. at
Prague. Mozart .was on the point of ftepping
into the travelling carriage when the mysterious
messenger sudde^y stood before him, and asked
what had become of the reqiuem. Touched and
distressed by the question, Mozart assured the
man that he would do his best on liis return;
and so saying departed with his pupil Sttss-
mayer. He worked bard at the opera during
the journey, Sussmayer filling in the red-
tativo seoco. The coronation took place on
Sept. 6, and 'La Clemenia di Tito* (oai) was
performed the same evening in the National
theatre, in presence of their Majesties and a
select audience, who were too much absorbed
by the occurrences of the day to pay great Atten-
tion to the opera. Indeed, the £mpress is said to
have made very disparagiog remarks on the
' porcheria ' of German music. Mosart, who was
not well when he came to Prague, suffered
severely from the strain, but he spent a few
pleasant hours with his friends, and parted from
them with tears.
Disappointed and suffering he reached hcxnein
the middle of September, and at once set to week
with energy at Schikaneder*s opera. The over-
ture and introductory march to the and act were
finished Sept. 28, and two days later, on the 50th,
the 'Zauberflote' (6ao) was given for the first
time. Mozart conducted at the piano, StLssmayer
turned over for him, and Hennebeig, who had
conducted the rehearsals, played the bells. It
was coldly received at Uie outset, and at the
end of the first act Mozart, looking pale and
agitated, went on the stage to Schikimeder, who
endeavoured to comfort him.* The audience
recovered from their coldness so far as to call
for Mozart at the dose, but he was with dif-
ficulty persuaded to appear before the curtain.
The interest in the opera increased with each
representation, and soon the ' Zaubo^ote * was
as great a ' draw ' as Schikaneder could desire.
Mozart now hoped to be able to devote his
whde time to the Kequiem, but lus late exertions
and exdtement had proved too much for him,
sorely tried as he was in other respects. Fainting
fits came on, and he fell into a state of deep depres-
sion.* His wife tried in vain to raise his spirits.
During a drive in the Prater, he suddenly began
to talk of death, and said with tears in his eyes
that he was writing the Bequiem for himself. ' I
feel certain,' he continued, ' that I shall not be
here long ; some one has poisoned me, I am con-
vinced. I cannot shake off the idea.* ' By the
1 Sdienk, In htt utoMognphy. tells bow be had % place In the
ordiestn «t the flnt performanoe. and wag to enebanted with the
orertore that he crept up to the conductor's chair, adzed Moatrt's
hand and kissed It. Moiart. putting out his right band, looked
Undly at bim. and stroked hU check.
* Anote (iaimlLW)to some unknown person (? Da Ponte)strIk-
• It is notortoos that Salted was Terj mncb sonieeted. bat be In-
dignantly repudiated the aoeusatlon. His own words (reported by
Nlenetsdtdc, p. 81) prore that he was not displeased at Moxart's
death:— 'It Is Indeed ft pity to lose so great a genius, but his death Is
ft good thing for us. If be bad ttved longer not a soul would have
given us ft bit of bread for omr compostaons.' The answer gl?en to
the accusation by SaUcrl's friend, Gftp^neister Schwanenbog. was.
to say the least of it. remarkable:— 'Faul I non ha f^tto nlente per
roerltaruntftlonoret* (GeaMt iHiftthuhadoneto deienrt sogreat
an honour l)
HOZABT.
advice of his physicians, his terrified wife took tlie
score away irom him, and he rallied suffidaitly
to compose on Nov. 15 a cantata (623) for his
Lodge to words by Schikaneder. He even 00a-
duoted the performanoo himsdf ; but the improve-
ment was of short duration, and he took to bis
bed. Now, when it was too late, favourable pros-
pects opened before him. He was informed that
some of the nobility of Hungarv had dubbed to-
gether to guarantee him a yearly sum, and at the
same time a subscription was got up in Amster-
dam, for which he was to furnish compositions to
become the property of the subscribe Whan
the hour for the theatre arrived, he would foUow
in imagination the performance of the ' Zauber-
flote/ and Uie Kequiem continued to occupy his
mind. On Dec. a he had the score brought
to him in bed, and tried a passage, singing the
alto himself, while his brother-in-law H(^ took
the tenor, and Schack and Geri firom the theatre
the soprano and bass. When they got to the firsit
few bars of the Laorimosa, |t suddenly oante
home to him that he should never finish it^ and
he burst out crying, and put away the score. In
ihe evening Stlssmayer came in, iod he gave him
some directions about the Requiem, wiui whioih
-his thoughts seemed constantly occupied, for even
while dosing he puffed out ius cheeks as if try-
ing to imitate the drums. Towards midnight
he suddenly sat up with his eyes fixed ; then he
turned bis head on one side, and appeared to fiJl
asleep. ' By one o'clock in the morning of Dec. 5,
1 791, his spirit had fled. He died of maHgnant
typhus fever. At three o*clock in the afternoon
of the 6th his body was removed from the house
of mourning * to St. Stephen*s ; the service was
held in the open air, as was the custom with the
poorest class of funeral, and van Swieten, Stlss-
mayer, Salieri, Roser, and Order, stood round the
bier.^ They followed as &r as the dty gates, and
then turned back, as a viol^it storm was raging*
and the hearse went its way unaccompanied
to the churchyard of St. Marx. Thus, with-
out a note of music, forsaken by all he held
dear, the remains of this prince of harmony were
committed to the earth, — not even in a grave of
his own, but in the common paupers* grave ( AUge-
meine *6rube). The Lodge to which he bdon^d
hdd in his honour a ceremonial worthy of the de-
ceased ; the ' Wiener Zeitung * announced ' the
irreparable loss* in a few eloquent lines, and
afterwards inserted the following epitaph :^
HOZARDI
TVMOLO INSCKIBBNDVM
Qui iacet hie, Chordia Infona Miracola Mnndi
Auxit et Orpbetun Yir superaTit, Abil
£t Animae eiua bene preoaxe.
* BanhenstelngaMe, on the site of tha present Gahranl'aeiMn 0*-
bSude. In the Testibole of wbkh the bulkier has placed * bust of
Moiart.
» Bchllmneder was too modi overcome to be present. Walkli« ip
and down he exclaimed. ' his spirit pursues me ererywbare; 1 hava
him continually before my eyes.'
• By Van Bwleten's orders (himself well off) the itrlotert eeooomf
was obserred In the ftmeral arrangements. The site of the actual
grave was soon forgotten ; but the dty of Vienna- erected on the pro
bable spot a handsome monument by Hans Gassar. solannly uanlled
on the annhrenary of Moiait't death, Deo. 6. UBg.
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MOZART.
To the compositiaEiB already mentioiied in
Vioma mvut be added the foUowmg : —
Aln for foprano (968. 874)1 eon-| tor dartiMt. 9 vloUns. irlol*, «nd
•eturtas for bis tistar-ln-tew.Mma. eeUo (881) ; quintal for harmonica.
LADgeiSaS. 416.008): air wHhP jr. flute, oboe, rlola, and oeUo (617) ;
obLfcrHaiiC7Btoraoe(0OS);>dkto trto(dlTactlineoto)forTtoUn. viola,
for Adambecw. the teoor (4fl) :, and oello (MB); roodo for TkOln
baat aln for Fischer (488. 918).| (STS); 4 bom oonoertoe (41S, 417.
<I«ttlHed Ton Jaoqoln (SISX Geri 447. 485); darlnet ooncerto <«2).
MOZAET.
895
(who sang Qataitro). wHb coatra-
baaao oUlirUo for Plseblbcrger
«19), and Benned (BB4). Aln In-
•erted In opera* bj other omi-
poaen: 2 for Mme. Lance In An-
7or F J. : wmata In 0 minor (407)
with Introductory fentasia (475) ; 8
aoaataa (540. 870. 676) ; Allegro and
Andante (OBS) ; 8 fantasias (886.
887): Adi«lo In B minor (640): 8
■II eurloso Indlsereto* (418, rondos (480. 811) ; variations (888^
419); baM air for AlbertarelU in 405. 4«0l 600i 878. 618); 8 sonatas
'Le CMoele fortunate' (Anfosd) wltbTloIln. completed faiTienna,
<A«1): br]fUe.VIUeneaTe In Cl-'and published by subscription.
~ * Moiart editing (286. 5W-880); T
ditto (40fr4. 404. 481. 086. 0«7);
sonatas for 4 hands (407.881); An-
dante with 6 ▼artatious (601) : for
a musical clock (also arranged for
4 hands) Adifio and Allegro (884) t
fontaala («M) ; Andante (616) : 6
trios with TloUn and edio (448.
I doe Baroni ' (678). and
te Martin's 'II burbero dl boon
eaore' (882, 688); for bis slster-ln-
law Mme. Hofer In PaisleUo's * Bar-
Mere' (880). Trios for the Jaoquln
fomfly (48648); eomle. nicknamed
the Bandel-Terzet (441); for Bl-
andd's 'YtUaneUa rapha.' trio
<40O) and quartet (4f79).' 80 Ueder 406, Coiui'ita. 064) ; 'trio wHh
for a single Tofoa. tnoluding ' Das
VeUehen' (476) :t 'Aheadempfln-
dttqg' (OBSX 'An OMm* (804); IS
clarinet and Tlola (486) ; 8
tets. O minor and IHat (418. 486) ;
quintet fai I flat, with oboe, clari-
net, horn, and bassoon (408) ; 17
InstnmaaMtsemadeforwfDd- concertos (41S-1B. 449^ 408. 486.
^ I (S75)i Kleine Naeht- 480. 466. 467. 488. 488. 481. 808. 087.
(086); 8 marches (406); 580); conosrt-roodo (382). printed
dancea. SO Mos.; 'Bin musikal-,asthelast moTOiiMBtofaaaarlkr
lseher^aBs'(aB); 4 strinrquln-.oooeertoOTO;.
tali (SIO^ at. 088, 614): 1 quintetl
In oootemplatiiig Mozart as an artist we are
€nt struck by the gradual growth of hia powers.
God bestowed on him extraordinary genius, but
nearly as extraordinary is the manner in which
his father fostered and developed it. We have
seen him laying a solid foundation l:^ the study
of Fux's Gradus, and anxiously enforcing early
praotioe in technique. We have also seen Mozart
studying in Salzburff the works of contempo-
raneous composers. In Italy his genius rapidly
mastered the forms of dramatic and ancient
ohuroh music ; van Swieten's influence led him
to Bach, whose w<«ks at Leipxig were a new-
found treasure, and ^ Handel, of whom Jie said,
* He knows how to make great effects better than
any of us ; when he chooses he can strike like a
thunderbolt.* How fiuniliar he was with the
works of Emanuel Bach is shown by his remark
to Doles, * He is the &ther, we are his children ;
those of us who can do anything worth having
have learnt it from him, and those who do not
see this are / The eagerness with which
he laid hold of Benda's melodramas as something
new has already been described.
His handwriting was small, neat, and always
•the sune, and when a thing was once written
down he seldom made alterations. 'He wrote
Busio as other people write letters,' said his wife,
and this explains his apparently inexhaustible
power of composing, although he always dedoired
that he was not spared that labour and pains
'from which the highest genius is not exempt. His
great works he prepared long beforehand; sitting
up late at night, he would improvise fbr hours
M the piano, and 'these were we true hours of
creation of his divine melodies.' His thoughts
1 Theaatogiaph Is inscribed 'eompoataiiar la
•wm ed amloo W. A. Motart. 26^1 Dec 1188.'
s raodmUe to Jahn. toL I. Appendix.
were in fiiot always occupied with music; *You
know,' he wrote to his father, ' that I am, so to
spwak, swallowed up in music, that I am busy
with it all day long — speculating, studying, con-
sidering.' But this very weighbig and consider-
ing ofton prevented his wowing a thing out ;
a fiEtiling with which his meth(Klical fiather re-
proached him : — * If you will examine your con-
science properly, you will find that you have
postponed many a work for mod and alL' When
necessary, however, he could compose vrith great
rafxidity, and without any preparation, impro-
vising on paper as it were. Even during the
pauses between games of billiards or skittles he
would be accumulating ideas, for his inner worid
was beyond the reach of any outer disturbance.
During iiis wife's confinement he would spend
his time between her bed-side and his writings
table. When writing at night he could not get
on without punch, of which he was very fdnd,
and * of whi(^,' says Kelly,* < I have seen him
take copious draughts.' At the same time he
would get his wife to tell him stories, and would
laugh heartily.
We have already remarked on his powers as
a virtuoso on the piano, organ, and violin, and
also on his preference for the viola. He eon-
ddered the first requisites for a pianist to be
a quiet steady hand, the power of singing the
melody, clearness and neatness in the ornaments,
and of course the necessary technique. It was
the combination of virtuoso and composer which
made his playing so attractive. His small well-
shaped hands elided easily and gracefully over
the keyboard, delighting the eye nearly as mu<^
as the ear. Glementi declared that he had never
heard anybody play with so much mind and
charm as Mosart. Dittersdorf expressed his ad-
miration of the union of taste and sdenoe, in
which he was corroborated by the Emperor
Joseph. Haydn said with tears in Ms eyes, that
as long as lie lived he should never forget
Mosart 8 playing, ' it went to the heart.* No
one who was fortunate enough to hear him
improvise ever forgot the impression. ■' To this
hour, old as I am,' said * Rieder, ' those harmo-
nies, infinite and heavenly, ring in my ears, and
I go to the grave fiiUy convinced that there was
but one Mosart.* His biographer Niemetschek,
expresses himself 4n simiUr terms, * If I mi^^t
have the fulfilment of one wish on earth, it
would be to hear Mosart improviBe on(» more
on the piano ; those who never heard him can-
not have the faintest idea of what it was.'
Vienna was the very place for him in this re-
spect ; when he was thinking of settling there,
his father, with ohaffacteristic prudence, warned
him of the fickleness of the public, but he replied
that his department was too favourite a one,
' this certainly is pianoforte-land.' And he was
right ; from his first appearance to the last, the
fibvour of the public never wavered. As a teacher
he was not in much request, Stefian, Kozeluch,
« Ambras Rieder, oisaolit ind ebotmastar aft FwehtotodorC i
" dliftL
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896
MOZAET.
Rigbini, aad otben, haying more pupils thongli
cli^rgiog the same termg as he. The &ct is, he
was neither methodical nor obsequious enough ;
it was only when personally attracted by talent,
earnestness, and a desire to get on, that he
taught willingly. Many people preferred to
profit by his remarks in social intercourse, or
took a few lessons merely to be able to oall them-
selves his pupils. Fraulein Auemhammer is an
instance of the first, and the celebrated physician
Joseph Frank of the second. With such pupils
as these he used to say, ' You will profit more
by hearing me play, than by playing yourself^*
and acted accordingly. Among his best lady
pupils were the Countesses Rumbeck and Zichy,
Frau yon Trattnem, wife of the wealthy book-
seller, Franziska yon Jaoquln, afterwanu Frau
yon Lagudus, and Barbara Ployer. Hummel
came to him in 1787, he lived in the house, and
his instruction was most irregular, being given
only as time and inclination served ; but personal
intercourse amply supplied any deficiencies of
method. Mozart oould always hear him play,
and played constantly before lum, took him about
with him, and declared that the boy would soon
outstrip him as a pianist. Hunmiel left in Nov.
1 788 to make his first tour with his &ther.^ Of
Thomas Attwood, who came to him from Italy
in 1 785 for a course of composition, and became
his &vourite pupil, he said to Kelly, * Attwood
is a young man for whom I have a sincere affec-
tion and esteem ; he conducts himself with great
propriety, and I feel much pleasure in telling
you, that he partakes more of my style than any
other scholar I ever had, and I predict that
he will prove a sound 'musician.' Kelly, who
wrote pretty songs, wished to have some instruc-
tion from Mozart in composition, but he dis-
suaded him from it, as his profession of the stage
ought to occupy all his attention. ' Reflect^* he
said, ' a lUtU tnotoledge is a dangerous thing . . .;
do not disturb your natural g^fts. Melwiy is
the essence of music ; I compare a good melodist
to a fine racer, and counterpointists to hack
post-horses: therefore be advised, let wdL cUone,
and remember the old Italian proverb — Chi sa
m piti, meno ' sa.' Mozart also taught composition
* to a few ladies, a cousin of Abb^ Stadler's among
the number. The MS. book * he used with her
is in the Hofbibliothek, and is interesting as
showing the cleverness with which, in the midst
of jokes and playful remarks, he managed to keep
his lady pupils to their grammar. With more
advanced pupils he of course acted differently.
Attwood began by laying before him a book of his
own compositions, and Mozart looked it through,
criticising as he went, and with the words, 'I
should have done this so,' re-wrote whole pas-
sages, and in fact re-composed the book. '
1 Hia flnt eoooert in LondOD wu at Um Huotw 8qwu« Boomi.
Ufty 6k 1792, when be plar«d ft conouto of Moiart'i. Fohl's ' Hajdo
In London,' p. 4&
* ' IteminiMenoes.' i. 2S8L » Ibid. L W.
4 It bM beon published mora tbui onos m 'Kuntefastto Ofnenh-
buMchule Ton W. A. Mozart ' (Vienna. Blelner) and 'Fundament dee
GeneralbaHet ' (BerSn. Slevmejer. USS).
» HoUan. P.XU. Thli book li now In the poMenkm of Sir John
MOZART.
He held recfular concerts at his own hoaae cm
Sundays, his mends being invited, and anuUeors
admittiad on payment.
Of his intercourse with other artists on his
tours we have spoken, but something remains to
be said of his relations with his brethren in
Vienna. Of Bonno, at whose house his newest
symphony was twice performed in x 781 with an
unusually large orchestra (60 strings, wind-in-
struments doubled, and 8 bassoons), Mozart said,
'he is an honourable old man.' Gluck appre-
ciated him, and was inclined to be friendly, but
they were never intimate. At his request the
'EntfUhrung' was performed out of its torn,
and ' Gluck paid me many coinpliments upon it.
I dine with him to-morrow.* On another occa-
sion Gluck was at Mme. Lange*s concert, where
Mosart played. 'He could not say enough in
5 raise of the symphony and aria (both by
f ozart), and invited us all four (the Mozarts
and Langes) to dinner on Sunday.* Salieri was
unfriendly. He had great influence with the
Emperor, and could easily have secured an ap-
pointment for Mozart, but though astute enough
not to show his dislike openly, he put obstacles
in his way. Other still more bitter opponents
were Koa^uch, Kreibich, and Strack, who with
Salieri had it all their own way in the Emperor's
music-room. Kozeluch also hated Haydn, and
this inspired Mozart with a contempt he took
no pains to conceal, and which Kozduch never
forgave. We have already spoken of the rela-
tions between Mozart and Haydn : ' It was quite
touching,' says Niemetschek, 'to hear Mosart
speak of the two Haydns, or of any other great
master; it was like listem'ng to an adnming
pupil, rather than to the great Mozart.* He
recoffnised in the same generous way the merit
of those who merely crossed his path, such as
Paisiello and Sarti, with both of whom he was
on very friendly terms. Kelly * dined at Mosart's
house with Psisiello, and was a witness of their
mutual esteem. Mozart's pupil, Barbara Ployer,
played some of his compositions to Paisiello, who
in his turn asked for the sane of * Idomeneo.*
Of Sarti, Mozart writes to his father, 'He is an
honest upright man ;^ I have played a great deal
to him already, including variations on one of his
own airs (460) with whidi he was much pleased.*
He immortalised this very theme by int^ucing
it into the second Finale of ' Don Giovanni ' ; and
did a similar service for a theme from Martinis
* Cosa rara,' an opera which at that time threw
even Mozart into the shade. Of that composer,
then a universal favourite, he said : ' much that
he writes is really very pretty, but in ten years
time his music will be entirely forgotten.* Mozart
took a great interest in all striving young artists,
augmented in the case of Stephen Storaoe by his
esteem for his sister Nancy, the first Susanna in
'Figaro.' His sympathy with Gyrowetz has
been mentioned: of Pleyel's first quartets he
wrote to his father, * They are very well written.
maUdoos eriUqiie on
T Tbe'bonert'man alterwardf irroCaa vef7
Voart't qnarteta.
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HOZART.
X
MOZART.
897
and really ple&sing ; it is easy to see ^ho his
master was (Haydn). It will be a good thing
for music if Pley^ should in time replace
Haydn.* When Beethoven came to Vienna for
the first time in the spring of 1 787, and found
an opportunity of playing before Mozart, he is
said to have observed to the bystanders, ' Mark
him ; he will make a noiee in the world.* Of
Thomas linley, with whom, as we have seen,
he made friends in Florence, he said, ' That he
was a true genius, and had he lived would hm
been one of the greatest ornaments of the musicah
world."
Mozart was short, but slim and well-propor-
tioned, with small feet and good hands; as a
young man he was thin, which made his nose look
large, but later in life he became stouter. His
head was somewhat large in proportion to bis
body, and he had a profusion of fine hair, of
which he was rather vain. He was always pale,
and his face was a pleasant one, though not
striking in any way. His eyes were well-mrmed,
and of a good size, with fine eyebrows and lashes,
but as a rule they looked languid, and his gaze
was restless and absent. He was very particular
about his clothes, and wore a good deal of em-
htoideac^ and jeweliy; firom his elegant appear-
ance Clementi took him for one of Uie court
chamberlains. On the whole he was perhaps
insignificant-looking, but he did not like to be
ma<& aware of the &ct» or to have his small
stature commented upon. When playing the
whole man became at once a different and a
higher order of being. His countenance changed,
his eye settled at once into a steady calm gaze,
and evezy movement of his muscles conveyed the
sentiment expressed in his playing. He was fond
of active exerdse, which was the more necessary
as he suffered materially in health firom his habit
of working h,r into the night. At one time he
took a regular momiog ride, but had to give it
up, not being able to conquer his nervousness.
It was- reph^ed by billiards and skittles, his.
fondness for which we have mentioned. He
even had a billiard-table in his own house:
*Many and many a game have I played with
him,' says Kelly, 'but always came off second
best.' When no one else was there he would
play with his wife, or even by himself. His
favourite amusement of all however was dancing,
for which Vienna afforded ample opportunities.
This too Kelly mentions (i. 226), ' Mme. Mozart
told me that great as his genius was, he was an
enthusiast in dancing, ai^ often said that his
taste lay in that art, rather than in music' He'
was particularly fond of masked balls, and had
quite a talent mr masquerading in character, as
he showed at the Rathhaus balls in Salaburg.
In 1 783 he sent home for a harlequin's suit, to play
the character in a pantomime got up by some
friends tor the Carnival Monday ; Mme. Lange
and her husband were Columbine and Pierrot,
Mark, an old dancing-master who trained the
company, was Pantaloon, and the painter Gross!
theDottore. Mozart devised the whole thing, and
1 lUUy't 'Bamlniioenew,' L a2&
composed the music, which was of course very
simple; thirteen numbers have been preserved
(446).
In society Mozart found amusement of the
highest kind, and inspiration, as well as affection
and true sympathy. No house offered bim so
much of these as that of Countess Thun, ' die
charmanteste, liebste Dame, die ich in meinem
Leben gesehen,' of whom Bumey, Reichardt, and
Gpoige Forster, wrote in the highest terms. Other
associates were the Countess's son-in-law and
Mozart's pupil Prince Karl Lichnowsky, Hofrath
Ton Bom, Baron Otto von Gemmingen, Hofrath
Jvtm Spielmann, Prince Kaunitz, Count Cobenzl,
Fi^d-marshal Haddik, Geheimrath von Kees,
who>had weekly orchestral concerts at his house,
the botanist Jacquin, and his son and daughter
[Jaoquin von]. Count Hatzfeld, an intimate friend
who played in his quartets, Kaufmann Bridi,
a good tenor who sung in * Idomeneo,' the fiunilies
Greiner, Martinez, and Ployer, all of whom had
constant music, and van Swieten, who has been
mentioned already. Another great admirer of
his was Barisani the physician, 'that noble
man, my beet and dearest friend, who saved
my life* (when seriously ill in 1784), and whose
unexpected death in 1787 affected him much.
One can quite understand that the refireshment
of social intercourse was a real necessity after
his hard brain-work. On such occasions he was
full of fun, ready at a moment's notice to pour
out a stream of doggrel rhymes or irresistibly
droll remarks; in short he was a frank open-
hearted child, whom it was almost impossible
to identify with Mozart the great artist. His
brother-in-law Lange' says that he was most
full of fun during the time he was occupied with
his great works. It has been raterated ad •
nauseam that Mozart was a drunkard, whose
indulgence in this and cognate vices brought
him to an early > grave, but that such a charge
was totally unfounded no one who has studied
his life can doubt for a moment. That, like other
people, he enjoyed a good glass of wine nobody
can deny, but his laborious life and the prodi-
gious number of his compositions convincingly
prove that he was never given up to excess.
Those ^ who accused him of intemperance also
magnified his debts tenfold when he died, and
thus inflicted grievous injury on his widow.
These *fi:iends ' propagated the worst reports as to
his domestic affairs and constant embarrassments.
Undoubtedly his wife was a bad manager, and
this was a serious defect in a household which
only acquired a regular income (800 fl. 1) in 1 788,
and whose resources before and after that time
were most irregular. His wife's constant ill-
nesses too were a great additional burden. Though
naturally unfitted for anything of the kind, he
made many serious attempts to regulate his ex-
penses, and would every now and then keep
» SetbstblocnpMa. p. 17L
* OotnpMv SchUchtegToU's 'Nekrolog'; Arnold's Ungoaes Is eren
none (Moaut'a Odst. p. 66).
4 Hit tMociatloo wltii SehikMied«r t»Te Kmie oolonr to the report*.
Huunel protested Tehemeotlyagalnit foch MoaaMtou.
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SD8
MOZABT.
r
strict aoeounts of income And ^ exptfoditlaWy but
these good resolatioiis did not liist. As Jahn
remarlu with point, how oould he when writing
to Puchberg for assistance (July 17, 1789) have
appealed to hir Mend's knowledge of Mb cha-
iBcter and honesty, if these exaggerations had
been tine ? In most cases he was led astray by
riieer good-natnre, as- he neyer could refuse any
one in need. His kindness was grievously abused
by fidse friends, whose acquaintance was damaging
to his character, but he never learned prudence.
The WOTst oflbnder in this respwb^ wM Stadler,
tiie eminent clarinet-player, who often dined- at
his table, and repeatedly wheedled nMmey out of
1dm undbr pretext of poverty. After all that
had passed, Mocart composed a concerto (6a3) for
Stadler's tour, finishing it two days only before
the production of the Zaubeifldte, when h» ^tem
of course particularly hard pressed.
His religious sentiments, more espeoiallly hSr
viewvon death, are distinctly stated in 1^ letter
to his fiither at first hearing of his illness. * As
death, strictly speaking, itf the true end and aim
of our lives^ I have for the last two yeara made
myself so well acquainted with this* tJrue, best
firiend of maidcinct that his image no longer
tenrifies, but calms and consoles me. And I
thank Ghxl for giving me the oppoituni^ (you
''understand) of learning to look upon death
ae the key which unlocks the gate of true bliss.
I never Ue down to rest without thinking that»
oung as I am, before i^e dawn* of another day
: may be no more; and yet nobody who knows
me would call me morose or diseontented. For
this blessing I thank my Creator every day, and
wish {torn my heart that I could share it with
all my fellow-men.*
^ Moxart has^ often been compared with other
grertt men, Shakespeare, Goethe, Beethoven,
Haydn, etc.i but the truest parallel of all is that
between him and Raphael. In the worics of
both we admire the same marvellous beauty and
refinement, the same pure harmony and ideal
truthfulness ; we also x«cognise in the two men
the same intense delight in creation', which made
them regard each fr&Ak woric ar a sacred task,
and the same gratitude to their Maker ibr His
divine gift of genius. The influence of each
upon his i^twjtt immeasurable ; as painting has
but one IwpnSf so music has but one Mozart.
In reviewing Mosart*s instrumental compo-
sitions, we will first consider those fbr pianoforte.
They comprise all the difibrent branches, and are
thoroughly suited to the instrument — grateful,
and fbr the present state of technique, easy; they
contain no mere- bravura^writing, the passages
being for the most part founded on the scale, or
on broken chords. In playing them, deamess,
taste, and the power of singing on the instru-
ment are required. In variations, written almost
entirely for pupils and amateurs, he employs for
the most part the melismatic style. His themes
I In on* of thaw orderiy fits he bogan 0784) a thentttle register of
M fats compositions M they were completed, and continued the prac-
tice up to a short time b^bre his death. This immluahle docoiaaat
was ftrrt published by AnAH In U2&
s A refsrenoe to tte doctrtae of ttwFMonnoDS.
IIOZABT.
were taken from weU-toown pieces, muik «r
SIscherV minuet, and airs by Faisidlo, Clock,
Sarti, IHiport, etc. A good many that weve not
his were circulated m^er his name, a proof of
the demand for them. Of these only two need'
be specified, one by Forster on a weme from
SartTsoperaafintiEndi*; the other by Ebeti,.
on * Zu Steflbn sprach im Tmume,' from Undaofs'
« Izriicht/ Of three Rondos the last, in A miaos
(511) is Well known; it is diaracterised through-
out by a tenderness which miUces it most attraie-
tive. ^ Two Faatasiaa (396, 397), and » short
sustained Adagio (54o)are iJmost hnproviiatkmB;
a third FimtasU fbnns the prelude to an excellent
fbgue in the style of Bach (394) ; a fourth- (475)
full of depth and earnestness, was united hf
Mosart himself with the sonata in G minor (457).
The charming Gigue (574) is well known ; bat *•
PJ<\ Suite in the style of Ba^ and Handd (499)
was unfortunately not finished ; the Abb^ StaiUer'
completed a more fbrmal and abstraet Fugue
(401 ).y In bis Sonatas of the Viennese period'
Moztft retained the conventional three n^ove-
ments'; they overfiow with melody, but tlie last
movements, genenmy in the fonn of an easy
rondo or variations, are as a rule not much
worked out. The G minor (457), already men-
tioned, is full of fire and passion, not excepting
Uie last movement, and already indicates what
Beethoven was destined to do for the sonata.
Two others in Bb and D (570, 576), both pleaaii]^,
lively and easy, also deserve mention. Sonatas
by others were published under his name, for
instttnoe, one in G minor (Kdchel's Anhang, 204)
recommended by Gaemy in his ' PianofortesiBhale*
(Iv. i6a), even though of doubtful authenticity,
and afterwards pul^hed by Artari» with the
composer^s name — 'Anton Eberl, oeuvre I.'
Anol^er favourite one is in Bb (Kochel's An-
hang 156), partiy put together from Moeart^s
concertos by A. B. Mtiller as op. 26. l%e most
striking sonata for four hands is tbe last but one
in F (497). Two pieces for a' musical clock (594,
608) ordered by GountDeym for MttUer's Kunst-
cabinet, are oxdy known in the P.F. arrangement
for four hands ; they belong to the dose of his life,
and the earnestness of purpose and thoroughness^
of technique which we find in them show how
conscientiously Mozart executed such worics to
order. For two pianos we have a lively sonata
in D (448), and an energetic fugue in 0 minor
(426) antmged by Mozart for string-quartet with
introductory adagio (546). The Sonatas for P. F.
and violin were generally written for his lady-
pupils (the violin at that time was, genenUy^
speaking, a man*B instrument). They are neither
deep nor learned, but interesting from th^
abimdant melody and modulations. One of
tbe finest is that in Bb (454) composed in 1 784
for Mdlle. Strinasacchi; the last, in F(547),
is ' for beginners* ; the last but one in £b (481),
is also easy, an^ contains in the first movement
the favourite subject which he treats in the finale
of the Jupiter Symphony. The P.F. Trios werein-
tended for amateur meetings ; the most important
is the one in E (54a) composed in- 1788 lor his
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fiiend Pucbberg. The ono in Eb (498^ wfth
darinet Mid viola haa been alreadj mentioned ;
they were all written between 1786 and 1788.
Broader in design and more powerful in expres-
sion are the two Qnsrtets in G minor and Eb
(478, 493), especially the first, which is effbotive
even at the present day. The Quintet in £b with
oboe, darinet, horn, and bassoon (453), composed
in 1 784, is particnlarly charming. Mozart played
it to Paisiello, and wrote to his fiftther ' I consider
it the best I have yet written.' His Concertos,
however, are the works which best represent him
as a composer for the pianoforte. Their merit is
incontestable, the solo instrument and the or"
chestra being welded into an organic whole. The
first four were composed in 1767; six between
r773 and 1777 ; ana the remaining seventeen in
Vienna. Of the latter, the first three (41 3-415)
were published in 1783 by Mozart hmiself;
tlurteen were composed between 1784 and 1788,
and the last in Bb (595) in 1791. The last but
one in D (537) is the * Coronation concerto,* which:
he is said to have played at Frankfort, though
accordingto other authorities it was that in F
(459). The best and most popular are those in
J) minor (466), in C (467), O minor (491), and
in C (503). 1 he chaiacteoistics of the concertos
maybe tLus snmmarised^those inF, A,C (413-
415), C minor (449) and Bb (456) are easiest of
comprehension for a large audUence'; those in
Bb, G, and A (450, 453, 488) bright and pleasing;
those in D minor and C minor (466, 491) pas-^
sionate and agitated ; those in £b and Bb (483,
595) serious and sustidned ; those in C and D (503,
537), brilliant and showy; the one in 0 (467)
grand and poetic The following have been already
mentioned-^-Concerto for two P.F.8 in Eb (36^)
composed in 1 780, fine in the first and lively in
tiie last movement; ditto for three P.F^ in F
347) composed 1 776, and arranged by Mozart
^ tr two P.F.s with cadenzas ; and a Concert-
nmdo in D (382), printed as the last movement
of the concerto in £> (i 75).
We now pass to the compositions fbr strings
and wind. The Duets are few ; uid indude those
oomposed for Michad Haydn. The only IVio for
violm, viola, and cello, in Eb (563) composed in
T788, is in six movements, like a divertimento ;
it is broadly designed, and worked out with the
greatest zeal and care, ' a true ^cabinet-picture.*
Of tiie first sixteen Quartets for two violins,
viola, and cdlo, that in D minor (i 73), composed
in 1773, rises obviously to aliigher levd. It
^ras only after a pause of nine years (Nov. 1783)
that Mozart resumed this branch of composition-
witfa the six dedicated to Haydn, each one a gem.
Such however was not the popular verdict at
the time; a critio of the day^ found them 'much
too highly spiced **-and asks 'whose palate can
stand that for any length of time?* PrinoeGrassal-
kowics tore up the parts in a rage at finding that
they really contained the hideous stuff which was
being played before him ; and they were returned
to Artaria from Italy as so full of mistakes that
it was impossible to play from them. The chief
W«h«. S Cramer's ']Ci«ulad«rMiuIk.'U.lS7B.
MOZART.
89^
Z
stumbQngblock was the mudi-ftbosed introduce
tion to the last quartet. In his next one, in D
(499), Mozart tried to accommodate himself to
the wishes of the publio. The last three, in D, Bb,
and F (575, 589, 59a), were composed for the
King of Prussia at • time when he was neariy
crushed beneath • load of care and poverty, of
which, however, the w(Mrks bear no trace. The*
king's favourite instrument, the cdlo, has more
than its Ml dutre of work, and in spite of the*
fine treaitment and wealtii of invention this is'
injurious to the character of the quartet. The
Adagio with fugue (546) has been already noticed.
The* Quartets for fiute and strix^ (385, 39S),
and for oboe obligato (370) are easy of execution,
and of no special importance.
The Quintets nmst all be ascribed to external
influences : Mozart invariably doubled the viola,
instead of the cello as Boccherini cdd. The first,
in Bb (46), was written in Vienna' in 1768, and'
the autograph shows his s^ miformed boyish
hand ; the next, dated five years later, is in Bb*
(174); and tiie third, in 0 minor (406), an ar«
rangement of the eight*part serenade for wind
instruments (388), follows ten years later. Of
those bdpnging to 1 787 in C and G minor (515,
516), the latter full of passion and movement, is'
the ne plu$ tdtra of its kind. The two last, in'
D and Eb (593, 614), were written in December
1 790 and April 1791, 'at the urgent request of
an amateur; whose object evidently was to give
assistance in a delicate manner to the hard-
pressed composer ; both show the deamess- and
firmness of the master-hand, although the end
was so near. Three' other Quintets must be in-
cluded in this series ; one in Eb (407) oomposed
in 1787 fbr Leitgeb the hom-plajrer, with only
one violin, and a French horn or cello ; another
in A (581), the channing 'Stadler quintet/ for
darinet, two violins, viola, and cello, completed
Sept. 39, 1789 ; and a third in 0 minor (617) for
glass hannonicak flute, oboe, viola, and oello,
composed in May 179 1 for Kirohgassner. The
accompanying instruments are obvioudy sdected
with a view to the special timbre of the solo, an
effect which is lost by substituting the piano.
We- have already seen that at the time he was
working hard at the violin, Mozart composed dx
Concertos for it^307, 3 it, 316, 318, 319 in
1775, and 368 in 1776. They condst of three
movements each, the first being generally the
most worked-out^ the second in t£e style of a
romance (the adasio in 316 is of laiger propor-
tions), and the unid in rondo-form. Previous
to these came a concertone (190) for two solo
violins, and orchestra, with obligato parts for cello
and oboe, interesting from the artistic manner in
which the various instruments are grouped.
Quite different again is a ' Concertante Bympho-
nie * for violin and viola (364) written in 1780.
The solo-parts are treated idbnply, seldom moving*
> KOchd glTM Btlrimrg. but the faxMj wtn then In Vtomw afl«r
tbfllr ratum from Olmfttz tnd BrQnn. The qotntet ms mctamof^
plMMedliTMotaitlDtoaaeren«de(Stt)inl7«a The fine adagio No. S
wu arranged In Vieans by an nnknown hand as an offsrtorium. to the
ivordt 'Qatote oomprdieodat/ for 4 Toloea. organ and TloUn •bio. 9
TtoUn]i.Tlola.Sbontt,aii4bMi. Fftrts pubUsbed with others br I>lft-
beUl.biXb^
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400
MOZART.
independently when playing together, the orches-
tra 18 stronger, and the tutd more important, so
that its character, as indicated by the title, is
rather that of a symphony.
Nine Concertos remain to be considered: —
the one composed in Paris for fluto and harp is
brilliant without being difBcalt for the solo in-
struments; the orchestra is discreetly handled,
and the andantino accompanied by string quartet
alone, graceful and tender. A concerto for bassoon
(191) was composed in Salzburg; two for flute
(313, 314) in Mannheim; four for French horn
(41 a, 41 7, 447, 495) at Vienna, at the house and
in the presence of Leutgeb. These last are evi-
dently written hastily and carelessly, and are of
no special significance ; the autograph is full of
absurd marginal notes. [See Lbutobb, p. i a6.]
The last concerto, composed for Stadler (6a a),
brings out all the fine qualities of the clarinet ;
Jahn regards it as the basis of modem execution.
The Grenades, Nocturnes, and Divertimenti or
Cassationen, mostly with solo instruments oonoer-
tante, consist generally of from six to eight
movements. One of the nocturnes (a86) has
four orchestras, of two violins, viola, bass, and
two horns each, by means <k which a triple
echo is produced; a short serenade (339) has
only strings and drums. Another serenade for
wind instruments with cello and bass (361),
remodelled in 1 780 from a youthful quintet (46),
is an important work. Of solid merit are three
divertimenti for string-quintet and horns in F,
Bb, and C (347, a87, 334) ; the second is well
known. They have six movements each, and
are essentially in quartet-style, in spite of the
horns. Though written when he was not much
above twenty, his mastery of this kind of com-
position is complete. Another divertimento for
the same instrumente ' Bin musikalischer Spass,
Oder auch Bauem-Symphonie' ('a musical joke*),
composed in 1787, is iiresistiblv comic.
The Tafelmusik, Nachtmusik, eto., for wind-
. instruments, with from six to eight movements
each, often present the most extraordinary com-
binations, such as a flutes, 5 trumpets, and
5 drums (187, 188), intended it is true for
festal occasions, and a oboi, a bassoons, and
a horns, in six divertimenti (313, 340, 353,
35i5» 270, 389) composed in 1775 and 1776,
and graceful in spite of their concise form.
Superior to these, and indeed to all mere fSte
music, are two serenades for wind in £b and
C minor (375, 388), composed in Vienna in 178 1
and 178a ; ^e latter also arranged by Mozart as
a quintet (406). Of dance-music for full orchestra
the first published was four oontredanses (367,
Salzburg, 1 776) ; in 1784 followed two quadrilles
(463) each consisting of a minuet and an allegro ;
and in 1787 six German dances (509) and nine
oontredanses (510). The dances, written for six
of the Redouten-Balls in Vienna, begin in Dec.
1 788 with the German dances (567) and twelve
minuets (568).
In the Symphonies we are able to follow the
steps of his progress most closely. He first
makes sore of his materials and teohniquei then
MOZART.
the separate parts acquire more freedom and
independence, melody and invention grow, the
subjecte gain in chwacter, there is more sub-
stance in the whole, the details are better worked
out; the wind-instruments, no longer used
merely to strengthen the strings, take their
own line and materially assist in the light
and shade; in a word, Uie various component
parts of l^e orchestra become one animatfid
whole. Mozart had a great advantage over
Haydn in having heard and studied tiie fine
orchestras at Mannheim, Munich, and Paris,
while Haydn was entirely restricted to his own.
Mozart at first learned from Haydn, but after
1785 the reverse took place; Haydn's London
symphonies also show how much his orches-
tration gained in fullness and brilliance from
contact with the world. Mozart's first attempts
in London and the Hague are in three move-
ments ; in those compiled at Vienna in 1 767
and 1768 the minuet is introduced. His later
treatment of this movement is distinguished for
refinement and dignified cheerfulness, in contrast
to the jovial good-humour and banter which cha-
racterise Haydn's minuets. Of twenty symphonies
composed in Salzburg; two are distinctly supe-
rior, that in G minor (183) being serious, almost
melancholy, and in some sense the precursor of
the later one in the same key, to which the other
in A (aoi), bright, fresh, and sunny, forms a
striking contrast. Next comes the lively Parisian
or French symphony in D (397) with three
movemente; then three more in Salzburg, in-
cluding one in G (318) in one movement, pro-
bably mtended as an overture to a play.^ With
the exception of two in 0 and G (435, 44^)
composed in Linz, and plainly showing Haydn s
influence, all the rest were written in Vienna.
In the lively bustling symphonies in D (385),
composed 178a, and G (504), composed 1786, for
the Haffner £Eunily of Salzburg, the orohestratiim
reminds us that tiiey had just been preceded by
* Figaro.* The last three, in £b, G minor, and C
with the fugue (Jupiter) (543, 5 50, 551), were com-
posed in 1778 between the a6th of June and the
loth of August, just over six weeks ! Ambros*
says of them, 'Considered as pure muric» it is
hudly worth while to ask whether the world
possesses anything more perfect.' Jahn calls the
first a triumph of beauty in sound, the second
a work of art exhausting its topic, and the third
in more than one respect the greatest and noblest
of Mozart's symphonies.
Next come the Vocal CompositionB. Lieder he
only wrote casually ; and unfortunately to veiy
insignificant words. The greater number are
in stanzas, but some few are continuously com-
posed, such as 'An Chloe' (534), more in the
style of an Italian canzonet ; ' Abendempfind-
ung' (533) fine both in form and expression;
*Ungl{iokUche Liebe' and 'Trennung nnd Wie-
dervereinigung' (530, 519) almost passionate ;
and ' Zu meiner Zeit ' (517) in a sportive tone.
1 Hot, M often itated.
s • (innam «« MmOc nd FMria.' pw ua.
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VOZART.
Of three Ehideriieder (529, 596, 598) tlie second,
'Komm* lieber Mai/ still eurvives; nor will
the <Wi^enlied' (350) be forgotten. Goethe's
'Veilchen (476) is perfection, and shows what
Mozart could have produced in this direction.
Many spurious Lieder have been published under
his name; there are $8 in Kochel's Catalogue
(Anhang V. Noe. 246-283). The canons re-
quire sifting ; even Byrd's ' Non nobis Domine*
has been set to Grerman words, and ascribed to
him. Several are composed to words in the
Viennese dialect, and the effect is quite neutral-
ified by the modem drawing-room text which is
oiten substituted. 'DiflBcile lectu mihi Mars*
(559) ^ A comic canon, followed on the reverse
side ot the sheet by <0 du eselhafter ^Peyerl*
(560). The double canon on ' Lebet wohl, wir
sehn uns wieder' and 'Heult noch gar wie alte
Weiber/ written on taking leave of Doles at
Leipzig, is well-known.
Ab we have seen aLready, he was frequently
called upon to write airs for concerts, and for
ipsertion in operas: many of these still bear
repetition; for instance, the soprano-airs * Misera
dove son* (369), 'Non temer amato bene' with
P.F. obligate (505), 'Un moto di gioja* (679)t
'Bella mia fiamma ' (528), one of his finest airs ;
the tenor air 'Per pietk' (420), and the bass
i^irs 'Non so d'onde viene' (512), 'Mentre ti
lascio' (513), and 'Per questa bella mano* with
double-bass obligate (612).
To prepare the way for his Masses we must
first consider his Church music of various kinds.
First and foremost come the litanies and Ves-
pers, each a complete whole formed of several
llidependent parts. The chief characteristic of
the Litania de venerabili is solenmity, and of the
Lauretanae or Marienlitanei, tenderness; and
these Mozart has succeeded in preserving. [See
Litany.] Of the latter, the first, in Bb, com-
posed in 1 77 1, already shows fluency in part-
writing, and mastery of form and modulation ;
but the second, in D (195), con^posed in i774t
IB far more important, t^e voices being treated
contrapnntally with independent orchestra, We
have use two litanies de -venerabili in Bb and
£b (125, 143), composed in 1772 and 1776, the
lapse of time between the two being clearly
marked in the compositions themselves. The
fine choruses in Nos. 3 and 5 of the latter, point
to the Requiem, and like the fugue 'Pignus
futurae ' almost startle by their power, as does
also the opening of the ' Panis vivus,' identical
with the *Tuba mirum' in the Requiem. A
still stronger sense of the dignity of church music
is shown in two vespers in C (321, 339) com-
posed in 1 779 and 1 780, the greater part of both
thoroughly deserving a place among his most
important works. The ' Confitebor* in the first,
and ' Laudato pueri * and ' Laudato Dominum '
in the latter, are real gems. The motet ' Miseri-
cordias Pomine' (222), an exercise for Padre
Martini, who gave him a brilliant testimonial
for it in 1 775, is in strict counterpoint throughout.
In 1 776 he composed a ' Venite populi* for double
I B«een1iistotlMd«lKllTeiittaniMeorP9wl.tlMtenor.
VOL. U. PT. 10.
MOZART.
401
chorus; the parts are in imitation, strict or
fiee, and the whole work teems with force and
freshness. A list of innumerable small pieces of
church music doses with the angelic motet ' Ave
verum* (^18), composed on the 18th of June,
1791, at Baden, near Vienna.
His first Masses (49, 65. 66), written while he
was still a mere boy, show how thoroughly he
had mastered the forms then in use for thnt
style of music. We pass at once to the 6th
'Mass, in F (192), the whole of which is in
counterpoint, wim only two violins, bass, and
organ as accompaniment. This mass, in which
the master-hand is clearly discernible, recalls the
finest models of the old Neapolitan school, and
justly ranks next to the Requiem ; the Credo is
based throughout on the subject so well-known in-
the finale to the Jupiter Syn^hony. The next, 'in
-D (I94)> is also next in oider of merit ; it has per^
haps more graoe, but less earnestness and id^ity.
These two masses show what he was capable of
in church music when unfettered; but in the
*five which followed (220, 257-259, 262) he was.
forced to suit his patron's taste by aiming at
display, and the result is less fortunate. Un-
happily these being his best-known masses, are
generally taken as his standard church worics.
Hardly more important are the next ^ three (275,
31 7» 337)> although Mozart himself seems to
have had a preference for the first, in Bb, since
he chose it to conduct himself in 1791. The
second, in C. composed in 1779, is called the
' Coronation ^mass,' why, nobody knows; the
third, also in C, was composed in 1780, and all
three fulfil the conventional requirements, but
seldom show a glimpse of the true Mozart, and
then only in court uniform. We have already
mentioned the last mass, in C minor (427),
and the circumstances under which it was
written. It 19 broadly designed, each section
beiiig treated as a separate movement, and the
whole bears clear traces of his studies at the
time (1783) with van Swieten. It is to be re-
gretted that it was never finished ; the Kyrie,
Gloria, Sanctus and Benedict us alone are com-
plete; the Credo is only half done. Very re-
markable are the inequalitv of the difierent
movements, the large dimensions of the chpruses
and fugues, and the bravura style of the solos.
The Kyrie, Gloria, and Sanctus are excellent,
the five -part Gratias, and the eight-part Qui
tollis, of mcomparable beauty.
We now come to the Requiem, that work of
pain, which he was not permitted to finish. The
following pieces are in his own handwriting:—
(i) Requiem and Kyrie, complete; (2"^ voioe-
parts, organ, and notes of the accompaniment
of Nos. 2 to 9, as follows — * Dies irae, 68 bars ;
Tuba mirum, 62 ; Rex tremendae, 22 ; Recordare,
130; Confiitatis, 40; Laciymosa, 8; Domine,
t Momft M aMfls. amogcd by V. Koreno, Ho. S.
» Horello, No. 6.
4 The MOODd. In Pb (277 ; Kordlo 2), It called th« ' Credo Mass.*
from the pecoUar treatment of the Credo. It U printed in a ray
mutilated form ; eren the charaeterUtle lul^ect in the Credo itMlf
being left out vrtieneTer ponibic The much-uied subject £rom ths
Jupiter Symphonj Is Introduced again In ttie Sanctus.
• MoTcUo lA 1. M.
Pd
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4091
HOZART.
^8 ; HoBtias, 54 : the last eight ban, contaimng
voice parts, organ, and first-violin, go to the
words 'Fac eas Domine de morte transire ad
vitam,* followed by the direction *Quain olim
Da Capo,' that is to say. repeat the last 35 bars
of the Domini. His widow, in her anxiety to
have the scoi^ completed, and thus satisfy the
person who had ordered it, first applied to Eybler,
but after a fe^ attempts he threw up the task,
and she theii entrusted it to Sttssmayer, who
not only had more courage, but was able to
imitate Mozart^ hand. He copied what Mozart
had sketched il^ filled up the gaps, wrote a
Sanctus, Benedictoi, and Agnus Dei, of his own,
and, to give unity to the work, wound it up by
repeating the fugue of the Kyrie to the wards
'Cum Sanctis tuis.' lli» score thus completed
was handed to the messengor; who afterwards
proved to have been Leutgeb, stewsrd to Ck>unt
Vranz von Walsegg, of Ruppach. The Oevn^
who had lost his wife Anna Edlen von Flamm-
beig, on Feb* 14, 1791, and wished to perform
a Requiem to her memory, copied out the
score, inscribed it ' R^uiem composto dal Conte
Walsegg/ and absolutely had it performed as
his own on Dec. 14, 1793. After wanderings
ahnost as complicated as those of Ulysses, the
various portions, in the original handwriting,
were at length safely landed in the Hofbiblioth^
of Vienna. They consist of — (i) the autogn^h
.'Requiem and Kyrie, with the remainder com-
plete in SQssmayer's hand, bought by the Hof-
bibliothek in 1839 for fifty ducats; (2) Nos. a
to 9 just as they were left by Mozart ; (3) twelve
sheets presented by the Abb^ Stadler, and (4)
thirteen bequeathed by Eybler in 1846. The
discovety of the autograph was the most con-
clusive reply to Gottfried Weber, who, as is
well-known, disputed for years the authentidlnr
of the Requiem. It has been analysed wiw
becoming love and reverence by 'Holmes, and
by Jahn in his second volume. The latter con-
cludes his observations thus — 'It is the true and
legitimate expression of his artistic nature at
its highest point of finish — his imperishable
^monument.' An admirable summary of the
whole story will be found in ' Mozart*s Requiem,
by W. Pole, F.R.S., Mus. Doc.' j London, No-
vello, 1879.
We have seen Mozart, when a mere boy. turn*
ing iiom childish play to serious occupations : a
t TbB headliiff 'B«qniMl dl me. W. A. Mozart mp Ttt ' It tooohlni;
U ihowlng how he looked forward to Itt oompletlon.
* A Critical EMar. etc
s This. Hoart'a but work, was tho flrrt ofhU Toeal works (hidadlnf
hb operas) to be performed in Btiglaod. John Ashlej introduced It at
Corent Garden Theatre on the flnt oratorio erenlnc dutinf Lent,
Feb. ao. im. The piece which preceded U was a Dead March with
comi dl bassetto. double bassoons, and two pair of double drums :
after It cam* a P.F. concwto pUyed t^ John Held, and Handel's
' I/Allegro ed U Pensieroso.' Books of the words, with a translation
of the Beqniem and a Uocraphlcal sketch of Moiart, were sold at «d.
each. Of the Qequlcm Parke says, Mi Is a composition of InJSnito
sdeoce and dulness, from the effects of which the audience was hap-
pily reUered by IncMon's sons in. L'Allcfvo. "Haste thee Kymph."'
The Mominc Poet said. ' The talenU which have eelebrated the name
of Moiait can scareely be Justly appreciated by itieh a composition as
the Bequlem'; and wound up with, 'It is upon the whole a composi-
tion which could only have come from the hand of a master. From
the performers It reoeired ample justice.' Acoordli^ to the Porcu-
pine 'th«> performance was fair fnm belnc wdl- manafoA.* U was
xepeated on March 4. (Fohl. ' Moiart In London.' p^ 144.)
MOZABT.
striking Instance of this is his 'Grabmusik' or
German cantata (43) written in 1767, which
is anything but a boyish composition. About
five years later he wrote, apparently in conse-
quence of his visit to Padua, an oratorio by
Metastasio called 'Betulia liberata* (118), corre-
sponding to an opera seria of the period. The
refrain in the last number but one, alternately
sung by solo and chorus, is an ancient canto-'
fenno harmonised in four parts, in fact the
same which is introduced in the Requiem to the
words ' Te decet hymnus.' This is the only in-
dependent work of the kind, his other cantata
' Davidde penitente * (469) being made up from
the Kyrie and Gloria of his last unfinished mass
(437) set to Italian words, with two interpolated
airs in concert style, which serve to render more
prominent the inherent want of unity and con-
gruity in tjie piece.
Of smaller cantatas, the two (471, 633) for the
Fieemaeon's Lodge are the only specimens. Both
show much earnestness and depth of feeling ; the
first, for tenor solo and chorus, was composed
^ 17^5* the latter, consiBting of six numbers,
written on Nov. 15, 1 791, he conducted in person
odIy two days before his last illness.
The long list of Mozart's dramatic composi-
tions is headed by a sacred Singspiel, 'Die
Schuldigkeit des ersten G^botes,* in three parts»
the first being composed by him in Salzbuig
during the winter of 1766-67, and the others'
added by Michael Haydn and Adlgasser, the
court organist. Mozart*s work occupies 308
pages, and is in the style of the Italian ora-
torios of the period, the forms being handled
with perfect certainty. Mingled with the boy's
unsteady writing there are occasional passages,
mostly florid, in his other's hand, and the
words to the recitatives are by a third per-
son. The third tenor air is hiteresting, and
Mosart himself evidently thought it good, as
he introduced it with slight variations into
his first opera. Immediately afterwards fol-
lowed a Latin comedy 'Apollo et Hyacinthus,*
which* in spite of the restraint of a foreign Ian*
guage, was so far a success that it was per-
formed once. In Vienna in 1 768 he composed
a Grerman operetta or pastorale in one act»
'Bastion et Bastienne,' and an opera buflk in
three acts, 'La finta Semplioe.* According to
Jahn these rise above the ordinary levd of
contemporary comic operas in spite of their
wretched librettos ; and he remarks that in these
early dramatic works Moxart fixes the two
opposite poles which he touched in his artistic
career. The chief number in the * finta Sem-
plice' is the tenor air No. 7, previously men-
tioned. The three operas composed and per-
formed in Milan, 'Mitridate/ 'Ascanio in
Alba,* and 'Lucio Silla,* each mark a step Sn
advance. They succeeded beyond the expecta-
tions of himself and his &Uier; as did also
' La finta Giardiniera,' produced in Munidi,
Jan. 1775^ when he wrote home, * Evwything
has gone oflT so well, the hoise was greater thaa
(I can. describe to Mama.' The German opera
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' Zaide,* !n vr\d6h he made use of t^e melodrama
by Benda which he admured so much, has nei-
ther overture nor finale, and onoe set aside, its
subject is too muoh like that of the 'Entfdhr-
ung*' to allow of its being again performed.
To this period also belongs the heroic drama
' Thamos, Konig von £g3rpten, * consisting of three
choruses and four instrumental pieces. The
choruses, like those of Bacine's < Athalie,* were
intended to add dignity to the action, and as
choruses were at that time his ' most &vourite
composition,' he woi^ed at them with great
satisfaction. They are on a fteur grander scale,
especially as regiurds the orchestral aooompani-
mentsy than those of his masses of the same
period. Unfortunately the play had been given
up in Vienna, and he muoh regretted not being
able to use his music. The choruses were pub-
lished with Latin words — ' Splendente te,' ' Ne
pulvia,* ' Deus tibi * — in which form thev are well
known in England.' With ' Idomeneo* he started
on a firesh career, for which all his previous works
had been merely preparatory. Oulibicheff de-
clares that in it three styles may be easUjy dis-
tinguished, the first in which he is still fettered
by the formalism of opera seria, the second in
which he strives to imitate Gluck and French
opera, and the third in which his own artist
nature developes itself freely. Jahn says, 'In
Idomeneo we have the genuine Italian opera
seria brought to its utmost perfection by Mozart's
highly cultivated individuality.' He put his
b^ work into the parts of Ilia and Electra,
which most struck his fancy. The choruses form
a prominent feature, especially those which so
muoh enhance the beauty of the second Finale.
The handling of the orchestra is still admirable
and worthy of study. In fact, this opera is
the work of one who, though in the prime of
manhood, has not lost the vigour and freshness
of youth. Mozart was very anxious to have
it performed in Vienna, when he intended to
rearrange it more after the French model ; but
we have seen that he had to be content with a
private performance by distinguished amateurs,
for which he made several alterations, and com-
posed a duet for two soprani (489), and a scena
with rondo for soprano and vidin solo (490).
In the ' Entftlhrung ' it is interesting to ob-
serve the alterations in Bretzner's libretto which
Mosart's practical acquaintance with the stage
has dictated, to the author's great disgust.*
Indeed Osmin, one of the most original cha-
racters, is entirely his own creation at Fischer's
suggestion. Jahn quotes Weber's * excellent
remark on this opera — ' Here I seem to see what
the bright years of youth are to eveiy man, a time
of blossom and exuberance which he can never
1 Andrtf added ui orartore and flnale. Md » imw Ilbntto wu
wrHtoi hf GoUmlek. A fwrformanoe In Frankfort, Jan. 97, I'M.
b oalj ol biatorlcal Interest. Motart's unflnished ' L'Oca dd Cairo '
riKS), completed from others of hit works, was performed In Paris
CThMtre des ftotalslea-Parlslennes, Jane 6, 1807) under the title
'L'otodn Calra': In Vienna In March, 1»8. at the Oarttbeater. and
at Drury Lana, If ay IS. Wtfk
* Voo Vlnoke wrote a connecting poem for concert tue. Hmj wwa
afterwards translated Into German.
3 BerUner Lttt. und Theater^Zeitims. 1TB8. it. 386.
4 0. X. TOO Weber, Kin LebeoshUd, IIL 1«L
MOZARTf.
4oi
hope to reach agaiii. As fame goes on defects
are eradicated, but with them many a charm is
rooted up also. I venture to affirm that in the
EntfUhrung Mozart had reached the full maturity
of his powers as an artUt, and that his further
progress after that was only in knowledge of
the teorld» Of such operas as Figaro and Don
Juan we might have had many more; but
with all the good will in the world he could
never have written another EntfUhrung.'
In 'Figaro' we admire 'the spontaneous growth
of the whole organism, the pvfchological truth
and depth of sentiment, which make the cha*
racters so life-like, and resulting from these
the striking harmony in the use of means and
forms, and the mixture of dignity and grace, all
founded on something higher than mere sensu-
ous beauty.' In it * we feel the throbbing of out
own life-blood, recognise the lan^affe of ouj^
own hearts, and are captivated by Uie irresistible
charm of unfading beauty — it is Art, genuine,
immortal, making us free and happy.'
*Don Giovanni,' inferior perhaps to 'Figaro ^
as reeards artistic treatmeiik, has one manifest
supenority; all the moods and situations are
essentially musical. There is scarcely a feeling
known to humanity which is nut expressed in
some one of the situations or characters, male or
female. ' Gosi fen tutte,' taken either as a whole
or in detail, is unquestionably a falling off from
the two previous operas, and yet even here int
detached pieces, especially in the chief r61es, many
brilliant touches show the master-hand. Even
this opera, therefore, we can in some respects
consider an enlargement of his boundaries, 'l^tus *
(Clemenza di Tito) carries us back to the old opera
seria. 'Cosi fiem tutte ' had recalled the old opera
buffa, and Metastasio's libretto, written in 1 734,
required considerable modifications to suit the
taste of the day; the most important being the
introduction of ensembles wherever the situations
allowed, and the curtailment of the original
three acts to two. Nothing however availed to
make the plot or characters interesting ; through*
out it was evident that the characteristics which
had most attracted in Metastasio's day, were
now only so many obstacles and hindrances to
the composer. Moreover two of the singers,
imported purposely from Italy, demanded spe*
dal opportunities for display; Mozart was ill,
had the ' Zauberflote ' in his head, and was deep
in the 'Requiem' — a combination of unfevour^
able circumstances, sufficient of itself to preclude
success. ' Making due allowance for these facts,'
writes ^Rochlitz, ' Mozart found himself compelled
to take one of two courses, either to furnish a
work of entire mediocrity, or one in which the
principal movements should be very good, and
the less interesting ones treated lighUy and in
accordance with popular taste ; he wisely chose
the latter alternative.'
We now come to the • ZauberflSte,' which
made an impression on the public such as no
work of art had ever produced before. The
libretto la so extraordinary that it is neoenary
• Aii8.iiiu.Z«itaD8.i.iM.
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m
JIOZAET;
to explain its origin. Schikaneder, at his little
theatre in the Wieden suburb, had produced
with great succeBS a romantic comic opera after
Wielimd, 'Oberon, Konig der Mfen,' set by
Paul Wranitzky. Encouraged by this success he
had a second libretto constructed upon a fairy-
tale, 'Lulu, oder die Zauberflote,* from Wieland*s
' Dschinnistan.* Just as it was ready he found
that the same subject had been adapted by an
actor named Perinet for the theatre in, the Leo*
poldstadt of Vienna, under the title 'Kaspar
der Fagottist, oder die Zauberzither,' with music
by Wenzl Miiller. He therefore remodelled his
materials, introduced sympathetic allusions to
the Freemasons, who were just then being hardly
treated by the government, added the parts of
Papageno and Papagena, and laid claim to the
entire authorship. Such was the origin of this
patchwork libretto, which, with all its contra-
dictions, improbabilities, and even vulgarity, is
undeniably adapted for the stage. Schikaneder
knew how to gain the attention of an audience
by accumulating and varying his stage effects.
In proof of this we have not only the long run
of tne opera itself, but the testimony of * Goethe,
who, while acknowledging that it was full of
indefensible improbabilities, added, 'in spite of
all, however, it must be acknowledged that the
author had the most perfect knowledge of the
art of contrast, and a wonderful knack of intro-
ducing stage effects.* It is well known that
Goethe contemplated a continuation of the li-
bretto, and entered into an agreement with
Wranitzky on the subject in 1 796.=' Beethoven *
declared it to be Mozart*s greatest work — ^that
in which he showed himself for the first time a
truly German composer, and Schindler * adds that
his reason for estmiating it so highly was, that
in it were to be found specimens of nearly every
species of music from the lied to the chorale
imd fugue. Jahn (ii. 533) thus concludes his
critique : * The Zauberflote has a special and
most important position among Mozart*s operas ;
the whole musical conception is pure Ger-
man ; and here for the first time Gennan opera
makes iree and skilful uhc of all the elements of
finished art. If in Ms Italian operas he assimi'
lated the traditions of a long period of develop*
ment, and in some sense put the finishing stroke
to it, with the Zauberflote Mozart tr^s on
the threshold of the future, and unlocks fur his
countrymen the sacred treasure of natural art.'
We append a list of Mozart's operas, in the
order in which they were first performed in
London.'
'lA aemrna dl THo,' 1808.
March il. King » Theatre ; for Mn.
BUllngton's beneflt. 'ably iup-
ported bj Mr. Braham.' (1812.
March S, Catalanl appeared as
Vltellia. and Sif. Tnunenanl as
Sextus.)
' Coti Ikn tntte.* 1811. May 9.
King's Theatre : for the beoeflt of
Mm» Berttnotti Badlcati.
' n Flattto maflco.' 1811, Jtme 6 1
King's Theatre; ^gnor Kaldl'i
benefit.
'Le Nozze dl Figaro.* 1812,
June la King's Theatre ; In aid of
the Aiods of the BoottUh Hospital.
Among the performers were Cata-
lanl. Mrs. Dickons. SIg. Naldl. and
Fischer. It was a decided suooess,
ifiutber iDcreaaed on its revival in
I Sekermann's ' Oesprlche mlt Goethe.' ill. 17.
a Orpheus. Mus. Taschenbuoh, 1841. p. 252.
s P«7fr1ed. Beethoven's Studien. Anhang. p. SL
* Blographle. ii. IM. 8S3.
A titbl, ' Mozart in London.' pp. 14M5L
JtfOZART;
1817 (Fab. 1) under Ayiton, wHh » latad. Parfomied In-Italko -il
powerful cast. ' iHer M^eatra June 90. 188&
'Don OiovannI,' 1817. AfuU 18. 'Dv SchauspMdireetor.' 1861:
King's Theatre. Bztraordlnary mo^ glveo at Orjstal Palace
cuooeiB. summer ooDoart. In Italian. Abo
'The8erai^'(Entfllhrangaas in Kngltsh (Sept. 18. 18T7) in the
dem Serail'}, 1827. Not. M. 0)vwit Grjstal Palaoe Theatre as 'The
Garden. MnslcandUbt«CtomutI-|]biM««r.*
Mozart's likeness has been preserved in every
form and variety of portrait ; only a few need
be specified, (i) The earliest, an oil-painting to
the knee, taken in Vienna in 1762, represents
him in the Archduke Mazimilian*8 gold-laced
court suit, given him by the Empress, (a) In the
small family picture, painted by Carmontelle in
Paris in 1765, Mozart is sitting at the harpsi-
chord, with his sister by his side, and his &Uier
standing behind him playing the violin. This
drawing is now in the possession of Mn. Baring
of London. It was' engraved by Delafosse, and
was. reproduced in coloured facsimile by Gk»u-
nil's Photogravure process for Golnaghi & Ck).,
London, in 1 8 79. (3) In the Museum of Versailles
is a small oil-painting of the same date, crowded
with figures, representing Mozart sitting at the
harpsidhord in the Prince de Gonti's saloon.
As has been mentioned, his picture was tak^i
in 1770, both in Verona and Rome. (4) In
the first he is seated at the hiurpeichord in a
crimson and gold court suit, wiUi a diamond
ring on the little finger of his right hand. Above
the key-l)oard is *Joanni Celestini Veneti,
MDLXZXiii,* and on the open music-book may be
dearly deciphered what was apparently a fiivour*
ite piece of the period. This picture, a half-
length, is now in the possession of the heirs of
Leopold von Sonnleithner, through whom it was
discovered. The head is given in the firantis-
piece of Jahn*s ist voL (5) In Pompeo Bat-
toni*8 portrait, taken in Bome — now in the pos-
session of Joha Ella, Esq.; of London— the right
hand holds a roll of music ; the countenance is
full of life, but highly idealised ; an engraving
by Adlard is given in the Record of the Mu-
sical Union for i 86k; in Mr. Ella's 'Musical
Sketches,* vol. i, and in the second edition of
Nohl's 'Mozartbriefe.' (6) DeUa Crooe painted
a large picture of the .family in 1 780 : Mozart
and Us sister are at the piano playing a duet;
the &ther with his violin stands at the side,
iwd the mother's portrait hangs on the widL A
large steel-engraving firom it hj Blasius Hofel
b published at &dzburg. ^e half-lengths
of Mozart and his father in Jahn's ist vol.
(p. I and 564) are from this picture. (7) A
half-length profile carved in box-wood by Poach
(1781), and now in the Mozarteum at Salzbuig,
was engraved by J. G. Mansfeld, and pub-
lished by Artaria, with the inscription ' Dignuro
laude virum Musa vetat mori.' This, the univer-
sally accepted portrait, is out of print, and Kohl's
engraved copy (1793) by no means comes up to
the original. (8) During his short stay at Dres-
den in 1 789, Dora Stock, the talented sister-in-law
of Komer and friend of Schiller, drew him in
her own refined and spirited style. The likeness
is caught with the tenderness peculiar to a
woman s hand; the outlines are correct, and
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MOZART.
Hie thoughtful expression of the e^ rirets the
beholder ; the luxuriant silky hair, of which he
was proud, is more truthfully rendeied than
in any of his portraits ; and even the small sta-
ture is sufficiently indicated, fiofoapellmeister
Eckert of Borlin (died Oct. 14, 1879), possessed
the original, of which we have here attempted
an engraving.
MOZART.
40S
(9) Lange, Mozart's brother-in-law, drew him
sitting at the piano absorbed in improvisa*
ticm. The picture, complete only to the waist,
was pronounced by his son Karl to be very like.
It is now in the Mozarteum at Salzburg ; and a
Kthograph firom it by £d. Lehmann was pub-
lished at Copenhagen. (10) The last of his
Dortndts is a life-size half-length painted at
Mayence in 1790 by Tischbein, given in Jahn
(ii. 456) ; there is more intellect and refinement
in it than in that by Posch, which, however, is
more like.
The Mozart literature is copious; but it has
been ably summarised by Jalm in hia < W. A.
Mozart' (ist ed. 4 vob, 1856-9 ; 2nd ed. a vols,
1862, Breitkopf &. Hartel). In the preface he
expressly describes his method of procedure, and
^e use he has made of all the printed matter
in existence, assigning to each work its relative
value and importance. Here we find Schlich*
tegroU, Niemetschek, Rochlitz, Arnold, Schlosser,
G. N. von Nissen, HoUnes, Oulibicheff, Gotfcfiried
Weber, Andr^, Lorenz, Fuchs, Nohl, Marx,
and others. Breitkopf k Hartel also pub-
lished in 1878 a second edition of 'Mozart's
Briefe.' Conjointly with Jahn's second edition
should be used Dr. von Kochel's ' Chronologisch
thematischee Verzeichniss sammtlicher Ton-
werke W. A. Mozarts* (Breitkopf k Hartel,
1862). As will be evident to the reader, the
present article is founded on the above two ex-
cellest works, the substance of which, in ». com-
pressed form, is now presented for the first time
to the English public
Comparatively few of Mozart^s compositions
were published in his lifetime ; the greater part
being oiiculated, with or without his acquiescence,
in MS. His publishers in Vienna were Artaria,
TericeUa, and Hofihieister. Breitkopf & Hartel
published the first comprehensive edition in
1800, and the 1 2 vols, of ' CEuvres complets * were
long and widely known. The same enterprising
finn issued the first scores of his Symphonies,
Requiem, and other works. Steiner of Vienna
followed in 1820 with an engraved edition of his
collected works in 39 parts. Numerous 'com-
plete' collections of his P.F. works, quartets,
quintets, etc., came out afterwards. Breitkopf
i H&rtel next issued his last great operas m
score, revised firom the autographs, preparatory as
it were to their ' Ersten kritisch durchgesehenen
Gesammtausgabe ' of his works, begun in 1876
and now considerably advanced. Von Kochel
with great liberality provided a special fund to
start this work — the finest possible monument to
Mozart, and at the same time an honourable
memorial of his most worthy admirer.
Claraified List ef Mozart^s works; firoin the
Catalogue of Breitkopf k H&rtel's 'Erste
kritisch durchgesehene Gesammtausgabe.'
8erlMl« 16HMMI.
Serlet 2. 4 LlUnlM. 9 V«ip«l.
1 Dlzlt and lUffnlfleat.
Seriet S. 4 KjriMv 1 MMMgal.
1 Venl SMiete. 1 MlNrera. 1 Antl-
pbon. S Begin* e«ll. 1 Te Oeum.
a Tantum ergo, S Qwmaa Klrehen-
lleder. 9 Oflisrtoirvt. 1 De proftindis,
1 Air for aoprano, 1 Motet for ditto,
1 Motet for 4 Toloes. 1 Gradnale,
SHymni.
Series 4. 1 PMslom-oaotate
(Oralimuilk): 'LaBetuliallberMa.'
oratorio: ' DaTldde penltente,' can-
tata: 'Die Maurerfreude,' abort
cantata for tenor with final cbonitt
*KIne kletne FrBlmaorer eantate^'
for 2 tenon and IMM.
Series & • Die Sehuldlg kalt dei
enten Gebotlm.' laered SIngsplel
in S parti (Ut only by Moxart).
'Apollo et Hyadnthua.' bitln
eonedy. 'Bastien el Baetlenne,'
Oennan operetta. 1 act. 'Laflnta
Sempllce.' opera buflk 3 acts. 'Ml-
tridate. B* dl Ponto.' opera. S acU.
'Atcanio in Alba.' theatralische
Serenade. 8 acta. 'U Sogno dl
Sciplone,' dramatische Serenade.
1 act. 'Luelo Stlla.' dramma per
miulca. 8 aots. 'La flnta Giardl-
nieta,'opecftbiilib.8acta. *U B»
Pastors.' dramatic Cantata. 2 acta.
'Zaide.' German opera, 2 aeti.
'Tbaraoe. KOnIg In AegypCen.' be-
roiscbea Drama; Ghoruaes and
Bntr'aotes. 'Idomeneo, Rb di
Greta, oasia, nia et Adamante.*
opera aerla In Sects. Ballet-muaio
to 'Idomeneo.' 'Die EntfOhrang
ana dem Serail,' komiaehea SUig-
apM. 8 acta. 'Der Sdiaaspld-
direetor.' eomedy with mualc. 1
act. *Le Nozn dl Figaro.' opera
buflk, 4 acta. ' II DIasoluto punlto,
oaata. II Don GIOTanni.'opera bulB^
2 acta. ' Coal fan tutte'C Welber-
treue'). opera builk, 2 acta. *La
Clemenia dl THo.' opera aeria, 2
acta. 'DteZaaberflOte'CllFlauto
magleo') German opera. 2 acta. .
Serlea 6. 27 alrai 1 rondo for a<^
prano wlib orcheatra oMIgato; 1
ditto for alto; 8 ditto for tenor;
Sdltto for ban ; 1 arlette for baas ;
1 deataebes Krlegslled : 1 dnet for
2aopranl ; 1 comic doet for nopraoo
and ban ; 6 terzettos ; 1 quartet.
Series 7. 84 Lleder for single
voice with P.F. aeeompanlmmt :
1 Lied with chorus and organ;
1 three-part chorus with organ i
comic tenetto with F J.{ 20 canons
for 2 or m<
OBomrBALWoBn.
Serlea 8. 41 Symphonlea.
Serlea 9. 9B DlvertimenU. Seren-
ades, and Caaaatlonen for orcheatra
03 Dlvertimenti for wind inatr.);
8 Divertlmentl for 8 TloUns, viola.
2bonis.«nd bau.
Series 10. 9 Nos. Marches for or-
chestra ; 3 aymphonlc movementa ;
'Maarerisehe Trauermosfk' for
orch.; 'Kin muslkalbicher Spaas '|
for 2 violins, viola, ban. and 2
^ello; abort Adagio for 2 corni dl|
baaaetto and baasoon ; Adagio for
2 clarinets and 8 oomi dl baswtto ;
Adagfo for harmonica: Ada^and
Allegretto for harmonica, flute,
oboe, viola, and cdlo; Adagio and
Allegretto for a musical dock;
Fantasia for ditto ; Andante for a
small barrel-organ.
Series U. 2ft Nos. various Unds
of dance-music for orchestra.
Series 12. ConceitoK. and smaller
pieces with oreb. 6 Concertos for
violin; 8 abort pieces for ditto:
1 Conoertono tor 2 solo violins ;
1 Symphonie ooncertsnte for violin
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HOZART.
aodYloUi ICoMtftotorlMMOOQ}
1 ditto for flota uid hMp : S ditto
for flute : 1 AndADte for ditto; 4
CooeMw for borot 1 ditto
clarlaM.
OiAimB-Moiio.
SerlMlS. 7Qalot«Ufor9Tloltns.
S vlotet. Mid oallo; 1 ditto for 1
violla. 2 TtoUs. bom. ftnd edlo (or
S oollot iiut«ad of bom); 1 ditto for
olarloM. STioUn*. tIoU. and o«Uo.
aerl«I4. aSQuartcUforSTfo-
Unt. TloU. and oello; 1 tbort Nacbi-
moilk Ibr S TfoUoi. Ttola, eoUo. and
doublo-bau: Adacto and rngne for
S TloUns. Ttola, and eeno : 1 Qnartat
for obot. Tlolln. Ttola. and edUo.
SerlaalS. S Dusts for Ttolin and
Tiola: IDoeiforSTtollns; IDiver-
ttaawto for Ttolia. Ttola. and oaUOb
PJ. Mono.
SOTtali. asConMTtoaforPJ.
and oreboitra: 1 ditto for SP-Fs. ;
I ditto for S PJs. } 1 Oonowt-rondo
for 1 PJT.
Sorlea 17. 1 Qnintol for P.P..
oboe, clarinet, horn, and basMon ;
1 Quarteu for P.P.. TloUn. Ttola.
and oelto : 7 Trtoe for P.F^ Ttolin.
and oello: 1 ditto for P J., clarinet.
%r^^ Tiola.
aeilee 18. 43 Sonatae for P.P.
and Tlolin: Allecro tor ditto) 12
TarlattoM for ditto
for ditto.
Sertoi 19. 8 PJT. Sonatas for 4
bands; Andanto with 6 TarlaMotts
fordhto; PocoeforSPJ^: Son-
au for ditto.
Series 90. 17 Sonatas for P.P. i
Fantasia and Pngue; SPantaslaa
for ditto.
Series 21. UGoUeeUonsofTail-
attonsforP.P.
8erlee2S. UsbortpleeesfarPJ.
(Mlnoets, S Bondoe, Sohe. Pugna.
2 AUecros ; Allefro and Andante ;
Andantlno; Adagto ; short Oiffue ;
at Oadenias for P.P. concertos).
Series 2S. 17 Sonatas for organ
with accompaniment (chiefly 2 tIo-
lins and bassk
SerleeSI. Supplement. (Contains
aU the nnflnished and donbtfW
works, additional accompani-
ments, and transcripttons. Among
others: The 'Bequiem'; 'L'Oca
ddOalro,' opera buflb; 'LoSposo
deluso^* opera buflb; Handel's
Alexander's Peasi.* and 'Ode on
St. OedUa's Daj' additional ao-
compaolments ; 6 Fugues from J.
S. Bach's 'Wohltemperlrto' CHa-
Tler ' (arranged for 2 rlolins. Tiola,
and bass): 8 Sonata* of Johann
Bach's (arranged as a oouoerto tor
P.P.. 2 Ttolins, and bau); etc
[C.F.P.]
MOZART, CONSTAKZB, Wolfjg^ang*! wife (n^e
Weber), bom at Zell, in Lower Austria, haid a
pretty, well-trained Toice, and played the piano
in a pleasing manner. Mozart deuic^ated to her,
always in affectionate terms, many of his (x>mpo8i-
tions, but, characteristically, finished none of tnem.
She was a good and lovinff wife, accommodated
herself in everything to her nusband's disposition,
and restrained him firom many heedless actiona.
He was sincerely attached to her, and she, in
return, lavished upon him every care and atten-
tion. After Mosart*8 death she and her two
children had a hard struggle for existence, but
her necessities ware in some measure relieved by
the success of concerts which she gave in Vienna,
Prague, Berlin, and other cities. In Berlin, the
Kii^ granted her the use of the Opera-house,
and the services of his own band, for a concert,
at which she sang. In 1 799 she sold all her hus-
band's remaining MSS. to Andr^ for 1000 ducats
(£500). In 1800 she married George N. Nissen,
an official in tne Danish diplomatic service,
whose acquaintance she had made in Vienna in
1 797. Henceforth her life was peaceful and un-
eventfuL On Nissen*s retirement from office in
1820 they went to live in Salzburg, where he col-
lected the materials for his < Mozart-Biographie.*
He died in i8a6, and Constanze on March 6,
1843, a few hours after the arrival of the model
of Mozart's sfcatue.
Of the two sons of Wol%ang and Constanze
Mozart, the elder, Kabl, first took to commerce,
practising music as a pastime, and afterwards
became an employ^ of the Austrian ffovemment
at Milan, where he died in 1859. Mendelssohn
met him there in 1831, and delighted him by
playing the Overtures to Don Giovanni and the
Zaube^ote. The younger,
WoLFOAKO AxADEUS. bom July a6, 1 791, In
Vienna, studied the piano and composition with
Neukomm, A. Streicher, Albrechtsberger. and
Salieri, He made his first appearance in public.
MUDIE.
being led forward by his mother, at a conoeit
given on April 8, 1805, at the theatre 'an der
Wien,' when he played a concerto of his father's,
and variations on the minuet in Don Juan. The
latter, and a cantata in honour of Haydn's 73rd
birthclay, were his own compositions. In 1808
he became music-master to the fionily of Count
Joseph von Bawarowsky, in Gallicia. He made
repeated professional tours, and in 1814 became
Miudkdirector at Lemberff, where he founded
the Cadlienverein, in 1820. As 'a pianist and
composer he was held in esteem — ^his name alone
was sufficient to preclude his rising to emi-
nence. He died July 30, 1844, at C^lsbad in
Bohemia. [C. F. P.]
MOZARTEUM OF SALZBURG, THE, an
educational institute for musicians, which also
S'ves annual concerts. With it is connected the
cm Musikverein, which undertakes the music
for the cathedral services. Dr. Otto Bach has been
the director since 1868. In 1869 an 'Interna-
tional Mozart Stiftung* or Fund was created,
with the double object, as yet unrealised, of as-
sisting poor musicians, and founding an 'Inter-
national Conservatorium.* [C. F. P.]
MOZARTSTIFTUNG. THE. at Frankfort,
was founded in 1838, to assist poor but talented
musicians in their studies. Scnolarships are re-
tained as a rule for four years, [C. F. P.]
MUDIE, Thomas Mollison, was bom at
Chelsea on St. Andrew's Day (so, in reference to
his Scottish descent, he was wont to style the
di^te), 1809. He (lied, unmarried, in London
July 34, 1876, and is interred in Highgate
cemetery. He is said to have shown murical
aptitude in infancy, and the saying is corro-
borated by his success in the first examination of
candidates for admission into the Royal Academy
of Music, Feb. 10, 1823, when, from thirty-two
competitors, ten were elected. At the founda-
tion of this institution the Utopian idea was
entertained of giving free education to its pupils
and defraying the cost from funds niaed by
subscription ; hence the large number of candi-
dates; and hence also the severity of the test by
which their musical aptitude was proved, for
eleven musicians, each an artist of hisheet note
at the time, sat in judgment on &e young
aspirants anci probed their powers to the utmost.
M^udie was a pupil of Dr. (>otch for composition,
of Cipriani Potter for the pianoforte— who also
gave him useful advice as to his writings— and
of Willman for the clarinet. He studied this last
in compliance with the rule that male students
must take part in the orchestral practices, and
thus obtain the priceless benefit, to a musician,
of this experience ; he obtained much proficiency
on the instrument, and had a remarkably beau-
tiful tone, but he ceased its use when he dis-
continued his studentship. In the Academy he
gained prizes for pianoforte-playing and for com-
position, and was regarded as one of the brightest
amonff the highly talented few who first received
the advantages of tiie institution on which they
now reflect Uie honour of their names. His song
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/Lcmgi dal earo bene,' was bo esteemed tliat the
Committee of Management paid the cost of its
publication, an act repeated in the caae.of
Stemdale Bennett's First Concerto, but in no
other. Several yocal pieces with orchestral
accompaniment, a Symphony in C, and one in
Bb were also works of his student time, the
last named is especially notable, and may b0'
remembered by its Minuet with two Trios, all
three finally played together as a Coda< , Mudie^s
pupilage terminated in 185a, by his ^pointment
as a professor of the pianoforte in 4ftie Academy,
which post he held till 1844. In 1834 he
entered into some relation«kip, partly of friend-
phip and partly stipendiary, with Lord Monson,
with whom he spent ^uch of his time at Gatton
in Surrey. This ration was closed by Lord Mon-
- son s death in 1^40, who bequeathed to Mudie an
annuity of>8ioo, which however, the estate being
somewhat involved, the musician relinquished in
fikvpur of his patron*s widow. He continued to
reside in Gatton as oiganist to the small church
tUl 1844. The Society of British Musicians,
founded in 1834, furnished an arena for the per-
formance of several of the works of Mudie. The
Symphony in B b already mentioned, was played
at the concerts of Feb. 9, 1 835, and Feo. 19,
1838 ; a Symphony in F, remarkable for a move-
ment in F minor, Nov. 10, 1835 ; a Symphony in
P, March 10, 1837; a Quintet in £b for piano-
forte and bowed instruments Jan. 5, 1843 and
March 7, 1844 ; a Trio in D for pianoforte and
l>owed instruments Oct. 6, 1843; and several
songs and concerted vocal pieces on many occa-
aions. Young musicians have now more oppor-
tunities of being heard than they had, though
still too few to satisfy all the meritorious claims
to public attention ; but, in recording the above
small portion of the doings of an extinct in-
stitution, proof is given of the value it had
both to the world and to the artists it fostered.
On the death of Alfired Devaux, his former
school-fellow and friend, in 1844, Mudie went
to succeed him in his occupation as teacher in
Edinburgh. While there he published several
pianoforte pieces and songs, and wrote accom-
paniments to a large proportion of the numbers
in Wood's voluminous collection of the Songs
of Scotland ; he also oocafdonallv gave pianoforte
recitals. In 1863 he returned permanently to
London, but from that time, except with an
overture at one of the Crystal Palace concerts,
came little before the public. A complete reverse
of the brilliant prospects of his early days clouds
the latter period of Mudie*s career, when his
playing lost its charm, and his music had rarely
the power — amounting even to mastership —
that distinguished his first productions. Some of
his best pieces of this period are in the possession
of different friends, some were played to them
but never written; while the matter given to
the world was produced with a view to sale
more than to beauliy. His published music com-
prises 48 original pianoforte solos, including the
I a melodies deilicated to Sir Stemdale Bennett ;
6 duets for the same instrument; 19 fantasias.
jMirrFAT.
'407
some of ^flUoh aire on Scottish airs ; a collection
of a4 sacred songs, which constitutes a work of
remarkable interest ; 3 sacred duets ; 3 chamber
anthems for three voices ; 43 separate songs, and
a duets. The existing scores of his symphonies
and the entire of his printed works ace deposited
in the library of the Royal Academy of Music.
In the obscurity of provincial practice as a
teacher Mudie seems to have lost incentive to
artistic exertion, and with the Incentive almost
the power. He must be regarded less as a
musician of promise than as one of fulfilment,
and it would be highly to the credit of any con-
cert-giving institution of the day to unearth some
of those works, which having made their effect
would be sure of making it again, now that the
capabilities of perfonnance are perhaps more
&vourable than they were. [G.A.M.]
MUETTE DE PORTICI, LA. Opera in 5
acts ; words by Scribe and Delavigne, music by
Auber. Produced at the Academic, Feb. 39,
1838, and performed there 471 times up to Oct.
a8, 1873. In England known as Masaniello,
under which name it was produced at Drury Lane,
in English (3 acts). May 4, 1839 ; in Italian, at
Covent Garden (3 acts) March 1 5, 49 ; at Her Ma-
jesty's, April 10, 51, as La Muta di Portici. [G.]
MUFFAT, Gbobo, highly esteemed composer,
studied Lulli*s style for six y^ars in Paris ; was
organist of Strassburg Cathedsal till 1675 ; then
visitedVienna and Rome ; became in 1 690 organist,
and in 1695 Capellmeister and Master of the Pages
to the Bishop of Passau, and died there Feb. 33,
1 704. He published * Suavioris harmonise instru-
mentalis hyporchematicm Florilegium primum,*
5( for 4 or 8 violins with basso continue
(i I, 16S5); 'Horilegium secundum.' 63
p u»au, 1698), both with autobiographic
p: four languages; 'Apparatus musico-
01 iB^ — 13 toccatas, chaoonne, passacaglia,
(. ;, 1690, dedicated to Leopold ly—of
ii e as regards the development of organ-
pi His son
> GoTTLiSB (Theophilus), bom about
1690, a pupil of J. J. Fux, became in 171 7 court
and chamber-oiganist to the |!mperor Charles VI,
and to the widowed Empress Amalie Wilhelmine,
(died 1743), and music-master to the royal chil-
dren. He retired on a pension in 1 764, and died
in Vienna, Dec. 10, 1 770, aged 80. He was a dis-
tinguished organist, and a composer of taste, and
published, for organ, ^ * 73 Versetten oder Fugen,
sanmitl 3 Toccaten, besonders zum Kirchendienst
bei Choral- Aemtern und Vespem dienlich' (Vi-
enna, 1736); for harpsichord, 'Componiraenti mu-
sical!,* containing overtures, caprices, sarabandes,
etc., with a preface; and ending with 'Parti-
colMri segni delle' maniere,* etc. (Vienna, 1737,
dedicated to Charles VI, at whose expense it was
engraved). Zellner has recently arranged a toc-
cata and fiigue in C minor, composed by Muffat
in 1 7 30, as a concert-piece for harmonium (Vienna,
Spina). A Courante and 2 Minuets of his are
I About 90 jean i«o LOaohenkohl of VIsniiA KpubUshad from thU
work • xn kldne Pugen Mmmt II Toecmten.'
I Ibatoran-Agrimeiu-tunu, b«au. «t«.
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408
muffat.
given 1>y Patter in Alte Klavidrmtink (SenflT).
He was one of the many co;npoBen whom
Handel laid under contribution for subjects and
phrases in his oratorios.
There were two violinists of the same name in
the Imperial chapel, Gottfbied, from 1 701 to
1709, and JoHANN Ernst, appointed in 1730,
died in 1 746, aged 48. [C. F. P.]
MULLER, August Ebbrhardt, bom Deo.
13,1 767, at Nordheim, in Hanover. His ^Either,
organist at Kinteln, was his first instructor. In
1 785 he went to Leipzig to study law, but soon
gave it up, and became in 1789 organist of
St. Ulrich's church, Magdebuig. In 179a he
was chosen to direct the concerts, etc., at Berlin,
and there became intimate with Marpurg, Fasch,
Beichardt, and other distinguished men. He was
made organist of St.*Nichola8* church, Leipzig,
in 1704. He played the organ and harpsichord
equally well, and was also a proficient on the
flute. In 1 8 10 he moved to Weimar, and died
in. 181 7. The following is a list of his com-
positions:— (i) Piano, a concertos; a trio for
piano and strings, op. 17; a sonatas for violin
and piano ; 4 sonatas for piano solo, besides vari-
ations, etc. (2) Organ. Suites ; a sonata and
chorale, variations. (3) Flute, ii concertos;
a fantasia with orchestra, and 4 duets for two
flutes. (4) Vocal. Cantata for 4 voices and
wind band; songs with piano accompaniment.
(5) Instruction. Method for the piano, and in-
struction-book for the flute. [ J . A. F. M.]
MULLER, THE brothers, celebrated quartet-
players, four sons of the Duke of Brunswick*s
Hofmusikus, Aeoidius Ghristoph MUllbb, who
died Aug. 14, 1841, at Brunswick, where all his
sons were bom. The brothers were Karl
FuiEDRiCH, ist violin and concertmeister to the
Duke, bom Nov. 11, 1797, died April 4, 1873;
Thbodor Heinrtoh Gustav, vida, bom Dec. 3,
1799, ^®^ ^P** 7» '855 J August Thbodor,
cello, bom Sept 27, i8oa, died Oct. ao, 1875 ;
Franz Ferdinand Gboro, and violin and Ofqpell-
meister to the Duke, bom July 39, 1808, died
May a a, 1855. Educated by their father ex-
pre^ly with a view to quartet-playing, they
brought the art to a perfection then unknown.
The Duke of Bmnswick*8 somewhat tyrannical
regulation, by which none of his musicians were
allowed to take any part in the music of the
town, obli^fed them to prepare in secrM for
appearing m public, and in 1830 they sent in
their resignations. They gave concerts at Ham-
burg in 1831, and in 183a at Berlin, where the
public gradually learned to appreciate their
wonderful ensemble. In 1833 Uiey left Beorlin,
and visited in tum all the principal cities of
Germanv and Paris, extending their tours further
and farther, till 1845, when Uiey went to Russia.
Their repertoire oondsted almost entirely of the
works of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, and
they thus contributed immensely to the spread
of a taste for really good music. Their rendering
of Haydn's 'Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiso^
especially had a world-wide reputation.
The eldest brother, Karl Fnedrieh, also had
MUNDt,
four sons, known as the younger Mnller brothers:
Berkhard, viola, bom Feb. 24, 1825 ; Karl,
1st violin, bom April 14, 1829; Hugo, and violin,
bom Sept. ai, .1832 ; and Wilhblm, cello, the
most important, bom June i, 1834. They were
court quartet-players to the Duke of Meiningen,
and also made extended tours, visidng Russia,
Denmark, and France. In 1866 they settled
for a short time in Wiesbaden, and then at
Bostock, where Karl became Gapellmeister, his
place in the quartet being supplied when tra-
veling by Leopold Auer. It was however
broken up entirely in 1873, by the appointment
of Wilhelm as Kammermu^us, and teach^
at the Hoohschule flir Musik in Berlin. The
younger MiUlers, though distinguished for their
ensemble, did not reach the standard of perfection
m«ntained by the elder brothers; the chief
reason being that instead of restricting Ihem-
selves to genuine quartets, they played music
which, though good of its kind, was in reality
more suited to a small OTchestra. [F.G.J
Mt^LLER, Wilhelm. author of the poems
of Schubert's beautiful Uedercydus ' Die schone
Mtdlerin* and 'Die Winterreise,* and father of
Max MuUer the eminent philologist, was bom at
Dessau Oct. 7, 1794, sqn of a well-to-do trades-
man, who educated him carefully in accordance
with the liberal tendencies of the times. In
181 2 he studied philology at Berlin under F. A.
Wolf, and history. £l 18 13 he joined the
Prussian army as a volunteer, and took part in
Ltitzen, Bautzen, and other battles, and in the
occupation of the Netherlands. Returning to
Berlin in 1814, he devoted himsdf to ancient
German language and literature. On his return
i¥om Italy in 1819 ^ became librarian to the
Duke of Dessau. He died at Dessau on Oct. i,
1827. The best-known of his poems are 'Ge-
dichte aus den hinterlassenen Papieren eines
Waldhomisten,' a vols. (i8ai-a4); 'lieder der
Griechen.* 5 parts (i 8a 1-34); a translation of
Fauriel's modem Gi^eek national airs, a vols.
(Leipzig, 1835); ' Lyrische Spaziergiinge ' (ibid.
I8a7). His miscellaneous works were edited by
Schwab, 5 vols. (1830). His collected poems,
published after his death (Leipzig, 1837), are
among the choicest lyrical treasures of Germany.^
Warmth and truth of expression, keen observa-
tion of nature, and melodiousness of language,
have made him a universal favourite with com-
posers. Randhartinger states that the first time
Schubert met with the MUUerlieder, he was so
enchanted that he set several before the next
day. [F.G.]
MUNDY, John, Mus. Doc., son of William
Mundy, Gentleman of the Chapel Royal, was
educated by. his father, became organist of Eton
Ck>llege, and about 1585 succeeded John Mer-
becke as one of the oisanists of St George's
Chapel, Windsor. On July 9, 1 586, he graduated
as Mus. Bac. at Oxford. Both he and his
father are ipentioned in sodie verses at the end
of a MS. collection of Motets and Madrigals
1 8m an MMjon Wnbclm MQIler. In Mm MOllfr'v 'Cb^ from *
Qerman Workdiopb' vol. iii. pp. 108-191.
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Inuiscribecl In 1591 by John Baldwin, ringing
mah of Windsor, recounting the celebrated mu-
etcians of the time. In 1594 ^® publi-thed ' Songs
and Psalmes, compoeed into 3, 4, and 5 parts,
for the use and delight of such as either love or
leame Musicke/ He contributed a madrigal,
' I^htly she tripped o'er the dales,' to ' The
Triumphes of Oriana/ 1601. He took his Mus.
Doc. degree in 1634. An anthem by him is con-
tained in Barnard's MS. colleotions, and three
of the pieces in his 'Songs and Psalmes* were
scored by Bumey (Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 11,588).
Several of his compositions for organ and virginals
are contained in Queen Elizabeth s Virginal Book,
among them a curious Fantasia describing 'Faire
Wether,' •lightninff,' •Thunder,* •Calme Wether,'
and *A &ire Day. He died in 1630 and was
buried in the Cloisters at Windsor.
WiLLiAic MuKDT, his f&ther, was a vicar
ohoral of St. Paul's, and on Feb. ai, 1563-4 was
Bwom a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. A ser-
vice and three anthems by him, and also the
anthem <0 Lord, the Maker of all thing' (some-
times assigned to Henry VIII.). are printed in
Barnard's 'Selected Church Music* Another
service and two other anthems are contained in
Barnard's MS. collections, and eleven Latin
motets in a set of MS. parts by him, both in
the library of the Sacred Harmonic Society. The
wor^ of several of his anthems are contained in
Clifford's ' Divine Services, and Anthems,' 1664.
He was probably one of those who, although
outwardly conforming to the Reformed worship,
retained a secret preference for the old faith,
since he is mentioned by Morlev in his 'Intro-
duction,' in company with Byrd and others, as
never having 'thought it greater sacriledge to
spurne against the Image of a Saint then to take
two perfect cordes of one kinde together.' The
date of his death is not recorded, but it was
probably in 1591, as on Oct. la in that year
Anthony Anderson was sworn Gentleman of the
Chapel Royal in his room. [W. H. H.]
MUBSCHHAUSER, Fbanz Xavib Anton,
bom at Zabem in Alsace, about 1670; came
early to Munidi, and became a pupil of Johann
Caspar Kerl, with whom he remained till his
death in 1690. From the title-page of his book
'des Vesp^inus CuHus' (Ulm, 1700; for 4
voices, a principal and 4 ripieno violins), we
leam that he was then Capellmeister to the
Fhiuenldrohe at Munich/ He died there 1 733.^
Besides the work already mentioned, he left : —
'Octitonum novum Oiganum ' (Aussburg 1696);
•Prototypon longebreve organicum (Nuremberg)
—preludes and Agues for organ, lately re-edited by
Franz Coromer. A second purt appeared later.
His roost impOTtant and best-known work is the
'Academia Musico-poetica bipartita, oder hohe
Schule der musikalischen Composition ' (Nurem-
berg 1711). Towards the dose of the first part
be incautiously used the words 'to give a little
more light to the excellent Herr Matheson,' for
which he was 00 severely taken to task by that
irascible musician in a pamphlet ' melopoetische
MUSARD.
409
Lichischeere In drei verschiedenen Schneutzungen '
(Critica Musica, pp. 1-88), that he relinquished
the publication of the 'Academia.' An 'Aria
pastoralis variata* of his is given in Pauer's ' Alte
Klavlermusik ' (Senff ). [F. G.]
MXJRSKA, Ilma di, a native of Croatia, bom
about 1843, and taught singing at Vienna and
Paris by Madame and Signer Maroheei ; made
her d^ut in opera at the Pergola, Florence, hi
1862, sang at Pesth, Berb'n, Hamburg, etc.;
obtained an engagement in Vienna and ap-
peared in London at Her Majesty's Theatre, as
Luda, May ii, 1865. She played also Linda,
Amina, and AJstrifiammante, and sang at the
Philharmonic May 29, and always with great
applause. Between this date and 1873 she acted
and sang repeatedly in London, at Her Majesty's,
Covent Garden, and Drury Lane, returning to
the continent in the off seasons. One of her most
congenial parts and best achievements was Senta
in the 'OUandese dannato,' July 23, 1870. Be-
tween 1873 and 1876 she visited America^
Australia, New Zealand, etc., returning to this
country in 1879. ^^ ^^<^ ^^ a soprano of
nearly three octaves compass, with great execu-
tion. Her actinff is brilliant and ori^nal, though
sometimes bordering on extravagance. Her
parts, besides those mentioned, include Dinorah,
Isabella, Ophelia, Marguerite de Valois, Gilda,
Marta, Filine, etc. [A. C]
MUSARD, Philippe, bom in Paris in 1793,
was not educated at the Conservatoire, but took
private lessons for some years from Reicha. to
whom he dedicated his 'Nouvelle M^thode de
Composition musicale' (1832). This long-for-
gotten work, of which only eight diapters ap-
peared, contains the announcement of a 'Trait^
complet et raisonn^ du syst^me musical,' with
curious historical notes, implying that Musard
was dissatisfied with his position as an obscure
violinist and conductor, and proposed to make
his mark as a solid and eradite musidan. A
series of concerts and 'bals masqu^,' held in the
bazaar in the Rue St. Honor^ (now the Salle
Valentino), however, gave him the opportunity
of distinguishing himsdf in a different direction.
The most salient feature of these promenade con*
certs (instituted Nov. 1833) was the introduction
of the comet-k-pistons. Id. &ct Dufresne, the
comet-player, owed much of his success to the
solos composed for him by the conductor. In
1835 and 36 Musard conducted the balls at Uie
Op^ra, and his band of seventy musidans was
rapturously applauded. ' Gustavo III ' had set
the fashion of the galop, and witii Musard's music,
and the ' entrain * of the orchestra, the new dance
deserved its nickname of 'Le galop infernal.'
Meantime a better room had been built in the
Rue "^vienne. and thither Musard removed in
1 837. Here be had to sustain a competition with
Johann Strauss of Vienna, whose wsutzes were so
superior to his own, that in order to avoid sinking
to the level of a mere composer of quadrillee,
Musard was driven to expedients. His first ex-
periment, the introduction of a chorus, having
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HUSABD.
Bucceededi he next attempted eUisioal mosle. and
in Holy Week gave a 'concert spirituel,' oonsUting
of HandeFs music only. . This opened the way for
numerous imitators. Having secured a reputa-
tion in France he came to England, and made
his first appearance at Drury Lane on Monday,
Oct. 1 3, 1840, as conductor of the Promenade
Concerts, or Concerts d'hiver, given there under
the management of Eliason. The series ter-
minated in March 1841, and on Sept. 30 Mosard
appeared again as conductor of a set of- Pro-
menade Concerts at the Lyceum, under the man-
agement of Henri Laurent, which continued up
to Christmas. He is still remembered in London,
and amateurs of that period will doubtless reool-
leot Hood's * jeu d'espnt,* one verse of which well
takes off his look and manner :»
From bottom to top
There 'b no bit of the Fnp,
No trace of your Mscaxoni ;
Bat looking on bim,
So lolema and orim.
Ton think of the Mar«naU who lerved under Bonej.
, Up to 1853 Musard was considered the beet
composer of dance-music and conductor of pro-
menade concerts in France. His quadrilles —
* Venise," * Les Eohos,* etc. — contain many ha^^y
and at that time novel effects, and his music is
well written and well scored. Having made money
he bought a house at Auteuil, where he lived
much respected. Symptoms of paralysis appeared
in 1853, and he died March 31, 1859. His son
Altrig^ bom 1838 in Paris, followed his father*s
profession. As early as 1847 he conducted the
orchestra at a ball given at the Op^ra Comique,
and in 1856 Besselilvre selected him to conduct
the 'Concerts des Champs Klys^,' but he did not
retain the post, and never rose above mediocrity
— at least in music. [G. C]
MUSETTE, diminutive of the old French
'muse,* both meaning an instrument of the bag^
pipe family, consisting of two pipes or reeds
and a drone, supplied with wind m>m a leathern
reservoir. [See Baopipb.] Like the Lrish bag-
pipe it is inflated by bellows placed under the
performer's arm. The original compass was ten
notes (a) ; but by the addition of holes and keys
^e scale was increased to thirteen (&) :-^
(") it (ft)
Limited as were its resources, this instrument
was once a iavourite, and under Louis XIV was
introduced, fir»t into the court ballets, and then
into the divertissements or entr'actes of operas.
Ladies even learned to play it, and had highly
ornamented instruments made for their use.
The be^it information on the subject is to be
obtained from Mersenne^s 'Harmonic Univer-
selle,* Borjon's 'Traits de la Musette,' a folio
with plates (Lyons 1673), and * M^thode pour la
Musette' (Paris, Ballard, 1737), by Louis Hotte-
terre, a wcdl-known flute player, the son (accord-
ing to his own statement) of Martin Hotteterre,
composer and virtuoso. From these works we
learn that the best makers were Le Vacher ; the
MUSICA ANHQUA.
Hotteterres, father and two aon8,'NioolaH a»d
Jean; Lissieux; Perrin, etc. The best-known
players were Philippe ChMeviUe (died in Paris
178a), a valued member of the orchestra at the
Op^ra from 1725 to 1749, >^^ ^^ brother Nioolas.
Both published pieces for two musettes, now in
the library of the Conservatoire at Paris.
3. Also a small oboe without keys, generally
in G ; not to be confounde4 with the * hautbois
de for6t ' or ' oboe piccolo.*
3. The term is also applied to an Mr in 3-4^
3-4 or 6-8 time, of a moderate tempo, and smooth
and simple character, appropriate to the instru-
ment from which it takes its name. Thus a
musette generally has a pedal-bass answering to
the drone or bourdon^ and the upper part abounds
in graoe-notes and rapid passages. To these airs
were arranged pastoral dances, also called mu-
settes, which were in great favour under Louis
XIV and Louis XV, especially the latter, as may
be seen by the pictures of Watteau and others
of that school.
. Among the most celebrated musettes may be
mention^ those in ' Callirho^ ' and ' Nina,* operas
by Destouehes and Dalayrao. They are to be
found in Bach*s English Suites, noe. 3 and 6, and
in the sixth of Handel*s Grand ConoeacUm, of which
we quote a few bars : —
[G.Cl
MUSICA ANTICjUA. A collection of music
compiled and edited by John Stafford Smith, and
publibhed in 181 3 in a vob. folio, with a prefitce
and translations of the Provencal songs inserted
in the work by John Sidney Hawkins, and some
notes by the editor. Its nature and objects
will be best described by quoting the very ample
title —* Musica Antiqua. A Selection of Music of
this and other countries from the commencement
of the twelfth to the beginning of the eighteenth
century, comprising some of the earliest & most
curious Motetts, Madrigals, Hymns, Anthems,
Songs, Lessons & Dance Tunes, some of them
now flrst published from manuscripts and printed
works of great rarity k value. The whole cal-
culated to shew the original sources of the melody
& harmony of this country, & to exhibit the dif-
ferent styles and degrees of improvement of the
several periods.* The work contains i^o separate
pieces. The selections are made with great skill
and judgment, but are very ill digested, as instead
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MUSICA ANTIQUA.
ef being armnged in strict chronological onUr,
they are intermingled in a very confused manner.
The composers fii^m whose works the specimens
are selected are John Ambrose, Hugh Aston,
Thibaut de Blason, Dr. John Blow, Gaces Brulez,
William Bj^, Dr. Thomas Campion, Peter Cer-
ton, Dr. William Child, Clemens non Papa, John
Cole, Jtaoul de Coocy, Perrin Dangecourt, John
Dowland, John Earsden, Jefaan Erars, Thomas
Erars, Francesco Geminiani, Jhan Qero, Orlando
Gibbons, Heath, Henry VUI, Pelham Humfrey,
Simon Ives, John Jenkins, Robert Johnson,
Robert Jones, Nicholas Laniere, Orlando de
Lasso, Jehan de Latre, William Lawes, Matthew
Lock, Greoiffe Mason, Tiburtio Massaino, Chris-
tofero Mbndes, Thibaut Eling of Navarre, Jacob
Obrecht, Johannes Okeghem, Parker, monk of
Stratford, Francis Pilkington, Jodocus Pratensis,
Daniel Purcell, Henry Puroell, Richafort, Dr.
Nicholas Staggins, Thomas Tallis, Thierres, Ora-
zio Yecchi, Thomas Weelkes^ Giaches Wert,
Adrian WiUaert and Gioeeffo Zarlino, besides
others whose names are unknown. The principal
pieces include four ancient chants for the *Te
Deum' as given by Meibomius, Diruta, Lucas
Lossius, and Merbecke; the canon, <Sumer is
icdmen in'; Chansons by Troubadours of Na-
varre and Normandy; part of Robert Johnson's
music for Middleton's * Witch*; two or three
masques of the time of James I, copious extracts
from 'Musick's Handmaid,' two parts, 1678 and
1689 ; etc., etc. [W. H. H.]
MUSICA DIVINA. A ooUection of church
music, edited by Carolus Pboskb, priest and
CapeUmeister of the Cathedral at Ratisbon, and
published there by Pustet. The materials were
oollected by Proske himself from the libraries of
the Papal Chapel, St. Peter's. St. John Lateran,
S. Maria Maggiore, S. Maria in Valicella, the
Vatican, the Roman College, and other libraries
in Rome, and also from the best collections in
Naples. The prospectus was issued in January
^^53> u^d ^^ nrst volume was published in the
same year. The second volume followed in 1854,
the third in 1859, and the fourth at Easter 1862.
All these contained compositions for 4 voices,
and belong to the * first year.' The publication
was continued by a 'Selectus novus missarum'
in 3 vols. (1 85 7- 1 861), after which Proske died,
Deo. 30, 1861. An 'Annus secundus' has since
been issued containing a voL of masses, a voL of
motets, a vol. of litanies, and a Liber Vesper-
tinus. The wwk is an upright quarto, in bold
clear music type ; each volume of the scores has
a preface, a table of contents, a list of clefs of the
originals, etc., and short biographical notices of
the composers. The voice parts are also printed
separately. The list of the entire work is as
follows :^«
AKNTS PBDIU8.
Tbm. I. Ub«r HiManin.
MUSICA DIVINA,
411
MnawbrvTla. ralMtrlna.
1 Do. IrteeoniBMQr. Do.
S- Do. DIo mnctHlatftw. Do.
4- Do. OotevltonL O.Lmw.
5- Do. * PnUqiM j'ajr perdu.' Do,
1 Do. Qnutlloiil. Vittorliu
7. MUM bretrb. A. OabrML
K Do. 'Dixit lUrla.' Hasler.
0. Do. In'Kat.Doinlnl.' Pttonl.
10. Do. LottL
11. Do. pro deAinetis. Ataim.
IS. Do. Do. ritonL
Too. II. Iil>er Hotottoma,
Atfrent.
Domlne. J. J. Fax.
Eooa oondpiM. J.HmmIL
Ft. 1 Super aollnm DatUU
ObMcro domiae. Do.
CamftviliMt. H.OtudoK>.
Didtfl pwObuiiinei. J. J. Fox.
XsredleturrfavL J.HaodU
Pt.lBadlzJeaM.*
De ooilo veniet. Do.
ArelbrU. P. ChnnldwL
NatlTltyorOhriit.
DlwMoctilcatua. PuJartrlu.
Hodle Christus. O.H.NftnlnL
O mafnom mnterium. Vlttorla.
BodienobUdeocilo. C. Porta.
Nfttos est nobis Deui. J.HaiidL
Hodie Chrtstus. Gr. Turlnl.
St. Bt«^hen.
Lftptdabunt ««*r*Hi'^flin. O. M.
Nanlnl.
SepeUemot StaphMmm. L. Ma-
reulo.
St John.
HiceMbeattailiiiia. OJf.!r»nlnl.
ValdehoDoruidus. PalostrUuL
Innooeota.
Vox la
Bzaltarltoo. PItonl.
Qui terrena trlumphat. Do,
Trantflga. O. Blordi.
Domlna non sum dignua. VI^
torla.
Pt.1. Vtaerere mel.
Duo SerapblnL' Vlttoria.
Ft 2. Ttm sunt qui.
DoaUna oonTerterQ. O.hvto.
SperentinteoiniNa. Do.
niumlna. Do.
Benedleanu Do.
IQ la spermTl. Do.
Espeetana. Do.
Domlneln aaitUnm. Do.
Do.
O admlrabila ooounaroliim. F.
Ooostantlnl.
looe Maria tenutt. ILdaLaaM.
Bptpbany.
Trlbos ndnaalia. L-Maiaosto.
Aboriaote. J. Handl.
Sondajrt after Bplphaur.
JubUate. OdeLawo,
Dexter^ domlnt. Do.
UbIestAbd? O.AicfatiMer.
eexacreslma. ^^
Xxuffle. J.^Karla.
Pi. S. Xxnrge.
Qnlnqnagetlma.
Benadictns as. OdaLaao.
QuadrairesliDa.
Kxalttbota. 0. Croee.
Angalisrals. ILCardtMO.
KediUbor. O Uwo.
Krat Jeans. Onuio VeechL
Latatusson. A. Scarlatti.
Passion Sundajr.
Sripe me de inimlda. O. LasMK
Pt. 9L Ckmlltabor UM.
Palm Sandaj.
Pneri Hebmonun. Palastrlna.
Improperioni. 0. lasso.
Coana Domini.
Good Friday.
Populemaaa. Vlttoria.
Adorsmns. Alchlnger.
Kaiit«r £ve.
Veapera aatam. J,
Faster Day.
Haeodlaa. Palestrina.
AncBlos autam. F. Anarto.
AUeluJa Obrintos. Do.
Marift If atdalena. A.GabriaU.
Chrtstus resurgens. 0. laaso.
Et raspldentes. Marenxlo.
Sundays after Easter.
Borraxit Pastor. Palaatrina.
Vlrtute magna. 0. Crooe.
Laudaanimamoa. O.Atehlngei
Cantata Domino. G. TurinU
Benedicita gentes. OLaaao.
O rvx glorias. Kareniln.
Asoandens Ohriataa. J.HandL,
Omnesgantas. O.H. OaslnL
Whitsunday.
Loqnabantnr. Palestrina.
VenI Sanote Splritus. O.AIlegri.
Faotusestrapenta. G. Alchlnger.
Pt. 8. Conflrma boo Deoa.
Trinity Sunday.
TO Deum Patrem. A.OabrMI.
TlMlaua. OlAsso.
Banedlcusiu Agaxzarl.
Corpon Ohrlfltt.
0 sacrum oonvlTlam. O. Croca.
Do. GJi.Bamabel.
Caromaa. A. Oabriall.
Egosumpaaia. A.Oonstanttnl.
Da P. Agoatlnl.
In roo« exttltatlonis. litunl.
St. Andrew.
Doctor bonua. Vlttoria,
St. Nicholas.
Baatus NlooIiM. Anon.
Ccnoaption.
QuMBpulchrl. Palestrina.
Ooncapda tua. . Karenxio.
Da C. Porta.
St Thomas.
QuiaridistL
Kame of Jesoa.
Innomlna J.I
OJeKubenIg
Pnriflcatlon.
Benexpoerum. Vlttoria.
Hodie beata. F.CostantInU
Annunciation.
Gabriel Angdos. Haranilo.
KeUmeaa. Vlttoria.
DUItKarla. Hasler.
Invention of the CroM.
Nosautem. F.Anerio.
81 John Baptist.
Fait homo. Falestrfna.
Joannes est noman. O, Laaso,
88. Peter * Paul.
TuesPetrus. Clemens non Papa.
Quemdicnnt. Marenzlo.
Bodle Faulns. Da
Vtsltotlonav.M.
Beata as. Hasler.
Mary Magdalena.
If uller qusB erat. A.OabrMl.
81 Lawrenov.
LevlU LaurenUai. A.GabrieU.
Amumption.
Quaestista. Palestrina.
VIdl speeloaam. F. Aneria
Slcut oedras. Da
AasumpuesliS. O.AIoblnger.
Beheading of 8. J. Baptlsi
Mi5i« Herodes. Palestrina.
Katlrity of B.V.1I.
Natlritas 0lortos». Maranda
Begalt ex progenia J. HaudU
Comjucundltate. Bal.
Fdtxnamqna PltonL
Exalutioii of the Orms
Adoramna. Palaatrina.
GrtfXfldeUa. Aneria
Factum asl Da
Guardian Angels.
Omnes sanoti AngoU. Aidili«er.
AllSataitii.
Falrator mondl Palestrina.
AngeM. ArehangeH. A. Gabriel!;
Vldltorbam. 0. Porta.
O qaam i^orloaani. Vlttoria.
Da Xaranxla
St. Martin.
Oqaantustactna. Palertrina.
Obeatum. Marenzia
Pr«ientatlonofB.V.M.
Congratulaminl. Paleattlna.
SlOaecllla.
Dam aurora. Palestrina.
Cantantibos organla. MaraulS
IsUsontrlri. Palestrina.
Estote fortaa. Vlttoria.
ToUlteiogum. A.GabriaU.
Beatieritia. G.Oroca.
Bcatoavtr. A.Oabrlell.
IsteSanctos. Vtttoria.
Honestum feoH F. Aneria
Deslderium animae. Da
Oaudant in ocbHs. VHtoria.
LaBtamini. 4 8. O.M.Nanlnl.
Istorum eat enlm. CCawiollnl.
Fttla Jeruaalam. A.OabrieiU
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4111
MUSICA t)IVINA.
MUSICA FICTA.
BoMMowdoi. TittOTta. ilnteroeMlonofc Anon.
teoerdosetponUfex. A.0ftbrlell. Venl tponaa ObzisU. PakatrlM.
Dum onet ranunui. lUre&xio. I Do. Vlttorl*.
InmrdloEoelesUi,43. 0.F.Brlido.1 Do. A.Gftbri«lL
Ulc rlr despiclotu. VlttorUu . B«fnum mandl. V.Anerio.
BImllabo earn. MArentlo. Kzaudi Domine. Patoitrliift.
Bufe serve. OrtzloVeodiL 0 qtmm tnetaendus. Vittorlft.
Berrebona. Bai. iDomttmtiuuD. J.]
Appendix.
PrefMse. tablet of cootoDti, deb.
etc
Sleutcemii. Palestrio*.
Pt.2.8lttvItuiiBa.
Factus eat Dominus. O.
Beiiedicam. Vittoiia.
EgodUI. r.Anerio.
Cautate Domlao. J.Ii.Hail«r.
Domine Dent. Do.
Oiatlas aclnuii. Do.
Oantabo Domino. OnHoVecdiL
Velodter exaudL Do.
EzaadeDeui. G.Crooa.
Vooemaa. Do.
Ego sum paoper. Do.
Benedlcam. Do.
Coofiteminl. A.CostantIoL
Cantaie Domino. PltonL
Laodate Dominnm. Do.
BzultateDeo. A. Scarlatti.
Tom. in.
Valstbordoni, bj
Vlttorla.
Beroabel,
0. de Zacharlli,
L.VIadaaa.
FMlmodia ilodulata. by
Demantiiu.
C. de Zaehariiii.
Paalml ad Yeaperai.
Ortiz.
O. TurlnL
8 Fsal.ui. F. Anerlo.
41Nalml.B.Manl&o.
4 Fialml. Anon.
PtalmU
Dixit. B.GiovaDeIlL
Laudato. O.FitonL
Laudate. Anon.
NlxlDominuf. J. J. Fox.
Beatl. Do.
Deproftindb. Do.
MafnifioatStonomm. Sarlano.
Do. Do. O.LaiM.
Do. tthtona. Pala4rlna.
Do. Iflt Do. O.Lawo.
Do. 8th Do. Moiales.
Do. eth Do. Ortis.
D<^ Btb Do. F. Anerlo.
Do. 4th Do. Marenzto.
Do. 4th Do. PltooU
Do. 4th Do. Fox.
Hyriins for Vesper*.
Christe redemptor. F. Anerlo.
HostesHerodei. Falestrioa.
' VexUla Regis. Do.
Jean nostra redemptto. Vlttorla.
Veni Creator. Palestrina.
Oluxbeata. Vlttorla.
Faoge llogna. Do.
Do. PltonL
Do. CtT<f»<,
Huntlos oebo. Ortli.
Junctor oobU. Ortiz.
Uber Tesperanim.
Christe redemptor. Qrlli.
Urbsbeata. Vlttorla.
Ave maris Stella. Do.
Do. Do. Snrlano.
Do. Do. Haaler.
Do. Do.. Blordl.
AntIphonsortheB.V.11.
Alma redemptorii. F. Soriano.
Are regina. Do.
Beglna ocsll. Do.
BalTe reglna. Do.
Do. Do.
Alma redemptorls. F. Anerlo.
Ave regtna. Do.
Beglna cmli. Do.
Salve regtna. Do.
Alma rademptorii. 6. Aichlnger.
Averegina. Do.
Beglna omlL Do.
Salve reglna. Do.
Alma redemploik. Da
Ave regtna. Do.
B^oa ooBll. Do.
Ft. 2. BesorryxH.
Salve reglna. Do.
Alma redemptofls. Palestrina.
Ft 8. Tu qusB geoulstl.
Alma redemptorls. F. Anerlo.
Do. Atohinger.
Avereglaa. 0. taaso.
Do. C. Porta.
Do. Aichiager.
Do. Fuz.
Beglna 6a1L Ortiz.
Ft. 2. Besurrezlu
BeginacoBlL C. Porta.
Do. Lotti.
Salve reglna. O.
Pt.^. Et Jeaum.
Salve reglna. F. Anerlo.
DO.
Tom. IV. Uber
FaMloOhrlstL Snrlano.
JiaUhew.
Mark.
Luke.
John,
Lamentatlonex. Palestrina.
Id CcanaDomlnL
Paraieeve.
Sabbato Saneto.
Besponsoria.
In monte OUvetL G.Crooa.
Tristi* est anima. Do.
Ecoe vidimus. Viadana.
Amiens mans. Do. ^
Judas mercator. A. Zollo.
linos ex dlsdpulls. O.Crooe.
Xram quasi Agnui. L. Via*
dana.
rnahora. Verrarlo.
Seniores popull. Viadana.
Omnes amid. Do.
Velum templL O.Crooe.
Vineamea. Viadana.
Tenebras teotsk G.Crooa.
Tndiderant. A. Zollo.
CaUgavenmt. Do.
Sicutovls. Viadana.
Jerusalem soiie. Do.
w. J.l
R. S. Ante eiUai coumctoiii.
Vetpertlnoi.
Ovos omnes. G.Crooa.
Xcoe quomodo* morltur.
Pt.a. Inpaoelutni.
Aestimatus. A. Zollo.
Sepulto Domino. J.HandL
Pt 2. Ne forte venlant.
18 SelecUvinuM Modulatlooei.
For Thursday, Friday and Satnr*
day In Holy Week. Vlttorla.
SopplKnentHm Barmoniarum for
Holv Week,
mserara In Falso bordooa. by
Palestrina.
F. Dentlce.
8. If . NanlnL
Lod. Vladaoa QX
Mlawan. HaodU
TttrinL
UttendaL
Benedlottts In Falso bordone.
Gnldettl (S).
Benedletus. Palestrina.
Do. Vlttorla.
Do. J.HandL
Do. Did. Ortiz.
ChrMatteetusest. J.
Do. Do. PltonL
Do.
G.A.
0.1
Do. P.AgostlnL
Do. Anon.
Selection of Utanles.
Litany of B.VJU8. G.Alohlng«r.
Do. Do. O. Lasso.
Do. Do. J. de Fossa.
Do. Do. J. FkiettL
Do. Do. A.AgazzarL
Do. Do. Q. BiordL
Do. Do. O.Zuohlno.
Do. Do. Palestrina.
Belactns Bona Mbsaram.
Tom.L
Venl spoua Ohrlsta. A 4. Pales-
trina.
Hot le toe forxo adopra. A 4. F.
Anerlo.
Qnal donna attenda a tforloM
funa, 4 B. O. Iasso.
AastimptaoBt]iarla.*e. Falettrlua.
Litany of Kama of JoMi. ■.Tla>
Do. of All Saints, a Immo.
Bubatmal
ler.*S.G.Alchlngcr.
Do.
Vidiaqnam. Do.
Paternoster. L.PamtawBb
Ave If aria.
Vlttorla.
TsDenm.
Anerlo.
Do.
Did.Ortlc
Do.
J.HandL
Vlttoria.
Vldlspecioram,*6. Do.
Super vooei moskatoi^ AC
Soriano.
Mlssa^AS. LaoHasler.
O qoam glorlotomk A 4 Vlttorla.
81 bona snsoeplmus, A 0. PadottL
In die tribuUtlonIs, A 6. O. Lasso,
r. As. Palestrina.
NaBantamglor1ai1,A4. F.Soriano.
Trahemepostte.A& Vlttorla.
Faterpeccavi,A& A. Gabrldi.
Prodefunotla.A8. OraztoVeecbL
ABNUS 8E0UBDUS.
Tom. L Uber HISBanini.
OelavltonLA4. O.lLAsola. |Prodeftinotls.A<. Vlttorla.
Pro Defunctia, A 4. F.Anerio. |Aacendoadratrem,A5.
Quatnor vocnm. J. L. Haslor. Papse Haroelli. A fc Do.
Tu«BFMnis,A8. Palestrina. ' lAetemaOhristi,A4. Do.
Tom. IL Uber Motettomm.
Hodle Christus. L.1
Uodle nobis ocsloram. G.B.KanlnI.
Venl Creator. Pomponio Nenna.
Pange lingua. Vlttorla.
Kcce Domine venerit. Vlttorla.
Diessanetlfioatoa. J.aC.<
Deprofundls. A. Gabrlen.
Laudemus DomlnL Anerlo.
Jostorum anhnse. O. dlLaasa
Benedicta. B.GiovaneUL
Ave Maria. O. dl Lasso.
Tssdet animam meam. VHtorla.
Kcoe saoerdoic Constanco Porta.
O sacrum ounvlvlom. A.6abrieU.
J. Handl.
Dillgamte. J. a Cruoe ClodlensL
Di Aim eat gratia. Palestrina.
Ave Maria. aVerdonck.
, Cum trautkiBset. Jac Belner.
Coufirma hoe Dena. O. dlLisao.
O quam suavls est. B. GiovanelH.
Domine non sum. G. Alditnger.
VIdi turbam nugnam. Palestrina.
Do.
Da
0.dtLassa
Da
Da
RInaklo del MeL
Da
Da
F. Oomazzona
Tom. m. Uber Lltaniaram.
UtanlsB laoretaniB. Auetora Ig- Vesp. Comm. de nnlns aiartyrL
Vfttnria : G. A. Bemabei ; F. a
Andren: Lw Viadana: K. G.
Stemmello: Aoctore Inearto;
B. Rattl; C. da Zacharils.
Tom. IV. Libef Vespertinna.
PMlml VespertlnL Var. auotorun. | Magniflcat. i 8. G. Oabrleli.
[GO
MUSIOA FICTA, or Faxsa, or Colorata
(Cantus Jicttu), t. e. Feigned, or Artificial Music
One of the earlieftt discoveries made by the in-
ventors of Figured Music was. the impossibility
of writing a really euphonious Counterpoint upon
a given Canto fermOf without the use of occa-
sional semitones foreign to the Mode. The em-
ployment of such semitones, in Plain Chaunt,
was as strictly forbidden by Uie good taste of all
educated Musicians, as by the Bull of Pope John
the 2 and. Hence, thev were never permitted to
appear in the Canto fermo itself. But it soon
became evident, that unless they were tolerated
in the subordinate parts, no fikrther progress
could be made in a style of composition which
was already beginning to attract serious atten-
tion. It was indispensable that some provision
should be made for the correction of imperfect
harmonies; and — as Zarlino justly teaches^ —
Nature*s demand for what we should now call
a ' Leading-Note' was too strong to be resisted.
On these points, a certain amount of concession
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^tJSICA FICTA.
waa^ olaiined by Cknupoeen of every SdiooU
Kevertheleu, the early Contrapuntists yidded
BO £Bur to prejudice as to refrain from oommittinff
their accidentals to writing, whenever they could
venture to do so without danger of nuBOonoeption.
Trusting to the Singer for introducing them cor-
rectly, at the moment of performance, they in*
jcUcated them only in doubtful cases for which
no Singer could be expected to provide. The
older the Part-books we examine, the greater
number of accidentals do we find left to be sup-
plied at the Singer*s discretion. Music in which
they were so supplied was called Cantmficta*^ or
Mhuiea ficta ; and no Chorister's education was
considered complete, until he was able to sing
Cantos fietua correctly, at sight.
In an age in which the functions of Composer
and Singer were almost invariably performed by
one and the same person, this arrangement caused
no difficultv whatever. So thoroughlv was the
matter understood, that Palestrina tnought it
neoeesary to indicate no more than two acciden-
tals, in the whole of his ' Missa brevis,' thouffh
some thirty or forty, at least, are requited in the
course of the work. He would not have dared
to place the same conficlenoe either in the Singers,
or the Conductors, of the present day. Too many
modem editors think it less troublesome to fill in
the necessary accidentals by ear, than to study
the laws by which the Old Masters were governed :
and ears trained at the Opera are too often but
ill qualified fco judge what is b^t suited, either
to pure Ecdeeiastioal Music, or to the genuine
Madrigal. Those, therefore, who would really
underhand the Music of the 15th and 1 6th cen-
turies, must learn to judge, for themselves, how far
the modem editor is justified in adopting the read-
ings with which he presents ^ them : and, to assist
them in so doing, we subjoin a few definite rules,
collected from the works of Pietro Aron (1529),
ZarUno (1558), Zacconi (1596), and some other
early writers whose authority is indisputable.
I. The most important of these rules is that
which relates to the formation of the Clausula
vera, or True Cadence— the natural homologue,
notwithstanding certain straotural difierenoes, of
the Perfect Cadence as used in Modem Music
[See Clausula vera, in Appendix.]
The p^fection of this Cadence— which is al-
ways associated, either with a point of repose in
the phrasing of the music, or a completion of the
sense of the words to which it is sung — depends
upon three conditions, (a) The Canto fermo, in
whatever part it may be placed, must descend
one degree upon the Final of the Mode. (6) In
the laa^ Chord but one, the Canto fermo must
form, with some other part, either a Major Sixth,
destined to pass intp an Octave; or a Minor
Third, to be followed by Unison, (c) One part,
and one only, must proceed to the Final by a
Semitone — which, indeed, will be the natural re>
suit of compliance with the two first-named laws,
1 Trotiu. In fate 'Miulca IMrliM.* lua i>Uoed all MddmUlt ^rm
by Um pomposer. in their usual poiitloo. b^ore the notes to which
they refer: but. thoM suggested by himself, abort the notes. It is
noeh to be desired that aU who edit the works of the Old Hasten
•bould adopt this most ezceUent and conscientious plan.
.MUSICA FICTA.
4 IS
In Modes III, IV, V. VI, XIII, and XIV, it
is possible to observe all these conditions, with-
out the use of accidentals. For, in the Third and
Fourth Modes, the Canto fermo will naturally
descend a. Semitone upon the Final; while, in
the others, the Counte^int will asoend to it by
the same interval, as in the following examples,
where the Canto fermo is shewn, sometimes in
the lower, sometimes in the upper, and some-
times in a middle part, the motion of the two
Earts Essential to the Cadence being indicated
y slurs.^
Modes III and IT.
But accidentals will be necessary in aU other
Modes, whether used at their tme pitch, or trans-
posed. (See Modes, the Eoolksiastioal.)
Naturai< Modss.
I and TI.
Transposed Modbs.
I and II.
i
r'.^'^ I ^ ^
Vn and Vm.
Moreover, it is sometimes necessary, even in
Modes V and VI, to introduce a B b in the pen-
ultimate Chord, when the Canto fermo is in the
lowest part, in order to avoid the False Relation
of the Tritonus, which naturally occurs when two
Major Thirds are taken upon the step of a Major
Second ; although, as we have already shewn, it
is quite possible, as a general rule, to form the
True Caaence, in those Modes, without the aid of
Accidentals.
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414 MUSICA FICTA.
Modes y and Tt.
II. Ill the oourse of long compoeitions, True
Cadences are occasionally found, ending on some
note other than the Final of the Mode. When
these occur simultaneously with a definite point
of repose in the music, and a full completion of
the sense of the words, ihey must be treated as
genuine Cadences in some new Mode to which
the Composer must be supposed to have modu-
lated ; and the necessary accidentals must be in-
troduced accordingly : as in the Credo of Pales-
trina*s Missa Brevis—
ModeXni(trantp.).
III. An accidental is also firequently needed
Sn the last Chord of a Cadence. The rule is,
that every Cadence which either terminates a
composition, or concludes a well-defined strain,
must end with a Major Chord. It naturally
does so in Modes V, VI, VU, VHI. XIII, and
XIV. In Modes I. II, ni, IV, IX, and X, it
must be made to do so by means of an accidental.
The Major Third, thus artificially supplied, in
Modes in which it would naturally be Minor, is
called the * Tierce de Picardie)' and forms one of
the most striking characteristics of Mediseval
Music ^
Modes I and II.
It is not, howerer, in the Cadence alone, that
the laws of ' Cantus Fictus' are to be observed.
IV. The use of the Augmented Fourth {Tri-
tonus), and theI>iminkhedilflh(Qttttito Falta),
as intervals of melody, is as strictly forbidden in
Polyphonic Music, as in Plain CSiannt. [See
Ml CONTRA FA.] Whenever, therefore, these
intervals occur, they must be made perfect by an
accidental; thus —
(b) (t) (I) (»»)
It will be seen, that, in all these examples, it
is the second note thkt is altered. No Singer
t Kxeapt In conporitioM In mora than lour pwM, MedicTal Com.
posen uso&IIy omitted the Third, altogether, In the final chord. In
thU case, a Mi^or Third U alwajrt luppoeed.
MOSiCA FICTA.
eoul^ be tanedted to read so liir In advance ac to
anticipate the necessity for a change in Uie fiivt
note* For such a necessity the text itself will
generally be found to provide, and the Singers
of the 1 6th century were quite content that this
should be the case ; though they felt grievooaly
insulted by an accidental prefixed to the second
note, and called it an 'Ass*s mark' (Lat. Sig-
nwm, atininum, Germ. EteUzeiehen), Even in
conjunct passages, they scorned its use ; though
tile obnoxious intervals were as sternly condemned
in conjunct as in dbjimct movement.
These passages are simple enough : but, some^
times, very doubtful ones occur. For instaDoe^
Pietro Axon recommends the Student, ina dil«m>
ma like the following, to choose, as the least of
two evils, a TrUcnut^ in conjunct movement, as
at {a), rather than a disjunct Qy,inta faUa^ as
at (6).
JOSQUIN DK6 Pais.
V. In very long, or crooked passages, the
danger of an oversight is vastly increased : and,
in order to meet it, it is enacted, by a law of fre-
quent, though not universal application, that a
B, between two A s — or, in the transposed ModeSi
an £, between two Ds-— must be made flat,
thus —
V 4
VI. The Qatnto faUa is also forbidden, as att
element of harmony : and, except when used as a
passing note, in the Second and Third Orders of
Counterpoint, must always be corrected by an
accidental ; as in the following example from the
Credo of Palestrina's 'Missa Sterna Christ!
munera.* [See Fa FicrtiM, in Appendix.]
The TritonuB is not likely to intrude itself, as
an integral part of the harmony ; since the Chords
of 6-4 and 0-4-2 are forbidden in strict Counter-
point, even though the Fourth may be perfect.
VII. But both the THtwim and Qut'nto faUa
are freely permitted, when they occur among th6
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MUSICA PICTA.
upper parts of a Chorcl the BaM taking no ibAre
in their formation. In saoh oaiesi therefore, no
oorrection will be required.
-► # ^
Vni. The last rule we think it necessary to
mention is strongly enforced by the learned Padre
Martini, though Zarlino points out many excep-
tions to its authority. Its purport is that Im-
perfect Conoords, when they ascend, must be made
Major, and, when they descend. Minor. That
this is true, in some of the progressions pointed
out in the subjoined example, is evident ; but, it
is equally dear that in others the law is in-
applicable.
(t) (b) Kacaptlon. Exception.
MUSICA MENSUBATA.
415
^^flJz^^'=^^^=^
These laws will suffice to give a fair seneral
idea of a subject, the difficulties of whidi seem
greater, at first sight^ than they really are. It is
nnpossible but tbit.we should sometimes meet
with ambiguous cases — as, for instance, when it
seems uncertain whether a point of repose in the
middle of a composition is, or is not, sufficiently
well-mariced to constitute a l>ue Cadence ; or the
conclusion of a strain definite enough to demand a
Tierw de Picardie. But, a little experience will
0oon enable the Student to form a correct judg-
ment, whenever a choice Is presented to him ; if
only he will bear in mind that it is always safer
to reject a- disputed acddental, than to run the
risk of inserting a superfluous one.
On one other point> only, will a little farther
explanation be necessary.
Among the few aoddentals introduced into the
older Part-books, we rarely find a Natural. Com-
posers limited themselves to the use of the Sharp
and flat, in order to remove a trifling difficulty
connected with the process of Transposition. It
constantly happens, that, for the convenience of
particular Singers, pieces, originally written in
transposed Modes, are restored, in performance,
to their natural pitch. In this case, the B flat of
the transposed scale, raised by a Natural, is re*
presented, at the true pitch, by an F, raised by a
Sharp; thus —
Modevn,t«n.po«d. ^^^S'riJ^S^S! *^ »^
Now, to ufi, this use of the Natural, in the one
case, and the Sharps in the other, is intelligible
enough. But, when accidentals, of all kinds,
were exceedingly rare, there was always danger
of their being misunderstood : and the early Com-
posers. lidaring lest the mere sight of a Natural
should tempt the unwary, .in the act of transpos-
ing, to truisfer it from the B to the F, sub-
stituted a Sharp for it ; thus—
Mod« YII, transposed.
This method of writing, which is foutid as
late as last century, is exceedingly puzzling
to the beginner ; but, all difficulty wiU vanish,
if he will only remember that notes, flat by the
^gnature, simply become Natural^ when a Sharp^
is prefixed to them. [W. S. B.J
MUSICA FIGURATA (Figured music). I.
In its earliest sense, this term was applied to
Plain-Chaunt Melodies, corrupted by the intro-
duction of forbidden Intervals, and overloaded
with those ill-conceived embellishments, whidi,
in the year 1333. were so sternly condemned by •
the celebrated Bull of Pope John the ssnd.
[See MAOiooTATicuif.] II. In later timis, it
was more generally undessfeood to indicate the
Polyphonic Mosio of the 14th, 15th, and i6th
oentnries, in whidx the beauty of a Plain-Chaunt
Canto fermo was enhanced by the addition of
an elaborate and regularly-constructed Counter-
point. [W.S.R.1
MUSICA MENSURATA or Cantus Mkn-
BUBABiLts (Measured Music). The notes of
Plain Chaunt were originally of equal length ;
or, at leasty were only lengthened or shortened
indefinitely, in accordance with the accent of
the words to which they were adapted. But,
after the invention of Figured Music, it became
necessary to design a system of Notation capable
of expressing the relative duraUon, as well as the
pitch, of every note intended to be sung ; and
thus arose a new species of Song, called Cantu$
mensurahilis, or Measured Musio.
One of the earliest known writers on this sub*
ject was the celebrated Fnmoo of Cologne, who,
upon the strength of his Tract, entitled Ars cantuS
mensurabUiit written during the later half of the
I ith century, has frequently been credited with
the invention of the Tune-Table. It is but faic
however, to say, that, in this very Tract, Magister
Franco himself speaks of ' many others, boUi re-
cent, and antient,' {mnitoi tarn novoe quant anti*-
quo4)t who have written on the same subject4
whence, notwithstanding the testimony of Mar^
chettode Padova, who wrote two centuries later^
we must infer that we are indebted to our author
rather for a compendium of what was already
known at the time when he flourished, than for
a new or original discovery. 'In confirmation of
this view, C[>us8emaker, in his 'Scriptoree de
musica medii levi,* dtes several MSS. which
appear to be of earlier date than the Treatise of
Franco; and prints, in extenso, examples which
set forth systems far less completely developed
than that which Franco describes.
' Next, in point of antiquity, to Francois Treatise,
is one written by our own countryman, Walter
Odington, of Evesham, In the year 1 3 30. Others
follow, by Marchetto de Padova, in 1374;
Johannes de Moris, in 1331 ; Robert de Handlo
— another Englishman — ^in 1336 ; Prodoedmusde
Beldomandis, in 1410; Franchinus Gafurius, in
1480 ; and numerous other authors, who all con-
cur in representing Franco as an authority entitled
to the utmost possible veneration.
A detailed analysis of these interesting works
would far exceed the limits of the present Articled
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410.
MUSICA MENSURATA;
The syitemft thdy set forth are, of ooarse; pto-
gressive ; and a sufficiently explicit summary of
their successive stages of development will be found
in the Articles Notatiok, Tuue-Table, and others
therein mentioned. [W.8.R.]
MUSICA TRANSALPINA. The name of
the first printed collectiou of Italian madrigals
with English words. It was published in London
In fSSS (the dedicatory epistle is dated Oct. i)
soon after Byrd had issuea his *Psalmes, Sonets,
and Sonffs/ the first printed collection of English
madrigals. The title is 'Muslca Transalpina.
Madrigales translated of Toure, five and sixe parts,
chosen out of diuers excellent Authors, with the
first and second part of La VergineUOf made by
Maister Byrd vpon two Stanzas of Arioeto, and
brought to speak English with the rest. Pub-
lished by N. Yonge, in fauour of $uch a$ take
pltaturt in Mutiek of voices. Imprinted at Lon-
don by Thomas East, the assign^ of William
Byrd. 1588. 7)tiih Priiielegio JUffice Maiestatis.^
Nicholas Tonge,' the compiler, tells as that dur-
ing his residence in London he had annually
received music books firom Italy and elsewhere,
and that his house was much resorted to by gen-
tlemen and merchants, English and foreign, at-
tracted by the music which was daily performed
there ; that five years previously a gentleman had
translated many Italian madrigals, and that he,
having obtained copies, had often been importuned
to publish them, and had at length done so. The
number of madrigals in the collection is 57, viz.
16 by Ferabosoo, 10 by Marenzio, 4 each by Pales-
trina and Filippo di Monte, 3 by Converra, a each
by Byrd, Fagnienty Donate, Orlando di Lasso,
Ferretti and Felis, and one each by di Macque,
Pordenoni, de Vert, Yerdonck, Palestina, Rinaldo
del Mel, Bertani and Pinello. In the table of
contents the original initial Italian words are
ffiven, side bv side with the English. In 1597
Yonge published a second book under the same
luime, containing 24 fnadrigal§, viz. 6 by Fera-
boeco, 3 each by Marenzio, Groce and Quintiani,
9 each by Eremita and Palavioino, and one each
^ Vecchi, Nanino, Yenturi, Feliciani, and Bioci.
The madrigalB in both books are very judiciously
chosen, and many are still in constant use. The
English words are almost literal translations of
the original Italian, and are generally well fitted
to the notes, but as verses are singularly crude,
and in some instances— notably the well-known
' Cynthia, thy song and chanting ' of Gioyanni
Croce — almost unmeaning. [W. H. H.}
MUSICAL ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY,
THE, 'for the publication of scarce and valu-
able works by the early English composers,* was
established in 1840, and commenced its publica-
tions in November of that year. Specimens of
old English melody had been reproduced in ' A
Collection of National English Airs,* then re-
cently completed, and this society was designed
to afford s^oimens of the English school of Aar-
mony in and aft«r the madrigalian era. As
motets, madrigals, and other choral music were
originally published only in separate parts, it
MUSICAL ANTIQUARLAlN SOCIETY.
became necessary, for thlg object* to reproduce
them in score. The separate parts were difi^ult
of ^Ibt^ainment, and not in all cases correct ; the
edittts had therefore a considerable amount of
labour, and occasionally of thought, in ■>nftlr<ng
the scores. Nevertheless, the duties were cheer-
fully undertaken by eminent musicians of the
time, some of whom added biographies of ^e com-
posers, or other interesting introductory matter —
all without remuneration, as the object was a
national one. J-
Nineteen woriu were published, in large folio,
and to theee were added sixteen correspond-
ing folios of compressed scores by Professor 6.
A. Mac&rren, These were undntaken by the
publisher on his own responsibility, with a view
of increasing the subscription list, Hie oountfll '
of the society had decided against the addition,
of acoompanhnents under the vocal scores. Be-
sides the editors, there were many eminent
musicians who assisted on the ooundl and Ji^t the
rehearsal of each work, being then occasionally
called upon to advise in cases of doubtful notes.
The society lasted seven years, aiid" in iu
second year numbered nearly a thousand mem-
bers, but they gradually fell away, phiefly idleg-
ing as reasons that the works were^more fitted
for societies than for private families, in which
there are rarely a sufficient number ot voices ; \
and, secondly, Uiat the books occupied too much
space. The annual subscription was one pound,
and the works were supplied to the members at
prime cost.
The nineteen works issued by the todety
were : —
1. A Mmi for 6 ToUsBi. IvVniiftml
Brrd. Edited by K. F. Btmbftult. !
S,Th« flm Mt of lUdrig&Uby
John Wllbr*. Xdltod br June*
Turla.
8. MiMMffAls and Motets for 5
▼olcoB. by Orlando OlbbooA. Edited
by Sir Oeorie Smart.
i. Dido and JKnaas.atraglo opera
by Henry PurotU. Edited by O. A.
Macfairen.
S. Tbe first teC of BalleU for 6
voices by Thomas Mwley. Edited
by E. F. Blmbault.
S. Bk. I of Cantkmes saors» for 5
Toloes. by WllUam Byrd. Edited
by W. Horsley.
7. Booduca, a tragedy by Henry
Purodl. Edited b|yB.F.IUmbault.
8. The first set of Madrigals by
Thomas Weelkes. Edited by Ed-
ward J. Hopkins.
9. Fantasies In 8 parts compOMd
for Viols, by Orlando Gibbons.
Edited by E. F. Blmbault.
10. King Arthur, an opera, by
Henry Purcell. Edited by Frofss-
■or Edward Taylor.
I 11. The whole Book of Psalms
vtUi their wonted tunes. In 4 parts,
as .pobllshed by Thomas Este.
Ultedty B. F. Rimbaolt.
VL The first set of Songs by Jolm
Dowland. Edited by WUUam
Chappell.
VL Airs or Fa las by John HOtoo.
Edited by Joseph Warren.
14. A oolleotlon of Antheau by
M. Este. T. Ford. Weelkes. and
Baleson. Edited by EJ^JUmbaoh.
15. Madrigals by John Bennet,
Edited by E. J. Hopkins.
1ft. The second set of Madrigals
byJohnWnbye. Edited by Oeoroe
WUUam Budd.
17. The first set of Madrigals by
Thomas Bateson. Edited by E.F.
Blmbault.
ia.Parthenia.ortheflrBt music
ever printed for the yirgiittk,
by W. Byrd. John Bull, and Or-
lando Gibbons. Edited hy B. F.
Blmbault.
]». Ode composed for St. OeriUa's
Day by Henry FureeO. Edited by
E.F. Blmbault,
Among members of the council not included
in the above list were Sir John Gross, S'r W.
Stemdale Bennett, Sir Henry Bishop, Henry
Smart, George Hogarth, William Hawes, Charles
Lucas, Charles Neate, John Bamett, Tom Cooke,
George Cooper, W. H. Callcott, J. Blackboum,
W. &yley, JS. Hawkins, I. Moscheles, and others.
The late Dr. Rimbault acted throughout as hon.
secretary, and W. Chappell, the projector of the
society, acted for about five years as treasurer
and manager of the publications. He was then
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MUSICAL ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY.
succeeded by liis younger brother, Thomas P.
ChappeU. [W.C.]
MUSICAL ASSOCIATION. THE, esta-
blished in 1 874, after preliminaiy meetings at the
house of Mr. W.Spottiswoode, F.B.S., and atSouth
Kensington Museum, at the latter of which, on
May 39, Mr. John HuUah presided and several
memb^ were enrolled. On August 4, 1874,
the first general meeting of the members was
held, Mr. A. J. Ellis, F.B.S. in the chair, and it
was resolved that the Society's title should be
* Musical Association for the investigation and
discussion of subjects connected with the Science
and Art of Music' The members, according to the
rules, 'consist of practical and theoretical musi-
cians as well as those whose researches have been
directed to the science of Acoustics, the history
of Music or other kindred subjects.' The Asso-
ciation meets at the Beethoven Booms, Harlev
Street, on the first Monday of every month
from November to June, when papers are read
and discussed and pubUshed. Subscription is
one guinea a year, and members are elected by
ballot. The President is the Bev. Sir F. A. G.
Ouseley, Bart. The Vice-presidents are Messrs.
W. Chappell; OttoGoldschmidt; G. Grove; J.
Hullah ; Prof. G. A. Macfimren, Mus. Doc. ;
G. A. Osborne; W. Pole, Mus. Doc.; C. K.
Salaman ; W. Spottiswoode ; W. H. Stone, and
J. TyndalL The Council includes the vice-
presidents and Messrs. W. A. Barrett, Mus.
Bac.; C. H. Barry; J. Bennett; B. H. M.
Boeanquet ; J. F. Bridge, Mus. Doc. ; W. H.
Gummings ; W. H. Moi^ ; A. H. D. Prender-
gast ; J. Stainer, Mus. Doc. ; and C. E. Stephens.
The other officers are — ^Treasurer, Mr. Stanley
Lucas; Auditors, Messrs. W. 8. Collard and
C. Maokeson; and Hon. Sec., Mr. J. Higgs,
Mus. Bac. During the five sessions since the
X. establishment of the Sodety, papers on a great
variety of subjects have been read, including
musical nomenclature, musical notation, pitch,
temperament, systems of harmony, ecclesiastical
music, musi<»l criticism, Bach's Art of Fugue,
Purcell and his family, the formation of a
national musical library, orchestral music, the
history, character and possible improvements of
oertain instruments, and questions connected
with acoustics and the mathematics of music.
The Society's Proceedings are published annually
by Lucas k Weber. [CM.]
MUSICAL BOX. [See Sntjwbox, Musical.]
MUSICAL FEASTS. The Musical Feasts
which preceded the Musical Drama were so
oalled because it was the custom in Italy to
celebrate any joyful occasion, such as the marriage
qi£ princes, with feasts, and games, and melo-
dramatic poetry, accompanied with theatrical re-
presentations. Feats of arms, jousts and tourna-
ments, also made part of the entertainment, which
was in Italy of much the same character as the
masques and pageants in England in the time of
lUizabeth and James I. So much were these
Musical Feasts in request that the most celebrated
poets and musidans of the day were employed
VOL. n. FT. 10.
31USICAL LIBBARIES.
417
to turange the scheme, celebrated architects de-
vised the extraordinary and elaborate machinery
brought in to enhance the effect, and great paint-
ers— in one instance a pupil of Perugino, Bastiano
di san Gallo— condescended to paint the scenery.
' Like the musical feasts,' says* Bumey (Hist,
ii. 50), ' the first Italian operas were performed in
the palaces of princes, for the celebration of mar^
riages, or on some pajrticular occasion of joy and
festivity, at the expense of the Sovereign or the
KepubUc, and not in theatres supported by
general contribution.* (See U Quadrio, vol. v.
p. 500.) [CM. P.]
MUSICAL GLASSES. [See Habhonioa.]
MUSICAL LIBRARIES. The authors of
this article cannot hold themselves responsible
for the correctness of the statements containec^
in their accounts of the principal European and
American collections of music. It has not beeii
possible to examine every library for the pur^
poses of this work, but every care has beei^
taken to ensure accuracv by obtaining the^
information direct from librarians, cathedral
dignitaries, organists, or other persons who,
have access to the collections. Circulating
libraries have not been noticed, as, although they
often contain many thousands of musical works^
they are not generally of a permanent nature,
and consist principally of modem works. It is
to be regretted that Ubraries devoted solely to
music should be so rare. Even whwe, as in the
British Museum, the musical part of the col-
lection is kept separate, musical literature has to
be sought for in the general library. The
Imperii Libraries at Berlin and Vienna, and the
libraries of the Sacred Harmonic Society and
Paris Conservatoire are gratifying exceptions to
this rule.
Oreat Britain and Ireland,
Cambridob. a. The Fitzwilliam Museum
contains a valuable collection which has been
already noticed. [Vol. i. p. 530.] A new cata«-
Ipgue has been recently (1S79) completed.
6. The University Library, besides a consider-
able and somewhat miscellaneous collection of
printed music (chiefly of the present century)
contains a few MS. books of music, consisting
prindpally of collections of well-known airs,
dance-tunes, and lessons for the lute, bass
viol and recorder, arranged and composed hf
Bachelor, Dowland, Hdbome, Byrt^ Tallis,
Johnson and other composers of the early part
of the 17th century. They are written in
tablaiure and date prindpally from 1600 to
1640. Besides these there is a valuable volume
of 16th-century anthems and masses by Fayrfeuc^
Prowett, Davy, Austen, Tavemer, Lovdl, Pasche,
and AshwelL Amongst the masses in this
volume may be mentioned a 'Missa Regalia*
and a mass, ' God save King Harry.' There is
also preserved here an undoubted 15th-century
mass in two parts, unfortunatdy wanting one
page. MS. installation odes by Boyce and
Walmisley are also in the library, and it is
hoped that in oonsequenoe of a recent r^ulation^
E e
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418
MUSICAL LIBRARIES.
an €xteiuu7e collection of ezerdBes for tli6
UniTerdty miuiciJ degrees will be gndxiaJlj
accumulated.
e. Trinity College. The library contains a
small collection of musical works and treatises,
including copies of the * Psalteiium Carolinum '
cf J. Wilson (1653) ; Lookers * Present Practice
of Music Vindicated ' (i673y ; Carr's * Vinculum
Societatis ' (1687) ; 4 volumes of Zarlino's works
(1589)* and early editions of the works of Byrd,
Watson, Morley« Playford, Bannister, Wilson,
Gamble, Lawes, 2€aoe, etc.
d. Magdalene College. The Pepyraan library
contains a few early works <m music by Butler,
Holder, Morelli, Victorini, Wallis and Alstedius :
valuable MS. collections of vocal music of the time
of Edward IV and Henry VII (containing com-
positions by Joseph Guinneth and Robert Davis ;
and a volume which belonged to Heniy VIII
when he was Prince of Wales) ; English, French,
Scotch and Latin psalters ; an opera by Grabu
('Albion and Albianus*) ; compositions by Blome,
de Badlly, Kircher, Mersenne, Morl^, Salmon,
Deering, Merbeck, Coperario, Lawes, King, Pur*
cell, and Finger ; ballads, songs, and other com-
positions adjusted to the compass of Mr. Pepys*
voice, and solos, duets, and tnos for stringed and
wind instruments, which seem to show that he
carried out hk resolution to 'practice wind-
musique, and to make my wife do the like.'
e. St. Peter's College. In the college library
is a valuable collection of MS. anthems, services,
masses, motets, etc., both Latin and English, in
separate part-books. The anthems and services
are by composers of the early 1 7th century, and
were probably collected when Dr. Cosin was
Master of Peterhouse (1634-1660). They are
in various handwritings axid contain some auto-
graph compositions by Cambridge organists of
the period. The masses and motets (in tour part-
books)' date from the early part of the 1 6th century
and contain many rare ana valuable compositions
of the time of Henry VII and Henry VJJLl, in-
cluding 4 masses by Fayriax, a Stabat Mater by
Hunt, 3 masses by Ludford, and 1 1 compositions
by Ta vomer. The collection contains works by
upwards of 80 different musicians, as well as
manv anonymous compositions. There is a MS.
catalogue compiled by the Rev. Dr. Jebb.
Caih'EBBURT. The Cathedral library contains
a number of volumes of music and works on
music, including an incomplete copy of the
contra-tenor cantoris of Barnard's Church Music
(1641).
Chester. The Cathedral library contains a
good collection of modem church music.
Dublin, a. Royal Irish Academy of Music.
This society possesses a good library of scores
and orchestral parts of the works of the great
composers. It also includes the library of the
long defunct ' Antient Concerts.*
6. The librarv of Christ Church Cathedral
oootains valuable MS. copies of anthems and
services by Purcdl, Child, BattishiU and others,
which are said to differ greatly from those printed
in England dur!ng the Ust fifty years.
MUSICAL LIBRARIES.
BUBHAIC. The Cathedral library contains a
few books of glees and catches of the early i8th
century, and some l<»ig disused MS. anthems and
services formerly performed in the CathedraL
Edinbuegh. o. The library of musical works
belonging to the chair of music in the University
of Edinburgh was formed from the collections of
the late Professor of Music (Donaldson) and the
present (Sir Herbert Oakeley), and bequests
from Signor Bucher, General Reid and others.
There are some 750 works on music, comprising
standard theoretical treatises; rare old copies
of the works of Boethius, Morley, Zarlino and
Praetorius; and a remarkable MS. copy of a
Ryrie and Gloria in 48 real parts by Gregorio
Balabene. Perhaps the rarest MS. is Uie original
autograph copy of the great B minor Prelude and
Fugue for oigan (Peters* edition, vol. 2, no. 10)
by Sebastian Bach, which belongs to Sir H.
Oakeley. This library also possesses most of ihe
compositions of the great masters, including
orchestral scores, and a unique collection A
musical instruments and of acoustical apparatus.
5. The Advocate^s library, in common with
the British Museum, Bodleian, Cambridge and
Dublin libraries, receives under the copyright
act copies of all music entered at Staticmers*
Hall. The volumes of bound music in this
library number about 500, each volume contain^
ing from 15 to ao pieces. There are also a few
volumes of MSS. and other music of no great
rarity or value.
Ely. [See vol. i. p. 487 h."]
Glasgow. The Euing library. This libraty
was collected by the late W. Euing. Esq., of
Glasgow, and bequeathed by him to Anderson's
College, where it is now preserved. It is a large
and valuable collection, particularly rich in
treatises and histories of music. The catalogue,
which was prepared and printed in accordance
with Mr. Euing^s will, contains 256 pages, 140
of which are Med with the list of treatises,
essays, etc. These form the nucleus of the col-
lection, and comprise the treatises accumulated
by the late Dr. Rimbault. Amongst the ancient
music in this collection the following works nuty
be mentioned : early editions of Byrd's Psalms,
etc. ; the Corale Constantini (1550-57) ; Faber^s
Melodiae Prudentianae (1533) * 3 volumes of
FrescobaJdi's works; NicoLas de la Grotte^a
Chansons (1575); 47 volumes of PraetoriusV
works (1607-1618) ; 9 volumes of J. de Wert's
works (1583-1589); and a valuable and ex-
tensive collodion of English psalters and hymn-
books.
GiiOUOESTER. The Cathedral library posseases
seva»l old choir books containing unpublished
anthems by Rogers, Tye, Wise, Blackw^
Turner, Pickhaver, Henstridge, Davies, Jeflferies,
Portman, Parsons, etc., unfortunately wanting
several of the parts; a complete full service
(in F), and two anthems in MS. by Fortunato
Santini ; a full MS. score of Boyce*s anthem
* Blessed is he that considereth*; a few leaves of
illuminated MS. music and some printed and
MS. church music of the 17th century.
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MUSICAL UBRAKIES.
. Herepobd. The principal musical treasure
of the Cathedral library is the set of I o volumes
of Barnard's Church Music (1641). Eight of
the volumes are nearly perfect, the remaining
two are in MS., and were compiled with much
care by Mr. John Bishop, of Cheltenham. There
are also a few old organ books and other volumes
£>r the use of the choir, and a copy of Kircher's
Musurgia (i65o>.
liiOHFiBLD. There are 189 volumes of printed
ftnd MS. music belonging to the CathedraL The
MSS. include a volume of Croft's anthems and
Te Deum (in D) with orchestral accompaniments ;
3 volumes of Blow's anthems ; a volumes of an-
thems by Purcell, Blow, etc.; and a large col-
lection of part-books. The chief treasure of the
printed works is seven parts (5 counter-tenors,
3 tenors, and a basses) of Barnard's Church Music
(1641).
LiNOOLV. The Cathedral library eontiJns a
considerable collection of madrigab Mid motets,
dating from 1549 to i6ao, by many now for-
gotten and nearly unknown composers, amongst
whom the following names occur : Bogier-Pathie,
Josquin Baston, Coeteley, Sandrin, Godart,
BeniedUctus d'Appenzell, fVan^ois Koupel, Giaa-
etto da Palestrina, Lochenburgo, Nasoo, Essenga,
Pace, Vopa, Melfio, Manenti, Primavera 'dell'
Arpa,* Taglia, Ruffo, dal' Aqmla, Cadeao, Petrus
PhUippus Anglus, Deeriog, Corona, Di Mayo,
Bnfolo, Chamatero, di Cataldo, Y alenzola. Sabino,
and Baimundus. There are also compositions
by other better known composers, and anthems
(dating from 1665 to 1800) by former organists
and lay vicars of the cathedral including compo-
sitions by Hecht (organist 1665-1690), Allanson
(1 690- 1 705), Holmes (1705-1730), Heardson,
Cutts, Blundevile, etc. [W. B. S.]
London, a. British Museum. The musical
portion of the library of the British Museum be-
longs partly to the department of Printed Books,
and partly to that of MSS. In both depart-
ments there is a constant increase ; in the former
by the operation of the Copyright Act, which
gives the Museum a claim to all music published
in this country, as well as in foreign countries
which demand copyright here ; and in both by
purchase, which is now made on a large scale, as
well as l^ presentation or bequest.
The MS. catalogue of Printed Music in 1858
consisted of aa volumes; in 1878 it occupied 37a
volumes, with about 1 85,000 entries. According
to an estimate made in a report at the beginning
of ihe latter year, there were 11,048 volumes of
vocal and 5705 of instrumental printed music, em-
bracing together a total of about 70,000 die^nct
works, l^e present azmnal increase is estimated
at about 6000 works. The most important early
contribution to the collection was Dr. Bumey^
musical library, which was bequeathed to the
Museum, and transferred to its shelves on his
death in 1814: this is especially rich in old
English songs. Another important collection
embodied in the library is that of the great
oontrabassist Dragonetti, oonsisting of i8a
Tolames of scores of classical operas, which
MUSICAL LIBRARIES*
41»
became the property of the Museum by be-
quest on his death in 1846. [See BBAQONETTr.] A
notable purchase was made in 1863 of duplicates
from the Berlin library, consisting chiefly of old
German and Italian madrigals and church music,
valued at about £1000. In specimens of the
earliest printed music, sudi as that produced by
Petruod at Venice in the fifteenth century and
beginning of the sixteenth, the British Museum
is less strong, as indeed any library of so recent an
origin necessarily must be. But otherwise it is
weU supplied with rarities, as is evident from
the fact that of 376 rare musical works (chiefly
English) sold at the auction of Dr. Rimbault s
library in 1878, it was found that this library
already possessed all but 39. The works here
referred to are all music strictly speaking, i.e.
written in musical notation; all books on the
science and history of music (such as the choice
treatises presented by Sir John Hawkins in
1778), with biogn^hies of musicians, etc., are
included in the general library, as are also
service-books, such as Gcraduals, Antiphoners and
Processionals,, which, although exhibiting the
ancient musical notes^ find their place among
Litiurgies.
The collection of musical MSS. amounts to
from 1200 to 1500 volumes. The following
are among the most notewcnthy articles. A
large volume of autograph music by Purcell.
A volume known as Thomas Mulliner*s book,
containing airs and chants for the virginals, by
Tallis ai^ others, and including the earliest
known copy of Richard Edwards' madrigal * In
going to my naked bed.* Services and anthems
of the Church of England down to Queen Anne*s
reign, collected by Dr. Tudway, 1715-30, in six
volumes, containing works hy Aldnch, Blow,
Gibbons, Humphrey, Purcell, Tudway, etc Two
or three volumes of autograph pieces by Handel,
some leaves of which supply the place of leaves
wanting in the autograph of *Admetus' in
Buckingham Palace. Two volumes of rough
draughts by Beethoven, in which the first ideas
of themes of some of his great works were jotted
down. 1 1 volumes of autograph musical extracts,
chiefly vocal, made by Dr. Bumey for his History
of Music. a8 volumes of MS. motets, masses,
madrigals, duets, etc. by Italian and English
composers, copied by Henry Needier irom the
libraries at Oxford, and bequeathed in 17S2.
John Barnard's iSrst book of Selected Church
Music, a manuscript copy scored by John Bishop
of C^ieltenham firom the various voice parts of
this book, of whidi no single perfect copy is
known to exist. There are many interest-
ing collections of Italian and early English (i6th
and 17th centuries) songs, having both words
and music. 61 volumes of autograph musical
compositions, collections for a dictionary of
music, etc. by Dr. J. W. Callcott. 39 operas or
musical dramas by Sir Henry R. Bi^op, in auto-
graph score. Further, 40 volumes of scores of
Balfe's operas, presented by his widow; and
a large collection of Dibdin's songs and
operas, lliere is also a good deal of lute
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MUSICAL LIBBABIEa'
music in tlie peculiar lute notation. Among
the more important articles acquired by purchase
from time to time, are scores of operas — ^many, if
not most, probably unpublished m soore—espe-
oially by Boesini, Meyerbeer, Donizetti, PafsieUo,
Hasse, Winter, Rioci, and Mercadante; and
church music, chiefly Italian, in i8th cen-
tury copies, comprising compositions by Pales-
trina, the Scarlattis, Durante, Leo, Bai, Clari,
Perez, Pergolesi, and others. There is also
church music in the old notation, contained in
ancient service-books, some of which is older
than the invention of the stave-lines. The pui^
chase of MS. music has been much more exten-
sive since 187a than before that date.
It remains to say a word on the subject of
catalogues of the music. The only existing
printed catalogue is that of the MS. music,
which was publitdied in 184a, having been
drawn up by Thos. Oliphant, Esq., who was
specially engl^g^ by the Trustees for ihe purpose.
Later acquisitions are duly registered in the
catalogues of Additional and Egerton MSS.
Mnong the other possessions of the depart-
ment> but cannot be found except by aid of an
index, and then but imperfectly. A new edition
of 01iphant*s catalogue mcluding all these recent
acquisitions is urgently needed by musical
students, and (as the works are already more or
less perfectly described in notices scattered
through the lists of Additional MSS.) would
entail no g^reat labour, nor be in itself a large
or expensive book. For the printed music the
existing MS. catalogue is all that readers can
desire when once they are in the reading-room ;
but a printed catalogue which could be bought
would be most valuable, especially as it would
reveal at once the existcoice of much curious old
music, which is now scarcely known even to
antiquaries ; it need not extend £Eurther than the
commencement of the present century at latest,
as the more recent music might be assumed to be
intheUbrary. [R.M.]
b, Boyal Academy of Music. The library of
this institution contains many interesting and
valuable works, amongst which may be men-
tioned a collection of English dees (in 16
volumes) by Atterbury, CaSlcott, Danby, etc.,
and MS. operas by Leonardo Leo, Gasparini,
Buononcini, Porpora» and others, which were
presented to the Academy, together with the
whole of his valuable musical library, by B. J.
Stevens, Esq. There is also a collection of the
works of SelMstian Bach, being the library of
the (now defunct) Bach Society which was
established by Sir Stemdale Bennett. The
Boyal Academy of Music also possesses a large
collection of valuable compositions presented by
the various London music publishers, containing
especially orchestral works by Beethoven, Ben-
nett, Hummel, Mozart, Schumann and Schubert.
c. Sacred Harmonic Society. This libraiy is
undoubtedly the best arranged and one of the
most valuable in England. There is an admir-
able published catalogue, the last (3rd) edition
of which appeared in 187a, The librazy then
MUSICAL LIBRARIES.
contained nearly 5000 works (4851 volumes>,
which are classified as Printed Music, MSS., and
Musical Literature, these divisions being again
subdivided. In the first of these divisions ' the
extensive assemblage of early musical works
printed from type, comprising church music,
madrigals, songs, and other vocal and instm-
mental compositions, many of uncommon rarity,
calls for particular notice. The madrigals include
a nearly perfect series of the productions of that
brilliant constellation of talented men — tho
English madrigal writers who flourished during
the 1 6th and 17th centuries.' Amongst the
chief treasures of this division (Printed Music)
we may mention eight of the ten parts of that rare
workBamard*s Church Music (1641); the 'Mo-
duloBum Hortus ' and * Canonicus de Silvestris a
Barbarano ' of Floridus ; eariy editions of motets
by Paleetrina ; Willaert's Psalms ( Venice, 1 565) ;
Antony and William Holbome*s 'Cittham
Schoole' (1597)— probably unique; Starter'»
'Friesche Lust-Hof (1637); and a large col-
lection of English and Italian operas and musical
pieces, comprising several hundred works. The
MSS. include a full score (in the composer*!
autograph) of an unperformed opera, * Armida*'
by tfoseph Haydn, and works of various de-
scriptions by Durante, Clari, Geminiani, Puroell,
Blow, Croft, Greene, Boyce and Ame. There is
also a Pianoforte score of Mendelssohn's 'Elijah^*
principally in the composer's own handwriting,
being the version made for the production of the
oratorio at Birmingham in 1 846. Seven volumes
containing the collections from which Barnard
compiled nis ' Church Music,' and a collection of
music in 19 volumes, chiefly in Dr. Cooke's
handwriting; and consisting principally of his
own compositions, may also be mentioned. There
is also a small collection of autograph letters etc
of Beethoven, Boieldieu, Donizetti, Freecobaldiy
Gibbons, Gr^try, Handel, Lully, Mendelssohn,
Meyerbeer, Rossini, Spohr, Weber, Zingarelli»
and other eminent composers. But it is in
works comprised under the heading 'Mnsical
Literature that this collection is particularly
rich, and these constitute its chief claim to
occupy a unique position among English musical
libnuies. ' The musical literature in the Society's
libranr consists of treatises and other works on
the theory and practice of the art, including
nearly every important work, ancient ana
modem, on the subject : works relating to the
history of music, or the lives of its professors
and others directly or indirectly connected with
its practice : lyric and other poetiy, including m
large collection of the word-books issued for
performances at the provincial and other festivals,
concerts, etc., works showing the state of cathe-
dral and other choirs, and the condition of
church music at different periods : works on the
drama, threatres, etc., illustrating the state of
dramatic music : with others of a more miscel-
laneous character, but all tending to enlighten
us as to the progress of music.' Amidst so many
treasures it is difficult to name particular wcn-ks,
and our q^Mse will not allow of our doii^ more
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MUSICAL UBRAEIES.
than to name the valuable early editions of the
works of Aiguinoy Aron, Boefchius, Gaforius,
Ldflteiiias, Morley, OmUhoparcma, Playford,
Simpeon, Vicentino, Zaoooni and Zarlino, which
are to be found in this eolleotion. The library
is only acoesrible to members of the society, but
students desirous of consulting particular works
find little or no difficul^ in the way ; the present
librarian is Mr. W. H. Husk, from whose interest-
ing remarks, contained in the preface to the cata-
logue this notice has been chiefly compiled.
d. South Kensington Museum, llie library
of this Museum contains a useful collection of
works on music of recentdate, several little-known
German operas, published by ^mroek, the
oiiginal MS. scores ef Mendelssohn's Psalm,
f Hear my Prayer ' and of Bishop's ' Legends of
the Rhine/ and » small collection of musical
instruments and apparatus, including a glass
Harmonica invented by Benjamin Franklin, and
a Spinet constructed by T. Hitchcock in the latter
half of the 1 7th century. It also contains more
than 300 volumes of printed and MS. music
(chiefly old Italian), as well as treatises etc. from
the library of the Musical XJniony which were
presented by Mr. Ella. There is a good printed
catalogue of the whole collection.
e. Lambeth. The Archiepiscopal librarv con-
tains many flne Psalters, Missals and Breviaries^
both printed and MS. ; a good collection of early
editions of psalm and hymn books ; MS. treatises
hy Chelle and Otteby ; a MS. volume of English,
French and Italian songs with lute accompani-
ment (written in tablature), containing composi-
tions by Charles and Edwud Coleman, Alphonso
Marsh, Matthew Locke and John Gulgrum, and
an explanation of the tablature ; a MS. volume
of harpsichord music (dances and airs) by R.
Ayleward and others ; a copy of Tye*s eurious
' Acts of the Apostles * ; and a MS. volume con-
taining the treble part of services and anthems
by Tfdlis, Parsons, Byrd, Tomkins, Gibbons,
Munday, Portman, Strogers, Morley, and many
anonymoos compositions.
/. The Madrigal Society. This Society pos-
sesses a valuable collection of more than 300
madrigals, anthems> etc., comprising works by
more tlum 100 composers, principally of the
English and Italian schools.
g. The Philharmonic Sodety. This library
dates from the formation of the Society in 1813.
It contains all the parts of the principal works
of the classical composers necessary ror an or-
chestra, and many fuU scores and MSS. of unique
interest. Amongst the autographs may be men-
tioned three of Haydn*s grand Symphonies;
Beethoven*8 dedication to the Society of his 9th
Symphony ; a MS. 83rmphony by Cherubini ;
Mendelssoha's Symphony in C ('No. XIII.*
known as 'No. I.'), dedicated to the Society;
also Melusina, the Trumpet Overture, and the
original setting of the scena * Infelice/ with violin
obligate — all three with notes or alterations by
himself; also original scores by Cipriani Potter,
Bies, Clementi, ^[>ohr, and other composers.
h. Westminster Abbey. The Chapter library
MUSICAL LIBRARIES.
^21
contains a coUectioii of music (chiefly in BflS.)
which comprises works of about 100 composers.
Amongst the MSS. the following are worthy of
mention : an cnatorio (* Judith ') bv Dr. Ame,
in full score ; three oratorios (* Jephthah,* *The
Judgment of Solomon,* and *La Santissima
Yergine ') by Carissimi ; a Mass (Ik 5) by Ga-
brieUi; a Kyrie (Ik 4, with acoompaniment of
strings) by Lee ; motets and litanies by Bassani ;
two masses and psalms by Pergolese ; a masque
by Dr. Blow; 'Diocletian.' by H. PurceU ; a
small book containing French chansons by (Jam-
bert, le (^amus, BasUdo^ Farinel, Lalande, etc. ;
psalms by Cdonna ; a remarkably fine anony-
mous Te Deum of considerable length, scored
for strings, trumpets and drums; and many
other works, chiefly by Italian composers. There
is also a fine collection of early printed madrigals,
both English and Italian, published between the
years 1 559 and 1695. There ia an inadequate
MS. catalogue.
f. The Chapel Royal, St. James's, contains a
small collection of part-books and scores (both
MS. and printed) of services and anthems which
have been in use by the choir for the last century
and a half. There is nothing of great rarity in
the collection: it consists principally of well-
known works of the English School.
Manchssteb. In the Chetham library is pre-
served a collection of nearly 4000 proclamations,
broadsides, ballads and poems, accumulated by
and presented to the library by J. O. HaUiwell,
Esq. Amongst these will be found the music
of many old popular songs ranging through the
16th, 17th, and 1 8th centuries, tmd containing
songs, catches, odes,.etc., by Purcell, Eccles, Leve-
ridge, CourteviUe, Croft, CWev, Weldon and Pe-
puK^i, and a large collection, of single sheet songs
with music, published between 1680 and 1740.
Many of the songs in this collection were intro-
duced into operas for special occasions, and are
therefore not to be found in the printed editions*
Mr. Halliwell has prepared and printed a cata-
logue of this collection for private circulation.
OsooTT, St. Mary*s College. The library
contains a collection of masses, sequences, offer-
tories, psalms, hymns, responses, etc., in 7
volumes, by Paleetrina ; mnofMW bv Alfieri, and
unpublished MSS. by Gugliehni, Alfieri, Morales,
Zingarelli, Marotti, Festo, Rovalli, Casoolini.
Bolloffi, Fionu^anti, and Borroni.
Oxford, o. The Bodleian library. This li-
brary has received additions of music since the
year i6o>. In 1759 and 1 761 music began to be
received from Stationers* Hidl, which was allowed
to accumulate until, in the present century, it
was arranged and bound up in some 300 or 400
volumes. In 1801 a larffs collection H both MS.
and printed music was bequeathed by the Rev.
O. Wight It comprises 190 volumes of MS.
anthems, eto., by Arnold, Boyoe, Blow, Croft,
Greene, Purcell, etc. ; a Uucge number of works
by Drs. W. and P. Hayes, and both early Eng-
lish and Italian madrigals and motets. In 1 856,
valuable MS. madrieaU were purchased for the
library, and since men the collection has beep
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422
MUSICAL UBBARIEa
increased by the gift of a few volames from Mr.
Macray, and some French cantatas from Sir F. A.
G. Ouseley. There are also some rare early trea-
tises on music in this library. A remarkable early
Psalter is noticed under Notation.
b, Christ Church. The library of this college
contains a very large and valuable collection of
early English «nd foreign music, chiefly be-
queathed to the college by Dean Aldrich and
Mr. Goodson, but since then increased by many
additions. The printed works comprise compo-
sitions by more than i8o difiercnt compos^
while the MSS. contain 1073 anonymous pieces,
and 341 7 pieces by known composers, of whom
18a are Finglish, 80 Italian, and 14 composers of
other nations. This estimate does not include
the many separate movements of operas, serrioee,
etc., and the almost numberless Fancies for instru-
ments, which if enumerated would amount to
nearly 5000. Amongst the MSS. here are 30
anthems by Dr. Aldrich ; 23 anthems, 7 motets,
4 services, and a masque (' Venus and Adonis ')
by Dr. Blow ; 39 anthems, 43 motets, 19 madri>
• gals, etc. and a very curious piece of programme
music ('Mr. Bird's Battle*) by W. Byrd ; 18
motets by R. Deering; ao anthems and ai
madrigals and canzonets by T. Ford ; 24 anthems
by Orlando Gibbons ; a i anthems by John Gold-
win ; 33 motets by M. Jeffrey; ai canzonets by
J. Jenkins ; 1 7 motets by W. Mundy ; 15 operas
by Heniy Puroell ; 39 motets by J. Shepperde ;
17 motets by John Ta vomer; 10 madrigals by
J. Warde ; 2$ motets by R. Whyte ; 47 motets
and 45 cantatas bv Carissimi ; 15 cantatas by
Cesti ; 67 motets by Gratiani ; a 7 cantatas by
Michael! ; 30 motets by Balestrina ; 1 1 a cantatas
byLuigi Rossi; i a cantatas, a serenata, a dramas,
and an opera by A. ScarlaUi ; and the following
anonymous oompositions : — 339 motets, i6a can-
tatas, etc,, to Knglish words (including a Passion
en the death of lYinoe Henry, and a (ualogue be-
tween Cromwell and Charon'), and 408 cantatas,
etc., to Italian words. There is « MS. catalogue
of the collection compiled in 1845-47 by the late
Rev. H. £. Havergfld.
c. The Music School. The library of the
Music School contains a valuable collection of
old music, principsJly in MS. It comprises the
gifts to the university of Dr. Heather (the founder
of the chair of music at Oxford), the Rawlinson
collection (bequeathed in 1755), a collection of
the MS. scores of most of the exercises written
for musical degrees from 1750 to the present
time, and a small collection of printed works of
about 300 composers. Amcmg the valuable MSS.
preserved here are 18 masses by Tavemer, Bur-
ton, Merbecke, Fayrfax, Kasar, Aston, Aidiwell,
Norman, Shepparde, l^e, and Alwood ; a collec-
tion of In Nominee in 4 and 5 parts, by English
composers of the 15th and i6th centuries ; 5-part
motets by Felice Sanoes ; motets, etc., for voices
and orchestra by RosenmtQler, Scbelling, and
Knttpfer ; Clhristopher Simpson^s ' Monthes and
Seasons, for a basses and a treble'; collections of
1 Aooordlnff toaeop7ln]Ir.TMio«M^ooDectloo.Uiltpl«oeUtir
nuofBaSL
MUSICAL LTBRARTKa
vocal and instrumental compositions by W. Lawet
and Orlando Gibbons; Occasional Okies by Dr.
Boyce ; many anthems and services ; and ooUeo-
tions of rare English instrumental music, and
French and Italian songs. There is a good M9w
catalogue of the collection, compiled in 1854.
RooEasTEB. The music libnury of the cathe-
dral consists of 478 volumes, 84 of which are in
MS., and contain anthems and services (some of
which are unpublished) by the following com-
posers :— -Hopkins, Henstridge, Lock, Wootton,
Mine, Turner, Elvey, Child, Dupuis, Lambert,
Fussell, Mason, Walmisley, RusseU, Rogers^
Marsh, and Pratt.
Stonthubst. This college possesses the origi-
nal MS. of de Vice's responses for Holy Week,
MS. music by Cartoni, and a few litanies, motets,
sequences, eta, by Palestrina.
WiMDSOB. St. George's ChapeL The Chapel
library contains a good collection of old church
music, many MS. services and anthems, an in-
teresting old oigan book containing the Bene-
dicite to Child's service in G (in score), and a
copy of Tompkins' * Musica Deo Sacra ' (1668).
W0BCB8TEB. The Cathedral library poesesaes
a fine Sarum Missal, and a MS. volume containp
ing several fine ancient Latin services.
YOBK. The Minster library contains a 58 musi-
cal works, both printed and MS., besides a large
quantitv of anthems and services. Amongst the
MSS. the following w<Hrks may be mentioned :—
a collection of duets, glees, etc., by Aldrich, Wise,
Blow, etc. ; an installation ode by Hague ; Te
Deumsby Haydn, Neukomm, Schicht, and Weber;
' The Nativity,' an oratorio by HomUius ; a mass
by Naumann ; * The Intercession,' an oratorio by
King ; the upper part of several duets by Puroell ;
and a 3 volumes of anthems and services. The
printed music includes early editions of works by
Amner, Bassani, Byrd, Cherici, Diving, Este,
Gibbons, Locke, Maroello, Monteverde^ Morley,
Mundy, Praetorius, and Puroell.
Pbtvatb Collections, a. The collection of
Her Majesty the C^een, preserved at Bucking-
ham Palitce, is prindpaUy renowned for its prices
less Handel autographs (87 volumes), which have
been already noticed. But in addition to these^
this library (which contains about aooo works)
is remarkable both for its valuable MSS. and
fine printed works. Amongst the chief treasures
are some splendid volumes of autograph MSS. by
Puroell ; a complete copy of the original Venetian
edition of Marcello's psalms ; a fine and curioua
volume of puzzle canons by Dr. John Bull ; a
unique collection of puzzle canons, in frtmi two ta
twenty parts, by Elway Bevin, in the oompoeer's
own handwriting ; a fine copy of the and edition of
Monteverde's 'Orfeo'; a volume of 'Aires and
Phantasies,' by Coperario, which formeriy bo»
longed to Charles I. ; an original copy of Men«
delwohn's '(Edipus in Colonos,' sent by the com*
poser to the Prince Consort for the production of
the work at Buckingham Palace ; curious masauea
by Schmied ; a complete copy of 'Parthenia ; a
unique ooUeotion of Stefiani's operas, splendidly
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MUSICAL LIBRARIES.
bound for the use of the opera at Hanover ; the
oi^gan compositionB of Fresoobaldi ; many full
scores of operas by Lully, Mozart, Christian Bach,
Graun. etc. ; and a very fine collection of madrigals
(including a complete set of part-books of madri-
gals by Rinaldo del Mel), roost of which were
formerly in the possession of Sir John Hawkins.
The collection is in particularly good condition,
and is rich in fine copies ; additions are still made
to it from time to time. The present Director of
Her Majesty's Music (Mr. Cusins) is preparing a
new catalogue for the press, in place of the old
MS» list made at the beginning of the present
MUSICAL LIBRARIES.
42a
b. The library of the Rev. Sir F. A. G. Ouseley,
Bart., contains nearly 2000 volumes, mostly rare
full sooi'es and treatises. It includes the old
Palais Royal collection, with the French royal
arms on the covers, consisting of scores of operas,
motets, etc., by Lully, Colame, Destouches, 1^
lande, Campra, and many other French composers
now forgotten. Sir Frederick Ousdey has also a
very la^ c(^ection of MS. Italian sacred music
of the Palestrina school, copied from the magni-
ficent library of the late Abbate Santini, of Roma
He is also the possessor of a very valuable MS.
of Haudel's * Messiah,* partly in the composer's
own autograph, and partly in that of J. C. Smith.
Jt was from this copy that Handel conducted the
work on its first performance in Dublhi, and it
contains some various readings and curious anno-
tations in his own handwriting. Amongst the
autographs in this library may be mentioned a
large collection of curious vo<^ music, original
and selected, in the handwriting of Dr. CJrotch ;
a full score of one of Spohr^s symphonies ; and
autographs of Orlando di Lasso, Crazio Benevoli,
Blow^ Croft, Bonondni, Travers, Boyce, Arnold,
Mozart, Paganini, and Mendelssohn. Probably
the only copy in E^land of Eslava's ' Lira Sacro-
Hispana * is in Sir Frederick Ouseley's library,
which also contains copies of all the treatises of
Graforius, including the earliest and rarest one,
published at Naples in 1 480. For further infor-
mation as to the rare and valuable treatises in
this collection we must refer to a paper read
before the Musical Association on March 3, 1879.
e. Mr. Julian Marshall possesses an extensive
and valuable library of instrumental and vocal
works (both MS. and printed), psalmodies, theo-
retical and bibliographical dictionaries, and his-
tories of music. Among the printed works in
this collection the following rarities are worthy
of mention : — Ma]fcello*8 psalms (Venice, 1724) ;
1 7 editions of Playford*s Introduction ; a complete
set of the celebrated controversy between Sal-
mon and Lock ; R. Dowland's 'Musical Banquet'
(1610), probably unique ; early treatises by Aron,
Gaforius (1496, eta), Galilei, and Cizzardi ; Kaps-
berger*s works (engraved, 1604, etc); Muf&Vs
*Oomponimenti Musicali'CVienna, 1727); Binder's
•Sei Suonate' (Dresden, 1730); original editions
of the works of early Englii^ Italian, French, and
German composers ; many early English madri-
gals, songs, axid song'books ; musical playing cards ;
a la^ coUeotion of early English and foreign
libretti, etc. The MS. part of the colleotion in-
cludes a * Graduale Cartusianum.' written wholly
in transitional neums (12th or early 13th cen-
tury), and other breviaries and missals ; a fine
folio MS. entitled * A booke of In Nominee and
other Solfainge Songes of v, vi, vii, and viii. partes
for voycee or Instrumentes ' (16th century) ; a
small book of canons in Byrd's autograph ; a splen-
did Virginal-book bearing the names of Philip and
Mary ; a large collection of autograph letters and
MSS., including works by Beethoven (sketches for
the Pastoral Symphony), Haydn (Symphimy No.
I, Salomon set), Mozart (quintet, fantasia and
sonata, quartet, etc.), Schubert, Spohr, and many
others; MSS.ofLooke,H.andW.Lawee,Purcell,
Travers, and Ame ; full icores of operas, including
some used by Handel in conducting, and contain-
ing his corrections and additions. Mr. Marshall
is also the possessor of the original caricature by
Goupy of Handel, as well as of the nortrait by
Kyte, which was considered by Hawkins to be
the best likeness of that master in existence.
d, Mr. W. H. Cummings has a musical library
of a very varied character, comprising autographs
of Purcell, Handel, Beethoven, Weber, Mendels-
sohn, Bennett, and other composers of note.
Amongst these we nuiy particularly mention the
duplicate of Handel*s autograph will ; unpublished
compositions by the same master ; and a score of
the music to Macbeth, believed by Mr. Cummings
to be the original in Purcell's handwriting. In
printed works this collection contains fine copies
of various editions of the treatises of Gafonus ;
all the editions of Morley's *Plaine and Easie
Introducticm' ; a perfect set of the Salmon and
Lock controversy; early editions of madrigals
and of Marot and Bbza's Psalters; Wilson's
Ayres ; Lawee' Ayres and Psalms ; a perfect copy
of the 3 parts of Purcell*s * Don Quixote' (probably
nnique); a copy of Bach's 'Kunst der Fuge'
(1751); the copy of Goudimel's Psalms (1505)
which formerly belonged to Joseph Warren (said
to be unique) ; and many rare works by Purcell,
in which this libraiy is especially rich.
e. Mr. John Bishop, of Cheltenham, possessed
an extensive and valuable library, comprising a
very large collection of every dififorent class of
music (principally full scores), and a still larger
collection of ancient and modem treatises, in seven
different languages, including the rare l^mnish
works of Cerone and Lorente, historical and bio-
graphical works, and misoellanies.
/. Mr. Alfred H. Littleton possesBes a small
but valuable collection of about aoo volumes,
which comprise several works that are unique in
England, as well as especially fine early printed
Ikk^s. Amongst the principal rarities are the
following works : — Burtius, 'Musices Opusculum'
(Bologna, 1487); 4 editions of the treatises of
Gafurius, including the one of 1503 ; Agricola's
'Musica Instrumentalis' (Wittenberg, 1529);
Senfel's 'liber Selectarum C!antionum* (1520) ;
Animuccia's Masses (1567); and Davante's
'Pseaumes de David ' (1560).
g. Mr. Victor Schoelcher formerly possessed
an extensive collection of music, but he has lately
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HUSICAL UBBABIES.
presented the greater part of it to the Parts Con-
servatoire. Mr. SohoBloher has, however, still seve-
ral very rare works by Charpentier, Destouohe,
Campray LuUy, Rameau, Saochini, Colasse, Zin-
gareUi, Clari, Martini, and Pleycd ; as well as
valaable French treatises and works on music.
A. Mr. John Ella, the Director of the Musical
Union, has a considerable collection of music and
musical literature, chiefly of the present century.
«*. Mr. J, W. Taphouse, of Oxford, has a good
collection of miscellaneous theoretical and bio-
graphical works on music; a collection of MS.
songs by Barrett, Hall, Leveridge, Puroell, Crofb,
Hayden, etc. ; rare editions of psalters and of
works by Mersenne, Morley, Playford, and
Withers ; a copy of the rare * Agenda Eoclesie
Moguntinensis* (1490); 'A Philosophick Essay
on Musiok/ attributed by Hawkins to Sir Francis
North ; Lowe's ' Directions for Performing Cathe-
dral Service' (1664); many autograph letters of
Dr. Bumey and Dr. Crotch; and a few auto-
graphs of Mozart, Jomelli, and other musicians.
Mr. Taphouse has also a fine harpsichord, made
by Shudi and Broad wood in 1781 ; one of the
earliest known pianofortes, made by Zumpe in
1 767 ; and a spinet by Baudin (i 723).
Mr. A. G. W . Kurtz, of Wavertr^e, Liverpool,
has a fine collection of autograph music and letters
of musicians, engraved portraits, and caricatures.
The autographs embrace a Motet by Bach ; the
Strinasaochi Sonata and seven other large works
by Mozart ; a Quartet by Haydn ; the Bb Con-
certo and Sonffs by Beethoven; Meverbeer's
* Emma di Re^urgo,' and Auber's * Chaperons
blancs*; and compositions by Weber, Mendels-
sohn, Spohr, Rossini, Schubert, Chopin, etc.
Among the letters are specimens by Orlando
Gibbons (i), Haydn (i), Beethoven (7), Spohr
(10), Weber (10), Schimiann (5), Mendelssohn,
Spontini (8), Hummel (6), etc., representing in
all nearly seventy composers. [W. B. S.]
Oermanyt Auttrifi, and Switzerland,
BsBLiN. a. The library of the Joachimsthal
Gymnasium received in 1787 the music collected
by the Princess Amalia of Prussia, and in 1858
190 vols, of musical works from the library of
Dr. Spiker. (See Meierotti's Naoliricbt, etc.
Berlin, 1788). Amongst the music are auto-
r^phs and many ancient copies of the works of
S.Bach.
6. The library of the Grey Friars, sum Grauen
Kloster, contains an important collection of works
of the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries, in parts, carefully
arranged so as to present a view of ancient vocal
music, by the director Belleipiann, and his son,
Prof. Heinrich Bellermann. (See catalogue in
the prospectus of the institution, 1856).
c. The Royal library (founded in 1650; the
musical division, of which Queen Charlotte's col-
lection formed the nucleus, added in 1705) ac-
quired in 1841 its most important addition, the
Poelchau collection (autographs and copies of J.
S. Bach, and the most important Italian writers
on theory of the 17th and ihth centuries): in
1855 ^0 Bach collection and autographs of i,\m
MUSICAL LIBRARIES.
Sfngakademie; 3779 NO0. from the Fulda library
of hynmology ; and 103 MS. vols, from Winter-
felds collection: in 1859, 3978 nos. from the
collection of FisohhoC of Vienna (Beethoveniana,
copies revised by Beethoven): in i860, 916
printed and 811 a MS. sheets, and 143 auto-
graphs from the Landsberg collection (Beetho-
ven s sketch- and conversation-books, first ex-
amined by Thayer). The complete catalogue of
the Landsberg collection is in the Royal library
of Brussels (acquired after the death of F^s,
from his collection). All these works have been
completed and admirably arranged by Dehn and
his successor Franz Espagne, lately deceased.
Dehn negotiated the purchase of the Poelchau
and Lancbberg collection ; Espagne, that of Otto
Jahn's Mozart collection, bought in 1869. Here
may be seen the precious autographs of nearly
all Mozart's great operas (with the exception of
Don Juan, which is in the possessiim of Mme.
Viardot, in Paris), and of several of Beethoven's
symphonies and most important works ; also a
very large collection of autognmhs of J. S. Bach,
and 42 vols, of autographs by Mendelssohn.
In the Landsberg collection are scarce theoretical
works bv Italian and Spanish masters — such as
'El Melopeo' by Cerone. Dr. Kopfermann is
now (1880) provisional custos.
Brakdbnbubo. The church of St. Katharina
contains an important collection of parts, and of
vocal music of the i6th, 17th, and 18th centu-
ries, described by Taglichsbeck in the prospectus
of the Gymnasium for 1857.
Darmstadt, o. The Grand Duke*8 library,
lately enriched by the purchase of the scores of
many French operas of the 1 8th century. (See
Accessions-catalog, printed 1873.)
6. The Grand Duke's libiary» founded by
Ludwig I., formerly administered by the director
of the Court theatre, but incorporated with the
above in 1873. It is rich in modem operatic
literature.
Dresden, a. The Catholic Hofkirohe con^
tains 1500 noB. of Catholic church-music. Cue-
toe, C. Risse.
h. The King of Saxony's collection (Custos,
Moritz FQrstenau) contains 400 vols, and 300
cases of operas and instrumental music of the
17th and 1 8th centuries, including operas by
Lotti and Marcello,and Gluck's 'Feste d*Apollo*
and other early works.
e. The Tonkunstlerverein (library founded
in 1854) possesses f.50 nos. of instrumental
music of the i8th and 19th centuries, also sym-
phonies by J. J. Fux, Court-capellmeister at
Vienna. Custos, H. Diirinff.
EiNSiEDELK, Switzerland. The libraiy of the
Benedictine Abbey contains important MSS. of
the first 10 centuries, written in *nenms' and
indispensable to the student of Gregorian music
Erlanoen. The seminary for church music
has a library of its own. Pnncipal, Dr. Heraog,
a well-known organist.
Frankfort. The libraries of St. Peter*s
church and the Gymnasium contain scarce vocal
music of the i6th and 17th centuries, of grt:at
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MUSICAL UBRABIES.
importaiioe for the mnsioal hiitory of Frankfort,
described by Carl Israel (Frankibrt, Mahlau &
Waldflcbmidt, 1873).
St. Gall, Switzerland. The library of the
monastery is remarkable for its ancient ohorch
music written in ' neums.* Director and presi-
dent, Gmuer.
GxNBVA, Lanoy, near. Horr G. Becker*s li-
brary is a choice collection of ancient works on
theory, and very old instrumental music.
Hambdro. The city library contains the cele-
, brated collection of Handel's works — 80 vols,
folio ; being copies, partly in J. 0. Smith's writing
-~f(»rmerly belonging to Kerslake, of Bristol, then
toSch(Blcher(HandS*sbiographer),andpurdiased
for the above at Dr. Chrysander*s instigation.
R5NIOSBBBO, Prussia. The royal and univer-
dty library contains the collection (about 35,000
▼ols.) made by Director Gotthold (died 1858) ; of
importance for h3rmnology and vood music of the
17th century. (Described by Dr. J. Mttller,
Bonn 1870).
Leipzio. a. The city library contains the
theoretical works and instrumental music of the
1 7th centui^, collected by 0. F. Becker, the well-
known musicologist. [See vol. i. p. 161.I
6. The archives of Messrs. Breitkopf & H&rtel
are of the highest importance.
Marbubo. Professor Wagner has a very rich
collection of instrumental music of the 1 7tn and
1 8th centuries, printed in London and Amsterdam,
Munich, llie royal and national library con-
tains (after that of Vienna) the most important
collection of ancient printed music (irom the
presses of Ottaviano Petrucd and other printers
of Nuremberg and Venice). The German Lied
is also richly represented by Forster's celebrated
collection (in parts). The addition of part of
the Monte Gassino collection, and of that of
Professor Thibaut, have made this collection
nnusually complete. Gustos, Professor Maier
(editor of English Madrigals by Morley, etc.)
MtlNSTBB, Westphalia. The library of the
Musikverein, founded 60 years ago, managed by
Musikdirector Grimm.
NuBBMBKBO. The Germanisches National-
museum contains MSS. and old German printed
music.
Ratisbon. a. The musical library (the collec-
tions of Dr. Proske and Mettenleiter united) b
the private property of the see. It contains
30,000 vols, and 800 MSS., firom the x 3th to the
1 7th centuries, and though practically unexplored,
is the finest collection of church music in exist-
ence. Gustos, Domvicar Jacob.
6. The private collection of Bishop Haberl,
noted for music printed by Petrucci and his
contemporaries.
Salzbubg. The Mozarteum ( 1 84 1), important
for Mozart's sketches, and 327 letters from Wolf-
gang and Leopold Mozart, and many highly in-
teresting relics.
ToBOAU on the Elbe. The library of the
Cantorei (founded in 1864) contains 300 works
of church music of the i8tii and 19th centuries.
Custos, Dr. G. Taubert.
MUSICAL LIBRARIES.
4^
Vienna, a. The Court library received in
1836 and 39 all the music not connected with
church music in the archives of the Court chapel.
In course of time it has acquired much scarce
printed music (by Petrucd, etc.), and is also rich
in autographs of different musicians, including
a number of letters and MSS. by Beethoven.
Eiesewetter*s collection of church music (cata-
logue published at Vienna, 1847) was incorpor>
a1^ by Legat in the Court library, which is
estimated to contain about 10,000 volumes. Li-
brarians, Dr. Paohler and Haupt.
h. GeseUschaft der Musikfreunde. [See article,
vol. i. p. 591.1
c. C^. Grehiing*8 private library contains works
by Froberger, Frescobaldi, different editions,
Hadrianus ('Pratum Musicum,* one of the most
ancient lute tablatures known, 1583), Antonio
da Bologna (the oldest organ tablature in modem
notation, 1543), Lully. Gluck, Gr^try, old Eng-
lish MS. song books of the time of Charles II.
and James II., and all the modem operas.
WsnfAB. The Grand Duke*s library conta'ns
the music collected by the Duchess Amalia dur-
ing her visit with Goethe to Italy, including in-
teresting opera scores of the Neapolitan school.
Also the score of Haydn*s opera ' La vera Cos-
Wbbniokbode. CJountStolberg has a valuable
collection of hymnology. '
Italy.
Bologna. The library of the Lioeo filhar-
monico (president, De Gasparis) has a valuable
collection of instrumental music of the 18 th cen-
tury. Also unique examples of some of Petruocrs
earliest publications, and a superb collection of
the printed music of the 1 6th century. Catalogue
drawn up by Dehn, in the royal library at Brussels.
Flobbncb. o. TlieBibliothecaMagliabecchiana
contains operas by Peri, Rinuccini, and Cava-
lieri, also many editions by Marescotti.
6. Professor Abramo Basevi possesses many of
Scarlatti*s operas.
Montb Cassino, near San Germano. Operas
by the Scarlattis, Alessandro and Giuseppe;
comic operas; and many little- known works of
the Neapolitan school during the first half of
the last century. Dr. G^hring, of Vienna, has an
almost complete catalogue drawn up in 1864 by
himself. Part of this collection (catalogue by
Aiblinger) was purchased 40 years ago for the
library at Munidi.
Naplbs. The Conservatorio Pietro a Majella
has a large collection of modem operas by
Neapolitan, Roman, and Venetian composers, in-
cluding nearly all by Rossini and Mercadante.
Rohb. a. The monastery of Minerva, b. the
Corsini, and e, the Vatican libraries, all contain
ancient church music and theoretical works..
Santini*s oollection of ancient church music and
madrigals has totally disappeared. The com-
plete catalogue in MS. is in the royal library of
Brussels, and in that of Herr Gehring at Vienna.'
1 See ' L'Abbi Santinl e( m ooD«ctioD muiioato.' bj WUuUmlr 6U*-
9off(riortDoe 18MJ.
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MUSICAL UBRARIES.
Belgiuwi.
Bbussels. The Belg^ian goremmeni were
induced by Herr Gevaert, director of the Bnuaels
Conservatoire, to parchaae in 187a the librmry of
M. F^tis for 153,000 francs. A catalogue has
since been drawn up by the chief conservator.
Alvin, and published (7525 nos.; Paris, Firmin
Didot, 1877). This, as a whole, is one of the
most complete collections on the Continent, and is
full of rariUes, as a glance at the catalogue will
convince the connoisseur. (The copy of Uadri-
anus* ' Pratum Musicum * is only the edition of
1600.)
Poriugdl,
Lisbon. The library founded by King John
IV, described by J. de Yasooncellos (Oporto,
1873). [J?.G.]
Franee,
Pabis. a. We have already given an acconnt
of the library of the Conservatoire, situated a
Rue du Conservatoire, vol. i. p. 393. Since the
publication of that article it has acquired more
than 200 full scores of Italian operas, none of
which have ever been engraved. £ven in Italy
it would be difficult to find a larger or more
important collection. The MS. department of
this library, the collections of autographs and of
portraits of musicians, are daily increasing, and
have long ago made this library the favourite
resort of artists and of writers on musical
literature. There is no printed catalogue, but
access to the MS. catalogues is readily granted.
6. The Biblioth^ue Nationale, in the Rue
Bichelieu, is very rich in French music, both
printed and engraved. It is also more complete
than any other in Paris in respect of musical
literature, periodicals, almanacs, dictionaries, and
similar works of reference. It is rich in valuable
MSS. of Dom Caffiaux, Parfait, Baini, Adrien
de La Fage, and other distinguished writers, — and
many fr&ih. discoveries may yet be nuuie in the
MS. department of the library. No printed cata-
logue of the musical works in this library exists.
0. The library of the New Opera House
contains full scores, autograph and copied, of the
works produced at the Opera, as well as books on
music and on the history of the musical theatres ;
and documents, both printed and MS. referring
to the history of the Academy of Music. These
works are admirably catalogued in the publica-
tion of M. Lajarte, which we have noticed under
his name.
d. The library of the Arsenal contains very
interesting MSS., such as the *Mazarinades* —
songs sung under the Fronde, with their airs ;
collections of airs by Michael Lambert, and
other little-known compositions of the 1 7th and
1 8th centuries, etc. No printed catalogue.
e. The library of St. Grenevi^ve contains a
large number of rare works on music, a fine
collection of chansons and dramatic worics, with
the music, and many curious MSS.
/. The Bibliotheque de la Yille de Paris
(City library), Hotel Camavalet, contains all the
K>oks, and many MSS., referring to the history
MUSICAL UBBARIEa
of the theatres of Paris and the instrament
makers of the city.
g. The library of the Biblioth^ue des Arts et
Metiers contains few musical works, but is rich
in materials for the history of the music trade,
such as patents, trade registets, etc.
Versailles. This library is rich in sacred
music, dramatic works, and books on music ; and
contahis also several interestittg MSS. of ihm
1 7th century.
MoNTPKLLiKB. Amongst other very rare
MSS. is a celebrated Antiphonaire, as well as .
compositions of the lath, 13th, 14th and 15th
centuries, of which M. Coussemaker has availed
himself for his learned worics on the music of
the middle ages.
RouBX. This library has a superb illuminated
missal and many works in plain-chant; also
some autographs of modem writers. [G, C]
United Statt$ of America.
a. The Harvard Musical Association, a society
of amateur*, graduates of the univerBitVtCig&nised
about 40 years aco for the purpose of promoting
the cause of good music in the community in such
ways as may be most practicable, has oollecte'l
about 3000 volumes, which number is constantly
increasing.
h. The Boston public library (the laigest in the
United States) has about 2000 volumes in its
alcove devoted to music, but very little attention
is given to increasing this department.
c. The library of Harvard University has about
3000 volumes of music, which number is con-
stantly and rapidly increasing.
d. The library of Congress has little but what
comes to it under the copyright law, which is
considerable in quantity, but of little value.
e. The new College of Music in Cincinnati has
begun the formation of a library adapted to its
object as a conservatory, and meanwhile enjoys
the use of Mr. Theodore Thomas's collection of
several thousand volumes of ordiestral works,
scores, etc. [H.W.]
/. The Lowell Mason library of music, be-
longing to the theological department of Tale
College, New Haven, Connecticut, was the gift of
the widow of Dr. Lowell Mason. The nucleus of
this collection is the library formed by Dr. C. H.
Rinck, of Darmstadt, which was bought by Dr.
Mason in 1852. It now contains 8400 distinct
publications, and 630 MSS. More than one half
belongs to the department of sacred music, and
is particularly rion in hymnology (700 volumes).
Roman Catholic and early fV^ch Protestant
church music are also well represented, and there
is much valuable material here for the history of
music in America. The vocal secular music com-
prises some 1 200 works of every description, and
there is also a valuable collection of educational
and theoretical works, including some 16th and
i:th century treatises. In general literature
there are about 850 volumes, one half being in
the English language. Amongst the rare works
in this Ubrary the fulowing mfty be mentioned : —
Ricoio*s Introitus (Venice, 1 589); AndreasSpaeth'a
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MUSICAL LIBRA RTKfl.
Paniphrase of the PsalmB (Hdcldbevg, 1 596) ; de
Monorif*8 Chansons (Paris, 1755); Krieger*s
Musikalisohe Partien (Nuremberg, 1697) ; and
autograph MSS. by Dr. Mason, Rin(^ A. Andrtf,
Beczwanowsky, FemsA, Nageli, G. A. Schneider,
and N. A. Strungk.
g. The Yale College library has a small bat
valuable colleotion, comprising about 300 volumes
of music, and 100 of musical literature, gathered
principally with the income of a fund given by
the late Mrs. William A. Lamed, which yields
about 60 dollars a year. This has been devoted
mainly to the purchase of the works of the great
composers, principally in score, of which there is
a gQK>d collection in this library. [ W. B. S.]
MUSICAL PERIODICALS. Musical jour-
nalism began in England in 1818 with 21ie
Quarterly Muiical Magazine and Review, in a
cmaU octavo form. It was intended to contain
articles of the following kind : — I. Original cor-
respondence upon all the branches of the science,
theoretical and practical ; 2. Oitical and im-
partial accounts of musical performers ; 3. Re-
views of musical publications ; 4. Anecdotes of
mufllo and musical men ; 5. Poetiy, original or
selected, that might appear calculated for musical
adaptation ; 6. A register or chronicle of musical
transactions. Among the most interesting articles
which appeared were— a review of Forkel s life of
Bach in vol. ii. ; an account of the performance
at the Philharmonic of Beethoven's 8th Sym-
phony (vol. 7, 1835), and in vol. 9, 1827. a
criticism of Beethoven and his works, the two
latter of which are signed ' Musicus,' and are
written in the style which a modem reviewer
would use in writing of Warner. In the last
article 'Musicus' gives the following opinion:
' The effect which the writings of Beethoven
have had on the art must, I fear, be considered
as injurious.' In vol. 3 began the publication
of music in each number, which was continued
till the end of the magazine in 1828.
In 1823 appeared The Harmonieon, which
has been described in its own place. [See Hab-
MOHIOON, vol. i. p. 663]. Thx^ vears after the
demise of that journal appeared The Musieal
World (the space had been partly filled up from
1835 to 36 by The MtuiccU Magazine, a monthly,
edited by C. H. Purday, which had but little
success).
The Miuical World began on a new footing : its
policy was not entirely to confine itself to musical
matters, but to combine general interests with
those of music. It was edited bv 0>wden Clarke,
with the co-operation of an able staff of writers,
comprising the following names — Samuel Wesley,
the elder, who contributed the first paper, 'A
Sketch of the State of Music in England from
1778'; Dr. Gauntlett ; Dr. Hodges; Egerton
Webbe; Carl Klingemann ; W. J. Thorns;
John Parry, the elder; C. H. Purday; J. A.
Strompf; Lowell Mason, of Boston, U.S.A.;
Collet Dobson ; John Ella; Joseph Warren ; etc.
It was originally published by «r. A. Novello, in
small 8vo, weekly, from March 10, 1836, to Dec.
29. 1837, which date completed its seventh quar^
MUSICAL PERIODICALS.
427
ierly volume. A new series began on Jatt. 5,
1838, in large 8vo, published by Henry Hooper.
With its third series it became 4to, a form it has
since retained. It changed hands frequently till
the b^inning of 1854, when i^ ^^ taken by Boosey
t, Co., who published it till 1863, when it went
to its present proprietors, Duncan Davison & Co,
During its 4to existence it has been edited by
Desmond Ryan and J. W. Davison, and few
periodicab have embraced a more varied and
curious mass of literature more or less directly
connected with music, and in a great measure
of a humorous, often Rabelaisian cast. Among
the contributors since 1840 may be mentioned
G. A. MacfiEurren — Analytical essays on Bee-
thoven's works ; on Mendelssohn's Antigone^
CEdipus, Athalie, etc. ; on the Messiah ; on
Mozart ; on Day's Theory of Harmony ; on the
Leipzig Bach Society's publications, etc. Dr.
Kenealy — ^Translations from the Itab'an, Danish,
and Icelandic, and original papers. John Oxen-
ford — Original poetry (171 sonnets); Transla-
tions from the Greek Anthology, Goethe*s Ve-
netian Epigrams, Goethe's Affinities, Aristotle^
Lessing, Wmkelmann, etc. J. V. Bridgeman-^
Translations of Oulibichef on History of Mui^io,
and on Don Giovanni ; Hiller*s Conversations
with Rossini; Lenz's Beethoven; Lobe's Men-
delssohn ; Wagner's Oper und Drama, and Lo-
hengrin ; Lampadius's Mendelssc^ ; Hanslick
on Wagner, etc. Other contributors are Dr.
Rimbault, W. Chappell, H. S. Edwards, Shirley
Brooks, Joseph Bennett, and many other well-
known members of the Press. During the last
few years dever humorous caricatures by Lyall
have been added.
In 1843-1844 appeared two new weekly mu-
sical journals, The Dramatic and Musieal
Review, edited and held by the brothers Eames,
one a violinist and the other organittt of St. Paul's,
0>vent Garden, which lasted for a few volumes ;
and The Musical Examiner, edited by J. W.
Davison, among the contributors to which were
Henry Smart. Dr. Macfarren, E. J. Loder, Dion
Boucicault, Albert Smith, etc., etc.
The Musical Times appeared first in 1844
(June i), edited and published by Novello
(monthly, octavo). It was a continuation of a
periodical of the same name published by Mainzer.
The interest of the paper dates from about 1846,
when Mr. Edward Holmes began writing for it.
From this time till his death in 1859 he was a
constant contributor. . Among his most interest-
ing series of articles are the following — ' Life of
Henry Purcell' (1847), * Curiosities of Musical
History ' and ' Cathedral Music and Composers '
(1850), 'English Glee and Madrigal Composers *
(1 851), « Mozart's Masses,' 'Haydn's Masses,*
(1852, etc), 'Addenda to the life of Mozart*
and ' Beethoven's Mass in C * ( 1 8^8). In 1 855-
56 appeared translations by Sabilla Novello of
Berlioz's * Soir^ de I'orchestre,' and his treatise
on orchestration. Also a series of papers trans-
Uted by her called ■ Truth about Music and Mu-
sicians^(i856-7). Prom Dec. 1853 to Sept. 1854
several essays were contributed by Leigh Hunt
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r428 MUSICAL PERIODICAIA
In Sept. 1863, Mr. Henry 0. Lonn undertook
the office of editor, which he still holds, contri-
buting oonstantlY interesting articles of oritidsmB
on cmrent musical subjects. Among the most
frequent oontributors have been Dr. Maofarren,
I>r. Rimbault, W. H. Cummings, Carl Engel, E.
Front, W. A. Barrett, H. H. Statham, Joseph
Bennetty etc., etc. From time to time series of
articles of special interest have appeared, as for
example. Dr. Wm. Pole's * Stoir of Mozart*s Re-
guiem* (1869), Dr. Chr^sanders * Sketch of the
History of Music Frinting from the 15th to the
19th centuries* (1877). This periodical also con-
tains a monthly issue of part-music.
The Tonic Sol-fa Reporter was begun in 1853
(a tentative double-number having b^ issued in
1 85 1, but not continued) under the editorship of
Mr. John Curwen, whose lectures at Newcastle
on the Tonic S0I-& Notation were the origin of
the publication. The double-number of 1851
contained, besides an account of the progress of
the movement, Tonic Sol-fa arrangement of the
Hallelujah Chorus, ' in which is omitted ($ic) the
parts too difficult for Congregational Sin^^ng,'
and 'several hymns' (words only). The issue
has continued at intervals of a month until the
present time, containing criticisms, roports of the
progress of the S0I-& movement in different parts
of England, etc., and a series of Anthems, Glees,
Bounds, Hymn-tunes, etc., in the Sol-fa notation.
Of late Mr. J. Spencer Curwen has been associated
with Mr. John Curwen in the editorship.
The Musietd Standard, projected by an ama-
teur, Mr. A. W. Hammond, who was both pro-
prietor and editor, appeared first on Aug. a, 1063.
it was issued fortnightlv ; its size 8vo,and price 2d.
It professed to be unfettered by clique, and not
devoted to the behests of houses in the trade. It
was especially to look after the interests of church
music and oi^ganists. It contains, besides leading
articles on topics of current interest, notices of
ooncerts, etc., upecifications of old and new organs,
extracts from ancient church registers relating to
' musical matters, bi<^;raphical notices of the lesser
' masters and public performers, and reprints of old
- and curious works bearing on the subject of music.
, Among the oontributors to the early numbers were
Dr. W. J. Westbrook, Dr. Gauntlett, Joseph Ben-
nett, J. Crowdy, etc., etc. In an early ntmiber
proposals were made to establish a Musical Col-
lege. ThiBwastheoriginoftheCollegeofOrganists.
In May 1864 a prize was offered for a new hymn-
tune ; this feature was continued for some time.
In the same year interesting reprints of old works
were commenced, and were continued in each
number. In voL 5 the paper began a weekly
issue. In vol. i a Uiere are notions and a con-
siderable controversy on the two oratorios by H.
H. Pierson (then living), ' Hezekiah * and ' Jeru-
salem.' The old series of the journal ended with
vol. 13, when Mr. Hammond sold the copyright
to Mr. George Carr, and Mr. T. L. Southgate
became editor. The scope of the journal was now
considerably widened, containing letters and no-
tices from France, Germany, ItiUy, and America.
Vocal mueio as well as instrumental was now
MUSICAL FEBIODICAia
given weekly in the paper, among which were
compositions by Sir W. Stemdale Bennett, Sir
J. Goes, H. Gadsby, E. J. Hopkins, Berthold
Tours, etc In Feb. 1872, Messrs. Reeves ft
Turner purchased the paper. Mr. Soutl^te
retired in 1873, *^<^ ^<^ succeeded by Mr. J.
Crowdy. In 1875 Mr. Bowden became the prO'
prietor. In voL 8 it was enlarged to folio size,
and the price raised to ^d,, the weekly issue of
music bemg discontinued. In May 1876 Mr.
Broadhouse became editor. Among the moat
prominent articles Uuct have lately appeared may
be mentioned an extraordinary series, oititled
'Beethoven's Symphonies critically and sym-
pathetically discussed,' by Mr. A. Teetgen.
The year 1 863 brought two new weekly musical
periodicals, The Orchestra and The Choir. The
first, a folio of 16 pages, published by Cramer,
Wood, & Co., contains, besides criticisms of musio
in London and the provinces, oorrespondenoe
from the principal musical centres of the continent,
stfial * feuilletons,' etc. It 1874 it began a new
series in a quarto fomu issued monthly, published
by Swift & Co., 155 Newton Street, W.C.
The Choir and Musical Record, published
weekly by Thomas Wright, ' Choir ' Office, 188
Strand, was intended ' to prove servioeaUe and in-
teresting to Cleigymen, Choirmasters, Organists,
Memben of Choirs, and all who are interested in
Music' Its object was to ' promote the art of
church music by the publication of essays and
papers advocating sound principles and dureeting
taste.' Among the contributors were Dr. Rim-
bault. Dr. Mac&rren, £. J. Hopkins, etc. 4 pages
of music are issued weekly.
The Monthly Musical Record was begun in
187 1, under the editorship of Mr. £. Frout,
Augener & Co. being the publishers. It has
appeared monthly since that time. Its tana »
a small quarto, and its price 2d. Among
the principal oontributors are — ^W. G. Cusins,
£. Dannreuther, S. Jadassohn, L. Nohl, F.
Nieoks, £. Fauer, C. F. Fohl, Xaver Scharwenka,
etc. Historical and analytical notices in a serial
form are ffiven from time to time, by Heim B.
Fauer, F. Niecks, etc. In voL 2 appeared Heir
Dannreuther'sarticles on ' Wagner, his tendencies,
life, and writings.' From 1874 to 1876 the editor
was Mr. C, A. Barry ; since that time the post
had been held by Mr. W. A. Barrett. Admirable
analyses of Schubert's Masses, Schumann's Sym-
phonies, Weber's Cantatas, etc., and descriptions
of Urio's Te Deum and Stradella's Serenade, with
reference to Handel's plagiarisms from them, all
by Mr. Front, appeared in the earlier volumes. The
iuue of four sheets of music with the pubUcatitm
began in the number for Februaiy 1880.
* Concordia, a journal of music and the sister
arts,' was first published by Messrs. Novello,
Ewer, & Co., under the editorship of Mr. Joseph
Bennett, on May i, 1875. ^^ paper consisted
of articles, reviews, criticisms, anid London, pro*
vincial, and foreign intelligence on music, poetry,
the drama^ and the fine arts ; and was pubUshed
weekly. The principal contributors were Dr,
W. H. Stone, Dr. Gauntlett, Bev. MaurioQ
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JIUSICAL PEBIODICAia.
DavieB, W. Chappell, W. H. CommingB, J.
Ejoight, Walter Thomborj, H. H. Statham, C.
K. Salaman, Clement Scott, E. Proat^ H. Suther-
land EdwaitlB, H. Howe, H. C. Lunn, Joaeph
Bennett, etc The following specially intereeting
artidefl appeared in this paper : Beoollections of
Catalan!, Czemy, Mozart*8 eon, Moeart's widow,
Charles Neate, Schumann, Thalbeig, the Phil-
harmonic Society, the Lent Oratorios, the Shake-
speare Jubilee of 1830, etc, etc, by C. K.
Salaman ; A comparison of the original and
revised scores of Elijah, by Joseph Bennett;
Witty French Songs of the last century, by W.
Chappell ; Helmholtz's New Musical Theories,
by W. Chappell ; London Choirs, by Rev. Maurice
Daviee ; Portraits of Old Actors (Betterton,
Kemble, Kean, Charles Matthews the elder,
etc.) by Walter Thombury ; Don Juan and
Faust, by H. Sutherland Edwards; Puroell's
woriLi, by Dr. Rimbault; Purcell's Yorkshire
Feast and Theatre Music, by W. H. Cummings ;
and a series of interesting »csimiles, letters and
a song by Handel, caricature of Handel, auto-
graph of J. S. Bach, MS. and letters of C. P. E.
Ba^ etc A weekly list of services in London
ohurohes, and a Shakespearean calendar were also
included. The publication was withdrawn in
1876. [J.A.F3f.]
The London and Provincial Mtuio Trades
Beview, large 4to, was started in Nov. 1877, and
appears on the 15th of each month. Bssides
much information on the trades connected with
munc, patents, bankruptcies, etc., it has full
notices of concerts and other musical events, and
reviews of both books and music, lists of new
inventions and publications, and much miscella-
neous intelligence. The reviews are signed by
the authors, Mr. Henry F. Frost, and Mr. T.
Percy M. Betts, the latter of whom is understood
to be the editor.
Fbakoi.
L*Art muiicid, a weekly journal started by
M. L^oa Esoudier, first appeared Dec. 6, i860.
It is published every Tuesday, and contains 8
Wtoi of two or three columns. Among the con-
tr^utors the following may be mentioned:-^
8oado, F. de Villars, Ad. de Pont^coulant, G.
Chouquet, A. de Lauzi^res-Thdmines, Ernest
Thdnau, Edmond Neukomm, Paul Laconne, J.
Buelle, A. Visertini, etc The following are
some of the most interesting articles which have
appeared :— * Mes Souvenirs * (L. Esoudier) ; ' Les
Chants nationaux de la France ' (G-. Chouquet) ;
* Les Iphjg^nies de Gluck ' and ' Les fr^ree Ricd *
(¥, de Yillars); 'Mangars' and ' Deplorations
de G. Cretin sur le tr^pas de Jean Okeghem'
(E. Thoinau) ; * C. M. v. Weber ' (B. Neukomm),
bemdes intereeting notices.
BibHographie MuncaU franfaise, a monthly
publication, begun Jan. 1875 by the Chambre
syndicale du commerce de musique, is a catalogue
of all musical works published in France.
La Chranique Mimcale, Two entirely distinct
periodicals have appeared under this name ; the
fiiBt in 1865-66, edited by M. Malibran, contain*
MUSICAL PERIODICALS.
429
ihg some very good articles ; the second in July
1873. lasting till June 1876, edited by M. Arthur
Heulhard, which appeared fortnightly (8vo.), and
LEcho des Orph^ons, begun in Paris in 1861,
and at first edited by Ehmest Gebauer (nephew to
the bassoon player of the same name), who con-
tinued to be at the head of it for many years,
and now managed by M. Victor Lorv> under the
direction of M. Laurent de Rill^. Besides criti-
cisms, etc this paper issues part-songs, choruses,
etc It is published two or three times a month.
L* Europe artiste^ in which music occupies but
a secondary place, was begun in 1853, and is. now
edited by M. Elie Fr^bault. It is a weekly jour-
nal of the drama and the fine arts.
La Framee chorale. This journal appeared
three times a month from Nov. 1861. M. J. F,
Vaudin, a clever but intemperate writer, chiefly
known by the poetry which he wrote for part-
songs, choruses, etc., being the editor until his
death in 1869, when the journal was re^xmsti^e
tuted under the tiUe of La France chorale ; le
Moniteur dee Orph^om et dee Sociitis inatintmen*
tales. It now appears only twice a month, the
editor being M. Camille de Yos. It is not only
devoted to the interests of choral music, but
contains accounts, oritidsmfli, etc. of orchestral
music
La France mneieale, A weekly journal which
appeared from Dec 1837 to July 1870, under the
direction of MM. Marie and L^n Escudier, con^
taining biographies and many other articles of
interest. Among its contributors at different
times were Castil-Blaze and J. Maurel, MM*
M^ry, Philar^te Chasles, V. Schoelcher, etc
Le Journal de musique. A weekly publica-
tion, containing 4 pages of letter-press and a
pieces of music edited 1^ M. Armaud Crouzier;
the property of M. Paul Dalloy.
Journal spidal de musique militaire. This pub-
lication has for 17 years continued under the
direction of M. l^iard, issuing 34 pieces of
music for military bands in the year.
Le MSneetrel. [See MtiNSSTBBL.]]
Le Monde artiste. A weekly journal of 8
pages, founded in i860. It was for some time
very unimportant, but now, having become the
property of M. Achille Lemoine, and having for
its editor M. Jules Ruelle, it is the greatest
authority on the dramatic and musical doings ixt
the departments of France and in Algeria.
The other musical periodicals of France will be
noticed under their several heads. [G.C.]
GSBMANT.
AUgemei^M musikalisohe Zeitung [see LnPZTO,
ii. 115], Oct. 1798— Dec a8, 1848. The import-
ance of this periodical for information (A all
musical matters during the first half of the 19th
century will be beet estimated from the oondud-
iM remarks of the publishers in the last number.
*^niis journal was founded when musical pro-
duction was at its richest and best. Mozart was
not long dead, Haydn was near the end, and
Beethoven at the beginning of his career. To
bring the works of such a period as this beibra
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430
MUSICAL PERIODICALa
the notice of connoiBseiin and amatenrB, to eluci-
date and explain them,' to educate the public up
to undentanding them — such were the objects of
the MudkaliBche Zeitung; and theee objects
were attained in a degree which entitles it with-
out hesitation to a high place in the history of
music. But with the Upse of time the conditions
of the musical world have materially dianged.
There is no longer a centre either for musical
production or appreciation, both being now dis-
seminated far and wide. Under these circum-
stances, a general musical journal is an anachron-
ism ; local papers are better fitted to supply the
various necessities of the musical world.'
The DeuUche MusikteUung, founded by Selmar
Bagge in Vienna, i860, was in some sense a con-
tinuation of the above, and after it had had a
successful existence of three years, Breitkopf ft
Hartel resolved to revive the AUgemeine mus.
Zeitung under Bagge's editorahip, but it was not
supported, and the publishers, tired of so costly
an undertaking, relinquished it in 1865 to the
firm of Rieter-Biedermann (Leipzig and Winter-
thur). The first numbers of the new series were
interesting on the one hand from the support
given to Uie rising talent of Brahms, and on the
other to the revival of the old-classical school
and the cultus of Bach and Handel. Bagge was
succeeded by Eitner, and he again by Dr. Chry-
sander. He attracted a brilliant staff, and many
of the articles, such as Nottebohm's 'Beetho-
veniana,* would do credit to any periodicaL
Chivsander was suooeeded in 1871 by Joseph
Mtkller (compiler of the catalogue of the Gk>tt-
hold mudcal library in the library of the Uni-
versity of Kdnigsl)erg), but he resumed the
editorship in 1875. &ough the number of sub-
scribers IS small, the paper stands hich among
the musical papers of Germany. It notices
French and English music, inserting reports of
Crystal Palace Concerts and Handel Festivals,
and articles on English musical literature.
Berliner allgemeine mmikaliaeJie Zeitung,
1824-30 (Schleeinger), founded by A. B. Marx,
did important service to the rapid spread of
Beethoven*s works in North Germany even during
his lifetime, and in promoting the revival of the
taste for Baches and Handel*s music in Berlin.
In his farewell address Marx says, 'The usual
habit of critics is to give way to the fluctuating
inclinations of the public, in order to insinuate a
little, a very little, of the truth. This has never
been my way; .1 have never been carried away
by the fashion of the day, for I have neither
formed my opinions bv it, nor succumbed to its
attractions, and thus I have been preserved from
inconsistency. For instance, with regard to
Bpontini, I neither lauded his " Veetale as the
work of a great artist, nor depreciated his later
compositions as the productions of a mere aca-
demical pupil, or an imbecile, like so many
musicians of our dav. Nor again was I so far
daisied by the novelty of Rosnni's and Auber's
<peras, as to ^dorse the popular verdict upon
^em.' There is something elevating in recalling
•ubh sentiments as these at the present day, when
MUSICAL PERIODICALa
differences of opinion may be said virtually to
have disappeared under the all but universal
dominion of Wa^w's works.
BerUner muaii-aUtche Zeitung, 1844-47, the
first periodical to |»aise Wagner s works on their
production in Dresden, was started by GailUurd,
' and continued as the ^Neue Berliner MuHk"
xeitung (Bote & Bock) up to the present day.
It contains amongst others well-known articles by
von Lenz.
Caecilia (see i. 304). A continuation of this
periodical, called the SUddeutsehe Mwikxeitung
(Schott, Mayence), was edited by Foeckerer
1849-66.
MmaUhefte /Sr Mutik'Ge$chiehte, founded
(i86p) and edited by R. Eitm^ (Trautwein.
Berhn). Contains Lists and Bibliographies of
ancient composers, Hucbald, Lasso^ Ockeghem,
Crttger, etc., and many valuable articles. An
Index to the first ten years was published in
1879.
Important for the state of music in the Rhenish
Provinoes is the Rheinitche Muiikzeitung, while
under the editorship (i 850-53) of the well-known
Professor L. Bischoff (inventor of the expression
'music of the future*), who in the latter year
founded the
NiederrJieinieche Mutikzeitung (Dumont Schan-
berg, Cologne). Hie contributors included such
men as Gervinus, and the paper held an important
place till Bischoff *s death m 1867, when it was
dropped.
£cho (Schlesinger, Berlin), conducted in 185 1
and 53 bv Kossak the well-known feuilletonist,
then by the publisher. In 66 it passed into the
hands of Robert Lienau (with Mendel as editor),
in 73 into those of Oppenheim (editor Dr. Lang-
haus), in 74 returned to Lienau, and finally
oeased Dec. 1879. ^^ ^^ <^ ^^^ ^™® * certain
importance as an opposition- paper to Wagner.
Fliegende Bldtter fUr Musilc by Professor Lobe
(at one time editor of the Allg. mus. Zeitung),
collected in 3 vols, of 6 parts each, 1855-57,
was distinguished for polraiics, serious esnys^
and pertinent observations on art.
TonhaUe (Payne, Leipzig), edited by Oscv
Paul from March 33, 1868, to the end of 69,
when it was meiged in the Mutihalitehe Wofhen-
hlatt (the first illustrated pi^>er of the kind)
(FritBBch), which soon became a demonstrative
organ of the Wagner party, and at the same
time a champion of Brahms. It also contains
the Nottebolim's 'Neue Beethoveniana,* and
may thus fairly be called eclectic in its views.
The first ten numbers were edited by Paul, but
it has since been managed entirely by the pub-
lisher. It has a very large drculation in Ger*
many, and is distinguished for its notices of
foreign music.
S^naUfilrdie MuiiJcalitcheWdt, Jan. 3, 1843;
the first article was a panegyric by Bauschke on
a fugue by Drobisch. In No. 44 (1847) Bartholf
Senff was announced as publisher, and he still
conducts it with a staff of eminent contributors,
1 From 1868 to W U ms carrM on u a kind of musk«I tndo
elrealar.
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MTJSIOAL PERIODICALS.
mt the head of whom is Bernsdorff. Its spedalty
IB the circulation of short pieces of news — hence
the name ' Signale.' The correspondent in Vienna
is Herr C. F. Pohl. It contains more general
intelligence and has more suhscriben than any
other German musical paper.
Neue Zeitschri/t fUr Mutih, founded by Robert
Schumann, who relates in his ' (resammelte
Schriflten ' how a number of musicians, who had
met in Leipzig in the end of 1833 to compare
ideas on the new lights Mendelssohn and Chopin,
were roused to do something more for the cause
of art than merely carrying on their calling as
musicians. Thus arose Ske Neue Zeitschrift
(April 3, 1834), which in ^ite of many vicissi-
tudes still exists. Hartmann the publisher was
the first editor, but from 1835 to 44 Schumann
conducted it himself. After lum Oswald Lorenz
took it for a short time, and was succeeded by
Franz Brendel (45 to 68), under whom it espoused
the cause of the so-called new>Glerman school.
Kahnt has been the publisher since 57.
Masikaligche Zeitung fUr die oetterreichtschen
StacUen, Apr. 15, 181 a, issued fortnightly by the
Musikalische Zeitungs-bureau, indirectly gave
rise to the Wiener mugikalische ZcUwig, Both
expired in 1813.
AUgemeine musikalische Zeilung, Jan. 2, 181 7
(Strauss), important for special information on
music in Vienna, was edited by von Seyfried in
1819 and 20, and from 21 to the end of 23 by
Kanne. It contained portraits of celebrated
musicians, including Beethoven, and was remark*
able as the first independent efibrt of Viennese
journalism.
AUgemeine WienermuHkdli$che Zeitung, edited
from 1841 to 47 by Dr. Aug. Schmidt (joint-
founder of the Viennese Mannergesangverein),
contains a series of articles (beginning No. 28,
1846) by Eduard Hanslick, highly laudatory of
Wagners Tannhauser! Tempora mutantur!
Luib was editor in 1847-48, the last twelve
months of its existence. It was replaced by the
Wiener MvLsikzeiiung, 1852-60, editor Gldggl,
almost the only correct source of information on
musical affairs for that period.
MonaUehrifi fUr Theater und MutiJe, 1855-61
(Wallishauser, Vienna), editor Joseph Klemm,
goes less into detail, but like the
Jtecensionen und JUittheilungen fUr Theater
Maeik und hWiende Kundf 1862-65, contains
valuable articles by Sonnleithner on Mozart, and
music in Vienna of that date.
The oldest of the German mnncal papers is
J. A. Hiller's Wocheniliche Nachrichten und
Anmerkungen die Monk hetr^end, which came
out weekly in Leipzig from July i, 1766, to
June 26, 1769. A supplement of 26 numbers car^
ried it down to the end of 69, and a fourth year,
Jan. I to Dec. 24, 1770, followed.
The next in point of time was the Musikalieehe
BiXiluitang, 1788-92 (Bossier, Spire), the title
of which was chimged to Musikalische Carre-
spondenz der dcutschen phUarmoniseher OeseU-
sckafl.
In the same year Reichardt made similar at-
MUSICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 481
tempts in Berlin ; his Musikdlisehes WochenhlcUt,
1 791, not answering was superseded by the
Musikalische Monatschrifty 1792.
Berliner musikalische Zeitung^ 1794, edited by
Spazier, was historical and criticaL [F. G.J
Italy,
The Italian musical periodicals are said to be
very nuuierous. The chief of them appear to be —
Milan. Gazetta Musieale, started in 1845 by
Ric(vdi in Milan. It is a folio (weekly) of 8
pi4^, edited by Salvatore Farina, containing
criticisms, reviews, correspondence from the chi^
towns of Europe ; and the annual subscription is
20 lire. Jl J^eUore. Bevista Melodrammatioa,
Revista dd Teatri, Mondo Artistico.
Flobikob. Oazetta musieale di Fireme. Boe^
cherini, monthly— 4 pages, edited by G. Guidi.
Rome. Falestra musieale, edited by Marches!.
Naples. NapoU musieale, edited by Umberto
Mazzoni,
Unitsd States of Aherioa.
The leading musical periodical in the States is
Vwight^i Journal of Music (Boston), which has
been noticed under its own head, vol. i. p. 478.
Another Boston periodical is 27ie Musical
Herald (monthly), No. i of which appeared in
January 1880.
The Music Trade Setdew (New York), is pub-
lished weekly, large folio, price 10 cents, edited
by Gotthold C^ll^rg, and now in its 8th year.
It does not confine itself to the music trade, but
contains notices of concerts, criticism, reviews,
and correspondence on musical subjects in gene*
ral, all marked by great intelligence.
The Musical Review (New York), weekly, was
started Oct. 16, 187^, and bids fair to be an able
and satisfactory penodicaL
77ie Phil/tarmonic Journal and Advertiser
(New York) is edited by Jerome Hopkins, and
published monthly — 8 p^gee.
MUSICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, THE.
This society was founded in April 1858 by a
body of musicians, professional and amateur,
who had originally been memben of the New
Philharmonic Society, and wished to re-consti-
tute it. This being found impracticable, they
established a new insdtuticm, under the name of
the Musical Society of London. Among the
names of this body are found thoFte of Charles
Salaman, Esq., the chief mover of the project
(to whose kindness the writer of the present ar-
ticle is indebted for his information), who held
the post of Honorary Secretary until 1865, when
Mr. G. C. Verrinder sucoeeded him ; Augustine
Saigood, Esq. (Treasurer) ; C. E. Horsley, Esq.
(Honorary Librarian); W. V. Wallace; G. A.
Macfarren; Henry Smart; Jules Benedict;
Stephen Elvey ; John Goss ; E. J. Hopkins ; B.
Molique; Sir F. A. GoreOuseley ; and Dr. S. S.
Wesley ; besides other prominent musicians. The
objects of the society, as stated in its early pro-
spectuses, were : — To promote social intercourse
among its members and with musicians of this
I and other countries; to £»rm a musical library
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482 MUSICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
for the use of members ; to hold conTersazioni, at
which papers on musical subjects might be read,
and subjects of musical interest discussed; to
give orchestral, choral, and chamber concerts, and
occasionally lectures; to afford the opportunity
of trying new compositions ; to publish oocasioniJ
papers, calculated to extend the theoretical and
historical knowledge of music. The members
consisted of fellows, associates, and lady -as-
sociates, whose subscription was fixed at one
guinea. The following were honorary fellows : —
Auber, Berlioz, Ernst, Joachim, Meyerbeer, Mo-
scheles, Rossini, and Spohr. The Conductor of the
society during the whole period of its existence was
Mr. Alfred Mellon. The first concert took place
on Jan. 26, 1859, ^^^^ ^^® ^ minor Symphony
of Beethoven, the 'Melusina' Overture of Men-
delBsolm, and a cantata by Dr. Macfarrren, ' May-
Day,* etc., were given. Gade*s Highland Over-
ture was performed at the second conoert. Among
the most interesting items of the programme may
be mentioned, Schumann's Symphony (No. i).
May 1861 ; Joachim^s Concerto in the Hun*
garian style, played by the composer, March i a,
1863 ; the Choral Symphony of Beethoven, April
30, 1862, on which occasion Stephen Heller
played Mozart*s Concerto for two pianos with
Charles Halle ; Sullivan's Tempest Music, May
3 1, 1 86a : Schumann*B Symphony in E b, June 1 3,
1866. Besides the regular concerts, conversa-
zioni were occasionally given, at which the pro-
grammes were frequently remarkable, and objects
of antiquarian and artistic interest were exhi-
bited. At the first conversazione, for example,
Mr. Charles Salaman played two pieces by Or-
lando Gibbons on a virginal. At the last concert,
March ao, 1867, the most interesting feature of
the programme was Beethoven's Chond Fantasia,
the pianoforte part of which was played by
Mme. Schumann. On April 15 following the
operations of the sodety were suspended, in con-
sequence of the inadequacy of the funds for carry-
ing out the proposed schemes, and the proceedings
were never resumed. [J. A, F. M.]
MUSICAL UNION, THE. An association,
managed by a President, Yioe-President, Com-
mittee of 15 noblemen and gentlemen, and a
Director (John Ella, Esq.), which gives eight ma-
tinees of classical chamber music every season in
London. The Musical Union took its origin in
social gatherings held at Mr. Ella's residence,
but in 1 844 the society assumed its present shape,
since when its annuid concerts have never failed
to sustain the high standard of excellence for
which they were remarkable from the first. Space
forbids our inserting a list of all the artists
who have appeared at the Musical Union; such
a list would include the names of all the most
celebrated executants of the last 30 years, many
of whom were first introduced into England by
Mr. Ella. We can only mention that since the
foundation of the sodety 304 artists have per-
formed at its oonoerts, of whom 75 were pianists,
II a stringed, and a 7 wind instrumentalists. It
is impossible to estimate too highly the important
inflaenoe this society has had in disseminating a
MUSICIANS' COMPANY, LONDON.
taste for good music amongst the upper classes ta
London. The system of pladng the performers
in the centre of a cirde, which is adopted at these
concerts, gives them a social charm to which m
considerable share of their success is no doubt
owing ; but the greatest boon which musicians
owe to the Musical Union is the introduction of
analytical programmes, which were first adopted
by Professor Ella at these concerts. The pro-
grammes are delivered to the members a day or
two before the performances take place — a plan
which is highly to be commended. [W. B. S.]
MUSICIANS* COMPANY OF THE CITY
OF LONDON, THE, was established by letters
patent under the great seal of England on April
34 in the ninth year of the reign of Edward IV
(1473-3). The charter is printed in Bymer's
Foedera (xi. 64a). The company was instituted
as a perpetual Guild, or Fraternity and Sister-
hood of Minstrels, — a minstrd being a musidan
qualified to sing or play in public. It had to
control all 'pretei^ders to minstrelsy,' and to fine
and silence the unqualified until they had studied
so as to fit themsdves to take part in public
performances. Until then their music was to be
kept at home. The first court of the company
was formed of experienced muddans then in the
service of the king, and previoudy in that of his
predecessor Henry VI. Walter Haliday was Mas-
ter, or Marshal of the Guild, and John Clifl^
Robert Marshall, Thomas Grene, Thomar Cal-
thom, William Christian, and William Eynes-
ham, formed the court. The appointment to
the office of marshal was for Ufe, whereas the
two wardens {C tut odes ad fratemitatem) were
elected annually from the Court of Assistants.
The guild was attached to the (yhapd of the
Virgin under St. Paul's Cathedral, and to the
firee Chapel Royal of St. Anthony, both in the
City of London. The power of the guild ex-
tended over all partb of the kingdom except the
County Palatine of (Hiester, and all minstrds
were to join it, and to pay three shillings and
fourpence upon being admitted as members of
the guild. A further source of income was de-
rived from fees and fwca. fines. Out of the latter
the guild was to keep wax tapers burning in
each of the two chapels above-named, and^ pray
for the health and for the souls of the King, the
(^een, this late Duke of Yoric, the king's father,
and for other progenitors of the royal fiunHy.
At this time good minstrels were highly paid,
and Edward IV was not only very lilwral to his
own mundans, but also anxious to sustain the
muncal reputation of the country. In 1466 the
Bohemian baron, Leo von Rozmital, brother-in-
law of the reigning king of Bohemia, vidted
Euj^land, among oUier countries, during a pil-
gfrimage undoiaken 'for the sake of piety and
religion.' Edward IV received him witn honour,
and entertained him at a banquet and state ball,
after which a state concert commenced. Hie
baron's secretary, Sohassek, wrote an account of
his visit ; and of this entertaimnent he says — -
'We heard in no country more agreeable and
sweeter muddans than there ; their diorus
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MUSICIANS' COMPANY, LONDON.
oonUsts of aboiit sixty voices^; while imoUier of
the suite, Gabriel Tetzel, a German, says — ' After
the ball oame the king*8 singerB and sang. I
believe there are no better singers in the world/
Edward showed due oonsideration for the ears of
his subjects, and this policy was followed by all
the sovereigns of the Tudor line. Henoe the
universally fifivourab|e repo^ of foreigners upon
pubiio musical performances in England during
this and the following century. Among the
Bemembrancia of the City of liondon recently
brought to light, No. i6 is a letter from the
Lord Keeper, Sir John Puckering, to the Lord
Mayor, requesting him to see that William War-
ren, lately chosen Master of the Musicians*
Company, but prevented from the peaceful exer-
cise of his office by some of the members of the
company, be not further, interfered with. As
this letter is dated Sept. 39, 1594, it may be
assumed that the company acted under the old
charter during Elizabeth*s reign, and until the
granting of a new one by James I on July 8, 1 604.
In this the powers of the company were restricted
to the City of London and within three miles of
its boundaries, but it gave their freemen virtually
a monopoly in out-door poformanoes, and at
weddings, dances, playing under windows, etc.,
because all performers under one of the com-
pany's bye-laws required its licence. This ob-
noxious regulation induced Charles I to restrict
the powers of the company to within the City
of London itselfl The charter of James dispenses
with the sisterhood and makes the election of
the master an annual one, instead of, as before,
for life. It gives the power to sue as a body cor-
porate, a common sc«d, and the right to hold
land and houses. But its powers to examine
musicians and to control them have become a
dead letter, and its income is derived from the
subscriptions of its members and of those of
former days. The cost of taking up the livery is
£15 17s. 6d. and the freedom confers a vote for
tJie election of members of parliament, for bridge-
master, and other 6ffioes. The livery dinner,
with music, is annual, and the court dine after
three of the quarterly meetings for the trans-
action of business^ Of late years some eminent
musicians, amateurs of music, and others inter-
ested in the progress of the art and science, have
joined the company as a social centre and to
increase its funds, with the ultimate object of
advancing music educationally or otherwise.
Among them are John Hullah LL.D, Dr. W. H.
Stone, Dr. Stainer, Dr. Bridge, Sir Henry Cole,
K.C J5., Mr. Deputy Sheriflf Crawford, Mr. WUbye
Cooper, Mr. Frank Chappell, Mr. Henry Phillips,
Mr. Molinenx, Mr. (>ews, Mr. Hunter, Mr.
Porter, and other members of the Madrigal
Society. Mr. Geoige Wood. Mr. W. Stewartson
Collard, and Mr. W. Chappell are members of the
oourt. The Musicians' is Uie only city company
ix the exercise of a profession. [W. C.J
MUSIC-PRINTING. There are several ways
in which an unlimited number of copies of de-
mpa or characters may be product If » block
VOL. II. PT. 10.
MUSIC-PRINTING:
43S
of wood or metal is cot away so as to leave Hk
relUf the leQuired shapes of uie characters, theii
by inking the raided sur£soe an impression is
easily obtained on paper. A great improvement
on such Uock-printing was efiB»ted by making
each letter a separate type in cast metal, so that ,
the types might be used over and over again for
different works. The converae of sur&ce printing
ia copper-plate, printing : here the design is en-
graved in intaglio on a sheet of metal, and the ink
is contained in the sunken lines of the engiaving
and not on the BurflM» of the plate. Athmlwsy
is by lithography, in which characters are drawn
with peculiar greasy pendls on the surface of cer-
tain porous stones. The stone being wetted, the
ink is applied ; and it adheres to tiie drawing,
but refuses the stone.^ All these methods have
been applied to the printing of music.
I. Block-printing was of course the earliest
plan adopted, and the oldest known example is
a book vrith Gregorian notes printed at Augsburg
by Hans Froschauer in 1473.^ A little later,
Gregorian music was printed by types, at two
printings, as in a missal published by Oct. Scotus
(Venice, 1482), in the possession of Alfred little-
ton, Esq. Wenssler and Kilchen, of BaSle, in
1488, produced the ' Agenda parochialium,' and
in 149a Ratdolt, probably at Augsbun^ a missaL
In these the stave-lines were r^ and the notes
black, all being frx)m type, but at two printings,
one for the stave and another for the notes.
Figurated or florid song, however, presented
greater difficulties to the type printer. Block-
printing therefore continued to be employed tor
the musical portions of such books aS the ' Musioes
Opusculum of Nicolaus Burtius, prinl^ at
Bologna in 1487, by Ugo de Rugeriis, in open
lozenge-shaped notes ; and the ' Practica Musioe '
of Franchinus Gafforius, printed at Milan, 149a.
Even as late as 1 520, Conrad Peutinger published
at Augsburg a collection of motets for five voices
in wood-engraving.' On ihe following .page we
give a facsimile from Burtius's work.
Meanwhile Ottaviano dei Petrucci (bom at
Fossombrone, 1466) so advanced the art that,
practically speaking,^ he may be considered as
the inventor of printing florid song with move-
able types. He was settled in Venice, and
there produced his first work, a collection of 96
songs, in 1 50 1. Another of his publications ap-
peared in 1503, and is a collection of masses by
Pierre de la Rue, a copy of which may be seen
in the British Museum. The stave lines and the
notes aro produced at two separate printings ;
the lines being unbroken and perfectly con-
tinuous, and the notes set up in moveable types.
The annexed specimen gives a tolerable idea of the
1 ThA Vajenoe FiAltor. now In the British Xmeam. to the oldest
printed book known, with one exception. It wu printed by Fust *
flchofflhr M lUjrenoe In 1407 In * fine large black-letter type, and cm
Tollam. Where musical notes were required, the four lines of the
sure were printed in red Ink. but the notes were Inserted afterwards
hv itand. In a second edition. 14fi9. the lines were black. TMs can-
not therefore be dted as an example of true music printing, any more
thah similar bo6ks fn which th^ote< were added V> the printed stave
by means of Inked stamps or puaehes worked l^hand. called pattern
'1 See'Ehner's 'BlbllOfraphle.' p. 14. The niustratlobs to OnllU-
obeTs great work on Mozart (Xowow* U«S) •» »H «ut In wood.
Ff
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MUSICPRINHNG.
effect. Hie only objeetSoa io tliii syitem was
the expense of the doable printing; and thii
was overoome in 1507 by Krhard
Oeglin of Angtbuzg, who printed
boUi fltave and notes aimultane-
oudy, entirely aupeneding Petruod's method.
yT T
MUSICPBINTma
Schoffer at Mainz did the same in 151 1| and so
did the Gardano family at Venice from 1536 for
about a century and a half. Palestrina's M^g^^
were printed in parts at Borne in 1572, with
a coarse but very legible type. And the
process used at the present day is pretty neariy
Pige (Tmotstua adus p. 96) from tbs '
liitlieLlbniyofA.H.
•of
(BunSo),
^e same, only greatly improTed In
details. o ., r
an
In England the first known attempt at Music-
printing is in Higden*8 Policronioon, printed at
its I Westminster !n 14^5 by Wynken de Worde.
The characters (see x^eduoed fao-simile annexed"^
represent the consonances of Pythagoras. ThiW
appears to have been set up piecemeal and not
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HUSICVPRlNTINff.
^Bngraved on a solid wood-block. It is hower^
the only bit of miisio in the book. There is a
mistake in the doable -octave,
which has one note more than
the proper intenraL In the
first edition of this work^
printed by Gaxton 1483, a
space was left for the mn-
iical characters to be filled in
by hand. Both editions are
in the British Museum. In
Merbecke*s 'Boke of Com*
man Pnder noted* (Grafton, London, 1550) the
four lines of the stave are continuous and not
made up of small pieces, and are printed in
red ink ; the square notes are black and appear
to be each a separate type. Only four sorts
of notes are usec^ and are thus explained in a
memorandum by the printer. ' The •first note is
a strene^ note and 19
a breve; the second is
a square note and is a
semybreve ; the third is a pycke and is a mjm-
ymme ; the fourth is a dose, and is only used at
the end of a verse, etc.*
A book in the British Museum (Music Cata-
logue, G316; 'Book*), proves that florid music
was printed in England in 1530. It is the
bass part of a collection of ao songs, and is
attributed to Wyiakyn. de Worde, the successor
of Caxton. The typography is identical with
that of Petruoci, already mentioned as being
produced by means of two impressions. John
Day of Aldersffate, in 1560, publii^ed the
Church Service m four and three parts in an
improved style ef typography, and in 156a
the whole Book of Psalms. And Thomas Vau-
troUier in 1575 published the Cantiones of Tallis
and Byrd under a patent firom Queen Elisa-
beth, ma first of the kind granting a monopoly
or so&e ri^t of printing music. To them suc-
ceeded Thomas Este — ^who changed his name to
Snodham — John Windet, William Barley, and
others who were the assignees of Byrd and
Moriey, under the patoits respectively granted
to them for the sole printing of music. Li 1641
Edward Griffin of Paul*s AUey, London, printed
a colletftion of church music in score and parts
selected by John Barnard, a minor canon of St.
Paul's. The notes were of lozenge shape, and the
stave lines not very well joined together, the whole
being inelegant though very legible, __.
after this foshion. But the expense =^^^^
of two printings was saved. *
These men followed the praotloe of the foreign
printers, and no improvement was made until l^e
time of John Playford in the reign of Charles II.
Until his time, the quavers and semiquavers,
however numtt^ous in succession, were all dis-
tinct ; but in^ 1660 he introduced the ' new tied
note,' fotming them into groups of four or six.
The Dutch, French, and Germans followed his
example; but Maroello's Psalms, published at
Venice in a splendid edition in 1724, were
1 8tr8ae,{.e. ■trained or ■to^tdwdoot.perfaapi from Its tMlng th*
« mod la < '
MUSIC-PEINTING.
485
printed after the <M manner. From the time of
Charles II. round notes began to sup^sede the
k)zenge form both in writing and printing, and
John Playford's « Whole Book of Psalms * (about
1675) was printed in the new character.
As regards France, Foumier ('Traits historique
et critique sur Torigine et les progr^ doa carao-
t^res de fonte pour Timpression de la musique,*
Berne, 1765) says that Pierre Hautin of Paris
made the first punches for printing music about
the year IK25. The notes and the stave were
repreeentbd on the punch, oonseqaentfy ^e
whole was printed at onccw These types he
used himself, as well as selling them to Pierre
Attaignant and other printers. Hautin printed
as late as 1576. GuiUaume le B^ in 1544-5
engraved music types for printing first the lines
and then the notes ; but this inconvenient system
was abandoned. Nicholas Duchemin printed
music at one printing in the years 1550 to 1556.
Robert Granjon printed music at ^ons about
1572. The works of Claude Le Jeune wete
printed in France by Pierre Ballard in 1605
and 1606 ; the beauty and eleganee of the cha-
racters emf^oyed showing that the French had
greatly the advantage of their neighbours. About
this time also madr^;als were printed at Antwerp
by Phalesio, and sold at his shop, the sign oif
King David.
TIm above-named eminent house of Ballard
in Paris was established in the middle of the
16th century by Robert Ballaid and Us son-in-
law Adrien Le Roy, and continued from fiither
to son for two centuries, enjoying a royal privi-
lege or patent until the time of the Revdution
of 1789. [See voL u f» 1396; and voL ii.
p. 1330.]
Type music was greatly improved in the i8th
century. The ' Musical Miscellany,* printed by
John Watts, London 1729, has the stave lines
fairly joined, although the notes are not elegant
in form. Foumier (Paris 1766) puUished a
' Manuel typographique,' the musical specimens
in which are very good and dear. But still
finer iure the types cut l^ J. M. Fleischman of
Nuremberg in 1760. The stave and notes are
equal to any plate-music for deamess and
beauty. These types now belong to J. Enadiede
& Son of Haarlem. For Fouot's patent (1767)
see Appendix.
In 1 755 Breitkopf of Leipzig effected improve-
ments in the old system of types, which his son
(in conjmiction with his partner Hartel) carried
still farther. [See vol. i. 272, 273.] Gustav
Schelter of Leipzig entirely reformed the system,
while Carl Tauchnitz of Leipzig was the first to
apply stereotype to music-notes.
l£r. Clowes, the eminent London printer, did
much to improve music types. The *Harmoni-
ecm' (1823-33), the 'Musical Library* (1834),
and the 'Sacred Minstrelsy' (1835), are excel-
lent specimens of the art, the stave Unes being
more perfectly united than be^i»e.
The late Professor Edward Cowper invented
a beautiful but expensive process of printing
music firom the nused surfisoe of copper or brass
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MUSIO-PRIKTINCF.
characters iniertod im a wooden blodc,'the ftta^e
lines being also of copper inserted in anotlier
block and printed sepanately from the notes.
The words were set ap in ordinary types, then
stereotyped and inserted in grooves in one of
the blocks. His patent is dated April 5, 1837,
and numbered 5484.
In Scheurraan's process (1856) the notes, set up
in type, were impressed on a wax mould and the
stave lines superadded to the same mould, from
which a stereotype oast was taken. But the
double operation was difficult, and the mould
liable to damage ; and the plan was abandoned.
The old system, however, of using separate
types has been so much improved upon by
Messrs. Novelio & Co., Henderson, Rait, and
Fenton, and other printers, and the stave lines
aro now so well joined, that the appearanoe
and distinctness of type-musis leave little to
be desired. This result, as has been justly
observed by Mr. Henderson, is due chiefly to
the use of stereotype, which enables printers to
employ the most perfect, and consequently very
expensive, kind of types. If these were used
to print a laige edition, they would soon be
damaged ; and even if this wero not the case,
it would never pay the publisher to keep such
a mass of type set up against the time when
a fresh edition might be reauired.. The types
must be distributed and used for other works ;
and the expensive labour of setting up must be
incurred afresh for each new edition. All this is
avoided by taking a stereotype cast from the
types, which can be done at a small cost, and
kept in storo to be printed fitun whenever there
is a fresh demand for copies. The type is then
released, and serves over again for other works or
other pages of the same work, retaining its sharp-
ness unimpaired. Another advantage of stereo-
typing ii that many little defects in the types
can be remedied in the plate— greatly to the
advantage of the impression.
An inspection of the following examples will
shew how type-music is built up of many small
parts. Thus the single quaver and its stave are
composed of seven small pieces, which aro dis-
sected and shown separately im the second ex-
ample. Hie same is done for the group of three
quavers, which is made up of sixteen separate
pieces.
n. The printing of music fr^m engraved cop-
per plates is supposed to have begun at Rcone,
whero a collection of Canzonets — ' DUetto spin-
tuale' — was engraved by Martin van Buyten,
|tnd published by Simone Verovio in 1586, and
subsequently books of airs, etc., composed by
Kapspeiger, dated 1604-1612. In France the
great house of Ballard, already mentioned, began
to use engraving towards the end of Louis XI V.'s
roign ; some of Lully's operas being printed from
types and some from engraved copper-plates, llie
MnSIC-FBINTINa.
GermaiiB of oouxve practised the art, thfi most
interesting specimen of which is a book of Cla-
vierdbung, or exercises, composed and engraved
hy the great John Selwstian Bach himself. In
England the same process was used for a collec-
tion of pieces by Bull, Byrd, and Gibbons, en-
titled * Parthenia,' engraved by Wm. Hole, and
published in 161 1 ; fer single songs engraved by
Thomas Cross before and after 1 700 ; by Gluer
for Handel's ' Suites de Pieces ' and other music
(1730 etc), and for Dr. Croft's *Musicus Afipa-
ratus Academicus' (1713 1), and * Musica Smo^'
(1734). [See Cbobs, Clubb, Cbopt, in voL t]
The process of scratching each note separately
on the copper with a graver was obviously an
expensive one ; but the Dutch contrived to soften
the metal so as to render it susceptible of an im*
pression from the stroke of a hammer on a punch,
the point of which had the form of a musical
note — a method not only much cheaper, but also
insuring mater uniformity of appearanoe ; and
aooordingfy they were very successful with their
numerous publications from and aft«r the year
1 700. A punched copper-plate from Dublin, only
about 40 years old, was shown at the Caxton
Eihibition in 1877.
As early as 1710 it was found that pewter
plates wero cheaper and easier to stamp than
copper. In London John Walsh and John
Hare, Bichard Mean, Cluer and Creake, Thomas
Cross, junior, and William Smith (an apprentice
of Walshes) printed music from stamped pewtev
plates. These wero very coarsely executed;
but at length one Phillips, a Welshman, so im-
proved the process that, according to Hawkins,
music was scarcely anywhere so well printed aa
in England in his time.
This is the process that oontinues to be used to
the present day, and by which such magnificent
specunens as the editions of the Bachgesellschaft,
and that of Palestrina (both by Breitkopfs of
Leipzig), or the edition of Handel by Dr. Chry-
sander, are produced. Messrs. Novelio k Co.
have recently imported German workmen, and
their edition of Meudelssohn*s P. F. worics in one
volume (Christmas 1879), or the first publication
of the Purcell Society, rival the beet produc-
tions of Leipzig for deamess and elegance. In
order te save we pewter plates from wear, it is
now the custom to tranter an impression horn
the plate to a lithographic stone or to zinc, and
then print copies at the lithographic press. This
also enables the printer to use a bettor and blacker
ink than if the plates themselves had to be printed
from ; but the impressions are liable to smudge,
and are inferior in clearness to those from Uie
plates, unless indeed these are engraved in a very
superior style of sharpness. In Germany, zinc
hskB of late been usea instead of pewter: the
punches make a dearer impression, and the plates
allow of a larger number being printed without
damage.
In estimating the relative merits of tjpe and
plate printing from a commercial point of view,
it muAt be borne in mind that it is cheaper to
engrave a pewter plate than to set up a page of
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' MUSIC-PRUCTING. '
type, bat that the oooi of printing ftom the ptate
itf gretkiet than from the tjrpee. If therefore a
BmAll number of copies only is required, say
looo, it ia cheaper to engravew But if several
thousands are likely to be sold,, theft the tfy9
system is most profitable.
III. Lithography has in a few instances been
used to multiply manuscript music, which is trans-
ferred to the stone ftom a paper copy written
with a special ink. This may be useful when a
few copies are wanted on an emergency, as any
copyist would be able to write on the transfer
paper. But by employing trained copyists, ao«
customed to write backwi^ds, the musio may be
written at once on the stone ; and in this way
Breitkopf & Hartel of Leipzig have produced
useful editions of Mozart's operas and other
works, both notes and words being very clear
and neat. Alfieri's edition of Palestrina (6 vols.,
Borne, 1841-45) is a splendid specimen of litho-
graphed music.
For purt of the above information the writer
is indebted to a series of articles by Dr. Chry-
sander in the Musical Times of 1877. [V. de P.]
MUSIC SCHOOL, THE, Oxfobd, m situated
on the south dde of the Schook quadrangle,
under the Bodleian Library. This building was
rebuilt in its present form at the beginning of
the 1 7th century, but the interior of the Music
School was altered in 1780 by the architect
Wyatt under the direction of the then ProfessOT
of Music, Dr. Philip Hayes. The expenses of
these alterations were defrayed by a grant of
£50 from the University and by the proceeds of
three choral concerts given at th& following Com-
memoration, at one of which Dr. Hayes*s oratorio
' Prophecy ' was performed. The Music School
was fom^y used for the performance of the
exercises for the Degree of Mas. Bac. and Mus.
Doc., but during the last ten years the orchestra
has been removed, and the room is now used for
the University Examinations. The collection of
music (noticed in the article Musical Libraries)
which belongs to the Music School is no longer
preserved there, having been recently removed
to the Radcliffe Library ; but the building still
contains a valuable collection of portraits of mu*
sidans, etc., of which the following is a list :—
CT. AbeL
Pr. J. BvlL
Pr. Bomer.
ThomM BlagmTe.
Colonel Blaithwait
Pr. Boyce.
Sir John HswUni^
James Hasletins.
Pr. W. Hayes.
Pr. P. Hayes.
John HingeetoOk
R. Hudson.
Ix>Td Crewe, Bp. of Pubam. J. Hilton.
Pr. Child. NiohoUis LMiitoe.
Pr. Craft. Henry Lawea.
CorelU. William Lawet.
J. P. Elffart Orlando di LasM,
Bernard Gates. Matthew Loek.
Christopher Gibbons Pr. Pepnsch.
Orlando Gibbons. Bernard Smith.
W. Gregory. Christopher Simpson.
HandeL Pr. Thomas Tudway.
Pr. Heather. Pr. WUson.
In Anthony k Wood's account of the Univer-
mty, he states that the Music School also pos-
sessed busts of King Alfred, Dr. W. Hayes, and H.
PuTcell, as well as portraits of W. Hine, Dr. Pai^
«mB» Salomon, and John Weldon. .The hosts
.MtSIK, HOCHSCHULE FtJR. ^SV
tlte no longer la the Scheel^ but there are four
unidentified portraits, which are possiblytbose of
the above-named musicians* [W. B. S.]
MUSIK, KONIGLICHE HOCHSCHULE
FUR. The Boyal High School for Music at BerUn
was established in its present form in 1875, o^
the reorganisation of the Boyal Academy of Arts^
It was formed by the amalgamation of two dis*'
tinct bodies. The first of thei<e, which oonstitutee
the 'Abtheilung fur musikalische Composition'
of the present School, was founded in March
1833. In 1869 the < Abtheilung fiir Atntibende
Tonkunst ' (consisting only of Instrumental classes
for violin, violoncello, and piano) was added under
the direction of Professor Joachinu In 187 1 an
Osgan dass,. in 1872 classes for Brass Instru^
ments, Double Bass, and Solo Vocalists, and
in 1873 a Choral dass were added; and in
1874 a ^^ chorus was organised* The High
Schod thus consists of two departments^ The
first of these is devoted solely to instruction in
Composition. There are four Professors, and the
number of pupils in the summer term of 1878
(the report for which is the last issued) was 18.
The second department is devoted to executive
music, and is under the direction of Professor
Joachim. There are 36 professors, and instruc-
tion i& given in the vioUn,. violenpello, quartet
playing, pianoforte (both as a principal and a
secondary subject), playing from score, organ,
double bass,, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, horn,
trumpet, ensemble playing, solo playing with
<HX!he8tral accompaniment, orchestral jUaying,
solo singing, part singing, choral singing, traint
ing choruses, theory of vocal instruction, decla«>
mation and acting, Italian, pianoforte (with re-
gard to vocal music), theory, and history. The
number of pupils in the summer term of 1878
was 308. This division receives from the State
a grant of 149,868 marks (£7493). The receipts
are estimated at 41,760 marks (£2088), so that
the institution costs the State about £5400.
One fifth of the number of pupils receive firee
instruction,, awarded according to progress or
talent, and a yearly sum of 1200 marks is de-
voted to the assistance of needy and deserving
pupils. The orchestra consists of 70 or 80 per-
formers, amongst whom are 10 professional leaders^
each with a salary of 60Q marks {£"^0). Since 1872
the pupils of the High School have given three or
four public concerts every year, imd since 1876
semi-public concerts and occasional dramatic and
operatic performances have been given by the
pupils twice a month. — llie Royal Institution fof
Church Music, although unconnected with the
High School for Music, may be'noticed here.
This Institution was founded in i8ai, and was
placed under the direction of the Royal Academy
of Arts in 18751 sinoe when the Director of the
Institution is a member of the Senate of the
Academy. The Institution is devoted to the
education of organists, cantors, and music masters
for high-grade schools and seminaries. There
, are four ptofessors, giving instruction in the organ,
' pianoforte, vioUn^ singing,' harmony, counter-
point and form, organ construction, and criticism
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438 MU8IK, HOCHSCHULE fCE.
of exerdses. The ayera^re number of pnpfls h
MUSIKA.LI8CHE8 OPFER> i.t, Mumcal
Offering. One of3ach'swork% containing varioaa
treatments of » snbjeot given him by Frederick
the Great to extemporise npon during his visit
to I\>t8dam in ^ 1747. The work, as published
by Breitkopf & Hartel (Nov. 1831), contains
a Riceroan, «ne for 3 voices and one for 6 voioea
(the latter in score), i Fuga oanonloa for 2 voices,
5 Sonatas for Flute (the king's own instrument),
Vi<^ and Continue, and 8 Canons ; 16 pieces in
all. The work was published by Bach with a
dedication dated July 7, t747— * curious medley
of 5 sheets oblong folio and i sheet upright foUo,
containing the Bicercar k 3, and a Canon per-
petuua (the 3rd in B. & H.'a edition), 5 Canons;
and the Fuga canonioa. In the Dedication copy,
now in the Amalienbibliothek at Berlin, Bach
has written 'Regis Inssu Cantio £t Reliqua
Canonica Arte Reeoluta'— the theme demanded
by the king with other things developed by can-
onical art. Four more oblong foUo sheets seem
to have been afterwards added, oontaining the
Bicercar 2k 6 and a Canons, and lastly 3 sheets
oontaining the Sonatas and I Cano& (See
pitta's Bach, H. 671-676 ; 843-845.) [G.]
MUSTEL, Victor, a manufacturer of hai>
inoniums, whose long struggles against poverty,
and final success, entitle mm to be called the
'Palissy of music,' was born at Havre in 181 5.
Left an orphan at the age of 12, he was ap-
prenticed to a shipbuilder, and in 1838 set up in
business for himself in that trade at the httle
hamlet of Sanvic. Endowed from youth with a
peculiarly constructive genius, his £nt attempts
at makii^ musical instruments were devoted to
the improvement of an accordion which he had
bought in Havre. Elated with his success, he
disiKised of his workshop in May 1844, and set
out fbr Paris with his wife and two children.
For the next nine years he worked in several
different workshops, but never obtained high
waffes. In 1853 he determined to start in
bunness for himself as a harmonium maker, and
in 1855 exhibited his harmonium with * Double
Expression,' and a new stop ' Harpe Eolienne,'
for which he gained a medal of the first class.
For the first year after this, Mustel (now as-
sisted by his two sons) did fidriy well, but
business rapidly declined, and he would perhaps
have been obliged to succumb, but for the sue
of a little land which he had inherited from his
&ther. Even in 1866 his receipts did little
more than o^er the costs, but sinoe that date
the firm of ^Victor Mustel et ses Fils' has
gained a reputation that has been as noteworthy
fa England as in fiance.
The inventions due to MM. Mustel are—' La
Double Expression' (patented 1854), whereby
the natural preponderance of the bass tones over
those of the treble is, with complete power of
Inorease and decrease, in either hal^ brought
iBi>ltum.m)t«|Blb9 7Md8. ■r.Oartyle.OQthtoUNrbaiiA.
■•n April T.
MUSURGIA UNIVERSALIS.
under direct control of the player by means of
knee pedals (genouill^ree) that control the energy
and pressure of the wind ; • Le Fort^ expressif,'
a diidded swell governed by pneumatic agency;
anM ' La Harpe Eolienne,' a tremolo recuter of
two ranks of vibrators, a ft. pitch, which of£a a
gently beating variation to the unison by being
sUghtiy less i(nd more than the normal pitch of
the instrument, the impression of which remains
unimpidred. M. Mustel has recently invented
'Le Typophone,' and ' Le M^taphone.' The first
of these is a keyboard percussion instrument,
made of tuning-forlu in resonance boxes of the
proper acoustic capacity. It is not at this
moment in &biication, sinoe its manu&cture
would need larger funds than the firm has at
its disposal, but it was lately used with success
at the Paris Op^ra Comique in Mozart's * Flute
enchant^.' The M^taphone (patented in 187S)
is an invention to soften at |deasure the some-
what strident tones of the harmonium. It is
produced by a sliding shutter of leather to
each compartment, and is governed by diaw-
stqps, as with other modifications of tone and
power. [A.J.H.]
MUSURGIA UNIVERSALIS. The name
of a voluminous work, published at Rome in the
year 1650, by the Jesuit Father, Athanaains
Kircher, and translated into German, by An-
dreas Hirsch, of Hall, in Suabia, in 1663.
The ten Books into which the treatise is divided
contain much useful matter, interrupted, unfor-
tunately, by a host of irrelevant disquisiUons, and
an inordinate amount of empty speculation.
In the First Book, the author describes the
Construction of the Ear, the Comparative Ana-
tomy of the Vocal Organs, and the sounds emitted
by Beasts, Birds, Reptiles, and Insects, induding
the Death-Song of the ^wan.->The Second Book
treats of the Music of the Hebrews, and the
Greeks. — ^In the Third, are contained discussions
on the Theory of Harmonics, Proportion, the
Ratios of Intervals, the Gre^ Scales, the Scale of
Guide d*Arezso, the system of Boethius, and the
Antient Greek Modes. — The Fourth Book is de-
voted to a description of the Monochord, and its
minute divisions.— The Fifth Book treats of Nota-
tion, Counterpoint, and other branches of Com-
position; and contains a Canon which may be
sung by twelve million two hundred thousand
voices. [See Nodus Salomqnis.]— The Sixth
Book-r-founded chiefly on the Harmonieorum
Itbri XII of Mersennus— contains a long dissert-
ation upon Instrumental Music. — ^The Seventh
Book describes the difference between Antient and
Modem Music— The Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth
Books are fiUed with discussions of a ver^r trans*
oendental character; and, dealing largely in 'the
Marvelloua,' treat of the Bit6 of the Tarantula
and its musical cure, the Harmony of the Spheres,
and of the Four Elements, the Principles of Har-
mony as exemplified in the Ph}portions of the
Human Body and the Affections of the Mind,
and other subjects equally visionary and recon-
dite, some compensation for the absurdity of
which irill be found in a really practical da*
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MUSUBGIA UNIVERSALIS.
8cripti<m of the .<3Bolian Harp, of wMch Father
Kinsher claims to be the inventor.
A careful perusal of this curious work will be
found neither useless nor uninteresting, pro-
vided its statements be received eum gratw talis.
Remembering that its author was raUier a well-
read Scholar than a practical Musician, we can
scarcely wonder at tne errors it contains. Its
merits are the result of laborious research. Its
£ftults arise from Father Kircher^s inability to
form a correct judgment on points, which, to a
more experienced Artist, would have presented
but little difficulty. And, the like may be said of
the same writer*s Phonnrgia nova — a work on
the Nature and Properties of Sound — which ap-
peared in 1673. [W. S. R.]
MUX A (Italian), ix, change. A word often
seen attached to Horn parts — 'muta in £s/
*muta in B/ etc., meaning simply 'change to
Eb or Bb,* etc.; that is, take off the crook in
which you are playing and put on that which
will make the horn sound in Eb or Bb. [G.]
MUTATION. (Lat. MiUalio, from muto to
change.) I. When, in the Solmisation of a Plun
Chaunt Melody, it becomes necessary to pass
from one Hexachord to another, the process by
which the transfer is effected is called a Muta-
tion. [See Hexachord.] In ascending frtnn the
Hexackordon durum to the Bexachordon natu-
raUt the chango may be conveniently made by
substituting the re of the latter for the 80I of the
former, at the note D — whence this particular
Mutation is kAown as that of SoL Rs. [See
example, vol. i. p. 7346.]
In descending frx>m the Hexackordon naturaU
to the Hexackordon durum, the sol of the latter
most be taken, instead of the re of the former, at
the same note ; and the Mutation is then called
Be Sol.' The same process wUl also serve for
the mutual interchange between the Hexctchor-
don naturcUe and the Hexackordon moUe, at the
noteG.
But, in ascending from the Hexackordon naiu-
role to the HexaeSordon durum, the re of the
latter must be substituted for the la of the former,
at the note A, by means of the Mutation La
Rx : and, in descending from the Hexackordon
durum to the Hexackordon naturaU, the la of
the second will be sung instead of the re of the
first— Re La.
Direct communication between the Hexa-
ekordon durum, and the Hexackordon molU, is
rarely ^used, on account of the False Relation
described under the head of Mi Contra Fa.
Many different systems of Mutation have been
recommended by early writers ; but all ag^ree in
the necessity of so arranging that the S^nitone
■hall always fall between the Syllables mi and /a.
Lucas Lossius (Erotemata musics, 1563) directs
the change to be always made by means of re in
iMcendinff, and la in descending; and enforces
his rule m the following distich—
Vodbiu Qtaris iclQm maUndo diuilms :
Pttr r« qnidem ■onom mutatur, per la deanum.
n. The term is also applied to the change
which takes place in a Boy*s Voice, when it
MUTE.
^3»
passes from Treble, or Alto, into Tenor, <^ Bass.
The period of this transformation is uncertain ;
but it generally declares itself between the ages
of fourteen and sixteen, and is very raraly
deferred later than the completion of the seven*
teenth year. During the time thai it is in pro-
gress, the vocal organs undergo so much dis-
turbance, that ffreat care is necessary in order to
prevent them from being seriously injured by
incautious exeicise.
III. More rarely, the word is used to denote
that change in the position of the huid upon the
Violin, which, by linglish Violinists, is called the
Shift. [WJ3.R.]
MUTATION STOPS, in an organ, are those
registers which do not produce a sound agreeing
with the name of the key pressed down, but
either the perfect fiiUi or the major third to it, as G
or E on the G key. The former are called fifth«
sounding, or Quint stops; the latter third-sound-
ing, or Tierce stops. The proper relative siae of
the largest fifth-sounding stop is one-third that of
the Foundation stop from which it is deduced; as
io|, 5^, or a}, from the 32, 16, or 8 feet stops
respectively. The largest Tierce-sounding stops
are one-fifth the size of the Foundation stops from
which they are deduced ; as 6|, 3^ and if feet
respectively. The third-sounding rank on the
manual has been much more sparingly used since
the introduction of Equal Temperament, as it does
not sound agreeably with that system of tuning ;
and an additional rank of pipes consequently be-
comes available for some other purpose.
The only Mutation stop in use in England pre-
viously to the arrival of Smith and Harris (1660)
was the twelfth (2| feet). After that date the
Tierce (i^ foot), Larigot (i^ foot), and their
octaves (among the small Mixture ranks) became
not uncommpn. . [E.J. H.]
MJJT'E {sordino; sourdine; dampfer). A con-
trivance applied to a musical instrument for the
purpose of deadening or lessening the sound. In
the pianoforte the effect isproducM by the dampers
or the soft pedaU
In instruments of
the violin-tribe the 1
mute is a piece of
brass so formed as
to stick on to the
bridge and stand
clear of the strings.
It adds weight to
the bridge and
thus checks the
vibrations of the
body of the instru-
ment. [See Appen-
dix, DOLOB CAM-
pana.] In the horn and trumpet a sort of
leathern pear is employed, which fills the bell
to a great extent, and thus prevents the sound
tram coming fully out.
Beethoven mutes the strings of the orchestra
in the slow movement of his 3rd and 5th P. F.
Concertos, and in that uf the Violin Concerto.
A fine instance is the middle potion of Weber s
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(440
JiUTB.
Overture to Buiyanthe. Mendelssohn rarely if
ever uBee this means of effect. [G.]
MY MOTHER BIDS ME BIND MY
HAIR. One of the most favourite of Haydn's I i
Canzonets. The words were originally written
by Mrs. Hunter to the andante of a sonata by
Pieyel. The stanzas were reversed by Haydn,
so that the present first verse was originally the
second. [G.]
MYSLXWEGZEE, Josef, a Bohemian com-
poser, son of a miller, bom near Prague, March
p, 1737; had a good education in the common
school, and after his fkther*s death devoted him-
self to music. After many attempts at compo-
sition, and much wandering, he fell upon his feet
at Parma, in 1 764, with an opera, the success of
which was so great as to induce the Neapolitan
ambassador to engage him to write the opera for
the celebration of the next birthday of the king at
Naples. The new piece was called Bellerofonte,
and made his reputation to that degree that
though he returned to the north of Italy he was re-
called to Naples no less than nine times. Mozart
met him at Bologna in Nov. 1773, and again at
Munich in 1777. He was evidently very sifted.
Mozart says of his sonatas that ' they are bound
to please, not difficult, and very efifective,' and
urges his sister to learn them ^by heart. Else-
where he speaks of him 'as a prize difficult to
replace. He was evidently very * fascinating, but
as evidently a loose fish, unable, with all bis en-
gagements, to keep himself respectable. *
NACHSCHLAG.
In 1778 he gave his Olimpiade at Naples,
which threw every one into transports of en-
thusiasm. The famous singer Giibrielli sang
his songs everywhere, and was accustomed to
say that none were so suited to her voice. He
died at Rome, Feb. 4, 1781, adding another
to the long list of musicians whose great popa<^
larity during their lifetime was not sufficient
to preserve their works from swift oUivion.
Mysliweczek is said to have had a young Eng-
lish friend named Barry, who buried him in
San Lorenzo in Lucina, and erected a monu-
ment to him there. The Italians called him
II Boemo, in despair at the pronunciation of
his proper name. [G.]
MYSTi:RES DISIS. LES. 'An arrange-
ment, or derangement, of Mozart*s Zjauberflote,
words by Morel, music adapted by Lachnith ;
produced at the Acad^mie Aug. 26, 1801. The
opera was torn to pieces ; some of the best num-
bers (e. g. the and quintet, the terzet, the chorus
' 0 Isis, Pamina's song) were taken out, numbers
from other operas inserted (e. g. *Fin ch' han dal
vino * as a duet). The concluding chorus opened
the opera, and immense liberties were taken with
what was left. But such was the beauty and
spirit of the music that its success was immense^
and it kept the boards till May 2. 1827. The
real Zauberfl5te was first produced in Paris in
1 8 29. Lachnith was much ridiculed at the time ;
he was called * Le D^rangeur,* and his work * Lea
MiB^res d'ioi.' [See Lachnith.] [G.]
N
NAAMAN. An oratorio in ) parts; the
words by W. Bartholomew, the music by
CSosta. Composed for the Birmingham
Festival, and produced there Sept. 7, 1864.
- Sir M. Co8ta*s former oratorio, J&Li, was also
written to words by Bartholomew, is in 2 parts,
and was produced at the Birmingham Festival,
on Aug. 29. 1855. [G.j
NABUCCO.orNABUCODONOSOR. Opera
in 3 acts; libretto by Solera, music by Verdi.
Produced at the Scala, Milan, in Lent 1842 ; at
Paris, Oct. 16, 1845 ; in London as *Nino* at
Her Majesty's, March 3, 1846. [G.]
NACHBAUR, Franz, a noted German tenor,
bom March 25, 1835, at Schloss Giessen, near
Friedrichshafen, Wurtemburg. He was educated
at the Polytechnic School, Stuttgard. As a mem-
ber of a Gesangverein, his fine voice attracted the
notice of Pischek, who advised him to take re-
gular instruction in singing. He began his career
as a chorister at Basle, and afterwMds became a
member of a German troupe travelling in France.
Through the liberality of M. Passavant, a banker
at Luneville, he fouj^ means for the culture of
his voice, first through Orti, the bass singer, and
»lrtt«r,Nov.ia,lTn.
SAMS. 7. 177&
• Ootll.lT77.
« ^•b. «, 1778 J OCL M..1777,
afterwards with Lamperti of Milan. He after*
wards sang in opera at Mannheim, Prague, Darm-
stadt, Vienna, and in 1866 at Munich, where hei
obtained a permanent engagement at the opera.
More recently he has sung in Italy, and created
Lohengrin at Rome in 1 878. His parts comprise
Raoul, the Prophet, Arnold, etc. [A. C]
NACHDRUClUd:iT(Withpressure,Heavily;
corresponding neariy to Uie Italian peBonte), A
direction used by Beethoven in the Rondo of the
Pianoforte Concerto in E b. No. 5. Op. 73 (Bars
9, 102, 106), to indicate that the bsiss is to be
well emphasized. The term espreBsivo is coinci*
dently used in the treble. [J.A.F.M.]
N ACHRUF, i. e. Farewell. The title given by
Mendelssohn to the slow movement which bie
composed to his Quintet in A, in Paris, after
hearing of the death of his great friend Edward
Ritz. It replaced a minuet and trio in Ff and
D, the trio in double canon. [G.]
NACHSCHLAG. The German name for one
of the graces of instrumental and vocal music.
It consists of a note played or sung at the end of
the note to which it serves as an ornament, and
it thus forms, as its name indicates, the anti-
thesis to the Voneklqg, or short appoggiaturay
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KACHSCHLAG.
%Iiiofa 18 played at Uie beginning. [Afpoooia-
TUBA.]
VoruMag, Noehtchlag.
1. WriOtn, PUv^a, Writtm. Tiapti.
Like all graces, the Kaohflbhlag fbnns part of
the value of its principal note, which is accord-
ingly curtailed to make room for it, just as in
the Vorschlag the principal note loses a portion
of its value at the beginning. Emanuel Bach,
who is the chief authority on the subject of
grace-notes, does not approve of this curtail-
ment. He says — 'All graces written in small
notes belong to the next following large note,
and the value of the preceding large note must
therefore never be lessened.* And again — 'The
ugly Nachscblag has arisen from the error of
separating the Vorschlag from its principal note,
and playing it within the value of the foregoing
note, and he gives the following passage as an
instance, which he considers would be lar better
rendered as in Ex. 4 than as in £x. 3.
2. 8. 4.
NACHSCHLAa.
441
Nevertheless, Emanuel Bach*s successors. Mar-
purg, Tiirk, Leopold Mozart, etc, have all re-
cognised the Naohschlag as a legitimate grace^
though they all protest against its being written
as a small note, on aocoimt of its liability to be
confounded with the Vorschlag. Marpurg refers
to an early method of indicating it by means of
a bent line ^^, the angle being directed upwards
or downwards according as the Naohschlag was
above or below the principal note (Ex. 5), while
for a springing Nachschlag, the leap of wUch
was alwavs into the next following principal
note, an oblique line was used (Ex. 6). * But at
the present day (1755),* he goes on to say, 'the
Nachschlag is always written as a small note,
with the hook turned tawardt iU own principal
noU* (Ex. 7).
j'>'m.i m i^
The Nachschlag was not limited to a single
note, groups of two notes (called by Tttrk Uie
double Nachochlag) forming a diatonic progres-
sion, and played at the end of their principal
note, being fi^Bquently met with, and groups of
even more notes occasionally.
In the works of the great masters, the Nach-
schlag, though of very frequent occurrence, is
almost invariably written out in notes of or-
dinary size, as in the following instances, among
many others,
Hanosl, *He«lfth.*
Modem composers, on the other hand, have
returned to some extent to the older method of
writing the Nachschlag as a small note, ap-
parenuy not taking into account the possibility
of its being mistaken for a Vorschlag. It is true
that in most cases there is pradically little
chance of a misapprehensioii, the genottl charac-
ter and rhythm of the phrase sufficiently indi-
cating that the small notes form a Nachschlag.
Thus in many instances in Schumann's piano-
forte works the small note is placed at the end
of a bar, in the position in which as Nachschlag
it ought to be played, thus distinguishing it from
the Vorschlag, which would be written at the
beginning of the bar (Ex. 10). And in the ex*
amples quoted below ftom Liszt and Chopin^
although the same precaution has not been
taken, yet the effect intended is sufficiently clear
— the small notes all &I1 within the time of the
preceding notes (Ex. ii).
10.
ScHVMAif If, • Wamm,* Op. W.
r T. NaektMag, Bw IL VoneUag.
Chopiw, Noetums, Op. SS, No. f .
f' ■■ I- ^r ^^^^^^^^^
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^-'■'"XTTtum ■■!■
442
NACHSCHLAG.
Although the employment of the Nacfaschlag
is 80. general in oompotdtion, it appears to have
no disUnctive name in any laoffuage except Ger-
man. Some English authors^ nave adopted the
translation AftemoU, bat it has never come into
general use, while among the old French agrS-
mens there is one called AceeiU, which is identi-
cal both as to sign and execution with the
Nachschlag described by Marpuig (Ex. 5), but
which, according to Rousseau, who speaks of it as
a coup de gosier, only belonged to vocal music.
The term Nachschlag also signifies the turn of
a triU. [See Trill.] [F. T.]
NACHSPI£Lsi.e. Afterpiece. A name given
by the modem German school of organists to
pieces intended to be played at the conclusion of
the service, while the congregation is leaving the
churdi. Thitf form of composition is also called
Postludium, and has even been englished as
* Postlude.* The Grerman Utle corresponds to the
word Vorspiel, osed as an equivalent to Pralu-
dium or Prelude. Examples of the name (Nach-
spiel) may be found in the works of Joseph
Andr^ and Rinck, and examples of Postlude in
that of the late Henry Smart, and in the Or-
ganist*8 Quarterly Jounial, etc. [J. A. F. M.]
NACHTSTt5rCKE (Night Pieces). The name
of four pieces for pianoforte solo by Schumann^
constituting op. 33 of his published works. They
were written in Vienna in 1839 (the same year
as the FasschingsBchwank aus Wien, the Three
Romances, the Humoreske, etc.) and are dedi-
cated to F. A. Becker of Freiberg. The name
is taken from the title of a series of tales by
Hoffmann, whose works, like those of Jean Paul
Richter, had a great fascination for Schumann
at this period of his life. [See Kbsislsbiaka,
which were written the year before the Nacht-
stttcke.] They are entirely distinct in character
from the ordinary Nocturns, though the name
would seem to imply a resemblance; in fact,
they are much more like the ' Nuits Blanches '
of Stephen Heller, being, with one exception
(No. 4, the simplest and most popular, as well as
the quietest of the series), excited and restless
yet full of vigour. [J. A. F. M.]
NAGELI, JoHAKif Georo, an eminent music
publisher, and also a composer and litterateur,
bom at Zurich in 1768. He started his music
business in his native town in 1792, and quickly
issued editions of Handel, Bach (48 Preludes and
Fugues, Art of Fugue) and other classics, laige
oblong folio, in a style of great clearness and
beauty for the time. In 1803 he started the
'Repertoire des clavecinistes,* a periodical publi-
cation in which new works by Olementi, Cnuner,
.3eethoven and others appeared. For Beethoven
he published the three, grand solo sonatas now
known as op. 31, but which appeared without
opus number, the first and and m 1803 in Pt. 5
of the Repertoire, the 3rd in 1804 in Pt. 11.
It is in ponnection with the ist of the three
that the circumstance occurred which will pre-
vent Nageli firom being foigotten as loug-ap
1 Or. Otilooa, 'Onmmtf of MiMto.'
NALDI.
Beethoven*s sonatas are studied. He actuany
interpolated 4 bars into the ist movement of that
sonata, between the 28th and 37th bars from the
end: —
Beethoven however must have pardoned this
crime ; for several of his later letters to NSgeli
are couched in terms of affection, and he did his
utmost to induce the Archduke Rodolph to sub-
scribe to a volume of Nflgeli*s poems in 1824.
Nageli*s compodtions were chiefly vocal—
choruses for Church and School use, etc., popular
enough in their day. He founded an association
for the encouragement of music and acted as its
President. He was a great adherent of the
Pestalozzian system of ^ucation, and wrote in
support of it. But these and his other active
lab<iurs for his beloved art, his disputes with
Thibaut and with Hettinger, were brought to an
end by his death at Zurich Dec. 36, 1836, and
are aU now foigotten. An exception may be
made for an air which was long highly popular
in England under the name of 'Life let us
cherish,' and which is even now sometimes heard.
The Finale in Woelfl^s sonata <Non plus ultra*
is a set of variations on that air. [G.]
N^NIA. A cantata for chorus and orches-
tra on Schiller's words ' Auch das Schone muss
sterben * by Hermann Goetz. It is op. 10 of his
published works. Nsenia or Nenia was a classical
term for a funeral dirge. [6.]
NALDI, G1U8EPPB, bom at Bologna^ Feb.
2, 1770, was the only son of Giuseppe Naldi,
of the same city, who held a government appoint-
ment of high trust. The son was educated in the
universities of Bologna and Pavia, where he
made very rapid progress in his studies for the
law, the profession of his choice. Findiiuf this,
however, uncongenial after a short time, he ob-
tained, at the personal request of the Marohese
Litta, a secretitfy*s place in a government depart-
ment, where he gave promise of ability and dis-
tinction ; but the Italian Revolution put an end
to his career in this direction, and he left the
countiy.
He next appeared at Milan, where he was
persuaded to give way to his natural genius for
music, and where he achieved his fint success
upon the stage. According to F^tis (vrho, how-
ever, is incorrect in some details of his bio-
graphy), Naldi appeared at Rome in 1 789, then
at Naples, and next at Venice and Turin. In
1796 and 7 he reappeared at Milan. In London
he made hin (Uhut April 15, 1806, and he con-
tinued to sing here every subsequent season up
to 1 81 9 (inclusive). His principal charaoten
were in ' Le Cantatrici ViUane,* * Cos! fim tntte,*
and ' II Fanatioo per la musica.* In the latter,
he showed his ikill in playing the violoooello, on
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NALDL
wbioli lie WM no mean perfanner. Lord Mount*
Edgcombe detcribet his voioe m ' weak and un-
certain*; while another critio oallt it *8onoroui
and powerful,* but exoepta from hit luooenful
rdlee thatof Sancho in the 'Villeggiatori bizarri/
which he rather foolishly excuses on the plea
that he was ' too much the gentleman to play the
down ' (Monthly Mirror). All agree, however,
that Naldi was extremely clever, oould write
very foir verses and compose very tolerable
music; had an accurate ear; oould play the
piano and oello very well; and read at sight
with perfect ease and intonation. As an actor,
he was excellent, and played with 'irresistible
humour^ effect, judgment, and truth.* A good
portrait-sketch of him, as Figaro in ' Le Nozze,*
'Drawn and Etched expressly for the Britbh
Stage,* appeared in Feb. 1 8i 8. In the next year,
he was engaged at Paris, where he made his
dibtU in 'God fan tutte*; but his powers were
much faded. He returned once more to London
in that, his last^ season: and in thefoUowii^
year, at Paris, met an untimely death, in the
aoartments of his friend Garcia, by the bursting
of a newly-inrented cooking-kettl^ a trial of
which he had been invited to witness. His
daughter, Mllb. Naldi, made her ddbut in 1819.
She sang at Paris in 1823-3, and is said (bv
F^ds) to have 'shared the public i^yplause wiw
Pasta for som^B years, particularly in Tancredi
and Borneo e Giolietta.* Without attaching im-
plidt credit to this statement, we may bdieve
that she was an excellent singer, and that she
was a lofls to the stage when she retired (1824),
having married the Conte di Sparre, after whidi
she was iio more heard, except in her own idUm,
or those of her friends. [J. M.]
NALSON, RiY. Yalsntihi, Sub-chanter of
YoriL Cathedral in the early part of the i8th
century, composed an Evening Service in G, and
also, on the occasion of the Peace of Utrecht in
171 3, a Morning Service in the same kev, both
which are contained in the Tudway Collection,
Hari. M8S. 7341 and 7343. Some anthems by
himrare also extant. He died in 1722. [W.H.H.]
NANIKI,^ Giovanni Bkbnabdino, was bom,
about the middle of the 1 6th century, at Vallerano,
where he studied Counterpoint under his elder
brother, Giovanni Mabia. Bemoving, at a later
period, to Bome, he held the appointment of
Maestro di Cappella. first at the Church of S. Luigi
de* Francesi, and afterwards at that of S. Lorenzo
in Damaso. Beyond this, little is known of his
personal history; though it is certain that he
took a prominent part in the management of his
brothers Music School,~an institution to which
iome of the most celebrated Composers of the
period were indebted for their earlv training.
The exact date of his death has not been ascer-
tained, and can only be surmised from that of his
latest publication, which was printed in 1620.
As a Composer, Q. B. Nanini takes rank among
the best Masters of his time ; but his works are,
kf the most part, fiur less characteristic of the
I l(NMttn« iMoiiwllj tptltod Nunso*
KANTOT.
44S
true Polyphonic style than those of his brother.
He was one of the first who ventured so far
to depart from the traditions of the Boman
School as to 'write Church Music with Organ
Aoc<»npaniment ; and his later productions
bear evident marks of that 'progress' which
ultimately led to its extinction. His published
works are, a volume of delightful Madrigals
entitled, 'Madrigali, k 5 vod,* Lib. I. (Venice,
1579. I58^» >59^); Idem, Lib. II. (Venice, 1599) ;
Id., Lib. III. (Bome, 161 2); 'Motteota, k i. ii
iii. iv. V. voc. una cum gravi voce ad organi
sonum accomodata, lib. I? (B<»na, 1608); Id.,
Lib. II. (Bome, 161 1); Id., lib. III. (Bome,
1612); Id., Lib. IV. (Bome, 1618); 'Salmi, k 4
voc. con I'organo' (Bome, 1620); and 'Venite,
exultemus Domino, k 3 voc. col* organo * ( Assisi,
1620)^ In addition to these important works,
many Madrigals, and other detached compod-
tions, will be found in the collections published
by Phaledus, and others, at the beginnmg of the
17th century: and many more still remain in
MS. Of these last, the most important are, some
Psalms and Motets for 8 Voices, and a Salve
Begina for 12, formerly in the collection of the
Abb^ Santini ; and a Treatise on Counterpoint,
written, in conjunction with Giov. Maria, per-
haps for the use of the pupils in the Mnsio
SchooL Proske has Induded four of his Psalms
in the ' Mudca Divina.* [W. S. B.]
NANINI, Giovanni Mabia, elder brother of
the preceding, was also a native of Vallerano,
where he is believed to have been bom, about
1540. In earlv youth he stu<fied Counterpoint,
at Bome, under Claude Goudimd, in whose
Mudc School he and Palestrina are said to have
been, for a time, ' fellow-students. His education
completed, he returned to his birth-place, as
Maestro di Cappella : but when, in consequence
of Palestrina*s acceptance of office at the Vatican
Basilica, it became necessary, in 1571, to elect
a new Maestro di Cappdla for the Basilica Liberia
ana (S. Maria Maggiore), he was invited to
Bome, as the fittest person upon whom the vacant
preferment could be bestowed ; and he continued
to hdd the appointment, until 1575, when he re-
signed it in &vour of Ippolito Tartaglini.
Finding his talents now fiurly appreciated,
Giov. Maria established a public Mudc School—
the first ever opened in Bome by an Italian — in
the management of which he was assisted by bis
brother, Giov. Bemadino, as well as by Palestrina
himsdf, who constantly gave instruction to the
pupils, and took a lively interest in the institu-
tion. The School prospered exceedingly ; and was
frequented by more than one talented youth
whose genius afterwards bore abundant fruit.
Nanini's reputation as a learned Contrapuntist,
and gifted Compose, was secured. His works
were recdved at tiie Sistine Chapd with marks
of special approbation; and on Oct. 27, 1577, he
tTfais.«tl«Mt.totlMSMi«nnf-rBotl?«dtf«dltl«n. But. Mraminc
ItMO M the oorreol date of G. M. Naolnl's Uxth, h« wm Palwtrina'i
Junior by 16 jmn : ud Uiis dlAtranoe of tee Is cooslderad. both br
Ambrot MMl PiMko. to Jostlfy the belief th«t tte two Oompoeen dM
not study onder Goudlnel t the su^ tlBMb
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444
NANINI.
was eldctod a member of the Fonti6cAl Choir,
to whioh he contributed, during the last 30 yearn
of his life, many yaluable compositions. His
death took place on March 11, 1607; and his
remains were deposited in the Church of S. Luigi
de* Franoed.
Nanini was one of the brightest ornaments of
the great Roman School, the highest Qualities of
which he cultivated in a remarkable degree.
His Motet, for six Voices — * Hodie nobis cod^m
rex *— annually sung, in the Sistine Chapel, on the
morning of Christmas Day, is a noble compo-
sition ; and he has left us many others, of equal
merit, a large proportion of which still remain in
MS. among the Aivhiyes of the Pontifical Choir,
the Vatican Basilica, the Collegium B<»nanum,
the Oratory of S. Maria in Vallicella, and other
noted collections. P. Martini mentions a MS.
ooUeotion of Canons, entitled ' Cento dnauanta
sette Contrappunti e Canoni k 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
e II Vod, sopra del Canto fermo intitolato La
Base di Costanzo Festa,* which contains some
miracles of in£;enuity and learning. Some of
these, at least, have already appeared among his
published works : but, a dissertatiim <m Counter-
pointy called ' Begole di Giov. Maria e di Ber-
nardino Nanini, per fare oontrappunto a mente
sopra il Canto fermo,' written, conjointly, by him-
seu, and his younger brother, exists only in a
MS. copy— unhappily, imperfect — ^transcribed by
Orazio Qriffi, and preseryed in the libraiy of the
Palazzo Corsini alia Lungara.
The published works of Nanini comprise »
volume of 'Motetti, k 3 voci* (Venice, 1578);
'Motetti, Ik 5 vod' (1578): 'MadrigaU,' Lib. L
(1578); Idem, Lib. IL (1580, 158a, 1587, 1605);
Id., Lib. in. (1584); Id.,Lib.IV.(ij86); 'Can-
zonetti, k 3 vod' (1587), all publisheo, at Venice,
in 4to, by Gardano ; some ' Siami, k 8 vod,* printed
in the weU-known cdlection of Fabio Costantini
(Napoli, 1615); and a number of Motets, Madri-
gals, and other isolated works, induded in Coetan-
tini*s * Motetti,* Waelrant's 'Symphonia Angelica,*
and other collections published in Italy, and by
P. Phal^se of Antwerp. Some vwy fine Motets —
induding a masterly ' Hodie Christus natus est,*
in which the characteristic No^ ! No^ I is intro-
duced with great effect — ^will be found in Proske*s
' Musica Divina.* [See NoKl. ) Others are given
in the collections of the Prince de la Moskowa,
BochUtz,etc. LW.S.R.]
NANTIEB-DIDI^ Constanob Betst
KoSABKLLA, was bom at St. Denis in the Isle of
Bourbon (now lie de la Reunion) Nov. 16, 183 1.
Mdlle. Nantier, who derived her second name
from her marriage with a singer named Didi^
recdved instruction in singing at the Paris Con-
servatoire under Duprez, from 1847 to 1849, and
obtained an aocesiU in the latter year in his class,
and the first prize in the Opera dass. She made
her d^but <m the stage at the Cariffnan Theatre,
Turin, in Mercadante's * La Veetale? She played
In Paris at the Salle Ventadour in 1851, and
afterwards joined an Italian company, of which
Giuglini was one, and who played at Lyons,
Nlmes, Montpelier, etc
NAPLES.
Madsiine'Nsntier^Didi^ made her first 'ap»
pearance in England at Covent Garden in 1853
as the Chevalier de Ck>ndi, in ' Maria di Rohan,*
afberwards as Maddalena. in 'Rigdetto* on its
production here, and as Ascanio in 'Benvenuto
Cellini * ; and in all three parts was suooeesful.
From 1853 to 1864 indudve she sang here
every year in Italian opera, at Covent Garden
and the Lyceum, the usual mezzo soprano or
contralto parts, creating amongst others Nancy
in *Marta,* Rita on the revival of 'Zampa.*
li'Amore 'Orfeo', Uhrica in Verdi*s 'Ballo.*
and Siebel in * Faust.* In this last opera Gounod
wrote the popular air * Quando a te lieta ' expressly
for her. DunngthistimeMadameNantier-Didi^
sang at Court and public ocmoerts, made an ope-
ratic provincial tour in 1855, later in that year
and the eariy part of 1856 played in opera in
America^ and took part at the iSttdford Festival
of 1859. The rest of each year she was engaged
at the Italian Op&t^ of Paris, St. Petersbmg,
Moscow, Madrid, etc., or sang at concerts in the
Frenchprovinces. ShediedatMadrid,Dec.4yi867.
Apropos to Maddalena, Mr. Choriey reinariu,
*Her gay handsome Cmc, her winning mezzo^
soprano vdce, not without a Cremona tone in it,
redeeming the voice from lusdousness, and her
neat livdy execution, were all displayed in thii
part, short as it U, For such occupation as fiJls to
the share of a first-rate singer of the second class,
this lady has never been exceeded. Subsequently
when . . . she tried to win first honours as a
contralto, the natural limits of her powers made
themselves fdt, and she lost rather than gained
in public &your.' [A.C]
NAPLES. The first school of music at Naples
was founded towards the middle of the 15th cen-
tury by John Tinctor. His schod was short-lived,
but it was immediately succeeded by the illns-
trious Neapolitan Ckmservatorios which were both
the first examples and models of all similar
mudcal institutions, not only in Italy but in the
other countries of Europe.
The Conservatorios of Naples, four In number
-~(i) Santa Maria di Loreto, (a) San Ontffrio,
(3) De* Poveri di Gesh Cristo, (4) Delia Pieta
de' Turchini — were originally founded by private
benefactors for the purpose of affording both
shelter and instruction to the homdess orphans
of Naples. The children were taken out of the
streets and dad in a particular drees, each Conaer-
vatorio being distinguished from the others by
its peculiar colour. They were moreover dosdy
shaven, and this, coupled with the derical charac-
ter of their dress caused them to be called * Pre*
terelU* (little priests). Many of them were
indeed destined for Hdy Orders. Eodesiasticat
music was at first the primary object of these
institutions. They were governed after the pat*
tern of a priest's seminary, and each had a church
of which the pupils foimed the choir. The frinds
of the institution were increased by the services
of the pupils in other dty churches and in the
Royal Chapel, for which they received a monthly
salary. Also by other pious offices, such as watdi*
ing and chanting hymns and prayers oVer the dead
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KAPLE&
previous to biirial. This was the task 6f the
younger pupils, while the elder onee would carry
the £ad to the grave and even bury them. These
elder pupils were called 'Paranze' (i^. a small
corps or company) and the younger ones * Sopra-
netli' and ' Ck>ndraltini,* according to their voice.
Besides these pious Bervices, which were almost
daHy in request, the pupils were engaged to sing
NAPLES.'
44&
in the great musical processions, or ' Flottole*<
called from ' Flotto/ a term for the choir, a cor-
ruption of * Frotta,* a crowd, because of the num-
ber of the pupils. Afterwards, when dramatic
music began to revive, they represented the mys-
teries in the monasteries and convents dur&g
carnival, and later still performed in the theatres,
more especially in that of San Carlo, for which
the pupils of Uie- Pietk de* Turchini wexe princi-
pally selected on account of their proximity to it.
These efforts of the pupils brought in to each
€k)nservatorio an average of looo ducats a year,
but despite these and the private benefactions of
individuals, the endowment of each institution
was barely sufficient to supply the bare neces-
saries of life to the pupils, while the space was so
cramped that many of them had to sleep in the
corridors and refectories, and the supply of
musical instruments was far too scanty for the
' performers. Yet from this humble origin sprang
the great masters of music whose compositions
are inseparably associated with Italy.
(I) Santa Mabia di Lorsto. This originated
in 1 535 with a poor artisan of the name of Fran-
cesco, who received into his house on the Mer-
oato orphans of both sexes, and caused them to
be fed and clothed and instructed in music. The
rich citizens of the Mercato assisted his pious
design by every means in their power. The &me
of the school reached the ears of Giovanni da
Tappia, a Spanish priest domiciled in Naples,
and he, having the proeress of music greatiy at
heart, volunteo^ to direct it, and extend its
powers of usefulness by a permanent endowment.
This he obtained by begging alms from house to
house through the Neapolitan PA>vinces. At the
end of nine years he returned to Naples with a suf-
ficient sum for the purpose. The <nriginal humble
institution was transferred to a lan^ building
close to the Church of Sta. Maria de Loreto. This
building was formally ceded by the government
to da Tappia, received the title of 'Conservatorio,'
and was endowed, in 1566, with the *Jns del
fomo* and 'della beccaria.' Thus established,
rich citizens from time to time left their fortunes
to this institution, which grew and flourished.
The pupils of both sexes reached the num-
ber of 800. Among the illustrious musicians
whose names are connected with Santa Maria
di Loreto are Alessandro Scarlatti, Durante,
Porpora, Traetta, Sacohini, Guglielmi, and many
mate.
In 1797 the two Conservatories of San Onofrio
and Santa Maria di Loreto were united, the for-
m« being absorbed in the Utter. In 1806,
by order of Joeeph Buonaparte, the Conservatorio
of Loreto was united to that of the ' Pietk de'
Turchini,* and the building of Santa Maria di
Loreto then becune a hos^tal. It is still called
rOspedale del Loreto, and over the doorway the
following inscription may still be read :-*
*XTn di ad Apollo, ad Baoolaplo or saoro.*
' Once dedicated to Apollo, now to Aesculapius.'
(a) San Omovbio a Capdana. So called be- '
cause it was situated in the district of Naples
known as Capuana. It was founded in 1576 by
private benefactions under the name of the * con<i
fraternity of the fiianchi.* It received i ao orphans,
who were instructed in religion and n^utio. The
funds of this, as of the other similar institutions,
were augmented by the exertions of the pupils as
already described. In course of time it was taken
out of the hands of the confraternity and esta-
blished as a Conservatorio by royal warrant with
the titie of San Onofrio. The dress of the pupils was
black and white— hence the name * de fiianchi.'
At a later date foreign pupils were admitted on
terms of monthly pajrment, and on the under-
standing that they should continue to nve their
services for a few years after the end of their
term of instruction. In 1 797 the building of San
Onofrio was turned into barracks and the pupils
were transferred to Santa Maria di Loreto. A.
Scarlatti was a teacher in this Conservatorio also,
likewise Durante, Leo, Feo, Cotumacci ; amongst
their pupib were Gizzi, Jonmielli, Picoinni, and
Paisieilo. Gizzi, by the advice of Scarlatti, opened
in 1 730 a school of singing in connexion with this
Conservatorio, the famous singer Gioacchino Conti
di Arpino was one of his pupils, and out of gra-
titude to his master took the name of Gizzidlo.'
[See GizzncLLO.]
(3) De' Povbbi di GEsd Cbisto. This was
established in 1589 by a Franciscan, Maroello
Foscataro di Nicotera, for the foundlings of Na*
pies, fiy means of Alms collected from the
Nes^litans, he obtained the necessary funds,
and drew up the rules, which were ratified by
Alfonso Geeualdo, the then Cardinal Archbishop
of Naples. The pupils, 100 in number, varying
in age from 7 to ii, and literally taken out of
the streets, were clothed at first in the sober
dress of the Franciscan order, afterwards in blue
and red, were fed and instructed in their own
language and in music, and were governed by two
canons of the cathedral of Naples.
This Conservatorio existed till 1 744, when, by
order of Cardinal Spinelli, it was converted into
a Diocesan Seminary. It now bears the title
of *Seminarium Archiepiscopale Diocesanum,*
whereas it had for years borne the inscription
of * Pauperum Jeeu Christi Archiepiscopale Col*
legium.* The pupils were distributed among the
three remaining Conservatories — San Onofrio,
Loreto, and the Pietk de' Turchini.
This Conservatorio is by some considered as
the oldest of all, and as the cradle of the great
Neapolitan School of Musia Fago, Greco, Du-
rante. Vinci — all pupils of Scarlatti — Cotumaoci,
Ignazio Gallo, and Pergolesi, were among the most
famous composers which it produced.
(4) DsLtA PietI Drf TuBCHiwi. This ori-
ginated with the oonfratemity of St^. M^ria
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44e
NAPLES.
deUA ItiooronatelK wlio, towanlt the y6ar 1584
made their hoose an Mylqm both for the home-
less orphans of Naples, and also for children whoee
parents were unable to support them. At first
the children were only taught to read and
write, and were clad in long bine garments
(' odor turchino '), hence the name of ' Pietk de'
Turd^ini,* which was adopted by the institution
instead of that of the * InooronateUa.' It was
not till a oentuiy later that musical instmction
was given to the pupiU. In 1600 it was placed
u^der the protection of Philip III of Spain, and
in 1670 BVanoesco Provenzale and Qennaro Unino
were appointed to be its Professors of Music,
ProvenMle having preceded Soariatti as Maestro
of the Palatine Chapel at Naples. It produced
many fiunous composers, sudi as Feo, Fago,
CarapeUa, Leo, Cafaro and Sala. In 1806, on
the abolition of the Conservatorio of Sta. Maria
di Loreto, the pupils were received into the Pietk
de* Turchini. In 1808 this, the last of the Con-
servatorioB, was also suppressed on the repre-
sentation of Monsignore Capecelatro, Archbisnop
of Taranto, ' that the Neapolitan Conservatorios
had fallen from their ancient glory on account of
bad administration and lack of discipline, and
that the only remedy was to re-oiganixe them in
one great college established on a broader basis.'
Thus the 'Reals Collboio di Musioa* came
into existence, first with the title of San Sebas-
tiano, and afterwards with that of S. Pietro a
MaieUa, which it still retains.
Tritta, Paisiello, and Feneroli were the first
directors and general administrators of the new
Itoyal College of Music. They were succeeded
in 1813 by ZingarellL In 181 7 'external' pre-
paratory schools of music were added ; and the
pupils who passed creditable examinati<ms there
were admitted into the -Boyal CollM;e. In the
revolution of i Sao half the building of San Sebas-
tiano was seised for the use of the government,
the other half was made over to the Jesuits, and
the monastery of San Pietro a Maiella was
assigned to the R<^al College of Musio. In 1 837
Zingarelli was followed by Donisetti, and he
again in 1840 by Mercadante, who made great
re£c»ms in the discipline and efficiency of the ool-
lege. In 1 861, on account of his blindness, Carlo
Conti was appointed his coadjutor. Conti died in
1868, and was succeeded by Paolo Serrao Mer-
cadante, who retained his post as President till
his death in 1870. Since that date the College
appears to have lost ground, and a fittal economy
seems to have beset its management. In 1874
the scholarships were reduced from 100 to 50,
and 35 of these were thrown men to women,
with allowance for lodging; but m 1879 ^^ ^'
iowance was abolished. The post of Director is
now vacant^ and the Cdl^g^ is governed by a
board of profisssors and amateurs. Manirooe,
Bellini, Luigi Bicci, and Michael Costa are the
most distinguished names on the roll of the Nea-
politan School of Music nnce the establidmient
of the JieaU CoOegio di Napoli. [C. M. P.]
NARDINI, Pnnu), an eminent violinist and
composer, was bom at Fibiana, a village in
KARES.
Tuscany, ia 1 712. He received his first mntical
instraotion at Leghorn, and afterwards stodied
lor several years under Tartini at Padua. We
know nothing further of his early career. About
the year 1753 he was appointed Solo-violinist at
the Ducal oourt at Stuttgardt, where he re-
mained fcr fifteen years. In 1767 he returned t*
Italy, settled at Leghorn, and stayed with his
old master Tartini during his last iUness. In
1770 he accepted an appointment as director of
the music at the court <^ the Duke of Tuscany,
and died in 1793 at Florence.
Nardini was the mos^ eminent of Tartini*s
disciples. Leopold Mozart, the best possible
judge in matters of violin-playing, writes of him:
' the beauty, puiitv, and equality of his tone, and
the tastefiilness of his cantabile-playing, cannot
be surpassed ; but he does not execute great diffi*
oulties.* The well-known poet-musician Schn-
bart relates in his flowery style: 'his playing
brings tears into the eyes of stony-hearted oovr-
tiers — ^nay, his own tears run down on his
violin!'
That Nardini was not a mere executant, bat a
thorough musician, is evident fixim the character
of his compositions for the violin. Vivacity,
grace, a sweet sentimentality, are the main diar-
aoteristies of his stvle, whidi is altogether mors
modem in form and feelinff than Tartini's. His
Allegros are often largely developed, and already
display the fbll sonata-form, while his slow
movements are not unlike Yiotti's. If never-
theless the greater part of his works appear
to us old-fashioned and antiquated compared
with those of Tartini, the reason is, that
he has neither the deptii of feeling, the grand
pathos, nor the concentrated energy of his great
His published compositions (according to "FMk)
are : o Coneertos, op. i (Amsterdam) ; 6 Son-
atas pour violon et bassi, op. 2 (Berlin, 1765 :
a new edition published by Cartier, Paris); 6
Trios pour flute (London) ; 6 Solos pour violon,
op. 5 (London); 6 Quartets (Florence, 178a);
6 Duos pour deux violons (Paris).
Some of his sonatas have latterly been re-edited
by Alard and F. David. [PJ>.]
NARES, James, Mus. Doc., bom at Stanwell,
Middlesex, in 1715, was a chorister in the
Chapel Royal under Bernard Gates, and aller^
wards a pupil of Dr. Peputch. He aeted for
some time as deputy for Pigott, organist of St.
George's Chapel, Windsor, and in 1734 was ap-
pointed, on the resignation of Salisbury, organist
of York Minster. On Jan. 13, 1756, he was
appointed to succeed Dr. Greene as or^^mist and
composer to the Chapel Royal, and in the same
year graduated as Mus. Doc. at Cambridge. In
Oct. 1757 he was appointed Master of the
Children of the Chapel Roval, vice Gates, his M
master. In 1 770 he gained a prise from^e CMch
Club for his glee, ' To all lovers of hamMoy.* He
resigned the mastership of the Chapel boys Joly
1, 1780, died Feb. 10, 1783, and was bnried in
St. Margaret's. Westminster. Dr. Nares pub-
lished ' Eight Sets of Harpuchord Lessons,' 1 748 ;
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NABEa
^^ve Harpnehord Lenons,' 1758 ; 'Thr^ Eaiy
Harpdchord LessonB* ; ' A TreatiBe on Singing* ;
<I1 Prindpio^ or, A regular Introduction to
NATURAL,
447
playing ontbe Harpeiohord or Oigan* (the first
■et of progreBsive leMons publiahed on a sys-
tematic plui) ; 'The Royal Pastoral,* a dramatic
ode ; ' Collection of Catches, Canons, and Glees' ;
*Siz Organ Fugues'; 'Second Treatise on Sing-
ing, with a Set of Eitg]uh Duets' ; and 'Twen^
Anthems,* 1778. *A Morning and Evening
Service and Six Anthems' were published in
1788, with a portrait of him, SBtat. 65, engraved
by Ward after Engleheart, prefixed. His Ser*
vice in F and throe anthems are included in
Arnold's 'Cathedral Music,* an anthem in Page's
' Harmonia Sacra,' and two anthems in Stevens's
'Sacred Music/ Two canons, two glees, two
rounds, and a catch by him are contained in
Warren's collections./ Nares was a poor com-
poser, but some of his Church Music is s^ in
use in our cathedrals. [W.H.H.]
NATHAN, Isaac, bom of Hebrew parents at
Canterbury in 1 79a, being intended for the priest-
hood, was in 1805 sent to Cambridge to study
Hebrew, but his natural bent being for music he
was articled to Domenioo Com, and devoted his
attention principally to sinking and ooniposition.
He sppearod at Covent Garden as Heniy Bertram,
in 'Guy Mannerinff.* After composing several
songs, he produced m 1823 'Hebrew Melodies,'
to Lord Byron's poetry, with much soccess. In
1825 he supplied part of the music for the comedy
'Sweethearts and Wives'— one song in which,
f Why are you wandering here I pray,' became
vsry popular — and publidied 'An Essay on
the History and Theory of Music^' and on the
qoalities, capabilities and management of the
Human Voice.' In 1824 he brought out 'The
Alcaid,' comic opera, and in 1827 'The Illus-
trious Stranger,' operatic farce. In 1836 he
published 'The Life of Madame Malibran de
Beriot^ interspersed with original anecdotes and
critical remarics on her musical powers.' He
subsequently emigrated to Sydney, where he was
acddentaUy killed, bv being run over by a tram-
way ear, Jan. 15, 1804. & was much esteemed
as a singing master. [ W. H. H.]
NATIONAL CONCERTS. A series of con-
certs given in Her Majesty's Theatre, in October,
November, and December, 1850, with Balfe and
Charksd'AIbert as conductors. The prospectuses
contained a rarely-equalled list of perfbimers, and
ppomisos of new woriu, most of them by English
composers (probably the only origin of the name
of the concerts), none of which however saw the
Hght; while the performances consisted almost
entirely of the ordinary ingredients of 'monster'
concerts, with a very meagre number of features
ifaterestiDg enough to be recorded. During the
■WMon, however, the following works came to
« bearing: Spohr's symphony, 'The Seasons':
HendelMohn's 'Fingal's Cave' and 'Melusina'
overtures, the latter so badly played that it had
to be abandoned as inqvrsoticable ; besides one or
two symphoniee, and a movement or two from a
conoerto by Beet^ven. The following artists ao*
tuaUyappea:redi Halle, Molique, Sitfnton. Piatti,
Arabella Goddard (her first appearance)^ Stock*
hausen, and Sims Reeves. The concerts were in
the hands of Cramer, Beale k Co., and proved
an unequivocal fSftilure^ duefly because of the
enormous expectations tiiat were excited but not
fulfilled. An attempt was made a year or so
afterwards to start another series with' the same
title, but the scheme feU to the ground after a
few concerts. [J. A. F. M.]
NATIONAL TRAINING SCHOOL FOR
MUSIC, THE. This institution, which had
been projected and discussed since 1854, and the
idea of which had emanated from the lato Prince
Consort, was not founded until 1873, when a plot
of ground was granted, free of cost, by Her
Majesty's Commissioners for the Exhibition of
1 851, on their estate at South Kensington, and
the present building was begun at the cost of
C. J,^ Freake, Esq., who presented it to the
country on its completion in 1875. In that year
(June 15) the matter was fully discussed at a
meeting convened by the Prince of Wales at
Marlborouffh House, and the first scholarships
were pron^wd. The building, on the west side
of the Albert Hall, was designed bv Lieut. H. H.
Cole, R.E., in the English style of the 17th oen-
tury, with panels decorated with sgraffito. In
1876, fifty sdiolarships having been established,
and upwards of twenty more promised, the School
was opened for study. The ultimate number of
I schohffships is to be 300, of the value of £^0 a
I year each, for five years.
The control of the school is placed in the
! hands of a small General Committee of Manaffe-
I ment, consisting of representatives of Her Ma-
jesty *s Commissioners for the Exhibition of 185 1,
of the Council of the Corporation of the Albert
Hall, of the Society of Arts, and of the founder^
of scholarships. Among the members of the
committee are the Duke of Edinburgh (Chair-
man), Prince Christian, the Chairman of the
Council of the Society of Arts, the Lord Mayor,
Sir Henry Cole (who has always taken an
active part in the scheme f^m the beginning),
Mr. and Mrs. Freake, eto. Hie 1^ administm-
tion is under a Registrar (the Rev. John Richard-
son, M.A.), a Lady-Superintendent, eto. The
professional work is under the dilution of a
Principal (Dr. Sullivan), and a board of profes*
son, consisting of Mr. Ernst Pauer, Dr. Stainer,
Mr.AlbertiVisetti,andMr.J.T.CarK)dus. The
instruction of the scholars is carried on by th»
members of the board, and an additional bcNly of
TOofeesors, amoi^ whom are Mr. John F. Bamett,
Dr. Bridge, Mr. Ebeneser Prout, Mr. Franklin
Taylor, eto. The lachr-professors are Signora Mas*
sucati and Miss Editn Jemingham. [J. A. F. M.]
NATURAL. A word formerly applied to
the scale of C major, which was called 'the
natural scale ' because it has no accidentals. It
thus became used for the sign (I]) which cancels a
preceding sharp or flat, whether used as a chro-
matic aM^dental or ooouzring in the signature.
In other, words, when the t^se of a sharp or fla^
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418
KATtJBAli.
has indicated that the note a semitone al>ove
or below that in the diatonic Beries of G major
is to be taken, the introduction of a Natural
indicates that the unaltered note is to be re*
sumed ; and hence a naturalised note is always
a white key on the pianoforte or oigan, unless
it be combined with a sharp or flat, as t)J or i]b,
to cancel a chromfttio double-sharp or double-
flat, and indicate the correspondmg note of
the diatonic series indicated by the existing sig-
nature.
Naturals do not occur in thd signatures of
keys, except when it is necessaiy to cancel all
or part of a previous signature, at a change of
key in the course of a piece of music ; as at the
change -from C minor to C major in tiie Marcia
Fun^bre of the Eroica Symphony, or the change
from Eb minor to Eb major at the end of the
Introduction of Spohr^s Overture to Jessonda.
Where a complete change is made from a sharp
key to a flat key, or vice vtrtd, the naturals are
often indicated, but with very little reason; as
the mere statement of the new signature must
cancel the former one. [C.H.HJP.]
NAU, Marta Dolobbs Bekediota Josefina,
was bom of Spanish parents at New York,
March i8, 1818. Having entered the Conserva-
toire at Paris, July 23, 1832, she became a pupil
of Mme. Damoreau-Ginti, and soon developed a
clear and flexible voice. This, with a large share
of intelligence, musical feeling, and application,
enaUed her to take the first prize at the ooncoun
of 1834.
On March i, 1S36, at^the age of 18, MUe.
Kau made her first appearance at the Opera, in
the character of the Fage in the 'Huguenots,*
and achieved a success, in spite of her inexperi-
ence. She remained six years at that establish-
ment, but playing only secondary parts, which
did not allow her real worth to appear ; and at
the end of that time her engagement was not
renewed. Mile. Nau determined, therefore, to
travel in the provinces and abroad, where she
soon was appreciated much more highly than in
the French capital ; and in Brussels, particularly,
her excellent vocalisation and phracdng produced
a marked impression. During 184.^ and 44 she
continued her travels, impersonating Mme. Da-
moreau's chief characters. In October and No-
vember, 1844, she sang in London. Her foreign
successes now opened the eyes of the Opera-
managers at Paris, where she was re-engaged
at . tbfice her former salary. She re-appea^red
there in December, receiving a warm welcome ;
and continued to sing on that stage till the
end of 1848, with unacted ^lat. Her fiu^well
was on Oct. 11 of that vear, in * Lucia*; after
which she went to London, and thence to the
United States, where she had a triumphal pro-
cess. Ketuming to London, she sang at the
Princess's Theatre for nearly 18 months, with
great success ; and thence betook herself once
more to the Opera at Paris, where she remained
during 1851, 52, and 53. MUe. Nau re-visited
her native country in 1854, and received ex-
travagant adoration. She returned to Paris
NAtTMANN.
again in 1856, when she finally quitted ther
stage. [J.M.]
NAUDIN, Emilio, bom at Parma Oct. 23,
1823, was taught singing by Giaoomo Panizza
of Milan, made his d^but at Cremona in
Pacini's 'Saffb,* and afterwards sang at the
principal theatres of Italy, at Vienna and St.
Petersburg. He made lus first appearance in
England Jime 2, 1858, at Drury L^ne, as the
Duke in * Rigoletto,* and remained for the sea-
son, playing Edgardo, Ernesto, and Arturo, and
singing in concerts. In the winter he went to
Madrid, and passed two seasons there, playing at
Turin in the summer of 1859.
Sig. Naudin reappeared m England May 30,
1862, at Mrs. Anderson's &rewell concert at Her
Majestv's, and on the 31st acted Manrico at the
same ^eatre. On April 7, 1863, he appeared
at Covent Garden as Masaniello, and remained
there every season up to 1872 inclusive, except
1865, when, at the instance of Meyerbeer, he
was engaged at the Academic de Musique, and
created Yasoo di Gama, on the production of
'L* Africaine,' April 28. During all these seasons
he undertook several characters in addition to
the above, viz. Don Ottavio, Raoul, Vasco,
Danilowitz, Fra Diavolo, Horace de Massar&ia,
Carlo, etc., as well as Phcebus, on the production
ofCampana's' Esmeralda,' June 14, 1870; Silvio,
in Prince Poniatowski's 'Gelmina, June 4,
1872 ; Don Carlos, on the production of Verdi's
opera of that name in England, June 4, 1867 !
and was always acceptable on account of his
careful singing and acting. In 1873 he sang in
concerts only. In 1874 he sang at Drury I^uie
for the season, adding Henrique de Sandoval to
his already extensive list, and in 1875 returned
to Covent Garden. In the autumn of that year
he played Lohengrin for the first time in the
English provinces. Since then he has not ap-
peu«d in England.
The rest of the year, when not in this country,
Sig. Naudin has sung either in opera or concerts
in France, Gfrermany, Spain, or Russia. In Mos-
cow he played Tannhauser, on its reproduction
there in 1877. More recently (1879) he has
sung at Barcelona, and was at Milan in June oC
last year. [A.C.]
N AUMANN, JoHAKV GoTTLncB(orGiovANNi
Am ADBo), well-known composer in his day, bom
April 17, 1 741, at Blasewitz near Direeden.
Though Uie child of a peasant he was educated
at the Kreuzschule in Dresden, and Intended for
a schoolmaster. He studied music by himaelf,
until a Swedidi musician resident in Dresden
named Weestroem, happening to visit his home
was struck by seeing Bach's (probably Emman-
uel's) sonatas on the harpsichoitl, and determined
to take him on a professional tour. Starting in
May 1757, they first went to Hamburg, wh^e
they were detained 10 months by Weestroem's
ill health, and then to Padua where Weestroem
took lessons from Tartini, in which he did not
allow Naumann to share. His treatment was
altogether so bad that the young man left him,
but was able to proceed with 1^ training, a*
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NAUMANN.
Tartmi taught him for nothing, and a Saxon
musician named Hunt gave him pecuniary assist*
anoe. During hia stay of three years in Padua
he made the acquaintance of Hasse. He next
went to Naples with a pupil named Pitscher, to
study dramatic music for six months ; and then,
armed with a reconmiendation from Tartini,
visited Padre Martini at Bologna, and received
from him some instruction in counterpoint.
During a lengthened stay at Venice he produced
his fint opera at San Samuele. In 1763 he
returned home, and through the influence of the
Electress was appointed court composer of sacred
music. Soon liter we find him again in Italy,
composing *Achille in Sdro' for Palermo, and
'Alessandro nolle Indie' for Venice. In 1769
he produced 'La Clemenza di Tito* (Metastasio s
text) in Dresden, and in 1773 'Solimanno' and
' Nozze disturbate * in Venice, and ' Armida ' in
Padua. On his return to Dresden he declined
a flattering invitation from Frederic the Great
to Berlin, and was rewarded by the Elector with
the title of Capellmeister, and a salary of i aoo
thalers. During a temporary residence in Stock-
holm he product in Swedish ' Amphion,* 'Gulstav
Wasa,' and 'Cora,* his best and most popular
work, published for P.P. In 1786 he was raised
to the dignity of ObercapeUmeiffter, with a salary
of aooo thalers, for his refusal of a brilliant
position at Ckipenhagen. In 1793 he produced
'Ptotesilao,* an opera, at Berlm, and an ora-
torio 'Davidde in Terebinto* at Potsdam, for
which he received a gold snuiGf-box with 400
Friedriohs d'or from the King Frederic Wil-
liao) n^ who also induced Hummel to take lessons
from him. His last opera was produced April 35,
1801, at Dresden, where he died of apoplexy on
the a3rd of the following October. For further
particulars the reader is referred to Meiasner's
' Bruchstttcke aus Naumann*s Lebensgeschichte*
(Prague, 1803-4).
Kaumann was also a [m>lific composer of
church music ; 11 oratorios, and 21 masses, with
Te Deums, and smaller church-pieoes, being pre-
served in Dresden. The court chapel still performs
some of his compositions, but the single work
of his now known beyond Dresden is his setting
of Klopstock^s ' Vater unser,* an effective com-
position for its day. Though a good musician,
capable of turning his talents to account, he had
not a particle of genius. Entirely uninfluenced
by the works of Haydn and Mozart, he trudged
on to the end of his life in the footsteps of Hasse
and Oraun. On hearing for the first time one of
J. A. Hiiler*8 performances of the ' Messiah ' he
expressed the strongest disapproval of the musio^
a »ci which speaks for itself.
Tb9 Library of the Sacred Harmonic Society
contains » Mass of his (in G) published in
London with an accompaniment arranged by
Edmund Harris; and 'The Pilgrims at the
Holy SCT>nlchre,' an oratorio, edited with a bio-
gn^hy by Mainzer. By his marriage with the
daughter of Admiral Grotsohilling he left three
sons, the eldest of whom, Karl Friederich, became
a well-known mineralogist^ whose sou Ebvst,
TOf«vlI. FT. 10.
NAVOIGILLE.
419
bom Aug. 15, 183a, studied the organ with
Johaun Schneider, and composition with Haupt-
mann, and has been since i860 professor, organist^
and musikdirector at Jena. He published an ex-
oellent treatise * (Jeber die verschiedenen Bestim-
mungen der Tonverhaltnisse ' (Leipzig, 1858), as
well as some music, among which may be named a
strii^ quintet, and, a serenade for strings and wind.
The elder Naumann's second son, Moritz
Ernst Adolf, a well-known physician and pro-
fessor in Bonn, was father to Dr. EiiiL, pupil of
Mendelssohn and Hauptmann, and a composer
of merit, bom Sept. 8, 1827, in Berlin, where he
holds the sinecure post of court-director of sacred
music. He lives chiefly in Dresden, engaged in
musical literature. Beaders of Mendelsohn's
letters will not forget the excellent counsels
which he addresses to his young friend in a
letter dated March 1845. His last work is * Die
modeme musikalische Zopf* (1880), a pamphlet
of conservative tendency. He succeeded W. Rust
as oi^ganist of S. Thomas's, Leipzig (March 1 880),
on the promotion of the latter to be Cantor.
The third brother, Gonstantin Auauar, was
a mathematician and astronomer. l^*^-]
NAVA, Gaetano. A distinguished Italian
teacher of singing, and writer of vocal exercises,
bom at Milan 1803. His &ther, Antonio,
taught and composed for the French guitar, then
a favourite ins^ment, but the son received a
college education previous to entering the Milan
Conservatoire under Federict Here in 1837
Nava was appointed professor, retaining his
connection with the institution — where he gave
instmction both in harmony and in singing — for
38 years, that is up to the time of his death in
1875. His skill as a vocal teacher, enhanced by
his cultivated intelligenoe and uncommon earnest-
ness and honesty of purpose brought him a large
elienUle of private pupils. Distinguished among
these stands our own countmnan, Charles Santley.
None of Nava*B scholars have achieved a more
brilliant reputation than that eminent baiprtone :
nor could a better exemplification be desued of
the master's method of careful vocal development,
as opposed to the forcing system. Nava's works,
published at Milan, by the firms Ricordi, Lucca,
and Conti, comprise numerous books of kolftffgi
and vocalizzi, several masses and separate pieces
of vocal church music, and a Method of Sing-
ing that has appeared also in London and at
Leipzig. [B. TJ
NAVOIGILLE, whose real name was Guil-
LAUHB JuLiEN, was bom at Givet about 1 745 ;
came to Paris, was adopted by an Italian, patron-
ised by Monsigny, entered the band of the Duke
of Orleans, and opened a free violin school, in which
Boucher, the well-known virtuoso, was educated.
He composed duets and trios for strings, and
two theatrical pieces, the music of which largely
consisted of well-known airs. Navoigille died
in Paris, Nov. 181 1. He was a good leader, but
his name would have been forgotten, but for the
mistake committed by F^tis in attributing to him
^e authonhip of the * Marseillaise.' [G. C]
Gg
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NEAPOLITAN SIXTH.
NEAPOLITAN SIXTH it the name by which
a. chord coiudstiiig of a rmnat nxth and minor
third on the subdominant has long been known ;
as (a) in the key of C minor —
Bach. Vlolfai Sonata, No. 4.
TheoriitSy atartinff from different radical aa-
■umptioiiB, suggest different derivations for this
diora. Some, taking the major and minor scalee
to comprise all the notes which can be oned for
essential harmonies, except in the cases where
important root-notes in those scales bear funda-
mental harmonies on such principles as they
accept, derive the chord from a combinaticm of
two roots; so that the dominant is the root of
the two lowef notes which are respectively its
seventh and minor ninth, and the tonic of the
upper, which is its minor ninth. Others, ac-
cepting the unquestionably frequent use of some
chromatic harmonies in relation to an established
Tonic, by many great masters, indicate the major
concord on the minor or flat supertonic (as ihe
major oonunon chord of Db in relation to the
Tonic C) as one of them, and hold the ' Neapo-
litan sixth* to be its fi^ inversion. Oth^
again, hold this sixth to be found in the minor
scale of the subdominant ; and others, yet fur-
ther, that it is merely produced by the artificial
lowering of the sixth for artistic purposes, limilar
to the artificial sharpening of the fifth which is
commonly met with ; and that its object may
either be to bring the supertonic melodically
Dearer the Tonic in downward progression, or
to soften the harshnpss which results from the
augmented fourth in the chord of the sixth and
minor third on the subdfnninant of the usual
minor scale. In the theory which explains some
chromatic combinations as reflections of the old
ecclesiastical modes, this chord would qtring from
the use of the ecclesiastical Phrygian, whidi was
the same as the Greek Dorio mode, or mode of
the minor sixth. [C.H.H.P.]
KEATE, CHARLS8, born in London, March
38, 1784, received his early musical education
fit>m William Sharp, and afterwards from John
Field, with whom he had formed a dose intimacy.
Besides the pianoforte he performed on the vio-
loncello, he and Field both being instructed on
that instrument by Sharp. He first appeared
in public as a pianist at Covent Garden at the
Lent 'oratorios,* in 1800, and soon established
a reputation as an excellent performer of the
school of Clementi and field. He studied com-
position under Woelfl, and in 1808 published his
first work, a sonata in C minor. Ini8i3hewaa
one of the original members of the Philharmonic
Society, of which he was for many years a director,
often a performer, and oocasionaUy conductor, at
its concerts. His admiration of Beethoven in-
duced him in 1815 to vint Vienna, where he
remained for eight months, enjoying the friend-
ship and profiting by the advice of the great
•NEEFB.
composer. He then went to Munich, where he
stayed five months, studying counterpoint under
Winter. After an absence of two years he
returned to England, and was long esteemed
as one of the best performers upon, and teachers
of the pianoforte. He was the first to introduce
into inland Beethoven*s Concertos in O minor
and Eb, Weber*s Concertstiick, and Hnmmel*s
Concerto in E, and Septuor in D minor. He did
not publish a second work until 183a, wheo he
produced his sonata in D minor, and subsequently
several other works; but notwithstandmg his
sound technical knowledge, he was not successful
as a composer, as he lacked &ncy and originality.
He died at Brixton, March 30. 1877, having
many yeara before retired from the exercise of
his profession. [W.H.H.]
NEEDLER, Hskbt, bom in London in 1685,
was an amateur violinist, who was instruded on
the instrument first by his Betther and afterwarda
by the younger Banister, and became a proficient
performer. He is said to have been taught
harmony by Purcell, which must probably be
taken to mean Daniel PuroelL About 1710 he
was appointed Accountant-General of the Exetae,
and in the same year assisted in establishing the
Academy of Andent Muaic, where he lonff filled
the post of principal violin. He was the Irst to
lead the concertos of Corelli in England. He died
Aug. I, 1760. a8 volumes of music, almost en-
tirely transcribed by him from the libraries at
Oxford, were presented by his widow to James
Mathias, who, in 178 a, beaueathed them to the
British Museum, where they form Add. MSS.
5035 to 506a. [W.H.H.]
NEEFE, Chbibtiah Gottlob, a musidaa of
some distinction in his day, but whose claim to
being remembered is his having been Beethoven's
instructor. He was bom at Chemnitz Feb. 5,
1748, the son of a poor tailor, and possesHing a
lovely yoice sanff in the church choir and learnt
music in the sdiooL His parents ocmtrived to
place him at the University of Leipzig to study
jura, but the love of music was too strong, aU
his spare time was spent over the treatises of
Marpure and Emanuel Bach ; and the acquaint-
ance of J. A. Hiller, then cantor of Leipzig, ud
a leading musician of Germany, was a great
incentive. He broke with law and beffan his
musical career by writing operettas for the
theatre. In 1776 he took Miller's place aa
conductor of a travelling orchestra known aa
the Seyler Sodety, which made him known in
the Ehine district. At Frankfort he found a
wifo, in 1779 Mttled at Bonn as conductor of
another association called the ' Grossmann-Hell-
muth Sodety,' and on Feb. 15, 1781, entered
the service of the Elector, Max Friedrich, aa
aspirant to the post of court-organist, vice Van
den Eeden. With the orvan Neefe took oyer
van den Eeden*a pupil, Ludwig van Beethoven,
then juat entered on his eleventi^ year. Yaa
den Eeden died June 39, 1783, and on Aprfl36,i
1783, Neefe waa promoted to the direction of
both sacred and secular music at the court.
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NEEFK
A year after this, April 15, 1784, tke Elector
died, the theatrical music was pat down, and a
aeries of economies b^an by the new Elector
Max Franz, which resulted m the reducUon of
Keefe's pay from 400 to aoo florins. In 1788
a new court theatre was organised, with Reicha
as director, and Keefe aocompanyist and stage
Mianager. Then came the war, and in 1794 £e
theatre was shut up, the company disbanded,
and Keefe lost his place. He led a poor exist-
ence as municipal official under the French, his
&ouly were dispersed, and at last we hear of him
as conductor ai the theatre at Dessau. Here
his wife fell seriously ill, and ultimately he him-
adf sank under his troubles, and died Jan. 26,
1798. Neefe was an indtistrious musician ; the
names of eight pieces are preserved which he wroto
for the theatres of Leipzig and Bonn between
177a and 1783. He wroto also for the church,
and a mass of chamber-musie, besides arranging
and adapting many operas^ He also publieJiea
articles on musical subjects in the periodicals of
the time, and left an autobiography which was
communicated by his wife to the Allg. musikal-
ische Zeitung of 1799 (P* ^4i)* (^ Thaver*s
• Beethoven,' i. 81-85, 117, eto). [G.]
NEGBI, Mabia Gattsbika^ otherwise Mabia
Anna Oattsbina, a distinguished singer, was
bom at Bologna about 1705. She was taught by
Pasi, himself a pupil of Pistoochi. In 1734 she
was engaged at the theatre of Gount Sporck, at
Prague, where she continued to sing until 1737,
when she returned to Italy. She appeared at
many of the Italian theatres from 1737 to 33,
after which she came to London. Here idie, with
her sister Bos a, formed part of the new company
with which Handel opened the season at the
Haymarkety Oct. 30, 1733; and very useful
members of this company the sisters N^ri proved
to be, one or both of them singing in all the
operas produced by the great Saxon down to
1 737, as well as in ' Deborah.' Maria Gatterina
appears to have sung both soprano and contralto
parte, the former of these having probably been
inau^pOBed for her, as her voice was undoubt-
edly » contralto. That of her sister was a
scqsraao. [J. M.]
NEIGE,LA,ouLBNouyELEoiKHABD. Opera
oomiqae in 4 acte ; words by Scribe and Dela-
vigne, music by Auber. Produced at the Th^fttre
Fejrdeau Oct. 8, 1823 ; in London at Covent Gar-
den, as 'The Frozen Lake,' Nov. 26, 1834. [G.]
KETTHARDT, Auausr Hbinbich, founder
of the Berlin Domchor (Oathedral choir), was
bom at Schleiz, Aug. 10, 1793. EQs early
musical studies were interrupted at 30 years of
age by his military service, which lasted through
the campaigns of 1813-15. This led to Us
becoming fumdmaster to the Garde-SchUtzen
Battalion (1816-33) for which he composed and
ananged a host of pieces. From 1823 to 1840
he was master of the band of the Kaiser Franz
Grenadiers, and wroto and did much for the
i9iprovement of military music. In 1839 he
was madd *konigliche Musikdirector,* and in
NERUDA.
451
1843 was commissioQed to fbund a regular choir
for tiie Berlin Cathedral, which he did by uniting
the scholars and seminarists who sang the
ordinary Cathedral service with the smaller
choir who sang in the Court-diapel, about So
strong in all. Thus was formed the fiunous
Domchor, for which Mendelssohn wrote his noble
p-ahns and motets. In 1846 Neithardt went to
St. Petersburg to hear the famous Bussian
choirs, and in 1850 he and his choir visited
London and created much astonishment by their
extraordinarily refined and effective performances.
Neithardt died at Berlin April 18, i85i. He
was a remarkably able conductor, hidefatigable
in drilling his choir and in providing them with
masterpieces of all schools, some of which were
edited by him under the title of * Musica Sacra *
in 8 vols. (Berlin, Bote & Bock). [G.]
NEL COB Pltl NON MI SEyXO. A duet
in Paisiello's Molutaba, whidi was for a long
time a remarkable favourite. Beethoven and
many others wrote variations upon it, In Eng^
land it was known as ' Hope told a flattering
tale.' [G.J
Nl^ON. An opera in 4 acte; words by
Jules Barbier; music by A. Bubinstein. In«
tended for the French sta^, but first performed,
in German, as 'Nero,' at the Stadt Theatre,
Hamburg, on Nov» i,. 1879, ^uider the direction
of the composer. [G.]
NEBUD A. A distinguished familyof violinists.
According to ' Dlabacz, the founder was Jakob,
who belonged to Bossicz, near Prague, and died
$*eb. 19, 1733. He left two sons; first, Johanv
Chbysostom, bom at Bossicz December i, 1705,
bamt music at Prague, became fiunous on the
violin, and lock orders at the Prsemonstratensian
convent there, a few months after his fi&ther's
death ; became choir>master of the convent, and'
died December 3, 1763. The next brother,
JoHAHN Baptist Gbobg, was first at Prague,
and then, for thirty years, at the F3ector*s
Chapel at Dresden, where he died in 1780, a^ed
73, leaving a mass of compositions behind him,
and two sons, LuDWia and Anton, both chamber
musicians to the Elector of Dresden.
Another member of the Neruda fikmHy was
Josef, organist of the Cathedral at Brtinn, in
Moravia, who was bom in 1807, and died Feb.
18, 1875. He had five children, Victor, Amalie,
Wilhblminb, bom March 31, 1840, Marie and
Franz. Amalie adopted the P.F., and made no
important career; Franz became a cellist. Wil-
helmine hegtok to play the violin almost as soon
as ^e could walk, became a pupil of Jansa, and
made her first appearance, with her sister, in the
winter of 1846 at Vienna, where she excited
much astonishment for the extraordinary power
of her bow, and her great execution, notwithstand-
ing the smallness of her hands, and the deep
sentiment of her cantildne. (Hanslick.) From
Vienna the family journeyed northwards, visit-
ing Leipzig, Berlin, Breslau, Hamburg, and
other cities. In London, Wilhelmine made an
I KOaHlar'Uyioon IQr BOkmM.
Qgt
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452
NERUDA.
appearance at tiie Phiihannonfe, on June ii,
1849, in a concerto of De Beriot^s. They returned
immediately to the Continent, and paoeed Bevend
years in travelling, chiefly in Russia. In 1864
Mile. Neruda found herself in Paris, where she
played at the Pasdeloup Concerts, the Conserva-
toire, eto., and awakened an extravagant enthu-
siasm. At this time she married Ludwig Ner-
mann, a Swedish mi^sician, and was henceforth
known as Mad. Normann-Neruda. In 1869 she
again visited London, played at the Philharmonic
on May 17, and was with some difficulty induced,
by the entreaties of Vieuztemps, to remain till
the winter, when she took the first violin at the
series of Monday Popular Concerts before Christ-
mas, and at once made her mark« From that
time she has been in England for each winter
and spring season, playing at the Popular Con-
certs, the Philharmonic, the Crystal Palace, Mr.
Charles Halle*B Recitals and Manchester Con-
certs, eto., ete., and always with increasing power
and refinement, and increasing appreciation by
the public. [6.]
NEUKOMM, SroiSMUKD, Chevalier, bom
at Salzburg, Jtdy 10, 1778, first. learned music
from Weis«tuer and from Michael Haydn, who
in 1798 sent him to his brother at Vienna. He
studied music with JosefAi Haydn for some years,
and was treated by him more as a son than a
pupiL His first compositions appeared in 1808,
and in 1806 he went vid Sweden to St. Peters-
buig, where he became Capellmeistor, and
dir^rtor of the £mperor*B German theatre. He
returned to Vienna just in time to dose the eyes
of Haydn, and shortly after took up his residence
in Paris, and there lived on terms of intimacy
with Ordtry, Cherubini,Cuvier, and other eminent
men, and especially with Talleyrand, in whose
establishment he succeeded Dussek as pianist.
Their friendship survived the downfall of the
Empire, and he accompanied Talleyrand to the
Congress of Vienna. There he composed a Re-
quiem for Louis XVT, which was fierformed at
St. Stephen*s before a crowd of the greatest
notabilities, and for which iA 1815 Louis XVIII
made him Chevalier of the Legion of Honour,
with letters of nobility. In 1810 he went in the
suite of the Duke of Luxemburg to Rio Janeirp,
and remained there as maitre de chapelle to
Dom Pedro till the revolution of 182 1 drove
that monarch, atid Neukomm with him, back to
Lisbon. Having resigned his pension, he re-
turned to Talleyrand, whom he accompanied on
several of his grand tours. He came to London
in the same year with Mendelssohn (1829), and
they met at the hooso of Moscheles, with whom
Neukomm remained on terms of great friendship
and mutual esteem. The la«t ao years of his
life he divided between England and fVanoe, and
died in Paris April 3, 1858. In England his
Intelligence and cultivation gave him a high
position. His Symphony in Eb was played
by the Philharmonic, Maiich ai, 1831, and many
other pieces at various times. His oratorio
'Mount Sinai,* was repeatedly performed in
Ixmdon, and at Worcester, Derby, eto^ and he
NEW PHILHARMONIC SOdETT.
wrote Us oratorio ' David' q>ecially for the Bir-
nungham Festival of 1834, where so highly was
he prized as to be fifuniliarly called 'the King of
^ Brummagem.* In &ct his two songs ' Napoleon's
Midnight Review' and ' The Sea,* both to Bazry
Cornwall's words, may be said to have made him
for scnne months the most popular person in Eng-
land. But there were no larang qualities in his
longer pieces, and Mendelssi^m's arrival at Bir-
mingham in 1837 eclipsed Neukomm*s fame, and
even causod him to be as unjustly depreciated
as he had before been unduly extolled, lliis
reverse he bore with a philoaophy which elicited
Mendelssohn's wannest expressions.'
Neukomm was a man of remarkable diligence
and method, which nothing interrupted. The
number of his compositions is prodigious. They
embrace about looo church worlu, including
5 oratorios, an opera, 'Alexander,' and music fiv
Schiller's 'Braut von Messina,* in which he
endeavoured to resusoitato the ancient Greek
chorus. He had a great medilection for Pales-
trina, and attempted to revive his style. He also
wrote for several musical periodicals, especially
the ' Revue et GUtzette musicale de Paris.' He
was destitute of genius, and therefore produced
nothing that will live; indeed he was more a
lughly cultivated amateur than an artist, in the
strict sense of the term. But he was above aU
a man of gpreat refinement and of an extra-
ordinarily &ie and sincere character, to which
the strong attachment of friends like the Bunsens
and MeodelBsohn is in itself the most convindnff
testimony. [F-G.J
NEW PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY, THE.
The prospectus, dated from Cramer's, January
1852, states that the Society was founded to give
more perfect performances of the great works
than had hitherto been attained, and to afford
to modem and native composers a favourable
o[^)ortunity of coming before the public Olas-
BicaX music was not to be exdusivdy adheoed
to ; Exeter Hall was chosen as the locale ; Mr.
Berlioz was engaged as conductor for the first
season ; the band was magnificent (20 first vi<dins,
led by Sivori) ; the chorus was professional ;
and the subscription for stalls for 6 concerto was
£2 2$., professional subscribers, £1 is. The im>*
gramme of the first season ( 1 85 2) embraced — ^m«
phonies : Mozart's Jupiter ; Beethoven's Nos.
5 and 9 (twice) ; Mendelssohn's Italian ; part
of BerHoz's Romeo and Juliet (twice); Selec-
tions from Berlioz's Faust, Spontini't Vestalei,
H. Smart's Gnome of Hartzbuig, Dr. Wylde's
Prayer and Praise, eto., eto. The concerts of
the second season were conducted, 4 by Lind-
paintner, and 2 by Spohr, in combination with
Dr. Henry Wylde. The orchestra was enlarged
to 24 first violins, eto., and the programopes in-
cluded, amongst other symphonies, the Ninth
of Beethoven, Spohr's 'IrdischesundGottHches,'
and the Quartet with Orchestra, op. 1 2 1 ; Weber's
Kampf und Sieg, Cherubini's Requiem, lind-
paintner's Widow of Nain, MendeUsohn's Finale
to Loreley and Walpurgisnight, Dr. Wylde'i
1 VMkMttobo'k L«tun. aisk
iIb.ll.lKl&
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NEW PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY.
music to Pairadise Lost ; Selections from Glaok*8
Iphigenie, Bamett^s Fair BoeamoDd, and Sila&'s
Mass; Overtares to Don Carlos (Mac&rren), and
Genoveva (C. £. Horsley). For the third season
the concerts were removed to St. Martin's Hall,
were conducted partly by lindpaintner, partly
by Dr. Wylde, and included the Overture to
Tannhauser, Cherubim's Mass in C, etc. For
the fourth season they returned to Exeter Hall.
For the fifUi and sixth, 1856 and 57, Hanover-
square Booms was chosen. In 1858 Dr. Wylde
assumed the entire responsibility of the under-
taking, and the concerts were henceforward held
in St. James's Hall season by season as the
•New Philharmonic Concerts,' until 1879, when
Dr. Wylde retired in favour of Mr. William Ganz.
The programmes have throughout maintained
that preference for novelties which distinguished
them at the outsets In 1859 the practice of
making the rehearsals public was begun. [G J
NIBELUNGEN. Der Rm£; des Nibelnngen
—'The Ring of the Niblung^— a tetralogy or
sequence of four music-dnmas, words and
music by Richard Wagner, was first performed
in its entirety at Ba3rreuth, August 15, 14, 16,
and 17, 1876, and repeated during the two
following weeks. Wagner's libretto is founded
on the Icelandic Sagas, and has little in common
with the Nibelunge^ed, or more correctly ' Der
Nibelnnge Ndt,* a medieval German poem of the
beginning of the 13th century, in which the
mythical types of the old Norse sagas appear in
huQumised modifications, L^*H.]
NICHOLSON, Charles, bom at liveipool,
'795> son of a flutist, became the most eminent
of English flutists. After performing in the
orchestras of Drury Lane and Covent Garden he
was engaged, about 1833, as principal flute at the
Opera, ^e Philharmonic Society, the country
festivals, eUu His playing was remarkable for
purity and brilliance of tone and neatness of
execution, and his admirable manner of per-
forming an adagio. He published a flute pre-
ceptor and nimierous concertos, fantasias, solos
and other pieces for his instruments He died in
London, March 36, 1837. [W.H.HJ
NICOLAI, Otto, eminent composer and con-
ductor, bom at Konigsberg June o, 1810. His
hom^ was unhappy and his education n^lected,
except for the piano, which he was well taught.
At 16 he ran away, but found a protector in
Justizrath Adier of Stargard, who assisted him
in his studies, and in 1837 sent him to Berlii^
where he took lessons from Zelter and Klein.
In 1833 the Chevalier de Bunsen sent for him
to Rome as oiganist to the chapel of the Prus-
sian Embassy, and there, under Baini, he studied
the ancient Italian masters, without neglecting
those of modem date. Towards the close of 1 837
he went to Vienna, and became Capellmeister
and singing-master of the court opera, returning
to Rome in Oct. 1838. He then composed a
series of operas in the prevailing taste of the day.
• Enrico Secondo ' and ' Rosmonda d'Inghilterra*
(1839) were given at Trieste, and ' II Templario'
NICOLINI.
453
(18^0) with great success at Turin ; but * Odoardo
• Gildippe' (Genoa) and *B Prosoritto' (Mihin)
were not so well received. In 184 1 he accepted
the first Capellmeistership of the court opera at
Vienna, and remained till Eastur 1847, highly
appreciated as a conductor. Here were produced
his 'Templario* (i 841, German 45) and 'Die
Heimkehr desVerbannten' (1844) a remodelling
of 'B Prosoritto,' in which Staudigl was mu<£
applauded. With the lurowed object of giving
first-rate performances of Beethoven's Sym-
phonies, he founded the Philharmonic concerts,
the first of which took pboe March 38, 1842.
A mass (composed 1843) dedicated to Frederic
William IV, and a Fest-ouvertnre for the Jubilee
of the University of Kdnigsberg (1844) led to
his appointment as director of the newly -founded
Domchor, and Court-Ci^)ellmeister of the opera
in Berlin, and he gave a ftoewell concert in the
large Redoutensaal at Vienna (April i,. 1847) at
which Jenny Lind sang, and some of the instm-
mental musid in 'Die lustigen Weiber von.
Windsor ' was produced for the first time. He
completed that opera in Berlin, and the first
performance took place on March p, 1849, with
brilliant success, which he did not uve to enjoy,
as he expired of apoplexy on May 11. The
opera was given in Vienna (with recitatives
by Proch) Feb. 13, 1852, and in London (as
'FalstafiT') May 3,. 1864, and holds its place as
one of the most popular of comic operas.
Nioolai had a fine collection of Italian and
Crerman scores, which he left to the Imperial
Ubrary at BerKn. Mendel's 'Otto Nicohu'
(Berlin^ Heimann) contains a catalogue of all his
works, printed and in MS., tiie latter being
numerous. He was an honorary member of the
Societk Cteilia of Rome and of the Filarmonici
of Bologna. The Tonkiinstler-Terein of Berlin
erected in 1851 a monument over his grave in
the churchyard of Dorotheenstadt. [C.F.P.]
NICOLINI, originally Ebnist Nicolas, son
of an hotel-keeper of Dinard, Brittany^ was bom
at Tours, Feb. 33,. 1834. ^^ ^'^ ^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^®
a pupil at the Paris Conservatoire, and in 1855
gained a second aecessU in Comic Opera. Shortly
after he was engaged at the Op^ra Comique,
where he remained until 1859, without any
marked success. In that year he went to Italy,
and under the name of NicouHi sang at Milan,
Florence, Turin, and elsewhere, with fedr success.
He returned to Paris in 1862, to the Salle Ven-
tadour, with better results than before,, and sang
there for several seasons till 1870.
His first appearances in England were May 36,
1866, at a concert given bv Madame Lucca, at
St. James's Hall, and on the 39th of the same
month at Covent Garden, as Edgardo,. but with
such moderate success that he did not return to
London until April 25^ 1 871 , when he reappeared
at Drury Lane under Mapleson, as Faust, with
I very fair results, and remained for the season,
distinguishing himself especially as Raoul. In
I 1872 he was engaged at Covent Garden, where
he has sung eadi successive year, as the inter-
) preter of I^hengrin and Radames. He has a
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454
NIOOLINI.
voice of moderate power, a good stage preeenoe,
and ia a fiur actor, but be baa adopted tbe pre-
vailing trtmolo to mob a degree as seriously to
prejudice tbe metbod of singing wbicb be ac-
quired at tbe Conservatoire. During tbe winter
and spring seasons be bas sung in Bussia, Vienna,
and otber places, and latterlv bas taken starring
engagements wiUi Mme. Adelina Patti, botb in
concert and opera in (Germany and Italy, and in
sbortconoert tours in tbe English provinces. [A.C.]
NICOLINI, NiOOLIHO GftDCALDI, DETTO,one
of tbe greatest singers of tbe last century, was
bom at Naples about 1673. He received a good
education, and could write very fair verses, as
appears firom tbe libretti wbicb bear bis name as
tbeir autbor. His voice, originally a soprano,
soon sank into a fine oontnlto. Tbe first dramas
in wbicb bis name bas been found are 'Tullo
Ostilio* and ' Serse,* set by Buonondni, at Rome,
1694, in wbicb be sang witb tbe celebrated
Pist(x»bi. During 1697-8, be was tbe principal
singer in tbe operas at Naples ; and in 1699 and
1 700 was again performing at Rome. Affcer tbis,
be sang in otber Italian cities, including Milan
and Venice ; and, being decorated at tbe latter
place witb tbe Order of St. Mark, be was tbence-
fortb always known as tbe * Cavaliere Nicolini.'
Late in tbe autumn of 1708, be came to Eng-
land, drawn bitber by tbe report of our passion
for foreign operas, and 'witbout any particular
invitation or engagement^ (Gibber). Here be
made bis first appearance, Dec 14, in tbe ^Pyr-
rbus and Demetrius ' of A. Scarlatti, translated
into Enfflisb by Owen Swiny, Uie manager, and
arranged by N. Haym, wbo wrote a new over-
ture and some songs for it. In tbis, of course,
Nicolini sang bis part in Italian, wbile otber
singers performed tbeirs in Englisb. Steele de-
scribes tnis opera as * a noble entertainment,* and
declares tbat be 'was fully satisfied witb the
sight of an Actor [^Nicolini] wbo, by tbe Grace
and Propriety of bis Action and Gesture, does
Honour to an Human Figure,' and ' sets off tbe
Character be bean in an Opera by bis Action, as
raucb as be does tbe Words of it by bis Voice.
Every Limb, and every linger, contributes to tbe
Part be acts, insomu<m tbat a deaf Man might
go along witb bim in tbe Sense of it,* — widi much
more to tbe same ^pui^Mrt. Tbe opera prices
were raised ^on tbe arrival of this performer^ the
first truly great singer who bad ever sung in our
theatre (Bumey). In &cty tbe whole scheme
of tbe subscription was probably remodelled
according to bis recommendations. Some
curious papers 'exist, tbe collection of Vice-
Cbamberlam Coke, by wbicb it appears tbat
Nicolini furnished tbat official witb a full
account of tbe system on wbicb tbe Venetian
opera was managed, and tbat be suggested a
similar system for that of London. Ono chief
foature was tbat a subscription of 1000 gs. should
be got firom tbe Queen (Ajine) ; and on Ibis Coke
founded « calculation which led to tbe remodel-
ling of tbe opera-subscription jmd raising of the
>TMiir.j«a.aiiiga
« la tiM written
NICOLINL
prices, in order to remedy what Nicolini described
as tbe ' annual and certain loss of money * which
our Opwa bad till then suffered.
Though not attracted to London by an engage-
ment, Nicolini bad been immediately securedl^
Swiny for a year. Toei, in bis Treatise on Sing-
ing, doubts whether a perfect singer can at the
same time be a perfect actor ; but Galliard, the
translator of tbat Treatise, says (in a note, 1 742),—
* Nicolini bad botb qualities, more than any that
have come hither since. He actod to perfection,
and did not sing much inferior. His variations
in tbe airs were excellent; but in his cadences
be bad a few antiquated tricks.* Nicolini next
appeared in 'Camilla'; and in May be signed
an engagement with Swiny for three years, at a
salary of 800 gs.; tbe singer to receive, in addUtion,
£150 for a new opera 'to be by bim fitted fiff
tbe English staffs «very season, if sucb opera
shall be approvea of/'
On June 4, Nicolini bad a concert for bis bene-
fit at the Opera House, where be continued to
sing as before. In 17 10, however, be quarrelled
with Swiny, and sought, in ■% letter dated * Bfay 1 8,
to free himself firom an 'esdavage inquiet et
bonteux qu*on ne scauroit non plus s*immaginer
ailleurs hers -de I'AngleteiTa^* — bis engagement
with Swiiw. The principal grievance, as usual,
was tbat he bad not been paid bis ^e salary;
but tbe Vice-Chamberlain patched up tbe quarrel,
and Nicolini continued to sing at the theatze in
'Almabide* and 'Hydaspes,' the libretto of the
latter being his own, or at least edited by himselC
In this piece occurred tbe funous combat with
tbe lion, about wbicb Addison was so witty,
while giving the greatest possible credit to Nico-
lini ioT bis acting, wbicb gave 'new miyeety to
kings, resolution to heroes, and softness to lovers.*
He wished ' that our tragedians would copy after
tbis great master in action. Could tbey make
the same use of their arms and legs, and infonn
their faces witb as significant looks and passiotts,
bow glorious would an English tragedy appear
with that action, wbicb is capable of giving a
dignity to the forced thoughts, cold conceits, and
unnatural expressions of an Italian opera ! * ' On
February 34, 1711, 'Rinaldo* appeal^ tbe chief
part being created by Nicolini, wbo bad in it many
opportunities for displaying bis powers of decla-
mation, execution, and acting. He played in
'Antioco,* Dec. 12, and in 'Ambleto* (lus own
libretto) in tbe beginning of 1 7 1 3. Addison* says,
*I am sorry to find, by tbe Opera bills for tbis day,
that we are likely to lose tbe greatest performer in
dramatic Music tbat is now living, or tbat perhipi
ever appeared upon « stage. I need not acquaint
my readers, tbat I am speaking of Signor Nico-
lini. Tbe town is highly obliged to that excelleni
artist, for having shewn us Qxe Italian Music in
its perfection, as well as for that generous appro-
bation be latelv gave to an opera of our own
country^ in wnich tbe composer endeavoured
to do justice to tbe beauty of tbe worda^ by
s Bpectstor. March Ifi^ mo-lL • lb. Jane 14, im
T OaUtonT* 'Oalrpw and TtfeiMdni.'irocib tv H««bas.
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NICOLINL
following thftt noble example which has been set
him by the greatest foreign masters In that art.'
Nicolini, who took his benefit, on March a 2, in
*the Music performed before the Queen on her
birthday, and the famous scene in Thomyris,
by Scarlatti/ left England at the end of this
season, and did not return till 17 14, when he
appeared, June 14, 'for the last time before
his voyage to Italy.* ^ He returned, however,
in the following winter, for he sang in 'Ri-
naldo* (revived;, Jan. 4, 1715, and afterwards
in ' AmadigL' According to the idea which tra-
dition gives us of the abilities of Nioolini, his
TOurt in this latter opera must have drawn out all
his powers, both as singer and actor (Bumey).
He took his benefit in ' Rinaldo.* In the follow-
ing season (1716), Nicolini appeared in *Lucio
Vero,' ' Amadigi,' and 'Clearte*; and in 1717 he
sang again in 'Rinaldo' and ' Amadigi '^his
last appearances in England. We find him at
Venice in a long run of ' Rinaldo* in 1718, again
in 1733, singing in Leo's ' Timocrate,* and Quanx
met him there in 1 726, when his singing was on
the decline, though his acting still commanded
admiration. The date of his death is not
known. [J.M.]
NICOLO. The ordinary name in France for
NiCOLO ISOUARD. [G.]
NICOLSON, RiOHABD. Mus. Baa, was on
Jan. 33, 1595-6, appointed organist and in-
structor of the choristers of Magdalen College,
Oxford. In Feb. following he graduated as Mus.
Bac. He contributed a madrigal, 'Sing, shep-
herds all,' to 'The Triumphes of Oriana,' 1601.
In 1636 he was appointed the first Professor of
Music upon Heyther's foundation at Oxford.
He resigned his place at Magdalen College in
1639, '^^^ ^^ ^ ^^® (ic^^o y^'^* [W. H. H.]
NIEDERMEYER, Louis, bom at Nyon,
Lake of Geneva, April 37, 1803, studied under
Moecheles and Forster in Vienna, Fioravanti in
Rome, and Zingarelli in Naples, where he
formed a lasting intimacy with Rossini. At
Naples he produced his first opera 'H reo per
amore.' He next settled in Geneva, taught the
piano, and composed melodies to Lamartine's
poetry, one of which, 'Le Lac,' obtained great
success, and made his name known in Paris,
before his arrival there in 1833. Through
Rossini's influence his one-act opera ' La Casa
nel bosoo' was produced at the Thd&tre Italien
(May 38, 1838), but its reception not satisfying
him he left Paris and became music-master at a
school in Brussels. Wearied of this drudgery, he
returned to Paris, and published melodies distin-
guished for style and sentiment, and worthy of
the poems by Lamartine, Victor Hugo, and
Emile Deechamps, which they illustrated. The
success of these songs made Niedermeyer anxious
to return to the theatre, but 'Stradeila' (5 acts,
March 3, 1837) bailed, though supported by Mile.
Falcon, Nourrit, and Levasseur. It was however
revived in 1843 in 3 acts. ' Marie Stuart,' 5 acts
(Dec. 6, 1844), was scarcely more snocessful, and
1 OtQj CoQTwat.
NIEDERRHEINISCHE
would be forgotten but
France.' Other numbers
tention. The revival of i
having been resolved o
Rossini summoned Nied
denoe at Bologna, and em]
the score to a French lib:
Bruce' in 3 acts (Dec. 3(
failed, but the introduction of the saxhorn,
the eight trumpets in four difierent keys in
the overture, and the skill with which various
movements from 'Zelmira' and 'Armida' were
adapted, attracted the attention of musicians.
Niedermeyer's last attempt at opera was 'La
Fronde* (5 acts. May 2, 1853)— a failure like its
predecessors. His true vocation was sacred
music. His mass with full orchestra, his ' messes
basses,' motets, and anthems, pure in style, and
abounding with graceful melody, are sUU sung.
We have mentioned elsewhere his connexion
with d'Ortigue in the foundation of a periodical
for sacred music, intended to maintain the old
traditions. [See Mattbisb.] Unfortunately
he knew but little of either the history or the
practice of plain-song, and his 'M^thoded'accom-
pagnement du Plain Cbrnt* (1855), hastily
compiled, was severely criticised. Niedermeyer
must be ranked among the musicians whose
merits are greater than their success. Some of
his melodies will live, and the Ecole de Musique
still known by his name (a continuation of that
founded by Choron) will ensure for his sacred
works an honourable place in the repertoires of
the Maltrises de France. He diea in Paris,
March 14, 1861. [G.C.]
NIEDERRHEINISCHE MUSIKFESTE,
i.e. Lower Rhenish Musical Festivals, now
held in triennial turn at Whitsuntide, at either
Diisseldorf, Aix-la-Chapelle, or Cologne, and
^m an artistic point of view perhaps the most
important existing. The originator is said to
have been Dr. Ludwig F. C. Bischopf, a very
active musician and littercUeurf who some seventy
years ago assembled together the musicians in his
province, and instituted a * Thuringian Musical
Festival,' which was held at Erfurt in 181 1. In
1 8 1 7 JohanaSchomstein, music-director at Elber-
feld, following the example of Bischoff, collected
the musical forces of Elberfeld and Diisseldorf, and
gave a performance on a laige scale in the former
town, thus laying the foundation of the Lower
Rhexdsh Festivals. For the success of the Elber-
feld attempt was decided enough to induce several
of the most influential persons in the two towns
mentioned to take the matter in hand, and to
arrange two grand concerts for Whitsuntide,
which should take place alternately at Elberfeld
and Diisseldorf. The organisation of these con-
certs exacted so much labour and trouble that it
was resolved to propose to a third neighbouring
city to take part in them, and an offer of co-
operation was made to Cologne, which at first
declined the proposal. The first four festivals
were therefore held at Elberfeld and Diisseldorf
alternately.
From the time of the retirement of Elberfeld
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456
NIEDEBRHEINISCHE MUSKFESTE.
in 1827, Aix gave in its definite adhedon, and
except during the political disturbances from
1848 to 1850, and also in 1853 and 1859, these
festivals have since occurred at DUsseldorf, Aix,
or Cologne.
Without entering into the detail of each ocoa-
sioQ, a few facts may be mentioned. The 15th
meetixig, at Dttsseldorf, in 1833, may be con-
sidered the most important which had occurred,
and as marking a new epoch in the history of
these now renowned festivals. For it was on
this occasion that the direction of the music
was first entrusted to Mendelssohn, then in
his a6th year.^ Another distinguishing feature
was a third concert improvised by him on the
mcnming of Whit-Tuesday, which was subse-
quently known as the 'Artists' concert,' in con-
sequence of the introduction at it of detached
and solo pieces. In 1835 Mendelssohn con-
ducted at Cologne, and on the following Whit-
suntide directed the i8th festival at DtUweldorf,
on which occasion his oratorio 'St. Paul' was
produced. He reproduced Handel's * Joshua'
at Cologne in 1838, and on that occasion con-
tinued his great work for his country and for
the musical world generally of reviving the
superb choral works of Sebastian Bach, which,
partly in consequence of their extraordinary
number and want of classification and publica-
tion, had been suffered to remain almost in
disuse, until resuscitated by one of the ^n^eatest
disciples of the glorious ' Cantor of Leipzig.'
At the a 1st festival, at Dtisseldorf, in 1839,
Mendelssohn was again at the helm, introducing
there his 4and Psidm ' As the hart pants.* and
at the 'Artists' concert' playing his second
pianoforte concerto. In 184 a he conducted at
Diisseldorf, and made its fesdval memorable by
the introduction of the ' Lobgesang,' which had
been ahreadv performed at Leipzig and Birming-
ham; and m 1846, at Aix, for Uie seventh and
last time, he directed a grand selection, when
Jenny Lind sang, and produced extraordinary
enthusiasm — the occasion beinff recorded as the
• Jenny-Lind-Fest.' Her singmg of Mendeb-
sohn's ' Auf Fliigeln des Gesimges ' and ' FrUh-
lingslied.' at the 'Artists* concert' is described
by chroniclers of this festival as producing an
effect wholly unparalleled. In 185 a no festival
took place, but in the following year Hiller and
Schumann shared the direction at Diisseldorf,
rewectively contributing a Psalm — the ia5th,
and a Symphony — in D minor.
From this time the Rhenish Festivals became
in some respects even more than previously
interesting. The great composer who had done
so much for them had indeed passed away, but
so great a fame had been secured for them,
partly in consequence of the memorable occasions
on which Mendelssohn had presided, and also
on account of the engagement of more celebrated
soloists and of the selection of fuller if not more
interesting prognunmes, as to attract for these
Whitsuntide meetings more attention, and to
draw musical visitors from all parts. In 1855,
1 Bm uiktar MsxDBUtoiJf. pp. S7Q. STL
' at Dfisseldorf, Mme. Lind-Goldschmldt sang in
' Haydn's ' Creation,' Schumann's ' Paradise and
Peri,' and at the Artists' concert.
Dtisseldorf was fortunate enough in 1863 again
to secure her services, and the dioral selections
were conducted by Herr OttoGoldschmidt. An
unusual and interesting feature on this ooeaaion
was an organ solo by Herr van Eykoi, who
played Bach's great prelude and fugue in 6 minor.
The following Whitsuntide, 1866, Madame Lind-
Goldschmidt was once more heard at a Diisseldorf
festival, in HandeVs ' Messiah ' and Schumann's
'Paradise and Peri,' etc., Madame Schumann,
Auer, and Stockhausen being the other soloists,
and Herren O. (Goldschmidt and Tansch con-
ducting.
The table on the opposite page shows the
localities, the directors, and the chief choral and
instrumental works firom 1818 to the present
year.
To this brief glance at their origin and pro-
gress, a few remarks may be add^ as to the
distinctive features of these and other German
festivals, which strike an hahUud at onr own
large musical gatherings. Perhaps the most
important difference is the greater care in pre-
paration. Far more time is devoted to reheazvala
of full band and chorus, under the conductor's
direction, than with us. Hence the performances
are undoubtedly more finished than at English
festivals, at wmch only two hurried rehearals
take place for seven or eight performances. In
Germany six full rehearsalB are held for three
concerts.
In the next place, the first object in ^gland
is to raise money : in Germanv the great object
b to benefit art. One of the bad results of our
system is that oommittees shrink from riskiiig
the performance of any but popular works which
will draw and 'pay.' One of the good results
of the foreign plan is that only claadcal works of
high artistic merit are given. No such selections
as some of those at evening concerts at our festi-
vals would be tolerated in Germany.
In the Rhineland all classes rejoice at an op-
portunity to take part in ' das liebliche Frtthlings-
fest.' Remuneration appears to be a seoonditfy
consideration ; indeed the services of the chorus,
which often oomprises members of the best
fiEmiilies, are gratuitous, and are given con amort.
And one consequence of this, and of a gei^ral
agreement and enthusiasm on the part of the
amateur performers, is a moderate charge for
tickets. The admission to the best places is less
than a third of that ehez nous. Moreover, in
consequence of the occtirrenoe of the great ' Feast
of Pentecost,' the whole population of these
Rhenish towns seems to be then en fUo^ and to
take the liveliest interest in the festal musical
performances now so thoroughly associated there
with Whitsuntide.
Carl Klingemann, Mendelssohn's friend,
writing to Ei^rland concerning the Dtisseldorf
meeting of 1836, says : — ' Never did I hear such
chorus-singing. All the singers, with the excep-
tion of the soloists, were amateurs, as also tik
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KIEDERBHEINISCHE MUSIKFESTE.
457
lf».
Y0ar,
PIOM.
Comduetor.
PrtMrfjMl Okerol and Orthtatrol Work,
1818
Daasddorf .
BatgrntUler . . .
Hajdn't 8ea«mi and Creation.
1819
Ilberfeld . .
Schonutela • . ,
Haodel't Mcariah i and Brmpbooy 2. BeethofW.
UQO
DOneldorf •
Bandel'k Samson ; and Kroka Brmphony.
1821
Colovne . .
Do. ...
US9
DO«e!dorf
Do. ...
Budler's Daa befirelte Jenualem ; and Brmphony 4, BeethorM.
18SS
BlbarMd. .
Sehorniteta . . .
Handel*! Jephthah. and BTmpbony 7. Beethoren.
1884
CoIoffiM . .
F.Sehnelder . . .
Bchnelder'f Dduge ; Sjmphonr 4. BIek
182S
Alx-la-Chapelle
F.Rlei
Handel's Alezander's Feast ; STmphony 9. Beethoven.
1898
DOneldorf
RletMdBpohr . . .
Spohr* s Last Judgment ; Messiah ; STmpbony In D. Bte
10
Ufi7
Xlberteld . .
11
1828
Cologne . .
Rles and Klein ...
IS
18»
Atz . . •
Bin
IS
1880
DOaeldorf .
Do
14
1882
Cologne . •
Do
Handel's Samson t Symptiony 7. Beethoren.
IS
im
Handel's Israel In Bgypt ; Pastoral STrnphony. Beethoren.
16
18S4
AIZ . . .
Km
17
18S5
Cologne . .
18
1888
DOiseldorf .
Do. ...
19
18S7
Abe . . •
Bles
Handel's BeUhanar ; Kings of Israel. Bles.
ao
1888
Cologne . .
Handel's Joehoa ; Srmphony In D, M oiart.
21
1889
DdsMldorf .
Do. ...
Handel's Messiah ; Broloa Simphony. BeethoToo.
S
1840
Alz . . •
Bpohr ....
S8
1841
Cologne . •
Kreutxar ....
Klein's Darld ; Symphony 9. Beethoren.
M
1848
DOsMldorf .
ss
18«S
Atz . . •
Belnlgw ....
Handel's Samson ; Symphony 0 minor. Moiart ; Broka. Beethoren.
9S
1844
Cologne . •
Dom
Handel's Jephthah ; MIsaa Solennls. Beethoren.
27
1845
DttMeldorf •
RleU
28
18«8
Alz . . .
Mendetoohn . . .
Creation : Alezander's Feast ; Symphony 6^ BeetboreD.
98
1847
Cologne . .
Dora and Spontlni . .
Handel's Messiah ; Symphony 7. Beethoren.
ao
vm
Alz . . •
Llndpalntner . . .
Handel's Judas ; Broica Symphony. Beethoren.
SI
isn
DOiMldorf .
F.HIller ....
as
1864
Alz . . .
Llndpalntner . . .
ss
1866
DOueldorf .
Hlller
Creation: Paradise and Peri. Sehnmaan i Symphony 6^ Beethoren.
81
1860
DOtteldurf .
Bleu
35
1867
Alz . . .
Utzt
Handel's MessUh : Symphony In C. Sehubert.
as
1806
Cologne .
Hnier
S7
1860
DOtMldorf .
Do
SB
1861
Alz . . .
F.Lachner. . . .
88
1862
Cologne . .
Hlller
40
1868
iHUaeldorf .
Otto OoldMhmldft . .
41
1864
Alz . . .
Bleu
42
1885
Cologne . .
HUler
4S
1806
DQiieldorf .
O.OotdsdiintdtATaoMh
Handel's Messiah : Brolea Symphony. Berthorm.
44
1867
AU . . .
BWz
Handel's Judas : Symphony ^ Beethoren.
45
1868
Cologne . •
Hnier
48
1869
DOiMldorr .
Bleu
Handel's Joshua : MagnUcat. Bach ; Symphony 7. Beethoren.
47
vm
AU . . .
Lachner ....
48
un
Cologne . .
Blller
49
1872
DQMeldorf .
BublnsUln ....
80
187S
Ate . . ,
Bleu
U
1874
Cologne . .
Hlller
88
1870
DOsMldorf .
Joachim ....
68
1876
Alz . . .
Breunung ....
Handel's Solomon ; Broloa Symphony. Beethoven.
54
1877
Cologne . .
Hlller
55
1878
DOiMldorf •
Joachim ....
58
1W9
Alz . . .
Brfiunoog • • • .
87
1880
Cologne . •
Hlllar
That I
NlMaldorfba«held2DiAU17.
mater number of the instnimeiital performon.
It is this drcumstanoe which ffives to this fes-
tival its peculiar ezcellenoe and beauty. From
all the neighbouring towns and the whole
oountiy round the dileltanH were gathering,
arriving in steamboats or Eilwagen, not to toil
at an irksome ill paid task, but for a great
musical fidd-day, tail of soul and song. All
ranks and ages mute for the one harmonious end.
.... Add to this love of the art, good training,
well cultivated taste, and general knowledge of
music, and it is explained now such an effect is
produced. You fdt the life, the pulsation of
this music, for their hearts as well as their
understandings were in it. It was in this chorus
and in this band that public interest was cen-
tred ; the audience listened and enjoyed, but the
amateur performers constituted the festivaL'
The importance of these Bhine festivals, from
an artistic point of view, was alluded to at the
commencement of this reoord of them. The roll
of eminent musicians of European &me who
have conducted them alone claims such re-
cognition; while the long catalogue of master-
pieces performed, especially those for orchestra,
in which English festivals are as a rule sadly
deficient, is In itself an extraordinarily interesting
and suggestive document. The following list
of the number of times of performances of Bee-
thoven's Symphonies at these Rhenish festivals
gives a tolerably £ur estimate of the proportionate
admiration in which those masterpieces are held
by the great composer's countiymen : —
No. 2, perfonnod once.
M 4, do. twioou
„ 0, do. do.
„ 8, do. do.
No. 6, performed eight times.
„ 7, do. do.
M 3, do. ninetimee.
M 9, do. twelve timce.
IH.S.0.1
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<58
NIEMANN.
NIEMANN, Albebt, one of the most famous
living tenoraof Grermany^wasbom Jan. 15, 1831,
at Erxleben, Magdebuig, where his father kept
an hotel. He was placed, when 17 years old, in
a machine factory, but want of means prevented
his remaining there, and he went on the stage
at Dessau in 1849, fiist as an actor of smaJl
parts, and afterwards as a chorus singer. Here
the HofkapeUmeister Friedrich Schneider dis-
covered his musical talent, and gave him some
instruction. A baritone singer named Nusch
taught him singing, and with such success that
Niemann soon obtained engagements at Halle
and other small theatres. He thus came under
the notice of Herr von Hillsen, G^eral Inten-
dant of the Geiman royal theatres, who called
him to Berlin, and gave him the means of
further improvement. He afterwards played at
Stnttgardt and Konigsberg, and through the
kindness of the King of Hanover was sent to
Paris to study imder Duprez. On his return he
joined the company at Hanover, and afterwards
went to Berlin, where he is engaged at the
present time, having been created 'Kanmier-
Sanger* to the Emperor. In Germany he has
for a long time past enjoyed a great reputation,
especially in ' heroic parts,' for which his hand-
some person and powerful voice eminently fit
him. He has played the parts of the Wagner
heroes, also Cbrtez, Joseph, Raoul, John of Ley-
den, Arnold, George Brown (La Dame Blanche)
and Chapelon (Postilion) ; and was selected by
Wagner to play Siegmund in ' Die Walkiire,' at
Bayreuth in 1876.
Niemann has not sung out of Germany except
when he played Tannhauser in Paris, on its pro-
duction at the Acadimie onMarch 1 3, 1 861 ; when
as is well known, the opera was received with
great dis&vour, only being played twice. [A.C.]
NIEMETSCHEK, Franz Xaveb, Doctor
of Philosophy, Professor of Latin at Pilsen, and
of Philosophy at Prague ( 1815), bom at Saczka in
Bohemia, a musical amateur, who played the
piano with taste, and is of importance in musical
histoiy as the author of a me of Mozart, tiie
best in its day (Prague, 1798, and edition,
Leipzig 1808). [C. F. P.]
NIGHT DANCERS, THE. A romantic
opera, in a acts, founded on the same legend
with the ballet of Giselle ; words by G. SoiEme,
music by Edward J. Loder. Produced under the
title of * The Wilis, or the Night Dancers,' at the
Princess's Theatre, London, Oct. a8. 1846. The
notice of the performance in the ' Times ' is his-
torical, since it was the first account of an opera
contributed by Mr. J. W. Davison, who until
1878 was the musical critic of that paper. The
opera was revived at the Royal English Opera,
Covent Garden, Nov. xo, i860. [G.]
NILSSON, Chbistini, was bom Aug. ao,
1843, near Wexid in the district of Wederslof,
Sweden, where her father was a very small farmer
on the estate of Count Hamilton.' From an early
1 Thli intle turn. aIM Sf tebel. wm aftarwardt parchu«d by Xlat
Knaaon, after (he d«ftdi of her parents. wIUi bar Snt profcMional
•valngi, ani gtvao to bar aldeH broUiar.
NILSSON.
date she showed great aptitude for music, and hat
voice proved the means of her introduction to
Baroness Leuhusen, rUe Valerius, herself formerly
a singer, from whom the young vocalist received
some lessons. She was afterwards instracted hj
Franz Berwald of Stockholm, and in six months
sang at Court. Miss Nilsson acoompanied the
Baroness Leuhusen to Paris, and studied singing
under M. WarteL She nutde her d^ut at the
Th^tre Lyrique Oct. ay, 1864, as Violetta^ in a
French version of La Traviata ; and afterwards
appeared as Lady Henrietta, Astrifiammante^
and Elvira (Don Giovanni), etc. She remained
at the Lyrique nearly three years, after which she
came to Eog^land, and made her first appearance
June 8, 1867, at Her Majesty's as Yioletta, with
great success, subsequently playing in the other
characters mentioned above, and as Margaret in
Faust. The same season she sang at the Crystal
Palace, and also at the Birmingham Festival in
oratorio, for which she was instracted by Mr.
Turle, the then oxganist of Westminster Abbey,
especially with reg^trd to the traditional style ti
Handel's songs. On Oct. 2 3 she took fsrewell of the
Th^tre Lyrique by creating the principal part
in * Les Bluets of Jules (Ik)hen. She was then
engaged by the Acad^ie de Musioue for the
part of Ophelia in Ambroise Thomaas Hamlet^
in which she appeared on its production March 9,
1868, with very great success.
In 1868 Miss Nilsson reappeared in Italian
Opera at Drury Lane, whither the company had
migrated by reason of the fire at Her Majesty's,
wiUi the same ^lat as before, and added to ner
repertoire the rdles of Lucia and Cherabino.
In that year she sang ' From mighty kings,* and
* Wise men flattering,' at the Handel Festival
She sang in the autumn at Baden-Baden, appear-
ing for ihe first time as Mlgnon, and in the win-
ter returned to the Academic, Paris. In 1 869 siie
played Ophelia in the production of Hamlet at
Covent Garden. In the autumn she made a pro-
vincial tour, singing later in London, at ^eter
Hall, in the MessiiUi, Creation, Hymn of Praise,
etc., and returning to Paris for the winter.
In the smnmer season of 1870, Mr. Wood
having taken Druiy Lane for Italian Opera, Miss
Nilsson was engaged as one of the stars, and she
then played for the first time in England as
Alice, the Countess (Figaro), Desdemona, and
Mignon. On July 17 she sang the soena 'Ah
perfido,' at the Philharmonic on the comme*
moration of the centenary of Beethoven's birth,
with a beauty of conoeption and expression which
can never be forgotten by those who heard it.
From the autumn of 1^870 to the spring of 187a
Miss Nilsson was in America siuging in concerts
and Italian opera under M. Strakosdi, when she
added Flotow*s oomic opera 'L'Ombre' to her
other parts. She returned to Drury Luie in the
summer of 187a, and on July a7 was married at
Westminster Abbey to M. Augusts Rouzaud of
Paris. From 1873 to 1877 Madune Nilsson sang
every season in Italian opera at Drury Lane
and Her Majesty's, creating Edith in Balte's
s An opara whloh fUl flat ta iplto of bar slagliit>
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N1I5S0N.
Talismano, June x8, 1874, and Elsa on the pro-
duction of Lohengrin at Drury Lane in 1875, a
part which she had previouBly pUyed in America.
During the winter and spring of these last
years, Madame Nilsson has eiUier sung in the
provinces in opera or at concerts, or been engaged
at the Opera of St. Petersburg, Moscow, Vienna,
etc. She paid a second visit to America for the
winter seasons of 1 8 73 and 74. She has only once
visited her native country in a professional ca-
pacity, viz. in 1876, when she made a tour in
Scandinavia with remarkable * success.
Her voice is of moderate power, great sweet-
ness, brilliancy, and evenness in aU the register,
the compass being about two and a half octaves,
from 6 natural to D in alt.* Her style is espe-
<!ially suited to the more pathetic parts of opera,
being peculiarly excellent as Elsa, Margaret, and
Mignon ; for Valentine, while looking the pari
to perfection, she lacks the necessary physique.
During her earlier seasons her success was helped
by a certain naXvet^ of look and manner which
was very charming. [A.C.]
NINTH. The compound intervals called
ninths exceed the octave either by a tone or a
semitone; if the former the ninth is called
* major' (a), if the latter it is called 'minor'
(h). The interval of an 'augmented ninth'
which exceeds the octave by three semitones (e)
alao occasionally occurs, as will be presently
noted, but it has not by any means the pro-
minence and importance of the major and mmor
forms. (Ex. i.)
Ninths differ from all other compound inter-
vals in the higher degree of invariability
with which they are distinct both in character
and treatment from their corresponding simple
intervals the major, minor, and augmented seconds.
They may be broadly divided into two classes —
those wMch require preparation somewhat per-
emptorily, and further prompt resolution after
percussion; and those which satisfy the under-
standing ear so fSar that preparation appears
superfluous, and haste to change the harmony
after percussion unnecessary. The former belong
to the class of artificial combinations arrived at
by processes which imply counterpoint, and the
latter to that of essential or fundamental chords
which can exist intelligibly in the sense of
harmony alone.
The nrst class is generally divided by theorists
into two sub-classes, called respectively ' suspen-
sions' and 'prepared discords.' The intimate
relationship of these chords has already been in-
dicated in the article Habmont; tiie above
classification will therefore only be accepted here
provisionally, for convenience in explanation.
Suspended ninths which are resolved while the
chord which accompanies them stands still, can
occur on every note of the scale, though that on
the leading note is extremely harsh; they are
commonly accompanied by third and fifth, as
1 giM !■ at prcMnt (Velk 1880). ilngtnv at Madrid,
s It wu formerly nearly three octavet. but she hai spared tha
lilcber part latalj on tlw adTloa of Boesinl. on aoount of the gnat
NINTH.
459
in Ex. 3, and not unfrequently by a major
seventh, suspended with the ninth, and resolving
with it ; sometimes also by a suspended fourth
as well, which resolves on the third simultane-
ously with the resolution of the ninth and
seventh. Suspended major ninths resolve either
upwards or downwards ; in the former case alone
they resemble suspended seconds, which obviously
must rise in resolution; and in this form also
the artificial chromatic heightening of the major
ninth to an augmented ninth takes place, as in
the following, from the Vorspiel to Wagner*8
Tristan und Isolde. (Ex. 3.)
1. (a) (b) (r) 2. Bsbthovbn. 8. Waowkr.
This device is rimHar to the chromatio
alteration of the augmented fifth ; and, in fttct,
eight bars further on than the above quotation,
the augmented ninth and the augmented fifth
actually occur tos^ther in the same chord, in a
way which is highly suggestive of their conimon
origin.
The second sub-class mentioned above differs
from those which are distinguished as suspensions
chiefly in the process of resolution ; in which,
instead of the rest of the chord (that is, its root
and concordant notes) being stationary while
the suspended notes are resolved, and moving
afterwards, the process is condensed, so that
when the disc<»d has been arrived at by pre-
paration, which is practically the same as the
Srocess of suspension, the root of the chord and its
ependent notes change simultaneously wilh the
resolution. So that though the resolution is
upon the same note as it would have been if
the chord had remained unchanged, its relation
to the root note of the new chord is different.
The root commonly rises a fourth, but it is
also possible for it to fall a third.
The above class of ninths may be accompanied
by thirds and sevenths which are either major
or minor, but in the last and most important
class the accompanying third must be major
and the seventh minor. These ninths, both
major and minor, are commonly held to be
fundamental harmonies, on the ground of their
representing the compound tone of the root or
generator. The major ninth is represented by
the eighth harmonic, which is only removed two
octaves and a note from the root, — and is easily
and clearly obtained, as for instance in horns and
trumpets. The minor ninth is similarly taken
by some theorists to be represented by the six-
teenth harmonic, which however is four octaves
removed from tiie generator, and is so closely
hemmed in by other harmonics at the distance
of a semitone apart, that it seems doubtful if it
could be clearly distinguished or easily obtained
as the major ninth is. It may however possibly
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NINTH.
be taken as a modification or softening of the
major ninth, and is certainly used with equal
freedom. Examples from so trustworthy a source
as Haydn, are given in the article Harmony
(p. 683): Schumann*s Overture to Genoveva
actually commences with a full chord of the
minor ninth ; and Mendelssohn*s Andante con
Variazioni in £b, with second inversion of the
major ninth.
The ninths belonging to this class are not only
free in the manner of their assumption, but
singularly so in the manner of their resolution ;
they are both commonly resolved after the man«
ner of suspensions, either upwards or downwards,
while the rest of the chord stands still ; or after
the manner of the soH^ed ' prepared ' discords ;
while the chord changes, as firom Dominant to
Tonic hannony. They also resolve by leaps, as in
the case of the Dominant ninths ; in which the
part having the ninth frequently leaps down-
wards to the third or fifth of the chord, and
then passes with change of hannony to a prox-
imate concordant note in the Tonic chord. Occa-
sionally the ninth appears to be resolved rather
by a change of the mass of harmony than by the
progression of the parts ; and further it is found
persisting through such changes of harmony, and
beii^r resolved without moving, as in the follow-
ing from Mr. Macfarren*s ' Joseph '>—
The Dominant major ninth is only used in the
major mode, the minor ninth in both ; and it
will be dear at the mere statement that the
minor ninth from the Dominant is not a note
which occurs in the diatonic series of the major
scale, and therefore the chord is chromatic in
that relation. But not only this ninth, but
several others which are more distinctly chroma-
tic, are commonly affiliated in the range of a key
without its being considered that the tonality is
thereby obscured. The most conspicuous of
these are the ninths of the Tonic and Supertonic,
which represent the compound tone of those
respective notes, and also stand in the favourable
position of Dominant chords in the dosely related
keys of the Subdominant and Dominant to the
original key. In these the minor seventh and
minor ninth of the Tonic, and the major third
and minor ninth of the Supertonic are chromatic
in relation to the major scale. The major ninth of
the Supertonic will not chime conveniently with
the minor mode because of its contradicting the
vital minor third of the scale ; in all the other
ninths which can be used in dther scale,, there
will be at least one note which is chromatic.
From the minor ninth are derived thatconspicu-
ous^ class of discords called diminished sevenths,
which are its inverdops with the root-note
omitted. They are said theoretically, that is
NOCTURNE.
in just intonation, to be very harsh ; but modem
mumdans seem to be exceedingly well oontettt
with the chord, and even go to the length
of using the interval of a diminished seventh
mdodi<»dly; which shows at least that the mind
can readily grasp it. This fadlity may of course
be partiy owing to the frequency with which the
chord occurs in modem mudc. Theorists have
complained that it is used to excess, and in some
senses this may be true ; but if so it is not un-
likely that it is a good deal their fisult, for they
rardy miss the opportunity to show off mudi
superfluous ingenuity in pointing ou^ to their
disdples the c^undeonlike qualities of the chord
and its various uses, which it would be much
better for worthy disdples to find out for them*
sdves. It may comfort those who fed disposed
to use the choid a good deal at times for really
mudcal purposes, to point out a singular example
in a preluae in G minor for oigan, by Bach
(Dorffd No. 823), too long for quotation, in which
there is a descending series of twelve diminished
sevenths alternating with trandtional resolutions,
and followed by four more diminished sevenths
descending in a row; making in all a notable total
of sixteen diminished sevenths in thirteen bars.
Further particulars concerning the characteris-
tics of this chord will be found under the heads
of DiMiNifiHKD Interval and Changs.
The complete chord of the Dominant ninth
is sometimes called the 'Added ninth' be-
cause the third which produces the interval
is added to the complete chord of the Dominant
seventh. [C.H.H.P.]
NISSEN, Gkoro Nioolaus von, Staatsrath
of Denmark, was bom at Hardendeben (Den-
mark), Jan. 23, 1761. When duug^-daffiores
at Vienna in 1797 he made the acquaintance of
Mozart*s widow, assisted her in regulating her
embarrassed affairs, and, in 1809, married her.
Retiring from official life in 1820 he settled in
Salzburg, where he died March 24, 1826. His
biography of Mozart, compiled from the mass
of documents then in existence, and from the re-
cdlections of his wife and Mozart*s sister, was pub-
lished after his death by his widow, wiUi preface
by Dr. Feuerstdn of Pima, and * Anhang (pub-
lished by Brdtkopf & Hartel, with 2nd and cheap
edition by G. Senff, Leipzig, 1828). [C. F. P.J
NCXrrURNE, NOTTURNO. A name and
form of compodtion the origin of which is due to
John Fidd, whose 18 or 19 so-called Nocturnes
(although not more than about 12 of them
deserve the title — see Field) are widely and
deservedly popular, not only for their intrindc
charm of freshness and simplidty, but also on
account of their being the predecessors of
Cliopin's Nocturnes, which undoubtedly owe
their form, though not thefr characteristic me>
lanchdy, to those of Fidd. It is very inter-
esting to compare some of the Noctumes of both
composers, — for instance. Field's No. 5 in Bb,
with Chopin's op. 32, No. 2, both the first and
second subjects of each bearing a striking re-
semblance to those of the other composer. The
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NOTTURNO.
Italian fonn of the word, Nottumo, is employed by
Mozart to denote a piece in three movements for
strings in two horns (K. 286). It is also used by
Mendelssc^ for the title of the lovely entr'acte in
the Midsummer Night's Dream Music, which re-
presents the sleep of the lovers. More recently the
name has becm used to cover a multitude of sins in
more than one branch of art. [J. A.F.M.]
NOCTURNS (Lat. NodurtUy Noetuma Ora-
ti<me$. The Night Hours). Portions of the Office
of Matins, consisting of Psalms, Antiphons, and
Lessons, of whidi three divisions are usually
sung, on Sundays and Festivals, and one only on
FenalDays. [See Matins.] [W.S.R.]
NODE (Latin nodus, a knot). The vibration
of a string may assume many different forms. In
Fig. I the string is shewn vibrating as a whole ;
in Fig. a it divides into two equal segments ; in
Fig. 3 into three equal segments. These seg^
ments, where the amplitude of vibration is great-
est, are called Loops (Z, Figs. 3 and 3), and the
points of rest between them are called Nodes (n).
F/a. 1.
Fio S.
KODUS SALOMONIS.
461
Fio. 3.
Ffo. 4.
Bui when a string fs plucked, as In the harp
and guitar, or bowed as m the violin, it does not
vibrate in any one of the simple forms just de-
scribed, but in several of them at once. The mo-
tion of the whole string combined with that of its
halves would be represented by Fig. 4. Here
the node is no longer a point of complete rest Sut
a point where the amplitude of vibration is least.
If the string while vibrating be touched at
^, 4[, it etc of its length, as in playing har^
monies on the harp or violin, all forms of vibra-
tion which have loops at these points vanish,
and all forms which have nodes there become
more marked. Thus it is possible to damp the
vibrations of the whole string, of itslthird parts,
of its fifth parts, etc., leaving the vibrations of
its halves, of its fourth parts, of its sixth
parts, etc., unimpeded.
The column of air in an open pipe vibrating
as a whole has a node in the centre, towards
which the particles of air press and from which
they again draw back (see Fig. 5, n).
Fia.S. I
Thus at the node the air does not move but
mdergoes the greatest changes of density. At
the loop (D there is no change of density but
great amplitude of vibration. The open ends of
tiie pipe are always loops, for the density at
these points being the same as that of the outer
air, does not change. This remains true whether
the pipe have two, three, or more nodes, as
shewn m Figs. 6 and 7.
■ I
In a stopped pipe the closed end is always a
node, and the open end a loop, whether the
column of air vibrate as a whole (see Fig. 8),
or divide into segments as shown in Figs 9
and 10.
n
t
fi
Fio.«.
<->
<-
\
->i
n
t
n
I
n
Fio. 7.
'— i
<-
:
->
i««-
n I
n
Jftn 0 1 -^ : ^._ _
n I n
t n
Pio. la i — > i «€— :
->
In practice both an open and a stopped pipe
vibrate not in any one of the ways just de-
scribed, but in several of them at once. Here,
too, as in the case of strings, the node is not a
point of complete rest but of least motion.
Chladni showed that sand strewn on vibrating
plates or membranes collects along the lines
where the - motion is least. These are called
nodal line*, and may assume a variety of sym-
metric forms. [J. L.]
NODUS SALOMONIS (Solomon's knot).
A celebrated Canon, composed by Pietro Va-
lentini, and described bv Fr. Kircher, in his
Musurgia. It was origmally intended to be
sung by ninety-siz Voices, disposed in twenty-
four Choirs : but Kircher afterward ascertained,
that, provided the distribution into four-part
Choirs was properly carried out, the numbcor of
Voices might be increased to five hundred and
twelve, or even to twelve millions two hundred
thousand. The Ouida^in which four notes only
are used—stands as follows :—
The First Choir leads ; the Bass and Tenor
entering together ; the former, with the Guidti,
and the latter, with its Inversion, beginning on the
Twelfth above. After a Semibreve Rest, uie Alto
sings the Ouida, and the Treble its Inversion in
the Twelfth above, both beginning together, as
before. All the other Choirs enter in the same
way, each pair of voices beginning one Semibreve
later than the preceding pair. But, when the
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489
KODUS SALOMONIS.
number of Voices ezceede thirty-two, the notes
must be tiUig of different lengths, some Choirs
teking each one as a Large, others as a Long,
Mid so on. It is easy to see that a Canon of this
kind is no work of Art at alL Arithmetically
considered, it reduces itself to a Tery simple cal-
culation ; while, musically, it is nolhing more than
an intolerable drawl on the Chord of G. But no
Canon, written for so great a number of Voices,
could possibly be founded on more than one
•ingle Chord. [W. S. R.]
NO^L (Old fV. Nouel; Burgundian No6;
Norman JVwel ; Poitevin Nau ; Germ. WeihnachU
Ouang; £ng. Now^h Nouell, Christmas Carol).
A peculiar kkid of Hymn, or Canticle, of medieval
origin, composed, and sung, in honour of the Na-
tivity of Our Lord.
The word NoSl has so long been accepted as
the French equiyalent for 'Christmas,* tnat we
may safely din)ense with a dissertation upon
its etymolc^. MoreoTer, whatever opiniona may
be entertained as to its root, it is impossible
to doubt the propriety of retaining it as the
generic name of tne Carol : for we continually
find it embodied in the Christmas Hynm or
Motet, in the form of a joyous * exclamation ;
and it is almost certain that this particular kind
of Hymn was first cultivated eiUier in France
or Burgundy, and commonly sung there in very
antient times.
Of the numerous early examples which have
ibrtunately been preserved to us, the most inter-
esting is, undoubtedly, the famous 'Prose do
TAne. This curious Carol was annually sung, at
Beauvais, and Sens,, on the Feast of the Cir-
cumcision, as early as the 12th century; and
fimned an important part of the Ceremonial con-
nected with a certain popular Festival called the
'F6te de TAne,' on wldoh an ass, richly capari-
soned, and bearing upon its back a young maiden
with a child in her arms, was led through the
city, in commemoration of tlie Flight into ^gypt,
and finally brought in solemn procession to the
Cathedral, while the crowd chaunted the follow-
ing quaint, but by no means unmelodious ditty : —
Or- I • m-tlf p«r-ti-tas.Ad-TeD-u-iM m - 1 -nna,
Uh, iln Amm, car diMatME, Bil - to boodien- ehlriMi.
NOfiL.
Carols 'Besonet in laudibus' (Wir loben aU* das
Kiodeletn), and * Dies est hetitiie' (Der Tag der
ist so freundlich)— the latter, equally well known
in Holland as 'Tis een daoh van vrc^chkeit.'
Both these examples are believed to be as old as
the 13th century ; as is also another — 'Tempos
adest floridum*— -of equally tuneful character.
*In duki jubilo' — a curious mixture of Latin
and Patois, set to a deliciously simple Melody^
may possibly be of somewhat later date.
These early forms were succeeded, in the i6th
and 17th centuries, by Carols treated, with more
or less success, in tlbe Polyphonic style. The
credit of having first so treated them is generaUy
given to Fran9ois Eustache du Caurroy, Maltre
de Chapelle to Charles IK, Henri m, and
Henri IV, on the strength of a collection of
pieces, entitled ' Melanges de la Musique,' pub-
lished, at Paris, in 1 610— the year following his
decease. But, Giovanni Mari& Nanini, who
died, at Rome, in 1607, has left us a magnificent
example, in the form of a Motet — * Hodie Christos
natus est ' — in the course of which he introduces
the exclamation, No^ ! No^ I with striking efiTect;
and Luca Marenzio published » similar composi-
tion, adapted to the same words, as eaiiy as 1588.
As Du Caurrtyjr^s collection was contained in a
posthumous volume, it would perhaps be impossi-
ble, now, to reconcile the claims of the rival Com-
posers, as to priority of invention ; though the
French Noels will, of course, besr no com-
parison with those written in Italy, in point of
excellence. Still, it is only £Edr to say Uiat the
Italian Composers seem to have exeited no nnrit
of emulation among their countrymen; while,
far more than a century after the death of Du
Caurroy, coUectionB of great value appeared, from
time to timei, in France : such as Jean Francois
Dandrieu*s 'Suite de Noels,' publidied early in
the i8th century; 'Noei B^rguigncm de Gui
BarOzai.' 1730; 'Traduction des Noels Bonr-
guignons,' 1 735 ; ' Nouveaux Cantiques Spirituda
Proven9aux,' Avignon, 17^0; and many others.
We subjoin a few bars of Nanini's Motet,- and
of one of Du Caurroy's No^, as specimens of ihe
distinctive styles of Italy, and France, at the
beginning of the 1 7th century.
G.M.N^Nim.
Scarcely less popular in Germany, than the
'Prose de TAne in France, wero the beautiful
1 A modtm OermM erttle. F. M. BShme. mlitalM the vowoli
X.V.O.V.A.I-UM medlMTAl abbrertotlon for McWornM. ^»«»-for ft
Mmltor erj ot Saj, tad \» frcatlj ttrardaad ai Um admlMlfla of a
* Itaoehuialkui thoat' inio the OSloe-Boolu of the Churoh 1 ' SUU
Am»m (tor bacchUcht Fraadsonif: «M>mM /• (BOIum. 2>a» OraUrimmi
tMgdi%,mLi l9eeApp«iMili.XTgTiB4
No • 4. Ko • 4. No
r^^r
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N0£L.
IfONB.
46S
Dv Caoaxoy.
Ko il. Mo -
The luttory of our own English CarolB has not
yet been exhaostiyely treated ; nor has their
Music received the attention it deserves. In no
part of the world has the recurrence of Yule-Tide
been welcomed with greater rejoicings than in
England; and, as a natural consequence, the
Chnstmas Carol has. obtained a firm hold, less
upon the taste than the inmost affections of the
People. Not to love a Carol is to proclaim one-
self a churL Yet, not one of our great Com-
posers seems to have devoted his attention to
this subject. We have no English Noels like
those of Eustache du Caurroy. Possibly, the
iufluenoe of national feeling may have been
strong enough, in early times, to exclude the
refinements of Art from a Festival the joys of
which were supposed to be as freely open to the
most unlettered Peasant as to ms Sovereign.
But, be that as it may, the fisct remains, that
the old Verses and Melodies have been perpetu-
ated among us, for the most part, by the process
of tradition alone, without any artistic adornment
whatever ; and, unless some attempt be made to
preserve them, we can scarcely hope that, in
these days of change, they will continue much
longer in remembrance. There are, of course,
some happy exceptions. We cannot believe that
the fiEunous £oar*s Head Carol — ' Caput apri de-
fero'— will ever be forgotten at Oxford. The
fine old melody sung to ' Grod rest you, merrie
Gentlemen,' possessing as it does all the best
qualifications of a sterling Hymn Tune, will
probably last as long as.^e Verses with whidi
it is associated. [See Htmn.] But, the beauty
of this noble Tone can only be fully appreciated,
when it is heard in Polyphonic Harmony, with
the Melody placed, according to the invariable
custom of the 17th century, in the Tenor. A
good collection of English Carols, so treated, would
form an invaluable i^dition to our store of popu-
lar Choir Music.
The best, as well as the most popular English
Carols, of the present day, are translations nrom
well-known medieval originals. The Rev. J. M.
Neale has been peculiarly happy in his adapta-
tions ; among which are the loog-established £»-
vourites, 'Christ was bom on Chnstmas Day'
('Resonei in laudibus'); 'Good Christian men»
rejoice, and mnft ' (' In duld jubilo'); * Royal Day
that chasest gloom' ('Dies est IstitisVi Mid
'Good King Wenceslas looked out* ('Tempus
adest floridum') — though the Legend of 'Good
King Wenceslas* has no connection whatever
with the original Latin Verses.^
Of Modem Carols, in the strict sense of the
word, it is unnecessary to say more than that
they follow, for the most part^ the type of the
ordinary Part Song. [W. S. R.]
NOHL, Carl Frudbioh Ludwio, a well-
known writer on music and musical subjects, was
born at Iserlohn in Westphalia, on Dec. 5, 1831.
His father is a legal functionary, and it was in-
tended that the son should follow the same profes-
sion, although his taste for music showed itself
while he was still a child. He was educated at the
Gymnasinm of Dinsburg, and in 1 850 entered the
University of Bonn. Prom Bonn he proceeded to
Heidelberg, in order to pursue his legal studies^
which were however neglected for musical and
literary pursuits. At Heidelberg he determined
to make music his profession, but Uiis idea waa
abandoned in accordance with his father's wishes^
and he continued the study of jurisprudenoe at
Berlin, at the same time receiving instruction
in the theory of music from IVofessor Dehn.
In 1853 Nom entered the Prussian Civil Service
as Referendarius, but in 1856 his health broke
down, and he had to undertake a journey to
France and Italy. He returned to Berlin in 1857,
and continued his musicid studies under Pro-
fessor Kiel. In 1858 he finally abandoned the
legal profession, and settled at Heidelberg, the
University of which place conferred upon him
tiie degree of Doctor of Philosophy (1860). In
the following year he went to Munich, where, in
1865 King Ludwig II appointed him an Honor-
ary Professor in the University. In 1872 he re-
turned to Heidelberg, whero he has since resided,
and whero he teaches musical history and aes-
thetics. Space will dot allow of our inserting a
complete list of Nohl's works: many of them
have been translated into English, and aro
known in this country. His ' Mozart's Letters '
(1865). 'Beethoven's Letters' (1865 and 1870),
'Letters of Musicians' (1866), ' Gluck and
Wagner' (1870), 'Die Beethoven Feier ' (1871),
'Beethoven according to the ropresentations of
his Contemporaries' (1877), 'life of Bee-
thoven' (1877), and other works on Mozart and
Beethoven, aro valuable contributions to the mu-
sical literaturo of the century, and have gone
through many editions. [W. B. S.]
NONE (Lat. Offieium {vd OraUo) ad fforam
Nonam, Ad Nonam), The last of the 'Lesser
Hours,* in the Roman Breviary.
The Office consists of the Versicle, and Re-
sponse, ' Deus in adjutoritmi' ; a Hymn — ' Rerum
Deus tenax vigor' — which never changes ; the last
forty-eight verses of the Psalm, ' Beati immaculati,'
1 Bm tiie B«T. T. Helmora's 'CftroU fSor ChrittmasUde'; % work.
whSoh. notwlthiiteodliis tta modeRt proCeniioas. to l»7 fv <>» bcM
CoUMtloD pubUilMd la a popalw fonn.
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NONE.
8tmg in three divisions, but, nnder a single An-
tiphon; the Gapitulum, and Besponsorium for
the Season ; ana the Prayer, or Collect, for the
Day. The Plain Chaunt Music for None will
be found in the 'Antiphonarium Bomanum,'
and the *Directorium Chori.' [W.aB.]
NONET (ItaL Nonetto). A Composition,
written for nine Voices, or Instruments.
A Vocal Nonet is rarely called into existence,
without some spedal raison cTitre. For instance,
in the Polyphonic Schools, it not unfrequently
results from the union of two Choirs, one ror five,
and tiie other for four Voices, as in the case of
Allegri's celebrated Miserere : while, in Operatic
Music, it becomes a self-evident necessity, when-
ever nine Characters are brought upon the Stage,
either together, or in succession, during the course
of a continuous series of movements, as in the
Finale to the first Act of ' Die Zauberfldte.'
Among the few Instrumental Nonets, produced
nnce the time of Mozart^ the first place must
unquestionably be accorded to Spohrs delight-
fvl Op. 31, for Stringed and Wind Instruments
combined. [W.S.R.]
NON NOBIS DOMTNE, A celebrated
Canon, generally sung, in England, as a substitute
for * Grace after meat,' at public pinners, and on
other festive occasions.
English historians are unanimous in describing
'Non nobis Domine* as the composition of William
Byrd : but it is not to be found in any volume of
his published works, though the subject appears
in one of the ' Cantiones sacrsB,' printed by Byrd
and Tallis in 1575. Bumey tells us that the
earliest copy to which Byrd*s name is appended
is that inserted in Hilton's 'Catch that Catch
can.' It is undoubtedly to be found in that
curious work ; but, neither in the edition of
1652, nor that of 1658, Is the author's name men-
tioned ; and the existence of an earlier edition,
printed in 1651, though strongly suspected, has
never been satisfactorily proved. Dr. Pepusch,
in his 'T^reatise on Harmony' (i 730-1 731), dis-
tinctly calls it 'the fiEunous Canon by William
Byrd, and no doubt seems to have been felt on
the subject until about the middle of the i8th
century, when Carlo Bicdotti published, at
Amsteraam, a Concerto, founded on the well-
known theme, which he attributed to Palestrina.
Palestrina has, indeed, used its opening clause
more than once ; notably in his Madrigal, * When
floweiy meadows deck the year' — one of the love-
liest that ever was written. This, however, proves
nothing. He has not treated it as a Canon — in
which form it bears far less resemblance to his
peculiar style than to that of Josquin des Pr^.
The Subject, moreover, is by no means an un-
usual one ; and has even been called, by Morle^,
' a most common point.' Handel has used it, m
Ids 'Hallelujah Chorus,' in * I will sing unto the
Lord' (Israel),* and in other places too numerous
to mention. Bach has employed it as the sub-
ject of an 'Allabreve per Otgano pleno,' in D
(DQrfiel, No. 1053). Mendelssohn has also used
> iM BufMy^ * GoaBcmonlloo of Eandd.' pw m
KON NOBIS DOMINE.
the few opening notes in ' Not only unto him*—
the last chorus in S. Paul ; and these notes,
phrased exactly as in the Canon, will be found
among the works of so many composers, that it
is clear they are looked upon as common property.
But, the Subject is not the Canon. It is in the
ingenuity of that that the true merit lies. We
dium that merit for Byrd. Biociotti may poa-
sibly have been tempted to accord it to Palestrmft,
on the authority of a very antient copy, said to
be preserved in the Vatican, engraved upon a
plate of gold. But it does not appear that Pa-
lestrina's name is appended to this copy; and it
is worthy of remark, that, in the Introduction to
Dr. Blow's ' Amphion Anglicus,' printed in 1700,
special mention is made of 'Bird's Anthem in
golden notes,' ' Preserv'd intire in the Vatican.'
The Canon — a perpetual one, in the Mizo-
lydian Mode — b capable of many solutions, all
exhiUting a freedom of treatment not quite
consistent with the strict laws of Counterpoint.
The most noticeable deviations from rule, are,
some Hidden Octaves, which seem to form an
essential element in the construction of the second
clause ; and a certain Changing-Note, in the
form of an ascending Seventh — ^which last fault,
however, would not appear, were the parts made
to leave off, in the <dd-fasldoned way, one at a
time, as they began. The leading part — ^tech-
nically termed the Qnidot — ^taken at its true
pitch, is as follows :-^-
too da glo-rl-«ai. Md nomlnl too da flo>rl>am
The simplest solution of which it seems capable
is in two parts ; of which the first leads, with the
Outda, while the second follows, after a Breve
rest, in the Fifth below, singing the B flat, in
order to preserve the tomdity. The chief
demerit of this lies in the prominence which it
gives to the Hidden Octaves already mentioned.
In another two-part solution, the upper Voice,
leading with the Guida, is followed, aft^ a
Semibreve rest, by the lower one, in the Fourth
below ; all the Fs in the second Voice being
made sharp.
In a third, the Ouida leads, as before, and
the lower Voice follows, after three Semibreve
rests, in the Octave below.
These three solutions — in so fnr as they are
complete in two parts — seem, hitherto, to have
escaped notice : but they form the basis of all
solutions for a greater number of Voices.
The solution usually sung is in three parts. The
Treble leads. The Alto follows, after a Semibreve
Be«t, in the Fourth below, singing all the Fs
sharp. And the Tenor enters, three Semibreve
rests after the Ouida, in the Octave below it.'
Another three-part solution may be formed, as
1 W« art hm MramlDg that the Ouott te rant ■» Its trao pMeh.
It \» mon frsqtMDtly tnnspoMd aft laait aFtfkh lowar} «nd lODt b^
aa AUo. a TiBor, and a BMn
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NON NOBIS DOBflNE.
follows. The Treble leads, with the Gutda, The
Alto follows, after a Breve Best, in the Fifth below,
singing the B flat. And the Tenor enters, one
Semibreve later than the Alto, in the Octave
below the Ouida, We believe that this solution
— ^which is at least as effective as that in general
use, and, in some places, even more so — ^luui also
remained hitherto undiscovered.
Among the MSS. preserved in the Bnyal
Library at Buckingham Palace is a solution in
four parts. The Tenor leads with the Guida,
The ^ss follows, after a Breve rest, in the
Fifth below, singing the B flat. The Alto enters,
a Breve after the Bass, in the Fourth above the
Ouida, singling the B flat. The Treble begins a
Semibreve after the Alto, an Octave above the
Ouida. In order to work out this solution, the
sevttith note in the Alto must be made a Semi-
breve, and the eighth a Minim ; and the three
last notes in the Treble must be F, F, C, instead
B, B, A. No clue can be obtained, either as
to the authorship, or the date, of this very in-
teresting MS.
Furthermore, Bumey entertafns us, on the
authority of Hilton, with a solution in which all
the parts are inverted ; thus —
Do-ml-ne, non do • bU,
NORTH.
465
tuo dft glo-ri-un, led nominl tuo da glo-rl-un.
The Guida is here led off by the seoond voice.
The first follows, after a Semibreve rest, in the
Fourth above. The third enters, two Semibreves
after the second, in the Twelfth below the Ouida,
We give this solution for what it is worth ; but,
it presents so many crudities that it is impossible
to believe it can ever have entered into the
Composer*s original design. [W. S. B.]
NON PLUS ULTRA, the title of a pianoforte
sonata in F by Woelfl (op. 41), published in
1 807 Ct), and intended to express that mechanical
difficulty could no further go. The finale is a
set of variations on * Life let us cherish.* The
challenge was answered by * Plus ultra,' the title
affixed by the publishers to Dussek*s sonata * Le
letour k Paris' (op. 71) on its pubUoation in
England. [G.]
NONNE SANGLANTE, LA. 9pera in 5
acts ; words by Scribe and Belavigne, firom
Lewis's * Monk ; music by Gounod. Produced
at the Academic, Oct. 18, 1854. [G.]
NORCOME, Daniel, lay-clerk of St. (reorge's
Chapel, Windsor, contributed a madri^, * With
angel's £emh» and brightness,' to ' The Triumphes
of Oriana^' 1601 • Nothing is known of his bio-
graphy. [W.H.H.]
NORMA. Opera in 2 acts; words by Romani,
music by Bellini. Produced at Milan, Lent 1833
(Donzelli, Pasta, Grisi). In Paris, Italiens, Dec.
8, 1855. In London, in Italian, Kind's Theatre,
June ao, 1833; ^^ English (Plancn^)i Drury
Lane, June 34, 1837. [G,]
voLkfU FT. 10.
NORRIS, Thomas, Mus. Bac., bom about
1745, was a chorister of Salisbury Cathedral
under Dr. Stephens. He appeared as one of the
principal soprani at Worcester Festival, I76i»
and Hereford Festival, 1763, and in the latter
year at Drury Lane in 'The Spring,' a pasticcio.
In 1765 he was appointed organist of Christ
Church Cathedral, Oxford ; in November of the
same year graduated at Oxford as Mus. Bac., his
exercise (two anthems, *The Lord is king' and
' I will alway give thanks ') being performed in
the Music School, Nov. I3 ; and on Dec. 15 was
chosen organist of St. John's College. In 1766
he appeared at Gloucester Festival as a tenor
singer, and continued to sing at the Meetings
of the Three Choirs until 1788. On Nov. 5,
1771, he was admitted a lay clerk of Magdalen
College, Oxford. He sang at the Commemoration
of Handel in 1784 (where his delivenr of the
final recitatives in * Israel in Egypt,' and of *Thy
rebuke,* and ' Behold and see,' in ' Messiah,' was
greatly admired), and at most of the subsequent
performances in the Abbey. He sang also at
the oratorios in London. In 1790 he was en-
gaged at the Birmingham Festival. But the effort
proved ^tal ; ten days afterwards (Sept. f , 1 790),
ne expired at Himley Hall, near Stourbridge, the
seat of Lord Dudley and Ward. Norris com-
posed several anthems, only one of which has ,
been printed ; 6 symphonies for strings, with two
hautboys and two horns; and some glees and
other vocal pieces, of which 5 glees and 3 canons
are printed in Warren's Collections. His career
was much prejudiced by habits of intemper-
ance. [W.H.H.]
NORRIS. William, one of the Children of the
Chapel Royal at the coronation of James II in
16S5 ; afterwards a member of the choir, and mas-
ter of the choristers of Lincoln. An anthem by
him, ' Blessed are those,' was printed in Playford's
'Divine Companion,' and a service and two
anthems are m the Tudway Collection (Harl.
MS. 7340). He composed an ode for St. (Cecilia's
day, believed to have been performed in London
in 1703 ; the MS. was in the possession of Ben-
jamin Jaoob, and was sold with the rest of his
library in 1830. but has not been traced. Norris
is supposed to have died about 1 7 10. [ W. H. H.l
NORTH. Francis, Lord Guilford, bom at
Rougham, Norfolk, about 1640, Chief Justice
of the (Common Pleas, and afterwards Lord
Chancellor, one of the best amateur musicians of
his time, published anonymously in 1677 'A
Philosophical Essay on Musick,' containing some
curious observations on the phenomena of sounds.
He died Sept. 7, 1685.
The Hon. Roger North, his brother, bom
at Rougham in 1650, was also bred to the bar,
and became Attorney-General to James II. He
wrote several family biographies and other works,
but his claim to mention here is as author of
'Memoirs of Musick,' a well- writ ten sketch of
the progress of the art from the time of the
ancient Greeks to about 1730. The MS. re-
mained in the family's possession, unpublished,
until 1843, when it came into the hands of
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46^
NORTH.
George Townshend Smith, then organist of Ljnn,
Kort'olk, through whose exertions it was pub-
lished in 1846 under the editorship of Dr. Rim-
bault. North, who was a skilled musical amateur,
died at Rougham in 1 733. [W.H.H.]
NORWICH FESTIVAL. The establishment
of Triennial Festivals at Norwich dates from the
year 1824, but previous to this. Musical Festivals
were held in 1770. 1802, 1809, 181 1, 1813, 1814,
and 181 7. These genera ly consisted of two or
more miscellaneous concerts held either in St.
Andrew*s Hall or the theatrei, and of oratorios
and selections of sacred music performed in the
church of St. Peter*s Mancroft. On these occa-
sions the band was chiefly composed of local
musicians, both amateur and professional, led by
London principals under different conductors, the
most prominent of whom was Dr. Beckwith. In
1824 the scheme of Triennial Festivals, after
having been discussed for some years, was finally
adopted on the mot'on of Mr. Philip Martineau,
surgeon, of Norwich. A chorus of 150 voices
was formed and trained by Mr. Edward Taylor,
afterwards Gresham Professor, assisted by the
Cathedral organist, Mr. Z. Buck. The band oon-
ftisted of no performers, and the conductor was
Sir George Smart. The Festival was attended
by 10,087 people, and was a great financial suc-
cess, the sum of £241 1 48. 2d. being handed over
to the Norfolk and Norwich Hospital, after pay-
ing all expenses. Since 1824 Festivak have been
held at Norwich trienially, but the pecuniary
success has never been so great as in that year ;
in 1836, 1854, "^^ '^^9 ^^® expenses were in
excess of the receipts. The conductor from 1824
to 1836 was Sir G^rge Smart; from 1839 to
1842, Professor Taylor; and from 1842 to 1878,
Sir Julius Benedict. In 1839 Spohr was present,
conducted his 'Calvary,' played his Concertino,
' Sonst imd Jetzt,* and with Blagrove a Conoer-
tante for a violins. He would have come affain
in 1842 for the performance of his 'FaU of
Babylon * if he could have obtained leave of ab-
sence from Cassel. It is impossible to give a list
of all the artists who have sung at &ese Fes-
tivals; it would include the names of all the
g^reatest vocalists of the century, frx)m Mrs. Bil-
Unffton and Braham ^in 1802) to Mme. Albani
and Mr. Santley (in 1878). Handel's ' Messiah'
has been performed at every Festival except four;
and amongst less known works the following
may be mentioned: Mozart's 'Davidde Peni-
tente' (1848), Bexfield's 'Israel Restored' (1852),
Pierson's 'Jerusalem' (1852), and 'Hezekiah'
(1869^ Molique's 'Abraham' (i860), and Han-
del's ' Passion Music ' (1866). [W.B. S.]
NOTA CAMBITA (Ital. NUa Camhiata,
Germ. Wechtelnote^ Eng. Changing Note.) I.
A Note of Irregular Transition : in other words, a
Passing-Note, on the strone part of the measure ;
as opposed to the Note of Kegular Transition, or
true Passing-Note, which, though equally foreign
to the harmony, produces a less discordant effect,
because it invariably occurs upon the weak part
of the measure.
NOTATION.
In the following example from Cherubini, the D
I a Changing, and the second G a Passing-Note.
• t
The use of Changing-Notes is only permitted,
in strict Counterpoint, as a means of escape fronk
some grave diificulty ; and, of course, only in the
Second, Third and Fifth Orders. [See CouKTSS-
point; Pabt-Wwtino.]
II. Fux applies the term, Noia eamhita,^ to
a peculiar Licence, by virtue of which the Poly-
phonic Composers, instead of resolving a PassiD^
Discord, at once, suffered it to descend a Third,
and then to rise a Second to its Resolutioa.
Cherubini condemns this Licence, as one which
should 'neither be admitted, nor tolerated, in
strict Counterpoint.' Fux accounts for it by the
omission of an imaginary Quaver. The norm of
the passage is, he says, as at (a), in the foUowin-;
example. By leaving out the first Quaver, it is
made to appoir as at (5) ; by leaving out the
second, as at (e).
(") Q>) W
Cherubini recommends the form shown at (b).
The common consent of the great Polyphonic Com-
posers justifies the preference of (c) ; and their best
defence lies in the exquisitely beautiful effects they
produce by means of it. Without multiplying ex-
amples, we may mention innumerable instanoes
in the 'Missa Papie Marcelli,* and in Orlando
Gibbons's Full Anthem ' Hosanna to the Son of
David.' [See Habmont, p. 678.] The last-named
Composition — one of the finest in existence, in
the English Polyphonic School — derives a great
part of its wonderful beauty from the judicious
use of this unjustly condemned Licence. [W. S. R.]
NOTATION (Lat. Notatio ; Ft. Sdmiographie ;
Germ. Notirung, Notentchrift, Tomchrift), The
Art of expressing musical ideas in writing.
Apart from its intrinsic value, the history of
Notation derives much collateral importance from
the light it throws upon that of Music, generally.
From its earliest infancy, the Art has known no
period of absolute stagnation. Incessant pro-
gress has long been recognised as a fundamental
htw of its existence ; and a more or less extensive
change in its written language has been naturally
demanded, at each successive stage of its develop-
ment. This conceded, we can scarcely wonder that
the study of such changes should materially aid
our attempts to trace the story of its inner Ufe.
Three different systems of Notation have been
accepted as sufficient for all practical purposes,
at different periods. In very early times, when
Mehtdy was simple, and Harmony unknown,
musicfd sounds were represented by the Letters
1 • Wot> careMU. >b Itellf tamliwim nuaoupt*.' (Owdw ad Ftiw-
tnm, ad. ITK. p. 6ft.>
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NOTATION.
of the Alphabet. Many centimes later, these
were superseded by a species of Hieratio Charao-
ter, the components of which were known to the
Monks of the Middle Ages mider the name of
Neumss. The final stage of perfection was
reached, whei^ these last were developed into the
characters now called Notes, and mitten upon
the Lines and Spaces of the Stave.
The Greeks made use of Uncial Letters, inter-
mixed occasionally with a few Minasculse, and
written in an endless variety of dififerent posi-
tions— upright, inverted, lying on the right or
left side, divided in half, placed side by side, and
otherwise grouped into some hundred and twenty
well-marked combinations, which, with more than
a thousand minor variations, have been 8o dearly
described by Alypius, Aristides Quintilianus, and
other Hellenic writers, that, could we but obtain
authentic copies of the Hymns of Pindar, or the
Choruses ofSophocles, we should probably find them
easier to decypher than many mediaeval MSS.^
When Greece succumbed beneath the power of
Western Europe, Roman Letters took the place
of the more arohaic forms, but with a different
application ; for, while the details of Greek No-
tation were designed with special reference to
the division of the system into those peculiar
Tetrachords which formed its most prominent
characteristic, the Boman Letters were, at a
very early period, applied^ in alphabetical order,
to the Degrees of the Scale — a much more simple
arrangement, the value of which is too well known
to need comment. Boethius, writing in the 6th
century, sanctioned the use of the first fifteen
Letters of the Roman Alphabet, for certain special
purposes. This number was afterwards reduced
to seven — ^it is not easy to say by whom.' Tn^
dition ascribes the first use of the lesser number
to S. Gregory, but on very insufficient grounds ;
though the reactionary idea that he was unac-
quainted with the Alphabetical System, cannot
for a moment be entertained.' It is certain that
Letters were used, for many centuries, In the
Notation of Plain Chaunt, in the West ; just as
the use of the Greek Characters was retained in
the Office-Books of the Eastern Church. After
the 8th century, though they rarely appeared in
writing, the Degrees of the Scale were still named
after them. As symbols of these Degrees, they
have never been discarded. Guide us^ them, in
the nth century, in connection with the Solmisa-
tion of the Hexachords ; though their presence,
as written characters, was then no ^onger needed.
The first eight, indeed, lived on, in a certain
way, until quite recent times, in the Tablature for
the Lute, which always claimed a special method
1 TiM AttUienUdt; of th« three Hfiniu. i>rlntQd. In lon, by Vln-
eenzo OAlflel. rests oa luch slender grounds, that tt would be ez-
tremeiy DiuatiB to accept them as genuine.
3 The teptem diterimina voenm of Virgil (Mn. tL 646) hare been
tuppofed to allude to tbeee seren letters ; and the context certainly
aoicgests some possible connection with the subject.
t Though discussion of hidlrldual authorities is quite foreign to the
porpoae of the present article, it may be well to observe, that, within
the but Ihre y«>ars. a well-known Belgian writer— F. A. Gevaert— has
adranoed certain opinions connected with the subject of antient
MotstSon. very much at variance with those of most earlier Historians,
nie reader will ftnd Mons. Oeraert s views fully explained In bis
■ Bbtoixe et Tb^orie do la Moslqne dau I'Antlqnit^/ Paris, 187&
NOTATION.
467
of its own. This, however, was an exceptional
case. Long before the invention of the Stave, the
system came virtually to an end : and, in our own
day, it surrives only in the nomenclature of our
notes, and the employment of the F, C, and G
Oefe. [See Hexachord, Tablatube.]
Though wanting neither in clearness nor in cer-
tainty, this primitive system was marred, through-
out all its changes, by one very serious defect.
A mere collection of arbitrary signs, arranged in
straight lines above the poetic^ text» it made
no attempt to imitate, by means of symmetrical
forms, the undulations of the Melody it repre-
sented. To supply this deficiency, a new system
was invented, based upon an entirely different
principle, and bringing into use an entirely new
series of characters, of which we furst find well-
formed examples in the MSS. of the 8th cen-
tury, though similar figures are believed to have
been traced back as fiur as the 6th. These oha^
raoters consisted of Points, Lines, Aooents, Hooks,
Curves, Angles, Retorted Figures, and a multi-
tude of other signs, or ^ Neums, placed, more or
less exactly, over the syllables to which they
were intended to be sung, in such a manner as to
indicate, by their proportionate distances above
the text^ the places in which the Melody was to
rise or fall. Joannes de Muris mentions seven
different species of Neumse. A MS. preserved at
Kloster Murbach describee seventeen. A still
more valuable Codex, onoe belonging to the
Monastery of S. Blasien, in the Kack Forest,
gives the names and figures of forty : and many
curious forms are noticed in Fra Angelico Ottobi^
Calliopea legkale (written in the latter half of
the 14th century), and other similar works.
The following were the forms most commonly
used ; though, of course, medieval oaligraphy
varied greatly at different periods.
; ;/";;;
• * '••
3.
0 0 /I
5-
6.
7. 8.
^ 7y
9-
10.
1. The Virga indicated a long single note,
which was understood to be a high or a low one,
according to the height of the sign above the
text. A group of two was called a Bivirga, and
one of th^e, a Trivirga — representing two and
three notes respectively.
2. The Punctiu indicated a shorter note, sob>
ject to the same rule of position, and of multipli-
cation into the Bipunctus, and JHpunetut,
3. The Podatus represented a group of two
1 From fevjua, a nod. or sign i or, as lome have supposed, firom
irvn/Mo, the long succ«m1od of notes rang after a Flain Cbaunt
'Alleluia.'
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468
NOTATION/
notes, of wblcb the second was the highest. Its
figure varied confiidembly in different MSS.
4. The <Jlivi8, Clinis, or Flexa, indicated a
group of two notes, of which the second was the
lowest. This, also, varied very much in form.
5. The Scandicua denoted a group of three
ascending notes.
6. The Climdeua denoted three notes, de-
scending.
7. The {Jephalicm — sometimes identified with
the Toroulus — represented a group of three notes,
of which the second was the highest.
8. The Flexa rwaptwa— described by some
writers as the PorrfCfua— indicated a group of
three notes, of which the second was the lowest.
9. The Flexa stropkica indicated three notes,
of which the secend was lower than the first, and
the third a reiteration of the second.
10. The Quilisma was originally a kind of
shake, or reiterated note ; but in later times its
meaning became almost identical with that of
the Seandieits.
These, and others of less general importance —
as the Aneu», Oriscua, SaUcw, Preum^ Tramea,
etc., etc. — were frequently combined into fonns
of great complexity, of which a great variety of
examples, accurately figured, and minutely de-
scribed, will be found in the works of Gerbert,
P. Martini, Coussemaker, Kiesewetter, P. Lam-
billotte, Ambros, and the Abb^ Halliard. Beyond
all doubt, they were, originally, mere Accents,
analoeous to Uiose of Alexandrian Greek, and
intended rather as aids to declamation, than
to actual singing : but, a more specific meaning
was soon attached to them. They served to
point out, not only the number or the notes
which were to be sung to each particular syllable
of the Poetry, but, in a certain sense, the manner
in which they were to be treated. This was a most
important step in advance ; yet, the new system
had also its defects. Less definite, as indications
of pitch, than the Letters they displaced, the
Neum» did, indeed, shew at a glance the
general conformation of the Melody they were
supposed to illustrate, but entirely £uled to warn
the Singer whether the Interval by which he was
r^ ^«»^>>T"
NOTATION.
expected to ascend, or descend, was a Tone, or
a Semitone, or even a Second, Third, Fourth,
or Fifth. Hence, their warmest supporters were
constrained to admit, that, though invaluable as
a species of memoria technioa, and well fitted to
recal a given Melody to a Singer who had already
heard it, they oould never — however carefully
{curiose) they might be drawn— enable him to
sing a new or unknown Melody at sight. This
wiU be immediately apparent from the following
antient example, quoted by P. Martini in the
first volume of his * Storia di Musica * :-^
PrcfbdbU solution.
Cm-U eo»-lo - mm Ian - - d* - to De - «m
Towards the close of the 8th century, we find
certain small letters interspersed among the
more usual Neum». In the celebrated 'Anti-
phonarium' of S. Gall ^— an invaluable MS.,
which has long been received, on very weighty
evidence, as a faithful transcript of the Anti*
phonary of S. Gregory — these small letters form
a conspicuous feature in the Notation ; and they
are, beyond all doubt, the prototypes of our so*
called ' Dynamic Signs,' the earliest recorded
indications of Tempo and Expression. It is
amusing to find our familiar forte foreshadowed
by a little / (diminutive of fragor) ; and tcnvio,
or ben tenuio, by t, or bt {tenecUur, or bene teneo"
tur), A little c stands for celeriter (con moio) ;
and other letters are used, which are interesting
as signs of a growing desire for something more
than an empty rendering of mechanical sounds.
But, about the year 900,* a far greater improve-
ment was brought into general use — an invention
which contains within itself the germ of all that
is most logical, and, practically, most enduring,
in our present perfect system. The idea was
very simple. A long red line, drawn horizontally
across the parchment, formed the only addition
to the usual scheme. All Neunue, placed directly
\
^9^f^^ M ^ i^ J<^ C^
Probable solution.
Per-fl - - oe gret - - lus me-M
upon tlufl line, were understood to represent
the note F. Graver sounds were denoted by
characters placed below, and more acute ones
by others drawn above it. Thus, while the
position of one note was absolutely fixed, that
of others was rendered much more de6nite than
heretofore.
The advantage of this new plan was so obvious,
that a yellow line, intended to represent G, was
soon added, at some little distance above the red
one. This quite decided the position of two
notes ; and, as it was evident that every note
placed between the two lines must necessarily be
either G, A, or B, the place of the others was no
longer very difficiilt to determine.
1 Print«d. ftt Brnuels. In facttmOt. hj P. LamblUocte. In Iffl.
TbQ flnt pftge U alto given hi the 8nd toL of Pertx's 'Xoonmenta
0«muuila« hUtorfoL' All autborltiM tgrre in recardfng the MS. m
•ne of the mo«t interesting reliqnes of early Notation we pones* ; Imt
It iA only right to say tliat its date has been hotly disputeil, and thet
doubt has nren been thrown upon the identity of Its forms wttli CboM
used in the older Antiplwnariuin.
s It is impossible to give the «ea«i date. The antiquity of MS8L eaa
▼ery rarely be proved beyond the possibility of oavlL
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KOTATIOK".
KOTATION.
469
-y^
^x
mo .... .
In the plainer kind of MSS., written in hiack
ink only, the letters F and C were placed at the
beginning of their respective lines, no longer dis-
tinguishable bj difference of colour; and thus
arose our modem F and C Clefe, which, like the
G Clef of later date, are r^lly nothing more than
conventional modifications of the old Gothic let-
ters, transformed into a kind of technical Hiero-
glyphic, and passing through an infinity of
changes, before arriving at the form now univer-
Bally reoognised.
Paefi.
Early in the loth century, Huobaldus, a Monk
of S. Amand Burl'Elnon, in Flanders,* introduced
a Stave consisting of a greater number of lines,
and therefore more closely resembling, at first
sight, our own familiar form, though in reality
its principle was farther removed from that thtm
the older system already described. The Lines
themselves were left unoccupied. The syllables
intended to be sung were written in the Spaces
between them ; an^ in order to shew whether
the Voice was to proceed by a Tone, or a Semitone,
the letters T and S (for Tonus, and SemUonium)
were written at the banning of each, some-
times alone, but more frequently accompanied
by other characters analogous to the signs used
in the earlier Greek system, and eonneoted with
the machinery of the Tetrachords. which formed
a conspicuous feature in Hucbald^s teaching.
etc
t»
* l\/
x_ Ec\ l.«V /
o_ ce\ / he
*_ wre/
^ SoluHon.
^S^=^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ rj '
One great advantage attendant upon this sys-
0 tern was, that by increasing the number of lines,
It could be appbed to a Scale of any extent, and
* Hince. freqoqitly olkd • Monachm BlDonwwti.' Ot».99Q.
even used for a number of Yokes singing at the
same time. Hucbaldus himself saw this; and
has left us specimens of Discant, written in four
different parts, which are easily distinguishable
from each other by means of diagonal lines placed
between the syllables, [gee Obqamdm; Pabt-
Writino.]
T
T 7
T Bit \ oriaT^
DoV
aHTY
s:
cula
8 glo/ Do\" »ae/
T / m\xxx\
T fc>it\ orw/ in\ cuia
8 g'o/ wJeT
T l)o\ ^
T^ / mini\"
etc.
T ait\ orU/ in\
T
T bU\ oria/
8
T"
/ miniT"
g'o/
s:
Solution.
Not long after the time of Hucbaldus, we find
traces of a custom— described by Vincenzo Galilei,
in 1 581, and afterwards, by Kircher— of leaving
the Spaces vacaAt, and indicatingr the Notes by ^
Points written upon the Lines only, the actual
Degrees of the Scale being determined by Greek
Letters placed at the end of the Stave.
H-
Z-
€ -
'■ •
— • — •
-• • •
« -
y-
a —
• • • — • —
— • • • — • —
• • •
The way was now fully prepared for the last
great improvement ; which, despite its incal-
culable importance, seems to us absurdly simple.
It consisted in drawing two plain black Lines
above the red and yellow ones which had pre-
ceded the broader Stave of Hucbald — whose
system soon fell into disuse— and writing the
Notes on alternate Lines and Spaces. The credit
of this famous invention is commonly awarded
to Guide d*Arezzo; but, though far from espous-
ing the views of certain critics of the modem
destructive school, who would have us believe that
that learned Benedictine invented nothing at all,
we cannot but admit, that, in this case, his claim
is not altogether incontestable. His own words
prove that he scrupled not to utilise the inven-
tions of others when they suited his purpose.
He may have done so here. We have shewn
that both Lines and Spaces were used before his
time, though not in combination. But, this is
not all. In an antient Ofiice-Book— a highly-
interesting ' Troparium *— -once used at Winches-
ter Cathedral, and now preserved in ^e Bodleian
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470
NOTATION.
Library at Oxford,' the Notei of the Plain Chaant
are written upon the alternate Lines and Spaces
of a regular four-lined Stave. This precious
MS. is generally believed to have been written
during the reign of King Ethelred ll, who died in
1 01 6. The words Dt Ethekredum regem et eaoer'
citum Anglorun conservare digneris, inserted in
the Litany, at fol. i8. B, certainly confirm this
opinion. But a .great pait of the MS., including
NOTATION.
this particular Litany, is written in the old
Notation, without the Stave; and sometimes
both forms are found upon the same sheet. The
subjoined fac -simile, K>r instance, shewing the
places at which the Four-line Stave first makes
Its appearance in the volume, is taken firom the
midcue of a page, the first part of which is
filled with Music written upon the more autient
system.
Kbvifs ii mmmtcrU terra' COagj^im'^
We do not pretend to under-rate the chrono-
logical difficulties which surround the question
raised by this remarkable MS. Unless it was
written at two different periods, two different
methods would seem to have been used simulta-
neously in England at the opening of the iith
century, some considerable time before the ap-
pearance of Guidons * Miorologus' — the most im-
portant of his works — which, it is tolerably cer-
tain, was not written before the year 1024, if
even so early as that. Now a portion -of the
MS. was most certainly written before that
date ; and, if the evidence afforded by a close
examination of its caiigraphy may he trusted,
there is every reason to believe that it was
transcribed, throughout, by the same hand ; in
whicli case, we may fiurly infer that the Stave
of Four Lines was known and used in this
country, at a period considerably anterior to its
supposed invention in Italy. The advantages it
presented, when made to serve as a vehicle for
Neumse, were obvious. It fixed their positions so
clearly, that no doubt could now exi«t as to the
exact notes they were intended to represent ; and
comparatively little difficulty was henceforth expe-
rienced, by the initiated, in reading Plain Chaunt
at sight. A careful comparison of the subjoined
example* with that given upon page 468 will
illustrate the improvement it effected far more
forcibly than any verbal description. The careful
'drawing of the Neumse here sets all doubt at
defiance.
^
^^U|^
Ai i»
w
Vhi
r*'*-
0 %^---nflt i»-;0rm«mn«m
So long as unisonous Plain Chaunt demanded
no rhytlmuc ictus more strongly marked than
that necessary for the oorrect pronunciation of
the words to which it was adapted, this method
was considered sufficiently exact to answer all
practical purposes. But, the invention of Mea-
sured Chaunt discovered a new and pressing need.
[See MusiCA Msnsubata.] In the absence of a
svstem capable of expressing the relative dura-
tion as well as the actual pitch of the notes em-
ployed, the accurate notation of Rhythmic Melody
was impossible. No provision had as yet been
lBodI«]rMaS.77&
made to meet this unforeseen contingency. We
first find one proposed in the ' Ars Cantus men-
surabilis ' of Franco de Colonia, written, if we
may trust the opinion of F^tis, and most of his
critical predecessors, during the latter half of the
iith century — though Kiese wetter, rejecting the
generally accepted date, argues in favour of
the first half of the i^th. Francois plan does
> From % MS. of th« 14th oentuir. preterred In tbs Llbrmry of tb«
Unlrenltj tA Prague, (zlv. G. 4^) In the oflgtnal Codex, nn extra
Une has been added (unfetchlckter Weiae gezoscn. Ambroe aa^)
between the Third and Fourth, to mark the place of the F CM.
In order to pieeerve the olearoeu oT the example. «re have hot
omitted IL
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I^OTATION.
not appear to have been an original one ; but» i
rather, a compendiam of the praxis in general
use at the time in which he wrote : nevertheless,
it is certain that we owe to him our first know*
ledge of the Time-Table. He it is, who first
introduces to us the now &miUar forms of
the Large— described under the name of the
Double Long — the Long, the Breve, and the
Semibreve. The relationship of these new cha-
racters to preexLBtent Neums is plainly shewn
by their outward form, the Large i^^y and
the Long (P) being self-evident developments
of the Virga H), while the Breve (■) and the
Semibreve {W or 4) are equally recognisable
as the offspring of the Punetun (•). Franco
makes each of the longer Notes equal, when
Perfect, to two Notes of the next lesser de-
nomination ; when Imperfect^ to two only-— the
term Perfect being applied to the number Three,
in honour of the Ever Blessed Trinity.* The
Long was always Perfect, when followed by
another Long, and the Breve, when followed
by another Breve ; but a Long preceded or
followed by a Breve, or a Breve by a Semibreve,
became, by Position, Lnperfect. This simple
rule was of immense importance; for it resulted
in enabling the Composer to write in Triple
or Duple Rhythm at will. The Semibreve,
so long as it remained the shortest note in the
series, was, of course, indivisible. But, after
the invention of the Minim — either by Philippus
de Vitriaco in the 13th century, or Joannes de
Muris in the 14th — the Semibreve was also used,
both in the Perfect and the Imperfect form;
being equal, in the one case, to three, and, in the
other, to two Minims. The Introduction of the
Minim prepared the way for that of the Greater
Semiminim. now known as the Crotchet; the
Lesser Semiminim, afterwards called the Croma
or Fusa, and in English the Quaver ; and the
Semicroma or Semifusa, answering to the modem
Semiquaver. These three notes, like the Minim,
were always Imperfect ; and, for many centuries,
they were used only after the manner of embel-
lishments.
Originally, the notes of Measured Chaunt were
entirely black : but, after a time, red notes were
intermixed with them, on condition —as Morley
tells us — of losing one-fourth of their value. They
do not, however, appear to have remained veiy
long in use, or to have been, at any time, exten-
sively employed. About the year 1370 both the
black ana red forms fell gradually into disuse ;
their place being supplied by white notes, with
square or lozenge-shaped heads, which seem to
have made their earliest appearance in France,
though ihev were first brought into general notice
by the leaders of Uie great Flemish School. The
figures of these notes, and their corresponding
reDts, given in one of the earliest works on Music
ever issued from the press — the 'Practica mu-
sic8B * of Franchinus Gafurius, printed at Blilan,
1 * Qw>d ftsamma TrInlUte. <|iUBTer» est et somiM perfBctlo. nooMn
•Honutt.' (Vnooo. ' Muik* « watot meiaunbUlSk' o^. ln>
NOTATION.
471
in 1496 — differed little from the forms retained
in use until the close of the i6th century.
lATgei Loof. Bnve.
mlDlm. or
Cronuu
"M"
-tr
^
tH
0
-V-
— ^
^
—
:*-r
-~ri
^ -^ ^ -^ ssr "^
— H-^
1
Minim Rett, or
Great«r Semi-
minim Bmw or
Bemlsiupirlum.
\i
Croma Bflit.
=4
«^£jr
White-headed notes were always written upon
a Stave of Five lines. Traces of this Stave are
found, as early as the beginning of the 13th cen-
tury, in a MS. Tract, * De speculatione musices,*
by W|lter Odington, a Monk of Evesham in
Worcestershire, whose work, now preserved at
Cambridge, is only second in value to that of
Franco ; but it does not seem to have been uni-
versally recognised until after the invention of
printing. A few square black notes were occa-
sionally intersperiied among the white ones, on
conditions analogous to those attached to the em-
ployment of red notes among black ones at an
earlier epoch— the loss of a third of their value
when Perfect, and a fourth when Imperfect. We
shall find it necessary to describe the ofiice of
these black notes more particularly, when speak-
ing of the Points of Augmentation, Division, and
Alteration. The lesser Semiminim, Croma, and
Semicroma always remained black.
Apart from the modifications produdble by
Position, the Rhythm of Measured Music was
regulated by the three-fold mechanism of Mode,
Time, and Prolation; three distinct systems, each
of wldch might be used, either alone, or in com-
bination with one or both of the others; each
being distinguirfied by its own special Time-Sig-
nature. [See MoDB, Tufi, Pbolatiok, Timjb-
SlONATURB.]
Mode governed the proportion between the
Large and the Long, and the Long sjid the
Breve ; and was of two kinds— the Greater, and
the Lesser ; each of which might be either Per-
fect or Imperfect. In the Greater Mode Perfect,
the Large was equal to three Longs; in the
Gi^ater Mode Imperfect, it was equal to two
only. In the Lesser Mode Perfect, the Long
was eoual to two Breves; in the Lesser Mode
Impmect, it was equal to two. The Modal
Signs by which these varieties were indicated
differed considerably at different periods; but
the following were the forms mos>t fr^uently
employed : —
Or«at Mode Perfect Great Mode Imperfect
L_lll <> P
33BE
Mode Perfect.
LeMer Mode Imperfect
Time regulated the proportion between the
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472
NOTATION.
Breve and the Semibreve ; and wai of two kindi,
Perfect and Imperfect. In Perfect Time, the
Breve was equal to three Setnibreves; in Imper-
fect Time, to two only. The following example
shews the Time • Sijpiatures most trequently
u' 3d: —
Perfect Time ; or, thus ; or, that.
Imperfect Time ;
or, tliut ;
or, tliut.
Prolation conoemed the proportion between
the Semibreve and tbe Minim ; and was also of
two kinds, the Greater and the Lesser— or, as
Morley calls them, 'the More and the Lesae.*
In the Greater Prolation, the Semibreve was
equal to three Mimins ; in the Lesser, to two.
The Greater ProlatioD ; or. thus ; or. thus.
The general principle observed in the formation
of the^e Time-Signatures is, that the Rests shew
tlie proportion between the Large, the Long, and
the Breve; the Circle, the figure 3, and the
Point, are signs of Perfection; the Semicircle,
and the figure a, denote Imperfection; while
the Bar drawn through the Circle, or Semicircle,
indicates Diminution of the value of the notes,
to the extent of one-half, as does also the inver-
sion of the figures, thus 0 ({) (^ (}) 0 3- In a
few rare cases, a doable IHminution, to the ex-
tent of one fourth, was denoted by a double Bar
drawn through the Circle, or Semicircle, thus
(J) (^, These rules, however, though applicable
to most cases, were open to so many exceptions,
that Omithoparous, writing in 15 1 7, and Morley,
in 1597* roundly abuse their uncertainty. In
very early times, the three rhythmic systems were
combined in proportions far more complex than
any of the Compound Conmion or Triple Timss
of modem Music. In Canons, and other learned
Compositions, two or more Time-Signatures were
frequently placed at the beginning of the same
Stave. In a portion of the Credo of Hobrecht's
Missa 'Je ne demande' we find as many as
five:—
These complications were much affected by
Josquin des Pr^ and the early Composers of
the Flemish School ; but, in the latter half of
the 1 6th century — the 80-?alled 'Golden Age*— >
the only combinations remaining in gener^ use
were, Perfect Time, with the Lesser Prolation
(O 3> <^ O^ ; Imperfect Time, with the Lesser
Prolation ((^); the Greater ProUtion alone
(CP I) ; &°d the Lesser ProUtion (C )— answer-
ing, respectively, to the •, Alia Breve, •, and
NOTATION.
Common Time, of our present system. [SeePBO-
PORTIOK.]
The Perfection and Imperfection of tbe longer
notes, and the duration of the shorter ones, was
also materially affected by the addition of Points,
of which several different kinds were in use, all
similar in form (•), but differing in effect, aocordp
ing to the position in which they were placed.
The Point of Augmentation was the exact
eqidvalent of the modem Dot^that is to say, it
increased the length of the note to which it was
attached, by one half. It could only be used with
notes natundly Imperfect; and was necessarily
followed by a Khorter note, to complete the beat.
Sometimes, the place of this sign was supplied
by two black notes ; tlTe first of which, losing one
fourth of its value by virtue of its colour, repre-
sented the note with the Point, while a shorter
black note completed the beat. Passages are
constantly written in both ways, in the same
compositions.
Writtmi or thus. Bung.
WritUn;
or thus ; tnore rarelg, Sunp,
Hfr^^'ial'^t^j
The Point of Perfection was used for two dif-
ferent purposes. When placed in the centre of a
Circle, or Semicircle, it indicated either Perfect
Time, or the Greater Prolation. When placed
after a note, Perfect by virtue of the Time-Sig-
nature, but made Imperfect by Position (see
page 471), it restored its Perfection. In this
case, the Point itself served to complete the
triple beat; in which particular alone it differed
from the Point of Augmentation. Thus, tiie
second Semibreve in the following example, being
succeeded by a Minim, would become Imperfect
by Position, were it not followed by a Point of
Perfection. The third Semibreve. being preceded
by a Minim, really does become Imperfect; while
the first and last Semibreves remain Perfect^ by
virtue of the Time-Signature.
Written, Sung,
The Point of Alteration, or, as it was some-
times called, the Point of Duplication, was less
simple in its action. When used, in Ternary
Rhythm, before the first of two short notes placed
between two long ones, it doubled the length of
the second short note, and restored the Perfection
of the two long ones, which would otherwise
have become Imperfect by Position. In order to
distinguish this sign from the Point of Augmen-
tation, the best typographers usually placed it
above the general level of the notes to which it
belonged — a precaution the neglect of which
causes much trouble to modem readers.
rritfm.
Sung,
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NOTATION.
* Sometimes the old writers, dispensing with the
actual Point, nsed, in its stead, two black notes,
which, it will be remembered, lost, in Perfect
Time, one third of their value. Thus the second
clause of the followinj^^ example precisely corre-
sponds with the first ; since the black Breve, being,
by virtue of its colour, equal to two Semibreves
only, serves exactly to complete the measure
begun by the black Semibreve iii^hich, in this
case, retains its full value). Examples, both of
the Point and the black notes, will be found, not
only in works of the 1 5th century, but even in
those of Palestrina, and most of his contem-
poraries.
Written ; or thus. Sung,
NOTATION.
478
The Point of Division, sometimes called the
Point of Imperfection, exerdsed a contraiy effect.
When two Semibreves were placed between two
Breves, in Perfect Time, or two Minims between
two Semibreves, in the Greater Prolation. a Point
of Division inserted between the two shorter
notes — generally on a higher level — served to
shew that the two longer ones were to be con-
sidered Imperfect.
Written. Sttnfj,
As these notes were already Imperfect, by
Position, the Point made no real difference, but
was merely added for the sake of preventing all
possibility of misconception. Joannes 'HnctoriSy
writing in the 15th century, expressed his con-
tempt for such unnecessary signs by calling them
Ass's Points (Puncli atinei). Nevertheless, they
were constanUy used by Palestrina and his con-
temporaries ; who, however, sometimes dispensed
with the Point, and wrote the two last notes of
the passage black, with the understanding, that,
in this case, they were to retain their full value.
The effect of this arrangement was, that the
several clauses of the following example were all
sung exactly in the same way.
Written i
orthtu;
or thus.
-i^--jeU-
While the Virga, and PunetttM, of the earlier sys-
tem were thus developed into the detached notes
of Measured Music, the more complicated Neumas
gradually shaped themselves into Ligatures — that
is to say. paatages of two or more notes, sung to a
single syllable. As the most important of thoMo
have already been described, in a former article
[see Lioatdbb], we shall content ourselves with
a rapid sketch of the changes through which they
passed, at different periods of their histovy. In
Plain Chaunt, they were always black, and more
or less angular in form, whereas the older NeumcB
were, for the most part, rounded. In Measured
Music, they were white; and formed of square
or diagonal (not lozenge-shaped) figures, plaoed
in close contact with each other, and sometimes
provided with Tails, the varied position of which
regulated their classification into Larges, Longs,
Breve^ and Semibreves ; notes shorter than Uie
Semibreve not being 'ligable.* In the 15th cen-
tury, the number of notes contained in a single
group was often very considerable ; and their dura-
tion was governed by many complicated laws, of
which the following were the most strictly en-
forced, especially by the earlier Composers of the
Flemish School.
The first note of every Ligature was a Long,
Srovided it had no Tail, and the second note
escended — a Breve, if it had no Tail, and the
second note ascended. In the first of these cases,
it was called a Ligatura cum proprietate ; in the
second, a Ligatura tine proprietate.
If the first note had a Tail, descending, on the
left side, it was a Breve, and aine proprietate.
If it had a Tail ascending, on the left side, it
was a Semibreve, and the Ligature was said to
be earn opposita proprietate.
If the last note descended, it was a Long ;
if it ascended, a Breve. In the first case, the
Ligature was said to be Perfect, in the second.
Imperfect. But, when placed obliquely, whether
ascending or descending, it was a Breve, unless
it had a Tail descending on the right side, in
which case it was a Long.
All intermediate notes were, as a general rule.
Breves : but^ if one of them had a Tail, ascending
on the left side, it was a Semibreve.
Lastly, a Large, in whatever part of the Liga-
ture it might be placed, was always a Large.
In the 1 6th century, these laws were very
much simplified. The Ligatures used in the
time of Palestrina seldom contained more than
two notes ; or, if more were included in the figure,
they were treated as if not in Ligature. The
following easy rules will serve for most Musio
of later date than the year 1550.
Square notes, in Ligature, without Tails, w&fe
almost always Breves : but, if the second note
descended, they were sometimes Longs ; or, the
first might be a Long, and the second a Breve.
Square notes, in Ligature, with a Tail descend-
ing on the right, were Longs ; those with a Tail
descending on the left. Breves; those with a
Tail ascending on the left, Semibreves.
Black not^ were sometimes combined with
white ones ; and, occasionally, figures were made
half white, and half black. In diese cases, each
colour was subject to its own peculiar laws.
Points attadied to a Ligature affected it as
they would have affected ordinary notes.
In the 15th century, the F, G, and G Cle&
were used on a fijeat variety of Lines. Before the
invention of Ledger Lines, their position was fre*
quently changed, even in the middle of a Melody,
in order to bring the extreme notes of the Scale
within the compass of the Stave. This being the
case, it was impossible to assign a distinctive
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474
NOTATION.
Clef to each particular quality of Voice, as we
do. The Clefs were, therefore, divided into the
four general classes of Cantus, Altus, Tenor,
and iSmsus ; and varied, in position, according to
circumstances. When more than four Voices were
used, the fifth part was called Quintus, or Quinta
pars; the sixth, Sextus, or Scxta pars; and so
with the rest : but, as care was taken that each
additional Voice should eiactly correspond in
compass with one of the normal four, we scarcely
ever find more than four Clefs used in the same
Composition. The ten forms most frequently em-
ployed in the infancy of Polyphonic Music are
■hewn in the following example, with the old
classification indicated above the Stave, and the
modem names^ below it.
The Polyphonic Composers of the best periods
were extremely methodical in their choice of
Clefs, which thev so arranged as to indicate,
within certain limits, wheUier the Modes in
which they wrote were used at their natural
pitch, or transposed. [See Modes, the Ecclesi-
astical]. The Natural Clefs— CAtavi naturali
— were the well-known Soprano, Alto, Tenor,
and Bass, which have remained in common use,
among Classical Composers, to the present day.
The transposed Clefe — CMavi tra$portiU{, or
Chiavette — were of two kinds, the Acute, and
the Grave. The former were the Treble (yiolino),
Mezzo Soprano, Alto, and Tenor, — or Barytone.
The latter consisted of the Alto, Tenor, Barytone,
and Bass— or Contra-Basso. The effect of this
method of grouping was, that, when the Mode
was written, at its true pitch, in the Chiavi
naturali, the Chiavette served to transpose it a
Fourth higher, or a Fifth lower : if, however, it was
written at its natural pitch, in the Chiavette, it
was transposed by aid of the Chiavi naturali.
The High Treble and Contra-Tenore were very
rarely used, after about the middle of the i6tn
century; and the Contra-Basso did not long
survive them; but the remaining seven forms
were so constantly employed, t^t a fiimiliar
acquaintance with them is indispensable to all
students of Polyphonic Music.
The Flat and the Natural were known and used
at a very early period — certainly long before the
time of Guido — the former, under Uie name of
the B rotundvm, or B moUe (b), and the latter,
under that of B quadrumf or B durum ( [] ). [See
B, vol. i. 107.] The Sharp, or Dietis, has not been
traced back farther than the hitter half of the 1 3th
cent., when we find it, in some French MSS. in
the form of a double S. Andrew's oroM (^) — as
in Adam de la Hale*s fiondellus 'Fines amour-
ettes.* In the 14th centuiy, Ottobi clawes it with
the B rotundum, and B qutidrum^ and calls it
B giaeente (js). In the 15th and i6th centuries
NOTATION.
it quite displaced the Natural ; and was used, in
its stead, to correct a B which would otherwise
have been sung Flat. A single B b was always
placed at the Signature, in the transposed Modes.
The use of two Flats, indicating a double trans-
position— as in P. de la Rue's * Pour quoi non,*
preserved in Petrucci's Odhecaton — Ib excessively
rare. Still more so is a Sharp Signature : ^ough
examples may be found in Zariino ; and in Oke-
ghem's *Prennez sur moy,' printed in Petnicci*B
'Canti cento cinquanta.'
In Hobrecht's ' Forseulement,* and Barbyraa*s
Missa < Virgo parens Christ!,' an Fb is placed at
the Signature, as a sign that the Mode is Mixo-
Wdian. at its natural pitch, and that its Seventh
Degree is not to be sharpened. These cases,
however, are altogether abnormal, and must not
be taken as precedents. Both the spirit and the
letter of Mediteval Music forbade the intro-
duction of anything, at the Signature, beyond
the orthodox B rotundum.
Accidental Sharps, Flats, and Naturals, very
rarely appeared in writing ; the Singer being ex-
pected to introduce the necessary Semitones, in
their proper places, at the moment of perform-
ance, in obedience to certain laws, with an epitome
of which the reader has already been furnished.
rSee MusiCA Ficta.] This practice remained in
full force, until the close of the i6th century ;
and is even now observed in the Pontifical ChapeL
Indications of Tempo, Dynamic Signs, and
Marks of Expression of all kinds, were altogether'
unknown to the Composers of the I5tb and i6th
centuries, unless, indeed, we are prepared to
recognise their prototypes in the singular Mottos,
and Enigmas, prefixed to the Canons, which,
in the time of Ockeghem, and Josquin des Pr^
were so zealously cultivated by Composers of
the Flemish School. [See Inscbiftion.]
A few arbitraiy signs, however, were in con-
stant use.
When Canons were written on a single Stave,
the Presa (-5*) shewed the place at which the
second, third, or other following Voice was to
begin.
,-^ The Pause (^) indicated the note on which
such Voices were to close. But it was also
placed, as in modem Music, over a note which the
Singer was expected to prolong indefinitely— as
in Basiron*s * Messa de franza* (printed in 1 508),
wherein, at the words '£t homo factus est,' Pauses
are placed over no less than eight Breves in
succession.
\ The sign of repetition was a thick bar, with
acts on either side, like our own. When the
bar was double, the passage was sung twice;
when it was triple, thrice. A passage in Ho-
brechVs Missa ' Je ne demande * is directed to be
sung five times (:|: :|||: :|y||:). When words
were to be repeated, a smaller sign was used
(•}^0, and reiterated at each repetition of the text.
Ottaviano dei Petrucci — who first printed
Mnsio firom moveable types, in the year 1501 —
Antonio Gardano, Riocando Amadino, Christoph
Plantinus, Peter Phalesius, Pierre Attaignant,
Robert Ballard, Adrian le Roy, our own John
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NOTATION.
Daye, and YaatroUier, and other early typo-
graphers, each gloried in a certain individuality
of style which the Antiquary never fails to re-
cognise at a glance. But, the general character
of musical typography underwent no radical
change, from the first invention of printing,
until the dope of the i6th century. In this
respect Plain Chaunt was even more conservative
than Measured Music. After the invention of
the Square Notee — Notula qttadrata, the Gro8
fa of French Musicians— it was always printed,
as now, in black Longs, Breves, and Semibreves,
on a Stave of Four Lines, on either of which
the F or G Clef might be placed, indiscriminately.
The 6 Clef was never used. Time-Signatures,
Rests, Points, and other signs used in Measured
Music, were, of course, quite foreign to its
nature: but, black Ligatures, angular in char-
acter, and of infinitely varied tbrm, were of
constant occurrence. As no change in the con-
stitution of Plain Chaunt is possible, no change
in its Notation is either needed or desired. But,
with Bhythmic Music, the case is very different ;
and we can readily understand that the Notation
of the 1 6th century proved insufficient, in many
ways, to meet the necessities of the 1 7th.
The daily-increasing attention bestowed upon
Instrumental Accompaniment, during the de-
velopment of the Monodio Style, led to some
very important changes. [See MoNODlA.] The
varying compass of the Bistruments employed
demanded a ccnrresponding extension of the Stave,
which was provided for by the unlimited use of
Ledger Lines. A single Ledger Line, above or
below the' Stave, may, indeed, be occaRionally
found among the Polyphonic Music of the 16th
century; but, only in very rare cases. The
number of additional lines was now left entirely
to the Composer's discretion ; and it has continued
steadily to increase, to the present day.
Polyphonic Music was always printed in se-
parate parts. Sometimes, as in the case of
Ottavio dei Petrucci's rare volumes, each part
appeared, by itself, in a delicious little oblong
4to. Sometimes, as in the Roman editions of
Paleetrina*s Masses, four or mure parts were
exhibited, at a single view, on the outspread
pages of a large folio volume. But, the con-
nection between the parts was never indicated ;
and the Music was never barred — a peculiarity,
which, in this case, seems to have produced no
inconvenience. This plan, however, was quite
unsuited to the new style of composition. When
Peri published his 'Euridice,* in the year 1600, he
placed the Instrumental Accompaniment below
the Vocal part, and indicated the connection
between the two by means of Bars, scored through
the Stave — whence the origin of our English word
Scobs. The same plan was followed by Caccini,
in his 'Nuove Musiche,' in 1602; and, by Monte-
▼erde, in 'Orfeo,'in 1608 : and the practice of print-
ing in Partition, as score has always been called
everywhere but in England, soon became universal.
The new Bars were a great help to the reader ;
but, the invention of the Cantata, the Opera^
and the Oratorio, introduced new forms of Rhythm
NOTATION.
475
which It was all but impossible to express with
clearness, even with their assistance, so long as the
cumbroiu machinery of Mode, Time, and Prolation,
remained in common use. To meet this difficulty,
the Time-Table itself was entirely remodelled
— not in essence, for the broad distinction be-
tween Binary and Ternary Rhythm formed the
basis of the new, as well as of the old system —
but, in the means by which that fundamental
principle was enunciated, and its results expressed
in writing. The great advantage of the new
method lay in the recognition of a definite value
for every note employed. The longer notes were
no longer made Perfect, or Imp^ect, by Posi-
tion; but all were referred to the Semibreve, as
a fixed standard of duration; and all, without
exception, were subject, in their natural forms,
to binary division, and could only be made ter-
nary by the addition of a dot— the old Point of
Augrmentation — which increased their value by
one half. The chief factors of the system were,
the aliquot parts of the Semibreve, as represented
by the Minun, the Crotchet, the Quaver, and the
Semiquaver. A certain number of these factors,
now called the Beats of the Bar, was allotted
to each Measure of the Music. When that num-
ber was divisible by 2, the Time was said to be
Common; when it was divisible only by 3, the
Hme was Triple. To express the more compli-
cated forms of Rhythm, the several Beats were
themselves subjected to a farther process of sub-
division, which might be either binary, or ternary,
at will. When it was binary, the Time, whether
Common, or Triple, was said to be Simple.
When it was ternary, in which case each Beat
represented a dotted note, the Time was called
Compound; and with very good reason; each
Measure being, in reality, compounded of two or
more shorter Measures of Simple Triple Time.
The Time-Signatures by which this new system
was expressed in writing were, for the most part,
fractious ; the denominators of which indicated
the proportion between the Beats of the Bar
and the typical Semibreve, while the numerators
denoted the number of such beats to be taken in
a Measure. When the numerator was divisible
only by 2, it indicated Simple Common Time;
when only by 3, Simple Triple. In Compound
Common Time it was divisible either by a, or 3 ;
and, in Compound Triple, by 3, and 3 again.
The only exceptions to this practice were formed
by the retention of the Semicircle, for Common
Time with four Crotchets in a Measure, and the
barred Semicircle, for the I'ime called AUa Breve,
with four Minims.^ The Simple Common Times
most used in the 17th and i8th centuries were,
0, C, and ); the Simple Triple Times, f, f, j.
of the departed mysteries of Proportion, has used
j, |, and |, simultaneously, and with wonderful
* A quick form of Simple Common Timo, with two Mlnfm Beats in
the Meuure. is used, in modern Music, with the Signature of the
barred Semldrole. and venr improperly called Alio Sr«vt. Meiidflt-
sohn much regretted that he did oot bar the Bemicirole In his Over-
ture to JH4 MetrMMilU,
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476
NOTATION.
effec^ in the well-known Minuet in 'Don Gio-
vanni * ; and Spohr has uaed similar combinations
in the Slow Movement of his Symphony, 'Die
Weihe der Tone.' The last-named Composer has
also used |, in the Overture to his finest Opera,
' Faust; and }, in the Second Act of the same
work.
Jt must not be supposed that this admirable
system sprang into existence in a moment of
time. It was the result of long experience, and
many tentative experiments ; but we have pre-
ferred to treat of it, in its perfect condition,
rather than to dwell upon the successive stages of
its progress; and the more so, because, since the
time of Bach, and Handel, it has undergone
scaix^ly any change whatever.* Those who care
to study its transitional forms will find some
curious examples among the numerous Ricercari,
Toocate, and Capricci, composed for the Organ
by Frescobaldi, during the earlier half of the
1 7th century.
— ^ When the old Ecclesiastical Modes were
abandoned in favour of the modem Major and
Minor Scales, the insertion of accidental Sharps,
Flats, and Naturals, was no longer left to the
discretion of the performer. The place of every
Semitone was indicated, exactly, in writing;
and, in process of time, the Double-Sharp ( x ) imd
Double-Flat (bb) corrected by the ||| and ||b,
were added to the already existing signs. A
curious relique of the medieval custom was,
however, retained in general use, until nearly
the end of the i8th century, when the last Sharp
or Flat was suppressed, at the Signature, and
accidentally introduced, during the course of the
piece, as often as it was needed. Thus, Han-
del's Fifth Lesson for the Hsrpeichord (contain-
ing the 'Harmonious Blacksmith') was originally
written with three Sharps only at the Signature,
the D being everywhere made sharp bv an acci-
dental. (S^ the enditions of Walsh and of Arnold.)
A few of these ' Antient Signatures ' — as they
are now called — may still be seen, in modem re-
prints ; as in Mills's edition of Clari's Duet,
'Cantando un di,' which, though written in A
major, has only two Sharps at the Signature.
The rapid passages peculiar to modem Instru-
mental Music, and not unfrequently emulated by
modem Vocalists, naturally led to the adoption of
characters more cursive in style than the quaint
old square and lozenge-headed notes, and capable
of being written with greater facility. Thus
arose the round, or rather oval-headed notes, which,
in tlie 18th century, completely supplanted the
older forms. Lozenge-headed Quavers, and Semi-
quavers, whatever their number, were always
printed with separate Hooks. The Hooks of the
round-headed ones were blended together, so as
to form continuous groups, containing any num-
ber of notes that might bf necessary — ^a plan
which greatly facilitated the work both of the
I Id fhs T:W. aiTAnvMiMnt, only: not In Uie Fall Score.
s UnlMS w« except the pruda of the Modern Italian Compoeen. iHio
•Iwayt write In Simple Time, and make It Compound by the In-
■ertlon of TrlpleU-a strange contrast to the conwientlous jg of the
KOTATIOK.
writer, and the reader. Moreover, with the
increase of executive powers, arose ihe demand
for notes indicating increased degrees of rapidity ;
the Semiquaver was, accordingly, subdivided into
Demisemiquavers, with three Hooks, and Half-
Demisemiquaversy with four — ^the number of ad-
ditional Hooks being, in fad, left entirely to the
discretion of the Composer.'
The introduction of the dramatic element
played a most important part in the development
of modem Music ; and, m order to do it justice,
it became imperatively necessary to indicate, as
precisely as might be, the particular style in
which certain passages wero to be performed.
As early as 1608, we find, in the Overture to
Monteverde's 'Orfeo/ a direction to the effect
that the Trumpets aro to be played eon aordinu
It was manifestly impossible to dispense, much
longer, with indications of Tempo. Frescobaldi
was one of the first great writers who employed
them ; and — strang^y enough, considering his
birth in Ferrara, and long residence in Rome —
one of his favourite wonk was Adagio, spelled,
as in the Venetian dialect, Adasio, The idea
once started, the words Aliegro, Largo, Grarc,
and others of like import, were soon brought
into general use ; and their number has gradu-
ally increased, until, at the present day, it has
become practically infinite. As a general rule,
Ck>mposers of all nations have, by common con*
sent, written their directions in Italian; and,
as a natural consequence of this practice, many
Italian words have been invested with a con-
ventional signification, which it would now be
difficult to alter. Beethoven, however, at one
period of his life, substituted German words for the
more usual terms, and we find, in the Mass in D,
and some of the later Sonatas, such exprefrdons
as Mil Andacht, Nicht zu ge$chtvind, and many
others. [See Beethoven, vol. i. p. 193 6.] He soon
relinquished this novel practice; but Mendels-
sohn sometimes adopted it — as in Op. 62, No. 4,
marked Mit vieler Innigkeit tfonutragen, aini
numerous other instances. Schumann, also,
wrote almost all his directions in German : and
the custom has been much affected by German
Ck>mposers of the present day. A few FVencfa
Musicians have fallen into the same habit ;* and
it was not unusual, at the dose of the last and
beginning of the present century, to find Knglish
Composers — especially in their Glees — substitut-
ing such words as ' Chearful,' and ' Slower,* for
A lUgrot and PiU Lento, Nevertheless, the Italian
terms still hold their ground ; and the adoption
of a common language, in such cases, is too
obvious an advantage to be lightly saoiifioed to
national vanity.
We have already noticed the first indications of
Dynamic Signs, in the' Antiphonaiy of S. Gall.
This, however, was quite an exceptional case.
t The downen with which theee lonoratloM were aoeepted !■ w^
•zemplifled In an article In the 'Pennjr Cjdopiedla.' (ia»A> the
writer of which, lamenting the addition of unneeeMarjr Hooka, icpeu
that he it obliged to mention the name of Beethoren among tbtm
who hare been gunt7 of this monitrons abaurdltr!
4 Berllot. for lniitance.lndlca(«theuMo( 'Harpet. dMn m BMbtt,'
tnd ' Bi«iMttM d'epoDS* * 1
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notation:
Saoh marks were utterly unknown to the Poly-
phonists of the 15th and i6th centuries ; and it
was not until the 17th was well advanced, that
they met with general acceptance. In the i8th
century, however, all the more essential signs,
such as /, p, fp, fz, ere8.t dim., and their well-
known congeners, were in full use ; and the
numerous forms now commonly employed are
really no more than elaborate synonyms for
these. Marks of expression, properly so called,
such as — =, =*-, -<s 3», A, and a host of others,
though not unknown in the last century, were
much less frequently used than now. The Slur,
however, the modem substitute for the Me-
diaeval Ligature, and an infinite improvement
upon it, was constantly employed, botn to shew
how many notes were to be sung to a ^single
syllable, and to indicate the Legato style. 80,
idso, were tbe marks for Staccato (•) SUuxoHs-
Htno (»), and Mezzo Staccato (^^>). But the op-
posite to these (-) is of very recent invention
indeed ; and has only, within a very few years,
taken the place of the far less convenient term
ten, (dim. of tenuto). The Tie, or Bind (^ — s),
is found in the Score of Perils * Euridice,* printed
in x6oo. The Swell (-«=:=--) was first used by
Domenico Mazzocchi, in a collection of Madri-
gals, printed in 1638. The Pause has undergone
no change whatever, either in form, or significa-
tion, since the time of Basiron. As in the days
of Obrecht, the Dotted Double Bar is still used
as the sign of repetition ; though a tripled bar
would no longer be understood to indicate that
the passage was to be sung or played thrice ; and
the dots are not now placed on both sides of the
bar, unless the passages on both sides are in-
tended to be repeated. The convenient forms
of imA and 2°<^ voUa date from the last century.
We first find the term Da Capo— now better
known by its diminutive, D,C. — in Alessandro
Scarlatti's Opera, * Theodora,* produced in 1693.
For this, when the performer is intended to go
back to the Preaa {-S') the words Dal Segno are
more correctly substituted, with the word Fine,
to indicate the final close.
The innumerable Graces which formed so con-
spicuous a feature in the Music of the last century,
a^d the greater number of which are now en-
tirely obsolete, had each their special sign. By
far the most important of these was the true
Appoggiatura, which, though always written as
a small note, took half the value of the note it
preceded, unless that note was dotted, in which
case it took two thirds of it ; while the Acciacca-
tura» though exactly similar in form, was always
played short. The Appoggiatura is now always
written as a laige note, and the Acciaccatura as
a small one: but, it is impossible to play the
works of Haydn, or Mozart, correctly, without
thoroughly understanding the difference between
the two. [See Appogoiatuba ; Acoiacoatuba.]
The variety of Shakes, Turns, Mordents, Cadents,
Backfidls, and other Agrimeng, cultivated by
performers who have scarcely, even yet, passed
1 8«e HindalHolm'i protest •gainst thli la Letter to Ibehifeii,
•Ooetbe ud Jfeadelseohn.' Sod ed. pw 177.
NOTATION.
477
out of memory, was very great A valuable
explanation of some of those used in the last
century, is given in Griepenkerl's edition of the
Organ Works of J. S. Bach, on the authority of
a letter written by that Master himself, and,
happily, still in existence. [See AQBiaoENS,
MoBDBNT, Shakb, Tobn, etc., etc.]
Of the numerous Clefs employed in the i6th
century, five only have been retained. In Full
Scores, Classical Composers still write their Voice
Parts in the time-honoured Chiavi ncUtarcUi —
Soprano, Alto, Tenor, and Bass. In the so-
called P JP. Scores of theipresent day, the Treble
Clef is always substituted for the Soprano ; and,
veiy often, for the Alto and Tenor also, with the
understanding that the Tenor is to be sung an Oc-
tave lower than it is written. When this method
was first invented, the Alto was also written in
the Octave above that in which it was intended to
be sung— as in Dr. Clarke's edition of Handel's
Works : but this most inconvenient plan is now
happily abandoned ; and the Alto part is always
written at its true pitch, even when transposed
into the Treble Clef. Solo Voice-parts are also
vnitten, in full Scores, in their proper Clefs. In
P.F. Scores, all except the Bass are always
written in the Treble Clef. Handel sometimes
used the Treble Clef, so fikr as the Songs were
concerned, even in his Full Scores ; and hence it
is that, in many cases, we only know by tradition
whether a certain Song is intended to be sung by
a Soprano or a Tenor. Of course this observation
does not apply to the great Composer's Choruses,
which were always written in their proper Cle&.
Every Orchestral or other Instrument has,
also, its proper Clef ; and, in many cases, a dis-
tinctive Method of Notation. Violin Music is
always written in the Treble Clef — to which,
indeed, the name of the Violin Clef is given,
everywhere but in England; and to save Ledger
Lines, the high notes are sometimes written
in the octave below, with the diminutive Sva,
and the dotted line, above them.
The Viola always plays from the Alto Clef.
The Violoncello has a peculiar Notation of its
own. Its normal Clef is the Bass ; but the higher
notes are generally written in the Tenor — some-
times, though less firequently, in the Alto. The
highest notes of all are written in the Treble
Clef; but, with the understanding that they are
to be played an Octave lower than they are written^
unless the word loco is placed over them, in
which case they are to be played in their true
place. When Sva ... is placed over them, they
are played an Octave higher than they are written.
Beethoven, in his P.F. Trio in Bb, Op. 97, gives
full directions to this effect; but some writers
for the Violoncello, dispensing with the word loco,
place Sva . . . over the notes which they wish to
be played at their true pitch.
The Contra-Basso part is always written in the
Bass Clef; but the Instrument sounds the note
an octave lower than it is written. In the Or-
chestra, the player sits at the same desk as the
Violoncello, and plays frx>m the same part : but
it is understood Uiat he is to be silent, wh^ any
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478
NOTATION.
other than the Bass Clef is ufled, or, when the
part is marked *ceUo^; and not to play again,
until the Bass Clef is resumed, or the part marked
Bauo. Since the time of Beethoven, a separate
part has often been written for the Contra-Basso ;
but the player always looks over the same book
as the Violoncello.
Flutes and Oboes always play firom the Treble
Clef. Clarinets also play from the Treble Clef;
but parts for the Bb Clarinet are written a
Major Second, and those for the A Clarinet a
Minor Third, higher than they are intended
to sound. Thus, in ]^thoven's Symphony in
C minor, the Bb Clarinet parts are written
in D minor ; and in Mozart's Overture to
Figaro (in D), the A Clarinet parts are written
in F ; while, in both cases, the Instrument trans*
poses the notes to the required pitch, without
farther interference on the part of the player.
The Como di Bassetto, or Tenor Clarinet, phtys
every note a Fifth lower than it is written ; its
part, therefore, when intended to be played in
the key of F, must be written in that of C : and
the same peculiarity characterises the Cor An-
glais, or Tenor Oboe.
Hie normal Clef for the Bassoon is the Bass ;
but the Tenor Clef is frequently employed, for
the highest notes, to save Ledger lanes. The
Double Bassoon also uses the Baas Cle^ sounding
every note an Octave lower than it is written.
Trumpet parts are written in the Treble Cle(
and always in the key of C ; the Instrument
being made to transpose them to the required
pitch by the addition, or removal, of Crooks.
In the time of Handel, Trumpets rarely played
In any other keys than those of C and D ; and
the parts were then always written in the key
in which they were intended to be played.
Horn parts are written exactly in the same way
as Trumpet parts ; and the Instrument transposes
them, in like manner, but in the Octave below.
The few lower notes for the Horn are, however,
frequently written in the Bass Clef. The Alto,
Tenor, and Bass Trombones, play from the Alto,
Tenor, and Bass Cle&, respectively.
The Drums, as a genend rule, play only two
notes — the Tonic, and Dominant : and these are
usually written in C, and transposed by the man-
ner of tuning the Instrument. Sometimes, how-
ever, the true notes are written ; especially when
more than two Drums are used.
The Wind Instruments used in Military Bands
stand in a great variety of keys, thereby causing
much complication in the Notation of the Sowe.
In the Scores of Handel, Haydn, and Mozart^ the
Oi^n is usually made to play from the ordinary
Bass part, whidfi is figured througliout, and thus
oonvei-ted into a 'Thorough-baM,* in order to
indicate the chords with which the Organist is
expected to enrich the oompo6iti(m. When the
letters T. S.^for TaUo tclo^dxe substituted
for the figures, the Organist omits the Chords,
and plays the Bafis only, in unison, until the
figures reappear. The Organ part is only written
in full, on two Staves, when it is purely Mli-
aaio — as in Handel's 'SauL' In old dgan
NOTATION.
and Harpsiohord Music— both written in precisely
the same way — frequent use is made of the
Tenor Clef; but it has never been used for the
Pianoforte, the Notation for which is chiefly
remarkable for the number of its Ledger lines,
notwithstanding the constant use of the di-
minutive 8va. placed over notes written in the
octave below. When the Pedal was first brought
into general use, it was indicated by the sign
#, or the words tema sordino ; the sign ^, or
^e words con sordino, shewing the place at
which it was to be removed. It is now indicated
by the abbreviatbn Ped,; and its removal, by
an asterisk 0, or, as in some of Beethoven's later
works, a little cross + . The words una corda,
or the letters U.C, indicate the 'Soft Pedal*;
and the words tre eorde, or the letters T.C., are
used to direct its removal. In Beethoven's Son-
ata, Op. ]o6, the gradual removal of the 'Soft
Pedal* is indicated thus : — Una eorda, Poco a
pooo due ed allora tutte le corde* In the days
when he affected Grerman terms, he used the
words mil VerschiAung, [See Vebschikbuno.I
In old Pianoforte Music, Abbreviations are
of firequent occmrenoe. They are now very
rarely used ; and are, indeed, commonly supposed
to indicate a very debased style of typography :
nevertheless, they frequently serve to facilitate the
process of reading very considerably. In Orchestral
Parts, they are still extensively used ; espedallj
in tremoko, and other similar passages, in which,
while economising space, they save readers an
immensity of trouble. [See Abbbeyiatioitb,
HoBN, Trumpet, Bassook, Dodblb Bassook,
Clabinbt, etc., etc.]
If perfect adaptation of the means used to the
end proposed be aocepted as a fair standard of
excellence, our present system of Notation leaves
little to be desired; for it is difficult to oon>
oeive any combination of sounds, consistent with
what we believe to be the true prindplet of
Musical Science, which it is incapable of ex-
preanng. Attempts have been made, over and
over again, to supersede it by newer inventions :
but, with the exception of the 'Tonic S0I-&*
' system, and its French equivalent, the M^thode
Galin-Paris-Chev^, not one of them has succeeded
in conmianding serious attention. It is impossible
that we can set aside arrangements, the oonveni-
enoe of which has been tested by so many centuries
of experience, in favour of such Methods as that
advocated by the * Chroma- Verein des gleioh-
stttfigen Tonsystems,' the 'Keyboard Method of
Notation, or Chromatic Stave, or any other sys-
tems, good or bad, of modem invention, whether
Imsed upon the results of private experience, or
scientific calculation, whatever may be the amount
of ingenuity displayed in their construction. Like
the CJiiffres proposed by Louis Bourgeois, in the
i6th oentury, they may, for a time, attain a cer-
tain amount of delusive popularity ; but, sooner
or later, they must, and invariably do, &U to the
ground. And the reason is obvious. Our reoo^
nised system is an universal Language, oommon
I For an Moount of the 'MoTeable Do,' whldi fbnu tho ebtaf
charMtoriitlo of thU tjtUm, tee Souiisatmx.
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NOTATION.
to all civilised countries ; whereas, the empirical
methods which have been proposed as substi-
tiites for it are, like the Tablature for the Lute, '
fitted, at their best, only to answer some special
purpose, often of very slight importance. The
* Tonic Sol £»' system, for instance, — even set- |
ting aside the grave faults which it shares with
the older Alphabetical Method long since con-
demned— could never be used for any other
purpose than that of very commonplace Part
Singing, while the time spent in acquiring it
could scarcely fail, if devoted to the study of
ordinary Notation, to lead to far higher results.
[See Tonic sol-fa; Kbt, II, vol. ii. p. 55a;
B0UB6BOI8, Louis, Appendix.] We may, there-
fore, safely predict, for the present Written
XAnjraage of Music, a future co-ordinate with that
of the Scientific Principles of which it has so
long been the recognised exponent. [W. S. R.]
NOTE, NOTES (Lat. nota). The marks or
signs by which music is put on paper. [See
Notation.] Hence the word is used for the
sounds represented by the notes. [See Scale.]
Also for tne keys of a pianoforte ; and for a tune
or song, as the * note' of a bird. [G.]
NOTTEBOHM, Martin Gustav, compoHcr,
teacher, and writer on music, bom Nov. 1 2, 181 7,
at Lttdenscheid near Amsbeig in Westphalia,
son of a manufacturer. In 1838 and 39, when
in Berlin as a volunteer in the Garde-Schiitzen-
bataillon, he tbok lessons on the piano and com-
position from L. Berger and Dehn. In 1840 he
removed to Leipzig, where he became intimate
with Mendelssohn and Schumann, particularly
the latter. A testimonal from Mendelssohn,
stating his qualifications as a musician, procured
his discharge frt>m the army, and in Sept. 1846
he settled finally in Vienna. In 1847 he went
through a course of counterpoint with Sechter,
and has since been esteemed as an able and
conscientious teacher of the pianoforte and com-
position. But it is as a solid and scientific
writer on music that his name will live ; indeed
his critical researches on Beethoven^s works con-
stitute him an authority of the first rank. His
cooperation in the revised editions of the works
of Bach, Handel, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and
Mezart, is of the highest value as a guarantee
for the thoroughness with which undertokings so
important shoidd be conducted. If not the first
to explore Beethoven's sketch-books, he has cer-
tainly investigated them more thoroughly and
to more purpose than any one else, and his works
on this subject deserve the gratitude of every
student of the great composer. [See vol. i. p. 1 74.]
It is to be regretted that so fieur no public institu-
tntion has l^en inclined to offer a man of his
great attainments a position conmiensurate with
his services.
Up to the present date (April i88o> Notte;
bohm has published : — ' MusikwissenschafUiche
Beitrage ' in the ' Monatschrift fUr Theater und
Mu8ik*(i855 and 57, Vienna, Klemm) ; 'Ein
Skizzenbuoh von Beethoven,' dtscription with
extracts (1865, Breitkopf & Hartel) ; 'Thema-
tisches Verseichniss der im Druck enchienenen
NOURBIT.
479
Werke von Beethoven,' and ed. enlarged, and
with chronological and critical observations ( 1868,
B. &H.); <Beethoveniana' (1872, Rieter-Bie-
dermann) ; * Beethoven's Studien,* vol. i. con-
taining the instruction received by Beethoven
from Haydn, Albrechtsbeiger, and Salieri ; from
the original MSS. (1873, ibid.) ; * Thematisches
Verzeichuiss der im Druck ersdiienenen Wwke
von Franz Schubert * (1874, Vienna, Schreiber) ;
'Neue Beethoveniana,* papers appearing from
time to time in the 'Musikalisches Wochenblatt' ;
1875 to 79~this last, and the ' Beethoveniana,'
are founded on the examination of Beethoven*s
sketch-books to which allusion has been made ;
* Mozartiana* (1880, B. ft H.) His compositions
include— op. i, Clavier-quartet ; op. 4, Clavier-trios
(both Peters) ; Solos for P J*, op. 2 and 3 (Peters) ;
op. 6, 10, II, 13-15 (Spina); op. 16 (Peters);
op. 17 'Variationen ilber ein Thema von J. S.
Bach* P.F. 4 hands (B. & H.). [CJF.P.]
NOURRIT, Louis, tenoi^singer, bom Aug. 4*
1780, at Montpellier, and ^ucated in the
Maltrise there ; through the influence of M^ul
entered the Conservatoire at Paris, became the
&vourite pupil of Garat, and won prizes. He
made his first appearance at the Op^ra as
Renaud in Clucks 'Armide.' A good singer,
but unambitious and cold, he contented himself
with taking Laln^s parts in the old operas, and
seldom created new r6lea. He retired in 1826,
and lived at his country house at Brunoy tall
his death, which took place on Sept. 23, 1831.
During the whole of his operatic career he carried
on the butdness of a diamond merchant, and
wished to make a tradesman of his eldest son
Adolphe, bom in Paris, March 3, 1802. This
gifted youth received a good classical education
at the College Ste. Barbe, but was then put into
an office, the drudgery of which he beguiled by
studying music in secret. On the representation
of Garcia, however, he was allowed to follow his
wishes. His first appearance at the Op^ra took
place Sept. 10, 1 821, as Pylade in Gluck's •Iphi-
g^nie en Tauride,' when he was &vourably
received, partly because, in voice, manner, and
appearance, he was strikingly like his father.
This resemblance suggested to M^ul an op^ra-
fi^rie, *Les deux Salem' (July 12, 1824), which
however failed. Adolphe was intelligent and
well-educated, and determined to succeed.
Flexibility of voice he acquired by singing in
Rossini's operas, and he studied hard to excel
as an actor both in comedy and tragedy. On
his father's retirement he succeeded him
as leading tenor, and for more than ten
yean created the first tenor rdle in all
the operas produced at the Acad^mie. The fol-
lowing is a list of the parts written for him : —
1826, N^l^s in <Le Si^ge de Corinthe.'
1827, Am^nophis in Molse'; and Douglas in
* Macbeth.' 1828, Masaniello in ' La Muette de
Portici' ; and * Le Comte Ory.' 1829, Arnold in
'GuiUaume Tell.' 1830, L^nard da Vinci in
Ginestet's 'Fran9oi8 I k Chambord'; and Un
Inconnu in *Le Dieu et la Bayadere.' 1831,
Adhemar in *£uryanthe'; GuiUaume in *I^
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480
NOURRIT.
Philtre'; and Robert in 'Robert le DUble.*
1831, Edmond in 'Le Serment.' 1833, 'Gustave
III*; and Nadir in Cherubini'B <Ali Baba.'
1834, Don Juan in a new translation of Mozart's
opera. 1835, El^azar in 'La Juive.' 1836,
Raonl in ' Les Huguenots' ; and Phoebus in * La
Esmeralda' by Louise Bertin. 1837, 'Stradella'
in Niedenneyer's opera.
The writer of this article was a personal friend
of Nourrit's, and heard him in nearly all the
rdles which he created, and to which he im-
parted a distinct stamp of his own. Though
rather stout, and short in the neck, he had a fine
presence, and could be refined and pleasing in
comedy, or pathetic and commanding in tragedy
at will. He used his falsetto with mat skill,
and was energetic without exhausting his powers.
He was idolised by the public, and his influence
both with them and with his brother artists
was great. He was consulted by managers and
authors alike ; he wrote the words for El^azar's
fine air in 'La Juive,* and suggested the abrupt
and pathetic close of tht duet in the 'Huguenots.'
His poetic imagination is shown 1^ the libretti
for the ballets of 'La Sylphide,' 'La Tempdte.*
• L*Ile des Pirates,* ' Le Diable boiteux, etc„
danced bv Taglioni and Fann^ Elssler — all which
were written by him. Besides securing large
receipts for the Op^ra, he popularised Schubert's
songs in France, made the fortune of various
composers of romances, and was always ready to
sing the ist act of * La Dame Blanche* with
Mme. Damoreau for any charitable purpose. In
conversation he was witty and refined. Duprez's
engagement at the opera was a severe mortifica-
tion for so earnest and so popular an artist,
and rather than divide honours to which he
felt he had an exclusive right, or provoke com-
parisons which would in all probability have
Deen made in his favour, he resolved to retire.
On his last appearance at the Acad^mie (April i,
1837) he received the most enChusiastic and flat-
tering ovation ever perhaps accorded to a French
artist, but nothing would induce him to remain
in Paris. He obtained leave of absence from the
Conservatoire, where he had been professeur de
declamation lyrique for the last ten years, started
for Brussels, and thence proceeded to Marseilles,
Lyons, and Toulouse. His iiiea was to produce
during his toum^ scenas or acts composed ex-
pressly for him, and Ambroise Thomas furnished
him with a dramatic cantata called * Silvio Pel-
lico* (words by Legouv^), which he carried off
with expressions of delight at having found
something which would display his powers in a
new light. Of this piece, however, nothing has
ever been heard since. While at Marseilles and
Toulouse Nourrit*s customary excitement in-
creased to an alarming degree, and was aggra-
vated after his return to Paris, by a series of
newspaper articles praising Duprez at his ex-
pense. These drove him away a second time.
He started for Italy in a state of deep deprestiion,
but was temf)oiarilY restored by Rossini's kind-
ness and by the cordiality of his reception in most
of the great towns. Unfortunately * Polyeucte,*
NOVELLO.
which Donizetti had composed for him, was hiter*
dieted in Naples, and he made his first appearance
at San Carlo in Mercadante's 'U Giuramento,'
He was well received both in this and in 'Norma,*
but could not be persuaded of the fact. After
singinff at a benefit concert in a state of great
mental £Ettigue, he had a sudden access of delmum
in the nighty and throwing himself out of window
was kill^ on the spot, March 8, 1839. His re-
mains were brought to Paris, and interred amid a
crowd of sorrowing friends. He was much valucl
by Mendelssohn, who made his acquaintance in
1 83 1, and who notices his death in terms of great
sorrow. (Hiller s Mendelssohn, p. 137.)
There is a fine marble medallion of Nourrit by
Pradier ; and he was often painted in scenes
from ' La Muette,' • Robert,' ' 1a Juive,* and • Les
Huguenots.* The portrait by F. R. Spencer is
very like. M. L. Quicherat, one of his sons-in-
law, published * Adolphe Nourrit ; sa Vie,* etc.
(Paris, 1867, 3 vols.) containing ample details.
His brother Augusts (bom Paris 1808, died
at risle d'Adam July 11, 1853), was also a
distinguished tenor singer, and for some time
directed the chief theatres at the Hague, Amster-
dam, and Brussels. He visited the United States,
and after his return devoted himself to teaching
Bfaiging. [G.CO
NOVELLETTEN. The title of a series of
eight pieces for pianoforte solo by Schumann
(op. %i\ written in 183S, and dedicated to
Adolph Henselt. There is also another Novel-
lette of great beauty not included in this series,
but written in the same year, which Schumann
afterwards inserted in his 'Bunte Blatter,' 14
short pieces, op. 99. The name, like so many
others of Schumann*s, suggests the influence of
Jean PauKs writings. *He had found at last
(says Mr. Niecks ') the proper form for his confi-
dential communications, — for the Kreisleriana
and Novelletten are a kind of confessions. These
pieces read like a romance, to the interest and
beauty of which they add the truthfulness of
reality They are characterised by
Schumann as 'larger connected romantic stories.*
' Here we have no painful forcing, no oozing out
of thoughts, but a full stream, a rich outwelling,
such as is rare even with this master. . . .
They differ from the Kreisleriana in the pre-
ponderance of the humorous element, and are of
a more hopefVd and cheery tone.* [J.A.F.M.]
NOVELLO. ViNOSNT, son of an Italian father
and English mother, was bom at 240, Oxford
Street, Sept. 6, 1 781 . He was a chorister at the
Sardiziian Chapel, Duke Street, LincolnVInn-
Fields, under ^^muel Webbe, the organist, and
after the breaking of his voice ofiBciated as deputy
for Webbe, and also for Danby, organist of the
Spanish Chapel, Manchester Square. At 16
years of age he became organist of the Portu-
guese Chapel in South Street, Grosvenor Square,
which office he held until 182a. In 181 2 he
was pianist to the Italian Opera Company at the
Pantheon. He was one of the original members
I TtaoXblj M lutoa BeeoKI for Avrut isni
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of thd PhilharmcAiic Society, and' oocafiionaUy
directed its concerts. Having attained great
eminence as an organist he was selected to take
the organ in the 'Creation' at the Westminster
Abbey Festival in 1834. From 1840 to 1843 he
-was organist of the Boman Catholic Chapel in
liloorfidds. He was one of the founders of the
Classical Harmonists and Choral Harmonists
Societies, of both which he was for some time
oonductor. In 1849 he quitted England for
"Nice, where he resided until his death, Aug. 9,
1 86 1. NoveUo*s compositions were numerous and
-varied, and if not remarkable for invention or
originality, are marked by grace and solid mu-
sioianship. They include *Ro8alba»' a cantata
composed for the Philharmonic Society; *01d
May Morning/ a ' clieerful glee/ which gained a
TOize at Manchester in 1832 ; and *The InfernVs
Prayer/ a recitative and air which was long the
finvourite of every choir boy who was quuified
£yr concert singing, and of which neariy 100,000
copies were sold; He also composed many
masses, motets, and sacred pieces to Latin
words, which, if not very original, were good sound
music, and have helped to form the taste of
many a living amateur in England. But it was
as an editor and arranger &at he principally
deserves the gratitude of lovers of music. His
first work was 'A Collection of Sacred Music*
(masses and motets, including many by himself)^
a vols., 181 1, 2nd edit., 1825; which was fol-
lowed by 'Twelve Easy Masses/ 3 vols., 181 6;
* The Evening Service/ including die Gregorian
hymns, a vols., 1822; 'The FitzwiUiam Music/ a
noble selection of sacred pieces hv Italian com*
posers from MSS. in the FitEwilliam Museiun,
Cambridge, 5 vols., 1825;* Purcell's Sacred Music,*
5 vols.. 1829, containing many anthems, services,
and other pieces never before printed, afterwards
v^ublished in 4 vols. ; 18 Masses by Mozart, and
16 by Haydn, of which 10 of the former and 9 of
the latter were printed for the first time ; ' Con-
vent Music,' a collection of pieces for treble
voices, 2 vols., 1834; 'The Psalmist,* a collec-
tion of psalm tunes; 'The Congregational and
Chorister's P«alm and Hymn Book ;' Croft's An-
thems, 2 vols.; Greene's Anthems, 2 vols.;
Boyce's Anthems, 4 vols. ; Organ part to Boyce's
'Cathedral Music'; the masses of Beethoven,
Hummel, etc. He took a number of madrigals
by Wilbye and others, originally written for 3
and 4 voices, and added 2, 3, and even 4 addi-
tional parts to them with great ingenuity. For
the organ he published, amongst others, ' Select
Oi^giui Pieces, .3 volrn; 'Cathedral Voluntaries,'
1 vols. ; and ' Short Melodies,' i vol. But it is
impossible to enumerate all the arrangements of
this industrious musician, or the benefits which
he thereby oonferred on lovers of music at a time
when it was difficult of access to a degree now
hard to realise. Novello possessed well-oulti-
vated literary taste, and numbered among his in-
timate friends Charles and Mary Lamb, Shelley,
Keats, Leigh Hunt, Hazlitt, Edward Holmes,
and Charles Cowden Clarke, the latter of whom
married his eldest daughter. Lamb has men-
yoL. IL FT. 10.
HfOYELLOr
i6I
iioned him with affection in more tiian one pas-
sage. His family circle was greatly beloved by
those who had access to it, amongst others by
Mendelssohn, who was often there during his
early visits to this country, and many of whose
extraordinary improvisations took place in the
Novellos* drawing-room.
Cboilia, his second daughter, studied singing
under Mrs. Biane Hunt, and appeared upon the
stage. She was a good musician, and an ex-
cellent and useful singer of secondary parts.
She became the wife of Thomas James Serle,
actor, dramatiBt and journalist. Their daughter,
Emma Claba, a promising soprano singer, died
at an early age, Oct. 4, 1877.
Claba An astasia, his fourth daughter, bom
June 10, 1*818, was at 9 years of age placed
under Miss Hill and John Bobinson, at York,,
to learn singing and pianoforte-playing. In 1829 ,
she became a pupil of the Conservatoire at Paris, .
but returned to England in the following year on
account of the Revolution. In 1833 s^^ made
her first public appearance at a concert at Wind-
sor, with such success that she was immediately
engaged at the Ancient and Philharmonic Con-
certs and Worcester Festival, and in the next
year at the Westminster Abbey Festival. She
sang at all the principal concerts and festivals
until 1837, when, at the invitation of Mendels-
sohn, she went to Leipsic, and appeared at the
Gewandhaus Concerts, whence she passed on to
Berlin, Vienna, St. Petersburg, and Dusseldorf..
Writing to the Secretary of the Philharmonic
Society in Jan. 1839, Mendelssohn speaks of her
and Mrs. Shaw as * the best concert singers we
have heard in G^rmanv for a long time,' and
Schumann (Gesamm. Scnriften, iii. 47) dwells on
the extraordinary interest she excited, and thO
universal surprise at her noble simple style of
interpreting Handel, In 1839 she went to
Italy to study for the stage, and became a pupil
of Micheroux at Milan, with whom she re-,
mained for a year. She made her first ap-
pearance in opera at Padua, July 6, 1841, in
Rossini's ' Semiramide,' with great success. She
afterwards sang at Rome, Milan, Bologna, Mo-
dena, and other places. She returned to England,
in March, 1843, and appeared in opera at Drury;
Lane, and in oratorio at the Sacred Harmonic'
Concerts, and the Birmingham Festival. On Oct.
22, 1843, she was married to Count Gigliucci,;
and withdrew from public life ; but circumstances,
compelled her, a few years later, to return to the
exercise of her profession, and in 1850 she sang
in opera at Rome and Lisbon. In 1851 she re-
turned to England and appeared in oratorio, in
which she aclueved her greatest successes, and at
concerts. She also made one more appearance
here on the stage, namely, in the Puritan! at
Druiy Lane July 5, 1853. In 1854 she sang in
opera at Milan. Her greatest triumphs were at
the opening of the Crystal Palace, June 10, 1854,
and at the Handel Festivals in 1857 and 1859,
where her dear pure notes penetrated the vast
space in a manner not to be easily forgotten. In
Nov. i860 she took leave of the public in a
li
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482
NOVELLO.
performance of * MeBsdah* at the Crystal Palace,
abd at a benefit concert at St. James's Hall, and re-
turned to Italy, where she now resides. Her voice
was a high soprano, extending from G below the
stave to D in alt, remarkable for purity of tone,
brilliance and power. She excelled in oratorio,
particularly in devotional songs, and she enjoys
the distinction of having diawn praise nrom
Charles Lamb, notwithstanding his msensibility
to music. (See his poem * To Clara N.')
Mart Sabilla, his sixth daughter, was also a
soprano vocalist, but delicacy of throat and sus-
ceptibility to cold compelled her to relinquish
singing. She has translated several theoretical
works into English. Since 1849 she has resided
in Italy, at first at Nice, and since at Genoa.
Joseph Alfred, his eldest son, bom 1810,
was a bass singer, and for many years sang in
oratorios and concerts. He was for some time
<Aoir-master at lincolnVInn Chapel. He adapted
the English text to the ' Lobgesang,* and several
of the Psalms of Mendelssohn. He was actively
engaged in obtaining the repeal of the advertise-
ment duty, the paper duty, the stamp on news-
papers, and other imposts generally known as
the 'Taxes upon Knowledge.' He is however
best known as a music pubUsher. [See Notello,
Ewer & Compaitt.] He retired in 1856, and
went to reside at Nice, whence he removed to
Genoa, where he is now living. [W.H.H.]
NOVELLO, EWER, & Co., Music Pub-
lishers. The foundation of this firm dates from
the year 1811, when Vincent Novello, already
well known as a professor of music and oi^ganist,
put forth his first publication. ' Novello's Sacred
Music as performed at the Boyal Portuguese
Chapel.'
Vincent Novello, while much engaged both as
teacher and organist, found time to compose, edit,
and issue fit)m his private residence from time
to time many important works, amongst others,
• Twelve Easy Masses ' (3 vols, folio) ; • Motetts
and other Ileces prindpallv adapted for the
Morning Service * (a vols, folio) ; 'Evening Ser-
vice, being a collection of Pieces appropriate to
Vespers, Complin, and Tenebrse' (2 vols, folio),
and many others enumerated in the preceding
article. At this time he also commenced his
greatest work, ' Puroell's Sacred Music ' (4 vols.,
large folio). The publication of this, which,
when completed, consisted of upwards of 1000
pages, was finished after his son, Joseph Alfred
riovELLO, had begun business as a regular music-
gublisher at Na 67, Frith Street, Soho, which
e did in 1839. f^m Frith Street he removed
in 1854 to more extensive premises at No. 69,
Bean Street, Soho, which house, in conjunction
with No. 70, is still occupied by the present firm as
a printing-ofiSce. In those early days no less than
IS masses by Mozart and 16 by Haydn, of which
only 8 and 7 respectively had previously been pub-
lished, and that only in full score, were issued
under the editorship of Vincent Novello in the
practical and useful form of vocal scores. In
thus taking up sacred music, Novello was the
first legitimate successor to JoHV Dat, since
NOVELLO.
whose time the publication c£ saered music in
England had been limited to the issue of works
such as Bamard^s 'Selected Church Muaic,*
Boyce's ' Cathedral Music,* Croft's ' Musica Sa-
cra,' etc., which were issued on subscription by
the editor or composer.
Joseph Alfred Novello was the first parson who
made the practical discovery that music could be
supplied in laige quantities at a much lower rate
than had hitherto been charged, and that the
necessary demand might be created by bringing
out what were then considered extraordinarily
cheap editions of standard works. How different
the meaning of the term ' chei^ * was at that early
period firom what it is now, may be gathered fr^m
the fiict that the small engraved oblong editions
of Haydn*8 and Mozart*s Masses, then considered
very low in price, were charged to the public at
sums vaiyinff frx>m 8s. 6d, downwards.
Mr. Alfred Novello soon advanced still further
in the same direction, by turning his attention to
type-printing, as the only means of meeting a
really large demand* In 1846 he be^n the issue
of music in 8vo — that form being then an entire
novelty — printed ftwn type. The * Messiah* and
the ' Creation * were iisued in that year in sixpenny
numbers, and were followed by many others.
In 1857 the * Messiah* was issued at is. ^d^ and
now (1880) not only that but 67 other oratorios
and large works of Handel, Haydn, Bach, Mo-
zart, Weber, Cberubini, Mendelssohn, Gounod,
Schumann, Brahms, Goetz, and many others are
published at one shilling. Concurrently with
the progress of the type-printing, a reduction in
the price of sheet-music by about 50 per cent
was made in the year 1849, thus placing
it before a large section of the public by n^hom
it had before been unattainable. But while thus
lowering the price of music and extending its
range, Uie firm has not been unmindful of excel-
lence of execution. Vincent Novello's early pro-
ductions are distinguished for a peculiar grace
and neatness ; and veiy recently, by introducing
German engravers, his sucpessors have produced,
in the Purcell Society's volume for 1878, and
in their complete edition of Mendelssohn^s P.F.
works, specimens of plate music equalling any that
are turned out by the great foreign pubHshers,
and fully up to the same very high level of ex*
oellence which distinguishes their type-music
In the year 1861 the business began to be
conducted under the style of Novello £ Co., Mr,
Henry Littleton, who had taken an increasingly
active part in the house since 1841, and had for
some years the sole direction of the business,
being admitted a partner: five years later he
became the sole proprietor, by the retirement of
Mr. Novello; and in 1867 he purchased the
burinessof Ewer & Co., thus acauiring the whole
of the copyright works of Mendelssolm. In the
same year the premises at No. i, Bemers Street,
Oxford Street, were opened, and the firm became
known under its present style of Novello, Ewer
& Co. Later still, in 1878, large bookbinding
establishments were opened at III and 115
Southwark Street. [G.J
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NOVEBRE.
NOYERBE, Jban Gzoboes, txnm in Paris,
April ig, 1727. His fathtir, who had fonnerly
served under Charles XII, intended bim for the
army, but his love of danoing and the theatre
were inyinoible^ and he became the great au-
thority on dancing, and the reformer of the
French ballet. A pupil of the celebrated dancer
Supr^ he made Ids d^Ut before the court at
Fontainebleau in 1743, but apparently without
Bucoess, as we find him soon aiterwaruiB weU re-
ceived at Berlin. In 1 747 he returned to Paris,
and composed several ballets for the Op^ra
Comique, the success of which aroused so much
lealou^ as to induce him to accept Garrick's
invitation to London in 1755. There he spent
two years, profiting in more ways than one, as
may be seen by the more extended knowledge
ana more elevated imagination of his ballets of
that data. He returned to Paris hoping for the
appointment of baUet-master to the Academic,
but fiiiling this, he accepted a lucrative engage-
ment at the large theatre of Lyons. Here, in
conjunction with Granier, he produced three
ballets (1758 and 59) of which' the scenarios
were printed. Here also he published his ' Let-
tres Sur la Danse et lee BaUets (i 760, i vol. 8vo)»
which attracted general notice, and greatly in-
creased his reputation. Bemaining stiU without a
summons to Paris, he found a patron in the Duke
of Wirtemberg, for whom he composed no less than
twenty divertissements and baUets pantomimes.
The Empress Maria Theresa next summoned
him to Vienna, as director of the court-fltee,
and dancing-master to the Imperial family ; and
here again he composed a dozen ballets for the
court theatre, the scenarios of which were
printed separately. On the marriage of Arch-
duke Ferdinand, Noverre received 3ie order of
Christ, and permission to take part in the wed-
ding fgtes at Milan, when he produced several
new baUets, afterwards given in 'Vienna.
On his return to Paris in 1 7 75, Noverre obtained,
through his former pupil Marie Antoinette, now
Queen of France, the long-coveted post of ' Maltre
des ballets en chef at the Acad^mie. In addi-
tion to revivals of earlier works he composed
specially for the Op^ra 'Les Caprices de Gala-
th^' (Sept. 30, 1776); 'Annette et Lubin'
(June 9, 1778); 'Les petits Biens' (June 11,
1778), for which Mocart wrote twelve pieces;
and *M^^* (Jan. 30, 1780). He also ar-
ranged the divertissements of several operas by
Gluck and Fiocinm. On the outbreak of the
Kevolution he fled to London, and there pro-
duced two of his best J:)a11ets, * Les Noces de
Thetis' and 'Iphig^e en Aulide.* After so
successful a career he was justified in looking
forward to an old age of affluence, but during the
Bev(dution he lost the savings of 50 years and
was reduced to poverty, wUch he bore with
dignity and resignation. His death took place
at St. Germain en Laye in 1810, in the end of
October, according to Choron and Fayolle, on
Nov. 19, according to ]^tis. Some give 1807,
but that is apparently a mistake.
Noverre several times remodelled his standard
NXJANCESf.
488
work. An edition published at St. Pet^vburg
(1803-4) 'Lettres sur la Danse, sur les Ballets
et les Arts,' 4 vols., scarce, and apparently un-
known to F^tis, contains analyses of numerous
ballets. The best-known is the Paris edition of
1807, 'Lettres sur les Arts imitateurs en g^^ral,
et sur la Danse en particulier,* a vols., with por-
trait engraved by Boger after Gn^rin, and the
following lines by Imbert : —
Dn feu de son gtoie il anima la danse :
Anx beanx Joun de la Gr^oe il sat la rappeler 2
Et, leoouTxant par lai leur antiqae eloquence,
Les gestes et lee paa apprirent k porler
which give a good summary of what Noverre
efiected. He invented the ballet d'action, re*
formed the costume of the danoers, abolished
routine in &vour oi taste, compelled composers
to conform their music to the situations in the
drama and the sentiments of the characters,
and succeeded in making the pantomime appeal
to the intellect as well as to the eye.
Among Noverre's writings may be specified
' Observations sur la construction d*une nouvelle
Salle de TOp^ra' (Amsterdam, 1787); and
'Lettres k uu artiste sur les f6tes publiques'
(Year IX.). The MS. notes of an eminent
bibliophile allude to another, 'Th^rie et pra-
tique de la Danse en g^^ral,* which seems not to
have been printed, and was doubtless intended
for the * Diotionnaire de la Danse,' projected by
Noverre, but not finished. [G. C]
NOWELL. [SeeNofiL.]
NOZZE DI FIGABO, LE. Opera buffa by
Mosart, in 4 acts ; the libretto by L. da Ponte
after Beaumarchais* * Mariage de Figaro,* on
Mozart^s own suffgeetion. It is dated, in Mozart's
Autograph Oatsdogue, Vienna, April 29, 1876,
and the first performance took place at the
National Theatre, Vienna, May i. In Paris as
< Le Mariage de Figaro,' in 5 acts, with Beau-
marchais' spoken dialogue, at Academic, March
^^t '793 « A^ Th^tre Lyrique, as * Les Noces de
Figaro,' by Barbier and Carr^, in 4 acts. May 8,
1858. In London, in Italian, at the King's
Theatre, June 18, i8ia. [G.]
NUANCES (shades). This word is used in
music to denote the various modifications of time,
force, and expression, which are the most promi-
nent characteristic of modem music, whether
indicated by the composer or inserted by the
performer. As examples of modifications of time
may be cited the directions rallentando, acceller'
andOf calandOf lentando, ttringtndo, etc. ; of force,
crescendo, diminuendo, peaante, martellato, besides
piano and forte with their own modifications, as
mezzo piano, pianissimo, etc., the marks .«= =s^
for crescendo and diminuendo, and A or > for
s/orzando ; of expression, dolce^espressivo, marcatOt
iusingando, etc. No exact date can be given for
the time when these marks originated, as they
came very gradually -into use. They became
more and more common as the instruments were
gradually improved. Bumey (vol. iv. p. 187)
says, speaking of Matthew liock : * In his third
introductory music to the Tempest' (written in
112
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48i
JJUANCES;
¥
1 670), ' wWch k called a Cartain Time, ^bfcbly
from the ourtain being first drawn up during the
performance of this specieB of overture, he has,
for the first time that has come to my knowledge,
introduced the use of oretcendo (louder by degrees)
with diminuendo and lenicmdo, under the words
soft and slow by degrees.* From the fact of these
directio|is being in Italian, we may gather that
they had been previously used by Italian com-
posers, but the date cannot be put much earlier
than;i670-for their first appearance. From this
time until about 1740, when they were quite
settled and in constant use, these marks of ex-
pression were used, at first very sparingly, and
gradually more and more firequently. A com-
parison has been made (vd. C p. 305) between
Beethoven's marks and those of Mozart with
respect to number, to which may be added the
following calculation, showing that their fre-
quency depends in a great measure on the de-
velopment of the pianoforte. In the Adagio
of Beethoven's sonata, op. 106, there are 150
marks to 188 bars, and in Ghopin^s Largo in'
the sonata in B minor, op. 58, there are 141
marks to i ao bars. The place of accents was
taken, on keyed instruments, by the manieren,
or grace-notes, which served to emphasize the
notes before which they were placed. Possi-
bly it is from this cause that the confusion,
so common in some musical criticisms, has
arisen , of iising the word nuaneet to indicate
the grace-notes or ficritare of singers. These
marks opcur occasionally in the works of Bach,
as for instance in the Italian Concerto, and they
are used by Rameau and Couperin, who give
tliem in French, retaining their own language in
spite of the general use of Italian for musical
purposes. This custom remains still in French
music, in which such terms as ' presses le temps/
'animez un peu,' etc., are of fr^uent occur-
rence ; and of late, G^erman composers have taken
to exduding Italian expressions altogether, sub-
let uting 'zunehmend' and 'abnehmend' for erea-
ccndo and diminuendo, etc. This is the latest
development of the practice originated by Bee-
thoven in one or two of his later works, and
continued "by Sohumabn, who confined himself,
almost entirely, to the Grerman lans^uage.
. With regard to the nucmces which are left to
the performer, no rule can be laid down as to
their use, nor can their insertion be a matter of
teaching. Almost all modem music requires the
use of certain modifications of time and expres-
Hion, which it is impossible to convey altogether
by words or signs. These should never be at-
tempted by any but a more or less finished
musician. The difiiculty of steering between the
error, on the one hand, of going through the
composition in a dry and desultory manner,
without attempting any ' interpretation,' as it is
called, of the composer's thoughts, and, on the
other hand, of exagi^erating or setting at defiance
the marks which are put for the guidance of the
performer, and bringing out the performer's
own individuality at <^e sacrifice of that of
the composer, i» very great, and oaa only be
NUNCDIMrmS.
eiitirel V dverodtne by those artists who have 'Che
rare gift of losing their own individuality alto^
gether, and merging it in the composer's idea*
Two of the best instances of the utmost limit of
this kind of nuances, are Herr Joachim's render-
ing of the Hungarian Dances by Brahms, and'
(in a very different grade of art) the playing of
Strauss's Waltzes by his own band in Vienna.
In both these examples there is an utter absence
of exaggeration, and yet the greatest possible
freedom of expression. This kind of liberty of
interpretation is only allowable, it will be under-
stood, in the works of the later modem masters ;
for example, in those of Bach it would be quite
inadmissible, and should be only used very spar-
ingly in those of the masters from Beethoven te
Sdiumann, while in Schumann and Chopin a great
deal more licence is given. It is almost entirely-
by means of these unwritten nuances that the
comparative merits of the greatest performers can
be judged. [J.A.F.M.)
NUrrS BLANCHES (Restless Nights). The
French and English names respectively of the
series of 18 ' Morceaux Lyriques,' for pianoforte
solo, by Stephen Heller (op. 83), also called
*^ BIumen-Fmcht-und DomenstUcke,' after Jean
Paul's work with the same title, lliey differ in
character from one another, some being through-
out restless, excited, and impassioned, and others
entirely calm and peacefuL [J.A.F.M.]
NUMBER. The several pieces or sections of
operas, oratorios, or other long works, are num-
bered for convenience of reference, etc. This is,
sometimes very arbitrarily donei even by so
methodical a person as Mendelssohn. (Compare,
e.g, in Elijah, Nos. 40 and j.i.) The overture
is never counted, but 'No. i is the first piece,
after it. See also Opus-numbbb. [G.]
NUNC DIMITTIS. The firat words of the*
Song of Simeon, occurring in the 2Qth, 30th, 31st,
and 32nd verses of the 2nd chapter of the
Gospel of St. Luke.\ This canticle has been used
at either Vespers or Compline from the earliest
ages. I It is mentioned in the Apostolical Consti-
tutions (written about the beginning of the fth
century) and though St Bendlict does not oixier
its use in his Rule (A J>. S3o)>Ama1arius, writing
early in the 9th century mentions it as in use in
his own time, and English versions of it are ex«
tant as far back as the 14th century. \It appears
that in the most ancient times this hymn was
sung at Vespers, of which service it still fomis
part in the Greek Use. |Tbe Roman and Ar-
menian Uses, however, appoint it to be sung at
Compline, the solemn character of the hymn
seeming more apjnropriate to the last service of
the day. (It is worthy of note that the Armenian
differs from the Western tJse in having two dis-
tinct OfiBces of Compline, one for public, and the
other for private use. The former contains neither
Magnificat nor Nunc Dimittis, but the latter in-
cludes both canticles, thus resembling the Even-
ing Office of the Anglican Church).
The Anglican Evensong was formed by com-
bining the two ancient services of Vespers and
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NUNQ DIMimS.
Oompline, the ist Lesson ittid Magnificat b6mg
taken from the former, the 2nd Lesson and the
Kuno Dimittis from the latter. In the Second
Service Book of Edward VI (published in 1552),
the 67th Psalm (Deus Misereatur), which the
Sartun Use had rendered £Etmiliar, was allowed
to be sung instead of the Nunc Dimittis. The
fact of this canticle being generally sung at
Compline — the least elaborate, as well as the
last of the daily services — accounts for the neg-
lect it has received in musical treatment from
the hands of the great mediaeval masters of
Church Music. (In Merbecke*s ' Booke of Com-
mon praier noted' it is adapted to the Fifth
Chuit^ Tone and to a chant founded on the
Seventh Tone ; indeed, settings of the hymn are
almost entirely confined to the Post Reformation
.composers of the English sohooL With these it
has always been a favourite, and although it is
the shortest of the canticles used in the Anglican
Service, yet the peculiar solemnity of the words,
and the unity of idea which pervades it have
caused the Nunc Dimittis to be more generallyl
.OBERTHtJB.
4S5
set and sung than the alternative Psalm Deus
Misereatur. [W.B.S.]
NUT. I. Of the VioHn (Fr. Sillet: Ger.
Baud), A slip of ebony or ivory (the former
chiefly used) glued to the neck of the violin at
the upper end of the'fingerboard, and over which
the strings pass. It is slightly raised above the
level of -the fingerboard, and serves to keep- the
strings from touching it except when pressed
down by the finger. It existed in the old
instruments which preceded the violin, and in
them was ruder and larger.
2. Of the Bow (Fr. Hamu; Ger. Frosch).
A piece of ebony or ivory, over which the hairs
pass, attached to the end of the bow by a metal
shank working in a groove cut in the bow. A
screw working in the shank serves to tighten or
slacken the hairs. The nut is slightly hollowed
in the cheeks, and is accurately fitted to the
stick by means of a metallic groove. The nut
is as old as the bow itself.
The name in both cases is equivalent to
' knob ' or ' projection
LE.J.P.]
0.
OAKELEY, Sib Herbert Stavlet, Knt.,
Mus. Doc.« second son of Sir Herbert
Oakeley, Bart., bom at Ealing, July 23,
^830, was educated at Rugby and Christ Church,
Oicford. He graduated as B. A. in 1853, and as
M.A. in 1856. He studied harmony under Dr.
Stephen Elvey, and the organ under Dr. Johann
Schneider at Dresden, and completed his mu-
sical studies at Leipsic. In 1865 he was elected
Professor of Music in the University of Edin-
burgh. He received his Mus. Doc. degree from
the Archbishop of Canterbury (Talt) in 1871,
and was knighted in 1876. Among his publi-
cations are some ao songs, with pianofortj or
orchestral accompaniment, 3 vocal duets, 12
part-songs. Students* songs and choral arrange-
^uents of 12 Scottish National melodies, and
of various others for male voices. For the
Church, some dozen anthems,, a Morning and
Evening Service, and man^ contributions to
collections of church music, moluding the well-
known setting ('Edina') of 'Saviour, blessed
Saviour,' and (Abends) 'Sun of my Soul,' in
* Hymns Ancient and Modem.' He has also
published a few of his compositions for piano-
forte and orsan, and for orchestra, including a
festal and a funeral march.
Sir Herbert Oakeley is an organ-plaver of
exceptional ability, and the Recitals which he
^ve» during the session of the university are
much esteemed. He has since his appointment
^ven a great impulse to the public performance
of music at the Reid Concert and the annual
festival, which both in programme and in
execution are a great boon to the musical portion
irftho, inhabitants of Edinburgh. [W.H.H.]
0BBLI6AT0, f. «. necessary. A term signify-
ing that the instrument with which it is coupled
is indispensable in that place or that piece. It is
in this respect the opposite to Ad libitum. [G.]
OBERON. A romantic opera in 3 acts ; words
(English) by J. R. Planch^, music by Carl Maria
von Weber. Produced at Covent Garden Theatre
April 12,1826. In Italian (by Maggione) at Her
M!ajesty*s (in 4 acts) July 3, i860, with recita-
tives by Benedict and 6 additional numbers irom
Euryanthe and elsewhere. In German at Leip-
zig (Hell's translation) Dec. 23, 1826. [G.]
OBERTHtJR, Charles, a distinguished pei^
former on and composer for the harp, was bom
on the 4th of March, 1819, at Munich, where his
father carried on a manuBEtctory of strings for
musical instruments. His teachers were Elise
Brauchle and G.*y. Roder, the Court Director of
Music. In the autumn of 1837 he was engaged
by Charlotte Birch-Pfeiffer as harp-player at the
Zurich theatre. He stayed there undl Septembe:
1830, when, after a concert tour through Switzerj
land, he accepted an engagement at Wiesbaden.
In 1842 he went to Mannheim, where he re
mained until 1844. -^ difference with V. Lachner,
and the representations of English fiiends then
living at Mannheim, induced Herr Oberthiir in
October 1844 to come to England, where he
found a firm protector in Moscheles, and where
he has since lived. He first obtained an engage-
ment at the Italian Opera, but soon gave this up,
and has since devoted himself to private teaching
and composition, with occasional appearances as
a soloist at the principal concerts in England and
abroad. The list of Herr Oberthiir's compositions
d
i
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486
oberthiJb.
(more than aoo in nomber) inoludee an Opera,
'Florit de Namnr,' saooeesfully perf<»ined at
Wiesbaden ; a grand Mass, 'Si. Philip de Neri';
Overtures ('Macbeth* aad 'Bttbezahl'); TrioB
for harp, violin, and violonoello; a Oonoertino
for harp and orchestra ; ' Loreley '— -a legend
for harp and cnxihestra ; a Quartet for 4 harps,
etc. [W,RS.]
OBLIQUE PIAKO. A cottage pianoforte
the strings of which are disposed diaffonally, in-
stead of vertically as is usual in upright instru-
ments. The greatest angle however is at the
longest and lowest string: the bias gradually
dii^ishing until the shortest and highest string
is vertical or nearly so. The object is to get
greater length in the bass strings. The inven^
tion of the Oblique Piano is due to Robert
Womuniy of London, who^in 181 1, took out a
patent for an upright piano with the strings set
diagonally, and the heads of the hammers in the
same rake as the strings. The Oblique Piano
was comparatively early adopted in France, es-
pecially by Messrs. Roller & Blanchet, who
made very distinguished small instruments in
this manner. The principle has since been gene-
rally adopted by the best Fk^nch and English
makers, and more recently by the Germans and
Americans. [See Pianopobtb.] [A.J.H.]
OBOE (Pr. ffautbois; Get, Hoboe, Eochholz),
A wooden reed instrument of two- foot tone, bor-
rowing one or two semitones from the four-foot
octave. It is played with a double reed, although
it is possible to produce all its scale witii a single-
reed mouthpiece somewhat dmilar to that of the
clarinet. It is of the highest antiquity, and in one
form or another is used in all parts m the globe.
It can be traced in the sculptures and paintings
of ancient Ecypt and Greece ; indeed, specimens
are preservedin the British and LeydenMusenms,
which were found with straws beside them, pro-
bably to be used in making the reed. Instruments
from Arabia, ancient Am^ca, China, Kindostan,
Italy, ancl Wallachia are deposited in the South
Kensington Museum. It occurs tmder many
names in the older writevs, such as Schalmei,
Schalmey, Chalumeas, and Shawm. There was
also a fomily of instruments named Bombardi, of
which the Oboe was t^ treble. This name was
corrupted into Pommer in Grermany, the Bassoon
being named Brummer.
Many kinds of Oboe were known !n the 17th
century, and are named in Bach's scores. [See
O. D* A MOBS ; 0. Di Caooia.] There is evidence
to the effect that in 1727 Hoffinann added theGf
and B keys. It had been used for military pur-
poses long before it was introduced into church
and secular music. Indeed, military bands were
in Germany termed ' Hautboisten,* and a well*
known copper-plate engraving of the i8th centuiy
shows the band of the Engli& Guards passing to
St. James*s Palace, consisting principally of o£)es
of different sizes, with bassoons of primitive
shape, drums, and cymbals. I
At the present day it is usually made In three
pieces, a top, bottom, and bell jc^ts, to which if I
OBOE.
added a short metal tube, the staple, on whioik
the reed, consisting of two blades or thin cane. Is
attached by means of silk. It is essentially aa
octave instrument) like the flute and bassoon,
with a oonical bwe enlarging downwards, thus
differing from the flute ; and without the extra
joint which carries the scale of the bassoon down
several tones below its natural tonic. It is
understood to stand in the key of 0, and is
always written for in the G or treble del Bb
oboes are occasionally used in military bandsi,
by way of reducing the number of flats in the
signature^ These require the same transpodtioa
of the written parts a whole tone higher, as is
habitually practised with the Bb dannet. An
Eb soprano oboe, resembling the corresponding
darinet, is not uncommon, and is known under
the name of the Musette .dr Pastoral Oboe.
There is slight confusion in this name between
the oboe proper and a similar instrument of the
bagpipe £unily . It> of course, has to be written
for a minor third lower than the corresponding
note on the scale of O. With the exception
however of the now almost obsolete Oboe d*amore,
oboes in O are invariably employed in orchestral
music. It will be seen elsewhere that the Oboe
da Cacda ^as rather a modification of the bass
oboe, bassoon, or brummer, than of the treble
instrument, and that it corresponded to the for-
gotten Ohalumeau, which figures in the scores of
Gluck. The harmonics of the oboe, like those
of conical instruments generally, are consecutive,
and similar to those of an open organ-pipe. Its
extreme compass, excluding the low Bb — not
present in rogmy instruments, and only occa-
sionally needed, as in the Intermezeo of Mendels-
sohn's Midsummer Night's Dream music — b of
two octaves and a fifth, from the Bb or B4 below
the treble stave ; or even two semitones higher,
the last three or four upper notes being difficult
to produce and ineffective in combination. In
<x>nsequence of its peculiar and somewhat strident
tone. It is not well adapted to rapid or arp^igio
passages, although a long and difficult solo of this
character has been allotted to it in the Benedictus
of the Maes known as *Mozart No. 1 2,' extending
to th^ upper Eb, very little below the extreme
compass of the instrument.
Tne fingering in the older and less complicated
specimens is not dissimilar ftx)m that of the flute
and bassoon, the latter of which is its natural
bass. From the lowest note, whether Bb or B ^
(i), to the B [| next above (a), thirteen or fourteen
consecutive semitones are successively obtained
by lifting fingers or depressing keys, those of the
lowest O and C| being very unnecessarily trans-
posed. The next C (3) resembles nhat of tBe
flute in its cross fingerhig bv lifting the fore-
finger, and keeping ^e middle finger of the left
hand pressed down, or the upper F of the bassoon
in adaing to this a depression of the three first
fingers of the ri^ht band also. The top orifice
remains open or half stopped, for the C|, D, and
Eb. E i| (4) is produced by closing this and the
other left-hand orifices, as well as the first two
ibr the right, and pinching the embonohure with
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OBOE.
the Hpfl. In older instruments the scale is t^ns
carrit^d up to the Eb above (5), beyond which
the slide, or ootave<kev, manipulated by the
thumb of the left hand, is called mto requisition.
Extreme treble A can thus be reached (6), though
OBOE.
487
W- flr ' (6) (6)
the F below this may be considered as the practi-
cal limit of the oboe's compass. In more modem
instruments a second octave-key has been intro-
duced, worked by the knuckle of the lefl fore-
finger, which is usually lifted on readiing A
above the stave. In the most recent instruments
of all, these two ' vent-holes/ or harmonic keys,
which serve only to determine a node in the tube,
and which, unlike the corresponding mechanism
of the clarinet, do not furmsli an independent
note of their own« are made automatic, and prac-
tically independent of the player's will. For
most of the higher notes above A, the bottom
DS key requires to be raised by the right little
finger, just as occurs in the flute.
The above scale, from its close similarity
to those of the flute and bassoon, may be
looked upon as traditional and fun'Qauiental.
But hardly any wind-instrument» except the
flute, has been so altered and modified of late
years in its mechanism as the oboe, l^e so-
called Boehm fingering has been applied to it
with considerable suocess, though the system has
not been largely adopted by musicians. The
form most in use at the present day is a modifi-
cation of the older model described above, but with
many devices borrowed from the Boehm system.
It has thus become by far the most elaborate
and complicated of reed instruments, and it is a
question whether a return to an older and sim-
pler patteiii, by lessening the weight of the
machine, and the number of holes breaking the
continuity of the bore, and
by increasing the vibratory
powers of the wooden tube,
would not conduce to an
improved quality of tone.
The bulk of these ad-
ditions is due to the late
M. Barret, at once a dis-
tinguished artist and an
ingenious mechanic, who
devoted a long and laborious
professional life solely to the
elaboration of his favourite
instrument. In thiit task
he was ably seconded by the
French instrimaent maker,
Triebert, with whom he was
in constant correspondence,
and whose instruments have,
until of late, almost mono-
polised the trade.
Ck>mparative woodcuts of
the simpler form as made by
Mahillm of Brussels, and of the more elaborate
model. adopted by Morton of London, exhibit
these differences better than verbal description.
Barret's chief modifications may be briefly
named as (i) the introduction of a plate for the
left-hand thumb, somewhat similar to that on
modem flutes, by which this member, formerly
idle, is called into action ; (3) the double auto-
matic octave keys named above ; (3) a vast num-
ber of double, triple, and even qua^nple alterna-
tive fingerings for particular notes which mate-
rially reduce the mechanical difficulty of incon-
venient passages. On these and other points,
the writer has to thank Mr. Mitcalfe, of Lowes-
toft, for some valuable suggestions.
It is not however in the mechanism only that
the oboe of to-day is entirely difierent from that
of half a century ago, but also in the sound-
producer or reed*. The writer is happy to have
it in his power to illustrate this fact by parallel
photographs, reduced in the woodcut to half
dimensions, of two oboe
reeds, which stand to each
other in about the chronolo-
gical relation named above.
The right-hand cut is a
reproduction of the modem
reed as just sent over from
France by Triebert. That
on the left-hand is one <>f
several given to the writer
by the late Mr. WaddeU,
formerly bahrlmasiTBr of the
First Life Guards, and
which belonged to the
oboist who accompanied
BoBsini on his first visit to this country, in
1833, the great melodic being unwilling to
entrust his elaborate oboe parts to any English
pretender. It will be at once seen that it is
a reproduction of the Pifferaro reed, approxi-
mating more to that of the bassoon and oboe di
caccia, than to that of the modem oboe. A very
similar reed was used even by so recent a player as
Grattan Cooke. The effect of 26 such, ar hi the
first Handel celebration, against about 40 violins,
is difficult to realise.
The oboe has from ancient times held the pre-
scriptive right to give the tuning A to the or-
chestra. This doubtful privilege obviously dates
from the period before Handel, when it was the
only wind-instrument present. The writer has
elsewhere expressed his opinion that, for acous-
tical reasons, the function should rather devolve
on the far more refractory and untuneable
clarinet, than on any member of the double-reed
family. For the bass section of the band however
the low D of the bassoon, reproducing the open
note of the middle string of the double bass, has
many advantages.
It is impossible within brief limits to do more
than indicate the use made by great composers of
an instrument which is at once historically the
oldest and musically the most important of the
reed band. It may however be noted that it
possesses singularly little solo or concerted music.
Handel composed six concertos for it in 1703,
Digitized by VjOOQIC
488
OBOK
-which aie still ocoadonally perfonned! Mozart
also wrote one for G. Ferlandi, of the Salzburg
band, which was on several occasions played by
Bamra ; the composer himself in a letter noting
its performance for the fifth time in 1778, and
playfully terming it ' Ramm's cheval de .bataille.*
The score was formerly in the possession of
Andre, but appears to have been lost or mislaid,
as no trace of it can now be found. Kalliwoda
wrote for his friend Reuther a concertino (op. 1 1 o)
of considerable length and difficulty. Schumann
jcontributes three romances for * Hoboe, ad libitum
Violine oder Clarinet," which seem better known
under the latter instruments. Beethoven has
(op. 87) a trio for the singular combination of
two oboes and English Horn, an early compo-
sition in symphony form with four complete
movements.
Six concertos of Sebastian Bach for trumpet,
flute and oboe, with a sextet of strings, were
first published from the original MSS. in the
libraiT^ at Berlin by Dehn in 1850. Two oboes,
with a like number of clarinets, horns, and
bassoons, take part in several ottets by Haydn,
Mozart, and Beethoven. They have beoi already
referred to under Clabikbt.
It is however in the great symphonies, ora-
torios, and masses that Its full value must be
appreciated. Bach indeed uses chiefly the more
ancient form of the oboe d'amore. [See Oboi
j>' AMORS.] But the scores of Handel abound
with fine passages for it. Indeed, it seems at
his period to have been almost convertible with
the violins as the leading instrument. This fact
probably accounts for the large number in pro-
portion to the strings which, as named above,
were present at once in the orchestra. The oboe
is distinctly anterior in use to its bass relative
the bassoon, although this also often figures as
reinforcing the violoncellos and basses in a
dmilar manner. Haydn's works are equally
liberal in its use. With him it appears as a
solo instrument, usually in melodies of a light
and sportive character. It may be noted that
in a large number of his symphonies the minuet
and trio are assigned to this instnmient, often
answered by the bassoon. Probably its pastoral
tone and history pointed it out for use in a
dance movement. There is however a fine adagio
for it in the oratorio of ' The Seasons,* as well as
A long and difficult solo passage (No. 1 1) in which
the crowing of the cock is imitated, and which is
a perfect study of minute realism in notes.
_ fr
Berlioz quotes several instances of the use of
the oboe by Gluck. It is moreover probable
that the * chedumeau* which occurs in his scores
was some form of this instrument.
Ko writer has made more frequent and yaried
use of the oboe than Beethoven. It takes s
prominent part in many of his symphonies, in
the opera of Fidelio, and in his church music.
In the two last, it is hardly necessary to name
the air of Florestan, and passages in the Masses
in C and in D. In the Symphonies it leads
the wind band in the funeral maroh of the
Eroica, has a singular little cadenza of six notes
and a turn in the first movement of the 0 minor,
and the reprise of the Trio in the Finale; a
long rustic melody preceding the storm in the
Pastoral, several effective passages in the Tth,
and the scherzo in the Ghond Symphony.
Mozart is in no wise behind Beethoven in the
prominence he awards to the oboe ; indeed, the
fact that many of his grreatest works, such as the
Jupiter Symphony, several of his masses, and
even of his operas, were written for limited
bands in which all the wind-instnraients were
not represented at once, gives this, which except
in the £b Clarinet Symphony is almost always
present, a still more marked predominance.
It is perhaps from the increase and greater
development of the wind band that later writers,
such as Weber and Mendelssohn, appear to make
less use of the oboe than their forerunners. The
former of these writers, however, evidently had a
predilection for the clarinet and horn, as is shown
by his concerted music ; the latter has used the
oboe most effectively in St. Paul, EUjah, the
Hymn of Praise, and elsewhere.
Hummel, in his fine Mass in £b, assigns it the
subject of the ' £t incamatus, ' which as being less
fimuliar to many readers may deserve quotaticm.
,j,ii'-|«rt£L-|%.C|f:-^.g3?|
He has also lef^ as op. 10a a series of variatioDi
for oboe with orchestra.
S0I08 etc, for Oboe*
Handkl. — Six Concertos for Oboe.
Mozart. — Grand Quintet in A for Oboe, t
Violins, Tenor and Violoncello, op. 108.
Beethoven. — ^Trio for two Oboes and Cor
Anglais, op. 87.
Hdmicsl. — Variations, with Orchestra, op. loa.
Kalliwoda. — Concertino in F with Orchestra, ,
op. 1 10.
Kbbutzbr. — ^Trio forOboe,Tenor,andBas80on.
Schumann. — Drei Bomanzen, etc., op. 94.
For other concerted music see Clarinet and
Bassoon. [W.H.S.]
OBOE D*AMORE (Fr. HauiboU <ramour).
An instrument of exactly the same compass and
construction as the ordinary oboe, except that it
stands a minor third lower than that, being in
the key of A. It has also a hollow globular
bell instead of a conical one, which renders the
tone more veiled and pathetic. In this /esped
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OBOE IfAMOiLE.
n Sb miermediate between the fint and the
Como Inglese. It is chiefly in the Booree of
Bach that this instrument is met with, most of
his works containing important parte for it. As
A good instance may be cited tne air No. 4 in
the first part of the Christmas (oratorio — *Bei^te
dioh Zion.'
It has been conmion of late to rephioe this fine
but almost obsolete instrument by the ordinary
oboe. Occasionally, however, as in No. 7 of the
work above named, the two are written for
together, and the extreme note A is required,
two lines below the treble stave, which is below
the compass of the ordinary oboe.
The instrument has lately been reconstrnoted
by Mens. Mahillon, of Brussels, according to the
designs of Mons. Gevaert, the learned director of
the Conservatoire of Music in that capital, for the
special purpose of playing Bach's scores correctly.
It was thus used in Westminster Abbeyon Jan.
15, 1880. [W.HJ3.]
OBOE DI CACCIA, {. e. hunting oboe {Fa-
goUino ; Tenoroon), An old name for an instru-
ment of the Oboe or Bassoon family standing in
the F or Eb between those respectively in use.
It occurs firequently in the scores of Bach, who
assigns prominent solo and concerted parts to it.
There is also a double part for instruments of
this nature in Purcell's * Diudesian ' ; and two im-
portant movements, the ' 0 quam tristis' and the
'Virgo virginum praedara* in Haydn's Stabat
mater are scored for two oboi di caccia obbligati.
As specimens of Bach*s treatment of the instru-
ment may be named the Pastoral Symphony
and other movements of the Christmas Oratorio,
scored for two, and a beautiful Aria in the
Johannes Passion for the singular quartet of
flute, soprano, oboe di cacda, and basso con-
tinue, preceded by an Arioso for tenor, with
a flutes, 3 oboi di caccia, and quartet of strings.
It is much to be regretted that this magnificent
instrument has almost entirely gone out of use,
and is confounded by recent writers with the
very different Como Inglese. For whereas the
latter is essentially an oboe lowered through a
fifth, the real oboe di caccia is a bassoon raised
a fourth. It therefore carries upwards the bass
tone of the latter, rather than depresses the
essentially treble quality of the oboe. It is
obvious from Bach's practice that he looks on it
as a tenor and not as an alto voice. In his
older sc6res the part is headed TaUU de BoMon,
Taille being the usual name for the Tenor Voice
or Violin. In the older scores of Haydn's Sta-
bat the parts are actually, and as a recent
writer^ says 'curiously enough,* marked 'Fagotti
in £b,* that being the older name by whidi it
-was designated. Even as late as the time of
Kossini Uie instrument was known, and to it is
^ven the beautiful Ranz des V aches, imitating
very exactly the Alpenhom, in the Overture to
GuiOaume Tell. This is scored in the F or bass
clef^ as is also remarked by the writer above
1 Vr. K. Proot. 'On the frowtb of the Modem Orobeitn,' % paper
wmA before the Xuclcel Aaodation. Jao. 6, 1^^
OBRECH'^. 'm .
referred to,* who singularly conclndee that the
notation is ' an octave lower than the real sounds
produced.' The fact is that when the opera w&s
first heard in this country, the passage was
actually played om written on the oboe di caoda
by ft gentleman stiU living, namely Signer Tam-
plini. There can be little doubt that I^thovenls
Trio for two oboes and cor anglais (op. 87) was
really intended for this instrument, since it
takes the fundamental bass part throughout.
In construction, scale, ana compass the oboi di
oacda in F and £b exactly resemble bassoons on
a miniature scale. They are played with a small
bassoon reed. The writer is fortunate enough to
possess two fine specimens in F by the great
maker Savary, and one in Eb by Marzoli. The
former he has twice played in Baches Christmas
Oratorio in Westminster Abbey, and also at the
Hereford Festival of 1879. I.W.H.S.]
OBRECHT, Jacob, sometimes given Hob-
SEOHT, one of the great masters of the 15th cen-
tury, bom probablv about the year 1440. In
early life he was chapel-master at Utrecht, and
Erasmus' learnt music from him, as a choir-boy
in the cathedral, about the year 1474. He was
also living some. time in Florence, where Aaron
met him in oomp^uiy with Josquin, Isaac, and
Agricola, at the court of Lorenzo il Magnifico. ^
In 1491 Obrecht was elected chapel-master in
Antwerp cathedral, already a great musical centre,
with a fine choir oif nearly 70 voices, exclusive of
boys. Of the higher honours and emoluments he
received there, of the visits paid him by foreign
musicians, of his work in the revision of the
cathedral music-books, and lastly of his poor
health, M. Leon de Burbure has found ample
evidence in the records of that church.^
Many of his works are preserved, and 8 masses
were printed, the merits of which are fully dis*
cussed by Ambros.' The finest of tiiese,
'Fortuna desperata^* has been published in
modem notation (Amsterdam, 1870). The first
volume of printed music in 1501 contained tw6
secular pieces, and Petrucci included many more
in his collection of the next few years. Eitner
gives titles of about 30 printed chansons and
motets still existing. Dr. Bumey has scored
some movements from the mass 'Si dedero,* io
his note-books, and Forkel has given two ex-
amples in his histonr.
Baini speaks of MS. works in the Papal Chapel,
and there is reason to think that among them
is the mass written for the Bmges choir. This
mass was so appreciated that the singers came to
Antwerp in a body to thank the great master.
Surely, to provoke such enthusiasm, there must
be some power which we can hardly appreciate,
hidden behind that 'clean and clear counter-
point * which Dr. Bumey so coldly admires. To the
mind of Erasmus, Obrecht ever remained ' nulli
secundus.' He was ereatly stmck, as amateurs
are to this day, by Uie wonderful rapidity with
t ' Instminentatlon,* in Norello end Co.'i Miuio PrltiMn.
• GUrean. who wea a poph of Xnuroiu. menUoos thb In the
'Dodecachordon.'
« See article ' Obrecht ' in FMIs't Blograj^ilei
.SjUeecblcbUderMucik.JU.UO.
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490
OBBEOHT.
which ft great mudoUn oould throw off Us work.
A certain mass of Obreoht*s astoniahed the old
music world, as the 'Don Juan' overture has
done the new, in being the superhuman product
of a single night's toU. [J.R.S.-B.]
OCA DEL CAIRO, L*. Opera buiTa in a acts ;
libretto by Varesoo, music by Mozart, 17S3.
Mozart left it unfinished, being dissatisfied
with the text. It was completed by Andre with
pieces firom other operas of Mozart's, was adapted
to new French words by Victor Wilder, and per-
formed at the Theatre aes Fantaisies Parisiennes
June 6, 1867 ; at Vienna 1868 ; at Drury Lane,
in Italian, May la, 1870. [G.]
OCARINA. A flftmily of small terra-ootta in-
struments, in character somewhat resembling
flageolets, made of various sizes, and introduced
into this country some years ago by a travelling
troupe of German or Tyrolese musicians. The
fingering is something intermediate between the
instrument named above and that of the * picco '
pipe. The only point of acoustical importance
they illustrate is due to their l^rge internal
cavity, and the absence of any belL They have in
consequence a hollow, rather sweet tone, similar
to that of a stopped organ pipe. They are of no
musical significance wbAtever. [W. H. S.]
O'CAROLAN, or CAROLAN, Tdblooh, one
of the labt and certainly the most famous of the
bards of Ireland, was bom in the year 1670, at
ft place called Newtown, near Nobber, in the
county of Meath. He lost his sight at 16 years
of age from small-poz, and, in Elusion to this
used to say, 'my eyes are transplanted into my
ears.* He was descended from an ancient and
respectable family in Meath, where a district is
BtiU known as Ciurolanstown. Turlogh began to
learn the harp at I a years of age, but owed
nearly all his ^ucation to Madame Mac-
Dermot Roe of Alderford, a fine dame of the
old school, who lived to 80 years of age, and
survived her protegS, She it was who, when
O'Carolan's father settled at Carrick-on-Shan-
non, perceived the talent of the boy, had him
taught the Irish language and music, and pro-
vided him with a horse and an attendant, when,
at a a, he became an itinerant minstrel. He
was susceptible towards the gentler sex; his
first love was one Bridget Cruise, and he must
have preserved a tender remembrance of her,
since long after they parted he recognised her
fingers, as his hand touched them accidentally in
a boat at Lough Dearg. He solaced himself for
her loss by falling in love with Mary Maguire, a
young lady from Tempo, Fermanagh. She be-
came his wife, and they lived happily together.
He now took a farm in Leitrim, but imprudent
hospitality soon dissipated his means. He then
(169a) adopted the life of a travelling minstrel.
Wherever he went, the doors of the nobility and
gentry were thrown open, and he was ever ready
to compose both woras and music in praise of
those who welcomed him. Later in life O'Carolan
was much addicted to intemperance; he required
to be supplied with stimulants before composing,
O'CAROLAN.
but after drinking, his muse nieLy fiftOck] fiim.
One instance however is recorded in which his
invention was utterly at fault. It related to ft
Miss Brett. In order to celebrate her chmnns,
O'Carolan tried and tried in vain, till throwing
aside the harp in a fit of vexation he declared
to the young lady's mother that after frequent
attempts to compose for her, there was not 'ft
string in his harp that did not vibrate with
a melancholy sound; 'I fear,* said he, 'she is
not long for this world : nay,* he added, with
emphasis, ' she will not survive twelve months ! *
The event proved the bard a true prophet, for
Miss Brett died within that time. Wi^ a view
to wean him from his inordinate fondness for
drink, O'Carolan's friends made him promise to
shun all places where liquor could be purchased,
and he for a while abstained; but at last,
visiting the town of Boyle, and chancing to pass a
spirit-diop, he prevaileid on the shopman to pour
out a glass of the spirit, intending to smell but
not to taste. His resolution however failed >*»"!,
and he not only swallowed the one draught, but
many others, until his mind had fully recovered
its tone, and in this state of exhilaration he pro-
duced his famous tune ' The Receipt for drinking
whiskey.' It was said that Geminiani and other
foreign artists entertained a veiy high opinion of
his musical talents, but though some stories are
told of his immediately executing from memory
long and difficult pieces which Uie Italian
musicians had just played, these tales are
musically improlMtble, and are inconsistent with
the generally received accounts of his mediate
skill on the harp. It is enough to allow him the
decided talent for improvising music and words,
to which his claim has been undisputed.
^ 1733 kis wife died. She had borne him
six daughters and also one son, who subsequently
taught the Irish harp in London, and before he
quitted Ireland, in 1747, published an imperfect
collection of his father's compositions. Turlogh
O'Carolan died March 35, 1738, at Alderfoid
House, where his room is stiU shown, with his
high-backed chair, his engraved punch-ladle, and
a press in the wall where he kept his whiskey.
His funeral was attended by 60 clergymen of
different denominations, by a numb^ of the
gentry of the district, and by a vast crowd of
the humbler dans; and his wcike lasted four
days, during which the harp was never silent,
and the bottle never ceased to flow. Some
biographies allude to the visible preservation of
the poet's skull ; the &ct8 are these : — Early in
the present century it occurred to a Ribbonman
named Reynolds, to steal the skull of O'Carolan,
and dispose of it to Sir John Caldwell, for his
museum. The museum however has long ceased
to exist, and the skull and letter describing it
are both gone. Of late years the grave of the
bard (hardly to be distinguished from those
of the Macdermot Roes amongst whom he lies)
hns been neatly enclosed, and an inscription
placed near the spnt, by Lady Louisa Tenison.
0*Carolan*8 fecundity as a musician was un-
doubted ; one of the ten harpers assembled at
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O'CAROLAN.
Belfikst in 179a liad moqnired more than 100
tunes oompooed by him« and asserted that this
was but a small portion of them. In 1809 a sort
of coomiemoration of him was held in Dublin.
The late Ladj Moigan bequeathed £100 to the
Irish sculptor Hogan, for the purpose of executing
a bas-relief of the heiul in marble, which has been
placed in St. Patrick's Cathedral. It was copied
from a rather youthful and idealized portrait pre-
fixed to *Hardiman*s Irish Minstrelsy.' [B*P.S.]
OCHETTO (Lat. Ochetta; 'FT.ffoqtiei; Old
£ng. Hocket). A curious device in mediaeval
Discant, the sole merit of which consisted in
interrupting one or more Voice parts — generally
including the Tenor — by meaningless rests, so in*
troduoed as to produce an effect analogous to
that of the hiccough — whence the origin of the
word. [See Hockbt.] It seems to have made
its first appearance in the SsBcular Music of the
1 3th century ; but no long time elapsed before
it was introduced into the Discant sung upon
£c<desiastical Plain Chaunt, on which account it
was severely condemned in the Decretal issued
by Pope John XXII, in 13a a. The following
specimen is fix>m a Secular Song of the 14th cen*
tury, preserved in MS. at Cambrai, and printed
in txtenm) in Coussemaker*s ' Histoire 4^ THar*
monie an Moyen Age* (Paris, 1853).
Triphmu
OCTAVE.
491
In the latter half of the 14th century the
popularity of the Ochetus began rapidly to wane ;
and in the 1 5th it was so far forgotten that Jo-
annes Tinctoris does not even think it necessary
to mention it in his * Diffinitorum Terminorum
Musioorum.'
But though the Ochetus so soon fell into dis-
repute as a contrapuntal device, its value, as a
means of dramatic expression, has been recognised,
by Composers of all ages, with the happiest pos-
sible result. An early instance of its appearauce,
as an aid to expression, will be found in Orazio
Veochi's Motet, ' Velooitur exaudi me* (Venice,
1590), where it is employed, with touching
paUios, at the words defecit apiiititB tneiu.
i
1
?r^i^T^
• dt apt
. rl • tot I
4. ft ■ • ■ • dt
1 = 1 1 - , 1
•pi
• • • • I
n-tw
"-' '' ^
=Sf=:
— =— ^
!^-?i
-^. J -^ —
i
A
etc
\ ?-i'^A%
— ■ —
-1
J :
As instances of its power in the hands of our
greatest Operatic Composers, we need only men-
tion the death-scenes of Handel's Acis, the Com-
mendatore in 'Don Giovanni,* and Caspar in
*Der Freischutz.* [W. S. R.]
OCTAVE. An octave is the interval of eight
notes, which is the most perfect consonance in
musia The ratio of its sounds is i : a ; that is,
every note has twice the number of vibrations of
its corresponding note an octave lower. The sense
of identity which appears to us between notes of
the same name which are an octave or more
apart, arises chiefly firom the upper octaves and
their harmonics corresponding with the most
prominent harmonics of the lower note. Thfls
Helmholtz says, 'when a higher voice executes
the same mdody an octave higher, we hear
again a part of what we heard before, namely
the even-partial tones of the former compound
tones, and at the same time we hear nothing
that we had not previously heard. Hence the
repetition of a melody in the higher octave is a
real repetition of what has been previously
heard, not of all of it, but of a part. If we
allow a low voice to be accompanied by a high( r
in the octave above it, the only part-music
which the Greeks employed, we add nothing
new, we merely reinforce the even par tials. In
this sense, then, the compound tones of an octave
above are really repetitions of the tones of the
lower octaves, or at least of part of tlileir con-
stituents.*
Irregularly consecutive octaves are forbidden
in music in which the part-writing is clearly
defined. The prohibition is commonly explained
on the ground that the effect of nimiber in the
parts variously moving is pointlessly and inartis-
tically reduced ; at the same time that an equally
pointless stress is laid upon the progression of the
parts which are thus temporarily united either in
octaves or unison. Where however there is an
appreciable object to be gained by uniting the
parts, for this very purpose of throwing a mdodic
phrase or figure into prominence, such octaves
are not forbidden, and small groups or whole
masses of voices, or strings, or wind inHtruments,
are commonly so united with admirable effect.
The interval of an augmented octave, exceed-
ing the octave by a semitone, is occasionally met
with ; as in the following example from the first
subject of the Overture to Don Giovanni : —
It is very dissonant.
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i402
OCTAVE.
OCTAVE, or PRINCIPAL/ An open metal
cyiindrical oi^an-stop, of four feet on the manual
and eight feet on the pedal; the scale and
strength of tone of which are determined by
those of the open diapason on the same depart-
ment. Where there are two Principals the
second one is sometimes of wood, open, as at
Christ's Hospital, when it partakes of the flute
character. In the Temple oigan the two stops,
of metal, are called ' Octave* and * Principal' re-
spectively ; the former being scaled and voiced
to go wiUi the new open diapason, and the latter
ta produce the first over-tone to the old diapason.
In foreign organs the Octave stop sounds the first
octave above the largest metal Begister of Princi-
pal (Diapation) measure on the clavier ; and is
therefore of eight, four, or two feet size according
to circumstances. [See Pbincipal.] [E.J.H.]
OCTAVE FLUTE. [See Piccolo.]
OCTET, or OTTETT {OUetto), a composition
for eight solo instruments. It differs from a double
quartet, such as those of Spohr, as that master
explains in his Autobiography (ii. 153); the eight
instruments working togetner independently,
and not in two bodies — -just as in the case of a
composition for eight voices compared with one
for two choirs or double chorus. Mendelssohn's
Octet for strings is a splendid example. [See
Mendelssohn, 2586.] So is Schubert's, for a
violins, viola, cello, contrabass, clarinet, horn, and
bassoon. Gade and Svendsen have each written
one for strings. Beethoven's 'Grand Octuor'
(op. 103), originally entitled ' Parthia inEs,' is an
arrangement of his early String Quintet (op. 4),
for a oboes, a clarinets, a horns, and 2 bassoons. [G,]
ODE (Gr. y^, from (iccSo;, I sing). A form of
poetry which, both in its origin and in its later
forms, has been peculiarly i^pted for musical
expression ; in fact, the words of the earliest odes
were probably written to fit music already
existing. The form which has been most fre-
quently and successfully set to music in modern
times is that of the Greek odes, in which the
rhythm and metre are constantly changing, thug
living great scope for variety of treatment.
Modem instances of this kind of odes are Mil-
ton's 'L' Allegro* and '11 Penseroso,' Dryden's
*Ode on St. Cecilia s Day,* Gray's *Bard* and
* Process of Poesy,' Collins's * Ode to the Pas-
sions, Wordsworth's ' Ode on Intimations of Im-
mortality,' and Shelley's odes. Another form of
ode is where the metre of the verses remains the
same, as in- the odes of Horace, Milton's ' Ode on
the Nativity,' etc. To this class belongs Schil-
ler s ' Ode to Joy,* used by Beethoven in the 9th
Symphony. Of musical settings of odes the fol-
lowing are the most important, besides those
already mentioned: — Handel's four odes, a list
of which is given in the catalogue of his works
(see Handel, vol. i; p. 657 a) ; Purcell's ' Odes and
Welcome Songs,' a 8 in number, many of which
are still in MS. ; in later times, Sir W. Stemdale
Bennett's setting of Tennyson's 'Ode for the
opening of the International Exhibition of 1862.'
Most o£ these compositionfl are for chorus and
• (EDIPtJfiC '
^On^hestra and in many there are adofl' or semi-
choruses interspersed, representing the Strophe
and Antistrophe of the classic chorus. [J. A. F. M .]
0D£0N. a theatre near the Luxembourg in
Paris, known at various times under different
names. The original building, by Peyre and
de Wailly, containing 1500 seats, was begun in
1773 on the site of the Hdtel de Conde, at right
angles to its present position, to which it was
transferred in 1779 by conmiand of Louis XVI.
It was opened in 178a as the *Th^tre Fran9ai8,'
became in 1790 the 'Th^toe de la Nation,' was
burnt down March 18, 1799, and rebuilt in 1807
by Chalgrin as the * Od^n, Th^tre de 1* Imjp^-
atrice,' again partially burnt March 2Q, 181 8,
but imm^ately restored. As an offshoot of the
'Com^e Fran^aise- ('le second Th^tre Fran-
9ai8 ') it receives a Subsidy from the state ; but
its musical relations alone concern us.
From 1808 to 1814 comedy was given at the
Od^n four days in the week, and on the other
three Italian opera ; the chief works of Paisiello,
Mozart, Salien, ZiugareUi, and Cimarosa, being
produced together with those of the second-rate
composers popular at the beginning of the century,
Simon Mayer, General!, Nasolini, Pavesi, etc.
In 1816 ballets were tried, but none were pro-
duced of any musical importance. From i8a4 to
a8 theOd^n became almost a branch of the Op^ra,
and took an important part in popularising the
revolution of Boesini and of Weber. In 1 8 34 the
* Barbiere di Siviglia,' translated by Castil Kaze,
was performed there for the first time in Paris on
May 6; and on Deo. 7 'Freischiits* was produced
and hissed. Castil Blaze thai remodelled it to
miit French taste, and as 'Kobin des Bois' it
reappeared on Dec. 16, and ran for 337 nights !
The able conductor, Pierre Cr^mont (1784-
1846), also a good player on the violin and clari-
net, contributed much to the success of the operas
given there, among which may be specified Mo-
zart's 'Figaro' and 'Don Juan' ; Bossini's *Graz7a
Ladra.* 'Otello,* 'Tancredi.* and 'Donna del
Lago' ; Winter's * Sacrifice interrompu * ; Meyer-
beer's 'Marguerite d'Anjou*; and Weber's
* Preciosa,* all in French ; besides several adapt-
ations, such as 'La Forfit de Senart,* *Pour-
ceaugnac,' 'Ivanhoe.' and 'Le dernier jour de
Missolonghi,' set by Hdrold, in which the over-
ture alone was a success.
On Oct. a, 1838, M. Louis Viardot's Italian
companv took refuge at the Od^n after the burn-
ing of the Salle Favart in the previous Jannaiy,
and continued there till the autimm of 184I.
Since that date it has remained open, but as a
second 'Th^&tre Fran^ais,' music being only
occasionally introduced, e.g. Mendelssohn's 'Anti-
gone' in 1844, and Elwart's * Alceste' in 1847.
Of late years a success was achieved by Leoonte
de Lisle's tragedy 'Les Erinnyes,* with inci-
dental music by Massenet, whose fine oratorio
' Marie Magdeleine ' was- also performed for the
first time at the Od^on. [G.C.]
(EDIPUS. Mendelssohn was commanded by
the king of Prussia to setmusie to the three
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OKEGHEM..
qydque peine* and ' Eoce andUa Domini/ and
tiie papal chapel, one, ' De plus en plus.' Baini
speaks of others at Rome, but does not name
them, and though looked for since, thev have not
been found. A tradition asserts that costly
music books containing many of Okeghems
•workB were destroyed when the imperial troops
plundered the city in 1527, and his composi-
tions at St. Martinis at Tours were probably lost
in the same way. Ambros speaks of one motet,
'Alma redemptoris,' and three songs, *D'ung
aoltre amer,' * Aultre Yenus/ and * Rondo Royal'-
in MS. at Florence, and of other chansons at
Bome and Dijon.
These compositions, insuffident as they are for
forming a satis&ctory judgment on Okeghem*s
powers, are sufficient to separate him very dis-
tinctly from his predecessors, and show the
Siitonishing progress made during the forty
years of his supremacy ( 1550 -1590). He is
regarded as the founder of the second or new
Ketherland school, in contradistinction to the
older school of Dufky, Brasart, Eloy, Binchois
and Faugues. Kiesewetter, who first made this
c assi6cation, and has given numerous examples
from the works of the earlier period, distin*
guishes Okeghem and his contemporaries ' by a
greater facility in counterpoint and fertility in
invention; their compositions, moreover, being
no longer mere premeditated submissions to the
contrapuntal operation, but for the most part
being indicative of thought and sketched out
with manifest design,' beinsr also full of inge-
nious contrivances of an obligato counterpoint,
at that time just discovered, such as augmen-
tation, diminution, inversion, imitation : together
with canons and fugues of the most manifold
description.' One of these canons has gone the
round of the musical histories, but its solution
has not always been successful, and F^tis has
had to correct the editions given by Forkel,
Kiesewetter, Bumey and Hawkins. The 'Missa
cnjusvis toni,* which Kiesewetter, without suffi-
cient reason, regards as a comical mass, is a
work possibly written for the sake of his pupils,
, but more probably as an intellectual treat for
r the highly educated musicians who formed the
; church choirs in those days. It would be valu^
by them, not only as a test of their thorough
acquaintance with the church modes, and an
exercise in the transposition of the mass from
one mode to the next, but also for the endless
charm of variety, which the special character-
btics of the various modes would impart to it.
Many years after Okeghems death it was still
used by the great chapel choir at Munich, and
the copy now exists there, with the notes and
corrections made by those who actually sang
from it. Another piece of Okeghem's, famous
In its time, was a motet for 36 voices, which
was probably (like Josquin's 'Qui habitat in
adjutorio') written with 6 voices, the other
parte being derived from them canonically.'
Asa teacher Okeghem stands alone in the whole
1 Ambroa (HL ITS) mentions the motet 'Aim* redemptoris* %%
ftdoixling ft proof of this stfttcmeuW > Ambros, 111. 174.
OLD HUNDREDTH TUNE. 495
history of music * Through his pupils the art
was transplanted into all countries, and he must
be regarded (for it can be proved by genealogy)
as the founder of all schools from his own to the
present age.'* The names of Josquin * and De la
Kue stand foremost in the list of his pupils.
Josquin, hunself a great teacher, carried the
new Netheriand art into Italy, and the first
important representatives both of German and
French music, Isaac and Mouton, with many
others less fimious, learnt through him the
Okeghem traditions. [ J.fi.S.-B.]
OLD HUNDREDTH TUNE, THE. The
great popularity of this tune in England and
America has given birth to much discussion re-
specting its origin and authorship. The greater
part however of what has hitherto been written
on the subject is either purely conjectural or
based on in imperfect knowleo^ of the &cts.
The recent researches of • Bovet, • Douen, and
others into the history of the Genevan Psalter
have cleared up almost all difficulties, and shown
that it was in that work that the tune first
appeared. A brief sketch of the history of
the Genevan Psalter will be given in a sup-
plemental notice of Louis Boubobois.^ For
the present it is enough to say that the ' Old
Hundredth ' was the melody adapted to Beza*8
version of the 154th Psalm included in the first
instalment of psaJms, 34 in number, added by
him to the Genevan Psalter in 155 1. No copy oi
that Psalter containing the tunes to these pralms
is known of earlier date than 1554, but there is
little doubt that they were added to the psalms
either at the time of puUication of the latter or
in 155a ; and, as will be seen in another article,
this date falls within the tima when Bourgeois
was musical editor of the Genevan Psalter — that
is, ftam 154a to 1557. To Boui^eois therefore
the tune in its present form may be ascribed,
but how far it is original is uncertain. The
greater part of the melodies in the Genevan
Psalter are known to be adaptations of secular
tunes of the time, and the ' Old Hundredth ' is,
no doubt, one of the number. Douen cites »
melody from * Chansons du XV* Si^le public
par G. Paris et A. Gevaert,* Paris, 1875, which
commences as follows
•gl- .i.i.,M ^jjnj.j^^
to the words ' II n'y a icy odluy Qui n*ait sa
belle.'
It was a not uncommon practice of the old
writers to construct new tunes by adding
different terminations to the same fragment of
older melody. The strain with which the ' Old
Hundredth commences seems to have been
very popular from this point of view. We find
it, with different endings, in ' Souter Liedekens
t KleseweCter's History of Xnsle, English edition, p. Ml.
4 The elrgjr composed by Josquin In memory of his master Is spoKcn
ofelsnrhere. See ftrtldes JosqriK ftnd MoTET.
B • Hlstolre du Fsaatler des ^Uses reform^es,* Neaehatd •oA
• ' Clement MarotetlePswitlerHugnsoot; J ▼ol«.,P»rts.l87M9.
t See appwi lis. BouBOEon.
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196 OLD HXTNDEEDTH TUNR
ghemaect ter eeren Gkxls' (Pure Songs made to
the honour of God), Antwerp, *I540 ; in Uten-
hove's Dutch Psalter ('Hondert Psalmen Da-
vids*), printed in London by John Daye in
1 561 ; in Esters Psalter/ 159 a, and elsewhere.'
. The Genevan tune soon found its way to
England, where it was set to Kethe's version of
the 1 00th psalm,* All people that on earth do
dwell,' with which it has since remained indis-
tolubly connected.
' The name * Old Hnndredih ' is peculiar to
England.' The psalm was originally known as
the 'Hundredth, but after the appearance of
the New Version by Brady and Tate in 1696, the
word ' Old ' was added to the titles of the tunes
continued in use from the preceding Psalter of
Stemhold and Hopkins, to which no special
names had been given. The name * Savoy,' some-
times applied to the Old Hundredth in the
last century, was derived, not, as Mr. Haveigal
supposes, from a vague fiftnqy respiwting its
Savoyard origin, but from its use by the Erench
congregation estabb'shed in the Savoy, London,
in me reign of Charles II. The original form
of the Old Hundredth is as follows.
Several variations of the tune are found in
English and German tune-books, but chiefly in
the value of the notes, the melody remaining un-
changed. The version most commonly adopted
in England in the present' century is that in
which all the notes, except the final note of each
strain, are of equal, length. This form however
tends to produce monotony, and necessitates too
slow a time, the tune bein? essentially jubilant
in character. Its original form is in all respects
the best, with perhaps a slight modification in
the fourth strain for the sake of symmetry,* as
in Ravenscroft^s ' Booke of Psalmes,* i6ai :
An interesting monograph on the history of
1 In thU. tb« MrllMt Flemish FMHiBr. all the pMhu (ezoepCfng the
116th and the ll^h. and also the Song of Simeon) are set to popular
ISemish and Freoei) tunes. Fsalra xlz. which begins with the same
strain as the Old Hundredth. Is to the melody of—
' Ick had een boelken utuercoren. die lek met Herten minne.*
I had chosen a lover whom I heartily loved.
* The tune adapted to Psalm zjct in the Oeneran Psalter of IfiBl,
replacing the melody to which that Psalm had been set in the pi«-
Ttous editions, commences with a similar melodic progression—
> In America the tune is commonly called 'Old Hnndred*; pro-
bably an Xnglish provincialism imported by some of the early
colonists. In fsct the writer has some recollection of hearing that
this name was in use in some pans of England not many years
since.
* The old psalter tunes being originally unbarred, strict symmetry
.. "e strains was somatlmesdlsrevuded for the sake of eflbct.
QLLPBANTi
the Old' Hundi^th psalm-tune ^ras* published
iti 1854 by the Bev. W. H. Haveigal, with an
appendix of 28 specimens of the tune as har-
monised by different composers from 1563 to
1847. In the light of our present knowledge,
however, several of Mr. Havergal*s oonjec'
tures and statements must now be regarded as
obsolete.
See also the works of Bovet and Donen al-
ready dted. [G.A.C.]
0*LEARY, Abthub, was bom in 1854 near
Killamey in the south of Ireland. He received
his early instruction in music at home. When
between 7 and 8 yearaold,.hift pianoforte playing
attracted the attention of Mir. Wyndham Gool<C
through whose iniitrumentality he was sent to
the Leipzig Conservatodum in the year 1847.
At Leipzig he studied the piano with Moecheles
and Plaidy, counterpoint with Hauptmann, and
composition with Julius Rietz. He lived in the
house of Herr Preusser, where he became ac-
quainted with Mendelssohn, Robert and Clara
Schumann, and many other musical celebrities.
After a five years' stay at Leipzig, Mr. O'Leary
returned to Liondon and ent^^ at the Royal
Academy of Music, stud3ring under Cipriani
Potter and Stomdale Bennett. In 1S56 Lord
Westmoreland appointed him Professor at the
Academy, and on the opening of the Natioual
Training School for Music, he was appointed to
that institution. Mr. O Leary's compositions
include songs, dance-music, transcriptions and
original pieces for the pianoforte, etc. He has
also edit^ Bach*s Christqaas Oratorio, Bennett's
Pianoforte works, and Masses by Hummel,
Sechter, and Schubert.
His wife, Rosetta, is the daughter of Bfr. W. S.
Vinning, and was married to Mr. O'Leary in 1 860.
She was elected King's Scholar at the Academy
in 185 1, and is known as the composer of several
successful songs. [W.B.S.]
OLE bull: [See Appendix, Bull. Olb.]
OUMPIADE. An opera of Metastasio's,
written to celebrate the birthday of the Empress
Elizabeth, wife of Charles VI, Emperor of Ger-
many in 1 733. It supplies a good instance of Uie
persistent adherence of the composers of the last
century to one libretto, having been composed no
less than 31 times, by the following composers
—Caldara (1733), Peigolesi, Leo, Duni, SooIsjI
Latilla, Perez, Sarti, Hasse, Picdnni (3), Ber-
nasooni, Gasnnann, Bertoni, Jomelli, Ca&ro,
J. C. Bach, Traetta, Ame, Anfoesi, Mysliwecz,
Andreozzi, Schwanberg, Gatti, Borghi, Paisiello-
Federici, Re^'chardt, Tarchi, Perrino,Conti (1839),
as given in Clement's iHict. Lyrique. [G.]
OLIPHANT, Thomas, bom 1799, was in
1830 admitted a member of the S^ulrigal So-
ciety, and soon afterwards became its Hononury
Secretary. He adapted English words to many
Italian madrigals, some of which have become
exceedingly popular, notably * Down in a flow'iy
Vale,* to Pestas *Quando ritrovo.* In 1834 he
published *A Bri^ Account of the Madrical
Madrigal
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OLIPHANT.
Society/ and in 1836 < A Short Account of Mad-
rigals.' In 1837 he published an 8vo volume
entitled ' La Musa MadrigaleBca,* a collection of
the words of nearly 400 madrigalB, with remarks
and annotations. He wrote an English version
of Beethoven*s ' Fidelio/ and English words to
several songs, and edited Tallis's * Service and
Responses.' In his latter years he was President
of the Madrigal Society. He died March 9,
1873. [W.H.H.]
OLYMPIE. Trag^e lyriqne, in 3 acts,
imitated from Voltaire by Dieulafoy and Brifiaut
(and others) ; music by Spontini. Produced at the
Acad^ie Boyale Dec. 33, 18 19. At Berlin, in
Gennan(E. J.A.Hoffmann), May 14, 183 1. [G.]
ONSLOW, Gbobqb, bom at Clermont-Ferrand
(Puy-de-Ddme) July 37, 1784, was a grandson of
the first Lord Onslow, and descended through his
mother, a de Bourdeilles, from the family of
Brantdme. Although eventually a proli6c com-
poser, he showed as a child no special love for
music, and the lessons he took on the piano from
Hullinandel, Dussek, and Cramer, during a stay
of some years in London, developed nothing be-
yond manual dexterity. Having returuMl to
France, and settled in a province more famous
for its scenery than for its opportunities of artis-
tic relaxation, he associated with some amateurs
who played chamber-music, and was thus in-
duced first to study the cello, and then to com-
pose works modelled after those which gave so
much pleasure to himself and his friends. The
analytical faculty, properly used, reveals to its
possessor many secrets, but it neither supersedes
lessons from an experienced teacher, nor can in
any case supply genius. Thus Onslow, even after
he had composed a oonsiderablie amount of cham-
ber-music, felt the necessity for further instruction
before attempting dramatic composition, and ap-
plied to Keicha, who was an able master bo far m
grammar went, but incapable of transmitting to
bis pupil that sacred fire which'^e did not pos-
sess himself. Omdow therefore proved as cold on
the stage as he had done in the concert-room, and
his three op^ras-comiques, ' L* Alcalde de la Vega '
(Aug. 10, 1834), ' Le Colporteur ' (Nov. 33, 1837),
and *Le Due de Guise' (Sept. 8, 1837), ^fter
fleonring successive * BUOo4a d^estime,* disappeared,
leaving the overture to 'TheColporteur,* which till
lately was to be heard in concert rooms, as their
only representative. His three published sym-
phonies, though performed several times by the
8oci^ des (Concerts du Conservatoire, are also
forgotten. A musician of respectable attainments
and indefatigable industry, an accomplished
gentleman, and moreover a nmn of fortune, he
had no difficulty in finding either editors or appre-
cnative friends, as was proved by his election in
184a to succeed Cherubini at the Institut. Such
an app<Hntment must have been gratifying to
those musicians who believe with Buffon that
' genius is nothing more than a great power of
patience.* With the above reservations it must
be admitted that Onslow, by the number of his
worics, and the elegant style of his best passages,
merited the reputation he enjoyed duriiig his Hfe-
TOL.II. FT. 10.
OPERA.
497
time. He died at Clermont on Oct. 3, 1853, leav-
ing 34 quintets and 36 quartets for strings, 6 trios
for P.F., violin and ceUo ; a sextuor (op. 30) for
P.F., flute, clarinet, horn, bassoon and contra-
basso, or P.F., 2 violins, viola, cello, and contra-
basso ; a nonetto (op. 77) for violin, viola, cello,
oontrabasso, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and
horn, which he also arranged (op. 77 bit) as a
sextuor for P.F., flute, clarinet, horn, bassoon
and oontrabasso, or for P.F., 3 violins, viola,
cello, and oontrabasso ; a septet (op. 79) for
P.F., flute, oboe, clarinet, hum, bassoon, and
oontrabasso ; sonatas and duos for P.F. and
violin, or cello ; sonatas for P.F., 4 hands, and
many pieces for P.F. solo. His quintets are
undoubtedly his best works, and contain much
charming music. No. 15, called 'Le Quintette
de la balle,* describes his emotions— the pain, the
irregular beating of his pulse, and his gratitude
on his recovery— consequent on an accident that
happened to him at a wolf-hunt, where a spent
ball hit him in the face, rendering him some-
what deaf in one ear for the rest of his life.
EUs earlier quintets were written for 3 celli, but
at a certain performance in England the 3nd
cello failed to arrive, and it was proposed that
Dragonetti should play the part on his double-
bass. Onslow positively refused, saying the ef-
fect would be dreadfuL However, after waiting
some time, he was obliged to consent, and
after a few bars was delighted with the effect.
After this he wrote them for cello and double-bass,
and the preceding ones were then re-arranged in
that way under Ibas own inspection by Grouflf<^, the
accomplished double-bass of the Paris Opera.
Hal^vy pronounced his eulogium at the Institut,
and printed it in his 'Souvenirs et Portraits.'
D*Ortigue collected materials for his biography,
but only published an abstract of them in the
♦M^estrel' (1863-64, p. 113). F^tis drew his
information from tiiese two sources, to which the
reader is referred for further detail. [G.C.]
• OPERA (Ital. Opera, abbrev. of Opera in
Muaica, a 'Musical Work,* Dramma pei* la
Musiea; Fr. Op6ra\ Germ. Oper, Singapid), A
Drama, either Tragic or C!omic, sung, through-
out, with appropriate Scenery and Acting, to the
Accompaniment of a full Orchestra.
It may seem strange to speak of the Opera as
one of the oldest institutions in existence ; yet, our
search for its origin leads us back to a time long
antecedent to the beginning of the Christian ^ra;
and he who would read the story of its in&ncy
aright, must collect its details from the History of
Antient Greece : for it is as old as the Drama
itself. It was nurtured at Athens, in that
glorious Theatre, the acoustic properties of which
have never yet been rivalled. Its earliest libret-
tists were JSschylus and Sophocles; and its
earliest Orchestra, a band of Lyres and Flutes.
There is no doubt about this. It is quite certain
that not only were the Choruses of the ' Agamem-
non'and the 'Antigone* sung to the gprandest
music that could be produced at the time they
were written, but also that every word of the
Dialogue was mnsioally declaimed. Musical
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49»
OPERA.
Bialogne has been cenBured, by onmnsioal critios,
as contrary to Nature. It is, undoubtedly, con-
trary to toe practice of every-day life, but not
to the principles of Art. It is necessary that the
truth of this proposition should be very clearly
established ; for unless we make it our starting^
point, we shall never arrive at the true rai^
d'itre of the Lyric Drama, nor be prepared with
a satisfactory answer to the cavils of those who,
like Addison and Steele, condemn it as a mon-
strous anomaly. It is open to no charge of iii-
consistency to which the Spoken Drama is not
equally exposed. The Poet writes his Tragedy
^ in Verse, because he thereby gains the power of
expressing great thoughts with the gr^test
amount of dignity that language can command.
HitTVersefl are sung, in oi^er that they may be
invested with a deeper pathos than the most
careful form of ordinary declamation can reach.
Ko one objects to the Iambics of the ' Seven
against Thebes,' or the Blank Verse of 'King
John*; yet surely our sense of the fitness of
things is not more rudely shocked by the melo-
dious Ah/ soccar§o/ son traditof uttered by the
Commendatore after Don Giovanni has pierced
him through with his sword, than by the touch-
ing couplet with which Prince ArUiur, at the
moment of his death, breaks forth into rhyme—
O me I my uncle's ■pirit is in theee itonee :—
Heaven take my aoul, and England keep my txmes I
The conventionalities of common life are vio-
lated no less signally in the one case than in the
other ; yet, in the Opera as well as* in the Play,
the result of their violation is an artistic concep-
tion, as easily defensible on logical grounds as
the proportions of a statue or the colouring of
a picture — neither of which are faithful imita-
tions of Nature, though founded upon a natural
Ideal
These appear to have been the views enter-
tained, towards the close of the i6th century, by
a little band of Men of Letters and Musicians —
all ardent disciples of the Kenaissanoe — ^who met
in Florence at the house of Giovanni fiardi,
Conte di Vemio, with the avowed object of resus-
citating the style of musical declamation peculiar
to Greek Tragedy. This end was unattainable.
The antagonism between Greek and modem
tonalities would alone have sufficed to make
it an impossibility, had there been no other diffi-
culties in the way. But, just as the search for
the Philosopher's Stone resulted in some of the
most important discoveries known to Chemistry,
this vain endeavour to restore a lost Art led to
the one thing upon which, above all others, the
future fate of the Lyric Drama depended — and
compassed it, on this wise. V
Among the Musicians who (frequented the
Count of Vemio*s r^uniona were three whose,
names afterwards became celebrated. Vinoenzo
Galilei — the father of the great Astronomer — ^was
ft pupil of the old school, but burning to strike
out something new. Jacopo Peri and Giulio
Caccini were young men, with little or no know-
ledge of Counterpoint, but gifted with ft wealth
of original genius, and sufficient energy of char-
OPERA.
ftoter to enable them to turn it to the best ac-
count. All were thoroughly in earnest^ thoroug^y
dissatisfied with the Music of the period, and
longing for a style of composition better fitted to
express the varying shades of human passion
than that then generally cultivated. The first
result of their tentative effi>rts to reach this long-
cherished Ideal was the invention of the Cantata
— a ssBcular composition, for a nngle Voice ac-
companied by a single Instrument. Galilei pro-
duced a work of this description, entitled 'H
Conte Ugolino,* which has unhappily been lost.
Cacoini—already celebrated for the beauty of
his Voice, and Uie excellence of his performance
upon the Lute — wrote a number of 8h(»rter
pieces, which he sang with unbounded applause
at Bardies house, to the Accompaniment of
a Theorbo, played by Bardilla. Some of these
Canzonette were published, in i6oa, under the
title of 'Le nuove Musiche* ; and an entire verse
of one of them will be found in tiie article
MoNODiA in the present volume. They are,
indeed, most interesting, as examples of the
earliest phase of the style — fitly called Monodic
— which exchanged the contrapuntal richness of
the Polyphonic School for the simplest of Melo-
dies, confined to a single part, and accompanied
by a Bass, which was often not only simpla, but
of the rudest possible construction. Hie particu-
lar verse to which we have referred — Ditdi voi
sedimevi cole — is exceptionally symmetrical in
form. As a general rule, the M^odies of this
transitional period were so destitute of what we
now call 'Figure' as to be all but amorphous;
and it is predsely to this peculiarity that we are
indebted for the extraordinary effect they wrought.
All that their Composers aimed at in construct-
ing them, was the exact oratorical rendering of
the words with which they had to deal ; and in
striving to attain this they unconsciously, and as
if by a kind of inspiration, achieved that potent
mecuum of passionate expression which alone waa
needed to make t^ie Lyric Drama possible — pure,
well-accented, declamatory Becitative. Not,
as they fondly imagined, the exact method of
delivery cultivated by the Greek Dramatists;
but, we may £urly bd^eve, the nearest approach
to it consistent with the modem Scale — the true
MuHca parlante, or Stilo rapprtsentativo, which,
by regulating tiie inflections of the Voice in
accordance with the principles of sound rhe-
torical science, invests them, if the experience of
nearly three centuries may be trusted, with an
amount of dramatic power attainable by no
other means.
The necessity for some such provision as this
must have been painfully apparent to all think-
ing men. The Polyphonic School, brought to
absolute perfection by Palestrina and his great
contemporaries, was utteriy unfit for dramatic
purposes ; yet, in ign<Brance of a more appropriate
form of expression, attempts to turn it to account
in that direction had not been wanting. It is
certain that great part of Poliziano*s ' Orfeo^*
written in the latter half of the 1 5th century,
was set to Music of some kind ; and Leo Allatiua
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mentioiis, in his ' Drammaturgiay' the naanes of
eight Musical Bepreaentations produced between
the yean 1569 aiul 1583. The Sare titles of these
works, to one of which the name of Claudio
Herulo is attached, are all that now remain to
us; and, unfortunately, we possess no printed
copies of three still more important productions —
' B Satiro/ 'I^a Disperaaione di Fileno/ and * H
Giuooo deUa Cieoa'— set to Music by Emilio del
Cavaliere, the two first in 1590, and the last in
1595 : but we may form a tolerably safe esti-
mate of their style from that of Orasio Veoohi's
' Xi' Amfipamasso, performed at Mantua in 1 594»
And printed soon afterwards in Venice, l^s
cvaiovaConhmedia ormonloot, as the Composer him-
self calls it» is presented in the form of a series
of Madrigals, for five Voicoe, written ia the true
Polyphonic Style, and equally remarkable for
the beauty of their effect, and the learning dis-
played in their construction. There is no Over-
ture ; and no Instrumental Accompaniment, or
Batomello, of any kind. When the Stage is oocn-
pied by a single character only, the four super-
fluous Voices are made to sing behind the Scenes ;
when two persons are needed for the action, three
are kept out of sight. All doubt on this point
is removed by the woodcuts with which the Music
is illustrated : but, before we condemn the ab-
surdity of the arrangement) we must remember
that the grand old Madrigalist only uses his
unseen Voices as later Composers have used the
Orchestra. He could not leave his characters
to sing without any accompaniment whatever;
and has therefore supp<»ted them, and, to the
best of his ability, enforced the action of the
Scene, by the only hannonio means within his
reach«
It must be confessed that, though Orazio
Teochi was a skilful Contrapuntist and Peri was
not, the Florentine Composer had all the ad-
vantage on his side, when, three years after the
first poformance of * L'Amfipamasso,' he pro-
duced his Music to Blnuodni's 'Dafhe.' ^ Count
Bardi having been summoned to Rome in 159a
to act as Maestro di camera to Pope Clement
VIII, the meetings formerly held at his house
were transferred to that of his friend Jacopo
Oorsi, as enthusiastic a patron of the !F1ne Arts
aa himself. It was at the Palazzo Corsi that
' Da&ie' was iirst privatdy performed, in 1597,
No trace of it now remains ; but Peri himself t^
U8y in Uie pre&ce to his ' Euridice,' that he wrote
it at the instigation of Signer Corsi and the
Poet Rinucdni, * in order to test the effect of
the particular kind of Melody which they
imagined to be identical with that used by the
ftntient Greeks and Romans throughout their
I>ranuis* ; and we learn from the account given
by Giov. Batt. Doni, that ' it charmed the whole
intj.' The success of the experiment was, indeed,
BO decided, that, in the year 1600, Peri was
invited to provide a still greater work, to grace
the festivities which followed the marriage of
ICing Henri IV of France with Maria de* Medici.
It was on this occasion that he produced his
famous ' Euridloe,* the firi»t true Italian Opera
opera;'
499^
that was ever performed in public, and the ac-
knowledged prototype of all later developments
of the Dramma per la musica. The work excited
an extraordinary amount of attention. Ottavio
Rinucdni furnished the Libretto. Several noble-
men took part in the public performance. Behind
the Scenes, Signer Corsi himself prosided at the
upon the Chitarone, the lira grande, or v iol di
gamba, and the Theorbo, or Large Lute. These
Instruments, with the addition of three Flutes
used in a certain Ritomello, seem to have com-
prised the entire Orohestra : and a considerable
amount <^ freedom .must have been accorded to
the performers, with vegard to their manner of
employingthem ; for, in the barred Score pub-
lished at Florence, with a -dedication to Maria
de' Medici, in 1600, and reprinted at Venice in
1608, the accompaniment consists of little more
than an ordinary Figured Bass. This Score is
now exceedingly scarce. Hawkins did not even
know of its existence ; and Bumey succeeded in
discovering one example only, in the possession
of the Marohese Rinucdni, a descendant of the
Poet, at Fbrenoe: but a copy of the Venice
edition is happily preserved in tiie Library of the
British Museum, and from this we transcribe
a portion of one of the most melodious Scenes in
the Opera — that which introduces the three
Flutes to which we have already alluded.
TiRsi viene in Scena, loiumcio la preienta Zinfonia,
con un Trlflauto.
-J ' ■' I I 'I tH'-JJ^J-JI
Belpui'trdor dal-
Kk2
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OPERA.
Peri himself telli un, in his prefkoe, tliat a
portion of this interesting work was written by
Oaocini, though his own name alone appears
upon the title-page : bat Caocini also set the
entire Libretto to Music, on his own account,
and published it in Florence in the same year
(1600), with a dedication to Giovanni Bardi.
The style of the two Operas is so nearly identical,
that whole Scenes might easily be transferred
irom one to the other, without attracting notice ;
though it cannot be denied that there are situ-
ations, such as that in which Orpheus returns
with Euridioe firom Hades, wherein Peri has
reached a higher level of dramatic expression
than his rival It is, perhaps, for this reason,
that Caccini*s 'Euridice' seems never to have
been honoured with a public performance : the
young Composer was, however, commissioned to
produce, for the wedding festivities, another
Favola in mtuiea, entitled ^Jl Rapimento di
Cefalo,* some portion of which afterwards ap-
peared among the ' Nuove musiche.*
The study of these early attempts becomes
especially interesting, when we regard tkem as
the fiureist possible types of the style of com-
position which characterised the Fibst PiBiOD
of the history of the modem Lyric Drama.
The immediate result of their success was
the recognition of the Opera as a form of Art
no longer tentative, but uirly established upon
true iBsthetic principles, embarrassed by no grave
practical difficulties, and perfectly consistent) in
all its details, with the received traditions of
Classical Antiquity — ^which last recommendation
was no light one, in the estimation of men whose
reverence for Greek and Roman customs amounted
to a species of insanity. It was impossible that
Florence could be permitted to monopolise an
invention conceived in such complete accordance
with the spirit of the age — ^the latest product
of the Renaissance. Accordingly we find the
scene of its triunu^ transferred before long to
Mantua, in which dty the Sboond Period of
its history was inaugurated with extraordinary
splendour in the year 1607, ^^ ^^® occasion of
the marriage of Francesco Gonsiga with Mar-
gherita. Infanta of Savoy. At the invitation of
Vincenzo Gonzaga, the reigning Duke, Rinuc-
cini prepared for this Festival the Libretti of two
Operas, entitled 'Da&e* and * Arianna,' the first
of which was set to Music by Marco di Zanobi
da Gagliano, and the second by daudio Monte-
verde, the Dake^s Maestro di Cappella— • man
OPERA.
of extraordinary genius, already famous for the
boldness of his opposition to the established rules
of Counterpoint. Both Operas were written in
the newly invented StUo rappre^nUUivo ; and
both were deservedly successful, though not in
an equal degree. After the first perfonnanoe of
'Dafoe* we hear of it no more ; out 'Arianna'
produced so extraordinary an effect up<»i the
audience, more especially in the Scene in which
the forsaken Ariadne bewails the departure of
her faithless lover, ^ that Monteverde was at
once invited to compose another Opera, for the
ensuing year. For tiie subject of tnis he choee
the never-wearying stozy <^ Orpheus and Enry-
dice, which was dramatised for him by some
Poet whose name has not transpired. The new
work— entitled 'Orfeo,* to distinguish it from
Peri*s illustration of the same myth — ^was, in
many respects, immeasurably suoerior to any
that had preceded it. Though Monteverde did
not actually invent the Opera, he proved himself
more competent to deal with it than any man
then living. Dramatic expression was one of
the most prominent characteristics of his genius.
Moreover, he was an accomplished violist:
and, while his natural love for Instrumental
Music tempted kim to write for a far larger
Orchestra than any of his predecessors had ven-
tured to bring together, his technical skill en-
abled him to ti|m its resources to excellent
account. The Instruments used on the ^^o^^iw^*** '
of the first performance ^
t Oravicembanl.
2 ContrabMd de Tlola.
10 Viole da bnuo.
1 Arpadoppia.
8 VioUni pioooU si
oeie.
2 Ohitaroni
2 Oigani di Iflgna
8 Batri da samba.
iTrombonl.
IBegale.
2ConietU.
1 Flautino slla vigeshaa
•eoonda.
1 Clarlno, oon 8 Trombe
iocdine.
Hawkins, strangely minnterpreting the lists
of Characters and Instruments given at the^
beginning of the printed Score, imagines every
Singer to have been accompanied by an Instru-
ment of some particular kmd set apart for his
exclusive use. A very slight examination of the
Music will suffice to expose the fallacy of this
idea. Nevertheless, the Instruments are really
so contrasted and combined as to invest each
Character and Scene with a marked individu-
ality which cannot but have added greatly to the
int^^st of the perfonnanoe. The introductory
Toccata — ^foundeid, throughout, upon a single
CitoTd — is followed by a j^tomello, so gracefully
conceived, that, had it been written even in our
ovm time, ite simple beauty could scarcely have
failed to please." Another Ritomello, in five
parts, is written in dose imitation, almost re-
sembling Canon. The Recitatives are accom-
panied, sometimes, by a Figured Bass only ; and
sometimes l>y two or more Instruments, the
1 This Bcme—LtuekOtmi nwtfcw geDially kDown-w the 'LumdI
of ArtodM.'— Ill almoM the only portion of the Open that hu Imoi
preeenred to ui. It maj be found entire In C ron Wlntcrfd^Ti
* Joannes Oabriell.* and also In a Memoir of Montermle pnUlshsd la
the ' Musical Times' for March USOl
• The Tuocata and BItomello will be firand entire in an Bssar 'Oa
the Life. Work, and lnflueM«k of Mo&tercnle,' printed la Uie * Musical
Timoe'forApdlina
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OPERA.
names of which are indicated at the beginning.
A complete Score of the Opem was published
at Venice in 1609^ and reprinted in 161 3. A
copy of the second edition, now presenred in the
Boyal Library at Backinghiun JPalace, was for-
mwly in the possession of Sir John Hawkins, who
quoted from it largely, in vol. iii. of his 'History
of Music* As specimens oi the general style
of the work, we subjoin a few bars of Recitative
from a Scene in the First Aot, and the 'Moreeca*
or * Moorish Dance* with which the Opera con-
cludes— a movement full of interest, as an indi-
cation of the Composer's desire to unite a grace*
ful flow of melody with a symmetrical and well
constructed Form. [See Fobm.]
OPERA.
f^ "^gPff T'gl^r
-=l-p ,-„— -g-^
u u u 1 n\
do S dflgiw i»»4e dl I11I
ehll1inlvaM«/-ft«-ii*
t ^ J ^
HTvrit-rp-flf^r.JWJ'JJl
Sol cbeltuttodrooDdlentottoml-il Dai^isteltanti gl-il
^■£ e r > f g
^
-na-to ft -man -tab
I- "r : r
MORSSCA.
Z J. J , , r,
The expense attendant upon the production of
these early Operas mtlist have been enormous.
The gorgeous dresses, and other incidental appoint-
ments, occasionally mentioned by writers of the
period, sufficiently explain why the Dramma in
Musica was reserved exclusively for the enter-
tainment of Princes, on occasions of extraordinary
Eublic rejoicing. No such occasions appear to
ave presented themselves for some considerable
time after the marriage of Franceso Gronzaga.
Accordingly we find, that, after following up
* Orfeo' with a grand Mythological Spectacle odled
'H Ballo delle Ingrate,* Montev^e produced '
no more dramatic works till the year 1634, when,
having settled permanently in Venice, he wrote,
at the instance of Girolamo Mocenigo, an Inter-
mezzo, ' II Combattim^ito di Tanciiedi e Clorin-
da,' in which he introduced, for the first time,
two important Orchestral Effects, which have
remain^ in common use to the present day —
pizzieate passages for the Stringed Instruments,
and the well-known tremolo, [See Montevirdb.]
In 1630 he again took higher ground, and com-
posed, for the marriage of CMustiniana Mocenigo
with Lorenzo Giustiniani, a grand Opera called
' Proserpina Rapita»' which was brought out with
extraordinary magnificence, and seems to have
been very successfuL The Music, however, was
soon destined to be forgotten ; for this was the
year rendered memorable by the terrible plaffue,
which, completely devastating the larger Itidiau
Cities, rendered all intellectual advancement for
the time bein^ impossible. As we shall presently
see, when it had had time to recover from this
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OPERA.
aerionB hlndranoe, Ait flourished more briUiaiitly
than ever; but, before proceeding with the history
of its triumphs in Venioe, it is necessary that we
should glance, for a moment, at its position in
some other parts of Italy.
Pietro della Valle, writing in 164D, tells ns
that, like Tragedy at Athens under the guidance
of Thespis, the Lyric Drama made its first ap-
pearance in Rome upon a Cart. During the
Carnival of 1606, this ambulant Theatre was
driven from street to slreet» eurmounted l^ a
moveable Stage, whereon five masked performers
enacted a little Fls^, set to Music for them by
Paolo Quagliati. The idea seenn to have origin-
ated with Delia Valle himself. He it was who
arranged the performances, and induced Quag-
liali to write the Music : and so great was the
success of the experiment, that from four o'clock
in the afternoon until after midnight, the little
band of Strollers found themselves surrounded by
a never-fiiiling concourse of admiring spectators.
Rough indeed must these primitive performances
have been when compared with the entertain-
ments presented to the Florentines by Peri and
Gaccim ; yet it is strange, that, notwithstanding
ihmr &vourable reception, we hear of no attempts
either to repeat them or to encourage the intro-
duction of anything better, until the year 163a,
when a Musical Drama called *1X Ritomo di
Angelica nell* Indie,* by a Composer whose name
is not recorded, appears to have been privately
performed in the palace of one of the Roman
nobles. Representations of this kind were after-
wards not uncommon ; but many years elapsed
before any really great Opera was produced in
the Eternal aty.
The Bdognese daim to have encotmged the
Opera in very early times, and even to have
invented it; but they are far from being able
to prove their case. A Chronological Cattdogue,
published at Bologna in 1737, gives a list of aU
the Musical Dramas performed in the dty fr^m
the year 1600 down to that in which it was
printed. The names of the Poets who furnished
' the Libretti are here very carefully recorded,
from the earliest times^ but no native Composer
is mentioned until the year 1610, when Giro-
lamo Giacobbi brought forward his ' Andromeda,*
which produced so great an impression that it
was again revived in i6a8. The works of the
Florentine and Venetian Composers seem how-
ever to have met with a more favourable re-
ception at Bologna than the products of native
genius. Peri's 'Euridice* was performed there
in 1601, and again in 1616, on which occasion
it attracted a vast and most enthusiastic audience ;
and for very many yean .afterwards the Bolog-
nese were quite contented with the importation
of successfril Operas from Venice.
The early records of the Neapolitan Drama
are lamentably imperfect. We hear of no Opera
produced in Naples, until 1646, when mention is
made of a Pastiocio called ' Amor non a legge,'
by several difiereni CompeeeiB, none of whose
names have transpired. It seems however more
reasonable to believe that our information is at
OPERA4
fault, than that a School which afterwards be*
came so deservedly famous, should have been
first called into existence at so late a period.
Still, we cannot fail to observe, that, notwiUi-
standing the enthusiastic cultivation of Dramatic
Music, the centres of its development were, at
this period, very far from numerous. The more
luxuriantly it flourished in any highly privileged
dty, the less we hear of it elsewhere.
llie Thibd Pibioo in the history of the Lyrio
Drama was preluded by the bold transfer of its
patronage fr^m the Prince to the people. In the
year 1637 the fiunous Theorbo player, Benedetto
Feirari, and Francesco Manelli da Tivoli," the
Composer, opened at their own private risk the
first public Opera House in Venice, under the
name of the Teatro di San Cassiano. F(»- this
new Theatre, Ferrari wrote the words, and Man-
elli the Music, of an Opera called 'Andromeda,*
which was so well received, that in the following
year the same two authors brought out a second
work, 'La Masra fulminata*; while in 1639
the text of Giulio Strozzi*s 'La Ddia, osaia U
Sposa del Sole' was set to Music, either by Man-
elli or Paolo Sacrati — it is diflScult to say which,
and Ferrari produced 'L*Annida' topoetry of his
own. This was aa eventful season. Before its
dose, Monteverde once more appeared befinre the
public with a new Opera called * L'Adone,' which
ran continuously till the Carnival of 1640 ; and
his pupil, Pi^-Francesco Caletti-Bruni, nick-
named by the Venetians 'II Checco Cft-Cavalli,* ^
made his finrt appearance as a Dramatic Com-
poser with ' Le Nozze di Pdeo e di Tetide ' — a
work which proved him to be not only the fiutii-
ful disdple of an eminent Maestro, but a true
genius, with originality enough to enable him to
cariy on that Maestro* 9 work in a spirit fr«e fitnn
all trace of servile imitation. His natural taste
suggested the cultivation of a more flowing style
of Mdody than that in which his contemporaries
were wont to indulge ; and he was not so bigoted
a disdple of the Renaissance as to think it ne-
cessary to sacrifice that taste to the insane Hel-
lenic prejudice which would have banished
Rhythmic Melody from the Opera for no better
reason than that it was unknown in the time
of Peridee. Vincenzo G«lilei and his Florentine
assodates eondemned such Mdody as puerile
and degraded to the last degree. Monteverde
never ventured to introduce it, save in his Ritor-
nelU. But Cavalli — as he is now generally called
— not only employed it constantly, for the sake
of relieving the monotony of continuous Redta-
tive, but even foreshadowed the form of the
regular Aria, by that return to the first part
wUch Alessandro Scarlatti afterwards indicated
by the term Da Capo, Cavalli*s genius was as pro-
lific as it was original. The author of ' Le Glorie
della Poesia e della Musica* (Venice, 1730) gives
the names of 34 Operas which he produced, for
Venice alone, between the years 1637 and 1665.
F^tis mentions 39, but Quadrio assures us that
he wrote, altogether, more than 40; Bumey
laments that after diligent search he could
1 That hi, ' Little FiSDlt, of the HooM of GaraUL*
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OPERA.
meet with iihe Mnsic of only one, ' L^Erismeni^*
produced in 1655 : but, oomplete copies of ao,
inoluding two undoubted autographfl, may be
found in the Contarini collection in the Library
of 8. Mark at Venice; and the autograph of
' L'E^to ' is jpreflerved in the Imperial Library
at Vienna. Some interesting examples Irom
* L'Erismena* will be found in voL iv. of Bumey's
History: and a comparison of these with the
subjoined extract from an Air in *I1 Giasone*
(1649)^ ^^ Accompaniments for two Violins
and a Bass, will shew that the Composer's feeling
for Melody was by no means exhibited in one
production only.
OPERA.
503
,J J rl J bl ^
(lo - la d^ - mo
' GataUTs predilection for Rhythmic Melody
was fully shared by his talented contemporary.
Marc Antonio Cesti — a pupil of the celebrated
Roman Maestro, Giacomo Carissimi, to whose
example, though he himself did not care to write
for the Stage, the Dramatic Composers of the
day were indebted for a higher ideal than they
could possibly haTe conceived without his assist-
ance. Honest work in one branch of Art seldom
fikils to react &Tourably upon another : and it
is obtain, that, by transferring to the Opera the
methods of phraising and instrumentation em-
ployed by Cansidnu in the Cantata di Camera, Cesti
not only elevated the former to a more dignified
level than it had ever before attained, but at the
same time laid the foundation of his own trium-
phant success. His earliest attempt. ' L'Orontea'
— first performed at Venice in 1649, at the
Teatro del SS. Apostoli, in the teeth of Cavalli's
* Giasone * at the rival House of S. Cassiano—
retained its popularity, throughout the whole of
Italy, for more than 30 years. Of his later
Operas, six — 'Cesare amante,' 'La Dori, o lo
schiavo regie,' * Tito,* * Ai^gene,* • Genserico,' and
•Argia' — were written for Venice, and two —
'La Schiava fortunata* and *B Pomo d*oro' —
for Vienna. Many of these are, it is to be feared,
irretrievably lost ; but we still possess enough to
give us a very clear idea of the Composer's general
style. Some fragments from *L'Orontea,* dis*
covered in a MS. Music-book once belonging to
Salvator Rosa, will be found in vol. iv. of Bur-
ney*s History ; and a complete Score of ' H Pomo
d'oro' is preserved at Vienna, in the Lnperial
Library. A Score of < La Dori ' is abto mentioned
in the catalogue of the collection formed by the
late Abb^ Santini : and the Library of Christ-
church, Oxford, boasts 1 5 of Cesti's Cantatas, which
differ but little in style from his Music vrritten
for the Theatre.
The honours of the Venetian School were up-
held, about this time, by a crowd of popular
Composers, the most successful of whom were
Carlo Pallavicino, D. Giov. Legrenzi, Antonio
Sartorio, Pietro and Maro Antonio Ziani, Castro-
villari, Strozzi, and some other aspirants for
public fame, who found ample employment in
the numerous Opera Houses which before the
close of the century sprang up in every quarter
of the City. We have abeady had occasion to
mention the inauguration of the Teatro di S.
Cassiano in 1637. It was not long suffered to
stand alone. The Teatro di SS. Giovanni e Paolo
was opened in 1639 with <La Delia, ossia la
Sposa del Sole'; the Teatro di S. Mosb in 164I
with a revival of Monte verde's *Arianna*; the
Teatro nuovo, in the same year, with Strozzi's
*La finta pazza'; the Teatro del SS. Apostoli
in 1649 with * L'Orontea,' as already described ;
the Teatro di S. Aponal in 1651 with Cavalli's
<L*Oristeo'; the Teatro di 8. Luca, o di San
Salvatore, in 1661, with Castrovillari's * La
Pasife'; the Teatro di S. Gregorio in 1670 with
a Pasticcio entitled * Adelaida * ; the Teatro di
S. Angelo in 1677 with Freschi's ' Elena rapita
da Piuide*; the Teatro di S. Giovanni Griso-
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OPERA.
Btmnoin 1678 with Pallayicim*8 * Vespadano* ;
and the Teatro di 8. Fantin in 1699 with
Pignotta*8 * Paolo Emilio.' The mere existence
of these eleven Theatres proves, more clearly
than any amount of written description, the
readiness with which the Venetians received the
Opera as one of their most cherished amusements.
They had already learned to look upon it as quite
a national institution; and supported it with a
liberality altogether unknown elsewhere. In
Bome, for instance, there were, at this time,
three Opera Houses only — the Torre di Nona,
opened in 167 1 with Cavalli*8 'Giasone*; the
Sala de' Signori Capranica, for the itiauguration
of which ^mardo Pasquini composed his ' Dov*
h Amore b Pietk * in 1679 » ^'^^ ^ Theatre in the
Palazzo Aliberti, which started with Perti*s
' Penelope la casta ' in 1696. No public Theatre
was established in Bologna till 1680.
The FouBTH Pebiod of our history was a
very significant one, and productive of results so
important, that it may be said to mark the
boundary between a class of works interesting
chiefly from an antiquarian point of view, and
those grander productions the intrinsic value of
which entitles them to be remembered through-
out all time.
The earlier Dramatic Composers, from Peri
downwards, held the Art of Counterpoint in
undisguised contempt, and trusted for success
entirely to the brilliancy of their natural talents.
Alessandro Scarlatti, beyond all comparison the
brightest genius of the epoch we are considering,
had wisdom enough to perceive that natural gifts
lose more than half their force, when unculti-
vated by study. Acting upon this conviction,
he never ceased to labour at the Science of Com-
position, until he found himself universally recog^
nised as the most learned Musician of his day ;
and thus it was that he took even the best of his
contemporaries at an incalculable disadvantage.
His knowledge of Counterpoint so &r aided him
in the construction of his Basses and the elabora-
tion of his Accompaniments, that, under his
masterly treatment, the timidity, which, in the
infancy of Modem Art, so fatally weakened its
effect, and rendered it so miserable a substitute
for the richer combinations of Polyphony, was
exchanged for a freedom of style and breadth of
design which at once elevated it to the rank of a
finished School, capable indeed of future develop-
ment to an unlimited extent, but no longer either
tentative in conception or rudimentary in struc-
ture. On the other hand, his splendid natural
talents did him good service in quite another
way. Tired of the monotony of uninterrupted
Kecitative, he boldly started on a new path, and,
rejecting the experience of his immediate prede-
cessors as altogether effete, availed himself of
three distinct forms of dramatic expression —
the simple form of Kedtative, called by the
Italians Reciiativo ateco; Accompanied Recita-
tive, or UecUatito atromerUcUo ; and the regular
Aria, The first of these he employed for the
ordinary business of the Stage; the second, for
the expression of deep pathos, or violent emotion,
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of any kind ; the third, for impasnoned, or a|
least strongly individualised soliloquy. As theat
three methods of enunciation are still used, Ut
exactly similar purposes, we shall frequently hav*
occasion to refer to them hereafter. For thi
present, it is sufficient to say that no radical
change has ever taken place in the structure of
RecitcUiro ttcco since it was first invented. Then^
as now, it was supported by a simple * Thorough-
bass,'the Chords of which were filled in, in former
times, upon the Harpsichord, but are now more
frequently played by the principal YiolonoeUo^
in light Ai^)eggio8, to which the late Robert
Lindley was wont to impart a charm which no
old frequenter of Her Majesty*s Theatre will ever
foi^get. Accompanied Recitative, on the ocm-
trary, unknown, so far as we can discover, before
the time of Sdurlatti, has since passed through
an infinity of changes, naturally dictated by the
gradual ^ai^ment of the Orchestra, and the
increased strength of its resources. But, it is
still what its inventor intended it to be — a
passionate form of declamation, in which the sense
of the verbal text is enforced by the continual
interposition of Orchestral Symphonies of more
or less elaborate construction. Lastly, the sym-
metrical form of the Aria had only been very
imperfectly suggested, before Scarlatti completed
it by the addition of a ' Second Part.' followed
by that repetition of the original Strain now
known as the J)a Capo. Within the last hun-
dred years this Da Capo has been discontinued,
from a not unnatural objection to the stifihess of
its effect; but that very stiffness was, in the
first instance, a notable sign of life. We cannot
but welcome it as the healthy indication of a
desire to escape frt>m the dreariness of the inter*
minable Monologue which preceded it;' and,
however formal we may now think it, we owe
something to the Composer who first made it a
distinctive feature in the Dramatic Music he did
so much to perfect, and whose love of regular
design led him to introduce improvements of
equad value into the form of the Instrumental
Prelude which was afterwards recognised as the
indispensable Overture.
Scarlatti's first Opera, 'L'Onestk nell* Amore,'
produced at Rome in the Palace of Christina, ex-
Queen of Sweden, in 1680, was followed by 108
others, written from Rome, Vienna, Venice, and
more especially Naples, which justly claims him
as the founder of its admirable School. The most
successful of them seem to have been, ' Pompeo*
(Naples, 1684); 'La Teodora' (Home, 1693);
*Pirro e Demetrio,*'H Prigioniero 'fortunato,*
*I1 Prigioniero superbo*, • Gli Equivochi nel
sembiante,* ' Le Nozze col nemico,* ' Laodicea e
Berenice,* 'II Figlio delle Solve * (Naples, 1694-
1703); 'II Medo' and '11 Teodoro' (Rome,
I703-I709>; 'II Tiionfo della Liberty' and
• Mitridate ' (Venice, 1 707) ; and the most cele-
brated of all, ' La Principessa fedele.* To the^w
must be added an enormous collection of Can-
tatas, of more or less dramatic character, MS.
1 A Ma Scow of Uili Opera win bt found lotli»Pr«sonattlcoa>cttoi
In Um Krltlfth MuMum.
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eopiee of wliich are preserved in most of ihe
larger European Libraries, both public and
private, though very few were ever published —
a droumstance the more to be regretted, since
the freshness of their Melodies rarely fails to
attract attention, even at the present day. It
would be difficult, for instance, to find, in a com-
position of any date, a more delicious phrase than
thee oUowing : —
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605
Mori - rd.poI eho il vo-le-ta. Inel bell*, to morlr6. U<a\ <
The most talented of Scar1atti*s oontemporaries
were, . among Neapolitans, Alessandro Stradella
and Francesco Rossi; in Venice, Antonio Caldara
and Antonio Lotti ; in Bologna, Ajitonio Perti,
Pnncesoo Pistocchi.and Giovanni Maria Buonon-
cini ; and, in Vicenza, Domenioo Freschi. But
for his untimely death, Stradella*s genius would
undoubtedly have entitled him to take rank as
the founder of an original and highly charac-
teristic School. As it was, he lived but to com-
pose one single Opera, 'La Forza dell* Amor
patemo,* the Libretto of which was printed at
Genoa in 1678. Rossi, though bom m Naples,
wrote chiefly for Venice, where he met with
very great success. Lotti produced eighteen suo-
cessfiU Operas in that city, between the years
1683 and 1717 ; and one in Dresden. Caldara
enriched the Venetian School with five, besides
writing many more for Vienna, founded for the
most part upon the Libretti of Apostolo Zeno
and Metastaaio. The greater number of Freschi's
works were also written for Venice; but bis
famous ' Berenice ' was first performed at Padua,
in 1680, the year in which Scarlatti made his
first appearance in Rome, with a mUe en schie
which exceeded in magnificence anything that
had ever been previously attempted. Among the
attractions mentioned in the printed book of the
Opera, we find Choruses of 100 Virgins, 100
Soldiers, and 100 Horsemen in iron armour;
beeides 40 Comets, on horseback; 6 mounted
Trumpeters ; 6 Drammers ; 6 Ensigns ; 6 Sack-
buts ; 6 Flutes ; i a Minstrels, playing on Turkish
and other Instruments ; 6 Pages ; 3 Sei^geants ;
6 Cymbaleem; I a Huntsmen; la Grooms; la
Charioteers; a lions, led by a Turks; a led
Elephants ; Berenice's Triumphal Car, drawn by
4 Horses ; 6 other Cars, drawn by la Horses;
0 Chariots, for the Procession; a Stable, con-
taining 100 living Horses; a Forest, filled with
Wild-boar, Deer, and Bears; and other scenio
splendours, too numerous to mention in detail, but
highly significant, as indicative of a condition
of the Drama in which, notwithstanding an
honest desire on the part of many a true Artist
to attain ssthetio perfection, the taste of the
general public was as yet unable to soar above the
vulgarities of a frivolous peep-show. To so great
an extent was this absurdity carried, that Pis-
tecchies 'Leandro* (1679) and 'Girello ' (1683)
were performed in Venice by Puppets, and
Ziani*s ' Damira placata' by mechanical Figures,
as laiige as life, while the real Singers officiated
behind the scenes. Concerning the influence of
such vanities upon the future prospects of Art
we shall have oocancm to speak more particularly
hereafter.
The Fifth Pebiod, though very nearly syn-
chronous with the Fourth,* difiers from it in so
many essential characteristics, that it may be said
to possess, not merely a history, but an Art-lie
peculiar to itself. The scene of its development
was Paris, to which city its leading spirit Gio-
vanni Battista Lulli, was brought from Florence
in the year 1646, in the character of Page to
Mademoiselle de Montpensier, Niece of Louis
XIV. For the personal history of this extra-
ordinary genius we must refer our readers to pp.
1 72-1 74 of the present volume ; all that concerns
us here is his influence upon the Musical Drama.
Removed from Italy at the age of 13, he brought
none of its traditions to France, and was thus
left to form a School — for he did nothing less — •
by the aid of his own natural talent alone. He
has not, indeed, escaped the charge of plagiarism ;
and it is well known that he profited not a little
by the study of such works of Cavalli and Cesti
as he could obtain in Paris : but the assertion
that he imitated the forms invented by the great
leaders of the Venetian School, from inability
to strike out new ones for himself, is equally
inconsistent with the known oonditions under
which his Operas were produced, and the internal
evidence afforded by a careful analysis of the
works themselves. The French Grand Opera
was no importation from foreign parts. It had an
independent origin of its own ; and is as clearly
traceable to the Ballet, as its Italian sister is to
Classical Tragedy. As early as the year 1581, a
1 ThTOVghoitt thif Artlela. we bare used the word Pibiod 1«m tor
the purpoM of ez|>re»lnf a definite term of jtKtt, than for that of
Indicating a definite stage of artistic derelopment. Henoe. though
our 'Periods* wIU he constantly found to orerlap each other In point
of time, they will Introduce no confusion either of styles or nation-
alities. Notwtthstanding certain anomalies Inseparable from thl«
method of olaraifleation. we venture to ottet It as the best we hsTO
bren able to devise, after long and careftd oonsideratloD of this rezy
diflicult sul^ect.
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piece, called * Le Ballet comiqae de la Royne,'
arrai^^ by Baltazar de Beaujo.veaolx, ^ith
Dance Tunes, Choruaes, Musical IMalogues, and
Bitomelli, composed for the occasion by Beaulieu
and Salmon, was acted, at the Chateau de Moa-
tiers, in presence of Henri HI, with extraordinary
splendour. [Vol. i. p. 1530.] The entire work
is, fortunately, still in existence ; and the Music
•—of which an example will be found under
Obohsstbation — is fu* more likely to have sug-
gested ideas to Lull! than the productions of hlis
own countrymen. The first attempt to introduce
Italian Music was made by Rinucdni, who
▼isited France in the suite of Maria de' Medici
in 1600 ; but it does not seem to have accorded
with the national taste. During the reign of
Louis XIII, the Ballet was more wannly
patronised at Court than any other kind of
musical entertainment. Cardinal Mazarin en-
deavoured to ' re-introduce the Italian Opera,
during the minority of Louis XIV ; but its
success was very transient, and &r less en-
couraging than that of the early attempts at
French Opera. The first of these was * Akebar,
Boi de MogoV written and composed by the
Abb^ Mailly, and performed at Carpentras in
1646, in the presence of the Papal Legate,
Cardinal Bichi. In 1659, Perrin wrote a Pas-
toral, with Music by Cambert, which was first
privately performed at Issy, and afterwards, in
presence of the King, at Vincennes. Louis was
delighted with it; and, supported by his approval,
its authors produced some other works, of which
the most successful was ' Pomone,' played first in
1669 at the Hotel de Nevers, and in 1677 in the
Tennis Court at the Hotel de Gu^n^ud. This
was the first Froich Opera ever publicly performed
in Paris. Meanwhile, LuUi was industriously
engaged in the composition of Ballets, designed
to meet the taste of the young King, who was
passionately fond of dancing, and cared little for
any kind of Music imsuited to his favourite
pastime. But in March, 1672, he obtained, by
Boyal Patent, the entire monopoly of the 'Aca-
demic de Musique,' and then it was that he
entered upon thJat portion of his career which
exercised the strongest influence upon the subse-
quent progress of Dramatic Music in France.
Too poutic to imperil his position at Court by
the introduction of unwelcome novelties, he still
made Ballet Music his cheval de hatailU ; and,
BO popular were his Dance Tunes and rhythmic
Choruses, that the occupants of the Parterre are
said to have been constantly tempted to join in
singing them. Moreover, his bold and highly
cultivated taste for Instrumental Music led him
to mould the Overture into a form more perfect
than any wiUi which it had been previously in-
vested. [See OvBBTUBB.] For the meaarre Pre-
lude affected by his Italian contemporaries he
substituted a dignified Largo, followed by an
AUegio, in the Fugato style, with a well-marked
Subject, and many clever points of imitation,
broadly conceived, and designed rather to please
by their natuntl sequence than to surprise by any
•xtiaordinary display of ingenuity. Sometimes
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he added a third Movement, in the form of
a Minuet, or other stately Dance Tune, which
never £uled to delight the hearer : and so suc-
cessful was the general effect of the whole, that
no long time elapsed before it was imitated by
every Composer in Europe. Had Lulli done
nothing for Art but this, posterity would still
have been indebted to him for a priceless bequest :
but he did far more. Inspired by the Verses of
Quinault, who wrote ao pieces for him between
the years 1673 and 1686, he had genius enough
to devise a style of Bedtative so well adapted to
the spirit of the best French Poetry, that the
declamatory portions of his Operas soon became
even more attractive than the scenes which de-
pended for their success upon mere spectacular
display. In order to accomplish this purpose, he
availed himself of an expedient already well-
known in the Venetian School — the constant
alternation of Duple and Triple Bhjrthm. This
he used to an excess, which, while it secured the
perfect rhetorical expression of the text, injured
the flow of his Melody very seriously, and would
be a &tal bar to the revival of his Music at the
present day. But, it helped him to found the
great French School ; and France will ever be
grateful to him for doing so. A comparison of the
following extract from *Atys' (1676) with the
Scene from Cavaili's *6iasone' given at page 503,
will dearly exemplify the distinction between hit
style and that of the Venetian Composers :—
Lulli was the last man in the world to en-
courage the talent of a possible rival, or even to
allow him a Mr hearing. While he lived, he
reigned supreme; and his successors, Colasse,
Danchet, Campra, and Destouches, were quite
incompetent to carry on his work. But though
Art languished in fVance, good service was done
in its cause, in our own country, by a contem-
porary writer, the originality of whose genius
renders it necessary that we should treat of the
epoch in which he flourished as a Sixth Period.
With the sole exception of Alessandro Scarlatti,
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no dramatic CompoBer of the 17th century baa
left behind him bo great a number of works, the
beauty of which time has no power to destroy, as
Henry Pnrcell. In all essential points, he was
immeasurably in advance of the age in which he
lived. His Melodies sound as fireah to-dav as
they did when they were first written ; and for
the best of all possible reasons. Apart from their
akilful construction, which betrays the hand of
the accomplished Musician in every bar, they are
pervaded throughout by a spontaneity of thought
which can never grow old. Springing directly firom
the depths of the Composer's heart, they never &il
to find, in the hearts cf their hearers, a response
over which the tyranny of fashion can ezerdse
no influence. It is not surprising that their
author should have created his own model,
instead of following the example of the French
or Italian Composers. The idea of English
Opera was suggested neither by the Ballet nor
the Tragedy, It was the legitimate offspring of
the Masque; and the Masque, in England at
least, was very far from presenting the charac-
teristicsof a true Lyric Drama. Its Music was,
at first, purely incidental — as much so as that
introduced into the Plays of Shakespeare. It is
true, that as early as 16 17 Nicolo Lanibre set
an entire Masque of Ben Jonson's to Music, in
ihe StUo reeUalivo^ and may therefore justly daim
the credit of having composed the first English
Opera, though he was by birth an Italian. But
the practice was not continued. The Music
written by Henrv Lawes for Milton*s 'Comus,* in
1634, is far less dramatic than Lock*s 'Macbeth* ;
and it was really Purcell who first transformed
the Masque into the Opera; or rather, anni-
hilated the one, and introduced the other in its
place: and this he did so satisfactorilyy that,
measuring his success by the then condition of
Art in France and Italy, he left nothing more to
, be desired. His Kecitutive, no less rhetorically
perfect than LuUi's, was infinitely more natural,
and fr^uently impassioned to the last degree ;
and his Aini, despite his self-confessed admiration
for the Italian style, shew little trace of the forms
then most in vogue, but breathing rather the
spirit of unfettered National Melody, stand fortii
as models of refinement and freedom. Purcell's
dramatic compositions are very numerous, and
it is not improbable that many of them have been
lost. The names have been preserved of * Dido
and iEneas* (1677), 'Abelazor' (ib.), 'T^mon of
Athens* (1678). 'The Virtuous Wife' (1680),
'Theodosins* (ib.), 'The Indian Queen,' *Dio-
deeian, or the Prophetess' (1690), Dryden*s
' Tempest ' (ib.), • King Arthur^ (1691). 'Amphi-
trion' (ib.), *The Grordian Knot untied' (ib.),
* Distressed Innocence' (ib.), 'The Fairy Queen '
(l<$93), 'TheOld Bachelor ' (1693), 'The Married
Beau • (1694), 'The Double Dealer ' (ib.), * Don
Quixote ' (ib), and 'j^duoa* (1695). Of these,
some were complete Operas ; some. Plays with
Incidental Music ; and some, dramatic pieces for
which he wrote only the Overtures and Act
Tunes. The complete Score of * Dioclesian ' was
pnblishad in 1691, with a dedication to Charles
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507
Duke of Somerset. A splendid edition of ' King
Arthur ' was published by the Musical Antiqua-
rian Society. MS. Scores of ' Dido and ^neas,'
' Bondnca,* ' Timon of Athens,' ' Dioclesian,' and
'A Second Interlude,* will be found in the
Dragonetti Collection, in the British Museum ;
and a large selection of Songs and other .pieces
from the entire series are preserved in a work
called ' Orpheus Britannicus,' published by the
Composer's widow in 1698, and now becoming
scarce. It would be difficult to point to a finer
example of his style than the following enchant-
ing Melody from 'King Arthur' :
r rri^frri^^— ij-rrtjt-m]
h«« nmflnd htt dwdl - Ini. And for-nka
yf-lr rl '' 'I' N'l-^N'i
What Lulli did for France, and Purcell for
England, Reinhard Keiser, the leading Composer
gl ^..« °ffYBJfTH F?^^^"i <^d for Germany. The
Opera was first imported into that country from
Italy in 1637, when Rinuccini's * Dafhe,' trans-
lated into German by Martin Opitz, and set to
Music by Heinrich Schiitz, was performed at
Torgau, on the occasion of the marriage of
George 11, Landgraf of Hesse, with the sister
of the Elector of Saxony. At Regensburg. the
Musical Drama made its first appearance with
Benedetto Ferrari's 'L'lnganno d'Amore,' in
1653. Antonio Draghi's 'Alcindo.' and 'Clo-
ricUa,' were produced in 1665 at Vienna ; and
Giulio Riva's 'Adelaida Regia Principessa di
Susa.' at Munich. But all these last-named
works were sung in Italian. The true cradle of
the German Opera, despite its transient success
at Torgau, was Hamburg ; in which city Johann
Theile produced his • Adam und Eva' — the first
' Singspiel ' ever publicly performed in the Grer-
man language — in 1678. This was followed, in
the same year, by 'Orontes'; and from tliat
time forward the Hamburg Theatre retained
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the first plftoe among the public Opon HotueB
of Gennany for more Uian half a oentury. Niko*
lau8 Stmnck wrote 6 operas for it, between the
years 1678 and 1685. Between 1679 and 1686,
Johann Franck wrote 13. Johann Fortsoh wrote
12, between 1684 and 1690; Johann Conradi,
8, between 1691 and 1693 ; Joh4hn Consser, 5,
between 1693 and 1697 ; and Mattheson, 3,
between 1699 and 1704: but between 1694
Ai^cl I734« Keiser produced quite certainly not
less than 116, and probably many more. Handel
also brought out his * Almira* and ' Nero' there
in 1705, and his 'Daphne' and *Florinda' in
1 700 ; his connection with Hamburg was, how-
ever, of no long duration, and it was to Keiser's
exertions alone that the Theatre was indebted
for its world-wide fame. Keisei's first attempt
— 'Basilius* — which had already been success-
fully performed at Wolfenbiittel in 1693, was
received in 1694 '^^^ ^® utmost possible enthu-
siasm ; and, after that, his popularity continued
undiminished, until, 40 years later, he took leave
of his admiring audience with his last pro-
duction, 'Circe.' The number of his publidied
works is, for some unexplained reason, exceed-
ingly small. By far the greater portion of them
was long supposed to be hopele^y lost, in the
city which haid once so warmly welcomed their
appearance ; but in 1 810, Pdlchau was fortunate
enough to discover a laige collection of the
original MSS., which are now safely stored in
Berlin. Their style is purely German; less
remarkable for its rhetorical perfection than that
of LulU, but exhibiting far greater variety of
expression, and a more earnest endeavour to
attain that spirit of dramatic truth which alone
can render such Music worthy of its intended
purpose. Their author's love for scenic splendour
did indeed sometimes tempt him to place more
reliance upon its effect than was consistent with
the higher aspirations of his genius ; yet he was
none the less a true Artist ; and, though
Schtitz and Theile were before him in the field,
it would be scarcely just to deny him the honour
of having founded that great German School
which has since produced the finest Dramatic
Composers the world has ever known.
But the advance we have recorded was not
confined to one School only. The opening decades
of the 1 8 th century introduce us to a very
important crisis in the annals of the Lyric
Diama, in most of the principal cities of Europe.
So steadily had it continued to increase in
general favour, since it was first presented to
a Florentine audience in the year 1600, that,
after the lapse of littie more than a hundred
years, we find it firmly established, in Italy,
France, England, and Germany, as a refin^
and highly popular species of entertainment.
Meanwhile, its progress towards artistic per-
fection had been so far unimpeded by any serious
difiiculty, that a marked improvement in style
is perceptible at each successive stage of its
career ; and the Eighth Period of its history,
upon which we are now about to enter, is preg-
nant with interest, as suggestive of a £ur higher
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ideal than any that we have hitherto had oocasfon
to consider.
Though Handel, as we have already seen,
made his first essay, at Hamburg, in German
Opera, his natural taste sympathised entirely
with the traditions of the Italian School, which
had already been ennobled by the influence of
Carissimi, Colonna, and other great writers of
Chamber Music, as well as by the works of
Alessandro Scarlatti, and the best Dramatic
Composers of the Fourtii Period. Attracted by
the nime of these illustrious Maettri, he studied
their works with all possible diligence during
his sojourn in Italy; and having learned firom
them all that he cared to know, put his ex-
perienoe to the test by producing his first Italian
Opera, * Boderigo,' at Florence, in 1706, and his
second, *Agrippina,* in the following year, at
Venice, besides composing, at Bome, a third
Musical Drama, called 'Silla,* which, though
never publicly performed, served afterwards as
the basis of *Amadigi.' Even in these early
works, his transcendiimt genius asserted itself
with a power which completely overcame the
national exdusiveness of the Italians, who affec-
tionately sumamed him 'U caro Sassone': but
a still more decided triumph awaited him in
London, where he brought out his famous ' Bi-
naldo ' (composed in a fortnight !) at the Queen^s
Theatre in the Haymarket, on February 24,
1 711. This was, beyond all comparison, the
finest opera that had ever been placed upon the
Stage, m any country ; and its success was both
brilliant and lasting. On its first production,
it was played fifteen times in succession. It had
a second run, of nine nights, in the following
year; a third in 1715; a fourth in 1717, and
another as late as 1731. Moreover, it was
enthusiastically received in 1 715 at ^unburg;
and equally so, three years aftenn^irds, at Naples.
For this long-continued popularity it was chiefly
indebted to the exceeding beauty of its Arias, of
which it contained many, such as ' Lascia ch'io
'pianga,' 'Cara sposa,' 'Vieni o cara,' 'Figlia
mia,* ' II tricerbero ' umiliato,' and others equally
fine, concerning which it may be safely prophesied,
that, like the magnificent March, afterwards
introduced by Dr. Pepusch into the * Beggar's
Opera,'* (1737), they will last for ever. The
original decorations were very splendid; and,
if the testimony of an avowed enemy may be
trusted, not altogether conceived in irreproachable
taste. Hiough it is pretty well understood that
we owe some portion, at least, of the pleasantries
contained in No. V. of the * Spectator,* to Addi-
son's disgust at the &ilure of his own so-called
English Opera, 'Bosamond,' the remarks there
paued upon the release of a flight ofliving birds
during the Flute Symphony^ of *Augelletti che
I OtIfliMnr wrlttan. In th« form of ui tmtnmwotal
* AlmlrA.' tt Hunburg. In 1T05.
I Once eztremelj popular u an BngUih BaodM
th« waiter bflns elaan flaMea.*
s To UMwonls.'L«(ui take tiM road. Hark 1 I
eoadMK.' Another equallj Sne March, trom
appeared tn ' P0II7.* u ' Brave Boys, prepare.'
4 This Symphonr. thoush contained In
Boore. is dm gtren la the early printed ooplM.
60BS. 'Let
of
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OPERA.
eantate' lerve to show that the puerilities f
which had amused the Venetians in the time
of Freschi and Ziani, had not yet passed entirely
oat of &shion, and that the Lyric Drama was
still disfigured by anomalies which needed careful
excision. When Italian Operas were first intro-
duced into this country, in place of the miserable
productions which succeeded the really great
works of Purcell, they were performed by a
mixed company of Italians and Englishmen, each
of whom sang in his own language. A similar
absurdity had long prevailed in Hamburg, where
the Airs of certain popular Operas were sung in
Italian, and the Becitatiyes in German; and
even in Italy the conventionalities of fashion,
and the jealousies of favourite Singers, exercised
a fan more potent influence upon the progress of
Dramatic Art than was consistent wiUi true
SBsthetic priQciples. During the greater part of
the 1 8th century, the laws which regulated the
construction of an Opera were so severely formal,
that the Composer was not permitted to use his
own discretion, even with regitfd to the distribution
of the Voices he employed. The orthodox num-
ber of Personaggi was six — three Women and
three Men ; or, at most, three Women assisted
by four Men. The First Woman (Prima donna)
was always a high Soprano, and the Second or
Third a Contralto. Sometimes a Woman was
permitted to sing a Man's part, especially if her
voice, like those of Mrs. Barbier and Mrs.
Anastasia Bobinson, happened to be a low one :
but, in any case, it was de rigueur that the First
Man {Prime uomo) should be an artificial So-
prano, even though the rSle assigned to him
might be that of Theseus or Hercules. The
Second Man was either a So|^no, like the first,
or an artificial Contralto; and the Third, a
Tenor. When a Fourth male Character (177-
tima parte) was introduced, the part was most
frequently allotted to a Bass : but Operas were
by no means uncommon in which, as in Handel*s
^ Teseo,* the entire staff of male Singers consisted
of artificial Sopranos and Contraltos, who mono-
polised all the principa] Songs, and upon whose
popularity for the time being the success of the
work in no small degree depended.
The Airs entrusted to these several performers
were arranged in five unvarying Classes, each
distinguished by some well-defined peculiiurity of
style, though not of general design ; the same
mechanical form, consisting of a Fint and Second
Part, followed by the indispensable Da Capo,
being common to all alike.
I. The Aria cantabUe was a quiet Slow Move-
ment, characterised, in the works of the best
Masters, by a certain tender pathos which seldom
&iled to please, and so contrived as to afford
frequent opportunities for the introduction of
extempore ornamentation at the discretion of the
Singer. Its accompaniment, always very simple,
was limited in most cases to a plain Thorough-
Bass, the chords of which were filled in upon the
Harpsichord. The following beautiful melody,
from Handel's * Tolomeo,* was sung with great
effect by Signora Faustina, in the year i ; ab.
OPERA*
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a. The Aria di portamento was also a Slow
Movement, and generally a very telling one.
Its Rhythm was more strongly mai'ked than that
of the Aria oantahile, its style more measured,
and its Melody of a more decidedly symmetrical
character, freely interspersed with sustained and
swelling notes, but affording few opportunities
for the introduction of extempore embellishments.
Flowing and graceful in design, its expression
was raider sedate and dignified than passionate ;
and its Accompaniment rarely extended beyond
a well-phrased Thorough-Bass, with one or two
Violins, used chiefly in the Symphonies. The
following example is frt)m Handers *Riccardo
Prime,' in which Opera it was first sung, by
Signora Cuszoni, in tiie year 1737.
F-VI ^ rlr.r r N ^ i£%i
3. The Aria di mezzo carattere was open to
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OPEBA.
OPERA.
great variety of treatment. As a general rule,
it was less pathetic than the Aria CantabiUt
and leas dignified than the Aria di portamento, but
capable of expressing greater depths of passion
than either. Its pace was generally, though not
necessarily, Andante; the second part being
sung a little fiwter than the firsts witn a return
to uie original time at the Da Capo, Its Ac-
companiment was rich and varied, including at
least the full Stringed Band, with the frequent
introduction of Oboes Imd other Wind Instru-
ments. Some of HandeFs most celebrated Songs
belong to this class, the style of which is w^
exemplified in the subjoined Air from 'Teseo,*
sung in 1 713 by Margherita de TEpine.
pr
h
Si 1
K
(ffib"- If . Id J- W- ■ 1 J ,1 ■»' =-^
W- — ^
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4. The Aria parlante was of a more declamatory
character, and therefore better adapted for the
expression of deep passion, or violent emotion of
any kind. Its Accompaniments were sometimes
very elaborate, and exhibited great variety of In-
strumentation, which the best Masters carefully
accommodated to the sense of the Verses they
desired to illustrate. Different forms of the Air
were sometimes distingruished by special names :
for instance, quiet Melodies, in wnich one note
was accorded to each several syllable, were called
Arte di nota e parola ; while the terms Aria
agitatat A ria di tttrepilo, and even Aria iufwriatat
were applied to Movements exhibiting a greater
or less amount of dramatic power. The foUowing
example, from Handel's * Sosarme,' was sung in
1733 by Signora Bagnolesi, to an obbligato
Violin Accompaniment played by Castrucci.
**f ,1 , h h fc
Vlolino tdlo.
5. The Aria di hravurOi at ^agiUtdL, was
generally an Allegro, filled with lirilliant 'divi-
sions * or passages of rapid fioritura calculated
to display the utmost powers of the Singer for
whom the Movement was intended. Some of
the passages written for Elizabetta Pilotti Schia-
vonetti, Cuzzoni, Faustina, Nicolini, FarineOi,
and other great Singers of the period, were so
amazingly di£Bcult, that few Artists of the present
day would care to attack them without a con-
siderable amount of preparatory study, though it
is certain that the Vocalists for whom they were
originally composed overcame them with ease.
Amonff such volate we may class the foUowing,
sung in *Bicardo Primo/ by the celebrated
Sopranisty Senesino.
Alkffro
AU'or-rord«l-le pro-oal -
szsrr^
r—ttmmm — pq>v^ — r^mn.
r^mmmi
^^M,m:--^'\'**'j'^ 1
vj^ • • ■ ^ p
T^^Jlim
ii^^-n-
ff pp rji'\: 1 "f ^»r 1
j^ -ha- ■ ', ; ' ■
Vlollnl
-^-K-i. h ^ f* J^ Lr ^*^^
-a 1 —
p ? BJ J J l*"J — -h^
1 ^ teTi
J^»I H-gor d'tpTtf^M Mile tl».
■ V^5g^rp>r r '^^5£gf M,-
'
^ ^'^f ^^
•^
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OPERA.
Though we someiimefl meet with Operatic Airs
of the i8th century which seem, at first sight,
inconsistent with this rigid system of classifica-
iioD, a little careful scrutiny will generally enable
US to refer them, with tolerable certainty, to one
or other of the universally-reoognised oixlers.
The Cavatina, for instance, distinguished from
all other types by the absence of a Second Part
and its attendant Da capo, is, in reality, nothing
more than an abbreviated form, either of the
Aria eantabile, the Aria cU portamento^ or the
Aria di me2zo carattere, as the case may be.
The Second Act of *Teseo' opens with an ex-
ample which establishes this fact veiy clearly,
needing only the addition of a subordinate Strain
in order to conyert it into a regular Aria cantabile.
The Aria (PimiUuume was written in too
many yarieties of style to admit the possibility
of its restriction to any single Class. Warlike
Airs with Trumpet obbligato, Hunting -Songs
with Horn Accompaniment, Echo-Songs — such as
'Dite che fk,* in 'Tolomeo* — AirswiUi obbligato
flute passages or vocal trills suggestive of the
warblings of birds, and descriptive pieces of a
hundred other kinds, all fell within this category,
and generally exhibited the prominent character-
istics of the Aria di mezzo carattere^ unless, as
was sometimes the case, they were simple enough
to be classed as Arie earUahUi, or even Arie
parlanii, with a more or less elaborate obbligato
Accompaniment, or contained volate of sufficient
brilliancy to enable them to rank as Arie
^agUitHk,
The Aria aXC wiieono is of comparatively rare
occurrence. 'Bel piacer,* sung by Isabella
Girardeau, in ' Rinaldo,* and generally regarded
as the typical example of the style, is a pure
Aria eatUabile, written for an expressive Soprano,
supported only by a single Violin part, playing
in unison with the Voice throughout. In the
Symphonies, a Violoncello part is added ; but it
19 never heard simultaneously with the Singer.
Similar Airs will be found in ' II Pastor Fido *
and ' Ariadne* ; but we meet with them so
seldom, that it is doubtful whether they were
ever held in any great degree of favour, either
by Singers or Uie public. The fine Song, 'D
tricerbero umiliato, in * Rinaldo,* represents a
less rare form, wherein the Sasses and other
Instruments all supported the Voice in Unisons
or Octaves.
The Aria eoncertata was simply an Aria di
mezzo carattere, or an Aria parlatUe, with a more
iban usually elaborate or original Accompaniment.
Among the finest-known examples of this class,
we may mention 'Priva son,* in 'Giulio Cesare,'
with J^ute obbligato ; ' Hor la tromba»' in ' Ri-
naldo,' with four Trumpets and Drums obbligati ;
an Air in * II Pastor Udo,* with Accompaniments
for Violins, and Violoncellos in Octaves pizzi-
cato, with a Harpsichord part, arpeggiando,
^roughout; 'Ada quai notte,' in *Partenope,'
accompanied by a flutes, a Violins, Viola, and
Theorbo, with VioloncelU and Basd pizzicato;
* Se la mia vita,* in * Ezio,' for i Violin, Viola,
Violoncello, a Flutes, and a Horns ; * Alle sfere
OPERA^
511
della gloria,' in ' Sosarme,' for the Full Stringed
Band, enriched by a Oboes, and a Horns ; and a
highly characteristic Scena, in*Semele' — 'Som-
nus, awake I * — for a Violins, Viola, Violoncello,
a Bassoons, and Organ.
The sequence and distribution of these varied
Movements was regulated by laws no less strin-
gent than those which governed their division
into separate Classes. It was necessary that
every Scene in every Opera should terminate
with an Air ; and every member of the Drct"
matit persona! was expected to sing one, at least,
in each of the three Acts into which the piece
was almost invariably divided; but no Per-
former was permitted to sing two Airs in suo-
oession, nor were two Airs of the same Class
allowed to follow each other, even though as-
signed to two different Singers. The most im-
portant Airs were played at tiie oondusion of
the first and second Acts. In the second and
third Acts, the hero and heroine each claimed
a grand SScena, consisting of an Accompanied
Recitative-^udi as 'Alma del gran Pompeo,' in
'Giulio Cesare' — followed by an Aria cfagilitd
calculated to display the power of the Vocalist to
the greatest possible advantage ; in addition to
which the same two characters united their
Voices in at least one grand Duet. The third
Act terminated with a Chorus of lively cha*
racter, frequently accompanied by a Dance : but
no Trios, Quartets, or other Concerted Move-
ments were permitted in any part of the Opera,
though three or more Characters were sometimes
suffered — as in ' Rinaldo* ' — to join in a hsrmon-
ised exclamation, at the close of a Recitative.
Rinaldo.
Go(n«do.
Almirena.
ri) * ^j^j^,f*<(>
J^4r cT-i
I - do-lo mi-ot FngBlll
dnolt BtodaU pkt-
^ J .J
P' 1
Almirena.
Goflfredo.
K iranlK* ognl tor-mantob
■looiitantob«leoo>
I More th«n teventj ynn ftflerwwds. Mbart used the aaae «••
pedient. with irreslsttble efltet, in 'Le Noue dl Figaro.' Old Operer
goers will icareely need to be reminded of the fnntlc ' donble encore*
which followed the ddlrecy of the words. ' B schlattl 11 Bignor Coote «1
gnsto mio/ by Mile. Jenny Lind. Mme. Urimald.. Hignur LablMOe
and H«rr Staudlgl. at Her Mi^Mty'f Theatro. in the year 1817.
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OPEBA.
It seems strange, that with so many Voices at
command, so little advantage should have been
taken of the opportunity of combining them ;
but the law was absolute, and no doubt owed its
origin to the desire of popular singers rather to
shine alone, at any cost, than to share their
triumphs with rival candidates for public £svour.
The effect of these formal restrictions, pressing
with equal severity on the Composer and the
author of tiie Libretto, was £»tal to the develop-
ment of a natural and consistent Drama. Of
the numerous Poets who wrote for the Lyric
Stage, during the earlier half of the 1 8th oentury,
two only, Apostolo Zeno and Metastasio, suo>
ceeded in producing really good pieces, in spite
of the difficulties thrown in their way. Groldoni
would probably have been equally successful,
had he been equally persevering ; but after one
or two vexatious failures, he threw up the Opera
in disgust, and devoted his attention to Comedy.
Among Composers, Handel alone so fax over*
came uie trammels of pedantry as to suffer them
to exercise no deleterious influence whatever
upon his work. When it suited his good plea-
sure to submit to them, he did so with such
exceeding grace that they seemed to have been
instituted rather for his convenience than other-
wise. When submission would have interfered
with his designs, he followed the dictates of his
own clear judgment, and set both Critics and
Singers at defiance. For instance, contrary to
all precedent, he enriched the third Act of
* Raoamisto' with an elaborate Quartet ; while,
in ' Teseo' — ^the Scenes of which are distributed
into five Acts — he seems, from first to last, to
have made it a point of conscience to assign
two Airs in succession to each of hb princij^
Characters, as often as it was possible to find an
opportunity for doing so.
That Critics should attack, and Singers openly
rebel against a Composer who shewed so little
consideration for their prejudices was only to be
expected : but, meanwnile, the jealousies he ex-
cited, and the opposition he provoked, served the
double purpose of bearing testimony to the great-
ness of his genius, and stimulating him to the
most strenuous exertions of which it was capable.
His famous oontest with Giovanni Battista
Buononcini was triumphantly decided, in the
year 1731, by the verdict unanimously passed
upon ' Muzio Scevola,' of which he composed the
third Act, Buononcini the second, and Attilio
Ariosti^ the first. A full description of the
work will be found in Bumey, vol. iv. pp. 273-
378; and the student who desires to form his
owd conclusion on the subject will scarcely feel in-
clined, after consulting the MS. Score preserved
in the Bragonetti Collection in the British
Museum, to dispute the fairness of Bumey*s
criticism. This however was by no means one
of his greatest successes. He was continually
working at high pressure; and, as a natural
consequence, even tiie weakest of the 43 Grand
Operas he has bequeathed to us oontain beauties
1 ChryMnder attribatw the flnt Ael to mppo IbttaL In tht
DngoiMftti Soon it la nid to b« Iqr 'Stfuor Plpob*
OPERA.
enough te render them imperishable. The four
produced at the Opera House in the Haymarket,
between the years 17x1 and 171.S, rank among
his best. In 1717 a change took place in the
arrangements at the Theatre, followed, three
years later, by the inauguration of the 'Royal
Academy of Music,' of which he undertook the
entire direction, and for which he wrote a series
of fourteen Operas, beginning with ' Radamisto^'
in 1 730, and terminating, in 1 738, with 'Tolomeo,
Re d'Egitte.* Soon after the production of this
last-named work, the Company became bankrupt,
and the Theatre passed into the hands of a Swiss,
named Heidegger— one of the heroes of Pope*s
'Dunciad*— -for whom Handel wrote six Operas
between the years 1739 and 1735. Heid^gers
management was brought to an untimely close
by a quarrel between Handel and Senesino. A
large party of the nobility espoused the cause of
the popular Sopranist ; and, under their patronage,
a rival Opera Company was established at Uie
' Little Theatre, in Lincoln's Lm Fields.* Nearly
all the Singers previously engaged at the Hay-
market deserted to the oppcwition. Handel
endeavoured to make good their defection by the
engagement of the celebrated Contralto, CarestinL
The rival Company secured the still more fiunoos
Farinelli. But, the result was equally disastrous
to both parties. We need not enter into the detaib
of the feud. Suffice it to say that Handel fought
the battle bravely; took the Theatre in Lincoln's
Inn Fields, and, afterwards, Covent Gkuden, on
his own account; and only succumbed at last
under the pressure of expenses which resulted in
the loss of his entire fortune, and but for the
success of his Oratorios, would have reduced him
to beggary. It is difficult to understand how
his Singers could have been so imprudent as to
quarrel with him; for no man then living un-
derstood so well as he how to make the most
of their several capabilities. We see this very
clearly in the Airs he wrote for Isabella
Girardeau. Mrs. Robinson, Cuzzoni, Faustina,
Strada, Margherita de TEpine, and Durestanti,
the artificial Sopranos, Nicolini, Bemaochi, Ya-
lentini, Valeriano, Senesino, and Carestini ; and
the host of illustrious Vocalists who took part,
at different times, in his Operas, and no doubt
benefitted largely by his advice — for he always
insisted on having his own Music sung in the
way which seemed to him best. In his power of
adapting the most difficult melodic phrases to
the varying range of the vocal register he has
indeed been equalled only by very few of the
best Composers of any age, and surpassed by
none; and to this rare though in<Uspensable
quality his Operas are indebted for some of their
most irresistible charms. It has been said that
they have had their day, and can never again be
placed upon the Stage; but much remains to
be said on the opposite side. While preparing
our materials for the present article, we subjected
the entire series to a most careful and minute
re-examination ; and the more closely we carried
out our analysis, the more deeply were we im-
pressed by the dramatic power whi^ proves
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OPEKA.
aimost every Scene to have been designed for an
accomplished Actor, as well as a finished Singer.
The opportunities thus afforded for histriouic
display are unlimited; while, as feur as the Music
is concerned, it seems almost incredible that such
a host of treasures should have been so long
forgotten — for the works contain, not merely a
few beautiful Songs, here and there, but scores
of deathless Melodies, which only need to be as
well known as ' Angels ever bright and fair,* or
' Let the bright Seraphim,' in order to attain an
equally lasting popularity. It is true that a
large proportion of these Songs were written for
•artificial Voices, now, happily, no longer cxUti-
vated: but, the Contralto parts invariably lie
well within the range of Female Voices ; while
those originally designed for such Singers as
Nioolini or Valeriano, might safely be entrusted
to an accomplished Tenor — an exchange with
which we are all fiuniliar in the case of some
of our best-known Oratorio Music* That the
formality of the Libretti need no longer be
regarded as an insuperable bar to their re-
production was Bufficientiv proved, in 1842, by
the successful run which rollowed the revival of
'Acis and Galatea,' at Dnuy Lane, under the
management of Macready. If a work never in-
tended to be acted could command attention
under such ciroumstancee, suroly it would not
be too much to hope for the same success firom
Operas^ such as ' Kinaldo/ or * Ariadne,* full of
1 It 1b by no ineMii certain that the part of Adi wai not orlglnaUy
Intended for a Soprano Voice. The subject ts not free from per-
plexities, which are Increaied by Handel's frequent coitom of writing
Tenor and Alto parts in the Treble (Violin) clef, when intended for
XngUsh Singers. Even with Italian Singers there are dlfflcultles.
CkMtoemlng such Voices as those of Senesino. Carestini. and Farinelli,
we hare alreadj been told as much as it is desirable that we should
know: but we should be thankful for more detailed Information
touching the Vod H FaUeUo. both Soprano and Contralto, which
were in common use in Italj before the middle of the 17th century.
We know that uotil some time after the elose of the 16th century
Boys' Voices were used, not only In the Tt^9,l Choir, but In many
royal and princely chapels, both in and out of Italy— as, for In-
•tanoe, that of Bavaria, when under the command of Orlando di Lasso.
It is even certain that the part of Dafhe. in Perl's ' Eurldlce.' was
originally sung by Jaoopo Oiustl, ' tn»/aii0i'«II«<l« Lmedt4*«'; though,
except In England. Boys' Voloes were not much used on the 'Stage.
TiMir place was afterwards supplied. In Italy, by FaUttti, who sang
«nremely high notes, and managed them with wonderful skill, l^
Tfxtue of some peculiar method which seems to be entirely lost— like
tbe art of playing upon the old-bshioned Trumpet. Delia Valle
nMOtions a certahi Oloraoni Luca, who sang roulades and other
'paasagcs which ascended as high as the stars'; and speaks highly of
another Singer, called Ludovico Falsetto, whose Voice was of so lorely
a quality, that a single long note sung by him was more charming
than all tbe efbcts produced by later Singers, though he seems to
have possessed but little execution, and to "have pleased rather by
the excellence of his method and the delicate sweetness of his sus-
tained notes than by any extraordinary display of musical ability.
These FahtUi were mostly Spaniards ; but they found no difBculty In
obtaining employment In Italy, where at one time they were preferred
to Boys, whose Voices so frequently change Just when they are begin-
nlnff to sing with true expression. The last Soprano CUsetto who sang
In the Papil Chapel was a Spaniard named Giovanni de'Sanctos. who
died In l&S. The first artificial Soprano was the Padre Olrolamo
BoASlnl da Perugia, a Priest of the Congregation of the Oratory, who
was appointed a member of the Pontifical Choir in 1601. and died In
164a. Trom this time forward, artificial Voices were preferred to all
others In Italy : but they were never tolerated In Prance, and only at
the Italian Opera in England ; tbe Soprano parts being still sung. In
this country, by Boys, and the Contralto by adult Falsetti, as well on
tbe Stage as in Cathedral Choirs. Ben Jonson's Lament fior the little
Performer for whom ' Death himself was sorry,' Is familiar to every
one. Id tbe Masques sung in his day. the principal parts were
almost always sung by Boys, who vrere generally selected fh>m the
ClUldren of the King's Chapel. It was by these Boys that Handel's
* Esther ' was »uog. with dramatic action, in 1731 ; and he frequently
used Boys' Voices In his later works. Thus a Boy, named Goodwill,
m^ in 'Acis and Galatea' in 1738, and in 'Athallab* In 1735;
another, called Bobinson's Boy,* in 'Israel In .£gypt* in 173S ; and a
third, named Savage, in ' Sosarme ' in 1749, and ' Jephtba' In 17CL
VOL.11. PT. 11.
OPERA.
51S
equally beautiful Muaio, and expressly designed
for a splendid mUe en seine. An attempt has
already been made by the revival of * Almira/
Handel's first German opera, at the commemor-
ation festival of the Hamburg Opera-house in
Jan. 1878. Let us hope that some enterprising
Manager will, one day, turn his attention to the
still finer Italian Operas. Meanwhile, a clever
party of Dilettanti might do good service to the
cause of Art by testing their powers upon many
detached Scenes, or even entire Acts, which they
would find quite within their compass.
Though Handers Operas so far excelled all
others produced, either during his lifetime, or
for many years afW his death, they seem,
except in a few isolated cases, to hiave excited
very much less attention on the Continent than
in our own coimtry. While they were steadily
increasing his fiune and ruining his fortune in
London, a Ninth Period was progressing suc-
cessfully on the'^BaiiKfl of the Elbe, under the
superintendence of the greatest of his contempo>
raries, Johann Adolph Masse, a native of North
Grermany, who, after a long course of study in
Naples, adopted the Italian style, and eventually
setUed in Bresden, where, between the years
1 731 and 1763, he brought the Italian Opera
to a higher state of perfection than it enjoyed
in any other continental City. He died at
Venice in 1783, leaving behina him more than
100 Operas, most of which exhibit great merit
though little depth of inspiration, while all,
probably, owed some part at least of their
popularity to the matchless singing of his wife,
the celebrated Faustina. To tlus Period belong
also the Operas produced by Graun, at Bruns-
wick and Berlin, between tiie years 1726 and
1 759, and those written about the same time, by
Fux, at Vienna. These compositions, though
they never became equally famous, were un-
doubtedly greater, considered as works of Art,
than those of Hasse ; as were also those given
to the world a little later by John Christian
Bach. Meanwhile, good service was done, in
Italy, by Vinci— one of the greatest geniuses
of the age — Domenico Scarlatti, Leonardo Leo,
Francesco Feo, Nicolo Porpora, and many other
talented Composers whose works we have not
space to notice, including the now almost for-
gotten Buononcini, who was by no means a poor
Composer, and, but for his unfortunate contest
with Handel, would probably have attained an
European reputation. [See vol. i. 649 note.]
The history of our Tenth Period transports
us (ftice more to Naples, where rapid progress
was made, about the middle of the i8th century,
in a new direction. We have already described,
in our Article Intermezzo, the gradual develop-
ment of the Opera Buffa firom the Interludes
which were formerly presented between the Acts
of an Opera Seria, or Spoken Drama. These
light works were, at first, of very simple cha-
racter: but a significant change in their con-
struction was introduced by Nicolo Logroscino,
a Neapolitan Composer, who first entertained
the idea of bringing his principal Characters on
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the Stage together towards the close of the
leoe, ai^ oombining their Yoicee in a more or
daborate Concerted Finale.^ Originally, this
consisted of a single Movement only ; and that,
comparatively, a simple one. Later Composers
enlarged upon the idea ; extended it to several
Movements in succession, often in different Keys ;
and finally introduced it into the Opera Seria,
in which it soon began to play a very important
party naturally leading to the introduction of
Trios, Quartets, and the host of richly harmonised
pezzi concerUUi upon which the dignity of the
Grand Opera was afterwards made so largely to
depend.
The distribution of parts in the Opera Buffift
differed, in some important particulars, from that
which so long prevailed in the Opera Seria;
introducing fewer artificial Voices, and giving
far greater prominence to the Basses. The
Penonaggi were grouped in two divisions. The
chief, or Buffo group, consisted of two Female
Performers, called the Prima and Seconda Buffa,
and three Men, distinguished as the Primo Buffb,
the Buffo cancatOt and the Ultima parte, of
whom Uie first was a Tenor, while the second
was generally, and the third always, a Bass.
The subordinate group was limited to the two
inevitable lovers, entitled the Vorma teria, and
Uomo serio. This arrangement was, originally,
very strictly enforced ; but» as time progressed,
deiMurtures from the orthodox formula be^me by
no means uncommon.
Most of the great Composers of this Period
excelled equally in Opera Buffa and Opera
Seria; and the style of their Melodies was so
much more modem than that cultivated either
by Handel or Hasse, that we have found it
necessary to include among them some, whose
names, by right of chronology, should rather
have been referred to the preceding epoch, with
which however they can claim but very little
SBSthetic connection. First among them stands
1 LOGBOSOTNO. Niootd. wmpoMr of comic open*, wis bora at
Haplcs about tha year 1700. Hb oootamporarlet. Leo. Fwgolesi. and
Basse, alio wrote works in tbe bvgo ttyla that arej intly celebrated, but
Loproscino'i seem to have differed from these in being more entirely
and grotesquely comic From the outset of his career his chief en-
deavour was to find lit rabJeeta for the exercise of his Inttdiaostlble
vein of burlesque humour. He suoeeeded lo well as to be called by
Ms countrymen Tl Dio ddF Opera b^a, and his operas were so-popu-
lar in Naples that when tbe young Piednnl first came into notice
as a possible riTal, no small amount of diplomacy and powertul
influence had to be ezerdsed to obtain a hearing for even one of his
worits. These however eventually displaced those of the popular idol.
Very little of Logrosdno's music ezlsU now. althou^ some lUL
specimens are to be found in the collection of the British Museum.
He never would compose but In Neapolitan dialect, and so vras little
known beyond his own country, even during his liCMime. But be
deserves to be ramembered for tlie invention, which is due to hiao, of
tbe finale, such as we now understand it. For the duet. trio, or
quartet, with which, up to that time. It had been the fashion to con-
clude each act of an opera, he sutotitated a continuous series of
pieces more or less connected with each other, including several
scenes, and as many musical themes, or various treatments of one
principal theme, solo, concerted and choral. By this combination
of forces he more vividly conveyed the dramatie situation, and im-
mensely added to the general efhet.
For a long time however these eoncerted finale* were only intro-
duced into comic pieces, and FalsieUo was Vbn flrst to extend the idea
to serious opera.
In 1747 Logrosclno settled In Palermo, where the God of Comedy
became flr«t master of counterpoint in the Couserv»torio of the
'FIglluoli Disperst' He ultimately returned to Naples, and died
there In 17^ Fdtiii mentions by name four of his vrorks; these are,
1. • Glunlo Bnito,* serious opera ; 1 ' n governatore ' ; a * n Vecchio
Marlio' : aq4 4, 'ITanto bene, tanto male.' all comic operas. [FJ1.1LJ
OPERA.
Pergderi, whose serions Opera 'Sallustia' pro-
duced a/ttfore in Ni4>les in 1732, while his
comic Intermezzo, * La serva padrona,' written in
1734, was received with acclamations in every
Capital in Europe. Jomelli*s style, though less
trul V Italian tium Peigolesi*s, so nearly resembled
it, that it would be impossible to dass him with
any other Composer. He wrote an immense
number of Operas, both Serious and Comic;
and the Melodies he introduced into them ob-
tained for him an amount of public favour which
had by no means b^gun to wane when Bumey
visited him, at Naples, in 1770.* The work of
these great Masters was vigorously supplemoited
by the efforts of Sacohini, Guglielmi, Galuppi,
and Perez; and still more nobly by those of
Pusiello and Picdnni, both of whom brought
rare and brilliant talents into the field, and
enriched their School with a multitude of valu-
able productions. The graceful spontandty of
Paisiello^s manner jprevents many of his Songs
from sounding ' old-iashioned,* even at the present
day. Picdnni was also a most mdodious writo- ;
bat our thanks are chiefly due to him for the
skilful devdopment of his Finales, which he
wrought into long C(mcerted Pieces, not only ex*
cdlent as Music, but remarkable as the earliest
known instances of an att^npt to make the
interest of the piece culminate, as it approadies
its conclunon, in the richest harmonies produdble
by the united Voices of the entire DramaJLit
penoncB.
By a deplorable perversion of justice, Picdnni'i
real merits are too frequently passed over in
silence by Critics who would lead us to be-
lieve that his only daim to remembrance rests
upon the details of a miserable feud, the con-
sideration of which will occupy our attention in
connection with the Elbvjbnte Pebk)D of our
history.
The leading spirit of this eventful epoch was
Christoph Willibald Gluck; a Composer whose
clear judgment and unerring dramatic instinct
exercised an influence upon the progress of Art
which has not, even yet» ceased to make its
presence felt, and to wmch the modem German
School is largdy indebted for the strength of its
present position. An accomplished rather than
a learned Musician, Gluck rendered himself re-
markable, less by any extraordinary display d
technical skill, than by his profound critical
acumen; but it was not until he was well
advanced in life that this great quality bore the
fruit which has since rendered his name so
deservedly famous. In early youth, and even
after the approach of middle age, he seems to
have been perfectly contented with the thai
prevailing Italian style, which he cultivated so
successfully, that, but for a certain depth of
feeling peculiar to himself, his *Artamene,* or
* Semuramide,' might be fairly classed witk the
best productions of Jomelli or Saochini, as may
be seen in the following extract from the former
Opera: —
s Sse bis 'FnsMit Stata of Music, to Franoe and Italy.* p. Sll ec
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T.S.
His first doubt as to the logical oonsistenoy of
the orthodox Italian Opera seems to have been
suggested by the unsatisCEtctory effect of a Pas-
ticcio/ called 'Piramo e Tisbe/ which He pro-
duced in London in the year 1746. In this
piece he contrived to introduce a large collection
of AirSy chosen from his best and most popular
works: yet it wholly fisuled to fulfil his expecta-
tions, not because the Music was in fault, but
because it was altogether unsuited to ^e situa-
tions of the Dramaa^ The reader will, it is to
be hoped, remember the grand principle which
we assumed as our point $apjmi at the opening
<^ the present article — ^that the Lyric Drama
could neither be pronounced inconsistent nor
illogical, so long as Music was employed as a
means of intensifying the expression of Poetry,
and therefore (as a natural consequence) of in-
creasing the dramatic power of the Scenes it
depicted. It was upon this principle that Peri
andCaocini based their expenments, at Florence,
when they first attempted to clothe the tiieories
of Giovanni Bardi and his enthusiastic associates
with a definite form; and, theoretically, the
position was never disputed. But as tiie Art of
Composition, assisted by increased orchestral re-
sources and an improved system of Vocalisation,
threw off the trammels of its early stiffhess, and
attained, step by step, the perfection of sym-
metrical Form, Composers were tempted to
sacrifice the interest of the Drama to that of the
Music which should have tended to illustrate it.
The real force of the most striking situations was
lost in the endeavour to fill them with captivating
Arias, calcalated to gratify, at the same time,
the popular taste and the vanity of individual
Singers. As the number of great Singers mul-
tiplied, the abuse grew daily more and more
antagonistic to the enunciation of sesthetic truth,
1 That U. a piece made op of Aln leleeted from other Oparw. often
braevenldUtaentOompoMn. (See Fastiooio.]
nntil the Opera was degraded into a mere col-
lection of Songs, connected together by Recita-
tives which seemed designed moie with the ides
of providing breathing-time for the Singer, than
that of developing tiie plot of the piece, or
rendering its details intel%ible to the audience.
In Handel's Operas we find no trace of tiie
weakness engendered by this ill-judged though
almost univenal conformity to the prevailing
fiuhion. His Bedtativo seooo is designed on so
grand a scale, and is made the vehicle of so
much dramatic expression, that the action of his
pieces is never permitted to drag : but, in the
works of Hasse, and Porpora, and other popular
writers of the Nintti Period, the defect we
speak of is painfully apparent. Against this
state of things, which Benedetto Marcello had
already censured in no measured terms,
Glucks hatred of falsehood and incongruity
in all that concerned his bdoved Art could
not fiul to rebel. He felt that the system was
based, from first to last, on a fatal mistake;
yet could not» for the time, suggest a remedy
sufiSciently potent to remove an evil so deeply
rooted. He therefore patiently endeavoured to
attain a clearer insight into tne sources of the
error, studying diligently, and in the meantime
making a great name by the production of
Operas written in a style which he himself was
rapidly learning to despise, but with which the
general public were enchanted. ( It was not
until 1762, sixteen years after his memorable
visit to England, that he made any serious atteznpt
to express his new ideas in a tangible form. He
was, at that time, settled at Vienna, and on
terms of intimate friendship with the Italian
poet Calsabigi, who fully entered into his views,
and, at his request, furnished him with a Li-
bretto, written on principles totally opposed to
those of Metastasio, with whom he had previously
worked in concert. The new Opera was an
experimental one, both on the part of the Com-
poser and the librettist. Gluck carried out his
new theories, as far as he had succeeded in
perfecting them; made his Music evenrwhere
subservient to the action of the Drama ; finished
his Airs without the stereotyped Da capo\
introduced appropriate Choruses, and other
Concerted Pieces ; and never sacrificed the true
rendering of a dramatic situation for the sake
of attracting attention to his own powers as a
Composer, or of affording a popular Singer the
opportunity of displaying the flexibility of his
Voice. * On the other hand, he was most careful
to make the musical portion of the work as
interesting as was compatible with due regard
to the demandaof its scenic construction. When
it was possible to introduce a faacinating Melod v,
without injury to the general effect, he gladly
availed himself of the opportunity of doing so—
witness his delightful ' Che far6 senza Euridice,'
than which no lovelier Song was ever written :
while, so &r as the Choruses were concerned, he
was equally expressive in the pathetic strains al-
lotted to the Shepherds in the First Act, and the
shrieks of the threatening Fiends in the Second.
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OPERA.
The result of this conBcientioaB endeavour to
carry out a refomi, which he believed to be not
only decdrable, but absolutely necessary, was a
truly magnificent work, which, though ito success
at first seemed doubtful, soon found a place in
the ri-pfirtoire of every theatre in Europe. Even
those most violently opposed to innovation felt
compelled to applaud it ; for its dramatic force
was irresistible, and in flow of Melody it was
excelled by none of the best Operas of the
period. But Gluck had not yet accomplished
his full desire. Encouraged by the triumph of
his first attempt in a new style/ he carried
out hill principles still farther, in two other
Operas, 'Aloeste' (1767), and *Paride ed
Elena' (1769), which were not received at
Vienna with very great &vour. The critics
of the day were not yet fully prepared for the
amount of reform indicated in their construction.
Metastasio and Hasse had reigned too long to
be deposed in a moment ; and Gluck met wiUi so
much opposition, that he determined Xo make his
next venture in Paris, where, in 1 774, he brought
out his first French Opera, ' Iphig^e en Aulide,*
under the patronage of his old pupil, Marie An-
toinette. The result fully justified his reliance
upon the critical discernment of an audience less
easily influenced by the sensuous allurements of
Italian Art than by the declamatory powers, of
their own old favourites, LuUi, and his great
successor, Bameau, who both regarded the per-
fection of Accompanied Bedtative as a matter of
feur greater importance than a continuous flow of
rhythmic melody. To Lulli*s rhetorical purity,
Gluck communicated an intensity of passion,
which, though it would have scandalised the
courtiers of the Grand Monarque, to whom the
Voice of Nature was .an unknown language, was
welcome enough to those of Louis XVI. /^He
enriched his scenic effects with an orchestral
background Mrith which the most ambitious at-
tempts of Bameau would bear no comparison
whatever. In place of Lulli's formal Fugue, and
Bameau*s scarcely less inelastic OrchestoJ Pre-
lude, he introduced an Overture, intended —
in his own words — ' to prepare the audience for
the action of the piece, and serve as a kind of
argument to it.' Superior to both these popular
Composers on their own ground, and gifted be-
sides with a refinement of taste which lent
charms of its own to every melodic phrase he
wrote, it is not surprising that he should have
taken Paris by storm. \\^hQ new Opera was re-
ceived with acclamation, and Pansian critics,
with the Abb^ Amaud at their head, proved
that they not only appreciated its beauties, but
thoroughly understood the principles upon which
it was conceited. The only mistake they made
— a mistake which more modern critics have
been only too ready to endorse — ^lay in sup-
posing that these principles were new. They
were not new — and it is well that we.should state
this fact clearly, because we shall have occasion
to refer to it again. The abstract Ideal which in
the year 1600 found its highest attainable ex-
pression in Peri's 'Euridice,' was not merely
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analogous to, but absolutely identical with that
which, in 1774, the rich genius of Gluck clothed
in the outward form of 'Iphig^nie en Aulida'
To compare the two works in the concrete would
be manifestly absurd. Peri wrote at a time
when Monodic Art was in its infancy, and, with
all his talent, was at heart an incorrigible
pedant. To more than a century and a half
of technical experience Gluck added one grand
qualification with which pedantry can in no wise
co-exist — a passionate love of Nature. Hence
his irresistible power over all who heard him.
A certain critic, speaking of a passage in
'Iphig^uie en Tauride,* in which Ox^tes, after
a Scene full of the most fearful agitation, exclaims
' Le calme rentre dans mon ooeur ! ' found fault
with it on the ground that the agitation still
carried on in the Accompaniment belied the ex-
pression of the words. * Not so,' said Gluck. ' He
mistakes physical exhaustion for calmness of
heart ^ Has he not killed his mother?' Equally
thoughtful was his defence of the well-known
Movement, Caron VappeUe, in 'Iphig^nie en
Aulide,' against the charge of monotony — ' My
friend, in Hell the passions are extinguished, and
■the Voice> therefore, needs no inflexions.' Could
Shakespeare himself have studied the passions of
the human heart more deeply ?
Gluck's triumph was complete ; but it was
short-lived. A reaction soon set in. Piodnni
was invited to Paris in 1776, and with the as-
sistance of Marmontel as his Librettist, produced
two Operas — ' Boland' and ' Atys' — in the Ita-
lian style, both of which excited general admira-
tion. This however was not enough to satisfy
the party spirit of a large body of malcontents,
who, on the arrival of the Italian Composer,
divided the Art- world of Paris into two rival he-
tions — ^the GluckUte and the PicdnnUie — which
fought with a bitterness of prejudice infinitely
greater than that displayed by the followers of
Handel and Buononcini in London. Both parties
were equally unjust to their opponents, and the
battle raged with a violence proportioned to the
unreasonableness of its exciting cause. The im-
mense success which attended the production of
Gluck's 'Iphig^nie en Tauride 'in 1779 brought
matters to a crisis. The Picdnnists, irritated at
so signal a triumph on the opposite side, urged
their favourite Composer to produce another
Opera on the same subject. Nothing could posr
sibly have been more unfair to Picdoni. He
was by far the most accomplished representative
of the Italian School then living, and so deeply
attached to its traditions that the task forc^
upon him was not so much beyond as opposed in
every possible way to his powers. He brought
out his version of the work in 1781 ; and, as
might have been expected, it was a miserable
fidlure : but this severe blow did not put an end
to the pretendons of his party, and the feud was
continued with undiminished violence on either
nde, until long after the Composer of * Orfeo*
had retired into private life at Vienna. Its in-
fluence upon Art has proved to be indelible.
Few French Composers, with the exception of
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M^ul, have made any serious attempt to carry
out the principles laid down by Gluck as indis-
pensable to the perfection of Dnunatic Music ; but,
notwithstanding their early rejection at Vienna,
l^ey were afterwards unhesitatingly adopted in
Germany, and haye ever since formed one of the
strongest characteristics of Grerman Opera. On
the other hand, Piccinni's powerful development
of the Finale enriched the Italian School with a
means of effect of which it was not slow to avail
itself, and which its greatest Masters have never
ceased to cherish with well-directed care. Of
the work wrought by one of the greatest of
these Maestri we shall now proceed to speak in
treating of our Twbuth JfttRlOP.
We have alrea^yex^ame^Tthat, after formal
recognition of the Opera Buffa as a legitimate
branch of Art, it was cultivated with no less
assiduity than Serious Opera, and that the greatest
writers attained equal excellence in both styles.
Of none can this be more truly said than of Cima-
rosa^ to whose fertility of invention Italian Opera
is indebted for the nearest approach to perfection
it has as yet been permitted to achieve at the
hands of a native Composer. The raciness which
forms so conspicuous a feature ip ' II Matrimonio
segreto * is not more remarkable than the intense
pathos, reached evidently without an effort, in
*Gli Orazij e Curiazij.*/ln neither style do we
find a trace of the stiffiiess which no previous
Composer was able entirely to shake off. Cima-
rosa's forms were as far removed as the latest
productions of the present day from the anti-
quated monotony of the Da capo ; and we see them
moulded with equal care in Movements of every
possible description. The delightful Aria, *Pria
che spimti in ciel Taurora* (said to have been in-
spired by the view of a ma^ficent sunrise from
the Hradschin, at Prag), is not more graceful
in construction than the irresistibly amusing
Duet> * Se fiato in corpo awete,* or the still more
highly-developed Trio, 'Le faccio un inchino,*
though these are both encumbered with the
necessity for broad oomic action throughout* It
is, indeed, in his treatment of the Pezeo coneer-
tato that Cimarosa differs most essentially from
all his i»redecessors. Taking full advantage of
the improvements introduced by Piocinni, he be-
stowed upon them an amount of attention which
proved the high value he set upon them as ele-
ments of general effect. Under his bold treat-
ment they served as a powerful means of carrying
on the action of the piece, instead of interrupting
it, as they had too frequently done in the works
of earlier Masters. This was a most important
modiBcatioD of the system previously adopted in
Italian Art. It not only furnished a connecting
link to the various Scenes of the Drama, which
oould no longer be condemned as a mere assem-
blage of Concert Arias ; but it strengthened it in
every way, added to- l^e massive <Sgiiity of its
effect, and gave it a logical status as unassail-
able as that for which Gluck had so nobly
laboured in another School. Henceforward Ger-
many might pride herself upon her imaginative
power, and Italy upon her genial Melody ; but
OPERA.
617
ndther could reproach the other with the encou-
ragement of an unnatural IdeaL
What Haydn would have done for this Period
had he devoted his serious attention to Dramatic
Music, at any of the larger theatres, is of course
mere matter of conjecture ; though it seems im-
possible to believe that he would have rested
satisfied with^the prevailing Italian model. His
'Orfeo ed Euridice,' written for the King's Theatre
in the Haymarket in i79i> but never performed;
in consequence of a< change in the management,
is remarkable rather for its supreme re&iement
than for dramatic power, a qualification which
it would have been unreasonable to expect from
a Composer whose former Operas had been written
expressly for Prince Esterhazy*s private theatre,
and, though well adapted for performances on a
small scale, were not, as he himself confessed^
calculated to- produce a good effect elsewhere.
The Scores of many of these were destroyed when
the little theatre was burned down in 1779; ^^^
the original autograph of *Armida,' feret per-
formed in 1783, is happily preserved in the
Library of the Sacred Harmonic Society. • Orfeo
ed Euridice ' was printed ai Leipzig in 1806 ; and
a beautiful Air from it, *I1 pensier sta negli
oggetti,' will be found in the collection called
* Gemme d'antlchitk * (Ashdown & Parry), and
will give a fair idea of the general style of the
work. Zingarelli, Salieri, and their Italian contem-
poraries, though undoubtedly possessing talents
of a very high order, were so far inferior to
Cimarosa, in aU his greatest qualities, that he will
always remain the typical writer of the age ; and
to his works alone can we look for the link which
connects it with the great TniBTEgyTH PEBtOD—
the most glorious one the Lyric Drama has ever
known, since it witnessed the elevation both of
the Italian and German Schools to what,^ in the
present state of our knowledge, we must needs
r^^ard as absolute perfection.
Though Mozart was bom only seven years
later than Cimarosa, and died many years before
him, the phase of Art he represents is infinitely
more advanced than that we have just described.
His sympathies, like Handel's, were entirely with
the Italian School; but to him, as to Handel
and the elder Scarlatti, it was given to see
that the Monodists of the 17th century had
committed a fatal mistake in rejecting the con-
trapuntal experience of their great predecessors.
So carefully was his own Art-l^e guuxied against
the admission of such an error, that before
he was fifteen years old (1770) he was able
to write a four-part Counterpoint, upon a given
Ganto fermo, strict enough to justify his ad-
mission, as Composttore, into the ranks of the
Accademia Filarmonica at Bologna. In later
life he studied unceasingly. Founding his praxis
(as Haydn had done before him; and Beethoven
did afterwards) on the precepts laid down by
Fux in his 'Gradus ad Pamassum* (1725), he
was able to take the fullest possible advantage
of the gifts bestowed upon him by Nature,
and was never at a loss as to the best method
of treating the inexhaustible wealth of Melody
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OPERA.
she placed at his oonmiaiid. In dnonadc pdttift-
tions, of whatever character, he struck out the
truth by mere foroe of natural instinct^ where
Gluck would have arrived at it by a long process
of synthetic induction ; and this faculty enabled
him tooUlustrate the actual life of Uie Scene
without for a moment interrupting^ the continuity
of his melodic idea, and to enforce its meaning
with a purity of expression diametrically opposed
to the coarseness inseparable from an exaggerated
conception. For instance, when Papageno prei*
pares to hang himself, he takes leave of the
world with such unaffected pathos, that we lose
all thought oi absurdity in our sorrow for the
poor clown who is so truly sorry for himself, and
who yet remains the most absurd of clowns to
the end. On the other hand, when elaboration
of Form was desirable, he did not disdain to
avail himself of the experience of his predecessors,
but enlarged a thousandfold upon the ideas of
Picdnni and Gimarosa, and produced symmetrical
movements the complications of which had never
entered into their minds as possible. Thus the
Sestets 'Sola, sola' and 'Biconosci in questo
amplesso* surpass in fulness of design the
graiideBt tUnauementM to be found in any other
Operas of the period ; while the two concerted
Fmales in 'Le Noeze di Figaro' contain re-
^)ectively nine and seven, and those in ' U Don
Giovanni' no less than eleven distinct Move-
ments, all written with the most masterly skill,
and linked together in such natural sequence
that it is impossihle but to accept them, in each
particular case, as the component parts of a
single comprehensive idea, as homogeneous as
that of a Symphony or a Concerto. Again,
Mozart's command of the Orchestra, as a medium
of dramatic effect, stands unrivalled. He was
accused by some of his contemporaries of over-
loading the Voice with unmeaning Accompani-
ments ; but the charge was made in ignorance of
the principle imon which he worked. Gr^try,
when asked by Napoleon to define the difference
between the styles of Mozart and CSimarosa, re-
plied, ' Sire, Gimarosa places his Statue on the
Stage, and its Pedestal in the Orchestra : Mozart
places the Statue in the Orchestra, and the Pe-
destal on the Stage.' The metaphor, though
pretW enoughf conveyed a palpable nntruUi.
Neither Mozart nor Gimarosa reversed the re-
lative positions of the Statue and the Pedes-
tal; but Gimarosa used the latter simply as
a means of support; whweas Mozart adorned
it with the most exquisite and appropriate
Bassi-rilievi^j^^Bh Accompaniments are always
made to inMnsify the expression of the Voice,
and to aid it in explaining its meaning; and
he attains this end by a mode of tr^Ujnent
as varied as it is originaL Though his system of
Instrumentation has served as the basis of every
otjier n^ethod. without exception, used by later
GomposGjrs, his own combinations are marked by
a freshness which never fails to make known
their true authorship at the very first hearing.
Unhappily we are rarely permitted, now-a-days,
.to hear them in their integrity — at any rate, in
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London or Paris. The awfnl tones with whidi
the Trombones support the Voioe of the Statue
in ' II Don Giovanni,' lose all their significance
after we have heard them introduced into eveiy
/orte passage in the previous part of the Opera.
The Overture to the same great work is deprived
of all its point when any attempt is made to
interfere with the delicate arrangement of the
Score, by means of which Mozart intended to
depict the struggle between good and evil in the
mmd of the dissolute hero of the piece, using
the stately passage of Minims and Grotchets to
represent the one, and the light groups of Qua-
vers to delineate the other. The airy lightness
of ' Le Nozze di Figaro' profits us nothing when
rendered inaudible by the din of a Brass Band
fit only for a field-day on Woolwich Gommon.
Mozart himself never conceived a more charming
Scene than that in which Gount AlmavivU's
clever * Factotum ' takes upon himself to lecture
the little Page upon the proper bearing of a
Soldier, and marches up and down the Stage in
illustration of his jmrecepts, while Susanna looks
admiringly on. When the Scene was first re-
hearsed, at Vienna, in 1786, every performer on
the Stage and in the Orchestra shouted ' Viva il
grande Mozart.' Now, we are favoured, instead
of it, with a vulgar Ghorus, brought together in
defiance of all dramatic possibility, made to sing
Voice-parts which Mozart never wrote, and
accompanied by a crash of Bass-drums and
Ophicleides through which the voice of Stentcr
himself could never have been made to penetrate.
If we would know what Mozart really meant, we
must study him, not at the Opera, but in his
own delightful Scores ; and from these we shall
leam that he did not arrive at his full perfectioQ
until after long years of careful study. Though
the cachet of true genius is impressed upon lus
earliest inspirations, it is in *Idomeneo, Re di
Greta,' produced at Munich in 1 781, that we
first find him claiming his right to be numbered
among the greatest Gompoeers the world has ever
known. We have here the perfection of me-
lodious grace, the perfection of dramatb truth,
and the perfection of choral dignity. In the
last-named quality — more especially as exhilnted
in the Ghoruses *Pietk 1 Numi, Pietk ! ' and '0
vote tremendo' — it is doubtful whether *Ido-
meneo' has ever been equalled, even by Mozart
himself; while it is certain that, in its compre-
hensive grasp of a grand and always logi^dly
consistent Ideal, it has never been surpassed:
but, in richness of invention and exhaustive
technical development, it must undoubtedly yield
to *Gosi fan tutte,' • La Glemenza di Tito^* 'Le
Nozze di Figaro,' and <B Don Giovanni.* In
these four great works Italian Opera reached
a grade of excellence above which it seems ex-
tremely improbable that it will ever be fifbted to
rise. Yet Mozart did not rest satisfied even
here. It was given to him to raise German
Opera to the same high level, and oonceming
tlus a few words of explanation will be necesr
sary.
We have already spoken of Hamburg as the
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cradle of the German Opera, and of Handel, Mat-
thesun, and Beinhard Keiser, as the guardians of
it« in&ncy. After the death of Keiaer, in 1 739,
the Hamburg Theatre lost much of the prestige it
had acquired during his magnificent rule: but,
some thirty years later, a notable impulse was
given to Teutonic Art, at Leipzig, by Johann
Adam Hiller, a really talented Musician, cele-
brated as the first Director of the Grewandhaus
Concerts, and, at a later period, as Cantor of the
Thomas Schule. At the instigation of Koch, the
Manager of the Leipziff Theatre, Hiller devoted
his attention to a light kind of dramatic effusion,
with spoken dialcmie, plentifully interspersed
with Music of a pleasing character, based, for
the most part, upon a highly-developed form of
the German Lied, though sometimes taking the
shape of concerted pieces of considerable com-
pleteness. Th^se little pieces succeeded admira-
bly, some of them, such as 'Der Teufel ist
los' — founded upon the English Play, *The
Devil to pa^' — *Der Dorfbarbier,' and 'Die
Jagd,* attainmg an enormous popularity. And
thus arose that best and truest form of German
Opera, the 'Singspiel,' which, though less de-
fensible, ojt-^pure aesthetic principles, than either
the Opera Sena or the Opera Buffa, has given
birth to some of the grandest Lyric Dramas we
possess. We say *less defensible,' because it is
evident that a Scene, partly spoken and partly
sung, cannot possibly bring out the Poet's mean-
ing with the clearness which is easily enough
attainable when a single mode of expression is
employed throughout. There must be a most
awkward and unnatural solution of continuity
somewhere. All the Composer can do is, to put
it in the least inconvenient place. J. F. Beich-
ardt afterwards made an attempt to overcome
this difficulty in the ' Liederspiel ' — an imitation
of the French 'Vaudeville* — in which he was
careful that the Action of the piece should never
be carried on by the M^c, which was almost
entirely of a semi-incidental character. A third
form 01 Musical Drama was introduced, at Gotha,
in I774» by George Benda, who, in his 'Ariadne
aof Naxos ' and ' Medea,' assisted the effect of a
spoken Dialogue by means of a highly-coloured
Orchestral Accompaniment^ carried on uninter-
ruptedly throughout the piece, after the manner
of what is now called a Melodrama. Mozart
heard some of Benda*s productions at Mannheim
in 1778, and, though he never adopted the
method in any of his greater works, was delighted
with its effect. He took, indeed, the greatest pos-
sible interest in all that concerned the advance-
ment of German Art ; and when conmiissioned to
write a work for the National Opera founded at
Vienna in 1 778, by the Emperor Joseph, he threw
his best energies into the welcome task, and pro-
duced, in 1 78a, a masterpiece — * Die EntfUhrung
aus dem Serail' — ^which at once elevated the
Singspiel to the level he had akeady won for
the Italian Opera, and secured it a recognised
status as the embodiment of a oonoeption pecu-
liar to and truly worthy of the great Teutonic
School. We rarely hear this dcSghtful Opera
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now, even in Germany ; but its beauty is of a
kind which can never grow old. It teems with
lovely Melodies from beginning to end ; and the
disposition of its Voices leads to the introduction
of a wealth of Concerted Music of the highest
order. It was received with enthusiasm both in
Vienna and at Prague.- Mozart followed it up in
1786 with *Der Schauspieldirektor,' a charming
little piece, filled with deUghtfid Music ; and m
1 791 he crowned his labours by the production
of the noblest Lyric Comedv existing in the
German language— ' Die Zauberflote.' One of
our best Engli^ critics has lately thought it
necessary to speak apologetically of this great
work, as if its finest Scenes were maired by the
juxtaposition of others containing Music inca-
pable of adding to the Composer's reputation.
There can be no greater mistake. As well might
we make excuses for 'The Tempest,' because
the prose put into the mouth of Trinculo is less
sonorous than the measured tones spoken by
Prospero and Miranda. A work of Art is great
in proportion, and only in proportion, to its tiiith.
The moment its conceptions cease to be natural,
it ceases to be worthy of our regard. 'Die
Zauberflote * is true to Nature, from its first note
to its last; and the hand of the greatest of
modem Masters is as clearly perceptible in the
tinkle of Papageno's * Glockenspiel,' as in the
grandest contrapuntal triumph 01 the last Finale.
An ingenious critic can always manufacture
'weak pk>ints'; but Mozart left none in his
work ; and to those who carefully study ' Die
Zauberflote' side by side with *Le Nozze di
Figaro' and ' II Don Giovanni,' the conclusion
wi& be inevitable that, in German as well as in
Italian Opera^ he soared to heights which,
hitherto at least, have set all emulation at de-
fiance.*^
•But tfie history of our Foubtibnth Period
will teach us that the peculiar phase of German
Art over which Mozart asserted such absolute
supremacy was not the only one in which it was
capable of manifesting itself. The possible va-
riety of styles is unlunited ; and it was evident
from the first that many promising paths to
excellence still remained unexplored. One of
these was selected by Beethoven, with results
for which the world has reason to be profoundly
grateful. Over this great Master's early vouti^
the Stage seems to have exercised none of that
strange fascination which so frequently mono-
polises the young Composer's interest, almost
before he has had time to ascertain his true
vocation : and when, in the full maturity of his
genius, he turned his attention to it, he does not
1 Ferdlnflnd DktM— no oraflndolgnt erItJo-onoa told tlM writer
that the Libretto of ' Die ZuiberflOte ' WM hj no means the fllmiy
piece It wu genenlly supposed to be ; but, that no one who wu not
a Freemason oould appreciate Its merits at their true Talue. For
lostanoe, the grand chords played bf the Trombones at the end of tb«
first part of the Orerture. and In the First Scene in the Second Act.
enunttate— he said— a symbol which no Freemason could possiMy tsU
to understand. Not many years a«o, these chords were always played,
hi Bni^and, with the minims tied together, so that the notes were
■truck twice. Instead of thrice at each repetition. By this blsa
resuUnc which is perpetuated In Olandiettlnl's edition of the scora^
the fSoroe of the symbol Is entirely loat. and the whole Intention of
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appear to have been attracted, like Mozart, by
the force of uncontrollable instinct, but rather
to have arrived at perfection, as Gluck did,
by the assistance of earnest thought and unre-
mitting study. He wrote an Opera, simply
because the Manager of the Theater-an-der-
Wien found it worth while to offer him an
engagement for that purpose: but, having un-
dertiUcen the work, he threw his whole soid into
it; laboured at it, as his sketch-books prove,
incessantly; and identified himself so completely
with its progress that he seems as much at home
in it as he lukd ever previously been in a Sonata
or a Symphony. The subject selected was
Bouilly's 'Leonore, ou I'amour oonjugale,' which
had already been set to music as a French
' Opera comiqne/ by Gaveaux, and very success-
fully, to Italian words, bv Paer. A Grerman
translation was now made by Sonnleithner ; and
that Beethoven was satisfied with it, and was con-
scious of no inconsistency in the dialogue being
spoken, must be inferred from the careful solici-
tude with which he strove, not only to give
due effect to the various situations of the Drama,
but to bring out the sense of the text, even to
its lightest word. The work was produced in
1805, under the name of 'Fidelio, oder die
eheliche Liebe'; and again performed, in the
following year, with extensive alterations and a
new Overture : but its success was more than
doubtful. In 1 814 it was revived at the Kamth-
nerthor Theater, still under the name of ' Fidelio,'
with farther alterations consequent upon a
thorough revision of the text by Friedrich
Treitschke, and a new Overture in E-— the fourth
which had been written for it — and, on this oc-
casion, its beauties were more clearly appreciated,
though not to the extent they deserved. Never
during the Oompoeer's lifetime was 'Fidelio'
understood as we understand it now. Perhaps
no work of the kind ever caused its author more
serious annoyance. Even in 18 14, the Prima
donna, Madame Milder-Hauptmann, presumed,
on her own confession, to dispute Beethoven's will
with regard to the magnificent Scena, 'Komm,
Hoffnung, lass den letzten Stem.* Yet the un-
wearying care he bestowed upon the minutest
details of the piece, no less than upon its
general effect, resulted in a work which really
leaves no room for hostile criticism. The most
censorious analyst, if he be honest, will find
himself constrained to admit that, however deeply
he may seek into the inner meaning of the Scenes
it presents to us, Beethoven has been beforehand
with him, and sought into it more deeply still.
Not Gluck hims^f ever produced an Opera
bearing traces of such intense devotion to pure
dramatic truth. The principles upon which it
is modelled are, indeed, almost identical with
Gluck's, so far as theory is concerned ; but Gluck,
in his latest works, undEoubtedly sacrificed musical
form to dramatic expression; while Beethoven
has shown that the perfection of the one is not
inconsistent with the fullest possible enunciation
of the other.
With these great qualities to recommend.it,
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fldelio stands alone, and haf necessarily be-
come immortal ; while the works of Paer, Sitas-
mayer, and other Ckimpoeers who enjoyed a high
degree of popularity in the earlier years of the
19th century, have been long since almost for-
gotten. The only other productions of the Period
that can for a moment be placed in competition
with it are the later Operas of Cherubini, who,
after writing for many years in the light Neapoli-
tan style, struck out, in 'Lodoiska* (1791), a
manner of his own, strikingly original, and far
above the possibility of imitation, but based, like
Beethoven s, upon the principles laid down by
Gluck, and presenting the curious anomaly of a
German method, cultivated by an Italian, for the
amusement of a Parisian audience. Beethoven
is known to have spoken of Cherubini as ' the
greatest of all living writers for the Stage,' and
to have admired ' L^ deux Joum^es ' and ' Fan-
iska ' exceedingly : and it is worthy of remark,
that a strong analogy is observable between the
Libretti of 'Fidelio.* 'Faniska,' 'Les deux
Joum^,' and ' Lodoiska,' in each of which the
leading incident is the rescue of an unjustly-
detained prisoner, through the devotion of a
faithful friend whose life is risked, though not
lost, in the labour of love necessary to effect the
desWl object. We can scarcely believe it possi-
ble that the two great Composers would have
selected subjects so exactly similar in character,
and bringing into play exactly the same delicate
shades of emotion, passion, and feeling, had there
not been a strong community of thought between
them : yet their mode of expressing Uiat thought
was, in each case, so completely a part of than-
selves, that not the slightest trace of similarity is
discernible in their treatment even of those Scenes
which most closely resemble each other as well
in their outward construction as in their inner
meaniDg. In aU such cases, the most careful
criticism can only lead to the conclusion that
each Master did that which was best for his own
work in his own peculiar way; and the more
closely we analyse these works, the deeper will
be our reverence for the genius of those who
attained such splendid results by such very dif-
ferent means.
Our Fifteenth Pebiod introduces us to a
new and very remarkable development of the
German Opera, known among musical historians
as the Romantic School — a form of Art which,
since the beginning of the present century, has
exercised a more decided influence upon the pro-
gress of Dramatic Music than any other recog^
nised agent. The invention of the Romantic
Opera has been almost unanimously ascribed to
Weber; we must not, however, pass over in
silence a claim which has been brought forward,
within the last few years, in favour of Spohr,
though we believe it to be indefensible. It is
quite true that 'Faust,* Spohr's greatest triumph
in this peculiar style, was completed and ready
for perfonnance in 1813 ; while Weber*s master-
piece, 'Der Freischtitz,' was not produced till
i8ai. But the decision of the c(mtrover8y does
not rest, as has been pretended, upon the corn-
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parafdve clironology of theie two great worlcs.
As early as 1 806 Weber had given good promise of
what was to come, in a decid^ly Romantic Opera,
' Biibezahl/ written for the tikeatre at Breslau,
but never publicly performed. The only por-
tions of this Opera now known to be in existence
are, a Scena, a Quintet, and a Chorus of Spirits, in
MS., and the Overture — published, with exten-
sive alterations, under the title of 'Der Beherrs-
cher derGeister' (*The Ruler of the Spirits*).
It is sad indeed to feel that the remainder is
hopelessly lost; but the Overture alone affords
US all the evidence we need. Not only is it the
first example we meet with, in modem times, of
a grand Orchestral Prelude written in 6-4 time ;
but its Subjects, its Instrumentation, and its
general design, establish its * Romantic ' charac-
ter beyond all controversy, and, taken in con-
nection with the date of its production, remove
the necessity for bringing forward any &rther
testimony in the Composer's favour. Priority of
invention, therefore, unquestionably rests with
him ; while those who judge the question on
aesthetic grounds have never hesitated to accept
' Der FreischUtz * as an embodiment of the highest
Ideal the School is capable of realising, its truest
prototype as well as its brightest ornament. To
Weber, therefore, the full honour must be ac-
corded ; and it is in his works that the charac-
teristics of the School may be most profitably
studied.
It is by no means indispensable that the
Libretto of the Romantic Opera should deal with
the Supernatural. Though it certainly finds a con-
genial habitat in the realm of Ghosts, Deemons,
Faeries, Gnomes, Witches, MermaidB, and Sprites
of all sorts and conditions, it is equally at home
among the splendours of Chivalric Pageantry, in
the solitude of the Black Forest, or under the
arches of a Cloister. Its Dramatis persona may
be Queens and Princes, a troop of Spectres, or a
company of Peasants with hearts as innocent as
their dresses are homelv. Only, whoever they
are, they must speak m their real character,
natural or imaginary. The Scene cannot very
well be laid in the streets of a modem City, nor
must the incidents be such as one would be
likely to encounter in ordinary domestic life;
but the domestic affections, and all other pas-
sions which form the common inheritance of
every age and country alike, may, and neces-
sarily must, be represented in their fullest
integrity. The only condition laid upon the
Composer is, that when he is called upon to deal
with natiural things, he must be truly and un-
affectedly natural. When he soars into the
regions of Fancy, he must, trust entirely to the
power of his Imagination ; and, in proportion to
the extent of that power will be the measure of
his success. Let us see how these conditions are
fulfilled in Weber's masterpiece.
The plot of *Der Freischiitz* consists of the
simplest possible love story, surrounded by an
atmosphere of horror, whicJi, though having no
real connection with it, influences its progress
from beginning to end. It is by his clever
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recognition of this fact that Weber has proved
himself the greatest Master of the style that
ever lived. He presents his heroine to us as a
high-souled maiden, faithful and true, and above
all, earnestly and unaffectedly God-fearing. We
learn all this, not from anything she says or
does, but simply from the style of the Music he
has given her to sing. In like manner, and by
the same means of expression, he depicts his hero
as an honest fellow, very much in love, but very
weak and vacillating when his best affections are
used as temptations to draw him into evil. We
see this last-named trait in his character very
clearly exemplified in the grand concerted piece,
' O I diese Sonne,' and the Terzetto, ' Wje ? was?
entsetzen I ' and the first, in *JDurch die Walder * :
but, when the shadow of Samiel appears behind
him, he entirely loses his individuality. He is
no longer one of ourselves. His cry of despair,
'O dringt kein Strahl durch diese Nachte/
reaches us like a wail from the other world ; and
we are instantly transported from the realms of
human passion into those of pure imagination.
Caspar, on the other hand, is never natural. He
has consorted with Dsemons until he has himself
become a Fiend; and he betrays this fact as
clearly in his rollicking Trinklied, as in his Death-
Song. The same just discrimination of styles is
exhibited in the Music allotted to the Peasants,
the Bridesmaids, and the grisly Followers of
* The Wild Huntsman,' who are all made to sing
passages so well suited to their several characters,
whether real or imaginary, that no spoken words
could illustrate them with equal plainness. In
the famous ' Incantation Scene,' the Art of Tone-
painting is used with a power which needs the
aid of no scenic horrors to impress its meaning
upon the most unimaginative comprehension, and
which is, indeed, only too frequently distracted
by the noise and confusion inseparable from a too
exuberant * Spectacle ' : while the Overture, a
triumph of descriptive Instrumentation, furnishes
us, by means of its leading themes, with an epitome
of the entire story. The constant use of the LeU-
motif, throughout the whole of this remarkable
Opera, seems indeed to entitle Weber to the
honour of its invention, notwithstanding the sug-
gestive notes sung by the Statue in 'II Don
Giovanni.' His skill in making the Overture
serve as an argument to the piece to which it is
prefixed, in accordance with the principles laid
down many years previously by Gluck, is, at
all times, very conspicuous. In *Euryaijthe'
(1823), for instance, the spirited ' First Subject '
prepares us at once for the knightly pomp of the
coming Drama; while the weird episode for
Violini, con sordini, tells the secret of the plot
with a ghastly fidelity to which the shuddering
tremoU of the Viola — splayed sema sordini —
lends an intensity truly wonderful, when we re-
member the extreme simplicity of the means
employed. The raison d^itre of this extraordinary
episode — ^to which no one seems ever to give a
thought in England — is, the temporary rising of
the Curtain, for the purpose of displaying the Vault
containing the Sarcophagus of Adolar's sister
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Emma, whence la stolen the poisoned Ring after-
wards brought forward in evidence of Euryanthe^s
faithlessness. The whole passage is treated with
a dramatic force never afterwards exceeded even
by Weber himself. He seems, indeed, to have
bestowed especial pains upon 'Euryanthe/ in
which he so fiu' departed m>m German custom
as to substitute heavily accompanied Recitative
for spoken dialogue throughout— an expedient
which he did not foUow up in his later English
Opera 'Oberon,* and for the introduction of
which it is certain that neither English nor Ger-
man audiences were at that time prepared.
Though Spohr cannot be justly credited with
the invention of the ' Romantic Opera/ his ima-
ginative temperament and rich creative powers
enabled him to cultivate it with very great suc-
cess ; while his unlimited command over the in-
tricacies of the Chromatic and Enharmonic Genera
lent a peculiarly delicious colouring to his method
of treatment. His * Faust ' — ^now temporarily
thrust aside to make room for another work of
the same name^contains beauties enough to re-
move all danger of its permanent extinction.
<Der Berggeist' (1825), though less generally
known, is, in some respects, still finer; and is
especially remarkable for its magnificent Over-
ture, as well as for the skilful treatment of a
Scene, in which the phantoms of the heroine's
friends are sent, by the power of a magic spell, to
cheer her in her solitude. The shadowy Music
assigned to the ghostly forms, contrasted with
that sung by the same individuals when present
in their own proper persons, tells the story with
true dramatic accuracy. Spohr also reached a
very high standard in * Zemire und Azor' (181 9),
* Der Alchymist ' (1830), and * Der Kreuzfahrer '
(1845). In ' Jessonda/ produced in 1823, and
regarded by himself as his best Opera, he
made an attempt, like Weber, to abolish spoken
dialogue in favour of Accompanied Recitative ;
but found, like Weber, that popular feeling was
too strong to listen to reason on a point concern-
ing which it still holds its ground, both in Ger-
many, France, and England. In Italy alone has
uninterrupted singing been always regarded as a
iine qua non at the Opera.
Next in order of merit are the Romantic
Operas of Heinrich Marschner, whose more im-
portant productions, 'Der Vampyr' (1828),
*Der Templer und die JUdin* C1829), 'Hans
Heiling* U833)> and 'Adolph von Nassau'
(1844), rank among the best works of the kind
that have been produced in modem times. Of
the eleven Operas written by Ernst Theodor
Hoffmann, and now preserved in MS. at Berlin,
one only, founded on De la Motte Fouqu^'s
charming story of * Undine,* seems to have pro-
duced any very strong impression. Weber has
praised this, most enthusiastically ; yet, notwith-
standing its originality, its characteristic Instru-
mentation, and its intense dramatic p^wer — more
especially as exhibited in the part of Kiihlebom —
nothing has ever been heard of it since it was
first produced in 1 8 1 7 . Almost equally forgotten
are the Romantic Operas of Lindpaintner, whose
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' Lichtenstein,' ' Die SicQianische Vesper,' ' Der
Bergkonig/ and * Der Vampyr,* far excel, both in
artistic conception and technical devdopment,
many works which have unaccountably outlived
them. Lindpaintner died in 1856; and, in
noticing his works, we virtually bring our his-
tory of the German Opera down to the present
time ; for it is unnecessary that we should criticise
the ephemeral productions of Conradin Kreutzer,
Lortzing, and other writers who confessedly en-
tertained no higher aim than that of pleasing the
frequenters of the theatres at which they were
severally engaged ; and — exc^t in one important
instance, too grave to be either passed over in
silence or discussed in company with others —
we think it best to leave the inspirations of living
Composers to the judgment of a future gene-
ration.
When Cherubini fulfilled his great Art-mission
in Paris, he worked side by side with men, who,
though wholly unworthy to be placed in the same
category witn himself, or witn Beethoven — the
only other Composer whose Dramatic Music
bea^ the slightest analogy to his own — were,
nevertheless, earnest enough, in their way, and
conscientious^^ acted up to their light. Of these
Composers we now propose to speak, as the chief
actors in our Sixteenth Pbbiod, the most bril-
liant in the history of the Opira eomique.
After the retirement of Gluck, Picdnni still
enjoyed a certain term of popularity : but, when
the excitement of faction had settled down into
the calm of sounder judgment, the field was
really open to any French Composer with talent
enough to secure a fiur hearing. At this junc-
ture, Gr^try and Mdhul stepped forward to fill
the gap. Both were men of more than ordinary
talent, and the works of both became extremely
popular, and held firm possession of the Stage
for many years. Gr^tiy*s style was light and
pleasing, and exactly adapted to the taste of a
Parisian audience. M^hul was even a more
thorough Musician, and aimed at higher things;
striving conscientiously to carrv out the princi-
ples of his instructor, Gluck, tor whom he en-
tertained the deepest reverence, and to whose
wise counsels he was indebted for many of the
sterling qualities which tended to make his woik
deservedly famous. It was chiefly by the exer-
tions of these two genial writers, and their equally
talented countrymanandcontemporary, Boieldieu,
that the Op4ra eomique was raised to the position
which it has ever since maintiuned, as one of the
most popular branches of French Dramatic Art — •
for the great works of Cherubini, though Opira$
comiqtiea in name, are, in style, much more nearly
ailied to the German 'Romantic Opera.* The
true Op^a eomique is essentially a French crea-
tion. Its title is somewhat anomalous, for it is
not at all necessary that it should introduce
a single comic Scene ur Character : but its
(UnouemetU must be a happy one, and the dia-
logue must be spoken. Even M^huFs 'Joseph*
(1807), though founded strictly upon the Scrip-
ture narrative, is included, by virtue of this
condition, in the category, as are many other
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works, the action of which is aerions, or even
gloomy, throughout/ Since the beginning of the
present century, the best French Composers have
desired nothing better than to succeed in the
style which was so signally adorned by their im-
mediate predecessors. Monsigny, Berton, Isouard,
Laueur, and Gatel, all cultivated it with more or
lees success ; as did, at a later period, Clapisson,
Adam, Herold, Hal^vy, and Auber. The last
two Composers also attained great celebrity in
Grand Op&ra, concerning the devdopment of
which we shall have occasion to speak more
particularly in a later section of the present
Article; for the present, it is enough to say
that their lighter works have been received
little less coi^Ually in England and Germany
than at the Parisian theatres for which they
w«re originally composed.
As Grermany boasted its Bomantio Opera, and
France its Opira comique^ so England gave birth
to a style of Opera peculiar to itself, and differ-
ing in so many important points firom all other
known forms, that we shall find it convenient to
place it in a class by itself, and speak of it as
the creation of a Seventebnth Period.
In describing the dramatic wo^ of PurceU
(see p. 507 a), we stated our beliel%hat English
Opera owed its origin to the Masque. Now, the
Music of the Masque was whollpr incidental — ^that
is to say, it formed no essential element of the
piece, but was introduced, either for the purpose of
adding to the effect of certain Scenes, of affording op-
portunitieB for certain Actors to display their vocal
powers, or, of amusing or interesting the audience
in any way that might be thought most desirable.
The only purpose for which it was not used was
that of developing the action of the Drama»
winch was carried on entirely in spoken dialogue:
declamatory Music, therefore, was quite foreign
to its character, and all tiiat was demanded of
the Composer was a succession of Songs, Dances,
and tuneful Choruses. Puroell rebelled against
this state of things, and introduced a decidedly
dramatic feeling into much of his best Music ;
but he died early, and his work was not success-
fully followed up. The history of our Eighth
Period shows how completely ^e Italian Opera
banished native Art from the Stage, during the
greater part of the 18th century. Attempts were
indeed made to bring it forward, from time to
time, scnnetimes successfully, but often with
very discouraging results. Several English Operas
were sung at the 'Little Theatre in the Hay-
market,' while Handel's splendid works were
rapidly succeeding each other at the King's
Theatre across the street ; and, more than once,
English Operas were advertised to be performed
' a&r the Italian manner,* — that is to say, with
RedtativeB in place of dialogue, and measured
Melody for the Airs. None of these, however,
produced any real effect ; and no success worth
recording was attained until the year 1728, when
1 The Ugbter form of the VamdevOU m> mneh more nearly re-
tsmblee a Plajr, wHh IncldenUl Bongs, thaa a regular Opem, that we
do not think It necessary to tnclude a notice of it In the present
Artlda. LBee yAODiviu.E.]
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528
Gay wrote, and Dr. Pepusch adapted Music to, the
* Beggar's Opera.' This was an embodiment of
English Art, pure and simple. The plot was
laid in an English Prison; the dialogues were
spoken, as in an ordinary Play ; and the Music
consisted of the loveliest English and Scottish
Melodies that could be collected, either from
the inexhaustible treasury of National Song, or
the most popular Ballad Music of the day. The
success of this venture was quite unprecedented,
and led to the production of a sequel to the
story, similarly 'treated, and made ready for
performance, m 1739, though not preseuted to
the public until 1777, when it was played, for
the tirst time, under the name of ' Polly .' [See
Polly.]
No English Opera composed 'after the Italian
manner' was ever so cordiallv welcomed as
the 'Beggar's 'Opera.* Nevertheless, attempts
were still made in that style. In 1733, Dr.
Ame produced a piece called (after Fielding's
'Tragedy of Tragedies') 'Tom Thumb, The
Opera of Operas,' in which his little brother,
then known as Master Ame, sang the part of
the hero with great success; and Lampe was
still happier, in 1737* with his famous Burlesque
'The Ihagon of Wantley.' Ame, however,
aimed at higher things than these. His great
ambition was the formation of a School of
English Opera, based upon the then fashionable
ItaHan model; and, with this end in view, be
translated and set to Music the text of Metas-
tasio's 'Artaserse,' and produced it, under the
name of ' Artaxerxes,' in 1763. Its reception
was extremely encouraging, and deservedly so,
for it contained much excellent Music, and was
performed by a very strong company; but its
success was rendered almost nugatory, so far as
its effect upon the future was concemed, by the
interference of a certain class of critics — men,
for the most part, with some amount of literary
ability, but utterly ignorant of the first principles
of Art, and therefore knowing nothing whatever
of the merits of the question they pretended to
decide — ^who, having come to the conclusion that
the English language was unfitted for Becitative,
reiterated this opinion imtil they persuaded a
large section of the public to agree with them.*
But for this, it is quite possible that the idea,
had it been conscientiously developed, might have
led to results of real importance. As it was, no
farther attempt was made to sing an English
Opera, throughout, though no objection was
raised against the introduction of any amount of
Recitative, Accompanied or Unacoompanied,
into an Oratorio. Ame's project, therefore,
s Tiro Morementt from mndel's ' Water Masic,' and the Karch In
*8ciplo,' are introduced into this Opera, under the titles of ' Abroad
after Misses.' * Cheer up my Lads,' and ' Brave Boys, prepare.'
* Handel's 'Aleestes'— called, in Arnold's edition. ' Alcides *—«om-
poMd in 1749 to Smollett's words, was nerer produced at that time,
though Mr. Sims Beeves achieved a great success in it not many
yeSLTS since. 'Semele' was produced at Covent Garden in 1744.
' after the manner of an Oratorio '—that is to say. without Scenery
or Action.
4 ' Excellent and attraetive indeed most the Air be. that can atone
to English sentimenU and habiU lor the Recitative, and consequent
deetmetlon of all interest in the language, the incidents, and the
plot.' (Mus. Bev. ToL L p. 201.)
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brought forth no permanent fruit, though he
had no cause to be dissatigfied with the result of
his own private venture : but pieces constructed
more or less exactly upon the model of the
* Beggar's Opera,' though containing, for the
most part, only original Music, became enor-
mously popular, and were produced in almost in-
credible numbers. Between the years 1 788 and
1 796 Storace wrote fifteen, the most successful of
which were * The Haunted Tower,* * No Song, no
Supper,' ' The Iron Chest,' and ' Mahmoud.' DIb-
din wrote a still greater number, including * The
Padlock* (1768), * The Waterman' (1774). and
* The Quaker * (i 775). His Songs were character-
ised by a genial racinees which brought them into
universal fame at the time they were written,
and has been the means of preserving many of
them to our own day, though the pieces into which
they were introduced have been long since utterly
forgotten — with the exception, perhaps, of ' The
Waterman,* which still occasionally appears, as
an ' Afterpiece,' at Provincial Theatres, and in
which Mr. Sims Beeves achieved, not many,
years ago, a very great success. Shield was
gi^d with a true genius for Melody. His Songs
are delightful { and, among the thirty Operas
he produced between 1782 and i8o7, are many,
such as 'Rosina,* 'Lock and Key, and *The
Castle of Andalusia,* which abound vrith beauties
now very undeservedly forgotten. Michael Kelly
was a prolific writer of English Operas, and
won much fame by * The Castle Spectre * (1797),
'Bluebeard' (1798), and 'The Wood D»mon*
(1807). Hook, Davy, Ware, Reeve, and many
other equally popular writers, contributed their
quota of works which have long since passed
out of memory, but which our grandfathers
held in no light esteem. To them succeeded
Braham, whose really good Songs, so perfectly
adapted to the powers of his matchless voice,
commanded success for 'The English Fleet*
and many other pieces, which, as true works of
Art, were certainly not on a level with those
of Shield. Very (Afferent were the productions
of Sir Henry Bishop, a thorough master of
Harmony, and a more than ordinarily accom-
plished Musician. He made, indeed, no attempt
to improve upon the form of the English Opera,
which, in his hands, as well as in those of his
predecessors, was still no more than a Play —
generally a very poor one— diversified by a goodly
collection of Songs, Duets, and ChoruseSr But
neither his Songs nor his Concerted pieces be-
trayed the slightest sign of weakness. Had
they formed parts of a well-constructed Drama,
instead of being scattered through the various
Acts of such ill-conceived medleys as 'The
Knight of Snowdoun* (18 10), 'The Miller and
his Men' (1813), or 'Guy Mannering' (1816);
had their writer devoted his life rather to tne
regeneration of English Opera than to the less
exalted task of adorning it with gems of which
it was not worthy — the name of Bishop would
not have stood very low down upon the list of
the great Operatic Composers of the present
century. But there seems to have been a great
OPERA.
lack of energy in the right direction at this par-
ticular epoch. Charles Horn, another delightful
Composer of English Operas, was equally con-
tent to let the general character of the piece
remain as he found it. It would be scarcely just
to say the same of Balfe, who first made himuself
famous, in 1835, by * The Siege of Rochelle,* and,
in 1843, produced the most successful modem
English Opera on record, the far-famed 'Bo-
hemian Gin.' Balfe's style was not an elevated
one ; but he possessed an inexhaustible fund of
Melody, and by careful study of the Opira
eomique, he certainly raised the standard of the
pieces he wrote, so &r as their general structure
was concerned, though in so doing he deprived
them of the most salient characteristics of the
older models, and produced a novelty to which
it is difficult to assign any definite artistic status
— a pecidiarity which is, also, to some extent
observable in the works of Rooke, J. Bamett.
Lavenu, Wallace, and E. J. Loder. Happily
we find no such difficulty with regard to the
works of our best living Operatic Composers,
Sir Julius Benedict, Professor Macfarren, and
Mr, Arthur Sullivan. With these talented*
writers it rests to raise the English School to a
higher level* than it has ever yet attained.
They have already done much towards that
most desirable end ; and we cannot doubt that
Artists who have hitherto so conscientiously
striven to turn their gifts to the best account
will continue their labour df love untU they
have invested our National Lyric Drama wiUt
a very difierent form from that which it presented
during the earlier half of the present century.
Should they succeed in this great work, they wUl
certainly not fail to find a Manager able and
willing to do them justice ; for enterprising
Managers have never been wanting when their
presence was needed — witness the work wrought
by Arnold, Harrison, Miss Louisa Pyne, Car^
Rosa, and many others. The prospects of English
Opera are not, then, so dark as some of us may
imagine.
The Eighteenth Period of our history takes
us once more, and for the last time, to Italy,
where we find the work of Cimarosa followed up
by one of the most brilliant geniuses the world
has ever known. While Weber was studiotisly
developing the Romantic School in Germany,
Rossini was introducing unheard-of changes —
not always for the better, but always striking
and effective — into the inmost constitution of
Italian Art, and carrying them out with snch
trenchant vigour, and on so extensive a scale,
that he may be said to have entirely remodelled
both the Opera Seria and the Opera Buffik
Though by no means a learned Musician, he
knew enough of the Gnunmar of his Art to
enable him to do full justice to the delicious
conceptions which continually presented them-
selves to his mind, without costing him the labour
of a second thought. From first to last he never
troubled himself to work. Nature had bestowed
upon him the power of giving a nameless grace
to everything he touch^. His Melodies were
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OPERA.
more senBaous, his Instmmentatio^ more rich
and varied, and his forms more concise, than any
that had been previously produced in Italy ; it
was but natural, therefore, that he should be
hailed, at firsts as Cimarosa's legitimate successor,
or that he should eventually succeed in very nearly
supplanting him, notwithstanding his manifest
inferiority to that great Master in most, if not
all, of those higher qualities which tend to make
their possessor immortal. Possibly a greater
amount of learning might have dimmed the
lustre of his natural gifts. As it was, his country
had just reason to be proud of him, for his
weakest productions were infinitely stronger than
the strongest of those brought forward by the
best of hu Italian contemporaries. Like Cima-
rosa and Mozart, he was equally great in
Opera Sena and Opera Buffa. His first great
triumph in the former style took plftoe in the
year 1813, when he produced *I1 Tancredi' at
Venice and took the city by storm. This was
followed by many other works of the same class ;
and notably, in 1 816, by 'Otello,* which marks
an epoch in the histonr of Serious Opera, inas-
much as it is written m JiecUativo strumentato
throughout, in place of the ordinary JUcitatioo
secco^-tk peculiarity extensively adopted in the
Grand Operas of a later period. It was in 1816
that he also produced his greatest Opera Buffi^,
'H Barbiere di Siviglia* — a work which, not-
withstimding the extraordinary popularity of * La
Cenerentola,* ' La Gazza Ladra, And some other
equally well-appreciated favourites, has always
been regarded as his 4ik€f ^osuxre. Of his
'Guillaume Tell,' written in 1829, in a style
entirely different from anything he had ever
previously attempted, this is not the place to
speak; but the number of his Italian Operas
is prodigious, and though many of them have
long since been forgotten, the revival of an old
one may always be looked upon as a certain
success.
Bossini's greatest contemporaries and successors
were Merciulante, Giovanni Pacini, Bellini, and
Donizetti. The first of these cultivated a pecu-
liar elegance of style, and won bright laur^ by
his *Nitocri,' produced in 1826. In the same
year Pacini produced his best Opera, ' Niobe,* in
which Madame Pasta achieved one of her most
memorable triumphs. Of the masterpieces of
Bellini and Donizetti it is surely unnecessary to
^)eak, since they still hold firm possession of the
Stage, and are not likely to be soon replaced by
newer favourites. Bellini died in 1835, and
Donizetti in 1848 ; and, as most of their saoces-
Bors are still living, including Verdi (bom 18 14),
their works do not fall within the compass of the
present article.
In enumerating the Composers most celebrated
in the history of the Opira camique, we spoke oi
some who had attained equal distinction by the
production of Grand Operas. To these we must
again allude, in narrating the events of t>ur
NiNBTBBNTH PERIOD.
We have already noticed the invention of the
Grand Opera by Lulli, and its thorough reforma-
OPERA.
025
tion bv Gluck. Gluck's greatest successors were
Cheruoini and Spontini ; the former of whom,
after many splendid successes at the Op^ra
eomique, produced his * Anacr^n* at the Acadimie
in 1803, '^^^ Abenc^rages' in 181 3, and 'All
Baba' in 1833, while the latter achieved a triumph
in 1807 with 'La Vestale,* and in 1800 with
Ferdinand Cortez — ^works which, though now
most undeservedly forgotten, exhibit qualities
entitling them to a place among the best Operas
of their kind that have ever l^en placed upon
the stage. Bossini enriched the repertoire in
1828 with 'Le Comte Ory,' and in 1829 with his
matchless *GuilIaume Tell.* Auber produced
* La Muette de Portici ' in 1828. These were fol-
lowed in due time by Hal^vy*s 'LaJuive' (1835)
and 'Charles VI* (1843), and the * Benvenuto
Cellini* of Hector Berlioz (1838). But though
* Les Abenc^rages,* ' La Vestale,* and *Guillaume
Tell * are by far the finest examples of the style
we possess—so fine that they might well form the
glory of any style or any age — the representative
Composer of the Grand Opera is unquestionably
Meyerbeer. To him it owes its present brilliant
reputation, its gorgeous surroundings, its clever
mixture of Ballet and Spectacle, so flattering to
the national taste. He also it is who has nmde
the most of the one great characteristic by which
the style is distinguished from that of the Op6ra
comique — ^for it is indispensable that the Voices
should be accompanied by the full Orchestra, or
at least the full Stringed Band, throughout the
entire piece, to the utter exclusion not only of
spoken dialogue, but eveaof JUoitativo secco; and it
is very seldom indeed that the full Stringed Band
is sufficient for the expression of his ideas, without
the aid of Wind Instruments. *■ His three great
works, 'Robert leDiable*(i83i),'LesHugueiiots'
(1836), and 'Le Prophbte' (1849), exhibit in
their fiillest possible form of development all the
most prominent features of the School, more es-
pecially those which bring it into antagonism,
not only with the Classical Schools of Italy and
G ermany, as represented by Cimarosa and Mozart,
but with the later creations of Bossini, and the
imaginative productions of the successors of Weber.
Since he fiist made known the fulness of his
power in ' Robert,* no later Composer has ever
attempted to rob him of his well-earned fame;
and his death would have been an irreparable
loss to the Academic, had he not left behind
him the Composer of 'La Nonne sanglante*
(1854), 'Faust* (1859), 'Mireille' (1864), and
*Polyeucte*(i878).
In approaching the Twentieth Period of our
history, the last into which we have thought it
necessary to subdivide it> we find ourselves
brought face to fiice with a Master whose ear-
nest devotion to the cause of Art entitles his
opinions to a more than ordinary measure of
respectful consideration. We have, it is true,
expressed our intention of avoiding, as far as
may be, the invidious task of criticising the
1 Thoogh Oh«rnbtail*s ' Med^ ' and "hm deux iotuntm.' are grander
than any Grand Opera* Uiat erer were imagined, thejr are olaued a»
Qptroi tomiquM by vlrtua ci Uieir spoken dialogue.
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OPEEA.
prodactioxui of living anthon, from a firm ooqtic-
tion that the time u>r furly and diflpassionately
oonsidering the extent of their influence upon
the progresB of Art has not yet arrived ; but in
this case no choice is left to us. The theories of
Bichard Wagner have already been so loudly pro-
claimed and so freely discussed, his works nave
been so fiercely attacked by one class of critics,
and so extravagantly praised by another, that
it is no longer possible to ignore either their
pesent significance, their connection with the
history of the past, or their probable effect upon
the future. We therefore propose to conclude
our rapid sketch of the changes which the
Opera has undergone since its new birth in the
opening years of the 17th century, by reviewing,
as bri^y as the nature of the case will permit,
the peculiarities of the phase through which it
is now passing, and thus enabling our readers
to form their own opinion as to its relation to,
cnr points of divergence firom, the Schools we
have already attempted to desoribe.
Wagner*s contemplated regeneration of the
Lyric Drama, as he himself explains it, demands
changes fiur more significant than the mere adop-
tion of a new style ; changes which can only be
met by the creation of an entirely new Ideal — a
conception so different from any proposed since
the tmie of Gluck, that the experience of a
hundred years is utterly valueless as a guide
to its elaboration, except, indeed, as affording
examples of the &ults to be avoided. Reject-
ing tne very name of Opera as inapplicable —
which it certainly is— to this new conception, he
contents himself with the simple title of Drama.
The Drama, he tells us, depends, for the per-
fection of its expression, upon the union of
Poetry with Music, Scenery, and Action. When-
ever one of these means of effect is neglected for
the sake of giving undue prominence to another,
the result Ib an anomalous production which will
not bear the test of critical analysis. If we are to
accept him as our oracle, we must believe that,
hitherto, Composers, one and all, have erred
in making the Music of the Drama the first
consideration, and sacrificing all others to it.
That they have weakened rhetorical delivery^
for the sake of pleasing the ear bv rhythmic
Melodies which cannot co-exist witn just dra-
matic expression. That they have impeded the
action of the piece, by Uie introduction of
Movements constructed upon a reg^ular plan,
which, whether good or not in a Sonata, is
wholly out of place in a Musical Drama.
That they have kept the Stage waiting, in
order that they might give a fi&vourite Singer
the opportunity of executing passages entirely
out 01 character with the Scene it was his duty
to interpret. In place of such rhythmic Melo-
dies, such symmetrically-constructed Movements,
and such brilliant passages of execution, Wagner
substitutes a species of Song, which holds a
place midway between true Recitative and true
Melody— a kind of Mezzo recUativo, to which
he gives the name of ' Melos.* This he supports
by a rich and varied Orchestral Accompani-
OPEBA.
ment, deslffoed to f<Min, as it were, the badc-
ground to his picture, to enforce the expressioa
of the words by appreciate instrumental effect^
and to individualise the various members of the
Dramatii penoncB by assigning a special com-
bination of harmonies, or a wdl-defined LeU^
motif, to each. The management of this Ac-
companiment is incontestably his strongest point.
No man now liviog possesses a titiie of his
command over the resources of the Orchestra.
The originality of his combinations is as start-
ling as their effect is varied and beautifuL He
can make them express whatever he feels to be
needful for the effect of the Scenes he is treat-
ing ; and he fr^uently does so with such com-
plete success, that his meaning woidd be per-
fectly intelligible even were the Voice-part can-
celled. His ' Melos,* thus supported, adds power
and expression to the poetical text, and furnishes
us with a very high type of purely declamatoiy
Music — the only Music he considers admissible
into the * Drama,' except in an incidental form ;
while the infinite variety of orchestral colouring
he is able to impart to it deprives it> to some
extent^ in his hands, of the intdenbly mo-
notonous effect it would certainly be made to
produce by an inferior Composer. That he has
selected this style from conviction that it is more
exactly adapted to the desired purpose than any
other, and not from any niatural inability to
produce rhythmic Melody, is certain; for his
earlier Operas clearly show him to be a more
than ordinarilv accomplished Melodist in the
best sense of the term. 'Mit Gewitter
und Sturm aus femem Meer,* 'Traft ihr das
Schiff im Meere an,' and 'Steuermann! lass
die Wacht!' in 'Der fljegende Holland^,'
would alone prove this, had he never written
anything else. His principles, however, were
but very faintly perceptible in 'Der fliegende
HoUiinder. ' We find them more clearly enounced
in ' Tannhauser,' more strongly still in ' Lohen-
grin * and * Tristan und Isolde' ; but they only
attain their complete development in hu last
great Drama, ' Der Ring des Nibelungen,' a so-
caUed 'Tetralogy,' consisting of four divisions,
each long enou^ to form a complete work, and
respectively named, ' Das Rheingold,* ' Die
Wslktire,' 'Siegfried,' and ' Gotterdammerung.*
From this quadripaitite conception the Aria in
all its forms is strictly banished, and Music is
made throughout the handmaid of the libretto,
and not its mistress. The correlation t^nwAs-ng
between the two is so intensely close, that we
may well believe it could never have been
satisfactorily carried out, had not the poetical
text been fimished by the Composer himself.
Wagner evidently takes this view of the matter,
for he has written the Libretti as well as the
Music of all his later Operas ; and it is evident
that, where this arrangement is possible — that
is to say, where the Dramatist is great, and
equally great, both as a Poet, and a Musician — ^it
must of necessity lead to higher results than any
which are attainable when the work is divided
between two men of genius, who, however cloed^y
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their ideas may be in accordance, can never
think exactly alike. In the 'Tetralogy/ the
subject selected, and carried on throughout the
four grand divisionB of the work, is founded
upon certain Teutonic Myths, which it is scarcely
possible for two great writers — a Word-Poet and
a Tone-Poet — to contemplate from exactly the
same point of view : the advantage, therefore,
is immeasurable, when one mind, of great and va-
ried attainments, can arrange the whole. Wagner
inclines to the idea that Myths of this descrip-
tion furnish the best if not the only subjects
on which the Musical Drama can be founded,
though both ' Lohengrin ' and ' Tristan und
Isolde' are founded upon Keltic Legends. But,
in thia he would, perhaps, lay down no very strict
law ; for the Teutomc Myth could scarcely
appeal very strongly to the imagination of
an English audience, and, to a ^ench one,
the 'Nibelungenlied' would be utterly unintel-
ligible.
The foptse of our remarks will be best under-
stood by those who have enjoyed an opportunity
of hearing Wagner's works performs in his
own way ; but a mere perusal of the Score will
illustrate them with sufficient clearness to an-
swer all practical purposes. In either case, the
student cannot fail to be struck by the undoubted
originslity of the style : but, is the general con-
ception a new one ? Assuredly not. It is the
fullest possible development of the Ideal which
was proposed, in the year 1600, at the house
of Giovanni Bardi, in Florence. Wagner looks
back to Greek Tragedy as the highest available
authority on the subject. So did Binuccini.
Wagner condemns rhythmic Melody as alto-
gether opposed to dramatic truth. So did PerL
Wagner keeps his Instrumental Performers out
of sight, in order that he may the better carry
out the illusions of the Drama. So did £milio
del Cavaliere, and Peri alter him. Wagtier
uses all the orchestral resources at his com-
mand, for the purpose of enforcing his dramatic
meaning. So, in 1607, ^^ Monteverde. The
only difference is, that Monteverde had but a
mde untutored band to work with, while Wagner
has a magnificent Orchestra, fortified by the ex-
perience of two hundred and eighty years. It
was not to be wondered at that Monteverde's
style of Recitative grew wearisome, or that,
when the power of introducing orchestral colour-
ing was so very small, Alessandro Scarlatti en-
deavoured to increase the interest and beauty
of his works by the introduction of measured
Melodyand well-constructed Movements. In pro-
cess of time these well-intentioned improvements
attracted too much attention, and weictkened the
true power of the Drama. Then Gluck arose,
and resolutely reformed the abuse — but for the
time only. No one can say that his principles
have been fully carried out by later Composers
— that too many Operas of the present day, in
more Schools than one, are not grievously
lowered in tone by the pernicious habit of in-
troducing irrelevant, if not positively flippant
times, in situations where they are altogether
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627
out of place. Against these abuses Wagner has
waged implacable war ; and, in so doing, he has
merited the thanks of all who have the true
interests of the Lyric Drama at heart : for the
evils which he has made it Uie business of his life
to eradicate are no light ones, and he has enteted
upon his task with no Altering hand. Only,
while giving him all due honour for what he has
done, let us not wrong either himself or his
cause by pretending to give him more than his
due. He has called our attention, not, as some
will have it, to a new creation, but to a necessair
reform. He has nothing to tell us that Gludc
has not already said; and Gluck said nothing
that had not already been said by PerL The
reformation, so far as Becitative, Declamation,
and Melody are concerned, is nothing more than
a return to the first principles laid down at the
Conte di Yemio's reunions. It brings us there-
fore not one step in advance of the position that
was reached little less than three centuries ago.
These, however, are not the only points con-
cemiog which it b necessary to call Uie reader's
attention to the strange analogy existing between
the new School of the 19th century and that
which flourished in the 17th. The disciples of
Peri and Caccini cast aside, as mere vexatious
hindrances, the restrictions imposed upon them
by the laws of Counterpoint. Modem Composers
have doue the same ; and striving, like Monte-
verde, to invent harmonic combinations hitherto
unheard, have justified their innovations by the
not very easily controvertible dictum, 'That
which sounds well must, of necessity, be right.'
Admitting the force of this argument, must not
its converse — ' That which does not sound well
must, of necessity, be wrong* — ^be equally true I
It seems difficult to dispute this ; yet our ears are
sometimes very sorely tried. Can any one, for in-
stance, really take pleasure in the hideously 'out-
of-tune' effect of the following ' False rjation '
from the Third Act of ' Der fliegende Hollander * ?
The great danger attendant upon such aber-
rations as these, is that the progression used by
the Master, in a few isolated instances, for rea-
sons of his own, is too often mistaken by the
disciple for a 'characteristic of the style,' and
introduced everywhere, usque ad nauseam.
Should the disciples of the School we are con-
sidering faXi into this pernicious, though almost
universally prevalent error, its results cannot fail
to exercise a most disastrous effect upon the future
prospects of the Drama. We have already said
that the value of a work of Art depends entirely
upon the amount of Natural Truth it embodies,
whether that Truth be exhibited in the perfection
of symmetrical form, as in ' II Don Giovanni * or
'Le Nozze di Figaro,* in power of emotional
expression, as in ' La Sonnambula,' ' Norma,* or
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' Lucia di Lanunermoor/ or in purity of harmo-
niouB concord, as in 'II Matrimonio Segreto.*
Wagner^B strict adherence to Dramatic Truth
distinguishes his writings firom those of all other
Composers of the present day. He declares
himself ready to sacrifice all less important con-
siderations for its sake, and proves his loyalty
by continually doing so. No one will ven-
ture to assert that the value of his own works,
strengthened as they are by his conscientious
adherence to a noble principle, is materially
diminished by a heterodox resolution, or an occa-
sional exhibition of harshness in the harmony of
an orchestral accompaniment ; but, should his
School, as a School, encourage the use of pro-
gressions which can be defended upon no natural
principle whatever, we may be sure that no long
time will be suffered to elapse before it is pushed
aside, to make room for the creations of a
TWENTY-FIBST PeBIOD.
That such a period must dawn upon us sooner
or later is, of course, inevitable. Progress —
even though it 'progress backwards* — is an
essential condition of Art ; and we cannot sup-
pose that any exception will be made to the
general law in the present instance. This being
the case, it may not, perhaps, be altogether un-
profitable to consider, as closely as circumstances
will permit, the probable character of the Future
which lies before us, more especially with regard
to the influence which Wagner's works and
teachings are likely to exercise upon it.
*We are not left whoUy without such data
as may enable us to form an opinion on cer-
tain points connected with this very important
subject: and, first, we may state our belief that
it is simply impossible for such works as 'Der
fli^^nde Hollander,' or 'Die Meistersinger von
NUmberg,' to be forgotten, twenty years hence.
It seems much more probable that they, and
* Taimhauser,' and ' Lohengrin,' and perhaps also
'Tristan und Isolde,* will be better understood,
and more firequently performed, than they are at
present. But, what about the Tetralogy t Does
there seem a reasonable hope that that, too, may
live ? The probable longevity of a Work of Art
may be pretty accurately measured by the nobility
of its conception. * Die Zauberflote * is as young,
to*day, as it was on the evening when it first
saw tiie light : ' Der Dorfbarbier * is not. Now
it is an universally received axiom, that, of two
Works of Art, both equally true to Nature, that
in which the greatest effect is produced by the
least expenditure of means will prove to be the
noblest. The greatest Operas we have are placed
upon the Stage with wonderfully little expense.
For the worthy representation of • Kdelio,* we
need only some hslf-dozen principal Singers, a
Chorus, an ordinary Orchestra, and a couple of
Scenes such as the smallest provincial theatre
oould provide at a few hours* notice. For * Der
IVeischiitz,' we only need, in addition to this, a
few special 'properties,' and a pound or two of
' red fir«.' But, in order that ' Der Ring des
Nibelungen * might be fitly represented, it was
found neoessaiy to build a new Theatre ; to con-
OPERA.
struct an Orchestra, upon principles hitherto
untried, and to fill it with a matchless company
of Instrumentalists representing the most bril-
liant talent in Europe; to enrich the mise en
tctni with Waves, Clouds, Mists, Flames, Va-
pours, a Dragon — made in London, 'and sent to
bayreuth in charge of a special messenger — and
other accessories which put the stabled Horws
and led Elephants of 'Berenice,' and the Singing-
Birds of 'Rinaldo,' to shame; and, regardless of
expense, to press into the service of the new
School all the aids that modem science could
contribute or modem ingenuity invent. Surely
this is a great sign of weakness. There must
be something wanting in a Drama which needs
these gorgeous accompaniments to make it at-
tractive ; and it is difficult to believe that such
a display will ever again be attempted, except
under the immediate superintendence of the
author of the piece. But, supposing the ' Tetra-
logy' should be banished firom the Stage, firom
sheer inability to fulfil the necessary conditions
of its production, will the principles upon which
it is composed be banished with it! Is it not
possible that Wagner's teaching may live, even
though some of the grandest of his own indi-
vidual conceptions should be forgotten? Un-
doubtedly it will live, in so fiur as it is founded
upon purely natural principles. We have already
spoken of his intense reverence for dramatic
truth. He cannot have taught us the necessity
for this in vain. It is absolutely certain, that,
in this particular, he will leave a marked im-
pression for good upon the coming generation.
Whether or not he has carried his theories too
far for successful practice is another question.
His disciples say Uiat he has not : and are so
firmly convinced of die truth of their position
that they will not even hear an argument to the
contrary. Nevertheless, there are many, who,
despite their unfeigned admiration foe his un-
doubted talent, bdieve that the symmetrical
forms he has so sternly banished might have
been, and still may be, turned to good account,
without any real hindrance to dramatic action :
and many more there are who doubt whether the
old Florentine Ideal, reinforced by all that modem
improvement can do for it, can ever be made to
take the place of that which Mosart so richly
glorified, and fix>m which even Beethoven and
Weber only differed in individual treatment.
The decision of these questions must be left for
the future. At present, ' Non piu andrai * and
'Madamina* still hold their ground, and may
possibly win the day, after all.
In dose, and not very encouraging connection
with this subject, there still remains another
question, which we would willingly have passed
over in tdlence, had it been possible : but, having
entered upon our enquiry,- we must pursue it to
the end. We may be sure that Wagner's meet
enthusiastic supporters will attempt to carry out
his views very much &rther than he has carried
them himself. Will they also think it desirable
to imitate his style? It is to be hoped not.
It would take a long day to tire tu of Wagner —
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OPERA.
but we canDot take him at leoond-hand. ' Wag-
neriiBin,* nor gods nor men oan tolerate. Yet
there are signs of imitation abeady. Not only
in the lower ranks — ^there, it is a matter of no
oonsequenoe at all, one way or the other — ^but
among men who have already made their mark
and need no stepping-stones to public fibvour.
Nor is it only at the Opera — ^the plaoe in which
we should naturally haTe sought for its earliest
manifestation — but even in Instrumental Music :
one whose name we all revere, and firom whom
we confidently expect great thiugs, has been be-
trayed into this imitation, in a marked degree,
in the Finale of one of his most important orches-
tral works. It is more than poaedble, that, in
this case, the plagiarism of manner — it does not,
of course, extend to the notes — was the result of
an unconscious mental process, not unnaturally
produced by too keen an interest in the con-
troversies of the day. But, be the cause what it
may, the fact remains; and it warns us of serious
danger. Danger that the free course of Art may
be paralysed by a soulless mannerism, worthy
only of the meanest copyist. Danger, on the
other hand, of a reaction, which will be all the
mOTe violent and unreasonable in proportion to
the amount of provocation needed to excite it.
Should the cry of the revolutionary party be
for Melody, it will not be for Melody of that
heavenly form which true genius alone can pro-
duce, but fat the vulgar twang with which we
have long been threatened, and of which we have
already endured fu more than enou^. Between
these two perils, stagnation and reaction, which
beset our path like 'a ditch on one side,
and a quagmire on the other,' we shall, in all
probability, come to some considerable amount
of griet Yet we must not lose heart on that
account. Art is not now passing through her first
dangerous crisis : and our hisUny has been writ-
ten in vain if we have not shown that her worst
crises have Alw&ys been succeeded by her bright-
est triumphs. There may be such a triumph in
store for her, even now. Before the new Period
dawns, a Leader may arise, strong enough to
remove all difficulties from her path ; a Teacher,
who, profiting by the experience of the last half
century, may be able to point out some road, as
yet untried, which all may follow in safety. Let
thoae who are young enough to look forward to
the 20th century watch cheerfully for his ap-
pearuice : and, meanwhile, let them prepare for
the difficult work of the Future, by earnest and
unremitting study of the Past. [ W. S. R.]
In the United States the Opera has always
lived the life of an exotic. Finding congenial
soil in some of the larger and wealthier cities, it
has there flourished for a while, then suddenly
drooped and withered. Large and elegant
theatres, to which have been applied the digni-
fied title of Academv of Music or Opera House,
have been built, it having been, in some cases,
the primary puipose of the owners to devote the
establishment solely to representations of the
lyric drama. But in no case has it been possible
VOL. n. FT. II.
OPERA,
62»
to long adhere to this intention. With the single
exception of New Orleans no city in the United
States has proved itself capable of TnlLin»J^iT^iT^g
Opera through the months—September to May,
inclusive—- usually included in the theatrical
season. At the dose of the late Civil War
New Orleans found a large part of its commerce
diverted to other ports, and since the return of
peace the French opera in that city, whidi
before had borne a high reputation for enter-
prise, has led a fitful life. The directors of
operatic troupes in the United States have been
obliged, after beginning as a rule their seasons
in New York, to take their companies all over
the Union — from Augusta in the East to St.
Louis in the West — o^entimes extending their
journeys as far South as New Orleans, and in
some cases even to San Francisco and other
cities on the Pacific slope. All dramatic enter-
prises have been in the hands of private indi-
viduals. The operatic managers who have won
the most reputation have been Seguin, who
conducted a party in New York as early as
1838; Max Maretzek, whose checkered career in
America began in November 1848 ; the brothers
Max and Maurice Strakosch ; Carl Rosa ; H. L.
Bateman ; Bemhard Ullmann ; J. H. Hackett,
under whose management Grisi and Mario made
their successful American tour in 1854-55 ; Jacob
Grau and his son Maurice ; 0. D. Hess. Mme.
Anna Bishop, Ole Bull, and Sigismund Thalbei^
have also been concerned in operatic specula-
tions in the New World. Lorenzo da Ponte,
in early life the fiiend and coadjutor of Mozart,
was, in 1833, an active worker in the cause
of Italian opera at New York. Ferdinand
Palmo, an Italian, keeper of a fiunous oafd in
New York, opened Feb. 3, 1844, with Bel-
lini's * Puritan!,' Palmo*s Opera House, the first
exclusively lyric theatre in the metropolis ; but
it did not maintain its character more than a
season or two. From researches made by Mr.
Joseph N. Ireland, the author of * Records of the
New York Stage ' it appears that the theatre-goers
of a centuiy ago in New York were oooasionallv
gratified with operas of the English ballad school,
* The Beggar's Opera' having been sung in 1751,
• Love in a Village* in 1 768, * Inkle and Yarico,*
•The Duenna,' * "nieTempest ' (Purcell*s music), in
1 791, and others, whose very names are imknown
to the amateurs of to-day, in 1 800. ' The Archers,
or The Mountaineers of Switzerland*— on the story
of William Tell— brought out April 18, 1790,
may lay claim to being the first American opera,
though the music was by an Englishman,
Benjamin Carr, a brother of Sir John Carr, who
came to America in 1794. William Dunlop, of
great repute in his day as an author, actor, and
manager, furnished the text. * Edwin and Ange-
lina,' founded on Gk>ldsmith's poem, words by
Dr. E. H. Smith, of Connecticut, music by M.
Pellesier, a French resident of New York, was
produced Dec. 19, 1798. M. Pellesier abo set
Dunlop's 'Sterne's Maria,' brought out Jan. 11,
1798. Bishop's 'Guy Mannering' (1816), and
adaptations of Rotuni's 'Barber' (1819) and of
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OPERA.
Mozart's • Figaro' (iSa^), Davy's *Rob Roy*
(1818), with other I^luih operas, and Torsions in
the yemaoular of standard works in Continental
tongues, had, with the opportunities for hearing
good singing afforded by the engagements of
Indedon and Thomas Phillipps (i$i 7), and other
excellent English vocalists, gradually prepared
the way for the first season of Italian Opera,
which began at the Park Theatre, New York,
Nov. 26, 1825, with Rossini's * Barber.' The
eonqwny, imported by Dominick Lynch, a French
winemerdiant, included Manuel Garcia and
his celebrated daughter Maria Felidta. [See
Garcia.] At the same house there was begun,
July 13, 1827, the first regular season of French
opera, with Rossini's *Cenerentola.' German opera
was introduced Sept. 16, 1856, at NiUo's
Garden, Meyerbeer's 'Robert der Teufel' being
tiie work sung. The conductor was Mr. Can
Bergmann, and the leader of the orchestra Mr.
Th^ore Thomas, who had then barely attained
his majority.
Opera-bouffe was introduced in New York, at
the French Theatre, Sept. 24, 1867, by H. L.
Bateman; Offenbach's 'Ia Grande Duchesse' was
the work, with Mile. Lucille Post^ in the title-
r^le. It ran for 158 nights. A troupe of Mexican
children performed, in Spanish, the same work,
in several cities of the Union, 1875-76.
In the winter of 1869-70, a company of Rus-
sians gave performances of operas in their native
tongue, by Slavonic composers, at New York.
^e theatres which have most £uthfully
answered their avowed purpose as opera-houses,
have been the Academy of Music, New York,
opened Oct. a, 1854, with Grisi and Mario,
in * Norma,' now under the management of James
Henry Mapleson, of Her Majesty's; Opera ; and
the Academy of Music, Philadelphia, opened
Feb. 26, 1857, ^'^^^ Mme. Gazsaniga, Sig.
Brignol^ and Sig. Amadio, in * H Trovatore.' It
should be recorded to the credit of American
entrqarenewn that several important works have
been produced at New York before th^ had
been sung at either London or Paris— Verdi's
«Alda,' Wagner's ' Lohengrin' and * Die Walkttre'
being the most notable instances. American com-
posers have received but little encouragement
from the managers. Three works— George Bris-
tow's 'Rip van Winkle,' Niblo'a Garden, New
York, Sept. 27, 1855; W. H. Fry's 'Leonora,'
New York Academy, March 29, 1858 ; and 'Notre
Dame de Paris,' by the same composer, Phila-
delphia Academy, April 1864 — ^have been the
most important productions: no one of these
lived Ions beyond its birth. There is a for-
midable list of extravaganzas, and of operettas in
the serio-comic vein or in imitation of French
operorbouffe, by American musicians, the greater
part of which have vanished after fluttering a
butterfly's life in the glare of the footlights.
Composers of recognised ability have written
grand operas, but the scores have only gathered
ignoble dust in their author's libraries, or found
their only market among collectors when pub-
lish/ed. 'The Doctor of Alcantara,' an (^retta
OPERA BX7FFA.
by Julius Eichberg, a native of DttsseMorf, but
for twenty years a resident at Boston, may be
cited as the most snoeesrfhl work of any pre-
tentions with an exclusively American reputa-
tion. Froduoed at the Boston Museum, April 7,
1862, it has been sung over a large pa^rt of the
Union, and still retains its populwity. Mr.
Eichberg has also written three other operettas
which have been favourably received — ' The Boss
of Tyrol,' * A Night in Rome^' and 'The Two
Cadis.' No distinctive sdiool of music has yet
arisen in the United States, nor, so long as the
Union maintains itself in its present extent, and
its inhabitants present the cosmopolitan charac-
teristics of to-day, is it likely tiiat there will be
one. But this want has not prevented the birth,
education, in a large degree, and liberal en-
couragement, of operatic singers whose worth has
been proclaimed in two hemispheres. Known
nearly as well in England as in America are the
names of Miss Clara Louise Kellogg, M\8S Annie
Louise Ci^, Miss Adelaide Phillipps, Miss
Emma C. iJiursby, Mr. Charles R. Adams, and
Mr. Mvron W. Whitnev. Mile. Enuna Albani,
Mile. Minnie Hauk, Mr. Jules Perkins, and
Sig. FoU were also bom and began their brilliant
careers in the New World ; and to this list should
be added the names of Mme. von Zandt, Miss
Julia Gaylord and Mr. F. C. Packard, now at-
tached to Mr. Carl Rosa's English opera company.
The Patti sisters, Adelina and Carlotta, gathered
their first harvests of applause in America. The
greater part of the £sctB herein presented, bear,
it will be seen, reference to New York, for the
reason that of no other city has there been pre-
pared so complete and accurate a chronology as
is included in the ' Records,* already cited. New
York too has been for more than a century the
American metropolis ; and being the wealUiiest
city of the Union greater encouragement has been
given to operatic enterprises than elsewhere, with
the exception of New Orleans for % number of
years before the Civil War, as already noted.
Jxk Boston the first season of Italian Opera began
at the Howard Athenasum, April 23, 1847, with
' EmanL' The company was uie £Amous Havana
party, which had previously appeared for two
nights at New York. Sig. Luigi Arditi was the
conductor, and the orchestra induded Sig. Botte-
sfaii, the contra-bassist. The history of operm in
Boston previous to the advent of this troupe
presents the same characteristics as have been
noted in the case of New York. [F. H. J.]
. OPfiRA BOUFFE. A French Comic Opera,
of exceedingly Hght character, and constructed
on too trivifd a B(^e to entitle it to rank as an
Op&ra Comique. [W. S. R.]
' OPERA BUFFA. An ItaUan Opera, of light
and playful character, in which the Dialogue Ib
carried on in RecUcUivo ieceo, interposed be-
tween the Airs, Duets, and Choruses, whicb fcam
the chief attraction of the piece. The subject of
the Opera Buffii is always more or less comic,
and not unfrequently extravagantly so. The
finest examples extant are, Cimarosa's ' U Matri-
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OPERA BOTFA.
mbnio segretb,* Mozart's *CoA &n tntte,' and
BoBsini*8 ' II Barbiero di l^viglia/ [See Opera,
loth, 1 2th, and iStli Periods, voL ii. pp. 513,
516, and 524. Also Goiao Opbba.] [W.S.R.]
OPfiRA COMIQUE. A French OcNsra, in
which the cUnouemetU is happy, and the Dialogue
spoken. Provided these two conditions be present,
it is not at all necessary Uiat the piece should in-
troduce any really comic Scenes, or Characters ;
for instance, one of the finest Opiras comiqties in
Existence is Cherubini's * Les deux joum^es,* in
which the hero is only saved from what appears
to be almost certain destruction by the devotioii
of an humble friend. [See Opera, 16th Period,
voL il p. 5 2 2 ; also Gomo Opera.] [W. S. R.]
OPl^RA COMIQUE, THE, at Paris, a theatre
for French pieces with spoken dialogue, origin-
ated in the 'spectacles de la Foire.* For its
early history we refer the readers to Chouquet's
* History of Dramatic Music in France ' (Paris,
Didot, 1875), and will only state that the title of
' Op^ra comique ' dates from the execution of an
agreement between the comedians and the direc-
tors of the Acaddmie royale de Musique in 17 15.
The new enterprise, thus recognised, suooeeded
so well as to excite the jealousy of the large
theatres, and in 1 745 to cause the dosing of ^
Op4ra Comique. In 1752, however, Monet re-
cdved permission to reestablish it at the Fair of
St. G^ermain, and under his skilful management
it progressed so rapidly that in 1762 the Op^
Comique joined the Com^e Italienne, aud took
possession of the room in the Rue Mauconseil,
whence in 1783 they migrated to the theatre in
the Rue Favart. £l 1791 a second Op^ra Com-
ique Company established itself in the Rue Fey-
deau, and a fierce competition ensued, which
ended in the ruin and dosing of both houses in
1801. After this the two companies were united
into one, which settled itself at the Th^tre Fey-
deau, living the Salle Favart to the Italian
troupe. At the Feydeau they remained till
Apru 1829, when the theatre, being no longer
habitable, was closed. The Favart theatre beiug
still in the hands of the Italians, the Opera
Comique took possession of the Salle Ventadour,
but quitted it in 1832 for the little Theatre des
Nouveaut^ in the Place de la Bourse (no longer
existinfir), and at length in 1840 returned to the
Salle Favart, where it is still located. The house
looks on to the Place Boieldieu. It holds 1500
persons. In 1879 it ^^ completdy restored by
Cr^pinet, to the improvement of its acoustic
qualities, which before were not good. [G.C.]
OPERA, ENGLISH. [See Opera, 6th and
17th Periods, voL ii. pp. 5066-507, 523-524;
also English Opera.] [W.S. R.]
OPERA, FRENCH. [See Opera, 5th, i ith,
16th, and 19th Periods, vol ii pp. 505-506, 515 6
-516, 532 b, and 525.] [W.S.R.]
OPERA, GERMAN. [See Opera, 7th, 13th.
14th, 15 th, and 20th Periods, vol. ii. pp. 507 6-
508, 518 6-5i9» 5^9 ^-520, 520 6-522. 5256-
528. [W.S.R.]
OPHICLEIDB.
531
OPilRA, GRAND, i. A French Opera, sung
throughout, with the accompaniment of the f ufi
Orchestra, to the entire exdusion of spoken
dialogue. The finest examnles we possess are,
Rossini's ^Guillaume Tell, Cherubini's 'Lea
Abenoerrages,' and Spontini's ' La Vestale* : the
most popular are, Meyerbeer's * Robert le Diable,'
'Les HuguelLots,* and ' LeProph^te.' [See Opera,
i9th Period, vol. ii. P* 525.]
2. A magnificent Theatre, in Paris, near the
Boulevard des Capucines (opposite to the Rue
de la Paix), devoted to the performance of Orand$
Op6ra8, [See AOADEMIE DE Musiqde.] [W.S.R.]
OPERA. ITALIAN. [See Opera, ist, 2nd,
3rd, 4th, 8th, 9th, loth, 1 2th, 13th, and i8th
Periods, vol. ii. pp. 497-500, 500-502, 502 6-504,
504-50S* 508-513, 513 6-514,5166-517, 5176-
518,5246-525. [W.S.R.]
OPERETTA. A little Opera, generally of a
buffo character, too short to furnish an evening's
amusement, but useful as an Afterpiece, or Inter-
mezzo. We can scarcdy point out more charming
examples of the style inan Mozart's ' II Direttor
della Commedia' (ike Italian version of his
' Schauspiddirektor ) and Rossini's 'L*Inganno
fdice.' Both these little masterpieoes are hi one
Act; and this condition is really an essential
characteristic of the Operetta ; but, of late years, -
Operettas in two Acts have been not at dl un-
common, as in the case of Mr. Arthur Sullivan's
' H!.M.S. Pinafore ' — the most successful work of
the kind on record. Pieces extending to this
length are prevented, for the most part, from tdLing
rai^ as true Operas, dther by triviality of subject,
or by the evanescent character of the Mudo by
whidi it is accompanied, and are, therefore, cor-
rectly described as Operettas in two Acts, notwith-
standing the anomaly implied in the UUe.
In Italy, the Didogue of the Operetta is dways
carried on in JUcitativo seeco. In England,
Grermany, and France, it is spoken. [W.S.R.]
OPHICLEIDE (Eng. and Germ. ; Fr. Basse
d^Marmonie). A barbarous name, compounded
of the Greek words for snake and door-key, which
has been given to an improvement on the Ser-
pent, Rusdan bassoon, or Bass-horn.
The invention of this instrument is attri-
buted by F^tis to Frichot, a French musician
settled in London about the year 1790. He
states moreover that Frichot published in
London in the year 1800 a description and
method of playing it, under the title of ' A Com-
plete Scde and Gammut of the Bass-horn, a new
instrument, invented by M. Frichot, and manu-
factured by J. Astor.* It seems however that
a muddan of the church of St. Peter, at Lille,
by name Regibo, had already, in 1 780, made im-
provements on the serpent, by adding several
keys and modifying the bore, so that Regibo
may in (act be conddered as thd inventor even
of uie so-called Russian bassoon, ' which returned
from the north of Europe about thirty years later.'
It seems agreed on all hands that the French
were made acquainted with this instrument by
the bands of the allied soverdgns, when the latter
Mma
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(582
.OPHICLEIDE.
joccnpied Paris in 1815. In this jekt its diB-
covery is claimed by Halary of Paris, who pa-
tented it in 1 8a I, and whose successor is said to
possess the original model, with 7 keys and a scale
of 2 7 notes. Labbaye added new keys to it, and
the number has been since raised to 11.
. Two of these instruments were employed at the
J^usical Festival in Westminster Abbey in June
1 834. At the Birmingham Festival of the same
year an ophicleide as well as a contrabass opbi*
cleide were introduced, and are noticed in a peri-
odical of the time as ' destined to operate a great
change in the constitution of the orchestra.*
The early specimens were termed Serpent-
cleides, and seem to have been made partially
in wood, like their predecessors the Serpents; but
of late brass has been exclusively employed for
the whole construction. The ophicleide has been
made in many keys, viz. in alto F and £b, in
C and £b bass, and in the lower octave of the
two first, viz. the F and £b of the 16-foot octave.
That now commonly used stands in 8 -foot C, and
borrows a single note from the 16-foot octave,
namely the £q, one semitone below the lowest
note of the violoncello and a whole tone above the
last note of the three-stringed double-bass.
The mouthpiece consists ,
of a large metal or ivory
cup, not dissimilar to those
of the bass trombone and
euphonium. The ophi-
cleide possesses the usual
harmonic series of all brass <
instruments. The funda-
mental tone is not however I
employed, itsoompass com- !
mencing on tKe first har-
monic, as before noted with f
respect to the horn. We
thus have in succession 0,
with its octaveand twelfth,
double octave, major third,
and fifth above.
The first key for the
thumb of the left hand,
usually standing open,
lowers all these notes by
a semitone, giving the
chord of Bt] with five
sharps. The second, which
is habitually closed, raises
the original pitch by a like interval, giving the
chord of Db or C%, The principle thus stated
runs through the remaining mechanism ; the 3rd
key giving D and its derivatives, the 4th £b, the
5th £t], the 6th F, or seven semitones in alL
The 7th key furnishes Ff, which was formerly
missing in the scale, and Ab, the 8th Gt], the
9th Ab, the loth A||, the nth Bb.
A compass is thus obtained of 38 semitones,
or a little over three octaves — ^from the low B^
given above, to C in the treble stave. It will
OPUS.
be obvious that from the overlapping and ooin-
cidence of the various harmonic series many
alternative methods of producing the same note
with slight enharmonic changes are open to a good
player. It will also be seen that the seven semi-
tonic keys exactly reproduce by a different me-
chanism the successive shifts of the violin feunily,
and the slide positions of the trombone. The in-
strument IB therefore of far greater capabilities for
accurate intonation than the three or even the four-
val ved contrivances which bid fair to supersede it.
It is theoretically equivalent to a conical tube
which can be shortened by any given number of
semitones in succession. This shortening is not
however obtained, as in the French horn, from the
upper part by means of crooks, but from the bot-
tom upwards, by the contrivances of lateral holes
and keys. It is the bass correlative of the key or
Kent bugle, in which also the method of keys pre-
ceded the more modem invention of valves.
The tone of the ophicleide is, from its differ*
ence of scale and of material, less tender and
veiled than that of its predecessor the serpent,
but on the other hand it has greater compass and
equality than that rather primitive contrivance.
For the reason stated above its intonation ia
more accurate than that which can be obtained
from any valve instrument whatever.
There is very little concerted music for this in-
strument. Indeed Mendelssohn, who employs it
freely in some of his works, such as the '£lijah/
where it is written for down to 16-foot A, three
lines below the bass stave, and the ' Midsummer
Night's Dream' music, where it has an important
part in the overture, may be considered as the only
classical writer who systematically introduces it
in his scores. Wagner has replaced it by bass
and contrabass tubas. It figures in modem
operatic music; and in the lumds of its only
living player, Mr. Samuel Hughes, is deservedly
a popular solo instrument. The serpent parts of
the older music are usually allotted to it ; though
even these, in the band of the Sacred Harmonic
Society and elsewhere, have been transferred to
the far more profound and powerful oontra-
fagotto. It is to be regretted that an instrument
which presents considerable accuracy of intona-
tion and a characteristic quality, should be al-
lowed to fail into entire disuse.
Tutors and instruction-books for the Ophicleide
are published by Schiltz, by Berr & Causeinus,
and by V. Ck>mette, of which the second named
is the most complete. [W. H. S.]
OPUS, OPUS-NUMBER, OP£RA, CEU VRE.
A method of numbering musical compositions in
the order of their publication, using the Latin
word opus (work), began to come into use in the
time of Mozart, but was not fiilly established untfl
Beethoven's time, the numbering not being car-
ried out to all the published works of Uie foxmer
master. No rule is observed as regards the size
of an opus : for instance, Beethoven's op. i conaista
of three pianoforte trios, while Schubert's op. i
is only the song < £rlkonig.* The opus-numba
has nothing to do with the date of compoeitioD,
but only with that of the publication ; thus 1
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OPU&
of Meitdelnolm*8 early works were published
(poethumoosly) with very li^te opos-nombera.
Several mistakes have ooonnred in the number-
ing of Beethoven*8 works in various editions : for
instance, the three pianoforte sonatas (op^ 31)
have often be^i called 'op. 39/ which is the
number of the String Quintet in 0, and the last
lour of the so-called ' posthumous' quartets have
been numbered in two difierent ways. The
proper numbering is as follows: the A minor
Quartet should be op. 1 30, not 1 3a ; that in Bb'
major, op. 131, not 130; that in Of minor,
op. 13 a, not 131, and that in F major, op. 133^
not 135. [J.A.F.M.]
ORATORIO (Lat. Oratorium; Ital. Dramma
sacra per Musiea, Oratorio ; Germ. OraJtorium).
A Sacred Poem, usually of a dramatic character,
sung throughout by Solo Voices and Chorus, to
the accompaniment of a full Orchestra, but — at
least in modem times — without the assistance of
Scenery, Dresses, or Action.
The dramatic instinct is so deeply implanted
in the human mind, that it would be as hopeless
to search for the earliest manifestation of its
presence as for the origin of languaffOb We have
already endeavoured to trace back tbe history
of the Opbra to the infancy of Greek Tragedy.
But, it is clear that dramatic performances must
have had an incalculably earlier as well as an
infinitely ruder origin tnan that; and equally
certain that they have been used from time im-
memorial as a means of inculcating moral and
religious truth, and instructing the masses in hi8>
torical and legendary lore which it would have
been diflScolt to impress upon them by the mere
force of verbal description. That they were so
used in the Middle Ages is proved by abundant
evidence. The Mysteries, Moralities, and Miracle
Plays, which in the 13th and 14th oenturies were
80 extensively pq)ul«r throughout the whole of
Europe, did more towards fanuliarifing the multi-
tude with the great events of Scripture History
than could have been effected by any amount of
simple narrative; and it is to these primitive
performances, rude though they were, that we
must look for the origin of that grand artistic
creation — the noblest ever yet conceived with
Music for its basis — which still serves to invest
the Sacred Story with a living interest which we
cannot but regard as a valuable help to the real-
isation of its inner meaning, and to impress upon
our minds a more elevated Ideal than we could
ever hope to reach without the aid of Song.
It is impossible to say when, where, or by
whom, the first dramaticr representation of a
Scene f^m Holy Writ was attempted. One of
the oldest examples of which we have any certain
record is the * Festum Asinomm,' celebrated at
Beauvais and Sens, in the lath oenturv, and
long remembered in connection with a mmous
Carol called the ' Proea de Asino,* the Melody of
which will be found at page 46 a a of the present
volume. But it was not only in France that
Bnch representations found favour in the s^^ht of
the people. William Fits Stephen mentions a
Monk of Canterbury who wrote many Miracle-
ORATORIO.
53S
Plays dorinff the reign of King Henry 11, and died
in IT91 ; and we know, from other sources, that an
EngUsh audience was always ready to greet en-
tertainments of this description with a hearty
welcome. The Clergy also took them under
their especial protection, and retained their in-
terest in them for so' long a period, that^ in 1378
the Choristers of S. Paul*s performed them re*
gularly, under careful ecclesiastical superinten-
dence. In other countries they attained an equal
degree of popularity, but at a somewhat later date.
In Italy, for instance, we hear of a 'Commedia
Spirituale ' performed for the first time at Padua
in ia43, and another ai Friuli in 1398; while
'Geistliche Schauspiele* first became common in
Germany and Bohemia about the year 133a.
The subjects of these primitive pieces were
chosen for the purpose of illustrating certain in-
cidents selected firom the history of the Old and
New Testaments/ the lives of celebrated Saints,
or the meaning of Allegorical Conceits, intended
to enfbroe important lessons in Religion and
Morality. For instance, *' II Conversione di S.
Paolo * was sui^ in Rome in 1440, and ' Abram
et Isaac suo Figluolo' at Florence in 1449.
Traces are also found of * Abel e Calno ' (1554)*
• Sansone ' (1554), ' Abram et Sara ' (1556), ' II
Fiffluolo Prodigo' (1565), an allegorical piece,
called 'La Commedia Spirituale dell* Anima,'
printed at Siena, without date (and not to be
confounded with a venr interesting work bearing
a somewhat similar title, to be mentioned pre-
sently), and many different settings of the history
of the Passion o£ our Lord. This last was always
a very fiftvourite subject ; and the music adapted
to it, combining some of the more prominent
characteristics of Ecclesiastical Plain Chaunt
with the fireedom of the ssecular Chanson was
certainly not wanting in solemnity* Particular
care was always taken with that part of the
Sacred Narrative which described the grief of
Our Lady at the Crucifixion ; and we iUid fr^
quent instances of the ' Lamentation' of Mary,
or of S. Mary Magdalene, or of The Three
Mmies, treated, in several different languM^ in
no unworthy manner^ The following is from a
MS. of the 14th century, formeriy used at the
Abbey of Origny Saint Benoit, but now pre-
served in the Library at S. Qnentin.
Lei Trots Marks,
tons jtaT'^da DCW'^tre coo • fort Ihe -
doa-oour. n es •
• tAlt bUutt «C
moat nous ft-molt U-Tnli.
No great improvement seems to have bees
made in the style of these performances after
the 14th century ; indeed, so many abuses crept
into them that they were frequently prohibited
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684
ORATORIO,
ORATORIO.
by ecclesiastical authority. Bat the principle
upon which they were founded still remained
untouched, and the general opinion seemed to
be rather in fayour of their reformation than
their absolute discontinuance. S. Philip Neri,
the Founder of the Congregation of Oratorians,
thought very highly of them as a means of instruc-
tion, and warmly encouraged the cultiiration of
6acred Music of all kinds. On certain evenings
in the week his Sermons were preceded and
followed either by a selection of popular Hymns
(see Laudi Sfibituali), or by the dramatic
rendering of a Scene from Soripture History,
adapted to the comprehension of an audience con- ,
sistmg chiefly of Roman youths of the humbler
classes, the Discourses being delivered between
the Acts of the Drama. As these observances
were first introduced in the Oratory of S. Philip's
newly-built Church of S. Maria in Vallicella,
the performances themselves were commonly
spoken of as Oratorios, and no long time elapsed
before this term was accepted, not in Rome only,
but throughout the wh&le of Europe, as the distin-
guishing title of the ' Dramma sacra per musica.'
S. PMlip died in 1595, bat the performances
were not discontinued. The words of some of
them are still extant, though unfortunately with-
out the Music, which seems to have aimed at a
style resembling that of the Madrigale Spirituale
— just as in the 'Amfipamasso* of Orazio Vecchi
we find a dose resemblance to that of the seecular
Madrigal. Nothing could have been more ill
adapted than this for the expression of dramatic
sentiment; and it seems not improbable that the
promoters of the movement may themselves have
been aware of this &ct, for soon after the inven-
tion of the Monodic Style we meet with a notable
change which at once mtroduces us to the First
Pebiod in the History of the true Oratorio.
[See MoNODiA.]
While Peri and Caccini were cautiously feeling
their way Awards a new style of dramatic
Music in Florence, Emilio del Cavaliere, a Com-
poser of no mean reputation, was endeavouring
with equal earnestness to attain the same end
in Rome. With this purpose in view he set
to Music a Sacred Drama, written for him by
Laura Guidiodoni, and entitled *La Rappre-
sentazione deU* Anima e del Corpo/ The pieoe
was an allegorical one, complicated in structure,
and of considerable pretensions ; and the Music
was written throughout in the then newly-
invented. atUo rappretentcUivo of which Emilio
del Cavaliere claimed to be the originator. [See
Opera, p. 499 ; Recitativb.] The question of
priority of invention is surrounded, in this case,
with so many difficulties, that we cannot interrupt
the course of our narrative for the purpose of
discussing it. Suffice it to say that, by a
singular coincidence, the year 1600 witnessed
the first performance, in Rome, of Emilio^s *Rap-
presentazione * and, in Florence, of Peri's ' Euri-
dioe * — the earliest examples of the true Oratorio
and the true Opera ever presented to the public.
The Oratorio was produced at the Oratory of
S. Maria in Vallicella in the month of Feb-
ruary, ten months before the appearance of
'Euridice' at Fbrence. Emilio del Cavaliere
was then no longer living, but he had left such
full directions, in his preface, as to the manner in
whioh the work was to be performed, that no
difficulty whatever lay in the way of bringing
it out in exact accordance with his original inten-
tion, which included Scenes, Decorations, Action,
and even Dancing on a regular Stage (in Paleo),
The principal characters were H Tempo (Time),
La Vita (Life), II Mondo (the World), II Piacere
(Pleasure), L'Intelletto (the Intellect), LAnima
(the Soul), II Corpo (the Body), two Youths, who
redted the Prdogue, and the Chorus. The Or-
chestra consisted of i Lira doppia, i Clavicembalo*
I Chitarone, and a Flauti, ' o vero due tibie all*
antica.' No Part is written for a Violin ; but a
note states that a good effect may be produced by
playing one in unison with the Soprano Voices,
throughout. The Orchestra was entirely hidden
from view, but it was recommended that the
various characters should carry musical instru-
ments in their hands, and pretend to accompany
their Voices, and to play theRitomelli interposed
between the Melodies allotted to them.V^ Mad-
rigal, with full Instrumental Acoomj^Nuument,
was to take the place of the Overture. The
Curtain then rose, and the two Youths delivered
the Prologue ; after which a long Solo was sung
by Time. The Body, when singing the words
' Se che hormai alma mia,* was to throw away
his golden collar and the feathers from his hat.
The World and Life were to be very ridily
dressed, but when divested of their ornaments,
to appear very poor and wretched, and ulti-
mately dead bodies. A great number of Instru-
ments were to join in the Ritomelli. And,
finally, it was directed that the Performance
might be finished either with or without a Dance.
* If without,* says the stage-direction, ' the Vocal
and Instrumental Parts of the last Chorus must
be doubled. But should a Dance be preferred,
the Verse banning Chiostri altissimi e stel-
lati must be sung, accompanied by stately and
reverent steps. To these will succeed other
grave steps and figures of a solemn character.
During the rUomeUi the four prindpal Dancers
will perform a Ballet, embellished with capers
(taitato con capriole) without singing. And
thus, after each Verse, the steps of the Danoe
will always be varied, the four chief Dancers
sometimes using the Gagliarde, sometimes the
Canario, and sometimes the Corrente, which will
do well in the HitomellV
The general character of the Music — in which
no distinction is made between Redtative and
Air — will be readily understood from the follow-
ing examples of portions of a Solo and Chorus.
L'Intbllbtto.
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ORATORIO.
OEATORIO.
5^5
1 ij> 1
-Ti
quln-di mil
• 1« KM-pl -
- rU etc
r f^
-r-F-^
-H
CORO.
Qoei-to ▼! -Umor-ta-la p«r tag^dr^ presto ha
-<i^ Jj g^ -el-
rs - le B ooatal &«tla pM - - - m ch'adieHroi
Had Emilio del CaTallere lived to follow up
his first Oratorio with others of similar character,
the result of his labours could scarcely have failed
to add greatly to his already high reputation, for
his first attempt met with a very enthusiastic re-
ception. Unfortunately, the most popular among
his successors devoted so much attention to the
development of the Opera, that for a time the
Oratorio was almost rorgotten ; and it was not
until more than twenty years after his death
that it again excited sufficient interest to lead to
the production of the series of works which illus-
trate the Second Period of our histonr.
The occasion which immediately fed to this
revival was the Canonisation of SS. Ignatius
Loyola and Francis Xavier. In honour of this
event Kapsberger set to music an Allegorical.
Drama, called * Apotheosis, sen consecratio SS.
Ignatii et Francisci Xaverii/ which was several
times performed at the CoUegio Romano, with
magnificent scenic decorations and full dramatic
action, in the year i6aa. The Music of this
piece, which is still extant, is miserably poor,
and so much inferior, both in originality and dra-
matic form, to the works of Monteverde and
other popular writers of the period, that it is
impossible to believe it could have succeeded,
had it not bean for the splendour of the mise en
scene with which it was accompanied. Another
piece, on the same subject, entitled ' S. Ignatius
Loyola,* was set to Music in the same year by
Vittorio Loreto. Neither the Poetry nor the
Music of this have been preserved, but Erythrteus ^
assures us that, thoogh the former was poor, the
latter was of the highest order of excellence, and
that the success of Uie performance was unprece-
dented. Vittorio Loreto also set to Music * La
Pelligrina constante,' in 1647, and *I1 Sagrifizio
d*Abramo,' in 1648. Besides these, mention is
made of * II Lamento di S. Maria Vergine,' by
Michelagnolo Capellini, in 1637; *S. Alessio,*
by StefiJno Landi, in 1634; 'Erminio sul Gior-
dano,' by Michel Angelo Rossi, in 1637 ; and
numerous Oratorios by other Composers, of which,
in most instances, the words only have survived,
none appearing to have been held in any great
amount of popular estimation. An exception
must however be made in fibvour of the works of
Domenico Mazzocchi, by far the greatest Com-
poser of this particular period, whose * Queri-
monia di S. Maria Maddelena* rivalled in
popularity even the celebrated ' Lamento d* Arian-
na of Monteverde. Domenico Mazzocchi, the
elder of two highly talented brothers, though a
learned Contrapuntist, was also an enthusiastic
cultivator of tne Monodic Style, and earnestly
endeavoured to ennoble it in every possible way,
and above all, to render it a worthy exponent of
musical and dramatic expression. He it was
who first made use of the well-known sis^ now
called the * Swell * (-«= =>-) ; and, bearing this
fact in mind, we are not surprised to find in his
Music a refinement of expression for which we
may seek in vain among the works even of the
best of his contemporaries. His Oratorio, ' II
Martirio di SS. Abbundio ed Abbundanzio,' was
produced in Rome in 1631 ; but his fitme rests
chiefly upon the ' Querimonia,' which when per-
formed at S. Maria inVallicella, by such singers as
Vittorio Loreto, Buenaventura, or Marcantonio,
drew tears from all who heard it. The following
extract will be sufficient to show the touchingly
pathetic character of this famous composition —
the best which the Second Period coula boast.
8, Maria Madddena,
-tr: 1 r-
<ffib(; i F ■ P bJ J-
«t)J ^ > J K
^ Ben mol M - nar - 1* n B»^len-to-re 0
ft)i, II ^
-^ •
h "pn — z~\ — r
up ■ au,
"^gpiTp. ffpiJNr J^J J
'->Ct C!-
nsk perMdlqoelbe
•a-toeeacoe
nnmn dofUoeo ho-
fiT 1 S — F 1
1* 'r 1
"r J r r
1 '
t Ipistoto td dtrenoi. Ub. Ir.
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636
ORATORIO.
Our Thtbd Pebiod introduces ns to a greater
CompoBer than any of whom we have hitherto
had occasion to speak— one of those representa-
tive men whose rare genius is powerM enough
not only to inaugurate a new era in the annals
of Art, but to leave its impress upon all time.
Giovanni Carissimi was the first Composer of
the Monodic School who succeeded in investing
the new style with a sufficient amount either of
dignity or pathos to encourage a reasonable hope
that it might one day produce results in some
degree commensurate for good with the loss it
occasioned by the destruction of Polyphony.
Considered as Music, the united value of all the
Monodic works produced within the first thirty
years of the 17th century would be outweighed
over and over again by one single bar of the
least of Luca Marenzio's Madrigals. Except as
stepping-stones to sometl^ing^ better, they were
absotut^y worthless. Their only intrinsic merit
was a marked advance in correctness of rhetorical
expression. £ut this single good quality repre-
sented a power which, mid it been jucUciously
used, would have led to changes exceeding in
importance any that its inventors had dared to
conceive, even in their wildest dreams. Un-
happily, it was not judiciously used. Blinded
by the insane spirit of Hellenism which so ihtally
counteracted the best effects of the Renaissance,
the pioneers of the modem style strove to find
a royal road to dramatic truth which would save
them the trouble of studying Musical Science ;
and they &iled, as a matter of course ; for the
expression they aimed at, instead of being en-
forced by the harmonious progression of its ao-
oompaniment, was too often destroved by its
intolerable cacophony.^ It remained for Caris-
simi to prove that truth of expression and purity
of harmonic relations were interdependent upon
each other ; that really good Music, beautiful in
itself, and valuable for its own sake, was not
only the fittest possible exponent of dramatic
sentiment, but was rendered infinitely more
beautiful by its connection therewith, and be-
came the more valuable in exact proportion to
the amount of poetical imagery with which it
was enriched. Forming hb style upon this sure
basis, and trusting to his contrapuntal skill to
enable him to carry out the principle, Carissimi
wrote good Music always — Music which would
have been pleasant enough to listen to for its
own sake, but which became inBnitely more in-
teresting when used as a vehicle for the expression
df all those tender shades of joy and sorrow which
make up the sum of what is usually called * human
passion.* His refined taste and graoeful manner
1 BUhno Ltndl. in his Prdkoe to 'S. Alonlo* (Bonu 1«S4). telli ns
fhat the Bltorndli are written for Violins. In three puts ; but that » {
Bass Is often added to them, morloe purposely In Fifths or Oetare*
vtth one of the parts, tor the sake of the beauty ol the eflbot I
ORATORIO.
enabled him to do this so suooessfuHy, tbat he
soon outshone all his contemporaries, who looked
upon him as a model of artistic excellence. Bis
first efforts were devoted to the perfection of the
Sacred Cantata, of which he has left us a multi-
tude of beautiful exan^les; but he also wrote
numerous Oratorios, among which the best known
are < Jephte,* * Ezechias,' ' Baltazar,' ' David et
Jonathas,* 'Abraham et Isaac,' 'Jonas,* 'Judi-
cium Salomonis,' * UHistoire de Job,' 'La Plainte
des Damn^' 'Le Mauvais Riche,' and 'Le
Jugement Dernier.* These are all fiiU of beau-
ties, and, in ' Jephte' especially, the Composer
has reached a depth of pathos which none but
the ffreateet of Singers can hope to interpret
satismctorily. The Solo, 'Plorate oolles,* as-
signed to Jephtha*s Daughter, is a model of
tender expression ; and the £cho^ sung by two
Sopranos, at the end of each clause of the Melody,
adds an inexpressible charm to its melancholy
It was about this time that the spectacular
representation began graduaUy to fall into disuse,
though the dramatic character of the Poem was
t Handd has been accused of bormmtng 'Hear Jaoob'k God.' ia
'Samson.* firom the final Chorus of this beautiful little Oratorio
With equal show of reason might we accuse Beethoven of havint
copied his Sonat*. ' NIcht lu gmdiwlDd ' from the ^Harmonious Black
voMi,' on the ground that both are In the key of E mi^or.
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ORATOEIO.
/ Itm ret^uned, with certain modifications, chief ]
among which w»s the introduction of a Personage
called the ' Historicus/ to whom were assigned
certain narrative paesages interpolated between
tbe clauses of the Dialogue for the purpose of
carrying on the story intdlig^bly in the absence
of scenic action. This idea was no doubt, sug-
gested by the manner of singing the History of
the Passion dining Holy W^ in the Pontifical
Chi4>el, where the ' First Deacon of the Passion '
sings the words of Our Lord, the Second those of
the Chronista (or Evangelista), and the Third
those of the Synagoga (or Turba). Carissimi
used this expedient finely, and his example soon
led to its general adoption, both in Italy and
Grermany. His Oratorios indeed excited such
universal admiration, that for very many years
they served as models which the best Com-
posers of the time were not ashamed to imitate.
As a matter of course, they were sometimes
imitated very badly ; but they laid, neverthe-
less, the foundation of a very splendid School,
of which we shall now proceed to sketch the
history, under the title of our Fourth Pebiod.
Carissimi's most illustrious disciple — the only
one perhap^ whose genius shone more brightly
\than his own — was Alessandro Scarlatti, a Com-
(poser gifted with talents so versatile that it is
impossible to say whether he excelled most in
the Cantata, the Oratorio, or the Opera. His
Sacred Music, with which alone we are here
concerned, was characterised by a breadth of
style and dignity of manner which we cannot
but regard as the natural consequence of his
great contrapuntal skill, acquired by severe
study at a time when it was popularly regarded
as a very unimportant part of the training ne-
cessary to produce a good Composer. Scarlatti
was wiser than his contemporaries, and carrying
out Carissimi's principles to their natural con-
clusion, he attained so great a mastery over the
technical difficulties of his Art that they served
him as an ever ready means of expressing, in
their most perfect forms, the inspirations of his
fertile imagination. Dissatisfied with the meagre
Recitative of his predecessors, he gave to the Aria
a definite structure which it retained for more
than a century — ^the well-balanced form, con-
sisting of a first or principal strain, a second
part, and a return to Uie original subject in the
shape of the familiar Da Capo, The advantage
of this symmetrical bystem over the amorphous
type affected by the earlier Composers was so
obvious, that it soon came into general use in
every School in Europe, and maintained its
ground, against all attempts at innovation, tmtil
the time of Gluck. It was found equally useful
in the Opera and the Oratorio ; and, in connection
with the latter, we shall have to notice it even
as late as the closmff decades of the i8th century.
Scarlatti used rhythmic melody of this kind for
those highly impassioned Scenes which, in a
^ken Drama, would have been represented by
the Monologue, reserving Accompanied Recita-
tive for those which involved more dramatic
action combined with less depth of sentiment,
ORATORia
537
and u^ng ReeiiaUvo teeeo ohiefiy fbr the pur-
pose of developing the course of the narrative—
an arrangement which has been followed by
later Composers, 'including even those of our
own day. Thus carefully planned, his Oratorios
were full of interest, whether regarded firom a
musical or a dramatic point of view. The most
successful among them were ' I Dolori di Maria
sempre Vergine' (Rom. 1693), *I1 Sagrifizio
d'Abramo,' ' II Martirio di Suita Teodosia,' and
'La Concezzione della beata Vergine*; but it
b to be feared that many are lost, as very few of
the Composer's innumerable works were printed.
Dr. Bumey found a very fine one in MS. in the
Library of the Chiesa nuova at Rome, with ' an
admirable Overture, in a style totally different
from that of Lulli,' and a song with Trumpet
obbligato. He does not mention the title of the
work, but the following lovely Melody seems in-
tended to be sung by the Blessed Virgin before
the finding of our Lord in the Tonple.
Alessandro Scarlatti died in 1725, at the age
of 66. Among the most popular of his contem-
poraries were D. Francesco Federici, who wrote
two Oratorios, 'Santa Cristina* and 'Santa
Caterina de Siena, for the Congregation of Ora-
torians, in 1676 ; Carolo Pallavicini, who dedi-
cated 'II Trionfo della Castitk* to Cardinal
Otthoboni, about the year 1689; Fr. Ant.
Pistocchi, whose ' S. Maria Vergine addolorata,'
produced in 1698, is full of pathetic beauty ; Giulio
d'Alessandri, who wrote an interesting Oratorio
called 'Santa Francesca Romana,' about 1690;
and four very much greater writers, whose names
are still mentioned with especial honour— Cal-
dara, Colonna, Leo, and Stradella. Caldara
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ORATOBIO:
OBATORIO.
oomposed — chiefly at Yienna-^a laige collection
of delightful Oratorios, most of which were
adapted to the Poetry of Apostolo Zeno and
Metastasio. The most successful of these were
* Tobia,' • Assalone/ * Giuseppe/ ' Davidde,' * La
Passione di Gesii Cristo/ ' Daniele/ ' San Pietro
a Cesarea/ ' Gesii presentato al Tempio/ ' Geru-
salemme convertita/ and most especially ' Sisera^*
which, as Zeno himself oonfesses, owed its repu-
tation entirely to the beauty of the Music.
Colonna^s style — especially that of hill Cho-
ruses— was broader and more dignified than
C!aldara's, and he did much towards raising the
Oratorio to the noble level it attained in the
1 8th century. Leo rose still higher. His Ora-
torio, * Santa Elena al Calvario,' is far in advance
of the age in which it was written, and contains
a Chorus — * Di quanta pena h firutta — which has
excited much attention, fiut in point of natural
genius there can be no doubt that Alessandro
Stradella excelled all the best writers of this
promising though clearly transitional period ; and
our regret for his untimely death is increased by
the certainty that but for this he could scarcely
have failed to take a place among the greatest
Composers of any age or country. There seems
no reason to doubt the veracity of the tradition
which represents his first and only Oratorio,
'San Giovanni fiattista/ as having been the
means of saving his life, by melting me hearts of
the ruffians who were sent to assassinate him, on
the occasion of its first performance in the Church
of S. John Lateran ; but whether the story be
true or not, the work teems certainly beautiful
enough to have produced such an effect. The
most probable date assigned to it is 1676 ;
but it differs, in many respects, from the
type most in favour at that period. It opens
with a Sinfonia, consisting of three ^ort
Fugal Movements, followed by a Recitative and
Air for S. John. The Accompaniment to some
of the Airs is most ingenious, and not a little
complicated, comprising two complete Orchestras,
— a Concertino, consisting of two Violins and a
Violoncello, reinforced, as in Corelli's Concertos,
by the two Violins, Viola, and Bass, of a Con-
certo gro880. These Instruments were frequently
made to play in as many real parts as there
were Instruments employed ; but many of the
Songs were accompanied only by a cleverly-con-
structed Ground-Bass, played con tutti i basH
del concerto grotso. Some of the Choruses, for
five Voices, are very finely written, and full of
contrivances' no less effective than ingenious;
but the great merit of the work lies in the
refinement of its expression, which fitr exceeds
that exhibited in any contemporary productions
with which we are acquainted, lliis quality is
beautifully exemplified in the following Melody,
sung by the ' Condgliero.'
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To this period also must be referred HandeTs
Italian Oratorio, <La Eesurrezione* ; a com-
position now almost forgotten, yet deeply in-
teresting as an historical study. We have no
means now of ascertaining whether this work
was ever publicly performed or not. All that
can be discovered respecting it is, that it was
composed in the palace of the Marcheae di
Ruspoli, during Handers residence in Home
in 1 708. There is no evidence to prove whether
it was originally intended for representation at
the Theatre, or, without action, in a Chmxh;
but the dramatic force exhibited in it from
beginning to end, far exceeds in intensity any-
thing to be found in the most advanced works
of any contemporary Composer. The originality
of the Air, 'Ferma Tali,' sung by S. Maria
Maddelena, in which the most tenderly pathetic
effect is produced by a * Pedal-Point* of thirty-
nine bars duration is very striking; and stfll
more so is the furious accompaniment to LqcI-
fero*s Air, * O voi dell' Erebo potenze orribili,' —
a passage which we find imitated in connection
with the Enchantment of Medea, in the Third
Act of ' Teseo,' written four years later.
Violini dU* ^va.
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ORATOMO.
ORATORia
539
We can scarcely find a stronger proof than
this of HandeFs wonderful power ot adapting
himself to surroandmg circumstances. He had
already, as we shall presently see, composed a
Grerman Oratorio, full of earnest thought and
devotional expression : yet here, in Italy, he gives
his entire attention to dramatic effect; and so
far lays aside his contrapuntal accomplishments
as to introduce two little choruses only, both
conceived on the smallest possible scale, and
the concluding one neither more nor less than
» simple Gavotte, of the kind then generally
used at the close of an Opera.
Ima Vdta Soprani sM, 2nda VoUa^ Soprani, AUif e
Tenori, aW 8»a.
Up to this point the development of the Ora-
torio corresponded, step for step, with that of the
Opera. Both were treated, by the same Com-
posers, in very nearly the same manner; the
only difference being, that the more superficial
writers were incapable of rising to the sublimity
of scriptural language, while the men of real
genius strove to surround theb several subjects
with a dignity which would have been quite out
of place if used to illustrate a mere mythological
fable. Earnestly endeavouring to accommcxlate
the tentiment of- their Music to that of the words
to which it was adapted, this latter class of
writers succeeded, as we have seen, in striicing
out for themselves a style which was generally re-
cognised as peculiar to the Sacred Music of Italy.
But it was in Italy alone that this style prevailed.
In Germany, the Oratorio started, indeed, from
the Miracle Play, as its primary basis : but it tra-
velled on quite another road to perfection ; and,
in treating of our Fifth Period, we shall have
to take entirely new elements into consideration.
The Oratorio proper, as distinguished from the
earlier Mystery, made its first appearance in Ger-
many not long after the beginmng of the 1 7th
century. It had, indeed, been foreshadowed,
even before that time, in the ' Passio secundum
Matthseum,' printed at Nuremberg, in 1570, by
Olemens Stephani ; but this can scarcely be
called an Oratorio, in the strict sense of the
word. The oldest example of the true German
Oratorio that has been preserved to us is * Die
Auferstehung Christi * of Heinrich SchUtz, pro-
duced at Dr^en ini623 ; a very singular work,
in which the conduct of the Sacred Narrative is
committed almost entirely to a Chor des Evan-
gdiden, and a Chor der Personen Colloquenten,
the Accompaniments consisting of four Viole di
gamba and Organ, concerning the arrangement
of which the Composer gives very minute direc-
tions in the printed copy of the Music. This
remarkable piece, though it was accompanied by
no dramatic action, occupies a place in the his-
tory of German Sacred Music very nearly analo-
gous to that which we have accorded to Emilio
del Cavaliere's ' Anima e Corpo ' in the annals of
the Italian Oratorio. It was the first of a long
line of works which all carried out, more or less
closely, the leading idea it set forth for imitation.
Schutz followed it up with another Oratorio, *
called 'Die sieben Worte Christi,' and four
settings of the Passion of our Lord. To the
illustration t>f this last-named subject the Teu-
tonic Composers of thb century dedicated the
noblest efforts of their skill ; presenting it some-
times in a dramatic and sometimes in an epic
form, but always setting it to Music, throughout,
for Solo Voices and c£orus, without the inia^-
duction of spoken dialogue, and without scenic
action of any kind. A very fine example was
published at Konigsberg in 1672 by Johann
Sebastian! ; and in the following year Theile •
produced a ' Deutsche Passion ' at LUbeck. But
these tentative productions were all completely
eclipsed in the year 1 704 by the appearance at
Hamburg of two works which at once stamped
the German Oratorio ^a one of the grandest Art-
forms then in existence. These were the ' Passions-
Dichtun^ des blutigen und sterbenden Jesu,'
written by Hunold Menantes, and set to music
by Reinhard Keiser; and the 'Passion nach
Cap. 19 S. Johannis,* written by Poetel, and
composed by Handel, in a manner so different
from that which he adopted four years later
in his Italian Oratorio, that, without over-
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510
ORATORIO.
whelin!iig evidence to prove the hd, It wonld
be impoBBible to believe that both works were
by the same Composer. These wefe followed, in
1 705^ by Mattheson's * Das heilsame 6ebet» und
die Menschwerdung Christi * ; and some years
later by Brockes*s Poem, * Der ftir die Siinde der
Welt gemartete und sterbende Jesus,' set to music
by Keiser in 1714, by Handel and Telemann , in
1 716, and by Mattheson in 1718. The general
tone of German Music was more elevated by
these great works than by anything that had
S receded them. That their style should be
iametrically opposed to that exhibited in the
Italian Oratorios of the period was only to be
expected; for, though the Germans were not
averse from cultivating the Monodic Style, they
never abetted their Italian contemporaries in
their mad rebellion against the laws of Counter-
point. The ingenious devices of Polyphony were
respected in Germany, even during the first three
decades of the 1 7th century, when Italian dra-
matic Composers affected to deride them as follies
too childish for serious consideration ; and they
were not without their effect upon the natlonjd
style. It is true, they had not. long had an
opportunity of leavening it ; yet the i&dluenoe of
the Veneuan School upon that of Nuremberg,
consecrated by the life-long friendship of Giovanni
Gabrieli and Hans Leo Hasler, was as lasting as
it was beneficial, and, strengthened by the ex-
amples of Orlando di Lasso at Munich, and
Leonard Paminger at Passau, it conmiunicated
to German Art no small portion of that solidity
for which it has ever since been so deservedly
famous, and which even now forms one of its
most prominent characteristics. Had this influ-
ence been transmitted a century earlier, it might
very well have had the effect of fusing the Ger-
man and Italian Schools into one. It came too
late for that. Germany could accept the Counter-
point, but felt herself independent of the Plain
Chaunt Canto fermo. In place of that she sub-
stituted that form of Song which, before the dose
of the 1 6th century, had already become part of
her inmost life — the national Chorale, which, ab-
sorbing into itself the still more venerable Yolks-
lied, spoke straight to the hearts of the people
throughout the length and breadth of the land.
When the idea of the 'Passion Oratorio* was first
conceived, the Chorale entered freely into its con-
struction. At first it was treated with extreme
simplicity — accompanied with homophonic har-
monies so plain that they could only be distin-
guished from those intended for congregational
use by the fiict that the Melody was assigned
to the Soprano Voice instead of to the Tenor.
Its clauses were afterwards used as Fugal
Subjects, or Points of Imitation, sometimes very
learnedly constructed, and always exhibiting an
earnestness of manner above all praise. But,
however treated, the subject of the Chorale was
always noble, and always introduced with a
greatness of purpose far above the pettiness of
national pride or bigotry. It would seem as if
its cultivators had sent it into the world, in those
troublous times, as a message of peace— a sort of
ORATORIO.
conmion ground on which Catholic and IVotestant
might meet to contemplate the events of that awful
Passion which, equally dear to both, is invested for
both with exactly the same doctrinal significaiiee.
And the tradition was £uthfully transitiitted to
another generation.
The works we have described, and many
others by contemporary Musicians of good ^
reputation, gave place in process of time to the -^ j
still grander creations of the Sixth Period— '^
creations so sublime that two Composers only can li ]
claim to be mentioned in connection with them : '
but those two Composers — Kari Heinrich Graun
and Johann Seb. Bach— cherished the Chorale ^
even more tenderly than their predecessors had
done, and interwove it so closely into the con-
struction of their Passion Music that it became
its most prominent feature, the key-stone of the
entire fabric. While still a pupil of the Kreuz-
schule at Dresden, and, if Uadition may be
trusted, before he had completed his fifteenth
year, Graun wrote a 'Grosse Passions -Orato-
rium,' in which he introduced the melody of
* Ach wie hungert mein Gemttthe* with extra-
ordinary effect, and in a way which no other
Composer had ever previously attempted, in con-
nectum with the Institution of the Lord's
Supper. His greatest work, *Der Tod Jesn,'
first produced in the Cathedral at Berlin in 1 755,
begins with an exquisite setting of 'O Haupt
voU Blut und ^Wunden* in homophonic luu>
mony, and afterwards introduces five other Me-
lodies, mostly treated in the same quiet manner,
though one is skilfully combined with a Bass
Solo. The Poem, by Rammler, is epic in stmc-
ture, but is so arranged as to present an
effective alternation of Recitatives, Airs, and
Choruses. The fugal treatment of the latter is
marked by a clearness of design and breadth of
form which have rarely been exceeded by Com-
posers of any age; and the whole work hangs
together with a logical sequence for which one
may search in vain among the Scores of ordinary
writers, or indeed among the Scores of any Ger-
man writers of the period, excepting Bach him-
self. Bach wrote three grand (hutorios, besides
many of smaller dimensions which are usually
classed as Cantatas. These three were 'Die
Johannis • Passion * ( 1 7 20) ; * Die grosse Passion
nach Matthaus,* first produced in the Thomas
Kirche at Leipzig on Good Friday, 1729; and
* Das Weihnachts Oratorium * (i 734). The Pas-
sion according to S. John is composed on a scale
so much smaller than that employed for the later
work according to S. Matthew, that we think it
scarcely necessary to speak of both. The Text
of S. Matthew's version was prepared by Chris-
tian Freidrich Henrici (under the pseudonym of
Picander), and is written partly in the dramatk
and partly in the epic form, with an Evangelist—
the principal Tenor — who relates the various
events in the wondrous History, but leaves our
Lord, S. Peter, and the rest of the DranuUii
personce to use their own words, whenever the
Sacred Text makes them speak in their own
I Orlglnftllr »VoIksU«d, beginning ' IMn G'mlUb bt air Tenrtmc'
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OEATORIO.
proper persons ; a double Chorus, sometimes of
Disciples, and sometimes of raging Jews, treated
always in the Dramatic form ; certain Airs and
CSionises, called at the time they were written
Soliloquia, containing Meditations on the events
narrated ; and a number of Chorales, in which the
general Congregation was expected to join. It
is impossible to say which of these different
clMseii of Composition displays the greatest
amount of genius or learning. The part of the
Evangelist, and the Recitatives assigned to our
Lord and His Apostles, are full of gentle dignity.
The Choruses, though not fugal, abound with
superb and exceedingly intricate part-writing,
and are, moreover, marked by an amount of
dramatic power extremely remarkable in a Com-
poser who never gave his attention to pure dra-
matic Music : the last one in particular, 'Ruhet
sanfte, sanfie ruh*t/ is a model of touching and
pathetic expression. The Airs are always accom-
panied in as manyreal parts as there are Instru-
ments in the Score, and consequently exhibit as
much contrapuntal ingenuity as the Choruses.
Finally, the Chorales are treated with a depth of
feeling to which Bach alone has ever attained
in this peculiar style of composition. In the
Christmas Oratprio, though the general con-
fonnation is very similar, the dramatic element
is much less plaixdy brought forward. The
work is dividea into six portions— one for each
of the first six days of the Christmas Festival ;
bat it may quite as conveniently be divided into
three for general performance. The Second
Part begins with a Symphony, in ia-8 time,
and of Pastoral character, second only in beauty
to the 'Pastoral Symphony* in the Messiah. The
Choruses are much more elaborately developed
than those of the Passion, with more frequent
points of Imitation, and very much lees dramatic
effect But in the Chorales the treatment is ex-
actly the same as in the two Passion Oratorios,
and we cannot doubt that, in all these cases the
Congregation sang the Melody, while the Chorus
and Orchestra supplied the simple and wonder-
fully beautiful harmonies with which it is adorned,
^e can scarcely illustrate our remarks upon these
Oratorios — ^the invaluable productions of the Fifth
and Sixth Periods — better than by subjoining
Chorales from Handel*s ' Johannis Passion,*
Graun's 'Tod Jesu,' and Bach's Passion ao-
cofding to S. MattKbw.
Aeh, wk hungert mdn GcmUthe,
Haitdbl, 1710.1
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ORATORIO.
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542 ORATOBIO.
Et tit geioistlich an der 2eU,
Oraun» 1755.
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0 Haupt voU Btut und Wundm,
J.B.Bach,17S9.
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ORATORIO.
In the works of these great Masters the Ger-
man School of Sacred Music reached its culmin-
ating point. Their saccesBorB made no attempt
to compete with them on their own gronnd;
and, hefore very long, the style they had so
successfully cultivated yielded to the demands
of fashion, and its tnMutions passed quite out
of memory, to be revived, in our own day, with
results concerning which it is not yet time (0
speak. But, grand as their Ideal was, it was
not the grandest the Oratorio was destined to
embody; nor was Germany the country fiited
to witness the most splendid development of that
noblest of all Art-forms. Our search for it, in its
highest perfection, leads us to England, where the
Seventh Period of its history presents it to us
under the influence of some very imp^ntant modi-
fications both of general construction and detaiL
We have already seen Handel writing a tme
German Oratorio at Hamburg in 1 704, and one
after the prevailing Italian manner at Rome in
1 708 ; but neither of these works r^resents the
style for which he afterwards became so justly
famous ; nor does even the second Passioii Ora*
torio of 1 716 clearly foreshadow it, as a whole,
though it may be said to do so in certain places.
Not but that there are beauties enough, even in
the first Passion Oratorio and the * Resurrexione,'
to pronounce him, young as he was when he wrote
them, the greatest Composer of the age. We
may search in vain, among contemporary pro-
ductions, for evidence of such power as that dis-
played in ' 0 voi dell' Erebo potenze ombUi,* or
the Recitative which precedes and introduces it.
But this only entitles him to rank as Primus
inter pares. He had not yet perfected the
stupendous conception which gave, him a place,
not among, but above, all other writers of the
1 8th century, analogous to that which Palastrina
held above all those of the i6th — a position to
which was attacheid the title, not of Primus, bat
of Solus. Let us endeavour to analyse this
great conception ; to measure the extent of the
resources which rendered its embodiment possi-
ble ; and to trace, as carefully as we may, the
progress of its development.
When Handel wrote his first English Oratorio,
' Esther,' he was no longer an aspiring cUbuiant,
but the first Musician in Europe. Since the
production of ' La Resurrezione,' he had written^
for the King's Theatre in the Haymarket, five
Italian Operas, two of which, 'Rinaldo* and
'Radamisto,* rank among the best he has
bequeathed to us. In these, he exhibited^ a
power of dramatic expression immeasurably ex-
ceeding anything that had ever been previously
attempted. Every shade of human passion, from
thetenderest pathos, through the varying phases
of sorrow, anxiety, fear, terror, scorn, anger,
infuriated madness, or curdling honor, may be
found depicted in them, with sufifident fidelity
to prove that he had the entire series absolutely
at his command. This was much, to begin with ;
but there was more behind. Too little stress is
laid, by musical critics, upon the distinction
between dramatic and epic power — ^yet, the two
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ORATOBIO.
form o# ilhMtntioa an emmtiaSfy
Dnmatio expreision ncioeirily pnsnppaaai ^be
preeenoe of the Actor, wiM> daicribes hu own
emotions in hiBovnwenb. Epic power ia entirely
Bubjaothreu Ut dfioe is, bo to act upon the hearer •
lnMigination« as to present to him a aeries of pic-
tures— whether of natural soeneiy, of historical
events, or even of dramatic scenes enacted out
of sight — sufiSciently vivid to give him a clear
idea of the situation intended to be described.
Now, if in * Deeper and deeper still ' Handel has
given us a convincing proof of his power as a
dramatist, it is equally certain that, in the Flute
Symphony to 'AugeUati che Cantate* in 'Ri-
naldo,' the Pastoral Symphonv in the ' Messiah,'
and the Dead March in * Saul, he has shown him-
self no less successful as a Tone painter. The
perfection of these wonderful pictures may be
tested by the entire absence of the necessiW for
scenic accessories to give them their fall Rvoe.
When Mr. Sims Reeves declaims 'Deeper and
deeper still,* in ordinary evening dress, he speaks
as directly to our hearts, and pourtrays Jephtha's
agony of soul quite as truly, as he could possibly
do were he dressed in the robes of an Israelitish
Judge. Before we have listened to the first
three notes of the Dead March in ' Saul,' we
have called up an imaginary picture of a Funeral
Procession, compared with which the finest stage
effect that ever machinist put together woidd
confess itself a heap of worthless tinsel. The
value lies in the Music itself; the cmly condition
needful for its success is, that it should be well
perfonned. In possessing the power of produo-
ing such Muaic, Handel was more than half pre-
pwed for the elaboration of his gigantic scheme ;
but one thing was still wanting — ^the relirious
element. The Scripture Narrative, considered
merely as history, needed for its illustration no
fiittther qualifications than those of which we
have already spoken. But it was not enough
that it should be treated merely as^history; it
was indispensable that its symboluakl meaning
should be brought out ; and that that meaning
should be made the turning-point of the whole.
As means of effecting this, dramatic and epic
expression were equally powerless ; but Handel's
resources were not yet at an end. Since the
production of ' La Resurrezione ' — in which this
religious element was wholly wanting — ^he had
written the Twelve Chandos Anthems; works
now so little known that it is necessary to ex-
plain that they are not Anthems, in our present
acceptation of the term, but grand Sacred Can-
tatas, consisting of Overtures, Solos, and Choruses,
with accompaniments for a full Orchestra, and so
highly developed, that many of them are quite
as grand and as lon^ as a whole Act of an
Oraiorio. The chief characteristic of these great
worits— as of the Utrecht * Te Deum,' and * Jubi-
late,' and the two settings of the ' Te Deum ' for
the^ Duke of Chandos, produced during the same
L period — is deep religious^feeling. Not the ab-
stract devotional feeing peculiar to true Eccle-
siastical Music, like that of Palestrina. From
first to last, Handel never attempted this.
ORATOBIO.
sa
Bot, no anuscfe nvemioe oi % ^yuui mipd,
aeeompanied by a keen appreciation of the inner
meaning of the tfiit->a thorough understanding
of the spirit, as well at of the letter. And here
Handel^s learning and ingenuity proved of in-
calculable advantage to him. The dignity of his
grand Choruses demanded that all the subtle
mysteries of Counterpoint should be brought
into requisition as means of assisting their hi"
tistio development ; and, of these mysteries he
was thoroughly master. The smoothness of his
part-writing is, indeed, little less than miracu-
lous. However dose the imitation, or compli-
cated the involutions of the several Voices, we
never meet with an inharmonious collision. He
seemsalvrays to have aimed at making his parts
run on velvet — whereas Bach, writing on a
totally different principle, evidently delighted in
bringing harmony out of discord, and made a
point of introducmg hard Passing-notes In order
to avail himself of the pleasant effect of their
ultimate resolution. Again, no other writer,
either of eariier or later date, with the sole
exception of Palestrina, ever possessed so great
a power of concealing his learning. Cariwimi,
when complimented on this great quality, is
reported to have said, * Ah ! questo facild, quanto
4 difficile!' (Ah I this ease, how difficult it ia
to attain I) But Carissimi never imagined the
possibility of such a complication as that ex-
hibited in the Siretto of the ' Amen Chorus'— one
of the closest examples of Imitation in existence,
and that creeps in so unobtrusively that the very
last feeling it ia likely to excite is wonder at its
ingenuity.
These, then, were the resources which Handel
found reiftdv for his use, when his genius enabled
him to strike out the splendid Id^l to which he
owes by fu the greater part of his world-wide
reputation. If we examine his Oratorios, one by
one, we shall find that that Ideal was susceptible
of a threefold expression. It was capable of
being embodied in a wholly dramatic, or a wholly
epic form ; or, in a form radically dramatic but
relieved by firequent episodes, of an epic, a di-
dactic, or even of a contemplative character.
Though his two greatest works, *Th6 Messiah,'
and ' Israel in iSgvpt,' are purely epic, there can
be no doubt that the dramatic form — without, of
course, either Scenery or Action — was the cme
which he himself preferred ; and, in carrying it
out^ he adhered strictly to the conditions at that
time observed with regard to the technical con-
struction of the Lyric Drama. Of the hundreds
of Airs he wrote for his Oratorios, we shall not
find one which cannot be referred to one or
other of the well-defined classes into which the
Italian Opera Airs of the i8th century were, by
common consent both of Composers and Singers,
invariably divided. [See Opera, pp. 509-511,
voL ii.] Thus, we see the Aria CantabiU most
strikingly exemplified in * Angels ever bright and
fair ' ; Sie Ariadi Portamento in ' I know that my
Redeemer liveth'; the Aria di mezzo carattere
in 'Waft her. Angels, through the skies'; the
Aria parlante in * He was despised ' ; and the
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OBATORIO.
Aria di bravura, in ' Rejoice grea%.* Even the
minor divisions are no leas dearly represented. We
recognise the Cavatina in *Sin not, O king'; the
Ai'ia cTimitazione in * Their land brought forth
frogs'; the Aria alC tmisono in 'Honour and
arms'; and the Aria eoncertata in 'Let the
bright Seraphim': and it is worthy of remark
that the classification is marked with equal pre-
cision, whether the examples be selected from
dramatic or epic works. So fiir as Airs were
concerned, Handel found plenty of room for his
genius to assert itself within the limits defined
by uniyersal custom. But, with his Choruses,
the case was very different. Here, he was abso-
lutely firee. Fashion had made no attempt to
interfere with choral writing — in £act, such
choral writing aa his had not yet been heard.
It is firom hun that we leani what a Chorus
ought to be— -and he presents it to us in an
endless variety of forms. Sometimes he uses it
—as it is frequently used in Greek Tragedy — as
a means of drawing a lesson from some portidn
of the dramatic story, or moralising upoa some
event mentioned in the epic narrative. He has
80 used it in *Envy, eldest born of Hell/ 'Is
there a man V and * O fSatal consequence of rage,'
in Saul ; * The name of the wicked,' in Solomon ;
' Thus, one with every virtue crowned,' in Joseph ;
and in innumerable other cases. Sometimes he is
forcibly dramatic ; as in ' Help ! help the King! '
in Belshazzar ; or, ' We come, in bright array,'
in Judas Macchabeeus. More frequently, he is
descriptivci as in 'He gave them hailrtones,'
' Eagles were not so swift as they/ and a hundred
other instances with which the reader's memory
will readily supply him. In this form of ex-
pression he never iftils to produce a marvellous
effect. No matter what may be the subject he
Undertakes to illustrate, he is always equal to
it. In 'Chear her, O Baal,' and 'May no rash
intruder,' he soothes us with his delicious Ac-
companiments. In ' He sent a thick darkness,'
we shudder at the awful gloom. In 'See the
conquering Hero comes,' he conjures up a Scene
which presents itself before us, in all its successive
details, with the fidelity of a Dutch picture. But
here, even when the subject is sacred, he speaks
only of its earthly surroundings. When he would
raise our thoughts to Heaven, he uses means which
seem simple enough, when we subject them to a
technical analysis, but which nevertheless possess
a power which no audience can resist — the power
of compelling the hearer to regard the subject
from the Composer's point of view. Now, that
point of view was always a sincerely devout one :
and so it comes to pass that no one can scoff at
the 'Messiah.' We may go to hear it in any
spirit we please : but we shall come away im-
pressed, in spite of ourselves, and confess that
Handel's will, in this matter, is stronger than
ours. He bids us ' Behold the Lamb of God ' ;
and we feel that he has helped us to do so. He
tells us that ' With His stripes we are healed';
and we are sensible, not of the healing only, but
of the cruel price at which it was purchased.
And we yield him equal obedience when he calls
ORATORIO.
' upon U0 to join him in his Hymna of Praiae.
Who, hearing the noble subject of 'I will an^
unto the Lord ' led off by the Tenors, and Altos,
does not long to reinforce their voices with his
own ? Who does not feel a choking in his throat
before the first bar of the * Hallelujah Choms * is
completed, though he m^ be listening to it for
the hundredth time? Hard indeed most hii
heart be who can refuse to hear when TTajiAJ
preaches through the Voices of his Chorus. But
it is not alone with voices that he speaka. The
Orchestra was his slave : and by its aid he teachei
us much that is worthy of our attention. It is
true that we are very rarely permitted to hear
what he has to say, as an instrumentalist : but,
his secrets are worth finding out; and, though
the subject is a vexed one, we do not intend to
let it pass imdiscussed.
The Orchestra, in Handel's time, consisted of
a smaller Stringed Band than we are accustomed
to use at the present day ; but the Violins were
reinforced by a greater number of Oboes, and the
Basses, by a &r stronger body of Bassoons. Flutes
were chiefly used as Solo Instruments ; but some-
times played in unison with the Oboes. The
Brass Instruments were. Trumpets (doubled ad
libitum), with Drums for their natural BasB;
Horns ; and Trombones (Alto, Tenor, and Bass),
when the character of the music demanded their
presence. The Haip, Viola da gamba, and other
soft Instruments were occasionally used fior obUi-
goto accompaniments, in which they sometimes
played an important part. The Oiigan was used
throughout ; and its part was provided for by the
Figures of the Thoroughbass, which served also for
the Harpsichord. With these means at his com-
mand, Handel was able to accomplish all that his
fiery genius suggested ; and his method of ooinlnn-
ing and contrasting the various elements of whidi
his Band was composed may be studied with
very great profit. It was his constant praotiee,
in Airs of the oantabUe class, to leave the Voice
quite free from instrumental embarrassments, and
supported only by the Basses, and the Chords
indicated beneath the Thorough-Bass — which
Chords were supplied either bv Uie Harpsichord,
or the Organ. Sometimes, the Symphonies to
these Airs were played, like those usually found
in the Aria di portamento, by the Violins in
unison, which, thus used, between the vocal
phrases, produced double their ordinary ^eci
In the grander Airs, the Accompaniments were
much more elaborate, and served to contrast
these pieces strongly with those of the former
class. In the Choruses, though the entire Band
was brought into constimt requisition, there w^e
often long and highly complicated passages ac-
companied solely by Uie Or^an and the Basses;
and, in cases of this description, the introduction
of the Violins, at certain important points, pro-
duced a very striking effect — as in the 'Amen
Chorus' of the 'Messiah' — not unlUce that to
which we have already alluded in iq>eaking of
the Symphonies of the Aria oantabUe. When the
Trumpets and Drums were introduced, it im
always with electrical effect. Handel never
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ORATORIO.
wrote mmecessary notes for these wonder-working
Instruments, for the mere sake of keeping them
going ; but took care that their silvery tone
should sustain its due part in the fulfilment of
his preconceiyed intention— a task to which they
always proved themselves equaL The great
strei^th of these arrangements lay in the perfect
balance of the whole. From the beginning to the
end of the work, each of its several subdivisions
was exactly proportioned to all the rest. Yet,
there was no lack of variety. Taking the Thorough-
Bass with its accompanying chords as the lowest
attainable point in the scale of effect, and the FuU
Band, with the Trumpets and Drums, as the
highest, there lay, between these two extremes,
an infinity of diverse shades, as countless as the
half-tones in Turner's summer skies, all of which
we find turned to good account, and so arranged
as to play into each other, and contrast together,
with the happiest possible influence upon the
general design. But, unhappily, the delicate
gradations they once represented are now ren-
dered altogether indistinguishable by the intro-
duction of Clarinets, Trombones, Ophicleides,
Bombardons, Euphoniums, and the loud unmiti-
gated erash of a full Militaiy Band — an innovation
quite &tal to the Composer's original intention,
inasmuch as it entirely destroys the unity of pur-
pose he BO carefuUy endeavoured to express. An
English eritic — ^by no means a revolutionanr one —
in describing the A utograph Copy of the * Messiah,'
speaks in a slighting tone of * For unto us a Child
ii born,' as ' meagrely scored for voices and a
stringed quartet.' Handel's 'meagre score,' by
accompanying the softer parts only with the Organ
and Basses, and delaying the entrance of the
rest of the Orchestra until the forte at the word
'Wonderful,' provides for the finest effect the
Chorus can be made to produce, and furnishes
us with an infinitely grander reading than that
which, by its excessive contrast between 'ppjpp
and ffffy borders rather upon the extravagant
than the sublime. It is not too much to say that
' For unto us a Child is bom' is utterly ruined
by the liberties which are taken with it in per-
formance. In other Choruses we hear a Fugal
Pomt taken up, over and over again, by Bass
Trombones, or Euphoniums, with such rousing
vigour that the Voice part is rendered com-
pletely inaudible : and, in cases like this, the
result is, not a richness, but a thinness of effect
quite unworthy of the Composer's meaning. We
are quite alive to the beauty of Mozart's In-
strumentation, which has certainly never been
equalled in more modem times: but, would it
be sacrilege to say that even ho has not risen to
the level of the * Messiah ' ? We must feel that
there is something wanting, when we listen to
his exquisite description of 'The people that
walked not 'in darkness,' but in a golden
twilight so enchantingly beautiful that the * great
light* afterwards mentioned rather tends to
diminish than to add to its ineffitble charms.
Only, let it be clearly understood that Mozart
by no means satisfies the taste of the present day.
When we hear of the 'Messiah,' with his ' Ad-
TOL. n. FT. II.
ORATORIO.
545
ditional Accompaniments,' we are to understand
the farther 'addition* of a complete Military
Band ; and the aggregate result does not leave
us much margin for the criticism of Handel's
original idea. Great as this evil is, it is still on
the increase. Let us hope that the rapidity of its
advance may the 80(mer provoke a reaction ; and
that some of us may yet live to hear the ' Messiah'
sung In accordance with its author's intention.
Handel wrote, altogether, seventeen English
Oratorios, beside a number of ssacular works
which are sometimes incorrectly classed with
them. 'Esther,' the first of the series, was
first performed in the private Chapel of the
Duke of Chandos, at Cannons, on August 29,
1720. That the Duke fully appreciated its sig-
nificance as a Work of Art is proved by the
fact that he presented the Composer with
£1000 in exchange for the Score: yet, after
three or four private performances it was un-
accountably laid aside ; and we hear no more of
it for eleven years. In 1731 it was revived by
the Children of the King s Chapel, who repre-
sented it, in action, at l£e house of their pre-
ceptor, Mr. Bernard Gates, in James Street,
Westminster, and again, at a subscription concert,
at the ' Crown and Anchor.' These performances
were, in a certain sense, private. But, in 1 732,
the Oratorio was publicly performed, without
the Composer's consent, at the Great Room, in
Villars Street, York Buildings, under the manage-
ment of a speculator who is b^eved to have been
identified as the father of Dr. Ame. This act of
piracy provoked Handel into bringing out the
Oratorio himself at the King's Theatre in the
Haymarket, where it was performed, • by his
Majesty's command,' without dramatic action,
on May 2 in the same year. The success of this
experiment fully justified the preparation of a
second work of similar character, which was
produced on April 2, 1733, under the title of
'Deborah.' A careful comparison of the two
Oratorios furnishes us with a valuable means of
measuring the progress of the Composer's Art-
life, at a very eventful period. As tiie * Esther '
of 1720, though enriched by several important
additions before its reproduction in 1732, was
not actually re-written, it may be accepted as a
iaia representative of its autiiior's ideas at the
time it fir6t saw the light. < Deborah ' represents
the enlargement of tiiese ideas, after thirteen
years of uninterrupted study and experience.
The amoimt of advancement indicated is very
great; great enough to remind us of that ob*
servable between Beethoven's Symphony in D,
and the ' Eroica ' ; only that we see no sign of a
change of style; no change of any kind, save
that the old style has grown immeasurably
grander. The Overture to 'Esther' has always
been more generally appreciated than that to
'Deborah,' not firom any real or fancied supe-
riority, but solely by reason of its long-continued
repetition, at S. Paul's Cathedral, for the benefit
of the ' Sons of the Clergy.' But, the magnificent
Double Chorus with which the latter Oratorio
opens so £u: excels anything to be found in
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ORATORIO.
'Esther* that iarther compnrisoii is needleas.
Handel himfielf has rarely reached a higher
standard than in 'Immortal Lord of earth and
skies'; which, in fixity of purpose, breadth of
design, and massive grandeur of effect, may well
be ranked with some of the finest passages in
' Solomon,' or even * Israel in ^gypt : and it is
enough to say that the promise given in this
glorious beginning is amply fulfilled in the Second
and Third Acts. In the first Act of * Atbaliah '
— produced in the Theatre at Oxford on July
lo in the same year (1733)— this massive style
is wisely modified, to some extent, in order to
depict the voluptuous surroundings of the Baal«
worshipping Queen: but when Joash and the
Hebrew Pnesthood make their appearanoe, in
the Second Act, it is resumed with all its original
force. A large quantity of Music selected from
this Oratorio was introduced by Handel into a
Serenata, called * Pamnsso in Festa,* which
was prepared in haste for the marriage of the
Princess Royal, and performed before the King
and the whole of the Royal Family on March
I3» I734« After this we hear of no more Sacred
Alusic till 1739. in which year 'Saul* was pro-
duced on January 16, and 'Israel in .^Igypt on
April 4.1 In force of dramatic expression, ' Saul '
certainly surpasses even the finest Scenes presented
in either of the three earlier works. The Song
of Triumph in the First Act, with its picturesque
Ganllon accompaniment, marking out each suc-
^ cessive stage in the Procession, while the jealous
Monarch bursts with envy ; the wailing notes of
the Oboes and Bassoons in the Witch's Incanta-
tion; the gloomy pomp of the terrible *Dead
March,* and the tender pathos of David's own
personal sorrow, so clearly distinguished from
that felt by the Nation at large; these, and a
hundred other noticeable features, would stamp
'Saul* as one of the finest dramatic works we
possess, even were it shorn of its splendid
Choruses, its fiery Instrumental Symphomes, and
its Movements for Organ Obbligato, designed for
the Composer's own interpretation. In * Israel in
.^gypt,* on the other hand, Handel first showed
his power of treating a purely Epic Poem. There
is every reason to believe that the Composer
arranged the Text of this Oratorio for himself.
At any rate, it is certain, from his method of
dealing with it, that he highly approved of the
arrangement, and no doubt chose the epic form
from conviction of its perfect adaptability to his
purpose ; illustrating it — now that the dramatic
element would have been clearly out of place —
with Music, for the most part of a boldly de-
scriptive character; never descending to the
picturesqueness of detail which we have before
bad occasion to notice, yet never leaving untold
anything that was necessary to the intelligent
rendering of the whole. Except in describing
1 W« beltar« these dates to be correct. In Arnold's edition 'Isrmel
In ^87Pt • to said to have been composed in 1738. and 'Saul' In 1740.
The former work really yw composed In 1738. though not performed
until the following year. The mistake with regard to ' Saul ' probably
arises from the fact that It was again performed in 1740 bj the
Academy of Antlent Musick. Throughout this Article we hare
preferred giring the date of the first peiiormance to that of the com-
pletion of the composlUon.
ORATORIO.
the * Plague of Flies,* and in a few other instaxKJei,
his intention seems to have been to speak not
to the outward but to the inward sense. Not to
present the Scenes mentioned in the Text by
means of vividly painted pictures, but to produce
in the mind feelings analogous to those which, it
is to be presumed, would have been produced bj
the contemplation of the Scenes themselves. It
is enough that we are made to feel the horror of
the * Thick darkness,' and the might of the
crashing 'Hailstones,* without seeing them. If
we have been made to rejoice, with tl^ Israelitei»
on hearing that * The Horse and bb Rider ' have
been * thrown into the sea,' we need no galloping
triplets to portray their headlong flight. Any
other mode of treatment than this would have
been beneath the dignity of the Scripture Nar-
rative, the stupendous character of which de-
manded, for each several Miracle, a choral
structure of such colossal proportions as had
never previously been attempted. Some of the
Movements in the Second Part — which was
composed before the First — have been adapted
from a 'Magnificat,' the Score of which, in
Handel's handwriting, is preserved in the Royal
Library at Buckingham Palace. This is not the
place to discuss tiie authenticity of the MS,
concerning which Dr. Chrysander holds one
opinion, and Professor Macfarren and M. Schoeldier
another [see Erba] ; but we do not think tiiat
any imprejudiced critic after carefully studying
this Oratorio, can come to the conclusion that
a single note of it betrays the touch of an
inferior hand. It is scai*cely too much to say
that unity of design is the first characteristic we
look for in a really great work; and nnity of
design is evidently the one thing which the
Composer has here borne in mind, from the
beginning of his work to the end. Henoe it is
that ' Israel in .£gypt ' holds a place far above
all other works of its own peculiar kind that ever
have been, or are ever likely to be written. But
this peculiar form of £pic is not the only one
possible. There are other feelings to be excited
in the htmian mind besides those of awe, and
horror, and wild thanksgiving for a great and
unexpected Deliverance. And with some of
these Handel has dealt, as no other Composer
could have dealt with them, in the next great
work which falls imder our notice.
It is too late now to ascertain whetii«r
Handel himself chose the subject of the ' Mes-
siah,' or whether it was suggested to him in the
first instance by his friend, Mr. Charles Jenneos.
It is certain, however, that Jennens arranged
the general plan of the work, and selected firtun
the Old and New Testament the words which are
now so closely associated with its Airs tatd
Choruses ; for, in a letter written to him (rom
Dublin, and dated Dec. 29, 1741, Handel alludes
to it as 'your Oratorio, Mesiiah, which I set to
Music before I left England.' The Music, as
we learn from the dates upon the original Score,
preserved in the Royal Library at Buckingham
Palace, was begun on the 22nd of August, 1741.
The First Part was finished on the 28th, and the
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ORATORIO,
Second, on the 6th of September ; while, at the
end of the Third Part we find the inscription,
* Fine dell ' Oratorio, G. F. Handel. Septembre
1 2. Aosgeftillt den 14 dieees/ the word * aosge-
fUllt ' probably applying to changes made after
the completion of tiie copy. Early in the fol-
lowing November Handel started on his jour-
ney to Ireland; and on April 13, 1743, he
directed the first performance of the 'Messiah,'
in the * Musick Hall, in fishamble Street, Dub-
lin,' with the most gratifying success. In the
following year he returned to England, and first
presented the Oratorio to a London audience
at Covent Garden Theatre, on the 33rd of March,
1743, repeating the performance on the 35th,
and again on the 39th.^ Though strictly epic
in construction, the new work presents but little
affinity with its predecessor, * Israel in MgypV
The grandeur of the Choruses in * The Song of
Moses ' is of an impassive kind, partaking quite
as much of fear and wonder as of thanksgiving
for mercies received. In the * Messiah,' a more
personal element is introduced. The afiections
are powerfully excited ; and we are brought face to
face with many different manifestations of Hope,
Love, Sorrow, and even Dereliction, followed,
not by a National Triumph, but by quite another
kind of Joy which speaks to the heart of each
individual listener. To express this Joy, gi-
gantic Double Choruses like those in 'Israel
in .^ypt' were unnecessaiy. A really great
Composer can write as grandly in four parts
as in eight. It is the fire of genius that
creates the effect; and that we have, in the
'Messiah,' from the first note to the. last.
Jennens, in a letter still extant, objects to the
Overtnre, on the ground that it contains ' some
passages far unworthy of Handel, but much more
unworthy of the Messiah'; but Handel, he
says, retained it 'obstinately' — his intention evi-
dently being, not to produce an effect at this
point, as Jennens no doubt desired, and still less
to write anything either worthy or unworthy of
himself, but simply by the calm dignity of his In-
strumental Prelude, to bring the mind of his
hearers into exactly the right condition for lis-
tening to the solemn story that was to follow.
Perhaps nothing was ever conceived in all Music
more beautiful than the reiterated Major Chords
which succeed the wailing Minor of the Over-
tnre, in the introductory Symphony to ' Comfort
ye My people.* They speak the * comfort,' long
before the word is sung. Nearly the whole of
the First Part is solemnly prophetic, though not
without descriptive touches — ^as in *Thus saith
the Lord,' and 'The people that walked in
darkness' — working gradually up to the tre-
mendous climax at the words ' Wonderful 1
Counsellor !'' After this, we have a picture, such
as no one short of Raffaelle could have displayed
1 The story that the 'Meulah' mw lint performed In London In
1741, tbAt it WM Tery coldly received, uid tbAt it WM not until after
Handel's return from Ireland tbi^ it met with worthy recognition
from an Kngllsh audience, has been shown to be fabulous, notwlth-
standing its repetition by Sir J. Hawkins. It rests chiefly on the
authority of the Ber. John Malnwaring. who wrote in 1760, nearly
twenty years after the lint performance of the work. (Barney, toI. It.
ppwfl61.6e2.)
ORATORIO.
547
rn canvas, introduced hy the ' Pastoral Sym-
ny' — a glorified Calabrian Tune, which in
the original Score is called, *Pifa larghetto e
Mezzo-piano' — and terminating with 'Glory to
God in the highest.* In this Chorus the Trum-
pets are heard for the first time — and, be it
noted, without their natural bass, the Drums,
which Handel dearly considered out of place
in an Anthem sung by the 'Heavenly Host.*
Then follows a burst of irrepressible joy, in
the brilliant Aria cCagilUd, 'Rejoice greatly*;
and then the prophetic comfort again, in 'He
shall feed His flock,* and 'His yoke is easy.'
The Second Part differs entirely from this. It
begins by calling upon us to ' Behold the Lamb
of God,' and t^ben paints the Agony of the
Passion, not in its separate details, but as one
great and indivisible sorrow, which is treated
with a tenderness of feeling such as is nowhere
else to be found ; beginning with the unapproach-
able pathos of 'He was 'despised,' and bringing
ihe sad recital to a conclusion with the no less
touching strains of ' Behold and see.' The Com-
poser has been accused of having taken too low
a view of one particular passage in this part of
the Oratorio. It has be^ said that> in ' All we
like sheep,' he has described the wanderings of
actual sheep, and not the baokslidings of human
sinners. The truth 'ib, he has gone far more
deeply into the matter than the critics who have
ventured to find fault with him. Rebellion
against God is an act of egregious folly, as well
as of wickedness. More men sin from mere
thoughtlessness than deliberate and intentional
disobedience. Handel has looked at the case in
both lights. In the first part of the Chorus he
has shown us what thoughtless sinners do; in
the last fourteen bars, he describes the &tal
consequence of their rebellion, and the price
which must be paid, not only for deliberate wick-
edness, but for thoughtlessness also. After the
last Recitative of this division of the work, ' He
was cut ofi^' comes a gleam of Hope, in 'But
Thou didst not leave,* followed by the triumphant
* Lift up your heads*; and again, through a series
of Airs and Choruses of transcendant beauty,
we are led on, step by step, to that inimitable
climax, in which, disguising his contrapuntal skill
under the deceptive appearance of extreme simpli-
city, Handel himself seems to have fixed the limits
beyond which even his genius could not soar —
for not even the learned and supremely gorgeous
' Amen ' with which the Oratorio concludes can
be said to exceed the 'Hallelujah Chorus' in sub-
limity. The difficulty of keeping up the hearer's
interest throughout the Third Part, after having
already wrought him up to so great a pitch of ex-
citement, was one under which any ordinary Com-
poser must of necessity have succumbed ; but in
truth this Third Part is another miracle of Art.
Not without careful consideration, we maybe sure,
did Handel begin it with an Aria di portamento,
of surpassing beauty, though only accompanied
a There is no reason to doubt the veracity of the wdl-known tradi-
tion that Handel was found bathed in tears when writing this
exquisitely beautUU movement.
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ORATORIO.
by a ThorooglibaBB. with Yiolins in unison. Any
more elaborate combination would have served
as a foil to the preceding Chorus. But this takes
such new ground, that it immediately attracts
attention ; and from it the Composer works up,
through a series of masterpieces, to the only
Chorus in the world that moU hear mentioning
in the same breath with the 'Hallelujah' —
•Worthy is the Lamb,* with its fitting con-
clusion, the ' Amen,' which the careless hstener
may easily mistake for the simplest of Fugues,
until he suddenly becomes aware that its Stretti
partake more nearly of the character . of very
complex Canons. The Autograph Score — now
happily accessible to every one, through the me-
dium of a photo-lithographic facsimile* executed
under Her Majesty^s permission, by the Sacred
Harmonic Society, and sold by Messrs. Novello
^ Co. — proves that Handel thought more than
once before this Chorus perfectly satisfied him.
The MS. indicates many other cnanges, some of
very great importance ; and introduces also a con-
siderable number of additional Movements, most
of which are to be found in Dr. Amold^s edition
of the Score, though they are not included in the
compressed arrangements of our own day. Some of
these pieces — now generally described as belong-
ing to the Appendix— are exceedingly fine ; but
the Movements usually selected for performance
are almost always those which give the Composer^s
idea in the phase which we may fairly accept as his
own estimate of the best he was able to produce.
After this, Handel wrote no more Oratorios
on the pure epic model, though he did not ab-
stain fix)m the frequent use of passages of a
more or less epic character. His next great
work was *Sam«on,' first performed at Covent
Garden Theatre on February i8, 1743, pre-
sented eight times in succession, and then re-
moved to make room for the * Messiah,' which
had not vet been heard in London. No less
rich in <&amatic form than 'Saul,' 'Samson'
presents us with some of Handel's finest in-
spirations, not the least important among which
are, the Overture, with its fiery Fugue and
world-£Btmed Minuet (supposed to be danced by the
votaries of Dagon, before the opening Chorus),
the equally celebrated Air, 'Let Uie bright
Seraphim,' and seventeen magnificent Choruses.
'Joseph' followed in 1744* and 'Belshazzar* in
1745; both fine workis, written in the same
powerful dramatic atyle. The * Occasional Ora-
torio' was produced in 1746. Many interpre-
tations of its unusual name have been suggested,
the most probable being that which represents
it to have been compel in order to make up
a certain set of performances for which Handd
had pledged himself to his subscribers. Taken
as a wh^e, the work can only be regarded as
a Pasticcio ; for, though the Music of the first
two Parts is new, the Third is chiefly made up
of Movements selected from ' Israel in -^gypt *
and the • Coronation Anthem.' The well-known
Overture is one of the finest of Handel's Instru-
mental Compositions. 'Judas Macchabeeus,' a
purely dramatic work, well worthy to rank with
ORATORIO.
'Saul* and * Samson,' was produced at Covent
Garden on April i, 1 747 ; and * Alexander Balus '
on March 9, 1748, which year also witnessed
the first p^ormance of ' Joshua.* * Susannah '
and 'Solomon' were both produced in 1749.
In the latter, which introduces the epic fonn to
some considerable extent, Handel has again
written some magnificent Double Choruses which
rank among his finest inspirations.^
In 'Theodora,' on the contrary, the dramatic
character has been rigidly preserved. This great
work, which Handel himself considered his best,
was first perfonued on March 15, 1750, when
he was sixty-five years of age, and abeady threat-
ened with blindness. Though now, as a whole,
almost forgotten, it abounds with Movements
quite comparable, in beauty, with the few whidi
have remained popular favourites ; and, though
it might perhaps be impossible to present it in
a complete form without a careful revisioii of
the Libretto, it would well repay the attention
of great Singers in search of great Songs. It was
performed four times, in its first * Season'; but
never again during the Composer's lifetime:
and no new Oratorio succeeded it, until 1753,
when, on February 26, Handel produced his
last work, * Jephtha.' Though his blindness had,
by this time, increased so much, that the prepara-
tion of the Score occupied him seven months
— ^whereas the 'Messian' had been completed
in less than one— we find no fedling off at aU
in the style of the work, which contains some of
his finest pieces, and is one of the few that hu
remained popular to our own day. Besides this,
the 'Messiah,' 'Israel in JEgy^t,'' 'Judas Mac-
chabeeus,' 'Solomon,' and 'Sa^nson,' are almost
the only Oratorios now performed in public in
their integrity; and those who were not fortunate
enough, in the days of their youth, to enrol them-
selves members of the Csddlian or Sacred Har-
monic Societies, have probably no farther know-
ledge of the rest than that which may be gained
by a perusal of the printed copies. Happily, these
copies are sold at a price which places Uiem within
the reach of everybody; but, unhappily, thev
are not always thoroughly trustworthy. Handel
never, by any chance, wrote the Second Inversion
of the Dominant Seventh, but we shall find few
modem arrangements in which this Chord is not
substituted for the original Chord of the Sixth,
notwithstanding the extraordinary pains wbidi
the Composer frequently took to avoid it.
In addition to the seventeen grand Oratorios
we have described, Handel wrote nine oiher
works which are sometimes erroneously called
Oratorios, although their subjects were altogether
ssecular. The reason of this misnomer is, that
they were all, save one, brought out by the
Composer in a way which, in those days, was
called ' after the manner of Oratorios' — ^that is to
say, without the attraction of Scenery, ]
1 Kend«Uaohn had a gTMtalbetlon for this Ontario. IntlityfK
1846^ while the writer waa descrlbfof to him. at Fraakfort. a ptf-
formanoe of It which he had latd; heard in Exeter Hall, hs aaOdmS}
said. 'Tell me. how did thejr give out this?' and Bang the cah^ee« tl
' Live, live for ever, ploiu David's son.' •« if be loosed to dlxeot a
la fall oreh«stra,«thea and there.
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Action. The only exception to the rule was * Acis
and Galatea '—one of the freshest and most
delightful of the entire series — which was first
privately performed at Cannons in 17^1 ; ftnd
afterwards, on June 16, 173a, with Scenery,
Dresses, and appropriate Decorations, but still
without Action, at the King's Theatre in the
Haymarket. The other pieces were, ' Ptfrnasso in
Festa* (1734), 'Alexander's Feast* (1736), 'Ode
for S. Cecilia's Day (1739), 'L' Allegro, II Pen-
sieroeo, ed H Moderttto' (1739), 'Semele' (1743),
•Hercules' (1744), 'The Choice of Hercules'
(1745), and 'The Triumph of Time and Truth'
(1757). In these, neither Scenery nor Dresses
were used; nor were such meretricious adorn-
ments needed, for they were all works of the
first class, and, if they could not succeed on their
own merits, would certainly not have been made
to do so by the addition of a few theatrical
accessories. The ' Triumph of Time and Truth '
was originally written in Italy, in 1708, and had
been sung in Italian in 1737 and 1739; ^^^ ^
1757 Handel, though then totally blind, adapted
it to English words, made great additions to it,
and brought it out at Covent Garden Theatre^
where it was performed four times during that
year, and twice in 1758. The last pubUc per-
formance which Handel directed was that of the
'Messiah' at Covent Garden, on April 6, 1759.
On the X4th of the same months he peacefully
breathed his last, * in hope,' as he said, * of meet-
ing the good God, his sweet Lord and Saviour,
on the Day of His Resurrection.' ^
It is manifestly impossible to associate Han-
del's Oratorios with those of any other Com*
poser. They must needs form a class by them-
selves. Indeed, notwithstanding the jealousies of
which he was made the unfortunate yictim, he
was held in so great reverence, that very few
Oratorios were produced in England by rival
Composers for many years after his decease;
and, of these fow, one only. Dr. Ame's ' Judith,'
calls for special comment, not in recognition of
its intrinsic worth — though its author was an ac-
complished Musician, and thoroughly in earnest
^bu^ because it was the first work of the kind
in which Female Voices had been permitted to
take part in an English Chorus; for, though
Madame Duparc (generally called *^La Fran-
cescina') sang as Prima Donna in most of
Handel's Oratorios, the ripieni Trebles were
always supplied by the Children of the Chapel
Royal and S. Paul's Cathedral. 'Judith,' per-
formed first at the Chapel of the Lock Hospital,
on Feb. 29, 1764, and afterwards, with Female
Voices in the Chorus, at Covent Garden, oti
Feb. 26, 1773, was by no means unsuccessful;
but the memory of Handel was still too green
to permit the possibility of a triumph. Han-
del's influence did not, however, extend to
Germany, in which coimtry the progress of Art
was, about this time, surrounded with certain
1 The date glran hy Bonier C Oomm«nionitlon of Handd.' p. 13) It
Good Frktay. April 13. H« rim It on the authority of Dr. Warren,
who attended Handel during his lact lllneaa. and whose testimony a
to the fact that his patient died 'before midnight on the IStb,' he
qnolea aa ' todbpuuble.' [Bee this Diet 1. 681.]
t)RATORIO.
549
serious difficulties. The effect of the noble work
wrought by J oh. Seb. Bach, at licipzig, did not
even reach so £&r as Dresden. There, between
1 73 1 and 1763. Hasse reigned supreme; and it is
there, under his influence, that we must begin our
study of the Oratorios of the Eighth Pebiod.
Despite his cultivated tastes and undoubted
talent, Hasse viras wanting in the elevation of
style necessary to constitute a really great Com-
poser, especially in his Sacred Music ; yet he
was able to appreciate true dignity in the work4
of others. When invited to Ixindon, to take the
direction of the newly-opened Opera House in
Lincoln's -Inn -Fields, he asked, 'Is Handel,
then, dead r and, on being told that his famous
countryman still lived, but that he was expected
to enter into rivalry with hinn he at once de-
clined the invitation. This line of conduct was,
no doubt, prompted by true delicacy of feeling :
but it proves, also, that Hasse did not misjud^
his own powers. The real secret of his immense
success seems to have lain in his ceaseless endea-
vour to please. This weakness led him into
practices which, as we have already explained
elsewhere,' tended greatly to the deterioration of
his Operas ; and exercised so enervating an effect
upon Ins Sacred Music that it eventually resulted
in the production of a set form which has been
not inaptly termed the 'Concert Oratorio'— a
mere eoUection of Sacred Airs, united by no
other tie than that of a common subject, which
however they make no attempt to illustrate by
working together as for a common purpose. No
doubt these productions were very charming,
e^>ecially when Faustina — Hasse's talent^
wife — sang in them as Prima donna : but, when
judged by a fiiir aesthetic standard, they indi-
cate a long step backward. Unhappily, so many
of the Composer's MSS. were destroyed, during
the bombardment of Dresden^ in 1 760, that we
possess little more than the names of the
greater number of his Oratorios, of which the
most popular were ' II serpente in deserto,' ' La
virtii a pi^ della Croce,' ' La deposizione della
Croce,' ' La caduta di Gerico/ ' Maddelena,' ' H
Cantico dei Fanciulli,' *La Conversione di San
Agostino,' '"B Giuseppe Riconosciuto,' * I Pelle-
grini al Sepolcro di nostro Salvatore,' *Sant' l^iena
al Calvario,' and a German Oratorio^ called ' Die
Busse des heUigen Petrus.' Of these, one only,
' I Pellegrini al Sepolcro/ is readily accessible, in
print, in the form of a Gennan translation.' Of
many of the rest we possess only fragmentary
portions, beautiful enough in themselves, though
the works to which they belong fail, as a whole.
The same fault is observable in the Oratorios of
Porport^ the most successful of which were * Da-
vidde,* • Gedeone,' * II Verbo Incarnato,' and • II
trionfo della divina giustizia.* We also possess
ten Oratorios, written about thitf time, by Fux ;
but they still remain in MS., never having been re-
vived since the occasion of their first production.
The Composers of the >iiNTH Pebiod made
no attempt to improve the general form of the
s See p. 615 In the preient volmne.
t ' Die Pilgrimme auf Golgotha ' (Sohwickeit, Leipzig).
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550
ORATORIO.
ORATORIO.
Oratorio ; but, while quite content to follow the
example of their inunediate predecessors in this
particular, they infused into their Airs and
Duets a spirit of freshness and Bpontaneity whinb,
towards the close of the i8th oentuiy, had the
effect of making the Concert Oratorio a very de-
lightful species of entertainment. True, its Munic
was distinguishable from that of the Concert
Opera only by the words appended to it : but,
setting aside all considerations of religious feel-
ing and consistency, the Music, as Music, was
the best that the age could produce, though
the use to which it was applied cannot be de-
fended upon any lesthetic principle whatever.
The best writers of this epoch were Sacchini,
whose most admired productions were ' Esther/
'San Filipno,' *I Maocabei/ 'Jefte,' and *Le
Nozre di Ruth'; Paisiello, whose 'Passione di
GesU Cristo' was undoubtedly one of his best
works ; Jomelli, who also wrote a * Passion* which
was long remembered with affection, besides set-
ting to music Metastasio's ' Betulia liberata,' and
' Isacco figura del Redentore ;' and Pietro Gug-
lielmi, whose 'Debora' and 'Sisera'were more
than successful, though perhaps he did more than
any writer of the period to lower the tone of
Sacred and even Church Music ; for his own
taste led him to cultivate the most ornate bravura
style, while his position as Maestro di Capella
at S. Peter's gave him the opportunity of intro*
ducing that style into Music in which it was
scandalously out of place.
But the most beautiful composition produced
during this Period, though a true Italian Ora-
torio m all its broadest features, was not com- j
posed in Italy. Haydn's studies under Porpora,
assisted by the ni^tural acuteness of his observation,
had taught h|m all that it was possible to learn
concerning the mysteries of the Italian School ; I
and, while the refinement of his taste enabled '
him to separate the good from the bad, his
matchless genius raised his work to a level far
beyond the reach of the best of his early models.
When he set Boccarini's *I1 ritomo di Tobia* to
music for Prince Esterhazy in 1774, he had
already perfected that * Classical Form ' which,
had he lefl us no other bequest, would alone
have sufficed to immortalise him; and in this
work he has used it to excellent pmrpose, though
the general plan of the piece is that of tho
Concert Oratorio, pur et simple. The Airs
throughout are overflowing with Melody, such
as Haydn alome kijiew how to produce. The
Chorusee whic^ conclude the First and Second
Acts are powerful and well-developed Fugues,
with bold yet tuneful Subjects, like those ^mi-
liar to us all through the medium of his well-
known Masses. The first is a Prayer for the
restoration of Tobit*s sight.
AlUgro con brio,
4
a To-Utla lu-00,0
r-^-
- ».--:
=3--J-
-F — r-fc^
^ r ■' t — ■■
Bandi a
1
To
-
• bit
L mW.
U
lu
• oe 0
etc
-H--
^
^
^
^
^
— u s
The final Fugue is in 6-8 time, and founded on
a highly characteristic Subject.
■ I ■ — ■
Kotteran gloria iiia«gfc»rB e macglor fe - U - d •
gloria Duggtora
t4, e nugglor fe - U • • d -
Yet still more clearly do we detect the Com-
poser's identity in the richly instrumented Over-
ture, which, beginning in grand symphonic style,
leads in the most masterly manner into the intro-
ductory Movement of the Oratorio. Can anything
be more genial or more forcibly characteristic of
its author, than the followmg lovely motivo ?
Allegro di moUo,
Haydn's * Ritomo di Tobia,' which has prob*
ably never been performed as a whole since it
was given at Vienna by the Tonkiinstler-SocietAt
in x8o8, is now as completely forgotten as his
'Orfeo ed Euridice* — and with equal injustice,
for both contain a treasury of lovely Movements.
We have of necessity claBsed it with the works
of Jomelli and Paisiello. for the reason which
induced us, when narrating the history of our
Fourth Period, to class Handel's 'Resurrezione'
with those of Aless. Scarlatti and Stradella — •
community of external form too strong to be
passed over, even in the presence of &e most
marked divergence of individual feeling. Bat
as we did not place Handel's earlier and later
Oratorios in the same cat^fory, neither can we do
so with those of Haydn, whose * Creation ' ^Die
Sohdpfung) and * Seasons ' (Die Jahreszeiten) &11
within the limits of our Tsnth Pebioo.
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ORATORIO.
Though 'Haydn was no longer a young man
when he wrote the * Creation,* he was the most
genial of old ones, able to look back with a clear
conscience upon a well-spent and not unhappy
life, and to throw himself, with all the eagerness
of youth, into the enjoyment either of the beau-
ties of Nature or the amenities of Art. Unless
we bear this well in mind, we shall never under-
stand how, in the year 1 798, when he was not
far from seventy years of age, he was able to
produce that series of delightful Pictures which
has never failed to inspire the Tone-painters of
later generations with feelings of mingled ad-
miration and despair. During the twenty-four
years which had eli4)sed since the production of
' II ritomo di Tobia,' he had taught himself many
things : a broader manner, a richer texture, a
more perfect homogeneity of conception, which
enabled him to articulate the various members
of his Oratorio into as consistent a whole as
that produced by the four Movements of a Sym-
phony. Moreover — and this is no such small
matter as it may seem at first sight — ^he had
learned the true use of the Clarinet, an instru-
noent which proved invaluable to him as a means
of producing variety of colouring, and in the
management of which few later Composers have
excelled him. The words of 'The Creation'
were compiled by lidley from Milton's * Paradise
Lost.' and translated into German by Freiherr
van Swieten, at whose suggestion Haydn under-
took the preparation of a work which, at his age,
must have demanded a terrible strain upon his
mental powers. Early in the year 1798 the
veteran Composer brought his labours to a suc-
cessful issue, and announced the completion of
the work. It had really been a labour of love to
him, for he entered into it with even more affec-
tionate ardour than he had displayed in the pro-
duction of many of his more youthful effusions ;
and he himself declared that he was deeply and
ahnost uncontrollably affected at the first per-
formance, which took place at the Schwarzenberg
Palace, on April 29, 1798. The Oratorio was re-
peated on the following day, and again, more pub-
licly, at the National 'ftieatre, on March 19, 1 799.
Though nominally dramatic — ^inssmuch as ea^
Solo Singer is invested with a representative per-
sonality—the Libretto is really epic throughout,
for the principal singers are never employed for
any other purpose than that of describing, either
the beauties of the 'new-created world,* or the
wonders attendant upon its mysterious birth.
There is therefore an utter absence of declama-
tory Music, as well as of those powerful means
of expression, passion and pathos. In place of
these Haydn contents himself with the only style
wally suited to the subject — the style which de-
Bcrioes without exaggeration, and paints without
extravagance. And of this style he proves him-
wlf to be a consummate Master. The descrip-
tion of Chaos with which the Oratorio opens,
the Creation of Ught,^ the cimfusiDn 0/ the
I It ntut not bowew te forgotten Omi Huidal flnt ttrnck ont
thh iTuid ideft, tlttm^ wtth dlfflmot detiOb. in 'O flnfe-«raMed
ORATORIO.
551
'infernal host,* the lovely Melody which first
introduces the mention of the * new-created
world,* these, and a hundred other beautiful
passages, are familiar to all of us. The Airs,
equally remarkable for their delicious fiow of
Melody and their masterly Instrumentation, de-
scribe the scenes to which they allude, yet always
by inference rather than in a realistic spirit,
and with a chastened tone which sets the sneer
of the hypercritic at defiance. The Choruses
far excel any of those to be found in the author^s
earlier works, and, still more, those produced bj
other writers of the period, either Grerman or
Italian. That they do not equal those of Handel
will be easily understood. Had nothing else pre-
vented them from doing so, the improvements
introduced by Haydn himself would have had
that effect. The elaborate Accompaniments which
he knew so well how to use, and actually did
use vrith much telling effect, tended to reduce
the scale upon which these grand Choruses were
conceived. The Quaver passages which add so
much to the brilliant effect of * The Heavens are
telling,* take just as much away frt)m the dignity
of its vocal Themes ; and in every other Chorus
the same phenomenon is more or less perceptible.
We must not look upon this as an unmitigated
weakness. What we have lost in one way we
have gained in another. We owe so much to
Haydn for his improvements in Instrumentation,
that we can afford a certain amount of diminu-
tion in the scale of the works we look upon as
the greatest ; yet, more than this, the fiict re-
mains, that, with increased facilities for utilising
the resources of the Orchestra, comes, and always
will come, a perceptible falling off of that great
quality of breadth, that immense simpUcitj
which most of all leads on towards the sublime —
a reduction of the gigantic scale which first made
Handel's Choruses unapproachable, and has ever
since left them unapproached. We in no wise
depreciate the merits of either Composer when
we say that the one was the High Priest of the
Sublime, and the other the Fatiier of Modem
Beauty. Each excelled in his own way, and
each way was in itself perfect. Handel could
no more have written 'The Creation' than
Haydn could have written 'Israel in Egypt';
nor could any one but Haydn have written * The
Seasons ' — another work full of delicious imagery,
and, if more ssecular in its character than ' The
Creation,* only just so much so as was necessary
in order to bring the Music into closer hanuonj
with the subject. The words of this Oratorio
were also compiled by Freiherr van Swieteo,
who, delighted with the success of * The Crea-
tion,* took Thomson's well-known poem as the
basis of a somewhat similar work, and persuaded
Haydn to undertake the composition, though
he himself felt imwilling to trust his then mani-
festly failing powers. The result found Van
Swieten to be m the right. Haydn soon over-
came his diffidence, entered enthusiastically into
the scheme, disputed manfully over points on
which he and his friend disagreed, and pro-
duced a work as full of youthful freshness as the
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OltATORIO.
'Creation* itself. Not a trace of the * failing
power * of which the grand old man complained
18 to be found in any part of it. It is a model
of descriptive writing; troe to Nature in its
minutest details, yet never insulting her by trivial
attempts at outward imitation where artistic
suggestion of the bidden truth was possible.
It is this mat quality, this depth of insight into
the 'Sold of Nature/ which places Haydn's
Tone-pictures so far above all meaner imitations.
To this we owe our untiring interest in the
Scenes depicted in the Oratorio ; in the delicious
softness of the opening Chorus, which seems
actually to waft a perfumed breeze into the midst
of the Concert-room ; in the perfection of rustic
happiness portrayed in the Song which describes
the joy of the * Impatient husbandman * — * im-
patient ' only because he longs to hurry on from
one *joy* to another. These things all prove
conclusively that Haydn's genius was not failing.
Yet, in another sense, he was quite right and Van
Swieten wrong: the labour of producing such
Music was too great for hisphysical strength.
The first performance of *The Seasons* took
place at the Schwartzenbeig Palace, on the 24th
of April, 1 801. It was repeated on the 27th,
and on the 1st of May ; and on the 29th of May
the Composer conducted a grand public per-
formance at the Bedoutensaal. Its success wns
as great as that of * The Creation,' and Haydn
was equally delighted with it ; but he was never
really himself again, and never attempted another
great work. Strange that his last almost super-
human effort, though it cost so much, should in
itself have exhibited no sign of the weakness
which was soon to btcome so painfully apparent.
Haydn stands almost as much alone, with re-
gard to his greatest works, as Handel : but,
though it is impossible to class his Oratorios
with those of any other writer, we must not
suppose that, during his long life, the rest of the
world was idle. In Italy, especially, we find
traces of a r:*pid progress, the results of which
will serve to illustrate the history of our Elbvknth
PlBIOD.*
We have already shown, in our Article
Opera, that the principles set forth by Gluck
found no direct response in Italy. Yet the
productions of this epoch go far to prove that,
even then, they were not without an indirect
influence for good: an influence which is as
clearly discernible — strange as it may seem to
say so — in the writings of Piocinni himself, as
in those of his contemporaries. When we last
spoke of the Italian Oratorio, it had degenerated,
like the Opera, into a mere Concert of attractive
Airs. Now, in Italy, the progress of the Ora-
torio has, at all times, corresponded exactly with
that of the Opera: and, to the manifest improve-
ment observable in the Operas of this Period we
» The word 'Period' is hen nsed^M In ovr article Opiba. rather for
the purpoKof indloatlDg a dellnhe ttjle than a chronological epoch.
Thus. KTeral of ttie oompoeert whoee names we are about to men-
tion in our JCLKVKMTM Pbriod died before Uaydn. while othera
■nrrlted him by more ttian a quarter of a century ; but in no caM
liad their work* the •ligfaeit affinity with hit, thouffh they all bore
the iironflcst poitible clau rMemblanoe to each other. (See foot-
note, p lu56oftha prcMDt Toluma.]
ORATORIO.
must attribute the synchronoos advance ex-
hibited in its Oratorios. After Gluck had once
opened the eyes of the artistic world to the value
of dramatic truth, the Concert Opera, and the
Concert Oratorio, became alike impossible, even
among those who professedly held the reformer's
views in the utmost abhorrence. Influenced, no
doubt, in spite uf himself, and probably quite
unconsciously, Piocinni was one of the first who
attempted to incorporate the Airs and Duets of
the Concert Opera into a consistent whole; to
enrich that whole with Concerted Movements
and Choruses, worthy of a great Composer ; and
to bind its several elements together in snch a
way as to assist the development of the Drama
which formed its raiton dCitre, instead o^ as
heretofore, retarding it. His efforts to introduce
a higher style and a more truly aesthetic Ideal,
were nobly seconded by more than one of his
most talented countrymen: and, that the im-
provement he thus eflected in the oonstmction of
the Opera extended to the Oratorio also, is suf-
ficiently proved by the &ct that his own Oratorio,
'Jonathas,' produced in 1792, has always been
regarded as one of the best, if not actually the
greatest of his works. His most illustrious coadju-
tors in this great reform were— Salieri, whose best
Oratorios were Metastasio's *Pa«sione di Gesti
Cristo' and 'Gesii al limbo*; Zingarelli, whose
* Distruzzione di Gerusalenune ' will be found,
in the form of a MS. Score, in the Dragonetti
Collection in the British Museum ; and, lastly,
Cimarosa> the greatest Italian Composer oF the
age, whose ' Sagrifizio d* Abramo * and * Assalone '
— the last of which will be also found among the
Dragonetti MSS. — are models of dramatic truth,
and the most touchingly pathetic expresaion.'
It is true that these fascinating works almost
entirely ignore the broad line of distinction
which ought always to be drawn between Sacred
Music and that which is of a purely sascular
character, in which respect they are not to be
commended as models. On the other hand, they
undoubtedly do, to a certain extent, illustrate
the dramatic sense of the Sacred Narrative,
though in too superficial, not to say too unworthy
a spirit. We meet with the same fault, though
perhaps not quite so prominently forced into
notice, in the works of a once celebrated but now
very unjustly forgotten Gennan writer, Johann
Gottlieb Naumann, who studied, for many years,
in Italy, and, as Hasse had done betore him,
entirely abandoned himself to the seductions of
the Italian style, with all ite beauties and all its
shortcomings : only, the Italian style he culti-
vated was a later one than that with which Hasse
had some thirty years previomdy so completely
identified himselfl He wrote no unconnected
strings of Concert Airs, but brought out the best
points of the Period we are now considering, en-
riched Italian Melody with many beauties de*
rived from the German style, and produced a
long list of Oratorios, of which the best known
were, * La morte d'Abel,* * Davidde nella valle di
s One of Kadame JCaUbran'fl greatett fOoeoiMi tiM achtond In aa
Air fh>m the ' 8a«rUUio.'
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ORATORIO.
Terebinto,' Meta8tasio*% 'La Pnssione de Oeih
Cristo,* 'Isacco figura del Redentore,' 'Giuseppe
Riconosduto/ •Sunt* Elena al Calvario,* * I Pel-
legrini,' and *Betulia liberata/ and Miglia-
yeccha*8 * H figliuol prodigo.' Himmel, Winter,
Weigl, and several other talented German Com-
posers also contributed Italian Oratorios, of more
or less value, to this Period; to which must
be referred Mozart*s youthful production, *La
Betulia libera ta,' written, it is believed, when
he had just completed his sixteenth year ; Dit-
tersdorf 8 * Giudacco nella Persia, ossia TEsther/
'Giobbe,' and ' La liberatione del Popolo' ; and
many other works, by writers whose talent was
Tmdeniable, though it must be admitted, that, as
Composers of Oratorios, they made no attempt
to soar to heights which they might easily have
reached, had they been more in earnest, or less
desirous to attain a short-Uved pSopularity; for
it was unquestionably to the low standard of
popular taste that the best interests of this
otherwise promising Period were sacrificed.
The history of our Twelfth Period brings us
into contact with one single Composer only —
the composer of one single Oratorio.
We must not, however, suppose that Bee-
thoven's single Oratorio can be placed on a level
with his single Opera. He wrote *Fidelio' in
1805, when he was in the plenitude of his ar^
tistic power: *Christus am Oelberge* (*The
Mount of Olives*) was produced in 1803, when
he was not yet really Beethoven, not having as
yet produced the *Eroica Symphony.* Those
two years made all the difference; for they
represented the distinction between the First
and Second Styles. Nevertheless, 'The Mount
of Olives * is so great a work, that, though it may
not bear comparison with some of its author's
later productions, it cannot possibly be associated
with the writings of any other Composer : and
therefore it is that we have here thought it
necessary to place it in a class by itself. More-
over, its idiosyncrasy presents so many exceptional
features, that, if we have erred at all, it is in
having allowed only one category for its re-
ception: for, critics have described it under
almost as many different aspects as the Chame-
leon in the Fable. Qua Music, it is simply
enchanting : overflowing with that delicious
freshness which so frequently invests its Com-
poser's 'First Manner* with a charm scarcely
less potent than that exercised by the grander
magic of the ' Second.' Qud Oratorio, it shocks
us as a monstrous anomaly. Undoubtedly, Huber,
the writer of the words, is chargeable with the
worst part of its extravagance : the wonder is,
that any consideration on earth could have in-
duced Beethoven, who was generally so scrupu-
lously careful in such matters, to set one single
word offluch a Libretto to Music. AVi thou t entering
into details, it is enough to say, that, contrary to
all precedent, our Lord is made to sing a long
Scena ed Aria; a Duet with the Angel, in which
the two voices constantly move in long passages
of Thirds and Sixthfi ; and a Trio with the
Angel and St. Peter. Beethoven's religious
ORATORIO.
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opinions are known to have been, to say the
least of it, original : ^ yet, supposing him to have
seen no impropriety in this departure from esta-
blished usage, one might fairly have expected
from him somQ recognition of the fact, that,
apart irom all religious feeling, the events of the
night preceding the Passion were so inexpres^blv
mournful that none can read of them unmoved.
Yet we find no sign, even of this. Not only is
the style purely ssacular. but, in certain places —
such as the Tno, for instance — it is absolutely
sparkling. An attempt has been made, in Eng-
land, to remove these grave incongruities by sub-
stituting an entirely new Libretto, called ' Engedi,'
and founded on the sojourn of David in the
Wilderness. A substituted Libretto never can
be really successful : but the mere &ct that the
experiment has been tried sufficiently proves the
gravity of the evil it was intended to palliate.
To those who are capable of reconciling them-
selves to an evil so deeply seated, or, at least, of
ignoring the want of correspondence between the
subject and its treatment, the Music must be an
unmixed treat. In evexy Movement we meet
with beauties of oonception, of design, or of in-
dividual colouring, such as are never found save
in the works of the greatest Masters. The Chorus
is extensively employed, and keeps the interest
alive throughout ; and the whole culminates in a
magnificent burst of jubilant Song, far exceeding
in grandeur any part of the Mass in C — the
splendid 'Hallelujah/ the first Movement of
which is almost suggestive of the Old Masters, in
its stem and unwavering Accompaniment, while
the spirited and finely-developed Fugue, full of
interest and fire, and weakened only, Uke that
we have described in the 'Creation,* by the
exuberance of its masterly Instrumentation, has
always been r^arded as a masterpiece of modem
Part-writing. It is something, though the work
cannot be relieved, as a whole, from the charge
of inconsistency, to be able to select from it so
many Movements of superlative excellence.
Nine years after the first performance of * The
Mount of Olives * at Vienna, Spohr inaugurated
the Thirteenth Pebiod by bringing out his
first Oratorio 'Das jUngste Gericht,*" at Erfurt,
where it was produced under his own super-
intendence in 1 8 1 2. Though the great Violinist,
then twenty-eight years old, had already laid the
foundation of the characteristic and highly ori-
ginal style by which his works are distinguished
frx)m those of all other Composers, he had not yet
brought it to that full perfection which, in later
yearS) made it a part of himself. As a natural
consequence, this early Oratorio, notwithstanding
its undoubted merits, is unequal, and to a certain
extent disappointing. Perhaps it would seem
less BO had we no opportunity of comparing it with
greater works of later date ; for it is recorded
that the Choruses produced a profound impres-
sion on the occasion of the firdt performance,
1 Sm ToI. I. p. 1(99.
i Litonlly translated. 'Th« Lact Judgment.' This work, howerer.
as will be presently seen, has no connection with the Oratorio known
by that name In England.
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OBATORIO.
and it is certain that the part of Satan ifi
finely conceived, and carried out with masterly
skill : but that there are weak points cannot be
denied. Very different is it with • Die letzten
Dinge/ compoged at Gassel in 1825, and first
performed in 1826. Wo here see the Master at
his best; his style, more conspicuous for its
individuality than that of any other Composer
of this century, fully developed ; his experience
matured by long and unbroken fiuniliarity with
the Orchestra, under circumstances scarcely less
fiivourable than those which exercised so happy
an effect upon the Art-life of Haydn; and his
genius free to lead him where it would. It
led him, in this case, to attempt the illustration
of Mysteries which might well have appalled
a less bold spirit than his. But there can be no
doubt that the subject presented a peculiar
attraction for him. There is, in all his Music —
even in his most joyous strains — an undercurrent
of unfathomable depth which seems continually
striving to lead the hearer away from the exter-
nal aspect of things, in order to show him a hidden
meaning not to be revealed to the thoughtless lis-
tener. Even the glorious March in ' Die Weihe
der Tone' leaves a feeling rather of sadness than
exultation behind it. The value of such a quality
as this in ' Die letzten Dinge * was incalculable.
Spohr's familiarity with the profoundest secrets
of the Chromatic and Enharmoniq genera> which
had by this time become a second nature to him,
afforded him access to regions of musical expres-
sion as yet unexplored ; and he entered them, not
with the timidity of a pioneer, but with the cer-
tainty of a finished Master. His refined taste
precluded the possibility of an inharmonious pro-
gression : yet he dared modulations which, in
less skilful hands, would have been excruciating.
Diatonic and Chromatic 'False Relations' are
two very different things : but, there are such
things as Chromatic, and even Enharmonic * False
Relations' — a sad fact of which Spohr's imitators
appear to be profoundly ignorant. Spohr never
writes one. In the space of half a bar, he may
take us miles from the Key in which we started :
but the journey is performed so smoothly that
we scarcely know we have performed it. The
quality one most misses in his Music is that of
sternness; yet in 'Die letzten Dinge,* we are
not without indications even of that. This great
Oratorio, the name of which literally signifies
* The last Things/ is the one now so well known
in this country as *The last Judgment.' The
English title is a very unfortunate one ; for be-
sides being a gross mistranslation, it gives a very
false idea both of the scope and the intention of
the work. The words are selected, for the most
part, from those parts of the Apocalypse which
oesoribe the terrible Signs and Portents to be
sent, hereafter, as precursors of -the consumma-
tion of all things. Dramatic treatment would
manifestly have been an insult to the solemnity of
such a subject. Spohr has not even ventured to
look upon it as a Sacred Epic. His interpreta-
tion is purely contemplative. He first strives to
lead our thoughts as far aa possible beyond the
ORATORIO.
reach of all external imp-essions; and then, with
the irresistible force of that oratory which fiir
exceeds in power the rhetoric of words, invites
us to meditate upon some of the most thrilling
passages to be found in any part of the Bible.
Ilie amount of artistic skill made subservient to
^this great end is almost incredible. The form of
the Movements, the disposition of the Voices,
the Instrumentation of the Accompaniments, are
all, in turn, brought to bear upon it. There is but
one idea, from beginning to end. The Composer
makes no attempt to please, but is content to come
before us simply in the character of Preacher.
Hence it is that the work does not contain a single
Air. The lovely Duet for Treble and Tenor,
'Forsake me not,' is the only regularly-constructed
Movement allotted to the Solo Voices. £xcq>t
for this, they are exclusively employed, either in
conjunction with the Chorus, which is in constant
requisition, or in the declamation of highly-wrought
Accompanied Recitative, so melodious in cha-
racter, that, had it been produced at the present
day, it would probably have been called 'Melos.*
The Instrumentation of this Recitative exhibits the
Composer in his fullest strength, but proclaims,
at the same time, a most commendable amount
of self-renunciation. In a certain sense it may
be described as Tone-painting, but its imageiy
is purely subjective. Ever striving so to influence
the mind as to bring it more and more closely en
rapport with the written text as the work ap-
proaches its climax, it never attempts to depict
realities, but aims rather at the suggestion of un-
spoken thoughts which serve its purpose hr
more readily than any amount of realistic delinea-
tion— and it attains its end by many a master-
stroke. In the well-known Chorus, *A11 glory
to the Lamb that died,' — which, by the way,
is almost always sung, in England, much fiuter
than Spohr himself used to take it — ^the poj*
torale character of the pizzicato accompani-
ment brings instantly before us the Birth of
the Lamb Whose Incarnation formed the fint
step in the great Sacrifice we are contem-
plating. It is like a glimpse of Van Eydc's
marvellous Picture in the Cathedral at Ghent.
The tumultuous horror of the Chorus, 'Destroyed
is Babylon the mighty' is increased a thousandfdd
by the freezing lull during which * the Sea gives
up its dead.' And, when the horror is over, and
we have felt rather than heard its thunders dying
away in the distance, and have learned, from the
Voice of the Angel, that *A11 is fulfilled,' and
Babylon no more, the wrathful sounds, already
nearly inaudible, continue to fade through a still
softer pianissimo, until they lead us into the
opening strains of the ineffably beautiful Quartet,
'Blessed are the dead,' which forms tiie cul-
minating point of the whole. There is nothing
in the Oratorio more striking than this truly
sublime conception. Spohr himself evidently felt
this, and intended that it should be so : for he
attempts nothing more. Henceforward, all is
peace; and even the bold Chorus, 'Great and
wonderful,' with its fine fugal writing and beauti-
ful contrasts, dies away, at last, into a pianiBnima
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ORATORIO*
May there not be a hidden meaning even in. this ?
— that we are to go home, not to tidk about what
we have heard, but to think about it ?
Spohr wrote no other Oratorio, after this, until
i8.^5t when, still living at Cassel, he composed
and superintended the performance of * Des
Heilands letzte ^Stunden/ a work which first
became known in England under the title of
' The Crucifixion,' and, at a later period, imder
that of • Calvary.* Some of the Choruses in this
are characteriseid by a tenderness to which their
chromatic structure lends an inexpressible charm ;
and the whole work is pervaded by a solemn
beauty which leads us deeply to regret that it
should be so rarely performed in public. It was
followed, some years later, by • The Fall of Baby-
lon,' a work of greater proportions, which, on
July 21, 1843, the Composer himself directed,
for the first time, at Exeter Hall, by special in-
vitation of the Sacred Harmonic Society, on
which occasion the effect produced by the
opening bars of the Chorus, * The lion roused
« from slumber is springing,* was one which those
who were fortunate enough to hear it will not
easily forget. Spohr, indeed, was a model Con-
ductor, and sometimes electri6ed his audience
by a single stroke of his Bftton, though never
with a rude or unwelcome shock.
One of Spohr's most illustrious contemporaries
was the indeffitigable and highly-gifted Fried rich
Schneider, a writer who once enjoyed an extra-
ordinary degree of popularity which is now some-
what on the wane. Between the years 18 10
and 1838, he produced, besides numerous Operas
and other important works, no less than sixteen
German Oratorios ; viz. * Die HoUenfahrt des
Mesaias' (1810) ; * Das Weltgericht' (1819), the
most celebrated of all his writings ; * Die Tod-
tenfeier' (1821); 'Die Slindfluth* (1823); 'Der
verlorene Paradies* (1824); 'Jesus Geburt'
(1825); •ChristusderMeister'(i827); Tharao*
(1828); 'Christus das Kind' (1820); 'Gideon'
(1829) ; 'Absalom ' (1830) ; * Das befreite Jeru-
salem * (1835) ; * Salomonis Tempelbau ' (1836) ;
'Boni&cius' (1837), unfinished; 'Gethsemane
und Golgotha' (1838); and 'Christus der Erlo-
ser' (1838). All these works were more than
ordinarily successful, in their day — as were also
Lindpaintuer's 'Abraham' and *Der Jiingling
von Nain' — ^but, with the exception of *Da8
Weltgericht,' they are now almost forgotten, even
in Germany; to Spohr, therefore, the Thirteenth
Period is alone indebted for its inmiortality.
The history of our Foubteenth Period is a
glorious one ; but, again, it depends for its cele-
brity entirely upon the genius of a single Com-
poser— ^who, however, is one not likdy to be
soon forgotten.
Though Mendelssohn, when he first enter-
tuned ihe idea of writing an Oratorio, had not
yet completed his twenty-third year, he was al-
ready a finished Scholar, an accomplished Mu-
sician, a profound Thinker, and the Composer of a
large collection of works, not a few of which are
1 UtenHj, 'The Sftvlour*! last boon.* though that title has nerer
basD applied to It la this ouontry.
ORATORIO.
classed, even by critics of the presli
his best. He did not, therefore, e
task without consideration, or wit
rience. He knew what an Oratorio <
and he had already made choice of the^
which pleased him best — the School
attempted to describe in treating of our Sixth**
Period, the brightest luminary of which was
Joh. Seb. Bach. But, let us not be misunder-
stood. Mendelssohn was no imitator, either of
Bach, or any other Composer : he simply set to
work upon Bach's principles, just as Mozart set
to work upon Haydn's, and afterwards wrought
out his own ideas in his own way. And that
way proved to be a very original, as well as a
very attractive one. The idea of choosing the
life and mission of S. Paul for a subject was sug-
gested to him by the Frankfort * Cacilien-Verein,'
in the year 1831. He accepted the proposal, and
requested Marx to write a Book for him. Marx
refused, on the ground that the Choitdes which
Mendelssohn wished to introduce were unsuited
to the date of the narrative. Mendelssohn, there-
fore, with the assistance of his friends Fiirst and
Schubring, compiled a Book for himself, selecting
the wonis, with very few exceptions, from the Ger-
man translation of the Bible. An eminent critic
of the present day (Hand, *Aesthetik der Ton-
kunst,' ii. p. 576) finds fault with its construction,
on the ground that the Hero of the story is not
niade its central point. ' We see here,' he says,
*not one Oratorio, but two — S. Stephen, and
S. Paul — bound together by external ties ; while
S. Paul, who, as the Hero, should in the fulness
of bis strength fight the battle with himself and
with the world, passes, through a series of trials,
into the background, surrounded by companions
scarcely less worthy than himself, without ever ap-
pearing as the central point of the dramatic unity.'
Hand's criticisms are generally valuable ; but he
was altogether wrong, here, and utterly mistook the
Composer's meaning. Mendelssohn's conception
— perfectly homogeneous in essence, though some-
what complicated in structure — embraced three
histiirical facts, over which one other fact, of
greater significance than all, dominated supreme.
The three facts, which he presents to us in three
distinct pictures, each hidf dramatic and half
epic, are the Martyrdom of S. Stephen, the
Conversion of S. Paul, and the Apostle's later
career ; symbolical respectively of the determined
opposition of the world to the True Faith, the
power of the True Faith to make Mends even of
its persecutors, and the Preaching of the True
Faith through all the world. The one predomi-
nant fiict, which governs all these, and to the
exposition of which they each contribute a most
important share, is the ultimate triumph of
Christianity; and, precisely because the great
Apostle laboured so zealously to promote that
triumph, he not only appears as the central-
point of the whole, but we are made to feel his
influence, either as persecutor of the Faithful, or
Preacher of th^ Faith, even in those Scenes in
which he is not actually present. He stands be-
fore us, throughout, as the visible representative
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ORATORIO.
of the one grand thought which permeates the
entire design. A symbolical Apostle, with just
enough personality to secure our affectionate re-
cognition, but not enough to prevent us firom
r^arding him as the embodiment of an abstract
idea — the dissemination of the great truths of
the Gospel, by the mouths of duly appointed
Messengen, to the uttermost parts of the earth.
Bearing these things in mind, we can at once see
why it was that Mendelssohn insisted so strongly
on the introduction of the Chorale. In Protestant
Germany, the Chorale is universally understood to
represent the united Voice of the whole Christian
Church. How then could the trials, the hopes,
the &ith, and the final victory of the CSinrch be
intelligibly expressed, to Gennan hearers, with-
out its aid? Mendelssohn makes it the keystone
of the whole. It opens his magnificent Overture
with an exhortation to vigilance which no Grer-
man could possibly misunderstand. Li the mas-
sive opening Chorus, the passage beginning with
the words 'The Heathen furiously rage ' suffici-
ently explains the need of such watchfulness ; and
then the Church sets forth her fiuth and trust, in
a new Chorale, * To God on high be thanks and
praise* — the calm beauty of which must needs
dispel all fear for the future. Then follows the
Martyrdom of S. Stephen, illustrated in a series
of Movements the most noticeable of which are
the angry Chorus ' Now this man oeaseth not ' ;
the beautiful and highly- wrought Scena sung by
S. Stephen himself ; the reiterated oomminations
of the Jews; the heavenly note of warning,
* Jerusalem I Jerusalem T interposed between
two violent outbursts of popular fury ; and the
most characteristic Chorus of all, * Stone him to
death I ' after which the Church again breathes
forth a sigh of hopeful submission, in the Chorale
' To Thee, O Lord, I yield my spirit,* and the
delightfully melodious Chorus, * Happy and blest
are they,* which succeeds it. If any proof were
needed of the correctness of the theory we have
advanced, it would be afforded by the fiict that
it is not until this point that Saul makes his ap-
pearance upon the Scene in his own proper person.
Most dramatists would certainly have introduced
him at the close of the Martyrdom, if not before.
Mendelssohn contents himself with allowing us
to feel his influence only during the trial, reserv-
ing his entrance until all is over, when he brings
him before us as the true Hero of the piece, with
the fiery Bass Solo— 'Consume them all ! * In spite
of threatenings. and persecution, and slaughter, the
Church still sings of comfort — this time, through
the medium of a Solo Voice — in • But the Lord is
mindful of his own.* There is hope — she would
say — that even the persecutor may be saved. And
then follows the Conversion, in which the expedient
of assigning our Lord's words to a Chorus of four
TQreble Voices, though not altogether new — for it
dates firom the 15th century ' — introduces a well-
conceived and appropriate effect in which a long
and skilfully managed crescendo leads with ever
increasing excitement into the fiery Chorus,
* Rise up t arise ! rise and shine ! * The Light has
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ORATORIO.
broken in upon the soul of the future Apostle :
and again the Church speaks to him, and indi-
cates his appointed work, in the fine old Chorale
' Sleepers wake ! * each phrase of whidi is followed
by a simultaneous crash of all the brass instm-
ments. But he cannot, at once, realise the great
things that have been done for him. The L^t
has blinded him, for the time ; and he must needs
crave forgiveness and mercy, until they are assured
to him by the mouth of Ananias. Then it is that
he expresses his unbounded joy, in a great cry,
• I praise Thee, 0 Lord my God,* while the Church
watches over him. still speaking words of comfort,
and concluding the First Part with the grand
contemplative Chorus, ' O great is the depth.'
The conception of the Second Part is really
far grander than that of the First, though it is less
forcibly dramatic, and even keeps the epic element
in the background, except when it is needed for
the purpose of bringing the personality of S. Paul
himself into sufficiently strong reliefl It opens
with a fine five-part Chorus, 'The Nations are now
the Lord's,* in which Mendelssohn's power as a
Fugue-writer is well utilised. It then takes up
the subject at the point for which the whole of
the First Part was but a necessary preparatioa
— the actual preaching of the Apostle. This is
interrupted by a Chorus of Jews, ' Is this he ? '
carrying out the same idea as the tumultuous pan-
sages in the First Part, and thus contributing to
the unity of the general intention by exhibiting ^e
same crowd, at one moment persecuting S. Ste-
phen, and, at another, S. Paul himself. Again the
Church perceives the danger, and prays for direc-
tion, in the Chorale, ' O Thou the true and only
Light t * after which S. Paul, and his companion
S. Barnabas, turn to the Grentiles. In the Scene
of the Sacrifice at Lystra, the epic element reap-
pears ; and the sensuous Chorus sung by the ww-
shippers of Jupiter is contrasted with admirable
skill with the solemn strains of * But our God
abideth in Heaven.' The Jews interpose again in .
a Chorus no less characteristic of the raging mul-
titude than those we have already heard : after
which the Apostle, having been cheered by the
mingled exhortation and promise ' Be thou faith-
ful unto death.* takes that affecting leave of * the
Brethren * which, as described by S. Luke, brings
all the most beautiful traits of his character into
the noblest and most touching relief; and the
Oratorio concludes with the Choruses, ' See what
love hath the Father bestowed on us,* and * Not
only unto him, but unto all them that love truly,*
bringing prominently into view the idea whkfa
has been persistently kept before us, from first to
last — ^the universal triumph of the Church as ex-
emplified in that of one of the greatest of her
Apostles, who, faithful to the last, passes from oar
sight, that he may receive the promised Crown.
* S. Paul ' was first performed at Diisseldoif,
on Whitsunday, May 2a, 1836; and in English,
at Liverpool, on Oct. 3 following. • Elijah '
was produced at the Birmingham Festival ca
Aug. 26, 1846. Mendelssohn having, meanwhile,
passed ten of the best years of his life in inde-
fiitigable work, and the accumulation of a vast
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OBATORIO.
amount of experience. Tet it cannot be stud
that ^Elijah' is really a greater work than
*S. Paul': it is great in a different way. The
history of its gradual development having already
been narrated at length in the article Mendbls-
SOHN, it remains for us only to speak of it in
its perfect form. In one respect, the main idea
is Uie same as that treated in * S. Paul * — the
triumph of Truth over Falsehood. In both Ora-
torios, the instrument by which this triumph is
accomplished is a Heaven-commissioned Teacher,
whose influence is distinctly perceptible through-
out the entire work; only» in 'Elijah,* the
personality of this Teacher is more frequently
brought before us than in ' S. Paul/ where we
are so frequently made to feel his influence with-
out actu^y seeing him. As a natural conse-
quence, the later Oratorio is much more dramatic
in structure than the earlier one. The character
of the Prophet 1b drawn with minute attention
to the peculiar traits by which it is distinguished
in the Scripture Narrative : and the Scenes in
which he stands forth as the principal figure are
painted with intense descriptive power. Eight
such Scenes are brought most prominently into
the foreground : four in the First Part — the Pro-
phecy of the Drought, the Raising of the Widow's
Son, the Sacrifice on Mount Ciurmel, and the
Coming of the Eain ; and four in the Second—
the Persecution of Elijah by Jezebel, the Pro-
phet's sojourn in the Desert^ with all its awful
revelations of Almighty Power, his return to his
People and subsequent departure in the Fiery
Chariot, and the magnificent conclusion which
teaches us the deep signification of the whole.
The Recitative in which the opening Prophecy is
announced, placed hrfore the Overture which so
vividly describes its terrible effects, is a grand
conception, scarcely exceeded in dramatic force
by any subsequent passage, and immeasurably
enhanced by the four solemn Chords with which
. the Brass Instruments prelude the first words of
the terrible denunciation. The despairing phrases
of the Overture lead so naturally into the cry of
the wailing People, 'Help, Lord! the harvest
is over, the summer days are gone,' that we can*
not but believe the whde chain of Movements to
have been the result of the same individual
idea, the gradual development of which finds con-
sistent expression in Obadiah's exhortation to
repentance — clothed in the lovely Tenor Air, * If
with all your hearts' — and the noble chain of
Movements, beginning with < Yet doth the Lord,'
which forms the climax of this division of the
subject. In the next picture we find Elijah * by
the brook Cherith,' whence, after having been
comforted by the soothing strains of the Double
Quartet, 'fie shall give His Angels charge over
thee,' he is summoned to Zar^hath, to the house
of the Widow, the Raising of whose Son is pamted
in tender accents which &id their fitting response,
not, as the careless hearer might have expected,
in a Chorale — for the Chorale belongs exclusively
to the Christian Dispensation, and this is pre-
eminently a Jewish Oratorio — but, in the con-
templative Chorus, 'Blessed are the men who
ORATORIO.
557
fear Hhn,* which brings the Scene to so
appropriate and well-con<ddered a conclusion.
Then follows the Sacrifice, in which the tho-
roughly worldly yet never trivial strains sung by
the BaiEd-worsluppers are so strikingly contrasted
with Elijah's sublime Prayer, ' Lord God of Abra-
ham,' the softer harmonies of * Oast thy burthen
upon the Lord,' and the Descent of the Fire,
and consequent recognition of the true Grod — a
tremendous Scene, which reaches its climax in the
destruction of the prophets of Baal, and needs
all the resources, both choral and instrumental,
that the Orchestra can afford, for its efficient
representation. How these resources are used
will be best understood by those who have not
only heard, but studied the Oratorio, and endea-
voured to interpret it in the spirit in which it
was composed. But this is not the culminating
point of the First Part. After the beautiful Alto
Song, ' Woe unto them,' we again meet the Pro-
phet on Mount Cannel, to watch with him for
the coming rain, until the Orchestra actually
shows us the 'Uttle cloud* arising *out of the
sea, like a man's hand,' and the storm bursts over
us in welcome torrtots, bringing salvation to the
famine-stricken people, who, intoxicated with
wonder and delight, unite in the thrilling Chorus,
'Thanks be to God,' which is so plaosd as to
bring out its strongest points to the best advan-
tage, while it derives additional effect from the
skill with which it is fitted into its important
position, where it forms so fitting a complement
to the aU-but despairing cry for mercy with which
the Oratorio began.
The Second Part opens with the Soprano Solo,
'I am He that comforteth,' followed by the
quite exceptional Chorus, *Be not afraid,' in
which so many different emotions are portrayed
by the master hand which makes them all sub-
servient to a common end. After this, we are
brought fihce to fiace with the hateful Jezebel,
who comes before us, in all her meanness, and
deceit, and treachery, to incite the People against
the I^phet whose prayers have saved them,
and so to compass his destruction. The Recita-
tive in which Obadiah counsels the Seer to fly
fipom persecution is strangely beautiful, and intro-
duces us to oneof the most impressive pictures that
have ever been attempted in the whole range of
descriptive Music — the hiding in the Wilderness ;
the comfort proffered by the Angels, in the
heavenly Trio * Lift thine eyes,' and the Chorus
which follows it ; the sadness which almost over-
comes even Elijah's constancy ; the calm peace
of the beautiful Air, 'O rest in the Lord'; and
then the awful history which tells how the
Holy One of Israel, Who was not in the Wind,
nor in the Earthquake, nor in the Fire, revealed
Himself, at length, in the Still Small Voice. It is
impossible to do adequate justice to the power
with which this terrible event is depicted — the
combination of technical skill and depth of feel-
ing needed to render that possible, which, had
either quality fiiiled, or even existed in excess of
the other, could only have resulted in irreverence
too ghastly for contemplation. There can be no
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ORATORIO.
doubt that this is the finest part of the Oratorio :
and in order to cahu the excitement which it
never fails to produce, it is absolutely necessary
that the hearer should return for a moment to
things of earth, and join in converse with the
Sons of the Prophets before he i& privileged to
hear of the * Chariot of Fire, and Horses of Fire,'
in which the Man of Grod is taken to receive his
reward. Then follows the Peroration — including
the Tenor Air * Then shall the Righteous shine,
the Quartet, * O come, every one that thirsteth,'
and the splendid Chorus, ' And then shall your
light break forth' — ^in which is summed up the
lesson of the whole : the lesson of faith in the
Future, founded on experience of the Past; the
lesson of Hope, and Peace, and Joy, which the
Composer has striven to impress upon us through-
out, and that so clearly, that, if we have not
learned it, we have learned nothing at all.
Had Mendelssohn lived to complete *Christu8,'
it is quite possible that he might have produced
a woik more perfect than either 'S. Paul,* or
* Elijah.' But, we dare not grieve for the loss of
it. For, surely, if it be true, as one of the most
judicious of modem German odtics has said, that
the ultimate purpose of the Oratorio is 'neither to
minister to our senses, nor to afford us what we
ordinarily understand by the words pleasure
and entertainment, but to elevate our souls, to
purify our lives, and, so far as Art can conduce
to such an end, to strengthen our Faith, and our
Devotion towards ' God,' — surely, if this be the
legitimate aim of the great Art-form we are con-
sidering, no writer, antient or modem, has ever
striven more earnestly to attain it than did Men-
delssohn, and the efforts of very few indeed have
been blessed with an equal measure of success.
As in our Article Opera, we have thought it
desirable to leave the productions of living Com-
posers to the judgment of a future generation of
Critics. Had it not been for our firm belief in
the justice as well as the expediency of this
reservation, we would gladly have found space to
discuss the merits and caU attention to the
designs of * S. John the Baptist,' * The Resurrec-
tion,' and 'Joseph'; of 'Eli,' and 'Naaman';
of • S. Cecilia,' and « S. Peter ' ; of * The Light of
the World'; of *S. Polycarp' and 'Hagar'; of
Hiller's 'Saul,' and 'Die Zerstorung Jerusa-
lems,' of Rheinthaler's 'Jephtha'; and of many
another familiar work, the interest of which lies
less in its own individual significance than in the
hope it gives that those who are now turning
their talents to such excellent account, may, by
their life-long earnestness, raise a &bric to which
their successors may point with pride as well as
pleasure. But since for the present this part of
our subject must needs be left in abeyance, it re-
mains only to speak of the beautiful Inspiration
bequeathed to posterity by one who has so lately
left us that it seems almost sacrilegious to exf •
mine his work in the spirit of analytical criticism.
Yet we should lose so much by neglecting to do
BO, that we have no choice but to proceed to the
I 0. H. Bitter. ' B«UrSg« rar Ge«cblchte des Oratorlums,' p. 40.
(Berliu IbTi.)
ORATORIO.
consideration of the single piece which forms the
sum and substance of our Fiftkenth Period.
Though, with the charactmstio modesty
which graced his every action. Sir Stemdale
Bennett was content to call 'The Woman of
Samaria' a Cantata, it is, to all intents and
purposes, an Oratorio in one Part. To wish thai
it were longer would be a great mistake ; for it
is exactly what it was meant to be, and fulfils
its purpose perfectly. The subject, indeed, would
scarcely admit of greater extension. Yet, Uie
work is none the less an Oratorio on that ac>
count; for, within the limits dictated by the
Evangelist, the treatment of the Narrative is
exhaustive. In several respects, the mode of
this treatment differs firom that adopted by some
other great Composers. As might have been
expected, we meet, from first to last, with no
attempt at dramatic expresjdon. The story is
told, by the principal Singers, exactly in the
words in which we find it narrated in the Gospel
according to S. John ; while, from time to time,
Choruses, the words of which are selected from
other portions of the Sacred Writings, are intro-
duced, for the purpose of swristing Uie hearer in
his meditation upon the lesson taught by the
principal subject. In one instance only — * Now
we believe ' — does the Chorus assist in carryii^
on the narrative; and, even here, it shows no
trace of dramatic expression. The tone of the
work is contemplative and devotional through-
out; for the most part, deeply and touchingly
pathetic, yet never lacking eneigy, where energy
is needed, though the sternest passages are tem-
pered with the exquisite refinement of feeling
which is inseparable frt}m the Composer's style,
for the simple reason that it was a part of himselt
This is very remarkable in the opening Chorale
'Ye Christian People, now rejoice,' founded on
the old Gaman melody '£s ist gewisslich an
der ' Zeit,' in which the bold syncopations in the
Melody, and the powerful treatment of the
Accompaniment in no wise diminish the effect
produced by the perfect finish of the whole. It
is to this all-pervading finish that the entire
work owes one of its greatest chamos. It ex-
hibits itself everywhere, alike in conception
and execution; in the reverence with which
the Sacred Text is treated, and the perfection with
which every bar of Accompaniment is rounded
into form; in the minute attention bestowed
upon the rhetorical enunciation of the words,
and the care shown in the resolution of eadi
passing dissonance — for, how could a man who
was never heard to speak a hard word of any
one introduce either a false accent, or a 'false
relation ' ? As an instance of the reverence
shown to the Text, we may call attention
to the fact that Our Lord is never made to
sing in His own proper person, but in that
of the Evangelist. For example, in the Reci-
tative, No. lo, the Bass Voice sings, ' He said
unto her, Woman, believe me.' Bach, himself
the most reverent of men, would have assigned
the first clauses of the Verse to the Evangelist,
s Formerly sung to ' Nan tnat each Ueben Ohrtst«n (rmeln.*
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ORATORIO.
and the last tliree words to Our Lord, speakiog
with His own voice. As it is only in the case
of Our Lord Himself that this expedient is in-
troduced, there can be no doubt of the spirit
which prompted it : we may remark, indeed, that
at the beginning of the very Recitative we have
quoted, the Evangelist says, ' The Woman saith
UDto Him,* and the Woman herself then takes
up the theme with, ' Sir, I perceive that Thou
art a Prophet.* It is to this beautiful spirit of
reverence that the Oratorio owes much of its
devotional effect. There is no doubt that its
production was a pure labour of love; and
there is strong reason for believing that the
Composer meditated upon it for many years
before he began to put his ideas into sys-
tematic form. It was first produced at the Bi]>
mingham Festival in 1867. Yet as long ago as
1843 Stemdale Bennett showed the writer a
Chorus for six Voices, treated antiphonally,
which, after having played it through from a
neatly-written Score, he said he intended to
introduce into an Oratorio he was then medi-
Lnting. After the lapse of so many years the
writer cannot pretend to remember details, but
he is quite certain that if not absolutely identical
throughout with 'Therefore they shall come,* the
Chorus to which he alludes was the first embodi-
ment of the idea upon which that delightful
Movement is founded.
When the 20th century dawns upon us,
will those who are now in their childhood be
able to speak of new Oratorios worthy to stand
side by side with the immortal works to which
we have directed the reader's attention T Will
the revolutionary spirit which is now working
such radical changes in the construction of the
Opera affect the Oratorio also T Will the neg-
lect of Counterpoint, the contempt for Fugue, the
hatred of Polyphony, which so many young Mu-
sicians— and not young ones only — are rapidly
learning to regard as signs of ' progress,' under-
mine the very foundations of Sacred Music to such
an extent as to render the production of new and
worthy works impossible? Is there genius
enough in the world to strike out an entirely
new conception, and learning enough to ensure
its successful embodiment? These are difficult
questions ; but it is possible that the history of
the past may suggest a not improbable answer
to some of them. Twenty years must pass away
before the new century begins. Who thought
of the 'Messiah' in 1731, or of 'S. Paul' in
1 8 1 6 ? Certainly no t the Composers of these great
works ; and if not the Composers, assuredly no
one else. Why then may we not hope for the in-
auguration of a new and glorious Pbbiod before
the year I9cx> ? a Period that may shed as much
lustre over the closing years of the nineteenth
century as the Oratorios of Spohr and Men-
delssohn did over its earlier half? There is
nothing at all Utopian in the thought; and
we do not believe that such a Period, should it
ever dawn upon us, would be in the least in-
fluenced by any contemporary changes which
might affect the Lyric Drama. The advocates
ORATORIO.
559
of such changes are not likely to forsake the
fascinations of the Stage for the sake of the Ora-
torio ; and the changes themselves could never
be successfully adapted to it. The next question
is a more serious one. If Counterpoint, and
Fugue, and Polyphonic Imitation, be neglected,
the tone of Saci-ed Music must, of necessity, de-
teriorate. Whatever it may be the fashion to
think now, the men who wrote the greatest Ora-
torios we possess were the f^reatest Masters of
Fugue that ever lived, and thought it no sign of
pedantry to show their mastexy over that most
difficult Art in their grandest Choruses. This
cannot possibly have been the result of a mere
meaningless coincidence. Let those who think
it was, compare the productions of the Sixth,
Seventh, and Fourteenth Periods with those of
the Ninth; or even the works of Spohr with
those of Sacchini. If there be any moral at all
in the history we have written, it is. that, with-
out contrapuntal skill, no really great Sacred
Music can ever be produced. If it be conceded
that the Sublime is the highest quality in
Art, we may say with certainty, that the Su-
blime in Art can never be reached by the un-
learned. But learning alone is not enough — there
must be genius also ; and this brings us to our
last question. Is there original genius enough
in the world to lead to great things in the
Future ? We cannot deny, that, since * S. Paul *
and 'Elijah* saw the light, there has been a
manifest tendency, both in this country, and in
Germany, to follow Mendelssohn's lead more
closely than is consistent with true originality of
thought. This tendency ought to be corrected —
and must be, if any real work is to be done. It
would be better far to go back to Bach, at once :
for it was upon Bach*s principles that Mendels-
sohn founded his practice, as we have already
said, though he never adopted Bach's style. It
is imitation of style that constitutes plagiarism,
not acceptance of abstract doctrines. The man
who can condescend to imitate a style is in-
capable of producing a great Oratorio, and had
much better not attempt to produce one at all,
for, in this, the highest walk of Art, mediocrity
is intolerable. It is perhaps fortunate that only
few Composers ever get the chance of hearing
an Oratorio, even after they have composed it.
Let it not be for a moment supposed that there
is any cruelty in saying so. Tne Oratorio is to
the Musician the exact analogy of what the
Cathedral is to the Architect — Uie highest Art-
form to the construction of which he can aspire.
Very few Architects get the chance of building
a Cathedral. Certainly such a work is never
entrusted to any one who has not ak'eady given
abundant prooi of his talent and experience.
Think what our towns would be, were builders
of villas permitted to set up a Cathedral at the
comer of every street 1 It is the same with Ora-
torios. We do not want many: but those we
have must be of no doubtful excellence. We
i may even go farther, and say, that, for the
I present, we have plenty to go on with. But,
should a Master arise capable of stepping into
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560
ORATORIO.
that highest place which only a very vefy few
have occupied before him, we may be sure thnt
he, at least, will find no difiSculty in bringing
hiB work to the light. It is impossible that
works of the highest claas should remain hidden
from want of opportunity to bring them forward ;
and, so far as the Oratorio is oonoerned, it is for
works of the highest class only that the field
remains open. [W. S. R.]
ORAZZI E CURIAZI. Opera in 3 acts ;
libretto by Sografi, music by Cimarosa. Produced
at Venice, 1 794, and at the Th^tre Od^n, Paris,
June 16, 1813. [G.]
«ORCHteOGRAPHIE>, et traict^ en forme
de dialogue, par leqnel toutes personnes peuvent
faoilement apprendre et pratiquer llionneste exer-
cioe des dances,'* is the title of a rare 4to volume
of 104 pages, published by Jehan des Preys at
Langres in 1589I In the Privilc^um of another
edition is the date Nov. 2 a, 1588, and the work
was reprinted at Langres in 1596 with a some-
what different title. The author, who writes under
the anagram of Thoinot Arbeau, was one Jehan
Tabourot, a canon of Langres, of whom nothing
Is known except that he was the uncle of the
poet Etienne Tabourot (1549- 1 590). Seigneur des
Accords (sometimes called 'tiie Burgimdjan Rabe-
lais ')« that he was the author of the ' Orch^so-
graphie,' and of an equally rare Shepherd's Calen-
dar in dialogue, and that he died in 1595, aged 76.*
The *Orch^sographie' is a particularly valuable
work, as it is the earliest treatise on dancing ex-
tant, which contains the notation of the different
dance-tunes. Quaintly written in the form of a
dialogue between Thoinot Arbeau and Capriol (a
lawyer who finds that the art of dancing is a
necessary aooomplishment in his profession), the
work contains a review of dancing as practised
by the ancients, directions for pUbying drums,
fifes, oboes, etc., as well as minute descriptions
of the manner of dancing Basse Dances. The book
is illustrated with curious woodcuts, representing
the different steps to be executed in the dances,
and contains music for fifes and drums, as well as
for Ihe following dances, several of which may
be found in the present work. See Branlb,
Mattachiks, Mobris Danob, Pavan, Todbdion,
Tbihokis, Volt.
Pavanea.
Tourdions.
Gaillardes— *La traditore my fik morlre*
- - "„i. rot
, «Anthoi-
nette'; *Bai8ona nouB belle'; 'Si j'ayme ou non'; 'La
fatigue': 'La Milatmoise*; ' J'aymerois mieolx dormir
•eulette'; ' L'enniiy qui me toormente.'
La Volte.
LaCoorante.
L'AUemande.
1 ' DflMTlpUon of dandns.' firom opxt^^. d^ndnt ; and ypd^tip,
to write.
* 'OrchMographr. aod treatlM in dlaloflrue form, hj OMans of
Which all maj eadly kara and in«ctUe the goodly exerdae of dances.*
• The Information glren abore Is taken from the AVbi Paplllon'a
'Biblloth^ue dei Auteun de Bourgogne.' Caendntki ('Oeschlchte
der Ttnikuntt '), without naming hit authoritiea, glret the following
additional partteulan. He says that Jehan Tabourot wu the son
of Xttenne Tabourot, a lawrer of DUon. aod from his childhood
showed a great inclination for dancing, which he had learned at
PoiUers. It was originally intended that he should follow hto bther's
profession, but being attacked bj a serere lUneu. his mother rowed
that If he reoorered he should become a priesu He was accordlogly
ordaliMd In IfiSOi and was madacaaonofLaugr»liil074.
ORCHESTRA.
Branlei— Double, Simple, Gay, de BooDgogne, d«
Hault Barroia.
Branlea ooupp^a— 'Cassandra*; 'Pinagay*; * Charlotte*;
de la Ouerre ; '^Aridan.*
Branles de Polctou; d'Escosse ; de Bretaffne (Triory);
de Malte ; des LaTandieres: dee Pois; des Hennit«s ; dn
Chandelier ; de la Torche ; des Sabots ; des Chevaolx ; de
la Montarde; de la Haye; de TOfikuai.
Gavotte.
Horisqne.
Canaries.
Pavane d'Esp^ne.
Bouffons, or Mattaohins.
a. A work entitled ' Orchesography, or the Ait
of Dancing by characters and demonstrations,'
etc., was published in 1706 by J. Walsh. It is
a translation by J. Weaver of R. A. FeuiUet s
* Chor^graphie, ou 1' Art de Dteire La Danse, par
caractferes, figures et signes d^onstratife,' etc.,
which was published in 1699, and is founded on
a syHtem invented by the famous dancing-master
Charles Louis Beauchamps (i 636.1 705). The
book is curious as showing the degree of elabora-
tion to which the old French dances were brought
at the Court of Louis XIV, but it is now almost
useless, owing to the extreme intricacy of the
diagrams. Feuillet's work was followed by a
supplement, containing an interesting coUectioD
of old dance-tunes. [ W. B. S.]
ORCHESTRA (Gr. 6pxTi<rrpa, i^ a dancing
place; ItaL Orchettra; Germ. Orehe»ter\ Fr.
Orchestre),
I. That portion of a Theatre, or Concert-room,
which is set apart for the acoommodation of the
Instrumental Band — in the latter case, of the
Chorus also.
The word is of Greek origin, and in rlassiml
times denoted an open space, in which Dances
were performed, to the sound of various Instru-
ments. This space was situated between the
seats for the audience, and the «o<Xof (frcHn
«o<Xot, concave), another curvilinear space en-
closed for the use of the Chorus, immediately in
front of the Proscenium (vpoffK^viP). In Bo-
man theatres the Orchestra was diverted from
its original purpose, and filled with seats for the
Senators; for which reason it was placed at a
lower level than its Greek prototype, though it
occupied exactly the same situation on the
gronndplan of uie building.
In modem theatres the normal podtiom of
the Orchestra is in front of the Stage, but, on a
level with the floor of the Stalls and Pit— the
parterre of the French Opera-houses. The ad-
vantages of this arrangement are very great. It
permits the sound of the Instrumental Band to
be heard in every part of the house, and effec-
tually prevents it from overpowering the Singer,
who throws his Voice over it from the hi^ier
level of the Stage. Yet exception has been
taken to it. The construction of the new theatre
at Bayreuth for the performance of Wagner's
* Tetralogy,* afforded the Composer an excellent
opportunity for carrying out, to its fullest extent,
bis long-cherished idea of keeping the Instru-
mental Band entirely out of sight of the audience;
accordingly, the Orchestra was so endoeed ss
to render it absolutely invisible to a i^>ectatar
seated in any part of the house, while its tooei
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ORCHESTRA.
Were perfectly audible, and its performances as
coiiipletelj under the command of the Conductor
as they would have been in an ordinary theatre.
Not the least of the difficulties which presented
themselves, during the time that this bold ex*
periment was in progress, was that of so regu-
latin^ the numerical strength of the Instru-
mentalists as to neutralise the deadening effect
of the encloHure : this however was so triumph*
antly vanquished, that, so fiur as the audience
were concerned, the result left nothing to be de-
sired. The performers however were not equally
well satisfied with the arrangement ; and there
certainly does seem room for fearing that their
convenience was — perhaps unavoidably — made a
seoondaiy consideration. So great was the dis-
tress caused by the heated atmosphere of the
house, and the absence of proper ventilation, that
many of them, it is said, announced their finn de-
termination never again to submit to such severe
and health-destroying discomfort. That the griev-
ance was a real one is admitted on all hands ; but
it must not be forgotten that this was the first ex-
periment of the kmd that had ever been tried on
an eztet)sive scale ; and it is not at all improbable
that an efficient remedy for the evil may suggest
itself in time for the next grand Festival.
In oonoert-rooms, the Orchestra is usually
placed at one end of the apartment, at such a
height above the general level of the floor that
the * full length ' figure of a Performer, standing
in firont, may be visible to » seated audience. In
these cases, the seats in the Orchestra are
generally placed in rows, one above another, in
the form of the segment of an amphitheatre;
while in order to throw the sound more forcibly
into the midst of the Auditorium, the wall behind
is frequently moulded into a quasi-hemispherical
form. The arrangements at the old Hanover
Square Rooms were very perfect in this respect.
Those at 'Exeter Hall, S. James's Hall, the Albert
Hall, and the Crystal Palace, are too well known
to need description. In almost every newly-built
concert-room, some new experiment is tried : but,
as no theory, at once certain and practicable, has
as yet been advanced on the subject, the attempts
to introduce improvements are almost always
empirical. It seems strange, that in these days
of scientifio progress no ixifidlible model can be
proposed ; but we must hope that reiterated at-
tempts will eventually lead to the desired result.
II. Both in England and on the Continent
the term Orchestra is also applied, collectively,
to the body of Instrumental Performers offici-
ating at a Theatre, in a Concert-room, or on a
Stage <xc raised Platform in the open air. It is
not, however, extended to a company of Solo-
players, however numerous, on the ground that,
unless the stringed parts, or at least some of the
parts, be doubled, the performance assimilates
Itself to one of Chamber-Musio : nor is it applied
either to the Performers attached to a Regiment,
or to a company of Instrumentalists, who, playing
in the open air, stand upon the ground instead
ORCHESTRA.
661
1 Tbb ▼err d^ ifvij U UBO)
MTcan* MiTloa.
VOL. II. FT. 11.
doooMd ■• » oo&oert-room, After
of upon a nused platform. In these two last
cases, the word substituted for it is Band. [See
vol. i. p. 134.]
III. In a third sense, the term is applied, not
only to the body of Performers, but to the Instru-
ments upon which they play — and with which
they are of course, in teohnioJ language, identi-
fied. Thus we constantly hear of 'an Orchestra
oonsisting of thirty Stringed Instruments, with a
full complement of Wind.'
Three hundred years ago the number of Or-
chestral Instruments was very small, and so unde-
cided thiit it was not always possible to say
whether a certain Instrument was orchestral or
not. Lutes and Viols of all kinds were indeed
in constant use, together with Flutes — in the form
of the old Flute tk bee — Comets, Trumpets, Drums,
and even Saracenic Instruments datiug from the
time of the Crusades ; but there B'as no rule as
to their combination, so that they could scarcely
be said to constitute an Orchestra at alL For
instance, in the 'Ballet oomique de la Royne'
performed at the Chateau de Moutiers, on the
occasion of the marriage of Margaret of Lor-
raine with the Due de Joyeuse in 1581, men-
tion is made of Hautboys, Flutes, Comets,
Trombones, Viole di GamM, Lutes, Harps, a
Flageolet — ^played . by Pan — and tern Violins,
played by as many Ballet-dancers in full dress.'
Such an array would, at first sight, lead us to
expect great things, did we not find that the
Performers were separated into ten Bands (dix
coneerti de mutique) ; that the Violins were re-
served for one particular scene, in which they
played alone, five on each side ; that in another
Scene Neptune and his followers were armed
with * lyres, luths, harpes, flustes, et autres in-
struments'; and that in another Jupiter de-
scended from a golden dome, in which were
placed forty Musicians, ' avec nouveaux instru-
ments, et differents de precedens.' This alone
will be sufficient to show the confused state of
Instrumental Music in the i6th century ; and
when we add that the manner of writing, even
for a Concert of Viols, was exactly the same as
that used for unaccompanied Voices — insomuch
that we constantly meet with compositions * apt
for Voyces or Viols ' — ^it will be readily under-
stood &at, in France at least, the Orchestra was
in its infancy. Nevertheless, this is really the
earliest Instrumental Band used in connection
with a dramatic performance of which we have
any certain record ; we must therefore accord to
France the honour which is justly her due.
In Italy the Orchestra developed itself from
small beguvnings, with an unintenrupted regu-
larity which led to very unexpected results.
The earliest dramatic representation in which
we hear of the employment of a regular staff of
Instmmental Performers is the Oratorio called
* La Rappresentazione deU' Anima e del Corpo,'
composed by Emilio del Cavaliere, and first per^
formed at Rome, in the Oratory attached to the
Church of S. Maria in Vallioella, in the month
SBeevol.Lp.188a. For an enmple of tbe mnsle of tliU eorloui
taUet. see Obohuteatwh. p. fieri.
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ORCHESTRA.
t
of Febroftry, 1600. The Orchestra used on this
occasion consisted of a Double Lyre (or Viol di
Gamba), a Harpsichord, a Double Guitar (or
Bass Lute), and two Flutes. This little Band —
modest indeed compared with that used at the
Chateau de Moutiers— was kept entirely out of
sight, like the Orchestra at Bayreuth ; but the
Composer recommended that the various Charac-
ters employed in the Drama should carry Instru-
ments in their hands, and at least play, or
pretend to play, during the Symphonies, and
also that a Violin shoidd play in unison with
the Soprano Voice throughout.
Ten months after the production of this prim-
itive Oratorio, that is to say in December 1600,
Peri produced at Florence the first Opera Seria,
'Euridice,' which was accompanied by an Or-
chestra, consisting of a Haipsichord, a Large
Guitar, a Great Lyre (or Viol di C^ramba), and a
Large Lute (or Tlieorbo). These Instruments
were also hidden behind the Proscenium, as were,
in all psobability, three Flutes used in a certain
Scene, in which the Shepherd, Tirsi, pretends to
rlay upon a triple pipe {Triflauto), which he
Lolds in his hand.
The next advance was made by Monteverde,
who used for the accompaniment of his * Orfeo,'
produced at Mantua in 1608, an Orchestra con-
sisting of two Harpsichords, two Bass Viola
{C(mtraba98i di Viola), ten Tenor Viols {Viole
da brazzo), one Double Harp, two little IVenoh
Violins, two Large Guitars, two Organs of wood,
two Viole di Gamba, four Trombones, one Regal,
two Cornets, one little Octave Flute {FlauHno
aUa vigeHma secuncUi), one Clarion, and three
TVurapets with Mutes (i Clarino, e 3 Trombe
tardine). We have no means of ascertaining
whether the performers upon these Instruments
were kept out of sight or not, though it seems
•caroely probable that Monteverde would have
abandoned a' plan vrhich had already been suc-
cessfully adopted both by Emilio del Cavaliere
and PerL The one thing that strikes us as
peculiar is, that the Performers should have been
allowed so very much latitude with regard to the
notes they were to play. So much of the Opera
is accompanied by a simple Figured Bass, that
unless separate ports not included in the Score
were written for the other Instruments — which
seems very unlikely indeed — the members of the
Orchestra must have been allowed to play pretty
much as they pleased.
As the rapid progress of Dramatic Music
rendered the exhibition of more artistically-
constructed Accompaniments an absolute neces-
sity, this heterogeneous mixture of Instruments
gradually gave place to a more orderly arrange-
ment, in which Viols of various kinds played an
important part, the Thoroughbass being played
by the Viol di Gamba and other large Stringed
Instruments, while the Harmony was sustained
by the Hupsichord. After a time the Violin
began to assert its true position in the Score,
and when this great step was gained the rest was
Asy. In 1549 Cavalli, in *n Giasone,* accom-
panied a Song with two Violins and a Bass,
ORCHESTRA.
very much in the way In which Handel would
have used the same Instruments fifty yean
later.^ Alessandro Stradella, in his Oratorio
* S. Giovanni Battista,' composed about 1676, use:!
a double Orchestra, consisting of two solo Vio-
lins and Violoncello, del eoneerHno, and a large
body of ripieni VioUns, Tenors, and Basses, del
concerto groeto. About the same time we find
Alessandro Scarlatti writing for two Violins,
Viola, and Bass, and using them exactly as they
have ever since been used by Composers of eveiy
School in Europe :' and Bumey tells us that he
saw in Rome a Song by this great Master, widi
Trumpet ohbUgato, written in a style which proved
him to have studied the peculiarities of the In-
strument with the closest possible attention.
Here tlien, before the dose of the 17th cen-
tury, we find the elements of a complete and well-
ordered Orchestra, consisting of the fiiU Stringed
Band— sometimes succinctly, but very inexacUj,
called the * Stringed Quartet' — with the additi«i
of Wind Instruments, available either for pro-
ducing variety of efiTect, or of communicating
that special colouring upon which, in Dramatic
Music, so many passages depend, not onlv for
their success but for their title to rank as
parts of a logical and consistent whole. So &r
as general principles are concerned no changs
has taken place from that time to this. Then,
as now, the Stringed Band formed the founda-
tion of all things, while the Wind Instruments
were used to strengthen, to enlarge, or to
beautify the structure raised by its efforts, and
supported byits firm tone and massive proportions.
We do not mean to say that no improvements
have since been made, that no mistakes wen
committed in times past, or that the Composers
of the 17th century understood one hundredth
part as much about the Orchestra as Handel, or
Mozart, or Beethoven, or could produce one
thousandth part of the effect with it that they
could ; but we do say that the law to which we
have called attention is immutable, and that, so
long as it is recognised in theory and carried out
in practice, there can be no inherent weaknen
in the constitution of the Orchestra, and no lack
of opportunities for the display of varied and
original Orchestration. Scarlatti evidently took
this view of the case ; and no great Composer
of later date has ventured to dispute it. [See
Obohestbation.]
Passing from Italy to (Germany, we find the
Orchestra arranged upon the same general plan,
though with important modifications of detaiL
That the same fundamental principle should be
accepted in both countries is not at all surprising,
ibr experience has long since proved the impossi-
bility of devising a better one. The difllisi^noes
of detail are the neoessaiy consequence of dif-
ferences already existing between the styles of
composition adopted in the (German and Italian
Schools. In Germanv, the Art of Counterpoint
was never either neglected or despised. When
strict Counterpoint gave place to the system of
free Part-writing which is sometimes erroneou^y
I See exunple p. 60S. > See ezunple p. SBH,
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OECHESTRA.
called by its name, the trne Polyphony of the
]6th centuiy waa also replaced by that rdyodio
Style, which, no lees ingenious or complicated
than the older method, was equally antagon-
istic to the Monodic School then so zealously
defended in Italy. This new German School
reached its highest perfection in the works of
Joh. Seb. Bach : and no one understood better
than he the kind of Orchestra needed for the
support of its Tocal harmonies. Thoroughly re-
cognising the necessity for using the Stringed
Band as the basis of the whole, he preferred to
employ Wind Instruments for the purpose of
enlarging his original design, rather than that of
Btroigthening or decorating it. When he-added
a Flute or Oboe or Bassoon to his Score, he
loved not only to make it obhligato, but to write
it in such wise that it should form a new real
part. Hence, even in his regularly-constructed
Arias, the Voice is scarcely so much accompanied
by the various Instruments employed as made to
sing in concert with them, the Scores containing
as many real parts as there are Solo Voices or
Instruments introduced into it. This plan has
not be6n extensively adopted in latcor times.
Indeed, it could only succeed in the hands of a
Master of the highest rank; for it causes a strain
upon the faculties of the hearer, which, if unre-
lieved by a well-balanced series of more simple
combinations, would become intolerable. Bach
saw this need, and provided for it very carefully.
His power of self-abnegation was as great as liis
power of production ; and he used it with equal
effect. Interspersed among his passages for the
full Orchestra we find a multitude of others,
written veiy thinly indeed ; sometimes employing
only the Bass, and a single Solo Instrument, for
the accompaniment of the Voice ; sometimes using
nothing but a Thoroughbass, with figures indi-
cating the Chords to be applied upon the Organ
or Harpsichord. These are the half-tints of the
picture, introduced with magical skill in the
eouict places were relief is needed, and always
so ammged as either to afford a point of neces-
sary repose, after an exciting passage, or a
moment of calm preparation for a coming effect.
Baches constant employment of this artifice, for
the purpose of throwing in his lights and sha-
dows, and thereby producing some of his finest
^ects, is very remarkable: but it has been —
and, alas ! stiU is — entirely overlooked by some
of his most zealous admirers. It in supposed
that Bach did not leave these *bare places'
intentionally — that he meant them to be 'filled
np^* So they have been filled up already in
some of his greatest works, and are to be, we be-
lieve, still more extensively so in time to come ;
not by noisy lovers of the j^ass Drum and Ophi-
deide, but by learned Musicians, incapable of
Tulgarity or roughness of any kind, first
among these is Bobert Franz, a profound Master
of the Art of Part-writing, who has studied Bach
BO deeply, and so thoroughly imbibed his style,
that, were his 'Additional Accompaniments'
to the 'Matthaus Passion,* the * Magnificat,'
and the * Kirchen-cantaten/ submitt^ to a
ORCH£STBA«
J;«8
competent jury, with no written guide to dis-
tinguish the added portions from the original
work, it is quite possible that the one might
sometimes be mistaken for the other. It would
be by no means disgraceful to fancy that Bach
had written some of Franz's additions— only, he
did not write them. Why not ? Because he did
not wish to impose, either upon the ear or the
mind, an uninterrupted strain which he knew
could be borne by neither. Because he did not
stoop to court popularitv by introducing a grand
effect into every bar, after the manner of some
later writers, well knowing that every such
forced effort becomes an anticlimax, alike de-
structive to the symmetry and the consistency of
the general design. It is said that our Orchestras
differ so much from those used by Bach that his
Music produces no effect when played without
these unhappy additions. Our Orchestras do
really differ from the older Grennan ones, in three
particulars : in the number of Instruments em-
ployed ; in theproportion observed between the
Stringed and Wind Instruments ; and, in the
absenoe of many Instruments used by Bach and
his contemporaries, which are now quite obsolete.
Concerning the question of numerical strength
we need say nothing ; for it is a matter of no
consequence whatever, provided the proper pro-
portion be maintained : but, this proportion is a
matter of vital importance. Knowing, as we do,
that Bach's Stringed Band rarely nmnbered
more than twelve or fourteen Instruments, does
it not follow that» if we increase that number,
we must proportionately increase the number of
the Wind Instruments also f If Bach considered
fourteen Stringed Instruments a £Bdr balance fbr
two Hautboys and two Bassoons, common sense
should tell tis- that to balance fifty-six Stringed
Instruments we shall need eight Hautboys and
eight Bassoons. Tet, in practice, though our
stringed power is continually on the increase, our
Wind Instruments— except at great Festivals —
are scarcely ever even doubled. The treatment
of the parts written for Instruments now obsolete
is undoubtedly suirounded with greater diffi-
culties. Bach constantly wrote for the Oboe
d'amore, the Oboe di caceia (or Taille de Basson),
the Viol d'amore, the Viol di gamba, and other
Stringed and Wind Instruments now regarded
only as antique curiosities. Moreover, his
Trumpet parts could not possibly be played with
the mouthpieces now in use, even supposing
the art of playing on the old-fashioned l^rumpet
to be not utterly lost. In cases of this kind, a
certain amount of compromise is of course un-
avoidable; but surely it would be better to play
a Trumpet-part on the Comet, than to change
the disposition of the Score.
Handel used a larger Orchestra, and treated
it very differently. It is true that he fre<^uently
produced delightful effects by writing m real
parts, but as a general rule he preferred treating
the Acompaniment as a background to his pic-
ture, only elevating it to the rank of an essential
element m the design where he desired to invest
it with mors than ordinary interest. A Itf^
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OBOHESTBA.
proportion of his Songs are aooompanied only by
a Thoroughbass, the Chords to which were sup-
Slied in Church on the Organ, and in Chamber
iudc on the Harpsichord, at which Instrument
the Conductor was accustomed to preside until the
practice of beating time with a Bllton became
general.^ In many cases this simple Thorough-
bass, with its quiet Chords, was contrasted in the
same Song with a Violin part, or with the full
Stringed Band, or even with Stringed and Wind
Instruments combined. In his Overtures,. and the
Accompaniments to his Choruses, Handel gener-
ally strengthened the Violin parts with Hautboys
in imison, and the Basses with Bassoons and
even Double Bassoons, as in 'VAUegro'; but
he also constantly occupied the Wind Instru-
ments with independent parts, forming a sort of
ornamentation upon the simple structure provided
by the Stringed Band. Again, he constantly
used the Stringed and Wind Band in separate
bodies, each complete in itself, and each con-
trasted with and employed in constant response
to the other, with the happiest possible effect,
and a very close approach to the praxis of the
19th century. He rarely used obsolete Instru-
ments, except in his earlier works ; but we do
occasionally find important parts written for the
Viola da Gamba, or the Violetta marina. In his
grander pieces he delighted in the use of three
Trumpets — ^the third being called * Principale ' ;
and in ' Binaldo' he uses four, with the Drums
for their characteristic Bass. In many of his
Oratorios and Operas he strengthens the Brass
Band with two Horns, and in 'Saul' he adds
three Trombones. Flutes he rarely used, except
as Solo Instruments, in which form he some-
times produced great effects with them, especially
in ' Bmaldo,' one of the Songs in which is ac-
companied by two Flutes and an Ottavino.
Wim the use of the Organ, or at least the Harp-
sichord, he never dispensed ; but he very seldom
wrote a separate pi^ for it, leaving the Per-
former to fill in the Chords as he pleased, from
the Figures written imder the llioroughbass.
We see therefore that, with the sole exception of
1 It Is not poMlblfl to fix tha date at which the pmetloe of oon-
duotlng from the Herpsichord ww superseded bj the use of the
B4too : Indeed, tha chance took place so gradually that it b probable
the two sjstems were long used simultaneously. The general
opinion li, that the custom of beating time was first adopted about
the close of the l»ith century ; and, in support of this. It Is said that
the celebrated leader. William Cramer— the Esther of the great
Pianist— Indignantly rehised obedlenoe to the B4ton of Dr. Philip
Hayes, who died in 1797. The story Is told so circumstantially that
we cannot doubt Its truth ; but Its value as a piece of historical
crldence Is contradicted by two curious fisots. which point In exactly
opposite directions. On May 26, 1829, Mendelssohn conducted his
Symphony In 0 minor at the Philharmonic Concert— then held at
the Argyll Booms— Grom the Pianoforte, to which he was led by John
Cramer: the practice of conducting from the Piano, therefore, long
outlived the 18th century. But that the practice of beating time
with the B4ton must be at least, as old as the middle of the 17th is
prored hj evidence which admits of no contradiction. On the Sound-
board of a beautiful uarpsiobord. dated 'Andreas Buckers me fecit
AntvrerplsB. 1651.' Is painted a Concert of Monkeys, one of whom,
standing In the midst of his anthropoid brethren, is ddiberately beat-
hig time with a regular BAton. This valuable instrument, believed
on strong evldoioe to have belonged to Handel, vras formerly to be
seen at the Rhow>rooms of Messrs. Broadwood t Co., by whose klndneu
it is now exhibited at the Kensington Museum. Sohoolcher mentions
tt. and describes the picture, but does not notice the fisct that the
monkey is beating time— a circumstance first .pointed out to the
writer by the late Mr. Black. It has been suggested that the picture
may be a later addition ; bat thU Is Imposslblti It miut hay* been
painted before the Instrument wu strung.
OBCHESTRA.
the Clarinet, he was acquainted with, and used,
every Instrument now found in an ordinary clas-
sical Orchestra. But he very rarely used them
all together, and took especial care not to let them
pall upon the ear by introducing them into too
many pieces in suocession — circumstances which
have given grievous offence to more than one
modem chef (Torchestre. If Bach's works are
treated teziderly in the matter of 'Additional
Accompaniments,* no such reserve is practised
with regard to those of Handel. All that seexni
necessary, in the present state of public opinion,
is to supplement his Instrumentation with the
largest Brass Band that can possibly be brought
togetiier— a proceeding which entirely destroys
the individuality and obscures the dignity of
every work subjected to its baleful influence.
The practice is defended, on the ground that
our Orchestras do not fairly express Handel's
meaning. Then let us make them do so, W re-
storing them to their old proportions, as we nave
abready proposed to do with the Orchestras used
by Back. Let us strengthen the Violin parts
by making a powerful body of Hautboys play in
unison with them, and reinforce the Bass with
an equally sonorous army of Bassoons, and as
many Contra-Fagotti as can be brought together ;
and above all, let us fill in the Chords on the
Oi^aq, whenever we ara directed to do so by
the Figures placed under the Bass. It will hie
time enou^ to talk of additions to the Soore
when these expedients have been tried on a
ffrand scale, and in an earnest spirit ~ not in the
hope that they may fall. Meanwhile, cannot
something be done in the way of a beginning t
Are we nevermore to hear the * Occasional Over-
turo* except in a disguise worthy of that to
* Tannhiluser,* or the March at ihe end of it
played by other Instruments than those used for
the March in the ' Prophbte* ? In no Art save
that of Music would abuses such as those of
which we complain be permitted. Were a
highly-educated member of the once famous
' Pre-Eapbaelite Brotherhood' to spend the best
years of his life in covering the dark back-
ground of one of Titian's magnificent portraits
with an ehiborately-finished landscape, we might
wonder at his cleverness, but we should scarcely
feel very grateful to him for his contribution to
the treasury of Art — ^yet we are expected to be
very grateful indeed for the elaborated editions
of Bach's works with which we are from time to
time presented. Wero an inferior painter to
cover a similar background with red or yellow
drapery, we should greet him with a howl of
execration — yet the red and yellow drapery
would not be moro vulgar than the sound of an
Ophicleide in the * Mescoah.' Our fiathers under-
stood these matters ■ better than we do. lliey
strengthened the Orchestra on the exact jdan
we have proposed. At the ' Handel Commemo-
ration,' held in Westminster Abbey in 1 784, the
Orohestra contained 48 First and 47 Seccmd
Violins, 26 VioUs, ai Violoncellos, 15 Double
Basses, 6 flutes, 16 Hautboys, 26 Bassoons,
I Double Bassoon, la Trumpets, la Hq^na* ^
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OBCHESTRA.
Troml)one8 (which were needed for the selections
from * Saul '), 4 Dnims, and a Organs. Here the
proportion of Hautboys and Violins was consider-
ably more than one to four ; while the Bassoons
actually outnumbered the Violoncellos, and the
Trumpet and Horn parts were doubled over
and over again. We can quite understand the
feeling which led Bumey to say that the efibct
of this grand array of Drums and Trumpets in
the opening of the Dettingen * Te Deum ' was
• indescribable/
It is time that we should now proceed to
classify the yarious aspects under which we
have met with the Orchestra, in order that we
may the better understand its later modifica-
tions. Up to this time it has presented itself to
us in five different forms, which we shall enu-
merate in the order of their relative importance.
1. A complete Stringed Band, consisting
of two Violins, Viola, Violoncello, and
Contra Basso, the parts being doubled
<id libitum,
2. A complete Stringed Band, as above,
strengthened by means of Wind Instru^
ments playing m unison with the Violins,
Viole, or Banes.
3. A complete Stringed Band, enlarged by
Wind Instruments playing in real parts.
4. A complete Stringed Band, assisted by
Wind Instruments playing- independent
passages.
5. A complete Stringed Band^ contrasted witli^
and supported by, a complete Wind
Band.
All these forms are used by modem writers ;
and, by their artistic combination, the best of
our orchestral effects are produced. It is need-
less to say that the effects of to<^y are very dif-
ferent from those produced a hundred and fifty,
or even a hundred years ago. The materials
employed were very nearly the same, but the
grouping is different. This wilT be very clearly
seen, if we compare the Orchestra used at the
' Handel Commemoration* with an ordinary Clas-
sical Orchestra of the present day. The consti--
tution of the former has already been described ;
that of the latter is shown* in the following table,
which gives the average numerical strength of
a Band, of fair proportions, such as would be
needed for the e£fective performance of the later
works of Haydn, or aU those of Mozart, Beetho-
ven, Weber, Chenibini, Spohr, and Mendelssc^.
Stringed Band,
First Violins (from 6' to I a).
Second Violins (from 6 to la).
Viole (from 4 to 8):
Violoncelli (from* 4 to 8):
Contra-Bassi (fr^m 4 to 8).
t)RCHESTBA.
565
Wood Wind,
a Flutes,
a Oboes,
a Clarinets,
a Bassoons.
JBrats Initrumenti.
» Trumpets,
a or 4 Horns.
^ Trombones,
a Drums.*
1 For the Oompets. qiuUHy of Tone. Md other peonlUrKtai of thete
InstnunooU. mo each deMrihed under iu own proper nuae.
An Orchestra consisting of these component
parts is generally looked upon as sufficiently
complete for all practical purposes, including the
performance of the Oratorio, the Opera, or the
Symphony. It may however be necessary, on
special occasions, to make additions to it. Thus,
for Beethoven*s Overture to 'i^gmont' a
Flauto Piccolo is needed; for Haydn*s 'Crea-
tion;' a Double Bassoon; for Mozart's 'Bequiem,*
2 Comi di Bassetto; for Mendelssohn's Over-
t^ire to' *A Midsummer NightVi Dream,' an
Ophicleide' (used for the purpose of imitating
the Voice of the spell-bound Bottom). These
however are exceptional casee. As a genial
rule, the scheme we* have laid down will be
found sufficient for the purposes of all ordinary
Classical Music ; and the best proof of its excel-
lence is, that all the great classical writers of the
present centuir have unhesitatingly adopted it.
Now, one of the most obvious peculiarities of
an Orchestra thus constituted is, that it naturally
divides itself into at least three distinct groups,
and may, by a little consideration, be easily sub-
divided hito as many more. Tlie first group is
formed by the full Stringed Band, of which we
have alreiatdy spoken as the foundation of the
whole. The second comprises the Instruments
popularly called the * Wood Wind * — that is to
say, the Flutes, Oboes, Clarinets, and Bassoons.
The third includes all the Brass Instruments,
whether Trumpets, Horns, or Tromb<mee ; and,
as the Drums form the natural Bass to the
Trumpets,- it may without inconsistency be made
to include them also. The Stringed Band is less
fr^uently subdivided' than the Wind: some-
times, however, we meet with a sub-group, con-
sisting of four Violin parts, as in Weber*s Over-
ture to * Euryanthe ' and Wagner's Introduction
to 'Lohengrin'; and, sometimes, as in Beetho-
ven's Seventh Symphony, the Violoncellos and
Double Basses are fbrmed into a sub-group,
either with or without the Violas. The ' Wood
Wind' easily divides itself into Flutes andOboee,
and Clarinets and Bassoons ; or into Flutes and
Clarinets, and Oboes and Bassoons. The Brass
Band also very naturally subdivides itself into two
sub-groups; the Trumpets, Horns,- and Drums;
and the itiree Trombones. Each of these groups
and sub-groups serves its own great purpose in
tiie oeconomv of modem Instrumentation. Each
is complete m- itself, and capable of expressing a
I>erfect and independent harmony. Each there-
fore may claim to be regarded as &' diminutive
Orahestra, capable either of separate treatment,
or of combination with its fellow sub-Orchestras,
into a grand and well-contrasted whole. With
such a* comprehensive engine at his command, it
i^ indeed strangle if ^e Composer cannot strike
out effects, not only telling, but original ; not
only new, but characteristic. It must not how-
ever be supposed that we are permitted at the
present day to enjoy the privilege of hearing the
effects imagined by the Composers of fifty years
ago in the form in' which they were originally
written. Mozart used three Trombones in '11
Don Giovanni'; but modem taste decrees that he
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ORCHESTRA.
did not use tliem enouglLy snd therefore introddcefl
them into an infinity of passages in which he did
not permit them to be heard. In * Le Nozze di
Figaro ' he did not use them at all ; yet they are
played in all the lond passages in the Opera, just
as in ' Inrael in ^gypt ' they are played in nearly all
the Choruses. The weakness of the pioneers of Art
was manifested in cautious attempts at effects as
yet untried : that of the present age betrays itself
m a restless impatience of repose ; a morbid desire
to achieve some new and striking success at every
turn; an utter absence ol that sublime self-oontrol
which enables the great Poet, the great Orator,
the great Painter, or the great Composer, pur-
posely to tone down a lai^ proportion of his
work, in order that it may not diminish the
effect of certain passages to which he desires to
attract attention as the crowning points of the
whole. If there is to be a crowning point, all
lesser details must be kept in subjection to it.
The last three centuries have not produced ten
Musicians capable of managing an anticlimax.
Those who tamper with the Scores of the Great
Masters think nothing of all this. It is to their
fbrgetfuhiess of it t^t we owe nine-tenths of
the spurious Instrumentation that is daily foisted
upon us in the name of Handel, or fiaoh, or
Mosart ; and it is to this also that we are in a
great measure indebted for the pernicious system,
now BO present, of enlarging our Orchestras
at the wrong end — of filling them with noisy
Brass Instruments, originally intended for, and
only endun^le in, a Militaiy Band played in the
open air, instead of increasing the fulness of their
tone by augmenting the strength of the Strings,
and doubling, or, if necessarv, even quadrupling
that of the Wood Wind. The number of large
Orchestras free from this defect is exceedingly
ORCHESTRA.
■man, in England, as well as on the Continent ;
but an exception must be made in favour of
Orchestras enuoiged for a special purpose. Soma
years ago, Berlioz produced some gotgeoos
orchestral effects by means of combinatkns which
rendered a disturbance of the normal badance abso-
lutely necessary. Warner oonstantly does the
same. In ' Lohengrin he uses, in addition to
the usual stringed Band, 3 Flutes, i Piccolo, 3
Oboes, I Como Inglese, 3 Clarinets, i Bass
Clarinet, 3 Bassoons, 3 Trumpets, 4 Horns, 3
Trombones, i Bass Tuba, 3 Kettle Drums, Side
Drum, Cymbals, Triangle, Tambourine, aad
Harp ; and, on the Stage, or behind the Scenes,
a Flutes, i Piccolo, 3 Oboes, 3 Clarinets, a
Bassoons, 4 Trumpets, 3 Horns, 3 Trombones,
Kettle 'Drum, and Cymbals. In * Tannhiiuser^
the Wind Instruments employed are, 3 Flutes, 1
Piccolo, 3 Oboes, 2 Clarinets, i Bass Clarinet,
a Bassoons, a Horns, a Valve Horns, 3 Tnim-
pets, 3 Trombones, and I Bass Tuba,' with i
Pair of Kettle Drums, Bass Drum, Cymbals,
Triangle, Tambourine, and Harp; and, on the
Stage, 4 Flutes, a Piccolos, 4 Oboes. 6 Comi
Inglesi, 6 Clarinets, 6 Bassoons, la Trumpets,
I a Horns, 4 Trombones, Cymbals, Triangle, and
Tambourine. These, however, are exceptional
cases, and, as such, must be taken for what they
are worth. Since the death of Mozart, the
normal fonn of the Orchestra has undergone
no important change whatever, apart from the
abuses we have condemned, save in its numerical
proportions ; and in order to give the r^er a
fair idea of these, we shall oonclude our article
with a list of the Instruments contained in some
of the most celebrated Orchestras of the present
day, beginning with that of the Philharmonic
Society,
IstVloHii* . •
2Dd do. . . •
Violas . . .
VIoloDoenot
nouble Bmim •
rintM . . .
Plooolo . . •
Obo« . . .
CorAnftals. .
Cluinet . .
Como di BMMtto
Doable teasoon .
TnunpeU .
TrombODM . • . .
TlmiMnl. pain . .
Comet k {dftona • .
BMitmmpet .
Tenor tub* . . . .
Ophlclelde. Bms tub*, eto.
Contnbaat tromboiM
Hup ....
X^Tmbels. p«In
14
14
10
10
10
S
le
9
le
8
le
9
le
S
4
8
1
14
10
IS
9
4
le
S
k
41!
IH
a
mo
e Wbeoerer liuUcfttad In the soora.
[W.S.B.]
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ORCHESTKATION.
ORCHESTEATION (InBtromentafcion). The
art of adapting musical ideas to the varied capa-
bilities of Stringed, Wind, Keyed, and other In-
struments. [See Oboh£8TBA.]
It is BCftfcely possible to over-estimate the influ-
ence exercised by this branch of technical Sdence
upon the advancement of modem Music. The
modifications through which it has passed are as
countless as the styles to which it has given rise :
yet its history, as recorded in the Scores of the
Great Masters, proves the principles upon which
it is based to be as unalterable as their outward
manifestation is, and always must be, variable,
and subject to perpetual progress. Unaccom-
panied Vocal Music, however marked' may be
the differences existing between its individual
Schools, must, perforce, remain permanently sub-
ject to the laws imposed upon it by the character
of the human Voice. For Instrumental Music
no permanent legislation is possible. Every new
Instrument introduced into the Orchestra in-
fluences, more or less, every one of its com-
panions. Every improvement in the form, com-
pass, quality of tone, or executive powers of the
Instruments already in use, suggests new ideas
to the Composer, and results in an endless variety
of new combinations. To the number of sudfi
improvements there is no limit. Stringed Instru-
ments, it is true, change but little, except in the
manner of their handling. The Violin of to-day
is the Violin of two centuries i^o. Not so the
Wind Instruments. The Trumpet now in common
use differs almost as much from that with which
Handel and Bach were familiar as it does from
the Organ Stop to which it lends its name. The
Flute, as known to Haydn and Mozart, could
scarcely hold its own, except in the* upper octave,
against half-a-dozen Viohns: the tone of its
modem successor is as powerful as that of the
Clarinet, and brilliant enough to make itself
heard with ease through the full Orchestra ; its
powers of execution are almost unlimited ; and,
better still, it can be played perfectly in tune —
which the old Flute could not. Improvements
scarcely less important have been made in the
Horn, the Clarinet, and the Oboe. The Trom-
bone has suffered comparatively little change ; and
the Bassoon retains, substantially unaltered, the
form it bore when Handel wrote for it : but these
alone, amoQg Wind Instruments, have escaped a
sweeping metamorphosb since Uie beginning of
the present century ; and, remembering this, we
can scarcely feel surprised that the orchestration
of the ' Occasional Overture ' should bear but
little outward resemblance to that of the Over-
ture to ' Tannhauser.* Tet the bond of union
subsisting even between such extremes as these
is much closer than might, at first sight, be
supposed. The principle is in all cases the same.
The best Composers of every epoch have aimed
at the same general characteristics ; and experi-
ence has proved that, where these are present,
no combinations can be condemned as wholly
ineffective, whether they bear the stamp of true
genius or not.
The most prominent oharacteristics of good
ORCHESTRATION.
567
Instrumentation are (I.) Solidity of Structure.
(II.) Breadth of Tone, (HI.) Boldness of Con-
trast, and (IV.) Variety of Colouring. We will
endeavour to iUustrate each of these necessary
qualities by examples selected from the Scores of
a few Great Masters of different periods.
I. Solidity of structure can only be obtained
by careful management of the Stringed Instru-
ments. If the part allotted to these be not
complete in itself, it can never be completed by
Wind Instruments. Whether written in five,
four, three, or two partif, or even in unison, it
must sound well, idone. This principle was
thoroughly understood even as early as the close
of the i6th century, when the originators of the
newly-invented instrumental Schools bestowed
as much care upon their Viols as their imme-
diate predecessors had devoted to their vocal
parts. For instance, the following air, from
• Le Balet comique de la Royne ' — a piece writ-
ten in 1 58 1 and alluded to in the preceding
article — is so arranged as to be equally com-
plete, whether played by Viols alone or with
each separate part aided by a ripieno Wind In-
strument.
Le Son de la Clochette, auquel ChtieofiU
de ton Jctrdin.
J i J i Ji^ i i J i
Handel constructed many of his finest Over-
tures upon this principle ; and, in common with
Sebastian Bach and other great Composers of the
1 8th century, delighted in its fine, bold, mascu-
line effect. Later writers improved upon it by
embellishing the stringed foundation with in-
dependent passages for Wind Instruments. Thus
Mozart, in his Overture to * Figaro,* first gives
the well known subject to the Violins and Bashes
in unison, and then repeats it, note for note, with
the addition of a sustained passage for the Flute
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568
ORCHESTRATION.
and Oboe, which brings it out in quite a new
and unexpected light —
M*Tt$tO 1
Sometimes we find this order reversed ; the
subject being given to the Wind, and the accom-
paniment to the Stringed Instruments; as in the
opening movement of Weber*s Overture to * Der
Freischtttz*—
fCornllnO
In either case, the successful effect of the
passage depends entirely upon the completeness
of the stringed skeleton. A weak' point in this
— whether the principal subject be assigned to it
ORCHESTRATION.
or not — ^renders it wholly unfit to support the
harmony of the Wind Instruments, and deprives
the general structure of that firmness which it is
one of the chief objects of the great Master to
secure.
II. Breadth of tone is dependent upon seveial
conditions ; not the least important of which is
the necessity for writing for every instrument
with a due regard to its individual pectiliarities.
This premised, there is little fear of thinness,
when the stringed parts are well arranged, and
strengthened, where necessary, by Wind Instru-
ments, which may either be played in unison
with them — as in the Overture to 'Jephtha,*
where Handel has reinforced the Violins by
Oboes, and the Basses by Bassoons — or so dis-
posed as to enrich the hannony in any other way
best suited to the style of particular passages—
as in that to * Aois and Galatea,* in which the
Oboes are used for filling in the harmonies indi-
cated by the Figured Bara, while a brilliant two-
part counterpoint, so perfect in iti^elf that it
scarcely seems to need anything to add to its
completeness, is played by the Vi<9insand Basses,
the latter, as indicated by the expression TutH
Ba$8i, being strengthened by the Bassoons —
-rrr r I r-j-^M^-T-f-H
Among more modem writers, Beethoven stands
pre-eminent for richness of ttme. which he never
fails to attain, either by careful distribution of
his harmony lunonsc the instruments he employs,
or in some other way suggested by his ever-ready
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ORCHESTRATION.
invention. In the following passage, from the
Adagio of the Fourth Symphony (in Bb), this
richness is secured by the pei^ect proportion
established between the tone of the Stringed and
Wind Instruments, which afford each other the
exact amount of support needed for the comple-
tion of the general effect —
ORCHESTRATION.
569
^
^^^*^r^j-
AiS •_
^B
The fulness of the next example, from Men-
delssohn's Hebrides Overture, is chiefly due to
the sustained notes played by the Horns, on the
cessation of which the weak point which would
otherwise have marred the effect of the passage
is guarded by the entrance of the Violins and
Double-basses —
201ar. In A
OoDtnttei^l
Other composers have attained similar results
in innumerable different ways : but it will
generally be found that the most satisfiactory
passages are those which exhibit, a judicious
disposition of the harmony, a just balance be-
tween the Stringed and Wind Instruments, and
a perfect adaptation of the parts to the Instru-
ments for which they are written.
III. Bc^dness of contrast is produced by so
grouping together the various instruments em-
ployed as to take the greatest possible advantage
of their difference of timbre. We have already
shown, in the preceding article, that the In-
strumental Band, as now constituted, naturally
divides itself into certain section*), as distinct from
each other as the Manuals of an Organ. Concern-*
ing the first and most important of these — the
* Stringed Band* — enough has already been said.
The second— sometimes called the *Wood Wind*
— is led by the Flutes, and completed by Reed
Instruments, such as the Oboe, the Clarinet, and
the Bassoon. The third — the * Brass Band ' — is
subdivided into two distinct families ; one formed
by the Horns and Trumpets, to which latter
the drums supply the natural bass; the other
comprising the three Trombones, and, in the
noisy Orchestras of the present day, the Ophi^
cleide and Euphonium. The principle of sub-
division is, indeed, frequently extended to all the
great sections of the Orchestra. For instance,
the Flutes and Oboes are constantly formed into
a little independent Band, and contrasted with
the Clarinets and Bassoons. Handel even divides
the Strinsred Band, and produces fine effects of
contrast by so doing. In a large proportion of
his best and most celebrated Songs, the Voice is
accompanied by a 'Thoroughbass' alone*
is to say, by a part for the Violence'
Double Bass, with figures placed below t'
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570
ORCHESTRATIOIT.
to indicate the Chords intended to be filled in on
the Organ or Harpsichord. The Symphonies
are played by the Violins, in unison, with a
similar * Thoroughbass ' accompaniment ; and the
entrance of these instruments, between the vocal
passages, is marked by a contrast as striking
as it is agreeable. In the following example,
irom the ' Messiah,* the Chords indicated by the
figures — which no one who claims to be con-
sidered a 'Musician' ought to find any difficulty
in filling in at sight — are printed in small notes.
In some of his Soni^, Handel has enlarged
upon this method ; as in ' Lascia ch*io pianga,'
from ' Binaldo,' the first part of which is aocom-
nanied by the full Stringed Band, and the second
by a ' Thoroughbass ' oiSy, the Violins and Viola
reappearing at the 2>a capo. It is impossible
to believe that the great Composers of the last
century, with Handel and Bach at their head,
adopted this style of accompaniment without
having duly considered its eflect : and any at-
tempt to heighten that effect by 'additional
ORCHESTRATION.
aocompanimentfl ' — hy whovMoever designed-^
shews as Uttle reverence for Art as would be
evinced by a desire to cover the Madonna dl
San Sisto with ' additional glazings.* The Songs
are perfect as they stand : and the contrast they
display is as marked in its degree as that in the
celebrated passage from Beethoven's Fifth
Symphony (in C minor), in which the Stringed
Instruments and Wood Wind are made to answer
each other in alternate Chords —
AU* con Brio,
This last expedient is by no means unoommon
in modem music ; and has been most successfully
used by Mendelssohn in his Overture to 'A
Midsiunmer Night's Dream,' where a few sus-
tained notes on the Wind Instruments are con-
trasted with the rapid passage for four Violins
with excellent effect. The Trio, for Brass In-
struments, in the Minuet of Stemdale Bennett's
Symphony in G minor, is another striking in-
stance of fine and quite unexpected contrast:
and oases abound in which Composers of Instru-
mental Music have treated the several sectioifi
of the Orchestra very much in the way in which
vocal writers treat alternate Choirs, producing
thereby innumerable beautiful effects of bold re-
lief, and strongly contrasted tone.
IV. Variety of colouring results from the
judicious blending together of the several de-
ments which we ha,ve just considered as opposed
to each other in more or less violent contrast
In the Instrumentation of the Great Mastos
this quality is always conspicuous : in that of
inferior writers never. Its presence may, indeed,
be regarded as one of the surest possible indica-
tions of true genius, which never nils to attain it
in the face of any amount of difficulty.
In the 1 8th century Handel wrought marvdi
with the slender means at his command : with
Trumpets and Oboes in the opening movements
of the * Occasional Overture ' and the ' Dettingen
Te Deum'; with Oboes and Bassoons in *Tbe
Lord is a man of War' ; with Flutes and Hona
in 'Surge procelle, ancora'; with a somewhat
larger number of Wind Instruments in * Wise
men flattering'; but often, as in 'Angels ever
bright and &ir,* with the Stringed Banid al(»ie»
and always with infinite variety of tone and ex-
pression. Sebastian Bach anticipated, in like
manner, many of our most highly-priaed modem
effects, aa in the delicious combination of Hohl
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OECHESTRA.TION'.
and Baasoons in the 'Qaoniam tu solos* of bis
Mass in B minor —
AlUgreUo. ^^^
4 J r r ir j I .^^
^
P r :p:
^^
As new Wind Insiruments were invented, or
old ones improved, the power of produdng
variety of colouring became, of course, immea-
surably increased. Haydn took signal advantage
of this circumstance in the 'Creation* and the
'Seasons': but Mozart's delightful svstem of
Instrumentation surpasses, in beauty, tnat of all
his contemporaries. His alternations of light and
shade are endless. Every new phrase introduces
us to a new effect ; and every Instrument in the
Orchestra is constantly turned to account, always
with due regard to its character and capabilities,
and always with a happy result. In the follow-
ing passage from the Overture to ' Die Zauber-
flote,' for instance, the whole strength of the
Wood Wind is so employed as to shew off every
Instrument at its best, while the stringed accom-
paniment gives point to the idea, and the sus-
tained notes on the Horns add just support
enough to perfect its beauty —
ORCHESTRATION. 571
It would be incorrect to say that Beethoven
was a greater master of this peculiar phase of
Instrumentation than Mozart ; though in this,
as in everything else, he certiinly repeated his
own ideas less frequently than any writer that
ever lived. The wealth dT invention exhibited in
the orchestral effects of this Composer— even in
those of his works which were produced after his
unhappy deafiiees had increased to such an ex-
tent that he could not possibly have heard any
one of them — ^is boundless. In every composi-
tion we find a hundred combinations ; all per-
fectly distinct from one another, yet all tendmg,
in spite of their infinite variety, to the same
harmonious result; and all wrought out, with
inde&tigable care, in places which many less
conscientious authors would have passed over as
of comparatively little importance — such, for in-
stance, as the two or three concluding bars of
the slow movement of the Pastoral Symphony
(No 6, in F)—
PUoU ±
fc ■ — - — — — »=.
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S7i ORCHESTRATION.
^nm-j
This minute attention to detail is observable
throughout the entire series of Beethoven's or-
chestral works : and we may well believe that it
stimulated in no small degree the emulation of
his contemporaries; for uie age in which he
lived produced more than one instrumentalist of
the highest OTder. Schubert, we need hardly
say, is a host in himself. -Weber's mastery over
the Orchestra is perfect, and adds not a little to
the charm of his delightful compositions. The
dreamy opening of his Overture to 'Oberon,*
with its three sweet notes for the Horn, followed
by one of the most faerylike passages for the
Flutes and Clarinets that ever was imagined ;
the lovely melody allotted to the Horns in the
Overture to *Der Freischiitz,' and the eldritch
sounds which succeed it ; above all, the mys-
terious Largo, for four Violini, eon sordini,
wliich so strangely interrupts the Allegro of
the overture to 'Euryanthe,' and the gloomy
tremoli for the Viola which add so much to
its weird effect; these, and a hundred similar
passages, evince a purity of taste and an origin*
ality of conception which have rarely, if ever,
been exceeded by the greatest Masters. Men-
delssohn exhibits scarcely less richness of inven-
tion in his Symphonies, his Concertos, and,
especial] V, in hin charming Concert Overtures to
*Die Schone Melusine* and 'A Midsummer
Night u Dream.' In freshness of colouring, and
inexhaustible fertility of resource, Spohr's great
Symphony, 'Die Weihe der Tone* has never
been surpassed. Berlioz — ^whose 'Traits d*Iii-
strumentation * no young composer should neglect
to rend— studied the subject deeply, and with
extraordinary success. And, undoubtedly, the
strongest of Richard Wagner's strong points is
that intimate acquaintance with the Orchestra in |
all its phases, which, guided by his keen percep- j
tion of effect, enables him to weave its elements j
into any new combinations best suited to his
purpose. He it was who first conceived, among '
other daring and beautiful innovations, the
idea of using the high harmonic sounds of the |
OBCHESTRATION.
Violin, in unison with Flutes and other Wui^
Instruments. The Prelude to 'Lohengrin* de-
pends, almost entirely, for its enchanting effect,
upon four solo Violins and three Flutes, used
in a way before unknown, and crowned, it is
needless to say, with triumphant success —
J J =
Adagio :S: :S: -^
J J.
i» -1
g) * " 1
^ pjp TioiiiiiMU,.ruuti
1 i—
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— w — jy—
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r-HiPi
Want of space forbids us to add to the number
of our examples : but we trust enough has already
been said to shew that modem Composers have
not been idle in this matter. It is indeed cer-
tain, that diuing the half-century that has elapsed
since the death of Beethoven, more real progress
has been made in Instrumentation than in al-
most any other branch of Art. Innumerable new
effects have been attempted, with more or Usb
success : and^ though much evil has been wrought
of late years by a growing tendency to over-
weight the Brass Band with coarse-toned Instru-
ments fit only for military use, the best Composers
have uniformly resisted the movement, and, pre-
ferring sonority to noise, have left the latter to
those who aim at nothing higher than the short-
lived approval of a vulgar audience. In truth,
less mischief has been done by Composers even
of the lowest class of Dance-music, than by in-
judicious Conductors, who, never satisfied when
the Trombones are silent^ have overloaded the
Scores of the Great Masters with additions of
the most unwarrantable character. So &r has
this abuse extended, that the student can never
be sure that he is listening to the effect really
intended by the Composer. Let' him, then,
endeavour to gwn experience, by studying the
Scores of all the best works to which he can ob-
tain access : and, when he shall have attained the
power, not only of recognising, in performance,
the effects he has already read upon paper, but
even of hearing them distinctly, in imagination,
while he is reading them, he will have gained the
first step in that road which all must tread who
would write well for the Orchestra, and delight
their hearers with really good Insirumentatioiu
It is in this way alone that the Art can be satis-
factorily studied. It cannot be taught in words.
Much valuable information may indeed be gleaned
from the well-known Treatises of Berlioz^ Lobe,
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ORCHESTRATION.
and Gevaert, tvhich no earnest student should
neglect to read. But even the most careful
writers find it less easy to lay down definite rules
for their readers* guidance than to convey in-
struction by constant reference to examples se-
lected from the works of the Great Masters. It
is for this reason that we have thought it better
to take a general view of our subject than to
enter minutely into its details. This course has
at least enabled us to give due prominence to the
fundamental principles upon which the science of
Orchestration is based ; whereas the opposite one
would have led to the consideration of a series
of isolated facts of far less value to thegeneral
reader. [W.S.R.]
ORFEO ED EURIDICE. Opera by Calsa-
bigi ; music by Gluck, the first in his new style.
Produced at Vienna, Oct. 5, 1762, and in Paris,
where it was published in score at the cost of
Count Durazzo^ in 1764. Its g^eat success was
in the French translation as Orphes et Eubi-
DICE, ten years later. It was produced in London
at the Royal Italian Opera, Covent Garden,
June a7, i860— Orfeo, Mad. Csillag. [G.]
ORGAN (Ft. Orgue; Ital. Organo; Ger. Orgd),
I. Sittory. It must not be supposed that the
* oigan* referred to in the Old Testament (Gen. iv.
ai) — 'Jubal; he was the father of all such as
- lumdle the harp and organ* — bore any resem-
blance to the stately instrument with which' we
are all so familiar by that name at the present day.
At the same time, there can be little doubt that
r the principle of the three great classes of organ-
I pipe — Stopped, Open, and Reed — was known at
ha very early period, as we shall have occasion to
yihow.
It is here purposed, as far as practicable, to
trace &om the remotest beginnings, to its present
exalted dimensions, the ^adual growth of that
great triumph of human skill which so justly
enjoys the distinction of being the most perfect
musical instrument that the ingenuity of man
has hitherto devised; the impressive tones of
which BO g^reatly enrich the effect of the religious
services celebrated in our gi^eat sacred edifices.
The materials available for this purpose are not
indeed always of the plainest kind, the accounts
being not unfrequently incomplete, exaggerated,
or surrounded by a somewhat apocryphal air; but
much may be done by selecting the most probable,
andjplacing them in intelli^ble order.
The first idea of a wind-mstrument was doubt-
leas suggested to man by the passing breezes as
they struck against the open ends of broken reeds ;
and the fact that reeds of dififerent lengths emitted
murmurs varying in pitch may have further sug-
gested that if placed in a particular order, they
would produce an agreeable succession of sounds ;
— in other words, a short musical scale. A few
such reeds or tubes, of varied growths or diameters,
and of graduated lengths, bound together in a row,
with ^eir open tops arranged in a horizontal
line, would form an instrument possessing sufii-
cient capacity for the performance of simple pri-
mitive melodies ; and of such kind doubtless was
ORGAN.
573
Jubal*s 'organ' {ougaby already mentioned.- It
probably was not more; and it could scarcely
have been less. Necessity precedes supply ; and
nothing is known that would lead to the supposi-
tion that the music of the time of Jubal called for
anything beyond a few tubes, such as those just
described, for its complete accompaniment.
The myth that Pan was the originator of the
Syrinx led to its being called * Pan s-pipe,' under
which name, or that of 'Mouth-organ, it is known
to the present day. [Pandean pipes.]
The number of tubes that in the'course of time /
came to be used was seven, sometimes eight, oc- '
casionally as many as ten or twelve; and the
Greek and Roman shepherds are recorded aa
being among the makers of these ' organs,' as well
as the performers upon them.
The pipes of the Syrinx being
' • composed of reeds cut oflT just be-
f\ low the knot — which knot did not
i permit the wind to escape, but
^ I caused it to return to the bame
I place where it entered, thus tra-
versing the length of the tube
twice — were in principle so many
examples of the first dass of pipes
mentioned above. They were prac-
tically ' Stopped pipes,' producing
a sound nearly an octave lower than tnat of an
Open pipe of the same length.'
The mode of playing upon this earliest organ
must have been troublesome and tiring, as either
the mouth had to be in constant motion to and fro
over the tubes, or they had incessantly to be
shifted to the right or left under the mouth.
Some other method of directing wind into them
must in course of time have been felt to be desir-
able ; and the idea would at length occur of con-
ducting wind into the tube from below instead of
above. This result — ^an enormous step forward— vv^
would be obtained by selecting a reed, as before, -
but with a short additional portion left below the
knot to serve as a mouthpiece or wind-receiver
(the modem 'foot'); by making a straight narrow
slit through the knot, close to the front, to serve
as a passage-way for the breath ; and by cutting
a small horizontal opening immediately above
that slit, with a sloping notch, bevelling upwards
and outwards over that again. The breath blown
in at the lower end, in passing throtigh the slit
would strike against the edge of the notch above,
and there produce rapid flutterings, which would
be communicated to the air in the tube, and
would causQ a sound to be emitted. In this
manner a specimen of the second class of pipe
mentioned above — that of the Open species —
would be brought into existence.
In course of time the idea would occur of
trying to obtain more than one sound from a
single pipe, for which purpose first one hole — to
be covOTed or exposed by a finger — then a
second, and so on, would be cut laterally, in the
1 Bendered by G«Mnliu 'plp«i reed. «jTlnz.' The irord oocim also
In Job zxi. IS, Fialm d. 4.
i An exact model of a Stopped DUpason pipe of wood Is praaented
hf tbe wiU-known ' pltcti-pipe ' of the preMot daj.
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574
ORGAN.
body of the pipe, in a line with the slit jogt
described, which experiment would be attended
with the same result on the pitch of the sound as
if the tube were shortened at each hole in suc-
cession. Thus the same short succession of
agreeable sounds as those of the Pan's-pipe, or
any pleasant admixture of them, would be ob-
tainable from one "tube, and a rude model pro-
duced of an instrument which in its more finished
form subsequently became the FltUe-drbec. Fa-
miliar examples of this kind of perforated tube
are presented by the wooden and tin toy -whistles
of the present day.
When the first 'squeaker* was made, such as
country lads still delight to construct of osiers in
spring-time, a primitive model of a pipe of the
third kind mentioned above, a Reed-pipe, was
produced. It consisted of a 'vibrator and a
tube ; the former sounded by being agitated bv
compressed wind from an air-cavity, — the breath
from the human mouth. Reed-pipes, although
freely used as separate wind-instruments in ancient
times — the Bag-pipe among the number — were
not introduced into organs until the fifteenth
century, so far as can be ascertained, and need
not therefore be further considered in this place.
A series of pipes of the second class (receiving
air from below), would be less conveniently under
the immediate control of the 'mouth xhin their
predecessors ; hence a wooden box was devised
|\(now the wind-chest), containing a row of holes
I lalong the top, into which were placed the lower
Wends of the pipes ; and the wind was sometimes
vprovided by two attendants, who blew with their
mouths alternately into pliable tubes, the one
while the other took breath. An antique organ
supplied in this manner is sculptured under a
monument in the Museum at Aries, bearing the
date of xx.M.vin.'
Fio.2.
ORGAN.
carving represents the hack of the instrmnent, as
is indicated not only by the 'blowers* beings there,
but also by the order of the pipes, from large to
small, appearing to run the wrong way, njunely.
from right to left instead of the reverse. The
Ipipes of the early oigans are said to have sotrnded
At first altogether, and those which were not
required to be heard had to be silenced by meaos
;of the fingers or hands. An arrangement so
defective would soon call for a remedy ; and the
important addition was made of a slide, rule, or
tongue of wood, placed beneath the hole leacUng
to each pipe, and so perforated as either to admit
jf,„ » or exclude the wind
as It was drawn m
or out. Kilmer
give* a dEBwiag,
here reproduced, to
show this improve-
ment.
The wind was con-
veyed to the chest
through the tube
projecting from the right-hand side, either firom
the lips or frt>m some kind of hand-bellows. In
each case the stream would be only intermittent
Another drawing given by Kircher (said to be
that of the Hebrew instrument called Mqgre-
\pkah), exhibits the important addition of two
small bellows, which would afford a continuous
wind -supply, the one furnishing wind while the
other was replenishing.
Fio. 4.
This piece of carving is of the highest in-
terest as showing the ancient organ at its first
step from a state of the utmost simplicity — dis-
mounted indeed from the breast of the player, yet
still supplied by the mouth, and before the ap-
plication of bellows; and it has not previously
appeared in any English article on the organ.
The pipes are held in position by a cross-band,
just as were those of the earlier Syrinx. The
1 From Dom Bedot, ' L'Art du lactcur d'Orgu«s ' (Paris 1766).
It is very.doubtful, however, whether this Is an
authentic representation. The pipes are pic-
turesquely disposed, but on account of iheat
natural succession being so greatly disturbed for
this purpose, and their governing slides doubtleis
also similarly intermixed, the ta2c to the oiganirt
of always manipulating them correctly must have
been one of extreme difficulty, if not impossibility
Nevertheless, as soon as the apparatus reteived
the accession of the two little bellows placed to
the rear of the wind-box, in lieu of two human
beings, the small instrument arrived at the im-
portance of being essentially a complete and in-
dependent, albeit a primitive Pneumatic organ.
Whether the two bellows produced as unequal
a wind as is sometimes supposed, is periuiii
scarcely apparent. At the present day the wan-
ing of the two 'feeders* of the popular house-
instrument — the Harmonium — when the £zpi«-
sion-stop is drawn, demonstrates that it is quits
possible to supply air from two separate sources
alternately without any appreciable interruptioD
Digitized by VjOOQIC
ORGAN.
to its equability ; and it is quite posrible that in
old times, when the necessary care and attention
were bestowed, a tolerably uniform current of air
and a fairly even quality of tone were obtained.
At any rate, a means of producing an abso-
lutely equal pressure of wind, and one that oould
not possibly be disturbed by any inexpertness of.
the blower, was secured in the Hydraulic organ.!
This variety was invented by an Egyptian of the '
name of Ctesibius, who flourished in the third-'
century B.C. The title is scarcely oorrect, since
the instrument was ' hydraulic' only so far as the
method of weighting the wind was concerned.
It had not a single ' water-pipe ' in it, and in all
respects save that just mentioned was Pneumatic
The principle of the wind-r^ulating apparatus,
which was both simple and ingenious, was as fol-
lows. Into a dstem made to fdmoet any conveni-
ent shape, a vessel was placed, shaped somewhat
like an inverted basin, supported upon wooden
wedges about two inches iix>m the bottom, and
thus leaving an opening all round. This recep-
tacle was the wind-receiver, and was nearly or
quite immersed in water. Attached to the top of
the receiver was a pipe (furnished with a valve
below) through which air was farced by a wind-
pump. When no wind was in the receiver,
water would of course pass under its rim from
without, and rise as high inside as outside, upon
the well-kiu^wn principle that water will always
find its own level. When wind was passed
into the receiver, the water previously within
would be partially or entirely expelled, but
would in its turn press its weight upon th^ air
that had dislodged it, which would Uius acquire
the elastic force required to adapt it to its pur-
pose. A second tube then conveyed away the
air thus compressed, from the receiver to the
pipes.^
An organ thus supplied with wind could not
be aver 'blown, because if more air were sent
forward by the wind-pump than the receiver
could hold, the surplus would pass under the
rim of the receiver, and escape in bubbles from
the sur£M!e. The general force of the wind could
be increased by pouring more water into the tank,
^hich added to its weight, and consequently to
its pressure upon the air, or could be decreased by
lubtracting water frt>m the previous quantity.
The Hydraulic organ occurs in the Talmud
under the name of hSrdaidis or ardallii ; and a
certain instrument is mentioned as having stood
in the Temple of Jerusalem, which is called
Magrepludi, and had ten notes, with ten pipes to
each note. This organ, however, was not a hy-
draulic one.^
Great as may have been the theoretical merits
of the HydrauHc system, yet in practice it does
not seem to have supplanted the purely Pneu-
matic. This fjEMJt would imply, in the fint place,
that the defects of the Pneumatic system were
not of so radical a nature as has generally been
1 A drMrtnff of ft HjdnuUe Org&o li gl^w In Mr. W. Ohappdl't
BbtorrofMiute.
> tai. Jer., Sukkah t. 6 : Tal. B»b.. Ankhtn 106, U a. We an In-
4«teed to Dr. SehUler-8cio«M7. of C«mbrld(t, for this inforraatiOD.
OBGAN.
575
supposed; and in the second, that the Hvdraulio
system itself was by no means fr«e from objections,
one of which certainly would be that of causing
damp in the instrument, an intruder towards!
whom organ-buUders always entertain the great- 1
est horror. The HydrauHc organ nevertheless!
continued in occasional use up to about the com- *
mencement of the 14th century, when it appears ;
finally to have died out. Its weight and size
seem to have originated a distinction between
portable and stationary organs, which began
early, and was nerpetuated in the terms fre-
quently used of 'Portative' and * Positive.'
Although nothing very precise can be deduced
from the ancient writers as to the time, place,
or manner in which some of the progressive steps
in the invention of the organ already detailed
were made, yet it is certain that the germ of
many of the most important parts of the instru-
ment had been discovered before the commence-
ment of the Christian era^ the period at which
we have now arrived.
During the first ten centuries but little appears
to have been done to develop the organ in sise,
compass, or mechanism; in fact, no advances
are known to have been made in the practice of
music itself of a kind to call such improvements
into existence. Tet a number ot isolated records
exist as to the materials used in the construction
of the instrument; the great personages whol
exerted themselves about it; and its gradual!
introduction from Greece, where it is said to have )
taken its origin, into other countries, and into the
church ; and these have only to be brought together
and placed in something approaching to chrono-
logical order, with a few connecting words here
and there, to fonn an interesting and continuous
narrative.
In the organ of Ctesibius, described by Hero,*
it appears that the bwer extremity of each
pipe was enclosed in a small shallow box, some-
thing like a domino»box inverted, the sliding
lid being downwards. Each lid had an orifice
which, on the Ud being pushed home, placed the
hole in correspondence with the orifice of the pipe,
and the pipe then soimded. When the sliding
lid was drawn forward, it closed the orifice, and
so silenced the pipe. With certain improvements
as to detMl, Una action is in principle substan-
tially the same as that shown in Figs. 3 and 4, an^
it continued in use up to the nth centu:^. Bui
the most interesting part of this description isf
the reference to the existence of a simple kind
of key-action which pushed in the Ud on the ke^
being pressed down, the lid being pulled back by |
a spring of elastic horn and a card on the key I
being released. Claudian the poet, who flourished
about A.D. 400, has in his poem ' De Consulatu F.
MalliiTheodori* (316 -19) left a passage describing
an organist*s performance upon an instrument of
this kind, ana also its eflfect, of which the follow-
ing is a literal version : * Let there be also one
who by his light touch forcing out deep murmurs,
t 8m Mr. ChappeU'i ear«fnl Mcount. BUtory of Mulo. i. MS eie.
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676
organ:
and managing the unnumbered tongues of the field
of brazen tubee, can with nimble finger cause a
mighty sound ; and can rouse to song the waters
stirred to their depths by the massive lever.*
The reference to water implies that the organ was
a Hydraulic one.
A Greek » epigram, attributed to the Emperor
Julian the Apostate (<^ed A.D. 363% conveys
some particulars concerning another kind of 4th-
century organ, of which the following is a literal
translation : * I see a strange sort of reeds — ^they
must metbinks have sprung firom no earthly, but
a brazen soil. Wild are they, nor does the breath
of man stir them, but a blast, leaping forth from
a cavern of ox-hide, passes within, beneath the
roots of the polished reeds ; while a lordly man,
the fingers ofwhose hands are nimble, stands and
touches here and there the concordant stops of
the pipes ; and the stops, as they lightly rise and
fall, force out the melody.' This account de-
scribes a Pneumatic organ, and one which had
no keyboard. Both accounts particularise the
material of which the pipes were made — bronze,
and it is not improbable that pipes x>f metal were
at that time a novelty.
Theodoret (bom about 393, 4lied ^457) also
refers to musical organs as being furnished with
pipes of copper or of bronze.
On an obelisk at Constantinople, erected by
TheodosiuB (died 393), is a representation of an
oi^gan, which is here copied.
F10.&
The pipes are eight in number, and appear
to be formed of la^ reeds, or canes, as those
of Chinese organs are said to be at the present
day. They are not sufficiently varied in length
to indicate the production of a proper musical
scale, which is possibly an error of the sculptor.
They are supported like those show^Jn Fig. 2.
This example is very interesting as aliording the
earliest illustration known of a method of com-
pressing the organ wind which some centuries
afterwards became common— namely, by the
weight of human beings. From the drawing it
seems as if the two youths were standing on the
same bellows, whereas they were more probably
mounted on separate ones placed side by side.
St. Jerome, a little later (died 420), is said 'to
mention an organ at Jerusalem, with twelve
brazen pipes, two elephants' skins, and fifteen
smiths* bellows, which could be heard at the
Mount of Olives, — it is nearly a mile fi:t)m the
centre of the city to the top of the mount, —
1 FMatliM Anthology. Bk. Is. No. 868.
I Kltto. Oyo. Bib. Lit. Srd ed. IL 2Kb.
DtxdMuvm), hoimw. doM not •pttMr to b
Kltto's reCBrwtoe (Ad
ORGAN.
and therefore must have been an instniment of
great power. Cassiodorus, who was consul of
Rome under King Yitioas the Goth in 514, de-
scribed the organ of his day as an instrument
composed of divers pipes, formed into a kind of
tower, which, by means of bellows, is made to
produce a loud sound ; and in order to expres
agreeable melodies, it is constructed with certain
tongues* of wood firom the interior, which the
finger of the master duly pressing or forcing bade,
elicits the most pleasing and brilliant tones.
The exact period at which the organ was first
used for religious purposes is not positively
known; but according to Julianus, a Spanish
bishop who flourished a.d. 450, it was in com-
mon use in the churches of Spain at that time.
One is mentioned as existing 'in the most ancient
city of Grade,* in a church of the nuns before the
year 580. It is described as being about two
feet long, six inches broad, and furnished with
fifteen playing-alides and thirty pipes, two pipes
to each note. Sir John Hawkins has given a
drawing of the slide-box of this organ in his
History of Music (i. 401), the ' tongues ' of which
are singularly ornate. The number of notes on
the slide-box (fifteen in a length of two feet)
would show that the pipes were of small diameter,
and therefore that the notes were treble ones.
The advantage of using the oigan in the ser-
vices of the church was so obvious that it would
soon be perceived ; and accordingly in the 7th
century Pope Vitalian, at Rome (about the year
666), introduced it to improve the singing of
the congregations. SubsequenUy, however, he
abolished the singing of the congregations, and
substituted in its place that of canonical singers.
At the commencement of the 8th oentuiy the
use of the oigan was appreciated, and the art of
making it was known in England. The na-
tive artificers had even introduced the custom of
pipe decoration, for, according to Aldhelm, who
died A.D. 709, the Anglo-Saxons ornamented the
fipont pipes of their oigans with gilding. Oigan-
making was introduced into France about the
middle of the same century. Pepin (714-768),
the father of Charlemagne, perceived that an
organ would be an important aid to devodoD;
and as the instrument was at that time unknown
either in France or Germany, he applied (about
the year 757) to the Byzantine Emperor Constan-
tine Copronymus the Sixth, requesting him to
send one to France. CTonstantine not only ocmi-
plied with this solicitation by presenting him with
a large organ, but forwarded it by a special depu*
tation, h^ed by the Roman bishop Stephanns.
The organ was deposited in Uie <£urch of St.
Cornelius at Compile. It was a PneumaHe
organ, with pipes of lead ; and is said to have
been made and played by an Italian priest, who
had leamt the method of doing both at Constan-
tinople.
The first oi^gan introduced into Grermaay was
one which the Emperor Charles the Great, in 811
a The t«nn 'tongnea* (Ungna) r
to the time nbm the aUde-box v
atiottt the Mid of tbs Uth oeotoiy.
In ne for the
supeneded bf the
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X)BGAlf.
jor 813, oabsed to be made at Ai'z-la-tlhapelle !
after the model of that at Compi^ne. The copy
was successful, and several writers expressed
themselves in terms of high praise at its power-
ful yet pleasing tone. What oecame of it is not
recorded.
In 823 or 826 an organ was sent to Charle-
magne by the Caliph Haroun Alraschid, con-
structed by an Arabian maker of the name of
GKafar, which was placed in a church at Aix-1»>
Chapelle. It was a Pneumatic organ of extra-
ordinarily soft tone.
Venice was favourably known for its organ-
makers about this time; a monk of that city,
of the name of Georgius, a native of Benevento,
having in the year 822 constructed an instra-
ment for Louis le D^onnaire, which was a
Hydraulic oigan, and was erected in the palace
of the king at Aix-la-Chapelle. Its pipes were
of lead.
The French and Grermans werd both desirous
of rivalling the foreign spedmens of ingenuity
that had come under their notice ; and so suo-
cessfol were they in their endeavours, that afber
a time the best organs were said to be made in
-France and Grermany. The progress of Ger-
many in making and using them in 'the latter
half of the 9 th century, particularly in East
Franconia, was so great, that Pope John
VIII (880), in a letter to Anno, Bishop of
Friesingen, requests that a good organ may be
sent to him, and a skilful player to instruct the
Roman artists.
By this time organ-building had apparently
made its way into Bavaria ; and a large instru-
ment, with lK>x-wood pipes, is said to have been
erected in the Gathearal of Munidi at a very
early date.
In the 9th century organs had become com-
mon in tins country, the English artificers fur-
nishing them with pipes of copper, which were
fixed in gilt frames. In the loth century the
English prelate St. Dunstan (925-988), famous
for his sldll in metal work, erected or &bricated\
an organ in Malmesbury Abbey, the pipes of
which were of brass. He also gave an organ to,
Abingdon Abbey, and is said to have furnished
many other English churches and convents with
similar instruments. In this same century Count
Elwin presented an organ to the convent at
Bamsey, on which he is said to have expended
the then large sum 'of thirty pounds in copper
pipes, which are described as emitting a sweet
melody and a far-resounding peal.
A curious representation of an organ of about
this date is given in a MS. Psalter of Edwin
preserved in the library of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.' The pipes are placed within a frame,
apparently after the manner referred to above.
The surface of the organ is represented as being
perforated to receive a second set of pipes, though
the draoghtsman appears to have sketched one
hole too many. The two organists, whose duties
I KngTMwd from « pbotognpU. bgr ths klDd parmlnloo of tb*
MtiMClttM.
VOl». II. PT. 11.
DRGAN.
67>
seem for the' moment to have been brought to
an end by the inattention of the blowers, arie
intent on admonishing their assistants, who are
striving to get up the wind-supply, which their
Fio. 6*
4
i
neglect has apparently allowed to run out. The
four bellows are blown in a manner which we
here meet with for the first time — namely,
through the intervention of handles instead of
directly by the hands; and as in so small an
organ there could not have been room for four
persons to compress the wind by standing upon
the bellows, we may infer that they were loaded
with weights in the manner that has generally
been supposed not to have been introduced untU
some centuries later.
At the end of the loth century several organs
existed in Germany (St. Paul's, Erfurt ; St.
James's, Magdeburg ; and Halberstadt cathedral),
which, although small and unpretending instru-
ments, were objects of much astonishment and
attraction at the time.
In the iith century we find a treatise on
the construction of organs, included in a larger
work on Divers Arts, by a monk and priest of
the name of Theophilus, which is of ponsider-
able interest as showing the exact state of the
art of organ-making at tiiat period; the more
so as even the existence of such a tract was un-
known to all the historians, foreign or English,
who wrote on the subject, until it was discovered
by Mr. Hendrie, who published a translation
of it in 1847.' It is too long to quote in
extenso, and is also rather obscure in parts;
but the following particulars may be gathered
from it : — that the slide-box was nmde two and a
half feet in length, and rather more than one foot
in breadth ; that the pipes were placed upon its
surface; that the compass consisted of 7 or 8
notes; that the length of the slide-box was
measured out equally for the different notes
or slides, and not on a gradually decreasing
scale as the pipes became smaller, since the play-
ing-slides would not in that case have been of one
width or at one distance apart ; that the organ
was played by these movable slides ; that each
slide worked in little side-slits, like the lid of a
box of dominoe ; that there were two or perhaps
even more pipes to each note ; that the projecting
I ' Theophfll. qnl eC Bnsenu. Tretbyieri et HoMehl Llbrl m^ do
DiTenlii Aitibus. Opera ei Studio Boberti Hendrla. Loadlal, Jo-
Mumf^ MDOOOZLYIL 8T0.'
/ P
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ORGAir.
* tongae ' of each slide wits marked with a leiier
to indicate to which note it belonged-— a OTutom
that continued in use for centuries afberwards (as
for instance in the Halberatadt organ finished
in 1 361 ; and in the old organ In me church of
St. JSgidien, in Brunswick, built in the latter part
of the 15th century, and illustrated further on) ;
that a hole was cut through the slide under each
pipe about an inch and a half across, for the
passage of the wind ; that all the pipes of a note
sounded together ; that a note was sounded by
the slide being pushed in, and silenced by its
being drawn forward; and that in the front of
each slide, immediately behind the handle or
tongue, a narrow hole about two inches long was
cut, in which was fixed a copper-headed nail,
which regulated the motion of the slide and pre-
vented its being drawn out too far.
The following illustration, deduced from Theo-
philu8*s description, shows the slide, and three
passages for wind to as many pipes above. The
slide intercepts the wind, but vnll allow it to pass
on being moved so that its openings, shown by
the unshaded parts, correspond with those below
and above.
Fio. 7.
6ori*s 'Thesaurus Diptychorum,' 1759, ^^- ^^*
contains a most interesting engraving, copied
from an ancient MS., said to be as old as the
time of Charlemagne, which shows a person play-
ing upon an instrument of the Theophilus type.
Fjo.8.
But of all the information given by Theophilus,
the most important, because previously unknown
and imsuspected, is that which relates to the
finishing of the pipes so as to produce different
qualities of tone. They were made of the finest
copper; and the formation of a pipe being
completed, Theophilus thus proceeds : * He (the
maker) can bring it (the pipe) to his mouth and
blow at first sSghtly, then more, and then
strongly; and, according to what he discerns
OBGAK*.
by heotrbg, he can arrange the soond, so that if
he wish it strong the opening is made wider;
but if slighter, it is made narrower. In this
order all tibe pipes are made.' Here we see that
the means for producing a fuller tone by a wide
or high mouth, and a more delicate sound by a
narrower or lower one, were well known in the
nth centiuv; and that the manner of testing
the ' speech by blowing the pipe with the mouth
in various ways, is precisely that often em-
ployed by the 'voicer' of the present day, when
' regulating * or 'finiidiing ' a stop. It n worthy
of observation that although Theophilus inci-
dentally recognises an addition to the number of
pipes to a note as one means of increasing the
utility of the oxgan, he as distinctly indicates its
range or compass as simply seven or eight notes.
It would have been of great importance had be
mentioned the names of the sounds which formed
a sufficient scale for the accompaniment of the
chants of his day. His record, as a priest and
monk, as well as an oxgan-maker, would have
been most valuable.
We have intentionally introduced the account
of Theophilus somewhat before its due chronolo-
gical place, as it materially assists in elucidating
the description of the renoarkable organ erected
in Winchester Cathedral in the 10th century by
order of Bishop Elph^ge (died 95 1), and described
in a poem by a monk of the name of Wulstaa who
died in 963. It is of further use in this place,
since WuUitan's description has up to this time
been a great puzzle to most writers on the histoiy
of the oigan.
The following is a trandation of the portion of
the Latin poem with which we are concerned,
as given by Mr. Wackerbarth in his ' Music and
the Anglo^xons,' pp. 12-15.
Bach oigans as yon have built are Been nowhere,
fabricated on a double gronnd. Twice six bellows above
are ranged in a row, and fourteen lie below. Theae. hr
alternate blasts, supply an immense quantity of wind,
and are worked by seventy strong men, labouring with
their arms, covered with perspiration, each inciting his
companions to drive the wind np with all his strength,
that the fall-bosomed box may speak with its four
hundred pipes which the hand of the oif^anist govema
Some when closed he opens, others when open he doses,
as the individual natore of the varied sound reqaires.
Two brethren (religious) of concordant spirit sit at the
instrument, and each manages his own alphabet. There
are, moreover, hidden holes in the forty tongues, and
each has ten (pipes) in their due order. Some are oon-
ducted hither, others thither, each preserving the proper
point (or situation) for its own note. They strike the
seven differences of Joyous sounds, adding the mnsio of
the lyric semitone. Like thunder the iron tones batter
the ear, so that it may receive no sound bat that ^one.
To such an amount does it reverberate, echoing in every
direction, that every one stops with his hand his gaping
ears, being in no wise able to draw near and bear the
sound, which so many combinations produce. The mudc
is heard throughout the town, and the flying fame thereof
is gone out over the whole oountry.
From this we learn that the organ was built
in two stages, as are most of those of the present
day, but of which no previous example is met
with ; the chief department — corresponding with
the Great organ of after-time, and fed by fourteen
bellows — being below, and the two smaller de-
partments— auswering to the Choir and Bcbo
organs of later times, and each supplied by six
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0K6AK.
bellowt-^being aboiw. Serenl of the pipes were
BO fkr of an exceptionally large size, probaHj
foreshadowing the Double DiapMon of subsequent
times, that some were 'conducted hither, others
ikither * ; that is to say, in organ-builders* Ian*
g^aage, tiiey were 'conyeyanoed off' pipes, and were
probably brought into yiew and so grouped as to
form an ornamental front, exactly as hi the present
day. The ' tongues ' were perforated with ' hidden
holes,' after the manner explained by Theophilus ;
and there were the remarkable number of ten
pipes to each playing-slide * in their due order,*
wnateyer that ' order * may haye been.
The organ had a total number of forty tongues ;
and as the organist had the help of two assist-
ants, and each ' managed his own alphabet,* the
lettered tongues must haye been assorted into
three sets. The remarks of the same writer on
the yoicinff of pipes show it to be quite proba-
tJe that the tluree diyisions of this organ pro-
duced as many different strengths of tone, like
the separate manuals of a modem instrument.
The gamut of the instrument consisted of the
seven diatonic sounds, with 'the music of the
lyric semitone TB flat) added.* This last expres-
rioQ is interestm^^ as showing not only that the
introduction of we B flat was unusual, but that
its effect was musical It modified the tritone
which existed between F and B.
Sufficient is indicated in this account to enable
one, after some thought, to offer a suggestion as
to the most probable ranffe of the three sets of
pl^ing^lides of this Win<mester organ. A series
of eleven diatonic sounds, from C to F, making
with the B flat (lyric semitone) twelve, would
be all that was required by the old chants as an
aooompaniment, and would dispose of thirty-six
of the notes. The chief alphabet may not im-
probably have descended one note lower, to B^
and three higher, to Bb, a compass that was after-
wards frequently adopted by the mediseval organ-
makers ; or may have had two extra diatonic notes
both above and below, extending the range to
two octaves, namely from A to A, oorresponding
with the ancient 'Disjunct or Greater System
Complete.' In either case the exact number of
* f<nrty tongues' would thus be accounted for.
These assumed ranges are exhibited in the fol-
lowing diagram.
OBGAN.
579
The description of the organist's opening or
closing the holes 'as the individiud nature of
the varied sound requires,* clearly indicates that
he manipulated for mngte notes only; in fact,
with slides he could for successive sounds do no
more than draw forward with one hand as he
pushed home with the other.
The contrast from 'loud* to 'soft* and back,
which from an organ was probably heard for the
first time in this example, would be obtained by
'the organ&t* himself oeasing, and letting one
of his assistants take up the strain, and then by
his again resuming it; but whether the threes
when simultaneously engaged, still played the
melody only, or whether they occasionally ' bat*
tered the ears* of the congregation with some of
the hideous promssioins mstituted bv Hucbald
in his 'Organum in the loth oentuiy, it probably
now would not be easy to ascertain. If the latter,
it is quite possible that the chants of the period
were sometimes clothed in such harmony as the
following ; the ' organist' playing the plain-song,
and ea/Si of the attendants one of the under
parts: —
If the din caused by the lealous organist and his
* two brethren (religious) of conoordant spirit '
was such that the tone 'reverberated and echoed
in eyery direction, so that no one was able to
draw near and hear the sound, but had to stop
with his hands his gaping ears,' which could
'receive no sound but that alone,' it is evident
that the race of noif^ orean accompanyists dates
much fiurther back than has generally be^i sup-
posed, and existed before * lay' performers were
heard ot
We now arrive at a period when a vast Im-
provement was made in the manner of construct-
ing the organ. It has been shown that when
the Winchester oigan was made, and onwards
to the date of the treatise by Theophilus* the
method of admitting wind to, or of excluding it
from the pipes of a note, was by a slide, which
alternately covered and exposed the underside of
the holes leading up to its pipes. The fricUonal
resistance of the slides, at all times trying, would
ineyitably be increased by their swelling in damp
weather and becoming tight; they would cer-
tainly have to be lengthen^ for every pipe added,
whicm would make them heavier and harder to
move with the hand ; and they involved the two*
fold task, already mentioned, of simultaneously
thrusting one slide back while another was being
drawn out. These drcumstancee, added to the
&ct that a given resistance can be overcome with
less difficulty by a blow than by a pull with the
fingers and thumb, must have oirected attention
to the possibility of substituting pressure for trac-
tion in the manipulation of the organ. Thus it is
recorded tiiat towards the end of Uie i ith century
huge keys, or rather leyers, began to be used as the
means for playing the instrument ; and however
unwieldy these may have been, they were never-
theless the first rude steps towards proriding the
organ with a Jceybocwd. A spring-box, too, of some
kind was almost of necessity also an improvement
of the same period ; for without some restoring
power, a key, on being knocked down, would have
remained there until picked up ; and that restor-
ing power would be the most readily supplied by
a spring or springs. In some of the early sj^ng-
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580
OEGAIT:
boxes a Bepante Ydlvh seems to baVe Been placed
Agamst the hole leading up to every pipe of each
vote, where it was held in position by an elastic
appliance of the nature just named. The valves
were brought under outward control by strings or
dords, which passed through the bottom of the
spring-box, and were attached to the key lying in
a diroct line beneath. As the keys must have
been himg at their inner end, and hiftve had their
greatest &11 in front, the smallest pipes of a note
were no doubt from the first placed quite inside,
and the largest in front, with those of graduating
scale occupying an intermediate position in pro-
portion to Uieir size ; and thus the small valves,
opening a lesser distance, were strung where the
key hiMl the least fall, and the laiger pallets
where they had the greatest motion.
The late Herr Edmund Sohulze, of Paulinzelle,
about twenty years ago made for the present
writer a rough sketch of the spring-box of an
organ about 400 veara old which he assisted in
taking to pieces when he was quite a youth ; from
which sketch the drawing for the following illus-
tration was prepared.
F40. 0.
ILM
^ ^^
X
The early keys are described as being from
three to five inches wide, or even more ; an inch
and a half thick ; from a foot and a half to a yard
or more in length, with a (all sometimes of as
much as a foot in depth. They must at times
therefore have been as large as the treadle of a
^nife-grinder*8 machine. Their size and amount
of resistance would on first thought appear to
have been most unnecessarily great and dumsy ;
but this is soon aoeounted for. We have seen
that the gauge of the keys was influenced by the
size of pipe necessary for the lowest note. Their
width would be increased when the compass was
extended downwards with larger pipes ; and their
length would be increased with the number of
valves that had to be strung to them ; while the
combined resistance of the many strong springs
of the larger specimens would render the toudi
insensible to anything short of a thump.
It was in the Cathedral at Magdeburg, towards
the end of the century of which we have been
speaking (the nth), that the earliest organ with
a keyboard of which we have any authentic re-
cord, was erected. It is said to have had a com-
pass of sixteen notes, — ^the same range as that of
our assumed 'chief alphabet' of the Winchester '
organ, — But ^'mention is. made as to* what ilte
notes were.
In the 1 2th centuiy the number of keys was
sometimes increased ; and every key fririher re-
oeived the addition of two or three pipes, aomid-
ing the fifth and octave to the unison. Ac-
cording to Seidel' (p. 8) a third and tenUi were
added. Pkt>vided a rank of pipes sounding the
sub-octave were present; the fifth, octave, and
tenth would sound at the distance of a twelfth,
fifteenth, and seventeenth thereto, which would
be in acoustic proportion ; but a rank producing a
major third above the unison as an acocunpani^
ment to k plain -chant conveying the impreanon
of a minor key, must have sounded so atrocious,
that it would probably be introduced only to be
removed on the earliest opportunity, unless a
rank of pipes sounding the second octave below
the unison (afterwards the 32-feet stop), were
also present. Although the number of pipes to
each key thus continued to be added to, no means
was devised for silendng or selecting any of the
several ranks or tiers. All sounded together, and
there was no escaping firom the strong incessant
'Full Organ 'effect.
There is a curious account written by Lootens'
— an author but little known — of a Dutch organ
said to have been erected in the churoh of St.
Nicholas at Utrecht in the year 1 1 30. The organ
had two manuals and pedals. The compass of the
former was from the low F of
the bass voice, which would be
represented by a pipe of 6 feet
standard length, up to the Bb of the soprano,
namely, two octaves and a halfl The chief
manual had twelve pipes to each key, inoludinff
one set of which the largest pipe would be i a foet
in length,' and which therefore was identical with
the Double Open Diapason of subsequent times.
The soundboard was without grooves or draw-
stops, consequently there were probably nearly as
many springs for the organ-beater to overcome as
there were pipes to sound. The second manual
was described as faavjng a few movable draw-
stop ; and the pedals one independent stop, —
oddly enough a Trumpet, — details and peculi-
arities which strongly point to the last two de-
partments having been additions made at a much
later period ; for a 'double organ* is not known
to have existed for two centuries after the date
at which this one is said to have been completed;
still less a triple one.
In the 13th century the use of the organ in
divine service was, according to Seidel, pp. 80-9,
deemed profane and scandalous by the Greek and
Latin clergy, just as in the 17th century the
instrument wan called a 'squeaking abomina-
tion ' by the English Puritans. The Greek
1 JotMim VaUna 80UUI. ' Die Orgel and Ihr Bu ' (BraslMi IMD.
s ' NouTCfto nwDuel oomplet de rOrcantot* ' (Farts).
* Nor«eonlliknowii4oezitt«stothepltolitowhi<dttlMv«nrcu1f
organs ware tuned, or whother thtf were toned to aaj ontfcffin pitrti
whatervr. which. Ii extrandy doubthil. In reterting to the lotntt
pipe ae being IS fset In speaking length, a tftum of pipe woman-
ment Is made use of which is n^ known to have been ad^ypted ancQ
centories alter tba date at wfaidi this oi|aa is stated to haw bem
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DEGANi
GlJnrc^ floes not talerAte its u^ eyeo atthe ?
present day.
Early in the 14th century— in the year 131 2 —
an organ was built in Germany for Marinus
SanutUB, a celebrated Venetian Patrician, which
was erected in the church of St. Raphael, in
Venice. It excited ereat admiration ; and as it
no doubt contained all the newest improvements,
it was a pleasing return to make for the organ
sent from Venice to Aix-la-Chapelle nearly fire
hundred vears before.
One of the greatest improvements effected ini
the organ in the 14th centuiy was the gradual!
introduction of the four remaining chromatiod
semitones. F| was added in the early part oM
the century ; then followed C| and £b ; and nextj
Gf. The fib abready existed in the Winchester
and other medieval instruments. By Dom Bedos
the introduction of these four notes is assigned
to the 13th century ; while others place the first
appearance of three of them as late as the 15 th.
Praetorius gives them an intermediate date — ^the
middle of Uie 14th century ; and he is undoubt-
edly correct) as they were certainly in the Hal-
bentadt organ, finished in the year 1361.
Dom B^os refers to a ourious MS^ of tha
14th century in the Bibliothbque Boyale, as af-
fording much further information respecting the
organ of that period. This MS. records that
the clavier of that epoch sometimes comprised
as many as 31 keys, namely, firom B up to F,
two octaves and a fifth; that
wooden rollers, resembling those
used until within the last few
years in English organs, were employed to
transmit the movement of the keys to the valves ;
that the bass pipes were distributed, right and
left, in the form of wings ; and that those of the
top notes were placed in the centre of the instru-
ment, as they now are.
To appreciate the importance of the improve-
ments just mentioned, and others that are neces-
sarily implied, it is necessary to remember that
so long as it was a custom in organ-making to
have the pipes above and the keys below placed
parallel one to the other, every little expansion
q( the organ involved an aggravation of the un-
wieldy size of the keys, at the same time that th«
convenient reach of the player set most rigid
bounds to the legitimilte expansion of the organ,
and fixed the extent of its limits. The ingenious
contrivance of the roller-board at once left the
dimensions of the organ free to be extended
laterally, wholly irrespective of the measure of
the keyboard.
This emancipation was necessary before the
additional semitones could be conveniently ac-
commodated ; for as they would materially in-
rrease the number of pipes in each rank, so they
would require wider space to stand in, a larger
spring-box, such as was then made, to stand
upon, and rollers equal in length to the sum of
the distance to which the pipes were removed
out of a pMtJlel with each key.
With re^;ard to the distribution of the pipes,
they had generally been placed in a single row,
ORGAN.
581
tm shown* in' medieval drawing^ but as the
invention of the chromatic notes nearlv doubled
the number in the septave — increasing them
from seven to twelve — half the series would now
f(Nrm nearly as long a row as the entire diatonic
range previously £d. The two smallest pipes
were therefore placed in the centre of the organ,
and the remainder alternately on* each side;
and their general outline — spreading outwards
and upwards — gave them the appearance of a
pair of outstretched wings. The ' zig-zag * plan-
tation of pipes was doubtless a sulwequent ar-
rangement.
In 1350 Poland ap*pears in connection with
our subjects In that year an organ was made
by a monk at Thorn in that kingdom/ which
had 22 keys. As this is the exact number
possessed by the Halberstadt organ, completed
eleven years later, it is possible that the Thorn
organ may have been an anticipation of that at
Halberstadty as fiur as the chromatks keyboard is
concerned.
Up to tWs time (r4th century), we ha^e met
with nothing to indicate that the organ had been
employed or designed for any other purpose than
the execution of a primitive accompaniment to
the plainsong;- but the instrument which now
comes under notice breaks entirely fresh ground,
and marks a new starting point in the use of the .
organ as well as its construction and develop-
ment. The Halberstadt Cathedral organ, al-
though, strictly speaking, a 'single organ* only,
with a compass of scarcely three octaves, had
three claviers, and pipes nearly equal in size to
any that have ever been subsequently made. It
was built by Nicholas Faber, a priest, and was
finished on Feb. 23, 1361. Our information re-
garding it is obtained from the description of
Michael Praetorius in his ' Syntagma musicum,*
It had 22 keys, 14 diatonic, and 8 chromatic,
extending from Bt] up to A, and
20 bellows blown by 10 men. Its
largest pipe, B, stood in front, and
was 31 Brunswick feet in length, and 3 j ft. in cir-
cumference, or about 14 inches in diameter. This
note would now be marked as the semitone below
the C of 32 feet, and the pipe would naturally
be expected to exceed the pipe of that note in
length ; but the ^itch of the Halberstadt organ
is known to have been more than a tone sharper
than the highest pitch in use in England at the
present day, which accounts for the want of length
in its Btl pipe.^
In the Halberstadt instrument a successful
endeavour was made for the first time to obtain
some relief firom the constant ' full organ' effect,
1 As Uw hUtorr of mnsictl Pitch Is treated of vnder \ii proper
h«ad. it U only n«ioeitMr7 here to refer brleflj to the remarluble fact
that the pitch of old organs sometimei varied to no less an extent
than half an ocUve. and that too at one and the Mune date, as shown
by Arnold Schlick In 1511. One reason fiven for this great shiftlnff
of the pitch was. that the organ shookl be tnned to solt higher or
lower Toloes. without the organist having to ^* play the chromatlca.
which was not convenient to every one ' ; a difficulty that must have
arljwi as much from the construction of the keyboards, and the un-
equal tuning, as from lack of skill In the performer to uve them.
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5S2
OIUJAN;
v^hich was all that had previottaly been com- [
monly produced. For this purpose a meaiu was |
devised for enabling the pipes standing in front
(afterwards the Principal, Prsestant, or Open Dia-
pason), and the larger pipes in the side towers
(subsequently part of the Great Bass Principal,
or 32-feet Diapason), to be used separately and
Independently of the other tiers of pipes, which
were located behind, and hence called the Hinter-
satz, or ' hindeisposition/ This result was ob-
tained by introducing three claviers instead of
one only ; the upper one for the fiill organ, con-
sisting of all the tiers of pipes combined ; the
middle one, of the same compass as the upper,
and called * Discant,* for the open diapason alone ;
and the lower one, with a compass of an octave,
from f (Bfa) to H (Bh), for the lower portion of
the bass diapason. The residt of this arrange-
ment was that a change from forte to piano
could be obtained by playing with the right hand
on the middle manual and the left hand on the
lower. It was even possible for the organist to
strike out the plainsong, fortCt on the HintermU
with his left fist, and play a primitive counter-
point {discant) with the right. Pwfetorius men-
tions incidentally that the large bass pipes, which
sounded the third octave below the unison, would
have been scarcely definable, but being accom-
panied by the numerous pipes of other pitches
in the general mixture organ, they became effec-
tive. A rank of pipes sounding a * third * above
the unison, like that mentioned by Seidel, and
already quoted, might very well have been among
these.
The claviers of the Halberstadt organ pre-
sented several interesting features; and being
the earliest examples of chromatic keyboards
known, are here engraved from Pretorius.
Fto.
12.
rf
V -i^'^
|!
- K
iS^^^S
vk^^r
^i^l
u
L ~
li^k^ft^kSi
The keys of the Halberstadt organ were made
at a time when the five chromatic notes — or
OBGAN.
u we now call them* the 'shmrps and flftts'^
were placed in a separate row from the ' iiAtiirals,'
almost as distinctly so as a second manual of the
present day. The keys of the upper {Hinteraatx)
and middle {DiacarU) claviers (Fig. 10) measoied
four inches from centre to centre, and the diatonie
notes were ornamentally shaped and lettered, thus
preserving the 'alphabetic' custom obeerved in
the 10th-century organ at AVinchester, and de-
scribed by Theophilus in the nth. The chro-
matic notes were square-shaped, and had their
sur£EM» about two and a half inches above that
of the diatonic, were two inches in width, and
one inch in thickness, and had a £Edl of about an
inch and a quarter. The chromatic keys were
no doubt pressed down by the three inner fingers,
and the diatonic by the wrist end of the hand. The
(Uatonio notes of the lower clavier (Fig. 11), eight
in number, namely ll(BlO, C. D, E, F, G. A, H
(Btl), were quite differently formed, being square-
fronted, two inches in br^th, and with a space
of about the same width on each side. These
keys were evidently thrust down by the left hand,
by pressure from Uie shoulder, like handles, the
space on each side being left for the fingers and
thumb to pass through. This clavier had four
chromatic notes, C|, £b, F|, and GS, but curious^
enough, not Bb, although that was the ' lyric semi-
tone* of which so much is heard long before.
The contrast between the forte and pioM
effect on the Halberstadt organ — firom the full
organ to a single set of pipes — ^must have been
very violent ; but the experiment had the good
effect of directing attention to the &ct that a
change, if less marked, would be grateful and use-
ful ; for Seidel (p. 9) records that from this time
instruments were frequently made comprising
two manual organs, the upper one, interestin^y
enough, being named ' discant * ; and he further
gives it as his opinion that this kind of constmc*
tion probably led to the invention of Couplers.
He likewise mentions that large churches were
often provided with a second and smaller organ ;
and Prsetorius speaks of primitive little organs
which were hung up against a column in the
church * like swallows nests,* and contained twelve
or thirteen notes almost or entirely diatonic^
thus,
B, C, D. E, F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F ; or
C, D, E, F, G, A, Bb,C, D, E, F, G, A.
Dom Bedos relates that in the 14th century
an organ was erected in the church of St. Cy-
prian, at Dijon, which not only had two manuals,
but had the choir organ in front. The front
pipes were made of tin, those inside of lead ;
there were said to be soundboard grooves, covered
underneath with white leather ; three bellows 4
feet 7 inches long, and 2 feet i inch wide; and an
arrangement by which a continuous wind could
be provided from one bellows only. This, how-
ever, is manifestly the account of an organ which
had received improvements long after its con-
struction, such additions afterwards coming to be
described as part of the original work.
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ORQAK.
We now 6ome to the 15th o^nti^, which
was prolific in its ioiproyements of the spring*
hox, keys, pedals, wind-sapply, etc. And first
of the Spring-hox.
The first endeavour was to ohtain more than
one strength of tone from the same manual. It
appears 1»at to establish the power of prevent-
ing some of the sets of pipes (doubtless those
that afterwards constituted the mixture and
other bright-sounding ranks) from speaking when
required to be silent, a sliding boiml was placed
over the valves that opened and closed the en-
trance for the wind at the feet of those pipes.
The remaining tiers of pipes, doubtless those
sounding the unison (8), octave (4), and sub-
octave (16), could thus be left in readiness to
sound alone when desired. The effect of this con-
trivance must have greatly resembled that of the
* shifting movement' of subsequent times.
Two distinct effects were thus obtained from
one <»gan and one set of keys ; and the question
wpuld soon arise, * if two, why not more ! ' A
further division of the organ-sound soon followed ;
and according to Pnetorius the credit of first
dividing and converting the Eintenatz into an
Instrument of several single sets of pipes (after-
wards called registers or stops) is due to a
Grerman artificer of the appropriate name oi
Timotheus, who constructed a soundboard pos-
sessing this power for an organ which he
rebuilt for the monastery of the Bishop*s palace
at Wiirtzburg.
The * Spring soundboard' was formed in the
following manner. The valves of each note were
closed in on each side by two diminutive walls
(soundboard bars) extending frt>m the back to
the front of the wind-box, and, together with the
top and bottom, forming and enclosing each valve
within a separate canal (sotmdboard groove) of
its own. The entire area of the former wind-box
was partitioned off in this manner, and occupied
by the ' bars * and 'grooves ' of the newly devised
soundboard. A playing-valve (soundboard pallet)
was necessaiy below each groove to admit or ex-
clude wind. These were collectively ^enclosed
within a box (wind -chest) now added to fulfil the
duty of the transformed wind-box. The valves
immediately under the several pipes of a note
were no longer drawn down from below by cords,
but were pressed down frY>m above, as shown in
the following cut, which is a transverse section
of a small spring soundboard for three stops.
Fio. 13.
ORGAK:
58$
A metal pin passed down through the surface
•f the soundboaid and rested on the frtmt end
of the 'register-valve* as it was called. A move*
ment or draw-stop was provided, on drawing"
which the longitudinal row of metal pins was
pressed down, and the valves lowered. The com-
bined resistance of the set of springs beneath the
valves was very considerable, hence great force
was necessary in 'drawing a stop,* which had to
be hitched on to an iron bar to keep it 'out.*
When released it sprang back of its own accord.
The set of pipes of which the register-valves were
open, would then be ready for use ; and in the
woodcut the frt)nt set ia shown as being thus
prepared. The wind would be admitted into the
groove by drawing down the soundboard pallet,
which is seen immediately below.
By this means the power was created of using
each separate set of pipes, exoept the small ones,
singly or in any desired combination, so that the
organ could be played loud or soft, or at any in-
termediate strength between the two extremes ;
and they now for the first time reoeived distinc-
tive names, as Principal (Open Diapason, 8 feet) ;
Octave (Principal, 4 feet); Quint (Twelfth, 2|
feet) ; Super-octave (Fifteenth, a feet) ; etc. ;
and each separate series was then cidled a
Register (Stop). The smaller sets of pipes were
left to be used in a group, and were cslled ' Mix-
ture'^ (Sesquialtera, etc.). The stops sounding
a note in accordance with the key struck, as C
on the G key, were afterwards called Foundation-
stops ; those which produced a different sound,
as G or E on the C key, were named Mutation-
stops ; while those that combined the two classes
of sounds were distinguished as Compound or
Mixture Stops.
The spring soundboard was much admired by
some Hollanders; and some organ-builders from
the Low Countries, as well as from Brabant, went
to see it, and constructed soundboards on the
same system for some time afterwards.
The pipe-work, however, was all of one class,
— open, metal, cylindrical, and of full propor-
tionate scale — similar in general model to the
second great class of pipe referred to at the com-
mencement of this article as Open. Great there-
fore as was the gain resulting from the invention
of the registers, the tone still remained of one
general character or quality. It then occurred to
some of the thinking men of the time that other
qualities of tone would probably ensue if modifica-
tions were made either in the shape, proportion,
outline, or material of the pipes, etc. ; and the
experiments justified the hypothesis.
Stopped pipes (our first great class) were made
either of wood dosed with a plug, or of metal
covered with a sliding cap; and so a soft pleasing
mild tone was obtained. Thus originated the
Gedact (Stopped Diapason), Bordun (Bourdon),
Klein-gedact (Flute), etc. Some Reed-stops (our
third class) were also invented about this time,
1 Dr. Barney. Dr. Crotch. Kletewetter. and other writen. took oon-
ilder&ble paliu to venttlMe and enforce their various theories at to the
origin of the MIztare-etop in an organ ; but they all omitted to re-
member that for oentnrlet the whole organ was nothing but one
huge stop of the kind : and that when the larger seU of pipes were
aepaiated off for use. the Mizturp was self-f >rmed out of the rmldue.
eonsiactng of rows of Uttle pipes that were thought scarcely worth the
troaMe of ' drftwlng OQ' Npacatelj.
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584
OBOAK.
M the FoMtune (Trombone), Trnmpei, Vox
humaoa, etc. Stops oompoeed of cylindrical pipes
of small diameter were likewise constructed, and
made to produce the string-tone, which stops
were hence called Violone (Double Baas), Viol
di gamba, etc. ; and further modifications of tone
were secured by either making the pipes taper
upwards, as in the Spitz-flote, Gemshom, etc., or
spread out, as in the Dolcan. Thus was brought
about as great a contrast in the organ 'tone^tints '
as there is between the graduated but similar
tones of a photograph and the varied tints of a
ooloured drawing.
In the course of the 15th century the keys
were reduced in size several times, as fresh
contrivances for manipulating the instrument
were from time to time thought of, or new re-
quirements arose.
An early improvement consisted in combining
the ' Icmg and short keys ' on one manual, and
so fiir reducing their size that they could be
played by perhaps a couple of fingers and the
thumb alternately. The manuals of the old
oigan in the church of St. ^Egidien, in Bruns-
wick, presented this advance ; and as they are
early examples, perhaps the very first to fore-
shadow the modem keyboard, a representation
of a few notes of one of them is here given from
Pnetorius.
Fio. 14.
The naturals of the Great manual were about
an inch and three quarters in width, two inches
and three eighths in length in front of the
short keys, while the short keys, three inches
long and an inch wide, stood an inch and a half
above the naturals. The keys of the second
manual {Ruck-positif), curiously enough, ap-
pear to have been made to a somewhat smaller
gauge, the naturals being an inch and a half in
OBGAIT.
widih. On this oigan the intervals of a tliud,
fourth, and fifth lay within the span of the hand,
and were donbtless sometimes played.
It will be observed that the plan of lettering
the keys was still followed ; but the fonnatian of
the clavier was quickly becoming so compcu^ well
defined, and susceptible of being learnt without
such assistance, that the 'alphabet' probably fell
into disuse as superfluous soon after this time.
The name given to the second manual, — Xaek-
poiiHf, Back-choir oigan, or, as it is called in
England, ' Choir dgan in front,'«-is interesting
as showing that at this time the double organ (to
the eye) was oertainly in existence.
Franohinus Gaffurius, in his ' Theorica Masica,'
printed at Milan in 1492, gives a curious en-
graving of an organist playing upon an eariy
clavier of this period, with broad keys, of which
a copy is given on the opposite page (Fig. 15).
The illustration is of peculiar interest, as it
represents the player using his hands — ^to judge
from their position, independently of each other:—
in the execution of a pieoe of music in two distinct
parts ; the melody — possibly a plainsong — being
taken with the right hand, which appears to be
proceeding sedately enough, while the left seems
to be occupied in the prosecution of a contrapuntal
figure, the elbows meanwhile being stretched out
into ijmost a flying position.
The keys of the organs in the Barefooted
Friars' church at Nuremberg (Rosenbergs,
1475), the cathedral at Erfurt (Castendorfer,
1483), and the collegiate church of St. Blasius
at Brunswick (Eranz, 1499), were lees again in
size than the foregoing, so that an octave was
brought within about a note of its present width.
The next reduction must therefore have intro-
duced the scale of key still in use. Seidel (p. 10)
mentions that in 1493 Rosenberger built for the
cathedral at Bamberg a still larger organ than
his former work at Nurembeiig, and with mcHv
keys. He further observes that the manual of
the organ in the Barefooted Friars' church had
the uppor keys of ivory and the under keys of
ebony. *Here then we reach a period when
the keys were certainly capped with light and
dark hued materials, in the maimer which con-
tinued to be followed up to the end of the last
century, when the naturals were usually black,
and the sharps and flats white. Seidel states also
that all the above-named organs were prorided
with f>edals.
The invention of the Pedals ranks among the
most important improvements that were effected
in the 15th century. For a long time they did
ant exceed an octave in compass, and consisted
of the diatonic notes only— |j (B ft), C, D, E, F,
G, A, H (Btj) — and their use was for some
time coiifined, as might have been expected, to
the holding of long sustained sounds only. The
manual clavier was attached to them by cords.
This kind of 'pedal-action' could only be applied
conveniently when the pedals were made to a
similar gauge to the manual clavier, as the
clavier keys had previously been made to accord
in position with the valves in the early spring*
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box. This borreiqpondenoe of fi^ttges was actcfiallv
obaerved by GeorgiuB Kleng in the pedals which
he added to the organ at Halberstadt in 1495 ;
and ai those pedala were at the same time the
earliest of which a representation is to be traced,
an engraving has already been given of them be>
low the Halberstadt claviers (Fig. la, p. 582). It
will be observed that in addition to Uie diatonic
keys already mentioned, they had the four chro-
matic notes corresponding wiUi those on the
lower manual with which they communicated.
The naturals were made of the kind that were
afterwards called * toe pedals.*
Fio. 15.
JOEGAm
TTSU
In the early part of the 15th century — in the
year I418 — the pedals received the important
accession of a stop of independent pedal-pipes,
and thus were initiated the * Pedal Basses' which
were destined to impart so much dignity and
majesty to the general organ tone.
The manner in which ^e date of the construc-
tion of the first pedal stop was discovered, is thus
related in the Leipsic Musical Gazette for 1836
(p. 128) : — 'In the year i8i8 a new organ was
erected in the church of Beeskow, five miles
firom Frankfort on the Oder, on which occasion
ibe organ-builder, Marx senior, took some paina
to ascerfam the age of the old organ which he
had to remove. On a careful investigation it
appeared that the old organ had been built just
four hundred years, the date uccocxviii being
engraved on the upper side of the partition {kern)
of the two principal pedal-pipes, for that these
two pipes did belong to the pedal was dear firom
their admeasurement.*
In 1468 or 69 Traxdorff, of Mayence, made
an organ for the church of St. Sebald at Nurem-
berg, with an octave of pedals, which adjuncts
led to his being aterwaras at times quoted as
the originoUor of them.
Their invention has more usually been 'attri-
buted to Bemhard in 1470 or 147 1, organist to
the Doge of Venice ; but there can be little doubt
that they were known long before his time.
Several improvements connected with the pedals
seem not to haVe been traced to their originators ;
such as the introduction of the semitones, the
formation of the frame pedal-board as now made,
the substitution of rollers for the rope-aSction
when the breadth of the manual keys was made
less than that of the pedals ; the separation of
the 33-feet stop from the manual, and its appro-
priation, togeuier with that of other registers,
exclusively to the use of the pedals, etc. Bem-
hard may perhaps have been the first to originate
some of these ^iterations, and Traxdorff others,
which tradition afterwanls associated with the
'invention of the pedals/
Dom Bedos mentions that in the course of
the 15th century, 16- and even 32-feet pipes began
to be heard of, and that they necewitated a
general enlargement of the several parts of the
organ, particularly of the bellows. Pipes of 16
and nearly 32 feet were, as we have seen, in
existence a century earlier than the period to
which Dom Bedos assigns them. His observation
therefore may be taken as applying more probably
to the fact that means, which he specifies, had
been taken to rectify the feebleness existing in
the tones of large pipes, such for instance as those
at Halberstadt. Hand-bellows were no longer
adequate to the supply of wind, either in quantity
or strength, and hence more capacious ones were
substituted. Pnetorius, in 1620, illustrates this
improvement by giving a representation of the
twenty bellows which he found existing in the old
organ in the church of St. ^Egidien in Brunswick,
and which we have copied (Fig. 16, next page).*
Upon each bellows was fix^ a wooden woe ;
the blowers held on to a transverse bar, and each
man, placing his feet in the shoes of two bellows,
raised one as he lowered the other. Great in-
genuity and constructive labour were bestowed
on such bellows ; but a supply of wind of uniform
strength could never have been obtained from
them, and consequently the oi^an could never
have sounded in strict tune.
About the beginning of the i6th century the
very ingenious but complicated spring sound-
board was discontinued as being subject to
1 The reador will remembw tb&t thts method of compressing the
organ-wind had been thought of upwards of a thousand years earliei
at OoDStantino^
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586
OBGAN.
frequent and yeiy difficult repairs, and for it was
substituted the soundboard with «/u/tn^ registers.
In this soundboard were ingeniously combined
the chief features of the two kinds of wind-control-
ling apparatus that had been in use in previous
centuries. Between the holes in the top of the
grooves, and those now made parallel therewith
in the pipe-stocks, into which the feet of the pipes
fitted, were now introduced the slides, shown in
profile in the following cut; which were now
laid the length-way of the soundboard, instead of
the eruss-way as in the old spring-box ; and as
they were placed in the opposite direction they
likewise operated in the reverse way to what they
formerly did ; that is, each slide opened or closed
one pipe of the several notes, whereas before it
F:o. 17.
.^^i';?!^^I^B»^^s.-|£&^!^
T
ORGAN*
in the grooves was done away with, and tiie
soundb^urd simplified and perfected in the form
in which it still continues to be made. (Fig. 1 7.)
In the early part of the i6th century US'^
1 518) a large and handsome organ was erected
in St. Mary's church, Liibeck, which had two
Manuals from D to A above the treble stave,
and a separate pedal down to G. The latter had
a great Principal of 32 feet, and a second one of
16 feet, made of the finest English tin, and
both ' in front.' This organ however was tuned
to a very sharp pitch — a whole tone above
the highest now in use. Its largest pipe there-
fore, fdthough named C, really sounded D, and
was therefore scarcely so long as the biggest
pipe at Halberstadt, made a century and a half
earlier. This organ received the addition of
a third Manual (then called * Positiv im Stuhl *)
in 1560 and 1561, and subsequently underwent
many other enlargements and improvements ; so
that by the beginning of the i8th century, when
the celebrated Buxtehude was organist, its dis-
position stood nearly as follows ; though the list
may possibly include a few subsequent additions
of minor importance.
Hauptwckk. 13 ftopt.
Feet, FM
PrIndiMl .... 16 ;IUiusch-pfeifcaS*16) . S|
QuInUtOa . .
. . 16 , Mixture. 7 ranks
Oci«T .
. . 8 Beha4 4ranki
BpiU-flOta . .
. . 8 Trompete . .
i . W
0ct*T . . .
. . 4 1 Trompete . .
. . •
Bohi-flOto . .
. . 4 'Zink . . .
. . 8
NaiMt . . .
Uktii-wiik. 14 (topt.
Bordan . .
. «
Principal . .
. . 8 Miztare. 4 ranks
Rohf-flOte . .
. . 8 8char<t5ranks
Viola dlGMDbft
. . 8 Facott . .
. . U
QuinUtOQ
. . 8 Bar-pfetfe . .
. . 8
OcUve
. . 4 Trichter-Regal .
. . 8
8piU-flM« . .
Brcst-wbek. 1ft stops.
. . 8
Principal . .
. . 8 Oboe . . .
. . 8
Oedaot . .
8 Cormom
. . 8
OcUve
. . 4 Besal . . .
. . 8
Bohr-flOta. . .
. . ♦ (In a swell)
Nassat . .
. . i^ FlOte . . .
. . 8
Sesqaialtera (19 * 17)
2 Trompete
. . «
Mistur. 8 ranlu
Trompete
. . 8
Clmbal.8rauks
Vox bumana •
Pedal, is stops.
. , i
Principal . .
82 Mlxtur. C ranks
Principal . .
. . 16 Posaune . .
. . a
Sub-batt . .
. . 16 Posaune . .
. . i«
Octare .
. . 8 BasMin . .
. IS
Oedact . . .
8 Trompete . .
. . 8
OCUT . . .
4 Cormonie .
8
Nacht-horn
. . 4 Trompete . .
4
OCUT . . .
. . 2
acted on the several pipes of one note, as shown
in Fig. 7, p. 578. The pallets and springs in the
windchest were of course retained; but the ^.„ ^^ „^ . ^«-^«, ,^.^ |««w-
forest of valves etc. which liad been imbedded i ably not only listened to but played npon this
This is the organ, to visit which and to hear
Buxtehude play, Sebastian Bach walked 50 miles
in 1705. Two years earlier (in ijO'i), Handel
visited Llibeck, as a candidate for the ofiice of
organist to one of the other churches in that
ancient Hans town ; but finding that one of
the conditions was that the successful competitor
must become the husband of the daughter of the
late organist — an appointment for wMctk Handel
had certainly sent in no application — he excused
himself from continuing the contest, and retreated
to Hamburg.
Both the musicians just named, then so young
and afterwards so greatly venerated, veiy prob-
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ORGAir.
orgiin ; and as it contained examples of most of
the varieties of stop of which mention has been
made, this notice of the progress of organ-build^
ing abroad may for the present be fitly dosed
with the foregomg account of the enlarged form
of the earliest 32-ft. C compassed organ that
was ever made, so far as can be ascertained.
ORGAN.
587
Having traced the histoiy and growth of the
organ in various Idngdoms, attention may now be
devoted to its speciid progress in England4
1407. Ely Cathedral,
The earliest record known to exist that
gives any particulars as to the cost of making
an organ in England, is that preserved in the
Precentor*8 accounts of Ely Cathedral, under the
date 1407. The items, translated from the Latin,
read as follows :—
•. d.
20 stones of lead, 16 9
4 white hones* hides for 4 pair of bellows, . 7 8
Ashen hoops-for the bellows, . . . .04
10 pairs of hingesi 1 10
The carpenter, 8 days, making the bellows, . 2 8
12 springs. 0 3
1 pound of gloe^ ••..... 0 1
. 1 pound of on, ....... 0 3
eoaUsUns. 2 6
12 sheepskins, 2 4
2poands of quicksilver, 2 0
Wire, nails, olotb, hoops, and staples, . .10
Petching the organ-boUder, and his board,
ISiSeks, ....... . 40 0
Total, 8 17 8
These particulars, although scanty, contain
entries that help us to trace a few of the features
of this early instrument. The 'ashen hoops'
indicate that the bellows were of the forge kind.
The '13 springs' were doubtless the 'playing
springs,' and if so, denote that the organ had
a compass of la notes; exactly the number re-
quired for the Gregorian Chants (C to F), with
the Bb added, l^e metal for the pipes, com-
pounded of ' I pound of tin* only to ' ao stones
of lead' must have been rather poor in quality
and texture. The circumstance of the organ-
builder being fetched, and bis board paid for,
indicates that the useful class of artificers to
which he belonged sometimes led rather an
itinerant life, as we shall presently see they con-
tinued to do two centuries later.
About the year 1450, Whethamstede, Abbot
of St. Albans, presented to his church an (H^gan
on which he expended, including its erection,
fifty pounds — an enormous sum in those days.
This instrument, we are told, was superior to
everything of the kind then in England for size,
tone, and workmanship ; but no record is left as
to where or by whom it was made, nor as to
what its contents or compass were.
1 500- 1 6 70. A Pair of Organs,
The term 'pair of organs,' so much used in
the 1 6 th and the greater part of the 17 th cen-
turies, has been a source of as much difficulty to
the oommentatorsy as the spelling of the words
themselves became to the scribes of the period.
(See note below. ) It grew gradually into use ; and
the most interesting fact connected with it, namely
that there were various kinds of ' pairs ' in use,
has passed without hitherto receiving sufficient
notice. At York in 1419, 1457, 1469, and
1 485, the instrument is spoken of in the sin-
gular number, as 'The organ,' or 'The great
organ.* In 1475 it is referi^ to as 'An organ.'
In 1463 we meet with ' y« players at y« orgenys,'
and in 148a a payment is made for 'mending of
organys.' In 1501 the complete expression is
met with, 'one peyre of orgynys'; and it con-
tinued in use up to the time of Pepys, who
wrote his 'Diary' in the second half of the 17th
century.
One commentator considered the term ' pair ' to
refer to the ' double bellows'; but besides the fact
that a single bellows is sometimes itself called
a ' pair,' a ' pair of virginals,* containing wires,
required no wind whatever. Another annotatcnr
thought that a ' pair ' signified two organs con-
joined, with two sets of keys, one above the other —
' one called the choir organ, and the other the
great organ'; but this explanation is answered
by an entry of the expense incurred for ' a pair
of new organs' for the Church of St. Maty at
Hill, in the year 15a I, which, including the cost
* for bringing them home,' amounted altogether
to ' xs. viije{? only. If this were not sufficient,
there would be the fact that many churches
contained *two payre of 'orgyns'; and if they
were of the bulk supposed, there would be the
question how much room, if any, could have
remained in the church for the accommodation
of the congregation. A third writer suggested
that a ' pair ' meant an organ with two pipes to
each note; but * a pair of regaJs' sometimes had
but a single pipe to each key. The term in all
probability meant simply an instrument with
at least one complete set of pipes. It might
have more, as in Duddington's organ noticed
farther on.
The most interesting question here, however, is
not simply the fact that a church had frequently
two pair of organs, but, when so, why one was
generally ' the grete orgones ' and the other ' the
small orgones.' It is quite possible that the
custom mentioned by Pnetorius, and already
quoted, may have prevailed in England, of regu-
lating the pitch of the organ according to the
prevailing pitch of the voices (whether high or
low), and that when there were two organs, one
was made to suit each class of voice ; and as an
alteration of pitch, made for this purpose, of say
half an octave, would have caused one organ to
be nearly half as large again as the other, their
difference of size may have led to the distinctioi:
of name as a natural sequence. This opinion
seems to receive support from the fact that at
Bethersden l^ey had not a * great' but 'a base
peare of organes.'
1 Aihford. ' Item (J payer of great orgaoe*.'
Canterburr (Wettgate). ' Item, two paire of organ*.'
Guildford (Holy Trinity). * Item. U P*'" of omaynes.*
Korwich (St. Andrew). ' Item, U pe>r o' orgoiine*.'
Btnfflald. 'tteBi,UP«y»of<W«»-'
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^88 ORGAN.
1519. All ffaUows, Barkvng,
Antont Ddddynoton.
Under the date 15 19 we meet with the earliett
Bpeoification of a& EDglish organ that is known
to exist. It is found embodied in an ' endenture *
or * bargayn * entered into by * Antony Daddyng-
ton, citezen of London,* to make a ' payer of
organs' for the * P'isahe of Alhalowe, Barkvng,
next y* Tower of London.* It was to have thr^
stops, namely, a ' Diapason, containing length of
X foot or more/ and * dowble principalis throwe*
out, to contain the length of v foote.* The com-
pass was to be ' dowble Ce-forut/ and comprise
* xxvij playne keyes/ which would doubtless be
the old four-octave short octave range, in which
the apparent KE key sounded CO, up to C in
alt. The requisite number of * elevated keyes'
(sharps, flats, etc.) was doubtless understood.
It was further specified that * the pyppee wHn-
forth shall be as fyne metall and stuff as the
Titter parts, that is to say of pure Tyn, w* asfewe
stoppes as may be convenient' ; and the cost was
to be *fyfty poundes sterUnge.' It was also a
condition ' that the aforesaid Antony shall convey
the belowes in the loft abowf, w** a pype to the
0ond boarde.* It is interesting to note that
although made so few years aft^ the invention
of 'stops' and the 'soundboard' abroad, the
English builder had made liimself acquainted
witn these improvements, and here inserted
them.
1 500-1 8 1 5. Short Octava.
As this is the first time that the term ' short
octave ' has been used in this article, and as it
will frequently be met with in the accounts of
. historical organs given farther on, it will be as
well to give here an explanation of the meaning
of that somewhat comprehensive expression. By
the end of the 15th century the manuals had
in foreign organs been extended to four octaves
in compass, and those of this country had most
likely idso reached the same range ; the lowest
octave however being either a 'short octave' or
a ' broken octave.' In the short octave two of
the natural keys were omitted, and the succession
stood thus :— CC (on the EE key). FF, G. A, B,
C. A nhort octave manual, CC to C in alt, there-
fore, had only 27 natural keys instead of 39.
The three short keys in the lower octave were
not all chn)matic notes, but sounded DD on the
FFS key, EE on the G| key, and Bb. The object
of this device no doubt was to obtain a deep sound
for the * tonic ' of as many of the scales and chords
in use at the time as was practicable. When
the lowest octave was made complete, the EEb
note was present ; DD occupied its correct posi-
tion; and the CCf key sounded AA. Father
Smith's organs at the University Church, Oxford,
the Danish Chapel, Wellclose Square, and St.
Nicholas, Deptford, were originally made to this
compass. A key was sometimes added beyond
CC, sounding GG, which converted the compass
into ' GG short octaves.' There is a paintinsf in
the picture gallery at Holyrood, of about the date
OBGANv
of the end of'the 15th century, representing St.
CJecilia playing upon a Positive Organ, which
shows quite clearly the lower keys and pipes of
a GG ^ort octave manual. Both Smith aod
HHrris sometimes constructed organs to this
compass, and subsequent builders also did 00
throughout the i8th and early part of the 19th
centuries. The FFF short octave manual,
which would seem to have existed, although we
have at present no record of it, might have hftd
the note acting on the AA long key, or 00 a
supplementary short key between the BB and
CCJkeys.
Many entries follow closely on the date
given above ; but none that supply any additional
matter of sufficient interest to be quoted here,
until nearly the end of the century, when the
list of payments made to John Chappington for
an oi^gan he built in 1597 for Magdalen College,
Oxford, shows Uiat the practice of painting tiie
front pipes was sometimes observed at that
period. It is short, and runs Chus :—
- ^ I «. *t
Paid Mr. Ohappliigtoii for the oxgan . 36 13 8
For colour to decorate the same . 2 2 0
For wainscot for the same • • 3 14 0
41 9 8
i6oSh-6. King" 9 CoUege Chapel, Cambridge.
Thomas Dallam.
A great progressive step was made when
Thomas Dallam, ip 16.05-^, biiilt for King's Col-
lege Chapel, Cambridge, the handsome 'douUe
organ/ the case of which remains to this day.
It was a complete two-manual oigan, the
earliest English specimen of which we have a
clear trace; and to construct it Dallam and
his assistants closed their workshop in Lcodon
and took up their residence in Cambridge. As
this instrument is the first of importance out of
several that were made before the time of the
Civil War, btit of which the accounts are more
or less vague or incomplete, it will be worth
while to follow out some of their leading par-
ticulars.
No record is known to exist of the contents
or compass of this instrument. The only stop
mentioned is the 'shaking stoppe' or tremulant.
The compass however can be deduced with some
approach to certainty. Mr. Thomas HiU, who
with his father rebuilt this organ some years ago,
states that the ' fayre great pypes ' mentioned by
Dallam still occupy their original positions in the
eastern front of the case, where they are now
utilised as part of the double diapason. As the
largest pipe sounds the GG of the present lower
pitch (nearly a whole tone below what is known
to have been the high ecclesiastical pitch of the
first half of the 17th century), there can be little
doubt that the King's College Chapel organ was
originally of FFF compass, as Father Smith's
subsequent instruments were at the Temple,
St. Paul's (choir organ), and Durham. Smith
in that case must simply have followed an old
tradition. More is said on this subject farther
on. The east firont pipes, as well as thos^ in
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obgan:
the ' Chayre Ojgtoi* were handsomdy eeolboBi&Ai
gilded, and coloured.
1633-4. York Cathedral, Robebt Dallam.
On March ao, 1633, Robert Dallam, * citizen
and blacksmith of London,' entered into an
agreement with *the right worshippfull John
Scott, deane of the cathe£idl and metropoliticall
church of St. Peter of Yorke, touchinge the mak-
inge of a great organ for the said church.' Most
of the|>articular8 respecting this instrument have
fortunately been preserved, firom which we learn
that * the names and number of the stoppes or
setts of pipes for the said great organ, to be new
made ; every stopp containeinge fiftie-one pipes ;
the said great organ containeing eight stapes,'
were as follows : —
Great Organ. 0 ttopt.
1 and 2. Imprimis two open diapasons of ^ynn, to
stand in sight, many of them to be chased.
3. Item one diapason stopp of wood.
4 and 5. Item two principals of tynn.
6. Item one twelft to the diapason.
7. Item one small prinoipall of tynn. {ISA
8. Item one recorder, unison to tbe said prmcJpaTI. (150
9. Item one two and twentieth.
* The names and number of stoppes of pipes
for the chaire organ, every stopp containeinge
fiftie-one pipes, the said chaire organ oon^aineinge
five stoppes,' were as follows : —
Chaire Organ. 6 stofs.
10. Imprimis one diapason of wood.
IL Item one recorder of tynn, unison to the voice.
12. Item one principal of tynn, to stand in lii^t, mamy
of them to be chased.
13. Item one flute of wood.
14. Itmn one small prindpaD of tjna. (1&.)
ThzeebeUows.
It will be noticed that this organ contained
neither reeds nor mixtures, and but one muta-
tion-stop, namely the ' twelfth.'
No mention is made as to what was the compass
of the old York Minster organ. All that is stated
is that each 'stoppe' had a series of 'fiftie-one
pipes' — an unusual number, for which it would
be interesting to account. The old case of the
organ remained until the incendiary fire of 1829,
and contained the two original diapasons ; and as
the largest pipes of these stops sounded the GG
of the lowered pitch of the i8th oentuiy, it is
quite possible that the compass was originally
FFF, short octave (that note sounding on the
A A key), up to C in alt, which range would have
required exactly the number of notes sped^ed in
the agreement. Robert Dallam buUt organs
similar to that at Yoric for St. Paul's and Durham
Cathedrals, the latter costing £iooa If they
were of FFF compass, that circumstance would
perhaps account for the schemes for Smith's new
organs for both those churches having been pre*
pued for that exceptional range.
In August and September 1634 three musical
enthusiasts, 'a Gaptaine, a Lieutenant, and an
Ancient (Ensign), of the Military Oompany in
Norwich,' went on 'a Seaven Weekes* Journey'
through a great part of England, in the course of
which they occasionally took particular notice of
the organs, in describing whiok they made use of
many pleasant adjectives. At York they 'saw
ORGANj
0S9
and hk^^ a fiUre; hKtge,high otgiJtiinev^\y built '
— the one just noticed ; at Durham they * were
wrapt with the sweet sound and richness of a
fayre oigan' ; at Lichfield ' the organs were deep
and sweet ' ; at Hereford was ' heanl a most sweet
organ'; at Bristol they found a 'neat, rich,,
melodious organ ' ; while at Exeter the organ waa
' ricli, delicate, and lofty, with more additions than
any other ; and large pipes of an extraordinary
length.' Some of these instruments were destined
in a few years to fall a prey to axes and hauuners.
The oigan at Carlisle however was described as
being 'like a shrill bagpipe.' Its destruction as
an ecclesiastical instrument was perhaps therefore
a matter not to be so very much deplored.
1637. Magdalen College, Oxford.
-r-^ Ha&bis.
Three years afterwards (in i^Zl) <^ maker of
the name of Harris— ^ the first of four genera-
tions of oigan-builders of that name, but whose
christian name has not been traced — built a
' double organ ' (Great Organ, vrith Choir Organ
in front) ior Magdalen College, Oxford. Its
Manuals ranged from Do, Sol, Re (double C)
without the C C| up to' D in alt, 50 notes ; and
the Great Organ had eight stops, while the Choir
had five. The foUowii^ was its specification :— •
Obiat Qboav. 8 stopi.
1*8. Two open DIapaions . 8 6 * «, Two FUteentbs . 8
S*4.TwoPrliietpals . . 4 !7*8.TwoTwo-atid-tw«ntleUB i
CBon Oboak, 8 stop*.
FoetUms. Fwttoa^
9.0ne8to|>p«dI>UpM0O S 18. One Beeordflr . . 4
10 *U, Two Principals. 4 UOoeFlfloeath . . 8
This was the organ which Cromwell had taken
down and conveyed to Hampton Court, where it
was placed in the great gall^. It was restored
to the college in i66b, and remained there until
1 737, when it wa« removed to Tewkesbury Abbey.
The Diapasons and Principal of the Great Organ,
and the Principal in the Choir still remain, and
are made of tin alloyed with about eight pounds
of lead to the hundredweight.
This organ was tuned to a h!gh pitch, as is
shown by one of the items in Eenatus HHiris's
agreement for improving it (1690), which specifies
that he 'shall and will alter the pitch of the said
organs half a note lower than they are now.'
This is the last organ of which we have any
authentic particulars as being made previously
to the outburst that checked the art of organ*
building in this country for several years.
On August 23, 1643, an ordinance was passed
by the Lords and Commons assembled in
Parliament for abolishing superstitious monu-
ments. On May 9, 1644, ^ second ordinance was
passed 'for the further demolishing of menu*
menta of Idolatry and Superstition,' in which the
destruction of organs was enjoined. This ordin-
ance has not yet been included in any history
of the organ. Its wording ran as follows : —
The Lords and Commons in Pari* the better to
aooomplith the bleued Beformation ao happilr begwi
and to remove aU offenoes and things illegal in the
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S90
OEGAK;
wonhlp of God Do Ordain That all repreMOtotkmi ef
the Trinity, or any Angel etc., etc. in and about any
Cathedral, Oolleffiate or Parish Church oar Chapel shall
be taken away, ddkoed and utterly demolii>hed, etc. etc.
And that all organs and the frames and cases wherein
they stand in all Churches and Chapells aforesaid shall
be taken away and utterly defaced, and none other here-
after set up in their placet.
And that all Copes. Snrplioes, tnpevstitious Vestmentf,
Boods, and Fonts oe likewise utterly defisoed etc. etc
In consequence of this ordinance collocate and
parochial churches were stripped of their cn^gans
and ornaments ; some of the instruments were sold
to private persons, who preserved them ; some
were totally and others partially demolished;
some were taken away by the clem to prevent
their being destroyed and some few escaped
injury altogether. Two extracts will be sufficient
to indicate the kind of result that frequently
followed on these acts of wantonness. 'At West-
minster Abbey,* we are told, ' the soldiers brake
down the organs and pawned the pipes at severall
ale-houses for pots of ale*; while at Mr. Ferrer's
house at Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire the
K^diers ' broke the organ in pieces, of which they
made a large fire, and at it roasted several of
Mr. Ferrer's sheep, which they had killed in his
grounds.*
Organs having been banished from the churches,
every efibrt was made to discourage their use
even in private houses. At a convocation in
Bridgwihter in 1655 the question was proposed
' whether a believing man or woman, b^ng head
of a fiunily, in this day of the gospell, may keepe
in his or her house an instrument of musicke
playing on them or admitting others to play
thereon V The answer was ' It is the duty of the
saintes to abetaine from all appearance of evil,
and not to make provision for the flesh to fulfill
y* lusts thereof.'
Among the organs that nevertheless escaped
destruction or removal were those of St. Paul's,
York, Durham, and Lincoln Cathedrals; St.
John*s College, Oxford ; Christ's College, Cam-
bridge, etc. Cromwell himself had some love of
music, and *made provision for the flesh' by
having the ' double organ,* which Evelyn heard
in the chapel of Ma^^en College, Oxford, in
July 1654, taken down and removed to Hampton
Court, where it was placed in the great gallery,
and firequently played upon, to Cromwell s great
content. In 1660 (the date of the Restoration)
it was returned to the college; ^6x6 io«. being
paid for its transference thither.
During the sixteen years that elapsed be-
tween the date of the ordinance already quoted
and that of the Restoration, most of &e Eng-
lish organ-bunders had been dispersed, and
compelled to work as ordinary joiners, carpenters,
etc. ; so that at the expiration of the period just
mentioned, there was, according to Sir John
Hawkins, ' scarce an oigan-maker that oould be
called a workman in the kinj2:dom,* excepting
the Dallams (three brothers) ; Thamar of Peter-
borough, concerning whom however nothing is
known : Preston of York, who repaired the
organ in Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1680 —
OBGAK.
and who, among other doings, according to
Renatus Harris (1686), spoilt one stop and
several pipes of another ; and Henry Looaemore
of Exeter, who built the organ in tne cathedral
of that dty. Inducements were therefore held
out to encourage artists frx>m the continent to
settle in this country; and among those who
responded to this invitation were a Grerman,
Bernhardt Schmidt, known as 'Father Smith,*
with his two nephews, Christian and Gerard ; and
Thomas Harris, an Englishman, who had taken
refuge in France during the troublous times,
together with his son Renatus, a young man of
great ingenui^ and spirit.
Smith and the Dallams had for some years the
chief business of the kingdom, the Hanises not
receiving an equal amount of enoouragement ; but
on the death of Robert and Ralph Dallams, in
1665 and 1672 respectively, and of the elder
Harris shortly after, Renatus Harris became a
formidable rival to &nith.
Smith seems to have settled at once in London,
was appointed ' organ-maker in ordinary * to King
Charles II, and put into possession of ftpcu^
ments in Whitehall, called in an old plan <a the
palace *The Organ-builder's Workhouse.' The
Harrises appear to have taken up their abode at
'Old Sarum,' but on the death of the &ther,
Renatus removed to the metropolis.
In order to follow the narrative of the sue*
cessive improvements that were effected in
organ-building in England, it is necessary to
bear in mind that the instruments made in this
country previous to the civil wan consisted of
nothing oevond Flue-stops of the Foundation
species with the exception of the Twelfth; —
no Mixtures, Reeds, nor Doubles, and no Pedals.
To illustrate the gradual progress from this
starting ground, a description will now be given
of a series of representative organs, the ac-
counts of which are derived from sources not
now generally accessible, including notices of
many historical instruments which, since the
time of their original construction, have either
been much altered or removed altogether,
1660. Banquding Boom, WkitehaU.
Bernhabd Schmidt (Fathkb Smith).
Compound and Flue stops, and Echo.
Smith, immediately on his arrival, was oom«
missioned to build an organ for the Banqueting
Room, Whitehall, not for the Chapel Royal,
Whitehall, as is generally stated. The Chi^tel
Royal, where Pepys attended on July 8, 1660,
and ' heard the organs for the first time in his
life,' stood east of the present chapel, and was
destroyed ' by that dismal fire on Jan^ 4^, 1697.*
The Banqueting Room was not used as a Chapel
Royal until 1715.
From the haste with which Smith's first English
organ was put together, it did not in some respects
quite come up to all expectations ; but it never-
theless contamed a sufficient number of novelties
beyond the contents of the old English spedfica-
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ORGAN.
tioBB, In the shmpe of Gonqpoimd, Flate, and Reed
stops, and the * Bodio,* to cause it to ereate a
most fikTourable impression on its hetrera.
Smith adopted the compass of manual down*
wards reachmg to 6G, with *long octaves,*
withont the GG|; he placed the GO open
diapason pipe in the centre of one of the inner
towers of the case, and the AA in the middle
of the other inner tower ; the handsome case,
which still remains, having been constmcted
with four circular towers, with a double tier of
pipes in each of the intermediate flats. He also
carried his 'Eccho' to fiddle G, though the shorter
lange^ to middle G, afterwards became the usual
compass. As the 'Swell and Echo Organ' is
noticed under its separate head, no more need
be said respecting it in this place.
It may be mentioned here that * Hol-flute was
the name which Father Smith usually attached
to a metal Stopped Diapason with chimneys;
' Nason * he applied to a stopped wood Flute of
octave pitch ; and 'Block-flute* to a metal Flute
of super-octave pitch, consisting of pipes. several
scales larger than those of the Open Diapason.
mtGAN.
001
OeiatOmajt. 10 •tops.
Pipe*
Flpei
1. Open DtapMon . . sa
7. BlockFlatflL metal to
middle Of . .
1 HoUuto . . . flS
24
S.Priudptf ... 05
ISO
4.auon .... 66
9. Cornet, to middle 0. do
n
SbTwemb ,...<»
10. Trampel . , .
(9
cnfiasuth . . . es
eu
OBonOBeAV. Sitopt.
63
12.Pitodp»l '. . . 68 |ia.VwwHaiMM . ,
8B
11 flirty nood. to middle 0 96
m
EOCBO OMAN. 4 ttOpS.
11 Open BtapMoo . . » U. Comet, trukt. (IS* TT) BB
n.Trindptl ...» ifcTrompel . « . »
I Totftl' 1008
Oompui, Onat and Choir. 60. withont GOf to 0 Inalt, 68 notes.
Bocfao. riddle 0 to 0 In alt. 2» notes.
It is not quite certain to what pitch this
first organ of Smith's was tnned« though it is sup-
posed to have been to hie high one. He made use
of several different pitches. His highest, arifdng
from placing a pipe of one "Kwglinli foot in speaking
length on the A key, he used at Durham Cathe-
dnl. It must have been nearly identical with
that afterwards adopted at New College, and men-
tioned below. His next, resulting from placing a
similar pipe on the Bb key, he used for Hampton
Court Chapel; which pitch is said to be that now
oommonly used by all English organ-builders.' The
pitch a semitone lower than the last, produced by
facing the i-ft. pipe on Bt], was used by Renatus
Harris towards the latter part of the 1 7th century.
It was Handel's pitch, and that of the organ-
builders generally of the i8th and early part of
the 19th centuries, as well as of the Philharmonic
Society at the time of its establishment (181 3),
The lowest pitch of all, arising from placii
the I -ft. pipe on the C key, was used by Smii
at Trinity College, Cambridge. These variations
were first clearly pointed out by Mr. Alexander
ElUs in his 'History of Musical Pitch, i88o.*
1 As to pitch, a pipe or thto length woold be ahont mldnay betmsa
the Bb and BQ pipes of the Temple organ.
x<S6i (about). 8t. George's Chapd, WincUor,
Ralph Dallam.
Divided stops on shifting movements.
Soon after the Restoration, Ralph Dallam
built an organ for St. George's Chapel, Windsw,
containing the recently imported novelties of
Compound and Trumpet Stops (nos. 6 and 7,
below). It was a singfe-maoual organ only ; and
its specification, given below, is very interesting
as showing that means were taken even at that
earlv time to compensate, as fiur as might be, for
the lack of a sec(md manual, by the t^option of
mechanical arrangements for obtaining variety of
effect frt)m a limitod number of registers governed
by a single set of kevs. Thus there were two
'shifting movements, or pedals, one of which
reduced the ' Full Organ ' to the Diapasons and
Principal, and the other to the Diapasons alone.
Thus two reductions of tone, in imitation of choir-
organ strength, could quickly be obtained; which,
in a place ISlo St. George*s Chi^l, where choral
service was celebrated, was verv necessary. Be-
sides this, the Compoimd and the Trumpet stOTS
were both made to draw in halves at middle C,
that is to say, the Treble portion could be used
without the Bass, so that a solo could be played
prominently with the right hand and a soft accom-
paniment with the left ; and the solo stop could
also }f suddenly shut off by the foot at pleasure.*
l\L^^ OisAT OtOAJT. » draw-stops.
pipes
1. Open Diapason to CO. 6. Fifteenth . . . B8
then Stopped and 0^ 6. Comet Treble* 8 ranks 78
tave pipes ... 64 I 8es4iilalteraBass.^8 ranks 78
S. Stopped Diapason . 08 ' 7. Trumpet Treble . . 88
8. Priucipal ... 62 I Trumpet Bass . . 98
4. Twelfth ; ... 08 I
Compass, GO. short octaves, to D In alt, 88 notes.
1 66 1. New College, Oxford, Robert Dalhav.
Organ tuned to lowered pitch.
Under the date • May 10, 1 66 1* Dr. Woodward,
Warden of New College, Oxford, made a note
that
Some diiooarBe was had with one Mr. Dalham, an
organ-maker, oonceming a fair organ to be made for onr
College GhapeL The stops of the intended organ were
shown unto mjself and the thirteen seniors, set down
in a paper ana named there by the organist of Christ
Chnr^ who woold hare had them half a note lower
than Cnrist Ghuich organ, but Mr. Dalham supposed
that a quarter of a note would be sufficient.
The original specification does not appear to
have been preserved, but the case was made &r
and received a pipe as large as the GKr of the
present day, which shows that the organ was of
sharp pitch FFF compass ; the compass remaining
the same after the repair of the organ by Green
in 1776. Woodwar<rs record of the discussion
as to the extent to which the organ should be
tuned below the Christ Church Organ, is very
valuable, as testifying not only to the prevalence
of the high pitch, but also to its inconvenience.
According to the * unequal * or mean-tone tem-
perament to which organs were then tuned, the
best keys were the major of C, D, F, G, and Bb,
and the minor of D, G, and A ; all of which
t The 'Oomet* qnlcklr became a flsTonrtte 'solo* stop, and con-
tinued to be so fornearly UO rears. ISee COIMBT. VOL L p. 40e.J
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897
OBGAir:
however 'v&r^ Bounobd nearly ft tol&e higher Chan
on a modem org%n, and henee the inconvenMnce^
for trfinsposition on an unequaUy temperea
organ was impracticable, on account of the * howl-
ing of the wolf/ as the defective tuning of the
other scales was termed ; and equal temperament
did not take its rise until 1688-93, and then only
In Germany; the orran in the Church of St.
Jacobi, Hamburff^ l^^ng apparently the earliest
one tuned according to that system.
1664-5. Wimhoume Minster, Robert Haywabd.
. Mutation stops (Noe. 6 and 7 below).
In 1663 (July 28) a rate was made at Wim-
houme for buying a new organ ; and in 1664
(^pt. 10) an arrangement was made with 'Robert
Hayward, of the Citty of Bath, org^n-master, to
erect and set up a payre of organs in the Church,*
for £180 ; which contract was completed in 1665,
Although this maker s name is not to be found
in the Ikt of native members of his craft contained
m the standard works on the subject, yet in ex-
cellence he was not a whit behind his countrymen
whose names have become better known«
The instrument originally consisted of ' Great
Organ with Choir Organ in firont.' The Stopped
Diapasons were of metal down to Tenor F, with
chimneys. Hayward anticipated Harris's type of
organ to a remarkable extent, as will be perceived
on comparing .the following list of stops with the
St. Sepulchre's specification given farther on. -
Obiat Oboah. 10 ftops.
FlpM Flpa
1. Open Diapuon. metal OS
7. Larlffot,metal . . tt
'"?sssi'r^"r «
metal ... 206
8. Prindp*!. inoUl . p flS
9. Coroet. to middle 0.
4. Twelllh. metal . . tt
mouDted. 6 ranks, metal 135
6. nneenth, metal . . 0»
10. Trumpet, metal . . 03
4. Tleroo. metal . . OB
• TOT
Oiom Oboak. In front 4 ctope.
U. Stopped UapaMn. metal la. Flute, wood, oloeed w. 09
treble . . . . 02 |14. nfleenth. metal . . OS
131. Principal, metal . . fiS | TvM 965
Oompau, Great and Otaolr. QQ, short ootares to D In alt. S2 notes.
. Neither Dallam's nor Hayward's organ con-
tained an Echo.
1665-6. Exeter Cathedral, John Loosehobk.
Double Diapason, Bass, etc
The organ in Exeter Cathedral, constructed
by John Loosemore, possessed a remarkable
feature in its Double open Diapason, which con-
tained the largest pipes ever made in this country.
The fourteen pipes of which this stop consisted,
were grouped in two separate sets of seven each,
against two of the columns of the great central
tower, and therefore at some distance from the
main body of the organ ; and were acted upon
by an additional set of pallets. The dimensions
of the largest pipe (GGG), were as follows: —
speaking part, long Vft. 6ln.lOontents of the speaking part.
NoM .... 4 0 Sbogs. 8gaL
ClrcumfiDreooe . . S U jWelgfat.300lbs.
Diameter ... 1 8 I
The large Exeter pipes, like those at Hal-
berstadt, did not pxtxluoe much effect when
tried by themselves, for an old writer, the Hon.
ORGAN.^
Roger North, says of them, 'I ooold not *be so-
happy to perceive that in the musick they
signified anything at all'; but (like thooe at
IBbklberstadt) they manifested th^ influenee
when used in combination ; for another writar,
at the commencement of the present century,
observes respecting them, 'no effect alone, bat
very fine with the Diapasons and PrincipaL'
The following was the scheme of the Exeter
Cathedral organ, in which we find the open
diapason duplicated: —
10 stops.
Flpes
QttBAT OBOAX,
Pipes
L Double Diapason 14
8. Open Diapsson . . 66
8. Open Diapason . . 66
4. Stopped Diapason . 66
& Principal ... 05
& Twelfth
7. Fifteenth ...»
8. Sesqaialtera. 6 ranks . STS
9. Cornet to middle C. do. 13S
laTrumpat ...»
Cioia OMAH. In front. S stops.
11. Stopped Diapason 65 1 14. Fifteenth . . . S
12. Principal . . . 65 16l Bassoon ... 65
18. Flute .... 80 I fatal imi
Compass. Great and Choir. GO. long octave^ no tt^t. to
Din alt. 56 notes.
1666-7. Worcester Cathedral. Thomas HABRra.
Chiefly Foundation-stops.
On July 5, 1666, Thomas Harris entered into
an agreement with the Dean and Chapter of
Worcester, according to which ' within eighteen
months he shall set up in the choyre a double
organ, consisting of great organ and dudre
organ.' The list of the stops for this instmmeni
has been preserved, and goes far to explain why
Harris dSd not for some time meet with quite as
much' encouragement as Smith. His specifica-
tion is made up simply of the same kind of stops
as were in vogue in England before the Commoi^
wealth, and- presents but slight indication of its
author's having profited by his sojourn abroad.
The specification was as foUows :—
OEBAT OlOAK. 9 stops.
1*9. t^ open Dlapasoos. ore. one Twelfth, of melaL
metal. 7 a 8. two Fifteenths, of meftaL
a (MieBeeordflr. ofmetaL 9, one place fiw another stopt.
4 * 8b two PrliMpUs. of metaL
Ghaieb Oboaw. Srtops.
la one Open Diapason, of wood. 1 12. one Principal, of metaL
having nine pipes towards IS. one Fifteenth, of metaL
the bases beginning In A re. 114. one Two-and-^Othtcs tbof caD
U. one Stopped Diapason, of wood. I ItX
The compass of the organ is not given, l>ut
some interesting particulars occur as to the
dimensions for two of the metal pipes. The two
great open diapasons, which were ' to be in sight,
east and west,' were to ocmtain ' a lo-ft. pipe,
as at Sarum and Gloucester, following the pro-
portion of 8 in. diameter in the lO-ft. pipe ; and
4 in. diameter in a pipe of 5ft.' '
Although he specified Uie dimensions of his
largest pipe, Harris mentioned nothing as to the
key upon which it was to act — ^whether F, Ff ,
or G ; aod the omission of this particular would
have left the questioo as to the downward com*
pass and consequent pitch of his organ in great
uncertainty, were there not means for obtaining
the information by deduction.
Thomas Tomkins. organist of Woroester Cathe-
dral, who published l^ 'Musioa Deo Sacra* in
> ' The Monastarr aod OaUiedral of Woicestet; tj John Soak^
]8B8L'p.48B.
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1668, appended to it a recommdndiktory Latin note
(of which Sir Frederick Ouseley has a rare copy),
which, when traiishited, runs thus: — *let the
(tenor) F pipe be 2 J feet or 30 inches in length.*
Such a pipe, as being one half and one quarter
the length of Harris's 5 ft. ancl 10 ft. pipes re-
spectively, would give their octave and super-
octave sounds. That Harris's 10 ft. pipe was
attached to the Ff key is not at all likely, since
Pf was never treated as a ' tonic * at that period.
That it communicated with tlie G key is equally
bevond belief, since that would have been identi-
cal with the pitch of the present day, which is
lower by a tone than it then was ; while F was
one of the tonics most frequently used by the then
leading church musicians. There can be little
doubt, therefore, that Harris's Worcester, Salis-
bury, and Gloucester Organs, were all * FFF or-
gans,* 'short octaves * perhaps, and 'sharp pitch'
by a whole tone, as already surmised.
The identity between Tomkins's and HarrisVF
pitch and a G pipe of thejpresent day, is conclu-
sively established thus. Tne fiddle G pipe in the
Manual Open Diapason at the Temple is exactly
of the spcHsified * 1 J feet or 30 inches in length,'
while for the GG metal on the Pedal (made by
Forster 9l Andrews) there is precisely a • 10 ft.
pipe,* which by a coincidence is also of the * pro-
portion of 8 in. diameter.'
The * proportion * for the Worcester organ, quoted
above, incidentally points to a second reason why
Thomas Harris was no match for Smith. To
emit an 'even quality and strength as the tones
ascend, the diameter or ' scale ' of a set of pipes
should not be reduced to one half until the interval
of a major tenth is arrived at : whereas Harris,
according to the above, made his pipe of half
width as soon as it became of half length, L e. at
the octave. His tone must therefore have been
either light and feeble, or thin and penetrating,
in the treble part.
1670 (about). 8L Sepulchre' t. Snow Hill,
Thomas and Kbkatds Haruis.
Mutation stops, Clarion, etc.
The instrument for this church conristed of
Great Organ with Choir Organ in front, and was
the first, so far as is known, that the Harrises
built for London. The scheme differs so widely
from that of the Worcester organ just noticed, as
to suggest that the younger hand of Renatus took
an important part in its preparation. It included,
however, rather an over-amount of 'chorus stops';
and an old notice states that the general effect
was fine with the reeds, but thin without them.
fiBKAT OBOAH. is ftOpC
Fip«t Pipes
L Open niapuon . * "
S. Stopped DUpMon
ai Prlnctptl . •
4. Twelfth . .
ORGAN.
598
»
7. lArigot ....
68
8S
IM
ta
9. limare,2r»alu . .
104
S9
la Cornel to mid. 0|.5do.
130
fiS
11. Trumpet . . .
oa
88
lS.ClArioa • . .
08
5. 1
6. TIeree
OsoiB Oboak tn front. 6 ttopt.
13. Stopped Dl^Mion . 02 ilC Fifteenth . ' • • 82
14. PrinclpBl « . . 02 ! 17. Vox Hunuuift . . 08
1& riuta . . . • 88 lis. Cremona , . . 02
Total 1170
Conpaai. 6t. and Chr. 00. abort octave*, to D In alt, 08 notM.
VOL. II. FT. 11.
Xteriatub Harris probably caiue up to Londdn
to erect the St. Sepulchre's organ, and took up
his abode there ; as we find him making sevend
organs for the metropolis and the provinces in th^
course of the next ten years. •
1683-4. The Temple Church.
Bernard Schmidt (Father Smith).
T^o quarter notes. Three manuals.
In September 1683 the Treasurers of the two
Hon. Societies of the Inner and Middle Temple
had some conversation with Smith respecting
th^ construction of an organ for their church.
Renatus Harris, who was then residing in * Wyne
OflRce Court, Fleet Street* and was therefore
close upon the spot, made interest with the So-
cieties, who were induced to arrange that if eadi
of these excdlent artists would set up an organ,
the Societies would retain that which, in the
greatest number of excellences, deserved the pre-
ference. This proposal was agreed to, and by May
1684. the two organs were erected in the church.
Smithes stood in Uie west-end gallery, and Harris's
on the south (Inner Temple) side of the Com-
mtmion Table. They were at first exhibited separ-
ately on appointed days, and then tried on the
same day ; and it was not until the end of i6Sj,
or beginilfaig of 1688, that the decision was given
in favour of Smith's instrument ; Harris's organ
being rejected without reflecting any loss of
reputation on its ingenious builder.^
Smith's, organ reached in the Bass to FFF ;
and from FF upwards it had two additional keys
or * quarter notes * in each octave, * which rarityes,*
according to an old book preserved in the library
of the Inner Temple, ' no other organ in England
hath ; and can play any tune, as for instance y*
tune o{y* iig*^ Psalm, (in E minor.) and severall
other services set by excellent musicians ; which
no other organ will do.* The order of the keys ran
thus : FFF, GG, A A, BBb, BBt then semitones
to gamut G, after which the two special quarter
tones in each octave ; the compass ending on C
in alt, and the number of keys on each manual
being .sixty-one."
The keys for the two extra notes (Ab and Dj)
were provided by those for G| and Eb being cut
across midway; the back halves, which acted on
the additional pipes, rising as much above the
front halves as the latter did above the long keys.
1 The hitereeting details of this mnslcal eonteit are not gtren here,
as th«j have been iMrinted separately kjr one of the Benchers of the
Middle Temple. Edmund Macrory. Esq., under the title 'A few notes
on the Temple Orfan.'
s Dr. Armes. the organist of Durham Cathedral, has brought under
the notice of the present writer a very curious discorery— namely , that
the oigan In that Church wa< originally prepared Ibr, and afterwards
received, quarter notes exactly similar to those at the Temple. The
original order for the organ, dated August 18, 1683. does not provide
for them, the number of pipes to each single stop being specifloalljr
given, 'fifty-four.' which would indicate the same compass as the
Temple organ, rit. FFF to 0 in alt. mOtomt the quarter tones : but
the sound-boards, ro'ler-tioards. etc.. were unquestionably made from
the first with two extra grooves, movements. et&. for each oeiavo
from FF upwards, and the large extra diapason pipes, as being re**
quired for the east and west fronts, were also inserted. The original
contract was completed by May 1. 1685: and Dr. Armes 1» of opinion
that the for. paid in 1691 to Smith by 'the Worshi. the Dean and
I Ohapter of Durham for work doiM at y* Organ' was for the insertloa
' of ttiequartcMoiM pipes.
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50i
OBGAK.
OBOAK«
Smith*! orgaa had ihrae complete manuab,
vifdch was alao a novelty. Two complete atope
were allotted to the upper set of keya, forming a
kind of Solo organ, with which the 'Ecohoa'
acted in combination.
The following is a oopj of the Schedule of
Father Smith*t oapm as delivered to the two
iocietiest signed, and dated June ai, 1688.
Omut Oboah. 10 stops.
. 81
L Frwtftnd oTMct
tie . .
% HoUlut« of Wood
And Mettle . 61
a.PrtndpaIlofllettle a
4.€MM:ktofWalDs-
oott ... a
"pe« Tone
"P* Tone
B. QuIntA of Mettle . 81 04
6L Super OctoTO . 61 08
7. SeMiulAltenor
Mettle . . US 08
eiMlztttieofMeMle OS 86
9i Cornette of Mettle 118 08
10. Trumpet of Mettle 81 18
CBOIB Oboak. 6 stops.
ll.aed*oktofW»lns-
oott . . .81 18
18. A SAdt of Mettle 61 08
IS. Holflote of Mettle 81 08
1^. Bplttsflute of Mettle 61 OS
10. AVtoUAndVioltn
of Mettle . . 81 18
16. Voke humAoe of
" . . 61 M
17. GedAcktofWood
18. Super Octeveo of
19. OedAckt of Wood
80. Flute of Mettle .
100B08. 7 stops,
ei 08 |21. SesqutAlteraof
Mettle . . lOR
81 OS 28L Comett of Mettle 87
» 83. Trumpett . . _»
38 I 401
TMAl 1715
Wltta 8 fteU setts of Kejs and qoArter notes to O in Alt. 81 notes.
1690. Magdalen College, Oxford,
BiNATUS Habbis.
Compare with specification on p. 589.
Not long after this date, in 1690, Benatus
Harris undertook to repair and improve the organ
erected by his grandfather in Magdalen College,
Oxford; and the conditions he named showed
how thoroughly such renovations were sometimes
undertaken in those days. He * covenanted* to
render all the mechanism ' strong, staunch, good,
and serviceable,' and to make the pipes 'bear
a good tone, strong;, clear, and sweet.' He
also undertook to ' alter the pitch of the said or*
gans*— which had been tuned to a very high one —
* half a note lower than they now are ' ; and to
make the ' two sets of keys fall as little as can be
to give the pipes their due tone ; the touch to be
ready, soft, and even under the finger.* Renatus
Harris therefore took honest thought of the in*
terettt of his patrons, the pleasure 01 the listeners,
the ease of the singers, and the comfort of the
player.* Among the new stops which he in-
troduced was a Cedime (Cithern), doubtless a
string- toned stop ; and he applied the terms ' Fur-
niture * and ' Cymbal * to the compound iitops for
the first time in England. Harris introduced no
1 Some ClAYler Tniitroinents. In the course of their numerous im-
provement*. hAve had their touch deepened end Hs resistAuce to the
n i^r incTBAsed ; so that the keys of a modem ' BroAdwood Grand ' h Ave
now A lUl of three^Hghths of An inch. And a r»>lBtAnce In the baas of four
oances. In some modem organs, with acarcely more mAnuAl stops
thsii the one under consideration, the fAll of the keys has been as
much as half an inch, and the resistance twice, or even thrice, as
great as tluU of a Grand Piano, particularly when the coupler has
been drawn. Suoh a touch inflicts great punishment on ladies.— the
c'ergyman's wife, or the squire's daughter.— who In country places or
remuto parishes are frequently the ready but not over^muscu'ar
asulstantt at the unaller services. A touch with a note here and
thnre half-an-ounce heavier than Its neighbours. Is eren mors em-
barraiislnif than a deep one.
Its amwidfld vpedficatian
SMopa.
6. Great TvoUth. of metal
8. Fifteenth, of metal . 00
7. Furniture of S ranks . KO
& Cymbal of 8 ranks • 10»
reediiiito this Ofgaa.
stood as follows : —
GKKATOftOAJI.
Pipes
I. OpeDDIapMoa.ofnfltel 60
8. Stopped Diapason, of
wood .... 60
a Prineipal.ofmettf . 00
i.Oodlm«. of metal . 80
CsoiB OaoAV. S stops.
9. Stopped Diapason 60 1 18. Nason. of nelal . •
la Principal, of metal . 60 IS. Fifteenth . . .
II. Flute, of metal . . fiO I TMsJ
Compass. 00. no oof. to D In alt. BO
1694-6. 8%, PauTa CatkedraL
BiBNARD Schmidt.
Manual to l6 feet C, and large < Chayre.*
Father Smith's success at the Temple doubtless
had much to do with his being invited to ertct
an organ in the Metropolitan Cathedral ; the
contract for which was dated and signed Dec. 19,
1694. The instrument was to consist of Great
and Chayre Organs, and Echoes, it was to be com-
pleted by Lady Day, 1696, and the price to be
£2000. The compass was to be the same as th&t
at the Temple, namely ' Double F £a ut to O sol
& in Alt inclusive,* 54 notes.- Smith's contract
was for the inside of the organ only; the case
being provided by Sir Christopher Wren. The list
of stops originally agreed upon was as follows : —
GKIAT OBOJ
1. Open Diapason.
2. Open Diapason.
4. Principal.
5. Holfleut.
6.GreatTw«mta.
ix. lastopi.
7. Fifteenth.
8. toiall Twelfth.
laMUtura.
11. Comet.
HTnimpeL
CsatisOm
is. stop DIapaaon.
KQulnUdenaDfatpaMMi.
lB.PrtndpaL
18. Holfleut.
17. Great TwellUi.
»AN. 9 stops.
18. Fifteenth.
l».Cymban.
9a Voice Hvmaiw.
SLCrumbonMi
I0HOB8 or balls stops :«.
S. DUpason. SB. Fifteenth.
SSL Principal. 28. Comet.
M. Nason. 97. Trumpet.
After the contract was signed, Smith extended
his design, and made the Great Manual to the com-
pass of i6 ft., instead of i a ft. only ; and he added
the six large extra notes— CCC, DDD, £££^,
EEEl;, FFFf, and GGf— at his own expense.
He had previously given Sir Christopher Wiieii
the dimensions of the case he would require for
his I a-ft. organ ; and he now desired these to be
increased, but this Sir Christopher refused, de-
claring that the building was already spoiled by
the 'confounded box of whistles.' Smith took
his revenge on Wren by letting the larger (^>eii
diapason pipes in the two side towers project
through the top of the case nearly a foot, which
vexed Sir Christopher exceedinglv, and compelled
him to add ornaments several teet in height to
hide the disfigurement. The Choir Organ case,
too, was made so small that it had no room for
the Quinta-dena, which therefore,, though made,
had to be left out.
1 700 (about). St. J6h»*s Chapel, Bedford Sow.
Rbnatus Habris.
Stops * by Communication.*
fienatus Harris was very partial to an in-
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OBGAN.
geniotn arrangemeni by which the lower portion
of m stop, or even the stop entire, could be made
to act on two different manuals 'by commu-
nication * as it was termed. He introduced this
device for the first time in his argtai at the
Temple, and afterwards in those at St. Andrew's
Hdbom, St. Andrew Undershaft, St. John's
Chapel, Bedford Row, eto. ; but the account of
the last-mentioned instrument is here selected for
illustration, as it presented some other noticeable
peouliaritiee. This organ had a ' Sesquialtera
Bass' of reeds, consisting of 1 7th, 19th, and asud,
up to middle B, planted on a small separate sound-
board ; each rauk being made to draw separately.
(See nos. 1 3, 14, and 1 5, below.) It was however
nearly always out of ^er, and produced at best
but an indifferent efifect. The iota ranks of the
Comet in the Echo (lath, 15th, Tierce, and Lari-
got) were made to draw separately ; an arrange-
ment evidently adopted rather for ostentation, as
tbese sets of little pipes could scarcely have been
required separately for any useful purpose.
Obbat Oboah. 16 itopt.
obgan;
S95
1. Op«n DUpMon .
S. Stopped OlapMon
5. Princlpftl
4. F1ut« . . .
6. Twelfth . . .
«. ritteeath • .
7. Tierce . • .
& Lulgot . . .
Flpet
' 68
88
BB
08
02
OS
a
SB
PlMi
9. Setqoteltem, 8 rftnks . m
10. CornattoiiiM.O|.6miksiao
IL Trompet ... 08
ISi CUrton . , , • 08
In
IS. Tieroe .
14.XArUbt ; .
1& Twenty tecond
CBom Obaak. 2 renl itopt : 4 borrowed.
«. Open DUpMon Borrowed by
6w Biopped Dl** I communlea-
puon >tfon from the
«. PrfDCipnl J Great Organ.
<i.FIm«
SOBO.
18. Open niapaaon . . 87
lA. Stopped Diapason . 87
9& Frtndpal ... 87
21. Twelfth . . . . S7
88. Fifteenth ... 87
16. BaMoon
17. (
10 stops.
8S. Tieroe «
84. Larlfot ,
8& Trumpet
88. Hautboy
87. Vox ~
3B
SB
086
08
f7
27
27
87
27
1060
Oompan. Grt. and Ohr. GO. short oetaTes. to D In alt. 08 notes.
Kcho. mddle C to D In alt. 27 notes.
The above organ was standing, a few yeara
ago, in a church at Blackheath.
1703. St. S{moar\ Souihwark.
Abbaham Jobdak, Sen.
Double Diapason and Large Choir.
This organ is said to have been built by ' one
Jordan, a distiller, who,' as Sir John Hawkins
tdla us in his History of Music, 'had never been
instructed in the business, but had a mechanical
turn, and was an ingenious man, and who, about
the year 1700, betook himself to the making of
oigans, and succeeded beyond expectation.' He
certainly built several excellent and substantial
instruments. The one under notice had a i6-ffc.
octave of metal pipes acting on the Great Organ
keys from tenor C down to CC. These litfge
pipes originally stood in the front of the case,
where thev made a very imposing appearance,
as their full length was presented to view, with-
out nearly a yard of the upper part being hidden
behind the case, as at St. Paul's. They however
were dismounted many years ago, and put out of
sight-, and the instrument was enclosed in a case
of inferior dimensions, l^is organ doubUess had
an Echo; but no account of it hais been preserved.
Obkat Ob«ah. is stops.
Pipes Pfpea
1. Double Open Diapason.
7. Twelfth ....
64
GCO to CO. no coot
18
8. Fifteenth . . .
64
64
816
S. Open Diapason .
64
1& Furniture. 8 ranks .
108
4. Stopped Diapason .
64
U. Comet. 6 ranks . .
146
5. Principal . . .
64
n. Trumpet . . .
64
«. Flute ....
64
18. Clarion . . .
64
OBOiiOMAK. Tstopa.
ion
14. Open Diapason, wood
64
l&Fineenth . . ,
64
64
181 Mixture. 3 ranks. .
168
16. Principal . • ,
64
80. Vox Humana . .
64
17. note ....
64
1607
Oompaas, QG. short oetares, uptoE tn alt, 14 notes.
1 710. ScUi^ry Cathedral, Bbkatxts Habbis.
Four manuals.
In the year 1710 Renatus Harris erected in
Salisbury Cathedral, in place of the instrument
put up by his &ther, an organ possessing four
manuals (for the first time in En^and) and fifty
stops, including ' eleven stops of Echos,' and on
which 'may be more varietys exprees*d, than by
all y* organs in England, were thdr several excel-
lencies united.* Such was the glowing account
given of the oapabilitiee of Uiis new organ, on the
engraving of its 'East Front.* The instrument,
however, presented little more than an amplifi*
cation of the peculiarities exhibited in the St.
John's Chapel organ abeady noticed. The extra
department consisted of acompleto borrowed organ
of 13 stops derived from the Great organ. The
Choir organ had its own real stops ; and the ' 1 1
Stops of Echos* v^ere to a great extent made up of
the single ranks of the ordinary Comet. There
was a ' Drum Pedal, CC,* the ' roll ' of which was
caused by the addition of a second pipe sounding
a semitone below the first pipe, with which it
caused a rapid beat. Smith bad previouslyput
' a Trimeloe ' into his or^m at St. Mary-at-Uill,
and ' a Drum,' sounding D, into that at St. Nicho-
las, Depiford.
Ureal stops.
1. Open Diapason ,
8. Open Dlapanon .
8. Stopped Diapason
4. Principal
6. Flute .
6. Twelfth .
7. Fifteenth
8. Tierce .
F1B8T Gbsat Oboak.
Pipes
60
O.Lari«oC . . .
la Besqulaltera. 4 ranks
11. Comet. 6 ranks
12. Trumpet
15. Clarion . .
14. Cromhom .
16. Vox I
a. Open Diapason
, 6. Stopped Diapason
0. Principal
d. Flute . . ,
e. Twelfth . •
/. Fifteenth .
g. Tierce • •
Sboond Quut Oboax. is horrowed stops.
r . 00
> . 00
Cboib Oroait.
h.Lari«ot
i. Seiquialtera .
i. Trumpet
h. Clarion . .
L Oromhom <
M. Voxl
Id. Open Diapason, to Gamut 48
18. Principal ... 80
10. Flute .... 60
80. Twelfth .
31. Fifteetith
22. Bassoon •
28. Open Diapason . . 86
24. Stopped Diapason . 85
25. Principal ... 26
2S. Flute .... 26
27. Twelfth .... 26
28. Fifteenth ... 25
Compass. Ot. and Chr. GO. short 8tc«, to C In alt. 60 n
Echo, middle C to C in alt, 95 notes.
11 stops.
29. Tieroe • •
90. Larigot . .
51. Trumpet
52. Vox Humana
83. Cromhom .
Pipes
60
200
183
flO
60
60
JO
742
00
00
00
00
00
00
60
60
JO
S48
8S
85
26
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591S
OEGAIC
J 71 2. Si, Magntu, London Bridge. JotDAs',
The firat Swell.
In 1 71 a the JorcUms (Abraham, sen. and jon.)
built an eigan for the church at the opposite end
of London Bridge to St. Saviour^s, namely St>
MagnoB, which deserves special notice as being
the first instrument that contained a Swell. This
organ also had four sets of kejrs,- the fourth no
doubt being a counterpart of the third (Echo) but
' adap|;ed.to the act of emitting sounds by swelling
the notes/ so that passages played with expression
could be contrasted with thos^ played without.
A list of the stops in the Swdl has not been
preserved ; but we know from those subsequently
made, that its oompass and capacity must have
been very limited, though sufficient to illustrate
th.e importanpe of the improvement.
1 7 1 6. St. ChacCs, Shrewsbury.
Thomas Sohwabbbook.
Swell and Choir on one Manual.
Four years after the invention of the Swell,
in 1 71 6, Tliomas Schwarbrook adopted a device in
his organ at St. Gbad*s, Shrewsbury, which after-
wards became a very favourite one with the
builders of the last century, namely, that of at-
taching to the choir manual a few treble stops
enclosed in a swell-box. This, in a small way,
foreshadowed the combination * swell to choir*
which remains a frequent and favourite one to
this day. The Echo organ contained a ' Flageolet/
the eariiest example that we have met with.
OuuT Oboax. is itopc
1. open PtopMon. 8. Lester Tierce (19).
5. Stopped DUpawm. 9. Cornet, treble,
a Prlndpftl. 10. BeKuUlterft, btM.
4. Ocure to middle 0. U. Foumltore.
6. Twelfth. 18. Trumpet.
6. nfteenth. IS. Clarion.
7. Tleroe(17).
Cboib Oboav. 6 stope.
14. Open Dtftpuon. to middle 0. 1 17. Flate, to middle 0.
15. Stopped DlApMon. 18. Tlfteenth.
IS. Frincipel. 1 19. Tmmpet. to middle 0.
Nos. 14 and 19 were enoloted m b BweU, and ttie Imz wm opened by
BpedaL
JEOSO. 7Btopf. '
SO. Open DIapMon. 94. Twelfth.
91. Stopped DIapMon. 9&. Fifteenth.
S2. Principal. . 96. Trumpet..
2S.naceolal.
OoapMi^ et. and Ohr. GO, short Svei, to D-ln alt. 08not«i.
Xcho. middle 0 to D In alt. 97 notee.
Pnim pedal, sounding G and Ff-
Schwarbrook*s masterpiece was at St. Michael's,
Coventry, It originally contained a Harp, Lute,
and Dulcimer ; but the strings and action were
so liable to set out of order that they were re-
moved in 1765.
1733-4. St, DionU Baekchureh*
llENATUs Harris, Jun.
Many Beed Stops.
This admirable organ, made by one of the
fourth generation of Harrises, who died young,
was remarkable for the number and excellence
of its reed-stops, as well as for the general good-
ness of its Flue-work. [See Fluewobk.] This
OEGAIT,^
organ had sevehd stops *by oommnnicatiQii,*
either wholly or partially, and from different
notes. The introduction of the GGf was an
unusual feature. It appears to have been the
earliest (Hgan to contain a 'French Ham * stop.
"Tenor D ' was a peculiar note for it to be ter-
minated upon ; but it nevertheless remained the
standard note for special stops for many years.
The Swell had no separate Principid. Where this
was the case, the Principal was included in the
Comet.
Obbat Omajt. is itope.
9. Comet to mid. 0.5 ranks 195
10. Trumpet ... 56
11. French Horn to tflDor D S7
12. Clarion ^ . . . »
18. Cremona, from Choir
Ornan. by oommual-
. • . O
CHOUl OBOAir. 7 s
14. Open Diapason to mid- 17. Flute
9S
86
as
L Open Diapason . .
Flpes
8. Stopped Diapason .
M
S. Principal . . .
M
4. Twelfth ....
56
6. Fifteenth . . .
66
6. Tierce ....
86
7. Larigot ....
06
224
18.1
19. Oremona .
90. Bassoon . .
21. Vox Humana
91. Clarton. from Qreat Or-
hj «^""^"* i!in*iT%***w> 00
lft> Stopped Diapason to ga-
mut O, by communi-
cation below . . 44
16.Pilndpal ... 86 _
40
SwBU. Oboak. 7 stops.
SS. Open J)iapason . . 89 1 27. Clarltm . • • • S
». Stopped Diapason . 39 i 28. Cremtoa ... 89
95. Comet, 4 ranks . . 128 99. VozHumlma . . SI
98. Tnmf pet . • • 88 ( ap
Total un
Compass. Gt. and Chr. 00 with GO t to D in alt, OB nolea.
8«eU. Fiddle a to D In alt. SI notes.
ipS, St, Mary Beddiff, BristoL
First Octave Coupler.
In 1736 John Harris and John Byfield, sen.
erected a finb and imposing^looking organ for the
church of St. Mary Kedcliff. Bristol, which had
a '16 ft. topeaking front.' Thd cOmpaas of this
instmment was in some respects unusually com-
plete, the Great Orsan descending to COC, in-
cluding CCCf, and the Choir Organ going down
to 6G with QG| ; the Swell consisted of the
unusual number of nine stops. Four of the Stops
in the Gi^eat Organ descended to GG only; and
one of the open Diapasons had stopped -pipes to
the last four notes. There was ' a spring of com-
munication' attached to the Great Organ, by
which CC was made to act on the CCC key, ai^
so on throughout the compass. The BieddiflT
organ therefore contained the first * octave coupler*
that was ever made in England ; in fitct, the first
coupler of any kind with which any cogan in this
country was provided. Some old printed accounts
of this (Hgan state that the Swell originally went
to tenor C, with the lower notes of the reeds very
fine ; and that it was afterwards shortened to the
fiddle G compass ; but Mr.Vowles, oigan-builder
of Bristol, who a few years ago reconstructed the
organ, and had all its original mechanism imder
his eye, assures the present writer that the state-
ment was erroneous, and probably took its rise
from the circumstance that the key-maker, doubt-
less by mistake, made the Swell Manual down
to tenor C, and that the seven extra keys were
therefore allowed to remain tm ' dummies*'
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OEGAN.
jOEGAIT.
5d7
6K1AT OS«AK.
. . . . ^Vt*
1. Op«n StepSMO . 68
S. 0|MO DIapMon. BMtal
to KKE ; stopped
pipes below . • 6S
S. Stopped Otapa^on • A
4. Pritoelp*] r->- «..
ft.TwUfUi.toQO . . M
' Upm '
6. Finemth. to GO . . 66
7. Tlaroe. to GO . • 06
8. SeeqnUltenk Snnks,
to GO . . r . . S80
9. CorDet.toinld.0,Si1n. US
3D. TrtmpM ... 65
U. OlttioD . . . * 6S
OBon ouAjr. 6 flopt;
n. stopped DiapMon 66 ] 16. Block flttte ... 66
1& Frindpal ... 66 16. 8eM]iilalt«a. 8 raaln . 168
14. Flute .... 66 117. .~
Swsu. OUAK. 9 stops.
18. Open DfepMOD . 88 iSS. Haotbojr • • . 88
la Stopped DIapMon . 88 94. Trump^ • • • 88
50. Piinolpal . . . 82 9^ Cromoiia ... 8^
51. Plate .... 83 98. Vox Human* • • _aa
22. Comet, 8 ranks . . 96 Total 1781
CoMpais. Gnat Organ. 000 with 000 { to D In alt; 68 notes.
Choir do. GO with GO ft to Din alt. 66 notes.
BweD do. Fiddle O to Din alt. . 88notes.
FonrBdlows.
1730. Chritt ChttreK SpUalfiddt,
BiCHABD BbIDOS.
Largest Organ in England.
In 1 730, Bichard Bridge, then a yoiulg man,
made himself &voarably kno¥m by the constmc-
tion of a fine oigsn for Christ Gburtih, Spitalfields,
which was at the time the largest in England.
Like the St. Dionis organ, it contained more than
the average number of excellent reed-fitops. The
second Open Diapason had, instead of ofi^n pipes
m the lowest octave, stopped pipeff and 'helpers/
as they used to be termed.
OKtATOlOAN. IBstOpi.
Pipes
t\xm
86
& TIeroe • • • 4
66
1. open Dtapason to ga-
9. Larigot ....
66
mot 0. then Stopped
880
and Principal pipes.
66
11. Furniture. S ranks
168
8. Stopped Diapason
66
12. OomettomkLOlLerks.
180
4.Prineip*l . . .
66
18. Trumpet . . .
86
5. Principal . . .
66
14. Trumpet • , .
66
6. Tweiab . * . .
66
IS. Clarion ....
66
T.Flfleentlr • . .
66
16. Bassoon ....
66
Obow Oma
ir. 9 stops.
1818
66
22. Ciemona • •
66
18. Principal . . .
66
28. Vox Humana . .
66
19. Time ....
66
M. French Horn to tenor D
87
90i Fifteenth . . .
66
2S. Hautboy to tenor D .
87
SL]llxtttre,8ranka . .
168
586
fftrsLLOto
KK. 8 stops;
«. Open Dtepasott . .
88
81. IVumpet • . .
88
27. Stopped Diapason .
88
82. Hautboy . . .
82
98. Principal . . .
82
88. Clarion • . . .
88
S».Flate ....
82
S62
80.ConMt.8ranks • .
86
Total
2908
Compass, Great and Ofaolr. GG. long oetavei, without GO ft , to
Din alt; 66 notes.
twdl,flddIeOtfrDliialt; 88notec Dmm pedal on 0 ; 2 pipes.
1749. Foundling HofpitaL Fabksb.
Four quarter tones.
The organ built by Parker in 1749 ^^^ ^^
chapel of the Foundling Hospital was specially
remieffkable for having four quarter notes in each
octave, or, in the words of a writer in the 'Euro*
penn Magnrine ' for February 1799, 'four demi-
tonee, and other niceties not occurring in other
organs.' At the Temple there were two, Df and
Ab. At the Foundling there were in addition,
AS and Db. These supplementary notes were not
furnished with extra keys, but were controlled by
certain mechanism whereby they could be $ub'
itihOed for four of those ordinarily in connection
with the short keys. The external mechanism
for this consisted of six levers, two for each
manual, placed over the draw-stops on each side,
moving m as many horizontal slots, and each
havinff three places of rest. When the levers
stood m the centre, the I a sounds werO those of
the usual unequal temperament. If a left-hand
lever were pushed full to the left, Eb was changed
into D| ; and if a right-hand lever were pushed
fiill to the riffht, Bb was changed to A|. If how*
ever a right-hand lever were put full to the left,
Gr| was changed into Ab ; and if a left-hand lever
were put full to the right, Of becameDb. There
w;ere thus two levers belonging to each of the
three manuals.
tiandel conducted the music at the perform-
ance given on the occasion of the opening of this
organ in 1749.
L Doubfo^topped m^ia-
son. all through •
2. Open Dlapasoa • •
8. Open Diapason . •
4. Stopped Dl^iasoh •
& Principal . . .
6.Prlndpal . . .
GuuT okoAir. IS itopi.
Pipes FlpM
7. Flute • • • • 76
78* 8. Twelllll .... 76
76 9. Fifteenth ... 76
76 la Block-flute ... 76
76 U. Sesqulalten. 8 ranks . 228
76 12. Trumpet . • . _76
78 1064
OBoit OtaAK. 6 stops.
]8.1>uldanato0C * . 71 116. Fifteenth ... 76
14. Stopped Diapason . 76 17. Vox Humana • . 76
16. Principal ... 76 | ^
SWBLL OtOAlC 4 stops.
18. Open Diapason • . 46 ) 90. Trumpet . . • 46
la Stopped Diapason . 46 1 2L Cramon^ . . . 46
Total 1628
Compass, Gt. and Or. OG. long 8?es. to X hi alt. 76 notes.
Swell. Fiddle O to X In alt, 46 notes.
1754. 8t MargareeB, Lynn Begis.
John Sohnbtzler.
The first Dulciana.
Schnetzler is the fourth Gorman organ-builder
whom we have met with in Englimd. More
than one incident of interest is connected with
the erection of the organ built by him for the
palish church of Lynn Regis. There was an old
organ in the building that was so much decayed
that portions of some of the pipes crumbled to
dust when they were taken out to be cleaned.
The churchwaraens nevertheless wished to retain
this organ if possible, and asked Schnetzler to
state what it was worth, and aiao what would
be the expense of repairing it. He said the
organ as it stood was worth a hundred pounds ;
and if they would lay out another hundi^sd upon
it, it would then perhaps be worth fifty 1 This
answer settled the matter, and the new orean
was ordered. The Lynn organ is the first that
contained a Dulciana^ of which it ha^ two, one
in the Choir and one in the Swell. It also had
a Bourdon in the Great Organ to CO, of metal
tiiroughout, except the lowest two notes, which
were of wood. The t^ree manuals were com-
plete, Knd a Bass to the Swell was obtained
firom three of the Choir Organ Stops, by three
adHitioniU sliders and as many separate draw-
stope.
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598
■ GftlAT Obaax. 12 itopi.
Plpet
Pip«
1. Bonrdon. to 00 . . SS
T.Tleree . . . .
St
8. Open Diapuon . • 07
9S8
9. Fumltora. 8 raniu
m
4. Principal ... 67
10. Comet to mid. C. 5 ranks
145
A. Twelfth . . . . W
IL Trumpet . . .
67
6.Flfteeatb ... 07
IS. Clarion ....
67
loa
OBOttOUAV. TltopC
IS. Duldao*. of OMtal
16. Flute ....
67
throughout . • 87
17. Fffteenth . . .
67
18. Bassoon up to flddleO
9S
1& Principal ... 87
19. Vox Humana . .
67
878
8WBLL. 8 Stops, and 8 bommad Bass stops.
90i Open Dlapaiion . . 88 SB. Trumpet ... 118
a. Stopped Diapason . 88 , 27. Hautboj . . . 38
SlDolclana ... 88 , a. Stopped Bass 1 ^
•.German Flute, to mid. 0 » i ». I>ulclanaBasB>fromCbolr.
24. Comet. 4 ranks . . 144 «. Flute Bass J
tt. French Hora . . 88 | Total IMO
Compass. Qt. and Chr. GO. long 8res. no QOf. to S hi alt. 67 notes.
Swell. Ttaor F to E hi att. 88 notes.
1789. Oreenwick HoipiUd, Samuel Gbbsn.
Swell to FF.
In the organ made for the chapel of the Royal
Hospital at Greenwich, Green extended the com-
pass of the Swell down to FF, a moat important
improvement; and included therein not only a
Daldana but also its octave, the Duloet or Dul-
ciana Principal. The disposition of this oi^n
stood as follows : —
Obsat OaaAM. 11 stops.
L Open Diapason .
."r
7. Fifteeoth . . .
8. Open Diapason .
00
8. Sesqutaltera. 8 ranks .
177
8. Stopped Diapason
4. Principal . .
. 09
. 09
9. Mixture. 2 ranks . .
la Comet to mid. 0.4 ranks
118
116
^ Flute . . .
. »
U. Trumpet . . .
50
6. Twelfth . • .
W
888
CBOU OBOi
LH. 6 stops.
12. Stopped Dlapa«n
. 89
18. Fifteenth . . .
80
18. Principal . .
. w
16. Bassoon . • • .
69
14. Flute . . .
fi»
996
8WBU.0B0i
ix. 8 stops.
17. Open Diapason .
48
S2. Comet. 8 ranks . .
144
18. Stopped IHapasoo
. 48
23. Trumpet
48
19. Dulclana . .
. 48
24. Hautboy . . .
48
20. Principal . .
. 48
4»>
• 48
Total
16B8
1790. St. George 9 Chapel, Windsor,
Samuel Grbbn.
Great Organ in general SwelL
In the organ built for the Chapel Royal at
Windsor in tie following year. Green further
extended the effect of the ' crescendo ' and * di
minuendo' by enclosing the entire Great Orgai\
in a large general Swell. The upper manual
organ thus became ' a Swell within a Swell.' The
great front pipes, east and west, were therefore
all * mutes,* but were replaced by speaking pipes
when the general swell was taJcen away some
years ago by Gray. The compass of the Great
and Choir Oirgans was carried down to FFF,
12 ft., as in Greenes organ at Greenwich, and also
in those which he restored at Magdalen College,
Oxford, and York Minster.
GSRAT OROAN. U StOpS.
Pipes
Pipes
L Open Diapason .
. M
2. Open DUpasun .
80
8. Mixture. 2 ranks . . 118
8. Stopped Dlapawm
09
9. Comet to mid. 0.4 ranks 116
4. Principal . .
. BO
la Trumpet ... 89
S. Twelfth . . .
. 89
11. Small Trumpet (Clarion) fiO
& Fifteenth . •
69
883
OBGAK.
OBon OBoair. 6 stop*
U: Duldana, to FF . . 48 I !& Flute .
IS. Stopped Diapason . 69 16. Fifteenth
14. Principal . . . 89 | IT. 1
Swill Oboak. 8 stops.
18. Open Diapason .
. 36
191 Stopped Diapason
. 88
28. Cortiet, 8 ranks .
201 Dulciaria . .
. 96
94. TmmpA . .
91. Principal . .
. 88
28. Hautboj . .
TMal
Compass, Ot. and Chr. FFF. no FFF t. to E hi alt.
Swell. Tenor F. to S in aU; 98notM. .
1 790. Introduction of Pedals.
Althougti, as we have seen. Pedals were known
in Germany upwards of four hundred years ago,
yet they were not introduced into England nntil
nearly the close of the last century. Who €rit
made them, or which was the first organ to have
them, are matters of some doubt. The oi^^ans
in Westminster Abbey, the German Lutheran
Church in the Savoy, and St. Matthew's, Friday
Street, each claim me priority. The first oigmn
that is known for certain to have had them, was
that made in 1 790 by G. P. England, and erected
by him at St. James's, Clerkenwell, which in-
strument, according to the words of the original
specification, was * to have Pedals to play by the
feet.' These, like the early German specimenai,
were an octave only in compass, GG to Gamut G ;
and also, as at Halberstadt, etc., had no pipes
of their own, but only drew down the manual
ke3^. Before 1793 Avery put PedaU to the
Westminster Abbey organ, together with an
octave of Unison wood GG Pedal -pipes; and
from that date he frequently introduced both
into his own instruments. In 1 81 1 G. P. England
built an organ for Lancaster with 1^ octave of
Pedab, GKjr to Tenor C ; and two couplers. Great
and Choir to PedaL He also, like Avery, became
a strong advocate for separate pipes for &e pedali,
introducing them in 2803 into Us organ at New*
ark, which liad the FFF (la ft.) pipe.
After a time pipes of double size, speaking
down to GGG (aij^ feet length) were made, as by
Elliott & Hill at Westminster Abbey, etc. He-
sides the Unison and Double Pedal-pipe ranges,
a mongrel scale crept into use, wluch, though
most .defective, was for a few years the most
frequently followed. This consisted of an octave
of double pipes from CC down to CCC, and then
five unison pipes from BB down to GG. The five
pedal keys, B to G, at each extremity of the
pedal-board, were thus without any differenoe in
the pitch of their five sounds.
1809. Con^osition Pedals. J. C. Bishop.
In 1809 the late J. C. Bishop effected the im-
provement on the old Shifting movement which
afterwards became so generally known as the
Composition Pedals. [See vol. 1. p. 382 6.] An
important modification on his original mechanism
is now generally made, by a long arm of iron,
called a fan, extending borizontidly in front of
the vertical draw-rods, where by suitable me-
chanism it is made to wave up and down.
As the fsai moves it comes in contact with small
'blocks' of wood, by whidi it moves the rods;
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OEGAN.
mnd the improTement oooBists in the &oility with
which these bl(x:ks cftn be added to, or any of
them removed, and ao the ' composition * be al-
tered in a few minutes, if a change be desired.
1835. CoTicMssion Bellowi, J. C. Bishop.
These were first applied by Bishop, in 1825, to
the organ which he built in that year for the
Theatre Royal, Covent Garden. [See voL i. 216.]
1829. St, JavMs't, Bermondsey. J. C. Bishop.
Large GG Pedal Organ.
The most complete GG Pedal Organ that was
ever made, both as to compass and stops, was
the one erected by the late J. 0. Bishop in
St. James*s Church, Bermondsey, in 1829. It
had three stops of a range of two octaves each.
The following was the general specification of it : —
ORGAK.
599
1. Open DfApMon .
a. Open I>lA{Muon .
3. Stopped DlapMon
4. Prtnetp*! . .
Bl Twdfth . . .
OUAT Oboaw.
Pipes
. . »
lOsUqit.
& Fifteenth
7. SeequlAlten. 3 rtoln
8. Mixture. 2 ranks .
•. Trumpet . .
la Clarion . . •
Oboib Oboam. 8 stops.
IL Open IMnpuon . . W lA. Flute . . .
12. Duldana to gamut 0 . 47 16. Fifteenth
IS. Stopped DtnpMun . W 17. Cremona, treble I
U.Prlndpal ...» j 1& Baasoon. bass j
Swell Oboak. 8 stops.
It. Opea l>tapasim . . 47 A GomeC. fi ranks .
ao. Op^ Plapason . . 47 . 24. French Horn
XL Stopped Diapason . 47 25. Trumpet
SlPrlndpal ... 47 (95. Uaotboy
Pipes
60
177
118
»
JS
7«7
flO
BO
47
47
47
004
2B
2S
25
PB0AL Oboam . 8 Stops.
27. Dcable Pedal Pipes, down to GOO, 21 1 foet .
28. Unison Pedal Pipes, down to GO. lOji feet .
2a. Trombona. down to GO, lOj feet . . .
Compass. Gt. and Chr.GG. with GO t-toF fat alt. 00 notes. Swell,
Gamut O to F In alt. 47 notes ; Keys to GG acting on Choir Organ.
PMlal Organ. GO to fiddle 6, 2S notes.
Couplers, Swell to Great. Swell to Obolr. Choir to Great. Great
to Pedal. Choir to PedaU
Three Composition Pedals to Great, shifting to reduce Swell to
Diapason. Pedal to couple Swdl to Great.
There was a keyboard on the lefb-hand side
of the manuals, acting on the pedal organ ; and
the writer remembers seeing in print a copy of
Handers chorus, 'But the waters overwhelmed
their enemies,' arranged for three performers, —
a duet for the manuals, with the rolling bass p«rt
for a third player at the side keylxMird,. — pre-
pared expressly for and played at tlie opening of
this organ.
1832. The Pneumatic Lever, Babkeb.
In a laige organ with several pallets to a key,
and perhaps some stops on a heavy pressure of
wind, the touch becomes heavier than the most
muscular finger (or foot) can control without ex-
periencing great exhaustion.^ The number of
springs^ in the several soundboards to some ex-
tent bring back the resistance existing in the old
i6th-oentury spring-boxes, which resistance how-
ever can now no longer be overcome by brute
force, but must be controlled by the elastic ac-
tion from the knuckles or ankle. This power is
supplied by the pneumatic lever. The late Mr.
^ The organist at Haarlem strips like a Maoksmitb preparatory to
■J^wighls usual hour s perfotmance. and at the end oT tt retiras
*-*— Iwlthpenpirattoo.
Joseph Bboih, of Wakefield, was the first ovgan-
btulder to whom the idea seems to have occurred
of establishing pneumatic agency, and of thus
ingeniously turmng the ?nnd-power, fme of the
organist*s antagonists, into his assistant. It was
to some of the bass pipes of the oigan he built
for the church of Attercliffe, near Sheffield, in
the year 1827, that Mr. Booth first applied his
little invention. The lower notes of the wood
open diapason of the GG manual were placed on
a small separate soundboard, and to the pull-
down of each pallet he attached a small circular
bellows below. From the great organ sound-
board-groove a conveyance conducts wind into this
bellows, which, opening downwards, draws the
pallet with it. These small bellows Mr. Booth
used to call puff-valvee.
It was in 1832 that the late Mr. Barker first
thought of his invention that has since been
called the pneumatic lever. On the completion of
the organ m York Minster, the touch of which, in
consequence of the great size of the instrument,
was of course very heavy, he wrote to Dr. Camidge,
then the organist of Uie Cathedral, begging to
be allowed to attach one of his levers in a tem-
porary way to one of the heaviest notes of hb
organ. I>r. Camidge admitted that the touch of
his instrument was 'sufficient to paralyse the
efforts of most men'; but financial difficulties
stood in the way of the remedy being applied ;
and in 1837 he went to France to superintend
its introduction into the organ then bdng built
by the eminent builder Cavaill^-Coll for the royal
dhurch of St. Denis, near Paris. M. CavaiU^
had, among his other experiments, made Flue
and Reed pipes to produce harmonic tones by
means of wind of neavy pressure, but these
discoveries he had looked upon as practically
useless on account of their leading to the pro-
duction of a touch which no human muscles
could overcome. Mr. Barker's apparatus, which
simply overpowered the resistance that could not
be removed, was therefore an opportune present-
ation ; and M. Cavaill^ immecUately introduced
it, together with several Harmonic stops, into
the Ifurge organ he was then (1841) building for
the Abbey Church of St. Denis, near Paris.
In 1835 ^^- I>avid Hamilton, of Edinburgh,
made a pneumatic movement, which he applied
to the organ in St. John's Episcopal Church in
that city; and in 1839 a paper was read at a
meeting of the British Association at Birmingham
explanatory of a pneumatic lever which he then
exnibited.
The pneumatic lever consists of a bellows
shaped very like a small concnsston bellows, two
or three inches in width, and about ten inches in
length. The key of the clavier opens a small
circular valve beneath this, and compressed air
being thus admitted, the bellows rises, drawing
with it a tracker that communicates the motion
to the whole of the pallets and to such of the
coupling movements, etc., as may be 'drawn';
all of which immediately answer to the putting
down of the key. When the key is released the
valve that H*nHM the air is closed and atiother^
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*00
ORGAN.
OBOAl^.
opened, tbe bellows consequently dosing. TkQ
key is thus relieved from the oombined resist-
ance of the niiun pallets, coupling movementSi
and the heavy wind-pressure ; and the touch can
consequently be adjusted to any degree of Mastic
resistance pleasant to the perfcnrmer.
1834. York Minster, Elliott & Hill.
Radiating Pedal-board.
The organ in York Minster, which had been
twice enl^ed — about 1754, and again in 181 3
— was a thud time altered and considerably in-
creased in size ini8a3, by Ward of York ; who
among other things added a Pedal Organ of thir-
teen stops to FFF, containing two Double Diapa-
sons down to FFFF, 24 feet length, etc. The fire
of 1839 cleared all this awfty ; and Messrs. Elliott
&. Hill were then engaged to erect an entirely new
• organ, under the superintendence of the late Dr.
Camidge.
It had been found firom experience that the
vast area of York Minster required an immense
amount of organ tone to fill it adequately, and
with the view of supplying this. Dr. Camidge
seems to have selected as the foundation of his
plan, the type of a large ordinary Great Organ
of the perioa; of twelve stops, which he followed
almost litendly, and then had that disposition
inserted twice over. The compass of the Great
and Choir Manuals he extended downwards to
OCC, 16 feet, and upwards to C in altissimo ;
and the Pedal Organ he designed to include four
• Double ' Stops of 32 feet, and four * Unisons * of
16 feet. The great fWult in the scheme lay in
the entire omission from the Manuals of all sub-
octave Foundation-stops — i. e. stops sounding the
l6-feet tone on the 8-feet key — and consequently
also of all the Mutation-stops due to that sound.
In spite of the great aggregation of pipes, there-
fore, the numerous manusJ stops produced no
massiveness of effect, while as the Pedal had no
less than four ponderous sub -octave registers,^
and, with the manuals coupled, a total of over
forty stops, the only possible result from such an
arrangement was a ' top-and-bottoin* effect.
The original scheme of the organ — ^which un-
derwent thorough revision and improvement in
1859 — is given below. This oigan had a radi-
ating pedid-board. The organ erected in Mitcham
churoh in 1834, and originally made by Bruce of
Edinburgh, also had a radiating pedal-board, of
peculiar construction.
OBKAT OBOAir. M 8tAp«.
(Kut Boundboarda.)
1. Op«n Diapason .
2. Open Diapason .
S. Stopped DlApMoo
4. Prfndpal . . .
b. Principal
8. Principal, wood (Flut«)
7. Twelfth . . .
8. Fifteenth . . .
9. Se^qulaltera 7 ranks
10. Mixture ....
11. Trumpet
12. Trumpet . ,
Feet
16
16
16
8
(West sGondboards.)
IS. Open Diapason *
14. Open Diapason .
15. Stopped Diapason .
16. Principal . . .
17. Principal . . .
18. Principal, wood (Flute) 8
19. Twelfth ... Si
'JO. Fifteenth ... 4
21. Sesqulalteim. 7 ranks
22. Mixture . ...
as. Trumpet ... 16
24. Trumpet ... 16
Feet
16
16
16
8
8
CSomOiOAM. 9 stops.
SB. Op«n Diapason . . 16 iao.Prindptf
96. Open Diapason . . 16 (SI. Flute .
27. Dulciana ... 16 i!B. Fifteenth
28. Stopped Diapason 16 ! SS. Bassoon .
29. Bom Diapason . . 16 t
i
.' .
8
S
4
Swniit OBOAif . 12 stops.
94. Open Diapason . . 8
ST. Harmonica ... 8
88. Principal ... 4
40. Fifteenth . .
41. Besqulalter«.4r«nb
42. Horn . . .
48. Trumpet . .
44. Oboe . • .
4& Cremona . .
S
9
«
S
8
1 It was stated at the t'me this organ was made that the laivest
pedal-pipe would hold a glass of ale for ereijr man, woman, and child
then residing within the walls of the d^y of York.
FtDAt Oman. 9 stops.
46. Double open, wood . » 1 6L Open Diapason, metal K
47. Double open, metal . 82 89. Saobut (reed), wood . 92
48. Double stopped, wood 99 89. Trumpet, wood . . 16
49. Open Diapason, wood. 16 54. Trumpet, metal . . 8
fl(». Open Diapason, wood. 16 i
(Tompau. Qt. and Ohr. (}CC to G In altrao (6 oetaTes) : 7S notes.
Swi. CC to 0 In altmo. (0 octaves) : 61 notes. Pedal Organ. COC to
TMior 0 : 26 notes.
Manual and Pedal oonplen. Badlating Pedal-board.
Not long after the oompleti(m of the Yoric
organ the late Dr. (then Mr.). Gi^unUett made a
praiseworthy effort to introduce aome of the
leading features of the Continental prindple of
organ-Duilding into England ; and being heartily
seconded by the late Mr. William HiU^ his en-
deavours were attended with a considerable
amount of success. The 8-feet compass was
gradually accepted as the proper range for the
Manuals, although at times greatly opposed:
the sub-octave (i6 feet) manual stops, which had
been essayed successively by Parker, Schnetzler,
and Lincoln, at last obtained favourable reoogni-
tion, together with the Twelfth thereto, viz. the
Quint of $jr feet. Double manual 'reeds were
incorporated ; and the importance of and ne-
cessity for the independent Pedal Organ was
also demonstrated. The weak points were the
number of half and incomplete stops, which re-
tarded the process of quick registering ; and the
short range of the Pedal Organ, which, instead
of beingTlike the pedals themselves, upwards of
two octaves in compass, from COC, consisted of
a single octave only, which then repeated. This
defect — a continuation of the old * return pedal-
pipe* system — had to be remedied before a clear
and intelligible reading of Bach*s Fugles, or
any other essentially organ music, could be
given.
1840. Totim Ball, Birmingham,
Elliott & Hill.
' Borrowed* Solo Oigan.
The peculiarity in this oigan, independently
of its general excellence, consisted in its * Com-
bination or Solo Organ.' By an ingenious me-
chanical contrivance almost any stop or stops of
the swell or choir organs could be played on a
fourth manual, without interfering with their
arrangement, or their own separate keyboards.
The stops that could thus be used in combina-
tion were the following : —
* A double reed-stop (double bassoon, down to the DDD pipe)
formed a portion of the Great Organ of the Instrument erected b*
John Bjfleld, Jun.. In Obrlst Chordi Oatbedral. DubUu. in ITU.
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.t)RGAN.
OM 80U> XAMVAk
Trom Choir OrgM. ^^
FromSweD Organ.
F^et
1. Open IHapaaon . .
S. Stopped DiapMon .
8.1>ulctana . . .
S. Clarabella .
4. Flute ....
4. Principal . .
Bw Fifteenth . •
«. Cornopean • •
&Hom. . . ,
7. Cremona . • •
7. Hautbor • •
8. Bens.
8. Trumpet . •
9.Ckrlon . .
This was the first organ that had the * Great
Ophicleide/ or 'Tuba/ on a heavy wind.
184a. Wweuter Cathedral, Hill & Sovs.
Non-return Pedal Organ.
In 1842 Messrs. William Hill & Sons con-
strooted a new organ for the Choir of Worcester
Cathedral, in which the Pedal Oi^gan was made
of the same range aa the pedal keys ; and th&
Swell contained an ' Echo Comet,' then a com-
paratively new feature, and a development of
Green's 'Duldana Principal.' It also had a
sub-octave stop (Double Dulciana) of. the same
species. The following is the specification of the
organ just mentioned.
GUAT OMAjr. u ttopa.
Feet I Feet
1. Tenoroon Dfapaion . 18
8. Wald Ftola . • •
4
3. Bourdon to meet No. 1 1«
1 9. Twellth ....
9|
8. Open Diapason, front . 8
10. Fifteenth . . .
2
li
12. Mixture. 8 ranks . .
1
e. Quint .... &i
1& Doublette. 2 ranks .
2
7. Principal ... 4
14. Poafcune ....
8
CHOIB OBOAM.
15.l>nlelaaa ... 8
, 19. Stopped Flnta • •
4
16. Clarabella ... 8
' 20. Oboe Flute . . .
4
, 21. Fifteenth . • .
2
!«. Principal ... 4
1 & Cremona • • .
8
Swsu. Oroan. U ttopa.
SB. Flageolet . . .
S
21 Open Diapason . . 8
SO. Doublette.Sranki .
S
Vu Stopped Diapason . 8
81. Echo Dulciana Comet
9S. Dulciana ... 8
1 fi ranks..
»7. Principal ... 4
> 82. Oboe ... . .
8
38. Snabe Flute ... 4
S3. Cornopean . . •
8
FiDAL OBOAir. estops.
84. Open Diapason . . 16
Fifteenth ....
4
Sesqutaltera, B ranks
88.Priiidpal '. . . 8
Trombone ....
16
Compass. Gt. and Chr. 00 to F in alt. 64 notes. Sirdl. Tenor 0 to
F in sH. 42 notes. Pedal. GCC to Tenor B. 29 notes.
Couplers. Swell to Great SweU to Choir. Great to Pedal. Choir
to Pedal.
Five Composition Pedals.
1851. Exhibition Organ. M. Ddoboquet.
In the year 1851 the first great Industrial
Exhibition was held in London in Hyde Park.
On that occasion, among the numerous musical
instruments presented to public notice were two
foreign organs (Ducroquet and Schulze), which,
though moderate in size, presented several fea-
tures, in the form of stops and principles of con-
struction, that were then new to this country, and
many of which were afterwards gradually intro-
duced into the English system of organ-building.
To these reference must therefore here be made.
The scheme of Ducroquet's French organ stood
as follows : —
OBCATOBaAH. 10 stops.
Feet
Feet
1. Bourdon .
. . 16
6. Prestant ... 4
IHontre . .
. . 8
7. Pleln Jeu. 12, IMO, 28; 28 2)
. . 8
8. Bombarde ... 16
4.8allclonal .
. . 8
9. Trompette ... 8
&..Bottrdoa •
» • 8
10. Clalron . • « • 4
n. Fiate fOpen Diapason)
12. FIAte Harmoniqofe
18. Viola dl Oamb* .
14. Bourdon . .
.'ORGAIT.
Blorr OB SWBLL oboav. SstopB.'
Feet
10. Prestant
W. Trompette
17. Hautbois et
18. Cor Anglais
m
Feet
4
8
8
8
ffDAt OBOAK. 2 Stops.
19 FIftte (Open wood) . 10 1 20. Bombarde. (reed). . 1^
Oompass,0t.andftin.00 toC kialtmoHSlnotes. Pedal OCX) to
Tenor G. 2S notes.
Six Mechanical iMals : 1. Great to Pedal. 2. Great organ reeds on
or off. a. Entire Great organ on or off. 4. SweU to Great, unison.
6. Swell to Great, oeUte. Ok Swdl to Great, subK>cUre.
1 85 1. Exhibiiion Organ, M. Sohulze and Son.
The specifioatioo of Schulze's German Organ
was as follows : —
1. Bordon ....
2. Principal (wood bass)
8. Gamba, groored Into
No. 2 in the bus .
4.0edaet ....
ObbatOboaii. Sttope.
Feet
Feot
8. HohlflOte, grooved Into
No.41ntheba8s . 8
6. Octave .... 4
7. Mixture. 16. 19. 28^26. SB 2
8.Clarinette . . . t
Oboib Oboah. 6 stops.
12. Geigen Principal .
IS. LlebUch FMKe ,
9. LlebUch Berdon. to O. 16
10. Geigen Principal . . 8
U. LlebUch Gedact through-
out, and Flauto Traverse 8
Pboal Obaas. 2 real stop*.
«. Sub-bass borrowed 114. OctoTe-bass, open wood S
firom Gt. Bordun . 16 ll&Posaune. ... 16
(;ompass,Gt.aDdCr.,COtoFinalt,Mnotes. Pedal, (M30 to Tenor
D. 27 notes.
Couplers. (Tholr to Qreftt Unison, diolr to Great Bab-Oetare. Great
to Pedal.
I. In Ducroquet's oi^gan the Fliite-k-paviUon
(No. 3) was composed of cylindrical pipes with
a bell on the top, the tone of which stop was
very full and clear. The fliite Harmonique
(No. I a) was a stop which in the upper part
' overblew,' or souncled its octave, as in the real
flute, and was therefore composed of pipes of
double length, to render the pitch correct. It
produced a very effective imitation of an or-
chestral flute. The Cor Anghds (No. 18) was
a free ^ reed, and gave a very good imitation of
the instrument aftor which it was named. The
reed stops in this oigan were more numerous
than they would have been in an English in-
strument of the same size, besides being most
excellent. They numbered seven in a specifica-
tion of twenty stops, and included two of 16
feet. The three reeds of the great organ were
placed on a separate soundboard, and were
supplied with wind at a higher pressure than
that used for the Flue>work. They were there-
fore very powerAil and effective, and imparted
a very brilliant effect to the full organ. Of the
six mechanical pedaU, the titles of most of which
indicate their purpose, one (No. 3) threw the
Great Organ on or off its keys, so that when the
Swell was coupled to the Great Manual, a sud-
den forte or piano could be obtained. Its effect
therefore was similar to that of the English
* sforzando pedal,* though scarcely equal to it for
practical purposes.
3. In Schulze's organ the Gedact (No. 4) was
formed of stopped wood pipes that produced a
fuller tone than the usual Stopped Diapason, at
the same time that it retained the pure character
of the best specimens of that class of stop. The
1 |ror FBSB-BgBO seevoL 1. p. B02«.
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602
ORGAN.
'Ueblichs' of i6, 8, and 4 feet (Nds. g, 1 1, and
13), the invention of Bchulze, in the Choir
organ, were singularly beautiful in quality of
tone, and formed a most effective group of stops.
The • Flauto Traverao' (No. 11), like the French
* Fldte Harmonique/ was composed of pipes of
double length in the upper part ; and the pipes
being of wood, bored and turned to a cylindrteal
shape, were in reality so many actual flutes.
The •Gamba' and 'Geigen Principal* (Nos. 3
and 10), were open stops, metal in the treble
and tenor, and produced the ' string tone ' most
effectiv^. The Hohlfl5te (No. 5) was an
open wood stop, with the mouth on the broad
side of the pipe, and produced a thick, * hollow*
tone; hence its name. The 'Clarinette' and
*Posaune* (Nos. 8 and 15) were reed Stops of
the ' free * species, the latter having zinc tubes
of half length, and producing an excellent quality
of tone. The pedal ooupW acted on a second
set of pallets in the soundboard, and did not
take down the manual keys— a great conveni-
ence, as it did not interfere with the hands.
The pedal clavier was made in a form then
quite new to this country, with the notes at the
extreme right and left somewhat higher than
those in the middle — concave. This shape and
Elliott & Hill*s radiating plan were afterwards
combined by Mr. Henry Willis, in his * con-
cave and ramating pedal board.* The flue-stops,
that are usually intended to have great power,
possessed considerable boldness and strength in
this organ of Schulze's, which was partly due to
the scales having been kept 'well up. This
effect was secured without any extra pressure of
wind — for the wind only stood at the ordinary
pressure of three inches— but simply by allowing
twice or thrice the usual quantity of wind to
enter at the feet of the pipes.
The French organ, then, brought the Har-
monic flutes, the Gamba, the octave and sub-
octave couplers, and the reed-stops on a stronger
pressure of wind, into prominent notice, al-
though this latter was also illustrated in Willis's
larger organ at the west end of the Exhibition
building; while Schulze*s organ drew attention
to the sweet-toned (Lieblich) covered stops, the
Harmonic flute, the string-toned stops, and the
bold voicing and copious winding of full-scaled
flue-stops, on the successful imitation of which
latter Mr. T. Lewis has built a part of his re-
putation.
3. Messrs. A. and M. Bucci, organ-builders of
Florence, exhibited a small organ, the bellows
of which possessed a novelty, in that the feeder,
consisting of a movable board swaying parallel
between two fixed ones, supplied wind both by
its upward and downward motion, and in double
quantity, as it moved bodily instead of being
hinged on at one end.
4. Mr. Willis*s great orvan had three manuals
and pedal, seventy sounding stops and seven
couplers. There were four different pressures of
wind. The Swell had its own separate bellows
placed within the swell-box, as in Green's organ
at St. George's, Windsor, already noticed. It
ORGAN.
also presented several novelties, the principal of
which was the introduction of studs or pistons
projecting through the key-slips, acting on the
draw-stops, operated upon by the thumbs, and
designed as a substitute for the ordinary Compo-
sition Pedals. This was effected by the aid of a
pneumatic apparatus on the same principle as that
applied to the keys. A stud, on being pressed,
admitted compressed air into a bellows, which
immediately ascended with sufficient power to
act, by means of rods and levers, on the nub-
chinery of the stops, drawing those which the
given combination required, and pushing in
those that were superfluous. In most cases there
was a duplicate stud for each combination, so
that it could be obtained by using either the
right or the left thumb.
The leading improvements that hare been
introduced since the first Exhibition, are of too
recent a date to belong to the History of the
oi^gan; and more properly briong to its ]>e-
scription.
Of the celebrated foreign organs we may men*
tion the four following typical specimens.
1735-8. Haarlem, Ghbistiah MtfLLiB.
This organ has long been celebrated as one of
the largest and finest in the world. It was
built by Christian Miiller of Amsterdam, and
was nearly three years and a half in coarse of
construction, having been commenced on April
23, 1 735» and finished on Sept. 13, 1738. It has
60 stop9, of which the following is a list : —
Obiat Oboan. 16 MoiM. ia» pIpeiL
1. PrasUni . .
a. BoordoQ . .
8. OcUar . •
4. Boerflult .
ft. Viol di Gamte
6. Boer-qulnt
7. OcUaT . .
8. Oemshorn
9. Quint pnstant
U . 78
16(toiM)Sl
8 . 78
8(U»IM)S1
8 . 61
0i . n
4 . 61
4 . 61
S| . 61
10. Wwd-flDlt S
U. Tertian. S tanks 1
H. MUture. 6. 8. aod
lOranlu
13. Trompei . . IS
14. Trompet . . 8
Ifi. HautboU . . 8
1& Trompct . . S
17. Prwtant . .
in. Quintadena .
19. Hohlfluit . .
20. Octaar. .
». Flult'doaz .
22. Speel-flult
2& Buper-octaar .
SA. Sesquialtera. 2. i,
CBOifi, In fraot. 14 atop*. MM plpaa.
8 . 96
8 (tone) 51
8 . 61
4 . 61
1. • "
4 . 61
9 . 61
and 4 lanks .
SSl Mlitur. 6. 7, and
8 ranks.
9B. Cimbel, a rank*
27. Comet. 5 ranks
SL Fayot . . IS
29. Trooipet . . 8
30. Beval . • 8
SI. Quintadena
88. Prettant .
SS. Baar-pjp .
M. Quintadena
as. OctaaT .
36. Flag-flult .
57. Naasat
38. Kacht-hoiB
KOBO. 16 stops. 1086 pipes.
16 (tone) 51
8 . 81
8 . 61
8(toDe)&l
4 . 61
4 . 61
a| . 61
3 . 61
FKDAL. 1
46. Sub-Prindpal. SS .
47. Prestant . . 16 .
4«. Rub-Bass . . 16 .
49. Roer-quint (tone) 10} .
AO. Octaav . . 8 .
51. Holflult . . 8 .
52. Quint . . &i .
63. Octaav . . 4 .
39. Flageolet. . l|
40. Bexqulalter.t ranks .
41. Mlxtur. 4. 6. and 6
ranks
45. Cimbel. 4 ranks
43. Schalmai 8
44. Dulclan . . 8
46. Vol Homana . 8
ps. 613 pipes.
64. Holtnit . . 8
66. Bais-quUit»5ranka. 2}
56. Bosaln . SS
57. Busala . . IS
66. Trompet . . 8
59. Trompet . . 4
00. Cinq . . . S
61
51
U
61
108
H
a
V
ar
Accessory Stops. Moreoent*. etc
1. Coupler. Okoir to Great. i 6. Wind to Choir ocgma.
a. Coupler. £cho to Gr^at. 7. Wind to £cbo ofian.
8. 4. Two Tremulants. 8. Wind to Pedal ocvaa.
6w Wind to Gnat otvaa. | Twain fiaUovs. 9 fc«t tv 4.
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ORGAN.
ORGAN.
608
, 00 to D In *H. 51 notes.
FttdaU, 000 to tenor D. 27 notes.
Ore«t . •
Nnmber of Ptpei.
, , . ISoe Echo . •
• • . KM
Choir. .
, • . UOB Pedal. .
... 618
Total iod
1750. Weingarten, Gablkb.
This is another very celebrated instrament
among those made in the i8th century. The
32-feet stop, in front, is of fine tin. The orgam
ori^nally contained 6666 pipes ; and it is said
that the monks of Weinearten, who were very
rich, were so satisfied with the efforts of Gabler,
the builder, that they presented him with 6666
florins above his charge, being an additional
florin for each pipe.
QBSAT OBOAM. 16 StOpC
Teet
LPrestant
. 16
a. Principal .
. . 8
a. BobrflOte .
(tone) 8
4. Plllkra . .
. . 8
5. QolnUton .
(tone) 8
•.Octave . .
4
7. Bohrfldte .
(tone) 4
S. note douce .
4
9. QnerflOte • .
IOl HohlflOte . .
11. Super-octaire
U. BeMqutaltera. 8 ranki
15. Mixture. SO ranks
14. Comet. 8 ranks .
16. Trompeten (new)
16. Cymbelfllera.
Cboib. ISftopa.
17. Bordnn . . . (tone) 16
18. Principal tutti (strong) 8
19. VloloDoello ... 8
20. Coppel .... 8
n. BohlflOte ... 8
22. Unda Marls ... 8
2S. Sakiona! . .
Si. OetaT douee .
2& Viola . . .
90. Sasat . ,
27. MIxtare. SI ranks
2a. Cymbal. Sraoks .
KCBC IS stops.
2». Bordon . . .
(tone) 16
ax Principal .
(tone) 8
32. Viola douce .
■ 8
33.Flauten . .
8
31. Oeure . .
. 8
9^BohlflOt• .
. 4
42. Prinetpal donee, in front 8
43. VIoloDoello ... 8
44. Qolntaton
45. riute douce .
46. PHEuo .
47. Flaato traTorao
54. (kmtra-bass, tin,
front .
SO. Sob-baM. tn>od .
M. OctaTo-baw, wood
BJ. Violon-bau. wood
OM. QnbiUtou-bass .
09. Soper-octaTe-bass,
front .
60. PlOte-donce-bais .
6L VIokmcello-baM .
Tedxl.
in
88
(tone) 32
16
. 16
16
in
8
8
8
89. Piflkro . . .
87. Buper^Kstave
38. Mixture. 12 ranks
89. Cornet. 4 ranks .
40. Clarinet (new) .
41. Carillon, from tenor V
upwards.
12 stops.
48. BohrSMe .
49. (inerllOte .
50. Flageolet
61. Comet, 12 ranks
S2. HautboU
|8S. Vobtbumalne
Feet
4
2
2
2|
2
2
8
(tone) 4
4
4
2
8
8
17 stops.
62. HoblflOte-baas . .
63. Seaqutalterabass. 2*8
ranks .
64. Mlxturen-ba.«,6rI(S.
6A. Bombarde-bass .
06. Poeauoe-bass
67. Trompette-bass .
68. Fagott-bau . .
69. Coroet-baM . .
70. Carillon Pedal .
Compass. Man"^i*, (X3 to C in alt ; Pedals. CCO to tenor D.
(Flat pitch.)
Aeoesaory Stops, Morements, cte.
L Coupler, Echo to Great. | 4. BoslgnoL
2. Tremuiaut. fi. Cymbals.
S. Cuckoo. I 6. La force.
1834. Freiburg (6t. Nicholas). Aloys Mooseb.
The Freiburg organ is so well known that
a list of its contents as constructed by Mooser
can scarcely fail to be interesting. It ori-
ginally contained 6i stops, 4 manuals, and 2
pedals, and is said to have recently received
additions.
1. Montre .
2. Bourdon.
5. Octare .
4. Principal
6. Bourdon.
6. Oamba .
7. Preslant
8. Dulclana
17. Quintadena
18. Principal
19. Principal
90. Oamba .
21. Plate douce
22. OoUve .
28. Flute .
SI. Montre .
82. Bourdon
SS. Viola .
84. Sallclonal
95u Preatant.
88.Cakan .
4S. Montre .
44. Bourdon
45. Flute .
46. Sallclonal
OuaTOBOAM. 16 stops.
Feet I Feet
. 16 I 9. Doublette ... 2
(tone) 16 10. Foumlture. 6 and 7 ranks.
8 I IL Cymbalo. S ranks . . 2
8 Iia.8chart8ianks . . 2
(tone) 8 I IS, Petit Comet. S ranks.
8 114. Grand Comet, a Beed. 16
. 4 15. Trombone ... 8
4 l6.ClaIh>n .... 4
68. Bou«-bass
flS. Octave .
07. Montre .
fig. Principal
69. FlOte .
Cboib.
(tone) 16
8
8
8
8
91 FlOtekcbemlnto (tone) 4
26. Nasard .... 2
26. Doublette ... 2
27. Flageolet ... 1
26. Foumlture. 4 a 5 ranks 2
29. Comet. 9 ranks . 8
80. Trompette ... 8
Posmr. 12 Btopt.
8 1 17. FlOte bouchte
(tone) 8 I SB. Dulclana
8 '89. Quint Plate .
8 40. Flageolet
4 1 41. Comet. 5 ranks.
. 4 ,42. Cromoroe .
KCBO. 8 stops.
8 '47. QuInteFiate
(tone) 8 48. Flageolet
8 49. VoU humaine
8 fiO. Comet . •
6BBAT PBOAL. 6 StopS.
(tone)S2 154. PreaUnt
16 56. Bombarde •
8 1 06. Trombone .
OBOIB PBOAU 6 stops.
. 16 I6a Preatant
8 <L Trompette .
(tone)8 I
4
4
2
(tone) 8
8
16
8
Aooeasory Stops, ete.
1. (Thoir to Gmat. I 8. Tremulant Gmal.
2. Great to Pedal. | 4. Tremulant Echo.
Compass. Manuals,00 to Flo alt; Pedals. OCC to tenor a
1846. The Maddeine, Paris.
MM. Cay aill6- Coll & Co.
This organ is perhaps the best known of
Cavaill^*s instruments. Though not one of his
largest, it is one of his most excellent and effec-
tive. It has 4 manuals and pedal, and the 48
stops mentioned below.
OIJITIU 00 GBAVb OBOUI. 12 stops.
1. Montre . .
2. VIolon-Bassa
8. Montre .
4. Bourdon
61. Sallclonal
6. Plate Barmoniqae
Feet
16
7. Prestant
16
8. Quinte .
8
9. Doublette
8
la Plein Jeu, 10
8
11. Trompette
8
12. Cor Anglab
16. Fiate Harmonlqna
16. Fiate trareraidre .
17. FlOte OcUvlante
(^JITIXB DB BOMBABDBS. 10 atopa.
. . . 16 1 18. OcUvIn . . .
. . . 8 ' 19. Bombarde . .
8 I 2D. Trompette Harmonlque
8 2L Deuxlime Trompette .
4 1 22. Clarion . . .
23. Montre
24. Viol dl
25. Fiate douce .
26. Volx-celeates
27. Prestant
CLATiBB ou Poamr. lo atops.
8 |2K Dulclana
129. OcUvIn ,
SO. Trompette .
SI. Ba»on et Hautbota
32. Clalron .
CLATIBB DB Ulcn. ExPBRssir. 8 atopa.
SS. Fiate HarmonUiue . 8 1 87. OcUTin . . .
S4. Bourdon ... 8 38. Volx Humaine
36. Muxette .... 8 39. Trompette Hannontqne
86. Fltte OoUTlante . • 4 ■ 40. Clalron Harmonlqr
Olavibb db PtoALRa. 8 atope.
41. Quintaton . . SS 1 45. Groaae Flftte .
42. Contre-BMse . . 16 46. Bombarde . .
48. Baaae Contre . . 16 47. Trompette . .
44. Vloloncelle ... 8 148. Clalron . . .
8
8
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604
ORG AX
PIPES.
Gbeat Oroax.
//
Open dUpuon, dmUI.
In front.
09
Stopt do.
U
Duktona.
u
Princlp«L
mm Stopt wood Flat*.
UK
Clarionet.
oo
FUutluo.
8WKLI,.
kk
Open flUpuon. wood.
II
Violin do., metal.
W*
Stopt do., metal.
«
Oboe.
rr
Spltx-flote.
M
Gamba.
W
Piccolo.
PEtJAL.
N3.-Th« Swell in shewn
open:a.i,ai«thetivell
«hutter«nni. and », »,
Is the swell rod.
General Section of 4n Organ with two Blanuah, Great and S«i«0, and Pedab.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Combloailchi Bsdali. eict
omAN?
60i?
l.AwIUr to Great,
2. Groat to Pedal.
S. Bombarde to PosltU.
4. Fedal to Great.
5. Great Organ Sub-oetava.
6. Bombarde Bub-octart.
7. Pedal octave above.
Compaas. Manaals, CO to V In alt, 04 notes.
Pedal, COO to tenor D, 27 notes.
8. Tremulant to Choir and Swell*
9. Great Beeds.
]& Bombarde Reeds.
11. Choir Reeds.
12. Swell Reeds.
IS. Pedal Beads.
II. De9cnption. It has Ijeem shown in the pre-
ceding History of the organ, how that abroad
tiers of pipes from nearly the largest in size to
the smallest were accumulated on one keyboard
before they were assorted and appropriated to
different ' departments ' ; how that in England, on
the 'contrary, little instruments with compara-
tively few pipes were dignified with the name of
' pair* ; and how that an example possessing two
manuals, if it also had two cases, was distinguished
by the name of a ' double organ.*
Turning from the rules of the past to the cus-
tom of the present, it is found that * an oigan * of
to-day sometimes consists really of as many as
five separate and distinct oigans^Great, Swell,
Chcnr, Solo, and Pedal ; but all being endosed
in one case, or at any rate brought under the
control of one performer, they are spoken of
collectively as constituting a single instrtiment.
To describe such an organ completely and in
detail would require a volume, which is impos-
sible* here, and is besides unnecessary, as the
smallest specimen equally with the laigest com-
prises a certain number of necessary parts ;
namely, (i) the apparatus for collecting the wind,
viz. the b^ows ; (2) the means for cUstributing
the wind, viz. the wind-trunk, the wind-chest,
and the soundboard-grooves; (3) the mechanism
for playing the organ, viz. the clavier and the
key-movement ; (4) the mechanism for control-
ling the use of the tiers of pipes, viz. the draw-
stop action. To these have to be added the
couplers, composition pedals, etc.
1. The BeUows that collect and compress the
wind have already been described in voL i. p. 2 14.
They are shown in the accompanying woodcut
occupying their usual position in the lower part
of the organ ; the reservoir being marked r, r, r,r,
and the feeder t, f, t. From the reservoir of the
bdlows the wind is conducted through a large
service-pipe or * wind-trunk ' to the wind-dstems
or wind-chests z, z, where it remains for further use
in smaller quantities. The wind-trunk, which
could not be conveniently shown in the woodcut,
is made either of wood or metal, and traverses the
distance between the reservoir and wind-chest by
the shortest convenient route. The wind-chest is
a substantial box of wood extending the whole
length of the soundboard ; about equal to it in
depth ; and about two-thirds its width. In this
chest are located the soundboard pallets {d and k),
which prevent the wind proceeding any farther,
unless one or more of them are drawn down (or
opened) by the means next to be noticed.
2. The K.ey action is the system of mechanism
by which the performer is able to draw open the
pallets, which are otherwise £ur beyond his reach.
In an action of simple construction this consists
of a key (a), sticker (6), roller and tracker (c),
communicating with a pull-down (d) attached to
the pallet. On pressii^ dovox the front end of
the key (a) — ^which key works on a metal pin or
centre — the further end rises, lifting with it the>
vertical sticker (&). This sticker, lining the first
arm of the horizontal roller, causes tiie roller,
partly to revolve. At the opposite end of this
roller is a second arm projecting from the back,
which consequently descends (c). To this is at-,
taohed a tracker made to any length necessary
to reach firom the second roller-arm to the pull-
down {d). The course of the motion trans-
mitted by these parts is as follows : — The key-,
tail carries the motion inwards, the sticker
carries it upwards ; the roller conveys it to.
the necessary distance right or left, while the
tracker again carries it upwards to the pallet.
In modem organs of superior construction, small
discs of crims(m cloth are placed at each end of
the sticker, to prevent any rattling between the,
contiguous parts of the mechanism. A pin passes
down firom the sticker, through the key-taiU to
prevent the former from slipping off the latter.
A second one is placed on the top, and passes
through an eye in the roller-arm to secure the
certain action of the roller. Tha two studs into
which the roller-pins pass to sustain the roller
are lined with cloth, or * bushed,' as it is termed,
also to secure silence in action ; and the rollers
themselves are made of iron tubing, which is
more firm and rigid than the old wood roHers,
and has the additional advantage of taking
much less space.
It is a matter of much importance to lessen
the strain on the key-movement just noticed by
reducing the resistance at the pallet as much
as possible, and thus also relieving the finger
of the player fi^m all unnecessary labour and
&tigue. For this purpose most builders make
use, under certain droumstanoes, of what are
called relirf pallets. When wind, in however
small quantity, gains admisdon above a pallet^
the wind-pressure ceases by becoming equal all
round, and there remains only the elastic resist-
ance of the spring to be overcome. To effect this
relief numerous devices have been thought of,
as the * jointed pallet,* in which two or three
inches of the fore part move first, and then the
remainder, perhaps for nearly a foot in leugth.
There is also the 'double pallet,' in which a small
valve is placed on the back of the large one, and
opens first, etc., etc. In large organs some
builders use rdief pallets to obviate the neceedty
for ' pneumatics,* though the two are sometimes
used at the same time.
3. The Draw-stop action is a second ^tem of
meohanism, by means of which the performer is
enabled to draw-out or push-in any slider that
lies beneath a separate set of pipes or stop. In
the accompanying drawing each separate pipe
depicted represents a single member of a different
stop [see Stop], and the slider-ends are the little
shaded portions that are shown immediatdy over
the soundboard groove (e, e, e and o, o, o, o). The
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608
ot^an;
3. It was naturtlly a aoutoe* of consideiuble
pleasure to an organist to have the advantage
of Qonplers to unite from above and below, and
from the right and left, to improve the effect of
his performance ; but this happy state of feeling
was apt to be Qualified by the reflection that in
consequence of the demand upon the wind, and
the greatly increased raf^dity with which it had
tu be supplied, there was just the possibility of
his being required at some time to attend an
inquest on a dead blower, and of his being
pronounced to have contributed materially to
the demise of the unfortunate man. Hence the
invention of some mechanical means for blowing
the bellows, and for increasing or decreasing the
speed of the supply, according as much or little
might be required, became a matter of some
Concern and much importance.
The first piece of mechanism devised for this
purpose was the 'Hydraulic Engine' of Joy and
Holt, — afterwards IHivid Joy, of Middlesborough.
This consists of a cylinder similar to that of an
ordinary steam-engme, but deriving its motion
from the pressure ^ a column of water, admitted
alternately to the top and bottom of the piston.
Engines of this kind are attached to the organs at
the Town Hall, Leeds ; the parish church, Leeds;
Bochester Cathedral ; theTempleChnrch,eto.,etc.
The ' Liverpool Water Meter,* as patented by
the late Mr. Thomas Duncan, and made by
Messrs. Forrester & Co., of Liverpool, consists
of two cylinders, with pistons and slotted piston-
rods working a short crank -shaft. There is an
engine of this kind, also, at the Temple Chiirch.
Gas Engines are also used for blowing organs.
There is a large one in daily operation at York
Cathedral, another at Salisbury Cathedral, and
another at the Normal College for the Blind,
Upper Norwood,
Among the most notable organs recently erected
by English organ-builders maybe mentioned those
in St. Paul's Cathedral, Albert Hall, and Alex-
andra Palace, by Willis ; in Christ Church, West-
minster Road, Newington parish church, and St.
Peter's, Eaton Square, by Lewis & Co. ; in the
City Temple, and the Temple Church (rebuilt), by
Forster & Andrews ; in the Cathedrals at Man-
chester and Worcester, and at St. Andrew's Hol-
bom, by Mr. T. Hill ; at the Oratory, Brompton,
by Messrs. Bishop & Starr ; at St. Peter's Church,
Manchester, by Messrs. Jardine & Co. ; at ' The
Hall,' Regent's Park, by Messrs. Bryceson & Co. ;
and in St. Pancras Church, and St. Lawrence
Jewry, by Qray & Davison ; etc., etc.
• The eminent French builders, Cavaill^-CoU k
Co. have erected some favourable examples of
their work in the Town Halls of Manchester
and Sheffield, etc. ; while the excellent firm of
Schuke & Co has constructed fine organs in the
parish church at Doncaster and at St. Mary's,
South Shields. — This account would be inuum-
^ete were we to omit to mention that Messrs.
£. & 6. Hook, and Jardine k Son, of New
York, and others, have enriched a vast number
of the churches and other buildings in America
with fine modem specimens of organs of their con-
ORGANUM.
'stmcUon ; and that a very fine example by Mertrs.
Walcker & Son, of Ludwigsbuig, was imported
in 1863. and erected in the Boston Music Hall,
United States, where it gave an impetus to the
art in that enterprising country.
The following works have been consulted in
the preparation of this article.
Pratorius, 'Theatimm instnunentorum.* Wolfieiibllttel,
lOao.— J. Schmid. 'li^Oigoe d'Aloyse Afooser.' Friboaxit
1840.-8chlimbach, ^Die OrseL' Leipzig, lB43.~Seidel,
*DieOrgel nnd Ihr Bau.* BreaUo, 1M3.--* Beschr^Jviiig
der groote Orgel in Si. Bavo-Kerk te Haarl^m.^ Haariem,
1846.—' Orgae de I'^ise royale de St Denis, oonstmit
par MM. GavaUl6-Goll ' Pwns. 1846.— Dom Bedoa. *F*c-
teur d'Oifraes.* Patii, 1849 (reprint) — • L'Ommiste,^ Paris.
— T6pfer,^ Lehrbnch der Orgelbaukunst' Weimar. 1855—
H. Jimmerthal, 'Die groase Orgel in der St. Marien-
Kirche tu LUbeck.* £rf\irt and Leipzig, 18d9.— K J. Hop-
Una, and E. F. Bimbanlt, 'The Organ, iU hiitorr and
oonstruotion.* London. Cocks dt Co., I(f77.— Otto Wange-
mann, *Oeschichte der Orgel and der Orgelbauknnet.
Denunin, 1J^9. [£. J . H.}
OROAN-PART. The mnsio of the part to be
played by the organist in an oratorio, psalm,
cantata, or other sacred work. Formerly tbe
organist sat at perfonnance with the score before
him ; and from the figures attached to tbe bass lim*,
with the assistance of such directions as Organo,
Senza organo, Tasto solo, Unisono, etc, he con-
structed the <ffgan accompaniment according to
his ability ; and in tbe case of airs it required
the special training of that oontrapuntal age to
do it properly. Nowadays less reliance is pnt 00
the casual ability of a performer, and the com-
poser writes out the organ-part as completely
as he does that for the violin, harp, or oboe.
St. Paul, the Lobgesang, and Elijah, have each
their published organ-part. Mendelssohn also
wrote organ-parts for Handel's Solomon and Is-
rael in Egypt — the latter in his editi<m of Isrsel
for the London 'Handel Society' — grounded on
the figured-bass of the composer. [G.J
ORGANO denotes the organ part in a score.
OBOAiro PiENO means Full organ—that is, tbe
entire power of the instrument. [£wJ.H.}
ORGANUM (equivalent to Diaphonia ; and,
though less exactly, to JHscantu*), It is impoii-
sible to ascertain the date at which Plain CfiaoBt
was first harmonised; and equally so, to disoovv
the name of the Musician who first sang it in
harmony. We know, however, that the primi-
tive and miserably imperfect Counterpoint with
which it was first accompanied was called Or-
ganum; and we have irrefragable proof that
this Organum was known at least as early as
880; for Scotus Erigena, who died about that
date, speaks of it in his treatise 'De divina
natura,' in such terms as to leave no doubt as to
its identity, and to show clearly that it was
sufficiently well understood at the time be wrote
to serve as a familiar illustration.'
No mediteval writer has given us the slightest
hint as to the etymology of the W(»rd; but most
modern historians are agreed that the prima faeii
d^'rivation is, in all probability, the true one.
When Organs were first introduced into tlie Se^
vices of the Church — probably in the 7th century,
but certainly not later than the middle of the
1 *17t entm orfanlomn bmIm ei dtvenb qnaUtatlbn at qouitS**
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ORGANUM.
8tb^ — it mustliave been aknoet impoMible for
an OrgaDi»t, playing with both handi, to avoid
aonnding conconlant intervals gimultaneoualy :
and, when once the effects thus produced were
imitated in singing, the fintt step towards the in-
vention of Polyphony was already accomplished.
This granted, nothing could be more natural than
that the Instarument should lend its name to the
new style of singing it had heen the accidental
means of suggesting ; or that the Choristers whe
practised that method of vocalisation should be
called Organizers, though we well know that they
sang without any instrumental accompaniment
whatever, and that they were held in high esti-
mation for their readiness in extemporising such
harmony as was then implied by tne term Or-
ganum. A Necrologium of the 13th century,
quoted by Du Oange, or4ains, in one place, that
• the Clerks who organize the ''Alleluia," in two,
three, or four parts, shall receive six pence'; aad
in another, that *the Clerks who assist in the
Maes shall have two pence, and the four Or-
ganizers of the "Alleluia" two pence each.' This
'organization of the Alleluia meant nothing
more than the addition of one single Third,
which was sung below the penultimate note of
a Plain Chaunt Melody, in order to form a Ca-
dence. When this Cadence was in two parts
only, it was sung by two Tenors ; when a third
part was added, it was sung an Octave above the
Canto fermo, by the Voice called 'Triplum*
(whence our word Treble) ; the fourth part, a
Qoadruplum, was added in the Octave above the
Organum, thus —
In Two Parti.
ORGANUM.
609
noticeable that, though the multilinear Stave pro-
posed by this learnt Musician is mentioned as
his own invention, he prefers no claim to be re-
garded as the OTiginator of the new method of
Singing, but speaks of it as a practice * which they
commonly call oiganicatioxL' He understood i^
however, perfectly ; and gives very dear rules
for its oonstructioB. From these we learn that»
though it is perfectly lawful to sinsc a Plain Chaunt
Melody either in Octaves or doubled Octaves, this
method cannot fairly be said to constitute a true
Oiguium, which should be sung either in Fourths
or Fifths as shown in the following examples.
In Fourths.
Tu Pa - trlf aem-pl -t«r-inis « Fl-11-iu.
When four Voices are used, either the Fourths
or the Pifths may be doubled.
Ta Pa - trla Mm -ft-Mr-nns m It-U-t
These two methods, in which no mixturo of
Intervals is permitted, have been called by some
modem historians Puallel-Organum, in contra-
distinction to another kind, in which the use of
Seconds and Thirds is permitted, on condition
that two Thirds are not allowed to succeed one
another. Huobald describes this also as a per-
fectly lawful method, provided the Seconds and
Thiids are introduced only for the purpose of
making the Fourths move more regularly.
Org,
After a time the single Third gave place to a
continuous Organum. The earliest writer who
gives us any really intelligible account of the
method of constructing such a Harmony is Huc-
Uldus, a Monk of S. Amand sur I'Elnon, in
Flanders, who died at a very advanced age in
the year 930, and whose attempts to improve the
Notation of Plain Chaimt have already been de-
scribed at page 469 of the present volume. It is
t An Ofgaa wm pnMotad to King F«ptn bj tho Emperor Oon-
itenUiM VI. In 707.
Yt)l. II. PT. 11.
tk-Ur-vm m
To the modem student this stem prohibition
of even two Consecutive Thirds, where any
number of Consecutive Fifths or Octaves are
freely permitted, is laughable enough ; but our
mediseval ancestors had some reason on their
' side. In the days of Hncbald, the Mathematics
Digitized by
(Sbogk
610
OBOANUM.
of Music were in a very onsatisfactory oondltioii.
He himself had a very decided preference for
the Greek Scales; and even Guido d'Arezzo,
who lived a century later, based his theory on
the now utterly obsolete Pythagorean Section of
the Canon, which divided the Perfect Fourth
(Dicuetsaron) into two Greater Tones and a
liimma, n)fr^<"g no mention whatever of the more
natural system of Ptolemy, which resolved it
into a Greater Tone, a Lesser Tone, and a Dia-
tonic Semitone. The result of this mistaken
theory was, that every Major Third in the Na-
tural Scale was tuned exactly a Comma too
sharp; and every Minor Third a Comma too flat.
Were this method of Intonation still practised,
some of us might, perhaps, desire to hear as few
Thirds as possible.
Neither S. Odo of Cluni, nor any other writer
of the age immediately suocee<Ung that of Hue-
bald, throws any light upon the subject suffi-
ciently important to render it necessary that we
should discuss it in detail ; but Guido d'Arezzo's
opinions are too interesting to be passedover in
silence. He objects to the use of unitedTourths,
and Fifths, in an Organum of three parts, on
account of its disagreeable harshness.
^
^
Ml-M-i«---i« n»e-l Oa-ns.
In place of this he proposes to leave out the
upper part, which in this example is nothing
more turn a reduplication of the Oi^num— the
Canto fermo being assigned to thelrnddle Voice,
and to sing the two lower parts only : or, better
still, to substitute an improved method, which,
from the closeness of the parts to each other as
they approach the conclusion of the Melody, he
calls Oocursns.
After the death of Guido the subject was
treated, more or less fully, by Franco of Coloorne,
Walter Odington, Marchetto de Padova, Pbilip-
pns de YitriMO, Joannes de Muris, Prodosdmus
de Beldomandis, and many other writers, each
of whom contributed something towards the
general stock of knowledge, and suggested
some improvement upon the usual praxis: but
the next critical stage was only reached when
the Sixth became recognised as an Interval of
greater practical importance than either the
Fourth or the Fifth. Joannes Tinctoris (1434-
1530) saw this very clearly; and gives the
following example of a Melody accompanied in
Sixths and Octaves.
/ ■
fl)
-^
LM-dft
81 -
OQ
Sal -T»
. to -
rem.
ate
-Ci_
H=s — 0
ORIANA.
But, before the death of Joannes nnctoris,
these successions of Sixths had already merged
into the well-known Faux-bourdon, and Or-
ganum into Counterpoint ; though the fiact that
Organizers still held their ground Is sufficiently
proved by the allusions nuMle to them in the
Minstrel -Laws of Eberhard von Minden, in
1404, and even in a document preserved at
Toledo, of as late date as 1566, in which distinct
mention is made of the * musiea qua organie*
dieitur*
For an account of the gradual process through
which Organum, Diaphonia, and Discant suc-
cessively passed before they became developed
into pnre Counterpoint, see Pabt-writing. [See
also COUHTBRPOINT.] [W. S. R.]
ORGENYI, AOLAIA, a native of Vienna,
and the daughter of an officer in the Anstrian
army, received instruction in singing- frcm
Mme. Viardot Garcia. Miss Org^nyi made her
first appearance on the stage Sept. aS, 1865, as
Amina, at the Royal Opera House, Berlin, and
was highly successful, t>oth on account of her
excellent singing and acting, and of the natural
charm of her person and manner. She confirmed
this success in the parts she next played, viz.
Lucia, Agatha, Violetta^ Rosma, Maigaret,
Martha, and Norma. She first appeared in £i^-
land April 7, 1866, at the Royal Italian Opera,
Covent Garden, as Violetta, and was very well
received, subsequently playing Luda and Marta.
She also sang in concerts, and gained great praise
for her singing of Agatha's scena from *!)«
Freischtltz' (of which a contemporary remarked,
*we have not heard anything better than the
opening of the great scene .... her measure
and expression in delivery of the Largo bespoke a
real ^artist*) ; and also of Bach's now &vourite air
' Mein gl&ubiges Herz,* to the cello obbligato of
Piatti, of which the same writer remarks that
' the elegance and distinction of her manner and
her real musical acquirements have secured her
a 'public* In spite of the large measure of
favour given her, she never played on the stage
again in Kngland, but in 1870 sang in oonoats
for a short period, being well received at the
Philharmonic in the above scena of Weber, and
that from Lucia. Miss Orge'np, after her first
season in London (having refused as an Austrian
to sing at that time in Berlin on account of
the war of 66) went to Vienna in September
of that year, and played there with success, and
afterwards was heard in opera, festivals, and con-
certs, at Leipzig and other cities, diiefly at
Dresden ; also at Bremen, Stettin, C(^>enhagen,
etc., returning to Berlin (concert, 71) and Vioma
(7a); also in Italian opera at Berlin (72), with
Artot-Padilla and her husband, and at Florence.
She has recently been appointed Grand-Ducal
chamber singer at the court of Schwerin. [A.C.]
ORGUE EXPRESSIF. A French name for
the reed organ or HARMOMiax. [A. J. H.]
ORIANA, The Triumphs of. A cdlection
of 25 madrigals in praise of Queen EUzabetb,
1 AUMUMun.]IiVMkina SIMd.JiiM7.lM.
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ORIANA.
who figores under the name of Oriana, com-
poBed by the most eminent musicians of the time,
and published, under the editonhip of Thomas
Morley, in i6oi, with the title of 'Madrigales.
The IViumphes of Oriana, to 5 and 6 voices : com-
posed by diuen seuerall aucthors. Newly pub-
lished by Thomas Morley, Batcheler of Musick
and one of the gentlemen of her Maiesties honor-
able Chappell. The oomposers engaged upon
Uie work were Michael Este, Danid Norcome,
John Mundy, Mus. Bae., John Benet, John Hil-
ton, Mus. Bac., George Marson, Mus. Bao.>
Richard Carlton, Mus. Bac., John Holmes, Rich-
ard Nicolson, Thomas Tomklns, Michael Caven-
dish, William Cobbold,. John Farmer, John Wil-
bye, Thomas Hunt, Mus. Bac., Thomas Weelkes,
Jolm Milton, George Kirbye, Robert Jones,
John Lisley, and ^ward Johnson, who each
oontributed one madrigal, and Ellis Gibbons and
Morley himself, who each furnished two madri-
gals. The words, — they cannot be called poetiy,
— are by an anonymous author or authors, and
abound with allusions to the Queen's beauty,
virtue, grace, etc etc. Each madrigal, with a
few exceptions, ends with the couplet,
* Then wng. the Kympha and Shepherds of Diana-
Long lire tAix Oriana.*
Various conjectures have been made as to the
occasion upon which the work was written, but
as they are mere conjectures it is unnecessary to
enter upon a^ consideration of them. The same
may be said of the person named in several of
the madrigals as a singer and daneer. [See
BoHNT Boots.] The work was dedicated by
Morley to Charles Howard, Earl of Nottingham,
Baron of Effingham, and Lord High Admiral of
England, so well known in connection with the
defeat of Uie Spanish Armada in 1588. The
title and form of this collection seem to have
been suggested by a set of Italian madrigals
called ' II Trionfb di Dori,* written in praise of
a lady who is figured under the name of Doris,,
each of which ends with the words 'Viva la
bella Dori*; the earliest extant edition of which
was printed at Antwerp in 160 1 (the same year
in which 'The THumphes'of Oruma* was pub-
lished), but which was undoubtedly originally
iasued at some earlier period, since not only were
some of the composers who oontributed to it dead
before 1601, but one of the madrigals in it —
«Ove tra I'herbi e i fieri,* by Giovanni "Croce —
had been adapted to the English words, ' Hard
by a crystal fountain * (afterwards set by Morley
far the Oriana collection), and printed in the
Second Book of 'Musica Transalpina^' in 1597;
*The Triumphes of Oriana* was about 1814
printed in score by William Hawes, who added
to it two madri^s by Thomas Bateson and
Fnmcis PiUdngton, which were sent too late for
insertion in the original publication, the before-
named madrigal by Giovanni Croce, and a mad-
rigal by Bateson, written after the death of
Elizabeith, entitled ' Oriana's FarewelL'
The Italian work just named is entitled 'II
Trionfo di Dori, descritto da divers! et posti in
mosica da altretanti Autori. A Sei Yoci.* The
ORPH6ON.
611
madrigals contained in it are 39 in number, the
words and music being furnished by as many
different authors and composers. The oomposers
were Felice Anerio, Giovanni Matteo Asola,
Hippolito Baccusi, Ludovico Balbi, Lelio Ber-
tani, Pietro Andrea Bonini, Paolo Bozi, Giovanni
Cavaocio, Orazio Columbano, Gaspare Costa, Gio-
vanni Croce, Giulio Eremita, Giovanni JFlorio,
Giovanni Grabrieli, Giovanni Giacomo Gastoldi,
Ruggiero Giovandli, Leon Leoni, Giovanni de
Macque, Luca Marenzio, Tiburtio Massaino,
Filippo de Monte, Giovanni Palestina, Costanzo
Porta, Alfonso Vied, Hippolito 8abino, Anni-
bal Stabili, Alessandro Striggio, Crazio Yecchi,
and Gasparo Zetto. Besides the impression of
1 601, another appeared, also at Antwerp, in
1614. IW.H.H.]
ORNITH0PARCU8 or ORNITOPAR-
6HUS, AvDBBAS, the author of a rare Latin
treatise, sntitled 'Musicse Active Micrologus,'
which was published at Leipzig in 15 16. [See
MiOROLOOUS,] His real name was Vogelsang or
^<)gelgesang, and he seems to have adopted the
Greek pseudonym of Omithoparous on account
of the many countries which he had visited, and
of which he gives a list at the end of the third
book of his work. Nothing further is known
about him, except that he was a native of Mein-
ingen, and that he entitled himself 'Magister
Artium.^' His book, was translated into English
by John Dowlamd (London, 1609). [W.B.S.]
ORPHARION. See Obpheobeon.
ORPHftE ATJX ENTERS. Op^ bouffon,
in 2 acts and a tableaux ; words by Hector
Cr^mieux, music by Offenbach. Produced at the
Bouffes-Parisiens, Oct. ai, 1858 ; in London, in
French (Sdmeider), at j3t; James's Theatre, July
w, 1869. [G.]
ORPHfiE. ET* EURIDICB; ••Heroic drama
in 3 acts,' translated and adapted by Moli^re from
the Obfbo vd Eubidicb of Calsabigi; music by
Gluck, also slightlv altered from the earlier work.
Produced at the Acad^mie de Musique, Aug. 2,
1774.. It ran for 45 consecutive nights, and waa
played 297 times up to 1848. It was revived at
the Th^tre Lyrique Nov. 19, 1859, ^Y Madame
Viardot. [See Obmo.] [G.]
ORPHfiON, L*. Thia periodfcal, tiie organ
of the Oiph^ns, and the choral and orchestral
societies of France, Algiers, and Belgium, comes
out twice a month, and has become the model
for similar productions. It was founded in 1855
by Abel Simon, and is now conducted by M.
Henry Abel Simon, with a zealous and energetic
staff, foremost among whom is M. JuUen Torchet,
the able organiser of Uie muskal contests in the
departments. [G. C]
ORPHiON, ORPHlfiONISTE. The general
name of the French singing societies and their
members. Choral singing had been largely cul-
tivated in Germany and Switzeriand, and Lieder*
tafelnbad exibted for some years, before the French
established similar institutions. As Goethe had
assisted Zelter In founding the first liedertafel
Rr2
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ei2
ORPHftON.
in Berlin in 1808, so ten yean Uter B^ranger
materially contribated to the Buccess of Uie
Orph^on, by nominating Bocqaillon-Wilhem as
teacher of singing in the Eooles d'enseignement
mutuel, at Paris, when music was made one of
the subjects of study in October 1818. It was
not however till 1835 that the Conseil municipal
of Paris voted the adoption of singing in all the
communal schools. Three years later it was
adopted at the universities, and thus the whole
youth of France had the opportunity of cultivat-
ing an ear for music.
The working-classes in Paris and the depart-
ments next came under consideration, and at the
suggestion of Wilhem'and under his superinten-
denoe, evening classes were opened in 1835 in the
Bue MontgolSer by Hubert, who afterwards be-
came oonductOT of the Orphan. The success of
this attempt encouraged the formation of similar
classes in different quarters of Paris, all directed
by followers of Wilhem*s method. These classes
were all for male voices only, and thus the
Orph^on had at its disposal hundreds of tenors
and basses, who could be used to reinforce the
choirs of the Eooles oommunales for choral sing-
ing on a grand scale. The interest in performances
of this kind increased rapidly, and soon, through
the exertions of M. Delaporte and others, 'con-
tests* and festivals were established, to which
choral unions flocked from all parts of France.
Influenced doubtless by the growing import-
ance of these gatherings, the corporation of
Paris resolved to place at the head of the Or-
phan a composer of the first rank, capable of
managing the institution on sound musical prin-
ciples ; their choice fell on M. Gounod, who be-
came conductor in 1851, and 'under whom the
society prospered immensely. On his resignation
in i860, owing to the increase of Paris it was
divided into two sections, that of the left bank of
the Seine beine conducted by K. Francois Baun,
and that of the right bank by M. Pasdeloup.
Hubert became inspector of the Ecolee com-
mumdes on the right bank, and Foulon of those
on the left. In &e spring of each year a test-
performance was held at the Cirque des Champs
Mys^es, and in the Cirque d*hiver, at which 1 200
picked singers — about half the number in atten-
dance at the schools and adult classes — sang the
new pieces learned during the year before the
Pr^et of the Seine, and the members of the
Commission de surveillance du chant. This
organisation was maintained till 1872, but the
societies were seriously affected by the war, and
in 1873 the Orphan was again united under the
sole conductorship of Bazin, who retained it till
his death. His favourite pujMl, M. Danhauser,
inspector of singing in the Ecoles oommunales
since 1875, was appointed in July 1878 Inspeo-
tor-Genend of singing, a position really equiva-
lent to that previouSy held by Bazin and by
Gounod.
The repertoire of the Orpkeonists is very varied,
and comprises pieces in various stvles composed
expressly for them by Hal^vy, Adolphe Adam,
F^liden David, Ambroise Thomas, Gounod,
ORPfiEOREON.
Basin, Boulanger, Semet, Delibes, Haaenet,
Dubois, and, most of all, Laurent de Rill^ who
has composed over a hundred choral melodies.
In Belgium also, where choral-singing is cultivated
with great success, several composers have written
for the Orph^nistes, especially Hanssens (bom at
Ghent July 12, i8oa ; died at Bruss^ April 8,
1871), Gevaert, Soubre, Denefve, Radouz, and
Camille de Voe, the Belgian rival of de RUM.
An institution which in 1867 numbered in
France alone 3.243 choral societies, with 147.500
effective members, and which still (1880) com-
prises 1500 Orph^ons and 60,000 Chph^ooistes,
naturally required oigans of its own, especially
for the ventilation of topics connected with the
' concours ' and festivals. The most important of
these are 'La France chorale,* <L*£cho des Or-
phans,' * La nouvelle France chorale,* and ' L*Or-
ph^n.' [See Musical Periodicals.]
ThOTO is at present no history of the Orph^on,
but ample materials exist in the above periodi-
cals. They give details of the 'grands jours,*
and of the principal feats accomplished by the
French and Belgian choral societies ; such as
the journey of 3000 Orph^onistes under M.
Delaporte to London in June i860, and the
international contests of Lille (1862), Ams
(1864), Paris (1867 and 78), Rheims (1869 ^^
76), Lyons (1877) and Brussels (1880). For
these occasions the best pieces in their r^portoiie
have been composed, and attention may be
directed specially to ' Le l^i^l/ ' Le Camaval
de Rome, ' La Nuit du Sabbat,* and others, by
A. Thomas, to words by the writer of this artide,
striking productions, which within the limits of a
simple chorus, exhibit the variety, interest, and
movement of a dramatic scene. [G. C]
ORPHEOREON, ORPHEORON, or OR-
PHARION. An instrument of the dther
kind, with flat back, but with the ribs shaped
in more than one incurvation. The varieties of
the orpheoreon also differed from the usual cither
in the bridge being oblique, rising towards the
treble side. According to Prsetorius ('Organo-
graphia,* Wolfenbuttel, 1619, p. 54) the oupheo-
reon was tuned like a lute in * Kammerton (a).
[See LUTB.] The strings were of brass or iron,
in six or seven pairs, and were played with a
plectrum. A laiger orpheoreon was called Pe-
norcon, and a still larger one Pandore, — Pre-
tonus spells this Pandorra or Bandoer. According
to his authority it was invented in England ; to
which another adds the name of John Kose, d^
zen of London, living in Bridewell, and the date
of about 1560. It must however have been a
rather different orpheoreon. Following Pr»to>
rius, the pandore, and we presume its congenen,
had no chanterelle or melody string, and oonkl
therefore have been used only for accompaniment,
like the common cither, $utoribu8 et ^artorOmt
usitatum instrumerUum, He gives dther tunings
for several strings, induding the common 'four-
course* (6) and ' Italian* (c); old tunings {d), {e\
often used an octave lower on the lute in Fhinoe,
and the old Italian six-course (/), but no oiher
than the lute tuning above mentioned for the
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OEPHEOREON.
©rpheoreon family. The player probably tuned
as he chose. The formi * Orphanon* and * Pan-
dora* occur in a book on the Lute and other
instruments, entitled 'The Schoole of Musicke/
by Thomas Robinson, London, 1603. A copy is
in the British Museum. There is another instru-
ment which Pisetorius describes as being like a
pandore in the back ; this was the Quintema, or
Chitema. It differed, however, in other respects,
as the ribs, belly, etc., were of simple outline, and
tJhe bridge was straight. He says it was tuned
like the very earliest lutes (g), and depicts it in
his illustrations as not unlike a guitar.
(«) Q>) (e) (d)
ORPHEUS.
618
[A.J.H.]
ORPHEUS. A coUectioQ of Fart-songs or
Vocal Quartets by German composers, with
English words, puUished in parts and com-
pressed score. It was started by Messrs. Ewer
about 1840, and has been continued to the present
day by their successors, Novello, Ewer & Co.
The books and songs marked with * are for
Mixed voices ; the others for Equal ditto.
1. Bright sword. Webor.
S. Touthftil flow6r. Blum.
8. Stent night. Weber.
4. O'ermooruid. Spohr.
6l Come, boys. Xarvchner.
e. Merry and fMe. ILWeraer.
2.
7. The mbbftth ceU.
8. Brening. DeC«ll.
9. PUno, piano. SerMed.,
10. Banish, oh I
11. LQIzowf wild hunt. Weber.
12. Soldier't song. Werner.
S.
IS. Harkl aborens. Kreatier.
14. In the twlHght. Weber.
Ifi. Lorcl7 night. ChwataL
15. The two roaee. Werner.
17. The toper's glee. Zelter.
18. Hunting chonu. Weber.
19. Integer Tits. Flemmlog.
4.
90. The hnntonen. F. Kreatier.
90. Partli«. F. Otto.
22. 01 aanctbdma. Do.
9B. He who tnute. SlaenhoGv.
84. Maying. MOUer.
95.Abeenc«. F. Schneider.
6.
98. On fragrant mTrtles. MlUler.
27. Ohl cruel maid. Kalllwoda.
SB. Twine. J9 rosea. FohlenU.
99. The sun to gone. Bergt.
SD. Deh eon me. Seyfiied.
31. Dear mafd. De Call.
n. Thoaaerifloe. Fuss.
e.
9& I tell thee. boy. Oramrinl.
Si. Soldier's dionis. Werner.
35. The ladles. Beiehardt.
9S. Mariner's song. M. Baydn.
87. To song. Weber.
38. King Joy. Werner.
SB. •Lud serene. Seyfrled.
7.
40. eThe Teeper hymn. Beethoren.
41. The miner's song.
Hi
BXBIESI.
4S. Wave high your hats. Bann
44. vThe swallows. Fohlentx.
45. Uarold Harfager. H. Werner.
40. Dr. St. Paul. Zelter.
47. Oft when night. De OaD.
48.ThetwttlTe. O.W.Flnlb
49. Libera me, Dominel Kalll-
woda.
80. The diapd. Kreutmr.
61. Under every tree-top. Knhlaa.
02. The rifleman. F. Otto.
08.Pleadngpain. DeCall.
64. Thro' woods a fields. Krentaer.
66.»Ahltdl>menot.~
66. The enekooi Spohr.
67. laCe's deceit. Stelnacker.
68. Huntsnuto'sjoy. 0. Kreatier.
i». Maiden, listen. 0. F. Adam.
00. Beauteous clouds. F.Werner.
6L Parting. F. Otto.
10.
61 The first day of spring. Men-
63. War song. H. Werner.
64. Seitmade. Biaenhofer.
66. Bacchanalian. Pohlentc.
66. The mariner's return. Uoesler.
67. Huntsmao's song. Pohlentc
68. Spring time. Kreotaer.
69. »Uope and &ith. Weber.-
11.
7a eTbe equinox. Kreutnr.
7L Hilarity. Dehn.
72. The recompense. Menddssohn.
ITS. The request. Bertelsmann.
74. The wood nymph. Sutor.
75. cHark. bark I the lark. Kficken.
76.tLord, hare merey. Mendda-
sohn.
77. Hope and fear. F. Otto.
n. Boat song. F. Schubert.
7B. The dying child. J. J. Viotta.
80. Soldier's love. F.Kficken.
81. The complaint. F. Otto.
88. OondoUer'sacreoade. F.Soba*
bert.
SEMES n.
UU
1. The woods. Menddasohn.
8. Spring Is come. Do.
8.0 hills, o Tales! Do.
4. The nightingale. Do.
6. The vale of rest. Do.
6. Hunting song. Do.
14.
7. Turkish drinking song. Do.
8. The hunter's ftireweU. Do.
9. Bummer song. Do.
10. The voyage. Do.
11. Love and wine. Do.
U. Spring's joomey. Bo,
15.
18. eOn the sea. Do.
14. cln the woods. Do.
15. Hie thee. shaUop. KOeken.
16. War song. Do.
17. The mUler's daughter, HArtd.
16.
IB. Oo. speed thy flight. Otto.
19. Let us be Joyful. Schneider.
20. The trooper's song. Weber.
21. Not a spot on earth. Winter.
2^ Shall e'er my heart. Do.
S3. vMay song. Mendelssohn.
24. »The morning walk. Gade.
SB. Che-bd oontento. Seyfrled.
17.
96. The merrr wayfarer. Mei
ddssohn.
97. Farewell meeting. Da.
Sa. Serenade. Do.
29. Sutem drinking aongb Do.
1. An old romanoe. in three
movements. Menddsaohn.
5. I would that my. Beiaslger.
8. The brook. Do.
4. Winter song. Don.
98.
B. Love beareth patiently. Bias.
6. The time of song has ooflMi Do.
7. Good night. KQckeo.
a eThe secret. Beiaslger.
9. elt to decreed. ," '
87.e
10. The unknown land. Fknny
80. Song of the worthy taaa. Do.
31. The Rhine. Do.
82. TIs the song whose spirit. Do.
33. StOdent's parting song. Do.
19.
34. TheSlst of May. Mollque.
36. tLove. Cherubinl.
S6. Where's the gain? L.DeCaIl.
37. Convivial song. Mollque.
8& Bvenlng comes. Bdcke.
20.*
39. The New Tear. Mendelssohn.
40. The happy lover. Do.
4L The shepherd's song. Do.
42. The wood minstrels. Do.
43. The victors' return. Do.
44. The wandering minstrels. Do.
21.
45. Tdl me on what holy. Fuss.
46. When the hues. Bdsslger.
47. What to litis? Blum.
48. 1 think and dream. I^tor.
48. Old Bacchus. Ackers.
60. Serenade. Busse.
22.*
Bemembrance. Mendelssohn.
62. Praise of spchig. Do.
68. Spring song. Do.
64. In the forest. Do.
11. In autumn. Do.
12. Morning's greethigi. Da
13. The woodland valley. Do.
1^ The woods are ^wlng. Do»
St..
IB. Love and oouregft teohr.
16.Toaat. ZoUner.
17. Serenade. Kfickm.
18. Hard thnes. DOrmar.
29.*
19. The deep repose of night. Men-
delssohn.
90. Autumn aong. Do.
21. The lark song. Da
22. The primroaa Da
23. Homage to aprlng. Dou
30.
94. O world, thou art. Hni«».
90. Image of tfie roae. Bdchanlt.
26. Tears of anguish. Da*
27. Serenada MOller.
60. Life's bright
2ft.
66. The young musidans. KOokeo.
67. nie Bhine. Do.
68. O wert thou. Do.
8I.»
28. Song of night. Menddseohn.
99. An old love song. Do.
8a Atone. Do.
81. Greeting. Do.
82. Spring aong. Do.
31»
38. Homa Benedict.
34. Faith. Franz.
35. Spring. MOller.
36. On the water. Ouvr.
37. The water Uly. Gada
8S.»
S&SwtoaVolkaUed. KBcken.
89. Volkslled. Swablan.
4a Tyroleae Volkslled. KOcken.
41.Farewdl. Swablan.
84.*
4BL How oan a bird. Abt.
43. In spring tlraa Do.
44. The rover's Joy. Do.
45. Bvenlng song. Do.
4Bb The flower's review. Do.
n^ Laura's prayer. A. Diabdll.
48. The moniing strdL H. Ssser.
49. e fatherland. Abt.
6a Merry May. Do.
6L Tluringian Volkdied. Da
68. Faaewdl. thou lovdy. Do.
68. Evenhig. Do.
1» Hasten to the fight. Moaait.
£ Union. Marsehner.
3. The battle-fldd. H. Werner.
4. The united baod^ J. Otto..
6. On the march.
6. Thy goodness. Beethoven.
7. God to my aong. Do.
a I love my God. Do.
9. Swiftly Cadea my life. Da
10. The heavena proclaim. Do.
11. God my help. Hauptmann.
12. Look up to God. Do.
18. Prayer. Do.
89.*
14. A lament. Volkslled.
15. To the aunahlne. Da
16. Annie of Tharaw. Da
17. A aprlng lament. Do.
18. FareweU. Do.
19. The Lurley. Da
40^
2fe Vlneta. F. Abt.
SL Tfaie three chafara. H.Truhn.
22. Northman'a aong. KBcken.
28. The danoa J. Otto.
41.»
94. The Inoonstaota. Schumann.
25. The heath rose. Do.
96. The recruit. Do.
97. The Highland lassfe. Do.
42.
SB. BattUn' roarin' WnUe. Da
99. Fdlow passengers. Da
30. The lovely Addalde. Volkslled.
81. To the wood we'll go. Do.
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014
ORPHEUS.
A similar work^but for equal YoicoB only^
appeared in Germany, entitled * Orpheus : Samm-
lung auserlesene mebrstimmige Gesange fUr
Maunerstimmen,* in many volumes, publi^ed at
'Leipzig, by Friedlein, and by Zollner. [G.]
• ORPHEUS BRITANNICUS ; a CoUection
of all the choicest songs for One, Two, and Three
voioest composed by Mr. Henir Puroell ; together
with such Symphonies for Violins or Flutes as
were by him designed for any of them, and a
Thorough-bass toench Song, figured for the Organ,
Harpsidiord, or Theorbo Lute/ with portrait;
a vols, small folio, London 1698-1702. Second
edition 1 706-1 7 1 3. [See Pubobll.]
ORTIGUE, Joseph Louis D', bom at Ca-
vaiilon, May aa, i8oa, died suddenly in Paris,
14 ov. 3o, 1866, one of the most conscientious
musical litterateurs of modem France. He
studied at first merely as an amateur, under
the Castil Blazes, father and son. He went
to Aix in Provence to study law, but music
proved more powerful, and he finally resolved
to abandon the law for musical literature.
With this view he came to Paris in 1829, and
began by writing musical critiques in the ' M^
morial Catholi(^ue*; then, becoming intimate
with La Mennais, he wrote for ' LAvenir,' and,
after its failure, for * La Quotidienne,* besides the
'Gazette musicale' and 'La France musicale.'
After his marriage in 1835 he redoubled his ex-
ertions and contributed to half a score of periodi-
cals, including the * Temps,* 'Revue des deux
Mondes,* • National,* * L'Univers,* * LUniversit^
Catholique,' 'L*Opinion Catholique,' and above
all the 'Journal des D^bats.' To this last paper
he mainly owed his reputation, and his place in
several oonmiissions, historical and scientific, to
which he was appointed by government.
His important works are his large 'Diction-
naire liturgique, historique, et th^orique de
Plain Chant et de Musique religieuse* (Paris
1854 and i860, small 4to), and *La Musique ^
r^lise' (ibid. 1861, lamo). To the former of
these the Abb^ Normand contributed a number
of articles under the nam de plume of Theodore
Nisard.* D*Ortigue was associated with Nieder-
meyer in founding ' La Mattrise* (1857), a perio-
dical for sacred music, and in the 'TVait^ th^rique
et pratique de Taocompagnement du Plain-Chant*
(Paris 1 856, large 8vo.) In 186 a he started, with
M. F^lix Clement, the 'Journal des Maltrises,* a
periodical of reactionary principles in sacred
music, which soon collapsed. He was an honest
and laborious writer ; his name will live through
his ' Dictionnaire,* which contains some excellent
articles, but his other books are mere musical
miscellanies, thoughtfully written but not en-
1 KISABD, Thiodork. whoM ml nUM w«a Tb<odul« Xavler
NomuiMl, born M Quanffnon in Belgium. Jan. 27. 1812, wu ordaln«d
priest in 1885^ and in 1842 became organist of a churdi in Paris, and
was employed bj a large ecclesiastical bookseller to edit books of
plaln-soQg. Being naturally of a oontrorersial turn of mind, be pub-
lished many pamphlett on quesUons connected with musical archs»-
ology : but these are of less ralue than his edition of Dom Jumllhac's
treatise on ' La Science et la Pratique du Plain-Obant.' fh>m which he
.extracted his pamphlet * De la Notation proportlondle du Moyen-Age '
< Paris, 1847); his 'Ktudes sur les anolennes notations musioales de
rsurope' (no date), directed against FMIs ; and finally his remark-
»Me articles In d'Ortlgue's Dtctlonnaira,
0 SALUTAEIS HOSTIA.
dowed with any of those qualities c^ style or
matter which ensure any lasting influence. [G.C.]
O SALUTARIS HOSTIA., a Hymn sung
during the Office called Benediction,* at the
moment when the Tabernacle is opened, in order
that the Consecrated Host may be removed and
placed in the Monstrance prepared for its solemn
Exposition.
Sometimes also, though less frequently, ' O sal-
utaris hostia* is sung at High Mass, immedi-
ately after the * Benedictus* : not indeed as an
int€^^ part of the Mass itself, to which it does
not properly belong, but in order to prevent the
long and distracting pause which would other-
wise ensue, when — as is so frequently the case
in Plam Chaunt Masses— the *Benedictas* is
too shprt to fill up the time which must neces-
sarily elapse between the Elevation of the Host
and the * Pater noster.*
The Plain Chant Melody of 'O salutaris hostia*
is a very beautiful one, in the Eighth Mode, and
introduces some ligatures, which, when carefully
sung, add greatly to its effect. It needs, how-
ever, an experienced Choir to do it full justice.
Pierre de la Rue has treated the theme of
' 0 salutaris ' with marvellous ingenuity, in a
very celebrated Mass, wherein he seems to have
deliberately sacrificed all higher aims to the
desire of exhibiting his stupendous learning to
the utmost possible advantage, the result of his
labours being a series of infinitely complicated
Canons, of which one — the Kyrie eleison — will
be found at page 229 of the present volume.
Happily, Pierre de la Rue did not always write
in this ultra-pedantic style. In another of his
Masses — the * Missa de S. Anna * — he has sub-
stituted for the Benedictus a Polyphonic setting'
of ' 0 salutaris ' of surpassing beauty, full of ri<£
harmony, and, so far as its style is concerned,
very much in advance of the age in which he
lived. We are the more indebted to him for
this, because, in the first place, the position of the
Hymn, between the Sanctus and Agnus Dei,
proves the custom of introducing it at High
Mass to be at least as old as the 15th century;
and secondly, because, in consequence of the com-
paratively late date of the Office of ' Benedic-
tion,' the number of genuine polyphonic settii^
of the Music needed fbr it is exceedingly small.
In modem times ' 0 salutaris * is treated in s
veiy different spirit. Most Composers of the
present century have adapted it ibr a Solo Voice,
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0 SALUTAMS HOSTIA.
with ft highly elaborate aocompaniment, and ft
not always very moderate amount of fioriiura.
Cherabini has written many settings of it, one
of which is almost as popular as his c^ebrated
'Ave Maria'; and Kossini has introdaoed it
into his Messe Soleunelle, in company with a
Melody of ravishing beauty. Both these inspi-
rations— for we can call them nothing less — are
idl that can be wished, so fiur as Music is con-
cerned, but utterly unfit for their intended
position, either in the Office of Benediction or
the Mass. [W.S.B.]
OSBORNE, Gboboe Alexajtobb, bom in 1806
at Limerick, where his father was an organist, was
a self-instructed pianist until he reached the age
of 18, when he determined on making music his
profession and seeking instruction on the Con-
tinent. In 1825 he repaired to Belgium, and
foimd a home in the house of the Prince de
Chimay, Cherubini*s friend, the well -known musi-
cal amateur, who made him acquainted with the
works of the best German composers. In 1826
be went to Paris, and studied the pianoforte
under Pixis, and harmony under F^Us. Ho after-
wards placed himself under Kalkbrenner, and
soon obtained a good position among the pianists
of the day, took his full share in the musical
life at that time so abundant in Paris, and
amongst other advantages enjoyed the privilege
of an intimate acquaintance with Chopin and
Berlioz. His recollections of these remarkable
men he has recently communicated to the Musi-
cal Association. In 184s Mr. Osborne settled in
Xiondon, where he has for many years been one
of the most esteemed and genial teachers. He
composed, in conjunction with De Beriot, duos
for pianoforte and violin, on themes from Rossini
and Auber. His other works consist of string
quartets and fantasias, rondos and variations
for the pianoforte. His ' Pluie des Perles,* a
brilliant and charming drawing-room piece, was
extraordinarily populi^ in its day. [W.H.H.]
OSSIA, OPPURE. OVVERO. These words
(the meaning of which is respectivdy * Or it may.
be,' ' Or besides,' ' Or else ') are used indifferently
to mark a passage, generally printed above the
treble or below the bass, which may be sub-
stituted for that written in the body or text ot
the work, being in most cases an easier version
of the same kind of effect. For instance, 'ossia'
is 80 used by Beethoven in the first movement of
the Pianoforte Concerto in Eb op. 73, 21 bars
from the end. The same direction also occurs
frequently in the pianoforte works of Schumann,
Chopin, and Brahms. Liszt sometimes gives the
easier passage in the text, and writes the more
difficult one over it. These words we^e also
used when the compass of the piano was in pro-
cess of alteration; thus Moscheles sometimes
adapts passages originally written for a full-sized
piano, to the smaller compass, writing the passage
for the smaller piano above that of the full-sized
one.
Tlie same object is attained by the words Plu9
facile or leiehter. [J. A. F. M.]
OTTHOBONL
615
OTELLO. Opera ; the libretto based on Shake-
speare's play, the music by Rossini. Produced at
the Fonao, Naples, in 1816. In French at the
Academic, as Othello, Sept. 2, 1844, but with very
little success. In London at the King's Theatre,
May 16, 1822. Desdemona was one of the great
parts of both Pi&ta and Malibran. [G.]
OSTINATO, i.e. Obstinate. 'Basso ostinato'
is the Italian term for a ground bass, which re-
curs obstinately throughout the composition.
[See Ground Bass, vol. i. 634 h.] * I shall seem
to you,' says ^Mendelssohn, ' like a Basso ostinato,
always grumbling over again, and at last be-
coming quite tiresome.' [G.]
OTTAVINO. An octave flute. [See Piccolo.]
OTTHOBONI, THE Cabdinal Pibtbo, ne-
phew to Pope Alexander YIU, was bom in the
year 1668, advanced to the Purple in 1690, and
afterwards appointed Vice-chancellor of the Holy
See. He was a muniBcent patron of Art, and a
firm friend to all great Artists, whether native
or foreign. In proof of this may be cited his
patronage of Corelli, and his intimacy with Do-
menico Scarlatti and Handel, for both of whom
he entertained a sincere rega^. It was indeed
at his suggestion that, during Handel's short
residence in Rome, these two great Musicians
entered upon the memorable trial of skill, which
resulted in a drawn battle upon the Harpsichord,
though Scarlatti himself confessed to Handel's
great superiority over him upon the Oigan.
Cardinal Otthoboni is best known to the pre-
sent generation of Musicians by his splendid
Library. He was an enthusiastio collector of
MSS. ; and on the dispersion of the Library
belonging to the noble house of Altaemps, he
was fortunate enough to obtain possession of
some priceless treasures which had remained in
custody of the family ever since they were first
acquired by the Duke Giovanni Angelo in the
1 6th century. The interest attached to these
volumes is no ordinary one. Duke Giovanni
Angelo Altaemps was not only the friend of
Palestrina, but his pupil also. His Choir ranked
next in excellence to that of the Pontifical
Chapel ; and Palestrina and other great Masters
of the age supplied him with a vast number of
original works, the greater part of which still
remain unedited. Many of these works appear
to be hopelessly lost : but two large volumes are
still preserved in the Collegio Romano,' and six
in the Vatican Library. Those belonging to the
College contain eight Motets for four, and nine
for eight Voices, by Palestrina, all of which have
lately been published for the first time by Messrs.
Breitkopf & Hartel, in their complete collection.
Those in the Vatican Library oontun Masses and
other compositions, which for the most part still
remain unpublished. These last, now known as
the Altaemps- Otthoboni Collection, were the
volumes secured by the learned Cardinal, after
whose death, in the year 1740, they were pur*
chased and presented to the Vatican Library by
1 Latter Jan. 8. Uas.
s Unless they hare
Gorenuneot
bnen Into the hands of the praient Italian
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610
OTTHOBONL
Pope Benedict XIV. Thar authentioity as
fibithfiil copies, made from original MSS. during
the lifetime of Paleetrina and the other gre^t
Matters whose works they contain, is indis-
putable; and, in common with the yolumes in
the Collegio Bomano, they possess an additional
interest from the fii^ that the Occidentals de-
manded by the laws of Gantus fictus are supplied
in them throughout. [See Musioi. fiota.1 It is
impossible to ascertain by whose hand those
Accidentals were inserted. In all probability
they were introduced for the convenienoe of the
Ducal Choir. But it is certain that they date
from a time when Cantus fictus was much more
generally studied than it is now ; and on this
account they are invaluable authorities on dis^
puted points.
Cardinal Otthoboni died, as we have said, in
1740. In the March number of the 'Gentle-
mans Magazine* for that year, the obituary con-
tains the following account of his honours and
liberality. 'Cardinal Ottoboni died on Feb. 17,
aged 72. He advanced to the Purple at the
age of 23. He died possessed of nine Abbeys
in the Ecclesiastical States, five in Venice, and
three in France, which last only amounted
to 56,000 livrts per annum. He was Dean of
the Sacred College, and, in that quality. Bishop
of Velletri and Ostia, Protector of France,
Arohpriest of S. John Lateran, and Secretary of
the Holy Office. He had a particular inclina-
tion, when ^oung, to Music, Poetry,, and Clas-
sical Learmng — composing Airs, Operas, and
Oratorios. He made the greatest figiire of any
of the Cardinals ; or, indeed, of any other person
iu Rome, for he had the soul of an Emperor, nor
was there any princely notion but what he en-
deavoured to> imitate,, entertaining the people
with Comedies, Operas, Puppet-shows, Oratonoe,
Academies, etc. He was magnificent in his
alms, feasts, and entertainments at festivals. In
the Eccleeiasdcal Functions he likewise showed
Ipreat piety and generosity,, and his Palace was
the refuge of the Poor,, as well as the resort of
the Virtuoet In his own Parish, he entertained
a physician, surgeon, and apothecary, for the use
of all that needed their assistance.' [W. S. R.]
OTTCH EsNST Juuus» bom at Eonigstein
Sept. I, 1804 ; though always musical, was not
educated exclusively for music. On the con-
trary, he passed his ' maturity examination ' at
Dresden in 1822 with honour, and studied theo-
logy for three years at Leipzig. While doing this
he worked at music with Sc^cht and Weinlig.
His compositions are of a solid character— ora-
torios ; masses ; an opera (*Schloss am Rhein*)
performed at Dresden 1 838, and another at Augs-
Dorg ; sonatas ; cycles of songs for men's voices,
•to. ]bi 1 830 he was appointed Cantor at Dresden,
a post which he held with honour to himself u^
till his death, March 5, 1877..
His brother Franz, a baas singer (borm 1806),
and another brother a tenor, came to England in
1833 as directors of a Part-ringing society. [G.]
OUUBICHEFF, Albxakdib yon, Russian
mobleman, and enthusiastio amateur, bom 1795
OURS, V.
at Dresden, where his fitther was Ruanan am-
bassador. From his earliest years he was de-
voted to music, and studied the violin sufficiently
to become a good quartet-player. He aerred
first in the army, and then as a diplomatist, but
retired on the accession of the Emperor Nicholas,
and lived on his estates near Nijni-Novgorod
till his death on January, 24, 1858. Mozart
was his idol, and he re-awakened attention to his
works at a time when Germany at least was
entirely pre-oooupied with Meyerbeer and Sptm'
tini. OulibichenTs sreat work 'Nouvelle bio-
graphic de Mozart, 3 vols. (Moscow, 1844),
contains much valuable matter, biographical aitd
aesthetical, and has been largely used by Otto
Jahn. His admiration £ar Mozart however 1^
him to depreciate Beethoven, and for this he was
attacked by Lenz. In his reply, 'Beethoven,
ses critiques et ses glossateurs' (Leipzig and
Paris, 1857), he expressed with even greater
vehemence his opinion on the extravagance of
Beethoven's later works, and drew down a storm
of abuse and oontroversy with whidi be was
little fitted to cope, and which is said to have
hastened his end. It is but just to admit that
his views, less caustically expressed, were held
by many eminent musicians, mduding Ries and
Spohr. [F.G.]
OU PEUT-ON £tRE MIKUX QITAU
SEIN DE SA FAMILLEt 'Where can one
be better thau in the bosom of one's fiunfly?*
A quartet* in Gr^try's 'Lucile* (1760), whidi
has oecome historical from its having been sung
on several occasions — as for instance at Versailles,
July 15, 1789; at Carlton House at the first visit
of George HI. and Queen Charlotte to the Prince
of Wales, Feb. 3, 1 795 ; and at Korythnia, on the
retreat firom Moscow, Nov. 15, 181 2.' The air
is as follows : —
4'n r ^rrJir-^i "H- rrrfi
OA peot-on « • tn mleoz. Oft peat-os
«it ooDtant, L0 ocBur. lfliyeQz.le
Toot, til-aM»ft.Qoaunflno»bont. a - fouz. VI • roni. •! •
woa.«iiD(nu,.ooinnwnMl»oDtaleux.ooiiuiMDOtboDs al-ausl
It was adopted by the Bourbons after the Re-
storation as a loyal air. [G.]
OURS, L*— The Bear. A name sometimea
given to one of the six symphonies oomposed
by Haydn in 1786 for the Society of the * Lege
Olympique ' in Paris. [See vol. L p. 721.] The
I Not a duct. M ttatod andar QbAtbt. VOL L ABB a.
S Bm VBUXOM8 AQ UUJT.
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OURS, L.
title 18 due to the finale, which opens with a
passage d la Comemute, recalling a bear-danoe.
OUSELEY.
617
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OURY, Madame (fUe Anna Carolinb db
BELLEVILLE). This once-celebrated pianiste,
the daughter of a French nobleman, director of
the opera in Municli, was bom at Landshut in
Bavaria, Jan. 24, 1806, and spent the first
ten years of her life at Augsburg with her
parents, studying with the cathedral organist,
on whose recommendation she was taken to
Vienna in 181 6, and placed under the direction
of Czemy for four years, during which time she
was introduced to Beethoven, and heard him
improvise on the piano. She appeared on two
occasionB in Vienna, oil one of which (Madame
Catalani's &rewell concert) she played a Humm^
eoncerto with orchestra. In 1830 she returned
to her parents at Munich, and played there with
great success. The next year was spent in Paris,
where she was well received. She resumed her
studies with Andreas Strieker in Vienna in
1839, after which she made a professional tour
to Warsaw, Berlin, etc. In 1831 she came to
Jjondon, and made her d^but at her Majesty's
theatre at Paganini's concert in July. Her own
concert took place in August, and in October
she married M. Oury the violinist, with whom
she then proceeded to make a long tour to
Russia, where they remained two years, to the
principal cities of Germany, Austria, and Hol-
land, settling at length in Paris for two years
and a half. In April 1839 they returned to
England, which from that time became their
home. Until 1846 Madame Oury divided her
time between London and Brighton, being par-
ticularly successful at the latter places From
that time she devoted herself entirely te com-
position, and during the twenty years that fol-
lowed published no less than i8d pieces, princi-
pally of the class known as ' drawing-room * mu-
sic. In 1866 she retired from all artistic pur-
suits, and continued to live near London..
The following is Schumann's criticiKm of her
playing : * Anna de Belleville and Clara [Wieck] .
They should not be compared. They are dif-
ferent mistresses of different sdiools. The play-
ing of the Belle viUe is technically the finer of the
two ; Clara's is more impassioned. The tone of
the Belleville flatters, but does not penetrate the
ear ; that of Clara reaches the heart. Anna is
a poetess ; Clara is poetry itself. (Music and
Musicians, p. 68.) Mme. Oury died at Munich
on July 33, 1 880. [J. A. F. M.]
OUSELEY, the Rev. Sir Frederick Arthub
Gore, Bart.,— son of the Rt. Hon. Sir Gore O use-
ley, Bart., the eminent Orientalist, and Ambassa-
dor at the courts of Persia and St. Petersburg,
was bom in London Aug. 13, 1835, and from
early childhood evinced great talent for music,
and an extraordinarily accurate ear. His skill
in playing and extemporising was very unusual,
and at the age of eight he composed an opera,
' L'Isola disabitata.' In 1844 Sir Frederick suc-
ceeded his father, and was educated at Christ
Church, Oxford, at which University he gradu-
ated B.A. in 1846, and M.A. in 1849. In that
year he was ordained, and until 1851 held a
curacy at. St. Paul's, Knightsbridge. In 1850
he took the degree of Mus. Bao. at Oxford, his
' exercise* being a cantata, ' The Lord is the true
God,' and in 1854 ^^^ ^® higher grade of Mus.
Doc., for which his oratorio 'St. Polycarp* was
composed and performed. Upon the death of
Sir Henry R. Bishop in 1855, Sir Frederick was
elected to the Professorship of Music at Oxford,
an office which he has- held ever since with
honour and esteem. The same year he was or-
dained priest and appointed Precentor of Here-
ford Cathedral. In 1856 he was admitted to the
ad eundem degrees of Mus. Bac. and Mus. Doo,
at Durham, and became vicar of St. Michaers,
Tenbury, as well as warden of St. Michael's Col-
lege there for the education of boys in music and
general knowledge, of which establishment he is
the principal munificent founder and maintainer.
The daily choral service in the beautiful church
of St. Michael's, whidi Sir Frederick erected
adjoining his college, is served by the masters
and boys. His library has been already noticed
(p. 433 a). ^ , , .
As a practipal and theoretical musician and
composer, Sir Frederick occupies a high place.
He is skilled both as pianist and organist. In
extemporaneous performance on the organ, espe-
cially in fugue-playing and in contrapuntal treat-
ment of a given theme, he is at the present time
and in this country perhaps unsurpassed. His
two excellent treatises,, published in the Oxford
Clarendon Press Series, on * Harmony,' and on
' Counterpoint and Fugue ' are standard works.
His treatise on ' Form and General Composition,*
in the same series, is alaa a valuable contribution
to musical literature.
As composer Sir Frederick is known chiefly
by his works for the Church. In these he has
adhered closely to the traditions of the Anglican
school. He has composed 11 services, one of
which, in 8 parts, is still in MS., and another,
recently written, has orchestral accompaniments.
He has also published upwards of 70 anthems,
and has edited the sacred works of Orlando Gib-
bons. His compositions for organ indude a set
of 6, one of 7, and one of 1 8, prdiudee and fugues,
also 6 preludes, 3 andantes, and 3 sonatas. He
has also written some dozen glees and part-songs,
several solo songs with P.F. acoompanlment^
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618
OUSELEY.
and a rtring-qnartetB. His oratorio, 'Hagar/
was produced at the Hereford Festival of 1873,
and performed in the following year at the Crystal
Palace.
Aa Oxford Profeesor he han effected consider*
able improvements and reforms. The office of
Choragus, which had fiJlen into disuse, has been
re-established, and is now held by Dr. Corfe ; the
standard of qualifications for degrees has been
considerably ndsed, and recently the excellent
system of a preliminary examination in elemen-
tary mathematics, classics, etc., originated by
Sir Robert Stewart at Dublin, and adopted at
Cambridge, has been made necessary at Oxford ;
80 that a degree in music is no longer conferred
by our Universities on persons who have not
received some general education. Sir Frederick
has also induced his University to grant honorary
degrees in music, which had never been given by
Oxford previous to 1879.
In addition to the works already named, Sir
Frederick has edited a collection of Cathedral
Services (1853), and with Dr. Monk, Anglican
Psalter Chaito (1873). [H. S. O.]
OVER-BLOWING is the production of a
higher note than the natural note of a pipe, by
forcing the wind. In the flute the upper octaves
are legitimately so produced. In the organ it is
apt to arise when the feeders of a bellows pump
wind into the reservoir in greater quantities or
at greater speed than its consumption, and when
the reservoir is therefore liable to become more
than sufficiently full. If more wind were then
to be supplied it might become more compressed,
— stronger, — causing the pipes to produce a mo-
mentary scream rather than a musical sound.
To prevent this natural consequence of * over-
blowing,* a safety-valve or wasU-paUet is provided,
which allows the sui)eradded wind to pass from
the reservoir. [E. J. H.]
OYEREND, Mabvadukb, oi*ganist of Isle-
worth, and scholar of Dr. Bovce, whose MSS. on
the theory of music he acquired — enjoyed much
repute as a theorist. He composed ' Twelve So-
natas for two Violins and a Violoncello,' pub-
lished in 1779. ^^ 1 7^5 ^0 published 'A Brief
Account of, and Introduction to Eight Lectures
on the Science of Music* A canon for 8 voices
by him, * Glory be to the Father,' is printed in
Warren's collection. In his will, dated 1781.
he described himself as ' Student in Music.* He
died in 1790. His library was sold in 1791,
when his MSS. (including those of Dr. Boyce,)
passed into the hands of Callcott. [W. H. H.]
OVERSPDN. equivalent to the German
Hbereponnen, applied to the large strings in a
pianoforte, or the G string in a violin, etc., which
are wound or spun round with fine wire to in-
crease their weight and also the depth and rich-
ness of their tone. [A. J. H.]
OVERSTRINGING. A method adopted by
some pianoforte-makers of raising the lower bass
strings and leading them diagonally over the
others, to obtain length and a different arranc^e-
ment of the scale. [See Pianofobtb.] [A. J.H.]
OVERTURE.
OVERTONES. A word formed in imitatioo
of the German ObertHne which Helmholte uses
as a contraction for OherpartiallGne, meaning
Upper Pabtial Tones. Like * Clang' and
'Clangtint' the word Overtones is rejected by
the i^lish translator of Helmholtz*8 work ae
not agreeing with English idiom. [J. L.]
OVERTURE (Fr. Ouverture ; Ital. Overtura),
i, e. Opening. This term was originally applied to
the instrumental prelude to an opera, its first im-
portant development being due to Lulli, as exem*
plified in his series of French operas and ballets,
dating from 1672 to 1686. The earlier Italian
operas were generally preceded by a brief and
meagre introduction for instruments, usnally
call^ Sinfonia, sometimes Toccata, the former
term having afterwards become identified with
the grandest of all forms of orchestral musio, the
latter having been always more properly (as it
soon became solely) applied to pieces for keyed
instruments. Montevonie's opera, 'Orfeo* (1608)
conmiences with a short prelude of nine bars,
termed 'Toocato,' to be played three times
through — being, in &ct, little more than a mere
preliminary flourish of instruments.' Such small
beginnings became afterwards somewhat ampli-
fied, both by Italian and French composers ; but
only very sUght indications of the Overture, as a
composition properly so called, are i^parent
before the time of Lulli, who justlv ranks as an
inventor in this respect. He fixed the form of
the dramatic prelude ; the overtures to his operas
having not only served as models to composen
for nearly a century, but having also been them-
selves extensively used in Italy and Germany as
preludes to operas by other masters. Not only
did our own Purcell follow this influenoe ; Hand^
also adopted the form and closelv adhered to
the model furnished by Lulli, and by his tran-
scendent genius gave the utmost development
and musioJ interest attainable in an imitation
of what was so entirely conventional The form
of the Overture of LulU's time consisted of a slow
Introduction, generally repeated, and followed by
an Allegro in the fugued style ; and occasionally
included a movement in one of the many dance-
forms of the period, sometimes two pieces of this
description. The development of the ballet
and of the opera having been concurrent, and
dance-pieces having formed important constitu-
ents of the opera itself, it was natural that the
dramatic prelude should include similar features,
and no incongruity was thereby involved, either
in the overture, or the serious opera which it
heralded, since the danoe music of the period was
generally of a stately, even solemn, kind. In
style, the dramatic overture of the class now
referred to— like the stage music which it pre-
ceded, and indeed all the secular c<»npositioQs of
the time, had little, if any, distinguishing char-
acteristic to mark the difference between the
secuh^ and sacred styles. Music had been
fostered and raised into the importanoe of ao
art by the Church, to whose service it had long
been almost exclusively applied ; and it retained
1 II k printtd in Um 'Muloal Times' for April 18S».
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OVERTURE.
a strong and pervading tinge of serious formalism
during nearly a century of its earliest application
to secular purposes, even to those of dramatic
expression. The following quotations, first from
Lidli's overture to *Th^8^' (1675)1 ^^^ ^^^^
from that to 'Phaeton* (1683), will serve to in-
dicate the style and form of the dramatic prelude
as fixed by him. They are scored for stringed
instruments. The overture to ' Thes^e ' begins as
follows : —
OVERTURE.
619
n la! fi
J. Al.
-N J
»>l JH
i^^E^
^^^
P^ Ml *-
i 1 M
r r
1^" f- ™H '- 1
1 l ^J. JH-
1 ^^'T 1
This introduction b carried on for 16 bars further,
with a repeat, and is followed by a movement
*Plus vite* (in all 33 bars), commencing as
follows : —
^^^^^^^
JWA^
r^tLiP
The overture to * Phaeton ' starts thus : —
8 bars more follow in similar style, ending on
the dominant — with a repeat — and then comes the
quick movement, in free fugal style, commencing
thus: —
There are 22 more bars of similar character, fol-
lowed by a few marked * lentement,' and a repeat.
In illustration of Lulli's influence in thu re-
spect on Purcell, the following extracts from the
overture to PurcelFs latest opera, * Bonduca *
(1695), ^^"^y ^ adduced. It opens with a slow
movement of 14 bars, beginning as follows : —
„ J r qJ3^ J , J'
l<i> f- • IP Sfcfr r
l^^'T'itfff lr«6i/f^fa.l
The Allegro commences thus : —
Jr— J-
^■ii.L'mriffnmi^^
Jr^L
This is carried on for 67 bars further, and merges
into a closing Andante of 9 bars : —
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e2o
OVERTURE.
As an example of the Italian style of operatic
* Sinfonia ' the following quotations from the Nea-
politan composer Alessandro Scarlatti are interest-
ing, as showing an independence of the prevailing
Lulli model that is remarkable oons?dering the
period. The extracts are from the orchestral pre-
lude to his opera ' II Prigioniero fortunate/ pro-
duced in 1698. They are given on the authority of
a MS. formerly belonging to the celebrated double-
bass player Dragonetti, and now in the British
Museum (Add. MSS. 16,1 a6). The soore of the
Sinfonia (or Overture) is for four trumpets and
the usual string band, the vicdonceUo part being
marked *con fogotto.' It begins Allegro, with
a passage for ist and and trumpet :—
This is repeated by the other two trumpets ; and
then the strings enter, as follows : —
Then the trumpets are used, in alternate pairs,
after which come passages for strings on this
figure: —
f ^nrri^mfiTT^]'^!
This is followed by i a bars more in similar style ;
the trumpets being sometimes used in florid pas-
sages, and sometimes in hannony, in crotchets.
OVERTURE.
Then oomes a movement ' Grave ' for strings only,
conmiendng thus :
19 more bars of a corresponding kind lead to a
short ' Presto,* the i st ana and trumpets in unison,
and the 3rd and 4th also in unison : —
6 more bars of a like kind follow, with a repeat;
then a second part, consisting of similar passages,
also repeated. This 'Sinfonia,* it will be seen,
has no analogy with the stereotyped form of the
Lulli overture.
The increased musical importance given to the
Overture by Handel, while still adhering to the
model fixed by Lulli, is proved even in his
earliest specimens. A few quotations from ths
overture to 'Rinaldo,' the first Italian opera
which he produced in England (1 71 1), will serve
as indications of the influence adverted to. Hie
instrumentation is for string quartet, the ist oboe
playing with the ist vidm, and the and oboe
with ^e and violin.
10 more bars follow, in a similar sfyle ; the move-
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OVERTURE.
ment Is repeated, &nd closee on the dominant;
after which comes a fugued Allegro, b^inning as
follows : —
OVERTURE.
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1
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1
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This is carried on, with fluent power, for 33
bars more ; a short slow movement follows,
chieflj for the oboe ; and the overture concludes
with a * Gigue/ Handers inventive originality,
and his independence of all prescribed forms in
the choruses of his oratorios, stand in curious
contrast to his subservience to precedent in his
overtures ; those to his Italian operas and those
to his English oratorios being similar in Ibrm,
style, and developm^t ; insomuch, indeed, that
any one might be used with abnost equal appro-
priateness for either purpose. There is a minuet
extant which is said (we believe on the authority
of the late Mr. Jones, organist of Canterbury
Cathedral), to have been designed by Handel
as the closing movement of the overture to the
'Messiah' when performed without the oratorio.'
The first strain of this minuet is as follows : —
As regards the Overture, then, Handel perfected
the form first developed by LuUi, but cannot be
considered as an inventor and grand originator,
such as he appears in his sublime sacred choral
writing.
Hitherto, as we have said, the dramatic Overture
had no special relevance to the character and
sentiment of the work which it preceded. The
first step in this direction was taken by Gluck, who
was for some time contemporaneous with Handel.
It was he who first perceived, or at least real-
ised, the importance of rendering the overture
to a dramatic work analogous in style to the
character of the music which is to follow. In
the dedication of his ' Aloeste * he refers to this
1 Sm ' UulaJ standard.' June 17, 1S71. and ' Monthly Um. Baoord.'
AocUn.
among his other reforms in stage composition.
[See Gluok, vol.i. 6036; Opeba, vol. ii. 516a.]
The French score of *Alceste' includes, besides the
invariable string quartet, flutes, oboes, a clarinet,
and three trombones. Even Gluck, however, did
not always identify the overture with the opera
to which it belonged, so thoroughly as w^ aiW-
wards done, bv including a theme or themes in
anticipation of the music which followed. Still,
he certainly rendered the orchestral prelude what,
as a writer has well said, a literary preface should
be — * something analogous to the work itself, so
that we may feel its want as a desire not else-
where to be gratified.' His overtures to ' Alceete '
and ' Iphig^nie en Tauride * run continuously into
the fint scene of the opera — and the latter is
perhaps the most remarkable instance up to
that time of special identification with the stage
music which it heralds ; inasmuch as it is
a distinct foreshadowing of the opening storm
scene of the opera into which the prdude is
merged. Perhaps the finest specimen of the
dramatic overture of the period, viewed as a dis-
tinct orchestral composition, is that of Gluck to
his opera ^ Iphig^nie en Aulide.'
The influence of Gluck on Mozart is clearly
to be traced in Mozart*s first important opera,
* Idomeneo* ( 1 781 ), the overture to which, both in
beauty and power, is far in advance of any pre-
vious work of the kind; but, beyond a general
nobility of style, it has no special dramatic
character that inevitably associates it with the
opera itself, though it is incorporated therewith
by its continuance into the opening scene. In
his next work, ' Die EntfUhrung aus dem Serail'
(1782), Mozart has identified the prelude with
the opera by the short incidental 'Andante'
movement, anticipatory (in the minor key) of
Belmont's aria ' Hier soil ich dich denn sehen.*
In the overture to his * Nozze di Figaro' (1786)
he originally contemplated a similar interrup-
tion of the Allegro by a short slow movement
— an intention afterwards happily abandoned.
This overture is a veritable creation, that can
only be sufficiently appreciated bv a comparison
6f its brilliant outburst of ffenial and graceful
vivacity with the vapid pr^udes to the comic
operas of the day. In the overture to his ' Don
Giovanni* (1787) we have a distinct identification
with the opera by the use, in the introductory
' Andante,* of some of the wondrous music intro-
ducing the entry of the statue in the last scene.
The solemn initial chords for trombones, and the
fugal * Allegro' of the overture to * Die Zauber-
flote* may be supposed to be suggestive of the
religious element of the libretto ; and this mav be
considered as the composer's masterpiece of its
kind. Since Mozart's time the Overture has
adopted the same general principles of form
which govern the first movement of a Symphony
or Sonata, without the repetition of the first
section.
Reverting to the French school, we find a char-
acteristic overture of Maul's to his opera ' La
Chasse du Jeune Henri' (1797), the prelude to
which alone has survived. In this however, as in
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OVERTURE.
Fronch mumo generally of that date (and even
earlier), the influence of Haydn is distinctly
apparent ; his symphonies uid quartets had
met with immediate acceptance in Paris, one of
the former indeed, entitled ' La Chasse,' having
been composed 17 years before M^hul^s opera.
Cherubini, although Italian by birth, belongs to
France ; for all his great works were produced
at Paris, and most of his life was passed there.
This oomposer must be specially mentioned as 1
having been one of the firat to depart from the
pattern of the Overture as fixed by Mozart.
Cherubini indeed marks the transition point !
between the r^fular symmetry of the style of |
Mozart, and the coming disturbance of form
effected by Beethoven. In the dramatic effect
gained by the gradual and prolonged cretcendo,
both he and M^ul seem to have anticipated
one of Rossini's &vourite resources. This is
specially observable in the overture to his opera
'Anaoreon' (1803). Another feature is the
abandonment of the Mozartian rule of giving the
second subject (or episode) first in the dominant,
and afterwards in the original key, as in the
symphonies, quartets, and sonatas of the period.
The next step in the development of the Over-
ture was taken by Beethoven, who began b^ fol-
lowing the model left by Moaurt, and carrying it
to its highest development, as in the overture to
the ballet of Prometheus (1800). In his other
dramatic overtures, including those to von
Collin's 'Coriolan' (1807) and to Goethe^ 'Eg-
mont' (18 10), the great composer fully asserts
his independence of form and precedent. But he
had done so still earlier in the overture known
as ' No. 3 * of the four which he wrote for his
opera 'Fidelio.' In this wonderful prelude
(composed in 1806), Beethoven has apparently
reached the highest possible point of dramatic
expression, by foreshadowing the sublime heroism
of Leonora's devoted affection for her husband,
and indicating, as he does, the various phases
of her grief at his disappearance, her search for
him, his rescue by her from a dungeon and
assassination, and their ultimate reunion and
happiness. Here the stereotyped form of over-
ture entirely disappears : the commencing scale
passage, in descending octaves, suggesting the
utterance of a wail of despairing grief, leads
to the exquisite phrases of the 'Adagio ' of Flo-
restan's scena in the dungeon, followed by the
passionate ' Allegro ' which indicates the heroic
purpose of Leonora ; this movement including the
spirit- stirring trumpet-call that proclaims the
rescue of the imprisoned husband, and the whole
winding up with a grandly exultant burst of joy ;
— these leading features, and the grand develop-
ment of the whole, constitute a dramatic prelude
that is still unapproached. In 'No. i' of these
Fidelio Overtures (composed 1807) he has gone
still further in the use of themes from the opera
itself, and has employed a phrase which occurs
in Floreetan's Allegro to the words * An angel
Leonora,' in the oodst of the overture, with very
fine effect.
While in the magnificent work just described
OVERTURE.
we must concede to Beethoven undivided pre-
eminence in majesty and elevation of style, the
palm, as to romanticism, and that powerful
element of dramatic effect, ' local colour,* must
be awarded to Weber. No subjects could well be
more distinct than those of the Spanish drama
* Preciosa '(1820), the wild forest legend of North
Grermany. ' Der Freischiitz ' (182 1), the chivalric
subject of the bonk of ' Euryanthe' (1823), and
the bright orientalism of * Oberun ' (i8a6). The
overtures to these are too familiar to need specific
reference ; nor is it necessary to point out how
vividly each is impressed with the character and
tone of the opera to which it belongs. In each of
them Weber has anticipated themes from the
following stage music, while he has adhered to the
Mozart model in the regular recurrence of the
principal subject and the episode. His admirable
use of the orchestra is specially evidenced in the
' Freischtttz ' overture, in which the iremoiUaido
passages for strings, the use of the chalwmtaM of
the clarinet, and the employment of the drams,
never fail to raise thrilling impressionB of the
supernatural. The incorporation of portions of the
opera in the overture is so skilfully effected by
Weber, that there is no impression of patchiness
or want of spontaneous creation, as in Uie case of
some other composers — Auber for instance and
Rossini (excepting the latter's 'Tell'), whose
overtures are too often like pot-pourris of the lead-
ing themes of the operas, loosely strung together,
intrinsically charming and brilUantly scored, bat
seldom, if ever, especially dramatic. Most musical
readers will remember Schubert's clever travestie
of the last-named composer, in the ' Ov^tnre in
the Italian style,* written offhand by the former
in 181 7, during the rage for Rossini s music ia
Vienna.
Berlioz left two overtures to his opera of
' Benvenuto Cellini,' one bearing the name of the
drama, the other called the * (^maval Romain,'
and usually played as an entracte. The themes
of both are derived more or less from the qpers
itself. Both are extraordinarily .forcible sod
effective, abounding with the gorgeous instru-
mentation and bizarre treatment which axe asso-
oiated with the name of Berlioz.
Since Weber there has been no snoh fine
example of the operatic overture — suggestive of
and identified with the subsequent dramatie
action — ^as that to Wagner's 'Tannhauaer,' in
which, as in Weber's overtures, movements from
the opera itself are amalgamated into a consistent
whole, set off with every artifice of contrast and
with the most splendid orchestration. A notice-
able novelty in the construction of the operstk
overture is to be found in Meyerbeer's incorpora-
tion of the choral 'Ave Maria* into his Overture
to ' Dinorah ' (Le Pardon de Ploermel).
In some of the modem operas, Italian and
French (even of the grand and heroic class), ths
work is heralded merely by a trite and meagre
introduction, of little more value or signifioanoe
than the feeble Sinfbnia of the earliest musical
drama. Considering . the extended developmeot
of modem operas, the absence of an overturt of
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OVEBTURE.
proportionate importance or (if a miere introduc-
tory prelude) one of Buch beauty and significance
as that to Wagner*8 'Lohengrin/ is a serious
defect, and may generally be construed into an
evidence of the composer's indolence, or of his want
of power as an instrumental writer. Recurring
to the comparison of a preface to an operatic over-
ture, it may be said of the latter, as an author has
well said of the former, that *it should invite
by its beauty, as an elegant porch announces the
splendour of the interior.*
The development of the oratorio overture (as
already implied) foUowed that of the operatic
overture. Among prominent specimens of the
former are those to the first and second parts of
Spohr's ' Last Judgment ' (the latter of which is
entitled 'Symphony') ; and the still finer over-
tures to Mendelssohn's 'St. Paul/ and 'Elijah,*
this last presenting the specialty of being placed
after the recitative passage with which tibe work
really opens. Mr. Maofarrt;n*s overtures to his ora-
torios of 'John the Baptist,* 'The Resurrection,'
and * Joseph,* are all carefully designed to prepare
Uie hearer for the work which follows, by employ-
ing themes from the oratorio itself, by introducing
special features, as the Sho&r-hom in 'John the
Baptist,' or by ffeueral character and local colour,
ma in 'Joseph/ The introduction to Haydn's
' Creation* — a piece of ' programme music * illus-
tratiye of ' Chaos' — is a prelude not answering to
the conditions of an overture properly so called, as
does that of the same composer's ' S^isons,' wbooh
however is rather a cantata than an oratorio.
Reference has hitherto been made to the Over-
ture only as the introduction to an opera, ora-
torio, or drama. The form and name have been
however extensively applied during the present
century to orchestoJ pieces intended merely
for concert use, sometimes with no special pur-
pose, in other instances bearing a specific title
indicating the composer^s intention to illustrate
some poetical or legendary subject. Formerly a
83rmphony, or one movement therefrom, was en-
titled 'Grand Overture,' or 'Overture,' in the
concert programmes, according to whether the
whole work, or only a portion thereof was used.
Thus in the announcements of Salomon's Lon-
don concerts (i 791-4). Haydn's Symphonies, com-
posed expressly for them, are generally so de-
scribed. Among special examples of the Overture
— properly so called — composed for independent
performance are Beethoven s ' Weihe des Hauses,'
written for the inauguration of the Josephsstadt
Theatre in iSaa; Mendelssohn's 'Midsummer
Night's Dream Overture* (intended at first for
concert use only, and afterwards supplemented
by the exquisite stage music), and the same com-
poser's 'Hebrides,' 'Calm Sea and Prosperous
Voyage,* and 'Melusine.' These overtures of
Mendelssohn's are, indeed, unparalleled in their
kind. It is scarcely necessary here to comment
on the wondrous Shaksperean prelude, pro-
duced in the composer's boyhood as a concert
overture, and in after years associated with the
charming incidental music to the drama, pas-
sages of the overture occurring iu the final chorus
OXFORD.
628
of fairies, and thus giving unity to the whole ;
nor will musical readers require to be reminded
of the rare poetic and dramatic imagination, or
the exquisite skill, by which the sombre romanti-
cism of Scottish scenery, the contrasted sugges-
tions of Groethe's poem, and the grace and
passion of the Rhenish legend, are so happily
illustrated in the other overtures referred to.
Schumann's Overtures of this class — ' Bride of
Messina,' 'Festival Overture.' 'Julius Csesar/
'Hermann and Dorothea' — though all veiy
interesting are not very important; but in his
'Overture to Manfred' he has left one work of
the highest significance and power, which will
always maintain its position iu the first rank of
orchestral music. As the prelude, not to an
opera, but to the incidental music to Byron's
tragedy, this composition does not exactly mil in
with either of the classes we have given. It is
however dramatic and romantic enough for any
drama, and its second subject is a quotation from
a passage which occurs in the piece itself.
Berlioz's Overture 'Les Francs Juges,' em-
bodying the idea of the VehmgericJU or secret
tribunals of the Middle Ages, must not be omitted
from our list, as a work of great lengthy great
variety of ideas, and imposing effect.
The Concert-Overtures of Stemdale Bennett
belong to a similar high order of imaginative
thought, as exemplified in the well-known over-
tures entitled ' Parisina,' * The Naiads,' and ' The
Wood -Nymph,' and that string of musical pearls,
the Fantasia-Overture illustrating passages from
'Paradise and the Peri.' Benedict's Overtures
' Der Prinz von Homburg* and 'Tempest,' Sulli-
van's ' In Memoriam' (in the climax of which the
organ is introduced) and 'Di Ballo* (in dance
rhythms), J.F. Bamett's 'Overture Symphonique,'
Cusins's 'Les Travailleurs de la Mer,' Cowen's
• Festival Overture,' Gadsby's 'Andromeda,' Pier-
son's ' Faust* and ' Romeo and Juliet,' and many
more, are all independent concert overtures.
The term has also been applied to original
pieces for keyed instruments. Thus we have
Bach's Overture in the French style ; Handel's
Overture in the first set of his Harpsichord
Suites, and Mozart's imitation thereof among his
pianoforte works. Each of these is the opening
piece of a series. Beethoven has prefixed the
word 'Overtura' to the Quartet-piece which
originally formed the Finale to his Bb quartet
(op. 131), but is now numbered separately as
op. 133 ; but whether the term is meant to apply
to the whole piece or only to the twenty-seven
bars which introduce the fugue we have nothing
to guide us. [See Entr^b ; Intrada ; Intboduo-
TioN ; Prelddk; Symphony.] [H. J. L.]
OXFORD. An outline of the history of
musical studies at the University of Oxford has
been given under the head Bachelor. The regu-
lations for the degree of Bachelor of Music have
undergone change since the issue of that article,
and are now (June, 1880) as follows. Every can-
didate for the degree of Bachelor in Music must
previously matriculate at the University, i.e*
enter his name on the books of some College or
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OXFORD.
Hall, or as an Unatiaohed Student : bat he is
not required to have resided or kept terms. He
must show to the ProfessOT of Musio either a
certificate that he has passed Responsions, or
a certiBcate that he has passed the * Previous
Examination ' at Cambridge, or a certificate from
the^ Delegates of the Elxamination of Schools, or
evidence that he has satisfied the Delegates of
Local Examinations as a Senior Candidate in
English, in Mathematics, in Latin, and in either
Grr^, French, German^ or Italian. The candi-
date has then to undergo the following examina-
tions, etc. The Fini EsMminaiifm is held
annually in Hilary Term, and <x>mprise8 merely
Harmony and Counterpoint in not more than
four parte. It is conducted partly in writing,
partly vtv<f voee. Candidates who have obtained
their certificate of having passed ihe Fini Exor
minalum must in the next place compose an exer-
cise, which must be sent to the Professor of
Music, for the inspection and approval of the
Examiners. The exercise must be a vocal com-
position, either secular or sacred, containing pure
five-part harmony, with good fugal counterpoint,
and with aooompaniment for at least a quintet
string-band. It should be of suck length as
would occupy in performance h<jm twenty to
forty minutes. Eiich candidate must send with
the exercise a written declaration signed by him-
self, stating that it is entirely his own unaided
composition. No public per£srmance of the ezep-
cise is now required for the degree of Bachelor
of Music. The Examiners having signified their
approval of the exercise, the candidate must pre-
sent himself for the Second ExamincUion, which
is held annually in Michaelmas Term. The ex-
amination embraces the following subjects: —
Harmony, Counterpoint in not more than ^ve
parts. Canon, Imitation etc.. Fugue, Form in
Composition, Musical History; a critical know-
ledge of the full scores of such standard classical
compositions as shall be previously selected
by the Professor of Music and duly announced.
This examination is conducted, like the former,
partly in writing, partly vivd voce. Before
being presented for his degree, the candidate
must deliver the bound MS. full score of his
exercise to be deposited in the library of the
Music SchooL The fees for this degree amount
to about £ao. The principal change introduced
in the new regulations, which were passed in
1878, is the provision requiring a candidate for
a degree in Music to have paswd a mixed lite-
rary examination recognised by the University.
It was imagined, when this test was added to the
Musical examination, that it would add to the
value of Musical degrees: its real effect has
been to sever the connection between the Uni-
versity and the musical wOTld^ which, through
the apathy and mismanagement of the University
in past times (see Baohslob, Chobaous), had
become a very slight one, but was beginning to
gain strength under the sensible rules in opera-
tion before 1878. The number of persons taking
OX-MINUET.
the Bachelor's degree had risen horn 3 in 1866
to 21 in 1878. Immediately after the passing of
the new statute it fell to i a in 1879, Altbongh
the operation of the new statute did not affect
persons who had passed the First I^tmwIt^^i^
before 1878. In 1877, when the last t^^f^n^in^ti^
was held under the old statutes, i. 0. in ind^wnd<
ence of any literary test, the number of persons
passing the First Examination was 53 : in 187^,
when the literaiy test was added, it fell to a : in
1-879 it was 3, and in 1880 the same.
Between the degree of Bachelor and that of
Doctor in Music an interval of five years most
intervene. This period may be so computed,
hewever, as to include both ihe Terms in which
the respective degrees are conferred. A certifi-
cate is required, whidi must be signed by three
credible witnesses^ stating that the candidate has
studied music for the laat preceding five yean.
The examination and the exercise of randidatm
for the Doctorate will be found under the article
DocTOB. The fees amount to about £15. The
exercise for this degree must be perfiinned at the
caodidate*s expense.
The following names <^ Oxford Doctors may
be added to the list given under DooroB : — WB-
son, 1644 * Child, 1663 ; Christopher Gibbons,
1664; Benjamin Bogers, 1669; Pepusch, 1713;
William Hayes, 1749 ; Wwnwnght, 1774 ;
Philip Hayes, 1777; Dupuis, 1700; Aylward,
1 791, Clement Smith, 1800 ; Marshall, 1840 ; Sir
F. A. G. Ouseley, 1854; B- G- Monk, 1856;
J.Stainer,i865; W.Pole, 1867; J.F.Bridffe,i874;
J. Varley Robots, 1876. The degree of Doctor
of Music, Aofiorif camd, was conferred witlKMit
examination, in i87<;y upon Sir Herbert Oakeley,
Professor of Musio in the University of Edin-
burgh (MA. Oxon, 1856), Mr. G. A. MaefiureB,
Professor of Music in Ihe University of Csm-
bridge, and Mr. Arthnr Sullivan.
A Commission, under the chairmanship of
Lord Selbome, is at present dealing with the
affairs of the University of Oxford, wad has re-
ceived evidence on the state of Musical as wdl
as of other studies. The evidence has not yet
been laid before Parliament, nor have the Com-
missioners yet completed their enactments. Any
regulations made l:^ the Commissioners affiacting
Musio at the Universi^ will, if possible, be given
under the head Univbbsitibs. [C. A. F.]
OX-MINUET, THE. The tiUe of a Sing-
spiel by Hofinann, founded on an anecdote from
Haydn s life, the music selected from his works
and arranged by Seyfried (P J*, arrftngem^it by
C. W. Henning; Berlin, IVautwein). It was
often performed in Vienna, Berlin, and else-
where, and in Paris is known as ' Le Menuet da
boeuf.' The play is founded on an anecdote of a
Hungarian butcher having requested Haydn to
write a minuet for the marriage of hia daughter,
in exchange for whioh the grateful butcher sent
the composer a live ox. The minuet, however,
is not by Haydn, and the story is entirely apo-
cryphal. [See vcL i. p. 720, note 14.] [C.F. P.]
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p.
FLCCHIEEOTTI. Gaspabo, perhaps the
greatest singer of the second half of the 1 8th
century, was bom in 1 744 at Fabiiano, near
Ancona. His ancestors came firom Siena, where
one of them, Jaoopo dal Pecchia, called Pacchie-
rotto, studied the works of Perugino and Raffaelle
to such good effect that his own pictures have
been sometimes taken by connoisseurs to be by
the hand of the latter great master.^ Driven from
Siena by political troubles, the family of Pacchie-
rotto in 1575 took refuge in Pianca-stagnaio ;
from whence a branch settled in Fabriano.
About 1757 Gasparo Paochierotti was ad-
mitted into the choir of S. Mark*s at Venice,
-where the great Bertoni was his master, accord-
ing to the memoir written by the singer's adopted
son, Giuseppe Ceocbini PacchierottL^ This, how-
ever, is contradicted by F^tis, who states that
it was in the choir of the cathedral at Forli that
the young singer received his first instruction,
and that it was impossible that he could have
sung under Bertoni, since boys were never em-
ployed at S. Mark's, where Bertoni did not
become Maestro di Cappella till 1785, having
been up to that date (from 1753) only organist.
However this may be, it is certain that the
young Paochierotti, having bee;i prepared for the
career of a sopranist, studied long and carefully
before he began, at the age of sixteen, to sing
secondary parts at Venice, Vienna, and Milan.
Endowed with a vivid imagination, uncommon
intelligence, and profound sensibility, but, on
the other hand, with a tall and lean figure, and
with a voice which, though strong in the lowest
roister and rising easily to the high C, was
often uncertain and nasal, — Pacchierotti required
much determination and strength of character to
overcome the defects, and take advantage of the
qualities, with which he found himself provided
by nature. This he accomplished only by pain-
ful and laborious study, retiring to a garret in
Venice, where he practised the most difficult ex-
ercises which the masters of those days prescribed
as necessary to the education of the voice; and
Buooess at last crowned his endeavours.
Milan was the last place in which he sang a
secondary r6te. Eetuming to Venice in 1 769, he
took the place of Guarducd, primo musico at the
8. Benedetto, then the chief theatre in that city.
Successful here, he was immediately invited by
the Impresario of the Opera at Palermo for the
season of 177 1. H.E. the Procuratore Tron,
his good and generous patron, furnished Pac-
chierotti with recoDomendations, and the latter
set out, taking Naples in his way. Arrived
there, he was informed that the celebrated
prima fionna, De Amicii, had protested agmnst
1 lAnil. torn. I. p. 800. t Fadora. IBM. 8to.
VOL. U. PT. 11.
the proposi'ion that she should sing wiih. him, ' a
player of second parts.' The Venetian minister,
to whom he was recommended, comfoirted him in
this juncture, but onlv with the humiliating per-
mission, accorded to him, to show his powers by
singing two pieces, with full orchestra, at the
San Carlo, before Iiacillo, Piocinni, and Caffarelli,
as judges. Here he was brilliantly successful,
and was immediately offered his choice between
the theatres of Palermo and Naples. He proudly
chose the former, where he met the great De
Amids, and had to submit to another ordeal in
a duet with her at the first general rehearsal of
' Didone.* She had refused to try over the duet
with him previously, and treated him with studied
coldness and contempt; but Pacchierotti over-
came this and the prejudice of the audience by
his noble, impassioned, and skilfUl singing. Even
De Amicis herself was surprised into sincere and
kindly admiration.
This set the seal on Paochierotti's reputation,
which never faded for 25 years, during which he
delighted the cognoscenti of Europe. He re-
mained for a time inltaly, singing at Parma, Milan,
Florence, and Forli, and at Venice in 1777.
After this, he sang at Milan in the carnival of
1778, then at Genoa, Lucca, and Turin ; but in
the autumn of that year he came to London with
Bertoni, and made his first appearance here with
Bemasconi in the pasticcio * Demofoonte.* Great
expectations had been formed of him, not only
from his continental reputation, but from the
account given by Captain Brydone in his Travels,
and from aome airs sung * in his manner ' by
Piozzi, * in a style that excited great ideas of his
pathetic powers.' These expectations were not
disappointed ; and Dr. Bumey*s warm but in-
telligent praise of his beautful voice, his perfect
conmiand of It, the taste and boldness with which
he invented new ornaments, the truth and origin-
ality of his expression, and his other musicianly
qualities, must be read by those who would form
an idea of the truly great singer that Paochie-
Totti was. Though Ultimately connected with
his firiend Bertoni, he sang with no less ardour
and ene^^ the music of Saochini, and other rival
composers : and, indeed, he seems to have had a
most amiable character, never withholding his
commendation of another artist, whoi due, though
of his own performance he was always the moat
severe critic.
Lord Mount-Edgoumbe also speaks in the
highest terms of the talent of Pacchierotti, whom
he calls 'decidedly the most perfect singer it
ever fell to his lot to hear.*
In a letter* to the Bev. W. Mason, dated
Lucca, Sept. 15, 1780, Paochierotti shows, in very
S In tLe pmmmIob ot Um preMnt wrltor.
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PACCHIEBOTrL
good Enffliflh, the friendly tenns on which he
stood with literary men of this oount]^, and his
familiarity with some, at least, of our hterature.
*Ht wmrdb* he writet, 'after » tnmiUtioii of Mr.
Qnyn poemt hasbeen Mjet frqitleM ; however, I still
*Ht MMoh,* he writet,
Jray^i poemt has been at
entertain hopes of sacoeedma at Venice, where learning
St perhapt more cultivated than in other parte of Ital^.
Your Divine Dramat I have not been able to ditcover in
Totcany : at Venice, probabl/, I may be more fortunate.
But tbould I look in vain, ttill permit me to trouble
you with my lettert, and flatter myself with the hopes
of heating sometimes that you are well, and that yon
have notrorgotten me. My native countiy has produced
its osuid effect, and restored me to voice and sentiment,
both which were cruelly damped in England. Could I
but maintain these acquit itiont upon my return,! thould
be more worthy the attention of the Publick, and of the
great Ideas yon are pleased to intertain of the pro-
iattion.*
The aooonnt that Paochierotti gives here, with
so much modesty, of the effect of our climate
upon him, is confirmed by Dr. Bumey, who re-
lates that * though he was never obliged by in-
disposition to be absent from the stage, when his
duty called him thither, above once or twice
during four years' residence among us, yet his
voice was sometimes affected by slight colds/
After a second virit to London Paochierotti
again returned to Italy. He sang at the Tui-
leries in Paris on his way back again to £ng^
land from Venice, where Bertoni had written
fresh operas for him. Galuppi had died there
in 1785, and at his funeral Paochierotti took
part in a fiequiem. 'I sang very devoutly
indeed,* he wrote to Bumey, ' to obtain a quiet
to his soul.' He used on another occasion, a
.froniliar but picturesque expression, when dis-
cussing Pergolesi*s setting of 'Se Cerca se dice,'
sayinff that <he had hit the right nail on the
head. Paochierotti arrived here, on his third
visit, in 1790, and sang at the Pantheon, and at
the Festival in Westminster Abbey in 1 791. At
the opening of the Fenice at Venice in 1 79a, he
took his leave of the stage, after which he settled
in Padua. In 1 796, however, he was compelled to
appear once more to sing before Greneral Buona-
parte, who was passing tlurough the city, though
the great artist had then been living four years
in retirement. He sang, but most unwillingly.
At Padua he enjoyed the society and the es-
teem of all the literati of the city, among whom
he spent the rest of his life in a peaceftQ and happy
manner, only interrupted by one unfortunate in-
cident. Having imprudently lamented * le splen-
dide miserie deUa vittoria,* in a letter to Catalani,
which he had entrusted to Dragonetti, who was
en the point of escaping from Italy, both fugitive
«nd letter were intercepted ; and the, unlucky
Paochierotti was thrown into prison, where he
was detained for a month. Not long before his
death he was visited by Rosnni, to whom he de-
plored the depraved modem taste in singing, and
the growth of a noisy and ro<foeo style, for which,
doubtless, the old singer thought the Pesarese in
a gnat degree to blame : ' Give me another Pao-
chierotti,* the latter replied, 'and I shall know
how to write for him 1 '
During his remaining years, Paochierotti did
not cease his daily practice and enjoyment of
singing, in private ; but mainly devoted himself
PACINI.
to the Psalmfof Marcello, 'from which,* he nid,
' he had learnt the little that he knew.* Yrom
the midst of this quiet life he departed Oct. aS,
1831.^ Only a few moments before his death he
had repeated, as usual with him, some of Metas-
tasio 8 sacred verses, in the most pathetic tones ;
and he died praying * to be admitted to one of
the humblest choirs of heaven.' [J. M.]
PACHRLBEL, Johaitn, eminent oiganlat and
composer, bom at Nuremberg, Sept. i, 1653, first
learned the harpsichord and other instruments
from H. Schwemmer, studied at Altdor^ Kati»-
bon, and then went to Vienna, where he became
deputy-orcanist at the Cathedral.' He was Hiea
successively organist at the court of Klweinafh
^ i675> At the Fredigerkirche in Erfurt in 1680,
and at Stuttgart in 1690. In 169a the ap-
proach of the French army drove him to Gotha,
and in 1695 he became organist of Saint Sebald
in his native city, where he remained till his
death, March 3, 1706. Mattheson* states that
he had the offer of an oiganist^s post at Oxford in
169 a, and was invited to return to Stuttgart on
the cessation of hostilities, but declined to leave
Nuremberg on account of his family. Of his
compdsitions a few only are in print, viz. ' Muncal-
isohe Sterbens-Gedanken, 4 variirte Chorale*
(Erfurt, 1683), composed during a visitation of
the plague ; * VIII Chorale sum Praeambulir^*
(Nuremberg, 1693); *Hezachordum ApoUinis,
VI variirte Arien * (Nur mbeig, 1699). ^ ^
Grand-ducal library at Weimar is the autograph
of a * Tabulatur-Buch' of hymns by Luther
and others, with Choral-fugues, etc., by Johann
Pachelbel, organist at St. Sebald, Nurembeig,
1704. Specimens of his vocal works are given
by Von Winterfeld (Evang. Kirohengesang, iL
p. aoi, etc.), and of his organ composititms by
Komer (Orgelvirtuos) and Coromer (Musica
Sacra, vol. i.). A fugue in C will be found in the
Auswahl vorz. Musikwerke No. 34. [C. F. P.]
PACINI (or PACCINI), Andbka, an Italian
contralto, bom about 1700. In 1724 he ap-
peared in the titie-part of ' Tameiiano,* on Oct.
31, in London, ana remained there during the
whole of the season of 1734-5, taking part in
* Artaserse,' • Rodelinda,' * Dario,* ' Elpidia,* and
the revival of *Giulio Cesare* ; singing, in the lat-
ter, the r6le previously sustained by Berenstadt,
and afterwartls by Mengozzi. In 1735, again,
he was singing with success at Venice. [J. M.]
PACINI, GioVAWNi, was bom in Catania,
Feb. 10, 1796. Being the son of a celebrated
tenor, ne was trained to the musical profession
from his childhood. He studied under Marched
in Bologna, and afterwards, from 1808 to 181 3,
was a pupil of Furlanetto in Venice.
In 181 3, when only sixteen years old, he wrote
his first opera, 'Annetta e Lucinda,* for the
theatre S. Bedegonda, in Milan ; and bom that
year until 1834 he produced at the principal
theatres of Italy 43 operas with various suooeea
lOwehlnL
S Tbe itatement thtt he profited bybaartnf Ktrl's pl«rins 1> <n^
iMous. •« Kerl held the offloe of ImiNritl ois«alst from MBOlo Htt
i Gruiidlmge, p. UL
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PACINL
Of such operas, those which met the wanneet
approval and deeerve to be mentioned, are * La Sa-
cerdoteesa d* Irminsul/ given in 1817 at Trieste ;
'Cesare in£gitio'(Bome, 1822); *L* ultimo giomo
di Pompei' and ' Niobe * (S. Carlo, Naples, 1825) ;
and *6u Arabi nolle Gallie' (Scala^ Milan, 1827).
In 1834, on the failure of his 'Carlo di Bor-
gogna at the Fenice in Venice, he left off com*
podng and went to live at Viareggio, where he
open^ a School of Music. He had already been
appointed Kapellmeister to the Empress Marie
Louise, widow of Napoleon I., and had married in
1^25 Adelaide Castelli, of Naples. His Musical
Institute, for which he also built a theatre seating
800 spectators, met with great success, and pupiU
flocked there from all parts of Italy. For these
he then wrote a History of Music, a Treatise on
Counterpoint, and another on Harmony. Among
the many artists whom he successfully trained in
his school we may mention M. Sdleri^, who
became Director of the Conservatoire of Mont-
pellier; Corelli (whose real name was Quaran-
totti), who afterwards lived in London ; Papini,
Bartolini, Marchetti, etc. He afterwards trans-
ferred this school to the town of Lucca.
It is interesting to find him at this advanced
period of his life studying the masterpieces of the
great German composers. Of the works of Bee-
•thoven. Haydn, and Mocart, he wrote at the time
in the following strain : —
This itady if quite a revelation of harmonio loienoe,
and it brightens the mind of the ttndent in a marvelloui
waj ; since these classic compositions are a continuous
prcyression of derelopments of most beautiful and
simple melodies ; to which Horaoe^s words may well be
' Denique sit, quod vis, simplex dnntaacat, et unnm.'
In the works of Beethoven axe to be found gigantic
and sublime formnln ; those of Haydn contain a melodic
sweetness mixed with artifices, which are alwavs agree-
Lsln
TASR.
m
able ; whilst Mosart shows his unequalled genius .
thing: lean onlj compare them toMichaelAngelo, 0uido,
andBaphael.
In 1840 he produced in Naples his best opera,
' Safib,* which met with a great and weU-deserved
aaocess, notwithstanding it had been written in
the short period of four weeks. In 1843 ^i"
* Medea' was enthusiastically received in Palermo,
and the Sicilians there and then went so far as to
erect a statue to him by the side of that of Bellini
in the Royal Villa. * La Regina di Cipro,' given
in 1846 at Turin ; and ' Niocol6 de' Lapi,* a post-
humous opera given in Florence in 1873, are also
mnongst his b^.
Pacini was thrice married, and by each of his
wives had three children, five of whom (four
daughters and an only son, Luigi) survived him.
He was named Musical Director of the musical
school of Florence, and was a knight of half
ft dozen continental orders. In 1854 he went to
Paris to superintend the representations of his
*Arabi nelle Grallie/ under the new title of ' L* ul-
timo de* Clodovei,* and there wrote a cantata for
Napoleon III., who had applauded that same
«>era 27 years previoudy in Kome. He died in
Pesda, Dec. 6, 1867.
Pacini wrote altogether 80 operas, of which
seven are still unpublished, and more than 70
other composition^ such as masses, oratorios^
and cantatas, which do not call for particular
mention, if we except a beautiful Qus^tet in C
and the Cantata for Dante*s Centenary.
Pacini, though a successful imitator of Bossinl,
was still an imitator ; and for that reason he can
rank only among the minor masters of Italy. He
tried in * Saffo ' to free himself from the yoke,
but it was too late, nor was he altogether suo-
cessfuL He was called U mae$tro dtUe oabaUUe
by his contemporaries ; and the inunense number
of cabalettas which he wrote, their beauty and
endless variety, show plainly how well he deserved
that appellation. He made even his recitatives
melodic, and was accustomed to use his aooonn
paniments for strengthening the voices, by merely
making them sustain the upper part. His instru*
mentation is consequently very weak and some-
times inaccurate. All his operas were written
hastily; and, as he himself avows in his letters,
without mudi study or reflection. One of Pacinfs
great merits was tiiat he devoted himself to his
vocal parts ; he always suited them to the capa-
bilities of his executants, and thus insured, at
least, the temporary success of his works! [L. B.]
PADUA. The first musical academy at
Padua was that of the 'Costanti,' founded in
1566 by the nobles of the dty. It embraced,
besides music, natural philosophy, ethics, oratory,
poetry, and languages. Hie first president was
Francesco Portenari. But that the sdence of
music must have been studied far earlier in the
ancient Paduan university appears from the
writings of Marohetto di Padova, the next writer
upon music after Guide d'Arezzo, which date
between the years 1374 and 1309. Prosdodmo
di Beldomando, the musical theorist, was also a
native of Padua. He was Professor of Astrology
there in 1422, with a stipend of 40 silver ducats
annually. His works on music are still preserved
in the Ubrary at Padua. ' But he is outside our
limits, and we therefore refer the rakder to
Bumey, Hist, ii 350. Padua gave its name to
the ancient dance Paduan, or f avan, which is
discussed under its own heading. [C.M.P.]
PAER, Fbbdinakdo, Italian opera compose
and maestro di capella, bom June i, 1771, at
Parma, where he studied under a violinist named
Ghizetti. At 20 he became maestro di capella
at Venice, and there composed industriously,
though leading a eay and dissolute life. His
operas were not all equally successful, but they
made his name known beyond Italy, and in 1707
he received an invitation to Vienna, whither he
went with his wife, a singer named Ricoardi, who
was engaged at the Italian Opera. The most
celebrated of the operas which he composed for the
national theatre, and indeed his best work, was
'Camilla, ossia il Sotteraneo' (1799). ^^ ^^^
he went to Dresden as capellmeister, remaining,
except for occasional tours and visits to Vienna
and Italy, till 1806. Here he composed ' Sargino,
ossia r .^ilievo dell* amore' (i 803), and * Eleonora,
ossia r Amore oonjugale' (1804), Uie same subject
which Beethoven has inuhortalised in ' Fidelio.*
In 1806 Paer accompanied Napoleon to Warsaw
and Posen,and i^.1807 was formally installei aa.
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PAEB.
Mb maltre dt cliftpelle, and took up hiB abode In
Paris. In 1 812 he succeeded Spontini at the
Italian Opera, to which he remained attached
until i837» in spite of many changes and dis-
putes, and of the pecuniary embarrassments which
beset the theatre. He and Bossini were tem-
porarily associated firom 1834 to a6. During
tills period he produced but 8 operas, including
'Agnese' <i8ii), and 'Le Maltre de Chapelle
(183a), none of which were marked successes.
In 183 1 he became a member of the Acad^mie,
and in 1833 director of the king's chamber-
music, as then reconstituted. He died on May
3, 1839. As a man Paer was not beloved ;
self-interest and egotism, servility to his supe-
riors, and petty intrigues against his professional
brethren, being fkuits commonly attributed to
him. But as a composer be is one of the most
important representatives of the Italian operatic
school at the dose of the last century^ His in-
vention is flowing, his melody suave and pleasing,
his form correct, and in simple compositions
finished, although not developed to the fullest
extent ; where he fails, both in melody and har-
mony, is in depth of expression. lAe all the
other Italian composers of his time, he had the
gift of true comedy, so common among his lively
countrymen. In lyric expression he was also
successful, as here his Italian love of sweet
sounds stood him in good stead; but he was
completely wanting in the force and depth ne-
cessary for passionate, pathetic, or heroic music;
and when such was required, he fell back upon
coDunon opera phrases and stock passages.
This is perhaps most apparent in the operas com-
posed after he left Italy, when his acquaintance
with German music, especially that of Mozart,
may have influenced his style. His treatment of
the orchestra was original and remarkable, and
his instrumentation vef y effective. The partial
success only of the operas composed during his stay
in Paris is easily explained ; he had not sufficient
means of expression to attempt French opera,
and in Italiim opera he could not contend with
Bossini, whose genius, with its indifference to
the trammeb of form, and its exuberant melody,
fairly captivated the public. Paer also com-
posed much for church and chamber— oratorios,
motets, cantatas for one and more voices ; also in-
strumental music, a Bacchanalian symphony, etc.,
now of historical interest only, [A.M.]
PAGANINI, J^^iooLO, the most fSunous of
violin virtuosos, ^as borp at G«noa, Feb. 18,
1784. His father wfts a small tradesman, and,
although quite uneducated, a great lover of music,
and a perfonner on the mimdoline. He soon
perceived the musical talent of his son, and
began to instruct him at a veiy early age. He
then handed him over to G. Servetto, and, for six
months, to G. Costa, the principal violinist and
conductor at Genoa. When eight years old he had
already acquired considerable proficiency, and had
also comp<»sed a sonata for ms Instrument. In
1793 he made his first appearance in public
at Genoa, and played variattons on the air 'La
Carmagnole,' then so pofMilaiv with immeniw
PAGANINL
success. He also used to i>Iay every Sunday a
violin concerto in church, a circumstance to which
Paganini himself attached much importance, ma
having forced him to the constant study of firesh
pieces. About the year 1795 his father took,
him to Parma, with the intentioii of putting
him under the famous violinist Alessaitdbo
BoLLA. Paganini himself thus ^relates their
first meeting : < Coming to Bella we found him
laid-up. He appeared little inclined to see ua,
but his wife showed us into a room adjoining
his bedroom, until she had spoken to hincu
Finding on Uie table a violin and the music of
Bella's latest concerto, I took up the instrtuneat
and played the piece at sight. Astonished at
what he heard, the composer asked for the name
of the player: and when tdd that it was but
a voung boy, would not believe it until ho
had seen for himself. He then told me that he
had nothing to teach me, and advised me to
go to Paer for instruction in composition.' F^tis,
in lus monpgn^h on Paganini, mii.m»Ain^ that
this statement rests on a mistake, as Paer was
then in Germany, and that it was under Ghiretti
that Paganini studied for some time. It is also
stated on good authority that for several months
he had regular leasons from Bella, and it is diffi-
cult to explain why he was in later years un-
willing to acknowledge the facL
Paganini was already bent on finding out nev
^ects on the vidin. After his return to Genoa
he composed his first studies, which were of such
unheard-of difficulty, that he himself is reported
sometimes po have practised a single paaaaee
for ten hours running. That such intense study
should have resulted in the acquisition of un-
limited execution, but should also have affected
his health, is not to be wondered at. Tip to this
time he appears to have been wholly under tibe
control of nis father, who was a harsh and rough
man. The bc^ naturally wished to escape frmn
what he considered intolerable slavery. Bein^
allowed to travel for the first time alone to Lucca,
where he played with immense success at a music-
festival in Nov. 1798, he did not return home,
but went on to Pisa and other towns. Although
only fifteen, he had already begun to l^d
a (ussipated life, in which gambling took a pro-
minent part. ^ Alternate fits of study and gam-
bling, interrupted by periods of utter exhaustioii,
and by protracted illnesses, easily explain Ms
firequent disappearances from public view, and
his miserable health in later Ufe. One day at
Leghorn he gambled away everything he had ;
even to his violin. In order to enable him to
appear at the concert, a M. Levron, an ama-
teur, lent him a beautiful Josef Guamerius ; and
after having heard him play on it, presented it
to him. This was the instrument which Paga-
nini used for the rest of his life in preference
to any other. He bequeathed it to his naUve
town of Genoa, and it is preserved in a glass
case in the Municipal Palace. Another fine
violin, a Stradivarius, was given to him by
Pasini, a painter.
1 lo ft Vtonaft M^odkal.
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PAGANE?!.
From I Sot till 1804 Paganini lived in ftb-
Bolute retirement at the chateau of a lady of
high rank, devoting? much time to the stady
of the guitar, the lady's favourite instrument.
He there composed two sets of Sonatas for
guitar and violin (op. a and 3). In 1804 he
returned to Genoa, and for a year re-applied
himself in an almost furious manner to the
study of the violin. At this period he first learnt
to know the extravagant studies of Looatblli
(see that name), especially his 'Arte di nuova
modulazione,* and endeavoured to emulate and
outdo Locatelli^s tours de force. He also com-
posed three quartets for violin, viola, guitar and
cello (op. 4), a second set of the same (op. 5),
and a set of Variations di bravura with guitar
accompaniment.
In 1805 he began again to travel. Wherever
he played he excited unbounded enthusiasm.
At Lucca he accepted an engagement as solo-
player to the court, and as teacher to Prince
Baociochi, the husband of Napoleon's sister
Elisa. It was there that he began his famous per-
formances on the G-string aJone. He resided
at Lucca till 1808, and during the next nineteen
yearff gave hundreds of concerts in all parts of
Italy — his fame and the enthusiasm for his art
ever and ever increasing. At the same time
he was not unfrequently attacked by jealous
rivals, and altogeth^ his Kfe was not free from
strange adventures. 'One day at Leghorn '» so
he himself relates — ' a nail had run into my heel
and I came on limping, at which the audience
laughed. At the moment I was about to com-
mence my concerto, the candles of my desk fell
out. Another laugh. After the first few bars of
my solo my first string broke, which increased the
hilarity ; but I played the piece on three strings,
and the sneers quickly changed into general ap-
plause.* At Ferrara he had a narrow escape from
being lynched. Enraged by a hiss from the pit,
Paguiini resolved to avenge the outrage, ana at
the end of the concert proposed to the audience
to imitate the voices of vaoions animals. After
having rendered the notes of different birds, the
mewing of a cat, and the barking of a dog, he
finally advanced to the footlights, and ctdling
out, ' Questo ^ per quelli che ban fischiato* (this
is for those who hissed), imitated in an un-
mistakeable manner the braying of a donkey.
At this the pit rose to a man, rushed through
the orchestra, climbed the stage, and would
probably have killed Paganini if he had not
taken to instantaneous flight. The explanation
of this strange occurrence is, that the people of
Ferrara had a special reputation for stupidity,
And that the appearance of a Ferrarese outside
the town was the signal for a significant ' hee-
haw.' We may well believe that this was
Faganini*s last public appearance there.
At Milan his success was greater than any-
where. He gave there in 18 13 no less than
thirty-seven concerts. In 18 14, at Bologna, he
first made the acquaintance of Rossini. In 1 816
he met the French violinist Lafont (see that
name) at Milan, and had with him— quite against \
PAGANINI.
629
[ his wi8h--^a public contest ^th played eolos,
I and they joined in a concertante duet by Kreutzer.
I It does much honour to Paganini's character that
in relating the event he writes: * Lafont probably
I surpassed me in tone.' That the victory after all
' rested with Paganini need hardly be added. A
simihur contest took place in 181 7 at Placentia
between Paganini and LiPlKSKi (see that name).
In 1827 Pope Leo XII conferred on him the
order of the Golden Spur,
Hitherto Paganini had never played outside
Italy. Encouraged to visit Vienna bv Prince
Mettemich, who had heard and admired him at
Borne in 181/, he repeatedly made plans for
visiting Germany, but the wretched state of his
health always prevented their execution. A
sojourn in the delicious (dimate of Sicily at last
restored him to comparative health, and he started
for Vienna, where his first concert, March 29,
1828, created an unparalleled sensation. A per-
fect fever appears to have seized all classes of
society : the shop windows exhibited hats, gloves,
and boots d la Paganini ; dishes of all sorts were
named after him ; his portrait was to be seen on
snuff-boxes,f and his bust on- the walking-sticks of
the Viennese dandies. He himself obtained the
Grand Gold Medal of St. Salvator from the
town, and <he title of Virtuoso to the Court ficom
the Emperor.-
During the following years Paganini travelled
in Germany, repeating his Vienna triumphs in
all the principal towns of the country, espe-
cially in Berlin, where he played first in March
1829. On March 9, 1831, he made his first
appearimce at Paris in a concert at the Opera.
His success was quite equal to any that he had
had elsewhere, in the following May he came
to England, and gave his first concert at the Opera
House on June 3. Here he excited perhaps more
curiosity than enthusiasm. He himself, in a MS.
letter, dated London, Aug. 16, 1831, complains
of the ' excessive and noisy admiration* to which
he was a victim in London, which left him no
rest, and actually blocked his passage from the
theatre every time he played. 'Although the
public curiosity to see me/ says he, ' is long since
satisfied, though I have played in public at least
thirty times, and my likeness has been repro-
duced in all possible styles and forms, yet I can
never leave my home without being mobbed by
people who are not content with following and
jostling me, but actually get in firont of me, and
prevent my going either way, address me in
English of which I do not know a word, and even
feel me, as if to find out if I am flesh and blood.
And this not onlv the common people, but even
the upper classes. The financial results of his
concerts in London, the Provinces, Scotland and
Ireland, were very large. He repeated his visits
in the following two years, played at a fare-
well concert at the Victoria Theatre, London>
June 1 7, 1832, and then returned to the Continent
in possession of a large fortune, which he invested
chiefly in landed estates* The winter of 1833 he
passed in Paris, and it was early in January 1834
that he proposed to Berliox to write a concerto
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PAGANllrt.
for hiB StndiTarius vicHtk, which resulted in ihe
Symphony called Habold en Italtb. [See vol. i.
p. 685 a. J For the next two years his favourite
residence was Uie Villa Oaiooa near Parma. But
his eagerness to amass money did not allow
him to rest or atteiMl to his health. In 1836
he reoelTed an invitation from Paris to take part
in a money speculation on a large scale. It
was proposed to estahUsh, under the name Casino
Paganini, in a fashional^e quarter of Paris, a
large and luxurious club— -ostensibly with the
view of giving concerts, but in reality for
gambling purposes. Unfortunately he could not
resist the temptation to .embark in so doubt-
ful an enterprise. The dub-house was opened,
but the gambling licence was refused, and the
concerts alone did not nearly cover the expenses
of the establishment. Paganini hurried to Paris
to save the concern^ if possible, by appearing
in the concerts. But he arrived in so exhausted
a state that he could not play. The company
became bankrupt, and he himself suffered ft P^
sonal loss of 50,000 francs. He remained in
Paris for the winter of 1858, and it was on De-
cember 18 of that year thai he bestowed on
Berlioz the large sum of 20,000 francs, as a
mark of his admiration for the Symphonic
Fantastique.^
The annoyance arising frt)m the unfortunate
affiur of the Casino greatly increased his malady,
which was phthisis of the larynx. Seeking relief
in a warmer climate, he went to Marseilles, and
stayed for some time in the house of a friend.
Here, although almost a dying man, he would
now and then tfkke up bis violin at his guitar,
and one day eveopi played his favourite Quartet
— ^Beethoven*s P major, op. 59, No. I. On the
approach of winter he went to Nice. Heoas his
malady progressed rapidly; he lost his voice
entirely, and was troubled with an incessant
cough. He died May 37, 1840, at the age of 56.
A week before his death the Bishop of Nice
sent a priest to convey to him the last sacrament.
Paganini not believing that his end was so near,
would not receive it. The wording of his will,
in which he recommends his soul to the mercy
of Grod and fixes a sum for masses to be said for
its repose, proves his adherence to the Catholic
Church. But as the priest did not return, and as
Paganini in consequence died without the rites
of Uie Church, the bishop refused him burial in
consecrated groimd. The coffin remained for a
long time in a hospital at Nice : it was afterwards
removed to y ilia Franca, and it was not till 1845
that Paganini's son, by a direct appeal to the
Pope, obtained leave to inter it in the village
churdi near YUla Gaiona.
He left to his son Achille a large fortune,
estimated 9A ^80,000. Although as a rule
chary with his qioney, he was occasionally very
generous, as his gift ,jbo Berlioz, already mentioned,
shows. The mystery which surrounded Paganini
the man no doubt helped to increase the interest
taken in the artist. The strangest rumours ac-
iBerUoi.X«molT«.ehap.«. AteerimOeorhbletteruulBarUoi^
raptr wfll be foand In the AHg. mnslk. Zeltiii« for U9B. p. OB.
5?AGANINI.
oompanied him wherever he went. It was com*
momy reported that he owed his wonderful
execution on the G-string to a long impriacm-
ment, inflicted on him for the murder of m rival
in love, during which he had a violin with
one string only. Paganini himself writes : * At
Vienna one of the audience affirmed pablidy
that my performance was not surprising, for
he had distinctly seen, while I was playing mj
variations, the devil at my elbow directing my arm
and guiding my bow. My resemblance to the
devil was a proof of my origin.* But even sensible
and educated people believed that Paganini lud
a secret which enabled him to execute what
appeared impossible to any other player. In ftct
he has been suspected to have himself originated
such rumours. As there was no doubt an ad-
mixture of charlatanism in the character of this
extraordinary man, he may perhaps at frrst have
done so. But on the other hand, he more than
once contradicted them. At Prague he actnallv
published a letter from his mother to disprove tbe
rumour that he was the son of the devil ; and a^
Paris he furnished F^tis with all the necessaiy
material and dates to refute publicly the number-
less absurdities circulated about him. This was
done by a letter inserted in the * Revue Musicale,'
but it availed little. F^tis, in his monograph on
Paganini, by establishing the chronology of his
travels and his sojourns at various places, proves
dearly that he could not have suffered a length-
ened imprisonment. It was not only the perfectly
novel and astonishing charact^ of his perform-
ances, but to a large extent his extraordinary
ghost-like appearance, which caused these absurd
rumours. His tall, skeleton-like figure, the pale,
narrow, wax-coloured face, the long dark hair,
the mysterious expression of the heavy eye, have
been described often enough.
But after all, the extraordinary effect of his
playing could have had its source only in his extra-
ordinary genius. If genius, as has been justly
remarked, is ' the power of taking infinite pains,*
he certainly showed it in a wonderful degree in
the power of concentration and perseverance
which enabled him to acquire such absolute com-
mand of his instrument. Mere perfectaon of
technique, however, would never have thrown the
whole of musical Europe into such paroxysms.
With the first notes his audience was spell -b^ind ;
there was in him — ^though certainly not the evil
spirit suspected by the superstitious — a daemonic
element which irresistibly took hold of those
that came within his sphere. * His constant and
daring flights,* writes 'Mosoheles, 'his newly
discovered flageolet tones, his gift of fusing and
beautifying subjects of the most diverse kind— ad
these phases of genius so completely bewilder my
musioal perceptions that for dajrs afterwards my
head is on fire and my brain reels.* He was no
'mere virtuoso' — there was a something in his
playing that defied description or imitation, and
ne certoinly had in a high deme originality and
character, ihe two qualities which distinguish the
man of genius from the ordinary talent.
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paGaniKi.
His tone was not great : it could not be, for
the one reason that the constant use of double-*
harmonics and other specialities of his style
necessitate very thin strings, wbioh again pre-
clude the production of a large and broad tone.
PAGANINt
68!
Vrcm a tketch bp Sir Edwin Landseer, R.A.
But even his severest critics have always granted
that his cantilena was extremely expressive. ' I
never wearied of the intense expression, soft and
melting as that of an Italian singer/ says Moscheles
again. Spohr, in his Autobiography (ii. 1 80), says
of him : * The execution of his left hand and
his never-failing intonation appeared to me as
much as ever deserving admiration. In his com-
positions however, and in his style of playing,
I find a strange mixbure of true genius and want
of taste,' etc. A distinguished English amateur,
who heard him at York in 1833, writes in a
letter, full of enthusiasm : * In the concerto on
the fourth string he contrived to give some
passages a tremolous sound, like the voice of a
person crying. He makes great use of sliding
his fingers along the strings — sometimes pro-
ducing a most beautiful, at oUier times laughable
efiect. • Paganini,' says Thos. Moore (Mem. vi.
210), 'abuses his powers; he could play divinely,
and does so sometimes for a minute or two ; but
then come his tricks and surprises, his bow in con-
vulsions, and his enharmomcs, like the mewlings
of an expiring cat." Here no doubt is an explan-
ation, and to a certain extent a justification of
Spohr^s criticism. The frequent use of tremolo and
of sliding indicate an impure style, which ought
not to serve as a model ; it was Paganini's style,
founded on the man's inmost nature, which was
as peculiar and exceptional as his talent. Spohr's
criticisms — sincere enough, but ofben biassed and
narrow — ^prove nothing more than that Paganini
was no scion of the classical school of Y iotti and
Bode. In fact he belonged to no sehooL He fol-
lowed the bent of his individuality, in which the
southern dement of passion and excitement was
very strong, and showed itself in a manner which
to a cc^der northern taste appeared exaggerated
and affected.
If the modem Fronch school of violin-playing
has lost sight of the traditions of its great
founders, Yiotti, Bode, and Eroutzer, and has
formed a style which with all its undoubted
elegance and piquancy does not satisfy a more
serious musical taste, this must be largely attri-
buted to Paganini's influence. The effect he pro-
duced was so immense, that the younger players
oould not resist the temptation of imitating him.
Unfortunately the shell alone, the advanced tech-
nique, could be imitated, while the kernel, the real
secret, his peculiar individuality, nobody could
imitate. His wonderful execution certainly incited
others to attempt difficulties which before him
were considered impossible, and so far his ex-
ample gave an impetus to the development of
technique ; but some of the peculiarities of his
s^le were fatal to the broad and dignified style
of the older school, which alone suits the works
of the great classical composers. Even F^tis,
with his unbounded admiration for Paganini,
admits that his performances of the concertos of
Bode and Kreutzer were failures ; and similarly,
as a quartet-player, he was unable to do justice
to the composer. His individuality was too strong
to accommodate and subordinate itself to another.
On Grerman violinists his influence was not nearly
so great. Here Spohr's powerful example and
the earnest musical spirit of the great composers
counterbalanced the effect of his performances.
The main technical features of Paganini's
playing were an unfailing intonation, a lightning-
like rapidity on the fingerboard and with the
bow, and a command of double-stops, harmonics
and double-harmonics, hardly equalled by any
one before or after him. He also produced most
peculiar effects, which for a long time puzzled
all violinists, by tuning his violin in various
ways. He was not the first to -adopt this trick
[see Bibeb], but no one before him had made
any extensive use of it. As he took good care
never to tune his violin within hearing, a pas-
sage like the following appeared inexplicable and
impossible,
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PAGANINL
yet bv tuning ft iemitone higher, it preients bo
pecubftr difficulty. This wm the caae in his first
Concerto, where the band played in £b, and he
inD.
He did not much use the slow staccato of
Rode and Spohr, which is produced by a distinct
movement of the wrist for every single note, but
made his staccato by throwing the bow violently
on the string and letting it spring with great
rapidity. Another peculiarity of his playing was
the frequent introduction of pizdcato passages
for the left hand. [See Pizzicato.] His perform-
ances on the G-strmg alone never failed to make
a great sensation. For these he tuned a very
thin 6 string up to Bb or B, and by the use of
harmonics attained a compass of three octaves.
As a composer Paganini was not without
originality. The 24 Caprices, op. i, and a few
other movements, such as the famous ' Moto
perpetuo * and the Rondo ' La Clochette,' have
not yet lost their <;harm. Schumann found
it worth while to transcribe the Caprices for
piano (op. 3, 10); Lisst has done the same (op.
66, 83); and Brahms has written a8 variations
on a subject of Paganini's (op. 35). The majority
of his works, however interesting from a technicid
point of view, are now thoroughly antiquated.
The following list is taken, luce most of the
facts related in this article, ftam F^tis's excellent
monograph on Paganini
1. Venl -
Mti8ti,0]
2. 8ei I , _. _
3. 8ei Sonftti jper Ylolono e Qhitarn, op. 3.
4. Tre gran Qasrtetti a Violono, Yiola, Chitisna e
violoncello, op. 4 and 5.
These are the only works which Paganini pub-
lished during his lifetime. He only carried with
him on his travels the orchentral parts of the
Sieces he played. Long after his death were pub-
shed: —
6. Concerto in Eb (D\ op. 6, the first morement of which
it ttill oocaaionaUv performed by Wilhelmj and others.
6. Concerto in B minor (Bondo k la Cioohette). op. 7.
7. Le Streghe (Witches* Dance), a set of variations on
anairofS. Mi^er.
8. Variations on ' God save the King,* op. 0.
9. Le Camaval de Yenise. Burlesque Tarlatlont gn a
1. Ventiquattro Caprioci per Violino aolo, dedicati agli
»tisti,op.l. -^ *— ^ -B
2. 8ei Sonati per Tiolono e Chitarra, op. 2.
pcmular air, op. 10.
10. Moto i>erpetna Allegrode Concert, op. 11.
IL Variations on *Non ^Ck mesta.* op. 12.
18. Variations on 'Di tanti palpiti,* op. 13.
la Sixty variatianB in all keys on the air, Bamcaba.
There exists a whole literature on Paganini,
both as a man and an artist. F^tis gives a long
list of such publications. The most important
contribution towards an appreciation of Paganini*s
peculiar treatment of the violin is that by Guhr
*0n Paganini's art of Plaving the Violin' (1831),
English translation by SabilU Novello ; London,
Novello. [P.D.j
PAGE, JoHK, a tenor singer, was elected a lay
clerk of St. George's Chapel, Windsor, Dec. 3,
1790. He resigned the appointment Nov. 9,
1 795, having for some time previously officiated
as deputy at the Chapel Royal and St. Paul's.
In 1800 he edited and published 'Harmonia
Sacra ; a collection of Anthems in score, selected
from the most eminent masters of the i6th, 17th,
and 18th centuries,' 3 vols, fol.; an excellent
PAINK
work, iupplementaiy to the ooUectioiis of Boyoe
and Am<^ On Jan. 10, 1801, upon the resign
nation of Richard Bellamy, he was appointed
a vicar choral of St. Paul's. In 1804 he issued
'.A Collection of Hymns by various compoaeis,
with 1 3 Psalm tunes and an Ode composed by-
Jonathan Battishill.' Also 'Festive Harmony ; a
coUeotion of the most favourite Madrigals, Elegies,
and Glees, selected from the works of the most
eminent composers.* In 1806 he published 'The
Burial Service, Chant, Evening Service, Dirge
and Anthems appointed to be performed at the
funeral of Lord Nelson, 9th January, 1806, com-
posed by Dr. Croft» Puroil, Dr. Greene, Attwood,
and HmkIoL' In 1808 hejoined William Sexton,
organist of St. George's Chapel, Windsor, in the
publication of a teleotion frcon Handel's Chandos
Anthems, in a mutilated form. He died in Aug.
181 2. The following art the oontenti of the
'Harmonia Sacra* ;—
Vol. I.
VflrMADthsna
CTDfl. BIe»Md to Uie pMpla
Do. Dellfor at, O Lord.
Weldon. I will lift np mine 9«.
Bojroe, Let my eompUdnt.
Puroell. Out of tiM dwp.
Kent, O Lord our Qorwmott
Groft. Pr»lM tiM Lord.
Greene, Fonder ■; ivordl.
Clark. The Lord to 1117 ttrenttfc.
Dupuls. The Lord, even the noit.
Kent, The Lord to nj tbeplMrd.
Arnold. Who to thto that
Full AntheSM wtUi V«
BtUbhni. c«n to
Aldrieh. Ood to oar hope.
Stroud, Hear mjr prajer.
Dupnli, I cried unto the Lord.
Ooldwln, I wfll ting.
Mason, Lord of all power.
Beynolds. My Ood, my Ood.
Klng.ObeJorftil.
AUwoed. Teach me, O Lord.
roll Anthems.
Boyee, Burial Benrlee.
Farrant, Lord for Thy teoder.
Tucker, O glre thanks.
Richardson, O how amtohlo.
King, Unto Thee, 0 Lord.
voun.
V«ne Anthemt.
Handel, As pants the hart*
Purcell. Blessed to be.
Clark. Bow down Thine ear.
BatttohUl. How k>n« wilt Thoo.
Greene. Hear my crying.
Puroell. I was glad.
8, Wesley. I said. I wHI take heed.
King, I will alway give thanks.
C. Wesley. My soul hath patiently.
Croft, O Lord. Thou hast searched.
Maroello, O Lord our Goremor.
OoMwfn. O praise God.
Hlne. Btjoloe hi the Lord.
Greene. Save me. O God.
Croft. The Lord to Ung.
Greene, The Lord to my
Fun Anthens with Vam.
Nares, Blessed be the Lord God.
Blake, I hare set God.
Batldon, Behold, how good.
Travers. Keep, we beseech Tbea.
Wood. Lord of all power.
Claric. O Lord God of my salratioa.
Blow. Sing we ■lerrlly.
Croft. Sing praises to the Lacd.
King, The Lord to f oU.
Vol. in.
Vene Anthems^
Hdlmei. Arise and shln&
Handel. Behold. I tdl yon.
LInley. Bow down Thine ear.
Henley. Hear my prayer.
Greene. I wHl alway ghre thanka,
Boyoe, I will magnlty Thee.
Hinec I win magnify Thee.
Greene, O look down fhim bcttTeo.
Handel, There wve shrphevds.
Croft. The Lord U my light.
Handel. Thou ait gone up on hlgb.
Fun Anthems with Verse.
BaUlshlll, Behold, how good.
Handel. Behold the Lamb of G«d.
Batttohin. I win magnify Thw.
Handel. Moses and the Children.
Busby. O God. Thou art my God.
Banks, O Lord, grant the Kli^
Full Anthems.
Greene. Bow down Thine ear.
BaUtohni. DellTer us, O God.
Tye, From thed^Mh I called.
Roften, Lord, who shall dwelL
M^rsh. O Lord, who hast taocM.
Marenalo. Save Lord, hear us.
[W.H.H.]
PAINE. John Knowlies, bom at Portland,
Maine, U.S. A., Jan. 9, 1 839. His earliest teacher
in piano, organ, and composition was Hermann
Kotzschmar, of Portland. He made his first
appearance in public as an organist, in his native
dty, June 35, 1857; and on Jan. i, 185S, was
intrusted with the organ accompaniments to
'The Messiah,* without the assistance of aa
orchestra. In the same year he went to Berlin
for three years, and studied the organ, composi-
tion, instrumentation, and singing, under Haupt»
Wieprecht, and Tesc^er, giving several organ
concerts during his stay. He returned to the
United States in 1861^ and gave a number of
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PAINE.
organ ooooertB, at which the piincipal ooEtkpom-
tioDS of Bach and Thiele were introduced to the
American public. In 1862 he was appointed
instructor of music at Harvard University, and
in 1876 was raised to a full professorship as the
first occupant of the chair. Other leading events
in bis earlier have been the production of hid
Mass at the Singakademie, Berlin, under his
direction, Feb. 1867 ; of the oratorio * Saint
Peter/ also under his own direction, at Portland,
June 3, 1873 (afterwards given by the Handel
and Haydn Society, Boston, May 9, 1874) ; and
of his first symphony, by Thomases orchestra, at
Boston, Jan, o, 1876. Paine^s compositions
evince nobility and high aspiration, and mastery
of the classical forms. His later works, beginning
with the Trio in J) minor (op. 22), show a gra-
dually increasing tendency to the modem Ro-
mantic school, in both form and treatment. His
orchestral works, with the exception of op. 34
(1879), ^▼^ &U been performed at Boston, New
York, and other cities in the United States.
Many of the piano pieces and chamber composi-
tions have also firequently appeared in American
concert programmes.
. His published works consist of :— Op. .^. Varia-
tions for oigan — * Austrian Hymn,' * The Star-
Spangled Banner.' Op. 7. * Christmas gift,' P.P.
Op. 9. Funeral march, P.F. Op. 10. Mass (D),
for solos, chorus, and orchestra. Op. ii. Vier
Character-Stiicke, P.F. Op. I3. Romance, 0
minor, P. F. Op. 19. Two preludes, organ.
Op. 20. • Saint Peter,* oratorio. Op. 25. Four
cluuracteristic pieces, P. F. Op. 26. ' In the
Country,' 10 sketches, P.F. Op. 27. Centennial
Hymn, i^ords by Whittier ; sung at the opening
of the Centennial Exhibition, Philadelphia, May,
1876. Op. 29. Four songs, soprano.
The unpublished works comprise Sonatas for
P.F. solo, and P.F. and violin ; Fantasias, Varia-
tions, etc., for organ ; a String Quartet ; 2
P. F. trios ; an Overture on * As You Like It,*
and a Symphonie-fantasia on ' The Tempest ' ; a
Symphony in C minor (op. 23), and a ditto in A
(op. 34), entitled * Spring'; a Duo Concertante
for violin, cello, and orchestra; songs; motets,
etc., etc [F.H.JO
PAI3IBLE, an eminent flutist, resident in
London in the latter part of the 1 7th and begin-
ning of the 1 8th century. He composed overtures
and act tunes for the following pieces — 'Xing
Edward the Third,' 1691 ; • Oroonoko' and 'The
Spanish Wives,' 1 696 ; ' The Humours of Sir John
FalstafF' [Henry IV, Part i.1, 1700 ; 'She would
and she would not,' 1 703 ; and * Love's Stratagem.'
He also composed three overtures, published under
the title of 'Music performed before Her Majesty
and the new King of Spain*; Duets for flutes,
published in 'Thesaurus Musicus,' 1693-96 ; and
Sonatas and other pieces for flutes published at
Amsterdam. He assisted St. Evremond in com-
posing music for the Duchess of Mazarine's con-
certs at Chelsea. [W.H. H.]
PAISIELLO, GloVANin, eminent composer
of the Italian school in its pre-Roasinian period.
PAISIELLO.
ess
was the son of a veterinary surgeon at Tarento,
and was bom May 9, 1741. At five years old
he entered the Jesuit school at Tarento, where
he attracted notice by the beauty of his voice.
The elements of music were taught him by one
Carlo Presta, a priest and tenor singer, and he
showed such talent that his father, who had
intended tO educate him for the legal profession,
abandoned this idea, and succeeded in obtaining
admission for him to San Onofrio, at Naples, where
he received instruction from the veteran Durante^
and afterwards from Cotumacci and Abos.
During his five years of studentship, Pai-
siello's powers were exercised on church musicy
but, at the end of this time, he indulged in the
composition of a dramatic intermezzo, which, per-
formed at the little theatre ^f the Conservatorio,
revealed where his real talent lay. The piece
pleased so much that its composer was summoned
to Bologna to write two comic operas, ' La Pupilla'
and ' II Mondo a Rovescio* ; which inaugurated
a long series of successes in all the chief Italian
towns. 'II Marchese di Tulipano,' written for
Rome, enjoyed for years a European popularity.
At Naples, where Paisiello finally took up his
abode, he found a formidable rivid in Piccinni,
and later, when Piccinni had departed to Paris,
in Cimarosa. The enthusiastic reception met
with by his own operas, and by ' L'Idolo Cinese '
in particular, was insufficient to set him at ease .
while his own supremacy was at all in danger.
He seems all his life to have regarded every
possible rival with jealous dislike, and on more
than one occasion to have stooped to intrigue,
not only to ensure his own success, but to defeat
that of othen.
In 1776, on the invitation of the Empress
Catherine, who offered him a splendid salary,
Paisiello left Naples for St. Petersburg. Among
a number of operas written there must be men-
tioned 'II Biurbiere di Siviglia,' one of his
best works, and to which a special interest at-
taches from its effect on the first representation
of Rossini's opera of the same name. Coldly
received when performed at Rome (after Pai-
siello's return trom. Russia), it ended by obtain-
ing so firm a hold on the affections of the Roman
public, that the attempt of another composer to
write a new * Barber ' was regarded as sacrilege,
nor would this audience at first give even a hear-
ing to the famous work which finally consigned
its predecessor to oblivion.
After eight years in St. Petersburg, Paisiello
returned to Italy, stopping at Vienna on his way
back, where he wrote twelve * symphonies ' for
Joseph II, and an opera ^'11 Re Teodoro,' con-
taining some of his best music. He was now
named Chapelmaster to Ferdinand IV. of Naples,
and during the next thirteen years produced
several of the works by which he became most
widely known, notably 'I Zingari in Fiera,'
' Nina, o la Pazza d'Amore,* and * La Molinara.'
In 1 797, on the death of General Hoche, Paisiello
wrote a Funeral March, to order, for Napoleon,
then General Buonaparte, who always showed
a marked predilec^on for this composer's music»
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634
PAISIELLO.
and now gave preference to his work 0T6r one
by OherubinL
When, in 1799, the Republican government
was declared at Naples, Paisiello accommodated
himself to the new state of things, and was re-
warded by the poet of * Director of the National
Music* At the Restoration he naturally found
himself out of iavour with his old patrons, and
lost his former appointment. After two years he
succeeded in getting it back again, but this had
hardly come about when the First Consul de-
manded the loan of his fovourite musidan from
the King of Naples to organise and direct the
music of his chapel. Paisiello was accordingly
despatched to Paris, where Buonaparte treated
h'm with a magnificence rivalling that of Cathe-
rine of Russia, and »n amount of &vour that ex-
cited irantic jealousy in the resident musicians,
especially M^ul and Cherubini, who did not
care for Paisiello*s music, and whom he spited
in return by bestowing on theit enemies all the
patronage at his disposal.
He was occupied chiefly in writing sacred com-
positions for the First Consul's ohapel, but in
1803 he gave an opera, 'Proserpine,' which was
not a success. This probably determined him
next year to heg for permission to return to
Naples, on the plea of his wife's ill-health. It
was granted, although unwillingly, by Napoleon,
who desired him before leaving to name his suc-
cessor, when he surprised every one by designat-
ing Lesueur, who was then almost unknown, and
in destitute circumstances.
On Paisiello's return to Italy he was endowed
with a considerable pension, was re-established
in his old place at Naples, and was maintained in
it by Joseph Buonaparte, and after him by Murat.
But the favour he enjoyed under Napoleonic
dynasties inevitably brought him once more into
trouble when the Bourlxms returned. He then
lost all the pensions settled on him by the various
crowned heads he had served. He retained, it is
true, his salary at the Royal Chapel, but this,
after the luxury he had known, was poverty.
Anxiety had undermined his health, and he suf-
ered a fresh blow in the loss of his wife, in 1815.
He did not long survive her, dying June 5 in the
same year.
As a man Paisiello does not oommand our
sympathy, although by his industry and devotion
to Art he merits esteem. Spoiled by success, he
lacked generosity towards his rivals. Spoiled by
prosperity, he had no endurance and no dignity
m misfortune. Like many others of his time, he
was a most prolific writer. He composed about
a hundred operas, and at least as many other
works, of different kinds. If novelty is not aimed
at, or is only occasionally expected, the art of pen-
ning easy, flowing melody seems capable of being
cultivated into a habit. Expression, within
certain restricted limits, was Paisiello^s strong
point. All his airs are remarkable for sim-
plicity and grace, and some have considerable
charm, such as ' Nel cor pih non mi sento * in
the * Molinara,' lonff known in England as
'Hope told a flattering tale^* and destined to
. PALADILSE.
survive still longer owing to the variattona oo
it written by Beethoven. Some of hb muaic is
tinged with mild melancholy, as in ' Nin& ' (a
favourite part of Pasta's), but it is never tragic ;
or with equally mild bonhomie^ as in the ' Zingari
in Fiera,* but it is never genuinely comic It has
great purity of style. No bravura songs for pri'^e
dcnne^ such as figure in the works of ^asw
and P(Hpora do we find In these operas. No
doubt his simple airs received embellishment
at the hands of singers; we know that Uie
custom prevailed, at that time, to such an extent
as to determine Rossini to write down all his
own Jiariture for himself. This may aocoant for
the degree of repetition to be found in Paisi^o's
pieces, and which, to our ears, seems insnfleraUy
tedious. In his work the principle of 'expo-
sition, illustration and repetition * & iM>n-exis4ent
as to its second stage. His only method of
expanding his theme to the desired dimenaon
was numerous vtrhaiim repetitioDs, with a ^Kirt
alternative phrase between, prodncinff the feeKng
of a continual series of rondos, and which, for
variety of effect, must have depended on the
singer. Trios, quartets, etc. enter lar^fely into
his works, and he was among the first, if not tki
first, to introduce concerted JinaUt into serious
opera. In his orchestration he arrives at chann-
ing effects through very simple means ; it ia dn-
tinguished by clearness and good taste, and by
the independent parts given to the instruments.
The mild li^ht of such men as Paisiello paled
before the bnlliaaoe of Rossini. His music Is
practically obsolete, yet it mnst not be pnt asUe
with that of many so-called composers who
merely illustrate the passing fancies of their day.
It is music. Not immortal music ; for art that is
immortal is always young, and this has become
old-iashioned. Yet like many a quaint old
fiwhion it has a certain beauty of aasoda^on
now, because it possessed actual beauty once.
No one would vdllingly call it back into an
existence where it woidd find itself out of place.
Yet much of it may repay attention on the part
of those who may care to turn aside for a mo-
ment from the intricate path of modem art, and
examine the music which stirred the admiration
and moved the heart of a past generation of men
and women like themselves.
For a complete list of PaisieIlo*s cOTnpositions
the reader is referred to F^tis's * Biogn4>hie des
Musiciens,* ed. 1870. They embrace 94 operas;
103 masses and other ohuroh pieces ; 51 instru-
mental ditto. [F.A.M.]
PALADILHE, EmLB, bom at MontpeUkr
June 3, 1844 ; at nine entered the Conswratoife
under the protection of Hal^vy, and studied
hard, carrying off the first piano priae in 1857^
and the organ-prize and 'Prix de Rome* in i860.
The eantata which won him the latter dis-
tinction, ' Le Czar Ivan lY,' he neither printed
nor sent to the tihrazy of the Conservat<Mre,
doubtless from the consciousness that it was an
immature work. The specimens of his composi-
tion received by the Institut during his stay in
Italy gave a favourable idea of his powers, but
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PALADILHR
on his return to Paris he hftd great difficulty in
obtaining a libretto. A channing song, 'La
Mandolinata,* at length drew attention to his
merits/ and he obtained Copp^'s one-act piece,
' La Passant/ which was produced at the Op^ra
Comique April 34, 1872. Notwithstanding the
favourable reception of the music, sung by Mme.
Galli-Marie, and Marguerite Priola/ three years
passed before the appearance of 'L* Amour
A&icain' (May 8, 1875), in two acts. The
libretto of this, though by Legouv^, was not
approved, and the music was condemned as
laboured. Nevertheless many of the numbers
bear traces not only of solid musicianship, but
of spontaneous and original melody. Up to the
present time Pahulilhe*s best and most im-
portant work is 'Suzanne' (Dec. 30, 1878), an
opdra-comique in three acts. Here we find
something beyond mere ingenuity in devising
effects ; the melodiM are gracefiil and refined,
and show an unctmventionality of treatment
which is both charming and piquant. It is
much to be regretted that this young composer
has hitherto been unsuccessful in finding a really
interesting libretto; should he succeed, the
French stage will in all probability gain an
opera destined to live.
M. Paladilhe has also published detached
songs with P.F. accompaniment, marked by flow-
ing and melodious treatment. [G. C]
PALESTRINA,' Giovanni Pierluioi da.
was bom of humble parents at Palestrina in the
Campagna of Borne. The exact date of his birth
is unknown. Maria Torrigio and Leonardo
Ceoeoni fix it in 1528, Andrea Adami in 1529.
The inscription on an old portrait of him in the
muniment room of the Pontifical Chapel at the
Qnirinal states that he died at about 80 years of
age in I594» and if this were true he would have
been borfli^ 1514 or 1515. The Abb4 Baini
interpret^a 'doubtful phrase used by his son
Igino, in the dedication of a posthumous volimie
of his Masses to Pope Olement YIII, to mean
that his father died at the age of 70 in the
year 1504. The truth ia that the exact date of
his birth cannot be stated The public registers
of Palestrina, which would probably have cer-
tified it, were destroyed by the soldiery of Alva
in 1557, and no private *docxunents have been
discovered which make good their loss. It is
certain, however, that at a very early age, and
probably about the year 1540, he came to Rome
to study music. Towards this career the different
capitals of Italy offered many inducements to
boys with musical aptitudes, and it is said by
Ottavio Pitoni that Palestrina owed his reception
into a school to his being overheard singing in
the street by the Maestro of the Cha;pe\ of Santa
Maria Maggiore. The authenticity of this anec-
dote is at least doubtful. In uie first place
1 A promtstng singer who died 7oanc>
> 'Joannes Petnlojslus PrMnestinas* Is hU tall Latin names
Bain! styles blm * J. P. Alolslus.* In the old edHloos he Is called
slmpl/ QIanetto: or Glanetto wHh mxUm aflUes— such as da (or
without the da) Palestrina, Palestrtno. Palleatrina. Palestlna. or
Pelestrlno ; also JOb de Palestlna. (See Bltner, ' BIbllosraphle.' 1877,
PP.78S.1B>.>
PALESTRIK
Palestrina^ at all events as a \^^, x,> ^
poor voice ; in the next, a Maeson Wflo l^^^d^^miH
caught wild a promising pupil wmOp^l^^
have kept him to hinuelf, whereW^^noBtrinsl) 1^
very soon after his arrival in Rome apif^^ as a ^^
pupil of Qaudio Groudimel, a FlemingrWAoiJfilt 4 ^ f\
opened a pubUo school of music in the city.X^su. ,
personality of Goodimel, a moot point with Baidl^^-
Bumey, and Hawkins, is no longer doubtful, and
a reference to p. 61 a of the former volume of this
Dictionary will show who and what he was, and
that he was killed at Lyons in the St. Bartholo-
mew massacre, 1572.
In 1 55 1 Rubino finally retired from the
teachership of music in the Cappella Giulia of
the Vatican, and in September of that year
Palestrina, who during the eleven years that had
elapsed since his arrival in Rome must have
given good prooft of his quality, was elected* to
the vacant post* He was invested with the
novel title of 'Magister Cappellse,* his prede-
cessors having been styled ' Magister Puerorum,*
'Magister Musicae,* or 'Magister Ghori.' His
salary was fixed at six scudi per month, with a
residence and certain allowances. He was^V
this time, if we accept Baini's dates, about^7
years of age. ^ —Tp j
In 1554 he published his first volume, 0(m- ^
taining four masses for four voices and one for
five. These he dedicated to Pope Julius III. It
is worth saying, in order to show the dominimce
of the Flemish school in Italy, that this was
the first volume of music that had ever been dedi-
cated by an Italian to a Pope. It was printed in
Rome by the Brothers Dorid in 1554 ; a second
edition of it was publish^ by their successors in
1572, and a third by Gardano of Rome in 1591.
In the last edition Palestrina included his mass
*Pro Defimctis' for five voices, and another
entitled ' Sine Nomine * for six. The other masses
in the volume were 'Ecoe Sacerdos Magnus,*
*0 regem CoeU,' ' Virtute magni,* and 'Gabriel
Archangelus,* all for four voices, and ' Ad ooenam
agnum providi ' for five.
About this time Palestrina married. Of his
wife we know nothing more than that her
Christian name was Lucrezia, that she bore to
her husband four sons, and that after a long
married Ufa which seems to have been marked by
uncommon affection, she died in the year 1580.'
In the year 1555 Julius III, mindful of the
dedication of the book of masses, offered their
author a place among the twenty -four collegiate
singers of his private chapeL The pay was
greater than tluit which he was receiving as
Maestro in the Vatican. Palestrina was poor,
and he had already four children. On the other
hand he was a layman, he had a bad voice, and
he was a married man. For each one of these
• Ottark) Fltonl. with unpardonable carelessness, so misread an
entrr In the hooks of the Oonf ratemlty of the Corpo dl Cbristo, of
which Palestrina was a member, as to conchide that he had been
married twice. The words that misled him are as follows: 'OiovannI
da Palestrina, Maestro dl Cappella dl San Pletro, Locrssia sua mofiHe
e Angelo soo SrUoIo. e DoraUce sua moglle. e Igino no flgUo.' The
DocaUoe here mentioned was Uie wife of Angelo. as Is prored by tbe
ragWer of ttie baptism of thdr daughter AumUa. stffl extant at the
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636
PALESTRINA.
reMons his appointment was a gron Tiolatioti of
the constitutions of the college, and a high-handed
and unwarrantable act upon the part of Julius.
All this he knew, and to his credit he hesitated
to accept the offer ; but his desire to do his best
for his family combined with a fear of offending
his patron to enforce his acceptance. He re-
signed his old post, and on. January 13, I555y
was formally a^oiitted as one of the Pontifical
Singers.
hi the course of this year he published his
first volume of madrigals for four voices. His
intention to dedicate this to Julius was frustrated
by the death of that pontiff, which took place
while they were still in the press. The book was
published by the Brothers Borioi, and was after-
wards five times reprinted in difierent editions
by Scoto and Gardano of Venice and their suc-
cessors. Marcellus II, who succeeded Julius III
in the papacy, died after a reign of twenty-three
days, and was succeeded in his turn by Paul IV.
Paul was a reformer, and one of the first acts of
his reign was to weed the College of Pontifical
Singers of those members whose qualifications
would not bear scrutiny. Among these was
undoubtedly Palestrina, and he was dismissed
accordingly, along with Leonardo Bari and Do-
menico Ferrabosoo. The Pope tempered his
severity by assigning to each of the dismissed
singers a pension of six scudi per month. But
not the less did his expulsion seem ruin to
the anxious and over-sensitive Palestrina. He
straightway took to his bed, and for some weeks
lay prostrate under an attack of nervous fever.
As might have been foreseen, his despair was
premature. A young man who had so speedily
and so surely left his mark upon the musio of
his generation was not likely to starve for want
of employment. Within two months he was
invited to the post of Maestro della Cappella at
the Lateran. He was careful to enquire at the
Vatican whether in the event of his obtaining
fresh preferment he would be allowed to keep
his pension, and it was only upon receiving a
favourable answer that he accepted the profen^
office, upon which he entered in October 1555.
Palestrina remained at the Lateran untU Feb-
ruary 1561, when he was transferred to a similar
post at Santa Maria Maggiore. At the last-
named basilica he remained for ten years at a
monthly salary of sixteen scudi, until the month
of March, 157 1, when, upon the death of Giovanni
Animuccia, he was once more elected to his old
office of Maestro at the Vatican.
The fifteen years which thus elapsed since the
rigorous rerform of Paul IV had set him for a
moment adrift upon the world, had been years of
brilliant mental activity in Palestrina. His
genius had fi*eed itself from the influence of the
pedantnr by which it had been nursed and
schooled,— and had taken to itself the full form
and scope of its own speciality and grandeur.
His first volume had been fiill of all the vagaries
and extravagances of the Flemish School, and in
it the meaning of the words and the intention of
the music had alike been subordinated, according
PALESTRINA.
to the VvH fuhion of his epoch, to the perplexing
subtleties of science. But beyond this first v<Jnnie
few traces of what Baini calls the ' Fiammingo
Bqualore ' are to be found. HIb second volume,
'The Lamentations of Jeremiah,* for four voiceB,
shows more than the mere germs of his future
manner ; and although the third, a set of ' Mag-
nificats * for five and six voices, is full of science
and learning, it is of science and learning set
free. A hymn, * Crux Fidelis,' and a collection
of ' Improperia,* all for eight voices, written in
1560, obtained speedily so great a renown, that
Paul IV, who had dismif»ed him, could noi
restrain himself from asking to have them song
at the Vatican, and after hearing them had them
added at once to the cdlection of the Apostolic
ChapeL The publication of all these works was
made anonymously, and was completed within
the six years of Palestrina's stay at the Lateran.
So far as is known, the only piece during thai
period to which his name was affixed was a
madrigal composed in honour of a lady with
a beautiful voice and much skill in song. It is
entitled ' Donna bella e gentil,' and was printed
by Scoto of Venice in 1560 in a volume of
madrigals by Alessandro Strigcio.
The ten years during whicm he remained at
Santa Maria Maggiore formed at once themost
brilliant decade in the life of Palestrina and one
of the most remarkable epochs in the histcny of
his art. It is not eai^ for us at this moment to
realise the position 01 church music at the date
of the Council of Trent. It may be said that it
had lost all relation to the services whidi it was
supposed to illustrate. Bristling with inapt and
distracting artifioes, it completely overlaid the
situations of the Mass ; while founded, as it was
for the mo6t part, upon secular melodies, it was
actually sung, except by two or three prominent
voices In the front row of the choir, to the words
with which its tunes were most naturally and
properly associated. It was usual for the most
sdenm phrases of the Kyrie, Glorii^Credo, and
Agnus to blend along the aisles of the -basflica
with the unedifying refrains of the lewd diansoos
of Flanders and Provence, while ballad and oUmt
dance music were played every day upon the
organ. Other irregularities and corruptions hardly
less flagrant were common among the dngen;
and the general condition of affairs was such that
a resolution as to the necessity of reform in
church music, which veiy neariy took the riiape
of a decree for its abandonment altogether, was
solemnly passed in a full sitting of the Council
of Trent. In 1563 Pius IV issued a oommissicm
to eight cardinals authorising them to take idl
necessary steps to carry out the resolution of the
Council. Among these, two of the most active
were the Cardimds Borromeo and Vitellozzi. At
their instance Palestrina was commissioned to
write a mass as a type of what the music of the
sacred office should be. With a noble mixture
of modesty and energy the great composer de-
clined to trust the fate of his art to one work.
He composed a series orthree n^asses .and sent
them without titles to the Cardinal Borromeo. It
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PALESTRINA.
Ib sitppoeed that he feared to attach names to them
lest he should arouse by an ill-judged choice of
words either powerful prejudices or unfounded
fears. They were performed in the first instance
with the greatest care at the house of the Cardinal
Titellozzi. The verdict of the audience assembled
to hear them was final and enthusiastic Upon
the first two, praises lavish enough were bestowed ;
but by the third, afterwards known as the mass
' Papee Maroelli/ all felt that the future style and
destiny of sacred art was once for all determined.
Baini likens its transcendent excellence to that
of the relative grandeur of the 33rd canto of the
Inferno. Parvi, contemporary musical copyist at
the Vadcan, transcribed it into the Chapel collec-
tion in characters ^Ai^fr than those which he
commonly employed. The Pope ordered a special
performance of it in the Apostolic Chi^>el ; and
at the close of the service the enraptured Pontiff
declared that it must have been some such music
that the Apostle of the Apocalypse heard sung
by the triumphant hosts of angels in the New
Jerusalem. Cardinal Pisani exclaimed in the
wcwds of the ' Paradise,*
Bender h qaesto voce a rooe in tempra
Ed in dolcezza oh' eeser non pi6 noia
8e non oolii dovel gioir a' intempra ;
and Ant(mio Sorbelloni, the Pope's cousin, re-
joined with a happy adaptation from the same
•ouroe,
Bitpondadanqiie: Oh, fortonata scrtel
Bisponda alia divina cantilena,
Ba tutte parti la beata Oorte
Si oh'ognl vista ne lia pUi serena.
In short, there was a general agreement of prelate
and singer that Palestrina had at last produced
the archetype of ecclesiastical song.^
The post of Composer to the Pontifical Choir
was created for Palestrina by the Pope in honour
of this noble achievement, and so the amends, if
any were needed, firom the Vatican to its dis-
missed chapel singer, were finally and hand-
somely made. But the jealousy of the singers
themselves, which had been evinced upon his
original appointment as one of their number in
I555> was by no means extinct. His present
appointment was rec^ved in surly silence, and
upon the death of Pius, in August 1565, their
discontent took a more open and aggressive form.
The new Pope, however, Michele Ghislieri, who
had taken the title of Pius V, confirmed the great
musician in his office, as did the six succeeding
pontifib during whose reigns he lived.'
The production of this series of masses by no
means represents the mental activity of Palestrina
during the period between 1555 and 1571. In
156 a, in gratitude for his monthly pension, he
had sent for the use of the Apostolic Chapel two
1 The AbM Alfieri. in bb edittoD of ' Selected Worka of Pakitrinm*
pabUibad At Borne In 1838, lUtee indeed hie own prvfermoe for the
temm 'Fntns ego enlm.' At leart, he mn that It It 'plA Riandloa'
in his oplnkm. But the roRret which he expie^ej tar the Otgni-
fleant CMt that (t hM never been peifonned dnce the death of Its com-
poear. Mugnrti the itronflBrt pfenmpllon agalmt the wlidoai of his
from the Pope was
I fixed at nineKodl
kMaria ]faailar«.at
PALESTRINA.
637
t Vm peiulon which he had hitherto eojored
MSPd In the MhuT of his new ofBoe. whleh WM
moftetti, 'Beatns Laurentlus,* and * Estote fortes
in bello,* and a mass for six voices, intituled
'Ut Re Mi Fa Sol La,* To the Cardinal Pio
di Carpi, who had shown him some personal
kindness, he had dedicated a volume of graceful
motetti, which were printed bv the Brothers
Dorid in 1563, and were republished in four
other editions by Grardano and Coattino of Rome,
during the life of the author, and after his death
by Gardano of Venice and Soldi of Rome. In
the year 1565 the Cardinal Pacaoco, Spanish re-
presentative at the papal court, intimated that
the dedication to Philip 11 of a work by Pales-
trina would be pleasing to that monarch. The
musician consulted his friend Cardinal Vitellozzi,
and arranged the dedication of a volume which
should contain the fiunous mass, which he then
christened 'Papae Maroelli,' with four others
for four voices^ and two for five voices. These,
with an appropriate inscription, were forwarded
to the Spamsh king. They were printed by the
Dorici as Palestrina's second volume of masses, in
1 569, and in a firesh edition by Gardano of Venice,
in 1598. A year or two afterwards he published
a thhxl volume of masses, which he also inscribed
to Philip. It need hardly be said that a message
of thanks was all that he ever received in return
for so splendid a homage from the heartless,
wealthy, and penurious Ugot at the EscuriaL
It is well to state that Palestrina must not be
held responsible for certain inferior adaptations
which exist of the mass ' Papae Maro^* one
into a mass for four voices by Anerio, and
another into one for eight voi^ by Soriani.
Anerio's arrangement went through three editions
in i6po, 1626, and 1649 respectively. Soriani's
was confined to one issue in 1609.' It is well,
too, to notice an assertion of Gerbert that Pales-
trina first of all wrote the mass for four voices,
and afterwards amplified and improved it into one
for six. Had Gerbert been a man of genius him-
self, he would have felt the improbability of such
a stoiy. There was also an arrangement of this
work for twelve voices, a copy of which Baini
had seen in the collection of Santa Maria in
Yallicdla at Rome. The widespread popularity
of the work at least is shown even by the bad
taste of its adapters. One curious myth was
current about it for a time, to which Pellegrini
in his < Museum HistoricoLegale ' has given cur-
rency. He says that he took the story from
Platina. It is to the effect that the mass was
written, not by Palestrina and dedicated to his
patron Maroellus II, but by Maroellus I, Saint
and Martyr, at the end of the 3rd or begin-
ning of the 4th century. To suppose that on
the morrow of the persecution of Diocletian,
while Maxentius and Constantine were disputing
the possession of the Empire, and while the
services of the Christian Oinrch were still prin-
cipally confined to the Catacombs, music or the
appliances for the performance of music could
have either produced or executed such a work, is
a folly that would need no exposure, even if the
• A orltloal edition of the three has been pabUsbed by FiMka
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PALESTEIKA,
hifltoric deamees of the maMer were not whtki
it IB. [See Mass, vol. ii. 239, 230.]
In an enumeration of the works of Palestrina,
published during this period of his life, we must
not forget to mention five secular madrigals of
his which Vinoenzo Galilei, father of the astrono-
mer, and a musical virtuoso of no mean order,
set for the lute, and included in a collection of
similar compositions which he published under
the title of ' Fronimo/ through Sooto of Venice,
in 1568, and again in 1584. The secular works
of Palestrina are so few in number that the names
of the madrigals are worth preservation. They are
' y estiva i colli* ; * Cosl le chiome mie* ; ' lo son
ferito, ahi lasso' ; ' Se ben non veggaa gli ocohi' ;
and * Se tra quail* erbe e fieri.' With the excep*
tion of * lo son ferito,* which is of a very high
order of merit, these madrigals call for no more
especial mention ; nor can tney be placed by any
means among his more impcnrtant works. Only
the two first named have been published in or-
dinary notation. These were printed in 1585.
Baini, however, mentions that he had seen an
antique manuiicript of the third and fourth in the
Corsini Library, and had collated this carefully
with the arrangement by Galilei.
Somewhere about the year 1560, Palestrina
had acquired the patronage of the Cardinal
Ippolito d'Este, and for many years subsequently
was treated by him with much kindness. As an
acknowledgement of this he dedicated to this
personage his first regular volume of motetti,
which was published by the Doric! at Home in
1569. This remarkable volume contains several
works of the very highest class. We may in-
stance those entitled * Viii Galilaei,' and ' Dum
complerentur,* for ax voices. These are perhaps
the best, though hard upon them in merit follow
*0 admirabile commerdum,' 'Senex portabat
puerum/ and ' Cum pervenisset beatus Andreas,'
tor five voices, and ' Solve jubente Deo,' ' Vidi
magnam turbam,' and ' O Domine Jesu Christe
adoro te,' for six voices. The rest of the col-
lection, says Baini, though fine, are inferior.
There are two later editions of these, both by
Scoto of Venice, one of 1586, and the other of
1600.
It was in 1570 that he published his third
volume of masses, dedicated to Philip IL It
contains four masses for four voices, entitled
'Spem in altum,' 'Primi toni,' 'Brevis,' and
' De Feria*; two for five voices, ' Lome ann^,' and
'Bepleatur os meum'; and two for six voices,
*De Beatft Vii^ne,' and 'Ut Ke Mi Fa,' etc.
Baini will have it that the mass 'Primi Toni'
was thus technically designated because it was
really founded upon the melody of a well-known
madrigal in the loth novella of Boccaccio's
oth Desameron, 'lo mi son gioVinnetta'; and
Palestrina feared that if its origin were avowed
it would oome within the meaning of the reso-
lution of the Council of Trent against the
* mescolamento di sagro e profimo' in church
music. This supposition is highlv improbable ;
for ' L'homme arm^ ' bears its title Doldly enough,
yet it is as directly descended from a secular
PALESTRIKA.
song. Palestrina composed this last-mentkined
mass in competition with a number of othexB ihal
already exiBtod on the same subject, and he seems
in his treatment of it to have consciously adopted
the Flemish style. It is wonderfully elaborate.
He has gone out of his way to overlay it with
difficulties, and to crowd it with abstruse era-
dition, apparently from a desire once for all to
beat the Flemings upon their own ground. On
account of its scientific value Zaoooni, in 1592,
inserted it in his ' Pl«ctica Musicale,' testifying
— and his was no mean testimony — that it was
superior to the work of Josquin des Pr^ bearing
the same name. He appends a careful analysis
of it for the instruction of his readers. [St^e
L'HoMMB ARMi^ vol. ii. p. 127.] The mass
called ' Brevis ' was directly composed upon one
of GoudimeFs, called 'Audi Filia'; the subject
was probably selected for the purpose of con-
trasting his own method of treatment with theae
which it was his destiny and intention to sup-
plant. It is among those which are beet known
and most firequently sung at the present day,
and no more ^vouiable specimen of his pow^a
could well be cited.
We have now completed our survey of the
works of Palestrina down to the date of hie re-
appointment to the Vatican. He had accepted
the post from a love for the basilica in whose
service his first &me had been gained. But he
sufiPered what to him must have been a serious
loss of income when he left Santa Maria Mag-
giore. For this however he obtained some ocm-
pensation in his appointment as Maestro di Cmp-
pella to the new oratory founded by S. FQippo
Neri, his confessor and intimate friend. But at
no time had Palestrina any large share of wcridly
prosperity. His largest regular earnings were
during the few years that he held the two oflSces
of Maestro at Santa Maria, and Compositore to
the Capella Apostolica. The salaries of these two
amounted together to less than thirty scud! per
month, besides certain trivial allowances. We
never hear that he derived any profit from the
sale of his works ; nor, indeed, can it be sup-
posed that at that epoch there was much money
to be made by musical publications. He gave
lessons for a short period in the school carried on
by Nanini ; but it is not at aU likely that he (fid
so with any other object than to assist his fnend,
or that he accepted any payment for his assist-
ance. Throughout the whole course of his career
he only taught seven private pupils, and three of
these were his own sons. Ilie oti^ers were An-
nibale Stabile, Andrea Dragone, AdrianoQprari,
and Giovanni Guidetti. It is probable therefore
that, save for a few exceptional gifts frt)m patrans
and a little temporary employment as Director of
Concerts, he had to subsist upon the veiy humUe
salaries attached to the permanent offices which he
held. In addition to this chronic penury he had to
endure stroke after stroke of the severest domes-
tic affliction. His three promising sons, Angelo,
Kidolfo, and Silla, all died one after Uie other,
just as they had given substantial proofo of their
intellectual inheritance of their Other's genius ;
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PALBSTBIKA.
in 1580 his wife died ; and his remaining son,
Igino, was a wild and worthless man. Tet
neither poYerty nor sorrow oould quench the fire
of his geniusy nor dheok the march of his in-
dustry. The years between 15 71 and 1594, when
he died, were to the foil as firuitfdl as those
which had preceded them. And though he him-
self had little to gain in renown, the world has
profited by a productiveness which continued
unabated down to the very month of his death.
Ko sooner was he reinstated at the Vatican
than he sent a present of two masses, one for
five and the other for six voices, to the Papal
Choir. The subject of the first of these was
taken from one of the motetti in his first volume,
' O Magnimi Mysterium'; that of the other from
the old hymn, 'Veni Creator Spiritus,* of the
Idbri Corali. They are in his finest and most
mAtured mamier, and were probably composed
in the year of their presentation. They have
never been printed, but they may be seen in the
Collection of the Vatican. In the following year,
1572, he published at Bome, probably with Ales*
sandro Gardano, his second volume of motetti.
It is not certain that any copies of tiiis edition
exist, but reprints of it are extant^ by Scoto, of
Venice, in 1580 and 1588, and by Gardano, of
Venice, in 1594. It was in this volume that he
included four motetti written by his three sons.
It was dedicated to one of the most persistent
of his firiends, the Cardinal Ippolito d*£8te, who
died that same year. Among the finest contents
of this volume are 'Derelinquat impius viam
soam,' and ' Canite tub4 in Sion,* for five voices,
and 'Jerusalem, dto veniat salus tua,' 'Veni
Domine,' 'Sancta et immaculata Viiginitas,* and
* Tu es Petrus,* each for six voices. But beyond
them all for sweetness and tenderness of feeling
is 'Peccantem me quotidie et non me poeni-
tentem timer mens oonturbat me, quia in in-
ferno nulla est redemptio ; miserere mei Domine,
et salva me.'
Inferior, on the whde, to its predecessors, was
the third volimie of motetti, which he printed
in 1575, with a dedication to Alfonso n, Duke
of Ferrara, and cousin to his lost friend the
Cardinal Ippolito. There are, however, certain
brilliant exceptions to the low level of the book ;
notably the motetti for eight voices, which are
finer than any which he had yet written for the
same number of singers, and include the well-
known and magnificent compositions, ' Surg^e il-
luminare Jeru^em/ and ' Hodie Christus natus
est.* Besides the original edition of this work,
by Grardano of Bome, there are no less than four
reprints by Scoto and Gardano of Venice, dated
1 5 75* ' 58 1, 1589, and 1 594 respectively. It forms
vol. 3 of the complete edition of Messrs. Breitkopf
& H&rtel, now in course of publication.
Jn this year, 1575, ^^^ year of the Jubilee,
an incident occurred which must have made one
of the brightest passages in the cloudy life of
Paleetrina. Fifteen hundred singers from his
native town, belonging to the two confraternities
of the Crucifix and the Sacrament^ came to
Bopia They had divided Uiemselves into three
l^ALESTSIKA,
669
choruses. Priestly kymen, boys and ladies went
to form their otanpaaies ; and they made a solemn
entry into the dty, singing the music of their
iownsman, with its great creator conducting it at
their head.
In the following ysar, Gregory XIH com-
missioned Palestriua to revise the 'Graduale'
and the ' Antifonario * of the Latin Church. This
was a work of great and somewhat thankless
labour. It involved little more than oompila*
tion and rearrangement, and on it all the finer
qualities of his genius were altogether thrown
away. Uncongenial however as it was. Pales-
trina, with unwavering devotion to his art, and
to the Church to which he had so absolutely
devoted both hhnself and it» undertook the task.
Well aware of its extent, he called to his aid Mb
fovourite pupil, Guidetd, and entrusted to him
the correction of the 'Antifonario.* Guidetti car-
ried this part of the work throi^h under the
supervision of his master, and it was published
at Bome in 1583 under the title 'Directorium
Chori* [See Guidetti ; vol. L p. 639 a.] The
'Graduale,' wliuok Palestrina had reserved to
himself, he never completed. There is a limit
to the perseverance of Uie most persevering ; and
the most loving of churchmen and the most fiidth-
M of artists fell back here. He seems to have
finished a first instalment, but the rest he left
less than half done, and the whole was found
after his death among his abandoned manuscripts.
His mean son, Igino, who survived him, on finding
it among his papers, got some inferior musician to
finish it, and then contracted to sell it to a care-
less printer for 2500 scudi, as the sole and genuine
work of his father. The purchaser had just cau-
tion enough to send the MS. for the revision and
approval of the Vatican Chapter. The fraud was
thus discovered, and the result was a lawsuit,
which terminated in the abrogation of the con-
tract, and the consignment of the manuscript to
a convenient oblivion.
The loss of his patron Ippolito d^Este was to
some extent made up to Palestrina by the kind-
ness of Giacomo Buoncompagni, nephew' of
Gregory XIII, who came to Bome in 1580, to
receive nobility at the hands of his relative. He
was a great lover of music, and proceeded at
once to organise a series of concerts, under the
direction of Palestrina. To him Palestrina dedi-
cated a volume of twenty -six madrigals for five
voices. Eight of these were composed upon
Petrareh*s * Canzoni * to the Virgin Mary ; the
rest were set to imscellaneous sacred words. The
publication of these was followed by that of an-
other volume of motetti for four voices only.
Several editions of both works are extant. The
madrigals call for no comment ; but the volume
of motetti is unusually beautiful. They were
probably composed in the year of their publi-
cation, during the first force of his grief for the
loss of Lucrezia ; and to this the intensity of
thdbr pathos and the choice of the words to which
they are written may be ascribed. 'Supra flu-
mina Babylonis, illic sedimus et flevimus, dum
t I Or«OB. •
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«40
PALESTRINA.
recordaremnr tul, Sion; in cudicibus In medio
ejus susp^idimuB orgsna nostra,* which are the
words of the finest of them all, may well have
represented to himself the heart-broken composer
moiiming by the banks of the Tiber £ar the lost
wife whom he had loved so long.
Upon these, in 1562, followed the fomih in
the series of masses for four and five voices,
a volume by no means remarkable, save that it
was written and dedicated to Gregory at his own
request. Palestrina seems to have been aware
of its inferiority, and to have resolved to present
the Pontiff with something more wcnihy of them
both. He accordingly conceived the idea of com-
posing a series of motetti to words chosen from
the Song of Solomon. The execution of these,
with the doubtful exception of the Great Mass,
was the happiest effort of his genius. In them
all his critics and biographers imite to say that
he surpassed himself. Fludied with the gbrious
sense of his success, he carried the book, when
oompleted, in person to Gregory, and laid it at
the foot of his chair. It was printed by Gardano
in 1584, but so great was its renown that in less
than sixty yean from the date of its composition
it had passed through ten fresh editions at the
hands of some half-a-dozen different publishers.
Palestrina had now arrived at the last decade
of his life. In it we can trace no diminution
of his industry, no relaxation in the fibre or fire
of his genius. In 1584 he published, and dedi-
cated to Andrea Battore, nephew of Stephen,
King of Poland, who had been created a Car-
dinal, his fifth volume of motetti for five voices.
It is a volume of unequal merit, but it contains
one or two of the rarest examples of the master.
Such especially are those entitled ' Peccavi, quid
fadam tibi, oh custos hominum,* 'Peooavimus
cum patribus nostris,* and 'Paudtes dierum
meorum finietur breyi* Baini admired these
so extravagantly as to say that in writing them
Palestrina must have made up his mind to con-
sider himself the simple amanuensis of Gkxi !
There are four different editions of this work by
Scoto of Venice, and the two by the Gardani of
Venice and Rome. To the sacred motetti of
this volume are prefixed two secular pieces,
written to some Latin elegiac verses, in honour
of Prince Battore and his uncle, llie style of
these is light and courtly ; rather fit, says Baini,
for instruments than the voice ; and the rhythm
has a smack of the hallo. In the third edition
of these motetti, Gardano of Venice published
a posthumous motetto, 'Opem nobb, o Thoma^
porrige,' in order to sell his book the better.
PiUeetrina had intended to dedicate the last-
mentioned volume to the Pope ; but the arrival of
Battore, and his kindness to him, made him change
his mind. In order however to atone for such
a diversion of homage, he sent to Gregory three
masses for six voices. Of these the two fint were
founded on the subjects of his motets 'Viri
Galilaei * and * Dum complerentur.' They had all
the beauties of the eariier works, with the result
of the maturity of the author's genius and ex-
perience Bupeiadded, The thin!, 'Te Deum
PALESTRINA.
laudamus,' Baini states to be rather heavy,
partly owing, perfaafM, to the ' character pf the
key* in whioh it is written, but more, probab y,
frtim too servile an adherenoe to the form of an
old Ambrosian hymn on which it is founded.
About this time we .notice traces of a pc^ular
deshre to get hold of the lighter pieces of Pides-
trina. Francesco Landoni possessed Mmi^^f for
instance, of copies of the two madrigals, ' Vestiva
i colli,* and ' Cosl le chiome mie,* which Vinoenxo
Galilei had arranged for the lute. He printed
them in a miscellaneous volume, entitled
' Spoglia Amorosa,* through Scoto of Venice, in
1505. Gardano offiMUU, UH>, publidied a col-
lection of madrigauby sundry composers, under
the name of ' Dold Affeti* Among these thsre
was one of Palestrina*s to the words —
Oh bella Ninlk mis, ch' al fuooo spento
Bendi le fiamme, ami riaoaldi il gelo, etc ;
and two or three other stray pieces of his were
published in like manner about the same time.
In April 1585 Gregory died, and was suc-
ceeded by Sixtus V. Palestrina made somewhat
too much haste to pay his homage to the new
Pontiff. A motetto and a mass-— each enticed
'Tu es pastor ovium* — ^which he sent to him
were so hurriedly composed that on the perform-
ance of the mass on Trinity Sunday, Sixtos
said a little bluntly, ' B Pierluiffi ha dimendicato
la Messa di Papa ^arcelli ed i Motetti della
Cantica.* These regrettable productions woud
have been well lost to sight but for the reckless
brutality of Igino, who looking only to what
money they would fetch, publi^ed them after
his father's death with a bold-faced inscription to
Clement VIII. Palestrina atoned for his misdeed
by writing forthwith the beautiful mass, 'As-
sumpta est Maria in Coelum.* This masterpiece
he had just time to get printed off without date
or publiisher's name— there was no time to make
written copies of it — before the feast of the
Assumption. It was performed before Sixtos in
Santa Maria Maggiore on that day (Aug. 15).
The delight of the Pontiff was unbounded ; but
his goodwill took a form whioh led to the last
unpleasant occurrence in Paleetrina*8 life. It
will be remembered that he had fw many years
held the position of Composer to the Apostolic
Chapel. The Pope now conceived the idea of
investing him with the title and duties of Maesfaru.
He commissioned Antonio Boccapadule, the ac-
tual Maestro, to bring about the diange. At first
sight this seems a strange sdection of an agent ;
for it was Boccapadule who of aU others would
have to suffer by his own success. It is of course
posdble that a promise of s(xne higher preferment
may have purdiased his assistance. Be that as
it may, he seems to have set to work with a wiU.
Taking Tommaso Benigni, one of the junior
fingers, into his confidence, he employed him to
soimd his brethren. Benigni in a short time an-
nounced that there was a respectable number of
the college who fevoured the Pope*s views. Hie
event proved that Benigni dther misled his em-
ployer, or was himself puiposdy deodved fay
those to whom he spoke, or else that be at^gored
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FALESTRINA.
too freely from one or two stray expreesioxiB of
half-goodwill. In any ease, hia report was so
encouraging that Boocapadule called a meeting
of the coll^ie, at which he broached the subject.
He was astonished to find an opposition so
-strong, and expressed wi£h so mudi warmth,
that he not only desisted, but to shield himself
he disingenuously laid the whole responsibility
of his overtures upon Palestrina. The singers
probably knew better than either to believe or
to pretend to disbelieve him. But they gave
Tent to their displeasure by imposing a fine upon
the unfortunate Benigni. At a subsequent meet-
ing Boccapadule, remorseful that his emissary
should be made a scapegoat, begged him off, tell-
ing his comrades that they had not possessed
themselves of the true story. Benigni was ac-
cordingly excused his fine; but the Pope, who
had become highly incensed at the independent
action of his choir, was not appeased by their
clemency. He immediately struck off the list of
singers four of the more prominent members of
the opposition. Two of these he subsequently
restored ; but the other two remained permanent
victims to their expression of a jealousy the
vitality of which was a disgrace, not only to
themselves, but to the whole body to which they
belonged. Palestrina, in order to show a generous
content with his old podtioh of Compositore to
the choir, immediately dowered it with three
ne^ masses, two for five voices and another for
' six ; and so drew honour upon himself by an act
of courtesy to those by whom a welldeserved
honour had been so churlishly denied to him.
In the same year, 1586, he paid to Cesare
Colonna, Prince of Palestrina, the homage of a
dedication. It was of his second volume of
madrigals for four voices. Some of these are
the best of his secular works. Not so is his con-
tribution to a volmne of sonnets by Zuccarini,
written in honour of the marriage of Francesco
de* Medici and Bianca Gappello, and put to music
by different composers. WheUier or not he set
himself deliberately to write down to the level of
the poetaster's words, as Baini suggests, or
whether, as was natimd, they only fiEtiled to
inspire him, it is not worth while to enquire.
The fact is sufficient that Zuocarini and the
occasion got all that they deserved but no more.
From this time to his death the materials for
his biography resolve themselves into a catalogue
of publications and dedications. In 1587 and
1588, in answer to the persistent solicitations of
SLctuB y, who had tired of the Lamentarioni of
Gaipentrasso, he wrote a series of three to take
their place in the services of the Holy Week.
[See Lamentations, vol. ii. p. 86.] In 1589
he arranged a harmonised version of the Latin
Hymnal for the whole year. This work was
also undertaken at the instance of Sixtus. Its
utility was interrupted for a time when in 1 631
Urban VIII had the words of the Hymnal
revised and reduced to correct lAtin and metrical
exactness. This reform, by no means unneeded,
I *8tt]TeBegliMi.*ukl*Oitcramoo&TtTlaB.'botlifor^aiid'loM
«0l> JoAonw ' for e ToloM.
YOL.II. FT. I a.
PALESTRINA.
6n
dislocated altogether the setting of Palestrina.
Urban therefore ordered his music to be re-
arranged in its turn to fit the amended words.
This was done by Naldini, Geccarelli, Laudi, and
Allegri, and a new edition of the words and
music together was published at Antwerp in
i644« [See Htxn, vol. i. p. 7606.]
Falbbtkiva in 1572.
WhQe the Hymnal was yet in type Sixtus
died. He was succeeded by Urban VII, who
only reigned thirteen days. Urban's successor
was Ghregory XIV, to whom Palestrina straight-
way inscribed a volume containing fifteen motetti
for six and eight voices, a sequenza— the Magni-
ficat— and a setting of the 'Stabat Mater' ^th
for eight voices. This book, otherwise excellent,
is nuurred by the presence of an early production,
the seventh of the motetti for six voices, 'Tra-
dent enim vos,* which is unworthy of his old
age, being cramped and strained by the leading-
strings of Goudimel. The motetti for eight
voices are also all inferior. One of them, named
'Et ambulabunt gentes in Inmine tuo* is in-
tended unworthily to form the and part of that
named 'Surge, illuminare Jerusalem' in the
volume dedicated to the Duke of Ferrara. The
Magnificat is also below the avenge of his
work. But the true redeeming feature of the
book is the ' Stabat Mater.* Dr. Bumey's admira-
tion of this was limitless. He obtained a sight
and copy of it through the celebrated singer
Santsjrelli, and had it printed in England along
with the rest of the music for the Holy Week
used in the Gappella Apostolica. It has been
often reprinted and has very recently been edited,
with marks of expression etc., by no less a person
than Richard Wagner. The rest of this volume
remains in the Vatican collection, and has within
a few years been printed for the first time in full
as vol. 6 of the edition of Breitkopf & HarteL
Old as Palestrina now was, work followed work
during the last years of his life. In 1591 he
sent his fifth yolume of masses to William V,
Duke of Bavaria; it contains amongst others
the two entitled '.^Sterna ChrisU munera' and
Tt
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642
PALESTRTNA.
' Iste Confessor/ which are very widely known in
modem times. In the same year he wrote and
dedicated to Gregory XIV a book containing
sixteen arrangements of the ' Magnificat.' Eig^t
of these were upon the first, third^ fifth, seventh,
and ninth, and eight upon the alternate verses of
the canticle. The second of them eq>edally took
the fSuLcy of Dr. Bumey, who gives it very high
poraise. In 1593, to Antonio Abbot of Baume in
Franche Comt^, who had taken refuge in Borne
during the troubles in France and Germany, he
dedicated a series^ of ' Offertoria,' for five voices,
for the whole year. Baini and Burfiey both join
in extolling tiiese; Bumey especially selecting
the first of the second portion ('Bxaltabo te
Domine ') to illustrate the superiority of Pales-
trina over all other ecclesiastical composers. In
the same year too he published a volume of
' litanies,* for four voices, and his sixth volume
of Masses for four and five voices, which he dedi-
cated to Cardinal Aldobrandini who had made
him director of his concerts. But the end of
this inde&tigable life was at hand. In January
1594 he issued his last publication. It was a
collection of thirty * Madngali spirituali,' for five
voices, in honour of the Virgin, dedicated to the
young Grand-Duchess of Tuscany, wife of Fer-
dinand de* Medici. Of this volume Baini says
that it is in the true stvle of his motetti on the
Song of Solomon; and Dr. Bumey once more
echoes the praises of his Italian biographer.
He had also begun to print his seventh volume
of masses to be dedicated to Clement VIII, the
last of the Popes who had the honour of be-
friending him. But while the work was still in
the press he was seized with a pleurisy, against
the acuteness of which his septuagenarian con-
stitution had no power to contend. He took
to his bed on January 26, 1594, and died on
February 2. When he felt his end approaching
he sent for Filippo Neri, his friend, admirer,
counsellor, and confessor of many years, and
for Igino, the sole and wretched inheritor of
his name. As the saint and the scapegrace
stood by his bed, he said simply to the latter,
'My son, I leave behind me many of my
works still unpublished ; but thanks to the gene-
rosity of my benefiM^rs, the Abbot of Baume,
the Cardinal Aldobrandini, and Ferdinand the
Grand Duke of Tuscany, I leave with them
money enough to get them printed. I charge
you to see this done with all speed, to the glory
of the Most Hi£^h God, and for the worship of
His holy temple. He then dismissed him with
a blessing which he had not merited, and spent
the remaining twenty-four hours of his life in the
company of the saintly Neri. It was in his arms
that he breathed his last, true, even upon the
brink of death, to that sympathy with piety and
purity which had drawn him during half a
century to devote to their illustration and
furtherance all the beauties of his fancy and
all the resources of his learning.
1 Divided into two pftrta. the tint eont«Inlng 40 OOSsrtoriet. from
Advent Sundaj to the 10th Sunday after Fentecoit ; the aecuad 2!^
fur the rest of the eoclesiutlcal jrear.
PALESTRINA.
The foregoing account will have prepared the
reader for the immense number of Palestriiui's
works. The list appended to the prospectos of
the complete critical edition* of Messrs. Breit-
kopf k Hartel contains 93 Masses, of whidi is
have never yet been printed. Of these, 39 are
for 4 voices, 28 for 5, 21 for 6, and 5 for 8
voices. In addition to these there are 63 motete
for 4 voioes, 52 for 5, 1 1 for 6, 2 for 7, 47 for 8,
and 4 for 1 2 voices. A large numbed of theae
have a second part of equal length with the
first; The Hymns for the whole year, for 4
voices, are 45 in number ; and the Offertories,
for 5 voices, are 68. Of Lamentations for 4, 5,
and 6 voices, 3 books are announced ; of Litanies
for 4 and 6 voices, 3 books ; of Magnificats for
4, 5, 6, and 8 voices, 2 books; of Madrigals for
4 voices, with Ricercari, 2 books ; and of Madri-
gals for 5 voices, 2 books.
Alfieri s edition, forming part of his Raocolta
di Musica Sacra (lithographed, in lai^ folio, at
Rome) is in 7 vols. — ^vol. i. 9 Masses ; voL iL
Motets for 5 voices ; vol. iii. Hymni totius anni;
vol. iv. Lamentations, 3 books ; vol v. Offertoria
totius anni ; vol. vi. Motets for 6, 7, and 8 T<Hoea ;
voL vii. Motets and Magnificats.
The Musica Divina of Proske and Pnstet
contains 9 Masses (including ' Assumpta,' 'Tu
es Petms,' *Dura complerentur '), 19 motets,
I Magnificat, 4 Hymns, 3 Lamentations, i Mise-
rere, I Improperia, i Benedictus, and i Litany.
[See vol. ii. p. 411.] — 5 Masses and 20 Motets,
edited by Lafage, are published in 8vo. by
Launer of Paris. — A lai^ volume, edited by
J. M. Capes and publish^ by Novello in 1847
contains 4 Masses, 3 lamentations, 3 Chants. 5
Motets, and 2 Hymns. — ^The volumes of the
Motett Society contain 15 motets, with Tgnglii^h
words. [See Motett Sooiktt, vol. ii. p. 370.] —
Numerous pieces are included in the Collections
of Choron, Hnllah, the Prince de la Moskowa,
Roohlitz, Sohlesinger, and others.
The materials for this article have been de-
rived from the Histories of Bumey and Hawkins;
F^tis*s 'Biographic des Musidens*; but espe-
cially from Baini*s 'Memorie storioo-critiche
della vita e dell* opere di Giovanni Pierluigi da
Paleetrina,* etc. (2 vols. 4to, Rome, 1828), with
the useful r^um^ of Kandler and Kiesewetter
(Leipzig 1834). The head of Palestrina g^voi
on the preceding page — the only contemporary
portrait known — is an exact facsimile of a portion
of the frontispiece of his 'Fifst book of Masses'
(Rome, 1572), representing the great musician
handing his book to the Pope, engraved from the
copy of that work in the British Museum.
The characteristics of Palestrina's music, and
its relations to his predecessors and successors, will
be examined imder the head of School. [E.H.P.]
s The publication of thii edition was bogun In 1M2, with % roliaM t4
5-part nwteti edited bjTh. Ton Witt, and 6 volumea were pabwed
at IntenriilB. But in January l(r79 a complete sjntematic ProepectoB
wa« iuued by the flnn. and the work is now proceeding with Tlffcmr.
It will be a noble monument to the enterprise and accwtcy erf the
house which has published the complete editions or BeethoTen,
Heudelssohn. and Hozart, and the ma(nlflcent series of the B»^
and Handel Societies.
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PALFFY.
PALFFT, CouiTT Fesdikand voh EboOd, an
enthusiastic amateur, bom at Vienna, Feb. i,
1 774» died there Feb. 4. 1840. He was one of the
committee of noblemen,^ who bought the Theatre
an-der-Wien from Baron von Braun in 1807,
and leased the two court ^eatres. When
they quarrelled and parted, Palffy took on the
theatre, and became his own manager, dur-
ing the most brilliant period of its career. He
aHm fbunded the dramatic benefit-fund which
bears his name, and is still in existence. He
engaged first-rate singers, and gave performances
of a high order of merit, but the expenses were
ruinous, and heavy losses obliged him to relinquitih
the undertaking at the dose of 182 1. He asso-
ciated a good SmI with Beethoven, who was wont
however to speak with scant courtesy of Pal^
and his opinion on matters of art. [G. F. P.J
PALOTTA. Mattbo, called H Panormitano,
from his birthplace Palermo, studied in the Con-
servatorio San OnoMo at Naples, apparently at
the same time as Pergolesi. On his return to
Palermo he passed the necessaiy examinations,
and was ordained secular priest. He then devoted
himself vnth g^reat ardour to studies in part- writing
and counterpoint, and produced a valuable work
' Gregoriani cantus enucleata praxis et cognitio '
being a treatise on Guido d'Arezzo*s Solmisation,
and an instruction-book in the church-tones. It
has been supposed that the Emperor Charles
YI invited Palotta to Vienna as Capellmeister,
but Palotta himself applied to the Emperor in
1 733, asking for the post of Composer of a oappdla
music. The then Court-capellmeister warmly re-
commended him, and he was appointed one of
the court-composers with a salary of 400 florins
on Feb. 25, 1 733, was dismissed in 1 741, and rein-
stated in 1 749. He died in Vienna on March 28,
1 758, aged 70. The libraries of the Court-chapel
and the Gesellschaft der Musikfineunde possess a
number of his masses in 4 to 8 parts, motets, etc.,
all written in a pure and elevated church style,
the parts moving easily and naturally in spite of
their elaborate counterpoint. In many points they
recall Caldara. One special feature in Palotta s
music is the free development of the chief subject,
and the skilful way in which he combines it with
the counter-subjects. [C. F. P.]
PAMMELIA. The first collection of Canons,
Rounds, and Catches, published in this country.
It was issued in 1609, under the editorship of
Thomas Ravenscroft, with the title of *Pam-
melia. Mvsicks Miscellanie, Or, Mixed Varietie
of Pleasant Boundelayes, and delightf ull Catches,
^^ 3* 4- 5* ^' 7* ^* 9* 'o Parts in one. Never so
ordinarie as musicall, none so musical, as not to
all very pleasing and acceptable.' It contains
100 compositions, many of considerable antiquity,
several of which are still well known and have
been reprinted in modem publications, amongst
them 'Hey hoe to the green wood,' 'AU in to
service,' *Now kiss the cup, cousin,' 'Joan, come
kiss me now,' 'There lies a pudding,' 'Jack boy,
I His Msodates In the nndertaldng wotb Prince LobkowHt. Count
Lodron. Count Zlchy. Count Ferdlnutd Katwhug. nnd Prince Mcho-
iM KMerhaxy. presidents
PANDEAN PIPE.
64^
ho boy' (alluded to in Shakspere's 'Taming of
the Shrew'), 'Banbury Ale,' 'Now Hobin lend to
me thy bow,' and 'llet's have a peal for John
Cook's soul.' A second edition appeared in 161 8.
A second part was issued, also in 1609, under
the title of 'Deuteromelia: or. The Second part
of Musicks melodic, or melodius Musicke of
Pleasant Roundelaies ; K. H. mirth, or Freemens
Songs and such delightfull Catches. Qui Canere
potest danat, Catdi that catch can. Vt Mel
Os, sic Cor melo$ affieit A reficU,^ This contains
31 compositions, viz. 7 Freemen's Songs for 3,
and 7 for 4 voices, and 8 rounds or catches for 3,
and 9 for 4 voices. Of the Freemen's Songs the
following are still well known ; 'As it fell on a
holy day' (John Dory), 'We be soldiers three,*
'We be three poor mariners,* 'Of all the birds,'
and ' Who liveth so meny in aU this land ' ; and
of the catches, 'Hold thy. peace, thou knave'
(directed to be sung in Shakspere's 'Twelfth
Night*) and 'Mault's come down.' No com-
poser's names are given in either part [W.H. H.]
PANDEAN PIPE (Fr. TliUe de Pan ; Ger.
Syrifup). A simple instrument, of many forms
and materials, which is probably the oldest and
the most widely disseminated of any. It is
thought to be identical with the Ugaby the first
wind-instrument mentioned in the Bible (Gen.
iv. 21, and Psalm d.), in the former of these
passages translated ' organ,' in the latter, 'pipe.'
It was well known to the Greeks imder the
name of syrinx, being made with from three to
nine tubes,' but usually with seven, a number
which is also mentioned by Virgil.* It is
depicted in a MS. of the nth century pre-
served in the Bibliothbque Royale of Paris, and
is probably the frutele, fritel or frStiau, of the
Men^triers in the 12th and 13th centuries. It
is known in China as Koan-tfee, with twelve
tubes of bamboo; was used by the Peruvians
under the name of huayra-^uhtwa, being made
of cane, and also of a greenish steatite or soap-
stone. Of the former material is a fine speci-
men now in the British Museum,* consisting
of fourteen reed pipes of a brownish colour tied
together with thread in two rows, so as to
form a double set of seven reeds. Both sets are
of almost exactly the same dimensions, and are
placed side by side, the shortest measuring 3,
the longest 6| inches. One set is open at the
bottom, the other dosed, in consequence of which
arrangement octaves are produced. The scale is
pentatonic.
The soapstone instrument is even more re-
markable. It measures 5f inches high by 6\ wide,
and contains eight pipes bored from the solid
block, and quaintly ornamented. Four of the
tubes have small lateral finger-holes, which, when
closed, lower the pitch a semitone. Thus twelve
notes in all can be produced. The scale is pecu-
liar and perhaps arbitrary ; or the holes may have
served for certain modes, of the use of which by
* TbeocrUns. Idjll be.
• 'Kat mlhl dlsparibos septem oompeeta, deotls Fistula.*
« See Cfttaloffoe of Instnunenta In South Kensington Museum, by
C. Xngel, p. 66. for ft woddcot of this specimen^
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€44
PANDEAN PIPE.
the Penivians there is evidence in Graroilaaso de
U Vega and other historians.
A modem Roumanian specimen, containing
twenty-five tubes arranged in a curve, is in the
South Kensington Museum; the longest pipes
over 12 inches in length.
There is an excellent and well preserved ex-
ample in a bas-relief from the Abbey of St.
George de Boscherville, Normandy, of i ith cen-
tury date, which is figured in Mr. Engel's excel-
lent work above quoted.
The Pandean Pipe is theoretically a series of
stopped tubes blown from the edge of the upper,
and, in this case, the only orifice, as already de-
scribed under Flutk. One note and occasional
hArmonics are usually produced from each tube,
the scale being diatonic, and of variable extent
according to the skill and convenience of the
performer. At the present day it is rarely heard
except as an accompaniment to the drama of
Punch and Judy, and is commonly termed the
'mouth-organ.* It is enclosed in a leather or
paper case which is pushed into the open waist-
coat of the player, the different parts of the scale
being reached by rotation of the head. The
quality of the tone is reedy and peculiar, some-
what veiled from the absence of harmonics of
even nimibers, it being a stopped pipe, of which,
however, the first harmonic on the twelfth, and
not the fundamental tone, is habitually sounded.
In this respect and in its quality it closely resem-
bles the * Harmonic flute stop of the organ.
It had a temporary popularity in this country
at the commencement of the present century,
when itinerant parties of musicians, terming them-
selves Pandeans, went about the country, and gave
performances. ' The lowest set of reeds (the 'sep-
tem discrimina vocum' of Vii^), says a writer
in 1 8a I, is called the contra Ixuso or double base ;
the next fagotto, or bassoon ; the third septenary
is the tenor or second treble ; and the fourth or
highest range of pipes, the first treble ; so that
in the aggregate there is a complete scale of four
octaves, and they can play in three or four parts.
The reeds or pipes are fastened under the chin
of the performer, and the lip runs from one to
the other with seeming facility, without moving
the instrument by manual ^assistance.
' A company of them was introduced at Yaux-
hall Gardens a few years ago, and since that they
are common enough in the streets of London. It
is to be observed that some of the performers,
particularly the first treble, have more than seven
pipes, whidi enables them to extend the melody
beyond the septenary.* (Encyclop. Londinensis,
z8ai.)
A tutor for this instrument was published in
1807, entitled 'The Complete Preceptor for
Davies*s new invented Syrrynx {eic) or patent
Pandean Harmonica, containing tunes and
military pieces in one, two, three, and four parts/
The writer states that ' by making his instru-
ment of glass he gains many advantages over the
common reed, the tone being inconceivably more
1 *Kt rapra catoaxw iineo peicuirwe lAbro.' LuerttliH. Thlf Une
dMrl7 tndkfttM Um ktoDtttr of Um iMtnuMnt.
PANSERON.
brilliant and sonorous.* The scale given com-
mences on A below the treble stave, rising by
fifteen intervals to the A above the same stave.
The C is indicated as the key-note, whi<^ is
marked as such. The instrument appears to
have been susceptible of Doable-tongudng like
the Flute. [W.H.S.]
PANDORA or PANDORE. A Citherof larger
dimensions than the Orphsobsok. [A.J.H.]
PANNY, Joseph, son of the schoolmaster off
Kolmitzbeiff, Austria ; bom Oct. 33, 1794 ; was
well grounded in music and the violin by his
father, and at length obtained the means of plao
ing himself under Eybler at Vienna. Here his
talent and his progress were remarkable ; Paga-
nini selected him to compose a soena for Tiolin
and orchestra, and played it at his farewell coo*
cert in 1828. Panny wandered through North
Germany, playing, teaching, conducting, as hs
found opportunity, and at length settled in
Mayence, married, and founded a school fm
vocal and instrumental music, among the pupils
at which was our own countryman Peabsali^
Panny died Sept. 7, 1858. [G.]
PANOFKA, Heinbioh, bom Oct. 1, 1807, at
Breslau. His early life was ^ struggle between
duty in the shape of the law, and inclination in
that of music. Music at length prevailed, lus
fnther consented to his wishes, and at the age
of 1 7 he quitted the College of Breslau and pot
himself under Mayseder for the violin, and HoflT-
mann for composition, both at Vienna. He re-
mained vrith them studying hard for three years.
In 1827 he gave his first concert. In 1839 ha
left Vienna for Munich, and thence went to
Berlin. In 1831 his fiither died, and Panofka
came into his patrimony. After some length-
ened travelling he settled at Paris in 1834 ^ *
violin -player. After a time he turned his atten-
tion to singing, and in conjunction with Bor-
dogni founded in 1843 an * Acad^ie de chant.*
In 44 he civme to London, and in 47 (Jenny
Lind's year) was engaged by Mr. Lumley as one
of his assistants at Her Majesty's Theatre. The
Revolution of 1848 fixed him here; he pub-
lished a 'Practical Singing Tutor,' and was
widely known as a teacher. In 185 a he returned
to Paris, where he is still residing. His principal
works are * L'Art de chanter * (op. 81) ; * L'Ecole
de Chant,* of which a new edition has veiy
lately appeared ; 24 VocaUses progressives (op.
85) ; Ab^daire vocal (and ed.) ; 1 2 Vocalises
d'artiste (op. 86) ; — all published by Brandus.
He has translated Baillot's * Nouvelle M^thode *
for the violin into German. Panofka has also
published many works, violin and piano, and
violin and orchestra, but it is not necessary to
give these. [G.]
PANSERON, AnonsTE, bom in Paris April
36, 1796, received his first instruction in music
from his finther, a musician, who scored many
of Gretry*s operas for him. He entered the
Conservatoire as a child, passed successfully
through the course, and, after studying harmony
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PAKSERON.
And compoeition with Berton and Grosseo, ended
by carrying off the *6rand prix de Rome * ( 1 8 1 3).
He made good nee of his time in Italy, took les-
sons in counterpoint and fugue from the Abb^
Mattei, at Bologna, and studied especially the
art of singing, and the style of the old Italian
masters. After travelling in Austria and Ger-
many, and even reaching St. Petersburg, he re-
turned to Paris, and becune a teacher. Shortly
afterwards he was appointed 'aocompagnateur'
to the Op^ra Comique, a position which enabled
him to produce two small one-act pieces long
since forgotten. He does not appear to have
possessed the neoessaiy qualities for success on
the stage, but he had a real gift of tune, and this
secured great popularity for a number of French
romancee composed between 1835 and 40, melo-
dious, well written for the voice, easily remem-
bered, and often pleasing or even more; but
marred by too much pretension. The merits of
such sentimental trifles as these would scarcely
have earned Panseron a European fiune, if it
had not been for his didactic works. His wide
experience during his professorships at the Con-
servatoires-solfeggio, 1826; vocalisation, Sept.
1831 ; and singing, Jan. 183J5 — taught him tne
requirements of pupils, and how those require-
ments can best be met. His works are thus of
value from an educational point of view, and we
give a complete list, classified under the various
heads.
for Tonoff tflnor or lopruio) ; 12
Special studies wUh 18 Exerdse*
for soprano or tenor : 12 Xzerolsas
ftad 'l) do. for S sopranos ; Method
of sioflng for low tenor, barttone.
or contralto ; 9B Exercises and 25
ProgresslTe do. for bass, baritone,
or contralto; 13 Special studies,
with 12 Kzerdses for bass, bari-
tone, or contralto ; Complete me-
thod for mexzo soprano; tS Kzer-
oises fur mezio soprano, and 25
IS7 and prozreulve do.
5. On the art of composition— A
Practical Treatise on harmony
and modulation ; v^tth eo exercises
on figured basses and 70 on un-
flgurcd dOn and a couna of leo-
toret on writing a bass to a giren
mefody. The art of modi '
on the Violin.
iPANTOMIMB.
645
■olfegglos
•ingle Tolco— *A B, 0 musical';
Continoatlon of do. ;' SolMge for
mexso soprano: Do. in F, low tenor
and baritone: Do. for contralto;
Do. for artists ; Do. with changing
clefk; 98 Kxerdses on changing
deb ; Do., do.. dUBcult
2. Progressive solfeggi for sereral
voices Primary manual, for 2 and
8 voices: 6olf6ge for 2 voices;
Progressive do. for bass and barl-
tona: Do.concertantefor2.9,and
4 voices: Do. d'ensemble for 2. S.
and 4 voices : Solf^ 4 dne with
ehanging clefs.
S. Do. for instmmental per-
formers—Do. for Pianists ; Do. for
VioUn idayers.
4. On the art of singing^Method
for soprano and tenor, in 2 parts ;
Appendix to do. (25 easy exercises
Panseron also composed 2 masses for 3 treble
voices, and a ' Mois de Marie* containing motets
and cantiques for i, a, and 3 voices. This pains-
taking musician, who was kind and amiable in
private life, and possessed as much ability as
learning, died in Paris, July 29, 1859. [GO.]
PANTALEON or PANTALON. A very
large Duloimbb invented and played upon in
the early part of the last century by Pantaloon
Hebenstreit, whose name was transferred to the
instrument by Louis XIV. The name was also
given in Germany to horizontal pianofortes with
the hammers striking downwards. [A.J.H.]
PANTHEON. A building in Oxford Street,
erected in 1770-71 from the designs of James
Wyatt, at a cost of £60,000, for masquerades,
concerts, balls, etc., and as ' a Winter Banelagh.*
It occupied a large space of ground, and besides
the principal entrance in Oxford Street tiiere
were entrances in Poland Street and Great Marl-
borough Street. The interior contained a large
rotunda and fourteen other rooms most splendidly
decorated ; the niches in the rotunda being filled
with white porphyry statues of the heathen
deities, Britannia, George III, and Queen Char-
lotte. The building was opened for the first
time Jan. 26, 1772. For some vears it proved a
formidable rival to the Italian Opera, as the pro-
prietors always provided the best performers. In
1 7 75 the famous songstress, Agujari, was engaged,
who was succeeded, a few years later, by the
equally-famed Giorgi, afterwards Banti. In
1 783 a masquerade took place in celebration of
the coming of age of the Prince of Wales, after-
wards George IV. The second concert of the Com-
memoration of Handel was given here, May 27,
1784, the place being specially fitted up for the
occasion. Later in the same year the balloon in
which Lunardi had made his first successful
ascent fh)m the Artillenr Ground was exhibited.
The King's Theatre having been burnt down in
1 788, the Pantheon was fitted up as a theatre and
opened for the performance of Italian operas,
Feb. 17, 1 791. On Jan. 14, 1792, the theatre
was destroyed by fire. In 1795 the interior of
the building was reHX>nstructed for its original
purpose and opened in April with a masqu^ade,
but it met with little success, and in 1812 was
again converted into a theatre, and opened Feb.
17, with a strong company, principally composed
of seceders horn the King's Theatre, for the per-
formance of Italian operas. The speculation
however failed, and the theatre closed on
March 19. In the following year (July 23,
1813) an attempt was made to open it as an
English opera house, but informations being
laid against the manager and performers, at
the instance of the Lord Chamberlain, for per-
forming in an unlicensed building, and heavy
penalties inflicted (although not exacted), the
speculation was abandoned. Subsequent efforts
to obtain a license failed, and in Oct. 1814 the
whole of the sceneiy, dresses, properties, and
internal fittings were sold under a distress for
rent, and the building remained dismantled and
desOTted for nearly 20 years. In 1834 the in-
terior was re-constructed by Sydney Sxnirke, at a
cost of between £30,000 and £40,000, and opened
as a bazaar; part being devoted to the sale of
paintings, and the back part, entered from Great
Marlborough Street, fitted up as a conservatory
for the sale of flowers and foreign birds. The
bazaar in its turn gave way, and early in 1867
the premises were transferred to Messrs. Gilbey,
the well-known wine-merchants, by whom they
are still occupied. During all the vicissitudes of
the building Wyatt's origrinal front in Oxford
Street has remained unaltered. [W.H.H.]
PANTOMIME (Gr. *An imitation of every
thing*). A kind of dramatic entertainment in
whidi the performers express themselves by
gestures to the accompaniment of music, and
which may be called a prose ballet. It has
been in use among Oriental nations from very
ancient times. The Greeks introduced pan-
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646
PANTOMIME.
toznime into their choruses, some of the per*
fbrmers gesticulating, accompanied by music,
whilst oUiers sang. The Komans had entire
dramatic representations consisting of dancing
and gesticulation only, and some of their per-
formers attained high excellence in the art.
A mixture of pantomime and dancing consti-
tuted the modem ballet cPadum, so long an
appendage to the Italian opera. The enter-
tainment commonly known in this country as
a Pantomime was introduced about 171 5 at
Iiincoln*s Inn Fields Theatre by John Rich, who
himself, under the name of Lun, performed the
character of Harlequin in a style which extorted
the admiration of those who most disapproved of
the class of piece. His pantomimes were origin-
ally musical masques, usually upon some classical
mythological subject, between the scenes of
which harlequinade scenes were introduced, the
two parts having no connection. The music for
the majority of them was composed by J. E.
Gralliard. Their popularity compelled the man-
agers of Drury Lane to adopt pantomimes in
order to succ^sfuUy compete with their rival,
and they were then soon produced at other thea-
tres abo. After a time the original form was
changed, and in lieu of the mythological masque,
a short drama, of three or four scenes, was con-
structed, the invariable characters in which,
under different shapes, were an old man, his
pretty daughter, or ward — whum he was desirous
of uniting to a wealthy but foolish suitor, but
who had a poorer and feivoured lover — and the
old man*8 knavish serving-man. The girl and her
lover were protected by a benevolent fairy,
whilst the old man and his fftvourite had the
assistance of a malevolent spirit. To counteract
the machinations of the evil being, the fairy
determined that her proteg^ should irndo:^ a
term of probation under different shapes, and
accordingly transfonned them into Harlequin
and Columbine, giving to the former a magic bat
to assist him in his progress. The evil spirit then
transformed the old man and his servant into Pan-
taloon and Clown, and the wealthy suitor into the
Dandy Lover, and the harlequinade commenced,
the two lovers being pursued by the others through
a variety of scenes, but always foiling them by tiie
aid of the bat.^ At length the fairy reappeared
and declared the success of the lovers, and the
piece terminated. This form continued in use
for many years ; and indeed, although much al-
tered in detail, it still constitutes the basis of
modem pantomime. Vocal music was largely
introduced, not only in the opening, but also in
the harlequinade, and the best English composers
did not disdain to employ their talents in pro-
ducing it. The two Ames, Dibdin, Battishill,
Linley, Shield, Attwood, and others, all composed
music for this class of entertainment. About
1830 the length of the opening was greatly
extended and more spectacular effects intr^uced,
< The namat H&rlequln. Columbtne. and Pantaloon are derived
from th« lultan— Arleochino, Colomblna, and Pantalone. Clown is
known In Italy as ra«Ilace1o : in rranc« as Palllaaae. or Pitre; In
Qcrtnan u B^]az, or Hanswurst (Jack-pudding).
PAPE.
«nd the 'transformation scene* b^(Jame by de-
grees the climax of the wh<de. Original music
was still composed for the pantomime, but the
task of producing it was entrusted to inferior
composers. Gradually the harlequinade acenee
were reduced in number, the opening assnnvMl
the character of an extravaganza upon the subject
of some nursery tale, and the music became »
selection of the popular tunes <^the day. In the
early pantomimes Harlequin was the principttl
character, and continued so until the genius of
Grimaldi placed the Clown in the most proxni-
nent position. While modem Clowns are content
to dinplay their skill as acrobats, Grimaldi aimed
at higher objets ; he was a singing Clown, wit-
ness, amongst many others, his famous songs,
* Tipitvwichet,* and * Hot Codlins,' and his duet
with the oyster he was about to open :—
Ogi4er. O gentle swain, thy knife raign.
Nor wound a heart so soft as mme>
Olcten. Who is 't that would mv pitr more t
OptUr. An oyster that is croes'a in love, etc.
In pantomimes of the middle period the pan-
tomimists who sustained the principal parts in the
harlequinade invariably performed in the opening
the characters who were transformed. A con-
sideration of the difference between the Italian
Arlecchino and the English Harlequin is beyond
the scope of our present purpose. [W.H.H.]
PAPE. Jean-Hxnrt, pianoforte maker, bom
July 1, 1 789, at Sarsted near Hanover. He went
to Paris in 1811, and after visiting England his
services were secured by Ignace Pleyel to organise
the works of the piano factory which he hi^ just
founded. About 1 8 1 5 he appears to have set up on
hisown account ; and thenceforward, fornearly half
a century, there was perhaps no year in which he
did not produce something new. His active mind
never rested from attempts to alter the shape,
diminish the size, radically change the framing,
bellying, and action of the pianoforte; yet, in
the result, with small influence, so far, upon the
Progress of its manufacture. In shape he pro-
ucMed table pianos, rounded and hexa^nal : he
made an oval piano, a piano console (very like a
chiffonier), ana novel oblique, vertical, and hori-
zontal forms. Like Womum in London and
Streicher in Vienna, to do away with the break
of continuity between wrestplank and sound-
board in the grand piano, he repeated the old
idea that had suggested itself to Marius and
Schroeter, of an overstriking action — that is,
the hammers descending upon the strings. This
is said to have been in 1826. In this action he
worked the hammers from the front ends of the
keys, and thus saved a foot in the length of the
case, which he strengthened up to due resistance
of the tension without iron barring. He lowered
the soundboard, glueing the belly-bars to the
upper instead of the under surface, and attached
the belly-bridge by a series of soundposts. His
constant endeavour was to kfeep down the ten-
sion or drawing power of the strings, and to
reduce the length and weight of the inatruinent ;
for, as he says (' Notice de M. H. Pape,' Benard,
Paris. 1862), 'it is not progress in art to make
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PAPB.
little with mnoh ; the tarn should b6 to mltke
mach with little.* Yet he extended compiiai
to the absurd width of 8 octavee, nuuntaining
that the perception of the extremes was a ques-
tion of ear-education only . He reduced the struc-
ture of his actions to the simplest mechanism
possible, preferring for understriking grand
pianos the simple crank escapement <^ Petzold,
and for upright pianos that of Womum, which
be adopted in 1 8 15, as stated in the Notice
already referred to. An excess of ingenuity has
interfered with the acceptance of many of Pape's
original ideas, which may yet find consideration
whBO, the present tendency to increase strain
and pressure is less insisted upon. At present,
his inventions of clothed koy-mortices and of folt
for hammers are the only important bequests
makers hare accepted firom him, unless the cross
cr overstringing on different planes, devised by
Pape for lus table instruments, and already
existing in some old clavichords, was first intro*
duoed mto pianos by him. He claimed to have
invented it, and in 1840 gave Tomkisson, a
London maker, special permissiim to use it. [See
PiAKOFORTS.] He made a piano with springs
instead of stnngs, thus doing away with tension
altogether ; add^ reed attachments, and invented
a transposing piano, moving by his plan the whole
instrument by means of a key while the clavier
remained stationary. He also invented an in-
genious saw for veneers of wood and ivory ; in
1859 he veneered a piano which is now at St.
James's Palace^ entirely with the latter substance.
Pape received many distinctions in France, in>
eluding the decoration of the L^on of Honour.
He died Feb. 3, 1875. [A« J. H.]
PAPILLONB. The name of twelve pianoforte
fneoes by Schumann, constituting his op. 3, which
are dedicated to his sisters-in-law, Theresa,
Emilia, and Bosalia Schumann. They were com-
posed at different times — Nos. i, 3, 4, 6 and
8 in 1839, and the others in 1831. Ihey may
be regarded as the germ of the better-known and
more highly-developed 'Cameval,' op. 9. The
Iform of the two compositions is the same, but in
the earlier work there are no characteristic titles
to the several pieces. The subject of No. i of
the *Papillons' is referred to in ' Fkn-estan,' No. 6
of the (}ameval, and the * Grossvatertanz* is made
use of in the finales of both works. Many theories
bave been propounded as to the meaning or story
of these pieces, and Schumann himself refers it
to the last chapter of Jean Paul's ' Flegeljahre,'
* where,' as he says in a letter to Henriette Voigt,
'all is to be found in bhick and white.' (See
Wasielewsky's life, 3rd ed. p. 338.) It is evident
that the idea of a Carnival is already in his
mind, for the last few bars of the finale bear the
ibllowing superscription: *The noise of the car-
nival-ni^t met away. The church dock strikes
mx: . [J.A.F.M.]
PAPINI, GuiDO, bom Aug. i, 1847, at
Camagiore near Florence, a distinguished vio-
linist^ was a pupil of the Italian vi<3in professor
Giorgetti, and made his d^ut at thirteen years
of a^e in Floi-ence, in Spohr's third concerto.
PABADIES.
jS47
H^ was for some years leader of the Sooietii del
Quartette in that city. In 1874 he appeared at
^e Musical Union, which continues to be his
principal loedU during his annual visits to Lon*
doQ, though he has been also heard at the
Crystal Palace, the Oki and New Philhannonio
Societies, etc. In 1876 he appeared in Paris
with suocees at the JPasdeloup concerts. His
published compositions, besides arrangements,
transcriptions!, etc., comprise two concertos, for
violin and violoncello respectivelv ; ' Exercises
de m^canisme pour le Violon seu!,' and smaller
pieces, such as 'Feuilles d'Album,' romances,
nocturnes, etc., for violin or violoncello. Two
other concertos, for violin and cello (the latter
dedicated to Piatti), an Allegro di Concerto, fdr
violin and orchestra, and some vocal works,
remain unpublished. [J . A. F. M.]
PAQUE, GuoLAUMK, a well-known violon*
cellist, bom in BruaMls July 34, 1835. He
entered the Conservatoire of his native city at
an early age as Demunck*s pupil, and at fifteen
gained the first prize. He then went to Paris
and was solo cello at Musard's Concerts. Thence
he went to Madrid as cellist to the Queen of
Spain. In 1851 he was employed by Jullien for
his English Concerts, and thenceforward London
became his home. He played in the Royal Italian
Opera orchestra, oooasionaUy replaced Piatti at
the Monday Popular Concerts, was leader of the
cellos at the new Philharmonic, Professor of his
instrument at Dr. Wylde*s London Academy, and
a member of the Queen's Private Band. He
played at the Philhaurmonic June 18, i860. He
died March 2, 1876, and was buried in Brompton
Cemetery. As a man Paque was deservedly be-
loved and esteemed. As a player he had every
quality, except tone, which was poor. He left
numerous works.
His brother, Philipfb J. Paque, has been
Trumpeter to the Queen since 1864, and is a
member of Her Majesty's P^vate Band. [G.]
PABADIES, PiBTBO DoMBiaoo, bom at Na-
ples in 1 710, a pupil of Porpora, and an esteemed
teacher and composer, lived for many years in
London. In 1747 he produced at Uie King's
Theatre ' Phaeton,' 6 airs from which were pub-
lished by Walsh, and firequently sung at concerts
by Signora Galli. He also printed 'Sonate di gra-
vicembalo,* dedicated to the Princess Augusta
(Johnson; 3nd. ed. Amsterdam, 1770). Such
players as Clement! and Cramer studied his
works conscientiously, and he was in great request
as a teacher. When Miss Schmahling (after-
wards Mme. Mara) made her first appearance in
London as a violinist of 11, Paradies was en-
gaged as her singing master, but her father soon
found it necessary to withdraw her from his in-
fluence. An earlier pupil, and one of his best,
was Miss Cassandra Frederick,^ who at the age
of 5} gave a concert in the Little Haymarket
Theatre (i 749), playing compositions by Scarlatti
I Vta Fredertea. » ftiTom1t« of IlttiKld*t. tiao pUjvd the omn In
public In 1700. and auic In Handel'ii oratorios. She married Thotnaa
Wrnue. a- laiKl<owuar In South Wakm and aarrinad comldorabU
InflueiMe or«r the musical education of h«r nephew Maifliuhl
Digitized by
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648
l>A£ADIES.
and Handel. The last we hear in Englaiid of
tkis eccentric Italian is his oooneetico with the
rider Thomas Linley, to whom he gave instmc-
ti<m in hannony and thorough-bass. He retomed
to Italy, and med at Venice in 1 793. A Sonata
byParadies inD is printed b^Pauer in his 'Alte
Heister/ and another, in A, m his ' Alte Klayier-
musik*; and a Toccata is given in Breitkopf*8
* P^es Mttsicales.' The Fitswilliam Collection
at Oambridge contuns modi MS. mnsic by him,
apparently in his autograph. [C. F. P.]
PARADIS. in the French theatres, is the top
row of the boxes. It is called so either because
it is the highest, and therefore nearest heaven,
or, as some one wittily said, because like the
real Paradise the top boxes contain more of the
poor than the rich. [O.]
PARADIS, Mabu TheEesb vov, daughter
of Joseph Anton, an Imperial Ck>undllor, bom
in Vienna May 15, 1759. She was a highly-
esteemed pianist, and Mosart wrote a concerto
for her (in Bb, Kodiel 456). She also attained to
considerable skill on the omn, in singing, and in
composition, and this in spite of her being blind
from early childhood. Tiie piano she studied
with Bichter (of Holland), and afterwards with
Kozeluch, whose concertos were her fisvourite
pieces; singing with Salieri and BIgfaini; and
composition witii Friberth, and the Abb^ Vogler.
The Empress her godmother took a great interest
in her, and made her a yearly allowance. In
1784 she went to Paris, where she remained 6
months, playing before the oourty and at the Con^
certs spirituels, with great apc^use. In No-
vember she went to London. Here she stayed
five month^^layed before the King, Queen, and
Prince of Wales, whom she accompanied in a
cello sonata, at the then recently-founded Profes-
sional Oonoerts (Hanover Square Booms, Feb. 16,
1785), and finally at a concert of her oMm, con-
ducted by Salomon, in Willis's Bo(Hns on March 8.
A notice of her appeared in the St. James*s
Chronicle for Feb. 19. She next visited Brusseb,
and the more important courts of Germany,
attracting all hearers by her playing and her
intellect^ accomplishments. After her return
to Vienna she played twice at the concerts of the
Tonklinstler-Sooietftt, and took up composition
with great ardour, using a system of notation^
invented for her by a fiiend of the family named
Biedinger. Of her works, the following were
produceid : 'Ariadne und Bacchus,* a melodrama,
played first at Laxenburff before the Emperor Leo-
pold(i79i),andthenat ^enationalcourt-theatre;
'Der Schulcandidat* a pastoral Singspiel (Leo-
poldstadt theatre, 1793); 'Deutsches Monument,*
a Trauer-cantate for the anniversary of the death
Louis XVI (small Bedoutensaal Jan. ai, 1794^
repeated in the Kamthnerthor theatre); and
* Binaldo und Algina ' a magic opera (Prague).
She also printed a C9avier-trio, sonatas, varia-
tions (dedicated to Vogler) ; 12 Lieder; BiUger*B
' Leonore,* etc. Towa»ls the close of her life she
devoted herself exclusively to teaching singing
1 1)«KTlbed In deun Id Um Leipzig AngemeliM M oilluaiMb* ZeH-
■nc 1810. Ka B7.
PABEPA-BOSA.
and the piMioforte, and with great soebesi. She
died Feb. i, 1834. [C. F. P.]
PABADISE AND THE PEBI, the seomd
of thefour poems which form Moore's La)la Bookh*
has been several times set to music.
I. 'Das Paradies und die Peri,' by Bobert
Schumann, for solos, chorus, and ordieatra
(op. 50) in 3 parts, containing 36 nos. The
words were compiled by Schumann himself frona
the translations of Flechsig and Oelkers, with
large alterations of his own. It appears to have
beoi composed shortly before its production ai
Leipig, Dec. 2, 1843. In £^land it was first
performed by the Philharmonic SocieW (Madame
Goldschmldt) June 23, 1856. But ft had pre-
viously been prodnoed in Dublin under the oon-
duotorship of Mr. W. Glover, Feb. 10, 1854.'
3. 'A Fantasia-Overture, Paradise and the
Peri* (op. 43), composed by Stemdale Bennett
for the Jubilee Concert of the Philhannooie
Society, July 14, 1863, and produced then. A
minute programme of the connexion of the woids
and music was furnished by the composer for the
first performance, and is usually reprinted.
3. A Cantata, for solos, chorus, orchestra and
oi|pm, by John Francis Bamett ; the words se-
looted from Moore's poem. Produced at the
Kimingham Festival Aug. 31, 1870. [6.]
PABDON DE PLOEBMEL, LE. Anopdia-
oomique in 3 acts ; words bv Barbier and Caxr^
music by Meyerbeer. Produced at the Op^ra-
Comique Apnl 4, 1859. In London, in Italiai^
as ' IHnorah, osda H pellerinaggio di Ploermel.
at Covent Garden, July 36, 1859 > ^^ English as
' Dinorah ' at same theatre Oct. 3, 1859. C^J
PABEPA-BOSA, Euphbostms Parkpa di
B0TS8KU, bom May 7, 1836, at Edinbur)^ Her
father was a Walladiian boyard, of Bucharest^
and her mother (who died in 1870, in London)
was Miss Elisabeth Siodik, a singer, sister to
Edward Sbouih, a well-known bass singa. On
her fother^s deatii, the child, having shown great
aptitude for music, was educated by her mother
and eminent masters for an artistic career. At
the age of 16 Miss Parepa made a successful
d^ut on the stage as Ainina, at Malta, and
afterwards played ht Nicies, Genoa. Bome,
Florence, Madrid, and Lisbon. In this country
she made her first appearance May 31, 1857, **
Elvira in 'I Puritani' at the Koyal Italian
Opera, Lyceum, and played, Aug. 5, 1858, as
Camilla on the revival of ' Zampa* at Covent Gar-
den, on each occasion with &lr success. During
some of the seasons between 1859 and 65 she
played in English <^>era at Covent Garden and
Her Majesty's, and created the parts of Vi^
torine in Melon's <^>era of that name (Dec 19,
59); the title-part of 'La Beine Topase' of
Mass^, on its poductlon in England (Dec 26,
60) ; that of Mabel in Macfarren*s ' HelveUvn*
(Nov. 3, 64); playing also Arline, Satanella,
Dinorah, Elvira ('Ma^miello'), and the Zeilioaf
(* Fra Diavolo * and ' Don Giovanni). Her fine
voice combined power and sweetness, good execu-
« Set M iute«l World. Ku^ia. UZ8. p. m.
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PAEEPAROSA.
tion And extennve ooiiipaas.(of two ocUvee and
a hal^ extending to D in alt) ; bat in spite of these
great merits and a fine figure, she obtained bat
moderate saooess in opera. On the other hand,
she won almost from the first a great reputation
in oratorios and in the concert-room, and was
fi:wiaently engaged at the various Societies and
Festivals, including the Handel Festivals of 1862
and 65. She also sang abroad in Germany and
elsewhere. At the dose of 1865 she went to
America for a concert tour with Mr. Cari Rosa
(whom she afterwards married there in Feb.
1867^) and Levy the comet-player, returning
to England the following year. Aiter their mar-
riage Madame Parepa-Rosa and her husband
remained in America for four years, and esta-
bliahed their &mous Opera Company, in which
she was principal singer, achieving great success
in English and Italian opera, oratorio and
concerts. On her return to England, 1871,
she was prevented by illness firom fal611ing an
engagement at the Royal Italian Opera, Covent
Gi^en, but played for the winter season in
Italian opera at Cairo, and the next year was
heard witn pleasure at Covent Garden as Donna
Anna and Norma, and sang at the Philharmonic
' Ah Perfido * of Beethoven. In the autumn of
1 8 71 Madame Parepa and her husband made a
third visit to America with their company, the
lady singing the next year in Italian opera with
Wachtel and Santley. They returned in 73 to
England with the intention of introducing an
English version of ' Lohengrin * at Drury Lane
in March 1874, but previously thereto Madame
Parepa was seized with a severe illness, from
which she died, Jan. 3 1, 1874, to ^® universal re-
gret of a large circle of friends and admirers both
in England, and America. Madame Parepa was
highly educated, speaking and writing several
languages with fluency and correctness. She
brought a letter of introduction from the King of
Portugal to the Prince Consort, and was in con-
sequence invited to Osborne on her arrival in
this country. [See Rosa, Carl.] [A.C]
PARISHALVARS, Elias, was of Hebrew
descent and bom at Teignmouth in 1816. He
studied the harp under Dlzi, Labarre, and Bochsa,
and became one of the most distinguished per-
formers on that instrument. He was also an
excellent pianist. In 1831 he visited Germany,
and performed at Bremen, Hamburg, and other
places, prith great success. In 1834 ^® yfcai to
Upper Italy and gave concerts at Milan. In
1836 he went to Vienna, where he remained for
two years, occasionally visiting London. From
1838 to 1842 were occupied by a journey to the
£ast, where he collected many Eastern melodies.
He returned to Europe and gave concerts at
Leipeic in 1843, and at- Berlin, Frankfort, Dres-
den and Prague in 1843. In 1844 he went to
T^aples, where he was received with enthusiasm.
In 1 846 he stayed some time at Leipsic, where
his association with Mendelssohn produced a
sensible improvement in his style of composition.
1 She had been preflooaly in*nr1ed to a Csjttoln Utoxj Da WoUe
CanreU, vftM died M liBUk Ftrn. Aprtl 20L 1S6&
I'ARISIEKNB.
649
In 1847 he settled at Vienna, where he was ap-
pointed chamber musician to the Emperor ; and
there he died, Jan. 35, 1849. His compositions
consist of concertos fbr haip and orchestra, and
numerous fantasias for harp and pianoforte, and
harp alone. He was remarkable for his assiduity
in seeking for new effects from his instruments,
in some of which he anticipated Thalberg^s most
characteristic treatment. [ W . H. H.]
PARISIAN, or FRENCH, SYMPHONY,
THE. A symphony of Mozart's in D —
Allegro auai.
entered in his own autograph list as *No. 137,'
and in Kochers Catalogue No. 397. Composed
in Paris June 1 788, and first performed at the
Concert Spiiitud on Corpus Christi Day, June 18,
of the same year. The slow movement, An>
dantino in G, 6-8, did not please him, and he
wrote a second in the same key and much shorter.
Andante, 3-4. But he returned to the old one,
and altered it, and it is now universally played.
The other was performed at the Crystal Palace
March 15, 1873. [G.]
PARISIENNE«*XA. Out of the many
melodies assodat^wiMi the Revolution of 1830
two have surviv^^ and in some sense become
national airs, *La Parisienne* and *Les Trois
Couleurs/ The first commemorates the influence
of Paris, and the triumph of the Orleanist party ;
the second is Republican, and in the name of
France proclaims the triumph of democracy. [See
Tbois Codlbdrs, Les.1
CasinurDelavigne, librarian of the Palab Royal, '
and the favourite poet of Louis Philippe, was the
first to celebrate the Revolution in verse, his
stanzas dating from the day after the Parisians
had defeated the troops of Charles X. (Aug. i,
1830). Among his intimate friends were Auber
and Brack, the latter a good musician and dnger,
devoted to Volkslieder.* In his collection vras one,
apparently composed in 1757 at the time of the
siege of Harburg, and to this Delavigne adapted
his words. Auber transposed it into A, and
added a symphony, very simple, but bold and
martial in character. We give the first of the
seven stanzas.
ti roQTTe Ml bnsX Onnoutdi-Mlt: aoy-es et <
eU - Tesl Kons aTons dlt : soyoni fol-datsi Soudain Par
rls dansaa m^-mol • ra A ra-trou-T^ son art da
STheia details ara derived fhMn Aaber blDuoli:
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650
PABISIENNE.
glol - rei Id ft-nutl BWohoM Oooti* leoneftaoDil ▲ tm-
Cou-rons k la vle-Col • rat
The ' Parisienne * was first beard in public at
the Theatre of the Porte St. Martin on Monday,
Aug. 2, 1830. Two days later the Op^ra was
reopened, and the playbill announced the 'Muette
de Portici' reduced to four acts, and 'La Marche
Pariaienne/ a cantata by Casimir Delavigne,
sung bv Adolphe Nonrrit. On this occasion
Auber had the last phrase repeated in chorus,
and produced the symphony already mentioned.
The defect of the ' Parisienne/ from a musical
point of view, is the constant recurrence of the
three notes, G, £, and A, especially G: this
harping on the third of the key has a monotonous
effect, which not even Nourrit's singing could
disguise. The jovial turn of the refrain too is
quite inconsistent with the words. It is also a
pity that the last line ends with a feminine
rhyme ; the final *e* of the word ' victoire * being
tame and unwarlike to a degree.
But, though wanting in martial spirit, the air
had a great success at the time ; and' some years ^
later the usual controversy as to its origin arose.
On this subject Georges Kastner published an
interesting article in the 'Revue et Gazette
musicale* (April 9, 1849) to which the reader is
referred. The writer of Uie present article is in-
debted to Germain Delavigne (Gasimir*s brother)
for the curious and little-known &ct, that Scribe
and he had previously introduced the air into 'Le
Baron de Trenck,* a two-act com^e-vaudeville,
produced in Paris, Oct. 14, 1828. [G. C.j
PAKISINA. I. An opera in 3 acts ; libretto
(founded on Byron's poem) by RomAni, music by
Donizetti. Produced at the Pergola theatre,
Florence, March 18, 1833. At the Th^tre des
Italiens, Paris, Feb. 24, 1838. In London, at
Her Majesty's theatre, June i, 1838.
3. * Overture to Lord Byron's Poem of Parisina,*
for full orchestra, by W. Stemdale Bennett (op. 3),
in F{ minor; composed in 1835, while Bennett
was a student ; performed at ^e Philharmonic
on June 8, 1840. [G.]
PARKE, John, bom in 1741;, studied the
oboe under Simpson, and the theory of music
under Baumgarten. In 1768 he was engaged as
principal oboist at the Opera, and in 1771 sue-
ceedea the celebrated Fischer as concerto player
at Vauzhall, and became principal oboist at
Drury Lane. In 1776 he appeared in the same
capacity in the Lenten oratorios conducted by
J. G. Smith and John Stanley, and soon after-
wards at Ranelagh and Marylebone Grardens.
He was appoint^ one of the Kind's band of
music and in 1783 chamber musician to the
Prince of Wales. He was engaged at the Gon-
PARRY.
cert of Ancient Music, and other priaoipal <
certs, and at all the provincial festivala, unUl bii
retirement in 181 5. He died Aug. 3, 1839.
He composed many oboe concertos for his own
performance, but never published them.
Mabia Hester, his daughter (bom 1775), was
instructed by him in singing and pianoforte play-
ing, and made her first appearance as a singer at
Gloucester Festival in 1790, being then Terj
young, and for about seven years afterwards sang
at the principal London concerts and oratorios and
the provincial festivals. She afterwards became
Mrs. Beardmore and retired firom the musical
profession, but distinguished herself b^ her at-
tainments in science, languacee, and bteratnre.
She died in 1822, her husband surviving her only
four months. She composed several sets of piano-
forte sonatas, some songs, and a set of g^ees.
William Thomas Pabke, his younger brotlier,
Ixnn in London in 1 762, commenced the stud j of
music under his brother in 1770. He subse-
quently studied under Dance, Bumey (nephew
of Dr. Bumey), and Baumgarten. Id. 1775 he
was a soprano chorister at Drury Lane, and in
1776 was engaged as viola-player at Vauxhall.
In 1779 ^^ appeared at Vauxhall as an oboist*
and in 1 783 was employed as principal oboist at
Govent Garden. He was afterwards engaged at
the Ladies* and the Professional Gcmoerts, and in
1800 appointed principal oboist and concerto
player at Vauxhall, where he continued until 1 8 2 1 .
He extended the compass of the oboe upwards to
G in alt, a third higher than former perfomien
had reached. He composed several concertos for
his instrument, the overtures to * Netley Abbey'
(1794), and 'Lock and Key" (1796), and nu-
merous songs, glees, etc., for the theatre and
Vauxhall. He retired in 1825, and in 1830 pub-
lished 'Musical Memoirs; comprising an Ac-
count of the General State of Music in Knglanii
firom 1784 to 1830,' 2 vols. 8vo, an amusing work,
but of very little authority. He died Aug. 36,
1847. [W.H.H.]
PARLANDO, PARLANTE, •speaking.' A
direction allowing greater freedom in rendering
than cantando or eantahile, and yet referring to
the same kind of expression. It is generally used
in the case of a few notes or bars only, and is
often expressed by the signs -7- -^ placed ovw
single notes, and by a slur together with staccato
dots over a group of notes. Sometimes, however,
it is used of an entire movement, as in the 6th
Bagatelle from. Beethoven's Op. 33, which is
heiuled 'Allegretto qiiasi Andante. Gbn una
certa espressione parlante,* and in the 3nd of
Schumann's variations on the name 'Abegg.*
Op. I, where the direction 'Basso parlando*
stands at the beginning and refers to the whole
variation. [J.A.F.M.]
PARRY, Ghables Hubert Hastinos, bom
Feb. 27, 1848, was educated at Eton and Christ
Ghurch, Oxford, where he graduated Mus. Bac.
in 1867 and B.A. in 1870. He passed the ex-
amination for the Mus. Bac. while still at EUm.
The exercise for the degree (a Gantata entiaed
Digitized by Google j
PARRY.
* 0 Lord, thou hast oast us out ') was performed
in the Music School according to the reguhitions.
He took a few lessons in harmony firom Dr. Elvey,
in 1868, and since that time studied with H. H.
Pierson at Stuttgart, with Professor Macfarren
and Mr. Dannreuther.
A Morning and Evening Service in D (Novello),
still a favourite, dates from his Eton days, and
80 possibly do two anthems for 4 voices (Ditto) ;
throe Odes of Anacroon ; six Shakespearean and
other old-fashioned songs ; and ' Characterbilder/
a set of seven PF. pieces. His maturer works
are numerous, and consist of : — Sonata for PF.
in Bb (L. Cock) ; Do. Do. in D minor (Lucas
& Weber) ; Grosses Duo, for 2 PF.s in E minor
(Breitkopf) ; Trio for PF., V., and Cello in E
minor (Halle s Recitals 1880) ; Quartet for PF.
and Strings in A minor; Do. for Strings in
6. ; Fantaisie-sonata PF. and V. in B ; Sonata
for PF. and Cello in A; Nonet for Wind Instru-
ments in Bb ; Overture for Orchestra * Guillem
de Cabestanh' (performed at the Crystal Palace,
March, 15, 1879); Concerto for PF. and Or-
chestra in FS (do. April 3, 1880, and Richter,
May 10, 1880) ; Fantasia and Fugue for Organ;
Variations for PF. ; Miniatures for do.
His setting of Shelley*s 'Prometheus Unbound '
for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra, commis-
sioned for the Gloucester Festival, was produced
there Sept. 7, 1880. [G.]
PARRY, John, bom at Denbigh, North
Wales, in 1 776, received his earliest musical in-
struction from a dancing master, who taught him
also to play the clarinet. In 1795 he joined
the band of the Denbighshiro militia, and in
1797 became master of it. In 1807 he resigned
his appointment, and settled in London as a
teacher of the flageolet, then greatly in vogue.
In 1809 he was engaged to compose songs, etc.,
for Vauxhall Gardens, which he continued to do
for several years afterwards, and also adapted
Knglish words to a selection of Welsh melodies.
He composed the music for T. Dibdin's extrava-
ganza, 'Harlequin Hoax ; or, A Pantomime pro-
posed/ 1814; 'Oberon's Oath,' 1816; 'High
Notions, or, A Trip to Ezmouth,* 181 7 ; and
adapted the music for 'Ivanhoe,* 1820 ; and 'Cas-
wallon^' a tragedy, 1829. He was author as
well as composer of the musical pieces, 'Fair
Cheating,* 1 8 1 4 ; ' Helpless Animals, ' 1818;
and * Two Wives, or, A Hint to Husbands,'
1 8a I. For very many years he conducted the
Cymmrodorion and Eisteddvodau, or Congresses
of Welsh Bards, which were held in various
places in Wales, etc., and in i8ai he received
the degree of 'Bardd Alaw,' or Master of Song.
He "Wtut author of ' An Account of the rise and
progress of the Harp*; 'An Account of the
Boyal Musical Festival held in Westminster
Abbey iu 1834* (of which he had been secre-
jary) ; »nd 'II Puntello, or. The Supporter,'
^ntaining the first Budiments of Music. In
rune 1837 he gave a farewell concert, at
ivhich lie sang his own ballad of 'Jenny Jones'
made p<^ular by Charles Mathews the year
yeiore), accompanied on the harp by his son.
PARRY.
651
From 1854 to 1848 he was concert music critic
to ' The Morning Post.' He published a collec-
tion of Welsh Melodies, embodying the greater
part of Jones's 'Relics of the Welsh Bards,'
under the title of ' The Welsh Harper.' From
1 83 1 to Aug. 5, 1849, he was treasurer of the
Royal Society of Musicians. He died April
8, 1851.
His son, John Oblando, bom in London, Jan.
3, 1810, studied the harp imder Bochsa, and in
May, 1825, appeared (as Master Parry) as aper-
fonner on that instrument. He also became an
excellent pianist. In 1831 he came forward as a
barytone singer, chiefly of ballads accompanied by
himself on the harp. At his benefit concert in June
1836 he gave the first public indication of the pos-
session of that extraordinary vis eomien by which
he was afterwards so retuarkably distinguished, by
joining Madame Malibran in Mazadnghi's duet,
' When a little farm we keep,' and introducing
an admirable imitation of Harley. Latw in the
same year he appeared upon the stage at the St.
James's Theatre in Hullah*s * Village Coquettes'
and other pieces. In the following year he gave
his ' Buffo Trio Italiano ' (accompanied by hiuLself
on the pianoforte), in which he successfully
imitated Grisi, Ivanoff, and Lablache. In 1840
he introduced ' Wanted, a Governess' (words by
George Dubourg), the success of which induced
him to abandon serious, and devote himself
wholly to comic, singing. The songn he selected
differed materially from those of the immediately
preceding feneration in the absence of coarse-
ness or vulgarity, and were consequently most
fovourablv received. They comprised, among
others, 'Wanted, a Wife,' • Berlin Wool,' 'Blue
Beard,' * Matrimony,' * Fayre Rosamonde,' and
'The London Season'; the words being mostly
by Albert Smith and the music arranged by
Parry himself. In 1849 he gave up concert
singing and produced an entertainment written
by Albert Smith, in which he exhibited a number
of large water colour paintings executed by him-
self, and which was very successful. He gave
similar entertainments in 1850 and 1853. In
1S53 ill health compelled him to retire from
public performance, and he became organist of
St. Jude's, Southsea, and practised as a teacher.
In i860 he again appeared in public at the en-
tertainments of Mr. and Mrs. German Reed, but
in 1869 ill health again necessitated his retire-
ment. He took final leave of the public at a
performance for his benefit at the Gaiety Theatre
m 1S77. He died at East Molesey, Feb. 20,
1879. [W.H.H.]
PARRY, John, of Rhuabon, North Wales,
was domestic harper to Sir Watkin Williams
Wynne, of Wynnstay. He came to London,
where his playing is said to have been admired
by ELandel. and to have excited Gray to the com-
pletion of his poem, ' The Bard.' In 1 743 he put
forth the earliest published collection of W^h
melodies under the title of 'Ancient British
Music of the Cambro-Britons.' He afterwards
published (undated) 'A Collection of Welsh,
English and Scotch Airs; also. Lessons for the
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652
parry;
HarpedchoTd* ; and, in 1 781. ' CambrUn Harmony ;
a Collection of Ancient Welsh Ain, the tradi-
tional remains of those sung by the Bards of
Wales.' He died 1783. Though totally blind, he
is reported to have been an excellent draught-
pUyer. [W.H.H.]
PARRY, Joseph, Mus. Doc., bom at Merthyr
Tydvil, May 21, 1841, of poor Welsh parents,
the mother a superior woman with much music
in her nature. There Is a great deal of singing
and brass-band-playing among the Welsh work-
men, and at chapel and elsewhere the boy soon
picked up enough to show that he had a real
talent. At 10 however he was forced to go to
the puddling furnaces and stop all education of
any tdnd. In 1853 his father emigrated to the
United States, and in 1854 the family followed
him. After a few years Joseph returned from
America, and then received some instruction in
music from John Abel Jones of Merthyr and
John Price of Rhynmey. In 1863 he won prizes
at the Llandudno Eisteddfod. He then went
again to America, and during his absence there
a prize was adjudged to him at the Swansea
Eisteddfod of 1863, for a harmonised hymn tune.
Its excellence roused the attention of Mr.
Brinley Richards, one of the musical adjudica-
tors of the meeting, and at his instance a fund
was raised for enabling Parry to return to Eng-
land and enter the Royal Academy of Music.
The appeal was well responded to by Welshmen
here and in the States, and in Sept. 1868 he en-
tered the Academy and studied under Stemdale
Bennett, Garcia, and Steggall. He took a bronze
medal in 1870, and a silver one in 1871, and
an overture of his to ' The Prodigal Son * (Mab
Afradlon) was played at the Aciulemy in 1S71.
He was appointed Professor of Music at the Uni-
versity College, Abeiystwith, and soon after took
his Mus. Bac. degree at Cambridge, proceeding,
in May 1878, to that of Mus. Doc. at the same
University. An opera of his named * Blodwen,*
founded on an episode in early British higtoiY.
was performed at Aberdare in 1878 and shortly
afterwards at the Alexandra Palace, Muswell
Hill. He has lately published an oratorio entitled
• Emmanuel,' — words by Dr. W. Rees and Prof.
Rowlands — ^which was performed at S. James's
Hall, May I3, 1880, and which from the &vour-
able notices of the press appears to be a work of
great, though unequal, merit. [G.]
PARSIFAL (i.«. Percival). A ' Bfthneiiweih-
festspiel' (festival acting drama) ; words and
music by Richard Wagner. Poem published in
1877 ; music completed in 1879. Text translated
into English by H. L. and F. Corder (^Schotts,
1879). [G.]
PARSONS, RoBBBT, a native of Exeter, was
on Oct. 17, 1563, sworn a gentleman of the
Chapel RoyaL He is said, but erroneously, to
have been organist of Westminster Abbey. He
composed some church music. A Morning, Com-
munion, and Evening Service is printed in Bar-
nard's * Selected Church Musick,' and a Burial
Service in Low's * Directions,' 1664. An anthem,
PARTANT POUR LA SYBIB.
' Deliver us firom our enemies,' is contained in th«
Tudway Collection (Harl. MS. 7339^ and an ' la
Nomine,' and a madrigal, ' Enforced by lore and
feare,' are in Add. MS. 11,586. Three aervkei
and an anthem, 'Ah, helpless wretch,' aie in
Barnard's MS. collections in the Sacred Har-
monic Society's Library. Many of his oompoa-
tions are extant in MS. in the library of €brat
Church, Oxford. He was drowned in the Treat
at Newark, Jan. 35, 1569-70.
John Parsons, probably his son, was in 1616
appointed one of the pariah clerks and also or
ganist of St. Margaret s, Westminster. On Dec
7, 1621 he was appointed organist and master of
the choristers of \fV eetminster Abbey. A Buzisl
Service by him is contained in a MS. Tolome is
the libranr of the Sacred Harmonic Society. Hf
died in 1023, and was buried, Aug. 3, in the ckiis-
ters of Westminster. A quaint epitaph on him is
preserved in Camden's '^mains.* [W.H.H-]
PARSONS, Sib William, Knt., Mus. Doc,
bom 1 746, was a chorister of Westminster Abbej
imder Dr. Cooke. In 1768 he went to Italy to
complete his musical education. On the death of
Stanley in 1786 he was appointed master of tbe
King's band of music. On June 26, 1 790, he acea-
mulated the degrees of Mus. Bac. and Mas. Doc
at Oxford. In 1795, being in Dublin, he was
knighted by the Lord Lieutenant, Earl r!^^i?v<*^
In 1 796 he was appointed musical instructor to
the Princesses and a magistrate for Middlesex, in
which latter capacity he acted for several yean
at the police office in Great Marlboroagh StrceL
He died July 17, 181 7. [W.H.H.]
PARTANT POUR LA SYRIE. This popn
lar romance dates firom 1809, shortly before tbe
battle of Wagram. The words were by Omit
Alexandre de Laborde, a man of lively imagina-
tion in considerable repute as a pod^ de drem-
stance. One evening Queen Hortense showed him
a picture representing a knight clad in annonr.
cutting an inscription on a stone with the point
of his swurd, and at the request of the company
he elucidated it by a little romance invented ca
the spot An entreaty to put it into vose
followed, and Queen Hortense set the lines to
music. Such was the origin of * Le Depart
pour la Syrie,* of which we give the muac,
and ^e first stanza.
• •tb«MiI>u-noU
U pri^ Ito-il
M-nirMt «i*ploiM: Fal-te>, Bdne iouiKv-tai - • It, U
dit'* U, VI par
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PARTANT POUR LA SYRIK
PARTIAL TONES.
653
It Mis lO piM
The troubadour style of both words and music
hit the taste of the day, the song went through
every phase of success, and was even parodied.
When Louis Napoleon mounted the tnrone of
France in 1853, his mother*s little melody was
recalled to mind, and although of a sentimental
rather than martial turn, it became the national
air, arranged, in default of fresh words, solely
for milita^ bands. In this arrangement the
last phrase is repeated, closing for the first time
on the third of the key.
The credit of having composed this little song
has more than once been denied to Queen Hor-
tense, and Drouet in his Memoirs claims to have
had at least a half share in the composition.
Others have advanced a similar claim in favour
of Narcisse Carbonel (1773 to 1855), who
organised Queen Hortense*s concerts, and was
her usual accompanyist. No doubt he looked
over and corrected most of his royal pupil's im-
provisations ; at least that is no unfair inference
from Mile. Cochelet^s (Mme. Parquin) *Memoires
sur la Reine Hortense' (i. 45). But there is no
decij^ive evidence either one way or the other. —
Dussek's variations on the tune were at one time
▼ery popular. [G. C.]
PARTDUDIABLE,LA. An op^nwsomique
in 3 acts; words by Scribe, music by Auber.
Produced at the Op^ra^mique, Paris, Jan. 16,
1843. IG.]
PARTHENIA. The first music for the vir-
ginals published in England. The title is 'Par-
thenia or The Maydenhead of the first musicke
that euer was printed for the YirginaUs Com-
posed By three famous Masters WiUiiun Byrde,
Dr. John Bull and Orlando Gibbons Gentilmen
of his Ma^i«* most Illustrious Ghappell. Ingrauen
by William Hole.* The work consists of the fol-
lowing 31 pieces, all upon 6-line staves, and en-
graved upon copper plates, being the first musical
w(»rk so produced.
W.BTTda.
Pralodlam.
PtTAna: SlrW.Petn.
Galtardo.
Preludium.
Gtlivdo ; Mn. Maiy Brownlo.
PkTMUt : TlM Sari of SftlUlmr/.
Gtttordo.
QaUwdo, S do.; Ifn. Ifaiy Bfownlo.
Dr. Ban.
Pntadtom.
rw«no { SlrThot. Wak*.
OalUtrdo: Sir Thoc Wake.
Parana.
Gallardo.
Galiardo.
Gallardo.
^ „ _. O. Qlbbou.
Gallardo.
Fantazia of fbar part*.
The Lord of Saltobury. bis TSftn.
Galiardo.
Th« Qoeen't eonunand.
Praludlum.
It first appeared in 1611. On the title is »
three-quarter-length representation of a lady
playing upon the virginals. Gommendatory
verses by Hugh Holland and Geoige Ghap-
man are prefixed. It was reprinted in 161 3
with a dedication to the Elector Palatine and
Princess Elizabeth. Other impressions appeared
in 1635, 1650 and 1659, ^® latter with a letter-
press title bearing the imprint of John Playford.
All these impressions were from the same plates.
The Work was reprinted by the Musical Antiqua-
rian Society in 1847, under the editorship of
Dr. Rimbault, with facsimiles of the title-page
and a page of the music. [W. H. H.]
PARTIAL TONES (Pr. 8ont pariida; Ger.
PartiaUdM, AliquoU&ne), A musical sound is
in general very complex, consisting of a series
of simple sounds called its Partial tones. The
lowest tone of the series is called the Prime
(FonclavMntal, Orundton), while the rest are
called the Upper partials (ffarmoniques ; Ober'
partiaUlhie, OhertOne), The prime is usually
the loudest, and with it we identify the pitch of
the whole compound tone. For each vibration
given by the prime the upper partials give re-
spectively 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, etc. vibrations. The
number of partial tones is theoretically infinite,
but it will be enough here to represent the first
16 partials of (7, thus :—
Its 496 T S » 10 11 la U 14 19 1«
When the notes of this diagram are played on
the ordinary Piano, tuned in equal temperament,
the Octaves alone aCTee in pitch with the partial
tones. The 3rd, 6tn, 9th, and lath partials are
slightly sharper, and the 5th, 7th, loth, 14th,
and 15th much flatter than the notes given
above. But even in just intonation the nth
and 13th partials are much flatter than any Ft
and A reoogrnised in music.
When a simple tone is heard, the kind of
motion to and fro executed by the sounding body
resembles that of the pendulum, and is hence
called pendular vibration. [Vibration.] When
a compound tone is heard, the form of vibration
is more complex, but may be represented as the
sum of a series of pendular vibrations of dififerent
frequencies. In order that the compound tone
shall be musical it is necessanr that the vibration
should be periodic, and this happens only when
the fr^uencies of the vibrations which sound
the upper partials are multiples of that which
sounds the prime tone. In tne article on Nodb
it has been already explained in what manner
a string or the column of air in an organ pipe
produces this compound vibration, ^e real
motion, as Helmholtz remarks, is of course one
and individual, and our theoretical treatment of
it as compound is in a certain sense arbitrary.
But we are justified in so treating it, since we
find that the ear as well as all bodies which
vibrate sympathetically, can only respond to
a compound tone by analyzing it into its simple
It may seem difficult to reconcile this with the
frtct that many ears do not perceive the com-
posite nature of sound. Helmholtz has treated
this question at length,^ and bis explanation may
be thus indicated. The different partials really
excite different sensations in the ear, but whether
they are perceived or not, depends on the amount
I 'SeDMtlou of Tom.' pp. 98-iO&
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PARTIAL TONES.
of attention given to them by the mind. In
general we pay attention to our sensationB only
in 80 iar as they enable us to form correct ideas
of external objects. Thus we can distinguish two
comparatively simple tones oominff from different
instruments. On the other hand when a com-
pound tone is produced by one instrument we
disregard tbe several partials because they do
not correspond to different portions of the vibrat-
ing body ; each portion executes the compound
motion corresponding to all the partials at once.
Moreover it would hinder our musical enjoy-
ment if we were habitually to concentrate our
attention on the upper partials, and we have
therefore, in general, no interest in doing so.
Hence it must not be supposed that when we
fail to distinguish the partials of a compound
tone they are not really present, or that when
we hear them but faintly their intensity is small.
Helmholtz gives an experiment which strikingly
illustrates this. He obtained two nearly simple
tones an Octave apart, and by listening to each
tone in succession he was able to distinguish
them when sounding together. But he could
do so only for a while, for the higher sound was
gradually lost in the lower, and a quality of tone
different from either was the result. This hap-
pened even when the higher was somewhat
stronger than the lower sound.
Notwithstanding the difficulty of hearing the
upper partial tones, many musicians have been
able to do so by their unaided ears. Thus,
Mersenne ^ could distinguish six partials in the
tones of string, and sometimes seven. Rameau *
also succeeded in perceiving the partials of the
voice, which are much harder to distinguish
than those of strings. There are several methods '
by which the ear can be trained to recognise the
upper partials. It is better to begin with the
uneven tones, Twelfth, Seventeenth, etc., which
are easier to hear than the Octaves. Touch the
note g' softly on the piano, damp the string, and
strike c loudly. Keep the attention directed to
the pitch of the g'f and this note will be heard in
the compound tone of e. Similarly by sounding
e" softly and then c loudly, the latter will be
observed to contain the former. It must not be
supposed that when these partials are heard it
is due to an illusion of the ear, for the note t"
on the piano as ordinarily tuned is appreciably
sharper than the 5th partial of c. The difference
of pitch between the two sounds proves that
one cannot be the echo of the other. There is
another and still better method of directing the
attention of the ear to any given partial tone.
Touch a vibrating string at one of its nodes, for
example at ^ of its length, and the 5th partial
will be heard, faintly accompanied by the loth,
15th, etc. It will then be easy to hear the 5th
partial in the compound tone of the whole string.
The ear is however hardly able to carry out
researches of this kind without mechanical as-
I 'HAnnoni« UnlTerwUe.* Parfi. 1(96. pp. 20R, 9. and 321 of the 4th
book on Instruments. He gives a telse ratio for the 7th partial, tIi.
20: 3 Instead of 7:1.
a • NouTcau 8js!^me de Musiqae th^rlque.' Paris, 17S8. PrACace.
s Heimboitt, ' SentatioDi ql Tone.' pp. 7iM&
PARTIAL TONES.
nstance. Hence Helmholtz made use of Re-
sonators, which are hollow globes or tubes of
glass or metal, having two openings, one to re-
ceive the sound, the other to transmit it to the
ear. From the mass of compound tone each
resonator singles out and responds to that piartial
which agrees with it in pitch, but is unaffected
by a partial of any other pitch. By this means
Helmholtz has shown that the number of the
partial tones and their relative intensities vary
in different instruments, and even in the same
instrument, according to the way it is played.
These various combinations are perceived by us
as different qualities of tone, by which we dis-
tinguish the note of a violin from that of a horn,
or the note of one violin- player from that of
another. The nearest approach to a simple
tone is given by tuning-forks of high pitch. Dr.
Prever* was unable to detect any upper partials
in forks tuned to ^' (768 vibrations) or higher.
On the other hand, he showed that as many as
10 partials were present in a fork tuned to e
(laS vibrations). But these are very weak and
can only be heard when great care has been
taken to exclude all other sounds. The general
effect of such comparatively simple tones is very
smooth but somewhat dull, and they seem to be
deeper in pitch than they really are. Flntes
and widestopped organ pipes have few effective
partials, and are much inferior in musical effect
to open organ pipes and to the piano. Th%
tones of the voice, violin, and horn, are more
complex still, and are characterised by friller
and richer qualities. When the partials above
the 7th are strong they beat wiUi each other,
and the quality becomes harsh and rough as in
reed instruments. Mr. Ellis has obtained beats
from the 20th partial of a reed and even higher,
and Dr. Preyer has proved a reed to possess
between 30 and 40 partials.
The clarinet and the stopped organ pipe are
exceptions to the general rule, for they give only
the unevenly numbered partials i, 3, 5, 7, 9, etc
Neither of these instruments will set into vibra-
tion a resonator an Octave or two Octaves above
it in pitch, proving that the and and 4th partiab
are absent. The resulting quality of tone is
hollow and nasal, and may be obtained from a
string, by plucking or bowing it in the middle.
The effect is to make a Loop there, and hence
to prevent the vibirations of tlie halves, quarters,
etc. of the string, which require a Node at that
point. [See Node.]
Helmholtz has also discovered that the dif-
ferent vowel sounds are due to various com-
binations of simple tones, and he verified his
theory by reproducing several vowels from a
series of tuning-forks set in motion by electri-
city. Each fork had a resonator the mouth of
which could be opened or closed in order to ob-
tain any required degree of intensity.
Bells, gongs, and drums have a variety of
secondary tones generally inharmonic with the
prime, and the result is that their vibration is
not periodic. Hence the sounds they produce
4 ' Akastkche Untenachungen.* Jena, GostaT Fbfcber. 1S79.
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PARTIAL TONES.
«re felt to be more of the nature of noise than
muBical tone, and this explains why they are so
much less u^ed than other instruments. Tuning-
forks also produce -very weak inharmonic tones,
not only when struck, but, as Dr. Preyer has
shown, when bowed strongly.
^ The use of upper partials is, then, to produce
different qualities of tone, for without them,
all instruments would seem alike. Thus Dr.
Preyer found that for the Octave c^''-€' (2048 to
4096 vibrations) many good observers were un-
able to distinguish the tones of forks from those
of reeds, unless both were very loud. More-
over organ-builders have long been accustomed
to obtain artificial qualities of tone by combining
the Octave, Twelfth, Fifteenth, Seventeenth, etc.
in the so-called compound stops (Sesquialtera,
Mixture, Comet). This was done not from any
knowledge of the theory, but from a feeling that
the quality of the single pipe was too poor for
musical effect..
A still more important use of the upper par-
tials is in distinguishing between consonance and
dissonance. It was formerly supposed that the
dissonance of two musical sounds depended solely
on the complexity of the ratio between their
prime tones. According to this view <^-f't
being as 45 : 33> would be dissonant even if
there were no upper partials. Helmholtz has
however shown that when c' and f'% are struck
together on any instrument whose tones are
compound, the dissonance arises from the 3rd
and 4th parti/Js of c' beating with the and and
3rd of /'«, thus (I) :—
nWi fe
PAETICIPANT.
655
and that the prime tones continue sounding
without interruption. Hence when c' and f%
are simple tones they give no beats, and in fact
form as smooth a combination as (f and /'.
This theory has been carefully verified by
Dr. Preyer. He used tuning forks having irom
1000 to 2000 vibrations per second ; and by bow-
ing them in such a manner as to get practically
simple tones, he found that 5 : 7, 10 : 13, 14 : 17,
and many like intervals were pronounced by
musicians to be consonant. By stronger bow-
ing the upper partial and resultant tones were
brought out, and then these intervals were im-
mediately felt to be dissonant. In the consonant
intervals, on the other hand, the upper pai-tials
either coincide and give no beats, or are too far
apart to beat roughly. Thus in the Fourth c'-/'
the affinity between the two notes depends on
their possessing the same partial c"\ and this
relation is but slightly disturbed by the dis-
sonance of ^" and/" (see (2) above).
This theory alKo explains why such intervals as
11:13 are excluded from music. They are not
consonant, for though they have a common partial
it is high and feeble, and to get to it we have
to pass over a mass of beating intervals. Nor
are ii : 13 connected by a series of consonant
Intervals as is the case with the dissonances in
ordinary use. For example, G and F| are Unked
together thus, C-G-D-Fj, or thus, C-E-B-Fj.
Though the partial tones are generally heard
simultaneously, they are sometimes separated by
being made to traverse a considerable distance
before reaching the ear. Regnault ^ found that
when a compound tone is sent through a long
tube, the prime is heard first, then the 2nd
partial, then the 3rd, and so on. He also noted
that the velocity of sound increases or diminishes
with its intensity. Hence, as the lower partials
are usually the louder, they arrive before the
higher.
The word 'harmonics' was formerly (and is
sometimes even now) used to mean partial tones.
But a harmonic produced by touching a string
at one of its nodes, or by increasing the force <h
wind in an organ pipe, is not a simple tone.
If we touch the string at ^ of its length we
quench the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 7th, etc. tones, but
leave the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th, etc. unchecked.
Hence it is proposed by Mr. Ellis to limit the word
'harmonics to its primary sense of a series of
compound tones whose primes are as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
etc., and to use the words ' partial tones * to mean
the simple tones of which even a harmonic is
composed. [J.L.]
PARTICIPANT (from the Lat. paHicipare,
to share in). One of the ' Regular Modulations'
of the Ecclesiastical Modee. [See Modes, the
Ecclesiastical ; Modulations, Regdlab and
Conceded.]
•The Participant, though less significant, as a
distinguishing feature of the Mode, than either
the Final, the Dominant, or the Mediant, is of
far greater importance than any of the Conceded
Modulations. In the Authentic Modes, its
normal position lies, either between the Final
and the Mediant, or between the Mediant
and the Dominant; with the proviso, that,
should two notes intervene between the Medi-
ant and Dominant, either of them may be used
as the Participant, at will. In the Plagal
Modes it is always the lowest note of the Scale,
unless that note should be B or F; in which
cases. C or G are substituted, in order to avoid
the False Relation of lili contra Fa : it is there-
fore always coincident, in name, with the Au-
thentic Dominant, though it is not always found
in the same Octave. In some cases, however,
either Octave may be used indiscriminately as
the Plagal Participant ; and even the choice of
some other note is sometimes accorded.
The followinfi^ Table exhibits, at one view, the
Participants of all the Modes in general use,
both Authentic and Plagal.
Mode I. G. Mode V. G. Mode IX. D.
„ II. A«. A». „ VI. ca. „ X. E'. ES.
„ III. A. B. „ VII. A. „ XIII. D.
„ IV. C. F. „VI1I. D2. „ XIV. G».
In some few of the Authentic Modes, and in
I Helmholtz. 'Sensations of Tone/ p. 721.
a The lowest note of the Mode,
s llie highest note of the Mode.
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PARTICIPANT.
all ihe Plagal forms, the Participaiit is used tM
an Absolute Initial; and, by virtue of this
priTilege, it may be used as the first note of a
JPlain Chaunt Melody of any kind. In all cases
it may begin or end any of the intermediate
phrases of a Melody, and may even begin the
last; but it can never end the concluding
phrase. This rule is not even broken in those
Endings of the Gregorian Tones for the Psalms
which close upon the Participant — such as the
Second Ending of the First Tone : for. in these
cases, the real close is found in the Antiphon,
which always terminates upon the Final of the
Mode. [W.S.E.]
PARTIE, PARTITA. The German and
Italian forms respectively of a name said to
have originated about the beginning of the 17th
century, with the Kunst- or Stadt-Pfeifers, or
town musicians, and given by them to the collec-
tions of dance-tunes which were played conse-
cutively, and which afterwards were taken to form
suites. Bach uses the name in two senses ; first,
as the equivalent of 'Suite' in the Six Partitas for
Clavier; and second, for three sets of Variations
on Chorales for Organ, viz. those on * Christ, der
du bist der helle Tag* (7 Partitas, including the
theme itselO, on * O Gott, du frommer Gott '
(9 Partitas including the tiieme), and on *Sey
gegrttsset Jesu gOtig* (11 Partitas or yaria-
tions, exclusive of the theme itself). He also
wrote three Partitas (in the Suite-form) for the
lute. The name has very seldom been used
since Bach; the chief instance of its oocui^
renoe is in the original title of Beethoveii's
Octuor, 'Parthia in Es' (see vol. ii. p. 493 a).
But in the modem rage for revivals it may pos-
sibly reappear. [J. A. F. M.]
PARTIMENTI, •divisions.' Exercises in
fiorid counterpoint, written generally, but not
always, on a figured bass, for the purpose of cul-
tivating the art of accompanying or of playing at
sight from a figured bass. [ J . A. F. M.]
PARTITION and PARTTTUR, the French
and German tenns for what in English is termed
the Score ; that is, the collection in one page of
the separate parts of a piece of music, arranged
in order from top to bottom. When all the parts,
instrumental, or instrumental and yocal, are
given, it is called 'Partition d'orchestre* —
• Full score.' When the voice parts and a PF.
arrangement are given, 'Partition de Piano' —
* Short score,' or ' Vocal score.' For the various
modes of placing the parts see Scx)RE. [G.]
PART MUSIC, a collection of vocal music
made by Mr. John Hullah for the use of his
Singing Classes, and published by John W. Par-
ker, London. It consists of three series — ' Class A
for S. A.T. B.' (vol i. 1842, vol ii. 1845) ; 'Class
B for the voices of women and children ' (1845) ;
•Class C for the voices of men' (1845). Each
series contains sacred and secular pieces. Each
was printed both in score and in separate parts,
in royal 8vo., and the whole forms a collection
unexampled (at least in England), for extent,
PART MUSIC.
excdlenoe, and variety, and for the cleamesB asid
accuracy of its producticm.
1. Sacred,
VoLL
God tKn Um Queen.
Lord for Thj tender.
WIUi one eonaent (FMlm 100).
0 Lord the maker. Henry VIII.
SuiMus and Betpooiea. TalUt.
OpntlaeyetheLord. (PsiOniltt).
1 will dve thanks. PaleMrlna.
Slnoe on the croM (Kin feste Burg).
Luther.
God !• gone np. Crotfc.
When as we sat In Babylon. (Fs.
1S7).
ObeJoyftaL Palertrina.
Te gates lift up (Psalm 24).
The day Is past. Hullah.
Thou that from Thy throne.
Haydn.
Yenite. TaHb.
Thou ait beautlML O. Orooe.
O Lord, another day. M. Haydn.
O Lord. I iflll (Ps. M). H. Lairas.
Praise the Lord. Jer.Olaike.
Gloria Patri (Canon). PurceU.
Banctus. Creyghton.
Be not Thou far. Palestrlna.
Bide not Thou Thy face. Farrant.
0 Jesu Lord. Lcdmne.
Give ear, O God. Hlmmd.
Praise the Lord. Dr. Child.
Blessed be Thou. LotU.
Forth from the dark. Booaaeao.
Almighty God 1 Forde,
1 will arise. Creyghton.
Sing to the Lord. Tye.
Hear my prayer. K. Haydn.
O King eternal (Ps. 8). Croft.
O God of truth. B.Bogera.
O remember not. BoaslnU
Give to us peaoe. [LToff.]
Thou knowest. Lord. Fureen.
Amen.' Dr. Cooke.
Sweet day. so oool. H.Dumont.
Go not tar from me. Zlngar^ll.
O how amiable. V. Blohardson.
To Uud the hearty King (Ps. 148).
Jer. Clarke.
Almighty * ererlastlnc. Gibbons.
Awake thou that slespeat (Oanon).
W. Horsley.
BaUeliUi^ Boyoe.
VoLn.
OKlngofldngs. Kreutnr.
]fy soul doth magnliir (Ohaat).
Dr. (yooke.
Responses. Dr. Child.
O come ye fklthftal (Adeste fldeleaX
Hosanna (Canon). Berg.
Amen. Neukomm.
0 Loid grant the king. Ohfld.
Ut queant ((]anon). Harrington.
Banctus. Sogers.
Why do the heathm. Palestrlna.
1 will magnify Thee (Chant). P.
Humphrey.
Plead Thou my cause. G. Oroee.
Ponder my words. ZingarelU.
Awake my soul. Jer. Clarke.
Bleep, downy sleep. Do.
Thou Shalt shew me (Canon).
Oallcott.
Ky (Sod. my QoA. Reynolds.
Wherewithal shall a young man.
Aloock.
O BaTlourl W. Horsier.
O most mercUiil. Hullah.
Praise the Lord. Gosseo.
Banctus. Baasanl.
We will rejoloe. Croft.
O Lord In Thee ((3anon). Pazton.
TrymeO(3od. Karta.
0 Lord teach us ((3anon).
Praise ye the Lord. BrassettL
1 will remember. G. Grooe.
Peace be to this habitation. IL
Haydn,
naielujah (Canon). K.Berln.
AU people that on eurth. (Old
100th).
Praise theLord (Oanon). OaUeott.
Behold now. Sogers.
The Lord hear thee. Blow.
T. T. Wah
CLASS A.
Hosanna (Oanon).
mUcy.
Help us. O God. Dnxante.
The d«y must come. N. .
Hear me when I caU iCmatm).
W.Honley.
Banctus. O. Gibbons.
Let aa the people. FalcstrtaA.
~ 'be God. Gn
O God, Thon art.
Mock not (Sod's i
Tyei
The Toioe of Joy. Jai
2:SfCular,
Vol I.
Bnle Britannia. Ame.
All ye who murie lore^_
Hard by a fountain.
Te spotted snakea.
Flow O my tears. John I
The Walts. SaTflle.
Come let us alL Att^rborT.
Long may life and health.
FreemM) re}otoe. Fnroel].
Hall hallowed fane. Momlngim.
Grabbed ace and youtfa. StercM.
In going to my lonely bed. Ed-
wardes.
Ah me 1 where Is. F. Ancrie-
Nympluef the Ibreet. W. Horvky.
O nerer fear though rmlB be faU^.
Kay day. Nelthart.
Solfeggio. SearlattL
Ladyaee! Harenilo.
Bow sleep the brare. Dr. Ceeke
Hark the Tillage maids. Cte-
ruMnl.
AU ban Britannia. Lotti.
Upon the poplar bough. Fiaxtaa.
Since flnt I saw. Font.
How glad with smiles. Gloek.
Sing a song of stzpeoce. Kae*
Happy are they. Pattoa.
See from his ocean bed. T. Bvlb.
Daybreak. Moechelea.
The hardy Norseman's. FaaraalL
Come again sweet love. Dowlked.
In paper case. Dr. C
Harrest time.
Thy voice 0 Harmony.
Awake JEollan lyre. Daaby.
My lady te as fialr. J.BeoneC
ffing loud a Joyftd. Glock.
April Is ha my miifi— • tea^
Morkgr.
VoLn.
ne JoyoDs birds. B. Spento— ■
Here in cool grot. Mon&l^t^
Girls and boys. Macbrren.
Swiftly tnm the motmtelnt brewi.
Webbe.
Our native land. O.J
Like to the g
Ode to SprinL
Come shepherds. J. !
Hark. hark, the lark. Dr. <
Come my friends. W. Hordey.
O how sweet Hla. arJ.Bogess.
Long live the Queen (Oaaon)^
Boyce.
Oome shepherds. Grast.
Duloe Domum. J. r
Thyrttewbenheleftme. OsBoott.
Which Is the properest day. Ame.
Albion, thy sea^eiidrcled lile.
Dr. (]ooke.
Pack elonds away. Hullah.
Breathe soft ye irinds. WAba.
he din. Gluok.
Who win bring back. O.deTcfl
Hark, hark a merry note.
Thyrsls sleepest thou? J. Banaet.
Unto the merry greenwood.
Dance we so gaily. F.BehaberL
Blow. blow, tboo winter wto4-
Stevens.
Awake sweH Love. Dowlaad.
Twas on a bank. HnUah.
FromObenw. Stevena.
Thus salth my Chloris. Wilk9«.
Kow.Onow. Dowlaod.
Happy •>• we met. Wdite.
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PART MUSIC.
PART430Na
657
1. Sacred,
CM wvQ the Qnaen.
HallehUAh. Boyoe.
Shflfw me TI17 wAjB. FklMtrliUL
Not unto 1U. Balleri.
- Mjthoidierd te the Lord (Pi. 2S).
Oome lot OS itrtre to Join.
It li a good «nd pleMWDt thing
(P».«).
Lord dlunlM 1M.
O Abnlom my ton. CKlng.
BsmnttofOod. O.Barbloe.
fVom ereilMtlog. Wobbe.
Hear mj oiTlng. Palestrio*.
Jeborah. Thou mj maker art
(Pi. 119).
Prostrate before Thee. OaralSk
O aU ye works of the Lord.
Stand ap and bless. Immler.
He hath pot down. Palestrlna.
Benedlotos. Chant.
Mj Tolee went np (Ps. 97).
Christ whose glory fills the skies.
Great Qod what do I. Luther.
The midnight cry. Olasse.
Bemerelfhl. Jackson.
Unto Thee O Ood. Hayes.
OreatOod of hosts. FleyeL
AndRlsmerey. Palestrina.
Thee will I lore. Hofinebter.
O aing onto God.
I win ahftys glre thanks.
Be ^ad 0 ye righteous.
3. Secular.
(ThUdofthesun. Kreutier.
Come, follow me. Dauby.
Come sprightly mirth. Hilton.
Dear pity. WUbye.
rogato from Les SoUKges d* Italle.
Gentle moon. Do.
Go, gentle breeses. Do.
Hall green iirids and shady woods.
Dr. Oreme.
HeIghho.tothegre6nwood. Byrd.
Hot cross buis. Atterboiy.
Huntsman, rest. Dr.Ame.
Mar-day. W. Horsley.
Prythee, do not dilde me so.
Motart.
Bute. Britannia. Dr.Ame.
, where tha morning sun.
Moiart.
Solfeggio fromLesSolfegesdltaUew
The flowers their buds. Mosart.
The load stars. Shield.
The sunbeams streak. Pohlens.
Though I soon must leare. Berg.
Three blind mice.
Weep o'er his tomb. Hayes.
When the rosy mom appearing.
Why do yon sl^? J.Bennett.
0LAB8 0.
Saertd,
God save the Queen.
Hon nobis. W Byrd.
Amen. Dr. Oooke.
How blest the man (Ps.!).
Jerusalem. BoseingTaTe.
flanctos. Jer. Clarke.
And now the sun's. Beraer.
My sonl with patlenoe (Ps. ISO).
Glory be to Ood on high. Boyoe.
O God that madest. Hullah.
Hallelujah (ST.). Hayes.
Jehovah. O Jehorab. Spaeth.
Oantate (Chant).
In sleep^s serene obllTkm. Freek.
Gloria In Xzoelsls.
0 e^biate Jehovah's (Ps. 107).
Soft slumbers now. Hlller.
Haste Thee O God. Cirri.
Heaven and earth.
HehathflUed. Palestrina.
Lord how are they Increased.
1 wm praise the Name. Hayes.
IwOlbeglad. W.Byrd.
O Thou, to whose all-searching.
Who are these like stars. NIgell.
Draw nigh unto. Palestrina.
Not nnto us O Lord. Hayes.
Lei hymns of praise.
Lord now we part. Bolle.
Make a JoyfU noise. Oarisslml.
Otory to Thee my Ood this nl^t.
Secular,
nie Smith. Kreutier.
Past twelve o'clock. Let's have a
peal. Bow the boat.
St. Martin's bells. LldartL
How exquisite the feeling. L. Do
OaU.
Halcyon days. Dr. Oooka.
With horns and bounds. Atter-
bury.
Half an hour past twelve. Marella.
The war-cry b sounding. Werner.
Come, come, all noble souls. Dr.
B-Bogers.
purest isle. PnreeU.
To the old. long life. Webbe.
Clad in sprlngUde beauty.
When for the world's repose.
Momfaigton.
Oimeletusall. Hilton.
Huw sweet in the woodlands.
Harrington.
Wotild you know my Oella's
charms? Webbe.
How sweet, how fresh ! Pazton.
Well done! Come let us slog!
White sand 1 Hot mutton pies!
The dond-capt towers. Stevens.
Tou gentlemen of England. Dr.
Callcott.
Rule Britannia. Ame.
Yawning cateh. Harrtngtoo.
Glass A was republished in 1868, in score
and parts, under the editor's superintendence,
by Messrs. Longinansy in a larger size though
smaller type than before. A few of the original
pieces were omitted, and the following were
added, chiefly from Mr. Hullah's * Vocal Scores.'
Sacred,
Credo. LottL
O rememtwr. Haeser.
Who Is the Ung? ((Janon). 1
Mordie.
Uke as the hart. B.Kleln.
HMte Thee O God. ZingarelU.
O magnify the Lord. Spohr.
TO Thee my God. C.Yervoille.
Methlnks 1 hear. <>oteh.
Praise the Lord (Canon). T.A.
Watmisley.
The Lord is King. Bolle.
OSavtonr of the world. Palestrina.
Per Ood is the King (Canon).
K. J. Hopkins.
OLordtocrease O.GIbboos.
Paternoster. Bomilins.
VOL. 11. PT. 13,
Secular.
Oome live with me. Stemdala
Music when soft voices. Weber.
Softly, softly, blow ye breens.
Tleck.
Bong should breathe. Hullah.
See the eharioi at hand. Horsley.
Blender's ghost. M. Bock.
Come follow me. O. May.
Han, blushing goddess. Pazton.
Best sweet nymph. Pilkington.
Hark the hollow woods. J. S.
Smith.
When the ton of day. B.J.a
Stevens.
As It fsU upon a day. Moralngton.
[G.]
PART-SONG. (Ger. MehrOmmiget Lied;
Ft,. Chcmson d pariie$.) A composition for at
least three voices in harmony, and without ao-
companiment. This definition must of course
exclude many compositions irequently styled part-
songs, and perhaps so named by their composers,
but which would be better described under some
other heading. For example, the two-part songs
of Menclelssohn, Rubinstdn, and other modem
musicians (Zweistimmige Lieder) are, more pro-
perly speaking, duets. [See Duet, Trio, QuARTFT.]
The term ' part-song ' will here be employed ex-
clusively as the proper signification of one of
the three forms of secular unaccompanied choral
music; the others being the madrigal and the glee.
Unlike either of its companions, its etymology is
plain and simple, being neither of obscure origin,
as in the instance of the Madrigal, nor of mis-
leading sense, as in that of the Glee.
Before proceeding to enquire into the origin
and growui of the part-song, it will be as well
to note the special charaot^istics by which it is
distinguished from other fonns of composition.
The words to which the music is set may be
either amatory, heroic, patriotic, didactic, or even
quasi-sacred in character, «. g, Mendelssohn's
'Moigengebet' (op. 48, no. 5), and *Sonntag8-
morgen * (op. 77, no. i) ; this wide choice of sub-
jects giving the composer scope for varie^ in his
music which the somewhat rigid form of the com-
position might otherwise seem to deny. Rhyming
verse^ is ail-but essential, and though the (luestion
of metre is to a certain extent an open one, iambics
are employed in the vast majority of instances.
The first requisite of the music is well-defined
rhythm, and the second unyielding homophony.
The phrases should be scarcelv less measured and
distinct than those of a Chorale, though of course
in style the music may be lively or sedate, gay
or pathetic. Tunefulness in the upper paxt or
melodv is desirable, and the attention should not
be withdrawn by elaborate devices of an imitative
or contrapuntal nature in the harmonic substruc-
ture. It is obvious that if these principles are
to be observed in the composition of a part-song
— ^and any wide divergence frx>m them would
invalidate the claim of a piece to the title —
it must, as a work of art, be ccmsidered as dis-
tinctly inferior to either the madrigal or the
glee. And it is worthy of surprise and perhaps
of regret that while the forms of instrumental
composition are constantly showing a tendency
to move in the direction of increased elaboration,
choral music should exhibit a decided retrogres-
nan from, the standard attained in the i6th and
17th centuries. It has even been observed bv
those who regard with some distrust, if not with
actual dislike, the immense and ever-increasing
influence of Germany in modem musical impulse,
that the existing popularity of the part-song, in
so far ail it is detrimental to the interests of
higher forms of vocal music, is one of the baneful
piquets of this Teutonic supremacy. But the
statement that the part-song is fundamentally
1 Horace's Ode 'Integer vlt«* has been set by Flemming (Orpheua.
Ho. 8). and ' Duma, Mymphanim ' by Mr. Hullah.
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PART-SONG.
G^nnaa in its inoeption most be aooepted with
considerable reservation. If we go back three
centuries, that is to the zenith of the madrigalian
era, we shall find examples perfect in every
respect except in name ; and it is to Italian oom-
posen Uiat we must look for the earliest speci-
mens of the genus. The best-known of Costanzo
Festa*s madngals, * Down in a fiowery vale/ is to
all intents and purposes a part-song, allowance
being made for certain peculiarities of tonality
and rhvthm common to music of that period.
Gastoldi, who flourished a few years later, has
left similar examples in his ' Balletti da suonare/
two of which in their English versions — 'Maidens
fair of Mantua's city* and 'Soldiers, brave and
gallant be'— are popular to this day. Thomas
Morley seems to have berai the earliest among
Englidi composers to take advantage of this style
of vocal writing. His canzonets and ballets,
written in obvious imitation of those of Gastoldi,
include perfect examples of the part-song as we
understand it. 'My bonnv lass she smUeth'
and * Now is the month of Maying,* maintain
their position in the repertory of choral societies
by reason of their crisp, well-marked rhythm,
and simple pleasing melody. John Douland (or
Dowland), whose genius was more tender and
lyrical than that of Morley, has left some exqui-
site specimens of the amatory part-song in his
' Awake, sweet love/ ' Come again, sweet love/
and * Now, O now I needs must part.* Compared
with these the canzonets of Thomas Ford, who
was contemporary with Douland, are greatly in-
ferior in grace, subtlety of expression, and pure
poetic feeling. Thomas Bavenscroft and WeeUces,
among other composers of the madrigalian epoch,
may be included among those who contributed
to a form of art too generally accepted as the
musical product of the 19th century. The blight-
ing influence of the Puritans proved fatal to every
description of musical work in England, and when
secular part-music again occupied the attention
of composers, it took the form of the glee rather
than that of the madrigal or the part-song. In
the works of many composers between 1650 and
1 750, we may of course discover isolated pieces
in which some of the characteristics of the part-
song are present. This may be said of Purcell*s
' Come if you dare * and * Come unto these yel-
low sands,' and of Handel*s ' See the conquering
hero comes,' to quote some of the best-known
instances. But practically the i8th century may
be passed over entirely in the consideration of
our present subject, and the impression generally
prevalent that the part-song is of wholly modem
growth is explained by the intervention of this
long and barren epoch. Another impetus from
abroad was required, and eventually it came,
only not as before from Italy, but from Grer-
many. The latter country, as rich in national
and traditionary music as England is poor, had,
in its Yolkslieder of ancient OTigin, and in the
almost equally representative songs of Amdt,
"^^TDsr, and others, the foundation on which
build readv to hand. [See Volkslikd.]
e works of Haydn, Mosart» and Beetho-
PABTSONG.
ven* include very few compositions tliat may
be rightly placed under the h^euling of part-soogs ;
but tihat most distinctively German composer, We-
ber, has produced some spirited examples in his
* Bright sword of liberty,* * Lutzow s wild hunt,'
and the Hunting Chorus in 'Der Fretschizts.''
Schubert was more prolific in this branch of art.
The catalogue of his compositions contains some
50 pieces of the kind, of which 22 are for un-
accompanied male voices, and only two for mixed
voioes. Many of the former display his genius
in a &vourable light, and but for the fact that
our choral societies are mostly of mixed voices,
would doubtless be bettw known than they are
in this country.' The establishment of Laeder-
tafeln and Gesangvereine, answering in some
respects to our older glee clubs, went on rapidly
about the period of which we are speaking, and
of course led to the production of a large quantity
of part-music, most of which it must be confessed
had but little value, the verses being doggrel
and the music infinitely inferior to that of the
best English glee-writers. The exceptions noted
above were not more than sufficient to prove the
rule, until the advent of another great genim^
whose works of every description were destined
to exercise an almost overwhelming influence
over musical thought and action in this coimtzT.
We refer to Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy. It
is not too much to say that his ' songs for singlz^
in the open air,' so redolent of blue sky and sun-
shine and nature's fr^hness, worked a revela-
tion, or, to i!^>eak more accurately, inaugurated
a revival, in the choral music of England,
the influence of which is ever widening and ex-
tending. The appearance of these delightful
works was coeval with the commencement of
that movement which has since resulted in the
establishment of choral societies and more modest
singing classes in every district throughout the
length and breadth of the land. The study of
these fascinating little gems led to the s»reh
after similar treasures of home manufacture which
had been half forgotten under the accumulated
dust of centuries, and it also induced musicians
without number to essay a style of compositioQ
in which success seemed to be a comparativdy
easy matter. For the space of a generation
the part-song has occupied a position second
only to the ballad as the expression of musicid
ideafr in a form suited to the popular tasta.
Before proceeding to take note of those who
have followed most successfully Mendelssohn's
lead, it is necessary to revert fw an instant to
Germany. Robert Schumann wrote about a
dozen Lieder for male voices, and nearly double
that number for mixed voices, but the strange
prejudice which so long existed against this
composer has even to the present time proved
fatal to the popularisation of these works, which
deserve to be in the repertory of every tolerably
1 'BMdi trtU d«r Tod.* * S-part sonf dimwn from Uai %r A*
soddot death of ft frleod. i« Bwthoraa's 00I7 •xperlOMOt la tfeJi
direotion.
a Hit Mttinf of ' W«r nor dl« Sehntodit keiuit.' m a qafaHil lor
male toIos*. is ft oonipoiltloD of Mtontthtng bMUty and paUuN.
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PART-SONG.
advanced clioral society. Less abounding in
geniality and inyiting melody than those of
Mendelssohn^ they breathe the veiy spirit of
poetry, and are instinct with true Oennan feeling.
Of other foreign composers who have contributed
towards the enrichment of this form of art, we may
mention Ferdinand Hiller, Bobert Franz, MtUler,
Seyfiried, Werner, Kttcken, Franz Abt, Truhn,
Otto, BsS, and Brahms. Iji England part-song-
making proceeds apace, and no material modi-
fication of the Mendelssohnian model is as yet
apparent, nor have many of the examples by the
composers just enumerated attained any general
popularity among us. But several of our native
musidanshave succeeded in rivalling Mendelssohn
himself, at least temporarily, in the affections of
the public Stemdale Bennett left but three part-
songs, ' Sweet stream that winds,' 'Of all the arts,*
and 'Come live with me,* of which the last is an
established favourite. R. L. de Pearsall, whose
madrigals combine so artistically the quaintness
of the old style with modem grace and elegance,
has also written some charming part-songs, of
which 'The £[ardy Norseman * and ' O who will
o'er the downs so free,' are perhaps the most
popular, but by no means the best. His song in
ten parts, ' Sir Patrick Spens,' is a wonderfully
spirited and effective piece; and for genuine
humour ' Who shall win my lady £ftir,* nuiy pair
off with Ravenscroft^s quaint old ditty, ' In the
merry spring.* In a quieter vein and beautifully
melodious are 'Why with toil,* 'When last I
strayed,* ' Purple glow,* and * Adieu, ray native
shore.' Henry Sma^rt wrote several pleasing pieces
of this kind — of which 'The waves' reproof* is
one of the finest — but he failed as regards dis-
tinctiveness of character, and it is unnecessary to
quote any others as being representative of the
species. Several living composers have achieved
excellent results. Mr. Joseph Barnby's * Sweet
and low ' is perhaps the beet of the many settings
of Tennyson's words, and Mr. Henry Leslie's
'The Pilgrims' and 'Resurgam* are exquisite
examples of the sacred part-song. Giro Pinsuti,
who may be almost claimed as an English com*
poser, has contributed some valued items to the
national collection. His ' Spring Song * is a suc-
cessful imitation of the Mendelssohn Friihlings-
lieder, and for delicacy and sentiment 'In this
hour of softened splendour ' deserves high com-
mendation. Mr. Arthur Sullivan's 'The long,
day closes' is in a similar vein; 'Joy to the
victors ' and ' O hush thee, my babie ' are only
two out of many bright and tuneful songs. Yet
more spirited are Mr. Walter Macfarren's ' You
stole my love' and 'Up, up, ye dames,' while
the compositions of Mr. Samuel Reay are on the
whole more tender and graceful Mr. J.L.Hatton
has devoted himself extensively to this field of
musical labour, some of his compositions for men's
voices, such as ' The Tar's song,' ' When even-
ing's twilight,* 'Summer eve,' and 'Beware,*
having gained extensive popularity. The Shake-
speare songs of Professor 6. A. Macfitrren must
not &il to be noted, and among other composers
who have written part-songs of more or less merit
PASDELOUP.
659
we may mention Sir Julius Benedict, Dr. Henry
Hiles, Mr. J. B. Calkin, and Mr. A. R. GauL
The growth of Orpheonist Societies in France
has of course resulted in the composition of a
large quantity of unaccompanied part-music for
male voices, to which the majority of the best
musicians have contributed. These works are
generally more elaborate than English part-songs,
and the dramatic element fi^uently enters prom-
inently into them. [See Orphj^n.]
It only remains to say a few words as to the
performance of the part-song. Like the madrigal,
and unlike the glee, the number of voices to each
part may be multiplied within reasonable limits.
But as the chief desideratum is a striot feeling of
unity among the performers the best effects can
be obtained fixmi a carefully selected and well
balanced choir of 1 50 to 300 voices. The part-song
being essentially a melody with choral harmony,
the upper part is in one sense the most important.
But it must not be allowed to preponderate to
the weakening of the harmonic structure. On
the other hand, the almost inevitable absence of
melody, and of phrases of special interest and
importance in the middle ami lower parts, may
tend to engender a feeling of carelessness among
those who have to sing these parts, which the con-
ductor must be quick to detect lest the ensemble
be marred thereby. The idea of independence or
individuality, desirable enough in contrapuntal
and polyphonic music, must here yield itself to
the necessity for machine- like precision and homo-
geneity. When all has been said, the highest
qualities of musicianship cannot find fitting ex-
ercise in the part-song. But art may be dis-
played alike in the cabinet picture and in the
more extended canvas, and the remark will ap-
ply equally to the various phases of musical thought
and action. Of the many collections of Part-
songs we may mention Oi^heus ; and Novello's
Part-song Book, in two series, containing in all
338 compositions. [H.F.F.]
PASCAL BRUNO. A romantic opera in
3 acts ; music by John L. Hatton. Produced at
the Kamthnerthor theatre, Vienna (^Pasqual
Bruno'), March 2, 1844. Staudigl sang in it,
and it was given thrice. [G.]
PASDELOUP, Jules Etibnne, bom in
Paris Sept. 15, 1819, gained the ist prize of the
Conservatoire for solfeggio in 1832, and the ist
for the piano in 1834. He then took lessons in
harmony from Dourlen, and in composition fix>m
Carafa. Though active and ambitious, he might
have had to wait long for an opportunity of
making his powers known, had not a post in the
Administration des Domaines fidlen to his lot
during the political changes of 1848, and enabled
him to provide for his family. As Governor of
the Chftteau of St. Cloud, he was not only thrown
into contact with persons of influence, but had
leisure at command for composition. The gen-
eral refusal of the societies in Paris to per-
form his orchestral works had doubtless much
to do with his resolve to found the 'Sodet^
dee jeunes artistes du Conservatoire,* the fir'
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PASDELOUP.
oonoert of whioli he conducted on Febnuury ao,
1851. M. Paadeloup had now found his voca-
tion, which WM neither that of a goyemment
offidal, nor a composer, bat of an able con-
doctor, bringing forward the works of other
masters native and foreign. At the concerts
of the ' Soci^t^ des jeunes artistes' in the Salle
Herz, Rae de la Victoire, he produced the
symphonies of Groonod^ Lefebure-Wely, Saint-
Saens, Gouvy, Demersseman, and other French
composers, and there Parisians heard for the
first time Mozart's ' EntfUhrang,' Meyerbeer's
' Stmensee,' and several of Schumann's standard
woriu. After two years spent in forming his
young band/ and strugghng against the in-
difference of the paying portion of the public,
M. Pasdeloup resolved on a bold stroke, and
moved his quarters to the Cirque d*hiver, then
the Cirque Napol^n, where on October ay, 1861,
he opened his * Concerts populaires,' given every
Sunday at the same hour as the concerts of the
Conservatoire. The striking and well-deserved
success of these entertainments roused universal
attention, and procured their conductor honours
of various kinds. Baron Hausmann had already
requested him to organise and conduct the con-
certs at the Hdtel de Yille ; the Prefect of the
Seine appointed him one of the two directors
of the Orphan [ObphAon] ; and M. de Nieuwer-
kerke, Surintendant des Beaux Arts, frequently
called upon him to select and conduct the con-
certs which formed the main attraction of the
aoir^ given by the Director of the Museum of the
Louvre. He also received the Legion of Honour.
Time passed on, and M. Pasdeloup increased his
exertions, striving year by year to add fresh
interest to the ' Concerts Populaires,' at which
he produced much music previously unknown in
Paris. By engaging the services of first-rate
artists, and by care in the selection and exe-
cution of works classical and modem, he has done
much to form the taste and enlarge the knowledge
of his audiences, and has thus contributed to raise
the level of music throughout France.
An ardent admirer of Wagner, M. Pasdeloup
made use of his short managership of theTh^tre
Lyrique (1868-18 70) to produce 'Rienzi* (April
6, 1869). He undertook this office on disadvan-
tageous terms, and lost heavily by it. The
Franco-German war gave a serious check to his
career, but when it was over he resumed the
* Concerts populaires,' which are still (March
1880) carried on, with the aid of a government
subsidy of 25000 fr. But the ' Concerts du Ch&te-
let,' and the numerous 'Mating dramatiques'
have drawn off many of his old subscribers.
Elwart compiled a history of the concerts, but he
does not go beyond their first start, and they
have now been in existence 19 years. During
this lengthened period the indefatigable conductor
has never once broken £uth with the public, and
is still as ardent, as energetic, and as heartily
devoted to his art, as on the first day on which
he held the bftton. [G.C.]
1 BaeraiUd from the papito of the ConBerratoire.
PA8QUINL
PASQUALATI, a name fiwiuendy reeniTiiig
in Beethoven's life. Ries states' that Beethoren
in 1803-^ had four sets of rocms at once. The
fourth, which had been taken for him by Ries,'
was in a house on the Molker Bastei,* near the
Schottenthor or Scottish gate, on the fourth floor,
with a fine view over the glacis towards the
Kahlenberg mountains. It is now No. 8. Bee-
thoven fi^uently left, but always came badL
again, and the Umdlord, Baron Pasqualati, naed
to refuse to let the apartment, saying 'Beethoven
is coming back again,' which was literally tme,
as we find him here in 1800, 1804 to 1808, 1810,
1813 to 1816. Joseph Benedict Baron von Paa-
qualati-Osterberg, a disting^uished physician from
Trieste, built the house (two thrown into one) in
1795. On his death in 1799 his property passed
to his two sons and three daughters, and the
house was occupied by the eldest son Johann
Baptist, bom March a, 1777, died April 30, 1830.
That Beethoven's friendly intercourse with him
was undisturbed even after he had finally left
the apartments,* is shown by his letters, which
always begin with * Yerehrter Freund ' (Respected
friend) and end with ' Mit herzlicher Hochadi-
tung ' (with sincere esteem). .In his last illness
Pasqualati sent him wine and delicadea, and
BeeUioven, writing to thank him, says, 'Heaven
bless you above idl for your loving sympathy.'
Only ten days before the end, he sent a pencQ
note in a visibly shaky hand — the last lines ever
received from him — ^to ask for mate nourishing
food. In 1813, though Pasqualati continued to
live there, the house became the property of
Peter von Leber, whose son married Mathilde von
Frank. She was a niece of Baroness Ertnuum,*
whom Beethoven met in Feb. 1809 at the house
of her sister, the wife of Fnnk a banker, and
to whom he dedicated his sonata, op. loi. Fran
von Leber, who died in 1875, ^<^ ^^ of talking
of her aunt and of her friendship for the groat
composer. Thus there was a pleasant hood of
intercourse between the Pasqualati frunily and
Beethoven, from which we gain a glimpse of the
best side of his Ufe. [a F. P.]
PASQUINI, BsRirABDO, one of the most import
tant musidansof the latter half of the 1 7th century,
bom Dec. 8, 1 637, at MassaValnievola in Tuscany,
died Nov. a a, 1 7 10, according to his monument in
the church of S. Lorenzo in Lucina, at Bome, which
also states that he was in the service of Battista
Prince Borgbese. His masters were Yittoria uA
Antonio C^, but the study of Palestrina's works
did more for him than any instruction. WhOe
still young he came to Rome, and was appointed
organist of Sta. Maria Maggiore. Among his
numerous pupils were Durante and Gasparini;
the Emperor Leopold also sent young muddans
to benefit by his instruction. Special mention is
• 'Blocr. Hotlan.* pt. II. p. US. H« giT« the Mae laoanvOf-'
FuqvIlUtL 8ee«lMTlwrertt.»k
• 8m BBrnioTnr. toL L lis.
4 Or Melkar-Butel. to calM AromtheUrishoiiM bdooglvtotte
nonatteiy of Melk, wfaloh MUoins it.
• Hb oal7 Mm. Baron Joteph Baoedlct too PuqulaU-OitatMb
born ta) isoa. and stfll llTing, oonflrou tbe statoneot.
• 8MT0LL«a
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PASQUINL
made of an opera, produoed at the Teatro Gapta*
nica in 1679, ^ honour of Queen Christina of
Sweden. Matheson on visiting the opera-house
in Borne was much struck at finding Corelli play-
ing the violin, Pasquini the harpsichord, and
Gattani the lute, all in the orchestra. Pasquini's
music is terse, vigorous, and at the same time
graceful ; in &ct he had much in common with
Handel, and exercised a certain amount of in-
fluence upon German musicians. The writer of
this artide possesses a Favola pastorale, or small
opera in three parts, called ' La Forza d*amore'
(libretto by Apolloni, a gentleman in Prince
Chigi's household), the music of which is fine,
and elevated in s^le. [F. G.]
PASSACAGLIA, PASSACA6LI0, or PAS-
SEGAILLE, an early Italian or Spanish dance,
similar in character to a Ghaconne. The name
(according to littr^) is derived from the Spanish
jMuar, to walk, and ocUle, a street, in which
case a Passacaglia may mean a tune played in
the streets by itinerant musicians. This deriva-
tion is confirmed by Walther^s Lexicon, where
the name is translated by ' Gassenhauer.* Other
authorities have attempted to connect the word
Passaca^ia with gallo, a cock; thus Mendel
translates it ' Hahnentrapp.' The original dance
wasperfonned by one or two dancers ; it survived
in franco until the i8th century, and directions
for dancing it may be found in Feuillet*s ' Ghor^
graphic* But the feature which, in common with
the Chaoonne, has elevated the Passacaglia above
the majority of dance forms, is the oonstruction
of the music on a ground bass, generally consist-
ing of a short theme of two, four, or eight bars.
TJos form attracted the attention of the oi*gan
and luurpsichord composers of the 17th and i8th
centuries, with whom the oonstruction of elaborate
Passacaglias and Ghaconnes became a favourite
exercise for contrapuntal skill. It is somewhat
difiicult to ascertain in what the difference be-
tween these two dance forms conmsts. Mathe-
son,^ a oontemporary authority, distinguishes
four points : — ^the Ghaconne was slower and more
stately than the Passacaglia ; the former was al-
ways in a major key, the latter in a minor ; Pas-
sacaglias were never stmg ; and Ghaconnes were
always on a ground-bass. The above distinction
of keys is not borne out by the specimens that
have come down to us, and the Passacaglia is, if
anything, generally of a more solenm character
than the Chaoonne. The only material difference
between the two seems to be that in the Ghaconne
the theme is kept invariably in the bass, while
in the Passacaglia it was used in any part,
often so disguised and embroidered amid ever
varying contrapuntal devices as to become
hardly recognisable. Among the most celebrated
Passacaglias may be mentioned those l^ Buxte-
hnde. Bach (Bach Gesellschaft, voL xv.), Fresco-
baldi (Toccate d'Intavolatura, vol. i.), and Handel
(Suite VII). The following less-known instance
is firom Sonata 4 of Handel's < YII Sonatas or
Trios.'
> VonkomiMiMr KftpellmeUter, p. 2S8.
PASSAGGIO.
661
There are also in existence some curious 'Passa-
gagli flebili,' by Salvatore Mazzella, in his ' Balli,
Correnti, Gighe> Gavotte, Brande, e Gagliarde,
con la misura giusta per ballare al stile Inglese '
(Rome. 1689). [\V\B.S.]
PASSAGE. The word 'passage* is used of
music in the same general sense that it is used
of literature, without any special implication of
its position or relations in the formal construction
of a work, but merely as a portion identifiable
through some characteristic trait or conterminous
idea.
Thus in modem writings on music such ex-
pressions as ' passage in first violins,' * passage
in strict counterpoint,* ' passage where the basses
go gradually down through two octaves,* show
that the amount or extent of music embraced by
the term is purely arbitrary, and may amount to
two bars or to two pages at the will of the person
using the term, so long as the definition, epithet or
description given witii it sufficiently covers the
space so as to make its identification easy and
certain ; short of this the word by itself conveys
no meaning.
It is however sometimes used in a special
though not very honourable sense, of runs and
such portions of music as are meaningless except
as opportimities for display of dexterity on the
part of executants, which are therefore in fact
and by implication nothing more than 'passages.*
In this respect literature and language are for-
tunate in having long ago arrived at such a pitch
of development that it is hardly possible to find
a counterpart except in the byways of gushing
sentimental poetry or after-dinner oratory. It is
possible that the musical use of the term origin-
ated in the amount of attention and labour wUch
executants have had, especially in former days, to
apply to such portions of the works they under-
took, and the common habit of speaking of prac-
tising ' passages,* growing by insensible degrees
to imply practidng what it is hardly worth the
while of an intelligent audience to listen to, ex-
cept for the sake of the technique. It is prol»ble
that this use of the word in its special sense,
except for mere exercises, will become less fr^
quent in proportion to the growth of public
musical intelligence. [G. H. H. P.]
PASSAGGIO, 'passage.' This word is used
in two senses: (i) of the passing from one key
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662
PASSAGOIO.
to another; hence used for all modulations:
(2) of braynra ornaments introduced, either in
vocal or instrumental musio» whether indicated
by the composer or not, in order to show off the
skill of the performer. Bach usee Passaggio for
a ' flourish * at the beginning of the Prelude to
the Suite in G minor mariced No. 8 in Peters's
edition. [J. A; P.M.]
PASSAMEZZO or PASSEMEZZO, an old
Italian dance which was probably a variety of
the Pavan. In England, where it was popu-
lar in Queen Elizabeth's time, it was some-
times known as the 'Passing Measures Pavan.'^
Tabourot in his ' Orch^sogn^hie ' says that when
the Pavan was played less solenmly and more
quickly, it was called a ' Passemezzo.' Hawkins
says that the name is derived from * passer, to
walk, and mezzo, middle or half,* and that the
dance was a diminutive of the Galliard ; but both
these statements are probably incorrect. Prae-
torius (Syntagma, iii. 34) says that as a Galliard
has five steps, and is therefore called a Cinquepas,
so a Passamezzo has scarcely half as many steps
as the latter, and is therefore called ' mezzo passo.'
These derivations seem somewhat far-fetched, and
it is probable that the name ' Passemezzo ' (in
which form it b found in the earliest authorities),
is simply an abbreviation of ' Passo e mezzo,' t. e,
a step and a half, which may have formed a dis-
tinctive feature of the old dance. Beismann
(Geschichte der Musik, ii. aa) quotes a ' Pass e
mezzo antico,* from Jacob Paix's ' £in Schon
Nutz Lautentabulaturbuch,* in which periods of
eight bars can be distinguished. It is written
with five variations and a ' ripresa.'
Full directions for dancing the Passamezzb may
be found in Garoeo da Sermoneta's curious workn
•n Ballarino* (Venice, 1581) and 'Nobiltk di
Dame' (lb. 1600), from which the following ex>
ample is taken.
At page loa of Queen Elizabeth's Virginal
Book [see vol. i. p. 5306] there is a * Passamezzo
Pavana' by WiUiam Byrd, and at page 14a
another (dated 159a) by Peter Philips ; both are
written in an elaborate style, and followed by a
' Galiarda Passamezzo.' [ W. B. S.]
1 In a Ma Tolume of aln and daneei bf Strogan. Dowlaad. and
B«ade, preMrred In Um Cambridge Unirenlty Librarjr. it It oalled
' rauoMxures Taran.* Soe ' Iwolfth If Igfat/ Act v, 8c L
PASSING NOTES.
PASSEPIED (English Pabpt), a danoe which
originated amongst the sailors of Basse Bretagne,
and is said to have been first danced in Paris
by street-danoerB in the year 1587. It was in-
troduced into the ballet in the time of Louis
XIV, and was often included in instrumental
Suites and Partitas; it was placed among Uie
'intermezzi,' or danoes whidi strictly form no
part of the Suite, but were sometimes introduced
into it between the Saraband and the final Gig:ue.
[See SuiTi.] Bach, however, does not adhere to
this rule, but in his Partita in B minor, places
the Passepied b^nre the Saraband. In character
thePassepied somewhat resembles the Minuet, but
it is played much faster, and should always begin
on the last beat of the bar, although in some ex-
amples, chiefly by English composers, it begins on
the first beat. It is written in 3-4 or 5-8 time,
and generally consists of two, three, or four parts
of eight or nxteen bars each, played with two or
more repeats. We give the first half of one from
Couperin's Suites.
.fi^iC£fiiffimfjlr^;gfem
BeprlM.
In the Suite the first part (or first two parts,
if the Passepied consists of three or four divisions)
is generally in a major key, and the last part ^or
last two parts, if it consists of four divisions)
forms a sort of Trio or and Passepied, and is
in the minor, in which key the dance concludes.
Couperin develops this still further, and has a
PasBepied with variations. The danoe became
popular in England towards the beginning of the
18th century, and many examples by English
composers are extant. Directions for dancing* it»
as it was performed in the ballet by one or two
dancers, will be found in Feuillet's 'Chor^gra-
phie.' [See Orohesogbaphie.] [W.Bii.]
PASSING NOTES are inessenUal discoidant
notes which are interposed between the essential
factors of the harmonic structure of music on
melodic principles. Their simplest form is the
succession of notes diatonically connected which
fill up the intervals between the component notes
of essential chords, and fall upon the unaccented
portions of tiie bar : as in the following example
s The propCT ezprawton teems to be 'to run a Paweplod.' Um
Norerre 'Lettree nir U Danee.' p. 161, has the foUowtng .^' m In*
des PemtfMM. paroa qoo Mademolsella Pr^v^t tos tomnii aVco W-
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PASSING NOTES.
from Peigoleei ; in which the melody paasing trom
note to note of the chord of F minor touches the
discordant notes 6, B, D, and £ in passing.
PASSION MUSIC.
66S
Equally simple are the passing notes which
are arrived at by going from an essential note of
harmony to its next neighbour in the degrees
of the scale on either side and back agun, as in
the following example from Handel.
at
tf'- fli'^'M <\\JJ
The remaining simple form is the insertion
of notes melodically between notes of different
chords, as (a). In modem music notes are used
chromatically in the same ways, as (b).
SSJ^fi
It would appear from such simple principles
that pasdiig notes must always be continuous
from point to point; but the early masters of the
polyphonic school soon found out devices for
diversifying this order. The most conspicuous
of these was the process of interpolating a note
between the passing note and the arrival at its
destination, as in the following example from
Josquin des Pr^s —
in which the passing note E which lies properly
between F and D is momentarily interrupted in
its progress by the C on the other side of £> being
taken first. This became in time a stereotyped
formula, with curious results which are men-
tioned in the article Habmont [voL i. p. 678].
Another common device was that of keeping the
motion of sounds going by taking the notes on
each side of a harmony note in succession as
which is also a sufficiently common form in
modttn music.
A developed form which combines chromatic
passing notes to a point with a leap beyond, before
the point is taken, is the following from Weber*s
Oberon, which is curious and characteristic
li'jiJj..
A large proportion of passing notes fall upon
the unaccented portions of the bar, but pow^ul
efiects are obtained by reversing this and heavily
aocentii^ them : two examples are given in the
article Habmont [vol. i. p. 685] and a curious
example where they are dEuin^^ly mixed up in a
variety of ways may be noted in the first few
bars of No. 5 of firahms's Clavier-StUcke, Op. 76.
Some writers classify as passing notes those which
are taken preparatorily a semitone below a har-
mony note in any position, as in the following
example —
For further examples of their use in combina-
tion and in contrary motion etc., see Harmony.
[C.H.H.P.]
PASSION MUSIC (Lat. CarUut Pauionii
Domini nostri Jesu CkrisH ; Germ. Passions Mw-
tik). The history of the Passion of our Lord has
formed part of the Service for Holy Week in every
part of Christendom from time immemorial : and
though, no doubt, the all-important Chapters of
the Gospel in which it is contained were origin-
ally read in the ordinary tone of voice, without
any attempt at musical recitation, there is evi-
dence enough to prove that the custom of singing
it to a peculiar Ohaunt was introduced at a very
early period into the Eastern as well as into the
Western Church.
S. Gregory Nazianzen, who flourished between
the years 330 and 390, seems to have been the first
Ecclesiastic who entertained the idea of setting
forth the History of the Passion in a dramatic form.
He treated it as the Greek Poets treated their
Tragedies, adapting the Dialogue to a certain
sort of chaunted Recitation, and interspersing it
with Choruses disposed like those of .^Eschylus
and Sophocles. It is much to be regretted that
we no longer possess the Music to which this
early version was sung ; for a careful examination
of even the smallest fragments of it would set
many vexed questions at rest. But all we know
is, that the Sacred Drama really was sung
throughout. [See pp. 497-498 of the present
volume.]
In the Western Church the oldest known
'Cantus Passionis' is a solemn Plain Chaunt
Melody, the date of which it is absolutelv im-
possible to ascertain. As there can be no aoubt
that it was, in the first instance, transmitted
from generation to generation by tradition only,
it is quite possible that it may have undergone
changes in early times; but so much care was
taken in the i6th oentuiy to restore it to its
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PASSION MUSIC.
pristine purity, tliat we may £»irly aooept m
fenuine the version which, at the instance of
'ope Sixtus y, Goidetti published at Borne in
the year 1586, under the title of *Gantus eode-
siasticus Passionis Domini noetri Jesu Christi
secundum Matthieum, Maicum, Lucam, et Jo-
annem ' — S. Matthew's version being appointed
for the Mass of Pahn Sund^, S. Mark's for that
of the Tuesday in Holy Week, S. Luke's for
that of the Wednesday, and S. John's for Good
Friday.
Certainly, since the beginning of the 13th oen«
tury, and probably from a much earlier period,
it has been the custom to ung the Music of the
Passion in the following manner. The Text is
divided between three Ecdesiastios— called the
' Deacons of the Passion,'— one of whom chaunts
the words spoken by our Lord, another, the Nar-
rative of the Evangelist, and the third, the Ex-
clamations uttered by the Apostles, the Crowd,
and others whose oonveruttion is recorded in the
GospeL In most Missals, and other Office-Books,
the part of the First Deaoon is indicated by a
Cross ; that of the Second by the letter C. (for
ChrwiUta), and that of the Third by S. (for 8yn(k-
goga). Sometimes, however, the First part is
marked by the Greek letter X. (for ChristuM), the
Second by E. (for Evangdista), and the Third by
T. (for Turba), Less frequent forms are, a Cross
for ChriittUt C. for Cantor, and S. for Suecentor ;
or S. for Salvatar, E. for Evangditta, and Ch. for
Charw. Finally, we occasionally find the part
of our Lord marked B. for Banm; that of the
' Evangelist M. for Mediut ; and that of the
Crowd A. for AUut; the First Deacon being
always a Bass Singer, the Second a Tenor, and
the Third an Alto. A different phrase of the
Chaunt is allotted to each Voice ; but the same
phrases are repeated over and over again through-
out to different words, varying only in the
Cadence, which is subject to certain changes
determined by the nature of the Voice which is
to follow. The Second Deacon announces the
History Mid the name of the Evangelist^ thus : —
He then proceeds with the Narrative, thus :—
In U • lo Umpon. eto.
But, if one of the utterances of our Lord should
follow, he changes the Cadence, thus : —
When the Crowd follows, he nngs thus : —
Ort
PASSION MUSIC.
Our Lord's words are sung by the Fini Deaooo,
thus:—
The Third Deaoon sings thus:^
Until the latter half of the i6th oentury the
Passion was always sung in this manner by the
three Deacons alone. The difficulty of so ""y^g
it is almost incredible ; but its effect, when rodly
well ohaunted, is most touching. Still, the mem-
bers of the Pontifical Choir believed it possible to
improve upon the time-honoured custom ; and, in
the year 1585, Vittoria produced a very siqiple
polyphonic setting of those portions of the text
which are uttered by the Crowd, the eflfect of
which, intermingled with the Chaunt sung by
the Deacons, was found to be so striking, Uukt it
has ever since remained in use. His wailing
harmonies are written in such strict aocordanoe
with the spirit of the older Melody, that no sus-
picion of incongruity between them xb anywhere
perceptible. The several clauses fit into eadi
other as smoothly as those of a Litany, and the
general effect is so beautiful that it has been
celebrated for the last three centuries as one c^
the greatest triumphs of Polyph<mic Art.
Mendelssohn, indeed, objects to it rather
fiercely in one of his Letters, on the ground
that it is neither dramatic nor descriptive ; that
the Music does not properly express the sense of
the text; and that especially the words, 'Crudfigs
eum,' are sung by ' very tame Jews indeed' (sdbir
zahme JUden). But we must remember that
there was nothing whatever in common between
the purely devotional Music of the Polyphonic
School and that of the 'Reformirte Kirche' to
which Mendelssohn was attached. So little did
he sympathise with it, that, as he himself has told
us, he could not even endure its constant alter-
nation of Recitation and Cadence in an ordinary
Psalm Tone. He longed for a more fiery reading
of the story; and would have had its awfiil sooses
portrayed with all the descriptive energy proner
to an Oratorio. But such an exhibition as this
would have been manifestly out of place in a
Holy Week Service. Moreover, the Evangelists
themselves treat the subject in an epic and not a
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PASSION MUSIC.
dramatio fbrm ; and the treatment required by the
two forms is essentially different. Mendelssohn
"would have embodied the words, 'Crucify Him !
crucify Him 1 ' in a raging Chorus, like his own
* Stone him to death.' Y ittoria sets them before
-oa as they would have been reported by a weep-
ing narrator, overwhelmed with sorrow at their
cruelty ; a narrator whose tone would have been
sdl the more tearful in proportion to the sinoeritv
of his affliction. Surely this is the wi^ in whi(m
they should be sung to us in Holy Week. The
object of singing the Passion is, to lead men to
meditate upon it ; not to divert their minds by a
dramatio representation. And in this sense Vit-
toria has succeeded to perfection, as even the few
subjoined extracts from his ' Passion according to
S. John' will suffice to prove.
PASSION MUSIC.
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Francesco Suriano also brought out a poly-
phonic rendering of the exclamations of the
Crowd, with harmonies which were certainly very
beautiful, though they want the deep reeling
which forms the most noticeable feature in
Vittoria's settings, and, doubtless for that reason,
have never attained an equal degree of celebrity.
Yittoria's * Passion' was first printed at Rome by
Akssandro Gardano in 1585 ; and the first and
last portions of it — the versions of S. Matthew
and S. John — were published somevears ago by
B. Butler, 6 Hand Court, High Holbom, in a
cheap edition which is no doubt still attainable.
The entire work of Suriano will be found in
Pteske's * Musica Divina,* vol. iv.
But it was not only with a view to its intro-
duction into an Eccledastioal Function that the
Story of our Lord's Passion was set to Music
We find it in the Middle Ages selected as a con-
stant and never-tiring theme for those Mysteries
and Miracle Plays by means of which the history
of the Christian Faith was disseminated among
the people before they were able to read it for
themselves. Some valuable reliquee of the Music
adapted to these antient versions of the Story are
still preserved to us. An interesting example
taken from a French ' Mystery of the Passion,'
dating as far back as the 14th century, will be
found at page 533 of the present volume. Fonte-
nelle^ speaks of a 'Mystery of the Passion'
produced by a certain Bishop of Angers in the
middle of the 15th century, with so much Mudc
of a really dramatic character, that it miffht
almost be described as a Lyric Drama. In tius
primitive work we first find the germ of an idea
which Mendelssohn has used wit^ striking effect
in his Oratorio 'S. Paul.' [See Obatobio, p. 55^.]
After the Baptism of our Saviour, God the
Father speaks ; and it is recommended that His
words * uiould be pronounced very audibly and
distinctly by three Voices at once, Treble, Alto,
and Bass, ail well in time ; and in this Harmony
the whole Scene which follows should be sung.'
Here then we have the first idea of the * Passion
Oratorio,* which however was not developed
directly from it, but followed a somewhat cir-
cuitous course, adopting certain characteristics
peculiar to the Mystery, together with certain
others belonginff to the Ecdesiastioal *Cantus
Passionis' already described, and mingling these
distinct though not discordant elements in such
a manner as to produce eventually a form of Art^
the wonderful beauty of which has rendered it
iuunortal*
In the year 1573 a German version of the
Passion was printed at Wittenberg, with Music
for the Recitation and Choruses — ^introductory
and final — in four parts. Bartholomaus Gese
enlarged upon this plan, and produced, in 1588,
a work in which our Lord's words are set for
four Voices, those of the Crowd for five, those of
S. Peter and Pontius Pilate for three, and those
of the Maid Servant for two. In the next cen-
tury Heinrich Schtkts set to Music the several
Narratives of each of the four Evangelists, making
extensive use of the Melodies of the innumerable
Chorales which were, at that period, more po-
Sular in Germany than any other kind of Sacred
lusic, and skilfuUy workmg them up into very
elaborate Choruses. He did not, however, ven-
ture entirely to exclude the Ecclesiastical Plain
Chaunt. In his work, as in all those that had
preceded it, the venerable Melody was still
retained in those portions of the narrative which
were adapted to simple Bedtative — or at least
in those sung by the Evangelist — ^the Chorale
being only introduced in the harmonised passages.
But in 1672 Johann Sebastiani made a bolder
experiment, and produced at Konigsberg a
'Passion* in which the Bedtatives were set
1 Hist, do Tbeatn rimn^alM.
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PASSION MUSIC.
entirely to original Mosic, and from that time
forward German oompoeerB, entirely throwing
off their allegiance to Ecclesiastical Tradition,
stmck out new paths for themselves and suffered
their genius to lead them where it would.
The Teutonic idea of the * Passions Muiik'
was now fuUy developed, and it only remained
for the great Tone-Poets of the age to embody it
in their own beautiful language. This they were
not slow to do. Theile produced a ' Deutsche
Passion* at Ltlbeck in 1073 (exactly a century
after the publication of the celebrated German
version at Wittenberg) with very great success ;
and, some thirty years later* Hamburg witnessed
a long series of triumphs which indicated an
enormous advance in the progress of Art. In
1704, Hunold M^iantes wrote a Poem called
'Die PassioDB-Dichtung des blutig^i imd ster-
benden Jesu/ which was set to Music by the
celebrated Beinhard Keiser, then well known as
the writer of many successful German Operas.
The peculiarity of thii work lies more in the
structure of the Poem, than in that of the Music.
Though it resembles the older settings in its
original Recitatives and rhythmical Choruses, it
differs from them in introducing, under the name
of Soliloquia, an entirely new client, embodying,
in a mixture of rhythmic phrase and declamatory
recitation, certain pious reflections upon the pro-
gross of the Sacred Narrative. This idea, more
or less exactly carried out, makes its appearance
in almost every work which followed its first
enunciation down to the ^rreat * Passion Oratorios*
of Joh. Seb. Bach. We find it in the Music
assigned to the 'Daughter of Zion,' and the
* Chorales of the Christian Church,' in HandeFs
'Passion'; in the Chorales, and many of the
Airs, in Graun*s 'Tod Jesu,* and in almost all
the similar works of Telemann, Matheson, and
other contemporary writers. Of these works,
the most important were Postel's German version
of the Narrative of the Passion as recorded by
8. John, set to Music by Handel in 1704, and
Brocke8*8 &mous Poem, * Der fUr die SUnden der
Welt gemarterte und sterbende Jesus/ set by
Keiser in 171 3, by Handel and Telemann in
1 716, and by Matheson in 1 7 1 8. These are all fine
works, fiill of fervour, and abounding in new ideas
and instrumental passages of great originality.
They were all written in thorough earnest, and,
as a natural consequence, exhibit a great advance
both in construction and style. Moreover, they
were all written in the true German manner,
though with so much individual feeling that no
trace of plagiarism is discernible in any one of
them. These high qualities were thoroughly
appreciated by their German auditors ; and thus
it was that they prepared the way, first, for the
grand * Tod Jesu, compof«ed by Graun at Berlin
in 1755, and then for the still greater production
of Sebastian Bach, whose * Passion according to
8. Matthew * is universally regarded as the finest
work of the kind that ever was written.
The idea of setting the History of the Passion
to the grandest possible Music, in such a manner
as to combine the exact words of the Gospel-
PASSION MUSIC.
Narrative with finely developed Choruses, medi-
tative passages like the SolUoquia first used by
Keiser, and Chorales, sung, not by the Cbxar
alone, but by the Choir in four-part Harmony,
and by the Congregation in Unison, was first
suggested to Bach by the well-known preacher
Solomon Deyling. This sealous Lutheran hoped,
by bringing forward such a work at Leipzig, to
counteract in some measure the effect produced
by the Ecclesiastical ' Cantus Passionis,' which was
then sung at Dresden under the direction of
Hasse, by the finest Italian Singers that could be
procured. Bach entered warmly into the scheme.
The Poetical portion of the work was supplied,
under the diction of Deyling, by Christian
Friedrich Henrid (under the pseudonym of
Picander). Bach set the whole to musia And*
on the evening of Qood Friday, 1729, the work
was performed for the first time in St. Thomas's
Chuich, Leipzig, a Sermon being preached be-
tween the two Parts into which it is divided, in
accordance with the example set by the Oratorians
at the Church of S. Maria in Yallicella at Rome.
' Die grosse Passion nach Matthaus,* as it is
called in Germany, is written on a gigantie
scale for two complete Choirs, each aooom^nied
by a separate Orchestra, and an Oigan. Its
CHioruses, often written in eij^ht real parts, are
sometimes used to carry on the dramatic action
in the words uttered by the Crowd, or the
Apostles, and sometimes offer a commentary
upon the Narrative, like the Choruses of a Greek
Tragedy. In the former class of Movements,
the dramatic element is occasionally brought
out with telling effect, as in the reiteration of
the Apostles* question, *Lord, is it It* The
finest examples of the second class are, the in-
troductory Double Chorus, in ia-8 Time, the
fiery Movement which follows the Duet for
Soprano and Alto near the end of the first Part^
and the exquisitely beautiful * Farewell * to the
Crucified Saviour which conclades the whole.
The part of the Evangelist is allotted to a Tenor
Voice, and is carefully restricted to the narrative
portion of the words. The moment any Character
in the solemn Drama is made to speak in his own
words, those words are committed to another
Singer, even though they should involve but a
single ejaculation. Almost all the Airs are
formed upon the model of the Soliloquia already
mentioned ; and most of them are sung by * The
Daughter of Zion.* The Chorales are supposed
to express the Voice of the whole Christian
Church, and are therefore so arranged as to ftdl
within the power of an ordinary Grerman Con-
gregation, to the several members of which every
Tuce would naturally be familiar. The style in
which they are harmonised is less simple, by fiu',
than that adopted by Graun in his ' Tod Jesu * ;
but as the Melodies are always sung in Germany
very slowly, the Passing-notes sung by the Choir
and played by the Oigan serve rather to help
and support the unisonous congregational pari
thjm to disturb it, and the effect produced by
this mode of performance can scarcely be con-
ceived by those who have not actually heazd
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PASSION MUSIC.
itl^ The masterly treatment of these old popular
Tunee undoubtedly individuaUses the work more
strongly than any learning or ingenuity could
possibly do; but, in another point, the Mat-
thaus-Passion stands alone above the greatest
German works of the period. Its Instrumenta-
tion is, in its own peculiar style, inimitable. It
is always written in real parts — frequently in
very many. Yet it is made to produce endless
varieties of effect. Not, indeed, in a single Move-
ment ; for most of the Movements exhibit the
same treatment throughout. But the instru-
mental contrasts between contiguous Movements
are arranged with admirable skill. Perhaps the
most beautiful instance of this occurs in an Air,
accompanied by two Oboi da caccia, and a Solo
Flute. As, fur some unexplained reason, this
lovely air has been frequently omitted in per-
formance, we subjoin a few bars as an example
of Bach's delightful manner of using these ex-
pressive Instruments : —
VOIOQ
PASTA.
667
tuflbr • ed.
For lore of at my Saviour
j^6li''^'^l^i
1 The writer well remembers the effect it produced on him in the
rhomaa-Klrctae, at Ldpiig. on Good Fridaj. UM. i
In this great work the German form of
* Passions Musik ' culminated ; and in this it
may fairly be said to have p«iS8ed away; for,
since the death of Bach, no one has seriously
attempted, either to tread in his steps, or to
strike out a new Ideal fitted for this peculiar
species of Sacred Music. The Oratorio has
been farther developed, and has assumed forms of
which Bach could have entertained no con-
ception ; but the glory of having perfected this
pturticular Art-form remains entirely with him ;
and it is not at all probable that any future
Composer will ever attempt to rob him of his
well-earned honour. [W.S.R.]
PASTA, GiUDiTTA, was bom in 1798 at
Como, near Milan, of a Jewish family named
Negri. She is said to have received her first
instruction from the chapelmaster at Como,
Bartolomeo Lotti ; but, at the age of 15, she was
admitted into the Conservatorio at Milan, under
Asioli. Her voice was then heavy and strong,
but unequal and very hard to manage ; she
never, in fact, succeeded in producing certain
notes without some difficulty ; and, even in the
zenith of her powers, there still remained a slight
veil which was not dissipated until she had sung
through a few scenes of an opera.
In 1815 she left the Conservatorio; and, after
trying her first theatrical steps on an amateur
stage, she made her debut in the second-rate
theatres of Brescia, Parma, and Leghorn, where
she was scarcely noticed. Nor did she attract
more attention in Paris, where she sang with
Cinti, Miss Corn, and a few other young artists,
humble satellites to the manageress, Catalani.
A year later, 1816, when she appears to have
been already married, she and her husband.
Pasta, a tenor, were engaged by Ayrton, at a
salary of £400 (together) for the season, for the
King's Theatre. She appeared in a subordinate
part, Jan. 11, 1817, in Cimarosa's 'Penelope,*
the chief r61e being sung bv Camporesi; and
here she was no more remarked than in Paris.
Lord Mount-Edgcumbe does not even mention
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PASTA.
her. She then played Cherabino; next a
Becondiffy part in ' Agnese * ; and afterwards
Serrilia in 'La Clemensa di Tito/ and the
part of the pretended shrew in Ferrari's ' Sbaglio * ;
but there is no doubt that she was a fa^ore.
IBer hnslMnd did not even appear.
The young singer, however, did not despair.
Though her voioe was rebellious and her style as
yet quite unfinished, she had many advantages
even then which promised future ezoellenoe as
the reward of unremitting and laborious study.
Below the middle height, her figure was never-
theless very well proportioned ; she had a noble
head with fine features, a high forehead, dark
and expressive eyes, and a beautiful mouth.
The dignity of her fuce, form, and natural
gestures, fitted her evidently for tragedy, for
which she was not wanting in the necessary fire
and energy.
Having returned to Italy, she meditated
seriously on the causes of her ill success, and
studied for some time with Scappa. In 1819
she appeared at Venice, with marked effect;
and this first success was repeated at Rome
and Milan, in that year and the next. In the
autumn of i8ai she first attracted the attention
of the Parisian public at the 'Italiens' ; but it
was after singing at Verona, during the congress
of 183a, that she returned to Paris, where she at
length became suddenly famous, and excited the
wildest enthusiasm. Her voice, asplendid soprano,
extending ftom the low A to the highest D, even
then was not absolutely free from imperfection ;
but the individuality of her impersonations, and
the peculiar and penetrating expression of her
singing made the severest critics forget any faults
of production in the sympathy and emotion she
irresistibly created. She continued, however, to
work, to study, and to triumph over her harsh
and rebellious organ by these means. Mean-
while, by the force and truth of her acting, she
delighted the Parisians in such parts as Tan-
credi, Bomeo, Desdemona, Camilla, Nina, and
Medea. 'Though but a moderate musician,'
says F^tis, 'she instinctively understood that the
kind of ornaments which had been introduced
by Rossini, could only rest a claim for novelty
on their supporting harmony ' ; and she therefore
invented the embellishments in arpeggio which
were afterwards carried to a still higher pitch
of excellence by Malibran. On April 24, 1824,
Pasta reappeared in London in ' Otello,* and had
another enthusiastic success, which she followed
up with ' Tancredi,* ' Romeo,* and ' Semiramide.*
Sne was, however, only one of six prime donne
at the King's Theatre, one of whom, Madame
Colbran -Rossini, had a salary of £1500, while
Pasta was to have no more than £1400. And
even this sum she never received in full,
Benelli, the manager and sub-lessee, having
quitted England, leaving the greater portion of
it unpaid. This made it difficult to re-engage
her for 1825, as she rather naturally asked Sa
tiie balance to be paid before she should appear ;
but this was arranged by a compromise, and she
came, at a salary of £1000, to sing till June 8,
PASTICCIO.
the longest eon^ she could obtain from Parii.
While on the subject of her salary, it may be
added that in i8a6 she had £2200,' £1000 of
which was paid to her before she le^ Paris, and
£2365 in 1827. In each succeeding year her
voice appeared more equal and her style more
finished and refined. Her acting was mlways
extremely powerful. Talma, when he saw and
heard her, is said to have exclaimed, ' Here is a
woman of whom I can still learn something.'
Owing to a misunderstanding with Rossini,
then managing the Italian Opera at Paris, Pasta
would not engage herself for that stage in 1827,
but went to Italy instead. There she played
at Trieste, and at Naples, where Pacini wrote
'Niobe' for her. The Neapolitans fidled to
recognise her full merits, but she was better
appreciated at Bologna, Milan, Vienna, and
Verona. At Milan, Bdlini wrote for her the
'Sonnambula' (1831) and 'Norma' (1833).
In 1833 and 34 Pasta was once more at Paris,
singing in *Sonnambula* and *Anna Bdena.*
Now, for the first time, her voice seemed to
have lost something of its beauty and truth ; her
intonation had become very uncertain, and she
sang flat sometimes through the whole of an
opera. But her dramatic talent, fax from being
impaired, was even more remarkable than ever.
She was as simple and unafiected a village girl
in the 'Sonnambula,' as she was dignified, noble,
or energetic in 'Anna Bolena,' ' Semiranude,* and
' Norma.' As ' Desdemona,' she was now more
gentie and graceful than heretofore, and in like
manner she had ioiproved and completed her
conception of all her characters, till they became
worthy of the admiration of critics and the study
of actors.
Once more in Italy, Pasta reappeared in a
few of her famous r^les at some of the diief
theatresi, spending every suomier at the beautiful
villa which she had bought in 1829 near Uie
Lake of Como, where she gave herself up to the
delights of cultivating a magnificent garden.
Pasta sang again in Enghuid in 1837 ; but her
voice was nearly gone, and she gave her ad-
mirers more pain tlum pleasure. In 1 840, though
so long retired firom tiie stage, she accepted' an
offer of 200,000 frs. to sing at St. Petersburg ;
but it would have been better for her reputation
as a singer had she refused it. The same may
be said of her last visit to London, in 1850, whtfi
she only appeared twice in public.
Madame Pasta is said to have had onlj one
child, a daughter; but she had a son also, whosn
she mentions in a letter' to the Princess Belgio-
joso, her 'Carissima Teresa,* a cultivated and
charming lady, with whom she was on the most
intimate and i^ectionate terms. She had some
pupils, of whom Parodi was the most distin-
guished. This great singer died at her villa 00.
the Lake of Como, April i, 1865. [J. M.]
PASTICCIO, literally 'a pie,' A species of
Lyric Drama, composed of Airs, Duets, and other
1 Kot XaxH. u tteted br Kben. Tbe neeipt. In Hm powwiVw of
the writer, dlcprovci tblt itatement.
a In tba potNttlon of th« «rft«r.
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PAsncJcio.
movements, selected from different Operas, and
groaped together, not in aocordaDoe with their
original intention, bat in such a manner as to
provide a mixed audience with the greatest pos-
able number of favourite Airs in succession.
It is not at all necessary that the Movements
contained in a Pasticcio should all be by the
same ^Composer. As a general rule, they are
not; and no attempt is made to ensure uni-
formity, or even consistency of style. No such
attempt, indeed, could by any possibility be
sacoeesful, unless it were made under the direc-
tion of a genius of the highest order; for an
Opera, if it claim to be considered as a work of
Art at all, must of necessity present itself as a
well-ordered whole, the intdligent expression of
a single idea; not in the form of a heteroge-
neous collection of pretty tunes, divorced from
the scenes they were intended to illustrate, and
adapted to others quite foreign to the Composer's
original meaning. It is true, that, during the
greater part of the x8th century, when the Pas-
ticcio enjoyed its highest d^ree of popularity,
some of the g^reatest Masters then living patron-
ised it, openly, and apparently without any feel-
ing of reluctance: but it never inspired any
real respect, even in its brightest days, and the
best examples were invariably short-lived, and
incapable of resuscitation. It was impossible
that any form of Art, based upon fidse principles,
should be held in lasting remembrance ; and the
Pasticcio represented a veiy fidse principle indeed
— ^the principle which culminated in the * Con-
cert Opera.'
In early times, it was a veiy common custom
to mention the name of the Librettist of an
Opera, upon the public announcement of its per-
formance, without that of the Composer ; and it
seems exceedingly probable, tiiat^ when this was
done, more than one Composer was concerned, and
the work was, in reality, a Pasticcio. We know
that Caccini contributed some of the Music to
Peri*s ' Euridice,' in the year 1600, though his
name does not appear upon the title-page ; and
that, as early as 1646, a genuine Pasticcio was
performed, at Naples, under the title of * Amor
non a legge,* with Music by sevend different
Composers, of whose names not one has been
recorded. Such cases, however, are much rarer
in the 17th oentury than in that which followed,
and serve only to show how the practice of
writing these compound Operas originated.
Perhaps the most notable Pasticcio on record
is 'Muzio Scevola,' of which, in the year 1731,
Attilio Ariosti' composed the First Act, Gio-
vanni Maria Buononcini the Second, and Handel
the Third. Each Composer prepared a complete
Overture to his own share of Uie work ; and
each, of course, did his best to outshine the
efforts of his rivals : yet the Opera survived very
&w representations, notwithstanding the 6dal
1 In r7» % TMtkdo edied 'L'Ape' wu prodiMad at Vienna. In
vrfakh no lew than IS compoMn ymn raprewnted. (Pohl, 'Moart
In London.' p. 'n, not*.)
s This tx l«Mt to the eoninionly-T«eehred opinion. In the Onfo-
oettl teore. In the BrltUh Museum, Um flnt Mt to attributed to
'SisnvrPlpo.* ChryaaaderattributeatttonilppolUtteU
PASTICCIO.
669
which attended Its production ; and it was never
afterwards revived. It has been suggested that
the object of associating these three great Com*
posers together, in this work, was not rivalry,
but ceoonomy of time — a most improbable sup*
position, unsupported by any kind of evidence.
The Pasticcio, Itt the time 'Muzio Scevola' was
produced, was equally common in England and
on the Continent ; and nothing was more natural
than that all the talent that could be brought
together should be employed in the production of
a splendid example for the Boyal Academy of
Music. Handel, moreover, the only Composer
in whose hands this kind of piece ever attained
the degree of homogeneity necessary to constitute
a really great work, can never have entertained
any strong objection to it, for he constantly intro-
duced Songs, which had made their mark hi his
earlier Operas, into the newer ones he was so
fi^uentlv called upon to produce; and, in 1738,
he Drought out a Pasticcio, called ' Alessandro
Severe,' entirely composed of his own most
favourite Airs. His keen perception of dramatic
truth enabled him to perform the operation of
fitting together materials, apparently quite in-
congruous, with such inimitable sloll, thft no
one unacquainted with the real fiacts of the case
could possibly think they had ever been intended
to occupy any other position than that in which
they are actually found at the time being. Had
other Composers possessed this power of adapta-
tion in an equal degree, the Pasticcio might have
attained a longer term of existence : but the
best writers of the age, more especially those of
the great School foimded by Hasse, at Dresden,
fiuled lamentably, in this particular ; and, strange
as it may seem to say so, it is to this fortunate
circumstance that we are indebted for one of the
most important and beneficial revolutions re*
corded in the history of the Lyric Drama.
In the year 1746, Gluck produced, at the
King's Theatre, in the Haymarket, a Pasticcio,
call^ 'Piramo e Tisbe,' in which he introduced
all his own most successful Airs. He wrote, at
that time, entirely in the Italian style; and,
though Handel expressed mat contempt for
his want of learning, his airs were especially
melodious, and enjoyed a high degree of popu-
lar favour. Yet the piece did not succeed and
he himself was altogether dissatisfied with it.
Soon after its production, he left England, and
settled, for a time, in Vienna. Here he attained
immense popularity ; but he could not forget the
failure of his Pasticdo, and the disappointment
he felt led him carefully to reconsider the matter,
and, as £ur as possible, to trace the defects of the
piece to their true cause. The course of ana-
lytical study thus forced upon him led to the
conviction, that however good an Air may be in
itself, it is only useful for dramatic purposes in
so £ar as it is calculated to bring out the truth*
ful expression of the Scene in which it is intro-
duced; and this simple thesis formed the founda-
tion of that great work of reformation which
made his name so deservedly famous, and raised
the Lyric Drama to a position from which the
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PASTICCIO.
fidse ideas of Hasse and Metastasio would for
ever have excluded it. [See Opbba, £leyenth
Period, p. 5146.]
The triumphant Buccess of Gluck*B later works
put an endy at once, to the existence of the
'Concert Opera,* both in Italy and G^rnumy:
and, with i^ the Pssticoio necessarily fell to Uie
ground. Since his death, no genuine Pasticcio
of any importance has ever been produced.
Only in a very few cases have two or more Com-
posers consented to write the separate Acts of
the same work ; and, judging from past experi-
ence, we may confidently hope that the al>use
will never again be revived.
The leading principle of the Pastiodo has
been frequently introduced into English Operas,
more especially those of the older School. The
'Begear's Opera* will occur to the reader as a
notable instance of its application. But it must
be remembered that in Operas of this class the
Music is often only of an incidental character,
and the objection to the system is therefore &r
lees serious than in the case of Italian Operas
of the same, or even earlier date. [W. S. R.]
PASTORALE. 1. A dramatic composition
or opera, the subject of which is generally of a
legendary and pastoral character. Pastorales
hiwi their origin in Italy, where, at the time of
the Renaissance, the study of the Eclogues of
Theocritus and Viigil led to the stage represen-
tation of pastoral dramas such as Politian's
* Favola di Orfeo,* which was played at Mantua
in 1472. The popularity of these dramatic
pastorales spread from Italy to France and
Spain, and eventually to Grermany; but it is
principally in France that they were set to
music, and became of importance as precursors
of the opera. In April 1659 '^ Pastorale en
Musique,' the words by the Abb^ Perrin, the
music by Cambert, was perfurmed at Issy, at the
house of M. de Idkhaye, and proved so success-
ful that the same authors wrote another similar
work, 'Pomone,' which was played in public
with ^reat success in May 1671. These two
C rales are generally considerc^d as the earliest
ch operas. The pastorale, owing to the
weakness of its plot, was peculiarly suited for
the displays of bailet and spectacle which were
so much in vogue at the French court, and ex-
amples of this style of composition exist by
nearly all the French composers before the
Great Revolution. Lully^s 'Acis et Galath^*
('Pastorale herolque mise en musique*) is
perhaps one of his finest compositions. Mathe-
son (' Vollkonmiener Kapellmeister*), with his
passion for classifying, divides pastorales into
the very obvious categories of comic and tragic,
and gives some quaint directions for treating
subjects in a pastoral manner. The pastorale
must not be confounded with the pastourelle,
which was an irregular form of poetry popular
in France in the 12th and 13th centuries.
a. Any instrumental or vocal composition in
6-8, 9*8, or 1 2-8 time (whether on a drone bass
or not), which assumes a pastoral character by
its imitation of the simple sounds and melody
PASTORAL SYMPHONY.
of a shepherd's pipe. The Musette and the So-
liana an* both ' pastoral * forms ; the former b of
a slower tempo, and the latter contains fewer
dotted quavers. 'He shall feed his flock' and
the 'Pastoral Symphony' in the Messiah are
both in 12-8, and so is the Pastoral Sinfbois
which begins the second part of Bach's Christmas
Oratorio. Other examples of this class of com-
position are the first movement of Bach*s Pasto-
rale for organ (Dorffel, 788), and the air * Poor
Bertha moi je soupire' in Meyerbeer's opera * Le
Prophbte.* The 'Sonnambula* was origxnaUr
entitled ' Dramma pastorale.' [W. B. S.J
PASTORALE. 'Sonata pastorale' is the
title ' often given to Beethoven's Sonata in D,
op. 29, but apparently quite without warrant.
Its opening Allegro and its Finale both begin
with long passages on a pedal bass, both are also
in triple time, and so fiur have a ' pastoral * air;
but Beethoven has said nothing of any such in-
tention. The original edition is entitled * Grande
Senate pour le Pianoforte,' and the autograph is
inscribed ' Gran Sonata.* It is worth notice that
this is the first of the Sonatas which is not com-
posed expressly both for harpsichord or piano-
forte ; all the preceding ones have the words * poor
le Clavecin (or Clavicembalo) ou Pianoforte on
the title-page.
It was composed in 1801 and published in
Aug. 1802. According to Czemy the Andante
was for long a special favourite of the coropoaer's,
and often played by him. The fly-leaf of the
autograph — in the possession of Herr Johann
Kaffka of Yienna — contains a little piece of
1 7 bars long, for 2 voices and chorus, aim^ at the
unwieldy figure of Schuppanzigh, Beethoven's
favourite first violin, and entitled ' Lob auf den
Dicken ' — < Glory to the fat.* It begins thus :'
Behap • pan - ligh lit tin Lump^ Lump. Lump.
LG.]
PASTORAL SYMPHONY in Handel's 'Mes-
siah.* A short and unaffected little piece of music
in 1 2-8 time, serving to introduce the scene of the
' Shepherds abiding in the field.* Handel more
than any other great composer was accustomed
to ' prendre son bien partout oh. il le trouvaiC
and mostly without acknowledgment. In the
present instance he has afi&xed the word 'Pi&*
to this movement, more probably to indicate the
reason for inserting it than to show that it was
not his own composition, a matter which probably
did not occupy his thoughts in the least. People
in those days had not ready aooess either to older
or contemporaneous works, and were not in a
position to compare one thing with another ; and
our composer, often in a great hurry to g^
through his mighty task, did not trouble himself
to enlighten them : his superb genius answered
for all, as it gave life and inmiortality to anj^
thing he chose to put on paper. When it was
first called a Pastoral Symphony is not veiy dear;
Randan & Abell*s edition gives the word 'Pifift'
only, a £act overlooked by Dr. Rimbault hi hia
I Orifteallr portiv* bgr Ormni, the paMtehar. of Bunboif.
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PASTORAL SYMPHONF.
prefikoe to ihe Handel Society's edition ( 1 850) ; bat
Arnold's edition has ' Sinfonia Pastoralle.' Han-
del's MS. and the Smith transcripts give only
* Pi£ft.* As to the origin of the music Dr. Rim*
bault, in his Preface to the edition of the Handel
Society professes to give the melody note for note
from a MS. collection of ancient hymns written
in 1630 ; but what collection, and where it is to
be found, is not told us.
PASTORAL SYMPHONY.
671
Playford's * Musick's Handmaid' (1678) has a
very similar tune, and in Crotch's specimens this
also figures as an example of Italian music — a
Siciliana. In these two works the title of ' Par-
thenia' has been added to it. Doubtless Handel
heard the peasants playing such an air about the
streets of Rome at Christmas during his visit
there, and stored up the idea for mture use.
[See PiFERO,]
At first it consisted of the first part alone, the
second being added on a slip of paper wafered into
the original MS. Of the second part there are
two versions, one which is in use, 10 bars long,
the other, 1 2 bars, with the sequence prolonged,
taking the mudc into F, in which key it winds
np before the Da Capo. The second version,
which is on the back of the slip of paper just
mentioned, Handel has crossed through.
This little Symphony is scored only for strings,
with a third violin part which has curiously ofbeu
been left out. In a piece of music intended to
represent the playing of Pifferari, it is singular
that Handel should not have given the melody,
at least, to his favourite instrument the haut-
boy, which had in his day a very broad reed, and
a tone somewhat reminding one of the Roman
peasants who pipe a pastoral in our streets at
the present time. [ W. G.C .]
PASTORAL SYMPHONY, THE. 'Sin-
fonia Pastorale, No. 6,' is the title of the pub-
lished score of Beethoven's 6th Symphony, in
F, op. 68 (Breitkopf & Hartel, May 1826).
The autograph, in possession of the B^ron
van Kattendyke, of Arnheim, bears the following
inscription in Beethoven's own writing, 'Sinf**
6ta. Da Luigi van Beethoven. Aj^enehme
heitre Empfindungen welche bey der Ankunft
auf dem Lande im Menschen erwa — Alio ma
non troppo— Nicht ganz geschwind — N.B. die
deutschen Ueberschriften schreiben sie alle in
die erste Violini — Sinfonie von Ludwig van
Beethoven': or, in English, *6th Symphony, by
Luigi van Beethoven. The pleasant, cheerful
feelings, which arise in man on arriving in the
country — Alio ma non troppo— not too fJast —
N.B. [this is to the copyist] the German titles are
all to be written in the first-violin part — Sym-
phony by Ludwig van Beethoven.'
Besides the 'titles' referred to in this in-
scription, which are engraved in the ist violin
part, on the back of the title-page, Beethoven has
given two indications of his intentions — (i) on
the programme of the first performance, Dec. 22,
1808, and (2) on the printed score. We give
the three in parallel columns : —
nm YidUn Part.
Futonl Sinfonie od«r Xrlnnenrngen aa
dM Laodleben (mehr Ausdniek der Emp-
fliMlnng als Hahlerey).
1. Allecro ma itoo molto. Enrachen hett-
r EmpflndoDgoi bey der Ankunft auf dem
8. Andanto oon moto. Scene am Bach.
S. Allegro. Lustigei ZuMunmenaeyn d
Lsndleute.
4. AUegro. Gewltter, Storm.
8. Allegretto. UlrtengeMuig. Frohe ui
4ftnkbare €ief able nach dem Sturm.
FMtoial Symphony, or Becollectlons of
country life. (More expreuion of feeling
than painting.)
1. Allegro ma non molto. The awakening
of cheerAil feelings on arriring in the
ooontry.
S. Andante eon moto. Scene at the brook.
8, Allegro. Merry meeting of country folk.
4. Allegro. Thundentorm. tempest.
5. Allegretto. 9ong of the shepherds. Olad
Mid thankful feelings after the storm.
A book of sketches for the first movement, 1
TUfw in the British Museum, is inscribed 'Sin- !
fbnie caracteristica. Die Erinnerungen von der i
Landleben ' ; with a note to the effect that ' the i
hearer is to be allowed to find out the situations I
for himself ' — ' Man uberlasst dem Zuhorer sich ,
selbst die Situationen auszufinden.* I
The work was composed in the neighbourhood {
of Vienna, in the wooded meadows between
Heiligenstadt and Giinzing, in the summer of I
1808, at the same time with the Symphony in I
Programwu qf Cometrt, Dte, 22; 1808.
Pastoral Symphonle (No. S), mehr An*-
druck der Empflindung. als Malerey.
Istes Stock. Angenehme Empfindungen.
welche bey der Ankunft axif dem Laode im
Menichen erwachen.
2tes Stack. Scene am Badi.
Stes Stack. Lustiges fieyaammenseyn der
Landleute : flllt ein
4teB Stack. Donner und Sturm ; in welches
elnfftllt
Meii Stock. Wohlthltlge. mtt Dank an die
Ootthelt verbundene OefOhle nach dem
Sturm.
Pastoral Symphony (No. 5) more ez^eMioo
of feeling than painting.
1st piece. The pleasant feelings aroused la
the heart on arriving in the country.
ftid piece. Scene at the brook.
8rd piece. Jovial assemblage of oomitry
folk, interrupted by
4th piece. Thunderstorm, interrupted by
6th piece. Pleasurable feelings after the
ftorm. mixed with gratitude to (iod.
Trintti B«or0.
Sinfonia Pastorale. No. A.
Krwachen heitorer Empfindungen bey der
Ankunft auf dem Lande. All" ma non
troppo.
Scene am Bach. Andante molto moto.
Lustiges Zusammenseyn der Landleute.
Allegro.
Oewitter. Sturm. Allegro.
Hlrtengesang. Frohe und dankbare Ge-
fllble nach dem Sturm. Allegretto.
Sinfonia Pastorale. No. fi.
The awakening of cheerful feelings on ar-
riring in the country. AU^ ma non troppo.
Scene at the brook. Andante molto mpto.
Merry meeting of country folk. Allegro.
Thunderstorm, tempest. Allegro.
Song of the shepherds. Glad aad thankftil
fseUngs after the storm.
0 minor. The two were each dedicated to the
same two persons, Prince Lobkowitz and the
Count Rasoumoffsky ; their opus-numbers follow
one another, and so closely were the two connected
that at the first performance — in the Theatre an
der Wien, Dec. 22, 1808 — their numbers were
interchanged, the Pastoral being called * No. 5 '
and the C minor ' No. 6.' ' This confusion lasted
as late as 1820, as is shown by the list of per-
formances of the Concerts Spirituels at Vienna*
given by Hanslick (C<moertweeen in W ien, p. 1 89).
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672
PASTORAL SYMPHONY.
The titles of the movements were curiously
anticipated by ^echt, more than twenty years
earlier, in a 'Portrait musical de la Nature.*
[See Kneoht, toL ii. 66 a; and Pboorammb
Music]
Beethoven himself (a very rare occurrence)
anticipated a part of the storm movement in his
Prometheus music (1801), in the 'Introduction'
following the overture.
The Symphony was first played in London at
a concert given for the benefit of F. Griesbach,
the oboe-player. This was before April 14, 18 17,
the date at which it first appears in the pro-
grammes of the Philharmonic Society. [G.]
PATEY, Jawbt Monaoh, rUe Whytock, was
bom May i, 1843, in London, her &ther being
a native of Glasgow. She received instruction in
singing from Mr. John Wass, and made her first
appearance in public at a very early age, at the
Town Hall, Birmingham. She became a member
of Henry Leslie's Choir, and afterwards received
further instruction from Mrs. Sims Reeves and
Pinsutt In 1865 she was engaged by M. Lem-
mens for a provincial concert tour. In 1866 she
was marriea to Mr. Patey (see below), and sang
at the Worcester Festival of that year. From that
time her reputation continued to increase, until
in 1870, on the retirement of Madame Sainton-
Dolby, she succeeded to her position as leading
contralto concert-singer, and as such has sung in
several of the principiEd new works, such as Bene-
dict's * St. Peter,' Bamett's * Andent Mariner,'
* Paradise and the Peri,' and * Raising of Lazarus,'
and in Mac&rren's 'St. John the Baptist,' 'Resur-
rection,' 'Joseph,' and ' Lady of the Lake.' In
the part of BUmche of Devan, in the last of these,
she developed an amount of dramatic power for
which her admirers had not given her credit.
In 1871 she started on a concert tour in America
with £dith Wynne, Cummings, SanUey, and her
husband, and enjoyed great success. In 1875 she
sang with her usual success in Paris, in French,
in four performances of the ' Messiah,' on the invi-
tation of M. Lamoureux, and under his direction.
Also on Jan. 31 of the same year she sang in
English *0 rest in the Lord,' at the concert of the
Conservatoire, with such effect that she was re-
engaged for the next concert, Feb. 7, when she
more than confirmed the previous impression. In
commemoration of this the directors presented
her with a medal bearing the dates of the con-
certs, a compliment rarely accorded by that con-
servative body to any singer.
Her voice is a contralto of great powerand sweet-
ness, and of extensive compass, and she is equally
exodlent either in oratorio or ballads. [A.C.]
PATEY, John Geobob, husband of the above,
bom in 1835, at Stonehouse, Devonshire, son
of a dergyman, was educated for n^edicine, but
abandon^ it for music. His voice is bari-
tone. He studied at Paris and Milan, made his
first appearance Oct. 1 1, 1858, at Drury Lane, as
Plumket, in an English version of ' Martha,' and
sang for several seasons in English opera at
Govent Garden and Her Majesty's, creating parts
in 'Robin Hood' (Oct. 10, 60), ' La Reine Topaie'
PATON.
(Dea 36, 60), 'Puritan's Daughter' (Nov. 30, 61%
' Uly of Killamey ' (Feb. 8, 62), etc He abo
sang in Italian opera at the Lyceum in 1S61, and
was frequentiy beard in oratorio and concerts.
Mr. Patey has latterly retired from public sing-
ing, and now carries on the busineas of a masso
publisher. [A.C.]
PATH^TIQUE. 'Grande Sonatepaih^que
pour le Clavecin ou Piano-Forte compost et
dedi^ h Son Altesse le Prince Charles da
Lichnowsky par Louis van Beethoven' is the
title of Beethoven's 7th Pianoforte Sonata, op. 13.
It is in C minor, and has an Introduction (whidi
reappears in the Allegro) in addition to the other
three movements. (The Path^tique and the
op. 1 1 1 are the only PF. Sonatas with Introduc-
tions.) It was pubUshed by Eder in the Graben,
Viennay in 1799. No clue has been found to its
title. M. Nottebohm however has discov«^
from Beethoven's sketch-books that the Finale
was originally written for Strings, and was pro-
bably intended for the Finale of the String trio
in C minor. Op. 9, No. 3.^ [G.]
PATON,MABTANNB,daughterof(3eorgePaton,
master in the High School of Edinburgh, where
she was bom in Oct. 1803 ; from a very early age
manifested a capacity for music, and when little
more than four years old learned to play the haip,
pianoforte, and violin. Music was hereditary in
her family. Her grandmother, when Miss Ajuie
Nicoll, played the violin before the Duke of Cum-
berland at Huntiy, on his way to Oulloden, in
1746 ; and Miss NicoU's brother Walter, an emi-
nent merchant of Aberdeen, and a good violin
player, took part with the Duke of Gordon and
other local magnates in founding the Aberdeen
Musical Society in 1748, and acted for some
time as its secretary. MiBa Paton's father was
also a violin player, and was renowned in his
own neighbourhood as having built an organ.
In 1 810 Miss Paton appeared at .concerts in
Edinburgh, singing, reciting, and pUying — among
other pieces, Viotti's Concerto in G. She also
published several compositions. In 1811 the
family removed to Lonaon, and during the next
three seasons she sang at private concerts, and
annually at a public concert of her own. In 18 14
she was withdrawn frx>m public life for the pur-
pose of completing her education. In 1820 she
reappeared and sang at the Bath concerts with
success, and in 183 1 at various other places. On
Aug. 3, 1823, she made her first appearance on
the stage at tiie Haymarket Theatre as Susanna
in ' The Marriage of Figaro,' with decided suc-
cess, and subsequentiy p^ormed Bosina in ' The
Barber of Seville'; Lydia in Perxys * Morning;
Noon, and Night* (her first original part), and
Polly in ' The Beggar's Opera.' On Oct. 19, 1832,
she appeared at Covent (harden as Polly, and on
Dec. 7 fully established herself by her impersonsr
tion of Mandane in Ame's ' Artaxerxes.' On
July 33, 1834, she achieved a great success
in the part of the heroine in Weber's 'Der
1 •KeoeBaethOTwUuiA.'No.iz.Ui tbe'HasIkBUiclM WodMDMstt.'
JaD.14.197e.
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PATON.
Freischtttz/ then first produced in England. In
the same year she was married in Scotland to
Lord William Pitt Lennox, a younger son of the
4th Duke of Richmond, but continued her pro-
feasional appearances under her maiden name.
On April la, 1826, on the production of Weber's
* Oberon/ she sustained the arduous part of Beiza
to the entire satisfaction as well of the composer
as the audience. Weber had previously written
to his wife, * Miss Paton is a singer of the very
first rank, and will play Reiza divinely.' In the
same letter he describes a concert in wMohVelluti
and all the first Italians sang, at which *she
beat them all.* From that time she was at the
head of her profession, alike in the theatre, the
concert-room, and the oratorio orchestra. Her
marriage was unfortunately not a happy one, and
in June 1830 she separated firom her husband,
and on Feb. 26, 1S31, obtained a decree of the
Court of Sestdon in Scotland dissolving the mar-
riage. Shortly afterwards she was married to Mr.
Joseph Wood, the tenor singer, ajid in the same
year reappeared at Covent Garden and after-
wards at Uie King's Theatre in ' La Cenerentola.*
She was next engaged at Drury Lane, and ap-
peared as Alice in an English version of Meyer-
beer's • Robert le Diable,' produced Feb. 20, 1832.
She also sustained at various times the principal
parts in the ' Sonnambula,' Barnett's ' Mountain
Sylph,' etc., etc. In 1833 Mr. and Mrs. Wood
began to reside at WooUey Moor, Yorkshire,
an estate belonging to Mr. Wood, sen., and
this remained their permanent home till 1854.
In 1834 they paid a visit to the United States,
and repeated it twice within the next few
years. In April 1837 Mrs. Wood reappeared in
London, and continued to perform until Feb.
18^3, when she embraced the Roman Catholic
rebgion, and took up her residence in the convent
by Micklegate Bar, York. The change however
was of short duration, and in July she quitted
the convent. In 1844 she was engaged at the
Princess's Theatre. She soon afterwards retired
from her profession, and settled with her husband
at Woolley Moor. Here she took a warm in-
terest in the Anglican service at Chapelthorpe.
She composed for it, formed and trained a choir,
in which the herself took the leading part. In
1 854 they left Yorkshire and went abroad. In
1863 they returned to Bulcliffe Hall, in the neigh-
bourhood of Chapelthorpe, and there Mrs. Wood
died, July 2 1, 1854, leaving a son ^bom at Woolley
Moor in 1838) as the only representative of
her family. Mrs. Wood's voice was a pure so-
prano, of extensive compass (A below the staff to
I> or £ above), powerful, sweet-toned, and bril-
liant. She was mistress of the florid style, and
had great powers of expression. She was re-
nowned for her beauty, both of feature and ex-
Jiression, inherited from her mother. Miss Craw-
ord of Cameron Bank ; and the portraits of her
are numerous, including those by Sir Thos. Law-
rence, Sir W. Newton, Wageman, and others. Her
younger sisters were both singers ; Isabella ap-
peared at Drury Lane about 1825, and Eliza at
the Haymarket as Mandane in 1833. [W. H. H.J
VOL. U. PT. 12.
PATTL
673 »
PATRICK, Riohabd (sometimes called Na-
than or Nathaniel), lay vicar of Westminster
Abbey from 1616 until about 1625, composed a
fine service in G minor, wliich is printed in vol. i.
of Arnold's Cathedral Music. [W. H. H.]
PATROCINIUM MUSICES. A splendid
collection of church music in 10 volumes, pub-
linhed between 1573 and 1598 by Adam Bebo of
Munich under the patronage of the Duke of
Bavaria, whence its quaint title, ' the protection
of music.* For the list of contents see this Dic-
tionary, i. 230. It is printed firom types, not in
score, but so that all the parts can be read at
once from the two open pages, which are of
immense folio size. There is a copy in the
British Museum. [G.]
PATTER-SONG. ' Patter' is the technical—
or rather, slang — name for the kind of gabbling
speech with which a cheap-jack extols his wares,
or a conjuror distracts the attention of the audi-
ence while performing his tricks. It is used in
music to denote a knid of song, the humour of
which consists in getting the greatest number of
words to fit the smallest number of notes. In-
stances of this form of composition are Haydn's
' Durch Italien, Frankreich, Preussen,' from * Der
Ritter Roland'; Gr^try's syUabic duet in <La
fausse Magie ' [see vol. i. p. 628 6] ; Dulcamara's
song in Donizetti's * L'Elisir d'amore,' etc. Mo-
zart and many other composers often introduce
bits of * patter ' into buffo solos, as for instance
the mid(Ue of * Madamina * in * Don Juan,' etc.
This form of song has for long been popular with
'entertainers' from Albert Smith to Comey
Grain, and probably owes its name to a song
sung bv Charles Mathews in 'Patter versus
Clatter.' Its latest development is in the operettas
of Messrs. Bumand, Gilbert, and Sullivan, in all
of which patter-songs fill an important place.
Excellent instances are * My aged Employer' in
'Cox and Box,' and * My name is John Welling-
ton Wells' in 'The Sorcerer.' [J.A.F.M.]
PATTI, Adelika (Adela or Ad^lb Jua^a
Mabia), bom Feb. 19, 1843, at Madrid, was the
youngest daughter of Salvatore Patti, an Italian
syiger, who died in 1869, and a Spanish mother,
also a singer, well known in Spain and Italy, before
her marriage with Patti, as Signora Barili. The
parents of Adelina went to America, and she was
taken there as a child. Having shown great apt-
itude for music. Mile. Patti received instruction
in singing firom Maurice Strakosch, who mamed
her elder sister Amelia ; she appeared in public
in America at a very early age, and was well re-
ceived ; but was wisely withdrawn for some years
for the purpose of further study. She reappeared
Nov. 24, 1 859, at New York, as Lucia, and played
other parts, in all df which she was highly suc-
cessful. Mile. Patti made her <khU in England
May 14, 1 861, at the Royal Italian Opera, as
Amina, with wonderful success, and from that
time became £unous, though quite unknown be-
fore. She repeated Umt part no less than eight
times, and confirmed her success by her per-
formance of Lucia, Violetta, Zerlina ('Don
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PATTI.
Giovanni*), Martha and Bosina. She sang that
autumn «t the Birmingham Festival, in opera
at Liverpool, Manchester, etc., and afterwards
was engaged at Berlin, Brussels, and Paris.
From 1 86 1 to the present time Mme. Patti has
song at Covent Garden every year, and has
maintained her position as perhaps the most
popular operatic artist of the time. Mme. Patti
made an operatic tour in the provinces in 1862 ;
tang at the Birmingham Festival of 1864, notably
as Adah on the produoticm of * Naaman* ; at the
Handel Festivals of 1865, 1877, and 1880; at
the Liverpool Festival of 1874, as well as in
several bnlliant provincial concert tours. She has
enjoyed the same popularity on the oontineoit,
having fulfilled sevei»l engagements at Paris,^
Vienna, St. Petersburg, Moscow, etc., and in
various cities of Germany, Italy. Spain, etc.
Her voice is of moderate power but great com-
pass, reaching to F in alt; her execution is
brilliant and finished, and she has considerable
charm both of person and manner. Her reper-
toire is extensive, upwards of 30 chAracters, chiefly
of the Italian school, many of which, such as
Maria» Norina, Adina, Linda, Luisa Miller. Des-
demona, Ninetta, Semiramide, etc., were revived
for her ; she is also quite at home in the works
of Meyerbeer and Gounod. The new parts which
she has created in England are Annetta (' Cris-
pino e la Ck»mare'), July 14, 1866; Esmeralda,
June 14, 1870; Gelmina, June 4, 1873; Juliet,
July II, 1867; La CatarinaCDiamans de la
Couronne*), July 3, 1873 ;■ Aida, June aa,
1876 ; and Estella (' Les Bluets *) of Jules Cohen
(Covent Garden, under the title of 'Estella,*
July 3, 1880), perhaps with a little more success
than when Mme. Nilsson played the part in
Paris. Of the other parts, only as Juliet and Aida
has she obtained any permanent popularity. The
Zeriina of Mozart is the only character she has
played in classical opera. Mme. Patti married,
July 29, 1868, Henri Marquis de Caux. Equerry
to Napoleon III. Her elder sister,
Carlotta, was bom in 1 840 at Florence. She
was educated as a pianist under Herz, but aban-
doned the piano in favour of singing. She made
her cUbut in 1 86 1 at New York as a concert singer,
and afterwards fulfilled an engagement there in
Italian opera, and was successful, but soon after
abandoned the stage on account of her lameness,
i^e made her cUbtU in England April 16, 1863, at
a concert at Covent Garden Theatre, attracted at-
tention on account of her pleasant and remarkable
fivnlity of execution, obtained a position here in
concerts as a singer of the lighter class, and was for
several seasons a great attraction at promenade
and other concerts. Mile. Patti has made several
concert tours in the provinces, on the continent,
and in America. She married. Sept. 3, 1 8 79, Ernst
de Munck, of Weimar, the violoncdilist.
Carlo, their brother, bom at Madrid in
184a, was taken to America, like his sisters,
1 MOM. FAttllM* recently reftppcMedtb«re(Tb<*trade la GattO In
Italian apenu
> For the flrat time In England In Italian, In which ■ome of the
miulc waa cut out. and alrt from Aaber^ earlier opf>rai ' La Nelse'
and 'Leloeeter' inaertad. to the 4«tninaBt of the general eflbcu
PAUEB.
when a child, studied the violin, and at the age
of 20 became leader at the New Orleans Opera
House, afterwards at New York, and the Wake-
field Opera House, St. Louis, MiasourL He died
at the Last-named dty March 17, 1873. [A.C.]
PAUEB, EoNST, pianist and eminent teacher
of the piano, was bom at Vienna. Bee. ai, 1836.
His father was first minister of the Lutheran
church. Director of the theological seminary
in Vienna, and Superintendent-General of the
Lutheran churches of the Austrian Empire ; his
mother was a Streicher, of the great pianoforte-
making fiunily. so intimately connected with
Beethoven. The cultivation of his early musical
talent was not allowed to prejudice his general
education ; the study of the classics and modem
lang^uages being carried on concurrently with
the pianoforte, first under Theodor Dinka, and
then under Mozart's son, Wolfgang Amadous,
and with harmony and counterpoint under Sech-
ter. This first stage in his musical education
was terminated by a public performance in
184a, and the publication of one of his com-
positions. In 1845 he went to Munich for a
year and a half to study instrumentation
and dramatic composition under Franz Lachner.
Not content with his musical studies he learnt
Italian and Spanish, and by teaching and cooi-
posing was enabled to become independent of
his father, thus early evincing that extraordi-
nary energy which has always been one of his
principal characteristics. In April 1847 he
competed for and obtained the appointment of
director of the musical societies at Mayenoe,
and was employed by the great publishing firm
of Hchotts to compose two operas, * Don Biego *
(1849), and *Die rothe Maske* (1850), which
were performed in Mayence and Mannheim ; also
some important vocal works, and overtures and
entr'actes for the use of the local theatre. This
appointment, in which he gained great expe-
rience, he resigned in April 1851, and pro-
ceeded to London, where his performances at the
Philharmonic ( Jime 33, Hummel's A minor Con-
certo) and the Musical Union were received with
much favour. After this success he resolved to
pursue his career in England, though returning
for a time to Germany.
Ini853 he married Miss Andreae, of Frankfort,
and brought her with him to London, where they
have since regularly resided during the musical
season. Mrs. Pauer is a good contralto singer,
and an excellent musician. During the first few-
years of her married life she was not infrequently
heard in public, but this she has latterly given
up. She has not however forsaken music, and
the Bach Choir has profited much by her great
knowledge and her steady devotion to its re-
hearsals and performances.
In 1 86 1 Mr. Pauer adopted a new direction in
pianoforte-playing, one which had been sketched
by Moscheles some twenty years before, but not
fully earned out— the historical ; and gave a aeries
of six performances with the view of illustrating
the foundation and development of pianoforte
composition and playing, in chronological
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PAUER.
from about 1600 to the present time, eladdated
and assisted by programmes containing critical
and biographical notices. Similar performances,
but with different programmes, were given in 1 86 2
and 1863, and again in 1867, in Willis's and the
Hanover Square Booms. In 1 862 he was selected
by Austria and the Zollverein for the Musical
Jury of the London International Exhibition. He
was at the same time the official reporter for the
Prussian government, and his report was repro-
duced by some of the chief industrial journals,
and was translated into various languages. For
these services he received the Imperial Austrian
order of Francis Joseph, and the Prussian order of
the Crown. During the next few years Mr. Pauer
played in Holland, Leipzig, Munich and Vienna,
in fulfilment of special engagements, and was 1^
pointed pianist to the Imperial Austrian Court
in 1866.
In 1870 he began a new phase of his active
career, that of lecturing upon the composers for
the harpsichord (or clavecin) and pianoforte ; the
form and spirit of the varieties of modem music,
as the Italian, French and Grerman ; the history of
the oratorio ; the practice of teaching ; and many
cognate subjects. These lectures have been given
at the Royal Institution, the South Kensington
Museum, and in many other important lecture-
rooms in Great Britain and Ireland. When
Cipriani Potter retired from the Royal Academy
of Music, Pauer took his class, and retained it
for five years. In 1876, on the foundation of the
National Training School for Music at Kensington
Crore, he became the principal pianoforte pro-
fessor of that institution, and in 1878 was made
a member of the- Board for Musical Studies at
Cambridge University, and the following year an
Examiner. Another of his important occupa-
tions has been- editing the works of the clas-
'sical and romantic composers. Among these will
be found 'Alte Klavier-Musik* (Senff, Leipzig), 1 2
books; 'AlteMeister* (Breitkopf & Hartel, Leip-
zig)> 40 Nos. [See EIlavier-Musik, Altb; and
Mbistbb, Altb.] Also * Old English Composers
for the Virginals and Harpsichord* (Augener,
London) ; and, under the auspices of the last-
named publisher, an edition of the classical com-
posers in a cheap form, embracing and including
all the great masters from Bach and Handel to
Schumann, and extending, up to July 18S0, to
nearly 30 volumes, of admirable clearness and
convenience. Besides this are arrangements for
children, and educational works, including the
' New Gradus ad Pamassum,' 100 studies, some
of them by himself; * Primer of the Pianoforte'
(Novello, Ewer & Co. 1876) ; * Elements of the
Beautiful in Music' (ditto, 1876) ; and * Primer
of Musical Forms' (ditto, 1878). Also some inter-
esting arrangements of Schumann's Symphonies
for four hands, and of Mendelssohn's PF. Con-
certo for two pianos, thrown off as mere hors
^teuvres by this clever and indefatigable worker.
Reference to the publishers* catalogues must sup-
plement these specimens of the work of an active
and snccesflful life. As may be expected, he has
nnperfwrned and unpublished works in his port-
PAUSE.
«r5
folios; among them an opera 'Die Brautsohau
Friedrioh des Ghrossen.' Of published pianoforte
pieces few can be named that have attained
greater popularity than Pauer's ' Cascade.' As
a pianist his style is distinguished by breadth
and nobility of tone, and by a sentiment in which
seriousness of thought is blended with profound
respect for the intention of the composer. As a
man, his simple genuine nature has gained him
the affection and esteem of a very large circle of
friends and pupils. [A. J. H.]
PAUL, OsOAB, writer on music, bom April 8,
1836, at Freiwaldau in Silesia, where his father
was parish priest, and educated at Grorlitz, where
he first learned music from Ellingenberg, and at
the university of Leipzig. Here he studied music
with Plaidy, Richter, and Hauptmann, of whose
system of harmony he became a warm partisan.
Li i860 he graduated as Phil. Doc., and after
spending some time in various towns of G^ermany,
especially Cologne, settled in Leipzig in 1866.
Becoming known by his private lessons in the
science of music, he was made professor of musical
history at the Conservatorium in 1869, and Pro-
fessor Extraordinarius at the university in 1872.
His beet and most important work is his transla-
tion (the first in Germany) and elucidation of
Boetius (Leipzig, Leuckart, 187 a). He also edited
Hauptmann's 'Lehre der Harmonik' (1868), the
'Greschichte des Claviers' (1869), the 'Handlexi-
con der Tonkunst' (1871-73). and two musical
periodicals, the ' Tonhalle,' and its successor, the
' Musikalisohes Wochenblatt.' He is now the
musical critic of the ' Leipziger Tagblatt.' [F.G.]
PAUL, ST., or, German, PAULUS. Men-
delssohn's first oratorio (op. 36). It was com-
missioned by the Cecilienverein of Frankfort
early in 1833, but was not produced till the
Lower Rhine Festival at Dtlsseldorf, May 22,
1836. For the book — *in the words of Scrip-
ture ' — he sought the aid of Marx, who however
soon disagreed with him, and then of Fiirst and
Schubring; but his own judgment was always
active. [See Mendblssohn, vol. ii 271 6.1
The second performance took place at liver-
pool under Sir G. Smart on Oct. 3, 1836. Others
in England were. Sacred Harmonic Society,
March 7 and Sept. 12, 1837, and Birmingham
Festival, under Mendelssohn himself, Sept. 20,
1837. In the interval between the first and
second perionnances it had been revised by the
composer, and published (May, 1837). Fourteen
numbers were rejected, including two Chorales,
*0 treuer Heiland,* and 'E2n' feste Burg.'
Tlie English version is by Mr. W. BalL [G.]
PAUSE (ItaL Fermcda; Fr. Point Morgue;
which last has an equivocal meaninc^, as it also
signifies what we call 'pedal point ^). A tem-
porary cessation of the time of the movement,
expressed by the sign ^ placed over a note or a ,
rest. If the pause is over a note, it signifies that
the note is to be prolonged at the pleasure of the
performer, or conductor; if over a rest, the
sound, as well as the time, must stop. The
judicious use of pauses is one of the most striking
Xx2
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PAUSE.
effects at the command of a composer. Handel
often introduces a pause with prodigious effect
before the last phrase of a chorus, as in ' Then
roond about the starry throne/ and many another
case. Instances of the effect of the pause may
be foond in the delay on the last note of each
line of the chorales of the German church, which
is happily imitated by Mendelssohn in several
of the Organ Sonatas, and in other places, where,
though no pause actually occurs, and the strict
time is kept up, the effect is produced by bringing
in the next line of the chorale a bar or mote late.
Beethoven had a peculiarly effective way of in-
troducing pauses m the first giving out of the
principal subject of the movement, and so giving
a feeling of suspense, as in the first movement of
the Symphony If o. 5 in G minor, the beginning
of the last movement of the Pianoforte Trio,
Op. 70, No. I, etc. Pauses at the end of a
movement, over a rest, or even oyer a silent bar,
are intended to giye a short breathing-space
before going on to the next movement. They
are then exactly the reverse of the direction
' attaoca* [for which see yoL i. p. 100 h], * Pause'
is the title of the last but one of the pieces in
Schumann's 'Gameval,' and is an excerpt of 27
bars long from the Pr^ambule to the whole,
acting as a sort of prelude to the * Marche des
Davidsbiindler centre les Philistins.' ' Pause * is
also the title of a fine song in Schubert's ' Schone
MiUlerin.' [J.A.F.M.]
PAVAN, PAVANE, or PAVIN, a slow and
8(^emn dance, very popular in the i6th and 17th
centuries. The name, derived from 'Padoyana,'^
points to an Italian origin, although it is gener-
ally said to have come frt>m Spain, owing to its
popularity in that country. The Spanish Pavan,
howeyer, was a yariation of the original dance.
According to some authorities, the name is
derived from the the Latin patfo, owing to the
fancied resemblance to a peacock's tail caused by
the robes and cloaks worn by the dancers, as
they swept out in the stat^y figures of the
dance, ^veral good descriptions of the Pavan
have come down to us. Eabelais ' tells us that
it was one of the 180 dances performed at the
court of the Queen of Lantemois on the visit of
Pantagruel and his companions; Tabourot, in
his ' Orch^sographie,' says that in his tiime,
Pavans were still popular, although not as much
danced as formerly.' At state baUs the dancers
wore their long robes, caps, and swords, and the
music was p^ormed by sackbuts and oboes.
In masquerades, Pavans were played as proces-
sional music, and were similarly used at weddings
and religious ceremonies. Like all early dances,
the Pavan was originally sung as well as danced,
and Tabourot gives the following example for 4
I In the CMnbrldge VnlTertlty LIbniy Is a 1I& rolume of aln and
dukom (In Lut« Tabiaturs) bf Oowland and Uolboraa In \thleh there
oocun a ' PadoTana da la Mllaneua.*
* Pantafruel. Bk. ▼. published ISA
> B^sard. In Uie FrafMo to bU 'Tbetaunu Harmonlciu Dlrlnl
Lanrendnl Bomanl' (Oologne. 1606). after praising tb« sweetnMS and
eiotanqr of tha Knf lisb miule of hit daj. makas parttcalar mantlon
of the Pvmm, adding that the word 'Parana' k nothing elM than
the Italian * Paduana.' Ho also menUons that the Fnmch often call
their PaMomeaw, rarans.
PAVAN.
yoloet. aooompanied throughout by the dram on
one note ^ J J •
Pcntane d quatre parties.
dans tea 7«alx> Qa> m'M Ptt-aiom- ol-e d*im
ionbf-rls gra-d • tiuc. Vlenitoet me sa - ooa • tir
flrald -» moa • ilr yiens toet na m • ooa •
J.J J, ^^^ J^
a The treUa siBfli D, tbe alto r.
Sir John Davies, in his 'Orchestra* (1596) h&s
the following curious yerses, in which the mo-
tions of the sun and the moon are compared to
dancers of Pavans and Galliards :
* For that braae Sonne the Father of the Bsy,
Doth lone this Earth, the Mother of the Ni^t;
And like a reneUotir in rich arrar,
- lie
Doth daanoe his galliftrd in his lemmsn's tight.
Both hack, and forth, and sidewaiee, pasdng light*
* Who dottj not see the measnreg of the Moone,
Which thirteene times she dannceth enerj yearet
And ends her paulne thirteene times as aoooe
As doth her brother.*
There are numerous specimens extant of Pavaos
by instrumental composers of the i6th and 17th
centuries, and in almost every case the Pavan
is followed by a Galliard, the two thus anti-
cipating the Saraband and Gigue of the later
Suite. Thus Morley ('Introduction,* Part 3) after
speaking of Fantaisies, says, ' The next in grauity
and goodnes vnto this is called a pauane, a
kind of staide musicke, ordained ror grane
dauncing, and most commonlie made of three
straines, whereof euerie straise is plaid or sung
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PAVAN.
twice, a ttraine they make to containe 8, 13, or
16 semibreues as they list, yet fewer then eight
I haae not seene in any pauan. . . . After
enery pauan we vsually set a galliard.* And
Butler (' Principles of Music,* 1636), speaking of
the Doric mode, has the following : — ' Of this
sort are Pavins, invented for a slow and soft
kind of Dancing, altogether in duple Proportion.
Unto which are fram^ Qalliards for more quick
and nimble motion, always in triple proportion,
and therefore the triple is oft called Galliard-
time and the duple, Pavin-time/ Amongst the
best known of wese forerunners of the Suite,
we may mention John Dowland's *Lachrymae
or Seauen Teares, figured in seauen passionate
Pauans with diuers other Pauans, Galliards, and
Almands* (1605) ; and JohannGhro's 30 Pavans
and Galliiffds 'nach teutscher art geeetzet*
(1604).
The Spanish Pavan, a variety of the original
danoe which came from Spain (where it was
called the Grand Dance), was of a more elaborate
character than the ori^^ial. Judging from the
frequent occurrence of its air in the early English
Lute and Virginal Books, it must have become
very popular in England.* The following is the
tone which Tabouret gives for it: it is not the
same as that which is found in the English books.
PEACE.
677
[W.B.S.]
PAXTON, Stephen, a composer of vocal
music in the latter part of the i8th centuiy,
produced several graceful and elegant glees, 9
of which, with a catches, are printed in Warren s
Collections. The Catch Club awarded him prizes
for the following glees ; ' How sweet, how fresh,*
1779; * Bound the hapless Andre's nm,' 1781;
' Blest Power,' 1 784 ; and * Come, O come,' 1 785 ;
and for a catch, 'Ye Muses, inspire me,* 1783.
He published 'A Collection of two Songs, Glees
and two Catches,* and ' A Collection of Glees.'
Two masses by him are printed in Webbe's Col-
lection. He died in 1787.
His brother, William, was a violoncellist, who
composed several sets of solos and duets for his
instruknent. He gained prizes from the Catch
Club for 2 canons, * O Lord in Thee,* 1 779, and
* O Israel, trust in the Lord,* 1780. He died in
1781. [W.H.H.]
PEABODY CONCERTS, given under the
auspices of the Conservatory of Music of the Pea-
body Institute, Baltimore, Maryland. Beginning
in 1865, eight concerts have been given everv
season, each being preceded by a public rehearsal
the director of the Conservatory officiating as
' In SUrter^ 'Vrlecehe Lost Hof*a034). It Is caUed 'Engebche
itxAttaseoda Dtum LrauleMtjn.'
condnctor. The programmes have been made
up of symphonies, suites, overtures, concertos and
vocal solos, nearly everything presented being of
classic in style. Many important compositions
have been performed for the first time in America
in the course of these concerts. Under Mr. Asger
Hamerik*s direction (sinoe 187 1) especial atten-
tion has been given to the production of works
by American, English and Scandinavian com-
posers. The orchestra has generally included 50
musicians. The institution elicited the warm
approbation of Von Btilow (1875-76) for its
exceptionally fine performances. [See ' Peabody
Institute,* under United Statkb.j [F. H. J.J
^ PEACE, Albebt Listeb, Mus. Doc., is a na-
tive of Huddersfield. He exhibited in his child-
hood precocity hardly exceeded by that of Crotch
or even Mozart ; naming with unerring accuracy
individual notes and combinations of notes when
sounded, before attaining his fifth year. At the
age of nine he was appointed organist of the
parish church of Holmfirth, and subsequently of
other churches in that neighbourhood. In 1866,
at the age of ai, he removed to Glasgow, to fill
the office of organist to Trinity Congregational
church, and soon afterwards, along with other
posts, that of organist to the University. In
1870 he graduate as Bachelor, and in 1875 as
Doctor of Music in the University of Oxford.
Dr. Peace is one of a school of organists which
has come into existence in this country only
within the last half oentuiy, and which may be
said to owe that existence to the late S. S.
Wesley. Its distinguishing characteristic may
be said to be the employment of the feet <u a
third liand, concurrently with the extension of
the pedal-board downwards, firom G to C below
it, and also upwards, to the £ or F, two octaves
and a third or fourth above it. This extension
enables the performer to lay out harmonies after
the manner of the ' harmonic chord,' in which
the largest intervals are found between the lowest
notes. More than this, it has brought within his
reach, what on the old G pedal-board was ob-
viously outside it, the organ compontions of J.
S. Badi and his schooL Fifty vears ago, or even
later, there were probably not half a dozen Eng-
lishmen who could have played one of the Organ
Fugues of that great master; certainly there
were not as many organs on which they could
have been played.' Both C organs and plavers
competent to use them may now be reckoned by
hundreds. Of this school of performers Dr. Peace
is one of the most distinguished members living.
His mechanical powers enable him not merely
to deal with everything as yet written expressly
for his instrument, but to reaUse upon it compo-
sitions designed for aU the combinations of the
modem orchestra. This he does with unsur^
passed taste and readiness. Dr. Peace's published
* In the prognmiiM* of Um nomeroiu organ redtali of the tete
Thomas Adams, the ortAnUt par €»eMmea of the flnt Imlf of
thU centnrr. tt It highly probable. If not certain, that no one of theee
eompoettkms em- appeared. One of Adams'a moet &Toarite tbow
pieces was the Fugue in D In the lat book of the ■ Well-tempered
Clavier.' But this-though Vendelssohn also played i»-it not one of
I Baeh's p«da^ftafa«s.
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67S
P£AGE«
compoflitioAS M6 for the most part eonnected
with t&e Servioe of the Church of England.
They form however bat a mnall portion of those
still in MS., among which may be espeoially
mentioned a letting of the 138th Psalm, and a
cantata 'The Narrative of John the Baptist,'
composed respectively for his degrees as Bachelor
and Doctor of Music. On the recent completion
of the new organ at Glasgow Cathedral — an in-
strument by Willis embracing all the most recent
improvements in the organ-builder's art — Dr.
Peace was appointed organist there. On this and
on the oigan, by Lewis, at the Glasgow New
Music HaU, and on various instruments in dif-
ferent parts of England and Scotland, Dr. Peace is
a frequent and most popular performer. [J.H.]
PEABS AliL, BoBBRT Lucas, bom at Clifton,
March 14, 1795, of an old Gloucestershire family.
He showed much talent for poetry and music at
an earlv age, but was educated for the bar, to
which he was called in 182 1, and at which he
practised till 1825. He then left England for
the continent^ and after some time settled at
Mavence, where, during four years he took a
brilliant part in literary, artistic, and archieo-
logical life, including music, in which he was the
pupil of Panny, whose instructions in composition
he pursued ^th characteristic ardour. In 1829
he returned to England, but after a year went
back to the Continent and settled with his fiunily
at Carlsruhe, he resuming his intellectual pur-
suits, and composing and practising much music.
The next few years were spent in travelling to
Munich, Vienna, Nurember;^, and other towns,
for musical and archsdological purposes. In 1836
he revisited England, and heanng, apparentiy
for the first time, some madrigals sung at London
and Bristol, was so much inflamed by this new
experience as to write a treatise on that style of
music, which he published in Germany. A year
later he sold his family property of Willsbridge,
and again quitted England for Wartensee, on uie
Lake of Constance, where he purchased the castie.
In 1847 he returned for a cuiort visit, and then
left his native countnr for the last time. Thence-
forward till his deam, Aug. 5, 1856, he resided
at his castie en grand seigneur, eager to the
last on all intellectual and artistic subjects,
bat especially on music. He wrote a great
number of psalms, motets, anthems, and other
church music, amongst them a Kequiem, on
which he set much store, treatises on munic, anrl
a 'Catholisches G^sangbuch' (1863), founded on
that of St. Gall, and still muse. The bulk of this
is however still in MS. His published works con-
tain 47 Choral Songs and Madrigals, for 4, 5, 6,
8, and 10 voices, including ' The Hardy Norse-
man,' and 'Oh, who will o'er the downs so free* —
the fresh and spirited strains of which will keep
Pearsall's memory green for many a long year
among the part-singers of England. But besides
these well-known songs the collection embraces
madrigals such as 'Great God of Love,* and
' Lay a garland,' both for 8 voices, which may
be pronounced to be amongst the most melo-
dious and pure specimens of 8-part writing
PEDAL POINT.
ever penned by an Englishman, and oeriun id
be popular abroad if published there.
In the latter part of his life Pearsall was re-
ceived into the Boman Catholic Church, and he
added a * de * to his name, calling himself De
PearsaU. Had he made music his exclusive
pursuit there is litUe doubt he would have risen
to a very high rank. [G.]
PEDALIEB. (i) A pedal keyboard attached
to a pianoforte, and acting by connection with its
mechanism upon the hammers and strings proper
to it; or (a) an independent bass pianoforte so
called by its inventors, Messrs. Pleyd, Wolff
& C* of Paris, to be played by pedals only, and
used with an ordinary pianoforte. J. S. Bach
had a harpsichord with two rows of keys and
pedals, upon which be played his trios, and for
which he transcribed VivsJdfs string concartoa,
and composed the fomous Pnssacaille in C min<u'.
Since Bach many clavecinists and pianists have
had their instruments fitted with rows of pedals,
and compositions have been specially wptten — as,
for instance, by Schumann, who wrote several
* Studien ' and * Skizzen * (op. 56 and 58) for the
Pedal-Flilgel or Pedalier Grand Pianoforte. C.
y. Alkan, a French composer, has also written
some noble works for this instrument, which,
together with the above-mentioned transcriptions
by Bach, were brought before the notioe of the
London musical public in 1871 by Monsieur
£. M. Delaborde of Paris, an eminent pianist
and remarkable pedalist, in his performance at
the Hanover Square Booms, upKm a Pedalier
Grand Piano specially constructed for him by
Messrs. Broadwood. [A. J. H.J
PEDAL POINT, or Point cTorgue, in Harmony
is the sustaining of a note by one part whilst
the other parts proceed in independent harmony,
and is subject to the following strict laws: (i)
The sustained note must be either the Tonic or
Dominant of the key ; (2) ConsequenUy the other
parts must not modulate ; (3) The sustained, or
pedal note, when first sounded or finally quitted,
must form part of the harmony.
The mere sustaining of a note or a chord
against one or more moving parts does not con*
stitute a pedal : as in the following examples from
Beethoven-
Ex.!. • Op.2,No.S.
nor does the simple sustaining of a note through
harmonies to which it is common ; though this is
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1»EDAL POINT.
tlie true origin of Pedal, as we shall presently
see. Example from the Mass known as ' Mozart
No. 13'—
PEDAL POINT.
679
A^^UAllJ ij
These remarks also apply to the long drum-
passage in the middle of the first movement of
Beethoven's 4th Symphony, and in Wagner's
Prelude to ' Das Rheingold.' both of which are
sometimes spoken of^as Pedals, but which are
merely cases of a long sustained note or chord.
In a true pedal the hiumony must be independent
of the sustained note and occasionally alien to
it, as for example the grand instance in the
* Cum sancto spiritu ' of the above Mass, which
begins thus : —
and increases in development for 13 bars more,
forming as fine a specimen of true Pedal as can
be quoted.
The rule that the Pedal-note must be either
the Tonic or Dominant would seem to point to the
Drone as its origin. This Drone, or sustaining
of the kejmote as an accompaniment, is probably
the very oldest form of harmony, though it may
not have been considered as sudi at all, having
no doubt originated in the mere imperfection of
ancient instruments, the persistent sounding of
a drum or pipe with one note against the in-
flected chant of voices, etc. Among the first
rude specimens of harmony given by Guido in
the ' Micrologus ' is the following : —
Ex.5.
B y •, ■
■
-m-
— »<-
^-a — ^
t=SZ
-w-H
^^ — n — =
Ho-mo
•
- nx
In
Je •
ru -
- Hi -
lem.
S?WNNWWWWWM)K iMzM
But it is probable that all such Drones, even
down to their high development in the bagpipe
and hurdygurdy, rested on no theoretical basis,
but were of accidental origin. Looked at in the
light of modem knowledge, however, we see
in the drone an unconscious groping after the
truth of the Harmonic Scale, on which all modern
harmony rests. We now perceive that either
the Tonic or Dominant, or even both together,
may with perfect propriety be sounded through
any Tonic, Dominant, or Supertonic harmonies,
sinoe these must always oonsist of harmonics
generated by the Tonic or t^ harmonics, and
the generator is therefore always a true bass.
But to leave theory and come to practice, it is
to be observed that in the contrapuntal music of
the 1 6th century the desire for some relief to
note-against-note counterpoint gave rise to the
sustaining of a note in one part so long as the
others could be brought to sound consonant with
it, and thus the &ct of a Dominant forced itself
Itatb notice. The following two examples from
Palestrina show how the idea of a long sustained
note as a climax or warning of a conclusion was
at this time growing.
Ex.6.
The second of these is especially curious, as being
a real and perfectly modem-sounding Dominant
Pedal.
With the development of Fugue and the in-
troduction of discords the Pedal, as a means of
climax, grew in importance, and in the works of
Bach and Handel we find it an almost indis-
pensable adjunct to a Fugue. The single speci-
men from Bach which space allows of our quoting
is interesting fi*om the boldness with which the
composer has seized the idea of making a Pedal
which shall be first a Tonic, then a Dominant,
and then a Tonic again. In the Prelude to the
grreat Organ Fugue in A minor there is a very
long Pedal, which after 4 bars modulates thus —
Ex.8.
and after 5 bars more modulates back again.
There is nothing contrary to rule here, as the
Pedal is always either Tonic or Dominant, but
it is none the less a precedent for modulation on
a Pedal.
A curious example of apparent modulation on
a Pedal is to be observed in the concluding bars
of a Dominant Pedal which joins the first and
second subjects of the ist movement of Chopin's
B minor Sonata —
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PEDAL POINT.
^^r^Hj
In the fourth bar of this quotation we seem to
have got into a Dominant seventh of Ol], but
this is not really the case, the Clj being, as be-
fore, an appoggiatura over Bb, the Dominant
minor nlntn of A, and the real third (C$) being
ingeniously omitted in order to carry out the
delusion. Not till the very last group of semi-
quavers are we undeceived.
A Pedal may occur in either an upper, middle,
or lower part, but it is easy to understand from
its nature that it is most effective as a bass, the
clumsy name of 'inverted Pedal * applied to it in
any but this position, seeming to stamp it as un-
natural. The Trio of the Scherzo in Beethoven's
9th Symphony offers a good example of a Pedal
taken in all poeiUons.
Being apparently alien to the harmony, it is
always desirable that the Pedal should lie far
removed from the other parts, which is impossible
when it occurs in a middle part. Even in
orchestral compositions, where the Trumpets and
Horns are frequently, from their nature, employed
on a middle Pedal, much harshness results,
although the pedal stands out in relief through
contrast of timbre. Thus the following passage in
Grieg^s Pianoforte Concerto sounds very strange,
though really it is quite simple :
Ex.10.
In the duet in the first Act of Bizet's 'Carmen/
however, a concealed tonic Pedal in a middle
PEDAL POINT.
part is productive of novel and charming har-
monious effect : —
Here, on dissecting the arpeggios of the accom-
paniment, the Bb IS seen to be a Pedal, though
not sustained.
This brings us to 'figured' or 'florid' PedaL
The Pedal note need not be merely sustained or
reiterated, but may bear any ornamental figure,
varying firom a simple alternation with the note
next above or below (as in countless ' spinning-
wheel * pieces), to a scale passage or figure of any
extent, provided this do not suggest harmony of
itself. Thus in Beethoven we find
Ex. IS.
and many similar passages (Finale of Symphony
in A, etc.) of striking effect : whereas the fol-
lowing, from Wagner, is harsh, frt>m the clashing
of Tonic and Dominant harmonies :
Ex.18.
When both Tonic and Dominant are simul-
taneously sustained we have a Double Pedal, an
effect much used in modem music to convey ideas
of a quaint or pastoral character, frt>m its suggest-
ing tne drone of a bagpipe. This is a very ordinary
form of accompaniment to the popular songs and
dances of almost all countries, and is so constantly
to be found in the works of Grounod, (^Ihopin, and
Grieg as to form a mannerism. Beethoven has
produced a never-to-be-forgotten effect just be-
fore the Finale of the C minor Symphony by the
simple yet unique device of placing, in his long
double Pedal, the Dominant under the Tonic
instead of above, as is usual. This passage
stands absolutely alone as a specimen of Pedal.
Several modem composers have attempted a
Triple Pedal — that is, the sustaining of the Tonic,
the Dominant, and its Dominant (major ninth of
Tonic). Especially noteworthy in this respect
is the passage of 30 bars opening the Finale of
Lalo's Spanish Symphony. All such attempts
are futile, however, as tiie three notes form a
harmony of themselves and preclude the possi-
bility of being treated as a Pedal. The fact is
to be strongly insisted on that only the Tonic
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PEDAL POINT.
vid Dominant can he Pedals. The famous
passage in the * Eroica ' Symphony
Ex.14.
PEDALS.
681
may be thought exquisite by some, and a mere
blunder by others, but it is not a Pedal, or any-
thing else that Harmony has a name for. But
what then is to be said for the following extra-
ordinary passage in Grieg's song ' Ausfahrt' t
m
-aJULjL-JLA •
Is the Db here a Pedal? If so, the passage might
be cited as a possible quadruple Pedal, for £b
and a low Ab might be added to the bass with-
out bad effect. The true explanation — namely,
that here we have no pedal at all, bat a melody
in double notes moving against one continued
harmony — ^will hardly be accepted by every one,
and the passage must stand as a remarkable
exception to rule.
Beginning with Schumann we find that modem
composers have all striven to invent new Pedal
effects by breaking one or other of the three
governing laws. Li Schumann's 'Humoreske'
occurs the following typical passage —
Be. 10.
r^H» — ■
fl53,^ f-p A,
3ij .r ML^
^^f^^
'— »-M Las GBa
m-^ — ^j'lj ' -—ff-''f—\
H^ '
^r r
where, on a sustained F we modulate from Bb
into C minor, D minor, E minor, and F major,
"uocessivelv. Schumann frequently on a Tonic
Pedal modulates into the relative minor, as in
the Trio of the Scherzo in the Eb Symphony, etc. ;
but such harmony being open to another explana-
tion than • pedal the law remains in force. Raff
goes still fiurther. In the slow movement of his
Spring Symphony he modulates through numerous
keys for a roace of 40 bars, always contriving
that a high 6 may be sounded on the first beat
of each bar with some bearable degree of concord.
Again, the following passage from the last move-
ment of the same composer's Forest Symphony
M7.
which is so &r a pedal passage— he repeats in
Bb, Db, and G, still with the F in the bass,
producing an effect which is certainly novel, if
nothing else.
The only point remaining to be noticed is that
our 3rd rule, forbidding motion to or from the
pedal note when it does not form part of the
harmony, has been occasionally violated without
unpleasing effect. In Hiller's Ft minor Piano
Concerto, the following occurs on each repetition
of the main subject
Spohr has used the Pedal perhaps with greater
frequency than any composer, but his mode of
treatment is invariable and calls for no notice.
Songs and short pieces have been occasionally
written entirely on a Pedal bass ; and the longest
Pedal extant is perhaps the introduction to Wag-
ner's opera * Die Walktlre.' [F. C]
PEDALS (from pes, pedis, a foot). Certaip
appliances in the Organ, Pianoforte, and Harp,
worked by the feet.
I. In the Organ they are keys, sounding notes,
and played by the feet instead of the hands;
and the Pedal -board is the whole breadth
or range of such keys. When pedals were first
applied to English organs — towards the end of
the last century — they were made (in the words
of an old treatise) to * drag down ' the manual
keys; and the lowest pedal was always placed
exactly below the lowest manual key. And as,
in the organs of the time, the manuals of one
would descend to GG with short octaves, of
a second to the same note with long octaves,
of a third to FFF, of a fourth to CCC, while
those of a fifth would stop at the orthodox CC
key; and as one oi^an would have an octave
of pedals, a second an octave and a half, and a
third two, it was quite possible to go to half
a dozen organs in succession without finding
any two with the pedals alike, either in position
or approach towtuds efficiency. The earliest
specimens, too, were toe-pedals, like those at
Halberstadt [page 582, fig. la] ; but after a time
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PEDAIit.
long pedali, fitted in a frame, were iotiodaoed,
and called 'German pedals.* Modifications in the
form and plan of the pedal-board soon began to
be made. Radiating pedals, struck from a centre
some distance to uie rear of the organ stool,
were made by Elliott & Hill, and attached
to the York Minster organ in 1834. Concave
pedals, slightly rising at the extreme right and
left to meet the shortened reach of the feet,
precisely as the plane of the bob of a pendulum
rises as it swings to and fro, were introduced
into England by Schulze in 1 851. Mr. Henry
Willis combined the two in his 'concaye and
radiating pedal-board.' A fifth kind of pedal-
board consists of parallel pedals, like those first
described, but with the fronts of the short keys
slightly radiating.
The compass almost universally adopted in
England for the pedal-board, extends from GCC
up to tenor F, 30 notes — 2 J octaves. Occa-
sionally they are carried np even to G. Bach
wrote once only up to F — in his Toccata in that
key — and two or three times to £. Once he
wrote down to BB, for the sake of preserving
a certain figure unaltered. His usual upward
compass was to tenor D ; and Mendelssohn never
wrote higher than that note for the Pedals.
The right position for the pedal-board is with
the centre one of the three 0 pedals under the
* middle C ' key of the manuals. With this as a
starting-point, and the long pedals measuring
about a I inches from centre to centre, the dis-
tance of the several intervals can be soon ascer-
tained. The two breaks in each octave where
there are no short keys — between B and C, and
between E and F — are also excellent guides
which are readily available to a practised
touch. The position for the front of the short
keys of the straight pedals, is in a line with
the fronts of the short keys of the Great ManuaL
With radiating pedals this arrangement is ne-
cessarily modified. Occasionally some other
pedal than 0 is placed under the C of the
manuals, to bring the extreme upper pedals
within more easy reach. This disturbs the
position of the whole pedal range that is in con-
stant requisition, for the accommodation of a few
notes that are rarely used.
Composition Pkdals. Pedals placed above
the pedal -board throw out or draw in the stops
in groups. When they act upon the wind and
not upon the stops, they are sometimes called
Combination pedals, and are practically the same
as the * Yentils * of the old German organs, and
the ' Pedales des Combinaisons ^ of the modem
French builders.
SwBLL Pedal. The treadle, usually placed to
the extreme right, by which the swell shutters
are opened or closed. The pedal is lowered by
the pressure of the foot, and raised again by the
weight of the shutters. In the Town Hall
wgan at Boston, U.SJL., built by Walcker, the
swell is opened by the pressure of the toe and
closed by the pressure of the heel ; and, what is
most useful, remains in any intermediate position
in which the foot leaves it. This good arrange-
PEDALS.
ment has been adopted by Messrs. Lewis ft Co. in
their fine orsan in Glasgow Hall.
Other pedals, horseshoe-shaped as well as of
other forms, are sometimes introduoed to act
upon the manual and pedal couplers. [E. J.^.]
II. In the Pianoforte, the pedals are levers,
usually two,^ which are pressed either to
diminish or to increase and prolong the tooe
of a pianoforte. That for the left foot, the piano
pedal, acts by reducing the number of f^ngs
struck by the hammers, or softens their impact
either b^ interposing a strip of felt, or by
diminishmg their length of blow. That for the
right foot, the forte pedal, takes the dampers
out of use altogether, or allows the player, by
judicious management with the foot, so as to
avoid confusing the sound, to augment and pro-
long it by increasing what are called sympathetic
vibi-ations, an invaioable help to the beauty of
tone of the instrument. Pedals were first
adapted to the harpsichord to relieve the hands
from the interruption of moving stops. This
* beautiM invention,* as C. P. E. Bach calls it
(Versnch etc. 1763, ater Theil, p. 245), was at-
tributed by him to ' our celebrated Herr Hole-
feld,' but Mace, in *Mu8ick*s Monument,' en-
ables us to claim the invention for the Knglish
harpsichord-maker, John Hayward, about 1670.
The pedals were attached on either side of die
stand upon which the harpsichord rested, as they
did in the grand pianoforte until 1806, or even
later. The name of the inventor of the lyre-
shaped fnme for the pedals is not forthcoming.
Zumpe's square piano (1766 and later) had stops
next to the left hand of the player, to raise the
dampers in two divisions.' IStein*s and other
German pianos had a lever to be pressed by the
knee. Real Ficmo and Forte pedals first occur
in ^ohn Broadwood's patent of November 1 783.
The piano he effected by damping the strings
near the belly-bridge with a strip ot soft material
which he called a ' sordin * or mute ; the second
by taking away the dampers from the strings.
Sebastian Erard placed the strip of cloth be-
tween the hammers and the strings, an inventioa
which Adolphe Adam, in his Tutor for the Paris
Conservatoire, baptized as cdeMln. The Germans
call iiflauto pedal, and Herr B(>aENDORFrsB, of
Vienna, has lately reintroduced it in grand
pianofortes as a third pedal, which may be fixed
by a notch when an almost dumb instrument is
required for practising. The 'celeste pedal*
cannot however rival the .^£olian charm of the
shifting pedal, first introduced by Stein in his
Saitenharmonica, the beauty of which arises
from the vibrations of the imused strings which
are excited from the soundboard; and as ihey
have not been jerked by a hammer-blow, they
sound with another and more ethereal timbre
than those which have been struck. What a hold
this took on the imagination of Beethoven may
be seen from the slow movement to his 4th PF.
1 PfauM> or Soft r«dal (Fr. P«Mto j>«ial«. Gmn. FwJbtfut*^.
Pianottug) ; Fort* or Loud Damper Pedal OTr. Grand* ptdaU, Ckn*.
Orouf Psdal, ForUtug).
a The dlrbton of the dampers In grand ptanoe waf retalood aniQ aa
late ai UOO, bj dirUlon of tbe rlflK pedal-Uiot.
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PEDALS.
Canoerto (1807) and the Solo Sonatafl. op.
ioi« 106, 109, no, III, in all of which the
ahifting pedal plays a great part. It is thia
qnality of which Chopin, the great master of
UkB refined use of both pedals, made so much
in his compositions and his performance. The
piano pedal used to be controlled in its shifting
hy a small stop or wedge in the righthand key-
block, so that Uie shift coold be made to either
two strings or one at the discretion of the player.
The latter was Stein*s ' spinetchen,* the itna corda
or eiM Saite of Beethoven, who expressed the
return to the three strings by Naeh uMd naeh
wuhrere Saitent TuUe le corde. or TuttoU eembalo
(op. 101). The one-string shift in grand piano-
fortes has been for many yean discarded, sharing
the &te of the extra pedals that produced an
imitation of a bassoon, or added a drum, a bell,
etc. The vme of the celeste pedal was indicated
by Hommel with a special sign, thus A.^
Taming to the Forte pediU, Pollini invented,
and Thalberg, Henselt, and Liszt carried to the
fiurthest limits, the relief of the hands by the use of
it. Indeed it gave the pianist the equivalent to a
third hand ; rince it was no longer necessary to
bind the fingers to the keys durii^ the measured
values of the notes ; but by combining stronger
expressed tone with the use of the pedal a melody
could be made prominent, while the fingers were
immediately firee to take a share in the accom-
paniment or what not, in any part of the key-
board. By this expedient idl harmonious ex-
tensions become possible. The effect of the forte
or damper pedal is to increase the tone of the
note struck by calling out the partial tones of
lower notes which are equivalent to its full
vibrating length or prime ; the strings of higher
registers becoming primes to the partials com-
posing the note struck ; in both cases by relation
of measurement and by excitement from the
soundboard.^ The pedal thus adds a wonderful
enrichment to the tone. The modem signs for
its use and disuse are respectively 'Fed.' and
0, or a star. Herr Hans Schmitt, in his
admirable lectures on the pedals (Das Pedal
des Clavieres, Vienna 1875), proposes for the
finer use of this pedal a notation beneath the
usual staves -^ ■ — , thus by note and rest
marking the action of the foot with the greatest
nicety.
An important pedal {Pidode de prolongftnent
ou tonale ; Grerm. KwMtpedal) was introduced by
Mental of Paris, a blind man, and exhibited by
him in 1862 in London. [See Pianofortb.] The
object of it is to allow selected notes to vibrate
whUe the rest are immediately damped. It
has been again brought forward by Steinway
and others, and its value much insisted upon.
1 Thia amngeraent of tiie ihifttnff toft pedal ezlsU to an un-
altered grand plaoo of John BruadwtM>d'a dated 17US. It b thus
poaiible that in thU form It may hari been an tnrentton of that
makar. or. if not hia, an £ngllsh luventlon timultaneotuly with
Stein'a.
a The partials abore the prime alao ezdte their equlTalento In
TlbnUlng length, but will probably not be audible abore the third
or fourth. Owing to eqaal temperament-tuning the llflh partial
eonld only be Tory feebly exetted. At the aerenth and eighth w«
arrlre about the atiUdng plaoeof the hammer by which tboM partials
an obliterated.
PELLEGRINI.
^SZ
We cannot however believe that it will be of use
in a concert room. The Kunst-pedal of Herr
Zachariae of Stuttgart divides the row of dampers
by four cleft pedal feet into eight sections, and
thus facilitates the use of the staccato. [See
SOBDIKI.]
III. In the Harp the pedals are not keys, as
in the Organ, nor do they modify the colour and
amount of the tone, as in the Fiano ; but it is
their province to alter the pitch in two gra-
dations of a semitone each. The mechanical
contrivance for this is described in the article
Harp. [See vol. i. p. 687.] The invention of these
chromatic pedals is attributed to a Bavarian,
named Hocmbrucker, about 1730. The gradual
improvement and extended use of them culmin-
ated in 1 810, in the Double Action harp at that
date perfected by Sebastian Erard. [A.J.H.]
PEERSON, PEARSON, or PIERSON,
Mabtin, Mus. Bac, graduated at Oxford July
8, 1613. He was one of the contributors to
Leighton^s *Teares or Lamentacions, etc.* 1614.
In 1620 he published 'Private Musicke, or the
First Booke of Ayres and Dialogues. Contayning
Songs of 4, 5 and 6 parts, of severall sorts, and
being Verse and Chorus, is fit for Voyces and
Viols. And for want of Viols they may be per-
formed to either the Viiginall or Lute, where
the proficient can play upon the Ground, or for
a shift to the Base Viol alone. All made and
composed according to the rules of art.' The last
piece in the collection the composer tells us ' was
made for the King and Queenes entertaynment
at High-gate on May-day, 1604.* About the
same period he became master of the children of
St. Paul's. In 1630 he published 'Mottects, or
Grave Chamber Musique, containing Songs of
five parts of severall sorts, some ful, and some
Verse and Chorus. But all fit for Voyces and
Viols, with an Organ Part ; which for want of
Organs may be performed on Virginals, Base-
Lute, Bandora, or Irish Harpe. Also a Mourn-
ing Song of sixe parts for the Death of the late
Right Honorable Sir Fulke Grevil, Knight of
the Honorable order of the Bath, Lord Brooke,
&c. Composed according to the rules of art.* He
died in 1650 and was buried in the church of St.
Faith under St. Paul*s. He bequeathed to the
poor of Marsh, in the parish of Dunnington, in
the Isle of Ely, £100, to be laid out in a purchase
for their use. [W.H.H.]
PELLEGRINI, Fbuoe, an excellent bass
singer, was bom at Turin in 1774. After sing-
ing as a chorister in the Cathedral, he became
the pupil of Ottani, who tauorht him counter-
point and the art of vocalisation. At ai he
made his dAhul at Leghorn. His fine voice and
good method were at once recognised, and he
continued to sing with success at several of the
chief Italian theatres, at Rome in 1805, at
Milan in 1806, and at Naples from 1807 to 1810.
In 181 1 the grand part of the father in * Agnese *
was written for him by Paer ; and in this he
made his first appearance at Paris.
Though past his youth, he was favourably
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PELLEGRINL
received, and began to be applauded in the
buffo rAles of Bc«sini*B opens. Superseded by
Zucohelli, he endeavoured, but fruitlessly, to
find an engagement in his native country ; Ebers,
however, who had just lost Kemorini, was glad
to engage him for London at £500 for the season
of i8a6. He was successful here, especially in
comic characters. In 1829 a place, as professor
of singing at the Conservatoire at Paris, was
obtaii:^ for him by the Yicomte de la Hoche-
foucauld. He did not, however, long enjoy
this position, for in 1833 he began to lose his
faculties, and he died, in poor circumstances,
Sept. ao of that year. Pellegrini left 6 opera
of Duets. Trios, Ariette, Gantate, and Solfeggi,
published at Paris. [J.M.]
PELLEGRINI, GiULio, a good bass singer,
was bom at Milan, Jan. i, 1806. In 18 17 he
was received into the Conservatorio of that dty,
and was taught by Banderali. At the early
age of 16, he made his cUbiU at Turin in
Pacini's * Falegname di Livonia,' and was suc-
cessful in spite of his extreme youth and in-
experience. Shortly afterwards, he was engaged
at Munich, sharing the principal parts with
Santini, and was much applauded. At the death
of the king, the Italian Opera was closed.
Pellegrini, nothing daunted, set to work to learn
German ; and, after five months* steady applica-
tion, had mastered the language sufficiently to
appear in German Opera, in February, 1826.
Appointed singer to the Court of Bavaria and
fint bass to the Theatre Royal of Munich, he
bad now achieved a brilliant position, which he
enjoyed for many years. In 1829 he made a
tour in Italy, and sang with unvarying success.
In 1832 he came to London with Madame
Schroder -Devrient and Haitzinger; but does
not seem to have attracted very much attention.
Tamburini, Galli, and Lablache were here. On his
return to Munich he resumed his poet at court and
theatre ; and there he died July 1 2, 1858. [J.M.]
PEPUSCH, John Chbistopheb, Mus. Doc.,
son of the minister of a Protestant congregation
in Berlin, and bom there in 1667. He studied
the theory of music under Gottlieb Klingenberg,
organist at Stettin, and the practice of it under
G^TOSse, a Saxon organist. Although his father's
means did not admit of his receiving instruction
for more than one year, he had made such ex-
cellent use of his time that at 14 years of age
he obtained an appointment at the Prussian
Court. Devoting himself to the study of the
ancient Greek writers he became a deeply
skilled theorist. He retained his appointment
until he was 30 years old, when, being an eye-
witness of an act of savage ferocity on the part
of the king (the decapitation, without trial, of an
officer who had uttered some words at which the
barbarous despot took offence), he determined on
quitting his native land for some country where
human life was not in* danger of destruction by
the unbridled will of an individuaL He first
went to Holland, where he remained for upwards
of a year. He came to England about 1700 and
PEPUSCH. .
was engaged in the ofchestra at Drory Lane. Ib
1707 he adapted the music of the opera» 'Hkh
myris, Queen of Sc3rthia,' besides oompoang the
recitatives and some additional songs, and prob-
ably did the same for others of the Anglo-Italian
operas produced about that period. And at the
same time, with the assistance of Abraham do
Moivre, the celebrated mathematician, he zeal-
ously pursued his study of the music of the
ancients. In 1 710 he took an active part in the as-
tablishment of the Aoadeict or Akcunt Musio
[see that name], in which he took a deep interest
throughout his life. In 171 2 he was engaged
by the Duke of Chandos as organist and oom*
poser to his chapel at Canons^ for which he pro-
duced several services and anUiems. About the
same time he published ' Six English Cantatas,'
the words by John Hughes, which were received
with great favour, and one of which, ' Alexisi,'
with cello obbligato, continued to be sung in pub-
lic until the first half of the present century had
nearly passed away. He subsequently published
a similar set, the words by various authors. On
July 9, 1713, he took the degree of Mus. Doc
at Oxford, his exercise (peribrmed July 13)
being a dramatic ode on Uie Peace of Utrecht:
the words were printed on both sides of a
folio leaf. About the same time he revived
the practice of solmisation by hexacdiords,
which had been abandoned for upwards of a
century. Soon afterwards he became musle
director at Lincoln^s Inn Fields Theatre, and
continued so for many years. During his en-
gagement there he composed the music £ar
* Venus and Adonis,* masque, 1715; 'Apdio
and Daphne,* and ' The Death of Dido,' masquea,
1 716 ; and ' The Union of the Three Sister Arts»'
masque for St. Cecilia*s Day, 1723 ; besides
arranging the tunes and composing overtures for
'The Beggar's Opera,' 1727, and 'The Wedding;'
another ballad opera, 1734. ^® <^^ arranged
the tunes for Gay's inteniicted opera 'PoUy,'
1729. In 1724 he was induced to join in Dr.
Berkeley's scheme of a college in the Bermudas,
and actually embarked, but the ship being
wrecked, the undertaking was abandoned, and
he returned to England. He shortly after-
wards married Maigarita de TEpine, the eminent
singer, who brought him a fortune of £10,000.
In 1730 there was published anonymously 'A
Treatise on Harmony, containing the chief
Rules for composing in two, three and four
parts.' As the rules contained in the book were
those which Pepusch was in the habit of im-
parting to his pupils, and as they were published
without the necessary musical examples, he felt
compelled to adopt the work, and accordingly
in 1 731 published a 'Second Edition' with the
requisite additions, but stiU without his name.
It was conjectured that the first edition was
put forth by Viscount Paisley, afterwards
Earl of Abercom, who had been a pupil of
Pepusch's; but on this point nothing is Imown.
In 1737 he obtained the appointment of or-
ganist of the Charter House, where he passed
the remainder of his days, devoting him^f to
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PEPUSCH.
his studies, the care of the Academy of Ancient
Music, and the instruction of a tew &vourite
pnpils. His wife is commonly said to have died
in 1740, but an entry in a MS. diary kept by
Benjamin (afterwards Dr.) Cooke, then a pupU
of Pepusch, proyes her death to have taken place
in or about August 1746. Cooke writes, under
date * Sunday, Aug. 10, 1746,* — *I was at the
(Surrey) Chapel in the morning, but in the after-
noon went to Vauxhall with the Doctor, Mrs.
Peousch being dead.* Pepusob lost his only
child, a son, a youth of great promise, some
short time before. He wrote a paper on the
ancient Genera^ which was read before the Boyal
Society, and published in the 'Philosophical
Transactions' for 1746, and for which he was
elected F.B.S. He died July 20, 1752, and was
buried in the chapel of the Charter House, where
a tablet was placed to his memory in 1757. Be-
sides the oompositions before named he produced
odes to the memory of the Duke of Devonshire,
1707 (sung by Margarita de TEpine and Mrs.
Tofte) and for the Princess of Wales's birthday,
Marchi,i7i5-i6; airs, sonatas, and concertos for
various combinations of string and wind instru-
ments, and some Latin moteta. He also edited
Corelli's Sonatas in score. In 175 1 he dictated
'A Short Account of the Twelve Modes of Com-
position and their Progression in every Octave,'
never published. He bequeathed his library
to John Travers and Ephraim Kelner, on whose
deaths it was dispersed. A portrait of him is
in the Music School, Oxford. Another portrait,
by Hudson, has been engraved. Although Pe-
pusch was somewhat pedantic, he was profoundly
skilled in musical science, and the musicians he
formed (of whom it is only necessary to mention
Travers, Boyce, and Cooke) sufficiently attest his
skiU as a teacher. [W Ji.H.]
PEBABO, Ebnst, bom at Wiesbaden, Nov.
14, 1845, one of 10 children, all followers of
music. His talent showed itself very early,
and when only nine he is said to have played
Bach's 'Well-tempered Clavier' by heart. In
185 a bis parents took him to New York, and
after a time arrangements were made to send
him back to Germany for education. He left
the United States Sept. i, 1858, and after nearly
four years at Hamburg entered the Leipzig Con-
servatorium Oct. 33, ib63. After going success-
folly through the course there un<kr Moscheles,
Bichter, etc., he returned to New York in Nov.
1865, and after some hesitation settled at Boston,
where he is well known and much esteemed as a
^eaoher, a pianoforte player, and a composer and
arranger of music for that instrument. He plays
at the Harvard Musical Association, and at re-
citals of his own. His repertoire is good and
wide, and his style of playing is highly spoken of.
Amongst other things he has played the whole of
8chubart*s PF. Sonatas in public. His composi-
tions embrace a Scherzo, op. 2, an Introduction
and Andante, op. 45, and 3 Studies, op. 9. [G.]
PERCUSSION. The treatment of a large
proportion of discords is divided into three stages
PEREZ.
ass
— Pwpaifttion, Percussion, and Resolution. The
Preparation is the sounding of a discordant note
in a previous chord. Percussion is the actual
sounding of the discord, and Resolution the parti-
cular mode of its release, or passage into con-
cordance. In the following example, where E in
the treble of the second chord is the discordant
note, (a) is the preparation, (6) the percussion,
and (0) the resolution. [See Preparation, and
Resolution.]
(«)| (ft)|(^)i
J JC'Vi
LC.H.HP.]
PERCY, John, was a composer of ballads
which were in favour in the latter part of the
last century, but which have now passed out
of remembrance, with the single exception of
'Wapping Old Stairs.' He died Jan. 24,
1797. [W.H.H.]
PERDENDOSI, PERDENDO LE FORZE,
'losing strength.' A direction like 'morentlo,'
nearly always used at the end of a movement or
section of a movement. It denotes a gradual
diminuendo, and in the later modem masters, a
slight rallentando as well. Beethoven uses
' perdendo le forze, dolente ' in the third move-
ment of the Pianoforte Sonata op. no, where
the slow time of the movement (Adagio ma non
troppo) is resumed after the interruption by the
fugue. It is used as an Italian version of
* Ermattet, klagend,' which is written above it.
He also employs * sempre perdendo ' in the slow
movement of the Symphony in Bb (No. 4), in
bars i'2 to 10 from the end. 'Perdendosi' is
used by Weber frequently, for instance in the
slow movement of the pianoforte sonata in C, op.
24. etc., and by Chopin in the second of the two
Polonaises op. 40, just before the return to the
first subject. [J. A. F. M.]
PEREZ, Davidb, son of a Spaniard, bom
in Naples 1711, was admitted in 17 18 to the
Conservatorio of Sta. Maria di Loreto, whero
he studied the violin under Antonio GsJlo, and
counterpoint under Francesco Mancini. His
first opera 'Siroe*^ was composed for San Carlo
in 1740. At the invitation of Prince Naselli
he went to Palermo, and became master of the
Real Cappella Palatina. Here he remained tiU
1 748, and produced ' L'Eroismo di Sci pione '( 1 74 1 ),
*Astartea,* *Medea»' and 'L'Isola incantata.'
After 'La Clemenza di Tito' (1749), given at San
Carlo in Naples, and ' Semiramide ' ( 1 750) at the
Teatro delle Dame in Rome, he composed operas
for all the principal towns in Italy. In 1752 he
accepted an invitation to Lisbon, where he com-
poeed ' Demofoonte * for GizzieUo and the tenor
Raaff (Mozart's Munich friend), the success of
which was so great that the King bestowed on
him the Order of Christ, and the post of ' maestro
at the Real Cappella,' with a salary of 30,000
francs. The new theatre in Lisbon was opened
in 1755 with Perez's opera 'Aleasandro nolle
1 Hm Kon. teted 1740, bi In th* Baal Colkfto of Btpl«i.
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PEREZ.
Indie/ in wliich a corps of cayaliy, and a Mace-
donian phalanx, as described by Quintos Oortins,
appeared on the stage. Perez procured the best
Italian singers for the opera during his manager-
ship. In 1755 he came to London, and produced
* Ezio' with great success. Here also was pub-
lished in 1 774 a fine edition, with portrait, of his
* Mattutini de MortI,' his best sacred work, though
he also composed when in Lisbon, a ' Credo * K>r
two choirs, and other church music. His compo-
sitions can scarcely be called remarkable, and
F^tis ranks him below Jomelli. In person he
resembled Handel, and like him lost his sight in
old age, but worked on up to his death, which took
place in Lisbon in 1778. Specimens of Perez
will be found in Vincent Novello^s yarious pub-
lications. [F.G.]
PERFECT. Of Cadences the word 'perfect*
is used to indicate such as give the most absolute
effect of a conclusion, by passing through a chord
or chords which are highly characteristic of a key
to the tonic chord of that key in its first position.
[See Cadencb.] Of Intervals the word is chiefly
used in modem times to describe certain of the
purest and simplest kinds, as fifths and fourths,
when in their most consonant forms ; in the early
days of modem music it was used in contrast to
the terms * imperfect * and * middle' to classify the
consonances in the order of their theoretical
excellence. [See Habmont, Iittebval. Teh-
perament]. [C.H.H.P.]
PERGETTI. Probably the last castrate who
ever sang in England. He made his first appear-
ance at the Societa Armonica, May 6, 1844, in an
aria from ' Ciglio,^ an opera of his own, and is de-
scribed as * a brilliant and expressive singer, who
won a deserved encore' (Mus. Examiner). [G.]
^ PERGOLA, LA. La Pergola is the principal
theatre of Florence, and takes its name from
that of the street in which it is situated. It is
under the management of thirty proprietors, who
form the society — or, to use the English term,
the company — of the Immobili. Operatic music
and ballets are the only kind of performances
given in this theatre, which is the * Urand Opera'
of Florence. The interior of the house is hand-
somely fitted and decorated, and is capable of
accomodating about 2500 spectators.
The original theatre was erected in 1650 upon
the designs of the celebrated architect Tacca. It
was a wooden structure, and lasted until 1738,
when it was replaced by the present solid build-
ing. It was inaugurated with the opera ' Da&e* by
Peri and Caccini, which had been written in 1594,
and was the first opera ever written. [L. R.j
PERGOLESI, Giovanni Battista, though
bom at Jesi in the Roman States, Jan. 3, 1710,
was domiciled and educated at Naples, and ranks,
by his style and his sympathies, among Neapoli-
tan composers. Various dates between 1 703 and
1707, and various places, have been given for
his birth. Quadrio alone, in his 'Istoria della
volgar poesia,' has stated the real truth, but all
doubt on the subject was removed by the Mar-
quis de ViUarosa, who in 1831 obtained a copy
PERGOLESI.
of Pergolesi's baptismal certificate, signed by the
priest of the Puomo where the original exists,
and attested by the ConfcUomere of Jesi, estab-
lishing beyond dispute that the composer was
bom there, in 1710.*
It is not known how he came to be taken to
Naples, but he was at an early age admitted to
the Conservatorio dei Poveri in Gesii Cristo^ to
study violin-playing under Domenico de Matteis.
He first attracted notice by the original passages
he invented for his instrament, not only fancSbl
gruppcUi and ornaments, but strange chromatic
progressions, based on new harmonies, and quite
unlike anything known then and there in that
style of music. When an account of this reached
the ears of Matteis he desired to hear these
things, and having heard them, asked the youth
who had taught him these new modulations and
harmonies. On being assured that he had leamt
them firom no one, his next question was, 'Could
he write them down ! * The result of which was
that on the following day the boy brought him
a specimen of his powers, thrown into the fmn
of a little sonata. Matteis then placed him
under Gaetano Greco, professor of counterpoint at
the Conservatorio, and after his death he was
taught for a short time by Durante, and then by
Francesco Feo. His progress was rapid, but he
speedily shook off to a great extent the contra-
puntal yoke of his mast^s, and wrote in a
style of his own, moro melodious and more
directly expressive than theirs, while of their
science he retained just so much as could be
made BtridJy subordinate to these objects and
no moro. The first composition of his that we
know was a 'sacred drama,' 'La Conversione
di S. Guglielmo,' written while still a student.
It was performed, with comic irUcrmezzif in the
summer of 1731, at the Cloister of S. Agnello^
for the * honest recreation ' of the younger mem-
bers of the congregation at the church of the
PP. Filippini, whero Pei^olesi during his scImxiI
years was wont to go every day to play an organ
sonata, or 'voluntary,' between two sermons.
Fetis says that this composition shows no in-
dication of genius. This may be so, but it is
still remarkable. A sense of dramatic contrast
is evinced in the music given to the Angel
and the Demon, who -represent the good and
evil principles respectively ; the former of whom
sings in the florid style of Porpora^ while
the Demon's airs are bold and broad. One
especially energetic song he has, expressive of
defiance, in which his admissions of temporazy
defeat and his intentions of ultimate Mumpl^
are illustrated by flights of scales on the violins^
upwards or downwards, according to drcum-
stances; an attempt at note-painting, boyish
perhaps, but still daring at that time.
After leaving the Conservatorio he received
lessons in vocsd composition from Vinci, whose
style was more akin to his own than that of his
former teachers, and, it is said, from Hasse, who,
if this is true, must have leamt more from, his
1 Memorle d«l compo^ltore di maalca del Regno dl NuioU. raccolw
dal MaroheM dl VlllaroM, NapoU, IMO^ p. 141.
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PERGOLESI.
pupU than he oould teach him. His first open,
* La SaUostia,' was produced in the winter of this
year, 1731, at the Fiorentini theatre, and many
nov^ effects were introduced in the orchestral
parts. Yillarosa says it deserved the highest ap-
pro^; bat it seems to have had a mere meeia
cPestime. This was also the case with an inttr-
meetOf 'Amor (a Tuomocieco ' ; while ' Hecimero/
a serious opera, produced at the S. Bartolomeo,
£uled outright. It would have gone ill with Per-
golesi if he had not found a firiend in the Prince
of Stegliano, first equerry to the King of Naples,
who, perceiving his rare abilities, helped him
and got employment for him. For this friend
he wrote the thirty Trios for two violins and
bass, twenty-four of which were afterwards pub-
lished at London and Amsterdam. It was
probably due to the Prince that when, after a
terrible earthquake at Naples, a solemn mass
was voted to the patron saint of the town, Per-
golesi was commissioned to compose the music,
» task he performed by writing a mass, with
vespers, for ten voices and double orchestra.
Socoi after this he wrote another mass, also
for double cbonis of five voices and two or-
chestras. Leo, whom he invited to hear his
work, was astonished, both at the beauty of
the music and the short time in which it had
been composed, and publicly praised the youth-
fdl m€te$tro. To this mass Pergolesi subsequently
added a third and fourth choir, and it was per-
formed, entire, at the church of the Filippini.
F^is remarks that at this time Pergolesi, dis-
gusted with his ill success, had ceased to write
for the theatre, and was now led back to it by
bis artistic bent. But as all the works yet enu-
merated seem to have been produced in 1 731, his
disgust cannot have lasted very long, and we can
only suppose that the composition of some of them
was considerably antecedent to their performauce.
In the winter of this same year he wrote his
celebrated intermezzo, ' La Serva Padrona.' This
little operetta, which retains its fireshness and
charm at tfte present day, must, when produced,
have been unique of its kind, and has served as
the foundation of every comic Italian opera
written since, up to Rossini*s time. Part of its
Buooess on the stage is, no doubt, due to the
humorous, neatly -written libretto ; this however
would not have survived commonplace music any
more than fine music can secure a long lease of
life for an utterly dull libretto. There are but
two characters, and the orchestra is limited to
the string quartet, but the action is so sustained,
and the music so varied, that there is not a dull
line in it. Servilelv imitated as it has been ever
since, it has, itself, the ring of young music.
The oppressed master who complains, threatens,
blusters, flinches, hesitates, is lost, and finally
has to g^ve in, eat his own words, and chanter
aprit to the end of the story; the uppish ser-
vant who defies her master, frightens him with
her shrewish tongue, cajoles him, deceives him
by the most transparent of artifices, then, when
she has worked on his feelings enough, turns on
him and shows him what a fool he has been.
PERGOLESI.
6S7
and gets her own way all the same ; the mock
heroic, the deprecatory, the pathetic and the
buffo — these thmgs may have been as well com-
bined and much fiuther developed since Pergo>
lesi*s day, but at that time there was nothUig
like them. The recitatives are full of animation
and spirit. The one blot on the niece is the
inevitable Da Capo in the airs, which Pergolesi,
with all his genius, was still too much a child
of the time to set aside.
The success of the ' Serva Padrona* appears
to have been veiy limited, but was the greatest
that ever fell to Pergoleei's lot. His next operas,
the ' Maestro di Musica* (very popular at a later
date), and * U Greloso schemito, seem to have
met with little or no recognition. 'Lo Frate
innamorato,' a buffo opera, in Neapolitan dialect,
was performed at the Fiorentini theatre in 1 73a.
The San Bartolomeo produced the 'Prigionier
superbo,* and repeated the * Serva Padrona.'
For this theatre, in 1 734, he wrote * Adriano in
Siria,' an opera in three acts, and an intermezzo
* Livietta e Fracolo' ; ' La Contadina astuta' also
belongs probably to the same time. In this year
he went to live at Loreto, as chapel-master there.
After writing, in 1 735, a buffo opera, * Flaminio,'
which met with much success when played in
T 749, thirteen years after his death, he undertook
a work of another kind, the beautiful and pa-
thetic * Stabat Mater,* for soprano and contralto,
destined to become perhaps the most widely
known of all his works. The circumstances
which led to its composition were these. Every
Friday in March, for many years past, had the
Confraternity of San Luigi di Palazzo performed
the 'Stabat Mater' of Alessandro ScarUtti.
Weary of always repeating the same music,
the brethren made up their minds to ask Per-
goleei to compose a new Stabat. The luxury was
not ruinous. Ten ducats (about 35s.) was the
price agreed upon, and this was paid in advance
to the composer. Just after its commencement,
however, tne task had to be suspended for a
while. His fame, hitherto solely confined to
Naples, seems now to have spread as far as
Rome, for he was engaged to compose an opera
for the Tordinone theatre in that city. This was
* L'Olimpiade ' — the book Metastasio's, the music
in its composer*s happiest vein. It was, how-
ever, received with apathetic indifference, while
* Nerone,' an opera composed for the same house
at the same time by Egidio Duni, greatly Per-
golesi*s inferior, had a brilliant success. Even
Duni himself keenly resented this lack of appre-
ciation by the Romans, saying plainly that the
failure of *L*01impiade* was due to its being too
good for the public, avowing himself *frenetieo
contro it puhblico Romano^* and doing all he
could, but in vain, to bring about a reaction in
its favour.
Pergolesi went back to Loreto much discouraged
by his theatrical experiences. He set to wwk
again at the Stabat Mater, but his health, which
had been feeble for some time, became worse,
and consumption set in. A change of climate
was declared imperative ; he returned to Naples,
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PEEGOLESI.
and went to the sea at Pozzuoli. Here, tbougfa
growing steadily worse, he did not desist from
his labours. He wrote the Cantata for a single
voice, *Orfee e Euridice,' and the beautiful * Salve
Regina,* also for one voice, with two violins,
viola and organ, both among his happiest inspi-
rations, the latter in particular unsurpassed in
purity of style, and pathetic, touching expression.
His old master, Feo, who loved him tenderly,
came to visit him during his illness, and, finding
him working at the Stabat Mater, entreated
him to lay it aside, telling him that he was
unfit for any exertion. Pex^olesi answered that
he had been paid ten ducats for a composition
which would not be valued at ten bajocchi, and
that he oould not but fulfil his agreement.
Not many days after, Feo found him sink-
ing, and scarcely able to say that the Stabat
was finished and sent off. He expired on
March i6, 1736, having just completed his 26th
year, and was buried in the precincts of the
cathedral of Pozzuoli, where, nearly a century
afterwards, a monument to his memory was
erected by the Marquis de Yillarosa and the
Oavaliere Gorigliano.
He had no sooner ceased to live than he
became the object of an interest only equal to
the indifference shown him in his lifetime. It
was currently asserted that his death was due
to poison — a report for which there was no
foundation. The &ilure of his health was slow
and gradual, the result of natural causes, and
partly, perhaps, of excesses to which disap-
pointment and depression may have rendered
him prone. But public curiosity, once awakened,
knew no bounds. Unlike most other Italian
composers of his century, who, the objects of
unmeasured admiration during their lives, are
now forgotten, or recalled occasionally by way of
a curiosity, Pergolesi's renown was entirely post-
humous. Rome revived the despised Olimpiade,
and found that it was good. All Italy was bent
on possessing and performing, not his best works
only, but trivial fi»rces and intermezzi, probably
written as 'pot-boilers.' The Serva Fadrona
was introduced into France in 1750, and made a
furore. It, and the Maestro di Musica, were
translated into French, and have been popular
in Paris ever since. Rousseau, Marmontel and
d*Alembert extol his truth, simplicity and pathos,
asserting that he restored music to nature, and
fireed her ^m the conventional trammels of an
arid science. Chateaubriand, on the contrary,
finds him too artificial, and, contrasting Ms
sacred music with Gregorian plain-song, says he
would have done better if, instead of display-
ing such a wealth of resources, he had confined
himself to imagining a simple earUUena, to be
repeated with each strophe. Yillarosa remarks
that, had he done this, the Stabat Mater would
have had the character of French couplets.
The fact is that unjust indifference reacted in
a somewhat exaggerated enthusiasm. He did not
restore music to nature. He was one of the earliest,
and perhaps the most gifted, of a distinguished
group of composers who worked, or at any rate I
PERGOLKSI.
began by working, towards that object. Emotion
predominated over intellect in his artiatic nature,
and his science is but slight. Nor did he show
much invention in contrapuntal form. Certain
devices that suited him he adopted and used re-
peatedly, but the phrases aod forms which are
peculiarly his own stand apart from these. His
masses for double chorus diow a sense of effect
which, had he lived longer, might have mani-
fested itself in other styles of composition. But
it must not be supposed that a double 5-part '
chorus means, with Pergolesi, lo-part wriiiog,
the division into two choirs being, more often,
than not, for purposes of effect. The same is the
case with his 'double orchestras.'
His orchestra is simplicity itself, consiBtx]^
often of the string quartet only, sometimes with
oboes, and horns or trumpets. There is a song
in ' Adriano in Siria ' with a curious florid oboe
obbligato. He writes for the violins in a way
that shows his feeling for the instrument and
his knowledge of its expressive powers. Hie ooq-
cluding portion of a Kyrie in one of his mwnneo is
quoted on the opposite page. It is a very early
fmd a beautiful instance of combined Yoctl and
instrumental effect, and seems to suggest an ima-
ginative power in its composer far beyond what
he actually realised in his works.
Pathos and sweetness are more characteristic
of his compositions than passion or great dramatic
force. His sacred music is said to lack devotional
fervour, and often to be more suited to the stage
than to the church, there being no definite line
to be drawn between his styles of writing for the
two, and the same ideas often recurring in each.
Variety of expression was in its infancy, and the
same thing might he urged against many of Per-
golesi's predecessors — with 1^ difference, that
their dramatic works seem more suited to the
church than to the stage. He undoubtedly re-
peated himself very much ; certain melodic and
harmonic sequences and progressions he had a
fondness for, and used them in all his works in-
discriminately. It seems beyond question that
all composers of that time taid school no more
thought it necessary even to appear to write
always what was new, than we should to say
something quite original every time we opened
our mouths. Just as an ingenious contrapun-
tal device may be used again and again by its
original discoverer, and adapted to the require-
ments of the working out of various fuguesi, so
when a composer like Pergolesi chanced on a
characteristic idea that pleased him, he intro-
duced it wherever it served to illustrate or to
adorn his subject, quite without reference to the
work in which it may first have appeared. The
difference between the two things had not come
to be perceived, nor was it fully recognised before
Beethoven. Such ideas, so used, were in time
added to the general vocabulary, and adopted by
others as the setting or background for their
own ideas, and have often become known to pos-
terity in this form only. Yet from their first
inventor they oome with a freshness that can be
better felt than described, and three or four of
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Vxtffb. Ky - ri - e
TOL. n, PT. 13.
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PERGOLESI.
PergoleBi*s best works appear to present in a
concentrated form what has since been spread by
others over hundreds of operas and masses. It
is impossible not to trace their influence in the
works of Jommelli, of Gimarosa, of Haydn (in
oratorio), and of Mozart. Yet there remains a
something which is still essentially Pergoleers
own.
One important fact is too little remembered.
Owing to the false dates usually given for his
birth, Pergdesi is commonly supposed to have
lived to be 33. Between this and 26, the age at
which he actually died, there is the difference of
perhaps the seven best years of young maturity.
When we think how small is the number of oom-
posers who would be remembered now for what
they wrote before they were five-and-twenty,
and bear in mind that PergolesTs last works
show no symptom of exhausted power, but the re-
verse, we cannot but wonder what he might have
originated and achieved had he been spared to
benefit by wider experience and more stimulating
opportunity. His career, as it was, is a mere
suggestion. CJould it have been fulfilled, it seems
not impossible that one Italian eighteenth-cen-
tury composer might have belonged not to Italy
only, but to the world.
The following list of Pergolesi^s works is copied
rom F^tis*s ' Biographic des Musiciens.*
iirom J
OPBIAB AlTD nmUMBUL
I. L* SallostlA.
% Amor fa I' uomo deoo; 1 act.
5. Bedmero; Saota.
4. lA8errmPadro«ft;laet The
oiigtnftl soora published In Paris
tajLaoberardldre. An edition with
French words published bjLeduc.
& II Maestro di Musica. Also
puMlshed at Paris under the name
of Le Maltre de Musiqna.
6. U GeloBO sohemito.
7. Lo Frate innamorato. Boflk
opera, in Neapolitan dialect.
8. 11 Prlglonler superbo.
9. Adrlano in Biria.
la Uvietta e Traoolo.
II. La Contadioa astutftt
12. Flamlnlo; Saets.
13. L'Ollmpiade; 8 acts.
14. Ban GugUelmo ; sacred dz«r
ma.
Chitboh Kuaro.
I. Kyrle cum Gloria; 4 roioes
and orchestra (pub. Vienna^ Has-
llnger).
& Mass ; 6 rolees and orchestra.
& Mass ; Two 5-part choirs and
double orchestra.
4. Dixit; 4Toioei. SrloUns. alto,
bass, and orsan.
5. Dixit : double ohoms and or>
chestra.
6. Miserere; 4 roioes and or^
cbeBtra (Paris. Fleyel).
7. Confltebor : 4 voices.
8. Domine ad acUurandum; 4
voices.
9. Do. : 6 TOloes.
la Laudato; 5 Tolees and ot^
chestra.
II. Laetattts sum; 2 sopranos
aud2basses.
12. Laetatus; 5 voices.
13. Laudato; single voice with
instrumeuts.
14. Salve reflna ; single vdee. 2
violins. aHo. bass, and orgaa
(Paris, Ledue. and Porro).
10. SUbat Mater for soprano
and contralto; 2 violins, alto,
bass, and organ (Paris, Bonjour.
also Porro ; Lyons. Camaud. Five
difllorent editions with FF. ac-
companiment have been irab-
llshed at Parts. Here also was
printed Paislello's edition, with
wind-instrument parts added b7
him. Two German editions with
German words— one. In soore,
Sohwickert. at Lelpiig; the other,
with PF.. Christiani. at Ham-
burg. Hlller adapted Klopstock's
Passion to the music of the Bta-
bat. arranged for 4 voices, with
the addition of oboes and flutes.)
It has been recently published in
London by Mr. HulUh.
Ifl. Dies irao : soprano and eos-
tralto ; 3 violins, alto, and baas.
17. Mass ; 2 voices and organ.
1& Mass in D; 4 voices and m-
chestra.
19. Oratorio sacro per la nasdta
del Bedentore.
Chambcb and (^Hcnr Mtrsia
Orfeo : cantata for single voice
and orchestra. (Choron has
printed the score In his ' Prtndpes
de compodtioa des Kcoles dlta-
lie.')
Five cantatas for soprano with
clavichord.
Thirty trios for 2 violins and vlo-
lonoello. with figured baas.
Vlllarosa also mentions:— (1)
Solfeggi for 2 and 3 voices : (2)Gla-
sone.(S) Cantata for 5 voices; (4)
A collection of cantatas or songs
printed in London ; (S) (3onflt«bor,
for 2 voices ;< and various tng-
ments of less Importance, existing
in manuscript in dlflbrent private
collections.
Two movements firom Psalms for 6 voices un-
Acoompanied, and two for the same with orchestra,
are published by V. Novello in his Fitzwilliam
music The Fitzwilliam Library also contains
PERL
a Mass, and a Kyrie and Gloria for lo Toicea.
A volume in the Add. MSS. of the British Mu-
seum (No. 5044) contains 3 Psahns, a Stabat^
Salve, and Mass. These are all probablj in*
eluded in the above list. An air in F minor fcx
clavi^ is published in dauss-Szarvady's Klavier-
stiicke (Leipzig, Senff). . [F.A.M.]
PERI, Jaoofo, a Composer to whom, not^
withstanding the small amount of his learning,
the world owes a heavy debt of gratitude, was
bom of noble parentage, at YUxr&ice, during the
latter half of the 16th century, and first
studied Music under the guidance of Cristoforo
Malveszi, of Luoca. The Florentines, always
celebrated for their ready invention of surnames,
called him II 2iazzerino.^ a little bit of pleasantry
provoked by the enviable wealth of golden hair
which he managed to preserve uninjured, almost
to the day of his death. After completing his
musical education he was appointed Maestro di
Gappella, first, to Fernando, Duke of Tuscany,
and aftwwardA to Duke Cosmo II. Having thu
attained an honourable position, he married a
noble and richly -dowered lady, of the Honae of
Fortini, by whom he had a son, who bade &ir
to beoome a distinguished mathematiciaii, but
ultimately brought himself to ruin by his dino-
lute habits and abandoned life, indulging in such
excesses, that his tutor, the great Galileo GaHlei,
was accuHtomed to speak of nim as *my Daemon.'
Notwithstanding this dcmiestic trouble Peri mixed
in all the best society in flOTence, and chose for
his associates some of the most advanced leaden
of the great Renaissance movement, which, evea
at that late period, was stiU in prog^ress, though
its best days had long since passed away. We
hear of him especially at the house of Giovanni
Bardi, Conte di Yemio, where, in company with
Yincenzo Galilei, Ottavio Rinuccini, GiuUo Cac-
cini, Pietro Strozzi, Jacopo Corsi, and other rest-
less spirits imbued with the classical fwnre for
which the age was so strongly distinguished, he
assisted in that memorable attempt to restore the
mode of declamation peculiar to Hellenic Tn^^edy
which resulted at last in the discovery of mod^ns
Recitative. Whether the first idea of this great
invention originated with Peri, with Caocini, or
with Emilio del Cavaliere, it is now impoasbie
to decide. In all probability it suggested itself
in consultation ; and each Composer endeavoured
to cany it out in his own way, though the
ways of all were so similar that it is very
difficult to detect the symptoms of true indi-
viduality in any of them. V. Galilei and Caocini
undoubtedly produced the first Monodic Can- .
tatas in whidi the new style was attempted;
but their efforts were confessedly tentative, and
their productions conceived upon a very small
scale, fitted only for use as Chamber Musia
Peri took a higher flight. At the instigation
of Jacopo Corsi, and the Poet Rinuccini, he
attempted a regular Musical Drama, called
' Dafne.* The Libretto for this Vas supplied by
Rinuccini, and Peri composed the Music entirely
1 Llterallj ' Short-balr.' But In thb case used Ironloair.
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PERI.
in the style wbich wms then belieyed to be
identical with thai euItiTated by the antient
Grec^ TragediAns. The work was privately per-
formed, in the Palazzo Corsi, in the year 1597*
Peri himself playing the part of ApoUo. To
him, therefore, bel^igB the honour of having
composed and assiBted in the performance of
the first true Opera that ever was placed
upon the Stage. A still greater honour, how-
ever, was in store for him. Thb performance
was witnessed only by a select circle of Signer
Gcffsi's personal friendB. But, in the year 1600,
Peri was commissioned to produce an Opera for
Sablic performance on tne occasion of the
larriage of Henri IV of France with Maria
de* Medici. The subject chosen for this was
'Euridice.' Rinuccini again supplied the Li-
bretto, and Peri wrote l£e Music in the same
style as that he had already adopted in * Dafne,*
though, it is to be supposed, with gp^eater freedom
and vigour. . The success of the work was all
that could possibly be desired. It proved that
the Ideal conceived bv the little band of en-
thusiasts was capable of satisfactory embodiment
in a practical form ; and that form was at once
adopted as the normal type of the long-desired
Lync Drama. It is true that, some months
before the production of 'Euridice,* Emilio del
Cavaliere*s Oratorio, 'La Rappresentazione di
anima e di corpo,* had been publicly performed,
at Rome, with Scenery, Dresses, and Action ; and
that the Music of this work is written in exactly
the same kind of Recitative as ' Euridice.* But,
Peri's claim to be regarded as the Composer
of the first Opera rests, not on 'Euridice, but
on 'Dafne,* though that work was never pro-
duced in public ; and the only ground on which
that claim can be disputed is the fact that
Smilio del Gavaliere is known to have composed
two ssecular pieces, called ' U Satire,' and * La
Disperasione di Fileno,* which were both
privately performed in 1 590, and a third work,
Mititled '11 Giuoco della Cieca,* which was
performed before the Archduke Ferdinand in
1595. Not a trace of either of these three
works now remains to us. They are described
as ' Pastorals,' and may or may not ha/ve been
of sufficiently large dimensions to entitle them
to rank as Dramas. Moreover, we cannot be
quite certain that they were written in the same
style as the Oratorio. As the case now stands,
therefore, and until we are furnished with more
decisive evidence than that we now possess,
Jaoopo Peri stands before us as the acknow-
ledged Father of a form of Art which is very
nearly the greatest that it has ever entered
into the mind of man even to conceive, still
less to bring, through so many difficulties, to
a successful iraue.
Strange to say. Peri made no attempt to follow
np his wonderful success. Probably no oppor-
tunity for the production of another public per-
formance on so extensive a scale occurred during
his life-time — for, in those days, such scenic dis-
plays were exhibited only on very grand occa-
sions, such as Royal Marriages, or other events
PERIELESIS.
691
of great public interest. But, whatever may have
been the cause of his retirement. Peri produced
no more Operas. We hear of bis appointment,
in the year 1601, as Maestro di Cappella to the
Dnke of Ferrara ; and. after that, no record re-
mains of him beyond the publication of his latest
known work, 'Le varie Musiche del Sig. Jaoopo
Peri, a una, due, e tre voci, con alouni spiritual!
in ultimo,' at Florence, in 16 10. The precise year
of his death has not been ascertained.
It does not appear that 'Da&e' was ever
published: at any rate, no traces of it have
been preserved to us, beyond a few pieces con- .
tributed by Caecini, and ukcluded in his ' Nuove
Musiche' (Tlorence, 1602). 'Euridice' was
happily printed, in a complete form, in the year
of its production, under the title of ' Le Musiche
di Jacopo Peri, nobil fiorentino, sopra L'Eiuri-
dice del. Sig. Ottavio Rinuccini,' etc., Fiorenza,
1600 ; and reprinted at Venice in 1608, and again
at Florence in i860, in small Bvo. Both the early
editions are now exceedingly rare. We ourselves
have never been fortunate enough to meet witii
an example of the first ; but a copy of the Vene-
tian reprint is preserved in the Library of the
British Museum, and some extracts from this
will be found on page 499 of the present volume.
This interesting work, and the ' Varie Musiche '
already mentioned, are believed to be the only
specimens of Peri's compositions now in existence,
^esewetter has reprinted 3 madrigals for 4
voices in his * Schicksale und Beschaffenheit des
weltlkhenGesanges' (Leipzig, 1841). [W. S. R.]
PERIELESIS (Gr. v(/H€ikij<ris, a convolution).
A long, and sometimes extremely elaborate form
of Ligature, sung towards the close of a Plfun
Cbaunt Melody. It differs from the Pneuma in
that it is always sung to a definite syllable;
whereas the vexy essence of the Pneuma lies in
its adaptation to an inarticulate sound. Like the
Cadenza in modem music, the Perielesis gene-
rally makes its appearance in connection with
the penultimate or antepenultimate syllable of
a final phrase : but it is not absolutely necessary
that the phrase should be a final one, or that the
entrance of the Perielesis should be deferred until
its conclusion.
The Melody of ' -Sterna Christi munera* ex-
hibits a fine example of an antepenultimate
Perielesis, in the ist and 4th Unes, and an
equally effective one on the final syllable of
the 3rd line.
ModbTIL
A more elaborate form furnishes the distin-
guishing characteristic of *Ite missa est' and
•Benedicamus Domino,* and is found, in the*
Yy2
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PERIELESia
PERNK
fanner case, on the first syllable, as well at on
that before the antepenultimate.
^ ^ rj"
The Perielesis may consist either entirely of
notes of equal length, or of an intermixture of
Longs, Breves, and Sonibreves. In the former
case, it is not always necessary to sing all the
notes with exact equality of duration. In the
latter, the Long must always be made longer
than the Breve, and the Breve longer than the
Semilnreve ; but it is neither necessary nor de-
sirable that the notes should be sung in the
strict proportion demanded by the laws of Mea-
sured Music.
A good example of Perielesis, where we should
hardly look for it, is in a well-known passage in
Mr. SulUvan's 'H.M.S. Pinafore' :—
1m n- Bains mi Ing -- Ush
[W.S.R.]
PERIGOURDINE, or PERIJOURDINE,
a country dance which takes its name from
Perigord, where it is chiefly danced. It is some-
times accompanied by singing. The following
example is frx>m the Essai sur la Musique (Paris,
1780), of De U Borde and Boussier.
[W.B.S.]
PERIOD. A Period is one of the divisions
which characterise the form of musical works,
especially in such as are not very elastic in con-
struction, as Tunes and Airs ; and, frequently, the
main subjects of large works in their simple ex-
position. It is conunon to find in these a first
division ending with a half close followed by one
ending with a full close, as in this example frt>m
Beethoven*s Sonata» op. 109 : —
^.sm
These together are held to constitute a p^iod,
and the lesfcer divisions are phrases. A complete
tune is often composed of two or three sadi
periods, and such examples may be taken as
types : but in fact periods must be exceedinglj
variable in structure. Sometimes the subdrvi-
dons into lesser members may be difBcult to
realise, and in others they may be subdivisible
into a greater number of members of vaxrixig
dimensions. A period is defined by some writers
as a complete musical sent^ice, and this gives
sufficiently well the clue to identify wherever it
is desirable to do so. [C. H. H.P.]
PERLE DU BR£SIL, LA. A lyrical drazna
in 3 acts ; words by the MM. St. Etienne, music
by F^iden David, his first opera. PitMluced
at the Th^tre Lyrique, Paris, Nov. aa, 1851.
David afterwards added recitatives. [G.]
PERNE, FRAN9018 L0UI8, bom in Paris, 1 772,
was educated in a maltrise, and durii^ the
Revolution became a chorus-singer at the Op^ra.
In 1799 he exchanged into the band, where he
played the double-bass. A mass for St. Osecilia's
day, performed in 1800 at St.Grervais, secnredhim
the esteem of musicians ; and in the following year
he published a fugue in 4 parts with 3 subjects,
which placed him amongst the foremost masters
of harmony of the day. It is not however by
his compositions that Peme's name will be pte-
served, but by his laborious and erudite works
on some of the most obscure points in the history
of music. His expenditure of time, patience,
and learning, in hunting up, cataloguing, ^opy
ing, and annotating the most important sources
of information, printed and MS., on the muaio
of the Greeks and the Middle Ages, was almost
superhuman. One instance of his devotion
will suffice. After publishing his 'Expositkn
de la S^m^iographie, ou Notation musicale des
Grecs' (Paris, 1815), Peme actually transcribed
the complete score of Gluck's 'Iphig^nie en
Tauride* in Greek notation. In 181 1 he was
chosen to succeed Catel as professor of harmony
at the Conservatoire, but lus ' Cours d*harmooie
et d'accompagnement' was not so dear as
that of his predecessor. In 1816 he became
Inspector-general of the Conservatoire, and in
1830 librarian, but in 1823 retired to the
country, and resided near Laon. In 1830 he
removed to Laon itsdf, but the air was too keen
for him, and he returned to Paris only to die^,
on May 26, 1832. His last published work was
the 'Chansons du Chfttdain de Coucy' (Paris,
1830) [Chanson], but the 'Revue musicale*
contains many of his artides, such as *Le8
Manuscrits rdatifs k la musique de ITdise
Greoque,' 'Josquin Depite,* * J6r6mt de Mo-
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PEBNE.
VaTie,' ftnd * La Mnsimie Andenne.' Feme left
vnost of his notee and MSS. to ihe library of ihe
Institut ; and his books and annotated cataloguesy
bought in 1834 by F^tis, are now in the Royal
Xiibrary at Brussels. His unpublished sacred
'works also passed into the hands of F^tis, but
the library of the Conservatoire possesses the
autographs of his chorusee for 'Esther/ per-
formed in i8ai by the pupils of the Eoole Royale
de Musique (Conservatoire), his ' Messe de Ste.
C^oile* (1800), his mass 'Yivat Rex,* for 4 voices
<i8i6), a ' Veni Creator' for 5 voices, and the
* Offices,' arranged in 3 parts wi^ the Plain-
Song. [G.C.]
PERRIN, Pubbb, called 'TAbb^ Perrin,'
though he was neither ordained nor held a bene-
fice, was bom at Lyons about 161 6, and died in
Paris 1676. He succeeded Voiture as *intro-
ducteur dee Ambassadeurs* to Graston Duke of
Orleans, a post which brought him into relations
-with several great personages, including Masarin,
'who became his patron, and the musician Cam-
bert» for whom he wrote the words of 'La
Pastorale,* 5 adts, produced first at Issy (1659),
juid then at Vincennee before the king. After
the deaths of Gaston d*Orldans and Mazarin,
Perrin was reduced to living upon his virits ; and
fimcied himself on the sure road to fortune when
he obtained from Louis XIV the privilege of
founding an Academic de Musique (Nov. i o, 1 068),
jkud letters patent securing him the management
of the theatre (June a 8, 1669). Unfortunately
the management of an opera requires capital,
and the Abb^ Perrin was a poor poet in all
senses of the word. His partners quarrelled
Mnong themselves, and in spite of the success
of Cambert*B ' Pomone* (March 19, 167 1) he was
compelled to resign his privilege just as his
' Anane ' was about to be product The patent,
revoked on the 30th of March, 1673, was trans-
ferred to Lully, who came out of the transaction
with anything but clean hands. Ferrin's * (Euvres
de Po^e (Paris, 1661, 5 vols.) contain, besides
his operas, translations — of the uSneid amongst
others — and ' Jeux de po^e sur divers insectes,'
the least bad perhaps of all his verses, which
even in that hcentious day drew forth the re-
bukes of Boileau and Saint Evremond, and are
now quite unreadable. [G. C]
PERRT, GsoRQB, bom at Norwich in 1793,
was a chorister of Norwich Cathedral under Dr.
Beckwith. On leaving the choir he learned to
play on the violin, and in a few years became
leader of the band at the theatre. Whilst resi-
dent in Norwich he produced his oratorio, ' The
Death of Abel.* In 181 7 he composed an over-
ture for ' The Persian Hunters,' produced at the
English Opera House, and in 1 8 1 8 a short oratorio,
'EUjah and the Priests of BaaL' In 1822 he
settled in London and was appointed director of
the music at the Haymarket Theatre, for whidi
he oompoeed the opera of ' Morning, Noon, and
Night* (1 8 a a), and numerous songs for intro-
duction into various pieces. He also held the
post of organist of Quebec Chapel. In 1830 he
piodaoed his oratorio, ' The Fall of Jerusalem.*
PERSLAl^L
698
On the estabdihment of the Sacred Harmonic
Society in 183a Perry became leader of the band,
an office whidi he retained until the end of 1847.
On the removal of Surman from the conductor-
ship of the Society early in 1848, Perry assumed
the baton untU tiie end of the season, but not
being elected conductor, he shortly afterwards
resigned his leadership and quitted the Society.
On Feb. 10, 1836 he produoed a sacred cantata,
' Belshazzar's Feast,* and in 1847 a short oratorio^
'Hezekiah.' In 1846 he resigned his appoint-
ment at Quebec Chapel and became organist of
Trinity Church, Gray s Inn Road. He composed
some anthems, including two with orchestra on
the accession of Queen Victoria (1837) and the
birth of the Prinoess Royal (1840), and additional
accompaniments to several of Handel*s oratorios
and other pieces. He died March 4, i86a. His
'Death of Abel* and 'Fall of Jerusalem* were
performed by the Sacred Harmonic Socie^.
Perry was a man of considerable ability. He
was in the constant habit of doinff that whioh In
the case of Mozart is usually spoken of as a re-
markable effort of memory — ^namely, writing out
the separate parts of a large work without first
making a score. One, at least, of his oratorios was
committed to paper in this way. [W.H.H.]
PERSIANI, Faknt, one of the most ac-
complished and artistic singers of this century,
was bom at Rome on Oct. 4, 181 a. She was the
second daughter of Tacchinardi, who made her
begin to study at a very early age. He had fitted
up a little theatre for the use of his pupils at his
country house, near Florence, and here, at eleven
years of age, Fanny played a prima donna* 8 part.
While still quite young, she sang on several occa-
sions in public, with success, but had then no
intention of adopting the stage as a profession.
In 1830 she married the composer, Giuseppe
Pendani (i 804-1869), and in 1832 made ner
tUbtU at Leghorn, in 'Francesca da Rimini,*
an opera by M. Foumier, where she replaced
Madame Caradori. Her success was sufficient
to lead to her subsequent engagement at Milan
and Florence, then at Vienna, where she made
a great impression, afterwards at Padua and at
Venice. Here she played in * Romeo e Giulietta,'
«I1 Pirata,' 'La Gazza Ladra,* 'L*Elisire
d'Amore,' and 'Tancredi,' in the last two of
which she performed with Pasta. Her success
was complete. In 1834, at Naples, Donizetti
wrote for her his 'Lucia di Lammennoor,'
which always remained a &vourite part with her.
"When she first appeared at the Opera in Paris
(in Luda, Dec. la, 1837), she was much ad-
mired by comunsseurs, but her talents hardly
met with the recognition they deserved until
after her excellent performance of the part of
Carolina in the ' Matrimonio Segreto.* From that
time not even Grrisi herself enjoyed such un-
bounded &vour with Parisian audiences as did
Madame Pendani.
Her first appearance in London (1838") was
as Ainina in vie 'Sonnambula,* and, idthough
she had been preceded in the part by Mi3i-
bran and Grist, she achieved a snooess which
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694
PERSIANI.
inoreased at each perfbfmance. She was always^
however, a greater &yourite with artists and oon-
noisseurs tluux with the puUic at large. This was
partly due to the po^certy of her sti^presence.
She was exoeediogly refined in appearance, but
small and thin, with a long colourless &ce, not
unsightly, like her father, out, as Chorley puts
it, 'pale, plain, and anxious,' with no beauty
but her profusion of fine fair hair, while in
her dress she was singularly tasteless. Her
vmce, too, was against her rather than in her
favour i it was a thin, acute soprano, of great
range upwards, clear and penetrating, but not
full or mellow, blending ill with other voices,
and always liable to rise in pitch. But the
finish of her singing has been rarely equalled,
probably never surpassed. 'Every conceivable
passage was finished by her to perfection, the
shake, perhaps, exoepted, which might be
thought indistinct and thin.' Her execution
was remarlcable for velocity, 'poignant, clear,
andadous.' Her resources were vast and varied,
and when encored she rarely sang a piece
again without adomiiu; it witii fresh fioritwre,
more dazaling than the first. 'She had the
finest possible sense of accent . . . From her
every phrase had its fullest measure. Every
ffroup of notes was divided and expressed by
her with as ifiuch precision as the best of
violinists brings into his bowing. And this was
done with that secure musical ease which made
her anxious, mournful face, and her acute, acid
voice, foi^tten.' Whether in rapid, florid pas-
sages, or in large and expressive movements,
'Madame Persiani's attack was not more un-
£ekiling than the delicate sensibility with which
she gave every note its fullest value, never herself
becoming breathless, rarely heavy * (Chorley). As
an actress she preserved sensibility, grace, and
refinement, but lacked passion and animation.
From 1858 she sang alternately in London and
Paris for many years. Fdtis says that a sudden
hoarseness, which attacked her in London in
1843, proved the beginning of a throat-complaint
that foroed her to quit the stage for ever. But
she sang in London, in opera, in 1 847, 48, and 49,
and at the ' Italiens' in Paris in October, 1848.
In 1850 she went to Holland, and subsequently
to Russia. After performing in almost aU
the principal countries of Europe, she, in 1858,
accepted an engagement from Mr. E. T. Smith
and appeared at Drury Lane in several of her
old parts, — Linda, Elvira in 'I Puritani,' Zer-
lina in * Don Giovanni,' etc. Never were her rare
accomplishments as a singer more perceptible;
compfl^*ed with her, 'her younger sucoessors
sounded like so many immature scholars of the
second class.' (Chorley.) In December of that
year, Madame Persiani took up her residence
in Paris, but afterwards removed to Italy, and
died at Passy May 3, 1867. Her portrait, by
Chalon, in water-colours, is in the possession of
Julian Marshall, Esq. [F.A.M.]
PERSUIS, Louis Luc Loiseau de, bom at
Metz May 21, 1769, studied under his fifither,
one of the musit^ staff of the Cathedral, and
PERTL
loan became a good vit^nist. Havi^ enterei
the orchestra of the theatre, he fell in lore wit^
an actress, and followed her to Avignon. fi»e
he had opportunities of completing hia stodiei^
and he also read a great d^ of sacred music.
Being of an ardent and impetuous character, he
began to compose before he was 20, and hia first
work, an oratorio * Le Passage de la Mer Rouge,*
was produced at the Concerts Spirituels in
1787, but was not published. By this time
he had settled in Paris, where his violiD -playing
was appreciated, especially in the orcheatiBs of
the Op^ and the Th^tre NationaL Active,
ambitious, and self-confident, he managed to
produce his dramatic compositions, and on the
foundation of the Conservatoire in 1795, suc-
ceeded in obtaining the professorship of the violin.
This post he lost in 1802 on the diflmissal of his
firiend Lesueur ; but in 1804 he became chef da
chant at the Op^a, and afterwards, ihroogh
Lesueur's interest, was appointed oondoctor of
the Emperors court concerts, and (18 10-15) ^^^"^
ductor of the orchestra of the Acad^ie. In this
capacity he showed a high order of ability. He
was indeed bom to command, and the first lyric
stage of Paris was never better administered thsa
during the short time (1817-19) of his numage-
ment. Prematurely exhausted by his feverah
mode of life, he died in Paris on Dec. 20, 1819,
of pulmonary consumption. A fitrtnight b^ore
his death he received the Order of St. Michel
fipom Louis XVIII, as he had before received the
Legion of Honour from Kapoleon.
Persuis's claim to perpetuation is that of sn
excellent conductor and an able administrattf.
His music is forgotten, though he wrote mudi
for the stage, and often with deserved success.
The folloiying is a complete list of his dramatic
works: — 'La Nuit Espagnole,' a acts (1791);
'Estelle,' 3 acts (1794); 'Phanor et An^Ia,*
3 acts ; ' Fanny Moma,* op^ra comique in 3 acts,
engraved, and 'lAmidas,' 3 acts, with Gresnidc
(1 709) ; ' Le Fruit d^fendu,' i act (1800) ; ' Mar-
cel, I act (1801) ; ' L*Inaugurati<m du Temple
de la Yictoire,* intermMe, and * Le Triomphe de
Trajan,' 3 acts, both with Lesueur (1807) ; and
'Jerusalem d^livr^,* 3 acts (181 2), of which
the score was engraved. Besides these operas he
wrote pretty music, sometimes in collaboration
with R. Kreutzer, to the following ballets : — 'Le
Retour d'Ulyese,* 3 acts (1807); 'Nina»* 2 acts
(1813); 'L'Epreuve ViUageoise,' 2 acts, and
'L'heureux Retour,* i act (1815); and * Le
Caruaval de Venise,' 2 acts (1816). Glad to seize
any opportunity of making himself heard, Pe»uis
also composed several cantates de circonstanoe,
such as the 'Chant de Yictoire' (1806), snd
'Chant Fran^ais* (1814), and some unpublished
church works now in MS. in the library of tbo
Paris Conservatoire. [G.C.]
PERTI, Jacopo Antoitio, one of the UKist
distinguished church-composers of the 17th cen-
tury, bom at Bologna June 6, 1661 ; at ten began
to learn music from his uncle, Lorenzo Perti, a
priest of San Petronio. Having finished his
education at the Jesuit Coll^;e ami the Univer
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PERTL
Aty, he studied oompoeition with Padre Petronio
Franoesohiiii. In 1680 he conducted in San
Petronio a Missa solennis of his own composition
for Boli, choir, and oroheetra. Hia fint two
operas < Atide' (1679) and * Oreste' (1681), were
^ven in Bologna ; Uioee that followed, ' Marzio
Goriolano/ libretto by Frenoasco Yalsini (ana-
gram of Francesco Silvani) (1683) ; ' Brenno in
Efeso' (1690); 'KInganno sooperto' (1691);
' Furio Gamillo ' ( i6oa) ; ' Nerone &tto Cemre '
(1693) ; and * Laodioea e Berenice ' (1695), in
Venice, at the theatres SS. Giovanni e Paolo,
and San Salvatore. His oratorio ' Abramo vin-
citor de' propri afietti' was printed in Bologna in
1687, and performed mider his own direction in
the palace of Count Francesco Gaprara.^ F^tis,
followed by Mendel, speaks of his relations with
the German Emperors Leopold and Carl VI,
bat the writer of this article has fSedled to dis-
cover any documentary evidence to support the
assertion that he was made Gapellmeister by the
Emperor Leopold, and Hofrath by Carl VI. In
Kochel*s Life of Fux, the most trustworthy book
on the period, no mention is to be found of Gia-
como Perti in connection with the court; the
only instance of the name being Antonio Perti,
a bnss-einger in the Hofcapelle. It is moreover
beyond a doubt that Perti was Maestro di cappella
of San Petronio in Bologna, and retained the post
till his death, April 10, 1 756. Gerber states that
a Te Deum of Perti's was sung under his own
direction in Vienna, on the relief of the Turkish
siege in 1683, but this must be a mistake, as Perti
had then not made his name, and was scarcely
known beyond Bologna. He was elected a mem-
ber of the Filarmonici on March 1 3, 1681, and at
the time of his death had been * Principe * six
times. Among his friends was Pope- Bienedict
XIV, with whom he kept up a close corre-
spondence. Another friend was Padre Martini,
who states in his ' Saggio di Contrapunto * (ii.
142) that he held communications on musical
subjects with Perti down to 1750. Besides
* Abramo' he printed in Bologna *Cantate morali
e spiritual! ' (1688), and ' Messe e Salmi concer-
^ti' (1735). Abbate Santini had a fine colleo-
tion of Perti's church works (4 masses, 3 Con-
fitebors, 4 Magnificats, etc.), unfortunately now
dispersed. His ' Elogio ' was pronounced before
the Filarmonici by Dr. Masini in 181 a, and
printed in Bolog^na. There is an < Adoramus Te'
by Perti in the Fitzwilliam Library, Cambridge,
and Novello has included two fine choruECS by
him in his * Sacred Music' (vol. ii) and *Mo-
tetts* (bk. xi). Others are given by Choron,
and in the 'Auswabl fur vorzUglicher Musik-
werke.' [P.G.]
PESANTB, • heavy.' This direction is as a
nile only applied to music for keyed instruments,
though some writers have transferred it to orches-
tral, or even vocal music. It indicates that the
whole passage to which it refers is to be played
with great firmness and in a marked nuumer. It
differs frt>m marccUo, however, in that it applies
to whole passages, which may be quite legato at
1 OliieUl'a ' BtbUot«oft roltnte.' Scanzto xlr.
PETBELLA.
695
the same time ; while mareato refers to single
notes or isolated groups of notes, whidi would
not as a rule be intended to be played smoothly.
A good example is the opening passage, or
introduction, to the 1st Ballade of Chopin (in
G minor, op. 23). [J.A.F.M.]
PESCHKA, MiKKA, nie Lbtttkxb, was bom
Oct. as, i83p, at Vienna. She received instruc-
tion in singmg from Heinrich Proch, and made
her cUbtU on the stage at Breslau, in 1856, as
Agatha, and afterwards played Alice, remaining
there a year. She next played at Dessau up to
the time of her marriage with Dr. Peschka of
Vienna, in 186 x. In Sept. 1863 she appeared at
Vienna with great success as Margaret of Valois,
Isabel, etc» and afterwards received further in-
struction from Mme. Bockholtz Falcon!. She
next appeared at Lemberg and Darmstadt, and in
1868 at Leipzig, where she remained untfl 1876.
She gained great popularity there both in opera
and concert^ being equally successful both in
serious and the lighter operatic parts. In 1877
she went to Hamburg, where she is at present
engaged. In 1879 she reappeared at Leipzig for
a diort operatic season under Herr Julius Hoff-
mann, and played with great success the title part
of H^del's • Almira,' on the revival of that opera.
She is at present (Julv 1880) fulfilling an engage-
ment there under tne same manager. Mme.
Peschka-Leutner visited England in 187a, sang
(March .26) at the Philhannonic, and at the
Crystal Palace, «nd was well received at both
concerts. In the autumn of that year she went
to America, and sang at the Boston Festival with
very great success. Her voice, a soprano of great
volume, and extraordinary compass and agility,
her good execution combined with good acting,
and her agreeable appearance, have made her
very popular in the principal cities of her own
country, where she is an established favourite
at festivals and concerts, as well as on the
stage. [A.C.]
PETER, ST. An oratorio in two parts ; the
words by Mr. Chorley, the music by Sir Julius
Benedict. Produced at the Birmingham Festi-
val, Sept. a, 1870. [G.]
PETERS, Carl Friedrich, bought in 1 814
the * Bureau de Musique ' of Kiihnel and Hoff-
meister (founded 1800) in Leipzig, and greatly
improved the business. Many important works
by Bach, Haydn, Beethoven, Spohr, and Schu-
mann, were published by him, besides the first
complete editions of the works of Haydn and
Bach (the latter edited by Dehn, Roitzsch, and
Griepenkerl). The present members of the firm.
Dr. Abraham and J. Friedlander, carry on the old
traditions with extraordinary energy and judg-
ment, and * the Peters editions,' famous for cor-
rectness, legibility, and cheapness, are known
throughout the world. [F. G.]
PETRELLA, Enrico, was bom at Palermo
Dec. 1, 1813, and learnt music at Naples under
Zingarelli, Bellini, and Ruggi. He made his first
appearance at Majella in 1839, with the opera
* H Diavolo color di rosa.' It was followed by four
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096
PETJRELLA,
othen, ftnd then, after an interval, by ' Le ^Pre-
cauzioni,* which remains his masterpiece in oomic
opera. At the Soala he brought oat ' Maroo Vis-
oonti* (1855); 'L'Assedio di Leyda' (1856);
'lone* (1858) ; 'H duca di ScUla* (1859) ; and
• Morosina ' (1863). After this nearly every year
produced its opera, but we need only mention
« Giovannall di Napoli* (Naples, Feb. 27, 1869)
— said in some respects to surnass ' lone,' which up
to that time was his ohef-d oeuvre—and * I pro-
messi sposi ' (Lecoo, Oct. a, 1869). For the latter
Petrella was called before the curtain 37 times in
the first evening! In 1875 he produced *Man*
fredo' at Borne ; it was greatly applauded, and a
silver crown presented to the composer.
Petrella died at Genoa» April 7, 1877. In the
biography in Menders Dictionary 19 operas of
his are named, but there is apparently some error
in the dates. His music, though often violently
applauded by the enthusiastic Italians, pleased
the more critical audience of the Scala only
moderately, and has no permanent qualities. [G.J
PETREIUS, JoHAiTN, printer and publitther
of music, bom at Langendorf, Franconia ; gradu-
ated'Magister* at Nuremberg; in 1536 began
business in that town as a printer. His earliest
music-publication appears to be * Musics, id est,
Artis canendi, libri duo, autor Sebaldus Heyden.
Norimbeigs apud Joh. Petreium, anno salutis
1 537 ' ; and his latest, ' Guter, seltsnmer, und
kunstreioher teutsoher Gesang .... Gredruckt zu
Ntimbeig, durch Jo. Petreium. 1544.* Between
these two, Eitner (Bibliographie) gives 6 works
in 9 volumes, including a collection of 15 masses,
a volume of 45 select motets, and 3 volumes, of
158 four-part songs. He died, according to F^tis,
at Nuremberg, Maaoh 18, 1550. [G.]
PETBUOCI, Ottayiano dki, an illustrious
printer, the father of the art of type-musio-
printing, was bom of a good family at Fossom-
brone, between Ancona and Urbino, June 14,
1466. Before 1498 he had established himself
At Venice ; for on May 35 of that year he ob-
tained firom the Seignory the sole privilege, for
30 years, of printing ' figured music (canto figu-
rate) and music in the tablature of the organ
and lute — a privilege which he exercised there
till about 1 51 1. At that date he left the Vene-
tian business in the hands of Amadeo Scotti and
Nicol6 da Raphael, and returned to Fossombrone,
where, on Oct. 3 3, 1 5 1 3, he obtained a patent from
Pope Leo X for the monopoly of music-printing
in the Roman States for 15 years. His latest
work is dated 1533, and shortly after that he
probably died.
Petrucci*s process was a double one ; he printed
first the lines of the stave, and then, by a second
impression, the notes upon them, in fact he
discovered a method of doing by the press what
the German printers of patronendruek or pat-
tern-printing, had done by hand. His work is
beautifully executed. The 'register,' or fit, of
the notes on the lines is perfect; the ink is a
fine black, and the whole effect is admirable.
I Ferfbrmed U the LyMum, London. lUreb 21. lOTl.
PEUTINGER.
But the pzooess was expensive, and was aooa
superseded by printing in one impreanon, wkidi
appears to liave been first suooessfally aooom-
plished by Oglin' of Augsburg in 1507.'
Petrucd printed no missals, service books, or
other music in canto iermo ; but mssses, motets,
lamentations, and frottole, all in canto fifj^orato,
or measured music, and a few works in late-
tablature. [See Musica Mbnsubata; Tabla-
TDRB.] Bjm first work was ' Hannonice Mnricfw
Odhecaton A Venetiis decimo octaro caL
junias. Salutis anno 150 1,* — a collection of 96
pieces in 3 and 4 parts by Isj^u^ Josquin, Obrecbt,
Ockeghem, and other masters of the day, the
parts printed opposite one another on the open
pages of a small 4to. His activity was very
great ; Ghrysander* gives a list of 18 works oer^
tainly and 2 probably issued between June I3,
1501, and Nov. 38, 1504. The last work cited
by Eitner (Bibliographie) is the ' Motetti della
Corona,' a collection of 83 motets for 4, f , and 6
voices (in separate part books) in 4 pOTtions, the
4th portion of which was published at Fossom-
brone Oct. 31, 1 5 19. F^tb however' mentions
three masses, in large folio, printed for the lectern
of a church, with t£e date 1533-35 and knodLed
down to an unknown buyer at a sale 1^ Home
In 1839. His life and works are exhaustivdy
treated by Anton Schmid, 'Ottaviano dei Pe-
tmcci,* etc, Vienna, 1845. [G.]
PETTIT, Waltkr, violoncellist, was bom in
London on March 14, 1836, and received his
musical education chiefly at Uie Royal Academy
of Music. In 1851 he was engaged by Balfe for
the orchestra of Her Majesty's Ineatre, in which
he remained for many years. In 186 1 he suc-
ceeded Lucas as principal violoncello in the Phil-
harmonic orchestra, and in 1 876 took the place of
Paque in Her Majesty *s private band. (^T.P.H.]
PEUTINGER, CoNBAD, a lover and supporter
of church music at a time when church music was
the only kind, and a keen devotee for the welfioe
of literature and art. He was bom at Ai^borg
(the city of the Fuggers) in 1465 ; was educated
in Italy; in 1493 became secretary to the senate
of Augsburg; in 153 1, at the diet of Worms,
obtained the confirmation of the ancient privi-
leges of the dty, and others in addition. He
was a great collector of antiquities, inscriptiooa,
and MSS., and in particular was the owner of
the 'Peutinger Tables,' a map of the military
roads of the Lower Roman Empire, probably
dating about 335, which is one of the most
precious geographical monuments of antiquity,
and is now in the State Library at Vienna.
His devotion to music is shown by his pre&oe
to the ' Liber selectarum Cantionum quas vulgo
Mutetas appellant, sex, quinque, et quatoor
• In hb ' Kelopotae,' to* OhtyMnder (ICatietl TIhms. 18V7. pi. aV'X
F^tU however qtiot«s this very work u an ertdaoo* that OKlia foi-
low«d Fotruod't meUMMl of two {olaUngt (Blofr. ubIt. toL tU. |k. H
note, ed. 1864).
s The method of prlntlnff by double toptewloa »o u to oMito
the ttftve llnet oontlnooiu without the breaks Ineritehle la prtaiiec
by ft single imprBasloo— was patented by SdMomiana In uai (8m
SOaiOBMANN.]
« Musical Timet, p. aSB a. • Btof. nnhr. tIL U a.
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PEUTINGER.
Tooum,' of Grimxxdus and Wyrsung, Augsburg
1520, » Tolume contaiaing 34 Latin motete by
fi. Izact Joequin dee Fris, Obrecht, Pierre de
la Bue, Senfl, and oiherg. [G.]
PEVERNAGE, Andreas, bom in the year
1543/ at Courtrai, in Flanders. He held an
appointment in bis native town until his mar-
liage,* June 15, 1574, and soon after moved to
Antwerp as choirmaster in the cathedral. There
he led an active life, composing, editing, and giv-
ing weekly performances at his house of the best
native and foreign music. He died at the age of
aS, and was buried in the cathedral. Sweertius'
describes him as *vir ad modestiam faotus, et
totus candidus, quae in Musioo mireris, quibus
cum leviusculis notis annata levitas videtmr.'
The same author gives the following epitaph : —
H. Andns Peremagio
Musioo ezoellenii
"ELu^uB eocleain phonaaoo
et Mariee fllie
Maria Haeoht vidua et ¥F. M. pose.
Obienint Hie XXX Julii. Aetat XLYIII.
niaUFeb. Aetat XH. MDTiXXXTX.
F^tis mentions 5 books of chansons and i book
of sacred motets, published in the composer's
lifetime, and 5 masses and a book of motets for
the chief church festivals, as posthumous. The
British Museum contains 1 book of chansons, and
2 imperfect copies of the 'Harmonia Celeste,*
a collection of madrigals edited by Pevemage,
in which 7 of his own pieces appear. In , ad-
dition to these Eitner* mentions 16 detached
pieces in various collections of the time. Two
pieces have been printed in modem type — an ode
to S. Cecilia, 'O virgo ^generosa/ composed for the
inauguration of his house concerts/ and a 9-part
« Gloria in excelsis.* ' [J.R.S.-B.]
PEZZE, Alessandbo, an able violoncellist,
was bom in Milan in 1835. He received his
first musical instmotion from his father, an ex-
cellent amateur. In 1846 he was, after competi-
tion, admitted to the Milan Conservatorio, whore
his master was the celebrated Meric^hi. After
a course of concerts in North Italy he was ap-
pointed first violoncello at La Scala. Lumley
Drought him to Her Majesty's Theatre in 1857,
where he remained until the theatre was burnt
down. He also played principal violoncello with
Pettit at the old Philharmonic, and was for some
years engaged at Covent Garden. [T.P.H.]*
PHILADELPHIA is remarkable among the
cities of the United States for its vigorous mu-
sical life. No less than sixty-five societies for
1 ' IfMter A. Ferernage . . . diad Jn\j 80. Uei. aboat half-past four
In the afternoon, after five weeks' illness.' (See note discovered by
M. de Barbure in Antwerp Cathedral books.) Thus the last two
letters of the date in the epitaph have changed places ; it should
stand MfiLXXXXL Hediedattheaceoftf^ which fixes the date of his
birth.
2 Paquoi's * mstoire Ittteraire des Fars-bas.' Tom. 9, p. 831 (Lon-
Taln. 1787). The author gives a reference, ' Franc Hosml poemata,
cd. 1078. p. S89. MO. oA il 7 a deux Bpithalames: In nuptias Andrea
Femmage. apud Cortraosnses Svinphonasci, et Karise Mssges viduss.
17 cal. J ulil, anno 1S74.' ^
3 • AthensB Belgicas.' Antwerp, less (BrH. Mus. 11901 k). Both the
year of death and the name of Pevemage's wife are probably incor-
rect. See notes lands. < fiibllographle.
• Commer— ' CoUectio <^ mustcomm BaMv.' Vol. vIU (Berlin,
Trantweln). • Ambroe. * Oesohichte,' iU. 318.
f (teellla, TOD Oberhoflin-, Luzanburg, MS, Xo. 7.
PHILADELPHIA.
697
the active practice of music exist within its pre-
cincts. The oldest of these, the Musical Fund
Society, was established on February 29, 1820.
In 1823 the society built a hall for its meetings,
and about seven years later an academy was
opened for musical instruction. After having
given, in the course of thirty years, about 100
concerts, in which nearly all the best European
and American artists took part, increased com-
petition in musical affairs compelled the society
to alter its original system, but for the last 15*
vears its funds have been gradually accumu-
lating, so that a capital has now been secured
with which it is hoped a permanent school of
music will eventually be established. In tiie 60
years of its exisienoe the society has given freely
from its funds to the relief of its professional
members and their families, and to provide for
their children after the death of their parents.
The society has accumulated a considerable
library of vocal and orchestral scores, etc. At
present there are 50 members, 14 of whom are
professional musicians.
In addition to the above, at the end of this
article will be found a list^ of musical societies
(with the names of their conductors) which are-
now in existence in Philadelphia. Of these the
Orpheus Club, a choral society for men*s voices,
was organised in August 1S72, and has a limited
membernhip of 50 active and 300 associate and
subscribing members. The Cclcilian Society was
organised May 25, 1875, and has an active mem-
bership of about 400. The Beethoven Society
was founded in 1869.
The university of Pennsylvania, located in
Philadelphia, has established a Faculty of
Music, and confers degrees on students who
attend its lectures and pass an examination in
harmony, counterpoint, and composition. Lec-
tures and instruction are given by the Professor
of Music (Mr. H. A. Clarke) who has also or-
ganised an orchestra and a glee-dub, composed of
the undergraduate students.
There are several private musical academies
at Philadelphia. The principal of these is the
Philadelphia Musical Academy (President, Mme.
Emma Seiler), which has a regular attendance of
over 100 pupils.
r.
MUSICAL SOCIETIES
Abt Society. H. A. Clarke.
Allemania. F.W.KUiueL
Amphion SocletT.
Arbeiter Sanaerbund.
Arion. J. Schaaf.
Arion (of Germantown).
Aurora.
Beethoven Liederkrans.
W. KUnwjl.
Beethoven Mannerclior.
Gr6bL
GaeoiUa.
Cecilian. M. H. Crofls.
Ceoilian Musical Beneficial
Aa^ooiation. B. G. S.
Wilks, President.
Colombia Geaangverein,
W. Winter.
Cdumbia Burschenschafl.
L. OokenUnder.
IN UH I liAT)1CTiPTlTA.
Concordia Qesangyerein.
E.Ga8tel. ^^
Concordia Qoarftet Club.
L. Engelke.
Mntracht. U. Peters.
Eintraoht Quartet Club.
Fidel io Gesangverein. G.
WUke.
Fidelio Mttnnerchor.
QambrinuB SUngerkmnx.
F. Stadler, Secretary.
Qennania Idederkrans. G.
Wilke.
Germonia M&nnerchor. J.
Brenner.
Germania Orchestra. CM.
Schmitz.
Handel and Haydn Society,
C. Sents.
Harmonie. F.W.KtLnsel.
1 Oomplled for this work by Mr. Kdtnimd WoUielfcr and Mr. J. O.
Bosengarten. editor of tiie Philadelplila PubUc Ledger, to whoee
klDdneu we are also ladebted lor the Infonnatloo ooatalned abore.
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698
PHILADELPHIA.
lo.
>r.
n.
J.
IX.
J.,
a,
J.
J.
B.
PHILEMON ET BAUCIS. A not unfrequent
•abject for the musical stage both in France and
Germany. It was set by Gotmod to words by
Barbier and Carr^ in 3 acts, and brought out at
the Th^tre Lyiique, Feb. 18, i860. [G.]
PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY. This society
was founded in London in 181 3 for the en-
couragement of orchestral and instrumental
music. Messrs. J. B. Cramer, P. A. Corri, and
W. Dance invited various professional friends to
meet them on Sunday, Jan. 24, 181 3, when a plan
was formed which Resulted in the establishment
of a society with thirty members, afterwards in-
creased to forty — seven of whom were made
directors for the management of the concerts —
and an unlimited number of associates. The
subscription for members was three guineas, and
for associates two guineas each. Subscribers
were admitted on the introduction of a member
on paying four guineas, and resident families of
any subscriber two guineas each.
The principal musicians in London readily
joined, and gave their gratuitous services in the
orchestra. The first series of eight concerts on
Mondays, at irregular intervals, conunenced on
March 8, 181 3, at the Argyll Booms, Regent
Street — * Leader, Mr. Salomon; at the piano-
forte (in lieu of the conductor as at present),
Mr. Clementi' — and was both financially and
artistically successful.
The following is a list of the members during
the first season : — J. B. Cramer, P. A. Corri,
W. Dance, M. Clementi. W. Ayrton, W. SMeld,
J. J. Graeff, H. R. Bishop, W. Blake. J. B.
Salomon, C. Neate, R. Potter, Sir Geo. T. Smart,
F. Cramer, T. Attwood, J. B. Viotti. — Hill,
— Moralt, G. E. Griffin, J. Bartleman, W.
Knyvett, Louis Berger, C. Ashley, R. Cooke,
F. Yaniewicz, S. Webbe, jun.. V. Novello, W.
Horsley, W. Sherrington, A. Ashe. Among the
associates, of whom at the outset there were 38,
are found the names of Bridgetower, Mori, Naldi, I
PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY.
Cipriani Potter, Spagnoletti, Samuel Wealej, and
other eminent musicians.
The following have been the TreasttrerB of the
8ociety:-W. Ayrton(i8i3-i4); W. Dance (181 5);
M. Clementi (1816-17); R. H. Potter ( 18 iS-io);
T. Attwood (1820); W. Dance (1821-33); W.
Sherrington (1833-35); W. Thmce (1836-39);
G. F. Anderson (1840-76); W. 0. Macfiuren
(1877-80). The Secretaries have been H. Danoe
(1813); 0. J. Ashley (1813-15); W. Watts
(1815-47) ; G. W. Budd (1847-50) ; G. Hogarth
(1850-64) ; Campbell Clarke (1864-66) ; Stanley
Lucas (1866-80).
In the early days of the sooiety two sym-
phonies, two concertos, two quartets or quintets
for string or wind instruments, wiUi two or more
vocal concerted pieces, constituted the evening's
programme! Chamber instrumental music is now
excluded, and other arrangements are made con-
forming to the exigencies of the age and the
comfort of the subsmbers.
In addition to the claims of oar own oonntry-
men, foreign non-resident musicians hare from
time to tame been invited to direct the pei^
formanoes, often of works composed at the
express request of the society, as Chenibini
(March 13, 1815). Spohr (1820, 1843), Weber
(1826), Mendelssohn (1829, 42, 44, 47), Hiller
(1852), Wagner (1855), Gouood (1871). The
intimate association of the Society with these
great composers, as well as with Gnalow and
Beethoven, etc. etc., need only be mentioned to
show the artistic recognition which this institu-
tion has received from music's greatest professors.
A good idea of the popularity of the Society in
1820 may be formed firom Spohr*s account in
his Autobiography. * Notwithstanding the high
price of admission, says he, the number of sub-
scribers was so great that many hundreds who
had inscribed their names could not obtain seats.*
The following summary of the principal new
events of each season will be the best epitome of
the earnest artistic work done by the Phil-
harmonic Society. It will show how far the
Society since its establishment may claim to
have kept pace with the progress of music ; how
many masterpieces of the most different schools,
since become classic, were first heard in England
at a Philharmonic concert, and bow many great
players have there made their cUbiU before an
Englinh audience. These claims to distinction
nre due to the discretion and enei^ of the
Directors of the Society. Their post is an hono-
rary one, involving much time and labour, and
it is through their exertions that the Society has
for so long maintained its position against con-
tinually increasing competition, and has on more
than one occasion been rescued firom pecuniary
difficulty and placed again in a state of prosperity.
The list shows, with a few exceptions, only
the firesh works brought forward and the first
appearances of artists ; (he stock pieces of the
repertoire, and the re-appearances of favourite
players and singers being but rarely named.
In the programmes of the first season the
works are but rarely specified.
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PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY.
N.B. • denotes that a work was oomposed for the
Society; t, that it was first performed Ia England at
the date named.
181& Sympfaonies— Haydn (4\ Mocart (S), BeethoTen (3^,
Pleyel Us Woelfl (lU dementi (2), Romberg (1).
Orertnres— Cherubini (4), Haydn (1>, Mosart lis Paer
S). Septetr-Beethoven. Quartets and Quintets—
aydn, Mozart, BeethoTen, J. G. Baoh, Bomberg,
Vi^etc.
1814. tSinfonia Eroica. •t2 MS. Symphonies, F. Bies.
•t Quartet, Oriffin. MS. Symphonies. Hardn,
t Crotch, and t Aaioli. •f New Overture, GherubinL
•t Overture, Beiger. Selection from 'Mount of
Olives.* B. Bombers plays. N.B. Cherubini accepts
900/. for a new nrmpoony, overture, and vocal piece.
1815. t Overture, *Anacreon.* conducted by Cherubini.
•fMS. Symphony and MS. Overture by Cherubini.
tMS. Symphonies by Bies and Woelfl ; f MS. Sestet,
Kalkbrenner. Kalibrenner and Lafont play. 200^.
voted for trial of new works. 3 MS. Overtures
bought from Beethoven.
1818. tSymphony in 0 minor, Beethoven. fMS. Symphony,
Bies. fMS. Overture, Beethoven. •fMS. Bardie
Overture, Bies, -t MS. Overture and Sestet, Potter,
•t MS. Symphony, F^my. •f MS. Overture, Burrowes.
Baillot plays at 1st, and leads at 6th and 7th concerts.
1817. t Overtures, Fidelio and Coriolan. f Symphony in
A, Beethoven, t MS. Symphony, Burghersh. Anfor '
plays. Invitation to Beethoven.
IS18. fHummeVs Septet t MS. Symphony, Bies.
1819. fMS. Symphony, OlementL MS. Trio, Lindley.
•tMS.Qvdntet,Bios.
1S20. Spohr's first visit ; plays his Dramatic Concerto,
and conducts his MS. n Symphony (No. 2) and fNonet.
Neate i^ys a f Concerto by Eieethoven. Further
commissions to Beethoven.
1821. Overtures, 'tin F, Spohr, tin D, Bomberg. Mo-
scheles plays his tMS. Concerto. Potter plays
Mozart's f Concerto in D.
1882. t Overture, Leonora, f Concerto for P.F. and
Chorus, Steibelt (Neate) ; Mrs. Anderson's first ap-
pearance—t Hummers B minor Concerto. H. Field
ffiath) plays f Concerto, Hummel. MS. Symphony,
Bochm. t MS. Concerto, Moecheles. Ist app. Caradon.
1823. tMS. Symphony, Clementi. f MS. Overture (op.
124), Beethoven.
1824. Beethoven's +0 minor Concerto fPotter\ tMS.
Overture. Clementi. Kalkbrenner plays tMS. Con-
certo. Szymanowska plays. 1st app. Miss Paton,
Mme. Pasta.
1825. •tChoral Symphony (Mar. 21>. Overtures— fEury-
anthe> f Olimpia, Spontini : f Alcalde, Onslow. Con-
certos—t Beethoven, in G (Potter), t Weber's Concert-
stttck (Neate). Pasta and Caradori sing. Female
Associates first elected.
1828. Weber conducts, April 8. fMS. Symphony, Potter.
t Overture, Jessonda. I>e Beriot plays a Concerto
tyBode.
1327. tMS. Overtures by Schloesser and Ooss. Liszt's
first appearance (May 21) in Concerto by Hummel.
1st anp. Mme. Stockhausen.
1828. tSymphony in Eb, Spohr. Last appearance of
Clementi. Fixis plays.
1829. Menddssohn conducts his tC minor Symphony
(Mav 25). t Spohr's double Quartet Sontag and
Malibran sing.
1830. Argyll Booms burnt (Feb. 6) ; library saved ; con-
cert-room of Opera House engaged. Mendelssohn's
Overture to M. N. Dream, f Overture. William Tell.
Nottumo for wind, Mozart. 1st app. Mme. Dulcken,
De Beriot, Lablaohe.
183L Selection from Spohr's Last Judgment f Over-
ture, Alchymist, Spohr. 1st app. Hummel, BL. Bla-
grove, Bubini, Miss Inverarity.
1832. Symphonies— t Moscheles in C, 't MS., Onslow in
t Beethoven's Violin Concerto (Ellason). t Mendels-
sohn's, Isles of Fingal (MS.). Mend<>lssohn ploys
fG minor Concerto twice. John Field (Busgia)
^ys his Concerto in Eb. Schroder Devrient, Cinti-
Damoreau, Tamburini, sing. Mendelssohn com-
missioned to write symphony, overture, and vocal
piece. Commissions ffiven to J. B. Cramer, Bishop,
potter, Oriesbach, Neukomm, Moecheles, GriflBn,
Attwood, Horsley, Novello, Goes, and T. Cooke.
N.B. dementi's funeral, in Westminster Abbey,
conducted by the Society.
1833. •tMendeJssohn's Italian Symphony and •tTmm-
Ct Overture, 'f MS. Syro'^hony ( A minor) by Potter,
endelssohn plays Mozart's D minor Concerto. 1st
app. Hers, Clara Novello, Miss Masson. N.B. Con-
certs transferred to Hanover Square. Hon. members
first elected— Auber, Hummel, Le Sueor, Mendels-
•ohn, Meyerbeer, Onslow.
PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY. 699
oerto, Mrs. Anderson. Moecheles plays his f Concerto
FantMtique (MS.). 1st app. of Vieuxfm». Grisi,
1836. tSp<Ar1i *Weihe der Tflne.' tMS. Symphony,
Maurer. ^t Concerto in D Minor, Herz. Ist app. of
W. S. Bennett, H. Blagrove, Servais, Brambilla,
Miss Poftans.
1836. t Mendelssohn's 'Calm Sea.' tLaohner's Sym-
-*- in E b. •f Bishop's CanUta • Departure ftom
Lse ' (Malibran). Bennett plays his f Concerto,
G minor. 1st app. of Thalbexg, Ole Bull, Lipinski,
Balfe.
1837. t
vAiony
Faradii
17. tSymphony in A, Onslow. Overtures— t Bies:
t • Cymbeline,*^ Potter ; t * Naiades ' (MS.), W. S. Ben-
nett, tintrod. and Fugue, Mozart. Choi-al Sym-
phony. 1st app. of Bosenham, Miss Birch, Bonconi.
1838. i Mendelssohn's D minor Concerta MS. (Mrs.
Anderson), t Bennett's F minor do., MS. (Bennett).
tMS. Concerto, Hummel (Dulcken). Choral Sym-
IS
IS
Vieuxtemps, Bennett play-
1846. Mr. Costa conducts (till 1854). t Beethoven's Mass
in D. t Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto (Sivori).
t MS. Concerto, P. Al van (Mme. Dulcken). t Spohr's
Concerto in G < Sainton), f Bennett's Caprice in E
(Bennett), f Spohr's Concertante, MS. Ist app. Mme.
Pleyel, Lockey, Lavigne. H. Field, Yieuxtemps, P.
Alvars, play.
1847. Mass in C, Beethoven, t Symphony in D (3 move-
ments), Mozart Beethoven's Choral Symphony, Con-
certo in G (Mendelssohn), Violin Concerto (Joachim).
Midsummer N. D. music. Scotch Symphony. Men-
delssohn conducted and played at the 4th concert —
his last visit. Ist app. of Kate Loder, Hellmesberger.
Persian!. Bennett, Vieuxtemps, play : H. Phillips
sings ' On Lena's gloomy heath,' Mendelssohn (MS.).
1848. t Mendelssohn^B 'To the sons of Art' t Overture,
*Struen«ee.' t Symphony, B minor, A. Hesse. Over-
ture, 'Siege of Connth,' Boseini. t Overture, *Tita-
nia,' Griesbach, 'Parisina,' Bennett. 1st app. of
Vlardot Garcia, Alboni, H. C. Cooper, Prudent
1849. Mendelssohn's t Athalie (twice), fBuv IHas (MS.),
and Serenade and Alio ginjoso. Choral Symphony.
1st app. of Mile. Neruda, L. Sloper, Hancock (cello),
J. B. Chatterton, Sims Beeves, Mies Lucombe, Jetty
Treffz, Wartel.
1860. Griesbach's tMS. Overture, 'Tempest.' Conoert-
sttkck, C minor, Benedict. Walpurgi^ night. 1st app.
of Charton, Hayes, PyxxB, Formes, Alard, Benedict,
Salaman. Thalberg plays Mozart's D minor Concerto.
1851. tMS. Overture, Schlfisser. j Concertos— tvioUn—Kh,
Moiart (Sainton); fSpohr, Ko. 2 (Blagrove); Ft.
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700 PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY.
Hummel, A minor (Patier). GhonJ SympbonT.
Trampet Orerture. Ist app. of Bfdoluurdt, J. Stock
hauMn, Bottesini, W. H. Holme«,.P»uer. ^ , ^ _.
1862. t Hiller'i Symphony * Im Preien.' t Scotch fantaeift,
Joachim. Overture, * Don Quixote ' Maofarren. let
app. Claues, Halle, John Thomae, Gaidoni. Hiller
oonducto (June 28). ^ . , «
1853. t * Praise of Muiio,' Beethoyen. t A minor Sym-
phony, Gade. t Orerture. Scherxo, and Finale. Schu-
mann. tLoreley finale, MendelMohn (Pyne).
t* Harold in Italy' (Sainton): 'Bepoee* (Gardoni);
Orerture, * OamaTal Bomain»— aU by Berlioa.
t HiUer'i Concerto (Hiller) t Overture, * Qenueeerin.*
liindpaintner. • MS. Symphony, Gherubini. Mld-
■ummer N J), muaio (twice), lit app. F. Hiller, Win-
terbottom.
1864. t Symphony, B flat, Schumann, t MS. Symphony,
Bosenhain. Ut app. Belletti.
1866. Wagner conducts, t Selection, < Lohengrin.' MS.
Symphony in Bb, Lucai. t Overture, * Chevy
Chase,' Maefarren. tOverture,* Tannhiuser ' (twice).
t Concerto, £ minor, Chopin (Halle). 1st app. Jenny
Ney, Buderedorft , ^ ,„ ^^^^ „ ^
1866. Stemdale Bennett conducts (till 1866). Schu-
mann's t* Paradise and Peri.' Overtures, t *Don Car-
los,' Maefarren; t* Antony and Cleopatra,' Potter.
1 18 Vart. s^rieusee, Mendelssohn. 1st app. Arabella
Ooddard. Mme. Schumann, Mme. Lind. N.B. Six
7U
it
in-
liz
S:
U.
F.
Id-
* Merry Wives,' . Nicolai. Concertos — t Bennett,
No. 1 (H. Thomas) : t Joachim, No. 2, in 6 (Joachim).
Serenade and Alio ciojoso. Mendelssohn (Hart-
1865.
Schumann (Mme. Schumann C Finale to Loreley
(Titiens). 1st app. Murska, Harriers- Wippem, Sinico,
AgnesL Iianterbach, Svendsen.
1866. Schumann's ' Paradise and Peri ' (Parepa). Gou-
nod's Symphony in Ew. 1st app. nbrioh.Cumminff8,
Auer, Jaetl, Mehlig, Wieniawsky. N3. Stemdale
Bennett resigns.
1867. W. G. Cusins appointed conductor. • t Overture,
*Marmion,' Sullivan. Symphonies— Beethoven, Cho-
ral ; Schubert, B minor ; Schumann. D minor. Ist
app. I^ilsson, Mme. Patey, Grtltzmacher.
1868. Beformation Symphony, Mendelssohn. Over-
tures—' Blise,' Cherubini ; t ' Bosenwald,' Lucas :
t Symphonique. J. F. Bamett ; * Nonne Sanglante,'
Gounod; t'Selva incantata.' Benedict. tOoncert-
■ttlck (op. ^) Schumann (Mme. Schumann). Con-
certos—fMaxBruch (Straus); tBeeekirsky:Beinecke
(Jaell). 1st app. Foli, KoUogg, V. Bigby, E. Wynne,
JBesekirsky, Carrodus, Bendano.
1869. N.B. Concerts removed to St. James's Hall. Pro-
grammes annotated by Prof, liacfarren. t Sympho-
niee—Woelfl. G minor. Overtures—' Camacho,' Men-
delssohn ; * King Manfred,' Beinecke ; ' Bosamunde,'
Schubert. 1st app. H. Holmes, Neruda, Beinecke,
Zimmermannjftegan, Monbelli.
1870. Symphony, £b, Schumann. Overture, * In Memo-
riam,' Sullivan. Concerto, B^ Piatti. Beethoven's
9 Symphonies. Ist. app. Oxaenyt
1871. Symphonies— t Gounod in D; Schubert in C.
Overtures — 'Mireille,' Gounod: *Wood Njrmph.'
Bennett; 'Bienxi,' Wagner. tSaltarello, Gounod.
tConcerto grosso, G minor, Handel, t Concertino,
Bottesini. 1st app. Brandos, Capoul, Faure. N.B.
PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY.
Bust of Beethoven preaented bj Fran LinriMnur.
Gold medal struck by Wyom fSor preaent»tion to
artists.
1872. Brahms's Serenade in D. O verluiea — Bennett,
f Ajax ': Benedict, 'Tempest.' Concertos— tBach in G;
tHandel, oboe, G minor: Lisst, Bb; Cusina, A
minor. 1st am>. Belaborde. Hartvigson, Garlotta
Patti. Peschka-Xeutner, Manmon, M. Boze.
1873. Symphony, t C. P. E. Bach in D ; t * Tasso,* Lint.
tBequiem, Brahms. Bach's Chromatic Fantaeisu
Overtures— ' Faust.' Spohr; * Alfonso and Bstrella,*
Schubert; * Medecdn,*^ Gounod ; *HoUftnder,* Wag-
ner; 'St. John the Baptist' (MS.). Maefarren. Con-
certos— Eubinstein, G: Brahms, D minor; Mae-
farren, G minor (Straus). 1st app. AlTsl«ben,Uqyd,
Colyns, Von BtUow. "^ ^
1874. tConcerto grofso in A, Handel. Serenade in A,
Brahms. Overture/ Genoveva,' Schumann; t' Tam-
ing of the Shrew,' Bheinberger. tConcertq, Lalo in
F (Sarasate). 1st app. Sterling, EedpoflE, Kx^
Saint-Sa«ns, Sarasate.
1876. Concert in memory of Bennett: hie Prehid»
and tFuneral march, *Ajax'; and * Woman of
Samaria.' . Symphony. 'Im Walde,* Ball. FIbK-
OvertureLBenedict. Concertos — Vieuxtemps in A
minor (Wieniawski) : Baf^ PJP^ C minor (Jaell).
Variations on theme by Haydn, Brahms. Music ik
the 'Tempest,' Sullivan. • t Idyll on Bennett. Mae-
farren. Choral Symphony. 1st app. Breitner, Fapini,
WiIheln\J, Thekla I^iedl&nder, S: Lftwe, Shakespeare.
N.B. Bennett's funeral, at Westminster Abbey, con-
ducted by Philharmonic Society, &. Acad, of Musio^
and B. Soc of Musicians.
1876w t Dramatic Symphony, Eubinstein. Suite, B minor.
Bach (flute). Overtures— ' Merry Wives,' Bennett;
fWallenstein's Camp,' 'Bheinberger; t'Love'ii
Labour's Lost,' Cusins; ' Meistersinger.' Wagner.
Concertos— Henselt. F minor (Berth) ; Eubinstein,
D) (Eubinstein) ; Goltermann (Laserre). Brahms's
Eequiem (2nd time). Ist app. Earth, Osgood, Eodekar.
N.B. Ten concerts.
1877. Symphonies— t Silas in 0; Brahms in 0 minor.
Overtures— Elegiac, Joachim: 'Lay of Last Min-
strel,' J. F. Bamett : * Parisina,^ Bennett. Concerto*—
Mozart, harp and flute ; Grieg, A minor ; Ball,
cello. Schumann's FausiL Pt. 3. Ist app. Dannreu-
ther,E.Hau8mann,Hensohel,McGuckin. P.ViardoL
18
The following remarks, which appeared in the
' Times * on the occasion of the Jubilee Concert
of 1 86a, give an excellent r^unU of the pro-
ceedings of the Society up to that date : —
The 'Jubilee Concert' was worthy to commemocata
the event in honour of which it was projected— viz. the
8 ucce^ul completion of the 60th year of the Philharmome
Society, ito 'golden wedding' with the sympathiee of
oxir musical public. Since Its institution in 1^ the
Philharmonic Society has, to use a homely phrase, aaen
its ' ups and downs.' Nevertheless, even in its darkest
and most threatening periods, it has never once departed
from the high sUudard which it set itself from the
beginning, never once bv lowering the standard en-
deavoured pusillanimously to minuter to a taste leas
scrupulous and refined than that to which it made its
first appeal^nd to which it is indebted for a world-wide
celebrity. Thus it has never forfeited the good opinion
of those who actually constitute the tribunal which in
this country adjudges the real position of the musical
art, and who have invariably rallied round the ' Phil-
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PHHiHAEMONIC SOCIETY.
hannonio * in ito moments of temporary trlaL Amid all
kinds of well-intended, however biffoted, opposition, the
Society has submitted to reform after reform, and pre-
serrea its moral equilibrium-* sign that its constitution
is of the stnmgest and the healthiest. The late Sir H. B.
Bishop, our national English composer, the illustrious
German, Felix MendelBsohn, and Herr Ignatx Mosoheles,
ihe renowned pianist, were alternately appointed oon-
duotors of series of concerts ; and at one time the idea
was entertained that Mendelssohn himself would consent
to undertake the sole direction. Mendelssohn, howerer,
was too deeply absorbed in other pursuits, and the hone
of his beoominff 'perpetual conductor* was ineTitably
abandoned. Ultimately, in 1S46, the post was offered
to and accepted by Mr. Oosta. That gentleman continued
in office, with manifest adrantage to the performances,
until 18M, when, after a brilliant reign of nine years, he
abdicated. The year 1855, during which Herr Bichard
Wagner wielded the bAton, was one of the most disastrous
on reoord. . . It was then remembered there was such an
•gngHiih musician as Mr. Stemdale Bennett— an old
member of the * Philharmonic,* who had firequently
eerred as director, and in bygone years as often con-
ducted the performances. To Mr. Bennett was tendered
the conduotoi^s bAton, which he has wielded erer since
with honour to himself and profit to his emplovers.
From the first season during which this eminent musician
officiated as conductor, the star of tlie ' Philharmonic '
has shone with undiminished lustre, and its fortunes
hare steadily risen; this too in spite of the involuntary
secession of no fewer than for^-seven of the most dis-
tinguished members of his orchestra, whose duties at
the Italian Opera were in 1861 found incompatible with
those which called them to the Hanover Square Booms.
There was no alternative for the * Philharmonic ' but to
change its nights or give up its concerts. To give up
the concerts was out of the question. To change the
nights of performance was difficult for more reasons
tlian one ; in addition to which there was a sort of
superstitious dislike to any such innovation on the custom
of nearly half a centuir. •The involuntary seceders
werepromptly replaced, and the forty-ninth series of
the Philharmonic Concerts commenced as usual, with
a noble orchestra of nearly eighty performers ; and the
directors, who had reduced the number of concerts to
six, resolved in the interim to revive the old system
(dating from 1813>. and wisely and boldly returned to
the time-honoured * eight.' The incidents of the two
seasons. 1861 and 1862, are tolerably familiar to our
musical readers. The new (or almost new) band has
been broni^t more and more under the control of the
conductor : uul the first eight symphonies of Beethoven
(to speak of nothing else) have been twice performed in
such a manner as to sustain the well-eamed reputation
of the * Philharmonic* In short, tLe Society was never
in a more flourishing condition; and, instead of dissolving
at the end of thii, their fiftieth season, as wasanticipateoL
they celebrated it the x>ther night in St James's Hall
(the Hanover Square Booms not oeingbig enough for the
occasion) with a ' Jubilee ' concert of varied andsplendid
attraction. Thus, in the year of expected dissolution,
the patrons of the ' Philharmonic * have had nine per-
fbraianoes instead of eight, the profits of the extra concert
amounting to little short of 60oL
At the close of the season of i866 Professor
Bennett reeismed the oondactorship, and his
place at the Philharmonic was filled by Mr. W.
6. Cnsins, then a prominent member of Her
Majesty's band, and now 'Master of the Music
to the Queen/ who has held the b&ton, season
by season, qp to that which has just concluded.
In 1 868 it became evident that the Hanover
Square Booms were too small for the concerts,
and they were therefore in the next season
removed to the more i^Mtoious aocommodation
of St. James's Hall, Piccadilly, thus deserting
a building which had, through 36 years' oc-
cupation, become identified with the Society,
and breaking, though inevitably, an important
link with the past. At the same time the pro-
gnunmes were furnished with analyses and com-
ments by Professor G. A. Macfarren, illustrated
by auotations in music type, a practice that
has been maintained to the present time.
PHILHARMONIC SOC., NEW YORK. 701
Music has now become more democratic than
it was, and the Philharmonic Society, instead of
being the sole and acknowledged queen of the
musical world of Enffland, is only one out of
several concert-giving Institutions, each striving
its hardest to attract the favour of the public.
How fiir the Society may be able to maintain
itself in these new conditions against so severe
and increasing a competition, it is not for the
Dictionary of Music to predict. We ho^ie for
the best from the zeal and caution which in the
past have carried the directors of the Phil-
harmonic over so many shoals safe to land. The
happy sagacity which in 1844 saved the Society
by the engagement of Mendelssohn, may aeain
prove sufficient for the present need. But what-
ever may be the result in the future, there can
be but one feeling as regards the past of the
Philharmonic Society. I^e consideration of the
list above given can only excite a warm sense
of gratitude towards an institution which for
more than half a century stood at the head of
English concerts, and enabled the lovers and
students of music in this country to become
acquainted with the works and the persons of the
greatest composers and executants of modefti days.
For further details of the Society's transactions,
including copies of seven letters from Mendels-
sohn to Stemdale Bennett, the reader is referred
to 'The Philharmonic Society of London from
its foundation 181 3 to its fiftieth year 1862. By
Greorge Hoearth' (8vo. London, 186a). The
society iiam has published the ' Documents,
Letters etc., relating to the bust of Beethoven
presented to the society by Frau Fanny Linz-
bauer, translated and arranged by Doyne C.
Bell' (4to. London, 1871) ; and, in the Prognunme
book of Feb. 5, 1880, five hitherto unprinted
letters firom Mendelssohn to the Society.
A r68um4 of the contents of the Society's
Library has been already given. See vol. ii
p. 421 a. [S.L.]
PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY OF NEW
YORK, THE, founded April 5, 1843, incorporated
Feb. 17, 1853. Its object is the cultivation
and performance of instrumental music. Its first
concert was given at the Apollo Rooms, Decem-
ber 7, 184a. Concerts have since been regularly
given in each season, that of April la, 1879,
being the i8ist. The Chinese Rooms, Niblos
Ghuden, Irving Hall, and the Academy of Music
have been successively used for the concerts
and public rehearsals. The use of the latter,
begun November 19, 1859, ^^ suspended April
3o, 186 c, by the destruction by fire of the theatre,
and resumed November 7, 1863, Irving Hall
in the meanwhile furnishing an auditorium.
The concerts have always been of a high order,
the orchestra large and efiBcient, and the pro-
grammes presenting selections from a broad
range of composers, and the usual variety of
vocal and instrumental solos, with an occasional
choral work. The management of the affairs of
the society remains entirely in the hands of the
* Actual Members,' each of whom must * be an
efficient performer on some instrument,* and a
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702 PHILHARMONIC SOC. NEW YORK.
permanent resident In the city or its immediate
vicinity for one year preceding his nomination.
The orchestra consists of these 'Actual Memben'
only, who now (1879) i^^niher 96, and among
whom are divided the profits arising from each
season's course of concerts. The rules for ad-
mission and for discipline after admissiim are
exceedingly strict. Rigid adherence to them has
done much towards establishing and maintaining
the high reputation enjoyed by the organisation.
Four other grades of membership are included
in the soeiety^s lists: — Associates, admitted to
public rehearsals and concerts on payment of the
sum annually stipulated by the society ; Sub-
scribers, entitled to two tickets for each r^rular
concert, the price being a matter of annual regu-
laiion; Honorary, title conferred on the most
eminent artists in music, by the unanimous
consent of the Actual Members ; Honorary As-
sociate, conferred on meritorious individuals not
belonging to the musical profession. The names
of Julius Benedict ( 1 850) and of Madame Parepa-
Rosa (1870) appear in the list of Honorary
membws.
The following is a list of the conductors : —
H. C. Timm (1842-45); E. J. Loder (1846-48);
U. C. Hill (1849-51); Theodore Eisfeld (1852-
60); Carl Bergmann (1861-75); Leopold Dam-
rosch(i876); Theodore Thomas (1877); Adolph
Neuendorff (1878). The headquarters of the
association are at Aschenbrod^s Club-house,
No. 74, East 4th Street. Its large and comprehen-
sive library is kept at No. 333, East i8th Street.
The following officers were chosen at the annual
meeting, April 1879 : — Julius Hallgarten, pre-
sident ; Edward Boehm, vice-president ; David
Schaad, secretary; John Godone, treasurer ; and
six others directors. Theodore Thomas wafl chosen
conductor for the 38th season, 1879-80. [F.H.J.]
PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY, THE, Brook-
lyn, New York, incorporated 1 85 7. Its declared
object is the ' advancement of music in the city
of Brooklyn, by procuring the public performance
of the best works in this department of art.* Its
affairs are controlled by a directory of 25 mem-
bers, chosen annually, from which a government
is appointed. Membership is secured by payment
of the subscription annually designated by the
directors, who also prescribe the number of these
subscriptions, limited, for several years, to 1200.
Beginning in the autumn of 1857, five or more
concerts have been given in each season, that at
the close of the 2i8t season, May 10, 1879, being
the 1 08th— each preceded by three public rehear-
sals. During the first five seasons the concerts
were given at the Brooklyn Athenaeum. Since
1862, the Brooklyn Academy of Music, a large
theatre holding nearly 3000 people, has been
made use of. The orchestral conductors have
been — Theodore Eisfeld, 1857-62; Theodore
Thomas, part of 1862 ; Mr. Eisfeld again, until
the election of Carl Bergmann, SeptembKsr 5, 1865;
Mr. Thomas, re elected September 4, 1866 ; Mr.
Bergmann again, 1870-73 ; succeeded May 26,
1873, by Mr. Thomas, who still retains the posi-
tion (1879), assisted by William 6. Dietrich, who
PHILIDOR.
has charge of the orchestra at the first two re-
hearsals of each concert. The concerts have
always been of a high order ; the orchestra huge
and composed of the best musicians procurable ;
the programmes of a catholic nature, no especial
school of music having undue prominence. Im-
portant works have been produced for the first
time in America, including several by native
composers. Large choral works have occasion-
ally figured on the society's programmes, as well
as solos and instrumental concertos. The society's
library contains the scores and parts of over 100
orchestral works. Officers 1 87^-79 ' L* ^- ^7'
man, president; H. K. Sheldon, B. H. ftnitfa,
vioe-presidents ; C. L. Burnet, treasurer ; B. T.
Frothingham, secretary. [F. H. J.]
PHILIDOR. A numerous family of French
musicians, the founder being Michel DANI-
OAN, a native of Dauphin^, who died in
Paris about 1650. He was a good oboist, and
Louis XIII, who had considerable knowledge
of music, was so delighted with his playing that
he exclidmed, * I have found another Philidor.*
Filidori of Siena had formerly been a &vourite
oboist at court, and the king s compliment pro-
cured Michel Danican the surname of ' Filidor' —
or Philidor according to French spelling. Event-
ually the family name was virtually snppreeeed,
and the nickname took its place. l>«dition,
unsupported however bv documentary evidence,
states that the first Micnel Danican-Philidor be-
came a member of the Chapelle of Louis Xm,
and left two sons ; but if so, the name of the
younger was Jean, and not Andr^ as stated by
F^tis, whose account of this family is erroneous
on more points than might have been expected
firom one so prompt in correcting the mistakes
of others.
2. The second Miohel DAKiOAir-PHTLiDCtt
became one of the king's musicians in the
Grande Ecurie in 1651, and died in 1659, ^^*^*
ing no children. He was fifth player of the
^'Cromome' and ' Marine Trumpet,' instruments
recently introduced into the royal band, and
retained till the Revolution.
3. JsAir — bom about 1620, died in Paris Sept
8, 1679 — ^^^ A numerous family, his sons and
grandjBons being the most celebrated of the Phili-
dors. In 1659 ^® became fifer in the Ch-ande
Ecurie, and at his death was first player of the
cromome and marine trumpet. He is said to
have composed dance -music, preserved by the
eldest of lus sons,
4. ANDRi (* Philidor Taln^, who siucoeeded
his uncle Michel as fifth player of the same in-
struments in the Grande Ecurie. Supposing him
to have been 12 at that time, he would have
been bom about 1647. He married young, and
his first wife, Marguerite Monginot, bore lum 16
children, of whom Anne, Michel, and Francois,
distinguished themselves as musicians. The ex-
ertions necessary for the support of so numerous
a family were no hardship to one of his active
and laborious disposition. He was a member
of the Grande Ecurie, the Chambre, and the
> Or Knunmborn ; in orvans corrupted Into 'Oraacna.'
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PHILIDOR.
Chapelle, of Louis XIV ; played the bassoon, oro-
mome (bis two best instrumeDts), oboe, marine
trumpet, and even the drum wben required ; and
after competing, at the king*B request, with LuUy
in writing bugle-calls, fanfares, and military
marches,^ composed divertissements for the court.
Of those were produced, in presence of the king
or the dauphin, a comic divertissement, 'Le Canal
de Versailles' (July i6, 1687), *Le Mariage de la
Couture avec la grosse Cathos' (1688), and * La
Frincesse de Cr^te,' an op^ra-bidlet, the auto-
graph of which was in his valuable collection of
unpublished music To these three works should
be added * La Mascarade du Vaisseau Marchand,'
produced at Marly before Louis XTV, Thurs«Iay,
Feb. 18, 1700, and hitherto unnoticed. The
splendid collection referred to included all the
dance-tunes in &vour at court from the reign of
Henry HI to the end of the 17th century ; all
the (Svertissements and operas of Lully and a
few other composers; a selection of old airs,
bugle-calls, military marches, and fanfieiTes for the
court hunting-parties ; and finally all the sacred
music in use in the Chapelle. Andr^ formed
it during the time he was Librarian^ of the
King's musical library, firom 1684 to his death.
It was originally in the library of Ver.'iailles,
and the greater part of it, 57 vols., in his own
hand, was transferred to the library of the Paris
Conservatoire, which now however possesses only
56, the other 21 having either been purloined
by some unscrupulous collector of rare MSS, or
perhaps used for lighting fires. A few other
portions are in the Biblioth^ue Nationale, and
the Biblioth^ue de Versailles.
This remarkable man, with an excellent judg-
ment and an even, cheerful temper, possessed an
iron constitution. About 1 719 he married Elisa-
beth Le Eoy, a young girl of 19, by whom he had
five children, the third being FBAN9ors Andr^
the celebrated composer. He retired on a pen-
sion in 1722, and died Aug. 11, 1730, at Dreux,
-whither he had removed fixMm Versailles, probably
about the time of his marriage. His brother,
5. Jacques, known as PhUidor le Cadet, bom
in Paris May 5, 1657, entered the Grande Ecurie
when a little over 12 as fifer, and was afterwards
promoted to the oboe, cromome, and marine trum-
pet. In 1683 he was admitted to the Chapelle,
and in 1690 to the Musique de la Cfaambre, in
-which he played the bassoon. He was a favourite
with JjOvob XrV, who gave him some land at
Versailles, where he built a house and died, May
37, 1708. He was an amiable man, and led a
quiet, happy life, on the best of terms -with his
brother, in whose collection his compositions were
preserved — ^marches for drums and kettle-drums,
airs for oboe, and dance-music. The military
music is still in the library at Versailles, but the
rest has disappeared. Jacques had by his wife,
1 Oh. Ballard poblUbed In 1888 a flrat book of ' PifeCM de trom-
pett«s ei tlmbanes a 8. 3. et 4 partlM.* This curious eonection It not
mentfcmed in any of the biographies, although the catalogue In
Thotnan's study on the Fhilldors oontains the 'Suite de Dansea'
/10W) and the 'Fltees k deux banes de vlole, basse de rtolon et
baason'OTOO).
2 He was at ilrst amiMtant to Fraofoi* TM«rd, a vloUnist, whom
be soon re^aoed altogether.
PHILIDOR.
708
Elisabeth Hanique, la children, of wh(Mn four
sons, Pierre, Jacques, Fran9ois, and Nicolas, be-
came musicians. Thus the two brothers Andr^
and Jacques, Philidor Tain^ and Philidor le
cadet, left a numerous progeny. We now revert
to the four sons of Andr^ : the eldest,
6. Anns, bom in Paris April ii. 1681, be-
fore he was 20 produced at court, through the
patronage of his godfisither, Duke Anne de
Noailles, three pastorales, • L* Amour vainqueur *
(1697), 'Diane et Endymion' (1698), and an-
other (Marly, 1701), name unknown, included in
one of the lost vols, of the CoUecticoi Philidor.
In 1702 he obtained the survival of his father's
posts in the Grand Ecurie and the Chambre, and
m 1704 became oboist in the Chapelle, often
playing before Louis XTV, who had a predilec-
tion for the instrument. He also 'composed ; but
his real title to a place in the history of music is
that he was the founder of the ' Concerts Spiri-
tuels,' though he conducted them for two years
only (1725-27). The time and manner of his
death are uncertain. Laborde s»ys that, after
having directed the concerts of the Duchesse du
Maine, he became Rurintendant de la Musique
to the Prince de Conti ; but I have not been
able to verify these assertions ; and, as every one
knows, the regular musician of the celebrated
* nuits de Sceaux ' was Joseph Mouret (bom at
Avignon, 1682, died insane at Charenton, 1738),
called ' le musicien des grIUses,* firom the fresh-
ness of his melodies and fertility of his ideas.
7. Michel, the second son, and thinl Philidor
of the name, bom at Versailles in 1683, a god-
son of Michel de Lalande, played the drums
in the king's band. All that need be said of
him is that F^tis's account is incorrect in every
particular.
8. FRAN9018, bora at Versailles in 1689, en-
tered the Chapelle in 1708 as player on the bass
cromorne and marine trumpet. In 17 16 he be-
came oboist in the Chambre, and bass violinist in
the Grande Ecurie. He seems to have died either
in 1 71 7 or the beginning of 171 8, leaving some
small compositions — amongst others, two books
of * Pi^es pour la Mte traversi^re' (Ballard, 1 716
and 1 718). The youngest of the brothers was
PHILIDOE, FBAN901S Andr6 Danican, the
great composer and chess-player, born at Dreux
Sept. 7, 1726. As a child he showed an extra-
ordinary faculty for chess, which he saw played
by the musicians of the Chapelle du RoL Being
a page of the Chapelle he had a right to music-
lessons, and learned the fundamental rules of
harmony from Andr^ Campra (bom at Aix, Dec.
4, 1660, died at Versailles, July 29, 1744), com-
poser of numerous operas, and the most original
of the French musicians between Lully and
Bameau.* At the close of his time as page he
came to Paris, and supported himself by giving
lessons and copying music. Discouraged perhaps
by the diffictilties of an artistes career, he gave
* Among his printed works may be specified Tremler lirre de
pitees pour la flftte traversiire. flate li bee. Tlolons et hautbois '(i arts
1712), oblong 4to. There Is also a MS. Te Deum for 4 Toioes in the
CoDsernUoire.
* For Oampba. see the Appendix to this Dictionary.
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704
PHILIDOR.
himself up entirely to ohess, and, with a natund
gift for abstruse oaloulationB, studied it to such
purpose that at i8 he wus a match for the best
players, and able to make a liyelihood out of it.
Being however hard pressed by his creditors, he
started in 1745 on a tour abroad, going first to
Amsterdam, where he pitted himself successfully
against Stamma, author of ' Les Stratag^mee du
jeu d'^hecs.' Thence he went on to Gennany,
and spent some time in 1748 at Aix-la-Cbapelle,
occupied in a work on the principles of the game.
He next, on the invitation of Lord Sandwich,
visited the English camp between Maestricht and
Bois-le-Duc, and was well received by the Duke
of Cumberland, who invited him to come to Lon*
don and publish his ' Analyse du jeu dee ^heps.'
The subscriptions of the English officers ea-
couraged him to accept the invitation, and he
arriv^ in England, where he eventually acquired
a profitable ^ebrity. The first edition of his
book appeared in 1 749, and met with great and
deserv^ success. It was during this first stay
in London that Philidor performed the remark-
able feat at the Chess-Club of playing and win-
ning three games simultaneously against first-rate
players without seeing the boards. Concentration
of mind and power of combination, when carried
to such an extent as this, almost merit the name
of genius.
Meantime Diderot, and his other friends, fear-
ing that the continual strain of the pursuit for
which he was forsaking his true vocation might
prove too severe, recalled him to Paris in 1754.
He began at once to compose. His motet
'Lauda Jerusalem' did not procure him the
place of a ' Surintendant de la Mudque* to
the king, at which it was aimed, but the dis-
appointment turned his attention to dramatic
music. His first op^ra-comique, ' Blaise le Save-
tier ' (1759), a brilliant success, was followed by
* L*Hultre et les Plaideurs* (1759) ; *Le Quipro-
quo,' a acts, and 'Le Soldat Magicien* (1760);
' Le Jardinier et son Seigneur,' and * Le Mai^
chal' (1761); *Sancho Pan^a' (1763); *Le
Bdcheron' and ' Les Fdtes de la Paix,' intermezzo
written on the conclusion of peace with England
(1763); 'Le Soroier,' 1 acts (1764); *Tom Jones,'
3 acts (1764); 'M^de, ou le Navigateur,* 2 acts
(1766); 'Le Jardinier de Sidon,* a acts (1768).;
< L'Amant d^is^' (17^9) ; 'La nouvelle Ecole
des Fenmies/ a acts (1770) ; 'Le bon Fils* (i 773) ;
and 'Les Femmes veng^' 3 acts (1775)1 *^
given either at the Tb^tre de la Foire, or at the
Commie Italienne. Besides these he composed a
Requiem performed in 1766 on the anniversary
of Rameau's death at the Oratoire. and produced
the tragedy of ' Emelinde,' his best work, at the
Op^ra (Nov. 24, 1767; reproduced in 1769 as
*Sandomir').
These successes did not cure him of his passion
for chess. In 1777 he returned to London,
brought out a seoond edition of his 'Analyse,'
and set to music Horace's * Carmen secuLare'
with flattering success (1779).
On his next return to Paris he found Or^try
and Gluok at the height of their popularity ; but»
PHILIDOR.
nothing daunted, he composed * Pers^* (Oct. 27.
1780), and 'Th^mistocle' (May 33, 1786), both
in 3 acts, produced at the Aoad^ie without
success, and 'L'Amiti^ au village' (1785) and
* La belle esclave, ou Valcour et Z^ila' (1787).
' B^saire,' 3 acts, was not given at the Op^
in 1774 as stated by F^tis, but at the Th^Atre
Favart (Oct. 3, 1796) a year after Philidor^s
denth.
He received a regular pension firom the Cbam
Club in London, and it had been his habit tt>
spend several months of every year in England.
In 179a he obtained permission for the jonniej
from the Comity du Salut public, but events pre-
vented his return to Paris, and when his fismily
had succeeded in getting his name erased from
the list of Emigres, they learned that he had just
died in London, Aug. 31, 1795.
To estimate PhilMor s work rightly, the con-
dition of the French stage at the time he began
to write must be taken into consideratiofn ; he
will then appear to have possessed not only
greater originality, but art of a higher kind
than that of his oontemporaries Duni, Monsigny,
and Qr^try. His harmony is more varied, and
the form and character of his airs new. He
was the first to introduce on the stage the ' air
descriptif (*Le Mar^chal*), and the unae-
oompanied quartet (' Tom Jones'), and to form
a duet of two independent and apparently in-
congruous melodies. Moreover he understood
to a degree then rare the importance of the or-
chestra and chorus, and undoubtedly surpassed
his compatriots in instrumentation. He enjoyed
an almost unexampled popularity in his day.
being called forward after the representation of
his *Sorcier' — the first instance of the kind in
Paris. Nevertheless his works have not lived,
probably because their merit lay in constroo-
tion, rather than in melody, grace, or depth of
sentiment. Nor had he dnunatic instinct at
all in the same degree as Monsigny or Gr^tiy.
There is a fine bust of Philidor by Pajou, and
an excellent portrait by Cochin, engraved bj
St. Aubin in 177a.
The four sons of Jacques Danican Philidor le
cadet may be dismissed in few words. The eldest,
PiBRRB, bom in Paris, Aug. 22, 168 1, in the
same house with his cousin Anne, studied with
him ; became oboist in the Cbapelle (1704), the
Grande Ecurie (1708). and the Chambre (1712),
and was also a good player on the flute and the
viol. He was a player on the viol in the Chambre
as late as 1736, but had resigned his other places
in fiavour of his brother Nicolas in 1 7 26. He died
probably about 1740. He composed a pastorale,
produced before the court at Mariy (1697), and
three books of 'Suites k a flAtes traversiires
seules, et pour dessus et baases de hautbois'
(171 7 and 18).
Jaoques, bom at Versailles Sept. 7, 1686, suo-
oeeded his father as oboist in the Ciambre, and
died about 1725.
FBAN90IB, bom Jan. 12. 1695, at Versailles,
where he died Nov. 1726, was oboist in the
Chambre and the Grande Ecuiie.
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PHILIDOR.
Nicx>lab; born atVeraaiUes, Nov. 3. 1699, died
1769, played several instrumentB, succeed^ his
brother Fierre, and in 1 747 played the serpent
in the CSiflpelle Boy ale. He is not known to
have composed.
The singer Fanchon Danican Philidor men-
tioned by F^tis, is an imaginary person.
For farther information the reader is referred
to Lardin's ' Philidor point par lui-m6me * (Paris,
1847), republished fix)m tb© periodical ' Le Pala-
m^de' (Jan. 1847), and to 'Les Philidor, g6ii^o-
gie biographique des masidens de oe nom,' a con-
scientious study which appeared in * La France
mnsicale' (Dec. 22, 67, to Feb. 16, 68.) [G. C]
PHIUPPS, Petib, known also by his Latin-
iaed name of Petrus Phib'ppus and his Italianised
one of Pietro Filippo, an Englishman by birth,
was an ecclesiastic, and in the latter part of the
16th century was canon of Bethune in French
Flanders. He visited Italy and spent some time
in Bome. Eetuming to Flanders he became one
of the organists of the vice-regal chapel of the
Archduke and Duchess, Albert and Isabella, gover-
nors of the Low Countries. On March 9, 16 10
he was appointed a canon of the collegiate church
of St. Vincent at Soignies. He composed many
excellent motets and madrigak. His published
works are * Melodia Olympica di diversi Excel* •
lentissimi Musici a IV, V, VI, et VIII voci.'
1 591, reprinted 1594 and 161 1 ; *I1 Prime libro
di Madrigali a sei voci/ 1596 ; 'Madrigali a otto
voci,* 1 598 and 1 599 ; ' II Seoondo libro di Ma-
drigali a sei voci,' 1603 and 1604; 'C^tiones
SacrsB quinque vocum/ 161 2: *Caationes Sacres
octo vooum, 1613 ; 'Gemmulse Sacrse, binis et
temis vocibus cum basso continue ad organum,'
1613 and 1621; 'litanis B.V.M. in Ecdesia
Loretana cani solits, 4, 5, 9 yocum,* 1623 ; and
«Paradisus Sacris Cantionibus consitu a i, 2, 3
vocum cum Basso Continue,' 1628. Bumey (His-
tory, iii. 86) says that the first regular fugue
upon one subject that he had met with was com-
posed by Peter Philipps. It is contained, with
about 18 or 20 other compositions by Philipps,
in the MS. known as Queen Elizabeth's Virginal
Book, in the Library of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge. Hawkins has printed a 4-part madrigal
by Philipps (from the Melodia Olympica) in
hJB History. [W.H.H.]
PHILLIPPS, Abthub, Mus. Bac., bom 1605,
became in 1622 a clerk of New College, Oxford,
and was appointed organist of Bristol Clathedral
Dec. 1, 1638. On the death of Itichard Nicolson
* in 1639 he succeeded him as organist of Magdalen
College, Oxford, and Professor of Music m the
University, and graduated Mus. Bac. July 9,
1640. Some time afterwards he quitted the Eng-
lish Church for that of Rome, and attended Queen
Henrietta Maria to France as her organist. Re-
turning to ilngland he entered the service of a
Roman Catholic gentleman in Sussex named
Caryll. He composed music in several parts for
* The Requiem, or. Liberty of an imprisoned
Royalist,' 1641, and a poem by Dr. Pierce, en-
titled 'The Resupeotion/ 1649. He describes
VOL. II. PT. 12.
PHILLIPS.
705
himself in the subscription book as son of William
Phillipps of Winchester, gentleman. [W.H. H.]
PHILLIPS, Henbt, bom in Bristol, Aug. 13,
1 801 , was the son of a country actor and manager,
and made his first appearance in public as a sing-
ing boy at the Harrogate Theatre about 1 80 7 . He
afterwards came to London and sang in the chorus
at Drury Lane and elsewhere. On the settlement
of his voice as a baritone he placed himself under
the tuition of Broadhurst, and was engaged in the
chorus at the English Opera House, and to sing
in glees at civic dinners. H e next had an engage-
ment at Bath, where he sang in * Messiah ' with
success. Returning to London he studied under
Sir George Smart and appeared in the Lenten
oratorios at the theatres. In 1S24 he was en-
gaged at Covent (warden and appeared as Arta-
banes in Ame's ' Artaxerxes,' but made little
mark. In the summer of the same year he sang
the music of Caspar on the production of * Der
FreischCitz' with great effect. He theij made
progress, was engaged at the provincial festivals,
and in 1825 appointed principal baes at the Con-
cert of Ancient Music, and from that time filled
the first place at the theatre and in the concert-
room. He was also a member of the ohoir at the
chapel of the Bavarian Embassy. About 1843
he gave up his theatrical engagements and started
a series of 'table entertainments,' which, notwith-
standing their ill -success, he persisted in giving,
at intervals,^ until he quitted public life. Li'
August 1844 he went to America, and remained
there, giving his entertainments in various
{tlaces, for nearly a year. On his return to Eng*
and he found tibat his place had been filled up
by others, and it was some months before he re-
gained his position. On Feb. 25, 1 863 (his powers
having been for some time on the wane) he gave
a fiurewell concert and retired. He then became
a teacher of singing, at first at Birmingham, and
afterwards in the vicinity of London. He died
at Dalston, Nov. 8, 1876. He composed several
songs, etc., and was author of ' The True Enjoy-
ment of Angling,' 1843, and 'Musical and Per-
sonal Recollections during half a century,' 1864.
Phillips was heard to the best advantage in the
songs of Handel and Purcell, and the oratorio
songs of Haydn, Mendelssohn, and Spohr. On
the stage he was most successful in ballads. In
the comic operas of Mozart and Rossini he failed
to create any impression. [W.H.H.]
PHILLIPS, William LovBLL,bom at Bristol
Dec. 26, 1816 ; at an early age entered the
cathedral choir of that city, and subsequenUy
proceeded to London, where he sang as Master
Phillips, the beauty of his voice attracting the ap-
probation of Miss Stephens, afterwards Countess
of Essex. He studied at the Royal Academy
of Music, where he was a pupU of Cipriani
Potter, and class-fellow of Stemdale Bennett,
and eventually became Professor of Cknnposition
at that institution. From Robert Lindley he
took lessons on the violoncello, and soon became
a member of the orchestras of the Philharmonic,
Antient Concerts, Her Majesty's, the Sacrefl
Z s
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700
iPHILLIPS.
Harmonic Socieiy, etc.. be^dei being re^larly
engaged ftt all the great Musical Festivals. He was
at different times musical director of the Olympic
and Princess's Theatres, composing the music
for a variety of dramas. For many years he
held the post of organist at St. Katherine*B
Church, Regent*8 Park, and at one time con-
ducted a series of concerts at St. Martinis Hall,
in addition to numerous songs he composed a
Symphony in F minor, whi(m was performed
with great success at the concerts of the Royal
Academy of Music, and of the Society of British
Musicians. Prior to his fatal illness he was
engaged on an opera founded on a Rosicrucian
story, and a cantata on a Welsh subject. He
also attained greit proficiencv on the pianoforte,
playing at the concerts of the Royal Aoidemj,
his last public performance btdn^ the fifth con-
certo or Moflcheles in G major. He died
March 19, i860, and was buried at the Highgate
oemetery. [G.] .
PHILTRE, LE. Opera in a nets ; words by
Scribe, music by Auber. Produced at the Aca-
d^mie royale June 20, 1831 ; and in English —
'The Love Spell' — at the Olympic, London,
Oct. 27 of the same year. The subject is the
same as that of the EUsire d*amore of Donixetti.
It kept the Paris stage almost without interrup-
tion till Jan. 8, 1863, during which period it
was played 24a times. [G.]
PHRASE is one of the smallest items in the
divisions which diHtinguish the form of a musical
work. Where there are distinct portions marked
off by closes like full stops, and half closes like
stops of lew emphasis (as often happens in Airs,
Tunes, Themes, etc.), the complete divisions are
generally called periods, and the lesser divisions
phrases. The word is not and can hardly be
used with much exactness and uniformity, for
sometimes a phrase may be all, as it were, con-
tained in one breath, and sometimes subordinate
divisions may be very clearly marked. See
Phbasinq. [C.H.H.P.]
PHRASING. A musical composition, as has
just been said, consists of a series of short sections
of various lengths, called phrases, each more or
less complete in itself; and it is upon the inter-
dependence of these phrases, and upon their con-
nection with each other, that the intelligibiiity of
music depends. The phrases are analogous to the
sentences of a literaxy composition.
The relationship of the different phrases to
each other and to the whole work forms no part
of our present svftject, but may be studied in the
article Fobh ; what we have at present to do
with is the proper rendering of tne phrases in
performance, that they may be presented to the
listener in an intelligible and attractive form.
The process by whi(m this is accomplished is
called Phrasing, and is perhaps the most import-
ant of the various elements which go to make
a good and arUstic rendering of a musical com-
position. Rousseau (*Dictionnaire de Musiqne ')
says of it, ' The singer who feels what he rings,
and duly marks the phrases and accents, is a
PHRASING.
man of taste. But he who can only g^ve the
values and intervals of the notes without the
sense of the phrases, however accurate he may
be, is a mere machine.
Just as the intelligent reading of a literary
composition depends chiefly upon two things,
accentuation and punctuation, so does ntosicd
phrasing depend on the relative strength of tiie
sounds, and upon their connection with or se-
paration from each other. It is this dose rela-
tionship of language to music which makes their
union m vocal music poedble and appropriate,
and accordingly when music is allied to words it
is necessary that the murical accents shoold
coincide with those of the text, while the sepa-
ration of the various phrases agrees with the divi-
rion of the text iuto separate lines or sentences.
In instrumental music, although the same prin-
ciples underlie its construction, there is no such
definite cuide as that afforded by the sense of
the words in a song, and the phrasing must
therefore be the residt of a just appreciAti<m on
the part of the performer of the general sense of
the muric, and of the observance of certain marks
by which phrasing is indicated.
If we now consider more closely the causes and
consequences of a variety in the strength of the
notes of a phrase, we notice in the first place the
necessity for an accent on the first note of every
bar, and, in certain rhythms, on other parts
of the bar also. These regularly recurring ac-
cents, though an important part of phruing,
need not be dwelt on here, as they have already
been fully treated in the article Accent; but
there are certain irregular forms of accent occa-
sionally required by the phrasing, which it is
necessary to notice.
In rapid passages, when there are many notes
in a bar, it is often necessary to introduce more
accents than the ordinary rhythm requires, and
the number and freqtiency of the accents wiU
depend upon the number of changes of harmony
upon which the passage is founded. Thus in the
first bar of the following example, each couple of
notes, after the first four, represents a new
harmony, and the bar will consequently require
seven accents, while the next two bars will receive
the ordinary rhythmic accent on the first note ot
each group; and in the fourth bar, since the
harmony does not change, two accents will sufllce.
In the example the place of the accents is shown
by the asterisks.
1. MOllbr, Caprtoe, Op.29, N0.4.
Digitized by
PHRASING.
Sometimes these extra accents have the effect
of appearing to alter or add to the harmonies
upon which the passage is founded, as in £x. 2,
-where the additional accents demanded by the
composer^s method of writing in groups of two
notes instead of four, seem to indicate an alter-
nation of the tonic and dominant harmonies of C
minor, whereas if the passage were played as in
!EIx. 3 the effect would be that of a single C minor
harmony.
2. Schumann, ' In der Nacbt.'
PHRASING.
707
On the other hand, there are cases in which
the phrasing requires the omission of some of
the regular accents. This occurs in quick move-
ments, when owing to the introduction of a
melody written in notes of great length, two or
even four of the actual written bars combine,
and appear to the listener to form a single bar.
This IS the case in Ex. 4, the effect of which
is precisely that of such a bar as Ex. e,, and
the whole phrase of four bars will only require
two accents, falling upon places corresponding to
the first and third beats of Ex. 5. In the move-
ment quoted the effect of the long bars remains in
force during no less than 44 of the actual written
bars, the original 3-4 rhythm coming into use
again on the entrance of the syncopated subject.
AUegro
Bbkthovkk, Sonata, Op.
As a rule, the accent of a passage follows the
grouping, the first note of each group receiving
the accent ; whenever therefore the grouping of
a passage consisting of notes of equal length
varies, ^e number of accents in the bar must
vary also. Thus in Ex. 6 the first bar will con-
tain four accents, while the third requires but two.
6^ Bkstrovkn, Sonata, Op. 14, No. 2.
The signs which govern the connection or dis-
connection of the sounds are the dash (<) or
dot (•). and the curved line indicating le^to.
The ordinary use of these signs has already oeen
described [Dabh, Lboato], and the due observ-
ance of them constitutes a most essential part of
phrsising, but in addition to this the curved line
is used to denote an effect of peculiar importance,
called the Slur,
When two notes of equal length in quick or
moderately quick tempo are join^ together by a
curved line they are said to be slwred, and in
playing them a considerable stress is laid on the
first of the two, while the second is not only
weaker, but is made shorter than it is written,
as though followed by a rest.
7. Haydn, Sonata.
Written, Plajftd.
The rule that the first of the slurred notes
receives the accent holds good even when it is in
an unaccented part of the bar (Ex. 8). In such
a case the slur causes a very effective displace-
ment of accent.
8. ^KSTHOTBN, Concefto in C minor.
Written,
Groups of two notes of which the second is the
shorter may also be slurred in the same way
(Ex. 9), but when the second is the longer note
it must be but slightly curtailed, though still
perceptibly, and there is no displacement of ac-
cent (Ex. 10).
9. Haydn, Sonata. .
WrUten, > Played.
10. MxNDBLSsoHN. Presto Agitato.
WrWen.
The slur is often used in combination with
staccato notes in the same group (Ex. 1 1). When
this IB the case the second of the two slurred
notes must be played both weaker and shorter
than the notes marked staccato.
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t^bogk
708 PHRASING.
11. Bbbthovbn , Concerto In O.
Written.
PHRYGIAN MODE.
When the curved line is drawn over two notes
of considerable length, or in slow tempo, it is not
a slur, but merely a sign of legato (Ex. la), and
the same if it covers a group of three or more
notes (Ex. 13). In these cases there is no cur-
tailment of the hwt note.
BsBTHOVKN, Horn Senate, Op. 17.
But if the curved line is so extended as to in-
clude and end upon an accented note, then an
effect analogous to the slur is intended, and the
last of the notes so covered must be shortened
(Ex 14). A similar effect is also sometimes
indicated by varying the grouping of the notes, so
that the groups do not agree witii the rhythmic
divisions of the bar (Ex. 15).
Schumann, Humoresken.
The great value of definite and characteristic
phrasing is perhaps nowhere so strikingly numi-
fested as in the performance of music containing
imitation. In all such music the leading part must
contain some marked and easily recognisable
effect, either of variety of force, as in Ex. 16, or
of connection and disconnection, as in Ex. 17, and
it is by means of the repetition of such charac-
teristic effects in the answering part or parts that
the imitation is rendered intelligible, or even per-
ceptible, to the ordinary listener.
16. Haydn, Sonate.
"M^
iF.T.:
PHRYGIAN MODE (Lat. Modus Pkrygiut;
Modus mystieus). The Third of the Ecclesiastical
Modes. [See Modes, the Ecclesiastical.]
The final of the Phrygian Mode is £. ' It«
range extends upwards, in the Authentic form,
from that note to the Octave above; and
Semitones occur between its first and second,
and fifth and sixth Degrees. Its Dominant ii C
(B, the fifth Degree of the Scale, being inadmis-
sible, on account of its false relation with F.
Its Mediant is G ; and it« Participant A, for
which note B is sometimes substituted. Its
Conceded Modulations are D (the note below
the Final), and F ; and its Absolute Initials,
E, F, C, and, more rarely, G. Its principal
features are shewn in the subjoined example.
Ffn.
Med. Part. Part. Dom.
In its Plagal, or Hypophrygian form (Mode IT,
Modus Hypophrygius or Harmonieus)^ its range
lies a Fourth lower, extending from B to the
Octave above. In this form, the Semitones lie
between the first and second, and the fourth and
fifth Degrees. The Dominant of the Hypophrygian
Mode is A. Its Mediant is G, and its Partici-
pant C, for which note F is sometimes substi-
tuted. Its Conceded Modulations are D and B
(the lowest note of the Mode). Its Final, tike
that of the Authentic form, is £. The general
conformation of the Mode is shown in the
subjoined example.
Part. Fin. Part. Med, Dom.
It will be observed that the c(»npass and
intervals of this Mode correspond exactly witli
those of the rejected Locrian ; yet Hypophrvgian
Melodies have always been considered perfectly
lawful The reason is, that the Locrian Mode,
being Authentic, is subject to the Harmonic
Division, which produces a Quinta falsa between
B and F, and a Tritonus between F and B;
whereas, the Hypophrygian Mode, being Plagal
is subject to the Arithmetical Division, and
exhibits a Perfect Fourth, between B and £.
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PHRYGIAN MODE.
And a Perfect Fifth, between £ and B. [See
pp. 341 -341 of thiS' yolame.3
The antient Phiin Chaunt Melody of 'Te
Deum Laudamus' is in the Mixed Phrygian
Mode ; that is to say, it extends through the en-
tire compass of the Authentic and PUgal forms,
united ; and, as it brings out the peculiar chnrac-
teristics of the Mode very strongly, it may be
taken as a good example of its use. [W.S.E.]
PHYSHARMONICA. A Uttle reed organ
invented in Vienna in 181 8 by Anton Hackel,
who intended it to be placed tmder the keyboard
of the piano, to sustain the melody. It was in-
creased in size and importance and by various
improvements at length developed into the
Habxonium. The name is used in Germany for
a free-reed stop in the organ. [A. J.H.]
PIACERE, A, 'at pleasure,* is generally pre-
fixed to a cadenza, or cadenza-like passage, in
solo vocal music, to indicate that the expressions,
and the alterations whether of time or force, are
left to the will of the individual performer. In
such cases the accompaniment is generally di-
reeled to be played 'coUa voce,* 'with the voice,'
without regarding the strict time of the compos!'
tion. A piacere la sometimes put to cadenzas in
a concerto, but is not of frequent occurrence.
It is not seldom found in cantabile passages in
instrumental music, but ad libitum is the more
common direction of the two, and expresses the
same thing. [J.A.F.M.]
PIACEVOLB, 'agreeable, pleasant.' This
word, when used as a musical direction, indi-
cates that the piece is to be played in a graceful
way, trithout passion. It has nearly the same
meaning as 'gradoso' or the direction 'con ama-
bilitk' used by Beethoven in the Pianoforte
Sonata, Op. no (ist movement). 'Allegro
piacevole * is used by him in the 3rd movement
of the Sonata for piano and violin. Op. 1 2, No. 2 ;
and * piacevole* alone in the 4th variation in the
slow movement of the Sonata, Op. 109. A more
modem but not less well-known instance of its
use is Stemdale Bennett's lovely 'Hondo Pia-
cevole* for pianoforte solo. Op. 25. [J.A.F.M.]
PIANETTE ; a very low pianino, or upright
pianoforte, introduced in 1857 by Bord, of Paris,
the well-known maker. The low price and good
quality of these instruments soon extended their
uaXe to England, where they received the name
* pianette' — an impossibility in France, 'piano'
being of the masculine gender. The French
name, originating in Bord's establishment, is
* Bibi,* a workman's corruption of * B^b^ * — * the
baby.* Pianettes have been made in London for
some years by Broadwood, Cramer, and others.
This year (1880) a new style in black cases has
been named *Zoulou* (Zulu), a name ahready
generally accepted. Bord*s spiral hopper-spring
{re$80rt d boudin), used in pianettes, is a useful
and very effective contrivance, economical of
space. [A.J.H.]
PIANGENDO, 'wailingly.' A direction pro-
perly only used in vocal music, but affected a
good deal of late by writers of drav^ing-room
PIANOFOBTE.
709
pieces. Its proper instrumental Equivalent is
• dolente * or ' con dolore.' [JwA..F.M.]
PIANISSIMO. • very softly.' This direction,
which on all ordinary occasions is expressed by
pp, is sometimes, but not very often, written in
full — as a rule, to emphasize the fact of its pre-
sence in cases where it would least be expected.
Beethoven often uses the full direction simul-
taneously with the abbreviation, as in the loth
Variation of the 33 on a valse by Diabelli, op.
120, in which variation may also be found an
instance d one of his chief characteristics, the
sudden leap from jf to pp in the 3i8t bar.
Another striking instance of both these uses is
in the Scherzo of the Eroica Symphony, where
the pianissimo is insisted on, not only at the
beginning of the movement, but on almost every
page of the score until the crescendo (only for
one bar) up to fortitsimo, after 27 bars of which
there is a sudden ptano which is used again
frequently throughout the rest of the movement.
Since Beethoven's time, the practice has become
very conmion of using ppp, for what Weber in
the beginning of the overture to Oberon calls ' H
tutto pianissimo possibile.* It is used notably by
Berlioz in the ' Damnation de Faust,' just before
the * Danse des Svlphes,* and in the middle of it,
where the first subject is resumed. He even goes
so £ur as to use the sign pppp for the last two
notes of the clarinets at the end of the dance.
Verdi, in his Bequiem, has gone even farther, and
at one point uses ppppp. [J.A.F.M.]
PIANO, ' soft.* This word, expressed in gen-
eral by its initial p, is used to denote the least
degree of strength except pianissimo. It is used,
as is the case with most other directions, in full
only when it is necessary to draw puiicular
attention to its presence, or where it is unlikely
that it should stand ; for instance, in the Finale
of Beethoven's PF. Sonata, Op. 2, No. i, where
the second subject is labelled *Sempre piano e
dolce.* Mezzo piano (abbreviated mp) denotes
a degree of force slightW louder tham piano,
Beethoven was very fond of using a 'sudden
piano* as a kind of surprise directly after a
forte or fortissimo. Examples are very common
throughout his works, and the occurrence of the
sudden change — only recently observed, and even
now not always attended to — makes a material
difference in the performance of his works. [See
Form ; voL i. p. 556 o.] [JJL.FJtf .]
PIANOFORTE— or Fobtb Piako, as often
written in the i8th century— an instrument of
Italian origin. The earliest mention of the name
appears in records of the family of Este, in the
letters of a musical instrument maker named
Paliarino, dated June 27 and Dec. 31, 1598, and
addressed to Alfonso II, Duke of Modena. They
were found in 1879 by Ck>unt L. F. Valdrighi,
custos of the Biblioteca Estense, at Modena ; and
the - discovery was immediately announced in
the Florentine musical paper, 'Boccherini.* In
August of that year Valdrighi published the
text of the letters, with an essay, in a nam-
phlet entitled 'Musurgiana' (Olivari, Modena,
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no
PIANOFORTE.
1879). In the fint letter Paliftrino mentions the
recovery of ' the instrument Pijuio e Forte, with
the organ ^ underneath*; in the leoond, 'the re-
covery from certain priests, with other instru-
ments, of the Piano e Forte above mentioned
and another Piano e Forte on which the late
Duke Alfonso had played." * Here are two in-
struments distinctly named Piano e Forte (cor-
recting Paliarino's uncertain spelling). In the
second letter the same Hippotito Cricca, detto
Paliarino, as he there signs himself (or Paglia-
rini as he spells his name elsewhere), seizes the
opportunity of his brother's visit to Venice, to
ask for sundry raaterialB to be procured there, as
needful for repairs, and for building a new * Pian
e Forte'; namely, limetree, boxwood, and ebony
for keys, cypress for the belly, brass wire, Ger-
man glue, etc., etc. In Paliarino's inventory of
the £uke*8 keyed instruments, also given in
Ck>unt Valdrighi's appendix to his essay, there
are, including organs, fiity-two,' but only one
' Piano e Forto,' Uie one with the oigan beneath,
as specially distinguished ; the other, and perhaos
more, being possibly recorded under the simple
name * instrument* (istromento), which is used
to describe 11 of the 52. The clavicembalo or
cembalo (harpsichord) and spinetta (spinet) might
also have been classed under this general design
nation, yet Paliarino separates them. We can
come to no conclusion from these names as to
what kind of instrument this Piano e Forte was.
It was most likely, as suggested by Sig. Cesare
Ponsicchi in the *Boccherini' (1879, ^^* ^)> ^
harpsichord with a contrivance for dynamic
change; but whether hanmiers were applied,
makmg it a real pianoforte, we are at present in
the dark. The ' graveoembalo col piano e forte*
of Cristofori of Padua, a hundred years later,
mav not have really been the first attempt to
make a hanmier-haipsichord ; indeed Cristofori's
invention seems almost too completely successful
to have been the first conception of this instru-
ment— a dulcimer with keys.
We must now transfer our attention from
Modena to Florence, and skip from 1598 to 1 709,
when we find Prince Ferdinand dei Medici, a
lover of music, in fact an eminent musician, and
deeply interested in mathematical and mechani-
cal questions, accepting at the request of three
scholars, one of whom was the Marchese Sdpione
Maffei, the protection of a quarterly publication
intended for learned and cultivated readers, viz.
the *Giomale dei Letterati d'ltalia.* This pa-
tronage was the result of a personal visit of
Maffei to Florence, where he met with Barto-
lomeo Cristofori, harpsichord -maker and custo-
dian of the Prince's musical instruments, and
was shown by him four specimens of a new
1 'Cosd to ml ritroTO I'orgtuno di carta, et I'lostramooto Piui e
. Forte con I'orgbAiio dl Mtto .... *
> ' L'altczat vostra tappUi obe ml ritroro del' rao che to recuperrato
da quettl PreUi Thorggaoo dl carta. I'Utrumeuto Plane e Forte con
I'horfvano disotto. un altro Istrumento dl dua reglttri et II Plane e
Fortte. quello che adoprava il Ser. Slg. Duoa Alfouio buona me-
morta
* This larfe number. a> It Mcmt to us, was not then remarkable for
a prince to have : a hundred yean later Prince Ferdinand del If edid
owned at leaM 40. See Appeodlz G. p. Nfl. to PuUU'i 'Cennl Storid
delia Tlu dei Set** Ferdlnando del Mcdld ' H lomoa 1874).
PUNOFORTB.
harpsichord with piano and forte, the inventioo
and make of Cristolori. Of these, three were of
the usual long shape; the other was different,
we know not in what way, but a detailed acooont
of Cristofori's invention, written by Scipione
Maffei, appeared in the Giomale in 1711, with
a diagram, from a rough sketch, of his hammer-
action. He calls the inventor Cristofali, whkfa
form of the name has been until now fc^owed,
but an autograph and the inscriptions upon the
pianofortes of his make are decisive evidence in
fovour of the real name being Cristofori.*
The complete text of Maffei's article, in the
original language, with an indifferent English
translation, is to be found in Rimbault*s *The
Pianoforte* (Cocks, London, i860) — the faults of
translation being most obvious in the technical
terms. There is no doubt about Cristofori having
made these instruments under the patronage <tf
Prince Ferdinand, who had brought him from
Padua some time about 1 690. [See Cristofobl]
We owe a debt of gratitude to Maffei for bis
record of the invention, which he reproduced in
the collection of his works entitled 'Rime e
Prose,' 1 7 19. The reprint has been the cause of
a misconception of tJie date of the invention,
through want of reference to the earlier publica-
tion, which was anonymous. An accurate Ger-
man translation was made at the time by Koenig,
and published in Matheson's * Musikalische
Kritik,.' vol. iii. p. 340 (Hamburg, 1725). This
earlv translation has been reprinted by Dr. Oscar
Paul in his 'Geschichte des Klaviers,' p. 105
(Leipzig, 1868), and may be referred to with
confidence by those who know German and do
not know Itidian.
We reproduce the diagram of Cristofori's
action as the kernel of this part of our subject.
Fio. 1.
a Is the string ; h the keybottom ; e the first lerer. or kaf. ThM9
Is a pad. d. upon the key. to raise a seoondlerer, «. which Is plToied
upon/, g is the hopper— Cristofori's UmfmHta m«Mi#— whi^ oon-
trolled by the springs i and i. effects the escape, or Immediate drofs
of the hammer from the strings after a blow has been struek. al-
though the key is still kept down by the finger. The hopper to
centred at h. m is a rack or comb on the beam. a. where the butt.
«. of the hammer, o. Is centred. In a sUte of rest the hammer to
supported by a cross, or fork. p. of silk thrwd. On the depivMloa
of the key, c. the tall. «, of the second lever, t. draws away ttM
damper, r. from the strings, leaving them free to vibntte.
the action being the equivalent to the violinist's
bow ; as the instrument itself is the equivalent
of the violin, though stopped by a mechanical con-
struction instead of thb fingers of the player^s left
hand. We follow Maffei's lettering of the parts ;
a lettering which will be adhered to thrDugfaoot.
* This has'been adopted In norenoe on the owmortol stovw. (Sea
OatsToroEi. vol. L p. 417.]
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PIANOFORTE.
The Trader will observe the fmallnesB of the
hammerhead and the absence of what is called
a 'check/ to arrest the hammer in its rebound ;
and also of any control but springs over the for-
ward movement, or escapement, of the hopper.
To julmit of this machinery ~ so much more
complicated than the simple action of the harp-
sichord— being taken out, Oristofori inverted the
tuning-pm block (technically the 'wrestplank'),
and attached the wires to the tumngpins
( ' wrestpins*), at their lower ends, as in the harp.
Being obliged to use heavier strings, which ex-
erted a greater pulling force or temtion, to with-
stand the impact of his hammers, he found it
necessary to remove the pins to which the further
ends of the strings were attached (the 'hitch-
pins*), from their old place on the soundboard of
the harpsichord, to a stiff rail of wood (,' string-
block') built round the angle-dde and narrow
end of the case. Without this alteration his
instruments could not have stood in tune and
wt>nld soon have collapsed.
Two pianofortes of Crisiofori's make are fortun-
PIANOFOETE.
711
atdy stfll existing. The earlier one, dated 1720,
belongs to Signora Emesta Mocenni Martelli of
Florence, and is described by Leto Puliti, with
illustrations of the action, in the essay referred
to in footnote 3. The second, dated 1736, is in
the museum of the emindnt collectors and musi-
cologists, the Signori Eraus of Florence. The
writer, when making the biographical notice of
Cristofobi in the present work (vol. L p, 417)
was unaware of the existence of this instrument,
or of its having been exhibited with Signora
Martelli's, when the commemoration of Oristofori
took place in Florence. But in 1878 the Signori
Eraus showed the instrument at the Trocadero
in Paris, and the writer then had the opportunity
of examining and playing upon it, and found it
light, prompt, and agreeable in touch, with a tone
not at all to be despised. The instrument happenn
to be more perfect than that of Signora Martelli,
because the hammerheads remain in their original
condition, as may be seen by comparing Fig.i with
Fig. 2, which represents the action of the latter.
Both instruments, the 1 720 and the 1 726, have
On further comparing the two di«7r«ms ire obwrre In Xo.3 first the ex1ensl<m of the lerer, or key. «; the truuformatlun
of the second lerer, «, Into what It technical Ijr an ' unde. hammer.' remorlog the hopper, g, from direct attack upon the butt.
«. a change in the wrong direction, but probably necenltated hj the want of a regulating button and Mrew to the hopper.
Other modifications will be noticed : one Is a pin. it. passing through the back part of the key (replacing the piece of whalebone
behind the key ; see drawing of Zumpe's action, p. 719). a step towards the front pin. since used to steady the lateral motion. The
damper, r. now lies upon the strings, dropping, wedge-faithion. between the two unisons. But the great Imprornnent upon the
first action Is the substitution of the check, p— Oristoforl's paramarUllo, which graduates the rebound of the hammer according
to the blow— for the mere support of the silk threads which formeriy recetred it when it leiL
the overdampers and check, the latter the me-
chanical completion of the action. That of 1720
has been restored by 8ig. Ponsicchi, a pianoforte
maker, who has himself given, in ' II Pianoforte,
sna origine e sviluppo (con tavole),* Florence,
1876, a valuable contribution to the literature
of the instrument. Both pianofortes are bichord
and have white natural keys, but the compass
differs, the earlier having 4^ octaves, C to F, and
the later only 4 octaves, C to C, the old normal
compass equivalent to the human voice.
Cristofori died in 1731, aged 80, and in 1730,
the year before his death, his assistant, Giovanni
Ferrini, made a pianoforte which has become
famous through Bumey's reference to it. It was
bought by Eli^betta Famese, Queen of Spain ;
and by her bequeathed to the singer Farinelli,
who inscribed upon it in letters of gold, ' Raf-
faello d'Urbino,' and esteemed it more highly
than any other in his collection of keyed instru-
ments. Bumey played upon it in 1771. There
were other pupils or followers of Cristofori ; we
hear of Geronimo of Florence, and Gherardi of
Padua, but an end soon came to pianoforte mak-
ing in Italv; possibly, as suggested by Puliti,
from the difficulty felt by clavicembalists of
acquiring the touch, and which made them decry
the new instrument — or from the imperfection of
the means for escapement. Be this as it may,
the fruits of the invention were to be ^thered
and garnered elsewhere ; but the invention itself
reuiains with Italy.
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PIANOFOETB.
The idea suggested by the Tagne cbaracter
of the Estease ' piano e forte,* that there were
perhaps attempts to construct a hammer action
before Cristofori, we find strengthened by the
known fact, that two men in two different
countries outside of Italy, were endeavouring, at
the very time of his success, to produce a similar
invention to his. The names of Marius and
Schroeter, the former a French harpsichord-maker,
the latter a Grerman musician, have been put
forward tu claim the credit of the absolute in-
vention on the strength of certain experiments
in that direction* Marius, in Febniary 1716,
submitted, perhaps a pianoforte, and certainly
four models for actions of 'clavecins & maillets,'
or hammer harpsichords, the description and
engravings of which were published, nineteen
yean lat^, in No. 1 72, 1 73, and 1 74 of * Machines
et Inventions approuv^ par L*Accad^ie Roy-
ale des Sciences, Tome Troisihne. Depuis 17 13
jusqu'en 171 9. A Paris mdcczxxv,' and are
to be found in esUenso in the works of Bimbault
and PuUti. Both overstriking and understriking
apparatus had occurred to Marius, and his draw-
ings included the alteration of an upright harpsi-
chord, and the addition of a register of hammers
to an horizontal one — rude contrivances of which
no subsequent use was or could be made. His
object in introducing hammers was an eoonom-
icfd one — to save the expense and trouble of con-
stantly requiUing the harpsichord. Schroeter
must be dismissed less summarily, owing to the
frequently repeated statement that he was the
actual inventor of the pianoforte ; reasserted
perhaps for the last time, but with a fervid ad-
vocacy in which the bias of patriotism is con-
spicuous, by Dr. Oscar Paul in his 'Geschichte des
Klaviers,* p. 83. But had Schroeter not been a
man of good education and some literary power,
his name would not have been remembered ; it
must be distinctly understood that he wiuj a mu-
sician and not an instrument-maker: and he
never made a pianoforte or had one maoe for him,
or he would have told us so. He claimed to have
devised two models of hammer-actions between
1717 and 1721, which he afterwards neglected,
but years afterwards, in 1738, being vexed that
his name was not connected with the rising
suooess of the pianoforte, he addressed a letter
to Mitzler, which was printed in the *Neue
erofi&tete musikalische Bibliotek ' (Leipzig, 1 736-
54, vol. iii. pp. 474-6). He repeated his claim,
with a drawing of one of his actions (then first
published), in 1763, in Marpurg*s 'Kritische
Briefe ttber Tonkunst' (Berlin, 1764, vol. iii p.
85), showing, although Gottfried Silbermann had
been dead ten years, and Gristofori thirty-two,
the animus to which we owe these naive and
interesting communications. The particulars of
Schroeter*8 life must be relegated to a separate
notice. [See Sohboeter.] It will sufiice here
to state that in 17x5, when Schroeter was only
sixteen years old, being entrusted with good
pupils in Dresden, he found that their study <
upon the expressive clavichord was thrown away
when they came to show off before their friends {
PIANOFORTE.
npon so difibrent an instrument as the inezpfes*
sive harpsichord. Shortly after this, there came
to Dresden the great dulcimer virtnoso, Panta-
leone Hebenstreit, whose performances astonished
Schroeter, and at the same time conviiioed him
that it was by hammers only that the harpsi-
chord could be made expressive. At this time,
like Marius, he could hardly have known that
pianofortes had not only been invented, bnt had
for some years been made in Italy, althotigfa the
intercourse prevailing between that oonntry and
Dresden might have brought tibe knowle^e to
him. But the inferiority of Schroeteir*s action to
Cristofori*s a<f once exonerates him horn plagiary
ism ; and the same applies also to Marios, whose
ideas were of even less value mechanicaUy than
Schroeter's.
Schroeter gives us no description of his over-
striking 'Pantaleon': we may conclude that
he suspected the diflSculties, not to this day
surmounted, of an action in which the hammers
are placed above the strings. Of the under-
striking action, his * Pianoforte,' he has given ui
full particulars and a drawing, here rejnroduoed—
Fig. 8.
n- ^
i
alttheitrlDg: ctotheker; «. m»eeond1erer: «i«jadctonlM
the bunmer : o^ the hunmer Itwir. clothed et the tan. r. to
•erre for » damper. The play, or space, between the jack and
the hammer-ahank permitted, aa in the early eqnarfr-piMio
action of Zompa (which may hare been partly dertred from
Schroeter's Idea), the rebound, or etcapemeot. of the hammer.
For his second drawing, a later fancy of no
practical value, it is sufficient to refer to Pauil
or Puliti.
But no sustained tone was possible, owing to
the position of the damper, which resumed its
place the moment the hammer felL The rapid
repetition of a note, after the old &shion of
hiurps, mandolines, and dulcimers, would hmve
been the only expedient to prolong it. Marins's
defect was the opposite one ; he had no dampers
whatever. But Schroeter had the great merit of
perceiving the future use of iron as a resisting
power in pianofortes; he invented a vUUr-
standuisen, or resisting iron, a bar of metal here
marked t, which was placed transversely orer
the wrestplank, rested firmly upon the strings,
and formed the straight bridge. We do not
know to whose piano this was applied, and it
can hardly have been a part of his original con-
ception. It is more likely to have oocuired to
him from observation of the defects in piano-
fortes, as did his scheme of stringing by pro-
ceeding from one string to a note in the bus,
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PIANOFORTE*
to four itrings to a note in the treble; graduated
with two and three unisons of so many notes
each, between.
The allusions in Schroeter's letter to an * in-
genious man at Dresden* ('ein anderer sinn-
reicher ^ann'), point to GorrrBiBO Silbbb*
UASN, who, in the second half of last century,
was generally considered to be the inyentor of the
pianoforte. As late as 1780 De la fiorde (Essai
8ur la Musique ancienne et modeme) said that
'The Clavecin Pianoforte was invented about
twenty years ago at Freyberg in Saxony l^ M.
Silbermann. ]^m Saxony Uie invention pene-
trated to London, whence we obtain nearly all
those that are sold in Paris.* It has been
hitherto accepted in Germany and elsewhere that
Silbermann adopted Schroeter*s idea, and made
it practicable; employing in fact Schroeter's
action, with some improvement. Welcker von
Gront^shausen, 'Der Glavierbau' (Frankfort,
1870), says, p. 171* 'the Silbermanns idways used
the action invented by Schroeter.' It is right
however to warn the inquirer who may meet
with Welcker*s books, that they are not, either
in text or engravings, always to be depended on.
We must now revert to the fact of Koenig's
translation of Maffei's account of Cristofori's in-
vention, published at Hamburg in 1725, an
invention recorded and attributed exclusively to
its author in Walther's 'Musikalisches Lexicon *
(Leipzig, 1 73a). It was thus early made public
in Germany, and we think we shall now be able
to show that Gottfried Silbermann followed
Cristofbri rattier than Schroeter when he began
to make pianofortes. He is said to have made
two as early as 1736 (the year after Matheson's
publication of Koenig's translation) and to have
bhown them to J. S. Bach, who condemned
them for the weakness of their trebles and their
heavy touch. This adverse judgment so much
annoyed Silbermann that for some years he made,
or at least showed, no more. Some time after
PIANOFORTE^
713
this he seems to have made an instruuient for
the Prince of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt; which
Schroeter happened to see in 1753; but, before
that, two had been made, admitted to be copies
of it, by Lenker of Rudolstadt, and had met
with great praise. *We may therefore assume
the success of the originaL In connection with
this it is not surprising that Frederick the Great
(especially when we remember that he had C. P.
E. Bach, who owned a most beautiful Silber-
mann clavichord, in his service) should have
acquired and placed in the music-room in the
New Palace at Potsdam, a pianoforte by that
maker. He is indeed said to have had more,^
but no musical anecdote is better known than
the visit of J. S. Bach, and his eldest son, to
Potsdam in 1747; his warm and almost uncere*
monious reception by the King, and the extem-
pore performances which took place, in which
we may be sure that the pianoforte would not
}>e neglected. In 1773, our own Bumey (Tour,
ii. 145) published an aoconnt of his visit to the
same palace at Potsdam. In His Majesty's
concert-room he saw the Silbermann piano-
forte; in other -rooms the Tschudi lukrpsi-
chords of 1758 and 1766. Thus the pianoforte
had not yet prevailed over the luu-psichord,
these London instruments being of later date.
But what is now of supreme interest is that the
same pianoforte is still in Frederick's music-
room (1880). True, the instrument bears no
inscription or date, but since everything in the
room remains as it was at the time of the King's
death, there is no reasoii to doubt its genuine-
ness ; and it has the whole weight of local tra*
dition in its favour. A recent examination, made
through the kind permission of Count Seckendorff
by Herr Bechstein, the well-known pianoforte-
maker of Berlin, reveals the Cristofori action !
Therecanbenodoubtaboutit. Here is Herr Bech-
stein's drawing, and a comparison of it with that
of Cristofori's action (Fig. i) b at once convincing.
Fjo.4.
» We quote from Forkol : 'The Kfng .... urged Bach (then known
M the old Each) to 1 17 his Silbermuin Fortepianos then standing
In various rooms of the palace.' A footnote adds— 'The planofbitea
of the Freyberg Silbermann pleased the King so much, that he made
up hts mind to buy them all. He got fifteen of them together. They
must now (1803) be all standing about, of no use. In different comers
of the palace.' Beoent seardi has (ailed to disoorer tlieae Instru-
m-nt& Fifteen was a large number for Silbermann to have made
Attd bad by him. and It must be remembered that Forkel wrote at
secondhand, and long after the event, although we have the state-
ment of an eye-witness. W. Friedemann. Bach's eldest son. Uerber's
LeHcon. published 1798. art. 'Silbermann.' states that the King of
Prussia had one pianoforte made for him. before Bach's visit, and
this pleasing him he ordered others fdr Deriin. Kooser's * Silbermann
der Orgelbauer (Strassburgl897) affirms that they were six In number,
and that one more was acquired after Silbermann's death. Bumey
saw only one at Potsdam, and that not flve-and-twenty yean alter
Badi's visit.
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714
PIANOFORTE.
It will be observed tbftt Herr Bechstein, as
frequently happens in drawing pianoforte ac-
tions, has omitted the damper, but that is of
no consequence. A sketch of the external ap-
pearance of the instrument has been kindly
supplied from the same source.
Fio. 5.
The instrument is placed upon an elaborate
stand having an extra leg at the angle side,
thus reminding us of Mozart*s grand piano,
by Walter, at Salzburg. The case is of oak ; the
strings contain i ^ octave of brass wire, not over-
spun, in the bass; the keys are of nearly 5 octaves
(F-E), and are covered with ebony for the na-
tural notes, and with ivory for the upper, or
sharp keys. Before leaving the only recorded
instances of the great J. S. Bach*s connexion
with the pianoforte, we may remark that the
special character of the instrument does not
seem to have struck him ; there con be no doubt
of his having shared the opinion of his son
Emanuel, who regarded the pianoforte as only ' fit
for rondos,* and always expressed his preference
for the clavichord. It was by the youngest
brother and pupil of Emanuel, John Christian,
known as the 'London Bach.* that a decided
preference was first shown for the pianoforte over
the clavichord and harpsichord.
The pianofortes to which we have hitherto
alluded were all, like harpsichords, of the ' wing*
or 'tail* shape (English Grand piano; German
Fluffel ; French Piano A queue ; Ital. Piano a
coda). The distinguished organ-builder, C. E.
Friederici of Gera, is reputed to have been the
first tc» make a pianoforte in the clavichord or
oblong shape (English, Square piano ; German
tafdfdrmiges Viano ; French, Piano can-e ; Ital.
Pianoforte a tavdino), Fischhof ^* Versuch einer
Geschichte des Clavierbaues,' Vienna, 1853, p. 16)
gives the date of this invention as 1760, but this
is possibly too late. Friederici named his square
piano 'Fortbien,* perhaps a pun upon Forte
Biano, in which form he may often have heard
the Italian name pronounced by German lips.
Of his Action we know nothing: there is no
description of it forthcoming, and we turn to
England and another German maker for the prac-
tical introduction of the, square instrument.
Johannes Zuicpe ^ is introduced by Bumey, in
Rees's Cyclopaedia (18 19, article 'Harpsichord'),
I It hu been 8ucgest«d that Zumpe may have bran an altered name
from Zumpt. to suit KnsUib hablu of pronunelatton. a> the con-
temporary Standi wai Gorrupced fromTacbudI, KIrkman frum Ktrch-
mauu, etc.
PIANOFORTE.
ia a German who had long worked for the harp^
siohord-maker Shudi, and was the first to oon*
struct small pianos of the shape and size of the
virginal. He goes on to say that there was such
a demand for Zumpe*B square pianos that there
was scarcely a house in the kingdom where a
keyed instrument had ever had ad-
mission but was supplied with one of
them, and there was nearly as great a
call ior them in France as in England.
Pohlmann, another German, fabricated
for those whom Zumpe was unable to
supply. There are instruments by both
thet»e makers still existing ; the oldest
Zumpe piano known is dated 1 766, was
i formerly Sir George Smart's, and is
now owned by Messrs. Broad wood.
No number has been found in it ; yet
it can hardly be the first of Zumpe*s
make, since he would not have been so
bold as to begin with dividing his black notes and
thus have 18 keys in the octave, as he has in this
case. Mr. Taphouse of Oxford has one with the
usual chromatic scale of 1 3 in the octave, inacribed
'Johannes Zumpe, Londini, Fecit 1767, Princes
Street, Hanover Square,* and with XVim
stamped on the back of the nameboard. Allow-
ing Zumpe to have been a year or two in business
before he made this number, he would not have
started before 1765 * The action which Zumpe
invented or adopted was simple and facile, having
reference to the published modd of Schroeter in
Marpurg 1764, in its artless escapement. It
became the norm for nearly all square piano
actions during forty years. The writer of the
article ' Pianoforte * in the 4th edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica (1810), claims the in-
vention of Zumpe*s action for the Rev. William
Mason, composer, poet, and writer on church
music, and the intimate friend of the poet Gray.
Bom in 1 725, Mason died in 1 795, and was there-
fore, inventor or not, a witness to the introduction
of the pianoforte into England, and to its develop-
ment to a certain grade of perfection — that namely
of pure wooden construction. The Encyclopedia
writer betrays so dense an ignorance of the early
history of the pianoforte that we are compelled
to put him aside as an authority ; although in
this case he may have got his information on the
point direct from Mason. Apart from such con-
jecture we have only sure evidence that Mason
was one of Zumpe's early patrons.'
2 Mr. WnilamBon of Guildford bad. In 1879, a iquare piaao bf
Zumpe * Buntebnrt. dated Vm. In 1778 tbe ftnn «a* Zumpe k
Mayer— the Instruments rrmaiuinf the tame, almost clarlcfaofds.
with hammer actions, and nearly five octaves compaat. G— F.
* Mason appears to have first possessed a pianoforte in na&
Writing from Uanuver to the poet Gray he nys :— ' Oh, Mr. Gray! I
bought at Hamburg such a pianoforte and so che^l It is a harpii-
chord too of two unisons, and the Jacks serve as mutes when the
pianoforte stop is played, by the clererest mechanism Imaginable.'
won't you buy my KIrkman ? ' (meaning his barpelehord by thai
maker). Gray, writing to Mason In May 1767. after the dMth of
Mrs. Mason, says:- You will tell me what to do with your Zompe
which has amiued me much here. If you would have it sent dova
I had better commit it to its maker, who will tune it and pack ll up.
Dr. Long has bought the fellow to it. Tlie haw to not quite of a place
with the treble, and the higher notes are somewhat di7 and sdcky.
The rest diaeourses t«7 eloquent musio.' Mason had married in Ibt
antumn of 1768. It is possible tliac he bought hU Zumpe then, or if
not. In the course of the enralng year, 17M. (The Conespoodwot of
Thomas Gray and William Mason. London 18B3. pp. S3 and 981.)
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PIANOFORTE.
Zampe*8, or Maaon^s, action drawn from ihe
instrument of 1 766, is shown in Fig. 6.
Square pianos were occasionally fitted with
drawers for music, and were sometimes made to
PIANOFORTE.
715
look like tables: the writer has seen a table
piano, in style of furniture about 1 780, but which
bore on a label the name and date, Zumpe 1 760.
This cannot be aoo^ted as authentic, but the
F10.6.
In the k«j « Is axed the Jack g. a wire with a leather stud on the tbp, known by the workmen as the ' old man's head.' This
raises the hammer o : the damper, r. is lifled by a whalebone Jack. w. called the ' mopstick.' placed near tite end of the key.
and Is breufht back to Its place by the whalebone aprlnc. w : a third piece of whalebone. *. projecting from the end of the
k(7. works in a groove, and serres exactly as in the claTichord. to keep the key steady, there being no front keypin. The two
balance-rail keyplns shown In the drawing belong to two keys, the nataiml and sharp, and bidlcate the diflierent balancing
desiderated in all keyboards by the different lengths of the natural and sharp keys. The dampers were divided into treble
and bass sections, raised bodily by two drawstops whan not required, tiiera being as yet no pedaL
action is of so much interest that it must be
deecribed, as publication may be the means of
ultimately identifying its origin. The instru-
ment belongs to Mr. Herbert Bowman, and the
diagram is from a careful drawing by Mr. Robert
Maitland.
Fio. 7.
r\
^
r •
->
Here the pad, d, upon the key «. b regulated in he*sht by a screw,
and when raised lifts the Jack g. which is attached by a Iratlipr
hinge to the hammer o. The damper is conjectural ; but Mr. Malt-
laod has probably indicattnl it correctly. The xpeclal frature is
the tact of the vicarious space for an escapement being below the
jack instead of above K, as in Zumpe's ' old man's head.'
In 1759. John Christian Bach arrived in
London. According to Bumey, who is however
careless about chronological sequence, the first
pianoforte seen in England was made in Rome
Dy Father Wood, an English monk. It remained
unique for several years until copied by an in-
strument-maker named Plenius. * After Bach's
arrival/ says Bumey (Rees's Cyclopedia, 1819,
article 'Harpsichord'), *all the harpsichord
makers in this country tried their mechanical
powers on pianofortes, but the first attempts were
always on the large size.' From a previous sen-
tence we learn that Backers, a harpsichord- maker
of the second rank, constructed several pianofortes,
* but the tone, with all the delicacy of Sohrooter's
touch, lost the spirit of the harpsichord and gained
nothing in sweetness.' Now Schroeter the pianist
(not he who has been already mentioned), came
to London in 1772.'
The late James Shudi Broad wood, writing in
the Gentleman's Magazine in 181 a, attributes the
invention of the ^and piano in 177a to a Dutch-
man, Americus Baccers (accurately Backers ') ;
and again, in his * MS. Notes and Observations *
(written 1838; printed for private circulation
1863) he repeats this statement about Backers,
but with a later date^about 1776. This pro-
bably alludes to the pianoforte of which the
nameboard is referred to in footnote a, at that
time still existing. The earlier date is nearer
the mark, but the 'invention' must be in-
terpreted as meaning a new action, an improve-
ment on that of Cristofori (which may have been
transmitted through Silbermann), or rather on
Cristofori's first idea, by the contrivance of the
regulating button and screw which rendered his
direct action certain, and was ultimately known
as the * English action ' — as Backers's was always
called abroad. Mr. Henry Fowler Broadwood,
the present head of the firm of John Broadwood
& Sons, in a footnote to his father's statement
in the 'MS. notes,' communicates the fiunily
tradition that his grandfather, John Broadwood,
with his apprentice, Robert Stodart, assisted
Backers to bring this action to perfection — a
word which he may use unreserv^Iy, as more
than a hundred years have passed by and the
direct ' English action ' has not yet been super-
seded. It has met all the demands of the far-
advanced technique of the present day : Chopin
preferred it to any other, whether made by
Pleyel in Paris or Broadwood in London, and
some of the most eminent living pianists might
I Johann Samuel Schroeter (1780-88). the first pianbt recorded an
having had a ' touch.' came to London in the year above stated, and
played at the Thatched House on the forte Piano (Haydn In Ix>ndon.
by a F. PohU Vienna 1S67. p. Ml). His wife was an hitlmate friend
of Haydn's.
> Bumey. In 177S. praised Bayers' plauofiirtes. We have fte^n a
nameboard Inscribed 'Amaricns Backers. Inventor el Fecit. Jermyn
Street. London. 177B.'
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716 PIANOFORTE.
be quoted as practicia witncwes to iti e^c»cy.
The earUeet diagram of it is that attached to
Bobert Stodart^B patent of 1777, for a combined
pianoforte and harpdchord. in which we first
encounter the dewgnation 'grand* apphed to a
pianoforte. We give it here, with a diagram of
Mesare. Broadwood'a grand action of the present
time— the dampers omitted in both cases.
Fio. 8, (1777.)
Fio. 9. (1880.)
Tbe dlffierencM In th« two cMw an In tht proportions and fbnn of the parts : the principle
is ibe same in both, the only addition hi the present action— aud that not esseuttal^being a
strip of Mt beneath the buu of the hammer, to assist the promptneu of the cheddnff.
The dUhrences of both from that of Oristofori are evident and imporiant. Hie second
lerer or underhammer Is done awaj with, and the jack. g. now acts directly In a notdi
of the butt, n. The regolatlnf button and screw controlllog the eacapemeot are at 0pu
eimplioltjr and security are combined.
The earliest public notice of a pianoforte in
England is in the year 1767, when a (]k>vent
Gaiden playbill^ chronicles its first appearance
in an orchestra, under date of May 16, as an
accompanying instrument. After Act i of the
Beggar's Opera the bill announces that 'Miss
Briclcler will sing a &vourite song from Judith,
accompanied by Mr. Dibdin, on a new instrument
called Piano Forte.* As a solo instrument it
appears to have been used for the first time in
London on June a, 1768, at the Thatched House,
by John C^lhristian Bach.* In 1770, Mr. Bumey,
nephew of Dr. Bumey, was appointed 'to the
pianoforte* at Drury Lane. We do not know
what pianos they were, or of whose make. They
PIANOFORTE.
may have been by Backers, but to have had hit
new action we should have to put back Mr.
Broadwood*8 earliest date.
During the period ending with 1770. the firrt
division to be observed in the history of the
pianoforte, there had been no oompositioa de-
voted to and proper to the instrument; and
there could have been little or no real piano-
forte playing. The new instrument was too un-
important as compared with the harosicliord,
and in its Uien condition presented to the touch
differences too essential, and difficulties too
obstinate, to permit of the perception of those
remarkable attributes upon which the highest
style in writing and treatment was ultimately
to be based. The earliest piece which we have met
with naming the pianoforte, and that only
generally, is * Duetto ftlr zwev Claviere, swey
Fortepiano oder zwey Fltigel,* by Mttthel, Ria,
1771." There is an undated work by John
Christian Bach naming the instrument, which
may possibly be equally early in date. The
first real pianoforte music was published in
London in 1773. T^is was the famous op. a of
Muzio Clkmenti (3 Sonatas), composed three
years before, when he was only eighteen years
old. In these pieces the young compoeer divined
the technique and instrumental treatment to
which the pianoforte was responsive, and there
founded the true school qf pianoforte-playing.
We have dwelt thus l<mg upon London, not
merely because Uiis is an English Dictioiiary,
but because at this epoch London held the fint
place in harpsichord and pianoforte making. In
the decade 1 765-75 there can be no doubt about
the importance given to the square piano by
Zumpe, and the final
start given to the grand
piano by Backers; soon
to be the means of .suc-
cess to Bboadwood and
to Stodabt, who had
helped him in his inven^
tion. The great harpsi-
chord makers, Jacob
Kl BKlff AN andBnBKHARD
Shddi,* had at this time
brought their noble in-
struments to the hic^hest
point of development and excellence ; and the
harpsichord was now endowed with a storehouse
of noble compositions, from which the pianoforte.
> In Messrs. Broadwood's possession,
t Fohl's ' Uardn hi London.'
having as yet none of its own, had for a time to
borrow. We can understand how little these
eminent makers, having realised fortune and done
their work in life, would care for the new instru-
ment and its improvement. It would be to them
as aggravating as the Sonatas and Symphooiss
of Beethoven doubtless were to the aged Haydn.
But with J. C. Bach, Schroeter, and dementi on
the one side, and Backers, Stodart, and Broadwood
* Emmanuel Bach posftibly wrote ' pianoforte* upon his title-paca
befbre this. Gray, writing to Mason hi 17t3. say*:— 'S«nd far Mx
lessons for the pianoforte or harpniehord of Cario Bach, not the
Opera Bach, but hU brother.' Correspondence, p- 914.
4 Bhodi had his name property written, Tschudl. on the rotsdsa
harpsichords.
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PIANOFORTE.
on the other, the triumph of the Piano wts but
a question of a few years. In the most conserva-
tive institution of the country, the King's band,
the harpsichord was replaced by the pianoforte
in 1 795. It would appear that Backers on his
deaUibed desired to conmiit the care of his in-
vention to his firiend, John Broadwood ; but
Broadwood devoted his attention to the im-
provement, or rather the reconstruction of the
Square piano, which he made public in 1780,^
and patented in 1783, allowing Stodart to go on
with the grand piano with which he soon made
considerable reputation. Excepting as to the
action, Zumpe's instrument had been merely a
clavichord with a second bridge. Broadwood
boldly transferred the wrestplank with its timing-
pins to the back of the case, and straightened
the keys, which had hitherto been twisted hither
and thither to accommodate an imperfect scale.
Besides these radical improvements he substituted
a brass damper, acting under the string, for the
' mopstick-damper * which had acted above it;
and for Zumpe's treble and bass * hand-stops,*
which did away with either half of the dampers
when not required, he patented (in 1783) two
pedals, the one to raise the dampers altogether,
the other to produce a pianissimo or sordine,
by dropping a piece of doth upon the string
near the curved bridge on the belly. This
was the earliest adaptation of pedals to a piano*
forte. Last of all in this patent he included
a double soundboard and soundpost, which he
imagined to be the * most essential part * of his
improvements (see Patent no. 1379) ; but neither
in his hands nor those of others has this notion
of resonance box and cavity, in analogy to the
violin and the guitar, been brought to practical
value. Having accomplished this, and being
stimulated by Stodart's success, and advised by
Clement!, who then played on Broadwood's
instruments, as to the deficiencies of the Grand
piano, Broadwood began to consider seriously the
charge confided to him by Backers, and resolved
to improve the Grand instrument. The difficulty
in this case being the equalisation of the tension
or drawing-power of the strings, he sought the
advice of scientific men, and guided by Dr. Gray
of the British Museum, and Cavallo, who calcu-
lated the tension by a monochord (publishing the
result in 1788), Broadwood divided the bridge
upon the soundboard, that is, made a separate
bridge for the bass strings, an improvement
which in the absence of a patent was at once
adopted by all makers. As Stodart continued
to use the undivided bridge (like a harpsichord)
as late as 1 788,^ Broadwood's improvement can
hardly have been introduced before that time.
Meantime the Zumpe square action was not to
remain unimproved. Broadwood had already in
1780 transformed the instrument, and in 1786
the action met with improvement from John
PIANOFORTE.
717
. l^tmdwood hftTe « Square Flaao of John Broadwood's
dated wlUi thiU rear.
> This Grand Piano by Stodart was made for the Prince of Wales,
who gaTO It to Mr.Welt}^. In whose house at Hammemnith and
ftunllr it remained fat IWO, a really powerhil Instrameot. The earliest
known date of a Broadwood Orand is 1781. No. 40 was made in 1788.
But Abraham Klrkman was In the running with a Orand In 1780.
Geib, a workman (probably a German), said to
have been in the employ of Longman and Brode-
rip, the predecessors of Clementi and Gollard in
Gheapside. He took out a patent (London, No.
1 5 71) for a new hopper and nnderhammer; both
modifications of Cristofori^s. He regulated his
hopper in two ways, by piercing the blade with
the 'set-off* or regulating screw already in-
vented by Backers, and by turning this screw
down upon the key. Both expedients are still
in use. Tradition says that Longman and Brode-
rip first used a modification of tins patent, known
by workmen as the 'grasshopper,' with whom for
a long while it was unpopular from its supposed
susceptibility to atmospheric changes, and conse-
quent need of constant attention.
Mozart, with all his genius and charm of can-
tilena, on the importance of which he dwelt by
precept no less than by example, was yet not a
pianoforte-player in the sense that Clementi
was ; his technioue, as we know from Beethoven
(through Czemy s report), was that of the harpsi-
chord, to which in his early days he had been
accustomed. The late Herr Saust, who heard
Mozart play, told the writer that Mozart had no
remarkable execution on the instrument, and
that, for instance, he would not have compared,
as a virtuoso, with Dussek. And he must have
met, at first, with very imperfect instruments,
such as those by Spaeth, an organ builder of Ra-
tisbon, mentioned in his letters. Being at Augs-
burg in October 1777, ^^ was introduced to tiie
pianos of Stein, also an organ-builder and a good
musician. Stein's newly contrived pianoforte
escapement appears to have charmed Mozart.
In a letter to his father he refers to the
evenness of its touch,' saying that the action
•never blocks^ and never fails to sound — as is
sometimes the case with other pianos. On the
other hand, it never sounds too long, and the
machine pressed by the knee [to act as a forte
pedal] is prompt to raise the dampers, or, on
discontinuing the pressure ever so little, is as
prompt to let them down upon the strings again.' *
Herr C. F. Pohl of Vienna, the accomplished
bibliographer of Mozart and Haydn, has kindly
made enquiries in Vienna as to the existence of
any piano by Stein. There is not one, and Herr
Streicher, the pianoforte-maker. Stein's descen-
dant, can give no information. In the Library
of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, of which
Herr Pohl is the accurate and obliging cus-
dian, there is a small pamphlet entitled ' Kurze
Bemerkungen iiber das Spielen, Stimmen und
Erhalten des Fortepiano, welcher von den Gre-
Bchwister Stein in Wien verfertiget werden ' (the
'Geschwister Stein' rectified in ink to 'welche
von Nanette Streicher gebome Stein*), Vienna,
1 80 1, from which a small engraving of Stein's
escapement is here reproduced (Fig. 10).
It will be observed that this escapement differs
from Cristofori's and the English action in the
fact that the axis of the hammer changes it9
position with the rising of the key, the hopper
I Much more like the harpsichord in flneocr than the SncUsh
escapement, which Motart did not know then. U ever.
4 Letter. Oet. 17. 1777.
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PIANOFORTE.
(ansloaer) a becoming a fixture at the back of
the key. From thw difference a radical change
of touch took place ; and an extreme lightnees
became the characteristic of the Vienneae action
as developed by Andreab Stbkiohsb, Stein's
Fio. 10.
n
WM
Bon-inlaw, who, in 1794, improved and finally
established the great renown of the Viennese
pianofortes. * The following illustration of Strei-
cher's Viennese action is trom the 'Atlas zum
Fio. 11,
r ia the damper. It must not be orerVmked th&t Stein, who
had not hlmwir InTentcd the knee pedal, did. In 1789. invent a
shifting foot pedal, bj mean.s of which tlie keyboard moved, and
the three unisons were reduced to a single tttSng—tpineHdt**,
little spinet, as he named this 'una corda.''
Lehrbuch des Pianofortebaues ' by BlUthner and
Gretschel, Leipzig, and shows the damping as
veil as the escapement.
Returning to Mozart, his Concert Grand in the
Mozarteum at Salzburg, shown in Fig. la, is a
small 5-octave instrument, with black natural
keys and white sharps, made by Anton Walter,
who became in the end Mozart's favourite maker,
as Schanz was Haydn's. According to Schonfeld
(Jahrbuch der Tonkunst von Wien und Pra;^,
1796) the pianos of Schanz were weaker and
sweeter than those of Walter; the touch also
easier, and the keyfall still less. But both Walter
and Schanz were mere copyists of Stein. They
made square pianos also in the ' English ' form,
most likely imitations of the English instruments,
which at that time had a very wide market.
Paris was supplied chiefly with English pianos
until Sebastien Erard made, in 1777, the first
French one, a Square, copied, according to F^tis,
from one of English make. [See Ebabd.] For
some years he appears to have continued on
these lines ; indeed it was not till after he had
1 Steln'i MO fflems to have founded the Vienna butlnesi, ai shown
In the following extracts from a ' Musikallsche Monatschrift.' edited
hj F.X. GlOggl (Ltnz. Oct. MB. p. 99). 'The clavier instruments which
have been made by Andreas Stein at Vienna are to be properly un-
derstood as Fortl Piano, nteaning such as respond to every possible
degree of strength or softness of tone when played with more or lets
pressure, or rather stroke of the fingers on the keys': and 'the action
In aU parts is as simple as possible and at the same time eztrar
ordinarily durable. It Is original throughout, that Is. entirely the
Inventton of the deoea«ed organ-builder and instrumentrmaker Stein
of Augsburg (Csther of the present maker), who, with the rarest love
of art, has devoted the greatest part of his acthre life to Its completion.'
This oommuntcation. from Herr 0. F. Pohl, Is an historical proof of
the pedigree of the Viennese action.
3 Walton, a London maker, had shifted the hammers, leaving the
keyboard lUtlonary, two years earlier. tIx. 17iJ7. ^Patent Na 1007.) |
PIANOFORTE.
heea driven to London, by the French Bevolntian,
and had gone back again — according to the same
authority, in 1796 — that he accomplished the
making of a grrand piano. Erard appears to have
been early bent upon constructing a grand action
for himself, but while the perfecting of the
Double Action harp remained his chief problem,
the century went out with the English and
Viennese actions pre-eminent; the radical cUffer-
ences of which, and the effect of those differences
on pianoforte playing. Hummel, in his Pianoforte
School, firom his point of view, subsequently ex-
plained. Extension of compass had now set in,
and will be found recorded iu detail in the articb
Ketboabd.
We have referred to the difficulty which pre-
sented itself to Cristofori at the outset of the
Pianoforte, owing to the necessity of stringing
with thicker wire than before, to resist the blow
of the hammers, and of strengthening the case
to bear the greater tension of the thicker strings,
which forced him to shift the hitchpins frmn
the soundboard to a separate strong rail. The
gap between the wrestplank and the sound-
board, through which the hammers of the grand
Fio. 12,
piano rose to strike the strings, was the first to
be strengthened by metal, as a material at once
stronger than wooa and very economical of space.
This was effected by steel arches, a contrivance
that has remained in universal employment, but
of the author of which there is no record. There
are three in Stodart*s Grand of 1 788 previously
referred to ; no doubt earlier examples exist, and
to know their date is desirable. Schroeter bad
suggested a transverse bar across the instrument;
but it is not known if the experiment was made
at that time. The first real use of metal longi-
tudinal bracing was suggested in 1 799 by Joscoh
Smith (Patent 2345. i^ndon) ; it was to be
under the soundboard and to replace the wooden
braces, and thus provide q>aoe for the introduo'
tion of a mechanically played tambourine ! Bat
for the patent office we might not have knowm
of Joseph Smith*8 invention, as nothing came of
it. The first to use iron or steel in the form of
bracing or tension bars placed above the strings
— a method now universally adopted — was
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PIANOFORTE.
James Sliudi Broadwood, who, in 1804, having
carried the compass of the grand piano up to F,
found that the wrestplank was so much Sva
weakened by this extension that the
treble sank in pitch more rapidly than
the rest of the instrument. Accord-
ingly in 1808, in three grand pianos, he
applied steel tension-bars above the strings to
remedy the inequality. This experiment is re-
corded in Messrs. Broadwood's work-books of
that date, and the experiment was repeated in
1 818, the metal bars being then four in number
in place of three. In Messrs. Broad wood's Inter-
national Exhibition book, 1862, p. 29, we learn
that the mode of fixing these bars was at first
defective, the wood giving way to the thrust of
the bars. It is certain that they did not use
tension bars at this time constantly, for the
grand piano which was presented to Beethoven
by James and Thomas Broad wood in 18 17 [see
vol. i. p. 194] had no tension bars, and moreover
Sva
only went up to C
(Six octaves C-C.)
Sebastien Erard*8 patent in 1808 (No. 3170)
records an ingenious step towards a successful
repetition action, viz. the * double escapement ' ;
and an improvement which afterwards proved to
be of great importance, viz. the upward bearing
of the bridge next the tuning-pins by substi-
tuting for the pinned wooden bridge, metal
studs or agraffes drilled with holes for the pas-
sage of the strings, and separately fixed for each
note. The same patent includes what is now
known as the ' celeste' piano pedal, in which the
hammer strikes a piece of leather (now always
felt) interposed between it and the strings.
About this time, in the very first years of the
?»Tesent century, an entirely new form of piano-
orte was invented, the Upbioht, with the strings
descending below the keyboard. There had been
upright harpsichords and upright grands (the
latter patented by John Landreth in 1787), but
these were merely horizontal instruments turned
up on end, with the necessary modification of
the action to adapt it to the position. In 1800
Isaac Hawkins patented (No. 3446) a perpendi-
cular pianoforte from 3 to 4 feet in height,
descending to within a few inches of the floor,
to give the instrument a ' more convenient and
elegant shape than any heretofore made.' His
patent includes two other important ideas ; the use
of coiled strings for the bass, and a sostinentef ob-
tained by reiteration of hammers set in motion
by a roller. In i8oa Thomas Loud (patent No.
2591) gave a diagonal shape to this upright piano
by sloping the strings in an angular direction,
portability being the * leading intention and fea-
ture.' James Broadwood claims to have given a
sketch for a Cabinet piano (Some Notes, etc.,
p. 9) in 1804 to William Southwell, who in
1807 patented (No. 3029) a damper action to the
instrument there called by that name. From
this tall instrument the lower upright or CoTTAau
piano followed almost immediately. Robebt
WoRNUM'thej
dii^nally strui
ft vertical one, i
Fredekick Coi
Muzio dementi
man & Broderi
pianoforte (Pate
one 'upwards o
ments in the pi
patient elaboration, the introduction of metal in
iraming, and Erard s special action being pro-
minent examples. Womum's excellent cottage
action was no exception to this general experience
for he did not complete it till 183S (Patent No.
5678). Camille Pleyel recognised its value, and
through his introduction it became generally
used in France, so that at last it was known in
England as the • French ' action. But Womum's
merit as the inventor of this 'crank' action
needs now no vindication, and Southwell's
' sticker' action, long the favourite in England, is
giving way and will probably be in time entirely
super^jeded by it. In France and Germany
Wornupi's principle universally prevails.
We may now look back a hundred years, in
the first half of which the pianoforte had really
no independent existence as a keyed instrument ;
but between 1 7 70 and 1 8 20 we find the grand piano
complete so far as its construction in wood per-
mitted, and a constellation of remarkable players
that included Clementi and Dussek, Cramer and
Field, Hummel and Ries. Weber in Germany
had initiated the Romantic school in pianoforte
music; Kalkbrenner in Paris was forwarding
technical discipline; and above all, Beethoven,
whose early eminence as a pianist has been to a
large extent overshadowed by his sublime genius
as a composer, was in the latter yeaiv of this epoch
engaged in completing that series of masterpieces
for the pianoforte that have not only enabled it
to rival the orchestra in the wealth of its posses-
sions, but have by their own immortality ensured
it an existence as a musical instrument which
no change of fashion can affect. The further
development of technique, essential to the in-
terpretation of Beethoven, attained its highest
perfection between 1820 and 1850, and was
based upon conditions rendered possible by the
introduction' of iron as an essential constitu-
ent in the framing of grand pianos, and in
a certain d^^ee of that of the other kinds
also. Gradation of power was the great desi-
deratum of the player ; and the possibilities of
this were intimately connected with the free-
dom of the wrist, which had previously been
disallowed, and with the discovery, made almost
instinctively, that to give elasticity to the fingers,
they should be ra^'sed in order to descend and
not be drawn inwards as was the case with the
old Bach touch. This change of practice involved
a blow by the hammer which the indifierent
Berlin wire of that time could not stand. Thicker
wire produced greater strain on the framing which
the wooden cases were not strong enough to re-
sist. The use also of two metals in the string
ing, brass and iron, led to unequal changes in
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PIANOFORTE.
the tuning, and another problem, ' compensation,*
received even more attention than 'resiBtance*
had done. To solve this a young Scotch tuner,
named Allen, employed at Stodart's, set himself;
and with the fervour proverbial in the youth of
his country, he soon succeeded in producing a
complete and satisfactory upper framing of hollow
tubes in combination with plates of iron and
brass, bound together by stout wooden crossbars,
the whole intended
to bear the pull of ^"'- ^^•
the strings, and to
meet, by give-and-
take, the variations
in the length of the
wires, due to altera-
tion of temperature.
The patent (No.
443 1 ) wajs taken out
by William Allen
and James Thom
(who supplied the
necessary technical
knowledge of piano-
forte making) ; it is
dated Jan. 15,1820,
and the exclusive
right to use it was
acquired by Messrs.
Stodart to the great
advantage of their
busiDess. The ac-
oomi>anying dia-
gram of a Stodart
pianoforte with Allen*s framing, shows the aim
and completeness of this remarkable invention,
from the inventor s point of view.
But tension soon asserted itself as more im-
portant than compensation, and a rigid counter-
poise to it by means of metal still presented
itself as the problem for solution to James Broad-
wood, who had, years before, initiated the idea;
and we learn from Mr. Henry Fowler Broadwood
('Times,* May 10, 1851) that Samuel Herve, a
workman employed by his father, invented in 1 83 1
the fixed stringplate, in that year first applied to
a Square piano of Broad wood's. From 182a to
1827 James Broadwood tried various combinations
of the stringplate and tension bars, and in the
latter year permanently adopted a system of solid
metal bracing (Patent No. 5485). The tension
bars not having been patented had been adopted
by other makers, and in 1 825 Pierre Erard had in
his turn patented a means of fixing the tension
bars to the wooden braces beneath the soundboard
by bolts passing through holes cut in the sound-
board (Patent No. 5065). There is no mention of
a stringplate in this patent, but a proposition is
made to strengthen the case by plating it with
sheet iron, which however came to nothing.
The William Allen who had invented Stodart's
compensating framing did not rest satisfied with
his fbst success, but invented, and in 1 831 patented
(No. 6140), a cast-iron frame to combine string-
plate, tension bars, and wrestplank in one casting.
Wooden bars were let into the wrestplank to
PIANOFORTE.
reo^ivd the ordinary tuung-pins, whicli would
not conveniently work in metaL This important
invention did not find the acceptance which it
deserved, and the compound metal and wood
framing continued to be preferred in Europe
under Uie idea that it was beneficial to the tone.
But Allen's proposal of one casting had been
anticipated in America by Alpheua Babcock
of Boston, U.S., who in 1825 patented a cast-
iron frame for a Square piano. The object of
this firame, like that of AUen^s first patent, was
compensation. It fiuled, but Babcock^s single
casting laid the foundation of a system of con-
struction which has been largely and successfully
developed in America. Besides Allen and Bab-
cock, who in those days of imperfect communica-
tion are hardly likely to have known of each
other 8 attempts, Gonnid Meyer * of Philadelphia
claims to have invented the metal frame in a
single casting in 1S32. Whether Meyer was
aware of the previous efforts of Allen aiid Bab>
cock or not, he has the merit of having made a
good Square piano on this plan of construction in
1833. The frame of it i9 represented below. This
instnmient, which the writer saw and tried at
Paris in 1878, was exhibited when first made at
the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, and was
sold ; but Messrs. Meyer bought it back in 1867
and exhibited it in the Centennial Exhibition in
1876, and again, as mentioned, in the Universal
Exhibition of Paris in 1878. ^onas (I^icksring
of Boston in 1837 improved the single casting by
including in it the pinbridge, and damper socket-
rail, a construction ^ich he patented in 1840.
Ghickering subsequently de-
vised a complete frame for
grand pianos in one casting,
and exhibited two so made at
the Great Exhibition of 1851.
On the same occasion Lichten-
thai of SL Petersburg exhibited
two g^rand pianos * overstrung,*
that is, with the longest ban
spun-strings * stretched oblique-
ly over the longest un^un ana,
a method that is now very well
known and extensively adopted,
but. the advantages of whu^
hat^ hitherto been impaired by
inequality in the scale. The
invention of overstringing has
had more than one clainiant,
amongst others the ingenious
Hbnbt Papk. We have found
no earlier date for it than
1835, when, Theobald Boehm,
well known in connection with the flute, con-
trived an overstrung square, and an overstrung
cottage piano, and had them made in Lon-
don by Gerook of Gomhill. In the next year,
1836, John Godwin patented (No. 7021) over-
» A luitire of Marbarg. Hesse CMsel. who emlfrmted to BattteMW
In in9. and in IW Mt ap In butlnesi as a pianoforte-maker In >iiiis-
delphla. Mr. Xeyer and hU sons were stni canrtng on the bnsine*
In 187».
a 'Spun, or orerspun. strings' are surrounded wHh an eitenttl
GoU of line wire, to add to their vrelgbt and po«*«r uf tune.
Fio. 14.
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PIANOFORTE.
strung square and cottage pianoB. Whether he
acquired Boehm's invention or not, we do not
know.
Great use of iron was made by Dr. Steward
(stUl living at Handsworth near Birmingham) in
a novel upright pianoforte which he called the
Euphonicon, and brought out in London in 1844.
His patent (No. 9023), which is dated July 1841,
includes a complete metal framing, and separate
soundboards, three in number. The instruments
were of elegant appearance, and the long strings,
in harplike form, were exposed to view.^ Though
unsuccessful, the Euphonicon should not be
forgotten. There is one in South Kensington
Museum in the musical instrument collection.
To return to America. In 1853 Jonas Chick-
ering combined the overstringing with a metal
finune in one casting,- in a square piano which he
did not live to see completed, but which was
finished by his sons. This combination was taken
Fio. 15.
PIANOFORTE.
721
up by Messrs. Steinway & Sons of New York, and
further improved in 1859 ^7 ^® addition of an
' agraffe * (or metal stud) bridge ; they then, by
dividing Uie overstringing into two crossings,
produced a double overstrung scale. In the same
year this firm patented in America a grand piano
with fan-shaped overstrung scale in one casting,
a diagram of which will show the arrangement
of ironwork and bridges (Fig. 15). This system
of Messrs. Steinway*8 has been adopted by some
of the foremost makers in Germany, }vhich it
may be mentioned is the native country of the
firm. [See Steinwat.]
Mr. Henry Fowler Broadwood's special concert-
grand iron framing, with diagonal tension-bar
and transverse suspension-bar, was invented by
him in 1847, and has been used by his firm ever
since. Mr. Broad wood objects to single castings,
preferring a combination of cast and wrought
iron, wedged up at the points of abutment, into
Fio. 16.
a thoroughly solid structore. JRb plan gets rid
of a&oae of the tension bars, which he believes to
be more or less inimical to carrying and equality
of tone. The difference between this and his
father's or Erard's scale is great; and it only
approaches the American — which it preceded in
grand pianos — in the fact that the firaming is
independent of the wooden structure of the in-
strument. A comparison of the diagram (Fig. 16)
with Stein way's (Fig. 15) makes this difference
obvious (the diagonal biur is lettered u, the sus-
pension-bar t). The tension-bars are flanged to
preserve them from twisting under the high tension
adopted, the wire for the treble notes being now
thicker than that for the bass formerly was.
Allen*s metal wrestplank remained for more than
1 In UMhftrp >l>ape Dr. Steward bad bMo antlolpttted by MwMnI
offlAoauuM. W« h*Te Mcn a pUao 10 iDAde by him In UlS.
VOL. n. PT. 1 2.
twenty years in abeyanoe, although single plates
of metal, allowing room for the pin-holes in the
wooden block, had been used from time to time.*
The late H. Wolfel of Paris brought out about
1854 a metal wrestplank with mechanical screw-
pins, an idea for tuning often tried, but always
unsuccessfully. Wblfel's next idea was to use
boxwood plugs in the pinholes, so that the pins
should not touch the metal. The difiiculty was
at last met by Mr. H. F. Broadwood. In his
invention the tuning-pin screws accurately into
the thiok metal wre8tpin-pieoe,and through it into
S An inSepenatat Ifon wrMtplata. sttadwd to the wooden wmt-
ylsok. WM propoMd by J. 0. Schwieso, a harp-maker In Londoa. who
took out a patent (No. 0000) for It In 18SI. Scbwleao't tunlng-pIn
pierced the vrtatpUte. and was Upped at the upper end; the
Immobility of the pin. to which the string wae attached at the lower
end (M in a harp, or Orlatoforl'ii flnt pianos) beinf ensured by friction
eollan and washers. We do not know If this wrettplate answered, or
was atft tried In a pianoforte. Schwlmo adaptMl it ibr use In harps.
tIoUds. and guitars.
3A
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PIANOFORTE.
the wooden wrestplank or pinUock, the great
length of Uie pin and clinging of the wood produc-
ing sufficient friction to counteract the pull of the
string. The wrestpin-piece was introduced by the
firm in the grand pianos exhibited in i86a, and
yean have proved the efficiency of the invention.
ThisiBthesuoceBsfuloompletion of the iron framing
identified with the thurd of Mr. Broadwood*s name,
in direct descent an improver of the pianoforte.
Returning to the action, we have seen the
PIANOFORTE.
steps first taken by Sebastian Erard towards the
attainment of double escapement, whereby power
is regained ovor the hammer before the key re-
turns to its equilibrium. He had grown old
before the full aooompUshment of his idea, and
his famous ' Repetition action ' was patented in
London in i8ai (Patent No. 4631) by Pierre
Erard, his nephew. The action is shown in
this diagram, which we will describe as fiir as
possible in untechnical language.
« Is the luj : d U a pilot, eentred at dd to glre the blow, hj means of a eairler, c. hoMlns the hopper, f, wMoh deilveri
the blow to the hammer, o. hj the thrust of the hopper, which escapes by forward morement after contact with a prqfectioa
from the hammer covered with leather, answerlug to the notch of the Kngllsh action. This escapement is controlled
at s: a double spriny. U, pushes up a hinged lerer. m. the rise of which is checked at pp. and causes the second or
doable escapement; a little stirrup at the shoulder of the hammer, known as the 'repetition,' pressinf down m at tha
point, and by this depression permitting ^ to bo back into its place, and be ready for a second blow, bdore the key
has been materially raised. The cheek, p. is in this action not behind the hammer, bat before It. fixed Into the carrier, 4,
which also, as the key Is put down, brings down the under damper.
Although at once adopted by Hummel and
other pianists of note, including Liszt, then a
boy, 'Erard's action was slow to obtain recogni-
tion. It did not gain a satisfactory position
until Thalberg, after 1830. had identified his
admirable playing with its specialities. In 1835
Pierre Erard obtained an extensi<ni of his patent
on the ground of the loss sustained in working
it. Then 'repetition' became the pianoforte-
maker's dominant idea in this country and else-
where, each according to his knowledge and
ability contriving a repetition action to call his
own, though generally a modification of an exist-
ing one. Names that have oome prominently
forward in connection with these experiments,
are BLtJTHNEB in Germany, Plbtel and Krie-
gelstein in Paris, Southwell the younger, Ramsay
and Kind (under Broadwood's patronage at
difierent tinles) Oollard, Hopkinson, and
Bbinsmbab in London. Other repetition actions
are the simplified oopiee of ErardV used by Herz
in Paris and by Steutwat in New York, the
latter lately adopted by Bechstein of Berlin, in
place of KriegelsteinV
Beyond the broad summary of inventions in
instrument and action which we have sketched,
it is impracticable in our space to go farther into
detail ; it would moreover be a task of great
difficulty, owing to the multiplicity of fiftots
needing to be sifted, and the fact that a writer
on this subject must always be influenced
by education in taste and use. We may how-
ever be permitted to refer to the services oi
James Stewart (particularly in connection with
Messrs. Collard's pianos) and to Henry Pape of
Paris, who has tried more ingenious experiments
in pianofortes than any other maker, although
the majority of them are of doubtful utility. It
is to him that we owe the use of felt for hammers
(much improved, however, by Mr. H. F. Broad-
wood, who first substituted sheep*s wool for
Pape's rabbit's hair). William Stodart in-
vented a oontinuous bridge for upward bearing
in 1833; and the 'harmonio bar* in the treble,
as a bar of alternating pressure has been called,
from the peculiar Htnbre obtained by its use.'
was the invention of Pierre Erard about 1838,
according to Dr. Paul. The main object of this
bar was to consolidate the wrestpbmk in the
treble, a screw tapped into the plank and draw-
ing it upwards alternating with a screw tapped
in ihe bar pressing it downwards. In 1843 Mr.
A. BoBD of Paris invented a difierent bar in-
dependent of the wrestpbuik, which served as a
bridge of upward bearing and abolished the treble
wrestplank bridge. From its simplicity and cheap-
ness this has found favour, with some modifica-
tions, in Germany (where it is known as the Gapo
1 In the orislnal applieatloa of tUa thnotkni a third screw presied
npoa the bridge.
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PIANOFORTE.
tasto, or d^astro, bar) and elsewhere.^ There has
been a recent revival of Mr. W. F. CoUard^s idea,
patented in 1 8a I, of utilising the back draught of
the wires, between the belly bridge and the hitch
pins, for sympathetic vibration, l]^ means of what
he called (Patent No. 4542) a 'bridge of rever-
beration.* This reappears, in idea^ in Messrs.
Steinway*B ' Duplex Scale:* ; but Herr BlUthner
of Leipzig has gone further in employing in-
dependent sympathetic strings of half leng^ in
his * Aliquot* piano. By this he adds the octave
harmonic throughout three octaves, and thus
produces somet^ng of the shifting soft pedal
timbre : ihe forte or damper pedal in the ordmary
pianoforte is however an incomparably more
efficient floodgate to these sympathetic, or more
properly, M(A\aji reinforcements.
The last inventions we have to mention con-
cern the pedals, and are due to M. Mental, a
blind Parisian pianoforte maker, who, in 1863,
exhibited in London (i) a ' P^dale d'expression,'
diminishing the range of the hammras instead of
shifting them, an expedient now employed by
American and Grerman makers, and (2) a ' P^dale
de prolongement,* a third pedal, by using which
a note or notes may be prolonged i^r the fingers
have quitted the keys.' This pedal has been of
PL4N0F0RTB.
723
late years re-introduced in Paris, Stuttgart and
New York. Reference to Pedals will ^ow the
radical change that took place between 1830 and
1850 in * instrumenting the pianoforte, giving
it what we may call colour of tone, divined by
Beethoven, and perfected by Chopin and Liszt.
By these parallel advances in technique and
instrument, the masterpieces composed for the
pianoforte by Beethoven have since 1850 found
their fullest exposition.
It cannot be too emphatically mged that
pianoforte makers, to truly exci^ must ever be
individual in their productions. They should
be gidded by care of proportions in every detail,
and in equality of tension as £Eur as the scale will
admit; and by a fine discrimination of the
proper striking place or point of attack upon
the strings, ^e highly complex nature of the
instrument ofiers inexhaustible facilities for
choice in modification of these conditions, which,
combined with tradition in working, an important
fiictor, may be taken as the distinctive note of
personality in a maker. But we must not forget
that there is also a national taste in choice of
tone which has an unmistakable influence.
A table of dates will be found a usefid con-
clusion to this article.
17W
me
rm
r»
1731
1738
17«r
1788
17»«
17fi0
1764
1788
1770
1772
1772
1773
17TT
1777
1777
1780
1788
1788
1787
1787
1788
1788
1788
17M
1794
1798
1796
1800
Piano e Forte. Nuno of a ke^ Instrument M Modena.
Ortstofbri bad made four pianofortes In Florence.
Marlus submitted models of ptanofortes to tbe Academy in
Paris.
Sebroeter submitted two modeU of pianoforte acUcms to the
Court at Dresden.
Gottfried SUbermann. of Freiberg, showed two pianofortes
to John Sebastian Bach. •
Cristofori died.
Schroeter wrote to Mtzler. claiming to have Invented the
pianoforte.
J. 8. Baoh played on a SDbermann pianoforte before Frede-
rick the Great.
Gottfried Silbermann died.
Friederid. of Gera. made tbe flrst square pianoforte.
John Christian Bach came to London.
Schroeter published in Marpurg's work his claim to have
luvented the pianoforte.
Date of oldest Zumpe square piano known.
A • new instrument called Piano Forte * announced at Corent
Garden.
J. C. Bach played a solo on the pianoforte tai London.
Muzlo dementi composed pianoforte music
Tbe piMist J. 8. Schroeter (not the organist) came t«
London.
Backers about this time InTented tbe English Direct Action.
Bumey praised Backers' pianofortes.
Hosart played on 8tebi's pianofortes at Augsburg.
Stodart adopted the name ' grand ' pianoforte.
Seb. Erard made the first square piano in France.
John Broadwood re-constructed tbe square piano.
]f ozari and Clementl played upon the pianoforte before the
Emperor at Vienna.
John Broadwood patented loud and soft pedals.
Gelb patented tbe square ' grasshopper' action.
John Landreth patented the ' upright' grand plana
Walton patented a soft pedal with shifting hammers.
John Broadwood about this time made a new scale grand
piano, dividing the onnred bridge.
Btdn. of Augsburg. Invented a soft pedal with shifting action.
John Broadwood made the flrst piano with five and a ^-"^
octaves.
Wniiam Southwell Invented the 'Irish ' damper.
Andreas Streicher perfected the Viennese grand action.
John Broadwood made the flrst piano with six octaves.
Seb. Erard noade hto flrst grand piano in Paris.
Clementl. in partnership with CoUard. began about thU
time to make pianos.
1800
1808
1807
1808
1808
1894
1825
1825
1828
1827
1827
1831
1833
1838
1840
1843
1847
IbOl
Isaac Hawkins patented an upright pianoforte.
Thomas Loud patented a diagonal upright pianoforte.
William Southwdl patented the oabfaiet pianoforte.
James Broadwood flrst applied tension bars to a grand piano.
Seb. Erard patented the upward bearing and the 'celeste'
pedaL
Bobert Womum made the flrst cottage pianoforte.
William Allen invented and brought out at Stodart's a com-
pensating grand piano with metal tubes and plates.
Seb. Erard patented his double escapement action.
8. Serve invented the fixed strlngplate (brought out at
Broadwoods').
James Broadwood adapted tension bars to the strlngplate.
Llsit came out in Paris on an Erard grand plana Seven
octaves. (7—0.
P. Erard patented bolts to tensltm bars.
Alphaeus Babcock patented In America a east Iron tnme
square plana
B. Womum patented the crank action, improved 1828.
James Broadwood patented tension bars and strlngplate
combined in a grand piano.
James Stewart patented stringing wlthovt 'eyea' to the
strings (in Messrs. (ToUards' pianos).
W. Allen patented in London a complete cast-iron firame
plana
CkMtrad Meyer patented In America a cast-iron fhune square
piano.
Boehm had orer-stmng pianos made In London*
P. Erard introdueed the ' Harmonic bar.*
Jonas Chlckering patented In America a cast-iron fhune
with damper socket (square piano).
A. Bord of Paris invented tbe ' (3apo tasto' bar.
H. F. Broadwood invented bis ' Iron ' grand pianoforte.
Jonas Chlckering exhibited In London grand pianos with
frames in one casting.
Llchtenthal. of St. Petersburg, exhibited In London over-
strung grand i^nos.
Cockering * Son combined east frame and over«trlnging
In a square piano.
H. WOlfel, of Paris. Invented an Iron wrestplank with i
dianleal screwplns.
Stetnway * Sons patented In America a cast frame over^
strung grand piano, and double overstrung square plana
Montal. of Paris, exhibited in London a third pedal for
prolonging sounds aft«r the Angers have quitted the
keys.
H. F. Broadwood patented tbe metal phxplece or wrestplank
with screw tnnlng^pins (not mechanical).
t The Capo Tasto bar recalls SchroetCT's ' WIdersUndsdsen,' but was
not t&ken from It.
a From the Beport of If. F<tls on tbe Paris BzhlbtUoa of ISBB^ It
[A.J.H.]
I appears that the flrst Idea of this pedal had occurred to .X»'*'
Boissekrt of Marseilles, who had shown In the ' Exposition Mattonale,^
i 1844,aplano'ltsonssout«ntts4volont&'
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724
PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
PIANOFORTE MUSIC. Of »U morical in-
strumeDts the pianoforte poeseeses the Urgent
Kbrary. Almost every composer has written
more or less for it, and its Uteratore is there-
fore unrivalled for richness and variety.
The aim of this article is to give an approxi-
mate idea of the number of pieces which have
been composed for the pianoforte alone ; all
duets with other instruments, all trios, quartets,
quintets, sextets, or septets, being excluded, as
belonging to chamber music. Though compiled
with care firom numerous catalogues and bio-
graphies, our list cannot lay claim to thorough
correctness. The greatest difficulty has been
experienced with regard to English composers ;
most of the works of the English composers of
the last century are out of print, and are often
only to be obtained with great difficulty. The
names of the composers are given in strictly
chronological order. We begin our list with the
year 1 760, 14 years after the illustrious Sebastian
Ibach had tried the * Silbermann FlUgel ' in the
presence of Frederic the Great in the royal castle
of Potsdam. At that time Carl Philipp Emanuel
Bach (i 714-1788), Sebastian^s second son, was
the conductor of the king's private music ; and
as he was the first to discern the necessity of
adopting an altered style and expression for the
newly invented application of the hanuner in-
stead of the tangent [see Pianofobtb], it is
but right to begin the long string of composers
with him.
Emamukl Bach left about a 10 pieces, of
which no less than 93 are sonatas. Of these 93
the best (18) have been republished in Leipzig
by Leuckart ; and Dr. E. F. Baumgart, of Breslau,
has written an exceedingly interesting preface to
them, in which the style of performance, and the
true manner of executing the graces and ag^*^-
mem, are described in the most complete manner.
The same firm has also published Emanuel Bach's
rondos (1-13) and fantasias (1-6). The late
Aristide Farrenc, in his ' Tr^sor des Pianistes,'
has published the entire collection of Bach's
'Sonaten fiir Kenner und Liebhaber,' composed
in 1779, 1780, 1783, 1785, and 1787. Besides
the 210 solo pieces. Bach wrote not less than
5 a concertos. Pier Domenioo Par adies (171a-
1795)* a Neapolitan composer, wrote la good
sonatas (two movements each), of which No. 6, in
A major, is a real gem. JoBann Ernst Eberlin
( 1 7 1 6- 1 776) wrote preludes, toccatas, and fugues ;
distinguished by a certain melancholy expres-
sion and an agreeable tenderness. Seven of the
preludes (or voluntaries) and fugles bjce to be
found in Clementi's ' Practical Harmony.' [See
Practical Harmony.] Friedrich Wilhelm
MaRPURG (17 18-1795), the eminent theorist,
wrote 6 sonatas, 6 fugues, and several caprices.
The sonatas, though somewhat dry, are not un-
interesting. JoHANN Philipp Kirnberger (1731
-1783) distinguished himself by 9 fugues and
some smaller pieces, of which a gavotte in D
minor, and a charming allegro for a musical-
box, have become justly popular. Georo Bbnda
(1731-1795) left 6 sonatas (Paris, Farteno),
PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
5 cottoertoB, and 3 suites of varioiu smalkr
pieces. The sonatas are exceedingly good, and
full of interesting matter. Schobert (his Chris-
tian name is unknown) (1730- 1768) left 4 so-
natas, 5 concertos, and I concerto pastorale.
These were published in London by Bland, but
are out of print ; the sonatas are somewhat
empty, but elegant and pleasing. Giuseppe
Sabti (1730-1803) composed 6 sonatas (London,
1763), which are clear, bright, and easy. Jo-
seph Haydn's (1733-1809) contributions to
the pianoforte literature consist of 34 sonatas,
9 smaller pieces, and ao concertos. Although
Haydn*s sonatas are not written with the same
care and affection as his quartets and sym-
phonies, they contain manifold beauties, and
are full of interest ; among the smaller pieces,
the beautiful Andante with Variations in F
minor has now become a stock piece in so-
called 'Pianoforte Becitals.* Antonio Majiia
Gasparo Sacchini (1 735-1 786) composed la
sonatas (op. 3 and 4). like almost all the sona-
tas of Italian composers, they are written in a
light, fluent, and bright style, and lay no claim
to refined workmanship. Johann Christian
Bach (1735-1783), the so-called 'Milan or
London Bach,* composed 18 concertos, 13 solo
sonatas, i duet sonata for 4 hands, and i for
3 pianos, which, though possessing a certain
elegance and fluency, are in every instance in-
ferior to those of his brother Emanuel. Johann
Geobg Albrechtsberoeb (1 736-1809) com-
posed 18 preludes and 59 fugues. A goodly
numl^er of them are included in .Clemencis
* Practical Harmony,' and are still to be obtained
in Vienna (Haslinger and Witzendorf). As Al-
brechtsberger was a distinguished organist, it
is natural that his fugues should lack that life
and animation which is suggested by the nature
of the pianoforte as an instrument. Johann
Wanhal, Van Hall, or Wanhall (1739-18 13),
once a very popular composer, has left us 33
grand sonatas, 106 sonatinas, and 49 books of
variations, fantasias, etc. His sonatas are not
devoid of melody, and were (in their time) con-
sidered brilliant ; but Wanhal being a contem-
porary of Haydn and Mozart, his works were
soon overshadowed by the sonatas of those two
illustrious composers. ANDni Ernest Gb^bt
( 1 741-1813) composed 6 sonatas (Paris, 1768)
which contain matter of great interest. John
Abraham Fisher (i 744-1800) has left 9 con-
certos (London, Clementi & Broderip). As he
was a violinist, his pianoforte concertos cannot
boast of any special originality of treatment.
James Hook (1746-1837) wrote 6 grand con-
certos for Vauxhall (op. 55), 6 sonatas (op. 54),
3 sonatas (op. 71), 3 sonatas on Irish airs (op.
9 a), several pieces for two performers, and a
great number of smaller pieces. Johann Wil-
HELH Haessler (1747-1833) oomposed 35 so-
natas, 6 sonatimis, i fantasia and sonata, and
a gigue. His sonatas (Breitkopf & Hartel) are
utih excellent for teaching purposes, and his
spirited and exceedingly brilliant Gigue in D
minor deserves to be generally known. CaBL
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FIANOFORTE MUSIC.
BbnDa (1748-18 56) composed 6 eonatas and
6 adagios; the latter to be recommended as
teaching - pieces. The 3 sonatas and other
smaller pieces of ihe Abb^ Johann FbaJ} z Xavbb
Stbbkel (1750-181 7), are pleasl^ and not de-
void of a certain elegance. Kioolas Joseph
HuLLMAMDEL (1751-1823), a pupil of Emanuel
Bach, ocnnposed 6 sonatas- (op. 6), and a grand
sonata (op. ii); the latter contains sufficient
matter of interest. McziQ Clementi (1753-
1832) composed 64 sonatas, 6 sonatas for four
hands, and i for 2 pianofortes, 12 monferines
(op. 49), 100 studies ('Gradus ad ^Pamassum'),
50 lessons, preludes, etc. The great value
and importance of Ciementi*s pianoforte com-
positions are universally recognised; indeed
his ' Gradus * and some of his sonatas are in-
dispensable for the student who desires to learn
pianoforte-playing thoroughly. Leopold Koze-
LUCH (1 753-1 8 1 4) wrote 11 concertos, 12 solo
sonatas, 1 concerto for 4 hands, and 1 collections
of smaller pieces; some of the latter have been
republished in London, and possess a certain -
quaint charm. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
(1 756-1 791) wrote 22 solo sonatas, 4 sonatas,
2 fantasias, a fugue, and a set of variations,
all for 4 hands, a sonata and fiigue for 2
pianofortes, 21 books of variations, 3 rondos,
3 fantasias, an overture (suite) in Handel*s
style, an adagio^ march, gigue, minuet and
waltz for piano solo, 25 concertos for one
piano^ one for 2, and one for 3 pianos, also 2
rondos for piano and orchestra, very recently
published by Breitkopf & Hartel in their com-
plete edition of Mozart. The graceful, sweet,
affectionate expression of these compositions,
their irresistible charm, perfect workmanship,
and wonderful union of deep science and spon-
taneous invention, render them quite unique.
The Abb^ Joseph Gelinbk (175 7-1 825) was
one of the most protific composers for the piano-
forte. He wrote 'no books of variations, 8
potpouiris, and 10 rondos. Among the varia-
tions, Nos. 21, 29, 33, 36, and 67 (see Andre's
catalogue), were in their time the must popular,
Mid are even now not undeserving of recog-
nition. loNAz Pletel (i 757-1831), a pupD of
Haydn's, composed 2 concertos, 6 sonatas (op.
15) and 12 sonatinas, 5 sets of variations, 5
rondos, 48 short easy pieces, and 57 lessons
(studies). Of these the sonatinas are still
highly esteemed, and their light, cheerful, and
agreeable character is very pleasing to young
students. Emandel Aloys FOrster (1757-
1823) composed 18 sonatas, 6 sonatinas, and 5
books of variations. It is mentioned in Kochel's
thematic catalogue of Mozart's works (p. 530),
that the well-known ten variations on an alle-
gretto from Snrti's opera, ' I finti eredi,' are by
Forster, and not by Mozart. Louis Adam
(1 758-1848) IB best known by his * M^thode de
Pianoforte du Conservatoire,' but has ako writ-
i Fire «ftliflM.«bc IX 14.25.40146. iMiTe been taken bt»m other
PIANOFQRTE MUSIC:
725
z Aadrtf of Oiltenbech hu fmblUwd » thenutle eatalogue of
fletloek's wteUoot. Hoc 1-Ufk
ten a sonata (op. 31), polonaises, and rondos, an
introduction and variations, and several smaller
pieces, all to be found in his * M^thode.*
GiAOOuo GoFFBEDO Ferrabi (1759-1842) has
left 3 sonatinas (op. 30), and 15 longer sonatas
(op. 14 and op. 31), 3 solos, a concerto in 0
(op. 6), and 1 2 smaller pieces. Luigi Cheru-
BiNi (1 760-1842) wrote 6 sonatas and i fan-
tasia. The great importance and fame which
Cherubini obtained by his operas and sacred
compositions would not have been prociured by
these sonatas. Johann Ludwio Dussek (1761.
181 2) wrote, aooording to Breitkopf & Harters
and Whistling's catalogue, 32 sonatas, 12 con-
certos, and a great number of airs with vari-
ations, fugues, lessons, etc Of the sonatas,
Nos^ 21, 27, 29, and 31 of Breitkopfs new
edition have obtained the greatest popularity;
and among the smaller pieces. Queen Hortense's
favourite romance, * Partant pour la Syrie,'
'La Consolation,' 'Les Adieux,' all with vari-
ations, are still very popular. [See for detailed
catalogue, under Dussek, vol. i.p.477.] Johann
Christian Ludwio Abeille(i 701-1832) became
in bis time well known by bis Sonata and 9
Variations in the style of Mozart ; less known
were his 4 sonatas composed in 1 789. We have
of his also a concerto in Bb and a concerto for
4 hands. Adalbert Gtrowstz (i 763-1850),
once well known and liked in London, composed
3 concertos, and sonatas op. 62 and 63 ; which, like
all his compositions, are pleasing and melodious.
Daniel Steibelt (i 764-1 823) wrote no less than
81 sonatas and sonatinas, 117 rondos, 7 concertos,
of which No. 3 contains the well-known ' Storm *
rondo, while No. 6 is called * Voyage au mont
Saint Bernard,' and No. 7 is the so-called * Concert
militaire ' with the accompaniment of two orches-
tras. Steibelt was fond of descriptive pieces, and
we find among his fantasias one describing * the
battle of Neerwinde ' (i 793), the * destruction of
Moscow' (181 2), a journey from Paris to Peters-
burg, and last, not least, * Les Adieux de Bayard
k sa Dame.' The onfy pianoforte pieces by
Steibelt at present played are the really pretty
rondean * Le Berger et son troupeau,' the * Storm,*
and his 50 studies. Fbanz Sebaphinus Ladska
(1764-1828), to whom Weber dedicated his se-
cond sonata, in Ab, left 18 sonatas— -of which op.
A and op. 20 are the best — 4 books of variations,
different rondos and polonaises. Feiedrich
Heinbioh Himmel (i 765-1814) — more cele-
brated by his * Fanchon ' (1809), his now national
songs * An Alexis * and * £s kann ja nicht immer
so bleiben,' than by his pianoforte compositions, —
wrote only 5 pieces, among which the 1 2 variations
on the air * Ich kla<;e Dir' were once exceedingly
popular. Anton Eberl (i 766-1 807), a fluent
and easy writer, composed 2 concertos, one for
2 pianos, 6 sonatas, and 3 sets of variations.
It must be mentioned that the well-known varia-
tions attributed to W. A. Mozart, * Zu Steffan
sprach im Traume,' and those on Dittersdorfs
Andanto, ' Freundin sanfter Herzenstriebe,' are
in reality by Eberl, and are not among the three
books just mentioned, Ignaz Anton Fbanx
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PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
Xatib Ladubnbr (i 766-1839) if a nime on-
known to Engliih ears. Lftdumer wrote 2
books of variations, several fiuitnsias, amongst
which is one in the form of a sonata on an
air of Mosart's * Don CKovanni,* interesting
and rwiikaWe ibr its thflmatir devekpmeat.
Samuel Weslit (i 766-1837), wdl rsmembered
as an early prodigy and a great oi^nist, com-
posed several solo and 4-hand sonatas, which are
publiahed by Hofmeister of lioiprig. August
Ebebhabd MtiLLXB (1767-1817) oomposod 17
sonatas and sonatinas, cadenzas for Mozart's
concertos, studies (still sacoesBfully employed) ;
but his just fame rests on his excddent caprices
(six op. 39, three op., 31, thre^ op. 33, and three
op. 41). They are, each and all, exceedingly
useful for practice; full of sound, substantial
and agreeable music, and actually amusing
for the student. The most difficult and interest-
ing are Noe. 3, 4 and 6 of op. 39, No. 4 of
op. 31, No. 3 of op. 34 and No. i of op. 41. It
is said that the first movement of the Sonata
in Bb (Pauer's edition, No. ao), commonly at-
tiibuted to W. A. Mozart, is really by A. E.
MiUler. Htaoihthb Jaoik ( 1 769- 1 803) enjoyed
in his time a great reputation in France ; 5 solo
sonatas, i duet ditto, and 4 concertos, are all
that have been publi^ed ; and at present they
are no longer in use. LuDWia van Beethoven
(1770-183 7) enriched the literature of the piano-
forte with i^e most valuable works ; indeed we
may proudly point to his Bonatns as to a monument
which stands out like the Pyramids — ever fresh,
replete with every charm, interest, and intellec-
tuality which music can possess, and at the same
time expressing all the most different emotions
which agitate the human soul. Beethoven's
sonatas are really the grandest and most perfect
productions that the Pianoforte can IxMist of,
and may safely be asserted to surpass all other
compositions for whatever solo instrument. He
wrote 33 sonatas, 6 smaller sonatinas, 31 sets
of variations, 3 sets of bagatelles, 3 rondos, a
polonaise, a fantasia, and several smaller pieces,
such as preludes, minuets, etc. ; 5 grand concertos,
and several short four-hand pieces. Johann
Nfpomuk Wittasek (1770-1839). a name totally
unknown to English ears, composed several
books of peculiarly graceful dance-music, such
as Minuets and Landler. Fbiedbioh Joseph
KiBMAiB (1 7 70-1 8 14), equally unknown here,
was in his own time one of the most popular
pianoforte composers ; he published 6 sonatas and
upwards of 40 books of variations, among which
the variations on the minuet from Mozart's
*Don Giovanni* were printed by no less than
twelve different firms. John Baptist Cbambb
(1771-1858) was a prolific composer; he wrote
105 sonatas, 7 concertos, 3 duets for four hands,
18 divertissements, 100 studies, 34 sets of varia-
tions, and many rondos and £uitasias. Although
there is much good, substantial, and even interest-
ing matter in Cramer's sonatas, they cannot be
compared with his studies, which are models of
a concise construction and plastic roundness, are
"-^lete with interesting and charming melody, and
PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
above all are perfect with regard to euphony
and easy, natural, modulatian. Joseph Woklfl
(1 77 3- 181 3) composed 36 sonatas ■ of which only
two, * Non Plus Ultra,' op. 41, and ' Le Diable k
quatre,* op. 50, are still played-~5 cosioertoa and a
ooooerto mititain (not withont iatenafe) — i fiiata-
iiaa with fognes, 14 bodes of variations, 8 rtrndos
andagood number of preludes and studies. Chrib-
topb Ebnst Fbiedbioh Wetse (1774-1842), a
Danish composer, published 3 sonatas, 4 Allegri de
bravura, and 1 2 most excellent stadies, whidi de-
serve to be republished; Robert Schumann' q>eakB
in very lu$|rh tenns of the two sets of studies op. 8
and op. 60. Wenzel Tomasghbk (i 774-1850),
the teacher of Alexander Dre3r8chodL aiid JiUias
Schulhuff, a composer of whom the Bohemians
are very proud, has written 5 sonatas, I rondo, 57
^logues (really idyls) 1 2 rhapsodies, 3 ditirambi.
and 3 allegri capriciosi di bravura ; the ditirambi
and some of the ^logues still afford valuable
material for tuition. Philipp Jacob Riotte
(1776-1856) made his reputation by a descriptive
fimtasia called ' The Battle of Leipsic' His 1 2
sonatas, 7 rondos, and 14 books of variations en-
joyed less popularity. LuDwio Bkboeb (1777-
1839), ^^ respected teacher of Mendelsst^m and
Taubert, was an industrious and successful com-
poser ; he wrote I concerto, 4 sonatas, 4 books of
variations (those on the old French air, * Ah ! vous
dirai-je Maman ' are the most pc^ular), 5 rondos,
39 studies (37 of which have been republished by
Breitkopf & Hartel), 33 smsdler pieces, preludes
and fuffues, a toccata, and last, not least, an * AUa
Turoa which is still much played in Germany.
Fbanoesco Giuseppb Poluni (1 778-1 847), one
of the most intelligent of Italian pianoforte com-
posers, wrote 3 sonatas, a divertimento pastorale
(op. 34), a capital toccata in G nu^or, fiintasias,
capriccios, and 33 studies, of which one written
on three staves was very popular in Vienna.
Pollini's music is always healthy, and deserves
warm recommendation as excellent material for
technical study. Johann Nepomuk Hummel
(i 778-1837) wrote 5 sonatas (No. i, op. 13, and
No. 3, op. 30, under the influence of Mozart),
of which the sonata (op. 81) in F| minor and
the grand sonata (op. 106) in D present the most
intricate technical difficulties ; 3 sonatas for four
hands, of which that in Ab (op. 93) is remark-
ably beautiful ; several other duets, including th«
duuming nocturne op. 99 ; 7 concertos (those in
A minor, op. 85, B minor, op. 89, and Ab, op.
113, are standud works); 16 books of smaller
pieces, rondos, divertissements, of which the
charming introduction and polacca <La BeUa
Oapriociosa,' op. 55, and the spirited and ex-
ceedingly difficult rondo in B minor (op. 109),
are the most prominent ; 4 books of caprices
and studies. Hummel's compositions are re-
markable for their solid construction, degance
and brilliancy, their charming modulation and
graceful ornamentation. Johann Hobzalka
( 1 7 7 8-1 860), a very talented Bohemian composer,
wrote an interesting sonata (op. 9), 11 books of
variations, and several rondos, among which
1 6«MmiMl«e Bcfarift«a (I8M) tt. K^ U. 14.
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PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
the Rondo pastoral (op. ii), and Rondo hongrois
(op. 38) were great &vourite8 in Vienna ; his noo-
tumes (op. 37), Fantasia pastorale (op. 54), and
excellent studies (op. 39), are also to be recom-
mended. JOHAlfN HXINBIOH ClASINO (1779-
1829) published a sonata (op. 5), 6 rondos, a
fimtasias, and several smaller pieces — all the
productions of a sound musician. Nigolaus von
Kbdfft (1779-1818) was a composer once highly
esteemed in Vienna ; he left one sonata, la bookjs
of variations, 3 grand caprices, T a studies, and 34
preludes and fugues ; all full of eleganoe and taste:
WiLBSLM Fbiedrioh Rixm (i 7 79-1 837) com-
posed 8 sonatas, 6 sonatinas, 2 books of variations,
polonaises, eoossaises, waltzes, and anglaises —
greatly esteemed in the northern part of Grer-
many. M. J. 0. Leidesdobf, the friend of Bee-
;thoven and Schubert (i 780- 1 839), wrote 4 sonatas,
22 rondos, 36 books of variations, and a quan>
tity of fantasias or operatic urs ; and may be
called a forerunner of Henry Herz and Carl
Czemy. AntokDiabelli (1781-1858) : this pro-
lific composer*s 29 solo sonatinas and 23 charming
duet sonatinas are still very popular ; his 36 books
of variations and 436 books of potpourris, were
also once in great request ; indeed the merits of
Diabelli as an educational composer are unques-
tionable. Jonathan Blewitt (1 782-1835) left a
concerto, a sonata, and a divertissement on Scotch
airs. John Field (i 782-1837), the favourite
pupil of Muzio dementi, composed 7 concertos,
18 ndctumes, 6 sets of variations, 3 sonatas, 2
fimtasias on national airs, and a capital grand
study, through all the keys, the execution of
which is a veritable tour de force. Among the
concertos, No. 4 in Eb and No. 3 in Ab are
the best known. Gboboes Onslow (1784-1853),
better known by his quartets and quintets,
composed 3 excellent duet sonatas in F and
E minor, 4 books of variations ('Charmante
Gabrielle' is particularly to be recommended), a
capital toccata in G major, and a grand sonata.
August Alexander Klenobl (1784-1852), a
pupil of Clementi's, wrote 4 sonatas, 8 rondos, 8
books of variations, 4 fimtasias, and 30 studies.
His chief works however are first ' Les Avant-
Ooureurs,* consisting of 34 canons, a kind of
preparation for Sel^tian Bach's 'Wohltempe-
rirtes Clavier,* and secondly 24 canons and 34
fugues. Among the fugues, that on the theme
' Lift ci darem ' is a veritable sem. Ferdinand
Ribs (1784-1838), Beethoveirs pupil, composed
9 concertos (those in C| minor and £b are
very much to be recommended), according to
his own enumeration 53 sonatas, 15 fantasias,
35 rondos, 49 books of variations, and 25 duets,
comprising sonatas, marches, polonaises, varia-
tions. Of Charles Nbate (i 784-1877), who
enjoyed the tuition of Field and Woelfl, and
the friendship of Beethoven, we have only 2
sonatas (published in Germany) and a valuable
work on the art of fingering. Conrad Bero
(1785-1852), a highly respected Alsatian pro-
fessor, composed i sonata, 3 books of variations,
and 7 rondos. Wbnzbl Plaoht (1785^1858)
wrote 35 sets of variations, and a very great
PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
727
number of educational pieces, among which the
collective works, * Amusements ' and * Les Bailees
de rOp&a,' once enjoyed a vast popularity in
Austria and South Grermany. The Danish com-
poser Fbiedrioh KuHLAU (1786-1832) wrote 15
sonatas, many sonatinas (highly esteemed), 37
books of variations, a goodly number of rondos
and other educational pieces, and 19 duets, among
which the variations on Beethoven's songs are
very good. Carl Maria von Weber (1786-
1826) has left us four sonatas, 3 concertbs, 2
poloiudses, 2 rondos, 8 books of variations, valses,
ecossaisesy and very charming duets. Henri
Lemoinb (1786-1854) occupied himself chiefly
with educational works; among them are a good
number of divertissements, 34 books cidled
'Bagatelles,* a collective work 'B^r^tions
musicales,* and the well-known 'Etudes en-
fantines,' op. 37. Georob Fbederio Pinto
(Sauters, 1786-1806), an artist of rare promise,
left only a few sonatas.^ John F. Burrowes
(1787-1852) was an educational writer, whose
Pianoforte Primer is even still in some demand.
Ludwio Bohnbr (i 787-1860), who claimed the
authorship of the second subject in Weber*s
Freyschiitz Overture, wrote i sonata, 14 books of
variations, 6 fantasias, 12 bagatelles, and a very
pretty Ave Maria. Hieronimus Pater (1787
-1845), a composer little, if at all, known to
English musicians, wrote about 160 light and
moderately difficult educational works, consisting
of variations, rondos, melanges, etc. etc., which
enjoyed great popularity in Vienna^ and are still
used there for teaching purposes. Friedbich
Kalkbrenneb (1 788-1 849) was a prolific writer.
We have by him 4 concertos, 8 solo sonatas (one
for the left hand only), 18 fantasias, 20 rondeaus,
24 books of variations, 6 difierent works of studies
(Uiose op. 143 are most excellent), 2 duet sonatas,
and a considerable number of smaller pianoforte
duets. ChablesChaulieu (i 788-1 849) composed
variations, divertissements, bagatelles, caprices,
and a great number of very useful studies. JoH ANN
Peter Ptxis (1788-1874) left 2 sonatas, 33 books
of variations, 20 rondos, and different collections of
smaller pieces. Simon Sechter (1788-1867), who
taught harmony and counterpoint to ThaJberg,
Dohler, Kullak, Kohler, Vieuxtemps — and with
whom Schubert had begun to study when death
snatched him away,— composed 23 fugues, 16 pre-
ludes, canons, etc.; amongst his duet compositions
the 24 fugues on popular national and comic airs
are to be recommended as highly amusing. The
educational composer AlotsSchmitt(i789-i866),
master of Ferdinand Hiller, whose numerous books
of studies are well known, wrote also 22 solo so-
natas and sonatinas, 16 duet sonatas, 15 books of
variations, 6 concertos, i concertstuck, fantasias,
10 rondos, and a quantity of small pieces.
Anton Halm (1789-187 2), a respected Vienna
professor, composed 3 sonatas, 4 rondos, 4 books
of variations, and 4 of studies : * Etudes de Con-
cert,' ' Etudes m^odieuses, path^tiques, et h^ro-
iques.* Maria Sztmanowbka {ne6 Wolowska)
1 Onlj publtahad In EnglMul. and UMrefon not msOj
th« erifliMl •dl.ioM an no loncir on nto.
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PIANOFORTE MTJSIC
(1790^-1831) wrote 5 fantasiM, a nocturne, a
set of variations, and 13 studies; of the
studies Robert Schumann speaks with consider-
able warmth. Giovanni Battista Sammartini
(1700) composed no less than 2800 works,
but his industry is more than rivalled, and his
efficiency far surpassed, by Oabl Czebnt (1791
-1857), the veritable Lope de la Vega of the
pianoforte, who wrote such a quantity that it
is actually impossible to give a correct account
of all his original compositions, or of his ar>
rangements, transcriptions, etc. Suffice it to
say, that his works extend beyond 1000 ; of
these one single number, the *Decamerone/ con-
tains 300 pieces, and the average content of
each opus is 100 ; indeed there is not a sinprle
branch or Ibrm of pianoforte music in which
Czemy was not active. In addition to this, his
energy in arranging oratorios, operas, sympho-
nies, overtures, quartets, quintets, etc., is really
wonderful; his name, however, will be per-
petuated by hia eminently useful and practical
studies. JOHANN HUOO WOBZISCHBK (I79I-
1825), a richly-gifted Viennese composer, wrote
a sonata, la rbftpsodies, 2 books of variations,
several polonaises, and 3 rondos, among which,
the * Rondeau espagnol' was a particular fa-
vourite of the Vienna pianists. Friedbiou Wil-
BELM Gruhd (1791-187?), a highly esteemed
Hamburg professor, is stiU well known by his
well-writt^ studies (op. ai). He composed
also sonatas and rondos. Christian Traugott
Bbunner (1792-1874) composed about 300
pleasing and — for educational purposes — well-
written pieces and collections. Cipriani Potter
(i 792-1871) composed (according to German
catiJogues, English editions being out of print
and not easily attainable) 2 books of varia-
tions, 3 toccatas, i sonata, 2 books of studies
(at one time used in the Royal Academy of
Music), two rondos. Of this genial and highly
respected professor's pieces, '11 compiacente,'
op. 16, and the divertimento *La Plaoidita,'
in A major, are still played; a grand duo
for two pianos (op. 6) and an introduction and
rondo (op. 8) for four hands contain much inter-
esting matter. MoRiTZ Hauptmann (1792-
1868), well known to many English musicians as
an excellent teacher, composed 1 2 detached pieces
and several sonatinas. FRAN9018 Hunten ( 1 793
-1878), an educational composer of some merit,
wrote about 200 collections and works, easy and
moderately difficult of execution. Some of
HUnten's pieces, such as * Les Emeraudee,*
' Trois Airs italiens,* op. 65 ; the rondinos
' Le petit Tambour * and ' An Alexis,' have be-
come very widely known. His studies (op.
158) are exceedingly useful and agreeable.
lONAZ M08CHELE8 (i 794-1870) composed 7 con-
certos, among which that in G minor still enjoys
a well-merited, high reputation ; 5 solo sonatas,
2 duet sonatas (op. 47, op. 112), of which the
first, in £b, deserves recollection, 10 books of
variations, 10 rondos, many fantasias (* Recollec-
tion of Ireland *), and a great number of smaller
pieces. His fiunous duets, his pieces fur a
PIANOFORTE MUSIC,
pianofortes, ' Hommage k Hiindel ' and ' Let Can*
trastes,' (8 hands), and his most excellent stadies,
op. 70 and op. 95, are considered classical, and
fully merit that designation. Carl Arvold
(1794) wrote 4 sonatas, 3 books of variations,
3 rondos, and a collection of studies, which
were well known in Central Grermany 30 yean
ago. Jacques Herz (i 794-1 880), the elder
bother of Uie celebrated Henri Herz^ wrote bat
a few original pieces (nocturnes). Hia varia*
tions (7 books), 10 rondos, 20 airs de ballet, fan-
tasias, and more particularly his ii books of
brilliant valsee on operatic airs, were at one
time great favourites. Heinrioh Marschksb
(i 795-1861) composed 8 sonatas, 12 rondos, vari-
ations, fantasias, and 7 very good duets (Dno,
op. 62). Carl Loewb (1796-1S69) composed
4 sonatas (the * Gipsy' sonata was once well
known), and sevend characteristic fuitasiaa,
among which, 'Mazeppa,* *The Brother of
Mercy,' and * Biblical Pictures,* created great
attention in their time. Jacob Sohmitt (1796
-1853) wrote about 400 works, mostly edu-
cational; they consist of variations, rondos,
nocturnes, excellent sonatinas, good studies,
potpourris, and a number of very useful and
entertfuning duets. Franz Schubert (1797-
1828) wrote 10 sonatas, 2 duet sonatas (op.
30, 140), 8 impromptus (op. 90, 143), 6 mo-
mens musicals, 2 fantasias, adiagio and rondo
(veiy charming), 158 valses, 29 LiUidler (Grennan
rustic dances), and 21 ecossaises. Among his
duets the beautiful fantasia in F minor (op. 103),
the scarcely known * Divertissement en form
d'une Marche brillante et raisonn^' (op. 63),
the splendid and highly characteristic * Diver-
tissement h la Hongroise' (op. 54), the charm-
ing rondo in A (op. 107), and the incomparable
collection of marches (op. 27, 40, 51, 55, 66,
121), are standard works and full of matchless
beauties. Franz Schobbrlechner ( 1 797-1 843)
a Viennese, pupil of Hummel, and well known in
Italy and Russia, was in his time very popular.
He composed 2 sonatas, 15 books of variations^
5 rondos, fantasias, a 'duet-rondo brillant* in
£ minor, and several smaller pieces. Hein-
RICH WoHLFAHRT (1797) obtained a great re-
Cation through his well-known instruction-
ks for children ; but his sonatinas and other
small pieces are also very valuable. Carl
Gottlieb Reissigbr (i 798-1 859) wrote a sona-
tas, 5 books of variations, 25 rondos, and several
fantasias. Henri Bertini jun. (i 798-1876)
claims grateful recognition for his 20 books of
excellent studies, for about 250 different easy,
moderately difficult, and difficult coUectioiM of
solo pieces, and for a great number of excellent
and most useful duets. His arrangement <^
Bach's ' Wohltemperirtes Clavier* for four hands
is not sufficiently well known. Carl Mater
(1799-1862) was a prolific composer; he wrote
2 grand concertos, several brilliant allegros with
orchestral accompaniment, many rondos, scher-
zos, variations, fantasias, toccatas (in £), and
collections of elegant and pleasing drawing-room .
pieces, such as his 'JogendblUUien,' *Immor-
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PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
tellen,* ' Sbubw piotnree,* * Myrthen,* eto. Hit
numerouB duets are excellent for teaching pur-
poses; and his studies, op. 31, 55, 61, 93, 93,
100, and 119 are highly to be recommended.
Heinrich Fbibdrioh £nokhausen (1 799-) ob-
tained a good name for his valuable and useful
sonatinas, sonatas, rondos and other educational
pieces. Carl Kulenkamp (1799-) wrote about
60 works of a light and agreeable character;
amongst them his polonaises and valses ob-
tained considerable reputation. Josbfh Chbis-
TOPH Kbssleb (1800-1873) composed variations,
bagatelles, nocturnes, scherzos, preludes, caden-
zas, and a sonata, in Eb (op. 47) ; and his Grandes
Etudes (op. 3o) are still greatly and deservedly
esteemed. JoH ann W enzel Kalliwoda ( 1 800-
1866) composed a great number of rondeaus,
valses, impromptus, contredanaes^ and amusing
duets. Fbanz Xaveb Chotek (1800-1852), a
name well known in Austria, arranged about 130
works on operatic airs, chiefly for amusement and
instruction. Cabl Schunks (1801-1839) wrote
about 60 educational works ; among them the
collection *Le Pensionnat * (op. 52), both for solo
and duet, became well known. Cabl Geobo
LiiCKL (1 801-18 7 7) wrote about 80 works.
Among them the charming collections entitled
*Ischler Bilder* (op. 57), 'Elegieen' (op. 63),
and ' Novelletten ' (op. 66), deserve a nearer
acquaintance. Ferdinand Beteb (1803-1863) :
this prolific composer published over 800
amusing and instructive pieces, consisting mostly
of arrangements, variations, valses, and diver-
tissements. Jean Au^Dtx lb Fboid de
M^EAUX (1803 -1874) ^B well known by his
excellent collective work 'Les Clavecinistes.'
His grand studies and several smaller pieces are
well composed, but as they are only published in
France, they are but little known m Germany
and England. Adolph HEiNBiCfH Sponholtz
(1803-185 1 ) composed sonatas, characteristic
pieces, studies, and several collections of very
pleasing dance-music. Salomon Bubkhardt
(1803-1849) wrote about 70 works, chiefly edu-
cational, among them many duets, still very
popular in Germany. Jules Benedict (1804,
now Sir Julius) has written concertos, sonatas,
fantasias, variations, reveries, rondos, divertisse-
ments, and many transcriptions of classical
works. Luise Fabbeno (Dumont) ( 1 804- 1875)
compoaed about 40 works of considerable merit ;
among them her studies op. 26, 41, and 43 are
well known and much played in Germany. Her
cooperation in the publication of her husband's
great collective work, 'Le Tr^r des Pianistes,'
deserves grateful recognition. Cabl August
Kbebs (Mibdke, 1804-1880) composed a great
number of elegant and pleasing pieces. Fbied-
BIOH BuBOifftJLLEB (1804-1874) Composed a great
number of educational works, particularly valu-
able for their accuracy in the matter of ex-
pression and musical orthography. Henbi Herz
(1806-) is one 'of the most prolific composers
for the pianoforte; he has written more
than 300 works, among them 60 books of
variations, many fantasias, and drawing-room
PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
72P
pieces of every description. His studies, op. 30^
100, 119, 151, 152, 153, are very popular on the
continent, and his 4 books of technical studies
have obtained a world-wide reputation. His
duets, op. 16, 50, and 70, are highly to be re-
commended for teaching. Joseph Nowakowski
(1805), a Polish professor, composed is etudes
(op. 25, dedicated to Chopin), and was very
successful with his Polish airs, mazurkas, and
polonaises. Julie von Baboni-Cavalcabo —
afterwards Julie von Webenau — (1805) wrote
a sonata, rondos, 3 caprices, fantasias, and
several smaller pieces, of which one *Au bord
du lao* is very charming. The Danish com*
poser JOHANN Peteb Emil Habthann (1805)
wrote a prize sonata, variations, sketches, ron-
deaus, caprices, of which Schumann speaks sym- '
pathetically. Geobub Alexandeb Osbobns
(1806) composed a great number of variations,
fantasias on operatic and national airs^ rondinos,
and many drawing-room pieces, of which the
favourite valse *La Pluie des Perles' made
the round of the world. Johann Fbiedbioh
KiTTL (1806-1868) wrote 1 2 idyls, scherzi, diver-
timenti, etc., which enjoyed a certain popularity
in Bohemia. Anna Caboline de Belleville-
OUBT (1 806- 1 880) wrote several elegant and
popular drawing-room pieces, of which the
fantasia on Scotch airs obtained great success
in England. Felix Dobbzinskt (1807-1867),
a Pole, devoted himself chiefly to the music of
his native country. His variations and fantasias
are composed on Polish airs, and his other
compositions consist of polonaises and mazur*
kas, one of which, * Mazurka k la Kujawianka,'
became well known. The merits -of Julius
Knorb (1807-1861) reside not in his original
pieces, but in his carefully compiled and system-
atically ordered educational works — ' Metho-
discher Leitfaden fur Klavierlehrer,* and ' Mate-
rialien far das mechanische Klavierspiel.' Fbanz
Xaveb Chwatal ( 1 808-1 880) left a great number
of sonatas and sonatinas (for 2 and 4 hi^nds), rondos,
variations, fantasias, excellent paraphrases of
celebrated songs, collective works, among which
the ' Musikalisches Blumengartchen * became
well known. His pieces are fluently and agree-
ably written. Hubebt Febdinand Kuffebath
(1808-), a highly respected Brussels professor,
composed good studies (op. 3 and 8), divertisse-
ments, romanzas, etc. ; his arrangements for piano-
forte solo of the andantes firom Mendelssohn^s
concertos, op. 35 and 40, are eminently successful.
Felix Mendelssohn- Babtholdt (1809-1847)
composed 2 concertos, 1 capriccio (op. 33), a rondo
(op. 39), a serenade and allegro giojoso (op. 43),
all wi^ orchestral accompaniments ; i sonata (op.
6) 4 fantasias (op. 16 and 38), several scherzi, 3
sets of variations, especially the 1 7 Variations s^ri-
euses (op. 54) ; 3 caprices (op. 33), 36 Songs with-
out Words (Nos. 37-48 were published after his
death), preludes and fugues (op. 35), 2 sketches,
a capriccio (op. 5), 6 Chnstmas pieces, an andante
cantabile and presto agitato, a study in F minor,
scherzo ^ capriccio in F% minor, a barcarole in A,
and two duets, andante and variations op. ^3 a.
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PIANOFOETE MUSIC.
mnd allegro brillani, op. 9a. Two lonatM, pre-
lades, Etudes, etc. were published after hie death.
The g^reat beauty, plastic roundness and never-
£uling euphony of Mendelsohn's pianoforte works
obtained for them universal recognition ; indeed
some of them, especially the Songs without Words
(Books 1-6) are true household pieces. In his
Bcheraos, Mendelssohn is imrivalled ; indeed all
his works are marked with a stronfi^ individuality
which many of his followers tried in vain to imi-
tate. Fb^d^io FBAN901S Chopin^ (1809- 1849)
composed 2 concertos, variations on * Lk ci darem*
a grand fantasia (airs polonois), a grand rondo
(^tkkowiak), and a 'Grande Polonoise pr^
o^^ d*un Andante spianato/ with orchestral
accompaniment ; a sonatas^ i fimtasia (op. 49),
I duet for two pianos, 2^ preludes, a 7 studies,
18 nocturnes, 4 ballades, 4 impromptus, 1 7 valses,
1 2 polonaises, 56 mazurkas, 4 scherzos, etc. etc.
Not many pianoforte works have obtained such
ffeneral ana lasting popularity as those of Chopiu.
Indeed it may be said that their popularity
is like that of Schumann's pianoforte works,
steadily increasing. Adolphi Claibi le Cab-
PENTIEB (1 809- 1 869) wrote about 160 (mostly
educational) works ; they consist of bagatelles,
rondos, variations, collections called Mosalques,
which in France enjoy a great reputation. The
Danish composer, Johann Olb Emil Hobnbman,
( 1 809-1 870) obtained a reputation through his
12 caprices, 12 sketches, and 'Northern Songs
without Words.' RoBEBT Schumann (1810-1850)
left a rich legacy: he composed i concerto,
I concertstuck, i concert-allegro, 6 sonatas (op.
II, 14, 22, 118), II fancy-pieces (pliantasie-
stUoke), 8* novelletten, 12 Etudes symphon-
iques, 1 2 transcriptions of Paganini's caprices. 6
studies in canon-form, and 4 sketches for the
pedal piano ; characteristic collections, ' Les Pa-
piUons.' *Di6 Davidsbttndler,' 'Cameval,' 'Scenes
from Childhood,' ' Kreisleriana,* 'Arabesque,*
* BlumenstUck, ' * Humoresque,' 'Night Visions,'
• Vienna Carnival,' ' Album for the young;'
' Forest Scenes,' ' Leaves of variegated colours,'
' Album Leaves,' ' Morning Songs ' ; variations
on the name 'Abegg,' 6 intermezzi, impromptu
on an air of Clara Wieck, a toccata, an al-
legro, a fantasia, 3 romanzas, scherzo, gigue,
romanza, and f ughetta ; 6 fugues on the name
' Bach' ; 4 fugues, 4 marches, 7 pieces in fughetta-
form ; besides as duets, ' Oriental Pictures,' 1 2
pianoforte duets for players of all ages, and ' Ball
Scenes.' In Schumann's pianoforte works we
possess one of the greatest treasures ; they are
unrivalled for their poetical and intellectual
content, and afford an unceasing source of the
most genuine pleasure. Felioien David ( i 8 i o-
1876) wrote several collections of very charm-
ing melodies, more or less connected with his
fitimous 'Le Desert'; their names, *Les Mi-
narets,' 'Les Brises d'Orient,' suggest this rela-
tion ; 3 * valses expressives ' of his composition
may also be recommended. Wilhelm Taubbbt
(181 1-), a pupil of Ludwig Berger, has com-
lOompM* Special Tbenutk OftUOogm (Ulpiic. Bnitkopf A
PIANOFOETE MUSIC.
posed a great namber of pleasing, effective, bril-
liant, and interesting pieces. We have from his
pen, I concerto, 5 sonatas, impromptus^ schems,
I a excellent studies, op. 40 (a sterling work\
the world-renowned ' Campanula ' and ' Najade ' ;
collective works of great merit, viz. 'Minia-
tures,* * Camera Obecura,' * Tutti firntti,' ' Minne-
lieder,' 'Souvenir d'Ecoase,' etc Among Ids
original duets are four marches and a duo
(op. 10) in A minor. Leopoldinb Blahstka
(181 1-) hascomposed a concertstiick, la books of
variations, polonaLses, a 'Dutch' and an 'English'
fimtasia. Camille Mabib Stahatt (1811-1870),
a respected Paris professor, composed a conoerto,
a sonatas, 25 studies (op. 11), 'Etudes progres-
sives' (op. 37, 38, 39) ; also the studies, *LeB
Concertantes* (op. 46, 47); fitntasias, and nu-
merous transcriptions. Hehbi Rosellbn ( i 8 ii -),
a popular French professor, has composed about
150 works, chiefly consisting of fimtasias, rondos,
divertissements on fitvourite airs, 12 studies (op.
60), several duets, excellent for tuition. Febdi-
NAND HiLLSB (1811-) has composed a gi«at
number of excellent and highly interesting pieces,
full of talent and intelligence. Several concertoa
(op. 5 in Ab, op. 69 in Ff minor), and sonatas, the
celebrated studies (op. 15, 52), capriodos, a great
number of small pieces ('zur Guitarre,* * Album-
blatt,''LaDansedesF^"LaDanse desFaa- '
times'), 'Reveries au Piano' (op. 17, 33), 'Hnit
m^ures vari^,' 24 ClaverstUcke, op. 66, 79, 81 ;
six sonatas, op. 95, * Gavotte,' ' Sarabande,' and
'Courante' (op. 115), etc. Fbanz Liszt* (1811-)
has been active in every branch of pianoforte
composition : among his original compositions we
find (op. i) la Etudes, later transformed into the
napolitana,' * Harmonies po^iques et religieusee,'
grand concert solo, concerto path^tique (for 2
Eianos), Consolations, asonata in B nuijor. Among
is works composed on national airs or those
of other composers are his celebrated ' Rhap-
sodios hongroises,' ' Trois airs suisses,' transcrip-
tions of airs by Donizetti, Mercadante, Rosdni,
Bellini ; of songs by Schubert, Schumann, Men-
delssohn, Franz, Dessauer, Alabieff, Berlios,
Beethoven, Weber, Duke of Saxe Coburg; many
fantasias and variations on erratic airs, arrange-
ments of symphonies by Beethoven and Berlios,
of organ fugues by Sebastian Bach, paraphrases of
violin pieces by Paganini and Ferdinand David ;
indeed Liszt's activity and versatility are truly
astonishing. Vinoenz Lachneb (1811-) has com-
posed several rondinos, a prelude and toccata
in D minor, impromptu and tarentella, 'Bunte
Blatter,' charming rustic dances, etc. Sioismdnd
Thalbebo»(i8i2-i87i). Among Thalbere's ori-
ginal pieces are — 'Souvenirs de Vienne ; la
caprices; valses, op. 4; grand concerto, op. 5;
caprice in E minor, op. 15 ; 2 nocturnes, op. 16;
caprice in £b, op. 19; 3 nocturnes, <^. 21 ;
«8MO«UlociM(Lelp>lc BnttkoprsHimlXaiidLtataippwHS-
161 of Uili Tolunw.
• Oompu* Spwtal OttalofM of Tbalberr* ifoikt (Lalpiig. ftefltk.
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PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
^rand fantasia, op. aa ; la blades, op. a6 ; noo-
tume, op. a8 ; aeherao, op. 31 ; andante, op. 3a ;
grand nootume, op. 35 ; La Cadence, im-
promptu, op. 36, i. ; Nouvelle Etude, op. 36, ii. ;
Komance Bans parolee, op. 36, lii. ; Bomanoe et
Etude, op. 38 ; 3 romanzaa, op. 41 ; Th6me
original et Etude in A midor. op. 45 ; grandes
vaLses brillantes, op. 47 ; Grazioea, Melody; Le
Depart, Bomanoe (Etude), op. 55 ; Grande Se-
nate, op. 56 ; Marche fim^bre vari^e, op. 57 ;
Barcarole, op. 60 ; Valse m^odique, op. 6a ; Lee
Capricieuses, valsee, op. 64 ; Tarentelle, op. 65.
Thalberg's other works consist of &utasia8 on
operatic airs by Mozart, Roesiniy Meyerbeer,
Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi, Auber, etc., and tran-
scriptions (L'Artdu Chant), of a yariety of songs
and arias. Gustav Fluobl (181 a-) an unknown
name in England, has written about 40 works ;
among them 4 sonatas, fantasias, variations, cha-
racteristic pieces (Nacht<er, etc.). Joseph
SoHAO (1813-1879) composed about 30 works,
sonatinas, and drawing-room pieces of a some*
what sentimental character. Charles Yat^entin
Alk AN ( 1 8 1 3-) , a highly original French composer,
became known by his excellent Etudes (op. 38 and
39), by his Bourr^ d'Auvergne, Le Preuz, Le
Chemin de fer ; his concerto and duets also con-
tain much of iAterest. Ernst Haberbibb (1813-
1869) composed about 60 wwks, of which the
beautiful Etude8-Po^e8( a4 characteristic pieces),
op. 53, and the 8 Nouvelles Etudes-Poesies,
op. 59, deserye great and universal recognition,
lliese 3 a pieces belong to the best and most
interesting which have been written during the
last ao years ; op. 55 and 56 are also very interest-
ing. Cabl Vollweiler (181 3-1 848) wrote a
prize sonata, many fantasias, tarentelle, marches,
variations, etc. Jaoob Kosenhain (181 3-) has
made a reputation by his i a Etudes caract^s-
uques (op. 17), and 34 Etudes m^odiques (op.
ao). His sonati^ (op. 47) *Moroeaux de Con-
cert,* fantasias, romanzas, etc. are less known.
Theodob Oestbn (1813-1870), a prolific edu-
cational composer^ wrote a veiy large number of
collective works — Blumenlese, Beminisoenoes
d'Op^ras, Les Fleurs de TOp^, Bepertoire de
rOp^ra, etc. ; his rondinos, vabes, etc., are to be
recommended for their clear, correct, and effec-
tive writing. Louis Winkler (181 3-) has com-
posed but a few original pieces, but his collec-
tion of fantasias, his 'Les D^ices de TOp^ra,'
and particularly his effective arrangements of
Beethoven's chamber music (a large and valu-
able collection), have met with great approval.
Eduabd Eqqblino (1 8 1 3-), is well known. in
Germany for his excdlent preparatory studies for
performing Sebastian Bach's works. Adolph
Henselt (1814-) is one of the most celebrated
living composers for the pianoforte. Among
his original works are — Variations de Concert
(Elisired'amore),op.i ; laEtudes caract^ristiques,
op. a ; Poeme d' Amour, op. 3 ; Bhapsody, op. 4 ;
I a Etudes de Salon, op. 5 ; a nocturnes, op. 6 ;
impromptu, op. 7 ; Pens^e fugitive, op. 8 ; Varia-
tions de Concert (Bobert le Diable), op. ii ;
Tableau musical, a grand concerto in F minor.
PIANOFOBTE MUSId.
781
op. 16; several valsee. Besides these pieces,
Henselt translated a good many Bussian songs.
Some of his pieces have become universally
known. Delphinb von Sohauboth, afterwards
Hill-Handley (1814-), wrote a sonata and a
capriccio, of which Sdiumann reports very &•
yoiu»bly. FUlioien Lb Couppet (1814-), an
experienced and meritorious Paris professor, has
distinguished himself by his easy, useful, prac-
tical, and well-sounding ' Etudes primaires, ex-
pressives, progressives.* His collection of etudes
(op. a 2) called Le Bhythme, and his ' A, B, C,'
are still much used.' Charles Kensington
Salaman (1814-) is well known in London,
amongst other pieces for his Saltarello, Pavan,
Bondo nel tempo della Giga, a Toccata, *6
characteristio melodies,* 'Twilight Thoughts,'
etc. Theodob DOhleb (1814-1855) composed a
concerto, la grand studies, 50 Etudes de salon,
a charming tarentelle (op. 39), la nocturnes,
ballades, numerous variations and fantasias.
Anton Gebee (1814-1870), a respected teacher
in St. Petersburg, wrote i a Scherzi k la Mazurek,
divertissements, 10 Pik»s diffdrentes et faciles,
and a considerable number of smaller pieces.
Stephen H^lleb^ (181 5-). Although many of
HelWs compositions have become popular, none
have obtained the success of his excellent studies,
op. 16, 45, 46, 47, and 90 ; among his greater
works are three sonatas and fantasias, also pre-
ludes, ^loguee, valses, characteristio pieces,
*Dan8 les Bois,' * Dream pictures,* *In Wald
und Flur,* * Promenades d'un Solitaire,' ' Nuits
blanches,* 7 excellent tarentellas, canzonettas,
allegro pastorale, charming £uitasias and rondos.
Bobert Volkmann (18I5-) has composed a
sonata, nocturnes, * Musical Picture Book * (op.
II), 'Wander Sketches' (op. a3), •Visegrkd*
(an interesting collection of 1 2 pieces), * Grand-
mother's Songs,' * Hungarian Sketches,' marches,
a toccata, and several smaller pieces. Charles
Voss (1815-), a prolific writer of drawing-room
pieces, has published about 350 works ; they are
written with much ease and fluency, but some-
what carelessly. Ferdinand Praeoer (181 5-) has
long been well known in London ; his best works
are to be found in the Praeger Album (a vols.
Leipzig). Eddard Wolff (1816-1 880) has com-
posed about 300 pieces, among which his* Etudes,'
34 op. ao, 34 op. 50, 34 op. 100 ; and his 48
studies, op. 189, 190, 191, 193, *L*art de chanter
sur le Piano,' are much used in France. His
polonaises, mazurkas, and other national works,
are very good and his numerous fantasias, varia-
tions, scherzos, nocturnes, valses, tarentellas, con-
tain much of interest. His collective work, * La
jeune Pianiste ' (36 pieces), is useful for teach-
ing purposes. Carl Haslinoer (1816-1868),
son and successor of the well-known Vienna
publisher Tobias Haslinger, was an experienced
and clever musician, whose sonatinas, variations,
nocturnes, fantasias on operatic airs, are very good
for instruction. The number of his works is
about 60. Leopold von Meter (181 6-) has
* See Spectel OaUlogue of HeUeft works (Londoo. AAdown A
Pwry).
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PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
written specifically good Vienna Talses (lee for
curiosity's sake the VaUes of the Future), ex-
cellent polkas, capital original marches, and
highly effective transcriptions of Turkish airs —
* Machmudier/ ' Bajazeth/ 'Air de Nedjib
Pasha,' etc. ; his arrangements of Russo-Bohe*
mian airs are good ; less so his fantasias, which
«re weak copies of Thalberg's style. iSiB WiL-
UAM Stebndalb BiNNBrr(i8i6-i875).* Of this
Author, too soon departed, we have 4 concertos,
3 musical sketches, op. 10 ; 6 studies in the form
of capriccios, op. 11 ; 3 impromptus, op. la; so-
nata, op. 13 ; 3 romanzas, op. 14 ; a fantasia, op.
16 ; an Allegro grazioso, op. 1 8 ; a capriocio (with
orchestral accompaniments), op. aa ; a Suite de
pieces, op. 34 (6 pieces); Rondo piaoevole, op.
35 ; a Capriocio scherzando, op. 37 ; introduction
and pastorale, roodino, caprice, op. 38 ; ' L' A ma-
bile e I'Appaseionata,' 2 Etudes oaracteristiques,
op. 39 ; theme and variations, op. 30 ; preludes
and studies, op. 33 ; * Pas triste, pas gai,' rondo,
op. 34; Minuetto eepressivo, op. 35; 'Joan of
Arc,' sonata ; prelude in Bb ; diversions for two
performers. Antoine FBAN90IS Marmontbl
(18 1 6-), one of the most popular and experienced
Paris professors, has written a sonat^ 4 books of
studies, a grandee valses (well known) 40 m^odies
et romances, polonaises and mazurkas. Joseph
Adalbebt Paoheb (1816-1871), once a very
popular professor in Yienna, wrote good studies,
op- 3> 7* 10: caprices, impromptus, and very
effective transcriptions of songs and operatic
pieces. Fbitz Spikdleb (181 7-) of Dresden,
has provided students with an unusually large
number of effective, not difficult, useful, and
practically written drawing-room pieces; his
works number over 300; among them 'Wei-
lenspiel,* 'Frisohes Griin,* and *Husarenritt'
obtained general popularitv; his transcriptions
of operatic pieces, Schubert s songs, and national
melodies (op. 73), are particularly well d6ne.
The celebrated Danish composer, Niels W.
Gade (18 1 7-) has written several exceedingly
beautiful works; his Aquarellen, Arabesque,
Christmas pieces, FantasiestUcke, Sonata (op. 38),
* Volkstanze,' are highly to be recommended.
loNAZ Tedesoo (181 7-) has composed about 70
works, among which 18 are original pieces, and
the remainder consist of fantasias and transcrip-
tions of national and operatic airs. Antoine
Chevalieb de Kontski (181 7-) has composed
studies, 5 valses, fantasias, caprices, meditations,
scherzos ; among these only one, * Le Reveil du
Lion,' has obtained a wide circulation. Alex-
ANDBE Philippe Billet (181 7-) has published 17
studies, nocturnes, rondos, fantasias on operatic
airs, moeatques, etc. etc. LoDis Jaime Alfbbd
LBFEBUBE-WiLY (1817-1869) left a great num-
ber of agreeable l^ht pieces ; among them ' Les
I It ts difficult to giTe tn ■ccurmta ftceoont of Bennett's eompotl-
tlons, u there is no •pedal catalogue, anl some works hare changed
their original publishers. Whilst in France and Germany the pub-
lisher ooiulders that an excellent work confers dittlnctlou and glory
upon his firm, and does not allow It to leave his catalogue, some
of the English publishers appear to regard a celebrwed work merely
as an InTestment. and part with It readily for a profit. For an
tummpt at a eompleia llat of Bennett's works Me tuL I. of this
Dictionary, p. 20.
PIANOFORTE MCSId
Cloches da Monast^re,* 'Le Calme da Soir.'
and * La Retraite militalre* are very well known.
Emils Pbddsnt (1817-1863) wrote abont 30
original pieces in the style of Thalberg, ri^ant
and well sounding; in the Concert-symphonle
(op. 54) he takes a higher flight ; his Etudes, ' Les
Hirondelles,' 'Le Reveil des F^es' (op. 41}, hud
6 etudes de salon (op. 60) are highly to be recom-
mended. Alexanoeb DBET8CH00K (1818-1S69)
composed a sonata, 6 nocturnes, rondos, rhapso-
dies, and a great number of characteristic pieces;
his variations for the left hand only are an excel-
lent study. W. Vincent Wallace (1818-1865),
the richly gifted Irishman, composed a great
number of very effective pieces ; his characteristic
composition 'Music murmuring in the trees,*
and his brilliant polkas were once very popolar.
Theodob Kullak (1818-) composed a symphonie
de piano (op. 37), a concerto (op. 55), a sonat*
(op. 7), many characteristic pieces CL% Ga-
zelle,' *Danse des Sylphides"), many collective
works — * Lieder aus alter Zeit,' * Les Flears da
Sud,* *Les Fleurs anim^/ 'Youthful days,*
'Dans les bois et les champs,' transcriptions
of national melodies, excellent etudes (*Lqs
Arp^gee'), scherzos, fantasias, and several very
meritorious educational works. Hekbi Cbamee
(18 1 8- 1 877), no relation of John Baptist Cramer,
wrote a very large number (above 800) of pot-
pourris, chants nationaux, melanges, etc Louis
(Bbodillon) Lacombs (1818-) has published
about 40 pieces, among which * Las Harmonies
de la Nature' obtained a certain reputation.
Felix Godefboid (1818-), actually a hj^pist, has
composed about 180 elegant and light piano
pieces ; consisting mostly of Morceaux de genre,
transcriptions, fantasias, l^rroliennes, etc., among
which *La Danse des Sylphes' has become
universally known. Adolph Gutvakn (1818-),
the favourite pupil and friend of Chopin, has
published about 69 pieces, mostly with fancy
titles ; some of them (op. 28, 33, 46) have become
known; his lo Etudes oaracteristiques, op. la,
are to be reconmiended. Henbi Ravin a (1818-
1862), well known by his elegant and pretty
Etudes (op. 2, and op. 94), wrote also a great
number of drawing-room pieces, among which the
Sicilienne, Barcarole, Rondo villageois, Nocturne
gracieux, became very popular. His fanta.^ss
on operatic airs are well compiled. Johakn
KA.FKA (1819-), very popular in some parts of
Germany, has published about 200 numbers of
light and moderately difficult drawing-room
pieces ; his ' Erinnerung an Steinbach ' became
well known. Claba Schumaitn (Wixck ,1819-)
has published a concerto, a scherzo (op. 14), 4
pieces fugitives, 33 preludes and fugues (op. 16);
4 polonaises. Caprice en formes de VaJse, a
romance vari^, valses romantiques, 4 piiees
caracteriatiques, soir^ musicales, Hexentaoi;
variation^} de concert, etc. Albebt Loeschhobx
(1819-) has published a great number of nioe^
melodious, and effectively written drawing-room
pieces, and transcriptions of operatic and national
airs. His studies, op. 65, 66, 67, in graduated
difficulty are very valuable. Cabl Evebs (181 9-)
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PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
<K>mpo8ed four sonatas ; a collective work, 'Jours
sereins, jours d*orage' ; tarentelles. valses, etudes,
fifintABias, etc. ; * Chansons d*amour,* a collection
of love-songs, in which the different national
characters are imitated. Bbinlbt Biohabds
(1819-) the popular Welsh musician, has pub-
lished a book of octave studies, caprices, a
tarentelle, * BecoUections of Wales,' and a very
large number of &ntasias and other amusing and
pleasing pieces, which have a wide circulation.
Several of his later original works contain much
interesting matter. HsNBT Litolff (i8ao-) has
written 3 concerto s^mphoniques, caprices, noo-
tomes, 6 studies (op. 18), fiuitasias on operatic
airs, and a considerable number of characteristic
pieces, among which the * Spinner-lied ' became
▼ery oelebratfKl. Louis KOhleb (1820-), is one
of the most distinguished of living educational
oomposers : the number of his easy, moderately
difficult, and very difficult studies, technical
exercises, sonatinas, rondos, arrangements of
dances and melodies of all nations, is unusually
great, and some of his studies (particularly
those op. iia and 128) are of lasting value.
WiLHELM Kbijoer (1820-) has composed a great
number of elegant and pleasing pieces ; * La
Harpe ^lienne' and * Chanson du Gondolier'
are very popular. Cornelius Gublitt (1820-),
an excdlent musician, has written most valuable
pieces for instruction; his sonatas, sonatinas,
studies, and collections of amusing pieces for
young students are exceptionally good. Albk-
AiTDEB Ernst Fesoa (1820-1849) composed a
morceau de concert, 3 rondos, 4 f&ntasias, 2 books
of variations, 4 nocturnes, and several character-
istic pieces, among whidi *Scbne de Bal,' and
* La Danse djes Sylphides ' are very effective and
well written. Charles Edward Hobslby (1821-
1876), once well known in London, has left a
sonata, and many graceful and effective melodies.
DiBTBiOH Kruo (1821-1880), a very industrious
composer of educational pieces (like those of
Gssemy, Hilnten, Oesten, etc.), wrote about 400
books of amusing and instructive pieces. His
collections, ' Echoes of the Opera * and * Fashion-
a61e library' (Mode Bibliothek), are well known
and very much used. Charles Bovt db Ltsbero
(1821-1873), a highly respected professor of
Geneva, has compiled about 70 drawing-room
pieces with fancy titles, which have become more
or less popular. Rudolph Willmbrs (i 821-1878)
oomposed about 130 pieces, among which are 2
concert solos with orchestral accompaniments
('Un jour d'^t^ en Norvfege,* op. 27, is very
good), sonatas; 6 Etudes, many fantasias on
operatic pieces, a great number of highly effective
concert studies ('Sehnsucht am Meere,' *La
Pompa di Festa,' *La Sylphide,' *Trillerketten,'
etc.). Willmers's pieces are very valuable for in-
struction. Charles Edward Stephens ( i 82 i-)
has published a sonata, a duo brillant (4 hands),
an allegro-rhapsodie, impromptus, fantiuias, and
characteristic pieces, fuU of fancy and feeling.
Joachix Baff (182 2-) has produced an un-
usually large number of pieces of every de-
scription, concertos, sonatas, suites, fiuitasias,
PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
788
nocturnes, impromptus, a collective work *Die
Oper im Salen, dancoR in the old and modern style ;
his pieces are of different grades of difficulty.
Theodor Gouvt (18 2 2-) has composed a sonata
and 4 s^nades. Wilhelm Kuhb (1823-) has
written a great ntmiber of light and pleasing
opera fantasias and transcriptions ; among his ori-
ginal pieces 3 Songs without words (op. 12), 'Das
Glockenspiel' (op. 13), and 'Andante and ^tude'
(op. 14), have found much favour. Alexandre
Edouard Gobia (1823-1860) composed about
1 30 drawing-room pieces ; they are elegant and
effective, and some of them, such as the Olga-
mazurka, Caprice-Nocturne, Barcarole, Berceuse,
have become universally known. Among his 31
grand studies, those in op. 63 are very good ; his
fantasias and transcriptions are very cleverly
written and highly effective. Dr. Julius
SoHAEFFER (1823-), a musiciau of sterling merit,
but unknown in Enghmd, has composed, among
other pieces, * Fantasie-Variationen,' a highly re-
markable work, full of originality and boldness ;
his Fantasie Stttcke, Songs without words, and
Polonaise are also very interesting. Jean Yoot
(1 823-) composed preludes and fugues, about 20
books of drawing-room pieces, an andante and
allegro de concert with orchestral accompani-
ments (op. 33), and 12 excellent studies (op. 26).
Theodor Kirohner (1824-), a richly gifted
composer, has written a good number of highly
fascinating pieces; among them the collective
works, 'Album leaves,' 'Preludes,' 'Legends,'
''Grttsse an meine Freunde,' 'Kleins Lust-und-
Trauerspiele,' are full of original matter; his
transcriptions of Mendelssohn's songs are the
work of a refined musician. Carl Reineokb
(18 24-) has composed many and good works;
among others 2 concertos, sonatas, many sona-
tinas, fantasias, ' Alte und neue Tanze,' ballades^
variations on a theme of Handel, many educational
pieces (* Haus Musik '), 1 7 cadenzas for concertos
by Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, excellent
duets for 2 pianos, many good pieces for 4 hands,
and very useful and well-written studies. Fried-
rich Smetana of Prague (1824-) has published
6 Morceaux caract^ristiques. Album leaves, Bo-
hemian dances, etc. Albert Jungmann (1824-)
has written more than 400 easy and agreeable
pieces for beginners and not very advanced players.
Edouard Franoe (18 24-), a highly talented
composer, has published a good many pieces ;
among them, a sonata (op. 6), scherzo (op. 7),
and 25 variations (op. 14), have become known
to a wide circle. Emanuel Aouilar(i 824-) pub-
lished nocturnes, melodies, several morceaux de
salon, also 5 canons and a two-part fugue, intended
as a preparation for the study of the works of
Sebastian Bach. Anton Herzbero (i 8 2 5-) com-
posed a great number of drawing-room pieces
(about 120 are published) ; among them the ma-
zurkas are very good. Julius Carl Esohmann
(1 825-) has made himself a name by his excellent
selections of classical works for beginners. His
guide-book (' Wegweiser*) to the literature of the
pianoforte is very valuable. Charles Wbhlb
(1 825-) has written many nocturnes, ballades,
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PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
romanzaSy and other shorter pieces; hit dance*
music is jMurtioularly elegant and pleasing. Julius
SoHULHOFF(i8a5-) has composeaa sonata, 9 idyls,
3 impromptus, 1 moroeau de concert, 33 noc-
turnes, vaUes, galops, mazurkas, etc., about 60
pieces, most of which have obtaLoed a very wide
dreulation- Louis Ehlebt ( i 835-) has published
a ' Senate romantique,* and several very graceful
and refined shorter pieces. Mobitz Stbakosch
(1 835-) has written many books of elegant danco-
music and transcriptions of Italian operatic airs.
Walixb CfiOiL Maofabbbn (18 26-) has pub-
lished gavottes, impromptus, oharacteiistic pieces,
melodies, nocturnes, galops, valses, mazurkas, etc.,
which are very carefully and tastefully composed.
Lindsay Slopes (i8a6-) has composed good
studies (op. 3, 1 3) and a number of pleasing smaller
pieces, some of them full of interest. Wilhblm
Spbidbl (1826-) has published several sonatas,
Highland pictures, and, among other smaller
pieces, a very cood Saltarello (op. 20). Hbbmann
Bbbens (1826-1880) left many most excellent
educational pieces. His studies, op. 61, 66, 70,
73, 77, and 79 are indeed very valuable ; so are
his sonatinas, op. 81 and 89, and a small work en-
titled < The Trainiilg of the Left Hand.' Edwabd
Silas (1827-) has composed a great number of
characteristic pieces, romanzas, a capital gavotte
in E minor, and excellent duets. Gustav
Mbbkel (1 82 7-) has composed many practically
written and effective pieces ; among them op. 18,
ao, 25, 61, 65,' 81, and 84 have become very
popular. Hebicann A. Wollenhaupt (1837-
1863) wrote short but melodious and pleasing
pieces, among which his marches, waltzes, and
scherzos are well worthy of the wide recognition
they have found. Adolfo Fumagalli (1828-
1856) published about 90 drawing-room pieces,
consistmg of serenades, tarenteUes, fimtasias,
very effective transcriptions, etc. Woldbmab
Baboiel (1828-) has composed excellent suites,
op» It 8, 31, very valuable ' Pianoforte-sttlcke,'
op. 32 and 41, very interesting ' Bagatelles,' op. 4,
a vigorous 'FantasiestUck,' op. 27, and a good
many other valuable pieces. Haks Seeling
(1828-1862) wrote II single pieces, among which
his charming *Loreley' obtained great success,
and 3 collective works-—' CJoncert Studies,' 'Schil-
flieder,' and < Memoirs of an Artist.' Seeling's
pieces are very fascinating. Ernst Heinbich
Lubboe (1 829-1876) wrote a small number of
drawing-room pieces. L. M. Gottschalk ( i 8 29^
1869) composed about 60 drawing-room pieces ;
among them are *Iie Bananier,' * Le Mancenillier,*
and * Bamboulo,' which obtained a wide circula-
tion. Otto Goldsohmidt (1829-) has published
a concerto (op. 10), 12 concert studies (op. 13),
an andante and scherzo, rdveries, nocturnes,
• Rondo -Caprice,' etc. Anton Rubinstein*
(1 829-) has composed concertos, sonatas, fanta-
sias, preludes and fugues, studies, all kinds of
dance-music (*Le Bal,' etc.), many collective
works, such as • Kamennoi-Ostrow ' (24 pieces),
suite (10 pieces), 6moroeaux, op. 51, 'Album de
> Soe ^wdal CtUlogM of Bubliuteln'f eompMltUmt (Lelpclg,
piakoforte music.
Peterhof (la pieces), * Miniatures' (12 pieoes)^
' Miscellan^ (8 books), a great many duete,
cadenzas to Beethoven's ist, and, 3rd, and 5th
Concertos, and to Mozart's D minor Conoo-to, etc
Only a few of Rubinstein's pianoforte pteees have
obtained general popularity; being very HifiymH
and requiring very large hands for their execo-
tion, not many persons can play them with proper
effect Hbinbigh F. D. Stibhl (1839-) has
written a considerable number of short drawing
room pieces. Rbnaud db Vilbao (1829-) has
composed many (40) drawing-room pieces, among
which the 3 morceaux de salon, op. 23, and 3
caprices, op. 25, have become well known ; his
duets, op. 19, op. 24, op. 26, and particalarly his
collective work 'Les Beaut^ des Operas' (Koi^
ma, Barbier de Seville, Euryanthe, Freischnta,
etc.), are very popular. Jacques BLUMBN^uii
(1829-) pul]lished a considerable number of
drawing-room pieces, some of which obtained a
certain popularity. Hans von BiJLOw (1830-)
has published several works, among which the
collection of 10 pieces, ' H Camovale di Milano,'
op. 31, has obtained popularity. His editions
of Beethoven's sonatas and other classical works
are marked by devotion and enthusiasm, and by a
remarkable degree of intelligence. JuuU8Hani>-
BOCK ( 1 830-) has written a great number of valu-
able instructive pieces, which are much uaed in
Germany. Wilhelm Ganz (1830-) has published
a considerable number of brilliant and pleas-
mg drawing-room pieces. Adolph Schlobssbb
( 1 830-) has composed many brilliant and effective
drawing-room pieces; among his more ambitioaa
efforts is a suite, op. 119, which contains exod-
lent music. ' Gustav Laivqb (1830-) a respected
Berlin professor, has composed a g^reat number of
drawing-room pieces which enjoy also a certain
popularity in England. Kabl Klindwobth
(1830-) is chiefly known by his critical edition
of C!hopin, and by excellent arrangements of
Schubert, Wagner, Tschaikowsky, etc. W. S.
RocKSTBO (1830-), besides having arranged and
edited various classical operas, is known as a
voluminous compose of talon pieces, such as
' Mes Songes,' * Christabel,' etc. Salomon Jadas-
sohn (1831-) has published well-written pieces,
among which 3 morceaux, bal masqu^ (7 airs de
ballet), serenade, variations s^euses, are popu^
lar; his cadenzas to Beethoven's Concerto, Ka 4,
are to be recommended. Julius von Kolb
(1831-) published rdveries and intermezzos.
Alfbed Jaell (1832-) is the author of a great
number of effective drawing-room and concecto
pieces, and transcriptions ; among these the tran-
scriptions of some of Richnid Wagner's operatic
pieces are very well done, Joseph Ascheb
(1831-1869) hascomposedagreat number of light
and effective drawing-room pieces, elegant danoe-
music, good mtvches (Fanfiure militaire). ^atod
of his works enjoy great popularity. Eduabd
Heoht (183a-) has composed several well-written
pieces, which deserve a better acquaintance.
Fbanois Edwabd Bachb (i 833-1 858), a highly
gifted musician, of great promiee, publi^ied
about ao pieoeei, full of mdody and natural
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PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
^amteaaxm. Among the most pnnninent are * La
l)eUe Madeleine/ and the galop, * L'irresiftible.'
Johannes Bbahms^ (1833-) has ocnnposed a con-
certo, 3 sonatas, a scherzo, Tariations on airs by
Handel, Schumann* and Paganini, ballads, Hun-
garian dances (two sets), waltzes, etc., 8 dayier-
stQcke (caprices and intermezzi), and 2 rhapsodies.
The interest of these WOTks is not so much in
spontaneous charm or graceful expression, as
in their solid substance, intellectual character
and logical development, which rivet the at-
tention and sustain it to the last. William
OxoBQE CusiNS (1833-) is known by his Con-
certo in A minor, as well as by marches and
other pieces. Fbanz Bbndel (1833 -1874)
Trrote a great number of effective and brilliant
pieces, among which several have become very
popular ; his transcriptions of songs by Rubin-
stein, Chopin, Brahms, and Franz, are most ex-
<selient. Alexander Wintbrbebobs (1834-),
» pupil of Franz Liszt, has composed a fantasia
<op. 19), a idyls, salon dtude, valse-caprice and
several other riiort* pieces. Anton Krausb
(1 834-) has produced sterling edutional music —
namely, 25 sonatas and sonatinas for 2 and 4
bands, about 30 studies, also 2 books of arpeggio
studies. Camillb Saint-Saens (1835-) ^" ^®
composer of 4 concertos, and many smaUer pieces,
such as gavottes and mazurkas; also excellent
variations for 2 pianos on a theme of Beethoven's,
etc. RoBEBT GoLDBECK (1835-) ^"^ published
tk great number of pleasing and light pieces.
Hebnhabd Scholz (1835-) has composed a re-
markably w^-written collection of pleasing and
pcractical pieces for amusement and instruction.
SiaLBBE8LADB(i836-): among this composer s
ymorkB, his 'Teclmische Grundli^ des Klavier-
Bpiels,' op. 37, has created considerable attention.
AlKDBIOH August WiLHELH BAUMrBLDEB( 1 836-)
has written a great number of light pieces, &vour-
able for instruction. Adolfh Jensen (1837-
1879) ^o^ his too-early death composed highly
interesting pieces, among which the Wander-
bilder, Lieder, and Tanze (ao pieces) Jagd-Scene,
Praeludium and Bomanze, Valses, Caprices,
Idyllen, Hochzeit-musik ' (duet), Landler aus
Beorcht^aden, Wald-Idylle (op. 47), and ' Erin-
nemngen,' have become well known. Joseph
WiKNiAWSKi (1837-) Jim published brilliant
valses, fantasias, variations, songs without words,
excellent mazxirkas (op. 33). Constantin Buroel
(183 7-) has composed several sonatas, a suite.
Arietta e Gravotta (op. 25), a dance-caprices, etc.,
all of which enjoy a good reputation in Ger-
many. Alexandbe Ci^SAB Leopold (* Geobqes ')
Bizet (1838-75), left ' Jeux d'enfants' (la
pieces), 'Les Chants du Bhin' (6 do.), many
transcriptions and arrangements, and espe-
cially * Le Pianiste > chanteur,* 150 pieces of
all schools, transcribed, marked, and figured.
Thxodobb Bitter (1838-) is the author of a
good number of effective and brilliant drawing-
room pieces (* Chant du braconnier,* * Sylphes,'
etc.) John Francis Barnett (1838-) has pub-
1 See Special Catalogue of Brahmsl oompoaiUons (Lelps^ Seoff ),
and Uf biOKraphy.
PIANOFORTE MUSIC.
786
lished a considerable number of characteristic,
pleasing, and instructive pieces, also a con-
certo in D minor (op. 25). Joseph Bhbin-
beroer (1839-) ^'^ composed a great number
of pieces for a and 4 hands (concerto, fantasias,
toccatas, characteristic pieces, etc); his op.
5> 53» and 'Jagd' Scene' are very popuU^.
Michael von Asantschewskt (1839-) nas made
himself a name by his op. 4, 3 pieces ; op. 6,
Passatempo; op. 8, 6 duets; op. 12, 'Festival
Polonaise.' Sydney Smith ( 1 839-) has composed
a great number of light and pleasing pieces, winch.
in certain drdes are very popular. Friedrioh
Gernbhbim (1839-) has composed several highly
distinguished works. Hermann Gobtz (1840-
1676) : of this too soon departed composer, we
have Genrebilder (op. 13), six sonatinas, one
duet sonata, and a grand concerto (op. 18).
Peter Tsohaikowski (1840-) is known by a
grand concerto, an impromptu and scherzo russe,
and 8 other original pieces. Ernst Budorff
(1840-) has published Etude (op. 29, no. i);
Concert-^tude (do. no. 2) ; 8 FantasiestUcke and
a Fantasie; 6 pieces for 4 hands, and Varia-
tions for two PFs. Carl Tausio (1841-1871),
who, like Jensen, dicid too young, wrote 2
etudes de concert, and transcribed gipsy melo-
dies, valses of Strauss ('Nouvellee Souses de
yienne*), several movements from Beethoven's
quartets, Wagner's * Walkliren Bitt,' etc. Hein-
RICH HoFMANN (1842-) has composod a good
many pretty and highly effective pieces. His
duets ' Italleiiische Liebes-Novelle ' (op. 19),
transcriptions of Norwegian, Hungarian, and
Russian melodies, have become very popular.
Edyard Grieo (1843-) has composed a concerto,
a sonata, and several smaller pieces, all elegant,
and strongly impressed with the Norwegian cha*
racter. Alexander Mackenzie, of Edinburgh
(1 847-), has published a quartet for pianoforte
and strings (op. 11), Trois Morceaux (op. 15),
and other pieces. PmLipp Scharwenka ( 1 847-)
has composed excellent solos and duets, and his
brother, Aayer Scharwenka (1850-) has written
a great number of highly effective, brilliant, and
melodious works. Hubert Parry (1848-) has
composed 2 sonatas, a duet for 2 pianos, a con-
certo, etc. Moritz Moszkowski (1854-) bom
at Breslau, is one of the most talented amongst
present composers; his charming duets, five
waltzes. Album espagnol, Spanische Tanze (op,
12), and the suite 'fVom Foreign Countries, as
also his excellent concert studies, minuets, valses,
polonaises, have gained great popularity in pro-
portipnately short time.
The foregoing list gives but a very incom-
plete and inadequate idea of the enormous
quantity of music written for the piano. Each
year produces thousands of pieces ; and as every
opera, oratorio, cantata^ symphony, or quartet
is arranged for two or four hands, some idea
may be formed of the magnitude and almost
bewildering extent of the pianoforte library.
Dance-music too, in its most popular and prac-
tical form, is the property of the piano ; in fact
the number of works written for it fax surpasses
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PIANOFORTE-PLAYINO.
thofle written for the ohnrch, the theatre, or all
other branches of music. Indeed it is not too
much to say that the progress of the art has
been in great measure due to this noble in-
strument. The arrangements alone, a branch
of art which, in the hands of such cleTer mu-
sicians aa Watts, Czemy, Mockwitx, Winkler,
Horn, Ulrich, Hugo, Horr, Wittmann, Klind-
worth, Prout, and many others, may be said to
have reached perfection, may literally be counted
by tens of thousands.
Our list has been compiled with an earnest
endeavour to do justice to the names of all
artists of importance; but so great is the
activity of composers and publ'iKhers that it is
possible some may have been omitted. Among
those to whom we are unable to give more
extended notice, but who deserve mention for
their more^or-less-known productions, are: —
Franx Behr, Ernst Berens, Francesco Berger,
Jules Brissac, Ignaz Briill, J. B. Calkin, Willem
Coenen, Charles Delioux, Emile Dor^, Jules
Egghaitl (Count Hardegen. dead), A. Ehmant,
G. J. van Eycken (dead), Ken^ Favarger (dead),
Creorge Forbes, Alban Forster, Adolph GoUmick,
Hans Hampel, J. W. Harmston, Carl Hause,
Heinrich Henkel, Siegfried Jacoby, £. Ket-
terer (dead), A. Klauwell, Richard Kleinmichel,
J. Ley bach, R. Loffler, Joseph Low, Cari
Machtig, Tito Mattel, Theodor Mauss, Jean
Louis Nicod^, Arthur O'Leary, A. Pieczonka,
Joseph L. Roeckel, Julius Kontgen, Joseph
Runmiel (dead), Gustav Satter, J. Hchiffinaoher,
Bemhard Scholz, W. Schulthes (dead), Boyton
Smith, Berthold Tours, Ch. Wachtmann, Agnes
ZimmermamL [P.]
PLANOFORTE-PLAYING. In order accu-
rately to appreciate the pitch to which pianoforte-
playing has reached in the present day, it is
necessary to go back to the modest beginnings
of virginal, spinet, clavichord, and haipsichord
performances, as we find them exemplified in
the works of the old English composers, and in
those of the German, French, and Italian writers
before 1 700. In the old English works ^ we meet
with a certain brilliancy — scales and broken
chords frequently applied; whilst the slower
pieces are to some extent conceived in the
madrigal style. The old Italian, French, and
German composers of the i6th and 17th cen-
turies treat their spinets and daveoins very
much like the organ, and indeed the indication
* for the Organ w Clavicembalo ' (clavecin,
harpsichord) is to be met with on almost every
title-page of these early publications. The only
life and animation which the Suites, Sonatas,
and Fantasias of these ancient masters possess,
is to be found in the dance-movements, such
as the Gravotte, Rigaudon, Bourr^, Gaillarde,
and Gigue. A great revolution was however
brought about in Italy by Domenico Scarlatti
(168 3-1 760), in France by FRAN9018 Coupebin
(1668-1733), and in Germany by Sebastian
Bach (1685-1750). Although Bach is by far
1 The 'Parthenl** \% republished complete In Paueiff 'Old EDgUih
CompOMi*' (Augener A Cow).
PIANOFORTE-PLAYING.
the greatest genius of this remarkable trinm-
virate, it cannot be denied that both Scatfiaid
and Couperin contributed materially towaids
the progress of a regular davecin style, towards
a mode of writing and a production of effects
which have nothing in common with the orgma ;
and which rise by degrees to lightness, elegance,
and grace. Scarlatti, although at times crude
and harsh in his harmonies, is a highly oariginal
and genial composer. His pieces pooseas a de*
lightful animation, the warm Italian blood runs
tfajx>ugh them; they testify to a wonderfully
clever and adroit manipulation, and exhibit at
times an almost electric rapidity of crossing the
hands: in fact even noto, when technicAl sk21
and execution are so enormously developed, they
offer plenty of material for study and interest to
the most experienced and practised perforoaer.
Couperin excels more in the refined and subtJe
working out of his short pieces. Less brilliaiit
by far as an executant than Scariatti, he is a
more elegant, careful, and speculative mnsician
The preface to his works (published 1713, 17 16,
and 1 71 7), in which he alludes to the maimer of
performing his pieces, is full of most intereedng
and useful hints and advice, and shows that the
pervading principle of Couperin's activity is the
desire to produce new effects. Scarlatti how-
ever is the more strikingly original, and more
spontaneously creative musician of the two. But
both were surpassed by Johann Sebastian Bach,
and his Inventions, Symphonies, French and
English Suites, Partitas, Toccatas, Preludes, and
Fugues, are indeed the main source of oar
present style of playing. In Bach's music we
find the greatest variety of expression, and his
numerous works offer inexhaustible material fior
study. His manner of playing on the davichonl
is said to have been remariuhble at once fer
quietness and for the most perfect deamess ;
the time of his performance was slightly ani-
mated, though never so much so as to interfere
with the most absolute correctness of execution.
His fingers bent over the keyboard in such a
manner that they stood with their points in a
downward, vertical line, each finger at every
moment ready for action. In taking a finger off
the key, he drew it gently inwards with a sort
of movement ' as if taking up coin from a tabie.*
Only the end-j'oint was moved, all the rest of the
hand remained stilL Each finger was equally
trained. The tranquil grandeur and the dignity
of Bach*s playing were eminently remarkable.
Passionate passages he never expreesed by violent
or spasmodic movements, but relied solely 00
the power of the composition itsdf. His im-
provisations are said to have been in the style
of his celebrated Gknmatic Fantasia^ and some-
times even surpassed that remarkable work in
brilliancy and fire. His £svourite instromsnt
was the clavichord ; he often said ' that he fiMmd
no soul in the davecin or spinet, and that the
pianoforte (then newly invented) was too clumsy
and harsh to please him.' On the clavichord he
could give all the expression he desired, and he
declared it to be the fittest instrument for private
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PIANOFORTE-PLAYING.
viae and for practice. In Bach's works we meet
-with polyphonic treatment in r^^ard not only to
qucmtUfff bnt to quality hiao; and it is this treat-
ment wldch gives its peculiar strength, its unsur-
passable viti^ty, and its never^fSedling freshness,
to the music of this great master.
We thus see that at the time when the piano-
forte was invented and came into pretty general
use (i 740-1 780) the art of playing had already
attained a high degree of effidenoy: it pos-
eessed indeed one special kind of excellence in
which the generality of our present performera
are wanting — ^namely, the art of individualising
the single parts, and the great tranquillity and
dignity of performance which arise from the
perfect training of each finger.
With the pianoforte an entirely new style of
expression came into existence; the power to
play soft or loud (piano, forte) at will, developed
by degrees the individual or personal feeling of
the performer, and new effects were constantly
invented, and applied with more or less success.
If fonnerly, owing to the insufficient means of
the instrument, the art of playing was considered
from a more objective or external point of view,
ihe richer means of the pianoforte allowed and
even suggested the indulgence of more subjective
or personal feeling. And thus not only the style
of composing, but the manner of playing itself,
altered in a material degree. In Sebastian Bach
we find a polyphonic treatment founded on
science and regulated by strict loyalty to rule
and order; we find also a charming piquancy
and quainfness of expression, resulting frt>m the
adoption of dance movements already mentioned,
and many others, to which still greater variety
is given by the introduction of short movement^
vach as the Caprice, Bondo, Burlesca, Echo, etc.
Indeed the legacy which Sebastian Bach be-
queathed to the world is one of the greatest
importance, and of inexhaustible richness and
beauty. It was left to his second son, Cabl
Phujpp Emanuel Bach (i 714-1788) to effect a
great change in the principles hitherto observed.
Ihnanuel Bach was the first to profit system-
atically by the change of treatment necessitated
by the introduction of the hanmier; to recog-
nise with accuracy and method the great ad-
vantages suggested and allowed by the altered
condition of things, and to adapt his style of
composition to the new method of producing the
tone. In Emanuel Bach's sonatas the poly-
phonic treatment and rigorous part-writing of
his illustrious father disappear by degrees in
favour of a more expressive and singing style —
in short of the lyri^xU style. In many of his
Sonatas we meet with a fantasia-like treatment
hitherto unknown; and in his still valuable
Essay ' On the true Method of playing the
Clavier' (1753) he alludes over and over again
to the necessity ' of singing as much as possible
on the instrument.' ' Methinks,' he says, ' music
ought priiicipally to move the heart, and in this
no penormer on the pianoforte will succeed by
merely thumping and drumming, or by con-
tinual arpeggio-playing. During the last few
VOL, n. FT. 12.
PIANOFORTEPLAYING.
737
years my chief endeavour has been to play the
pianoforte, in spite of its deficiency in sustain-
ing the sound, as much as possible in a Hnging
mannw, and to compote for it accordingly. This
is by no means an easy task, if we desire not
to leave the ear empty, or to disturb the noble
simplicity of the canUabile by too much noise.*
Emanuel Bach's maxims were closely followed
by Hatdn (1 732-1 809) and Mozabt (1756-
1791). In tiie sonatas and smaller pieces of
these great composers, bat especially in the
22 concertos of Mosart, we recognise a desire
to please and to ingratiate themselves with the
public by sweet melody and agreeable har-
mony, by an utter absence of eccentricity, spas-
modic or fragmentaiy writing, md by Uie pre-
sence of a certain spontaneous eleganoe, suffused
with ready wit ana refreshing cheerftdness, the
whole tempered by a never-fiuling expression of
good-nature and innate amiability. Although
Haydn and Mozart never forgot tiieir duties to
the art, they regarded the taste and likings of
the public as of very great importance, and
without yielding to its whims and caprices, they
courted its legitimate demands loyiJly and in
perfect &ith, and sought to effect a satisfactory
compromise in doubt^ cases. The immense
practice of both Hi^dn and Hosart in writing
for the orchestra and for voices, both solo and in
chorus, largely influenced their pianoforte com-
positions, and as a' natural consequence their
style of playing. Many of Mozart's most dis-
tinguished contemporaries testify to his excel-
lence as a player, and to his supreme command
over the instrument. His own 'remarks on
pianoforte-playing are characteristic and com-
pletely to the point. He dedaree 'that the
performer should possess a quiet and steady
hand, with its natural lightness, smoothness, and
gliding rapidity so weU developed, that the
passages should flow like oil.' ' All notes, graoes,
accents, etc., ought to be brought out with
fitthig expression and taste.' 'In passages
(technical figures) some notes may be left to their
fate without notice, but is that right?' ' Three
things are necessary for a good peiformer ' — and
he pointed significantly to his head, to his heart,
and to the tips of his fingers, as symbolical of
understanding, sympathy, and technical skill.
A material change in pianoforte-playing took
place at this time (i 790-1 800). The mat
technical execution of Clshenti (i 752-1832),
DD88BK (1761-1812), StBIBBLT (1764-1823),
A. E. MtJLLEE (1767-18 1 7), and J. B. Cbameb
(i 771-1858), excited continual fresh interest,
until at length excellence of technical execution
claimed for iteelf an independent rank and posi-
tion, which threw the more modest and less bril-
liant pieces of Mozart and Haydn for awhile into
the background, dementi's alterations, improve-
ments, suggestions, and additions to the develop-
ment of tMhnical execution are of the utmost
importance. A glance at Nos. i, 3, 15, 20, 22, 23,
24, 37, 3i» 34» 37. 44, 63, 65, 76, 86, of his celebrated
collection of studies, 'Gradus ad ' Pamassum,
1 BepoMtalMd In Fwten'a Bditlon. No. 147.
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will foffice to show Um Taft difEereiMM between
the treatment of the pianoforte by Mosart and
byCleinenU. dementi preeeots paeaagee in thirds
and sixths, he uses octaves in rapid suooession, he
widens the chords, and exhibits for the first time
a hitherto unknown muscular foroe. The compass
of the piano of Haydn and Mosart's Sonatas
5 octares (rarely 5 J and Im rardy 6)— was soon
extended to 6 and 6 J octaves, and the instrument
became for the first time a powerfbl, rich, sonor^
ous, and highly effective one. The bud that
dementi entered into parbiership with the
firm of ColUtfd, testifies to his keen and lively
interest in the piauctfoflrte manu&cture, and is
a guarantee for his intimate acquaintance with
the connexion between the mechanism of the
instrument and the minatest details of piano-
playing. Compared with the manner in which
dementi writes his most difficult Sonatas and
Studies—Concertos by him do not exist— the
style of Haydn and Mozart appears almost small,
thin and poor. Whilst Haydn and Mosart regard
the instrument merdy as a vehicle to convey
their ideas, and think more of musical sub-
stance than of technical biillianqv, dementi uses
the instrument and the musical art rather for
the display of his remarkable manual dexterity:
his compositions ar^ clever, in some instances
grand and even bold, but on the other hand,
they ladL grace and eq)edally warm and enthu*
Elastic feelmg; in short thev do not possess that
feu Mcri which distinguishes so many of the
productions of Haydn and Mosart, and which place
Beethoven's works on so very high a pinnade.
Mozart's contemporaries declare dementi to have
been superior to Mosart in technical executitm,
brilliancy of efifect, and masculine force of expres-
sion ; they almost unanimously praise dementi's
thoroughly-trained velocity, the quiet position of
his hands, the extraordinary power and fulness
of his touch, the clearness and equality of
his performance, and the judidons delivery of
his slow movements. Clementi wrote for the
pianoforte only, for the few Symphonies which
he composed in i8ao, when alr^y 68 years old,
count for little ; the piano was therefore his only
medium of expression, and the one chosen expo-
nent of his activiW as a composer. It wa-s every-
thing to him, and to the keyboard he entrusted
every idea that crossed his mind. His ideas con-
sequently adapted themselves by degrees to the
nature of the instrument, and thus his Sonatas
may with truth be called types of pianoforte
compositions ; for these he invented effects, tech-
nical passages, figures, combinations; and like
Columbus, discovered a new world on the piano-
forte. And this peculiar position of dementi in re-
lation to the piano explains the (act that Beethoven
preferred his Sonatas to those of Mozart.
The extraordinary effect produced by de-
menti brought him a host of admirers and fol-
lowers, and he soon became one of the most
desired of teachers. The difference between his
style and that of Mozart resulted in the dis-
tinction between the so-called 'Vienna' or
'Mozart' school, and the 'Clementi' school.
PIANOFOBTE-PLAYINQ
The original cause of this diffsrence is diieftjr
to be sought in the instrument itseH CkHmmii
used the Bnglish. Mozart and his successors tlM
Vienna pianoforte. The English instrument had
a richer, fidler and more sonorous tone, the ham-
mer had a deeper fall, and was thus finvoorafaie
to the sure execution of thirdly sixths, and
octaves, and to the dear and predse ^kjiag
of chords in suoceasion; the tone of the^^emsa
piano, though thin and of shorter duiatioQ, was
highly apeeable, and its action was so light that
(as in the harpsichord) the most delicate prea-
sure produced a sound from the key. Ftoes
this fiitcile mechanism results the ratha extra-
ordinary expression ' to breathe upon the keys^'
an expression which the most distinguished dia-
dples of the Vienna school, Hummd and Gsemy,
frequently used, dementi's piano was therefioce
fisvourable to a substantial and masculine troat
ment; while the Vienna piano responded best
to a rapid fluent style and to arpeggio playiqg.
dementi's piano was furthermore well ada^yfeed
to the oantabile, and some of his pupils (as
J. B. Cramer and Jdm Fidd) made good use
of this advantage, while the Vienna players,
feeling the weak points of their native piano^
sought by devemess and taste to make up for
its defidendes, and surrounded their cantabile
with such quantities of lights airy, elegant^
tasteful passages, runs, broken diordsi, and or-
naments of all kinds, as in great measure to hide
the foiling. The Vienna school strove rather to
retain the character of the piano as a chamber
instrument^ whilst the stronger and mcse solid
construction of the English one tended to make
it an exponent of orchestral music. Both schools
have their distinct history. The Vienna one de-
teriorated sooner than Uiat of dementi ; after
Mozart's death it lost much of the intf*nf*f>tual
force and the innate gracefulness and a£fectionate
warmth that distinguish the best of his Sonatas
and Concertos, and some of his smaller pieces.
With Hummel and Moscheles it readied its d»-
max. Hommel's playing was distinguished b^
certainty, correctness, and tranroarent deameo,
an admirable evenness and suotlety of touch,
and refined and correct rhythmical feding. His
high and exceptional powers as a perfonner
were, however, beet shown in his extempore
Slaying, a department in which he had no nvaL
foscheles, superior to Hummd in the variety
of his tone-gradations (light and shade of touchX
and in a more decided and eneigetic brvMrara
style, excels him also in grace tmd deganoe;
but both were wanting in warmth and soon-
tandty. In Mozart technical execution and in-
tdlectuality were still evenly balanced; with his
successors — although both Hummd and Mo-
schdes wrote works deserving the epithet 'classi-
cal'— ^technical execution gains the preponder-
ance, and this led Woelfl (i 772-181 2), Stkibelt
(1764-1823), CzBBKT (1 791-1857), and Hon
(1805-) to devote themsdvee entirdy to the de*
mand for public amusement and momentary
exdtement, and thus to lose sight of the prin-
ciples which made the school of Mozart so great
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At ihe same time it must be admitted thftt the
technical ezecation of Woelfl was highly remark-
able, and even exceptional ; that Steibelt proved
a dangerous rival to Beethoven at Vienna ; that
Cxemy's merits as an educational writer, and
a most painstaking, thorough, and soocessfal
' teacher were quite exceptionaJI, and that Herz
bad in bis beet time no equal for elegance
and brilliancy of execution. The effect produced
by these excellent pianists was founded on legi-
timate principles of technical execution, and was
dae to a patient and complete training of the
fingers. Czemy in particular, in his * School of
Velocity* (op. 299), in his admirable ' L'Art de
d^er les Doigts ' (op. 740), and in his * School
of the Liegato and Staccato ' (op. 335), shows a
consommate knowledge of all the minutest de-
tails of pianoforte-playing. To complete this part
of the subject it may be mentioned, that amongst
Hummel's pupils we find the names of Hiller,
Henselty and WUlraers.
dementi's direct pupils were J. B. Cbambr
(i 771-1858), John Fibld (178^-1837), Ludwio
Beboeb (1777-1839), A. A. Klknobl (1784-
1851) : as iudirect pupils may be mentione<^ DuB-
8BK (i 761-181 2), Kalkbbsknbb(i 788-1840), and
Chablbs Matbb (1799-1862). The celebrated
J. B. Cramerwas one of the most excellent pianists
in the history of the art. Though never overstep-
ping the limits of the legitimate resources of the
piano as a chamber- instrument, his performance
displayed an unusual sense of that richness of
variety and treatment which the piano can be made
to reveal ; his playing possessed plastic roundness
and rare expression of harmony and beauty, while
his appearance and deportment at the instrument
were eminently gentlemanlike ; in &ct, Cramer
may be said to have combined the beet qualities
of both the Mozart and the Clementi schooL
Beethoven preferred his ' touch ' to all others ;
the quietness, smoothness, and pliability of the
movements of his hands and fingers, the unex-
ceptionable deamess and correctness of his execu-
tion, and the exquisite moderation of his style,
rendered his performance unique ; added to which
he possessed an innate nobility of expression,
and a rare suavity and euphony of delivery. His
celebrated 'Studies* are the best proof of his
incomparable manner of playing.
At this time the construction of the
pianoforte was making creat progress, and
meeting more than ever the desires and needs
of the executants. The richly gifted Irishman
John Field, usually called 'Russian' Field,
the inventor of the universally popular form of
the ' Nocturne,' was one of the greatest pianists
of all time. His touch, with an almost perpen-
dicular position of the fingers, surparaed in
sweetness, richness, and sostenuto all that had
been heard before; and with regard to the
picturesque distribution of light and shade, the
greatest correctness and neatness, combined with
a peculiar Irish frankness and simplicity of
feeing, he had scarcely a rival. At this time
1 Amoocithbimpllsniaj be named lIiiM.B»D«Tlll«-Oiirj.Tbeodor
nohler. L. von Mciyer, md Fimtu LIut.
PIANOFORTE-PLAYING.
730
the greatest attention was shown to the canta-
bile style ; the varieties of touch, its beauty,
mellowness, roundness, and singing quality, its
brilliancy and crispness, were studied with un-
remitting zeal and care, and performers even
thought it worth their while to investigate the
anatomical construction of their hands and the
sources of strength, elasticity, and endurance ; the
degrees of force wwe oarefiilly measured, and all
thumping, banging, indistinctness ('smearing* as
the V iennese called it), was held up to ridicule.
LuDWio Bbbobb. the teacher of Mendels-
sohn and Taubert, was a brilliant and excellent
performer, remarkable for a certain spiritual-
istic, dreaming expression. August Albxandbb
Klbnobl, on the other hand, was most success-
ful in the strict style of peorformance — ^fugues,
canons, etc., — Dusbbk, already mentioned as an
indirect pupil of Clementi, was a truly grand
performs: he possessed a great nobiHty and
grandeur of style, combined with a certain senti-
mentality, a characteristic (German feature of his
time ; he could, like Held, boast of a beautlM
and singing touch; he possessed furthermore
very large hands, which ulowed him to spread
lus ohoiils up to tenths and elevenths ; and he
understood how to use the pedals with effect
and judgment. Kalkbbbnnbb excelled in a
most carefully and systematically trained and
thoroughly 'purified* technical execution: his
scales. Including those in thirds and sixths, were
like strings of pearls; the most compHcated
figures came out with astonishing clearness ; and
even during the most daring and intricate gym-
nastic evolutions Kalkbrenner retained a per-
fectly quiet position of body and hands. Although
entirely deficient in sympathetic warmth of ex-
pression or enthusiasm, he captivated his public
by a singular elegance and neatness of style,
and a ' technique* which was absolutely perfect.
To complete titie group of pianists who gather
round Clementi, we mention Chablbs Matbb,
a pupil of Field ; he possessed most of Kalkbren-
ner*s excellent qualities, but was in his best time
( 1 830-1 840) bolder and more original than Kalk-
brenner in planning and carrying out new effects.
We now come to the centre of gravity of all
that concerns pianoforte-playing in its best,
noblest, and highest features, — ^to LuDwio yak
Bbbthoybn (1770-1827). Himself one of the
greatest executants, endowed with rare muscular
force, possessing an iron will, which conquered
all obetadee, glowing with a lofty enthusiasm,
and last not least, anever-surpassed self-command,
he was enabled in his Sonatas and Concertos, in
some of his Variations, Fantasias, and Rondos, to
produce entirely and astonishingly new, rich, and
grand effects; indeed he gave to the pisAO a
soul, and succeeded in winning for it a poetical
expression. The great difference between Bee-
thoven and all his contemporaries is found in the
iDct that in his piano works the technical figures
grow out of the principal idea ; they are natural
and logical consequences or results of the leading
theme, and are thus in every instance in thorough
harmony and relation with the initiative part-
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PIANOFOETE-PLAYINa
In his oontemporazieB, on the other hand, these
technical figures are more or less annexes or sup-
plements, which having no close relation to the
principal theme, are wanting in that psychological
reason for existence which makes them so strong,
effectlTe, and indispensable, in Beethoven's works.
For this reason it is so difficult to find studies or
exerdsee which bear on Beethoven's Sonatas, so
as to assist the student immediately and directly
in improving his performance of these unrivalled
masterpieces. Beethoven recognises the beauty
and importance of technical efficiency and bril-
liancy, but he considers them merely as acces-
sories and powerful contributors to the harmony
and unity of the whole. His genius required
richer means of expression than those hitherto
invented. We find in his pianoforte worksa greater
polyphony, stronger contrasts, abolder rhythmical
expression, a broader design and execution ; in-
deed we meet with an entirely new instrument :
yet in no single instance does he overstep its
legitimate liimts. At the same time the im-
provements which his compositions suggested
to the manufacturers belong to the greatest and
most important changes in the history of the
piano. With his fancy penetrated by all the
qualities {timbrea) of tone which distinguish the
reed, brass, and stringed instruments, and his
imagination pregnant with grand and noble
orchestral efiects. he seeks to impart some of
these efiects to the piano, and succeeds without
sacrificing the speciality — nay the idiosyncrasy
— of the keyed instrument. It is more particu-
larly in the slow movements of Beetiioven's
Sonatas that we recognise this desire to assimi-
late the piano to the sound of the orchestra.
The absolute mastery which he had obtained in
early years over all the various departments of
tedmical execution is shown in his a i sets
of Variations — ^interesting collections of little
pieces which may be called a pattern-card of
every conceivable figure from Sebastian Bach to
Beetiioven, all full of originality, and in some in-
stances (32 in C minor ; 6, op. 34 ; 33, op. 120)
anticipating many an effect for the invention of
which later pianists have obtained credit.
Beethoven's contemporaries (Tomaschek, Cramer,
Bies, Czemy) agree that he was able both to
rouse his audience to the highest pitch of ex-
citement and enthusiasm, and to fill them with
the greatest pleasure ; they say that his perform-
ance was not so much * playing* as ' painting
with tones,' while others express it as recalling
the effect of ' reciting' ; all which are attempts
to state the fiict that in his playing, the means —
the passages, the execution, the technical appli-
ances— disappeared before the transcendent effect
and meaning of the music. Beethoven, with a
soul full of the purest and noblest ideas, and
glowing with an enthusiasm which soared from
the petty cares and miseries of this world up to
the highest regions, was not particular in polish-
ing and refining his performance, as were Hum-
m^ Woelfl, Kalkbrenner, and others: indeed
such ' special * artists he satirically calls * gym-
nasts,* and expresses his apprehension ' that the
PIANOFORTE-PLAYING.
increasing mechanism of pianofbrte-playing
would in the end destroy all truth of expreesioa
In music.* His apprehension was to some extent
realised. After him the breach between the
musical art in general, and technical efficiency
and brilliancv in particular, became wider and.
wider. But before the fields of real music were
inundated by those floods of arpeggios and
cataracts of scales, two composers arose, who
enriched the piano with entirely new efifecta,
and offered to its performers much material for
study. These were Cabl Mabia von Webbs
( 1 786-1 8 26) and Fbakz Schobbbt (1797-1838).
Weber*s compositions are a proof of his ex-
traordinaiy powers as a performer; and the
tenderness, romantic charm, and chivalrous
force and energy, but above all the enthusiasm,
they possess, met with universal sympathy ; not
only Mendelssohn and Schumann, but Chopin,
Liszt, Henselt, and Heller, all felt the influence
of Weber. The new features of his pianoforte
effects are the emancipation of the left hand (see
among others the Introduction to ' L'Invitation k
la Valse,' Slow movement of 2nd Sonata) and the
happy method of throwing as it were the whole
weight of the tone into the melody, by breakiDg
the chords and at once taking the fingers cff
whilst the melody is held (see beginning of
Concertsttlck). Although Schubert was not a
public performer, his Sonatas and smaller pieces
(Impromptus, Moments musicals, etc.) testify
to unusual skill in playing. His works dennand
a natural, affectionate, crisp and clear execution ;
they require a full yet exceedingly elastic and
supple touch ; although Schubert inclines in some
of his pieces towards the Vienna school, in nxMt
of them he follows in the steps of Beethoven.
It was about 1830 that public taste inclined
more and more in the direction of technical
brilliancy, and the lighter, more pleasing style of
composition. The cyclical forms of compositioin
becjune by degrees more rare ; concerts withont
the assistance of an orchestra began to be mosie
frequent; even chamber-music, such as trios,
quartets, and quintets, with string or wind
instruments, were excluded, and Uie pianist
reigned supreme. In one respect this change
was satisfactory: to rivet the attention of an
audience for an hour and a half to a pianoforte
performance alone, the executant had to be veiy
clever, to produce constant fresh variety and new
charm; effect had to follow effect; indeed the
ingenuity of the performer was constancy tasked
to discover new devices for feeding the insatiable
appetite of his hearers. It is to this state of
things indeed that we owe the present extra-
ordinary development of pianoforte - playing.
Techni^ efficiency has a thoroughly legitimate
and necessary, nay an indispensable, existence ;
it gives effect and power to the composition ;
it is in reality the garb in which the musical
work is presented; but if the importance of
this existence be exaggerated, the performance
ceases to be the reproduction of an intellectual
work, and becomes merely an amusement or
excitement for the senses. Formerly rapid
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passaitM acted as a oontrast to the cantabile;
but if that oontrast is gradually reduced to a
mere altematioii of more or less rapid move-
ment, the ecinUline diBappears almost entirely,
and all becomes movement and bustle. The
xnost insignificant figure is now swelled to the
dimensions of an entire piece ; thus the ^tude or
study becomes the leading form of pianoforte
pieces. Ever more brilliant and dazzling be-
comes the execution; effects are invented that
may vie with those of the full orchestra; the
physical strength required to thunder out the
rapid octave-passages, the dexterity and almost
electric rapidity in changing hands so as to pro-
duce the effect of three hands rather than two—
indeed the number of qualities required to
satisfy the various requirements of modem
pianoforte-playing — is truly astonishing. Such
increased force and rapidity demanded an alter-
ation of the movement of the arm, hand, and
fingers. The quiet tmobtrusive position of the
older players at the instrument, had to give way
to a kind of swinging movement of the hand —
' playing firom the wrist * ; or to a nervous force,
that arises from a stiff elbow, and leads with
some performers to the kind of playing commonly
called 'thumping.* Spasmodic movements of
the hands and arms, a continual rocking to and
fro of the body, and a passionate, almost frantic,
throwing back of the head, seem to be part of
these exaggerated gymnastic feats. Curious to
say, by these jerky movements the quality of
tone suffered greaUy; it lost its fulness and
sustained power, and became shorter, drier, and
less distinct. Tlie greatest heroes of this period
of pianoforte-playing were Thalbebo, Liszt,
Hbnselt, and Dbbtsohook; and in a lesser
though still high degree, Willubrs, Dohlbb, and
Leopold von Meyeb. Thalbebo (1812-1871),
whose exquisite playing caused quite a commotion
among all who inter^ted themselves in piano-
playing,* possessed a wonderfully well-trained
mechajoism; the smallest details were polished
and finished with the utmost care; his scales
were marvels of evenness ; his shakes rivalled
the trill of the canary-bird; his arpeggios at
times rolled like the waves of the sea, at others
resembled the airy and transparent folds of the
finest lace; his octaves were thundered forth
with ilever-&iling aocuracv, and his chords
seemed to be struck out with mallets of English
steel rather than played by fingers. Indeed
he was the Seigneur de Bayard of pianists,
*le Chevalier sans peur et sans reproche'; his
tone was at once grand, delicate, and mellow,
never harsh or short; the gradations between his
/arte and picmo were exquisitely traced : in short,
everything which concerned the technical ex-
ecution was perfection.' The extraordinary ease
and absolute certainty with which Thalberg
played, was due to a practical mode of fingering,
from which, after it was once ad<H>ted, he never
departed, and from the fact that he never
1 Sm the I«tt«rB and papen of If «klel«ohn and Schnmaiin.
> Strmofe to mj. hb austw waa not a pianist, bnt aa
laMoon-plajer, mtlag of VSenna.
PIANOFORTE-PLAYlNGi
741
played a piece in public until he had made it
the absolute property of his fingeis. The fea-
ture which rendered Thalberg's so-called fanta-
sias (in reality they are m^leys on operatic
airs, with variations) so celebrated, was his
method of dividing the melody between the two
hands, whilst at &e same time the right hand
performs in the higher register a brilliant figure,
and thq left hand exhibits a full and rich bass
part, and supplements it with an accompani-
ment in chords. This device was, however, not
invented by Thalberg 'himself; it is antici-
pated in some studies of Francesco Giuseppe
PoUini (1 778-1 847), and was successfully applied
by the still unrivalled English harpist, Eli Parish-
Alvars ( 1 808-1 849). Thalberg merely extended
it, and adapted it to the pianoforte. So eminently
successful was this method, that even Mendels-
sohn, in his Concerto in D minor, could not resist
employing it ; and besides this illustrious com-
poser, almost all contemporary writers for the
piano have more or less followed 'Dialberg's lead.
But whilst Thalberg devoted his intellectual
and digital powers only to his own compositions,
and seemed not to take any interest in the
works of other authors, Franz Liszt, endowed
with even greater abilities, devoted them to the
musical art in general : his transcriptions, para-
phrases, and arrangements, comprise not only
vocal and orchestral works of German, French,
Italian, and Bussian composers, but also the na-
tional melodies of Europe, Asia, etc. In versa-
tility Liszt has probably never had an equal;
he has tried (and in most cases with success) to
assimilate his own talent with everything of
note with which he came into contact; his
Spanish Candon, 'El Contrabandista»* is essen-
tially Spanish ; his 'Rhapsodies Hongroises' are
true tone-pictures of Hungary ; his transcriptions
of Wagner's operatic pieces reproduce the orches-
tral effects as well as they can be reproduced,
and his &mous arrangements of the songs of
Schubert) Schumann, Mendelssohn, and Franz,
are justly esteemed and admired. Liszt has
widened the domain of the piano to an extent
which seems almost incompatible with the special
nature of the instniment. His innovations in the
art of playing are manifold; in transcribing
Paganini's Caprices he secured for the piano
tedhnical figures never before applied; in ar-
ranging Beethoven's and Berlioz's Symphonies
he expanded the chords to dimensions which, for
the majority of players, are absolutely impos-
sible. An adequate rendering of hi/ pieces
requires not only great physical power, but a
mental enei^ — ^we might almost call it a fEuia-
tical devotion — which few persons possess. Liszt
himself has these physical powers, this iron will,
this spontaneous enthusiasm, but only a very few
of his disciples can boast of possessing them in
concert. If Thalberg was blamed because his
successful Fantasias promoted the composition of
shallow and worthless pieces, Liszt might be
» Some frrtton aRMit, enoiMonily, that It It forMhadowed by Bm>
thoten, whlltt another report attributes He actual Mnurce. etni mora
enooeoiul7. to the Prdude. op. 86. of Hendelisohn— Thalberg's If olse-
Vantasla baving been eompoaed prerioui to Mandelssuba's Prelude.
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742
PIANOFOETE-PLAYING.
equally reproaohed for having caused more bttd
piano-plajixig, more ' thumping/ and more empty
noise, than waa known before his time. It must
be admitted that he himself, thanks to his
exceptional powers, has, in regard to technical
execution, attuned the highest point that human
intelligenoe and skill can possibly attain; al-
though even in his best time he was never so
certain of a perfect performance as was his more
phlegmatic, sober, and careful rival, Thalberg.
Occasional shortcomings, however, are readily
excused in a man so fuU ol genius, and of grand
Uberal ideas and intentions, and so rich in all
possible accomplishments, a man indeed, who,
independently of his musioJ attainments, belongs
to the most distinguished perscms of this century.
But the followers and duciplee of Liszt cannot
boast of the exceptional qualities of their idol,
and therefore thcdr thumping, jerky, and inco-
herent playing, their inabUity to produce a
mellow singing tone, their want of respect for
the old cUmIgaI school, and their one-aidedness,
will not meet with such ready excuse as was
willingly granted to their great master.
Among celebrated musicians who took great
Interest in pianoforte-playing were Fbliz Min-
DSL8S0HN BaBTHOLDT (1809-1847) and ROBBBT
SoHDiCANN (18 10-1856). Mendelssohn was an
expert and fluent performer, but it was not so
much the brilliancy of his playing that was
admired, as his intelligent, genial, and thoroughly
musician-like reading. Mendelssohn's charming
' Songs without Words* also afforded a welcome
relief to the turbulence and passion which raged
on the keyboard. It cannot however be eaid
that his Fantasias, Sonatas, Concertos, or Caprices
present any particular novelty with regud to
technical execution ; with the exception of the
Capricdo in F| minor (op .5), his pieces are not
very difficult, they are each and all practically
written, sound un^ormly well, and afford, without
exception, capital material for study.
No composer has taken a deeper interest in
pianoforte music and playing than Robbbt
Schumann. His numerous remarks^ upon the
works and performances of celebrated pianists,
his suggestions' as to the practice of certain
figures, his desire to increase the sustaining
power of the instrument, are all expressed in
a lucid manner, and are thoroughly to the
point. But above all, his own magnificent,
original, and highly poetic pieces form an epoch
in the pianoforte literature, and open, a new era
for pianoforte-playing. Schumann's four volumes
of piano pieces contain indeed the noblest task
for the student : many a new figure, many an
original and ingenious combination, or valuable
suggestion, will be detected by the attentive and
thoughtful student. When Schumann's pieces
are played in the proper manner, the instrument
appears in its noblest and finest form, and in
novelty and decided beauty and ingenuity of
effect^ his pieces are unrivalled.
1 OTfgtoallr paUttlMd in the 'N«im ZeUsohrlft Or Mutk.' and
tlQoe colleetod In hU ' QMammalte Schrinan.'
X »«erra(iM«tobis'BtiulMd1«i«ilMG«prio«<bFvaalal.'op.a
PIANOFORTE-PLAYING.
Fbidbbio FBAV9018 Chopin (1809-1849) ^
one of the rooet perfect pianists ; bis 'te<^iqtte*
was admirable, nis touch supple, mellow, ricli,
full, sweet, and ethereal; his execution daar
and uniformly correct; his sKpression noble,
romantic, tender, and delicate. If in hia Koo-
tumes he carries out the suggestions of John
Field, and in other pieces recalls the romaatio
spirit and feeling of Carl Maria von Weber, in
his later works he relies on his own peeuliarlj
strong Polish individuality. In his Etudee, op.
10 and op. 25, in his Concertos and Futimaam,
Impromptus and Preludes, Polonaises and M»-
zurkas, ValKs and Ballades, in each and all,
plenty of new material is to be found. There is
a great affinity between Chopin and Schumann
in point of poetical and romantic feeling ; but
Chopin*s music is more like elegiac poetry, whilst
Schumann's poetical feeling rests on an intel-
lectual background, and has therefore a stronger
substance. Each, however, completes the other,
and each has rendered invaluable service to
the art of pianoforte-playing in its best style.
Adolph Hensblt (1 8 1 4-), for eight months a
pupil of Hununel, owes the greater part of his
excellent playing to a lady, Madame de Fladt.
His playing is truly magnificent—a consummate
mastery over the most intricate technical dif-
ficulties, combined with a noble and manly ex-
pression, producing a singularly rich and eupho-
nious effect without the slightest effort, and with-
out any risk of injury to the instrument, or of
straining its limits of endurance. In one respect
Henselt might be called a younger, stronger,
brother of J. B. Cramer ; he possesses the same
plastic roundness, euphony, and mellowness of
playing as did the celebrated composer of the
excellent Studies. The style of performance of
WiLLiAH (afterwards SiB W.) Stebndals Ben-
NBTT (1816-1875), was full of grace and tender-
ness ; a sweet and charming clear touch, a modest
and quiet demeanour at the insUnment, produced
on the listener a highly pleasing and satisfikctorjr
impression — indeed his performance was that oi
a refined, thoughtful musician ; at the same time
it must be owned that his playhig lacked energy,
force, and enthusiasm. Wilhblm Taubbrt
(181 1-), a pupil of Ludwig Beiger, possesses the
best qualities of an eminent piamst; a crisp,
clear, yet elastic touch, uniform correctness, re-
fined phrasing, each and all contribute to create
on the public a rare and satisfactory impression.
Ferdinand Hilleb (181 i-), a pui^l of Humniel,
understood how to profit by the beet that bis oon-
temporariee offered, and is justly admired for
the fluency, fine rhythmical acc^ituation, and
peculiarly clear phrasing of his performance.
Stephen Helleb (1815-), although seldom ap-
pearing in public, has shown in his beautifol
Studies, and in many of his other poetiokl and
agreeaUe pieces, that he Ib intimately acquainted
with all the resources of the instrument. Alex-
ANDEB Dbeysohook (1818-1869), a pupU of
WenzelTomaschek (i 774-1850), nad, by untiring
industry, obtained such w(mderful &cility and
focce in his left hand, as to be nicknamed the
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PIANOFOETE-PLAYING.
pUnist with the two rigbt hancb. Thiodob
kuLLAK (1818-), a pupil of Agthe (1790) and
Carl Gsemj (i 791-1857), most ^ued as teacher
(among his pupils are Oharles Wehle, Xaver
Soharwenka, Eiika lie, Helene Magnus, Grttn-
ield. Alma Hollander (Haas), Heinr. Hofinann),
is also one of the most excellent, thoughtful, and
poetical of performers ; in playing tender passages
and pianissimo he had in his best time (1842-
185a) no rival Rudolph Willmbbs (1821-1878)
was a pupil of Hummel; his specUdities were
the shaJie aoid the staccato, and in those de-
partments of Dlaying he produced extraordinary
effects. We nave to mention also the celebrated
Antoinb BuBiN8TBiK(i8a9-), a pupil of Villoing
of Moscow. Bubinstein is a performer of Titanic
force, yet capable of producing the softest, most
ethereal tones ; he is besides the interpreter of
all imaginable styles and schools. The late
Oabl TAUSia (1841-1871), a pupil of liast,
possessed the most patiently trained and most
carefully refined technical execution, and had in
certain branches of pianoforte-playing no riraL
If at times wanting in enthusiasm and warmth
of feeling, the perfection of his technical ex-
acutioa was, on the other hand, sufficient to
afford his audience the greatest pleasure and
satisfiKtion. Hans vob Bulow (1830-) has
given many proofii of a prodigious memory, which
to however not always faiUiM to the original
text of the composer, and for this reason has not
the same value for the earnest musician which
the general public seems to attach to it. His
nnd^taking to play the five most advanced and
most difficmt Sonatas of Beethoven at one sitting,
though in itself a prodigious feat, seems one of
those exaggerations of the present time, which
are also to be found amongst less interesting
and noble occupations than pianoforte-playing.
Beethoven himself would have been the first
to deprecate inch undertakings, as at once ex-
hausting for the performer and wearisome for the
listener. With regard to intelligence, knowledge,
memory and teclmioal execution, BtQow stands
deservedly very high, and the programmes of
his recitiUs embrace the masters of all schools
and styles. Johaknbs Bbahmb'b (1833-) style
of playing differs greatly from that of Liezt
and his d&iples. His piano works are founded
on the polyphonic system of Sebastian Bach,
strongly influenced by Bobert Schumann; his
style is exceedingly intricate, and presents
many difficulties ^ the executant^— difficulties
whidi are hardly in proportion with the actual
efifoct they produce; and his pieces demand
for a dear execution a muscular force and
a sustaining power, which few players possess ;
at the same time their earnestness, solid sub-
stance, and intellectual, logical development, are
matters of deep interest for the true musician.
The distinguished pianists, Thalberg, Liszt,
and Chopin, exerdsed a great influence on
their contemporaries, and we find among those
who followed the style and school of Tbalberg,
Theod<v Dohler, Leopold von Meyer, Budolph
Willmers, Emile Prudent^ A. Goria» Henri
PIANOFOBTE.PLA.YINa.
748
Bavina, and 'Vincent Wallace. Among these
who inclined towards the style of Liszt are
Antoine Bubinstein, Hans von Billow, Garl
Tausiff, Oharles Valentin Alkan, Henry Litolff,
CamillB Sunt-Sa&ui ; and among those who felt
Frederic Oh<^iin's influence are Eduard Wolff,
Jacob Boeenhain, Stephen Heller, Julius Schul-
hofi^ Joseph Wieniawski, Xaver Scharwenka,
and Moritz Moszkowski. But MendelBsohn
and Schumann alM> exercised a great influoice
upon a number of excellent musKsians, who fol-
lowed the maxims of those illustrious masters
in their style boUi of composition and per-
formance. Mendelssohn's style is reproduced in
the works of the Dane, Niels W. Qade (1817-),
William Stemdale Bennett, Otto Goldschmidt,
Wilhehn Kalliwoda, and Garl Beinecke, whilst
reminiscences of Schumann are to be found
in the works of Woldemar Bargiel, Theodor
Kirchner, Budolph Yolckmann, Mid Adolph
Jensen.
In looking back over the nowth and develop-
ment of pianoforte-playincr in the last hundred
years we find that the rupture between the
school of Mozart (called by F^s ' les pianistes
harmonistes ') and that of Glementi ('les pianistes
iHrillants') took place about 1780. Beethoven,
whose first piano compontlons were published be-
tween 1790 and 1800, appears as a connecting or
mediating link between these schools ; with Oari
Maria von Weber romantic expresdcn comes into
the foreground; whilst Franz Schubert inclines
more towards the lyrical phase. After this time
( 1830-1840) the technical school appears entirely
in ihe ascendant; Mendelssohn and Schumann
then succeed in diverting attention towards their
poetical and classical tendency ; whilst the genial
Pole, Frederic Ghopin, refines and polishes the
tedmical material, and reintroduces the charming
effect of a sweet, supple, and singing style of
plaving. With I^szt and Thalberg, Bubinstein
and Tausig, the InciUiancy of technical execution
reaches its culminating point; with regard to
rapidity, force, ingenuity of combinations, and
diuzling effect, it is not too much to assert that
the highest point has been gained, and that with
respect to quantity of notes and effects our pre-
sent players are unrivalled ; whether the quality
is as good as it formerly was (about 1825) may
be questioned. Our present Grand or Goncert
pianos offer to the performer evexy possible ad-
vantage and fitdlity, but the perfection of the
instruments has in itself tended to lessen the
earnest study on the part of the player which
was formerly necessary for the production of
tone. This defect is partly due to the ignorance
of too 'many of the present pianists in regard to
the construction of uie instrument on which they
perform. Whilst every player on the flute, oboe,
darinet, bassoon, horn, violin, or violoncello is
intimately acquainted with the interior of his
instrument, few pianists are able to describe the
distinctive peculiarity of a Vienna, half-English,
or English mechanism, to appreciate the differ-
ence between the actions of^an Erard, a Pleyd,
a Broadwood, a Steinway, or a GoUard Grand
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744 PIANOFORTE PLAYING.
piano, or the deme of force which each of these
different actions u calculated to bear. Something
18 also due to the piano iteell Whilst the Vienna
hammer of the time of Beethoven and Hummel
(1815-1830) was covered with four or five layen
of buckskin of varying thickness, the present
hammer is covered wiui only one piece of felt,
and produces a tone which though larger and
stronger, b imdoubtedly less elastic ; the action
of the Vienna piano was very simple, and it
lacked the escape-movement and many other
improvements which enable the present piano,
with its almost perfect mechanism, to do a con-
siderable part of the work for the performer.
Thus we find that while f (Hrmerly tone, with its dif-
ferent gradations, touch, the position of the finger,
etc., hiul to be made matters of special study, the
present piano with its accomplishments saves this
study : whilst formerly the pedal was used but
sparingly, it ia at present used almost inoessantly.
Clearness, neatness of execution, a quiet deport-
ment at the instrument, were once deemed to be
absolute necessities ; it is but seldom that we are
gratified at present with these excellent qualities.
Whilst in past times the performer treated his
instrument as a respected and beloved friend,
and almost caressed it, many of our present per-
formers appear to treat it as an enemy, who has
to be fought with, and at last conquered. These
exaggerated notions cannot last, and their fre-
quent misapplication must in the end become
evident to the public; and it is probable that
sooner or later a reaction will set in, and the
sound principles of our forefathers again be
followed.
The enormous progress made by our leading
piano-manu£ftcturers, the liberal application of
metal in the body of the instrument, and the
rich, full, and eminently powerful tone thereby
gained, are followed by a serious disadvantage in
&e effective performance of chamber music. The
execution of a piece for the piano, violin and
violoncello, in the style which Haydn, Mozart
and Beethoven desired and imagined, is now an
impossible thing ; indeed the equilibrium between
PIANOFORTE-PLATING.
the instrument of poxmssion and the string iiuim*
ments is now lost. The just rival of the preaeDt
piano is no longer a single violin or viQloneello*
but the full orchestra iteelt Increased muscular
force on the part of the player, exerted on pianos
of ten times the ancient tone, is now opposed to
the t(me of instruments which have undec^gone
no increase of power — indeed the rise in the
pitch of the concert piano necessitates at times
the use of thinner strings in the violin and
violoncello. The much fuller and almost inceesaat
employment of broken chords (arpeggios) in the
piano part of sonatas, trios, and other chamber-
pieces, is absolutely overwhelming to the string
mstruments; passages which Mozart and Bee-
thoFen introduced in single notes appear now
in octaves, which are mostly played so loud as
almost to silence the weaker tone of the string^-
strument ; and whilst formerly the thinner tone of
the piano allowed an amalgamation of tcme-coloor,
the preponderance of metal in the present instru-
ment precludes it. It would therefore often be
most desirable for the pianist to forego some of
his undoubted advantages with regard to fbroe^
by playing with moderation, by using the pedal
with otBcrimination, and (particulariy in rooms
of smaller dimensions), by not opening the entire
top of the piano. If the above assertions are
doubted, a comparison of the last movements of
Beethoven^s C minor Trio op. i , and Mendelssohn's
C minor Trio, op. 66, will at once show their oor-
reotness. If the piano is considered as (what it
was to our forefiMihers) a chamber instrument^
we may point to it as the most perfect and satis-
b^ctGry of all ; but when, on the other hand, it
is used to substitute the orchestra, it &lls — ^in
spite of all its prodigious capabilities — shcart of
the expected effect. The thoughtful pianist will
therefore exercise a just discretion and modera-
tion, and will thus be able to produce a legitimate
effect of which neither Mozart nor Beethoven ever
dreamt.
A list of the most distinguished executants on
the piano in stiicUy chronologicaL order will be
of interest
OftriPhlUppSannaelBMh . 1714-1786
Schobert 1790-1706
Johum Ohriittui BMh . 17S&-178S
JohannWubal .... 1739-1813
Johann Wllhelm Hienler . . 1747-1822
Johann Fnnx Xaver Steriul (abW) 1790-1817
Nicolas JoMph HuOmaodel . rm-lSB
Mozlo Clementl .... 17aa-lKB
WolCKaag Amadsiu Mozart . 1790-1791
Joseph Oeltoek (abM) . . . 17fi7-uas
LottUAdam 17S6-18«8
Nanette Stralcher (8t«ln) . . 1760—1833
Johann Ludwig Piusek . 1761—1813
l>anlel SteibeU .... 1764-18SS
Anton Kberl ..... 1706-1807
Anguit Eberbard Mailer . . 1767-1817
Ludwig van Beethoven . . 1770—1827
John Baptbt Cramer . . . 1771-1866
Joseph Woelfl .... 1772— 181S
Christoph Ernst Friedrieh WeTse 1774-1843
Wenzel Tomaschek . . . 1774-18G0
Josepha Aurenfaammer . 1776—1814
LodwigBener .... 1777—1839
Francesco Oiuseppe PoUinl . 1778-1817
Johann Nepomuk Honunel . 1778— 1^7
Johann Horzalka .... 1778-1860
Nicolaos von Ktuttt . . 1779— 181S
Fanny Korzbeck . . . ahoat 17B0-<7)
John Field 17BS-US7
August Alexander Klengel
Ferdinand Bles
Charles Neate.
Oarl Maria von Weber .
Ludwig BOhner
Frtedrieh Kalkbrenner
Johann Feter Plzis
Aloys Schmitt
Maria SiTmanowska
Oatherina Cibbini-Kozeluch
Carl Csemj .
Johann Hugo Worzlscbek
WUhelm WOrlel . .
Cipriani Potter
Ignaz Moschelee .
Jacques Hen .
Jacob Schmitt
Lucy Anderson
Henri Bertinl . . .
Cari Mayer . . .
Joseph Ohrlstoph
Carl Qeorg Llckl
Jean AmMte LeFroidde M^roaux 1808-1874
Lulse Farreno (Dumont) . . 1804—1876
Gerl August Krebs (Miedke) . 1804-1880
Sir Julius Benedict . . . 1804-
Henri Uerz . . . . . UOO-
Joseph Nowakowskl
AanaOaioUnedeBelleviUe-Oury 180»-UB0
. 1784-1802
. 1784-1888
. 1784-1877
. 1786-1896
. 1787-1880
. 1788-1849
, 1788-1874
. 1789-1866
, ? 1790-1881
, 1790-1868
, 1791-18B7
, 1791-1896
1791-1808
, 1793-18n
, 1794-1870
, 1794-1860
. 1796-18S8
. 1797-1878
, 1798-1878
. 1799-1882
. 180O-187S
1801-18n
George A. Osbone
Hubert Ferdinand Knlferath
FMiz MenddSBohn-Bartholdy
Frederic Francois Chopin
Louise (David) Dulcken
Oamille Marie Stamaty
MarlePleyel . .
Wlihelm Taubert .
Leopoldlne Blabetka
Henri BoseUen
Ferdinand HiUer .
Franz Liszt
Sigismuttd Thalbecg
Joseph Schad .
William Henry Hohnes
Gustav FlOgel .
Kmst Haberbier .
Charles Valentin Alkan
Jacob Boeenhain .
Louis Winkler
Theodor DOhler
Anton Gerke .
Adolph Henielt
Delphlne von Schaoroth
Stephen Heller .
Cari Voas . . .
Oari HasUnger
Sir WUliam Stemdale Bennett
Joseph Adalbert Faaber .
1806-
1808-
1809-U67
1809-U49
1811-1890
18U-UriO
18U-1SS
18U-
IfiU-
laa-
i8n-
lau—
uu-isn
vsQ-tea
1813-
18IS-
lod-issi
1813—
181S-
1S1»-
1814— iflse
UU-187S
1814-
1814-
ISlfr-
1815—
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PTANOFORTE-PLATING.
Kdotfd Wolff. . .
JjmopolA Ton Keror
.Antoinc Fmufote Jbnnontol
KmUe Betmle Fnident .
Alezvider Drejschock .
Isvaz Tedeieo .
Antoine de Kontskl
Al«zaadrs Philippe BOlot
Henri BarinA .
mioodor KuUftk .
Mortier De Fontaine .
Ijoals Lecombe
Adolph Gutmann .
ClATA Schumann. «^ Wleek
Albert Loeschhorn
Oful Bren ...
Carl Halle (Charles HalM) .
Alexander Ernst Fesca .
Hanry Lttolff . . .
I<oui« KOhler . . .
'Wnhelm Krilger .
CJharles Edward Horsier
Budolph Willmen
Alexandre Edouard Gorla
-WUhelm Kuhe . .
Adolpn Blassmann
Tbeodor KIrchner . .
Carl Befaiecke. .
in»-1880
18W-
1S16—
in7-188S
WW-1889
1>17-
1817-
M17-
1«18-18M
181ft-
1«18—
1K18—
1818-
181^-
181»-
181»-
1819-
1830-1810
18B20-
1890-
itao-
1821-lgW
1831-1878
18SS-1860
1825-
182»-
l8St—
Xdooard Frandi .
Anton Herxberg .
Charles Wehle
JuUos Scholhoff .
Moritz Btrakosch .
Hennann Berens .
Walter Ceetl Madkrren
LIndsajr Sloper
Wllhelm Speidel .
Hermann A. WoUenhaapt
Bdward BUas
Adolfo PumagalU .
Hans Seeling .
Conrad Baldenedcer
August Dupont .
L. M. Oottschalk .
Ernst H. Ltlbeck .
Otto Goldschmldt .
Anton Bublnstein .
Helnrldi F. D. Stiehl
Hans Ton BOlow .
Adolph Sehloeaser.
Carl Kllndworth .
Joseph Ascher
JuUus Ton Kolb
Alfred Jaell .
Julius Epstein
Among liying pUnists whose names are favour-
ably known and deserve ample recognition are —
Vincent Adler, Carlo Andreoli, Walter Bache,
Carl B&rmann, jun., Heinrich Barth, Oscar
Beringer, Ignaz Briill, Charles Deliouz, Mme. Es-
sipoff, HeiT Griinfeld. Frits Hartvigsen, Richard
Kleinmichel, Ernst Radorff^ Giovanni Sgambati,
Franklin Taylor, Marie Wieck, Agnes Zimmer-
mann, [P.]
PIANO MlfeCANIQXJE. An invention of
the late M. Debaan of Paris (died 1877), for the
mechanical performance of musical compositionB
upon a pianoforte without disturbing its key-
board, or its capability for manual p^ormance.
To manage this the pinned barrel employed in
tbe street pianos and barrel-organs has to give
place to a novel and ingenious apparatus in-
vented and adi4>ted to his 'Piano m^canique'
by Debain, about thirty years since. To an
ordinary upright piano he supplied a second
■et of hammers working the reverse way to the
ordinary ones, that is, from above. These
hammers are set in motion by iron levers, the
further ends of which are tempered hard, and
project. as 'beaks' through a comb of four or
five inches long, in which space five octaves
of the keyboard are ingeniously compressed.
The comb crosses transverselv a smooth iron
plate fixed along the top of the instrument.
' Planchettes,' or small boards upon which the
piece to be played b pinned (as en a barrel),
are by simple machinery connected with a
handle, made to travel along this plate, the pins
doing the work of the fin^rs upon the levers.
The dynamic shades of piano and forte, accent,
etc., are produced by varying the height of the
pins. In this way a mechaniiid substitute for ex-
pression is obtained. The planchettes may be
endless, and are sold by tne metre or yard.
Perhaps the greatest merit of Debain*s invention
is that his upper system of hammers has the
same 'striking-place' (i.e. measured division of
the string for the impact of the hammers) that
the keyboard hammers have. This is achieved
by moving the latter forward when the me-
PIANO-VIOLIK. 745
ira«- Francis Kdward BadM . . 18SB-18(S
um— Pnuu Beodel 188&-1874
1<4S&— Johannes Brahms .... 18S3—
ISBb— Wflhelmine ClaaM-Szanradr . 189^
1825- Alexander WhUerberger . . ISM—
18a&-1880 Ougliehno Andreoli . . . ISSO—Wtiy
182^ OamiUe 8alnt-8a«ns . . . 1885-
ISM— Joseph Wlenlawskl . . . 1837—
18«— Oonstantin BOrgel . • . 18S7-
1827-1888 Theodore Bitter .... IfiSS—
1827— John Francis Bamett . . . 1838—
1821^1866 ArabeUa Ooddard .... 183f»-
1828-1882 Joseph Bhelnberger . • . 1838-
1888- Frledrich4aemsheim . . . 1B8»-
1828- Peter Tschalkowski . . . IMO-
18S9-1888 Louis Brasstn 1840-
1828-1876 OariTaustg 18<1-U71
1828- Heinrich Hoftnaon . . . 184»-
182»- Caroline Montigny-B^maury . 18«»-
1828- XdvardGileg IMS-
183&- Xdward Dannreutber . . . 1844—
1830- BrikaLie 184&-
IfOO- AnnaMehlig 184«-
1K31— 1868 Xarer Scharweoka . . . 18S0-
1831- Marie Krebs 1881—
1831- MorlU Moszowskl .... 1854-
1832- Nathalie JanotlM .... 1886-
chanical apparatus comes into play. The great
defect of the contrivance is the want of damping
during performance, but the dampers can be
brought down bodily upon the strings by a stop
adjacent to the 'beaks' when the play^ is
over. The additional cost of the planchette
mechanism is 35 guineas ; it does not disfig^ure
the instrument. When appHed by Debahi &
Ck>. to the organ or harmonium it is styled
' Antiphonal.'
The mechanical pianos called 'Handle pianos'
that are so much used in and about London,
come principally from Italy. According to par-
ticulars supplied by Messrs. Imhof & Mukle
of Oxford Street, London, there are about
400 of these instruments in daily use in the
metropolis, ranging in value from £16 to £100.
Some are let upon hire by masters who charge
firom Ss, to i8«. a week for them; but in most
instances they are the property of the Italians
who take them about, the price having been paid
by instalments. These instruments are strongly
noade, to stand hard work and weather ; the felt
hammers have leather coating, and there are
three, and in the treble often four, strinffs to
each note. The action is of the simplest Kind,
the pin of the barrel pressing down a crank,
which gives the blow; a spring causing the im-
mediate return of the hammer. There are no
dampers excepting in a few instances in the
lowest bass notes, and no attempt to regulate the
pinning of the barrel to produce louder or softer
notes. Messrs. Imhof & Mukle make superior me-
chanical pianos with chromatic scale ; tne peram-
bulating ' handle-pianos * having at best a diatonic
scale, with one or two accidentals. [A J'.H.]
PIANO -VIOLIN (Fr. Violin Quatuor ;
Germ. Geigenwerh), Schroeter, the German
claimant to the invention of the pianoforte,
refers in an autobiographical sketch^ to a
' Geigenwerk,' that is fiddle- work, tnsm Nurem-
berg, which partlv solved the problem of a keved
instrument Icapable of more expression than
the clavidiord; but the trouble of working
1 See Dr. Oscar PauTs ' Geaehlohte des CUnrfan^' LeIpKlg, I88S.
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PIANOVIOLIN.
the traadlet— like a weayer's, m he Mdd^was
too great a drawback to its uae. Thii most have
been the * Ntlmbeigisch Ghunbenwerk* of Hmm
Haydn, organist to the ohnroh of St. Sebald,
who made, about i6io, a harprichcnrd-shaped
instrument, strung with catgut. The strmgs
were beneath the soundboard, and were acted
upon by rollers ooyered with rosined parchment.
The roUers were set in motion by a wheel, and
by pressure of keys came in contact with the
strings. The tone was capable of increase and
diminution, and resembled in timbre that of the
Viol dl Gamba — whence the name *Gamben-
werk.' The original idea exists in the Huidy
Gurdy.
A toUanhlj long list of similar experiments
in France, Germany, and eyen Russia^ is to be
found m Welcker^s * Der Clayierbau ' (Frankfort,
1870), p. 163, etc. It appears that Chladni
much fayoured the idea <k a piano yiolin, and
under his auspices one was made in 1795 by
yon Biayer of Grorlits. The form was tnat of
a grand piano ; each key acted upon a catgut
string; and as many hairs as there are in a yiolin
bow were adjusted in a firame for each string,
a pedal setting them in motion. All these at-
tempts howeyer fedled to produce a useful in-
s^imient, from the impossibility of playing with
rapidity : slow moyements alone being insufficient
to sati^ either player or hearer.
At last, in 1865, Hubert CyriUe Baudot in-
troduced one in Paris capable of rapid articula-
tion, and named it ' Piano Quatuor,* patenting it
in England as 'Piano-Violin.* The principle of
Baudot's inyention is yery simple, although the
wbeel-machineiy he employs is complex. The
strings are of wire, as in a pianoforte, but of
greater relatiye thickness, there being one only
to each note. The strings are yertical; and
attached to a nodal, or nearly nodal, point of
each, is a piece of stiff catgut, projecting in front
more than an inch. A roller, coyered with fine
linen and slightly rosined, is made to turn by
means of treadles with great rapidity, just aboye
the catgut ties, but not touching them until the
keys are put down, when they rise into contact
with the roller. Motion is then communicated
through the ties to the wires, and their musical
yibration is excited. The steel string by its
vibrating length and tension determines the
pitch ; the catgut tie giyes it the colour of tone
or Hmbre ; and the impression on the ear is that of
the tone of a yiolin. Still we miss the attack of the
bow, which giyes life to the real quartet. [A. J. BL]
PIATTI, Alfredo, yioloncellist, was bom at
Bergamo Jan. 1822. His father was first yiolin
in the orchestra and 'chapel* of that town (not a
singer as stated by F^tis). In his earliest youth
Piatti had the adyantage of the instruction of
his grand unde Zanetti, an excellent musician
and performer; and he began playing in the
orchestra at the age of seyen. On ZflAetti*s death
he was accepted at the Milan Consenratoire
in 1833, studied under Merighi, and made his
public appearance as a solo peorformer in 1837.
In 1844 Piatti came to England, where he has
PIBBCKSH.
since resided during the musical season. H«
made his first appearance at a concert of th.e
Philharmonic Society on June 24, 1844, in m
concertino by Kummer, his performance of which
at once established his claim to be ranked as an
artist of extraordinary excellenoe.
It is of interest to mention that at this same
concert Mendelssohn played Beethoyen's PF.
Concerto in G immecuately before Piatti ap-
peared ; in ^ite of which the young yiolonoellist
obtained an unqualified success. Mendelaaolm
played with him seyend times in priyate during
this yisit, and is said to haye completed the first
moyement of a concerto for yiolonceOo and
orchestra for him. The MS. howeyer, has not
been found. [See Mevdelssohn, ii. 285 a.] The
instrument ^ (Nicolas Amati) he then used had
been presented to him by Liszt. The 'Times*
thus SDoke of his first appearance. ' Piatti is a
masterly player on the yiolonoello. In tone,
which foreign artists generally want^ he is equal
to lindley in his best days; his execution is
rapid, diyersified, and oertun, and a fitlse note
neyer by any chance is to be heard.*
This criticism has been more than justified
by Piatti*s career, so well known to the musical
world of England, and it is not too much to say
that he has a reputation 8uii>asBed by that of no
other musical aAist. With an absolute command
oyer all the technical difficulties of his instrument
Piatti combines a fikultiess intonation and a rsre
purity of tone which, without any apparent
exertion, neyer £uls to suffidentiy assert itself in
the most delicate passsges, while the exquisite
taste with which he 'phnses* inyests the simplest
melody with infinite charm. £yer since their
commencement in 1859 he has held the post of
yioloncellist at the well-known Monday and
Saturday Popular Concerts, and has perhaps con-
tributed as much as any artist to their deseryed
Signor Piatti is also a composer of no mesn
merit. A concertino and two concertos for
yidoncello with orchestra, and also some gracefol
songs with yidoncello obbligato, are among his
most important original works. He has also done
good seryice in arranging and bringing into notios
many forgotten sonatas by Yeradni, Yalentini,
LocateUiyBoccherini, and other writers for stringed
instruments of the i8th century. [TJPJL]
PIATTI (plates), the Italian equiyalent fer
cymbals. It is the term by which the cymhsls
sre usually designated in a score. ' Sensa piatti*
indicates that the bass-drum is to be played
alone without the cymbals. [V. de P.]
PIBROCH (G^aelic Picbakmchd, apipetune).
A series of yariations for the bagpipe, founded 00
a theme called the ttflar. Pil»ochs are the highest
form of bagpipe music, and are often yeiy diffi-
cult to execute properiy. The yariations, gene-
rally three or four in number, increase in diffi*
culty and speed, until the composition conoludfls
with a creanluidh, or quick moyement. like
all bagpipe music, pibiochs are not written in
any proper scale, and it is impossible to note
1 Now tn th» poMwrioo of tb» writT of thk aotke.
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PJBROCH.
tliem down oorreotlj for Any other instmment,
owing to the peculiarly imperfect tuning of the
bagpipe, and particularly owing to the presenoe
of an extra note between F and Ff, a peculiarity
^which is also found in the Alpenhom. [See
Baopifb and Baks di8 Vaohes.] Pibrochs
are generally of a warlike character, including
TTiftinSieii and dirges ; they often bear the names
of yaxiouB histonoal and legendary events. Thus
* The Baid of Kilchrist ' is ascribed to Mao-
donald of Glengarry's piper, who composed and
performed this pibroch in the year 1603, during
the burning of a church with its whole con-
^rregation ; and the specimen of which a portion
is given below — ' Failte Phroinsa/ the Prince's
Salute — was composed by John Maclntyre, piper
to Menzies of Menzies, on the landing of the
Pretender in 1715. It must not however be
supposed that the music is always contemporary
with the events which the pibrochs commemo-
rate ; foralthough many of them are undoubtedly
of considerable antiquity, yet the names of old
pibrochs which have been lost are often trans-
ferred to new compositions. There are not many
oc^eotions of Highland music, but the best are
those by Patrick Macdonald (ofKilmore), Donald
Macdonald, and Mackay. The following is the
first part of the urlar of a pibroch, and is in-
teresong, as showing the 'warblers' or grace-
notes in which good pipers excel. It must be
remembered that the note represented by F is
rather sharper in the bagpipe.
PICCINNI.
747
LW.B.S.]
PICCINNI, NiocoLA, was bom at Bari, in the
kingdom of Naples, in 1728. Except for the
circumstances wnid^ brought him into rivalry
with Gluck, and the violent warfare waged b€h
tweexL the partisans of the two masters, he is
little remembered now ; yet he was for a con-
siderable time the most popular of Italian operatic
composers.
Tne son of a musician, he was at first intended
by his father for the church, but, as usual, the
attempt to repress a strong natural inclination
only resulted in confirming and strengthening it.
He picked up by ear all the themes he heard, and
learned to play them in secret, while the mere
slg^t of a clavichord was enough to make him
tremble with emotion. At length, at the instance
of the Bishop of Bari, he was sent to the Con-
servatorio of San Onofrio, then presided over by
Leo. He went there at the age of 14, and was
at first instructed by a fnaettrino, a kind of pupil-
teacher, who by his dry dogmatic lessons and
severity only succeeded m dSgusting the gifted
boy, who showed on his part a (Sspodtion to throw
aside all control. Leo averted this by taking
him for his own pupil, and Durante (who, at
Leo^s death, resumed his previous mastership of
San Onofrio) had also an especial affection for
the young student. ' The others are my pupils,'
he was wont to say ; *this one is my son.'
Piooinni quitted the Conservatorio in 1754,
after twelve years of study, and mado his dihut
as a composer with the opera ' Le Donne dispet-
tose,' at the Florentine theatre at Naples. The
success of this piece was remarkable, as Logros-
cino's comic operas had so monopolised the stage
that it was difficult for any others to obtain a
hearing. Equally fortunate were 'Le (xelosie*
and * fi Curioso del proprio danno,* both in the
light oomic style, while *Zenobia' (San Carlo,
1756), and * A lessandro nolle Indie' (Home,
1758)1 not only pleased the public, but showed
advance in power, the last-named opera contain-
ing an overture which was greatly admired.
Piccinni married, in 1756, Yincenza Sibilia, his
pupil, who, to great personal charms, united that
of a beautiful and touching voice. Her husband
would not allow her to appear on the stage. She
was however an exquisite singer in private cir-
cles, and Piccinni, with a wide experience of
prtnuB donne, said he never heard his own airs so
perfectly rendered as by her.
It was at Rome, in 1760, that he produced
'Cecchina, ossia la Buona FigUuola,' perhaps
the most popular hujfo opera that ever existed,
and which for years had a most extraordinary
vogue. It was performed on every stage in
Italy, and on most stages in Europe, and eveiy-
where was received with the same enthusiasm.
At Borne it was played not only at all the prin-
cipal theatres, but at the most insignificant, even
that of the BurcUUni, or marionnettes, and all
classes of people were equally delighted with it.
Fashions were all aUa CeccJiina: inns, shops,
villas, wines — ^in fact all things that could be
named — were called after her. Nor was more
weighty appreciation wantinf^. 'Sarib qualohe
ragazEO o qualche ragazzata ('probably some
boy or boy's work'), said Jommelli, importuned
on his return to Italy from Stuttgard with per-
petual praises of ' La Ceochina ' and its autiior.
He went however to hear the work performed,
and his dictum to the amateurs who crowded
round him at the end to know his opinion,
was ' Asooltate la sentenza d* Jommelli : questo h
inventore* ('Hear the opinion of Jommelli:
this is an inventor'). It is difficult now to
account for the immense preference given to ' La
Ceochina* over other works of the time, although
the airs it contains are lively, as well as graceful
and pleasing. In the next year another triumph
was won by ' L'Olimpiade,' previously set by Leo,
Pergolesi, Galuppi, and Jommelli, but never so
suocessftilly as by Piccinni. Among his other
improvements on existing operatic forms must be
mentioned his eztension of the Duet, hitherto
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746
PICCINNL
treated in tk oonyenticmaly undraiiiAtio way, and
the variety and importanoe he gave to the Finale,
the invention of which, in many movementB, is
however due to Logroscino.^ fiis &me was
equalled by his industry. In the year 1761
alone he wrote six operas, three serious and three
oomic. In 1 7 73 a rival appeared in the p^von of
Anfossi, somedme Picdnni s pupil, and who owed
to him his first theatrical engagement. He was
very far inferior to Piocinni, but his 'Incognita
perseguitata' had a popular success, as had two
or throe weak operas that followed it. The in-
constant Roman public forsook its old favourite ;
an opera of Picdnni's was hissed by Anfossi*8
partisans, and withdrawn. This so affected. the
composer's sensitive nature that, returning to
Naples, he fell seriously iil, and was in danger
for many months. On his recovery he decided
not to return to Rome. • In 1774 he had given
at Naples a second ' Alessandro nolle Indie,' su-
perior to the first ; he now wrote a bt^o opera>
* I viaggiatori,' which had at Naples almost the
success of * La Cecchina * at Rome.
In 1 776 he yielded to invitations and powerful
inducements held out to him to go to Paris,
where, with his family, he arrived in December, on
a promised saUnr of 6000 francs, with travelling
expenses. He/ knew not a word of the French
language, but Marmontel undertook to be his in-
structor, and to make such changes in several
operas of Quinault as should a(hipt them for
modem music. For some time he passed every
morning with Piocinni, explained a scene to him,
taught him to repeat it, marked by signs the
quantity of each word and each syllable, and
then left him to work. The next morning Pic-
dnni sang over to him what he had composed.
His first French opera, ' Roland ' (produced Jan.
17, 1778), was completed after a year's labour of
this kind.
He had not long begun it when the &mous
feud arose, already alluded to, between his ad
mirers and those of Cluck. This great man had
brought about a revolution in IVench serious
opera, worthy in its way to be compared to the
political and social revolution which followed
soon after. He had fireed the tn^c lyrical stage
from a mass of uncouth antediluvian conven-
tionality, and had substituted for it a new and
living form of Art. Like all innovators, he had
enemies, and those who had been disgusted by the
uncompromising fury of his partisans ranged
themselves under Picdnni's banner. A war of
pamphlets and other writings raged unabated for
years. It divided sodety ; the subject was un-
safe. Men met each other for the first time with
the question, almost implying a challenge, 'Sir,
are you Gluckist or Piccinnist ? '
Poor Piccinni, quiet and peaceable, a stranger
to intrigue, kept at a distance from all the tur-
moil, which was such that on the night of the
first performance of ' Roland,' fears were enter-
tained for his personal safety. To the general
surprise, he was brought home in triumph to his
family. The opera had had a complete success,
1 See ToL U. pw 614. note.
PICCINNL
espedal enthusiasm being elidted by the pretty
ballet airs, — a curious fact, as Picdnni had no
sympathy with dancing, and disliked having to
write dance music.
He was in favour with Marie Antoinette, and
gave her two singing-lessons a week at VersaiUes.
The satisfaction of teaching so distinguished a
pupil was supposed to be its own suflSdent reward ;
at any rate he recdved no other paym^it, not
even his travelling expenses.
He was appointed Director of a troupe of Ita-
lian singers engaged to give performances cm
alternate nights at the Grand Opera, and in Uiis
capadty produced 'Le finte Gemelle' (June ii,
1778); 'La buona Figliuola* (Dec. 7, 1778);
' La buona Figliuola maritata' (April 15, 1 779) ;
• II Vago disprezzato ' (May 1 6, 1 7 29). The idea
now occurred to the prindpal director to get two
operas on the same subject firom the &moua
rivals, and ' Iphig^e en Tauride ' was fixed on.
Hie poetical version given to Piccinni to set was
so bad, that after composing the first two acts
he took it to GinguenI, who to a great extent
rewrote the book. Meanwhile the manager, vio-
lating a promise made to Picdnni to the contrary,
had Gluck's 'Iphig^nie* performed first, whidi
met with the brilliant success it deserved. Pic-
dnni in the meantime (Feb. 30, 1780) produced
*Atys,' a grand opera, superior to 'Kcdand';
some numbers of which, espedally the 'Choros
of Dreams,* were for many years very popular at
concerts ; and ' Ad^e de Ponthieu,' a lyric tra-
gedy (Oct. 3 7, X 78 1 ). His ' Iphig^nie,' produced
Jan. 23, 1 78 1, contained many b^uties. It had
small chance of succeeding after Gluck's, but was
fairly well recdved in spite of the untoward in-
ddent which marred its second representation.
No sooner had Mile. Laguerre, the IphigHiie of
the evening appeared on the scene, than it be-
came painfully evident that she was intoxicated.
She got through the part without breaking down,
but the luckless composer heard Sophie Amould's
hon mot going firom mouth to mouth, ' C*est Iphi-
g^e en Champagne.' The opera had, however,
seventeen consecutive performances.
Gluck had left Paris in 1 780, but a new rival
now appeared in Sacchini, whose ' Renaud' (Feb.
28, 1783) had considerable success. 'Didon,*
reckoned Piocinni's beet French opera, was first
produced, by command, before the court at F<m-
tainebleau (Oct. 16, 1783), and afterwards at the
Grand Op^ra, where it kept the boards till Feb.
8, 1826— its 250th representation. At the same
thne the smaller works of ' Le Dormeur ^veill^'
and ' Le Faux Lord' were being performed by the
Italian company and were very popular. About
this time a school for singing was established in
Paris, of which Piccinni was appointed prindpal
master, and which showed the results of his
training in an excellent performance of' Roland*
by the pupils. But the tide of fortune seemed
now to turn against him. *Lucette* and 'Le
Mensonge Officieux' fiuled in 1786 and 1787.
'Diane et Endymion' and 'P^n^lope* had met
with the same fate not long before. He was
not, however, embittered by these reverses.
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PIOCINNL
When Saoobini clied, of vexation and diBappoini-
menty Piocinni pronounced his funeral oration,
full of delicate and discriminating praise of all
that was best in his works. When Gluck died,
in 1787, Piocinni was anxious to found, by sub-
scription, an annual concert in memory of the
great man 'to whom,* he wrote, 'the lyrical
theatre is as much indebted as is the French
stage to the great Comeille.* From lack of sup-
port, the proposal was not carried out.
'Clytemnestra,' a serious opera, fSuled to ob-
tain a representation, and when the Revolution
broke out in 1789, and he lost his pension, he
returned to Naples. Here he was well received
by the king, who gave him another pension.
Some of his old works were performed, as well
as an oratorio, 'Jonathan' and a new huffo
opera, ' La Serva onorata.* But he got into
trouble owing to the marriage of one of his
daughters with a young Frenchman of avowed
Liberal (pinions, was denounced as a Jaco-
bin, di^praced at Court, and his next opera
purposely hooted down. An engagement to
compose two operas at Venice gave him the
opportunity- of absenting himself but when, at
the end of some months, he was foolish enough
to return to Naples, he was immediately pla(^
by the first minister, Acton, in a kind of arrest,
aSod forbidden to leave his house. There he re-
mained, in misery and indigenoe, for four years.
He had previously heard that all the property
he had left in France was lost, that a friend for
whom he had become security was bankrupt,
and that all his scores had been sold to pay this
man*s debts. He now supported himself and
beguiled the time by composmg music to several
Psalms, translated into Italian by Saverio Mattei.
The convents and churches for which these were
written became possessors of the original soores,
as he was too poor to have them copied.
The treaty of peace with the French Republic
brought hope for him. The ambassador. Can-
claux, procured for him the means of communi-
cating with his friends in Paris, and David, the
fiunous singer, got him an offer of an engage-
ment at Venice. With some difficulty a passport
was procured for him by Graret, successor to
Oanclauz, and Lach^ze, secretary of legation,
who also furnished him with the means of going,
he being absolutely penniless. At Rome he
was f§ted by the French Fine Arts Commission,
and persuaded to go direct to Paris, where he
airived on Dec. 3, 1798. The annual distri-
bution of prizes in the Conservatoire occurred
next day, and Piocinni was invited to be pre-
sent. He was conducted on to the stage and
presented to the public amid deafening applause.
5000 fr. were granted him for his immediate
necessities, as well as a small pension. This was,
however, most irresfularly paid, and when some
nionths later his utmily arrived, in utter desti-
tution, from Naples, whence they had had to
fl^ in the wake of the French army, poor Pic-
cmni found himself again in almost desperate
droomstances. His troubles brought on an
attack of paralysis, from which he did not re-
PICCINNI.
749
cover tas some months. Many melancholy MS.
letters of his are extant, showing to what a
miserable state he was reduoed. Some are ad-
dressed to Bonaparte, praying that his pension
might be paid, for the sake of the many de-
pendent on him. Bonaparte showed him kind-
ness, and paid him 35 louis for a militaiy march.
A sixth inspector's place was created for him
in the Conservatoire, but he was now again
prostrated bv severe illness, aggravated by the
treatment of surgeons who bl^ him recklessly.
He rallied, however, and went to Passv, in the
hope of recovering his strength, but oesh do-
mestic anxieties pursued him, and he succumbed
on May 7, 1600. He was buried in the com-
mon cemetery (which has since been sold), and
a stone was placed over him by friends.
His place in the Conservatoire was given ^to
Monsigny, on condition that half the salary
attached to it should be paid to Mme. Picdnni
during her life, she, in return, instructing four
pupils of the Conservatoire in singing.
Piocinni was a good husband and father, and
a man of most mild and amiable temper. Where
art was concerned, he could be finn. Unlike
many other composers he would never yield to
the caprices of imperious prime donne, by alter-
ing his music to suit their fancies.
EEis Paris scores are much more fully ordies-
trated than those of his earlier Italian works,
and show in this the influence both of the
French and the Gennan spirit. He was, how-
ever, opposed to innovation. It is interesting
to read, in Ginguen^'s life of him, his views on
this question. His strictures on elaborate ac-
companiments, over- orchestration, profuse modu-
lation, etc., are, with a mere difference of degree,
the very same as those we hear at this day from
writers who represent the conservative side of
Art.
That he should ever have been opposed, on
equal terms, to Gluck, seems now incredible.
Yet by numbers of contemporaries— critical and
cultivated — ^he was reckoned Gluck*s equal, and
his superior by not a few. But his art was of a
kind that adapts itself to its age ; Gluck's the
art to which the age has, in time, to adapt itself.
Novelty brings such an unavoidable shock, that
originality may find itself, for the time, in oppo-
sition to 'good taste,' and the vero be less readily
accepted than the ben trovato, Picdnni was no
discoverer, but an accomplished and successful
cultivator in the field of Art.
A complete list of his very numerous works is
to be found in F^tis's 'Biographic des Musiciens.'
They comprise 80 operas — Guinguen^ says 133 —
sevOTal oratorios, and numy long pieces of church
music.
Piccinnl left two sons, the second of whom,
LuDOYioo, bom at Naples in 1 766, learned music
from his father and followed it as a career. He
followed his father to Paris in 1783, and after a
long and checkered life died there on July 31,
1837. He wrote many operas, but they are dis-
missed by F^tis as works of no value. Certainly
none of them have survived. The elder son,
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PIOCINNI.
GiusKPFB, !■ known only throngli his natanl
•on, Louis Albxavdbb, born at Paris Sept. lo,
1779, a oompoter of more than 200 pieces for the
stage, as wdl as of 25 oomic operas, of which a
list is given by F^tis. [F. A. M.]
PICCO, an Italian peasant (adTertised as ' the
Sardinian minstrel *) who appeared in London in
1856 — first at Ck)vent Garden, Feb. ai, and after-
wards very often during the season — and per-
formed wiUi immense execution and 'astonishing
facility, to say nothing of delicacy, taste, and
feeling,* upon a * tibia, or whistle, as described
in the following article. He was then 2$ years
of age, and of very prepossessing appearance, and
had been blind from his birth. His tone is de-
scribed as 'between that of a flageolet and a
flauto piccolo ; at times somewhat shrill, at others
as soft and suave as possible.' Like GusiKOW, he
was evidently a bom genius, and we resret that
we can obtain no information as to what hap-
pened to him before or after his appearance
here. [G.]
PICGO PIPE. A small and nnimportant
member of the family of JHUea d b6o. It owes
whatever musical significance it may possess to
the efibrts of the single exceptional player named
in the preceding article. It is stated that this per-
former was able to produce firom it a compass
of three octaves. Ijie only other importance
which it displays is due to its extreme simplicity.
Perhaps no wind instrument ever constructed
exhibits such limited mechanism. It consists,
as usually made, of a box-wood tube 3} inches
long. Of this, I i inches are occupied by a mouth-
piece, common to it and to the penny whistle,
the flageolet, iheJliUs d bee, and the diapason pipe
of the organ. The remaining two inches form
all the modulative apparatus required. This
consists of three lateral holes ; two in front, one
at the back, for the thumb and two first fingers
of either hand, and an expanded bell, spreamng
to I- of an inch in diameter. It is obvious that
some additional device is necessary to complete
even the simplest and most rudimentary diatonic
scale. This is furnished by first using it as a
stopped pipe ; the bell being blocked, wholly or
paAoally, by the pabn of the hand, twelve semi-
tones beinff so pit)duced ; then as an open pipe,
giving ei^t consecutive notes ; and lastly, oy
overblowing on the first harmonic of a stopped
pipe (the 1 2th), obtaining again with a stopped
bell six more semitones. Besides these, some
intermediate sounds are indicated by half stopping
holes, or bv forcing the wind, according as the
vibrations have to be slackened or accelerated.
The compass is usually 36 semit^mes, and is
made to commence with B below the treble stave ;
rising to C above it (i). The lowest note is only
to ^ obtained by covering the bell with the
palm of the hand and closing all the holes. At
B (a) the open scale commences, and at G (3) the
0) If: 0) (3)^
harmonic. It is obvious that this notation is at
PIOOOLO.
best only approximative, and at least aa oetave
lower than the real sounds emitted. Probably C
is the fundamental note of the instrument, de-
pressed somewhat by the irregular form of the
sounding tube. It is just possible that this
primitive contrivance may throw light on
of the three and four-holed flutes of anti^ty.
[See Flute.] [W.H.Bw]
PICCOLO (i.e. Italian for « Utile*), an abbre-
viation for Flauto Piccolo, usually applied to
the Octave Flute, otherwise called Ottaviko, from
its tonal relation to the larger instruments, of
which it occupies the supenor octave. Small
flutes and fifes have been made in many keys ;
those now most commonly in use are the D and
Eb piccolos. The former name is correct; it being
the super-octave of the ordinary flute, which has
been shown to stand in the key of D. Hie D
piccolo, however, is not furnished with the ad-
ventitious keys of C, Bt (and sometimes B^X
which give the flute three or four semitones below
its natural keynote. The so-called Eb piccolo is
really in Db, as can be easily demonstrated by
attempting to play on it music written for the Eb
clarinet, which actually stands in the key named ;
when it will be found to differ by a whole tone.
The French scorers very propeily term it ' Petite
fldte en B^b.' Its use is now entirely limited to
military bands, which habitually play in flat
keys. The peculiar tonality thus adopted ex-
punges five flats from the signature; enabling
the instrument to avoM many mechanical dif-
ficulties, and to range around the lower sharp
and flat keys firom D to Eb, in which its in-
tonation is most correct.
Its Oompass is from D or Db within the UMe
stave to at least A in altissimo (a octaves and
5 notes), or even higher in the hands of a good
player. It is customary to write for it an
octave lower than the sound really produced.
It is, with the exception of the higher har-
monic notes of the violin, by far the most acote
instrument used in orchestxtd music ; its sounds
being much more powerful and piercing than
the corresponding notes developed by a string.
On the otner himd, its lowest octave is feeble
and devoid of character.
The piccolo appears to have been a favourite
with composers, and especially with Beriioz;
whose account of its musical value is so ex-
haustive as to render others unnecessary. He
points out its use by Gluck ; by Beethoven in
the Storm of the Pastoral Symphony, to repro-
duce the whistling of the wind ; by Weber in
the drinking song of Der Freischiitz, and by
others; though he omits Handel's wonderfol
accompaniment to the bass song, 'Oh ruddier
than the cheny ' in 'Ads and Galatea,' where
the essentially pastoral quality of the little in-
strument is admirably developed. He advocatei^
very justly, the orchestral use of the so*caDed
Eb piccolo, sounding the minor ninth above the
violins, which in the key of Eb would be playing
in its best key, that of D major. BerHos's
remarks upon the Tierce flute, giving Eb for C,
and usually caUed the flute in F, and on the tenth
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PICCOLO.
piooolo in Eb Ymisonous with the clarinet in Eb
alt, but oommonly named pioc(^ in F— deeenre
careful study. [W.H.S.]
PICCOLO PIANO, alow upright pianoforte
introduoed by Bobert Womum of London in
1839. Hie novelty consiBted first in its small
nze, and then in the appUoation of a new action
invented by £obert Womum and patented three
years before. [See Pianoforte.] Though the
strings were placed vertically, the height of the
Piccolo piano did not exceed 40 indbes. The
Ihdle touch guned by the new mechanism soon
Attracted the attention of the musical public, and
-with its long since proved durability has made it
a ftkvourite model of action for the manufacturers
of the present day both here and abroad. The
* piccolo ' was finished to stand out in the room
away from the wall ; its original price was 36
g:uineas. [A.J.H.]
PICCOLOMINI, Mabia, bom 1834 at Siena,
of the well-known Tuscan fiunily. Being pas-
sionately fond of music she determined to Income
a public singer ; and in spite of (^position from
her &mily, studied under Signers Mazsarelli and
Fietro Koroani, both of Florence, and made
her d^ut in 1852 at La Pergola as Lucrezia
Borgia ; she afterwards played at Rome, Siena^
Bol^B^na, etc., and in 1855 at the Carignan Thea-
tre, Turin, as Violetta in * La Traviata»' on its
production there, and was highly successful.
She made her d^ut in London at Her Majesty's
niefttre. May 34, 1856, in the tame opera, then
produced for the first time in EngUmd. She
immediately became the fashion, partly on account
of her charming little figure, and clever, real-
istic acting— eq>ecially in the last act» where
she introduced a consumptive cou^ ; and partly
perhaps on account of the plot of the opera»
which excited much indignation and a warm
newspaper controversy.^ She next played Maria,
in thef%glia,and Norma, with fi^r success. What-
ever might be the merits of her acting, of her sing-
ing there were many adverse opinions ; for instance,
Ghorley writes 'Her voice was weak and limited,
a mecBo-soprano hardly one octave and a half in
compass. She was not sure in her intonation,
she had no execution .... Her best appearance
was in La Traviata.' He admits that Mdlle.
Piooolomini * had the great gi ft of speaking Italian
with a beautiful easy finished pronunciation such
as few have possessed, and so for a while she
prevailed where less appetiriug pretenders to
favour had fidled.* She afterwanls played at
the Th^tre des Italiens, Paris. Mdlle. Picco-
lomini reappeared for the seasons of 1857 and
58 at Her Majesty's, and added Adina (L*£lisir)
(described by Mr. Henry Morley' as one of
her best act^ parts), Z^lina and Susanna of
Mosart ; Arline in the Italian version of * The
Bohemian Girl*; Lucia, in ' Luisa Miller,* on the
production of that opera June 8, 1858; and 'La
1 Thto dnnm wm formerly forbldd«n on th« Rngllsh tta«e ; bat
■me. ModUesloL, the Polish Mtrett, hM plared in a modifled Terston
of the mme M Um Court Thoatre durtnc Um a«Mon of ia» wlUi r«r7
great tuooeM.
t •BocoUecUons of an Old Playgoer.'
PIECS.
751
ServaPadrona' of Paisiello, July 5, 58.* She then
went to America, and made a great success.
In 59 she pla]red a short engagement at Brury
Lane with diminished e£foct, and for a few nights
in 60 at Her Majesty's, and took farewell of the
stage April 33, as Almjna, in a new opera of
that name by Campana, and in a duet ttom
' I Martiri ' with Giuglini. Soon after tins she
married the Marohese Gaetani. She nevertheless
returned to the stage for four nights in 1863, and
generously gave her services in aid of the benefit
organised at Brury Lane for her old manager
Lmnley, having tmvelled to England for that
express purpose. [A.C.]
PICHEL, Wbnzbl, good violinist and prolifio
composer, bom 1740 at Bechin, Tabor, Bohemia.
Having received a good education, general and
musical, he went to Prague to study philosophy
and theology at the university, and counterpoint
under Segert. Here he formed a friendship
with Bitt^sdorf, who engaged him as first violin
in the band of the Bishop of Grosswardein.
Having spent two years as Musikdirector to
Count Louis von Hurtig in Plague, he entered
the orchestra of the court theatre at Vienna, and
was sent thence, on the recommendation of the
Empress, to Milan, as compositure di musica to
the Archduke Ferdinand. He now took as mudi
pains in perfecting himself by intercourse with
Nardini, as he had previously done in the case
of Bittersdorl He visited all the principal
cities of Italv, and was elected a member of
the Filarmomci both of Bologna and Mantua.
The occupation of Milan by the French in 1796
drove the Archduke back to Vienna, and Pichel
not only accompanied him, but remained in his
service till his death on Jan. 33, 1805, in spite of
an ofler twice renewed of the poet of Imperial
CapeUmeister at St. Petersburg. Pichel's industry,
was extraordinary, and that his compositions
were popular is proved by the fact that a large
part of them were published in Paris, London,
Amsterdam, Berlin, Offenbach, and Vienna. He
sent a complete list in 1803 to Blabacz, the
Bohemian lexicographer, who inserted it in his
'AUgem. hist. Kiinstler • Lexicon ftir Bohmen*
(Prague, 18 15). An abstract of the extraordinary
catalogue is given by F^tis and Gerber. The
works — neariy 700 in number — include 88
symphonies; I3 8erenatas; violin-concertos and
solos; duets, trios, quartets and quintets for
strings; concertos for various wind instnunents;
sonatas, etc., for PF. ; 1 4 masses, and many church
works of various kinds; 35 operas to German,
Latin, French, and ItaUan librettos; and 'Sei
Ariette,' words by Metastasio, op. 43 (Vienna,
Eder). For Prince Esterhazy he composed 148
pieces for the baryton in several parts ; and in
addition to all wrote a Bohemian translation of
Mozart's Zauberfiote. [C. F. P.]
PIECE. This word, which in the 17th and
1 8th centuries was used generally for a literaiy
composition (for examples see the criticisms in
s Havlnf rang the matio prevtoualy at Mr. Benedict*! annual con-
oert. Juno 81. at the saoM theatre.
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PIECE.
the Spectator, yoIb. 4 and 5, on ' Paradise Lost,*
whicOii is constantly spoken of as ' that sublime
piece'), and in later times for a dramatic work,
has sinoe the end of the last century been implied
to instrumental musical compositions as a general
and untechnical term. The earliest appHcation
of the word in this sense is to the component
parts of a suite, which artf called pieces (compare
the French ' Suite de pieces'). It is not as a rule
Implied to movements of sonatas or symphonies,
unlees such movements are isolated from their
surroundings, and played alone : nor is it applied
to the symphonies or sonatas taken as a whole.
An exception to this rule is found in the direction
at the beginning of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 27,
No. 3 — 'Si deve suonare tutto questo pezzo
(the first movement, of course) delicatissima-
mente e senza sordini.' It is not used of vocal
music, except in the cases of portions of operas,
such as finales etc. for many voices, to which the
name * Concerted piece,* ' ^ezzo concertante,' is
not unfrequently given. Cognate uses are found
in most modem languages: the French using
pi^ or morceau, the Germans Stiick, MiuikstUck,
the Italians pezzo, [J.A.F.M.]
PIENO, * full.' Examples of the use of this
direction may be found in Handel's organ con-
certo, where 'Organo pieno' denotes that the
organ part is to be played with full harmonies,
as well as what is now called 'full,* Le. with the
full force of the stops. [J.A.F.M.]
PIEKSON, Henry Hugo, was bom at Oxford
on April la, 1815. He was the son of the Rev.
Dr. Pearson, of St. John's College, afterwards
Chaplain to George IV and Dean of Salisbury.
He was sent to Harrow School, where he gave
proof of the possession of no common abilities,
gaining the Governors* prize for Latin hexa-
meters. From Harrow he proceeded toTrinity
College, Cambridge, intending, at that time, to
take a medical degree. His genius, however, de-
veloped so rapidly as to make it evident that
music was his destined career. He received his
first instruction from Attwood, and was also in-
debted to Arthur Corfe. His first musical publi-
cation was a series of six songs entitled 'Thoughts
of Melody * — the words by Byron — written while
an undergraduate at Cambridge.
Mr. Pearson went to Germany for the first
time in 1839, and studied under C. H. Rink,
Tomaschek, and Reissiger. At Leipzig he had
much intercourse with Mendelssohn, and during
his residence in Germany also became ac-
quainted with Meyerbeer, Spohr, and Schumann.
Schumann reviewed the al)ove- mentioned six
songs most favourably in his ' Neue Zeitschrift
fUr Musik.* In 1844 Pearson was elected to the
Reid Professorship of Music in the university of
Edinburgh, in succession to Sir Henry Bishop;
but this post he very soon resigned, and returned
to Grermany, which from that time he virtually
adopted as his country, changing his name frx>m
Henry Hugh Pearson to that given above. He
had marri^ Caroline Leonhardt, a ladv distin-
guished by varied gifts and literary productions ;
PIERSON.
and the sympathy thenceforward accorded to his
genius in continental society was undoubtedly
more congenial to his feelings than the slight
i^preoiation he received from Finglish critics.
His first important work was the opera ' Lefla,*
which was brought out at Hamburg with great
success in Feb. 1848. From this opera may be
instanced a striking song for bass voioe, *Thy
heart, 0 man, is Uke the sea.' Much of his
music at this time was published under the «io»
deplume of ' Edgar Mansfeldt.'
In 1853 appeared his best work, the oratorio
'Jerusalem.* This was composed for the Nor-
wich Festival, and was performed there on Sept.
23 in that year with remarkable effect, llie
overture, the airs 'Of the rock that begat thee*
and * 0 that my head were waters,' the air and
chorus 'What are these,* the quintet 'Blessed
are the dead,* and the chorus * The Eternal God
is thy refiige,* are some of the most interesting
numbers. The oratorio was repeated at Exeter
Hall on May 18, 1853, by the 'Harmonic
Union,* and was given again in 1863 at Wurtz-
burg. An elabonite criticism of 'Jerusalem,*
frt>m the pen of Dr. G. A. Mac&rren, was pub-
lished in the 'Musical Times' of Sept. I, 1853.
Pierson's next woric was the music to the
second part of (^oethe's ' Faust,* composed in 1854,
which added greatly to his reputation in Gennany .
It was repeatedly performed at Hamburg, and
a selection from it, including the noble chorus
'Sound, immortal harp,' was given at Uie Nor-
wich Festival of 1857. In acknowledgment of
the merit of this composition, the author received
the Grold Medal for Art and Science from the
Ute King of the Belgians, Le(^ld I, who ac-
cepted the dedication of the pianoforte score.
It has been performed several times at Frankfort
and other places, on successive anniversaries of
Goethe's birthday. Pierson was requested to
write for the Norwich Festival of 1869, and
offered a selection from a second oratorio, 'Heze-
kiah.' This work, unfortunately, was never
completed ; but several numbers were performed
on the above-named occasion in Sept. 1869.
'Contarini,' an opera in five asts, produced ik
Hamburg in April 1873, was Pierson s last work
on a large scale.
To those already mentioned, however, must be
added a very large number of songs, written at
different dates, and bearing, on the whole, more
than any other of his works, the stamp of his
characteristic style and delicate invenUon. As
good examples may be cited ' Deep in my socd,*
'Thekla's Lament,' and 'All my heart's thine
own.' His spirited part-song 'Ye mariners of
England' is constantly performed. He left a
vast number of woxks in manuscript, including
several overtures, three of which — those to ' Mac-
beth,' ' As you like it,' and ' Romeo and Juliet^'
have been performed at the Crystal Palace
Concerts.
He died at Leipzig Jan. 38, 1873, and lies
buried in the churchyard of Sonning, Berks.
His death called forth remarkable tributes from
the German musical press, showing the high
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PIEBSON.
estimation in which he is held in the Land of
llf nsic. A Leipzig journal published on the day
after his death, after speaking of him as a 'great
artist, whose striyings were ever after the noblest
ends/ continues as follows : * Holding no musical
appointment, and consequently without influence ;
highly educated, but, after the fiuhion of true
genius, somewhat of a recluse, and withal unprac-
tical, he did not know how to make his glorious
works valued. He showed himself seldom, though
his appearance was poetic and imposing ; and he
was such a player on both organ and pianoforte
as is rarely met with.' [H.P.]
PIETRO IL GRANDE. • A new grand his-
torical opera*; words by Desmond Kyan and
Maggioni, mudo by JuUien. Produced at Covent
Garden Aug. 17, 1853. [G.]
PIFFERO is really the Italian form of the
English word Fift, and the €rerman Pfeift, In
the *Dizionario della Musica' it is described as
a small flute with six finger-holes and no keys.
But the term is also commonly used to denote a
rude kind of oboe, or a bagpipe with an inflated
sheepskin for reservoir, common in Italy, and
occasionally to be seen about the streets of London,
the players being termed Pifierari. [See PiiS-
TOBAL STMPHONT. Vol. U. p. 67O 6.]
Spohr, in his Autobiography (Dec. 5, 1816),
quotes a tune which he says was played all over
Rome at that season by Neapolitan pipers, one
playing the melody on a sort of ' coarse powerful
oboe/ the other the accompaniment on a bagpipe
sounding like three clarinets at onoe. We give
a few bfurs as a specimen.
piNSun.
758
It is a veiy different tune from Handel's
•Pastoral Symphony.' [W.HJ3.]
PIGGOTT, Fbanois, Mus. Bao., was appointed
Jan. 18, 1686, organist of Magdalen College,
Oxford, which office he resigned in 1 68 7. He was
chosen. May 25, 1688, first organist of the Temple
Church. On Dec. x i, 1695, he was sworn organist
eztraordinaiy of the Chapel Royal, and on March
94, 1697, on the death of Dr. ChQd, organist in
ordinary. He graduated at Cambridge in 1698.
He composed some anthems, now forgotten, and
died May 15,1 704. He was succeeded as oiganist
of the iWpIe by his son, Francis, afterwards
organist of St. George's, Chapel, Windsor, who
became possessed of a 1m^ fortune on the death
of hii relation. Dr. John Polling, rector of St.
Anne's, Soho, and died in 1736. [W.H.H.]
TOL. n. FT. I a.
PILGRIME VON MEKKA, DIE. A comic
opera, translated firom Dancourt's * Rencontre im-
pr^vue,' set to music by Gluck, produced at
SchOnbrunn 1766, and revived 1780. One lur in
it, * Unser dummer Pobel meint,' Mozart has res-
cued from oblivion by writing a set of variations
upon it (Kocbel, No. 455). He improvised them
at Madame Lange's concert, March a a, 1783, in
Gluck's presence. [G.]
PILKINGTON, Fbaitois, Mus. Bao., Oxon.
I595t was a lutenist and member of the choir
of Chester Cathedral. In 1605 he published
* The First Booke of Songs or Ayres 0/4 parts :
with Tableture for the Lute or Orpharion, with
the YioU de Gamba.' In 1613 he issued 'The
First Set of Madrigals and Pastorals of 3, 4 and
L parts,' and in 1014 contributed two pieces to
nghton's ' Teares or Lamentacions.' In 1624
he published *The Second Set of Madrigals and
Pastorals of 3, 4, 5 and 6 parts ; apt for Violls
and Yoyoes'; on tibe title of which he describes
himself as ' Chaunter of the Cathedrall ... in
Chester.' A part-song by him, ' Rest, sweet
Nymphs,' is mcluded by Mr. Hullah in his
• Vocal Scores/ [W.H.H.]
PINAFORE, H.M.S. A comic opera in a
acts ; words by W. S. Gilbert, music by Arthur
Sullivan. Produced at the Opera Comique,
Strand, May 35, 1878. The success of this piece
has been prodigious : in London it celebrated its
ao9th night at the Opera Comique on the 24th
Oct. 1880 ; and in America no piece is ever re-
membered to have had such an extraordinary
and long continued reception. It is said to have
been on the stage at four theatres at once, in
New York alone, for months together. [G.]
PINSUTI, CiBO (II oayaliebb), native of
Sinalimga, Siena, where he was bom May 9,
1820. He was grounded in music and the piano
by his father; at ten he played in public; at
eleven, being in Rome, he was made honorary
m^nber of the Accademica Filarmonica, and
was taken to England by Mr. Henry Drum-
mond, M.P., in whose house he resided until
1845, studying the pianoforte and composition
under Cipnam Potter, and the vidin under H.
Blagrove. In 1845 he returned home, and
ent^^ the Conservatorio at Bologna, where he
attracted the notice of Rossini, and became his
private pupil. In 1847 ^® ^^^ ^^ degree at
Bologna, and remained there another year under
Rossini's eye. In 1848 he went back to England
and started as a teacher of singing, dividing his
time between London and Newcastle, where he
founded a Musical Society which still exists.
Since that time Mr. Pinsuti s head-quarters have
been in London, though he keeps up his connection
with Italy by frequent visits. Tikus he brought
out Ids first opera, * II Mercante di Venezia,' at
Boloffna, Nov. 8, 1873, ^^'^ * second, ' Mattia
Corvmo,' at the Scala at Milan, March 34, 1877.
Both operas have been very successful in Italy,
and the theatre at Sinalunga is now the * Teatro
CSro Pinsuti. ' In 1 859 he oompoeed the Te Deum
tat the annexation of Tuscany to the Italian
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PINSUTL
kingdom, and was deoor^tfod with the order of
SS. Maurioe and Lmmub. In 1878 King Hnm-
bert farther created him a knight of the Italian
crown. In 1871 he was selected to represent
Italy at the opening festiTal of the International
Exhibition, and oontributed a hymn in A b to
words by Lord Houghton, beginning, ' O people
of this favoured land.*
In London Mr. Pinsnti is well and widely
known. Since 1856 he has been professor of
singing at the Boytd Academy of Musio. In addi-
tion to a large drole of pupils of all ranks, many
eminent artists have profited by his counsels, as
Grisi, Bosio, Patti, Bonconi, Graziani, Mario, etc
His worlis are largely diffused, and his charm-
ing part-songs, full of melody and spirit, are fl;reat
favourites with the singing societies of England.
The list of his published composiiions embraces
more than 230 songs, EngUim and Italian, 35
duets, 14 trios, 45 part-songs and choruses, and
30 PF. pieces, the Te Deum and the opera *I1
Mercante di Venezia* already mentioned. [G.]
PINTO, Thomas, son of a Neapolitan of good
fiEunily, bom in England, at 11 played Ck)rdli's
concertos, and led the concerts in St. G«cilia*s
Hall in Edinburgh. His reading at sight was
marvellous ; he would even turn the book upside
down, and play correctly firom it in that posi-
tion. His great gifts inclined him to careless-
ness, firom which he was fortunately roused by the
appearance of Giardini. After 1 750 he played
frequently as leader and soloist in benefit con-
certs, at the Worcester and Hereford Festivals,
at Drury Lane Theatre, and, after Giardini, at
the King s Theatre. His first wife was Sibilla
Gronamann, daughter of a German pastor ; after
her death he married (1766) Miss Brent, the
celebrated singer, who died iU 1802. [See A-p-
pendix.] A speculation with regard to Maiyle-
bune Ganlens, into which he had entered with
Dr. Arnold, failed, and he took refuge in Scot-
land, and finally in Ireland, where ne died in
1773. A daughter by his first wife married a
Londoner named Sauters, and had a son
Georob Frederic, bom Sept. 35, 1786, at
Lambeth, who took Us grand£Etther*B name. He
early showed a decided talent for music, and the
education and progress of the pretty and lively
boy were watched over with the greatest interest
by his gifted grandmother. His first teachers
were soon outstripped, and then Salomon proved
a first-rate master and tme friend. From 1796
to 1800 the young Pinto frequently appeared at
Salomon's concerts, and afterwards under his
wing at Bath, Oxford, Cambridge, Winchester,
and speciallv in Scotland. A second and longer
tour extended to Paris. Besides playing the
violin, be sang with taste, and made consider-
able progress on the pianoforte, for which he
composed, ameng other music, a sonata dedicated
to his friend John Field. In 1805 his health,
never strong, suddenly broke down, having been
undermined by excesses, and he died at Little
Chelsea, March 23, 1806. His remains lie in
St. Margaret's, Westminster, beneath the same
monument with those of his grandmother. Pinto's
PIPES, VIBRATION OF AIB IN.
technique was perfect, and his tone full, puwet^
fill and touching. Salomon, a shrewd observe,
declared that if he had only been able to 000-
trol his passions, he might have been a seoood
Mezart. [C.F.P.]
PIOZZI, Gabriel, a Floroitine of good birth,
who, prior to 1781, had established himaelf in
Bath as a music master. He numbered among
his pupils the daughters of Henry Thnde, the
opulent brewer, and whilst engaged in instracting
them won the heart of their widowed mother,
whom he married in 1784, a proceeding which
drew down upon the lady the wrath of Dr.
Johnson, who had been for ao years the cherished
guest of Thrale and herself. After his marriage
Piozzi visited Italy with his wife, and. retaining
to England, lived with her in unintermpted
happiness until his death, which occurred at his
residence, Brynbela, Denbighshire, in March,
1809. A Canzonet of his composition for a so-
prano voice, called ' La Contradizzionet,' is printed
in the Musical Library, vol iv. [W.H.H.]
PIPE and TABOB. The pipe fonneriy used
with the tabor was of the old English pattern,
somewhat larger than the modem flageolet,
blown at the end, as already described under
Flute, and played by the left hand. The tabor
was a diminutive drum, without snares, hung
by a short string to the waist or left ann,
and tapped with a small drumstick. There is
a woodcut of William Kemp the actor playing
pipe and tabor in his Morris dance to Norwidi,
and another of Tarleton, the Elizabethan jester,
in the same attitude. The writer is informed by
Mr. William Chappell that Hardman, a music-
seller at York, described the instruments to him
fifty years ago as above, adding that he had sold
them, and that country people still occasionally
bought them. [W.H.S.]
PIPES, VIBRATION OF AIR IN, maybe
illubtrated by a simple experiment. If a piece of
stout tubing, from a foot to two feet long, be
taken, of an inch or more in diameter, its ends
smoothed and rounded, it will furnish all the
apparatus required. Holding it in one hand« and
striking the open end smartly with the palm of
the other, sufiacient vibration will be excited in
the contained air to produce a distinct musical
note, often lasting a second or more, long enough
for its pitch to be heard and determined. I^
after striking, the hand be quickly removed, a
second note is heard to follow the first at the
interval of an octave above. In the former csis
the pipe vibrates as what is termed a ' stopped
pipe' with one end closed, in the latter case ss sn
* open pipe.' All the various forms of pipe used
in the organ and elsewhere, differ from this rudi-
mentary form only in having a more complex
mechanism for originating and maintaining the
musical vibration.
When both ends of the tube are open, a pube
travelling backwards and forwards within it is
completely restored to its original state after
travening twice the length of the tube, suffering
in the process two reflections ; but when one end
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PIPES, VIBRATION OF AIE IN.
is doeed, a double passage is not suffident to
complete the cyde of changes. The original
state cannot be recovered until two reflections
have occurred firom the open end, and the pulse
has travdled over four times the length of the
pipe. To make the unstopped tube in the above
experiment yidd the same note as the stopped, it
would be necessary to give it double the length.
This law is universal, and may easily be ex-
plained.
Vibration may be set up in the column of air
otherwise than by the blow above described. If
a centle stream of breath firom the lips be sent
otwqudy across the open end of either an open
or a stopped tube, an audible note results ; indeed
a common instrument, the Pandean pipe, acts on
Uus principle. [See Pandban Pipes. J This may
be also seen in the Nay or Egyptian Flute
figured under that heading. In the organ pipe,
a more complicated arrangement occurs. From
the wind-chest a tube leads into a cavity, the
only outlet of which is a linear crack forming the
foot of the pipe. Just over this fissure, the wood
or inetal is cut away so as to leave a feather-
edged portion communicating with the interior
of the pipe, and exactly splitting the stream of
wind. An explanation has of late been tendered
as to the action here set up. The flat plate of
compressed air blown througn the slit is compared
to tne elastic material of a vibrating reed. In
passing across the upper orifice it momentarily
produces a dight exhaustive or suctional effect,
tending to rarify the air in the lower part of the
pipe. This, by the elasticity of air, soon sets up
a corresponding compression, and the two allied
states react upon the original lamina of air
issuing firom the bdlows, causing it to com-
municate its motion to that within the pipe.
Schneebdi drove air rendered opaque by smoke
through a moveable slit. When it passed en-
tirdy outdde the pipe, no sound was produced,
but appeared when the issuing sheet was gently
blown on at right angles to its direction, con-
tinuing until a counter current was produced by
blowing down the upper orifice of the pipe.
Little or no smoke penetrated into the pipe. If
the sheet of air passed entirdy into the pipe
there was also no sound, but on blowing into
the upper end, it was produced. He condudes
that the LuftLamtUe or air-lamina acts a part
analogous to that of the reed in reed-pipes.
In all cases the air may assume several modes
of undulation. In the Open Pipe the embouchure
at which the wind enters is obvioudy a place of
greatest motion, corresponding to the ventral
segment of a string. So also will be the open
upper extremity. Half-way between these, at
the point where the two opposite motions meet
and neutralise each other, will be a node or
place of rest. In this instimce the pipe will give
its lowest or fundamental note. If the force of
the current be increased, a shorter wave may be
set in action, a node being established at one-
fourth of the whole length from the embouchure,
and another at the same distance firom tbe top.
The pipe then speaks its first harmonic, the
PIRATA, IL.
765
octave of the fundamentaL By a further wind-
pressure three nodes may form, the first one-
dxth from the mouth, the thiixl at a similar
distance from the top, and the second halfway
between the two, the pipe giving its second har-
monic, a twelfth above the foundation.
In Stopped Pipes a different law obtains ; for
the waves have dearly to traverse the length of
the tube twice, instead of onoe, bdng reflected by
the dosed end. This fiict influences the position
of the nodes. When the fundamental note is
struck, the only node is at the stopped end. In
sounding the first posdble harmonic, anoUier node
is set up at one-third of the length firom the open
end. With the second harmonic, the first node
forms at one-fifth of the length from the open end,
the second dividing the lower four-fifths into two
equal parts. In any case the stopped end must
be a node ; so that the second form of vibration
of the open pipe, and all others which would
render the stopper the centre of a loop or ventral
segment, are exduded. Hence the harmonics of a
stopped pipe follow the series of odd numbers, i, 3,
5, etc. These relations were discovered by Danid
Bemouilli, and are generally known as the Laws
OP Bbrkouilli. In both stopped and open pipes
the distance firom an open end to the nearest
node is a quarter wave-length of the note emitted.
In the open pipe there is no further limitation ;
but in the case of the stopped pipe, the nearest
node to the mouth must also be distant an even
number of quarter wave-lengths ftoai the stopped
end, which is itsdf a node.
These laws hdd good with pipes of which the
bore is cylindrical or prismatic with paralld
ddes. It was shown bv Wheatstone that a pipe
of conical bore, while giving out a similar fundia-
mental note to one of the same length of cylin-
drical shape, differs as regards the podtion of the
nodes when emitting harmonic sounds. The first
node in a conical pipe is not in the middle, but
some distance towards the smaller end. It ap-
pears from modem observations that the laws of
Bemouilli require correction. If an open pipe be
stopped at one end, its note is not exactly an .
octave bdow that given by it when open, but
about a major seventh. According to theory,
the hypothesis is made that the change firom
constraint to a condition of no constraint takes
place suddenly at the point where the wave-sys-
tem leaves the pipe. This is not the case, Mid
Eractically the open pipe is equivalent to one a
ttle longer than its actual length, by about '635
of the nuiius of the pipe for the open end, and
-59 for the mouth. Kundt has made some
vduable researches on the influence of the di-
ameter of a pipe on the vdocity of sound within
it, which are beyond our present limits. Thev
are however fullv discussed in Lord Hayleigh s
« Theory of Sound,* vol. ii. p. 55. [W. H. S.]
PIRATA, IL. Opera in two acts ; libretto
by Komani, mudc by Bellini. Produced at the
Scala, Milan, in the autum of 1827 ; in Paris at
Th^tre Italien, Feb. i, 183a ; in London, at
the King's Theatre, April 17, 1830. \<^
x-^ 3Ca J
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766 PIRATES OF PENZANCR
PIRATES OF PENZANCE, THE. A comic
opera in 2 acts ; words by W. S. Gilbert, music by
Arthor Sulliyan. Produced at the Fifth Avenue
Theatre, New York, Dec. 31, 1879 ; and at the
Opera Comique, London, April 3, 1880. [G.]
PISARI, Pasqualb (called Pizari in Santinl's
catalogue), eminent church composer, and, accord-
ing to Padre Martini, 'the Palestrina of the 18th
century,* son of a mason, bom in Rome in 1735.
A musician named Crasparino, struck by his beau-
tiful voice as a child, urged hhn to devote himself
to music. His voice developed afterwards into a
fine bass, but he took less to singing than to com-
position, which he studied under Giovanni Biordi.
In 1753 he was admitted into the Pope's chapel
as supernumerary, and remained a member till his
death in 1778. His poverty was extreme, and
manv, perhaps apocryphal, stories are told of his
writmg his compositions with ink made from
charcoal and water, etc. His finest work is a
'Dixit' in 16 real parts, sung at the SS. Apostoli
in 1 770 by 1 50 performers. A Kyrie and Gloria
in 48 parts by Ballabene were performed on the
same occasion. Bumey was in Rome the same
year, and speaks with astom'shment of the learn-
ing displayed in the 'Dixit ' (Present State, etc.,
iii 383). It was composed for the court of Lisbon,
together with a service for every day in the year,
but the payment was so long delayed that by the
time it arrived Pisari had died, and his nephew, a
journeyman mason, inherited it. The singers of
the Pope's chapel, disappointed with Tartini's
• Miserere,' requested Pisari to write one, which
he did in 9 parts, but it was a oompavative failure.
Baini conjectures that the arduous nature of his
task for the King of Portugal had exhausted his
powers. For the Pope's chapel he composed
several masses, psalms, motets in 8 parts, two
Te Deums in 8 parts, and one in 4, which Baini
pronounces a lastingly beautiful work. San-
tin! had twelve large church compositions by
Pisari ; for full list see F^tis. [F. G.]
PISARONI, BiNKDBTTA RosAicuNDA, an ex-
cellent contralto singer, was bom at Piaoenza,
Feb. 6, 1703. Her instractors were Pino, Mos-
chini, and Marchesi. Her first public appearances
were made at Bergamo in 181 1, in the rdles of
Griselda, Camilla^ and others, popular at that
period. Her voice was then a high soprano, and
her accomplishments as a singer so great that, in
spite of a singularly unprepossessing appearance,
tilt excited great admiration, and her fame spread
rapidly all over Italy. A serious illness which she
had at Parma, in 18 1 3, resulted in the loss of some
of her upper notes, which forced her to abandon
her old soprano parts. She then applied herself
to cultivating the lower register of her voice,
which gained considerably in extent and volume,
while the artistic resources she displayed were so
great that the career by which she is remembered
began in fact at this time. Some few of her
notes had a1wa3rs a guttural, unpleasant sound,
but in spite of tliis she was universally admitted
to be the first Italian contralto. She appeared
at Paris, in 1827, as Arsace in ' Semiramide.'
F^tis writes of this occasion: 'Never shall I
PISTON.
forget the effect produced on the andlenoe wbea,
advancing up the stage with her back to tiie
public, contemplating Uie interior of the temple,
she enunciated in a formidable voice, admiraMy
produced, the phrase * Eccomi alfine in Babilonia !'
A tranqwrt of applause responded to thete vigor>
ous acoents, this broad style, so rare in our days ;
but when the singer turned round, di^laying
features horribly disfigured by small-pox, a sort
of shudder of horror succeeded to the first enthu-
siasm, many among the spectators shutting their
eyes so as to hear without being oondenmed to
see. But before the end of the opera her per-
formance had gained a complete victory. Alter
a few months the public thought no more about
Madame Pisaroni's face, dominated as all were
by her wonderful talent.'
She herself was so sensible of her physical
defects that she never accepted an engagem^it
without iatst sending her portrait to the manager,
that he might be prepared exactly for what he
was undertaking.
After dnging in 'La Donna del Lago' and
*L'Italiana in Algeri,* displaying eminent dra-
matic as well as Yocal qualities, she appeared
in London in 1829, but was not appreciated.
For two years afterwards she sang at Gadii,
and then returned to Italy. Here die fiMled to
find the favour shown her in past days. Con-
tralto parts were out of fashion ; she had, too,
earned an independent fortune. She retired
accordingly into private life, and died at Piaoenxa»
Aug. 6, 187a. [F.A-M.]
PISTON. A name given to one form of valvo
used in brass instruments for altering the coarse
of the vibrating column of air, and thus pro-
ducing alteration of pitch. The other form is
termed a rotatory valve. The piston consists of
a vertical tube inserted in the main air-way;
usually, but not necessarily, at right an^es to
it. Four orifices communicate wi& it laterally;
two belonging to the original bore; two con-
nected with a bye-path or channel of greater
length termed the ' valve slide.' In the vertical
tube itself slides an air-tight cylinder or piston,
pressed upwards by means of a spiral spring
beneath it, and prolonged above into a circular
button or finger-piece which can be depressed at
pleasure. Across the cylinder are two oblique
perfurations occupying its central portion. In a
state of rest, one of these is continuous on either
side with the bore of the instrument, and the
byepath is obstructed. But when the finger-
piece is depressed in opposition to the action of
the spiral spring, the former is closed, and com-
munication is established by the other betweoi
the main bore and the valve slide or channeL
The ordinary comei d pistans, so named from this
ingenious contrivance, usuiJly possesses three
of these pistons worked by the first three fingers
of the right hand, the musical effect of which
has been described under that title. [Cobnbt,
vol. i. p. 403.] The Euphonium or bass saxhorn
is generally furnished with a fourth valve for the
left hand. The series may, however, be extended
to six or more, though it is rare to see the above
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PISTON.
nombert exceeded. The French horn, from the
dotenen of ite harmonic loundB, hardly needs
more than two, respectively depressing the open
note a tone and a semitone : these are nsually
attadied to a removable slide, and can be re-
placed by a plain metal tube. [See the wood-
cut under HOBV, vol. i. p. 747.] llie early pistons
were of complicated plan, causing several abrupt
angles in the air-way, which to a certain extent
interfered with the purity and freedom of the
tone. Modem improvements have to a great
degree removed tfaiis defect; though th^re still
exists a prejudice against Uieir use, especially
among players of the French horn.
In the rotatory valve the vertical piston is
replaced by a horizontal fourway cock, also kept
in position by a spring, moved by a lever like
that of a clarinet or flute, but posseesing on its
circumference the same pair of orifices, and
establishing exactly the same connexions between
tube and sUde as does the piston. The rotatory
valve, when really well made, is perhaps the more
perfect of the two as a meehanioftl contriv-
ance ; but it is somewhat more liable to stick
last, and less easily accessible for cleaning than
the piston-valve. The device is quite of recent
invention, due in great measure to M. Adolphe
Sax, and has completely superseded the older
contrivance of keys, as in the key-bugle, ophi-
deide, and the ancient serpent. It is liable to
considerable imperfections of intonation from the
&ct that it does not distinguish between major
and minor tones and semitones ; also from the
different theoretical length of the valve-elides
due to alterations of key or of crook. Mr. Bas-
sett has ingeniously added to the trumpet an
extra valve, which he terms the ' comma valve '
or piston, and which corrects the former error ;
the latter must be left to the ear of the per^
former, and is often sadly neglected. [W. H. S.]
PITCH. This word, in its general sense, re-
fers to the position of any sound in the musical
scale of acuteness and gravity, this being deter-
mined by the corresponding vibrcUion-numbert
i. e. the number of double vibrations per second
which will produce that sound. Thus when we
speak of one sound being * higher in pitch * than
another, we mean that the vibrations producing
the former are more rapid than those producing
the latter, so giving what is recogmsed as a
higher sound. The general nature of this rela-
tion may be studied in works on acoustics ; it is
sufBcient here to state that, as a matter of prac-
tice, when the exact pitch of any musical sound
has to be defined, this is most properiy done by
stating its vibration-number.
Standard of Pitch. It becomes, then, an im-
portant practical question for the musician, what
18 the exact pitch corresponding to the written
notes he is accustomed to use? or, to put the
question in a simpler form, what is the true vi-
bration-number attached to any one given note.
PITCH.
757
ay, for example, treble C
; for if this
is known, the true pitch of any other note can
be calculated from it by well-known rules.
This opens the vexed question of what is
called the 'Standard of Pitch.' According to
reason and common sense there ought to be some
agreement among the musicians of the world as
to what musical note should be denoted by a
certain musical sign ; but unfortunately there is
no such agreement, and the queeti<m is therefore
still undetermined. It has been much debated,^
but it must suffice here to state some of the more
important foots that have been elicited in the
discussion.
We have no positive data as to the pitch used
in the earliest music of our present form, but we
may arrive at some idea of it by inference. The
two octaves of Pythagoras*s Greek scale must
have corresponded with the compass of male
voices, and when Guido added the Ganmia (G),
one tone below the Proslambanomenos of the
Greeks, we may frdrly assume that it expressed
the lowest note that could be comfortably taken
by ordinary voices of the bass kind. This is a
matter of physiology , and is known to be somewhere
about 90 to 100 vibrations per second; according
to which the treble C, two octaves and a fourth
higher, would lie between 480 and 532.
At a later period some information of a more
positive kind is obtained by organ pipes, respect-
ing the dimensions of which evidence exists ; and
it is found that the pitch varied considerably,
according to the nature of the music used, there
being very different pitches for religious and
secular purposes respectively. The inconvenience
of this howdver seems to have been found out, and
early in the 17th century an attempt was made
to introduce a Mean Pitch which should reconcile
the requirements of the church with those of the
chamber. It was about a whole tone above the
flattest, and a minor third below the highest
pitch used. The effort to introduce this was
successful, and the evidence shows that from this
date for about two centuries, down to about the.
death of Beethoven, the pitch in use was toler-
ably uniform. Mr. Ellis gives a long list of
examples taken at various dates over this period,
varying for A, from 415 to 429, or for C from 498
to 515 vibrations. This is an extreme range of
only about half a semitone, which, considering
the imperfect nature of the means then prac-
ticable of obtaining identity and uniformity, is
remarkably satisfoctory. During this poiod
lived and wrote all the g^reateet musicians we
know, including Bach, BLuidel, Puroell, Haydn,
Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, Schubert, and partly
Spohr, MendelMohn, and BossinL That is to say,
the heroes of music, the founders and perfeoters of
modem musical art, all thought out their music
and arranged it to be played and sung in this
pitch. This is therefore emphatically the Clan^
eal Pitch of music. And singularly enough, it
agrees with the presumptive determination we
have made of the pitch that must have been used
in the earliest times.
But, unhappily, this satisfi^ctoiy state of things
was disturbed by influenoes arising fhnn modem
I Thb most ibotovtStk tnwrtlg>ttoo of this rattfcct wfll be fotu:
tiro pftfMn read before the Society of Arte, M»j 1% vm, cad W
I88O1 by Mr. A. J. nik, F.&&
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758
PITCH.
progreM. The orcfaeitra b«g»n to aMume greater
importanoe m regards its wind element, new and
improved wind instruments being introdaoed, and
the use of them beinff much extended. This led
to a constant desire for louder and more exciting
effects, and both makers and users of wind in-
struments soon perceived that such effects might
be enhanced by raising slightly the pitch of the
sounds. The wind instruments were of course
the standards in an orchestra, and so a gradual
rise crept in, which both strings and voices were
obliged to follow. The conductors, who ouffht in
the interests of good music to have checked this,
were either ignorant of, or indifferent to, the
mischief that was being done, until at length it
assumed alarming propOTtions. In 1 878 the opera
band at Govent Garden were playing at about
A-S450 or 0=540, being a rise of a semitone
above the 'classical pitch' used down to Bee-
thoven^s day.
Such a change was attended with many evils.
It altered the character of the best composi-
tions; it tended to spoil the performance and
ruin the voices of the best singers ; and it threw
the musical world into confusion from the un-
certainty as to the practical meaning of the
symbols used ; and all for no object whatever,
as no one could affirm that the new pitch was
on any ground better than the old one. Accord-
ingly strong remonstrances were expressed from
time to time, and efforts were made either to
restore the original pitch, or at least to stop its
further rise, and to obtain some general agree-
. ment for uniformity. In 1834 a ' Congress of
Physicists ' held at Stuttgart adopted a proposal
by Soheibler to fix the A at 440 (true C»528),
but it does not appear that this had any practi-
cal result. In 1858 the French government
appointed a commission, consisting partly of
musicians ^ and partly of physicists, to consider
the subject. The instructions stated that 'the
constant and increasing elevation of the pitch
presents inconveniences by which the musical
art, composers, artists, and musical instrument
makers all equally suffer, and the difference ex-
isting between the pitches of different countries,
of different musical establishments, and of dif-
ferent manufacturing houses, is a source of em-
barrassment in musical combinations and of
difficulties in commercial relations.' The Com-
mission reported in Feb. 1859.' After substan-
tiating the facts of the rise (which they attributed
to the desire for increased sonority and bril-
liancy on the part of instrument-makers) and the
great want of uniformity, they resolved to recom-
mend a fixed standard: AB435 (C true « 523;
C by equal temperament* 517). This was con-
finned by a legal decree, and it has been adopted
in France generally, to the great advanta^ of
all musical interests in that country. *
Soon afterwards an attempt was made to do
something in England. A committee was ap-
I The miuleteiii w«re Aaber. EaUry (who drew the Beport).
Berlioz, Meyerbeer, Boeainl. aod Thonuu. Tbe other member* were
Pelletier. DeepreU. Doaoet. Llsaajout. Monnals. and Gen. Mellinet.
> lUpport et AttM» pour l'vUblU*«ir«'>nt en France d*an diapuon
miuicftl uDlforme. Pvis, lmprira4r;e lmi>ertele, 18O0u
PITCHPIPE.
pointed by the Society of Arts, who reported is
1869, recommending the Stuttgart standard of
C»528 ; but the recommendation fdl dead, and
had no influence. Other agitations and diacos-
sions have taken place since, but all without
effect, and the state of matters in this country in
regard to the standard of pitch is as foUovs.
The principal orchestras continue to play at the
elevated pitch ; but this is repudiated by the
general consensus of vocal performere, and in
all cases where an orchestra does not come into
requisition, as in churches and at vocal conoertSt
a much lower pitch is used, corresponding nearly
with either the French or the 'classiod* one.
Hence all idea of uniformity in the practical inter-
pretation of music becomes out of the questi<m ;—
a state of things most deplorable, and a disgrace
to the musical education of the country.
It is an interesting consideration whether, as
a matter of theory, a philosophical standard of
pitch can be devisod, based on natural facts, like
the standards of measure, weight, and time.
Such a standard is easily dedudble. We may
assume the existence of a note corresponding to
the simplest possible rate of vibration, viz. osf
per secojul ; and the various octaves of this note
will be represented by a, 4, 8, etc. ribratiooa,
being a series of powers of Ihe number a.
This theoretical note is found to agree so neariy
with the musician's idea of the note C (the sim-
plest or fundamental note in our modem mumcal
system), that they may be assumed to corre-
spond, and we thus 1
■=513 double
vibrations per second, which may be called the
* Philosophical Standard of Pitch,* and which is
adopted, for theoretical purposes, in many books
on music. And as it will be seen that this cor-
responds very fairly with the * Classical ^tch*
which was in vogue during the best periods of
music, and differs very little firom the authorised
French pitch and the vocal pitch now fcdlowed
in England, it would form a reasonaUy good
standard in a practical as well as in a theoretical
point of view. [W. P.]
PITCHPIPE. A small stopped diapason
pipe with long movable graduated stopper, blown
by the mouth, and adjustable approximately to
any note of tbe scale by pushuig the stopper
inwards or outwards. A pipe of Uiis kind is so
much influenced by temperature, moisture, force
of blowing, and irregularities of calibre, Uiat it
can only be depended on for the pitch of vocal
music, and is not to be trusted for more accumte
determinations. A small reed pipe of the free
species, in which the length of the vibratiog
portion of metal is controll^ by a rotating spiral,
is somewhat superior, and far less bulky than
the older contrivance. It is known as Eanfle; s
patent chromatic pitchpipe. Sets of single firee
reeds, each in its own tube, arranged in a box,
forming a more or lees complete scale, are to be
obtained, and form comparatively trustworthy
implements ; if tuned to equal temperament they
may be employed to facilitate pianoforte or (»gaB
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PITCHPIPE.
timing. All pitchpipes are however inferior in
accuracy to tuning-forkB : the only advantage
they poBsens over the latter being their louder,
more strident, more coercive tone, and the
readiness with which beats are produced. No
accurate timing is practicable except by the prin-
ciple of beats and interferences. [ W. H. S.]
PITONI, GiDSEPPB Ottavio. eminent musi-
cian of the Roman school, bom March 18, 1657,
at Rieti ; firora the age of five attended the music-
school of Pompeo Natale, and was successively
chorister at San Giovanni de* Fiorentini, and the
SS. Apostoli in Borne. Here he attracted the at-
tention of Foggia, who gave him instruction in
counterpoint during several years. In 1673 he
became Maestro di Gapella at Terra di Botondo,
and afterwards at Assisi, where he began to score
Palestrina^s works, a practice he afterwards en-
joined on his pupils, as the best way of studying
style. In 1676 he removed to Rieti, and in 1677
became Maestro di Capella of the CoUegio di San
Marco in Rome, where his pieces for two and
three choirs were first performed. He was also
engaged by various other churches, San ApoUi-
nare and S. Lorenzo in Damaso in 1686, the
Lateran in 1708, and St. Peter*s in 17 19, but he
retained his post at San Marco till his death,
Feb. I, 1743, and was buried there.
Pitoni's * Dixit * in 16 parts is still one of the
finest pieces of music sung at St. Peter*s during
Holy Week, and his masses 'Li Pastori a
Marsmme,' 'Li Pastori a montagna,*and 'Mosca/
founded openly on popular melodies, still sound
fresh and new. His fertility was enormous ; for
St. Peter^s alone he composed complete services
for the entire year. He also wrote many pieces
for six and nine choirs. He compiled a history
of the Maestri di Capella of Rome from 1500
-to 1700, the MS. of which is in the Vatican
library, and was used by Baini for his life of
Palestrina. Gaspari drew the attention of F^tis
to a work of 108 pages, 'Guida Armonica di
Giuseppe Ottavio Pitoni,' presumably printed in
1689. The MS. is lost. Among Pltoni*s num-
erous pupils were Durante, Leo, and Feo. The
library of the Gorsini Palace in Rome contains a
biography of him by his Mend Geronimo Chiti of
Siena. Proeke's 'Musica Divina' contains a
mass and a requiem, 6 motets, a psalm, a hymn,
and a * Christus factus est,* by Pitoni. [F. G.]
PITTMAN, JosiAH, the son of a musician,
bom Sept. 3, 18 16. He began to study both
theory and practice at an early age, and became
a pupil of Goodman and of S. S. Wesley on the
organ ; and at a later date, of Moscheles on the
piano. He held the post of organist at Syden-
ham (1831), Tooting (1833), and Spitalfields
(1835) successively — the last of the three for
1 3 years. Feeling the need of fuller instmction
in theory he visited Frankfort in 1836 and 7,
and studied with Schnyder von Wartensee. In
1853 he was elected organist to Lincoln's Inn :
the service was in a very unsatisfactory condition,
but Mr. Pittman*s zeal, perseverance and judg-
ment improved it greatly, and he remained there
fOT 13 years. It was in support of this reform
PIZZICATO.
759
that he wrote a little book entitled *The People
in Church,' which at the time excited much at-
tention. He also compos^ many services and
anthems for the Chapel. Since then Mr. Pitt-
man has been connected with the Opera as accom-
panyist, first at Her Majeety*8 (1865-68) and
since at Covent Garden. His early predilections
were for the German organ music, and like Gatmt-
lett, Jacob, and the Wesleys he wco-ked hard by
precept, example and publication to introduce
Bach 8 fugues, and pedal organs, into England.
When Mendelssohn came here he lost no oppor^
tunity of hearing him play and of profiting by his
society. For several years Mr. Pittman delivered
the annual course of lectures on music at the
London Institution. [G.]
PIXIS, a family of musicians. Fbtzdbioh
WiLHBLM, the elder, was a pupil of the Abb^
Vogler in Mannheim in 1770, and still lived
there in 1805. He published organ-music, and
sonatas and trios for PF. His eldest son, also
Fbikdrioh WiLHELir, bom in Mannheim,
1786, studied the violin under Bitter, Luigi, and
F^anzel, early made a name, and travelled
throughout Germany with his father and brother.
At l£unburg he took lessons from Yiotti. In
1804 he entered the Elector's Chapel at Mann-
heim, and afterwards went to Prague, where he
became professor at the Conservatorium, and
Capellmeister of the theatre, and died Oct. 30,
1842. His brother,
JOHANN Pbtbb, bom 1788, pianist and com-
poser for the PF., lived with his father and
brother till 1809, when he settled in Munich.
In 1825 ^® "w&ai to Paris, and became a teacher
of great note there. His adopted daughter,
Framzilla Guringeb (bom 1816 at Lichten-
thal, Baden), developing a good mezzo soprano
voice and real talent, he trained her for a singer,
and in 1833 started with her on a tour, which
extended to Naples. Here Pacini wrote for her
the part of Saffo in his well-known opera of that
name. After her marriage to an Italian, Pixis
settled finally in Baden-Baden, and gave lessons
at his well-known villa there almost up to his
death on Dec. 21, 1874. ^^ composed much for
the PF. — concertos, sonatas, and drawing-room
pieces, all now forgotten, llie ^t that he con-
tributed the 3rd variation to the * Hexameron,'
in company with Liszt, Czemy, Thalberg, Herz
and Chopin, shows the position which he held in
Paris. His works amount in all to more than 1 50.
Though not wholly devoid of originality he was
apt to follow too closely in the footsteps of Mozart,
Haydn, and Beethoven. In T831 he composed an
opera 'Bibiana' for Mme. Schroeder-Devrient,
produced in Paris without success. ' Die Sprache
des Herzens' was composed in 1836 for the
Konigstadt Theatre in Berlin. [F. G.]
PIZZICATO (Ital. for 'pinched'). On the
violin, and other instruments of the violin-tribe,
a note or a passage is said to be played pizzicato
if the string is set in vibration not by the bow,
but by being pinched or plucked with the finger.
The pizzicato is used as much in orchestral and
chamber music as in solo pieces. A well-known
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760
PIZZICATO.
initanoe of effective orchestral pizzicato occurs
in the scherzo of Beethoven's C minor Symphony,
just before the entry of the finale, and alto in
the adagio of the same master^s Bb Symphony.
The canzonetta in Mendelssohn^s Quartet in
£b, op. 12, affords an illustration of its use in
chamber-music. In solo-playing a distinction
is made between the pizzicato executed ¥rith the
left, and that with the right hand. The former
one is more frequently used, but not so much in
classical as in brilliant modem pieces. Faga-
nini made an extensive use of it, either by
playing a pizzicato accompaniment to a tune
played with the bow (a), or in quick passages
with arco notes interspersed (6) and (c).
Paoanini.
Wth
:3B^ f
(The notes marked * to be played pizzicato with
the left hand.)
A natural harmonic note, when played pizzi-
cato, produces an effect very similar to thiftt of
a note on the harp. Stemdale Bennett makes
use of it in the serenade of his Chamber-Trio.
There is, however, hardly another instance of this
effect to be found. [P. D.]
PLAGAL CADENCE is the form in which
the final Tonic chord is preceded by Subdominant
Harmony. [See Cadskck.]
LC.H.H.P.]
PLAGAL MODES (Lat. Modi plagales; Gr.
irXci7iot ffxo^^l Germ. Plagcdtime, SeiUtUdne,
Nebentdne). When the Plain Chaunt Melodies
were first reduced to systematic order, tradi-
tionally by S. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, to-
wards the dose of the 4th century, four Modes
only were in use — those banning and ending
on the notes now called D, E, F, and G. These
venerable Scales, known as the 'Four Authen-
tic Modes,' were named and numbered, in imi-
tation of certain still more antient Greek tonal-
ities from which they were more or less directly
I to the KVfKM ^x<^ ^' Authantlc Xcdas.
PLAGAL MODES.
derived. Thus, the first> having D for its Final,
was called ' Authentus primus,' or, the ' Dorian
Mode* ; the second, with £ for its final, * Au-
thentus deuterus,' or, the * Phrygian Mode' ; the
third, with F for its Final, 'Authentus tritus.'
or, the 'Lydian 'Mode'; the fourth, with G
for its Final, 'Authentus tetrardus,* or, the
' Mizolydian * Mode.' And the commas of these
Modes was sufl&ciently extended to mdude that
of all the Ecdesiastioal Melodies then in com-
mon use.
Some two hundred years later — if tradition
may be trusted — S. Gregory added to thas
Modes four others, directly derived from them,
and hence called Plsgtd Modes (from vK&ytos,
oblique, borrowed). These supplemental SoJes
involved no new combinations or Tones and Semi-
tones. They were simply formed by enlarging
the compass of the Authentic Modes, dowqwards,
to the extent of a Perfect Fourth, the three
upper notes being removed, in order that the
compass of the Scale might still be comprised
within the limits of an Octave, while the Final
remained unchanged. This will be readily undo-
stood, if we bear in mind that every Authen-
tic Scale consists of a Perfect fifth, and a
Perfect Fourth, the Fourth being placed above
the Fifth, and beginning on the note on whidk
the Fifth ends. [See Modes, the Ecclesiab-
TiCAL.] Thus, the First, or Dorian Mode, con-
sists of a Fifth, D, E, F, G, A, surmounted by
a Fourth, A, B, C, D. Now, if we add an A,
B, and C, beneath the lower D, and compensate
for this extension by removing the upper B,
C, and D, we shall produce a Scale consisting
of « Perfect Fourth, A, B, C, D, surmounted
by a Perfect Fifth, D, E, F, G, A ; and this
Scale will be the Plagal form of the Dorian
Mode, and will serve as the type of all similar
derivations, as may be seen £rom the following
examples : —
Dorian.
Lpdian,
• The HTperpbiTciut i>' Mutbont CapeUs. Called, alio, by thMe
who oontand for the purely Greek ortKin of the EodesUsUoal ■odet.
the JCoUan ; the true Greek Lydian being a whole Tone higber than
the Phrygian, and not. as in this ease, a SCTultoDa
s Tb« HyperlTdlan of CaiwUa.
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PLAGAL MODEa
PLAGAL MODES.
761
The number of the Modes being thus increased
to eight, a new form of nomenclature was na-
torally demanded for them, while a new system
of nambering became still more imperatively
necessary. The change of nomenclature was
easily arranged. In order to prevent unnecessary
confusion, the old names Dorian, Phrygian, Ly-
dian, and Mixolydian, were still retained for
the Authentic Modes, while the Plagal forms
were distinguished from them by the addition of
the prefix Hypo (under), the new Scales being
callcKl the Hypodorian,^ Hypophrygian,' Hypo-
lydian, and Hypomixolydiiui,' Modes. On the
other band, it was indispensable that the numbers
of the Modes should be entirely changed; the
Phrygian becoming the Third Mode, instead of
the Second; the Lydian, the Fifth; and the
Mixolydian, the Seventh : the Second, Fourth,
Sixth, and Eighth places, being reserved for the
newer Plagal forms.
The next great change was the introduction
of two new Authentic Modes, called the .£olian,
and the Ionian,* having A and C for their
Finals, and naturally giving rise to two new
Plagal forms, entiUed the Hyposeolian,' and
Hypoionian,* and lying between £ and £, and
G and G, respectively.^
JEolian.
p f
^^^ ,, « <« -^ J
1^
jj r-j ^
YV ^ f ■/ *■ 1
Ionian.
The precise time at which these new Modes
were brought into general use cannot be ascer-
tained ; b|it we hear of them, with certainty, as
early as the reign of Charlemagne (ob. 814),
though the earliest exhaustive account of the
entire system bequeathed to us is that contained
in the Dodecachordon of Glareanus, published in
1529. The learned author of this invaluable
work insists strongly upon the use of twelve
distinct tonalities, and prefiiboes his volume with
1 The HypennlTolydlan of Ptol«aij.
* The HjperaaollAn of Capella.
• tTheHnwiutUn. orHyperioiiteii.ofOepel1s.
« So called by Porphyrius. ByApulelus and Capell* called the Utttan.
• The Hrperdotlaa of Capella. • The Hypoiastlan of Capella.
T In the Kccleelartkal Music of Uie Eastern Church, nine Modes only
aie arhnltted. under the foUowlnc titles.'—
L Dorian (aO- ▼!• Hypotydlan (irAdLytov •/),
11. Hypodorlan (v\dywp cO* ^- Mixolydian (d').
m. Phrrctan (fi'). tUL Hypomuolydlaii (vAiytov
If. Hypophryglaa (vA/d^r fiT^ . « ).
T. Indian (y). > U. AOIao.
a list of them, divided into two parallel columns,
the first of which contains the Plagal^ and the
second the Authentic Modes, arranged in their
natural order, the series being supplemented by
the rejected Hyperseolian Mode,' having B for its
Final, and its Plagal derivative, the Hyperphiy-
gian,* with the necessary caution^ ied ett error. ^^
The completion of the Gregorian system by
the addition of the .£olian and Ionian Modes,
with their respective Plagals, was productive of
very important results, and enriched the series
with the capability of introducing a fiir greater
amount of varied expression than is apparent
at first sight. Some writers have objected to
them, on £e ground that they are in reality no
more than unnecessary reduplications of already
existing Scales, since, in its compass, and the
disposition of its Semitones, the .£olian Mode
corresponds exactly with the Hypodorian, the
Hypoijeolian with the Phrygian, the Ionian with
the Hypolydian, and the Hyx>oionian with the
Mixolydian.^^ By parity of reasoning, the Hypo-
mixolydian Mode should also be regarded as
superfluous, since its compass, and Semitones, cor-
respond precisely with those of the Dorian. But
a little consideration will prove this argmnent
to be utterly fedlacious. Li all that concerns
expression, the Eighth Mode differs, toto eodo,
from the First ; for its Final — the note to which
the ear is constantly attracted — lies in the middle
of its series of sounds, whereas, in the Dorian
Mode, it occupies the lowest place. This pecu-
liarity invests all the Plagal Modes, without
exception, with a character entirely different
firom that which distinguishes the Authentic
series; a fact which was so well known to the
earlier writers on the subject that they assigned
to each Mode a special epithet descriptive of
its aesthetic peculiarities, Thus, the First Mode
was called 'Modus Gravis,' the Second, ' Modus
Tristis,' the Third, 'Modus Mysticus/ the Fourth,
* Modus Harmonious,' the Fifth, * Modus Lsetus,'
the Sixth, * Modus Devotus,* the Seventh, ' Mo-
dus Angellcus,' and the £^ghth, 'Modus Per-
fectus.*" On carefully examining this classi-
fication, we shall find that the Plagal Modes are
everywhere characterised by a ctumer and less
decided force of expression than their authentic
originals; thus, while the latter are described
as Grave, Mystical, Joyful, and Angelic, the
former are merely Sad, Harmonious, Devout,
and Perfect. The solemn grandeur of the First
9 More generany known as the Loorian Mode,
• The Efyperlydlan of PoUtlanus ; but now oiore fOMrally known
as the Hypoloerian.
10 It Is probable that this caution Is directed oolyasainst Polltlan's
method of nomenclature ; but It Is equally applicable to the Mode
itself, which Is utterly discarded by the Great Masters.
1) The later editors of Proske's ' Musica DiTtoa.' adoptlnc this er>
roneous theory, hare described Palestrina's ' Mlssa P^mb Mareelll ' as
behtg written in the MUolydlan Mode, whereas it is really In the
Hypotonian. In this particular case, even Balnl has fkllen into an
error which Proske. himsrif the most conscientious of editors, was
always careful to avoid.
B Flgnlus Interprets the sentiment of the Modes somewhat differ-
ently—In the case of the First Mode, with a very wide dUbrenoe
Indeed. His epItheU are. 1. Hllaris; 11. McNtus; 111. Austerus;
It. Blandus ; ▼. Juonndns ; ▼!. Mollis ; Til. Gravis ; Till. Modeetns.
The dUltrenoe of sentiment between the Authentic and Plagal
Modes is cTen more stroi«ly set forth here tliaa In the more
gentraUr-xeoetred uaopsU giT«n abore, in the text.
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762
PLA6AL MODES.
Mode gives place to the sadneBS of the Second ;
while the joy of the Fiflh merger, in the Sixth,
Uito devotion. That this distinction can be in
no wise dependent upon the position of the Semi-
tones is evident ; for we have already shown that
these are similarly placed, in different Modes ;
it must, therefore, Im entirely due to the pecu-
liar aspect of the tonality with regard to the
situation of its final — to the difference of effect
produced by a point of ultimate repose placed in
the middle of the Scale, as contrasted with that
peculiar to one resting on the lowest degree.
And a similar difference of expression may be
found, even in Steoular Music, if we only examine
it carefully. Take, for instance, the three fol-
lowing beautiful old Melodies, in the Ionian
Mode transposed ; the first of which lies between
the Tonic and its Octave ; the second, between
the Dominant and its Octave; and the third,
between the Dominant, and the Tonic in the
Octave above. Is it possible to deny, that, apart
from its natural individuality, each of them owes
^ peculiar character to the position it occupies
m the Scale ?
Authenlie Melody. ' The Blue-Bell of Scotland.'
Plagal Melodp, ' AOeen Aroon.'
.j^^^ijij./.'ij-i.ff.jn-i,i.jii
Mixed Melody, 'Jock o' Haieldcan.'
AuUientlc. |
Now, the first of these Melodies, lying en-
tirely between the Tonic and its Octave, is
strictly Authentic; the seoond, lying between
the Dominant and its Octave, is stricUy Plagal ;
PLAGAL MODES.
and the third, occupying the entire range of ihe
Mode, from the Dominant below to the Tonic
in the next Octave above, is Mixed. [See
Modes, thb Ecclesiastical.] Here, then, sure
three varieties of expression producible by the
Ionian Mode alone ; and, when we remember the
number of Modes, which, in addition to this dis-
tinction, obtainable by mere change of position,
possess a distinct tonality also, we cannot but
oe struck with the immense fond of variety witii
which the Gregorian system is endowed. More-
over, it is not absolutely necessary that the
Melody should be restricted to the exact com-
pass of an Octave. Originally, as we leam firtnn
Hermannus Contractus, no licence was per-
mitted in this matter; but Theogems, Bishop
of Metz, writing about the year iioo, allows
the elongation of the Scale, whether Authentic
or Plagal, to the extent of a Tone above, and a
Tone below its normal limits. The Wune licence
is permitted by Hucbaldus of S. Amand, and
the Abbat Oddo ; and it has become a recognised
rule that the First Mode may be extended a
Tone downwards, and a Tone, or even a Minor
Third, upwards ; the Seoond, a Tone downwards;,
and a Semitone, Tone, or Minor Third, upwards ;
the Third Mode, a Major Third downwaids, and
a Semitone upwards ; the Fourth, a Tone down-
wards, and a Semitone upwards; the Fifth, a
Semitone, or Minor Third, downwards, and a
Tone upwards; the Sixth, a Semitone down-
wards, and a Tone upwards; the Seventh, a
Tone downwards, or upwards; the Eighth, a
Tone downwards, or upwards ; and so with the
later fonns ; one Degree, either upwards or down-
wards, being always conceded, and a Major or ',
Minor Third, in one direction, very frequently
claimed. Guide d' Arezzo's rule is, that ' Though
the Authentic Modes may scarcely descend more
than a single Degree, they may ascend to the
Octave, the Ninth, or even TenUi. The Plagal'
Modes, however, may be extended by carrying
them down to the Fifth (i.e. below the Final) ;
but authority is granted to extend them (up-
wards) to the Sixth, or the Seventh (i.e. above
the Final) as the Authentic form rises to the -
Ninth and Tenth.* ^ Here, then, we see a new
and prolific source of variety, in the elabora-
tion of which the Plagal Modes play a very
important part; an advantage which is turned
to equally good account in Plain Chaunt and
Polyphonic Music. Indeed, it is perhaps even
of greater significance in the latter, than in
the former : for, where numerous vocal parts are
concerned, the benefit to be derived froni an ex-
tended Scale is obvious ; while, as we have else-
where explained, where the Tenor, and Gantus,
are written in an Authentic Mode, the Bassus
and Altus, naturally fall within the compass of
the Plagal form, and vice vena. To the Poly-
phonic Composer, therefore, the use of the Plagal
Modes is indispensable. [W.S. K.]
I * AutentI rlz a rao fln« pins vm toob daseendimt— Aaemdntt
Mitem autenti uique ad oetsvajn et nonun. t«1 •Uiln d«ciBBtio.
PUtcs T«ro ad qulntam ramlttantnr eC lotendontiir ; fed taUoitoal
tezto Tel leptima auetorttato tritmltv. iiait in aat«itlB aona «
dMtina.' (DiKlpl.ArUsMua.ztil.;
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PLAIPY.
PLAIDY, Louis, bom Nov. a8, i8io,atWenni-
dorf, in Saxony, learnt the pianoforte from Agthe,
and the violin from Haase, of Dresden. He was
first known as a violinist in the Dresden concerts,
but afterwards tamed his attention especially to
the pianoforte, and was so successful as to attract
the notice of Mendelssohn, who in 1843 induced
him to take the poet of pianoforte teacher in the
Leipzig Conservatorinm. There he attained a
great and deserved reputation. His class was
always thronged, and his instroction eagerly
•ought by pupils from all parts of the world.
This popuhtfity arose from his remarkable gift
(for it was a gift) of imparting technical power.
Were a pupil ever so deficient in execution,
nnder Plaidy*s care his faults would disappear,
his fingers grow strong, his touch become smooth,
singing, and equal, and slovenliness be replaced
by neatness. He devoted his life to technical
teaching, and brought all his powers and ex-
perience to bear upon his celebrated work * Tech-
nische Studien,* which is now a standard text-
book in every music school. Great attention to
every detail, unwearying patience, and a genuine
enthusiasm for the mechanical part of pianoforte-
playing were his most striking characteristics.
He was a man of a most simple and kindly
nature, and took a warm interest in his pupils.
He died at Grimma, March 3, 1874. [S.]
PLAIN SONG (Lat. Cantua planus, Cantus
Oregorianua ; ItaL Canio piano, Canto fermo.
Canto Gregoriano ; Ft. Plain Chant, Chant Qri-
gorien ; Gregorian Chant, Gregorian Music, Plain
Chant). A solemn style of unisonous Music, which
is believed to have been sung in the Christian
Church since its first foundation.
The origin of Plain Song — the only kind of
* Church Music the use of which has ever been
formally prescribed by Ecclesiastical authority —
baa given rise to much discussion and many
diverse theories.' On one point, however, all
authorities are agreed, viz. that it exhibits pe-
culiarities which can be detected in no other kind
of Music whatever ; pecub'arities so marked, that
they can scarcely &il to attract the attention of
the most superficial hearer, and so constant, that
we shall find no difficulty in tracing them through
every successive stage of development through
which the s3rBtem has passed, from the beginning
of the Christian .^Gra to the present time.
Turning, then, to the history of this develop-
ment, we find that, for nearly four himdred
years after its introduction into the Services of
the Church, Plain Song was transmitted from
age to age by oral traidition only. After the
Conversion of Constantino, when Christianity
became the established Religion of the Empire,
1 Oonralt. for tbo dlfllsrent rkmt-.-a) P. Martini. 'Btoria dell*
Hosioat' Tom. i. pp. SSO. M ttq. ; Ocrbert, ' De Cantu et Mus. Sacr.' ;
Coanemaker. ' Memolre sur Uucbald.' pp. 5-7 ; Ptee LambUIotte,
* XstMtlqiM th«or. et prat, da Chant Grcgorlen.' p. 14 : Jakob. ' Die
Konst tm DIenate der Klrche,' p. 19S. etc. etc (2) MeneMrter. * Trait4
dea BepreaentattODs en M ualqae. anciennes et modemet.' (8) Boos-
aeaa. ' Ca (^hant. tel qull tubaicte encore aujourdltul, est an reste
bien d^flguri, maU blen jn^ienx. de ranciemie Mnslque Orecque.'
(Diet, de Mas., art. Plain-Chant.) Consult alMO Mersennus, ' Harmon,
nnlferselle.' (4) ' Ambros. tieachichte der Moslk.' IL IL (B) ForkeU
' AllcwnHne Oeachlchte der Musik,' Tom. IL p. 91. See also Kleae-
wetter. ' Oeaehlchte der Bun>p.-abendUndl«chen Muslk.* Introd. pu t.
PLAIN SONG.
768
and the Church was no longer compelled to wor-
ship in the Catacombs, Schools of Singing were
established, for preserving the old traditions,
and ensuring an uniform method of singing. A
Schola Cantorum of this description was founded
at Rome, early in the 4th century, by S. Sylvester,
and much good work resulted from the establish-
ment of this and similar institutions in other
places. Boys * were admitted into them at ' a
very early age, and instmcted in all that it was
necessary for a devout Chorister to know, under
the supervision of a ' Primicerius,* and ' Secundi-
cerius,' of high rank, and well-known erudition ;
and bv this means the primitive Melodies were
passed on frx>m mouth to mouth with as little
danger as might be of unauthorised corruption.
But oral tradition is at best but an uncertain
guide ; and in process of time the necessity for
some safer method of transmission began to excite
serious attention. The first attempt to reduce the
traditional Melodies to a definite system was made
towards the dose of the 4th century, by S. Am-
brose, Bishop of Milan (ob. 397), who, taking the
praxis of the Eastern Church as his model, pro-
mulgated a series of regulations which enabled his
Clergy to sing the PsfOms, Canticles and Hymns,
of the Divine Office, with a f^r greater amount
of precision and purity than had hitherto been
attainable. It is difficult, now, to determine the
exact nature of the work effected by this learned
Bishop, though it seems tolerably certain that
we are indebted to him for a definite elucidation
of the four Authentic Modes, in which alone all
the most antient Melodies axe written.' [See
Modes, thb Ecclbsiasttcal.] He is also credited
with having first introduced into the Western
Church the custom of Antiphonal Singing, in
which the Psalms are divided, Verse by v erse,
between two alternate Choirs, in contradistinction
to the Responsorial method, till then prevalent
in Italy, wherein the entire Choir responded to
the Voice of a single Chorister. Another ac-
count, however, attributes its introduction to
S. Hilarius, as an imitation of the usage of the
Eastem Church, at Poictiers, from whence — and
not frt>m Milan — S. Coelestin is said to have
imported it to Rome.
The next great attempt to arrange in system-
atic order the rich treasury of Plain Song Melo-
dies bequeathed to the Church by tradition,
WAS made, some two hundred years after the
death of S. Ambrose, by S. Gr^ory the Great.
The work undertaken by this celebrated re-
former was far more exhaustive than that
wrought by his predecessor. During the two cen-
turies which had elapsed since the introduction
of the Ambrosian Chaunt at Milan, innumerable
Hymns had been composed, and innumerable
Melodies added to the already lengthy catalogue.
All these S. Gregory collected, and carefully
revised, adding to them no small number of
his own compositions, and forming them into a
volume sufficiently comprehensive to suffice for
s Mostly orphans— whence the Schools were called ' Orphanotropla.*
(Anastaslus BIbliotheearlus. In Tit. Bergll II. Pontit)
s Consult, on thto subject, a tract bj the B. P. Cam. Fereso. ea-
tlUed ' lA ragola del Ouito Y^rmo Ambroslano.' (Mllaoo. 1«U.)
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PLAIN SONG.
the entire cycle of the Church's Services. The
precise maimer in which these Melodies were
noted down is open to doubt : but, that they
ipere «c wunitted to writing, in the celebrated
ium ' which has made S. Gregory's
> justly celebrated, is certain ; and, though
be system of Semiography then employed was
exceedingly imperfect, it cannot be doubted
that this circumstance tended greatly to the pre-
servation of the Melodies from the corruption
I 47hich is inseparable from mere traditional trans-
mission. [S^ Notation.] But we owe to S.
Gregory even more than this; for, notwith-
standii^ tiie objections raised by certain modem
histories, it is almost impossible to ddubt that it
was he Who first introduced into the system those
four Plagal Modes, which conduce so materially
to its' com|Jtetene8s,*and place the Gregorian
Chaunt so far above the Ambro&ian in the scale
. of eesthetic perfection.^ [See Plagal Modes.]
X: For many centuries after the death of S.
»"6>sgoiy, the ' Antiphonarium * was regarded as
the authority to which all other Office-Books
must of necessity conform. It was introduced
into our own country in the year 596, by S.
Augustin, who not only brought it with him,
but brought also Koman Choristers to teach the
proper method of singing it. The Emperor
Charlemagne (ob. 814) conmianded its use in
the Gallicui Church ; and it soon found its way
into every Diocese in Christendom. Neverthe-
less, the work of corruption could not be entirely
prevented. In the year 1323, Pope John II
found it necessary to issue the famous Bull,
Doeta sanctorum, in order to restrain the Singers
of his time from introducing innovations which
certainly destroyed the purity of the antient
Melody. Cardinal Wolsey complained of* the
practice of singing Votive Masses 'cum Cantu
fracto seu diviso.' Local 'Uses* were adopted
in almost every Diocese in Europe. Paris, Aix-
la-Chapelle, York, Sarum, Hereford, and a
hundred others, had each their own peculiar
Office-Books, many of them containing Melodies
of undeniable beauty, but all differing, more or
less, from the only authoritative norm. After
the revision of the Liturgy by the Council of
Trent, a vigorous attempt was made to remove
this crying evil. In the year 1576, Pope Gre-
gory XIII commanded Palestrina to do the best
he could towards restoring the entire system of
Plain Song to its-oii^nal purity. The difficulty
of the task was so great, that the 'Princeps
Musicss' left it unfinished, at the time of his
death ; but, with the assistance of his friend
Guidetti, he accomplished enough to render his
• inability to carry out the entire scheme a matter
for endless regret. Under his superintendence,
Guidetti published, in isSj.a 'Directorium chori*;
in 1586, a 'Cantus Eccleeiasticus Passionis D.
N. J. C. ' ; in 1587, a ' Cantus Ecclesiasticus officii
majoris hebdomadss'; and, in 1588, a volume of
1 It hu be«n oljjeeted to this, that the so-ciOled ' Ambrotlto Te
X>eum' U in th« Mixed PhrrtrUm Mode— which is true. But It hu
vet to be prored that the Melodj. «• we now potieM It eihiblu the
'-■ct^rm In which It wat left by & Ambcose.
PLAIN SONG.
< Pmfationet in Cantu fiimo * ; all printed atRome,
the first *apud Robertum Gran Ion Pariafen,'
the three last by Alexander Gardanus. These
n>lendid volumes were, however, anticipate by
uie production of a splendid folio Antiphona-
rium, printed at Venice by Pet. Liechtenstein (of
Cologne), in 1 5 79-1 580. In 1 599 the celebrated
'Editio Phmtiniana' of the Gradual was inued
at Antwerp; while, in 1614-15, the series
was dosed by the production, at Borne, of the
great Medicean edition of the same work, be-
lieved to be the purest and most correct which
has yet appeared. These fine editions are now
exoeedinglv scarce; but the necessity for a
really good series of Office-Books, obtainable at
a moderate price, has long been felt, and several
attempts have been made to meet the exigendes
of the case. In 1848 a Gradual and Vesperal
were published at Mechlin, the former based
upon the Medioean edition,' and the latter, m>on
the Venice * Antiphonarium * of 1579-80. Both
these works, with an 'Offidum Hebdomads
sanctfis' compiled with equal judgment, have
already passed through many carefully revised
editions ; and, not many years after their appear-
ance, similar volumes were issued by the Arch-
bishops of Eheims and Cambrai, and also by P^
LambiUotte, whose Gradual and Antiphonarium
were posthumously published in 1857. All theie
editions were infinitely more Correct than the
corrupt reprints in general use at the beginning
of the present century ; and, moreover,' they were
issued at prices which placed them withm the
reach of all. Thdr only fault was a not un-
natural clinging to local ' Uses.' This, however,
struck at the root of absolute purity : and, (0
obviate this difficulty. Pope Pius IX empoweced
the Sacred Congregation of Rites to subject the
entire series of Office-Books to a new and search-
ing revision, and to publish them under the
direct sanction of the Holy See. In furthenmoe
of this project the first edition of the Gradnsl
was published, under special privileges, by Hetr
Pustet of Batisbon, in 1871, and that <|f the
Vesperal in 1875. Other editions soon followed,
and we believe the series of volumes is now
complete. A comparison of their contents with
those of the Mechlin series is extremely interest-
ing, and Well exhibits the difference between a
Melody corrupted by local 'Use,* and the self-
same Strain restored to a better authenticated
form, as in the following Verse of the Hymn
* Te Deum laudamus.*
From the Mechlin Ve«peral (4th ed. WO).
* Rzoept In the 'OnUiurliiiii Mime.' whkh followed tba 1
rUatlalsna.
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PLAIN SONG.
PLAIN SOKG.
765
m
From the Rattobon Gradual (1871).
r» - - - tnr.
We have already seen that Plain Song was
introduced into England by S. AuguBtin, in the
year 596. That it flourished vigorously among
onr countrymen is proved by abundant evidence :
but the difference observable between the Sarum,
York, and Hereford Office-Books proves that the
English Clergy were far from adopting an uni-
form Use. Borne of us, perhaps, may find fittle
to regret in this, seeing that many of the Melo-
dies contained in those venerable tomes — ^more
especially those belonging to the Diocese of
Sarum — are of indescribable beauty :^ yet none
ihe less are such interpolations fatal hindrances
to that uniformity of practice" wlhich aloue cau lead
to true purity of style. No sooner was the old
Heligion abolished by Law than the Litany was
printed in London, with the antient Plain Song
Melody adapted to English words. This work
was published by Grafts, the King's printer^
on June z6, 1544 ; and six years later, in 1^50^
John Marbecke published las fiunous ' BooTO'^bf
Common Praier, noted,* in which Plain Song
Melodies, printed, in the square-headed Gregorian
character, are adapted to the Anglicised Offices
of 'Mattins,* *Euen Song,' 'The Communion,'
and * The Communion when there is a BurialV
with so perfect an appreciation of the true feel-
ing of Plain' Song, that one can only wonder at
the ingenuity with which it is not merely trans-
lated into a new language, but so well fitted to
the CTigencies of the 'vulgar tongue' that the
-words and Music might well be supposed to have
sprung into existence together.
Except during the period of thejzzeat Rebel-
lion, Marbecke's adaptation of Plain Song to
the Anglican Ritual has been in constant use
in English Cathedrals from the time of its first
Snblication to the present day. Between the
eath of Charles I. and the Restoration, all Music
worthy of the name was banished from the Reli-
gious Services of the Angli(Sai Church ; but, after
the Acc^ion of Charles II, the practice of sing-
ing the Plain Song Versicles and Responses, was
at once resumed, but the Gregorian Tones to the
Psalms fell into entire disuse, giving place in time
to a form of Melody, oTl^-very different kind,
I WKiMM the fflorkras Mekklj to ' Sanetorom merKis ' (printed In
th» Ber. T. Helmoro^ ' Hjmnal Noted '), which flnds no place In the
' Veqienle Bomasum.'
known as the ' Double Chaunt/ This substitute
for the time-h6noured inflections of the more
antient style reigned with imdisputed sway,
both in English Cathedrals, and Parish C i rches,
until long after the beanning of the, pi ;8ent
century. Little more than thirty years have
elapsed since the first attempts were made to
dethrone it. The campaign was opened by
Mr. W. Dyce, who, in 1843-44, brought out his
' Book of Common Prayer Noted,' on the system of
Marbecke, in two splendid quarto volumes, which,
unfortunately, were much too costly for general
ns(9. Mr. Oakelev soon afterwards published his
' Laudes Diurnn, containing the Psalms and Can-
ticles, adapted to Gregorian Tones, for th^ use of
Margaret Street Chapel.' A more important step
was taken by the Rev. Thomas Helmore, who pro-
duced his 'Psalter and Canticles Noted' in 1850,
his * Brief Directory of Plain Song ' in the samp
year, and his 'Hymnal Noted' in 1851. These
works, more especially the first, obtained imme-
diate recog^tion. The ' Psalter and Canticles '
and the * Brief Directonr ' were used with striking
effect at S. Mark's College, Chelsea^ whidh soon
came to be regarded as a sort of normal School
of Gregorian Singing: and, at the Church of
S. Barnabas, Pimlico, not these two works only,
but the ' Hymnal Noted ' also, became as fapiliar
to the Congregation as is now the popular Hymn-
book of the present day. Since that time adapt-
ations of Plain Song to English words have ap-
peared in numbers calculated rather to confuse
than to assist the well-wishers of the movement.
Warmly encouraged by the so-called 'High
Church Party,' and wiUingly accepted by the
people, 'GregorianiT* now form the chief attrac-
tion at almost every 'Choir Festival' in the
country, are sung with enthusiasm in innumer-
able Parish Churches, and frequently heard even
in Cathedrals.
Having now presented our readers with a rapid
survey of the history of Plain Song, frx>m its first
appearance in the Christian Chuixih, to the pre-
sent day, we shall proceed to treat, ¥dth equal
brevity, of its laws, its constitution, and its dis-
tinctive character. 'V
Plain Song Melodies are arranged in several
distinct classes, each forming part of a compre-
hensive and indivisible scheme, though each is
marked by certain well-defined peculiarities, and
governed by its own peculiar laws. Of these
Melodies, l^e most important are the Tones,
or Chaunte, adapted to the Psalms — a series of
Inflections usually described by modem writers
as the ' Gbeqorian Tones,' though four of them,
at least, might be more fairly called • Ambrosian.*
[See Tones, the Gregorian.] That the Psalm
Tones are by far the most antient examples ot
Ilcclesiastical Music in exisfenceTEas never been
doubted. In structure they are nothing more
than the simplest imaginable Chaunts, each
written in one oT the fbst eight Modes, from
which it derives its name^K)jl ra^er,- numbed
—and each consisting of two distinct members,
corresponding to the two responsive phrases into
s Now the ChoNh of AH SalnU*. Hancaret Street,
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PLAIN SONG.
which, in accordance with the well-known laws
of Hebrew Poetry, the Yerses of the Psaltna are
oflen divided, while, in nearly every caee, the final .
Cadence, or * Ending,' is invested, for the sake
of variety, with eeveral different forms. The
First, Tliird, Fifth, and Seventh Tones, repre-
senting the four Authentic Modes, axe repre-
sented by tradition to have been the only ones
used by S. Ambrose [see Modes, the Eoclesi-
▲stical] ; and to these, S. Gregory is said to have
added the Second, Fourth. Sixth, and Eighth,
each written in a Plagal Mode : but more than
one writer on the subject is of opinion that
these last-named Tones were in common use long
before the time even of S. Ambrose. [See Plao al
Modes.] It is, in fact, impossible to trace back
the eight fiuniliar forms to the time of their
first adoption into the Services of the Church ;
and still, more so, to account for the origin of
a supplementary form, which, though unques-
tionably written in the Ninth, or iEolian Mode,
is imiformly described, not as the Ninth Tone,
but as the * Tonus Peregrinus.' [See Tonus
Pbreorinus.]
Every Psahn and Canticle sung in the Divine
OfiBce is accompanied by an Antiphon, which,
on Festivals, precedes and follows it, but, on
Ferias, follows it only. Antiphons, selected firom
Holy Scripture, and other sources, are appointed
for every Feast, Fast, and Feria, in the Eccle-
siastical Year; and each is provided with its
proper Plain Song Melody, which will be found
in the * Antipfaonarium Romanum.' It is in-
dispensable, that, in every case, the Psalm and
Antiphon should be sung in the same Mode;
the Tone for the Psalm is therefore suggested by
the Mode of the Antiphon ; and, as the Psalm
Tones — if we except the Tonus Peregrinus, with
which we are not now concerned — are written
in the first eight Modes only, it follows that
the Melodies proper to the Antiphons must
necessarily conK>rm to the same rule. Some of
these Melodies are extremely beautiful. They
are of later date, by £Etr, than the Psalm Tones,
and much more elaborate in construction; but
they are, none the less, models of the purggt
Ecclesiastical style. [See Antiphon.]
Next in importance — and, probably, in anti-
quity also — ^to the Psalm Tones, are the Inflec-
tions used for the Ybbsicles and Besponses
proper to the Liturgy and the Divine OfiBce;
such as the *Deus in adjutorium* at Yespers,
the * Dominus vobiscum,' and *Per omnia ssecula
BSDculorum,' in the 'Ordinarium Missie,' and
other similar passages. All these are exceedingly
simple, and bear strong evidence of very high
antiquity. [See Responsoriom ; Yersiolb.]
Intimately connected with them are the va-
rious Accents which collectively constitute the
'Tonus Orationis,' the 'Tonus Lectionis,* the
'Tonus Capituli,' the 'Tonus Propheti®,' the
'Tonus Epistolse/ and the * Tonus Evangelii.'
Each Accent ix, in itsflf, a mere passing In-
flection, consisting of two, or at most three
notes ; but the traditional commixture of the
vfljrious forms gives to each species of Lection
PLAIN SONG.
a fixed character which never fiuli to adi^
itself to the spirit of the text. [See Accents.]
More elabcffate than any of the forms we have
hitherto described, and, no doubt, of considerably
later date, are the Melbdies adapted to certain
portions of the Liturgy, which have been sung
at High Mass trojp. time immemorial. We shall
first discuss thos^ belooeing to the 'Proprium
Missffi * — i.e» that t)art of the Mass whiah Tuies
on different Festivils.
The first, and c^ie of the most important, of
these, is the Introit ; which partakes, in about
equal degrees, of the characters of the Antiphon
and the Psalm Tone. The words of the Introit
are divided into two portions, of which the first
is a pure Antiphon, and the second, a single
Yerse of a Psalm, followed by the 'Gloria Patri«'
after which the Antiphon is again repeated in
full. Except that it is perhaps a little more
elaborate, the Melody of the first division differs
but little, in style, from that proper to the
Antiphons sung at Lauds and Yespers ; and, for
the reasons we have mentioned in speaking of
these, it is always written in one of the first
eight Modes. The Yerse of the Psalm, and its
supplementary * Gloria Patri,' are sung to the
Tone which corresponds with the Mo<& of the
Antiphon ; but, in this case, the simple Melody
of the original Chaunt, though permitted to ex-
hibit one single 'Ending' only, is developed
into a &r more complicated form, by the intro-
duction of accessory notes, which would be alto-
gether out of place at Yespers, when five long
Psalms are sung continuously, though they add
not a little to the dignity of this part of the Mass.
The Antiphon is then repeated exactly as before,
care being taken to sing it in a style which may
contrast effectively wi£ the preceding Chaunt ;
and, in Paschal Tide, this is followed by a
double Alleluia, of which eight forms are given
in the Graduale, one in each of the first eight
Modes. [See Introit.]
The Gradual, though consisting, like the In-
troit, of two .distinct members— the Gradual
proper, and the Yersus^-differs firom it in that
no part of it is recited, after the manner of a
Psalm, upon a single note. The Melody, through-
out, bears a dose analogy to that of the- more
elaborate species of Antiphon, as exhibited in
the first part of the Introit : and its two sec-
tions, though always written in the same Mode,
are quite distinct from each other, and never
repeat the same phrases. [SooGraddal.]
On Festivals, the Gradual is supplemented by
a form of Alleluia peculiar to itself, which, in
its turn, is followed by another Versus, wbere-
from it takes its Mode, and after which it is
again repeated, after the manner of a Da Capo,
^niis Alleluia is twice repeated, and then ec^oed^
as it were, by an elaborate Pneuma, in the same
Mode. [See Pneuma.] The style of the Yerift
corresponds exactly with that of the Gradual ; ^
and, after that has been sung, the Alleluia and
Pneuma are repeated as before.
Between the Seasons of Septuagesima and
Easter, the Alleluia, and Yersus, are omitted.
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PLAIN SONG.
iheir place bdng supplied by a Tbactus, with
one or more Versus attached to it, the musio of
which corresponds exactly, in style, with that of
the Gradual and Versus already described.
On the Festivals of Easter, Pentecost, Corpus
Chiisti, and the Seven Dolours of our Lady, and*
ft£o at Masses for the Dead, the Gradual is fol-
lowed by the Sbqubntia, or Pbosa — a n>ecies of
Hymn of which a great many examples were
once in existence, though five only now remain
in use. These five are the well-known *Vic-
timas Paschali,' 'Veni Sancte Spiritus,* 'Lauda
SioD,* Stabat Mater,' and ' Dies irs * — a aenefi
of Hymns which, whether we regard their
quaint medieeval versification, or the Musio to
whigh it is adapted, may safely be classed among
the most beautiful that ever were written. [See
Pboba ; SEQDBNTIA.3 Compared with the Me-
lodies we have been comddering. those of the
Sequences are of very modem origin indeed.
The tuneful rhymes of * Veni Sancte Spiritus * —
known among mediaeval writers as the ' Golden
Sequence* — were composed by King Robert II
of France, about the year 1000. 'Victim® Pas-
chali' is probably of somewhat later date. The
* Dies iriB * was written about the year 1 150, by
Thomas of Celano, while the * Lauda Sion ' of
S. Thomas Aquinas can scarcely have been pro-
duced before the year 1 260. In all these cases, the
Plain Song Melody was undoubtedly coeeval with
the Poetry, If not <5orapoBed by the same author ;
and we are not surprised to find itdlflfeiiug, 'in
more than one particular, from the Hymns col-
lected by S. Ambrose and S. Gregoiy. Four
out of the five examples now in use are in mixed
Modes ; and, in every instance, the Melody ex-
hibits a symmetry of oon»truotioB which dis-
tinguishes it alike from the Antiphon and the
Hynm. From the former, it differs in the regu-
larity of its rhythm, and the constant repetition
of its several phrases; from the latter, in the
altonation of these, phrases with one another;
for, while the VerHos of the Hymn are all Bung
to the same Melody, tho^e of the Sequences are
adapted to two or more dUtinct Strains, which
are frequently interchanged with each other,
almost after Uie manner of a Rondo, a peculiar-
ity which is also observable in some very fine,
though now disused Sequences, which were re-
moved from the Mi&jal ou its final revision by*
the Council of Trent.
The style of the Opfebtoricm differs but little
from that of the Gradual, though it is sometimes
a little more ornate, and makes a more frequent
ase of the Perielesis. Like the Gradual, it is
sometimes — as in the 'Missa pro Defunctis' —
followed by a Versus ; but it more frequently
consists of a single member only, without break
or repetition of any kind. In Paschal Tide,
however, it is followed by a proper Alleluia in its
own Mode. [See Offbbtorium ; Perielesis.]
The laBt portion of the *Proprium MLws'
*br which a Plain Song Melody is provided
in the OflBce-Books is the Communio. This is
usually much shorter than either the Gradual
«• the Offertory ; from which it differs in style
PLAIN SONG.
767
so slightly as to need no separate descriptiou.
It is followed, in Paschal Tide, by a prq)er
Alleluia, which, of course, conforms to its own
proper Mode.
The *Ordinarium Misses'— t.e. that part of the
Mass which is the same on all occasions — is pre-
ceded, on Sundays, by the Asperobs, which
exactly resembles the Introit, both in the ar-
rangement of its words, and the style of its
Music— an extremely b^iutiful instance of the
use of the Seventh Mode.
Of the Kteib, Globu, Sanctds, Benedictus,
and AoNUS Dei, the Ratisbon Gradual gives ten
Plain Song versions, in different Modes, and
adapted to Festivals of different degrees of so-
lenmity; besides three Ferial Masses, in which
the * uloria * is not sung, and the beautiful
'Missa pro Defimctis.' The Meehlin Gradual
gives eight forms only for Festivals, and one
for Ferial Days. Of the Credo, four versions
are given, in each volume. It is impossible
even to guess at the date of these fine old Melo-
dies, some of which are exceedingly complicated
in structure, while others are oomparatively
simple. The shorter movements, such as the
Kyrie and Sanctus, are sometimes very highly
elaborated, with constant use of the PerieleRis,
even on two or more consecutive syllables;
while the Gloria and Credo are developed from
a few simple phrases, frequently repeated, and
arranged in a form no less symmetrical than
that we have described as peculiar to the Se-
quence, though the alternation of strains, which
serves as the distinguishing characteristic of that
form of Melody, is carried out in a somewhat
different way.
The oldest known copy of the Sursum Cobda
and Prefaces dates from the year 1075. The
style of these differs very material Iv from that of
the other portions of the Mass, and, like that of
the Pater nosteb, is distiiiguished by a grave
dignity peculiarly its own. Li addition to these,
the repertoire is enriched by certain proper Me-
lodies which are heard once only during the
course of the Church's Year ; such as the £ocB
LIGNUM Cbuois and Impbopbbia, appointed for
Good Friday; and more especially, the £xuL-
TET, sung during the blessing of the Paschal
Candle on Holy Saturday. This truly great
composition is universally acknowledged to be the
finest specimen of Plain Song we possess. It
is written in the Tenth, or Hypoeeolian Mode ;
and is of so great length, that few Ecclesiastics,
save those attached to the Pontifical Chapel,
are able to sing it, throughout, without a chsjige
of pitch fatal to the perfection of its effect ; yet,
though it is developed, like the 'Credo,' and
some other Melodies we have noticed, from a
few simple phrases, often repeated, and woven,
with due attention to the expression of the words,
into a continuous whole, the last thought one
entertains, during its performance, is that of
monotony or weariness. The first phrase, which
we here transcribe, will perhaps suflSce to give
the reader a good idea of the general efiect of
the whole.
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PLAIN SONG.
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Very different in style from the 'Exultet*
ia the wailing Chaunt, in the devoutly sad
Sixth Mode, to which, in the Pontifical Chapel,
the Second and Third Lessons, taken from the
Lamentations of Jeremiah, are sung on the three
last days in Holy Week. The Chaunt for the
Lamentations, which will he found reduced
to modem Notation at page 86 of the present
Tolume, stands as much alone as the more
jubilant Canticle ; but in its own peculiar way.
While Uie one represents the perfection of trium-
phant dignity, the other carries us down to the
very lowest depths of sorrow ; and is, indeed,
susceptible of such intensely pathetic expression,
that none who have ever beard it sung, in the
onlv way in which it can be sung, if it is intended
to lulfll its self-evident purpose, — that is to say,
with the deepest feeling the Singer can possibly
infuse into it, — will fe^ inclined to deny its title
to be regarded as the saddest Melody within
the whole range of Music.
Well contrasted with this are the Antiphons
and Bbsponsoria for the same sad days — ^the
former far more simple generally, than Antiphons
usually are, while the R^ponsoria are often graced
with Perielesea of great beauty.
Upon these, and many minor details, we would
willingly have dwelt al greater length ; but have
now no choice but to proceed, in the last place,
to speak of the Hymns included in the Divine
Office. The antiquity of these varies greatly, their
dates extending over many centuries. Among the
oldest are those appointed in the Roman £re-
viary for the ordiuary Sunday and Ferial Offices,
and the Lesser Hours. The more antient ex-
amples are adagtcd, for the most part, to simple
JA^odicB, in wipch Ligatures, even of two notes,
are of rare occurrence, a single jiote bdng,
M a general rule, sung to every syllable. Of
these, the well*known inspirations of Prudentius,
'Ales diei nuntius,' 'Lux ecce surgit aurea,* *Nox
et tenebrae,' ' Sal veto flores martyrum,* and a few
others, date from about the year 400. ' Crudelis
Herodes,* and ' A solis ortus cardine,' by Sedu-
lius, were probably written some twenty years
later. 'Beotor pot«n8, verax Deus,' 'Herum
Deus tenax vigor,' 'JEteme Bex altissime,' and
a few others, are also generally referred to the
5th century; 'Audi, benigne Conditor,' and
' Beati nobis gaudia ' to the 6th. ' Pange lingua
gloriosi,' and 'Yexilla Regis prodeunt,' were
written by S. Yenantius Fortunatns, about the
year 570. *Te luds ante terminum/ and 'Iste
PLAIN SONG.
Confessor* are believed to date from the 7th cen-
tury; 'Somno refectis artubus' from the Sth:
and 'Gloria, laus, et honor,' from the 9th. Of
the later Hymns, 'Jeeu dulds memoria' was
composed by S. Bernard in 1 140 ; and ' Verbiun
supemum prodiens' by S. Thomas Aquinas, not
earlier than 1260. B^mn-melodies of later date
fr^uently exhibit long Ligatures of great beau^ ;
and, as a rule, the more modem the Hymn, the
more elaborate U the Music to which it is adapted ;
though it does not follow that it is to be preferred,
on tbat acooruBt, to the rude but dignified Btrainfl
peculiar to a more hoary antiquity.
Leaving the student to cultivate a practical
acquaintance with the various forms of Plain Song
to which we have directed his attention, by re-
ferring to the Melodies themselves, as they stand
in the Graduale, Yesperale, and Antiphonariam
Romanum, it remains only for us to offer a few
remarks upon the manner in which this kind of
Music may be most eflectively performed.
As a matter of course, the Priest^s part, in
Plain Song Services of any kind, must be emig
without any harmonised Accompaniment what-
ever, care only being taken that the pitch chosen
for it may coincide with that necessarily adopted
by the Choir, when it is their duty to respond
in Polyphonic Hannony. For instance, if the
'Sursum oorda,* and 'Prefisuse,' be unskilfally
managed in this respect, an awkward break
will seriously injure the effect of the * Sanctus * ;
while the 'Gloria' and 'Credo* will lose mnch
of their beauty, if equal care be not bestowed
upon their respective Intonations. No lees judg-
ment is required in the selection of a suitable
pitch for the far more difficult '£xultet,* the
first division of which is interupted by a form
of ' Sursum corda,' analogous to that which pre-
cedes the * Preface' : and, in aH cases, a peHect
correspondence of intention between Priest and
Choir is absolutely indispensable to the suooess
of a Plain Song Service.
The 'Kyrie,' 'Gloria^' 'Credo,' and other
movements pertaining to High Mass, may be
sung in unison, either by Grave, or Acute Equal *
Yoices, and either with, or without, a fitting
Organ Accompaniment. It must, however, be
understood that unison, in this case, does not
mean octaves. The clauses of the * Gloria ' and
' Credo ' produce an excellent effect, when sung
by the Yoices of Boys and Men alternately: but^
when both sing together, all dignity of style is
lost in the general thinness of the resulting tone. 1
This remark applies with equal force to the rsalms
sung at Lauds and Yespers, and even to the
Hymns. In the Pontifical Chapel, the Yerses
are entrusted either to Sopranos or Altos in,
unison, or to Tenors and Basses; alternated, on
certain occasions, with the noblest and most
severe forms of Faux Bourdon— of course un-
accompanied. At Notre Dame de Paris, and
S. Sulpice, one Yerse of a Psalm, or Canticle, is
very effectively sung by Tenors and Basses in
unison, and one in Faux Bourdon ; both with
a grand Organ Accompaniment, which, when
weU managed, by no means destroys the peculiar
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